https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/fd7295db1e53f8e4ec42a74891ede921.pdf 686598c7c474bb074dba8ce4212d787c PDF Text Text January, - 1 - 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-19 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title: Sheep Distribution, Bighorn Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. Populations 12 and Herd Composition June, 1968 to May, 1969 William H. Rutherford and Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT Bighorn sheep distribution and sex-age classification data collected during the 1968 segment year are tabulated. The Pikes Peak, Trickle Mountain, TarryaI'l Mountains, Taylor River and Lake Fork of Gunnison River bighorn herds show excellent production and high ewe:lamb ratios; the San Juan Wilderness Area, Cow Creek-Wetterhorn, San Luis Peak, and Battlement Mesa herds show medium ewe: lamb ratios: and the Sangre de Cristo and Buffalo Peaks herds show very low ewe: lamb ratios. Distribution maps have been worked on, but are not completed. During the 1968 bighorn hunting season, 131 licenses were issued and 32 rams were killed, for a success ratio of 24-4 percent. Successful hunters averaged 6.2 hunting days each, unsuccessful hunters averaged 8.5 days, and the average for all hunters was 7.9 days, for a projected total of 1,015 man-days of sheep hunting. Sixty-one percent of permittees were hunting bighorns for the first time. First-time hunters had a success ratio of 22 percent, while those who had hunted during previous years had a ratio of 39 percent. Seventy-nine percent of all permittees started their hunt on the first day of season. Comments made by hunters are tabulated. Measurements of bighorn sheep heads taken during previous years showed that only lout of 17 heads smaller than 3/4 curl had 5 growth rings; all others had 2, 3, or 4 rings. Of 53 heads larger than 3/4 curl, one had 2 rings, two had 3 rings, twelve had 4 rings, four had 5 rings, and the remaining 34 ranged in growth ring count from 6 to 13. ��- 3 - BIGHORN SHEEP DISTRIBUTION, POPULATIONS AND HERD COMPOSITION William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the statewide distribution, sition of bighorn sheep in Colorado. population trends, and herd compo- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. 4. Determine bighorn sheep distribution. Determine population size or trend for each herd. Determine sex and age composition of each herd. Prepare detailed range or distribution maps for specific herds with written descriptions for census. Develop standardized forms which can. be used by management personnel during routine census and for recording long-term census information. METHODS AND MATERIALS No changes have been made since previous reports were written. See: Woodard, Thomas N. 1969. Bighorn sheep distribution, populations, and herd composition. In Federal Aid Game Research Report, January, 1969, pp. 33-38. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is statewide in scope, but limited during each segment to those areas which can be covered. Activities during the 1968 segment year consisted of bighorn sheep herd observations in the areas listed in Table 1. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Status Bighorn sheep distribution and sex-age classification data were obtained during the summer by on-the-ground observation techniques using binoculars and spotting scope. Those data gathered during the winter were obtained by aerial observation from either helicopter or fixed-wing craft, in cooperation with Regional Game Biologists as a part of routine census operations. Results are presented in Table 1. �-4 - ~ab1e 1. Date Bighorn sheep observations ~n Colorado; summer, 1968 and winter, 1968-69. Area Rams - Curl Class !z Full 3/4 ~ Number of Sheel2 Yearlings Ewes Male Female Lambs Unc1assHied Total Sheep Sangre de 7-24-68 Cristo Range Area No. 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8-6-68 Lake Fork of Gunnison R. Area No. 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8-8-68 Sheep CreekTrickle Mtn. Area No. 10 1 0 0 0 24 2 6 23 0 56 Collegiate 8-10-68 Range Area No. 11 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 1 0 21 0 0 8 0 34 Vallecito Cr. 2-12-69 Pine River Area No. 28 1 2 2 0 5 0 0 1 0 11 Sheep Mtn.2-12-69 Wolf Cr. Pass Area No. 15 3 3 3 0 18 0 0 10 0 37 1-8-69 Cimarron Peak Area No. 16 Pikes Peak 2-18-69 Area No. 6 49* 118 0 0 46 8 221 Tarrya11 Mtns. 2-19-69 Area No. 23 8* 15 0 0 11 0 34 Buffalo Peaks 2-27-69 Area No. 12 6* 12 0 0 2 0 20 3-3-69 3-3-69 3-3-69 Black Canyon of Gunnison R. Lake Fork of Gunnison R. Area No. 33 San Luis Peak Area No. 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 5 0 17 0 0 13 0 39 5 1 2 0 4 0 0 2 0 14 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- Table 1. Bighorn continued. sheep observations 5 - in Colorado; summer, 1968 and winter, 1968-69, Number of Sheep Yearlings Ewes Male Female Lambs UnclassHied 'rotal Sheep Date Area Rams - Curl Class Full 3/4 ~ ~ 3-3-69 Cow CreekWetterhorn Pk. Area No. 21 2 3 6 0 22 0 0 9 32 74 4 1 6 5 7 0 0 5 0 28 2 4 1 0 19 0 0 9 0 35 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3-5-69 3-6-69 3-9-69 Taylor River Area No. 26 Battlement Mesa Area No. 24 West Elk Mountains 3-9-69 Sheep CreekTrickle Mtn. Area No. 10 11 2 0 0 51 0 0 21 26 III 3-10-69 Sangre de Cristo Range Area No. 9 2 0 6 1 7 0 0 0 5 21 Totals 35 21 33 6 341 2 6 160 71 Add 63 rams unclassified as to head size - * No classification breakdown given by Regional 738 Game Biologist. Bighorn sheep hunters during the 1968 season were asked to report on observations of sheep during the hunt. Table 2 presents what is believed to be the highest unduplicated counts of sheep seen by hunters in each of the areas. The term "unduplicated" means that attempts have been made to eliminate obvious duplications whether noted by the hunter or not. Thus, Table 2 may still contain a few undetected duplications, but should be reasonably accurate. �- 6 - Table 2. Hunter observations of bighorn sheep, 1968. Area Male Adult Female Lamb Yearling Total 1. Poudre River 9 25 9 5 48 3. Geneva Creek 7 40 20 8 75 6. Pikes Peak 8 33 17 3 61 9. Sangre de Cristo Range 8 26 1 4 39 10. Sheep Creek-Trickle Mtn. 8 24 23 8 63 *11. Collegiate Range 11 2 o 2 15 14. Glenwood Canyon 2 3 4 2 11 15. Sheep Mountain 3 16 9 3 31 16. Cimarron Peak 5 38 3 6 52 17. Empire 2 o o o 2 6 14 7 2 29 .,b'(19. Bowen Pass-Clark's Peak 21. Cow Creek-Wetterhorn Peak 9 20 11 5 45 22. San Luis Peak 16 35 15 o 66 23. MCCurdy Mountain 8 30 11 1 50 24. Battlement Mesa 0 12 4 o 16 28. Vallecito Creek 1 6 2 2 11 29. Blanco River 0 7 5 1 13 31. Mount Evans 5 35 15 9 64 32. Georgetown 6 5 2 1 14 114 371 158 62 705 Totals * Includes sheep seen in upper Taylor Park, outside of open hunting area. ** Includes sheep seen just inside Rocky Mountain National Park boundary. �- 7 - rotal counts cannot be obtained in most areas because of the wide and sparse distribution of the sheep. Herd classification counts are valuable chiefly as trend data to aid in determining the status of each individual herd and its reproductive success. Following are comments on ewe:lamb ratios for each of the areas on which sufficient ewes and lambs were classified to provide a basis for comment. Pikes Peak, Area No.6 This is the largest and healthiest herd in Colorado. Mid-winter ewe:lamb ratios have been consistently high for several years, indicating excellent survival during the critical first year. The 1968-69 winter ratio of 100:39 and the 1968 hunter-observed ratio of 100:51, while good, are not exceptionally high because non-productive yearling ewes were included in the ewe classification. True ratios have averaged about 100:80 for the past several years. Sangre de Cristo Range, Area No.9 Lamb survival has been poor in this herd for several years, and this trend has continued through the 1968-69 season. Hunters observed only one lamb during hunting season, and mid-winter aerial observations failed to find any lambs. A specific study by a graduate student will be undertaken during the next project segment, in an attempt to detect the causes of poor lamb survival in this herd. Sheep Creek-Trickle Mountain, Area No. 10 This herd is the second largest in Colorado, and is apparently just as healthy as the Pikes Peak herd. Lamb survival is excellent, as evidenced by a mid-summer observed ewe:lamb ratio of 100:96, and a ratio of 100:41 during mid-winter surveys. Buffalo Peaks, Area No. 12 This herd, once one of the largest and most productive in the state, has deteriorated to an alarmingly low level. No hunting season was held here in 1968. Mid-winter surveys showed only 12 ewes and 2 lambs, for a ewe: lamb ratio of 100:17. Sheep Mountain-Wolf Creek Pass-Cimarron Area Nos. 15, 16, and 28. Peak-Pine River-Vallecito Creek, These 3 areas cover the bighorn sheep range in the San Juan Wilderness Area. The areas are treated separately for convenience in administering hunting permits, but will be treated as one area for the purposes of this report. �- 8 - It is a large area with sheep scattered thinly and no concentrations at any time of year. It is also the most difficult area in the state in which to obtain reasonably accurate and comparable population trend information. The herd appears to be healthy and slightly increasing in numbers. Hunter observations indicated an ewe:lamb ratio of 100:23, while mid-winter surveys (considered more accurate) showed a ratio of 100:43. Cow Creek-Wetterhorn Peak, Area No. 21 This is a healthy herd, although fairly small in numbers, in a rather inaccessible area. Again, as with the San Juan Wilderness Area herd, it is difficult to census accurately. Hunter observations showed a ewe:lamb ratio of 100:55, and mid-winter surveys showed a ratio of 100:41. San Luis Peak, Area No. 22 This is a rather small herd scattered over a very large area, difficult to census, and difficult to establish population trends. Hunter observations indicated a ewe:lamb ratio of 100:43, but mid-winter surveys found only 4 ewes and 2 lambs, too few to be used as an indication of herd status. Tarryall Mountains, Area No. 23 After a long period of low numbers following the drastic die-off during the winter of 1952-53, this herd, at one time the largest in Colorado, appears to be finally starting an upswing. Lamb survival is improving, with eleven lambs being seen both by hunters and during mid-winter surveys. The midwinter ewe:lamb ratio was 100:73. Battlement Mesa, Area No. 24 This is a difficult herd to census, because of the pinon-juniper and shrub overs tory and sandstone cliffs which make up its habitat, certainly a drastic departure from what is considered normal bighorn habitat in Colorado. Ewe;lamb ratios appear good, but thus far the herd has shown no indication of growth in numbers. Hunter observations indicated a ratio of 100:33, while the mid-winter ratio was 100:47. Taylor River, Area No. 26 This area has been closed to hunting for several yea~s because of low sheep numbers, and is now showing an increase in herd size. Productivity and lamb survival appear good, with a mid-winter ratio of 100:71. Lake Fork of Gunnison River, above Lake City This area has never been opened to bighorn hunting, and has no hunting area number designation. It will be recommended for an open season in 1969 by �- 9 the Southwest Region. The bighorn herd has been building for several years and now contains Some good rams plus a very healthy ewe-lamb herd. The mid-winter ewe:lamb ratio was 100:76. Distribution Maps and Census Forms Preparation of detailed range or distribution maps, census descriptions, and census forms are still incomplete and not ready for submitting with interim progress reports. Work was accomplished on them during this segment, with the objective being to prepare them in finished form for the final report. Summary of 1968 Bighorn Hunting Season A total of 112 hunters, or 86 percent, of the 131 successful applicants for 1968 bighorn sheep licenses returned the questionnaire form which was sent with the license (Appendix A). Data on the number of sheep observed and reported by these hunters have already been presented (Table 2). The following section presents other data extracted from the 112 returned questionnaires •. Table 3 presents the license and harvest open to hunting during the 1968 season. statistics for each of the areas The average hunter spent 7.9 days hunting sheep in 1968 as compared to 7.2 days in 1967, 6.6 days in 1966, and 6.4 days in 1965. The number of days each individual hunted ranged from 1 to 22, for a projected total of 1,015 man-days for all sheep hunters participating. Two permittees reported that they did not hunt. Successful hunters averaged 6.2 hunting days each, while unsuccessful hunters averaged 8.5. Sixty-one percent of the permittees were hunting bighorn sheep for the first time. Thus, of the 112 respondents, 08 were first-year hunters and 44 had hunted during at least one previous year. First-year hunters reported taking a total of 15 rams, for a success ratio of 22 percent. Hunters who had previously hunted bighorn sheep reported taking a total of 17 rams, for a success ratio of 39 percent. Of the hunters who returned questionnaires, 88, or 79 percent, started their hunt on the first day of season. Six, or 5 percent, started on a week day of the first week of season, and 7, or 6 percent, started on the second weekend of the season. Two, or 2 percent, did not indicate what days they hunted. The remaining 9 hunters, or 8 percent, started hunting after the second weekend, with one hunter hunting only on the last day of season. Table 4 presents information on dead bighorn obvious duplications eliminated. sheep seen by hunters, with �- 10 - Table 3. License and harvest statistics, 1968 bighorn sheep hunting season. Area Applications Received Licenses Issued Reported Kill Reported Wounded I. Poudre River 21 6 3 0 3. Geneva Creek 55 6 1 0 6. Pikes Peak 53 15 8 0 9. Sangre de Cristo Range 47 10 1 0 10. Sheep Creek-Trickle Mtn. 48 10 6 0 II. Collegiate Range 46 4 0 0 14. Glenwood Canyon 11 5 0 0 15. Sheep Mountain 9 6 1 0 16. Cimarron Peak 6 3 2 0 17. Empire 7 6 1 0 19. Bowen Pass-Clark's Peak 34 8 1 0 21. Cow Creek-Wetterhorn Peak 13 8 2 1 22. San Luis Peak 18 6 2 0 23. McCurdy Mountain 26 8 1 0 24. Battlement Mesa 9 6 0 0 28. Vallecito Creek 10 6 1 0 29. Blanco River 6 6 0 0 31. Mount Evans 25 6 1 0 32. Georgetown 17 6 1 0 462 131 32 1 Totals �- 11 Table 4. Area Hunter observations Ram of dead bighorn Dead this Year Lamb Ewe 3 1 6 1 Unknown sheep, 1968. Ram Dead Previous Years Lamb Unknown Ewe 1 2 2 1 9 15 l~~ 3 16 2~~ 1* 1·1\* 17 19 1 21 22 3 23 1 2 31 Totals i'~ "k7~ 1 1 1 1 Killed in snows lides. Killed by poacher with 2 1 1 1 1 12 8 0 3 .22 rifle. As expected, a variety of comments were made on bighorn sheep management and hunting in general. Approximately 60 respondents made such additional remarks on their returned questionnaires. Table 5 presents information on the nature of these remarks and the number of hunters making each one. Ram Head Measurements Information was collected during the 1968 project year on correlation of horn growth and age of bighorn rams, by locating successful sheep hunters from previous years and obtaining measurements and age by growth rings of the heads. While most of the data were from heads larger than 3/4 curl, enough data from heads smaller than 3/4 curl were obtained to be worthwhile. These data are presented in Table 6. �- 12 - Table S. Number of hunters expressing opinions on various subjects related to bighorn sheep management and hunting, 1968. Number of Connnents Item Curl Regulations: Favor half-curl Opposed Application 9 in certain areas to harvest of half-curl 40 rams Restrictions: Leave restrictions 32 as they now are 3 applicants Favor 3-year restriction on successful Favor 3-year restriction on hunters who make a kill Favor S-year restriction on hunters who make a kill Favor lifetime restriction on hunters who make a kill Other Connnents: Favor exemption requirement 3 Believe sheep and goat hunters should be allowed to take a mule deer 3 Too many domestic sheep in the high country 8 Favor a November * of sheep and goat hunters from blaze orange season in: 1 Area 10 Area 24 All hunters in these categories want application is for unsuccessful hunters. 1 restriction to remain as �- 13 Table 6. Number of bighorn ram heads measured, 1968; by area where killed, curl classification, and number of growth rings. Area Heads smaller than 3/4 curl; number of growth rings 2 3 4 5 I. Poudre River 2. Gore Range 3. Geneva Creek 4. South Platte Canyon 1 5. Rampart Range 1 6. Pikes Peak 9. Sangre de Cristo Range 10. Sheep Creek-Trickle Mtn.1 1I. Collegiate Range 12. Buffalo Peaks 14. Glenwood Canyon 15. Sheep Mountain 1 19. Bowen Pass-Clark's Peak 1 22. San Luis Peak 23. McCurdy Mountain 24. Battlement Mesa 31. Mount Evans Totals 2 1 Heads 3/4 curl or larger; number of growth rings 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 12 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 3 9 1 1 1 4 7 1 1 2 1 5 2 3 1 4 1 1 2 12 1 410 1 2 2 1 3 4 1 �- 14 - Of 17 heads in the smaller than 3/4 curl class, only one had 5 growth rings; all others had 2, 3, or 4 rings. Of 53 heads in the 3/4 curl and larger class, one had 2 growth rings, two had 3 rings, twelve had 4 rings, and four had 5 rings; the remaining 34 ranged in growth ring count from 6 to 13. Of the 17 heads of less than 3/4 curl, 4 were taken from Western Slope areas where rams of this class were legal during the 1968 season. The mean number of growth rings of these 4 animals was 3.75. The remaining 13 heads were taken from Eastern Slope areas during previous years when such rams were legal, but which were restricted to 3/4 curl or larger for the 1968 season. The mean number of growth rings of these 13 animals was 2.92. The pattern was reversed for heads in the 3/4 curl or larger class. Of these 53 heads, 9 were taken in the Western Slope areas described above and had a mean growth ring count of 6.44. The remaining 44 were taken from the Eastern Slope areas also described above, and had a mean growth ring count of 6.89. Obviously, the samples are too small to place any confidence in the figures. We need to obtain measurements on more heads to determine possible incidence of older rams with less than 3/4 curl growth, and to procure a larger sample from Western Slope areas. Prepared by William H. Rutherford Wildlife Researcher l �- 15 APPENDIX DIVISION A of GAME, FISH AND PARKS 6060 BROAm-JAY DENVER, COLORADO 80216 825-1192 LICENSE NOo _ BIGHORN SHEEP QUESTIONNAIRE 1968 1. Were you successful in killing a ram? Yes No If so, what are the approximate horn measurements? Length of horn around outside curve. Basal circumference R.H. L.R. _ spread (mayor -------- inches L.R. ------ inches may not be tip to tip) incheso Please circle the days on which you hunted (count part days as full days) August: 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Area #1 (Poudre) only: November 5 6 7 8 30; December 1 234 14 15 13 11 12 3. Did you wound a ram and not get him? 4. Rave you hunted bighorn Yes Row many bighorn year's hunt? ------------ sheep in Colorado If yes, what year(s) ? _ Row many bighorn sheep have you killed 5. at hair line. R.R. inches ------- inches Widest 2. ------ _ sheep, including No _ other than this year? Yes in Colorado? the one killed, Number 10 9 No -------- did you see during this Full curl Rams - Number 3/4 to full curl - Numb-e-r--------------1/2 to 3/4 curl - Number Smaller than 1/2 curl - Number Ewes - Numbe r Lambs - Number -------- --~------------- -------- 6. Hould you please indicate on the enclosed map by an "X" the approximate location where you saw bighorn sheep during your hunt, and include the numbers, age, and sex of animals observed. Also, circle location where you made your killo 7. Did you observe any dead bighorn Dead this year; Dead previous Number and sex years: sheep, other than ones killed by hunters? ---------- Number and sex '------- �- 16 1968-Sheep, Page 2 8. A plastic bag is enclosed for the collection of fecal samples. If you kill a ram, would you please strip out the pellets from the lower intestine (colon), place them in the plastic bag, and give the bag to any Conservation Officer or leave at :lny Game, Fish and Parks Office. 9. Remarks and suggestions - other comments concerning your sheep hunt. We are particularly interested in comments concerning "quality" sheep hunting, comments on the half-curl versus three-quarter-curl regulation, and your opinion concerning restriction of application for bighorn sheep hunting to once every three years, and kill to once every five years, or once in a lifetime. �January, - 17 - 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO State of Project No. W-4l-R-19 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title: Job No. 13 Bi~horn Sheep Habitat Studies Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations June, 1968 to May, 1969 William H. Rutherford, John P. Goettl, Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT Assignment of project pesonnel to other jobs left no time to accomplish winter range surveys under this job. Laboratory personnel worked on analyses of bighorn stomach sample and fecal collections. Results of stomach sample analyses are not conclusive, as only three samples, all from Pikes Peak, were available for study. These three stomach contents samples averaged 51 percent grasses, 11 percent forbs, and 38 percent willow. Lungworm larvae were detected in all fecal samples examined, but quantitative data were not taken. ��- 19 - BIGHORN SHEEP HABITAT STUDIES William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine graphical the vegetative types, forage preferences, features of areas now occupied by bighorn competition and toposheep in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Determine the vegetative winter ranges. types and vegetative composition on bighorn sheep METHODS AND MATERIALS No changes have been made since previous reports were written. See: Woodard, Thomas N. 1969. Bighorn sheep habitat studies. In Federal Aid Game Research Report, January, 1969, pp. 39-55. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is statewide in scope, but limited during each segment areas which can be covered. to those RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This is essentially a negative report with respect to the objectives as stated above. Project personnel for Segment 19 consisted only of the project leader and a temporary student assistant, both of whom concentrated on collecting data for Work Plan 1, Job 12 and Work Plan 2, Job 4. No opportunity to work on habitat studies was available; therefore, the segment objective was not met. Some laboratory work was accomplished on analysis of stomach sample and fecal collections. Although these analyses are not covered in the segment objective for this job, it appears that this is the most logical place to report this activity. Table 1, following, presents the analyses of three bighorn stomach contents samples collected in 1967 and examined during this project segment. �- 20 Table 1. Percentage composition by point contact sheep stomach contents samples, Colorado, 1967. technique, of three bighorn Sample Number Item 1 Date collected 2 3 9-67 9-67 9-67 Pikes Peak Pikes Peak Pikes Peak Vegetative type of collection location alpine subalpine subalpine Sex of sheep male male male Age of sheep mature mature mature Locality where Plant material collected encountered, percentage: Unidentified grasses 29 58 56 Unidentified forbs 5 4 10 Compositae 3 2 Salix 63 20 Agropyron spp. 6 Bromus anomalus Smilacina spp , 30 4 10 Fecal samples submitted by hunters during the 1968 season were examined by laboratory personnel to determine whether lungworm larvae were present. These samples were collected from Pikes Peak, Area No.6; Georgetown, Area No. 17; Bowen Pass, Area No. 19; Cow Creek, Area No. 21; and Empire, Area No. 32. In addition, laboratory personnel made field collections of pellet groups in the Trickle Mountain and Pikes Peak areas for the purpose of obtaining lungworm larvae for laboratory research. All collections showed the presence of lungworm, but quantitative data were not collected, because the number of larvae per gram weight of fecal material can vary so widely that such data are not useful as an index of the level of infestation unless very large and systematic collections are made. Prepared by _. ·.::.t~7;1.,....:. ~..:./..:.:Iz';"~_~_':-_>1._lV_-:,-, _._.' +---";"--F~~ William H. Ruther Wildlife Researcher �January, - 21 - JOB PROGRESS Work REPORT COLORADO State of No. W-4l-R-19 Plan No. 2 Project 1970 Job Title: Mountain Period Covered: Personnel: June, William Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. Goat Distribution, 1968 to May, H. Rutherford Populations and Herd Composition 1969 and Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT Mountain goat distribution and sex-age classification data collected during the 1968 segment year are tabulated. The two areas which have well-established goat herds, the Collegiate Range and Mount Evans, show very high nanny:kid ratios and medium high kid:yearling ratios. The trend in these herds is definitely up. Goats have recently been discovered in the Gore Range. Distribution maps have been worked on, but are not completed. During the 1968 mountain goat hunting season, 19 licenses were issued and 15 goats were killed, for a success ratio of 79 percent. Successful hunters averaged 2.4 hunting days each, unsuccessful hunters averaged 7.5 days, and the average for all hunters was 3.5 days, for a projected total of 67 man-days of goat hunting. All but one of the permittees were hunting goats for the first time, and all permittees started their hunt on the first day of season. The harvest consisted of 6 male and 3 female goats in the Collegiate Range and 6 female goats on Mount Evans. The difficulty experienced by hunters in selecting male goats, particularly on Mount Evans, means that the number of permits may have to be lowered. Also, it appears that the need for goats as transplant stock precludes the possibility of increasing the number of hunting permits in the near future. ��- 23 - MOUNTAIN GOAT DISTRIBUTION, William POPUIATIONS, AND HERD COMPOSITION H. Rutherford p. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the distribution, goats in Colorado. populations, SEGMENT and herd composition of mountain OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3 Determine mountain goat distribution. Determine population size or trend for each herd. Determine sex and age composition of each herd. 4. Prepare detailed range or distribution maps for specific herds with written descriptions for census procedure. Develop standardized form~ for use by management personnel during routine census and for recording long-term census information. c METHODS AND MATERIALS No changes have been made since previous reports were written. See: Woodard, Thomas N. 1969. Mountain goat distribution, populations, and herd composition. In Federal Aid Game Research Report, January, 1969, pp. 57-59. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is statewide in scope, but limited to those areas in which mountain goat populations currently exist; i.~.,the Collegiate Range, Mount Evans, The Gore Range, and the San Juan Mountains. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Status Mountain goat distribution and sex-age classification data were obtained during the summer by on-the-ground observation techniques using binoculars and spotting scope. Those data gathered during the winter were obtained by aerial observation from helicopter, in cooperation with Regional Game Biologists as a part of routine census operations. Results are presented in Table 1. �- 24 Table 1. 1968-69. Mountain goat observations Date Area 7-17-68 Mt. Shavano 7-18-68 Male 5 in Colorado; summer, 1968 and winter Number of Goats Adults Female Unc1ass.ified Yearlings Kids Total I;' 22 2 11 -26 66 Sheep Mtn. 11 5 5 10 31 7-30-68 Mt. Evans 4 7 6 5 22 8-22-68 Mt. Shavauo= 18 10 28 8-22-68 Mt. Princeton* 5 8-22-68 Sheep Mtn. ~\- 22 2-12-69 Needles Mtns. ~\- 1 * Helicopter 2 5 1 4 26 2 6 counts. Total counts cannot be obtained because of the generally rugged terrain through which the goats are dispersed. Thus, the data in Table 1 are valuable primarily for determining the status of each individual herd, its sex-age composition, and its reproductive success. In all herds, nanny:kid ratios are extremely high (close to 100:100), but kid:yearling ratios are only about 100:50, indicating that loss of kids through mortality before reaching the yearling class is common. Nevertheless, annual herd increment continues to stay at a high level, the trend in goat numbers is uniformly up, and all herds exhibit a healthy status. The two areas into which immigration of goats has taken place, the Gore Range and the Needles Mountains, deserve special mention. A minimum of two adult male goats are known to have been present in the Gore Range for at least two years. This area has been considered for a goat transplant, and with the appearance of the immigrant animals, it was decided to go ahead with transplant plans. Accordingly, a small shipment of 5 goats (1 adult male, 1 yearling male, 2 adult females and 1 yearling female) was obtained from South Dakota in July 1968 and released on Black Creek in the Gore Range. These animals were still accounted for in October, 1968, but were not seen during the winter of 1968-69. In February, 1969, a helicopter flight was made by the Project Leader and the Southwest Region Game Biologist to eva1uate.winter range conditions in the West Needles and Needles Mountains north of Durango, as a prerequisite to planning for goat transplants in this area. The six goats listed for the Needles Mountains (Table 1) were observed on this trip; these were located in Chicago Basin at the head of Needle Creek. Prior to this, go~ts were not �- 25 known to be present in the Needles Mountains. These animals have almost certainly come from the 1964 transplant of 9 goats released on Cottonwood Creek southwest of Lake City which had since been given up as a failure, since no trace of them could be found in the vicinity of the release site. Distribution Maps and Census Forms Preparation of detailed range or distribution maps, census descriptions, and census forms are still incomplete and not ready for submitting with interim progress reports. Work was accomplished on them during this segment, with the objective being to prepare them in finished form for the final report. Summary of 1968 Mountain Goat Hunting Season Of the total of 20 successful mountain goat license applicants, one was determined to be a fraudulent purchase by a non-resident. This hunter was stopped before he began his hunt; therefore, the total stands at 19 instead of 20. Of this total, 18 hunters returned questionnaires. The average hunter spent 3.5 days hunting goats in 1968. Days hunted ranged from 1 to 11, for a projected total of 67 man-days for all goat hunters. Successful hunters averaged 2.4 hunting days, while unsuccessful hunters averaged 7.5 days. All but one of the permittees were hunting goats for the first time. In the Collegiate Range, 6 adult male and 3 adult female goats were taken; on Mount Evans, 6 adult female goats were taken. All hunters started their hunt on the first day of season. Only one hunter felt that the present restrictions on applications for goat licenses should be continued. Two hunters felt that successful applicants should be restricted to three years on re-applying. Four felt that hunters making a kill should be required to wait 5 years before re-applying, and two felt that a once-in-a-lifetime kill should be enough, with applications by those who were successful in the drawing but unsuccessful in the hunt to be limited to every 3 years. The difficulty experienced by hunters in identifying and choosing male goats on Mount Evans has some definite management implications. This particular herd, unlike the Collegiate Range herd, does not use the alpine habitat, but instead, frequents old forest fire areas below timberline. The cover is heavy enough that positive identification of the sex of adult goats is difficult. It appears that reduction of the number of permits allowed will be necessary, to avoid excess harvest of productive females. With the need for surplus goats to furnish s tock for an intensified transplanting program, it appears that the number of hunting permits should not be increased in any of the goat hunting areas, at least for the next few years. v{ /i ,'. r Prepared by ! /"--.r>:.. .' ~/ j/ u/id!b:'i{ / ~ !fkitf;~;L(/( William H. Rutherford Wildlife Researcher / " ��January, - 27 - JOB PROGRESS COLORADO State of No. W-4l-R-19 Plan No. 2 Project Work Job Title: Period REPORT Personnel: Job No. Mountain Covered: June, William Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Goat Habitat 1968 to May, H. Rutherford, 5 Studies 1969 John P. Goettl, Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT Assignment of project personnel to other jobs left no time to accomplish vegetation surveys on mountain goat range. Aerial reconnaissance during late winter was done in the San Juan Mountains for the purpose of observing winter range conditions in those areas which have been proposed as goat transplant sites. Only the Needles Mountains and the Wetterhorn Peak area appear to have enough snowfree winter range to warrant further consideration for goat releases. Laboratory personnel worked on analyses of mountain goat stomach sample and fecal collections. Collections made in the alpine area of the Collegiate Range averaged 80.5 percent grasses and grass-like species, 17.2 percent forbs, and 2.3 percent woody species. Analyses of collections from sub-alpine range are not conclusive, as only one each from Sheep Mountain and Mount Evans were collected. These data are presented in Table 1. Lungworm larvae were detected in fecal samples collected from two locations in the Collegiate Range, but quantitative data were not taken. 1970 ��- 29 - MOUNTAIN GOAT HABITAT William STUDIES H. Rutherford p. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the vegetative types, forage preferences, competition, and topographical features of present mountain goat-occupied areas in Colorado; determine the vegetative types and topographical features of areas, particularly the Gore Range, which have been proposed as transplant sites for mountain goats. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Determine ranges. the vegetative types and vegetative composition on mountain goat METHODS AND MATERIALS No changes have been made since previous reports were written. See: Woodard, Thomas N. 1969. Mountain goat habitat studies. In Federal Aid Game Research Report, January, 1969. pp. 61-64. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is limited in scope to those areas in which mountain goats presently occur (Collegiate Range and Mount Evans) and to those areas which have been proposed as mountain goat transplant sites (Gore Range, Needles Mountains, Pagosa Peak, Rawah Peak, Mount Sneffe1s, Wetterhorn Peak, Sangre de Cristo Range, Brown's Canyon, Spike Buck Creek, Graham Peak and Blanco Basin) • RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Habitat Surveys This is essentially a negative report with respect to the objective as stated above. Project personnel for Segment 19 consisted only of the project leader and a temporary student assistant, both of whom concentrated on collecting data for Work Plan 1, Job 12, and Work Plan 2, Job 4. No opportunity to work on vegetation surveys was available; therefore, the segment objective was not met. Most of the areas currently on the State Game Manager's list of proposed mountain goat transplant sites were observed during the winter of 1968-69. These observations were conducted with fixed-wing aircraft during March, 1969, for the express purpose of determining whether winter range exists in �- 30 - sufficient quantity during the period of heaviest snow cover to warrant further consideration as transplant sites. Comments on these areas follow: Gore Range Not surveyed during the winter of 1968-69, except by Northwest Region personnel who attempted unsuccessfully to locate the goats known to inhabit this area. No data on extent of winter range have been recorded. West Needles and Needles Mountains This area was surveyed by helicopter in February 1969, at which time 6 goats were found in Needle Creek, and again by fixed-wing aircraft in March 1969. All vegetation, both alpine and sub-alpine, in the West Needles Mountains was deeply snow-covered, and no possibilities for winter range could be found. In the Needles Mountains the stream drainage pattern is to the west, providing an abundance of south-facing slopes above timberline which remain relatively snow free during winter. This area appears to offer excellent possibilities as mountain goat winter range. Pagosa Peak The only timber-free open area is confined to the peak itself, and this was heavily snowed in. No snow free areas could be found. Even down in the oak brush several thousand feet lower, the snow was deep and continuous. On this basis, this is not a good transplant site. Wetterhorn Peak This area covers a large expanse of high rugged mountains. The ridge tops seem to be well oriented to wind direction and exposure, as the area contained a number of snow free ridges, most of them with good vegetation. This site warrants further survey work during the summer, as it appears to offer adequate winter range for a goat transplant. Mount Sneffels Like Wetterhorn Peak, this is a very extensive area of high mountains, but the ridge tops must be oriented in generally unfavorable directions since very few of them were wind-blown free of snow. Those which were consisted only of bare rock. Because the area is so large, goats might possibly find a place to winter, but it would be very marginal and could not support a herd of any great sizeo This is not a good transplant site. Graham Peak This area was heavily snowed in, with much of it extensively timber covered. Very little open area existed on ridge tops, and no vegetation showed. This is not a good transplant site. �- 31 Blanco Basin Timber and vertical cliffs make up most of the area, which was heavily snow covered. No winter range potential could be detected. This is not a good transplant site. Analysis of Collections Some laboratory work was accomplished on analysis of stomach sample and fecal collections. Although these analyses are not covered in the segment objective for this job, it appears that this is the most logical place to report this activity. Table 1, following, presents the analyses of 12 mountain goat stomach contents samples collected in 1965, 1966 and 1967, and examined during this project segment. Pellet groups were collected on Mt. Shavano and Sheep Mountain in the Collegiate Range during August and September, 1968, and examined by laboratory personnel to determine whether lungworm larvae were present. All collections showed the presence of lungworm larvae, which appeared to be Protostrongylus stilesi. Quantitative data were not collected, because the number of larvae per gram weight of fecal material can vary so widely that such data are not useful as an index of the level of infestation unless very large and systematic collections are made. Prepared �Table 1. Percentage composition, 1965, 1966 and 1967. Item Date Collected Locality where Collected Vegetative Type of Collection Location Sex of goat Age of goat Plant Material Encountered Percentage: Unidentified Grasses: Poa spp. Carex spp. ASiroE:y:ronspp. Kobresia spp. Trisetum sEicatum Unidentified forbs: Arenaria fendleri Castilleja spp. Compositae Potentilla spp , Geum turbinatum Trifolium spp. Achillea lanu10sa Betula Si1andulosa Salix spp. Vaccinium spp. 1 by point contact technique, 2 3 4 5 of 12 mountain goat stomach content samples, Sa!!!EleNumber 6 7 8 9 10 Colorado, 11 12 9-65 Mt. Princeton 9-66 Mt. Princeton 9-66 Mt. Shavano 9-66 Mt. Shavano 9-67 Sheep Mtn. 9-67 Mt. Evans 9-67 Mt. Shavano 9-67 Mt. Princeton 9-67 9-67 9-67 Mt. Mt. Mt. Shavano Princeton Shavano 9-67 Mt. Shavano Alpine Male Mature Alpine Male Mature Alpine Female Kid Alpine Male Mature SubAlpine Female Mature SubAlpine Unknown Mature Alpine Male Mature Alpine Male Mature Alpine Male Mature Alpine Male Mature Alpine Female Mature Alpine Female Mature 58 9 4 2 1 73 4 5 3 84 61 2 3 5 82 71 2 2 85 2 71 - 84 - - - - 84 - - - 73 2 2 8 11 6 13 16 13 12 12 10 3 - 2 ---1 3 1 1 4 - 2 - - 76 3 2 7 9 14 8 12 -- 3 3 2 -- --- - - 6 1 1 7 - 2 - - 4 2 - 1 - - 2 - 3 - 6 1 1 - -- 4 - 3 -2 - 2 - 4 - - 1 2 - 9 5 w N �- 33 - January, JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~------- Project No. W-40-R-lO Antelope Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title: 10 Review of Literature Period Covered: Personnel: Investigations April 1, 1963 to April 30, 1969 George D. Bear and Edgar J. Prenzlow ABSTRACT· An annotated bibliography (Prenzlow, E. J. 1965. A Literature Review on Pronghorn Behavior. Colo. Special Report No. 3, 28 pp.) has been published and other references are being used in publications for jobs within this project. 1970 �- 34 - REVIEW OF LITERATURE George D. Bear Po So OBJECTIVE To prepare an annotated bibliography to census methods animals and review literature pertaining to population methods. for big game determination METHODS AND MATERIALS Articles pertaining to population determination, census methods, animal behavior, antelope food habits, and animal physiology were located and abstracted. The library at Colorado State University was the primary source of material. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A list of references was presented in the report for Segment 5 of this project (January, 1965; pp 247-277). Edgar J. Prenzlow published an annotated bibliography on literature pertaining to antelope behavior (1965. A Literature Review on Pronghorn Behavior. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish, and Parks; Special Report No.3; 28 PP.). Other references are being used in publications for jobs within this project. This review was also intended to support job planning, however, the review was initiated at the same time as the field work on the jobs. Also, in view of the fact that the Bureau of Land Management recently released a publication on antelope literature (Yoakum, Jo 1967. Literature of the American Pronghorn Antelope. U.S.D.lo; B.L.M; Reno, Nev. 82 PP.) it is recommended this job be terminated at its present status. Prepared y .' bY~/ ~ 8·'cVL...-/ George' D. Bear Wildlife Researcher �- 35 - January, 1970 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project Work COLORADO No. W-40-R-10 Antelope Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title: Herd Structure Period April Covered: Personnel: and Factors Investigations Affecting 11 Herd Structure 1, 1963 to April 30, 1969 Georg,e Bear, Gary Myers, Edgar Prenzlow and Richard Denney ABSTRACT Study areas were established in northwestern and northcentral Colorado. The antelope herd on the northwestern Colorado (Moffat County) study area declined rapidly under heavy harvest of 42-48 percent of the herd and increased with light harvests, approximately 20 percent. It appears that a harvest level somewhere between 20 and 40 percent would have maintained a stable population. Buck:doe ratios increased under the restricted harvest of the buck segment of the herd. The mean age of the does in the harvest and fawn:doe ratios showed a trend similar to the population curve. Very limited data were obtained from the northeastern Colorado (Larimer County) study area due to closure of the land to hunting. Hunters tended to report fawns as adult antelope on the hunter report cards. There was a very high wounding loss during years of high antelope densitie~ this loss decreased as the population densities declined. Numbers of antelope observed by the hunters and the time required for a hunter to bag an antelope were generally related to antelope densities. Mortality due to predators and diseases appeared to be very light among the older fawns and adult antelope. There was a 12 percent return faom 167 antelope fawns tagged on the study areas. Due to the lack of known-age animals, ages for antelope in this study were determined by the eruption and wear technique. Therefore, aging techniques tested in this study were subject to the same errors. Eye lens weights, horn length of bucks, head length, head width, ramus length, and. diastema length increased rapidly in younger animals. Growth tended to level out from two years and older. �- 36 - RECOMMENDATIONS This study did not produce adequate information concerning the effect of hunting on population trends and herd structure. A more intensive study on a large herd would be useful in managing antelope herds in the state. Some information gathered under this job was presented in the following report: Bear, G. D. 1968. Hunter harvest and population trend of a small herd of antelope located in Moffat County, Colorado. Proc. Antelope States Workshop 3:85-91. �- 37 - HERD STRUCTURE AND FACTORS AFFECTING HERD STRUCTURE George Bear p. S. OBJECTIVE Obtain information herds. on structure and mortality factors affecting antelope METHODS AND MATERIALS Mortality Hunter Harvest Check stations were established in the vicinity of each study area to obtain information from animals killed during the hunting season. Age, sex, and location of kill was recorded for each animal checked. Age was determined by the tooth eruption and wear technique. Hunting information (wounded and abandoned antelope observed, number of hours hunted, and number of antelope observed) was recorded for each hunter checked. Check stations and hunter report cards were used to determine the number of antelope harvested on the study areas by hunters. Wounding loss was determined by randomly surveying the areas on foot, by vehicle, and fixedwing aircraft during the few days immediately following the hunting season. Natural Mortality Information pertaining to natural mortality was obtained whenever the opportunity permitted. Eagle nests on or near the study areas were periodically checked for antelope remains. Dead antelope encountered on the study area were examined to determine the cause of death. Animals found on the "wounding loss" surveys and others collected for the food habits and physiological studies were examined for parasites and diseased tissues. Aging Techniques Fawn Tagging It is essential to have data from known-age animals if the aging techniques are to be properly evaluated, thus fawns on the study areas were marked. Due to the precociousness of young antelope, the fawns must be caught within a few days after birth. Most antelope fawns in Colorado are born from May 25th to June 15th, hence, tagging operations were confined to this period. �- 38 - Fawns were located by watching a doe until she went to nurse her fawn; then when the fawn hid itself, the worker used a long handled fish net to capture the young animal. Metal tags were placed in the ears of the animal, one in each ear. The sex of the antelope was noted prior to release. Tags were approximately one and one-half inches in diameter and had an identification number and a notation (requesting the finder to return the tag to the Department of Game, Fish and Parks at Fort Collins) inscribed on it. Eye Lens Weights Antelope eyes collected at the check stations were tagged and preserved in buffered formalin until the lenses could be removed, dried, weighed, and compared with the age of the antelope. Kolenosky and Miller's (1962) technique for drying antelope eye lenses was followed. A small sample of eye lenses were ashed and compared to the age of the animal. Small crucibles were weighed to the nearest one-ten thousandth of a gram. The eye lenses were placed in the crucibles and heated in a 0 furnace at 300 C for four to six hours until the lens has started cooking and assumed a black,foam-like consistency. Oven heat was then increased to 6000 C. When the lenses were cooked to a fine granular ash, crucibles cont a Ln Lng vt.he lenses were removed from the oven and placed in a desiccator, and allowed to cool for approximately one hour. The crucibles and lens ashes were weighed to the nearest one-ten thousandth of a gram. Crucible weight was subtracted from the total to determine the weight of the ashes. The ashing technique was compared with the drying technique to determine which was most reliable for aging antelope. Mandible and Head Measurements Measurements were made on the lower jaws collected at the check stations. The maximum length of the ramus was measured to the nearest millimeter, not including any part of a tooth that extended forward from the anterior end of the bone. Length of the mandibular diastema was measured to the nearest one-tenth of a millimeter with a pair of calipers; measuring from the posterior margin of the alveolus of the lower incisor to the anterior margin of the first cheek tooth. Head length and width were measured and recorded for the antelope brought through the check stations. Head length was measured from the occiput to the incisors with calipers. Measurements were recorded to the nea re st onehalf centimeter. Head width was also measured with a caliper to the nearest one-half centimeter, from a point posterior to the orbits and anterior to the ears. Horn Length Horn length measurements were recorded for all buck antelope brought through the check stations. This measurement was made to the nearest one-half inch; measured along the center of the outside surface following the curve of the �- 39 - of the horn from the base to the tipo Also, hunters who killed a buck were requested to record the length of the buck's horns on a Hunter Report Card. These data were compared with check station data to evaluate the possibility of using horn length, reported by hunters, as an index to the age structure of the harvest. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Study areas were established in Larimer and Moffat counties where major antelope concentrations exist in two different vegetative types. The Larimer County study area is located in the rolling prairie region approximately 20 miles north of Fort Collins, Colorado, and is characterized by vegetation typical of shortgrass areas; blue grama (Boute1oua gracilis), buffalo grass (Buch1oe dacty1oides), western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), and others. This area covers approximately 88 square miles. The Moffat County study area is located in the rolling sandhi11s immediately south of Maybell, Colorado, and is characterized by a moderately dense overs tory consisting primarily of bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is the most abundant understory species occurring on the area. The Moffat County area is approximately 30 square miles and is enclosed by a sheep-tight fence. Both study areas are grazed by sheep and cattle~ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mortality Hunter Harvest Moffat County Study Area--Hunting permits for the area were of a "specified permit" type (designating the sex of the animal that could be killed) from 1963 through 1966. In 1967, all permits were of the "either sex" type. The numbers of permits issued varied throughout the study period In 1963 and 1964 there were 250 permits (50 buck - 200 doe) issued (Table 1)0 This was reduced to 100 permits in 1965 and 1966; 25 buck - 75 doe, and 50 buck - 50 doe permits, respectively. Only 60 permits were issued in 1967. Hunter success was very high (over 90 percent) for all years except 1965, when the success was low due to a heavy snowfall in the area during the hunting season. o �- 40 - --- Total Number Fawns / 100 Does Bucks/ 100 Does 400 350 300 0:: 250 ~ LLI OJ ~ ::> 2 200 150 - 100 - 50 - --Fig. 1. surveys, Tota 1 antelope 1963-1967. -- --_ .•- _--_.-- numbers and ratios ..•...• obtained on aerial antelope �- 41 Table 1. Hunter success on the Moffat County study area, 1963-1967. Permits Issued Doe Total Number Harvested Percent Success 250 243 97 200 250 229 92 25 75 100 60 60 1966 50 50 100 92 92 1967 Either-Sex 60 57 95 Year Buck 1963 50 200 1964 50 1965 Aerial counts indicated a rapid decline in the population from 1963 to the period following the 1965 hunting season, then the population started increasing (Figure 1). The fawn:doe ratio increased from 75:100 in 1963 to 91:100 in 1964; decreased to 54:100 in 1965, then increased to 71:100 and 90:100 in 1966 and 1967 (significantly different at the 95% confidence level)o Fawn:adult ratios showed a trend more closely resembling the population trend, decreasing from 55:100 in 1963 to 43:100 in 1964, and 35:100 in 1965 These ratios then started upward in 1966 and 1967, 47:100 and 59:100 respectively. The buck:doe ratios showed a slight upward trend under the restrictive buck permits during the period from 1964 through 1967: 32:100, 40:100, 43:100, and 40:100 respectively. However, these ratios were not significantly different at the 95% confidence level 0 The mean age of the does harvested followed a pattern similar to the population trend. The mean age decreased from 203 years in 1963 to 102 years in 1965, then increased to 204 years in 1966, and down to 2.0 years in the 1967 "either sex" season (Table 2). The fawn harvest was low in 1963, increased and remained high until 1967, when it decreased again (Figure 2)0 The low percentage of fawns in the harvest occurred when the fawn:adult ratios were high, also when the population was high in 1963 and rapidly increasing in 19670 Hunters were probably biased in selecting larger animals when the population was high, and were less selective during the population lowo Yearling and adult (two years and older) portions of the harvest were alternately high and low: the adult class being high in the harvest when the yearling class was low; and the reverse being true alsoo It stands to reason the adult portion of the population would be low following a year when yearling harvest was heavy, and the adult portion of the population would increase following a year when yearling harvest was light, because of the yearling recruitment into the adult class the following year. �- 42 - Table 2. Age of antelope checked at Moffat County hunter check stations, 1963-1967. Age Class (years) 1963 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age 1964 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age 1965 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age 1966 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age 1967 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age Number Bucks Percent Number Does Percent Number Total Percent 5 16 12 8 6 2 49 2.5 10 33 25 16 12 4 100 26 54 13 18 20 4 135 2.3 19 40 10 13 15 3 100 31 70 25 26 26 6 184 2.3 17 38 14 14 14 3 100 23 14 21 32 19 29 15 6 41 27 20 15 7 8 ll8 2.0 35 23 17 13 6 7 101 64 41 41 26 34 22 22 14 6 4 102 8 10 4 1 0 1 24 1.2 33 42 17 4 II 4 0 73 1.9 4 3 5 1 4 0 17 2.4 101 24 18 29 6 24 101 4 100 II 8 191 2.0 12 13 9 2 4 1 41 1.6 29 32 22 5 10 2 100 6 7 13 8 9 7 50 3.1 12 14 26 16 18 14 100 13 5 4 4 3 5 34 2.4 38 15 12 12 9 15 101 19 12 17 12 12 12 84 2.8 23 14 20 14 14 14 99 6 13 5 3 3 3 33 2.3 18 39 15 9 9 9 99 5 6 4 2 1 1 19 2.0 26 32 21 11 5 5 100 11 19 9 5 4 4 52 2.2 21 37 17 10 8 8 101 �- 43 - ------- Fawns Yearlings -- Ad u Its 50 ," , , \ V' , -. r: -/__/0 '\ " /,' \ , • I \ 40 \ '\ IZ ltJ o 30 / ,/ 0.::: \ -, W CL \, ~ \ / ,, \ \ 20 " " /\ I \ \ I \ I V 10 o =---19t63~~==""~~~1~9~6-4--",,=-~o'~I~"65~~~=~'=-'19-~G==-~-~'=--=r96J7~-'~c= YEAR Fig.2. Percentage of fawn, yearling, harvest, Moffat County, 1963-1967. and adult antelope occurring in the �-44 There did not appear to be any relationship between the percentage of yearlings or adults in the harvest and the population trend. However, graphs obtained by plotting the number of yearlings and adults in the harvest, rather than using percentages, more closely resembled the population curve. Sample sizes for the doe segment in the various age classes during the last three years were quite small. For example, numbers in the yearling class were only 10, 5, and 6. Thus, the age structure based on these small samples may be misleading. Mean age of bucks decreased in 1964, then gradually increased until 1966. In 1967, when the either sex permits were issued, the mean age dropped again. Hunters were noticeably biased in selecting their bucks. When large bucks were fairly numerous and easily found, hunters put forth more effort in obtaining animals with large horns. Therefore, the buck harvest is less apt to reflect the age structure of the population than the doe segment of the harvest. An estimate of the pre-season population was derived from total counts and fawn ratio counts. For example, 428 animals were counted in the spring of 1963. A ratio of 55 fawns per 100 adults was obtained on a flight in August. By multiplying 55 percent times 428 adults there was estimated to be 235 fawns, added to 428 adults equals 663 animals (Table 3). Hunter harvest was combined with the estimated wounding loss for 1963 to calculate an overall herd drain of 282 animals. A percent harvest figure was obtained by dividing the harvest by the estimated population. The percent of the total herd harvested in 1963 through 1967 was 42, 48, 17, 40, and 21, respectively. In relating the percent harvest to the population trend, we see that the population decreased slightly with a 42 percent harvest, then sharply declined following a 48 percent harvest the next year. There was a slight increase with a 17 percent and 40 percent harvest. The population increased sharply following the 21 percent harvest in 1967. It appears a harvest level somewhere between 20 percent and 40 percent would have maintained a stable population. These data were not further presented in life tables because the mortality rate was not consistent from one year to the next, the recruitment rate was not constant, and the age structure of the harvest was not consistent between years. There was a tendency for hunters to record fawns as adult animals on their report cards. Check station data showed that fawns made up a larger portion of the harvest than indicated by report cards (Table 4). An average for the five year period indicated fawns comprised 15 percent of the report card returns, and 24 percent of the antelope checked at the check stations. The sample size was very good; 88 percent of the antelope harvested on the study area during the five-year period were "aged" by check station personnel. �- 45 Table 3. Hunter harvest of antelope on the Moffat County study area, 1963-1967. Hunting Season 1963 Harvest Wounding Loss Total Bucks Does Fawns Total 54 9 63 138 3 141 51 27 78 243 39 282 ~'<'Estimated preseason population: 428 ad + 235 fawns Percent of population harvested: 42% 1964 Harvest Wounding Loss Total 59 21 80 92 15 107 78 15 93 663 229 51 280 Estimated preseason population: 410 ad + 176 fawns = 586 Percent of population harvested: 48% 1965 Harvest Wounding Loss Total 19 1 20 24 2 26 17 0 17 60 3 63 Estimated preseason population: 280 ad + 98 fawns = 378 Percent of population harvested: 17% 1966 Harvest Wounding Loss Total 49 1 50 22 3 25 21 0 21 92 4 96 Estimated preseason population: 165 ad + 78 fawns = 243 Percent of population harvested: 40% 1967 Harvest Wounding Loss Total 24 0 24 13 1 14 20 1 21 57 2 59 Estimated preseason population: 178 ad + 105 fawns = 283 Percent of population harvested: 21% -k Based on aerial surveys. �- 46 Table 40 Percentage of bucks, does and fawns harvested on the Moffat County study area based on hunter report cards and check station data, 1963-1967. Bucks Year Hunter ReEort Cards Bucks Does Fawns Total (%) (%) (%) Number Check Station Does Fawns (%) (%) (%) Total Number 1963 20 75 5 243 24 60 16 189 1964 21 53 26 229 26 40 34 191 1965 40 33 27 60 32 39 29 41 1966 45 38 17 92 50 27 23 82 1967 70 23 7 57 52 27 21 52 Mean 30 55 15 32 44 24 Some of the hunter observations followed a pattern similar to the population trend (Table 5). The number of wounded antelope reported by hunters for the five-year period was 68, 51, 3, 4, and 2. There was a very high wounding loss during the years of high antelope densities, but this loss decreased with a population decline. The time required for a successful hunter to bag an animal more than doubled as the population declined. The number of antelope observed per hunter per hour was very closely related to the time each person spent hunting. The ratio of bucks to does in the herd increased under· the restricted "specified sex system", this same trend was genera lly reflected in the number of bucks observed by the hunters. Larimer County Study Area--Approximate1y 90 percent of the study area has closed to antelope hunting since 1966, therefore, only three years (19631965) of reliable hunter harvest data were obtained. This is not an adequate sample to relate hunter harvest to population trends. Aerial surveys indicated a general upward trend for this herd from 1963 to 1967, during which 243, 209, 231, and 305 antelope were counted. The buck:doe ratios were 26:100, 21:100, 38:100, and 46:100, respectively. The me.an age of antelope harvested ranged from 2.1 years to 3.0, which was slightly higher than the mean age of animals cropped on the Moffat County area (Table 6)0 The Larimer County herd was more static or stable, thus more older animals appeared in the harvest. �- 47 - Table 5. Miscellaneous information collected from successful hunters at the Moffat County antelope check stations, 1963-1967. Category 1963 1964 47 2 70 8 135 5 Year 1965 1966 1967 17 43 5 29 5 113 19 24 37 1 18 2 182 7 183 27 41 80 6 47 7 49 92 1.3 71 25 51 52 3.3 16 31 17 32 2.9 11 36 48 40 4.1 10 26 35 28 5.9 5 24 140 104 2.0 52 31 148 47 4.5 10 75 23 50 3.8 13 45 38 37 4.3 9 47 19 18 6.1 3 23 189 101 1.6 63 29 68 54 199 48 4.1 12 60 51 26 40 42 3.4 12 42 6 86 39 4.3 54 24 6.0 4 24 4 4 Harvest Bucks First day Second day Does First day Second day Both Sexes First day Second day Hunter Observations Buck Hunters Number of hunters checked Antelope observed/hunter Hours hunted/hunter Antelope observed/hunter/hour Bucks observed/100 does Doe Hunters Number of hunters checked Antelope observed/hunter Hours hunted/hunter Antelope observed/hunter/hour Bucks. observed/IOO does Buck and Doe Hunters Number of hunters checked Antelope observed/hunter Hours hunted/hunter Antelope observed/hunter/hour Bucks observed/IOO does Wounded antelope observed Abandonded antelope observed 9 36 15 3 �- 48 Table 6. Age of antelope checked at the Larimer County hunter check stations, 1963-1965. Age Class (years) 1963 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age 1964 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age 1965 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total. Mean Age 1966 Fawn 1 2 3 4 5+ Total Mean Age Bucks Number Percent Number 6 11 9 1 6 3 36 2.5 17 30 25 3 17 8 100 3 4 3 1 2 1 14 2.4 21 29 21 7 14 7 99 9 15 12 2 8 4 50 2.5 18 30 24 4 16 8 100 5 6 8 3 4 1 27 2.4 18 22 30 11 15 4 100 4 1 1 67 17 17 6 0.8 101 9 7 9 3 4 1 33 2.1 27 21. 27 9 12 3 99 1 4 4 8 33 33 1 2 3 13 25 37 2 1 12 2.6 17 8 99 2 8 3.5 25 100 1 5 6 3 2 3 20 3.0 5 25 30 15 10 15 100 2 100 2 40 1 1 1 20 20 20 5 2.3 100 1 1 1 33 33 33 3 3.5 99 2 0.5 Does Percent 100 Number Total Percent �- 49 Hunters tended to report fawns as adult Check station data indicated 18 percent 1963 to 1965, while hunter report cards of eight percent fawns (Table 7). This for the Moffat County study area. antelope on the report cards. of the harvest was fawns from indicated the harvest consisted is very similar to the results Observations made by hunters were somewhat erratic and didn't follow the trends established by the aerial surveys during the three-year period. The average number of antelope observed per hunter for 1963, 1964 and 1965 hunting seasons was 14, 25, and 40, respectively (Table 8). Only five hunters were checked in 1966 so that year's data is not included in this discussion. These averages are considerably lower than those found for the Moffat County area, however, the density of antelope on the Moffat County area was much greater. Hunters on the Larimer County area required 4.6, 8.1, and 3.2 hours to bag their animals during these respective years. There was considerable rain during the 1964 season, thus poor weather likely accounted for the high number of hours (8.1) required to make a kill. The average number of bucks observed per 100 does during the 1963-65 seasons was 22, 29, and 21, respectively. Hunters on the Larimer County area observed two wounded antelope each year. This was much lower than the wounding observations on the Moffat County study area. Again, this is likely due to the lower antelope densities on the Larimer County area. Table 7. Percentage of bucks, does, and fawns harvested on the Larimer County Study area based on hunter report cards and check station data, 1963-1965. Bucks Year Hunter ReEort Cards Bucks Does Fawns Total (%) (%) (%) Number (%) Check Station Does Total Fawns (%) (%) Number 1963 71 21 8 87 58 26 16 55 1964 72 16 12 57 67 6 27 33 1965 59 35 6 105 55 40 5 20 Mean 66 26 8 60 22 18 �- 50Natural Mortality Mortality due to predation and disease appeared to be very light among the older fawns and adult antelope. Cottontail rabbits and jackrabbits were abundant on both areas and appeared to be one of the major food items for predators. Rabbit and squirrel remains were commonly found around the eagle nests. Sheep ranchers in the Moffat County study area maintained very intense coyote control programs and the coyote population was very low. Whereas, aerial antelope surveys on the Larimer County area indicated there was approximately one coyote per five square miles during the winter months, but only about one coyote per seventy-five square miles during the summer. Coyotes apparently frequent the plains, and the areas adjacent to them during the winter months, then move into the foothills during the summer. Golden eagles were commonly seen on both study areas. During the five-year period of this study only three antelope (two fawns and one yearling doe) were suspected of being killed by coyotes. One fawn was killed by an eagle. Also, a doe fawn on the Larimer County area was observed during February, 1964 to have deep wounds on her back, which were thought to have been caused by an eagle. The fawn recovered and was observed to be in good health at a later date. During June, 1965, a doe on the Moffat County study area was observed pursuing three badgers (an adult female and two partially grown young)o The badgers were collected and their stomachs examined. The stomachs of the two young badgers were gorged with the remains of an antelope fawn. Mortality due to diseases and parasites was negligible, as nearly as could be ascertained in this study. A total of 56 dead antelope were examined for parasites and diseases during the study periodo Three of these antelope had one to three wood ticks on them, one had necrotic stomatitis, one a tapeworm cyst in the mesentery, and another a light infestation of nematodes in the small intestine. During March, 1966, two doe antelope were collected in Moffat County for the physiological study. They both had abnormally long hooves and slightly swollen leg joints. One of these does chose to lie down and hide when she was approached rather than flee with the other antelope associated with her. Later she got up and attempted to move off, but had extreme difficulty in walking. The second doe was thought to be a healthy animal prior to collection. There were 79 other antelope observed in the area that morning and five of these showed obvious signs of being lame. The lameness was suspected to be caused by a polyarthritis similar to a type occurring in domestic sheep. Unsuccessful attempts were made to capture one of these lame animals for intensive laboratory study. The lameness was evident only during cold wet weather. Carcasses of two very young fawns that died from some unknown cause were found during the five-year study period. They had died while in a normal resting posture, and obviously had not been molested or killed by predators. Eartag returns and general observatiDns indicate there may be a high mortality among very young fawns, but carcasses were not found to substantiate this. �- 51 - Table 8. Miscellaneous Larimer County antelope information collected from successful check stations, 1963-1966. hunters at the Year Category 1963 1964 1965 1966 24 15 17 11 14 3 1 11 5 5 1 10 0 2 35 20 22 12 24 3 3 67 12 4.7 3 25 28 26 8.0 3 28 14 50 3.6 14 19 4 26 5.0 5 46 26 19 4.5 4 19 5 18 8.8 2 36 10 27 2.6 10 27 2 2 4.0 1 0 93 14 4.6 3 22 2 3 33 25 8.1 3 29 2 24 40 3.2 13 21 2 1 6 18 4.7 4 42 0 0 Kill Bucks First day Second day Does First day Second day Both sexes First day Second day Hunter Observations Buck Hunters Number ot' hunters checked Antelope observed/hunter Hours hunted/hunter Antelope observed/hunter/hour Bucks observed/100 does Doe Hunters Number of hunters checked Antelope observed/hunter Hours hunted/hunter Ante lope observed/hunter/hour Bucks observed/100 does Buck and Doe Hunters Number of hunters checked Antelope observed/hunter Hours hunted/hunter Antelope observed/hunter/hour Bucks observed/100 does Wounded antelope observed Abandoned antelope observed �.• 52 - Two adult antelope were known to have been struck and ki~led by automobiles on the highways associated with the study areas. The highway "right-of-ways" were fenced with net-wire, and it was rare to see antelope on the right-of-way. Numerous antelope were found tangled in fences in the vicinity of the study area. This was discussed in the report on "antelope and net-wire fences" (Work Plan 2, Job 5) of this project. Aging Studies Tagging Fawns A total of 167 fawns was tagged on the study areas. There were 97 females and 70 males in this sample. There was a total of 19 tagged antelope (13 females and 6 males) known to have been harvested by hunters and one fawn was found dead a few weeks after tagging (Table 9). Nine of the tagged antelope were shot when fawns, five as yearlings, four ~s two-year olds, and two as three-year olds. This was a 12 percent return on the tags, and most of these were one year old or younger. Only three marked animals are known to exist on the study areas at the present date. It is interesting to note that similarity to findings of Hoover, et, al. (1959) who tagged fawns on the same area in Larimer County during the period 1947-1954. They averaged 11.8 percent return on their tags and all returns' came back within three years of the tagging date. It appears t here is a very high mortality rate among tagged fawns. Measurements were obtained from only a few marked animals following harvest. Therefore, data based on known-age antelope were very limited and of little value in this study. Table 9. Antelope 1964-l967~"• tag return data, Larimer and Moffat County study areas, Age (years) Male Sex Female Both Fawn 3 6 9 1 1 4 5 2 2 2 4 3 0 2 2 Total 6 14 20 * Antelope were tagged as fawns less than three days old. �- 53 Eye Lens Weights A sample of the eye lenses were dried 192 hours to determine the rate of decrease in weight when dried longer than 72 hours as used by Kolenosky and Miller (1962). Dry weights obtained at 24 hour intervals showed an average decrease in weight of 1.1, 0.9, 0.7, 0.5, and 0.4 percent (Table 10). This weight loss beyond the 72 hour drying time did not appear to be significant, therefore, the 72 hour drying time was used in this study. Ashed weights of 40 eye lenses are compared with their respective dry weights in Table 11. The sample size is too small for a valid comparison, however, there did not appear to be much difference between the trend established by the dry lens weights as compared with the ash weights of the same lenses. The ashing technique required less time, however, this technique involved small weights (less than 20 mg) and appeared to be more subject to errors. Therefore, the dry lens weights were used here. Mean lens weights increased for each age class from fawns to the five year old class. The increase was more rapid between the fawn, one year old, and two year old age classes; increasing from 342.0 mg to 570.6 mg and to 662.0 mg, respectively (Table 12). The mean weights for the three year old, four year old, and five year old (plus) classes were 743.6 mg, 749.3 mg, and 799.7 mg, respectively; therefore, lens growth was much slower in the older 'age classes. Kolenosky and Miller (1962) found a very similar growth pattern for antelope eye lenses collected in Saskatchewan. There was considerable variation in the data and overlap in the confidence intervals established for each age class older than "fawn". Since the age of each antelope was determined by the "tooth erruption and wear technique", the eye lens technique is subject to the same errors. Ko1enosky and Miller concluded "However, it has been demonstrated that lens growth proceeds at a species-predictable rate in antelope, and the growth curves that have been established in this study can be verified when tagged specimens of known age are available". The results obtained in this study further emphasize the need for known age antelope to fully evaluate eye lens growth. Mandible and Head Measurements Skull measurements increased from the fawn age class to yearlings, then tapered off in the older age classes. Fawns had a significantly (90 percent confidence level) shorter head than older animals; there was not a significant difference in mean lengths for the older age classes (Tables 13 and 14). There was not a significant difference between bucks and does. The average head length for fawns was approximately 22-23 centimeters; yearlings, 28 centimeters, and adult antelope, 29-30 centimeters Average skull width measurements were not significant between any of the age classes, however, there was a slight increase in width from the fawn age class through the yearling age class. Skull widths of buck and doe antelope were very similar at the fawn age class (approximately 8.5 centimeters). These widths for does increased to 9.6 - 10.0 centimeters for the older age classes, while buck skull widths averaged 10.8 - 11.7 centimeters. o �Table 10. Weight of antelope eye lenses when dried at 60 degrees centigrade. 72 Hours 96 Hours· Weight Lost 120 Hours Weight Lost Lens Weight {mgl 144 Weight 168 Hours Lost Hours 16 17 18 19 20 594.9 597.2 561.3 516.9 327.2 327.8 582.8 586.0 611.9 694.4 625.0 573.6 758.7 360.8 676.8 590.6 577.7 517.5 509.2 614.6 588.5 585.1 553.7 512.4 323.5 325.4 574.1 577 .2 610.2 683.5 614.3 571.2 750.6 357.1 666.5 588.9 567.7 515.8 507.4 610.5 6.4 12.1 7.6 4.5 3.7 2.4 8.7 8.8 1.7 10.9 10.7 2.4 8.1 3.7 10.3 1.7 10.0 1.7 1.8 4.1 579.3 576.9 547.3 510.5 320.3 321. 9 561.9 567.5 610.0 674.9 605.5 570.1 745.7 353.6 658.4 588.8 558.8 515.8 506.8 608.2 9.2 8.2 6.4 1.9 3.2 3.5 12.2 9.7 0.2 8.6 8.8 1.1 4.9 3.5 8.1 0.1 8.9 0.0 0.6 2.3 573.3 572.2 543.5 509.2 318.4 319.3 551.7 559.3 609.6 670.3 600.3 569.3 742.9 348.3 653.4 587.9 552.9 515.0 506.0 606.6 6.0 4.7 3.8 1.3 1.9 2.6 10.2 8.2 0.4 4.6 5.2 0.8 2.8 5.3 5.0 0.9 5.9 0.8 0.8 1.6 Total 11204.9 11083.6 121.3 10982.2 101.4 10909.4 Mean 560.2 554.2 6.1 549.1 5.1 545.5 Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS Percent Decrease 1.1 0.9 Weight Lost 192 Hours Weight Lost 568.3 568.6 540.6 508.1 316.8 317.3 543.9 553.4 609.1 666.8 595.8 568.7 741.4 343.5 650.0 587.4 548.2 514.7 505.5 605.4 5.0 3.6 2.9 1.1 1.6 2.0 7.8 5.9 0.5 3.5 4.5 0.6 1.5 4.8 3.4 0.5 4.7 0.3 0.5 1.2 562.7 565.0 538.2 507.9 315.1 315.4 538.1 548.3 608.6 663.5 591. 9 568.5 741.3 340.0 646.5 586.8 543.2 514.7 505.5 604.7 5.6 3.6 4.4 0.2 1.7 1.9 5.8 5.1 0.5 3.3 3.9 0.2 0.1 3.5 3.5 0.6 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 72.8 10853.5 55.9 10805.9 47.6 3.6 542.7 208 540.3 2.4 0.7 0.5 0.4 VI .p- �- 55 - Table 11. Comparing related to age. dry lens weight and the ashed weight of the lens as Age Class (years) Number in Sample Fawn 9 344.8 12.6 7.3 0.5 1 15 549.6 25.5 1005 0.7 2 10 660.2 45.5 12.9 2.8 3 1 837.9 4 3 795.6 5+ 2 801.0 Table 120 Dry eye lens weights Dry Lens Weight {mg2 Mean Std. Dev. Ash Weight Mean of Lens {mg2 Std. Dev. 1602 14.2 34.8 0.4 14.1 as related to age for 270 ant e Lope iw Age Class (years) Number in Sample Standard Deviation 90% Confidence Mean Fawn 60 342.0 27.2 362.2 - 321.8 1 74 570.6 70.6 681.2 - 460.0 2 61 662.0 55.9 746.0 - 578.0 3 27 743.6 45.4 869.0 - 618.2 4 29 749.3 66.7 1000.6 - 498.0 5+ 19 799.7 83.7 1197.6 - 401.8 ~': Lens weights are given in milligrams (mg) • Intervals �- 56 - Mandible measurements increased in the younger age classes and was more constant among the older age classes. Mean ramus and diastema lengths were significantly different for fawns and yearlings. There was not a significant difference between the means for the older age classes. There was no apparent difference due to sexo The mean ramus length for fawns was 160 millimeters; yearlings, 209 millimeters, and older animals, 217-220 millimeters (Tables 15 and 16). The mean diastema length for fawns was 49.6 millimeters, yearlings 69.3 millimeters, and older antelope 71.4-76.1 millimeters. Horn Length Horn length data collected at check stations during 1963 and 1964 showed a rapid horn growth until the animal was approximately two years old. Mean horn length for fawns and yearling bucks were 1 6 inches and 7.8 inches, respectively. There wa.s a significant difference (90 percent confidence level) between these age classes and older animals (Table 17). Age classes two years and older had means greater than 12 inches, however, there was not a significant difference between these classes. These data indicated buck antelope could be grouped into three distinct categories: fawns, yearlings, and adults (two years and older), by using horn length measurements. 0 During 1965 and 1966 report cards (145) were issued to successful buck hunters when their antelope were examined at check stations. Sixty-nine percent of the report cards were returned. Antelope ages were established by using horn lengths recorded on the report cards. These data were related to t~e ages established for the same antelope at the check stations. It was determined that the horn length data had a six percent error. Therefore, this technique appears to be adequate for establishing a general age structure for buck antelope. Ten years of data from Colorado indicates 60 to 72 percent of the annual harvest was bucks. Based on a sixty-nine percent report card return, ages could be determined for approximately forty percent of the antelope harvested in Colorado each yearo This is a very easy technique to use, requiring only a measuring tape. Since antelope harvest information in Colorado relies on hunter report cards, this technique could be used to supplement harvest information. It still needs to be tested on a larger scale and related to changes in population structure. �- 57 - Table 13. Skull length and width measurements by hunters.* Age Class (years) Number in Sample for buck antelope harvested Mean (± Standard Deviation) Length Width 90% Confidence Length Limits Width Fawn 10 23.0 + 1.9 8.6 + 0.7 19.9 - 26.1 7.5 - 9.7 1 21 27.8 + 0.6 10.8 + 0.8 26.8 28.8 9.5 - 12.1 2 19 28.8 + 1.7 11.3 + 0.8 26.0 - 31.6 10.0 - 12.6 3 2 29.7 11.4 4 12 29.8 + 0.2 11.7 + 0.8 29.4 - 30.2 10.4 - 13.0 5+ 1 30.2 12.5 ~~Measurements are in centimeters. Table 14. Skull length and width measurements by hunters. * Age Class (years) Number in Sample for doe antelope harvested Mean ~+ Standard Deviation2 Length Width 90% Confidence Limits Length Width Fawn 5 21.7 + 0.8 8.4 + 0.7 20.4 - 23.0 7.3 - 9.5 1 5 28.4 + 1.6 9.6 + 0.5 25.8 - 31.0 8.8 - 10.4 2 5 29.3 + 0.9 9.7 + 3.1 27.8 - 30.8 4.7 - 14.7 3 5 29.2 + 1.5 10.0 + 1.4 26.7 - 31.7 7.7 - 12.3 4 2 28.5 9.6 5+ 3 29.3 9.8 Measurements are in centimeters. oJ, �- 58 - Table 15. Relationship of ramus length and age for 153 antelope mandibles collected at hunter check stations. Number In Sample Mean Length (rrnn) 90% Confidence Interva 1 (mm) Fawn 14 161 158 - 165 1~ 23 207 204 - 210 2~ 18 218 215 - 222 3~ 6 224 220 - 228 4~ 7 220 214 - 226 5~ - over 1 214 Fawn 23 160 159 - 161 1~ 15 209 206 - 213 2~ 20 215 212 - 218 3~ 11 214 210 - 218 4~ 8 219 214 - 224 5~ - over 7 221 216 _ 226 Fawn 37 160 158 - 162 1~ 38 209 201 -211 2~ 38 217 215 - 219 3~ 17 218 211 - 225 4~ 15 219 216 - 222 5~ - over 8 220 215 - 225 Sex and Age (years) Males Females Both Sexes �- 59 - Table 16. Relationship of diastema length and age for 153 antelope mandibles collected at hunter check stations. Sex and Age (years) Number In Sample Mean Length (nnn) 90% Confidence Interval (nnn) Fawn 14 49.5 47.7 - 51.3 llz 23 69.2 67.6 - 70.8 2lz 18 72 .1 70.6 - 73.6 3lz 6 74.9 72 .4 - 77.4 4lz 7 72 .1 69.9 - 74.3 5lz - over 1 70.5 Fawn 23 49.7 48.8 llz 15 69.4 67.1 - 71.1 2lz 20 70.3 68.8 - 71.8 3lz 11 70.0 68.0 - 72.0 4lz 8 72.5 70.7 - 74.3 5lz - over 7 76.9 74.1 - 79.7 Fawn 37 49.6 48.8 - 50.4 llz 38 69.3 68.0 - 70.6 2lz 38 71.4 70.4 - 72.4 3lz 17 71.7 69.9 - 73.5 4lz 15 72 .3 71.1 - 73.5 5lz - over 8 76.1 72 .9 - 79.3 Males Females 50.6 Both Sexes �- 60 - Table 17. Relationship between the horn length and age for 219 buck antelope.* Age Class (years) Number in Sample Mean Horn Length Standard Deviation 90% Confidence Interval Fawn 26 1.6 0.4 0.9 - 1 71 7.8 1.4 5.5 - 10.1 2 62 12.1 1.2 10.2 - 14.0 3 31 13.5 1.1 11.7 - 15.3 4 22 14.0 1.3 11.9 - 16.1 5+ 7 13.5 1.8 10.5 - 16.5 2.3 * Measurements are given in inches. LITERATURE CITED Hoover, R. L., C. E. Till, and S. Ogilvie. 1959. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Tech. Bull. No.4. The antelope of Colorado. 110 p. Ko1enosky, B., and R. S. Miller. 1962. Growth of the lens of the pronghorn antelope. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 26(1): 112-113. Prepared by ,--.~.!J, ~. George':Bear Wildlife Researcher �January, - 61 - 1970 JOB FINAL REPORT State of No. W:-40-R-10 Antelope Investigations Plan No. 1 Job No. 12 Project Work COLORADO Job Title: Antelope Period Covered: Personnel: April George Census 1, 1963 to April 30, 1969 D. Bear ABSTRACT Aerial counts were generally highest in the early morning hours and lowest during mid-day. Antelope were most easily counted on clear days and when vegetation was very green. Air conditions generally had little effect on the total number of antelope counted, but as the air became more turbulent errors·increased in the sex and age ratios. Peak fawn counts were obtained in late August and early September just before the hunting seasons. Highest total counts were obtained from November through March when the herds were large. Direction of flight appeared to have little effect on counting accuracy. There was little difference between the total number of antelope counted with the helicopter and total number counted with a fixed-wing aircraft during the winter months. The helicopter appeared to improve the accuracy of classifying bucks, does and fawns. Trends in population numbers and fawn:doe ratios were reasonably accurate in the 60 and 40 percent sample; but this sampling technique did not yield reliable information for buck:doe ratios. The permanent road transects were extremely variable and unpredictable. �- 62 - RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations for aerial surveys are as follows: 10 Conduct counts at daylight, free from snow. 2. Make total annual counts with sex ratio classification winter, or late winter and early spring. 3. Make fawn counts in late August or September 4. A rating sheet should be completed for each flight, evaluating conditions and recording the time of flight. 5. The feasibility be explored. on a clear day, and when the ground is of establishing in early before the hunting season. census trends from sample surveys needs to Contents of this report were summarized and presented in the following publication: Evaluation of Aerial Antelope Census Techniques. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division, Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leaflet Number 69 (in print). �- 63 - ANTELOPE CENSUS George D. Bear p. S. OBJECTIVE Develop technique for censusing antelope. METHODS AND MATERIALS Aerial Variation Census Due to Time and Weather Aerial counts were conducted with a fixed-wing airplane monthly on each study area from June, 1963 to March, 1965 to determine daily and seasonal variability in the aerial census technique. Counts were conducted three times a day, early morning, mid-day, and late afternoon, to determine the most suitable time for aerial census. The Larimer County area was flown in mile-wide strips. Permanent land marks were used as boundary markers to prevent overlap. Due to shrub cover and concentration of antelope it was most desirable to fly the Moffat County area in one-half mile-wide' strips. A flying altitude of approximately 100-300 feet was maintained. Other factors recorded on each count were: vegetative cover, relative visibility due to ground cover, cloud cover, wind velocity, distribution of antelope within the herd, approximate location on the study area (strip number and distance along the strip), and activity of the antelope. Ground cover was rated in one of three classes: I - new snow, 100% snow cover; II - 100% snow cover, but old snow with a lot of old tracks; and III - (a) spotty snow cover, (b) bare ground. Light conditions were rated in one of three classes: I - clear skies; II - broken overcast 50 percent of the time; and III - solid overcast. Air conditions were also rated in one of three classes: I - good, solid air; II - mild to moderate downdraft and turbulence; and III - severe turbulence and downdrafts. Variation Due to Type of Aircraft Comparisons were made between aerial census data collected using a helicopter and a fixed-wing airplane. Helicopter and airplane counts were made in the same areas and under similar conditions when possible. Variation Due to Flight Direction Fixed-wing flights were made from May, 1965 to August, 1967 to determine �- 64 the effect of flight direction on census variability. Flights were limited to early morning hours and clear calm days when possible. Two flights were made on the same area on successive days. The first-day flight was conducted in an east-west direction and the second-day flight in a north-south direction. Sample Trends Trends established from random samples were compared with trends established from counts of the total land area. Aerial surveys were flown in the fall and late winter from 1963 to 1967. The entire areas were flown in strips, as described above. Trends were plotted for the total number of antelope counted, buck-to-doe ratios, and fawn-to-doe ratios. Three samples (60 percent, 40 percent, and 20 percent of the total land area surveyed) were selected and similar trends plotted for each sample. The strips used in each sample were selected using a "Table of Random Numbers". Ground Census Ground counts, using binoculars and a spotting scope, were conducted from a vehicle while driving along a permanent transect in each study area. The road transects were 23 miles and 11 miles long on the Larimer and Moffat County study areas, respectively. These counts were made once a month, three times a day (morning, noon, and evening). The sex, age, and location were recorded for all antelope sighted. Light and ground cover were recorded as for the aerial counts. Road conditions were recorded in one of three classes: I - good, eaSily traveled; II - fair, occasional places of difficult travel; and III - poor, difficult to travel, requires driver's attention most of the time. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Study areas were established in Larimer and Moffat Counties where major antelope concentrations exist in two different vegetative types. The Larimer County study area is located north of Fort Collins, adjacent to the Colorado-Wyoming state line. The area is approximately 88 square miles. The terrain is gently rolling and the vegetation primarily blue grama, buffalo grass, and other typical shortgrass prairie flora. Shrubs such as four-wing saltbush and winter fat are common only in the bottom lands in the southern portion of the study area. The Moffat County study area is in the sandhills immediately south of Maybell. It consists of a single pasture, approximately 30 square miles, which is enclosed by sheep-tight fencing. The area has rolling terrain. Bitterbrush, sagebrush, and rabbitbrush are the dominant vegetative species on the area, bitterbrush being the most important. Cheatgrass is the most abundant understory vegetation. Antelope on this study area are confined by sheep-fences; whereas on the Larimer County study area there appears to be a limited amount of movement between the study area and adjacent lands. �- 65 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aerial Variation Census Due to Time and Weather Due to the large number of variables associated with each flight and the small number of flights, the data testing daily, seasonal, and direction of flights could not be given statistical parameters. The cOmments offered here are derived from visual evaluation of the data. Aerial antelope counts were generally highest in the early morning hours and lowest during mid-day (Tables 1 and 2). Evening observations were between these counts. Light conditions seemed to be one of the most important factors affecting the counts. When skies were cloudy the antelope were harder to see, thus counts were lower than expected under good light conditions. Ground cover was also important. Bare ground was the best background for spotting antelope; with an ideal situation when the vegetation was growing and very green. Spotty-snow cover was the poorest because antelope blended into the background. The Moffat County area is a shrubby vegetative type, thus even when there was a couple feet of snow on the ground the shrubs were sticking up through the snow, therefore presenting a very mottled background. Air conditions generally had little effect on the total number of antelope counted. However, as the air became more turbulent the sex and age ratio counts were subject to additional error. This was because the pilot could not fly safely at low enough altitudes to distinguish the sex or age of antelope. There wasn't a definite pattern in the age or sex ratios due to census conditions. Antelope herds were small, approximately 3-15 animals, throughout the summer months, until October. Then animals grouped into large winter herds. High total counts and fawn counts were obtained in late August and early September just before hunting season. By October fawns were difficult to distinguish from adult antelope. Large total counts were obtained from November through March when the herds were large. Young bucks were difficult to detect in the larger herds during this period. Variability in the counts due to the time of day was not as critical since the large groups were easily seen even during mid-day. Variability in the counts during the winter months was due to the inability of the observer to get an accurate count on the larger herds of 75-200 animals. It took less time to fly the aerial counts on the study areas when antelope were in large herds than during the summer months when they were scattered. Data from both study areas indicated similar trends. Variation Due to Type of Aircraft Several types of aircraft were used for the census work. These included a DeHavi1and Beaver, PA18 Piper Cub, Cessna 180, Cessna 182, Hughes Helicopter, and a super charged Bell 47G3B helicopter. The fixed-wing aircraft were of the high-wing type, which are recommended for census work. �Table 1. Aerial census with a fixed-wing airplane on the Larimer County antelope study area, 1963-1964. Month Time Census Conditions Ground Light Air Antelope Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio Census Time (hours) Ave. Herd Size June - 1963 Morning Noon Evening III III III II III II I II II 29 39 47 39 45 50 4 3 14 72 87 111 74-100-10 87-100-7 94-100-28 1.33 1.37 1.47 3.7 2.8 4.3 July Morning Noon Evening III III III I II III I II II 50 66 22 109 34 45 66 30 34 225 130 101 46-100-61 194-100-88 49-100-76 1.47 1.07 1.23 4.8 5.7 5.1 August Morning Noon Evening III III III II III II I II II 41 36 46 78 73 57 38 53 43 157 162 146 53-100-49 49-100-73 81-100-75 1.15 1.20 1.37 4.1 6.2 4.9 September Morning Noon Evening III III No flight I II I I 60 74 120 108 96 90 276 272 50-100-80 69-100-83 1.25 1.33 6.7 5.9 ANTELOPE HUNTING SEASON October Morning Noon Evening III November Morning Noon Evening III III III December Morning Noon Evening January-1964 Morning Noon Evening III I I No flight I I 40 63 52 155 63-100-83 1.20 5.0 29 68 30 127 43-100-44 1.22 6.4 II II I 33 13 21 125 26 80 85 26 62 243 65 163 26-100-68 50-100-100 26-100-78 1.22 1.10 1.25 15.2 13.0 16.3 III III No flight III I III I 49 44 173 62 -- 222 106 28-100 67-100 l.18 l.08 44.4 35.3 III III III I II II 1.05 1.05 l.08 18.0 22.0 30.7 II III II III III II . 0\ 0\ -- -~~234 38 154 25-100 ~h'(154 -30 87 34-100 35 149 -184 25-100 (*42 unclassified, **37 unclassified) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Aerial census with a fixed-wing airplane on the Larimer County antelope study area, 1963-1964 (continued). Month Time Census Conditions Ground Light Air Ante10Ee Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio Census Time (hours) Ave. Herd Size February-1964 Morning Noon Evening III III No flight No flight II 38 159 -- 197 24-100 1.13 32.8 Morning Noon Evening III III III I I III I II II 64 52 52 123 139 85 --- 187 191 137 52-100 37-100 61-100 1.25 1.03 1.22 8.5 14.7 9.8 II II I 60 52 52 88 53 87 ---- 148 105 139 68-100 98-100 60-100 1.25 1.05 1.30 4.1 4.8 3.5 III III III 64 27 11 59 56 20 37 39 16 160 122 47 108-100-63 48-lO0-70 55-100-80 1.15 1.08 1.20 5.9 8.1 5.9 I II I 64 40 39 90 116 123 82 72 81 ~'(248 228 243 71-100-91 34-100-62 32-100-66 1.32 1.20 1.22 6.4 7.1 7.8 1.03 1.05 10.6 14.5 March No flight April May Morning Noon Evening III III III Morning Noon Evening III III III August September II II I No flight June July -- III III III No flight Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I -k12 ANTELOPE HUNTING SEASON No flight October November Morning Noon Evening Note: No flight due to weather ~'c209 25-100 106 -26 I III ~h'c203 21-100-11 118 23 43 II I (*77 unclassified, ** 19 unclassified) No other flights were made, the pilot and airplane were not available. III III 0\ "-.I �Table 2. Aerial census with a fixed-wing airplane on the Moffat County antelope study area, 1963-1964. Month Time Census Conditions Ground Light Air Ante10Ee Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total June - 1963 Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I II II 106 28 43 162 78 157 67 36 52 335 115 252 65-100-41 28-100-12 27-100-33 1.30 1.72 1.82 8.1 5.2 5.0 July Morning Noon Evening III III III I II I I II I 61 75 91 207 71 139 176 40 102 444 186 332 29-100-85 106-100-56 65-100-74 1.02 0.83 0.90 7.8 6.9 6.1 August Morning Noon Evening III III III II II I I II II 105 69 106 256 173 273 193 108 213 554 350 592 41-100-75 40-100-62 39-100-78 1.18 0.88 0.97 11.1 8.1 7.4 September Morning Noon Evening III III III ANTELOPE HUNTING SEASON 68 145 104 317 29 82 53 166 62 118 96 276 47-100-72 35-100-65 53-100-81 1&10 0.93 4.9 5.7 5.8 October Morning Noon Evening III III II I II III No flight 59 28 236 138 116 50 411 25-100-49 ~\-231 20-100-36 *15 Unc l.a ss, 0.88 0.72 12.8 21.0 November Morning Noon Evening III I No flight No flight I 80 330 -- 410 24-100 1.00 22.8 December Morning Noon Evening II II II I I III I I I 67 78 27 311 328 97 ---- 378 406 124 22-100 24-100 28-100 0.92 0.95 0.75 47.2 67.7 31.0 I I I 76 78 93 244 263 257 --- -- 320 341 350 31-100 30-100 36-100 0.80 0.83 0.75 80.0 85.3 87.5 January-1964 February I I 1 I II II Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio Census Time (hours) -- Ave. Herd Size No flights Morning Noon Evening I I I I I I ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0'\ 00 �Table 2. Aerial census with a fixed-wing airplane on the Moffat County antelope study area, 1963-1964 (continued). Month Time March - 1964 Morning Noon Evening Census Conditions Ground Light Air I I I I No flight April No flights May No flights June No flights July Morning Noon Evening III III I I AnteloEe Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total 90 85 240 295 104 147 I I 69 66 II I No flight due to weather Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio 240 380 37-100 29-100 0.73 -- 110.0 190.0 137 50 388 185 71-100-93 96-100-72 0.88 0.68 7.2 6.6 -- . Morning Noon Evening September Morning Noon Evening 112-100-91 414 137 124 I I 153 ~\-251 126-100-88 51 58 I III 73 ~\-69Unc Lass, No flight due to weather ANTELOPE HUNTING SEASON 53-100-61 206 96 59 I I III 51 139-100-113 26 81 23 II I III 32 66-100-63 42 153 67 II III III 44 October Morning Noon Evening III III III II II I Morning Noon Evening I I I I No flight November December III III 75 53 74 199 134 203 Ave. Herd Size -- August I I II Census Time (hours) --- -- 274 187 277 38-100 40-100 36-100 0.93 0.68 6.6 8.7 1.20 0.77 0.80 4.5 2.9 4.6 0.83 0.70 0.73 14.4 15.6 21.3 98.0 0.67 33-100 -196 147 I 49 39.5 0.57 158 --I -(Note: A large group of approximately 125 antelope moved out of the study area) - No flights ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0'\ \.0 �Table 2. Aerial census with a fixed-wing airplane on the Moffat County antelope study area, 1963-1964 (continued)._ Census Conditions Ground Light Air Month Time January-1965 Morning Noon Evening I February Morning Noon Evening March Morning Noon Evening Ante10Ee Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total 53 107 -- 160 Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio Census Time (hours) Ave. Herd Size 50-100 0.57 160.0 III No flight No flight III I I No flight No flight I 40 120 -- 160 30-100 0.63 160.0 III I No flight No flight I 71 83 -- 154 86-100 0.83 51.3 -..j 0 �- 71 - The Beaver and Cessnas had aSide-by-side seating arrangement for the pilot and observer. In the Piper Cub the observer was seated behind the pilot, thus the observer had poor forward visibility, but better side-to-side VLSLon. The Piper Cub was better for census work because it could fly slower and was more maneuverable, whenever situations required these flight characteristics, such as circling large herds. Helicopters had great maneuverability with excellent observer visibility. They were slow in cruise-flight and only had approximately a 2-l/2-hour fuel supply. Fixed-wing aircraft were affected to a greater extent by winds and rough air. They had a faster cruising speed and approximately a 5-l/2-hour fuel supply. Rental costs of the airplanes was $20-25 per hour, the Hughes was $65 per hour, and the Bell was $80 per hour. The Hughes proved to be unsatisfactory due to its flight limitations. Six paired (helicopter: fixed-wing airplane) flights were made in July, October, December, January, and February (Tables 3 and 4). Due to problems in scheduling a helicopter, these flights were generally not on consecutive days. A 24% higher count was obtained with the helicopter in July than the fixed-wing plane. The total counts in December to February were nearly equal, averaging 3% variation between the helicopter and fixed-,wing counts. The fixed-wing flight in October yielded a 23% higher count than the helicopter count. Helicopter counts in all pairs showed less variation between morning, noon, and evening counts; also, there was less variation in the buck:doe:fawn ratios for the helicopter counts than for the fixed-wing counts. The helicopter appeared to be better than the fixed-wing aircraft for counts when the antelope are scattered, or when more accurate sex and age ratio counts are desired. However, the expense of renting a helicopter is several times that for a fixed-wing airplane. The total counts made with a fixed-wing plane on the wintering herds were nearly equal to the helicopter counts. Variation Due to Flight Direction Eight paired flights were made during the months April through August to test the effect of flight direction on the total number of animals counted (Table 5). Higher total counts were obtained on the east-west flights in six of the eight pairs. However, poorer light conditions prevailed on the north-south flights during three of the six pairs, which likely contributed to the lower counts. There were differences in the sex and age ratios, but there did not appear to be a distinct pattern. It would appear, from this small sample, that the direction of flight has little effect on counting accuracy. �- 72 - Table 3. Aerial census conducted on the Larimer County study area comparing helicopter and fixed-wing airplane counts. Census Conditions Ground Light Air Ante10Ee Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio Census Time (hours) Airplane Month Time Fixed-wing July Morning Noon Evening III III III I II III I II II 50 66 22 109 34 45 66 30 34 225 130 101 46-100-61 194-100-88 49-100-76 1.47 L07 1.23 Helicopter July Morning Noon Evening III III III I II II I II II 92 44 63 120 68 99 76 45 57 288 157 219 77-100-63 65-100-66 64-100-58 2.12 2.00 2.03 Fixed-wing Feb. Morning Noon Evening III III No flight No flight II 38 159 197 24-100 L13 Helicopter Feb. Morning Noon Evening III III III I I III I I I 39 59 48 97 134 123 136 193 171 40-100 37-100 39-100 1.32 1.33 1.33 Fixed-wing Mar. Morning Noon Evening III III III I I III I II II 64 52 52 123 139 85 187 191 137 52-100 37-100 61-100 1.25 1.03 1.22 Helicopter Mar. Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I I I 39 63 66 96 150 174 135 213 240 41-100 42-100 40-100 1.78 2.30 1.25 Fixed-wing Nov. Morning Noon Evening No flight III I III I Morning Noon Evening II II No flight No flight Helicopter Dec. " , 26 III 106 *209 25-100 II 43 ll8 23 **203 21-100-ll (*77 Unclassified **19 Unclassified) I 99 189 288 52-100 L03 L05 �- 73 - Table 4. Aerial census on the Moffat fixed-wing airplane counts. County study area comparing helicopter Census Conditions Ground Light Air Ante10ee Counted Bucks Does Fawns Total and Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio Census Time (hours) Aircraft Month Time Fixed-wing July Morning Noon Evening III III III I II I I II I 61 75 91 207 71 139 176 40 102 444 186 332 29-100-85 106-100-56 65-100-74 1.02 0.83 0.90 Helicopter July Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I I I 157 ·104 123 245 172 274 184 133 191 586 409 588 64-100-75 60-100-77 45-100-70 1020 1.50 1.50 Fixed-wing Oct. Ho'rn Lng Noon Evening III III III II II I I I II 75 53 74 199 134 203 274 187 277 38-100 40-100 36-100 0.83 0.70 0.73 Helicopter Oct. Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I I I 61 52 50 98 95 96 214 208 204 62-100-56 55-100-64 52-100-60 1058 Fixed-wing Dec. Morning Noon Evening II II II I I III I I I 67 78 27 311 328 97 378 406 124 22-100 24-100 28-100 0.92 0 95 0.75 Morning Noon Evening III 89 151 70-100 1.35 Helicopter Dec. No flight due to weather III I 62 No flight due to weather 55 61 58 0 Fixed-wing Jan. Morning Noon Evening I III III 53 107 No flight due to weather No flight due to weather 160 50-100 0 57 Helicopter Jan. Morning Noon Evening I I I 416 332 373 28-100 31-100 32-100 0 63 0.62 0.70 I II III I I I 92 78 90 324 254 283 0 0 �- 74 - Table 5. Aerial census on the study areas evaluating variability due to direction flown. Location and Date Direction of Flight Census Conditions Ground Light Air Ante10Ee Counted Buck-Doe-Fawn Bucks Does Fawns Total Ratio Moffat County Aug. , 1965 Aug. , 1966 June, 1967 July, 1967 E-W III I I 77 136 74 287 57-100-54 +'l-S III I I 40 129 68 237 31-100-52 E-W III I I 56 54 42 152 104-100-78 N-S III II I 40 76 54 170 53-100-71 E-W III I I 22 71 41 134 31-100-58 N-S III II I 27 68 15 llO 40-100-22 E-W III I I 23 68 53 144 33-100-77 N-S III I I 18 58 52 128 31-100-89 E-W III III I 32 75 107 43-100 N-S III III I 29 68 97 42-100 E-W III I I 63 168 231 38-100 N-S III III II 14 49 63 29-100 E-W III I II 79 177 68 324 45-100-37 N-S III I I 106 173 77 356 61-100-45 E-W III II I 89 183 135 407 49-100-74 N-S III III I 84 177 122 383 47-100-69 Larimer County May, 1965 April, 1966 Aug. , 1966 Aug. , 1967 �- 75 Sample Trends Trends plotted from the number of antelope counted on the fall surveys in the 60 percent and 40 percent samples resembled the trends plotted for the totaL (100 percent) survey (Fig. 1 and 4). The trends plotted for the 20 percent sample showed greater variance. This was true for both study areas. Trends established for the 60 percent and 40 percent samples from the late winter surveys on the Larimer County study area also closely resembled the trend for the total count; while the 20 percent sample showed only slight variations (Fig. 5). However, all samples taken from the late winter surveys on the Moffat County study area showed extreme variations. Differences between the two areas were due to the distribution of the antelope on the areas. Antelope on the Moffat County area were grouped into one to three very large herds during the winter months, so that most of the antelope were included in the samples or entirely omitted. Antelope on the Larimer County study area were more evenly distributed in smaller herds, thus the sample trends did not show the extreme deviation from the basic trend as found on the other area. Trends plotted for fawn:doe ratios in the 60 percent and 40 percent samples closely resembled the trend for the total survey (Figs. 1 and 3). The trends for the 20 percent sample varied considerably from the other trends. This same pattern occurred for the buck:doe samples in the fall surveys on the Moffat County area (Fig. 2). Only the 40 percent sample in the fall surveys on the Larimer County area resembled the trend for the total area. Trends for all samples in the spring surveys on the Larimer County area varied from the basic trend. Approximately one-third of Colorado is occupied by antelope and censused in its entirety each year. It would be a great money- and time-saver if population trends could be established from samples and flights covering 100 percent of the area made only once every five years. With the reduction of census time required, flights could be made only under ideal conditions, therefore yielding more accurate information. The data presented here indicated trends in population numbers and fawn:doe ratios were reasonably accurate in the 60 and 40 percent samples. This sampling technique did not yield reliable information for buck:doe ratios. Other factors, such as herd distribution, had definite effect on the trends established from samples The data presented here are inadequate and inconclusive. There is a need for detailed research on sampling techniques. Larger study areas should be used for such an investigation. o Ground Surveys The road counts were extremely variable and unpredictable (Tables 6 and 7). In general antelope were most easily seen in the morning or evening and when the skies were clear However, antelope near the road would often run when the vehicle passed by, thus were not recorded on other counts during the same day. It would appear that an observer could gather much better information seeking out known antelope concentrations rather than remaining on established road transects. o Prepared by /4~.v6".<~ George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher �- 76 - 600 --100percen t .--~ 60 " 40 " • _ •• 20 450 II ~ w co ~ :::> Z 300 150 200 v» 150 w o Ca o o 0::: 100 w Q.. rJ) Z ~ -c u, 50 o~----~~~----~~ ~~ 1%3 1%4 1%5 ~ 1%6 ~~_ 1%7 YEAR Fig. 1. Trends in total number of antelope counted and fawn:doe ratios established for various sample sizes using the fall aerial survey data from the Moffat County study area. �- 77 - ,,---.. -- _II r., InII 100 perc en t 60 II 40 " 20 " 1000 800 en , , , , , , , •• ; w o Cl .. , ..I o o ~600 ~ w e, en ~ v :::> lID !J , 400 , , , , 200 OL- ~~~ "h: _ 1963 __~~ III _I;~ 1964 YEAR ~ ~ 1965 1966 ~~1967 Fig. 20 Trends in buck:doe ratios established for various sample sizes using the fall aerial survey data from the Moffat County study area. �- 78 - (400) , ~ , 100 •• 80 V) w 060 o o o •.•... a::: 40 w Q.. V) ~ 100 percent u ::::> co20 .- . 60 40 o (200) t. <fr ~ <!- " ¢ 80 V) " -e w 0 0 0 0 60 0::: W Q.. V) Z 40 , ~ « u; 20 0L-------~19~G~3~----~1~9~6~4------~19~6~5~----~1*9~6~6------il~9~67~ YEAR Fig. 3. Trends in buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios established for various sample sizes using the fall aerial survey data from the Larimer County study area. " II " �- 79 - 100 percen t "'--'--'--_,1/1, 60 " • 40 " 20 " .1, -- •;r 1- ~, 400 300 200 100 O~ __~ • ~~;~\;_' 1963 ~~~------~~--------~~~-~~--~~~I~-~ 1964 196 1966 1967 YEAR Figo 40 Trends in total number of antelope counted established sample 'sizes using the fall aerial survey data from the Larimer areao for various County study �- 80 - 100 ~~, -1_ ..-, ,,---~ 80 ~~ V) 0 £:I ~ ~~ w 60 0 0 •.... ~ ~, ., ,~ 0::: W e, 40 V) ~ U :::> co 20 " , ,,, " .•, ,. '4_."- ., , ~ 20 - 100 percent 60 " 40 " ..f , / # -¢ V"# , "* ~~. 0 250 50 YEAR Fig. 5. Trends in total number of antelope counted and buck:doe ratios established for various sample sizes using the spring aerial survey data from the Larimer County study area. �Table 6. Road counts on the Larimer County antelope study area, 1963-1965. Ante10Ee Counted Does Fawns Unc1ass. Month Time Census Conditions Light Road Ground June 1963 Morning Noon Evening III III III III II III II II II --- Morning Noon Evening III III III I I II I I I 1 1 4 1 7 2 No antelope observed -- Morning Noon Evening III III III II I III I I I 11 --- -- Morning Noon Evening III III III I I II I I I 4 10 1 July August September Bucks 4 4 -4 2 19 . 1 -- -- -- -- -- 8 2 -- -- 7 4 -- 20 25 13 12 9 5 -- 4 7 -- Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio 0-100-25 5 4 6 50-100-0 8 10 25-100-25 14-100-29 38 4 11 58-100-42 43 44 19 25-100-60 40-100-36 8-100-38 - 0-100-60 00 t-' October No counts November Morning Noon Evening III III III December Morning Noon Evening III II I I I I 9 5 2 No counts III III I I I I No antelope observed No antelope observed January 1964 Morning Noon Evening III III III II I I I I I No antelope observed No antelope observed No antelope observed February No counts I II III I I I 5 26 -No antelope observed No antelope observed March April Morning Noon Evening III III III 34 26 4 11 8 2 17 23 14 71 62 22 24-100-32 19-100-31 50-100-50 26 57 19-100-0 No counts -------------.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 6. Road counts on the Larimer County antelope study area, 1963-1965 (continued). Month Time Census Conditions Ground Light Road May 1964 Morning Noon Evening III III III II I I .II II II Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I I I 2 No antelope observed 1 5 -- Morning Noon Evening III III III III II II I I I -- Morning Noon Evening III III III I II III I I I -- _.- June July August September October November Bucks 4 -- 7 Antelope Counted Does Fawns Unc1ass. 8 3 10 1 9 3 6 -4 Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio 5 1.3 3 22 70-100 -- 3 50-100 -- 6 20-100 8 10 10 0-100-40 900-100-0 150-100-0 29 5 14 37-100-44 0-100-25 80-100-40 --- -- -- - 1 5 1 2 2 1 -- -- -- 5 16 4 5 7 1 2 --- 3 50-100 00 N No counts Morning Noon Evening III III III III III II II II II 5 2 7 19 10 13 10 8 5 -- Morning Noon Evening II III III I I I II II I 5 -- 24 9 39 15 3 12 II I I I I I December No counts January 1965 Morning Noon Evening III III III 17 2 -4 No antelope observed No antelope observed -- 34 20 25 26-100-53 20-100-80 54-100-38 -2 49 12 70 21-100-63 0-100-33 44-100-31 -- 6 50-100-0 -- -- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 6. Road counts on the Larimer County antelope study area, 1963-1965 (continued). Census Conditions Ground Light Road Bucks February 1965 Morning Noon Evening III III III III II II I I I No antelope observed No antelope observed ---- March III III I I I I No antelope observed No antelope observed Month April Time Morning Noon Evening No count No counts Anteloj2e Counted Does Fawns Unclass. 5 Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio 5 00 w �Table 7. Road counts on the Moffat County antelope study area, 1963-1964. Ante10Ee Counted Fawns Unc1ass. Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio 121 74 106 32-100-28 33-100-43 18-100-21 170 73 136 65-100-75 36-100-19 47-100-59 212 65 110 43-100-59 42-100-35 36-100-72 2 29 15 29 44-100-31 63-100-25 58-100-67 4 -- 20 60-100-40 10 6 36 11-100-55 No antelope observed 1 6 6 No antelope observed -- 13 17-100-100 III I II II I I II II No antelope observed 58 58 Month Time Census Conditions Road Ground Light Bucks Does June 1963 Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I II II II 24 14 14 76 42 76 21 18 16 -- Morning Noon Evening III III III I II I II II II 46 17 31 71 47 66 53 9 39 -- Morning Noon Evening III III III III 40 13 19 93 31 53 55 11 38 24 10 III I I I Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I I I 7 5 7 16 8 12 5 2 8 -- Morning Noon Evening III III No counts III I I 6 10 I 2 18 Morning Noon Evening III III III III Morning Noon II II July August September October November December I I January 1964 No counts, roads closed by snow February No counts, roads closed by snow March No counts, roads closed by snow -- -- -- -- --- -- -1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 00 ~ �Table 7. Month Road counts on the Moffat County antelope study area, 1963-1964 (continued). Time Census Conditions Light Road Ground April 1964 No counts May No counts Bucks Ante10ee Counted Does Fawns Unc1ass. Total Buck-Doe-Fawn Ratio 71 33 81 54-100-22 24-100-33 56-100-:06 77 167 32-100-94 80-100-53 Morning Noon Evening III III III 1I I II II II II 25 5 28 46 21 50 10 7 3 Morning Noon Evening III III No count I I I I 11 56 34 70 32 37 August Morning Noon Evening III III No count I I I I 31 2 56 14 37 11 2 6 126 33 55-100-66 14-100-79 September Hor nLng III No count III I I 3 1 -- -- 4 300-100-0 Noon Evening I I 6 8 2 4 20 75-100-25 Morning Noon Evening III III III I I I I I I 38 10 24 51 19 32 43 13 34 -- 132 42 90 75-100-84 53-100-68 75-100-106 June July October Note: -- --- -- 4 00 \.Jl --- Additional counts could not be made due to snowfall on the area, which closed the roads. ��- 87 - January, 1970 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-40-R-10 Antelope Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title: Techniques Period Covered: April 1, 1963 to April 30, 1969 Personnel: for Determining Investigations 13 Population Trends George D. Bear ABSTRACT Present census methods can yield accurate information for antelope population trends. There appears to be little need for complex formulas as used in deer and elk population studies. Basic trend data for the study areas is presented in Jobs 11 and 12 of this project. ��- 89 - TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING POPULATION TRENDS George D. Bear P ..S. OBJECTIVE Determine the most effective technique for determining population trends. during a five-year period METHODS AND MATERIALS Establish population trends for data collected under Jobs 11 and 12. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The basic trend of the populations on the study areas as related to hunter harvest is presented in Job 11 (Herd Structure and Factors Affecting Herd Structure) of this project. Trends as related to 20, 40, and 60 percent sample sizes is discussed in the report for Job 12 (Antelope Census) of this project. Complex population formulas as used in deer and elk population studies are not needed for antelope. Application of Kelker1s and Eberhardt1s formulas resulted in very unrealistic population estimates (Segment 5 report for this project). Antelope occupy open rangelands and aerial surveys conducted under the proper conditions and at the proper times can yield accurate information on population trends without adjustments by using formulas. Prepared by --::-,,-..:...~_;_v·'~f-_-...:4:.!::...-·.~~£.Z...·_~~ G~orge ~Bear ~ Wildlife Researcher _ ��January, - 91 - 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~OL~ORA~D~O~ Project No. W-40-R-10 Antelope Work Plan No. 2 Job No. Job Title: Investigations 2 Food Habits of Antelope Period Covered: Personnel: _ May 1, 1968 to April 30, 1969 George D. Bear and Jerry Robinson ABSTRACT Analysis of individual antelope rumen samples has been completed. Plant species in each sample have been identified and weights determined. Percent composition has been determined for each plant species occurring on the vegetation surveys. These data need to be grouped according to the seasons of the year for final analysis, and the vegetation survey data related to the rumen analysis data. Graphs have been prepared showing daily and seasonal variations in antelope feeding patterns. ��- 93 - FOOD HABITS OF ANTELOPE George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine antelope forage preferences and use. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Complete analysis of rumen samples and vegetation 2. Prepare manuscripts. surveys. METHODS AND MATERIALS A detailed description of the procedures for collecting data was presented in segment report W-40-R-9 for this job (Colorado Game Research Report, January 1969). DESCRIPTION A detailed job. description was presented OF AREA in segment report W-40-R-9 for this RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Rumen samples were taken from antelope systematically collected on study areas in Moffat and Saguache counties from 1965 to 1967. Additional samples were collected from antelope harvested on study areas by hunters. The rumen samples have been sorted, the individual plant species identified, and the weight of each species determined for each rumen sample. Vegetation surveys were conducted on the study areas during the collecting periods to detennine the plants available to the antelope. Percent composition has been computed for each plant species on each survey. These data still need to be compiled into seasonal trends based on plant growing periods, and the rumen sample data related to the vegetation survey data. Observations on antelope feeding behavior have been compiled and graphs constructed showing daily and seasonal variations in feeding patterns. A manuscript for the Journal of Wildlife Management is pending final analysis of the data. Prepared by George -if.iear Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��January, - 95 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-40-R-10 Antelope Work Plan No. 2 Job No. Job Title: Physiological Period Covered: Personnel: Investigations 3 Studies May 1, 1968 to April 30, 1969 George D. Bear ABSTRACT Physiological and morphological data were obtained from 58 pronghorn antelope collected on two study areas from June, 1965 to April, 1968. A manuscript titled "Seasonal trends in fat levels for pronghorn antelope in Colorado" has been prepared to submit to the Journal of Mammology for publication. The remainder of the data will be prepared for publication during the next work segment. 1970 ��- 97 - PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish and season. physiological and morphological norms for antelope by sex, age, SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Analyze data collected in segments METHODS 7, 8, and 9 and prepare manuscripts. AND MATERIALS A detailed description of the procedures for collecting data was presented in segment report W-40-R-7 for this job (Colorado Game Research Report, January, 1967, Part 1). DESCRIPTION OF AREA Detailed descriptions were presented in two previous progress reports for this job; W-40-R-7 and W-40-R-8 (Colorado Game Research Report, January, 1968, Part 1). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physiological and morphological data were collected from 58 antelope collected on the study areas during the period from June, 1965 to April, 1968. Only the data on body fat levels have been analyzed. A manuscript titled "Seasonal trends in fat levels for pronghorn antelope in Colorado" has been prepared and submitted to the Journal of Mammalogy for publication. This paper discusses the seasonal trends of visceral fat, kidney fat index, thoracic fat, rump fat, and bone marrow fat for buck and doe antelope. The remainder of the data collected in this job will be prepared for publication during the next work segment. Prepared by _--"'=~_-f.~~_--...:<fJ,:::........' _~=: ..:..... _=_ G~~. Bear Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��Jan~ary, - 99 - 1970 JOB FINAL REPORT State No. W-40-R-10 Antelope Plan No. 2 Job No. Project Work COLORADO of Investigations 5 Job Title Evaluation of Structures Placed in Net Wire Fences to Facilitate Antelope Movements Period May 1, 1967 to April Covered: Personnel: George 30, 1969 D. Bear ABSTRACT Several types of crossing devices were constructed in net-wire fences and their use by antelope evaluated under natural conditions on rangelands in northwestern Colorado. The following types of structures were evaluated: Paul's pass, Antelope pass, Powder River pass, and a section of fence measuring 32 inches in total height. Antelope passes evaluated in 1967 measured four feet by four feet. Antelope use was nearly doubled by placing this pass in an artificial corner or offset. Nineteen percent of the domestic sheep that approached this pass crossed it, while 58 percent of the antelope crossed it. In 1968 the dimensions of these passes were increased to six feet by six feet; antelope usage dropped to three percent, and no sheep crossed these larger structures. Neither antelope nor livestock crossed the Powder River passes. Usage of Paul's pass by all classes of animals was very low, less than five percent. Adult and yearling antelope readily crossed the 32-inch fence; and many fawns started crossing it by September. Observations in this study indicated that this type of fence is adequate to contain livestock under normal conditions on the open range. ��- 101 - EVALUATION OF STRUCTURES PLACED IN NET WIRE FENCES TO FACILITATE ANTELOPE MOVEMENTS George D. Bear New concepts in range management practices have greatly increased the number of fences bisecting rangelands occupied by pronghorn antelope. Antelope readily crawl under barbed wire fences constructed on cattle ranges. However, most net wire fences constructed on sheep ranges are effective barriers to antelope movements. Construction of numerous sheep-tight fences approximately 42-44 inches high in northwestern Colorado during 1964 caused concern among local sportsmen. Antelope were seen walking along these fences seeking new travel routes to formerly used waterholes and wintering grounds. Many animals became entangled in fences when attempting to force their way under or to jump across. Intensive studies on antelope and various fence types has been in progress in Wyoming since 1963. Therefore, Wyoming personnel were consulted on the problem before the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks and the Bureau of Land Management in Colorado began a study to evaluate various types of structures placed in sheep-tight fences to facilitate antelope movements. The study was conducted in two localities in northwestern Colorado; near Sunbeam along the Yampa River and near Great Divide along the Little Snake River. Both areas are characterized by rolling terrain and a shrub overstory (sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata and bitterbrush, Purshia tridentata). Annual precipitation is approximately eight inches. Antelope in these areas make short migrations, approximately 10 miles, between summering and wintering grounds, and also group-up along the river and permanent waterholes during the latter part of the summer. P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate structures installed in sheep-tight fences as a means free movement of antelope through net wire fences. for permitting The following report was presented at the Western Association of Game and Fish Commissioners; June 28, 1969. These data were also published in the following: - 1968 Proceedings of the Third Biennial Workshop, pp. 15-22. Antelope States - Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division, Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leaflet Number 71 (in print). �- 102 METlJODS AND MATERIALS Construction Several types of crossing devices were constructed in net-wire fences and evaluated under natural conditions on open rangelands. Paul's pass was designed by Paul Applegate of the Bureau of Land Management. It was a rectangular pen 50 feet across and 100 feet long constructed in the fenceline (Fig. 1). Periphery of the pass was constructed with a three-strand barbed wire fence. The fence bisecting the center of the enclosed area (on the same plane as the original fence) was 26-inch woven wire. The theory for constructing this type of structure is that the outer barbed wire fence will prohibit movement of cattle, but will allow the antelope to crawl under. Then the inner fence (26-inch net wire) will prohibit the movement of sheep, but is of a minimum height to permit antelope to cross over it. The other type of crossing devices resembled minature catt1eguards. The antelope pass was constructed of 1-inch steel bar. Due to the light construction of these passes, they were limited to 4 feet widths to prevent vehicles from crossing over them. The first passes evaluated in 1967 measured 4 feet by 4 feet. The pass was set on a pair of railroad ties which elevated it approximately 6 inches off the ground. One-half of the passes were merely inserted in the fenceline, the others were placed in offsets constructed in the fence1ine (Fig. 2). This was done by placing a 90 degree turn in the fence and running this leg of the fence out for 25 feet, then angling it back toward the original fence1ine. An antelope pass was then placed in the center of the 25-foot leg of the offset. In 1968, the dimensions of the passes were increased to 6 feet by 6 feet, and they were elevated to 16 inches off the ground. Also, all passes in 1968 were placed in offsets. In addition to these newly installed structures, two "Powder River" passes and a.section of 32-inch fence, which had been installed about one year in advance, were included in the study. The Powder River passes were made by cutting a standard cattleguard in half, thus giving a minature cattleguard measuring 4 feet wide and 6 feet long. This structure was placed in the fenceline over a two-foot deep pit. These passes were installed in the 32-inch fence. The fence was constructed with a 26-inch net wire placed 2 inches above the ground and a strand of barbed wire placed 4 inches over the woven wire. It paralleled the Yampa River for approximately 4 miles, blocking the routes normally used by antelope which watered at the river during the summer months. Evaluation of Structures Movement of antelope and livestock around the structures and the 32-inch fence was determined by track counts and by direct observations during the period between May 1 and November 1, in both 1967 and 1968. The structures �- 103 - were built on graded or cleared areas, which facilitated the track counts. Four track counts, with two-day intervals between counts, were made during each month. The tracks were erased with a garden rake following each count. During dry periods water was hauled to the areas and the soil moistened by using a portable pump. This technique maintained a better tracking surface. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Antelope Pass The smaller antelope passes constructed in 1967 were a better type of structure for permitting antelope across the fencelin~. The percentage of animals crossing this type of structure was nearly doubled by placing it in an artificial corner or offset. Of the antelope approaching the pass placed in the offset, 58 percent crossed, while only 30 percent crossed the pass placed in the straight fenceline (Table 1). Nineteen percent of the domestic sheep crossed the pass in the offset, and eight percent crossed the pass set in the straight fenceline. No cattle crossed the antelope passes in the fence line , and three percent (a calf and a yearling) crossed the passes placed in an offset. Modifications made on the antelope pass in 1968 greatly reduced the percenta.ge of animals crossing over the pass. The dimensions were increased and the passes raised to 16 inches off the ground in an effort to reduce the number of livestock crossing the passes. Only one percent of the antelope crossed these new passes, and no livestock crossed. Paul's Pass and Powder River Pass Use of the Paul's and Powder River passes was very low during both years of the study. No livestock or antelope were known to use the Powder River passes. Cattle and horses did not cross the Paul's passes. In 1967, two percent of the antelope crossed the fenceline using this type of structure, and three percent crossed in 1968. One percent of the sheep crossed through the Paul's passes during both years. The percentage of antelope entering the outer barbed wire fence, but not crossing the center fence, increased from three percent in 1967 to 10 percent in 1968; while SO percent of the sheep entered the outer exclosure in 1967 and 18 percent in 1968. The 32-inch Fence Adult and yearling antelope readily crossed the 32-inch fence. A total of 76 adult and yearling animals were observed to approach the fence; 74 of these jumped across. During July and August, the fawns would follow the adults to the fence, then run frantically along the fence after the older animals crossed, but would not attempt to cross. On several occasions does were observed to jump back and forth across the fence several times as if trying to coax their fawns across. In October, 42 percent of the fawns were observed jumping across the fence (Table 2). Cattle were observed moving along this fence on many occasions; none of them attempted to jump across. �\""" \ \ \ \ , ' - 104 - (f) - IL \ (l) -0 Cd) <..'~ o (]) O,;~ -~ . (\.I �- 105 Table 1. Antelope and livestock movement around and across the various types of structures. Type of Structure, Year and Species Number of Attempts Number Crossing Percent Crossing AnteloEe 1967 Antelope Pass in offset Antelope Pass Paul's Pass Powder River Pass 66 30 100 206 38 39 2 0 58 30 2 0 1968 Antelope Pass in offset Paul's Pass Powder River Pass 200 250 60 1 7 0 1 3 0 SheeE 1967 Antelope Pass in offset Antelope Pass Paul's Pass Powder River Pass 370 285 360 0 70 24 5 0 19 8 1 0 1968 Antelope Pass in offset Paul's Pass Powder River Pass 339 981 35 0 1 0 0 1 0 Cattle 1967 Antelope Pass in offset Antelope Pass Paul's Pass Powder River Pass 74 53 138 11 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1968 Antelope Pass in offset Paul's Pass Powder River Pass 202 135 123 0 0 0 0 4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 Horses 1967 - No Observations 1968 Antelope Pass in offset Paul's Pass �- 106 - Table 2. Colorado. Observations of anteldpe Number Crossing Bucks Does Fawns Date crossing the 32-inch fence near Sunbeam, Number not Crossing Bucks Does Fawns Percent Crossing Does Fawns Bucks July 28-30 7 10 0 1 0 12 88 100 0 August 26 1 11 0 0 0 6 100 100 0 September 17 0 1 0 0 0 0 October 15-20 6 38 15 0 1 20 100 100 97 42 Spi11et, et a1. (1967) concluded from their work in Wyoming that the following fence types appeared to offer t~e best possibilities for least interference with. antelope movements· and yet provide for sheep management: (a) 32'-inch net wire fence; (b) 26-inch net and barbed wire 4 inches above it; (c) standard cattleguards. They stated, "A fence 32 inches high is apparently the maximum that most antelope will readily cross. Standard cattleguards will satisfactorily permit the movement of adult and yearling antelope if they are placed so that they can be readily located. A corner location for cattleguards is more readily found and crossed by antelope" .. Here in Colorado, we found that the use of artificial corners (offsets) increased the use of the antelope passes. However, our findings differ from those of the Wyoming study in that antelope did not readily cross a 6-foot cattleguard or antelope pass. Approximately 60 percent of the antelope crossed a 4-foot pass, but only one percent crossed the passes when they were increased to 6 feet. If adult animals are hesitant to cross these structures, the fawns will be less likely to use them. The 4-foot passes were not satisfactory for preventing livestock movements across them. Spillet, et al. (1967) recommended the use of a fence not exceeding 32 inches in height. Data from our study indicated that this type of fence was acceptable for yearling and adult animals. Fawns started crossing this fence by October. It would appear that fawns may readily cross this fence by December when the winter migration starts. It is believed that a 32-inch fence on antelope ranges would provide less interference to antelope movements than a higher fence with antelope passes installed in it. Observations in this study indicated that this type of fence is adequate to contain livestock under normal conditions on the open range. The study in Wyoming found that the 32-inch fence was adequate for sheep managment. Sundstrom (1968), in his study on water consumption by antelope, found that fawns had started taking water by August. Ther~fore, water developments should be made in an area prior to, or at the time of, fence construction to provide the fawns with water until they learn to cross the fence. �- 107 - Paul's pass received very little use; however, it should be further evaluated. There was a noticeable increase of activity around these passes the second year. The percentage of antelope entering the outer barbed wire exclosure increased from three to ten percent. Antelope may more readily accept a structure varying from this basic design. It should be tested in fenced areas where it is not essential for antelope to migrate semi-annually, thus permitting them to become accustomed to the structure. At the present time, there does not appear to be a clear-cut solution for getting antelope across livestock fences. Apparently there are regional differences in antelope accepting various types of crossing structures and fences. Rouse (1962) found antelope in Carter County, Montana, had learned to jump fences and experienced no difficulty in clearing fences up to 45 inches in height. Reports by Spillet, et al. (1967) and Zobell (1968) indicate antelope in central Wyoming more readily cross horizontal barriers than antelope on the Colorado study area did. It presently appears that a 32-inch maximum height on net wire fences with proper water developments may partially alleviate the problem in northwestern Colorado. LITERATURE Rouse, C. H. Antelope CITED 1962. Antelope and sheep fences. Conference. pp. 45-47. Trans. 1962 Interstate Spillet, J. J., J. B. Low, and D. Sill. 1967. Livestock fences -- how they influence pronghorn antelope movements. Utah State Univ. Agri. Exper. Sta. Bull. No. 470. 79 pp. Sundstrom, C. 1968. Water consumption tion related to water in Wyoming's States Workshop. pp. 39-46. Zobell, R. Trans. Prepared by pronghorn Red Desert. antelope and distribuProc. 3rd Antelope 1968. Field studies of antelope movements on fence ranges. 33rd North American ,:,rildlife Conference. pp , 211-217. by George D .,CSear Wildlife Researcher ��- 109 - January, 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO .----~~~~~~----------- Project No. W-105-R-9 ------------------------ Work Plan No., Job Title: 4 _ An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado Job No., l~(_E_i~g_ht_h __Y_e_a_r~) Population Density and Structure Period Covered: March 1, 1968 to February 28, 1969 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson _ �- 110 - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Allen E. Anderson p. S. OBJECTIVES I. Estimate population density on each of five selected study locations \ be Li.eved to be representative of the lower-winter, middle-winter, upper-winter, transitional, and summer ranges of the herd to: (a) relate density to changing environmental conditions (Work Plan 3, Jobs 1 and 3), and (b) elucidate density-elevational relationships, particularly between years. " 2. Estimate sex and age structure (composition) vide basic information on herd dynamics. SEGMENT of the population OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected literature, and prepare manuscripts for publication. RESULTS to pro- data, review recent AND DISCUSSION Progress Estimation of herd structure and population densities on selected areas was completed prior to June 1, 1965. The manuscript "Frequency distributions of mule deer fecal group counts" (D. C. Bowden, A. E. Anderson, and Do E. Medin) was tentatively accepted by the Journal of Wildlife Management for publication in late 1969. A computer program was written and preliminary analyses of 33 site factor variables related to cumulative counts of mule deer fecal groups, 1961-65, were initiated. Analyses of herd structure samples - time - weather relationships were underway as Segment 9 ended. Future Complete analyses Prepared by: during Segment albA/C', ~~?1./1 Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher Plans 10 and begin preparation of final manuscripts. �January, 1970 - III - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO .------~~~~---------An Ecological Investigation of the Project Noo W__-_10_5_-_R_-_9 Work Plan No.__~~5---- __---------Job Title: Job Noo 1 (Eighth Year) ---------------------------- Physical Characteristics Period Covered: Personnel: . Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado _ March 1, 1968 to February 28, 1969 Allen E. Anderson �- 112 - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Allen E. Anderson Pg Sg OBJECTIVE Measure relevant physiological and morphological characteristics of deer collected seasonally so that: (a) the response of the herd to its environment can be more adequately interpreted, (b) establish "physiological norms", and (c) provide basic morphological data as related to sex and age classes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Physiological and morphological studies on four deer collected each month, 1961-1965, were completed April 27, 1965. The number totaled 192 regular collections plus 33 from supplementary sources. Compilation and tabulation of the many thousands of data entries has been completed. Card punching, selection of appropriate statistical applications, computer programming, interpretation, and final literature review remain to be completed. A manuscript, "Erythrocytes and leukocytes in a Colorado mule deer population" (A. E. Anderson, D. E. Medin, D. C. Bowden) was completed and submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management. Two manuscripts, "Efficient sectioning of incisors for estimating ages of mule deer" (J. A. Erickson and W. A. Seliger) and "Antler morphometry in a Colorado mule deer population" (A. E. Anderson and D. E. Medin) were accepted by the Journal of Wildlife Management and will appear in the April, 1969, and July, 1969 issues, respectively. The manuscript "Estimating age in mule deer - a comparison of methods" (J. A. Erickson, A. E. Anderson, and D. E. Medin) was being revised for resubmission to the Journal of Wildlife Management as Segment 9 ended. The manuscript "Antler phenology in a Colorado mule deer population" (A. E. Anderson and D. Eo Medin) was submitted to the Journal of Mammalogy. About 1,500 relevant references were added to the project bibliographical files. Future Plans Blood and tissue chemistry data will be related to several environmental variables. Planning of analyses, selection of variables, and tabulation of these data for transfer to computer punch cards will begin during the first half of Segment 10. Similar activity relative to external body measurements and all organ and gland data will occupy the second half of Segment 10. The extensive review of pertinent literature will continue with more effort being expended on unpublished material. Prepared ?:~>~ by ~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher �January, 1970 - 113 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project Noo __-_l_0_5-_R_-_9 W Work Plan No. 5 ----~----------------- Job Title: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado Job NOo 2~(~E_i~g~h_t_h_Y_e_a_r~) Reproductive Studies Period Covered: Personnel: _ March 1, 1968 to February· 28, 1969 Allen E. Anderson _ �- 114 - REPRODUCTIVE STUDIES Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the reproductive pattern of the deer herd to provide data on: (a) morphology of the reproductive organs as related to age and season, (b) gross and net productivity between years, and (c) tentatively, the relationship of productivity to measured factors of the environment (Work Plan 3). SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Reproductive data gathering from collected deer was completed April 27, 1965 Ovarian collections from hunter killed deer were completed with the 1964 hunting season. Most of the data have been compiled and tabulated. Selection of appropriate statistical applications, interpretations, and final manuscript writing remain to be completed. General job status is that of mid-analysis. The following thesis was completed; Markwald, R. R. 1968. Histological and histochemical study of testicular periodicity in mule deer. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 165 p. 0 Future Plans Place data on computer Prepared by cards and initiate analyses e~ ~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher o �- ll5 - January, 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project Noo W__-_10_5_-_R_-_9 Work Plan No. Job Title: ~5 _ An Ecological Investigation of the Cache 1a Poudre Deer Herd Colorado Job Noo 3 (Eighth Year) --------~~--------~-------- Harvest Analysis Period Covered: Personnel: _ March 1, 1968 to February 28, 1969 Allen E. Anderson �- 116 - HARVEST ANALYSIS Allen E. Anderson p. So OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the age structure of the deer herd kill to provide estimates of (a) net productivity (percent female yearlings in the kill), and (b) the effects of hunting regulations. 2. Locate the distribution of the kill by sub-unit to relate age and sex structure of the kill to elevational levels and harvest intensity. 3. Measure relevant physical characteristics of the kill to provide a possible index of herd response to winter food quality. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Check station sampling of the fall harvest was completed with the 1965 hunting season. Collected data have been tabulated and statistical treatment has been completed. Most of the literature has been reviewed. Objective 3 has been met in the Work Plan 5, Job 1 Manuscript to be published in the Journal of Wildlife Management in 1969 entitled: "Antler morphometry in a Colorado mule deer population" (A. E. Anderson, D. E. Medin). Prepared by r2do?V e U?412.'VJ4(Tlr./ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher �- 117 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------------~------------ Project No W_-_l_0_5_-_R_-_l_0_ o Work Plan No. 4 ----~---------------- Job Title: Period Covered: Personnel: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado Job NOo l Population bensity and Structure March 1, 1969 to February 28, 1970 Allen E. Anderson (~N_i_n_t_h __Y_ea __r~) _ �- 118 POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate population density on each of five selected study locations believed to be representative of the lower-winter, middle-winter, upper-winter,transitional, and summer ranges of the herd to: (a) relate density to changing environmental conditions (Work Plan 3, Jobs 1 and 3), and (b) elucidate density-elevational relationships, particularly 2. between years. Estimate sex and age structure (composition) vide basic information on herd dynamics. SEGMENT of the population OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected literature, and prepare manuscripts for publication. RESULTS to pro- data, review recent AND DISCUSSION Progress Estimation of herd structure and population densities on selected areas was completed prior to June 1, 1965. Analyses of herd structure samples-timeweather relationships were essentially completed as Segment 10 ended. Publications: Bowden, D. C., A. E. Anderson, and D. E. Medin. 1969. Frequency distributions of mule deer fecal group counts. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(4):895-905. Manuscripts in preparation: Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Mule deer fecal group counts related to site factors on winter range. Manuscripts submitted: None Future Plans Complete and submit final manuscripts for the Journal ment and the Journal of Range Management. Prepared by E" {:;~r<£[(!jz.4-Cyt..../ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher u--i:?-i!P-:>(../ of Wildlife Manage- �- 119 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO .------~~~~---------An Ecological Investigation of the W_-_l_0_5_-~R---l-0----~--Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado Project NOo Work Plan No Job Title: 5 e Job NOo l~(~N_i_n_t_h_Y_e_a_r_)~----------- Physical Characteristics ----------------------------------------------------------- Period Covered: Personnel: _ March 1, 1969 to February 28, 1970 Allen E. Anderson ��- 121 - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Measure relevant physiological and morphological characteristics of deer collected seasonally so that: (a) the response of the herd to its environment can be more adequately interpreted, (b) establish "physiological norms", and (c) provide basic morphological data as related to sex and age classes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Physiological and morphological studies on four deer collected each month, 1961-1965, were completed April 27, 1965. The number totaled 192 regular collections plus 33 from supplementary sources. All data were placed on punch-cards and preliminary analyses of blood and tissue chemistry data were underway as the Segment ended. The review of literature was continued and about 500 references were obtained for project files during Segment 10. Publications: Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. P. Ochs. 1969. Relationships of carcass fat indices in 18 wintering mule deer. Proc. Annu. Conf. Western Assoc: State Game and Fish Commissioners. Erickson, J. A., and W. G. Seliger. 1969. Efficient sectioning of incisors for estimating ages of mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(2):384-388. Manuscripts in preparation: Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1970. Vitamin A in the liver and blood of mule deer. A.A.A.S. and New Mexico Acad. Science, 46th Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, New Mexico. April 22-25. Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Temporal fluctuations in blood serum electrolytes and protein in a mule deer population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. in adrenal ascorbic acid and adrenal weight J. Mammalogy. 1970. Temporal variation in a mule deer population. �- 122 - Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Temporal variation of vitamin A in the blood and liver of a mule deer population. J. Marrnnalogy. Nicolls, K. E. 1970. Cytometry and volumetry of acidophil cells in the hypophysis cerebri pars distalis of Colorado mule deer (odocoileus hemionus hemionus) relative to seasons of the photo period and antler cycles. Z. fur Zellforsch. und Mikros. Anat. Roughton, R. D. 1970. Manuscripts Age structure in browse populations. Ecology. submitted: Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1970. Antler phenology of a Colorado mule deer population. Southwestern Nat. 15(2 or 3). (Accepted). Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1970. Erythrocytes and leukocytes in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2). (Accepted). Erickson, J. E., A. E. Anderson, D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Estimating age in mule deer-comparison of techniques. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(3). (Accepted). Future Plans Complete and submit final manuscripts Prepared by (;;-;.i.£~/c/ E ~,:., Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher to appropriate ~.Jc-1-/ Journals. �- 123 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO .-------~~~~---------An Ecological Investigation Project No. W-105-R-10 ----------------------- of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado Job No ., 2 <.;..N_i_n_t_h Y_e_a_r.:-.) Work Plan No., ~-5-- __---__-------- Job Title: Reproductive Studies Period Covered: March 1, 1969 to February 28, 1970 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson _ �- 124 - REPRODUCTIVE STUDIES Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the reproductive pattern of the deer herd to provide data on: (a) morphology of the reproductive organs as related to age and season, (b) gross and net productivity between years, and (c) tentatively, the relationship of productivity to measured factors of the environment (Work Plan 3). SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Reproductive data gathering from collected deer was completed April 27, 1965. Ovarian collections from hunter killed deer were completed with the 1964 hunting season. Most of the data have been compiled and tabulated. Publications: None Manuscripts in preparation: Manuscripts submitted: None None Future Plans Place data on computer cards and initiate analyses. Prepared by Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher �- 125 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO --------------------------- State of Project Noo Work Plan Noo, Job Title: W__-_lO_5_-_R_-_l_0 ~5----__----------- _ An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd. Colorado Job Noo, 3~(~N~i~n_t~h~Y~e~a~r~) Harvest Analysis Period Covered: March 1, 1969 to February' 28, 1970 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson _ �- 126 - HARVEST ANALYSIS Allen E. Anderson p. S. OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the age structure of the deer herd kill to provide estimates of (a) net productivity (percent female yearlings in the kill), and (b) the effects of hunting regulations. 2. Locate the distribution of the kill by sub-unit to relate age and sex structure of the kill to elevational levels and harvest intensityo 3 Measure relevant physical characteristics possible index of herd response to winter 0 of the kill to provide food quality. a RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Check station sampling of the fall harvest was completed with the 1965 hunting season. Collected data have been tabulated and statistical treatment has been completed. Most of the literature has been reviewedo Pub lications: Anderson, Ao Eo, and D. Eo Medin. 1969. Antler morphometry in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildlo Mgmt. 33(3):520-533 0 Manuscripts in preparation: Manuscripts submitted: None None Future Plans Incorporate findings relative to Objectives 1 and 2 in a Department Reporto The first draft will be completed during Segment 110 Prepared by ( ~7(/ E ~0~f'/!<f-2-r.J Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher Special � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/7cef6c9dba1b5621cc807c0caf493609.pdf c2dbd6d653418509be23a1de37087f5f PDF Text Text April 1970 - 1 - JOB PROGRESS State COLORADO of No. W-37-R-23 Game Bird Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Work REPORT Job Title: Period Summarization Covered: April and Publication 1, 1969 through Survey 12 of Pheasant March Research Findings 31, 1970 P. S. OBJECTIVE To publish pheasant management and research SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. findings in Colorado. OBJECTIVES To assemble and compile all pheasant data pertinent to the manuscript. To make a list of all photographs that will appear in the manuscript. To extract and compute all necessary file data for completing tables and figures. To secure photographs for the manuscript (not currently available) 0 METHODS Methods and materials were AND MATERIALS described RESULTS in previous segment reports. AND DISCUSSION Wayne W. Sa nd f or t and Harold M. Swope, formerly connected with the job, were assigned to new duties during the segment. Therefore, no work was accomplished on the job. Other W-37-R personnel will be assigned to complete the work in Segment 24. .:\( Prepared by (-, 7 /. ~\~"~,~. _'~L(~.~'~.1~(_'_·~.:_7~~._·<_ ..=~_J_'~~~' .. ~. Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research _ ��April 1970 - 3 - JOB FINAL State COLORADO of No. W-37-R-23 Game Bird Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Work REPORT Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Pheasant Hen Harvest Survey 14 Investigation April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Warren D. Snyder ABSTRACT Ring-necked pheasant populations were censused along with collection of environmental and harvest data on two large study areas in Northeast Colorado from 1963 through 1968. The purpose of the study, experimental hen harvest evaluation, was not enacted due to public and political pressures. However, much supplemental information was obtained. Analysis showed that the birds-per-mile index obtained during late-summer production counts was a better indicator of population level and trend than the previously used fall population index. A new fall index, CY, multiplying the crowing index times the young-per-hen, was found to be equal to the birds-per-mile index in quality (r = .97**). This would eliminate the need for winter or spring sex ratio counts when hens are not included in legal harvest. A close relationship was found between the young-per-hen index and the percentage of hens with broods (r = .95**). Birds per mile observed during spring sex ratio counts were least accurate of the population indices. Existing sample sizes were found inadequate for evaluation of proposed hen harvest. Measures of hunting pressure, harvest and land closure to hunting were obtained. Both study areas were mapped by cover type. Approximately 80 percent of the land in both areas was devoted to winter wheat production on a production-fallow rotation basis. Precipitation, vegetative growth and height, and spring plowing of wheat stubble were compared with pheasant densities. June 1 wheat height was the only factor showing significant correlation with pheasant density (r = .67*). Recommendations for reenactment of the hen harvest study were provided along with recommendations for pheasant management census under existing harvest conditions. �-4 - RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Successful hen harvest is a substitute for density dependent natural mortality. Yet little knowledge exists as to the proportion of mortality that results from either density dependent or density independent influences. The type of mortality, time of mortality, degree of annual turnover and many other unknowns exist. Therefore, a well planned and conducted mortality study would provide invaluable knowledge upon which to base hen harvest. 2. Harvest of hen pheasants in the future should also be based on a thorough evaluation as outlined in the "Conclusions and Recormnendations" section of this report. 3. Under current "cocks only" harvest in Colorado, sex ratio counts should be discontinued. More brood count replicates should be completed. 4. The fall population index is not an accurate measure of population trend. A new CY index should be substituted for it and tested with other indices before submitting season recommendations. �- PHEASANT 5 - HEN HARVEST INVESTIGATION Final Report with Recommendations Reenactment Warren for Future of the Study D. Snyder Acknowledgements The writer is deeply indebted to Harold M. Swope, who designed and initiated this study. His able instruction, guidance and assistance resulted in quality census data facilitating this analysis. It is truly regrettable that he was unable to carry this study to a successful completion. Wayne W. Sandfort, who provided much assistance and direction during initial phases of the study, is to be commended. Sincere thanks are expressed to Dr. David C. Bowden, consulting statistician, who provided or assisted with much of the analysis presented here. Several personnel were responsible for collecting field data. William E. Martin, Michael R. Sterling, William E. Jones, J. Steven Lange, William Carpenter, and Wayne Russell were among the primary participants. Their fine efforts are to be commended. Gratitude is expressed to Wildlife Conservation Officer Trainees and Research Personnel who provided temporary assistance. Thanks are also expressed to Howard D. Funk for editing this manuscript. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine how the inclusion of one hen in the bag limit will affect a dryland pheasant population, its harvest, and its hunter recreation time. METHODS AND MATERIALS Review of Literature Library research produced little information relative to the effects of removing females from upland game bird populations. Several Western States, known to allow hunter harvest of hen pheasants, were requested to send all pertinent data. �- 6 A questionnaire was prepared requesting answers to specific questions. This was sent to all State and Provincial Conservation Agencies. A final synopsis was compiled from the data contained in the completed questionnaires and accompanying materials (Swope 1964a). Selecting and Defining the Study Areas Study areas (Fig. 1) were selected by a process of elimination based primarily on previous surveys conducted under the pheasant work plan. Areas were compared on the basis of: (1) size, (2) pheasant populations, (3) vegetative cover and land use practices, an.d (4) homogeneity within each area. A central township was selected in each area for more intensive study. Population Census Spring Sex Ratio Counts Random roadside surveys were conducted during early morning and evening periods beginning when harem activity neared a mid-April peak. Counts were discontinued in early or mid-May when the proportion of hens declined indicating the onset of nesting. An average of approximately 577 pheasants were tallied in 256 miles of counts each spring. Harems were flushed when possible. Counts usually were conducted during periods of calm, fair weather; however, counts were occasionally conducted during wet, drizzly weather. During such periods birds remained in the open because of the wet vegetation. Twenty miles-per-hour was used as a standard speed. Crowing Counts The Kimball crowing-count method, as revised in Colorado in 1953 (Sandfort 1960a), was used on three ten-stop routes in each study area (Fig. 1). If possible, at least three replicates were made per route. Stations were approximately two miles apart. Two minute counts were begun at 50 minutes before sunrise and completed about ten minutes after sunrise. Counts were used when wind conditions were less than five miles per hour. The high count per station was used to obtain a route average. Route averages were then combined to obtain a study area average. Rooster Crowing Observations Crowing roosters were frequently observed at a distance on mornings when wind prevented completion of a crowing census. The frequency of crowing was timed, recorded and harem sizes were determined. A spotting scope was used in these observations. �7 study ~I Areas Colorado EXPERIMENTAL ,, . ,_. . ••••••••• • • • • . AREA , J : •••••••••••••••••• . I ·•· ·• . ..... I : • • I • • I ••••••••••••• : i . -._ ...• ·I ...... ,. : ,- .. r·-" ·········1·· ....•. _ .•.... :, . . ..., ..... _.- . ,_._. .: i ., :...• · J. I •••••• 1•••••••••• : •~ I 1.. : .: : I : -:- .•. • I • • : • • • • • · . .. · I ....•••••• :............ ··· • •· •••••••••••••••••••••• I OAmherst .I I L•••.. .-.. •• • • • • • I • • t ..........:• Paoli r·,. _.-..~ 1"1: . r · . • I '_ ....._.- " . . : : = . . . I· •···••••••• • · -....-.-·1 I • • • : i::_.j . • • • · r. • -...! .~I . '_, ••· • i • •· r·- -!.........• • KE . N • , ··............. · . .• ·· ....•.-.- J ••••••• i ·•· · rZ· l i.. .: . ........................ .•••••••••.••. CONTROL ..: • ·• • • .0.•· SCALE -- . o 1 2 3 4 5 ••••••••••Brood Route -._.- Crowing and Brood Route Central Study Township AREA ~ig. 1. Census routes and the central study township within each hen harvest study area. lOmi. �- 8 - Production Counts These counts were usually employed during August and into September. Hens, young and cocks were tallied on seven roadside routes in each area (Fig. 1). Observed broods were flushed when possible during these early morning or evening counts. Age estimates were obtained on clearly observed broods. Most counts were restricted to periods of little or no wind and fair weather. Three or more replicates were usually obtained per route (Sandfort 1960b). Hunting Hunting Pressure and Harvest Information Surveys Aerial hunting pressure checks were made on the opening weekend of season each year. A pre-season flight a few days before the season was conducted in 1968 to index the number of vehicles resident along the census routes. Vehicles parked at farmyards, parked elsewhere, or moving along roads were recorded along the 174 square mile survey route in each study area. Some additional hunting pressure information was obtained during varied periods in 1965, 1966, and 1968, while contacting hunters. Hunting Season Recommendations Recommendations concerning season length and bag and possession were submitted each year based on census information. limits Land Posting Surveys Surveys to determine the amount of land unposted, closed to hunting, or posted "Hunting by Permission Only" were conducted each year in the experimental area. These were also extended to the control in 1967 and 1968 (Snyder 1969a). Hunting Success Field contacts were used to measure hunting success on the two study areas through several weekends of the 1968 season. Check stations were set up during evening hours at approaches to the highway between the two study areas on the first and second weekends of season. Hours hunted and birdsper-hunter information was obtained. Sampling Environmental Conditions Cover Mapping Aerial photos of study sections were located in the appropriate Soil Conservation Service Office. Details of each section (field boundaries, roads, farm lots, etc.) were transposed from the photo to graph paper. �- 9 Vegetative cover types were placed on the graph paper copy during field inspections of the section. Graph squares were tallied for each field or cover type and converted to acres to obtain the acreage per section (Snyder 1966). Precipitation Measurement Precipitation gauges were mounted on steel posts in occupied farm lots nearest the corners of the two study townships. The eight farmers receiving these agreed to keep precipitation records throughout the year. Each gauge station recorder was given a clipboard and a supply of precipitation record forms. Cooperators were contacted periodically to pick up precipitation data and leave additional forms. Vegetative Growth Measurements Transects for measuring vegetative vigor were established in two sma11grain fields at each corner of the experimental and control townships. These extended into the fields at 45 degree angles from either field edge. Fifty vegetative height measurements, one pace apart, were made along each transect periodically during the period of spring growth each year. Final measurements were completed late in summer to record stubble heights, and residual weed growth following wheat harvest. Photo Hubs Twenty-six photos were taken annually during November to record roadside and field conditions at thirteen photo hub sites. Seven of these sites were in the experimental area and six were in the control. Progress of Spring Tillage of Wheat Stubble Two roadside surveys of stubble fields were conducted in late April and early May each year to determine the progress of initial spring ploWing. The length or width of each field adjacent to the road traveled was measured by speedometer readings. Percentages plowed, unplowed and partially plowed were ascertained. Non-measured Environmental Influences Hailed areas were located and mapped. In some instances, areas were searched for evidence of pheasant mortality. The six year period of study was generally free of severe blizzard conditions. As a consequence, little winter mortality surveillance was conducted. �- 10 DESCRIPTION OF AREA This study was initiated in the extreme northeast corner of Colorado in parts of Phillips, Sedgwick, Logan, and Yuma counties. As initially established, the experimental area contained approximately 580 square miles. The experimental area was defined as: That area north of U. S. Highway 6, east of State Highway 59, south of the South Platte River and west of the Nebraska State Line. The control area contained 436 square miles of land, to the south of U. S. Highway 6 in Phillips County, from Holyoke west, and included parts of eastern Logan County and Northern Yuma County. Both areas lay within Colorado's best pheasant range. Both areas were essentially High Plains Tableland, very flat and uniform in character. Elevations ranged from about 3,400 feet in the eastern part to about 4,000 feet in the west. The areas were sparsely populated. Average farm size exceeded two square miles. A close examination of crop types, precipitation and other characteristics of the two areas follows in the section on environment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The primary objective of this study was not attained. Due to public and political pressures, the first proposed experimental hen harvest in 1963 was called off before it could be implemented. As a consequence, this report provides findings concerning environment, census and harvest based on "cocks-only" harvest. But in spite of this initial failure, the study has provided a vast quantity of excellent information. This information will be invaluable in conducting a future experimental hen harvest. In addition, evaluation of the census data has provided improved census procedures for use in bettering pheasant management. Environmental influences governing pheasant abundance are more clearly understood. Review of Literature Swope (1964a) summarized literature and information obtained and used during initial phases of this study. Swope (1968) also compiled and edited an additional quantity of literature concerning the basis for hen harvest and a summarization of initial study results for Division personnel information. In addition, a large volume of literature was reviewed and used in evaluating the study results. Many of the references are listed at the end of this report. Selecting and Defining the Study Areas Criteria for establishing the two study areas were listed in the preceding section on methods. As reported by Swope (1964b), the two areas selected were the only ones available in Colorado which could meet the basic requirements. Area boundaries were retained as initially established throughout the six-year study. �- 11 - Within each study area, townships for intensive study were selected. These townships were centrally located with large buffer zones surrounding them. Population Definition Census of Terms The following presentation involves three separate censuses: (1) the sex ratio count, (2) the crowing count, and (3) the production or brood count. Several indices and index combinations are summarized, analyzed, and discussed on the following pages. To help the reader distinguish the various components from one another, abbreviated symbols have been substituted in a transitional manner. The following table provides a reference to these index symbols (Table 1). Table 1. A list of index abbreviations, in pheasant population census. Abbrev. their deriviation Representation and representation Source of Derivation C Number of cocks (1) Spring crowing count H No. of hens per cock (2) Spring sex ratio count Y No. young per hen (3) Production CH Total hens in spring Censuses 1 and 2 above CHY Total young (based on hen pop.) Censuses 1, 2 and 3 above CY Total young (based on cock pop.) Censuses 1 and 3 bpm Birds-per-mile in spring (2) Spring sex ratio count BPM Birds-per-mi1e in fall (3) Production count SH Percent hens observed with broods (successful hens) (3) Production count spi Spring population (p = C + CH) Censuses 1 and 2 FPI Fall population index (P C + CH + CHY) Censuses 1, 2 and 3 Correlation Correlation coefficient coefficient index significantly significantly count greater than 0 at 5 percent greater than 0 at 1 percent level. level. �- 12 Sex Ratio Counts Two indices, hens-per-cock (H) and birds-per-mile (bpm) were obtained from this spring census. David C. Bowden, Ph. D., provided an analysis of these data. Sample sizes, sex ratios, standard errors, confidence intervals and estimated sample size needed to be within 10% and 20% of the "true" sex ratio at 95% confidence level are shown in Table 2. Sex ratios differed by 10 percent, but not by 20 percent between the two study areas. Question arises as to what percent harvest would we have to attain to be able to detect a significant change in sex ratio between the two areas. Some examples are included to illustrate. Example 1. l20~ 12 100 cf 60 Post season number Post season sex ratio 108 2.7 40 1 Fall pre-season sex ratio harvest + 5% mort. 20/0 ~ and 60% 25%~ l20~ 1006' 30 60 Post season number Post season sex ratio 90 2.25 40 1 Fall pre-season sex ratio cf only season but 10% ~ Example 2. mortality d' 2.25 X 20% 2.25 + .45 The difference between .45 2.70 the two ratios is 20% of the lower. Based on this information, we should use the sample size estimated needed to predict within 0.1 of the ratio. Or, on the average about 20 to 25 counts. That number is attainable and within reason. New procedures outlined in the Conclusions and Recommendations section would probably reduce the required sample size. Table 3 summarizes and illustrates the birds-per-mile (bpm) data for the six year period. Note that the estimated number of counts needed to attain 95% confidence within 0.1 of the ratio is beyond the capacity of present census procedures. Those at the 0.2 width of ratio would have to be used. Again, pairing procedures outlined in the Conclusions and Recommendations Section should increase the quality of samples. I~oth the sex ratio (H) and birds-per-mile (bpm) indices were analyzed on an individual census count basis. From the results in Tables 2 and 3, the sex ratio information appears to be the more reliable of the two. Crowing Count Census In evaluating the crowing indices (C) the high count per station was obtained from available replicates. High counts for the ten stations were then averaged to obtain a route index. This procedure has been used in Colorado pheasant census for a number 6f years (Sandfort 1960a). It is preferrable �- 13 - to the average-per-station for two major reasons. First, pheasant crowing intensity usually peaks during a certain period each spring (Swope 1967). Second, weather conditions exert high variance on crowing counts. If several replicates are obtained, the high count usually represents the morning when weather and crowing intensity were both near optimum. Use of the high count helps eliminate variance due to counts completed when crowing intensity and weather were at different levels. Table 4 provides a summary of route averages and the number of replicates obtained per route. Table 2. The ratio of hens per cock, confidence interval and sample size estimates based on spring sex ratio data. Year No. Rtes. Sampled Total Birds Hens/Cock Std. Error of Ratio 95% Confidence Interval SamE1e Size Estimate at 0.2 at 0.1 Ratio Ratio Experimental Area 1963 14 792 1.82857 .13555 -.I .29279 35.89 8.97 1964 9 582 2.23333 .23246 + .53605 51.85 12.96 1965 11 411 2.23622 .05834 + .12998 3.72 .93 1966 6 473 2.37857 .10461 + .26895 7.67 1.92 1967 13 1038 2.78832 .13634 + .29708 14.76 3.69 1968 11 725 3.09605 .23635 + .52659 31.82 7.96 Control Area 1963 5 251 1.64211 .11907 + .33054 20.26 5.06 1964 9 677 2.11982 .14429 + .33273 22.17 5.54 1965 9 238 1.90244 .10lO7 + .23307 13 .51 3.38 1966 5 372 2.32143 .15706 + .43600 17.64 4.41 1967 12 590 2.18919 .13464 + .29634 21.99 5.50 1968 12 778 3.29834 .16639 + .36623 14.79 3.70 �- 14 Table 3. Pheasants observed per mile, confidence interval and sample size estimates based on spring sex ratio data. Year No. Rtes. Sampled Total Miles Total Birds Birds/ Mile St. Error of Ratio Confidence Interval Number Routes Needed at 0.1 at 0.2 Ratio Ratio Experimental Area 1963 14 427.7 792 1.85410 .22358 + .48293 94.98 23.74 1964 9 207.0 592 2.85990 .29749 + .68601 51.78 12.95 1965 11 284.1 411 1.44667 .12610 + 28095 41.49 10.37 1966 6 193.3 473 2.44697 .35167 + .90414 81.91 20.48 1967 13 343.2 1038 3.02739 .41124 + .89609 113.90 28.47 1968 11 245.0 725 3.22449 .28798 + .64162 43.55 10.89 Control Area 1963 5 180.0 251 1.39444 .19642 + .54526 76.45 19.11 1964 9 184.0 677 3.67935 .24676 + .56903 20.83 5.21 1965 9 282.8 238 .84158 .12398 + .28590 103.86 25.96 1966 5 179.9 372 2.06782 .53980 + 1.49848 262.57 65.64 1967 12 293.9 590 2.00749 .21033 + .46294 63.81 15.95 1968 12 253.8 778 3.20725 .36820 + .81041 76.62 19.15 Analysis of variance was completed on the crowing count samples by Dr. Bowden (Table 5). He did not find a significant interaction between years and areas. But, area crowing means were widely different on the two areas among years. To illustrate, C was 67.56 on the experimental area and 41.90 on the control in 1966. The difference was 25.66. In 1968, respective indices of 36.27 and 37.23 on the two areas provided a difference of only 1.0. If future hen harvest was detrimental to the experimental area population, it must be detected by the years x areas interaction. Based on this analysis, Dr. Bowden recommended a minimum of five crowing routes per area. These would be needed to detect differences between areas when year effect was considered. �- 15 - Table 4. The average rooster crowing rate per route and area during the six year census period. l./ Year East Route Aver. Replicate Central Route Aver. Replicate West Route Aver. Replicate Area Average Experimental Area 1963 62.9 5 43.3 5 38.0 4 48.1 1964 71.6 5 75.3 4 64.7 4 70.5 1965 49.0 3 45.6 5 48.1 3 47.5 1966 78.8 4 73.8 3 50.1 3 67.6 1967 62.8 3 64.9 4 68.2 4 65.3 1968 41.0 2 40.3 2 30.4 2 37.2 Route X 61.0 57.2 49.9 56.0 Control Area 1963 42.0 5 50.8 4 42.2 5 45.0 1964 49.2 5 58.7 4 62.1 4 56.7 1965 25.0 3 23.9 4 29.4 4 26.1 1966 50.0 3 40.4 4 35.3 4 41.9 1967 71.0 3 57.3 3 36.7 4 55.0 1968 42.5 3 40.5 3 25.8 2 36.3 Route X 46.6 45.3 38.6 1/ High count per station data were used to compute route averages. 43.5 �Table 5. Analysis of variance summary for crowing count data. Source of Variation D.F. Sum of Squares Total 359 125,972 •40000 Areas 1 4 Routes/Areas Years Mean Square F 14,187.77778 14,187.7778~ 9.4006 * 6,036.95556 1,509.2381 4.8080 * / 5 40,260.10000 8,052.020o-P11.5817 * Areas X Years 5 7,236.85556 1,447.3711 Not sign. Routes X Years/Areas 20 13,904.71111 695.2356 Stations/(Routes/Areas) 54 16,950.66667 313.9012~ 270 27,395.33333 101.4642 2.0818 I Years X Stations/ (Routes/Areas) I-' 3.0937 *** 0'\ �- 17 - The analysis did find a signficant difference between areas (when years were not considered), among years and among routes within areas (Table 5). A decline in pheasant density from east to west seemed evident in both areas. A significant difference among stations within routes was also noted by the analysis. This was probably due to the typical early morning pattern of crowing intensity illustrated by Kimball (1949), Swope (1967), and others. A peak in crowing activity was reached about 40 to 45 minutes before sunrise. After the peak, crowing activity gradually declined. This trend appeared quite evident in averaging samples from the six routes for the six years (Fig. 2). The undefined peak possibly resulted from different starting times, different peaks of crowing intensity, or different pheasant densities associated with stations along the six routes. Influence of Sex Ratio on Crowing Intensity Swope (1964b) found evidence that the number of hens within a rooster's harem influenced his crowing rate. The fewer hens he possessed, the more frequently he crowed (Fig. 3). When comparing crowing rates on the two areas, equal sex ratios would not influence the comparison. But, if hen harvest materially changed the sex ratio on one area,then the influence of sex ratio would have to be considered when comparing crowing indices. Sample sizes listed in Fig. 3 represent crowing intervals rather than roosters. Although a trend is evident, I do not consider the data to be highly reliable. A much larger sample is needed before making adjustments in the crowing rate to compensate for sex ratio differences. Gates (1966) was unable to test sex ratio influence on crowing rate as an independent variable in his evaluation. However, his analysis indicated pheasant density was more influential than sex ratio. Cocks crowed more frequently in areas of higher density. This variable should also be considered in future hen harvest research and evaluation. It should be noted that Gates study was conducted on an area possessing much lower rooster densities than those in the Colorado study areas. Production Census-Brood Counts Sampling and Ana1ysis--These counts, conducted from midsummer through late summer were designed to measure production. In a species, such as pheasant, with high annual mortality and production, this census was the most important. Two main indices were derived from the brood census data. These were (1) birds-per-mi1e (BPM), and (2) young-per-hen (Y). Table 6 presents the mean annual ratios of these on the two study areas. Fig. 4 shows the respective BPM trends on the two areas through the six year study. �- 18 - 50 40 w ~ m ~ 00 ~ .~ 30 ~ 0 ~ u ~ w ~ m 20 1/ 77.910 95.1% 100 100 100 90.8% 85.1% 79.8% 76.8% r~~__ ~~__ ~~__ ~~~~__ ~ 1/ Percentage o 100 1 2 3 4 Fig. 2. The average crowing on 6 routes through 6 years. of the average of stations 5 6 Station 7 8 3 through 6 9 10 intensity per station based on 133 counts �- 19 - 6 , ,, ~'56 , , 5 , , , , , ,, ,076 , ,, 4 , 3 ,, , , , , ,, 130 (Sample size) 2 o 1 2 3 or more Hens Per Rooster Fig. 3 The apparent relationship between sex ratio and the crowing frequency of roosters. The line was fitted visually. Sample size refers to number of crowing intervals. �- 20 - Table 6. The mean annual young per hen and birds per mile ratios obtained on the two hen harvest study areas. Year No. Counts Yg. /Hen Std. Error of Ratio Confidence Birds Interval Per Mile 95% Std. Error of Ratio Confidence Interval EXEerimental Area 1963 19 4.17 .5832 1964 34 2.53 1965 28 1966 ± ± 1.225 2.220 .2982 .2015 .4111 2.11 .2119 .4323 3.78 .3055 .6269 1.72 .2454 .5036 28 4.85 .1798 .3689 4.30 .3567 .7319 1967 28 4.62 .2786 .5717 3.65 .5236 1.0744 1968 14 5.22 .6818 1.472 2.27 .4970 .7962 1.23 .2320 ± 0.627 + - 1.074 Control Area ± ± 1963 20 3.65 .3804 1964 30 2.45 .3173 .6489 .75 .1598 .3268 1965 28 3.40 .6649 1.3644 .80 .1083 .2222 1966 27 5.56 .2696 .5543 2.95 .2920 .6004 1967 29 5.49 .2100 .4301 3.71 .4301 .8808 1968 15 5.75 .5998 1.2866 2.64 .4573 .9809 .4856 �- 21 - 5 4 ,, , / / / / \ / \ / 3 ( , I .•..... ::E: 0.. I I Q) I ....• rl ::E: Q) ,, ,, , I III \..l \ / I I 2 0.. J I s> \..l Q) Vl .a 0 Vl +' ~ Vl 10 Q) .c 1 0.. o 63 64 65 66 67 Year Fig. 4 The number of pheasants per mile observed during brood counts <SPM) on the two areas during the six year study. 68 �- 22 - Dr. Bowden conducted analysis of variance on these ratios. The results are presented in Table 7. There was no significant difference in either index between areas. Looking only at BPM the interaction between areas and years was significant at the 5% significance level. However, the Y interaction of areas and years was not significant. He concluded that if the effect of hen harvest reached the magnitude of year effect brought on by environmental influences, then it could be detected. We would expect little influence of hen harvest on the ratio of young per hen. But, BPM would be affected if hen harvest lowered production. Based on the analysis, Dr. Bowden stated that about thirteen routes instead of the present seven would be needed to estimate Y and BPM for an area within a particular year. Two to four replicates were conducted per route, and this number was considered in the analysis. Period and Peak of Hatch--Brood age estimates were obtained each year to detect possible differences in the period and peak of hatch. Little discernable difference between the two areas was noted. Therefore, information from the two areas was combined and converted to percentages for year to year comparison. Fig. 5 indicates the earliest hatch occurred in 1963 with the latest production peak in 1965. Some bias was introduced into the comparisons by differences in the period of observation (Table 8) among the different years. Early sampling would count first hatches more often, thus skeWing the projected peak. The influence this had on the projections is uncertain. The exceptionally late hatch in 1965 probably was not fully measured by BPM in relation to other years. Comparison of harvest survey data and the BPM index supported this hypothesis. When interpreting Fig. 5, the reader should assume that late summer production was at a higher level than shown. Some broods hatched even as late as September, after the majority of the census had been completed. Midsummer Versus Late Summer Census--An attempt to determine the best period for production census is shown in Table 9. Production BPM indices were computed for bi-weekly periods and contrasted with average brood ages. In 1963 the highest BPM index occurred in the last half of July. In 1964 the first half of August produced the best count. But during the last four years of study, mid-September counts produced the highest indices. Young averaged about five weeks of age in 1964. During the other five years the best counts were obtained when most birds were seven to nine weeks of age. Table 9 by itself, does not yield any best bi-weekly interval for production census. The period and duration of hatch is one factor of influence. Weather conditions, which vary from year to year, must be considered. Although BPM indices were highest in mid-September from 1965 through 1969, late August and early September census data were considered better in other respects. Older broods, especially those beyond nine weeks, gradually lost ties with their hen and joined with other broods. Age estimates, young per hen and broodless hen figures were less accurate in late September. Variance within and among counts became greater. Klonglan (1955) obtained similar findings. �- 23 - Table 7. Analysis of variance of experimental and control area young-per-hen (Y) and birds-per-mi1e (BPM) information from 1964 through 1968. l/ Source of Variation d.f. Sum of Squares Mean Square F ) ) ) 3,1231 ) ) ) 3.1045 * Birds-per-Mile (BPM) Total 69 156.42015 Area 1 6.34368 6.34368 Route/Area 12 24.37489 2.03124 Year 4 77.70242 Area X Year 4 9.86551 2.46638 48 38.13365 .79445 Route X Year/Area F1 ,12 at 90% = 3.18 at 95% = 4.75 F4 ,48 at 95% = 2.6 Young-per-Hen (Y) Total 69 l39.29797 Area 1 2.52732 2.52732 Route/Area 12 10.16620 .84718 Year 4 83.92165 Area X Year 4 2.63014 .65753 Route X Year/Area 48 40.05266 .83443 F1 ,12 at 90% = 3.18 ) ) ) 2.9332 ) ) ) .78797 F4 ,48 at 50% = .85 1/ 1963 data were omitted in these analyses due to differences in sample size. �- 24 - • ,\. , 25 1', I " I I 20 m 0 .u t:: ....., I I I 4-1 I , I 10 I Q) I Q) p.., I . ."" I " . . .~ 5 .;I ~ \ \ \ \ \ ./ , ,. , \ \ / I o ,... \, ~, . , I \ -.;j-. I :::r:: I \ I ~ I o .u ,. . '(, ~ I 15 \ \ I I I I "1 ...c: ~ . .\ """ .'" \ \ " , " ,, . \ - 0 2 May June - -- .. . . .... ----- \.- \ 3 July 4 1 2 3 August 4 25 ./\ • eo/! \,Q \ • :!it 20 \ / \ \ \ 15 \ \ ...c: o \•....•.. .u m :::r:: 4-1 \.. \ " . ""'",\\ 10 ,., 0 .u t:: Q) o ,... Q) p.., \' . 5 \ " .•.•... --...•'- " , .•..... ,,~.,... 0 1 Fig. 5. 2 3 May 4 1 2 3 June 4 The period and peak of production 1 2 3 July as derived 4 1 2 3 August from brood age estimates. 4 1 �= 25 Table 8. The period of production census during the six year study. Period of Census Year Beginning Date Ending Date 1963 July 25 J) September 3 1964 July 5 September 6 1965 August 3 October 1966 August 2 September 14 1967 August 1 September 29 1968 August 5 September 12 1 Jj Earlier counts were conducted but not included for analysis. Very young broods were difficult to census. Broods under four weeks of age were difficult to see and to flush. The best census seemed to occur when the majority of the broods were six to nine weeks old. Fairly reliable counts of broods in this age interval were made, since hens could be readily distinguished from young. During the study, hatching usually peaked in late June or early July. Adding six to nine weeks for the birds to reach the optimum age puts the best census period from the second week in August through early September. Management census information used in season recommendations in Colorado have consistently been collected in late July or early August. In 1965, especially, and in the following three years, counts and season recommendations were completed when conditions were only marginal for production census. Much better counts could have been obtained in late August and early September. Morning Versus Evening Counts--Both morning and evening production counts were made. Previous studies have shown better and more consistent counts during morning census (Bennett and Henrickson 1938) and others. Analysis was completed to determine if this was true during this study. Evaluation of production census is partially summarized in Table 10. From 1964 through 1966 morning counts produced a higher BPM index. Evening counts provided a higher index in the remaining three years. To measure variance, morning and evening count totals were plotted on a frequency polygon (Fig. 6). Successive counts on anyone route were rotated between mornings and evening as much as possible. Thus, it was assumed that morning and evening counts �- 26 - were distributed equally among the fourteen routes on the two areas. Fig. 6 represents 161 morning counts and 157 evening counts. The lack of single defined peaks in the figure was due to different population levels obtained during the six years of study. The occurrences indicate that, in this study, distribution of evening counts was generally equal in range and quality with morning counts; Table 9. intervals A comparison of birds per mile of production census. July 4-17 July 18-31 1j (BPM) and brood ages during biweekly Aug. 1-14 Aug. 15-28 Aug. 29Sept. 11 1.92 1.84 1.71 1963 BPM 2.41 X Brood Age 6.81 8.24 9.35 11.2 Sept. 12-15 1964 BPM 0.77 1.41 2.14 1.26 1.36 X Brood Age 4.14 5.51 4.91 7.22 9.10 1965 BPM 0.82 1.33 1.29 1.84 X Brood Age 5.40 5.70 5.85 7.44 1966 BPM 2.68 3.91 3.83 5.31 X Brood Age 6.14 7.65 8.18 7.1 1967 BPM 2.64 3.87 3.13'1:..1 4.85 X Brood Age 5.89 6.59 8.53 9.17 1968 BPM 1.90 2.48 2.61 3.90 '1:..1 X Brood Age 6.35 7.38 9.09 9.45 II Underline BPM represents the highest II Sample size relatively small. for the year. ']j �- 27 - Table 10. A comparison of morning and evening pheasant A. M. production counts. Year Miles Birds BPM Miles P. M. Birds BPM 1963 1019 1725 1.69 963 2098 2 .180'c 1964 629 945 1.5l')'c 911 1353 1.48 1965 787 1061 1.350'( 774 1010 1.31 1966 770 2999 3. 89~'c 693 2216 3.20 1967 795 2355 2.86 690 3100 4.49')'c 1968 529 1247 2.36 192 530 2.76·'" 4529 10335 2.28 4223 10307 -," The highest 2.44 of the two indices per year. Population Indices Need for a better understanding of the sex ratio, crowing and brood censuses, and their indices led to the following analyses. Simple linear correlations were used almost exclusively in the following section. Since both areas received the same treatment (cocks only harvest, season length, etc.) and census throughout the study, the information from the two areas was used in unison here. Thus, sample sizes were increased from six to twelve in all correlations except those with harvest. Similar correlations were conducted on Small Game Management Unit No. 1 (Fig. 7) for comparison purposes. This unit contained about 3,400 square miles in Northeast Colorado, including the two study areas. Information presented here was based on fourteen years of sampling on nine census zones and routes (Fig. 7) (Sandfort 1960a, b). Unit 1 sample size exceeded that for either study area (Table 11), but fewer brood count replicates were usually run. �- 28 - 24 22 20 18 Q) . (J s:: 16 ,,\, , • - Evening Counts • • • •• •• ,..,.. Q) :::) (J (J 14 0 4-1 0 12 :>-. g 10 Q) :l 0' ,.. Q) 8 • ,, ••... Ji.. 6 - Morning Counts ,, ,, 4 2 0 0 N I 0 0 -.:t 0 0 0 0 0 N r-l 0 -.:t 0 0 \0 r-l r-l co 0 0 0 N N 0 0 N \0 N -.:t \0 co I I I I r-l N I r-l r-l \0 r-l I I r-l I r-l I r-l I r-l 0 N r-l <r r-l \0 r-l I co r-l I -.:t co 0 r-l N N <r r-l r-l Pheasants r-l r-l Observed N r-l N r-l N per Count Fig. 6. A comparison of the range and distribution of 161 morning 157 evening production counts obtained during the six year study. and �- 29 - -Qt'i o 9 i o o o e 8(Jl rT 8~ ~:.J-.....-1J--~ :1) • • ::> ---Akron - - - -,""'yuma t.J" - •• _ tL.~_~ g - .-. • ay KEY --- aa - Management Uhit Boundary Census Route Highway Fig. 7. Small Game Management Unit 1 and census routes within the unito �- 30 Table 11. A comparison of sampling Small Game Management Unit 1. on the hen harvest Sample Unit Study Areas study areas and Management Unit Sex Ratio No. of Routes Random Average Miles 256 918 Birds Tallied 577 6,312 Spring Winter No. of Routes 3 9 Average No. Counts 11 21 No. of Routes 7 9 Average Miles 630 834 Birds Tallied 1,508 1,789 Period of Census Crowing 9 Zones Count Brood Count Correlation of Indices Several different indices were available from the sex ratio, crowing and production censuses. Kimball (1949) described two that were incorporated into Colorado pheasant census procedure. These, the spring population index (spi) and the fall population index (FPI), were represented by respective formulas: p = C + CR, and P = C + CR + CRY. The spring population index (spi) represented breeder density, while the FPI measured fall density. The bpm and BPM observations, respectively, obtained during sex ratio and production counts provided second measures of pheasant abundance during spring and fall periods. In other words, spi and bpm were independent, directly comparable indices of spring density on a year by year basis. The FPI and BPM were independent, directly comparable indices of fall density. In addition, harvest surveys provide a third independent measure of fall density. �- 31 - I)reeding Population Indices--In initial analysis of spring data, spi and bpm were plotted on a scatter diagram to observe their relationship. Analysis revealed a significant.correlation coefficient of .65* (Fig. 8). This fair relationship provided iittle confidence in the quality of either index. One index or the other could approximate actual population trend or both could be equally erroneous. Fall Indices--The FPI and BI~ (Fig. 9) were compared next. A coefficient of .90** indicated a more significant relationship between these two indices. Again, the coefficient does not compare these indices with unknown fall population trends. It only compares the two with each other. But as the variance between two or more independent samples decreases, our confidence in their accuracy increases. To illustrate, 9, 10, and 11, and 4, 9, and 15 might represent two respective samples of an actual population. We would place higher confidence in the low variance group, 9, 10, and 11, than in the other when predicting the population mean. In the same manner, high correlation coefficients indicate low variance between samples on a year to year basis. Fall Index-Harvest Relationships--Samples of hunter success and harvest provided additional measures of fall population level and trend. They were compared here with the fall indices by correlation analysis to indicate whether B~ or FPI was the better predictor of fall population level. Harvest data were not obtained on a study area basis except in 1968. Therefore, Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey data from Sedgwick, Phillips, Yuma and Logan counties were combined and used (Grieb and Hunter 1964, 1965, 1966,1967), (Grieb 1968), (Funk and Grieb 1969). The two study areas lie within these four counties. BPM and FPI indices from the two study areas were respectively combined and averaged. As a result, sample sizes were reduced to six. These were compared by linear correlation with two measures of harvest: (1) total harvest, and (2) birds per hunter. As shown in Table 12, B~ correlated much more closely with both harvest indices than FPI. This provided evidence that B~ was the more accurate fall index on the study areas. To supplement study area results, BPM and FPI from Management Unit 1 were tested against the same four-county harvest figures. Sample sizes from this unit included 13 years of harvest data and fall indices from nine sex ratio, crowing and brood routes (Fig. 7). Correlation results are shown in Table 12. Birds-per-hunter samples more closely compared with B~ than with FPI. But little difference was detected when FPI was tested against the two harvest indices. In interpreting the data it should be noted that the B~-FPI correlation coefficient for the Management Unit was only .68,''', (Table 13): much lower than the .90,',,', coefficient for the B~-FPI relationship on the two study areas. Brood samples usually were not as intensive nor conducted during the optimum census period in the Management Unit. Thus, the BPM data obtained there were not considered as accurate as those representing the study areas. �- 32 - 0 250 230 ::c u 0 0 210 + u 190 H 0. ~ H 150 c 0 oM .jJ Aj 0 130 r-I 0 0 ::l 0. 0 a. 0 0 '0 s::: 0 0 170 110 0'1 ~ '0 (IJ (IJ 1.1 90 rn 70 0 Fig. 8 The relationship between the spring population index and pheasants per mile observed during spring sex ratio counts. �- 33 - o o o o o o G o r .90 lIS , I 2 4 3 Pheasants Observed Per Mile 5 (BPM) Fig. 9. The relationship between the fall population per mile observed during brood counts. index and pheasants �- 34 - Table 12. Correlation coefficients relating harvest figures to fall indices of pheasant populations on the study areas and Small Game Management Unit 1. 1/ Study Area 1/ Index BPM FPI Management BPM Unit FPI Total Harvest 0.89 0.66 0.70 0.70 Birds/Hunter 0.85 0.66 0.71 0.46 Harvest 1/ Phillips, Sedgwick, Yuma and Logan County Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey data were used in all correlations. 1/ Indices from the two study areas were combined reducing the sample size to six. Management Unit sample size was thirteen. Additional data support the hypothesis that BPM was more accurate than FPI as an indicator of population level and trend on the study areas. EPM involves only the relationship between birds and miles based on a rather large sample obtained after production was essentially complete. In contrast, the FPI was based on three separate censuses. Errors inherent in anyone of the three would be multiplied in obtaining the end result. Hen mortality between spring and production census was not considered. The FPI also assumed that hens with and without broods were observed in direct relation to their number. It was concluded from these factors that the study area BPM was the better estimator of population level and trend. This index was then used as a base for testing the various components of the FPI. Density and Non-density Factors--When reviewing this analysis, it should be understood that H, the number of hens per cock, by itself does not measure density. It must first be combined with C. Thus, CH represents hen density. The same is true for Y. It is an index of production, but must be used in conjunction with C or CH to represent production density. Of the three basic components, C, H, and Y, only C represents density. Correlation of FPI and its Components with BPM--Regression analysis by Bowden (Table 13) provided comparisons of all basic study area FPI components with BPM. Cock populations (C) were not significantly correlated with EPN. However, hen densities (CH) were (r -= .65')',). Production measured by (Y), independent of dens ity, was highly related to BPM (r = .70')'''',). This provided initial evidence of the importance of production in determining fall density. �- 35 - Table 13. Relationships per-mile (BPM) expressed of several population indices with fall birdsas .corre Lat Lon coefficients. Variable CH Correlated with BPM CY CRY C+CH Location C H Y Study Areas n = 12 .48 .40 .70~b'~.65"'~ •97"k"k Unit 1 n = 14 .57-k -.12 .79,'d<.42 •75"'~"'~•7l,'d< ~'~ Correlation ~b'~ Correlation significantly significantly greater greater . 91-k-k than 0 at 5 percent than 0 at 1 percent C+CH+cHY .62"~ .90.,'d~ .48 .68,'d~ level. level. Cock densities (C) and hen densities (CH) were individually combined with Y to relate production to spring breeder densities. The respective CY and CHY formulas, representing production denSity, were compared with BPM (Fig. 10 and Fig. 11). The CY index showed highly significant correlation with BPM (r = .97.,'d~) (Table 13). The CHY-BPM correlation coefficient was .91.,''':', only slightly above the original FPI-BPM correlation where r = .90.,'~"'~. This analysis indicated cock densities were better than hen densities for estimating fall populations. Note, however, that adding breeders to young, as in the FPI formula (C + CH + CRY) did not result in a higher correlation with BPM. Apparently breeder populations did not add to the accuracy of fall density estimates except through their role in determining production. Management Unit 1 data (Table 13) supported study area findings. Although the coefficients were much lower, the same trend in fall density comparisons was evident. Respective correlation coefficients obtained, when BPM was plotted against FPI, CRY, and CY, equalled .68, .71, and .75. Again the simple CY index showed the best relationship with BPM. Tests were not conducted to determine if CY-BPM correlation coefficients were significantly higher than those obtained using CHY or FPI. Sample sizes were not considered adequate to permit findings of significant differences, even if they did exist. However, the hypothesis that CY exceeded CHY and FPI as a more accurate measure of fall density can still be made. The similar trend of the coefficients in both the study area and management unit samples supports this hypothesis. To briefly summarize, comparisons of study area BPM and FPI with harvest survey data indicated BPM was the more accurate of the two. It, in turn, was used to compare components of FPI. Of these, the CY index, basing production on spring cock densities, was most closely related to BPM. The CHY index, measuring production based on spring hen densities was equal, if not slightly better than the original FPI formula. Less confidence could be placed in Management Unit 1 results due to greater variances and lower coefficients among samples, but management results supported study area findings. �- 36 - 350 300 250 .•.... iJ c (!) ::c 200 ~ Q., tJl § 0 )04 x 150 (!) +' ro P:: tJl .;j ~ 0 Sol 100 0 u L 0 I 1 Pheasants 2 Observed •4 3 Per Mile 5 (BPM) Fig. 10 Correlation of the CY index with pheasants (BPM) during brood counts. observed per mile �- 37 - 900 o 800 o 700 o 600 ••..... 1'C o 500 u c 400 <Il ::c L.! <Il 0. 0'1 c ;::I 0 0 300 >t >< II) c <Il ::c 200 T' - .91 100 ~ o 1 Pheasants 2 Observed 4 3 Per Mile 5 <BPM) Fig. 11. Correlation of the CHY index with pheasants mile <BPM) during brood counts. observed per �- 38 - The Basis for the CY Index--One important question remains unanswered. Why did the BPM index show such close correlation with the CY index when the latter doesn't consider hen density? Why was the relationship better than with CRY or FPI? Differential spring to summer mortality between the sexes may provide the answer. Hen densities observed during production counts appear slightly better related to the crowing index (r = .75**) than to spring hen populations (r = •731d:). Rooster populations were reduced in number by hunting before the crowing count was taken. Hens, which survived harvest and winter in greater numbers, were subject to the major, but variable spring stress of egg laying, nesting, renesting, and mortality due to stubble plowing and crop harvest. Dahlgren (1963) found evidence that highest annuai pheasant mortality occurred from spring to summer. Hens undoubtedly were more subject to this mortality than roosters. Thus, the reduced hen population surviving after spring more closely approximated C than CH. But this may not be the correct explanation. The basis for the CY index may depend on other variables too, which are not yet discovered. While C represents the breeding population, Y in turn, represents the capacity of that population to reproduce. Linder, et al. (1960) found that the number of hens successful in bringing off a brood was the primary factor determining the rate of chick production. Clutch size, fertility and hatchability were not important variables in production. The same condition was evident in the study area analysis. Successful hens (SH) or the observed proportion with young, were plotted against Y (Fig. 12). A close positive correlation resulted (r = .95**). Nesting success (SH) was the primary factor determining production. When C and Y were individually compared with BPM, Y showed a much closer relationship (r = .70**). The C-BPM correlation coefficient was only .48 (Table 13). When the C and Y correlation coefficients were individually squared, C accounted for only 23 percent of BPM variablity. In contrast, 49 percent of the variability was attributed to Y or production. We can conclude that nesting success, which for the most part determined production, was the primary factor determining fall populations. Environmental conditions which governed nesting success were of major importance. The above explanation leads to a major consideration in pheasant census. Where hens are not harvested and percentage rooster harvest is rather consistent from year to year, winter and/or spring sex ratio counts can be eliminated. This is in contrast to previously published statements by Dale (1952), Wagner et al. (1965), and others who have stressed that sex ratios must be considered in determining subsequent fall density levels. However, in some states where a high percentage of cocks are harvested, CH might serve as a better base than C. More testing is needed under a wide range of conditions. The Influence of Density on Production--Linder, et al. (1960), Allen (1956), and Wagner and Stokes (1968), all showed evidence of density dependent influence on pheasant reproduction. In other words, fewer young per hen �- 39 were produced when breeding densities were high, and more young were produced per hen when densities were low. In this study, an inverse correlation of -0.25 between C and Y produced little evidence of density dependent influence on production. No relationship between hen densities (CH) and young per hen was found (r = .07). Percent successful hens also showed no significant relationship with spi (r = -.22) or with C (r = -.27) However, if we are to conclude that hens can be successfully harvested without detriment to reproduction, density dependent factors must be present at some time of the year. Winter Survival--Wagner et al. (1965), Linder et al. (1960) and Wagner and Stokes (1968) found that spring densities were directly proportional in size to those present the previous fall. Or, density dependent environmental factors were not influential or highly limiting to wintering populations. Similar comparisons in this study were not as conclusive. Young per mile observed during production counts were plotted against the spring population index of the following year. The resultant coefficient (r = .56) did not show significant evidence of a direct relationship for the five year interval. A better relationship was found using management unit data for a thirteen year period. In this test, where CY was plotted against C of the following spring, the correlation coefficient (r = .79**) was highly significant. These tests hint that winter density dependent factors were not of major importance in Northeast Colorado, but do not rule out the possibility of their existence. A Test of Spring bpm Quality--Earlier in the text the spring population indices (spi) were tested against spring birds-per-mile (bpm) (Fig. 8). In the test presented here, bpm were substituted for spi, combined with Y, and plotted against BPM (Fig. 13). The result shows only a fair relationship (r = .58*). Previous analyses indicated both BPM and Y were highly accurate indices. If we accept this as true, we have further evicence that bpm were not accurate spring measures of density. Hunting and Harvest Information Several measurements, important to management and reinactment of the study, were obtained during the study. However, because the 1963 hen season was cancelled, many important facets of this phase of study could not be completed. Aerial Hunting Pressure Surveys In 1963, Swope established aerial survey routes to record changes in hunting pressure. Flights were conducted on the opening Saturday afternoon of season each year except in 1968, when weather conditions delayed the flight one day. Table 14 summarizes the findings. The 1968 counts could not be compared directly with those of previous years. They were conducted under �- 40 - adverse weather conditions at a time when many hunters were starting their return trip to Denver. The higher proportion of vehicles in the control may partially be a result of this movement toward home. Table 14. Vehicles observed pressure on the experimental on aerial transects as indices of hunting and control study areas. Percent Change Non-local Vehic1es11 Percent Change Observed Control Total 197 199 396 1964 221 184 405 + 2.5 178 + 5.3 1965 207 196 403 - 0.5 176 - 1.0 1966 265 291 556 +38.0 329 -1- 1967 327 264 591 + 6.3 364 +10.6 1968'1:./165 247 412 Year Vehicles Exp. 1963 169 8.7 185 11 Based on a 1968 preseason count of 121 and 106 resident vehicles respectively, in the experiment and control areas. 11 Census conducted 2nd day of season. Not believed directly comparable with data from preceding years. Aerial flights were based on a large sample, 174 square miles in each area. Data in Table 14 indicate hunting pressure changed considerably between areas and from year to year. General regional variations in hunting pressure were somewhat in relation to pheasant abundance and season length. A pre-season flight was conducted a few days prior to the 1968 season. In the experimental area, 121 vehicles were tallied as compared to 106 in the control. These local vehicles were subtracted from the totals of opening weekend counts to provide an estimate of hunter influx (Table 14). Only a small percent of the local vehicles tallied in the pre-season counts were believed used in hunting during the opening weekend. Observations on study plots in Sedgwick County (Snyder 1969b) indicated less than twenty percent of the hunters were driving local vehicles. Some of these were probably from local towns and not included in the pre-season census. Others may have been non-hunting farmers traveling to or from home. �- 41 - 100 95 :r: 90 VI II) c: Q) :r: 85 .....• z II) II) Q) 0 80 u s 75 VI +' c: ClI u 70 ~ Q, r = 65 .95 0 60 0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Young Per Hen 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 (y) Fig. 12. A scatter diagram showing the relationship between the observed percentage hens with broods and the young per hen ratio. �- 42 - 20 0 18 0 c: Ql :I: ~ Ql a. 16 0> 14 § 0 0 )i x •...•. 12 0 Ql M 0.. ~ 0> .~ ~ 0 (]) 10 0 tIl 0 8 0.. tIl Ql 6 0 0 M •.-t ::i: ~ Ql a. 4 III .,. ... .58 0 III +' c: 2 III III Ql ..c a. 0 1 2 Pheasants 4 3 Observed Per Mile Fig. 13 Birds per mile observed in spring multiplied hen index in relation to the fall BPM index. 5 <BPM) by the young per �- 43 Hunting Pressure Following the Opening Weekend Systematic surveys were not conducted to measure hunting pressure following the opening weekend of season. However, partial inventories were obtained while conducting other studies in 1965, 1966, and 1968. The results presented in Table 15 were contrasted with opening weekend estimates. In making this direct comparison, it was assumed that a square mile was observed for each linear mile travelled by vehicle. Some biases and errors were introduced, but the general comparison is believed valid. In 1967, traffic counters were placed at a number of key locations to measure traffic coming into the areas. Malfunctions of the equipment, along with destruction by snow plows and vandals, resulted in a poor sample (Snyder 1968). Table 15. subsequent Hunting pressure on the study areas during opening weekend periods of the 1965, 1966, and 1968 hunting seasons. Miles Sampled Period Miles/ Party 1965 Miles Sampled Miles/ Party 1966 Miles Sampled and Miles/ Party 1968 Opening weekend 348 1.57 348 .85 348 1.36 1/ Weekdays 541 42.23 651 23.25 269 26.90 Second weekend 80 8.00 140 6.36. 568 6.60 Third weekend 148 11.38 282 8.60 209 11.60 ?:.J 109 27.20 Fourth weekend Fifth weekend 1/ Based on the assumption 20 percent local hunters were used in hunting. 1/ Second opening of split season. Hunting 62 10.33 of the resident vehicles plus non- Season Recommendations Sex ratio, crowing and production indices were used each year to provide management recommendations for setting hunting seasons. Table 16 provides season length information on the study areas during the six-year study. �- 44 - Land Posting Surveys In the event of hen harvest, the percent of land open to hunting would be an important consideration in harvest evaluation. Because of threatened mass closures, when the study was initiated, surveys were conducted to determine the extent of land posting in the experimental area. In 1967 these were extended along survey routes established in the control. Most of the land remained unposted throughout the study period (Table 17). Little evidence of year to year trend was evident. Hunting Success In the event of hen harvest, hunter success would provide one of the best measures of study success or failure. Increased harvest as a result of shooting hens on a sustained basis would provide one of the best methods of study evaluation. Over-harvest of hens would result in decreased production and lower hunter success. Hen harvest within the capacity of the population would provide a sustained increase in harvest with subsequent increased hunter opportunity. Since hens were not allowed in the bag, hunter success was measured only in 1968. Field contacts during the day, followed by check stations in the evening, were employed during the first two weekends of season. Due to manpower limitations, sampling was not uniform throughout the study areas. Check stations were set up at approaches to the highway between the two study areas. As a result, most samples came from localities proximal to these stations. Adequate samples were not obtained in the northern part of the experimental area, where pheasant densities were low; nor in the southern part of the control, where good populations existed. Biases prevented direct reliable comparison of indices on the two study areas. This was in direct contrast to pheasant density information presented in the previous segment. There, BPM, CY and FPI were higher in the control. The data in Table 18 indicate hunting success dropped slightly on the second weekend of season. Confidence cannot be placed in data for the remainder of the season due to inadequate sample size. But, the average hunter wasn't very successful at bagging pheasants in Colorado's best pheasant range. The hunter's inclination to walk the large fields declined as the day and season progressed. Need for habitat manipulation to facilitate harvest as well as to improve production was evident. Environmental Influences When the study was initiated, it was hoped that similar land type, land use, cover types and climatic conditions would produce consistently similar pheasant production and density on the two areas. But, this situation did not follow. Pheasant populations on the control dropped dramatically below those on the experimental area in 1964 and remained there in 1965 (Fig. 4). Production brought the control population up to that on the experimental area by 1967. In 1968, the experimental area density declined. �- 45 Table 16. Hunting season information on the two study areas during the six year study. Year Open Dates Season Length Bag and Poss. 1963 Nov. 9 Dec. 22 44 3 & 6 1964 Nov. 8 Dec. 25 48 3 & 6 1965 Nov. 14 Nov. 30 15 3 & 6 1966 Nov. 12 Dec. 31 50 3 & 6 1967 Nov. 11 Dec. 31 51 3 & 6 1968 Nov. 16 Dec. 14 Dec. 1 & Dec. 31 33 3 & 6 Table 17. A comparison of land closure to hunting from 1963 through 1968. Land Status Posted "Hunting by Permission" Closed to Hunting Year Area Unposted 1963 Exper. 73% 23% 4% 1964 Exper. 72% 25% 3% 1965 Exper. 88% 10% 2% 1966 Exper. 84% 12% 4% 1967 Exper. 87% 8% 5% Control 92% 3% 5% Exper. 88% 5% 7% Control 85% 6% 9% 1968 �Table 18. Hunter success on the experimental and control study areas during the 1968 pheasant season. Period Location Hunters Hours Hunted Adult First Exper. 416 2,050 Weekend Control 433 First Both Weekdays Areas Second Exper. Pheasants Harvested Unclas sified Young Total Birds Per Hunter Hours per Bird 39 140 90 269 .65 7.6 2,020 26 104 117 247 .57 8.2 12 23 3 5 0 8 .67 2.9 104 410 8 32 l3 53 .51 7.7 +:- Weekend Control 90 489 6 20 15 41 .46 11.9 Third Both 43 120 1 8 3 12 .28 10.0 Weekend Areas Second Both 27 153 2 6 12 20 .74 7.6 Opening Dec.Areas 14 and 15 (j'\ �- 47 - Fortunately, Swope (1964b) initiated a number of environmental measures at the start of the study. These measurements disclosed some of the influences responsible for population variances between the two study areas. However, some environmental factors could not be readily measured. Herein lay one of the major weaknesses in the study. Long Term Environment Approximately 580 square miles were mapped on the experimental area and 411 square miles were completed on the control from 1963 through 1966. Only large continuous rangeland areas were excluded. Cover type acreages and percentages by area are presented in Table 19. Table 20 presents these data on an "acres-per-section" basis. The various cover types were discussed by Snyder (1967). Most significant among the figures was the high percent of land utilized for small grain production. Approximately 84 percent of the experimental area and 76 percent of the control were planted to small grains or were Summer fallowed. Winter wheat was the predominate crop. Only small percentages of oats, barley or rye were included in these figures. During dry years with resultant crop failure, millets were substituted for small grains. Since small grains were produced only every other year, only half the acreage could be considered productive pheasant habitat in anyone year. Linder et a1. (1960) and Trautman (1960) pOinted out the importance of small grain fields for pheasant production. The same is probably true in these study areas. During the six year period of study, a pronounced trend toward deep well irrigation was evident in both study areas. Irrigated corn, sugar beets, and beans was primarily located in the southeastern part of the experimental area and in the northeastern, eastern, and southern part of the control. About the same acreages were placed under irrigation on the two areas. The two areas contained similar cropland acreages. Pastureland was the one exception. The average experimental section contained about 52 acres of pasture, whereas about 87 acres of pasture were tallied per control section. Most were short-grass pastures of little value to pheasants. The greater amount of pasture in the control was believed partially sible for the increased proportion of fencerow found in that area. fences were usually only marginal as pheasant habitat. responPasture The average control area section contained 9.4 acres of draw or low area contrasted to only 3.4 acres per section in the experimental area. In many instances in the control, this cover was along intermittent drainages and was of good to excellent quality. In the experimental area, few draws existed. Low "slough type" areas were often of little value because they were farmed when they did not contain water. The experimental area contained more and better windbreaks than the control. Most of these were located at occupied farm-lots, whereas more willows and permanent cover were found along drainages in the control. �- 48 - Table 19. Cover types by acreage and percent on the experimental and control study areas. Cover Type Experimental Acreage Percent Control Acreage Percent Crop Type Green Wheat* Fallow Wheat* Corn Sorghums, Millets Pasture Plowed Miscellaneous** 156,668.4 158,042.3 4,313.0 17,205.2 30,940.5 1,556.4 2,011.0 41.29 41.65 1.14 4.53 8.15 .41 .54 97,741.8 101,406.9 3,827.4 11 ,611.1 35,599.2 1,432.4 1,418.0 37.23 38.62 1.46 4.42 13.56 .55 .54 Total Crop Types 370,736.8 97.71 253,036.8 96.38 Occupied Farm Lots Vacant Farm Lots Towns Cemeteries Highways Railroads Miscellaneous 1,580.7 342.6 656.0 10.4 161.7 50.9 33.4 .42 .09 .17 .003 .04 .01 .009 1,009.9 247.0 398.0 22.0 109.0 25.0 77.3 .38 .09 .15 .008 .04 .01 .03 Total Cultural Features 2,835.7 .74 1,888.2 .71 Tree Plantings Draws & Low Areas Rights of Way Fence Rows Edge Cover Miscellaneous 695.0 2,016.7 567.3 429.2 1,689.1 476.8 .18 .53 .15 .11 .45 .13 335.3 3,832.2 281.2 596.1 1,345.9 1,241.3 .13 1.46 .11 .23 .51 .47 Total Special Coverts 5,874.1 1.55 7,632.0 2.91 Cultural Features Wild Areas and Special Coverts GRAND TOTAL 379,446.6 * Or other cereal grain. ** Alfalfa was the major miscellaneous crop. 262,557.0 �- 49 - Table 20. Cover type acreages cover type percentages. Cover Type per 640 acre section based on study area Experimental Acres Per Section Area Control Area Cover Type Green Wheat* Summer Fallow Corn Sorghums, Millets Pasture Plowed Miscellaneous** 264.26 266.56 7.30 28.99 52.16 2.62 3.46 238.27 247.17 9.34 28.29 86.78 3.52 3.46 Total Crop Types 625.35 616.83 Occupied Farm Lots Vacant Farm Lots Towns Cemeteries Highways Railroads Miscellaneous 2.69 .58 1.09 Trace .26 .06 .06 2.43 .58 .96 .06 .26 .06 .20 Total Cultural 4.74 4.55 Tree Plantings Draws and Low Areas Right of Way Fence Row Edge Cover Miscellaneous 1.15 3.39 .96 .70 2.88 .83 .83 9.35 .70 1.47 3.26 3.01 Total Special Coverts 9.91 18.62 TOTAL ALL COVER TYPES 640.00 640.00 Cultural Features Features Wild Areas and Special Coverts * Green wheat or other cereal grain. ** Alfalfa was the major crop. �- 50 - In sunnnary, it seems probable that differences between the two areas tended to nullify each other and make the areas similar in their capacity to sustain pheasants. More tree planting and larger acreages of small grain on the experimental area were possibly compensated by more and better undisturbed permanent cover along drainages, and by slightly more roadside "edge cover" in the control. Most other land features were quite similar on the two areas. Annual Environmental Measurements Precipitation--Farmers living in the vicinity of the central township corners, who expressed a willingness to cooperate, were asked to record precipitation. Several became lax in their recording efforts as the study progressed. Fortunately, others of the eight recorders, maintained good to excellent records throughout the study. Monthly and annual accumulations of precipitation, measured at the township corners, are provided in Table 21. Comparison with the long-term average for the area is provided. Data considered too unreliable were excluded. Better records were maintained during the growing season. Sunnner precipitation was of more interest to farmers and was easier to record. Fall and winter moisture, usually in the form of snow, was light, infrequent, and difficult to measure. Vegetative Growth Measurements--Variability of winter wheat growth was considered a potentially important factor in pheasant production. In addition, climatic influences on wheat might have a similar effect on pheasant production. Therefore, wheat growth was measured each spring. A sunnnary is presented in Table 22. These data indicate variance in growth and height among years was more noticeable than that between areas. Total sunnnation of average wheat growth measurements (Table 22) was 431 inches in experimental area contrasted to 409 inches on the control. Stubble Height and Weed Overstory--In early fall, residual wheat stubble and weed overstory were also measured. Average stubble height for the six years was 10.5 inches in the experimental area and 9.1 inches in the control. Weed overstory averaged 18.3 inches on both areas for the six year period. Photo Hubs--Vegetative growth of the preceding growing season was pictorially illustrated by photos at designated photo hubs each fall. The purpose of the photos was to detect differences between conditions on the two areas. However, a review of the photos indicated cover differences would have to be quite dramatic to be detected. Therefore, this phase of study was discontinued. �Table 21. Inches of monthly and annual precipitation recorded on the experimental and control study areas. 1963 Month Exp. 1964 Con. Con. Exp , 1965 Exp. Con. 1966 Exp. Con. 1967 Exp. Con. 1968 Exp. Con . Long Term Mean ~/ January .63 )) .00 1/ .46 .58 1.51 .45 .17 .24 .04 .03 .31 February .20 .38 .71 .19 .20 .22 T T .25 .25 .35 March .58 .90 .47 .18 .79 .71 .32 .28 .10 .06 .99 April .23 2.53 .51 .17 1.34 1.18 1.08 1.51 .94 .60 1.9l May 4.08 1.33 1.69 4.51 3.73 .79 .71 5.12 6.10 2.42 2.46 3.19 June .42 .80 4.26 7.51 5.39 6.24 4.68 6.38 6.02 2.37 1.64 3.37 July 3.05 2.62 .91 4.75 4.70 3.68 4.66 3.86 1.50 1.98 1.91 2.46 August 1.36 3.12 .32 1.60 1.19 4.34 5.09 2.03 .47 3.77 3.16 2.00 2.45 .45 .39 1.51 2.82 4.06 2.19 1.05 1.16 .03 .23 1.48 October .95 .32 .14 2.15 1.48 .50 .75 .54 .60 .34 .43 .92 November .45 .09 .04 .01 .01 .31 .16 .28 .35 .06 .12 .44 December .15 .09 T .90 .31 .17 .19 1.02 1.25 .42 .44 .39 11.56 25.09 20.75 23.93 20.99 21.85 19.48 12.72 11.33 17.81 14.55 13 .51 11.94 1/ Precipitation received at Holyoke, Colorado which lies between the two study areas was substituted where study area information was not available. Based on 68 years of U. S. Heather Bureau Records at Holyoke, Colorado. '2:../ t-' I September Total V'I �Table 22. Hheat growth, stubble height and weed overstory measurements collected on the experimental and control area transects. Date 1963 Exper. Cant. April 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 May 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 2.28 1965 Exper. Cant. 1966 Exper. Cant. 5.39 11.37 1967 Exper. Cant. 4.00 3.50 6.75 6.25 8.53 8.60 7.90 9.74 9.39 5.32 9.96 11.71 14.28 16.61 11.81 11.05 12.39 21.27 17.19 22.31 19.68 1968 Exper. Cant. 2.43 7.90 10.53 9.75 8.50 13.75 13.75 19.95 17.82 18.95 20.94 22.85 21.38 19.00 23.52 10.83 17.81 7.35 26.40 26.23 24.43 33.87 27.52 tv 11.45 10.68 15.50 13 .40 19.46 8.10 20.64 7.21 13.80 _4.16 21.16 10.83 25.16 8.68 20.19 23.53 17.50 23.95 23.05 12.53 V1 21.84 June 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 Fall Measurements of \fueat Stubble Hei, \leed over-story 1964 Exper. Cant. 12.30 26.34 25.36 21.36 9.61 10.18 7.47 10.02 .....U) 1 '·1") 11.85 13.13 �- 53 - Progress of Spring Stubble P1owing--Cessation of pheasant nesting usually occurred before spring plowing of wheat stubble was completed. Since wheat stubble offered attractive nesting cover, delay in plowing could significantly affect pheasant production. Considerable nest destruction and occasional hen mortality was sometimes reported during spring plowing by farmers. Each spring, the progress of spring plowing was measured to detect possible differences between areas. Table 23 indicates plOWing in the control usually lagged slightly behind that on the experimental area. Greater variation occurred among years than between areas. Table 23. Relative progress harvest study areas. of spring stubble plOWing on the two hen Percent Stubble Experimental Area Plowed Control Date Year April 23 1968 45 35 24 1964 20 17 26 1963 85 84 1967 75 67 27 1966 18 23 28 1965 44 47 48 46 1963 98 96 1964 66 48 1966 80 81 1967 91 81 1968 89 82 85 78 85 79 Mean May 10-12 Hean May 18 1964 Area �- 54 - Unmeasured Environmental Influences Winter Weather--Winter weather conditions were observed in the region during the last four years of study. During the winter of 1965-66, one to two feet of snow accumulated in late December and early January and persisted in part through February. Conditions were more severe in the experimental areas due to greater snowfall. Glazed snow conditions developed. Pheasants concentrated in farmyards and she1terbe1ts and apparently survived with little mortality through the period. Crowing indices in spring were higher in the experimental area despite the more severe snow conditions that prevailed. Blizzard conditions occurred twice during the last four years of study. A March, 1966 blizzard produced considerable snow. Four to six inches accumulated during the second occurrence in December, 1968. Neither lasted for an extended period or appeared to significantly reduce pheasant populations. Some mortality observed in road ditches after the 1968 storm may have been due to hunters, who forced pheasants to leave cover areas during the storm. Summer Climatic Factors-Hail--The impact of summer storms, primarily hail storms, on pheasant density was considered a second factor that could not be readily measured. Hail size, wind velocity, the amount of accompanying rain, the time of occurrence in relation to period of hatch, and other factors all determined the influence of such storms on pheasants. Three hailstorms during June, 1964 blanketed almost the entire control area (Swope 1965). He reported these storms may have played havoc with pheasant reproduction. The experimental area went unscathed by hail that year. Hail storms were not recorded in 1963 or 1965. Only one small area in the control was severely hailed during August, 1966. Cloudbursts in the western part of the control at that time sent flood waters east along several intermittent streams and considerable damage to vegetation along the drainages was observed. Again the impact on pheasants remained unknown. In June, 1967 hail caused widespread crop damage in both study areas. In the experimental area, two severe storms hit parts of Sedgwick County. A similar mid-June storm hit much the same area in 1968. The effect of these storms on pheasants was not determined. Some searches for mortality were made, but usually produced little evidence. Finding significant evidence during the summer would be difficult even if a large crew was available to search, for the birds remain widely dispersed during the nesting season. Farmers in Some localities reported mortality following the 1964 and 1967 storms. But in other areas less severely hailed, pheasants apparently suffered little from the hail. Drought--The hail storms in June 1964 were followed by July-August drought that persisted late into the spring of 1965. From July, 1964 through April, 1965 moisture totaled 4.32 inches on the experimental area and 2.92 inches on the control. Normal expected precipitation for this period would be 11.25 inches. As a result, most of the winter wheat in the control area was plowed under during the late spring of 1965. Surveys in the control central township indicated only 12 percent of the land still remained in wheat. �- 55 - In contrast, soil moisture conditions were enough better in the experimental area so that a much smaller percentage was destroyed. Again the impact of drought and subsequent wheat destruction on pheasants could not be directly measured. The Relation Pheasant Production Influences on Production of Environment to and Survival, and Harvest and Survival Martinson and Grondahl (1966) found a direct positive correlation between pheasant production and May-June precipitation amounts in Southwestern North Dakota. That is, production was higher in wet years and poorer in dry years. Similar comparison of harvest in nine Northeast Colorado counties with four station regional May-June precipitation averages for a 14 year period produced a correlation coefficient of .14. Apparently other factors exerted greater influence on pheasant production in Northeast Colorado. Wheat growth, stubble height, spring plowing progress and other environmental variables were plotted and tested against the study area BPM index. The results are listed in Table 24. Of the several variables, only green wheat height (Fig. 14) correlated significantly with BPM (r == .67",). The correlation of March-April moisture with BPM was quite poor (r == .07). However, when data from 1964, a year of hail and summer drought, were removed, the correlation rose to a significant level (r == .86) (Fig. 15). This supports the contention that early spring moisture was important in its influence on wheat growth and the onset of nesting, but adverse conditions following in summer may discount influence of spring moisture. During the study period, early spring moisture conditions were almost routinely below normal. If March through May moisture had been above normal, the peak of hatch might have been moved up to the first part of June, or even into May. But again, excessive spring moisture might delay spring plowing, resulting in high nest destruction and hen mortality. More study of the several variables is needed in the future. Several of the factors in Table 24 are illustrated in conjunction with gPM and the period and peak of hatch in Figures 16 through 19. Important variables that seem evident in these illustrations are summarized as follows: 1. Hatching peaked early in 1963 because June precipitation was abnormally low. Poor production resulted. 2. Severe hail in the control in 1964 and in parts of the experimental area in 1967 and 1968 occurred somewhat in unison with the main period of hatch. 3. Drought conditions through the summer of 1964 curtailed reproduction. These drought conditions persisted into the spring of 1965 retarding wheat growth and delaying the peak of hatch. Production in 1965 was sustained through a long summer rainy period and possibly not completely measured by brood counts. �- 56 - 4. Below normal March-April precipitation, which slowed wheat growth in spring, was a dominate characteristic throughout the period. Wide population departures on the two areas in 1964 might be assessed to hail in the control area, but were not as readily explained in the experimental area. 5. Summer pheasant production was above average and sustained over long periods in both 1966 and 1967. Above normal June-July moisture was received both years. 6. A direct positive relationship was evident between June 1 wheat height and fall pheasant densities. The widest deviation from this relationship occurred in 1967. However, during that year, considerable growth occurred during the first part of June (Fig. 14). Table 24. The relationship density index. Environmental Spring Plowing May-June of environmental (Percent complete April 28) (Study areas) May-August Precipitation March-April Moisture (Study areas) March-April Moisture (Excluding Green Wheat Height Wheat Stubble to BPM, the fall Correlation Coefficient with BPM Variable Precipitation variables (Study areas) .46 .30 .13 .07 1964) (June 1) Height (Late summer) Weed Overs tory (Late summer) -.03 -.34 Heather, directly and through its impact on vegetation, seemed to govern pheasant production and survival in Northeast Colorado. Four main components were believed especially important during most years. These were (1) winter and early spring moisture conditions as they influenced wheat growth in spring, (2) spring plowing of wheat stubble, (3) precipitation amount and pattern received during the reproductive period, and (4) severity of thunderstorms, especially hail, during the reproductive period. Hinter blizzards could be listed as an additional factor occasionally reducing breeding stock. A hypothesis on the interaction of these and other influences is presented as follows: �- 57 - o 32 31 30 29 28 27 0 .-I Q) ~ :I 26 0 'J ..c eo .0-1 Q) ..c 25 .u co Q) ..c 24 ~ C-64 Severe Hail 0 c Q) Q) H 0 E-67 Considerable growth in June c& 23 0 0 22 0 21 C-67 0 20 r 19 .65 0 ! 1 2 Pheasants Fig. 14. density. The relationship 3 observed per mile 4 5 (BPM) between wheat height on June 1 and fall pheasant �- 58 - March April Moisture 3.5 - BPM ,-, ,'., ., •...,C-64 , • J ..•...• E-64 3.0 2.5 o o o 2.0 1.5 00 o 0 1.0 .5 00 o r o 1 o = .07 with 1964 excluded r 2 Pheasants 3 per mile = .86 4 5 (BPM) Fig. 15. March-April precipitation as an influence on fall pheasant In 1964 hail and summer drought appeared to be overriding factors. density. �- 59 - -1 aun.r ;0 se sa4~UI U1 ~461aH ~ea4M uaaJ~ 00 1.0'<:1' f"lf"lf"l NOOO 1.0'<:1' N 0 00 1.0 f"lf"lNNNNNIl""lr-i 00 1.0 0\ r-i -_ ....••---- ~ - -... -- •.~ •...- --- -- - - - - - ~ -- ---_ •.. _--. - I/') (WdS) anw N o Jad s:tueslo""'td 0\00 t'-I.O I/') <;j'f"lN r-i 0 uOl~e~1d1~aJd ;0 sa4~uI �Fig. 17 Normal precipitation, actual precipitation and green wheat height in comparison with the BPM index and the peak period of production on the control study area. Letters at the base represent months from March through August. �26 ,... ::f:: 22 I I ~~Jf..tj>A';ClI;.~.Ii32):~"'g'U<"""""'J.·'?~"~~~~~~;~~~:_}~:5:_~~:';.J I I (:l~«'-'.itW.~'4.~~"').I~l1f.'~~;[f...(,~(5.~':;'R·(~O[?~:.t;.',)~<l~~1 -1120 U 5 0- co 4 18 (I) .-I .,-j X I I-t /'l/BPM (l) 0. •..-1 2 ..c a.. 0., .,-j . +J ~1 10 (!J +J ro +J .::: :.:. III s:: co i:: ..-10 3 - 1 . - - -- - --------------------------- 0 14 hl \...0 "-~-... ~~ '12 4-t E~ .h~r--"·r';e.l·:;~·· Q., ----------------------- -~"."fl.if-NfJ'r. , {', ~~\?'(I '~'~"" 0 ~ ~~~~':~r:!/~~[.~ ~1 Vi OJ 10 ~ 8 6 4 2 0 1963 1964 1965 1967 1966 1968 Fig. 18 March-April, May-June, July-August and annual accumulations of precipitation in relation to the BPM index of fall density on the experimental study area r 0'\ I-' �,-. 5 :E Il. 22 Q) 20 e4 ..-I oM3 :t: 18 ~2 Vl +I 16 §1 Vl m _I fo Ii 14 ~~j~~~~~~~~~~~j~ '., ....,. //////////////// /////// ///////// . - ,',' :.:<.... / / /' / / / / / / / / / / / / / ///////////////// ///////////////// ///////////////// .J//////////////// d' -::.. - .. ~---- ---- ~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~ ~~~~j ~~~~~ ~~~~~~Ar:::::':- //////////////// /(////////////// //////////////// ////////////~/// ///////////////// //////////////// )/////////////// //////////////// //////////////// / / // / / // // / // // / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / ~/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 1:;:; ///////////////// ///////////////// ///////////////// ///////////////// ///////////////// ~ . ~~~~~~:;:; ~~:; j:;~~:; ~:;,..) ".". •. ..- -- ,:....:...: 10...4-4 0 tIl 8 6 ---::;:::::::::::::::, .. -::/:;:>;.;-::;::::;.;' /) ,':;'l~:;::i~':):'~';:~ //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// /;////////////// 4 2 0 1964 1965 1966 1967 u Q) ..-::2:.... ////////////// ////////////// //////////////// //////////////// j ~~~~j~ ~~~~j~ j ~ ~~~:;~~~~:;~~~~:;~~~ 1963 ro +I oM 0. oM ~ Il. ~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ -r ,,.,.,."., ..'.,.,.,. ,.,. /////////////// //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// //////////////// /////////////// ////////////// +I ~~~~~~~~~~~~ 12 .. ~. //////////////// ;::,:,.:. :<:<-'-, .. s:: s 1968 Fig. 19 March-April, May-June, July-August and annual accumulations of precipitation relation to the BPM index of fall density on the control study area. in Q) ~ 0\ N �- 63 1. Spring plowing of wheat stubble disrupts territories and initial nesting efforts. It reduces the available nesting cover in late April and early May to near zero in most years. 2. Pheasant nesting is delayed. Pheasants are then forced to nest in green wheat. If soil moisture is inadequate,as in 1965, or winter and early spring precipitation is below normal, wheat growth is retarded. As a consequence, it does not provide suitable nesting cover when pheasants need it most. Correlation of green wheat height and pheasant production supports this hypothesis. 3. Delay of nesting subjects the eggs to stresses of summer heat and dryness. If June and July are relatively wet and cool, nesting can be completed successfully as in 1966 and 1967 and good production results. But if summer conditions are dry and hot, poor reproduction results. Fortunately some moderate weather conditions usually exist each summer. Tenacious nesting efforts by the hen payoff during such periods. 4. Impact of hail and severe thunderstorms is generally independent of other environmental variables. Fortunately, hail is often localized. Storms in the control during 1964 were an exception. Unfortunately, we cannot assign numerical ratings to the impact of hail or drought on pheasant reproduction. Our measurement of environmental influences remains incomplete. More refined analysis of the data available in this study seems futile under these circumstances. The Relationship of Environmental Influences to Hen Harvest Previous studies on pheasants, quail and other species indicate that respective influences exerted by density dependent and density independent environmental limitations determine the harvestable surplus. The higher the density dependent influences, the greater the allowable harvest. With that in mind, we will briefly review the previously listed environmental influences. Winter Survival--Management Unit 1 data and that of previous studies indicate density dependent factors were not of major importance in winter mortality. On the study areas, winter cover conditions did not vary greatly in either quality or quantity from year to year or between areas. Yet spring populations varied widely. We have little evidence to indicate that winter acted as a major bottleneck reducing populations to a consistent carrying capacity level. However, we cannot exclude the possibility of subtle limitations due to competition for winter cover, escape from predation, etc. Nesting and Production Conditions--In early spring, wheat stubble offered an abundance of attractive cover. Spring plowing destroyed all nests established in wheat stubble, changing the situation in a hurry. Only the meager roadside cover and a few unfarmed areas remained to provide suitable nesting cover. If this limitation continued through the summer, available nesting space would limit production and hens would be surplus. �- 64 - Farmers have reported finding nests in wheat fields during July harvest and during late sununer tillage of stubble. Green wheat apparently became suitable as nesting cover in late May. The competitive nesting bottleneck was again removed. Trautman (1960) in South Dakota and Linder et al. (1960) in Nebraska, found that small grain fields provided valuable nesting cover. Nesting success was much higher in small grain than along roadsides and other areas. Northeast Colorado wheat fields provided vast nesting areas in sununer in comparison to the number of birds available to use them. It is difficult to believe hens must compete for nesting cover during the sununer. Instead, density independent climatic factors seem predominate at this time. Hail, high temperatures, drought or rain exert their influence irrelevant to pheasant density. A hypothesis was previously presented, stating that C rather than CH best represented breeding population density because of sp~ing hen mortality. If this is true, then the period of mortality became increasingly important. If mortality occurred during spring plowing before green wheat was suitable for nesting, we again had a harvestable surplus of hens. Farmers frequently reported mortality of nesting hens while plowing wheat stubble. But, if little hen mortality occurred during this period, or if most of it occurred after mid-May, then the harvestable surplus would be greatly reduced. Production in wheat fields seemed to be the result of random nesting success in a non-confining environment. If so, production was a direct result of the number of hens present. Clearly, our limited knowledge of environmental influence on pheasants does not permit us to draw conclusions at this time. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS For Current Management Conclusions 1. Of the population indices tested, birds per mile (BPM) and young per hen (Y), obtained during production counts, and the crowing index (C), obtained in spring, provided the most reliable study area trend data. Birds per mile (bpm) obtained during spring sex ratio counts were least accurate of those tested. 2. A CY index (crowing index X young per hen) closely approximated BPM as an index of population level and trend. Use of this index instead of FPI eliminates need for spring sex ratio counts during "cocks only" hunting seasons. In other words, rooster densities more accurately measured breeding capacity than hen densities in spring did. The reason for this was not clear. 4. The young per hen index (Y) was almost completely determined by the proportion of hens successful in nesting. Therefore, clutch size, hatchability and fertility were not important variables. 5. Spring breeding population levels partially determined the number of young. Therefore, they were, in part, responsible for fall density levels. But productivity, determined by nesting success, was the primary factor responsible for fall density levels. 6. Census information from Small Game Management Unit 1 involved larger samples than those obtained on the study areas. However, study area data �- 65 - were far superior in accuracy. More persons were involved in management unit sampling, possibly accounting for some differences in sampling accuracy. 7. Best production census occurred when the majority of the young reached six to nine weeks of age. This peak period usually existed from mid-August through early September in Northeast Colorado. Brood counts obtained in evening were equal in quality to those obtained in morning. 8. Northeast Colorado production was usually determined by four environmental variables: (1) winter and spring moisture and its influence on wheat growth, (2) spring plowing of wheat stubble, (3) precipitation amount and pattern during the reproductive period, and (4) severity of thunderstorms, especially severe hail, during the reproductive period. Some evidence was found indicating that wheat growth in spring could be used as an indicator of pheasant production success in dryland areas in Northeast Colorado. 9. There was little difference in the amount of land closure from one year to the next on two study areas. No trend in closure could be detected. 10. The average hunter put in seven or more hours hunting time per bird harvested. Recommended Applications to Management 1. Sex ratio counts should be discontinued under existing "cocks only" management. 2. The fall population index (FPI) should be replaced by the CY and BPM indices for measuring population trend. 3. Construct a regression line between CY and BPM using both study area and management unit data for past years. Use this graph as a reference in the future. Each year, plot indices on this graph and compare them with the regression line. If the two indices closely approach the line, then confidence in census results is increased. In contrast, one or both indices are suspect of error when they deviate widely from the regression line. In this case, additional census is needed prior to submitting season recommendations. 4. Young per hen (Y) and percent successful hens (SH) should be compared each year in the same manner that CY and BPM are tested. Be sure all field personnel flush and record hens with and without broods by standard, well explained procedures. 5. More late summer brood count replicates are needed to improve the accuracy of management census. For example, in Management Unit 1, at least one more replicate per route is needed. Counts should be conducted from mid-August through early September before submitting season recommendations. Use evening as well as morning counts to increase sample size. Reenacting the Study A complete program of education, coopL~ation and realignment with the farmers of Northeast Colorado is needed before attempting to conduct this study a second time. The reader is referred to Swope (1964b) for further information concerning information and education procedures. �- 66 - Assuming public acceptance throughout the study, do we have adequate knowledge to successfully evaluate hen removal and determine its impact on the population? Can we measure or account for all the variables affecting the hen population and thus, derive an accurate conclusion? I feel quite confident that the answer is yes. Procedures for reenactment of this evaluation, based largely upon knowledge gained from past experience, are presented in the following pages. Personnel Two full time research employees will be needed to conduct this study. Both should be resident in the region and have a trained hunting dog for use in the census work. Part-time employees might be effectively utilized during the spring census period. Additional Division personnel would be needed during the hunting season. Study Area Size and Location Increasing the size of the study areas does not seem possible. Larger homologous sites are not available in Colorado. However, they would be preferred to reduce the effect of local weather influences. The experimental area must retain defined, easily recognizable boundaries. Lyon (1956) reviewed literature and summarized findings on pheasant movements. Considerable movement was noted by stocked birds but not in resident flocks. When considering the home range of the species and average annual movements, I do not think ingress or egress from these large study areas is too important. On this basis, I recommend that intensive study central townships be excluded in future tests. Population Inventory Sex ratio, crowing, and brood count samples were all found to be inadequate for obtaining statistically valid evidence of the effects of hen harvest within anyone year. The following recommendations are presented to attempt correction of this sampling deficiency. Sex Ratio--First year pre-treatment census should begin with the spring sex ratio count in mid-April. Thirteen routes, each 24 miles long, are needed in each study area. Counting procedures include: 1. Divide each route into two-mile segments with corresponding tally forms to record the birds observed per segment. 2. Select and census one route in each area Simultaneously. Treat each pair of routes in this manner. Retain these pairs throughout the study. 3. Alternate the t,.-,observers between areas to remove bias due to their individual ob se rva t Lo.i ab i i i t i.e s . 4. Run each route in one direction only. 5. Complete two replicates per route. �- 67 - 6. Record good harem flushes separate from those where conditions do not facilitate a complete flush. 7. Maintain a fifteen to twenty mile-per-hour speed. 8. Terminate counts when altered sex ratios indicate the onset of nesting. 9. Run counts only under favorable weather conditions. 10. Check procedures used in Colorado (Sandfort 1960a) and in other states. Crowing Counts--A minimum of five crowing routes are needed per area. Each should have ten stations spaced approximately two miles apart. Procedures include: 1. Complete four replicates per station under favorable weather conditions, if possible. 2. High-count-per-station averages would be used in analysis. 3. Pair routes and run simultaneously in each area (as in 2 under sex ratio). 4. Follow standard Colorado census procedures (Sandfort 1960a). lwo variables that influence crowing counts should be examined (Swope 1967). The influence that different sex ratios and densities exert should be determined, utilizing mornings when crowing trend counts cannot be effectively conducted. In addition, the distance that a crowing rooster can be heard should be accurately determined under Northeast Colorado conditions. Production Counts--Paired, simultaneous counts would be run on the thirteen routes set up for sex ratio counts. 1. Tally observations per two-mile segment. 2. Run routes in only one direction. 3. Initiate counts near August 1, and continue into mid-September. 4. Study brood ages and weather data to predict the optimum census period. 5. Conduct four replicates per route with complete or near complete flushes recorded separate from poor observations. Consider all birds observed in BPM computations. 6. Be careful to distinguish hens with and without broods and to separate broods if possible. Assign a hen to broods (two or more young) flushed without a hen. 7. Conduct both morning and evening counts under favorable weather conditions and follow procedures outlined by Sandfort (1960b). 8. Make supplemental brood counts in localities where severe hail has potentially reduced populations. Pre-season and Post-season Sex Ratio Counts--Stokes (1954) described procedures used to conduct fall and winter counts. In general, two or more men with dogs should attempt rapid and complete flushes of birds from winter cover resting areas. A minimum 1,000 bird sample per area is recommended per census. Take advantage of cold, windy days when birds are in cover. Snow cover fac i Li t a t ee be t t c r counts, but cannot be relied upon in Northeast Colorado. Birds per mile indices should be considered secondary to the primary objective. Under heavy snow conditions obtain a total census of sample routes within the two study areas by use of airplane or helicopter. Sexes should be tallied sepac~tely, if possible. �- 68 - Procedures for Collecting Environmental Data Spring Plowing of Wheat Stubble--This phase of study can be continued much as previously conducted. Standard routes on standard dates are preferrable. Measurement of Wheat Growth--Select random fields throughout each area to be measured on alternate years. 1. Recommended dates for these measurements include: April 1, May 1, May 15, June 1, and June 15. 2. Record dates when wheat begins to head out and when it reaches full height. Relate to measurement dates. 3. A faster, more effective technique for measuring cover is needed (see Jones 1968). Precipitation Measurements--Farmers who express willingness to cooperate would be asked to record precipitation. Provide rain gauges and recording forms to ten recorders distributed in each area. If possible, supplement with automatic precipitation recorders, used at two or more locations. Unmeasured Environmental Influences--There is no easy or direct way of assigning a numerical rating to a blizzard, hail or drought with respect to its influence on pheasant reproduction and survival. Normally, we expect blizzards and droughts to affect populations in both areas on about the same basis. But hail storms can occur over a few square miles, or as in 1964, over an entire study area. The "backdoor approach", comparing populations after the storm with those before, in relation to other areas, seems to be the best alternative. Hail--Determination of the size and area of hail occurrences is needed. Residents in the hailed area should be contacted concerning hail size, intensity and duration. Key locations would be searched if man-power and time were available. Relate information to period and peak of hatch. Winter Storms--Key concentration areas in both study areas are to be searched with dogs following severe winter storms. Attempts would be made to relate mortality to pheasant densities before and after the storm. Harvest Procedures Past Procedures for Determining Hen Harvest--Swope (1964b) explained the procedure used to compute the number of hen pheasants proposed for harvest in 1963. This harvest was not implemented, so was not included in study results. A summary of this procedure follows. 1. The crowing index was used as a base. It was estimated that roosters could be heard over a four square mile area. Therefore, the approximate number of cocks per squre-mile was obtained by dividing the index by four. The 1963 index was 48. The number per square-mile was conservatively set at ten. �- 69 - 2. Spring and winter sex ratio data were compared. The more conservative spring ratio, where two hens were observed per cock, was used. Each section therefore, contained twenty hens if it contained 10 roosters, or thirty birds in total. 3. The young per hen (Y) was slightly over four in the experimental area. Four was used as an index of prodcution. 4. Computations were made to determine the total fall population in the SOO-plus square mile area. They are listed as follows: 10 cocks x 500 sq. mi. 20 hens x 500 sq. mi. 10,000 hens x 4 young one-half of 40,000 young hens + old hens 5,000 10,000 40,000 20,000 30,000 cocks hens young young hens total hens 5. Twenty percent of the total hens would equal 6,000 birds. The requested hen permits was dropped to 4,000 to compensate for spring and summer mortality and probably failure to observe brood less hens in direct proportion to their number. 6. These figures were compared with the Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey (Grieb and Hunter 1962) which showed that approximately 23,000 cocks were shot, on the average, over the preceding seven years in Phillips and Sedgwick counties. The experimental area contained about half the pheasant range in these two counties. Future Procedures for Determining Hen Harvest--This same general procedure should be u3ed in future study. But, additional factors derived from this six-year study and from literature can also be used. In Table 25 I have attempted to compare (1) Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey information (abbreviated to small game survey, (2) opening weekend aerial hunting pressure surveys, and (3) the BPM index. Swope (1964b) stated that the experimental area encompassed over half the pheasant range in Phillips and Sedgwick counties. It also included a majority of the better pheasant range. Therefore, two-thirds was used as an estimate of experimental area portion of the hunting pressure and harvest for the two counties. Grieb (1968), and Funk and Grieb (1969) found that about 70 to 75 percent of those hunting in the region were out on the opening weekends of 1967 and 1968. As a result, 75 percent was used in projecting the opening weekend hunting pressure for the first four years of study (Table 25). Grieb's (1968) analysis indicated 38.7 percent of the pheasants were killed on the opening weekend in 1967. In 1968, Funk and Grieb (1969) found that about 72 percent of the birds were killed the first nine days of season. Table 18 shows that hunting pressure was about five times greater the opening weekend in 1968 than on the second weekend. Based on these figures, about 55 percent of the harvest occurred during the opcn Lng weekend in 1968. These harvest estimates were used in both sets of opening weekend harvest estimates in Table 25. Small Game Survey figures were consistently above those projected from aerial transect pressure survey data. The reasons for this wide divergence is unclear. Gross errors could exist in either or both sets of data. Possibly �- 70 - two-thirds of the two-county total was too high a proportion of the experimental area harvest. Errors also probably exist in the aerial survey projections. Season length, BPM and Small Game Survey information for 1963 and 1968 were about the same. Therefore, we can project from the 1968 data, that 3,000 to 5,000 roosters were harvested on the experimental area during the opening weekend of 1963. One or two hens in the bag would have increased hunting pressure. As a result, 4,000 hens might have been harvested the first weekend of the 1963 season. This does not take into consideration harvest reduction due to land closure. Based on two-thirds of the two-county rooster harvest (Grieb and Hunter 1964), the 1963 hen kill of 4,000 would have approximated about 40 percent of the rooster harvest. Accurate figures to determine the percent rooster harvest are not available. Sandfort (1954) found that about 45 percent of the roosters were taken in the Fleming area. Even if 60 percent were taken in 1963, this would mean that less than one-fourth the hens would have been harvested. I can only conclude from these meager projections that Swope's request for 4,000 hen permits was quite realistic. Based on the preceding crude analysis, future hen harvest permit estimates can be obtained from fall indexSmall Game Survey comparisons. The length of hen harvest seasons can also be based on this information. A third technique is also available as an aid in determining the number of hen permits. If pre- and post-season sex ratios and fall indices are available from the preceding year, a basic analysis can be completed. The percent cocks harvested and total cock harvest can be related to the fall index for the previous year (Petrides 1954). Assuming a constant percentage harvest, the fall indices for the subsequent treatment year can be used to estimate the total fall hen population and the number to harvest. Known hen harvest numbers, age ratio data, hunting pressure and other details will be available after the study is underway. Several methods are available which can be related to fall indices and subsequent harvest. A partial reference list to these includes Allen (1942), Dahlgren (1959), Kelker (1945), Petrides (1949 and 1954), Selleck and Hart (1957), and Stokes (1954). Wishart (1969) explained a new age technique, measuring the proximal primary, that is applicable to both sexes. This measurement should be tested against bursa and spur characteristics in Colorado to determine its degree of accuracyand limitations. Preliminary analysis in Colorado revealed that feather measurements here were different from those in Alberta, but the technique appeared to be a good one (Snyder unpublished). Development of the Special Permit--Swope (1964b) explained procedures for developing the permit. Illustrations were included. No recommendations for improvement of this system are presented here. �Table 25. Hunting pressure and harvest estimates in the experimental study area based on Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey data and opening weekend aerial pressure surveys. Small Game Survey Data Opening Weekend Total Harvest}.! HuntersV Opening Weekend Hunters}.! Aerial Survel Estimate Opening Opening Weekend Weekend Harve~t~.! Hunters'll BPM Index Year Total Birds Harvestedll 1963 9,71L' 3,572 -- 2,679 -- 1,250 2.22 1964 6,672 2,415 -- 1,811 -- 1,300 2.14 196.'; 9,088 3,308 -- 2,481 -- 1,662 1.68 1960 12,243 3,871 -- 2,903 -- 2,354 4.27 I 1967 12,540 3,816 5,016 2,671 3,366 2,566 3.73 1968 8,739 3,274 4,806 2,423 2,920 2,000 2.17 II Based on 2/3 of total Phillips-Sedgwick County harvest. ~I Based on 2/3 of total Phillips-Sedgwick County hunters. 1963 through 1966 hunter numbers were based on 11 Data based on Grieb (1968) and Funk and Grieb(1969). 1967 and 1968 data. ~I Based on birds per hunter (opening weekend) from Grieb (1968) and Funk and Grieb (1969). 51 From basic data in Table 15. Three hunters per vehicle was used as a base (Swope 1964a and b). percent added to base to correct for additional hunters present second day. Fifteen -...J I-' �- 72 - Controlling the Harvest--In 1963, four check stations were to be located at key entrances into the experimental area (Swope 1964b). Hunters were to obtain their hen permit and also check out through these stations. Similar stations should be located on main access roads into the control to measure hunter opportunity and harvest in that area. Hen permits might be distributed through local license agents to area residents a few days prior to season. Hunting Pressure--Aerial surveys should be continued as in the past. A preseason flight should also be made along each transect to determine the number of resident vehicles. Ground surveys within the areas would determine the percentage of local and non-local vehicles used in hunting. Land Posting--Routes and procedures Evaluating Procedures Sampling established in the past should be resumed. After the first year, all population, environmental and harvest data can be analyzed and evaluated to determine where weaknesses exist, and if sample sizes are adequate. After this, sampling procedures will become routine. Normally, winter and early spring conditions affecting survival should be about the same on both areas. Spring crowing counts are one of the best indices of this. But fall, winter and spring sex ratio data will be invaluable to determine percentage hen harvest and the impact of this harvest on breeding populations. Evaluating Hen Harvest Results Although sampling procedures become routine after the first year, analyzing and interpreting the results will remain a constant challenge. Two basic models are presented in the following pages to aid in explanation of hen harvest analysis. Model l--Determining the percentage harvest of hens and cocks will be the first procedure. This information is based on: (1) pre-season sex ratios, (2) number of hens removed, and (3) post-season sex ratios. An example is illustrated, based on the assumption of equal populations on both areas. Part 1: Harvest Data: Area Experimental Hens Cocks Variable Fall Indices Control Hens Cocks BPM 2.00 2.00 CY 190.00 190.00 �- 73 - Part 1: Harvest Data, (continued): Area Variable Pre-season Sex Ratio EXEerimental Cocks Hens Hens Control Cocks 100 110 100 10/ Unknown 110 4,000 Harvest Unknown 0 Illegal Post-season Sex Ratio 207 100 25% 60% 248 100 10% 60% Results Percent Harvest Illegal Pre-season Number Harvest 16,000 14,500 16,000 14,500 4,000 8,700 1,600 8,700 Legal Harvest Birds per Hour Hunted Post-season Number 12 ,000 12,700 8,700 .21 .15 5,800 14,400 5,800 The above data can also be determined using age ratios in place of sex ratios (Selleck and Hart 1957). Young birds are more readily harves ted than adults (Nelson 1948), so some bias in the results can be expected using the age ratio method. Part 1 of Modell assumes equal harvest on both areas. Hunting pressure and harvest information from the two areas can be compared to determine if this is the actual case. If not, hunting pressure and harvest information can be used to predict post-season sex ratio and population differences between the two areas. Part 2: Winter to Spring Sex Ratios--The next procedure entails comparing winter to spring sex ratios. If differences between winter and spring sex ratios are noted they should be about the same for both areas. Changes in sex ratios would only result from disproportionate mortality of one sex during the period, or disproportionate censusing of the sexes in winter and/or in spring. We would expect to detect sex ratio differences of ten percent or more as previously explained under "Results and Discussion". Winter mortality of twenty percent for both sexes on both areas will be assumed in continuing the model. �- 74 - EXEerimental Area Hens Cocks Variable Post-season Number Control Area Hens Cocks 12,000 5,800 14,400 5,800 9,600 4,640 11,520 4,640 Less 20 Percent Mortality Survival to Spring Part 3: Breeding POEulation Indices--Comparison of breeding population density on the two areas is the third step. If rooster harvest and winter survival have been the same on the two areas, crowing indices should be directly proportional to previous fall indices. First year hen harvest should not affect following spring rooster populations or crowing indices. Hen harvest would have to reduce reproduction first. Potential hen harvest reduction of roosters could not be detected until after the second hen season. The birds per mile (bpm) observed during past spring sex ratio counts was unreliable. Increasing the sample size would probably improve its quality, so it should not be overlooked in comparing breeding population densities. Comparisons can be made with the breeding population index as shown. Variable Crowing Experimental Index Hen Index Breeding Population Index (spi) Area Control Area 37.2 37.2 2.07 2.48 77.0 92.3 Part 4: Production--Production data are presented in Model I using four young-per-hen (Y) for both areas. Note that a considerable difference in fall population exists between the two areas. This is detected by the FPI but not by the CY index. In previous study, spring sex ratios were consistently within ten percent of each other on the two areas. In this hypothetical model, there were about twenty percent more hens-per-cock in the control than in the test area. Thus, the CY index mayor may not be applicable in evaluating hen harvest. As yet we do not understand the basis for the CY index, so we cannot project its roll in hen harvest evaluation. �- 75 - Experimental Variable Successful Hens (75% nesting (excluding mortality) Less 30% summer and early fall mortality by Sex l6,590~ 28,200 34,560 42,440 50,720 29,708 35,504 l3,118~ 20,160~ (Y) l5,344cf1 l31.4: 100 126.5:100 Fall Sex Ratio Young-per-hen 4.0 4.0 Total Young Fall Populations 8,640 7,200 success) Young-per-successful-hen Total Birds Control Area Area 4.0 4.0 422 498 FPI Total Young 38,400 46,080 FPI Total Birds 52,640 62,240 FPI BPM (From Fig. 10) based on FPI CY 1.15 1.15 148.8 148.8 Projection of this model into subsequent years of study would result in a declining population on the test area and lowered harvest. Hen harvest would not be successful. Model 2--The preceding hypothetical model assumed that pheasant survival and production were not limited by density. In other words, carrying capacity had no influence on the population. Model 2 projects the same basic data but takes competition for survival and nesting cover into consideration. It operates on the theory that higher density results in greater stress and increased mortality. At present we do not know to what degree density dependent variables operate, or when or how they affect Colorado pheasant populations. Carefully measured and controlled hen harvest might provide some of these answers. Careful comparison of the CY, FPI, and BPM indices provides one method of doing this. Part 1: This repeats Part 1 of Modell. Proceed directly to Part 2. �- 76 - Part 2: Winter to Spring Survival EXEerimental Area Cocks Hens Variable Total Birds Mortality Spring mortality Index Hen Index Population Part 4: Index (spi) Production 4,640 hens 1/ Young per successful hen Total young Total birds (excluding mortality) to fall 1/ less 30% 16,590 Fall population 1/ Disproportionate 4,350 Experimental Control Area 37.2 34.8 2.07 2.48 77.0 86.3 Experimental Successful 10,800 and Fall Measurements Variable Survival 25/0 Indices Variable Breeding 20% due to higher density on control. Part 3 : SEring POEulation Crowing 5,800 20,200 9,600 Population 14,400 17,800 1:../ 1/ Disproportionate 5,800 12,000 Post season sex ratio Control Area Hens Cocks mortality Area Control Area 75% = 7,200 67% = 7,236 4.0 4.0 28,200 28,944 42,440 44,094 29,708 less 32% = 29,984 l3,1l8 due to higher density 17,185 in the control. 12,799 �- 77 - Part 4: Production and Fall Measurements, Variable Fall sex ratio Young per total hens (Y) FPI Experimental 126.5:100 4.0 422 (continued) Area Control Area l34.2 :100 4.0 466.3 FPI (total young) 38,400 43,200 FPI (total birds) 52,640 58,350 BPM (from Fig. 9) based on FPI CY 1.15 148.8 1.35 139.2 Many variations of the two models presented here could occur. For example, hen harvest on the test area might increase rooster harvest on that area. Or density-dependent factors might operate in summer but not in winter or vice versa. By comparing sex ratios, age ratios, density indicators, and production and harvest many of the variables can be checked by more than one method. This should provide increased confidence in the results. Adjusting for Environmental Influence--As previously stated, the major weakness inherent in the study is our inability to measure the impact of differing environmental influences on reproduction. For example, can we be certain potential reproduction declines on the experimental area were due to local spring storms or due to excessive hen harvest? Our main hope in this case would be to carry the study over a long enough period to eliminate the short-term local influence of weather. In past years following severe hail or blizzards, pheasant populations have usually returned to pre-storm levels within a couple years (Sandfort, Boeker and Swope 1954). The probability that hail will completely b1anLet the experimental areas is not too great. If local populations within an area are reduced by a summer storm these can be analyzed on a separate basis. This is facilitated by separating spring sex ratio and brood counts into two-mile segments. Crowing stations also are spaced at approximate two-mile intervals. Additional brood counts within the hailed zone can be conducted. An estimate of production loss due to hail can then be obtained. To illustrate, the follOWing formula might be used to measure production loss due to hail in a localized part of one area: �- 78 - First Then let A A Study area BPM or CY exclusive B Hailed zone BPM or CY index C The study area bpi D The bpi E The projected x D E (breeding in the hailed of the hailed population zone index) zone BPM or CY index and E - B represents for the hailed the production zone loss due to hail C Drawing Conclusions--The main question concerning hen harvest is what percentage of hens can be taken as substitution for density dependent natural mortality. Two general procedures can be used to measure this. First, by plugging the variables of harvest and population indices into models we can determine if hen harvest at a certain level reduces production. We have reviewed this general procedure on the preceding pages. Previous analysis indicates that reproduction is predominately regulated by density independent factors. However, the possibility of hen mortality occurring prior to the main nesting period exists. Research into the degree and period of potential hen mortality is needed. The second evaluation technique would measure the end product, harvest. If hen harvest was successful, the test area should produce sustained increased harvest, or sustained increased recreational opportunity for the hunter. If hen harvest curtailed reproduction this would in turn reduce harvest on the test area and reduce hunting opportunity. LITERATURE CITED Allen, D. L. 1942. A pheasant inventory method based upon sex ratios. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 7:329-352. kill records and 1956. The management outlook. pp. 431-466. In D. L. Allen (Editor), Pheasants in North America. Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and \"'ildl.Mgmt. Inst., Washington, D. C. 490 pp. Bennett, L. J., and G. o. Hendrickson. 1938. Censuring the ringneck ants in Iowa. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 3:719-723. Dahlgren, R. B. 1963. Rhythmic fluctuations in South lations and associated adult mortality, 1947-62. Conf. 28:284-296. Dakota Trans. pheas- pheasant popuN. Am. Wildl. �- 79 - Dale, F. H. 1952. Sex ratios in pheasant Wildl. Mgmt. 16(2):156-163. research and management. J. Funk, H. D., and J. R. Grieb. 1969. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey-1968. Colorado Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Mimeo Rpt. 38 pp. Gates, J. M. 1966. Crowing counts as indices to cock pheasant in Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(4):737-744. populations Grieb, J. R. 1968. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey-1967. rado Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Mimeo Rpt. 27 pp. Colo- Grieb, J. R., and G. Hunter. 1962. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey-196l. Colorado Dept. Game and Fish. Mimeo Rpt. 52 pp. , and Colorado 1964. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Dept. Game and Fish. Mimeo Rpt. 22 pp. Survey-1963. , and 1965. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey-1964. Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Mimeo Rpt. 23 pp. , and Colorado 1966. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Survey-1965. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Mimeo Rpt. 23 pp. , and Colorado 1967. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Mimeo Rpt. 23 pp. Jones, R. E. 1968. A board to measure Wildl. Mgmt. 32(1):28-35. cover used by prairie Survey-1966. grouse. J. Kelker, G. H. 1945. Sex ratio equations and formulas for determining wildlife populations. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters. 19:189-198. Kimball, J. W. 1949. 13(1):101-120. The crowing count pheasant census. J. Wild1. Mgmt. Klonglan, E. D. 1955. Factors influencing the fall roadside census in Iowa. J. Wi1dl. Mgmt. 19(2):254-262. pheasant Linder, R. L., D. L. Lyon, and C. P. Agee. 1960. An analysis of pheasant nesting in South-central Nebraska. Trans. N. Am. Wi1dl. Conf. 25:214-230. Lyon, L. J. 1956. Evaluation of the effects of habitat improvement wildlife, review of literature. Colorado Dept. Game and Fish. Prog. Rpt. July:1-41. on Quart. Martinson, R. K., and C. R. Grondahl. 1966. Weather and pheasant populations in Southweatern North Dakota. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(1):74-81. 1948. Pheasant data from a two-year bag study in South B. A. :;...tkota. J. Wildl. M~mt. 12(1) :20-31. NOl, "'"'' �- 80 - Petrides, G. A. age ratios. 1949. Viewpoints on the analysis of open season Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 14:391-410. 1954. Estimating the percentage kill in ringnecked other species. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 18(3):294-297. Sandfort, W. W. 1954. Analysis of the 1954 pheasant Game and Fish Dept. Mi.meo Rpt. 14 pp . 1960a. Pre-nesting studies. Res. Prog. Rpt. April:37-47. Colorado sex and pheasants season. and Colorado Game and Fish Dept. Quart. 1960b. Pheasant brood survey. Colorado Quart. Res. Prog. Rpt. April:49-55. Game and Fish Dept. , H. M. Boeker, and H. M. Swope. 1954. Evaluation of habitat improve---ment project. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish Quart. Res. Prog. Rpt. July: 49-55. Selleck, D. M., and C. M. Hart. 1957. Calculating the percentage from sex and age ratios. Calif. Fish and Game 43(4):309-316. Snedecor, G. W. Ames, Iowa. 1956. Statistical 534 pp. Methods. The Iowa State Snyder, W. D. 1966. A technique for mapping wildlife areas. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Outdoor Leafl. No. 43. 1 p. kill College habitat Facts. Press, in farmland Game Inf. 1967. Pheasant hen harvest - measurement of environmental factors. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Game Res. Rpt. April (2):109-120. 1968. Pheasant hen harvest - formulation of hunting regulations harvest survey. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Game Res. Rpt. April :25-30. 1969a. Pheasant hen harvest. Res. Rpt. April:3-20. Colo. Game, and Fish and Parks Div. Game 1969b. Leased plot development and resulting Fish and Parks Div. Game Res. Rpt. April:47-60. harvest. Colo. Game, Stokes, A. W. 1954. Population studies of the ring-necked pheasants on Pelee Island, Ontario. Ontario Dept. of Lands and Forests. Tech. Rullo 4. 154 pp. Swope, H. M. 1964a. An upland game bird harvest questionnaire with special emphasis on legal shooting of hen pheasants. Fish and Parks Dept. Special Rpt. No.2. 44 pp. synopsisColo. Game, �- 81 - Swope, H. M. 1964b. Effects of hen pheasant harvest. and Parks Dept. Game Res. Rpt. April (2):73-120. Colo. Game, Fish 1965. Pheasant hen harvest - measurment of environmental Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Game Res. Rpt. April:3-14. factors. 1967. The pheasant crowing count census and factors affecting its reliability. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Outdoor Facts. Game Inf. Leafl. No. 56. 3 pp. 1968. Colorado controlled pheasant hen harvest material. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Unpubl. Mimeo. 134 pp. Trautman, C. G. 1960. Evaluation of pheasant nesting habitat South Dakota. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 25:202-213. Colo. in Eastern Wagner, F. H., and A. W. Stokes. 1968. Indices to overwinter survival and productivity with implications for population regulation in pheasants. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32(1):32-36. ___ , C. D. Besadny, and C. Kabat. 1965. Population ecology and management of Wisconsin pheasants. Tech. Bull. 34. Wisconsin Cons. Dept. Madison. 168 pp. Wishart, W. 1969. mal primaries. Age determination J. Wildl. Mgmt. Prepared by Warren D. Snyder / Wildlife Researcher of pheasants by measurement 33(3):714-717. of proxi- ��April 1970 - 83 - JOB PROGRESS State of _ No. W-37-R-23 Game Bird Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Work ~ __ ~C~O~L~O~RA~D~O REPORT Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Pheasant April Nest Site Selection 1, 1969 to March Survey 16 Stud 31, 1970 Donald M. Hoffman, Warren D. Snyder, David de Calesta, Robert L. Schmidt, Ronald B. Arant, Ronald G. Blumberg, Don Crane, Courtney J. Crawford, Charles W. Reickert, Lawrence A. Webster, and John F. Corey. ABSTRACT Three of the 4 quadrats (NE, ~~, and SW) were each stocked with 15 hens and 2 cocks, and 1 quadrat (SE) was stocked with 16 hens and 2 cocks by March 13, 1969 (Segment 22) in preparation for nesting studies in 1969. Sixty-six pheasant nests were found in the 48 nesting plots representing 8 vegetative species or combination of species. Thirteen nests were found in 8 alfalfa plots, 12 nests were found in 8 intermediate wheatgrass seeding plots, 11 nests in 4 volunteer forbs plots, 10 nests in 4 alfalfacrested wheatgrass (mowed) plots, 7 nests in 4 winter wheat stubble plots, and 6 nests in 4 tall wheatgrass seeded plots. Due to the variation in numbers of plots by vegetative type available in 1969, number of nests per cover type plot gives a better comparison of preference than total numbers of nests by cover type. On this comparison, the first-year successional weedy cover plots (volunteer forbs) ranked highest with 2.75 nests per plot, followed by alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) plots with 2.50 nests per plot, winter wheat stubble with 1.75 nests per plot, alfalfa with 1.63 nests per plot, intermediate wheatgrass seeded "and tall wheatgrass seeded, each with 1.50 nests per plot. Fewer numbers of nests were found in other cover type represented. Sixty-three percent of all nests in 1969 were established less than 15 feet from plot perimeters. Average clutch size of 61 nests, where it was possible to determine this, was 8.1. A minimum of 3 cocks and 13 hens, wild-trapped in 1969 and early 1970, were restocked to each of the 4 quadrats by March 11, 1970 for continuation of the study in 1970. �- 84 - RECOMMENDATIONS The change over of three cover types (winter wheat, hairy vetch, and white sweet clover) to smooth bromegrass, intermediate wheatgrass, and tall wheatgrass. respectively, was completed in 1969. No new cover types are recommended at this time, but field work on the study should be continued for one more segment so stands of the new grasses can be adequately tested. �- 85 - PHEASANT NEST SITE SELECTION STUDY Donald M. Hoffman Field work on this study was conducted similar to the 2 previous years work except an additional intensive nest search was completed in all types in early July, 1969. The change over of vegetative types used very little or not practical to establish along roadsides, started in the fall of 1968, was completed in the fall of 1969. Intermediate wheatgrass was used to replace all hairy vetch plots; smooth bromegrass was used to replace winter wheat plots; and tall wheatgrass was used to replace all white sweet clover (and volunteer forbs) plots. P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant nesting use of, and success in, (1) winter wheat, (2) alfalfa, (3) crested wheatgrass, (4) hairy vetch, (5) white sweet clover, (6) alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixture, (7) smooth bromegrass, (8) tall wheatgrass, and (9) intermediate wheatgrass. SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. OBJECTIVES To maintain plots. To measure nesting preference. To determine nesting success by cover type. To obtain wild pheasants and care for them following METHODS release in plots. AND MATERIALS Wild pheasants were captured with a vehicular mounted cannon-net, field set cannon-net, and hand netting at night in Phillips and Sedgwick counties in Segment 22. Three of the 4 quadrats (NE, NW, and SW) were each stocked with 15 hens and 2 cocks and 1 quadrat (SE) was stocked with 16 hens and 2 cocks by March 13, 1969 (Figure 1). An electric fence was placed around the quadrats and charged in March 1969 to reduce domestic cat problems. A magpie trap was built but caught no magpies. Phenology measurements were again secured during 1969 to ascertain readiness of the various vegetative species and cover types for use by nesting pheasants. An initial nest search in 1969 was made with 8 men, including 5 W.C.O. Trainees was systematically searched using ropes segments. Nests were marked, recorded, during the period June 4 through 6 and others (Figure 2). Each plot to divide the plots into narrow and removed to encourage renesting. �00 0'\ Fig. 1. Banding a wild-trapped pheasant cock prior to releasing at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. (D. Hoffman~ photo) �- 87 - o 1-1 4-l ..c o 1-1 m Q) CI) Q) CI) .u ~ �- 88 - Figure 3 shows one of the nests found in an alfalfa vegetative plot. A second nest search was made during the period July 1 through 12, 1969 by 2 men searching each plot systematically in strips outlined by laths. No ropes were used because of the limited number of men available for this search. Nests were again marked, recorded and removed. A third and final nest search was made during the period July 21-28, 1969, preceding and following the mowing of the plots on July 24, 1969. Distances were measured from each nest to the nearest edge and to the apex or base of the triangular plot, whichever was closest, with a steel tape. Each nest could later be located on a scaled diagram of the quadrats. Numbers of eggs, fate of the nest and estimated age of embryos were recorded. In addition, vegetative heights and vegetative species in the 4 cardinal directions from each nest were recorded. Prior to the windrowing of the plots on July 24, 1969, 62 live pheasants were recovered and placed Lri a covered holding pen. In September 1969, 14 additional wild-trapped pheasants (mostly juveniles) were added to the stock held in this covered pen. Due to early, heavy, wet snows breaking down the top of the large fenced pen, it became necessary to wing-clip and release surviving birds into the southeast quadrat. Several piles of brush were added to the southeast quadrat to provide winter cover since vegetation within the plots was flatteried from the early snows of October, 1969, and never recovered. Eleven wild pheasants were captured at the Fort Collins Hildlife Research Station and added to the pen. A great horned owl problem developed on the wing-clipped pheasants late in the wintering period in the open holding pen so that it became necessary to live-trap additional pheasants in the Holyoke area using a hand net and spotlights from a vehicle to restock each quadrat with a minimum of 3 cocks and 13 hens by March 11, 1970. Piles of dead tree limbs were placed in the remaining 3 quadrats to provide cover for the pheasants for the same reason listed above. Plot Composition Plot Composition for 1969 (Treatment Following 1968 Nesting Season) In accordance with original plans, vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establish along roadsides, were reworked following the 1968 nesting season. These were then seeded to other vegetative cover types thought to have potential for nesting cover. Plot Number 1 - Hinter Hheat Four of the 8 original plots planted to winter wheat were left in wheat stubble for a residual cover check in 1969. The stubble was of excellent quality for the first time during the study. The other 4 were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass. Plot Number 2 - Alfalfa These were all mowed and maintained following the 1968 nesting that 1969 composition was comparable to 1968. season so �ex> \0 Fig. 3. A pheasant nest containing seven eggs, located in 1969. (D. Hoffman, photo) �- 90 - Plot Number 3 - Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were unmowed following the 1968 nesting season so that a residual cover check was secured in 1969 on half of the plots and the other half were comparable to 1968. Plot Number 4 - Hairy Vetch All of these plots were reworked and seeded following the 1968 nesting season. Plot Number to intermediate wheatgrass 5 - White Sweet Clover Four of these were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass and the other 4 were left unmowed following the 1968 nesting season. The 4 unmowed white sweet clover plots were used to check volunteer forbs residual cover in 1969. Plot Number 6 - Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and maintained as previously and 4 were left unmowed following the 1968 nesting season. The 4 unmowed plots were used to test residual cover in 1969. Plot Composition for 1970 (Treatment Following 1969 Nesting Season) The changing of vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establish along roadsides, started in 1968, was continued in the fall of 1969. The 4 remaining winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to ,smooth bromegrass and the 4 remaining white sweet clover plots were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass. Plot Number 1 - Originally Winter Wheat, now Smooth Bromegrass Four of the original winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1968. These were all mowed in the fall of 1969. The remaining 4 winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1969. Plot Number 2 - Alfalfa These were all mowed and maintained following the 1969 nesting season so 1970 composition will be comparable with 1968 and 1969. Two of these plots including Number 2, Interior, NW Quadrat, and Number 2, Exterior, NE Quadrat, are approaching alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixtures due to invasion by crested wheatgrass. Plot Number 3 - Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Composition for 1970 is therefore comparable to that of 1969. �- 91 - Plot Number 4 - Originally Hairy Vetch, now Intermediate Wheatgrass All of these plots were reworked and seeded to intermediate wheatgrass following the 1968 nesting season. Four of these intermediate wheatgrass plots were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season, so a residual cover check may be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Plot Number 5 - Originally White Sweet Clover, now Tall Wheatgrass Four of the original white sweet clover plots were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1968. These were all mowed in the fall of 1969. The remaining 4 white sweet clover plots (volunteer forbs in 1969) were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1969. Plot Number 6 - Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season, so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Composition for 1970 is therefore comparable to 1969. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Location of Nests Sixty-six pheasant nests were found in the 48 triangular-shaped nesting plots representing 8 vegetative species or combination of species. Table lists numbers of nests by various cover types and treatments. Figures 4 through 7 show the location of each nest in the 4 quadrats. 1 By numbers of nests, alfalfa (13 nests) ranked highest for nest establishment, followed by intermediate wheatgrass seeded (12 nests), volunteer forbs (11 nests), alfalfa-crested wheatgrass, mowed (10 nests), winter wheat stubble (7 nests), and tall wheatgrass, seeded (6 nests). The larger number of nests found in 1969 (66 nests) compared with 1968 (33 nests) resulted from the increased number of nest searches, intensity of searches, and less predation of nesting hens by domestic cats due to use of an electric fence around the quadrats. Limited domestic cat predation occurred late in the nesting season of 1969 when a cat found a crawl hole beneath the perimeter fence. At least 4 incubating hens were destroyed in this manner. Due to a variation in numbers of plots by vegetative type, total numbers of nests by vegetative type does not give a true picture of preference. For this reason, numbers of nests per plot were calculated (Table 1). The first year successional weedy cover plots (volunteer forbs plots) were highest with 2.75 nests per plot, followed by alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) plots with 2.50 nests per plot, winter wheat stubble with 1.75 nests per plot, alfalfa with 1.63 nests per plot, intermediate wheatgrass, seeded, and tall wheatgrass, seeded, each with 1.50 nests per plot. Fewer numbers were found in the other cover types represented. �Table 1. 1969. Number of pheasant nests found in 48 plots representing various vegetative types and treatments, Plot Number Quadrat Type and Treatment NW NE SW SE 1 Winter wheat (stubble) 1 3 2 1 Smooth bromegrass (seeded) 0 0 2 Alfalfa (mowed) 5 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 3 4 Total Number Plots Nests/ Plot 1 7 4 1.75 2 0 2 4 0.50 4 3 1 13 8 1.63 0 0 1 0 1 4 0.25 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 0 0 0 1 1 4 0.25 Intermediate wheatgrass (seeded) 4 3 2 3 12 8 1.50 I \0 N Volunteer forbs (old white sweet clover plots) 1 3 3 4 11 4 2.75 5 Tall wheatgrass (seeded) 2 2 0 2 6 4 1.50 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) 3 2 3 2 10 4 2.50 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 1 1 1 0 3 4 0.75 17 18 17 14 66 48 1.38 5 6 Total Average �- 93 - 370' • Mesa (m) Agin (rr) 2 12' Ager~m) ~ •• Mesa-Agcr (m) /. 1/ 4 6 @' • ~, ;esa (m) .> .. :::~~~!U~-: ~ ::~:r. C .~ ~rr) ~ ~O' .: ~.5) ~. 46' #71\~ ~ \ /I Agel ~ ~:l(urn) ~ \10' /1 r-: 1 ~esa • \\ Age~(:~ __ j ..... .. . "Il!('IIi;; "f 1;:,1,\;,"';:1 <.lil:tdr;lI, Pl""",:tp! Sc],,'ct;IlII (:!\!,1y, r\or:·, PlaIt 1. Location of plv·.qs::1rtnest s in northwest r: L~~e_~)~ .. 1)e".ilrd\"'·;I,< - ~; 12 ~ _. __ ._-----_._----_ _--_ __ __ _ .._._._---_._------.-.-.- 12' ---_._---------_._------- Fir;. 4. J~ II • ~ V ~ \ ~ Brin '7(----- ~ \'c,s! Site .Ioh Hi quadr at , 1969. _ ..__ ..-----_ ..._._._------ I .-.- .. _. __ ._ ....•.. I �- 94 - 370' Agin (rr Agin (rr) 4 4 12' 6 Mesa-Agcr (um) 12' -----------------_._------_ D('[<Iikd Fig. 5. :\n"":~'·II]{·i:!', of lndi\'idi'al ();':"\l':ll. r'IH':':-anf Scl c ct i on ~lud·;. \\',)1'1; 1'1<111 1 .. Job 1(i I'{c;-,!. ... Sile Location of pheasant nests in northeast quadrat, 1969 _-_.- ._ .. - _.__ _._ .. ..... �- 95 370' \ \ Meal (um) 5 7 (..sa Agin (rr-) -- • 4 12' / •\ \ II /. /. ~. 4 2 / • Trae (c) !oj • f Agin (rr) ~VU/ I ~ ~? .> • 6 3 . --;. -: /~ Mesa-Agcr 7 (m) Agcr (urn) (m ) ~o'~ ~ !'.esa(m ) / / / 12' /I 3 L~__~~_cr_(_m) __ ~ \\ . / Kesa- I ~r 5 j ~rin (rr)_ L.. Agel (rr ) 12' Detail.·" ;\I';';:il:~l';~ll'lIh of IIl<!i"i<!II,t! (lu'l<brl. Scl ccti.in Stlldy. \\'",h (um) Plan] I'h"''';'!llt "Ie,;t Sit" .. Job IG Fig. 6. Location of J:heasant nests in southwest quadrat, 1969D ~ �- 96 ... ------. 370' . ~- Agcr (urn) ""'~ 12' 3 • 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn) 4 Agin (rr) •5 J)e!;.1;1,-,1 \;; .. ,;;.,' ;;1("':1..; "f Sell'L'[j,,;, Fig. 7. 1::<I;-;;d'I::1 "{lIdy. \\"rk 011,,,1;.;.1. "!"''''',;!iI ~~(':,t Site Plall 1. .Inh ]() Location of pheasant nests in southeast quadrat, 1969. �- 97 - Sixty-three percent of all nests in 1969 were established less than 15 feet from plot perimeters as shown in Table 2. During 1969, 41 nests were found in exterior plots and 25 nests in interior plots. The terms "interior and exterior" refer to the location of the individual plots in relation to a central point where all four quadrats join. These are indicated in the margins of Figures 4 through 7. Although wild pheasants were observed to fly in and out of the enclosures from time to time, none of the nests could definitely be attributed to wild hens, since none were seen leaving nests. Disturbance of birds was held to a minimum, but periodic measurements of vegetative heights was necessary so this may have deterred wild hens from nesting in the experimental plots. Table 2. Distance Distance Nearest From Edge of pheasant nests from plot perimeters, 1969. Number Nests Percent 0 - 5' 9 14 5 - 10' 13 20 10 - 15' 19 29 15 - 20' 9 13 20 - 25' 9 13 25 - 30' 4 6 30 - 35' 2 3 35 - 40' 1 2 Total 66 100 Clutch Sizes Five nests contained an unknown number of eggs. These were nests where the eggs had hatched or were destroyed by predators and scattered. The average clutch size of the remaining 61 nests was 8.1, ranging from 1 to 22 eggs. The two largest clutches of 20 and 22 each, were undoubtedly the result of more than one hen laying in each nest, based upon embryo ages. �- 98 - Considerable variation was found in clutch sizes between various cover types as shown in Table 3. Largest average numbers of eggs per clutch were found in crested wheatgrass, unrnowed (1 nest had 15.0 eggs), alfalfa-crested wheatgrass, unrnowed (2 nests averaged 10.0 eggs), alfalfa, mowed (12 nests averaged 9.6 eggs), winter wheat (7 nests average 8.4 eggs), tall wheatgrass, seeded (6 nests averaged 8.3 eggs) and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass, mowed (8 nests averaged 8.1 eggs). Fate of Nests Of the 66 nests found and recorded, 60 were determined to be in an active state of incubation, 3 were hatched successfully, and 3 were unsuccessful due to nest searching operations or Windrowing operations (Table 4). All nests found to be in an active state of incubation were removed to encourage renesting and to increase the size of the sample. The large number of nests found to be in an active state of incubation in 1969 reflects the greater intensity in nest search operations and an additional second nest search not used previously. One each, nest was hatched successfully in alfalfa, alfalfa-crested grass (mowed), .and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unrnowed) plots. wheat- Period of Nest Establishment Table 5 lists periods of nest establishment based upon aging embryos according to procedures outlined in Game Information Leaflet Number 15 (Sandfort, 1965). An initial peak in nest establishment occurred during the period May 1-15, 1969. Following the first nest search of June 4-6, 1969 and removal of all nests found, additional peaks in nest establishment occurred during the periods June 1-15 and June 16-30, 1969. Some hens continued to recycle until the pheasants were captured and removed to a covered pen just prior to windrowing of the vegetation in 9 of the 12 plots in each quadrat on July 24, 1969. Fourteen nests out of the 18 established prior to May 31, 1969 (78%) were found in plots having good carryover residual cover from 1968. This better residual cover was found in half of the plots (unrnowed plots and plots which contained alfalfa). Eight nests out of the 13 established plots having good carryover residual after July 1, 1969 (62%) were found in cover from 1968. Alfalfa normally regrows following mowing in late July each year, but the alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed) plots provided excellent field mouse habitat. This resulted in mice clipping the young alfalfa and much less residual alfalfa was found in the alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed plots) than in similar plots which were mowed in 1968. �Table 3. Clutch sizes found in 66 pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1969. Clutch Size 1 Brin (rr) Mesa (m) 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 Agcr (m) Plot Number and Treatment 5 5 3 4 Agel Meal Agcr Agin (rr) (rr) (um) (um) 1 Trae (c) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (um) Total 1'>" 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 6 6 1 4 3 6 4 7 2 4 1 6 2 2 1 1 2 0 0 2 0 1 5 Total 7 2 13 1 1 12 11 6 10 3 66 Ave. Clutch 8.4 5.0 9.6 7.0 15.0 7.4 6.5 8.3 8.1 10.0 8.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Unknown 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1~" 1 ,',More than 1 hen 1ayed in nes t. \0 \0 �Table 4. Fate of 66 pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1969. Plot Number and Treatment 1 Brin (rr) 2 Mesa (m) 3 3 4 5 5 Type 1 Trae (c) Agcr (m) Agcr (urn) Agin (rr) Meal (urn) Agel (rr) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn) Total Active 7 2 12 1 1 11 11 5 8 2 60 1 1 Hatched 1 Unsuccessful Total 1 7 2 13 1 1 12 11 6 3 1 1 3 10 3 66 t-' o o �Table 5. Estimated period of nest establishment in various vegetative types, 1969. 1/ Period 1 Trae (c) 1 Brin (rr) June 1-15 2 June 16-30 2 1 1 July 1-15 5 Agel (rr) 2 1 2 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn) 3 5 3 2 1 2 3 6 1 3 1 2 13 Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 1 13 3 2 1 7 2 1 1 Unknown Total Plot Number and Treatment 5 3 4 Meal Agin Agcr (urn) (rr) (urn) 2 3 2 May 16-31 July 16-31 3 Agcr (m) 2 April 16-30 May 1-15 2 Mesa (m) 11 6 1 18 17 . 2 7 I-' 0 I-' 1 2 1 1 4 10 3 66 1/ Period of nest establishment based upon aging of embryos according to Game Information Leaflet No. 15 (Sandfort, 1965). July 21-28, 1969. First nest search made June 4-6, 1969; second was made July 1-12, 1969; third was made �- 102 - Phenology Heights of growth measurements were made on April 16 and 23; May 2, 13, and 23; June 2, 18, and 30; and July 17, 1969. Table 6 summarizes average heights of vegetation on April 16, May 13, and June 18, and July 17, 1969. Heights of vegetation was comparable to that in 1967, except for plots seeded to grasses in the fall of 1968, with most plots having adequate cover for pheasant nesting by May 13, 1969. The initial peak of nest establishment found during the period May 1-15, 1969 indicates this was true. Heights of vegetative growth appeared to reach a maximum for the season in mid-June 1969. Plots were not irrigated maintained with complete new grass seedings. in the spring of 1969 but good soil moisture was plot irrigations in the fall of 1968 to establish Height of Vegetation Surrounding Nests Nests found prior to mowing and found in uncut plots provided an opportunity for obtaining vegetative height measurements surrounding 60 nests. Table 7 lists average heights and species of vegetation surrounding these nests. The average height of all measurements at the vicinity of the established nests was 18.5 inches in 1969. This average vegetation height did not vary greatly between periods of nest searches. Stocking Quadrats with Pheasants for 1970 Prior to windrowing the plots on July 24, 1969 (Figure 8), 62 live pheasants were recovered and placed in a covered holding pen. Six dead pheasants were found in the nesting plots, including 4 eaten by a domestic cat which had crawled under the perimeter fence at a wash-out, 1 killed by a bird dog used in the recovery of the birds, and 1 killed by the windrowing machine. Only 1 pheasant released prior to the 1969 nest searches could not be accounted for. In September 1969, 14 additional wild-trapped pheasants were added to the stock held in a large covered pen. Four of these died shortly thereafter. All surviving birds (58 hens and 10 cocks) were wing clipped and released in the southeast quadrat on October 9, 1969, after early, heavy, wet snows had broken down the covered pen top. Eleven wild-trapped birds were captured at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and added to the open pen. A great horned owl problem developed late in the wintering period, resulting in a loss of approximately one-third of the wing clipped pheasant population prior to February 9, 1970 and an additional loss of one-third of the wing clipped pheasant population from February 9, 1970 to March 11, 1970. Thirty seven wild pheasants live-trapped in the Holyoke area with a hand net and vehicle equipped with 2 spotlights, were added so that a minimum of 3 cocks and 13 hens were stocked in each of the 4 quadrats by March 11, 1970. �- 103 - Table 6. Average height of vegetation in pheasant nesting plots, 1969. Plot Number 4-16-69 1 Vegetative Type and Treatment 1 Smooth bromegrass (seeded) 2 Alfalfa (mowed) New growth Residual 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 3 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) New growth Residual 5 Intermediate wheatgrass (seeded) 6.0 20.0 22.0 40.0 36.0 2.0 4.0 13.0 14.0 5.5 22.0 16.5 25.5 19.0 7.0 9.0 17.0 18.0 8.0 16.0 11.0 17.0 14.0 2.0 3.0 12.0 16.5 1.0 42.0 3.0 16.0 21.0 3.0 4.0 10.0 21.0 15.0 11.0 24.0 17.0 22.0 16.0 15.0 12.0 18.0 17.0 14.0 14.0 Volunteer forbs New growth Residual 5 Tall wheatgrass (seeded) 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) 6 7-17-69 Winter wheat (combined) Volunteer Stubble 1../ 4 Average Height (Inches) 5-13-69 6-18-69 New growth Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass 4.5 7.0 Residual Alfalfa 28.0 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 2/ New growth Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass 8.0 Residual Alfalfa 15.0 1/ Winter wheat stubble was of excellent quality. l/ New growth alfalfa was well clipped by mice in unmowed alfalfa-crested wheatgrass plots during 1969 growing season. �- 104 Table 7. 1969. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 60 pheasant nests, Nest Plot Date Number Quadrat Number Measured 1 2 3 SE SE SE 5-1 3-1 i -e 6-4-69 6-4-69 6-4-69 4 5 6 SE SW SW 2-E 1-E 6-E 6-4-69 6-4-69 6-4-69 7 SW 6-E 6-4-69 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 SW SW SW NW NW NW NW NW NE 5-1 I-I 1-1 2-1 6-1 2-E 2-E 4-E 2-E 6-4-69 6-4-69 6-4-69 6-5-69 6-5-69 6-5-69 6-5-69 6-5-69 6-5-69 17 NE 5-E 6-5-69 18 19 20 NE NE NE 5-E 4-E 6-5-69 6-5-69 6-5-69 21 22 NE SE 2-1 4-1 6-5-69 6-6-69 23 SE 5-E 6-6-69 24 SE 5-E 6-6-69 25 26 27 NW NW NE 5-E 4-E 2-1 6-6-69 6-6-69 6-6-69 28 SE 6-E 7-1-69 29 SE 5-E 7-1-69 30 SE 4-E 7-2-69 31 SE 4-E 7-2-69 r-s Composition Ave. Height (Inches) Mustard-cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Winter wheat, stubble Winter wheat, growing Alfalfa Tall wheatgrass, volunteer Alfalfa Crested Wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Bindweed Winter wheat, growing Winter wheat, growing Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass-alfalfa Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Winter wheat, growing Bindweed Hairy vetch-thistle Alfalfa Thistle Cheatgrass-thistle Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Kochia Wild rye Mustard Cheatgrass Alfalfa 20.0 16.0 20.0 22.5 23.5 15.5 19.0 14.0 20.7 23.0 9.0 37.3 37.0 23.8 13.8 15.5 16.5 16.5 22.3 23.0 14.5 17.5 9.3 37.8 12.7 13.0 22.5 15.5 13.0 9.0 20.5 7.7 28.0 30.3 11.3 23.3 Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Dandelion Cheatgrass Hairy vetch Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Thistle 17.7 14.0 18.0 25.0 6.0 10.0 13 .5 17.0 14.0 22.7 Ave. Height for Period (Inches) 19.3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 105 Table 7. Heights and compositon of vegetation surrounding 60 pheasant nests, 1969, continued. Plot Date Nest Number Quadrat Number Measured 32 SE 5-1 7-2-69 33 34 SW SW 2-E 6-E 7-3-69 7-3-69 35 SW 4-1 7-1-69 36 SW 4-1 7-1-69 37 38 39 SW SW NW 2-1 6-1 6-E 7-7-69 7-7-69 7-9-69 40 NW 4-E 7-9-69 41 42 43 44 45 46 NW NW NW NW NW NE 2-E 5-E I-I 5-1 2-1 2-E 7-9-69 7-9-69 7-10-69 7-10-69 7-10-69 7-11-69 47 NE 5-E 7-11-69 48 NE 6-E 7-11-69 49 NE 6-E 7-11-69 50 51 52 NE NE NE 1-E 6-1 4-1 7-11-69 7-12-69 7-12-70 53 NE 5-1 7-12-70 54 SW 2-E 7-18-69 55 NW 4-E 7-21-69 Composition Ave. Height (Inches) Cheatgrass Mustard Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Hairy vetch Mustard Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Mustard Alfalfa Mustard Winter wheat (growing) Bindweed Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Squirrel-tail grass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Winter wheat (growing) Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Hairy vetch Cheatgrass Mustard Winter wheat (growing) 18.0 19.0 22.0 18.5 23.5 19.0 10.0 12.0 12.3 14.0 18.0 17.5 23.0 l3.0 17 .5 21.5 17.8 24.3 25.5 14.8 20.3 18.4 22.0 12.7 15.0 25.0 17.0 16.3 12.0 29.8 l3.0 12.0 15.0 17.5 26.0 35.0 Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass 27.3 14.0 17.0 19.5 Ave. Height for Period (Inches) 18.0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 106 - Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 60 pheasant nests, 1969, continued. Nest Plot Date Number Quadrat Number Measured 56 NW 6-E 7-22-69 57 58 59 NE NE SW 5-1 5-1 7-22-69 7-22-69 7-23-69 60 SW 5-1 7-23-69 r-s Composition Alfalfa Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Winter wheat (growing) Bindweed Kochia Kochia Ave. Ave. Height Height for Period (Inches) (Inches) 18.0 13.5 17.5 26.5 7.3 10.0 30.5 18.3 Average height all measurements 18.5 �I--' o --.J Fig. 8. Vegetation on selected plots was windrowed on July 24, 1969. (D. Hoffman, photo) �- 108 - Key to Abbreviations - Figures 4 through 7 and Tables 3 through 5. Plants ConnnonName Symbol Scientific Name Agcr Agropyron cristatum Crested wheatgrass Agel Agropyron elongatum Tall wheatgrass Agin Agropyron intermedium Intermediate wheatgrass As Astragalus spp. (Madison strain) Hairy vetch Brin Bromus inermis Smooth bromegrass Meal Melilotus alba White sweet clover Mesa Medicago sativa Alfalfa Trae Triticum aestivum Winter wheat Treatment - Following 1968 Nesting Season (c) Combined only - residual cover check in 1969 (cr) Combined and reseeded (m) Mowed only (mr) Mowed and rototilled (rr) Reworked and reseeded (um) Unmowed - residual cover check in 1969 LITERATURE CITED Sandfort, W. W. 1965. Aging pheasant embryos. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leafl. No. 15. 2 p. Prepared by Wildlife Researcher �- 109 - JOB PROGRESS State COLORADO of No. W-37-R-23 Game Bird Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Work REPORT Job Title Pheasant Period April 1, 1969 to March Robert L. Schmidt Covered: Personnel: Roadside Cover Survey 18 Evaluation Study 31, 1970 and Warren D. Snyder ABSTRACT Seeding of roadside study plots with grasses and grass-legume cover was continued in 1969. Spring seeding efforts were generally unsuccessful. Modification of the grass drill to provide better seed placement proved worthwhile. Fair to good stands were established west of Holyoke after August rains. More than one-half the study plots will be available for nest search in 1970. ��- 111 - PHEASANT ROADSIDE COVER EVALUATION Warren STUDY D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roadsides: (1) grass, (2) grasslegume mixtures. SEGMENT To establish grass and grass-legume east Colorado. METHODS OBJECTIVE cover on roadside test plots in North- AND MATERIALS A listing of methods and materials used in this study was presented in the previous Segment Report (Snyder, 1969). Changes and additions during this work segment include: replacement of shoe-type furrow openers on the grassland drill with double disk openers. Depth bands on these flexible attachments permitted seed placement at 3/4 to 1 inch depth. Also, herbicide treatment of a number of study plots was conducted in June after late spring rain prompted rapid weed growth. A 2-4-D Amine solution was applied at a rate of two pints per acre using a trailer type boom sprayer. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Study plots believed to have adequate stands for nest searching in 1970 are listed in Table 1. Their respective control plots are also included. The shoe-type furrow opener attachments used on the drill during 1968 and the spring of 1969 did not permit proper depth control in seed placement. In addition, the ground was opened and disturbed permitting excessive moisture loss. As a result, only poor to fair stands were achieved. May and June rains produced heavy weed growth on the plots. Spraying with 2-4-D Amine base herbicide in mid-June only partially controlled weed growth and subsequently, several plots were mowed. Where grass stands were considered inadequate, the plots were cultivated and reseeded. The double disk furrow openers with depth band attachments were much more effective in producing adequate stands. Loose soil and weeds along plot boundaries both were found detrimental to grass establishment. �- 112 Most of the plots listed in Table 1 were attained through July-August seeding after summer fallow. August rains were adequate west of Holyoke. Those plots to the east did not receive sufficient rain to germinate seed. October snows stimulated some seed germination, but cold temperatures were not conducive to stand establishment. Several of the plots designated exclusively for grass contained fair stands of alfalfa after the late summer seeding. Apparently sufficient alfalfa seed leaked from the legume drill box to produce these stands. Observations were made of a pure dense stand of intermediate wheatgrass planted several years ago by a local farmer. In 1969 weeds were almost completely excluded from the stand. Grass density appeared to stunt growth, resulting in only fair pheasant nesting cover. October snows completely flattened the grass, so that no winter cover was available. LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1969. Pheasant roadside evaluation study. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks, Game Research Report. April, pp.37-45. Prepared by U'~(/).¥J Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher Div. of �- 113 - Table l. Roadside study plots with fair to good grass stand and their controls as of April 30, 1970. Seeded Group Associated Plot Control fj OJ p. a e-, fj-.-I fj O.j...l E-I -.-10 0 ,... .j...IOJ -.-I .j...I ctlCf.l OJ :> 0 0 OJ ofj a U) HO 0 Z 0 E-I p:: fj1/ OJ2/ p.afj . .-I :>. E-I fj O.j...l -.-10 0 ,... .j...IOJ •.-1 .j...I ctlCf.l OJ :> 0 0 0 OJ Ofj HO 0 sr: 1 7 43(2) 13 - 2 -L P. Travis 18 - 5 - C1 2 - 7 - 43 24 - 2 -21 P. Travis 24 - 2 - C1 1 - 8 - 44 21 - 5 - G w. Sprague 20 - 2 - C2 o, ,... OJ il ;:l -.-I ..c: UJ ~ OJ fj bO ctI Farmer 21 - 5 - L 2 - 8 - 44 28 - 6 -G 20 w. Sprague 28 - 6 - L 1 - 7 - 44 21 - 8 -G 21 - 8 - L P. Lappart - 3 - C1 28 - 5 - C1 29 - 1 - C2 21 - 1 - C2 16 - 3 - C1 1 - 6 - 44 11 - 7 - L C. Beeber 11 - 8 - C2 2 - 6 - 44 11 - 6 - G C. Beeber 11 - 4 - C2 11 - 6 - L 1 - 7 - 45 12 3 - 7 - 45 15 - 3 - G - 7 - Gl/ 10 - 1 - C1 v. Rufert 1 - 4 - C1 v. He1goth 15 - 4 - C2 v. He1goth 15 15 - 4 - L 4 - 7 - 45 15 - 7 - G 15 - 8 - C2 - 7 -L 5 - 7 - 45 9 - 5 - G H. Hassler 9 - 5 - C2 - 7 - 45 8 - 3 - L L. Miller 8 - 4 - C1 6 8 - 2 - C2 7 - 7 - 45 17 - 8 -G L. Boller 17 - 8 - L 8 - 7 - 45 17 - 6 -G 17 - 6 -L 18 - 1 - C1 18 L. Boller - 7 - C2 17 - 5 - C2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 114 - Table 1. Roadside study plots with fair to good grass stand and their controls as of April 30, 1970, continued. GrouE Seeded Plot Associated rd/01:-1 0 fj fj • ..-! O-IJ 0 • ..-! 0- •..-! )..< <!) ~;::) Z 9 ..c en ~ 0 H <!) -IJ m <!) 00 fj p::; - 7 - 45 10 - 7 - 45 12 •..-! eo - 7 - 45(6) o o -IJ<!) moo o fj <!) 0- fj O-IJ H p..-! H )..< <!) :> Ol=l 0 ....:10 U o 0 • ..-! •..-! -IJ<!) -IJ t\lCI) o Farmer <!) 00 o e-, )..< <!) :> Ol=l 0 ....:10 U 7 - 2 - L 7 - 2 - G 7 - 3 - Gli K. C. Young 8 - 5 - C1 K. C. Young 7 - 4 - Cl 18 - 5 - G L. Miller 13 - 2 - C1 18 - 5 - L 13 - 7 - 45(6) 0 0- >. Control 18 - 6 - G 18 - 4 - C2 K. C. Young 13 - 1 - C1 18 - 6 - L 14 - 7 - 45 18 - 7 - G K. C. Young 7 - 5 - C1 - 7 - 45 32 - 8 - G L. Roll 32 15 32 - 8 - L 1 - 7 - 46 13 - 8 - G - 1 - C1 29 - 3 - C2 C. Einsphar 12 - 3 - C1 H. Gall 14 - 6 - C2 D. Neiman 35 - 8 - C1 - Gli Unknown 9 - 2 - C1 - 1 - c21 Unknown 16 - 6 - C1 - c21 Unknown 11 - 1 - Cl 13 - 8 - L 2 - 7 - 46 14 - 7 - G 14 - 7 - L 1 - 6 - 46 35 - 1 -G 35 - 1 - L 1 - 7 - 47 9 - 3 1 - 6 - 48 17 1 - 10 - 44 12 - 6 on section divided into 1,2 mile segments running clock wise around the section from the northeast corner. Example: the east and west ~ mile segments would be respectively numbered 3 and 4. ?:...I Cover types: C = grass, L = grass-legume, C1 = farmed roadside, and C2 = unfarmed roadside. 11 Grass in plot seeded by farmer prior to study initiation. 1/ Location �April 1970 - 115 - JOB PROGRESS Stdte COLORADO of No. W-37-R-23 Game Bird Plan No. 3 Job No. Project Work REPORT Job Title Effects Distribution Period April Covered: Personnel: Survey 8a of Sagebrush Control on and Abundance of Sage Grouse 1, 1969 to September 16, 1969 Clait Braun, Courtney Crawford, Howard Funk, Don Gore, Don Hoffman, Scott King, Chet McCord, John Monarch, Ken Morrison, Mike Robertson, Clayton Wetherill, Terry A. May (Principal Investigator). ABSTRACT Peak strutting ground counts of male sage grouse (centrocercus urophasianus) totaled 357 birds, the highest count since the experimental spraying was completed in 1965. A total of 106 birds were captured and marked, including 28 females fitted with VHF radio transmitters. These 28 females were monitored a total of 990 days (from April 7 to September 11), including 262 relocations. Eight of the radio-frequency-marked females were followed to nests with a mean distance traveled to nests of 6.29 km (range: 2.19-13.70 km) from the strutting ground where captured. Mean clutch size of seven nests was 7.4 (range: 7-8 eggs). Poor production, apparently resulting from cold, wet weather during the peak period of hatching, caused reduced brood sizes. Females with broods moved soon after hatching to areas with abundant forbs which served as food for juveniles. No definite "travel lanes, to summering areas were observed, but adequate cover between nesting and meadow areas appeared to be important. Females tended to use wet meadows during summer while males tended to remain in upland sites near moist draws. Movements determined from harvested banded birds indicated general movements northwest, west, and southwest with few birds moving south and southeast from strutting grounds where banded. No movements east across Highway 125 could be documented. �- 116 - RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Data gathered in North Park suggested that a habitat manipulation program resulting in partial kill or partial eradication of sagebrush on upland sites in amounts up to approximately 70 percent did not seriously affect sage grouse populations during spring and summer months. In fact, opening up dense sagebrush areas, permitting forbs and grasses to grow may improve these areas for summer use. Until land managers present evidence that partial kill programs can be conducted successfully over large blocks, sagebrush control programs should be completed in strip patterns. 2. Data on nest locations and distances traveled to nest sites suggested that sagebrush areas near known summer use areas and wet meadows were utilized as nesting habitat. This fact should be considered in developing guidelines for sagebrush control programs. 3. Broods joined into small flocks once juveniles reached approximately four weeks of age. All brood census data should be completed within four weeks of the peak period of hatching to obtain accurate brood counts. Peak period of hatching can be estimated by adding 47 days to the observed peak of female attendance on strutting grounds. 4. Analysis of harvest data indicated that the sagegrouse population in North Park could withstand heavier hunting pressure. If strutting ground counts are normal and production as indicated by brood counts is good, a nine day season beginning on the permanent opening date and continuing through the following weekend with bag and possession limits of three and six should be considered. Detailed hunter check data should be accumulated on both weekends and correlated with breeding counts the following year. 5. Further work with similar objectives by students at this time would probably yield little. In the future when another student is assigned to this project in North Park, a permanent employee with the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks should be in close contact with this student, including considerable direct supervision in the field. 6. Needs for future work include: (a) develop more accurate census techniques for breeding populations, (b) devise methods to adequately estimate sex and age structure of the population, (c) examine fall behavior of sage grouse to learn if there is a relationship with the high proportion of females harvested, (d) experiment with hunting regulations to establish a hunting program designed to give hunters more time in the field without harm to the sage grouse resource, and (e) investigate the winter ecology of sage grouse. Emphasis during future studies should be on examining the effects of sagebrush eradication on sagegrouse populations when they are concentrated during the months of November through March. 7. Similar radio-telemetry studies, if ever conducted, on sage grouse should be planned so a crew of two follow no more than 12 instrumented birds during a given time period. More realistically, this number should be eight if even higher quality observations are desired. �- 117 - EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Terry A. May In 1963, a two year study was initiated to investigate sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) abundance and distribution in North Park near Walden, Colorado and to recommend patterns of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) control. In June, 1965, the Bureau of Land Management sprayed approximately 4,000 acres of sagebrush following the design and specifications recommended at the termination of the pre-treatment study. Immediately after spraying, a post-treatment study was initiated to examine the immediate effects of sagebrush eradication. A third study is planned to examine long-term effects of sagebrush eradication. Work reported here pertains to the April through September activites of female sage grouse in and around experimental spray areas and is the second year of a two year study. The first year of study was conducted by Poley (1969). P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on: (1) sage grouse abundance: (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. SEGMENT 1. 2. OBJECTIVES Measure sage grouse abundance and harvest in North Park, Colorado. Investigate sage grouse distribution throughout spring and summer. METHODS AND MATERIALS Abundance and Harvest An index to spring population level was calculated using counts of strutting males as described by Gill (1965). Productivity was estimated by recording all sightings of unsuccessful and successful females along with the number of chicks per brood. Harvest data were obtained at the Cowdrey and Walden hunter check stations during the opening weekend of the hunting season. Age and sex of birds were determined using the methods described by Crunden (1963) and Dalke et al. (1963). Population estimates were calculated from the recovery of banded birds at hunter check stations. �- 118 - Capture and Marking Birds were trapped on strutting grounds in spring using the "spotlighting" technique described by Pyrah (1959) while most females were captured using a mobile cannon-net similar to the one described by Lacher and Lacher (1964). Females were cannon-netted on primary mating areas just prior to daylight. A noose-pole described by Zwickel and Bendell (1967) was used wit.h Some success on juveniles. All adults were banded with serially numbered, metal leg bands and numbered plastic bandettes color coded to trapping location as described by Poley (1969). Juveniles were marked with poultry patagium tags or banded when they were old enough to retain leg bands. Selected females were fitted with very high frequency (VHF) radio transmitters obtained from S. L. Markusen, Cloquet, Minnesota. Transmitters were attached similar to the methods described by Brander (1968) and Poley (1969). Batteries with metal "tabs" attached to aid in soldering to lead wires were also obtained from Markusen. Harnesses were strengthened by running plastic coated metal leader through the tubes forming the radio harness as recommended by Poley (1969) (Fig. 1). Instrumented females were monitored using equipment described by Poley (1969). Distribution Distribution and movements were determined from observations of marked birds and by tracking radio-frequency-marked females. Data on banded birds taken by hunters were recorded at check stations. General distribution was also determined from observations of unmarked birds. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Detailed descriptions of the study area were presented by Gill (1965) and Poley (1969). Carr (1967) estimated a 72 percent kill on sagebrush for all sprayed areas. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Abundance Strutting Ground Counts Strutting grounds on the study area were located and named by Rogers (1964) and given code names by Gill (1965) (Fig. 2). Three strutting grounds (SG-l, SG-9, and SG-lO) were located in strip-spray areas, while two (SG-2 and SG-5) were located in block-spray areas. �- 119 - ANTENNA TRANSMITTER TAPE BATTERY Arrows are plastic covered leader material that is inserted into tubes of transmitter. Fig. 1. Strengthened transmitter harness for female sage grouse. �- 122 - Table 2. Comparison sage grouse. of 1960 through 1969 strutting Year 1964 1965 Strutting Ground 1960 1961 1962 1963 SG 1 1/ 10 5 0 0 0 SG 2 2/ 43 4 7 20 SG 3 14 0 0 SG 4 130 96 SG 5 2/ 19 SG 6 ground counts of male 1966 1967 1968 1969 0 0 0 0 0 26 9 9 10 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 219 216 120 53 47 69 58 82 2 52 17 65 52 54 59 52 82 5 1 8 9 3 0 2 12 36 36 SG 7 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 SG 8 5 0 0 0 0 0 6 5 2 6 1/ 167 109 71 85 99 52 97 81 71 117 SG 10 1/ 17 77 28 19 17 0 6 9 0 16 SG 11 12 50 5 11 7 0 13 15 6 5 SG 12 14 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 Total 446 363 395 377 337 166 234 265 231 357 SG 9 1/ Strutting 2/ Strutting grounds grounds in strip-spray in block-spray areas. areas. Counts on major strutting grounds (SG-4, SG-5, and SG-9) increased substantially while counts on smaller strutting grounds (SG-2, SG-8, SG-10, and SG-12) remained stable or increased only slightly. Gill (1965) suggested that higher counts from smaller strutting grounds were actually better indicators of a high population level than counts on large strutting grounds. Schlatterer (1960), working in Idaho, suggested that subadult females visited strutting grounds after the peak in hen numbers. Evidence from ages of females captured on strutting grounds strongly suggested that subadult females in Colorado also visited strutting grounds in larger numbers late in the breeding season. �- 123 The experimental sagebrush spraying in 1965 apparently did little to cause relocation or abandonment of strutting areas. The same strutting areas were used by similar or greater numbers of birds in 1969 than before the spraying was accomplished. Production Estimates Productivity was relatively poor in 1969. The first brood was observed on May 28, while the estimated peak of hatching occurred between June 1-10. June was unseasonably wet and cold, which apparently resulted in decreased chick survival and smaller brood sizes. Large numbers of unsuccessful females were observed which may have indicated a lower than normal success ratio. During May, two broods, each having at least three chicks, were observed. Nine broods with a mean of 5.2 chicks per brood were observed during June, while 45 females were classified as being unsuccessful. The mean brood size dropped to three in July when 18 broods were observed. After July 7, "gang broods" were observed which made it difficult to obtain accurate brood counts. Exchange of chicks between broods probably occurred readily at this time. Brood counts after July 7 were further complicated because unsuccessful females also seemed to associate with "gang broods". Distribution and Movements In order to re-observe sage grouse throughout the spring and summer, emphasis during spring was placed on banding and marking all birds possible. A total of 106 birds were captured and marked during 1969 (Table 3). This included ten recaptures of birds banded prior to 1969. Table 3. Age, sex and location Location Adult of sage grouse banded Male Subadult Adult in 1969. Female Subadult Juvenile SG 4 20(4)1/ 13 5 9 SG 5 0 1 0 0 SG 9 11 (6 )1./ 7 8 11 Other areas 3 0 4 7 7 Total 34 21 17 27 7 in parentheses indicates 1/ Figure recaptures of birds banded prior to 1969. �- 126 - Evidence suggested that the same nest sites were used in preceding years. One nest with all eggs intact had small pieces of egg shells scattered in the nes t bowl. Distances Traveled to Nests Eight of the radio-frequency-marked females distance of 6.29 km (range 2.19 - 13.70 km) captured (Table 5). Females did not always ground on which they were captured as other passed on the way to nests. nests were located with a mean from the strutting grounds where nest closest to the strutting major strutting grounds were Table 5. Distances and directions sites from strutting grounds. 1/ traveled by female sage grouse to nest Banding Location SG 4 SG 9 A e Adult Subadult Adult 3.34-WNW 2.l9-SSW 2.50-SSW 4.72-SE 11. 20-NNW 7. IS-NNW Subadult 13.70-NNW 5.52-WSW Mean Distances 4.03 1/ Distances 8.15 Traveled to Nest Sites 4.84 are in kilometers. Four subadults traveled a mean distance of 8.15 km (range 2.19 - 13.70 km) to nests, while four adults traveled a mean distance of 4.43 km (range 2.50 - 7.15 km) to nests. This suggested that nesting experience was important as subadults traveled farther and more variable distances to suitable nest sites. Only one female moved southeast from the strutting grounds to nest, while three moved northwest, two moved southwest, and two moved west. These data indicated a general trend of westerly movements from strutting areas to nesting sites. Summer concentration areas for females and broods nearest to �- 127 major strutting grounds were west of these strutting areas. The experimental spray areas were north and east of these strutting grounds. Females appeared to select nest sites near summering areas, thus explaining, in part, the general trend of westerly movements. Of the 16 radio-frequency-marked females not located on nests, five were unsuccessful nesters, one was a predator victim, and ten were not accounted for after initial capture or reobservation. Of the ten not classified, it was probable that most of the transmitters ceased functioning. It was possible some moved completely out of the study area, but this was probably the exception rather than the rule. Six transmitters were returned during the hunting season, and one was retrieved during the summer. Four of these transmitters had broken antennas, and signals from a transmitter with no antenna could not be received over 100 m. Nest Sites Fourteen nests of the year (Fig. 3) were located during the summer with two of these being in sprayed areas. One was in the experimental strip-spray area, while the other was on a hillside sprayed by a private landowner. In both instances live sagebrush occurred within 2 m of the nests. Of the 14 nests, 12 were under big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), one was under a greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatis) bush, and one was under a rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) bush. The mean height of vegetation over nest cavities was 350 rom (range 280-430 rom). Relatively flat areas (0-10 percent slope) with a mean average slope of 7.38 percent (range 0-25 percent) were preferred for nests. No preference for aspect was noted, although the largest number of nests (7) had a southwest aspect. In all situations, live sagebrush was within 5 m of nests. Nesting occurred in medium to tall brush, but nests were typically in rather open sites or on the edges of open areas. Frequently (7 of 12 instances), sagebrush plants over nests were partially dead, but in all situations, they provided excellent cover. Nesting was not observed in dense, thick sagebrush areas. It is my hypothesis that habitat manipulation programs designed to obtain partial kills on dense sagebrush areas may Lmprove these areas for nesting by opening up the cover. Klebenow (1969) reported similar suggestions. Nesting Success Of eight active nests, seven had known clutch sizes (4 with 7 eggs each, and 3 with 8 eggs each). Three of the nests hatched successfully (Ion June 1 and 2 on June 6) with 85 percent of the eggs (18 of 21) hatching. Thre~ females deserted their nests which was probably caused by observer interference. Two nests were destroyed, possibly by some small mammal. Egg shells in the nests had small holes in the sides and were scattered around the nest. No instances of renesting were documented, a rare occurrence in 1969. and this phenomenon was probably �- 128 - Artemisia Location of Nest to Sprayed Areas Sarcobatus Veg. Over Nes t Mean Ht. of Veg. Over Nest = 350 mm CIl .IJ CIl Q) Z ~ o o z Ave. Ht. of Veg. in mm Over Nest N w E S Aspect 4 CIl .IJ CIl of Nest Sites Mean Ave. Percent Slope = 7.36 Percent 3 Q) Z ~ 2 0 .1 0 z o Fig. 3. Fourteen 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Percent Slope of Nest Sites sage grouse nests located during 1969. 24 26 Chrysothamnus �- 129 Brood Movements Brood movements could be plotted on only one of the three radio-frequencymarked females that were successful (Fig. 4). This female (No. 886) moved her brood a short distance from the nest into deep sagebrush immediately after hatching on june 1. This brood remained in the vicinity of the nest for several days, staying in medium to tall sagebrush. On the 4th day after hatching, this brood moved to an irrigation ditch approximate1y.75 km south of the nest. The brood remained in this area for two days when contact with the female was lost. Movements of two successful females captured after their broods had hatched were plotted during the spring and summer (Fig. 5 and Fig. 6). Female #2016 was captured in a small "pothole" just prior to sunset on June 20. This "pothole" was an area where open water was present during April and May. In late May this water disappeared, and grass and forbs grew in abundance. "Pothole" areas remained green until late June or early July, and observations of hens with chicks feeding in these areas were quite common. This agreed with the findings of 'Klebe now and Gray (1968) and Peterson (1970) who found that forbs made up a large portion of the diets of juvenile sage grouse. After six days, female #2016 moved to the Lake Creek area where she roosted during the day in shrub-dominated sites adjacent to wet areas. After 2 weeks, this brood moved to the reseeded ryefie1d and spent the remainder of the summer in that area. Female #2018 was captured 75 m south of the reseeded ryefie1d on July 9. This brood spent the summer in the vicinity of the reseeded ryefie1d. It appeared that hens with broods moved soon after hatching to areas where moisture was abundant and vegetation was dominated by grass and forbs. Female sage grouse with broods roosted during mid-day in sites with abundant shrubs adjacent to wet areas. These wet areas were typically "potholes" previously described or near stream bottoms and irrigation ditches. In all Situations, forbs were available as food for juvenile sage grouse. Definite "travel lanes" to Summer areas were not observed; but the amount of protective cover may have been important in determining movement patterns. Females with broods typically had reached summering areas by the time chicks were 4 weeks of age. At this time distinct broods were not common, and hens, both successful and unsuccessful, were observed with chicks in "gang broods". Considerable exchange of chicks between broods probably occurred at this time, but juveniles were not radio-frequency-marked so their movements after reaching summering areas are not known. Summering Areas Females, both successful and unsuccessful moved into wet areas during summer while general observations indicated that males remained in upland sagebrush areas near draws with thick sagebrush and some moisture. Observations on marked and unmarked females indicated that they remained in or near wet areas throughout the summer. One heavy summer concentration area for females and juveniles was the reseeded wild rye field which had several irrigation �- 130 ditches running through it. Birds used this area for both roosting and feeding. Some birds would roost in the ryefie1d at night while others would fly about .75-1.25 km south to a greasewood-rabbitbrush dominated area to roost at night. In early September, sagebrush areas. Movements females and juveniles from Harvested started moving back into upland Birds Movements plotted from banded birds harvested (Fig. 7) were similar to those determined by tracking radio-frequency-marked females. In general, movements were northwest, west, and southwest of strutting grounds. One adult female was harvested along the North Platte River east of the strutting ground where she was banded. Another adult female was taken approximately 1.6 km north of McFarlane Reservoir approximately 27 km southeast of where she was banded on the study area. Seasonal movements appeared limited primarily to the vicinity of the study area with some birds moving out of the area to the south and southwest. Movements to the north and northwest were probably limited to the Independence Mountain and Trappers Gulch areas. There were probably no movements east across Colorado Highway 125. Harvest Analysis A total of 569 sage grouse were checked at the Cowdrey and Walden check stations on September 13-14 (Table 6). Seventy percent were adults which reflected poor production in 1969. Only 31.4 percent of the total kill were males which probably could be explained by availability of birds and by different behavior patterns between sexes. Indicated hunting pressure in 1969 increased to a new high with a total of 662 hunters being checked. Hunters spent slightly more hours (5.16) to obtain each bird than in past years which resulted in an average of .86 bird bagged per hunter checked. Twenty-three banded or marked sage grouse were recovered Of the 23, eleven were banded in 1969, eight were banded banded in 1967, and one was banded in 1966. in the bag (Table 7). in 1968, three were Using the Lincoln index method to estimate a fall population level before hunting, a total population of 4,046 birds was obtained for the northwest quarter of North Park. This included 1,543 males, 1,306 females, and 1,197 juveniles with each estimate being calculated separately. These estimates mayor may not be va.':, however, they are not totally unrealistic and have merit. Theoretically, populations patterns such as exhibited of game birds which have promiscuous breeding by sage grouse also have high annual turnover. �- 131 - Brown (1967) found that male sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus) had an annual turnover that averaged 65 percent. With similar occurrences in sage grouse likely, it would appear that the population in North Park could withstand heavier hunter harvest without serious effects to the sage grouse population. Using the population estimate of 4,046 birds, only 14.1 percent of the population in the study area was harvested in 1969. Up to 35-40 percent of this population could probably be taken each year without harm to breeding populations the following spring. With an effort to obtain better hunter dispersion throughout North Park, a management program designed to increase bag limits and provide longer seasons would be desirable. LITERATURE Brander, R. B. 1968. A radio-package Mgmt. 32(3):630-632. CITED harness for game birds. J. Wildl. Brown, R. L. 1967. Sharp-tailed grouse population study. Montana Fish and Game Dept. Proj. W-9l-R-8, Job No. II-E. Job Completion Rept. 16 p. Carr, H. D. 1967. Effects of sagebrush control on abundance, distribution and movements of sage grouse. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Proj. W-37-R-17, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. Job Compl. Rept. 106 p. Crunden, C. W. 1963. Age and sex of sage grouse from wings. Mgmt. 27(4):846-849. J. Wildl. Dalke, P. D., D. B. Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, J. E. Crawford, and E. F. Schlatterer. 1963. Ecology, productivity, and management of sage grouse in Idaho. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 27(4):811-841. Gill, R. B. 1965. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Proj. W-37-R-17, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. Job Completion Rept. 185 p. Klebenow, D. A., and G. M. Gray. 1968. Food habits of juvenile grouse. J. Range Mgmt. 21(2):80-83. Klebenow, D. A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(3):649-662. Lacher, J. R., and Dorothy D. Lacher. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28(3):595-597. 1964. and brood habitat sage in Idaho. A mobile cannon net trap. Peterson, J. G. 1970. The food habits and summer distribution of juvenile sage grouse in central Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(1):147-155. Poley, B. E. 1969. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Proj. W-37-R-22, Work Plan 3, Job No. 8a. Job Compl. Rept. 31 p. �- 132 - pyrah, D. B. 1959. Sage grouse population trend study. Sage grouse trapping study. Wyoming Game Bird Survey. Proj. W-50-R-8, Work Plan 2, Jobs 1 and 2. p. 3&-64. Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Tech. Publ. 16. 132 p. Colorado Schlatterer, E. F. 1960. Productivity and movements of a population of sage grouse in southeastern Idaho. M. S. Thesis. Univ. of Idaho, Moscow. 87 p. Zwickel, F. C., and J. F. Bendel1. 1967. A snare for capturing blue grouse. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 31(1):202-204. Prepared by Terry Ad May Student Assistant J �- 133 - Fig. 4. Movements of female 886 from June 1 to June 6. �134 - �135- �- 136 - 1554 Fig. 7. Harvest locations in relation sage grouse, September 13-14, 1969. to banding 1623 location of hunter harvested �Table 6. Comparison of North Park sage grouse hunter check information, 1963-1969. II Total Birds Birds Per Hunter Hours Hunted Per Bird 58 506 1.03 4.86 45 41 179 .82 3.49 26 26 51 116 .77 5.40 56 45 71 44 263 .86 4.67 127 67 42 46 33 267 .89 4.41 80 135 42 156 141 58 512 .94 5.09 121 277 70 57 114 30 569 .86 5.16 Year Bag Limit Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Hales Adult Females Percent Adults 1963 3 492 2,460 62 150 42 113 181 2 217 624 25 81 59 28 2 150 626 27 30 49 1966 2 306 1,227 31 116 1967 2 300 1,177 50 2 546 2,604 2 662 2,936 1964 1965 ]) 1968 1969 Juvenile Juvenile Percent Males Females Juveniles II Based on Walden and Cowdrey check station data during opening weekends. II A one day season; hence only a one day check. t-' w -....J �- 138 - Table 7. Banded birds checked at the Cowdrey and Walden check stations. Age Sex Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Juvenile Adult Adult Adult Fema1eQ.I Male Fema1e§j Female Male Male FemaleS I Fema1e~:; Ma1e71 Female§j Male Fema1e61 Male Fema1e£/ Female Male Female Male Male ? Female~./ ? ? Banding Location Date Banded SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 9 SG 4 SG 4 SG 4 SG 4 SG 4 SG 4 SG 4 SG 4 SG 6 SG 6 April 8, 1969 April 8, 1969 April 8, 1969 April 21, 1969 May 8, 1968 May 29, 1968 April 25, 1968 April 25, 1968 May 1, 1966 April 19, 1969 May 15, 1969 April 17, 1969 April 17, 1969 April 16, 1969 April 10, 1967 May 3, 1967 April 11, 1967 May 2, 1968 April 22, 1968 June 2, 1969 July 8, 1969 August 21, 1968 August 7, 1968 II 21 31 ~j Band Number Bandette Number Red 83 889 Red 458 1635 Red 80 886 Red 94 2013 Red 441 1603 Red 452 1617 851 Red 302 Red 304 853 Red 451 1466 2012 Yellow 424 Yellow 162 1668 Yellow 416 2005 Yellow 150 1654 Yellow 415 2004 831 Yellow 421 Yellow 195 1554 Yellow 403 835 1593 1577 Patagia1 Tag :/fo 52 White 56 2017 White 20 1623 White 17 867 II North of Lake John 1.2 km. 21 West side of reseeded ryefield. 31 Northwest of Cowdrey-Pearl Road junction with the Hill Ranch Driveway 2.1 km. 41 West .8 km and 150 yards north of southeast corner of Sec. 21, T10N, R81W. 51 Females radio-frequency marked in 1968. 61 Females radio-frequency marked in 1969. II Male radio-frequency marked in 1966. �April 1970 - 139 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 10 Game Bird Survey 1 Job No. Job Title Study of Hungarian Partridge Adaptability Period Covered: April Personnel: Donald M. Hoffman, Charles E. Brown, Gary Brown, David de Ca1esta, Mark Frasier, Aden M. Greer, James D. Houston, Roger Lowry, Jon Moser, Dale F. Reed, William I. Roland, Warren D. Snyder, Henry Wilson and Michael Zgainer. 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 ABSTRACT Six hundred and twenty nine more pen raised Hungarian partridge were released in Moffat County on Isles Mountain southwest of Craig, Colorado at three sites on April 19, 1969. Intensive field searches were made by W-37-R Project personnel during the months of June through September, 1969. Only 11 Huns were observed, including a brood of at least four chicks. This is the first record of a brood being observed by Division personnel in Moffat County, even though landowners had reported broods earlier. A winter search of the release sites and surrounding areas in Moffat County by two Researchers, six W.C.O. Trainees, three W.C.O. IS, and one Area Supervisor in late February, 1970 resulted in no Huns being observed, no field sign found, and no new leads secured from landowners interviewed. �- 140 - RECOMMENDATIONS Even though efforts to study populations were intensified required and are recommended the success of field released in 1969, additional follow-up to determine this. Huns to establish checks will be Locations in Colorado other than those receiving transplarits to date appear to have possibilities as Hungarian partridge range~ It is recommended these be checked as trial release sites. These include areas near Del Norte~ Norwood, Montrose, and Collbran. �- 141 - HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of Hungarian partridge to establish reproducing populations in mixed brush1and-wheat1and habitat in Moffat County, Colorado. SEGMENT 1. 2. Introduce Determine Hungarian partridge. presence and dispersal METHODS OBJECTIVES of Huns and success of previous plants. AND MATERIALS Field releases of pen-raised stock were made with the use of a helicopter to fly the crated birds from Round Bottom on the north side of the Yampa River to Isles Mountain south of the river (Figure 1). Intensive field searches were made by Project W-37-R personnel during the periods June 11-13, July 14-17, August 5-8, 18-22, 26-29, and September 2-5, 1969. In addition, persons living and working in or near the release site were interviewed and observations reported were recorded. A winter search of the release sites and surrounding areas in Moffat County by 12 Division employees including 2 Researchers, 6 w.c.o. Trainees, 3 w.c.o. IS, and 1 Area Supervisor was made during the last week of February, 1970. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION On April 19, 1969, 629 additional pen raised Huns from Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and Little Hills Experiment Station holding pens (Figure 2) were released at 3 sites on Isles Mountain, southwest of Craig, Colorado in Moffat County. Fifteen of these were pen raised by the Avian Science Department of Colorado State University and the remainder were pen raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. A male Hungarian partridge released in 1969 is shown in Figure 3. Locations, and numbers, of Hungarian partridge released in Moffat County from 1964 through 1969 are shown in Figure 4. Table 1 summarizes all field releases made in Larimer, Moffat and Routt counties since 1964. A total of 1,249 Huns have been released with most (1,100) being released in Moffat County, 135 in Larimer County, and 14 in Routt County. Table 2 summarizes Hungarian partridge reports and observations for Moffat County for 1969. Although only 11 Huns were observed during the intensive �I-' ..p- N Fig. 1. Releasing Hungarian partridge transported 1969. (D. Domenick, photo). by helicopter, to release site on Isles Mountain southwest of Craig �I-' +:- w Fig. 2. Reading band numbers of Hungarian partridge in holding pens at Little Hills Experiment Station, 1969. (D. Domenick, photo). �~ +=-+=-- Fig. 3. A male Hungarian partridge released in Moffat County in 1969. (D. Domenick, photo). �- 145 R. 91W. COLORADO !fI ,. c , ~ ~ SCALE OF MILES t 0 " " ,- T.6N .j ,. ,. " \ ' --~f-·.' "t- L ' /' Fig. 4. Locations of Hungarian partridge releases, Moffat County, 1964 through 1969. �- 146 - Table 1. Hungarian Date Jan. partridge Number Released & Feb., 1964 field releases since 1964. Source of Stock Release Area Oregon & Idaho (wild trapped) Larimer County, Douglas Sec. 1, T8N, R69W Lake Sub-total 135 March 28, 1964 40 Idaho (wild trapped) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec 34, T6N, R92W March 23, 1965 124 Oregon (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 33, T6N, R92W April 18, 1967 71 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 21, T6N, R92W April 30 and May 1, 1968 236 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 29, T6N, R92W April 30, 1968 14 FCWRS (pen raised) Routt County, Northeast of Hayden, Sec. 35, T7N, R87W April 19, 1969 389 FCWRS (374) & CSU (15) (pen-raised) Moffat County, Isles Mountain, Sec. 24 & 25, T5N, R92W April 19, 1969 240 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Isles Mountain, Sec. 16, T5N, R92H Sub-total Total 1,114 1,249 An additional 22 birds (11 pairs) were taken to Rocky Ford Experimental Bird farm from this shipment. On October 6, 1965, 51 (pen-raised) birds were received from Oregon and were taken to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental breeding purposes. On February 19, 1970, 13 1969-hatched Huns from eggs secured from wild-trapped birds in England were received from Winchester Farms, Alton, Illinois and will be used for experimental breeding purposes in 1970 and later years. >', �- 147 - Table 2. Summary Date partridge Number Huns Late Winter, Spring of Hungarian 1969 1969 Sununer 1969 July 16, 1969 August 5, 1969 Area Moffat County, Observed 1969. By Several Round Bottom area L. Ellgen 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, BLM catchment G. Hilton 4 (2 pair) Isles Mountain, saddle south of BLM catchment G. Hilton Few Round Bottom, Fuhr Gulch J. Counts 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, south of Meade Ranch headquarters Meade Brothers Isles Mountain, north of Meade Ranch headquarters Meade Brothers 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain area Meade Brothers 4 Isles Mountain, Bowers 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, Meade Brothers property D. de Colesta Isles Mountain, Meade Brothers property D. de Colesta 6 (3 pair) July 15, 1969 reports and observation, 2 (1 pair) fields B. Bowers 4 chicks (~ grown) Isles Mountain, Bowers fields D. de Colesta 3 broods Isles Mountain, Bowers fields B. Bowers Augus t 7, 1969 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, Bowers fields D. de Colesta August 1 adult, male Isles Mountain, Meade Brothers property August October 6, 1969 19, 1969 20, 1969 60 to 80 Cedar Mountain D. de Colesta Hunters report to D. Reed. �- 148 - field searches conducted in the summer of 1969, a brood of at least 4 chicks was located. This is the first record of a brood being observed by Division personnel in Moffat County. Past reports of peaks of Hun numbers sighted by land owners on Isles Mountain have coincided closely with wheat harvests. This occurs normally in late August in Moffat County. Some of these reports of Huns may have been confused with sharp-tailed grouse based upon observations made in 1969. From 27 to 29 sharp-tailed grouse in 4 different groups were observed by D. de Co1esta on or near wheat fields during the period August 16-29, 1969. Three of these locations were the same or nearly the same as where groups of Huns had been reported in recent years, mostly during wheat harvests. Only 1 Hun was observed by de Co1esta during this same period. It appears that sharp-tailed grouse congregate in the wheat fields at harvest time and may be difficult to distinguish from Huns by untrained observers. There exists a strong possibility that some of the past Hun reports on Isles Mountain were actually sharp-tailed grouse. One report of 60 to 80 Huns seen in the Cedar Mountain area northwest of Craig about October 20, 1969 was secured from hunters by Dale F. Reed. A winter search of the release sites and surrounding areas including Cedar Mountain was made by 12 Division employees during the last week of February 1970. No Huns were observed, no field sign found and no new leads were secured from land owners interviewed. Prepared by _M~~~=' ~CWJ~-~~/. ~-~l Donald M. Hoffma~ Wildlife Researcher +~...:...~::.-:==-=~ �Aprll l~/U - 149 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~RA~D~O~ Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 10 _ Game Bird Survey Breeding Job No. 2 of Hungarian Partridge Job Title Experimental Period Covered: April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Personnel: Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, John F. Corey, Dr. John V. Shutze, Dr. Harry D. Muller, and Donald M. Hoffman ABSTRACT Twenty more eggs (664 compared with 644) were laid by the breeders using the 22 percent protein feed in comparison with the 28 percent protein feed but more of the 22 percent protein feed eggs were also infertile (178 compared with 118). A higher percent hatch resulted from the 28 percent protein feed (53.11% compared with 47.14%) considering total eggs, and a slightly higher percent hatch resulted from the 28 percent protein feed (65.02% compared with 64.40%) considering fertile eggs. A higher percent survival for the first seven days was found using the 28 percent protein feed (92.92%) in comparison with the standard 22 percent protein feed (89.93%). More fertile eggs were produced in the six ground floored pens using 22 percent protein feed than in the wire floored pens (223 compared with 167) and more fertile eggs were produced in the six ground floored pens using 28 percent protein feed than in the wire floored pens (176 compared with 169). �- 150 - RECOMMENDATIONS With two years data comparing 28 percent protein game bird breeder feed with the standard 22 percent feed and no clear advantage indicated in using one over the other, it is recommended that the 1970 test series compare 16 percent feed with 22 percent feed. The wire-floored series of breeder pens are adaptable for controlled tests to compare the effects of extra lighting on fertile egg production due to their construction and location. It is recommended that the necessary wiring be done and these tests started in 1970. The Huns received from Winchester Farms, Alton, Illinois will be held separately in breeding pens in 1970 so that characteristics may be observed and measured toward improving our present stock for field survival. Production cost records for Hungarian partridge will be maintained in 1970. �- 151 - EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE Donald M. Hoffman Good progress continued in 1969 in improving production techniques for Hungarian partridge at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. From the 52 pairs (104 birds) held as breeders in 1969, there were enough birds for use as breeders in 1970 (43 pairs) plus 674 surplus Huns which will be released at 3 sites in Moffat County in April, 1970. Thirteen (5 hens and 8 cocks) 1969-hatch Huns were received from Winchester Farms, Alton, Illinois, on February 19, 1970. Ten (5 pairs) of these will also be used for breeding pairs in 1970, bringing the total number of breeding pairs for 1970 to 53. The breeders used in 1969 were selected from the second and third hatches and all were 1968-hatch birds. The number of birds pen-raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station to be released in the field (674) in 1970, compares favorably with the 614 from this source released in 1969 and 250 released in 1968. See Table 1, Work Plan 10, Job 1, Job Progress Report for numbers of birds released in the field from 1964 through 1969. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques SEGMENT 1. for Hungarian OBJECTIVES To measure the effects of 2 levels of protein (22% versus 28%) on: (a) (b) (c) (d) partridge. in the breeder feed Egg production Egg fertility Egg hatchability Chick survival for the first 7 days 2. To measure the relationship of holding breeders wire to fertile egg production. 3. To compare the number of fertile eggs produced by early mating with those mating late in the breeding season. METHODS on the ground and on pairs AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of the Hungarian partridge breeding pens for 1969 is shown in Figure 1. Mated pairs for all except the late mated series were selected and caught in the large Hungarian partrige holding pens (Figure 2). Figure 3 shows the arrangement of these holding pens. Table 1 lists the pen schedule for the various tests run in 1969. One mated pair �- 152 - N O£ 62 S2 L2 92 75' 6'4" "11,7[\ co 1 fC') fI'l Ground-floored Sorie, 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 4£ 'v _a._ 'v _ "'--"1/_'- "v _ ,--,-'\,11' _ '-- "l/ -,~ 19' 6'4" Wiro-floorod Sories v C\I b rt) C\I C\I C\I CD 0 ~ 49~ 51 Pens 4'-::9:-'"-';;-:51;-¥ --~ ~-- (not used in 1969) SCALE e I en I I 0' 5' 10' I 25' Fig. 1. U> L .~t- - Detailed Arrangement _ r~--- ~'G'-~ .__._-_ .. -- 48'---- Co Partridgo Breeding of. Hunoarlan Pene, �t-' VI W Fig. 2. Hand netting Hungarian partridge breeder pair following selection. collection of pairs. (D. Hoffman photo). The small pen is used to facilitate �- 154 - Covered Brooder Shelter 1 Houses .r >: L-..-...L.--J--_"--_-1 /'_-I-_--'-_---J4'~8'-4 J f -0 t\J 4' N - 10 o (\J C\I N ~ 15.5 ---35 -t ,~15.5-l --- ~--------------I05'-----------, Fig. 3. Hungarian Partr idge Holdin CJ Pe ns �- 155 Table 1. Pen schedule Pen Number Protein 22% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 T Number Pens on 18 Key: for Hungarian Level 28% 8'X8' 8' X 16' T 0 6' X33' x x x x x x x x x x x x T T T T Pairs Early Mated Late T T T T T T x x x x x x T T T T T T x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T Pen Floor Ground Wire x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x T T T T T T T T T T T T x x x x x x x x x x x T T T T T T T T T T T == Pen on Test; 1969 Pen Size T T x x x x x x x x x x x x partridge, T T T T T T T T T T T T 18 0 0 x == Pen not on Test 0 6 6 12 12 �- 156 - of Hungarian partridge was used in each pen. Pens 1 through 36 are located in a converted nursery shadehouse with ground floors, and pens 37 through 48 are a separate series of wire floored experimental game bird breeding pens. Alternating sections of snowfence slats were removed from the north portion of the shadehouse prior to the 1969 tests. Based upon encouraging results, as measured in numbers of fertile eggs, the remaining alternate sections from the south portion were removed in March 1970, prior to the 1970 test series. Protein Levels in Feed Pens 1-6 and 19-48 were used to test the effect of 2 levels of protein in the feed. Birds in even numbered pens were fed a standard game breeders feed containing 22 percent protein and those in odd numbered pens were fed a similar feed, but containing 28 percent protein. Eggs were marked and placed in separate incubator drawers to facilitate determination of (1) fertile eggs produced; (2) number of fertile eggs that hatched, and (3) numbers of surviving chicks. Chicks were held separately in the brooder until they were 7 days of age to detect differences in survival. Type of Floors Pens 25-36 have ground floors and pens 37-48 have wire floors. Fertile egg production from the mated pairs placed in even numbered pens (22% protein feed) on the ground were compared with even numbered pens on wire and odd numbered pens (28% protein feed) on the ground were compared with odd numbered pens on wire. Period of Mating In 1969, pairs of early mated Hungarian partridge were placed in pens 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18, on March 17, 1969, approximately 8 weeks after pairing had first been observed in the runs. An additional twelve cocks from 1 holding pen and 12 hens from another holding pen were held in separate pens from March 17, 1969 to April 2, 1969. It is not known if these birds were mated prior to catching. These 24 birds (12 cocks and 12 hens) were placed in a common pen on April 2, 1969, and almost immediately began pairing. Six pairs of these later mated Huns were selected from these 24 birds and placed in pens 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, and 17. Fertile eggs produced by Huns in early mated pens (numbers 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18) were compared with those from the late mated pens (numbers 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, and 17). All pens were fed 22% protein feed. In preparation for the 1970 tests, 6 pairs used for earliest mating pairs were selected as soon as the birds were observed to start pairing in the large runs (February 6, 1970) and the 6 pairs used for latest mating pairs were selected from 10 unpaired hens and 10 unpaired cocks held in separate pens from February 6, 1970 to March 23, 1970. These began to pair almost immediately when recombined on March 23, 1970 and pairs were selected later on the same date. �- 157 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Protein Levels in Feed Table 2 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and percent hatch of eggs from breeder pairs in 18 pens using the standard 22 percent protein level feed with 18 breeder pairs using a similar feed but containing 28 percent protein. Twenty more eggs (664 compared with 644) were laid by the breeders using the 22 percent protein feed in comparison with the 28 percent feed, but more of the 28 percent protein feed eggs were fertile (526 compared with 486). Percent fertile eggs was 81.67 for the 28 percent protein feed, and only 73.19 for the 22 percent protein feed. A higher percent hatch, considering total eggs, resulted from the 28 percent protein feed (53.11% compared with 47.14%) and an also slightly higher percent hatch, considering fertile eggs only, resulted from the 28 percent protein feed (65.02% compared with 64.40%). Table 3 lists a comparison of chick survival during the first 7 days on these 2 different protein levels in the feed. All of the chicks from pens fed the 22 percent protein feed were combined in this test so that 556 chicks on this ration were used in comparison with 325 chicks on 28 percent protein feed. A higher percent survival for the first 7 days was found using the 28 percent protein feed (92.92%) in comparison with the standard 22 percent protein feed (89.93%) indicating the 28 percent protein feed was better than the 22 percent. Results in 1969 were directly opposite of those found in 1968 when it appeared the 22 percent protein feed was slightly better for Hungarian partridge chick survival. Birds in several of the pens died during the 1969 test series including a cock in pen number 2 on May 6, 1969, a hen in pen number 7 on May 21, 1969, and a hen in pen number 26 on July 2, 1969. Pairs from alleyways using similar protein level feeds were used to replace the first 2 of these and the last was not replaced due to the lateness of the laying season. Several pens had poor layers but this was not unusual. Type of Floors Table 4 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and percent hatch of fertile eggs from 6 pens with wire floors and 6 pens with ground floors using either 22 or 28 percent protein feeds. More fertile eggs were produced in the 6 ground floored pens using 22 percent protein feed than in the wire floored pens (223 compared with 167) and more fertile eggs were produced in 6 ground floored pens using 28 percent protein feed (176 compared with 169). The ground floored pens used in this test were again all located in the north portion of the old shadehouse, but every other section of snow fence was removed prior to the 1969 tests. The ground floored pens were therefore still partially shaded, while the wire floored pens had shade only from the sides and shelters located in the north ends. �Table 20 Numbers of eggs produced and hatchability of eggs laid by Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1969 0 Protein Level Number Pens Number Eggs Produced Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Percent Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs 22% 18 664 178 486 73019 313 47014 28% 18 644 118 526 81067 342 53011 Table 3 0 Percent Hatch Fert ile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 64040 20 153 9 65002 13 171 12 Survival of Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1969 0 Protein Level Number Pens Number Chicks Taken to Brooder House Number Chicks Lost First Seven Days 22% 34 556 56 500 89 93 28% 18 325 23 302 92 92 Number Chicks Survived Seven Days Percent Survival First Seven Days 0 0 t-' VI 00 �- 159 A comparison of numbers of fertile eggs laid by the breeders in pens 25-36 in the north section of the shadehouse in 1969 with alternating sections of slats removed (399) with 1968 when the section was covered with the slats (255) indicates that removal of half of the slats had considerable value. Period of Mating Table 5 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and percent hatch of fertile eggs from 6 pens with early mating pairs and 6 pens with late mating pairs, all using 22 percent protein feed. More fertile eggs were produced by the early mating pairs (200 compared with 178) but a higher percent of the fertile eggs from the late mating pairs hatched (75.28 percent compared with 58.00 percent). This resulted in a higher number (134) chicks hatched from the late mating pairs compared with the number of chicks hatched from the early mating pairs (116). This test cannot be considered a good one because of selection procedures used. Early mating pairs were selected on March 17, 1969, approximately 8 weeks after pairing had first been observed in the runs. Twelve cocks from one run and 12 hens from a different run, also selected on March 17, 1969, were held in separate pens until April 2, 1969. These were then allowed to pair off and were used for late mating pairs. It is unknown if all or part of the late mating pairs selected had been paired earlier to other mates. Also it is not known if the 6 pairs of early mating Huns were actually the earliest to pair since approximately 8 weeks elapsed from the time the birds were first observed to start pairing and the time they were selected for breeders. In 1970, earliest mating pairs will be selected for comparing numbers of fertile eggs produced with later mating pairs and a better test should result. / / Prepared by I , : ,/ J;/ • ': ~/.,---:,~/:-: .« ~-- __--~--------~------Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher / �Table 4. A comparison of eggs produced by Hungarian partridge held on wire with those held on the ground. Treatment Percent Protein Level Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Wire floors 22 6 262 88 28 6 219 22 6 28 6 Ground floors Number Dead Number Germs Culls Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped 167 103 39.31 61.67 4 60 3 45 169 96 43.84 56.80 3 70 5 236 15 223 150 63.56 67.26 14 59 2 200 22 176 133 66.50 75.57 6 37 4 Number Fertile Eggs t-' 0- 0 Table 5. A comparison of eggs produced by Hungarian partridge breeders of early mating versus late matingo Treatment Percent Protein Level Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls Early mating 22% 6 242 40 200 116 47.93 58000 11 72 2 Late mating 22% 6 191 11 178 134 70.15 75.28 8 41 2 �April, 1970 - 161 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. .W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 12 Job Title Game Bird Survey 10 Job No. Relationships of the Productivity and Distribution of Wild Turkeys on the Uncompahgre Plateau to the Environment Period Covered: April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 P. S. OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the size, distribution, and productivity of the wild turkey population on the Uncompahgre Plateau. 2. Record movements of wild turkeys and determine how environmental factors affect these movements. 3. Determine the sex and age structure of the turkey kill on the Uncompahgre Plateau to provide estimates of total harvest and size of the turkey population. 4. Determine the vegetative types present on the wild turkey summer and winter range and the species composition and abundance of food producing species within each type. Also determine the elevation, describe topography, and record certain climatic factors on part of the better turkey summer and winter range. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. Progress Field work was completed on October 20, 1967. All data have been summarized, and most data have been analyzed. A manuscript containing these data and results from Work Plan 12, Job 14 is being edited and revised. Future Plans The manuscript will be finished in Segment be in the form of a technical bulletin. Prepared 24. Publication will probably /1 } l ~;t<~._·_L-_.~~~ _ by __~_._~_-~~\~'~~/_'~/~· __ Gary T-~ Myers . Wildlife Researcher ��April 1970 - 163 - JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 12 Game Bird Survey 13 Job No. Job Title Experimental Period Covered: April Habitat Improvement 1, 1969 to March for Wild Turkeys 31, 1970 p. S. OBJECTIVE To compare the effectiveness of (1) food plots and (2) supplemental feeding stations in increasing turkey harvests. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. ABSTRACT A IS-page paper was prepared and presented at the Second National Turkey Symposium, Columbia, Missouri, February 11 and 12, using results presented in the Job Final Report for this job, April, 1969, pp. 111-151. Reference: Hoffman, Donald M. 1970. Problems involved with present habitat management for Merriam's turkeys in Colorado. Second National Turkey Symposium, Columbia, Missouri. February 11-12, 1970. Prepared by f)~!fl~~ Donald ~ffman Wildlife Researcher v ��April 1970 - 165 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 12 Game Bird Survey 14 Job No. Job Title Use of Food Plots to Concentrate Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through December Wild Turkeys 2, 1970 p. S. OBJECTIVES Determine the effects of small food plots on fall concentrations harvest of wild turkeys. and SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. Progress Field work was completed December 2, 1968. Data were analyzed, written up, and incorporated in a manuscript containing information gathered under W-37-R Work Plan 12, Job 10. This manuscript is being edited and revised. Future Plans The manuscript will be finished in Segment be in the form of a technical bulletin. 24. Prepared by Publication '-'- .---; ~-'--:\ will probably J} . 1L." ., ::.!--.( (.<L- ,'1 ...........• '-' Gary T. Myers 'J Wildlife Researcher ��April 1970 - 167 - JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO ----------~~~----------- Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 15 Game Bird Survey Job No. Job Title Study of Mountain Period Covered: April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Personnel: Donald M. Hoffman, 2 Quail Adaptability Ronald B. Arant and Torn W. Barnes ABSTRACT No additional mountain quail releases were made in Colorado during this segment. Young mountain quail produced at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station in 1969 are being held for breeding stock in 1970 toward future field releases. A total of 372 wild-trapped mountain quail from California and Oregon have been re1eas~d on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau from 1965 through 1968. Although no additional mountain quail sightings or reports were secured in a one week field search of the release sites and vicinities on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau in the summer of 1969, a covey of 20 mountain quail were observed on the South Fork of Mesa Creek early in 1970 by Conservation Aide, Torn Barnes of Nucla, Colorado. ��- 169 - STUDY OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of mountain quail to establish lations in areas of mixed brush, pinon-juniper, conifer Uncompahgre Plateau. SEGMENT 1. 2. Introduce mountain Determine presence quail. and dispersal METHODS reproducing popuand aspen on the OBJECTIVES of mountain quail. AND MATERIALS A 1 week search of release sites on the western side of the Uncompahgre Plateau was made in August, 1969. Individuals living and working in or near the release sites were contacted and asked to report any sightings. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION No additional wild trapped mountain quail were obtained from other states. Good progress was made in rearing pen-raised mountain quail at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station in 1969, but the lack of production during 1968 did not allow for additional field releases. The adult breeders, the 1969-hatched birds, and 12 wild trapped birds secured from Oregon on January 18, 1970, are being held to propagate the species toward future field releases. Table 1 lists all past field releases and sources of stock being held at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation purposes. No additional mountain quail sightings were secured in a 1 week search of release sites and vicinities on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau. A covey of 20 mountain quail were observed by Conservation Aide Tom Barnes on the South Fork of Mesa Creek early in 1970. Follow-up checks on this report are planned for Segment 24. Prepared by j~m~~ Donald M. offman Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Summary of mountain quail field releases. Release Area Number Birds Source of Birds August 19 and 25, 1965 143~'~ California (wild trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek, Sec. 27, Rl7W, T51N August 20, 1966 163 California (wild trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek approximately 4 miles west of 1965 releases January 25, 1968 66 Oregon (wild trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek, approximately I mile east of west Uncompahgre National Forest boundary Date t-' -...J Total 372 * Sixteen additional mountain quail from these shipments were taken to Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation studies. On January 18, 1970, 12 Wild-trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added to the breeding stock at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. These constitute the source of our breeding stock. o �April 1970 - 171 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 15 Game Bird Survey Breeding Job No. 3 of Mountain Quail Job Title Experimental Period Covered: April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Personnel: Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, and Donald M. Hoffman John F. Corey ABSTRACT Good progress was made in the experimental game farm propagation of mountain quail in 1969, with~OO eggs being laid by 28 breeders of mixed sexes (18 hens and 10 cocks) and 68 young hatched, compared with no egg production in 1968. Of the 68 young hatched in 1969, there are 45 healthy birds to be used in the 1970 tests, plus 23 older breeders at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. In addition, twelve wild trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added to this breeding stock on January 18, 1970. Ten of these wild trapped birds have survived. . A test to compare fertile egg production by three selected groups of two hens and one cock each, with a community pen of six hens and three cocks cannot be considered a valid test due to stresses induced on the breeders by holding them in wire floored pens because of inadequate ground floored facilities. �- 172 - RECOMMENDATIONS The 1969 tests indicate that mountain quail breeders should not be held in wire floored pens with one-half inch hardware cloth bottoms because they soon become sore footed. Earlier tests showed that they should not be over-wintered in wire floored pens for the same reason. Because of stresses induced on breeders following placing in wire floored pens, the testing of fertile egg production of three selected groups of two hens and one cock each, with a community pen of six hens and three cocks cannot be considered valid. This test will be rerun as soon as adequate ground floored facilities are built. A series of ten experimental ground floored breeding pens designed similar to the present tinamou breeding pens will be built and used for tests in 1970. Breeders used in the 1970 tests should all be selected from 1969 hatched birds to eliminate the variable encountered in using different age breeders. �- 173 - EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques SEGMENT To measure the relationship fertile egg production. for mountain OBJECTIVE of flock mating and selected METHODS quail. groups mating to AND MATERIALS The wire floored quail pens number Q 1 and Q 3 were divided into 2 approximately equal sized pens each with a wood framework and 1" chicken wire. Selected groups of 1967-hatched birds or earlier hatched birds, consisting of 2 hens and 1 cock were placed in each of these 4 pens of equal size and a flock of 8 hens and 4 cocks were placed in the larger undivided pen Q 2 on March 24, 1969. On April 2, 1969, after only 10 days confinement on wire, 10 of the 12 mountain quail in pen Q 2 had extremely sore and bleeding feet. Several of these birds on wire had started to develop a white diarrhea, apparently due to stress conditions. Some of the birds in the selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (4 pens) had also started to exhibit these symptoms of stress, although not as many as in the more crowded community breeding pen. "All birds were then moved to the ground flQored quail runs shown in Figure 1. Pens 1, 3, and 5 contained selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each, and pen 6 contained a community of 6 hens and 3'cocks. The surplus breeders (5 sore footed hens plus 1 cock) were held in pen 4 and 1 hen plus 3 cocks were held in pen 2. Table 1 lists composition of breeding pens for the 1969 tests. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2 lists total numbers of mountain quail eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs produced by individual pens in 1969. Although good progress was made in 1969 in propagating mountain quail with 100 eggs being laid by 28 breeders of mixed sexes (18 hens and 10 cocks) and 68 young mountain quail hatched, the test to compare fertile egg production of 3 selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each, with a community pen of 6 hens and 3 cocks cannot be considered a valid one. This was due to (1) stresses induced on the breeders by confinement on wire, causing sore footed symptoms and death in some cases, (2) stresses induced by additional handling of breeders necessary in order to replace losses, and (3) stresses induced on the selected �I-' -...J 00 Figure 3 - A group of 1969-hatched mountain quail at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. (D. Hoffman photo). �I' I-' "-I \.0 Fig. 4. A close-up of a mature mountain quail hen. (D. Hoffman, photo) ��April 1970 - 181 - JOB FINAL State Work COLORADO of Project No. W-37-R Plan No. 17 Job Title Period REPORT Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey Job No. Inventory April of Ptarmigan 1, 1965 to March Clait E. Schmidt, Division Students 1 Populations 31, 1970 Braun, Terry A. May, Glenn E. Rogers, Raymond K. Wildlife Conservation Officers of the Colorado of Game, Fish and Parks; Ronald A. Ryder and of Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Distribution and populations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Colorado were investigated, with major emphasis on comparing population levels of hunted and unhunted areas. Study locations were selected in alpine areas of Rocky Mountain National Park, at Mt. Evans and Crown Point in north-central Colorado, at Independence Pass in central Colorado, and at Mesa Seco in the southern part of the State. Ptarmigan were found to be distributed throughout the approximately 3,750 square miles of alpine habitat. Techniques were developed to accurately census breeding pairs and to locate hens with broods. Criteria were established based on pigmentation of the ninth primary to accurately separate adult and subadult ptarmigan. Descriptions from which the sex of ptarmigan could be reliably determined from late April to mid-September were prepared, but no method was found using external characters to reliably determine sex when birds were in winter plumage. Breeding dens i t i e s ranged from a low of six birds per square mile on one hunted area to about 30 birds per square mile on the unhunted area. Breeding densities appeared to be related to quality of habitat, although they may have been suppressed by hunting on one area; however, hunting did not significantly reduce breeding densities during the period studied. Timing of nesting activities varied with area and year and were directly related to climatic conditions in June and early July. Nesting success and production varied tremendously being higher in years of mild climatic conditions in June and early July. Fall population densities ranged from less than 12 birds per square mile on one hunted area to as high as 60 birds per square mile on the unhunted study area. Exploitation of fall populations up to 40 percent had no apparent effect on the population of one hunted area, but the annual exploitation of over 50 percent of the fall population on another hunted area may have suppressed breeding populations. Two hunted populations were maintained by immigration from surrounding areas. �- 182 - RECOMMENDA TIONS 1. Techniques for aging and sexing white-tailed ferred in usable form to Game Planning. ptarmigan should be trans- 2. Techniques for census of ptarmigan populations during breeding brood periods should be made available to Game Planning. and 3. Continued research on population densities and effects of hunting should be conducted at Mt. Evans, Independence Pass, Crown Point, with Rocky Mountain National Park being retained as a control 4. Population studies at Mesa Seco should be discontinued. 5. Research should be emphasized exploring the relationship between June and early July climatic conditions, nesting success, and fall production. �- 183 - INVENTORY OF WHITE-TAILED Clait PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS E. Braun and Glenn E. Rogers P. S. OBJECTIVE To inventory white-tailed ptarmigan RESULTS in Colorado. AND DISCUSSION The typed manuscript of the final report was prepared, reviewed and submitted to Dr. Lee Yeager for final editing. This manuscript has been approved for publication as a Technical Publication of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. The title will be "The White-tailed Ptarmigan in Colorado". Prepared by ----=6~V::=........:-- -..::~:....:....' -L.~-=---=:':'_. Clait E. Braun Assistant Wildlife Researcher _ ��April 1970 - 185 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~--~---------- Project No. W-37-R-23 Work Plan No. 19 Job Title Experimental Game Bird Survey Job No. Breeding 1 of Tinamou Period Covered: April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Personnel: Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, and Donald M. Hoffman John F. Corey ABSTRACT A total of 493 eggs was laid by the 36 tinamou breeders consisting of 24 hens and 12 cocks on hand in May, 1969. Of these, 59 were culls, 166 were infertile, 101 were dead germs, 29 pipped but did not hatch, 1 was crippled, and 137 were of a good hatch. This compares favorably with the number of good hatch in 1968 (108). A 7.57 percent better hatch resulted in using a normal incubation temperature of 99.750 F (35.37%) compared with a test incubation temperature of 99.250 F (27.80%). A larger number of total eggs was laid by the tinamou held in four pens with selected groups of two hens and one cock each (260 eggs) compared with a community pen of eight hens and four cocks (65 eggs). A larger number of fertile eggs was also produced in the pens with selected groups (148 compared to 33). More fertile eggs were laid by selected groups of two hens and one cock in four pens fed a standard 22 percent protein feed (148) compared with a similar number of birds and pens fed a 28 percent protein feed (87). Both feeds were similar in content except for protein levels. In addition, more fertile eggs hatched by birds fed the 22 percent protein feed (91) compared with the 28 percent protein feed (31). �- 186 - RECOMMENDATIONS Based upon results of tests run in 1969, recommendations for 1970 tests are to (1) compare egg hatchability using two different levels of humidity (50 percent versus 55 percent) in the test and control incubators. (2) Secure one year's additional data on comparing flock mating to selected group mating on fertile egg production, and (3) compare the effects of two protein levels in the feed (22 percent versus 16 percent) on fertile egg production. �- 187 - EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF TINAMOU Donald M. Hoffman An initial field release of 42 pale spotted tinamou was made on April 8, 1969 in Baca County, southeast of Springfield. Good progress continued in improving production techni~ues for pale spotted tinamou at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. From the 36 breeders (24 hens and 12 cocks) on hand in May, 1969 there are enough 1969 hatched birds for use as breeders in the 1970 tests (36) plus 10 1969 hatched and 30 adult breeder surplus tinamou. These 40 were available for release in 1970. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. techniques for pale spotted tinamou. OBJECTIVES To compare the effects of two levels of temperature (99.750 F versus 99.250 F) during incubation on egg hatchability. To measure the relationship of flock mating and selected group mating to fertile egg production. To measure the effects of two protein levels in the feed (28% versus 22%) on fertile egg production. METHODS AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of tinamou breeding pens is shown in Figure The pen schedule for tinamou for 1969 is shown in Table 1. 1. With the assistance of Wayne H. Bohl, Research Biologist, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in accurately determining sexes, selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock were placed in pens 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10 and a community flock of 8 hens and 4 cocks was placed in the combined pen 3, 8, and alleyway on April 7, 1969. Thus, a total of 36 birds were used in breeding experiments in 1969. Of these, 2 birds (1 cock and 1 hen) died while in the breeding pens. Numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs produced were compared for selected groups (pens 2, 4, 6, and 10) and the community group (pens 3, 8, and alleyway, combined) all on similar feed (22% protein). Settings of tinamou eggs were made alternately in the test and control incubators every 7 days insofar as possible in 1969, similar to 1968. Temperature in the control incubator (Robbins, Model H-7) was held at the standard 99.750 F level and temperature in the test incubator (Humidaire, Model 50) was lowered to 99.250 F. The relative humidity was maintained in both incubators (control and test) at a normal 55 percent. The hatching success of eggs in the two incubators was then compared. �- 188 - ~-------------30'--~--------~ 12' ,,12' .- "1" -0) to 0 ¢ to / -, ro ex> C\J ~ . I \I, -an V / -, - 0) V SCALE 8 L...._ I I O' 10' 5' Fig. 1. Detoiled Arrangement of Tlnamou Breeding Pens. �- 189 1. Table Pen schedule Pen Number for tinamou, Protein Level 22% 28% 2 T 3 x 4 T 5 x T x T x T Alleyway x Pens on Test T x T Number T T 10 4 Groups T T 9 Mating Selected x T 7 8 El.ocks T 1 6 1969. T T 4 3 Key: T = Pen on Test; x = Pen not on Test. .,'~ Pens number 3, 8, and alleyway was used as 1 combined 4 pen for flock mating. Birds in even numbered selective group pens (4 pens with 2 hens and 1 cock each) were fed a standard game bird breeder feed containing 22 percent protein. Birds in odd numbered selective group pens (4 pens with 2 hens and 1 cock each) were fed a similar feed but containing 28 percent protein. Eggs were marked and placed in separate incubator trays to facilitate determination of (1) fertile eggs produced and (2) number of fertile eggs that hatched. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Incubation Temperature Test Following culling procedures, eggs produced by breeders were alternately placed in the control and test incubators every seven days because only �- 190 - two incubators were available for use in this test. Table 2 lists hatching success of eggs in the test incubator (temperature of 99.250 F) in comparison with eggs in the control incubator (temperature 99.750 F). Results showed a 7.57 percent better hatch in the control incubator when considering total eggs hatched (35.37% compared to 27.80%) and 8.83 percent better hatch when considering fertile eggs hatched (55.17% compared to 46.34%). Percent of dead germs was 4.9 percent higher in the test incubator (25.9%) compared with the control incubator (21.0%). Percent of infertile eggs was 3.3 percent more (40.0%) in eggs incubated in the test incubator compared with eggs in the control incubator (36.7%). Variation in percentages of numbers of pipped eggs which did not hatch and number of crippled birds did not vary more than 1 percent between the test and control incubator. Results indicated the normal incubation temperature of 99.750 F was therefore better than an incubation temperature of 99.250 F. Flock Mating Versus Selected Group Mating Test Table 3 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs produced by 8 hens and 4 cocks in a community pen with the same number of birds in four pens of 2 hens and 1 cock each. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein feed. A much larger number total eggs was laid by the tinamou. held in four pens with selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (260 eggs) compared with a community pen of 8 hens and 4 cocks (65 eggs). In addition, a much larger number of fertile eggs was laid in the pens with selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock per pen (148 compared to 33). There was evidence of egg eating in the community pen which may explain part of this wide variation. Eggs were gathered once per day through the laying season. Based upon the one season's data, it appears that selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock are better than community pens. Plans are to run this test again for one more year. 22 Percent Protein Versus 28 Percent Protein Feed Test Table 4 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and number of fertile eggs that hatched by 22 percent and 28 percent protein levels in the feed. Selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each in pen numbers 2, 4, 6, and 10 were fed 22 percent protein feed and like numbers of birds in pen numbers 1, 5, 7, and 9 were fed 28 percent protein feed. More fertile eggs were produced by birds fed the 22 percent protein feed (148) compared with 28 percent protein feed (87) and more of the fertile eggs hatched by birds fed the 22 percent protein feed (91) compared with the 28 percent protein feed (31). By percentages, 61.5 percent of the fertile eggs hatched using the 22 percent protein feed, compared with 35.6 percent of the fertile eggs which hatched using the 28 percent protein feed. From these comparisons it is evident that the standard 22 percent game bird breeder feed was better than the 28 percent protein feed for pale spotted tinamou egg production during 1969. �Table 2. A comparison of hatchability of pale spotted tinamou eggs under two levels of temperature, 99.750 F (normal) versus 99.250 F, 1969. Item On test 1/ Date Set Number Set 5/6/69 5/20/69 6/3/69 6/17/69 7/1/69 7/15/69 7/29/69 8/13/69 8/26/69 9 13 22 35 33 34 24 22 13 Sub-Total Control 1/ 5/13/69 5/27/69 6/10/69 6/24/69 7/8/69 7/22/69 8/5/69 8/19/69 9/3/69 Number of ·Infertile Dead Germs 2 1 5 1 7 7 12 14 19 12 10 8 9 Number Pipped but Not Hatched o Number of Good Hatch Percent Total Eggs Hatched Percent Fertile Eggs Hatched o o 6 3 .7 o o 8 11 85.71 25.00 41.18 34.78 57.89 66.66 50.00 28.57 50.00 46.34 Number Crippled 10 1 o o o o 2 66.66 23.08 31.82 22.86 33.33 29.41 25.00 18.18 15.38 13 (6.3%) 0 (0.0%) 57 (27.8%) 27.80 2 3 5 8 5 o 4 10 2 o 1 o o 6 4 205 82 (40.0%) 53 (25.9%) 10 26 33 38 39 24 32 16 11 5 o o o 11 4 1 5 9 12 o 14 17 16 2 o 11 o 4 2 50.00 34.62 42.42 44.74 41.03 8.33 34.38 25.00 18.18 80 (34.9%) 35.37 55.17 137 31.10 51.49 11 9 5 9 1 2 1 10 4 15 7 o 9 6 6 7 5 1 2 o 5 1 o o o Sub-Tota 1 229 84 (36.7%) 48 (21.0%) 16 (7.0%) 1 (0.4%) Totals 434 166 29 1 101 100.00 60.00 66.66 62.96 53.33 22.22 47.83 40.00 40.00 1/ Eggs incubated in a small Humidaire Model 50 automatic incubator using temperature of 99.25 o F and relative humidity of 55 percent. 1/ Eggs incubated in a large Robbins Model H-7 automatic incubator using temperature of 99.75° F and relative humidity of 55 percent. t-' t-' \.0 �Table 3. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou eggs by month and by flock and selective group matings. Al2ril June Max Ju1X August Pen No. Culls Total Culls Total Culls Total Culls Total Culls Total Culls Laid Avail. Egg Totals Se1ective 21 InFlock Pen-11 GrouE PenSet fertile Fertile Hatched Total Fertile Total Fertile 1 0 0 2 6 2 13 2 20 0 9 6 48 42 41 19 22 13 2 0 2 3 19 3 28 3 24 1 13 10 86 76 74 3 71 46 86 71 4 0 0 3 13 2 22 2 13 1 5 8 53 45 44 6 38 28 53 38 5 1 2 3 14 0 15 1 10 0 7 5 48 43 43 12 31 13 Flock 0 0 1 5 6 23 5 21 3 16 15 65 50 52 19 33 15 6 0 0 0 0 1 16 0 14 1 14 2 44 42 43 22 21 9 44 21 7 0 0 0 8 0 15 0 12 0 0 0 39 39 40 18 22 5 9 0 0 6 7 3 14 1 9 1 3 11 33 22 23 11 12 0 10 0 0 1 12 0 18 1 26 0 21 2 77 75 74 56 18 8 Totals 1 4 19 84 17 164 15 149 7 92 59 493 434 434 166 268 137 11 A flock of 8 hens and 4 cocks in commUnity type pen (total 12 birds). £1 Selected group of 2 hens and 1 cock per 4 pens (total 12 birds). All birds used in flock vs. selected group mating tests were on 22 percent protein feed. 65 33 •.... \D N 65 33 77 18 260 148 �Table 4. A comparison of number of pale spotted tinamou fertile eggs produced and number of fertile eggs hatched using 22 percent and 28 percent protein levels in the feed. Protein Test 22% 28% Fertile Hatched Fertile Hatched Pen Number Culls Laid Egg Totals Avail. Set Infertile 1 6 48 42 41 19 22 13 2 10 86 76 74 3 71 46 71 46 4 8 53 45 44 6 38 28 . 38 28 5 5 48 43 43 12 31 13 Flock 15 65 50 52 19 33 15 6 2 44 42 43 22 21 9 7 0 39 39 40 18 22 5 22 5 9 11 33 22 23 11 12 0 12 0 10 2 77 75 74 56 18 8 18 8 Totals 59 493 434 434 166 268 137 148 91 87 31 Percent ha-tch (fertile eggs) Fertile Hatched 21 22 13 31 l3 9 I-' \0 61.5 35.6 w �- 194 - East Pens versus West Pens Although not written up as a part of the 1969 tests, it was found that a difference existed in the numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs produced by either east or west locations of the pens. An attempt was made to plant clumps of crested wheatgrass and tall wheatgrass in the east pens early in the spring of 1969 so cover would be comparable to that found in the west pens. These grass transplants did not take, resulting in more of the eggs being laid without benefit of shade and apparently many of these eggs became over-heated before being gathered. Table 4 lists eggs laid by individual pens. Total numbers of eggs produced in the 4 west pens (numbers 1, 2, 4, and 5) was 235 compared to 193 for the 4 east pens (numbers 6, 7, 9, and 10). Numbers of fertile eggs produced in these 4 west pens was 162 compared to 73 for the 4 east pens. This comparison indicated that suitable cover in the breeding pens is important and clumps of crested wheatgrass and tall wheatgrass with protective wire cages were replanted in the east tinamou pen in early April, 1970. Test pens were alternated by east and west locations in the 22 percent versus 28 percent protein feed and flock mating versus selected group mating tests, so cover differences should not have affected test results adversely. Prepared by �April 1970 - 195 - JOB PROGRESS COLORADO Sta te of No. W-37-R-23 Plan No. 19 Project Work Job Title Period REPORT Covered: Personnel: Job No. Study April Game Bird Survey of Tinamou 2 Adaptability 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Charles Gibson (U.S. Forest Service), Bert Widhalm, and Warren D. Snyder Donald M. Hoffman, ABSTRACT Forty-two pale spotted tinamou, Nothura darwinii sa1vadorii, were released during April, 1969 on U. S. Forest Service rangeland in southern Baca County, Colorado. Searches in 1969 failed to provide evidence that the species remained, survived or reproduced in the vicinity of the release site. Two unconfirmed sightings were reported by local residents from locations ten to fifteen miles away from the release site. ��- 197 - STUDY OF TINAMOU ADAPTABILITY Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of pale spotted tinamou to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed tall and mid-grasses, sandsage and yucca on the Comanche National Grasslands, Baca County, Colorado. SEGMENT 1. 2. Introduce Determine OBJECTIVES pale spotted tinamou. presence and dispersal METHODS Reference is made to Snyder in this study. of pale spotted tinamou. AND MATERIALS (1969) for review of methods and materials used RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A gallinaceous guzzler in Section 13, Township 32 South, Range 46 West, southeast of Springfield in Baca County was the site for release of fortytwo pale spotted tinamou. These birds had been raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station under Work Plan 19, Job 1. Most were released directly from the crate on April 8, 1969. Ten were fenced in and held under the guzzler canopy for three days before release. Scratch grain and water were provided. Most of the birds ran or flew only a short distance upon release. The release site was located within a large Forest Service pasture that had received little or no livestock grazing for several years. The dry stream bed of the Sand Arroyo drainage traversed the site. Sand sagebrush, yucca and a variety of grasses and forbs were primary components of the habitat. Bert Widhalm, Wildlife Conservation Officer, reported finding feathers indicating mortality of one bird during a search on April 20th. No other evidence of mortality or survival was obtained at that time. Carrizo District personnel of the U. S. Forest Service visited the release site several times, but were unable to find tinamou or evidence of their presence. Searches by the writer were completed during June 20-21, 1969 and on December 27th in the release site pasture and surrounding areas. A dog was used during these searches. No birds or evidence of their presence was found. �- 198 - U. S. Forest Service personnel received two unconfirmed reports of tinamou sightings during 1969. Leroy Sunday, of Springfield, reported sightings of 1, 1, and 2 birds in Sections 11, 14, and 34, respectively, of T. 31 S., R. 45 W. The nearest of these sightings was approximately ten miles east of the release site, down the Sand Arroyo drainage. The second reported sighting was of about six birds observed one or two months after the release. Mr. Jesse Tetters reported the observation in or near Section 21, T. 33 S., R. 48 W., or about fifteen miles southwest of the release site. These locations will be searched during the forthcoming segment. In summary, we have no evidence that the tinamou remained at or near the release site. Two unconfirmed sightings by local residents provide some evidence that the birds moved a considerable distance from the release site. LITERATURE Snyder, W. D. 1969. Fish and Parks. Prepared CITED Study of tinamou adaptability. Colorado Game Res. Rpt. April, pp. 177-181. by __ -1v.,--",,--_~:.-.........:...-:-....:;;...~()=-..;:~l",-- ~_I-I-I~",,---_IJ. __/ __ Warren D. Snyder ~ Wildlife Researcher Div. of Game, � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/05b44d043e8da1bd58becc7792468b81.pdf 1045bc1f366035b5d47743ebafddde81 PDF Text Text July, - 1 - JOB PROGRESS State Work COLORADO of No. W-10l-R-12 Plan No. 1 Project Job Title: Period REPORT Covered: Personnel: Game Range Job No. Investigations 1 Effects of Different Intensities of Simulated Browsing on Key Browse Species April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Harold R. Shepherd ABSTRACT A typed first-draft manuscript, inclusive of figures and tables, was prepared and copies were submitted to reviewers for comments and suggestions. 1970 ��- 3 - EFFECTS SIMULATED OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES OF BROWSING ON KEY BROWSE SPECIES Harold R. Shepherd Po So OBJECTIVE To publish results of completed field work. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To make revisions 2. To submit manuscript in the manuscript to publisher as necessary. and follow through to final publication. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A typed first-draft manuscript, inclusive of figures and tables, was prepared and copies were submitted to five reviewers for their comments and suggestions for improvement in content and format. Edited copies and written statements of comment and criticism have been received from two reviewers. Upon receipt of similar materials from the others, a final draft will be prepared and submitted for publication as a Technica 1 Publication of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. Prepared ~ __"kit:)(~>,{)l~n:t j) .. by;;; Harold R. S~epherd Wildlife Researcher ��- 5 - July, 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-10l-R-12 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title: Game Range Investigations Job No. Paddock Studies on Effect of Varying 4 Intensities Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: Richard M. Bartmann of Deer-Use ABSTRACT A final report was submitted for this job during Segment 11. This report appears in the July 1969 Game Research Report, Part 3, pp. 305-393. ��July, 1970 - 7 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-10l-R-12 Work Plan No. 2 Job Title: Publication Game Range Investigations Job No. I of Results of the Little Hills Grazing Study Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: William T. McKean, Richard M. Bartmann, Bertram D. Baker, Jack R. Grieb, Harold M. Swope, Laurence E. Riordan, and David C. Bowden. ABSTRACT A second draft of five chapters of the Technical Bulletin was completed. A first draft of the introductory chapter was almost completed, as well as a section on plant responses based upon Canfield line transects. nvO papers were prepared for other Division publications. ��- 9 - PUBLICATION OF RESULTS OF LITTLE HILLS GRAZING STUDY William T. McKean P. S. OBJECTIVE To publish the results of the Little Hills grazing study. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To prepare a final report on the study and publish the results in the Division's Technical Bulletin series. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress 1. A second draft has been completed of the following material, including figures, for a Division Technical Bulletin: a. Key browse production and utilization based upon stem length measurements before and after grazing. b. Utilization estimates of all forage classes including the less abundant species. c. Vigor of Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) and low phlox (Phlox caespitosa). d. Pasture range condition and trend based on standard Big Game Range Analysis procedures. e. Weight responses of livestock. 2. A first draft of the introduction is completed. This includes descriptive sections on: location, past land use, climate, topography, soil and vegetation. 3. A first draft of the chapter on pasture vegetative response as indicated by Canfield line transects has been completed by Richard M. Bartmann. 4. Citations for other written materials prepared during the segment are as follows: McKean, W. T. 1970. Fencing for mule deer. Div., Game Inf. Leaf1. 3p. I11us. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks McKean, W. T. 1970. Article about Little Hills grazing study. Research Review, 1969. 1p. I11us. Game �- 10 - Future Plans There remain to be written: a section on methodology; a summary and discussion of results; recommendations for management; numerous modifications to the text to shorten and make more concise; lists of tables and figures; the appendix, literature cited, and acknowledgements; changes needed after the copy has been reviewed and edited by others; proof reading and other followup details prior to publication. ?jt'-/d :"I' Prepared • bY:d~'~z,?' I/' ",. "--n ~c, :yt'''; ~../' William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher __. • - . ZC-~-f.-i'r �July, 1970 - 11 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~~C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ .Project No. W-101-R-12 Work Plan No. _ Game Range Investigations 2 Job No. Job Title Rodent Effects on Deer Winter Range Period Covered: April 1, 1969 to Harch 31, 1970 Personnel: Harold R. Shepherd 3 ABSTRACT Time budgeted for this job was used to complete a first-draft manuscript for a final report on the "Effects of Variable Clipping on Key Browse Species in Southwestern Colorado". Consequent;ly, segment objectives were not accomplished. ��- 13 - RODENT EFFECTS ON DEER WINTER RANGE Harold R. Shepherd Po So OBJECTIVE To complete the laboratory work on the food-habits and publish results of the entire studyo portion of the study SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare a final report presenting 2. To publish results results of studyo of the study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION No work was accomplished toward attainment of objectives during this segment. The extra time realized was used in completing a first-draft manuscript for a final report on the "Effects of Variable Clipping on Key Browse Species in Southwestern Colorado". of! Prepared by ,q::4N--K'~ , (-j; f A,·I? 4U,'j! ... llU'e-{ Harold R. Shepherd' Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1970 - 15 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-10l-R-12 Work Plan No. 3 Job Title: Survey, Inventory, Game Range Investigations Job No. and Analysis 3 of Deer and Elk Winter Ranges Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970. Personnel: Keith Giezentanner and Bert Baker. Cooperating: Bill Brown, Jim Cruse, and Jerry Martinez, all of the U. S. Forest Service; Bob Jacobsen and Neil McCleery, U. S. Bureau of Land Management. ABSTRACT Maps and reports of big game winter range inventories for National Forest portions of Big Game Management Units 55 (Taylor River) and 67 (Tomichi), and all of Unit 22 (Piceance) were completed, bound, and distributed to appropriate Division Field Services and Game Planning Services offices. Cooperative inventories for Units 55 and 67 were accomplished with the Gunnison National Forest and those for Unit 22 with Craig District, Bureau of Land Management. ��- 17 - SURVEY, INVENTORY, AND ANALYSIS OF DEER AND ELK WINTER RANGES Bertram D. Baker P. S. OBJECTIVE To prepare inventories of big game winter range resources on the Grand MesaUncompahgre, Gunnison, Rio Grande, and San Juan National Forests and Game Unit 22 (Piceance) in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare 2-inch scale vegetation type maps of areas within zones of average winter use and show type acreages by landownership, range condition transect locations, and other pertinent information from completed cooperative inventories with the Gunnison National Forest and Craig District of the Bureau of Land Management. 2. To prepare t-inch scale big game winter range maps of Management Units 22 and 67 on base maps furnished by the BLM for Unit 22 and Gunnison National Forest for Unit 67. 3. To prepare winter 4. To bind 2-inch scale maps in holders and t-inch scale maps, and reports in binder file folders for Units 22 and 67. 5. To distribute to appropriate Division offices winter range inventory maps and binder file folders for Units 22, 55, and 67. range inventory METHODS reports for Units 22 and 67. summaries, AND MATERIALS Collections fo field data had already been accomplished in previous years by interagency-approved techniques that have been detailed before in these reports (Denney 1962:51-96; Baker 1964:90-92; 1966:55-56). RESULTS Map Preparation, Gunnison National AND DISCUSSION Binding, and Distribution Forest Final copy, color-coded, and map-holder bound 2-inch scale township plat maps of the winter range inventory for Unit 55 (Taylor River) were transferred to appropriate Division offices. The maps had been held pending final approval of and simultaneous release with the unit winter range �- 19 also went directiy to the Northwest Regional Office to be available for immediate use. Mr. Giezentanner color-coded the four copies of each map and brought legends up-to-date with addenda notations. Since Unit 22 map parts are too large for convenient binding and use from map holders, methods of filing and handling final copies are optional by Division section. Research Center W-lOl-R Project files will receive and retain one complete set of 2-inch scale maps. Winter range and key area boundary lines shown on 2-inch scale maps of Unit 22 were transferred in red pencil to five ~-inch scale BLM base maps. These ~-inch maps,trimmed to about 11- by IS-inch size sheets, also had unit boundaries, numbers, and names inked on them in black. A copy of each map was placed as a fold-out in each of five binder file folders currently awaiting addition of finished narrative unit reports for distribution. Data Reproduction, Gunnison National Compilation, and Analysis Forest Vegetation and land category acreages of National Forest winter ranges were compiled and summarized in table form for Unit 67. The table is included-in the inventory final report that is presented as APPENDIX A of this report. Copies of the Unit 67 final report accompanied mapS and allied inventory information in each of five binder file folders. Preceding work on Unit 67 inventory summarization, however, the previously mentioned Unit 55 report was given final approval early in the project segment. Copies of the latter report were made and bound in similar number and manner as Unit 67 materials were handled. The Division's Southwest Regional Office got three, Denver Game Planning Services Section one, and Fort Collins Research Center one binder file folder of each unit. Map holders of 2-inch scale maps were transferred at the same time binder folders were turned over to Division offices. Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre, Rio Grande, and San Juan National Forests Nothing more was accomplished on data reproduction, compilation, and analyses of these forests' winter range inventories. Pending delivery of 2-inch scale township plat maps for the latter two forests, the officework phase of the inventory program must be delayed. Loss of original field annotated air photos of the survey done on the Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest is complicating proofwork that was started on 2-inch scale township plats on hand from an earlier distribution. White River Resource Area - Bureau of Land Management The compilation of vegetation and land category acreages followed the sequence of 2-inch scale map proofwork because so much Unit 22 map territory needed correcting. A table was first composed of acreages west of Piceance Creek �- 20 (area corresponding to BLM Yellow Creek Management Area) in order to compare results with data already available. Data for area east of Piceance Creek (Little Hills Triangle) were summarized secondly. Then, all information were combined to present vegetation and land category tabulation by landownership for the entire unit in the final unit report that was prepared. Copies of the Unit 22 final report, presented herewith as APPENDIX B, accompanied maps and allied inventory information in each of five, 2-volume sets of binder file folders. The Division's Northwest Regional Office was given three sets of folders, Denver Game Planning Services section received one set, and one set was retained in the Fort Collins Research Center files. Two-inch scale winter range inventory maps were transferred Simultaneously with binder file folders. LITERATURE CITED Baker, B. D. 1964. Browse transect analysis and application, pp. 87-106. In Game Res. Rep., January (Part One). Colo. Dep. Game, Fish and Parks. 121 pp. 1966. Browse transect analysis and application, pp. 53-67 In Game Res. Rep., July, Part One. Colo. Dep. Game, Fish and Parks. 93 pp. 0 Denney, R. N. 1962. Browse transect analysis and application, pp.Sl-96. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dep. Game and Fish. 96 pp. Prepared by &i;;,<fN'I; j). ,~ Bertram D. Baker Assistant 'Wildlife Researcher �- 21 - APPENDIX BIG GAME WINTER A RANGE ANALYSIS GAME UNIT 67 - TOMICHI INTRODUCTION The following report presents a description of Big Game Management Unit 67 and a review of a survey of deer and elk winter ranges of the unit within Gunnison National Forest boundaries. Field data were collected in the summer of 1962 by Gunnison National Forest Range Analyst Jack McCrain, and Game, Fish and Parks Division seasonal employees Dave Stearns and Gary Brown. Inventory data for Unit 67 are more fragmentary than for Units 53, 54, 55, and 63, also covered in 1962, because: (1) very limited pre-inventory information was available on winter distribution of deer and elk, and (2) being the last area examined in a crowded summer schedule, Unit 67 suffered from accumulative fieldwork overages from preceding units. Furthermore, winter ranges in the southern part of Unit 67 are mainly occupied by elk. Comparatively light snow accumulations there most years allow the elk freedom of movement over a large expanse of territory. This circumstance made it difficult to determine average extent of winter range occupation as well as to pinpoint placed that would qualify as being key areas. Cebolla District Ranger Wally Chesbro delineated what he believed to be key areas, but time limitations prevented adequate examination of them. Consequently, some of the key areas noted on 2-inch scale township plat maps lack completely, or in part, vegetation type data. Map production was accomplished principally by U. S. Forest Service Region 2 engineers in Denver. Considerable map proofing and type acreage recomputations and compilations were done by Regional Wildlife Management Biologist Jim Cruse and the author. Assistance in supplying and updating maps by Fishery Management Biologist Bill Brown, currently assigned to the Gunnison National Forest Range and Wildlife Staff, is gratefully acknowledged. DESCRIPTION OF UNIT Location.--The major portion of Unit 67 lies in and corresponds with the northwestern one-third of Saguache County. A small northeastern part and larger northern and western bordering portions are situated in Gunnison County. Near the southwest corner of Unit 67, in the vicinity of Cathedral, a few sections form a block that is located in Hinsdale County. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division Laws and Regulations Handbook, 1965 (p. 12, Chap. 3 - Big Game) gives the boundaries of Unit 67 as follows: "Those portions of Gunnison, Hinsdale and Saguache Counties east of a line �- 22 - along the divide between Cebolla and Cochetopa Creeks to Ground Hog Peak, thence down Cathedral Creek to Spring Creek, thence down Spring Creek to Cebolla Creek and down Cebolla Creek to State Highway No. 149; east of State Highway No. 149 to its intersection with U. S. Highway No. 50: south of U. S. Highway No. 50 to the Continental Divide; and west and north of the Continental Divide to the divide between Cebolla and Cochetopa Creeks". The only question concerning the preceding description is the definition of "Ground Hog Peak". Examination of best maps available, including the U.S.G.S. Stewart Peak Topographic Quad, shows a "Ground Hog Park"; but, there is no peak evident by that name. It is assumed that "Peak" was exchanged for "Park" when the description was prepared. Because Cathedral Creek flows through Ground Hog Park, the mixup is not of great importance. Nevertheless, should the description ever be rewritten in the future, it is recommended that the first part be changed to read "Those portions of Gunnison, Hinsdale, and Saguache Counties east of the Cebolla-Cochetopa Creeks divide from the Continental Divide to the origin of Cathedral Creek, thence down C thedral Creek to Spring Creek , and so forth, as it reads presently. Area. -- Computed by use of a planimeter on a t-inch scale map, the total area of Unit 67 was found to be 1,005.6 square miles, or 643,584 acres. By similar means, it was also determined that there are about 497 square miles (318,080 acres), or 49.4%, of the unit inside of the Gunnison National Forest boundary. Physical features. -- Moderately rough mountainous terrain characterizes most of the southeastern two-thirds of Unit 67. A foothills zone, consisting of comparatively gently sloping hills and mesas, corresponds with the northwestern one-third of the unit. Highest elevations are found in the extreme eastern and southern parts. Approaching very nearly 14,000 feet in elevation are Mt. Ouray in the east, and San Luis and Stewart Peaks in the south. That portion of the Continental Divide coincidental with the crest of the Cochetopa Hills and the unit's southeastern boundary varies elevationally between about 10,000 and 11,900 feet, perhaps averaging somewhere between 10,700 and 10,900 feet. With high ground on the unit's south side, it naturally follows that most streams flow northward. Main drainage systems fitting that category from east to west, in order, are Marshall, Long Branch, Needle, Razor, Cochetopa, South Beaver, Willow, and Cebolla Creeks. The Gunnison River and Tomichi Creek drain westward on the unit's north boundary. Needle Creek Reservoir is the largest, wholly contained lake within the unit; however, at maximum capacity, it probably will not cover much over 65 acres. The narrow Gunnison River neck of Blue Mesa Reservoir east of the bridge on State Highway No. 149 is estimated to have approximately 640 surface acres at high water. Vouga Reservoir on Razor Creek, MCDonough Reservoir on Los Pinos Creek, four other small reservoirs in the Cochetopa Creek drainage, and a few small scattered alpine lakes account for most of the remaining dead water storage in Unit 67. �- 23 - Cochetopa Park is the largest park in Unit 67. It completely encircles the monolithic Cochetopa Dome and lies along and between West Pass and Archuleta Creeks on the east and middle Cochetopa Creek on the west. Industry -- Production and sale of livestock and livestock products are the leading industries in Gunnison and Saguache Counties (Colorado State Planning Division 1961:848,877). Cattle ranches in. the valleys of the Gunnison River, and Tomichi, Needle, Razor, Cochetopa, and Cebolla Creeks provide most of the production. In both counties in 1960, income from mineral extraction and milling ranked second to that provided by livestock production. Principal minerals that year in Gunnison County were coal, zinc, sand and gravel, and lead. Saguache County's main minerals were uranium ore and gem stones (Colorado State Planning Division 1961:848,877). Gunnison, Gunnison County's largest city and the county seat, is the only incorporated town in Unit 67. Actually, since highways there act as coundaries of Units 54, 55, and 67 and meet within and divide the city, only about the southern one-third of Gunnison lies in Unit 67. Gunnison's population of 3,477 in 1960 approximated 63% of that for the entire county (Colorado State Planning Division 1961:783). The 1970 census should show gains in both population and economy of Gunnison city and county due to currently expanding state-supported Western State College and recreation developments at Blue Mesa Reservoir for water sports. LIMITS OF AVERAGE WINTER RANGE Long Branch Creek drainage and vicinity. -- A short bulge of winter range extends southward up Long Branch Creek from the latter's confluence with Tomichi Creek to just above the Long Branch Fire Station (old F. S. Guard Station). The upper average winter range limit line at its lowest point lies at approximately 8,400 feet elevation on Tomichi Creek and reaches about 9,300 feet at the highest point on the divide east of Long Branch Creek. Heavily timbered north slopes between Long Branch Creek and Owen Creek very severely restrict winter use of that area. Consequently, the upper limit line is placed immediately adjacent to and along the south side of Tomichi Creek from Long Branch Creek to about Deer Haven Ranch which lies at the mouth of Hicks Creek. Needle Creek-Owen Creek-Tie Creek drainages. -- From Deer Haven Ranch, the upper limits line angles southwestwardly, intercepting Tie Creek at about 8,700 feet. The line continues on to intercept the 9,400-foot contour on the divide between Tie and Owen Creeks, traverses west across Owen Creek at about 8,900 feet, and then varies between 8,400 and 10,000 feet in making a southward loop in the middle Needle Creek drainage that includes Needle Creek Reservoir. �- 24 - Prosser Creek-Razor Creek-Barret Creek drainages.-:Virtually all of the winter range zone between Barret Creek and the west side of Razor Dome lies outside of the National Forest. Nevertheless, the upper limits line was approximated on maps outside of the Forest Boundary between the aforementioned topographic features except where it was looped briefly inside near Snyder Gulch and Prosser Rock on the Razor Creek drainage. Archuleta Creek-West Pass Creek drainages.--The upper winter range limit line approaches 11,200 feet elevation on the south slopes of Razor Dome. The entire north side (generally southerly exposures) of West Pass Creek is, in fact, characteristically open grass and/or sagebrush parkland that permits unrestricted use by deer and elk most years to elevations of well over 10,000 feet. All of Cochetopa Dome south of West Pass Creek has been included within the zone of average winter use, even though its maximum elevation is 11,120 feet, and much of its upper slopes consist of boulder fields and heavy timber. That situation precludes occupation of the Dome's top most years by big game. The south side of Lujan-West Pass Creek, from the Pine Creek confluence west to Salaya Creek, is excluded from the winter zone. The Salaya-West Pass Creek junction lies at about 9,400 feet. From there, and southeastward to the head of Archuleta Creek on Cochetopa Pass, the upper limit holds close to the 10,000-foot contour. The line crosses the Continental Divide a short distance into Unit 68, then returns to the summit of Cochetopa Pass. From the Pass, the line goes southwestwardly, varying around 10,000 feet elevation near headwater areas of Los Creek, Monchego Creek, Texas Creek, and Van Tassel Gulch. Cochetopa Creek-Los Pinos Creek drainageso--The upper limit line crosses Cochetopa Creek and its West Fork at about 9,300 feet elevation and then varies to a maximum of 10,000 feet in that vicinity. No fieldwork was done in nor information gathered on extent of winter range for T. 45 N., R. 1 E., N.M.P.M.; so, the tentatively drawn upper limits line on the 1/4-inch scale unit map is not authentic for that township. The upper limit line west of Los Pinos and Cochetopa Creeks varies considerably in elevation. It is located at about 9,600 feet on Ralston Creek, 10,000 feet on Trail Creek, goes up to 10,800 feet on Pole Road Gulch, back to around 10,000 feet on Willow Creek and Townsite and Homestead Gulches, and then down to 9,300 feet where it exits the National Forest on Bead Creek. The line perhaps averages slightly under 10,000 feet elevation in this sector of the Forest. Cathedral Creek-Spring Creek drainages.--Elevation of the upper winter range line approximates 10,000 feet in the area southwest of Los Pinos Pass and in the vicinity of lower Cathedral Creek. The line drops to about 9,500 feet where it crosses Spring Creek and leaves Unit 67. Generalo--Lack of time prevented field reconnaissance of potential winter range on the National Forest in the area from Los Pinos Pass northeastward to upper East Beaver Creek and Stubbs Gulch. However, the assumption was �- 25 - made by local Division and Forest Service Administrators, and accepted by us, that generally north and northwest exposures and high elevations accompanied by heavy snow accumulations normally prevent winter use by big game on that particular portion of the Forest. That explains why the 1/4-inch scale map of Unit 67 shows a big gap in the upper winter range line north and west of the divide between the Cochetopa Creek and Tomichi Creek-Gunnison River-Cebolla Creek drainages. Applicable to those parts of Unit 67 covered by this survey, the upper winter range line exhibits so much elevational variability that no attempt is made to present an average elevation of the line except where already stated by locale. Perhaps worthy of repetition, though, are the lower and upper extreme elevations of 8,400 feet and 11,200 feet for the upper limit line, respectively, near Long Branch Creek and Razor Dome. At no point does a lower limit line enter the Gunnison National Forest. Lowest point in the unit is at the bridge on State Highway No. 149 and Blue Mesa Reservoir which is about 7,600 feet in elevation. KEY AREAS Previously discussed time limitations (see INTRODUCTION) for doing fieldwork severely restricted the amount of quality of information that could be obtained relative to key areas in Unit 67. Largely through knowledge supplied by local Division and Forest Service employees, several comparatively small areas of Cochetopa Creek and its eastern tributaries were delineated as being key; some areas were designated specifically for elk. No names were given to any of these key areas, and most were not visited or type mapped. The only clues to authenticity of these key areas are results of two pellet group count transects. Noticeably more deer than elk pellet groups were recorded on the key area west of Cochetopa Dome, an area supposedly used mainly by elk. Another transect that was read on the large, non-specific West Pass Creek key area showed a fairly substantial pellet group count for elk and less for deer. These results indicate that much more information is necessary before accurate assessments can be made of territories that might be considered as being key. No indictment is intended by the foregoing discussions, since a similar situation was sidestepped when encountered on surveys of the Rio Grande River country. Like the latter area, which is characterized by extensive parkland vegetative types used mostly by elk, the middle and upper Cochetopa Creek drainage is so open most winters that the elk are not consistently dependent on certain portions for existence. The problem was circumvented on the Rio Grande National Forest by recognizing the difficulty of delineating key areas and establishing arbitrarily chosen geographical subdivisions with which range transecting data could be associated. In contrast to apparent lack of decision about key areas east of Cochetopa Creek, thorough field checking of areas west of Middle Cochetopa Creek revealed that use was both light and inconsistent enough by deer and elk to prevent classifying any of that territory as being key. �- 26 Two key areas are named and delineated on maps. primarily by deer. They were designated because tation and current data on browse age-form class group counts strongly indicated that they should scriptions of the areas are given as follows: Long Branch key area.--All drainage. winter Needle-Owen Creeks key area.--All Dutchman (Tie) Creeks drainages. range within winter These two are used prior history of habicomposition and pellet be so classified. De- the Long Branch Creek range within the Needle-Owen- LANDOWNERSHIP Presented before in this report was the finding that slightly over 49% of Unit 67's total area lies within boundaries of the Gunnison National Forest. An unknown small fraction of that 49% is possessed under private ranching and mining patents. It is estimated that of the remaining 51% non-Forest land, approximately two-thirds is controlled by the Bureau of Land Management in public lands and one-third is in private ownership. BLM and private landownership is depicted graphically on the "Public Lands Outdoor Recreation Map, Powderhorn Area", published and distributed jointly by the Division and BLM, U. S. Department of the Interior. A summary of vegetation and land category acreages by landownership within Forest boundaries is presented on Table 1. It is emphasized that those data are fragmentary, because type mapping was accomplished for only about one-third of the National Forest big game winter zone. The information is included here, however, to give some idea about relative amounts of the vegetation types and proportions of private and Federal lands in the territory covered by this inventory. Moreover, the footnote on Table 1 gives additional explanation of the basis for summary data. VEGETATION TYPES Discussion of principal categories of vegetative cover found on National Forest big game winter range in Unit 67 is presented in paragraphs to follow. This is done in spite of incomplete vegetation type acreage data for reasons already explained. Perhaps the most important thing that can be derived from treating vegetation categories is an enumeration of dominant and principal associated plants found in the categories. Acreages dominated by Various species would be of added benefit but are not possible or relevant in this inventory. Conifer type.--Regardless of obvious inventory shortcomings, the Conifer Type (Type 6) is very important to wintering big game on the National Forest. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is the most frequently named coniferous species in type designations. Less frequently cited as type species, in their approximate decreasing order of importance, are lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and limber pine (Pinus flexilis). �- 27 - Table 1. Vegetation type and land category acreage sunnnary, big game winter range within Gunnison National Forest and Came Unit 67.* No Fo Acreage Pri. Total 1,648 0 1,648 239 0 239 6,018 347 6,365 5 - Browse 251 76 327 6 - Conifer 7,099 30 7,129 1,309 20 1,329 40,560 566 41,126 57,124 1,039 58,163 Type or Land Category 1 - Grassland 2 - Meadow 4 - Sagebrush 10 - Broadleaf and Rabbitbrush Tree Unclassified TOTALS ~'r Sunnnary represents only those townships where type mappings and/or an upper winter range limit line was established. At least three townships that are assumed to have winter range on the Forest had nothing recorded for them nor were maps issued. Two townships contain only an upper limits line. Most of the remaining 2-inch scale township plats show only partial type mapping within the winter range zone. It is of interest to note that lodgepole pine reaches southernmost limits of contiguous distribution in Colorado on the eastern and southern perimeter of the Gunnison Basin along and near the Continental Divide. Recollections by the author places the southern limit near Los Pinos Pass which is substantiated by a report of Barrell (1969:332) that places an association of lodgepole and Colorado spruce (Picea pungens) east of the same passo The winter range inventory report for a survey of Unit 76 (Rio Grande) lying south of Unit 67 listed no lodgepole pine in vegetation type sunnnaries (Baker 1967:58). Thus, except for possible isolated, sporadic occurrences as presented by Preston (1940:24) and Fowe11s (1965:373), lodgepole pine is rarely found south of Game Units 66 (Lake Fork Gunnison) and 67 of the Gunnison Basin. Concurrent with the decline in abundance of lodgepole in southern Colorado is the comparable increase in abundance of aspen (Populus tremuloides) and such conifers as Engelmann and Colorado spruces, white fir (Abies conco1or), bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata), and limber pine. Aspen, in particular, �- 28 - is an intolerant fire species like lodgepole and apparently replaces lodgepole in that capacity south of the Gunnison River drainage system. In any event, aspen is a frequently-listed codominant with all of the coniferous species and for sizable acreages in Unit 67. Of subdominant browse species found with the conifers, big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is probably the most abundant by being listed in four types. Common juniper (Juniperus communis) and antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) are also listed as being present but only in one type each. Lowest-level plants are led in type designations by herbaceous grasses; more specifically, Arizona and Thurber fescues (Festuca arizonica; K. thurberi) occur, either singly or in combination with each other, in four Conifer Types. The plant symbol "FES" that is used in type deSignations indicates the presence of both species. Actinea tions. (Hymenoxys It appears sp.) is the only forb listed in coniferous only once. type designa- Sagebrush~. -- The Sagebrush or Rabbitbrush Type (Type 4) ranks a close second acreage-wise to the Conifer Type in this partial Unit 67 winter range inventory. As would logically be expected, the Artemisia and Chrysothamnus genera dominate Type 4 lands. Big sagebrush is the most abundant species of the former genus. Douglas rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) is the most abundant species of the latter genus, although various rabbitbrush mixtures occur that also include rubber rabbitbrush (~. nauseosus) and Parry rabbitbrush (~. parryi). The mixtures are designated by the symbol "CHY" in type designations. Antelope bitterbrush ranks fairly close in importance to the aforementioned composite shrubs in Type 4 associations. It is most abundant in the area from Needle Creek east to Long Branch Creek and enhances the forage of deer Wintering in that locale. Elsewhere in Unit 67, bitterbrush seems to occur sporadically and not in great abundance. Principal Type 4 grasses include Arizona and Thurber fescues as well as Idaho fescue (K. idahoensis). The latter is very closely related to Arizona fescue but is less abundant. Arizona fescue tends to inhabit lower elevational dry sites whereas Idaho fescue exhibits preference for higher elevations and better sites. Similar to the Conifer Type 4 mixtures. Type, actinea is cited once as a type species in This 1962 inventory reveals that a m~n~mum of 408 acres of sagebrush and rabbitbrush cover had been treated by herbicidal spray in measures to convert Type 4 vegetation to grassland. Up-to-date information received from Kufeld (1969: pers. comm.) shows that, through January 1, 1970, approximately 15,000 acres of National Forest sagebrush lands in Unit 67 have been treated, mainly by application of herbicides and some by plowing. Impact of this human activity upon forage supplies for wildlife, in general, and big game, in particular, is nearly impossible to assess. By any standards, however, the total acreage receiving treatment must be regarded as being substantial and of a magnitude to make the environment espeCially less favorable for deer. �- 29 Grassland type.--Sagebrush dominates the scene over most of the lower e1evationa1 winter range area below and outside of the National Forest in Unit 67. This situation generally conforms with the vegetational aspect of like zones of game units north of the main Gunnison River and Tomichi Creek. A notable exception to the above generality exists in the Cochetopa Park vicinity. There, poorer site conditions apparently have allowed grassland stands to become established and intermingled with sagebrush. Other evidence of lessened sagebrush dominance is that sagebrush plants generally fall short of maximum vigor by averaging lower height and exhibiting lighter stand densities. Thus, the Cochetopa Park area firmly hints of being transition territory, fitting somewhere between strongly dominating sagebrush of the main Gunnison Basin and adjoining 1ike-e1evational areas east of the Cochetopa Hills divide in the Rio Grande drainage where grassland types rule non-forested lands. Of 12 Grassland Types recorded by the survey, seven types feature Arizona fescue as a principal dominant or codominant and four types each have mountain muh1y (Muh1enbergia montana) and its close relative slimstem muh1y (~. filicu1mis) cited in a similar capacity. Mountain muh1y occurs more charactistica1ly on higher, better sites; in contrast, slimstem muhly is usually found on lower, drier places. Both species, nevertheless, are frequently mixed in close association. Dryland sedges (Carex sPP.) were recorded present with fescues in one type. Browse species occurring intermittently but in great enough abundance to rate type species designations in Grassland Types are Douglas rabbitbrush and big sagebrush. Actinea, a forb, is listed as a co- or subdominant species in three Grassland Types. Another once-listed forb is goldaster (Chrysopsis Spg) which is symbolized by "CRR". Broad-leaf tree type.--The Broad-leaf Tree Type (Type 10) in Unit 67 is represented in six types by aspen in pure stands or in associations with conifers. Codominant coniferous species include Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, and limber and ponderosa pines. One type lists thin1eaf alder (Alnus tenuifolia) as the principal broad-leaf tree species. Willows (Salix spp.) are cited as subdominants with alder in this latter type designation. Thurber fescue, both by itself and mixed with Arizona fescue, is accorded type species designation in three Broad-leaf Types. Other herbaceous ground cover species were most certainly present but not prominent enough in the general type aspects to warrant recognition. RANGE TRANSECTS Browse range condition transects.--Fourteen transects were established and read in Unit 67. Of the 14, ten were located on what is classified as key range. The four other transects were read in areas originally believed to have been key; but, light use by big game as indicated from pellet group counting and browse hedging categorizations did not justify establishment of more transects and/or setting up the areas as key. All except one transect were located in sagebrush types. The exception was a transect that was placed in a coniferous "6-DF-PP-Artr" type. Logically, big �- 30 sagebrush is awarded key species status on a 11 of the transects, since it clearly dominates compositions throughout. Bitterbrush is abundant enough on the Tomichi Creek key area transected types that it was awarded key species status five times. Copies of transect records and a summary of pertinent accompany this report in the binder file folder. data from them Pellet group count indexes generally are so low that intensity of occupation by big game can not be considered a serious influence over most Unit 67 winter ranges within the scope and time of this inventory Two transects each in the Needle and Owen Creeks drainages showed that deer had concentrated in sizable numbers at those specific locations but not over all of the key area. Despite obvious anoma lies in distribution, annua 1. utilization surveys have been and will continue to provide vigilance regarding possible overs t ock Lng , 0 REFERENCES CITED Baker, B. D. 1967. Big game winter range analysis, Game Unit 76 - Rio Grande. pp. 55-620 In Game Reso Rep., Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Denver. 3:1-71 pp. Processed. Barrell, J 1969. Flora of the Gunnison Rockford. 494 pp. Basin. Natural Land lnst., Colorado State Planning Division. 1961. the State of Colorado. 916 pp. Colorado 1959-61, Yearbook o Fowells, H. A. 1965 Silvics of forest trees of the United States. Forest Service, U.S.D.A., Agric. Hdbk. No. 271. 762 pp. 0 Preston, R. J., Jr. 1940. PYess, Ames. 286 pp. Rocky Mountain trees. Iowa State ColI. January, 1970 Fort Collins of �- 31 - APPENDIX B BIG GAME WINTER RANGE ANALYSIS GAME UNIT 22 - PICEANCE INTRODUCTION This report presents results of a big game winter range inventory in Game Management Unit 22 (Piceance). Inventory fieldwork and officework were done in cooperative efforts of the BLM Craig District and Division Federal Aid Project W-101-R in the period from April 1965 through February 1970. Original commitments for the task were made in 1964 by BLM State Wildlife Specialist Carl Lind and W-101-R Project Leader Richard Denney, both of whom are presently assigned and/or employed elsewhere. Mr. Lind assisted with fie1dcrew orientation and training and provided program coordination at the state level in 1965. After 1965,Pau1 Applegate replaced Mr. Lind as BLM State Office coordinator. Interagency-approved standard techniques were employed to accomplish the inventory (Denney 1962:51-96). A large share of the credit for making the program go is due BLM Craig District Assistant Manager Neil McCleery. Helped by strong support from' District Manager Keith Norris, Mr. McCleery furnished all-important supervision in field and office phases of operations. Since 1966, District Wildlife Management Biologist Bob Jacobsen has handled much of the workload previously taken care of by Mr. McCleery and is commended for his efforts. Not to be overlooked in these acknowledgments are the many courtesies, physical facilities, and general assistance furnished by Division Little Hills Experiment Station Supervisor Bill McKean and Station Foreman Jack Corey and BLM White River Resource Area Manager Stan Colby. Finally but certainly not in the least, the following BLM and Division seasonal and part-time employees performed both field and office activities related to type mapping, reading transects, and preparing maps: Chuck Bullock, Leroy Carlson, Bob Chavez, Ken Dillinger, Mike Dole, Larry ForbiS, Keith Giezentanner, Ernie Hafertepen, Craig Ludwig, Bob Moore, Dave Morris, Charles Robbins, Pete Scorup, and Bill Wolvin. DESCRIPTION OF UNIT Location and size.--Big Game Management Unit 22 is located in westcentral Colorado within the larger White River Basin geographical province. A very narrow strip along the unit's southern boundary lies in Garfield County. All remaining territory is wholly contained within central Rio Blanco County. �- 32 In broad terms, State Highway No. 64 along the White River on the north, State Highway Noo 13 on the east, the crest of the Roan Plateau on the south, and Hammond Draw and the crest of the Cathedral Bluffs-Calamity Ridge chain of hills on the west form the unit's boundarieso Using the more specific description of Unit 22 given in the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division Laws and Regulations Handbook, 1965 (p. 4, Chapo 3 - Big Game), the boundaries are as follows: "That portion of Rio Blanco County south of State Highway No. 64, east of Hammond Draw and the divide between the Yellow-Piceance Creeks and Douglas Creek drainages east to its junction with State Highway No. 13, and west of State Highway No. 13 from this junction south to the Garfield County line; that portion of Garfield County within the Piceance Creek drainage". The preceding description is fairly definite except for western portions of the unit in the vicinity of Hammond Draw and Calamity Ridge southward to the Roan Plateau. There, description fuzziness involves the considerable territory that drains into the White River both east and west of Hammond Draw and not into either Yellow or Douglas Creeks, which the description implies. In addition, to compound confusion Hammond Draw splits into separate and nearly equal forks near the draw's origin on Calamity Ridgeo By consulting the U.S.G.S. Calamity Ridge Topographic Quadrangle (7.5 minute series; 1962) and BLM 1/2"-scale maps, the author arrived at the following proposed description for Unit 22 boundaries: "That portion of Rio Blanco County south of State Highway No. 64, east of Boise Creek from State Highway No. 64 to the creek's orlgln on Calamity Ridge, east of a direct line between the Boise Creek origin and the U.S.G.S. Greasewood Triangulation Station atop Calamity Ridge, east of the crest of the Calamity Ridge-Cathedral Bluffs hills between Greasewood Triangulation Station and the junction of the Piceance-Douglas Creeks divide and the crest of the Roan Plateau, north of the crest of the Roan Plateau between the latter junction and the Roan Plateau Crest-State Highway Noo 13 junction, and west of State Highway No. 13 between the Roan Plateau Crest-State Highway No. 13 junction and the junction of State Highway Noso 13 and 64; that portion of Garfield County within the Piceance Creek drainage". In moving a portion of the northwest boundary eastward from Hammond Draw to Boise Creek, some territory would be transferred from Unit 22 to Unit 21; but, the approximately 11 square miles involved would be negligible in relation to benefits derived from having better defined and more practical geographical landmarks for boundarieso Jacobsen (1969) used a dot grid on township plats to arrive at a figure of 998.9 square miles, or 639,319 acres, total area in Unit 220 PhYSical features.--Combined drainages of Piceance and Yellow Creeks correspond essentially with the area encompassed by Unit 22 boundaries and are also Virtually synonymous with territory geologists deSignate as the Piceance Creek Basin. This basin is a broad structural depression underlain by rocks of the Wasatch and Green River Formations. The Wasatch Formation consists mainly of relatively erodible shales, clay, and some sandstone layers that form broad valleys or badlands between cliffs or ridges of the �- 33 - Green River Formation and the Mesa Verde Group. The Green River Formation is composed mostly of shale and marlstone, with some sandstone and limestone also present. Oil-shale beds occur throughout the Green River Formation which has a maximum thickness of about 3,500 feet and rocks underlying mesas that are relatively resistant to erosion (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:9). As indicated in the previous paragraph, Piceance Creek Basin is an area of diverse topography. Differential resistance to erosion of underlying rock layers has created sharp ridges, low to moderately-high rounded hills, abrupt cliffs, and rugged badlands interspersed with open valleys, upland parks, and smaller basins. Northerly flowing Piceance and Yellow Creeks and their many tributaries dissect the landscape. East of Piceance Creek, principal tributary drainage systems are from north to south, respectively, Dry Fork, Greasewood Gulch, Collins Gulch, and Thirteenmile and Fourteenmile Creeks. Ryan Gulch, Black Sulphur Creek, and Stewart Gulch drainages are just a few of many entering Piceance Creek from the west and south. Again, north to south, respectively, Yellow Creek has the main tributary drainages of Greasewood, Barcus, and Duck Creeks feeding it from the West. Westward flowing White River, at Unit 22's northern boundary, has several generally short drainageways joining it from the south. Among the latter from east to west, in order, are Sheep Creek (along and near State Highway No. 13), Kendall and Hay Gulches, and Little Spring and Monument Creeks, as well as aforementioned Boise Creek and Hammond Draw. The reservoir on Division-owned Rio Blanco State Recreation Area (Rio Blanco Lake) contains a maximum of 115 surface acres of dead-water storage and is the only large body of water in Unit 22. Several small ponds, variously used for irrigation, flood water control, stock water storage, and trout fishing, are scattered throughout Unit 22. As might logically be expected, basin-rim high ground on western, southern, and eastern perimeters has the greatest elevations. On the west, maximum elevations include 8,420 feet near the origin of Black Sulphur Creek and 8,685 feet at the head of Big Duck Creek. At the south edge, there are at least five high points on the Roan Plateau exceeding 8,400 feet, two of which best 8,700 feet. Greatest elevation in the eastern part is reached at the eastern end of Joe Bush Mountain. Elevation there is 8,371 feet. Several other ridges and mountains north and south and in the vicinity of Joe Bush Mountain reach heights just below or above 8,000 feet, Kendall and Segar Mountains included. Climate.--Unit 22's highly variable climate can generally be described as semiarid in having comparatively warm summers and cold winters. Extremes are due to moderately wide variations in elevations and exposures. Annual frost-free periods range from about 120 days at the unit's northwest corner near the White River to less than 50 days at high elevations of the basin rim. Mean annual precipitation varies from about 12 to 25 inches. It is distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year, with a little less than one-half �- 34 usually occurring with the December-April period. Summer thundershower activity at higher elevations is typically of the gentle variety. In contrast, rain showers at lower elevations are affected by convective conditions conducive to production of cloudbursts that result in highpeak-flow floods of short duration. Preceding generalizations about Unit 22 climate are based upon information contained in a U.S. Department of Agriculture Report on the White River Basin (1966:6,12-27). Descriptions of local Piceance Creek Basin climates are also included in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (1966) report's discussion of soils which are condensed, in part, in following paragraphs. Soils.--There are four broad soil mapping units represented in Piceance Creek Basin. The largest unit (Unit 3) is composed of what are termed "shallow rocky and deep moderately dark colored soils of the uplands". This unit corresponds with lowest portions of the basin at elevations of between about 6,000 and 7,000 feet. Slope gradients usually range between 10 and 60 percent. Here the annual precipitation averages 12 to 15 inches; the mean annual temperature is about 470 F; and, the frost-free period is around 100 days. Summer storm waters frequently cause much damage to bridges and stream crossings, create deep gullying and head cutting, and leave flood deposits that cover vegetation on alluvial fans and bottomlands (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:12,13,17-19). Considerably smaller in extent than Soil Mapping Unit 3 in Piceance Creek Basin is Unit 4. Unit 4 is called the "Deep moderately dark colored soils of the mesas and va lleys". Powell Park and Josephine Basin, just west and southwest of Meeker, are represented by Unit 4 soils. Elevationa1 range of these locations is 6,000 to 6,600 feet. Meeker has an average annual precipitation of about 17 inches, a frost-free period of 94 days, and a mean annual temperature of 440 F. Slope gradients of Unit 4 bottom1ands, upland benches, and mesas range from less than five percent to about 15 percent. Despite lower slope gradients, water erosion is a problem around Meeker (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:19,21). Soil Mapping Unit 5 soils rank second in extent to Unit 3 and generally lie above Unit 3 and below Unit 7 in Piceance Creek Basin. Unit 5 is termed the ''Moderately deep and deep, dark colored soils of the uplands". Steep slope gradients within the range of 10 and 60 percent are most common. Unit elevationa1 range is between 7,000 and 8,000 feet with extremes of 6,400 feet and 8,800 feet. Greater precipitation and lower mean annual temperatures are associated with the greater elevations. Annual precipitation ranges from 15 to 20 inches, and the frost-free period averages from 45 to 100 days. Erosion is slight to moderate and generally confined to washing along stock trails and minor gullying along drainageways (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:21-23). The "Dark colored soils of the cold, forested mountain slopes" categorize Unit 7 soils. This unit, being restricted to a narrow strip along the crest of the Roan Plateau on Piceance Creek Basin's southern edge, is not very extensive. The landscape consists of ridges and steep lower mountain slopes and valleys. Slope gradients usually range from 10 to 50 percent at elevations �- 35 - between 8,000 and 8,800 feet. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 20 to o 25 inches; mean annual temperature is less than 40 F; and, frost-free growing seasons average less than 50 days. Like in Unit 5 soils, erosion is comparatively slight (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:25-27). Industry.--Production of oil and natural gas is by far the greatest contributor to Rio Blanco County industrial wealth. In fact, the county ranked first in 1963 Colorado yield of those fuels (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:10). Total value of "petroleum" in 1960 is listed at just over $57 million (Colo. State Planning Division 1961:874). Principal oil fields in Rio Blanco County are located near Rangely and in the Wilson Creek area, both outside of Unit 22. However, Piceance Creek drainage in the unit is the major gas-producing area in Rio Blanco County. Most wells there yield gas from the Green River and Wasatch Formations (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:10). Production and sale of livestock and livestock products comprise the second leading industry in the county. Income from those sources in 1959 totaled over $3 million (Colo. State Planning Division 1961:874). Cattle, sheep, and horse ranches in the valleys of the White River and Piceance, Yellow, and Sheep Creeks provide most of the livestock production. Income from secondary minerals such as sand and gravel, uranium ore, and coal, respectively, follow livestock in importance (U. S. Department of Agriculture 1966:11). Unit 22 has no incorporated towns or cities. Meeker, county seat of Rio Blanco County, is located about 2 miles east of Unit 22's northeast corner; near the unit's northwest corner is Rangely, home of Rangely Junior College. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (pers. comm. 1970), Meeker dropped in population from 1,655 in 1960 to 1,536 in 1970 which contrasts with a gain by Rangely (1,464 in 1960 to 1,638 in 1970). These population changes are partially compensating and indicate a possible slight increase in the total county population. Both cities serve as trade centers for ranching, oil and gas areas, and tourist business (Colo. State Planning Division 1961: 798-799). Projected future developments of oil shale, agriculture, water, and recreation resources and associated increases in human population of the White River Basin are summarized by the report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (1966:73-92). Therefore, only one comment seems appropriate here relative to those subjects. Increased activities above those of the present population density of 1.5 people per square mile now in the White River Basin will simply mean more adversity for wildlife, in general, and deer, in particular. LIMITS OF AVERAGE WINTER RANGE From the beginning of the field investigations phase of this inventory, it was obvious that determining average upper limits of the big game winter zone would be difficult. Continuous, intensive air and ground observations of big �- 36 game distribution were lacking. In substitution, pellet group count indexes and browse age and form class determinations were relied upon to establish where deer and elk were found most years within the period of November 10 to April 20. The aforementioned 5-l/3-month span accounts for the time that the major portion of wintering deer are present in Unit 22. There is usually some migration after November 10 and April 20, but most movement ordinarily Occurs prior to both dates. No attempt was made in the inventory to delineate summer and transitional ranges, although Jacobsen (1969) logically treats summer range as the difference between total unit area and that classified as winter range. The foregoing procedure is questionable for some locales in the vicinity of the upper winter line where ranges might more properly be called yeararound ranges. Nevertheless, the latter instances probably are of minor importance because summer population densities and resultant effects on vegetation are insiginificant in the total ecology of the deer. Already implied, but not specified, is the finding that winter zone upper limits apply almost universally to deer populations. Elk have not been plentiful enough anywhere in Unit 22 to have influenced placement of a winter range boundary line. It is conceivable, however, that future increases of elk numbers are likely and will complicate management of both big game species in the unit. Some medium to high elevation, north and east facing slopes at the east end of Unit 22 (on and/or near Kendall and Segar Mountains) were found to have received light winter use. These areas were first excluded as winter range. Upon further deliberation, the areas were included for two reasons. First, small area map exclusions were thought to be possible future sources of confusion. And secondly, to show these island exclusions might imply unimportance which we wanted to avoid. The slopes in question are mostly dense stands of high-value browse that help effect better deer nutrition and distribution in less severe winters. Finally, within limitations imposed by information available and that obtainable by procedures used in the field the summers of 1965-67, following paragraphs will describe the location of the average upper winter range limit line as it appears on accompanying 2-inch scale maps. Elevational data were obtained from U. S. Geological Survey Topographical Quads upon which the winter line was transposed. Yellow Creek area.--In his report, Jacobsen (1969) gives the mean elevation of the winter range line for the Yellow Creek portion of Unit 22 at about 6,850 feet and the mean low elevation within the winter range of about 6,000 feet. It should be made clear that these elevational means apply to all of the area west of Piceance Creek and not just to the Yellow Creek drainage. Starting at the northwest corner of Unit 22, the upper winter line is located near the surprisingly high maximum elevation of 8,000 feet on the north end of Calamity Ridge. Wind-swept, comparatively snow-free conditions atop the ridge probably account for deer using this locale. Also in the same vicinity on the leeward northeast side of Calamity Ridge, the winter range line drops �- 37 down to and roughly follows the 7,400-foot contour at the heads of Hay Canyon, Little Spring Creek, and Trail Gulch. From Trail Gulch, the line drops sharply to the bottom of North Fork Greasewood Creek at a pOint about one mile east of Thompson Spring; then it goes northeastward along the North Fork bottom, varying from about 7,000 feet to a low of 6,400 feet, and excluding the uor t hwes t; slopes of the dividing ridge between the North and Middle Forks of Greasewood Creek. Southeast slopes into the Middle Fork-East Fork Greasewood Creeks drainage are included as winter range, elevations there also varying between 6,400 and 7,000 feet. The winter range line traverses the divide between East Fork Greasewood and North Barcus Creeks at about the 6,600-foot level, swings southwest up North Barcus and southeast back down Middle Barcus Creeks to include almost all of the area between the two creeks below an elevation of about 7,000 feet. Exceptions are places near the head of North Barcus Creek that have elevations near 7,800 feet. From the confluence of Middle and Main Barcus Creeks, the winter line locates south and southwestward, mostly across contours, to intercept Duck Creek's main forks near their junction. Elevations vary from about 7,400 feet at the Middle-Main Barcus Creeks' junction to 6,500 feet where the principal forks of Duck Creek jOin. The winter zone south of Duck Creek includes most of 84 and Bar D Mesas, with necks that project southwestward up Corral Gulch and Stake Springs Draw above the old 84 Ranch headquarters. Excluded in this vicinity, however, is nearly all of Wolf Ridge between Corral Gulch and Stake Springs Draw. The winter line joins Ryan Gulch about one-half mile west of the old Ryan School. Elevations of the line between Duck Creek and Ryan Gulch vary within the range of 6,500 to 7,000 feet. Ryan Gulch-Black Sulphur Creek-Stewart Gulch area.--Drainageways of these gulches, and drainages paralleling them in between, flow northeastward and northward into Piceance Creek. Jacobsen (1969) included this area within his report from which mean winter range elevations were cited previously (see first paragraph herein under the foregoing Yellow Creek area heading). Continuing discussion of winter range line location, the line is placed to include lower southeast slopes into the Ryan Gulch bottoms from near Ryan School southwestward to the multi-confluence of Ryan, Galloway, Dry, and Wagonroad Gulches. Upland terrain between Ryan Gulch and Black Sulphur Creek is Wagonroad Ridge. Ridge territory is winter zone that lies northeast of the winter line extending roughly between Reigle Ranch on Ryan Gulch and Duckett Ranch on Black Sulphur Creek. Elevations reach a maximum of about 7,100 feet atop the ridge and minimums of 6,600 feet on both Ryan Gulch and Black Sulphur Creek. Eastward from Black Sulphur Creek, in order, the dividing ridge between Black Sulphur Creek and Yankee Gulch is excluded as winter range; conversely, most of the lower Yankee Gulch-Eureka Creek upland is classified as winter zone; and again, all of the dividing ridge between Eureka and Fawn Creeks and the Fawn Creek bottoms is excluded as winter range. From Fawn Creek eastward, the winter line is situated to include as winter zone both upland and bottomland lower territories of Little Dry and Dry �- 38 Gulches, Hunter Creek, Enoch and Big Jimmy Gulches, Gulch, and West and Middle Stewart Gulches. Willow Creek, Scandard The winter line crosses East Stewart Gulch at about 6,400 feet elevation, drops down East and main Stewart Gulches on their northeast bottom-margins, and touches Piceance Creek just east of the Walter 01d1and Ranch. As already indicated, elevations of the upper winter line between Ryan and Stewart Gulches are quite variable. This is because drainage bottoms, mesas, and ridges are irregularly included within the winter zone. In general, however, maximum elevations vary around 7,000 feet and minimums about 6,400 feet, conforming with Jacobsen's (1969) overall mean of 6,800 feet. Upper Piceance Creek-Fourteenmile Creek-Thirteenmile Creek-Sheep Creek area.-The winter line coincides with Piceance Creek from near the Walter 01d1and Ranch southeastward upstream to a point about two miles west of Rio Blanco Post Office. Thus, the entire southeastern corner of Unit 22 lying south of Piceance Creek and east of main Stewart Gulch is outside of the winter zone. From west of Rio Blanco at about 7,200 feet elevation on Piceance Creek, the winter line goes almost due north in crossing contours to include the heads of Coyote, Deer, and Davis Gulches. Maximum elevations in this vicinity reach about 8,000 feet. Northeast slopes of upper portions of the dividing ridge between Davis Gulch and Fourteenmile Creek are excluded by the line which drops into the latter stream at its confluence with Dark Canyon (not to be confused with Dry Fork tributary of same name). Thence, the line is located in Dark Canyon, across Fourteenmile Ridge, and down to Thirteenmi1e Creek near the Cox Ranch. Elevations in this area reach 8,100 feet on ridgetops and between 6,840 and 7,260 feet in bottoms of Fourteenmile and Thirteenmile Creeks, respectively. On the north side of Thirteenmile Creek, the winter line extends westward downstream from near the Cox Ranch to the confluence of Open Gulch and Thirteenmile. The line then follows the bottom of Open Gulch and over the ridge into Timber Gulch about 2-1/2 miles above the confluence of Joe Bush and Timber Gulches. As a consequence, the Goat Trail Ridge, Rough Gulch, Rough Ridge, Hyberger Gulch, and Bald Knob areas and territory east to State Highway No. 13 are all excluded as winter range. The winter line bisects Joe Bush Mountain in crossing northeastward from Timber Gulch into Joe Bush Gulch at about the 7,000-foot level. From the latter pOint, the line goes up the bottom of Joe Bush Gulch, loops around the extreme eastern end of Segar Mountain, and traverses back into Segar Gulch near its origin. This is all high ground, having elevations ranging between 7,700 and 8,100 feet along the winter line. From near the origin of East Fork Hay Gulch, the line angles northeastward to its unnamed opposing drainage on the Sheep Creek side of the ridge. There it joins and generally coincides with the 7,200-foot contour southward-bound until the contour intercepts State Highway No. 13 about nine miles north of Rio Blanco. This is also the line's exit point from Unit 22 and falls slightly north of the Sheep-Thirteenmile Creeks divide on State Highway No. 13. It is apparent from foregoing paragraphs that most of the area in Unit 22 east of Piceance Creek (Little Hills Triangle) is winter range. Classification �- 39 - of various high-ground portions as winter range in this eastern sector of the unit might be questionab1eo However, when doubts occurred in the course of fieldwork, areas were usually credited as being winter range rather than allow an omission to occuro Genera1.--In contrast to a mean elevation of about 6,800 feet west of Piceance Creek, mean elevation of the winter line east of Piceance Creek is estimated to be 7,400 feet between extremes of 6,400 and 8,100 feet. It is logical to assume that exposure is the primary reason most of the Little Hills Triangle is usable winter rangeo Drainages and intervening ridges are oriented either north and south or east and west and have steep slope gradientso As discussed by Yeager (1960:4-6)~ these slope and topographic factors provide for maximum insolation benefits and territory for use by wintering animals. At no point does a lower limit line enter Unit 22 because is open-ended at the north on the White River. the winter zone KEY AREAS Winter range of Unit 22 was divided into seven key area subunits based upon geographical features. Primary purpose of this partition was to satisfy the need for localized place references with which to tie transect recordso The agreement had previously been reached that all usable winter range conformed with the definition of and could justifiably be called keyo Descriptions of the seven key areas are presented in following paragraphs and shown graphically on accompanying 1/4-inch scale unit mapo Rattlesnake key areao--A1l winter ranges lying south of State Highway No. 64, east of Piceance Creek, north of Dry Fork Piceance Creek, and west of East Fork Hay Gulch and the VT Trail. Greasewood key area.--A11 winter range bounded on the west and south by Piceance Creek, east by Collins and Little Corral Gulches, and north by Dry Fork Piceance Creek. Thirteenmi1e key area.--A11 winter range that lies north of Piceance Creek, east of Collins-Little Corral Gulches, south of Dry Fork Piceance Creek and Timber Gulch, and west of the winter range line already described between Timber Gulch and upper Piceance Creek. Segar Mountain key area.--A11 winter range bounded on the west and south by East Fork Hay Gulch, VT Trail, Dry Fork Piceance Creek, Timber Gulch, and the winter range line between Timber Gulch and State Highway No. 13, east by State Highway No. 13, and north by State Highway No. 64. Hammond-Barcus key area.--A11 winter range bounded on the north by State Highway No. 64 between Hammond Draw and Yellow Creek, west by Hammond Draw and the winter range line between Calamity Ridge and Barcus Creek, south by Barcus Creek, and east by Yellow Creek between its confluence with Barcus Creek and junction with State Highway No. 64 0 �- 40 Barcus-Ryan key area.--A11 winter range bounded on the west by Yellow Creek between its junction with State Highway No. 64 and confluence with Barcus Creek, and the winter range line between Barcus Creek and Ryan Gulch, south by Ryan Gulch, east by Piceance Creek, and north by State Highway No. 64 between Piceance and Yellow Creeks. Ryan-Story key area.--A11 winter range bounded by Ryan Gulch on the north, the winter range line between Ryan and main Stewart Gulches on the west and south, and Piceance Creek on the east and north. Story Gulch was first believed to have been the eastern terminus of winter range south of Piceance Creek; but, field reconnaissance proved that the terminus was at main Stewart Gulch about four miles west of Story Gulch. Story (Gulch) was retained in the name because transect records already contained it through the field season and chances were slight for future conflict by its retention. LANDOWNERSHIP Federal Public Lands under jurisdiction of the U. S. Bureau of Land Management compose the largest landholding of winter range in Unit 22 (Table 1). Approximately 84.5 percent falls into that category. Private landowners control the second largest block (30,595 acres, or 9%), and the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Park's lands under patent equal about 6-1/2 percent (21,926 acres) of the total winter range. Relative to the latter acreage, there seems to be little doubt about the value of Division aims for acquiring and developing land in Unit 22 for big game, just as there should be no question about BLM responsibilities and evident concern in maintaining equitable deer populations on the great expanse of land under their jurisdiction. Tables 2 and 3 present summaries of vegetation type acreages by landownership for the Yellow Creek (west Piceance) and Little Hills Triangle (east Piceance) portions of Unit 22 winter range. In discussions to follow, some gross comparisons of the two parts will be made for which the tables will serve as useful references. VEGETATION TYPES Unit 22 is top-ranked in hunter harvest of mule deer in Colorado (Table 4). Importance of the Piceance-White River deer herd has long been known. Indeed, some of the first efforts of the Division's Federal Aid Section were directed towards evaluating deer numbers and forage interrelationships of what Carhart (1943:18) termed the "most important flock of 'wild livestock' in Colorado". Therefore, in light of winter range that must be considered as close to optimum as any in Colorado, vegetation types are discussed in following paragraphs to the end that amounts, characteristics, and proportions be used as standards for better deer management other places in western Colorado. �Table 1. Vegetation and land category acreage summary, big game winter range, Game Unit 22 (Piceance). Landownership TOTAL PRIVATE GF&P BLM % Total No. Acres Total 224 0.8 2,918 0.9 22.2 8,044 26.3 71,760 21.2 1,006 4.6 6,457 21.1 52,881 15.6 0.3 0 0.0 62 0.2 852 0.2 171,129 59.8 12,739 58.1 7,649 25.0 191,517 56.6 13 - Saltbush 3,699 1.3 46 0.2 129 0.4 3,874 1.2 14 - Greasewood 1,599 0.6 1,868 8.5 249 0.8 3,716 1.1 688 0.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 688 0.1 1,168 0.4 1,394 6.4 7,781 25.4 10,343 3.1 338,529* 100.0 Total No. Acres 0 0.0 20.6 4,873 45,418 15.9 790 Total No. Acres 2,694 0.9 4 - Sagebrush or Rabbitbrush 58,843 5 - Browse 6 - Conifer No. Acres 1 - Grassland Type or Land Category % % % .... .f:'- 9 - Pinyon-Juniper 18 - Annuals Cultivated and Hay Totals 286,008 100.0 -- - 21,926 100.0 30,595 100.0 * This does not jibe with total winter range acreage as reported in Jacobsen (1969). Discrepancies to later map revisions which had not been updated in the BLM report as of this writing. are due �Table 2. Vegetation and land category acreage summary, big game winter range, Yellow Creek (or Piceance Creek West) part, Game Unit 22 (Piceance). "';'\ Landownership BLM GF&P PRIVATE No. % Acres Total TOTAL No. % Acres Total Type or Land Category No. Acres Total No. Acres Total 1 - Grassland 2,564 1.6 0 0.0 0 0.0 2,564 1.4 4 - Sagebrush or Rabbitbrush 36,423 22.1 3,209 29.0 2,465 22.7 42,097 22.6 5 - Browse 1,594 1.0 74 0.7 58 0.5 1,726 0.9 117,150 71.2 4,981 45.0 4,671 43.1 126,802 68.0 13 - Saltbush 3,673 2.2 0 0.0 129 1.2 3,802 2.0 14 - Greasewood 1,432 0.9 1,769 16.0 234 2.2 3,435 1.8 668 0.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 668 0.4 1,030 0.6 1,039 9.3 3,282 30.3 5,351 2.9 100.0 10,839 100.0 186,445 100.0 9 - Pinyon-Juniper % % ~ N 18 - Annuals Cultivated and Hay -- Totals 164,534 100.0 11,072 ~'~These acreages do not jibe with those reported in Jacobsen (1969). Discrepancies are due to later map revisions which have not been updated in the BLM report as of this writing. �Table 3. Vegetation and land category acreage summary, big game winter range, Little Hills Triangle (or Piceance Creek East) part, Game Unit 22 (Piceance). Landownership TOTAL PRIVATE GF&P BLM % Total No. Acres Total 224 1.1 354 0.2 15.3 5,579 28.2 29,663 19.5 932 8.6 6,399 32.4 51,155 33.6 0.7 0 0.0 62 0.3 852 0.6 53,979 44.4 7,758 71.5 2,978 15.1 64,715 42.6 13 - Saltbush 26 0.0 46 0.4 0 0.0 72 0.0 14 - Greasewood 167 0.1 99 0.9 15 0.1 281 0.2 Cultivated and Hay 138 0.1 355 3.3 4,499 22.8 4,992 3.3 Total 0 0.0 18.5 1,664 43,824 36.1 790 Total 130 0.1 4 - Sagebrush or Rabbitbrush 22,420 5 - Browse 6 - Conifer Type or Land Category 1 - Grassland 9 - Pinyon-Juniper % 121,474 100.0 % .j::- w 10,854 100.0 -- -- - Totals % No. Acres No. Acres No. Acres 19,756 100.0 152,084 100.0 �- 44 - Table 4. Fifteen game management units with the highest total deer harvest, ten-year period, 1959-68. Unit Number Name Harvest Rank 22 Piceance 57,137 1 42 Grand Mesa 45,078 2 31 Roan Creek 39,061 3 21 Douglas Creek 35,783 4 62 East Uncompahgre 34,548 5 32 Parachute 32,677 6 11 Strawberry 28,913 7 44 Brush Creek 27,638 8 33 Rifle 27,087 9 23 Miller Creek 26,245 10 40 Glade Park 25,641 11 70 San Miguel 24,880 12 43 Roaring Fork 24,875 13 71 Dolores 21,907 14 78 San Juan 21,183 15 �- 45 Pinyon-juniper type.--Ru1ing the vegetative mantle of Unit 22 winter range is the Pinyon-Juniper Type (Type 9). Pinyon-juniper is a woodland or foothills zone climax (Oosting 1956:296,303-304) and is here represented in types by approximately equal portions of Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) and pinyon pine (Pinus edu1is). Rocky Mountain juniper (1. scopu10rum) is also found in Type 9 associations but is sparsely abundant. Type 9 dominance is shown in Table 1, although it is actually underplayed there and on Table 3. If the approximately 39,000 acres of the 4- and 5-PJ transition types found east of Piceance Creek are added to Type 9 acreages on Tables 1 and 3, resulting totals are equal to the same 68% component shown in Table 2. Thus, with about 68% of the winter range covered by Type 9, it is appropriate that all kinds of slopes, exposures, and terrains support this vegetation. Some Pinyon-Juniper Types contain as much as 5,000 acres, with other blocks frequently having over 1,000 acres. Fortunately for interrupters like sagebrush, greasewood, and saltbush in drainage bottoms, upland sagebrush parks, and upland browse types (particularly east of Piceance Creek) the vast expanses of pinyon-juniper are broken up and more valuable for big game naturally. Significance of pinyon pine and junipers as cover for mule deer is widely recognized and accepted. Less well understood, however, is the presence of these conifers in deer diets. In Piceance Creek Basin, Carhart (1941: 9-11) reported that pinyon occurred in greater amounts than did junipers in 37 winter- and 30 spring-collected stomach samples. More specifically, pinyon comprised 21.41% of winter (Dec.-Feb.) diets and ranked second to big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Pinyon pine dropped to 7.20% of spring (Mar.-May) diets and a ranking of sixth. The same study showed that junipers ranked third and lOth, respectively, as components of winter and spring diets. Elsewhere in the Rockies, central and southern studies demonstrated that junipers are components of mule deer diets (Smith 1952:153, Hill 1956:395,400, Smith 1959:8-13, Anderson et al. 1965:353-364), but nutritional functions of conifers are unknown and unexplained by researchers. Suffice to say that more than enough pinyon pine and juniper plant material probably exists to satisfy all deer dietary demands in Unit 220 Another codominant evergreen tree occurring with pinyon-juniper is Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). This association is not common, as evidenced by only two types totalling 2,300 acres in the vicinity of Thirteenmi1e, Fourteenmi1e, and Davis Gulch areas of upper Piceance Creek. From frequency of appearance in type designations and acreage involved, the most common browse species in approximate order of abundance in Unit 22 Pinyon-Juniper Type vegetation are as follows: 1. True mountainmahogany to mountainmahogany, (Cercocarpus montanus), hereafter shortened 25 different types for 105,115 acres. 2. Big sagebrush, 3. Utah serviceberry (Amelanchier utahensis), hereafter as serviceberry, 20 types for 44,071 acres. 15 types for 87,093 acres. referred to �- 46 4. Antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), brush, 9 types for 27,232 acres. also called bitter- Other important but less abundant browse type-species include Douglas and dwarf rabbitbrushes (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus; ~. depressus), black sagebrush ~. nova), snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), Gambel oak (Quercus gambeli) , and shadscale saltbush (Atriplex confertifolia). The rabbitbrushes, snowberry, and black sagebrush are fairly abundant and widely distributed. Gambel oak is found almost exclusively east of Piceance Creek. Shadscale saltbush is not connnon with pinyon-juniper as indicated by one type of about 600 acres having the species. There are several unconnnon shrubby species associated with pinyon pine and juniper that did not rate type species designation. They include rubber rabbitbrush ~. nauseosus), connnon winterfat (Eurotia lanata), bush rockspirea (Holodiscus dumosus), currants (Ribes sPP.), connnon chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), gray horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens), ephedra (Ephedra sp.) bush eriogonum (Eriogonum sp.), creeping mahonia (Berberis repens), black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), and cottonthorn horsebush (!. spinosa). Martin ceanothus (Ceanothus martini) and greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) are very rare and only known to exist at the north end and top of Calamity Ridge. Grass and forb cover is characteristically light under pinyon-juniper overstory. Needleandthread (Stipa comata) and wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.), latter symbolized by "AGR" and including mostly bluestem and beardless bluebunch wheatgrasses ~. smithi; !. inerme), are abundant and prominent enough, nevertheless, that they were named in seven types totalling about 8,000 acres. Other very connnon grasses found with pinyon-juniper but not rating type species designation are prairie junegrass (Koeleria cristata), Indian and littleseed ricegrasses (Oryzopsis hymenoides; Q. micrantha), bottlebrush squirreltail (Sitanion hystrix), and bluegrasses (Poa spp.). Despite fair abundance and variety in pinyon-juniper associations, forbs are lacking as type species. However, several broad-leaf herbs were recorded in browse range transecting work. They include broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae) (also called a half-shrub), goldenweeds, (Haplopappus) sPP.), phloxes (Phlox sPP.), arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata), yarrow (Achillea sp.), scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea coccinea), prickly pear (Opuntia sPP.), and lupines (Lupinus spp.). Sagebrush or rabbitbrush type.--Sagebrush or Rabbitbrush (Type 4) is the second most extensive vegetation type in Unit 22, ranking thus on the basis of strong representation west of Piceance Creek (Tables 1, 2). The Browse Type east of Piceance Creek is more extensive than sagebrush (Table 3), but the acreage advantage there is not great enough to reverse the situation for the entire unit (Table 1). Big sagebrush is strongly the dominant plant of Type 4 acreages. It lacks being listed as a type species only once in 36 different type designations (that one time a 4-CHY type of 71 acres). Furthermore, big sagebrush is probably the most abundant woody species in all of the winter range on the strength of being a type species in 73 of 143 total types in Unit 22. �- 47 Importance of big sagebrush in the nutrition of Unit 22 deer can not be overemphasized. Applicable to this same area, Carhart (1941:9-11), reported that big sagebrush comprised about 37% and 27%, respectively, of winter and spring rumen samples to lead forage consumed those seasons. Moreover, big sagebrush composed 15% of fall rumen to rank second for that season behind serviceberry which was 18%. Sagebrush failed to qualify as year-round food, since the same study found big sagebrush absent from deer rumens obtained in summer. Big sagebrush very often exhibits tall, rank growth on bottomland sites that are characterized by deep well-drained soils. Site factors rather than varietal differences evidently cause greater size. Beetle (1960:52) said that size of big sagebrush "is a simple function of density and favorableness of site conditions". He added that big sagebrush is widely distributed over a great diversity of sites but does avoid shallow soils. Except for heavy consumption of grasses in spring, deer apparently use the robust bottomland sagebrush primarily for cover. Very closely associated with sagebrush in Unit 22 are rabbitbrushes which rank as the second most abundant woody plant complex of Type 4 acreages. On accompanying maps, forms, and data summaries, the type symbol "CHY" stands for mixtures of Chrysothamnus composed principally of Douglas and rubber rabbitbrushes. Recalling that Type 4 is also equivalent to the Rabbitbrush Type, there are three of these latter types that total 398 acres. "CHY" dominated acres all occur on Yellow Creek bottoms. East of Piceance Creek there is one type of 1,247 acres which lists "CHY" secondarily or codominantly. Overall, Douglas rabbitbrush is probably the second most abundant shrubby species in Type 4 acreages. Basis for this reasoning is that Douglas rabbitbrush is listed as a type species in types containing over 16,700 acres which are in addition to the approximately 1,600 acres mentioned in the previous paragraph also containing Douglas rabbitbrush. Ranking browse species abundance after Douglas rabbitbrush in Type 4 acreages is difficult. Both rubber and dwarf rabbit brushes contribute substantially to the total shrubby component, with the former probably furnishing more total volume in Unit 22. Dwarf rabbitbrush is given type species designation in one sagebrush type of 450 acres. On the basis of type acreage representation, pinyon pine and junipers probably follow sagebrush and rabbitbrush in volume of Type 4 plant materials present. In particular, there are eight different sagebrush/pinyon-juniper types totalling 6,400 acres. Caution should be exercised here, however, for permitting much credence on 4-PJ (and 4-J) acreages as indexes to abundance. Crown cover percentages of pinyon-juniper average 10% or less when 4-PJ, or 4-J, are used in type designations, thus causing possible error through overestimation. Following pinyon pine and junipers in order of probable abundance in Type 4 associations is serviceberry. It was recorded as a codominant type species in four type designations that total 4,084 acres. Behind serviceberry in decreasing approximate order of abundance are: Gambel oak, shadscale saltbush, black greasewood, common winterfat, and snowberry, each represented by minor acreages. �- 48 Grasses account for all herbaceous type species plants occurring with sagebrush. Wheatgrasses, particularly bluestem singly and mixed with beardless bluebunch, predominate. The exotic Fairway crested wheatgrass ~. cristatum), widely used in revegetation projects, was abundant enough to be listed as a type species in one type of 59 acres Next to wheatgrasses in abundance, the very common needleandthread provides excellent livestock forage. Other notable grasses are blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), Sandberg bluegrass (R. secunda), giant wildrye (Elymus cinereus), and cheatgrass brome (Bromus tectorum,) which are all listed as type species at least once; prairie junegrass, Indian ricegrass, and bottlebrush squirreltail are commonly present but not given in type designations. o Browse type.--The Browse Type (Type 5) is the third most extensive vegetation type on Unit 22 winter range. There are about 53,000 acres, or 16% of total winter range in the type. Most of the 53,000 acres are found east of Piceance Creek (Table 3). Serviceberry is almost certainly the most abundant browse species in Unit 22 Type 5 vegetation, because it is a type species in 35 different types that total 51,878 acres. The preceding acreage lacks about 1,000 acres of that for all of Unit 22 Type 5 lands (Table 1). Due to just cited excellent abundance, coupled with high forage preference by deer, serviceberry is uniquely important to the Piceance Basin deer herd. Again referring to a food habits study, Carhart (1941:9-11) reported that serviceberry was a major year-round component of mule deer diets on the White River. This shrub composed 17.6% and 54.2%, respectively, of fall and summer collected rumens to be the leading forage those two seasons. Serviceberry ranked fifth in amount of winter forage consumed (7.5%) and second in spring (20.8%); so, there should be little question about its preferability. The plant is plentiful and used, and application of the term "key" to a species could never be more valid for a broad plant type than here. Deer forage quality of Unit 22 winter range excels not only because of serviceberry. Additional important staples such as big sagebrush, mountainmahogany, and Gambel oak, respectively, augment serviceberry in 15 types of 39,286 acres, 17 types of 20,980 acres, and 15 types of 18,276 acres. Other minor shrubs abundant enough in Type 5 acreages to qualify as type species include Douglas, dwarf, and rubber rabbitbrushes, snowberry, bitterbrush, and greasewood Browse plants present but not abundant nor conspicuous enough for type designation are ephedra and gray horsebrush. o Similar to sagebrush/pinyon-juniper mixtures which have sagebrush aspects (see section on Sagebrush type), there are extensive areas in Unit 22 where P-J, in low abundance, also mixes with vegetation having browse aspects (20 types - 32,676 Ao)o Both 5-PJ and 4-PJ associations have been mentioned previously herein as transition types I think that use of the term "transition" is particularly appropriate for 4-PJ areas which seem to be intermediate stages to 9-PJ finally. On the other hand, since Oosting (1956:296,303-304) says that both pinyon-juniper and oak-mountainmahogany (browse) types are foothills zone climax vegetation, there is room for conjecture on the ecological situation represented by high-density pinyon-juniper o �- 49 in browse. To further speculate, I believe that 5-PJ types are essentially very stable communities and probably require catastrophic influences to effect changes, either towards mature woodland or mature shrub1and vegetation. A wide variety of forbs are present in browse associations. However, none was prominent enough to warrant type species designation. Commonly recorded broad-leaf herbs "hit" in transecting work include mountain thermopsis (Thermopsis montana), astragalus (Astragalus sPp.), fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida), clovers (Trifolium spp.), eriogonums (Eriogonum sPP.), goldenweeds, lupines, and phloxes. Last, but certainly worthy of note and very important, are grasses that were given type species recognition under the browse. Need1eandthread and b1uestem wheatgrass are cited for very substantial acreages. Many other grasses are found with browse. They, along with those just mentioned, rated low priority for citation whenever shrubs could logically be recorded instead. Sedges (Carex spp.) are cited for one type of minor acreage. Cultivated and hay 1and.--On the basis of containing about 10,000 acres, the category Cultivated and Hay Land ranks as the fourth most extensive cover type of Unit 22 winter range (Table 1). Regardless of extent of acreages, this land category has been left for last in previous like reports on other units; by so doing, hay and cultivated ground were inferred to have little direct bearing on welfare of wintering deer. In Unit 22, just as in many other western slope locales, hay meadows furnish considerable first green forage for about a month each spring. Thus, for helping alleviate nutritional deficiencies at a most critical time for deer, hay and cultivated areas deserve and are herein given more recognition. More detailed definition is due the two-part title of this cover category. The "Cultivated" portion is equivalent to annual and perennial crops of small grains, grass for seed, corn, and so forth; these crops make up a small percentage of the total acreage of the category. "Hay Land", on the other hand, comprises the great bulk of the category and includes both improved and unimproved kinds of ground. A partial listing of plants found on improved meadows would include. alfalfa (Medicago sativa), smooth brome (~. inermis), timothy (Ph1eum pratense), and orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata). Unimproved meadows presently support mostly such plants as b1uestem wheatgrass, cordgrass (Spartina sp.), foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum), sedges, and rushes (Juncus spp.), whether or not the land had ever been plowed and seeded. Saltbush type.--Type 13, the Saltbush Type, provides about 3,900 acres, or one percent, of the total winter range in Unit 22 (Table 1). In area and source of forage, this cover type is unimportant. It is valuable, nevertheless, by serving to break up expanses of pinyon-juniper and providing variety of forage. Contrary to being on bottom1ands, where first thought might place them, Saltbush Types in Unit 22 are mostly upland sites. The sites are underlain by the Green River Formation. Of the three separate types present, one is near the mouth of Piceance Creek, one is just east of the mouth of Yellow Creek, and one encompasses most of Boise Creek Basip. All types are on northerly �- 50 exposures that are near and break directly White River. or almost directly into the It is consistent that the highly alkaline soils derived from calcareous portions of the Green River Formation should favor the alkaline-tolerant saltbushes. Of browse compositions determined from three condition transects in the Saltbush Types, shadsca1e saltbush is the most abundant species on two. On the third transect, shadscale is a close second to big sagebrush. Douglas rabbitbrush and bluestem wheatgrass also are listed as type species in Type 13 associations. Shadsca1e saltbush is not preferred deer forage. That deficiency is perhaps remedied by the already-mentioned presence of big sagebrush and Douglas rabbitbrush, and to a lesser extent by minor amounts of serviceberry, mountainmahogany, and rubber rabbitbrush. Other less desirable shrubs that occur in minor quantities in Type 13 acreages are Gardner saltbush ~. gardneri), black greasewood, common winterfat, snowberry, and gray and cottonthorn horsebrushes. Most common grasses and forbs include bottlebrush squirreltail, Indian ricegrass, saltgrass (Distichlis spo)~ cheatgrass brome, clovers, onion (Allium sp.), prick1ypear, and phloxes. Greasewood typeo--S1ightly less than the total acreage of the Saltbush Type is the Greasewood Type (Type 14); its 3,716 acres are also about equal to one percent of the winter range area. Similarity between Types 13 and 14 essentially ends with like total acreages, however, since Type 14 is found exclusively on bottomland areas compared with the generally upland locations of saltbush cover. Also, differences are evident in the functions that each vegetation type serves. Black greasewood, a very poor forage species for game, mainly provides cover. In contrast, shorter-statured saltbush communities function mainly to provide a variety of forage. Big sagebrush is associated with greasewood in mixtures and typically exhibits rank growth form like it does composing its own types (see section on Sagebrush type). Therefore, except where rabbitbrushes are fairly abundant in type compositions and when grasses green up annually in spring, Type 14 acreages apparently do not supply much deer forage. Pinyon pine and junipers appear as type species in one type of 121 acres, indicating a possible tendency of these conifers to invade and/or replace greasewood in a manner similar to that occurring with sagebrush and browse types. From information on one transect in one type, subdominant grasses occurring with greasewood include saltgrass, cheatgrass brome, and bottlebrush squirretail; forbs listed from the same sources are phloxes, mustard (Cruciferae), and summercypress (Kochia sp.). Cheatgrass brome, in its early stages of growth, probably contributes the most forage for deer of all plants present. Grassland type.--Grassland Type (Type 1) vegetation is perhaps worthy of note principally from the standpoint of ecological interest; because, based solely on numbers of acres, the type can not be considered as being critical to the upkeep of very many deer. In extent, Type 1 comprises only about 2,900 acres of Unit 22 winter range. �- 51 Except for possibly 125 acres in two types (l-Agsm-Artr, l-Kocr-Agsm) of unknown ecological origin, grassland vegetation in Piceance Basin resulted from man-caused sagebrush or pinyon-juniper rehabilitation. Despite some reseeding of exotics, native grasses are still the most abundant herbaceous cover in Type 1. The natives are led by bluestem wheatgrass and Indian ricegrass. Fairway crested wheatgrass, prairie junegrass, and cheatgrass brome are other herbaceous plants recognized by being listed as type species. Trees and shrubs cited as type species in Grassland Types are pinyon pine, junipers, mountainmahogany, big sagebrush, and Douglas rabbitbrush. Thus, grassland areas can not automatically be disregarded in deer range evaluations, although abundance of woody forage plants is invariably poor whenever Type 1 is used to deSignate an area of vegetation. Other types.--The Conifer Type (Type 6) and Annual Type (Type 18) each comprise less than 1,000 acres, or one-half of one percent, of the total winter range. Douglas fir and junipers are dominant overs tory tree species in Type 6 acreages which occur on high-elevation north slope sites in the extreme northeastern and southeastern corners of the unit (Kendall, Davis, and Coyote Gulches). Subordinate browse species include serviceberry, Gambel oak, and snowberry. Also present but not used as type species is common chokecherry. A great variety of herbaceous plants are present, too, as ground cover. The Annual Type is composed of cheatgrass brome areas that are found only west of Piceance Creek. One type is noted as a burn; the other adjoins and could also have had the same history. Douglas rabbitbrush and serviceberry are abundant enough to rate type species mention with cheatgrass. Browse range condition transects revealed the presence of additional following species: common winterfat, snowberry, mountainmahogany, big sagebrush, dwarf rabbitbrush, broom snakeweed, Indian ricegrass, needleandthread, bottlebrush squirreltail, and prairie junegrass. BROWSE RANGE CONDITION When this inventory started, it was hoped that at least one browse range condition transect would be established and read in every browse containing type. It was soon apparent that such a seemingly minor goal could not be met with means available. Consequently, in order to fulfill the minimum need of a type map of the winter range in Unit 22, tighter priorities and reduced transecting were effected. Almost completely ignored by sampling procedures, then, were types having browse canopy coverages of about five percent or less or rank bottomland shrub growth; sparse understory pinyonjuniper and sagebrush stringer bottoms fit those latter categories where undersampling occurred. A total of 309 transects were finally read, however, and copies of field data forms and summaries are filed and accompany the binder file folders which hold this report. In addition to browse range condition transects, 197 "non-transected" write-ups were prepared for most types not having condition transects type installed �- 52 in them. These forms served two purposes: First, through listing of plant species present and cursory age-form descriptions of browse, a record of vegetation was made for the type. Secondly, a pellet group count was done and recorded on each write-up to furnish an index to game and/or livestock use of the type, This latter information became particularly useful by helping determine placement of the winter range line. Copies of completed "non-transected" type forms are also retained in the binder file folders. Due to sampling inadequacies, it is not feasible to statistically evaluate condition transect data nor will it be possible in future years to reliably determine trend of vegetation of the whole or subunits such as key areas. Changes in transected types might be detectable, but even that will remain to be verified through actual rereading. Despite foregoing uncertainties of inventory techniques, the following paragraphs will present attempts to draw general and broad-based conclusions about winter range vegetation. Composition,--A composite picture of Unit 22 browse range condition transect ratings is presented in Table 5. From the table, an overall rating of ''Medium +" is given for browse composition which is strongly favorable for deer. Deer have been proven to do best when they obtain sustenance from as many good plant species as possible. It is conceded that the ''Medium +" rating value of 2.10 is far from maximum attainable, but many "High" ratings were necessary to provide that average. Table 5. Summary of ratings for browse and soil, 309 browse range condition transects, Game Unit 22 (Piceance) big game winter range, 1965-67. Item Low Rating Medium High Total Browse Composition Overall or Average Ra t Lngw 2.10 (Medium+) No. of Transects 79 III 119 309 % of Total 26 36 38 100 Browse Density 1.46 (Low+) No. of Transects 178 120 11 309 % of Total 57 39 4 100 Browse Vigor 1.38 (Low+) No. of Transects 220 61 28 309 % of Total 71 20 9 100 Soil Stability 1. 87 (Medium-) No. of Transects 64 221 24 309 % of Total 21 71 8 100 * Computed on basis of Low=l, Medium=2, and High=3. �- 53 - It is difficult to determine an accurate ranking of browse species abundance for Unit 22 winter range in its entirety. Nevertheless, some indications of comparative abundance can be deducted from type acreage summaries, be~ause type species citations result and depend upon abundance after the initial aspect and timber designation requirements have been met. Data on Table 6 also provide gross indexes to abundance of shrubby species. Table 6. Frequency of shrubs listed as key species from vigor ratings on 309 browse range condition transects, by key and total area, Game Unit 22 (Piceance), 1965-67. Key Area Frequency Occurrence of Shrub Species Listed as Key 17,17 Artr AME Cemo Putr Chvd Quga Chde At co Arno Chna GUT Eula PRU Rattlesnake 10 20 19 2 3 Greasewood 23 15 9 2 4 Thirteenmile 45 39 16 1 2 8 Segar Mountain 24 45 26 4 6 6 Hammond-Barcus 24 18 31 2 1 Bracus-Ryan 29 2 27 12 Ryan-Story 16 3 6 3 Totals 171 142 134 26 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 16 14 3 3 2 1 1 1/ - See Chapter 80, Region 2 Range Environmental Analysis Service, or Denney (1962), for plant symbol meanings. Handbook, U. S. Forest 2/ - Vigor computations are made and scored for all species designated as being "key" on a transect. More than one species are very often listed for each transect, thus allowing for the discrepancy between total frequencies and total transects. Thus, by referring to vegetation type summaries as supportive evidences, big sagebrush justifies being ranked the most abundant and top-volume forage producer in Unit 220 Serviceberry and mountainmahogany apparently are tossups for second ranking. The former is cited more often (62 types) but in lower total acreage (101,211 A.) than the latter (43 types - 127,067 A.). Also complicating interpretation here is the fact that mountainmahogany occurs in �- 54 - low densities in large type tracts of pinyon-juniper, and both species frequently are listed together in type designations. Suffice to say that having three high-value shrubs abound on the winter range has to be a key factor in the long standing success of the associated deer herd. There are three additional shrubs that further enhance Unit 22 deer winter forage. Based on type acreages in approximate order, fourth ranked bitterbrush in 10 types totalling 27,682 acres is most common west of Piceance Creek, but occurs sporadically in fair abundance elsewhere. Douglas rabbitbrush is fifth ranked from presence in 20 types of 24,526 acres. It actually could be more abundant than bitterbrush, since it is distributed everywhere, frequently below abundances that warrant giving it type species designations (e. g. sagebrush types). Perhaps a solid sixth in browse abundance is. oakbrush (20 types, - 23,044 A.). It is found almost exclusively east of Piceance Creek at higher elevations. Abundance of oakbrush can be discounted on the basis of volume-availability because crowns frequently are out-of-reach and stands are impenetrably dense. Except by selectively eradicating pinyon-juniper to promote browse, altering vegetative composition to benefit deer, is, in reality, subject to problems. Care should be exercised that more undesirable compositions do not result through well-meaning action. There are some indications that nearly pure stands of sagebrush and rabbitbrush occur under severe disturbance, for example. Density.--As shown in Table 5, densities of browse tend to be deficient overall. Additional key area average densities are given in Table 7; they indicate that the two easternmost high elevation key winter range areas of Segar Mountain and Thirteenmile have the greatest browse densities. Also, it can be noted that oakbrush is involved in the upper values of density ranges for those same key areas. Big sagebrush types provide upper values of density ranges for the other two key areas east of Piceance Creek, namely Rattlesnake and Greasewood. Table 7. Browse densities Game Unit 22, 1965-67. Key Area by key area, 309 browse range condition No. Trans. Densities Average Rattlesnake 32 13.8 Greasewood 32 15 6 56 22 3 Thirteenmile 0 0 Segar Mountain 54 Hammond-Barcus 60 12.0 Barcus-Ryan 55 6.5 Ryan-Story 20 7.4 22.2 as Percent transects, Crown Cover Range 2 - 27 (9-PJ) (4-Artr) 4 - 43 (9·-PJ) (4-Artr) 6 - 55 (9-PJ) . (5-Quga) 6 - 47. (9-PJ) (5-SYM-QUE) 2 - 39 (5-AME) (9-PJ) o - 19 (9-PJ) (9-PJ) 1 - 16 (9-PJ) - (4-Artr) �- 55 Lowest browse densities are consistently associated with pinyon-juniper vegetation on all seven key areas (Table 7). See MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS section at end of report for proposed specific remedies to improve shrub cover. Vigor.--Of 309 browse range condition transects, 220 were rated low for vigor (Table 5). Observations apply to the 3-year span of 1965-67, coincidentally with deer populations at low numbers. With fewer deer, higher plant vigor might have been expected but was not immediately possible. Hedging (form) characteristics depend upon recent past use (within three years prior to observations exclusive of current growth), so form classification actually does not reflect current grazing intensity and apparently did not in this case, as well (Table 5). Besides plant hedging or form characteristics, vigor ratings also involve age criteria. An integral of age is amount of decadence. The rate that plants mask dead parts (decadence) in recovering vigor through production of new growth is variable, being dependent upon factors affecting growth and attrition (e.g. effective precipition and grazing). Moreover, as slowly as shrubs ordinarily grow, several years may be required to increase "young" components enough to effect changes in ratings. Thus, age characteristics of browse populations are usually not as quickly demonstrative of plant recovery as are form or hedging characteristics. Soil stability. --Overa 11, soil stability has a ''Medium minus" rating from about a median numerical value at 1.87 (Table 5). Like the item browse composition, this component of range condition is not easily improved upon by man. It is, however, susceptible to rapid deterioration by many means. Lowest parts of the basin lack vegetation; they are thus particularly vulnerable to forces of heavy cloudbursts which also characterize the lower zone. Conservative stocking of livestock and game must be observed if soil losses are to be minimized. BIG GAME DISTRIBUTION Pellet group counts were done in conjunction with browse range condition transect data collection and non-transected type records preparation. All groups were classified and recorded by spring-summer or fall-winter category regardless of length of time in place. That resulted in cumulative indexes of use rather than current stocking rate estimates such as are determined in annual kinds of surveys. Transect plots were mostly .Ol-acre circular. Some few transects had 100-square-ft. circular plots employed. Table 8 summarizes results of pellet group counts by key area and season of use by deer. It shows that winter range of the northeastern corner of Unit 22, as represented by Rattlesnake and Segar Mountain Key Areas, receive the heaviest use and support the greatest numbers of wintering deer. The Greasewood and Thirteenmile Key Areas follow Rattlesnake and Segar Mountain fairly close in degree of winter deer occupation. Winter use of HammondBarcus, Barcus-Ryan, and Ryan-Story Key Areas drops down to light stocking. �- 56 - It is appropriate that the greatest concentration of winter deer use falls on the Rattlesnake Key Area which also contains a substantial acreage of Game, Fish and Parks patented lands. Therefore, range improvement planning east of Piceance Creek should include Rattlesnake Key Area in top priority. Table '8. Indexes of deer stocking key area, Game Unit 22 (Piceance), Key Area Number of Transects * from pellet group count transects, 1965-67. by Mean Deer Pellet Groups/Acre Spring-Summer Fall-Winter Rattlesnake 60 7 1300 Greasewood 72 5 980 Thirteenmile 78 101 888 Segar Mountain 73 84 1022 Hammond-Barcus 72 63 740 Barcus-Ryan 84 40 675 Ryan-Story 32 365 402 * Pellet group counts made both on browse range condition transects and "nontransected" form write-ups. Does not include transect data where sheep use was evident or suspected, because of inaccuracies that would be produced by their presence. The Ryan-Story Key Area apparently receives almost as much use by deer in spring and summer as it does in fall and winter, ranking it first in springsummer use of all key areas. High year-round ranges of Thirteenmile and Segar Mountain Key Areas receive what might be considered low-moderate spring-summer occupation that very likely has little influence on browse production and health. Elk occupation of Unit 22 winter range was almost nil as shown by pellet group counts. Heaviest use was recorded on Hammond-Barcus and Segar Mountain Key Areas; fall-winter indexes there averaged less than three pellet groups per acre and on other key areas zero-plus. Impact of present elk populations thus has to be comparatively unimportant on habitat. MANAGEMENT RECOMMEN~TIONS Recommendations resulting from this inventory fall into either one of the broad categories of unit boundary changes or vegetation manipulation activities. The former have been discussed previously under the heading DESCRIPTION OF UNIT; �- 57 the latter are given as follows: I. Best information available leads this writer to believe that pinyon-juniper manipulation is the most efficient and economical means for increasing shrubby vegetation in Unit 22. In fact, some chaining has already been done near lower Yellow Creek to improve that area. Thus, it is recommended that chaining, cabling, and/or dozing be continued but under general restrictions described in following paragraphs. First, concurring with information presented by Minnich (1969:35-36), it is suggested that continuous chained areas not be too large. Blocks or areas of undisturbed woodland should be interspersed with chained areas in order that any continuous chaining does not exceed one-quarter mile in width. Secondly, more reliable and quicker improvement in browse cover is obtainable if pinyon-juniper is treated where residual browse exists. Understory shrub cover percentages vary considerably, thus making each pinyon-juniper type subject to individual evaluation. However, there is enough P-J containing lower (five to 10 percent) amounts of browse in desirable composition and on suitable terrain to furnish almost unlimited acreage for rehabilitation on Unit 22 winter range. 2. Where sagebrush forms characteristically rank growth in bottomland stands, it is recommended that type changes be effected by chaining, plowing, or pipe harrowing and reseeding. Mixtures of adapted perennial grasses and legumes should be broadcast before (or between) treatment(s) in efforts to minimize opportunities for cheatgrass brome to take over the sites. Where other cover is too distant, sparse, or absent for effective protection, treatment should be done in blocks with treated blocks alternating with untreated areas. Since standards are not available on optimum sizes and spacings of treated vs. untreated areas, use of good judgment by local administrators is the best advice that presently can be given. 3. There are mature oakbrush stands in the extreme northeast corner of Unit 22 that could be improved for forage production. Early spring dozing of the tall, out-of-reach plants is suggested to open the stands and stimulate sprouting. Browse range condition transect records and the 2-inch scale vegetation type map can be consulted to assist with initial planning activities. It might be rather superfluous to add that, whatever range improvement projects are devised, careful and detailed plans should be made prior to implementation. �- 58 - REFERENCES CITED Anderson, A. E., W. A. Snyder, and G. W. Brown. 1965. Stomach content analyses related to condition in mule deer, Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. 29(2):352-366. Beetle, A. A. 1960. A study of sagebrush$ The Section Tridentatae Artemisia. Univ. Wyoming Agr. Exp. Stag Bull. 368. 83 pp. Carhart, A. H. 1941. food requirements (processed). of Deer-elk survey, Colorado, Vol. 5., Part I Deer in Colorado. Colo. Game and Fish Comm. 28 pp. 1943. The Piceance-White River deer herd. Supp1. Rep., Colo. Game and Fish Comm. 20 pp. Colorado State Planning Division. 1961. of the State of Colorado. 916 pp. Colorado Deer-elk survey, (processed). 1959-61, Yearbook Denney, R. N. 1962. Browse transect analysis and application, pp. 5196. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 101 pp. (processed). Hill, R. R. 1956. Forage, food habits, and range management of mule deer, pp. 393-414. In W. p. Taylor (ed.). The deer of North America. The Stackpole Co., Harrisburg, and the Wildlife Mgmt. Inst., Washington, D. C. 668 pp. Jacobsen, R. 1969. Intensive inventory and analysis, C1 WBA-T1 Yellow Creek for mule deer (Odocoi1eus hemionus). BLM Craig Dist. Off., July. 25 pp. (processed). Minnich, D. W. 1969. Vegetative response and pattern of deer use following chaining of pinon and juniper forest. J. Range Mgmt. Abstracts of Papers, 22nd Ann. Mt. Amer. Soc. Range Mgmt. 59 pp. Oosting, H. J. 1956. The study of plant communities. 2nd ed. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco and London. 440 pp. Smith, A. D. 1959. Adequacy wintering of mule deer. Smith, J. G. 1952. 16(2):148-155. of some important browse species in overJ. Range Mgmt. 12(1):8-13. Food habits of mule deer in Utah. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1966. Water and related land resources, White River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserve Board and D.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. November. December. 92 pp. (Loose leaf). Yeager, L. E. 1960. Factors affecting the quality and management of big game winter range in Colorado. Colo. Game and Fish Dept., Current Rep. No. 30. January. 29 pp. (processed). March, 1970 Fort Collins �July, - 59 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT S ta te of ...::c:,;:O:,;:L::,.::O:;,.RA::;:;::D:..::O:...------ Project No. W-lOl-R-12 Work Plan No. Game Range Investigations Job No. 4 1970 la Job Title __~I~n~v~e~n~t~o~r~y~o~f~R~a~n~g~e~M~a~n~i~p~u~l~a~t~i~o~n~P~r~o~J~·e~c~t~s~i~n~C~o~l~o~r Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld 31, 1970 ABSTRACT An inventory was made of all range type-conversion projects completed during 1966 through 1969, in Colorado on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs. Acreages treated were: Forest Service29,283 acres, Bureau of Land Management - 74,517 acres, Bureau of Indian Affairs - 28, 287 acres, Total - 132,087 acres. Of this total acreage treated 70,547 acres were seeded. This report contains analyses of range manipulation project inventory data by kind of treatment within individual National Forests, B.L.M. Districts, Indian Reservations, and Game, Fish and Parks Regions. Data are included on kinds of equipment and chemicals used for treating rangelands, plant species used for reseeding, and environmental characteristics of areas where range type-conversions have been located. Data on livestock and wildlife use prior to treatment are also presented. ��- 61 - INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION Roland PROJECTS IN COLORADO C. Kufe1d Po So OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes the location, extent, environmental conditions, land use practices, type of treatment and effects of treatment on the range, livestock, and wildlife, for all completed range manipulation projects in Colorado that are located within the ranges of deer, elk and sage grouse, and develop a processing system for information which describes proposed range manipulation projects. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To inventory range type conversion during 1966, 1967, 1968 and 1969. 2. To compile, 3. To develop a processing and filing system for information posed range type-conversion projects in Colorado. codify, process, projects and analyze in Colorado inventory completed data. about pro- METHODS AND MATERIALS An inventory of all range type-conversion projects completed through 1965, in Colorado, on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs has been completed, and the results reported by Kufeld (1968). This report concerns type-conversion projects completed between January 1, 1966, and December 31, 1969. The tables contained herein are designed in the same manner as those in the 1968 report, so a reader, if he so desires, can easily combine the data. These table formats will also be used in future reports. Two data collection methods were used. Most of the data were collected by contacting offices of the U.So Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs, and recording pertinent range type-conversion project information from records on file in those offices. Office contact inventory procedures have been described by Kufe1d (1968). Some of the data were provided by Regional Game, Fish and Parks Division biologists using procedures outlined in "A System for Inventory, Evaluation and Exchange of Information on Range Type Conversion Projects" (Kufe1d, 1968). Inventory data were transferred from original data sheets to Mark Page Reader Forms, and then to I.BoMo cards. Data were analyzed by the Colorado State University Computer Center. Unfortunately, records pertaining to individual range type-conversion projects were sometimes sketchy, and for some projects it was not possible to obtain all of the inventory data needed to complete the inventory form (Fig. 1). This report summarizes �- 62 - all of the inventory data available, and it must be pOinted out that differences which occur in acreage grand totals among several tables contained in the report are due to lack of data in some categories for some individual projects. For example, the total of acres seeded by each seeding method (Table 25) is less than the total acres seeded by the three agencies (Table 4), because information on the seeding method was lacking for some individual projects. Data in Tables 1 through 23 and 31 through 36 represent all of the range type-conversion projects inventoried, because the information in the categories listed in those tables was available for all projects. Data in Tables 24 through 30 represent only a portion of the projects inventoried, because the data could not be obtained for some projects. Color coded maps showing the location and type of treatment for each type-conversion project inventoried, and xerox copies of each inventory form were made and sent to the Game, Fish and Parks Regional Manager in whose region the projects were located. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Location and Extent of Completed Range Type-Conversion Projects Acreages treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Indian Affairs, and on all of the lands of these three agencies combined are shown by vegetative type and kind of treatment in Tables 1 through 4. A total of 132,087 acres were treated of which 57 percent (74,517 acres) were treated by the Bureau of Land Management, 22 percent (29,283 acres) by the Forest Service and 21 percent (28,287 acres) has been treated on Indian Reservations Including those projects completed prior to 1966 (Kufeld, 1968), a total of 650,195 acres have been treated, of which the Bureau of Land Management completed 51 percent (333,263 acres), Forest Service 35 percent (225,777 acres), and Bureau of Indian Affairs 14 percent (91,155 acres). Fifty-three percent (70,547 acres) treated during 1966 through 1969, were seeded. o The number of acres treated per year has declined somewhat since 1965. An average of 33,022 acres were treated annually during 1966, through 1969, compared with 55,340 acres treated per year from 1961 through 1965. From the mid 1930's through 1965, most range type-conversion efforts were directed toward sagebrush control. Pinyon-juniper control ranked second in importance from 1956 through 1965. Between 1961 and 1965, inclusive, 47 percent (131,755 acres) of the acreage treated was to control sagebrush, and 35 percent (97,681 acres) was for control of pinyon and juniper. During the 1966 through 1969 period, however, 50 percent (66,484 acres) of the acreage treated was to control pinyon and juniper, and 43 percent (56,214 acres) was to control sagebrush. Most of the increased pinyon-juniper control during 1966 through 1969, was attributed to an extensive pinyon-juniper control program on the Ute Mountain Indian Reservation (Table 17). Sagebrush control still received primary emphasis on Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management lands (Tables 1 and 2). �- 63 - Acreages treated by vegetative type and kind of treatment are shown for individual National Forests, Bureau of Land Management Districts and Indian Reservations in Tables 5 through 17. Total acreages treated by these agencies are compared directly in Table 18, and the information is shown by location within Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks Regions in Tables 19 through 21. The Uncompahgre National Forest ranked first among the National Forests in the number of acres treated during 1966 through 1969. They treated 8,517 acres. The Gunnison was second with 8,233 acres, and the White River third with 5,326 acres. Among the Bureau of Land Management Districts the Montrose District was first with 28,676 acres, Craig second with 22,134 acres, and Grand Junction third with 19,969. No range type-conversion work was done during 1966 through 1969, on the Arapahoe, Pike, Roosevelt and San Isabel National Forests, or the Glenwood Springs B.L.M. District. During the 1966 through 1969 period the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations treated 5,301 and 22,986 acres respectively. During 1966 through 1969, 65 percent (85,612 acres) of the total acres treated were located in the Southwest Game, Fish and Parks Region, 35 percent (45,839 acres) were in the Northwest Region, and less than 1 percent (636 acres) was in the Southeast Region. No type-conversions were done in the Northeast Region. Range Type-Conversion Treatmel'lts,sEqllipment, Chemical Herbicides and Plant Species Used for Reseeding The various kinds of treatments such as spraying, chaining, plowing, etc. have been listed in Table 4. Most of the sagebrush control during 1966 through 1969, (47,338 acres or 84 percent) was done by spraying. Six percent (3,525 acres) was done by chaining, 6 percent (3,503 acres) by plowing, and 3 percent (1,728 acres) involved the use of a brush cutter. In the pinyon-juniper type 91 percent (60,684 acres) of the control work done during 1966 through 1969, was by chaining. Seven percent (4,600 acres) of the pinyon-juniper area treated was burned (Table 4), however, this involved burning pinyon-juniper slash that had been previously chained rather than burning standing vegetation. Ninety-nine percent of the spraying in Colorado during 1966 through has been done aerially, and has involved the use of 2,4-D herbicide 22). 1969, (Table Acreages treated by anchor chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing are shown in Table 23. More than 99 percent (64,349 acres) of this work involved the use of an anchor chain. Less than one percent involved bulldozing only, and there were no cabling or railing projects during the 1966 through 1969, period. �- 64 - Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) continues to be the most important grass species used for reseeding. It was used on 84 percent (58,304 acres) of the total acres seeded (Table 24). Other important grasses were intermediate wheatgrass (Agropyron intermedium) used on 45 percent (31,865 acres) of the seeded acres, Russian wi1drye (E1ymus junceus) (42 percent or 29,866 acres), smooth brome (Bromus inermis), (41 percent or 28,787 acres), and other wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.)(36 percent or 25,632 acres). Two forb species were used for reseeding. Sweet Ciover (Me1itotus sp.) was seeded on 20 percent (13,872 acres) of the seeded acres, and alfalfa was used to reseed 15 percent or 10,640 acres. No alfalfa had been used to reseed Federally administered range lands in Colorado prior to 1966 (Kufe1d, 1968). A substantial increase has occurred in the number of acres seeded with browse species. Prior to 1966, browse species were seeded on only three percent of the total seeded area (Kufe1d, 1968). During the 1966 through 1969, period, however, 20 percent (13,865 acres) of the total seeded area was seeded with fourwing saltbush (Atrip1ex canescens); bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), was used on 15 percent (10,866 acres); and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) was used on 6 percent (4,574 acres). C1iffrose (Cowania mexicana), was used for the first time in Colorado and was seeded on 990 acres. Plants were seeded in various combinations of species so numerous that it is impractical to list all of the combinations. Seeding methods varied depending on the vegetative type and kind of seed. Comparatively little seeding was done in the sagebrush type, however, the two primary methods of seeding in the sagebrush type were drilling and aerial broadcasting (Table 25). In the pinyon-juniper type aerial broadcasting was used almost exclusively for seeding grasses and forbs. Browse seed was usually applied with a browse seeder or seed dribbler, even on projects where browse seeding was accompanied by aerial broadcasting of grasses and forbs. Most reseeding (88.5 percent) acre (Table 26). was done at a rate of 5 to 10 pounds per Environmental Characteristics of Areas Where Range Type-Conversions Have Been Located Pre-treatment plant densities on sagebrush and pinyon-juniper projects for which plant density data were available are shown in Table 27. Pre-treatment densities on sagebrush control areas ranged as high as 80 percent, although most of the work was done where densities were less than 40 percent. All of the pinyon-juniper control work during 1966 through 1969, was done in areas where plant density was under 40 percent. Shrub composition before treatment, on projects where composition data were available, ranged from 21 to 70 percent on sagebrush control areas and 51 to 80 percent on pinyon-juniper control areas (Table 28). �- 65 During the 1966 through 1969 period, range conditions for livestock prior to treatment (for those projects where pre-treatment livestock range condition data were available) on sagebrush and pinyon-juniper areas was most commonly considered "fair to good" or "goodlt, and none was considered "poor". This is in contrast to those projects completed before 1966, (Kufeld, 1968) when most sagebrush and pinyon-juniper control areas were felt to be in "poor" condition for livestock prior to treatment (Table 29). Data on condition of these ranges for wildlife were not available. Erosion slightlt 30). condition before treatment to "moderate" on sagebrush most commonly ranged from "none or and pinyon-juniper control areas (Table Pre-Treatment Livestock and Wildlife Use on Range Type-Conversion Project Areas Ninety-eight p~rcent (129,986 acres) of the total acreage of range treated in Colorado by the three agencies during 1966 through 1969, was located within grazing allotments. Eighty-nine percent (115,661 acres) was grazed by cattle and horses, and 11 percent (14,325 acres) was used by sheep and goats (Table 31). Ninety-six percent (126,738 acres) of the acreage treated during 1966 through 1969, was within the range of mule deer. Most of the treated deer range (111,119 acres or 88 percent) was used by deer during the fall-winterspring period or on a yearlong basis. The remaining 12 percent (15,619 acres) was summer range (Table 32). Twenty-nine percent (37,003 acres of the treated deer range was considered heavily used by deer before treatment (Table 33)0 A total of 35,287 acres of elk range were treated during 1966 through 1969. Seventy-nine percent (27,881 acres) was used by elk during the fall-winterspring period or on a yearlong basis, and the remaining 21 percent (7,406 acres) was summer range (Table 34). Only 2 percent (761 acres) of the treated elk range was considered heavily used before treatment (Table 35). A total of 29,178 acres of sage grouse range were treated of which 62 percent (17,192 acres) was heavily used sage grouse range (Table 36)0 Prior to 1966, most of the range type-conversions were designed primarily to benefit livestock. Modification of range vegetation to suit the specific needs of livestock sometimes has an adverse effect on species of wildlife whose requirements are different from those of livestock. During the 1966 through 1969, period, however, there has been a substantial increase on some National Forests and Bureau of Land Management Districts in efforts to improve the range for wildlife as well as livestock. This is particularly evident among type-conversion projects completed by the Montrose Bureau of Land Management District where serious consideration has been given to maintaining or improving wildlife habitat on all of the 1966 through 1969, projects that were located in important wildlife areas. Their sagebrush spray projects were designed to spray in 200 yard strips'with 100 yard leave strips, and no spraying was done within 200 yards of streams or ponds. Their pinyonjuniper chainings were designed to leave strips or patches of standing pinyon and juniper of at least 100 yards in width at 1/5 to 1/4 mile intervals, �- 66 - and along canyon rimso Chained areas were reseeded with browse as well as grass specieso Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks has participated financially toward improving wildlife habitat on many of the Montrose BLM type-conversion projects, as well as projects on other BLM Districts and National Forests in Colorado. Financial participation by the Division was usually in the form of contributing browse seedo Closer interagency coordination in planning range-type conversion projects has been a significant factor during the 1966 through 1969, period in maintaining and improving wildlife habitat in relation to range typeconversion worko Proposed range type-conversions are reviewed and discussed by land management agency and Game, Fish and Parks Division personnel before the projects are implemented. Projects which might have a detrimental effect on wildlife are usually modified or deleted. LITERATURE Harrington, H. D. 1954. Denver. 666 po Manual CITED of the plants of Coloradoo Sage Books, Kufeld, Roland C. 1968 Inventory of range manipulation projects in Coloradoo Coloo Divo Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W-lOl-RlO, WP4, Jla, Quarto Repo July, Part 1, po 1-121. 0 Weintraub, Frances C. 1953 Grasses introduced into the United States. U.S. Dept. of Agri., Agri. Handbook No. 58. 0 Prepared by f(do.4! C / %~P-UY/ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �- 67 - Table 1. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, in Colorado on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Grassland Spray 2 846 0 Meadow Spray 1 240 0 Spray 2 355 0 Sagebrush Spray 39 19,940 455 Rabbitbrush Spray 3 860 0 Browse Spray Chain 2 1 467 300 0 300 Subtotal 3 767 300 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 6 5,975 5,975 Annual Weeds Spray 1 300 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 57 29,283 6,730 Perennial Forbs �- 68 - Table 2. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, in Colorado on lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Grassland Seed only Plow 2 1 129 600 129 600 Subtotal 3 729 729 Seed only Plow Spray Chain Brush Cutter 1 7 18 3 3 120 2,802 27,398 3,525 1,728 120 2,802 0 1,730 0 Subtotal 32 35,573 4,652 Rabbitbrush Seed only 1 373 373 Pinyon-Juniper Seed only Chain 1 31 1,200 31,723 1,200 23,657 Subtotal 32 32,923 24,857 Seed only Plow 5 1 2,137 1,275 2,137 1,275 Subtotal 6 3,412 3,412 Sagebrush Desert Shrub Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Abandoned Lands Seed Only 2 592 592 Accidental Burn Seed only 2 915 915 GRAND TOTAL 78 74,517 35,530 All Veg. Types �- 69 - Table 3. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, in Colorado on lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Pinyon-Juniper All Veg. Types No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Plow 1 701 701 Chain Burn 1 1 22,986 4,600 22,986 4,600 Subtotal 2 27,586 27,586 GRAND TOTAL 3 28,287 28,287 �- 70 - Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, in Colorado on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Grassland Seed only Plow Spray 2 1 2 129 600 846 129 600 0 Subtotal 5 1,575 729 Spray 1 240 0 Spray 2 355 0 Seed only Plow Spray Chain Brush Cutter 1 8 57 3 3 120 3,503 47,338 3,525 1,728 120 3,503 455 1,730 0 Subtotal 72 56,214 5,808 Seed only Spray 1 3 373 860 373 0 Subtotal 4 1,233 373 Spray Chain 2 1 467 300 0 300 Subtotal 3 767 300 Seed only Chain Burn 1 38 1 1,200 60,684 4,600 1,200 52,618 4,600 Subtotal 40 66,484 58,418 Seed only Plow 5 1 2,137 1,275 2,137 1,275 Subtotal 6 3,412 3,412 Annual Weeds Spray 1 300 0 Abandoned Lands Seed only 2 592 592 Accidental Burn Seed only 2 915 915 GRAND TOTAL 138 132,087 70,547 Meadow Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper Desert Shrub Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment --- All Veg. Types �- 71 - Table 5. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the Grand Mesa National Forest. Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Perennial Forbs Spray 2 355 0 Sagebrush Spray 1 1,450 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 3 1,805 0 Vegetative Type Table 6. Acreages of range land treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, in Colorado on the Gunnison National Forest. Vegetative Type lUnd of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Spray 13 8,233 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 13 8,233 0 Table 7. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969 inclusive on the Rio Grande National Forest. Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Meadow Spray 1 240 0 Rabbitbrush Spray 3 860 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 4 1,100 0 Vegetative Type �- 72 - Table 8. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the Routt National Forest. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Spray 4 1,590 0 Browse Spray 1 67 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 5 1,657 0 Table 9. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the San Juan National Forest. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grassland Spray 2 846 0 Browse Chain 1 300 300 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 1 1,499 1,499 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 4 2,645 1,799 Table 10. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the Uncompahgre National Forest. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Spray 8 3,341 455 Browse Spray 1 400 0 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 5 4,476 4,476 Annual Weeds Spray 1 300 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 15 8,517 4,931 �- 73 Table 11. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through on the White River National Forest. 1969, inclusive Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Sagebrush Spray 13 5,326 o All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 13 5,326 o Table 12. Acreages of rangeland on the Craig BLM District. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Pinyon-Juniper treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive No. of Projects Acres Treated Seed only Plow Spray 1 3 7 120 1,623 8,457 120 1,623 0 Subtotal 11 10,200 1,743 Seed only Chain 1 5 1,200 9,277 1,200 4,477 Subtotal 6 10,477 5,677 Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Abandoned Lands Seed only 2 592 592 Accidental Burn Seed only 1 865 865 GRAND TOTAL 20 22,134 8,877 A 11 Veg. Types �- 74 Table 13. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the Montrose BLM District. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grassland Seed only 1 100 100 Plow 1 600 600 Subtotal 2 700 700 Plow 4 1,179 1,179 Spray 9 16,241 0 Subtotal 13 17,420 1,179 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 11 9,281 9,281 Desert Shrub Plow 1 1,275 1,275 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 27 28,676 12,435 Sagebrush Table 14. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the Canyon City BLM District. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grassland Seed only 1 29 29 Sagebrush Spray 2 2,700 0 Rabbitbrush Seed only 1 373 373 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 3 586 586 Accidental Burn Seed only 1 50 50 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 8 3,738 1,038 �- 75 Table 15. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, incluSive, on the Grand Junction BLM District. No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Chain 3 3,525 1,730 Brush cutter 3 1,728 0 Subtotal 6 5,253 1,730 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 12 12,579 9,3l3 Desert Shrub Seed only 5 2,l37 2,l37 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 23 19,969 l3,180 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Table 16. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, incluSive, on the Southern Ute Indian Reservation. No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Plow 1 701 701 Pinyon-Juniper Burn 1 4,600 4,600 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 2 5,301 5,301 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Table 17. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969, inclusive, on the Ute Mountain Indian Reservation. No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Chain 1 22,986 22,986 GRAND TOTAL 1 22,986 22,986 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Pinyon-Juniper All Veg. Types �- 76 Table 18. Comparison of rangeland acreages treated during 1966 through 1969 on each National Forest, B.L.M. District and Indian Reservation in Colorado. Land Management Agency fI) +.J fI) (J) 1-1 0 I'<. ..-t C\I s:: 0 •.-1 +.J C\I Z fI) +.J · ;:E: •.-1 () • 1-1 o-l+.J No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Uncompahgre Gunnison White River San Juan Grand Mesa Routt Rio Grande Arapahoe Pike Roosevelt San Isabel 15 13 13 4 3 5 4 0 0 0 0 8,517 8,233 5,326 2,645 1,805 1,657 1,100 0 0 0 0 4,931 0 0 1,799 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 57 29,283 6,730 Montrose Craig Grand Junction Canyon City Glenwood Springs 27 20 23 8 0 28,676 22,134 19,969 3,738 0 12,435 8,877 13,180 1,038 Subtotal 78 74,517 35,530 Southern Ute Ute Mountain 2 1 5,301 22,986 5,301 22,986 Subtotal 3 28,287 28,287 138 132,087 70,547 0 • fI) r:Q •.-1 0 s:: 0 •.-1 S::+.J C\I C\I •.-1 :> "C 1-1 s:: (J) H fI) (J) ~ GRAND TOTAL �- 77 - Table 19. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969 in the Southwest Region of Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grassland Seed only Plow Spray 2 1 2 129 600 846 129 600 0 Subtotal 5 1,575 729 Meadow Spray 1 240 0 Sagebrush Plow Spray 5 32 1,880 30,515 1,880 455 Subtotal 37 32,395 2,335 Seed only Spray 1 3 373 860 373 0 Subtotal 4 1,233 0 Spray Chain 1 1 400 300 0 300 Subtotal 2 700 300 Chain Burn 22 1 43,294 4,600 42,297 4,600 Subtotal 23 47,894 46,897 Desert Shrub Plow 1 1,275 1,275 Annual Weeds Spray 1 300 0 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 74 85,612 51,909 Rabb itbrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper �- 78 Table 20. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969 in the Northwest Region of Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Perennial Forbs Sagebrush No. of Projects Acres Treated Spray 2 355 0 Seed only Plow Spray Chain Brush cutter 1 3 25 3 3 120 1,623 16,823 3,525 1,728 120 1,623 0 1,730 0 Subtotal 35 23,819 3,473 Browse Spray 1 67 0 Pinyon-Juniper Seed only Chain 1 13 1,200 16,804 1,200 9,735 Subtotal 14 18,004 10,935 Desert Shrub Seed only 5 2,137 2,137 Abandoned Lands Seed only 2 592 592 Accidental Burn Seed only 1 865 865 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 60 45,839 18,002 Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Table 21. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1966 through 1969 in the Southeast Region of Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Pinyon-Juniper No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Chain 3 586 586 Accidental Burn Seed only 1 50 50 All Veg. Types GRAND TOTAL 4 636 636 �- 79 Table 22. Acreages treated with aerial and ground spraying equipment and 2, 4-D, and 2, 4, 5-T chemical herbicides. Number Aerial 49,766 99 Ground 640 1 TOTAL 50,406 100 2, 4-D 49,832 99 2, 4, 5-T 489 1 Unknown 85 100 50,406 TOTAL Table 23. Acres Treated Percent Acreages treated by anchor chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. Vegetative Type Anchor Chain and Bulldozers No. of Projects Acres Kind of EguiEment Used Rail Cable and Bulldozers and Bulldozers No. of No. of Projects Acres Projects Acres Bulldoze Onl~ No. of Projects Acres Sagebrush 3 3,525 0 0 0 0 0 0 Browse 1 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pinyon-Juniper 38 60,524 0 0 0 0 1 160 TOTAL 42 64,349 0 0 0 0 1 160 �- 80 - Table 24. Plant Categories Grasses Forbs Plant species used to seed Colorado Scientific Name u Percent of Total Acres Seeded lj cristatum 58,304 83% Agropyron intermedium 31,865 45 Elymus junceus 29,866 42 Bromus inermis 28,787 41 Agropyron spp. 25,632 36 Agropyron elongatum 3,372 5 Agropyron smithii 815 <2 Agropyron sibiricum 766, <2 Agropyron inerme 701 <2 Agropyron trachycaulum 446 <2 Dactylus glomerata 300 <2 Bromus sppo 100 <2 Hilaria jamesii 67 <2 Oryzopsiis lry;men6ides 67 <2 13,872 20 10,640 15 Melitotus sppo Atriplex canescens 13,865 20 Purshia tridentata 10,866 15 4,574 6 990 2 Cercocarpus montanus Cowania mexicana l/Scientific Acres Seeded Agropyron Alfalfa Browse range lands. names were taken from Harrington (1954) and Weintraub (1953). llRepresents the percent of the total number of acres seeded in Colorado during 1966 through 1969 (70,547 acres) which has been seeded with each plant species. Only includes species used on more than 2 percent of the rangelands seeded. �Table 25. Methods used for reseeding rangelands. II Method of Seeding Ground Broadcast Acres %11 Seeded Browse Seeder or Dribbler Acres %11 Seeded Aerial Broadcast & Browse Seeder or Dribbler Acres %11 Seeded Vegetation Type Drill Acres Seeded %11 Aerial Broadcast Acres %Jj Seeded Grassland 0 0 0 0 729 100 0 0 0 0 729 Meadow 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Perennial Forbs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total Acres Seeded I Sagebrush 2,887 50 2,431 42 35 <1 455 8 0 0 5,808 Rabbitbrush 373 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 373 Browse 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 100 300 Pinyon-Juniper 0 o 42,338 76 393 <1 2,140 4 11,110 20 55,981 Desert Shrubs 1,607 47 530 16 1,275 37 0 0 0 0 3,412 Annua 1 Weeds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A bandoned Lands 592 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 592 Accidental Burn 865 95 0 0 50 5 0 0 0 0 915 TOTAL 6,324 45,299 2,447 2,595 11,410 !/Tables includes seeding information for only a portion of the seeding projects inventoried. method of seeding was not available for many seeding projects. ~/percent of total acres seeded in each vegetation type. 68,110 Infonnation on 00 to-' �- 82 - Table 26. Seed application rates used in reseeding Colorado rangelands. Rate Seeded Lbs. IAcre II Number of Acres 11 Percent of Total Acres Seeded 1-2 2,330 3.6 3-4 2,796 4.3 5-6 47,576 73.5 7-8 4,892 7.6 9-10 4,773 7.4 11-12 2,250 3.5 13-14 100 0.1 +14 0 0.0 64,717 100.0 TOTAL 11 Rate seeded is shown to the nearest pound per acre. ~I Table includes seeding rates for only a portion of the seeding projects inventoried. Information on seeding rates was not available for many seeding projects. �- 83 Table 27. Average plant densities on sagebrush and pinyon-juniper range type-conversion project areas prior to treatment. 1/ Sagebrush Percent of Total Acres Pinyon-JuniEer Percent of Acres Total Acres Percent Plant Density Acres 0-10 132 0.9 2,455 25.8 11-20 7,257 50.2 6,227 65.5 21-30 2,638 18.2 274 2.9 31-40 160 1.1 554 5.8 41-50 610 4.2 0 0.0 51-60 2,200 15.2 0 0.0 61-70 1,176 8.1 0 0.0 71-80 300 2.1 0 0.0 81-90 0 0.0 0 0.0 91-100 0 0.0 0 0.0 TOTAL 14,473 100.0 9,510 100.0 1/ Table includes plant density data for only a portion of the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper control projects inventoried. Information on plant density was not available for many sagebrush and pinyon-juniper projects. �- 84 - Table 28. Average shrub composition on sagebrush and pinyon-juniper range type-conversion project areas prior to treatment. 1/ Percent Shrub Cover Acres Sagebrush Percent of Total Acres Pinyon-JuniEer Percent of Acres Total Acres 0-10 0 0.0 0 0.0 11-20 0 0.0 0 0.0 21-30 2,390 18.1 0 0.0 31-40 4,852 36.6 0 0.0 41-50 1,456 11.0 0 0.0 51-60 3,275 24.8 828 22.1 61-70 1,250 9.5 1,427 38.0 71-80 0 0.0 1,499 39.9 81-90 0 0.0 0 0.0 91-100 0 0.0 0 0.0 TOTAL 13 ,223 100.0 3,754 100.0 1/ Table includes shrub composition data for only a portion of the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper control projects inventoried. Information on plant density was not available for many sagebrush and pinyon-juniper projects. �- 85 - Table 29. Range condition for livestock on sagebrush and pinyon-juniper range type-conversion project areas prior to treatment. 1/ Range Condition for Livestock Sagebrush Percent of Acres Total Acres Pinyon-JuniEer Percent of Total Acres Acres Sagebrush and PinyonJuniEer Combined Percent of Total Acres Acres 0.0 0 6.0 0 0.0 Good to Excellent 2,230 19.8 1,499 4.3 3,729 8.0 Good 6,922 61.4 7,000 19.9 13,922 30.0 Fair to Good 1,534 13.6 25,548 72 .6 27,082 58.3 587 5.2 1,110 3.2 1,697 3.7 Poor to Fair 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Poor 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 Very Poor to Poor 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 Very Poor 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 11,273 100.0 35,157 100.0 46,430 100.0 Excellent Fair TOTAL 0 1/ Table includes livestock range condition data for only a portion of the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper control projects inventoried. Information on livestock range condition was not available for many sagebrush and pinyon-juniper projects. �- 86 - Table 30. Erosion condition on sagebrush and pinyon-juniper range typeconversion project areas prior to treatment. 1/ Sagebrush Percent of Total Acres Pinyon-JuniEer Percent of Acres Total Acres Erosion Condition Acres None or Slight 12,447 48.0 274 0.7 None to Moderate 10,312 39.7 12,958 31.6 Moderate 1,000 3.9 26,297 64.0 Moderate to Severe 1,096 4.2 0 0.0 Severe 0 0.0 0 0.0 None to Severe 1,100 4.2 1,500 3.7 TOTAL 25,955 100.0 41,029 100.0 1/ Table includes erosion condition data for only a portion of the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper control projects inventoried. Information on erosion condition was not available for many sagebrush and pinyon-juniper projects. �- 87 - Table 31. Acreages of rangeland treated to improve conditions for four classes of livestock. Vegetative Types TYEe of Livestock Range SheeE and Goats Horses Cattle and Acres Seeded as Acres of as No. Acres Seeded Acres No. of Treated Part of Treatment Projects Projects Treated Part of Treatment Grassland 5 1,575 729 0 Meadow 1 240 0 0 Perennial Forbs 2 355 0 0 Sagebrush 65 52,416 4,773 6 3,763 1,000 Rabbitbrush 3 860 0 1 373 373 Browse 2 700 0 0 Pinyon-Juniper 32 56,666 48,600 6 7,819 7,819 Desert Shrub 4 1,907 1,907 2 1,505 1,505 Annual Weeds 1 300 0 0 Abandoned Lands 2 592 592 0 Accidental Burn 1 50 50 1 865 865 118 115,661 56,651 16 14,325 11 ,562 TOTAL �Table 320 Acres of mule deer range treated in Colorado during 1966 through 1969 by the U. S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Indian Affairs. Total Acres of Seasonal Deer Range Treated Spring Fall Spring Summer Winter Fall Summer Fall Spring Yearlong Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Winter Grassland Seed only Plow Spray 129 600 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 846 0 0 0 129 600 846 Subtotal 729 0 -0 0 0 0 846 --0 --0 1,575 Spray 0 240 0 0 0 0 240 Spray 0 0 355 0 0 0 355 0 861 0 0 0 120 3,503 44,636 3,525 1,728 Meadow Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Browse , Total Seed only Plow Spray Chain Brushcutter 0 2,642 24,482 541 0 0 0 4,,1(i)1 0 0 120 0 9,524 1,254 1,728 0 0 5,020 0 0 0 0 1,509 1,730 0 Subtotal 27,665 4,101 12,626 5,020 3,239 -861 53,512 Seed only Spray 373 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 373 860 373 860 -0 0 0 Subtotal -0 0 860 0 1,233 Spray Chain 0 300 400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67 0 467 300 Subtotal 300 400 0 0 0 67 767 0 -- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 00 00 �Table 32. Acres of mule deer range treated in Colorado during 1966 through 1969 by the U. S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Bureau of Indian Affairs (continued). Vegetative Type Pinyon-Juniper Desert Shrub Winter Total Acres of Seasonal Deer Range Treated Spring Fall. Spring Summer Winte:r Fall Summer Fall Spring Yearlong Seed only Chain Burn lt200 48,521 0 0 4,931 0 0 1,338 0 0 2,393 0 0 2,671 0 0 830 4,600 1,200 60,684 4,600 Subtotal 49,721 4,931 1,338 2,393 2,671 5,430 66,484 Seed only Plow 0 1,275 405 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,275 405 0 0 -0 405 1,275 Subtotal -0 0 0 0 0 300 0 0 0 300 452 0 140 0 0 0 592 80,515 10,077 15,619 8,259 5,9l0 6,358 126,738 Kind of Treatment Annual Weeds Spray Abandoned Lands Seed only All Vegetative Types GRAND TOTAL Total - 1,680 ex> 1.0 �Table 33. Acres of mule deer range treated in Colorado during 1966 through 1969, by the D. S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs where deer use was heavy at the time of treatment. Vegetative Type Grassland Sagebrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper Annual Weeds Kind of Treatment Acres of Heav~-Dse Seasonal Deer Range Treated Spring Fall Spring Sunnner Winter Winter Fall Summer Fall Spring Yearlong Total Seed only Plow 29 600 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 600 Subtotal 629 0 0 0 0 0 629 Plow Spray Chain 335 2,655 0 0 0 0 0 494 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,990 0 494 1,730 -0 335 3,149 1,730 Subtotal -0 0 0 1;730 5,214 -- Spray Chain 0 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67 0 67 300 Subtotal 300 0 0 0 0 67 367 Seed only Chain 1,200 22,804 0 1,841 0 0 0 2,393 0 2,255 0 0 1,200 29,293 Subtotal 24,004 1,841 0 2,393 2,255 0 30,493 0 0 300 0 0 0 300 27,923 1,841 794 2,393 3,985 67 37,003 Spray All Vegetative Types GRAND TOTAL \0 0 �Table 340 Acres of elk range treated in Colorado during 1966 through 1969, by the U. So Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs where elk use was heavy at the time of treatment. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Acres of Seasonal Elk Range Treated Spring Spring Sunnner Winter Fall Fall Summer Fall Winter Spring Yearlong Total Seed only Spray 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 846 0 0 0 0 29 846 Subtotal 29 0 0 846 --0 0 875 Meadow Spray 0 0 0 0 240 0 240 Perennial Forbs Spray 0 0 355 0 0 0 355 Grassland \0 I-' Sagebrush Browse Plow Spray 35 14,528 0 3,006 0 6,751 0 2,406 Subtotal 14,563 3,006 6,751 2,406 Spray Chain 400 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 Subtotal 700 0 -0 0 565 0 1,600 35 28,856 565 1,600 28,891 67 0 0 0 467 300 -- -- -67 0 0 -- 767 Pinyon-Juniper Chain 3,859 0 0 0 0 0 3,859 Annual Weeds Spray 0 0 300 0 0 0 300 19,151 3,006 7,406 3,252 872 1,600 35,287 All Vegetative Types GRAND TOTAL �- 92 Table 35. Acres of elk range treated in Colorado during 1966 through 1969, by the U. S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs where elk use was heavy at the time of treatment. Acres of Heav:y:Use Seasonal Elk Range Treated Spring Fall Spring Summer Winter YearWinter Fall Summer Fall Spring long Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grassland Seed only 29 0 0 0 0 0 29 Sagebrush Spray 0 0 330 0 335 0 665 Browse Spray 0 0 0 0 67 0 67 All Veg. Types TOTAL 29 ·0 330 :0 402 0 761 Total Table 36. Acres of sage grouse range treated in Colorado during 1966 through 1969, inclusive in Colorado on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Seed only Acres of Sage Grouse Range Treated AlII Heavily Used Range Range jj 120 120 Plow 2,307 1,307 Spray 26,751 16,525 Total 29,178 17,952 1/ - Acres where sage grouse use was heavy at the time of treatment. �- IMPORTANT: ':J.:J - When completing the blanks on this form foHow the instructions in the Interagency Council on Wildlife Ecology booklet entitled "A System for Inventory and Evaluation of Vegetation Modification Projects". GFP #4A COMPLETED VEGETATION MODIFICATION PROJECT Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division It PROJECT DESIGNATION Number 1. ---------------------------------- 11* 111* LAND STATUS 3. Natl. Forest 4. BLM District 5. State Agency 6. SCS Area 7. Indian Agency IV County Township Name District or Unit Name _ Allotment _ LOCATION GoFo&P. Region 9. 12. 2. 10. WoCoO" District 13. H. Game Mgmt. Unit No. -- Drainage Sections Range P.M. Dominant SITE DESCRIPTION 15. Species 14.* Vegetative Type 17. Topography 16.* Elevation 20. Soil Type _ Exposure Percent Slope 19. 18.* 21. Erosion Condition 2lA. Method Used to Determine Erosion Condition For Elk For Deer 22. Range Condition for Livestock --22A. Method Used to Determine Range Condo Livestock Deer Elk 23. Forage Production for Livestock For Deer For Elk 23A. Method Used Determ.Forage Prod.Livestock Deer Elk 24. Vegetative Cover 25. Shrubs 26. Herbs 26A. Grass 27. Litter 28. Ground 28A. Method Used to Determine Vegetative Cover & Composition 29. Agencies 30. Date Remarks --- _ ------------ -----------------_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- V CLIMATIC DATA 31. Avg. Annual Precipitation 33. Avg. Annual Temperature 33B. Avg. July Temperature 35. Avg. Snow Depth on Area VI RANGE USE (At Time of Treatment) 37.* Kind of Livestock 39. Carrying Capacity 41. Stocking Rate Fig. 1. Seasonal Distribution 32. 33A. Avg. Jan. Tempo Length Growing Season 34. 36.* Stag Reporting 38.* Season of Use 40. Grazing System Remarks Form used for recording inventory data. �_________ "TJ.-- Wildlife 44A. How Use Determined Remarks__ ~ VII Ut:C1'>VU, ~~. of Use .,.--__ 45.Agencies______________ amount; _ of Use 46.Date _ _ _ TREATMENT 47.* No. Acres Treated 48.* Purpose of _ Treatment, _ 49.* Kind of Treatment -"..,,.50. Equipment Used, _ 51.* Date Treated 52.* Equipment, Chemicals _ 53.* Seeded: Yes No 54.* How Seeded 55.* Date Seeded--5-6-.*--S-p-e-c-1-·e-s--S-e-e-d-e-d---------57.* Rate Seeded 58.* Protection Given Location from Other projects _ Remarks _ ------------------ MAP OF PROJECT LOCATION T R -- 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 ~ 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 17 16 15 14 13 18 17 16 15 14 13 19 20 21 22 23 24 19 20 21 22 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 30 29 28 27 26 25 31 32 33 34 35 36 31 32 33 34 35 36 R . T 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 17 16 15 14 13 18 17 16 15 14 13 19 20 21 22 23 24 19 20 21 22 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 30 29 28 27 26 25 31 ' 32 33 34 35 36 31 32 33 34 35 36 * Items "flagged" are or primary importance, and special effort should be made to obtain information. Form Completed by Title Agency Date, Show title and agency of all persons nar t i.c Lna t Ln o in cnmnletion of formq, _ �- 95 - July, 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-10l-R-12 Work Plan No. 4 Game Range Investigations Job No. 2 Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush Job Title __~O~n~D~e~e~r~a~n~d~E~l~k~W~i~n~t~e~r~R~a~n~g~e~s __-~B~e~a~v~e~r~~C~r~e~e~k~ Period Covered: April 1, 1968 through March 31, 1970. Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld, Ronald Lambertson, Gary Montgomery, George Bock. Mark Fra sier, ABSTRACT One hundred and fifteen circular .001 acre pellet plots, and 225 point quadrat vegetation measurement plots were established on the 135 acre Beaver Creek study area. Pre-treatment vegetation measurements were made and pellet plots cleared during August, 1968. Accumulated deer and elk pellets were counted in May, 1969. Vegetative ground cover prior to treatment was 127.66 percent. Percent composition was 43.16 shrubs, 34.36 forbs, 22.03 grasses and 0.33 lichens and moss. During the period August 19, 1968, to May 6, 1969, the area received 68 deer days and 43 elk days use per acre. On July 10, 1969, 67 acres encompassing the eastern half of the study area were sprayed with 2 pounds of 2-4-5TP and 10-1/2 gallons of water per acre applied by helicopter. The western half of the area will be used for control. _ ��- 97 - OAKBRUSH EXPERIMENTAL ll1PROVEMENT OF ON DEER AND ELK WINTER RANGES - BEAVER CREEK Roland C. Kufeld INTRODUCTION Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii) is one of the five most important deer and elk winter browse plants in Coloradoo Extensive stands of Gambel oak are found on big game winter ranges throughout the western slopeo Many of these oakbrush stands have grown beyond the reach of deer and elk, however, and provide little forage for wintering big game animalso Such overage stands need to be treated to increase their production of available big game winter forageo This study is designed to determine if oakbrush productivity and the amount of deer and elk use can be increased on overage oakbrush ranges by spraying with 2-4-5TP to induce sproutingo It is a cooperative project between Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks and the U.So Forest Service, Routt National Forest. The 135 acre study area is located on the Routt National Forest approximately 28 miles southwest of Hayden, Colorado (T3N, R89W, S 9, 10, 15, 16; 6th PoMo)o Dominant plant species on the area are Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii), snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), and chokecherry (Prunus virginiana). Two small aspen pockets (Populus tremuloides) also occur on the area. Elevation ranges from 8,000 to 8,500 feet. Slopes are predominantly southwest facing and are relatively steep; from 30 to 90 percent. The area is used by elk during the fall, winter and spring, and yearlong by deer. Most deer use, however, occurs during the spring, summer and fall. The area has been set aside for wildlife by the U.S. Forest Service and is closed to livestock grazing. Po So OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk carrying capacity can be increased on oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2-4-5TP to induce sprouting. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES This study has been underway for two years, however, this is the first annual job completion report written concerning the studyo A report was not prepared for the first year because that year's activities were charged to FW-19-C-28 (See Amendment number 1, December 19, 1968). Although this is the second year of the study it is the first segment of W-lOl-R, WP 4, J2. Therefore, this report will include progress made during the first two years of the study. Objectives for the first two years are as follows: �- 98 - 1. To establish permanent point quadrat vegetative measurement plots, and measure percentage composition and cover of all plant species on the study area prior to treatment. 20 To establish permanent pellet group plots, and measure and elk use on the study area prior to treatment. 3. To establish permanent treatment photos. 4. To spray one half of the 135 acre study area with 2-4-5TP after all pre-treatment measurements have been madeo METHODS Point Quadrat photo point stations deer and take pre- AND MATERIALS and Pellet Group Plot Establishment One hundred and fifteen .001 acre circular pellet plots, and 225 pOint quadrat plots were established in the study area during the summer of 1968. Plots were located at 100 ft. intervals along parallel lines, which stretch the entire width of the study area. Separate lines were used for pellet and point quadrat plots. A baseline was established along one side of the study area, and the first plot on each line was located on the baseline. A detailed map of the study area was made which shows the location of each plot. The center of each pellet group plot was marked with a 3/8" round steel stake. Each point quadrat plot was marked with two angle iron stakes placed 67 inches apart over which the point quadrat frame can be erected. Both stakes were located on the line. Plot stakes were marked with numbered metal tags bearing the letters "pp" if it was a pellet plot or "PQ" if it was a pOint quadrat plot, the line letter (there are 12 point quadrat lines, A through L, and 6 pellet group plot lines, A through F), and plot number along the line. Strips of plastic surveyor's flagging were tied to each stake and to an overhanging tree branch near the stake. Blue flagging was used for pellet plots, and red for point quadrat plots. Plot locations were laid out with a K & E compass set to allow for 14 degrees east declination, and a steel tapeo When measuring distances no allowance was made for slope. The tape was always pulled tight (Figo 1). Photo Point Establishment Sixty-seven photo points were established and pre-treatment photos were taken between August 30, and September 2, 1968 Certain pOint quadrat and pellet group plots were selected for photo pOint stations. An llx16 inch blackboard with the plot number written in chalk was suspended from a nearby branch. This became the photo center and focusing point. The compass bearing and distance from the plot stake (the easternmost stake 0 �- 99 - was always used in the case of pOint quadrat plots) to the center of the blackboard, and the date and time of day the photo was taken were recorded. The camera was held directly over the stake at from waist to chest level Two photos were taken at each station. A black and white photo was taken with a Ciroflex camera using 120 plus X film, and a 35 rom color slide was made with a Praktica camera using Kodachrome II film. A sample photo point picture is shown in Fig. 20 o Pre-treatment Vegetation Measurements The vertical point quadrat method, originated by Levy and Madden (1933), and further described by Medin (1965), utilizing both crown and basal contacts was used to describe the vegetation during August, 1968. The equipment consisted of a tubular 7/8" aluminum conduit horizontal frame mounted on 5/8" steel rod uprights Thumb screws on the horizontal frame allowed adjustment to a height of 505 feet above the ground surface. Two small 3-inch line levels, facing at right angles, were attached to the frame for leveling the equipment in both the vertical and horizontal planes. Two sleeves with thumbscrew adjustments were welded to the bottom of the vertical uprights. The frame was positioned for reading by driving one 18" X 3/4" angle-iron stake into the ground, placing one sleeve on this stake and orientating the frame on the west side and at a right angle to the transect line of travelo The westerly stake was then driven into the ground through the sleeve and the frame leveled with thumbscrews. After the data for a plot had been recorded the thumbscrews were loosened and the entire frame removed leaving the stakes in permanent positiono o Ten guide holes 6 inches apart were drilled through the conduit frame for quadrat pin projection. Pins were made of 3/16" carbon-tested drill rod in 6-foot lengths and sharpened to a needle point with a bevel approximately 1 inch long.. Clothes pins were used as a brake to hold the quadrat pins at any desired height. Point contacts were recorded in two ways. All hits from a height of 5.5 feet to ground surface were "crown" contacts and recorded by I-foot height intervals. The same plant or different ones may have been hit once or more than once. After crown contacts were recorded the pin was lowered until it struck a plant base, litter, rock, erosion pavement, or bare soil; this was called a "basal" contact. Definitions of the various categories of contacts are as follows: Ground cover.--The proportion of the ground surface occupied by vertical projection of live plant parts, both basal and aerial, plus that occupied by nonliving matter such as litter, rock, and dead plant parts. Crown cover.--The proportion of the ground surface occupied by vertical projection of live aerial plant parts, plus that occupied by nonliving matter such as litter, rock, and dead plant parts o Basal cover.--The proportion parts at the ground surface, of the area occupied by live plant or the area defined by the live root �- 100 - crown, plus that occupied by nonliving matter such as litter, rock, and dead plant partso The basal area of plants with basal rosettes was understood to be the area defined by the live root crown only; the rest of the live parts were considered crown covero Littero--Dead organic material either lying on or projecting above the soil surfaceo All dead plant parts, with the exception of woody plants which were recorded by species, were considered as litter. Bare soil.--All exposed mineral soil and rock particles up to 1/8inch diameter, and well-dispersed rock particles up to 3/4-inch diameter which do not provide a continuous covero Rock.--Stones sur f'ace , larger than 3/4-inch diameter appearing at the soil Erosion pavemento--Partic1es of rock from 1/8 to 3/4-inch diameter forming a continuous cover on the soil surface. Individual rock particles 1/8 to 3/4-inch diameter that do not form a continuous cover were classified as bare soi1 9 The pOint quadrat technique is illustrated in Figo 3, and the form used to record pOint quadrat data is shown in Figo 40 Two specimens of each species of plant encountered on point quadrat plots were collected, mounted and identifiedo Facilities of the Colorado State University Herbarium were used in making plant identifications, and identifications were checked and annotated by CoS.U. Botany Department personnel. One set of specimens was contributed to the CeSoU. Herbarium, and one set was deposited in the Herbarium at the Game Research Center. Pre-treatment Deer and Elk Use Measurements Pellet groups were cleared from pellet plots on August 19, 1968, and accumulated deer and elk pellet groups counted on May 6, 1969 A pellet deposit was considered a "group" if it contained more than five pellets and was distinct from other groups in or near the p1oto A group was counted if more than half of it fell inside the plot. 0 The .001 acre circular plot boundary was delineated by stretching a 31 8•.3/4" card from a jacob staff placed in the ground adjacent to the center stake. Treatment A few days prior to treatment the spray area, which encompassed the eastern one-half of the study area or a tota 1 of 67 acres, was flagged with fluorescent orange plastic sheeting and surveyor1s flagging. This area was sprayed with 2 pounds of 2-4-5TP and 10-1/2 gallons of water per acre applied by helicopter on July 10, 1969, (Figo 5). Spraying was done by Skychoppers, Inc. of Durango, Co1oradoo �- 101 - Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Surveying plot locations. A sample photo point picture prior to treatment. �- 102 - Fig. 3. Measuring vegetation with the pOint quadrat. �- 103 POINT QUADRAT VEGETATIVE FORM Area Line & Plot No. Date --------------------------- Vegetative Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ----------------------------------------------------------- ----------- p.~n No. Species Observers Comments H e~g . ht 0 f Sspec i.es C ontac t Ground Surface Under l' I' -2' 2' -3' 3'-4' 4'-5' 5'-5.5' Tota 1 Hits Dead Browse Rock Litter BareGrd TOTALS Line & Plot No. ----------------- Vegetative Type ---------- p.~n N o. Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Comments _ H·h e~gl t 0f Sspec i.es C ontact Ground Surface Under i: I' -2' 2' -3' 3'-4' 4'-5' 5'-5.5' Dead Browse Rock Litter BareGrd TOTALS Note: Plot frame oriented East-West. Pin #1 always westernmost. Fig. 4~ Form used for recording point quadrat data. Use dot tally. Tota 1 Hits �- 104 - Figure 5 - Half of the area was sprayed by helicopter on July 10, 1969, with 2 pounds of 2-4-5TP and 10-1/2 gallons of water per acre. �- 105 - Weather was generally excellent during the application. The sky was clear, temperature was in the 70's, and wind velocity was less than 5 miles per hour, except for a short period when gusts of 7 to 8 miles per hour occurred. Spraying was stopped at that point and resumed 2 hours later after wind velocity dropped to about 2 miles per hour. Wind direction was from the west. Oil sensitive cards were placed in selected point quadrat plots the day prior to spraying, and retrieved the day following in order to measure the spray coverage, and to determine the amount of drift onto the 68 acre control area, which lies west of and adjacent to the sprayed area. Almost no drift was recorded on the control area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-treatment Vegetation Measurements The pre-treatment vegetation description discussed here is for the entire study area. Separate vegetation descriptions for the spray and control areas will be made in a future report. First, however, it will be necessary to classify pOint quadrat plots along the boundary between the two areas according to whether they are sprayed or unsprayed. This will be done during the next segment. Vegetative cover on the study area prior to treatment was relatively heavy. The layers of live crown vegetation up to a level of 5.5 feet covered the ground 127.66 percent. The addition of dead browse, litter and rock resulted in a total ground cover from crown level material of 221.56 percent (Table 1). Had the shrub and tree crown vegetation above 5.5 feet been measured the ground cover percentage would have been much higher. It was not measured, however, because it was above the reach of game animals, and could not be measured with the point quadrat technique. The ground was covered with a heavy layer of litter. Litter made up 71.11 percent of the cover at ground surface level, and 84.83 percent of the ground cover above ground surface. Shrubs (woody and semi-woody vegetation) were the most abundant species comprising 43.16 percent of the total vegetation (Table 2). Forbs made up 34.36 percent, grasses 22.03 percent and lichen and moss 0.33 percent. Snowberry was the most abundant shrub measured, and it comprised 23.13 percent of the vegetation on the study area below 5.5 feet. Although Gambel oak is the dominant plant species on the area it comprised only 8.12 percent of the total vegetation measured below 5.5 feet. Most of the oak was too tall to be measured, as was most of the other major species, serviceberry and chokecherry, which respectively made up 3.72 and 6.12 percent of the total vegetation below 5.5 feet. Pre-treatment Deer and Elk Use Measurements Deer and elk use on the study area during the fall,winter and spring of 1968 and 1969, was relatively heavy. During the period August 19, 1968 to �- 106 - May 6, 1969, inclusive, pellet group counts indicated that the study area received 68 deer days and 43 elk days use per acreo Separate pre-treatment game use estimates for the spray and control areas will be made in a future report after pe11~t group plots along the spray-control area boundary have been classified according to whether they are sprayed or unsprayedo . LITERATURE CITED Harrington, H. D. 1954 Denver 666 p. 0 Manual of the plants of Colorado. Sage Books, 0 Levy, E. B., and E. A. Madden. 1933 The pOint method of pasture analysis. New Zealand Jour. Agr. 46:267-279. 0 Medin, D•.E. 1965. Vegetative analysis.. Colo. Depto Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W-l05-R-5, WP3, J3, Quarto Repo January, Part 3, po 345-398. Prepared by~CI~f4 Roland C. Kufe1d Wildlife Researcher �Table I. Pre-treatment ground cover percentages of combined Beaver Creek spray and control areas. % Crown Cover Plant Species 11 Ground Surface Under l' 1'-2' 2'-3' 3'-4' 4'-5' 1.47 .18 .04 .93 4.36 .13 .62 10.00 1.78 .22 .89 .40 .27 2.00 1.42 .04 1.02 .98 .13 .27 -- .71 .09 -- 21.24 9.33 4.57 1.02 .18 .09 .13 .04 .18 .09 5'-5.5' Total Crown Cover % Woody and Semi-Woody Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia tridentata Populus tremuloides Prunus virginiana Quercus gambellii Ribes sp. Rosa sp , Symphoricarpos sp. .04 .13 Subtotal .17 17.73 Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Aster sp. Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Chenopodium berlandieri Circium canescens Crepis runcinata Descurainia tichatdsonii Collomia linearis Erigeron spp. Eriogonum umbellatum Fra garia ova lis Ga lium borea Le Geranium richardsonii Heracleum lanatum .09 7.56 2.49 .84 .04 .04 .13 1.33 .13 .13 .67 2.67 .44 .22 3082 .53 .13 2.09 2.22 .13 .84 13.96 .04 1.69 1.11 .44 5.16 2.36 .40 4.81 .40 .08 7.86 10.36 .30 1.90 29.92 55.63 Forbs .04 .04 ,04 .22 .09 .04 .04 .44 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t-' 0 -....J 7.56 3.64 1.06 .13 .04 ,13 1.60 .13 ,13 .71 2.89 053 022 3.86 .57 .57 �Table 1. Pre-treatment ground cover percentages of combined Beaver Creek spray and control areas (continued). % Crown Cover Plant Species 11 Forbs (continued) Helenium hoopesii Lactuca pulchella Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sPa Linaria vulgaris Linum Lewf.s Lf Mertensia franciscana Osmorhiza occidentalis Pedicularis grayi Pteridium aguilinum Senecio serra Solidago canadensis Swertia radiata Taraxicum sp , Thalictrum fendleri Tragopogon pratensis Viguiera multiflora Urtica gracilenta Lupinus argenteus Unknown Forb Ground Surface .04 .04 .04 -Subtotal Grass and Grasslikes Bromus anomalus Carex SPa Elymus cinereus Elymus glaucus Ph1eum pratense Poa spp. Sti£!!.. lettermani -- ---'-..~--,.....-.•--- .. - - -- ----- - ------ - .29 .04 Under l' 027 .53 3.16 .62 .27 .04 2.00 .53 .09 .04 .04 .27 1.02 .04 1.87 .18 1.24 .09 33.47 1'-2' 1.33 2'-3' .27 3'-4' 4' -5' 5'-5.5' .27 053 4.80 .62 .71 .04 4.40 062 .09 .32 .04 .04 004 .27 2.22 .04 2.14 .27 2.79 .13 .04 .44 2.18 .09 .22 .27 .04 .04 .01 1.16 .04 .27 .09 .93 .04 .58 .04 -- -1.38 -- 9.22 .08 Total Crown Cover % -0.00 0.00 44.15 2.22 .18 .04 2.44 1.06 1.02 .04 .09 .04 .44 .53 2.71 .80 .09 3.60 .13 .09 .22 16.67 .31 .67 17.34 .09 .09 -- - -- -- -- - - - -- - --- -- - -- - --- -- - - - - -- - - -- - -- - -- - -- - - -- -- - - -- - - -- --- --- - - -- - - -- -- -- - -- -- to-' 0 co �Table I. Pre-treatment ground cover percentages of combined Beaver Creek spray and control areas (continued). % Crown Cover Plant Species Ground Surface 1/ Grass and Grass1ikes Agropyron spp. Unknown Grass Subtotal Lichen and Moss Lichen Moss Subtotal Under i ' 1'-2' 2.31 .22 .27 .39 25.81 2.14 .04 .36 004 3'-4' 4' -5' 5'-5.5' Total Crown Cover % (continued) 004 .40 0.00 018 2013 71.ll 25.69 4.44 018 83042 Subtotal ss.ri TOTALS 100.00 Other Dead Browse Rock Litter Bare Ground 2 '-3' .13 -- 0.00 0.00 0..00 2004 013 1.24 .75 053 .13 004 88.04 3.41 .88 165.45 36.01 1l.72 1/ Scientific names are from Harrington (1954). -- 0.00 -- 2.58 .22 0.00 .36 .04 t-' 0 \0 0.00 0000 .40 .36 .04 8.16 .31 84.83 0.00 -- -- .36 .04 5.22 2.72 .44 .57 28.08 -- 93.30 221.56 �Table 2. Pre-treatment composition of vegetative cover on combined Beaver Creek spray and control areas. Level of Vegstation Plant Species 11 Ground Surface Under l' 1 t -2' 2'-3' 3'-4' 4'-5' 1.13 014 .03 072 3037 .10 .48 7.73 1.37 .17 .70 .31 .21 1062 1072 .10 .65 10079 1.55 1010 .03 .79 .76 .34 3099 0 55 .07 16.42 7.23 3054 1.83 .79 .14 .07 .10 003 5'-5.5' Tota 1. , Cover % Woody and Semi-Woody Ame1anchier a1nifolia Artemisia tridentata Populus tremu10ides Prunus virginiana Quercus gambe11ii Ribes sPa Rosa SPa SymRhoricarpos spo .03 .10 Subtotal .13 l3.70 Achillea 1anulosa Agastache urticifo1ia Aster spo Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia 1udoviciana Chenopodium ber1andieri Circium canescens Crepis runcinata Descurainia richardsonii Co11omia 1inearis Erigeron spp. Eriogonum umbe11atum Fragaria ova lis Ga lium borea le Geranium richardsonii Herac1eum 1anatum .07 5.84 1092 .65 .CI03 .03 .10 1.03 .10 .10 .52 2.06 .34 .17 2.96 .41 .10 .03 1.31 .86 .10 021 .31 3.72 .31 .06 6.12 8.12 .23 1.47 23.l3 43.16 Forbs .03 .03 .14 003 .17 .07 .03 .03 .34 5.91 2.81 .82 .1(1)' 007 .03 .10 1.24 .10 .10 .55 2.26 .41 .17 2.99 .44 .47 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ •..... •..... 0 �Table 2. Pre-treatment composition of vegetative cover on combined Beaver Creek spray and control areas (continued). Level of Vegetation Plant Species 1/ Forbs (continued) Helenium hoopesii Lactuca pulche11a Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linaria vulgaris Linum lewisii Mertensia franciscana Osmorhiza occidenta1is Pedicularis ~ Pteridium aqui1inum Senecio serra -Solidago canadensis Swertia radiata Taraxic:um sp , Tha1ictrum fend1eri Tragopogon pratensis Viguiera multiflora Urtica graci1enta Lupinus argenteus Unknown Forb Subtotal Grass and Grasslikes Bromus anoma 1us Carex sp , E1ymus cinereus Elymus glaucus Phleum pratense Poa spp. Stipa 1ettermani Ground Surface .03 Under l' .21 .41 2.44 .48 .21 .03 1.55 .41 .07 .03 1'-2' 1.03 1.68 .07 .17 .21 .03 .03 .03 .89 .03 .21 .07 .72 .03 .22 25.87 7.12 003 1072 .79 .34 2.10 .10 12.89 .07 .14 .03 .07 .62 .07 .52 003 -- .03 .24 .21 3'-4' 4'-5' 5'-5.5' .03 .34 .03 .21 .79 .03 1.44 .14 .96 .07 .03 2'-3' .45 -- 1.09 .03 .06 .03 .07 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Total Cover % .21 .41 3.71 .48 .55 .03 3.40 .51 .07 .27 ,03 ,03 .03 .24 1.71 .03 1065 .21 2.19 .10 34.36 1.92 .82 .44 2.79 .17 13.65 .07 ""'" ""'" ""'" �Table 20 Pre-treatment composition of vegetative cover on combined Beaver Creek spray and control areas (continued). Level of Vegetation Plant Species 11 Ground Surface Under l' 1'-2' 1079 017 021 2'-3' 3'-4' 4'-5' 5'-505' Total Cover % Grass and Grasslikes (continued) Agropyron sppo Unknown Grass Subtotal -.10 030 19.97 .03 .27 .03 .30 .03 Subtotal .03 .30 .33 TOTALS .68 59.84 Lichen and Moss Lichen Moss 11 2.00 .17 Scientific names are from Harrington (1954). 1.66 25.20 8.42 22.03 3.60 1.83 031 99.88 ~ ~ I'.) �July, 1970 - 113 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT Sta te of .::.C.::.OL=OR.(\=D~O::._._ _ Project No. W-10l-R-12 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Game Range Investigations Job No. 3 Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer, Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970. Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld, Richard Fentzlaff, Fred Brooke. ABSTRACT A study area was selected at the northeastern end of the Grand Mesa National Forest near Hightower Ranger Station (T9S, R92W, S17, 19, 20, 21, 28, 29, 30). Eight 60 acre habitat improvement units were established. A thirty acre unit was laid out in the center of 6 of the 60 acre units. The inside 30 acre portions will be treated and the outside 30 acres will be left for wildlife cover. No 30 acre areas were established in the 2 control units. All boundaries were marked with orange steel fence posts. Sixty .002 acre circular pellet plots were established in each of the 8 habitat improvement units. These were located using a modified system of multiple random starts. Plots were marked with orange 3/8" steel stakes 24" long. A vegetative measurement method was tested and selected for use during the course of the study. The technique involves clipping and weighing green weights of forbs and grasses by species, and estimating green weights of individual browse species. The sampling unit is a meter square plot. Eighty preliminary meter square plot samples were taken on which to base sample size estimates. Herbage samples of various browse, grass and forb species were collected periodically during the summer of 1969, and percentage moisture content determined. A method was devised for converting green weights of all plant species on the area to air dry weights. Specimens of each species of plant found on the study area were collected, mounted and identified. A review of literature was begun. ��- 115 - EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld INTRODUCTION Game and land managers have recognized the need for increasing the supply of big game animals to meet the constantly rising demand for big game hunting. The primary factor which limits the size of big game populations in Colorado is availability and condition of winter game range. The amount of available winter range is shrinking every year due to construction of dams and reservoirs, highways, urban, industrial and agricultural developments, and oil, gas and mineral exploration. Still another factor is the practice of converting brushlands to grasslands primarily to improve the range for livestock grazing. Due to the declining availability of winter range, efforts to increase big game populations must be concentrated on protection and proper management of existing winter ranges, and on improvement of wildlife habitat wherever possible on these ranges to achieve greater productivity. The oakbrush vegetative type is one of the most important types of winter deer and elk range in Colorado. As oakbrush becomes older, however, it grows beyond the reach of deer and elk and loses its value as a game forage species. Since cattle grazing is also an important use of oakbrush ranges in Colorado, this study will be designed to determine how overage Gambel oak winter game ranges can be improved to increase deer and elk use and production of forage for deer, elk and cattle on the same range. This report describes activities during the first year of the study. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be increased and maintained through implementation of practical deer and elk habitat improvement measures on overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT 1. To establish eight, 2. To install permanent OBJECTIVES 60 acre habitat pellet improvement group plots units. in habitat improvement units. �- 116 - 3. To test selected vegetative measurement 4. To collect and identify specimens vicinity of the study area. 5. To make a literature techniques. of each plant species found in the review. METIlODS AND MATERIALS Study Area Selection The study area is located at the northeastern end of the Grand Mesa National Forest near Hightower Ranger Station (T9S~ R92W, S17, 19~ 20, 21, 28, 29, 30) 6th P. M. Dominant plant species are Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii), snowberry (Symphoriocarpos), serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), and chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and big sagebrush (Artem~sia tridentata). Elevation ranges from 8,000 to 8,500 feet. A number of potential study areas all located on U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Lands were considered when selecting a location for this study. The Hightower Mountain location was selected because: (1) the area is representative of most of the oakbrush ranges in Colorado, and findings derived there should be applicable in other areas of the state; (2) the oakbrush type there is large enough to permit establishment of 8, 60 acre habitat improvement units in which to test vegetation modification methods; (3) slopes are not so steep as to preclude testing of one or more vegetation modification methods, slope varies from 0 to 30 percent; (4) the area recieves relatively heavy use by deer and elk. Deer use the area primarily in spring, summer and fall, but some winter deer use occurs during less severe winters. Elk use the area on a yearlong basis, but most elk use occurs during the fall-winterspring period; and (5) the area is grazed by cattle during the summer, and the stocking rate is about average for most of the oakbrush ranges in the state. This will be a cooperative project between Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks and the U. S. Forest Service, Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest. Habitat Improvement Unit Establishment Locations for habitat improvement units were tentatively selected through the use of aerial photos and ground reconnaissance. A joint field inspection of the tentative locations was made by members of the U. S. Forest Service and Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division on June 11, 1969. During the inspection, approval was given by the Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest Supervisor to establish habitat improvement units on these locations with the stipulation that Unit Number 3, which is located adjacent to Buzzard Campground, not be treated by burning for aesthetic reasons. �- 117 A randomized block design was used for assigning treatments habitat improvement unitso Treatments will be as follows: to specific Randomized Block Number Habitat Improvement Unit Number Treatment 1 1 Burn 2 Spray 3 Chain 4 Control 5 Spray 6 Control 7 Burn 8 Chain 2 Habitat improvement units were spaced as far apart as possible minimize the effects that post treatment increases in deer and suIting from animal preference to a particular unit would have units. The maximum spacing distance between units was limited of the continuous oak type in the vicinity of the study area. terval is 1/8 mile between units. in order to elk use reon adjacent by the extent The spacing in- Each habitat improvement unit encompasses approximately 60 acres. A 30 acre unit was established in the center of each of the units that are slated for treatment. It is this 30 acre center portion of each unit that will be treatedo The outside 30 acres will be left for wildlife covero No 30 acre units were established in the centers of the 2 control unit~. The shape of habitat improvement units is irregular and not uniform due to the necessity of following the edges of the oak type when laying out unit boundarieso Interior and exterior boundaries of habitat improvement units were laid out with a K & E compass set to allow for 14 degrees east declination, Fig. 1., and steel tape. Orange steel fence posts were placed at each boundary turning point, and at �- 118 - intervals of 200 to 400 feet between turning points. Boundary posts were marked with numbered metal tags. Each tag bears the number of the habitat improvement unit, and "A" if it is an outside boundary post~ or a "B" if it is an inside boundary post, and the post number. Both the outside and inside boundary posts are numbered consecutively counterclockwise around the boundary (Fig. 2). Strips of fluorescent orange plastic surveyor's flagging were tied to tree branches Jat.. approximately 50 foot intervals between boundary posts. When measuring distances no allowance was made for slope. The tape was always pulled tight. Pellet Plot Establishment Eighty temporary .001 acre circular pellet plots were sampled in order to obtain a preliminary sample upon which to base sample size estimates. Relative pellet sampling precision with various numbers of plots per habitat improvement unit was computed, and considered. along with manpower requirements in determining the number of pellet plots to establish per unit. Sixty .002 acre circular pellet plots were subsequently established in each of the 8 habitat improvement units. Plots were located using the same surveying techniques described in the previous section on habitat improvement unit establishment. Pellet plots were established along randomly located lines which stretch the entire width of the 60 acre unit. Plot lines were laid out parallel to each other. One side of the 60 acre unit was used as a base line, and the starting point of each pellet plot line was established along the base line and marked with a pellet plot stake. The distance between the starting point stake and the first pellet plot on the line was selected at random and varies from 0 to 100 feet. The distance between each pellet plot on a line is 100 feet. Detailed maps were made of each habitat improvement unit showing the exact location of each pellet plot. Pellet plots were marked with orange steel stakes labeled with numbered metal tags. Each tag bears the designation lip" indicating it is a pellet plot, the line number, and the plot number. Strips of blue plastic surveyor's flagging were tied to the stake and to an overhanging tree branch near the stake (Fig. 3). Vegetation Measurement Methods Three vegetation measurement methods were considered study. These were the weight estimate, point quadrat methods. for use during and dry weight the rank The vegetation measurement technique selected involves the use of a meter square sampling unit in which green weights of all grasses and forbs rooted inside the plot, and of portions of all browse species which occur or protrude into the plot up to a height of five feet above ground level will be recorded. Each forb and grass species will be clipped and weighed by species to the nearest gram. The green weights of browse species will be �- 119 - estimated using a variation Shoop and McIlvain (1963). of the weight estimate technique described by Green weights of all plant species encountered on meter square vegetative measurement plots will be converted to air dry weights for two reasons: (1) a great deal of variation in moisture content exists among species, (2) moisture contents of individual species change drastically during the summer as plants dry out and mature. Herbage samples of various browse, grass and forb species were collected periodically during the summer of 1969, and percentage moisture content determined. A method was devised for converting green weights of all plant species on the area to air dry weights. Samples of certain plant species will be collected at 10 day intervals throughout each vegetative measurement period, and percentage moisture contents will be determined. These data will be used to convert green weights of plants encountered on meter square plots to air dry weights. The vegetation measurement method calls for a ten day pre-measurement orientation period in order to train field personnel in the use of the method, and to permit them to become proficient in estimating browse weights. Since several observers will be required to complete vegetation measurements a mathematical procedure was devised for adjusting weight estimate data to correct for observer error. A detailed field manual describing the technique and mathematical procedures for correcting for observer weight estimating error, and for converting green weights to air dry weights was prepared and will be distributed to field personnel who will assist in the study. Eighty temporary meter square vegetation measurement plots were sampled in order to obtain a preliminary sample upon which to base sample size estimates. Plant Collection and Identification Three specimens of each species of plant found on the study area were collected, mounted and identified. Facilities of the Colorado State University Herbarium were used in making plant identifications, and identifications were checked and annotated by C.S.U. Botany Department personnel. One set of specimens was contributed to the C.S.U. Herbarium, one set deposited in the Herbarium at the Game Research Center, and one set used for field reference. Color photographs were taken of each species when collected, and these will also be used for field reference. Literature Review A review of literature to assemble information on treatment methods and effects of treatment on the range, wildlife and livestock, optimum treatment dates, seeding methods and rates, and the most desirable species for seeding was initiated, and will be continued during the next project segment. �- 120 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Since this was the first segment of this study all of the work was directed toward establishing habitat improvement unit boundaries, prellininary sampling to determine the number of study plots needed for statistical reliablity, establishment of sampling plots, plant collection, and literature review. This has been described under the "Methods and Materials" section. Thus, the study has not yet reached the stage where findings are being made or results obtained. The only results discussed here are those related to preliminary sampling for sample size determination, and plant identification. Pellet Plot Establishment Game use on the study area during the winter of 1969 was estimated at 23 deer days and 25 elk days use per acre on the basis of projections from preliminary pellet plots used for sample size determination. These use figures are believed to be substantially below average for the area, because snowfall in the area was exceptionally heavy that winter, and most of the deer and elk moved to lower elevations. Sixty circular pellet plots were subsequently established in each habitat improvement unit, and plot size was increased from .001 to .002 acres in order to increase the amount of area covered without substantially increasing the cost of measuring plots. With 60 .002 acre plots, deer and elk use increases to 33 deer days and 36 elk days use per acre resulting from treatment can be detected as significant at the 95 percent confidence level. Vegetation Measurement Plots Seventy five vegetation measurement plots will be established in each habitat improvement unit during the summer of 1970. Sample size computations based on 80 preliminary meter square plots read during 1969 indicate 75 plots will permit detection of changes resulting from treatment of 10 percent in all vegetation, 15 percent in browse, 25 percent in forbs and 25 percent in grasses, as significant at the 95 percent confidence level. Plant Collection A list of plant species collected 1969 is shown in Table I. and Identification on the study area during the summer of �- 121 - LITERATURE CITED Harrington, H. D. 1954. Denver. 666pp. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Sage Books, Kelsey, H. P., and W. A. Dayton. 1942. Standardized plant names. McFarland Co., Harrisburg, Pa. 675pp. J. Horace Shoop, M. C., and E. H. McIlvain. 1963. The micro.-unit forage i.nventory method. J. Range Mgmt. 16(4):172-179. Prepared by ~{h~ C. J.&fdd Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �- 122 - Table 1. Plants collected on the Hightower during the summer of 1969. Scientific Name 11 Mountain oak control Common Name study area l:..1 FORBS Achillea lanulosa Nutt. *Agastache urticifolia Kuntz Allium acuminatum Hook. Aguilegia coerulea James Ara~is drummondi Gray Artemisia biennis Willd. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. Aster adscendens Lindi. Aster rubrotinctus Blake Astragalus haydenianus A. Gray Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt. Berberis repens Lindl. Calochortus gunnisonii Watson Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) medic. Castilleja linariaefolia Benth. Chenopodium berlandieri Moq. *Cirsium canescens (Nutt.) Delphinium nelsoni Greene Delphinium occidentale (Wats.) Wats. *Descurainia richardsonii (Sweet) O.E.Schultz Disporum trachycarpum (S. Wats.) Benth.&Hook Erigeron flagellaris A. Gray Erigeron formosissirnum Greene Erigeron speciosus (Lindl.) DC Eriogonum umbellatum Torr. Epilobium paniculatum Nutt. Fragaria americana (Porter) Britt. Galium boreale L. Gentiana heterosepala Engelm. *Geranium parryi (Engelmo) Heller Gilia aggregata (Pursh) Spreng. Grindelia aphanactis Rydb. Hackelia .leptophylla (Rydb.) Johnston Helenium hoopesii A. Gray Hydrophyllum fendleri (Gray) Heller Iris missouriensis Nutt. Lactuca scariola L. Lappula redowskii (Hornemo) Greene Lathyrus leucanthus (Rydbo) Western Yarrow Nettleleaf Giant Hyssop Tapertip Onion Colorado Columbine Drummond Rockcress Biennial Wormwood Tarragon Louisiana Sagebrush Common Aster Aster Hayden Poisonvetch Arrowleaf Balsamroot Creeping Mahonia Gunnison Mariposa Shepherds Purse Wyoming Paintedcup Pit seed Goosefoot Thistle Minzies Larkspur Duncecap Larkspur Richardson Tanseymustard Wartberry Fairybells Trailing Fleabane Fleabane Oregon Fleabane Sulfur Eriogonum Autumn Willowweed American Strawberry Northern Bedstraw Annual Gentian Parry Geranium Skyrocket Gilia Gumweed Stickseed Orange Sneezeweed Fendler Waterleaf Rocky Mountain Iris Prickly Lettuce Stickseed Aspen Peavine �- 123 - Table 1. Plants collected on the Hightower during the summer of 1969, continued. Scientific Name 1/ FORBS, Mountain oak control study area Common Name ?J continued Lepidium densiflorum Schrad. Ligusticum filicinum S. Wats. Ligusticum porteri Coult. & Rose Linum lewisii Pursh Lupinus argentues Pursh Mertensia franciscana Heller Moldavica parviflora (Nutt.) Britt. *Musineon divaricatum (Pursh) Nutt. Oenothera caespitosa Nutt. "cOrthocarpus luteus Nutt. Osmorhiza chilensis Hook. & Arn. Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr. Pachistima myrsinites (Pursh) Raf. Pedicularis grayi A. Nels. Penstemon crandallii A. Nels. Penstemon strictus Benth. Phacelia heterophylla Pursh Phlox longifolia Nutt. Polemonium foliosissimum A. Gray Potentilla pulcherrima Lehm. Rudbeckia montana Gray Senecio ambrosioides Rydb. Senecio integerrimus Nutt. Senecio serra Hook. Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. Solidago sparsiflora A. Gray Stellaria jamesiana Torr. ",Stellaria longifolia Muhl. Swertia radiata (Kellogg) Kuntze Taraxacum officinale Wiggars "cThalictrum fendleri Engelm. Tragopogon dubium Scop. Urtica dioica L. var. procera (Muhl.) Wedd. Valeriana occidentalis Heller Veronica americana (Schwein.) Viguiera multiflora (Nutt.) Blake Viola rugulosa Greene Wyethia amplexicaulis (Nutt.) Nutt. Prairie Pepperwood Privet Porter Ligusticum Lewis Flax Silvery Lupine Franciscan Bluebells Dragonhead Musineon Tufted Eveningprimrose Yellow Owlclover Sweetroot Sweetanise Myrtle Pachistima Grays Pedicularis Crandall Penstemon Rocky Mountain Penstemon Varileaf Phacelia Longleaf Phlox LeafyPolemonium Beauty Cinquefoil Coneflower Ragweed Groundsel Lambstongue Groundsel Butterweed Groundsel Starry Solomonplume Threenerve Goldenrod Chickweed Chickweed Showy Frasera Common Dandelion Fendler Meadowrue Salsify Big Sting Nettle Western Valerian American Speedwell Showy Goldeneye Cheyenne Violet Mulesears Wyethia ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 124 - Table 1. Plants collected on the Hightower Mountain oak control study area during the summer of 1969, continued. Scientific Name !I Connnon Name ?:...I GRASSES Agropyron Smithi Rydb. Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Malte. Bromus anomalus Rupro Bromus inermis Leyss. Dactylus glomerata L. Elymus glaucus Buckl. Festuca thurberi Vasey Hordeum brachyantherum Nevski Juncus balticus Willd. Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers. Orzyopsis hymenoides (R. & S.) Ricker Phleum pratense L. Poa ampla Merr. Poa canbyi (Scribn.) Piper Poa pratensis L. Sitanion hystrix (Nutt.) J. G. Smith Stipa columbiana Macoun. Stipa lettermani Vasey Bluestem Wheatgrass Slender Wheatgrass Nodding Brome Smooth Brome Orchardgrass Blue Wildrye Thurber Fescue Meadow Barley Baltic Rush Prairie Junegrass Indian Ricegrass Timothy Big Bluegrass Canby Bluegrass Kentucky Bluegrass Bottlebrush Squirreltail Subalpine Needlegrass Letterman Needegrass BROWSE Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. *Artemisia cana Pursh Artemisia tridentata Nutt. Ceanothus fendleri Gray Cercocarpus montanus Raf. *Chrysothamnus depressus Nutt. *Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallas) Britt *Crataegus erythropoda Ashe Lonicera involucrata (Rich.) Banks ~'(Populustremuloides Mich. Potentilla fruiticosa L. Prunus virginiana L. Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC. Quercus gambellii Nutt. Rhamnus smithi Greene Ribes cere~un Dougl. *Rosa nutkana Presl. Symphoricarpos sp. Saskatoon Serviceberry Silver Sagebrush Big Sagebrush Fendler Ceanothus True Mountain Mahogany Dwarf Rabbitbrush Rubber Rabbitbrush Cerro I-lawthorn Bearberry Honeysuckle Aspen Bush Cinquefoil Connnon Chokecherry Antelope Bitterbrush Gambel Oak Smith Buckthorn Wax Gooseberry Nootka Rose Snowberry 1/ Scientific names are from Harrington (1954). II Common names are from Kelsey and Dayton (1942). * Specimens of all plants except those prefixed by * have been annotated by Dr. H. D. Harrington, Colorado State University Herbarium. �- 125 - Fig. 1. Surveying unit boundaries and plot locations. Fig. 2. Orange steel fence posts were placed at each boundary point and at 200 to 400 foot intervals between turning points. turning �- 126 - Fig. 3. numbered Pellet plots were marked with orange steel stakes to which metal tags and strips of blue surveyor's flagging were attached. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/372c9bfa3ba28f5b88c8ab2578d6ff0d.pdf 52053aee3557702c35dc19014305878c PDF Text Text July, 1970 - 127 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Experimental Trapping Period Covered: None Personnel: Raymond J. Boyd Investigations and Marking 5 Techniques ABSTRACT A final report was submitted on this job in the July, 1969 (Part One) Game Research Report. It should not have been included in the W-38-R-24 Project Segment job descriptions. ��July, 1970 - 129 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~ _ Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 2 Job No. Investigations 7A Job Title White River Elk Study - Publication ·of Results Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: Raymond J. Boyd ABSTRACT A "final" draft of the manuscript was completed and bids were obtained for printing as a Division Technical Bulletin. The rpinting contract had not been awarded at the time this report was prepared. ��- 131 - WHITE RIVER ELK STUDY - PUBLICATION OF RESULTS Raymond J. Boyd P. S. OBJECTIVE Formulate a management plan for the elk and their habitat SeGMENT 1. Publish all the research study. 1. Publish as a Colorado OBJECTIVE findings METHODS on the White River. resulting from the White River elk AND MATERIALS Game, Fish and Parks Division Technical Bulletin. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A final draft of the manuscript, complete with figures, photographs and tables was completed and edited. This manuscript was taken to several printing firms and bids secured for printing. At the time this report was prepared, no contract for printing had been let. It is anticipated that the printing will be completed by August 15, 1970, at which time distribution of the publication can begin. ��July, 1970 - 133 - JOB FINAL REPORT S ta te of _~,.;.-_.::..CO.::..L:::.O.:.:RA=:.:D~O::..-._ Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 2 Job No. 8 Job Title Hunter Harvest Surveys Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March Personnel: Raymond J. Boyd, Velma Merkle, Velma Fredrickson, Mary Lu Selch, Pat Ruqua, Sara Johnson, Robert Tully, Howard Funk and Jack Grieb. 31, 1970 ABSTRACT Six different categories of 1969 elk license holders (either sex, specified, antlerless, archery, regular bull and Sportsman's) were randomly surveyed in order to determine various harvest information. A total of 22,790 questionnaires were sent out to a portion of the estimated 78,202 persons who purchased an elk license in 1969 (59,683 resident and 18,519 nonresidents). The return from the sample totaled 17,091 for an overall return of 74.99 percent. An estimated harvest of 17,581 elk (11,204 bulls, 5,370 cows and 1,007 calves) was determined for the 1969 elk season. This harvest was accomplished by an estimated 66,791 hunters (49,308 residents and 17,483 nonresidents). Data collected from Sportsman's License holders also indicated that out of an estimated 15,691 purchasers (11,422 residents and 4,269 nonresidents), 7,979 hunted one or more species of small game and 11,533 fished. As a result of this random survey, a manual was prepared showing sample sizes required, methods of drawing the sample, recorrnnended questionnaires and informational letters to be sent out and suggested IBM punch-card layouts for computer analysis of the questionnaire data. �- 134 - RECO'MMENDATIONS 1. Since hunter report card returns are getting smaller each year, there is reason to suspect that harvest and pressure information generated by these cards is in error. Therefore it is recommended that all future big game harvest data be determined by random surveys of all big game license.holders. From aptoperly designed sample, far better quality information can be obtained. 2. Complete instructions,sample sizes, calculations, IBM card lay~ outs and projection methods are detailed in the manual prepared as part of this job. This manual should be followed in all future random surveys of big game license holders. �- 135 - HUNTER HARVEST SURVEYS Ra ymond J. Boyd The purpose of this investigation is to develop a reliable post-season mail survey, suited to our facilities, for estimating the 1969 elk harvest, hunter success and other related information needed by game managers. Results of this study will serve as background for random surveys of other game species hunted in Colorado. Po So OBJECTIVE To estimate the annual State harvest of all big game species, sex, age, game management unit, county, hunter residence and type of license, season, period of season and to obtain information on man-days of recreation involved. METHODS AND MATERIALS Since the final result of this investigation will be a procedure manual for conducting a random survey of all elk license holders, no details of the methods used will be presented in this report. The reader is referred to the procedure manual for details on methods used in this survey. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The procedure manual developed by this job will be used as a guide by the Division in all future random surveys for big game harvest statistics. The Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks has, within its big game license framework, six different kinds of elk licenses available to the hunting public. These six licenses are further broken down into two additional categories as there is a different license for residents and nonresidents. In effect, then, 12 license types were sampled in this survey. Table 1 indicates the license types surveyed, the number of questionnaires sent, number of questionnaires returned before and after a follow-up letter and the percent return on each type of questionnaire. �- l36 - Table 1. Numbers of questionnaires sent, returned and percent return, Number of Questionnaires Sent Out Number Returned Before Fo11owup Letter Number Returned After Followup Letter Percent Return Type of Survey 19690 Either-sex License 147 104 10 77 .6 Specified License 2,816 2,030 217 7908 Antlerless License 6,254 4,815 448 8402 Archery Elk License 1,102 692 93 7102 Regular Bull License 6,223 3,352 589 6303 Big Game 3,090 2,131 170 74.5 Small Game 3,158 2,118 322 77.3 Total 22,790 15,242 1,849 74.9 Sportsman's License: Certain basic data had to be developed for each license category before the total elk harvest and other related management information could be developed. For each of the six license types it was necessary to determine: sent out. 1. Number of questionnaires 20 Number of usable cards returned 3. Number of reported 4. Number of each license type sold to residents 5. Number of elk kills reported and percent return. no hunts by residents and nonresidentso by residents and nonresidents. and nonresidents. From the above information, hunter success, total number of participating hunters and total harvest could be calculated. This information is shown for each of the six license types as follows: Regular Bull License sent out = 6,2230 I. Questionnaires 2. Usable cards returned 3. Reported no hunts = 3,940 (63 3% return). 0 = 287 (270 residents, 17 nonresidents). �- 137 4. Licenses sold 5. Kills reported = 45,867 (34,750 residents, 11,117 nonresidents). = 727 (474 resident kills, 253 nonresident kills). Success Nonresident Resident 253 = nonresident kill 1,016 = nonresident hunters 253 + 1,016 = .24901% success 474 = resident kill 2,712 =res ident hunters 474 + 2,712 = .17477% success Number of Participating Hunters Nonresident Resident 2,712 2,982 x 1,016 1,033 34,750 x = 31,604 resident hunters Total participating regular bull elk hunters x 11,117 x = 10,934 nonresidents = 42,538 Total Harvest Resident Nonresident 31,604 X .17477 = 5,523 bulls Antlerless 10,934 X .24901 = 2,723 bulls Elk License In 1969, there were 53 areas in the State set up with limited numbers of antlerless elk licenses. The antlerless elk harvest, hunter success and number of participating hunters was determined for each area. Rather than show calculations of this information for each area, one example was chosen as representative of all antlerless areas. Area Q (Game Management Units 77 and 78; see map in procedure 1. QUestionnaires 2. Usable cards returned 3. Reported 4. Licenses 5. sent out no hunts manual) 400. = 341 (85.2% return). = 15 (13 residents, 2 nonresidents). = 1,599 (1,078 residents, 521 nonresidents). Kills reported = 244 (reSidents - 116 cows and 24 calves; nonresidents sold 85 cows and 19 calves). Success Resident 140 resident kill 200 = resident hunters 140 + 200 = .70000% success Nonresident 104 = nonresident kill 126 = nonresident hunters 104 + 126 = .82539% success - �- 138 - Number of Participating Hunters Resident Nonresident 200 = X 213 1,078 126 X 128 - 521 X = 1,012 resident hunters X = 513 nonresident hunters Total participating ant1er1ess elk hunters in Area Q = 1,525 0 Tota 1 Harvest Nonresident Resident 1,012 X .70000 = 708 elk (587 cows and 121 calves) 513 X .82539 = 423 elk (346 cows and 77 calves) Either-sex Elk License There was only one area in the State in 1969 that was set up as an eithersex elk hunt area. 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 0 Questionnaires sent out = 148. Usable cards returned = 114 (77.0% return). Reported no hunts = 7 (6 residents and 1 nonresident). Licenses sold = 148 (106 residents and 42 nonresidents). Kills reported = 12 (residents - 4 bulls, 4 cows, no calves; nonresidents - 3 bulls, 1 cow, no calves). Success Resident 8 = resident kill 82 = resident hunters 8 + 82 = .09757% success Number of Participating Hunters Resident 82 = ..1L 88 106 X = 99 resident hunters Nonresident 4 = nonresident kill 25 = nonresident hunters 4 + 25 = .16000% success Nonresident 25 = L 26 42 X = 40 nonresident hunters Total participating either-sex elk hunters = 139 Total Harvest Resident 99 X .09756 = 10 elk (5 bulls, 5 cows, no calves) Nonresident 40 X .16000 = 6 elk (4 bulls, 2 co;s, no calves) �- 139 - Specified Elk License There were 10 areas in the State in 1969 that were set up under the specified elk license regulation. Area E, on the White River, harvest data is shown below as an example of harvest calculations for this type of license. Questionnaires 2. Usable cards returned 3. Reported 4. = 3,109 (2,417 residents and 692 nonresidents). Kills reported = 444 (residents - 136 bulls, 141 cows and 30 calves; Licenses 5. sent out = 1,517. 1. = 1,190 (78.4% return). no hunts = 161 (142 residents and 19 nonresidents). sold nonresidents - 86 bulls, 48 cows and 3 calves). Success Resident Nonresident 307 = resident kill 759 = resident hunters 307 + 759 = .40447% success Number of Participating Resident 137 = nonresident kill 270 = nonresident hunters 137 + 270 = .50740% success Hunters Nonresident 759 = ----"X~ 901 2,417 270 289 2,036 resident hunters Total participating hunters X = X 692 X = 646 nonresident hunters = 2,682 Tota 1 Harvest Resident Nonresident 2,036 X .40447 = 824 elk (366 bulls, 378 cows, 80 calves) 646 X .50740 = 328 elk (206 bulls, 115 cows, 7 calves) Archery Elk License sent out = 1,102. I. Questionnaires 2. Usable cards returned 3. Reported no hunts 4. Licens~s sold = 1,254 (873 residents 5. Kills reported = 793 (71.9% return). = 43 (34 residents = 37 (26 residents and 9 nonresidents). and 381 nonresidents). and 11 nonresidents). Success Resident 26 resident kill 523 resident hunters 26 + 523 = .04971% success Nonresident 11 = nonresident kill 227 = nonresident hunters 11 + 227 = .04845% success �- 140 Number of Participating Hunters Nonresident Resident X 523 = 566 227 = ~ 270 381 873 x = 320 nonresident hunters Total participating archery elk hunters = 1,127 x = 807 resident hunters Total Harvest Nonresident Resident 807 X .04971 = 42 bull elk 320 X .04845 = 14 bull elk Sportsman's License The Sportsman's License in Colorado enables a hunter to legally take an elk, a deer, a lion and a bear, plus small game and fish. While this job was set up to determine only the elk harvest for 1969, it was not practical to survey Sportsman's License holders only on their elk hunting success. Therefore, the Sportsman's License survey was designed to determine harvest levels on all species of game and fish that could legally be taken on the Sportsman's License. As an example, however, the calculations below will show only how many Sportsman's License holders actually hunted elk in 1969. 1. Questionnaires sent out = 3,090. 2. Usable cards returned = 2,301 (74.5% return). 3. Reported no hunts = 291 (265 residents and 26 nonresidents). 4. Licenses sold = 15,691 (11,422 resident and 4,269 nonresident). Number of Participating Hunters Resident 1,828 = ---..,;X~_ 2,093 11,422 X = 9,976 resident elk hunters 179 205 Nonresident X 4,269 X = 3,728 nonresident elk hunters Total participating Sportsman's License holders = 13,704 hunters Harvest St~tistics - 1969 Big Game Season The following tables list all harvest data for the various elk license categories for 1969 in Colorado, plus additional harvest data on deer, bear, lion, small game and fishing that was determined for the Sportsman's License. All of these data were determined from the random survey detailed in this Prepared by �- 141 - Table 2 . Total elk harvest by Game Management Unit, 1969. !./ Game Management Name Unit No. 2 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 411 42 43 44 45 46 Brown's Park Elk Head Snake River Cowdrey Laramie River Red Feather Strawberry Creek Williams Fork Dunkley Elk River Yampa West Side Owl Mountain Troublesome Poudre River Estes Park Piceance Miller Creek White River Sweetwater Toponas Sheephorn Hot Sulphur Boulder Roan Creek Parachut;e Creek 'Ziflc '.:oloradoRiver Castle Peak Piney Summi,t Central City Nt. Evans Glade Park Kannah Cr. Surface Cr. Grand Mesa Roaring Fork Brush Creek Holy Cross Bailey Bulls Cows Calves Total 48 281 158 101 36 14 87 220 385 330 167 22 50 210 70 206 32 212 382 80 103 36 68 34 1 87 39 8 55 27 55 62 208 34 10 15 153 27 59 5 200 293 43 47 16 93 17 26 5 8 9 2 8 7 34 2 1 6 24 5 13 83 281 271 145 52 78 116 283 454 572 203 33 35 52 6 5 31 7 14 108 22 14 14 56 51 22 42 14 195 177 235 24 9 2 30 31 3 4 29 1 56 17 9 0 8 2 55 90 126 48 8 7 19 15 5 1 71 387 102 278 32 447 727 129 150 57 192 24 14 2 141 57 14 14 94 1 115 41 42 14 257 286 376 77 18 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 142 - Table 2. Total elk harvest by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued). 1/ Game Management Unit No. Name 461 47 48 49 50 52 53 54 55 56 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 90 Totals Deer Creek Frying Pan Mt. Elbert Buffalo Peaks South Park N. F. Gunnison Coal Cr. Sapinero Taylor ~iver Buena Vista Eleven Mile Pikes Peak W. S. Uncompahgre E. S. Uncompahgre Smith Fork Olathe Alpine L. F. Gunnison Tomichi Saguache Grape Cr. San Miguel Dolores Yellow Jacket Mancos Hermosa Animas River Creede Piedra San Juan La Garita S. F. Rio Grande Conejos Sand Dunes Trinchera Greenhorn Picket Wire Sangre de Cristo Bulls Cows Calves 16 175 92 51 43 276 66 387 478 110 13 115 53 7 52 77 13 138 293 4 10 19 17 2 14 10 30 33 1 5 82 191 8 '14 232 139 III 13 9 5 2 67 49 51 53 6 10 12 269 14 185 333 28 66 444 644 196 560 830 187 255 218 30 8 22 91 50 59 123 10 17 19 261 298 188 475 458 51 193 125 5 29 75 64 107 91 6 48 32 7 7 12 7 11,204 5,370 1,007 Total 16 309 162 60 109 363 79 555 804 114 24 5 97 200 13 14 299 194 172 334 14 254 473 28 90 734 1,017 448 1,142 1,379 244 496 375 30 8 36 98 62 17,581 1/ - Includes harvest on Regular, Sportsman's, Specified and Antler1ess licenses only. �- 143 - Table Unit, 3 • Elk harvest by resident 1969. ]j Unit and nonresident Bulls NR No. Name R 2 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 411 42 43 44 45 46 461 Browns Park Elk Head Snake River Cowdrey Laramie River Red Feather Strawberry Cr. Williams Fork Dunkley Elk River Yampa West Side Owl Hountain Troublesome Poudre River Estes Park Piceance Miller Cr. White River Sweetwater Toponas Sheephorn Hot Sulphur Boulder Roan Cr. Parachute Cr. Rifle Colorado River Castle Peak Piney Summit Central City Mt. Evans Glade Park Kannah Cr. Surface Cr. Grand Mesa Roaring Fork Brush Creek Holy Cross Bailey Deer Creek 44 192 70 50 36 14 14 129 251 263 131 22 50 210 58 206 22 132 256 44 28 36 56 0 14 0 59 22 14 14 56 0 48 18 42 14 146 101 148 19 9 16 4 89 88 51 0 0 73 91 134 67 36 0 0 0 12 0 5 80 126 36 75 0 12 0 0 0 49 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 49 76 87 5 0 0 hunters Cows by Game Management R NR R Calves NR R 33 0 69 27 8 50 11 37 51 158 27 6 14 144 25 58 3 159 219 29 32 16 88 17 0 2 22 28 0 0 24 1 50 17 0 0 43 65 120 46 8 0 1 0 18 12 0 5 16 18 11 50 7 4 1 9 2 1 2 41 74 14 15 0 5 0 0 0 8 3 0 0 5 0 6 0 0 0 12 25 6 2 0 0 1 0 24 0 8 6 2 6 7 27 2 1 5 24 5 13 0 33 47 6 0 5 28 7 0 0 3 4 0 0 6 0 8 2 0 0 5 16 15 4 1 0 78 192 163 77 52 70 27 172 309 448 160 29 69 378 88 277 15 324 522 79 60 57 172 24 14 2 84 54 14 14 86 1 106 37 42 14 194 182 283 69 18 16 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 2 0 7 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 1 0 0 Total NR 5 89 108 68 0 8 89 111 145 124 43 4 2 9 14 1 7 123 205 50 90 0 20 0 0 0 57 3 0 0 8 0 9 4 0 0 63 104 93 8 0 0 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Total Harvest 83 281 271 145 52 78 116 283 454 572 203 33 71 387 102 278 32 447 727 129 150 57 192 24 14 2 141 57 14 14 94 1 115 41 42 14 257 286 376 77 18 16 �- 144 Table 3 • Elk harvest by resident and nonresident hunters by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued). 11 Unit Name No. 47 48 49 50 52 53 54 55 56 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 90 Frying Pan Mt. Elbert Buffalo Peaks South Park N. F. Gunnison Coal Cr. Sapinero Taylor River Buena Vista Eleven Mile Pikes Peak W. S. Uncompahgre E. S Unc ompa hgre Smith Fork Olathe Alpine L. F. Gunnison Tomichi Saguache Grape Cr. San Miguel Dolores Yellow Jacket Mancos Hermosa Animas River Creede Piedra San Juan La Garita S. F. Rio Grande Conejos Sand Dunes Trinchera Greenhorn Picket Wire Sangre de Cristo 0 Resident & Nonresident Sub-totals Totals 11 Bulls NR R Cows NR R Calves NR R 163 78 51 37 185 16 308 374 72 13 0 70 100 8 14 72 51 73 243 14 98 170 28 28 225 359 121 164 272 149 205 153 30 8 22 63 36 104 53 7 44 60 10 96 244 4 10 5 10 8 2 0 50 41 38 50 0 46 99 0 14 203 219 164 326 261 49 183 107 0 0 7 5 12 13 17 12 14 0 6 91 50 78 103 38 0 0 12 91 ··0 0 160 88 38 26 0 87 163 0 38 219 284 75 395 561 38 50 65 0 0 0 28 14 11 0 0 8 17 3 42 49 0 0 0 3 1 3 0 17 8 13 3 0 13 24 0 5 58 79 24 149 197 2 10 18 0 0 0 2 0 6 0 0 .0 1 0 3 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 2 0 4 0 0 0 2 14 9 0 27 19 0 1 0 2 0 0 .. o· 0 4 9 10 0 6 17 0 5 29 34 54 64 57 6 44 27 0 0 7 0 0 41 10 43 34 0 4 5 0 0 ·0 0 0 0 R Total NR 280 148 60 9S 254 26 433 637 76 24 5 82 108 10 14 122 96 120 303 14 150 286 28 47 457 612 339 554 590 204 432 287 30 8 36 68 48 29 14 0 14 109 53 123 166 38 0 0 15 92 3 0 177 98 52 31 0 104 187 0 43 277 404 109 587 792 40 64 88 0 0 0 30 14 Total Harvest 309 162 60 109 363 79 555 804 114 24 5 97 200 13 14 299 194 172 334 14 254 473 28 90 734 1,017 448 1,142 1,379 244 496 375 30 8 36 98 62 17,581 7,127 4,077 11,204 Harvest by archers not included. 4,238 1,132 5,370 798 209 1,007 12,163 5,418 17,581 17,581 17,581 �- 145 - Table 4 • 1969 regular bull license harvest by Game Management Unit. Unit No. Name 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 25 26 27 28 31 33 34 35 36 37 41 411 42 43 44 47 48 49 52 53 54 Craig Elk Head Snake River Cowdrey Laramie River Red Feather Strawberry Creek Williams Fork Dunkley Elk River Yampa West Side Owl Mountain Troublesome Poudre River Estes Park Douglas White River Sweetwater Toponas Sheephorn Hot Sulphur Roan Creek Rifle Colorado River Castle Peak Piney Sununit Kannah Creek Surface Creek Grand Mesa Roaring Fork Brush Creek Frying Pan Mt. Elbert Buffalo Peaks N. F. Gunnison Coal Creek Sapinero Resident 169 70 42 28 14 14 98 212 183 84 14 42 154 42 212 14 14 28 28 28 56 14 28 14 14 14 56 42 14 98 70 140 140 70 28 169 254 Nonresident Total 24 24 61 24 24 193 131 66 28 14 87 134 346 232 120 14 42 154 54 212 14 14 64 89 28 68 14 77 14 14 14 56 42 14 147 119 213 152 70 28 205 36 315 73 36 134 49 36 12 36 61 12 49 49 49 73 12 36 36 61 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 146 - Table 4 • 1969 regular bull license harvest by Game Management Unit (continued). Unit No. Name 55 56 61 62 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 84 85 90 Taylor River Buena Vista Wo So Uncompahgre Eo S. Uncompahgre Olathe Alpine L. F. Gunnison Tomichi Saguache Grape Creek San Miguel Dolores Ye ll.ow Jacket Mancos Hermosa Animas River Creede Piedra San Juan La Garita So Fo Rio Grande Conejos Sand Dunes Greenhorn Picket Wire Sangre de Cristo Total Resident Nonresident Total 310 56 70 84 14 56 28 42 212 14 98 154 28 28 183 310 198 140 254 126 197 112 14 14 42 28 73 24 12 36 383 80 82 120 14 129 89 66 224 14 171 276 28 52 329 481 259 518 632 150 233 136 14 14 66 28 5,523 73 61 24 12 73 122 24 146 171 61 378 378 24 36 24 24 2,723 8,246 �, - 147- Table 5. 1969 elk harvest on antlerless and specified licenses (by elk area) e Area Unit Number No. of Licenses Issued Bull Harvest RegoLic. A 14 400 B 12 13 B-1 Cows Calves Success Ratio on Permits 325 208 34 6005 567 199 220 385 605 55 62 117 8 _7_ 15 66~3 283 454 737 11 50 87 27 2 58.0 116 C 15 1/2-27 100 167 18 185 32 14 46 2 1 3 4900 201 33 234 D 1/3- 6 1/2-16 96 34 11 45 9 8 17 3 0 3 20.8 46 19 65 E 23 24 200 293 493 35 52 87 3700 447 727 1,174 AO Ant I 2,113 996 22 22 Elk Harvest on Ant10 & SEecified Licenses Bulls 212 360 572 Total Harvest F 1/2-27 36 52 18 14 32 4 0 4 4 0 4 1504 26 14 40 G 28 37 499 68 56 124 93 29 122 31 9 40 3205 192 94 286 H 42 121 195 55 7 51..2 257 I 44 1/2-47 401 235 88 323 126 56 182 1.5 13 28 5204 376 157 533 1-1 1/2-47 99 87 59 6 6506 152 J 54 300 382 138 30 56.0 550 K 55 498 473 293 33 65 5 799 L 65 100 232 67 0 67 0 0 299 M 67 100 111 51 10 61•• 0 172 0 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 148 - Table 50 1969 elk harvest on antler1ess and specified licenses (by elk area) (continued). Area Unit Number No. of Licenses Issued Bull Harvest RegoLic. M-1 68 131 N 70 71 73 0 Elk Harvest on Ant1. Cows Calves Success Ratio on Permits 269 53 12 49.6 334 350 185 333 66 584 59 123 19 201 10 17 5 32 66.6 254 473 90 817 74 549 439 261 29 52.8 729 P 1/2-75 200 320 102 14 58.0 436 P-1 1/2-75 459 319 196 36 50.5 551 Q 77 78 1,599 555 825 1,380 475 458 933 107 91 198 70.7 1,l37 lz374 2,511 R 76 451 196 188 64 55.9 448 R-1 80 399 255 193 48 60.4 496 R-2 79 100 187 51 6 57.0 244 S 81 248 218 125 32 6303 375 1/3-57 69 84 90 80 2 0 6 33.8 2 14 35 20 0 0 7 _0_ 7 5 13 18 46.4 75 278 353 30.5 123 0 123 75 S-l & SS T U 2/3-19 20 278 39 . AO 391 AntI 1/2-50 AO Ant I W 3/4-25 26 Bulls 14 22 50 86 227 150 113 31 21 59 80 8 51 _0_ 51 56 0 56 8 0 34 33 8 41.2 30 6 0 6 41.5 60 103 163 -.!±L 77 Total Harvest --.E.L 8 ...n.... 102 80 200 ..JL 41 183 224 8 V & S~ecified Licenses 8 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 96 150 246 �- 149 Table 50 1969 elk harvest on antler1ess and specified licenses (by elk area) (continued). Area Unit Number Noo of Licenses Issued Bull Harvest 200 20 108 22 150 80 60 7 Reg Lf,c , i Elk Harvest on AntI. & SEecified Licenses Bulls Success Ratio on Permits Total Harvest Cows Calves 13 30 31 74 0 3 4 7 40,,5 33 141 57 231 34 1 5403 83 X 1/4-25 33 34 Y 2 Z 8 1/3-19 320 14 21 35 55 6 61 9 0 9 21.9 78 27 105 AA 2/3- 6 7 275 67 36 103 30 8 38 2 8 10 17'04 99 52 151 BB 1/2-17 30 25 5 2 23.3 32 CC 43 198 177 90 19 5500 286 DD 46 8 1 12.7 18 EE 52 149 276 77 10 58.4 363 FF 61 62 50 82 191 273 13 9 22 2 0 2 48,,0 97 200 297 GG 85 148 82 9 7 0 10.8 98 HH 1/2-50 9 19 6 19,,6 34 JJ 48 1/3-56 53 4 57 17 0 17 5704 162 41 203 5 5 10 0 0 0 50 0 5 ---5 87 26 45.2 271 153 24 33,,7 387 AO AntI AO AntI AO AntI 9 99 43 92 81 129 41 92 JL 129 KK 1/4-58 1/2-59 20 LL 5 250 158 MM 18 599 185 25 0 10 ---------------------------------------------------~---------------------------------- �- 150 - Table 50 1969 elk harvest on antler1ess and specified licenses (by elk area) (continued). Area Unit Number No. of Licenses Issued Bull Harvest RegoLico NN 66 100 00 53 63 pp Elk Harvest on Ant10 Cows Calves Success Ratio on Permits 139 49 6 5500 194 49 66 8 74 11 7 18 0 0 0 3607 77 15 92 1/2-16 1/2-17 100 11 25 36 2 10 12 1 4 5 17.0 14 39 53 TT 49 50 51 7 2 18.0 60 UU 29 38 381 80 16 2 0 18 7 0 0 7 31.2 23 2 0 25 VV 3/4-58 AO Ant1 20 10 8 5 1 46 7 14 WW 21 22 31 32 AO Ant1 30 30 0 13 0 0 13 0 5 0 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 33 3 14 18 14 2 48 14 14 28 & SEecified Licenses Bulls 0 0 Total Harvest XX 40 \0 AO Ant1 20 22 17 2 82 0 41 ZZ 45 AO 50 Ant1 100 24 48 5 51.3 77 0 �Table 6 . Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969. County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert E1 Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit C.?XS'n' 2 4 5 6 7 8 1 66 58 45 20 49 5 26 22 24 4 6 40 103 95 26 46 Unit Number 16 14 15 12 13 2 87 139 88 1 42 112 119 30 13 112 40 66 11 40 17 18 19 20 2 40 134 1 41 2 27 114 15 16 15 56 13 2 59 5 94 267 13 13 22 13 23 24 25 26 88 153 75 36 53 93 18 33 3 62 1 4 109 1 13 45 2 2 4 13 2 1 ~ ~ VI 13 1 13 95 165 61 21 45 17 62 3 6 26 16 11 13 13 13 29 7 16 188 150 165 54 13 2 29 17 13 26 47 6 26 83 17 40 2 51 161 376 19 72 7 13 2 2 2 1 15 54 15 13 2 146 2 29 30 83 32 17 303 42 85 13 2 245 31 32 14 1 5 4 297 1 78 13 87 16 10 7 89 29 2 55 47 2 58 3 32 1 4 80 6 56 1 1 101 153 2 2 3 2 16 93 55 9 3 163 1 2 1 -------- ----- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 6 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, continued. County of Residence Lake La Plata Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Sunnnit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman's Total 27 28 29 31 32 13 2 1 33 1 26 14 15 34 Unit Number 35 36 37 26 40 38 39 39l 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 43 6 13 1 33 150 1 3 2 491 43 1 13 13 13 1 1 14 13 5 1 2 1 15 1 13 13 1 44 13 1 1 13 17 1 92 13 2 4 11 13 32 1 1 26 129 37 1 3 74 78 10 30 62 14 88 2 482 1284 335 18 60 503 379 102 231 524 98 417 13 59 .po 11 5 3 1 51 ~ I.J1 18 19 14 43 148 203 1071 17 2 104 1 162 17 24 677 1160 197 216 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~ �Table 6 . Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, continued. County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Cos til1a Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carson Lake La Plata 51 52 53 Unit Numbe r 56 55 54 47 48 49 50 17 15 18 31 27 19 77 7 28 18 56 47 53 22 13 27 15 1 3 126 13 46 26 4 2 20 61 57 58 59 61 62 63 64 13 13 84 13 1 13 13 1 2 13 65 66 67 27 16 1 2 56 13 57 1 1 2 14 60 4 1 1 78 33 84 4 62 47 1 76 57 75 77 7 54 13 53 13 7 162 7 26 2 69 15 14 13 41 21 16 59 13 62 2 14 36 13 194 47 66 18 98 5 30 2 13 l3 1 1 1 93 2 69 15 13 7 1 271 6 26 13 13 55 13 15 13 122 54 323 42 18 20 15 381 553 34 26 26 26 73 15 t05 13 l3 2 13 49 38 32 43 28 1 99 40 1 14 14 l3 37 82 54 15 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~ 1 t-' V1 V1 �Table 6 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, continued. County of Residence Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Surmnit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman's Total 47 48 49 50 13 2 . 13 2 14 2 1 1 184 6 2 15 1 5 51 52 53 42 54 Unit Number 55 56 57 61 62 15 13 13 13 13 15 41 142 26 89 124 17 14 3 58 59 63 64 65 66 67 13 13 1 1 13 13 1 46 3 1 306 104 1 13 27 74 13 t-' \.n 0'1 234 3 48 13 2 1 1 8 59 148 28 13 1 13 45 16 177 1 13 2 13 13 27 13 71 1 13 15 13 13 9 1 6 1 98 48 677 96 67 51 74 728 556 595 397 26 l3 16 3 3 2 2 15 134 213 63 12 15 15 32 53 13 1 220 1038 1885 354 92 163 136 267 405 171 2 13 2 l3 72 76 101 2.7 719 479 993 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 6 . Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, continued. County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Ca rson Lake La Plata 68 69 1 70 71 13 6 72 73 74 13 65 2 9 13 13 41 13 3 Unit Number 77 76 75 78 79 80 81 82 25 43 27 69 15 13 37 298 17 2 189 17 13 7 7 26 2 2 27 4 6 4 2 34 27 49 26 29 30 122 6 19 281 37 28 1 22 21 13 15 1 38 84 85 2 7 1 6 57 1 15 172 83 5- 1 3 13 1 6 21 16 1 13 16 52 13 16 23 3 13 83 4 31 4 6 54 118 115 255 15 2 1 1 35 2 2 81 104 13 22 36 26 1 8 213 46 13 13 43 10 13 13 124 92 17 13 13 2 107 19 139 19 220 23 6 119 45 175 17 70 8 6 2 38 1 13 13 13 13 22 2 6 49 2 15 13 2 6 41 14 13 6 62 136 25 2 :2 3 13 29 538 1040 3 11 6 2 6 29 1 2 372 103 ---------- .--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- •..... -...J VI �Table 6 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating by Game Management Unit, 1969, continued. County of Residence Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Sunnnit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman's Total 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 13 14 Unit Number 77 76 75 4 30 3 13 78 79 19 12 2 80 81 82 83 license holders 84 85 2 1 179 1 1 26 10 186 54 378 43 3 13 40 13 6 26 2 14 46 282 13 13 122 46 14 46 54 19 6 6 13 13 2 13 19 47 4 10 00 6 1 41 13 167 13 13 13 118 13 101 4 2 16 2 3 1 103 1020 41 3 83 26 66 246 6 17 169 292 4 470 14 21 47 9 20 93 2 132 6 15 2 15 4 6 1 2 2 19 14 195 187 173 184 207 75 . 117 12 75 698 117 480 1181 1626 1235 1296 1400 512 t-' Ul 2 13 15 29 13 13 73 55 45 2 26 1 13 177 105 17 6 29 37 955 1911 849 69 45 146 359 106 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~ �Table 6. Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, continued. County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheye.nne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer De1ta Denver nO'lores Douglas Eagle Elbert El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Hue r f ano Jackson .Ie f f'e rs on Kiowa Kit C8.c.son Lake La Plata 87 90 13 62 Unit Number Sport~man i s Unknown 357 58 364 62 18 11 408 149 18 33 7 14 25 139 1138 25 22 69 3 26 28 3 753 110 110 3 65 76 7 54 18 448 3 62 14 187 Total 2641 ·714 2024 522 75 121 2508 870 35 128 296 37 37 161 583 6100 64 140 352 29 4712 641 1003 52 670 1262 25 157 238 3625 33 101 332 2354 -----------_._--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ~ V1 \0 �Table 6 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, cuntinued. County of Residence 87 90 Unit Number Sportsman's Unknown Total -Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Summit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman's Total 364 18 3 22 175 7 83 158 98 7 18 25 13 3 108 . 29 18 245 36 95 113 39 18 50 44 13 30 436 172 3 6670 273 436 6670 2799 268 49 95 1879 143 589 984 1103 120 221 102 47 27 322 118 2099 460 976 940 328 32 209 40 300 132 28 1404 45 4811 501 t-' 0'\ 0 �Table 7. Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969. -State of Residence Alabama Arizona Arkansas Ca lifornia Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Unit Number 2 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 -- 15 16 17 18 19 20 4 13 2 52 31 13 3 5 13 5 42 43 26 9 13 13 17 21 22 13 1 3 5 13 13 26 26 13 13 4 15 28 2 20 1 3 5 11 3 2 13 26 30 2 39 13 13 15 46 59 13 2 13 2 1 59 13 3 13 2 13 13 2 13 2 13 39 18 14 13 13 1 1 8 13 13 20 15 56 2 13 13 17 40 24 13 5 2 10 2 13 13 5 2 13 13 2 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------ 23 24 1 .3 6 11 1 52 20 103 5 1 4 9 4 7 3 1 8 1 7 15 7 13 4 1 1 1 17 8 2 13 3 29 14 2 23 4 ... '"... �Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license Table 7 holders by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued) 0 State of Residence --- 2 4 5 6 17 2 7 8 11 12 Unit N~mber 15 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 4 1 7 1 1 3 1 7 18 1 7 1 2 7 27 14 4 1 13 30 1 13 1 2 11 46 1 1 1 13 1 1 1 1 23 1 242 430 .. Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virgir.ia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico Sportsman's Total 13 29 1 1 2 17 13 1 1 13 6 13 2 13 2 13 13 39 1 2 26 13 2 1 52 2 17 13 26 13 3 1 15 2 13 27 1 13 39 1 13 6 26 26 13 26 2 13 44 58 30 3 18 59 34 278 304 116 6 52 188 13 15 13 4 13 117 109 149 30 24 14 39 8 10 333 366 530 143 59 59 190 50 25 13 27 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- to-' 0' N �Table 7 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued). State of Residence Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska 25 26 27 28 29 31 32 Unit Number 36 34 33 37 40 42 43 44 45 47 48 13 26 21 1 43 1 13 30 3 13 2 13 17 39 52 1 15 13 15 2 117 13 1 13 2 13 2 4 6 13 1 3 15 13 2 13 2 26 26 ~ 13 13 13 13 13 14 1 13 13 18 18 1 2 13 13 57 1 13 13 0\ w 2 13 13 13 13 2 19 16 13 18 2 16 14 13 2 13 6 66 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 �Table 7 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969,(continued). State of Residence 25 26 27 28 29 Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming -. Mexico 13 Sportsman's 55 36 16 37 1 Total 202 133 71 146 27 31 32 Unit Number 33 34 36 37 39 40 42 43 44 45 47 48 1 2 2 15 13 2 1 13 26 26 15 15 26 30 1 10 26 66 6 7 39 t- O' +=' 13 13 2 13 125 13 26 5 2 13 13 73 39 13 66 3 13 17 1 1 13 14 61 34 15 11 353 106 41 17 13 5 125 56 68 519 186 418 17 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46 10 215 14 �Table 7 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969, (continued). State of Residence Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minne,sota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska 50 52 1 13 1 58 53 54 55 13 34 13 30 68 26 13 15 15 56 58 Unit Number 63 61 62 64 65 66 67 68 70 71 39 52 103 43 72 73 13 26 13 1 13 43 13 26 47 13 13 44 31 13 16 13 26 3 4 1 1 13 3 13 15 13 14 7 3 19 14 27 14 13 13 13 15 1 14 •.... 13 '" 13 V1 13 14 13 8 13 13 26 16 26 13 15 1 3 4 14 13 42 13 13 47 13 26 13 13 1 13 13 13 17 1 3 1 26 5 13 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 7 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969. (continued). State of Residence Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico 50 52 53 5 54 55 56 58 61 Unit Number 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 70 71 13 71 72 73 15 1 13 2 26 3 13 2 6 26 13 14 2 39 32 34 13 13 13 13 30 15 3 41 13 14 13 13 39 13 13 13 13 2 2 26 5 13 15 46 63 •..... 13 26 103 13 1 114 97 13 111 157 27 2 15 '"'" 76 13 175 13 115 3 Sportsman's 17 79 34 94 138 15 7 21 43 24 2 89 77 51 15 45 128 18 43 Total 37 295 188 373 622 67 8 203 288 37 28 406 389 214 129 308 586 57 229 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license Table 7 holders by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued)o 0 Sta t e of Residence Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska 74 75 20 41 92 93 30 76 ~·7 78 79 Unit Number 35 80 81 31 44 85 13 3 1 3 42 44 44 99 4 2 34 18 26 Unknown Sportsman is Total 16 24 169 490 81 386 625 2142 13 2 3 211 48 512 440 192 700 170 220 2 36 15 440 246 66 1375 206 1 4 4 13 13 11 15 73 17 22 13 5 26 22 5 18 5 5 18 13 18 13 13 13 14 39 3 13 14 3 75 16 84 118 59 84 59 118 8 4 4 15 2 39 58 6 13 104 18 13 18 2 2 13 138 26 17 1 22 1 84 33 33 356 16 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t-' '" -...J �Table 7 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued). State of Residence Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Ok l a homa Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico 74 75 76 77 78 13 18 103 88 94 96 39 13 4 20 13 32 2 3 82 169 210 16 13 13 4 7 118 255 220 13 462 22 39 614 79 Unit Number 80 81 26 74 Unknown 13 39 66 85 28 33 8 16 1 186 270 4 18 110 24 92 1260 2 41 13 94 45 Sportsman is 16 8 50 13 15 16 13 5 Sportsman's 131 153 143 273 387 38 79 75 36 394 3931 Total 513 914 674 1461 1802 230 430 206 122 394 3931 2 Total 136. 2 632 56 33 2 532 1550 17 274 127 91 266 4945 14 18 15 10 296 15 1 17163 •..... (j'\ ex> �Table 8 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969. County of Residence (,oc;.ejosCostilla Custer Delta Dolores 1 9 7 27 11 196 13 30 9 2 1 7 2 Clear Creek Alamosa Archuleta Boulder Chaffee 9 38 30 5 9 27 33 364 13 23 4 1 32 319 33 447 -...,_ ..-,.,-_. Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Ba ca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert E1 Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carsor Lake La Plata 9 9 ,. 67 306 21 11 9 46 36 56 262 43 2 53 30 19 1 395 51 9 21 19 49 9 9 21 6 3 1 9 9 ~ \.0 9 2 122 2 t-' 9 291 40 2 2 9 67 4 41 41 9 1 11 2 20 11 9 9 7 2 27 9 48 35 9 4 112 97 9 372 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8. Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Alamosa Archuleta Boulder Chaffee Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Custer Delta Dolores ,---- Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Summit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman IS 31 13 19 3 3 11 2 2 192 42 53 522 49 1 21 63 9 2 2 9 11 10 t-' -...J 1 11 9 67 2 0 1 102 9 7 11 116 59 11 2 37 9 2 11 9 18 256 1 29 3 4 47 119 80 1 9 107 21 5 34 123 75 Total 96 1,803 504 1,329 389 972 33 242 1,003 -----_. __ ._---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 844 �Table 8 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969. (continued). County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert E1 Paso .Fr emont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carson Lake La Plata Eagle E1 Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson 2 2 16 13 15 113 2 11 67 12 191 9 96 30 339 111 81 9 55 1 228 189 12 14 31 1 2 182 5 2 64 74 61 15 413 199 1 91 280 128 2 646 21 11 361 19 43 19 4 29 110 621 2 9 2 9 124 11 19 4 3 11 127 13 228 9 9 21 2 2 277 7 9 9 308 299 2 9 2 9 43 9 597 87 29 53 19 933 2 9 16 28 196 9 9 21 71 9 21 9 21 1 t-' -...J t-' 154 22 11 1 67 2 25 521 72 2 392 85 2 270 235 67 9 1 20 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Eagle El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Cunn i s on Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson 247 2 .-.~.--. Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Sunnnit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman's Total 37 9 9 51 5 75 1 3 5 9 2 9 92 9 15 6 13 9 18 4 97 9 296 19 49 2 1 16 4 25 2 2 14 2 3 3 9 4 t-' 7 2 2 9 19 -...J 9 2 9 280 26 6 7 18 N 168 9 2 2 14 11 13 1 19 2 31 9 9 9 2 13 46 2 62 2 9 16 1 4 4 2 1 209 3 269 1 13 298 13 366 492 182 31 185 15 2,222 20 147 1,942 130 3,098 4,306 583 392 1,896 126 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carson Lake La Plata Lake La Plata Larimer Las Animas Mesa Mineral 11 78 4 14 13 11 111 3 9 42 40 41 29 19 9 10 39 2 2 11 49 11 9 2 9 13 311 2 2 23 9 Mo:Ffat Montezuma 9 11 26 Montrose Ouray Park 11 21 49 9 2 78 15 3 71 t-' ....• w 16 2 9 1 16 4 92 2 22 35 142 35 6 7 42 94 13 1 1 34 2 9 4 58 9 29 4 9 1 2 143 25 33 2 2 4 31 9 1 219 3 2 7 114 19 19 13 13 36 160 9 9 3 10 37 3 23 120 9 2 94 2 1,460 9 9 2 37 9 4 1 2 13 11 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 �Table 8 .• Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Sunnnit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Lake La Plata Larimer 2 13 28 1,499 Las Animas Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Ouray Park 19 9 9 21 29 49 19 574 11 2 414 185 2 19 87 20 1 134 33 2 778 7 2 58 58 1 19 175 55 289 21 2 2 9 2 9 59 .po. 9 11 44 20 65 3 9 28 19 57 81 2 9 2 19 4 21 2 16 9 9 40 2 11 4 9 4 1 12 1 8 127 93 49 136 793 783 501 920 4 9 4 437 Sportsman's 42 364 338 31 Total 266 2,549 3,082 207 11 22 143 165 121 1,092 1,019 842 to-' '-I 1 4 ----------~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carson Lake La Plata Pitkin Pueblo Rio Blanco 37 240 17 143 21 9 15 203 Rio Grande 30 292 7 4 16 9 Sa ?"'lcS . ~.~t..! 466 45 60 45 2 384 243 11 3 2 2 2 119 15 430 17 75 1 5 10 161 25 126 l39 1 215 Routt San Miguel 9 Summit Teller 45 9 9 40 4 36 t-' -...J VI 94 9 9 815 9 19 4 120 21 29 2 47 293 11 2 San Juan 234 9 2 2 21 11 189 2 9 9 2 92 9 420 103 19 31 21 38 42 9 16 9 86 224 38 502 3 24 2 21 9 36 4 47 2 18 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85 9 9 �Table 8 • Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Pitkin 337 Sportsman's 152 1,290 Rio Blanco 133 9 5 22 128 9 Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Summit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Total Pueblo 10 3 9 11 Rio Grande 2 2 Routt Saguache 239 31 4 2 28 58 40 5 258 t~5 18 19 63 San Juan San Miguel Sunnnit Teller 2 2 2 9 4 177 11 2 2 2 4 I-' -...J 4 20 5 19 213 337 4 512 19 394 2 9 9 33 738 26 (j\ 47 76 9 270 9 2 4 133 2 9 9 220 29 4 71 15 9 227 4 13 2 9 19 1 541 202 665 236 13 73 58 15 21 2,899 1,880 5,057 2,391 112 458 656 147 11 ---------------_._-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8. Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle Elbert El Paso Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carson Lake La Plata Unknown Sportsman's 357 58 364 62 18 11 408 149 18 33 7 14 25 139 1,138 25 22 69 3 753 110 110 3 65 76 7 54 18 448 3 62 14 187 Total 2,600 690 2,051 492 63 77 2,114 1,378 9 135 350 37 50 147 1,015 5,671 74 150 544 55 4,620 560 1,301 32 667 1,108 37 178 293 3,417 25 108 517 2,124 --------------_._---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t-' ~ ~ �Table 8. Resident elk hunting pressure showing county of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). County of Residence Unknown Sportsman's Total -Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Summit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Sportsman's Total 364 18 3 22 175 7 83 158 98 7 18 25 29 18 245 36 95 113 39 18 50 44 172 3 376 2,840 228 38 195 1,816 182 672 1,400 1,396 133 247 91 88 23 385 100 2,015 358 823 941 413 34 205 4 359 144 29 1,428 29 6,670 49,405 J-I -...J ex> �Table 9. Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969. State Alamosa Archuleta Boulder Chaffee Count~ Clear Creek Conejos Delta Dolores Eagle 43 46 12 15 46 1 37 21 2 Fremont -Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York 30 64 105 15 102 54 21 12 3 24 12 33 12 15 12 24 3 12 15 12 30 12 24 12 3 12 3 18 12 134 3 27 3 3 149 30 12 9 12 12 12 12 19 82 12 67 24 12 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- •.... -...J \0 �Table ..g., Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued), State North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico Alamosa Archuleta Boulder Chaffee Count:t: Clear Creek Conejos Delta Dolores Eagle Fremont 2 12 228 12 27 24 24 15 24 12 24 49 12 55 18 12 12 15 37 818 20 46 12 15 250 68 1 I-' 3 15 00 0 3 6 Sportsman 2 432 1 15 6 69 74 101 115 Total 29 2,219 25 86 36 245 345 687 522 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.-------------------------- 55 �Table 9 . Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). State Count Hinsdale Huerfano Garfield Grand Gunnison 42 12 12 76 14 24 43 201 24 40 27 64 12 64 18 3 87 3 Jackson Jefferson Lake LaPlata Larimer 3 61 148 132 15 -.Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York 18 18 12 3 27 40 3 95 43 12 1 15 1 1 12 1 3 15 26 12 40 12 12 102 IS 12 24 . 12 18 12 39 10 2 5 30 12 3 12 15 27 4 3 6 27 12 1 43 15 24 I-' 00 I-' 4 12 4 13 5 4 12 3 12 3 12 77 15 42 13 15 12 171 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 9 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). State North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington Wes t Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico Garfield Grand Gunnison Hinsdale 39 21 12 12 61 24 123 43 Count:t Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Lake 7 LaPlata Larimer 12 55 4 37 1 198 37 3 49 305 12 1 256 28 1 284 t-' 00 N 12 24 3 [1-0 Sportsman 169 82 331 168 6 60 Total 852 330 1,614 666 54 265 18 9 239 37 15 1,328 124 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 9 • Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). State Las Animas Mesa Mineral Moffat Count Montezuma Montrose Ouray Park Pitkin Rio Blanco Rio Grande Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York 12 37 6 18 92 77 12 42 30 89 12 70 1 49 12 12 40 223 3 43 12 9 3 16 12 6 52 12 27 12 12 28 12 12 12 12 12 18 24 15 4 1 1 1 17 30 10 15 38 10 24 37 00 12 5 24 1 12 37 12 55 12 24 24 41 6 13 1 1 12 3 1 40 18 17 12 6 1 12 36 31 10 95 1 35 5 6 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I-' w j 12 18 37 �Table 9 . Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). State Las Animas North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico 6 Sportsman 20 Total 72 Mesa Mineral Moffat 12 12 3 122 1 1 15 12 Countl Montezuma Montrose 24 12 12 Ouray Park 18 18 Pitkin 13 24 24 24 26 74 12 32 58 10 13 89 2 64 12 252 12 54 1 12 117 121 89 1 Rio Blanco Rio Grande 24 80 12 61 I-' 00 .p.. 3 5 5 2 26 5 3 27 12 12 86 171 83 68 73 74 14 75 440 77 337 837 362 324 424 422 55 328 1,345 434 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 9 . Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating license holders by county, 1969 (continued). State Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Connecticut Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York Routt 37 224 3 12 152 159 27 105 37 12 3 12 98 18 161 31 18 Saguache 40 Countl San Miguel San Juan 12 37 24 43 Sunnnit Teller 12 24 6 12 3 12 12 6 6 3 55 12 12 24 12 Unknown Sportsman Total 15 88 92 692 6 43 11 142 84 68 231 23 38 4 11 4. 115 90 19 372 95 38 11 179 23 69 405 603 2,606 20 173 24 610 411 209 931 130 162 7 40 5 433 289 89 1,472 326 159 22 811 65 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t-' 00 Vt �Table 9 , Nonresident elk hunting pressure showing state of residence and number of participating holders by county, 1969 (continued), State North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Mexico Sportsman Total Routt Saguache Count;l San Juan San Miguel 15 Teller Unknown 3 30 40 12 15 64 3 12 153 80 12 12 58 24 Sunnnit 3 12 12 27 61 6 12 361 44 14 38 10 5 1,881 360 113 230 22 8 348 license Sportsman Total 6 14 103 302 11 88 4 46 36 680 10 11 3 1 98 4 4 26 26 411 1,441 59 338 43 78 189 4,246 23 22 20 25 347 45 5 3,931 l3 ,490 I-' 00 ~ �- 187 - Table 10 • 1969 regular bull license harvest by day of season of kill. Date Number Killed Percent October 18 1,969 23.9 19 1,197 14.5 20 997 12.1 21 573 6.9 22 586 7.1 23 324 3.9 24 349 4.2 25 299 3.6 26 286 3.5 27 124 1.5 28 212 2.5 29 174 2.1 30 137 1.7 31 50 0.6 1 249 3.0 2 174 2.1 3 124 1.5 4 174 2.1 5 87 1.0 6 124 1.5 7 37 0.4 November Total 8,246 = 79.7 �- 188 - Table 11. 1969 ant1er1ess elk harvest by day of season of kill. Date Number Kil1ed Percent October 18 1,269 19.9 19 1,043 16.3 20 808 12.6 21 594 9.3 22 404 6.3 23 280 4.4 24 211 3.3 25 304 4.8 26 223 3.5 27 108 1.7 28 166 2.6 29 126 2.0 30 94 1.5 31 95 1.5 1 190 3.0 2 132 2.1 3 90 1.4 4 60 0 9 5 108 1.7 6 72 1.1 November Total 6,377 0 == 80.4 �- 189 - Table 12. No. Archery elk harvest by game management unit, 1969. Unit Name 4 6 8 11 12 14 16 18 33 34 42 55 70 71 72 73 74 76 78 82 83 Elk Head Cowdrey Red Feather Strawberry Creek Williams Fork Elk River West Side Troublesome Rifle Colorado River Grand Mesa Taylor River San Miguel Dolores Yellow Jacket Mancos Hermosa Creede San Juan Sand Dunes Trinchera Total 1/ Antlered only season in 1969. Harvest Bulls 11 Total 2 2 8 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 S6 S6 2 2 �- 190 - Table 13. Archery elk harvest by county, 1969. Harvest County Name Archuleta Conejos Costilla Dolores Garfield Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Jackson La Plata Larimer Mineral Moffat Montezuma Pitkin Rio Blanco Routt San Miguel Total 1/ Antlered only season in 1969. Bulls 1/ 2 Total 2 I 1 4 4 7 7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 1 4 4 4 2 2 -2 2 2 2 3 3 I 4 5 5 2 2 56 56 �Table 14. Archery elk harvest by day of season and game management unit. 1/ 1969 Date of Season No. Units Name August 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 2 4 Elk Head 6 Cowdrey 8 Red Feather 11 Strawberry Cr. 12 Williams Fork 14 Elk River 16 West Side 18 Troublesome 33 Rifle 34 Colorado R. 42 Grand Mesa 5S Taylor River 70 San Migue 1 71 Dolores 1 72 Yellow Jacket 73 Mancos 74 Hermosa 76 Creede 78 San Juan 2 82 Sand Dunes 2 83 Trinchera 1 2 1 Totals 5 1 SeEtember 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 3 Total 2 2 2 2 8 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 !/Data from hunter report cards. 1 5 1 3 2 1 4 4 1 262 1 4 2 6 56 I-' 1.0 I-' �Table 15. County Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Boulder Chaffee Clear Creek Conejos Custer Delta Denver Douglas El Paso Garfield Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Jackson Jefferson Lake La Plata Larimer County of residence of archery elk hunters showing number of hunters by unit hunted (continued). 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Unit Hunted 41 42 43 1 . 1 44 45 3 1 46 461 47 1· 48 49 50 51 52 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 1 12 2 2 2 3 3 .p. 2 1 4 2 2 6 9 4 6 4 9 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 2 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------- I-' \.0 1 �Table 15. County Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Otero Ouray Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande San Juan San Miguel Teller Weld Total County of residence of archery elk hunters showing number of hunters by unit hunted (continued). 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Unit Hunted 43 41 42 44 45 46 461 47 48 49 50 51 52 2 1 1 2 6 16 3 1 7 4 4 t-' \0 VI 1 1 1 7 22 3 1 3 1 6 1 33 12 13 1 3 1 10 13 13 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 1 19 �Table 15. County of residence of archery elk hunters showing number of hunters by unit hunted (continued). County 53 54 55 1 2 56 57 58 59 Unit Hunted 66 65 62 72 71 70 68 67 77 76 75 74 73 78 1 Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Boulder Chaffee Clear Creek Conejos Custer Delta Denver Douglas El Paso Garfield Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Jackson Jefferson Lake La Plata Larimer 3 1 1 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 7 2 3 6 1 2 7 2 6 3 4 3 2 3 4 2 2 1 1 1 3 4 3 3 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 9 6 1 2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- t-' \0 0'\ �Table 15. County Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Otero Ouray Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande San Juan San Miguel Te ller Weld Total County of residence of archery elk hunters showing number of hunters by unit hunted (continued). 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 62 Unit Hunted 65 66 67 68 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 2 1 1 4 1 3 7 2 18 2 1 6 3 3 1 2 3 I 16 1 17 4 1 I 1 3 2 t-' 1.0 I 6 3 3 2 7 -..J 3 I 15 I 1 2 7 2 1 2 9 16 36 7 1 3 4 20 14 4 7 4 13 17 1 20 24 14 65 13 7 �Table 17. State of residence of·archery elk hunters showing number of hunters by county hunted, 1969. State Archuleta Arizona Arkansas California Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Washington Wisconsin 2 Total 11 Chaffee Conejos Costilla Dolores Eagle Garfield 2 2 Z Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 4 3 2 2 6 4 N 2 4 0 N 2 2 1 1 4 1 2 2 2 3 2 16 4 2 2 5 2 2 3 2 2 7 6 2 2 2 11 2 14 6 23 8 32 33 6 -----------------------------------~------------------------------------~~-------------------------------------------- 2 �Table 17 • State of residence of archery elk hunters showing number of hunters by county hunted, 1969.(continued) State Arizona Arkansas California Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Jersey New Mexico New York Ohio Oklahoma Pennsylvania South Carolina Tennessee Texas Utah Washington Wisconsin Total LaPlata Larimer Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Ouray Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt San Juan Total 3 4 2 4 9 4 1 4 2 1 28 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 11 7 7 31 11 16 16 4 2 2 16 2 15 38 13 2 3 1 2 3 2 2 2 1 4 3 8 4 4 1 2 2 2 5 8 1 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 2 6 2 2 2 2 6 2 6 2 2 2 2 2 22 4 2 14 4 20 33 39 2 9 6 6 1 6 7 2 35 15 13 9 2 320 N 0 v.> �- 204 - Table 18. Total hunting days spent by archery elk hunters by Game Management Unit, 1969. Unit Hunted 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 44 45 46 461 47 48 49 50 Resident Nonresident 24 28 36 4 87 28 147 87 136 19 23 . 29 17 31 54 8 42 8 9 58 46 13 61 23 30 3 10 14 11 44 3 1 2 18 99 6 8 5 5 29 17 88 55 38 6 9 20 60 42 21 9 42 22 6 73 16 II Total 24 28 36 4 87 41 208 110 166 22 33 29 31 31 65 52 3 43 8 ·9 58 46 2 60 121 12 8 5 5 29 17 161 71 49 6 9 20 60 42 21 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �- 205 - Table 18. Total hunting days spent by archery elk hunters by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued). Unit Hunted 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 65 66 67 68 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 90 Resident 3 74 25 56 98 23 5 Nonresident Total 46 49 10 3 4 3 74 37 72 165 23 5 5 9 26 100 4 67 20 15 11 39 106 44 95 112 96 516 69 57 26 152 107 5 5 46 52 14 Total 2,992 1,026 4,018 Ave. 5.72 days 4.52 days 5.36 days 13 16 67 5 9 21 68 49 11 15 11 39 90 7 74 103 69 293 40 30 26 112 68 5 5 32 4 18 9 16 37 21 9 27 223 29 27 40 39 5 �- 208 - Table 21. Pre-season deer harvest by sportsman's license holders, by Game Management Unit, 1969. 1,/ Unit Number 1/ - Buck Harvest Nonresident Resident Total Harvest 7 14 3 17 47 14 3 17 78 53 14 67 82 40 10 50 90 28 6 34 Total 149 36 185 . Does not include archery or primitive weapons harvest. �- 209 - Table 22. Regular season deer harvest by sportsman's license holders, by Game Management Unit, 1969. 11 Unit No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 381 39 40 41 411 42 43 44 Name Green River Browns Park Craig Elk Head Snake River Cowdrey Red Feather Buckeye Blue Mountain Strawberry Creek Williams Fork Dunkley Elk River Yampa West Side Owl Mountain Troublesome Poudre River Estes Park Douglas Piceance Miller Creek White River Sweetwater Toponas Sheephorn Hot Sulphur Boulder Salt Creek Roan Creek Parachute Creek Rifle Colorado River Castle Peak Piney Summd t; Central City Ra 1ston Creek Mt. Evans Glade Park Kannah Creek Surface Creek Grand Mesa Roaring Fork Brush Creek Bucks NR R 34 34 17 34 42 26 60 8 8 24 34 59 153 34 9 119 128 102 60 94 59 9 17 8 84 76 68 NR R 134 9 30 30 42 34 17 8 Fawns NR R Total NR R 51 34 59 68 59 34 68 8 15 8 Total Harvest 134 45 30 8 15 30 30 15 15 15 17 18 17 59 60 76 17 30 8 15 8 25 42 51 118 213 119 17 17 162 8 15 17 59 42 68 59 17 8 17 17 34 60 34 59 42 8 17 Does 60 15 34 34 8 8 8 25 8 43 17 34 25 17 9 8 45 9 15 26 9 17 8 15 15 17 8 15 15 8 17 42 9 9 17 8 8 8 119 60 45 34 43 60 8 110 68 102 93 25 102 59 128 93 51 25 17 51 68 42 76 93 17 34 8 17 25 8 118 119 136 15 30 60 15 15 30 170 15 45 60 30 15 15 15 15 119 60 45 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 185 34 59 113 89 34 68 8 40 72 111 133 228 149 17 17 162 170 125 68 147 93 25 162 89 128 93 51 8 40 32 51 68 42 91 93 17 49 8 17 25 8 237 179 181 �- 210 - Table 220 Regular season deer harvest by sportsman's license holders, by Game Management Unit, 1969 (continued). 11 Unit No. 45 46 461 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 89 90 931 937 Totals Bucks Name Holy Cross Bailey Deer Creek Frying Pan Mt. Elbert Buffa 10 Peaks South Park South Platte N.F. Gunnison Coal Creek Sapinero Taylor River Buena Vista Badger Creek Eleven Mile Pikes Peak W.S. Uncompahgre E.S. Uncompahgre Smith Fork Olathe Alpine L.F. Gunnison Tomichi Saguache Grape Creek San Miguel Dolores Yellow Jacket Mancos Hermosa Animas River Creede Piedra San Juan La Garita S.F. Rio Grande Conejos Sand Dunes Trinchera Greenhorn Picket Wire Branson Sangre de Cristo Crow Valley Bijou R 8 17 17 42 42 68 34 26 51 76 128 128 59 9 76 Does NR R Fawns NR NR R 8 34 25 42 76 85 42 34 68 85 230 239 59 17 76 17 8 15 25 17 8 45 30 60 45 15 8 9 42 43 9 45 45 15 15 8 9 8 8 15 -IS 17 94 50 17 8 25 68 76 25 51 42 8 34 59 110 42 34 59 51 128 59 51 8 25 51 68 30 208 15 119 60 15 30 60 60 15 30 75 119 15 60 282 30 45 8 42 9 8 9 34 34 9 30 45 30 15 15 15 8 25 17 15 17 51 9 17 17 17 42 17 15 30 9 8 45 8 8 15 8 17 4,016 2,211 1,497 450 210 liThe estimated regular season deer kill was accomplished resident hunters and 4,114 nonresident hunters. R 25 136 59 25 17 59 110 85 2S 76 59 8 34 76 170 51 59 76 76 170 76 51 8 25 51 8 68 8 17 Total NR 15 90 75 75 60 15 15 60 268 45 119 90 15 30 60 60 30 30 90 149 15 60 327 30 45 15 45 5,723 2,706 Total Harvest 8 34 25 42 91 85 42 34 158 160 305 299 74 17 76 15 85 404 104 25 126 149 125 115 25 136 119 38 64 166 319 66 119 403 106 170 121 51 8 25 51 8 83 8 17 8,429 by an estimated 10,189 �- 211 - Table 23. Resident Sportsman's license S~ll Game Survey, 1969. Species Number of Hunters Total Bag Ave. Season Bag Per Hunter Scaled Quail 247 2,371 9060 2056 GSD1beh Quail 55 232 4.22 2.46 Bobwhite Qua il 179 832 4.65 2.. 05 Chukar Partridge 99 421 4.25 2.12 Mourning Dove 1,923 30,480 15.85 3.56 Sage Grouse 717 2,581 3.60 1.90 Sharp-tail Grouse 117 240 2.05 1.63 Blue Grouse 1,162 2,928 2.52 1.91 Ptannigan 192 526 2.74 1.60 Pheasant 3,234 11,093 3.43 2052 Cottontail Rabbit 3,166 23,301 7.36 4.32 Snowshoe Hare 482 1~190 2.47 3.17 Fox Squirrel 136 481 3.54 2.20 Ducks 1,799 14,014 7.79 5.44 Geese 408 1,081 2.65 4.89 Ave. Days Hunted Per Season �- 212 - Table 240 Nonresident Sportsman's license Small Game Survey, 1969. Number of Hunters Total Bag Ave. Season Bag Per Hunter Ave. Days Hunted Per Season Bobwhite Quail 9 42 4.65 15.00 Mourning Dove 10 70 7.00 1.00 Blue Grouse 29 77 2.66 1033 Cottontail Rabbit 56 158 2.83 3.50 Snowshoe Hare 48 77 1 60 0 4.16 Fox Squirrel 35 131 3 75 2075 Ducks 115 814 7.08 3031 Geese 10 40 4.00 4.33 Pheasant 31 93 3 00 1.40 Species 0 0 �- 213 - Table 25. Sportsman's license fishing survey, 1969. Non-resident Total 10,213 1,320 11,533 8,377 1,320 9,697 100 o 100 1,736 o 1,736 1 - Streams 1,911 362 2,273 2 - Lakes 2,036 645 2,681 3 - Both 6,266 313 6,579 1 - Bait 1,154 381 1,535 2 - Lures 541 264 805 3 - Flies 920 147 1,067 4 - Bait and Lures 1,740 205 1,945 5 - Bait and Flies 1,064 117 1,181 6 - Lures and Flies 1,258 98 1,356 7 - All Three 3,536 108 3,644 Total Trout Bag 502,377 22,215 524,592 Average No. Trout/Season 49.19 16.83 46.72 Days Fished/Season for Trout 16.77 4.28 15.68 Hours Fished/Day for Trout 4.94 3.27 4.79 Item Resident Number of Participants Fished for Trout Fished for Warm Water Fished for Both Fished ill.: Type of Equipment Used ��July, 1970 - 215 - JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 3C Evaluation of Deer~Scare Devices Period Covered: None Personnel: David F. Gordon ABSTRACT A final report for this job was published in the July, 1969 (Part One) Game Research Report. It should not have been included in the W-38-R-24 job descriptions. ��July, 1970 - 217 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RAD==~O~ Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 6 Job No. 11 Job Title _ Evaluation of the Effects of Spring-Summer Grazing by Deer on Alfalfa Period Covered: April 1, 1969 - October 31, 1969 Personnel: David F. Gordon, Harold M. Swope, Marion C. Coghill, Steven F. Steinert, Julius J. Klein, Donald E. Speers, John F. Corey, Dale F. Reed, Kenneth C. Dilinger, coolidge Woodard, Rifl~ F~lls Hatchery personnel and Rifle Gap Conservation Unit inmates. ABSTRACT Two cuttings of hay were harvested from the Rifle Gap study field. Hay from the study plots was weighed at both harvests. Plots with weights of hay within five pounds of each other were paired and one plot of each pair selected at random to be fenced. Deer were counted hourly through the night once a week during April and May. In June three counts were made and in July and August, two each. Data indicated that there is a resident herd. The winter herd peaked, on the average, at 8:00 PM MST then declined. Resident numbers peaked at 9:00 PM and remained level until 3:00 AM when they suddenly left the field. By midnight 60-70 percent of the total of all hourly counts had been attained. The Little Hills study field was planted to Ladak alfalfa, with a nurse crop of Colorado 37 oats, the end of May and a crop established. ��- 219 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SPRING-SliMMER GRAZING BY DEER ON ALFALFA DAVID F 0 GORDON Preparatory work establishing paired plots at Rifle Gap and planting 60 acres of alfalfa at Little Hills was completed this segmento The report will be in two sections, Rifle Gap and Little Hillso Po So OBJECTIVE To determine the effect of spring-summer grazing by deer on production of alfalfa 0 SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 20 3 0 40 To establish stands of alfalfa on which to conduct the study. To determine the number of deer using the study fieldso To establish and fence paired plots in the study fieldso To determine if there is a difference in production between grazed and ungrazed plots. METHODS AND MATERIALS - RIFLE GAP Study Field Preparation of Field Bare spots left in the field last season due to poor seeding and irrigation were reseeded by hand on May 20. These areas were watered along with the rest of the field during regular irrigation. Irrigation System Pumping Station--The upper pumping station was established by filling in the settling pond and installing three, 20-foot sections of 8-inch culvert where the pond had been. The upper end of the first section is anchored in a concrete header. The lower section rests solidly on the bank at the foot of the old pond. The pipe slopes about 1 inch in 10 feet. The upper section is covered with dirt to allow passage of machinery. The pump tank was set on a flooring of redwood boards. A concrete slab was poured for the pump and engine. The engine was converted to L-P gas carburet ion and a 300-gallon propane tank installed for fuel supply. �- 220 - The pumping station in the middle of the field was removed and the settling basin filled in. Sufficient pipe was secured to complete the mainline from the middle of the field to the lower end. Ditch Maintenance--Regular ditch cleaning_was accomplished with weedburner and shovelo The thick grass and weeds were cut down and the less dense vegetation burned. Loose tumbleweeds, leaves and other debris in the ditch were removed. The diversion from West Rifle Creek to the reservoir was checked daily during the major runoff to keep the diversioh ditch open and water in it. As the runoff subsided this chore became a weekly inspection progressively ciosing off the creek to divert a full head of water into the reservoir. On May 19 the creek was low enough to divert it entirely into the reservoir. From the middle of June until irrigation was terminated the ditches, and especially the diversion, had to be checked after each rain to be sure they were open and running. A new headgate was built at the first diversion from the creek. This was constructed of 2x4 spruce framing bolted and nailed together. Redwood 2xS's, grooved for hardwood splines, were bolted to the frame. A spill was cut in the lower side above the gate which was three slabs of redwood individually removable to adjust water flow. Concrete was poured in the floor of the box. Irrigation--Pipes were changed each morning. While one man shut down and serviced the engine, the rest of the crew began moving lines. Service consisted of checking the oil and filling when necessary. As soon as service was complete the engine was restarted. To move lines all but one lateral were shut down, in order not to overload the pump, moved to the next setting, hooked up, tested and the water turned in. The last line was then shut off and reset. A maximum of six lines, equalling 30 sprinkler heads, was operated in two sections of three lines each. As water supply dwindled the number of effective lines had to be decreased. Irrigation schedule was as follows: Begun April 21, Interrupted April 29, Restarted May 16, Shut down for harvest June 20, Restarted July 19, Terminated August 1. Hay Harvest Cutting--Hay was harvested twice under contract with F. W. Scarrow of Rifle, Colorado. The hay was cut with a Hesston, 1969, model 500, selfpropelled, swather-conditioner with l2-foot sickle-bar as follows: �- 221 - 1. Cut all hay the length of the field beginning from the ends of the plots and working out to the edge of the field. 2. Cut the hay in the study plots by having a helper stand at one end, midway between the corner posts, for the swather operator to sight on. 3. Cut the rest of the hay parallel to the plots, a helper pulling each corner marker as the swather approached and replacing it in the same hole when the machine had passed. Baling--Baling was accomplished with a tractor-drawn, John Deere, 1962, model 2l4T, string-tie baler drawn by a Massey-Ferguson, 1967, model 165 tractor as follows: 1. Bale all windrows running the length of the field outside the ends of the plots. 2. Bale all windrows within plots as follows: 3. a. Mark with a sheet of newspaper and tie the last bale from the opening windrows. bo Subsequently mark and tie the last bale from each ploto Bale all windrows between plots in the following sequence: a. All middle windrows up the field. b. All lower windrows back down the field. c. All upper windrows back up the field. Study Plots Harvest Data Selecting Plot Pairs--A crew followed inunediately behind the baler weighing the hay on a Chatillon spring scale, type 160, recording the weight of each bale to the nearest half pound. The resulting data were grouped and ranked from heaviest to lightest and the standard deviation calculated for each group. One tenth of the highest value of s was rounded to the nearest five pounds and this figure used as the upper limit of difference for selecting plots to be paired. Plot pairs were selected as follows: 1. Select pairs with the least difference in weight between plots up to a five-pound maximum. 2. In the case of a choice between three plots with equal difference in weight, select the two closest together. 3. 4. Do not pair 200-foot plots with l50-foot plots. Discard all 150-foot pairs. �- 222 - Fencing Plots--The plot to be fenced was selected by flipping a coin. Heads picked the higher numbered plot; tails, the lowero Treated, wooden, corner posts were set in holds dug 36-40 inches deep at each corner. These were braced with 6-foot, steel T-posts set on a rock in the ground. Line posts consisted of 10-foot, steel T-posts driven every 10 feet between corner postso Two courses of 39-inch-wide woven-wire were stretched between the corner posts and clipped to each line post (Figo 1). Deer Numbers Deer counts on the study field were made from April 2 through August 18 as outlined under segment 23. In addition, at each count the position of each group of one or more deer was marked on a map (Appendix I). Due to other commitments and harvest interference, counts were missed at the following times: 1. The second and third weeks of June (June 16 and 23). 2. The first two weeks of July (July 7 and 14). 3. The first week of August (August 4) • Counting was discontinued after the third week of August (August 18). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - RIFLE GAP Segment objectives 1 and 3 have been fulfilled. Objectives 2 and 4 will not be completed until the study is finished. Work on objective 4 could not be started this year because plots could not be selected until the second cutting had been completed and the hay weights analyzed. Study Field Preparation of Field Inspection of the areas reseeded this spring showed a good stand of young alfalfa. Irrigation System Pumping Station--The settling ponds were both filled on March 24 before the snow had completely melted. About 9 inches of snow on top of frozen ground at the bottom of the ponds was buried. The lower pond site was leveled out on May 28. At the permanent station the culvert had to be installed before thaw in order to begin irrigation as soon as possible. As the ground thawed it settled under the upper two-thirds of the tube. Dirt and snow were removed from under the lower end of the first length of culvert and the middle of the second length and backfilled with dry dirt packed down. The two threatened sections of the tube were held up by these rests, the solid supports at each end and the two jOint couplings until dry dirt could be packed under their full length. �- 223 - Fig. 1. Photograph of a fenced plot showing corner and line posts, corner braces and woven wire on Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field. �- 224 - Table 1 summarizes the relative costs of regular and L-P gas for the two years the study has been in effect. Table 1. Summary of comparative costs of regular and L-P gas to operate the Rifle Gap irrigation pump engine. Gas Hours Gallons Cost/Gal. Total Regular 1368 600 $.239 L-P 1584 660 l/ $8175 Cost/Hr. Gal./Hr. Year $143.40 $.105 .44 1968 $115.50 $.073 .42 1969 l/ThiS figure is less an estimated 180 gallons left in the tank at the end of the season. L-P gas is cheaper than regular, recovering the cost of conversion to L-P carburet ion in three years. Since all that is required with L-P gas for a season of operation is one oil change and oil level kept up, this is also cheaper. When using regular gas, oil must be changed every three days as well as keeping the crankcase full between oil changes. No information on relative cost of maintenance is available. Ditch Maintenance--A man was hired April 2 whose primary responsibility was control of the irrigation water supply for peak efficiency. Secondly, he was to service the engine and supervise changing irrigation pipes. Thirdly, he was to improve the existing ditch system when time permitted. This latter involved a good bit of lonely shovel work. The man hired, seriously neglected his responsibilities. His employment was terminated April 29. The new headgate worked well even though water washed under the gate before the concrete floor was poured. This leak did not occur until flow in the ditch was low enough not to cause an oversupply to the pump tank. Irrigation--About the middle of May, water pressure at the pump dropped drastically even though the headgate was open wide. A subsequent check revealed five minor leaks in the feeder ditch between the headgate and the first flume, due to a buildup of algae and silt; and two culverts plugged with tumbleweeds. The leaks were repaired and the pump shut down while the ditch was reopened. When water had cleared irrigation was resumed. Through negligence the pump engine was permitted to run out of oil causing the crankshaft to freeze and break the housing. This necessitated replacement of the engine at a cost of $236.51 and interrupted irrigation from April 29 to May 16. �- 225 - After April, irrigation pipe was changed under supervision of Rifle Falls Hatchery personnel with a crew from the Rifle Gap Conservation Unit, five days a week. On weekends one of the crew members took upon himself the responsibility of supervision and did a very commendable jobo Interruption of irrigation the first two weeks of May necessitated running both upper and lower sets of sprinklers together as long as water supply lasted in order to give the field adequate coverageo This made the task much more unpleasant because of mud and wet alfalfa. Hay Harvest First cutting proceeded without mishap. Procedures for cutting and baling were perfected and the hay stacked before it rained. Second cutting was rained on twice in the windrow and once in the bale before it was stacked. Study Plots Harvest Data Selecting Plot Pairs--Weights of hay from study plots are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. Calculated standard deviations were as follows: First Cutting NW Section, 26 pounds; E Section, 51 pounds; SW Section, 65 pounds. Second Cutting NW Section, 42 pounds; E 'Section, 22 pounds SW Section, 33 pounds One tenth of the highest value of s for all six calculations rounds to 5 pounds. This figure was used as the upper limit of difference between plots of a pair. Plots to be paired (Fig. 2 and 3) were selected on the basis of second cutting data for the following reasons: 1. Values of s were lower. 2. There were fewer weeds to bias the data. 3. More pairs could be selected. (Ten using first cutting weights, 14 using second). �- 226 - Table 2. ~eights of hay from tentative study plots on Rifle Gap Alfalfa first cutting, 1969. Damage Study Field NW Section Plot No. Lbs. of Hay E Section Plot No. Lbs. of Hay SW Section Lbs , of Hay Plot No. 346.0 12 321.0 28 294.5 40 326.0 13 312.0 33 292.0 45 318.0 10 292.5 16 288.0 38 312.5 14 286.5 19 280.0 39 294.0 6 280.0 17 278.0!/ 41 293.5 9 269.5 15 276.0 37 290.5 11 264.5 22 ·275.0 42 289.0 7 258.5 23 251.0 36 286.0 2 255.5 .18 237.5 44 283.0 8 242.0 21 233.5 51 277 .5 5 237.0 32 229.5 46 266.0 4 236.0 29 216.5 43 262.0 3 231.5 20 192.0 . 47 249.5 1 224.01/ 34 148.0 50 220.0 31 143.0 35 194.0 27 142.0 49 173.0 30 133.5 48 169.0 26 96.5 52 157.5 24 152.5 25 1/ These weights are about 5 pounds short due to reba1ing of broken bales. �- 227 - Table 3. Weights of hay from tentative study plots on Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field -- second cutting, 1969. NW Section Plot No. Lbs.of Hay E Section Plot No. Lbs. of Hay SW Section Plot No. Lbs. of Hay 176.5 8 142.0 15 179.0 36 172.5 12 141.5 16 167.5 41 158.5 10 133.5 24 164.5 38 153.5 13 ll8.01/ 19 164.0 37 145.0 6 u s.o 29 164.0 40 140.5 14 ll4.5 28 162.5 35 128.0 7 108.011 32 159.5 42 127.011 II 107.0 27 141.0 39 102.5 9 104.5 17 139.0 44 86.0 5 102.0 34 133.0 45 69.5 2 98.5 23 127.5 46 67.5 1 98.5 31 118.5 43 65.0 3 96.5 . 18 ll5.011 48 40.01:./ 4 85.0 25 99.5 51 84.0 22 98.5 50 83.5 33 84.5 52 76.5 26 71.5 49 76.5 30 -- 'l:l 47 71.0 21 -- 2,..1 20 II These weights are about 5 pounds short due to reba1ing broken bales. II These weights were lost due to broken bales. �- 228 - Fig. 2. Photograph of Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field With Study Plots Established. �" . ,: '.' .... rl&-Jl-Jl-"-C:- .. .. __ - •• 0- ' :i \\ i, • I IN" -- --=---•...-.- .-- ..- 1-i"'''''' ..-...'--. 00... 00 •• •• 0 :i • II I 00 •.....•..... •• •• •• I I I 0 10 . If') .' .. . .r::" - ,'-'" -r : - ---,'. , --: Legend --- ",---_.i- -- - ,I Open Plot " Closed Plot Boundary of New Seeding Boundary of Alfalfa Plot Field Pairs NW E SW Open Closed Open Closed Open Closed . 2 I I 12 I 15 33 8 30 29 23 16 22 26 28 3I 40 7 27 34 10 6 13 14 38 35 1 37 41 42 Fig. 3. Map showing the location of paired plots on Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field. N N \0 �- 230 - Fencing Plots--Fencing was completed in six days with the help of Project and Little Hills personnel assisted by a crew from the Rifle Gap Conservation Unit. When stretching the top course of wire we chained the top of the post, where the wire was fastened, to a parked pickup before applying tension. This prevented the corner post from being pulled loose in the ground. Gates for the plots were built by Little Hills personnel. Deer Numbers Deer Count Data A shift in numbers of deer from old growth areas in the study field to new growth is illustrated by a graph (Figo 4) plotted from data in Table 4. Last year it was observed that the mature alfalfa scattered through the new planting was consistently grazed to the exclusion of the innnature. This year's observations indicated that at a definite time the new seeding reached a point when it.was as palatable as the older plants. The reason for this preference has not been determined. Fig. 5 graphs deer numbers throughout the growing season. The date by which most of the migratory deer left the field is indicated on this graph. Table 5 sunnnarizes numbers of deer that were on the field at each hour of each night of counting for the entire season. The data from Table 4 were graphed on time of night (Fig. 6) to see if the pattern of hourly visits was different in old and new growth. No marked difference existed. Count data from the entire season were divided into winter herd (Table 6) and summer (resident) herd (Table 7). Graphing these results indicated the winter herd numbers peaked at 8:00 PM MST (Fig. 7) and steadily declined thereafter. There were no peaks after midnight. This general pattern of behavior has been observed consistently in other studies, relating to alfalfa and pinto beans, in other locations on the western slope of Colorado from Little Hills in the north to Egnar in the south. A graph of the nightly pattern for the residents (Fig. 8) indicated that the entire herd had entered the field by 10:00 PM and left again in a similar manner after 3:00 AMo Simple inspection of deer-count data from previous years and other locations indicated that, on the average, 60-70 percent of the total of all hourly counts was attained by midnight. This year's data concur. Deer Distribution In order to get an idea of deer distribution over the field for the entire sununer, a composite of all maps collected through the sununerwas made (Fig. 9). This indicates fairly universal coverage of the field with definite concentrations at the northwest corner, the south edge and the east end. These are areas of access for deer as reported under segment 23 This map also illustrates the observation that during nights of counting, few deer frequent the vicinity of the counting station. 0 �- 231 40 PERCENT OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF DEER ~ ON DATE- OF COUNT " I I ,I RIFLE GAP- 1969 I I I I I I I I I I 30 rfJ ,, - "0 Q) C ::J Q) I I I Legend I ' ~ I I New Seedlno G- - -(!] Old 61'3 6/30 7/21 "Y"28 8/11 Growth I I 0 u ~ Q) ,, , ,, ,, • ,,, ~ I 20 c -- I 0 c o Q) ~ ell 0.. G I I I I I I I I I I I 10 8 ~ 6 ~ 't!{ 4 2 • ,, &-El. 0 4/2 41'3 4/16 4/23 4/30 &'7 5/12 5/19~6 Date of fIl 8/18 Count Fig. 40 Graph illustrating the shift of deer concentration from old growth to new growth alfalfa. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969)0 �Table 4. Deer-count data from new seeding and old growth on Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field - April 2 through May 26, 1969. Percent Mountain Standard Time Date 1900 New Old 4/2 4/9 16 24 4/16 2200 New Old 2300 New Old 2400 New Old 0100 New Old 0200 New Old 0300 New Old 0400 New Old 0500 New Old of Average New Old 2000 New Old 2100 New Old 2 70 1 8 5 17 o 15 1 8 o 13 o 9 o 10 o 7 o 6 1.6 11.9 9 33 8 19 11 27 17 30 11 38 16 12 4 24 11 26 6 32 o 14 18.0 27.9 8 44 10 37 8 48 5 49 5 34 5 41 12 35 4 17 3 28 13 16 13.3 38.4 4/23 7 o 24 5 22 23 30 3 18 7 20 12 14 o 15 o 13 21 9 6 3 o 28.8 7.7 4/30 o o 28 12 14 18 10 6 7 3 12 13 7 3 11 2 4 4 5 1 o o 16.2 6.2 5/7 o o 13 o 2 6 5 11 6 o 3 11 9 o o 9 o 8 3 o 8 o 8.2 4.6 5/12 o o 7 o 9 o 2 2 10 3 o 2 10 o 4 4 6 5 5 o o o 8.7 1.6 5/19 o o o o 5 1 2 o 3 2 3 o o 3 5 5 o 5 o o o o 2.9 1.6 5/26 o o o o 4 2 2 o o o 1 o 5 o o o 1 o o o o o 2.6 0.2 4.9 3.2 15.1 11.3 9.3 12.3 10.9 7.5 8.5 9.2 6.4 10.0 5.1 7.7 3.9 3.7 Percent of Average 12.4 11.9 12.4 11.9 10.9 11.3 N W N �- 233 40 PERCENT OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF DEER ON DATE OF COUNT RIFLE GAP - 1969 30 - "0 Q) c: :J 0 U ... Q) Q) 20 a 0 .•.. c: Q) (.) ... Q) 0.. Winter Herd 10 8 6 • 4 2 4/2 4/9 4/16 4/23 4/30 5/7 5/12 5119 5/26 Date of ~ 619 &130 ~I 7/Z8 8/11 8/18 Count Fig. 5. Graph of the seasonal peak of deer numbers expressed in percent of average. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado ~ 1969). �- 234 - Table 5. Deer-count data from Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field - April 2 through August 18, 1969. 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 Percent of Average 17 9 22 15 9 13 9 10 7 7 6.3 42 27 38 47 49 28 28 37 38 14 19.0 52 47 56 54 39 46 47 21 31 29 22.7 Mountain Standard Time Date 1900 4/2 4/9 40 4/16 4/23 7 29 45 33 25 32 14 15 34 15 2 12.3 4/30 0 40 32 16 10 25 10 13 8 6 0 7.8 5/7 0 13 8 16 6 14 9 9 8 3 8 406 5/12 0 7 9 4 13 2 10 8 11 5 0 3.4 5/19 0 0 6 2 5 3 3 10 5 0 0 1.7 5/26 0 0 6 2 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 0 8 6/2 0 2 4 0 6 0 0 2 6 0 0 1.0 6/9 0 5 4 4 5 5 4 9 7 0 0 201 6/30 0 0 6 6 6 4 6 6 4 1 0 1.9 7/21 0 2 6 6 3 8 2 1 1 2 0 105 7/28 0 0 7 14 5 10 6 4 4 2 0 2.5 8/11 1 13 11 16 10 11 12 13 12 17 2 5.8 8/18 4 6 14 14 13 21 10 16 19 6 6.6 0 �- 235 40 PERCENT OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF DEER ON HOUR OF COUNT NEW SEEDING VS. OLD GROWTH RIFLE GAP-1969 30 Legend: 0----0 New Seedino EI- - -{!] Old Growth - "0 Q) c: ~ 0 U ~ Q) Q) 20 CI 0 +- c: Q) o ~ Q) a. 10 ,, 8 ~ 6 4 2 0 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 0100 Mountain Standard Time 0200 0300 0400 0500 Fig. 6. Comparison of the pattern of deer numbers per hour in old and new growth alfalfa. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969). �- 236 - Table 6 Deer-count data from Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field April 2 through April 30, 1969 0 0 Date 1900 4/2 4/9 40 4/16 Mountain Standard Time 2200 2300 2400 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 2000 2100 17 9 22 15 9 13 9 10 7 6 42 27 38 47 49 28 28 37 38 14 52 47 56 54 39 46 47 21 31 29 4/23 7 29 45 33 25 32 14 15 34 15 2 4/30 0 40 32 16 10 25 10 13 8 6 0 57 13 1 1107 12.0 11.0 11.2 81 82 80 7.1 37 Percent of Average 0 0 0 0 0 0 �- 237 - Table 7. Deer-count data from Rifle Gap Alfalfa Damage Study Field May 7 through August 18, 19690 Mountain Standard Time 2200 2300 2400 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 9 8 3 8 10 8 11 5 0 3 3 10 5 0 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 0 6 0 0 2 6 0 0 4 4 5 5 4 9 7 0 0 0 6 6 6 4 6 6 4 1 0 0 2 6 6 3 8 2 1 1 2 0 7/28 0 0 7 14 5 10 6 4 4 2 0 8/11 1 13 11 16 10 11 12 13 12 17 2 8/18 4 6 14 14 13 21 10 16 19 6 Percent of Average 0.8 11.3 13.0 11.3 1101 1202 11.1 11.6 7.7 206 Date 1900 2000 2100 5/2 0 13 8 16 6 14 9 5/12 0 7 9 4 13 2 5/19 0 0 6 2 5 5/26 0 0 6 2 6/2 0 2 4 6/9 0 5 6/30 0 7/21 7.2 �- 238 40 PERCENT OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF DEER ON HOUR OF COUNT WINTER HERD RIFLE GAP-1969 30 ~Q) c: ::J 0 0 ~ Q) 20 CJ) -C 0 c: o CJ) ... CJ) a, 10 8 6 4 2 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 Mountain 2400 0100 Standard Time 0200 0300 0400 Fig. 7. Graph illustrating the pattern of deer numbers per hour for the winter herd. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969). 0500 �- 239 40 PERCENT OF AVERAGE NUMBER OF DEER ON HOUR OF COUNT RESIDENT HERD RIFLE GAP- 1969 30 ., - ." c::: ;:, 0 (.) .,.,... 20 0 0 -.,., c::: ... o 11. 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 0100 Mountain Standard Time 0200 0300 0400 Fig. 8. Graph illustrating the pattern of deer numbers per hour for the resident herd. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969). O~OO �~ ....•. "-. . " ,,,--X-' . . . ... ..... ,.. ., . . .'. ., ___ ':JK1X_,,->,-y._lt-"-x---. i • • ·0 ~•• • •• • •• • \ · .. .. .. i " .Stotion - ••• ., .., ~ •••••• - ••• :... I :.:, I I •••• ." • '. I • • •• e' / / . \ • ,.' ~ .. , • •.!. ., •• :. .J ' --... •••••• - ..;,,.--.,,,, ~ /'- : :. • •• • •••• :.... •••••• :,. •• X . . ••• :' :. • x K-..;; • • • • •• • .• I .',,•• I .... •• .! ~~~ \ ••••••• lC_ J(_ -. . . . .. . .,. • • .. . . . . . .. : ... .•.. ,... . .. : .. , , . ~--\. .•.. _ ••:.. .r .. .,. ,--,,' ~---~--~ .. , . . • ••••• • •. . .. . ' • • .' ..... . . ::... '.' '... . .. .:.--.-.~., ..• •• • • • l_ .. · •• lC__ , __ '. •• •• ': :: •••• 1 ..• ..•••• : ••• I Leaend: Group of one or more deer Boundary of new seeding - - - Boundary of olfalfo field :: ••__e.!:" '" ~ Fig. 9. Map compiled from the entire season's data indicating the distribution groups of deer. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969). I on the study field of N +'o �- 241 - Breaking the distribution down irttoperiods of time, Fig. 10 illustrates that the majority of the deer remained in the old growth and perimeters of the new growth until plants reached a certain maturity. Fig. 11 pictures the same thing for the winter herd. Fig. 12 indicates a more even distribution by the residents. Individual deer of this herd also showed less fear of the counting station. Conclusions I. There is something about young alfalfa plants that is unpalatable to deer. 2. There is a resident herd in this area. 3. Peak visits followed an overall pattern similar to that of last year, though not as exaggerated. METHODS AND MATERIALS - LITTLE HILLS Study Field Preparation of Field Final preparation for seeding the study field was begun April 22. The field was disked twice and harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow once to break up the clods. Leveling was done with the local Soil Conservation Service District's land-plane drawn by a D-4 Caterpillar crawler. A mixture of Ladak alfalfa (15 lb./A.) and Colorado 37 oats (30 lb./A.) was sowed using a John Deer tractor, model 620, and l2-foot drill between May 26 and 29. Irrigation Additional pipe was purchased and the mainline permanently installed the full length of the field along the south edge, between May 27 and June 3 (Fig. 13). One section of 3,600 feet (60 T-valves) extended to the east above the well, another of 3,840 feet (64 T-valves) to the west below the well. The feeder line from the well was fitted with a reversible elbow permitting water to be turned into either section. Five lateral lines were spaced along the mainline in one section at a time. East of the well there were 12 T-valves between each lateral, west of the well there were 13 except at the end. A pipe trailer was used to transfer lateral lines from one section to the other. �~ . lI._,,_lt-;c,-X-X-;e ___-'.!L;-X- 0 !.:.... .' xI 0'. \... '. ___ . • Station ':' .' xI I )( I )C " i (/)1 I , i· i.' ;-.. ....•... :..,.--••• 0 ~ 0 :. ., 0:. :,'f :. • : 0 • 0 i i ~. ~••. ~'" , ..•.- · · " - ... ~ ~.,'" ·/ I I I I I I - - - Legend' - - -' ~, - - - - or r :. :0' : G' .,0'0, : -.' - :.. J :' ~-----.... of :' •• • • ,. I'· ~~~- _ 0 .,. /~- ..".. ", • 0 ,.: • . . '. . . . .... .. . , " . •• • \,..' \. \ 0 ,.,~,' • • •• , • I ,. x.' : 0'. \ P~mp'"!1 •• 1,': 1 Yo,' • ~ o. v • ~ lI • : :: • )(-.0;;1(_ )(1"-)( ! .! : I , ~~ '" : •I 0 0 I 0 -IC_ -' • Group of one or more deer Boundary of new seeding Boundary of olfa If a field , - -" Fig. 10. Map indicating the distribution on the study field of groups of deer until deer concentration shifted from old growth to new growth. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado _ 1969). N +-N �~ ~"'_ I ,,_ It_,,_x-x-It ~ ---. . I••. • • •••• '. .\ ,. . . . ... , -" -)C_ • ,.-.- " ....• .:: ,. .,., . . .. ..:..... :, ..: . ., . . '... ....'., x_ x_ ;. .1 • : '1 •• !.. I .::.' •f :.:. of o • • -:r'\--- • Pumping • Station , . • • I '. \ • \ • I •I ... - / , I , .... .;. 0 0 \\ \ .. • : : . . ..... o· ' ,....,.:.. .. .':.::.:;. :'" --" • • '~'':-'; . . e.. ' . .... ~:: :. --' - ..•• !..--"'~ " _... •..... ... . _ •••_ __ ••• __ .: t -- •• ..,,-' ...• _------ Legend: Group of one or more deer Boundary of new seeding Boundary of alfalfa field ~ Fig. 11. Map indicating the distribution on the study field of groups of deer only for the winter herd. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969). N +=- w �~ ___ - :\.. •• ..-••• W'J :;;;0-)( - ••••..z _)( - x-rr: )C._x •• - ..)C_ )L-1<_ J(_ • J(_ : •• • : • 0 o • o • o • o. .... .. . .. ; • ••• : •• .. •• 0 •:" t :. 00 • ••• • •••• • ... . . •• •• --.~ I ...~_ )( __ _ .• . ." - .•. _ _ o • ~ '" _. ,. •• '.' ..' 0 • I.'. .: I. o o I I ..-: .: . ••• : • ••! •. • • 0 ' , I I , t N ~ x o· o k .•...•...• Statia. . :. I i I • -.-X-=:.:)(•..-. X;-o.••••• • I •• ,. )( X--k __ • \ \ • .: \ \ \ • \ 0 \. .." .' ..•. _i...--.; .•.._ • 0 . •• •• •••• • • •• oo • • o • • ·0 • • • . I ...~ 0 ..... ; .;:...,--:., ". ' .:-: " .",,:, , '" . -- - I I 0 ••• ••••• • • - ---' I I \ - - - - - ." • !:.!sI.!M: - •'. • • '. .' .••• ••• __• -_ '; ! I .' I •: ! • •I -_ ••• 0 JI ~.••• •••- J- - - - - -- • Group of one or more deer Boundary of new seeding Boundary of alfalfa field Fig. 12. Map indicating the distribution on the study field of groups of deer only for the resident herd. (Rifle Gap Ranch, Garfield County, Colorado - 1969). ~ ~ �CORRAL PASTURE GULCH 8 PASTURE PASTURE 7 6 ---------- -----------------", /\. " -.~ . ..,.j'--->- \ / "'~ ~ 'r'e'~.t .•.::---"'"\. / ...,., - - -------- I I ---- ~-", Legend: r:;;::1 ~ ___ ====t~ I Direction of line moves - - - -' Boundary / lateral of alfalfa IV -I'V> Fig. 13. Map of Little Hills Alfalfa Damage Study Field showing major features and the pattern used when changing lateral lines. (Meeker, Rio Blanco County, Colorado). �- 246 - Irrigation was begun on June 4. Sprinkler lines were changed every 12 hours during June and July, every 24 hours during August. The pattern of change is diagrammed in Figo 140 The lateral lines were carried 120 feet down the mainline, skipping one T-va1ve each time, until the first setting of the next lateral was reached. This process was then reversed on the way back using T-va1ves that had been skipped on the way down. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - LITTLE HILLS Segment objective 1 was attained this year. Objectives 2 and 4 will not be complete until the study is finished. Work on objective 3'cou1d not be done due to adverse weather conditions and related complications. Work on objective 4 can not begin until plots are pairedo All work was performed by Little Hills personnel. Study Field Preparation of Field Preparation and planting of the field would have been completed earlier except for a delay in obtaining the land-plane. Irrigation The procedure, as outlined above, permitted one complete irrigation of the field every 13 days when pipes were changed at 12-hour intervals. This pattern obtained the most uniform germination of the seed. The entire field was irrigated completely three times through the summer. Hay Harvest The field was thoroughly and evenly seededo Growth was not uniform all over the field, however, due to differences in soil fertility, drainage and irrigation coverageo The original plan was to harvest the oats by combine. Stubble would have been baled for easy removal. This plan was abandoned because heavy snow matted the oats to the ground the week before harvest was scheduled. Subsequent moisture prohibited any machinery from entering the field. As an emergency measure 600 head of cows and calves belonging to Mr. Ivo E. Shults grazed the field between November 17 and December 10 This appears to have accomplished its end by removing approximately 90 percent of the oat cover. The true effect will be learned next spring. 0 Study Plots Inclement weather which prohibited harvest also cancelled fencing of the �N Legend: f + Sprinkler ...head Pipe joint -e- Tee-valve -+- Pipe joint Lateral Line N .po. --.J ---- Mainline Order and direction of lateral line changes Fig. 14. Diagram of the order followed when changing lateral lines on Little Hills Alfalfa Damage Study Field, Meeker, Rio Blanco County, Colorado. �- 248 - control meadow and marking of the study plot cornerso be done next spring. These tasks will Deer Numbers Deer counts were not attempted because the study field remained fallow until after the deer had left for the summer. Prepared by iJ~ y:? ~ David F. Gordon Asst. Wildlife Researcher �- 249 - APPENDIX I ��July, 1970 - 251 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 11 B & C Job No. 1 Job Title Physical Characteristics White River and Rio Grande Elk Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: Raymond J. Boyd ABSTRACT Due to reassignment to other jobs within this project, this job was not completed, a rough draft of the breeding dates paper was finished, however. ��- 253 - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS - WHITE RIVER AND RIO GRANDE ELK Raymond J 0 Boyd Po So OBJECTIVE To publish data on elk physical characteristics. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Publish in the Journal of Wildlife Management an article comparing physical characteristic differences in two elk herds that winter on two different vegetative typeso 2. Publish in the Journal of Wildlife Management an article on the breeding dates of Colorado elk based upon fetal measurements. METHODS AND MATERIALS 1. Gather all comparative physical measurement data from the White River elk herd and the Rio Grande elk herd and show differences attributed to nutrition and complete a paper on the differences. 2. Get together all fetal measurement data and write a paper on the breeding season of Colorado elk based upon crown/rump measurements of fetuses collected in December. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Due to reassignment to other jobs within this project, this job was not completed during the past segment. However, a first draft of the breeding dates paper was completed. ��July, 1970 - 255 - JOB FINAL S ta te of Project Work Job .:::C,:::;O.:::L,:::;ORAD:..=.::::.O:::...-_-..:..:...-._ No. Plan REPORT No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk .=I.=l_B=-- _ Job No. Investigations 7 Ti t Le _......:;l\..:i;.;::o~G:.:r..::a:.::n:.::d:.::e:....-::E:.:1:.::k::......::S:...:t:..:u:.::d:.!y_-__=P....::u:.::b:...:l::i:..:c:.::a::.:t:.:i:..:o:.:n::......::o::f~R _ Period Personnel: Covered: None Raymond J. Boyd ABSTRACT This job was completed and a final report submitted. advertently included in this segment. The final report in the July, 1969, (Part One) Game Research Report. It was inis published ��JU.lY, .l:1/U - 257 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. llc Job No. 1 Job Title White River Elk population Components Period Covered: April Personnel: Edgar J. Prenzlow. Check Station Assistant's Richard M. Bartmann, George D. Bear, RaymondJ. Boyd, David F. Gordon, Donald M. Hoffman, Richard M. Hopper, Roland C. Kufeld, Gary T. Myers, Robert L. Schmidt, Donald G. Smith, Steven F. Steinert, Harold M. Swope, and Michael R. Szymczak. 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 ABSTRACT This is the fourth annual progress report of a five-year investigation to determine the effects of specified permit seasons (limited number of both antler1ess and antlered permits available to hunters) on the White River elk herd in northwestern Colorado. Estimated herd size, determined by formulas using pre- and post-season sex and age ratios in combination with harvest levels, has decreased from about 6,800 to 5,800 elk from 1966 to 1969. Pre-season sex ratios (bulls per 100 cows) and age ratios (calves per 100 cows) were increased from about 29 to 50 and 58 to 60, respectively. The change in sex ratios resulted from issuing more antlerless and fewer antlered permits to hunters in an attempt to stabilize the female segment of this elk herd. Methods used to determine harvest rates, sex and age ratios, and age structures of this elk herd are compared and evaluated. Also, data from check stations, hunter report cards and random surveys are included. ��- 259 - WHITE RIVER ELK HERD - POPULATION COMPONENTS Edgar J. Prenzlow P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for the White River elk herd. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. 4. Review literature necessary for population analysis of the White River elk herd. Summarize, evaluate and file all previous information collected on the White River elk herd to better acquaint new project personnel on the history of this job. Test a candidate elk harvest formula for Area E elk herd. a. Maintain wintering population at about 5,000 elk by stabilizing female segment of herd. b. Narrow post-season sex ratios to 20 bulls per 100 cows in an attempt to increase productivity (calves per 100 cows) by specified permits. Determine accurate sex and age structures of the harvest, hunter success ratios, and amounts of recreation and associated recreation days expended on the White River elk herd. METHODS AND MATERIALS Data collection (aerial and ground sex and age ratio counts, check stations and mail questionnaires to determine harvest, age composition, recreation days, etc.) for this project has not varied appreciably since its instigation in 1966 (Prenzlow 1967, 1968). Likewise, procedures for determining total population estimates have not changed. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Physiographies of the White River area are included in Harris (1963) and Boyd (unpublished). Their manuscripts are concerned with all eight Game Management Units (12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33 and 34) whereas this present investigation is limited primarily to Area E, or Game Management Units 23 and 24 (Fig. 1). Prenzlow (1967, 1968) also described the study area. �- 260 - ••"T9 .Jl~ B Fig. 1. Elk Management Area E (Game Management Unit~ 23 and 24) showing boundaries, drainage patterns and highway systems. Solid c.ir~lee are active check station locations. STUDY AREA LEGEND GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT OOUNDARY IIOHWAY==""" OECONDARY ROAO ---IlIVERCII[EK ------<:::::: Check Stations. -. �- 261 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sex and Age Composition Aerial Surveys Pre-Season Sex and Age Ratios--The 1969 pre-season sex and age ratio counts were flown in a helicopter on 29, 30 September and 1, 2 and 5 October. These classifications were confined to elk observed within Area E (Table 1). A total of 1,358 elk were classified resulting in a ratio of 50.2 bulls (including spikes) and 60.3 calves per 100 cows. Summaries of past sex and age ratios for the years 1961 through 1969 are shown in Table 2. while Figs. 2 and 3 illustrate 95 percent confidence intervals for these ratios. Table Pre-season 1. sex and age ratio Mature Location Ripple Cr., Picket Pin and Trappers Lake Oak Ridge, Big Beaver Cr. counts in Area E, 1969. Spikes Cows Calves Total 13 31 103 45 192 2 14 27 14 57 Bulls Miller Cr. and Elk Cr. 2 2 13 10 27 South Fork Drainage 41 34 158 110 343 25 34 139 89 287 Lost Park and Snell Peak 30 96 205 121 452 Total 113 211 645 389 1,358 Percent 8.3 15.5 47.5 28.7 100.0 Marvine Crs., Big Ridge Ute Cr. and �Table 2. Summaries of pre-season sex and age ratios from Area E, 1961-1969. Bulls Cows Calves Year No. % No. % No. % Total Bulls : Ratio Cows : Calves 1961 128 19.6 309 47.3 216 33.1 653 41.4 : 100 : 69.9 1962 216 22.1 462 47.4 298 30.5 976 46.8 : 100 : 64.5 1963 125 20.0 298 47.5 204 32.5 627 41.9 : 100 : 68.5 1964 120 17.5 363 52.9 203 29.6 686 33.1 : 100 : 55.9 1965 233 17.3 699 51.8 416 30.9 1,348 33.3 : 100 : 59.5 1966 86 15.4 299 53.7 172 30.9 557 28.8 : 100 : 57.5 1967 134 16.8 415 52.2 247 31.0 796 32.3 : 100 : 59.5 1968 135 18.7 366 50.7 221 30.6 722 36.9 : 100 : 60.4 1969 324 23.9 645 47.5 389 28.6 1,358 50.2 : 100 : 60.3 Ave. 167 19.5 428 49.9 263 30.6 858 39.0 : 100 : 61.4 N 0'\ N �- 263 - 60 ••• 50 ~ 0 ~I 0 0 .!! 40 30 :I co 20 0 1961 6~ 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70) Years Fig. 2. Confidence intervals on pre-season sex ratios, Area E, 1961-1969. ,.. 80 ••• 70 ~ 0 U 0 0 --- 60 50 ••• G) > 0 U 40 0 J961 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 710 Years Fig. 3. Confidence intervals on pre-season age ratios (ca1ves:100 cows), Area E, 1961-196,.1/ so •••40 ~ o U 30 o o ..:::.. 20 .!! :J co 10 o L----19-6~,-----6~2----~63~----6-4-----6~5-----676----~6~7-----6~8~---76~9----~70 Years Fig. 4. Confidence intervals on post-season sex ratios, Area E, 1961-1969.11 1/ Confidence intervals were calculated ate( = 005 using a formula from Riney (1956) as f&l1~ 100 calves/lOO cows + (100 Y!(calves + cows) calves/cows3) �- 264 - Post-Season Sex and Age Ratios--Post season sex and age ratio counts were made in Area E on 1-3 December. A total of 1,839 elk were classified resulting in a ratio of 16.4 bulls (including spikes) and 65.3 calves per 100 cows (Table 3). Summaries of prior post-season sex and age ratios for the years 1961 through 1969 are shown in Table 4. Confidence intervals oh post-season sex ratios appear in Fig. 4. Table 3. Post-season sex and age ratio counts in Area E, 1969. Location Bulls Spikes Cows Calves Total Nine Mile 4 16 96 53 169 Uranium 0 4 34 25 63 7 37 197 134 375 Oak Ridge 7 20 102 69 198 Miller 3 6 33 22 64 Sand Pk. and east of Big Beaver Cr. 5 23 196 130 354 South 3 31 354 228 616 Total 29 137 1,012 661 1,839 Percent 1.6 7.4 55.0 36.0 100.0 Pk. Sawmill and west Beaver Cr. Ground of Big Crks. Fork Surveys In 1967, 1968 and 1969 elk were classified by ground surveys during July. This was done to estimate yearling-adult cow ratios which can not be obtained during aerial classifications and also served as independent estimates of sex and age structures. It is important to determine the proportion of yearling females in the herd and their influence on overall herd productivity. Usually only a small portion of yearling females breed, but there is considerable conflicting literature on this subject. Ground survey data are being reported in a Game Information Leaflet. Just the 1969 data have been tabulated for this report. �Table 4. Summaries of post-season sex and age ratios from Area E, 1961-1969. Year No. % No. % No. % Total Bulls : Ratio Cows : Calves 1961 106 10.6 465 46.5 430 43.0 1,001 22.8 : 100 : 92.5 1962 125 13.8 446 49.2 335 37.0 906 28.0 : 100 : 75.1 1963 45 6.1 413 55.7 283 38.2 741 10.9 : 100 : 68.5 1964 117 6.0 1,130 58.3 692 35.7 1,939 10.4 : .100 : 61. 2 1965 85 5.2 930 57.1 613 37.7 1,628 9.1 : 100 : 65.9 1966 128 6.1 1,245 58.9 739 35.0 2,112 10.3 : 100 : 59.4 1967 214 9.2 1,318 56.4 806 34.5 2,338 16.2 : 100 : 61.2 1968 148 8.2 951 52.9 699 38.9 1,798 15.6 : 100 : 73.5 1969 166 9.0 1,012 55.0 661 36.0 1,839 16.4 : 100 : 65.3 Ave. 126 7.9 879 55.3 584 36.8 1,589 14.3 : 100 : 66.4 Bulls Calves Cows N 0\ V1 �- 266 - Observers on horseback, riding during the early morning and evening hours, classified elk in different sections of the Flat Tops Primitive Area. In four days, two teams of two or three men classified a total of 969 elk in July, 1969 (Table 5). Many more elk were seen on which classification was not possible. The average size of elk groups observed was 32.3 animals. Table 5. Composition in Area E,1969. of 969 elk classified Mature Bulls Yearling Bulls during Mature Cows summer ground counts Yearling Cows Calves Total Number Observed 52 65 440 133 279 969 Percent Observed 5.4 6.7 45.4 13.7 28.8 100.0 16 17 28 22 20 30 21 1.7 2.2 14.7 4.4 9.3 32.3 (e.g. mature bulls observed in 16 of 30 total Frequency in Groups Mean Composition Group 1/ 1/ Frequency groups). in groups 21 Mean group size determined Check Surveys Station by percent were of elk observed times 32.3. Number of Elk Checked--Four White River elk check stations (Meeker, New Castle, Deep Creek, Ripple Creek) were operated for the first nine days during the 1969 big game season. Research personnel at the permanent check station at Rifle also checked elk from White River units. A total of 983 elk were checked from Game Management Units 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 33 and 34. Comparable data from other White River units also were collected because of their importance in relation to Area E elk. Table 6 lists the average number of elk checked at each station from 1964 through 1969. Table 7 lists checkout by date of 673 elk from Area E. cent were checked through stations on the third through the season. More than 85 perthe seventh day of �- 267 - Table herd, 6. Number of elk checked through stations from.White River elk (Game Management units 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 33 and 34) 1964-1969. station 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Average Meeker 553 506 591 518 725 637 588 Deep Creek 338 227 220 303 308 139 256 New Castle 321 196 166 227 290 78 213 Rifle 137 138 124 92 83 73 108 32 137 159 112 120 129 Idaho Springs Ripple Creek 227 56 1,381 1,204 1,384 133 4 4 Hamilton Total 110 1,381 1,633 983 1,328 Sex and Age Composition of Elk Checked--Percent composition (bulls, cows and calves) of elk checked is presented in Table 8. Sex and age ratios of the 673 were 77.0:100:8.9. This compares with 126.8:100:21.2 in 1966, 108.1:100:32.1 in 1967, and 95.6:100:26.1 in 1968. During the first three years a constant number of antlered permits (2,500) were issued, but in 1969, antlered permits were reduced to 2,200. Ant1er1ess permits varied from 1,000 in 1966, to 1,500 in both 1967 and 1968 and to 1,000 again in 1969. These changes partially account for the differences in ratios. Age Structure of Harvest--Of 673 elk checked, 437 were aged from Area E with the technique described by Quimby and Gaab (1957). Table 9 lists these ages by sex, while Table 10 shows similar information by game management unit. Teeth from 491 of the 653 elk aged (all units) were collected and taken to the wildlife Laboratory at the Fort Collins Game Research Center. Here the teeth were again aged according to the cementum technique reported by Keiss (1969). Assuming ages as determined by the cementum method to be correct, this comparison revealed an error of 1.6 percent on yearlings and 64.0 percent on two-year old and older elk (Tables 11 and 12) between the two methods. �Table 10. Sex and age determined at check stations of 437 elk by unit of kill, Area E, 1969. Age (Years) ~ l~ 2~ 3~ ~ 5~ 6~ 7~ 8~ 9+ Total Number 0 37 12 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 54 % of Total 0 68.5 22.2 .0 3.7 3.7 .0 1.9 .0 .0 100.0 14.1 4.6 .0 .8 .8 .0 .4 .0 .0 20.7 118 41 Unit and Sex 23 - Males % of all Males .0 24 - Males Number 7 24 11 6 1 0 a 1 209 % of Total 3.3 56.4 19.6 11.5 5.3 2.9 .5 .0 .5 .0 100.0 % of All Males 2.7 44.8 15.6 9.1 4.2 2.3 .3 .0 .3 .0 79.3 Number 2 4 11 8 4 2 4 1 3 1 40 % of Total 5.0 10.0 27.5 20.0 10.0 5.0 10.0 2.5 7.5 2.5 100.0 % of all Females 1.1 2.3 6.3 4.6 2.4 1.1 2.4 .6 1.7 .6 23.1 Number 16 19 18 15 19 7 18 6 7 9 134 % of Total 12.0 14.2 13.4 11.2 14.2 5.2 13.4 4.5 5.2 6.7 100.0 % of all Females 9.2 10.9 10.3 8.7 10.9 4.0 10.3 3.4 4.0 5.2 76.9 23 - Females 24 - Females N -..J 0 �- 271 - Table II. Percent error in aging 183 yearling elk at check stations, all White River Units, 1969. Station Dental Cementum 1/ Field 2:../ Aged Percent Correct Percent Error Meeker 125 122 97.6 2.4 Ripple Creek 8 8 100.0 0.0 New Castle 22 22 100.0 0.0 Deep Creek 12 12 100.0 0.0 Rifle 16 16 100.0 0.0 Total 183 180 98.4 1.6 1/ Number of teeth checked in laboratory using cementum technique. 2:../ Number of correct ages determined at check station using tooth replacement and wear technique. Table 12. Percent error in aging 308 elk older than yearlings at check stations, all White River Units, 1969. Percent Correct Percent Error 79 37.4 62.6 16 9 56.3 43.7 New Castle 24 8 33.3 66.7 Deep Creek 34 5 14.7 85.3 Rifle 23 10 43.5 56.5 Total 308 111 36.0 64.0 Station Dental Cementum 1/ Field Aged 2:../ Meeker 211 Ripple Creek 1/ Number of teeth checked in laboratory using cementum technique. 2/ Number of correct ages determined at check station using tooth replacement and wear technique. �- 274 - Table 15. Composition Game Management Unit. of the 1969 estimated elk harvest Data are from report card survey. Unit Antlered No. Antlerless No. % in Area E by Total No. % % 23 429 25.4 398 23.5 827 48.9 24 409 24.1 456 27.0 865 51.1 Total 838 49.5 854 50.5 1,692 100.0 Table 16. Number of resident and non-resident hunters, estimated elk kill and success ratio in 1969, Area E. Data are from report card survey. Number of Hunters Success Ratio Resident 3,554 31.0 547 556 1,103 Non-Resident 1,225 48.1 291 298 589 Total 4,779 35.4 838 854 1,692 Class Animals Harvested Antlered Antlerless Total Random Survey--To better estimate the elk kill in Area E, 1,517 of 3,200 permittees (47.4% sample) were contacted by letter and requested to give information regarding their hunt. Appendix A is a replica of the stamped, pre-addressed postcard sent to each hunter in the sample. Of 1,517 hunters sampled, 1,190 (79.4%) returned usable cards. The estimated total harvest was 1,183 (c.r.± 127 2 1.96) elk with 37.0 percent of the hunters being successful. Table 17 gives results of the survey, including harvest by type of hunter, while Table 18 lists active (those who actually hunted elk) number of hunters and success ratios. Random sampling resulted in a more accurate projection than the report card survey because more than 36 percent of each type of hunter responded to the survey; whereas, the report card method over-estimated kill by each class of hunters. For instance, antlerless kill by non-residents was projected to be 298 animals, although there were only 193 antlerless permits issued. Small sample sizes, method of projection (success ratios of hunters with antlered and antlerless permits are assumed to be comparable), and the �- 275 - fact that successful hUnters return report cards at a greater rate than unsuccessful hunters, caused the over-estimates. Also, many hunters with regular elk and sportsman licenses report kills in Area E. It is likely that kills are made in Area E by persons without the proper permit; but it is doubtful these exceed the confidence interval of the kill estimated by the random survey. Table 19 compares kill estimates and proportions from report cards and random surveys by residency and type of permit. Table 17. Results of 1969 random survey of 3,200 Area E permittees. Antlered Antlerless Res. N. Res. Res. N. Res. Total 1,616 584 807 193 3,200 Permits Issued Permits in Sample 762 266 394 95 1,517 Percent in Sample 47.2 45.5 48.8 49.2 47.4 Sample Returned 593 210 308 79 1,190 Percent Returned 77 .8 78.9 78.2 83.2 78.4 Percent of Total 36.7 36.0 38.2 40.9 37.2 Permits Reported "No Hunts" 103 13 39 6 161 Estimated "No Hunts" 281 36 102 15 434 Reported "Kills" 136 86 171 51 444 Estimated Total Harvest 371 239 448 125 1,183 Table 18. Number of hunters participating during and success ratios per license and active hunter. survey. Antler less Antlered Resident Active Hunters 1969 Area E elk season Data projected from random Non-Resident Resident Non-Resident Total 1,335 548 705 178 2,766 Success (Kill)/Lic. 23.0 40.9 55.5 64.8 37.0 Success (Kill)/Hunter 27.8 43.6 63.5 70.2 42.8 �- 276 - Table 19. Total resident and non-resident projected elk kill by type of animal based on report cards and random survey, Area E, 1969. Survey Report Card Random 1/ Figures Resident Antlered Antlerless Non-Resident Antlered Antlerless No. 547 (33.8)Y 556 (68.9) 291 (49.8) 298 (154.4) 1,692 (52.9) 371 (23.0) 448 (55.5) 239 (40.9) 125 (64.8) 1,183 (37.0) success ratios in parentheses indicate per license Total Percent issued. Projections from the random survey indicated that 434 of 3,200 (13.6%) licenses were not used. The number of "no hunts" in Area E has averaged 7.0 percent since 1966. Other surveys by Prenz10w (1969 a,b) on elk Areas MM and T, and by Turner (1967, 1968) in New Mexico, reported rates of unused licenses at 2.5, 4.0, 3.4, and 2.9 percent, respectively. Harvest in Relation to Area and Time Location of Harvest--Harvest by Game Management Unit was projected from the random survey and appears as Table 20. About two-thirds (63.6%) of the harvest was from Unit 24. Report card data (Table 15) indicated 51.1 percent of the harvest was from Unit 24. Table 20. Management Composition of 1969 estimated Unit, random survey. elk harvest in Area E by Game Unit Antlered No. % Ant1er1ess No. % No. % 23 227 19.2 204 17.2 431 36.4 24 383 32.4 369 31.2 752 63.6 Total 610 51.6 573 48.4 1,183 100.0 Total �- 277 - Hunter Effort--The Area E elk season provided 12,749 man-days of hunting recreation in 1969. This was a decrease of about 9,000 man-days compared with 1967 and 6,000 man-days in 1968 (Table 21). Three major reasons accounted for this loss of recreation days. In 1969, 3,200 total permits were issued compared with 4,000 in both 1967 and 1968; an increase in the number of "no hunts" (Table 17), and severe weather conditions during the 1969 season. Mean number of days hunter in 1969 (4.6) also decreased from 5.7 and 5.2 in 1967 and 1968, respectively. Probably, this decrease also can be attributed to severe weather conditions during the 20 day season. Estimates of Mortality Other Than Legal Harvest Wounding Loss--Estimates of net wounding loss (number of elk reported wounded minus number of wounded animals harvested) are presented in Table 22; while in Table 23, a comparison is presented between wounding loss reported by hunters with antlered and antlerless licenses. It is assumed these wounding loss figures represent a minimum loss because all hunters would not admit wounding an elk. Hunters who did not wound an animal, most likely would not respond to the question positively. The 9.2 percent figure compares closely to 9.0 and 7.4 percent reported by Hay et ale (1961) and Hunter (1967): and also to the 9.4 and 7.7 percent determined for Area E in 1967 and 1968. Early records by Smith (1959) indicated wounding loss affected about 1.5 percent of the elk herd on the White River Plateau. Tileston (1962) determined that elk wounding loss averaged 10.1 percent (range 6.1 to 11.7) in Colorado from 1946 to 1953. Population Total Population Estimates and Projections Estimates Formulas were used to estimate the total number of elk present in Area E prior to the 1969 season. Prenzlow (1968) described this in detail with examples of how ratios of antlered to antler less elk (from harvest and pre- and postseason classification counts) were used in a formula devised by Dr. Bowden of Colorado State University, to estimate pre-season populations. Pre-Season Population Estimate, 1969--An estimated 3,393 (C.I. = 83,2 =1.96, ~ = .05) elk were present in Area E prior to the 1969 season (Table 24). This compares to 6,751, 6,313 and 6,261 estimated in 1966, 1967 and 1968, respectively. �- 278 - Table 21. Recreation day yield of specified permits in Area E, 1967-69. 1/ Year and Type of Permit Active Hunters Recreation Days Total Mean/Hunter Antlered 1,761 9,662 5.5 Ant1er1ess 1,224 6,742 5.5 Antlered 616 3,745 6.1 Ant1er1ess 216 1,468 6.8 Totals and Mean 3,817 21,617 5.7 Antlered 1,668 8,720 5.2 Ant1er1ess 1,110 5,389 4.9 Antlered 671 3,583 5.3 Ant1er1ess 296 1,645 5.6 Tota Is and Mean 3,745 19,337 5.2 Antlered 1,335 6,256 4.7 Ant1er1ess 705 2,958 Antlered 548 2,717 5.0 Ant1er1ess 178 818 4.6 Totals and Mean 2,766 12,749 4.6 Resident Non-Resident Resident Non-Resident Resident Non-Resident 1/ Data from postcard surveys and systematic random samples (approximate 50 percent) of n = 2,072 (1967), and 1,971 (1968) and 1,517 (1969). �Table 22. Wounded elk salvaged by hunters and net wounding loss Area E, 1969. Woundinl:1j Loss Net Loss Wounded Ki lled Number of Elk Reported Ki lled No. Wounded Antlered 222 28 9 19 8.6 Antleress 222 13 7 6 2.7 Totals 444 41 16 25 5.6 License Type Table 23. Percent Loss Area E wounding loss - comparison of antlered and antlerless hunters, 1969, random survey. of Kill Projected Elk Loss No. 222 12.6 77 3.4 222 5.9 34 3.4 444 9.2 111 No. of Hunters Reporting No. of Elk Rept. Wounded Wounding Elk No. of Elk Rept. Killed Antlered 803 28 3.5 Antler1ess 387 13 1,190 41 License Type % of Hunters % Loss IV '" \0 I Totals �- 280 - Table 24. Pre-season population and age in Area E, 1969. estimate and proportions of elk by sex Item Estimated Number Expected Percent Bulls 811 19.2 23.9 Cows 1,612 50.4 47.5 Calves 970 30.4 28.6 Total 3,393 100.0 100.0 1/ Percentages expected from 1968 post-season 2/ Percentages helicopter. observed when making population 1969 pre-season Observed Percent y y data. classifications by Until 1969, total population data were believed to be reasonable estimates of the actual population levels in Area E. For instance, predictions for the percentages of bulls, cows and calves were previously within five percent of what was actually observed during pre-season aerial observations. However, for 1969, the expected and observed percentages of bulls differed almost 20 percent (Table 24). This was a critical difference, because the change in ratios of bulls from pre- to post-season is the major component of the formula used to estimate the total pre-season popUlation. Several possible factors could have caused this discrepancy (e.g. observer error, sampling error, etc.); but it is my best judgment, based upon the data obtained from Area E and adjacent areas, that early and rather severe weather conditions caused an abnormal elk migration pattern. As a result, the data that were obtained were from two different populations of elk and therefore, not valid. Aerial trend data, collected independently from this investigation, also revealed the estimate of 3,393 was extremely low (White 1970). During midJanuary counts, a total of 3,668 elk were observed within Area E indicating that at least 4,851 (3,668 plus estimated harvest of 1,183) could have been counted before the season. Therefore, to accomplish the objective of testing an elk harvest formula, it became necessary to use the 1969 projected population figure of 5,839 (Prenzlow 1969c) rather than the 1969 estimate of 3,393. This was thought justified because past projections, after being corrected for over-winter loss, have been close approximations of elk total population estimates derived by formula. �- 281 - Post-Season Population Estimate, 1969--An estimated 4,646 Area E elk survived the 1969 season (Table 25). This was calculated by subtracting the elk harvest, as determined by the random survey, by class of animal from the pre-season population. Table 25. Post-season population and age in Area E, 1969. estimate and proportions Y of elk by sex Item Pre-Season Population Harvest Bulls 1,119 610 509 11.0 9.0 Cows 2,938 488 2,450 52.7 55.0 Calves 1,772 85 1,687 36.3 36.0 Totals 5,829 1,183 4,646 100.0 100.0 Post-Season POEulation No. Exp. % y Obs. % on 1969 random survey. by class of the total estimated number of elk remained following the 1969 season. 11 Proportions actually observed when making 1969 post-season by helicopter. 11 1/ Based y Proportions (4,646) that classification Total post-season populations have declined from 5,336 to 4,646 elk since 1966. This was largely the result of increased harvest of the antlerless animals. Allowing more antlerless permits was necessary, however, so that the composition of the wintering herd could be changed to meet the objective of narrowing the sex ratio (more bulls per 100 cows). Proportions of bulls have increased in the post-season populations from 6.1 to 9.0 percent. POEulation Projections Each year, based on the last post-season population estimate, a projection is made for the next year. Prenzlow (1968) described this procedure in detail using 1967 data as an example. POEulation Projection for Area E, 1970--Prior to the 1970 season, a projected 6,632 elk will be available to hunters in Area E (Table 26). However, this figure may change slightly if productivity differs significantly from 60.3 calves per 100 cows. �- 284 - LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. (Unpub.). The elk of the White River Plateau. Fish and Parks Div.* Denver. Tech. Bull. No. • Colo. Game, Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division*. 1970. 1969 Colorado big game game harvest. Unpublished report. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div.*. Denver. Mimeo. 160 p. Harris, J. T. 1963. Population dynamics of the White River elk herd, Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich. 190 p. Hay, K. G., G. N. Hunter, and L. Robbins. 1961. Big game management in Colorado, 1949-1958. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Df.v Ls Lorrs , Denver. Tech. Bull. No.8. 112 p. Hunter, G. N. 1967. Colorado big game harvest, 1959-1965. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division*. Denver. Special Mgmt. Report. No.1. 41 p. Keiss, R. E. 1969. Comparison of eruption-wear patterns and cementum annuli as age criteria in elk. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(1):175-180. Prenzlow, E. J. 1967. Population components - White River elk. rado. Job Completion Report, W-38-R-2l. p. 251-276. 1968. White River elk population components. gress Report. W-38-R-22. p. 383-421. Colorado. ColoJob Pro- 1969a. Area MM season summary for 1968. Unpublished report. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division*. Denver. Mimeo. 2 p. 1969b. Area T season summary for 1968. Unpublished report. rado Game, Fish and Parks Division*. Denver. Mimeo. 2 p. 1969c. White River elk population components, Coiorado. gress Report, W-38-R-23. p. 179-234. Quimby, D. C., and J. E. Gaab. 1957. indicator in Rocky Mountain elk. Colo- Job Pro- Mandibular dentition as an age J. Wildl. Mgmt. 21(4):435-451. Riney, T. 1956. Differences in proportion of fawns to herds in red deer Cervus elaphus from several New Zealand environments. Nature. 177:488-489. Smith, D. G. 1959b. Collection of data on the White River elk herd. Colorado. Job Completion Report, W-38-R-12. p. 33-39. *1964 and prior known as Game and Fish Department. 1964 Changed to Game, Fish and Parks Department. 1968 changed to Game, Fish and Parks Division. �- 285 - Ti1eston, J. V. 1962. A resume of Colorado big game research projects. 1939-1957. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division*. Denver, Tech.' Bull. No.9. 81 p. Turner, F. L. 1967. Elk population trends distribution and harvest information. New Mexico. Job Completion Report. W-93-R-9. 11 p. 1968. Elk population trends, distribution and harvest information. New Mexico. Job Progress Report. W-93-R-10. 12 p. White, C. E. 1970. Letter to W. W. Sandfort regarding White River elk census 1970. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division*. Denver. January 20, 1970. 2 p. *1964 and prior known as Game and Fish Department. 1964 changed to Game, Fish and Parks Department. 1968 changed to Game, Fish and Parks Division. �- 286 - APPENDIX A POST CARD SURVEY - AREA E HUNTERS Please list results from your own hunting effort and not information from those with whom you hunted in 1969. 1. 2. Did you hunt elk on your specified license? Yes No _ What Game Management Unit within the AREA did you hunt? Unit County Drainage Number of Days Hunted In Each Unit 3. 4. 5. 6. Did you kill an elk on your specified license? Yes No Did you kill a: Bull Cow Calf Number of points on antlers: Right Left _ In what Game Management Unit listed in #2 did you kill? Unit Where Killed Date of Kill _ 7· How many elk did you hit that you weren't able to get? _ 8. Was your elk wounded before you shot it? Yes _ No �July, 1970 - 287 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~-------- Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work plan No. 14 Job No. 1 Job Title __~M~i~d~d~l~e~P~a~rk~~D~e~e~r~S~t~u~d~y~-~P~o~p~u~l~a~t~i~o_n~D~i~s~t~r_i~b~u~t~~~'o~ _ Period Covered: April 1, 1969 - March 31, 1970 Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, Donald W. Reichert, Olaf C. Wallmo, Robert L. Schmidt, Julius J. Klein, Willard Travnicek, Steven Horn, and Paul F. Gilbert. ABSTRACT Deer winter range boundaries are mapped for "mild, moderate, and severe" winter conditions in Middle Park. Trapping and marking results are summarized for the 1970 trapping program during which 205 deer were marked with neckbands and ear tagged. Bucks comprised 31.7 percent of these deer, does 32.2 percent, buck fawns 14.1 percent, and doe fawns 22.0 percent. An average of 2.6 deer were tagged per day of trapping effort compared to 3.7 per day in 1969. Maps are included depicting the 1969 observations of neckbanded deer by quarters of the year. ��- 289 • MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION R. Bruce Gill p. S. OBJECTIVE To delineate deer concentration areas in Middle Park and relate changes in deer distribution in time and space to accumulation and physical properties of snowo SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 20 3. 4. Define winter range boundaries of the Middle Park deer population mild, moderate, and severe winter conditions. Define sub-unit boundaries. Delineate major deer concentration areas. Relate changes in deer distribution to accumulation and physical properties of snow. under METHODS AND MATERIALS For a complete description of methods and materials see Gill (1969). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Patterns of Distribution Deer distribution patterns are complex phenomena, influenced by a number of factors among which are behavior and density of the deer themselves; availability of food, water, and cover; snow depth, snow crust; topography; land use patterns; etc. One purpose of this study was to map winter distribution patterns of mule deer and to investigate the relationship of changes in these patterns to changes in snow depth and crusting. Another was to provide information to be used in stratifying sampling schemata for population dynamics studies. Still a third was to learn if deer populations using particular, discrete winter ranges retain this discretion during other seasons of the year. The relationship between deer distribution and snow has been reported by Gilbert et al. (1970). It was concluded that deer distribution patterns are governed by both depth and crusting of snow. Depths in excess of 18 inches of uncrusted snow essentially precluded deer use, and depths of crusted snow exceeding 12 inches also negated deer use. Since deer winter distribution is determined largely by snow depths, winter range boundaries are dynamic entities from year to year as well as from period to period �- 290 - within a yearo Figures 1-3 represent the kinds of deer distribution patterns that might be expected in late February and March during socalled "mild, moderate, and severe" winter conditions and hence portray the extremes and the median limits of deer concentrations in Middle Parko Trapping and Marking Trapping Results The Game Management Unit system in Colorado was initiated so that animal species could be managed on a population basis. In Middle Park it was suspected that the deer management units were not distinct biological units.. It was believed there were at least four discrete populations of deer inhabiting the Middle Park valley and these deer did not confine their movements to game management unit boundaries. To test this hypothesis a trapping and marking program was begun in January 1969 The objective of this program was to tag and mark deer from winter concen-. tration areas within the boundaries of each postulated sub-unit area (Figso 4-5). Two hundred-five deer were tagged and released during the period January-March, 19700 Of these 31.7 percent were bucks older than one year, 32.2 percent were does older than one year, 14 6 percent were buck fawns, and 22 0 percent were doe fawnso Trapping and tagging results are presented for each sub-unit area in Tables 1-4.. The 1970 trapping results differed slightly in percentages by sex and age group from the 1969 results (Table 5).. An average of 206 deer were tagged per day in 1970 as compared with 3 7 per day in 1969 The average number of deer trapped per day (including recaptures) in 1970 was 6 9 deer per day. Recapture records were not kept in 1969 so no comparisons in total catches per day are possibleo 0 0 0 0 0 0 Neckbanded Deer Observations Neckbanded deer sightings and returns for 1969 are summarized by quarters of the year in Figures 6-9 The data, after only one year, are too meager to merit detailed discussion, but some of the observations are interesting. The January-March summaries revealed the majority of neckbanded deer observations (97 percent) were in the sub-unit where they were originally trappedo Very few deer during this quarter moved from one sub-unit to anothero 0 So few observations were recorded during the summer and fall quarters that generalizations from these data are hazardouso During the October-December quarter 87 percent of the red neckbanded deer were reported from the Muddy Creek (red) sub-unit, 100 percent of the blue neckbanded deer were reported from the Blue River (blue) sub-unit, 73 percent of the white neckbanded deer reports came from the Troublesome Creek (white) sub-unit, and 100 percent of the yellow neckbands were from the Williams Fork River (yellow) sub-unit. These preliminary data support the initial selection of sub-unit boundaries as approximations of deer population boundaries" �- 291 - N Fig. 1. Winter distribution patterns of ~iddle Park deer under mild winter conditions. �- 292 - N Green Legend; Grey = Light deer use. Dark = Moderate to heavy deer use. Fig. 2. winter distribution winter conditions. patterns ~f Middle Park deer under moderate �- 293 - Figo 3 Winter distribution winter conditionso 0 patterns of Middle Park deer under severe �- 294 - SUB-UNITS Muddy Blue Creek River Williams 1111111\ Troublesome Figo 40 fork River Creek Hypothetical deer sub-unit boundaries in Middle Parko �- 295 - N Wms. Green Mtn. Res. R = red neckbanding site = blue neckbanding site B = white neckbanding site Y = yellow neckbanding site W Figo 50 Trapsite locations for the 1970 deer neckbanding programo �Table 1. Deer trapped and tagged in the Muddy Creek sub-unit, 1970 Date Sex Age 1-17-70 1-20-70 1-31-70 2 -1-70 2 -2-70 2-6-70 2-15-70 2-22-70 2-26-70 3-4-70 3-7-70 3-9-70 Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Buck Doe Doe Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn SUMMARY: 12 deer tagged Earteg Numbers Left Right Neckband MP-333 MP-342 MP-352 MP-353 MP-355 MP-368 MP-397 MP-418 MP-430 MP-441 MP-447 MP-453 Red 0 14 Red 0 2 Red 0 12 Red 0 6 Red 0 5 Red 0 7 Red 0 4 Red 0 11 Red 0 17 Red 0 1 Red 0 16 No neckband MP-333 MP-342 MP-352 MP-353 MP-355 MP-368 MP-397 MP-418 MP-430 MP-441 MP-447 ------ 16.7% (2) Mature Bucks 16.7% (2) Buck Fawns Remarks Hwy. 40 Sec. 23 Hwy. 40 Sec. 23 Hwy. 40 Sec. 23 Hwy. 40 Sec. 23 Hwy. 40 Sec. 23 Hwy. 40 Sec. 23 Red Mountain Red Mountain Red Mountain Martin Ranch E. of Hwy. 40 Red Mountain Red Mountain 58.3% (7) Mature Does 8.3% (1) Doe Fawns N ~ 0'1 �Table 2. Deer trapped and tagged in the Blue River sub-unit, 1970 Date Sex Age 1-8-70 1-8-70 1-9-70 1-9-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-12 -70 1-12-70 1-12-70 1-12-70 1-13-70 1-14-70 1-14-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-16-70 1-16-70 1-17 -70 1-17-70 Doe Buck Buck Buck Buck Doe Doe Buck Doe Buck Doe Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Buck Doe Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn· Mature Mature Eartag Numbers Left Right MP-291 MP-292 MP-293 MP-294 MP-295 MP-296 MP-297 MP-298 MP-299 MP-300 MP-301 MP-302 MP-303 MP-304 MP-305 MP-307 MP-308 MP-309 MP-310 MP-312 MP-313 MP-314 MP-317 MP-318 MP-319 MP-320 MP-324 MP-325 MP-331 MP-332 MP-291 MP-292 MP-293 MP-294 MP-295 MP-296 MP-297 MP-298 MP-299 MP-300 MP-301 MP-302 MP-303 MP-304 MP-305 MP-307 MP-308 MP-309 MP-310 MP-312 MP-313 MP-314 MP-317 MP-318 MP-319 MP-320 MP-324 MP-325 MP-331 MP-332 Neckband Blue 0 14 Blue 0 9 Blue 0 3 Blue 0 1 Blue 0 5 Blue 0 10 Blue 0 11 Blue 0 37 Blue 0 2 Blue no if Blue 0 6 Blue 0 4 Blue 0 7 Blue 0 15 Blue 0 12 Blue 0 18 Blue 0 30 Blue 0 24 Blue 0 27 No neckband Blue 0 16 Blue 0 28 Blue 0 29 Blue 0 287 Blue 0 8 Blue 0 31 Blue 0 34 Blue 0 41 Blue 0 35 Blue 0 40 Remarks Shane Gulch Shane Gulch Shane Gulch Shane Gulch Shane Gulch Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch Shane Gulch Shane Gulch Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Shane Gulch (MP-306 Void) Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch (trap mortality) Williams Peak Road Harsha Gulch Shane Gulch Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch Harsha Gulch Shane Gulch Harsha Gulch Shane Gulch Harsha Gulch ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- N \0 "-l �Table 2. Deer trapped and tagged in the Blue River sub-unit, 1970 (continued). Date Sex Age 1-18-70 1-19-70 1-19-70 1-21-70 1-25-70 1-26-70 2-5-70 2-7-70 2-14-70 2-17-70 2-22-70 2-23-70 2-25-70 2-25-70 2-25-70 2-26-70 2-26-70 2-28-70 3-4-70 3-4-70 3-13-70 3-19-70 3-21-70 3-19-70 3-22-70 3-23-70 3-26-70 3-26-70 Buck Buck Buck Buck Buck Buck Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Doe Doe Doe Buck Doe Doe Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn SUMMARY: 58 deer tagged Eartag Numbers Left Right MP-336 MP-337 MP-338 MP-343 MP-350 MP-35l MP-362 MP-376 MP-396 MP-404 MP-4l7 MP-423 MP-427 MP-428 MP-429 MP-432 MP-433 MP-437 MP-439 MP-450 MP-468 MP-479 MP-489 MP-480 MP-492 MP-495 MP-500 MP-502 MP-336 MP-337 MP-338 MP-343 MP-350 MP-35l MP-362 MP-376 MP-396 MP-404 MP-4l7 MP-423 MP-427 MP-428 MP-429 MP-432 MP-433 MP-437 MP-439 MP-440 MP-468 MP-479 MP-489 MP-480 MP-492 MP-495 MP-500 MP-502 32.7% (19) Mature Bucks 13.8% (8) Buck Fawns Remarks Neckband Blue 0 20 Blue 0 23 Blue 0 39 Blue 0 52 Blue 0 50 Blue 0 51 Blue 0 53 Blue 0 58 Blue 0 46 Blue 0 49 Blue 0 59 Blue 0 19 No neckband No neckband No neckband Blue 0 57 Blue 0 44 Blue 0 60 Blue 0 47 Blue 0 46 Blue 0 26 Blue 0 22 Blue 0 37 Blue 0 48 No neckband Blue no 1/: No neckband No neckband Shane Gulch Shane Guclh Willia~ Peak Road (trap mortality) Shane Gulch Harsha Gulch Shane Gulch Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Spring Creek Road (trap mortality) Spring Creek Road Spring Creek Road Spring Creek Road Williams Peak Road (trap mortality) Williams Peak Road Williams Peak Road Spring Creek Road Williams Peak Road Spring Creek Road Spring Creek Road Williams Peak Road Spring Creek Road Spring Creek Road 34.5% (20) Mature Does 19.0% (11) Doe Fawns N ~ 00 �Table 3. Deer trapped and tagged in the Troublesome Creek, sub-unit, 1970. Date Sex Age 1-22-70 1-23-70 2-4-70 2-4-70 2-5-70 2-5-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-9-70 2-9-70 2-9-70 2-10-70 2-10-70 2-11-70 2-11-70 2-11-70 2-11-70 2-12-70 2-12-70 2-13-70 2-13-70 2-13-70 2-14-70 2-14-70 Doe Doe Buck Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Buck Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Buck Doe Buck Doe Doe Doe Buck Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Eartag Numbers Right Left MP-345 MP-347 MP-356 MP-354 MP-359 MP-360 MP-363 MP-364 MP-365 MP-366 MP-367 MP-369 MP-370 MP-371 MP-372 MP-377 MP-378 MP-379 MP-38l MP-382 MP-385 MP-383 MP-384 MP-386 MP·.,387 MP-388 MP-389 MP-390 MP-391 MP-394 MP-395 MP-345 MP-347 MP-356 MP-354 MP-359 MP-360 MP-363 MP-364 MP-365 MP-366 MP-367 MP-369 MP-370 MP-371 MP-372 MP-377 MP-378 MP-379 MP-38l MP-382 MP-385 MP-383 MP-384 MP-386 MP-387 MP-388 MP-389 MP-390 MP-391 MP-394 MP-395 Neckband White 0 3 White 0 4 White 0 2 White 0 5 White 0 1 No ne ckband White 0 12 White 0 20 White 0 14 White 0 13 White 0 9 White 0 15 White 0 23 White 0 19 White 0 7 White 0 10 White 0 11 White 0 18 White 0 21 White 0 25 White 0 22 White 0 8 White 0 16 White 0 6 White 0 39 White 0 17 White 0 29 White 0 33 White 0 26 White 0 42 White 0 34 Remarks Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Rifle Range Rifle Range Sulphur Gulch Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 2 Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 11 Rifle Range Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 2 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cro Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Rifle Range Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- o N \.D \.D �Table 3. Date 2-15-70 2-15-70 2-16-70 2-17-70 2-17-70 2-19-70 2-19-70 2-19-70 2-19-70 2-20-70 2-21-70 2-21-70 2-21-70 2-22-70 2-22-70 2-23-70 2-23-70 2-26-70 2-28-70 2-28-70 3-2-70 3-4-70 3-4-70 3-5-70 3-6-70 3-6-70 3-7-70 3-7-70 3-8-70 3-10-70 3-11-70 3-12-70 3-12-70 Deer trapped and tagged in the Troublesome Creek sub-unit, 1970 (continued). Sex Age Buck Doe Doe Doe Buck Doe Buck Buck Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Ha t ure Eartag Numbers Right Left MP-399 MP-400 MP-401 MP-402 MP-403 MP-407 MP-408 MP-409 MP-4l0 MP-412 MP-414 MP-4l5 MP-416 MP-42l MP-422 MP-424 MP-425 MP-43l MP-435 MP-436 MP-438 MP-440 MP-442 MP-443 MP-445 MP-446 MP-449 MP-451 MP-452 MP-457 MP-459 MP-46l HP-460 MP-399 MP-400 MP-401 MP-402 MP-403 MP-407 MP-408 MP-409 MP-410 MP-412 MP-414 MP-4l5 °MP-4l6 MP-42l MP-422 MP-424 MP-425 MP-431 MP-435 MP-436 MP-438 MP-450 MP-442 MP-443 MP-445 MP-446 MP-449 MP-451 MP-452 MP-457 MP-459 MP-461 HP-460 Neckband Remarks White 0 30 White 0 24 White 0 36 White 0 37 White 0 28 White 0 52 No neckband White 0 31 White 0 40 White 0 42 White 0 49 No neckband No neckband White 0 45 No neckband No neckband No neckband White 0 53 White 0 57 White 0 35 White 0 58 No neckband White 0 56 No neckband White 0 46 White 0 47 White 0 27 No neckband White 0 51 White 0 44 White 0 60 No neckband White 0 50 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Seco 11 Corral Cre Rd. Seco 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Seco 2 Rifle Range Corral Cro Rdo Seco 11 Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 11 Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 2 Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cro Rd. Seco 2 Corral Cro Rd. Seco 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Seco 11 Old Ridgeway Rd. Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Old Ridgeway Rd. Rifle Range Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Seco 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Rifle Range Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Rifle Range -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- w 0 0 �Table 3 Deer trapped and tagged in the Troublesome Creek, sub-unit, 1970 (continued). 0 Date Sex Age 3-13-70 3-13-70 3-13-70 3-13-70 3-14-70 3-16-70 3--16-70 3-16-70 3-17-70 3-17-70 3-17-70 3-17-70 3-18-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-20-70 3-21-70 3-21-70 3-22-70 3-22-70 3-23-70 3-23-70 3-24-70 3-26-70 3-27-70 3-27-70 Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Doe Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Buck Doe Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn SUMMARY: 94 deer tagged Eartag Numbers Left Right MP-462 MP-463 MP-464 MP-465 MP-466 MP-467 MP-470 MP-471 MP-473 MP-474 MP-475 MP-476 MP-47R MP-481 MP-477 MP-483 MP-484 MP-485 MP-486 MP-482 MP-491 MP-488 MP-493 MP-494 MP-497 MP-498 MP-499 MP-503 MP-501 MP-504 MP-462 MP-463 MP-464 MP-465 MP-466 MP-467 MP-470 MP-471 MP-473 MP-474 MP-475 MP-476 MP-478 MP-481 MP-477 MP-483 MP-484 MP-485 MP-486 MP-482 MP-491 MP-488 MP-493 MP-494 MP-497 MP-498 MP-499 MP-503 MP-501 MP-504 31 9% (30) Mature Bucks 1308% (13) Buck Fawns 0 Remarks Neckband Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 11 Corral Cro Rdo Sec. 2 Old Ridgeway Rd. Corral Cr. Rd. Seco 11 Corral Cro Rdo Sec. 11 Corral Cr. Rdo Sec. 11 Old Ridgeway Rd. Rifle Range Rifle Range Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 11 Old Ridgeway Rd. Rifle Range Rifle Range Rifle Range Corral Cro Rd. Seco 11 Corral CroRdo Seco 11 (Trap Mortality: Corral Cr. Rd. Seco 11 Corral Cr. Rd. Sec. 2 Old Ridgeway Rd. Old Ridgeway Rdo w Corral Cro Rd. Sec. 11 0 Rifle Range ~ Old Ridgeway Rdo Rifle Range Corral Cro Rd. Sec. 11 Old Ridgeway Rd. Corral Cro Rdo Sec. 11 Old Ridgeway Rdo Rifle Range No neckband White 0 67 No neckband White 0 68 No neckband White 0 59 No neckband White 0 54 White 0 61 No neckband White 0 70 No neckband No neckband No ne ckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband White 0 63 No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband 31 9% (30) Mature Does 2204% (21) Doe Fawns 0 �Table 4. Deer trapped and tagged in the Hi11iams For River sub-unit., 1970. Date Sex Age 1-13-70 1-14-70 1-14-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-16-70 1-16-70 1-16-70 1-17-70 1-17-70 1-18-70 1-18-70 1-20-70 1-20-70 1-21-70 1-22-70 1-23-70 1-24-70 2-4-70 2-5-70 2-6-70 2-7 -70 2-7-70 2 -7-70 2 -9 -70 2-14-70 2-14-70 2-15-70 2-20-70 2-22-70 Buck Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Doe Buck Buck Buck Doe Buck Buck Doe Buck Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Buck Buck Hature Hature Hature Fawn Hature Fawn Hature Hature Hature Fawn Hature Hature Hature Hature Hature Fawn Hature Fawn Fawn Hature Fawn Hature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Eartag Numbers Right Left HP-3ll HP-315 HP-316 HP-321 HP-323 HP-326 HP-327 HP-328 HP-329 HP-330 HP-334 HP-335 HP-339 HP-340 HP-344 HP-346 HP-348 HP-349 HP-358 HP-36l HP-357 HP-373 HP-374 HP-375 MP-380 HP-392 MP-393 MP-398 MP-4ll MP-419 HP-311 HP-315 HP-316 HP-321 HP-323 HP-326 HP-327 HP-328 HP-329 HP-330 HP-334 HP-335 HP-339 HP-340 HP-344 HP-346 HP-348 HP-349 HP-358 HP-36l HP-357 HP-373 HP-374 MP-375 MP-380 MP-392 MP-393 MP-398 HP-4ll MP-419 Neckband Yellow 0 5 Yellow 0 9 Yellow 0 11 Yellow 0 16 Yellow 0 13 Yellow 0 4 Yellow 0 1 Yellow 0 14 Yellow 0 2 Yellow 0 3 Yellow 0 6 Yellow 0 147 Yellow 0 17 Yellow 0 19 Yellow 0 7 Yellow 0 8 Yellow 0 18 Yellow 0 26 Yellow 0 30 Yellow 0 21 Yellow 0 24 Yellow 0 34 Yellow 0 12 Yellow 0 31 Yellow 0 28 Yellow 0 46 Yellow 0 44 Yellow 0 23 Yellow 0 29 Ye ILow 0 22 Remarks East end Cedar Ridge Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Hilliams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork DarnAccess Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork DarnAccess Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Dam Access Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Boat Ramp Road Williams Fork Dam Access Road West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- w 0 N �Table 4. Deer trapped and tagged in the Williams Fork River sub-unit, 1970 (continued). Date Sex Age 2-22-70 2-24-70 2-27-70 3-6-70 3-7-70 3-9-70 3-10-70 3-14-70 3-17-70 3-20-70 3-21-70 3-23-70 Buck Doe Mature Mature SUMMARY: SUMMARY OVER ALL SUB-UNITS: ? ? Doe Doe Doe Doe Buck Buck Doe Doe Buck Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature 41 deer tagged 205 deer tagged Eartag Numbers Left Right MP-420 MP-426 MP-434 MP-444 MP-448 MP-454 MP-458 MP-469 MP-472 MP-487 MP-490 MP-496 MP-420 MP-426 MP-434 MP-444 MP-448 MP-454 MP-458 MP-469 MP-472 MP-487 MP-490 MP-496 Neckband Yellow 0 33 Yellow 0 39 Yellow 0 54 Yellow 0 10 Yellow 0 47 Yellow 0 53 No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband No neckband Remarks West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge East end Cedar Ridge West end Cedar Ridge 34.1% (14) Mature Bucks 14.6% (6) Buck Fawns 22.0% (9) Mature Does 29.3% (12) Doe Fawns 31.7% (65) Mature Bucks 14.1% (29) Buck Fawns 32.2% (66) Mature Does 22.0% (45) Doe Fawns neck injury w 0 w �Table 5. Comparisons of the 1969 and 1970 Middle Park deer trapping and tagging results. Sub-Units Troublesome Creek Percent MF FF AF FF AM AM Totals Percent MF AF FF 22.2 23.6 39.4 16.9 20.1 14.6 29.3 31. 7 32.2 14.1 22.0 17.7 26.5 27.0 36.5 15.7 20.8 Williams Fork River Percent MF FF AM AF Year Muddy Creek Percent AF MF AM* FF AM Blue River Percent MF AF 1969 13 .9 51.4 13.9 20.8 35.1 35.1 16.3 l3 .5 23.1 35.6 19.2 22.1 18.5 37.1 22.2 1970 16.7 58.3 16.7 8.3 32.7 34.5 l3.8 19.0 31. 9 31.9 l3 .8 22.4 34.1 22.0 Totals 14.2 52.2 14.2 19.4 33.7 34.8 14.7 16.8 27.3 33.8 16.7 22.2 27.9 27.9 *AM = Adult males (older than one year) AF = Adult females (older than one year) MF = Male fawns FF = Female fawns w 0 +:- �neckbands '- .. nec kbon ds Blv.e..J..--/ neck'hands. .'i:;. . 'i - -. .~. ~~ Fig. 6. Observations of neckbanded deer, January-March, 1969. v.:> o VI �- 306 - .. 1-1 OJ OJ "0 OJ "0 "8co o ,.l<: .0 OJ ~ 4-1 Ul o ~ o o/-J OM ~ CO Ul OJ o .0 . . r-, eo OM rz.. �- 307 - co �- 308 - .. H <l.l U ~<l.l <l.l I ~ H <l.l ,.c o o .j.J o o c: tIl .,-j :> co .j.J H <l.l o tIl ,.c . ~ �- 309 - Maximum distances individual deer traveled from trapsites were: 40 airline miles for red, 18 airline miles for blue, 26 airline miles for white, and 22 airline miles for yellow neckbanded deer. Five sightings of Middle Park neckbanded deer were reported from areas outside the Park, three red neckbands from the Oak Creek-Phippsburg areas and two blue neckbands from the Piney Ridge area (Figso 8 and 9)e LITERATURE CITED Gilbert, Po F 0 Co Wallmo, and R, B. Gill. 1970. Effect of snow depth on mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. J. Wild1. Mgmt. 34(1):15-23. 0, 0 Gill, Ro Bo 1969. Middle Park Deer Study. Population distributiono Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Game Research Sectiono Fed. Aid Projo W-38-R-23 Job Progress Rept. July Part 10 ppo 79-104 Prepared by R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher �� https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/30e9ab7cdc7d1acb6296ad12d100f5be.pdf 437ab07dddc87b7180eab696dfafa6c8 PDF Text Text - 311 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 14 Job No. 2 Job Title Middle Park Deer Study population Density and Structure Period Covered: October 14, 1969 to February 1, 1970 Personnel: R. B. Gill. P. F. Gilbert. o. C. Wallmo, J. Cooney, V. R. Clark, H. Donaho 7 D. Benson, L. H. Carpenter, H. R. Shepherd, C. E. Braun, J. F. Corey, W. T. McKean, H. D. Funk, W. H. Rutherford, W. T. Burkhard, L. M. Finnell, D. Horak, B. D. Baker, C. woodward, D. T. Weber, R. Eo Keiss, W. J. Adrian, and L. J. Griess. ABSTRACT Estimates of the total Middle Park winter deer populations were 10,640 in 1968, 9,112 in 1969, and 7,205 in 1970. Variances of each strata were found to be related to each strata mean in an apparent curvilinear fashion. Frequency distributions of the data show similarities to a negative binomial distribution. Pre-season sex and age classifications yielded ratios of 43 bucks:lOO does and 93 fawns:lOO does. Post-season snowmobile classifications produced ratios of 48 bU9ks:100 does and 82 fawns:lOO does, while post-season helicopter counts resulted in ratios of 45 bucks:100 does and 77 fawns:lOO does. The estimates of sex and age structure for. 1969-70 show a downward trend in both buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios from the two previous years. Similar trends are apparent from check station data. ��- 313 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate the density and sex and age structure of the Middle Park deer population in order to harvest this population more efficiently. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate Park. the size of the total winter 2. Estimate lation. the sex and age structure METHODS Methods and materials will not be presented of the Middle of deer in Middle Park deer popu- AND MATERIALS have been discussed in this discussion. RESULTS population in detail by Gill (1969) and AND DISCUSSION Density Population Estimates The 1970 helicopter quadrat census was conducted on January 5-8, 1970. A total of 13.9 hours (including ferry time) was used to count 80 square mile sections or 5.8 sections counted per hour of flight time. The cost of censusing was $16.41 per count section. Results of three years of counts are summarized in Table 1. Mean numbers of deer have varied from a high of 20.73 deer per square mile in 1968 to 12.29 deer per square mile in 1970. Projected total populations by sub-unit indicate that the Muddy Creek and the Williams Fork River sUb-units have contributed most to this decline (Table 2). Possible rei'lSOl1S for this population decline are lower fawn survival and higher hunting mortality encountered in 1969. Estimates of fawn populations declined 15.5 percent from 1968-1969 and 23.4 percent from 1969-1970. In contrast doe estimates declined 11.2 percent from 1968-1969 and 14.9 percent from 1969-1970 (Fig. 1). This decline was from 88 fawns per 100 does in 1968 to 85 fawns per 100 does in 1969 to 77 fawns per 100 does in 1970 (Fig. 2). �'l'ab1e1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within the eight sampling strata, Williams Muddy Creek Muddy Creek Blue River Blue River High DensitJ:: Low DensitJ:: High DensitJ:: Low DensitJ:: 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 2 0 0 0 0 8 64 32 124 58 30 32 0 0 0 0 0 I, 0 J 0 --- <) 9 0 6 18 99 39 66 46 87 31 6 12 0 0 22 37 34 9 20 6 2 2 42 28 5 12 0 0 5 1 --- ,. =-~442 478 44 20 27 0 1 '1 0 0 0 56 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ----- IS 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 14 25 0 76 31 4 9 134 49 71 124 28 175 56 21 42 565 8.8 9.3 1.8 3.5 --- 0 --0 = 26.0 23.9 _yst v(yst) = = 0 1 0 30 0 19 0 1 36 88 20 4 102 15 105 58 17 14 0 0 24 77 18 3 20 83 136 49 6 4 10 0 30 32 0 0 31 0 465 430 107 47.1 38.8 35.8 1968 20.73 11.35 8 10 0 0 35 0 0 36 29 0 17 0 37 34 0 0 26 0 40 0 45 42 4 Park, Colorado, 1968-1970. Williams Fk. R. Hi9:h DensitJ:: 1968 1969 1970 0 2 26 73 4 Middle 0 0 25 21 0 Fk. R. Low DensitJ:: 1968 1969 1970 0 6 14 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Troublesome Cr. Granby High Densitx Low DensitJ:: 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 43 25 0 35 50 65 0 9 0 26 5 41 0 39 76 44 15 36 0 6 11 60 0 51 42 90 7 8 0 29 ------------- 7 2 2 0 0 0 --- --- 6 23 0 0 0 0 0 w I-' .p- 118 114 11.9 13.1 12.7 1969 15.52 4.25 105 131 46 20 3 1 21.0 26.2 9.2 4.0 0.6 0.2 1970 12.29 2.55 298 --- II 29 25.3 26.2 29.8 --- 1.8 4.1 253 262 �Table 2. Estimates Sub-Unit Sampling Area of Middle Park deer population by sub-unit sampling areas, 1968-1970. 1968 1969 1970 Muddy Creek 4,101 2,994 1,429 Blue River 4,074 3,531 3,290 I Williams Fork River 843 774 271 w •..... VI Troublesome Creek 1,679 1,910 134 306 10,640 ± 2,879 9,112 ± 1,975 7,206 ± 1,881 7,746 - 13,534 7,137 - 11,087 5,235 - 9,087 1,622 Granby TOTALS 90% Confidence Limits �II, 000 ~ TOTAL 10,000 ~ POPULATION 9 ,000 ~ 8 ,000 ~ ~ w w 7 ,000 ~ •• 0 6,000 • 0 V) ~ w w •.... 0\ 5,000 • c:Q ~ ::::> Z 4,000 • e.. 3,000. 2,000. DOES . •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 'iIr•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• e. · · · · · · FAWNS ,, , , ,, , , , , , ' ••............................... .-t A A A 1968 1969 1970 BUCKS 41 1,OOO~ o. Fig. 1. Estimates of Middle Park deer population from helicopter census data. �1l0~ 100~ FAWNS· '100 90~ DOES •••....•..................•...•....••••.............••.......•..•........ ~ 80~ IJ) w 70~ 0 0 60~ 0 0 -- BUCKS:l00 DOES t-' -...J 50~ .....• ex w Q.. W 40~ IJ) 0 - 30~ I- « ex 20~ 10. O~ Fig. 2. Post-season A 1968 sex and age ratios estimated • • 1970 1969 from helicopter classification counts, 1968-70. �- 318 - Confidence Limits Confidence limits about the total population estimate are quite large and increase with increasing population size (Fig. 3). In 1968 when the population was estimated at 10,640 deer the 90 percent confidence limits were ± 2,879 while in 1970 with an estimated population of 7,205 the 90 percent confidence limits were ± 1,881 (Table 2). This characteristic results because the mean and variance of each stratum are not independent but appear to be related in a curvilinear fashion (Fig. 4). Frequency distributions of the data readily reveal that they are not distributed normally about the mean (Figs. 5 and 6), but are highly skewed toward the zero end. Similar frequency distributions have been reported for pellet group data by Bowden et al. (1969) and McConnell and Smith (1970). The ninety percent confidence limits overlap for each of the three years in which deer were censused (Fig. 3). Because of this, means were compared for significant differences by using paired "t" tests. Both the 1968 and 1969 populations were significantly different from the 1970 population with a probability of less than 0.10 that the differences could have occurred by chance, while the 1969 population was not significantly different from the 1968 population. Sex and Age Composition Pre-season Classifications Pre-season deer classifications were obtained from helicopter surveys conducted on October 14 and 15, 1969. Sampling was conducted so that nearly all areas of suspected deer concentrations within each sub-unit were included. The major objective for the pre-season classification was to obtain estimates of the fawn:doe ratios, although bucks were recorded as well. The buck:doe ratio is believed to be lower than the true population ratio because exclusively buck groups were seldom observed in aggregates larger than 4 individuals (Table 3) and, consequently, there was a greater probability of missing the smaller, less obvious, buck groups than the larger doe-fawn groups. Sample size resulting from this survey was 1,065 deer classified with the resulting ratios: 43 bucks:lOO does and 93 fawns: 100 does. Post-season Classifications Snowmobile Classifications--Three separate classifications were conducted along established snowmobile routes (Gill, 1969) during this segment, one in November and two in December. Ratios for the combined data from all three sampling periods were 48 bucks:lOO does and 82 fawns:lOO does (Table 4). This compares with ratios of 37 bucks:lOO does and 93 fawns:lOO does in 1967 and 55 bucks:lOO'does and 92 fawns:lOO does in 1968. �- 319 - 14,000 13,000 12,000 11,000 0::: w w 10,000· 0 u, 0 en 0::: 9,000 W co ~ ::> Z 8,000 7,000 6,000 5POO~------~--------------~--------------~ 1968 Fig. 3. Estimates percent confidence of total Middle limits. 1970 1969 Park deer population, bracketed by 90 �~ VARIANCE oJ 0 0 0 I 0 0 e".I 0 0 I I N ~ 0 0 I (]I 0) 0 0 0 0 I I ~ 8 (X) 0 0 W· 0 0 I - 0 0 0 0 0 -N 0 0 - e".I 0 0 -~ 0 0 0) (11 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 (X) - -W 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 • • o I\l 0 , .- • • ,- - (,II ~ • O. w I'-> .: 0 • ~I • 0 • s Fig. 4. Relationship between strata means and variances for Middle Park deer census data. �- 321 - 80 IJ) IJ) -c 70 -.I u I U 1968 60 -c w 50 z '-" >. u z w ::::> C!J w a:: u, 30 20 10 • O+-~--~--~--~~~~ 01. 19 201 6q 401. 39 59 10~ 120/ 99 119 139 801. 79 CLASSES IJ) IJ) -c 80 80 70 70 -.I 1969 U 1970 60 60 50 50 ..- 40 ~ 40 > Z 30 30 C!J 20 w 20 10 10 o o~- •..... --.,.-~::::~:::=;~~ I u -c w Z '-" u w ::::> a:: u, 07 19 20 120, 0 20 40 60 80, 100, 120 739 40Z59 60779 80,'99 100'119 7139 719 739 '59 '79 '99 '119 "39 CLASSES Fig. 5. Frequency distributions data, 1968-70. . CLASSES for Middle Park helicopter quadrat census �- 322 - 80 70 60 .- 50 '-'" 40 ~ 0 >- u Z 30 w :::> 0 20 w ~ u, 10 0 a7 2q 19 39 4q 601 59 801 79 99 1001 12O, 119 139 CLASSES COMBINED DATA 1968-70 Fig. 6. Frequency distribution for the combined quadrat census data for the years 1968-70. Middle Park helicopter �- 323 - Table 3. Results of pre-season deer classifications, October 14-15,1969. Area Bucks Does Fawns Total 4 2 6 1 6 2 3 2 7 5 10 4 9 3 12 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 6 4 2 2 1 7 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 2 4 4 2 2 1 4 2 8 1 1 2 9 4 5 5 2 5 15 6 12 3 5 11 2 5 14 5 l3 25 Muddy Creek Sub-Unit Gore Canyon to Sheep Creek 3 Sheep Cr. to Gore Pass Hwy. 6 1 1 3 2 1 3 Gore Pass Hwy. to Red Dirt Cr. 1 4 Red Dirt Cr. to Tyler Mtn. Wolford Mtn. Little Wolford Mtn. S. Notch Gunsight Pass 1 2 N. Notch Gunsight Pass 3 4 3 3 2 4 3 6 4 3 4 7 7 5 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 324 - Table 3. Results (continued). of pre-season deer classifications, Area Troublesome Creek October 14-15, Bucks Does Fawns Total 4 3 2 3 2 4 8 8 9 7 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 2 1 4 1 2 Sub-Unit E. Side Troublesome Creek to East Fork 1 3 3 7 E. Fork Troublesome Creek Basin Creek to Slide 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 2 4 4 3 2 2 3 5 4 4 2 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 3 4 2 3 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 Dry Gulch to Rock Creek 1 2 1 1 2 Corral Creek 1969 1 1 1 1 3 5 3 2 8 2 4 1 3 5 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 7 6 7 9 6 2 7 4 3 6 3 4 4 7 8 3 1 4 4 5 4 1 3 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 325 - Table 3. Results (continued) • of pre-season Area deer classifications, 14-15, October 1969 Bucks Does Fawns Total Mt. Bross 4 6 2 1 4 4 2 10 6 3 Ute Bill Creek 1 1 2 1 1 4 4 1 2 2 1 3 4 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 3 3 2 Sheriff Creek 2 1 4 1 4 Kinney Creek McQueary Drowsy Smith 1 Creek Water Creek 4 3 4 Creek 8 4 3 4 6 6 7 3 3 4 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 2 6 2 1 1 2 4 .2 1 3 4 3 1 1 1 2 4 10 4 2 3 2 4 4 5 2 2 9 6 4 4 9 E. of Hwy. 125 and N. of Willow Creek Res. 1 E. of Hwy. 125 and S. of Willow Creek Res. 1 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 326 - Table 3. Results (continued). of pre-season deer classifications, Area Blue River Bucks Does October 14-15, Fawns Total 3 2 5 4 1 3 1 1 5 1 2 8 2 Sub-Unit San Toy Mtn. 4 Trough Eagle Road S. to Eagle Pass Ranch Pass Ranch to Spring Cr. 3 5 3 1 3 5 1 1 2 2 6 3 1 1 5 2 4 2 4 Spring Creek to Green Mtn. 3 2 4 1 2 Acorn Creek Ute Creek to Ute Creek to Shane 6 Gulch 13 12 31 11 4 4 11 6 2 22 10 15 9 7 3 5 4 14 1 28 1 Gulch to Haystack Mtn. 7 7 15 1 4 1 1 2 1 2 9 2 6 6 2 4 7 3 2 1 3 2 4 Shane 1969 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 13 9 12 13 33 2 4 6 2 3 1 4 2 5 4 1 2 4 1 7 8 2 4 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 327 - Table 3. Results (continued). of pre-season deer Area Shane Gulch classifications, Bucks to Haystack Mtn.(cont.) October 14-15, Does Fawns Total 1 3 1 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 2 4 4 2 3 4 4 1 5 3 5 1 1 3 2 4 10 5 1 2 3 8 2 1 3 1 5 2 1 1 1 3 6 3 5 1 2 8 12 2 1 !5 1 5 1 1 3 3 4 2 1 1 6 5 1 E. Side Lawson Ridge to Kremmling 1 1 2 1 Williams Fork River Sub-Unit cottonwood Beaver Pass 1 Creek 2 1 2 Little 1969 Muddy 1 Creek 3 W. Side Williams Fork River Battle Mtn. to Kinney Creek 1 3 5 1 2 14 from 2 2 7 2 1 4 2 1 2 2 4 9 8 13 4 1 4 2 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 328 - Table 3. Results (continued) . of pre-season deer classifications, Area October 14-15, 1969 Bucks Does Fawns Total 1 3 3 6 1 1 2 2 4 10 3 3 7 TOTALS 195 451 419 1,065 PERCENT 18.3 42.4 39.3 100.0 W. Side Williams Fork River Battle Mtn. to Kinney Creek RATIOS: from (cont. ) 100 Does 43 Bucks:100 Does 93 Fawns:l00 Table 4. Comparisons of post-season snowmobile and helicopter of mule deer population sex and age composition. Sample Date Sample Size Bucks:lOO Snowmobile classifications Ratios Does Fawns:lOO Does 155 Classifications 76:100 94:100 2-3, 1969 226 48:100 88:100 15-18, 287 35:100 80:100 668 48:100 82:100 Nov. 18-22, Dec. Dec. 1969 1969 Totals Helicopter Jan. Does 5-8, 1970 1,045 Classifications 45:100 77: 100 �- 329 - Helicopter Classifications--During the 1970 deer winter quadrat census . 1,045 deer were classified. Ratios were 45 bucks:lOO does and 77 fawns: 100 does. Comparing these data to the two previous years, the trend in both buck:doe ratios and doe:fawn ratios has been downward (Fig. 2). Check Station Data Two check stations were operated for the first nine days of the 1969 big game hunting season to obtain estimates of the sex and age structure of the harvest. One was at Idaho Springs and one at Dillon. The combined sample size from these two stations was 1,717 deer, of which 1,479 could be classified into sex and age categories. Summaries of these data are presented in Tables 5-9. Placement of deer into specific year classes was done by the cementum aging technique (Erickson and Seliger, 1969). Comparisons with the 1967 and 1968 data revealed that in 1969, for the first time, the three year old age class did not contain a higher percentage of the t.ot.a L sample than the two year old class. All of the 1969 teeth were sectioned, stained, and mounted on permanent microscopic slides. This permitted time for lengthy examinations of questionable teeth before assigning them to an age group. In previous years teeth were aged as rapidly as possible by laboratory personnel at the Game Research Center. I believe there is considerable opportunity for error in distinguishing between two year old and three year old animals. The magnitude of this error is unknown as are possible means of eliminating errors. Tests should be conducted by collecting a large sample of teeth from known-age deer and having personnel responsible for aging teeth assign each tooth to an age class with the same procedure now employed. This age structure array could then be compared to the known age information and assessments made of the error associated with each year class estimate. As mentioned earlier, field classifications of live deer indicated a downward trend in ratios of bucks:lOO does and fawns:lOO does since 1968. Similar trends are evident from check station ratios. Ratios of bucks: 100 does, fawns:lOO does, and yearling does:lOO adult does all show declines over the three year sampling period (Fig. 7). Reasons for these declines are unknown, but all the evidence indicates declining popUlations and not just chance phenomena associated with sampling error. One interesting sidelight associated with the 1969 check stction collections was. the occurrence of a white-tailed deer in the sample. This animal was a three year old buck taken from Tyler Mountain on 10-18-69. This is the first white-tailed deer checked from Middle Park during the three year duration of this study. �Table 5. Sex and age classes of deer checked Unit No. Adult Males Yearling Males Male Fawns 15 21 (22.6%) 12 (12.9%) 6 (6.5% ) 9 (9.7%) 18 110 (25.4%) 62 (14.3%) 46 (10.6%) 17 (3.9%) Headless Males at Idaho Springs Adult Females and Dillon checking stations, October, 1969. Yearling Females Female Fawns Headless Females Headless Unclass. Totals 23 (24.7%) 4 (4.3%) 11 (11.8%) 7 (7.5%) 0 (0.0%) 93 {l00.0%) 110 (25.4%) 28 (6.5%) 28 (6.5%) 31 (7.2% ) 1 (0.2% ) 433 (100.0%) I 27 54 (19.4%) 46 (16.5%) 18 (6.5%) 19 (6.8%) 70 (25.2%) 25 (9.0%) 17 (6.1%) 26 (9.4%) 3 (1.1%) 278 (100.0%) 28 63 (15.6%) 50 (12.4%) 48 (11.9%) 20 (5.0%) 119 (29.5%) 32 (8.0%) 36 (8.9%) 35 (8.7%) 0 (O.O%) 403 (100.0%) 37 102 (20.0%) 85 (16.7%) 42 (8.2%) 21 (4.1%) 119 (23.3%) 53 (10.04%) 39 (7.7%) 35 (6.9%) 14 (2.7%) 510 (100.0%) Totals 350 (20.4%) 255 (14.9%) 160 (9.3%) 86 (5.0%) 441 (25.7%) 142 (8.3% ) 131 (7.6%) 134 (7.8% ) 18 (1.0%) 1,717' (100.0%) w w 0 �Table 6. Sex and age classes headless deer. Unit No. Adult Males of deer checked at Idaho Springs Yearling Males Male Fawns and Dillon Adult Females checking Yearling Females stations, excluding Female Fawns Totals 15 21 (27.2%) 12 (15.6%) 6 (7.8% ) 23 (29.9%) 4 (5.2%) 11 (14.3%) 77 (100.0%) 18 110 (28.6%) 62 (16.2%) 46 (12.0%) 110 (28.6%) 28 (7.3% ) 28 (7.3%) 384 (100.0%) 27 54 (23.5%) 46 (20.0%) 18 (7.8% ) 70 (30.4%) 25 (10.9%) 17 (7.4%) 230 (100.0%) I 28 63 (18.1%) 50 (14.4%) 48 (13.8%) 119 (34.2%) 32 (9.2%) 36 (10.3%) 348 (100.0%) 37 102 (23.2%) 85 (19.3%) 42 (9.5%) 119 (27.0%) 53 (12.1%) 39 (8.9%) 440 (100.0%) Totals 350 (23.7%) 255 (17.2%) 160 (10.8%) 441 (29.8%) 142 (9.6%) 131 (8.9%) 1,479 (100.0%) w w t-" �Table 7. Number and percent of deer checked in each age category by sex classes, Unit No. Adult Males Yearling Males 15 21 (53.8%) 12 (30.8%) 6 (15.4%) 39 (100.0%) 18 110 (50.5%) 62 (28.4%) 46 (21.1%) 218 (100.0%) Male Fawns Totals Adult Females excluding headless animals. Yearling Females Female Fawns Totals 23 (60.5%) 4 (10.5%) 11 (29.0%) 38 UOO.O%) 110 (66.2%) 28 (16.9%) 28 (16.9%) 166 (100.0%) I 27 54 (45.8%) 46 (39.0%) 18 (15.2%) 118 (100.0%) 70 (62.5%) 25 (22.3%) 17 (15.2%) 112 (100.0%) 28 63 (39.1%) 50 (31.1%) 48 (29.8%) 161 (100.0%) 119 (63.6%) 32 (17.1%) 36 (19.3%) 187 (100.0%) 37 102 (44.6%) 85 (37.1%) 42 (18.3%) 229 (100.0%) 119 (56.4%) 53 (25.1%) 39 (18.5%) 211 (100.0%) Totals 350 (45.8%) 255 (33.3%) 160 (20.9%) 765 (100.0%) 441 (61. 8%) 142 (19.9%) 131 (18.3%) 714 (100.0%) w w N �Table unit No. 8. Number and percent Adult Males yearlings in the Middle Yearling Males Park deer check, October, Totals Adult Females 1969. Yearling Females Totals 15 21 (63.6%) 12 (36.4%) 33 (100.0%) 23 (85.2%) 4 (14.8% ) 27 (100.0%) 18 110 (64.0%) 62 (36.0%) 172 (100.0%) 110 (79.7%) 28 (20.3%) 138 (100.0%) 27 54 (54.0%) 46 (46.0%) 100 (100.0%) 70 (73.7%) 25 (26.3%) 95 (100.0%) 28 63 (55.8%) 50 (44.2%) 113 (100.0%) 119 (78.8%) 32 (21.2%) 151 (100.0%) 37 102 (54.5%) 85 (45.5%) 187 (100.0%) 119 (69.2%) 53 (30.8%) 172 (100.0%) Totals 350 (57.9%) 255 (42.1%) 605 (100.0%) 441 (75.6%) 142 (24.4%) 583 (100.0%) w w w I �Table 9. 1967-69. Age structure data from counts of dental cementum layers in incisor teeth collected from Middle Numbers and Percent in Each Age Class 7 Yrs. 8 Yrs. 9 Yrs. 10 Yrs. 5 Yrs. 6 Yrs. 4 Yrs. 11+ Yrs. Unc l.. Total 1 (0.2%) 0 (0.0%) 463 (100.0%) 1 (0.2%) 2 (0.5%) 424 0 (0.0% ) (l00.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (0.3%) 17 (2.2%) 765 (100.0%) 4 5 8 (0.5% ) (0.3% ) (0.3%) 17 (1.0%) 1,625 (100.0%) Year Fawns 1 Yr. 2 Yrs. 3 Yrs. 1967 99 (21.4%) 187 (40.4%) 45 (9.7%) 45 (9.7%) 40 (8.6%) Males 12 18 (3.9%) (2.6%) 7 (1.5%) 5 (1.1%) 1 3 (0.2% ) (0.7%) 1968 82 (19.3%) 181 (42.7%) 51 (12.0%) 52 (12.3%) 23 (5.4%) 14 (3.3%) 8 (1.9%) 3 (0.7%) 4 (1.0%) 3 (0.7%) 1969 160 (20.9%) 255 (33.3%) 159 (20.8%) 92 (12.0%) 38 (5.0%) 13 (1.7%) 11 (1.4%) 9 (1.2%) 5 (0.7%) 4 (0.5%) Total 341 (20.7%) 623 (37.7%) 225 (15.4%) 189 (11.4%) 101 (6.1%) 45 (2.7%) 31 (1.9%) 19 (1.2%) 14 (0.8%) Oldest Individual Park deer, Females 1967 80 (22.9%) 84 (24.0%) 39 (11.1%) 45 (12.9%) 39 (11.1%) 22 (6.3%) 16 (4.6%) 7 2.0%) 4 3 (1.1%) (0.9%) 4 (1.1%) 7 (2.0%) 0 (0.0%) 350 (100.0%) 1968 59 (20.1%) 58 (19.7%) 40 (13.6%) 60 (20.4%) 20 (6.8%) 8 (2.7%) 8 (2.7%) 8 (2.7%) 5 (1.7%) 7 (2.4%) 3 (1.0%) 4 (1.4%) 14 (4.8%) 294 (100.0%) 1969 131 (18.3%) 142 (19.9%) 192 (26.9%) 93 (13.0%) 51 (7.1%) 20 (2.8%) 13 (1.8%) 14 (2.0%) 19 (2.7%) 8 (1.1%) 3 (0.4%) 12 (1.8%) 16 (2.2%) 714 (100.0%) Total 270 (19.9%) 284 (20.9%) 271 (19.9%) 198 (14.6%) 110 (8.1%) 50 (3.7%) 37 (2.7%) 29 (2.1%) 28 18 (2.1%) 1.3%) 10 (0.8%) 23 (1.7%) 30 (2.2%) (100.0%) Oldest Individual = 17 Yrs. w w ~ = 13 Yrs. 1.359 �- 335 - BUCKS: 100 DOES 150~ 140 ~ 130 ~ 120~ 1 10 ~ ." '" '" " 100 ~ fn I" """ 90~ I&J 0 0 0 0 80~ I" FAWNSzlOO I" I" I" I" ·DOES I"" ."" 70~ ADULT IIII IIIIII II IIII """""""'~ 60~ a: I&J 0.. fn 50~ YEARLING 0 40~ t<t: 0: 30~ DOES: 100 ADULT DOES 20~ IO~ O~ A 1967 1968 1969 Fig. 7. Check station ratios of bucks:lOO does, fawns:lOO does, and yearling does:100 adult does, 1967-1969. �- 336 - LITERATURE CITED Erickson, J. A., and W. G. Seliger. 1969. Efficient sectioning incisors for estimating ages of mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(2) :384-388. Gill, of R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study. Population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 1:105-122. n';> Prepared by '" J, ,)~J -\..W ,~ R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher I, �- 337 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 14 Job No. Investigations 3 and Mortality Job Title Middle Park Deer Study Productivity Period Covered: January 1 - July 31, 1970 Personnel: C. Grand Pre, R. Davies, R. Glaze, L. H. Carpenter, W. Travnicek, G. Brown, and R. B. Gill. ABSTRACT Estimates of pre-natal productivity were 1.68 fetuses: doe from deer collection data, and 1.67 fetuses per doe from highway killed deer. Fawn survival was estimated at 73.2 percent from birth to the October hunting season and 60.7 percent to January. Ratios of male fawns: female fawns were greater than 1:1. Average litter size based upon the 1970 deer collection data was 1.9 fetuses per litter. Winter mortality was estimated at 1,135 deer in 1970 compared with 639 fir 1969 and 1,706 for 1968. Mortality appeared to be positively related to winter weather severity. Mortality rates of the buck and fawn categories generally exceeded their occurrence in the live deer postseason population. Hunter harvest for the 1969 Middle Park deer season was estimated at 4,151 deer compared with 2,104 in 1968 and 3,510 in 1967. Highway and railroad losses were tallied at 67 and 38 deer, respectively. ��- 339 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTAILITY R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate increments and losses to the Middle Park deer population in order to formulate more efficient harvest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. Estimate productivity rates of Middle Park deer. Estimate mortality rates of Middle Park deer over the entire winter range. Estimate the magnitude of the hunter harvest. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in this segment have been detailed previously by Gill (1969). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Productivity Pre-natal Productivity Thirty-four doe deer were collected between January 15 and May 31, 1970. Eight does were collected from each of the sub-unit areas described by Gill (1970), and two extra does were collected, one from the Blue River subunit and one from the Williams Fork River sub-unit. Locations of each collection are depicted in Fig. 1. In addition, nine highway killed does were collected and examined for pregnancy. Fetus:doe ratios averaged 168:100 from the collected does and 167:100 from the highway killed does (Tables 1 and 2). Pregnancy rates were 88.2 percent for collected does and 100.0 percent for highway killed does. Considering only pregnant does, fetus:doe ratios were 190:100 from collected does and 167:100 for highway killed does. Post-natal Fawn Survival Gill (1970) reported a ratio of 93 fawns:100 does from Middle Park in midOctober, 1969. The true ratio of fawns:lOO does of reproductive age was masked by a certain percentage of does (so-called "long yearlings") which had not yet produced their first fawn. The proportion of these "long yearlings" in the sample was approximated by the percentage of yearling does �- 340 - in the doe harvest sample (24.4 percent for 1969). These were then subtracted from the doe sample and the fawn:doe ratio was recalculated as a fawn:mother ratio. The new ratio was 123 fawns:lOO mothers. If we aSSume that the pre-natal fawn:doe ratio of 168:100 was a true reflection of the productivity of the doe population then 73.2 percent of those fawns survived until the hunting season. Conversely, the early fawn mortality rate was 26.8 percent. The post-season fawn:mother ratio was calculated as 102:100. Again, using the collection ratio of 168 fawns:lOO mothers as the birth rate, the survival rate of fawns through the 1969 hunting season was 60.7 percent. Doe Conception Dates All undamaged fetuses from collected does were measured for crown-rump lengths and aged according to the fetal growth curve presented by Hudson and Browman (1959). Back-dating from the dates of collection, dates of conception were estimated for each fetus. These data are depicted in Fig. 2. Of the 53 fetuses which could be measured, 88.7 percent were estimated to have been conceived during the period November IS-December 10, 1969. The range of conceptions was from November 16, 1969-January 11, 1970, a span of 58 days. Litter Sizes and Fawn Sex Ratios Comparisons of litter size frequencies for 1968 and 1969 are presented in Fig. 3. The average litter size (excluding the 0 class) was 2.00 young per litter in 1969 and 1.90 young per litter in 1970. Fawn sex ratios have favored males during both 1968-69 and 1969-70. All samples, including doe collections, highway kills, and check station ratios, reveal ratios in excess of 100:100 (Fig. 4). This has been particularly evident in samples for the Blue River sub-unit. Mortality Winter Mortality Estimates of Total Losses - Estimates of winter mortality have been conducted in Middle Park since 1968. Mortality has ranged from a high of 1,706 deer in 1968 to a low of 639 in 1969 (Table 3). Gilbert et ale (1970) reported that deer population changes on one specific study area in Middle Park were significantly and negatively correlated to November-February precipitation. Similar relationships existed between weather factors and total mortality estimates. The winter of 1967-68 was the most severe of the three year sample period, and winter mortality was highest both in total estimated losses and in percent of the live population which died (Table 4). Similarly, 1968-69 was the mildest winter of the three, and only 639 deer died or 7.0 percent of the post-season live population. The results for this past winter (1969-70) were confusing because even though the weather data �- 341 - closely approximated those for 1968-69, the mortality data were more similar to 1967-68. This confusion may have resulted in part from the occurrence of a larger percent of the wounding loss on winter ranges in 1969 than the two previous years. The 1969 hunting season was characterized by abnormally high snowfalls and deer responded by descending from normal fall ranges to the upper and middle winter ranges. This was where the hunters encountered them, and presumably, this was where much of the wounding loss occurred. By the time thewintet loss surveys were conducted (June and July) deer carcasses were decayed so badly that cause of death could not be determined, and consequently, deer perishing from hunter inflicted wounds could have been tallied as winter mortality. Sex and Age Structure of Winter Lost Deer - A summary of the winter loss estimates by sex and age groups is presented in Table 5. The averages over the three year study period were: 24.0 percent bucks, 29.0 percent does, and 47.0 percent fawns. These same three groups were represented in the post-season live deer population as follows: 22.3 percent bucks, 42.2 percent does, and 35.5 percent fawns. Generally, mortality rates in the buck and fawn categories exceeded the percent occurrence in the live population while does died in lesser percentages than their occurrence in the population. Confidence Limits - Confidence limits about total winter loss estimates were similar to those discussed for live deer population estimates (Gill, 1970). When winter loss estimates were high, confidence limits were wide, and when estimates were low, confidence limits were narrow (Fig. 5). Also, as was the case with live deer estimates, frequency distributions were highly skewed toward the zero end (Figs. 6 and 7), and means and variances of each strata were related curvilinearly (Fig. 8). Hunting Mortality Estimates of the total Middle Park deer harvest have been made in three ways: 1) from hunter report card estimates for Grand and Summitt counties; 2) through the combination of hunter report card estimates for Game Management Units 18, 28, and 37, and check station data (Gill, 1969); and 3) from a regression equation describing the relationship between the Idaho Springs checks of deer from Units 18, 28, and 37, and the Grand and Summit counties report card estimates (Table 6). The report card estimates for Grand and Summit counties indicated hunting mortalities of 33.0, 23.1, and 57.6 percent of the 1968, 1969, and 1970 post-season populations, respectively. Highway and Railroad Mortality Sixty-seven deer were known to be killed by automobiles in Middle Park during the period July 1, 1969 - June 30, 1970, and 38 were killed along the railroad tracks during the same period (Table 7). This total is down 21.1 percent from the previous year, and is the lowest figure since 1966-67. �Table 1. Collection Period January February March April Number of fetuses per doe from thirty-four deer collected in Middle Park, Colorado, winter, 1970. Mudd~ Creek Collection Fetuses Number M F Total 70-4 70-5 2 0 1 1 Williams Fork River Fetuses Collection Number M F Total 2 2 Troublesome Creek Collection Fetuses Number M F Total 70-1 70-2 70-3 o 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 o2 2 0 70-6 70-7 70-8 70-14 3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 70-9 70-10 70-11 70-15 70-1-A 1 1 2 0 o0 1 1 1 1 2 2 0 2 2 70-16 ? ? 2 70-17 70-19 o1 1 2 70-22 70-23 2 0 1 1 2 2 70-22 70-21 2 2 2 0 2 2 70-18 70-24 1 1 2 0 2 2 70-25 70-26 o 2 2 2 70-27 70-32 2 0 1 1 2 2 70-30 70-31 o 0 1 0 0 1 70-28 70-29 2 0 2 0 2 2 70-33 1 0 1 l3 5 18 10 3 13 9 2 l3 70-12 70-13 o 0 2 0 2 0 May Totals Blue River Collection Fetuses Number M F Total 76 13 Male Fetuses:100 Female Fetuses = 244:100 Fetuses:100 Does = 168:100 w ~ N , �- 343 - Table 2. Number of fetuses per doe from nine highway killed deer, Middle Park, Colorado, winter, 1970. Collection Area Fetuses F Total Collection Date Collection Number M 2 -3-70 70-1-RK ? 1 2 Haystack Gulch off Hwy. 9 2 -8-70 70-2-RK 1 0 1 1 mi. west of Parshall 2-25-70 70-3-RK 1 0 1 Williams Peak Road 3-15-70 70-4-RK 1 0 1 0.1 mi. east of Windy gap 4-18-70 70-5-RK o 2 2 Junction of King Gulch & Hwy. 9 5-1-70 70-6-RK 1 1 2 East edge of Parshall 5-1-70 70-7-RK o 2 2 ~ mi. east of Parshall 5-1-70 70-8-RK 1 1 2 3 mi. east of Hot Sulphur Springs 5-3-70 70-9-RK 1 1 2 1.2 mi. west of Parsha1 6 8 15 Totals 75:100 Male Fetuses:100 female fetuses 167:100 Fetuses:100 does Table 3. Estimates of Middle Park deer winter mortality by sub-unit sampling areas, 1968-70. Sub-Unit Sampling Area 1968 1969 1970 Muddy Creek 817 162 327 Blue River 394 186 603 Williams Fork River 439 192 106 Troublesome Creek 56 99 99 Totals 90 Percent confidence limits 1,706 ± 1,028 639 + 284 678 - 2,734 355 - 923 1,135 + 588 547 - 1,682 �Table 4. Relationships between deer winter mortality and weather factors, 1968-70. Date Inches Pcpt Inches Snow Ave. Max. Temp. Ave. Min. Temp. Ave. Temp. Nov. 1967 0.71 15.0 43.5 13.7 28.5 Dec. 1967 1.17 22.5 26.5 3.0 14.8 Jan. 1968 0.33 9.0 25.2 -6.7 9.3 Feb. 1968 1.62 36.5 30.4 3.3 16.9 Total 3.83 83.0 Ave. 31.4 3.3 17.4 Measured Winter Mortality Percent of Live Deer Winter Population 1,706 16.0% I Nov. 1968 1.43 13.5 35.4 7.7 21.6 Dec. 1968 0.68 12.5 31.1 2.1 16.6 Jan. 1969 1.75 32.2 36.7 8.7 22.7 Feb. 1969 0.28 5.0 30.1 0.7 15.4 Total 4.14 63.2 Ave. 33.3 4.8 19.1 Nov. 1969 0.35 5.0 37.5 8.2 22.9 Dec. 1969 1.35 26.5 31. 9 1.1 16.5 Jan. 1970 0.89 19.5 27.7 3.7 15.7 Feb. 1970 0.35 6.0 34.5 5.1 19.8 Total 2.94 57.0 Ave. 32.9 4.5 18.7 w +:'+:'- . 639 7.0% 1,135 15.8% �- 345 - Table 5. Sex and age structure of deer winter losses compared to structure of the post-season live deer population. Total Percent Post-Season Live Deer POEulation Total Does Fawns Bucks Percent Percent Percent Percent 51.0 100.0 23.3 40.4 36.3 100.0 26.3 42.1 100.0 22.3 41.9 35.8 100.0 13.4 43.3 43.3 100.0 20.2 45.1 34.7 100.0 24.0 29.0 47.0 100.0 22.3 42.2 35.5 100.0 Year Bucks Percent Winter Lost Deer Fawns Does Percent Percent 1968 27.4 21.6 1969 31.6 1970 3 Year Average Table 6. Estimates of the Middle Park deer harvest, 1967-69. Year County Report Card Estimates Ratio-Deer Check Estimates Regression Equation Regression Equation Estimates 1967 3,510 3,494 X2 = 161.95 + 3.248 Xl 3,066 1968 2,104 2,237 X2 321.41 + 3.140 Xl 2,909 1969 4,151 4,321 X2 52.00 + 3.329 Xl 4,503 �- 346 - , • , N w8:~ 70-1 • •• 20.-12 • 70-17 ~0-26 Hot Kremmling ZU-~~70-2~ 70-)2 • 70-27 "70-2) Green Figo 10 Locations studieso Mtn. Res. of deer collection sites for Middle Park productivity Sulphur Sprgs. �- 347 - Nov Nov Nov Dee 15- 20 21-25 26-30 1-5 Dee 6-10 Dee Dee 11-15 16-20 on c •..0 30 Q. 1970 Q) u C 0 u ..•.. 20 0 •..c Q) U L. Q) 10 Q.. Nov Nov Nov Dee 15-20 21-25 26-30 1-5 Dee Dee 6-10 "-15 Jon " -15 Fig. 2. Distribution of conception dates of does collected in Middle Park in the winters of 1969 and 1970. �- 348 - 1969 70~ 62% en Ck: W lI- o 60~ 50~ 40~ I- Z w U Ck: w e, 24% 12% IO~ 0% jf O~~------A~------~A~----~A~------~~.-------~A o 234 LITTER 1970 70~ en SIZE 67% 60~ Ck: W lI- u.. o 40~ I- Z w 30~ ~ w c, 16% ·12% 5% O~~----+- A +- ~ ~ I ~0% I 2 ~ 4 o A A A A LITTER SI ZE Fig.. 3.. Litter size frequencies 1969 and 1970 winters. of does collected in Middle Park in the �- 349 - 260 ~ 240. 220. DOE COl ucr IONS / / 200 ~ /j~~ I 80 ~ fI" / (J) w 0 Q 160 ~ 0 0 140 ~ 0::: w e, I ..• COllECTIONS & HIGHWAY KI l lS j 120 ~ (J) w ~ -c 100 ~ ~ 80. 60. 40. 20~ O~ 1966 • 1967 1968 • 1969 • 1970 Figo 40 Ratios of male fawns:lOO female fawns from doe collection samples, highway kill samples, and check station sampleso �CI:: W W ~~, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c L&.. o CJ') CI:: c:c ~ W ::;:) w VI o "~ z ",~ ",~ ",,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~, ~ ~ ~ "","" ."~ ~ ~ "" "" ,""""" 40 o~------------~------------~----------~ 1967-68 Fig. 5. 1968-69 1969-10 Middle Park deer mortality estimates, bracketed by the 90 percent confidence limits g �90, 90, 90 80 I 80' 80 <t 70 ---. 70-'· 70 z 60-1\ 60-1 60 50-11 50 :l\ 40 fJ) fJ) <t ~ o :t: o i.LJ fJ) i.LJ u z w 501 a:: a:: g 4°1 :::> U 30 u, 0 \ \ w 0::: l.&J u a. 20 ...• \ 20, IZ 10-. \ t-' 20 -, , ", , ZT O-r i I ,. T 0 I 2 3 4 0 I 2 3 4 0 VI 30 o , Fig. 6 w I\ 10. 10 0 0 I 2 3 CLASSES CLASSES CLASSES 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 Frequency distributions of deer winter mortality data. 4 �- 352 - 100 90 80 70 60 - 50 40 > u 30 z w :::> o w 20 Q:: IL. 10 o 2 3 4 CLASSES COMBINED DATA 1968-70 Fig ••7.. Frequency distribution for the 1968-70 combined deer winter mortality data •• �- 353 - 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 LLI o z c( 0:: c( > 15.0 10.0 5,0 o.ot.~~~;:~~~~------~~ 0.00 0.50 1.50 2.00 MEAN Relationships between strata means and variances of Middle Park Figo 8 deer winter mortality data, 1968-70 combinedo 0 ~ 2.50 �- 354 - Table 7. Known highway and railroad losses, Middle Park, 1963-70. Year Highway Losses Railroad Losses 1963-64 90 1964-65 385 1965-66 7 Totals 1966-67 56 132 188 1967-68 54 60 114 1968-69 77 56 133 1969-70 67 38 105 LITERATURE CITED Gilbert, P. F., O. C. Wa11mo, and R. B. Gill. 1970. Effect of snow depth on mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. J. WildL Mgmt. 34(1) :15-23. Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep. July Part 1, 105-122. Gill, R. B. 1970. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rep. (In press). Hudson, P., and L. G. Browman. 1959. Embryonic and fetal development of the mule deer. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. 23(3):295-304. Prepared by , .~~.~---'-',~~~~------.-.\-.-\-R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher �July, - 355 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT S ta te of ..;:C..;:O..;:L;,;:O;,:;RA=D..;:O:...----- Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 14 Job No. Job Title Investigations 4 Middle Park Deer Study Food Habits and Physical Characteristics Period Covered: October 1967 through April 1970 Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, Willard Travnicek, Robert E. Keiss, Joe Griess, Paul Gilbert, and Laren A. Roper ABSTRACT Fat content of bone marrow in collected deer declined at an average daily rate of .61 and .46 percent in 1969 and 1970 (30 and 32 deer sampled, r=.2 and -.5). Similarly kidney fat indices decreased .31 and .33 percent in 1969 and 1970 (r= -.2 for both years). Antler beam diameters for all age classes in 1967 had overlapping confidence limits except in the 1 year age class. Mean weights of the left antler of yearling bucks is 70.9 ::t- 6.6 and 77.5 ::t- 10.4 grams for 1968 and 1969 (P=.05). The number of points per antler for yearlings in 1967-1969 are comparable, except in 1967 which had fewer I-point antlers (14, 20, and 17 percent in each respective year). Blood serum collections need more refined techniques as total protein, calcium, magnesium, and zinc components appeared erratic in the sample. Supplemental data to determine if E1aephora schneideri is present indicate no occurrence, however, the data are inconclusive due to small sample size (30) and the techniques for collections. Wehrdikmansia cervipedis did occur in 70 percent of these samples. 1970 ��- 357 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY FOOD HABITS AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Laren A 0 Roper Po So OBJECTIVE To measure selected physical characteristics related to the assessment of physical condition of deer and to determine forage preferences of mule deer in Middle Parko SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 10 20 3 0 Estimate forage preferences of deer from stomach content analyseso Estimate forage preferences of deer from tame deer observationso Measure selected physical characteristics of deer believed indicative of the state of physical conditiono METHODS Forage Preferences Procedures are reported by Gill Forage Preferences Procedures are reported AND MATERIALS - Stomach Content Analyses (1969)0 - Tame, Trained Deer Observations by Gill (1969). Physical Characteristics Procedures are reported by Gill (1969)0 In addition to those procedures listed by Gill, blood samples from each deer collected for reproductive studies (WP 14, Job 3) are analyzed for total protein and the parts per million of calcium, magnesium, and zinc. Also an incisor tooth is collected for age estimations by counting the cementum annuli in the sectioned tooth (Low and Cowan, 1963)0 To supplement the yearling antler collections described by Gill, the number of points for each antler on all yearling bucks checked through hunter check stations is recordedo In 1967 diameter measurements of the main beam of all bucks were taken as well as a count of the number of pOintso The ears of 30 deer were collected to check for the occurrence of Elaephora schneideri and Wehrdikmansia cervipedis by counting microfilaria with a dissecting microscopeo �- 358 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forage Preferences - Stomach Content Analyses Eighty-four deer stomachs have been collected and analysis is pending •• Forage Preferences - Tame, Trained Deer Observations Food habits studies with tame deer were continuedo This year this aspect of Job 4 was conducted in conjunction with Job 5.. A summary of major diet components is provided in Table I.. Further information is given in the Job 5 report. Table 1. Percent of total diets (bites) of 4 tame mule deer grazed on 3 study areas on Middle Park winter range, 1969-70. Type Scientific Name Shrubs 55.3% Forbs 2701% Grasses 17 6% 0 Percent Purshia tridentata Amelanchier alnifolia Symphoricarpos oreophilus Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus biscidiflorus Chrysothamnus parryi Rosa sp•• Other (2 species) 35.4 10•• 9 7.3 .8 Eriogonum umbellatum Penstemon caespitosus Phlox bryoides Gutierrezia sarothrae Artennaria parvifolia Phlox multiflora Castilleja flora Penstemon cyathophorus Other (9 species) 15.4 5.6 1.7 1.5 .8 Agropyron spicatum Stipa pinetorum Poa fendleriana Boutelou gracilis Koeleria cristata Unidentified Other (2 species) .4 .•• 2 .2 .1 •• 7 .5 •• 2 •• 9 6.5 4 •• 8 4.4 1•• 2 •• 1 .7 t �- 359 - Physical Characteristics This report only includes data concerning the measurement of physical characteristics that may be indicative of the state of physical condition. In 1969 collections began on January 16 and continued through April 15. The mean fat concent for the 91 day period in January, February, March, and April was 8705, 8001, 8900, and 6406 percent respectivelyo In 1970, January 2Z-April 15 the mean fat content of the bone marrow was 6902, 7-7.0, 6906, and 5200 percent , The average decrease in bone marrow fat is illustrated by plotting a simple regression (Figso 1 and 2)0 The average decrease per day was .61 percent for 1969 and 046 percent for 19700 Apparently the winters of 1969 and 1970 were mild enough that only a few deer had exceptionally low bone marrow fat content, and most deer in the sample had fat content above 70 percent throughout the collection periodo Plans are to test these data for curvilinear relationshipso On March 5, 1965, 104 deer were collected in Middle Park (Keiss, 1965)0 Of these 50 had apparently died of malnutrition and starvation and 28 were in a weakened condition so that personnel captured them by hand and sacrificed themo The average bone marrow fat was 606 percent in the femurs and 25.4 percent in the cannon bone sampleso Fawns, yearlings, and nine year olds all had femur fat below 3 percento The range for deer in the yearling to 9 year age classes varied from 1203 to 36.9 percento This also includes deer that were killed by autos and trainso When only deer that died of malnutrition or were caught and sacrificed are included in the sample, the mean bone marrow fat of the femurs for deer found on open range, at haystacks, and those caught and sacrificed was 203, 09, and 101 percent. If we can assume these data as representative of a state of physical condition at or near death, the bone marrow fat content for deer collected in 1969 and 1970 is below 35 percent in only 2 and 7 deer in 1969 and 19700 These comparisons may indicate that deer in 1969 and 1970 were generally not suffering from severe malnutritiono Kidney Fat Indices The percent of kidney fat in deer collected in 1969 declined as the period progressedo The mean for both kidneys was 3205, 3102, 1808, and 909 for January, February, March, and April respective1yo In 1970 it was 3303, 2305, 1104, and 803 percento Calculated regressions gave a mean decrease in kidney fat per day of 031 and 033 percent for 1969 and 1970 (Figso 3 and 4)0 The correlation coefficient is -02 for both 1969 and 1970 data. Plans are to analyze these data for curvilinear relationshipso In white-tailed deer, Servinghaus et alo (1950) found evidence suggesting antler growth and size are influenced by the quality and quantity of forage available during the previous winter, particularly in yearling bucks and less so in 2 year olds. �- 360 - 100 t- Z w U 0::: W Q.. b=-.61 Y = 79.8+ (- .61(x -46.2» o 10 20 30 40 50 COLLECTION 60 70 80 90 100 DAYS Figo 1. Regression of bone marrow fat in deer collected from January 15April 15, 1969. �- 361 - 100 75 ..- z w U 0:: W c, 50 b=-.46 A r= 66.4 +(- .46( X-44. 7)) o 100 50 C.OlECTION DAY!) Figo 20 Regression of bone marrow fat in deer collected from January 26April 15, 1970 0 �- 362 - 80 75 70 b=-.31 V) >- 65 '9= 23.1 + (b)(X-43.9) w 560 ~ Iu.. 55 w ....J 0 50 • • Z -c • l- J: 45 • C> ~ u.. 40 • 0 ~ u.. • • 35 >- w Z 30 0 ~ I- z 25 w U ~ 20 w c, 15 10 • • • • • •• 5 • •• 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 COLLECTION JAN ...• j.- FEB ~j.- 60 80 90 ---"I+- APR 70 100 DAYS MAR Figo 3 Regression of percent of kidney fat in deer collected from January 15April 15, 1969 0 0 �- 363 - 60 • 55 • • (/) >- w 50 b=-.33 Z ~= 1Z69 + (b)(X-41.9) o ~ 45 lLL. W -' 40 • • • • o Z -c 35 I- • J: o 30 ~ LL. o 25 < LL. Z 20 w U 0:: w c, 15 10 5 o+---~~~--~--~--~--~--~~~--~o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 DAYS FROM STARTOF COLLECTIONS JAN. 26, 1970 JAN.f.- FEB ~I+- MAR ~I+- APR ~I Figo 40 Regression of percent of kidney fat in deer collected from January 26-April 15, 19700 �- 364 - Initially in this study, antlers on deer in all age classes examined at check stations were measured 1 inch above the burro It was hoped this would serve as an indication of the state of condition the animals were In these data the 95 percent confidence in during the previous wintero limits overlap in all age classes except I-year old bucks (Fig 5)0 g Since the first year's collection of data in 1967 it was decided to collect the left antler from as many yearling bucks as possible to determine the mean mass in grams for this age class of deer In 1968 and 1967 the mean weight was 70.9 t 6.6 and 77.5 t 10.42 grams (P=o05)0 Using the pooled variances for each set of data, a t-test for independent pairs of data indicates there is no significant difference between the means (Snedecor and Cochran, 1968)0 g Our decision to use only data from yearling bucks has since been supported by Anderson and Medin (1969)0 They suggest that for Rocky Mountain mule deer yearling antler mass is the most sensitive and reliable indicator of the condition of animals in the previous wintero In conjunction with gathering antler mass information, the number of points on yearlings was also recordedo The average in 1967, 1968, and 1969 is presented in Figure 60 These data suggest fewer spike bucks occurred in the kill in 1967, however, the data haven't been tested for significance to date. In 1967 the percent yearlings with 1, 2, 3, and 4 point antlers were 14, 75, 10, and 1 percent, respectivelyo The 1968 sample has 20, 71, 9, and 0 percent, while in 1969 the sample shows 17, 71, 11, and 1 percent. Blood Serum Analysis Blood samples obtained in 1969 from deer collected during January-April were analyzed for total protein and parts per million of calcium, magnesium, and zinco The results are erratic and appear inconclusive due mainly to the lapse in time from collection of the sample and its arrival at the laboratory for analysiso Better sampling techniques are planned to alleviate these problems. Table 2 contains a summary of the datao Supplemental Data During the 1969 hunting season 30 deer were sampled for the occurrence of Elaephora schneideri and Wehrdikmansia cervipedis microfilaria by collecting ear samples from deer examined in check stationso No evidence of ~o schneideri was found, however, the collections were made from hunter killed deer which had been subjected to freezing and thawingo This could have obscured the presence of this parasiteo In future collections the forehead region may give more reliable data, especially if analyzed soon after the animal is collectedo Thirty percent of the 30 samples had ~o cervipedis present. The largest sample (22) of deer were from the Blue River game management unito They had an incidence of 82 percent Occurrence of this apparently harmless parasite (Table 3)0 �- 365 - n=3 45 40 30 E E Z ~ w tW 30 ~ -c 0 25 20 n==180 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 AGE IN YEARS Figo 50 Antler beam diameters and 95 percent confidence limits indicated by the vertical line at each point (1967 ~ata). �1 fbint =~ 2 Points=D 3 Points=(]) 100 4 Points=1I 90 80 70 I- Z 60 w u 50 ~ W W 0\ 0\ 0- 40 30 20 . 10 ~~:.: 0 ;l{~~t .:.;::;: 1967 1968 YEAR Fige 6e Average number of pOints for yearling bucks in 1967, 1968, and 1969. 1969 �- 367 - Table 20 Blood serum protein, calcium, magnesium, and zinc content of Middle Park deer collected in 1969, January-Aprilo Parts per Million Total Protein CA MG ZN January (Sample Size: 6) Maxo Mino Mean February (Sample Size: 6) Maxo Mino Mean March (Sample Size: 8) Maxo Min. Mean April (Sample Size: 9) Maxo Mino Mean Table 3 Summary of the occurrence of Wehrdikmansia cervipedis microfilaria in mule deer in Middle Park. 0 Herd Unit 18 27 28 37 No. in Sample 2 5 1 22 Number Infected 1 1 1 18 Percent Infected 50 20 100 82 �- 368 - LITERATURE CITED Anderson, Ao E., and Do E. Medino 1969. Antler morphology in a Colorado mule deer population. Jo Wi1d1 Mgmt. 33(3}:520-533 0 0 Gill, Ro Bo 1969. Middle Park deer study: productivity and mortality. Game Research Report. July, part two. PPo 141-1440 Keiss, Ro Eo 1965 Notes on deer and elk nutrition: winter 1964-65, Coloradoo Unpubl. report, Coloo Game, Fish and Parks Depto 24 p. 0 Low, W. Ao, and I. McT. Cowano 1963. Age determination of deer by annular cementum structure of dental cementumo Jo Wildlo Mgmto 27(3) :466-471. Snedecor, G. Wo, and W. G. Cochran. 1968. Statistical methods. Iowa State Press. 6th ed., 2nd printingo 593 po The Severinghaus, Co W., H. F. Maguire, Ro A. Cookingham and J. E. Tanck. 1950. Variations by age class in the.antler beam diameters of white-tailed deer related to range conditionso No Amero Wildl. Conf., Trans. 15:551-5700 Prepared 41/1Kr- Wildlife Researcher Candidate �July, 1970 - 369 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 14 Job No. 5 Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Range Fertilization Period Covered: May 1, 1969 through June 15, 1970 Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, Paul F. Gilbert, o. C. Wallmo, Don W. Reichert, Delwin Benson, Wayne Paintner, Robert Davies, and Len H. Carpenter. (Photos by Paul F. Gilbert). ABSTRACT Three study areas on native sagebrush range in western Grand County, Colorado were selected and fenced. Pre-treatment herbage production and botanical composition measurements were made. Production estimates were made with an electronic capacitance meter and estimates ,of total production of 1,522 pounds per acre at study area 1; 2,170 pounds of herbage at study area 2; and 1~987 pounds of herbage at scudy area 3 were obtained. Density measurements to give a measure of botanical composition were made on permanently established plots at each study area. Nitrogen fertilizer in the form of pelleted ammonium nitrate at the rates of 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 pounds of actual nitrogen per acre was applied in late October, 1969. Pre-treatment grazing data were gathered at each study area using tame, trained mule deer. 2,4-D herbicide treatments at the rates of 0 and 2 pounds per acre were applied in early June 1970. ��- 371 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter This report presents the design, methods, and pre-treatment data gathered for the first year of this study. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of fertilizers on deer forage and deer feeding intensity to fertilization of critical winter ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. To test the effects of nitrogen and 2,4-D on forage production on selected deer winter range areas. To evaluate deer foraging responses to treated areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Three study areas on native sagebrush range near Kremmling, Colorado were chosen for this study (Fig. 1). These study areas were chosen so that representative aspects of the mule deer winter range would be tested. The treatment design chosen for each study area consists of 5 nitrogen rates in combination with 2 rates of 2,4-D herbicide. This results in a randomized block design of ten treatments replicated three times. Each of the ten treatments was re-randomized for each study block (Fig. 2). The treatments are as follows: Fertilizer 1. 0 pounds elemental nitrogen per acre. 2. 30 pounds elemental nitrogen per acre. 3. 60 pounds elemental nitrogen per acre. 4. 90 pounds elemental nitrogen per acre. 5. 120 pounds elemental nitrogen per acre. Herbicide 1. 0 pounds 2,4-D per acre. 2. 2 pounds 2,4-D per acre. The nitrogen treatments were applied by whirlybird hand fertilizers in the form of pelleted ammonium nitrate fertilizer (33.5% N.). The fertilizer was applied at the Junction Butte site on October 30, 1969, the Flight1ine �- 372 - site was fertilized on November 2, 1969, and the Corral Creek site was fertilized on November 3, 1969. Fall fertilization Was done so that maximum soil moisture would be available. Herbicide treatments were applied by a back-pack sprayer modified with a five foot boom with four nozzles. A nearly constant air pressure was maintained in the sprayer to assure even application. The 2,4-D was applied with water as a carrier at the rate of five gallons per acre. The herbicide was applied on June 6, 1970 at the Junction Butte and the Flightline Site. The Corral Creek site was treated on June 7. Phenology of the vegetation at the time of application was favorable to obtain a successful big sagebrush kill. Weather conditions were excellent at the time of application. The 2,4-D, in combination with nitrogen fertilizer, was incorporated into this study so that a maximum vegetational change could be obtained which would hopefully result in more herbage being produced per unit acre. Much of the area under study supports old, decadent, unproductive sagebrush which seems to stymie the younger more productive plants. It was thought that by reducing the competition of the sagebrush plants with the herbicide and applying the nitrogen to stimulate the remaining plants the total production of an area could be increased. Each of the three study areas has been fenced with an eight foot high deer proof fence to prevent wild deer and livestock use. Each study block consists of a fenced area 520' X 220'. The ten treatments are pOSitioned in two tiers of five treatments. Each treatment plot is 100' X 100' (Fig. 3), resulting in a total treatment area of 500' X 200'. This allows a border of 10' on all sides between the treated plots and the fence. Vegetation Measurements Although all 10,000 feet of each plot was treated, only a 9,000 foot square will be measured. This was done to reduce any leaching or drift effect that may have occurred from an adjacent treatment. Herbage Yield Herbage yield measurements were made with an electronic capacitance instrument Model 10lX (Fig. 4). This instrument when placed in vegetation measures the capacitance or ability of that vegetation to hold energy from the headproduced electromagnetic field. As the mass of vegetation is increased, the ability to hold energy increases in the linear relationship. Therefore, the capacitance is closely related to the mass or weight of that vegetation (Currie, unpublished). For a more detailed presentation of this instrument, the reader is referred to Neal and Neal (1966). The method used consisted of a double sampling system so that a certain ratio of meter read plots will be clipped. A ratio of five meter read plots to one clipped plot was chosen for the pre-treatment data. A total of 50 subplots was read for each 100' X 100' treatment plot resulting in a total of 10 clipped plots per treatment. The location of these 50 subplots was chosen in a restricted random fashion so that they would cover the entire �- 373 - treatment in a representative manner. Basically, the 50 plots were divided into six lines of seven plots and one line of eight plots evenly spaced across the treatment plot. The capacitance meter plot was l' X 2' and was in three dimensions since the probes are 18 inches long. The procedure used for a clipped plot was as follows: first, the immediate vegetation around the edge of the meter that was not part of the subplot was clipped and removed to avoid interference; next plastic golf tees were placed under the corner probes of the instrument so that the exact subplot location could be relocated when the instrument was removed to do the clipping. After the golf tees were located, a first meter reading ~as made and recorded of the total vegetation on the subplot. The meter was then removed and the leafy shrub components of the subplot were clipped and sacked separately by shrub species. The meter was then replaced on the sUbplot and a second meter reading was made and recorded. The meter was again removed and the grass and forb components of the plot were clipped and sacked separately as grasses and forbs. Finally, a third, or reSidual, meter reading was made and recorded. The various meter readings were taken to evaluate the ability of the meter to estimate the separate components of the vegetation making up a subplot. All production data are on an oven-dry weight basis and measurements are made as soon as possible after peak vegetative production is reached. The data were analyzed by a double sample computer program. Botanical Composition In order to assess the various vegetational changes that may occur due to the treatments, some measure of the relative abundance Of each species was needed. This measure might include frequency, density, basal area charting or vegetational mapping. To reduce the sample size needed for this measure, permanent square foot density plots were established. This will permit measurements of a known area each year. The term density in this report means number of plants of each species per unit area. Only six of the ten treatments on each study area were used for the density measurements. The six treatments chosen were the 0, 60, and 120 pound nitrogen treatments both with and without 2,4-D. These six treatments represented the whole range from none to maximum application. On each of the above mentioned plots, 50 permanently marked square foot sample plots were established in a restricted random fashion similar to the production subplot location method. These plots will be read once each year and the number of plants of each species rooted on the plot will be recorded. In addition, shrub heights are measured in tenths of feet so that changes can be detected. Deer Grazing Measurements In order to measure mule deer response or reaction on these various plots, tame, trained mule deer, property of the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, United States Forest Service, were used. These tame �- 374 - deer allow strict control of grazing times and intensities. Two types of measurements were made with the grazing deer. In order to measure specific plant species and plant part preferences, a method was used which follows that of Wa11mo and Neff (1970) where the deer were observed at close range and the plant species and plant parts chosen were recorded (Fig. 5). The other measurement made with the deer was a measure of treatment preference (if any). This measure was made by releasing the deer into the study area and observing and recording from a lookout tower the particular treatments on which the deer graze. Each study area grazing period corresponded to the time that wild deer were using that portion of the winter range. The study areas at the higher elevations were grazed in November and December, while the lower study area was grazed in January and February. The length of the grazing periods varied from three to four days. To obtain maximum data, each of the above two methods was alternated throughout a day by two hour grazing intervals. This allowed three such intervals in the course of one day, two intervals of one method and one interval of the other method. The order of this system was randomly chosen for each study area. The deer were maintained on a minimal concentrate ration throughout the grazing periods. Each evening the deer were removed to the central holding pen for the night. Plant Preference Measurements The plant selection method was used to obtain specific information as to what individual plants and plant parts the deer choose on each treatment. This method involved following the individual deer and identifying the plant species that were being eaten. Four tame deer and two observers were used for each grazing interval. However, only one deer per observer was used in gathering data at anyone time. The information obtained was transmitted into portable tape recorders and later transcribed onto forms (Appendix I). Pertinent data gathered were the treatment number, the clock time that deer entered the treatment, direction of travel, plant species eaten, plant part eaten, and the number of bites of that particular part eaten. Other supplemental information such as behavior and urination and defecation rates were recorded. As these data were transcribed from the tape recorder a map was constructed showing the grazing travel of that particular deer throughout the study area (Fig. 6). At the start of each grazing trial a randomly chosen point in the exc10sure was used for the starting point. Treatment Preference Measurements The method used to obtain treatment preference involved observing the deer from an observation tower (Fig. 7). Each study area has a tower 10 feet in height located midway along one side of the exc1osure. Two observers were present in the tower for each grazing interval and again, four deer were used. Each observer was responsible for observing two deer. The time �- 375 - spent on each plot was recorded (Appendix II) for both deer by clock minutes while the grazing seconds were obtained for only one deer by using a tally counter punched manually as that particular deer grazed. This was done to help tabulate the time spent on each plot activity, such as grazing or bedding time. In addition, a map was drawn of the route of each grazing deer to better understand grazing patterns. Each observer changed deer between trials and each deer was alternated on the data gathering method as to feeding seconds data or simply position data. Other Measurements Weather Information Weather information will be obtained from existing weather stations at Hot Sulphur Springs and Kremmling. Total moisture, moisture type, periods of precipitation, and temperature records will be used to help interpret the findings of the study. Soil Descriptions Soil descriptions for each study area were made by L. A. Fletcher, Soil Scientist for the Soil Conservation Service. These descriptions included the pH of the soil at various levels, percent coarse material, soil profile, soil temperature, soil textures, drainage and permeability characteristics and general aspects of each study area. In addition, a soil chemical analysis was made for each study area at the soil testing laboratory at Colorado State University. Photographs A permanent photo hub has been established on each treatment of each study area (Fig. 8). This photo hub consisted of a meter square frame plot positioned on each treatment to delineate a specific photo area. Both black and white and color photographs were taken and will be repeated annually. Plant Collections A complete plant collection for each study area was made and verification was obtained on the identification of species from the U. S. Forest Service Herbarium in Washington, D. C. DESCRIPTION Junction OF AREA Butte Study Area The Junction Butte study area is located on Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks land and is approximately four miles southeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (NE~, Sec. 28, TIN, R8OW). The site is on dry, native �- 376 - sagebrush range and is located on a long slope of about 8 percent. The aspect is southerly with steep slopes of shallow soils and rock outcrops immediately above the study area. The soil is well drained with a permeability of between .8 and 1.25 inches per hour. Annual precipitation is about 11 inches of which about one-half occurs during the growing season. Flightline Study Area The Flightline study area is located about 20 miles northeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (SW~, Sec. 36, T2N, R79W). The site is on native sagebrush range located on a gently sloping to sloping uplands. The soil is well drained with a permeability of between .2 and .6 inches per hour. Annual precipitation is about 18 inches with about one-half falling during the growing season. Corral Creek Study Area The Corral Creek study area is located about 21 miles northeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (NE~, Sec. 36, T2N, R79W). This study area is located on public land administered by the Bureau of Land Management. The site is on native sagebrush range located on a sloping mountainside with an average slope of about.8 percent. The aspect of this area is westerly. The soil is well drained with a permeability of between .08 and .2 inches per hour. Annual precipitation is about 18 inches again with about one-half of this amount falling during the growing season. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Measurements Herbage Yield Table 1 summarizes the correlation coefficients obtained for each componen.t meter reading for each of the study areas. High correlation coefficients (.75 - .92) were obtained for all study areas for total weight estimates and shrub component estimates. However, the forb and grass component correlation coefficients were not good (.37 - .53). In certain cases, the correlation coefficients were improved by subtracting the residual meter readings, but generally, the benefit from this does not warrant the extra meter reading. For this first year of pre-treatment data all ten treatments were analyzed as one large sample to obtain total production in pounds per acre. This resulted in an N of 100 for the small sample and an N of 500 for the large sample for each study area. The following estimates were obtained. The data from study area 1, the Junction Butte site, gave a mean clipped weight per plot of 31.74 grams of herbage. This resulted in a total production estimate of 1,522 pounds of herbage per acre. The variance of the mean was computed to be 3.29 and the standard deviation of the mean was estimated to be 1.81. The 95 percent confidence limits for the estimated total production were 1,349-1,695 pounds per acre. �- 377 - , • , N Study Area Area 3 Hot Sulphur Springs CStudy A rea 1 Scale: 1 in. =5 mi. Fig. 1. Location of the three study areaS. �- 378 - Junction Butte 120 # N. 90 # N. o # N. 30 # N. 30 , N. 21~2,4-0 0# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-0 o./F 2,4-0 120# N. 0# N. 90# N. 60# N. 60# N. 0# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-0 90# N. 30# N. 601 N. 120# N. 90# N. 2# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-D 2# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-0 0# N. 0# N. 301 N. 60# N. 120# N. 0# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-D 2# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-0. 120# N. 30# N. 90# N. 90# N. 120# N. 0# 2,4-0 0# 2,4-0 01 2,4-0 2# 2,4-D 2# 2,4-D 301 N. 60# N. 0# N. 0# N. 60# N. 21 2,4-D 0# 2,4-D 0# 2,4-D 2# 2,4-0 2# 2,4-D \• , Flightl ine Corral Fig. 2. Creek Randomized location of the ten treatments N on each study area. \ • , �- 379 - lOl. 220' 1 11----------- 520' 1--100'--1 Fig. J. Plot size and physical description of a stuQy area. I �- 380 - Fig. 4. Electronic measurements. capacitance instrument Model 101 X used in herbage yield �- 381 - Fig. 5. Use of tame, trained mule deer in obtaining plant selection data. �- 382 - ,. ~ / ./ t;7 V ( , l ~ .=Start e=End ==Gate A-Observation Tower Fig. 6. Typical grazing patterns traveled mule deer at the Flightline study area. during grazing trials by tame �- 383 - Fig. 7. Observation tower used in deer grazing trials. �- 384 - Fig. 8. Hub for permanent photo record. �- 385 - Table 1. Correlation coefficients ments with the capacitance meter. Type of Meter Reading obtained Junction for herbage production measure- Study Areas and Coefficients Butte Flightline Corral Creek Total herbage weight estimation (Total weight vs. total meter read) .75 .88 .88 Total herbage weight corrected (Total weight vs. total meter read minus residual meter reading) .85 .86 .89 Shrub weight estimation (Shrub weight vs. total meter read, Minus shrub meter reading) .83 .92 .91 Forb and grass estimation (Forb and grass weight vs. shrub removed meter reading) .15 .46 .31 Forb and grass estimation corrected (Forb and grass weight vs. shrub removed minus residual reading) .37 .38 .53 The data from study area 2, or the Flightline site, gave a total mean clip weight of 45.16 grams per plot. This resulted in a total production estimate of 2,170 pounds of herbage per acre. The variance of the mean was computed to be 3.91 and the standard deviation of the mean was computed to be 1.98. The 95 percent confidence limits for the estimated total production were 1,978-2,359 pounds per acre. Data from the Corral Creek site resulted in a total mean clip weight of 41.38 grams per plot. This projected to a total production estimate of 1,987 pounds of herbage per acre. The variance of the mean was computed to be 3.04 and the standard deviation of the mean was calculated to be 1.74. The 95 percent confidence limits for the estimated total production were 1,819-2,154 pounds. As a result of the poor correlation coefficients for the forb and grass components, no production estimates for these have been made. It appears that these estimates will have to be made completely by analyzing the forb and grass clipped weights. The three replicates allow a total of 30 such plots for each treatment to make this estimate and plans for the following year are to increase this to 15 clipped plots per treatment resulting in a total of 45 clipped plots with the three replicates. �- 386 - Botanical Compositon No pre-treatment data are presented for botanical composition. Since the value of the permanently established plots will be to compare changes from one year to another, the data gathered for the previous year are important mainly for comparative purposes. Deer Grazing Measurements Plant Preference Data A summary of the diets of the four tame, trained mule deer for each study area is given in Tables 2, 3, and 4. The percent of the diet that each species makes up is tabulated. No analysis of plant parts or individual deer differences was made for these data. The diet composition represents all four deer for all the grazing trials conducted during a grazing period at each study area. Treatment Preference Data Because the data taken are pre-treatment data, no treatment preferences could be measured. However, it was felt that to better assess any changes that might occur in grazing preferences it would be necessary to obtain Some idea as to pre-treatment preferences in grazing area and plot locations. It became obvious that the treatment block by the gate was visited most often. Also, it seemed that each of the corner treatments at each study area was preferred over the other treatments. This occurred primarily because they seemed to prefer to stand in a fence corner for considerable portions of time. Also, certain plots containing higher densities of plants such as bitterbrush, Purshia tridentata, and serviceberry, Amalanchier alnifolia, were visited more often. Data obtained from each study area are presented in Tables 5, 6, and 7. LITERATURE CITED Currie, P. O. (unpublished). Development of the heterodyne vegetation meter and partial test results on some range and wildlife vegetation types in the Western U.S.A. Resume. 7 p. Neal, D. L., and L. R. Neal. 1966. A new electronic meter for measuring herbage yield. U. S. Forest Service. Res. Note PSW- 56. 4 p. Illus. Wallmo, O. C., and D. J. Neff. 1970. Direct observation of tamed deer to measure their consumption of natural forage. Range and wildlife habitat evaluation. A research symposium. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Misc. Publ. No. 417. p. 105-110. Prepared by ~~~·~L~~~n~H~~~·-~-f!~r-~-e~~·~e~r-:---------------Student Assistant �- 387 - Table 2. Junction Butte study area grazing observation data and diet composition, grazing trial February 19, 1970 to February 22, 1970. Plant Species Ama1anchier Agropyron a1nifo1ia spicatum Symphoricarpos oreophilus Percent of Diet 36.5 16.5 12.6 Stipa pinetorum 6.3 Gutierrezia 5.7 sarothrae Bouteloua gracilis 4.6 Eriogonum umbel1atum 4.0 Artemisia tridentata 2.8 Phlox bryoides 2.8 Purshia 2.7 tridentata Poa fendleriana 2.0 Artemisia 1.2 frigida Chrysothamnus spp. 0.8 0.5 Lichens Berberis repens 0.3 Penstemon cyathoporus 0.2 Unknown grass Agropyron smithii 0.2 0.1 Phlox multiflora 0.1 Koleria 0.1 Total cristata 100.0 �- 388 - Table 3. Flightline composition, grazing study area grazing observation data and diet trial December 11, 1969 to December 14, 1969. Plant Species Percent of Diet tridentata 57.2 Purshia Eriogonum 12.6 umbellatum Symphoricarpos oreophilus 8.0 Stipa pinetorum 4.9 Agropyron 3.3 spicatum Poa fendleriana 2.8 Penstemon 2.6 caespitosus Phlox bryoides 2.3 Unknown 1.5 grasses Castilleja spp. 1.2 Amalanchier alnifolia 1.0 0.4 Rosa sp. Chrysothamnus Penstemon viscidiflorous spp. 0.4 0.3 Phlox multiflora 0.3 Carex spp. 0.2 Unknown forbs 0.2 Sitanion hystrix 0.1 Penstemon cyathoporus 0.1 Ko1eria cristata Artemisia tridentata Artemisia tridentata Total 0.1 0.1 spp. rothrockii 0.01 100.0 �- 389 - Table 4. Corral Creek study area grazing observation data and diet composition, grazing trial December 16, 1969 to December 18, 1969. Plant Species Percent of Diet Purshia tridentata 33.6 Eriogonum umbel1atum 28.S Penstemon caespitosus 14.1 Poa fendleriana 8.7 Stipa pinetorum 2.7 Antennaria parviflora 2.6 Arnalanchier alnifolia 2.3 Agropyron spicatum 2.2 Symphoricarpos oreophilus 1.7 Phlox rnultiflora 1.7 Chrysotharnnus viscidiflorus 0.6 Gilia candida 0.2 Unknown forbs 0.2 Senecio spp. 0.2 Senecio multilobatus 0.2 Juiperus scopulorum 0.1 Senecio integerrimus 0.1 Astragulus convallarius 0.1 Carex spp. 0.1 Aster spp. 0.1 Total 100.0 �- 390 Table 5. Junction Butte study area grazing observation data. of feeding and location time per treatment plot. Allocation Plot No. Total Minutes on Plot Total Minutes Feeding on Plot Percent of Total Time Spent per Plot 1 207 8.27 9.9 2 301 36.95 14.5 3 186 19.77 8.9 4 195 24.37 9.5 5 661 60.15 31.7 6 136 0.00 6.5 7 304 16.72 14.6 8 7 0.00 0.3 9 21 0.00 1.0 10 64 0.00 3.1 Table 6. Flight line study area grazing observation data. feeding and location tlineper treatment plot. Allocation of Plot No. Total Minutes on Plot Total Minutes Feeding on Plot Percent of Total Time Spent per Plot 1 398 13.35 20.1 2 57 10.88 4.0 3 79 9.57 5.2 4 24 4.78 3.5 5 14 0.47 7.3 6 409 38.08 19.5 7 352 12.95 16.8 8 17 1.57 4.0 9 55 14.60 6.4 10 155 28.33 13.2 �- 391 - Table 7. Corral Creek study area grazing observation data. feeding and location time per treatment plot. Allocation of Plot No. Total Minutes on Plot To ta1 Minutes Feeding on Plot Percent of Total Time Spent per Plot 1 334 39.3 23.0 2 11 0.0 0.8 3 299 22.0 20.6 4 14 2.2 1.0 5 50 0.0 3.4 6 446 29.8 30.8 7 23 0.5 1.6 8 64 5.4 4.4 9 60 0.0 4.1 10 149 0.0 10.3 �APPENDIX Frrtilizrr Study: I Foragr Spluction - 392 - P <l <, r-.•. _-_. {') Date..... -- --. .......•-•.._-- _ ..•. _ .... _----_ ...•.._Hf'r,fn }'nd )'lapspd . SnoH Cond, •..--._--------'"' .-- .•.. -- --- -.- ----- - --~::~;~"~i~ ::;."i,~~~ -,"::,::.l.::.'~~I:r~:~ :::e~:-'-'~-~,-.~- "-"-' Rcco rd cr e- ~ --'. -0 •• --~ Tr-mp '. • zrz: •. -' -~-- ~- -- rr-c- .0' ~~ O~O. ~-"--'.'. - - ••• --' •••• ·.0 .~-' ._. - ~-.-".- '.- . •• ---. . .. _0-,'»_' •'- ···-~ •• . ·..~I--.' , •... --. . I----l-·..-- r"·" I~.IV">... .••. ..,:..:-~";.':.::r••:=.:r~-•••.••...•.... -=------f..c"=";.rI..:,;:;,;r ••.•.••. >:r.•••. -••• "" ~ •••...• ,-.., •.." (ind1cltp gatp, tO~0r & n mhrrs �APPEr\~Ol}: IJ Fer t Ll.L» cr --..• _.-.---- •. - ..-----_._--- ..•. -_ Dat o . - .._ - 393 - ::tudy: FrE>(> Gra:dne \-lea t IH"'r Cond , -_._-- -.-----------_._---._--- .. -_ ....._-- --.. _---. ~.-.--.--... _-- .. --.....- ..-,.._-- .•------------ ..--_ .. _._~.•...-. Snow Cond , ---_._ _-- --;-_ _---. --_._ _--- •.... _._- ... __ ._-_._ -- -.•... ~-" -.. - ... OU5£'rVCl" _- ..... .... -. - --- •..-... - --- - -. ,..---_.- --... .. .. nrm. -.-. ------_ .. --.----- .... .. •__ •• _._. •__ •• __ w·· {indic te gn P, to~or, & •• _ .. ",. __ • __ . umhrrs ��July, 1970 - 395 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO -----------~~~~~----------- Project No. W~38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 14 Job No. Investigations 6 (First Year) Job Title Middle Physiology Park Cooperative Deer Study and Prevention of Deer Starvation Period Covered: June 1969 - June, 1970 Personnel: Julius G. Nagy, Principal Investigator, James A. Bailey, Investigator, Gene G. schoonveld, Graduate Student. ABSTRACT Activities during this initial period of the projec~ involved construction of deer holding and handling facilities, acquisition of experimental animals, developing and refining techniques used in weighing and obtaining blood and rumen samples, and conducting both short and long term feeding trials. There were indications that very high levels of crude protein and NFE in a deer's diet can cause dietary upsets which may possibly result in death. The addition of protein to a high fiber diet resulted in increased daily food intake and rate of passage, although dry matter digestibility remained about equal. Two adult deer, fed an extreme malnutrition diet for 13 weeks were apparently able to compensate for the poor quality diet by consuming more of the small particle size feed. They maintained weight and remained in satisfactory physical condition. ��- 397 - PHYSIOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF DEER STARVATION Julius G. Nagy P. S. OBJECTIVE To ascertain what takes place in deer physiology when starvation occurs, and investigate the economic and biologic feasibility of preventing starvation. SEGMENT 1. Maintain 2. Refine techniques for rumen content for feeding, handling and examining 3. Conduct metabolic a. b. 4. b. c. 5. herd of 15 to 20 mule deer. sampling deer. starvation and improve methodology trials: To measure basic metabolic rate. To determine the critical ambient increase their rate of metabolism Conduct a. an experimental OBJECTIVES temperature where deer must to combat cold. trials: To detennine changes in deer physiology during the process of starvation. To determine the "critical" point of no return in deer starvation, beyond which they will not recover. To investigate methods of aiding deer recovery before the "critical" point is passed. Prepare report. METHODS AND MATERIALS All deer on experimental trials are periodically weighed and samples of blood and rumen fluid taken. Weighing is done by running the animal over a scale and holding it there by means of a holding chute. After weighing, the animal is moved into a restraining chute constructed in a manner that the animal is restrained by its head but access to the head, neck and right or left regions of the body is possible. Venous blood samples are easily obtained by drawing blood from either right or left jugular veins using a syringe of desired volume. Rumen samples have been obtained using stomach tube technique which has presented many problems and required much refinement. PhYSical form of diet, position in which the deer's head is held, excitability and period �- 398 - of time a wild deer can be restrained are problems encountered. Rumen samples can now be taken with relative ease, however this technique has limitations which must be realized. Varying amounts of saliva contamination are always experienced and diets of different physical form, especially with long fibrous particles, result in plugging the tube. Because of these limitations it would be more advantageous if rumen samples were obtained directly through a rumen fistula. Rumen fistu1ated deer allow for more frequent rumen sampling regardless of form of diet with less injury to experimental animals and elimination of saliva contamination. Experimentation with different rumen fistu1ation techniques and cannulas that can be applied to deer are currently in progress. To date, our technique and cannula have been successfully tested using domestic goats; with slight refinements we believe deer can also be successfully fistu1ated. RESULTS Maintaining AND DISCUSSION Experimental Animals All facilities for maintaining and handling experimental deer have been constructed at Foothills Research Campus, Colorado State University." Six large holding or exercise pens which have incorporated within a group isolation pen, fifteen individual isolation pens, work area for weighing and handling deer and a research building are completed. Figure 1 shows actual physical layout of all facilities. Efforts to obtain a tame herd of experimental deer were delayed by an epizootic outbreak of Escherichia coli during summer of 1969 in our fawn crop. However, we were able to obtain experimental wild deer through cooperation with Colorado Game, Fish and Parks and U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildlife Service. Our fawn crop during the current year appears healthy; we have experienced minimal losses and thus far results are very encouraging. Refine Techniques and Methodology The techniques discussed under the Methods and Materials devised and refined during the past segment. Conduct Metabolic section were Trials Due to the loss of the fawn crop basic metabolic trials had to be postponed but we concentrated instead on feeding trials using wild, adult deer. Feeding Trials Trials of both short-term (21 day) and long-term (90 day) periods have been conducted. Four short-term trials designed to study effects various levels of crude protein, fiber and nitrogen free extract (NFE) have upon digestibility and rate of passage through deer's digestive tract are completed. �a WEIGHING AND HANDLING b WORKING CHUTE- SPACE W \0 \0 OLA8 DIGESTION CAGE SHELTER O II o 50 SCALE Figure 1. HOUSE TRAI LER 100 1N FEET Physical layout of deer holding and handling facilities. �- 400 - Initially the study was designed using four diets with combinations of high and low crude fiber and protein (Table 1). The study was later changed using two diets; deer on a dietary plane high in crude protein and NFE, diets 2 and 4, were cyclic in daily food intake or off feed altogether. Tentative results from these trials indicate very high levels of crude protein and NFE in a deer's diet can cause dietary upsets which may possibly result in death. Secondly, addition of protein to a high fiber diet resulted in increased daily food intake and rate of passage although dry matter digestibility remained about equal. Rate of passage was determined using stained feed technique and determining 5-95 percent time required for stained particles to be eliminated. Dry matter digestibility was determined through use of digestibility cages and total fecal collection. Table 2 compares results obtained from two short-term feeding trials using diets 1 ahd 3. Table 1. Proximate chemical analysis feeding trials, oven-dry basis. Proximate Principles of four diets used in short-term Diet 1 Percent Composition Diet 3 Diet 2 Diet 4 12.5 17.6 5.5 8.8 32.2 68.3 44.0 72.5 Crude Fiber 46.7 6.1 52.8 12.3 Ether Extract 2.5 2.9 2.5 3.0 Ash 6.1 5.1 5.2 3.4 Crude Protein Nitrogen Free Extract A long-term trial was conducted, designed to study effects of an extremely poor quality diet upon deer over an extended period such as experienced in wild conditions during winter months. Feed consisted of wheat straw and cotton seed hulls which were ground and pelleted. Diet used in this trial is diet 3 (Table 1), also used in short-term trials. Parameters investigated were changes in daily food intake, weight change, serum urea, protein and rumen pH, volatile fatty acids, total nitrogen, ammonia and total microorganism counts. Chemical analysis of blood and rumen samples have not yet been completed. Weight loss for all experimental animals was not significantly greater than considered normal during winter months as reported by other researchers, however, mean daily food intake increased considerably during the trial as shown in Figure 2. It is theorized the animals were able to compensate for a poor quality diet by consuming more small particle �- 401 - size. Experimental deer were therefore capable of maintaining weight and remained in satisfactory physical condition throughout the trial in spite of being fed what is normally considered an extreme mal-nutrition diet. Research plans for 1970-71 include studying what effects form of diet, particularly larger particle size, has upon digestibility, rate of passage and feed impaction within the rumen. These studies will be closely related with improving our fistu1ation technique and utilizing fistu1ated deer. Table 2. Comparison of consumption, rate of passage and dry matter tibility using two diets of different crude protein levels. Animal 12.5 Percent Protein 5.5 Percent Mean Daily Intake Protein (gms) Deer 1 891 632 Deer 2 1449 1133 Deer 3 1173 1002 Rate of Passage (hours) Trial 2 36.5 57.5 Trial 3 45.5 54.0 Dry Matter Digestibility (percent) Trial 2 42 40 Trial 3 44 47 Prepared by --~T-------~----~~~--~~~¥-~ Nagy Professor Wildlife diges- �- 402 - 2.4 ~ 2.2 2.0 1.8 '"' eo 1.6 ~ '-' Q) ~ Cd .IJ 1.4 p H e-, M ~ 1.2 Q) ~ 1.0 p Cd Q) ~ 0.8 1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 HEEK Figure 2. Nean wcck Ly consumption trial. of tHO adult dcc r , long-term fc cdl n g 13 �July, - 403 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 15 Job No. 1 Job Title An Investigation of Deer-Auto Accidents Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: Dale F. Reed, Dennis L. Money, Claudia A. Doose, Kenneth C. Dillinger, William B. Zimmerman, Gary T. Myers ABSTRACT Factors which might affect the number of deer-auto accidents were measured on 20 miles of Highway 13 south of Meeker and on 18.5 miles of Highway 82 near Glenwood Springs. Deer densities, based on weekly spotlight counts, averaged 125 near Highway 13 and 123 adjacent to Highway 82. Most deer were present in both areas during March. During 1969, automatic traffic counters recorded about 240,000 vehicles on Highway 13 and 1,289,000 vehicles on Highway 82. Traffic on both highways was greatest in August. Over 70% of the terrain near Colorado 82, classified according to the number of contour intervals, was flat to gently rolling and rolling, 10% moderately steep, 15% steep, and 3% rugged. Vegetation, typed within one quarter mile of both sides of Highway 82, was 23% pinyon-juniper, 22% hayland, and 20% hay pasture. Track counts, although poor, indicated a peak of deer migration across Highway 13 around October 22, 1969. Colorado traffic accident reports for 1965-1967 indicated that most deer-auto accidents occurred on Sundays, and 47% accurred during the first three hours after sunset. In addition to factors possibly affecting deer-auto accidents, the number and location of deer killed in such accidents was recorded by quarter mile interval. Vehicles killed 109 deer on Highway 13 and 155 on Highway 82 during 1969. 1970 ��- 405 - DEER-AUTO ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION Gary To Myers Po So OBJECTIVE Determine factors which cause deer-auto accidents on Highway 13 south of the White River bridge in Rio Blanco County and on Highway 82 between Basalt and Glenwood Springso SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record all deer found killed by vehicles in the study area. 2. Estimate deer population densities adjacent to each highway. 3. Measure roadside deer activity along a 19 mile portion of Highway 13 and a 3 mile section of Highway 82. 4. Measure vehicle traffic volume and determine the time of heaviest traffic of each highway. 5. Determine which driving and road conditions are most frequently associated with deer-auto accidents. 6. Measure roughness of terrain adjacent to Highway 82. 7. Determine the type and acreage of each vegetative type within 1/4 mile of Highway 82. 8. Measure the average speed of traffic on Highway 82. 9. Determine the time most deer-auto accidents occur. 10. Determine the time of peak roadside deer activity. 11. Measure general weather conditions in the study areas. 12. Measure the condition of deer killed by vehicles in the study areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods used to determine the number and location of vehicle-deer kills (Fig. 1) and traffic volume have not changed (Myers, 1969)0 All other techniques have been modified. Deer Density Estimates Deer density estimates were obtained by counting the number of deer within sight of each highway at night with two spotlights attached to a vehicle driven slowly up one side of the highway and down the other side. One estimate was made each week on both highways except during summer on Highway 82. The number of deer seen in each marked quarter mile of highway was recorded. �- 406 - Fig. 1. One of many deer-auto (Photo by Paul Gilbert). accidents occurring each year in Colorado �- 407 Deer Highway Crossing Estimates A track strip was established in the median of 2-1/2 miles of Highway 82~ The strip, six feet wide, was rototilled and harrowed to a depth of about two inches. Deer tracks crossing the strip were counted and recorded weekly during April, 1969 to determine the need for fencing to keep deer off of the highway. The time interval between erasure by harrowing and the count was one day and night or roughly 24 hours. A track strip about 19 miles long adjacent to Highway 13 was established by bulldozing brush from an area at least six feet wide, disk plowing the strip to a depth of four inches where pOSSible, and rototilling~ The strip was also harrowed several times, and certain areas were hand raked to remove rocks. Deer tracks crossing the strip were counted and recorded at roughly 24 hour intervals, 14 times between May 16 and September 4, 1969, and 8 times between October 17 and October 26, 1969 Records of the number of tracks seen crossing the strip in each marked quarter mile section of highway were kept for each count on both Highway 13 and 82 0 0 Driving and Road Conditions Driving and road conditions were recorded on Investigators Traffic Accident Reports by the State Patrol when deer-auto accidents were reportedo Copies of these reports for 1968 and 1969 were obtainedo Information regarding driving and road conditions was taken from over 600 accident reports relating to deer-auto accidents occurring in 1968. This information was coded, for summarization by computer. Terrain Adjacent to Highway 82 The area within 1/4 mile on each side of Highway 82 was divided into about 40-50 acre blocks on contour mapso These blocks corresponded with the quarter mile marked intervals of highway used to record the location of deer crossings, sightings, and killso Diagonals were drawn across each block for each quarter mile section and the total number of 40 foot contour intervals cut by both diagonals provided an index to measure slope steepness. This index was used to place areas into six general categorieso Blocks having indexes from 1 to 10 were categorized as flat, 11 to 20 - gentle rolling, 21 to 30 - rolling, 31 to 40 - moderately steep, 41 to 50 - steep, and 51 to 60 ruggedo Vegetation Adjacent to Highway 82 The fields designated on contour maps were drawn on aerial photographso The various vegetative types containing 0 5 acres or more and within the boundaries of the fields were designated on aerial photographs and, when necessary, on foot to determine vegetative typeo Types were based on descriptions set forth in Big Game Range Analysis Instructions (Interagency Committee on Big Game Range Analysis, Unpublished Report, June, 1962)~ Quantity of vegetation was determined by planimetering each designated typeo 0 �- 408 Speed of Traffic Two model NH~l Vehicle Speed Recorders were obtained from Newmeyer Electronics, Glendale, Arizona The Division of Highways installed buried loops and provided detectors for use with the speed recorders to measure speed of traffic at three different locations on Colorado 820 Eight loops, two in each of the four lanes of traffic, were buried at each location to enable measurements of speed of traffic traveling in various lanes and in both directionso Speed Recorders were operated intermittently during February and March, 1969. The recorders provided information required to calculate the average speed of traffico o Time of Deer-Vehicle Accidents The hour (Mountain Standard Time), day, and month of each accident reported to the State Patrol during 1965-1967 was recorded on a code sheeto Time of accident was coded in relation to sunrise and sunset by use of maps based on daily sunrise and sunset tables for five Colorado citieso Accident times were classified in one of 15 sunrise and sunset categorieso All coded information was placed on punch cards and processed by computero In addition, the time of death for each deer found killed on Highways 82 and 13 were estimated by use of thigh temperature, head temperature, rigormortis, or other characteristics successfully used to estimate the time of death of white-tailed deer (Gill and O'Meara, 1965)0 Time of Peak Roadside Deer Activity Deer detection devices were obtained and installed in the median of 1/4 mile of Highway 82 to measure deer activit Yo These devices are described by Myers (1970). Weather Weather instruments consisting of a recording rain gauge, maximum-minimum thermometer, anemometer, and hygrothermograph placed along each highway were used to obtain general weather information. Deer Condition The condition of deer killed by vehicles in both study areas was determined by kidney fat measurements described by Anderson (1965), and by measurement of percent fat in the bone marrow of femurso The later work was done by personnel at the Research Laboratory in Fort Collins under the direction of Robert E. Keisso �- 409 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Number and Location Highway of Vehicle-Deer Kills 13 Results indicate that at least 109 deer were killed on the 20 mile portion of Highway 13 south of Meeker during 1969, compared to 118 in 1968. Thirtyone percent, or 34 deer, were killed in deer-auto accidents during October (Fig. 2). Ten deer or less were killed during any other month with fewest hit by motorists during December and January. The greatest kill per mile was 14 deer (Fig. 3). The highest kill per quarter mile was 8 deer in Section 59. About 70 percent were hit between Sections 45 and 70. Highway 82 One-hundred-fifty-five deer were killed by vehicles on Highway 82 between Glenwood Springs and Basalt during 1969 compared to 147 in 1968. Sixty-eight percent of the kill, 106 animals, occurred during the first three months of 1969 (Fig. 4). Few deer were hit during the vacation months of May through September, and 35 animals were hit during the last three months of 1969. Over 25 percent of the deer (42) were killed in the second and third mile south of Glenwood Springs. More specifically, high kill areas were Sections 9, 8, 11, and 38 with kills of 16, 13, 9, and 9 deer respectively (Fig. 5). The most concentrated kill per mile of highway included Sections 7-10 where motorists collided with 39 deer during 1969. Deer Density Estimates Highway 13 One of the factors affecting the number of deer killed by vehicles was the number of deer present near the highway. A total of 6,538 deer was recorded during 53 counts adjacent to Highway 13 in 1969 for an average of 125 deer per count compared to 156 deer per count in 1968. Most were seen during late winter and early spring. The highest average, 285 deer, occurred in March (Fig. 6). During all other months except May, June, July, and August, counts averaged at least 95 deer per month. Most deer (375) were seen in quarter mile Section 78 (Fig. 7). One deer was seen in each of Sections 5 and 19. Highway 82 A total of 4,047 deer was recorded adjacent to Highway 82 during 33 counts in 1969 for an average of 123 deer per count. About 90 percent of the deer were present near Highway 82 during the first four months of the year. Peak numbers (402) were counted in March while counts averaged 10 or fewer deer during May and September (Fig. 8). No counts were made during summer months. The greatest concentration of deer near one quarter mile of highway was 496 (Fig. 9). Over 2,000 deer, or 53 percent, were recorded along just three miles of highway. Generally fewest deer were seen in Sections 41-60. �50 040 lIJ ..J ..J 34 ~ a:: ~ •.... o lIJ lIJ o u, o m: lIJ ell 2 :) z o JAN Fig. 2. FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT Monthly vehicle-deer kill on Highway 13 study area during 1969. NOV DEC �o o 2 o 9 2 2 4 2 3 II II 8 12 14 II 8 : 3 : 6 Fig. 3. Location and number of deer killed by vehicles on Highway 13 study area during 1969. Each bar represents the kill on one quarter mile of highway. Every fourth quarter mile section is numbered below the horizontal axis. Numbers at the bottom of the graph are the numbers of deer killed in the four quarter mile sections between dotted vertical lines. Quarter mile section number 1 begins at the Rio Blanco county line. Section 80 ends at the junction of Highway 13 with Highway 64. �50 040 UJ -oJ -oJ - ~ 9 r 30 .j:- II II t-' N 0 u, 0 « 2 UJ CD :i ':) 2 10 0,--...1 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT Fig. 4. Monthly vehicle-deer kill on Highway 82 study area during 1969. NOV DEe �15 a: l&J l&J C l&.. - lOt 0 a: l&J CD 2 :::> Z 5 I " 18 6 16 : 13 . . : W - -- _4_ o 24 ~ to-' 9 9 13 : II 8 4 . 19 : 6 3 2 6 6 2 ?ig. 5. Location and number of deer killed by vehicles on Highway 82 studv area during 1969. Each bar represents the kill on one quarter mile of highway. Every fourth quarter mile section of hLghway is numbered jus t beLow the horizontal axis. Numbers at the bottom of the gra~h are the number of deer killed in the four quarter mile sections ~etween dotted verticle lines. Section 1 is near Glenwood Springs citv limit. Section 74 is near the 3asalt citv limits. �500 0 '" IZ :::) 0 0 I - a: aoo·~ ~ •.... 285 L&J 1&1 Q """ ~ 0 O! 1&1 m :IE :::::> z o JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC ~ig. 6. Average number of deer counted adjacent to Highway 13 study area by month during 1969. �7 3 228 G: LLI laI JO·tI 0 ~ I 180 ~ a: 150 I.IJ en 137 15 I~ 37 2 ::) z SECTION NO. 0 DEER/MILE 24 : 114 : 203: 30 l 72 : 448 : 116 : 109 : 56 : 83 : ~ig. 7. Location of deer counted adjacent to Highway 13 study area in 1969. ,lit _- , +:t-' VI I �0 W I2 ::> 0 0 97' • FEB MAR a: ~ 300t" 0 U. 0 +' t-' 0- a: ill CO :E ::> z o JAN APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEe Fig. 8. Average number of deer counted adjacent to Highway 82 study area by month during 1969. No counts were made during months where * is shown. �- 417 - 500 450 400 350 300 250 G: 1&1 1&1 N 0 0 N •••• 200 0 IX '"~ ell ::> z ~ ~ 100 50 o 4: I: 16: 17 1 306! 274; 721154; Fig. 9. 1969. Location 196 :1I72~ 38 1178 1416 : of deer counted adjacent to Highway 82 study area in �- 418 - Deer Highway Crossing Highway Estimates 13 Results of track counts on Highway 13 were affected considerably by weather, livestock activity in the track strip, texture and rockiness of the soil, and other factors. During a large majority of the track counts, at least one and often several of these factors affected track. count accuracy. Putting it bluntly, almost all of the track counts are inaccurate for one reason or another, especially during October when frozen soil, mud, livestock drives, and other types of interference made it impossible to detect deer tracks in large sections of the track strips. Consequently readers should interpret results with caution. Twenty-two full length track counts were made on Highway 13 during 1969 (Table I). A total of 3,124 tracks were noted in the track strip during May - October. An average of 7 deer tracks were counted per mile of highway. The sixth and sixteenth mile of highway contained most tracks, 345 and 360 respectively. An average of 95.7 tracks was seen per count in May, 63.0 in June, 106.2 in July, 102.5 in August, 81.0 in September, and 223 5 in October. 0 Deer migrate from east to west across Highway 13 to their winter range during October. Eight track counts were made during this month in an attempt to document when and where the migration crossed Highway 13. Considering only deer tracks which zema Ined- after subtracting east bound tracks from west bound tracks, a minimum of 660 deer migrated across Highway 13 between October 16 and October 27, 1969 (Fig. 10). The peak of documented migration during this period occurred around October 22. Important crossings were in the sixth, tenth, eleventh, and sixteenth mile of highway where roughly 60 percent of the documented migration crossed (Fig. II). Highway 82 Crested wheat occurring near cover and water on the east side of about a mile of Highway 82 may prevent mass movement of deer across the highway to alfalfa fields. If this is not the case and large numbers of deer cross the highway, fencing may be required. Track counts were conducted in the median ofa mile of highway adjacent to the crested wheat area to get an index of deer crossings. Results indicate that there were no crossings on May 7, 1969, and as many as 20 crossings on April 17, 1969 (Table 2). �- 419 - Table 1. Average number of deer tracks noted crossing the track strip on Highway 13 during 22 counts in 1969. Mile of Highway May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Average 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 4.7 1.0 0.7 2.0 17.3 9.0 2.3 0.0 0.3 1.0 3.7 5.0 4.3 9.0 2.0 4.3 8.7 6.0 1.7 12.7 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 4.5 9.5 2.0 1.5 0.0 1.0 2.5 2.0 9.5 5.5 3.5 6.5 1.0 0.0 6.5 6.0 5.3 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.3 6.8 2.5 10.8 2.2 4.0 9.2 6.7 10.5 8.3 5.3 7.5 5.7 4.8 6.0 4.8 11.5 2.5 1.0 2.0 3.5 16.0 8.0 2.0 6.0 12.5 5.0 2.0 13.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 3.0 18.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 19.0 3.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 21.0 1.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 4.0 7.6 16.3 8.8 1.3 3.5 25.9 0.6 0.0 1.5 17.5 19.4 25.0 10.1 11.9 25.0 35.6 3.1 4.9 1.4 4.3 6.7 6.7 3.8 1.4 5.0 15.7 2.3 3.3 1.7 8.9 11.7 12.0 9.2 8.9 11.2 16.4 4.3 4.1 3.1 5.6 Total Tracks 287.0 126.0 637.0 205.0 81.0 1,788.0 3,124.0 Average 95.7 63.0 106.2 102.5 81.0 223.5 142.0 No. of Counts 3 2 6 2 1 8 22 �- 420 - 16 WEST- EAST DEER TRACKS - HIGHWAY 13- OCT.17-26,'69 . 148 140 120 100 f/) ~ 0 <I 80 0: llL 0 0: 60 w CD ~ :::> z 40 29 .- 20 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 OCTOBER Fig. 10. Tracks counted which were made by deer migrating across the track strip. Migrating deer are those animals moving west, for which there is corresponding eastward movement. �30 DEER TRACKS ADJACENT TO HIGHWAY 13 (OCT. 17-26) • . TOTAL TRACKS CROSSING BOTH WAYS TRACKS MOVING WEST ONLY (WEST- EAST TRACKS) O 25 200 200 200 +' N t-' 150 95 100 81 70 2B 12 0' , , , , , , , , , , , 'r=r I 2 3 4 5 6 7 " , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , F2 ' , Mile section of 8 9 1011 12 13 14 15 16 Fig. 11. Tracks made by both resident and migrating deer during October 17-26, 1969 track counts Highway adjacent to Highway 13. �- 422 - Table 20 Deer tracks counted in the median of Highway 82 during April and May, 19690 Date of Count 10 AEril 17 30 May 7 Total Average 25 0 0 7 0 7 1.75 26 2 1 0 0 3 0075 27 5 8 4 0 17 4025 28 3 11 5 0 19 4.75 Total 10 20 16 0 46 2088 Section Noo Traffic Volume Highway 13 had an annual traffic volume of about 240,000 cars with most traffic in the months of June through October (Table 3)0 In comparison the annual traffic volume on Highway 82 was about 1,289,000 carso Most traffic on Highway 82 occurred during the summer vacation months (Figo 12). Putting it in simple terms, there was a maximum of about 41 vehicles per hour on Highway 13 compared to a maximum of over 197 per hour on Highway 82. Driving and Road Conditions Driving and road conditions associated with 1968 and 1969 reported accidents are being coded for analysiso Results are not available at this timeo �Table 3. Traffic volume on Highway 13 and 82 study area during 1969. Total Number of Vehicles AverageLDay Hwy. 13 Hwy. 82 AverageLHour Hwy. 13 HY7y. 82 Month Hwy. 13 Hwy. 82 Jan. 13,272 87,144 428.13 2,811.1O 17.84 117.13 Feb. 12,958 85,206 462.79 3,043.07 19.28 126.79 Mar. 15,712 105,202 506.84 3,393.61 21.12 141.40 Apr. 16,412 93,242 547.07 3,108.07 22.79 129.50 May 19,043 100,291 614.29 3,234.19 25.60 134.80 Jun. 23,917 113,637 797.23 3,787.90 33.22 157.83 Jul. 27,859 133,096 898.68 4,293.42 37.44 178.89 Aug. 30,515 146,538 984.35 4,727.03 41.01 196.96 Sep. 23,318 113,812 777.27 3,793.73 32.39 158.07 Oct. 26,525 103,483 855.65 3,338 16 35 65 0 139.09 16,486 99,905 549.53 3,330 17 22.90 138 76 Dec. 14,343 107,413 462.68 3,464 94 19.28 144.37 1969 240,360 1,288,969 658.52 3,531 42 27.44 147.14 .j:'- Nov. 0 0 0 0 0 N w �II HIGHWAY 13 HIGHWAY 82 o 197 20'0' 0' JAN 1<" r i.g , 1" ~L. FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP O'CT NOV Comparison of monthly traffic volume on Highway 13 and 82 study areas during 1969. �- 425 - Terrain Adjacent to Highway 82 Over 50 percent of the land area within 1/4 mile of Highway 82 was The remainder consisted classified as flat and gentle rolling terraino of 19 percent rolling, 10 percent moderately steep, 15 percent steep, and 3 percent rugged terrain (Table 4)0 Table 40 Types of terrain within Highway 82 study areao 1/4 mile of either Quarter Mile Sections Noo of Sections side of the Colorado of Highway Type of Terra in Terrain Index Flat 1-10 22 30.14 11-20 17 23 29 21-30 14 19.18 31-40 7 9 59 41-50 11 15 07 51-60 2 2.74 Gentle Rolling Rolling Moderately Steep Rugged Steep Percent 0 0 0 Total 100 01 0 Vegetation Adjacent to Highway 82 The wrong conversion factor was used during planimetering and the error was not discovered until report timeo As a result acreages are approximations subject to change. Over 5,800 acres of vegetation located within one quarter mile of both sides of Highway 82 were typedo Types were comprised of 23 percent pinyonjuniper, 22 percent hay1and, 20 percent hay pasture, 13 percent sagebrush, 7 percent broadleaf trees, 6 percent browse, and lesser percentages of nine other types (Table 5). �- 426 - Table 5. Acreage and percent of various vegetative 1/4 mile of the Highway 82 study area. types present within Vegetative Type Acres Percent Pinyon-juniper 1,367 23.4 Hayland 1,291 22.1 Hay Pasture 1,168 20.0 Sagebrush 742 12.7 397 6.8 Browse 350 6.0 Barren 164 2.8 Cultivated 123 2.1 Grassland 111 1.9 Culture 53 0.9 Annuals 35 006 Winterfat 23 004 Conifer 6 0.1 Orchard 6 001 Unknown 6 0.1 5,842 10000 Broadleaf Total Trees Speed of Traffic Speed data from tapes were compiled by two people. A comparison of their work indicates that average speeds may vary a mile or so and sample size from 5 percent to 6 percent due to interpretation of tape data (Table 6). Results of reliable speed checks indicate that the average speed of traffic ranged from 53.3 miles per hour on March 6, 1970 at station one to 60.0 miles per hour on February 23 at station two. Northbound traffic ranged from 55.8 miles per hour to 59.3 miles per hour (Table 7). �- 427 - Table 6. Variation in speed data due to human judgment. Speeds below were obtained by two people from the same speed tapeo Neither knew their work would be checked against the work of another. Individua 1 A Average Speed Individual B Sample Average Size Speed Hour Sample Size 1600-1659 1700-1759 1800-1859 1900-1959 2000-2059 2100-2159 2200-2259 2300-2359 2400-2459 0100-0159 0200-0259 0300-0359 0400-0459 0500-0559 0600-0659 0700-0759 0800-0859 0900-0959 1000-1059 1100-1159 1200-1259 1300-1359 1400-1459 1500-1559 1600-1659 80 108 72 89 40 39 28 17 13 9 4 5 5 6 18 50 105 101 110 95 90 111 80 101 30 56 58 54 58 59 58 55 54 55 59 53 52 54 56 55 55 58 59 59 58 58 56 56 55 58 82 109 72 87 39 38 28 17 13 9 4 5 5 6 20 50 89 95 111 95 90 108 80 114 29 55 57 54 57 59 58 55 54 55 59 52 52 54 56 56 54 58 61 58 58 58 56 55 58 59 1,406 56 9 1,494 55.8 Total 0 �- 428 Table 7. Speed data collected at three locations on Colorado 82 during 1970. in parenthesis may be inaccurate due to equipment malfunction. Figures Date Time of Data Collection Sample Size(Car) Average Speed Location Direction of Traffic Feb. 3-4 1600-1600 1,429 57.7 Sta. 3 South Dry Highway Feb. 4-5 1600-1559 1,444 55.4 Sta. 3 South Dry Highway Feb. 5-6 1625-1625 1,494 55.8 Sta. 3 North Dry Highway Feb. 6 1200-2459 1,116 (57.7) Sta. 3 North&South Fig. may be inaccurate due to Equip. malfunc. Feb. 12 1300-2400 822 59.7 unknown South unknown Feb. 12 1300-1800 466 58.8 Sta. 2 North unknown Feb. 19 1500-2459 775 58.1 unknown South Dry Highway Feb. 20 1000-2359 1,372 58.1 unknown South Dry Highway Feb. 21 0900-1359 474 58.7 unknown South Dry Highway Feb. 21 1945-2345 117 57.0 Sta. 2 South Dry Highway Feb. 22 0300-0700 1700-1800 255 58.3 Sta. 2 South Dry Highway Feb. 23 2100-2200 0500-0600 49 60.0 Sta. 2 South Dry Highway Feb. 27 0500-0700 1500-1600 212 59.3 Sta. 2 North unknown Mar. 4-5 1045-0145 0900-1000 877 (61.5) Sta. 2 North Dry Highway Mar. 5-6 1030-1130 1,654 58.4 Sta. 2 South Dry Highway Mar. 5-6 1030-1130 1,692 55.7 Sta. 3 South Dry Highway Mar. 6 1100-2100 987 53.3 Sta. 1 South unknown Mar. 6-7 1130-1100 1,514 60.3 Sta. 2 South unknown Mar. 7-9 1100-1230 3,339 54.5 Sta. 1 South Wet Highway Mar. 7-9 1120-0900 3,172 (63.4) Sta. 2 South Wet Highway Remarks ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 429 - Table 7. Speed data collected at three locations on Colorado 82 during in parenthesis may be inaccurate due to equipment malfunction. Time of Data Collection Date 1970. Figures Sample Size (Car) Average Speed Location Direction of Traffic Remarks Unknown Mar. 10-11 1000-0200 1,236 (66 2) 0 Stao 2 South Mar. 17 1200-1500 206 57 0 0 Stao 3 South Snowing,wet,slush Mar. 17-18 1300-1030 1,095 (76 3) Stao 2 North Snowing when put on - Dry Highway when off Time of Deer-Vehicle 0 Accidents Statewide Over 50 percent of the deer-vehicle accidents in 1965-1967 occurred on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday (Table 8). Almost 20 percent were on Sunday, 17 percent on Saturday, and 16 percent on Friday. This general pattern seems to hold for all years except 1967 when slightly more accidents were on Friday rather than Saturday. Excluding Friday, roughly 12 percent of the deer-vehicle mishaps occurred each weekday. Almost 40 percent of the 1,441 deer killed by vehicles were hit between 6:00 PM and 9:00 PM Mountain Standard Time (Table 9). Fewest accidents, 7 5 percent, occurred between 9:00 AM and 5:00 PM. Looking at similar information in another way, 48 percent of 1,624 deer-auto accidents during 1965, 1966 and 1967 which occurred at known times were during the first three hours after sunset (Table 10). Over half of the accidents involving deer were during the first hours past sunseto The time of accident in relation to sunrise and sunset varied from year to yearo 0 Highway 13 and 82 Combining information from Highway 13 and Highway 82, about 51 percent of the deer-vehicle kills in 1969 occurred on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday (Table 11). Over 20 percent were on Friday, 15 percent on Saturday, and 15 percent on Sunday. Fewest deer (9 6%) were killed on Monday. 0 �- 430 - Table 8. Number of vehicle accidents involving deer and reported to the Colorado State Patrol by day. Day No. 1965 Percent Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday 81 41 48 49 46 60 66 20.7 10.5 12.3 12.5 11.8 15.3 16.9 107 62 59 Total 391 100.0 Table 9. Time of reported deer-vehicle accidents in Colorado. Hour by Military Time No. 1965 Percent 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent Total Percent 55 93 103 19.4 11.2 10.7 13.1 10.0 16.9 18.7 126 84 88 72 92 111 110 18.4 12.3 12.9 10.5 13.5 16.3 16.1 314 187 195 193 193 264 279 19.3 11.5 12.0 11.9 11.9 16.2 17.2 551 100.0 683 100.0 1625 100.0 No. 72 1966 No. Percent 1967 No. Percent Total Percent 3.69 2.25 3.28 3.07 5.12 4.10 1.84 1.64 1.23 2.25 .82 .41 1.02 .41 1.02 1.23 9.43 15.57 14.34 8.61 5.33 6.35 3.48 3.48 26 14 6 28 25 29 14 12 7 3 4 4 3 3 6 7 44 77 99 81 46 30 26 9 4.31 2.32 1.00 4.64 4.15 4.81 2.32 1.99 1.16 .50 .66 .66 .50 .50 1.00 1.16 7.30 12.77 16.42 13.43 7.63 4.98 4.31 1.49 53 29 33 48 64 63 34 27 15 22 11 9 12 5 16 19 126 189 208 168 105 91 57 37 3.68 2.01 2.29 3.33 4.44 4.37 2.36 1.87 1.04 1.53 .76 .62 .83 .35 1.11 1.32 8.74 13.12 14.43 11.66 7.29 6.32 3.96 2.57 99.97 603 100.01 1441 100.00 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 9 4 11 5 14 14 11 7 2 8 3 3 4 2.57 1.14 3.14 1.43 4.00 4.00 3.14 2.00 .57 2.29 .86 .86 1.14 5 6 36 36 39 45 33 30 14 11 1.43 1.71 10.29 10.29 11.14 12.86 9.43 8.57 4.00 3.14 18 11 16 15 25 20 9 8 6 11 4 2 5 2 5 6 46 76 70 42 26 31 17 17 Total 350 100.00 488 �- 431 Table 10. Number and percent of reported deer-vehicle accidents in Colorado in relation to sunrise and sunset. Time Interval n t s Dee r - v e h i c 1 e A c c ide Total 1967 1966 1965 No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent Percent Within 3rd hour before sunset 4 1.0 1 .2 9 1.3 14 .9 Within 2nd hour before sunset 5 1.3 10 1.8 10 1.5 25 1.5 At sunset or within 1st hour before sunset 11 2.8 17 3.1 27 4.0 55 3.4 Within 1st hour after sunset 58 14.8 120 21.8 168 24.6 346 21.3 Within 2nd hour after sunset 74 18.9 88 16.0 120 17.6 282 17.4 Within 3rd hour after sunset 51 13.0 42 7.6 51 7.5 144 8.9 Within 4th hour after sunset 24 6.1 37 6.7 30 4.4 91 5.6 Other times of night 75 19.2 96 17.5 115 16.8 286 17.6 Within 3rd hour before sunrise 7 1.8 14 2.5 19 2.8 40 2.5 l~ithin 2nd hour before sunrise 6 1.5 14 2.5 13 1.9 33 2.0 Sunrise or within 1st hour before sunrise 14 3.6 37 6.7 33 4.8 84 5.2 Within 1st hour after sunrise 17 4.3 17 3.1 28 4.1 62 3.8 Within 2nd hour after sunrise 9 2.3 8 1.5 15 2.2 32 2.0 Within 3rd hour after sunrise 7 1.8 6 1.1 12 1.8 25 1.5 All other times of day 29 7.4 43 7.8 33 4.8 105 6.5 Total 391 99.8 550 99.9 683 100.1 1624 100.1 �- 432 - Table i r. Estimated during 1969. number of deer killed on Highway HiBhwa~ 82 and 13 by day Day No. 82 Percent Noo 13 Percent Total Percent Sunday 23 1595 10 1401 33 1501 Monday 15 1001 6 804 21 906 Tuesday 17 1105 8 1103 25 1l.4 Wednesday 19 1208 12 1699 31 1402 Thursday 17 1105 13 1803 30 13.7 Friday 34 23.0 11 1505 45 2005 Saturday 23 1505 11 1505 34 15,,5 Total 148 9999 71 100,,0 219 10000 HiBhwa~ On an hourly basis, 47 percent of the 129 deer killed at known times were hit between 6:00 PM and 9:00 PM (Table 12). Most (13%) were hit between 7:00 PM and 8:00 PM" Time of Peak Roadside Deer Activity Information collected to determine the peak of roadside deer activity is meaningless. The bases which secured the electric eyes used to measure deer activity in the median of Highway 82 were unstab1eo The electric eyes shifted away from the light sources and counted cars rather than deer. In addition to this problem, deer were scarce and seldom crossed the portion of highway instrumented with "deer detectors" as evidenced by the absence of deer tracks in the median, the low vehicle-deer kill, and the low number of deer counted in the area. A third problem was caused by human acttvity in the area. Results of "deer detector" counts appear in Table 13" Of interest is the fact that vandals broke but two light sources from the end of February through part of April (less than $20 damage which was easily repaired)9 Except for the unstable bases, equipment functioned properly in rain and snow making it possible to collect a great amount of continuous data. �- 433 - Table 12g Estimated time of deer-auto accidents on Highway 82 and 13 study area. Hour NOg Highway 82 Percent 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 4 2 2 5 4 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 1 2 6 13 13 8 10 8 14 5 3g9 200 2.0 4.9 3.9 100 000 000 0.0 0.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 5.8 12.• 8 12.8 7g8 908 708 13,,7 409 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 4 6 4 2 1 0 Total 102 100,,0 27 No. Highway 13 Percent Total Percent 307 000 000 704 0 0 0.0 0,,0 0.• 0 0,,0 3,,7 000 0,,0 0 .• 0 000 0.0 0.0 11.• 1 l1.• l 14g8 22.• 2 14.8 7.• 4 307 0,,0 5 2 2 7 4 1 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 1 2 9 16 17 14 14 10 15 5 .04 .02 ,,02 .05 .• 03 .01 .00 .00 000 .• 01 003 ,,00 .• 00 ,,00 ,,01 ,,02 .07 .• 12 .13 .• 12 ,,11 ,,08 .11 004 99,,9 129 1.02 0 �- 434 - Table 13. Time of activity recorded by detectors placed in the median of Highway 82, February 28, - April 8, 1970. Although a few deer crossed the median and were counted, most counts were triggered by vehicles and human activity in and near the median. Data for Station 3 were summarized for the period from Feb , 28, - March 27, 1970 0 Hour by Military Time Station 1 Station 2 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 393 330 335 443 215 124 26 64 39 37 26 127 189 70 68 192 170 255 181 403 632 1,083 994 409 42 87 49 60 329 106 36 1,550 1,244 1,195 737 702 580 340 129 240 288 25 6 29 3 6 66 97 Station 3 Total 28 48 5 13 0 0 4 39 21 40 168 5 12 28 36 25 0 4 6 5 0 1 1 1 463 465 389 516 544 230 66 1,653 1,304 1,272 931 834 781 438 233 457 458 284 193 437 635 1,090 1,061 507 Weather Highway 13 Climatological data collected at the Highway 13 weather station appear in Table 140 The average temperature from November 1969 through March 1970 was 26.5 0 F, about 3 OF warmer than the previous winter, at the Highway 13 weather station. The mean low temperature was 15 30F, compared to 12 8°F the previous winter. Almost 4 inches of precipitation was recorded for the four month period in 1968-69, while during the same period in 1969-70, 3 23 inches of moisture fe110 0 0 0 Highway 82 Near Highway 82, the winter of 1969-1970 was relatively mild compared to the winter of 1968-1969 The mean temperature at the weather station on Highway 82 was 24096°F in 1968-69 and 300540F in 1969-19700 The average low was 14040 F in 1968-69, while in 1969-70 it was 17090Fo Precipitation for the four month winter period was 3 9 inches in 1968-69 compared to 206 inches in 1969-70 (Table 15)0 0 0 �Table 14. Climatological data collected at the Highwav 13 weather station between April 1969 and March 1970. Data Collected Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Maximum Temperature (OF) 84 76 82 85 91 86 73 63 48 65 47 49 Minimum Temperature (OF) -4 22 25 21 41 29 6 -13 -10 -11 -4 -5 Ave. Maximum Temperature (OF) 55.4 68.4 67.7 80.2 79.9 70.0 45.8 42.1 35.2 35.3 39.4 36.5 Ave. Minimum Temperature (OF) 27.5 36.2 39.1 48.0 47.9 40.7 24.0 15.7 12.5 17.3 15.4 15.7 Total Precipitation (IN.) 1. 34 .41 2.76 .73 1. 32 2.48 3.57 1.20 .61 1.02 .40 1.29 Ave. Wind Velocity (M.P.H.) 1.35 4.81 3.68 3.97 3.19 4.91 3.28 3.57 2.59 4.26 3.26 3.19 I +:- w U1 Table 15. Climatological data collected at the Highway 82 weather station between April 1969 and March 1970. Data Collected Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Maximum Temperature (OF) 82 82 88 92 96 93 73 61 53 52 55 59 Minimum Temperature (OF) 16 23 23 21 40 30 21 -2 -7 -12 2 9 Ave. Maximum Temperature (OF) 62.7 74.8 72.8 84.9 85.1 71.6 51. 3 46.5 39.8 37.7 46.6 44.9 Ave. Minimum Temperature (OF) 29.3 37.5 41.6 49.8 48.9 40.7 29.3 18.7 16.2 12.6 19.6 22.7 Total Precipitation (IN.) .49 .50 2.71 .63 .54 1. 38 2.97 .30 1.23 .51 .60 1.02 Ave. 1~ind Velocity (M.P.H.) 3.84 3.51 3.29 2.60 2.45 2.40 2.10 1.37 1.5 1.9 2.4 3.3 �- 436 - Deer Condition The weight of kidney fat from deer hit by vehicles on both study areas during the period from October through March was highest, 64.1 grams, in November and lowest, 13.0 grams, near the end of winter in March (Table 16). The percent of fat present in the bone marrow from femurs of deer killed by vehicles on both study areas was lowest in April (Table 17). The average fat content of the medial portion of the femurs from nine deer killed in April was 26 27 percento The fat content rose to 44.39 percent in May and remained high until Decembero 0 Table 16. Average kidney fat weight (gm) by month of winter season from animals killed on Highway 82 and 13 0 Fawn Octo Nov. Deco Jan. Febo Mar. 14.9 19.1 21 2 16.9 6.0 1.9 61.7 40 0 0 27.7 24.4 16.6 111.5 68 5 57.4 37.5 20.4 Yearling Mature 52.3 0 0 Table 17. Percent fat content of bone marrow from the medial right or the medial left portion of femurs from deer killed by vehicles on Highway 82 and 13 from 1968-1970. Month Fawn Sample Percent Size Fat February March April May June July August September October November December 6 13 3 4 0 0 0 1 10 6 3 25 55 12.92 2 .• 13 42 89 0 0 58 09 53.60 53 40 35.62 0 0 Yearling Sample Percent Size Fat 0 5 1 0 2 0 1 0 4 2 0 42.86 63 74 0 75.96 67.69 71.86 81 27 0 Mature Sample Percent Size Fat 1 8 5 5 0 1 0 0 4 1 0 77 .43 54 34 33.26 45.58 0 68.39 86.66 83.25 Total Sample Percent Size Fat 7 26 9 9 2 1 1 1 18 9 3 32.96 31.42 26.27 44.39 75 96 68.39 67.69 58.09 65.00 62.91 35.62 0 �- 437 - LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1965. Two condition indices of the Cache la Poudre mule deer herd and their application to management. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Outdoor Facts No. 23. 3 pp. Gill, J. D., and D. C. O'Meara. 1965. Estimating time of death white-tailed deer. J. wildl. Mgmt. 29(3) :471-486. Myers, G. T. Progress Prepared by: 1969. Deer-auto accident investigation. Report, W-38-R-23. p. 147-178. /--J ,?-:/Z'- f) ~;:-I~7 /-V-' / (..'4--t:",--<- Gary T. Myers Wildlife Researcher Colorado. in Job ��July, lY7U - 439 - JOB PROGRESS COLORADO State of No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Plan No. 15 Job No. Project Work REPORT Job Title Investigation Period April Covered: Personnel: of One-Way 3 Deer 1, 1969 through March Steve Steinert, Dale F. Reed. Investigations Jack Corey, Structures 31, 1970 Gary T. Myers and ABSTRACT One-way structures that permit deer to move through deer-proof fences from only one direction have been tested at the Little Hills Experiment station paddocks. The tests, based on mechanical counter readings and track counts, indicate that 3/4 of all deer placed in the experimental paddocks have used and re-used the one-way gate structures without the aid of drift fences or the effect of funneling. For two of the gates tested, the frequency of use (preference) was significantly different 2 (X = 4.08, P,0.05). Two of the positions in the deer-proof fence did not show a significant difference in use (X2 = 1.32, P~ 0.25). In addition, one structure was completely rejected because it failed the one-way criteria. Two oneway fences have received only preliminary tests. Information on frequency of use is necessary in order to modify or reject certain one-way structures before they are subjected to extensive testing under varying field conditions. ��- 441 - INVESTIGATION OF ONE-WAY DEER STRUCTURES Dale F. Reed Many deer are killed on Colorado highways annually. Some of these have been trapped in the right-of-way where sections of the highway were fenced to prevent or reduce accidents involving both animals and people. Much more fencing (deer proof) is presently in the planning stages for critical deer areas adjacent to the Interstate system. Such structures should include escape devices or one-way gates that permit deer to move through deer-proof fences. Deer that move around the ends of the fence, or from the side of the road not fenced, will be able to pass through rather than be trapped and more likely killed. The object of this study is to develop and test one-way structures most readily used by mule deer. P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of several types of one-way gates and two fence structures to permit one way movement of mule deer through existing deer proof fences at Little Hills Experiment Station and elsewhere. SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. OBJECTIVES Design and construct several different t)~es of untested one-way deer gates and two different one-way deer fences. Install working examples of each structure in paddocks at Little Hills. Test the effectiveness of each structure under controlled conditions. Test those structures deemed effective under controlled conditions for effectiveness under field conditions. METHODS AND MATERIALS Design and Construction One-way Gates The basic design for a one-way gate resulted from watching deer hit fences in deer enclosures. It was reasoned that the hole or opening on one side must be larger than the other, thus allowing easy passage from one side and difficult or impossible passage from the other. The one-way characteristic is, therefore, based on a funneling or cone principle. Structures which lend themselves readily to this principle are bailer tines. Figure 1 shows 19 such tines arranged to provide an adjustable opening on one end. Table 1 lists the differences between all four one-way gates, three of which have tines as a major component of construction. The remaining type utilizes 10' panels of woven wire in order to obtain a relatively long funnel effect. �- 442 Fig. 1. . deer gate (with either Swinging One-way . g action) • or Rigid sp r.i.n .....,.: .. ""-, ~.. -: , ---}'-- r I I I i ! 'fCf II ; '''--creosote deer fence post i i . 2" angleiron 1/8" thick I ! Y-. I I ii 1 j I ---'7..--- , approx. ·1 .bole ].2" ground �- 443 - Table 1. Outcome of testing and characteristics tested at the Little Hills paddocks. of four one-way gates Gate Outcome of Pre limina ry & Preference Tests Operational Principle Component of Construction Width of Large End Width of Small End I To be field tested Rigid spring Tines 26" 4" II Rejected during preference tests Swinging spring (opens freely) Tines 28" 0" Rejected during preliminary tests Long funnel 10' x 6 ' Woven wire panels 36" 8" Tines 28" 4" III IIIb To be field tested One-way Fences Rigid spring at ground level Two possible one-way fences, similar to the overhanging and slanting fences of Longhurst and Jones (1962), were constructed. Each was made with variable vertical sections and with either a variable overhanging or slanting section. Table 2 lists the characteristics and adjustable features of both fences. The variable sections were accomplished by use of telescoping square steel tubing (Unistrut Western, Inc., 601 S. Jason St., Denver, Colorado). Installation at Little Hills Openings were constructed for the one-way gates at three designated places (A, B, and C) in an existing deer-proof fence separating two 2 acre paddocks. Construction was such that each of the one-way gates would fit any opening and could be mounted in a direction oriented toward either paddock. Larger openings, approximately 14' wide, were made for one-way fences in a deer-proof fence also separating two paddocks. The two fence sections were installed so that they could be mounted in a direction oriented toward either paddock. Testing One-way Under Controlled Conditions Gates The one-way gates were tested with small groups or individual in the Little Hills paddocks throughout the year. deer placed �- 444 - Table 2. Characteristics and adjustable features of one-way fences I and II. Max. -Min. Vertical (In. ) Max.-Min. Depth (In. ) Variable Angle Limits (from vertical) Operational Principle I 66"-42" 64"-34" 450-900 Overhanging II 72"-48" 90"-48" 1150-1300 Slanting One-Way Fence Preliminary Tests--Preliminary testing in the paddocks involved placing small groups of deer in one paddock and food in another with a one-way gate located in the deer-proof fence separating the paddocks. The direction of each gate was changed frequently to determine if negative passages (passages against the funneling effect) could occur. This procedure was repeated with each of three gates until it had been established that they had positive passages only (Fig. 2), and hence were one-way. If a gate had negative passages, it was modified until none occurred or it was rejected. Estimates of deer use were obtained by track counts on both sides of the gates to determine the direction and the number of deer passing through the gates over a predetermined period of time which varied from one to several days. Several mechanical gate-use counters were used to supplement track count information. Tests of Preference--Tests of preference (frequencies of use) were made on two gates at a time in several positions between two paddocks with individual deer. The location of each gate was changed in order to eliminate the preference of gates because of position. With two gates (I and II or I and IIIb) being tested in three possible positions, two of three possible sequences were used (if A, B, and C are the positions; and I, II, and IIIb are the gates): BI CII, BII CI, and AI Clllb, Alllb CI. Thus, the position of the gate was reduced or eliminated as a possible bias and deer preference was tested. Three gates were not tested Simultaneously during this segment because of the greater number of days required. Before the deer were tested individually, they were oriented in small groups (Table 3) to each of the two gates for a period of 4 days. Each gate was rotated systematically from position to position so that the deer could experience one gate one day, another the next, etc. It was felt that to have a preference, an animal must have experienced both possibilities. Deer were oriented in small groups rather than individually to reduce the number of days necessary. Once the group was oriented, all except one deer were returned to a holding pen to await individual testing. The deer to be tested was left in a paddock not containing food. Both gates were then placed in position between the paddock not containing food and the paddock with hay and pellets, thus beginning the sequence. Each deer was tested for 4 days, allOWing the sequence to be repeated. This procedure was repeated until each deer of the group was tested. �- 445 - Fig. 2. tests. Positive passage of deer through a one-way gate during preliminary �- 446 - One-way Fences The number of deer crossing the one-way fences was to be counted each day in a manner similar to that of the one-way gates. Preliminary tests had just begun by the end of this segment, consequently, the procedures have not yet been fully developed. Testing Under Field Conditions Three duplicates of the one-way gate deemed most effective under controlled conditions were installed in a deer-proof fence adjacent to Highway 82. In addition, because of the immediate need for such structures, three installations were recently made in the Vail underpass drift fences. Effectivness of each structure under field conditions will be determined by recording the number of tracks in and out of the gates and by gate-use counters during the next segment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Controlled Conditions One-way Gates The one-way gates were tested with 45 deer placed in the Little Hills paddocks throughout the year. These deer of various sex and age classes were used in both preliminary testing and testing· for gate preference. Preliminary testing of 3 groups of deer (Table 3) on gates I, II, and III, provided information on whether the gates were one-way or not. The unlabeled group of 11 fawns (Table 3) was used in repetitive te~ts on gate I which was modified until essentially no negative passages occurred. Gate II was the same as gate I except that it was made larger. Deer groups A and B were used for tests on gates I, II, and III. Data on the number and percent of passages (Table 4) indicate that both gates I and II are almost equally effective, 94 and 100 percent respectively, in terms of the percent of positive passages of the total passages made. Conversely, the percent of positive passages (53%) was not considered great enough to warrant further testing on gate III. Observation of deer going through the gate indicated that they were follOWing a trail to the small unobstructed opening at the negative end. The principle of a long funnel by itself was considered to have failed and no modifications were made. Gate IIIb was modeled after gates I and II, and was not involved in the preliminary testing. Testing for gate preference involved 24 deer in orientation groups C through L (Table 5). Gates I and II were evaluated Simultaneously with each of 19 individual deer. Thirteen of the 19 deer used the one-way gates. The total frequencies of use (preference) on these two gates were significantly different (X2 = 4.08, P<0.05). �- 447 - Table 3. Number and classification of deer in groups tested, gates tested, and type of tests completed. Group Yearlings Fawns Does Bucks Total Gates Tested 11 6 4 I I,It,IlI I,Il,III I,ll I,ll I,II I,ll 11 6 4 A B C I D 2 1 2 E 2 1 1 5 I 1 F G H 2 2 I 1 J K L I 2 Total 23 I 1 1 5 4 1 2 2 1 8 45 2 2 I 10 4 r.rr I,II I,II I,IIIb I,IIIb I,IIIb Tests Preliminary Preliminary Preliminary Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Preference Table 4. Number of deer passages for each one-way gate tested and percent of positive passages. Passages during Prelimina~ tests Pos. No. No. Pos. Neg. % Passages during Preference tests No. No. Pos. Neg. Total Passages No. No. Pos. Neg. I 52 -2 94 51 -2 103 -4 96 II 29 0 100 20 -1 49 -1 98 III 40 -35 53 0 40 -35 53 7 0 100 IlIb 7 0 % All Tests Positive �Table 5. Frequencies of use (preference) of one-way gates and of one-way gate positions. pos. DOE No. Group .50 .50 1 -- a a -- a a I GATE II IlIb A B C .50 .50 --- -- 2 D a a --- 3 D a a --- FAWN No. Group 1 C pos. BUCK No. Group I GATE II D a a 2 E .50 3 G .50 I GATE II Illb A B C .75 .25 --- -- .75 .25 1 2 D a a --- -- a a 3 D a a --- -- a a C ros. Illb A B C --- -- a a .50 --- -- LOa .50 --- -- .50 .50 I 4 F .67 .33 --- -- La a 4 G .67 .33 --- -- La a 4 G .50 .50 --- -- .50 .50 .p.p00 5 G .50 .50 --- -- .50 .50 5 H .75 0 --- -- .25 .50 6 G .67 .33 --- -- .33 .67 6 H a 0 --- -- a 7 H 1.0 a --- -- .50 .50 7 J 1.0 --- a .50 -- .50 8 H .50 .50 --- -- .50 .50 8 L .75 --- .25 .75 -- .25 9 I .75 .25 --- -- .25 .75 10 J .33 -- .67 .67 -- .33 11 K .75 -- .25 .25 -- .75 12 K .75 -- .25 .75 -- .25 0 �- 449 - Positions Band C used in the deer-proof difference in use (X2 = 1.34, P <0.25). fence did not show a significant Gates I and IIIb were likewise evaluated simultaneously, but with only 5 individual deer. Frequencies of use from this small sample were not significantly different (X2 = 2.35, P>O.lO). It is evident that from the X2 value of gates I and II that some factor is influencing a greater number of deer responses to gate I. Since a possible bias of position appears to be insignificant, it may be concluded that this factor is some physical characteristic of one of the gates. A suspected physical characteristic of gate II that may be involved, is the noise that is produced when it closes (metal against metal). Gate I tines do no t open or close freely - hence no noise is produced. One-way Fences Since preliminary tests had just begun by the end of this segment, no analysis can be made at this time. So far deer have been reluctant to use the one-way fences in their lowest positions. Only two positive crossings and one negative crossing have occurred during a total of 11 days when deer were in the paddocks with fences in the positive direction. Field Conditions Deer use of one-way gates installed in the field had not occurred by the end of this segment, consequently, no analysis or results can be discussed. The preliminary evaluation of the one-way fences must be completed before such structures will be considered for field testing. LITERATURE CITED Longhurst, William M., Milton B. Jones, Ralph R. Parks, Loren W. Neubauer, Maynard W. Cummings. 1962. Fences for controlling deer damage. Circular 514. pp. 7-13. Prepared by ~?i?f.~ Re~ Assistant /. #4 Wildlife Researcher and ��July, 1970 - 451 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 15 Job No. Job Title Evaluation of Devices Investigations 4 to Prevent Deer-Auto Accidents Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: Dale F. Reed, Dennis L. Money, Kenneth C. Dillinger, William B. Zimmerman, Claudia A. Doose, Gary T. Myers ABSTRACT The height of an existing fence adjacent to 3.8 miles of Highway 82 was not extended to eight feet because only seven deer, less than two per mile, were killed by cars in the area to be fenced during 1968, the extent of deer movement from the west across the highway and into the fence was unknown, and the $25,000 required for fence extension was unabailable. Data relating to the effect of brush removal on the number of deer killed by vehicles will not be analyzed until sample sizes are sufficient to determine if differences in pre- and post-treatment data exist. �- 452 - EVALUATION OF DEVICES TO PREVENT DEER-AUTO ACCIDENTS Gary T. Myers P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if a fence built adjacent to a portion of Highway 82 and brush removal in strategic locations adjacent to Highway 13 south of the White River bridge in Garfield County affects the number of deer killed by vehicles in the areas involved. SEGMENT 1. 2. Determine if a 3.8 mile deer-proof fence adjacent to one side of Highway 82 near Cattle Creek effectively reduces the number of deer killed there by motorists. Measure the effect of roadside brush removal at selected deer crossings on Highway 13 or Highway 82 on the number of deer struck by vehicles in these areas. METHODS 1. 2. OBJECTIVES AND MATERIALS None The Highway Department removed brush from all but four of the 40 miles of right-of-way adjacent to the Highway 13 study area. Brush removal was completed by April 1, 1970. Post-treatment kill and count data were gathered weekly since completion of brush removal. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The height of an existing fence adjacent to 3.8 miles of Highway 82 was not extended to eight feet because only seven deer, less than two per mile, were killed by cars in the area to be fenced during 1968, the extent of deer movement from the west across the highway and into the fence was unknown, and the $25,000 required for fence extension was unavailable. Data relating to the effect of brush removal on the number of deer killed by vehicles will not be analyzed until sample sizes are sufficent to determine if differences in pre- and post-treatment data exist. Prepared by Wildlife Researcher �- 453 JOB State of Project PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~-------No. Job 15 Investigations 5 No. Work Plan Job Ti t Le _-=E:.:f:.:f:.,:e:..:c:..:t=-.,:o:..:f=-":S:::,,pl:...e::.e=d-.:::.o.:.;n;,.....:.:N:..=u:::m.::b:.., _ Period No. Deer-Elk W-38-R-24 Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1969 Gary T. Myers through March 31, 1970 P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if traffic moving at a high average speed Jameron Curve than traffic moving at a slow average SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. kills more speed. deer on OBJECTIVES Manipulate the speed of traffic. Measure the average speed of traffic. Record the number of deer killed. Compare the number of deer killed by traffic moving at a lower average speed to the number killed by traffic moving at a faster average speed. RESULTS The Colorado State Patrol manipulation of the speed study can not be made. AND DISCUSSION and .Division of Highways would not allow of traffic on Colorado 82. Therefore, this Prepared by Am r:P 111:;;<-'1.'1 Gari~yers: Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1970 - 455 - JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO ---------------------------- Project No. W-38-R-24 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 15 Job No. Job Title Deer Underpass Period Covered: April Personnel: Gary T. Myers, Investigations 6 Evaluation 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Bill Zimmerman, and Dale F. Reed p. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if deer migrating from winter range on one side of Interstate 70 to summer range on the opposite side utilize and underpass constructed in the area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of the underpass. METHODS AND MATERIALS Construction of the underpass was completed of Highways toward the end of this segment. RESULTS by the Colorado Department AND DISCUSSION Plans were prepared for the installation of electric-optical detection and counting equipment (Streeter Amet) at both ends of the underpass. Installation and evaluation is anticipated during the first part of the next segment. c'~ Prepared by - I /J --7[0:12 <Lt: t, /y;j.)' bale F. Reed Assistant Wildlife :1 ~ Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/52bd11b359d40cdef4ef4854c15063fa.pdf 879878b016b003a798aec658b9d6ad46 PDF Text Text October, - 1 - JOB PROGRESS State Work REPORT COLORADO of No. W-88-R-15 Migratory Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Job Title Period 1970 Covered: Personnel: Waterfowl April Production 15, 1969 to June Bird Investigations 1 Survey 30, 1969 C. Bryant and staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; R. Pearson, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge; C. Hayes and J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, W. Ladd and G. Will, Colorado State University; G. Crawford, H. Funk, C. Hector, J. Hobbs, R. Hopper, W. Russell, W. Rutherford, R. Reynolds, H. Schultz, J. Wheeler and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Weather conditions for waterfowl nesting and brood survival were generally good in Colorado in 1969. The total estimate of 69,025 duck breeding pairs in major Colorado nesting areas was about 3,000 fewer than in 1968. A major decrease in pairs occurred in the South Platte Valley while total pairs in other areas either increased slightly or remained stable. The mallard remained the major breeding species in Colorado with an estimated 28,744 breeding pairs recorded. Goose production in northwest Colorado declined slightly from record 1968 levels with 425 goslings produced in 1969 compared with 487 the previous year. The resident northcentral Colorado Canada goose breeding population produced a total of 1,125 goslings, increasing the total population size to 4,208 birds. ��- 3 - WATERFOWL PRODUCTION Michael SURVEYS R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To determine, through statistically reliable sampling techniques, the number of duck and goose breeding pairs, by species, in each major Colorado waterfowl breeding ground. METHODS AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding-pair and production surveys inventory of only major production areas. consist of a breeding pair The 1969 duck surveys were conducted during the period May 12 to May 31. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. Aerial surveys were conducted in North Park and the South Platte and Cache la Poudre Valleys. Intensive aerial counts combined with air-ground comparison studies were conducted in the San Luis Valley. All survey methods and sample areas remained the same as in previous years. Flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas sampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. Ground surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 15 to June 30. Production estimates in the Yampa Valley-Brown's Park area were made from as complete a count as possible of breeding pairs, goslings and eggs. Gosling production and population size in the DenverBoulder-Fort Collins area were determined by conducting a one day count of all geese on moulting and brood rearing areas and classifying birds as to whether they were adults or goslings. On the basis of these studies, a report is submitted Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's continental cooperative breeding ground survey. to the Bureau of Sport part in the annual RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weather conditions for waterfowl nesting were generally good in most areas of the state. The winter snow pack was considered normal in most areas with �-4 - heavy snows on some west slope drainages. High water created some goose nest flooding problems on the Yampa River. Water conditions were considered better than average for duck nesting in North Park, Brown's Park, and the Yampa and Cache la Poudre Valleys. Water in the South Platte and San Luis Valleys was not as favorable as in 1968. Figures in Table 1 reveal that the total duck breeding population was down about five percent from the 1968 level. Only North Park and the Cache la Poudre Valley showed increases from 1968 levels. The most significant decline occurred in the South Platte Valley where the number of pairs recorded were less than one-half of the previous year's total. Decreased water areas in the South Platte Valley was probably responsible for decline in duck numbers. Table 1. Summary of Colorado duck breeding ground population 1969, with 1968 and the l5-year average for comparison. Total Estimated Breeding Pairs From l5-yr. Ave. 1954-1968 estimates, Percent Change From From l5-yr. 1/ 1968 Average Area 1969 1968 San Luis Valley 27,425 27,611 27,549 North Park 1/. 22,111 19,777 7,093 + 11.8 Cache la Poudre Valley 9,057 7,403 2,525 + 22.3 +258.7 South Platte Valley 6,769 14,000 5,721 - 51. 7 + 18.3 Yampa Valley 2,146 2,985 2,920 - 28.1 - 26.5 Brown's Park 1,517 938 206 + 61. 7 +636.4 Totals 69,025 72,714 46,014 5.1 + 12.1 Jj 0.7 0.4 1/ Does not include North Park because of change of method of projection beginning in 1968. 1/ San Luis Valley averages are based on results of 1964-1968 only. The much less intensive coverage of previous years is not included in the calculations. 1/ Aerial counts corrected by species from visibility ratio obtained in the San Luis Valley during 1968 and 1969 only. Table 2 lists composition of the total estimated breeding duck populations for 1969, 1968, and the long-term averages by numbers and percent. A significant change in species composition was recorded in 1969. The percent of mallards in the breeding population declined and the percent of teals, particularly green-winged teal, increased. A change in observers may have been �- 5 - partially responsible for this change in composition. Green-winged teal showed significant increases in North Park whereas the mallard breeding population in South Platte declined by about 5,000 breeding pairs. Table 2. Species composition of the Colorado breeding duck population, 1969, with 1968 and the l5-year average for comparison. !/ Percent Species Species Number of Breeding Pairs 1954-1968 2/ 1969 1968 Average- 1969 1968 Composition 1954-1968 Average Mallard 28,744 36,644 28,669 41.6 50.4 60.9 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 9,302 6,463 4,237 13.5 8.9 9.0 Pintail 4,355 7,970 3,306 6.3 11.0 7.0 Gadwall 5,942 8,425 4,l32 8.6 11.6 8.8 American Widgeon 1,870 343 547 2.7 0.5 1.2 Shoveler 2,750 3,645 1,785 4.0 5.0 3.8 Teal 12,924 5,411 1,591 18.7 7.4 3.4 Redhead 2,071 2,063 1,676 3.0 2.8 3.6 Other Divers 1,067 1,750 1,139 1.6 2.4 2.3 Totals 69,025 72,714 47,082 100.0 100.0 100.0 Green-winged 1/ Change in observers may have had an effect on species composition. included here, are for the years 1964-1968 2/ San Luis Valley averages, only. Table 3 categorizes all geese observed on the breeding inventory in northwestern Colorado by age and location. This information is compared with past years in Tables 4 and 5. Total flock size and production show a decrease from the record high numbers of 1968. Fewer adult birds were present on all sections except the Little Snake River. More nesting pairs were recorded in 1969, but brood sizes were relatively smaller resulting in a decline in total estimated production. Undoubtedly, high water on the Yampa River had a detrimental effect on production. Figures presented for 1969 for the Green River may not be comparable to those of 1968 as a less intensive survey was conducted this year. �- 6 - Table 3. Number of Canada geese observed County, Colorado, 1969. and estimated production, Moffat Nesting Pairs Non-nesting Birds Total Adults Estimated No. Goslings 1/ Total Birds Yampa River Craig to Juniper Spgs. Juniper to Cross Mtn. Lily Park 16 Jj 9 Jj 113 27 66 145 55 84 80 1/ 48 44 !!./ 225 103 128 YAMPA TOTALS 39 206 284 172 456 Green River (Brown's Park) 20 171 231 144 375 Little Snake River (Lower bridge to State line) 27 228 282 109 391 GRAND TOTALS 96 605 797 425 1,222 Area 1/ Calculated 14 using average brood size and number of successful nests. 1/ Includes nesting pairs associated with nests from which eggs were removed for transplant purposes. 3/ Includes 29 goslings hatched 4/ Includes 18 goslings hatched Table 4. from eggs taken from nests before final survey. from eggs taken from nests before final survey. Total Canada geese observed, Moffat No. Geese Counted County, Colorado, 1969. Percent Change From 1956-68 Ave. 1956-68 Area 1969 1968 Ave. From 1968 Yampa River 456 624 357 -26.9 + 27-.7 Green River 375 363 91 + 3.3 +312.1 Little Snake River Jj 391 333 214 +17.4 +82.7 1,320 662 - 7.4 + 84.6 Totals 1,222 1/ Not included in survey until 1962. �- 7 - Table 5. 1969. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County, Colorado, Area No. of Goslings· 1956-68 1969 1968 Ave Yampa River 172 239 132 -28.0 + 30.3 Green River 144 139 32 + 3.6 +350.0 1./ 109 109 67 0 + 62.7 425 487 231 -12.7 + 84.0 Little Snake River Totals 1/ Not included Percent From 1968 Change From 1956-68 Ave. in survey until 1962. Results of the June 19, 1970 census of Canada geese in the Fort Collins-BoulderDenver or foothills area are presented in Table 6. Comparative figures for these specific areas for previous year are not available. However, breakdowns by county or area basis are presented in Tables 7 through 9. The new method of data collection, a one day count of moulting adults and young, does not produce reliable information concerning nests. Table 6. Colorado. Canada goose production Production Area wellington Water Area Terry Lake Douglas Lake N. Poudre III Divide No. 8 Elder Res. Annex No. 8 Cobb Lake Watson Lake census of the Foothills No. Broods 2 4 5 9 0 3 Total Fort Collins Herring Lake College Lake 1./ Dean Acres Claymore Lake 3 6 4 Area, northcentral, Total No. Total No. Goslings Adults & Yearlings Total No. of Birds 98 6 18 27 26 0 14 68 286 4 12 190 43 13 38 102 384 10 30 217 69 13 52 170 257 688 945 13 64 28 14 30 175 28 38 43 239 56 52 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �- 8 - Table 6. Canada goose production census of the Foothills Area, northcentral, Colorado (continued). Production Area Water Area No. Broods Fort Collins (Continued) Sterling Gravel Pits Lindenmeier Lake N. & S. Grey Res. Anderson's Pond Parkwood Lake Timnath Res. Romily Gravel Pit Fossil Creek Res. Schuelke Res. 7 1 3 9 1 8 I 3 I Total Loveland Flatiron Res. Boedecker Res. McNeil Res. 1 6 Total Denver Ish Lake Crystal Lake Terry Lake Faivre Ponds Hayden Lake Rest Home Pond Valmont Res. Boulder Valley Farm King Pond Total No. of Birds 27 4 15 59 16 17 86 20 32 32 19 51 92 123 6 527 31 729 12 4 9 18 13 256 493 749 2 2 4 25 48 73 10 53 63 37 103 140 1 4 1 3 2 2 6 5 14 32 14 4 27 46 41 2 6 18 77 20 384 38 461 10 10 20 5 2 7 149 14 481 38 630 36 53 89 175 250 7 9 425 16 25 62 87 18 138 34 5 120 34 425 107 20 142 o 27 Total Boulder Total No. Total No. Goslings Adults & Yearlings 1 1 Standley Lake 3 Sloans Lake 9 Denver City Park 41 Rocky Mtn. Arsenal 2 Federal Center Pond 1. Cline & Kountee Res. 6 Kendrick Res. o Bowles Lake 1./ Marston Res. 1 Kings Pond 6 Upper Tule Lake o o 98 52 523 112 162 27 �- 9 - Table 6. Canada goose production census of the Foothills Area, northcentral, Colorado (continued). No. Broods Production Area Water Area Denver (Continued) Lower Tu1e Lake S. Colo. Blvd. and Quincey Mohn Estate and Blackmer L. Reservoir No. 3 Total No. Total No. Goslings Adults & Yearlings o o 18 18 5 13 16 29 3 9 6 10 7 19 13 426 1,318 1,744 1,125 3,083 4,208 2 Total GRAND TOTAL Total No. of Birds !/ Includes birds removed from area prior to census. Table 7. Larimer County Canada goose flock production information Year No. Nests Established No. Nests Hatch No. Birds Raised No. Birds Planted 1957 0 0 0 31 31 1958 0 0 0 23 54 1959 0 0 5 48 60 1960 4 4 14 68 120 1961 7 6 20 95 210 1962 23 21 79 101 400 1963 43 31 100 0 500 1964 68 59 154 0 600 1965 79 60 178 0 650 1966 106 75 213 No Approximate Size of Flock 0 750+ Birds Moved Out 177 1,078 1967 173 124 374 1968 267 185 564 218 1,555 550 351 1,834 1969 �- 10 - Table 8. Boulder Year No. Nests Established County Canada goose flock production No. Nests Hatch information. No. Birds No. Birds Raised on Area Planted Approximate Size of Flock 1963 86 1964 97 175 1965 6 6 11 131 300 1966 22 15 52 116 400+ 1967 36 28 81 177 500+ 1968 57 44 132 0 149 0 1969 Table 9. Year 1969 Denver area Canada goose flock production No. Birds Raised information. No. Birds Moved Out 426 630 300 Approximate Size of Flock 1,744 The data indicates that the northcentral Colorado resident breeding flock is continuing to increase in spite of the continued removal of goslings from the area for transplants in to other parts of the State. The total flock size has now increased to approximately 4,200 birds. Fall Flight Prediction Expected fall flights of ducks from Colorado's 1969 production will be above average but slightly less than in 1968. Water conditions appear very favorable for brood survival. Production of geese in northwestern Colorado was below the 1968 level indicating a slight decline in the fall flight. The resident Canada goose breeding grow and expand and should provide flock in northcentral Colorado excellent hunting locally. Prepared Michael R. Szymczak Asst. Wildlife Researcher continues to �October, - 11 - 1970 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-15 Migratory Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Bird Investigations 2 Job Title Trapping and Banding Ducks and Geese Period Covered: July 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970 Personnel: Charles Hayes, Jack Randall and Dale Horne, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Ralph Baker, Clait Braun, Gary Brown, Bill Carpenter, David Cramer, Gurney Crawford, Mark Frasier, Howard Funk, Larry Green, Bob Kitzmiller, Roger Lowery, Kris Moser, Gene Nugent, Ray Schmidt, Mike Szymczak, Ken Wagner, Mike Watkins, Clayton Wetherill, Bert Widhalm, Gary Will, Henry Wilson, Mike Zgainer, and .Richard Hopper, Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. ABSTRACT Nearly 8,750 ducks of 10 species were banded and released during 1969-70 (Segment 15). Mallards made up about 6,900 of this total. Green-winged teals and pintails were thenext most abundant species banded, comprising 824 and 720, respectively. Post-season banding (winter) contributed about 4,000 birds to the banded sample. Pre-season banding in the San Luis Valley and South Park produced 3,602 and 1,306 ducks, respectively. Only 385 ducks were banded during the molting period in North Park. About 1,300 Canada geese were banded in Colorado in Segment 15. Nearly 800 of these resulted from winter trapping operations in the Arkansas Valley and the Cache la Poudre Valley. The remaining bands were placed on goslings transplanted in the South Platte Valley, San Luis Valley, North Park, and on the Colorado River near Grand Junction. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Trapping and banding of molting ducks in North Park be discontinued in favor of pre-season banding of free-flying ducks. ��- 13 - TRAPPING AND BANDING DUCKS AND GEESE Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes all waterfowl banding activities of Project W-88-R-lS for the Segment year April 1, 1969 to March 31, 1970. The actual analysis of band recovery data occurs as a separate job (Work Plan 1, Job 3), and work of this nature is not included here. This report simply presents a tabulation of numbers of ducks and geese banded by species and location during the Segment. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band ducks and geese for the purpose life history, and annual mortality data. 2. To report species and numbers of ducks winter banded in the South Platte Valley, Arkansas Valley, and Bonny Reservoir as part of ~vork Plan 3, Job 6. METHODS of accumulating migration, AND MATERIALS Methods employed and materials used during Segment IS remained the same as in previous Segments (Hopper 1968). Banding locations and times were the same as in Segment 14 (Hopper 1969), except that Bonny Reservoir and the Cache la Poudre Valley were added to the list of areas for inclusion in the winter goose banding program. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ducks The number and species of ducks banded during Segment IS is listed in Table 1 by location of banding. Nearly 8,750 ducks, representing 10 species, were banded and released. As usual, the mallard was the most abundant species, comprising 6,906, or about 80 percent, of the total number of ducks banded. Pre-season banding in the San Luis Valley and winter banding in eastern Colorado contributed most to the mallard total. Green-winged teals and pintails were the next most numerous species in the banded sample, with 824 and 720, respectively. �Table 1. Number of ducks banded by species and location, 1969-70. Species North Park Cache la Poudre Valley South Platte Valley Bonny Reservoir Arkansas Valley San Luis Valley South Park Total Mallard 148 591 1,236 645 915 2,545 826 6,906 Gadwall 11 --- 1 --- --- 15 --- 27 American Widgeon 33 8 3 --- --- 2 6 52 Green-winged Teal 131 27 --- --- --- 529 137 824 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 6 --- --- --- --- 133 23 162 Shoveler 8 --- --- --- --- 4 --- 12 t-' ~ Pintail 47 17 2 --- --- 341 313 720 Redhead --- --- --- --- --- 32 1 33 1 --- --- --- --- 1 --- 2 385 643 1,242 645 915 3,602 1,306 8,738 Lesser Scaup Total �- 15 - Poor trapping and banding success was attained on molting areas in North Park during the summer, largely because we missed the peak of molting. Only 385 ducks were banded, with mallards and green-winged teals accounting for most of the total. Duck banding in North Park during future years, if conducted at all, will be limited to the pre-season period after most birds have ceased to molt their flight feathers and have acquired the ability to fly. Few immature birds have been banded on molting areas in the past. Pre-season banding should remedy this situation by placing more immatures in the banded sample. Pre-season banding was again accomplished in the San Luis Valley as part of the continuing cooperative investigation in that area of Colorado. This operation was conducted during the period August 15 - September 20 and resulted in the banding of 3,602 ducks. The mallard quota (2,000) was reached in the northern one-half of the Valley. Green-winged teals and pintails made up most of the remaining number. Pre-season banding at two locations in South Park (Antero Reservoir and the Hartsel Ranch) yielded a banded sample of 1,306 ducks, of which mallards comprised 826. Again, pintails and green-winged teals were the next most abundant species, contributing 313 and 137, respectively. The 1969-70 post-season (winter) mallard banding program was less successful than in previous years because of mild weather that distributed the birds widely and prevented them from concentrating in desirable trapping areas. Only 3,849 mallards were banded, or about 1,350 shy of the 5,200-bird quota. The San Luis Valley was added to the list of winter banding locations in Segment 15. The Job Progress Report for Work Plan 3, Job 6 covers this particular work in more detail. Geese Nearly 1,300 Canada geese were banded in Colorado during the 1969-70 Segment (Table 2). Winter banding in the Arkansas Valley contributed one-half of this total (600). about An additional 195 geese were winter banded in the Cache la Poudre Valley near Wellington. The remaining 476 bands were placed on Canada goose goslings as part of our continuing transplant program. The Colorado River transplants were hatched from eggs collected on the Yampa River west of Craig. All other transplants resulted from eggs collected in the Denver area and from birds trapped in the Denver and Fort Collins areas. �- 16 - Table 2. Number of Canada geese banded by location and season of year, 1969-70. Number Banded Sunnner Winter Total Arkansas Valley 600 600 Cache La Poudre Valley 195 195 Location South Platte Valley 69 69 San Luis Valley 160 160 North Park 194 194 Colorado River 53 53 Total 476 795 1,271 LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1968. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Game Research Rept. Oct. , p. 7-12. Hopper, R. M. 1969. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Game Research Rept. Oct. , p. 9-14. J 'J." I. , I. 71"'} / _ Prepared by: fi!<-cf:. {;..!.d; I' t. crq)]}':; i Richard M. Hopper . v Wildlife Researcher �October, - 17 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-IS Migratory Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Analysis of Waterfowl Bird Investigations 3 Banding Data Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Personnel: Michael R. Szymczak ABSTRACT A complete tape of all banding and recoveries related to North Park has been ordered from the Migratory Bird Populations Stations Bird Banding Laboratory. When this tape is received the data will be analyzed and a final report written. 1970 ��October, - 19 - JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~---------No. Plan No. Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-15 1 Job Title Period 1970 Job No. Waterfowl October Bird Investigations 5 Kill Survey 1, 1969 through July 1, 1970 Velma Merkle, Grieb, Robert Velma Fredrickson, Raymond Tully, and Howard Funk. Boyd, Jack ABSTRACT Duck stamps sold in Colorado in 1969 numbered 34,281, the most since 1958. Estimated number of duck hunters on the east slope increased to 27,058. Regular season length on the east slope remained at 33 days, but bag and possession limits were increased to four and eight, respectively; two and four of which could be mallards. Regular season harvest was estimated at 180,000 ducks, an increase of 40,000 over 1968-69. Harvest and hunting pressure on the west slope remained relatively stable, with approximately 24,000 ducks taken by about 3,400 hunters. About 2,700 hunters took an estimated 23,000 ducks during the special San Luis Valley duck season. Harvest during the special early teal season in specified east slope areas was estimated at 5,395 birds killed by 866 hunters. Approximately 7,000 hunters bagged about 40,000 ducks during the experimental late pointsystem season in Central Flyway, Colorado. Canada goose harvest was indicated to have decreased for the third consecutive year. Number of hunters remained quite stable at about 13,000 but harvest fell from just over 19,000 in 1968-69 to just under 18,000 in 1969-70. Numbers of birds present in the Arkansas Valley seemed adequate for better harvest, but the half-day shooting regulation might have had an effect to some degree. An estimated 4,172 geese were harvested in the northcentral Colorado counties of Larimer, Weld, Boulder, Morgan and Adams, for an increase of 59 percent over the 1968-69 season. ��- 21 - WATERFOWL KILL SURVEY Howard D. Funk This survey of Colorado small game harvest is a cooperative effort between personnel of Federal Aid Projects W-88-R and W-38-R, and the Game Planning Services section of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. Data presented herein are results from two separate surveys; (1) the regular annual questionnaire survey limited to purchasers of combination small game hunting and fishing, resident small game hunting, and non-resident small game hunting licenses, and (2) the separate questionnaire survey of holders of the increasingly popular sportsman's license which also allows small game hunting. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. SEGMENT To estimate by species, OBJECTIVES the State harvest of waterfowl for the 1969-70 hunting County, and interval of the season. METHODS season AND MATERIALS Techniques utilized were similar to those employed in the past with hunter's names drawn in a mechanical random fashion from duplicate license sales stubs. The cutoff dates for license sales figures used in projections were April 30, 1970 for the regular survey and February 1, 1970 for the sportsman's license survey. Feasibility of utilizing April 30 as a cutoff date for both surveys should be examined for use hereafter. One follow-up letter was sent to non-reporting hunters after an interval of approximately three weeks. The regular survey questionnaire was revised this year in an attempt to simplify reporting by hunters and ultimately obtain higher reporting rates and more valid harvest information than in past years. The sportsman's questionnaire was somewhat more simplified than the regular questionnaire. Harvest data collected on this survey under Federal Aid Project W-38-R were added to results of the regular survey (Boyd 1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Regular survey questionnaires were sent to 13,283 randomly selected 1969 license buyers about January 15, 1970. A total of 8,106 responded for a return of 61.0 percent. This was one of the lowest response rates since �- 22 - the survey was initiated, even with the more simplified questionnaire. Of the 8,106 returns, 4,409 reported hunting, 3,672 reported they did not hunt, and 40 were not usable. Percentages of license buyers actually hunting were calculated from the survey sample by license type (Table 1). The largest percentage of license buyers not utilizing the opportunity to hunt was found in the combination hunting and fishing license category; these people using their fishing privilege only. Total sales of regular type licenses permitting small game hunting during 1969, other than sportsman's licenses, amounted to 166,941. It is estimated that 97,876 of these actually hunted one or more species of small game. Table 1. License sales, percent license type, 1969 season. Sales use and projected estimates of hunters by Percent Used for Hunting Small Game Projected Number Hunters License Type Resident Combination 127,914 51.5 65,876 Resident Small Game 36,424 81.6 29,722 2,603 87.5 2,278 Non-resident Small Game 166,941 Sub-total Sportsman's 97,876 License Resident 11,422 62.8 7,173 Non-resident 4,269 7.0 298 Sub-total 15,691 7,471 182,632 105,347 TOTAL Survey questionnaires were sent to 3,158 sportsman's license buyers. A total of 2,287 responded for a return of 72.4 percent, considerably better than the response rate for the regular survey. Of the 2,287 returns, 1,191 reported hunting small game while 1,096 reported they did not. Percentages of respondents indicating they hunted were calculated separately for residents and non-residents. Thus, of the total sale of sportsman's licenses for 1969 (15,691), it is estimated that 7,471 of the buyers of this type of license took part in hunting one or more species of small game. �- 23 - Total estimated number of regular and sportsman's license buyers hunting one or more species of small game in 1969 was 105,347 which compares with 134,606 for 1968, 98,618 for 1967, and 114,492 in 1966. Colorado duck stamp sales are listed in Table 2. Numbers sold in 1969 (34,281) indicate the continuing annual increase in waterfowl hunters from the low of approximately 18,000 sold in 1962. However, sales still are not of the magnitude experienced in 1957 and 1958 when almost 42,000 were sold during the most recent peak period of waterfowl populations. Table 2. Duck stamp sales for Colorado, 1954-1969. Year Number of Stamps Sold Percent Change From Previous Year 1954 32,450 + 20.5 1955 39,107 + 20.5 1956 36,303 7.2 1957 41,794 + 15.1 1958 41,897 + 1959 31,431 - 24.9 1960 30,592 2.7 1961 24,854 - 18.8 1962 17,701 - 28.8 1963 22,940 + 29.6 1964 25,282 + 10.2 1965 20,537 - 18.8 1966 29,377 + 43.0 1967 31,064 + 5.7 1968 31,218 + 1969 34,281 + 9.8 .02 .5 �- 24 - Duck stamp buyers are classified in Table 3 by the type of waterfowl hunting in which they participated in 1969 and the previous 15 years. There was a significant increase in numbers of duck hunters, the highest since 1958, while goose hunters remained about average. Table 3. Estimated number of duck and goose hunters, average number of days hunted, season length, and bag and possession limits, by year, 1954-1969. Season Length {Days 2 Ducks Geese Bag and Possession Limit Ducks Geese 7.64 60 60 5-10 2-2 17,634 8.87 75 60 5-10 2-2 34,793 12,477 7.37 75 60 5-10 2-2 1957 37,166 12,057 6.52 75 60 5-10 2-2 1958 38,773 14,705 5.78 90 60 4-8 2-2 1959 29,060 l3 ,647 5.70 50 75 4-8 2 -2 1960 29,480 14,107 6.05 60 75 3-6 2-2 1961 22,920 11 ,245 4.40 30 60 3-6 2-2 1962 13,918 9,159 5.27 25 11 75 2-4 fi.1 2-2 1963 17,989 10,841 5.66 6.64 35 II 75 4-8 'LI 2 -2 1964 19,189 13,678 6.30 7.37 40 II 75 4-8 JJ 2-2 1965 15,374 11 ,344 5.62 5.53 36 11 75 4-8 ]j 2-2 1966 23,635 15,807 5.96 6.25 60 11 75 3-6 'LI 2-2 1967 25,347 l3,748 6.49 6.43 60 1/ 75 3-6 1/ 2 -2 1968 26,528 13 ,467 6.18 6.48 33 1/ 75 3-6 'LI 2-2 1969 30,436 13,282 5.94 6.45 33 II 75 4-8 21 2-4 '2.1 Year Number of Duck Hunters Number of Goose Hunters Average Number Days Hunted For Ducks Geese 1954 31,834 12,l36 1955 37,816 1956 11 Hunting regulations for East Slope. West Slope had a general season of 75 days with 4 ducks in bag, and 8 in possession in 1962; and 90 days, 4 in bag and 8 in possession in 1963, 1964, and 1965; and 90 days, 5 in bag and 10 in possession in 1966 and 1967; and 86 days, 5 in bag and 10 in possession of which 3 and 6 respectively, could be mallards in 1968; and 86 days, 5 in bag and 10 in possession in 1969. 21 Two mallards allowed in bag, and four in possession on East Slope. II One mallard and pintail allowed in bag and two in possession on East Slope, three mallards or three pintai1s on West Slope. 21 One goose per day and ±I One mallard in bag and two in possession on East Slope.two in poss. on W. Slope. �- 25 Duck Harvest Duck hunting statistics for the 1969 season are tabulated and compared with results of past years in Table 4. Total retrieved harvest of 203,629 ducks was significantly greater than in 1968, an increase of approximately 21 percent; and the largest since 1958. Increased numbers of hunters, relaxed hunting seasons, favorable publicity, and special seasons offering a variety of hunting opportunity were probably all responsible for this increase. Estimates on wounding losses were not obtained through the questionnaire this year, but they probably remained at between 10 and 20 percent of the retrieved bag. Estimates on species composition of the 1969 bag also were not obtained from the survey this year. Data from the previous 15 years are shown in Table 5. Mallards are calculated to have been responsible for an average of about 69 percent of the total bag over the years. However, with the special seasons in effect again in 1969, especially the late point-system season, mallards probably comprised from 75 to 80 percent of the total harvest as in 1968 when the late mallard drake-only season was a heavy contributor. Duck harvest by intervals and season types is illustrated in Table 6 for both the east and west slopes of the State, the Central and Pacific Waterfowl Flyways, respectively. Harvest during the regular season on the east slope was indicated to have been greatest during the early portion of the season when probably the greatest variety of ducks was available. Harvest was then reduced somewhat during mid-season but increased considerably from mid-November through the end of the season as more mallards came south. Total harvest on the east slope during the 1969 regular season, about 111,000 birds, was estimated to have increased approximately 43 percent over the previous year's harvest of about 78,000 ducks. Harvest of ducks on the west slope also was indicated to have been greatest during the early season period. It then dropped somewhat, but remained relatively stable throughout the season on a harvest per day basis. Total estimated west slope harvest decreased about 8 percent from the 1968 figure of 25,954 to 23,781 birds (Table 6). Special Teal Season.--An optional nine-day early teal season was granted the states in the Mississippi and Central Flyways in 1969. Colorado chose to take the season from September 1-9, but restricted the open area to North Park (Jackson County) and the portion of the State east of Colorado Highway 71, U. S. Highway 350, and U. S. Interstate Highway 25. Estimated harvest was 5,395 birds by 866 hunters or approximately 3 percent of the total east slope duck harvest by 3 percent of the total east slope duck hunters (Table 6). San Luis Valley Experimental Season.--This was the seventh year of experimental duck hunting seasons in the San Luis Valley. As in 1968, bag limits were based on a point-system of 70 points. Various other species of ducks able to withstand increased harvest were placed in the low point category along with the mallard drake in 1969. Results of the season obtained through special field observations and surveys will be reported in a Migratory Bird Populations Station Administrative Report later in 1970 (Geis et ale 1970). However, information on the season gathered from this survey are presented here. �- 26 - Table 4. Date Duck harvest statistics, 1954-1969. Slope 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 Number of Hunters Average Seasonal Bag Total Estimated Harvest Wounding Loss Percent Number Total Estimated Hunting Mortality 31,834 37,816 34,793 37,166 38,773 29,060 29,480 22,920 5.6 6.7 5.9 6.8 6.1 4.2 5.0 3.8 179,856 253,367 185,737 254,587 236,515 122,924 147,400 86,408 14.5 13.1 16.3 14.1 12.3 15.5 13.1 21.4 30,396 38,182 36,195 41,679 33,088 22,417 22,257 23,608 210,252 291,549 221,932 296,266 269,603 145,341 169,667 110,016 1962 East West TOTAL 11,349 2 569 13,918 2.6 3.5 2.8 29,507 8,992 38,499 13.5 11.7 13.1 4,603 1,187 5,790 34,110 10,179 44,289 1963 East West TOTAL 15,627 2,362 17,989 5.1 3.6 4.9 80,167 8,503 88,670 10.7 9.7 10.6 9,636 916 10,552 89,803 9,419 99,222 1964 East West TOTAL 16,311 2,878 19,189 4.0 4.0 4.0 65,244 11 ,512 76,756 10.6 10.4 10.6 7,764 1,335 9,099 73,008 12,847 85,855 1965 East West TOTAL 12,747 2,627 15,374 5.0 4.3 4.9 64,245 11,322 75,567 18.7 15.4 18.2 12,007 1,744 13,751 76,252 13,066 89,318 1966 East West TOTAL 19,494 4,141 23,635 5.0 4.4 4.9 97,860 18,345 116,205 16.4 20.4 17.1 19,278 4,715 23,993 117,138 23,060 140,198 1967 East West TOTAL 22,432 2,915 25,347 6.5 3.7 6.2 146,032 10,698 156,730 12.0 22.9 12.9 20,006 3,178 23,184 166,038 13,876 179,914 1968 East West TOTAL 23,006 3,522 26,528 6.2 7.4 6.4 142,578 25,954 168,532 10.9 10.9 10.9 17,466 3,179 20,645 160,044 29,133 189,177 1969 East West TOTAL 27,058 3 378 30,436 6.7 7.0 6.7 179,848 23 781 203,629 - 1/ - 1/ 1/ Data not requested in survey questionnaire. 1/ �- 27 - Table 5. Species composition of the bag, 1954-1968. IS-Year Averagez 1954-1968 Number Harvested Percent of Total Species Mallard 99,840 68.5 Pintail 4,941 3.4 Green-winged Teal 12,622 8.7 Blue-winged Teal 5,509 3.8 Baldpate 1,720 1.2 Gadwall 4,279 2.9 Shoveller 1,615 1.1 Scaup 1,139 0.8 Redhead 1,154 0.8 Canvasback 1,062 0.7 Others and Unknown 11,821 8.1 TOTAL 145,702 100.0 Survey data indicate 2,706 hunters bagged an estimated 23,021 ducks during the October 1-18 season (Table 6). This compares with 1968 figures of 3,083 hunters harvesting 22,242 birds which indicates harvest remained quite similar between years. However, numbers of hunters listed above are rather meaningless and are no doubt somewhat deflated since they refer to successful hunters rather than estimates of total hunters. On the other hand, estimated harvest is probably somewhat inflated because total harvest is projected from data from the successful hunters. The special survey, because of its intensity, will produce more valid estimates of hunter participation and success. Experimental Point-System Season.--A late point-system duck season was granted Colorado and five other Central Flyway states in 1969 in place of the mallard drake-only season of 1968. Dates of the season were from December 13, 1969 through January 4, 1970 with a 40-point daily bag limit. �- 28 - Table 6. Ducks bagged and hunting pressure by season type, area, and interval of the 1969 season. Dates Estimated Harvest No. of % of Ducks Total Estimated Hunting Pressure No. of % of Hunters Total EAST SLOPE Teal Season (Special) Sept. 1-9 5,395 3.0 866 3.2 23,021 12.8 2,706 10.0 Oct. 25-Nov. 3 49,458 27.5 9,957 36.8 Nov. 4-13 28,236 15.7 6,575 24.3 Nov. 14-26 33,452 18.6 7,116 26.3 40,286 22.4 7,035 26.0 San Luis Valley (Special) Oct. 1-18 Regular Exp. Point-System Season Dec. 13-Jan. 4 WEST SLOPE Regular Oct. 11-0ct. 30 6,706 28.2 1,301 38.5 Oct. 31-Nov. 19 5,042 21.2 1,260 37.3 Nov. 20-Dec. 9 4,685 19.7 1,301 38.5 Dec. 10-Dec. 29 5,517 23.2 1,280 37.9 Dec. 30-Jan. 4 1,831 7.7 568 16.8 �- 29 - Mallard drakes counted 10 points each, while mallard hens and all other species counted 40 points each. Thus, hunting pressure was again directed toward mallard drakes which band recovery data indicate are undershot in the western Central Flyway. A special, covering results of this season has already been prepared and distributed (Funk et al. 1970). Results of this comprehensive survey suggest that 7,035 hunters bagged 40,286 ducks during this experimental season (Table 6). However, the special point-system season survey indicated 11,285 hunters were active during the season and bagged 35,886 birds. Here again, as with the San Luis Valley season and for the same reasons, estimated hunters from this survey are deflated and estimated harvest is somewhat inflated. Thus, the special survey results are again no doubt more accurate. Results between years, the 1968 drake-only season as compared with the 1969 point-system season, suggest little change in hunter participation and total bag between season or regulation types. This survey produced estimates of 7,454 hunters bagging 42,631 birds in 1968 as opposed to 7,035 hunters taking 40,286 ducks this last season. Special survey results from both years, although different than those above, also suggested little change between years; 11,081 hunters with a bag of 37,786 birds in 1968 as compared with 11,285 hunters bagging 35,886 ducks in 1969. The point-system season was considered as successful or probably even more successful than the drake-only season of 1969. It was certainly popular with the hunters with approximately 37 percent of the total hunters in the State participating in the season and taking about 18 percent of the total State duck harvest. Goose Harvest Results of the 1969 goose season presented in Table 7 indicate 13,282 hunters bagged an average of 1.4 birds each for a season total of 17,939. This suggests a decrease of about 8 percent in harvest and a 2 percent decrease in hunters from the previous year. However, the 1969 harvest was still above the l6-year average of 17,703 geese. As with ducks, no data were collected in the questionnaire survey to permit crippling loss estimates. Species composition of geese in the 1969 bag, as with all years of the survey, remained about 99 percent, or above, Canada geese. The remainder is composed of snow geese and an even smaller portion of white-fronted geese. Food and water conditions were excellent during the 1969 Arkansas Valley goose season. Census figures indicated goose populations in the Valley numbered about 60,000 through fall and winter, the highest number ever to remain into January. The major concentrations were in the Eads Lakes and Two Buttes Reservoir areas, but there were good populations scattered throughout the fall and early winter on other bodies of water. Numbers of geese wintering in the Denver-Greeley-Fort Collins area also increased significantly in 1969 and contributed to an increased harvest. �- 30 Table 7. Year Goose harvest Slope 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1954-1969. statistics, Number of Hunters Average Seasonal Bag Total Estimated Harvest Wounding Loss. Percent Number Total Estimated Hunting Mortality 12,136 17,364 11,541 12,057 14,705 13,647 14,107 11,245 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.1 1.3 8,168 17,711 11,310 14,589 19,704 21,972 15,659 14,056 22.8 18.3 21.6 23.5 22.3 17.8 20.7 24.5 2,410 3,884 3,116 4,473 5,655 4,730 4,087 4,568 10,578 21,248 14,426 19,062 25,359 26,702 19,746 18,624 1962 East West TOTAL 8,828 331 9,159 1.5 1.3 1.5 13,241 430 13,671 19.5 0.0 19.1 3,218 0 1/ 3,218 16,459 430 16,889 1963 East West TOTAL 10,462 379 10,841 1.7 0.3 1.6 17,785 114 17,899 15.2 0.0 17 .8 3,184 3,184 20,969 114 21,083 1964 East West TOTAL 13,295 383 13,678 1.8 0.5 1.7 23,931 192 24,123 19.0 0.0 18.9 5,624 1/ 05,624 29,555 192 29,747 1965 East West TOTAL 10,941 403 11,344 1.2 1.0 1.2 13,239 419 13,658 24.6 27.0 24.7 3,257 113 3,370 16,496 532 17,028 1966 East West TOTAL 15,443 364 15,807 1.9 1.1 1.9 29,613 420 30,033 16.2 0.0 16.2 5,745 87 5,832 35,358 507 35,865 1967 East West TOTAL 13,598 150 13,748 1.7 1.7 1.7 23,117 255 23,372 19.8 19.8 19.8 5,710 63 5,773 28,827 318 29,145 1968 East West TOTAL 13,050 417 13,467 1.5 0.7 1.4 19,088 291 19,379 16.6 16.6 16.6 3,806 58 3,864 22,894 349 23,243 1969 East West TOTAL 12,990 292 13,282 1.4 0.9 1.4 17,691 248 17,939 - ]j - ]j - 2/ Sixteen-year average goose harvest (1954-69) is 17,703. 1/ No cripples reported on the west slope. 2/ Date not requested in survey questionnaire. o 1/ �- 31 - For the fifth year, goose permits with a six-bird season limit and other special regulations were in effect in most of the Denver-Greeley-Fort Collins area. In 1969, the permit area was enlarged but the limit was removed from number of permits to be issued and 8,342 hunters obtained permits. A special random survey sample drawn from these permittees indicated that 3,535 hunters actually hunted geese one or more times in the area. They bagged 2,431 geese in Larimer County; 1,112 in Weld County; 383 in Boulder County; 146 in Morgan County; and 100 in Adams County. This is a total harvest of 4,172 geese or an increase of 59 percent over the 2,631 birds bagged in 1968. Waterfowl Harvest by County The reader is cautioned that information presented in this section is subject to a great deal more error in accuracy than estimates in previous sections, since the original sample has been broken down to county, thus decreasing the size of sample on which to base estimates. This is probably even more true of geese than ducks because there are many more duck hunters. Consequently, it is realized that in some counties, both duck and goose harvest has been over-estimated, and in others, underestimated. However, despite this error, these data represent the most accurate information possible at the present time. Tables 8 and 9 compare the 1969 duck and goose harvests, respectively, with averages of previous seasons by county within each waterfowl region. These regional divisions of the State were located on the basis of waterfowl migration, location, and topography; and permit a closer evaluation of annual harvest, yearly changes in harvest patterns, and the effect of different types of hunting seasons in various portions of Colorado. Grossly, it appears that the greatest duck harvest again occurred in the Central Region, although the percentage of total State bag for this area decreased somewhat from the previous year. The harvest increased about 10,000 birds from about 69,000 bagged in 1968 to 79,000 in 1969. Greatest percentage increase took place in the Northeast Region with an estimated 40,000 birds taken, as compared to 26,000 in 1968. Yet many hunters still do not seem willing to travel to the eastern portions of the State because of the two mallard limit during regular season. The east slope again contributed the bulk of duck harvest in 1969, about 88 percent of the State total. Greatest harvest again took place in Weld County. Number of ducks bagged increased significantly in the Northwest Region on the west slope, but decreased somewhat in other regions. The 1969 goose harvest compared quite closely with the fifteen-year average, but was down somewhat from the 1968 season results (Table 9). The Southeast Region again was the high area of harvest with 60 percent of the total State goose bag. Kiowa, Baca, Bent, and Prowers were the top harvest counties in that order in the Region. The Central Region was next high with approximately 36 percent of the total State harvest. �- 32 - Table 8. Duck harvest by Region and County. Waterfowl Region and County 1969 Duck Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Estimated 1969 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Fifteen-year Average 1954-1968 Number Percent Harvested of Total EAST SLOPE NORTHEAST Cheyenne Kit Carson Lincoln Logan Morgan Phillips Sedgwick Washington Yuma NORTHEAST TOTAL T 2,878 1,079 12,409 12,230 899 3,417 2,338 52216 40,466 T 1.6 0.6 6.9 6.8 0.5 1.9 1.3 2.9 22.5 27 460 135 2,057 2,111 81 541 568 649 6,629 0.1 1.7 0.5 7.6 7.8 0.3 2.0 2.1 2.4 24.5 428 1,505 1,032 7,131 9,553 189 3,737 2,081 32158 28,814 0.3 1.2 0.8 5.6 7.6 0.1 3.0 1.6 2.5 22.7 SOUTHEAST Baca Bent Crowley Huerfano Kiowa Las Animas Otero Prowers Pueblo SOUTHEAST TOTAL 1,259 5,216 2,518 T 3,957 1,079 7,733 1,798 32237 26,797 0.7 2.9 1.4 T 2.2 0.6 4.3 1.0 1.8 14.9 162 758 298 54 487 162 920 325 568 3,734 0.6 2.8 1.1 0.2 1.8 0.6 3.4 1.2 2.1 13.8 1,189 3,179 2,776 597 1,535 1,100 1,908 3,882 32333 19,499 0.9 2.5 2.2 0.5 1.2 0.9 1.5 3.1 2.6 15.4 CENTRAL Adams Arapahoe Boulder Douglas Elbert E1 Paso Jefferson Larimer Weld CENTRAL TOTAL 8,992 1,619 6,834 1,079 540 2,158 1,798 15,467 402645 79,132 5.0 0.9 3.8 0.6 0.3 1.2 1.0 8.6 22.6 44.0 1,542 325 1,543 108 108 406 352 3,086 5,710 13,180 5.7 1.2 5.7 0.4 0.4 1.5 1.3 11.4 21.1 48.7 7,447 7,659 153 274 1,033 1,446 11,646 272642 59,025 5.9 1.4 6.1 0.1 0.2 0.8 1.1 9.2 21.7 46.7 8,813 3,597 2,338 9,892 5,755 4.9 2.0 1.3 5.5 3.2 1,109 270 216 866 595 4.1 1.0 0.8 3.2 2.2 4,394 2,434 785 5,481 3,806 3.6 1.9 0.6 4.3 3.0 30,395 16.9 3,056 11.3 16,900 l3.4 SAN LUIS VALLEY Alamosa Conejos Costilla Rio Grande Saguache SAN LUIS VALLEY TOTAL 1,725 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 33 - Table 8. Duck harvest by Region and County (continued) . Waterfowl Region and County 1969 Duck Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total HIGH COUNTRY (E) Chaffee 1,259 Clear Creek Custer 1,079 Fremont 180 Gilpin Jackson Lake Park 540 Teller HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL 3,058 Estimated 1969 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.3 1.7 Fifteen-year Average 1954-1968 Number Percent Harvested of Total 81 27 108 108 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 454 86 288 820 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.6 27 0.1 81 27 459 0.3 0.1 1.7 230 134 259 44 2,315 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.0 1.8 WEST SLOPE NORTHWEST Garfield Moffat Rio Blanco Routt NORTHWEST TOTAL 2,901 380 571 1~878 5,730 12.2 1.6 2.4 7.9 24.1 312 81 64 165 622 9.2 2.4 1.9 4.9 18.4 1,553 543 731 747 3,574 8.2 2.9 3.9 4.0 19.0 4,280 5,233 1,784 18.0 22.0 7.5 751 663 331 22.2 19.6 9.8 11,297 47.5 1,745 51.6 3,088 4,544 2,410 180 10,222 16.3 24.1 12.8 1.0 54.2 95 0.4 20 40 0.6 1.2 2,188 9.2 166 0.7 291 20 81 8.6 0.6 2.4 595 3,04l1 2.5 12.8 64 516 1.9 15.3 127 23 70 1,427 93 911 15 194 2,860 0.6 0.1 0.4 7.6 0.5 4.9 0.1 1.0 15.2 HIGH COUNTRY (W) Eagle 1,569 Grand 285 Gunnison 1,570 Pitkin 143 Summit 143 HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL 3,710 6.6 1.2 6.6 0.6 0.6 15.6 145 20 226 64 40 495 4.3 0.6 6.7 1.9 1.2 14.7 750 451 612 282 90 2,185 4.0 2.4 3.2 1.5 0.5 11.6 WEST CENTRAL Delta Mesa Montrose Ouray W. CENTRAL TOTAL SOUTHWEST Archuleta Dolores Hinsdale La Plata Mineral Montezuma San Juan San Miguel SOUTHWEST TOTAL ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �- 34 - Table 8. Duck harvest by Region and County (continued). Waterfowl Region and County 1969 Duck Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Estimated 1969 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Fifteen-year Average 1954-1968 Number Percent Harvested of Total Summary by Region NORTHEAST 40,466 SOUTHEAST 26,797 CENTRAL 79,132 SAN LUIS VALLEY 30,395 HIGH COUNTRY (E) 3,058 NORTHWEST 5,730 WEST CENTRAL 11,297 SOUTHWEST 3,044 HIGH COUNTRY (W) 3,710 TOTAL OF REGIONS 203,629 19.8 13.1 38.9 14.9 1.7 2.8 5.5 1.5 1.8 100.0 6,629 3,734 13,180 3,056 459 622 1,745 516 495 30,436 21.8 12.3 43.3 10.0 1.5 2.0 5.8 1.7 1.6 100.0 28,814 19,499 59,025 16,900 2,315 3,574 10,222 2,860 22185 145,394 19.8 13.4 40.7 11.6 1.6 2.4 7.0 1.9 1.5 100.0 EAST SLOPE WEST SLOPE 88.3 11.7 27,058 3,378 88.9 11.1 126,553 18,841 87.0 13.0 179,848 23,781 Table 9. Goose harvest by Region and County. Waterfowl Region and County 1969 Goose Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Estimated 1969 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Fifteen-year Average 1954-1968 Number Percent Harvested of Total EAST SLOPE NORTHEAST Cheyenne Kit Carson Lincoln Logan Morgan Phillips Sedgwick Washington Yuma NORTHEAST TOTAL 71 18 106 177 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.6 1.0 65 13 13 195 507 0.5 0.1 0.1 1.5 3.9 21 28 14 147 557 0.1 0.1 T 0.8 3.3 18 124 0.1 0.7 91 156 0.7 1.2 514 2.9 1,040 8.0 50 95 90 1,002 0.3 0.6 0.5 5.7 T ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 35 Table 9. Goose harvest by Region and County (continued). Estimated 1969 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Fifteen Year Average 1954-1968 Number Percent Harvested of Total Waterfowl Region and County 1969 Goose Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total SOUTHEAST Baca Bent Crowley Huerfano Kiowa Las Animas Otero Prowers Pueblo SOUTHEAST TOTAL 2,070 1,946 973 71 3,786 88 531 884 248 10,597 11.7 11.0 5.5 0.4 21.4 0.5 3.0 5.0 1.4 59.9 987 909 494 39 1,676 104 351 585 182 5,327 7.6 7.0 3.8 0.3 12.9 0.8 2.7 4.5 1.4 41.0 5,284 1,911 699 116 3,051 122 347 2,208 179 l3,917 30.3 10.9 4.0 0.7 17.4 0.7 2.0 12.6 1.0 79.6 18 495 584 18 0.1 2.8 3.3 0.1 350 65 596 13 2.7 0.5 4.6 0.1 159 T 3,307 12787 6,368 0.9 T 18.7 10.1 36.0 65 13 3,131 22026 6,259 0.5 0.1 24.1 15.6 48.2 316 138 55 3 6 19 160 667 870 2,234 1.8 0.8 0.3 T T 0.1 0.9 3.9 5.0 12.8 35 88 71 0.2 0.5 0.4 39 117 156 0.3 0.9 1.2 7 140 121 2 2 0.1 0.8 0.6 T T 194 1.1 312 2.4 272 1.5 3 38 T 0.2 CENTRAL Adams Arapahoe Boulder Douglas Elbert E1 Paso Jefferson Larimer Weld CENTRAL TOTAL SAN LUIS VALLEY Alamosa Conejos Costilla Rio Grande Saguache SAN LUIS VALLEY TOTALS HIGH COUNTRY (EAST) Chaffee Clear Creek Custer Fremont Gilpin Jackson Lake Park Teller HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL T 0.0 l3 0.1 22 0.2 18 0.1 39 0.3 3 T 18 0.1 52 0.4 66 0.4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �= 36 Table 9. Goose harvest by Region and County (continued) • Waterfowl Region and County Estimated 1969 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total 1969 Goose Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Fifteen Year Average 1954-1968 Number Percent Harvested of Total WEST SLOPE NORTHWEST Garfield Moffat Rio Blanco Routt NORTHWEST TOTAL 203 81.8 157 53.3 1 109 0.8 74.6 45 248 18.2 100.0 97 254 33.3 86.6 110 75.4 4 1 2 3.4 0.1 1.3 7 4.8 3 3 2.0 2.0 26 17.8 26 17.8 1,002 13,917 2,234 272 66 110 7 3 26 5.7 78.8 12.7 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.0 0.2 WEST CENTRAL Delta Mesa Montrose Ouray W. CENTRAL TOTAL SOUTHWEST Archuleta Dolores Hinsdale La Plata Mineral Montezuma San Juan San Miguel SOUTHWEST TOTAL T 19 6.7 T 19 6.7 38 13.4 T 0.0 HIGH COUNTRY (WEST) Eagle Grand Gunnison Pitkin Sunnnit HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL (W) Sunnnary by Region NORTHEAST SOUTHEAST CENTRAL SAN LUIS VALLEY HIGH COUNTRY (E) NORTHWEST WEST CENTRAL SOUTHWEST HIGH COUNTRY (W) 514 10,597 6,368 194 18 248 2.8 59.0 35.6 1.1 0.1 1.4 1,040 5,327 6,259 312 52 254 7.9 40.2 47.2 2.3 0.3 1.9 T T 38 0.2 TOTAL OF REGIONS 17,939 100.0 13 ,282 100.0 17,637 100.0 EAST SLOPE WEST SLOPE 17,691 248 98.6 1.4 12,990 292 97.8 2.2 17,491 146 99.2 0.8 �- 37 - Waterfowl Management Units Again this year, harvest information has been gathered on the basis of waterfowl management units (Fig. 1). The purpose of this is a better alignment of data to provide information about specific flocks of ducks and geese. For example, Unit 1 encompasses the area utilized by wintering ducks at Jumbo Reservoir, Unit 5 is North Park, and Unit 15 is the San Luis Valley. In many cases, duck and goose flock boundaries transcend county lines and it has been difficult to put together county information so that we could look at the influence of hunting pressure and harvest on separate flocks. We had hoped that management units would help solve this. However, there are still problems with interpreting results which have to be examined by year. Results of this portion of the survey are displayed in Tables 10 and 11 for ducks and geese, respectively. Estimated numbers of hunters and harvest for the 1969 season are shown by management unit and compared with the five-year averages from 1964-68. No other comments will be made at this time. LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. 1970. Hunter harvest surveys. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept. July, Part Two. pp. 133-213. Funk, H. D., and J. R. Grieb. 1969. Colorado small game hunter harvest survey -- 1968. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Ft. Collins, July 1. 38pp. Funk, H.D., R. M. Hopper, J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, T. Kuck, D. E. Timm, and G. W. Merrill. 1970. Preliminary evaluation of the 1969-70 experimental point-system duck season within the High Plains Mallard Management Unit of the Central Flyway. Cent. Fly. Tech. Comm. Rept. March. llpp., 12 Tables and Appendix. Geis, A. D., et a1. 1970. "Progress report 1969 San Luis Valley experimental duck hunting season". Mig. Bird Pop. Sta. Admin. Rept. In press. ~.~~:_~)~(~~~~.~/~~l~·-~,_~~ .. ~_)_. _~~/~~. __ _ !_/,.~ Prepared by_ '. / .. ~_.L"::'''"k /:«: \:. '.... '-"~C::'/' -c, Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research c ,-,. �0 U -c <fl < a: CD ? :! c,., •••••• ;;: :::s •••••• e:i ! c:.:) 0 u x w ~ ~~ c:.~ ::5: ....~o ~ ~ ~ w �- 39 - Table 10. Estimated duck hunters and harvest by management unit, 1964-1969. Management Number Unit Hunters 1969 Season Number Percent of Total Bagged Percent of Total Five-year Average 1964-1968 Number Number Percent Hunters of Total Bagged Percent of Total EAST SLOPE 1 2,219 7.3 15,107 7.4 1,265 5.9 6,448 5.4 2 2,760 9.0 15,827 7.8 1,118 5.3 5,800 4.9 3 4,492 14.7 28,056 13.8 3,234 15.2 17,730 14.9 4 3,030 10.0 13 ,668 6.7 1,993 9.4 11 ,065 9.3 5 108 0.4 540 0.3 101 0.5 567 0.5 6 5,466 18.0 33,452 16.4 3,946 18.6 23,742 20.0 7 271 0.9 899 0.4 273 1.3 1,160 1.0 8 595 2.0 3,237 1.6 341 1.6 1,569 1.3 9 974 3.2 5,935 2.9 413 1.9 2,048 1.7 10 758 2.5 5,755 2.8 582 2.7 2,221 1.9 11 81 0.3 180 0.1 252 1.2 783 0.6 12 1,840 6.0 12,769 6.3 1,072 5.0 5,087 4.3 13 1,028 3.4 7,913 3.9 729 3.4 3,276 2.8 14 379 1.2 4,137 2.0 233 1.1 1,180 1.0 15 3,057 10.0 32,373 15.9 2,784 13.1 20,301 17.1 Sub-total 27,058 88.9 179,848 88.3 18,336 86.2 102,975 86.7 WEST SLOPE 16 3,378 11.1 23,781 11.7 2,933 13.8 15,783 13 .3 GRAND TOTAL 30,436 100.0 203,629 100.0 21,269 100.0 118,758 100.0 �- 40 - Table 11. Management Unit Estimated goose hunters and harvest by management unit, 1964-1969. Number Hunters 1969 Season Number Percent of Total Bagged Percent of Total Five-year Average 1964-1968 Number Number Percent Hunters of Total Bagged Percent of Total EAST SLOPE 1 299 2.3 89 0.5 238 1.7 l31 0.6 2 546 4.1 372 2.1 479 3.5 504 2.3 3 2,117 15.9 2,158 12.0 1,803 l3.2 1,917 8.6 4 3,117 23.4 2,848 15.9 1,581 11.6 1,758 7.9 5 26 0.2 0 0.0 43 0.3 l32 0.6 6 1,377 10.4 991 5.5 1,179 8.7 1,122 5.0 7 26 0.2 0 0.0 41 0.3 23 0.1 8 52 0.4 71 0.4 86 0.6 155 0.7 9 52 0.4 0 0.0 69 0.5 64 0.3 10 1,624 12.2 3,998 22.3 1,971 14.4 4,844 21.9 11 1,286 9.7 2,211 12.3 2,646 19.4 5,986 27.1 12 1,650 12.4 3,450 19.2 2,147 15.8 3,849 17.4 l3 584 4.4 1,362 7.6 627 4.6 964 4.4 14 65 0.5 35 0.2 l38 1.0 149 0.7 15 169 1.3 106 0.6 262 1.9 213 1.0 12,990 97.8 17,691 98.6 13,311 97.8 21,812 98.6 Sub-total WEST SLOPE 16 292 2.2 248 1.4 298 2.2 300 1.4 GRAND TOTAL l3 ,282 100.0 17,939 100.0 13,609 100.0 22,112 100.0 �October, - 41 - JOB PROGRESS State Work REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- of No. W-88-R-15 Migratory plan No. 1 Job No. Project Job Title Period 1970 San Luis Valley Covered: Personnel: May Cooperative 11, 1970 to October Mallard Bird Investigations 12 Investigation 18, 1970 Charles Hayes, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Ron Blumberg, Harvey Bray, Gary Brown, Harold Burdick, Earl Cochran, Harry Dobbs, Gordon East, John Goettl, Art Gresh, Lloyd Hazzard, Glen Hinshaw, Wayne Knisely, Wilber Ladd, Jr., Bob Mangus, Dick McDonald, Kris Moser, Dick Norman, Bob Rosette, Wayne Russell, Gary Will, Clait Braun, Howard Funk, Mike Szymczak, Richard Hopper, Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. ABSTRACT The duck breeding population estimate in the San Luis Valley for 1969 totaled 27,425 pairs, including 11,816 pairs of mallards. This was nearly equal to the 1968 figure for all species combined, but mallards were down 3,000 pairs in 1969 from the previous year. Sampling error (± 22.8 percent) remained consistent with the three previous years. A point-system regulation was again tested in the San Luis Valley during the October 1-18, 1969 experimental season. This season was similar to that held in 1968 except for some changes in point allocations among the various species and sexes. In 1969, pintail drakes, shovelers, all teal and coots were added to the 10-point category along with mallard drakes, mallard hens, canvasbacks, and redheads counted 60 points each, with all others 35 points each. Colorado personnel assisted in conducting 56 hunter performance surveys during the 1969 season, including 26 on private land and 30 on public land. Survey cards were sen,t to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for analysis. ��- 43 - SAN LUIS VALLEY COOPERATIVE MALLARD INVESTIGATION Richard M. Hopper This is a cooperative investigation between the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. The objectives stated below relate to the collection of data necessary in evaluating the experimental season and include only those for which the Colorado Division had primary reponsibility. Only results pertaining to these objectives are presented here. Overall results of the 1969 experimental season and interpretation of the data appear in Administrative Report No. 195 (Hopper, et al., 1970) prepared by members of both agencies and distributed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Branch of Wildlife Research, Migratory Bird Populations Station. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for the San Luis Valley mallard population. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES This study was designed to determine the influence of various types of hunting regulations and bag limits on the local breeding population of mallards in the San Luis Valley. Colorado's part of the study is covered under the following segment objectives: 1. 2. Determine the size of the 1969 breeding population in the San Luis Valley. Assist in determining the ability and/or willingness of hunters to abide by specific regulations and determine wounding loss during the 1969 experimental season. METHODS AND MATERIALS Techniques for conducting the 1969 breeding population survey, air-ground comparison study, and hunter performance survey remained the same as those in 1967 (Segment 13). A discussion of these methods appears in a previous report (Hopper and Rutherford, 1968) and will not be repeated here. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Air-Ground Comparison Population Survey Study Comparisons of air and ground counts of ducks on 122.5 miles of selected transect are shown by species in Table 1. The proportion identified from �- 44 - the air (visibility ratio) was again highest for the mallard (0.272), excluding the small sample of "other divers" (0.333). The three species of teal were the most difficult to identify from the air, as witnessed by their visibility ratios ranging from 0.020 to 0.056. The visibility ratio for cinnamon teal for example, means that the air crew identified, as cinnamon teal, only 5.6 percent of the cinnamon teal actually present on the airground comparison transects. These ratios were applied to the regular air transect counts as correction factors in calculating estimates of total breeding pairs for Russell Lakes and the major portion of the Valley, excluding Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and the total-count areas. Table 1. Air-ground comparison in the San Luis Valley, 1969. of ducks counted on 122.5 miles of transect Species Estimated Breeding Pairs Ground Air Pairs Percent Pairs Percent Mallard 474 48.7 129 64.2 0.272 Gadwall 98 10.0 22 10.9 0.224 Pintail 88 9.0 22 10.9 0.250 Shoveler 58 5.9 13 6.5 0.224 Blue-winged 30 3.1 1 0.5 0.033 Cinnamon 143 14.6 8 4.0 0.056 49 5.0 1 0.5 0.020 7 0.7 0 0.0 0.000 Redhead 26 2.7 4 2.0 0.154 Other Divers 3 0.3 1 0.5 0.333 976 100.0 201 100.0 0.206 Teal Green-winged American Teal Widgeon Totals Duck Breeding Population Proportion Identified From the Air Estimate Square miles of habitat, sampling intensity, and estimated number of breeding pairs of ducks are listed in Table 2 for the six areas included in the 1969 survey. Breeding pair estimates are also included from previous years for comparison. �Table 2. Breeding pairs by density type as estimated from the San Luis Valley regular air transects, and nesting transects, 1964-1969. Square Miles Habitat Percent Sample 1964 Estimated Breeding Pairsll 1967 1968 1966 1965 Monte Vista NWR 22 5.50 3,944 3,000 3,964 3,509 4,054 4,420 Russell Lakes 6 33.33 1,452 689 1,440 828 1,845 876 San Luis Lakes 7 100.00 -- 60 105 86 277 813 Mishak Lakes 4 100.00 -- 187 338 532 204 313 Adams Lake 1 100.00 -- -- 6 17 26 103 Type 1969 I Remainder of Valley 1,265 17.95 27,366 18,866 18,111 24,171 21,205 20,900 Totals 1,305 17.80 32,762 22,802 23,964 29,143 27,611 27,425 11 Determined from nesting transects on Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and from aerial transects on all other areas. -I=' \J1 �- 46 - The 1969 inventory yielded an estimated 27,425 breeding pairs of ducks, or essentially the same as the 27,611 pairs obtained in 1968. This figure is still somewhat lower than the high years of 1964 and 1967, but above the 1965 and 1966 estimates. Species composition of the 1969 San Luis Valley breeding population is shown in Table 3. Composition figures for past years are included for comparison. The estimated mallard breeding population for 1969 was down 3,000 pairs from 1968, which resulted in a reduction in their composition from 54 percent of the total number of breeding pairs of ducks in 1968 to 43 percent in 1969. Each of the three species of teal increased substantially over 1968, making up for the mallard deficit. All other species contributed about the same numbers of pairs in 1969 as in 1968. The 1969 sampling error, calculated at 22.8 percent, remained consistent with the three previous years. ± Harvest Information The point-system regulation was tested during the 1969 experimental duck season in the San Luis Valley for the second consecutive year. Some changes in point allocations among the various species and sexes were made in 1969, with pintail drakes, shovelers, all teal, and coots being added to the 10point category along with the mallard drake. Mallard hens, redheads, and canvasbacks counted 60 points each, while all others tallied 35 points each. All other rules remained the same as in 1968. The 1969 regulation, although seemingly more complex, was based upon a more realistic allocation of points, such as might be applied throughout one or more flyways. Mallard females were increased from 40 to 60 points in an attempt to further reduce shooting pressure on these birds by encouraging hunters to avoid them. Additional species and sexes that could withstand greater harvest were placed in the low-point category (10 points) in an effort to direct more shooting pressure toward them and away from mallard females. ObViously, the goal of the point-system regulation is to emphasize the harvest of lightly shot species and sexes and discourage the harvest of heavily shot species and sexes. Thus, hunters were tested in the San Luis Valley to determine their reaction to a point-system regulation relatively more complicated than the one they faced in 1968. State personnel assisted in collecting hunter performance data during the 1969 experimental season. This work was necessary for determining hunter attitude and compliance with the point-system regulation. Fifty-six hunter performance surveys were conducted by State men, including 26 on private land and 30 on public land. The survey cards were sent to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for tabulation and analysis along with surveys submitted by Federal personnel. Results of this work are presented in the joint report mentioned earlier in this report (Hopper, et al., 1970). �Table 3. Species composition of the San Luis Valley duck breeding population, 1964-1969. 1964 Pairs % 1965 Pairs % 1966 Pairs % 1967 Pairs % 1968 Pairs % 1969 Pairs % Mallard 14,319 43.7 11,177 49.1 13 ,064 54.5 15,502 53.2 14,816 53.7 11,816 43.1 Gadwall 1,660 5.1 2,779 12.2 2,340 9.8 3,115 10.6 2,570 9.3 2,735 10.0 Pintail 7,531 23.0 1,878 8.2 2,644 11.0 3,085 10.6 2,737 9.9 2,347 8.6 263 0.8 1,981 8.7 409 1.7 2,100 7.2 1,561 5.6 2,889 10.5 Blue-winged Cinnamon Teal 2,337 7.1 3,249 14.2 1,719 7.2 2,905 10.0 3,310 12.0 5,496 20.0 Shoveler 1,030 3.1 978 4.3 1,788 7.5 1,503 5.2 1,211 4.4 1,055 3.8 93 0.3 88 0.4 0 0.0 157 0.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 5,017 15.3 667 2.9 1,448 6.0 455 1.6 1,252 4.5 1,031 3.8 512 1.6 5 -- 552 2.3 321 1.1 154 0.6 56 0.2 Totals 32,762 100.0 22,802 100.0 23,964 100.0 29,143 100.0 27,611 100.0 27,425 100.0 ~ .05 Standard Error ~/ +31.0% Species Green-winged Teal .j::- -...J American Widgeon Redhead Other Divers 1/ +28.0% +23.0% 1/ Includes lesser scaup, canvasback, ruddy duck, and common merganser. ~/ Excluding Monte Vista NWR and Russell Lakes. +20.9% +23.8% +22.8% �- 48 - LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R., H. Funk, R. Buller, A. D. Geis, and E. M. Martin. 1970. Progress report: 1969 experimental duck hunting season in the San Luis Valley of Colorado - an evaluation of the "point system'! in regulating harvest. U.S.D.I., Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildl., Migratory Bird Pop. Sta., Admin. Rpt. No. 195. 20 p. Hopper, R. M., and W. H. Rutherford. 1968. San Luis Valley cooperative mallard investigation. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt., Oct. p. 33-42. Prepared by ..JUt,- ,. ~7_% .Jf(;,)J'~ Richard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher -~ �October - 49 - JOB PROGRESS Work REPORT COLORADO State of No. W-88-R-ls Migratory Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Job Title Period 1970 Investigations 13 Determination of Methods for Developing and Managing Waterfowl Habitat--Shallow Impoundment Study Covered: Personnel: Bird April 1, 1969 to December Ralph Baker and Richard 15, 1969 Hopper ABSTRACT Pre-impoundment studies of impoundment No. 1 were initiated in Segment 15. Permanent, ~-square-meter quadrats were selected as one means of describing vegetation associated with the impoundment sites before and after flooding. Forty-eight quadrats were established, 32 on a portion of the impoundment characterized by native meadow vegetation, and 16 on a portion previously farmed. Forty-seven species of plants were encountered in the 48 quadrats, 46 in the native meadow quadrats, and eight in the quadrats located on the previously farmed area. Three species of grasses, inland saltgrass (Distichlis stricta) bluestem wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus) exhibited the highest frequencies (percent of quadrate of occurrence) in the native meadow with figures of 93.8, 84.4, and 78.1 percent, respectively. Inland saltgrass, bluestem wheatgrass, and cheatgrass brome (Bromus tectorum) showed the greatest densities, with averages of 168.5, 62.2, and 50.6 sterns per quadrat, respectively. Summercypress (Kochia scoparia) occurred in all 16 quadrate on the previously farmed area, while cornmon Russian thistle (Salsoli kali) was found in 14 (87.5%) and lettuce (Lactuca ludoviciana) in 13 (81.2%). Surnmercypress and cornmon Russian thistle also had the highest densities with 1,070 and 269 sterns per quadrat. Twelve soil samples were collected at random on the impoundment site. These varied from sandy loam to clay loam in texture. Hydrogen-ion concentrations (pH) range from 7.5 to 8.5. Phosphorus, zinc, and iron were present in smaller amounts on the previously farmed area than on the native meadow portion. �- 50 - RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Eliminate plans for construction of two drawdown impoundments because of the absence of a sufficient quantity of water. Drawdown studies can be initiated to the three existing impoundments upon termination of studies involving permanent water levels. 2. Spread bentonite over extreme north end of borrow area in an attempt to reduce any water loss from the impoundment through seepage. �- 51 - SHALLOW IMPOUNDMENT STUDY Richard M. Hopper The shallow impoundment study continued in Segment 15 for the third consecutive year as part of a long-term investigation designed to acquire knowledge in the development and management of waterfowl habitat. The first years progress report covered the selection, location, and description of the proposed impoundment sites (Hopper 1968), while the second years report described the design and construction of the dikes and ditching systems for the three permanent impoundments (Hopper 1969). This report covers mainly pre-impoundment soil and vegetative studies of the first shallow impoundment to be flooded. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of (a) shallow, permanent impoundments; and (b) shallow, drawdown impoundments on waterfowl use and harvest at Bonny Reservoir. SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. OBJECTIVES Design and construct dikes and ditching system for two drawdown impoundments. Conduct pre-impoundment studies of one permanent impoundment and two drawdown impoundments. Flood above three impoundment sites in September and record waterfowl use until freeze-up. METHODS AND MATERIALS Pre-Impoundment Studies Vegetation Permanent quadrats were selected as one means for describing vegetation associated with the impoundment sites before and after flooding. Fortyeight, ~-square-meter (~ m. x 1 m.) quadrats were established in impoundment No. 1 on the area that will constitute the shallow-water and moist soil portion of the impoundment. A different method of vegetative sampling is planned for the deep-water portion of the impoundment (borrow area) adjacent to the upstream face of the dikes where the fill material for the dikes was obtained. Locations of the 48 quadrats were determined through stratified random sampling. The ditch crossing impoundment No. 1 (Fig. 1) separates two portions of contrasting vegetation and it was necessary to stratify the impoundment �- 52 area for sampling purposes. The area to the north of the ditch covers about two-thirds of impoundment No.1 and consists of native. meadow-type vegetation that has been hayed and grazed in the past but not broken by the plow. Land south of the ditch was farmed prior to 1969, with small grains as the predominant crop. As a result, 32 quadrats were placed in the north area and 16 in the south area. Twelve reference points were randomly selected and permanently marked with steel posts along the main (east) dike of impoundment No.1 (X - Z, Fig. 1), with eight points in section X - Y and four in Y - Z. Corresponding points were permanently marked at the opposite (west) side of the impoundment by running a compass-line perpendicular to the main dike and across the impoundment from each of the 12 points on the main dike. These reference points were designated A through L. Four quadrats were established along each compass-line within a 300-ft. distance west of the west edge of the borrow area (deep water portion). This 300 ft. distance was stratified in an east-west direction into four, 75 ft. segments, with one quadrat being randomly placed in each segment along each compass line. These segments were designated as zones 1 through 4. This will insure sampling of vegetation in various depths of water and on moist and dry soils, since conditions will become progressively drier in an eastwest direction upon flooding of the impoundment. The northwest and southeast corners of each quadrat were permanently marked with 18 inch wooden stakes. An aluminum tag, identifying a quadrat by reference point and number, was placed on the northwest stake. Designation A-2 on an aluminum tag, for example, refers to the quadrat in the second 75 ft. zone west of the borrow area along compass line A. Information collected at each quadrat included: (1) date, (2) quadrat number, (3) list of species present, and (4) number of individual plants or stems of each species. It was difficult to distinguish individual plants of some species, especially many grasses and grass-like plants, thus stemS originating at the soil surface were counted. Analysis of vegetative data involved the determination of frequency (percentage of quadrats in which a species occurred) and density (average number of stems or individuals per quadrat). Photographs were taken along compass-lines A through L in an east-west direction. Twelve quadrats were also randomly selected for photographing. Quadrat photos were taken 10 feet from the southeast stake in an east-west direction, with a yard stick placed behind the northwest stake. Soils A core of the top six inches of soil was collected adjacent to eight randomly selected vegetative quadrats and along four compass lines in the deepwater portion of impoundment No.1, with the aid of a soil auger. The 12 samples were sent to the Colorado State University Soil Testing Laboratory for analyses of the following items: pH, conductivity, lime, organic matter, phosphorus, potash, zinc, iron, and texture. �j , ·1 ~ =C::ZZ::U._X./n:eS,,_,&!LSECiZU!£zsua:.zza::z::za:aem: &A_iIiLE!_.. ~ ~; ~ ~ R' ~ a 5 A!L_W •.ss:::x:5I_ Emergency e=S:C:S=*-=X?i I Spillway -Dike I -~ . 0 <0 ~ ; -~ I I";: ~ Dilch VIa ter Control Well Pr op er ty Line Structure " ~ ~ ~ 3 75 ft. ~ ~ ~~--------i Ii _ SOuth 4 .' i I i~ i jj I ~ I I 5 ~ s ! I . L I It I ~ ForK ~ ~ ~ •l1 X i N X )( _ !8> ~" Ii X =::-:;" 3 ~ - x====:X:==----:J ~ I ~ I ! x b 5 L: ~ an """ ., _ ..l.l _0 ••••• _ 1_ ____ •.._ __ _.c .•.. '- _ ... _ ...• \......, , ....'".. __ ~""---__ ...._ •.. .: __ ......•• _...:I_.- .•..... ~.... 0,... •..• __ ·..• n ......•.......• _~•....... ~~ --=-~~-~ �- 54 RESULTS Construction AND DISCUSSION of Drawdown Impoundments Because of the absence of a sufficient quantity of water to flood three permanent impoundments plus two drawdown impoundments, the latter will not be constructed and drawdown studies will be temporarily abandoned as part of the overall investigation. The three impoundments already in existence can be utilized for drawdown studies following termination of studies involving permanent water levels. Pre-impoundment Studies Vegetation Forty-seven species of plants were encountered in the 48 ~-square-meter quadrats studied in impoundment No.1 during the period August 13-16, 1969 (Tables 1 and 2). We were unable to identify four of these plants, mainly because of the lack of sufficient vegetative and flowering parts to work with in keying them out. Forty-six of the 47 species were found in the 32 quadrats on the native meadow north of the ditch that crosses impoundment No.1 (Table 1). While only eight species occurred in the 16 quadrats located on the previously farmed area south of the ditch (Table 2). All eight species found on the farmed area, except green brist1egrass (Setaria viridus), were also found on the native meadow portion. Tables 1 and 2 show the frequency (number and percent of quadrats of occurrence) and density (average number of stems per quadrat) for each plant species encountered on the native meadow and farmed areas, respectively. Only three plant species, all grasses, occurred in over 75 percent of the 32 native meadow quadrats. These were: inland sa1tgrass (Distich1is stricta) (93.8%), b1uestem wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) (84.4%), and sand dropseed (Sporobo1us cryptandrus) (78.1%). Fleabane (Erigeron be11idastrum was found in 18, or 56.2 percent of the quadrats. Two forbs, western ragweed (Ambrosia coronopifo1ia) and summercypress (Kochia scoparia), had the next highest frequencies, with each occurring in 50 percent of the quadrats. Six additional species were found in 25 to 50 percent of the quadrats. Thus, only 12 of the 46 species encountered on the native meadow occurred in 25 percent or more of the 32 quadrats. Inland sa1tgrass, b1uestem wheatgrass, and cheatgrass brome(Bromus tectorum) showed the greatest densities in the native meadow quadrats, with average figures of 168.5, 6.2, and 50.6 stems per quadrat, respectively. All other species exhibited average densities of less than 31 stems per quadrat. Summercypress occurred in all 16 quadrats on the previously farmed area, while common Russian thistle (Sa1s01i ka1i) was found in 14 (87.5%) and lettuce (Lactuca 1udoviciana) in 13 (81.2%) (Table 2). Groundcherry (Physalis 10ngifo1ia) was the only other species of the eight encountered that occurred in more than one quadrat. Summercypress also had by far the greatest density, averaging 1,070 stems, or in this case individual plants, per quadrat. These plants were noticeably stunted, as might be expected with the extremely high density. The density of common Russian �- 55 - thistle (269 stems per quadrat) amounted to only about one-fourth that of summercypress, but was greater than any species in the native meadow. All other species in the farmed area had relatively low densities. Species: area curves, as described by Oosting (1956) were applied to the native hay and farmed samples to determine the minimum number of ~-squaremeter quadrats required for adequate sampling of vegetation on each area. This procedure indicated that the number of quadrats used (32 and 16, respectively) was sufficient for the present plant compositon; however, changes in composition brought about by flooding the impoundment could result in a revision of the number of quadrats needed. Soils Results of the analyses of 12 soil samples collected on August 18, 1969 are shown in Table 3. Sample numbers AO, EO, HO, and KO were taken from the borrow area (deep water area) where a foot or more of the top soil had been removed and used for construction of the dike. These four subsurface samples were clay loam in texture. All other samples were taken from the original soil surface and these consisted of lighter textures of loams and sandy loams. Generally, it seems that surface soils of the impoundment are light to medium in texture, but that at least some of the area is underlain with heavy soils. The subsurface samples (clay loams) were similar to the surface samples in all respects except for lime and organic matter content. The clay loams were all high in lime content, whereas the lighter surface samples ranged from low to high in this regard. Organic matter content was generally lower in the clay loam samples (0.8 - 1.3%) than in the loam and sandy loam samples (1.3 - 3.6%). This difference in organic matter content would be expected when comparing surface and subsurface soils. Hydrogen-ion concentrations (pH) of all soil samples ranged from 7.5 to 8.5, or slightly to moderately alkaline. Samples taken on the previously farmed portion of the impoundment (Jl, J4, and K2) showed smaller amounts of phosphorus, zinc, and iron than did the samples collected from the native meadow. Many years of cropping on farmland can be responsible for declines in these elements. Flooding of Impoundment Site An attempt was made in mid-August to fill impoundment No. 1 from the existing well. It was obvious after several days that the well did not produce enough water to meet this demand. A sufficient quantity of water was yielded to fill the borrow area and to begin spreading over the flats, but at least an additional six vertical inches were needed to obtain the desired amount of flooded area. A second well will be drilled during the summer of 1970. This well should produce more water than the first, and hopefully, the two together will handle all three of the impoundments. �- 56 - Table 1. Frequency and density data for plant species encountered quadrats on the native meadow portion of impoundment No.1. Frequency No. Quadrats of Occurrence Percent in 32 Density Total Ave. No. No. Stems/ Stems Quadrat Scientific Species Namel/ Common Name~/ Agropyron smithii Bluestem Wheatgrass 27 84.4 1,991 62.2 Ambrosia coronopifolia Western 16 50.0 146 4.6 Ragweed Andropogon gerardi Big Bluestem 1 3.1 18 0.6 Aristida longiseta Red Threeawn 3 9.4 418 13 .1 Artemisia caudata Sagebrush 8 25.0 222 6.9 Artemisia filifolia Sand Sagebrush 2 6.2 Artemisia ludoviciana Louisana Sagebrush 8 25.0 123 3.8 Asclepias incarnata Swamp Milkweed 1 3.1 1 T Asclepias pumila Plains Milkweed 2 6.2 20 0.6 Asclepias speciosa Showy Milkweed 2 6.2 4 0.1 Astragalus spp. Milkvetch 1 3.1 1 T Bouteloua gracilis Blue Grama 11 34.4 978 30.6 Bouteloua spp. Grama 3 9.4 277 8.7 11 34.4 1,620 50.6 Bromus tectorum Cheatgrass Carex praegracilis Sedge 7 21.9 549 17.2 Cirsium spp. Thistle 2 6.2 4 0.1 Conyza canadensis Horseweed 4 12.5 23 0.7 Danthonia spp. Danthonia 1 3.1 8 0.2 Delphinium spp. Larkspur 6 18.8 16 0.5 Distichlis stricta Inland Saltgrass 30 93.8 5,392 168.5 Fleabane 18 56.2 186 5.8 Erigeron bellidiastrum Brome Fleabane Elymus canadensis Canada Wildlrye 1 3.1 2 0.1 Haplopappus cephalus Goldenweed 1 3.1 1 T Rush 4 12.5 237 Juncus spp. phyllo- 7.4 �- 57 - Table 1. Frequency and density data for plant species encountered in 32 quadrats on the native meadow portion of impoundment No.1, continued. Species Scientific Namell Common Name21 Frequency No. Quadrats of Occurrence Percent Density Total Ave. No. No. Stemsl Stems Quadrat Kochia scoparia Summercypress 16 50.0 772 24.1 Lactuca 1udoviciana Lettuce 3 9.4 18 0.6 Liatris punctata Dotted Gayfeather 7 21. 9 56 1.8 Me1i1otus alba White Sweetclover 7 21.9 145 4.5 Muhlenbergia asperifolia Alkali Muhly 1 3.1 4 0.1 Opuntia spp. Prickly pear 1 3.1 1 T Physalis longifolia Groundcherry 5 15.6 13 0.4 Plantago spp. Plantain 7 21.9 34 1.1 Polygonum aviculare Prostrate Knotweed 2 6.2 3 0.1 Ratibida columnifera Prairie coneflower 10 31.2 76 2.4 Salsola kali Common Russian Thistle 8 25.0 463 14.5 Solanum rostratum Buffalobur Nightshade 3 9.4 7 0.2 2 6.2 7 0.2 Alkali Sacaton 5 15.6 287 9.0 Sporobolus cryptandrus Sand Dropseed 25 78.1 986 30.8 Solidago graminifolia Grassleaf Goldenrod Sporobo1us airoides Stellaria media Chickweed 2 6.2 5 0.2 Stipa comata Needle and Thread 7 21. 9 690 21.6 Tragopogon porrifolius Salsify 2 6.2 3 0.1 Unknown No. 1 7 21.9 56 1.8 Unknown No. 2 3 9.4 9 0.3 Unknown No. 3 1 3.1 15 0.5 Unknown No. 4 1 3.1 2 0.1 II After Harrington (1954). II After Kelsey and Dayton (1942). �- 58 - Table 2. Frequency and density data for plant species encountered quadrats on the previously farmed area of impoundment No.1. Scientific Species Namell Connnon Name~./ Frequency No. Quadrats of Occurrence Percent in 16 Total No. Stems Density Ave. No. Stemsl Quadrat Kochia scoparia Sunnnercypress 16 100.0 17 ,123 1,070.2 Lactuca ludoviciana Lettuce 13 81.2 58 3.6 Physalis long ifo lia Groundcherry 5 31.2 8 0.5 Salsola ka l i, Connnon Russian 14 87.5 4,310 269.4 Setaria viridus Green bristlegrass 1 6.2 1 0.1 Solanum rostratum Buffalobur 1 6.2 1 0.1 1 6.2 2 0.1 Stellaria media thistle nightshade Chickweed II After Harrington (1954). ~I After Kelsey and Dayton (1942). Excessive seepage of water from the impoundment may be responsible for the inability of the first well to fill the impoundment. Soils at the extreme north end of the borrow area appeared to be lighter in texture than the clay loam soils found by sampling in other portions of the borrow area. Bentonite could be used to help remedy any seepage problem that may exist. Intensive waterfowl use observations will not begin until impoundment No. 1 is filled to the desired level. However, waterfowl began using this impoundment innnediately upon initial flooding. Water was maintained in the impoundment throughout the fall and winter. Varying numbers of ducks were seen using the impoundment during the fall, with a peak number of 43 individual ducks being observed on October 9, 1969. �Table 3 0 Soil test results of 12 samples collected in impoundment noo 1 on August 18, 1969. Organic Matter Conductivity (salts) Lime (%) (umhos / em) Phosphorus (ppm) Potassium (ppm) Zinc (ppm) Iron (ppm) No r, Texture pH (paste) AO Clay Loam 709 High 103 0.6 8.7 417+ 0.59 7.2 EO Clay Loam 8.1 High 0.9 05 0 9.2 281 0029 7.9 HO Clay Loam 7.9 High 1.1 05 0 7.4 417+ 0.41 8.5 KO Clay Loam 8.5 High 008 0.5 2.2 417+ 1.38 6.5 B1 Loam 709 High 2.7 0.5 8.1 385 1.40 12.5 C3 Sandy Loam 7.5 Low 2.1 0.4 11.1 277 0 76 6.8 Sample 0 F1 Loam 7.5 Low 2.9 0.5 5.2 417+ 0092 6.0 F4 Loam 708 Medium 2.7 05 0 5.9 417+ 1.37 3.4 G2 Loam 707 Low 306 0.5 8.5 417+ 1.90 4.8 J1 Loam 7.8 Low 2.5 0.3 4.1 417+ 0042 2.7 J4 Sandy Loam 709 High 1.3 0.2 3.3 417+ 0030 2.7 K2 Sandy Loam 709 High 108 004 3.3 417+ 0.50 2.5 . \JI 1.0 �- 60 - LITERATURE CITED Harrington, H. D. 1954. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Denver. 666pp. Sage Books, Hopper, R. M. 1968. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat--sha11ow impoundment study. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt., Oct., pp. 43-49. Hopper, R. M. 1969. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat--sha11ow impoundment study. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct., pp. 65-71. Kelsey, H. P., and W. A. Dayton. 1942. Standardized plant names. Horace McFarland Co., Harrisburg, Pa. 675pp. Oosting, H. J. 1956. The study of plant communities. Co ,, San Francisco. 440pp. Prepared by ...•• £q...... .AA"..::W~J~ia~L:<::'-)-..I.n~"~1--,~"2.L-...· ..!:::..,th~J.L:.'.J-?i~_ Richard M. Hopper~ Wildlife Researcher J. W. H. Freeman and �October - 61 - JOB PROGRESS State Work REPORT COLORADO of No. W-88-R-15 Migratory Plan No. 1 Job No. Project Job Title Period 1970 Determination Waterfowl Habitat Covered: Personnel: of Methods - Ammonium April 1, 1969 to March Ralph Baker, Wilber Bird Investigations 14 for Developing and Managing Nitrate Pothole Blasting StudX 27, 1970 Ladd, Jr., and Richard Hopper ABSTRACT The most common species of vegetation adjacent to the potholes were (Scirpus americanus) and sedge (Carex spp.). Twenty other species, grass and grass-like plants, also surrounded the potholes. bulrush mostly Submerged aquatic vegetation was found in 70, or 91 percent of the 77 potholes included in this portion of the study. Seven species of plants were encountered, with muskgrasses (Chara spp.) and pondweed (Potamogeton foliosus) dominating in both frequency of occurrence and density. Vegetation was encountered more frequently in the 75 and 150 lb. potholes than in the 25 and 50 lb. sizes. The two larger sized potholes also contained about twice the density of vegetation as occurred in the smaller sizes. Average loss of pothole depth from 1968 to 1970 varied from a low of 3.5 inches for 25 lb. potholes in Block B to a high of 7.5 inches for 50 lb. potholes in Block B. Overall, the loss averaged 11.0 percent for all 25 lb. potholes, 13.1 percent for both 75 and 150 lb. potholes, and 15.1 percent for 50 lb. potholes. Spring, summer, and fall observations in 1969 resulted in a total 197 duckvisits for the 82 potholes studied. Nearly all of this use occurred during the spring period. Mallards contributed 50 percent of the duck-visits, followed by blue-winged teals and gadwalls with about 22 and 18 percent, respectively. The 150 lb. potholes received the most overall use with an average of 3.23 duck-visits per hour, followed by the 75 lb. potholes with 2036. As in 1968, the 75 lb. potholes were the most efficient in regard to cost per duck-visit in 1969. ��- 63 - AMMONIUM NITRATE POTHOLE BLASTING STUDY Richard M. Hopper The third consecutive year of field work was completed for the pothole blasting study during Segment 15. The first year involved mostly designing of the study, selection of a study area, and the actual blasting of the 84 potholes. Figure 1 shows the layout of the study area. The second year, as well as the third year reported here, included the evaluation of waterfowl use of the potholes during the spring, summer, and fall periods. Information related to vegetation associated with the potholes was also collected during the latter two years. Results of the first two years of study appear in the previous reports (Hopper 1968, Hopper 1969). P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate various size potholes blasted with ammonium nitrate in terms of (a) life expectancy, (b) plant succession, (c) soil and water characters, (d) waterfowl use and hunting potential, and (e) cost. SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. OBJECTIVES Collect data pertaining to the vegetative, soil, and water characteristics associated with the potholes. Obtain pothole measurements. Collect waterfowl use and harvest data on and adjacent to the potholes. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed during Segment 15 remained the same as those used in Segment 14 (Hopper 1969) and will not be repeated here. An additional method was employed to describe the vegetation adjacent to the potholes. Vegetation within 30 feet of the edge of each pothole was mapped by species on graph paper (8 squares per inch). Pacing was utilized to obtain the approximate area occupied by each plant species or group of species. Reference to the maps then revealed the relative abundance of each species by pothole. A number was assigned to each species ranging from 5 (most abundant) to 1 (least abundant) to serve as a scale of estimated importance. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetative, Vegetation Adjacent Soil and Water Characteristics to Potholes Mapping of vegetation surrounding the 84 potholes resulted in the identification of 22 species of plants of obvious abundance on the study area (Table 1). Additional species are known to be present, but were considered of minor �- 64 importance by the investigator. Grasses and grass-like plants constituted over one-half of the species listed. Most are commonly associated with moist environments such as that provided by the presence of the high water table on the study area. The most common plant species associated with the potholes on the study area were Scirpus americanus (bulrush), and Carex spp. (sedge), the latter represented by at least two species (Table 2). These were also by far the most abundant species in the individual blocks and adjacent to each of the four different sizes of potholes. Eleocharis macrostachya (spikesedge) is the only other species that occurred in abundance in all three blocks and adjacent to all four pothole sizes. Juncus balticus (rush) was important in all of these categories except the 150 lb. pothole size. Three other species, Melilotus alba (sweetclover), Sitanion hystrix (squirrel tail), and Typha latifolia (cattail), were fairly consistent in occurrence by block and charge size but varied in rank of importance. Melilotus alba is the only species of the nine listed in Table 2 not classified as a grass or grasslike plant. Submerged Vegetation in Potholes Submerged aquatic vegetation in the 84 potholes was sampled during the period August 13-15, 1968. Sampling consisted of dragging a garden rake through each pothole the following number of times according to charge size: 150 lb.-8; 75 lb.-6; 50 lb.-4; 25 lb.-3. One drag of the rake through a pothole constituted one sample; thus, 441 samples were taken in the 84 potholes. Seven potholes were later eliminated from the vegetative analysis because they contained submerged tumbleweeds that hindered the sampling procedure. Seven species of submerged aquatic plants were encountered during sampling of the 77 potholes included in the analysis. The frequency of occurrence of each of these species is expressed as "pothole" frequency (PF) and as "sample" frequency (SF) in Tables 3-4, with comparisons by block and charge size. "Pothole" frequency refers to the percentage of potholes in which a given plant species occurred, while "sample" frequency means the percentage of samples (individual drags) that yielded a given plant species. Submerged aquatic vegetation was found in 70, or 90.9 percent of the 77 potholes. About 84 percent of the 410 samples produced vegetation. Chara spp. (muskgrass) was the most frequently encountered species, being present in 74 percent of the potholes and 47 percent of the samples. Potamogeton foliosus was next in occurrence, with 47 and 42 percent, respectively, followed by two other species of pondweeds (K. nodosus and pectinatus). K. Submerged vegetation was more commonly encountered in Block A than in Blocks B or C (Table 3, Fig. 1). All potholes yielded vegetation in Block A, compared to 88 and 86 percent in Blocks Band C, respectively. "Sample" frequencies were 88 percent in Block A, as opposed to 81 percent in Block Band 82 percent in Block C. In Block A, Chara spp. was by far the most frequently encountered plant, but its importance in this regard was equaled by some species of the genus Potamogeton in Blocks Band C. �- 65 Table 1. List of major plants found adjacent Scientific Name and Abbreviation 1/ Common Name Agropyron desertorum Apocynum medium Asclepias incarnata ~. speciosa to potholes.- (Agde) Wheatgrass (Apme) Dogbane (Asin) Milkweed (Assp) Bromus tectorum Milkweed (Brte) Bromegrass Carex spp. (Casp) Sedge Cicuta douglasi Water hemlock Distichlis (Cido) stricta Elymus canadensis (Dist) Saltgrass (Elca) Wildrye Eleocharis macrostachya (Elma) Equisetum kansanum (Eqka) Horsetail Helianthus annuus (Hean) Sunflower Spikesedge Juncus balticus (Juba) Rush Kochia scoparia (Kosc) Summer-Cypress Melilotus alba (Meal) Populus angustifolia (Poan) Cottonwood Sagittaria latifolia (Sala) Arrowhead Scirpus acutus ~. americanus Sitanion Typha (Scac) Bulrush (Scam) Bulrush hystrix Sporobuolus (Sihy) airoides latifolia Sweetclover Squirrel (Spai) Dropseed (Tyla) 1/ Names according to Harrington Cattail (1954). tail �- 66 - Table 2. Order of estimated importance of most abundant pothole study area, by block and pothole size. Plant Species A Block B C plants associated with the in Order of Estimated Importance Charge Size 50 25 75 150 Total Scam Scam Scam Scam Scam Scam Scam Scam Casp Casp Casp Casp Casp Casp Casp Casp Meal Sihy Tyla Elma Elma Juba Meal Elma Elma Elma Elma Tyla Juba Elma Elma Tyla Sihy Juba Juba Sihy Sihy Tyla Tyla Juba Spai Meal Elca Juba Tyla Meal Sihy Meal Juba Meal Sihy The 150 and 75 lb. charge sizes had higher "pothole" and "sample" frequencies than the 50 or 25 lb. sizes (Table 4). "Pothole" frequencies were 95 and 100 percent, respectively, for the former sizes and about 84 percent for both of the latter ones. Similarly, "sample" frequencies were 88 and 90 percent for the two largest charges and 72 percent for the smallest sizes. All four charge sizes were nearly alike in regard to species importance, with Chara spp. dominating in frequencies, followed by the three species of Potamogeton. However, frequencies were considerably higher for these species in the 150 and 75 lb. potholes than in the 50 and 25 lb. potholes. Densities of the various species of submerged vegetation are compared in Tables 5-6 by block and charge size. Density, as used here, refers to the average number of rake teeth covered (maximum of 14) by each species of vegetation per sample (drag). The number of teeth covered by vegetation for all species combined averaged 8.5 per sample, with Chara spp. and Potamogeton foliosus each contributing 3.1 to this total. Potamogeton nodosus and f. pectinatus each yielding an average coverage of 1 tooth per sample, were the next most abundant species. Chara spp. was the major plant in Block A (4.3 teeth/sample) and second in importance in Blocks Band C (2.1 and 2.9 teeth/sample, respectively). Potamogeton foliosus was the most abundant species in Blocks Band C, averaging 4.4 and 4.0 teeth covered per sample, respectively. Block C supported the greatest vegetative density of the three blocks (9.7 teeth/sample), while Blocks A and B were practically equal in density with about 7.8 teeth per sample. �Table 3. Comparison of frequency of occurrence of submerged aquatic vegetation among blocks, as determined from 410 samples in 77 potholes. . Freguenc:l!: of Occurrence ~Percent2 Block C Block B SF SF PF PF PF SF Total Species Block A SF?:..! PF1/ Ceratophyllum demersum 0.0 0.0 4.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.2 Chara spp. 91.7 64.9 68.0 39.4 64.3 38.1 74.0 47.1 Najas guadalupensis 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 0.7 1.3 0.2 Potamogeton foliosus 20.8 12.2 52.0 56.1 64.3 56.5 46.8 42.2 Potamogeton nodosus 20.8 13.0 32.0 19.7 60.7 40.1 39.0 24.9 I Potamogeton pectinatus 41.7 27.5 36.0 15.9 25.0 15.0 33.8 19.3 Zannichellia palustris 20.8 13.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.5 4.4 TOTAL 100.0 87.8 88.0 81.1 85.7 82.3 90.9 83.6 1/ Percentage of the total number of potholes in a given block in which a species occurred. 1/ Percentage of the total number of samples in a given block in which a species occurred. 0'\ -...J �Table 4. Comparison of frequency of occurrence of submerged aquatic vegetation among charge sizes, as determined from 410 samples in 77 potholes. Species Freguenc~ of Occurrence 50 lb. 75 lb. 150 lb. SF?:.../ SF PF SF PF PFli ~Percent2 25 lb. SF PF PF SF Ceratoph~llum demersum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 1.8 1.3 0.2 Chara spp. 90.0 50.0 90.0 55.0 47.4 30.3 66.7 44.4 74.0 47.1 Najas guadalupensis 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.2 Potamogeton foliosus 60.0 49.4 70.0 56.7 26.3 21.0 27.8 18.5 46.8 42.2 Potamogeton nodosus 50.0 30.0 50.0 25.0 21.0 14.5 33.3 24.1 39.0 24.9 Potamogeton pectinatus 50.0 23.1 40.0 16.7 36.8 27.6 5.6 1.8 33.8 19.3 Zannichellia palustris 5.0 1.9 10.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 11.1 9.2 6.5 4.4 TOTAL 95.0 88.1 100.0 90.0 84.2 72.4 83.3 72 .2 90.9 83.6 Total 1/ Percentage of the total number of potholes of a given charge size in which a species occurred. ?:.../ Percentage of the total number of samples of a given charge size in which a species occurred. 0'\ co �= 69 - ~o 0 <, U '-> O "- . ~O 00 0 (,) ~0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 o o 000 CO ~0 0 000 ~0 0 0 o 0 ~0 0 0 0 0 <3 0 0 0 0 o 0 octo o o o o o 0 o o o ~o o o o o o o ~O 0 o o o '\J ~0 <, 0 0 F"i.g . 1. Poth position andole sizeblasti of potholes ng study by ar b~~~k~hoWing the 0 0 �- 70 - Table 5. Density comparisons of submerged aquatic vegetation among blocks, as determined from 410 samples in 77 potholes. Density II Species A Block B Ceratophy11um demersum 0.0 0.1 0.0 T?:../ Chara spp. 4.3 2.1 2.9 3.1 Najas guadalupensis 0.0 0.0 T T Potamogeton foliosus 0.6 4.4 4.0 3.1 Potamogeton nodosus 0.5 0.6 1.9 1.0 Potamogeton pectinatus 1.3 0.7 0.8 0.9 Zanniche 11ia palustris 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 TOTAL 7.7 7.9 9.7 8.5 C Total 1/ Average number of rake teeth covered per sample. I..! Less than 0.1. Table 6. Density comparisons of submerged aquatic vegetation among charge sizes, as determined from 410 samples in 77 potholes. Species 150 Density 1/ Charge Sizes {lbs·2 75 50 25 Ceratophy11um demersum 0.0 0.0 0.0 T?:../ T Chara spp. 3.8 3.3 1.9 2.3 3.1 Najas guadalupensis 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 T Potamogeton foliosus 3.3 4.6 1.5 1.4 3.1 Potamogeton nodosus 1.1 1.2 0.5 1.4 1.0 Potamogeton pectinatus 1.1 0.8 1.3 T 0.9 Zanniche11ia palustris 0.2 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.3 TOTAL 9.5 10.5 5.2 5.9 8.5 1/ Average number of rake teeth covered per sample. "fj Less than 0.1. Total �- 71 - Potholes blasted with the two largest charge sizes (75 and 150 lb.) contained nearly twice the density of vegetation as occurred in those created with 2S and 50 lb. charges, about 10 teeth per sample as opposed to less than 6 (Table 6). Chara spp. was the most abundant plant for three out of four of the charge sizes, the 75 lb. size being the only exception. Potamogeton foliosus was first in density in the 75 lb. potholes and second in the other three sizes of potholes. Soil and Water Characteristics The collection and analysis of soil and water samples was not done during Segment 15. This work is planned for Segment 16. Pothole Depth Measurements One means used in the attempt to assess the life expectancy of the various size potholes was to determine changes in pothole depth over the period of the study. Pothole depth measurements collected in March 1968 and March and April 1970 are compared in Table 7. The figures shown are average depths for all potholes of a given charge size in each block, i. e., the average depth of the seven 25 lb. potholes in Block A was 45.4 inches in 1968. Individually, all potholes, except A254 and B253 were of greater depth in 1968 than in 1970. Potholes C253 and C1504 were omitted from the measurement analysis because muskrat activity had diverted a stream of silt-laden water into them. Average loss of depth from 1968 to 1970 varied from a low of 3.5 inches for 25 lb. potholes in Block B to a high of 7.5 inches for 50 lb. potholes in Block B. Overall, the loss of depth in two years averaged 11.0 percent for all 25 lb. potholes, 13.1 percent for both 75 and 150 lb. potholes, and 15.1 percent for 50 lb. potholes. Unfortunately, the above differences in depth between years may not reflect the natural filling-in process of the potholes. Flood waters covered the entire pothole study area twice during the two years that lapsed between depth measurements. The South Fork of the Republican River, which flows adjacent to the study area, overflowed its banks on July 26, 1968 and again on August 22, 1969, causing no apparent damage to the potholes, but no doubt contributing some to their loss of depth. The flood waters rose gradually over the study area and dense vegetation slowed its movement and prevented damage to the potholes from washing action. However, the extent of silt deposition in the potholes is unknown. Waterfowl Determination of Waterfowl Use and Harvest Use by Watching Use of the potholes by waterfowl was observed during seven periods in the spring, summer, and fall of 1969, starting on April 1 and terminating on November 13 when the potholes froze. These seven observation periods ranged �- 72 - from two to five days in length and totaled 24 days. Potholes in Block A were observed 33.99 hours, and those in Blocks Band C were watched 32.91 and 26.42 hours, respectively. Potholes A1507 and C1504 were again eliminated from the study because of biased use figures. Ducks were the major group of waterfowl to use the potholes in 1969, but two instances of Canada goose-use were recorded in the spring. The 82 potholes in all three blocks combined, received a total of 197 duck-visits during the above periods and hours of observation. Separately, Blocks A, B, and C accounted for 68, 50 and 79 duck-visits, respectively. These figures are not completely comparable because the three blocks were not observed for exactly the same morning and evening hours or for the same number of hours. The total number of duck-visits recorded in 1969 (197) was considerably less than in 1968 (502) because fewer hours were spent observing in 1969, particularly during the spring period when most of the duck use occurs. Thus, total amount of use is not comparable between the two years. The following species of ducks, listed in order of decreasing occurrence, were observed to utilize the potholes during the observation periods in 1969: mallard, blue-winged teal, gadwall, American Widgeon, shoveler, ring-necked duck, and green-winged teal. Mallards contributed 50 percent of the duckvisits, followed by blue-winged teals and gadwalls with about 22 and 18 percent respectively. Tables 8-10 present duck use per hour of observation by observation period and season of the year for the three blocks separately, while Table 11 shows these data for all blocks combined. Potholes in Block C received the most use in 1969, just as they did in 1968, averaging 3.15 duck-visits per hour of observation. Blocks A and B received 2.22 and 1.52 duck-visits per hour, respectively, in 1969, with these two blocks being reversed in amount of use in 1968. Total use for all three blocks combined equalled 6.89 duck-visits per hour. Differences in magnitude of the above figures between years cannot legitimately be compared, since the observation periods may have occurred at a time of peak duck use during one year and not the other. Observations conducted during the spring period accounted for by far the greatest amount of duck use, with an average of 19.42 duck-visits per hour for all three blocks combined (Table 11). This compares with figures of 1.37 and 0.59 duck-visits per hour during the Summer and fall periods, respectively. The same relationship existed for each of the three blocks individually. The 150 lb. potholes received the greatest overall use of the four different charge sizes in 1969, with an average of 3.23 duck-visits per hour for all three blocks combined (Table 11). Next were the 75 lb. potholes with 2.36 duck-visits per hour, while the 25 and 50 lb. potholes received only 0.28 and 1.02 duck-visits per hour, repectively. Reference to use in individual blocks show that: (1) 150 lb. potholes exceeded all others in Block A; (2) 150 and 75 lb. potholes led with almost identical figures of 0.55 and 0.52 duck-visits per hour, respectively, in Block B; (3) 75 lb. potholes exceeded all others in Block C; and (4) 50 lb. potholes exceeded 25 lb. potholes in all three blocks. �Table 7. Chargel/ Size (Lbs.) Comparison of pothole depth measurements in March 1968 and March-April 1970 by charge size and block. Average DeEth ~Inches2 Total 1968 Block A 1970 Diff. 25 45.4 40.3 50 45.7 75 150 1968 Block B 1970 5.1 40.3 39.3 6.4 43.0 37.8 42.6 38.8 Diff. Block C 1968 1970 Diff. 1968 1970 Diff. Percent Loss of Depth 36.8 3.5 39.5 33.8 5.7 41.8 37.2 4.6 11.0 47.9 40.4 7.5 47.3 40.0 7.3 47.0 39.9 7.1 15.1 5.2 39.9 34.1 5.8 40.8 35.3 5.5 41.2 35.8 5.4 l3 .1 3.8 43.2 36.7 6.5 44.8 37.5 7.3 43.4 37.7 5.7 l3 .1 1/ Twenty-one potholes of each charge size except for the 25 lb. and 150 lb. sizes which had only 20 each. -...J w �- 74 Table 8. Duck use of potholes in Block A by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1969. Observation Period No. Hours Observed 25 Average No. Duck-Visits/Hour Charge Size 17 50 75 150 Total Spring 4/1-4/3 3.08 0.0'1:../ 2.60 2.60 7.96 13.16 4/28-5/1 8.58 0.0 0.0 0.82 3.13 3.95 Sub-total 11.66 0.0 0.69 1.29 4.40 6.38 6/2 -6/4 4.50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.26 0.26 8/31-9/3 5.08 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 9.58 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.12 0.12 10/8-10/10 2.25 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10/24-10/28 7.50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 11/12-11/13 3.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-Total 12.75 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.99 0.0 0.24 0.44 1.54 2.22 Summer Fall TOTAL 1/ Seven potholes of each charge size except for the 150 lb. size which had only six potholes. 1/ Combined duck use for all seven potholes in a row. �- 75 Table 9. Duck use of potholes in Block B by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1969. Average No. Duck-Visits/Hour Charge Size 1.7 50 75 150 Total 0.652:./ 1.95 4.22 1.95 8.77 8.58 0.12 0.35 0.23 1.16 1.86 11.66 0.26 0.77 1.29 1.37 3.69 6/2 -6/4 6.00 0.0 0.50 0.33 0.17 1.00 8/31-9/3 1.75 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 7.75 0.0 0.39 0.26 0.13 0.78 10/8-10/10 4.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.25 0.25 10/24-10/28 8.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 11/12-11/13 1.50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 13.50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.07 0.07 32.91 0.09 0.36 0.52 0.55 1.52 Observation Period No. Hours Observed 25 4/1-4/3 3.08 4/28-5/1 Sub-total Spring Sununer Fall TOTAL 1/ Seven potholes of each charge size. 2:./Combined duck use for all seven potholes in the row. �- 76 Table 10. Duck use of potholes in Block C by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1969. Observation Period No. Hours Observed 25 Average No. Duck-Visits/Hour Charge Size 1.1 SO 75 150 Total 3.00 2.67 7.00 13.67 Spring 4/1-4/3 3.00 1.00'2:..1 4/28-5/1 4.92 0.41 0.41 4.47 1.42 6.71 Sub-total 7.92 0.63 1.39 3.79 3.54 9.35 6/2-6/4 3.25 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.72 0.72 8/31-9/3 1. 75 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 5.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.47 0.47 10/8-10/10 4.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10/24-10/28 8.00 0.0 0.0 0.88 0.0 0.88 11/12-11/13 1.50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 13.50 0.0 0.0 0.52 0.0 0.52 26.42 0.19 0.42 1.40 1.14 3.15 Summer Fall TOTAL l/Seven potholes of each charge size except for the 150 lb. size which had only six potholes. ~/ Combined duck use for all seven potholes in the row. �- 77 Table 11. Duck use of potholes in Blocks A, B, and C combined by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1969. Observation Period No. Hours Observed 25 Average No. Duck-Visits/Hour Charge Size 1/ 50 75 150 Total Spring 7.55 9.49 16.91 35.60 0.53 0.76 5.52 5.71 12.52 31.24 0.89 2.85 6.37 9.31 19.42 6/2-6/4 13.75 0.0 0.50 0.33 1.15 1.98 8/31-9/3 8.58 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 22.33 0.0 0.39 0.26 0.72 1.37 10/8-10/10 10.25 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.25 0.25 10/24-10/28 23.50 0.0 0.0 0.88 0.0 0.88 11/12-11/13 6.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Sub-total 39.75 0.0 0.0 0.52 0.07 0.59 93.32 0.28 1.02 2.36 3.23 6.89 4/1-4/3 9.16 4/28-5/1 22.08 Sub-total Summer Fall TOTAL 1/ Twenty-one potholes of each charge size except for the 150 lb. size which had only 19 potholes. ~/ Combined duck use for all 21 potholes of the same charge size in the three blocks. �- 78 The relationship of duck use and pothole cost among the four charge sizes are compared in Table 12. The cost figures shown are merely comparative and not actual, since they represent duck use that occurred only during the observation periods. The 75 lb. potholes cost less per duck-visit than the other charge sizes in Block C ($2.17) and for all three blocks combined ($3.49). The 150 lb. size was the least expensive in Block A ($2.51) while in Block B the 50 lb. potholes cost the least. The 25 lb. potholes were the most expensive of the charge sizes in all three blocks in relation to duck use. For all three blocks combined, the 75 lb. potholes were the most efficient size in regard to cost per duck-visit in 1969, just as they were in 1968. However, this has not been replicated in each block individually, but the application of statistical tests should assist in the interpretation. Such tests will be conducted and presented in the final report. Nesting Study Three mallard nests were discovered on the nesting transects in 1969, two during the May survey and one on the June search. Two of the nests were destroyed and the other appeared abandoned. One abandoned nest (mallard) was found off-transect. The four nests were 5, 36, 54, and 279 feet from the nearest pothole. They were located in dead sedge (Carex spp.) or bulrush (Scirpus americanus), or a mixture of the two. Height of vegetation at the nest sites varied from 16 to 23 inches. Harvest and Hunter-Use No harvest or hunter-use was observed on the pothole study area during the periods: September 1-3 (special teal season), October 25-28, and November 12-13, 1969. The potholes froze over the night of November 13, making further observations unnecessary. Duck-use observations conducted during these same three periods yielded a total of only seven duck-visits in the three blocks combined. Large numbers of ducks are attracted to the habitat immediately adjacent to the pothole study area. This habitat consists of cattail marsh, beaver ponds, and flooded timber. Because of this local availability of ducks, perhaps some could be encouraged to visit the pothole study area through the use of decoys and calls. To my knowledge this has never been attempted. �Table 12. Relationship of pothole cost and duck use among the four charge sizes by block during the observation periods, 1969. Charge Size (Lbs.) Ave. Cost/ Pothole (Dollars) No. DuckVisit 25 4.87 0 Block A Cost! Duck-visit (Dollars) --- Block B Cost/ No. Duck-visit DuckVisits (Dollars) 3 11.36 No. DuckVisits 5 Block C Cost/ Duck-visit (Dollars) 6.82 Total No. DuckVisits Cost/ Duck-visit (Dollars) 8 12.78 I 50 7.11 8 6.22 12 4.15 11 4.52 31 4.82 75 11.47 15 5.35 17 4.72 37 2.17 69 3.49 150 18.81 45 2.511/ 18 7.32 26 4.3~/ 89 4.0211 TOTAL 10.36 68 4.07 50 5.92 79 3.51 197 4.31 1/ Adjusted to express use of only six potholes of the 150 lb. charge size in Blocks A and C instead of seven. -..J \0 �- 80 - LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1968. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat--arnmonium nitrate pothole blasting study. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct. p. 51-64. Hopper, R. M. 1969. Determination of methods for developing and manging waterfowl habitat--arnmonium nitrate pothole blasting study. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct. 73-85. Prepared by _£"-.. +-L=~:'=::. ~}L-0~~/_·-\-,-n:..-....L!j_---=:.2io....I....:;.4· .. 9;p.? 7:;'::;:&::...11 Richard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher _ �October - 81 - JOB PROGRESS State Work REPORT COLORADO of No. W-88-R-15 Migratory Plan No. 2 Job No. Project Job Title Period 1970 Covered: Personnel: Improving April Experimental Studies Status of Canada Goose 1, 1969 to March Bird Investigations 2 on Populations 31, 1970 C. Hayes and D. Horn, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; W. Carpenter, C. Crawford, G. Crawford, G. East, H. Funk, R. Hopper, J. Monarch, D. Owens, C. Slonaker, G. Steele, C. Wetherill, G. Will and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT A total of 475 goslings were released in transplant areas in June and July of 1969. Sixty-nine goslings were released at the K-4 Ranch near Masters; 160 at San Luis Lakes in the San Luis Valley; 193 at Lake John Annex in North Park and; 53 on the Colorado River near Lorna. Band recoveries indicate that birds released at the K-4 Ranch tended to remain in Colorado. Approximately 10 percent of the geese released at the San Luis Lakes were recovered the first year with Chaves County, New Mexico and the state of Sonora in Mexico being the major recovery areas. Goslings released in North Park moved throughout the west and central portions of the Park throughout late summer and early fall but showed tendencies to return to the release site. It was estimated thatmajor movement of North Park goslings along migration paths began sometime between November 1 and November 20. Approximately 11 percent of North Park goslings were recovered by hunters. Recoveries indicate that North Park goslings migrated along a Pacific Flyway route with the major portion of the birds wintering on the Lower Colorado River in Yuma County, Arizona. At least six nests were established in the transplant area along the Colorado River in midApril of 1969, two years after the original plant was made. ��- 83 - EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPROVING STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a technique for establishing a breeding population of Canada geese in suitable habitat where they do not currently exist in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Expand the breeding flocks of Canada geese in the South Platte Valley, the San Luis Valley, and North Park. 2. Continue efforts toward establishing the breeding Canada geese in the Colorado River Valley. METHODS flock of Great Basin AND MATERIALS Canada goose goslings for transplant purposes were obtained from four different sources: (1) goslings and some eggs from the metropolitan Denver area; (2) goslings and some eggs from the Fort Collins area; (3) goslings from Valmont Reservoir in the Boulder area and; (4) eggs from nest in danger of destruction from high water along the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers in Moffat County. All eggs were transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for incubation and subsequent ralslng. All goslings live-trapped were transported as soon as possible to the release site. Birds obtained from eggs collected in Moffat County were released along the Colorado River near Lorna. Birds collected at other locations were released either at San Luis Lakes, Lake John Annex or the K-4 Ranch. Migration and mortality information were obtained from the Migratory Bird Population Station. from recovery cards received RESULTS AND DISCUSSION South Platte Valley - K-4 Ranch Sixty-nine goslings were released along the South Platte River on the K-4 Ranch near Masters, Colorado in July of 1968. The previous summer, 217 goslings has been released on the same area. According to visual sightings, there have been geese in the general vicinity since the first gosling release. The area has been closed to hunting. The local birds have been joined by migrant geese, considered part of the Hi-Line Population, during the fall and winter period. The local transplants utilized �- 84 - both Empire and Riverside Reservoirs which are near the transplant site. As many as 1,000 geese have been observed in the area during the fall and winter period. According to hunting season band recoveries there has been some movement of birds from the transplant site, but limited dispersion of the birds from Colorado (Table 1). Less than five percent of the released goslings have been recovered by hunters. Only two of fourteen recoveries were taken out-of-state. One bird each was taken in the states of Kansas and Oklahoma. In addition, four birds released in 1968 were captured in July, 1969 while flightless in northwestern South Dakota. All of the afore-mentioned states are considered outside of the range of the Hi-Line Population. The South Dakota recoveries may have been the result of a "moulting migration" by the geese in question from Colorado. Pole-type nesting structures have been erected at the release site by G. I. Crawford under Federal Aid Development Project W-llO-D. The first signs of nesting attempts were noted in the area in early spring of 1970. Table l. Hunting recovery locations of Canada geese released Ranch near Masters, Colorado in Weld County. Year No. Released Area Recovered 1968 217 No. Recovered Direct Indirect on the K-4 1969 69 No. Recovered Direct Indirect Colorado Morgan Co. S 0 1 N.A. Weld Co. 0 2 1 N.A. Adams Co. 1 2 0 N.A. Kansas 0 1 0 N.A. Oklahoma 0 1 0 N.A. 6 6 2 N.A. Total San Luis Valley - San Luis Lakes In July of 1969, 160 goslings were released east side of the San Luis Valley in Alamosa at San Luis Lakes, located on the County. This was the first release �- 85 - in the San Luis Lakes area. Other releases on the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge in 1967 and 1968 served to increase the size of the local flock in the San Luis Valley. Although no specific numbers of total breeding pairs and production in the Valley are available, there are indications that this population can support a limited harvest at this time. Transplants in the San Luis Lakes area were initiated in order to stimulate establishment of a breeding population in the vicinity of San Luis and Head Lakes. The majority of the birds remained on San Luis Lakes during late summer and early fall. Mortality during that period was considered minimal. Band Recoveries The location of band recoveries is presented in Table 2. Approximately 10 percent of the goslings released at San Luis were recovered the first year. There was a definite variation in the distribution of recoveries of the birds released on different dates. One bird from each group was recovered in the San Luis Valley. Eight of the birds released on July 8 were taken near the Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge near Roswell, New Mexico between December 18, 1969 and January 5, 1970. Six of the July 22 birds were taken in Mexico. Five of the birds were taken in the Empalme Valley near Guaymas on the Gulf of California in the state of Sonora and one at an unknown location in the inland state of Chihuahua. In 1967, a San Luis Valley transplant of that year was also taken near Guaymas. Three of the five birds taken in the Empalme Valley were reportedly caught by hand on December 17, 1969. The other two birds were taken in January and March indicating the birds may have terminated their migration in that area. The migration and/or recovery patterns of the 1969 San Luis Lake birds was decidedly different than goslings released in the Valley the previous two years. Recoveries indicate that many of the 1967 and 1968 birds remained in the San Luis Valley during the fall and winter period. Most hunting recoveries from outside the Valley came from the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge along the Rio Grande River in central New Mexico. At least five of the goslings released in 1967 or 1968 were recovered in Denver, their natal area. Four of the five were recaptured in the summer of 1969. Spring Returns Canada geese began returning to San Luis Lakes in early spring of 1970. As many as 80 birds have been observed there during the spring and early summer. A good number of these geese were probably transplants of the previous year, but since none of these birds were color-marked, it is impossible to determine returnees through visual observation. �- 86 - Table 2. First year hunting recovery locations of Canada geese released in 1969 at San Luis Lake, Alamosa County, San Luis Valley, Colorado. Date Released No. Released July 8 80 July 22 80 Area Recovered No. Recovered No. Recovered United States Colorado Costilla Co. o 1 Conejos Co. 1 o Chaves .Co. 8 o o 1 o 5 o 1 9 8 New Mexico San Miguel Co. Mexico Sonora Southwest Chihuahua Unknown Total North Park - Lake John Annex In June and July of 1969 a total of 194 Canada goose goslings were released at Lake John Annex, approximately eight miles west and 2 miles north of Walden, Colorado in North Park. This was the initial release in an extensive program which hopefully will establish a breeding population of Canada geese in this high mountain park. �- 87 - There has been an extremely small, remnant population of Canada's in North Park. Birds have been observed through the summer months at both McFarlane Reservoir and Lake John Annex. At least one nest has been found and photographed at the "Annex". The population has not grown or expanded. Lake John Annex was picked as the release site for three reasons: (1) an adult pair of the remnant population was known to be using the "Annex"; (2) excellent meadows for grazing were adjacent and, (3) most of the adjacent land and water is controlled by the Division of Game, Fish and Parks. It was hoped that the young goslings would associate with the adult pairs through the fall and winter period and if possible, return to North Park with them in the spring. Local Dispersion The goslings were released in two groups: 60 on June 25 and 134 on July 16. Fifty-eight of the original 60 released carried green/white/green neckbands. Ninety-seven of the birds released on July 16 carried green neckbands with white numerals 754 through 850. One of the birds in the June 25 plant died before it was released from the holding pen. A chronology of events and subsequent sightings in the vicinity of North Park are presented below. The locations of sightings are coded and plotted in Figure 1. Sightings June 27 July 16 July 17 July 28 Aug. 11 Aug. 17 Aug. 21 Aug. 25 Aug. 27 Sept. 1 CD 59 birds released from pen 134 birds released 30 birds from the original release observed; all of July 16 release present 25 birds sighted on the Bighorn Ranch two without neckbands of which one had been removed by rancher. 28 geese observed at Boettcher Lake (]) (all banded) 19 at N. Delaney Butte (all banded) Feeders at Lake John Annex closed 11 at Walden Lake 64 at Big Creek Lake (all bandgd ) Geese observed at McFarlane Res. ~, Hebron Sloughs (j), Case Flats and Peterson Pond but no numbers noted. Unknown number at (I) 14 banded birds at Cowdrey Lake andG) on the N. Platte River @ 11 at Walden Lake @ Numerous birds at Lake John 87 birds on Lake John and Lake John Annex Some observed on Walden Lake 16 collared birds at Lake John 2 collared birds at Lake John 2 collared birds at Cowdrey Lake CD CD G) ® CD G) ® ® Sept. 7 Sept. 16 Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Nov. Dec. Dec. 3 11 23 27 22 9 10 QJ; @ CD CD Q G) CD Q~ �z o ...• -n o 3~· Delane y 1./ Butte Ls. ~ OE . S. 8 <::1 OA Case <!It'v Flats Peterson Pond 9 Lake John or Lake John 1 Annex Boettcher Lake 2 N. Delaney Butte Lake 3 Walden Lake 4 Big Creek Lake 5 McFarlane Reservoir 6 Hebron Sloughs 7 Case Flats 8 Peterson Pond 9 Cowdrey Lake 10 N. Platte R. 11, 12, 13 7 Hebron 0". SloughS: Me Farlone Res. SCALE 0 Fig. 1. Locations of Canada goose sightings and winter of 1969. 2 4 Mi. in North Park, sununer, fall �- 89 - The aforementioned sightings indicate that the birds dispersed from the "Annex" and moved throughout the west and central portions of North Park. However, they showed a tendency to return to the release site throughout the summer, but particularly later in the fall. Five geese were observed on McFarlane Reservoir on July 15. None of the birds were neckbanded. Two of the five were captured and both were adults. The two birds captured were found to be not banded when captured. Band Recoveries and Sightings Dispersion and Migration Chronology--Hunting season recoveries and neckbanded sightings give indications of dispersion and migration chronology. The location of band recoveries by date are presented in Table 3. Band recoveries by time interval in any particular area are entirely dependent on both hunting season dates and hunting pressure. In other words, if the season is not open or there are no hunters in an area when banded birds are available, no recoveries can be expected. Mid-October recoveries of North Park birds indicate some degree of dispersion in early fall. On October 18, geese were taken in Moffat County, Colorado and near El Paso, Texas. Approximately 85 of the 193 geese released were known to still be in North Park at that time. One bird was recovered near Prescott, Arizona in late October. The location and recovery dates of the October Texas and Arizona recoveries indicate that these birds were probably wanderers and were not accompanied by a significant number of their North Park cohorts. No birds were recovered during the November 1 through November 20 period, however, the pattern of recoveries after that date (Table 3) in addition to visual sightings indicate that major movement from the Colorado-Wyoming area including North Park took place during that period. On November 18, 30 geese were sighted on Mountain Home Reservoir in the San Luis Valley. All the birds were wearing green collars, at least some of which were described as being green-white-green in design, indicating North Park birds released on June 25, 1969. Then, during the last ten days of November, North Park birds were reported taken in Baca County, Colorado, Green River, Utah and at Martinez Lake, Arizona. After December 1, all recoveries came from Arizona or Mexico. Migration Routes and/or Harvest Areas--Twenty-two or approximately 11 percent of the goslings released in North Park were recovered by hunters. The location of recoveries recorded by release date are presented in Table 4. �Table 3. 1969-70 hunting season recoveries of North Park birds plotted according to time and approximate distance from release site. Area Recovered October 1-10 11-20 21-31 Period of Recovery November December 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31 1-10 January 11-20 21-31 United States Colorado Jackson Co. Moffat Co. 2 Wyoming Carbon Co. 1 1 1 Utah Emery Co. 1 Colorado Baca Co. 1 \0 Arizona Yavapai Co. Cila Co. Texas E1 Paso Co. o 1 1 1 Arizona Yuma Co. 2 4 Mexico Baja 1 .Y Coahuita Sinaloa 1/ Recovered during the month of December; date not known. 1 2 1 1/ 1 �- 91 - Table 4. First year hunting recovery locations of Canada geese released in 1969 at Lake John Annex, Jackson County, Colorado. Date Released No. Released June 25 59 Area Recovered No. Recovered United July 16 134 No. Recovered States Wyoming Carbon Co. Colorado Jackson Co. Moffat Co. Baca Co. 2 1 2 1 Utah Emery Co. 1 Arizona Yavapai Co. Gila Co. Yuma Co. 1 4 1 2 Texas El Paso Co. 1 Mexico Baja Northwest Unknown 1 1 Coahuila West-central 2 Sinaloa Northwest 1 1 Total 6 16 �- 92 - The location of recoveries indicate that the majority of North Park geese crossed over the Continental Divide and migrated down the Pacific Flyway. Seven of the 22 birds were recovered in the Central Flyway but three of those seven were recovered in North Park or adjacent areas in Wyoming. The Pacific Flyway-oriented birds apparently followed the traditional route of some populations of Great Basin Canada geese, terminating migration in Arizona along the lower Colorado River. Band recoveries on the Imperial National Wildlife Refuge near Yuma, Arizona indicate that North Park birds were wintering with birds banded at Wheatland Reservoir, a moulting area for Great Basin geese in eastern Wyoming. The first recovery of a North Park bird at the Imperial Refuge area was taken on November 28 and the last approximately one month later indicating that a number of birds may have terminated migration in that area. The two birds taken near Las Mochis in the coastal state of Sinaloa could have taken either the Pacific or Central Flyway route to their recovery location. Only four birds were recovered in the Central Flyway, away from the release location: One early recovery near El Paso, Texas which was previously mentioned; one in Baca County in southeast Colorado; and two in the Mexican state of Chihauhaua somewhere near Babicora. In addition to the one recovery in Baca County, at least four other neck-banded birds were known to have remained at Turk's Pond in that same County throughout the winter. Colorado River On July 8, 1969, 53 Great Basin Canada goose goslings were released on the lower Colorado River near Lorna. These birds were obtained from eggs which were collected in April from nests in danger of destruction from high water along the Yampa River in Moffat County, Colorado. The eggs were artifically incubated and the birds raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. The birds when released wore green neck collars with two solid white dots. The 1969 release was the third annual transplant in that area and brings the total number of birds released there to 127. Spring Reconnaissance In mid-April of 1969 a trip was made by boat from Fruita downstream on the Colorado River to the Utah border to get some idea of the progress of our transplant program. Approximately 50 geese were observed on the trip. The majority were encountered near the transplant site. Only three green neckbanded birds were observed. Although white markings were identifiable on the neckbands, the exact design was not discernable. The original 25 goslings released in the area were only two years old in the spring of 1969 and would not be expected to begin nesting. However, at least six nests were established along this portion of the river, with four of these on the island which served as a release site. Two-year old birds were apparently capable of reproduction but normally do not nest until their third year. These nests were probably produced by older migrant birds which wintered in the area and remained to nest. The four nests near the release site possibly indicate the geese were reluctant to leave the area in which they were fed artifically. �- 93 - Band Recoveries and Sightings According to band recoveries only three of 127 geese released have been harvested by hunters. All three of these birds were released in July 1968 and recovered during the 1969 hunting season. Two birds were taken near Glasgow in eastern Montana and one near Fort Collins, Colorado. Both harvest locations are considered to be within the Hi-Line Population area, and outside the normal range of Great Basin goose population, west of the Continental Divide. In addition, at least ten birds of the 1968 plant were sighted at College Lake near Fort Collins in January of 1970. The lack of other recoveries and sightings in addition to the previously mentioned observations indicate that the transplanted birds are not moving south, but staying in the transplant area, which is closed to goose hunting. A portion of these birds have apparently accompanied migrant geese that winter in the transplant area back north in the spring and then drifted into the Hi-Line area. Winter Populations The transplant program along with the associated goose hunting closure has apparently stimulated a small build-up in wintering numbers. In January of 1967, 71 geese were counted along the Colorado River from Delta to the Utah border. In January 1970, 335 geese were counted in the same area. Prepared by ~~72 .1A Michael R. Szymczak ~~ Asst. Wildlife Researcher J ��October - 95 - JOB PROGRESS State Work REPORT COLORADO of No. W-88-R-15 Migratory Plan No. 2 Job No. Project 1970 Job Title Arkansas Valley Period November 22, 1969 to March Covered: Personnel: Goose Bird Investigations Flock Management 5 Studies 31, 1970 Velma Fredrickson, Charlene Osborne, Ann Leck1er, Don Bogart, John Casper, Rusty Forbes, Mark Frasier, Bernie Goetze, John Gonzales, Larry Green, Jack Grieb, Mike Hickey, Al Heins, Ray Johnson, Bob Kitzmiller, Rober Lowry, Don Minnich, Horace Moorhead, Kris Moser, Gene Nugent, Fred Roth, Wayne Russell, Bert Widhalm, Hank Wilson, and Mike Szymczak ABSTRACT Geese were subject only to sunrise to 12:00 o·c1ock noon hunting throughout the 1969-70 season. Water levels on all reservoirs in southeast Colorado were very high throughout the fall and winter period. Food conditions were excellent with temperatures above normal and precipitation below normal. Geese began arriving on November 11 and by November 21, approximately 57,000 geese were in the area. Goose numbers in southeast Colorado varied from 55,000 to 65,000 throughout the winter. The mid-winter inventory of the entire Short Grass Prairie Population totaled 147,414 birds, about 35,000 more than the previous years total. Observation of goose flight patterns throughout the season resulted in these conclusions: (1) Without hunting pressure, geese would fly twice a day despite changes in moon phases; (2) The cessation of morning flights was closely correlated to light-of-moon phases during the hunting season in the months of November and December; (3) With firing lines operating, geese showed a more definite response to 1ight-of-moon phases, by discontinuing morning flights, than under nonfiring line situations; (4) Inclement weather stimulated morning flights even during 1ight-of-moon periods. Cold weather seemed to delay morning flights even during dark-of-moon periods; (5) There were some indications, particularly toward the end of the season, that geese responded to morning hunting pressure by delaying feeding flights until afternoon. The harvest in southeast Colorado was composed of a higher percent of immatures than the birds taken earlier in the year on the Canadian staging areas. An estimated total of 10,597 geese were bagged by 5,327 hunters during the 1969-70 season in southeast Colorado. At the Two Buttes Management Area 659 hunters bagged a total of 248 geese with 703 hunters harvesting 512 geese at the Lamar-Eads Management Area. Bands were placed on 599 geese post-season in southeast Colorado. Approximately 50 percent of the 1968-69 hunting season band recoveries of birds banded in southeast Colorado were reported taken in Canada. The annual mortality rate of all age classes combined was calculated to be about 26 percent. �- 96 - RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue observations of flight patterns of Canada geese to determine what effect half-day hunting regulations have on their behavior. 2. Record approximate time of day of harvest of birds from which tail fans are collected in an effort to determine whether Canada goose flights are age-specific in reference to time. �- 97 - ARKANSAS VALLEY CANADA GOOSE FLOCK MANAGEMENT Michael STUDIES R. Szymczak Current emphasis in the Arkansas Valley study has been on the evaluation of new approaches to goose management in southeast Colorado. In recent years, southeast Colorado populations have been characterized by an initial pre-season population build-up followed by dwindling numbers as the season progressed. During the 1969-70 hunting season Colorado officials elected to initiate a morning only hunting season in southeast Colorado in an attempt to encourage geese to remain in the state throughout the winter period. A portion of this report will deal with the evaluation of that regulation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect management information on the wintering Canada Goose Population in southeast Colorado. Short Grass Prairie SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the time of movement of geese into the Arkansas and the size and distribution of the wintering flock. Valley 2. To obtain an estimate flock. of production of the 3. To determine loss. pressure 4. To determine the annual mortality pattern of the flock. 5. To develop and evaluate Colorado. hunting and the age composition on the flock and the associated and the migration new approaches METHODS wounding and/or harvest to goose management in southeast AND MATERIALS Periodic aerial counts of Canada geese (Branta canadensis parvipes) were made in southeast Colorado. The December 9 and January 7 counts were coordinated with both ground and aerial counts made by various State and Federal personnel throughout the wintering grounds of the Short Grass Prairie Canada Goose Population. These counts were made for the purpose of determining the size and distribution of the wintering goose population. Check stations were operated at the Two Buttes Management Area and the Lamar-Eads Management Area, which is an area for decoy hunting only. Information on hunting pressure, harvest and wounding loss was collected. Tail fans from bagged geese were �- 98 - collected at all check stations in order to determine age ratios in the kill. The weights of birds bagged were also recorded. Goose feeding flights were observed periodically in the Eads Lakes area and daily in the Two Buttes area. Information on time of flight, numbers of birds and general behavior of birds were recorded. Geese were trapped and banded after the close of the hunting season to obtain information on age ratios, mortality rates and migration patterns. The effects of past hunting season regulations were evaluated and recommendations were made for the 1970-71 season. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water, Food and Weather Conditions The water levels on all reservoirs, which serve as goose resting areas, were very high with many near capacity throughout the 1969-70 season (Table 1). The high water virtually eliminated the open mud flats and bars normally utilized by the geese. Above normal precipitation throughout most of the area helped fill many of the reservoirs in addition to eliminating the necessity for heavy use of stored irrigation waters. All selected stations recorded below average precipitation for the months of January, February, November and December of 1969. Near or above normal levels were recorded for the remaining months of 1969. Food conditions throughout southeast Colorado were judged excellent for the maintenance of Canada geese. Above average rains through the spring and early summer months of 1969 helped produce excellent crops of dryland milo. Fall moisture insured the establishment of winter wheat stands in the same dryland areas. Heavy October snows rendered some milo fields unharvestable, making the entire yield available for goose use. A summary of weather conditions throughout the hunting season is presented in Table 2. In general, temperatures were above normal and precipitation below normal. These factors combined to produce generally poor hunting throughout the course of the season. Occasional ground fog and wind provided the best opportunity for goose harvest during the season. Migrational Movements and Distribution of the Wintering Population Large numbers of Canada geese began arrlvlng in southeast Colorado about November 11 in 1969. Approximately 57,000 geese were counted during the first aerial survey on November 21. The results of all aerial surveys presented in Table 3 indicate that southeast Colorado retained between 55,000 and 65,000 geese during the hunting season. �- 99 Table 1. Yearly precipitation totals for selected southeast Colorado weather stations for 1969 and the water status of associated reservoirs. Station Location and Associated Reservoirs Rocky Ford 1969 PreciEitation (In. ) Departure Total from Norm 12.13 Near Near Near Near Near 17.04 Horsecreek Blue Lake John Martin Reservoir 22.72 Reservoir Nee Granda Flamingo Lake Nee Noshe Upper Queens Reservoir Thurston 19.49 Two Buttes Reservoir 23.09 open open open open open bars bars bars bars bars Some open, bars available No open bars Higher than 1968-69 Water at capacity Very small pool Higher than 1968-69 Near capacity Open shoreline available; no bars No open bars No open bars Shoreline open No open bars No open bars; heavy vegetation on south bar No open bars No open bars +5.29 Reservoir SEringfield No No No No No Higher than 1968-69 Higher than 1968-69 Much higher than 1968-69 Higher than 1968-69 Near 1968-69 Lower Queens Reservoir Lamar capacity capacity capacity capacity capacity +8.94 Swede Lake Sweetwater Areas +4.79 Reservoir Eads Resting -, -0.18 Dye Reservoir Holbrook Reservoir Cheraw Reservoir Meredith Reservoir Henry Lake Las Animas Water Level Near capacity No open bars Much higher than 1968-69 Open bars available +8.36 �- 100 Table 2. Summary from selected southeast Colorado weather stations, November 1969 through January 1970. Location Temperature Average Departure from Maximum Minimum Normal Daily Ave. Precipitation ..Departure Monthly TotaL~.:/fromNorm November Rocky Ford 59.5 21.1 0.6 0.30(3) 0.16 Las Animas 59.4 24.7 1.5 0.28(1) -0.20 Eads 57.7 25.6 0.06(1) -0.43 56.5 26.7 0.27(2) Rocky Ford 49.2 16.4 0.3 0.26(3) -0.06 Las Animas 49.3 19.7 1.0 0.29(2) -0.06 Eads 48.5 20.1 0.12 (3) -0.18 Lamar 47.4 20.5 0.16 (3) -0.18 Springfield 48.1 21.5 Rocky Ford 49.0 9.7 -0.6 0.12(1) -0.31 Las Animas 48.6 13.7 -0.7 T (0) -0.48 Eads 45.2 15.0 T (0) -0.39 Lamar 49.0 15.3 T (0) -0.50 Springfield 47.5 15.3 Lamar Springfield December 1.2 0.18(6) January 2.3 0.01(1) 1/ Number of days of measurable precipitation in parentheses. �- 101 - Table 3. Results of Canada goose aerial surveys, southeast Colorado, 1969-70. Nov. 21 Dec. 9 Date Dec. 19 Jan. 7 Jan. 16 o o 5 379 o o o o 15 25 o o 30 o 200 Meredith Reservoir 7,600 3,900 1,075 2,650 845 Holbrook Reservoir o 100 400 600 1,200 Cheraw Reservoir o o 20 o o Horsecreek Reservoir 5,000 1,700 o o 4 Blue Lake 2,200 4,000 o o o 201 1,200 1,000 o o 6,800 1,900 o o 55 o 1,900 400 o o Nee Noshe Reservoir 7,545 19,000 6,500 4,000 11,000 Upper Queens Reservoir 3,500 4,600 12,000 9,000 16,000 o o 50 o o Two Buttes Reservoir 12,000 9,000 4,500 6,000 17,000 Turk's Pond 7,000 12,000 13 ,500 27,800 14,000 John Martin Reservoir 4,000 400 16,000 12,000 4,430 Bonny Reservoir 1,000 1,000 500 1,000 o Total 56,846 60,700 55,980 63,444 64,759 Area King Barret Sloughs Arkansas River King Barret-Dye Reservoir Dye Reservoir Eads Group: Swede Lake Sweetwater Reservoir Flamingo Lake Thurston �- 102 - The distribution of the birds within southeast Colorado remained essentially the same as during the 1968-69 season. Additional numbers during the early part of the season, particularly in the Horsecreek-Blue Lake area, provided increased hunting opportunities. By mid-December most of the birds were located in the John Martin, Eads Lakes, or Two Buttes-Turks area. Two Buttes Reservoir, which in recent years has lost most of its goose population to Turk's Pond shortly after opening day, retained huntable numbers throughout most of the season. The 1969-70 southeast Colorado goose population represents the largest number of geese ever present in that area through the hunting season. Comparative yearly figures are represented by the results of January inventories recorded in Table 4. In recent years Colorado populations have been characterized by an initial pre-season build-up followed by dwindling numbers as the season progressed. In the past the birds have apparently moved south into the Texas Panhandle area producing a gradual yearly increase in birds in that area until the number of birds recorded during the January Inventory in the Buffalo Lakes, Texas area exceeded the Colorado inventory (Fig. 1). During the 196970 season Colorado did not lose appreciable numbers to Texas, even though the panhandle population also reached an all time high (Fig. 1). The increase in the panhandle area may be the result of a continuing shift of the "Eastern Segment" (Grieb 1970) of the Short Grass Prairie Population to panhandle wintering areas. Table 4. January 1948-1970. Inventory of Canada geese, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, Year Goose Count Year Goose Count Year Goose Count 1948 4,798 1955 25,110 1962 40,250 1949 12,286 1956 24,212 1963 35,889 1950 l3,170 1957 24,617 1964 33,750 1951 19,320 1958 35,894 1965 37,693 1952 30,463 1959 44,660 1966 38,635 1953 20,236 1960 37,394 1967 29,835 1954 20,280 1961 31,360 1968 42,682 1969 29,201 1970 63,444 1/ Inventory of February 7, 1962 substituted 2/ Inventory of February 15, 1966 substituted for January, 1/ ]j 1962 inventory. for January, 1966 inventory. �JANUARY INVENTORY 150,000 125,000 100,000 ~ o Vol 75,000 I / I 50,000 ,... ,... <, ,... ./ ,... .,., ...••. .•....• ..... .•....• •.•.•.. ~ - - - --- »< Colo-cado segment- - ---........... _-- ,/ ,/ ,/ <, Lakes se~ent <, .,/ ........,., '- 1 " '- I " ,... " 1 1 25,000 62 61 Fig. 1. 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 Comparison of the Colorado and Buffalo Lakes (Texas) Segments of the Short Grass Prairie Canada goose _ ....._ ••.1 ...••..~ __ 70 �- 104 - The results of coordinated aerial surveys conducted on the Short Grass Prairie Canada goose wintering range indicate the population size is continuing to increase (Table 5). Table 5. Post-hunting season status of Short Grass Prairie population, 1960-70, data generally from regular mid-winter Canada goose inventories. Year Year Number of Birds Number of Birds 1960 77,709 1965 103,435 1961 103,355 1966 1l0,485 1962 80,l33 1967 111,452 1963 93,940 1968 127,903 1964 81,221 1969 112,399 1970 147,414 !/ Inventory of February 15, 1966, substituted for unsatisfactory 1/ January Inventory. The Colorado population accounted for the major portion of the increase (Table 6). Again, as during the previous year, the December Inventory totaled fewer birds than the January count. Coordinated counts were conducted in the second week of December and during the January Inventory. Table 6. Results of Short Grass Prairie hunting season, 1968 and 1969. Canada goose coordinated inventories, State December 1968 1969 1969 1970 Nebraska 1l,740 10,512 7,000 8,140 Colorado 28,633 60,700 29,201 63,444 Oklahoma 3,000 1,300 3,500 1,500 New Mexico 9,195 7,531 7,848 10,640 Texas 20,100 26,387 64,850 63,690 Totals 72 ,668 106,930 112,399 147,414 January �- 105 - Analysis of Flight Pattern Data Eads Lakes Pre-season flight pattern data indicate that geese were making two definite flights daily. Flights were generally low and most feeding locations were not more than one mile from the reservoirs. Geese congregated in specific fields despite variation in time of departure. It was noted that with moderate winds (15-25 mph) , there was frequent interchange between feeding locations and reservoirs throughout the day. There were no indications of a tendency toward late afternoon or evening flights even though the light of the moon was probably great enough to permit night feeding. After November 22, the opening of the hunting season, morning flights were negligible as there was a full moon on November 23 which permitted night feeding (Table 7). Many flocks were observed returning to reservoirs the morning of the 23rd, either from night feeding or from other reservoirs. The afternoon flight on the 23rd began at approximately 3:45 p.m., 1:15 later than the afternoon flight of November 21, and continued into dark. Flights were high and feeding locations were estimated to be five to six miles from the reservoir. The pattern of late afternoon-evening flights continued until November 29 when two-a-day flights were again initiated. During the December 9 through 17 period, two-a-day flights were common. Morning flights were generally sporadic and variable in direction. Direction of flights seemed to be dependent on location of firing-line hunters. Table 7. Chronology of moon phase during the 1969-70 season in southeast Colorado. Canada goose hunting Month Day Moon Phase November 9 16 23 New Moon First Quarter Full Moon December 2 9 16 23 31 Last Quarter New Moon First Quarter Full Moon Last Quarter January 7 14 22 New Moon First Quarter Full Moon �- 106 - Flocks would "probe" different areas until they found unmolested routes and then following flocks would use these corridors until hunters moved in. Flights were high and most feeding locations were more than 10 miles from reservoirs. Beginning December 15, morning flights were not complete with many birds remaining on the reservoir. Afternoon flights during the December 9 through 17 period were more direct and continuous. Once a flight direction was established, the direction was essentially maintained throughout the flight. Flights were low and feeding locations, for the most part, were within one mile of the reservoir. There was no morning flight on December 18. Morning flights did not begin again until December 27 and then continued only through January 2. After January 2, and through most of the remainder of the season, the geese flew only in the afternoon. During this period there was some variation in activity of the geese during the morning. Occasionally small flocks came into the reservoir. A few flocks did attempt to leave, but most returned to reservoirs after being fired upon. On January 7 and 8, during the extreme dark phase of the moon, birds were noted to be extremely restless and feeding flights began between 11:45 and 12:00 noon. Afternoon flights between January 6 and 11 were direct and short as most feeding locations were within one mile of the reservoir. Most birds returned to the reservoir before dark. Two Buttes Regular two-a-day flights were common during the pre-season period. Unlike the Eads area, two-a-day flights continued after the opening of the regular season on November 22. However, afternoon flights gradually began later and night flying during the period of November 22 through November 27 was common. Regular morning and afternoon flights began again on November 28. On December 3 geese began using the millet field below the Two Buttes cabin. On December 4 and 5 the geese were active throughout the day as inclement weather set in. Birds continued extensive use of the millet field below the cabin through December 6, the first day of the Two Buttes season. Most flocks that attempted to leave the reservoir in the morning of the 6th turned back at the firing line. A definite flight occurred in the afternoon. Feeding flights on the 7th began about 10:00 a.m. and became more intensive about 11:30 a.m. Many flights skirted the firing line by going easterly. Generally, through the first week of the season flights began late in the morning and continued into the aftern06n creating one continuous flight daily. Flights on December 10 were an exception, beginning about 7:30 a.m., apparently stimulated by the foggy, overcast conditions. Through the first part of the second week of the Two Buttes season, morning flights continued, but they were generally not as heavy as the afternoon flights. Toward the end of the week (December 18), morning flights became extremely light. Afternoon flights remained heavy and there were indications that the birds were feeding at night. Late afternoon and night flights were common through December 28. The morning flights were extremely light with some variation which seemed to be caused by weather conditions. Increased movement was noted on the morning of December 22, which had 30 to 40 mph winds, and on December 27 when it snowed. On December 29 geese began moving off the reservoir at 11:00 a.m., but most turned back at the firing line. From �- 107 - December 30 through January 10 there was essentially no morning flight from the reservoir. There were large afternoon flights normally beginning around 3:00 p.m. On January 9 and 10 some large incoming flights were noted. From January 11 through the end of the season there were large morning flights generally occurring during the 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. time period. Geese using Meredith and John Martin Reservoirs followed the same general pattern as those in the Eads Lakes area with some variation caused by local weather conditions. The only significant variation between flight pattern of birds on northern areas and those at Two Buttes occurred at the beginning of the regular southeast season on November 22. Birds at Two Buttes did not respond to the season opening by going to late afternoon-night flying as quickly as those in the northern areas. The variation was probably caused by firing line pressure; heavy in the north, none at Two Buttes. The flight pattern information collected seem to indicate the following. 1. Without hunting pressure, changes in moon phases. geese would fly twice a day despite 2. The cessation of morning flights was closely correlated to lightof-moon phases during the hunting season in the months of November and December. 3. With firing lines operating, geese showed a more definite response to light-of-moon phases, by discontinuing morning flights, than under non-firing line situations. 4. Inclement weather stimulated morning flights even during light-ofmoon periods. Cold weather seemed to delay morning flights even during dark-of-the-moon periods. 5. There were some indications, particularly toward the end of the season, that geese responded to morning hunting pressure by delaying feeding flights until afternoon. Age Composition To obtain an estimate of the age composition of the harvest, tail fans from birds bagged were collected. Collection of tail fans on the two state-controlled hunting areas resulted in 597 usable fans. The age data, categorized by method of hunting, indicates the percent of the harvest composed of immatures increased from 1968-69 levels on both management areas (Table 8). As during the previous year, immatures in 1970-71 were taken at a greater rate in the decoy area than on the firing line. �- 108 - Table 8. Age composition of the goose harvest, controlled hunting areas in southeast Colorado. Year Two Buttes Adult No. % 1951-52 356 1957-58 by year, at two state Check Station (Firing Line) Lamar-Eads Young Adult No. % No. % 46.8 404 53.2 {DecoY2 Young No. % No Data 1958-59 929 47.9 1,010 52.1 1959-60 377 36.5 655 63.5 1960-61 612 45.5 732 54.5 1961-62 527 55.7 419 44.3 1962-63 204 48.9 213 51.1 1963-64 377 52.1 346 47.9 1964-65 442 63.1 259 36.9 1965-66 571 62.7 340 37.3 1966-67 217 45.3 262 54.7 1967-68 245 59.9 164 40.1 1968-69 136 61.8 84 38.2 79 51.3 75 48.7 1969-70 110 55.3 89 44.7 143 35.9 255 64.1 The age ratio of birds bagged on the two state areas showed some interesting trends as the season progressed (Table 9). The percent of immatures harvested on the decoy area increased until mid-season, then began to decline. On the firing-line area, percent of immatures in the bag generally increased throughout the season. According to Rutherford's (1968) findings, juveniles normally become less vulnerable as the season progresses irregardless of method of harvest, firing-line or field hunting. But Chapman, et al. (1969), working with the dusky Canada goose in the Williamette Valley of Oregon, found that restricting hunting to mornings only, resulted in a greater proportionate harvest of immatures, as most adults apparently delayed flights from refuge areas until afternoon. This age-specific flight pattern was indicated by a drastic change in the age ratio of the kill when full day hunting was initiated �- 109 toward the end of the 1964-65 season. The increased vulnerability of young-of-the-year to morning only hunting may help explain why immatures were apparently more vulnerable to hunting in southeast Colorado (1:1.37) than earlier in the year on the Canadian staging areas 1:0.82 (Dzubin, pers. comm). But the reversal in age ratios after mid-season at the Lamar-Eads area is really not explainable at this time. Table 9. southeast Weekly age ratios of Canada geese brought Colorado. through check stations, Date Lamar-Eads Ratio Adu1t:Imm. 11/22-11/28 1: 1.16 41 11/29-12/5 1: 1.49 84 12/6-12/12 1:2.22 87 1:0.78 87 12/13-12/19 1:3.63 74 1:0.63 65 12/20-12/26 1:1. 33 7 1:1 8 12/27-1/2 1: 1. 75 44 1:1.43 17 1/3-1/9 1:1. 23 47 1/10-1/15 1:1 14 l/Season opened on December (Decoy~ Number Two Buttes (Firing Line) Ratio Adu1t:Imm. Number 1/ o 1:1.20 22 6, 1969. Approximately 39 percent of all birds trapped post-season in southeast Colorado in 1970 were immatures. This figure is a substantial increase from the 16.8 percent trapped the previous year. The sex and age composition of each cannon-net catch is presented in Table 10. A summary of all age data is presented in Table 11. In total, immatures made up approximately 58 percent of the check station sample and 38 percent of the trapped sample. The apparent effect of half-day hunting on the vulnerability of different age classes makes it impossible to estimate what percent of the goose population is composed of birds of the year, and thus evaluate 1970 production of the flock. �- 110 Table 10. Sex and age composition of Canada geese trapped post-season in southeast Colorado, 1970. Location and Date Males Adult Imm. Females Adult Imm. Total Percent Immatures Turk's Pond 1/31/70 49 31 52 44 176 42.6 Two Buttes 2/4/70 50 28 56 22 156 32.1 Turk's Pond 2/6/70 13 12 19 14 58 44.8 Turk's Pond 2/19/70 34 20 35 19 108 36.1 Turk's Pond 2/26/70 29 27 42 24 122 42.5 175 ll8 204 123 620 38.9 Total Table 11. Age comparison of southeast Colorado Canada geese, 1969-70, as estimated by check station and trapping results. No. of Young Percent Young No. of Adults Percent Adults Total Birds Lamar-Eads 255 64.1 143 35.9 398 Two Buttes 89 44.7 llO 55.3 199 Meredith Lake 27 60.0 18 40.0 45 Check Station Sample Total Adult/Immature 371 271 642 1:1.37 Trapped Sample Turk's Pond 191 41.2 273 58.8 464 Two Buttes 50 32.1 106 67.9 156 Total 241 Adult/Immature 379 620 1:0.64 �- 111 - Hunting Pressure and Harvest Despite the increase in the size of the Canada goose population in southeast Colorado, it was estimated that hunter participation fell to its lowest level in 16 years (Table 12) (Funk and Tully, 1970). It was estimated there were 5,327 active goose hunters, down 20 percent from the previous years figures. All major goose harvest counties, with the exception of Kiowa, registered declines of from 33-42 percent in the number of active goose hunters when comparing hunter participation during the 1969-70 season with the 1968-69 season. Kiowa County recorded a 70 percent increase in hunters, possibly because of increased use of the Lamar-Eads Management Area. Because of the lack of hunter participation, total estimated retrieved harvest for southeast Colorado was the smallest since the 1965-66 season (Table 12). However, hunting success increased over the 1.6 season bag recorded during the 1968-69 season, with each goose hunter harvesting approximately 2 birds per season during the 1969-70 season. Table 12. Goose hunting season statistics, 1954-69. Arkansas Valley Estimated Average Goose Hunters Season Bag Year Dates of Season Stamp Sales Estimated Kill 1954 11/1 - 12/30 32,450 7,071 1.04 7,372 1955 11/1 - 12/30 39,107 9,054 1.54 13,904 1956 11/9 - 1/7 36,303 9,833 1.05 10,276 1957 11/2 - 11/31 41,794 9,113 1. 39 12,656 1958 11/17 - 1/15 41,897 10,082 1.51 15,205 1959 10/26 - 1/8 31,431 8,888 1.61 14,309 1960 10/26 - 1/8 30,592 9,838 1. 39 13,629 1961 11/10 - 1/8 24,854 7,577 1.68 11,724 1962 10/31 - 1/13 17,701 6,021 1.58 9,495 1963 11/2 - 1/15 22,940 6,668 2.17 14,444 1964 11/2 - 1/15 25,282 8,016 2.30 18,474 1965 11/2 - 1/15 20,537 6,313 1.52 9,613 1966 11/19 - 1/15 29,377 9,357 2.59 24,269 1967 11/18 - 1/14 31,064 6,975 2.23 15,558 1968 11/16 - 1/15 31,218 6,668 1.66 11 ,046 1969 11/22 - 1/15 34,281 5,327 1.99 10,597 �- 112 - Hunters in Kiowa County registered the largest harvest during the 1969-70 season (Table 13). The bag in both Baca and Prowers Counties, where hunter participation was down about 42 percent, declined more than 50 percent in comparison with the 1968-69 harvest. Table 13. Comparison of the 1969-70 southeast Colorado goose harvest, by county, with the IS-year average, 1954-68, based on the results of the random small game survey. County Lakes and Reservoirs Number and Percent of Geese Bagged 1969-70 15 Yr. Average No. Percent No. Percent Kiowa Eads and Blue 3,786 35.7 3,051 21.9 Baca Two Buttes and Turk's 2,070 19.5 5,284 38.0 Bent John Martin, Horsecreek 1,946 18.4 1,911 13.7 Crowley Meredith and Henry 973 9.2 699 5.0 Prowers Two Buttes and Eads 884 8.3 2,208 15.9 Otero Horse Creek, Cheraw, Dye and Holbrook 531 5.0 347 2.5 Pueblo 248 2.3 179 1.3 Las Animas 88 0.8 122 0.9 Huerfano 71 0.7 116 0.8 Total 10,597 Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Blue and Management l3,9l7 Areas The number of hunters utilizing the Two Buttes Management area declined for the fourth year in succession (Table 14). Hunting success was slightly better than during the 1968-69 season with 659 hunters bagging 248 geese for an average bag per hunter of 0.38 birds. Hunting pressure declined as the season progressed but hunting success was irregular (Table 15) and, as would be expected, closely dependent on whether morning goose flights occurred. �- 113 Table 14. Goose harvest, hunting pressure, and hunter success, Two Buttes Management Area. No. of Individual Hunters No. of Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged Ave. Bag per Hunter Ave. Bag per Hunter Day 1961-62 2,392 4,758 945 0.40 0.20 1962-63 1,479 3,178 418 0.28 0.13 1963-64 1,750 3,659 728 0.42 0.20 1964-65 1,996 3,946 721 0.36 0.19 1965-66 2,596 5,264 941 0.36 0.18 1966-67 1,257 2,413 493 0.39 0.20 1967-68 840 1,554 433 0.52 0.28 1968-69 792 1,309 243 0.31 0.19 1969-70 659 1,182 248 0.38 0.21 Year Table 15. Hunter activity and goose harvest by weekly intervals, Two Buttes Reservoir, 1969-70. Week Interval Number of Hunter Days 12/6 - 12/12 Successful Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged Ave. Bag Per Hunter Day 516 (43.7) 86 114 0.22 12/13 - 12/19 209 (17.7) 62 82 0.39 12/20 - 12/26 118 (10.0) 8 9 0.08 12/27 - 1/2 187 (15.8) 17 20 0.11 1/3 - 1/9 81 ( 6.9) 0 0 0.00 1/10 - 1/15 71 ( 6.0) 14 23 0.32 187 248 0.21 Totals }j 1,182 1/ Percent of total in parentheses. �- 114 The Lamar-Eads Management Area, in its second year of existence, recorded an increase in hunter use in comparison with the previous season. Approximately 700 hunters bagged S12 for an average bag per hunter of 0.73 (Table 16). Hunting pressure at the Lamar-Eads Area was generally consistent throughout the season but hunting success, as at Two Buttes, was low during full moon periods (Table 17). Table 16. Management Goose harvest, Area. hunting pressure, Year No. of Individual Hunters No. of Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged 1968-69 S98 1,062 160 1969-70 703 1,361 S12 Table 17. Management Hunter activity Area, 1969-70. Week Interval Number of Hunter Days and goose harvest 1./ Successful Hunter Days and hunter success, Ave. Bag per Hunter Lamar-Eads Ave. Bag per Hunter Day O.lS 0.73 by weekly 0.38 intervals, No. of Geese Bagged Lamar-Eads Ave. Bag Per Hunter Day 11/22 - 11/28 216 (lS.9) (Full moon 11/23) 31 42 0.19 11/29 - 12/S 133 ( 9.8) SO 81 0.61 12/6 - 12/12 262 (19.3) 130 188 0.72 12/13 - 12/19 170 (12.S) Sl 80 0.47 12/20 - 12/26 107 ( 7.9) (Full moon 12/23) 6 7 0.07 12/27 - 1/2 160 (11. 8) 32 48 0.30 1/3 - 1/9 190 (14.0) 30 SO 0.26 1/10 - l/lS 123 ( 9.0) 9 16 0.13 339 S12 0.38 Totals 1/ Percent 1,361 of total in parentheses. �- 115 Tables 18 and 19 indicate the effect of repeated trips by hunters on their hunting success. As during past years, the success of hunters increased as the number of days hunted increased. Table 18. The relationship of individual Two Buttes Reservoir, 1969-70. hunter activity to hunting Number of Days Hunted Total No. of Hunters Percent of Hunters Succ. No. of Geese Bagged 1 379 43 11. 3 55 0.15 2 160 45 28.1 62 0.19 3 56 25 44.6 42 0.25 4 31 15 48.4 25 0.20 5 16 12 75.0 20 0.25 6 8 7 87.5 15 0.31 7 3 3 100.0 8 0.38 8 2 2 100.0 5 0.31 9 2 2 100.0 9 0.50 10 1 1 100.0 3 0.30 14 1 1 100.0 4 0.29 Totals 659 156 23.7 248 0.24 No. of Succ. Hunters success, Ave. Bag/ Hunter Day �- 116 Table 19. Lamar-Eads Number of Days Hunted The relationship Area, 1969-70. Total No. of Hunters of individual hunter activity to hunting success, No. of Succ. Hunters Percent of Hunters Succ. No. of Geese Bagged Ave. Bag/ Hunter Day 1 411 49 11.9 73 0.18 2 171 47 27.5 85 0.25 3 45 28 62.2 57 0.42 4 27 12 44.4 31 0.29 5 22 17 77.3 51 0.46 6 7 7 100.0 18 0.43 7 4 2 50.0 10 0.36 8 4 3 75.0 10 0.31 9 2 2 100.0 5 0.28 10 2 0 0.0 0 0.00 11 2 2 100.0 9 0.41 13 2 2 100.0 7 0.27 15 1 1 100.0 12 0.80 17 1 1 100.0 19 1.12 18 1 1 100.0 19 1.06 19 1 1 100.0 6 0.32 703 175 24.9 412 0.30 Totals Banding Investigations Trapping and banding was accomplished after the close of the 1969-70 seasons. Objectives were to band 500 geese in the Two Buttes area and the same number at another location in the Arkansas Valley. Because of the high water levels of reservoirs in the northern areas, all trapping efforts were concentrated in the Two Buttes area. A total of 599 new bands were placed on Canada geese. Each individual catch is categorized by sex and age in Table 20. Approximately 47 percent of the banded birds were males. �- 117 - Table 20. Age and sex composition Colorado, 1970. Date Males Adult Immature Location January 31 Turk's Pond February 4 Two Buttes February 6 February February of Canada geese banded Adult in southeast Females Immature 44 25 49 44 45 28 48 21 Turk's Pond 15 14 19 15 19 Turk's Pond 28 20 31 19 26 Turk's Pond 34 29 45 26 166 116 192 125 Res. Total Weights The mean weights of all geese harvested on the two state-controlled ment areas and birds trapped are presented in Table 21. Table 21. Comparison of weights southeast Colorado, 1969-70. Source manage- of geese from trap and check station Adult Ave. Weight (lbs.) Range samples, Imm. Ave. Total Ave. Weight (lbs.) Range Weight (lbs.) Range Two Buttes Check Station 5.56(110)1/3.75-7.75 5.25(85) 3.25-7.25 5.43 (195) 3.25-7.75 6.03(379) 4.00-10.50 5.74(241) 3.38-8.75 5.92(620) 3.38-10.50 Two Buttes-Turks Trapping Lamar Mgmt. Area Check Station 5.73(142) 1/ Sample sizes in parentheses. 3.50-9.50 5.41(248) 3.25-8.75. 5.53(390) 3.25-9.50 �- 118 - In past years, mean weights of birds bagged on the Two Buttes Management Area have been consistently larger than birds trapped post-season in the Two Buttes-Turk's area. This year the reverse was true with trapped birds averaging nearly .5 (one-half) lb. more than harvested birds. Past explanations for harvested birds weighing more have been: (1) hunters selecting larger birds, (2) weight loss during the season, and (2) greater trap vulnerability of sub-populations containing smaller birds. The 196970 weights of harvested geese presented in Table 22 indicate that the geese may have lost a small amount of weight on the average as the season progressed. However, field personnel indicated that the birds maintained better body condition throughout the hunting season than they had in previous years, possibly because the half-day season allowed geese to feed unmolested during the afternoon. The maintenance of good body condition may have enabled the geese to add additional weight quickly at the end of the hunting season. Table 22. Average weights of geese bagged by time interval on two state management areas in southeastern Colorado during the 1969-70 hunting season. Two Buttes !/ Adults Immatures Interval Lamar-Eads Adults Immatures Nov. 22 - Nov. 28 5.92(21) Nov. 29 - Dec. 5 5.72(31) 5.38(50) Dec. 6 - Dec. 12 5.80(28) 5.47(54) 5.61(49) 5.41(37) Dec. 13- Dec. 19 5.56(16) 5.40(57) 5.46(47) 5.04(25) Dec. 20 - Dec. 26 6.25(1) 6.18(4) 6.08 (3) 5.13(4) Dec. 27 - Jan. 2 5.73(14) 5.57(27) 5.46(7) 5.22(8) Jan. 3 - Jan. 9 5.60(22) 4.61(24) 0 0 Jan 10 - Jan. 15 5.21(7) 5.00(7) 5.88(4) Jj 5.51(22) 5.25(11) 1/ Season opened December 6, 1969 at Two Buttes. size in parentheses. 2/ Sample The data presented in Table 23 indicate that some unusually large birds were present in three of the five cannon-net catches. Yet the average of any of the five catches was greater than the average weight of harvested birds. �- 119 - Table 23. Weights of Canada geese captured with cannon-nets in southeast Colorado, 1970. Date Location January 31 Turk's Pond Grouping Number AM 49 31 50 44 6.41 6.10 5.57 5.28 4.75-8.00 5.13-8.75 4.00-8.25 3.38-7.25 176 5.82 3.38-8.75 50 28 56 22 5.85 5.66 5.31 5.31 4.13-7.38 4.25-6.75 4.13-6.38 4.13-6.38 156 5.55 4.13-7.38 13 12 19 14 6.29 6.06 5.48 5.69 4.88-6.88 5.00-6.88 4.13-6.38 4.88-6.38 58 5.84 4.13-6.88 34 20 35 19 6.99 6.15 6.14 5.72 5.13-9.38 4.13-7.63 5.00-10.50 4.88-6.63 108 6.33 4.13-10.50 29 27 42 24 7.05 6.45 5.99 5.32 4.50-8.63 5.50-8.00 4.38-7.25 3.75-6.50 122 6.21 3.75-8.63 175 118 204 123 6.46 6.08 5.67 5.41 4.13-9.38 4.13-8.75 4.00-10.50 3.38-7.25 620 5.92 3.38-10.50 1M AF IF Sub-totals February 4 Two Buttes Res. AM 1M AF IF Sub-totals February 6 Turk's Pond AM 1M AF IF Sub-totals February 19 Turk's Pond AM 1M AF IF Sub-totals February 26 Turk's Pond AM 1M AF IF Sub-totals All Catches AM 1M AF IF GRAND TOTAL Ave. Weight Range �- 120 - At this point it seems the interpretation of weight data can be only speculative. Certainly weight, along with the comparative size of any goose, gives some indication of body condition. But until specific studies are designed to determine what weight and/or body condition indicates in terms of sub-speciation and/or productivity, interpretation of weight data will continue to be mainly academic. Distribution of Harvest The distribution of band recoveries through the 1968-69 season is presented in Table 24. The distribution of the 1968-69 harvest showed some changes from recent trends. The most significant change occurred on the Canadian prairies where more banded birds were taken in Alberta than Saskatchewan, reversing a trend which began during the 1964-65 season. The Nebraska take of southeast Colorado banded birds declined approximately 50 percent from recent previous levels. An important distribution change which is not indicated by the table is the movement of Short Grass Prairie birds into the Hi-Line population area in northcentral Colorado. During the 1967-68 season, two southeast Colorado banded birds and one panhandle of Texas bird were recovered in northcentral Colorado. In 1968-69, four southeast Colorado birds and three Texas birds were taken in that same area. The provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan along with southeast Colorado continue to be the major harvest area of southeast Colorado banded birds. Hunting Mortality Estimates Tables 25 through 30 present band recovery data from all southeast Colorado post-season banding efforts from 1951 through the hunting season of 1968-69. Tables 25, 26, and 27 present mortality rates calculated by the compositedynamic method. Tables 28, 29, and 30 present these same estimates calculated by the relative recovery rate method. According to the composite method, both juveniles and adults continue to have a first year mortality rate of about 28 percent (Tables 25 and 26). Annual mortality rate for all age classes combined remains at 26 percent, consistent with estimates for the previous two years (Table 27). Analysis by the relative recovery rate method gives estimates of annual mortality for birds banded during anyone year. By averaging these estimates, an average mortality rate for an age class and/or population can be obtained. Rates calculated by the relative method continue to be slightly higher than those determined by the composite dynamic method. �Table 24. Percentages of total band recoveries, Arkansas Valley post-season bandings, by area and year of recovery, all banding years combined. 195152 195253 195354 195455 195556 195657 195758 1958- 195959 60 196061 1961- 196262 63 PercenTotal No. tage of 1963- 1964- 1965- 1966- 1967- 1968- of Recov- Total Recoveries 67 68 64 65 66 69 eries Far North above 530 10.5 9.0 9.0 10.7 10.5 6.2 6.3 7.0 7.9 7.7 7.9 6.3 15.5 15.2 4.7 10.4 7.5 9.9 240 9.2 23.4 17.6 31.0 24.3 33.3 17.3 28.2 10.5 29.7 9.4 39.3 9.8 35.4 14.6 33.3 9.4 38.7 9.0 34.9 9.3 33.3 19.4 28.4 17.4 26.8 8.5 27.9 10.9 19.4 16.4 14.2 24.6 23.4 17.0 762 389 29.3 14.9 0.7 1.5 4 0.2 0.7 0.6 T 0.6 0.2 6.2 28.9 0.3 0.6 0.8 Recovery Year Area Provinces below 530 26.4 Alberta 18.5 Saskatchewan B. C., Manitoba, 1.3 Ontario Central Flyway 1.3 Montana N. Dakota 1.3 Wyoming 1.3 S. Dakota 7.9 Nebraska 25.0 Colorado Kansas Oklahoma 1.3 New Mexico Texas Panhandle Waggoner Ranch Gulf Coast 5.2 Pacific Flyway Mississippi 1.1 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.3 0.7 0.7 3.2 23.1 0.5 0.5 1.6 4.3 22.9 0.5 2.4 1.9 6.0 23 .. 8 0.7 0.7 2.0 7.4 7.4 2.1 0.5 2.1 1.4 0.5 2.8 8.1 36.3 5.5 39.0 0.8 8.9 24.0 1.6 1.8 1.6 0.8 0.8 2.3 2.3 4.5 0.9 2.4 3.2 2.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 5.5 21. 7 1.0 0.5 1.0 6.7 30.1 2.0 1.4 8.8 35.4 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.7 9.7 32.4 4.6 0.8 0.8 4.0 2.0 1.0 7.3 2.4 0.6 2.7 2.0 0.8 1.5 1.2 1.4 0.7 1.4 1.3 4.9 28.3 0.7 1.4 0.7 7.2 36.6 6.4 26.6 2.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.4 2.8 1.4 3.9 5.2 1.2 0.5 5.4 31. 5 0.8 5.4 4.8 3.1 30.9 0.7 0.6 7.5 0.7 0.8 Flyway Mexico Total Number of Recoveries 1.8 76 0.5 0.5 188 210 150 124 128 112 144 138 155 129 129 201 164 147 134 1.4 0.7 0.7 9.0 29.1 4.3 31.9 1.5 0.7 1.4 15 2 15 4 161 752 9 15 22 2.2 5.0 0.7 1.4 100 44 16 3.8 1.7 0.6 0.7 1.4 50 1.9 0.7 0.7 3 0.1 1 T 7.5 134 141 2604 .... N .... �Table 25 . Composite Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965 -66 1966 -67 1967-68 Total Recoveries dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, by Year Following 10 9 Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1968. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Recoveries 8 7 Banding 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 300 628 578 0 0 0 0 176 298 167 248 123 399 251 198 0 285 270 31 58 52 25 31 25 11 33 25 11 20 24 4 16 20 5 8 11 4 7 11 7 6 9 1 4 2 1 4 4 0 0 4 0 5 1 0 2 3 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 21 25 16 15 10 40 16 15 16 16 10 5 12 24 11 7 6 16 3 4 10 9 11 8 4 8 14 7 0 14 13 1 4 7 8 8 1 6 5 1 3 0 7 1 2 4 0 0 3 1 0 1 1 2 3 1 0 1 2 X X X 18 16 10 3921 333 192 136 116 79 38 30 26 11 12 4 6 5 3 2 0 1 1 Banded Birds Eligib le 3921 3651 3366 3366 3168 2917 2518 2395 2147 1980 1682 1506 1506 1506 1506 1506 928 300 Recoveries pe r 1,000 Banded 84.9 52.6 40.4 34.5 24.9 13.0 11.9 10.9 213.5 5.1 6.1 2.4 4.0 3.3 2.0 1.3 0.0 ~ - 301. 7 1.1/ 3.3 Alive Going into Period 301.7 ,,216.8_ 164.:2. 123.8 89.3 64.4 51.4 28.6 23.5 17.4 15.0 11.0 7.7 3.3 28.17. 5.7 4.4 ~=1172.1 25.7% 44/ Mor ta lity Ra te 39.5 867.1 24.6% 0 •.... N N �Table 26 • Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 Total Recoveries from Canada Geese banded as adults, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1968. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Recoveries b~ Year Fo11owins Bandins 12 11 10 7 8 9 344 650 900 0 0 0 0 347 217 250 306 334 369 335 780 0 389 646 45 71 85 23 37 55 19 24 50 10 23 31 7 21 25 12 6 20 5 11 9 3 6 12 3 9 10 2 7 6 2 7 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 33 21 27 29 26 35 24 55 27 9 16 13 18 20 12 40 17 7 6 18 12 14 15 20 8 4 12 12 5 4 10 22 5 4 8 4 13 11 4 8 2 4 7 3 5 2 1 6 3 2 2 1 3 2 2 0 2 2 1 0 X X X 29 35 26 5867 515 296 202 141 102 67 39 29 26 18 11 8 5 1 2 2 0 0 Banded Birds Eligible 5867 5221 4832 4832 4052 3717 3348 3014 2708 2458 2241 1894 1894 1894 1894 1894 944 344 Recoveries Per 1,000 Banded 87.8 ,56.7 41.8 29.2 25.2 18.0 11.6 9.6 9.6 7.3 4.9 4.2 2.6 0.5 1.1 1.1 0.0 I 0.0 -- 13 14 15 16 17 18 0 4 4 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X •.... N w I: = 311.2 223.4 Alive Going Into Period 311.2 223.4 166.7 124.9 95.7 70.5 52.5 40.9 862.8 Mortality Rate 28.2% 25.9% 31.3 21.7 14.4 9.5 5.3 2.7 1.1 2.2 r-=1l74.0 26.5% 0.0 �Table 27. Composite dynamic analysis Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 Total Recoveries of band recoveries from Canada Geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, b~ Year Following Banding 9 11 10 12 1951-1968. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Recoveries 7 8 644 1278 1478 0 0 0 0 523 515 417 554 457 768 586 978 0 674 922 76 129 137 48 68 80 30 57 75 21 43 55 11 37 45 17 14 31 9 18 20 10 12 21 4 13 12 3 11 10 2 7 6 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 54 46 43 44 36 75 40 70 43 25 26 18 30 44 23 47 23 23 9 22 22 23 26 28 12 12 26 19 5 18 23 23 9 11 16 12 14 17 9 9 5 4 14 4 7 6 1 6 6 3 2 2 4 4 5 1 2 3 3 0 X X X 47 51 36 9794 848 488 338 257 181 105 69 55 37 30 15 14 10 4 4 2 Banded Birds Eligible 9794 8872 8198 8198 7220 6634 5866 5409 4858 4438 3923 3400 3400 3400 3400 3400 1922 Recoveries Per 1,000 Banded 86.6 \ 55.0 41.2 31,3 25.1 15.8 11.8 10.2 7.6 6.8 3.8 4.1 2.9 1.2 1.2 0,6 0.5 3.9 2.7 2.:"=1176.7 2.1 13 14 15 16 17 0 9 5 1 4 5 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 X X X X X X X X X X •.... N ~ 307.3 220.7 165,7 124,5 93.2 68.1 52.3 40.5 867.8 Mortality Rate 28.2% 25,2% 644 I 1.6 r = 307.3 219.1 Alive Going Into Period 18 30.3 22.7 15.9 12.1 8.0 5.1 1.6 26.1% �Table 28. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1968. Winter Banded Number Banded 1950-51 300 CU ]) 72 --- 1951-52 628 196 138 .3121 1952-53 578 193 CU .3339 1957-58 176 8U 39 1958-59 298 79 1959-60 167 1960-61 248 Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n Recovery Rates 1 - n 2 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate .2400 .769 .231 .2197 .658 .342 --- .2216 .836 .164 54 .2651 .1812 .582 .418 52 36 .3114 .2156 1.049 51 36 .2056 .1452 .510 .490 1961-62 123 35 25 .2846 .2033 .854 .146 1962-63 399 95 55 .2381 .1378 .618 .346 1963-64 251 56 40 .2231 .1594 1.018 1964-65 198 31 CU .1566 1966-67 285 CU 10 --- .0351 .592 1967-68 270 16 -- .0593 1.7589 70486 .736 .264 0749 .251 3,921 2.3898 Average survival rates Average mortality rates .11 Cannot use. t-' N V1 .408 �Table 29. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1968. Winter Banded Number Banded Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n 1950-51 344 cu 1:..1 1951-52 650 1952 53 Recovery Rates 1 - n 2 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate 89 --- .2587 .734 .266 229 158 .3523 .2431 .699 .301 900 313 CU .3478 1957-58 347 CU 73 --- .2104 .913 .087 1958-59 217 50 29 .2304 .1336 .398 .602 1959-60 250 84 57 .3360 .2280 .793 .207 1960-61 306 88 59 .2876 .1928 .815 .185 p 1961-62 334 79 53 .2365 .1587 .658 .342 1962-63 369 89 54 .2412 .1463 .754 .246 1963-64 335 65 41 .1940 .1224 .697 .303 1964-65 780 137 CU .1756 1966-67 389 CU 26 --- .0668 1.232 646 35 -- 2.4556 1.7608 7.693 Average survival rates .717 .769 Average mortality rates .283 .231 1967-68 -5,867 1:..1 Cannot use. .0542 - t-' N 0\ �Table 30. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1968. Survival Rate Mortality Rate .2500 .752 .248 .2316 .676 .324 --- .2141 .855 .145 83 .2505 .1612 .494 .506 136 93 .3261 .2230 .889 .111 139 95 .2509 .1715 .687 .313 Winter Banded Number Banded Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n Recover~ Rates 2 - n 1 - n 1950-51 644 cuy 161 --- 1951-52 1,278 425 296 .3326 1952-53 1,478 506 CU .3424 1957-58 523 CU 112 1958-59 515 129 1959-60 417 1960-61 554 1961-62 457 114 78 .2495 .1707 .712 .288 1962-63 768 184 109 .2396 .1419 .687 .313 1963 -64 586 121 81 .2065 .1382 .805 .195 1964-65 978 168 CU .1717 1966-67 674 CU 36 --- .0534 .966 .034 1967-68 922 51 --- .0553 1.7556 7.523 .724 .276 .752 .248 9,794 2.4251 Average survival rate Average mortality rate 1./ Cannot use. •.... N -...J �- 128 - LITERATURE CITED Chapman, J. A., C. J. Henny, and H. M. Wight. 1969. The status, population dynamics, and harvest of the dusky Canada goose. Wi1d1. Monogr. No. 18. 48 p. Funk, H. D., and R. Tully. 1970. Colorado small game hunter harvest survey --- 1969. Dept. Natural Resources, Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. Grieb, J. R. 1970. The shortgrass Wi1d1. Monogr. No. 22. 49 p. prairie Canada goose population. Rutherford, W. H. 1968. Differential mortality of juvenile Canada geese in the Arkansas Valley of Colorado. Proc. Western Assoc. Game and Fish Comms. 48:288-293. Prepared Szymczak Asst. Wildlife Researcher �October - 129 - JOB PROGRESS State Work No. Plan No. Job Title Period REPORT COLORADO of Project 1970 Covered: Personnel: W-88-R-1S 3 Investigation December of Mallard Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 6 Management 1, 1969 through March Units of Eastern Colorado 31, 1970 Richard Hopper, ,Jack Grieb, Mike Szymczak, Clait Braun, Robert Kitzmiller, Larry Green, Ray Schmidt, David Cramer, Velma Fredrickson, Howard Funk and other members of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Winter banding efforts in nine study units in eastern Colorado in 1969-70 yielded a total of 3,849 mallards banded in January and February. Size of the peak wintering population increased substantially over 1968-69 with about 4333,000 birds censused in early January 1970. Sex ratio counts during the banding period again indicated 60 percent of the wintering mallard population was composed of males. Analysis of band recovery data was postponed until a complete tape on results since initiation of the study in 1963-64 is obtained from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. The experimental late point-system season granted in portions of six states in The Central Flyway was judged a success. Harvest in Colorado during the 23-day season was estimated at 43,000 birds of which 86 percent were mallards. The point-system regulation seemed to have been effective in placing emphasis on drake mallard harvest as approximately 90 percent of the mallards taken were males. Reaction to the regulation by hunters was favorable. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. 2. Continue banding 600 mallards in each of the nine study units for one more year until results of analyses indicate either the need to continue at the same rate or to drop back to banding for the purpose of monitoring. All other procedures would remain similar to previous years for at least one more year. ��- 131 - INVESTIGATION OF MALLARD MANAGEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO Howard D. Funk Efforts were continued on the intensive Colorado winter mallard banding program initiated in 1963. Purpose of the banding was to continue gathering data on terminal wintering mallards in the State by study unit and also to take part in the cooperative study of a similar nature in the Central Flyway as a whole. Because complete recovery data tapes were expected shortly from the Bird Banding Laboratory in Patuxent, it was decided to delay analysis of recoveries until all data from initiation of the study to the present had arrived. Thus, this report covers only the banding efforts, population and sex ratio surveys, and harvest and hunting pressure surveys conducted during the winter of 1969-70. Some information on the late experimental point-system season in 1969-70 is also presented. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for Colorado SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. mallard management units. OBJECTIVES To trap and band mallards after hunting season in the following eight study areas for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history and annual mortality data: (a) South Platte Valley Denver to Greeley, (b) South Platte Valley Greeley to Fort Morgan, (c) South Platte Valley Fort Morgan to Sterling, (d) South Platte Valley Sterling to Julesburg, (e) the Fort Collins area, (f) Bonny Reservoir, (g) Arkansas Valley Pueblo to Rocky Ford, and (h) Arkansas Valley Rocky Ford to the Kansas line. Feasibility of winter banding in the San Luis Valley will also be investigated. To conduct surveys for the purpose of obtaining winter population estimates of mallards; age and sex ratios in the hunter's bag, wintering populations, and trap samples, and hunter pressure and harvest data by study area. To gather and tabulate band recovery data from the Bird Banding Office from mallards banded in Colorado since 1963-64 for use in making preliminary estimates on migration and harvest routes and annual mortality for use in final analysis during a later segment. To conduct further special mallard seasons designed to take advantage of surplus birds where feasible. METHODS AND MATERIALS Trapping methods and materials were similar to those described in other segment reports since 1964. Most birds were captured in cage traps with a few taken by use of cannon-nets. Birds were captured where and when possible, �- 132 some at newly found trapping sites. The San Luis Valley was added to the list of study units with birds being banded at the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. Periodic aerial censuses were conducted to obtain population estimates and locations of birds. Sex ratio ground counts were also taken during the period covered. Much effort was expended by many people in the experimental late point-system season in the way of issuing special hunting permits, hunter performance surveys, special wing collection survey, conduct and evaluation of a special hunter survey, and writing a comprehensive cooperative report involving six Central Flyway states. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Results of the 1969-70 winter trapping and banding program are illustrated in Table 1. With the addition of the San Luis Valley, we now have nine study units in which birds were trapped (Units 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, and 15; Fig. 1). Due to unseasonably warm weather and lack of manpower, no banding was accomplished in Unit 1 and quotas of 600 per unit were not reached in Units 6, 13, and 15. This was unfortunate, as we will have gaps in data which will affect various analyses, especially mortality and survival estimates and life tables. As always, we had problems in capturing females, especially adults, but often made up discrepancies somewhat by banding over the quotas on immature females. Number banded in all units totalled 3,849 birds with fairly even ratios banded by age and sex on an overall basis. The trapping site utilized in the San Luis Valley was the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. Efforts will be made to trap in other areas in the Valley in the future because of seemingly biased conditions. Numbers of adults trapped far outnumbered immatures and many retraps were taken from previous bandings. It is believed that birds present on the Refuge are not representative of the entire San Luis Valley wintering mallard population. Validity of the mallard wing aging technique was investigated in two past segments by holding groups of immature birds over winter and periodically examining the progression of molt patterns. The investigation showed that age of immatures could be determined by examination of wings through February and even later each year. Thus, banders were advised of the validity of the method in an article in the Journal of Wildlife Management (Hopper and Funk 1970). Winter Sex RAtio Counts As in previous years, ground sex ratio counts were conducted in the various study units during the period of banding. Results are presented in Table 2 by unit, with sample sizes by sex and percent males listed by dates. Data were collected from only five of the nine units but probably are representative of ratios in all areas. Percent males in the samples varied somewhat between dates and areas but in most cases averaged approximately 60 percent as in past years. The Arkansas Valley figures averaged only 54 percent males this segment. Some counts in the Arkansas Valley were conducted in Units 10 and 11 as well as Unit 12, but for simplicity, all were combined under Unit 12 for purposes of reporting (Fig. 1). �Table 1. Numbers and percentages of mallards in the banded sample by sex, age, and area, eastern Colorado, 1969-70. Management Units Adult Irmnature Number Banded No. (1) Sterling-Julesburg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (2) Fort Morgan-Sterling 600 141 23.5 71 11.8 150 25.0 238 39.7 (3) Greeley-Fort Morgan 600 151 25.2 104 17.3 159 26.5 186 31.0 (4) Fort Collins 59l 153 25.9 112 19.0 150 25.4 176 29.7 (6) Denver-Greeley 36 15 47.7 1 2.8 15 47.7 5 13 .8 (9) Bonny Reservoir 645 155 24.0 156 24.2 150 23.2 184 28.6 (12) Rocky Ford-Lamar 686 152 22.2 163 23.8 l37 20.0 234 34.0 (13) Pueblo-Rocky Ford 229 150 65.5 39 17.0 29 12.7 11 4.8 (15) San Luis Valley 462 182 39.4 155 33.5 62 13.4 63 13.7 3,849 1,099 28.6 801 20.8 852 22.1 1,097 28.5 Male Female No. % % Male No. Female % No. % t-' w w �u' c- u: m / c,., --I'" ••••••• ~ es •••••• :it: " ~ .'I o x u ~ c.::I Po ~ ~ ~ - �- 135 Table 2. Date Mallard sex ratio ground counts by study units, 1969-70. Location Male Number Ducks Counted Female Total Percent Males Sterling-Julesburg (Unit 1) 1-26-70 South Platte River 337 145 482 69.9 1-29-70 South Platte River 387 176 563 68.7 1-31-70 South Platte River 339 182 521 65.1 2-18-70 South Platte River 349 236 585 59.6 2-19-70 South Platte River 356 223 579 61.5 2-20-70 South Platte River 321 197 518 62.0 2-20-70 Jumbo Reservoir 324 196 520 62.3 2-21-70 South Platte River 337 208 545 61.8 2,750 1,563 4,313 63.8 Sub-Totals Fort Morgan-Sterling (Unit 2) 1-26-70 South Platte River 311 192 503 61.8 1-31-70 South Platte River 309 242 551 56.1 2-3-70 South Platte River 231 163 394 58.6 2-4-70 South Platte River 366 234 600 61.0 2-20-70 Prewitt Reservoir 333 203 536 62.1 2-21-70 Prewitt Reservoir 317 197 514 61.7 1,867 1,231 3,098 60.3 Sub-Totals Greeley-Fort Morgan (Unit 3) 1-24-70 South Platte River 295 241 536 55.0 1-31-70 South Platte River 298 211 509 58.5 2-21-70 South Platte River 313 211 524 59.7 906 663 1,569 57.7 Sub-Total �- 136 - sex ratio ground counts by study units, 1969-70 Mallard Table 2. Number Ducks Counted Total Female Male Location Date Fort Collins Area (Continued) . Percent Males (Unit 4) 2 -1-70 New Windsor Reservoir 326 221 547 59.6 2-2-70 New Windsor Reservoir 363 222 585 62.0 2 -3 -70 New Windsor Reservoir 339 250 589 57.6 1,028 693 1,721 59.7 250 242 492 50.8 Sub-Totals Arkansas Valley (Unit 12) 1-19-70 Verhoeff 1-20-70 Two Buttes Reservoir 128 90 218 58.7 1-23-70 John Martin Reservoir 243 219 462 52.6 2-2-70 John Martin Reservoir 225 187 412 54.6 2 -2 -70 Two Buttes Reservoir 223 185 408 54.6 2-2-70 Upper Queen's 64 40 104 61.5 1,133 963 2,096 54.0 Sub-Totals Pond Reservoir It is difficult to realize the significance of results of sex ratio counts after hunting season. Males have averaged about 60 percent of Colorado wintering mallard populations since initiation of the study in 1963-64. Increased harvest of approximately 40,000 drakes during the late drake season of 1968-69 (Grieb et al. 1969) and 35,000 during the late pointsystem season of 1969-70 (Funk et a1. 1970) apparently failed to have much effect on sex composition of mallard flocks in the State. However, sampling methods and other unknown factors could be responsible for our inability to detect changes. Yet there is no reason to doubt that actual post-season sex composition of wintering Colorado mallard flocks is not close to 60 percent males. �- 137 - Winter Aerial Surveys As in 1968-69, four periodic aerial censuses were conducted during December and January to estimate numbers present by area (Table 3). Good production on the breeding grounds in 1969 was reflected by increases in wintering birds present. Peak counts in each unit usually occurred during the midwinter survey the first part of January. This meant that peak populations of mallards were probably present during most of the late experimental pointsystem season from December 13, 1969 through January 4, 1970. High count was approximately 433,000 birds in early January with most unit totals decreasing by mid-January to an estimated total of 363,000 birds. Some of the reason for decreased numbers by mid-January could have been due to birds moving south, as indicated by Arkansas Valley figures, or to other states. However, the winter of 1969-70 was very mild and birds were scattered, making census difficult. Table 3. 1969-70. Aerial duck counts by interval and study unit, eastern Colorado, Number Ducks Counted by Date Dec. 19-23, Jan. 5-6, 9, Jan. 19-20, 23 1969 1970 1970 Area and Study Unit Dec. 9-10, 1969 (1) Sterling-Julesburg 23,200 18,263 20,300 17,030 (2) Fort Morgan-Sterling 27,800 34,830 46,650 32,380 (3) Greeley-Fort 33,990 46,900 46,550 28,295 (4) Fort Collins 45,775 40,398 43,200 46,425 (6) Denver-Greeley 79,935 65,400 88,328 52,850 (9) Bonny Reservoir 37,300 32,000 35,000 37,200 (1/) Arkansas Valley 77,025 82,765 105,416 113,660 47,470 35,340 432,914 363,l30 Morgan (15) San Luis Valley Grand Totals 1/ Units 325,025 10, 11, 12, and 13. 320,556 �- 138 - Mallards must have been continuing to enter Colorado from the north from mid-December to early January because numbers of birds increased even though an estimated 40,000 mallards were removed from the population during the late point-system season. The peak in numbers in the winter of 1968-69 was estimated to have occurred in mid-December with approximately 300,000 present in eastern Colorado (Funk 1969). The 433,000 observed in early January 1970 was an increase of about 133,000 birds over the previous year. As in previous years, mid-winter populations of ducks were estimated at about 98 percent mallards. Recovery and Mortality Rates and Migration Routes With changes in work assignments, updating of recovery cards has been delayed. Changes in format on recovery cards obtained from the Bird Banding Lab also contributed to delay in processing as IBM programs utilized previously were rendered useless. However, complete IBM tapes with all winter banding and recovery information from 1963-64 through 1969-70 are expected from the Bird Banding Lab very soon. Analysis of data could be completed more economicallyand completely when the tapes arrive. Thus, no updating of recovery, mortality and harvest distribution data will be presented here. Hopefully, the bulk of analysis can be completed in the next segment. Wing Surveys Information on age and sex ratios in the harvest was again obtained by both Federal and State wing surveys. The former survey covered the entire hunting season while the latter covered only the point-system season. These data are covered in the point-system report (Funk et al. 1970) and will be utilized for final reports. No information on the surveys will be presented in this report. Hunting Pressure Surveys Duck hunting pressure and harvest by unit was again estimated by study unit. These figures are shown in Table 4 and are derived from 1969-70 waterfowl harvest survey figures (Funk 1970). Data include harvest from both the regular 1969 duck season and the 1969-70 late point-system season. Although species composition was not estimated through the questionnaire survey, overall composition of the harvest was judged to be nearly 80 percent mallards. As shown in Table 4, average bag per hunter in northern Colorado was similar to 1968-69 estimates of between 7 and 8 birds with a lower estimate in the Arkansas Valley. Hunting pressure was up significantly from 1968-69 resulting in a higher total kill than a year ago. High numbers of ducks present coupled with the more lenient point-system regulation must have contributed to enticing hunters to take part in the season. Numbers of hunters per 100 birds censused was again utilized to compare hunting pressure by study unit. Pressure was indicated to have increased significantly between 1968-69 and 1969-70 in the northeast section of Colorado. �- 139 - Table 4. Hunter pressure, harvest, and population survey data for comparison between management units and areas, 1969-70 regular and late point-system seasons. Estimated Duck Huntersz'/ Estimated Ducks Bagged~J Average Bag per Hunter Number Ducks Censused~J No. Hunters Present per 100 Ducks Censused 1 2,219 15,107 6.8 20,588 10.8 2 2,760 15,827 5.7 36,427 7.6 9 974 5,935 6.3 34,767 2.8 Total 5,953 36,869 6.2 91,782 6.5 3 4,492 28,056 6.2 42,480 10.6 4 3,030 13,668 4.5 43,124 7.0 6 5,466 33,452 6.1 77,888 7.0 Total 12,988 75,176 5.8 163,492 7.9 10 758 5,755 7.6 12 1,840 12,769 6.9 13 1,028 7,913 7.7 Total 3,626 26,437 7.3 88,402 4.1 351 9,352 Area ]J Northeast North-Central Southeast San Luis Valley 15 1/ See Fig. 1 for management 47,470 unit locations. 2/ Funk 1970. "jj Data from Table 3, average of first three counts, except that only the January 9 count was uS2d for the San Luis Valley. ~/ Inventory figures for Arkansas Valley usable only as total. �- 140 - The average of 6.5 hunters per 100 birds censused was double that of a year ago. Bonny Reservoir was again indicated to have been low in pressure even though wintering birds were abundant. Here, lack of favorable harvest habitat is an important factor in keeping participation and total harvest low. However, hunters in the area seemed to have as much success as those in most other areas. Pressure in the north-central area was indicated to have been similar to that of 1968-69. The Experimental Point-system Duck Season Following the 1968-69 experimental late mallard drake season, which seemed to be a success, a late experimental point-system season was granted for parts of six Central Flyway states in 1969-70. Results of the season were presented in a cooperative report to the Central Flyway Technical Committee (Funk et al. 1970). Areas included in the experiment were the Central Flyway portions of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, along with western portions of South Dakota and Nebraska. Length of the season was 23 days, covering four weekends, from December 13, 1969 through January 4, 1970. Shooting hours were from sunrise to sunset. Daily bag was on a point-system of 40+ points with mallard drakes counting 10 points each toward the total. All other species and mallard hens counted 40 points each. Participants were required to have a special free permit to hunt in their possession. Purpose of the point-system regulation was to continue placing pressure on mallard drakes while allowing "mistake" birds to be legal. Number of permits issued in Colorado was 17,308, similar to the drake season of 1968-69. Number of permittees who hunted was estimated at 11,285 or 65% of the total recipients of permits. Total harvest was estimated at 43,000 birds. Both of the latter figures are very similar to those from the previous year. Hunter performance survey results suggested that 86 percent of the total harvest in Colorado during the late season was composed of mallards (78 percent males plus 8 percent females). This represents an estimated male composition in the mallard bag of 91 percent. This compares favorably with the 89 percent estimate on mallard male-female composition in the bag from wing surveys. Thus, the late point-system season regulation seemed to be a feasible method of directing harvest toward drakes. Reaction of hunters to the point-system regulation was judged to be very good, based both on results of performance checks and comments by hunters on harvest questionnaires. The challenge to the hunter was still present in that he could maximize the size of his daily bag by selctively shooting drake mallards. �- 141 - LITERATURE CITED Funk, H. D. 1969. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks Game Res. Rept. Oct. pp. 131-156. Funk, H. D. 1970. Waterfowl kill survey. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks Game Res. Rept. Oct. In press. Funk, H. D., R. M. Hopper, J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, T. Kuck, D. E. Timm, and G. W. Merrill. 1970. Preliminary evaluation of the 1969-70 experimental point-system duck season within the High Plains Mallard Management Unit of the Central Flyway. Cent. Fly. Tech. Comm. Rept. March. 11 pp.+ 12 tables and Appendix. Grieb, J. R., H. D. Funk, R. M. Hopper, G. F. Wrakestraw, and D. Witt. 1969. Preliminary evalution of the 1968-69 experimental mallard drake season in Central Flyway portions of Montana, Wyoming and Colorado. Cent. Fly. Tech. Comm. Rept. March. 8 pp. + 16 Tables and Appendix. Hopper, R. M., and H. D. Funk. 1970. Reliability of the mallard wing agedetermination technique for field use. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):333-339. , ( ~I Prepared by f(,,_{< ( I (: '\ I . 7 / I :(-~ Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research ��- 143 - JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work ~C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~ October REPORT _ No. W-88-R-ls Migratory Plan No. 4 Job No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Trapping April 1, 1969 1970 and Banding through March Bird Investigations 3 Doves 31, 1970 Charles Hayes, Dale Horne, and Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Clait Braun, William Carpenter, Howard Funk, Larry Green, Chet McCord, Steve Steinert, Mike Watkins, and Gary Will, Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Efforts initiated in 1964 to trap and band samples of mourning doves (Zenaidura macroura) in Colorado were continued in 1969. Cooperative federal and state efforts resulted in 3,294 birds being newly banded. Of this total, 1,071 were immatures; 1,345 were adult males while 8v8 were adult females. Assigned quotas were accomplished for the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, but not for western Colorado or extreme eastern Colorado. Wing molt data from trapped immatures indicated that hatching was bimodal with mid-May and mid-June being major hatching periods. A sample of 172 hunter killed birds in southeastern Colorado game a young-to-old ratio of 2.4:1. Wing molt data from harvested immatures in this sample indicated that most early-hatched young migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Collection of wings from hunter-killed mourning dover should be terminated. Analyses of migration patterns and mortality rates of doves banded in Colorado should not be conducted until at least 400 band returns are available. Efforts to trap and band birds in extreme eastern Colorado should be expanded. The p. S. Objective should be modified since sufficient band returns upon which to base a harvest formula will not be available in the foreseeable future. Trapping and banding efforts in Colorado in conjunction with overall objectives of theCentral Management Unit should be continued. Final analyses of banding data should be conducted by theBureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for the entire Central Management Unit. ��- 145 - MOURNING DOVE TRAPPING AND BANDING Clait E. Braun The mourning dove is the most important migratory game species in North America in terms of hunting opportunity and total harvest. In Colorado, well over 300,000 doves are harvested each year, as they are avidly sought by sportsmen (Funk and Tully 1970). In view of hunter interest and potential harvest, Colorado initiated intensive studies on dove migration patterns in 1962 (Funk 1964). In 1964 an active trapping and banding program on mourning doves was started in cooperation with personnel of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This program was intensified in 1967, and over 2,000 doves each year have been banded since that time. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1969 during the sixth year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for doves in Colorado. SEGMENT 1. 2. OBJECTIVES To band mourning doves in Colorado for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history, and annual mortality data. To obtain age and sex ratio data, wing molt information, and estimates on harvest size from hunters through personal contact and mail surveys. METHODS AND MATERIALS Doves were trapped in suitable locations (feedlots, fallow fields, and other areas where waste grain was abundant) through use of cage-type wire funnel traps (Funk 1965). Wheat (Triticum aestivum) was the primary bait used, although millet (Panicum spp.), milo (Sorghum vulgare), and a commercial hen scratch were used in Some locations. All doves trapped were banded with U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands (size 3A) and classified as to age and sex (adults only) (Reeves et al. 1968). Observations were made as to primary feather replacement on all immature birds in order to estimate hatching dates (Allen 1963). Efforts were made to trap and band 4,000 doves, with 1,000 to be banded in West Slope areas; 2,000 along the East Slope of the Rocky Mountains, and 1,000 in extreme eastern Colorado, following guidelines established by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Ruos 1968). �- 146 DESCRIPTION OF TRAPPING AREAS East Slope trapping areas were located primarily in farming areas where cattle feedlots, trench silos, and farm homesteads were interspersed with cultivated areas. In the Fort Morgan area, the density of farms was lower, with resultant larger fields and fewer trees. Much of the upland portion of this locality was in native grass and water was not abundant. A similar situation existed at the Rocky Mountain Aresenal near Denver where much of the area was in native grass. Doves at this location fly substantial distances to obtain grit along roadsides. Trapping on the West Slope was concentrated near Craig and Meeker and was conducted along roads and in livestock use areas. Vegetation was dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and Gambel's oak (Quercus gambelli), with ranches being widely separated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Cooperative Federal and State trapping and banding efforts were intensified in 1969, with 3,294 doves being banded. Of this total, 2,663 were banded by Division personnel. Doves were banded at eight different locations along the East Slope and at three different areas on the West Slope. The banding goal of 4,000 birds was not accomplished, as no doves were banded in extreme eastern Colorado, and only 703 of the 1,000 quota were banded in western Colorado. However, the total of over 3,200 doves banded surpassed numbers trapped in any other year of the study. Sex and age distribution of birds banded by area is presented in Table 1. It is apparent from Table 1 that adults were more readily trapped than immatures, possibly due to higher nutritional needs associated with nesting, and that adult males occurred more frequently in the trapped sample than adult females. This contrasts to the 1968 data, when numbers of adult males and females trapped were similar, and immatures comprised 63.1 percent of the total number trapped (Funk 1969). In 1969, the largest banding effort was made in June prior to the time when immatures comprised a large portion of the population. However, trapping effort in 1968 was more uniform, with the major effort being expended in July and early August. Examination of the age ratio of doves trapped in 1969 revealed that in late July and August (Denver and Fort Morgan), immatures substantially outnumbered adults in the trap samples. The reason why adult males were more readily trapped than females are not precisely known, but this phenomenon may be related to time of day and behavior of male and female doves. Males apparently nest during mid-day and are more vulnerable to trapping in late afternoon (Funk 1965, 1969). Hatching Data Wing molt data were recorded for 1,047 of the 1,071 immature doves banded in 1969. Estimated hatching dates (Allen 1963) are presented in Table 2. �- 147 - Table 1Colorado, Sex and age distribution of mourning doves banded by area in 1969. Area Adult Male Number Percent Banded Adult Female Number Percent Banded Irrnnature Number Percent Banded Total Eastern Sl0Ee, Rocky Mountains Fort Collins 944 53.8 565 32.2 247 14.0 1,756 Denver 33 12.6 55 21.0 174 66.4 262 Longmont 40 58.0 16 23.2 13 18.8 69 Vineland 97 32.3 85 28.3 118 39.4 300 Rocky Ford 0 25 100.0 25 Fort Morgan 3 2.0 1 .6 148 97.4 152 Monte Vista 8 38.0 1 5.0 12 57.0 21 Salida 3 50.0 3 50.0 0 1,128 43.5 726 28.0 737 28.5 2,591 139 31.2 106 23.8 201 45.0 446 Durango 2 22.2 0 7 77 .8 9 Meeker 76 30.6 46 18.6 126 50.8 248 217 30.9 152 21.6 334 47.5 703 Total all Areas 1,345 40.8 878 26.7 1,071 32.5 3,294 Sub-total 0 6 Western Sl0Ee, Rocky Mountains Craig-Hayden Sub-total �- 148 - Table 2. Estimated hatching A ri1 17-23 24-30 Number Hatching Number Hatching dates for wild-trapped mourning doves, 1969. 1-7 8-14 Ma 15-21 22-28 29-June 4 166 106 127 5 8 12 69 5-11 June 12-18 19-25 26-2 3-9 10-16 17-23 24-30 87 126 92 91 67 66 25 0 Ju1 Examination of data in Table 2 indicates that doves hatched as early as late April (April 23), with hatching continuing until late July. It is probable that few doves hatch earlier than late April in Colorado, but some hatch later than indicated. These birds were not represented in the trapped sample as trapping was terminated on August 21. Peak hatching periods were midMay and mid-June in 1969. However, hatching peaks are not clearly delimited, probably because of unequal trapping effort from June through mid-August. Also, it is possible that doves hatched in Colorado molt at different rates than those in Indiana where the technique for estimating hatching dates from primary molt progression was developed. Upon tabulating the number of immature doves molting primaries 1 through 10, it was apparent that there was a constant and rapid turnover of young doves available for trapping in the populations sampled. Over 75 percent (77.0) of the immatures trapped were molting primaries 1 or 2, or had not shed primary 1. In contrast, less than 3 percent (2.7) had molted more than 6 or 7 primaries, while no birds were trapped which were molting primaries 8 through 10. This strongly suggests that young doves rapidly left nesting areas and migrated away from trapping sites. Where these birds congregated and migrated to after hatching is not known. Harvest No effort was made to collect wings from throughout Colorado during the 1969 hunting season. Wings of 172 birds harvested September 2 and 3 in southeastern Colorado were ava~lab1e for analysis. Of this total, 51 were from adult birds and 121 were from irnrr.atures, giving a young-to-o1d ratio of 2.4:1. Approximately 75 percent (75.2) of the young harvested had molted 5 or fewer primaries, indicating they were less than 63 days of age. This supports data collected in earlier years of the study which indicated that most early-hatched young migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. �- 149 - Harvest data obtained through use of a mail survey of hunters after the hunting season indicated that 25,119 hunters harvested 323,773 doves in Colorado in 1969 (Funk and Tully 1970). Less than 30 band returns were received from doves shot in 1969 that were banded in the same year. While sample sizes are too small for meaningful conclusions, it is evident that doves banded in Colorado have a low hunting mortality. However, a substantial amount of the known hunting mortality occurs in Colorado. Because of low band recoveries, meaningful data on migration and annual mortality are not available. LITERATURE Allen, J. M. Indiana. 4 p. CITED 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature Ind. Dep. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No.4, Funk, H. D. 1964. Dove migration investigation. Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. doves in Indianapolis. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Oct. p 89-113. 1965. Trapping and banding doves. Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Oct. p. 161-169. 1969. Trapping and banding doves. Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Oct. p. 157-162. ______, and R. J. Tully. 1970. Colorado small game hunter harvest survey, 1969. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Fort Collins. Mimeo. Rep. 35 p. Reeves, H. M., A. D. Geis, and F. C. Kniffin. 1968. Mourning dove capture and banding. U. S. Dept. Interior, Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wildl., Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 117, 63 p. Ruos, J. 1968. Mourning dove banding needs, 1969-71. Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wildl., Unpubl. Rept. U. S. Dept. Interior, 13 p. %' -r~?It?rZttun} £ Prepared by._. ,,/tze ? Clait E. Braun, Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��October - 151 - JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work ~C~O~L~O~RAD~~O Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory 4 ------~-------------- Job Title Band-tailed April REPORT _ W-88-R-15 No. 1970 Pigeon Bird Job No. Investigations 4 Investigations 1, 1969 through March 31, 1970 Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; personnel of the U. S. Forest Service; Clait E. Braun, William Carpenter, Velma Fredrickson, Howard Funk, Chet McCord, Richard McDonald, Marie Vendeville, Ken Wagner, Mike Watkins, Wildlife Conservation Officers, and other personnel of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Investigations of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) were initiated in Colorado in 1969 in conjunction with the Cooperative Four Corners States (Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado). Major emphasis was placed on delimiting present distribution in respect to historic distribution, ascertaining relative abundance, trapping and banding samples of pigeons throughout the State and documenting breeding and nesting phenology. Band-tailed pigeons were found to be distributed throughout the forested mountainous areas of Colorado from early May into October. Estimated numbers of pigeons present were not calculated but relative abundance was greater in southern and southwestern Colorado than in northern and northwestern Colorado. Abundance and distribution appeared to be related to presence of native foods and cultivated grain crops. No real difference could be detected between the 1969 survey of distribution and abundance and surveys conducted from 1946 to 1957. Pigeons were trapped at five different locations in 1969 and 1,600 birds were newly banded. Data from collected birds indicated that breeding and nesting were initiated prior to June 25 and continued until at least mid-August. Some data were obtained that indicated band-tails in Colorado were capable of multiple nesting attempts and of producing up to two eggs per clutch. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. 2. 3. Efforts should be increased to trap and band wild band-tailed pigeons (especially immatures) over wider geographical areas of the State. An experimental hunting season for 1970 should be requested of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Plans should be formulated for an aviary study to document molts and plumages from the immature to adult age classes. ��- 153 - BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS C1ait E. Braun Band-tailed pigeons, wild, native Co1umbids, occur only in North and Central America. Two populations are presently recognized north of Mexico, with the coastal group (C. f. monilis) occurring principally west of the Sierra and Cascade Mountai~s of California, Oregon, Washington, into Central British Columbia. The interior population (f. f. fasciata) is seasonally resident in the forested mountains of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, southward to Guatemala (Amer. Ornithol. Union 1957). Systematic studies of regional or State populations of band-tails are lacking, with most published references referring to distribution, finding of a nest, or trapping and census techniques. Notable exceptions are the nesting studies of Glover (1953) and MacGregor and Smith (1955); general life history work of Neff (1947) and Smith (1968); mortality studies of Wight et al. (1967) and Silovsky (1969); and the behavior work by Peeters (1962). Of the important contributions to understanding the ecology of bandtailed pigeons, only the general life history information presented by Neff (1947) referred to the interior population. Consequently, efforts were initiated by the Four Corners States (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah) in 1967 to conduct cooperative studies on this little known population. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. OBJECTIVES To investigate distribution and relative numbers of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado by area. To investigate the correlation between abundance and distribution of bandtails and physical features of the environment. To investigate the breeding and nesting chronology of band-tails in Colorado. To trap, band, age, and sex as many birds as possible in selected areas of Colorado to investigate migration patterns and chronology of Colorado band-tailed pigeons throughout their range. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Much of the published literature concerning band-tailed pigeons relates to general observations on distribution and the finding of a nest. Of over 150 references examined, less than 20 were the result of organized scientific study. �- 154 Census techniques for band-tailed pigeons have been discussed by Sisson (1968), Keppie (1970), and Keppie et al. (1970); while Miller and Wagner (1955), and Silovsky et al. (1968) reported on sex and age characters. Trapping techniques for band-tails have been mentioned by a number of workers, among them Wooten (1955), Mace and Batterson (1961), Drewien et al. (1966), and mortality rates have been examined by Wight et al. (1967) and Silovsky (1969). Intensive studies on nuptial behavior (Peeters 1962) and nesting (Glover 1953; MacGregor and Smith 1955) have been conducted only in California. Houston (1963) presented preliminary results of a study on the reproductive ecology of this species in California. Work by Neff (1947) and Smith (1968) have contributed to the overall knowledge of band-tailed pigeons. Important contributions to an understanding of parasitic load in this species have been made by Stabler and co-workers (1950, 1951, 1963) and Sileo and Fitzhugh (1969). Of 27 references concerning band-tailed pigeons in Colorado, 21 refer to status or distribution within the State and are summarized by Bailey and Niedrach (1965). Five of the remaining articles refer to parasites in wild Colorado Columbids including band-tailed pigeons (Stabler 1950, 1951; Stabler et al. 1950; Stabler and Matteson 1950; Stabler and Holt 1963). The remaining brief reference pertains to nesting (Neff and Niedrach 1946). METHODS AND MATERIALS Mail surveys of Wildlife Conservation Officers, U. S. Game Management Agents, and U. S. Forest Service personnel were conducted in order to obtain information on past and present distribution of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado (Appendix). All persons contacted through the mail survey were also asked to report all sightings of band-tails on standardized monthly observation forms (Appendix). In addition, project personnel systematically reported their observations of pigeons on standardized cards (Appendix). All sightings of 100 or more pigeons were to be reported directly by telephone to the Game Research Center in Fort Collins. Efforts were made to trap pigeons wherever they were located feeding in flocks larger than 50 birds. Pigeons were trapped primarily through use of cannon nets and modified cage-type wire funnel traps. One 30- by 75-foot cannon net with l~-inch mesh was used with three cannons as described by Dill (1969). Wire cage-type funnel traps (Funk 1965) with enlarged funnels were utilized in some instances where space was limited or the cannon net was unavailable. Two 7- by 30-foot, 2 3/8-inch mesh mist nets were used for 3 days following instructions of Reeves et al. (1968). All pigeons trapped were separated into adult or immature classes (Silovsky et al. 1968), and the sex of most adults was determined by cloacal inspection (Miller and Wagner 1955). Following age and sex determination, pigeons were banded with U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands (size 5), and released. Barley (Hordeum vulgare) was most successfully used as bait for pigeons, although wheat (Triticum aestivum) and milo (Sorghum vulgare) were used in certain situations. A few pigeons were trapped in orchards by using mist nets placed adjacent to cherry (Prunus avium) trees. �- 155 - Band-tailed pigeons lost in trapping operations, those systematically collected, and those shot by orchard growers near Hermosa were immediately frozen and then transported to Fort Collins. Upon processing, measurements were taken of certain external characteristics to the nearest millimeter, while gonads were measured to the nearest tenth of a millimeter. Weights were recorded to the nearest tenth of one gram. Status of the crop glands was recorded with those crops showing glandular development being excised and preserved in buffered formalin. Upon dissection, gonads were measured, excised, and preserved in buffered formalin. Crop contents were dried and stored in manila envelopes with gizzard contents being preserved in buffered formalin. All helminths found were preserved in either a 95-percent alcohol and 5-percent glycerin solution (nematodes) or AFA (cestodes). All carcasses were saved for future mercury and fat analysis. Usable skins were donated to Colorado State University. Standardized data sheets were utilized for each bird (Appendix). DESCRIPTION OF TRAPPING AREAS Pigeons were trapped at locations near Salida, Rye, Durango, Monte Vista, and Morrison in 1969. With two exceptions, trapping sites were located along the edges of either newly planted (Salida, Rye, and Durango) or harvested (Monte Vista and Morrison) grainfields (barley and wheat) located along the foothills and in intermountain valleys. These locations were characterized by having an abundance of immediately adjacent roosting or perching sites in trees or shrubs. Trees and shrubs most commonly used were ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), narrowleaf cottonwood (Populus augustifolia), and Gambe1's oak (Quercus gambe1i). One trapping site near Durango was located in an alfalfa (Medicago sativa) field along a stream course, while the other exception, near Hermosa, was in a commercial cherry orchard. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution The distribution of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado prior to the advent of settlement is poorly known. Only a few scattered references concerning pigeon sightings in Colorado are available prior to 1946. In 1945, general studies of pigeons in Colorado were initiated under the auspices of the Game and Fish Department which continued on a sporadic basis until the early 1950's. As a result of these studies, the first general map of band-tail distribution in Colorado was prepared (Neff and Culbreath 1947). Status and distributional surveys were conducted annually from 1946 until 1957, after which time no formal reports were prepared. Of the reports prepared, only those by Neff and Culbreath (1947), Kinghorn (1947), and Matteson (1948) included distribution maps. Sufficient data were obtained from the mail survey to plot the recent distribution of pigeons in Colorado (Fig. 1). Upon comparing the distribution of pigeons in 1969 with the map prepared by Neff and Culbreath (1947), it is apparent that only minor changes have occurred. The most notable change is �- 156 ~ that pigeons now occur north of the Cache 1a Poudre River in Larimer County, whereas the earlier work indicated no sightings in this area. It is probable that the slight differences in distribution between 1946 and 1969 are a function of numbers of observers and access. Essentially, no real changes in distribution of band-tailed pigeons have occurred since 1946. Pigeons in 1969 were found to be widely distributed throughout the mountainous areas of Colorado from the foothills of the Eastern Slope of the Rocky Mountains, along the periphery of most of the intermountain valleys and parks, to the forested mesas, plateaus, and canyons of the western and southwestern portion of the State. They are extremely uncommon above tree line (11,600 ft), and apparently are absent in North Park, South Park, and portions of the Gunnison Basin as well as the sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-pinyon (Pinus edulis)-juniper(Juniperus spp.) country in northwestern Colorado. Abundance At present, no adequate census techniques are available for estimating numbers of band-tailed pigeons. Studies in Oregon (Sisson 1968; Keppie 1970) have been conducted on the use of an audio-index for census of this species. Techniques developed in these studies have been recently proposed for widespread use in censusing pigeons (Keppie et al. 1970). From reports of pigeon sightings it was possible to obtain a general impression as to relative numbers of pigeons. Reported observations of pigeons were most abundant from the Glenwood Springs, Uncompahgre Plateau, San Juan Basin, South Fork, Salida, and Rye-LaVeta areas. Lesser numbers of sightings were reported from the Evergreen-Morrison, Buford, and Hot Sulphur Springs areas. Outside of these areas, reported sightings were sparse. While it is difficult to relate number of sightings to actual densities of birds because of number of observers, access, time of year, etc., it is possible to make a general assessment of pigeon abundance. Apparently, band-tailed pigeons are most abundant south of a line from Denver to Glenwood Springs and Grand Junction. While distribution and abundance south of this line are not even, north of this line pigeon abundance and distribution is even more discontinuous. Reasons for the uneven distribution and abundance of pigeons in Colorado are not known. It is possible that the presence or absence of native foods (berries and acorns) is most responsible in determining where pigeons occur and how many can be supported. Forested areas of northern Colorado are noted for their lack of substantial numbers of species of berry and mast producing plants. Intermountain areas of this region are relatively high in elevation, they have short growing seasons, and consequently, few cereal grains are cultivated. Pigeon distribution in this region is sparse and numbers are apparently low. In contrast, forested areas of central and southern Colorado have a variety of important berry (Sambucus spp., Prunus spp., Lonicera spp., Crataegus spp.) producing bushes in addition to an abundance of Gambel's oak (acorns). Scattered throughout the lower valleys of this region are farms which usually produce some cultivated grains. Pigeons in this area are more widespread and apparently more abundant. Whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between food, abundance, and distribution of pigeons is not known, although general observations support this possibility. �COLORADO MOFFAT ROVTT SEOGWICIC LOGAN WELl) PHILLIPS MORGAN I rVMA WASHINGTON RIO BLANCO ELBERT I(tTCARSON LINCOLN MESA I-' VI CHEYENNE A' \ I CROWLEY " I KIOWA I SAGVACHE BENT J.AS ANIMAS Fig. 1. Band-tailed pigeon distribution, 1969. I!'ROWERS I SAC •••• �- 158 Upon comparing locations and numbers of pigeons reported in 1969 with those mentioned in early reports (Neff and Culbreath 1947; Kinghorn and Neff 1948; Matteson 1948, 1949, 1950; Neff, 1951, 1952; U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo 1954, 1955, 1957; Buller 1957), it is apparent that no real change has occurred in numbers or distribution of pigeons in Colorado. Indications are that band-tails use the same general areas every year in approximately the same numbers, with exact location used within a given area varying each year. The observed variation is probably related to food availability and activities of the observers. From what little meaningful data that are available, it is concluded that pigeon numbers in Colorado have not noticeably changed since 1946. Relating pigeon abundance to physical features of the environment is difficult, if not impOSSible, without detailed study of the various habitats used. Apparent relationships between pigeon distribution and abundance with presence or absence of native foods and cultivated crops have been previously mentioned. Upon listing reported observations of pigeons in 1969 by habitat type (cropland, oak brush, pinyon-juniper, river bottom, orchard, ponderosa pine, spruce-fir (Picea-Pseudotsuga & Abies) forest, and alpine) and time period (May through November) several generalizations can be made. Upon initially arriving in Colorado (early May) pigeons are most frequently seen in cropland areas. This pattern continues until early July when pigeons are more frequently observed in river bottoms, orchards, ponderosa pine and spruce-fir forests. In August, pigeons continue to be seen in ponderosa pine and spruce-fir forests, but sightings in areas dominated by Gambel's oak and cultivated crops are most frequently reported. In September, continuing into November, pigeon sightings are most frequently reported from oak brush and forested areas. It is doubtful that reported sightings give an accurate picture of the habitats used by band-tailed pigeons. Obviously, pigeons in cultivated areas and in other easily accessible locations have a better chance to be observed and counted than those in heavily forested or more remote sites. Banding Prior to 1969, banding of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado was sporadic, and only 557 had been banded (1945 through 1968). Of this total, 490 were banded between 1945 and 1949, while 67 were banded between 1951 and 1968. Through 1968, only one recovery (Mexico) had been reported. Much of the banding in earlier years was near Perry Park north of Colorado Springs, near Westcliffe and west of Salida. Intensive efforts were conducted in 1969 to trap and band pigeons in as many areas as possible. As a result of these efforts, 1,600 pigeons were newly banded in five localities. No recaptures of birds previously banded in Colorado or elsewhere were obtained. Results of trapping operations are given in Table 1. Information concerning the sex of each adult banded was recorded, but due to a combination of factors these data are considered unreliable. Factors involved were the inexperience of the banding crews and large numbers of birds to process quickly (up to 200 at one time). Sex of many birds was �- 159 determined by cloacal inspection (Miller and Wagner 1955), but reliability of this technique under field conditions where several persons were involved was questionable. Observations appeared to indicate that percentage of each sex trapped varied with time of day. Males appeared to predominate before 10:00 A. M., and after 4:00 P. M., MDT, with females being more common from 10:00 A. M. to 4:00 P. M. Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, Totals Es timated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 2.9 308 500+ 4 .8 524 600+ 75.0 85 25.0 340 400+ 144 35.6 261 64.4 405 500+ 5 21. 7 18 78.3 23 300+ 1,223 76.4 377 23.6 1,600 2,300+ Adults No. Banded Percent Immatures No. Banded Percent Area Dates Pueblo June 25-28 299 97.1 9 Salida June 25-30 520 99.2 Durango July 2-31 255 Monte Vista Aug. 5Sept. 8 Morrison Aug. 30-31 TOTALS 1969. Upon examination of data presented in Table 1, it is apparent that percent immatures trapped increased from late June to late August. The immatures trapped in June are difficult to explain as it apparently takes approximately 50-60 days for incubation and rearing of the young to flight stage (Neff and Culbreath 1947). This would indicate that immatures flying in late June were produced by parents that initiated nesting in early May. It is possible that these young were produced in Colorado, or somewhere south of Colorado. The capture of flying young in June may not be unusual as Matteson (1948, 1949) reported trapping one innna.tureon June 20, 1948 (total of 66 birds handled in June) and another on May 28, 1949 (total of 101 birds handled in May). These birds were trapped in the Perry Park and Westcliffe areas. The high percentage of immatures trapped near Monte Vista in August is of interest and may indicate that this trapping site was a staging area for young pigeons produced over a large area. While number of pigeons banded at Morrison was inadequate, it is possible that this flock was also comprised �- 160 - mostly of immatures. This location could be another staging area for immature birds. While numbers of birds (Table 1) present at each trapping site are estimates (probably conservative), it is apparent that once flocks of pigeons are located, a substantial percentage of the flock can be readily captured. With the exception of Morrison, initial estimates of flock size before trapping was initiated were approximately one-half or less of the numbers actually trapped. Therefore, observed flock size may have no correlation with actual number of birds using a particular area. Mortality Insufficient data were obtained to estimate mortality rates of band-tailed pigeons banded in Colorado. While Arizona and New Mexico conducted experimental hunting seasons on pigeons for the second consecutive year in 1969, the season remained closed in Colorado. Seasons in these two States were conducted in limited areas from October 11 through 19, with bag and possession limits of 5 and 10. No pigeons banded in Colorado were reported shot in Arizona or New Mexico in 1969. Only one recovery was reported through August 1970 from the 1969 banding effort. This bird was taken in Mexico in June 1970. Breeding Phenology Data on breeding phenology were obtained through crop and gonadal inspection of birds shot by cherry growers near Hermosa, those accidentally lost in trapping operations, and those systematically collected. In all, 144 birds were available for examination. Of this number, 126 were adults (80 males and 46 females), while the remaining 18 were immatures. The sample included birds taken from June 25 through October 6, but most (109) were from July 9-13. Data concerning crop activity and gonadal condition were tabulated but analyses were not completed during the segment. Cursory examination of the gonadal data indicates males and females were in breeding condition (enlarged testes and egg follicles) from late June through mid-August. Preliminary results also indicate that some females were capable of laying at least two eggs in quick succession. There is some evidence, as yet inadequate, to suggest that early hatched young of the year may be capable of breeding late in their first year. Unfortunately, no collections were available from May and early June, while collections after mid-August were inadequate to accurately assess breeding phenology. Even without these data, it is apparent that pigeons breed and nest in Colorado from early June until sometime in October as birds collected in June and September had "active crops" indicating that young were being fed. In all, crop glands of 33 of 126 adults for which data are available were lactating at time of death. If 50-60 days are necessary for incubation and rearing of the young, it is possible for pigeons in Colorado to nest twice, provided they are in breeding condition when they arrive. �- 161Fragmentary data collected in earlier work in Colorado (Neff and Culbreath 1947; Kinghorn and Neff 1948; Matteson 1948, 1949; Neff 1951) substantiates the 1969 data as females with developed eggs in their oviducts have been collected in early June, reports of nests with two eggs are on record, and reports of eggs and young in nests are available from late August and September. Similar fragmentary information is available for New Mexico and Arizona as up to two young have been found in nests from late February through late September (Neff 1952; U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1954). It is reasonable to conclude that the interior group of band-tailed pigeons are multiple nesters and may produce up to two eggs per clutch. Wing Measurement and Molt Data Measurements of primaries, rectrices, total length, carpal length, and bill length were taken of all pigeons available for necropsy. The major reason for taking these measurements, other than to describe the morphology of pigeons living in Colorado, was to examine the possibility of sexing and aging birds from one or two wing measurements. These data were tabulated but not analyzed as sufficient sample sizes were not available. It is apparent that many of the measurements (rectrices, bill length, and some primary lengths) will be useless for age and sex determination. However, it appears that a combination of carpal length and length of primaries 10 through 7 will be useful in separating immatures and adult males and females. Once data from over 300 birds of known sex and age are available, final analyses of the measurement data will be initiated. Prior to dissection of collected birds, each adult specimen was closely examined as to appearance and coloration of the forehead, upper breast, and distinctness of the white crescent, and classified as to male and female. Upon dissection, gonads were examined and the actual sex of each bird was compared with the classification based on plumage data. Comparative data were available for 119 adults (76 males and 43 females). Of the 76 adult males compared, two (2.6 percent) were sexed incorrectly while five (11.6 percent) of 43 females were classified as males from plumage examination. Total error in classifying pigeons to sex from plumage examination alone was 5.9 percent. While sample sizes are small, it is apparent that an experienced observer can accurately sex pigeons from plumage examination. Use of this technique on live birds would bias sex data in favor of males. Systematic observations of primary feather replacement, except on a few live-trapped birds and all birds collected, were not recorded in 1969. Date concerning primary molt were available from 142 adults and 166 immatures. Although samples are small, preliminary indications are that most adults start replacing primaries 1 and 2 in early August (August 10), a few may molt primary feathers in early July, with some birds replacing several primaries out of the normal sequence (1~10) in late August and September. Apparently, molting of primaries by adults is not sequential. �- 162 Of the 166 irnmatures for which data are available, 59 had not shed primary 1, 56 were molting PI, 40 were molting P2, 5 were molting P3, 4 were molting P4, and 2 were molting P5. These birds were trapped or shot between July 9 and October 6, with most (134) being trapped between August 10 and 17. Hatching dates for these birds were estimated using unpublished data collected by H. M. Wight and his students (Personal communication, H. M. Wight). Numbers of days used to back date for each primary class were: 0 = 36, 1 = 43, 2 = 54, 3 = 72, 4 = 81, 5 = 96. Number of days used are based on the premise that it takes 30 days from hatching to fledging plus 13 days until P1 is shed. It cannot be assumed that all birds not yet molting P1 are only 30 or 43 days old, so the number of 36 days was arbitrarily chosen for the 0 class. Unpublished data from Oregon (Personal communication, H. M. Wight) indicate that birds kept in an aviary shed Pl-43 days, P2-54 days, P3-72 days, P4-8l days, and P5-96 days after hatching. One bird banded in Colorado on August 14 molting no primaries was retrapped on September 10 when it had molted P2. Thus, it took 27 days to molt from 0 to 2 in this instance. Estimated hatching dates for Colorado trapped birds are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Estimated hatching Number Hatching band-tailed pigeons, 1-7 8-14 June 15-21 22-28 29-Ju1y 2 9 4 12 22 52 6-12 13-19 July 20-26 27-2 3-9 51 5 2 1 <May Number Hatching dates for wild-trapped 31 5 August 10-30 0 1969. 5 31 1 It is apparent from Table 2 that hatching in 1969 was spread over a wide time period (May 28 to August 31). The majority of the trapped immatures for which data were available hatched between June 22 and July 12. Unfortunately, all but 27 of the 166 birds were from the Monte Vista area. The nine birds from Durango all hatched prior to June 7. Only two of the Monte Vista birds and none of the 18 Morrison birds hatched prior to June 7. It is probable that the sample does not represent hatching dates for all pigeons hatched in various areas in 1969. It is also possible that early hatched pigeons were not available for trapping as only 11 of the 166 birds examined had molted P3+. �- 163 - Parasitic Load Information on helminths was available for 144 band-tailed pigeons (126 adults and 18 immatures) necropsied. Nineteen (18 adults, 1 immature) of the 144 had helminth infections. The infection rate of 13.2 percent is low, and only one bird (adult female) was considered to be heavily infested. Eleven of 46 adult females contained helminths, while only 7 of 80 adult males were infested. If adequate samples were available, this difference would be significant. Nematodes were found in 5 birds (3 males, 2 females) while 14 contained cestodes and one (adult female) had both types of worms. No adverse effects of the observed parasitism were noted. All worms found were preserved for later identification. LITERATURE CITED American Ornithologist's Union. 1957. Check-list of North American 5th ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore. 691 pp. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Museum Nat. Hist. Vol. II. 895 pp. Birds of Colorado. birds. Denver Buller, R. J. 1957. Survey of band-tailed pigeon populations in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. 1957. U. S. Fish and Wi1dl. Serv., Branch of Game Mgmt., Albuquerque, New Mexico. 15 pp. Dill, H. H. 1969. A field guide to cannon net trapping. Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wi1d1., U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., Div. Wi1dl. Refuges, Minneapolis, Minn. Mimeo Rept., 21 pp. Drewien, R. C., R. J. Vernimen, S. W. Harris, and C. F. Yocum. 1966. weights of band-tailed pigeons. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(1):190-192. Spring Funk, H. D. 1965. Trapping and banding doves. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 161-169. Glover, F. A. fasciata) 1953. A nesting study of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba f. in northwestern California. Calif. Fish and Game 39(3):397-407. Houston, D. B. 1963. The reproductive ecology of the band-tailed J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 5(4):52. Columba fasciata. pigeon, Keppie, D. M. 1970. The development and evaluation of an audio-index technique for the band-tailed pigeon. M.S. ThesiS, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. _____ , H. M. Wight, and W. S. Overton. 1970. A proposed band-tailed pigeon census. Trans. No. Am. Wi1d1. and Nat. Res. Conf. 35:In Press. �- 164 Kinghorn, R. G. 1947. Band-tailed pigeons. Progress Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Oct. pp 1-4. _____ , and J. A. Neff. 1948. Status of the band-tailed pigeon in Colorado, season of 1947. Colorado Dept. Game and Fish. 13 pp. Mace, R. U., and W. M. Batterson. 1961. Results of a band-tailed pigeon banding study at Nehalem, Oregon. Proc. Ann. Conf. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Coroms. 41:151-153. MacGregor, W. G., and W. M. Smith. 1955. Nesting and production of the band-tailed pigeon in California. Calif. Game and Fish. 41(4):315-326. Matteson, C. P. 1948. Band-tailed pigeons. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Progress Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. Oct. pp 18-23. 1949. Band-tailed pigeons. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Progress Oct. pp 33-37. 1950. Band-tailed pigeons. Report, Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Progress Oct. pp 39-40. Miller, W. J., and F. H. Wagner. 1955. Sexing mature Co1umbiformes cloacal characters. Auk 72(3):279-285. Neff, J. A. pigeon. by 1947. Habits, food and economic status of the band-tailed U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., No. Am. Fauna 58,76 pp. 1951. Inventory of band-tailed pigeon populations in Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico, 1951. U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., Denver, Mimeo Rept. 37 pp. 1952. Inventory of band-tailed pigeon populations in Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico, 1952. U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., Denver, Mimeo Rept. 26 pp. _____ , and J. C. Culbreath. 1947. Status of the band-tailed pigeon in Colorado, season of 1946. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Mgmt. Div., Fed. Aid Sect. Rept. 24 pp. _____ , and R. J. Niedrach. 1946. Nesting Colorado. Condor 48(2):72-74. of the band-tailed Peeters, H. J. 1962. Nuptial behavior of the band-tailed San Francisco Bay area. Condor 64(6):445-470. pigeon in pigeon in the Reeves, H. M., A. D. Geis, and F. C. Kniffin. 1968. Mourning dove capture and banding. U. S. Dept. Interior, Bureau Sport Fisheries and Wi1d1. Spec. Sci. Rept. Wi1d1. No. 117, 63 pp. Sileo, L., Jr., and E. L. Fitzhugh. 1969. Incidence of trichomoniasis the band-tailed pigeons of southern Arizona. Bull. Wi1d1. Disease Assoc. 5:146. in �- 165 Silovsky, G. D. 1969. Distribution and mortality of Pacific Coast bandtailed pigeons. M. S. Thesis, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. _______ , H. M. Wight, L. H. Sisson, T. L. Fox, and S. W. Harris. 1968. Methods for determining age in band-tailed pigeons. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32(2):421-424. Sisson, L. H. 1968. Calling behavior of band-tailed pigeons in reference to a census technique. M. S. Thesis, Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. Smith, W. A. 1968. The band-tailed and Game 54(1):4-16. pigeon in California. Stabler, R. M. 1950. Trichomonas gallinae J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 4(2):83. in Columbid Calif. Fish birds in Colorado. 1951. A survey of Colorado band-tailed pigeons, mourning doves, and wild common pigeons for Trichomonas gallinae. J. Parasitol. 37 (5) :470-472. _____ , and Portia A. Holt. 1963. Hematozoa from Colorado birds. and doves. J. Parasitol. 49(2):320-322. ____ , and C. P. Matteson. 1950. Incidence Colorado mourning doves and band-tailed 36(6):25-26. I. Pigeons of Trichomonas gallinae pigeons. J. Parasitol. in _____ , Phyllis S. Limberg, and C. P. Matteson. 1950. Blood parasites Colorado band-tailed pigeons. J. Parasitol. 36(6):25. in U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1954. Survey of band-tailed pigeon populations in Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico with notes on Utah, 1953. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Branch of Game Mgmt., Albuquerque, New Mexico. 35 pp. 1955. Survey of band-tailed pigeon populations in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, 1954. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Branch of Game Mgmt. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 18 pp. 1957. Survey of band-tailed pigeon populations in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah, 1956. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Branch of Game Mgmt., Albuquerque, New Mexico. 14 pp. Wight, H. M., R. U. Mace, and W. M. Batterson. of an adult band-tailed pigeon population 31(3):519-525. Wooten, W. A. 1955. A trapping technique Wildl. Mgmt. 19(3):411-412. ~;/ I Prepared by _[!__bt=--,..:..~_. 1967. Mortality estimates in Oregon. J. Wildl. Mgmt. for band-tailed //) C. __._D__- '__ /l_4_.._,._t.._1.._-1_.z...-,/;-- __ ----.,. C lai t E. B raun Assistant Wildlife /S~t a . ~X'-;: Researcher pigeons. J. �- 166 STATE OF COLORADO John A. Love, DEPARTMENT Governor OF NA TlJRAI RESOURGS DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS Harry R. Woodward, T. W. Ten Evc k Executive Director GAME, FISH AND PARKS COMMISSION Director May 9, 1969 Floyd Getz, LeRoy Robson, President Harrv Combs, C. M. Furncaux, Ccrbar. John E. Holden, K. Niess, WilliJf1l Cooperators in Band-Tailed From: Howard D. Funk Subject: Band-tailed MembN W. Robinson, Foro 51(on9, Melllb~r Dc.m Sullie, Memb!,f Pigeon Investigation Gentlemen: We are initiating an intensive research program on band-tailed pigeons this year and need your help to obtain as much vital data as possible. Pigeons have not been hunted in Colorado since 1950 when it was deemed populations were too low to permit further seasons. We intend to investigate the feasibility of again hunting pigeons in the State through increased effort in estimating population levels, locating concentration areas, trapping and banding, and finally by conducting experimental seasons in certain areaso The latter will probably not be possible until at least 1970 What we need from you at this time is information on pigeon range and sightings from your past experience and also information on current observations. Thus, you have been supplied with two questionnaireso The first relates to past sightingso Please fill in the required data and utilize the enclosed map in plotting locations. If you can find a better map, please use it. Pay special attention to Question 3 and be sure to plainly mark locations of sightings of larger flocks on the map. Please return the questionnaire and map to me as soon as possible. 0 You have also received a supply of Monthly Band-tailed Pigeon Observation formso Information you supply will allow us to add to our knowledge on pigeon range and habits within the state and will also help us in locating trapping sites. Use one form each month, record observations and related data as they occur, and mail the form to me at the end of each month. This year I want to start collecting data in May and some of you may observe birds as late as Novembero Any and all information you record on the various sightings will be appreciated! Please phone in sightings of larger flocks of birds as soon as possible after observation. To start, our summer crew will be headquartering out of Durango but may shift to the San Luis Valley area during the fall trapping period. All of you are more than welcome to join in any portion of the program, such as trapping, whenever your schedules permito Thank you for your helpo HDF:jc Enclo Member Men:hcr Pigeon Census Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research Prc sidcn r Member Or est O. To: Vice Secretnrv Member �- 167 BAND-TAILED PIGEON QUESTIONNAIRE (Historic Range) 1. Have you seen or heard of band-tailed pigeons being present district in past years? Yes No _ 2. Where were the pigeons sighted? (See enclosed map and circle areas of sightings. Please roughly outline the boundary of your district. Feel free to show other si.ghtings outside your district. All information will be appreciated). 3. Please list in the space provided below the locations, as close as possible, and approximate sizes of larger flocks (about 100 birds or more) you have observed or heard of from reliable sources in past years. If possible, list the approximate dates of these sightings. (Plot locations of these larger groups of the enclosed map and designate them as 1, 2, 3, etc.). Observers Name ---------------------------- Address _ on your Please return to: Howard Funk P. O. Box 567 Fort Collins, Colorado 80521 �170 - BAND-TAILED PIGEON OBSERVATION Ti!:lr' Locoti 011 SCCTI. W\',,!hC'r Other ubSf"rV("f ____ ._A.M. P _M. _ Altitude___ No. CARD .Vc q ct o tion __ . ._.. (behavior, fceding o r- t i vi t v , n oi s c s m crd c , t cnu c n c s s , fliUht di '.t{'nC(', I'!(".) �- 171 - COLLECTION FORM Species Date Time Collection No. Location Altitude ----_._--- _ County ----- _ R.T. ------ --------------- Weather ---------- .----------- Vegetation Age _ -------- Bill-----_-0 nun . Male: Testes Female: Weight Sex Ovary gms . Total Length_____________ R. X (Date) --0 _ \Hng Length nun. L. mm , ----------x _ X No. Follicles nun. Follic le__ . Df.am , La r ge s t; nun. mm , ._nnn. Oviduct ---- Crop Heart gms. Fat Appearance Primaries: ------ Wing Tail: Outer 10 9 8 7 Left _ _ 6 5----4 3 l~ 3---- 6 5------_ 4 3-----2 Right (Outside) 6 5 2 1 _ 2 ------- 1----- _ 1 -------- Plumage (Describe)-------- --_ .._--- Specimcns Snved Ec t oparas i. t.es Crop _ _ Skin Wt. ____ Parasi.tes Gizzard Contents-----Remarks: Carcass -------- (Wet-including sac). Viscera Gonads ---- ---------------- � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/1cb9f3762a9f1ac09d5e3f31c58b066a.pdf 82fa46d4b57069fb2c4ab94963ea93e0 PDF Text Text .Tarruar y , 1971 - 1 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-40-R-ll Antelope Work Plan No. 2 Job No. Job Title Investigations 2 Food Habits of Antelope Period Covered: May 1, 1969 to April 30, 1970 Personnel: George D. Bear ABSTRACT No work was accomplished on this job during this segment. Data shall be analyzed and a final manuscript prepared during the next segment. ��January, 1971 - 3 - JOB PROGRESS S tate of Project Work ;;:.CO;;:.L::;:.O:::;RA:..:::;,:;D:::,:O:::...._ No. W-40-R-ll Antelope Investigations Plan No. 2 Job No. 3 Job Title Period REPORT Covered: Personnel: Physiological May 1, 1969 George to April Studies 30, 1970 D. Bear ABSTRACT No work was accomplished on this job during this segment. Data analyzed and final reports prepared during the next segment. shall be ��January, 1971 ~ 5 - JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. w-4l-R-20 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 12 Location and Distribution of Bighorn Sheep Herds in Colorado Period Covered: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1970 Personnel: George D. Bear, William H. Rutherford ABSTRACT Aerial and ground surveys were conducted in fourteen bighorn sheep areas during the last segment. An effort was made to obtain information on herd composition, total numbers, seasonal distribution of herds, historical data concerning the herds, and information on other ungulates utilizing the areas. The following herds were found to have decreased in bighorn numbers during the past ten years: Mesa Verde National Park, Glenwood Canyon, Cline top Mesa, Black Canyon of the Gunnison, West Elk Wild Area, Pole Mountain, and Weminuche Creek-Cimarron Peak. Bighorn herds on Battlement Mesa, Sheep Mountain-Mt. Hope, and Taylor Canyon have remained static during the past ten years; while Sheep Creek-Trickle Mountain, La Garita Wilderness Area, and Never Summer Mountains herds have increased. There is not enough information available on the Emerald Lake herd to establish a trend. Most of these herds tend to winter and summer in the same areas, although the wintering areas are much smaller and restricted. Most sheep ranges are utilized by deer and elk during the summer months. Competition with domestic sheep seems to be restricted to the alpine ranges. 145 licenses were issued and 37 rams During the 1969 bighorn hunting season were killed, for a success ratio of 25.5 percent. Successful hunters averaged 4.5 hunting days each, unsuccessful hunters averaged 7.9 days, and the average for all hunters was 7.0 days, for a projected total of 975 man-days of sheep hunting. Sixty-five percent of permittees were hunting bighorns for the first time. First-time hunters had a success ratio of 25 percent, while those who had hunted during previous years were 32 percent successful. Eighty percent of all permittees started their hunt on the first day of season. Comments made by hunters are tabulated. Measurements of bighorn sheep heads taken during previous years showed that 54 percent of the sample of heads of 3/4 curl or larger were of rams younger than 7 years, and 29 percent were of rams younger than 5 years. g ��- 7 - LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIGHORN George D. Bear and William SHEEP HERDS IN COLORADO H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine numbers, location, sheep herds in Colorado. seasonal range and composition of bighorn SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Determine bighorn sheep distribution. Determine population size and trend for each herd. Determine sex and age composition for each herd. Determine correlation of age and horn growth of rams in each herd. Prepare detailed range and distribution maps for each herd with written descriptions for census. Develop forms which can be used by management personnel during routine census and for recording long-term census information. METHODS Distribution AND MATERIALS and Herd Data Fourteen bighorn sheep areas were surveyed by horseback, aircraft, or foot during the last segment. The entire area was usually surveyed in a random manner. Information was collected on the location, total number, sex, and age of each herd observed. Interviews with Game, Fish and Parks personnel and local residents, plus early Colorado Game and Fish Department Federal Aid Reports, supplied additional information for each area. The Questionnaire presented in Appendix A was sent to Colorado Game, Fish and Parks field personnel. Questionnaire data have not been tabulated or analyzed. Hunter Harvest and Horn Growth Data One change has been made since previous reports were written. For previous methods and materials, see: Woodard, Thomas N. 1969. Bighorn sheep distribution, populations, and herd composition. In Federal Aid Game Research Report, January, 1969, pp. 33-38. For this segment, an age-horn growth relationship study was added as an objective. Previously, age-horn-growth data were included as a sidelight, with no specific place for presentation. The collection of these data entails interviewing successful bighorn hunters from past years and, if the head is still in possession, counting annual growth rings and measuring amount of horn curl. �- 8 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Herd Data Battlement Mesa (Mesa County) Bighorn sheep in this area summer and winter along the narrow hogback northwest of Collbran, extending from Horsethief Mountain to Horse Mountain. The area is about 7,500-8,300 feet elevation. Southern exposures are very steep eroded hillsides with sparse vegetation. Northern exposures have a heady shrub (mostly oakbrush) and conifer cover interspersed with grassy parks. Access is limited to foot travel and a few knowledgeable horsemen. The area is not used by domestic livestock and receives very light use by other wild ungulates. This herd appears to have been static in recent years. In 1960 there was an estimated 10 sheep; 15 head were counted with a fixed-wing aircraft in 1964; 34 sheep observed on a helicopter survey in 1968; and 29 on a helicopter survey in 1969. An effort was made to count the sheep from the ground during June, 1969. Only six sheep (one adult ewe, one lamb, three yearlings, and one small ram) were observed. The sheep were scattered in the brush-dominated areas, thus were difficult to locate and classify. This area is best surveyed by aircraft during the winter months. Mesa Verde National Park (Montezuma County) This is a rough canyon land in the pinyon-juniper vegetative type, interspersed with serviceberry and mountain mahogany. Elevation of the area is approximately 7,000 feet. Apparently the sheep winter and summer in the same localities. Bighorn sheep (14 head) were released at Soda Canyon in 1945. The estimated population in 1960 was 50 head. Ranger Allen Atchinson was interviewed in July, 1969 and estimated the population at 25-30 sheep. Seven ewes and three lambs were sighted from a helicopter at Pine Canyon in June, 1969. Glenwood Canyon (Garfield County) A small herd of bighorns live in the deep canyon along the Colorado River approximately 5 miles east of Glenwood Springs. They generally occupy the range on the north side of the river between No Name Creek and Grizzly Creek. The sheep scatter over the area during the summer months, and tend to winter in an apple orchard at the junction of Grizzly Creek and the Colorado River. Seventeen sheep were trapped in the Tarryall Mountains in December, 1947 and released at Grizzly Creek. The estimated population in 1960 was �- 9 - 35 head. There were nine animals at the apple orchard following the 1969 hunting season. One old ewe died with very heavy lungworm infection during October and an adult ram was killed by an automobile, so the remaining known population was seven sheep (two lambs, three adult ewes, one yearling ewe, and one ram). The local Wildlife Conservation Officer thought there were more sheep higher up on the rim of the canyon, however, helicopter and ground surveys have not substantiated this. Cline top Mesa (Garfield County) This area is very similar to the Glenwood Canyon Area; juniper-oakbrush type interspersed with rugged cliffs. Available information is quite limited for this herd. Apparently they range between Canyon Creek and Main Elk Creek approximately seven miles north of New Castle. An "old timer" at New Castle, Melvin Lykes (lumberjack) was interviewed on December 10, 1969. He stated there were 38 animals in the herd during the 1930's. He generally saw the sheep on lower Deep Creek, and occasionally up higher on Deep Creek and on East Elk Creek. Colorado Game and Fish Division personnel estimated the 1960 popUlation at 54 head in the Clinetops and West Elk Creek. The local Wildlife Conservation Officer estimates the present popUlation at 12 sheep. Three adult rams were found on Hadley Gulch during a helicopter survey, October 6, 1969. Ground surveys have not been successful in locating the sheep. Additional efforts should be made during the winter months with a helicopter. Black Canyon of the Gunnison (Gunnison County) This is an extremely rugged canyon area in a juniper-oakbrush vegetative type at approximately 7,700 feet elevation on the Gunnison River. This appears to be a very good sheep area. It receives moderate deer-use during the winter months. There is very little information on the present herd status. No sheep were found on a helicopter survey in March, 1969. Construction workers at the Marrow Point Dam reported seeing a half dozen sheep in 1968. The estimated population in 1960 was 35 head. An elderly rancher at Gunnison said large herds, 150-200 bighorns, wintered in the valley from Gunnison to Sapinero during the early 1900's. Additional aerial surveys will be made in this area. West Elk Wild Area (Gunnison County) This area is located apprOXimately 25 miles northwest of Gunnison. It is believed that the sheep summer in the alpine ranges and descend to lower areas to winter, however, this is not known for certain. The 1960 population was estimated to be 75 animals. The local Wildlife Conservation Officer said the present popUlation may be 50 head. A helicopter survey �- 10 - was conducted in the area last March and no sheep were found. Twentythree sheep were seen on Mill Creek by a cowboy during April, 1966. Two were seen in West Elk Basin during April, 1969. More information is needed for this herd. Taylor River (Gunnison County) Bighorn sheep in this area winter on the rocky areas along the northside of the Taylor River from Almont and up the river approximately ten miles. This is a sagebrush-bunchgrass type interspersed with conifers at about 8,000 feet elevation. They migrate a few miles further up the river to summer. Some move up into the alpine on Matchless Mountain. These areas are utilized extensively by elk and deer. Population estimate by Department personnel in 1940 was 35; and 35 head in 1960. Thirtyfour sheep (15 ewes, 7 lambs, and 12 rams) were counted during a helicopter survey on March 9, 1970. Sheep Creek-Trickle Mountain (Saguache County) This herd of bighorns winters on the southern and southwest exposure of Trickle Mountain, approximately 15 miles west of Saguache. The area has large open bunchgrass parks interspersed with some stands of junipers and conifers. During the summer months some of the sheep move westward to North Park, North Cochetopa Pass, and South Pass; which is more of a conifer type at 9,000-10,000 feet elevation. Others apparently move to the alpine area on Antero Mountain. This herd has been slowly increasing. An aerial count in February, 1966 indicated there were 98 animals in the herd. Present estimates are 170 sheep. The following ground count was made in June, 1969: 39 adult ewes, 24 lambs, 17 yearlings, and one half-curl ram, for a total of 81 sheep. The following ground count was made in the same area in August, 1969: 43 adult ewes, 25 lambs, 8 yearlings, and 5 rams (two half-curls and three one-quarter-curls) for a total of 80 sheep. A ground count in December, 1969 tallied 82 adult ewes and yearlings, 20 lambs, and 12 rams (one one-quarter-curl, 9 half-curls, and two three-quarter-cur1s). Since the yearling segment of the herd was not readily distinguished from adult ewes in the December count, the yearling counts were combined with the adult ewes to obtain the following ewe:lamb ratios: June, 100:43; August, 100:49; and December, 100:24. This area is used extensively by a variety of ungulates and should be watched closely to avoid overgrazing. Domestic cattle, deer, elk, and antelope use the same ranges as used by the bighorn sheep. La Garita Wild Area - Spring Creek (Saguache County) The La Garita Wild Area is located approximately 6 miles north of Creede. Most of the sheep winter and summer on the alpine ranges of Organ Mt., San Luis Peak, Baldy Alto, and Baldy Chato. A few rams move down to a bunchgrass area on Cebolla Creek to winter and some rams summer in the eastern �- 11 - part of the wild area near Machin Lake. The Coleman and Hazzard Ranches grazed domestic sheep in the alpine until 1961. Since then there has not been any livestock grazing in the alpine. Coleman Ranches took a ten-year non-use permit for the area starting last year. This area receives moderate use by elk during the summer, and very light deer browsing. Game and Fish Department personnel counted 26 bighorns in Spring Creek during 1954. Population estimates for this area was 35 head in 1960. The present population is estimated at 60 animals. An aerial flight (Cessna 185) was conducted on November 28, 1969. There was 3-4 feet of snow on the north exposures in the alpine areas, but the ridgetops and south exposures only had scattered patches of snow. There were numerous tracks along the ridgetops, but the only sheep we found were on Baldy Alto. Five rams (four three-quarter-curls, and one halfcurl), two ewes, and two lambs were sighted. Ground surveys were attempted in late December, however, frequent storms permitted only a brief survey of the Baldy Chato area. Bighorns were using the alpine ridge above Spring Creek where winds kept the area free of snow. Fifteen sheep (10 ewes, two lambs, and three rams) were seen in this area. Another aerial (Cessna 185) survey was conducted on May 19, 1970. The north exposures were still covered with deep snow, but the ridgetops and south slopes were relatively free of snow. The following numbers of sheep were counted: on Baldy Alto, 14 ewes, and 11 rams: and on Baldy Chato, 6 ewes, 1 ram, and 2 unclassified sheep. The local Wildlife Conservation Officer said there were five rams on CebQlla Creek during early May. Two young rams wintered near the town of Creede. Ground surveys were conducted in East Bellows, West Bellows, Farmers, East Willow, and West Willow Creeks for bighorn sheep. There was not any sign of sheep, other than the two young rams. It is likely the deep snow in October trapped the rams on the southern side of the wild area before they could migrate to Baldy Alto area; thus they descended to the Creede area to winter. According to some local residents there was a herd of bighorns on West Bellows Creek until the 1950's. It looks like a good transplant site. Pole Mountain (Hinsdale County) This is an alpine area approximately 27 miles west of Creede, Colorado. Game and Fish Department personnel in 1940 estimated 150 bighorns summering on Pole Mountain. The sheep migrated northward to the Lake City area to winter. In the spring of 1940 a total of 98 sheep were classified in this area; 38 ewes, 24 rams, 12 yearlings, 9 two-year-olds, and 17 lambs. The estimated population in 1960 was 40 head. In the summer of 1969 a hiker reported seeing 14 sheep. A ground survey was conducted in the area during December, 1969. A small band composed of four ewes, three lambs and one yearling was found on the southeast side of Pole Mountain, which was relatively free from snow. �- 12 - There is a limited amount of winter range in this area and it is utilized heavily by domestic sheep and elk during the summer months. The local Wildlife Conservation Officer has been working with the U. S. Forest Service personnel to remove the bighorn wintering area from the domestic livestock grazing allotment. Sheep Mountain - Mount Hope (MineralCourtty) This area is located about twenty-five miles southeast of Creede. Bighorns summer and winter on the alpine ranges. A few descend to the rocky cliffs on the southwest side of Sheep Mountain above Borns Lake to winter. The alpine areas are also grazed by deer, elk and domestic sheep during the summer months. There was an estimated 35 sheep in this area in 1960. A total of 63 sheep were counted in the Sheep Mountain area by Department personnel during 1962. Present population estimates are 40 head. A ground survey was attempted in this area during June, 1969. Only two adult ewes were found in the area from Sheep Mountain to the south slopes of Mount Hope. An aerial count (Cessna 185) was conducted on November 28, 1969. There was deep snow cover in the alpine, but the south exposures had extensive cleared areas. The following bighorns were found on the ridgetops and southern exposures in the alpine: Mount Hope, 11 ewes, 2 lambs, and 1 ram (half-curl); Sheep Mountain, 6 ewes, 3 lambs, and 1 ram (half-curl). There were not any sheep or tracks on Sawtooth or Table Mountains. Weminuche Creek - Cimarron Peak (HirtsdaleCounty) This is the alpine area approximately 25 miles northwest of Pagosa Springs. The area is grazed by elk and deer during the summer months. Domestic sheep formerly grazed this area during the summer months, however, the U. S. Forest Service cancelled the grazing permit. Estimated 1960 population in this area was 70 bighorns. Present made by the local Wildlife Conservation Officer was 35-40 head. estimate A ground survey was conducted in the area during August, 1969. Nine bighorns (7 ewes, 1 yearling, and 1 ram) were found in the alpine on the south side of Weminuche Creek. On the alpine ridge just west of Hossick Lake there were 19 head (10 ewes, 7 lambs, and 2 yearlings). There were tracks on Cimarron Peak, but no sheep were sighted. The local W.C.O. said he only saw one lamb during the summer of 1968, which is reflected in the low number of yearlings seen in 1969. An aerial survey (Cessna 185) was conducted on November 28, 1969. There was heavy snow cover in the alpine, however the southern exposures were relatively free of snow. No sheep or tracks were seen in the alpine. Eight bighorn sheep (4 unclassified, 3 ewes, and 1 lamb) were seen in the timber �- 13 - and cliffs about half way down the mountain on the north side of Milk Creek. The timber made it very difficult to see the sheep; a helicopter would be more suitable for the aerial survey work there. Emerald Lake (Hinsdale County) Bighorns summer in the alpine areas near Emerald Lake on Lake Creek and along the Los Pinos River to the headwaters of Flint Creek. There is a vast expanse of summer range~ but suitable winter range is very limited. The sheep winter in the cliffs on the south exposure at the junction of Lake Creek and Los Pinos River. This area is dominated by conifers and aspen. There is very little information on the number of animals in this herd. The area was surveyed on foot and horseback during August, 1969. Only one adult ewe was seen. An aerial survey (Cessna 185) was conducted during November, 1969 when eight bighorns were found in the alpine just east of Emerald Lake. More survey work is needed in this area. Never Summer Mountains (Jackson County - Larimer County) Bighorns in this area remain in the alpine throughout the year. They winter on the lower ridges immediately above timberline, on the east side of the mountain range within Rocky Mountain National Park. They disperse throughout the alpine area in summer. A few animals apparently migrate eastward across the North Fork of the Colorado River to Specimen Mountain during the summer months. This sheep area receives heavy use by elk and deer during the summer months. Areas outside the national park boundaries are used extensively by domestic sheep during the summer months. This herd has slightly increased during recent years. The population was estimated to be 40 animals in 1960. A total of 51 bighorns (24 ewes, 6 lambs, and 21 rams) were counted on an aerial survey during 1969. A ground survey was conducted during August, 1969. Two adult ewes and a threequarter-curl ram were seen on Bowen Mountain, five ewes and one lamb on Mt. Baker, and four ewes on Lead Peak. The area was flown with a fixed-wing aircraft on December 1, 1969. The snow was very deep in the area, however, many ridgetops and steep south facing slopes were exposed. Eight ewes and a small ram were seen on top of Mt. Neota. There were tracks on the ridges along the east side of Lead Mountain, Mt. Baker, and Bowen Mountain; however conditions did not permit a closer survey. Hunter Harvest and Horn Growth Data Bighorn sheep hunters during the 1969 season were asked to report on observations of sheep during the hunt. Table 1 presents what is believed to be the highest unduplicated counts of sheep seen by hunters in each of the areas. The term "unduplicated" means that attempts have been made to eliminate obvious duplications whether noted by the hunter or not. Thus, Table 1 may still contain a few undetected duplications, but should be reasonably accurate. �- 16 - Table 2. License and harvest statistics, 1969 bighorn sheep hunting season. Area First-Choice Applications Received Licenses Issued Reported Kill 1. Poudre River 17 6 4 3. Geneva Creek 55 6 2 6. Pikes Peak 96 15 9 9. Sangre de Cristo 53 10 2 10. Sheep Creek-Trickle Mtn. 51 9 3 11. Collegiate Peaks 33 4 o 14. Glenwood Springs 2 4 1 l4a. Glenwood Canyon 5 4 1 15. Sheep Mountain 21 10 1 16. Cimarron Peak 4 2 1 17. Empire 7 6 o 19. Bowen Pass-Clark's Peak 54 12 2 21. Cow Creek-Wetterhorn Peak 23 8 3 22. San Luis Peak 18 6 1 23. McCurdy Mountain l3 8 1 24. Battlement Mesa 7 6 2 26. Taylor River 28 5 2 28. Vallecito Creek 2 4 o 29. Blanco River 3 2 o 31. Mount Evans 37 6 o 32. Georgetown 15 6 1 33. Lake City 8 6 1 552 145 37 Totals �- 17 - Table 3. Number of hunters to bighorn sheep management expressing opinions and hunting, 1969. on various subjects Item related Number of Connnents Curl Regulations: Favor half-curl in certain areas Opposed to harvest of half-curl rams Application 2 53 Restrictions: Favor 2-year restriction on successful applicants Favor 3-year restriction on successful applicants Favor no restriction on hunters who make a kill Favor 5-year restriction on hunters who make a kill Favor lifetime restriction on hunters who make a kill Favor allowing application for sheep and goat permits in alternate years 2 1 4 2 4 1 Other Connnents: Favor exemption of sheep and goat hunters from blaze orange requirement Favor a later season in: Area l4A Area 21 Area 24 Favor being allowed to refuse permit if not for firstchoice area Domestic sheep a problem in the hunting area Helicopter spooked sheep: Area 19 Area 21 Too many non-hunters running around in sheep hunting areas: Area 6 Area 19 Favor setting of sheep season when no other season is in progress 9 1 1 2 1 5 2 3 2 1 1 �Table 4. Number of bighorn ram heads measured, by area where killed, curl classification, and number of growth rings. Area 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 9. 10. 11. 12. 14. 15. 19. 21. 22. 23. 24. 31. Poudre River Gore Range Geneva Creek South Platte Canyon Rampart Range Pikes Peak Sangre de Cristo Range Sheep Creek-Trickle Mtn. Collegiate Range Buffalo Peaks Glenwood Canyon Sheep Mountain Bowen Pass-C1ark's Peak Cow Creek-Wetterhorn Peak San Luis Peak McCurdy Mountain Battlement Mesa Mount Evans Totals Heads Smaller Than 3/4 Curl, Number of Growth Rings 2 5 3 4 2 3 4 Heads 3/4 Curl or Larger, Number of Growth Rings 11 8 9 10 6 7 5 13 1 2 1 12 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 t-' 00 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 8 4 2 3 1 6 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 12 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 4 10 4 10 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 1 �- 19 - Of particular interest is the proportion of 3/4 curl heads in the younger age classes. Of the total of 56 heads of 3/4 curl or larger, 30, or 54 percent, have fewer than 7 growth rings; and 16, or 29 percent, have fewer than 5 growth rings. If the objective in bighorn management is to confine the harvest to mature and over-mature rams, and if 7 years of age is considered to be a minimum mature ram (as in the system used by Nevada), the data in Table 4 strongly indicate that Colorado's 3/4 curl criterion for a legal ram produces an excessive harvest of young rams. Prepared by/~~.-«J. VCU ~•... ~ George KBear Wildlife Researcher �- 20 - APPENDIX A BIGHORN SHEEP INVESTIGATIONS A comprehensive report on bighorn sheep in the State is being prepared and the following information is needed concerning bighorns in your district. If certain information is unknown or questionable, please state this so an effort can be directed toward gathering information in these areas. Distribution A map is enclosed; draw a solid line around the summer range occupied by sheep at the present date, draw a broken or dotted line around the wintering areas. Has there been a change in this distribution? Yes _ No _ If so, how has it changed and when? Herd Composition and Trend How many bighorns do you believe are in this area? Is this herd increasing ( ), decreasing ( ), static ( _ ), or unknown ( )7 If you have any historical information on this herd that should be included in the report please list it here: �List any survey information you have in your files that can be used in plotting trends. Date Type of Survey* Location Ewes I Lambs Bighorns Counted Rams J Unclass. I 1/2 I 3/4 I Full I Unknown I I Total N I-' i:Type of Survey: Aerial or Ground �- 22 - Other uses in the area occupied Domestic by the bighorns: Livestock Cattle: None , Light Period of Use ", Moderate , Heavy _ _ Sheep: None , Light Period of Use , Moderate , Heavy _ Elk: None , Light Period of Use , Moderate Deer: None , Light Period of Use , Moderate None , Light Period of Use , Moderate --------------------------------- Wildlife , Heavy _ --------------------------------, Heavy _ --------------------------------- Mountain Goats: , Heavy _ --------------------------------- Human Do you believe distrubition Management None ,Light , Moderate , Heavy Primary type(s)~people using the area campers, hunters, etc. (hikers, _ that any of the above uses have a definite effect on or have a limiting Please comment: Recommendations Based on your knowledge increased effect on the herd? ( of this area, do you believe ), maintained How many bighorns at the present do you estimate level ( this herd should be ), or decreased should be maintained ( in this herd? )? ------------ �- 23 - Are there any management problems should be known by a new weD coming Research that are unique to this area or herd that into that district? Please list: Recommendations Are there any specific should consider problems that the Bighorn Sheep Research solving which would assist you in managing herds in your district? Please be specific: Project the bighorn �- 24 APPENDIX B DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS 6060 BROADWAY DENVER, COLORADO 80216 825-1192 LICENSE NO ., _ BIGHORN SHEEP QUESTIONNAIRE 1969 1. Were you successful in killing a ram? Yes No _ If so, what are the approximate horn measurements? Length of horn around outside curve. Basal circumference at hair line. R.H. R.H. '---------inches L.H. L .H., inches Widest spread (mayor may not be tip to tip) inches. -------- inches -------- inches 2. Please circle the days on which you hunted (count part days as full days) August: 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 September: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Area iF1 (Poudre) only: November 26 27 28 29 30; December Yes'--------- No, 1 2 567 _ 3. Did you wound a ram and not get him? 4. Have you hunted bighorn sheep in Colorado other than this year? Yes If yes, what year(s)? ~-----How many bighorn sheep have you killed in Colorado? 5. 3 4 No Number _ How many bighorn sheep, including the one killed, did you see during this year's hURt? Full curl Rams - Number 3/4 to full curl - Number. 1/2 to 3/4 curl - Number. Smaller than 1/2 curl - Number Ewes - Number -------------Lambs - Number ----------_ _ _ ------------ 6. Would you please indicate on the enclosed map by an "X" the approximate location where you saw bighorn sheep during your hunt, and include the numbers, age, and sex of animals observed. Also, circle location where you made your kill. 7. Did you observe any dead bighorn sheep, other than ones killed by hunters? Dead this year: Number and sex Dead previous years: ~------------- Number and sex --------------- �- 25 1969-Sheep, Page 2 8. A plastic bag is enclosed for the collection of fecal samples. If you kill a ram, would you please strip out the pellets from the lower intestine (colon), place them in the plastic bag, and give the bag to any Conservation Officer or leave at any Game, Fish and Parks Office. 9. Remarks and suggestions - other comments concerning your sheep hunt. We are particularly interested in comments concerning "quality" sheep hunting, and comments on the half-curl versus three-quarter-curl regulation. Observations and general comments are welcome. ��January~ 1971 - 27 - JOB PROGRESS State Work COLORADO of No. W-41-R-20 Plan No. 1 Project Job Title Period REPORT Job No. 14 ~E~v~a~l~u=a~t~i~o~n~o~f~~P~r~oLP~o~s~e~d~B~igg~h=o~r=n~S~h=e~e~p&-~T=r=a~n~s~p~l~a~n~t _ Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations June 1969 to May William 1970 H. Rutherford ABSTRACT Potential bighorn transplant sites are proposed usually by Game, Fish and Parks or U.S. Forest Service personnel. These sites are then evaluated for suitability, first by a winter aerial survey to determine whether snow-free areas exist, and then by a su~ner on-the-ground survey of only those sites which showed snow-free areas. During the current segment, the Mount Wilson area in the San Juan Mountains was reco~ended for placement in very low priority, and the Mill Creek area northwest of Gunnison was reco~ended for placement in a very high priority position for bighorn transplants. ��- 29 - EVALUATION OF PROPOSED BIGHORN SHEEP TRANSPLANT SITES William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To situate bighorn sheep transplant opportunities. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To determine habitat characteristics of proposed bighorn sheep transplant sites, and rate them by comparison with known occupied bighorn range. METHODS AND MATERIALS Potential bighorn sheep transplant sites are suggested or proposed by a variety of individuals - Wildlife Conservation Officers, Wildlife Researchers, and U.S. Forest Service personnel. The first activity toward evaluating their suitability is a winter survey by aircraft during late February or March, when snow depth is near maximum. Those sites which show little or no snow-free areas are eliminated from consideration; those showing potential winter range are scheduled for on-the-ground surveys during the summer months. During the aerial survey, photographs are made of those snow-free areas which show vegetation; these photographs are then used as guides for the on-theground survey. Summer surveys are confined to the areas found to be snowfree during winter, and consist of measurements of plant species composition and density plus notations on nearness of cliffs and/or other rough rocky terrain which sheep require for escape cover. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is statewide in scope, but limited during each segment to those specific locations proposed as transplant sites. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the current segment, areas on Mount Wilson near Lizard Head Pass in the San Juan Range and on Mill Creek northwest of Gunnison were surveyed on the ground. Previously, aerial survey had established the presence of snowfree slopes in these two locations. In the Mount Wilson area, the complex includes a much larger area than just Mount Wilson itself. Aerial reconnaissance in March of 1969 showed about 150 �- 30 acres of snow-free ridgetops. All potential winter range is above timberline. A horseback trip was made in August of 1969 with Forest Service personnel, at which time gross observations were considered sufficient basis for placing this area in very low priority as a transplant site. Heavy domestic sheep use, poor range condition, unstable soil, and poor interspersion of cliffs and vegetated areas characterized the site. This is historic bighorn range and should not be rejected entirely as a potential transplant site, but should be held in abeyance until the Forest Service takes action on closing out the domestic sheep grazing. Should this occur, the area should be reevaluated as a potential bighorn transplant site. The Mill Creek proposed transplant site is located on the east side of the West Elk Wilderness Area. This is historic sheep range which still contains a small remnant herd. The snow-free winter range is located on a south facing slope on the north side of Mill Creek, approximately two miles downstream from the Wilderness Area boundary, at an elevation of about 8,500 feet. Interspersion of rocky cliffs and vegetated areas is excellent, no domestic livestock competition exists, and plant species composition and density are judged to be very good. Vegetation is a bunchgrass-shrub-aspen type, with Festuca thurberi, Agropyron smithii, Danthonia intermedia, Bromus inermis, ~. anomalus, and Hordeum jtibatum making up most of the grasses and Prunus, Symphoricarpos, Amelanchier, Ribes, Rosa, and Artemisia representing the shrubs. Plant density was at least 75 percent even on slopes as steep as 40 degrees. On the basis of this favorable survey, the area is recommended for a high-priority position on the list of bighorn transplant sites. One other survey remains to be done in this area; namely, observation on the amount of time required following a major snowstorm for the slope to again show bare spots. This will be accomplished during the winter of 1970-71. Prepared Wildlife Researcher �January, 1971 - 31 - JOB PROGRESS Sta te of REPORT C.;;;.o.;;;.L;:;.o~R;.;;;AD=.;O~ _ Project No. W-4l-R-20 Work Plan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations 15 Job No. Job Title Mortality Factors in Declining Bighorn Period Covered: June 1, 1969 to January Personnel: Thomas N. Woodard, Ralph J. Gutierrez, and William H. Rutherford Sheep Herds 31, 1970 George D. Bear, ABSTRACT Factors possibly contributing to the bighorn sheep herd decline in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of Colorado were investigated by systematic observations during the spring, summer and fall of 1969. High late summer lamb mortality was found to be the suspected cause of the herd decline. Predation was not found to be significant but possible mountain lion predation cannot be ruled out at this point. Mortality due to accidents was not significant. The probable most important factor is disease possibly enhanced by inclement weather and/or nutritional deficiencies or imbalances. No specific disease was noted, but it probably involves respiratory difficulties caused by lungworm in combination with pathogenic bacteria. ��- 33 - :MORTALITY FACTORS IN DECLINING BIGHORN SHEEP HERDS Thomas N. Woodard P.S. OBJECTIVE To identify factors responsible for, or contributing to, decline in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) herds in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To determine lamb survival and mortality and reproductive potential of the Sangre de Cristo bighorn sheep herd. METHODS AND MATERIALS Herd composition, number of live births, survival of lambs, and the importance of predation, accidents, weather, and disease were investigated by systematic observations of the bighorn sheep herd during the period covered. The external appearance of observed sheep was noted and fecal samples were collected and analyzed for lungworm by the Baerman technique (Cable 1960). For an effective investigation of the importance of disease it is desirable to collect and necropsy mortalities, but no recent ones were located during this period of research. Though the study was not equipped with sophisticated weather instruments some temperature readings and visual observations were recorded. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Location The segment of the Sangre de Cristo range in which this study is being conducted is located in southcentral Colorado approximately 15 miles southwest of Westcliffe. This part of the Sangre de Cristos separates Wet Mountain Valley to the east from San Luis valley to the west. The east side lies in the San Isabel National Forest and the west side lies in the Rio Grande National Forest. The extreme northern boundary of the study area is the Crestone Needles and the extreme southern boundary is Medano Creek. However, most of the study area is in or directly adjacent to the Sand Creek drainage. Easiest access into the area is across Music Pass from the Wet Mountain Valley side. The top of the pass lies on the ridge which forms the eastern boundary of Sand Creek drainage and is accessible only to 4-wheel drive vehicles or trail machines. �- 34 - Topography The Sangre de Cristo Mountain range in this area is narrow and extremely rugged. Many peaks (Marble Mountain, Milwaukee Peak, Music Mountain, Tijeras Peak and Cleveland Peak) reach an elevation of about 13,500 feet (Fig. 1). The bighorn sheep summer range is characterized by steep slopes cliffs, rock outcroppings and talus slides and is mostly above timberline which occurs at approximately 11,000 feet. Most of the study area is situated on the west side of the range and the streams eventually drain into the San Luis Valley. The major drainages are Sand Creek and Deadman Creek. However, several small creeks including Little Sand Creek, McKenny Creek, Short Creek, Pole Creek, and Alpine Creek drain the southern part of the study area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Many of the bighorn sheep herds in Colorado are presently in a static condition or are decreasing in size. Some herds, such as the Tarryall herd in 1953, have had sudden major die-offs affecting all age classes in the population. Other herds, such as the Sangre de Cristo herd, do not exhibit a sudden die-off, but instead show a gradual decline of the population. This study was initiated in an effort to determine the factors contributing to the decline of the population size in these herds. Sex and Age Composition The potential breeding population in the Sangre de Cristos is dominated by old age class animals. Seven mature rams and only one immature ram were located. Of the mature rams, 5 were full curl and 2 were 3/4 curl. They were located in Deadman Basin and Little Medano Creek. Eighteen mature ewes and only 2 yearling ewes were located. They spent the first half of the summer near the headwaters of Sand Creek and the last half of the summer further south in and near Cleveland Gulch (Table 1). It is impossible to approximate the age of the ewes by field observations and Geist (1966) found that even the use of horn segment counts in aging old ewes was invalid. However, it is a safe assumption that the majority of the 18 adult ewes were in an old age class. A total of 15 lambs was located. Most were dropped the last week of May through the first two weeks of June. The lambing grounds are located in the cliffs above Upper Sand Lake and on the s:ope above Lower Sand Lake (Fig's. 2 and 3). Based on the initial reproductive potential this herd should be growing and productive. The total of 18 adult ewes and 15 lambs gives a maximum ewe:lamb ratio of 100:83 which is comparable to the best herds in the state. Table 1 lists all sheep observations made in the Sangre de Cristos during 1969. �- 35 - Figure 1 - Topographic area. map, with 40 foot contour intervals, of the study �- 36 - Fig. 2. Lake. Bighorn sheep lambing grounds on slope above Lower Sand Creek �- 37 - Fig. 3. Lake. Bighorn sheep lambing grounds in cliffs above Upper Sand Creek �- 38 - Table 1. Observations of bighorn sheep in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during 1969. Date May 12 May 14 May 28* Rams Ewes Lambs 3 2 - 3/4 curl 5 - Full curl Yearlings Location 1 Medano Creek Little Medano Creek Rams - Deadman Basin Ewes - Willow Creek and Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek Headwaters of Sand Creek, all located on slope above Lower Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, all located on slope above Lower Sand Creek. Headwaters of Sand Creek, all located on slope above Lower Sand Creek. Headwaters of Sand Creek, all located on slope above Lower Sand Creek. Headwaters of Sand Creek, all located in cliffs above Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, above and north of Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, above and north of Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, above and north of Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, above and north of Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on ridgetop above Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on ridgetop above Upper Sand Lake. 10 4 7 6 2 2 7 1 1 10 11 2 2 2 June 2 June 3 June 4 June 5 June 6 June 7 June 8 June 9 6 5 6 12 12 2 1 June 10 15 12 2 June 11 15 12 2 June 12 15 12 2 June 14 18 14 2 June 18 10 7 1 June 19 18 14 2 June 20 18 14 2 June 21 18 14 2 June 22 (Incomplete count) 8 11 June 23 (Incomplete count) 12 9 11 13 13 6 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * Helicopter flight. �- 39 Table 1. Observations of bighorn sheep in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during 1969 (continued). Date Rams Ewes Lambs Yearlings 9 total sheep. June 24 (Incomplete count) No classification. June 28 3 total sheep. No classification. June 29 3 total sheep. No classification. July 1 5 1 July 2 2 1 July 3 18 15 July 4 12 10 July 5 13 10 July 6 16 13 July 8 13 11 July 23 13 11 July 24 6 4 August 12* 22 total sheep. No classification. A number of lambs were present August 15 August 16 2 1 1 (3/4-fu11 curl) 1 Location Headwaters of Sand Creek, on ridgetop above Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on ridgetop above Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on ridgetop above Upper Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on slope above Lower Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on slope above Lower Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on knoll between Lower and upper Sand Lakes. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on knoll between Lower and upper Sand Lakes. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on slope above Lower Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, in cliffs above Upper Sand Lake and at salt lick below Music Pass. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on slope above Lower Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, on slope above Lower Sand Lake. Headwaters of Sand Creek, north of Upper Sand Lake. On ridgetop between Sand Creek and Pole Creek. On ridgetop at headwaters of Little Sand Creek. Same ewe located on August 15. Ram located on north ridge of Deadman Basin. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * Helicopter flight. �- 40 Table 1. Observations of bighorn sheep in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during 1969 (continued). Rams Date August 29 Sept. 10 1 (approx. 2 yr. old) Ewes Lambs 2 1 Headwaters of Sand Creek, on top of Milwaukee Peak. 12 2 Cleveland Gulch on Lower Sand Creek. Yearlings Location Lamb Survival The theory that major sheep mortality occurs in the transition from lamb to yearling age class has been suggested as the reason for the decline in many herds. The resultant low annual increment to the herds is not large enough to replace normal mortalities in the lamb population. Mills (1937) and Beuchner (1960) found abnormally high lamb mortality in summer in Yellowstone National Park. Woodgerd (1964) discovered a lamb mortality of 40 percent in the first 6 months of life in the sheep herd on Wildhorse Island. In Colorado, Streeter (1969) found a very low survival to the yearling class on Buffalo Peaks. The first year's results of this study showed high lamb mortality in late summer is the probable cause of the herd decline in the Sangre de Cristos. The maximum ewe:lamb ratio of 100:83 with 18 adult ewes and 15 lambs was noted on July 3. On July 23, 13 adult ewes and 11 lambs were located, and then on September 10, 12 adult ewes and only 2 lambs were located. Though 6 adult ewes we're not accounted for on September 10, and considering the possibility that all 6 still had surviving lambs, the result would be a maximum of 8 surviving lambs. Then the minimum mortality rate for lambs would approach 50 percent. The actual mortality rate is certainly higher, with the result that the annual increment to the herd cannot replace natural mortalities in the population and therefore the herd gradually declines in size. Also, the fact that only 2 yearling ewes and one immature ram were located in 1969 is additional proof of high mortality in the first year of life. After July 23 the majority of the sheep left Sand Creek Basin for the rest of the summer. The large ewe herd divided into smaller groups and due partially to a prolonged period of inclement weather (Table 2) and an unfamiliarity with surrounding areas a substantLaI number of sheep were not relocated for an extended period of time (Table 1). It was during this critical time period that the suspected mortalities occurred, offering no opportunity to actually observe what took place. �- 41 Table 2. Weather observations made in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during the summer of 1969. Date Observation June 2 Dry, warm June 3 Wind, rain, sleet and snow in afternoon for 1 hour. June 4 Dry, warm June 5 Dry, warm June 6 Wind and rain in afternoon for 2 hours. June 7 Wind, hail, rain and lightning in afternoon. extensive than previous days. June 8 Rain and hail in afternoon. June 9 Rain and fog in morning. wind in evening. June 10 Light drizzle in early morning. and cold all day. June 11 Cloudy, fog, snow and cold all day. June 12 Cloudy, snow and cold in afternoon for 2 hours. June 13 Six inch snow accumulation in morning. Additional snow and hail in evening. Temperatures - Low 34°, High 49°. June 14 Intermittent snow, hail, rain and fog. tures - Low 37°, High 45°. June 15 Intermittent snow, rain and fog. Low 36°, High 42°. Temperatures- June 16 Intermittent snow, hail and fog. Low 37°, High 42°. Temperatures- June 17 Intermittent snow and fog. High 44°. June 18 Fair and partly cloudy most of day. Rain in evening. Temperatures - Low 36°, High 52°. More Heavy fog by evening. Heavy rain, hail, and Cloudy, windy Tempera- Temperatures - Low 38°, �- 42 Table 2. Weather observations made in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during the summer of 1969 (continued). Date Observation June 19 Fair, partly cloudy and windy all day. No precipitation. Temperatures - Low 36°, High 59°. June 20 Fair, partly cloudy and windy. No precipitation. Temperatures - Low 40°, High 63°. June 21 Clear, warm, windy. High 66°. June 22 Partly cloudy most of day. Rain and hail in evening. Temperatures - Low 43°, High 62°. June 23 Partly cloudy to overcast all day. Rain and hSil in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 42°, High 56 June 24 Overcast, high winds, rain, and 2-3 inch accumulation of snow in evening and night. TemperaturesLow 29°, High 49°. June 25 Overcast, snow, wind and cold. No temperature readings. June 26 Blizzard conditions. June 28 Clear, warm and windy. accumulation. Five inch new snow June 29 Clear, warm and windy. High 64°. Temperatures - Low 38°, June 30 Clear, warm and gusty winds. Low 39°, High 71°. July 1 Clear to partly cloudy most of day. Heavy hail and rain for 30 minutes in afternoon. Temperatures Low 42°, High 67°. July 2 Clear and warm in morning. Overcast and rain in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 48°, High 73°. July 3 Clear and warm in morning. Overcast and light rain in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 43°, High 74°. July 4 Overcast with rain and fog most of day. tures - Low 43°, High 62°. Temperatures - Low 44°, Blizzard conditions. Temperatures- Tempera- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 43 Table 2. Weather observations made in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during the summer of 1969 (continued). Observation Date July 5 Clear in morning. Overcast with rain and hail in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 42°, High 61°. July 6 Partly cloudy and windy. No precipitation. Temperatures - Low 47°, High 63°. July 7 Clear and warm. Temperatures - Low 43°, High 67°. July 8 Warm and clear. Temperatures - Low 43°, High 69°. July 9 Light rain most of day. High 50°. July 10 Clear in morning. Overcast with rain and hail in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 42°, High 64°. July 11 Clear in morning. Overcast with rain and hail in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 45°, High 66°. July 12 Partly cloudy in morning. Overcast with rain and hail in afternoon. Temperatures - low 45°, High 64°. July 13 Partly cloudy in morning. Overcast with rain in afternoon and evening. Temperatures - Low 47°, High 71°. July 14 Clear in morning. Overcast with rain, hail and lightning in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 45°, High 69°. July 15 Clear in morning. July 16 Rain and hail with fog in afternoon and evening. July 17 Partly cloudy with some fog in morning. with rain in afternoon. July 18 Partly cloudy in morning. July 23 Clear in morning. Overcast with rain and hail in afternoon. Temperatures from July 15 to July 23 - Low 440, High 69°. Temperatures - Low 410, Overcast with rain in afternoon. Overcast �- 44 Table 2. Weather observations made in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during the summer of 1969 (continued). Date Observation July 24 Clear in morning. Overcast with heavy rain, hail and lightning in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 420, High 56°. July 25 Clear in morning. Overcast with light rain in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 43°, High 70°. July 26 Clear in morning. Overcast with light rain in afternoon. Temperatures - Low 44°, High 68°. July 27 Clear in morning. July 28 Clear in morning. Partly cloudy to overcast in afternoon. No precipitation. July 29 Clear to partly cloudy and warm. August 2 Clear in morning. Overcast with rain in afternoon, evening and night. Temperatures from July 27 to August 2 - Low 440, High 72°. August 3 Partly cloudy with rain at night. Low 45°, High 70° August 4 Clear in morning. August 6 Clear in morning. Overcast with light rain and wind in afternoon. Temperatures from August 4 to August 6 - Low 460, High 72°. August 7 Clear to partly clody with light rain. August 11 Clear to partly cloudy. Temperatures from August 7 to August 11 - Low 450, High 71°. August 12 Partly cloudy in morning. Light rain in evening and during night. Partly cloudy in afternoon. Temperatures- Overcast with rain in afternoon. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �- 45 - Table 2. Weather observations made in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in Colorado during the summer of 1969 (continued). Date Observations August 13 Heavy fog and light rain all day. August 15 Partly cloudy and warm. August 16 Partly cloudy and warm. August 17 Clear to partly cloudy and warm. August 18 Clear to partly cloudy and warm. August 19 Partly cloudy with fog on ridgetops. August 21 Clear to partly cloudy in morning. afternoon. August 22-29 Partly cloudy and cool with intermittent light rain. August 30 Fog and light rain all day. Temperatures from August 11 to August 30 - Low 400, High 680• Rain in �- 46 - Factors Contributing to Mortalities Predation No coyote (Canis latrans) predation on bighorn sheep in the Sangre de Cristos was observed during 1969. Only two coyotes were seen on potential bighorn sheep range and there were no observed interactions between sheep and coyotes. Other authors report no significant predation on sheep by coyotes. Sperry (1941) analyzed 8,339 coyote stomachs and reported that only a trace of bighorn sheep remains, which was probably carrion, was present. Honess and Frost (1942) removed 131 coyotes from the Gros Ventre range in Wyoming, reducing the population by 75 percent. No corresponding increase in the sheep population was noted. Smith (1954) found only 2.8 percent of collected coyote scat in Idaho contained bighorn sheep remains. One authentic case of coyote predation was noted by Crump (1958) who saw a coyote chase and kill a lamb in the Torrey Creek drainage in Wyoming. All available evidence indicates that golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) also are not significant predators of bighorn sheep. Most authors have not seen any attempted predation by golden eagles. However, Crump (1958) reports a Wyoming Game and Fish Department pilot saw a golden eagle knock a lamb from a cliff and then return to feed on it. Rush (1940) and Kennedy (1948) saw golden eagles feeding on lamb carcasses but there was no conclusive evidence that they actually killed the lambs. Many golden eagles and one bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were seen in potential bighorn sheep range in the Sangre de Cristos in 1969. Some of the eagles passed directly over sheep at low elevations. Neither the eagles nor sheep seemed to show interest in or notice the other at any time. In contrast to coyote and eagle predation, the possibility of significant mountain lion (Felis concolor) predation cannot be dismissed. Hornocker (1970) found predation on bighorn sheep by mountain lions in Idaho to be of no significance. He felt that bighorn sheep group behavior preVents a successful stalk by a mountain lion. However, Moser (1962) reported a large lion was seen on sheep range at Empire, Colorado and the sheep population was reduced by 4 animals in a period of 5 days. He also reported that a lion killed a 3 year old ram near Pikes Peak. Though there were no sightings of mountain lions on potential bighorn sheep range in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in 1969, it is a distinct possibility that some of the late summer lamb mortality which occurs after the sheep leave the protective escape cover of the lambing grounds is the result of mountain lion predation. However, it seems logical to assume that a lion would prey on all age classes and not take only the young of a population. Accidents Although it is inevitable that some bighorn sheep are lost due to accidents, this has to be considered a part of normal herd drain. Literature contains a �- 47 few reports of observed sheep mortalities due to accidents, but during field observations in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in 1969 no bighorn sheep of any age class were seen to be in danger of falling in even the most difficult terrain. The skeletal remains of a 9-year-old ram, the death of which could have been the result of an accident, was found at the bottom of a rock slide. Weather The bighorn sheep adverse reactions inclement weather 25 was especially in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains showed no immediate to bad weather. They survived prolonged periods of in excellent condition. The time period around June cold and wet with blizzard conditions prevailing (Table 2). It is possible that weather of this type may be a delayed factor in abnormally high mortality rates. Cold and wet weather may enhance the invasion of disease-causing organisms, especially in new born lambs, the effects of which may not appear for weeks. The suspected high late summer lamb mortality in the Sangre de Cristos dicates that this could indeed be a contributing factor. in- Disease Any statement concerning the causative organism of a possible disease condition in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains would be pure conjecture since no mortalities were collected during this segment. The external appearance of the observed sheep was noted but they always appeared to be in excellent condition. The sheep never exhibited any of the typical signs of disease; hunching up, emaciation, coughing, sneezing, or a mucoid discharge from the nose. However, if predation and accidents are not significant causes of the high late summer lamb mortality in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, then disease is at least the probable proximate factor. It is possible a disease complex of rapid onslaught occurs, appearing explosively and attacking a large number of lambs within a short period of time. It is well documented that the majority of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep in the United States are infected with lungworm (Protostrongylus stilesi and P. rushi). Couey (1950) reported a 75-100 percent infection rate among bighorn sheep herds in Montana. Infection rates ranged from 35-93 percent in Idaho (Smith 1954). In western Montana Forrester and Senger (1964a) reported that 91 percent of 900 fecal samples from 10 herds contained Protostrongylus larvae. Pi1lmore (1961) reported that sheep herds in every area sampled in Colorado except the Arkansas River Canyon herd are infected with lungworm. Some historical die-offs of bighorn sheep herds have been attributed to 1ungworms. Pillmore and Moser (1954) reported that necropsy of several mortalities �- 48 from the Tarryall die-off in 1953 showed death due to verminous pneumonia with Protostrongylus the causative organism. Lungworm could be the causative organism of the herd decline in the Sangre de Cristos but the collection and analysis of fecal samples was given low priority during this segment. Pillmore (1956) found that fecal analysis is useful only in determining if a herd is infected, but not reliable for determining infection intensity. Samples were collected on July 3 and again on September 3 (Tables 3 and 4). All adult samples and 3 of 6 lamb samples collected on July 3, and all adult samples and 3 of 4 lamb samples collected on September 3 were positive for lungworm. Table 3. Results of fecal analyses on samples collected above Upper Sand Creek Lake on July 3, 1969. Sample Dry Weight Total Larvae Larvae per gram 1 - Adult 10.lg 129 12.8 2 - Adult 9.2g 400-450 43.4-48.9 3 - Adult 9.4g 340 36.2 4 - Adult l3.4g 122 9.1 5 - Adult l3.7g 95 6.9 6 - Adult 8.1g 181 22.3 7 - Lamb 7.3g 0 0.0 8 - Lamb 7.0g 0 0.0 9 - Lamb 7.3g 0 0.0 10 - Lamb 8.8g 4 .5 11 - Lamb 10.0g 120 12.0 12 - Lamb 7.6g 55 7.1 �- 49 Table 4. Results of fecal analyses on samples collected above Deadman Lake on September 3, 1969. Sample Dry Weight Total Larvae Larvae per gram 1 - Adult l4.0g 500-550 35.7-39.3 2 - Adult l2.2g 900-1000 73.8-81. 9 3 - Adult l2.7g 390 30.7 4 - Adult 8.6g 550-600 63.9-69.6 5 - Adult 9.7g 500-550 51.5-56.7 6 - Adult 10.5g 900-1000 85.7-95.2 7 - Lamb 7.lg 0 0.0 8 - Lamb 5.2g 271 52.1 9 - Lamb 7.9g 319 40.4 10 - Lamb 10.lg 500-550 49.5-54.5 This is in agreement with results of other researchers. Pillmore (1956) found positive lamb samples as early as mid-June. Forrester and Senger (1964b) found 45-47 day old lambs shedding first stage protostrongylid larvae. They also found protostrongylid larvae in the lungs of 3 necropsied lambs; one 10 days old, one 2-3 days old and one near-term foetus. These results suggest infection prenatally or soon after birth. Though lungworm infection is undoubtedly a contributing factor, many mortalities due to non-verminous pneumonia have been reported. Potts (1937) thought that Pasturella sp. and Corynebacterium pyogenes isolated from the lungs were the cause of death in 2 rams in Rocky Mountain National Park. Marsh (1938) also determined that the cause of losses of bighorn sheep lambs on the National Bison range in Montana was due to pneumonia caused by these two bacterial species. Some of the lamb mortality discovered by Woodgerd (1964) on Wildhorse Island was due to a massive infection of ~. pyogenes. In most of 8 mortalities at Glen Eyrie, Colorado in NovemberDecember 1959, Pasturella and Diplococcus organisms were located (Pillmore 1961). Post (1962) attributed the death of 17 sheep at the Sybille Experimental Unit in Wyoming to Pastuerellosis. He feels the short term dieoffs of sheep indicate a virulent organism and not the slow debilitating diseas~ resulting from parasitism. However, he believes lungworm infection may cause tissue damage which facilitates invasion of the bacterium. This viewpoint is held by many other researchers. Other pathogenic bacteria tave been isolated from the lungs of some mortalities. Honess and Frost (1942) discovered late summer lamb mortality in the Crystal Creek herd in Wyoming. The necropsy of two lambs showed death due to pneumonia caused by a Streptococcus organism. �- 50 Besides verminous and non-verminous pneumonias, other diseases are most certainly contracted by bighorn sheep. Scabies caused by the common mite (Psoroptes equi var. ovis) has been the cause of some historical die-offs. This possibility is not considered significant in the Sangre de Cristos for two reasons. First, the pelage of all observed sheep was in excellent condition; and second, bighorn sheep usually contact scabies as a result of contact with domestic sheep, none of which are grazed in this area of the range. Honess and Winter (1956) list other known infectious, non-infectious and parasitic diseases of bighorn sheep. Nutrition If disease is a proximate factor in bighorn sheep herd reductions then nutritional deficiencies may be the ultimate factor (Streeter 1969). Although this study is not investigating this possibility, a brief review of the literature is appropriate. Streeter (1969) made limited collections of forage species (four different grass or grass-like species were collected) on alpine ranges in 1968 and proximate analyses were conducted. Crude protein percentages in the Buffalo Peaks area and phosphorus percentages in all collection areas were below the recommended minimum levels for domestic sheep. This could be significant because phosphorus deficiencies cause weak lambs and decreased milk production in ewes (NRC 1964). Cook and Harris (1968) conducted feeding tests with domestic sheep over a 3year period on Utah desert ranges known to be deficient in phosphorus and protein. They found that supplements of phosphorus and protein in combination increased wool yield and lamb crop. These results point out the distinct possibility that nutritional deficiencies or imbalances may be the major factors of bighorn sheep herd declines. However, much additional research is needed before concrete facts can be established. LITERATURE CITED Beuchner, H. K. 1960. The bighorn sheep in the United States, it's past, present and future. Wildlife Soc., Wildlife Monogr. 4. 174 p. Cable, R. M. 1960. An illustrated laboratory manual of parasitology. Burgess Publ. Co. 153 p. Cook, C. W., and L. E. Harris. 1968. Nutritive value of seasonal ranges. Agr. Exp. Sta. Utah State Univ. Bull. 472. Couey, F. M. 1950. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep of Montana. and Game Comm. Bull. 2. 90 p. Montana Fish �- 51 Crump. W. I. 1958. Bighorn sheep reproduction and lamb survival study. Wyoming Game and Fish Comm., Fed. Aid in Wildlife Restoration, Big Game Survey. April: 1-28. Forrester, D. J., and C. M. Senger. 1964a. A survey of lungworm infection in bighorn sheep of Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 28(3):481-491. 1964b. lungworms. Prenatal infection of bighorn sheep with protostrongylid Nature. 201(4923):1051. Geist, V. 1966. Validity of horn segment counts in aging bighorn sheep. J. Wild!. Manage. 30(3):634-635. Honess, R. F., and N. M. Frost. 1942. A Wyoming bighorn sheep study. Wyoming Game and Fish Dept. Bull. 1. 127 p. Honess, R. F., and K. B. Winter. 1956. Diseases of wildlife in Wyoming. Wyoming Game and Fish Dept. Bull. 9. 279 p. Hornocker, M. G. 1970. An analysis of mountain lion predation upon mule deer and elk in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildlife Soc., Wildlife Monogr. 21. 39 p. Kennedy, C. A. 1948. 29(1):68-69. Marsh, H. 1938. 19(2):214. Golden eagle kills bighorn lamb. J. Mammal. Pneumonia in Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. Mills, H. B. 1937. National Park. J. Mammal. A preliminary study of the bighorn of Yellowstone J. Mammal. 18(2):205-212. Moser, C. A. 1962. The bighorn sheep of Colorado. Fish Dept. Tech. Pub. 10. 49 p. Colorado Game and National Research Council. 1964. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. Nutrient requirements of sheep. Nat. Res. Council Pub. 1193. 90 p. Pillmore, R. E., and C. A. Moser. 1954. Study of mortality factors. Colorado Game and Fish Dep. Fed. Aid Quart. Rept. January:53-66. Pillmore, R. E. 1956. Investigations of the life history and ecology of the lungworm, Protostrongylus stilesi. Colorado Game and Fish Dept. Fed. Aid Quart. Rept. April:47-70. 1961. Study of the lung nematodes of bighorn sheep; comparative studies of infection intensities in wild and laboratory populations. Colorado Game and Fish Dept. Fed. Aid Quart. Rept. October:85-97. Post, G. 1962. Pasteurellosis of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis). Wildlife Disease. 23:1-14. Potts, M. K. 1937. Hemorrhagic septicemia in the bighorn of Rocky Mountain National Park. J. Mammal. 18(1):105-106. �- 52 Rush, W. M. 1940. Bighorns need a break. Outdoor Life. 85(1):38-40,85. Smith, D. R. 1954. The bighorn sheep in Idaho, its status, life history and management. Idaho Dept. Fish and Game, Wildlife Bull. 1. 154 p. Sperry, C. G. 1941. Food habits of the coyote. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servo Wildlife Res. Bull. 4:34-41. Streeter, R. G. 1969. Demography of two Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep populations in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 96 p. Woodgerd, W. Island. Prepared 1964. Population dynamics of bighorn sheep on Wildhorse J. Wildl. Manage. 28(2):381-391. bY~uJ~x1 T~mas N. Woodard Student Assistant �January~ 1971 - 53 - JDB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. w-4l-R-20 Work Plan No. 2 Job Title Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 4 Location and Distribution of Mountain Goat Herds in Colorado Period Covered: June 1969 to November Personnel: William 1969 H. Rutherford ABSTRACT Mountain goat distribution and sex-age classification data collected during the 1969 segment year are tabulated. These data are of a general nature, but indicate that nanny:kid ratios continue to remain at a high level, with kid:yearling ratios considerably lower. The population trend in the two areas which have well-established herds, Mount Evans and the Collegiate Range, is definitely up. The status of the goats in the Gore Range and the Needles Mountains is less well known, due to small numbers and rugged terrain. Difficulty in obtaining accurate population data in these two areas will probably continue. During the 1969 mountain goat hunting season, 21 licenses were issued and 20 goats were killed, for a success ratio of 95 percent. The average hunter spent 4.2 days hunting goats in 1969, for a total of 88 man-days of goat hunting. All but two of the permittees were hunting goats for the first time, and all but two started their hunt on the first day of season. The harvest consisted of 3 adult female and 13 adult male goats in the Collegiate Range, and 1 adult female and 3 adult male goats on Mount Evans. Two hunters reported wounding and not getting a goat. The assignment of Division employees to accompany goat hunters was for assistance in choosing a male goat, but the final choice was up to the license holder. Harvest data indicate that this procedure may have contributed to a reduction in the legal harvest of female goats. ��- 55 - LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOUNTAIN William GOAT HERDS IN COLORADO H. Rutherford P.S. OBJECTIVE To determine numbers, composition, mountain goat herds in Colorado. seasonal SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine mountain 2. Determine population 3. Determine sex and age composition range, and location of goat distribution. size and trend for each herd. of each herd. 4. Prepare detailed range and distribution maps for each herd, with written descriptions for census. Develop forms which can be used by management personnel during routine census and for recording long-term census information. METHODS AND MATERIALS No changes have been made since previous reports were written. See: Woodard, Thomas N. 1969. Mountain goat distribution, populations and herd composition. In Federal Aid Game Research Report, January, 1969. pp. 57-59. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is statewide in scope, but limited to those areas in which mountain goat populations currently exist; i.~., the Collegiate Range, Mount Evans, the Gore Range, and the San Juan Mountains. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Status Mountain goat distribution and sex-age classification data were obtained by on-the-ground observation techniques using binoculars and spotting scope, and by requesting hunters to record their observations of the animals. Results are presented in Table 1. �- 56 - Table 1. 1969-70. Mountain goat observations summer 1969 and winter in Colorado; Numbet·of Goats· Adults Male Female Date Area Aug. 1969 Mt. Aetna* 1 Aug. 1969 Mt. Shavano * 2 18 9 Aug. 1969 Mt. Princeton* 1 3 Aug. 1969 Sheep Mountain* 10 20 Aug. 1969 Mt. Evans * 4 4 8/9/69 Mt. Shavano 2 19 4 8/9/69 Sheep Mountain 3 14 9/10/69 Needles 2/12/70 * Hunter Unclassified Yearlings Kids 4 Total 5 17 54 22 3 29 20 14 64 4 12 7 17 49 3 3 12 35 Mtns. 2 1 Sheep Mountain 19 observations; duplication eliminated 8 3 19 where possible. Total counts cannot be obtained because of the generally rugged terrain through which the goats are dispersed. Thus, the data in Table 1 are valuable primarily for determining the status of each individual herd, its general sex-age composition, and its reproductive success for the given year. It has consistently held true that nanny:kid ratios are high in all herds, but kid:yearling ratios are much lower, indicating that loss of kids through mortality before reaching the yearling class is common. This is probably a characteristic to be expected in goat populations, and is no cause for concern as long as kid:yearling ratios stay high enough to insure that annual herd increment is at a satisfactory level. In the two areas which have well-established herds, Mount Evans and the Collegiate Range, mountain goat populations continue to expand in numbers and herds continue to exhibit a healthy status. The status of the goats in the Gore Range and the Needles Mountains is less well known. Goats from the 1968 transplant in the Gore Range are known to be still present, by tracks and droppings, but sightings were not made in 1969 and no information on reproductive success is available. Only three goats were seen in the Needles Mountains in 1969 by project personnel, but reports from private pilots indicate that at least 15 goats may be present. Difficulty in obtaining accurate population data will continue in these areas until the herds have grown considerably in numbers. �- 57 - Distribution Maps and Census Forms Preparation of detailed range or distribution maps, census descriptions, and census forms are still incomplete and not ready for submitting with interim progress reports. Work was accomplished on them during this segment, with the objective being to prepare them in finished form for the final report • .Summary of 1969 Mountain Goat Hunting Season As determined by a special mail questionnaire to each goat hunter, 20 mountain goats were harvested by 21 hunters, for a success ratio of 95 percent. The average hunter spent 4.2 days hunting goats in 1969. Days hunted ranged from 1 to 16, for a total of 88 man-days for all goat hunters. All but two of the permittees were hunting goats for the first time. All but two started their hunt on the first day of season; one started on the second day and another did not start until the ninth day. In the Collegiate Range, 3 adult female and 13 adult male goats were taken; on Mount Evans, 1 adult female and 3 adult male goats were taken. Two hunters, including the one who was unsuccessful, reported wounding and not getting a goat. By Commission action, the 1969 mountain goat hunting regulations were amended with the requirement that a qualified Division employee accompany each party of hunters. The disproportionate harvest of female goats in 1968 was considered to be detrimental to herd status; and to avoid a repetition, the Division employees were assigned to aid the hunter in selecting a male goat. Female goats, however, continued to be legal game, as regulations stipulated only that a goat have horns at least six inches long and that no mature female accompanied by young may be taken. Thus, the Division employees assignment was for assistance only, and the final decision on selection of an animal for harvest was up to the license holder. Harvest data indicate that the 1969 regulations as amended may have been effective in reducing the legal harvest of female animals. The procedure, however, is expensive and inefficient from the standpoint of Division personnel operations. In view of the small number of licenses issued, the potential for harvesting female goats is not great enough to be detrimental to well-established herds nor to justify such intensive efforts at control. With the need for surplus goats to furnish stock for an intensified transplanting program, it appears that the number of hunting permits should not be increased in any of the goat hunting areas, at least for the next few years. Prepared Wildlife Researcher �January, 1971 - 65 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~-------------- Project No. W-41-R-20 Work Plan No. 2 Job Title Evaluation Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. of Proposed Mountain Period Covered: June 1969 to May 1970 Personnel: William 6 Goat Transplant Sites H. Rutherford ABSTRACT Potential mountain goat transplant sites are proposed usually by Game, Fish and Parks or U.S. Forest Service personnel. These sites are then evaluated for suitability, first by a winter aerial survey to determine whether snow-free areas exist, and then by a summer on-the-ground survey of only those sites which showed snow-free areas. During the current segment, the Wetterhorn Peak area was found to be suitable as a goat transplant site on the basis of habitat quality, but was recommended for rejection because of an indigenous bighorn sheep population, and the uncertainty of knowledge concerning interspecific relationships of the two animals. Sites in the Marcellina Mountain was found to have sufficient snow-free slopes to warrant an on-the-ground inspection, while the Ragged Mountain area was found to range from marginal to unsuitable with ~espect to amount of snow-free potential winter range. The latter area was recommended for rejection as a possible transplant site. ��- 67 - EVALUATION OF PROPOSED MOUNTAIN GOAT TRANSPLANT SITES William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To situate mountain goat transplant opportunities. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To determine habitat characteristics of proposed mountain goat transplant sites, and compare them with standards established under Work Plan 2, Job 5. METHODS AND MATERIALS Potential mountain goat transplant sites are suggested or proposed by a variety of individuals - Wildlife Conservation Officers, Wildlife Researchers, and U. S. Forest Service personnel. The first activity toward evaluating their suitability is a winter survey by aircraft during late February or March, when snow depth is near maximum. Those sites which show little or no snow-free area are eliminated from consideration; those showing potential winter range are scheduled for on-the-ground surveys during the summer months. During the aerial survey, photographs are made of those snow-free areas which show vegetation; these photographs are then used as guides for the on-theground survey. Summer surveys are confined to the areas found to be snowfree during winter, and consist of measurements of plant species composition and density plus notations on nearness of cliffs and/or other rocky terrain which goats require for escape cover. Also, potential competition with other grazing animals is noted. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This job is statewide in scope, but limited during each segment to those specific locations proposed as transplant sites. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During the current segment, on-the-ground surveys were conducted in the Wetterhorn Peak area, which had been reported in the previous segment progress report as showing good potential, based on the results of a winter aerial survey. Also, winter aerial surveys were conducted in the Marcellina Mountain and Ragged Mountain areas during the current segment. The Wetterhorn area is characterized by alpine tundra of expectionally high quality. Plant density is good, and species composition tends toward high percentages of the desirable Kobresia, Poa and Festuca. Interspersion of �- 68 - rocky cliffs and vegetated areas is good, and there is a minimum of domestic sheep and elk competition. Winter range is located in the alpine zone, with no possibility for wintering at lower elevations, but there appears to be sufficient snow-free areas to support wintering goats. Thus, all ingredients for a successful goat transplant appear to exist. The major drawback to transplanting goats in the Wetterhorn Peak area is the fact that this is a part of the normal range for a herd of bighorn sheep. There is very little documentation on interspecific relationships of these two animals, but the scant evidence at hand indicates that bighorns do not tolerate mountain goat competition. Thus, it is felt that this is a rather serious consideration, and that the area should be rejected as a goat transplant site solely on this basis. Furthermore, all future transplant site proposals should consider this aspect early in the evaluation process, and should eliminate from consideration any area having current or potential use by bighorns. The Marcellina Mountain proposed goat transplant site was surveyed aerially on April 10, 1970. This location showed 100 acres or more of snow-free winter range on the south and west sides of the mountain, plus Anthracite Canyon on the north side which has a great deal of snow-free area. Interspersion of cliffs and vegetation is good, the area is judged to have low potential for bighorn sheep, and is isolated well enough so that little opportunity for goats to migrate exists. There is no potential for domestic livestock competition, and nothing more than minor elk competition is foreseen. An on-the-ground survey will be conducted during the next segment. The Ragged Mountain, Chair Mountain and Huntsman Mountain proposed transplant site was also aerially surveyed on April 10, 1970. These lie in a long chain oriented generally north-south. Ragged Mountain at the south end showed some snow-free areas, but not extensive enough to consider as a good release site. The further north the survey progressed, the more complete became the snow cover. In summary, the south end is marginal and the north end is completely unsuitable as a goat transplant site. It is recommended that this area not be considered because of the proximity of the good potential transplant site on Marcellina Mountain. Prepared bY*~# William H. Rutherfo Wildlife Researcher �January, 1971 - 69 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title An Ecological Investigation of the Cache 1a Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado W-105-R-ll Job No. 5 3 (Tenth year) Harvest Analysis Period Covered: March 1, 1970 to February 28, 1971 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT Publication plans our outlined. ��- 71 - HARVEST ANALYSIS Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the age structure of the deer herd kill to provide estimates of (a) net productivity (percent female yearlings in the kill), and (b) the effects of hunting regulations. 2. Locate the distribution of the kill by sub-unit to relate age and sex structure of the kill to elevational levels and harvest intensity. 3. Measure relevant physical characteristics of the kill to provide a possible index of herd response to winter food quality. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Check station sampling of the fall harvest was completed with the 1965 hunting season. Collected data have been tabulated and statistical treatment has been completed. Most of the literature has been reviewed. Publications None. Manuscripts in Preparation Manuscripts Submitted None. None. Future Plans Incorporate findings relative to Objectives 1 and 2 in a Department Special Report. The first draft will be completed during Segment 12. Prepared by ---L2!/h..u & t2r-ceP/t4(r1L/ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher ��January ~ 1971 - 73 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~R~AD~O~ _ Project No. W-l05-R-ll Work Plan Noo An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado 4 --------~------------ Job Title Job No. 1 (Tenth year) Population Density and Structure Period Covered: March 1, 1970 to February 28, 1971 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT No publications. Manuscripts submitted and in preparation are listed. ��- 75 - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVES 1. 2. Estimate population density on each of five selected study locations believed to be representative of the lower-winter, middle-winter, upper-winter, transitional, and summer ranges of the herd to: (a) relate density to changing environmental conditions CWork Plan 3, Jobs 1 and 3), and (b) elucidate density-elevational relationships, particularly between years. Estimate sex and age structure (composition) of the poulation to provide basic information on herd dynamics. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare manuscripts for publication. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Estimation of herd structure and population densities on selected areas was completed prior to June 1, 1965. Analyses of herd structure samplestime-weather relationships were essentially completed as Segment 11 ended. Publications None. Manuscripts in Preparation Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. related to mule deer fecal groups on winter range. Shrub yield and use J. Wildl. Mgmt. Manuscripts Submitted Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. Mule deer fecal group counts related to site factors on winter range. J. Range Mgmt. Complete and submit final manuscripts. Prepared by Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher ��January, 1971 - 77 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado W-IOS-R-ll Job No. 5 1 (Tenth year) Physical Characteristics Period Covered: March 1, 1970 to February 28, 1971 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT Publications, manuscripts submitted~ and manuscripts in preparation are listed. ��- 79 - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Measure relevant physiological and morphological characteristics of deer collected seasonally so that: (a) the response of the herd to its environment can be more adequately interpreted, (b) establish "physiological norms", and (c) provide basic morphological data as related to sex and age classes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Physiological and morphological studies on four deer collected each month, 1961-1965, were completed April 27, 1965. The number totaled 192 regular collections plus 33 from supplementary sources. All data were placed on punch-cards and preliminary analyses of blood and tissue chemistry data were completed during Segment 10. The review of literature was continued and about 1,000 references were obtained for project files during Segment 11. Publications Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Erythrocytes and leukocytes in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):389-406. Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1970. Vitamin A in the liver and blood of mule deer. A.A.A.S. and New Mexico Acad. Science, 46th Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, New Mexico. April 22-25. Abst. p. 37. Erickson, J. A., A. E. Anderson, D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Estimating ages of mule deer - an evaluation of technique accuracy. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(3):523-531. Manuscripts in Preparation Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. Temporal variation of vitamin A in the blood and liver of a mule deer population. J. Mammalogy. �- 80 - Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. Indices of carcass fat in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Nicolls, K. E. 1970. Cytometry and volumetry of acidophil cells in the hypophysis cerebri pars distalis of Colorado mule deer (odocoileus hemionus hemionus) relative to seasons of the photo period and antler cycles. Z. fur Zellforsch. und Mikros. Anat. Roughton, R. D. 1970. Age structure in browse populations. Ecology. Manuscripts submitted Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1970. Antler phenology of a Colorado mule deer population. Southwestern Nat. 15(2 or 3). (Accepted). Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. Adrenal ascorbic acid and adrenal weight in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Future Plans Complete and submit final manuscripts to appropriate Journals. Prepared by E: ~ cC;.:.dP~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher �January, 1971 - 81 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~R~AD~O~ Project No. W-105-R-ll Work Plan No. _ An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado 5 Job Title Job No. 2 (Tenth year) Reproductive Studies Period Covered: March 1, 1970 to February 28, 1971 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT A publication is listed. No manuscripts were submitted or prepared. ��- 83 - REPRODUCTIVE STUDIES Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the reproductive pattern of the deer herd to provide data on: (a) morphology of the reproductive organs as related to age and season, (b) gross and net productivity between years, and (c) tentatively, the relationship of productivity to measured factors of the environment (Work Plan 3). SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Reproductive data gathering from collected deer was completed April 27, 1965. Ovarian collections from hunter killed deer were completed with the 1964 hunting season. Most of the data have been compiled, tabulated, and placed on computer cards. Publications Short, Catherine. 1970. Morphological development and aging of mule and white-tailed deer fetuses. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):383-388. Manuscripts in Preparation: Manuscripts Submitted: None None Future Plans Initiate analyses. Prepared by Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/2b0df9426de92c1c04f6432b1491c198.pdf 2f0774a71885571dfbc641c05f84bbe5 PDF Text Text -1- April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~~L~O~RAD~~O _ Work Plan No. Job Title 1 Job No. 16 Pheasant Nest Site Selection Study Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-24 Project No. April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Donald M. Hoffman, Warren D. Snyde.r, Bruce C. Sigler, Dale W. Stahlecker, Robert L. Schmidt, Lawrence A. Webster, John F. Corey, Gary Brown, John Ellenberger, Mark Frazier, Jon Hooper, Tom Lines, Roger Lowery, Jon Moser, Henry Wilson and Michael Zgainer. ABSTRACT Each of the 4 quadrats was stocked with a m~n~mum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by March 11, 1970 (Segment 23) in preparation for nesting studies in 1970. Eighty pheasant nests were found in the 48 nesting plots, representing 6 vegetative species or combination of species. Sixteen nests were found in 8 alfalfa mowed plots; 15 nests Were found in 4 alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed plots; 10 nests in 4 tall wheatgrass mowed plots; 9 each nests in 4 intermediate wheatgrass mowed and 4 intermediate wheatgrass unmowed plots; 8 nests in 4 tall wheatgrass seeded plots; and 7 nests in 4 smooth bromegrass mowed plots. Fewer numbers of nests were found in other vegetative types and treatments represented. In comparing nests per vegetative type and treatment, alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed, ranked highest with 3.75 nests per plot; followed by tall wheatgrass mowed, with 2.50 nests per plot; intermediate wheatgrass mowed, and intermediate wheatgrass unmowed, each with 2.25 nests per plot; tall wheatgrass seeded, and alfalfa mowed, each with 2.00 nests per plot; and smooth bromegrass mowed, with 1.75 nests per plot. Sixty-six percent of all nests in 1970 were established 15 feet or less from plot perimeters. Average clutch size of 46 nests, where it was possible to determine this, was 11.2. A minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks, wild-trapped in Phillips, Sedgwick, and Larimer counties in early 1971, were restocked in each of the 4 quadrats by January 28, 1971 for continuation of the study in 1971 (Segment 25). ��" -.)- PHEASANT NEST SITE SELECTION STUDY Donald M. Hoffman Field work on this study was conducted similar to the previous year's work with three separate nest searches completed during the nesting season of 1970. The change-over of three vegetative types used very little or not practical to establish along roadsides was completed in the fall of 1969 and no additional p1antings were made in 1970. P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant nesting of, and success in (1) winter wheat; (2) alfalfa; (3) crested wheatgrass; (4) hairy vetch; (5) white sweet clover; (6) alfalfacrested wheatgrass mixture; (7) smooth bromegrass; (8) tall wheatgrass; and (9) intermediate wheatgrass. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To maintain plots. 2. To measure nesting preference. 3. To determine nesting success by cover type. 4. To obtain wild pheasants and care for them following release in plots. METHODS AND MATERIALS Wild pheasants were captured with a vehicle, spotlights, and hand nets at night in Phillips and Sedgwick counties in Segment 23. All 4 quadrats were restocked with a minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by March 11, 1970. Limited Cooper's hawk predation occurred on the wing-clipped pheasants held in the quadrats after this date but this was not serious. Phenology measurements were again secured in 1970 to ascertain readiness of the various vegetative species and cover types for use by nesting pheasants. An initial nest search in 1970 was made during the period June 4 and 5 with 10 men, including 5 W.C.O. trainees and others. Each plot was systematially searched using ropes to divide the plots into narrow segments. Nests were marked, recorded, and removed to encourage renesting. A second nest search was made during the period June 22 through July 3, 1970 by 2 men searching each plot systematically in strips outlined by lath markers. A third and final search was made by 5 men using methods similar to the second search during the period July 20 through 27, 1970, preceding and following the windrowing of half of the individual plots on July 27, 1970. A well trained bird dog belonging to Warren Snyder was used to advantage in the first and last nest searches. �-4- Distances were measured from each nest to the nearest edge and to the apex or base of the triangular plot, whi.chever was closest, with a steel tape. Each nest could later be located on a scaled diagram of the quadrats. Number of eggs, fate of the nest and estimated age of embryos were recorded. In addition, vegetative heights and vegetative species in the 4 cardinal direc.tions from each nest were recorded. Prior to the windrowing of vegetation in half of the plots on July 27, 1970, all but 4 of the 64 wing-clipped pheasants were caught with hand nets. Nineteen of these were released on Means Lake property in Phillips County and the remainder were released outside the quadrats at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Two incubating hens were killed by the windrowing machine and the other 2 were not recovered. Five wild pheasants, including 3 hens and 2 cocks were captured with cloverleaf traps at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station during early January, 1971. Fifty-seven additional wild pheasants, including 49 hens and 8 cocks were captured with 4-wheel drive vehicles, hand spotlights, and hand nets during 6 trap-nights in Phillips and Sedgwick counties. These were used to restock the 4 quadrats with a minimum of 13 hens and 2 cocks by January 28, 1971 for continuation of the study in 1971. All pheasants were wing-clipped and banded with aluminum leg bands prior to release in the quadrats. Plot Composition Plot Composition for 1970 (Treatment Following 1969 Nesting Season) The changing of vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establish along roadsides, started in 1968, was continued in the fall of 1969. The remaining winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass and the 4 remaining white sweet clover plots were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass. Plot Number 1. Originally Winter Wheat, Now Smooth Bromegrass Four of the original winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1968. These were all mowed in the summer of 1969. The remaining 4 winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1969. Plot Number 2. Alfalfa These were all mowed and maintained following the 1969 nesting season so 1970 composition was comparable with 1968 and 1969. Two of these plots including Number 2, Interior, NW Quadrat, and Number 2, Exterior, NE Quadrat, are approaching alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixtures due to invasion by crested wheatgrass. �Plot Number 3. Cres ted Wheatgras s Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season so that a residual cover check could be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Composition for 1970 was therefore comparable to that of 1969. Plot Number 4. Originally Hairy Vetch, Now Intermediate Wheatgrass All of these plots were reworked and seeded to intermediate wheatgrass following the 1968 nesting season. Four of these intermediate wheatgrass plots were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season, so a residual cover check could be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Plot Number 5. Originally White Sweet Clover, Now Tall Wheatgrass Four of the original white sweet clover plots were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1968. These were all mowed in the summer of 1969. The remaining 4 white sweet clover plots (volunteer forbs in 1969) were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1969. Plot Number 6. Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season, so that a residual cover check could be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Composition for 1970 was therefore comparable to 1969. Plot Composition for 1971 (Treatment Following 1970 Nesting Season) The changing of vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establi8h along roadsides, started in 1968, completed in the fall of 1969. No additional changes were made during 1970. Plot Number 1. Originally Winter Wheat, Now Smooth Bromegrass The 4 original winter wheat plots seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1968, were left unmowed in the summer of 1970. The 4 original winter wheat plots, seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1969, were mowed in the summer of 1970. A residual cover check will be secured in 1971. Plot Number 2. Alfalfa Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed in 1970 so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1971. Two of the alfalfa plots including Number 2, Interior, NW Quadrat, and Number 2, Exterior, NE Quadrat, are approaching alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixtures due to invasion by crested wheatgrass. Plot Number 3. Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1971 on half of the plots. Composition for 1971 is therefore comparable to that of 1970. �-6- Plot Number 4. Originally Hairy Vetch, Now Intermediate Wheatgrass All of these plots were reworked and seeded to intermediate wheatgrass following the 1968 nesting season. Four of these intermediate wheatgrass plots were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season, so a residual cover check may be secured in 1971 on half of the plots. Plot Number 5. Originally White Sweet Clover, Now Tall Wheatgrass The 4 original white sweet clover plots seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1968, were left unmowed in the summer of 1970. The 4 original white sweet clover plots seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1969, were mowed in the summer of 1970. A residual cover check will be secured in 1971. Plot Number 6. Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed folloWing the 1970 nesting season, so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1971 on half of the plots. Composition for 1971 is therefore comparable to 1970. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Stocking of Pheasants for 1970 An attempt to live-trap pheasants in September, 1969 in the Holyoke area was made but losses folloWing capture were heavy. Of 18 captured (mostly juveniles) 4 died in transit to Fort Collins and 4 died while held in the covered pen before moving to the southeast quadrat on October 9, 1969. At least 2 additional birds from this source are known to have died while held in the southeast quadrat. The wing-clipped pheasants used in the 1969 nesting studies were recaptured with hand nets at the end of the 1969 nesting season and placed in a large covered pen in an attempt to hold these over for use in 1970. An unusually heavy, wet snow in early October, 1969 broke the top of the pen down and 67 surviving pheasants (57 hens and 10 cocks) were released in the southeast quadrat on October 9, 1969. Overwinter losses, mostly from great-horned owl predation, were heavy. Approximately 34 percent were lost from this cause from October 9, 1969 to February 9, 1970 and an additional 33 percent were lost from the same cause from February 9, 1970 to March 6, 1970. Limited Cooper's hawk predation on the wing-clipped pheasants occurred after the final stocking of the quadrats on March II, 1970, but this was not serious. Location of Nests Eighty pheasant nests were found in the 48 triangular-shaped nesting plots representing 6 vegetative species or combination of species. Figures 1 through 4 show the approximate location of nests in the various quadrats. Table 1 lists pheasant nests found by vegetative cover type and treatments in 1970. �-7- 370' 4 2 Agin (urn) ""~ Mesa (m) o 3 12' Agcr (m) o 5 0:: Agel (rr) ~ o 0:: W ~ Brin (m) 0:: o H 0:: ~ Z H 12' 6 Mesa~gcr(urn Brin (rr)~ 12' Detailed Fig. 1. Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan I, Job 16 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in northwest quadratp 1970. ~ 0 W - �-8- 370' \\ 2 \\ 5 /00 6 Mesa- Agcr II 12' ~ ~ (l: . ~1-,. .: Agel (rr) / !o/ Agel (m) 7 7/ o 5 3 o Agcr (m) (m) I:t: o Brin o (m) Brin (rr) ~ X £iI o 12' 4 Agin ( Mesa-Agcr (urn) 2 / Ager 6 Fig. 2 G Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan I, Job 16 (um~ 3 12' Detailed ~ ~ 8 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in northeast quadrat, 1970. ) - �-9- 370' 4 7/ 7 2 Mesa (m) / f Brin (rr) ~ 0:: W 6 E 0 Mesa-Agcr (m) ~ ~o'~ ------0 12' 6 12' Fig. 3 • Location Detailed Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Nest Site of pheasant 1970. nests in southwest quadrat, �-10- 370' 3 6 12' Mesa-Agcr (urn) 12' 12' Detailed Fige4 _ Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in southeast quadrat, 1970 0 �Table 1. Number of pheasant nests found in 48 plots representing various vegetative types and treatments, 1970. Plot Number Type and Treatment NW guadrat NE SW SE 1 Smooth bromegrass (mowed) 1 3 1 1 Smooth bromegrass (seeded) 1 0 2 Alfalfa (mowed) 7 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 3 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 4 Intermediate wheatgrass (mowed) Total Number Plots Nests/ Plot 2 7 4 1.75 0 0 1 4 0.25 2 1 6 16 8 2.00 0 2 0 1 3 4 0.75 0 0 0 1 1 4 0.25 4 1 2 2 9 4 2.25 I 2 1 2 4 9 4 2.25 (mowed) 1 4 4 1 10 4 2.50 (seeded) 4 1 0 3 8 4 2.00 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) 5 2 2 6 15 4 3.75 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass 1 0 0 0 1 4 0.25 26 16 12 26 80 48 1.66 4 Intermediate wheatgrass 5 Tall wheatgrass 5 Tall wheatgrass 6 6 Totals Average (unmowed) (unmowed) I-' I-' I �-12- By numbers of nests, alfalfa mowed (16 nests) ranked highest for nest establishment in 1970, followed by alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed (15 nests); tall wheatgrass mowed (10 nests); intermediate wheatgrass mowed and intermediate wheatgrass unmowed (each with 9 nests); tall wheatgrass seeded (8 nests); and smooth bromegrass mowed (7 nests). Fewer numbers of nests were found in other vegetative types and treatments represented. Numbers of nests per cover plot were calculated because of a difference in numbers of plots by cover type and treatment. In this comparison, alfalfacrested wheatgrass mowad ranked highest with 3.75 nests per plot, followed by tall wheatgrass mowed with 2.50 nests per plot, intermediate wheatgrass mowed and intermediate wheatgrass unmowed each with 2.25 nests per plot, tall wheatgrass seeded and alfalfa mowed each with 2.00 nests per plot, and smooth bromegrass mowed with 1.75 nests per plot. Sixty-six percent of all nests in 1970 were established 15 feet or less from plot perimeters as shown in Table 2. During 1970, 48 nests were found in exterior plots and 32 nests in interior plots. The terms "interior and exterior" refer to the location of the individual plots in relation to a central point where all 4 quadrats join. These are indicated in the margins of Figures 1 through 4. Figure 5 shows an experimental plot of smooth bromegrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. A search for nests in a plot of intermediate wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 is shown in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows an experimental plot of tall wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. This cover type furnishes good winter cover as well as good nesting cover at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Figure 8 shows the method used in hand netting Wing-clipped pheasants located with the help of a well trained bird dog. Pheasants were removed from the quadrats prior to windrowing of the vegetation in half of the plots on July 27, 1970. Clutch Sizes Thirty-four nests contained unknown clutch sizes. These were nests where the hen was still laying or nests which were abandoned for one reason or another without incubation having started. The average clutch size of the remaining 46 nests which included both incubating nests and hatched nests was 11.2 eggs, ranging from 5 to 21 (Table 3). Considerable variation was found in clutch sizes between the various cover types and treatments as shown in Table 3. Largest average numbers of eggs per clutch was found in intermediate wheatgrass unmowed (6 nests averaged 14.5 eggs); intermediate wheatgrass mowed (7 nests averaged 12.4 eggs); alfalfa mowed (9 nests averaged 12.2 eggs); smooth bromegrass mowed (4 nests averaged 11.0 eggs); and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass unmowed (1 nest averaged 11.0 eggs). �I I-' W I Fig. 5. A plot of smooth bromegrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. nests were found in the four smoothbromegrass, mowed plots in 1970. (D. Hoffman, photo). Seven pheasant �,....I +:I Fig. 6. Searching for nests in a plot of intermediate wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and left unmowed in the summer of 1969 Nine pheasant nests were found in the four intermediate wheatgrass, unmowed, and nine in the four intermediate wheatgrass, mowed plots in 1970. (Do Hoffman, photo). 0 �I •..... V1 I Fig. 7. A plot of tall wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. found in the four tall wheatgrass, mowed plots in 1970. (D. Hoffman, photo). Ten pheasant nests were �I ~ 0'\ I Fig. 8. Hand netting a wing-clipped pheasant, located with the assistance of a well trained dog. removed from the quadrats prior to windrowing of the vegetation. (D. Hoffman, photo). Pheasants were �-17- Table 2. Distance of pheasant nests from plot perimeters, 1970. Distance From Nearest Edge Number Nests Percent 0 - 5' 13 16 5 - 10' 25 31 10 - 15' 15 19 15 - 20' 11 14 20 - 25' 6 8 25 - 30' 9 11 30 - 35' 1 1 35 - 40' 0 0 Total 80 100 Fate of Nests Of the 80 nests found and recorded, 66 were determined to be in an active state of laying or incubation, 7 were hatched successfully, and 7 were apparently abandoned for one reason or another. All nests were recorded and removed to encourage renesting. This also prevented the recording of the same nest more than once. Of the 7 nests which hatched successfully, 2 were in alfalfa mowed plots, 2 in intermediate wheatgrass unmowed, 2 in alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed, and 1 in intermediate wheatgrass mowed. Of 86 total eggs in 7 nests which had successfully hatched, 71 (82.55 percent) of the eggs hatched. Of the 7 apparently abandoned nests, 1 was hailed on with eggs showing hail cracks, 1 was ruined by a predator (probably magpie or crow) and 5 were abandoned for unknown reasons. Periods of Nest Establishment Table 5 lists periods of nest establishment based upon aging egg embryos according to procedures outlined in Game Information Leaflet Number 15 (Sandfort 1965). �Table 3. Clutch sizes found in 46 incubating or hatched pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1970. Clutch Size 1 Brin (m) 1 Brin (rr) 2 Mesa (m) 3 Agcr (m) 1 1 1 1 Plot Number and Treatment 3 4 4 5 Agcr Agin Agin Agel (urn) (m) (urn) (m) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 5 Agel (rr) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn) 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 Total 1 5 6 6 3 1 3 3 2 6 2 2 1 3 1 0 1 Totals 4 0 9 3 0 7 6 5 3 8 1 46 Average Clutch 11.0 - 12.2 8.0 - 12.4 14.5 9.4 9.3 9.5 11.0 11.2 I I-' 00 I �Table 4. Fate of 80 pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1970. Type 1 Brin (m) Ac tive (Laying or Incubated) 7 1 Brin (rr) 2 Mesa (m) 5 Agel (rr) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn)· Total I t-" 1 13 2 Abandoned or Unsuccessful 1 7 Plot Number and Treatment 5 3 4 4 Agel Agcr Agin Agin (urn) (m) (urn) (m) 1.0 I Hatched Total 3 Agcr (m) 1 16 3 3 1 1 8 6 1 2 9 9 5 12 1 66 2 7 7 1 1 3 1 9 10 8 15 1 80 �Table S. Estimated period of nest establishment in various vegetative types, 1970. 11 Period 1 Brin (m) 1 Brin (rr) April 16-30 2 Mesa (m) 3 Agcr (m) Plot Number and Treatment 5 3 4 4 Agcr Agin Agel Agin (urn) (m) (um) (m) 2 5 Agel (rr) 1 1 May 16-31 2 3 June 1-15 2 3 1 June 16-30 1 6 2 2 Total 4 2 3 1 1 6 Mesa-Agcr (um) 1 1 May 1-15 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 3 2 3 13 16 5 3 1 1 2 5 1 24 I N July 1-15 1 1 1 July 16-31 1 Unknown 3 Total 7 1 16 2 1 6 1 3 1 1 3 1 3 3 9 9 10 8 IS 14 1 80 1/ Period of nest establishment based upon aging of embryos according to Game- Information Leaflet No. IS (Sandfort 1965). First nest search was made June 4-5, 1970; second was made June 22-Ju1y 3, 1970; third was made July 20-27, 1970. 0 I �-21- An initial peak in nest establishment occurred during the period May 16-31, 1970 or approximately 2 weeks later than in 1969. Heights of vegetation on May 15, 1970 were about half that found on May 16, 1969 due to a cold, wet spring in 1970. Weather factors, therefore, were the apparent cause of this delay in nesting activity. Additional peaks in nest establishment occurred during the periods June 1-15, and June 16-30, 1970; similar to those found in 1969. Highest number of nests (24) was recorded for the period June 16-30, 1970. Some hens continued to recycle until removed from the quadrats prior to windrowing of the vegetation in half of the individual plots on July 27, 1970. Residual cover from 1969 was left in half of the crested wheatgrass, intermediate wheatgrass, and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass plots (12 plots out of 48) in order to compare nesting use with mowed plots. This residual cover was flattened by the early, wet snows in September and October, 1969 and did not recover so, for all practical purposes, standing residual cover was non-existent in 1970. In 1970, only 3 nests out of the 19 established prior to May 31, 1970 (15.78 percent) were found in plots having this flattened residual cover from 1969. A good test of residual cover was not possible in 1970 for this reason. Phenology Heights of vegetation measurements were made on April 15 and 27; May 11 and 22; June 2, 12, and 23; and July 3 and 16, 1970. Table 6 summarizes average heights of vegetation on April 15, May 11, June 12, and July 16, 1970. Heights of the new growth vegetation on May 11, 1970 were generally about half that found on May 16, 1969, but had largely caught up by mid-June. The cold, wet spring of 1970 probably caused this lateness of vegetation growth. Weather factors also apparently caused a delay in nesting activity in 1970 (see section on periods of nest establishment). In contrast to the 1969 season when vegetative growth appeared to reach a maximum for the season in mid-June, most vegetative species in 1970 continued to grow in height throughout the nesting season. This was probably due to differences in spring and summer moisture and temperatures. Good early soil moisture has been maintained for the 1969, 1970, and 1971 nesting seasons by complete plot irrigations during the previous fall periods. This was required to establish new grass seedings prior to 1970, but was continued in 1970 to provide ade::Juatesoil moisture for the early 1971 growing period. Height Nl'st!'l t u n l t Y Surrounding Nests found prior to windrowing and found in uncut plots provided 1'0'- lu- I ~ht ob I n l n l n~ '1'111"., I 11Mlr. IIV(~I"I'f!.1' t Lvv ho l gh t 01 1').'14 Itrs t of Vegetation v(~~('lnl IwllI,htH I VI' Hlld l nc he a Willi l1ll'tlFlllrelll('nI:R '1fltwlclH Iounrl of s u r r ounrl I ng VI'II,,,ltlllon. au r round f ng IB ne e ts an oppor7l~ no s t s • 1\11 IIVI'I'I1II,O Found V(1J.1;(llll- du r l ng LII •• search period of June 4 and 5, 1970, compared with uve rag« vege Lutlon heights of over 20 inches for the second and third nest searches. I\n ovo ru Ll average height of 19.41 inches was recorded for vegetation surroundt ng till' 7/. I1I'Rt~~rncn s u r od . nest: > �-22- Table 6. Average height of vegetation in pheasant nesting plots, 1970. Plot Number Vegetative Type and Treatment 4-15-70 1 Smooth bromegrass (mowed) 4.0 10.0 23.0 37.0 1 Smooth bromegrass (seeded) 4.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 2 Alfalfa (mowed) New growth Residual 2.0 4.0 9.0 21.0 26.0 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 4.0 9.0 11.0 17.0 3 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) New growth Residual 4.0 4.0 8.0 9.0 14.0 Intermediate wheatgrass (mowed) 5.0 9.0 14.0 38.0 Intermediate wheatgrass (unmowed) New growth Residual 5.0 3.0 8.0 16.0 36.0 5 Tall wheatgrass (mowed) 6.0 12.0 14.0 42.0 5 Tall wheatgrass (seeded) 2.0 11.0 10.0 14.0 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) New growth alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Residual alfalfa 1.0 4.0 3.0 10.0 9.0 18.0 13.0 31.0 18.0 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed) !l New growth alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Residual alfalfa 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 8.0 9.0 9.0 20.0 16.0 4 4 6 Average Height (Inches) 5-11-70 6-12-70 7-16-70 1/ New growth alfalfa was well clipped by mice in unmowed alfalfa-crested wheatgrass plots during 1970 growing season. �-23- Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 74 nests, 1970. Nest Number Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured 1 2 3 4 5 6 SE SE SE SE SE SE 1-1 1-1 4-E 2-E 2-E 6-E 6-4-70 6-4-70 6-4-79 6-4-70 6-4-70 6-4-70 7 8 9 SW SW SW 5-E 5-E 6-E 6-4-70 6-4-70 6-4-70 10 NE 5-1 6-5-70 11 NE 6-E 6-5-70 12 13 NE NE 1-1 5-1 6-5-70 6-5-70 14 15 NW NW 2-1 5-1 6-5-70 6-5-70 16 NW 4-1 6-5-70 17 NW 1-E 6-5-70 18 NW 6-E 6-5-70 19 20 SE SE 5-1 4-1 6-22-70 6-23-70 21 SE 4-1 6-23-70 22 23 24 25 26 27 SE SE SE SE S8 3-1 2-1 2-1 4-E 4-8 5-E 6-23-70 6-24-70 6-24-70 6-25-70 6-25-70 6-25-70 28 SE 29 '\0 81': 5-E 6-E 6-25-70 6-25-70 ~I': (,-'1')-70 II nit; ()-I': (,-I': Composition Ave. Ht. (In.) Smooth bromegrass Smooth bromegrass Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Cheatgrass Thistle Intermediate wheatgrass Hairy vetch Smooth bromegrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass 13.0 14.3 15.0 23.0 22.5 16.3 12.0 16.3 15.3 16.5 12.0 23.0 27.0 15.3 11.0 10.3 13.0 11.3 19.8 14.8 9.5 15.0 12.0 15.0 14.0 15.0 12.0 Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Cheatgrass 13 .0 24.0 12.7 26.8 13 .3 14.3 24.0 25.5 24.3 23.5 29.5 21.5 20.0 21.5 Ave. Ht. for Period (In.) 15.34 SE (,-,/'j-10 Alfalfa Alfalfn A 1 III 1 I'll Cn'Hl(~d 77.3 ,/11 • ') wlwntKrllHH /.1 .1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-24- Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 74 nests, 1970. (continued) • Nest Number Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured 32 SW 5-E 6-25-70 33 SW 6-E 6-26-70 34 35 SW NW 4-1 4-1 6-26-70 6-29-70 36 NW 4-1 6-29-70 37 NW 5-E 6-29-70 38 39 NW NW 2-E 6-E 6-29-70 6-30-70 40 NW 2-1 6-30-70 41 NW 6-E 6-30-70 42 43 44 45 NW NW NE NE 5-1 5-1 1-1 5-1 6-30-70 6-30-70 6-30-70 7-2-70 46 47 48 NE NE NE 3-E 3-E 4-E 7-2-70 7-2-70 7-3-70 49 SE 6-E 7-20-70 50 SE 6-E 7-20-70 51 SE 5-E 7-20-70 52 SW 5-E 7-21-70 53 54 55 56 57 SW SW SW SW SW 1-E 4-E 4-E 4-1 2-E 7-21-70 7-21-70 7-21-70 7-21-70 7-21-70 58 SE 3-E 7-21-70 Composition Ave. Ht. (In.) Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Hairy vetch Intermediate wheatgrass Hairy vetch Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Cheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass 29.0 16.0 25.5 21.0 33.0 26.0 8.3 31.3 16.3 16.0 32.7 20.0 19.5 23.0 16.5 17 .5 21.5 23.3 18.0 17.0 15.8 17.5 21.5 14.0 11.3 14.5 25.5 Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Winter wheat (volunteer) Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass 18.7 15.0 19.3 14.3 32.7 36.0 20.5 15.0 37.0 34.5 39.0 36.0 19.0 12.0 15.0 Ave. Ht. for Period (In.) 20.98 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 74 nests, 1970. (continued) • Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured 59 NW 4-E 7-22-70 60 NW 4-E 7-22-70 61 62 NW NW 2-E 4-1 7-22-70 7-22-70 63 NW 6-1 7-22-70 64 NW I-I 7-22-70 65 66 67 NW NW NW 2-1 2-1 6-E 7-22-70 7-22-70 7-22-70 68 NE 2-E 7-23-70 69 NE 6-E 7-23-70 70 NE 4-1 7-23-70 71 NE I-I 7-23-70 72 NE 5-E 7-23-70 73 74 NE SE 5-1 2-E 7-23-70 7-23-70 Nest Number Composition Ave. Ht. (In.) Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Hairy vetch Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa 26.0 lO.7 34.7 14.0 14.5 9.5 lO.O 19.0 14.0 6.0 14.0 23.8 13.0 17.5 14.0 18.5 17.3 27.5 18.0 33.0 14.0 14.5 14.7 14.0 19.0 45.0 17.0 Ave. Ht. for Period (In.) 20.40 Average Height All Measurements 19.41 Stocking of Pheasants in Quadrats for 1971 1\ ml n I.mumof 13 hens and 2 cocks, wild-trapped in Phillips, Sedgwick and Lllrllller cotlntiel'! 1n January, 1971, were wing clipped, 1ep;banded, and rc l onscd In each of the 4 quadrats by January 28, 1971 for con tt.nuat Lon of the 8 tudy in 1971 (Segment 25). �-26- KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS Figures 1 Through 4 and Tables 3 Through 5 Plants Symbol Scientific Name Agcr Agropyron cristatum Crested wheatgrass Agel ~gropyron elongatum Tall wheatgrass Agin Agropyron intermedium Intermediate wheatgrass Brin Bromus inermis Smooth bromegrass Mesa Medicago sativa Alfalfa Connnon Name Treatment Following 1969 nesting season (m) Mowed only (rr) Reworked and reseeded (urn) Unmowed - residual cover check in 1970 LITERATURE CITED Sandfort, W. W. 1965. Aging pheasant embryos. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leaf1. No. 15. 2 p. Prepared by Ll~WJ~~ Donald M. Hoffma~ Wildlife Researcher �-27April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~·_ Project No. W-37-R-24 Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Pheasant Roadside Cover Evaluation Study Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 18 April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Dale W. Stahlecker and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT Roadside seeding efforts to establish grass and grass-legume plots were continued in 1970. Satisfactory stands were attained on twenty additional plots, which will be included with their controls in the 1971 evaluation. Nest searches through the summer measured nesting attempts and successes on 48 seeded plots, 28 farmed controls and 23 unfarmed natural controls. TWenty-two of the 29 nest sites were found in seeded plots, two were along farmed roadside shoulders and five were in unfarmed controls. However, most nests in seeded plots were found along the unseeded roadside edges where green and residual weed cover dominated. Mammalian predators destroyed 16 of the 29 nests, four were hatched, four were abandoned because of human disturbance and five could not be accurately classified. Accumulations of residual grass and legume cover will potentially enhance the test sites for nesting pheasants during successive years. Partial evaluation of cover conditions and nesting in older roadsides, previously seeded by farmers, indicate new species should be tested to provide improved nesting cover. ��-29- PHEASANT ROADSIDE Warren COVER EVALUATION STUDY D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roads.Ldes: (1) grass and (2) grass-legume mi.xtures. SEGMENT 1. To establish 2. To measure OBJECTIVES grass and grass-legume pheasant production cover on roadside in test and control test areas. areas. METHODS "AND MATERIALS The reader is referred to Snyder (1969 and 1970) for methods used in selection of roadside test areas and in establishing grass-legume cover. Measurement of Pheasant Production in Test and Control and materials grass and Plots Nesting by pheasants in the seeded and control roadside plots was measured by nest searches. Dale Stahlecker, student assistant, began searches in mid-June and continued through the summer. Linear strips, in which width varied in relation to cover density, were searched on foot. A stick was used to part the vegetation for close, methodical inspection. Nests, where the hen was laying or incubating eggs, were marked by placing a lath nearby along the road shoulder. These were checked again at later dates to determine the fate of the nest. All plots initially searched before August I were searched a second time during the summer. Characteristics of the nest site and nest were recorded, and shell fragments and nest bowls of terminated nests were removed. Pertinent items recorded at each nest included: date; group and plot location; location within plot; plot cover type; cover type, height and density immediately surround the nest; status of nest (laying, incubating, number of eggs, etc.); and fate of nest after rE'ci1pckA. �-30- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Establishment of Grass and Grass-Legume Cover Past Seedings Marginal to satisfactory stands of grass and alfalfa were established following seeding efforts in 1969 on a majority of the roadside study plots. Most of the plots, seeded during the spring of 1969, where seed competition was severe in summer, produced disappointing stands. Several of these were reseeded again in 1969, others were replanted in 1970, and a few were included in the first year evaluation. Reseeding will be renewed on a few in 1971 attempting to increase grass and legume densities. Fair to good grass stands, utilized in the 1970 nest searches, were obtained west of Holyoke following August, 1969 rains. Table 1 summarizes the groups of plots utilized in 1970 nest searches. Each group contained either one or two seeded plots and one farmed control. An unfarmed control was included in most groups. Seeding Efforts in 1970 Approximately twenty additional study plots will be available for nest searching in 1971 due to seeding efforts in 1970. These were established despite poor planting conditions. Early spring seeding efforts were stymied by wet soil conditions which prevented working the plots. Several plots prepared and seeded in early May produced suitable grass and legume stands. Insects, destroyed one half-mile stand of grass, and one farmer's summer employee destroyed another plot which was successfully reseeded. Weed competition and hot, dry summer weather reduced stand densities on some spring seeded plots. Only one inch of rain was received during the three-month period of midJune to mid-September. Needless to say, seedings attempted during this period did not germinate. But, satisfactory grass stands were obtained on several plots following September rains. Many sprouting alfalfa seedlings in these plots were killed by frost while in the two-leaf stage. Problems in Establishment of Grass and Legume Stands The primary problem in obtaining seeded stands was to place the seed in the ground prior to receiving moisture that would germinate and sustain the stand. Firm soil was needed but hard rains frequently crusted soil preventing sprouts from getting through. Adequate moisture, too often, was followed by hot-winds which dried the soil desiccating sprouting plants. Weeds along steep road shoulders also sapped moisture needed by seeds and plants along the road edges. Competitive weeds or loose soil along the field bordering edge of the strips hampered seed germination. Spring seedings were conSistently hampered by summer weed growth. Efforts to suppress weed growth by mowing resulted in distrubance and possible mortality of newly-hatched �-31- pheasant broods which would not leave the dense cover. In two instances pheasants attempted to nest in spring-seeded roadsides. One of these was killed on the nest while mowing. In general, the best stands were obtained from plots sunnner-fallowed and seeded in late July or August. Measurement of Pheasant Production in Seeded and Control Plots Tables 1 and 2 sunnnarize the results of nest searching on 48 seeded plots and 51 control plots in 1970. The total number of nesting attempts, 29, was considered low. Twenty-two of these occurred within seeded plots but only seven hens actually utilized seeded grass or alfalfa. Most of the remaining 14 nests in the seeded plots were associated with various combinations of weeds and/or cheat grass cover. Frequently, nests were located at the base of unseeded road shoulders where residual weed cover provided a protective canopy. Kochia, cheat grass, wild lettuce and sunflowers were the most connnon annuals along unseeded or unfarmed portions of all roadside plots. Five nests located in the unfarmed (C2) controls were all associated with annual forbs as were two nests along road shoulders in farmed (Cl) controls. None were observed in grain stubble or fallow portions of the farmed cont ro Ls , Preliminary nest location results indicate residual cover was an important attraction factor in nest site selection during the early spring. Increased use of green vegetation by hens was observed in late spring - sunnner nesting efforts. Most seeded stands lacked residual cover in 1970, therefore, they may become more attractive to pheasants in future years. Unfortunately, two half-mile strips of seeded roadside were burned by farmers during the early spring of 1971, destroying all residual cover. Skunks, badgers and other unknown predators destroyed 16 of the 29 nests located in the study plots. Crushed and scattered shell fragments were the main characteristic of destroyed nests. Nest bowls were occasionally torn apart. In one instance, not included in this sample, pheasant remains and shell fragments indicated that a hen was captured on the nest. Past observations have shown that skunks spend considerable time working roadsides in spring. Undoubtedly, they are the primary predator affecting roadside nesting success. Four nests hatched successfully. Nest search efforts, which flushed several hens from their neets, were partially responsible for nest abandonment. Overzealous checks to determine If hens had returned to their nest:.•increased nb andontuon t • More rca t rnLnt will be placed on follow-up nest checks in the future. Eggs were collected from abandoned nests to monitor for mercury and pesticide residues. Treatment of roadsides in 1970 by county maintenance personnal included mowing along the upper edge of the road shoulder in mid and late summer to keep weed cover below the level of the road surface. Seeded stands were not mowed. Few if any of the unfarmed controls were mowed beyond the road shoulder. Most of th(' shoulder cover along the farmed controls which usually was only two to slx foo' In wIdth WIlH e l f m l nn t e d by 1'1111. A few apo t a cont n l nt ng bind weed, Cnn ad I an t hLn tl.e , or poverty weed were sprayed by t.he county. �Table 1. Roadside treatment and control study plots nest searcheddtiriiigthe Group Code_ !=l.o .c Q) (/) § s:: or! 1-4 ~ Z E-i 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 1 1 2 1 2 1 7 7 6 6 7 8 8 10 10 11 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 6 Seeded Plot 1,.f Q) eo ! 42 (43) 42 (43)if 44 44 44 J) 44 J) 44 44 !if 44 if 44 (43)if 45 if 45 2:/ 45 Jj 45 45 45 45 45 45 !if 45 (46) 45 (46) 45 !if 46 J) 46 46 47 i/ 47 !if 48 4/ s or! or! .j.J .j.J 1-4 Q) CJ III CJ Q) C/) ~. 13 24 11 11 21 21 28 12 28 30 12 15 15 9 8 17 17 7 7 18 18 18 35 13 14 9 9 17 0 :> 0 u s:: s:: 0 0 or! (/) .j.J or! .j.J .j.J 1-4 Q) (/) CJ Q) Q) C/) III CJ Z Control Type 1 (Farmed~ Seeded Plot s:: 0 0 ~ :> 0 u Sl1nimerof 1970. s:: (/) .j.J or! 0 .j.J .j.J (/) CJ III CJ Q) Q) C/) ~ Z 21/g1 ---------2 g 1 P ---------_. 7 gl 1 P ---------6 g 11 6 gl 8 21 8 gl 8 5 g 21 5 g 1 Pa,l A 6 g 28 6 gl 5 g ---------_. 5 g ----------6 g 30 6 g 7 g 12 7 8 g 4 15 3 gl 1 P 7 g 15 7 gl 5 8 1 U ---------3 g 8 3 gl 8 81 1 P, 1 A 17 8 gl 1 P 6 17 6 g 8 1 U 2 7 2 gl 8 1 S 3 g 7 3 g 5 18 5 gl 1 A, 1 P 8 6 g 18 6 gl 7 g 18 7 g 1 g 35 1 gl 8 gl 1 P, 1 U 13 8 gl 2 P 7 81 1 S 14 7 gl 2 P, 1 S 3 g 9 3 g 1 S 2 g ---------_ .. 1 ---------_ .... s if 18 19 11 10 16 20 28 11 21 30 1 21 14 4 8 8 17 8 8 13 13 s:: 0 or! 0 5 5 8 1 3 3 5 3 3 5 4 8 6 4 4 4 5 5 5 2 1 5 8 7 3 Control Type 2 (Unfarmed) s:: 0 0 or! (/) .j.J or! .j.J .j.J (/) CJ III CJ Q) Q) C/) z 0 ~ 30 24 7 2 10 21 20 29 12 1 1 2 1 6 ------- 1 U ------- ------- 35 13 10 15 15 7 16 6 ------- 7 (/) Q) z ------- 15 15 9 8 17 17 17 7 18 18 18 26 8 14 10 10 7 (/) .j.J 1 U 1 P 4 7 5 2 1 7 7 4 4 4 8 3 4 6 4 4 I w I'.) I 1 A 2 Pa 1 P Each seeded plot represents 1f4 mile of roadside. ~/ Seeded stand marginal to poor. 1/ Each 1/2 mile of section periphery was numbered in consecutive order, starting at the northeast corner and running clockwise around the section to locate the study plot. Letter abbreciations are presented as follows: g = grass, 1 = legume, A = abandoned nest, P = predator destroyed nest, Pa = predation after search, U = undetermined nest fate, and S = successful nest. ~/ Grass stands seeded in previous years by resident farmers. �-33- Table 2. Characteristics of pheasant plots during the summer of 1970. Part 1. Fate of 29 pheasant Successful nests nesting attempts in roadside found along roadsides 4 -------------------------------------- Predator destroyed prior to search-------------- 13 Predator destroyed after search ---------------- 3 Abandoned (primarily Unknown Part 2. due to human of nest attempts Plot Type Seeded roadside Farmed roadside plots controls controls (Cl) Unfarmed roadside Part 3. Cover type locations Seeded 4 disturbance)-- 5 ---------------------------------------- Plot location (C2) and successes No. Plots Nest Attempts Nests/Plot 48 22 0.46 28 2 0.07 23 5 0.22 of nest attempts and successes Cover Type Number grass dominant 4 Seeded alfalfa dominant Mixture of green and residual cheat grass 3 weeds study or 22 �-34- Characteristics of Old Grass Stands for Pheasant Production Several plots, seeded by farmers in previous years, were utilized in the study (Table 1). Two of these contained a western-crested wheatgrass combination; two contained dense stands of smooth brome; ten were composed of intermediate wheatgrass, and one contained Russian wild rye. Most possessed near pure stands of the species planted and were attractive in general appearance. Pheasant production on these plots was not encouraging. One successfully hatched nest was located in an open stand of intermediate wheatgrass. One predator-destroyed nest was found under a canopy of Russian wild rye. Empirical evaluation indicated the brome, Russian wild rye and the crestedwestern wheatgrass combination generally did not possess adequate heights to attract pheasants although densities were suitable. In contrast, intermediate wheatgrass did not provide adequately dense foliage after becoming root-bound. The above mentioned grasses, like most species tend to decrease in height as they increase in density and competition for moisture over a period of years. Therefore, new stands of crested or western wheatgrass and brome may provide attractive nesting cover only for two or three years after they are planted. Intermediate wheatgrass may consistently produce adequate heights, but leaf foliage decreases as plant density increases. These and other species also lodge under winter snows, diminishing their value for winter cover and spring nesting cover (Fig. 1). Tall wheatgrass, which possesses a stiff strong stem, does not lodge as readily (Fig. 2). It may prove to be a desirable species where it will not hold snow to block roads. Alfalfa, by itself, provides favorable spring nesting cover, but loses its foliage in late summer and is flattened by winter snow (Fig. 3). Present observations indicate that alfalfa-tall wheat mixtures produce a good cover combination, but more evaluation is needed. Considerable variation in soil and moisture conditions exits along Northeast Colorado roadways. Therefore, the same species may provide poor to excellent nesting cover depending on the site. Roadsides along newly graded roads lack humus and other nutrients characteristic of productive soils. Germination and growth of seeded plants are reduced, so it may be preferable to let weeds grow for a year to two before seeding newly elevated roadways. Early spring fertilization could also be used advantageously here. Loss of Roadside While this study progresses, many roadside nesting and survival areas continue to be eliminated by back sloping of grader ditches and farming to the road shoulder. This occurs on old roadways as well as newly elevated ones. Figure 4 illustrates elimination of roadside on a newly elevated road where, in the foreground, wheat has already been seeded. The stubble field will be worked to the road shoulder in spring. Most county roads in Phillips and Sedgwick counties do not contain any roadside cover. �-35- Fig. 1. An old naturally reseeded roadside. Snows have lodged grass in the grader ditch, however, weeds along the fence provide limited winter cover for pheasants. �-36- Fig. 2. Tall wheatgrass holding snow along a seeded roadside. Little winter cover for pheasants is available to pheasants under these conditions. �-37- Fig. 3. Alfalfa along a roadside provided cover during the fall of 1970 before snows flattened it. �-38- Fig. 4. A newly elevated road showing back-sloping of the grader ditch in preparation for farming to the road shoulder. Pheasants have no place to live or nest where this condition exists. �-39- In Phillips County, phone lines are presently being put underground, eliminating roadside poles and providing additional areas for farmers to eliminate roadside cover. In some instances poles bordering seeded areas already have been eliminated. Hopefully, these plots can be retained for use during the remainder of the study. LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1969. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp , 37-45. 1970. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp. 109-114. Prepared by U.r1t.,J Warren D. Snyder ~,.) Wildlife Researcher ��-41April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~ __~---- Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey 3 Job No. 8a Effects of Sagebrush Control on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse April 1, 1970 to September 30, 1970 Warren Snyder, Larry Roper, Terry May, Bruce Sigler, Jerry Whittaker, George Bock, David Croonquist, Don Gore, Courtney Crawford, John Monarch and Howard Funk. ABSTRACT Counts of strutting grounds on the North Park study area showed peak numbers of male sage grouse present about mid-April, 1970, about average for strutting ground activity for the area. Numbers present peaked at 274 males, significantly below 1969, but otherwise the highest total since 1964. Data from check stations operated at Cowdrey and Walden indicated hunting pressure was again high with 564 hunters checked. However, harvest dropped to about half of the 1969 total with only 266 birds brought through the stations. Immature birds made up 45 percent of the bag, an increase over the 30 percent of 1969, and about average for the period since 1955 when check station activity was initiated in North Park. ��-43- EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Howard D. Funk An investigation of sage grouse abundance and distribution near Lake John in North Park has been in effect since initiation in 1963. The job relates to various specific study topics in various degrees of intensity. More recent study has been with regard to the immediate effects of a sagebrush spraying project, accomplished in 1965, on sage grouse populations with a study on the long-term effects of this spray project scheduled for a twoyear period beginning the spring of 1973. In the interim period, efforts are to be limited to collection of study area strutting ground data, banding samples of birds on these grounds, and operating check stations near Walden and Cowdrey to obtain harvest data. This report covers these items. P S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush en: (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. SEGMENT the seasonal OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate is controlled. distribution 2. To investigate sage grouse numbers to the area treated. of sage grouse after sagebrush by age and sex classes METHODS AND MATERIALS Strutting Ground Counts on and adjacent Wildlife Conservation Officers conduct counts on a number of strutting grounds in North Park annually. Usually, three early morning counts are made on each ground. Data from these counts are gathered from the Regional Biologist, high counts for each ground being reported herein. Check Stations Two check stations near Walden and Cowdrey are operated the first two days of the season to collect various data on harvest such as harvest success, �-44- age, and sex ratios, banded bird information, and hunter participation for a check on the year in comparison with previous years. Project personnel are responsible for the station with Conservation Officers also contributing data from field checks. Main emphasis is on checking harvest within the study area. Age and sex of birds are determined by methods described in previous reports. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Strutting Ground Counts Results of strutting ground counts are displayed in Table 1. Peak counts occurred about mid-April on most areas, which is about average since strutting ground activity is subject to snow conditions in the area. Data on peak numbers of females and total birds were not gathered for this report, but should be obtained from the field men for continuity of data when preparing for the final report. Table l. Strutting Peak counts of male sage grouse on strutting 1/ Ground- SG 1 0 SG 2 8 SG 3 0 SG 4 SG 1970. High Count Da te April 14 66 April 14 5 57 April 21 SG 6 19 April l3 SG 7 0 SG 8 7 April 14 SG 9 97 April 15 SG 10 16 April 15 SG 11 4 April 8 SG 12 0 Total 1/ Number Males grounds, Locations 274 of grounds shown in previous reports. �-45- Comparative data on annual high counts by strutting ground are presented in Table 2. Most grounds show a definite decline in 1970 in numbers of males present with the total males on all grounds about 25 percent below the 1969 total. However, the 1970 total remains the highest count on record, with the exception of 1969, since 1964 when 337 males were observed. The year of the indicated "crash" in population numbers was 1965 when males totaled only 166. This was the year of the spray project, but spraying did not take place until after the spring counts. Table 2. Comparison of 1960 through 1970 strutting ground counts of male sage grouse. Strutting Ground 1960 1961 1962 1963 Year 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 SG 1 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SG 2 43 4 7 20 26 9 9 10 2 8 8 SG 3 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SG 4 130 96 219 216 120 53 47 69 58 82 66 SG 5 19 2 52 17 65 52 54 59 52 82 57 SG 6 5 1 8 9 3 0 2 12 36 36 19 SG 7 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 SG 8 5 0 0 0 0 o· 6 5 2 6 7 SG 9 167 109 71 85 99 52 97 81 71 117 97 SG 10 17 77 28 19 17 0 6 9 0 16 16 SG 11 12 50 5 11 7 0 13 15 6 5 4 SG 12 14 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 446 363 395 377 337 166 234 265 231 357 274 Total Banding Due to lack of manpower and available time, banding of samples of birds on strutting grounds was not accomplished during the segment. �Table 3. Comparison of North Park sage grouse hunter check information, 1963-1970. 11 Total Birds Birds Per Hunter Hours Hunted Per Bird 58 506 1.03 4.86 45 41 179 .82 3.49 26 26 51 116 .77 5.40 56 45 71 44 263 .86 4.67 67 42 46 33 267 .89 4.41 Year Bag Limit Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Males 1963 3 492 2,460 62 150 42 113 181 1964 2 217 624 25 81 59 28 2 150 626 27 30 49 1966 2 306 1,227 31 116 1967 2 300 1,177 50 127 1965 u Adult Percent Females Adults Juvenile Males Juvenile Percent Females Juveniles 1968 2 546 2,604 80 135 42 156 141 58 512 .94 5.09 1969 2 662 2,936 121 277 70 57 114 30 569 .86 5.16 1970 2 564 2,617 58 89 55 53 66 45 266 .47 9.84 11 Based on Walden and Cowdrey check station data during opening weekends. II A one day season; hence only a one day check station. I .po 0\ I �-47- Check Station Results Project personnel checked 266 sage grouse through check stations on September 11-12, 1970, the first two days of the season. This was slightly less than half the number checked in 1969. Number of hunters also decreased but not to the extent of the harvest, thus increasing greatly the number of hours spent per bird in the bag. Percent immatures in the bag increased to about 45 percent, which was about average over the years. No valid reason can be given for the sharp decline in harvest in 1970 or the sequence of events over the past three years. In 1968, the high count on grounds was 231 birds, indicated havest was the highest since 1963 at 512 birds, and the bag contained 58 percent young, again the highest since 1963. Count results on the grounds increased to a high of 357 males in 1969, harvest increased to 569 birds, but the harvest contained only 30 percent young. Then, 1970 count data on grounds produced 274 males, lower than 1969 but higher than 1968, while harvest dropped to 266 birds but immatures made up 45 percent of the bag. Adult females were harvested very heavily in 1969 (48.6 percent of the bag), quite heavily in 1970 with 33.5 percent, and rather lightly in 1968 with only 26.4 percent. Hunting pressure was fairly even through these years with 546, 662, and 564 hunters per year since 1968. Probably a variety of factors have been responsible for this confusing sequence of data, including poor sampling in one or more areas of data collection, including check stations. Only two bands were turned in at check stations (1662-R466 and 1562-R498) as compared to 23 the previous year. The former was banded as a subadu1t male on April 25, 1969 and the latter as an adult male on April 10, 1968, both on strutting ground 9 (SG9). Both birds were shot north of Lake John the first weekend of season. Prepared by Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research ��-49- April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. 10 Job Title Study of Hungarian Partridge Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 1 April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Donald M. Hoffman, Bruce C. Sigler, Dale W. Stahlecker, John F. Corey and Charles E. Brown. ABSTRACT Six hundred and seventy four more pen raised Hungarian partridge were released in Moffat County at 3 sites on April 24, 1970. This brings the total number of Huns released in Moffat and Routt counties to 1,788 during the period of 19641970 0 Intensive field searches were made by W-37-R Project personnel during the months of June, August and September, 1970. Only 10 Huns were observed by Project personnel, these near 2 of the 3 1970 release sites. Some of the released Huns were seen in the vicinity of all 3 release sites from May through August, 1970 by local residents. Although previously planted areas were searched, no reports or observations of Huns could be secured, indicating little or no carryover populations and little or no increases in populations from previous years. One brood of a hen with 2 chicks was reported by a rancher in the Jubb Creek area in late August, 1970 in the vicinity of one of the 1970 releases. Reports of Huns being seen distances of 4 and 5 miles from 2 of the 1970 release sites were secured. ��-51- HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of Hungarian partridge to establish populations in mixed brushland-wheatland habitat in selected Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce Hungarian partridge. 2. Determine presence and dispersal METHODS Field releases of pen-raised April 24, 1970. reproducing sites in of Huns and success of previous plant. AND Y~TERIALS stock were made in 3 areas in Moffat County on Intensive field searches were made by Project W-37-R personnel during the periods June 15-19; August 25-28; and September 14-17, 1970. In addition, persons living and working in or near the release sites were interviewed and observations were recorded. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION On April 24, 1970, 674 additional pen-raised Huns from the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and Little Hills Experiment Station holding pens were released in 3 areas of Moffat County. Figure 1 shows a release made on Johnson Gulch south of Craig and Figure 2 shows general habitat types of this area. Table 1 summarizes all field releases made in Colorado since 1964. A total of 1,923 Huns have been released with most (1,774) being released in Moffat County, 135 in Larimer County, and 14 in Routt County. Figure 3 shows the map location of the Johnson Gulch release with numbers of birds released indicated, and Figure 4 shows the map locations of the Price Creek and Jubb Creek releases, with the numbers of birds released indicated. Table 2 summarizes all Hungarian partridge reports and observations for Moffat County for 1970. All reports and observations during 1970 were from the vicinities of the April 24, 1970 releases except for a report of a single Hun approximately 5 miles north of one of these 1970 release sites and another approximately 4 miles north of another 1970 release site. Only 10 Huns were observed by Project personnel, all of which were in 2 of 3 release areas for 1970. Photographs of several of these Huns were secured. �I VI N I Fig. 1. Hungarian partridge release, John Gulch, south of Craig in Moffat County, April 24, 1970. (D. Domenick, photo) �I I.J1 W I Fig. 2. Habitat in the vicinity of the Johnson Gulch release site, Moffat County. Vegetative types are cultivated wheatlands bordered by big sagebrush, with a few scattered junipers on hillsides. (D. Domenick, nhnrn)_ �-54Table 1. Hungarian partridge field releases since 1964. Number Released Source of Stock Release Area Jan. & Feb., 1964 135* Oregon & Idaho (wild trapped) Larimer County, Douglas Lake Sec.l, T8N, R69W Sub-total 135 March 28, 1964 40 Idaho (wild trapped) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 34, T6N, R92W March 23, 1965 124 Oregon (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 33, T6N, R92W April 18, 1967 71 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 21, T6N, R92W April 30 and May 1, 1968 236 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 29, T6N, R92W April 30, 1968 14 FCWRS (pen raised) Routt County, Northeast of Hayden Sec. 35, T7N, R87W April 19, 1969 389 FCWRS (374) & CSU (15) (pen raised) Moffat County, Isles Mountain Sec. 24 & 25, T5N, R92W April 19, 1969 240 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Isles Mtn. Sec. 16, T5N, R92W April 24, 1970 170 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Johnson Gulch Sec. 15, T6N, R91W April 24, 1970 234 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Jubb Creek Sec. 35, T5N, R93W April 24, 1970 270 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Price Creek Sec. 30 & 31, T4N, R95W Sub-total 1,788 Date Total 1,923 * An additional 22 birds (11 pairs) were taken to Rocky Ford Experimental Bird Farm from this shipment. On October 6, 1965, 51 (pen raised) birds were received from Oregon and were taken to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental breeding purposes. On February 19, 1970, 13 1969hatched Huns from eggs secured from wild-trapped birds in England were received from Winchester Farms, Alton, Illinois and were used for experimental breeding purposes in 1970 and later years. �R 92W -55- R 91W " \ It ;. •• Fig. 3. Location and numbers of Hungarian partridge released, Johnson Gulch, Moffat County, 1970. -fL-~ ~~ 1~~ ~n ·~t~ I, "I .r ~J-o·. If) K- ~ -: 1 " 't~f.~J ." }, ,', I ·-t~-..-~+t-,(- ---:\. -- . -\~. " ~Mj , -~- h ..;~~~ , - " I' i // r: ! - 10'· \ - I 1 t I " I L �T5N. •• so , II!.' II '" ••• I! " ',t ~ I I 44 10 J Iff> I i) 1/ - I L.l I I I r, I( r\~\ 1~ r I '1 ,f 2S sc I 31 a 1 11 ;0 T 4N. I %: I 7' I _ I --,~ .P'"'I Wi I \ I. I' Q"'S'--++- I 1\\ I ! f·----r I d I l /' ~ " T.3N. .. loJ_o_," --e, - R -toI o '".) ~B -c~-. COLORADO MILES ~ .:a __ r.. •• a - SCALE l C I I ~ «l t . 0 :::_-- ----- •.....•... 1 . I '/ I - - f.e I y ~ I ," • / --7\-r--;--r---7-~~\"'---:--' _ --=---_ _ R. 94W. N I :. f! OF It! I , . '--r'" .. ~JlJ,;;;.. --- �-57- Table 2. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observation, Moffat County, 1970. Date(s) Number Huns Area Observed By April, 1970 3 groups of approx. 8 each Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites L. Kendall 1 Price Creek Road, approx. 5 miles N. of upper Price Creek release site May 21, 1970 B. L. M. Personnel Late May, 1970 2 Approx. 3 miles S. of Jubb Creek release sites G. Hanson June 16, 1970 3 (pair & Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites B. Sigler Price Creek, vicinity of release sites B. Sigler single) June 17, 1970 2 (pair) June 18, 1970 5 (2 pair & 1 single) Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites B. Sigler May to early August, 1970 Few Price Creek, vicinity of release sites Stoddard Late August, 1970 1 hen with 2 chicks Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites C. Hebblthwaite Late August, 1970 Few Yampa River, approx. 4 miles N. of Upper Jubb Creek release site C. Hebblthwaite May to late August, 1970 Few Vicinity of Johnson Gulch release site Barnes �-58- Although areas of releases made prior to 1970 in Moffat County were searched, reports and observations for these areas were nil, indicating an absence of carry-over populations and little if any increase in populations. One Hungarian partridge brood of a hen with 2 very small checks was reported by rancher C. Hebblthwaire in the vicinity of the Jubb Creek release site in late August, 1970. Period of Release Specific experiments have not been run to determine the best time for field releases of Hungarian partridge in Colorado. Traditionally, the early spring period has been selected because ~f the advantages of ample food conditions with growing green grass and forbs and most of the severe winter weather periods are past. A field release time during the last half of April is a compromise between the near approach of the egg laying season (early May under penned conditions) and late snows which may occur as late as early May in areas selected for Hungarian partridge releases. Birds held in the large holding pens begin to pair as early as February each year, and most are believed to be paired by release time. By releasing all birds from a single holding pen at one site, they have the opportunity to select the same mate upon release. Handling of the birds is known to cause stress as measured in weight loss and transporting the birds undoubtedly adds to this stress. This may delay the nesting activities of the birds somewhat; however, there should still be ample time for the birds to establish territories and nest following release. Upon release from the crates, most of the Huns stay in a rather loose group and appear to start pairing almost instantaneously. Whether they pair with the same birds as in the large holding pens is not known. Birds observed later at the release site or at a distance from the release site are usually observed in pairs, so there appears to be no problem in the birds finding mates following release. Prepared by iJ~?r7~~ Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher ~ �-59April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ...;C:..;O;;,.:L::;:O;.:.RAD=.;:.O _ Game Bird Survey W-37-R-24 Project No. 10 Job Title Experimental Breeding of Hungarian Partridge Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 2 Work Plan No. April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt: John F. Corey, Donald M. Hoffman and Dr. Harry D. Muller. ABSTRACT A test in which 12 pairs of qungarian partridge breeders fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed compared with an equal number fed a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein, indicated the 16 percent protein feed was significantly better at the 10 percent level in numbers of fertile eggs laid (293 compared with 158). Egg fertility was also higher with the 16 percent protein feed (86.94 percent compared with 73.49) resulting in higher numbers of chicks hatched (234 compared with 130). Both levels of protein tested (22 percent and 16 percent) showed excellent results in the 7-day survival tests. In a test where 6 pairs of early mating pairs were compared with an equal number of late mated pairs, the late mated pairs produced more fertile eggs (129 compared with 55) and a slightly higher percent hatch of fertile eggs was found with the late mated pairs (80.62 percent compared with 78.18). In another test which compared fertile eggs produced by 3 pairs rece~v~ng 2 extra hours of artificial light each A.M., 3 pairs receiving 2 extra hours of artificial light each P.M., and 3 pairs receiving no artificial light, it was found the artificial lighting of the pens resulted in bringing breeder pairs into production earlier than those which received no artificial light. However, total egg production and total fertile egg production were not increased with the use of artificial lights. Production cost records were maintained in 1970. These indicated it costs a minimum of $9.45 per Hun produced for field release using present methods, facilities, and equipment, including labor costs. If labor costs are excluded, a cost of $2.20 per bird was calculated. �-60- RECOMMENDATIONS One year's data have been collected in comparing 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed with 16 percent. Although results showed that the 16 percent protein feed was better for Hungarian partridge in 1970, comparisons should be made for at least one more year. Extra lighting tests started in 1970 should also be continued for at least one more year. Progeny from highest producing pairs in 1970, Winchester Farms stock, and the highest producing 1969-hatched adult breeders have been marked and it is recommended that selection tests be started in 1971. Numbers of Huns placed in rearing and conditioning pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and at the Rocky Ford Game Farm were recorded in Segment 24. It is recommended that an accurate count of birds removed by pen be made and a comparison of overwinter survival by various densities be made in Segment 25. �-61- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE Donald M. Hoffman Even though 36.90 percent fewer eggs were laid by the 52 pairs of Hungarian partridge breeders in 1970, compared with an equal number of breeders in 1969 (1,147 eggs compared with 1,818), several refinements were made in incubation procedures and the rearing of young. The 655 pen-raised Huns released in the field in 1971, plus 20 extra birds held for breeders, compares favorably with the 674 released in the field in 1970. A total of 614 were released in 1969 and 250 in 1968. Refinements in procedures included (1) replacing the electric heat lamp brooders with modified electric Jamesway heatring brooders, (2) eggs were incubated at a humidity of 85.50 F wet bulb temperature in 1970 in place of 84.50 F used previously, (3) eggs were hatched at a temperature of 99.250 F in 1970 in place of 99.500 F used previously, and (4) chicks were fed 27% protein turkey starter crumbles in 1970 for the first seven days, 30% turkey starter crumbles for the following two to four weeks, and 26% turkey grower crumbles from the fourth week, with improved results. In 1969, 28% protein game bird starter mash was fed for the first four weeks, followed by 26% game bird grower crumbles and pellets. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for Hungarian partridge. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure the effects of 2 levels of protein in the breeder feed (16% versus 22%) on : (a) Egg production (b) Egg fertility (c) Egg hatchability (d) Chick survival for the first 7 days. 2. To compare the numbers of fertile eggs produced by early mating pairs with those mating late in the breeding season. 3. To compare the numbers of fertile eggs produced by breeders subjected to two extra hours of light each 24 hour period during (1) the early morning and (2) the evening, with breeders receiving no artificial light. 4. To determine production costs. �-62- METHODS AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of the Hungarian partridge breeding pens for 1969 is shown in Figure 1. Mated pairs for all except the late mated series were selected and caught in the large Hungarian partridge holding pens (Fig. 2). Table 1 lists the pen schedule for the various tests run in 1970. One mated pair of Hungarian partridge was used in each pen. Pens 1 through 36 are located in a converted nursery shadehouse with ground floors, and pens 37 through 51 are a separate series of wire floored experimental game bird breeding pens. Pens A-I, A-2, and A-3 are alleyway pens in the ground floored series. Protein Levels in Feed Pens 1-6 and 19-36 (24 pens) were used to test the effect of 2 levels of protein in the feed. Birds in even numbered pens were fed a standard game breeders feed containing 22 percent protein and those in odd numbered pens were fed a similar feed, but containing 16 percent protein. Eggs were marked and placed in separate incubator drawers to facilitate determination of (1) fertile eggs produced; (2) number of fertile eggs that hatched, and (3) numbers of surviving chicks. Chicks were held separately in the brooder until they were 7 days of age to detect differences in survival. Period of Mating Pens 7-18 (12 pens) were used to compare numbers of fertile eggs produced by earliest mating pairs with those mated late in the breeding season. Even numbered pens were used for early mated pairs and odd numbered pens for late mated pairs. Six pairs used for earliest mating pairs were selected as soon as the birds were observed to start pairing in the large runs (February 6, 1970) and the 6 pairs used for latest mating pairs were selected from 10 unpaired hens and 10 unpaired cocks held in separate pens from February 6, 1970 to March 23, 1970. These began to pair almost immediately when recombined on March 23, 1970 and pairs were selected later on the same date. Extra Lighting Tests The wire-floored series of pens are well suited for extra lighting tests and the necessary wiring and automatic timing devices were installed late in Segment 23. U. S. Weather Bureau sunrise-sunset tables were used to determine times when lights should go on and off. Pens 46-48 (3 pens) were lighted with 2 extra hours in the early morning and pens 49-51 (3 pens) were lighted with 2 extra hours during the late evening. Pens 40-42 (3 pens) were used for controls and were treated identically except no artificial lights were used. Originally, pens 37-39 were also listed for controls, but the pair in pen number 39 escaped on June 2, 1970, so this series of 3 pens was used only in comparing earliness of egg production. Records were maintained of dates of first eggs, numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs laid, and hatchability of eggs produced. �-63- N IJ ~ - CD 75' 6'4" , If] '- If) Jf\ Ground-f loored Series 3738 394041 42 43 4445 46 47 4E ~ , v_ '-- 'v _ '---'v _ .' \ V _'---, v_ '-- v _ \ .. Wire - floored CD v I- N A-2 ~ ",' b - 0 N N (\J 01 N-.!. -, / / 49~ .r:. N 0 ~1 A-3 SCALE 8 L I / en CD I I 0' 5' 10' I 25' ~ L /0) Fig. 1. U) Detailed Arrangement =, an 5_'~ (11 N, - Ser , Partridge /N J'--'6---1 48' ----·-----······1 I:! CD l'" ' Breeding of Pins. Hungarian i,. _ ....l �-64Covered Brooder Shelter 1 Houses /~ l.--_-1- __ I'-__ I ..l..._---' _-+----L----.J4't-8'~ f J -0 t\J 4' t N -in o C\I C\I C\I •.4''i -L__ ~ 15.5 ,"'15.5-1 ---35 --- ~_~ ~ ---l ~------------I05'-----------~ Fig. 2. Hungarian Partridge Holdin q Pens �-65Table l. Pen schedule for Hungarian partridge, 1970. Protein Level Pen Nwnber' 22% 16% T T 3 4 8x8 T 1 2 Pen Size ~Ft·2 T T 5 8x16 x x x x x x x x x x 7 x x 8 x x 9 x x 10 x x 11 x x 12 x x 13 x x 14 x x 15 x x 16 x x 17 x x 18 x x 20 T T 21 22 T T 23 24 T 25 26 27 T T T Artificial Light None AM PM x T T Mated Late x 6 19 6x33 Pairs Early T x T T x x T T x x T T x x T T x x T T T x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. -66Pen schedule for Hungarian partridge, 1970. Pen Number Pen Size ~Ft.2 8x8 8x16 6x33 28 Protein Level 22% 16% T 29 30 T T 31 32 T T 33 34 T T 35 T Pairs Early (continued) . Mated Late Artificial Light PM None AM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 36 T 37 x x x 38 x x x 39 x x x 40 x x T 41 x x T 42 x x T 43* x x x 44"k X X x 45"~ x x x 46 x x T 47 x x T 48 x x T 49 x x T 50 x x T 51 x x T A-1"~ x A-3"/( x No. Pens on Test 12 12 0 0 0 6 Key-T - Pen on Test x - Pen not on Test ,.~Ind icates pens with Winchester stock birds. x x 6 3 3 3 �-67- Production Costs Costs were estimated, based upon necessary labor, equipment, and facilities required to produce a number of Hungarian partridge similar to anticipated production at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for 1971, using methods now in use. These costs do not reflect the costs related to research studies which have. been of considerable value in improving methods and techniques for producing numbers large enough for adequate field releases. Winchester Farms Stock Although not written as a separate test in 1970, 13 birds (5 hens and 8 cocks) which were survivors from the 18 Hungarian partridge received from Winchester Farms in Illinois in February, 1970, afforded the opportunity to test fertile egg production and hatchability in 1970. These were all July, 1969-hatched from eggs received at the McGraw Wildlife Preserve from wild Huns in England. This new blood line will be introduced into our resident flock st.arting in 1971. The Winchester Farms Huns were held in a separate pen and allowed to pair naturally. Pairs were placed in pens 43-45, A-I, and A-3. Records were maintained of numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, and hatchability of eggs produced. Pens 43-45 were compared with pens 40-42 (controls). Progeny from the first 2 hatches of 1970 were Wing-tagged on the left wing in preparation for crossing with resident stock. Because of limited numbers of these progeny,S adult cocks were also held over for use in 1971 crosses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Protein Levels in Feed Table 2 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and percent hatch of eggs from breeder pairs in 12 pens using a standard 22 percent protein level feed with 12 breeder pairs using a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein. A total of 122 more eggs (337 compared with 215) was laid by the breeders using the 16 percent protein feed in comparison with the 22 percent protein feed. A total of 135 more fertile eggs (293 compared with 158) was laid by the breeders using the 16 percent protein feed in comparison with the 22 percent protein feed. This difference is significant at the 10 percent significance level. In addition, 86.94 percent of the eggs laid by breeders on 16 percent protein feed were fertile compared with 73.49 percent for the 22 percent protein feed. A total of 234 chicks was hatched from breeders on the 16 percent protein feed compared with only 130 for the 22 percent protein feed. Excellent survival for the first 7 days was found for both the 16 and 22 percent protein level feeds (98.26 percent survival for the 16 percent feed and 97.60 percent survival for the 22 percent feed) as listed in Table 3. A very high survival rate also continued following the 7 day test, reflecting the strong, healthy condition of the chicks from both levels of protein in the feed and improvements in brooding methods used in 1970. The electric heat lamp brooders were replaced by modified electric Jamesway heatring brooders in 1970 for better results in both survival and condition of the young birds. �Table 2. Numbers of eggs produced and hatchability of eggs laid by Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1970. Protein Level Number Pens Number Eggs Produced Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Percent Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germ Number Culls 16% 12 337 34 293 86.94 234 69.44 79.86 9 50 10 22% 12 215 52 158 73.49 l30 60.47 82.28 2 26 5 I ~ co I Table 3. Survival of Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1970. Number Chicks Taken to Brooder House or Battery Brooder Protein Level Number Pens 16% 12 230 22% 40 501 Number Chicks Lost First Seven Days Number Chicks Survived Seven Days Percent Survival First Seven Days 4 226 98.26 12 489 97.60 �-69- Based upon this one year's results, the 16 percent protein level appeared to be considerably better than the 22 percent protein level, for Hungarian partridge. It is planned to run similar tests in 1971, but with 6 pens on 16 percent protein level feed and 6 pens on 22 percent protein level feed. Period of Mating Table 4 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and percent hatch of fertile eggs from 6 pens with early mating pairs with 6 pens with late mating pairs, all using 22 percent protein level feed. Considerably more fertile eggs were laid by the late mating pairs (129 compared with 55) and a slightly higher percent hatch of fertile eggs was found with the late mating pairs (80.62 percent compared with 78.18). This resulted in 104 chicks hatched from the late mating pairs compared with only 43 for the early mating pairs. Three of the 6 pens of early mating Huns laid no eggs compared with only 1 of the 6 pens of late mating Huns which laid no eggs. It therefore appears that variability of individual birds played a large part in the results obtained. No clear advantage was found in selecting earliest mating pairs and, in fact, this proved to be disadvantageous in 1970. Extra Lighting Tests A comparison of numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, hatchability of eggs, and numbers of chicks hatched by 3 pairs of Hungarian partridge under artificial lighting for 2 extra hours in the A.M., 3 pairs under 2 extra hours during the P.M., and 3 pairs receiving no artificial lighting (controls) is listed in Table 5. All pens received 22 percent protein level feed and all were treated as alike as possible in other respects. Originally, the experiment was set up using 6 controls and 6 treated pens but a pair of Huns in pen number 39 escaped on June 2, 1970 so this series of 3 pens (Numbers 37-39) was not used except to compare earliness of egg production. More eggs were produced by 3 pairs receiving no extra lighting or controls (102) compared with those receiving 2 extra hours in the A. M. (83) and those receiving 2 extra hours in the P. M. (71). In comparing numbers of fertile eggs, both the pairs in 3 pens receiving extra morning light and the 3 pens of controls laid 77 fertile eggs each, while the 3 pens receiving extra evening light laid only 48 fertile eggs. Considering hatchability of fertile eggs, the controls ranked highest with 90.91 percent, followed by those receiving 2 extra hours during the P. M. (87.50 percent) and those receiving 2 extra hours during the A. M. (70.13 percent). Numbers of chicks hatched were 70 for the controls, 54 for the pens receiving extra morning light, and 42 for the pens receiving extra evening light. Of the 9 pens used in this test, the minimum number of eggs laid was 14 from pen Number 46, (lighted for 2 extra hours in the A. M.), and the maximum number was 51 from pen Number 42 (a control with no extra lighting). �Table 4. A comparison of eggs produced by earliest mated pairs of Hungarian partridge with those mated late, 1970!/. Treatment Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Early Mated 6 64 Late Mated 6 141 Number Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 6 55 43 67.19 78.18 1 11 3 9 129 104 73.76 80.62 0 25 3 1/ A standard 22% protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. Table 5. A comparison of eggs produced by Hungarian partridge pairs receiving two extra hours of light with those receiving no extra light. !/ I ....• 0 I Treatment Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Two Extra Hours A. M. 3 83 3 Two Extra Hours P. M. 3 71 Controls 3 102 Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 77 54 65.06 70.l3 5 18 3 23 48 42 59.15 87.50 1 5 0 20 77 70 68.63 90.91 1 6 5 1/ A standard 22% protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. �Table 6. I. An estimate of minimum costs involved in producing Hungarian partridge. 1/ Capitol Investment Breeding Pens - Set of 50 size 8' x 16' each Brooder Houses - Set of 3 with shelters size 26' x 10' Holding Pens - Set of 4 size 36' x 222' Incubator Brooders, feeders, and waterers Small tractor with mower Work facilities with egg storage room $ 7,500.00 3,000.00 10,000.00 2,000.00 500.00 1,000.00 2,500.00 $26,500.00 Sub-total Forty year life expectancy - Cost per year II. Feed and Utilities Feed for breeders and young per year Utilities (heat, light, and water) per year $ 600.00 500.00 1,100.00 Sub-total III. 662.50 $ Labor Conservation Aide level, 2nd Step, for 5 months; 1 part time for 7 months per year Retirement, hospitalization, etc. (7%) per year 5,400.00 400.00 Sub-total 5,800.00 TOTAL $7,562.50 Estimate can produce 800 Huns per year with these facilities and labor. Estimate of cost per Hun produced = $7.562.50 800 = = $1,762.50 Estimate of cost per Hun produced, labor excluded 1/ Costs do ~ 800 = $ 9.45 s 2.20 include the following: a. Land investment since value can probably be returned at end of use period plus interest, based upon present trends. b. Cost of breeding stock c. Interest required on capitol investment. d. Expenses incurred due to unforeseen losses. I "-J I-' I �Table 7. Source A comparison of eggs produced by Winchester Farms stock Hungarian partridge with resident stock, 1970. Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls I -..,J N I Winchester Farm, Illinois 3 83 26 55 46 55.42 83.67 1 8 2 FCWRS 3 102 20 77 70 68.63 90.91 1 6 5 �-73- Even though the use of artificial lighting did not increase the total egg production in 1970, it was found that the lights did bring the breeding pairs into production earlier than the breeding pairs without artificial lighting. On May 15, 1970, all 6 of the lighted pens were in production and had produced 22 eggs, compared with only 4 of the 6 original controls being in production and having produced only 13 eggs. The bringing of breeders into production early may be of value, particularly when the next year's breeders are selected from the first hatch of the previous year as is the case at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Because of the small samples possible in 1970, it is planned to rerun this test for at least one more year, using the same number of pens in each sample. Production Costs Table 6 lists estunates of minimum costs involved in producing Hungarian partridge based upon estimates of capitol investment, feed and utilities, and labor required to produce approximately 800 Huns, using procedures now in use at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. A cost of $9.45 for each Hun released in the field was calculated from this cost analysis, including labor costs. Most cost estimates on game bird propagation do not include labor costs, which are the largest single annual cost item. If these labor costs are excluded, a cost of $2.20 per bird released in the field was calculated. Methods to reduce labor costs of propagating Huns through rearing of young under semi-natural conditions are being tested. Winchester Farms Stock Table 7 compares numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, hatchability of eggs, and numbers of chicks hatched from 3 pens of pure Winchester Farms stock with 3 pens of resident Huns. All birds received 22 percent protein level feed and were treated as much alike as possible. The 3 pens of Winchester Farms stock produced fewer numbers of eggs (83 compared with 102), fewer numbers of fertile eggs (55 compared with 77), and fewer numbers of chicks hatched (46 compared with 70) in comparison with 3 pens of controls (resident stock). In addition, hatchability of fertile eggs was lower for the Winchester Farms stock (83.64 percent compared to 90.91) in comparison with the resident stock. Since the Winchester Farms stock is only one generation removed from the Wild, these results were not unexpected. The Winchester Farms stock should be of considerable value in introducing new bloodlines and may help prevent excessive future inbreeding. Prepared by £~~~ Wildlife Researcher ��-75April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ...;C::;.:O::,:L:;;O;,,;.RAD=;,;::O _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Game Bird Survey 12 Job No. --=1.,:.0-,_ Relationships of the Productivity and Distribution of ~W~i~l~d~Tu~r~k~e,y~s~o~n~t~h~e~U~n~c~o~m~p~a=h~g~r=e~P~l~a~t~e~a~u~t~o~t~h~e~ _ Job Title Period Covered: April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 P.S. OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the size, distribution, and productivity of the wild turkey population on the Uncompahgre Plateau. 20 Record movements of wild turkeys and determine how environmental factors affect these movementso 3. Determine the sex and age structure of the turkey kill on the Uncompahgre Plateau to provide estimates of total harvest and size of the turkey population. 40 Determine the vegetative types present on the wild turkey summer and winter range and the species composition and abundance of food producing species within each type. Also determine the elevation, describe topography, and record certain climatic factors on part of the better turkey summer and winter range. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. Progress Field work was completed on October 20, 1967. All data have been summarized, and most data have been analyzed. A manuscript containing these data and results from Work Plan 12, Job 14 is being edited and revised. Future Plans The manuscript should be completed in Segment 25. in the form of a technical bulletin. c" " (1 rt1, ~_ Prepared by: <~~ oJ II~ Gary T. Myers Wildlife Researcher .' Publication will probably be ��-77April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C.=..O.=..L;;;,O;;;.;RA=D;;..;O~__:.. _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Game Bird Survey 12 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 14 Use of Food Plots to Concentrate Wild Turkeys Period Covered: April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 P.S. OBJECTIVES Determine the effects of small food plots on fall concentrations and harvest of wild turkeys. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. Progress Field work was completed December 2, 1968. Data were analyzed, written up, and incorporated in a manuscript containing information gathered under W-37-R Work Plan 12, Job 10. This manuscript is being edited and revised. Future Plans The manuscript should be completed in Segment 25. be in the form of a technical bulletin. Prepared by: <.p2"'-~~) /J",~-f...4.. Gary T .'-yers Wildlife Researcher Publication will probably ��-79- April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~RA~D~O~ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Game Bird Survey Job No. 2 Study of Mountain Quail Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: 15 _ April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Ronald B. Arant, Tom W. Barnes and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT Twenty-five surplus breeders, including eight 1969-hatched and seventeen 1967-hatched or older, were released on the South Fork of Mesa Creek in Mesa County on June 23, 1970. The release site was approximately .6 mile below the first crossing of the South Fork of Mesa Creek and approximately 5.7 miles above the last mountain quail sighting location. Birds released included 14 hens and 11 cocks, which had produced no eggs during 1970. Field trips to search release sites and surrounding areas on the Uncompahgre Plateau were made in June and September, 1970. No mountain quail were seen, no field sign found, and no new reports of sightings of the species were secured. Although mountain quail have been most difficult to propagate in captivity, several problems have been solved. The species holds definite potential for establishing a new game bird in the extensive areas of mountain shrub and ponderosa pine zones on both the western and eastern slopes of Colorado. If experimental propagation efforts are successful in 1971 and following years at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station, it is recommended that trial introductions be made in the Spanish Peaks area of Las Animas County starting in 1972. ��-81- STUDY OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of mountain quail to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed shrub and pine in selected sites in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce mountain quail. 2. Determine and dispersal presence METHODS of mountain quail. AND MATERIALS Twenty-five surplus mountain quail breeders from holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station were banded with aluminum butt end leg bands, transported to the South Fork of Mesa County in Mesa County in a State pickup, and released on June 23, 1970. Two separate field of the Uncompahgre living and working any mountain quail searches of the release sites and surrounding areas Plateau were made in June and September, 1970. Individuals in and near the areas were contacted and asked whether had been observed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An observation of 20 mountain quail made by Conservation Aide Tom Barnes of Nucla, Colorado on the South Fork of Mesa Creek reported in the Job Progress Report for Segment 23 of this job for early 1970, was actually made in late December, 1969. These were observed approximately one-half mile above the old Bogus Mine in a pinon-cedar vegetative community. Within their native ranges, mountain quail that summer at higher altitudes frequently migrate to lower levels in winter. These were seen only one time, so they may have moved into this lower area of South Fork of Mesa Creek from some unknown higher area. Twenty-five surplus mountain quail breeders, including eight 1969-hatched and seventeen 1967-hatched or older birds, were released on the South Fork of Mesa Creek in Mesa County on June 23, 1970. The release site was approximately .6 mile below the first creek crossing and approximately 5.7 miles above the last mountain quail sighting. Birds released included 14 hens and 11 cocks, none of which produced eggs in 1970. Table 1 lists all field releases of mountain quail and sources of stock being held at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation purposes. �Table 1. Summary of mountain quail field releases. Number Birds Source of Birds Release Area Aug. 19 and 25, 1965 143* California (wild -trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek Sec. 27, TS1N, R17W Aug. 20, 1966 163 California (wild-trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek approx. 4 miles west of 1965 releases Jan. 25, 1968 66 Oregon (wild -trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek approx. 1 mile east of west Uncompahgre National Forest boundary Date I 00 June 23, 1970 25 Total 397 FCWRS (surplus breeders) Mesa County, South Fork Mesa Creek, Sec. 17, T49N, R16W * Sixteen additional mountain quail from these shipments were taken to Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation studies. On January 18, 1970, 12 Wild-trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added to the breeding stock at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. These constitute the source of our breeding stock. N I �-83- Field trips to search for mountain quail in the release areas and surrounding areas on the Uncompahgre Plateau were made in June and September, 1970. No mountain quail were seen, no field sign found, and no new reports of sightings were secured from individuals contacted. Prepared by J/}~P2~ Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher ��-85April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~·O~RAD~~O~_ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 3 Experimental Breeding of Mountain Quail Period Covered: Personnel: 15 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, John F. Corey and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A new set of 10 mountain quail breeding pens was completed on April 13, 1970 and used for the 1970 season, but only one egg, which was infertile, was laid by the entire group of 32 breeders of mixed sexes placed in the breeding pens and no eggs were laid by 38 surplus birds of mixed sexes placed in holding pens. The catching and sorting of the mountain quail breeders on April 14, 1970 apparently stressed these tempermental birds and resulted in almost no egg production in 1970. This lateness in moving the breeders was due to a delay in completing the new set of breeding pens. ��-87- EXPERrnENTAL BREEDING OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game fann production techniques for mountain quail. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To measure the relationship of pair mating, selected group mating and flock mating to fertile egg production. METHODS AND MATERIALS A new set of 10 mountain quail breeding pens was completed on April 13, 1970 (Fig. 1). It was planned to have these completed by mid-March but inclement weather plus a manpower shortage delayed the completion. Pairs of mountain quail were placed in pen numbers 1, 5, 7, and 9; trios (2 hens and 1 cock) in pen numbers 2, 4, 6, and 10; and a community pen of 8 hens and 4 cocks was placed in the combined pen numbers 3, 8, and alleyway, on April 14, 1970. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed and all were 1969-hatched birds. Numbers of fertile eggs produced were to be recorded by individual pens. Ten wild-trapped mountain quail of mixed sexes received from Oregon in Segment 23 wereplaced in combined holding pen Numbers 1 and 2, eleven 1969-hatched birds including 2 hens and 9 cocks not needed to fill the experimental breeding pens were left in combined holding pen numbers 3 and 4, and seventeen 1967-hatched or older breeders of mixed sexes were placed in combined holding pen Numbers 5 and 6. Figure 2 shows the arrangement of holding pens. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Although procedures for the 1970 mountain quail tests were carried out as planned, except for being approximately I month late in completing a set of 10 experimental breeding pens, only 1 egg was laid. This was laid on May 1, 1970 in the community pen (combined pen Numbers 3, 8, and alleyway) and was infertile. It was found in previous year's tests that mountain quail stress easily. Catching and sorting the breeders at approximately the time when they should have started to lay may have been the reason for almost no egg production in 1970. �-88- N ~---------------30'--~ 1F-----12'--~ ~ ~-- 12' ---41 o SCALE 8 .I ·0' t I. 5' 10' Fig. 1. Petallod Arranoornont of Mou"toln Quail BrlGdhiQ Pont. �-89- I( . 20' ~ lE-a'-)E-8'-)f~ f 10 N ~ 5 I 3 1 - \ 4 6 2 . Scole: o 60' ----------------~ Fig. 2. Mounialn Quail Holding Pens. I": 15 ft. 15 30 �-90- No eggs were laid by ten wild-trapped mountain quail of mixed sexes received from Oregon in Segment 23, eleven surplus 1969-hatched birds (2 hens and 9 cocks), or seventeen 1967-hatched or older breeders of mixed sexes held in separate mountain quail holding pens in 1970. It was necessary to catch and move these surplus breeders in order to select breeders used in the experimental breeding pens and to utilize holding pens with the best cover. After it became apparent that surplus breeders held in holding pens were not producing eggs, 25 (seventeen 1967-hatched or older and eight 1969-hatched) were banded and released on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau on June 23, 1970. As of February 9, 1971, there were 26, 1969-hatched and 9 wild-trapped mountain quail from Oregon on hand for use as breeders in the 1971 tests. A total of 7 birds, including 6 1969-hatched and one wildtrapped, died while in wintering holding pens, prior to February 9, 1971. Prepared by !l~'M~~ onald M.offman Wildlife Researcher �-91April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. W-37-R-24 Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Inventory of Selected Ptarmigan Populations Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 2 April 1, 1970 to October 15, 1971 Clait E. Braun and Terry A. May. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) populations in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1970 with major emphasis upon populations levels, and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding density decreases ranged from .6 to 6.0 birds per square mile on all study areas from levels,observed in 1969. The observed decreases were primarily the result of poor nesting success and production in 1969 on all areas and excessive harvests in 1969 at Independence Pass and Mto Evans. Observed densities in 1970 ranged from 5.2 at Mt. Evans to 24.8 in RMNP. Weather during periods of egg deposition and incubation in 1970 was warm and dry, and nesting success ranged from about 50 to 75 percent. Survival of chicks to September 1 was similar to all previous years studied. Average brood size to September 1 was 4.5 chicks. Present data continue to indicate that nesting success and production are closely related to amount of precipitation and number of frost-free nights in June. ��-93- INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS C1ait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. Substantial data are available relating to this small grouse in Colorado (Braun 1971; Braun and Rogers 1971; and Braun and Schmidt 1971), but additional information is necessary for management programs. It has been hypothesized by many workers that all species of grouse (family Tetraonidae) are cyclic, exhibiting either short-term (3-5 years) or long-term (10-12 years) fluctuations. Present data concerning grouse inhabiting northern areas support this hypothesis, but few long-term studies have been conducted on species of grouse at the southern edge of their range. It has not been demonstrated that any species of grouse is cyclic in Colorado. Relationships between weather conditions and population levels of grouse have been suggested by Siivonen (1957), Neave and Wright (1969), and others, but have not been statistically examined for white-tailed ptarmigan. Campbell (1968) and Francis (1967; 1970) have demonstrated close relationships between certain weather parameters and populations of scaled (Callipepla squamata) and California quail (Lophortyx ca1ifornicus). This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Following recommendations of Braun and Rogers (1970) all studies were discontinued at Mesa Seco. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1) populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic and (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June of the same year. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in five study areas (Mt. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, Mesa Seco, and Rocky Mountain National Park). 2. To estimate nesting success and production in the above areas. 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlation between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. To compile data and prepare progress report. �-94- METHODS AND MATERIALS Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work plan 17, Job 1 and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Ptarmigan were censused by traversing study areas using tape-recorded calls to locate territorial males, breeding pairs, and hens with chicks. Efforts were made with telescoping noose poles to catch all ptarmigan not banded previously. All birds caught were banded with serially numbered gold anodized aluminum leg bands, with all adults being additionally banded with individually numbered blue plastiC bandettes. Green bandettes with black numerals were used to replace any bandettes from previous years that had become too worn for recognition of individual birds. Weather data were obtained from the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for their D-l, Niwot Ridge Site. This site is located at 12,300 feet between the Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) and Mt. Evans study areas. Data collected at this site and in RMNP have been previously ahalyzed and compared (Braun 1969), and differences were found to be insignificant. Weather data at this site have been systematically collected using standard instruments since 1952 (Marr 1967a; Marr et ale 1968a and b). DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Areas intensively investigated, with one exception, are those studied since 1966 under Work Plan 17, Job 1, and described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). As suggested by Braun and Rogers (1970) at the cessation of the initial 5-year project on inventory of ptarmigan populations, all work was terminated at the Mesa Seco site. The four current study areas are presented in Figures 1-5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on May 2 with few males being observed on known territories. The first breeding pair was observed on May 4 in RMNP but most pairing did not occur until mid-May. Weather conditions during the 1970 breeding period were similar to those experienced in 1968 and were colder and drier than in 1969. Snow levels in early May were slightly less than in previous years studied except 1966. Timing of breeding activities was earlier than in 1969 but generally was similar to previous years aild suffered no major disruptions froni adverse weather. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Breeding observed densities decreased on all areas studied in earlier years (Table 2). in 1970 from levels �-95- 7 - (: ---..,,, //~- .. / Fig. 1. \ Mt. Evans study area. T EVANS ARE COLORA 0 Stydl1 Area ~()unC»OJrlf �-96- .'.:./ CROWN POINT AREA COLORADO - Study Area Boundary /-.--~--. "/0.. Fig. 2. Crown Point study area. "... .".~/ �-97- ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL Pj\RK SUNDANCE UNIT It! J - COLORADO Study Area Boundary SCALE 1111MILES bE=:r::::=::JE3E3:::=J:E3~'3/=2=EE3=:r::::=::JE3===::::j: Fig. 3. Rocky Mountain National Park, Sundance Unit study area. ~ILE �.--------. Fig. 4. ., .~ C ra ,. Rocky Mountain National -98- U) t- Z :,:) «r ~ ~ c( 0.. -' <tZ c( •••• ::l :z >L.. c 0 "0 ::) 0 en l! (It < )., '> ~ tal - ::! :i "0 <II u w ..,j ..I IU ~~ 0 I -' - 0 ... ~ ,.. Z 0 ., ~ c( 0 0 0 Z ...J ~ 0: Z ~ ..,J 0 ::) <C c( en 0 0 I- ~ Z :> ::l 0::I 0 ~ >~ study area. /0 1> Mountain LL ~ 0: 0 ...J 0 ...J 0= Park, Fall River-Toll �-99- INDEPENDENCE N ASS AREA COLORADO I T .•..• Study Aroo Boundory o•• 0,,0 0.000 ~==E:~~~1/~2E:~~e+3:3~1 o~ e-3 F3 E3 :+ Fig. 5. Independence Pass s tudy area. �-100- Table 1. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding population densities, all areas, 1970. Square Miles No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Birds Total Breeding Season Population Birds per Square Mile Tombstone RidgeSundance Mountain 1.25 8 5 males 21 16.8 Toll Memorial .19 4 3 males 11 57.9 Fall River Pass .70 9 3 males 21 30.0 2.14 21 11 males 53 24.8 Crown Point 1.93 8 4 males 20 10.4 Mt. Evans 1.54 3 2 males 8 5.2 Independence Pass 1.12 4 4 males 12 10.7· Study Area RMNP Total RMNP Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding population densities, 1966-70. 1966 Birds eer Sguare Mile 1967 1968 1969 1970 RMNP 29.0 25.2 29.4 30.8 24.8 Crown Point 14.5 21.2 18.1 14.5 10.4 Mt. Evans 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.2 Independence Pass 18.7 18.7 21.4 17.9 10.7 Study Area Decreases in breeding population levels were greatest at Independence Pass and lowest at Mt. Evans. Reasons for the observed decreases are related to the generally poor nesting success and production of young in 1969 at all aceas and the continued heavy exploitation of fall populations by hunters �-101~ at Independence Pass and Mt. Evans in 1969 (Braun and Rogers 1971). The decreases at RMNP and Crown Point can only be attributed to poor nesting success and production as no hunting is allowed in RMNP and no birds were reported harvested at Crown Point in 1969. All decreases were _the result of poor recruitment of young birds into the breeding population in 1970. Nesting Success and Production Nesting activities were initiated on all areas in 1970 between June 10 and June 20. Incubation of one nest under observation was initiated on June 22. Weather conditions during June and early July 1970 were warm and dry and were similar to those in 1966 and 1968 when nesting success and production were good to excellent. Estimated peak of hatching in 1970 was between July 15-20 with the one nest under observation hatching on July 15-16. This nest in RMNP contained six eggs and all successfully hatched. The primary molt of 15 successful hens was examined in order to calculate hatching dates. The earliest calculated hatching date was July 12 and the latest was July 28. Eleven of the 15 successful females hatched their clutches between July 15-20 while only one hen was calculated to have hatched her clutch after July 25. In 1970, 32 different hens were observed during the brood period (July 12September 15) with 27 of these being successful. While successful females are more easily seen than those without chicks, the number of unsuccessful females observed was low in 1970. When the five unsuccessful hens seen in 1970 are compared with the 22 brood less females reported in 1969 (Braun and Rogers 1971), it is apparent nesting success was substantially better in 1970 than in 1969. Estimated nesting success in 1970 was 75 percent in RMNP, 65 percent at Crown Point, and ~ 50 percent at Mt. Evans and Independence Pass. Initial size of broods in 1970 upon hatching was six chicks. Brood size to August 1 averaged 5.3 chicks, while each brood averaged 4.5 chicks on September 1 (Table 3). This was an increase of 1.6 chicks per brood over the 2.9 chicks per successful hen recorded to September 1, 1969. Fall Densities Estimates of densities of white-tailed ptarmigan on September 1, while useful in illustrating population gain through production, are difficult to accurately derive due to a number of variables. Estimated fall densities for each area studied are presented in Table 4. These densities were calculated following the three basic assumptions discussed in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Data presented in Table 4 present a good picture of actual populations at RMNP and Crown Point. This is not true of the data for Mt. Evans and Independence Pass. All that can really be said of the fall densities at these two locations is that they were low. �-102- Table 3. Number of broods and average brood size, all areas, 1970.-1/ Number of Broods Observed Average Number of Chicks per Brood July 1-15 0 0.0 July 16-31 7 5.3 August 1-15 4 4.0 August 16-31 15 4.5 September 1-30 7 3.1 Total 33 Date Average 4.3 1/ Only distinct broods are included. Hunting further reduced fall densities at Crown Point as hunters in the fall of 1970 harvested 15 of 29 banded birds in the population. At Independence Pass, only 1 of 12 banded birds present in the study area was harvested, while the Mt. Evans area was closed to all hunting of grouse in 1970. Hunter check stations were not operated in 1970 so total harvest on the three study areas open to hunting is not known. Relationships of Weather:Nesting Success and Production Weather data obtained from the 12,300 level of Niwot Ridge, through the courtesy of INSTAAR for the 1966-70 period are presented in Table 5. Detailed analysis and statistical correlations will be completed for the final report in 1974-75. The close correlation between June weather conditions and ptarmigan nesting success and production previously suggested from work conducted under Work Plan 17, Job 1, continued in 1970. In general, weather conditions were warm and dry in June and July, 1970, and nesting success and production improved over 1969 when the early Summer weather was colder and wetter. �Table 4. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed ptarmigan, 1970. Area Estimated Percent Nesting Success Average Brood Size on September 1 Total Production Total Breeding Population Total Population on September 1 Birds per Square Mile Percent Gain I I-' 0 w RMNP 75 4.3 64 53 112 52.3 57.1 Crown Point 65 5.0 25 20 43 22.3 58.1 Mt. Evans 50 3.0 5 8 12 7.8 41. 7 Independence Pass 50 3.0 6 12 17 15.2 35.3 I �Llb1e 5. ~.Jeatherdata, Niwot Ridge, 12,300 ft., May-July, 1966-1970. TemEerature Mean Daily Max. Min. Number Days Minimum Temperature Less Than 32° F (Marr 1967b; Clark 1970). PreciEitation Number Days Relative Ppt/Month Humidity (Inches) 90 or Above Ave. WindSpeed/ Month Year Month Max. Min. 1966 May 57 6 38.1 26.4 20 1.7 16 1.1 13.2 June 58 22 48.6 33.3 12 1.8 19 11.0 July 65 38 58.2 43.5 0 2.6 25 8.2 May 54 -7 32.5 21.5 25 3.1 25 15.1 June 58 24 44.6 30.4 18 3.7 29 12.3 1967 1968 1969 1970 (mph) July 62 32 54.7 40.7 0 2.9 27 10.0 May 50 2 33.5 20.2 29 2.6 27 Jj 16.6 June 61 11 50.2 33.7 12 0.65 18 13.9 July 62 28 54.1 39.6 2 2.1 25 9.4 May 57 13 41.5 28.0 22 5.7 23 11.0 June 57 15 40.9 28.8 19 5.7 29 13.8 July 62 33 55.2 41.0 0 2.5 17 10.6 May 51 4 40.0 25.0 25 0.55 22 14.5 June 65 15 47.6 33.0 11 2.5 19 12.6 July 62 30 55.7 41.2 1 2.1 19 9.9 1/ Data not available for 4 days. 1/ Data not available for 1 day. I •.... 0 .po. I �-105- LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 189 pp. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game & Fish Comma 51: In press. ______ , and G. E. Rogers. 1970. Inventory of Ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp. 181-183. , and 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. ------Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Bull. 27: In press. Colo. ------ , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. pp. 238-250. In Haugen, A. O. (Ed.). Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 280 pp. Campbell, H. Mexico. 1968. Seasonal precipitation and scaled quail in eastern New J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32(3):641-644. Clark, J. M. 1970. Unpublished data. Colo., Boulder. Inst. Arctic and Alpine Res., Univ. Francis, W. J. 1967. Prediction of California quail populations from weather data. Condor 69(4):405-410. 1970. The influence of weather on population fluctuations in California quail. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):249-266. Marr, J. W. 1967a. Data on mountain environments. I. Front Range, Colorado, sixteen sites, 1952-53. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. No. 27. 110 pp. 1967b. Unpublished data. Colo., Boulder. Inst. Arctic and Alpine Res., Univ. , J. M. Clark, W. S. Osburn, and M. W. Paddock. 1968. Data on ------mountain environments. III. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 1959-1964. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. No. 29. 179 pp. ______ , A. W. Johnson, W. S. Osburn, and O. A. Knorr. 1968. Data on mountain environments. II. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 19531958. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. No. 28. 169 pp. �-106- Neave, D. J., and B. S. Wright. 1969. The effects of weather and DDT spraying on a ruffed grouse population. J. Wild1. Mgmt. 33(4): 1015-1020. Siivonen, L. 1957. The problem of the short-term fluctuations in numbers of tetraonids in Europe. Finnish Papers Game Res. 19: 44 pp. Prepared by _~tU~!:::..::-_,_y=--.:.... --.:..)~~o<:..::.- Clait E. Braun Asst. Wildlife Researcher _ �-107April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 1 Experimental Breeding of Tinamou Period Covered: Personnel: 19 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, John F. Corey and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A total of 478 eggs was laid by the 36 pale spotted tinamou (24 hens and 12 cocks) on hand in May, 1970. Of these 50 (10.5 percent) were culls, 132 (27.6 percent) were infertile, and 296 (61.9 percent) were fertile. A normal incubation relative humidity of 55-56 percent (84~-85~Owet bulb) was considerably better than a test incubation relative humidity of 50 percent (82-3/40wet bulb) both in the hatching of total eggs set and in the hatching of fertile eggs. In addition, fewer dead germs and pipped eggs which did not hatch occurred with the normal incubation relative humidity of 55-56 percent in comparison with a test incubation relative humidity of 50 percent. Higher numbers of total eggs were laid by breeders held in 4 separate pens with selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (248 eggs) compared with a community of 8 hens and 4 cocks (62 eggs). In addition, 190 fertile eggs were laid by the 4 selected group pens of breeders compared with only 32 for the community pen. More fertjle eggs were produced by breeders fed a standard 22 percent protein level feed (190) compared with a similar feed containing 16 percent protein level feed (74). A higher percent of the fertile eggs were also hatched from the birds fed the 22 percent protein level feed (70.00 percent) compared with the 16 percent protein level feed (51.35 percent). This study was scheduled to run through 1972-73 but poor overwinter survival under penned conditions has prevented the releasing of suitable numbers in the field. A final field release of all remaining stock (82 birds) was made in Baca County, south of Vilas, on April 30, 1971. ��-109- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF TINAMOU Donald M. Hoffman Good progress was attained in refining techniques for rearing pale spotted tinamou in captivity at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station in 1970, but overwinter losses were again heavy. From the 36 breeders (24 hens and 12 cocks) held for 1970 tests~ there were 187 chicks hatched but only 62 survived through the fall and winter periods. A final field release consisting of 59 1970-hatched tinamou plus 23 surviving 1969-hatched adults was made in Baca County, south of Vilas, on April 30, 1971. Although a few tinamou (exact numbers unknown) are known to have escaped from the holding pens at Rocky Ford, it appears that overwinter losses approximated 50 percent9 with heaviest losses occurring during and immediately following the heavy snow and severe cold temperatures in early January, 1971. In addition, many of the surviving tinamou showed the effects of having toes frozen during the winter period. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for pale spotted tinamou. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To compare two levels of relative humidity (50% versus 55%) during incubation on egg hatchability. 2. To measure the relationship of flock mating and selected group mating to total egg production and fertile egg production. 3. To measure the effects of two protein levels in the feed (22% versus 16%) on fertile egg production and egg hatchability. METHODS AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of tinamou breeding pens is shown in Figure 1. The pen schedule for tinamou for 1970 is shown in Table 1. Selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock were placed in pens 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10 and a community flock of 8 hens and 4 cocks was placed in the combined pen 3,8, and alleyway on April 10, 1970. Thus, a total of 36 birds was used in breeding tests in 1970. All breeders were dusted with louse powder and primaries on both wings were clipped prior to releasing in the breeding pens. Two birds died while in the breeding pens and 34 were recovered on September 28, 1970. Numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fert:ileeggs produced were compared for the selected groups in pens 2, 4, 6, and 10 and the community group in pens 3,8, and alleyway combined, on all 22 percent protein level feed. �-110- N ~------------30' I' i" , -en ~ 12 ~ 12 -"- - LO 0 sr to 7 .'" s» 1 to v r0 C\J ~ / \ . (j) ,., SCALE Fig. 1. Detailed Arrangement a L~ __ I I O' 10' 5' of Tlnamou Breeding Pens. �-111- Table l. Pen schedule for tinamou, 1970. Pen Number Protein Level 16% 22% T 1 2 T 3 x 4 T x T T T T 5 x T 6 T T 7 x 8 x T T 9 10 T Alleyway x Number Pens on Test 4 Key: Mating Flock* Selected Groups (8 Hens and 4 Cocks) (2 Hens and 1 Cock) T = Pen on Test; x T T 4 1 4 x = Pen not on Test· * Pens numbe r 3, 8, and alleyway was used as 1 combined pen for flock mating. Following normal culling procedures, settings of tinamou eggs were made alternately (except for setting number 1) in the test and control incubators every 7 days insofar as possible in 1970. Relative humidity in the control incubator was held at the standard 55 percent relative humidity (8~0 wet bulb) for the first 2 settings and then increased to 56 percent relative humidity (85~0 wet bulb) based upon recommended procedures for Robbins incubators. In the test incubators, eggs were incubated at a relative humidity of 50 percent (82-3/40 wet bulb) using a Humidaire Model 50 for the.first 3 settings and a Robbins Model C-l for the remainder. Temperature in all incubators was maintained at a normal 99.750 F. Setting number 7 was placed in the control incubator rather than the test incubator because of problems encountered in maintaining 50 percent relative humidity in the Humidaire incubator and in anticipation,of securing a new Robbins Model C-l incubator. �-112- Birds in even numbered pens 2, 4, 6, and 10 were fed a standard game bird breeder feed containing 22 percent protein level. Those in odd numbered pens 1, 5, 7, and 9 were fed a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein. Eggs produced were marked to facilitate determination of fertile eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs that hatched. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2 lists a comparison of pale spotted tinamou production at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for the period 1967 through 1970, and field releases made from 1969 through 1971. A gradual increase in numbers of fertile eggs and numbers of chicks hatched is evident during the period, using approximately equal numbers of breeders from 1968 through 1970. Incubation Humidity Test Table 3 lists hatching success of eggs in the test incubators (50 percent relative humidity) in comparison with eggs in the control incubator (55 to 56 percent relative humidity). Results showed a 6.38 percent better hatch in the control incubators when considering percent of total eggs hatched (46.58 % compared with 40.20%) and a 9.08 percent better hatch in the control incubators when considering fertile eggs hatched (67.28% compared with 58.20%). Higher percentages of dead germs (21.64% for the test incubators, compa~ed with 19.23% for the control incubator) and of pipped eggs (6.70% for the test incubators, compared with 1.28% for the control incubator) showed the incubation humidity was too low for this species. Results indicated the normal incubation relative humidity of 55-56 percent (84~-85~0 wet bulb) was therefore better than a test relative humidity of 50 percent (82-3/40 wet bulb). Flock Mating Versus Selected Group Mating Test Table 4 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs produced by 8 hens and 4 cocks in a community pen with the same number of birds in 4 pens of 2 hens and 1 cock each. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein feed and treated as alike as possible. A much larger number of total eggs was laid by the tinamou held in 4 separate pens with selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (248 eggs) compared with a community pen of 8 hens and 4 cocks (62 eggs). In addition, 190 of the eggs laid by birds in the 4 selected group pens were fertile as compared with only 32 for the community pen. Results obtained in 1970 were similar to those secured in 1969. �Table 2. A summary of pale spotted tinamou production, Item Number of Breeders Sexes Total eggs laid 1967-1970, and field releases made 1969-1971. 1967 1968 Year 1969 1970 1971 17 37 36 36 0 24H;12C 24H; 12C 493 478 mixed (connnunity pen) 177 mixed (conununity pen) 335 1/ I Total eggs set 166 316 434 I-' I-' W 428 I Number fertile eggs 74 211 268 296 Percent fertile eggs 44.6 66.8 61. 8 69.2 Number chicks hatched 44 108 137 187 Percent fertile eggs hatched 59.5 51. 2 51.1 63.2 Number released, Baca County None None 42 40 82 1/ Original source of breeding stock provided by Foreign Game Introduction Program of United States Department of the Interior included 20 birds received on June 25, 1966 and 17 birds received on March 8, 1967, all from Argentina, South America. �Table 3. A comparison of hatchability of pale spotted tinamou eggs under approximately 55 percent relative humidity (normal) versus approximately 50 percent relative humidity, 1970. Item On Test 1/ Hatch Number Date Set Number Set 1 5-18 6-1 6-15 7-6 7-20 8-3 8-17 8-31 12 14 21 43 3 5 8 10 12 14 16 3 4 4 19 8 8 Dead Germs Number Pipped 4 7 6 5 5 o 6 2 2 2 o 1 4 2 Number of Cripples Number of Good Hatch Percent Hatch Total Fertile Eggs Eggs 1 4 3 9 8 33.33 21.42 47.61 34.88 54.54 40.74 42.85 34.78 44.44 30.00 58.82 62.50 72.00 57.89 60.00 53.33 78 (40.20) 40.20 58.20 10 12 15 20 13 76.92 66.66 53.57 54.05 41.93 30.43 U.93 14.81 57.69 76.92 80.00 83.33 71.42 81.25 43.75 56.52 25.00 88.23 o o o o o o o 10 15 18 27 21 23 6 4 8 5 194 60 (30.92) 42 (21.64)13 (6.70) 1 (0.51) 13 18 28 37 31 23 31 27 26 o o o o o 7 8 3 3 3 8 2 8 10 o 11 9 8 2 o Sub-Total 234 72 (30.76) 45 (19.23) 3 (1.28) 3 (1.28) 109 (46.58) 46.58 67.28 Totals 428 132 (30.84) 87 (20.32)16 (3.73) 4 (0.93) 187 (43.69) 43.69 63.17 Sub-Total Control Jj 33 Number of Infertile 2 5-25 4 6- 8 6 7 9 11 13 15 17 6-22 6-29 7-13 7-28 8-11 8-24 9-8 3 10 9 15 1 1 1 o o o o o o o 3 o 11 7 13 4 15 1/ Eggs incubated at 82-3/40 F wet bulb reading (50% reI. hum.) and temperature of 99.750 F. Setting numbers 1, 3, and 5 incubated in Humidaire Model 50 incubator and the remaining settings on test were incubated in a Robbins Model C-l incubator. ~/ Eggs in settings number 2 and 4 incubated at 84~0 F wet bulb reading (55% reI. hum.) and the remaining controls were incubated at 85~0 F wet bulb reading (56% reI. hum.) and temperature of 99.750 F. All settings were incubated in a Robbins Model H-7 incubator. I I-' I-' +' I �Table 4. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou eggs laid by a flock consisting of 8 hens and 4 cocks with four selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each. 1/ Number of Infertile Number Fertile Eggs Number of Good Hatch Pen Number Total Eggs Number of Culls Number Set Flock 62 3 59 27 16 32 Sub-Total 62 3 59 27 (45.76) 16 (27.11) 32 (54.23) 16 (27.11) Dead Germs 16 Percent Hatch Fertile Total. Eggs Eggs Set 27.11 50.00 •... •... I 2 45 3 42 10 13 32 19 45.23 59.37 4 73 7 66 10 17 56 39 59.09 69.64 6 40 6 34 13 9 21 12 35.29 57.14 10 90 6 84 3 18 81 63 75.00 77.77 Sub-Total 248 22 226 36 (15.92) 57 (25.22) 190 (84.07)133 (58.84) 58.84 70.00 Totals 310 25 285 63 73 1/ All pens were fed 22 percent protein feed. 222 149 V1 I �-116- 22 Percent Protein Versus 16 Percent Protein Feed Test Table 5 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs that hatched by tinamou breeders fed 16 percent protein level feed with those fed a 22 percent protein level feed. Selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each in pen numbers 1, 5, 7, and 9 were fed the 16 percent protein feed and birds in pen numbers 2, 4, 6, and 10 were fed a standard 22 percent protein level feed. More fertile eggs were produced by the breeders fed the standard 22 percent protein level feed (190) compared with a similar feed containing 16 percent protein level (74). A higher percent of the fertile eggs hatched were also from the birds fed the 22 percent protein feed (70.00%) compared with the 16 percent protein feed (51.35%). From these comparisons, it is evident that the standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed was much better than the 16 percent protein level feed for pale spotted tinamou egg production and hatchability during 1970. East Pens Versus West Pens Although not planned as a separate test, a comparison of egg production by east versus west pen location has shown the importance of providing adequate natural cover in the breeding pens. In 1969, a comparison of egg production by 4 pens on the west side, each containing 7 or 8 established tall wheatgrass clumps, with 4 pens on the east side with no grass clumps, showed highest numbers of total eggs were produced in the west pens (235 compared to 193) and 162 fertile eggs were produced in the west pens compared with only 73 fertile eggs in the east pens. Prior to the 1970 egg laying season, a minimum of 8 clumps of tall and/or crested wheatgrass were planted in the east pens and wire cages installed to protect most of these growing clumps. The established cover was left in the west pens as well, so all pens had growing natural cover for 1970. Table 6 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs laid and fertile eggs laid by tinamou in the west pens with the east pens in 1970. Total eggs produced was 209 for the 4 west pens and 207 for the 4 east pens. Numbers of fertile eggs produced was 143 for the 4 west pens and 121 for the 4 east pens. Location of pens plus a lack of adequate cover in the east pens apparently caused this variation in egg production in 1969 but this variation was considerably reduced in 1970 with the replanting of adequate natural cover in the form of growing grass clumps. The variation in numbers of fertile eggs produced would probably be further reduced in the future as the newly planted grass clumps mature but may never be entirely eliminated because of a tall juniper windbreak on the west side �Table 5. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou eggs produced and number hatched using 16 percent and 22 percent protein levels in the feed, 1970. Pen Number Total Eggs Number of Culls Number Set 1 28 0 28 8 7 5 63 12 51 16 7 26 5 21 9 51 8 Sub-Total 168 25 Item On Test (16% Protein Feed) Control (22% Protein Feed) Number of Infertile Number of Good Hatch Percent Hatch Total Fertile Eggs Set Eggs Percent Fertile Eggs 13 46.42 65.00 71.42 22 13 25.49 37.14 68.62 5 6 10 47.61 62.50 76.19 43 40 1 2 04.65 66.66 06.97 143 69 (48.25) 36 (25.17) 38 (26.57) 26.57 51. 35 51. 74 Dead Germs ,... ,... •....• I I 2 45 3 42 10 13 19 45.23 59.37 76.19 4 73 7 66 10 17 39 59.09 69.64 84.84 6 40 6 34 13 9 12 35.29 57.14 61. 76 10 90 6 84 3 18 63 75.00 77.77 96.42 Sub-Total 248 22 226 36 (15.92) 57 (25.22)133 (58.84) 58.84 70.00 84.07 Total 416 50 369 105 (25.24) 93 (22.35)171 (46.34) 46.34 64.77 63.93 �Table 6. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou fertile eggs produced and number of fertile eggs hatched by 4 west and 4 east pens, 1970. Item West Pens Pen Number Protein Level Culls Laid Egg Totals Set Infertile Fertile Hatched 1 16% 0 28 28 8 20 13 2 22% 3 45 42 10 32 19 4 22% 7 73 66 10 56 39 5 16% 12 63 51 16 35 13 Sub-Total 22 209 187 44 143 84 I t-" t-" East Pens 6 22% 6 40 34 13 21 12 7 16% 5 26 21 5 16 10 9 16% 8 51 43 40 3 2 10 22% 6 90 84 3 81 63 Sub-Total 25 207 182 61 121 87 Totals 47 416 369 105 264 171 00 I �-119- of the breeding pens, which provides additional shelter and shade to the west pens. Natural cover in the form of growing grass clumps provides both shade and shelter for the breeders as well as for eggs laid. By alternating pens by east and west location in all tests run in 1969 and 1970, bias due to pen location should have been eliminated. ��April, 1971 -121- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RAD~~O _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 2 Study of Tinamou Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: 19 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1970 to November 30, 1970 Donald M. Hoffman, Dale W. Stahlecker and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT Forty pale spotted tinamou, Nothura darwinii salvadorii, were released in May, 1970. This was the second release on U. S. Forest Service rangeland in southern Baca County, Colorado. As in 1969, follow-up searches and checks on reported sightings failed to provide evidence that tinamou remained, survived or reproduced in the vicinity of the release site. ��-123- STUDY OF TINAMOU ADAPTABILITY Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of pale spotted tinamou to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed tall and mid-grasses, sandsage and yucca on the Comanche National Gr~sslands, Baca County, Colorado SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce pale spotted tinamou. 2. Determine dispersal of pale spotted tinamou and success of plant. METHODS AND MATERIALS Reference is made to Snyder (1969) for review of methods and materials used in this study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pale spotted tinamou raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station under Work Plan 19, Job 1, were released on May 1, 1970 by Donald M. Hoffman. This release included 15 males and 25 females. The location of the release, along the Sand Arroyo in southern Baca County, was the same as that of the previous year (Snyder 1969). The vicinity of the release and surrounding localities were searched on June 11-12, August 17-19 and November 1 and 2, 1970. The birds were not observed, nor were there any indication of their presence in the area. Bert Widhalm, District Conservation Officer, and Carrizo District personnel of the U. S. Forest Service were contacted concerning sightings or reported sightings. One local resident reported seeing the birds frequently during the summer in a location approximately ten miles east of the release. Contact of this person left doubt as to the accuracy of his observations. His description of the bird and its habits did not fit the tinamou. In summary, there was no evidence of survival or reproduction of any of the tinamou released either in 1969 or 1970. One additional release is planned in 1970 with follow-up surveys to be made. �-124- Fig. 1. Pale spotted tinamou at release site in Baca County. Don Domenick. Photo by �-125- LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1969. Study of tinamou adaptability. Colorado Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April, pp. 177 -181. Prepared by !f!.~yd'it~ Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/ee0fc182ac5d5c1a5c85302595639e35.pdf 2f0774a71885571dfbc641c05f84bbe5 PDF Text Text -1- April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~~L~O~RAD~~O _ Work Plan No. Job Title 1 Job No. 16 Pheasant Nest Site Selection Study Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-24 Project No. April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Donald M. Hoffman, Warren D. Snyde.r, Bruce C. Sigler, Dale W. Stahlecker, Robert L. Schmidt, Lawrence A. Webster, John F. Corey, Gary Brown, John Ellenberger, Mark Frazier, Jon Hooper, Tom Lines, Roger Lowery, Jon Moser, Henry Wilson and Michael Zgainer. ABSTRACT Each of the 4 quadrats was stocked with a m~n~mum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by March 11, 1970 (Segment 23) in preparation for nesting studies in 1970. Eighty pheasant nests were found in the 48 nesting plots, representing 6 vegetative species or combination of species. Sixteen nests were found in 8 alfalfa mowed plots; 15 nests Were found in 4 alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed plots; 10 nests in 4 tall wheatgrass mowed plots; 9 each nests in 4 intermediate wheatgrass mowed and 4 intermediate wheatgrass unmowed plots; 8 nests in 4 tall wheatgrass seeded plots; and 7 nests in 4 smooth bromegrass mowed plots. Fewer numbers of nests were found in other vegetative types and treatments represented. In comparing nests per vegetative type and treatment, alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed, ranked highest with 3.75 nests per plot; followed by tall wheatgrass mowed, with 2.50 nests per plot; intermediate wheatgrass mowed, and intermediate wheatgrass unmowed, each with 2.25 nests per plot; tall wheatgrass seeded, and alfalfa mowed, each with 2.00 nests per plot; and smooth bromegrass mowed, with 1.75 nests per plot. Sixty-six percent of all nests in 1970 were established 15 feet or less from plot perimeters. Average clutch size of 46 nests, where it was possible to determine this, was 11.2. A minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks, wild-trapped in Phillips, Sedgwick, and Larimer counties in early 1971, were restocked in each of the 4 quadrats by January 28, 1971 for continuation of the study in 1971 (Segment 25). ��" -.)- PHEASANT NEST SITE SELECTION STUDY Donald M. Hoffman Field work on this study was conducted similar to the previous year's work with three separate nest searches completed during the nesting season of 1970. The change-over of three vegetative types used very little or not practical to establish along roadsides was completed in the fall of 1969 and no additional p1antings were made in 1970. P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant nesting of, and success in (1) winter wheat; (2) alfalfa; (3) crested wheatgrass; (4) hairy vetch; (5) white sweet clover; (6) alfalfacrested wheatgrass mixture; (7) smooth bromegrass; (8) tall wheatgrass; and (9) intermediate wheatgrass. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To maintain plots. 2. To measure nesting preference. 3. To determine nesting success by cover type. 4. To obtain wild pheasants and care for them following release in plots. METHODS AND MATERIALS Wild pheasants were captured with a vehicle, spotlights, and hand nets at night in Phillips and Sedgwick counties in Segment 23. All 4 quadrats were restocked with a minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by March 11, 1970. Limited Cooper's hawk predation occurred on the wing-clipped pheasants held in the quadrats after this date but this was not serious. Phenology measurements were again secured in 1970 to ascertain readiness of the various vegetative species and cover types for use by nesting pheasants. An initial nest search in 1970 was made during the period June 4 and 5 with 10 men, including 5 W.C.O. trainees and others. Each plot was systematially searched using ropes to divide the plots into narrow segments. Nests were marked, recorded, and removed to encourage renesting. A second nest search was made during the period June 22 through July 3, 1970 by 2 men searching each plot systematically in strips outlined by lath markers. A third and final search was made by 5 men using methods similar to the second search during the period July 20 through 27, 1970, preceding and following the windrowing of half of the individual plots on July 27, 1970. A well trained bird dog belonging to Warren Snyder was used to advantage in the first and last nest searches. �-4- Distances were measured from each nest to the nearest edge and to the apex or base of the triangular plot, whi.chever was closest, with a steel tape. Each nest could later be located on a scaled diagram of the quadrats. Number of eggs, fate of the nest and estimated age of embryos were recorded. In addition, vegetative heights and vegetative species in the 4 cardinal direc.tions from each nest were recorded. Prior to the windrowing of vegetation in half of the plots on July 27, 1970, all but 4 of the 64 wing-clipped pheasants were caught with hand nets. Nineteen of these were released on Means Lake property in Phillips County and the remainder were released outside the quadrats at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Two incubating hens were killed by the windrowing machine and the other 2 were not recovered. Five wild pheasants, including 3 hens and 2 cocks were captured with cloverleaf traps at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station during early January, 1971. Fifty-seven additional wild pheasants, including 49 hens and 8 cocks were captured with 4-wheel drive vehicles, hand spotlights, and hand nets during 6 trap-nights in Phillips and Sedgwick counties. These were used to restock the 4 quadrats with a minimum of 13 hens and 2 cocks by January 28, 1971 for continuation of the study in 1971. All pheasants were wing-clipped and banded with aluminum leg bands prior to release in the quadrats. Plot Composition Plot Composition for 1970 (Treatment Following 1969 Nesting Season) The changing of vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establish along roadsides, started in 1968, was continued in the fall of 1969. The remaining winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass and the 4 remaining white sweet clover plots were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass. Plot Number 1. Originally Winter Wheat, Now Smooth Bromegrass Four of the original winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1968. These were all mowed in the summer of 1969. The remaining 4 winter wheat plots were reworked and seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1969. Plot Number 2. Alfalfa These were all mowed and maintained following the 1969 nesting season so 1970 composition was comparable with 1968 and 1969. Two of these plots including Number 2, Interior, NW Quadrat, and Number 2, Exterior, NE Quadrat, are approaching alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixtures due to invasion by crested wheatgrass. �Plot Number 3. Cres ted Wheatgras s Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season so that a residual cover check could be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Composition for 1970 was therefore comparable to that of 1969. Plot Number 4. Originally Hairy Vetch, Now Intermediate Wheatgrass All of these plots were reworked and seeded to intermediate wheatgrass following the 1968 nesting season. Four of these intermediate wheatgrass plots were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season, so a residual cover check could be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Plot Number 5. Originally White Sweet Clover, Now Tall Wheatgrass Four of the original white sweet clover plots were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1968. These were all mowed in the summer of 1969. The remaining 4 white sweet clover plots (volunteer forbs in 1969) were reworked and seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1969. Plot Number 6. Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1969 nesting season, so that a residual cover check could be secured in 1970 on half of the plots. Composition for 1970 was therefore comparable to 1969. Plot Composition for 1971 (Treatment Following 1970 Nesting Season) The changing of vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establi8h along roadsides, started in 1968, completed in the fall of 1969. No additional changes were made during 1970. Plot Number 1. Originally Winter Wheat, Now Smooth Bromegrass The 4 original winter wheat plots seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1968, were left unmowed in the summer of 1970. The 4 original winter wheat plots, seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1969, were mowed in the summer of 1970. A residual cover check will be secured in 1971. Plot Number 2. Alfalfa Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed in 1970 so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1971. Two of the alfalfa plots including Number 2, Interior, NW Quadrat, and Number 2, Exterior, NE Quadrat, are approaching alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixtures due to invasion by crested wheatgrass. Plot Number 3. Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1971 on half of the plots. Composition for 1971 is therefore comparable to that of 1970. �-6- Plot Number 4. Originally Hairy Vetch, Now Intermediate Wheatgrass All of these plots were reworked and seeded to intermediate wheatgrass following the 1968 nesting season. Four of these intermediate wheatgrass plots were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season, so a residual cover check may be secured in 1971 on half of the plots. Plot Number 5. Originally White Sweet Clover, Now Tall Wheatgrass The 4 original white sweet clover plots seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1968, were left unmowed in the summer of 1970. The 4 original white sweet clover plots seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1969, were mowed in the summer of 1970. A residual cover check will be secured in 1971. Plot Number 6. Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed folloWing the 1970 nesting season, so that a residual cover check may be secured in 1971 on half of the plots. Composition for 1971 is therefore comparable to 1970. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Stocking of Pheasants for 1970 An attempt to live-trap pheasants in September, 1969 in the Holyoke area was made but losses folloWing capture were heavy. Of 18 captured (mostly juveniles) 4 died in transit to Fort Collins and 4 died while held in the covered pen before moving to the southeast quadrat on October 9, 1969. At least 2 additional birds from this source are known to have died while held in the southeast quadrat. The wing-clipped pheasants used in the 1969 nesting studies were recaptured with hand nets at the end of the 1969 nesting season and placed in a large covered pen in an attempt to hold these over for use in 1970. An unusually heavy, wet snow in early October, 1969 broke the top of the pen down and 67 surviving pheasants (57 hens and 10 cocks) were released in the southeast quadrat on October 9, 1969. Overwinter losses, mostly from great-horned owl predation, were heavy. Approximately 34 percent were lost from this cause from October 9, 1969 to February 9, 1970 and an additional 33 percent were lost from the same cause from February 9, 1970 to March 6, 1970. Limited Cooper's hawk predation on the wing-clipped pheasants occurred after the final stocking of the quadrats on March II, 1970, but this was not serious. Location of Nests Eighty pheasant nests were found in the 48 triangular-shaped nesting plots representing 6 vegetative species or combination of species. Figures 1 through 4 show the approximate location of nests in the various quadrats. Table 1 lists pheasant nests found by vegetative cover type and treatments in 1970. �-7- 370' 4 2 Agin (urn) ""~ Mesa (m) o 3 12' Agcr (m) o 5 0:: Agel (rr) ~ o 0:: W ~ Brin (m) 0:: o H 0:: ~ Z H 12' 6 Mesa~gcr(urn Brin (rr)~ 12' Detailed Fig. 1. Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan I, Job 16 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in northwest quadratp 1970. ~ 0 W - �-8- 370' \\ 2 \\ 5 /00 6 Mesa- Agcr II 12' ~ ~ (l: . ~1-,. .: Agel (rr) / !o/ Agel (m) 7 7/ o 5 3 o Agcr (m) (m) I:t: o Brin o (m) Brin (rr) ~ X £iI o 12' 4 Agin ( Mesa-Agcr (urn) 2 / Ager 6 Fig. 2 G Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan I, Job 16 (um~ 3 12' Detailed ~ ~ 8 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in northeast quadrat, 1970. ) - �-9- 370' 4 7/ 7 2 Mesa (m) / f Brin (rr) ~ 0:: W 6 E 0 Mesa-Agcr (m) ~ ~o'~ ------0 12' 6 12' Fig. 3 • Location Detailed Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Nest Site of pheasant 1970. nests in southwest quadrat, �-10- 370' 3 6 12' Mesa-Agcr (urn) 12' 12' Detailed Fige4 _ Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in southeast quadrat, 1970 0 �Table 1. Number of pheasant nests found in 48 plots representing various vegetative types and treatments, 1970. Plot Number Type and Treatment NW guadrat NE SW SE 1 Smooth bromegrass (mowed) 1 3 1 1 Smooth bromegrass (seeded) 1 0 2 Alfalfa (mowed) 7 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 3 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 4 Intermediate wheatgrass (mowed) Total Number Plots Nests/ Plot 2 7 4 1.75 0 0 1 4 0.25 2 1 6 16 8 2.00 0 2 0 1 3 4 0.75 0 0 0 1 1 4 0.25 4 1 2 2 9 4 2.25 I 2 1 2 4 9 4 2.25 (mowed) 1 4 4 1 10 4 2.50 (seeded) 4 1 0 3 8 4 2.00 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) 5 2 2 6 15 4 3.75 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass 1 0 0 0 1 4 0.25 26 16 12 26 80 48 1.66 4 Intermediate wheatgrass 5 Tall wheatgrass 5 Tall wheatgrass 6 6 Totals Average (unmowed) (unmowed) I-' I-' I �-12- By numbers of nests, alfalfa mowed (16 nests) ranked highest for nest establishment in 1970, followed by alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed (15 nests); tall wheatgrass mowed (10 nests); intermediate wheatgrass mowed and intermediate wheatgrass unmowed (each with 9 nests); tall wheatgrass seeded (8 nests); and smooth bromegrass mowed (7 nests). Fewer numbers of nests were found in other vegetative types and treatments represented. Numbers of nests per cover plot were calculated because of a difference in numbers of plots by cover type and treatment. In this comparison, alfalfacrested wheatgrass mowad ranked highest with 3.75 nests per plot, followed by tall wheatgrass mowed with 2.50 nests per plot, intermediate wheatgrass mowed and intermediate wheatgrass unmowed each with 2.25 nests per plot, tall wheatgrass seeded and alfalfa mowed each with 2.00 nests per plot, and smooth bromegrass mowed with 1.75 nests per plot. Sixty-six percent of all nests in 1970 were established 15 feet or less from plot perimeters as shown in Table 2. During 1970, 48 nests were found in exterior plots and 32 nests in interior plots. The terms "interior and exterior" refer to the location of the individual plots in relation to a central point where all 4 quadrats join. These are indicated in the margins of Figures 1 through 4. Figure 5 shows an experimental plot of smooth bromegrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. A search for nests in a plot of intermediate wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 is shown in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows an experimental plot of tall wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. This cover type furnishes good winter cover as well as good nesting cover at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Figure 8 shows the method used in hand netting Wing-clipped pheasants located with the help of a well trained bird dog. Pheasants were removed from the quadrats prior to windrowing of the vegetation in half of the plots on July 27, 1970. Clutch Sizes Thirty-four nests contained unknown clutch sizes. These were nests where the hen was still laying or nests which were abandoned for one reason or another without incubation having started. The average clutch size of the remaining 46 nests which included both incubating nests and hatched nests was 11.2 eggs, ranging from 5 to 21 (Table 3). Considerable variation was found in clutch sizes between the various cover types and treatments as shown in Table 3. Largest average numbers of eggs per clutch was found in intermediate wheatgrass unmowed (6 nests averaged 14.5 eggs); intermediate wheatgrass mowed (7 nests averaged 12.4 eggs); alfalfa mowed (9 nests averaged 12.2 eggs); smooth bromegrass mowed (4 nests averaged 11.0 eggs); and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass unmowed (1 nest averaged 11.0 eggs). �I I-' W I Fig. 5. A plot of smooth bromegrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. nests were found in the four smoothbromegrass, mowed plots in 1970. (D. Hoffman, photo). Seven pheasant �,....I +:I Fig. 6. Searching for nests in a plot of intermediate wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and left unmowed in the summer of 1969 Nine pheasant nests were found in the four intermediate wheatgrass, unmowed, and nine in the four intermediate wheatgrass, mowed plots in 1970. (Do Hoffman, photo). 0 �I •..... V1 I Fig. 7. A plot of tall wheatgrass seeded in the fall of 1968 and mowed in the summer of 1969. found in the four tall wheatgrass, mowed plots in 1970. (D. Hoffman, photo). Ten pheasant nests were �I ~ 0'\ I Fig. 8. Hand netting a wing-clipped pheasant, located with the assistance of a well trained dog. removed from the quadrats prior to windrowing of the vegetation. (D. Hoffman, photo). Pheasants were �-17- Table 2. Distance of pheasant nests from plot perimeters, 1970. Distance From Nearest Edge Number Nests Percent 0 - 5' 13 16 5 - 10' 25 31 10 - 15' 15 19 15 - 20' 11 14 20 - 25' 6 8 25 - 30' 9 11 30 - 35' 1 1 35 - 40' 0 0 Total 80 100 Fate of Nests Of the 80 nests found and recorded, 66 were determined to be in an active state of laying or incubation, 7 were hatched successfully, and 7 were apparently abandoned for one reason or another. All nests were recorded and removed to encourage renesting. This also prevented the recording of the same nest more than once. Of the 7 nests which hatched successfully, 2 were in alfalfa mowed plots, 2 in intermediate wheatgrass unmowed, 2 in alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mowed, and 1 in intermediate wheatgrass mowed. Of 86 total eggs in 7 nests which had successfully hatched, 71 (82.55 percent) of the eggs hatched. Of the 7 apparently abandoned nests, 1 was hailed on with eggs showing hail cracks, 1 was ruined by a predator (probably magpie or crow) and 5 were abandoned for unknown reasons. Periods of Nest Establishment Table 5 lists periods of nest establishment based upon aging egg embryos according to procedures outlined in Game Information Leaflet Number 15 (Sandfort 1965). �Table 3. Clutch sizes found in 46 incubating or hatched pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1970. Clutch Size 1 Brin (m) 1 Brin (rr) 2 Mesa (m) 3 Agcr (m) 1 1 1 1 Plot Number and Treatment 3 4 4 5 Agcr Agin Agin Agel (urn) (m) (urn) (m) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 5 Agel (rr) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn) 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 Total 1 5 6 6 3 1 3 3 2 6 2 2 1 3 1 0 1 Totals 4 0 9 3 0 7 6 5 3 8 1 46 Average Clutch 11.0 - 12.2 8.0 - 12.4 14.5 9.4 9.3 9.5 11.0 11.2 I I-' 00 I �Table 4. Fate of 80 pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1970. Type 1 Brin (m) Ac tive (Laying or Incubated) 7 1 Brin (rr) 2 Mesa (m) 5 Agel (rr) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn)· Total I t-" 1 13 2 Abandoned or Unsuccessful 1 7 Plot Number and Treatment 5 3 4 4 Agel Agcr Agin Agin (urn) (m) (urn) (m) 1.0 I Hatched Total 3 Agcr (m) 1 16 3 3 1 1 8 6 1 2 9 9 5 12 1 66 2 7 7 1 1 3 1 9 10 8 15 1 80 �Table S. Estimated period of nest establishment in various vegetative types, 1970. 11 Period 1 Brin (m) 1 Brin (rr) April 16-30 2 Mesa (m) 3 Agcr (m) Plot Number and Treatment 5 3 4 4 Agcr Agin Agel Agin (urn) (m) (um) (m) 2 5 Agel (rr) 1 1 May 16-31 2 3 June 1-15 2 3 1 June 16-30 1 6 2 2 Total 4 2 3 1 1 6 Mesa-Agcr (um) 1 1 May 1-15 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 3 2 3 13 16 5 3 1 1 2 5 1 24 I N July 1-15 1 1 1 July 16-31 1 Unknown 3 Total 7 1 16 2 1 6 1 3 1 1 3 1 3 3 9 9 10 8 IS 14 1 80 1/ Period of nest establishment based upon aging of embryos according to Game- Information Leaflet No. IS (Sandfort 1965). First nest search was made June 4-5, 1970; second was made June 22-Ju1y 3, 1970; third was made July 20-27, 1970. 0 I �-21- An initial peak in nest establishment occurred during the period May 16-31, 1970 or approximately 2 weeks later than in 1969. Heights of vegetation on May 15, 1970 were about half that found on May 16, 1969 due to a cold, wet spring in 1970. Weather factors, therefore, were the apparent cause of this delay in nesting activity. Additional peaks in nest establishment occurred during the periods June 1-15, and June 16-30, 1970; similar to those found in 1969. Highest number of nests (24) was recorded for the period June 16-30, 1970. Some hens continued to recycle until removed from the quadrats prior to windrowing of the vegetation in half of the individual plots on July 27, 1970. Residual cover from 1969 was left in half of the crested wheatgrass, intermediate wheatgrass, and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass plots (12 plots out of 48) in order to compare nesting use with mowed plots. This residual cover was flattened by the early, wet snows in September and October, 1969 and did not recover so, for all practical purposes, standing residual cover was non-existent in 1970. In 1970, only 3 nests out of the 19 established prior to May 31, 1970 (15.78 percent) were found in plots having this flattened residual cover from 1969. A good test of residual cover was not possible in 1970 for this reason. Phenology Heights of vegetation measurements were made on April 15 and 27; May 11 and 22; June 2, 12, and 23; and July 3 and 16, 1970. Table 6 summarizes average heights of vegetation on April 15, May 11, June 12, and July 16, 1970. Heights of the new growth vegetation on May 11, 1970 were generally about half that found on May 16, 1969, but had largely caught up by mid-June. The cold, wet spring of 1970 probably caused this lateness of vegetation growth. Weather factors also apparently caused a delay in nesting activity in 1970 (see section on periods of nest establishment). In contrast to the 1969 season when vegetative growth appeared to reach a maximum for the season in mid-June, most vegetative species in 1970 continued to grow in height throughout the nesting season. This was probably due to differences in spring and summer moisture and temperatures. Good early soil moisture has been maintained for the 1969, 1970, and 1971 nesting seasons by complete plot irrigations during the previous fall periods. This was required to establish new grass seedings prior to 1970, but was continued in 1970 to provide ade::Juatesoil moisture for the early 1971 growing period. Height Nl'st!'l t u n l t Y Surrounding Nests found prior to windrowing and found in uncut plots provided 1'0'- lu- I ~ht ob I n l n l n~ '1'111"., I 11Mlr. IIV(~I"I'f!.1' t Lvv ho l gh t 01 1').'14 Itrs t of Vegetation v(~~('lnl IwllI,htH I VI' Hlld l nc he a Willi l1ll'tlFlllrelll('nI:R '1fltwlclH Iounrl of s u r r ounrl I ng VI'II,,,ltlllon. au r round f ng IB ne e ts an oppor7l~ no s t s • 1\11 IIVI'I'I1II,O Found V(1J.1;(llll- du r l ng LII •• search period of June 4 and 5, 1970, compared with uve rag« vege Lutlon heights of over 20 inches for the second and third nest searches. I\n ovo ru Ll average height of 19.41 inches was recorded for vegetation surroundt ng till' 7/. I1I'Rt~~rncn s u r od . nest: > �-22- Table 6. Average height of vegetation in pheasant nesting plots, 1970. Plot Number Vegetative Type and Treatment 4-15-70 1 Smooth bromegrass (mowed) 4.0 10.0 23.0 37.0 1 Smooth bromegrass (seeded) 4.0 12.0 12.0 10.0 2 Alfalfa (mowed) New growth Residual 2.0 4.0 9.0 21.0 26.0 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 4.0 9.0 11.0 17.0 3 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) New growth Residual 4.0 4.0 8.0 9.0 14.0 Intermediate wheatgrass (mowed) 5.0 9.0 14.0 38.0 Intermediate wheatgrass (unmowed) New growth Residual 5.0 3.0 8.0 16.0 36.0 5 Tall wheatgrass (mowed) 6.0 12.0 14.0 42.0 5 Tall wheatgrass (seeded) 2.0 11.0 10.0 14.0 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) New growth alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Residual alfalfa 1.0 4.0 3.0 10.0 9.0 18.0 13.0 31.0 18.0 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed) !l New growth alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Residual alfalfa 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 8.0 9.0 9.0 20.0 16.0 4 4 6 Average Height (Inches) 5-11-70 6-12-70 7-16-70 1/ New growth alfalfa was well clipped by mice in unmowed alfalfa-crested wheatgrass plots during 1970 growing season. �-23- Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 74 nests, 1970. Nest Number Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured 1 2 3 4 5 6 SE SE SE SE SE SE 1-1 1-1 4-E 2-E 2-E 6-E 6-4-70 6-4-70 6-4-79 6-4-70 6-4-70 6-4-70 7 8 9 SW SW SW 5-E 5-E 6-E 6-4-70 6-4-70 6-4-70 10 NE 5-1 6-5-70 11 NE 6-E 6-5-70 12 13 NE NE 1-1 5-1 6-5-70 6-5-70 14 15 NW NW 2-1 5-1 6-5-70 6-5-70 16 NW 4-1 6-5-70 17 NW 1-E 6-5-70 18 NW 6-E 6-5-70 19 20 SE SE 5-1 4-1 6-22-70 6-23-70 21 SE 4-1 6-23-70 22 23 24 25 26 27 SE SE SE SE S8 3-1 2-1 2-1 4-E 4-8 5-E 6-23-70 6-24-70 6-24-70 6-25-70 6-25-70 6-25-70 28 SE 29 '\0 81': 5-E 6-E 6-25-70 6-25-70 ~I': (,-'1')-70 II nit; ()-I': (,-I': Composition Ave. Ht. (In.) Smooth bromegrass Smooth bromegrass Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Cheatgrass Thistle Intermediate wheatgrass Hairy vetch Smooth bromegrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass 13.0 14.3 15.0 23.0 22.5 16.3 12.0 16.3 15.3 16.5 12.0 23.0 27.0 15.3 11.0 10.3 13.0 11.3 19.8 14.8 9.5 15.0 12.0 15.0 14.0 15.0 12.0 Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Cheatgrass 13 .0 24.0 12.7 26.8 13 .3 14.3 24.0 25.5 24.3 23.5 29.5 21.5 20.0 21.5 Ave. Ht. for Period (In.) 15.34 SE (,-,/'j-10 Alfalfa Alfalfn A 1 III 1 I'll Cn'Hl(~d 77.3 ,/11 • ') wlwntKrllHH /.1 .1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-24- Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 74 nests, 1970. (continued) • Nest Number Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured 32 SW 5-E 6-25-70 33 SW 6-E 6-26-70 34 35 SW NW 4-1 4-1 6-26-70 6-29-70 36 NW 4-1 6-29-70 37 NW 5-E 6-29-70 38 39 NW NW 2-E 6-E 6-29-70 6-30-70 40 NW 2-1 6-30-70 41 NW 6-E 6-30-70 42 43 44 45 NW NW NE NE 5-1 5-1 1-1 5-1 6-30-70 6-30-70 6-30-70 7-2-70 46 47 48 NE NE NE 3-E 3-E 4-E 7-2-70 7-2-70 7-3-70 49 SE 6-E 7-20-70 50 SE 6-E 7-20-70 51 SE 5-E 7-20-70 52 SW 5-E 7-21-70 53 54 55 56 57 SW SW SW SW SW 1-E 4-E 4-E 4-1 2-E 7-21-70 7-21-70 7-21-70 7-21-70 7-21-70 58 SE 3-E 7-21-70 Composition Ave. Ht. (In.) Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Hairy vetch Intermediate wheatgrass Hairy vetch Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Cheatgrass Cheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass 29.0 16.0 25.5 21.0 33.0 26.0 8.3 31.3 16.3 16.0 32.7 20.0 19.5 23.0 16.5 17 .5 21.5 23.3 18.0 17.0 15.8 17.5 21.5 14.0 11.3 14.5 25.5 Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Winter wheat (volunteer) Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass 18.7 15.0 19.3 14.3 32.7 36.0 20.5 15.0 37.0 34.5 39.0 36.0 19.0 12.0 15.0 Ave. Ht. for Period (In.) 20.98 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 74 nests, 1970. (continued) • Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured 59 NW 4-E 7-22-70 60 NW 4-E 7-22-70 61 62 NW NW 2-E 4-1 7-22-70 7-22-70 63 NW 6-1 7-22-70 64 NW I-I 7-22-70 65 66 67 NW NW NW 2-1 2-1 6-E 7-22-70 7-22-70 7-22-70 68 NE 2-E 7-23-70 69 NE 6-E 7-23-70 70 NE 4-1 7-23-70 71 NE I-I 7-23-70 72 NE 5-E 7-23-70 73 74 NE SE 5-1 2-E 7-23-70 7-23-70 Nest Number Composition Ave. Ht. (In.) Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Hairy vetch Cheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Cheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Cheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Cheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa 26.0 lO.7 34.7 14.0 14.5 9.5 lO.O 19.0 14.0 6.0 14.0 23.8 13.0 17.5 14.0 18.5 17.3 27.5 18.0 33.0 14.0 14.5 14.7 14.0 19.0 45.0 17.0 Ave. Ht. for Period (In.) 20.40 Average Height All Measurements 19.41 Stocking of Pheasants in Quadrats for 1971 1\ ml n I.mumof 13 hens and 2 cocks, wild-trapped in Phillips, Sedgwick and Lllrllller cotlntiel'! 1n January, 1971, were wing clipped, 1ep;banded, and rc l onscd In each of the 4 quadrats by January 28, 1971 for con tt.nuat Lon of the 8 tudy in 1971 (Segment 25). �-26- KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS Figures 1 Through 4 and Tables 3 Through 5 Plants Symbol Scientific Name Agcr Agropyron cristatum Crested wheatgrass Agel ~gropyron elongatum Tall wheatgrass Agin Agropyron intermedium Intermediate wheatgrass Brin Bromus inermis Smooth bromegrass Mesa Medicago sativa Alfalfa Connnon Name Treatment Following 1969 nesting season (m) Mowed only (rr) Reworked and reseeded (urn) Unmowed - residual cover check in 1970 LITERATURE CITED Sandfort, W. W. 1965. Aging pheasant embryos. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leaf1. No. 15. 2 p. Prepared by Ll~WJ~~ Donald M. Hoffma~ Wildlife Researcher �-27April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~·_ Project No. W-37-R-24 Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Pheasant Roadside Cover Evaluation Study Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 18 April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Dale W. Stahlecker and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT Roadside seeding efforts to establish grass and grass-legume plots were continued in 1970. Satisfactory stands were attained on twenty additional plots, which will be included with their controls in the 1971 evaluation. Nest searches through the summer measured nesting attempts and successes on 48 seeded plots, 28 farmed controls and 23 unfarmed natural controls. TWenty-two of the 29 nest sites were found in seeded plots, two were along farmed roadside shoulders and five were in unfarmed controls. However, most nests in seeded plots were found along the unseeded roadside edges where green and residual weed cover dominated. Mammalian predators destroyed 16 of the 29 nests, four were hatched, four were abandoned because of human disturbance and five could not be accurately classified. Accumulations of residual grass and legume cover will potentially enhance the test sites for nesting pheasants during successive years. Partial evaluation of cover conditions and nesting in older roadsides, previously seeded by farmers, indicate new species should be tested to provide improved nesting cover. ��-29- PHEASANT ROADSIDE Warren COVER EVALUATION STUDY D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roads.Ldes: (1) grass and (2) grass-legume mi.xtures. SEGMENT 1. To establish 2. To measure OBJECTIVES grass and grass-legume pheasant production cover on roadside in test and control test areas. areas. METHODS "AND MATERIALS The reader is referred to Snyder (1969 and 1970) for methods used in selection of roadside test areas and in establishing grass-legume cover. Measurement of Pheasant Production in Test and Control and materials grass and Plots Nesting by pheasants in the seeded and control roadside plots was measured by nest searches. Dale Stahlecker, student assistant, began searches in mid-June and continued through the summer. Linear strips, in which width varied in relation to cover density, were searched on foot. A stick was used to part the vegetation for close, methodical inspection. Nests, where the hen was laying or incubating eggs, were marked by placing a lath nearby along the road shoulder. These were checked again at later dates to determine the fate of the nest. All plots initially searched before August I were searched a second time during the summer. Characteristics of the nest site and nest were recorded, and shell fragments and nest bowls of terminated nests were removed. Pertinent items recorded at each nest included: date; group and plot location; location within plot; plot cover type; cover type, height and density immediately surround the nest; status of nest (laying, incubating, number of eggs, etc.); and fate of nest after rE'ci1pckA. �-30- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Establishment of Grass and Grass-Legume Cover Past Seedings Marginal to satisfactory stands of grass and alfalfa were established following seeding efforts in 1969 on a majority of the roadside study plots. Most of the plots, seeded during the spring of 1969, where seed competition was severe in summer, produced disappointing stands. Several of these were reseeded again in 1969, others were replanted in 1970, and a few were included in the first year evaluation. Reseeding will be renewed on a few in 1971 attempting to increase grass and legume densities. Fair to good grass stands, utilized in the 1970 nest searches, were obtained west of Holyoke following August, 1969 rains. Table 1 summarizes the groups of plots utilized in 1970 nest searches. Each group contained either one or two seeded plots and one farmed control. An unfarmed control was included in most groups. Seeding Efforts in 1970 Approximately twenty additional study plots will be available for nest searching in 1971 due to seeding efforts in 1970. These were established despite poor planting conditions. Early spring seeding efforts were stymied by wet soil conditions which prevented working the plots. Several plots prepared and seeded in early May produced suitable grass and legume stands. Insects, destroyed one half-mile stand of grass, and one farmer's summer employee destroyed another plot which was successfully reseeded. Weed competition and hot, dry summer weather reduced stand densities on some spring seeded plots. Only one inch of rain was received during the three-month period of midJune to mid-September. Needless to say, seedings attempted during this period did not germinate. But, satisfactory grass stands were obtained on several plots following September rains. Many sprouting alfalfa seedlings in these plots were killed by frost while in the two-leaf stage. Problems in Establishment of Grass and Legume Stands The primary problem in obtaining seeded stands was to place the seed in the ground prior to receiving moisture that would germinate and sustain the stand. Firm soil was needed but hard rains frequently crusted soil preventing sprouts from getting through. Adequate moisture, too often, was followed by hot-winds which dried the soil desiccating sprouting plants. Weeds along steep road shoulders also sapped moisture needed by seeds and plants along the road edges. Competitive weeds or loose soil along the field bordering edge of the strips hampered seed germination. Spring seedings were conSistently hampered by summer weed growth. Efforts to suppress weed growth by mowing resulted in distrubance and possible mortality of newly-hatched �-31- pheasant broods which would not leave the dense cover. In two instances pheasants attempted to nest in spring-seeded roadsides. One of these was killed on the nest while mowing. In general, the best stands were obtained from plots sunnner-fallowed and seeded in late July or August. Measurement of Pheasant Production in Seeded and Control Plots Tables 1 and 2 sunnnarize the results of nest searching on 48 seeded plots and 51 control plots in 1970. The total number of nesting attempts, 29, was considered low. Twenty-two of these occurred within seeded plots but only seven hens actually utilized seeded grass or alfalfa. Most of the remaining 14 nests in the seeded plots were associated with various combinations of weeds and/or cheat grass cover. Frequently, nests were located at the base of unseeded road shoulders where residual weed cover provided a protective canopy. Kochia, cheat grass, wild lettuce and sunflowers were the most connnon annuals along unseeded or unfarmed portions of all roadside plots. Five nests located in the unfarmed (C2) controls were all associated with annual forbs as were two nests along road shoulders in farmed (Cl) controls. None were observed in grain stubble or fallow portions of the farmed cont ro Ls , Preliminary nest location results indicate residual cover was an important attraction factor in nest site selection during the early spring. Increased use of green vegetation by hens was observed in late spring - sunnner nesting efforts. Most seeded stands lacked residual cover in 1970, therefore, they may become more attractive to pheasants in future years. Unfortunately, two half-mile strips of seeded roadside were burned by farmers during the early spring of 1971, destroying all residual cover. Skunks, badgers and other unknown predators destroyed 16 of the 29 nests located in the study plots. Crushed and scattered shell fragments were the main characteristic of destroyed nests. Nest bowls were occasionally torn apart. In one instance, not included in this sample, pheasant remains and shell fragments indicated that a hen was captured on the nest. Past observations have shown that skunks spend considerable time working roadsides in spring. Undoubtedly, they are the primary predator affecting roadside nesting success. Four nests hatched successfully. Nest search efforts, which flushed several hens from their neets, were partially responsible for nest abandonment. Overzealous checks to determine If hens had returned to their nest:.•increased nb andontuon t • More rca t rnLnt will be placed on follow-up nest checks in the future. Eggs were collected from abandoned nests to monitor for mercury and pesticide residues. Treatment of roadsides in 1970 by county maintenance personnal included mowing along the upper edge of the road shoulder in mid and late summer to keep weed cover below the level of the road surface. Seeded stands were not mowed. Few if any of the unfarmed controls were mowed beyond the road shoulder. Most of th(' shoulder cover along the farmed controls which usually was only two to slx foo' In wIdth WIlH e l f m l nn t e d by 1'1111. A few apo t a cont n l nt ng bind weed, Cnn ad I an t hLn tl.e , or poverty weed were sprayed by t.he county. �Table 1. Roadside treatment and control study plots nest searcheddtiriiigthe Group Code_ !=l.o .c Q) (/) § s:: or! 1-4 ~ Z E-i 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 1 1 2 1 2 1 7 7 6 6 7 8 8 10 10 11 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 6 Seeded Plot 1,.f Q) eo ! 42 (43) 42 (43)if 44 44 44 J) 44 J) 44 44 !if 44 if 44 (43)if 45 if 45 2:/ 45 Jj 45 45 45 45 45 45 !if 45 (46) 45 (46) 45 !if 46 J) 46 46 47 i/ 47 !if 48 4/ s or! or! .j.J .j.J 1-4 Q) CJ III CJ Q) C/) ~. 13 24 11 11 21 21 28 12 28 30 12 15 15 9 8 17 17 7 7 18 18 18 35 13 14 9 9 17 0 :> 0 u s:: s:: 0 0 or! (/) .j.J or! .j.J .j.J 1-4 Q) (/) CJ Q) Q) C/) III CJ Z Control Type 1 (Farmed~ Seeded Plot s:: 0 0 ~ :> 0 u Sl1nimerof 1970. s:: (/) .j.J or! 0 .j.J .j.J (/) CJ III CJ Q) Q) C/) ~ Z 21/g1 ---------2 g 1 P ---------_. 7 gl 1 P ---------6 g 11 6 gl 8 21 8 gl 8 5 g 21 5 g 1 Pa,l A 6 g 28 6 gl 5 g ---------_. 5 g ----------6 g 30 6 g 7 g 12 7 8 g 4 15 3 gl 1 P 7 g 15 7 gl 5 8 1 U ---------3 g 8 3 gl 8 81 1 P, 1 A 17 8 gl 1 P 6 17 6 g 8 1 U 2 7 2 gl 8 1 S 3 g 7 3 g 5 18 5 gl 1 A, 1 P 8 6 g 18 6 gl 7 g 18 7 g 1 g 35 1 gl 8 gl 1 P, 1 U 13 8 gl 2 P 7 81 1 S 14 7 gl 2 P, 1 S 3 g 9 3 g 1 S 2 g ---------_ .. 1 ---------_ .... s if 18 19 11 10 16 20 28 11 21 30 1 21 14 4 8 8 17 8 8 13 13 s:: 0 or! 0 5 5 8 1 3 3 5 3 3 5 4 8 6 4 4 4 5 5 5 2 1 5 8 7 3 Control Type 2 (Unfarmed) s:: 0 0 or! (/) .j.J or! .j.J .j.J (/) CJ III CJ Q) Q) C/) z 0 ~ 30 24 7 2 10 21 20 29 12 1 1 2 1 6 ------- 1 U ------- ------- 35 13 10 15 15 7 16 6 ------- 7 (/) Q) z ------- 15 15 9 8 17 17 17 7 18 18 18 26 8 14 10 10 7 (/) .j.J 1 U 1 P 4 7 5 2 1 7 7 4 4 4 8 3 4 6 4 4 I w I'.) I 1 A 2 Pa 1 P Each seeded plot represents 1f4 mile of roadside. ~/ Seeded stand marginal to poor. 1/ Each 1/2 mile of section periphery was numbered in consecutive order, starting at the northeast corner and running clockwise around the section to locate the study plot. Letter abbreciations are presented as follows: g = grass, 1 = legume, A = abandoned nest, P = predator destroyed nest, Pa = predation after search, U = undetermined nest fate, and S = successful nest. ~/ Grass stands seeded in previous years by resident farmers. �-33- Table 2. Characteristics of pheasant plots during the summer of 1970. Part 1. Fate of 29 pheasant Successful nests nesting attempts in roadside found along roadsides 4 -------------------------------------- Predator destroyed prior to search-------------- 13 Predator destroyed after search ---------------- 3 Abandoned (primarily Unknown Part 2. due to human of nest attempts Plot Type Seeded roadside Farmed roadside plots controls controls (Cl) Unfarmed roadside Part 3. Cover type locations Seeded 4 disturbance)-- 5 ---------------------------------------- Plot location (C2) and successes No. Plots Nest Attempts Nests/Plot 48 22 0.46 28 2 0.07 23 5 0.22 of nest attempts and successes Cover Type Number grass dominant 4 Seeded alfalfa dominant Mixture of green and residual cheat grass 3 weeds study or 22 �-34- Characteristics of Old Grass Stands for Pheasant Production Several plots, seeded by farmers in previous years, were utilized in the study (Table 1). Two of these contained a western-crested wheatgrass combination; two contained dense stands of smooth brome; ten were composed of intermediate wheatgrass, and one contained Russian wild rye. Most possessed near pure stands of the species planted and were attractive in general appearance. Pheasant production on these plots was not encouraging. One successfully hatched nest was located in an open stand of intermediate wheatgrass. One predator-destroyed nest was found under a canopy of Russian wild rye. Empirical evaluation indicated the brome, Russian wild rye and the crestedwestern wheatgrass combination generally did not possess adequate heights to attract pheasants although densities were suitable. In contrast, intermediate wheatgrass did not provide adequately dense foliage after becoming root-bound. The above mentioned grasses, like most species tend to decrease in height as they increase in density and competition for moisture over a period of years. Therefore, new stands of crested or western wheatgrass and brome may provide attractive nesting cover only for two or three years after they are planted. Intermediate wheatgrass may consistently produce adequate heights, but leaf foliage decreases as plant density increases. These and other species also lodge under winter snows, diminishing their value for winter cover and spring nesting cover (Fig. 1). Tall wheatgrass, which possesses a stiff strong stem, does not lodge as readily (Fig. 2). It may prove to be a desirable species where it will not hold snow to block roads. Alfalfa, by itself, provides favorable spring nesting cover, but loses its foliage in late summer and is flattened by winter snow (Fig. 3). Present observations indicate that alfalfa-tall wheat mixtures produce a good cover combination, but more evaluation is needed. Considerable variation in soil and moisture conditions exits along Northeast Colorado roadways. Therefore, the same species may provide poor to excellent nesting cover depending on the site. Roadsides along newly graded roads lack humus and other nutrients characteristic of productive soils. Germination and growth of seeded plants are reduced, so it may be preferable to let weeds grow for a year to two before seeding newly elevated roadways. Early spring fertilization could also be used advantageously here. Loss of Roadside While this study progresses, many roadside nesting and survival areas continue to be eliminated by back sloping of grader ditches and farming to the road shoulder. This occurs on old roadways as well as newly elevated ones. Figure 4 illustrates elimination of roadside on a newly elevated road where, in the foreground, wheat has already been seeded. The stubble field will be worked to the road shoulder in spring. Most county roads in Phillips and Sedgwick counties do not contain any roadside cover. �-35- Fig. 1. An old naturally reseeded roadside. Snows have lodged grass in the grader ditch, however, weeds along the fence provide limited winter cover for pheasants. �-36- Fig. 2. Tall wheatgrass holding snow along a seeded roadside. Little winter cover for pheasants is available to pheasants under these conditions. �-37- Fig. 3. Alfalfa along a roadside provided cover during the fall of 1970 before snows flattened it. �-38- Fig. 4. A newly elevated road showing back-sloping of the grader ditch in preparation for farming to the road shoulder. Pheasants have no place to live or nest where this condition exists. �-39- In Phillips County, phone lines are presently being put underground, eliminating roadside poles and providing additional areas for farmers to eliminate roadside cover. In some instances poles bordering seeded areas already have been eliminated. Hopefully, these plots can be retained for use during the remainder of the study. LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1969. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp , 37-45. 1970. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp. 109-114. Prepared by U.r1t.,J Warren D. Snyder ~,.) Wildlife Researcher ��-41April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~ __~---- Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey 3 Job No. 8a Effects of Sagebrush Control on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse April 1, 1970 to September 30, 1970 Warren Snyder, Larry Roper, Terry May, Bruce Sigler, Jerry Whittaker, George Bock, David Croonquist, Don Gore, Courtney Crawford, John Monarch and Howard Funk. ABSTRACT Counts of strutting grounds on the North Park study area showed peak numbers of male sage grouse present about mid-April, 1970, about average for strutting ground activity for the area. Numbers present peaked at 274 males, significantly below 1969, but otherwise the highest total since 1964. Data from check stations operated at Cowdrey and Walden indicated hunting pressure was again high with 564 hunters checked. However, harvest dropped to about half of the 1969 total with only 266 birds brought through the stations. Immature birds made up 45 percent of the bag, an increase over the 30 percent of 1969, and about average for the period since 1955 when check station activity was initiated in North Park. ��-43- EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Howard D. Funk An investigation of sage grouse abundance and distribution near Lake John in North Park has been in effect since initiation in 1963. The job relates to various specific study topics in various degrees of intensity. More recent study has been with regard to the immediate effects of a sagebrush spraying project, accomplished in 1965, on sage grouse populations with a study on the long-term effects of this spray project scheduled for a twoyear period beginning the spring of 1973. In the interim period, efforts are to be limited to collection of study area strutting ground data, banding samples of birds on these grounds, and operating check stations near Walden and Cowdrey to obtain harvest data. This report covers these items. P S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush en: (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. SEGMENT the seasonal OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate is controlled. distribution 2. To investigate sage grouse numbers to the area treated. of sage grouse after sagebrush by age and sex classes METHODS AND MATERIALS Strutting Ground Counts on and adjacent Wildlife Conservation Officers conduct counts on a number of strutting grounds in North Park annually. Usually, three early morning counts are made on each ground. Data from these counts are gathered from the Regional Biologist, high counts for each ground being reported herein. Check Stations Two check stations near Walden and Cowdrey are operated the first two days of the season to collect various data on harvest such as harvest success, �-44- age, and sex ratios, banded bird information, and hunter participation for a check on the year in comparison with previous years. Project personnel are responsible for the station with Conservation Officers also contributing data from field checks. Main emphasis is on checking harvest within the study area. Age and sex of birds are determined by methods described in previous reports. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Strutting Ground Counts Results of strutting ground counts are displayed in Table 1. Peak counts occurred about mid-April on most areas, which is about average since strutting ground activity is subject to snow conditions in the area. Data on peak numbers of females and total birds were not gathered for this report, but should be obtained from the field men for continuity of data when preparing for the final report. Table l. Strutting Peak counts of male sage grouse on strutting 1/ Ground- SG 1 0 SG 2 8 SG 3 0 SG 4 SG 1970. High Count Da te April 14 66 April 14 5 57 April 21 SG 6 19 April l3 SG 7 0 SG 8 7 April 14 SG 9 97 April 15 SG 10 16 April 15 SG 11 4 April 8 SG 12 0 Total 1/ Number Males grounds, Locations 274 of grounds shown in previous reports. �-45- Comparative data on annual high counts by strutting ground are presented in Table 2. Most grounds show a definite decline in 1970 in numbers of males present with the total males on all grounds about 25 percent below the 1969 total. However, the 1970 total remains the highest count on record, with the exception of 1969, since 1964 when 337 males were observed. The year of the indicated "crash" in population numbers was 1965 when males totaled only 166. This was the year of the spray project, but spraying did not take place until after the spring counts. Table 2. Comparison of 1960 through 1970 strutting ground counts of male sage grouse. Strutting Ground 1960 1961 1962 1963 Year 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 SG 1 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SG 2 43 4 7 20 26 9 9 10 2 8 8 SG 3 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 SG 4 130 96 219 216 120 53 47 69 58 82 66 SG 5 19 2 52 17 65 52 54 59 52 82 57 SG 6 5 1 8 9 3 0 2 12 36 36 19 SG 7 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 SG 8 5 0 0 0 0 o· 6 5 2 6 7 SG 9 167 109 71 85 99 52 97 81 71 117 97 SG 10 17 77 28 19 17 0 6 9 0 16 16 SG 11 12 50 5 11 7 0 13 15 6 5 4 SG 12 14 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 446 363 395 377 337 166 234 265 231 357 274 Total Banding Due to lack of manpower and available time, banding of samples of birds on strutting grounds was not accomplished during the segment. �Table 3. Comparison of North Park sage grouse hunter check information, 1963-1970. 11 Total Birds Birds Per Hunter Hours Hunted Per Bird 58 506 1.03 4.86 45 41 179 .82 3.49 26 26 51 116 .77 5.40 56 45 71 44 263 .86 4.67 67 42 46 33 267 .89 4.41 Year Bag Limit Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Males 1963 3 492 2,460 62 150 42 113 181 1964 2 217 624 25 81 59 28 2 150 626 27 30 49 1966 2 306 1,227 31 116 1967 2 300 1,177 50 127 1965 u Adult Percent Females Adults Juvenile Males Juvenile Percent Females Juveniles 1968 2 546 2,604 80 135 42 156 141 58 512 .94 5.09 1969 2 662 2,936 121 277 70 57 114 30 569 .86 5.16 1970 2 564 2,617 58 89 55 53 66 45 266 .47 9.84 11 Based on Walden and Cowdrey check station data during opening weekends. II A one day season; hence only a one day check station. I .po 0\ I �-47- Check Station Results Project personnel checked 266 sage grouse through check stations on September 11-12, 1970, the first two days of the season. This was slightly less than half the number checked in 1969. Number of hunters also decreased but not to the extent of the harvest, thus increasing greatly the number of hours spent per bird in the bag. Percent immatures in the bag increased to about 45 percent, which was about average over the years. No valid reason can be given for the sharp decline in harvest in 1970 or the sequence of events over the past three years. In 1968, the high count on grounds was 231 birds, indicated havest was the highest since 1963 at 512 birds, and the bag contained 58 percent young, again the highest since 1963. Count results on the grounds increased to a high of 357 males in 1969, harvest increased to 569 birds, but the harvest contained only 30 percent young. Then, 1970 count data on grounds produced 274 males, lower than 1969 but higher than 1968, while harvest dropped to 266 birds but immatures made up 45 percent of the bag. Adult females were harvested very heavily in 1969 (48.6 percent of the bag), quite heavily in 1970 with 33.5 percent, and rather lightly in 1968 with only 26.4 percent. Hunting pressure was fairly even through these years with 546, 662, and 564 hunters per year since 1968. Probably a variety of factors have been responsible for this confusing sequence of data, including poor sampling in one or more areas of data collection, including check stations. Only two bands were turned in at check stations (1662-R466 and 1562-R498) as compared to 23 the previous year. The former was banded as a subadu1t male on April 25, 1969 and the latter as an adult male on April 10, 1968, both on strutting ground 9 (SG9). Both birds were shot north of Lake John the first weekend of season. Prepared by Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research ��-49- April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. 10 Job Title Study of Hungarian Partridge Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 1 April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Donald M. Hoffman, Bruce C. Sigler, Dale W. Stahlecker, John F. Corey and Charles E. Brown. ABSTRACT Six hundred and seventy four more pen raised Hungarian partridge were released in Moffat County at 3 sites on April 24, 1970. This brings the total number of Huns released in Moffat and Routt counties to 1,788 during the period of 19641970 0 Intensive field searches were made by W-37-R Project personnel during the months of June, August and September, 1970. Only 10 Huns were observed by Project personnel, these near 2 of the 3 1970 release sites. Some of the released Huns were seen in the vicinity of all 3 release sites from May through August, 1970 by local residents. Although previously planted areas were searched, no reports or observations of Huns could be secured, indicating little or no carryover populations and little or no increases in populations from previous years. One brood of a hen with 2 chicks was reported by a rancher in the Jubb Creek area in late August, 1970 in the vicinity of one of the 1970 releases. Reports of Huns being seen distances of 4 and 5 miles from 2 of the 1970 release sites were secured. ��-51- HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of Hungarian partridge to establish populations in mixed brushland-wheatland habitat in selected Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce Hungarian partridge. 2. Determine presence and dispersal METHODS Field releases of pen-raised April 24, 1970. reproducing sites in of Huns and success of previous plant. AND Y~TERIALS stock were made in 3 areas in Moffat County on Intensive field searches were made by Project W-37-R personnel during the periods June 15-19; August 25-28; and September 14-17, 1970. In addition, persons living and working in or near the release sites were interviewed and observations were recorded. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION On April 24, 1970, 674 additional pen-raised Huns from the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and Little Hills Experiment Station holding pens were released in 3 areas of Moffat County. Figure 1 shows a release made on Johnson Gulch south of Craig and Figure 2 shows general habitat types of this area. Table 1 summarizes all field releases made in Colorado since 1964. A total of 1,923 Huns have been released with most (1,774) being released in Moffat County, 135 in Larimer County, and 14 in Routt County. Figure 3 shows the map location of the Johnson Gulch release with numbers of birds released indicated, and Figure 4 shows the map locations of the Price Creek and Jubb Creek releases, with the numbers of birds released indicated. Table 2 summarizes all Hungarian partridge reports and observations for Moffat County for 1970. All reports and observations during 1970 were from the vicinities of the April 24, 1970 releases except for a report of a single Hun approximately 5 miles north of one of these 1970 release sites and another approximately 4 miles north of another 1970 release site. Only 10 Huns were observed by Project personnel, all of which were in 2 of 3 release areas for 1970. Photographs of several of these Huns were secured. �I VI N I Fig. 1. Hungarian partridge release, John Gulch, south of Craig in Moffat County, April 24, 1970. (D. Domenick, photo) �I I.J1 W I Fig. 2. Habitat in the vicinity of the Johnson Gulch release site, Moffat County. Vegetative types are cultivated wheatlands bordered by big sagebrush, with a few scattered junipers on hillsides. (D. Domenick, nhnrn)_ �-54Table 1. Hungarian partridge field releases since 1964. Number Released Source of Stock Release Area Jan. & Feb., 1964 135* Oregon & Idaho (wild trapped) Larimer County, Douglas Lake Sec.l, T8N, R69W Sub-total 135 March 28, 1964 40 Idaho (wild trapped) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 34, T6N, R92W March 23, 1965 124 Oregon (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 33, T6N, R92W April 18, 1967 71 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 21, T6N, R92W April 30 and May 1, 1968 236 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 29, T6N, R92W April 30, 1968 14 FCWRS (pen raised) Routt County, Northeast of Hayden Sec. 35, T7N, R87W April 19, 1969 389 FCWRS (374) & CSU (15) (pen raised) Moffat County, Isles Mountain Sec. 24 & 25, T5N, R92W April 19, 1969 240 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Isles Mtn. Sec. 16, T5N, R92W April 24, 1970 170 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Johnson Gulch Sec. 15, T6N, R91W April 24, 1970 234 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Jubb Creek Sec. 35, T5N, R93W April 24, 1970 270 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Price Creek Sec. 30 & 31, T4N, R95W Sub-total 1,788 Date Total 1,923 * An additional 22 birds (11 pairs) were taken to Rocky Ford Experimental Bird Farm from this shipment. On October 6, 1965, 51 (pen raised) birds were received from Oregon and were taken to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental breeding purposes. On February 19, 1970, 13 1969hatched Huns from eggs secured from wild-trapped birds in England were received from Winchester Farms, Alton, Illinois and were used for experimental breeding purposes in 1970 and later years. �R 92W -55- R 91W " \ It ;. •• Fig. 3. Location and numbers of Hungarian partridge released, Johnson Gulch, Moffat County, 1970. -fL-~ ~~ 1~~ ~n ·~t~ I, "I .r ~J-o·. If) K- ~ -: 1 " 't~f.~J ." }, ,', I ·-t~-..-~+t-,(- ---:\. -- . -\~. " ~Mj , -~- h ..;~~~ , - " I' i // r: ! - 10'· \ - I 1 t I " I L �T5N. •• so , II!.' II '" ••• I! " ',t ~ I I 44 10 J Iff> I i) 1/ - I L.l I I I r, I( r\~\ 1~ r I '1 ,f 2S sc I 31 a 1 11 ;0 T 4N. I %: I 7' I _ I --,~ .P'"'I Wi I \ I. I' Q"'S'--++- I 1\\ I ! f·----r I d I l /' ~ " T.3N. .. loJ_o_," --e, - R -toI o '".) ~B -c~-. COLORADO MILES ~ .:a __ r.. •• a - SCALE l C I I ~ «l t . 0 :::_-- ----- •.....•... 1 . I '/ I - - f.e I y ~ I ," • / --7\-r--;--r---7-~~\"'---:--' _ --=---_ _ R. 94W. N I :. f! OF It! I , . '--r'" .. ~JlJ,;;;.. --- �-57- Table 2. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observation, Moffat County, 1970. Date(s) Number Huns Area Observed By April, 1970 3 groups of approx. 8 each Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites L. Kendall 1 Price Creek Road, approx. 5 miles N. of upper Price Creek release site May 21, 1970 B. L. M. Personnel Late May, 1970 2 Approx. 3 miles S. of Jubb Creek release sites G. Hanson June 16, 1970 3 (pair & Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites B. Sigler Price Creek, vicinity of release sites B. Sigler single) June 17, 1970 2 (pair) June 18, 1970 5 (2 pair & 1 single) Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites B. Sigler May to early August, 1970 Few Price Creek, vicinity of release sites Stoddard Late August, 1970 1 hen with 2 chicks Jubb Creek, vicinity of release sites C. Hebblthwaite Late August, 1970 Few Yampa River, approx. 4 miles N. of Upper Jubb Creek release site C. Hebblthwaite May to late August, 1970 Few Vicinity of Johnson Gulch release site Barnes �-58- Although areas of releases made prior to 1970 in Moffat County were searched, reports and observations for these areas were nil, indicating an absence of carry-over populations and little if any increase in populations. One Hungarian partridge brood of a hen with 2 very small checks was reported by rancher C. Hebblthwaire in the vicinity of the Jubb Creek release site in late August, 1970. Period of Release Specific experiments have not been run to determine the best time for field releases of Hungarian partridge in Colorado. Traditionally, the early spring period has been selected because ~f the advantages of ample food conditions with growing green grass and forbs and most of the severe winter weather periods are past. A field release time during the last half of April is a compromise between the near approach of the egg laying season (early May under penned conditions) and late snows which may occur as late as early May in areas selected for Hungarian partridge releases. Birds held in the large holding pens begin to pair as early as February each year, and most are believed to be paired by release time. By releasing all birds from a single holding pen at one site, they have the opportunity to select the same mate upon release. Handling of the birds is known to cause stress as measured in weight loss and transporting the birds undoubtedly adds to this stress. This may delay the nesting activities of the birds somewhat; however, there should still be ample time for the birds to establish territories and nest following release. Upon release from the crates, most of the Huns stay in a rather loose group and appear to start pairing almost instantaneously. Whether they pair with the same birds as in the large holding pens is not known. Birds observed later at the release site or at a distance from the release site are usually observed in pairs, so there appears to be no problem in the birds finding mates following release. Prepared by iJ~?r7~~ Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher ~ �-59April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ...;C:..;O;;,.:L::;:O;.:.RAD=.;:.O _ Game Bird Survey W-37-R-24 Project No. 10 Job Title Experimental Breeding of Hungarian Partridge Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 2 Work Plan No. April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt: John F. Corey, Donald M. Hoffman and Dr. Harry D. Muller. ABSTRACT A test in which 12 pairs of qungarian partridge breeders fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed compared with an equal number fed a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein, indicated the 16 percent protein feed was significantly better at the 10 percent level in numbers of fertile eggs laid (293 compared with 158). Egg fertility was also higher with the 16 percent protein feed (86.94 percent compared with 73.49) resulting in higher numbers of chicks hatched (234 compared with 130). Both levels of protein tested (22 percent and 16 percent) showed excellent results in the 7-day survival tests. In a test where 6 pairs of early mating pairs were compared with an equal number of late mated pairs, the late mated pairs produced more fertile eggs (129 compared with 55) and a slightly higher percent hatch of fertile eggs was found with the late mated pairs (80.62 percent compared with 78.18). In another test which compared fertile eggs produced by 3 pairs rece~v~ng 2 extra hours of artificial light each A.M., 3 pairs receiving 2 extra hours of artificial light each P.M., and 3 pairs receiving no artificial light, it was found the artificial lighting of the pens resulted in bringing breeder pairs into production earlier than those which received no artificial light. However, total egg production and total fertile egg production were not increased with the use of artificial lights. Production cost records were maintained in 1970. These indicated it costs a minimum of $9.45 per Hun produced for field release using present methods, facilities, and equipment, including labor costs. If labor costs are excluded, a cost of $2.20 per bird was calculated. �-60- RECOMMENDATIONS One year's data have been collected in comparing 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed with 16 percent. Although results showed that the 16 percent protein feed was better for Hungarian partridge in 1970, comparisons should be made for at least one more year. Extra lighting tests started in 1970 should also be continued for at least one more year. Progeny from highest producing pairs in 1970, Winchester Farms stock, and the highest producing 1969-hatched adult breeders have been marked and it is recommended that selection tests be started in 1971. Numbers of Huns placed in rearing and conditioning pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and at the Rocky Ford Game Farm were recorded in Segment 24. It is recommended that an accurate count of birds removed by pen be made and a comparison of overwinter survival by various densities be made in Segment 25. �-61- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE Donald M. Hoffman Even though 36.90 percent fewer eggs were laid by the 52 pairs of Hungarian partridge breeders in 1970, compared with an equal number of breeders in 1969 (1,147 eggs compared with 1,818), several refinements were made in incubation procedures and the rearing of young. The 655 pen-raised Huns released in the field in 1971, plus 20 extra birds held for breeders, compares favorably with the 674 released in the field in 1970. A total of 614 were released in 1969 and 250 in 1968. Refinements in procedures included (1) replacing the electric heat lamp brooders with modified electric Jamesway heatring brooders, (2) eggs were incubated at a humidity of 85.50 F wet bulb temperature in 1970 in place of 84.50 F used previously, (3) eggs were hatched at a temperature of 99.250 F in 1970 in place of 99.500 F used previously, and (4) chicks were fed 27% protein turkey starter crumbles in 1970 for the first seven days, 30% turkey starter crumbles for the following two to four weeks, and 26% turkey grower crumbles from the fourth week, with improved results. In 1969, 28% protein game bird starter mash was fed for the first four weeks, followed by 26% game bird grower crumbles and pellets. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for Hungarian partridge. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure the effects of 2 levels of protein in the breeder feed (16% versus 22%) on : (a) Egg production (b) Egg fertility (c) Egg hatchability (d) Chick survival for the first 7 days. 2. To compare the numbers of fertile eggs produced by early mating pairs with those mating late in the breeding season. 3. To compare the numbers of fertile eggs produced by breeders subjected to two extra hours of light each 24 hour period during (1) the early morning and (2) the evening, with breeders receiving no artificial light. 4. To determine production costs. �-62- METHODS AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of the Hungarian partridge breeding pens for 1969 is shown in Figure 1. Mated pairs for all except the late mated series were selected and caught in the large Hungarian partridge holding pens (Fig. 2). Table 1 lists the pen schedule for the various tests run in 1970. One mated pair of Hungarian partridge was used in each pen. Pens 1 through 36 are located in a converted nursery shadehouse with ground floors, and pens 37 through 51 are a separate series of wire floored experimental game bird breeding pens. Pens A-I, A-2, and A-3 are alleyway pens in the ground floored series. Protein Levels in Feed Pens 1-6 and 19-36 (24 pens) were used to test the effect of 2 levels of protein in the feed. Birds in even numbered pens were fed a standard game breeders feed containing 22 percent protein and those in odd numbered pens were fed a similar feed, but containing 16 percent protein. Eggs were marked and placed in separate incubator drawers to facilitate determination of (1) fertile eggs produced; (2) number of fertile eggs that hatched, and (3) numbers of surviving chicks. Chicks were held separately in the brooder until they were 7 days of age to detect differences in survival. Period of Mating Pens 7-18 (12 pens) were used to compare numbers of fertile eggs produced by earliest mating pairs with those mated late in the breeding season. Even numbered pens were used for early mated pairs and odd numbered pens for late mated pairs. Six pairs used for earliest mating pairs were selected as soon as the birds were observed to start pairing in the large runs (February 6, 1970) and the 6 pairs used for latest mating pairs were selected from 10 unpaired hens and 10 unpaired cocks held in separate pens from February 6, 1970 to March 23, 1970. These began to pair almost immediately when recombined on March 23, 1970 and pairs were selected later on the same date. Extra Lighting Tests The wire-floored series of pens are well suited for extra lighting tests and the necessary wiring and automatic timing devices were installed late in Segment 23. U. S. Weather Bureau sunrise-sunset tables were used to determine times when lights should go on and off. Pens 46-48 (3 pens) were lighted with 2 extra hours in the early morning and pens 49-51 (3 pens) were lighted with 2 extra hours during the late evening. Pens 40-42 (3 pens) were used for controls and were treated identically except no artificial lights were used. Originally, pens 37-39 were also listed for controls, but the pair in pen number 39 escaped on June 2, 1970, so this series of 3 pens was used only in comparing earliness of egg production. Records were maintained of dates of first eggs, numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs laid, and hatchability of eggs produced. �-63- N IJ ~ - CD 75' 6'4" , If] '- If) Jf\ Ground-f loored Series 3738 394041 42 43 4445 46 47 4E ~ , v_ '-- 'v _ '---'v _ .' \ V _'---, v_ '-- v _ \ .. Wire - floored CD v I- N A-2 ~ ",' b - 0 N N (\J 01 N-.!. -, / / 49~ .r:. N 0 ~1 A-3 SCALE 8 L I / en CD I I 0' 5' 10' I 25' ~ L /0) Fig. 1. U) Detailed Arrangement =, an 5_'~ (11 N, - Ser , Partridge /N J'--'6---1 48' ----·-----······1 I:! CD l'" ' Breeding of Pins. Hungarian i,. _ ....l �-64Covered Brooder Shelter 1 Houses /~ l.--_-1- __ I'-__ I ..l..._---' _-+----L----.J4't-8'~ f J -0 t\J 4' t N -in o C\I C\I C\I •.4''i -L__ ~ 15.5 ,"'15.5-1 ---35 --- ~_~ ~ ---l ~------------I05'-----------~ Fig. 2. Hungarian Partridge Holdin q Pens �-65Table l. Pen schedule for Hungarian partridge, 1970. Protein Level Pen Nwnber' 22% 16% T T 3 4 8x8 T 1 2 Pen Size ~Ft·2 T T 5 8x16 x x x x x x x x x x 7 x x 8 x x 9 x x 10 x x 11 x x 12 x x 13 x x 14 x x 15 x x 16 x x 17 x x 18 x x 20 T T 21 22 T T 23 24 T 25 26 27 T T T Artificial Light None AM PM x T T Mated Late x 6 19 6x33 Pairs Early T x T T x x T T x x T T x x T T x x T T T x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. -66Pen schedule for Hungarian partridge, 1970. Pen Number Pen Size ~Ft.2 8x8 8x16 6x33 28 Protein Level 22% 16% T 29 30 T T 31 32 T T 33 34 T T 35 T Pairs Early (continued) . Mated Late Artificial Light PM None AM x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 36 T 37 x x x 38 x x x 39 x x x 40 x x T 41 x x T 42 x x T 43* x x x 44"k X X x 45"~ x x x 46 x x T 47 x x T 48 x x T 49 x x T 50 x x T 51 x x T A-1"~ x A-3"/( x No. Pens on Test 12 12 0 0 0 6 Key-T - Pen on Test x - Pen not on Test ,.~Ind icates pens with Winchester stock birds. x x 6 3 3 3 �-67- Production Costs Costs were estimated, based upon necessary labor, equipment, and facilities required to produce a number of Hungarian partridge similar to anticipated production at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for 1971, using methods now in use. These costs do not reflect the costs related to research studies which have. been of considerable value in improving methods and techniques for producing numbers large enough for adequate field releases. Winchester Farms Stock Although not written as a separate test in 1970, 13 birds (5 hens and 8 cocks) which were survivors from the 18 Hungarian partridge received from Winchester Farms in Illinois in February, 1970, afforded the opportunity to test fertile egg production and hatchability in 1970. These were all July, 1969-hatched from eggs received at the McGraw Wildlife Preserve from wild Huns in England. This new blood line will be introduced into our resident flock st.arting in 1971. The Winchester Farms Huns were held in a separate pen and allowed to pair naturally. Pairs were placed in pens 43-45, A-I, and A-3. Records were maintained of numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, and hatchability of eggs produced. Pens 43-45 were compared with pens 40-42 (controls). Progeny from the first 2 hatches of 1970 were Wing-tagged on the left wing in preparation for crossing with resident stock. Because of limited numbers of these progeny,S adult cocks were also held over for use in 1971 crosses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Protein Levels in Feed Table 2 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and percent hatch of eggs from breeder pairs in 12 pens using a standard 22 percent protein level feed with 12 breeder pairs using a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein. A total of 122 more eggs (337 compared with 215) was laid by the breeders using the 16 percent protein feed in comparison with the 22 percent protein feed. A total of 135 more fertile eggs (293 compared with 158) was laid by the breeders using the 16 percent protein feed in comparison with the 22 percent protein feed. This difference is significant at the 10 percent significance level. In addition, 86.94 percent of the eggs laid by breeders on 16 percent protein feed were fertile compared with 73.49 percent for the 22 percent protein feed. A total of 234 chicks was hatched from breeders on the 16 percent protein feed compared with only 130 for the 22 percent protein feed. Excellent survival for the first 7 days was found for both the 16 and 22 percent protein level feeds (98.26 percent survival for the 16 percent feed and 97.60 percent survival for the 22 percent feed) as listed in Table 3. A very high survival rate also continued following the 7 day test, reflecting the strong, healthy condition of the chicks from both levels of protein in the feed and improvements in brooding methods used in 1970. The electric heat lamp brooders were replaced by modified electric Jamesway heatring brooders in 1970 for better results in both survival and condition of the young birds. �Table 2. Numbers of eggs produced and hatchability of eggs laid by Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1970. Protein Level Number Pens Number Eggs Produced Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Percent Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germ Number Culls 16% 12 337 34 293 86.94 234 69.44 79.86 9 50 10 22% 12 215 52 158 73.49 l30 60.47 82.28 2 26 5 I ~ co I Table 3. Survival of Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1970. Number Chicks Taken to Brooder House or Battery Brooder Protein Level Number Pens 16% 12 230 22% 40 501 Number Chicks Lost First Seven Days Number Chicks Survived Seven Days Percent Survival First Seven Days 4 226 98.26 12 489 97.60 �-69- Based upon this one year's results, the 16 percent protein level appeared to be considerably better than the 22 percent protein level, for Hungarian partridge. It is planned to run similar tests in 1971, but with 6 pens on 16 percent protein level feed and 6 pens on 22 percent protein level feed. Period of Mating Table 4 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and percent hatch of fertile eggs from 6 pens with early mating pairs with 6 pens with late mating pairs, all using 22 percent protein level feed. Considerably more fertile eggs were laid by the late mating pairs (129 compared with 55) and a slightly higher percent hatch of fertile eggs was found with the late mating pairs (80.62 percent compared with 78.18). This resulted in 104 chicks hatched from the late mating pairs compared with only 43 for the early mating pairs. Three of the 6 pens of early mating Huns laid no eggs compared with only 1 of the 6 pens of late mating Huns which laid no eggs. It therefore appears that variability of individual birds played a large part in the results obtained. No clear advantage was found in selecting earliest mating pairs and, in fact, this proved to be disadvantageous in 1970. Extra Lighting Tests A comparison of numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, hatchability of eggs, and numbers of chicks hatched by 3 pairs of Hungarian partridge under artificial lighting for 2 extra hours in the A.M., 3 pairs under 2 extra hours during the P.M., and 3 pairs receiving no artificial lighting (controls) is listed in Table 5. All pens received 22 percent protein level feed and all were treated as alike as possible in other respects. Originally, the experiment was set up using 6 controls and 6 treated pens but a pair of Huns in pen number 39 escaped on June 2, 1970 so this series of 3 pens (Numbers 37-39) was not used except to compare earliness of egg production. More eggs were produced by 3 pairs receiving no extra lighting or controls (102) compared with those receiving 2 extra hours in the A. M. (83) and those receiving 2 extra hours in the P. M. (71). In comparing numbers of fertile eggs, both the pairs in 3 pens receiving extra morning light and the 3 pens of controls laid 77 fertile eggs each, while the 3 pens receiving extra evening light laid only 48 fertile eggs. Considering hatchability of fertile eggs, the controls ranked highest with 90.91 percent, followed by those receiving 2 extra hours during the P. M. (87.50 percent) and those receiving 2 extra hours during the A. M. (70.13 percent). Numbers of chicks hatched were 70 for the controls, 54 for the pens receiving extra morning light, and 42 for the pens receiving extra evening light. Of the 9 pens used in this test, the minimum number of eggs laid was 14 from pen Number 46, (lighted for 2 extra hours in the A. M.), and the maximum number was 51 from pen Number 42 (a control with no extra lighting). �Table 4. A comparison of eggs produced by earliest mated pairs of Hungarian partridge with those mated late, 1970!/. Treatment Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Early Mated 6 64 Late Mated 6 141 Number Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 6 55 43 67.19 78.18 1 11 3 9 129 104 73.76 80.62 0 25 3 1/ A standard 22% protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. Table 5. A comparison of eggs produced by Hungarian partridge pairs receiving two extra hours of light with those receiving no extra light. !/ I ....• 0 I Treatment Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Two Extra Hours A. M. 3 83 3 Two Extra Hours P. M. 3 71 Controls 3 102 Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 77 54 65.06 70.l3 5 18 3 23 48 42 59.15 87.50 1 5 0 20 77 70 68.63 90.91 1 6 5 1/ A standard 22% protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. �Table 6. I. An estimate of minimum costs involved in producing Hungarian partridge. 1/ Capitol Investment Breeding Pens - Set of 50 size 8' x 16' each Brooder Houses - Set of 3 with shelters size 26' x 10' Holding Pens - Set of 4 size 36' x 222' Incubator Brooders, feeders, and waterers Small tractor with mower Work facilities with egg storage room $ 7,500.00 3,000.00 10,000.00 2,000.00 500.00 1,000.00 2,500.00 $26,500.00 Sub-total Forty year life expectancy - Cost per year II. Feed and Utilities Feed for breeders and young per year Utilities (heat, light, and water) per year $ 600.00 500.00 1,100.00 Sub-total III. 662.50 $ Labor Conservation Aide level, 2nd Step, for 5 months; 1 part time for 7 months per year Retirement, hospitalization, etc. (7%) per year 5,400.00 400.00 Sub-total 5,800.00 TOTAL $7,562.50 Estimate can produce 800 Huns per year with these facilities and labor. Estimate of cost per Hun produced = $7.562.50 800 = = $1,762.50 Estimate of cost per Hun produced, labor excluded 1/ Costs do ~ 800 = $ 9.45 s 2.20 include the following: a. Land investment since value can probably be returned at end of use period plus interest, based upon present trends. b. Cost of breeding stock c. Interest required on capitol investment. d. Expenses incurred due to unforeseen losses. I "-J I-' I �Table 7. Source A comparison of eggs produced by Winchester Farms stock Hungarian partridge with resident stock, 1970. Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls I -..,J N I Winchester Farm, Illinois 3 83 26 55 46 55.42 83.67 1 8 2 FCWRS 3 102 20 77 70 68.63 90.91 1 6 5 �-73- Even though the use of artificial lighting did not increase the total egg production in 1970, it was found that the lights did bring the breeding pairs into production earlier than the breeding pairs without artificial lighting. On May 15, 1970, all 6 of the lighted pens were in production and had produced 22 eggs, compared with only 4 of the 6 original controls being in production and having produced only 13 eggs. The bringing of breeders into production early may be of value, particularly when the next year's breeders are selected from the first hatch of the previous year as is the case at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Because of the small samples possible in 1970, it is planned to rerun this test for at least one more year, using the same number of pens in each sample. Production Costs Table 6 lists estunates of minimum costs involved in producing Hungarian partridge based upon estimates of capitol investment, feed and utilities, and labor required to produce approximately 800 Huns, using procedures now in use at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. A cost of $9.45 for each Hun released in the field was calculated from this cost analysis, including labor costs. Most cost estimates on game bird propagation do not include labor costs, which are the largest single annual cost item. If these labor costs are excluded, a cost of $2.20 per bird released in the field was calculated. Methods to reduce labor costs of propagating Huns through rearing of young under semi-natural conditions are being tested. Winchester Farms Stock Table 7 compares numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, hatchability of eggs, and numbers of chicks hatched from 3 pens of pure Winchester Farms stock with 3 pens of resident Huns. All birds received 22 percent protein level feed and were treated as much alike as possible. The 3 pens of Winchester Farms stock produced fewer numbers of eggs (83 compared with 102), fewer numbers of fertile eggs (55 compared with 77), and fewer numbers of chicks hatched (46 compared with 70) in comparison with 3 pens of controls (resident stock). In addition, hatchability of fertile eggs was lower for the Winchester Farms stock (83.64 percent compared to 90.91) in comparison with the resident stock. Since the Winchester Farms stock is only one generation removed from the Wild, these results were not unexpected. The Winchester Farms stock should be of considerable value in introducing new bloodlines and may help prevent excessive future inbreeding. Prepared by £~~~ Wildlife Researcher ��-75April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ...;C::;.:O::,:L:;;O;,,;.RAD=;,;::O _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Game Bird Survey 12 Job No. --=1.,:.0-,_ Relationships of the Productivity and Distribution of ~W~i~l~d~Tu~r~k~e,y~s~o~n~t~h~e~U~n~c~o~m~p~a=h~g~r=e~P~l~a~t~e~a~u~t~o~t~h~e~ _ Job Title Period Covered: April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 P.S. OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the size, distribution, and productivity of the wild turkey population on the Uncompahgre Plateau. 20 Record movements of wild turkeys and determine how environmental factors affect these movementso 3. Determine the sex and age structure of the turkey kill on the Uncompahgre Plateau to provide estimates of total harvest and size of the turkey population. 40 Determine the vegetative types present on the wild turkey summer and winter range and the species composition and abundance of food producing species within each type. Also determine the elevation, describe topography, and record certain climatic factors on part of the better turkey summer and winter range. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. Progress Field work was completed on October 20, 1967. All data have been summarized, and most data have been analyzed. A manuscript containing these data and results from Work Plan 12, Job 14 is being edited and revised. Future Plans The manuscript should be completed in Segment 25. in the form of a technical bulletin. c" " (1 rt1, ~_ Prepared by: <~~ oJ II~ Gary T. Myers Wildlife Researcher .' Publication will probably be ��-77April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C.=..O.=..L;;;,O;;;.;RA=D;;..;O~__:.. _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Game Bird Survey 12 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 14 Use of Food Plots to Concentrate Wild Turkeys Period Covered: April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 P.S. OBJECTIVES Determine the effects of small food plots on fall concentrations and harvest of wild turkeys. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize, and publish information. Progress Field work was completed December 2, 1968. Data were analyzed, written up, and incorporated in a manuscript containing information gathered under W-37-R Work Plan 12, Job 10. This manuscript is being edited and revised. Future Plans The manuscript should be completed in Segment 25. be in the form of a technical bulletin. Prepared by: <.p2"'-~~) /J",~-f...4.. Gary T .'-yers Wildlife Researcher Publication will probably ��-79- April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~RA~D~O~ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Game Bird Survey Job No. 2 Study of Mountain Quail Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: 15 _ April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Ronald B. Arant, Tom W. Barnes and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT Twenty-five surplus breeders, including eight 1969-hatched and seventeen 1967-hatched or older, were released on the South Fork of Mesa Creek in Mesa County on June 23, 1970. The release site was approximately .6 mile below the first crossing of the South Fork of Mesa Creek and approximately 5.7 miles above the last mountain quail sighting location. Birds released included 14 hens and 11 cocks, which had produced no eggs during 1970. Field trips to search release sites and surrounding areas on the Uncompahgre Plateau were made in June and September, 1970. No mountain quail were seen, no field sign found, and no new reports of sightings of the species were secured. Although mountain quail have been most difficult to propagate in captivity, several problems have been solved. The species holds definite potential for establishing a new game bird in the extensive areas of mountain shrub and ponderosa pine zones on both the western and eastern slopes of Colorado. If experimental propagation efforts are successful in 1971 and following years at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station, it is recommended that trial introductions be made in the Spanish Peaks area of Las Animas County starting in 1972. ��-81- STUDY OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of mountain quail to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed shrub and pine in selected sites in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce mountain quail. 2. Determine and dispersal presence METHODS of mountain quail. AND MATERIALS Twenty-five surplus mountain quail breeders from holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station were banded with aluminum butt end leg bands, transported to the South Fork of Mesa County in Mesa County in a State pickup, and released on June 23, 1970. Two separate field of the Uncompahgre living and working any mountain quail searches of the release sites and surrounding areas Plateau were made in June and September, 1970. Individuals in and near the areas were contacted and asked whether had been observed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An observation of 20 mountain quail made by Conservation Aide Tom Barnes of Nucla, Colorado on the South Fork of Mesa Creek reported in the Job Progress Report for Segment 23 of this job for early 1970, was actually made in late December, 1969. These were observed approximately one-half mile above the old Bogus Mine in a pinon-cedar vegetative community. Within their native ranges, mountain quail that summer at higher altitudes frequently migrate to lower levels in winter. These were seen only one time, so they may have moved into this lower area of South Fork of Mesa Creek from some unknown higher area. Twenty-five surplus mountain quail breeders, including eight 1969-hatched and seventeen 1967-hatched or older birds, were released on the South Fork of Mesa Creek in Mesa County on June 23, 1970. The release site was approximately .6 mile below the first creek crossing and approximately 5.7 miles above the last mountain quail sighting. Birds released included 14 hens and 11 cocks, none of which produced eggs in 1970. Table 1 lists all field releases of mountain quail and sources of stock being held at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation purposes. �Table 1. Summary of mountain quail field releases. Number Birds Source of Birds Release Area Aug. 19 and 25, 1965 143* California (wild -trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek Sec. 27, TS1N, R17W Aug. 20, 1966 163 California (wild-trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek approx. 4 miles west of 1965 releases Jan. 25, 1968 66 Oregon (wild -trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek approx. 1 mile east of west Uncompahgre National Forest boundary Date I 00 June 23, 1970 25 Total 397 FCWRS (surplus breeders) Mesa County, South Fork Mesa Creek, Sec. 17, T49N, R16W * Sixteen additional mountain quail from these shipments were taken to Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation studies. On January 18, 1970, 12 Wild-trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added to the breeding stock at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. These constitute the source of our breeding stock. N I �-83- Field trips to search for mountain quail in the release areas and surrounding areas on the Uncompahgre Plateau were made in June and September, 1970. No mountain quail were seen, no field sign found, and no new reports of sightings were secured from individuals contacted. Prepared by J/}~P2~ Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher ��-85April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~·O~RAD~~O~_ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 3 Experimental Breeding of Mountain Quail Period Covered: Personnel: 15 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, John F. Corey and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A new set of 10 mountain quail breeding pens was completed on April 13, 1970 and used for the 1970 season, but only one egg, which was infertile, was laid by the entire group of 32 breeders of mixed sexes placed in the breeding pens and no eggs were laid by 38 surplus birds of mixed sexes placed in holding pens. The catching and sorting of the mountain quail breeders on April 14, 1970 apparently stressed these tempermental birds and resulted in almost no egg production in 1970. This lateness in moving the breeders was due to a delay in completing the new set of breeding pens. ��-87- EXPERrnENTAL BREEDING OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game fann production techniques for mountain quail. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To measure the relationship of pair mating, selected group mating and flock mating to fertile egg production. METHODS AND MATERIALS A new set of 10 mountain quail breeding pens was completed on April 13, 1970 (Fig. 1). It was planned to have these completed by mid-March but inclement weather plus a manpower shortage delayed the completion. Pairs of mountain quail were placed in pen numbers 1, 5, 7, and 9; trios (2 hens and 1 cock) in pen numbers 2, 4, 6, and 10; and a community pen of 8 hens and 4 cocks was placed in the combined pen numbers 3, 8, and alleyway, on April 14, 1970. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed and all were 1969-hatched birds. Numbers of fertile eggs produced were to be recorded by individual pens. Ten wild-trapped mountain quail of mixed sexes received from Oregon in Segment 23 wereplaced in combined holding pen Numbers 1 and 2, eleven 1969-hatched birds including 2 hens and 9 cocks not needed to fill the experimental breeding pens were left in combined holding pen numbers 3 and 4, and seventeen 1967-hatched or older breeders of mixed sexes were placed in combined holding pen Numbers 5 and 6. Figure 2 shows the arrangement of holding pens. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Although procedures for the 1970 mountain quail tests were carried out as planned, except for being approximately I month late in completing a set of 10 experimental breeding pens, only 1 egg was laid. This was laid on May 1, 1970 in the community pen (combined pen Numbers 3, 8, and alleyway) and was infertile. It was found in previous year's tests that mountain quail stress easily. Catching and sorting the breeders at approximately the time when they should have started to lay may have been the reason for almost no egg production in 1970. �-88- N ~---------------30'--~ 1F-----12'--~ ~ ~-- 12' ---41 o SCALE 8 .I ·0' t I. 5' 10' Fig. 1. Petallod Arranoornont of Mou"toln Quail BrlGdhiQ Pont. �-89- I( . 20' ~ lE-a'-)E-8'-)f~ f 10 N ~ 5 I 3 1 - \ 4 6 2 . Scole: o 60' ----------------~ Fig. 2. Mounialn Quail Holding Pens. I": 15 ft. 15 30 �-90- No eggs were laid by ten wild-trapped mountain quail of mixed sexes received from Oregon in Segment 23, eleven surplus 1969-hatched birds (2 hens and 9 cocks), or seventeen 1967-hatched or older breeders of mixed sexes held in separate mountain quail holding pens in 1970. It was necessary to catch and move these surplus breeders in order to select breeders used in the experimental breeding pens and to utilize holding pens with the best cover. After it became apparent that surplus breeders held in holding pens were not producing eggs, 25 (seventeen 1967-hatched or older and eight 1969-hatched) were banded and released on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau on June 23, 1970. As of February 9, 1971, there were 26, 1969-hatched and 9 wild-trapped mountain quail from Oregon on hand for use as breeders in the 1971 tests. A total of 7 birds, including 6 1969-hatched and one wildtrapped, died while in wintering holding pens, prior to February 9, 1971. Prepared by !l~'M~~ onald M.offman Wildlife Researcher �-91April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. W-37-R-24 Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Inventory of Selected Ptarmigan Populations Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 2 April 1, 1970 to October 15, 1971 Clait E. Braun and Terry A. May. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) populations in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1970 with major emphasis upon populations levels, and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding density decreases ranged from .6 to 6.0 birds per square mile on all study areas from levels,observed in 1969. The observed decreases were primarily the result of poor nesting success and production in 1969 on all areas and excessive harvests in 1969 at Independence Pass and Mto Evans. Observed densities in 1970 ranged from 5.2 at Mt. Evans to 24.8 in RMNP. Weather during periods of egg deposition and incubation in 1970 was warm and dry, and nesting success ranged from about 50 to 75 percent. Survival of chicks to September 1 was similar to all previous years studied. Average brood size to September 1 was 4.5 chicks. Present data continue to indicate that nesting success and production are closely related to amount of precipitation and number of frost-free nights in June. ��-93- INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS C1ait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. Substantial data are available relating to this small grouse in Colorado (Braun 1971; Braun and Rogers 1971; and Braun and Schmidt 1971), but additional information is necessary for management programs. It has been hypothesized by many workers that all species of grouse (family Tetraonidae) are cyclic, exhibiting either short-term (3-5 years) or long-term (10-12 years) fluctuations. Present data concerning grouse inhabiting northern areas support this hypothesis, but few long-term studies have been conducted on species of grouse at the southern edge of their range. It has not been demonstrated that any species of grouse is cyclic in Colorado. Relationships between weather conditions and population levels of grouse have been suggested by Siivonen (1957), Neave and Wright (1969), and others, but have not been statistically examined for white-tailed ptarmigan. Campbell (1968) and Francis (1967; 1970) have demonstrated close relationships between certain weather parameters and populations of scaled (Callipepla squamata) and California quail (Lophortyx ca1ifornicus). This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Following recommendations of Braun and Rogers (1970) all studies were discontinued at Mesa Seco. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1) populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic and (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June of the same year. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in five study areas (Mt. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, Mesa Seco, and Rocky Mountain National Park). 2. To estimate nesting success and production in the above areas. 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlation between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. To compile data and prepare progress report. �-94- METHODS AND MATERIALS Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work plan 17, Job 1 and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Ptarmigan were censused by traversing study areas using tape-recorded calls to locate territorial males, breeding pairs, and hens with chicks. Efforts were made with telescoping noose poles to catch all ptarmigan not banded previously. All birds caught were banded with serially numbered gold anodized aluminum leg bands, with all adults being additionally banded with individually numbered blue plastiC bandettes. Green bandettes with black numerals were used to replace any bandettes from previous years that had become too worn for recognition of individual birds. Weather data were obtained from the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for their D-l, Niwot Ridge Site. This site is located at 12,300 feet between the Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) and Mt. Evans study areas. Data collected at this site and in RMNP have been previously ahalyzed and compared (Braun 1969), and differences were found to be insignificant. Weather data at this site have been systematically collected using standard instruments since 1952 (Marr 1967a; Marr et ale 1968a and b). DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Areas intensively investigated, with one exception, are those studied since 1966 under Work Plan 17, Job 1, and described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). As suggested by Braun and Rogers (1970) at the cessation of the initial 5-year project on inventory of ptarmigan populations, all work was terminated at the Mesa Seco site. The four current study areas are presented in Figures 1-5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on May 2 with few males being observed on known territories. The first breeding pair was observed on May 4 in RMNP but most pairing did not occur until mid-May. Weather conditions during the 1970 breeding period were similar to those experienced in 1968 and were colder and drier than in 1969. Snow levels in early May were slightly less than in previous years studied except 1966. Timing of breeding activities was earlier than in 1969 but generally was similar to previous years aild suffered no major disruptions froni adverse weather. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Breeding observed densities decreased on all areas studied in earlier years (Table 2). in 1970 from levels �-95- 7 - (: ---..,,, //~- .. / Fig. 1. \ Mt. Evans study area. T EVANS ARE COLORA 0 Stydl1 Area ~()unC»OJrlf �-96- .'.:./ CROWN POINT AREA COLORADO - Study Area Boundary /-.--~--. "/0.. Fig. 2. Crown Point study area. "... .".~/ �-97- ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL Pj\RK SUNDANCE UNIT It! J - COLORADO Study Area Boundary SCALE 1111MILES bE=:r::::=::JE3E3:::=J:E3~'3/=2=EE3=:r::::=::JE3===::::j: Fig. 3. Rocky Mountain National Park, Sundance Unit study area. ~ILE �.--------. Fig. 4. ., .~ C ra ,. Rocky Mountain National -98- U) t- Z :,:) «r ~ ~ c( 0.. -' <tZ c( •••• ::l :z >L.. c 0 "0 ::) 0 en l! (It < )., '> ~ tal - ::! :i "0 <II u w ..,j ..I IU ~~ 0 I -' - 0 ... ~ ,.. Z 0 ., ~ c( 0 0 0 Z ...J ~ 0: Z ~ ..,J 0 ::) <C c( en 0 0 I- ~ Z :> ::l 0::I 0 ~ >~ study area. /0 1> Mountain LL ~ 0: 0 ...J 0 ...J 0= Park, Fall River-Toll �-99- INDEPENDENCE N ASS AREA COLORADO I T .•..• Study Aroo Boundory o•• 0,,0 0.000 ~==E:~~~1/~2E:~~e+3:3~1 o~ e-3 F3 E3 :+ Fig. 5. Independence Pass s tudy area. �-100- Table 1. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding population densities, all areas, 1970. Square Miles No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Birds Total Breeding Season Population Birds per Square Mile Tombstone RidgeSundance Mountain 1.25 8 5 males 21 16.8 Toll Memorial .19 4 3 males 11 57.9 Fall River Pass .70 9 3 males 21 30.0 2.14 21 11 males 53 24.8 Crown Point 1.93 8 4 males 20 10.4 Mt. Evans 1.54 3 2 males 8 5.2 Independence Pass 1.12 4 4 males 12 10.7· Study Area RMNP Total RMNP Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding population densities, 1966-70. 1966 Birds eer Sguare Mile 1967 1968 1969 1970 RMNP 29.0 25.2 29.4 30.8 24.8 Crown Point 14.5 21.2 18.1 14.5 10.4 Mt. Evans 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.2 Independence Pass 18.7 18.7 21.4 17.9 10.7 Study Area Decreases in breeding population levels were greatest at Independence Pass and lowest at Mt. Evans. Reasons for the observed decreases are related to the generally poor nesting success and production of young in 1969 at all aceas and the continued heavy exploitation of fall populations by hunters �-101~ at Independence Pass and Mt. Evans in 1969 (Braun and Rogers 1971). The decreases at RMNP and Crown Point can only be attributed to poor nesting success and production as no hunting is allowed in RMNP and no birds were reported harvested at Crown Point in 1969. All decreases were _the result of poor recruitment of young birds into the breeding population in 1970. Nesting Success and Production Nesting activities were initiated on all areas in 1970 between June 10 and June 20. Incubation of one nest under observation was initiated on June 22. Weather conditions during June and early July 1970 were warm and dry and were similar to those in 1966 and 1968 when nesting success and production were good to excellent. Estimated peak of hatching in 1970 was between July 15-20 with the one nest under observation hatching on July 15-16. This nest in RMNP contained six eggs and all successfully hatched. The primary molt of 15 successful hens was examined in order to calculate hatching dates. The earliest calculated hatching date was July 12 and the latest was July 28. Eleven of the 15 successful females hatched their clutches between July 15-20 while only one hen was calculated to have hatched her clutch after July 25. In 1970, 32 different hens were observed during the brood period (July 12September 15) with 27 of these being successful. While successful females are more easily seen than those without chicks, the number of unsuccessful females observed was low in 1970. When the five unsuccessful hens seen in 1970 are compared with the 22 brood less females reported in 1969 (Braun and Rogers 1971), it is apparent nesting success was substantially better in 1970 than in 1969. Estimated nesting success in 1970 was 75 percent in RMNP, 65 percent at Crown Point, and ~ 50 percent at Mt. Evans and Independence Pass. Initial size of broods in 1970 upon hatching was six chicks. Brood size to August 1 averaged 5.3 chicks, while each brood averaged 4.5 chicks on September 1 (Table 3). This was an increase of 1.6 chicks per brood over the 2.9 chicks per successful hen recorded to September 1, 1969. Fall Densities Estimates of densities of white-tailed ptarmigan on September 1, while useful in illustrating population gain through production, are difficult to accurately derive due to a number of variables. Estimated fall densities for each area studied are presented in Table 4. These densities were calculated following the three basic assumptions discussed in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Data presented in Table 4 present a good picture of actual populations at RMNP and Crown Point. This is not true of the data for Mt. Evans and Independence Pass. All that can really be said of the fall densities at these two locations is that they were low. �-102- Table 3. Number of broods and average brood size, all areas, 1970.-1/ Number of Broods Observed Average Number of Chicks per Brood July 1-15 0 0.0 July 16-31 7 5.3 August 1-15 4 4.0 August 16-31 15 4.5 September 1-30 7 3.1 Total 33 Date Average 4.3 1/ Only distinct broods are included. Hunting further reduced fall densities at Crown Point as hunters in the fall of 1970 harvested 15 of 29 banded birds in the population. At Independence Pass, only 1 of 12 banded birds present in the study area was harvested, while the Mt. Evans area was closed to all hunting of grouse in 1970. Hunter check stations were not operated in 1970 so total harvest on the three study areas open to hunting is not known. Relationships of Weather:Nesting Success and Production Weather data obtained from the 12,300 level of Niwot Ridge, through the courtesy of INSTAAR for the 1966-70 period are presented in Table 5. Detailed analysis and statistical correlations will be completed for the final report in 1974-75. The close correlation between June weather conditions and ptarmigan nesting success and production previously suggested from work conducted under Work Plan 17, Job 1, continued in 1970. In general, weather conditions were warm and dry in June and July, 1970, and nesting success and production improved over 1969 when the early Summer weather was colder and wetter. �Table 4. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed ptarmigan, 1970. Area Estimated Percent Nesting Success Average Brood Size on September 1 Total Production Total Breeding Population Total Population on September 1 Birds per Square Mile Percent Gain I I-' 0 w RMNP 75 4.3 64 53 112 52.3 57.1 Crown Point 65 5.0 25 20 43 22.3 58.1 Mt. Evans 50 3.0 5 8 12 7.8 41. 7 Independence Pass 50 3.0 6 12 17 15.2 35.3 I �Llb1e 5. ~.Jeatherdata, Niwot Ridge, 12,300 ft., May-July, 1966-1970. TemEerature Mean Daily Max. Min. Number Days Minimum Temperature Less Than 32° F (Marr 1967b; Clark 1970). PreciEitation Number Days Relative Ppt/Month Humidity (Inches) 90 or Above Ave. WindSpeed/ Month Year Month Max. Min. 1966 May 57 6 38.1 26.4 20 1.7 16 1.1 13.2 June 58 22 48.6 33.3 12 1.8 19 11.0 July 65 38 58.2 43.5 0 2.6 25 8.2 May 54 -7 32.5 21.5 25 3.1 25 15.1 June 58 24 44.6 30.4 18 3.7 29 12.3 1967 1968 1969 1970 (mph) July 62 32 54.7 40.7 0 2.9 27 10.0 May 50 2 33.5 20.2 29 2.6 27 Jj 16.6 June 61 11 50.2 33.7 12 0.65 18 13.9 July 62 28 54.1 39.6 2 2.1 25 9.4 May 57 13 41.5 28.0 22 5.7 23 11.0 June 57 15 40.9 28.8 19 5.7 29 13.8 July 62 33 55.2 41.0 0 2.5 17 10.6 May 51 4 40.0 25.0 25 0.55 22 14.5 June 65 15 47.6 33.0 11 2.5 19 12.6 July 62 30 55.7 41.2 1 2.1 19 9.9 1/ Data not available for 4 days. 1/ Data not available for 1 day. I •.... 0 .po. I �-105- LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 189 pp. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game & Fish Comma 51: In press. ______ , and G. E. Rogers. 1970. Inventory of Ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp. 181-183. , and 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. ------Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Bull. 27: In press. Colo. ------ , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. pp. 238-250. In Haugen, A. O. (Ed.). Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 280 pp. Campbell, H. Mexico. 1968. Seasonal precipitation and scaled quail in eastern New J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32(3):641-644. Clark, J. M. 1970. Unpublished data. Colo., Boulder. Inst. Arctic and Alpine Res., Univ. Francis, W. J. 1967. Prediction of California quail populations from weather data. Condor 69(4):405-410. 1970. The influence of weather on population fluctuations in California quail. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):249-266. Marr, J. W. 1967a. Data on mountain environments. I. Front Range, Colorado, sixteen sites, 1952-53. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. No. 27. 110 pp. 1967b. Unpublished data. Colo., Boulder. Inst. Arctic and Alpine Res., Univ. , J. M. Clark, W. S. Osburn, and M. W. Paddock. 1968. Data on ------mountain environments. III. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 1959-1964. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. No. 29. 179 pp. ______ , A. W. Johnson, W. S. Osburn, and O. A. Knorr. 1968. Data on mountain environments. II. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 19531958. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. No. 28. 169 pp. �-106- Neave, D. J., and B. S. Wright. 1969. The effects of weather and DDT spraying on a ruffed grouse population. J. Wild1. Mgmt. 33(4): 1015-1020. Siivonen, L. 1957. The problem of the short-term fluctuations in numbers of tetraonids in Europe. Finnish Papers Game Res. 19: 44 pp. Prepared by _~tU~!:::..::-_,_y=--.:.... --.:..)~~o<:..::.- Clait E. Braun Asst. Wildlife Researcher _ �-107April, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 1 Experimental Breeding of Tinamou Period Covered: Personnel: 19 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, John F. Corey and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A total of 478 eggs was laid by the 36 pale spotted tinamou (24 hens and 12 cocks) on hand in May, 1970. Of these 50 (10.5 percent) were culls, 132 (27.6 percent) were infertile, and 296 (61.9 percent) were fertile. A normal incubation relative humidity of 55-56 percent (84~-85~Owet bulb) was considerably better than a test incubation relative humidity of 50 percent (82-3/40wet bulb) both in the hatching of total eggs set and in the hatching of fertile eggs. In addition, fewer dead germs and pipped eggs which did not hatch occurred with the normal incubation relative humidity of 55-56 percent in comparison with a test incubation relative humidity of 50 percent. Higher numbers of total eggs were laid by breeders held in 4 separate pens with selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (248 eggs) compared with a community of 8 hens and 4 cocks (62 eggs). In addition, 190 fertile eggs were laid by the 4 selected group pens of breeders compared with only 32 for the community pen. More fertjle eggs were produced by breeders fed a standard 22 percent protein level feed (190) compared with a similar feed containing 16 percent protein level feed (74). A higher percent of the fertile eggs were also hatched from the birds fed the 22 percent protein level feed (70.00 percent) compared with the 16 percent protein level feed (51.35 percent). This study was scheduled to run through 1972-73 but poor overwinter survival under penned conditions has prevented the releasing of suitable numbers in the field. A final field release of all remaining stock (82 birds) was made in Baca County, south of Vilas, on April 30, 1971. ��-109- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF TINAMOU Donald M. Hoffman Good progress was attained in refining techniques for rearing pale spotted tinamou in captivity at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station in 1970, but overwinter losses were again heavy. From the 36 breeders (24 hens and 12 cocks) held for 1970 tests~ there were 187 chicks hatched but only 62 survived through the fall and winter periods. A final field release consisting of 59 1970-hatched tinamou plus 23 surviving 1969-hatched adults was made in Baca County, south of Vilas, on April 30, 1971. Although a few tinamou (exact numbers unknown) are known to have escaped from the holding pens at Rocky Ford, it appears that overwinter losses approximated 50 percent9 with heaviest losses occurring during and immediately following the heavy snow and severe cold temperatures in early January, 1971. In addition, many of the surviving tinamou showed the effects of having toes frozen during the winter period. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for pale spotted tinamou. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To compare two levels of relative humidity (50% versus 55%) during incubation on egg hatchability. 2. To measure the relationship of flock mating and selected group mating to total egg production and fertile egg production. 3. To measure the effects of two protein levels in the feed (22% versus 16%) on fertile egg production and egg hatchability. METHODS AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of tinamou breeding pens is shown in Figure 1. The pen schedule for tinamou for 1970 is shown in Table 1. Selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock were placed in pens 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10 and a community flock of 8 hens and 4 cocks was placed in the combined pen 3,8, and alleyway on April 10, 1970. Thus, a total of 36 birds was used in breeding tests in 1970. All breeders were dusted with louse powder and primaries on both wings were clipped prior to releasing in the breeding pens. Two birds died while in the breeding pens and 34 were recovered on September 28, 1970. Numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fert:ileeggs produced were compared for the selected groups in pens 2, 4, 6, and 10 and the community group in pens 3,8, and alleyway combined, on all 22 percent protein level feed. �-110- N ~------------30' I' i" , -en ~ 12 ~ 12 -"- - LO 0 sr to 7 .'" s» 1 to v r0 C\J ~ / \ . (j) ,., SCALE Fig. 1. Detailed Arrangement a L~ __ I I O' 10' 5' of Tlnamou Breeding Pens. �-111- Table l. Pen schedule for tinamou, 1970. Pen Number Protein Level 16% 22% T 1 2 T 3 x 4 T x T T T T 5 x T 6 T T 7 x 8 x T T 9 10 T Alleyway x Number Pens on Test 4 Key: Mating Flock* Selected Groups (8 Hens and 4 Cocks) (2 Hens and 1 Cock) T = Pen on Test; x T T 4 1 4 x = Pen not on Test· * Pens numbe r 3, 8, and alleyway was used as 1 combined pen for flock mating. Following normal culling procedures, settings of tinamou eggs were made alternately (except for setting number 1) in the test and control incubators every 7 days insofar as possible in 1970. Relative humidity in the control incubator was held at the standard 55 percent relative humidity (8~0 wet bulb) for the first 2 settings and then increased to 56 percent relative humidity (85~0 wet bulb) based upon recommended procedures for Robbins incubators. In the test incubators, eggs were incubated at a relative humidity of 50 percent (82-3/40 wet bulb) using a Humidaire Model 50 for the.first 3 settings and a Robbins Model C-l for the remainder. Temperature in all incubators was maintained at a normal 99.750 F. Setting number 7 was placed in the control incubator rather than the test incubator because of problems encountered in maintaining 50 percent relative humidity in the Humidaire incubator and in anticipation,of securing a new Robbins Model C-l incubator. �-112- Birds in even numbered pens 2, 4, 6, and 10 were fed a standard game bird breeder feed containing 22 percent protein level. Those in odd numbered pens 1, 5, 7, and 9 were fed a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein. Eggs produced were marked to facilitate determination of fertile eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs that hatched. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2 lists a comparison of pale spotted tinamou production at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for the period 1967 through 1970, and field releases made from 1969 through 1971. A gradual increase in numbers of fertile eggs and numbers of chicks hatched is evident during the period, using approximately equal numbers of breeders from 1968 through 1970. Incubation Humidity Test Table 3 lists hatching success of eggs in the test incubators (50 percent relative humidity) in comparison with eggs in the control incubator (55 to 56 percent relative humidity). Results showed a 6.38 percent better hatch in the control incubators when considering percent of total eggs hatched (46.58 % compared with 40.20%) and a 9.08 percent better hatch in the control incubators when considering fertile eggs hatched (67.28% compared with 58.20%). Higher percentages of dead germs (21.64% for the test incubators, compa~ed with 19.23% for the control incubator) and of pipped eggs (6.70% for the test incubators, compared with 1.28% for the control incubator) showed the incubation humidity was too low for this species. Results indicated the normal incubation relative humidity of 55-56 percent (84~-85~0 wet bulb) was therefore better than a test relative humidity of 50 percent (82-3/40 wet bulb). Flock Mating Versus Selected Group Mating Test Table 4 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs produced by 8 hens and 4 cocks in a community pen with the same number of birds in 4 pens of 2 hens and 1 cock each. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein feed and treated as alike as possible. A much larger number of total eggs was laid by the tinamou held in 4 separate pens with selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (248 eggs) compared with a community pen of 8 hens and 4 cocks (62 eggs). In addition, 190 of the eggs laid by birds in the 4 selected group pens were fertile as compared with only 32 for the community pen. Results obtained in 1970 were similar to those secured in 1969. �Table 2. A summary of pale spotted tinamou production, Item Number of Breeders Sexes Total eggs laid 1967-1970, and field releases made 1969-1971. 1967 1968 Year 1969 1970 1971 17 37 36 36 0 24H;12C 24H; 12C 493 478 mixed (connnunity pen) 177 mixed (conununity pen) 335 1/ I Total eggs set 166 316 434 I-' I-' W 428 I Number fertile eggs 74 211 268 296 Percent fertile eggs 44.6 66.8 61. 8 69.2 Number chicks hatched 44 108 137 187 Percent fertile eggs hatched 59.5 51. 2 51.1 63.2 Number released, Baca County None None 42 40 82 1/ Original source of breeding stock provided by Foreign Game Introduction Program of United States Department of the Interior included 20 birds received on June 25, 1966 and 17 birds received on March 8, 1967, all from Argentina, South America. �Table 3. A comparison of hatchability of pale spotted tinamou eggs under approximately 55 percent relative humidity (normal) versus approximately 50 percent relative humidity, 1970. Item On Test 1/ Hatch Number Date Set Number Set 1 5-18 6-1 6-15 7-6 7-20 8-3 8-17 8-31 12 14 21 43 3 5 8 10 12 14 16 3 4 4 19 8 8 Dead Germs Number Pipped 4 7 6 5 5 o 6 2 2 2 o 1 4 2 Number of Cripples Number of Good Hatch Percent Hatch Total Fertile Eggs Eggs 1 4 3 9 8 33.33 21.42 47.61 34.88 54.54 40.74 42.85 34.78 44.44 30.00 58.82 62.50 72.00 57.89 60.00 53.33 78 (40.20) 40.20 58.20 10 12 15 20 13 76.92 66.66 53.57 54.05 41.93 30.43 U.93 14.81 57.69 76.92 80.00 83.33 71.42 81.25 43.75 56.52 25.00 88.23 o o o o o o o 10 15 18 27 21 23 6 4 8 5 194 60 (30.92) 42 (21.64)13 (6.70) 1 (0.51) 13 18 28 37 31 23 31 27 26 o o o o o 7 8 3 3 3 8 2 8 10 o 11 9 8 2 o Sub-Total 234 72 (30.76) 45 (19.23) 3 (1.28) 3 (1.28) 109 (46.58) 46.58 67.28 Totals 428 132 (30.84) 87 (20.32)16 (3.73) 4 (0.93) 187 (43.69) 43.69 63.17 Sub-Total Control Jj 33 Number of Infertile 2 5-25 4 6- 8 6 7 9 11 13 15 17 6-22 6-29 7-13 7-28 8-11 8-24 9-8 3 10 9 15 1 1 1 o o o o o o o 3 o 11 7 13 4 15 1/ Eggs incubated at 82-3/40 F wet bulb reading (50% reI. hum.) and temperature of 99.750 F. Setting numbers 1, 3, and 5 incubated in Humidaire Model 50 incubator and the remaining settings on test were incubated in a Robbins Model C-l incubator. ~/ Eggs in settings number 2 and 4 incubated at 84~0 F wet bulb reading (55% reI. hum.) and the remaining controls were incubated at 85~0 F wet bulb reading (56% reI. hum.) and temperature of 99.750 F. All settings were incubated in a Robbins Model H-7 incubator. I I-' I-' +' I �Table 4. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou eggs laid by a flock consisting of 8 hens and 4 cocks with four selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each. 1/ Number of Infertile Number Fertile Eggs Number of Good Hatch Pen Number Total Eggs Number of Culls Number Set Flock 62 3 59 27 16 32 Sub-Total 62 3 59 27 (45.76) 16 (27.11) 32 (54.23) 16 (27.11) Dead Germs 16 Percent Hatch Fertile Total. Eggs Eggs Set 27.11 50.00 •... •... I 2 45 3 42 10 13 32 19 45.23 59.37 4 73 7 66 10 17 56 39 59.09 69.64 6 40 6 34 13 9 21 12 35.29 57.14 10 90 6 84 3 18 81 63 75.00 77.77 Sub-Total 248 22 226 36 (15.92) 57 (25.22) 190 (84.07)133 (58.84) 58.84 70.00 Totals 310 25 285 63 73 1/ All pens were fed 22 percent protein feed. 222 149 V1 I �-116- 22 Percent Protein Versus 16 Percent Protein Feed Test Table 5 lists a comparison of numbers of fertile eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs that hatched by tinamou breeders fed 16 percent protein level feed with those fed a 22 percent protein level feed. Selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each in pen numbers 1, 5, 7, and 9 were fed the 16 percent protein feed and birds in pen numbers 2, 4, 6, and 10 were fed a standard 22 percent protein level feed. More fertile eggs were produced by the breeders fed the standard 22 percent protein level feed (190) compared with a similar feed containing 16 percent protein level (74). A higher percent of the fertile eggs hatched were also from the birds fed the 22 percent protein feed (70.00%) compared with the 16 percent protein feed (51.35%). From these comparisons, it is evident that the standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed was much better than the 16 percent protein level feed for pale spotted tinamou egg production and hatchability during 1970. East Pens Versus West Pens Although not planned as a separate test, a comparison of egg production by east versus west pen location has shown the importance of providing adequate natural cover in the breeding pens. In 1969, a comparison of egg production by 4 pens on the west side, each containing 7 or 8 established tall wheatgrass clumps, with 4 pens on the east side with no grass clumps, showed highest numbers of total eggs were produced in the west pens (235 compared to 193) and 162 fertile eggs were produced in the west pens compared with only 73 fertile eggs in the east pens. Prior to the 1970 egg laying season, a minimum of 8 clumps of tall and/or crested wheatgrass were planted in the east pens and wire cages installed to protect most of these growing clumps. The established cover was left in the west pens as well, so all pens had growing natural cover for 1970. Table 6 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs laid and fertile eggs laid by tinamou in the west pens with the east pens in 1970. Total eggs produced was 209 for the 4 west pens and 207 for the 4 east pens. Numbers of fertile eggs produced was 143 for the 4 west pens and 121 for the 4 east pens. Location of pens plus a lack of adequate cover in the east pens apparently caused this variation in egg production in 1969 but this variation was considerably reduced in 1970 with the replanting of adequate natural cover in the form of growing grass clumps. The variation in numbers of fertile eggs produced would probably be further reduced in the future as the newly planted grass clumps mature but may never be entirely eliminated because of a tall juniper windbreak on the west side �Table 5. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou eggs produced and number hatched using 16 percent and 22 percent protein levels in the feed, 1970. Pen Number Total Eggs Number of Culls Number Set 1 28 0 28 8 7 5 63 12 51 16 7 26 5 21 9 51 8 Sub-Total 168 25 Item On Test (16% Protein Feed) Control (22% Protein Feed) Number of Infertile Number of Good Hatch Percent Hatch Total Fertile Eggs Set Eggs Percent Fertile Eggs 13 46.42 65.00 71.42 22 13 25.49 37.14 68.62 5 6 10 47.61 62.50 76.19 43 40 1 2 04.65 66.66 06.97 143 69 (48.25) 36 (25.17) 38 (26.57) 26.57 51. 35 51. 74 Dead Germs ,... ,... •....• I I 2 45 3 42 10 13 19 45.23 59.37 76.19 4 73 7 66 10 17 39 59.09 69.64 84.84 6 40 6 34 13 9 12 35.29 57.14 61. 76 10 90 6 84 3 18 63 75.00 77.77 96.42 Sub-Total 248 22 226 36 (15.92) 57 (25.22)133 (58.84) 58.84 70.00 84.07 Total 416 50 369 105 (25.24) 93 (22.35)171 (46.34) 46.34 64.77 63.93 �Table 6. A comparison of numbers of pale spotted tinamou fertile eggs produced and number of fertile eggs hatched by 4 west and 4 east pens, 1970. Item West Pens Pen Number Protein Level Culls Laid Egg Totals Set Infertile Fertile Hatched 1 16% 0 28 28 8 20 13 2 22% 3 45 42 10 32 19 4 22% 7 73 66 10 56 39 5 16% 12 63 51 16 35 13 Sub-Total 22 209 187 44 143 84 I t-" t-" East Pens 6 22% 6 40 34 13 21 12 7 16% 5 26 21 5 16 10 9 16% 8 51 43 40 3 2 10 22% 6 90 84 3 81 63 Sub-Total 25 207 182 61 121 87 Totals 47 416 369 105 264 171 00 I �-119- of the breeding pens, which provides additional shelter and shade to the west pens. Natural cover in the form of growing grass clumps provides both shade and shelter for the breeders as well as for eggs laid. By alternating pens by east and west location in all tests run in 1969 and 1970, bias due to pen location should have been eliminated. ��April, 1971 -121- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RAD~~O _ Project No. W-37-R-24 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 2 Study of Tinamou Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: 19 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1970 to November 30, 1970 Donald M. Hoffman, Dale W. Stahlecker and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT Forty pale spotted tinamou, Nothura darwinii salvadorii, were released in May, 1970. This was the second release on U. S. Forest Service rangeland in southern Baca County, Colorado. As in 1969, follow-up searches and checks on reported sightings failed to provide evidence that tinamou remained, survived or reproduced in the vicinity of the release site. ��-123- STUDY OF TINAMOU ADAPTABILITY Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of pale spotted tinamou to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed tall and mid-grasses, sandsage and yucca on the Comanche National Gr~sslands, Baca County, Colorado SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce pale spotted tinamou. 2. Determine dispersal of pale spotted tinamou and success of plant. METHODS AND MATERIALS Reference is made to Snyder (1969) for review of methods and materials used in this study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pale spotted tinamou raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station under Work Plan 19, Job 1, were released on May 1, 1970 by Donald M. Hoffman. This release included 15 males and 25 females. The location of the release, along the Sand Arroyo in southern Baca County, was the same as that of the previous year (Snyder 1969). The vicinity of the release and surrounding localities were searched on June 11-12, August 17-19 and November 1 and 2, 1970. The birds were not observed, nor were there any indication of their presence in the area. Bert Widhalm, District Conservation Officer, and Carrizo District personnel of the U. S. Forest Service were contacted concerning sightings or reported sightings. One local resident reported seeing the birds frequently during the summer in a location approximately ten miles east of the release. Contact of this person left doubt as to the accuracy of his observations. His description of the bird and its habits did not fit the tinamou. In summary, there was no evidence of survival or reproduction of any of the tinamou released either in 1969 or 1970. One additional release is planned in 1970 with follow-up surveys to be made. �-124- Fig. 1. Pale spotted tinamou at release site in Baca County. Don Domenick. Photo by �-125- LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1969. Study of tinamou adaptability. Colorado Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April, pp. 177 -181. Prepared by !f!.~yd'it~ Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/c33e8c43d9f1b0bba5b2188782b85a55.pdf 6da5f67ae4f0aa80046bc5d7a5ef81e4 PDF Text Text July, 1971 -1- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO ----~~-------------------- Project No. W_-_l_0_l_-_R_-_1_3 Work Plan No. ------------~------~~ Job Title _ Game Range Investigations 1 Job No. Effects of Different In-t-e-n-s~i~t-i~e-s----------------------~o~f~~S~i~m_u~l~a~t_e~d __B~r~ow~s~i_n~g~o_n~K~e~y~B~r_o~w~s_e~~S~p~e~c~i~e~s _ 1 Period Covered: April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Personnel: Harold R. Shepherd ABSTRACT A typed final copy of a manuscript entitled "Effects of Clipping on Key Browse Species in Southwestern Colorado" was prepared for delivery to Don Art Printers, Inc" to be printed as Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks Technical Publication Number 28. ��-3EFFECTS OF SIMULATED OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES BROWSING ON KEY BROWSE SPECIES Harold R. Shepherd P. S. OBJECTIVE To publish results of completed field work. SEGMENT 1. To make revisions 2. To submit manuscript cation. OBJECTIVES in the manuscript to publisher RESULTS as necessary. and follow through to final publi- AND DISCUSSION A first-draft manuscript was revised to conform to the suggestions of five reviewers. A typed copy of the revision was submitted to editor, Dr. Lee E. Yeager, who obtained bids for publishing the manuscript and made additional revisions. His revisions were edited, and a typed final copy of the manuscript was prepared, in Technical Publication format, for delivery to Don Art Printers, Inc., the firm selected to print the manuscript as Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks Technical Publication Number 28. Prepared by L<, «1tJ4i.,~ v Harold Ro Shepherd Wildlife Researcher "" ��July, 1971 -5- State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project No. W~-~10~1~-~R~-~1~3~ _ 4 Work Plan No. Game Range Investigations Job No. la Job Title Inventory of Range Manipulation Projects in Colorado Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld, Richard M. Bartmann, and Regional Game Biologists. ABSTRACT An inventory was made of all range type-conversion projects completed during 1970, in the mountain half of Colorado, on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 6,250 acres, and Bureau of Land Management - 3,422 acres; Total - 9,672 acres. ��-7- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes the location, extent, environmental conditions, land use practices, type of treatment and effects of treatment on the range, livestock, and wildlife, for all completed range manipulation projects in Colorado that are located within the ranges of deer, elk and sage grouse, and develop a processing system for information which describes proposed range manipulation projects. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, 3. To provide desired IBM listings agencies upon their request. codify, process METHODS and analyze inventory of inventory range and data. data to cooperating AND MATERIALS An inventory of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1969, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25, on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs has been completed, and the results reported by Kufeld (1968 and 1970). This report concerns vegetation modification projects completed during 1970, however, it does not include projects located on Indian Reservations, and they will be deleted from future inventories. Data were collected using procedures outlined Game, Fish and Parks Administrative Directive Vegetation Modification Projects". in Colorado Division of No. 24, entitled "Range Inventory data were transferred from original Reader Forms, and then to IBM cards. data sheets to Mark Page Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 24, call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project at the end of the 2nd, 5th and 10th years, following treatment. During 1970, 2 year post-treatment evaluations were made on 17 vegetation modification �-10- "(" __ ._----- ---_ .. Hor« Unc l;y ---------_. An irrm I Specic!> -:-.------~-~--.-•./.-;. l.e~f; Use f,y •• -----.-----. -----,--- __ .._-_._-- ---_.-._----- Hcne- De t r L» f i.c i.n I m~ntDl CiO) (51) (52) No IUtcd Un- How kno.zn ------------- Dc t e r'm inc cl (53) Ar;cncies (5t~) Da t o ----------------------------------------------------- Remarks Form CompLe t ed By . _ A-gene J.C s_:...-. (ShOH name, title and Agency rr::-.:-=- 'l'it le --, _ Date of all persons pa r t LcLpa t Lug in completion of f01111) �-11- Table 1. Acreages of range land treated during 1970, in Colorado by the U. S. Forest Service. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed only 1 70 70 Spray 1 75 0 Pitting 1 75 75 3 220 145 Spray 5 2860 0 Pitting 2 810 810 7 3670 810 Spray 1 1300 0 Chain~./ 2 850 0 Hand cutting 1 60 0 4 2210 0 1 150 150 1 150 150 15 6250 1105 Sagebrush BrowseY Pinyon-juniper Seed only All Vegetative Types Grand Total l/ All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1970, in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. 1/ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing, and bulldozing. �-12- Table 2. Acreages of range land treated during 1970, in Colorado by the U. S. Bureau of Land Management. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Seed only 1 900 900 Browse 11 Chain '2:..1 1 350 350 Pinyon-Juniper Chain '2:..1 5 1972 1818 Abandoned lands Seed only 1 200 200 8 3422 3268 All Vegetative Types Grand Total II The vegetation modification project conducted in the "browse" vegetation type was in the "oakbrush" subtype. 1/ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-13- Table 3. Acreages of range land treated during 1970, in Colorado by the U. S. Forest Service and U. S. Bureau of Land Management. Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed only 1 70 70 Spray 1 75 o Pitting 1 75 75 3 220 145 Seed only 1 900 900 Spray 5 2860 o Pitting 2 810 810 8 4570 1710 Spray 1 1300 o Chain '1:..1 3 1200 350 Handcutting 1 60 o 5 2560 350 Seed only 1 150 150 Chain '1:..1 5 1972 1818 6 2122 1968 1 200 200 1 200 200 23 9672 4373 Sagebrush Browse 11 Pinyon-juniper Abandoned lands Seed only All Vegetative Types Grand Total 11 All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1970, in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. ~I Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing, and bulldozing. �-14- Table 4. Acreages of range land treated during 1970, within each National Forest in Colorado. National Forest Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grand Mesa Sagebrush Spray Routt San Juan White River Browse Grass Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment 2 1440 0 2 1440 0 1 60 0 1 60 0 1 1 1 70 75 75 70 0 75 3 220 145 Hand Cutting Seed only Spray Pitting Sagebrush Pitting 2 2 810 810 810 810 Browse 1./ Chain Jj 1 600 0 1 600 0 Pinyon-Juniper Seed only 1 1 150 150 150 150 All Veg. Types All Treatments 7 1780 1105 Spray 3 1420 0 3 1420 0 1 1 1300 250 0 0 2 1550 0 Sagebrush Browse 1./ Total Al1 Forests No. of Projects Spray Chain 2:../ All Veg. Types All Treatments 5 2970 0 Total Al1 Veg. Types Total Al1 Treatments 15 6250 1105 1/ All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1970 in the "browse" ;egetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. 2:../ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-15- Table 5. Acreages of range land treated during 1970, within each Bureau of Land Management District in Colorado. BLM District Craig Montrose Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Abandoned Lands Seed only 1 200 200 1 200 200 1 350 350 I 350 350 4 1818 1818 4 1818 1818 Browse 1./ Pinyon-Juniper Canon City Grand Junction Total A1l Districts Chain ]) Chain ]) Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment All Veg. Types All Treatments 5 2168 2168 Pinyon-Juniper Chain I 154 o I 154 o 1 900 900 I 900 900 8 3422 3268 Sagebrush Total All Veg. Types Seed only Total All Treatments 1/ The vegetation modification project conducted in the "browse" vegetation type was in the "oakbrush" subtype. 1/ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. ��July, 1971 -17- JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO ------~~~~-------------- State Of Project No. W-101-R-13 Work Plan No. Game Range Investigations Job Title. ~4~~~ __~ __~~ Job No.__~~~~2~~------------------Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush o~n~D~e~e~r~a~n~d~E~l~k~W~i~n~t~e~r~R~a~n~~g~e~s __-~B~e~a~v~e~r~C~r~e~e~k~ _ Period Covered: ~ April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Roland C. Kufe1d ABSTRACT Visual observations one year following treatment indicated an approximate 80 to 85 percent kill on Gambe1 oak (Quercus gambe11ii), and 90 percent kill on snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.) as a result of spraying by helicopter with 2 pounds of 2,4,5-TP and 10 gallons of water per acre. A marked increase in grass production was observed. Study plots along the boundary of the spray and control areas were classified as to whether they had been sprayed. Photos were retaken at photo points showing vegetation conditions one year after spraying. The first post-treatment evaluation involving measurements of vegetation and deer and elk use is scheduled for the summer of 1971. ��-19- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT ON DEER AND ELK WINTER OF OAKBRUSH RANGES - BEAVER CREEK Roland C. Kufeld P.S. OBJECTIVE To determine brush winter if deer and elk carrying capacity can be increased on oakgame ranges by spraying with 2,4,5-TP to induce sprouting. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure percentage composition and cover of all plant species on the study area prior to treatment and periodically following treatment to determine vegetative changes. 2. To measure deer and elk use on the study area prior to treatment and periodically following treatment to determine changes in game use. METHODS AND MATERIALS The work accomplished during this segment was necessary for fulfillment of the two segment objectives, however, it represents only a portion of the work needed to complete post-treatment measurements of vegetation and deer and elk use. Additional procedures will be implemented in future segments to complete post-treatment measurements. All vegetation measurement and pellet group plots were ref lagged during May, 1970, so they could be relocated later in the summer when foliage was full grown. Vegetation measurement and pellet group plots located along the boundary of the spray and control areas were classified during late August, 1970, as to whether they had been sprayed. Photos were retaken at photo points during late August and early September, 1970, to show vegetation conditions one year after spraying by helicopter with 2 pounds of 2,4,5-TP and 10 gallons of water per acre. These are directly comparable to photographs taken from the same locations in late August and early September, 1968, showing vegetation conditions one year before treatment (Kufeld, 1970). �-20- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Kill on Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii) one year following treatment was estimated at about 80 to 85 percent on the basis of visual observations. There was some basal sprouting of oak but sprouts were not particularly numerous. Sprouts are expected to become more abundant during the second year following treatment. Approximately 90 percent of the snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.) appeared to have been killed by spraying. Prior to spraying snowberry was the most abundant understory species. A marked increase in grass production was observed in the spray area. Photos showing vegetation conditions one year before and one year after treatment are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The first post-treatment evaluation involving measurements of vegetation and deer and elk use is scheduled for the summer of 1971. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1970. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer and elk winter ranges - Beaver Creek. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept. July, 1970, Pt. 1, Fed. Aid Proj. W-lOl-R-12, p. 95-106. Prepared by~C/~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �-21- Fig. 1. Vegetation conditions Area one year before treatment on the Beaver Creek Oak Control (Sept. 2, 1968). Study Fig. 2. Vegetation conditions on the'Beaver Creek Oak Control Study Area one year after spraying by helicopter with 2 pounds of 2,4,S-TP and 10 gallons of water per acre. ��July, 1971 -23- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------------- Project No. W_-_l_0_l_-_R_-_l_3 Work Plan No. _ Game Range Investigations Job Title 4 Job No. 3 Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: ~~---~---~~------------------------ Roland C. Kufeld, Richard Fentzlaff, Freddy, Mattias Kniesel. Charles Cesar, David ABSTRACT seventy-five one meter square vegetation measurement plots and 10 permanent photo point stations were established in each of the 8 habitat improvement units. Vegetation plots were located randomly, and their locations surveyed with a K & E compass and steel tape. Pre-treatment vegetation measurements were made between July 10 and August 13, 1970. The measurement technique involved the use of a meter square plot in which green weights of all grasses and forbs rooted inside the plot, and portions of all shrub species which occur or protrude into the plot up to a height of 5 feet above ground level were determined. Green weights were later converted to air dry weights. Green weights of grasses and forbs were determined by clipping and weighing by species to the nearest gram. Green weights of browse species were measured using a variation of the weight estimate technique originally conceived by Pechanec and Pickford (1937) and further described by Shoop and McIlvain (1963). During a 10 day training period observers became very proficient in estimating weights of current annual growth of shrub vegetation. In all cases average observer weight estimating error was less than 10 percent, and in most cases less than 5 percent. Average estimated-actual weight correlation coefficients for all observers were Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii), 0.93; Serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), 0.90; chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), 0.88; snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), 0.87; and big sage (Artemisia tridentata), 0.82. �-24- ABSTRACT (continued) Total air dry weights of forage ranged from 1,621 1bs/ac. in Unit 4 to 1,885 1b/ac. in Unit 3, and averaged 1,717 1bs/ac. Average plant composition for all units was forbs, 31 percent or 532 1bs/ac.; grasses, 22 percent or 376 1bs/ac.; and shrubs, 47 percent or 810 1bs/ac. The most common forbs were lupine (Lupinus argenteus), 135 1bs/ac.; aspen peavine (Lathyrus 1eucanthus), 90 Ibs/ac.; and various species of Aster and Erigeron, 801bs/ac. Most common grasses were Kentucky bluegrass (~pratensis), 287 1bs/ac. and wheatgrass (AgrOP ron sp.), 48 1bs/ac. Gambel oak was the most common shrub averaging 255 lbs ac. Other common shrubs were snowberry, 243 lbs/ac.; serviceberry, 107 Ibs/ac.; chokecherry, 93 1bs/ac.; and big sage, 541bs/ac. 7 Pre-treatment cattle use as reflected by numbers of cow chips deposited in pellet plots was unevenly dispersed among the 8 habitat improvement units. By far the most use occurred in Unit 8 which had 18.26 cow days use per acre. No use was recorded in Units 3 and 4. Deer and elk pellets were removed from pellet plots on September 3, 1970. Accumulated pellets will be counted in May, 1971 to obtain a measurement of pre-treatment deer and elk use. An herbicide for spraying oak and species for reseeding the study area were selected on the basis of a literature review, and advice solicited from professional people experienced in chemical spraying and range reseeding. The herbicide, 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) will be applied by helicopter at a rate of 2 1bs/ac. mixed with 4 gallons of water and 1/2 gallon of number 2 diesel fuel per acre. A liquid detergent soap will be added at a rate of 0.5% of the total spray and carrier volume to facilitate mixing of the water, chemical and diesel fuel. The following plants and seeding rates were selected: Fairway crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), 2 lbs/ac.; Lincoln smooth brome (Bromus inermis), 4 lbs/ac.; amur intermediate wheatgrass (Agropyron intermedium), 3 lbs/ac.; chinook orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), 1 lb/ac.; hard sheep fescue (Festuca ovina duriscula), 1 lb/ac.; Nomad, Rambler and Ladak varieties of alfalfa (Meticago sativa), 2 1bs/ac. (total); yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis), 1 lb/ac.; chickpea milkvetch (Astragalus cicer), 1 lb/ac.; bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), 2 lbs/ac.; and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), 1 lb/ac. �-25- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer) elk and cattle forage production and game use can be incresed and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. 4. To install permanent vegetative measurement plots in each of the 60 acre habitat improvement units. To establish permanent photo points in each of the 60 acre habitat improvment units. To make pre-treatment vegetation and game use measurements, take photo point pictures and assess any preference which cattle might exhibit toward certain habitat improvement units. To make a literature review. METHODS AND MATERIALS Layout of the study area and methods used in locating and establishing eight 60 acre habitat improvement units and pellet plots within those units have been described by Kufe1d (1970). A map showing the habitat improvement units is shown in Fig. 1. Treatments scheduled for these habitat improvement units are as follows: Randomized Block Number 1 Habitat Improvement Unit Number 3 4 Burn Spray Chain Control 5 6 7 8 Spray Control Burn Chain 1 2 2 Scheduled Treatment Detailed maps such as those in Figs. 2 and 3) which show unit boundaries and locations of 60 permanent .05 acre circular pellet group plots established in each unit) have been made for each of the 8 habitat improvement units. �-26Vegetation Measurement Plot Establishment Seventy-five vegetation measurement plots were established in each habitat improvement unit. Sample size computations based on 80 preliminary meter square plots read during 1969, indicate 75 plots are sufficient to permit detection of treatment induced changes of 10 percent in all vegetation, 15 percent in browse, 25 percent in forbs and 25 percent in grasses, as being significant at the 95 percent confidence level (Kufeld 1970). Vegetation measurement plots were laid out with a K and E compass set to allow for 14 degrees of east declination, and a steel tape. When measuring distances no allowance was made for slope. The tape was always pulled tight. In order to avoid trampling vegetation in the plots when surveying plot locations all plots were offset four feet to the left of the original plot survey line. Habitat improvement Units 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8 each contain a 30 acre area in the center of the unit, and it is this center portion that will be treated. The outside 30 acres will be left for wildlife cover. No 30 acre units were established in the centers of the 2 control units (Units 4 and 6). Vegetation measurement plots were located only in the 30 acre center portion of Units 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8. In Units 4 and 6 they were distributed in the entire 60 acre area. Vegetation measurement plots were established along randomly located parallel lines. One side of the inside 30 or outside 60 acre unit (depending on whether the unit was to be treated or used for control purposes) was used as a base line. The starting point of each vegetation plot line was established randomly along the base line and marked with a vegetation plot stake. The distance between the starting point stake and the first vegetation plot on the line was selected at random and varied from 0 to 50 feet. The distance between each vegetation plot on a line is 50 feet. Detailed maps were made of each habitat improvement unit showing the exact location of each vegetation measurement plot (Fig. 4). Each vegetation plot was marked with two orange 3/8" diameter, reinforcement bar, steel stakes set one meter apart and on line. A numbered metal tag was fastened to the first stake of each plot. Each tag bears the designation "v" indicating it is a vegetation plot, the line number, and the plot number. Strips of red plastic surveyor's flagging were tied to the tagged stake and to an overhanging tree branch near the stake. Photo Point Establishment Ten photo points were established and pre-treatment photos were taken between July 23, and July 28, 1970. Certain vegetation measurement plots were selected for photo point stations. An 11 x 16 inch blackboard with the unit, line, and vegetation plot numbers written in chalk was suspended from a nearby branch. This became the photo center and focusing point. The compass bearing and distance from the plot stake to the center of the blackboard, and the date and time of day the photo was taken were recorded. Photo point centers could be either tpe first or second vegetation plot stake. A record was made of the stake used for each photo point so future photos can be taken from exactly the same spot. �-27- The camera was held directly over the stake and two photos were taken at each station. A black and white photo was taken with a Ciroflex camera using 120 plus X film, and a 35 rom color slide was made with a Honeywell Pentex Spotmatic camera using Kodachrome II film. Because of differences between the two cameras in the type of viewfinder black and white photos were taken at chest level and slides at eye level. A sample photo point picture is shown in Fig. 5. Pre-treatment Pre-treatment vegetation August 13, 1970. Vegetation measurements Measurements were made between July 10, and The technique used to measure vegetation during the pre-treatment evaluation phase of the study, and which will be used to make posttreatment evaluations involves the use of a meter square sampling unit in which green weights of all grasses and forbs rooted inside the plot, and portions of all shrub species which occur or protrude into the plot up to a height of 5 feet above ground level are determined. Green weights are later converted to dry weights. A vegetation measurement method based on forage weights rather than frequency of occurrence was preferred, because it was felt that treatment induced vegetation changes described in terms of forage weight would be more meaningful to wildlife and livestock managers than would changes in frequency of occurrence of plant species. Green weights of grasses and forbs are determined by clipping and weighing by species to the nearest gram. Green weights of browse species are estimated using a variation of the weight estimate technique originally conceived by Pechanec and Pickford (1937) and further described by Shoop and McIlvain (1963). Shrub vegetation is measured by the weight estimate technique rather than clipping because clipping would severely damage shrub vegetation in the permanent study plots. The decision was made to clip and weigh grasses and forbs by species because preliminary tests of the weight estimate technique during 1969 revealed weights of individual grasses and forb species could not be estimated as accurately as shrubs. This is in contrast to findings of Pechanec and Pickford (1937) and Shoop and McIlvain (1963) who reported success in estimating forb and grass w.eights. The main reason for this difference can probably be attributed to the relatively numerous and diverse species of forbs and grasses and the greater abundance of these plants in the Gambel oak type of Hightower Mountain as compared to vegetation conditions in areas where the weight estimate technique was tested by these other workers (76 different forbs and 15 grasses were encountered in vegetation measurement plots on the Hightower Mountain area). In this study it was desired that the relative abundance of each species be determined as accurately as possible. Because of this large number of diverse species the time required to acquire and maintain an acceptable level of proficiency in estimating weights of each species, and for collecting data from which to compute correction factors for observer weight estimating error was prohibitive. Clipping was considered to be the most accurate method for determining green weights of individual grass and forb species. The effects of clipping on grasses and forbs in permanent study plots should be minimal because plots will only be clipped every third year for the duration of the 12 year study. �-28- Use of the Weight Estimate Technique Before vegetation measurements could begin, it was necessary to train the observers to use the weight-estimate technique. A ten day period was allowed for training observers. Observers trained on one species at a time. Since Gambe1 oak (Quercus gambe1lii), snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), serviceberry (Amelanchier a1nifo1ia), and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) are the most abundant species on the area each observer practiced until he became proficient in estimating green weights of thosespecies. Once proficient in estimating weights of these five plants little extra effort was needed to attain proficiency in estimating green weights of other less abundant shrubs. Weights of all current annual growth including leaves but not including acorns, stalks on big and silver sagebrush (Artemisia cana) and berries and flowers were estimated. Chrysotharnnus flowers were included in the estimate, however, because they contributed little to the total plant weight, and because it was easier to include than to exclude them. The observers learned to recognize units of 10 grams or fractions of 10 grams of current annual growth of each shrub species. This was done through numerous trials where the observer estimated units of 10 grams or less, and then checked his estimate by clipping and weighing the vegetation to the nearest gram. A German-made "Feine Federwaage, Tragkraft" ZOO gram capacity scale was used for weighing vegetation. The scale is 6 inches long and 3/4 inch in diameter, and has a ring by which it can be conveniently hung from a nearby branch. Scales were obtained from the Oxwall Tool Co., Ltd., 133-10 3Znd Avenue, Flushing, New York 11354. Clipped vegetation was placed in a "lunch bag" size paper sack and weighed by hanging the sack on the scale hook by means of a "binder type" paper clip attached to the sack. After the observers learned to recognize vegetation units of ten grams or less they practiced estimating the weights of forage on a limb or entire shrub by counting the number of 10 gram units starting from the bottom of each branch and working to the top until the entire shrub or limb was covered. They then clipped and weighed the material to check their estimates. When counting the number of 10 gram units on a limb or shrub the east unit was often a fraction of a unit. Some observers found that they could estimate weights of some shrub species most accurately by estimating the weight of each current annual growth twig encountered and keeping the running total in mind rather than counting the number of 10 gram units. However, in no case were attempts made to estimate in units larger than 10 grams. It is not possible to estimate exactly the weight of current annual growth on a limb or shrub every time or even most of the time. Some estimates will be too high and some too low, but these are compensating errors. On a series of plots, some with high and some with low estimates the compensating nature of these errors should result in an estimate by most observers of the total weight of vegetation that is accurate to within 10 percent. If the average error an observer makes when estimating the weight of a certain shrub species is known, his weight estimate data can be adjusted to correct for his error. �-29- Due to the large amount of work involved in measuring vegetation on the Hightower Mountain Oak Control Study Area it was necessary to employ several student assistants to make vegetation measurements. Since there are differences among individual observers in their ability to estimate weights of browse it was necessary to adjust weight estimate data collected by each observer to correct, for individual estimating error. When observers had attained proficiency in estimating weights of current annual growth of each of the five aforementioned shrub species a set of . data was collected for each observer to determine his average estimating error on each shrub species. Since there were five observers, five shrub samples of the same or of different species were tagged. A single shrub sample might consist of one plant or could be several plants or branches, but all of the plants in an individual sample were of the same species. Each observer then estimated and recorded his estimate of the weight of each sample. One observer was assigned to clip the current annual growth from each sample. In this manner a set of estimated and actual weights for each of the five major shrub species was obtained for each observer. A ratio (R) was computed for each observer and each of the five major shrub species as follows: The variance of this ratio was computed using ...••. V (R) £y2 _ 2 ~ ~Xy + 'R2~X2 X2 (n - 1) (h) formula: The number of samples needed by each observer to estimate his weight estimating error on each shrub species within 10% of his true mean error at the 95% confidence level was determined through application of the formula: N :t.1 where: V (R) n d2 d allowable deviation from the true ratio. The allowable deviation is expressed as a percent of 'R. Approximately one day per week during the entire vegetation measurement period was devoted to collection of estimated and actual weight data by all observers. Thus, by the end of the vegetation measurement period each observer had many more samples of each of the five shrub species than he needed as indicated by sample size computations. However, it was felt that observers needed this continued practice in order to maintain a high level of estimating accuracy. Also, as the summer progressed, vegetation weights changed as vegetation became mature and drier, so it was necessary for the observers to practice in order to retain their concepts of vegetation weight units. Ratios ~) of estimated to actual weights were computed for all estimated and actual weight data collected during the vegetation measurement period. These were applied to weight estimates recorded for the 5 major shrub species in meter square plots in order to correct for observer weight estimating error. Meter square plot weight estimate data for other less �-30- abundant shrub species were not corrected for observer weight estimating error, because time did not permit collection of data from which to compute correction factors for those species. A . Correction factor (R) data were derived from individual tagged plants rather than by estimating and clipping vegetation within meter square plots in order to insure that exactly the same pieces of vegetation would be estimated by all observers, and to insure that only estimated vegetation would be clipped. A meter square plot was actually an imaginary box 1 meter square and 5 feet tall, and it was up to the observer to decide whether a piece of overhanging vegetation was inside or outside the plot boundary. Thus, in a meter square plot one could not be sure that all observers would include exactly the same pieces of vegetation in their estimates, or that the vegetation clipped would be exactly that which was estimated. Plant Identification Training Obviously, before vegetation measurements could be made it was necessary that observers be schooled in identification of all plant species on the study area. This was accomplished in a three day period with the aid of mounted plant specimens collected and identified during 1969 (Kufeld 1970), and color photographs of plants taken when they were collected. New species which were encountered during vegetation measurements were collected, assigned temporary numbers and later identified by personnel of the Colorado State University Botany Department. Measurement of Vegetation in Meter Square Plots A meter square plot was selected as the sampling unit for two reasons: (1) A relatively large plot was desired because the larger the plot the greater the area per amount of perimeter. Thus, the chance of observer error in judging whether a piece of overhanging shrub vegetation was in or out of the plot would be reduced. (2) By increasing plot size the chance of encountering an individual plant species is increased and the number of plots needed to adequately sample an area is reduced. The meter square plot, however, was not too large to be easily measured in the Gambel oak vegetation type. The plot frame was constructed of 1/4 inch steel rod. All four sides of the frame were separate. A 1-1/2 inch section of 1/8 inch pipe was welded at a 90 degree angle to each end of two of the sides. The plot was assembled by inserting the ends of the other two sides into the pipe sections. Both corners of one side to which pipe sections had been welded were equipped with 9/16 inch diameter metal rings, and each ring was slipped over one of the two plot stakes. The frame was assembled so it always pointed 90 degrees to the left of the observer as he stood on the plot line facing down the line from the first to the last plot. Thus, the frame can always be replaced in exactly the same position at a later date. One exception to the standard plot placement procedure occurred in Habitat Improvement Unit Number 5 where the frame was mistakenly placed to the right on all plots on lines 1, 2, and 3, and plots 1 through 7 on line 14. The frame was always kept horizontal. On a steep hill telescoping forked rods were used to prop up the down hill side of the frame to maintain a level position. �-31- Articles of equipment needed for measuring vegetation are shown in Fig. 6. They include the meter square plot frame, scales, grass shears, paper sacks, binder type paper clips, a small bucket, clipboard and supply of data forms. All grasses and forbs which are rooted inside the plot and shrubs which occur or extend into the plot up to a height of 5 feet above ground level were listed on the data form (Fig. 7). This means 5 feet above the ground at any given point within the plot. Browse species that were rooted in the plot but had no current annual growth extending into the plot below 5 feet were not listed. All portions of forbs and grasses (except Pachistima which was estimated rather than clipped because it is semi-woody and might be damaged by clipping) including flowers and fruits which grew during the current growing season, and which were rooted inside the plot were clipped by species and weighed to the nearest gram. Plants were clipped to a level of 1 inch above the ground and plants that were less than one inch tall were excluded. Clipped material was stored in the bucket until all material for a species had been removed from the plot. Material for that species was then weighed and discarded and clipping began on the next species. After all forbs and grasses were clipped and weighed weights of current annual growth of shrubs (and Pachestima) which occurred in the plot were estimated using the same techniques employed during the training phase. It was found easier to estimate the least abundant browse species in the plot first and the most abundant species last. During the course of measuring vegetation the observers periodically estimated and clipped 10 gram units of various species of browse in order to maintain their vegetation weight unit concepts. This was usually done as the observer began to estimate browse .vegetation within a plot, and was done outside the plot to avoid damaging vegetation in the plot. Conversion of Green Weights to Air Dry Weights-~To facilitate direct comparison of the relative abundance by weight of various species it was necessary to convert green weights of all plant species encountered on meter square vegetation measurement plots to air dry weights because: (1) a great deal of variation in moisture content exists among plant species. (2) Moisture contents of individual species change drastically during the summer as plants mature and dry out. One hundred grams of green forage at the beginning of the summer may contain only 25 grams of dry material, whereas, at the end of the summer the dry matter in 100 grams of green forage of the same species may weigh 50 grams. Three green weight samples of 26 species of forbs, grasses, and shrubs were collected in paper bags at approximately 10 day intervals during the vegetation measurement period. Weights of each sample ranged from 50 to 110 grams. These were weighed to the nearest gram and were hung indoors on wires to dry. They were reweighed at the end of approximately one month and again after about two months. All sample weights remained·unchanged during the last two weighings so they were considered to be air dry. The 26 species were chosen because they are the most abundant species on the study area, they are present throughout the entire summer, and they range in moisture content from the wettest to the driest plants on the study area. �-32- Hereafter, they will form the basis for converting green weights of all plants on the area to air dry weights. There must be no additions or deletions in the moisture indicator plant list during the duration of the study. Moisture indicator plants are listed in the Results and Discussion section of this report. Pre-treatment Deer, Elk, and Cattle Use Measurements Accumulated deer and elk pellet groups were removed from all pellet plots on September 3, 1970. Groups deposited during the winter of 1970-71 will be counted in May, 1971. When plots were cleared a record was kept of the number of cow chips in each plot in order to provide an index to cattle use. Only those chips which could be identified as having been deposited during the summer of 1970 were counted. Literature Review A review of recent literature was made to determine the most effective and practical chemical herbicide for spraying Gambel oak, and the most suitable plant species for use in reseeding the Hightower Mountain Oak Control Study Area. Advice was solicited from a number of professional people experienced in chemical spraying and range reseeding. RESULTS Pre-treatment The Weight Estimate AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Measurements Technique Observers became very proficient in estimating weights of current annual growth of shrub vegetation. In all cases average observer weight estimating error was less than 10 percent, and in most cases less than 5 percent (Table 1). Individual observer estimates averaged high on Some species and low on others, but the usual tendency seemed to be for all or most observers to estimate either high or low on the same species. Close correlations were found between estimated and actual weights for all observers on all five browse species sampled. Correlation coefficients of estimated to actual weights ranged from 0.79 to 0.95 and averaged 0.88 (Table 1). Average correlation coefficients by species were Gambel oak, 0.93; serviceberry, 0.90; chokecherry, 0.88; snowberry, 0.87; and big sage, 0.82. These correlation coefficients closely approximate those reported by Shoop and McIlvain (1963) which averaged 0.87 and ranged from 0.74 to 0.96. The main difference, however, is that the Shoop and McIlvain (1963) data were based on weight estimates of grasses and forbs rather than shrubs. A relatively low number of samples were needed by each observer to estimate his mean weight estimating error for each shrub species within 10 percent of his true mean error at the 95 percent confidence level. The required number for anyone observer and any species ranged from 7 to 36 and averaged 18 (Table 1). �-33- Ideally, the size of individual estimated and clipped samples taken for a shrub species should cover the entire range of weights of that species that could be expected to occur in the meter square vegetation measurement plots. This was not always possible for two reasons: (1) The maximum weights of each shrub species that occurred in meter square plots were not known until all meter square plot measurements were completed. (2) The size of estimated and clipped samples was governed by the amount of time that could be allotted for clipping. Clipping to determine actual weights was very time consuming especially on big sage, snowberry and serviceberry. Thus, the size of individual estimated and clipped samples must be established beforehand, through consideration of the maximum green weight of each species expected in meter square plots, and the amount of time available for clipping. The percentages of meter square plots in this study where the five major shrubs occurred, and where weight of a particular species exceeded the range of estimated and clipped samples was 1 percent for Gambel oak, 12 percent for serviceberry, 10 percent for chokecherry, 16 percent for snowberry, and 17 percent for big sagebrush. Because of the close correlations between estimated and clipped weight data (Table 1), however, it was believed that the data are adequate to provide a basis for correcting observer weight estimating error. Measurement of Vegetation in Meter Square Plots Plot Measurement Time--The average time required to measure vegetation in a meter square plot based on all 600 plots was 50 minutes. Including time for walking from the road to a plot area and for traveling between plots an average of 6 to 7 plots could be measured per individual per 8 hour day. In a plot which supported fairly heavy stands of the three plant types about half of the measuring time was required for clipping grasses and forbs, and about half for estimating weights of shrubs. Conversion of Green Weights to Air Dry Weights--Moisture indicator plants were classified on the basis of their relative moisture contents into categories ranging from dry to very wet for the three major plant types; forbs, grasses and shrubs (Tables, 2, 3 and 4). Moisture contents were expressed as air dry weight per 100 grams of green weight (ADW!lOOg GW), derived by dividing the air dry weight of a sample by the corresponding green weight. Green weights of moisture indicator species encountered in meter square plots were converted to air dry weights by multiplying by the ADW!lOOg GW value established for that species during the ten day interval in which the plot was measured. It was also necessary to convert green weights of non-moisture indicator plants encountered in meter square plots to air dry weights, however, it was impossible to collect periodic moisture content samples of all species on the area due to time limitations. Thus, non-moisture indicator plants were assigned to the various categories described in Tables 2, 3 and 4 by comparing the texture and fleshyness of each species with the moisture indicator plants in each category. Green weights of non-moisture indicator species were then converted to air dry weights by multiplying by the mean ADW/lOOg GW value established for the corresponding category during the ten day interval in which the plot was measured. �-34- Moisture category assignments of non-moisture indicator plants are shown in Table 5. These assignments must remain permanent for the remainder of the study. Any new plants encountered on the study area should be assigned to the appropriate category. It is expected that the percentage moisture content of the various categories will fluctuate from year to year because new ten-day moisture content samples must be collected for each moisture indicator species every time posttreatment vegetation measurements are made. Forage Production by Weight--Plant species collected on the Hightower Mountain oak control Study area are listed in Table 6. Not all of these species were encountered while measuring vegetation, however. Weights of vegetation in each habitat improvement unit as projected from meter square plot measurements are shown in Tables 7 through 16. The 8 units were relatively homogeneous in total amount of vegetation produced. Total air dry weights of forage ranged from 1621 lbs./ac. in unit 4 to 1885 lbs./ac. in unit 3, and averaged 1717 lbs./ac. Percent composition by air dry weight of·forbs, grasses and· shrubs also varied relatively little among the 8 units. Forb composition among units ranged from 22 to 40 percent and averaged 31 percent or 532 lbs./ac. Composition of grasses varied between 11 and 33 percent with an average of 22 percent and weight of 376 lbs./ac. Shrub composition ranged from a low of 36 to a high of 59 percent and averaged 47 percent or 810 pounds of air dry forage per acre. Forage production here was somewhat higher than reported for the Gambel oak vegetation type by several other workers. Moinat (1956) found between 179 and 470 pounds of air dry grass forage and 28 to 322 lbs./ac. of forb herbage on grazed Gambel oak range in southwestern Colorado. The lower yields were found under oak clumps and the higher yields were recorded in grass parks between oak stands. Moinat (1956) also found 198 pounds of dry shrub forage per acre growing up to a height of 4 feet in oak clumps. Jefferies (1965), also working on grazed Gambel oak range in southwestern Colorado reported 144 pounds of dry grass and 110 pounds of dry forb forage per acre in open oak type parks, and 110 pounds of grass and 80 pounds of forb forage per acre growing under the oaks. Brown (1958) reported 346 pounds of air dry grass forage per acre in the Gambel oak type of west-central Colorado. The main vegetational differences among habitat improvement units were in species composition within forb, grass and shrub categories. Some units supported more of a particular species than others, but the lack of a particular species in a unit was offset by abundance of other species within the same category whether forbs, grasses or shrubs. Gambp.l oak, the most abundant shrub varied from 79 lbs.1 ac , air dry weight in unit 2 to 540 lbs./ac. in unit 3, and averaged 255 1bs./ac. on all units. It is important to remember, however, that these data represent only vegetation which occurred within 5 feet above the ground. On the basis of visual observation units 2 and 3 appeared more similar in oak production than the data indicate. In unit 2, however, Gambel oak trees were larger, and less of the oak vegetation grew within 5 feet of the ground. This was �-35- also the case in several other units. Production of Gambel oak here was considerably higher than in northern Arizona, where Reynolds, Clary and Ffolliott (1970) measured 90 pounds of oak f orage rpe r acre up to a height of 7 feet. . Next to Gambel oak the most common shrub species were snowberry, which averaged 243 lbs./ac. air dry weight in the 8 units; serviceberry, 107 lbs./ac.; chokecherry, 93 lbs./ac.; and big sage, 54 lbs./ac. The most common forbs were lupine (Lupinus argentues), 135 lbs./ac.; aspen peavine (Lathyrus leucanthus), 90 lbs./ac.; various species of Aster and Erigeron, 80 lbs./ac.; western yarrow (Achillea lanulosa), 30 lbs./ac.; Fendler meadowrue (Thalictrum fendleri), 20 lbs./ac.; bedstraw (Galium sp.), 19 lbs./ac.; Ligusticum sp., 17 lbs./ac.; chickweed (Stellaria sp.), 12 lbs./ ac.; and thistle (Circium canescens), 11 lbs./ac. Kentucky b Luegrass (Poa Eratensis) was by far,thelIl?,st"eommongrass averaging 287 p~ou114sof air dry forage per\acr~'~(:'A1:though all species of Poa were lumped under the generic name when vegetation measurements were made, and are designated generically in the tables in this report, species of Poa other than pratensis probably contributed less than one pound per acre to the total weight. Moinat (1956) and Jefferies (1965) also mention Kentucky bluegrass as the most common grass in the Gambel oak type. Brown (1958), however, reported 25 to 204 pounds of elk sedge (Carex geyeri) and only 52 to 137 pounds of Kentucky bluegrass. He found the highest production of elk sedge under oak clumps and Kentucky bluegrass was most abundant in openings. On the Hightower area, however, Carex produced less than 0.01 pounds of dry forage per acre (Table 15). Various species of wheat grasses (Agropyron ~.) were second in abundance to Kentucky bluegrass producing 48 lbs./ac. Production of nodding brome (Bromus anomalus) averaged 15 lbs./ac., and needlegrasses (Stipa sp.) produced 11 lbs./ac. Pre-treatment Cattle Use Measurements Cattle use was unevenly dispersed among ,the 8 habitat improvement units. By f~r the most use occurred 'in unit'8~hich had 18:26 cow days. use per acre (Table 17). No use was recorded in units 3 and 4 . .Literature Review Chemical Herbicide Selection The herbicide, 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) was selected for the spraying treatment. It will be applied by helicopter at a rate of 2 pounds per acre mixed with 4 gallons of water and 1/2 gallon of number 2 diesel fuel per acre. A liquid detergent soap will be added at a rate of 0.5% of the total spray and carrier volume to facilitate mixing of the water, chemical and diesel fuel. This chemical and application rate was recommended for use on Gambel oak by Dunster (1970), Heikes (1970), and Marquiss (1970). �-36- Silvex was tested on Gambel oak near Rifle, Colorado, by Amchem Products, Inc. and compared with seven other herbicides. Four of these herbicides were actually mixtures of 2,4,5-T; 2,4,5-TP; 2,4-DP and dicamba. The other three were 2,4,5-T; 2,4-DP; and Amchem Brushkiller 170. After 2 years, 2,4,5-TP kill on oak was exceeded by only one other chemical and that happened to be 2,4,5-TP with an additive which is not commercially available (Dunster 1970). In comparisons of 2,4,5-T, 2,4-5TP, and 2,4-DP, by Marquiss and Norris (1967 and 1968), 2,4,5-TP at the 2 pound per acre rate has provided the best defoliation of Gambel oak. Lillie (1963) found 2,4,5 -TP to be generally slightly superior to 2,4,5-T in controlling Arizona chaparral, primarily turbinella oak (Quercus turbinella). In a test of 2,4,5-T oil soluble amine, 2-4-5TP and 2,4,5-T iso-octyl ester applied at a rate of 2 lbs./ac. with the Stull Bi-fluid method, however, Pearl (1965) found better top-kill and less sprouting on Gambel oak with 2,4,5-T amine. The herbicide 2,4-D has been found relatively ineffective in controlling most oak species. Tests of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T and ammonium sulfamate on 14 species of oak showed ammonium sulfamate to be most effective, 2,4,5-T second and 2,4-D least effective (Anom. 1961). Ammonium sulfamate was not considered for use on Hightower Mountain because it is a non-selective herbicide. It is used extensively to kill all vegetation (grasses, forbs and shrubs) growing along roadways. Several other herbicides which are more effective than 2,4,5-TP for controlling oak were considered but not accepted for use during this study for various reasons. Bovey, et al. (1969) reported that picloram (also known as tordon) was a superior herbicide for controlling live oak (Quercus virginiana) in south Texas when compared with 2,4-DP, 2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-TP. Marquiss (1968 and 1969) found picloram or tordon superior to these same three chemicals for controlling Gambel oak in southwestern Colorado. Picloram was eliminated from consideration for use on Hightower Mountain, however, because: (1) It is retained in the soil from one to several years. (2) It is not licensed for use on croplands, and rangeland is considered a crop (Heikes 1970). (3) The cost is prohibitive. Tordon 212 applied at a 2 lb. lac. rate would cost approximately $40.00 per acre for the spray material. Fenuron (3-phenyl - 1, 1 - dimethylurea) has been successfully used to control turbinella oak (Wagle and Schmutz 1963), and Lillie (1962). Davis and Pase (1969) found fenuron more effective than picloram (tordon) on turbinella oak and Palmer oak (Quercus chrysolepsis) in Arizona. Fenuron was rejected for use on this study, however, because no studies could be located in the literature which had evaluated the effects of fenuron on Gambel oak, and because fenuron is a soil sterilant. Monuron was found equally effective as fenuron on turbinella oak at the 8 lb./ac. rate but inferior to fenuron at lower rates by Lillie (1962). Monuron was found quite effective on five oak species in Iowa by Brinkman (1959). Brinkman (1959), however, indicated that areas treated with monuron remained void of plant cover of any kind for 6 to 7 years, and �-37- that materials for the cheapest concentration used cost about $190 per acre. Thus, monuron was eliminated from consideration for use on Hightower Mountain. The second week of July was the time decided upon for spraying on the Hightower Mountain Oak Control Study Area. This period was recommended by Marquiss (1970), because carbohydrate storage in the roots is increasing rapidly at that time, and this would facilitate better movements of the herbicide within the plant (Marquiss,1969). July 9, 1969 applications of 2,4-DP, 2,4,5-T, 2,4,5-TP, and a mixture of 2,4,5-TP and 2,4,-DP resulted in better Gambel oak control than August 23, 1969 applications on an area near Crawford, Colorado (Dunster, 1970). Selection of Species for Reseeding Species and seeding rates that have been selected for reseeding the Hightower Mountain Oak Control Study Area are shown in Table 18. The recommendations of Plummer, Christensen and Monsen (1968) and Plummer (1970) were closely followed in making these selections, because their work represents the most comprehensive effort to date on the subject of reseeding western big game ranges. Most of the species selected have been tested by others and found suitable for reseeding in the Gambel oak or "mountain brush" vegetation type. Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) has been recommended for reseeding in the mountain brush type by Doran (195lb), Hull et a1. (1958), Marquiss and Everson (1969), and Plummer et al. (1955). It was recommended for the nearby pinyon-juniper and sagebrush types by Doran (195la), and for the ponderosa pine zone, which also borders on the mountain brush zone, by Hull and Johnson (1955). Smooth brome (Bromus inermis) is recommended for the mountain brush type by Bleak (1968), Doran (195lb), Hull et al. (1958), Marquiss and Everson (1969), and Plummer et al. (1955). Doran (195la) recommended smooth brome for the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper types, and it was found to produce well in the ponderosa pine type by Hull and Johnson (1955). Those recommending intermediate wheatgrass (Agropyron intermedium) include Bleak (1968), Doran (195lb), Hull et al. (1958), Marquiss and Everson (1969), McGinnies et al. (1963), and Plummer et al. (1955). Hull and Johnson (1955) also recommended it for the ponderosa pine zone. Three studies reported orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) could be successfully reseeded in the mountain brush zone, Doran (195lb), Hull et al. (1958), and Plummer et al. (1955). Sheep fescue (Festuca ovina) has been approved for the mountain brush zone by Hull et al. (1958), and Plummer et al. (1955), and for the ponderosa pine zone by Hull and Johnson (1955). Various varieties of alfalfa (Meticago sativa) have been recommended for reseeding in the mountain brush or Gambel oak type. Marquiss and Everson (1969) recommended Nomad, Rambler and Ladak. Ladak has been recommended by Bleak (1968), Hull et al. (1958), and Plummer et al. (1955). Hull and �-38- Johnson (1955) suggested that alfalfa be reseeded in the ponderosa pine zone but made no reference to a particular variety. Of the remaining forbs yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) has been recommended by Plummer et al. (1955), and chickpea milkvetch (Astragalus cicer) was recommended by Bleak (1968), and Plummer et al. (1955). Chickpea milkvetch was mentioned for reseeding in the sagebrush and pinyon-juniper types by Doran (195la). Relatively little research has been done on shrub reseeding in the mountain brush zone except for that by Plummer, Christensen and Monsen (1968), who recommended bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus). Bitterbrush was also suggested by Plummer et al. (1955). LITERATURE CITED Anon. 1961. Chemical control of brush and trees. Farmers Bull. 2158. 23pp. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bleak, A. T. 1968. Growth and yield of legumes in mixtures with grasses on a mountain range. J. Range Mgmt. 21(4):259-261. Bovey, R. W., S. K. Lehman, H. L. Morton, and J. R. Baur. 1969. Control of live oak in south Texas. J. Range Mgmt. 22(5):315-318. Brinkman, K. A. 1959. Killing oakbrush a tricky business. For. Expt. Sta. Tech. Pap. 165. 9 p , December. Cent. States Brown, Harry E. 1958. 39(2):317-327. Ecology. Gambel oak in west-central Colorado. Davis, Edwin A., and Charles P. Pase. 1969. Selective control of brush on chaparral watersheds with soil applied fenuron and picloram. U.S.D.A. For. Servo Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note. RM-140. 4 p. Doran, Clyde W. 1951a. Reseeding trials in a sagebrush-pinyon-juniper area in western Colorado. U.S.D.A. For. Servo Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Expt. Sta. Res. Note No.9. 4 p. 1951b. Guide for reseeding summer rangelands on Colorado's western slope. U.S.D.A. For. Servo Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Expt. Sta. Paper No.6. 18 p. Dunster, Ken W. 1970. Research and Development, Agricultural Chemicals .Division, Amchem Products, Inc., Ambler, Pa. Personal Communication. Harrington, H. D. 1954. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Denver, Colorado. 666 p. Sage Books, �-39- Heikes~ Eugene P~ 1970. Extension Professor of Botany and Plant Pathology, Weed Laboratory, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins. Personal Communication. Hull, A. C. Jr., D. F. Hervey, Clyde W. Doran, and W. J. McGinnies. 1958. Seeding Colorado rangelands. Colo. State Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. 498-S. 46 p. Hull, A. C. Jr., and W. M. Johnson. 1955. Range seeding in the ponderosa pine zone in Colorado. U.S.D.A. Circ. No. 953. 40 p. Jefferies, Ned W. 1965. Herbage production on Gambel oak range in southwest Colorado. J. Range Mgmt. 18(4):212-213. Kelsey, Harlan P., and William A. Dayton. 1942. Standardized plant names. J. Horace Mc Farland Co., Harrisburg, Penn. 2nd Ed. 675 p. Kufeld, Roland C. 1970. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W-lOl-R-12, WP-4, J-3, Game Research Rept. July. pp. 113-126. Lillie, D. T. 1962. Control of shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella Greene) with granular and pelleted herbicides. Western Weed Control Conf. Res. Prog. Rept. p. 16. 1963. Control of Arizona chaparral with 2,4,5-T and Silvex. J. range Mgmt. 16(4):195-199. Marquiss, Robert W. 1968. Progress in chemical control of Gambel's oakbrush rangelands. In Papers of the Ann. Meet. Am. Soc. Range Mgmt. Albuquerque, New Mex. pp. 28-29. 1969. Studies on Gambel's oak at the San Juan Basin Station. Colo. State Univ. Exp , Sta. Prog. Rept. PR 69-38. 2 p , 1970. Supt. San Juan Basin Branch Expt. Sta., Hesperus. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. Personal Communication. Marquiss, R. W., and A. C. Everson. 1969. Performance tests of dryland pasture grasses and alfalfa at the Hesperus Station. Colo. State Univ. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. PR 69-42. 3 p. Marquiss, R. W., and J. J. Norris. 1967. Management and improvement of Gambel oakbrush ranges. Colo. State Univ. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. PR 231. 2 p. and ranges. 1968. Management and improvement of Gambel oakbrush Colo. State Univ.Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. PR 68';"7, 4 p , McGinnies, W. J., D. F. Hervey, J. A. Downs and A. C. Everson. 1963. A summary of range grass seeding trials in Colorado. Colo. State Univ. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 73. 81 p. �-40Moinat, A. D. 1956. Comparative yields of herbage from oak shrub and interspersed grassland in Colorado. Ecol. 37:852-854. Pearl, Robert W. 1965. Weed Control Conf. Gambel oak control in New Mexico. Res. Prog. Rept. p. 40. Western Pechanec, J. F., and G. D. Pickford. 1937. A weight estimate method for the determination of range or pasture production. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 29:894-904. -- Plummer, A. Perry. 1970. Range Scientist, U.S.D.A. For. Servo Intermtn. For. and Range Expt. Sta., Ephraim, Utah. Personal Communication. Plummer, A. Perry, Donald R. Christensen and Stephen B. Monsen. 1968. Restoring big game range in Utah. Utah Div. of Fish and Game. Pub. No. 68-3. 183 p. Plummer, A. Perry, A. C. Hull, Jr., George Stewart and Joseph H. Robertson. 1955. Seeding rangelands in Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, and western Wyoming~ U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Agric. Handbook No. 71. 71 p , Reynolds, Hudson G., Warren P. Clary, and Peter F. Ffolliott. 1970. Gambe1 oak for southwestern wildlife. J. For. 68(9):545-547. Shoop, M. C., and E. H. McIlvain. 1963. The micro-unit forage inventory method. J. Range Mgmt. 16(4):172-179. Wagle, R. F., and E. M. Schmutz. 1963. The effect of fenuron on four southwestern shrubs. Weeds. 11:149-157. Prepared by t/drud C~/ 10t!14 Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �I \} \ Fig. 1. General study area map showing locations of habitat improvement units. �-42- UNIT 1 BOUNDARY MAP 388' 412' 1 19 ~ W <DO 1 r-, CD N v <.J) 498' 18 - 5: 0 ..-- -r 15 ~ 17 r-, (X) o w 2221 ~16 C\J v (Y) Z 2 14 ° f'.. 0 r-, C\J V CONTROLLED BURN BOUNDARY A:63·5 Acres B:30·0 Acres ~ ° "t (Y)" C\J 2 16 "t 270' C\J C\J N <.J) 13 LD 3 56' 15 S66 12 260' ~ (Y) 0 v 3 3 11 . "r 0 (Y) ~ <D 267' LD LD r-. 263' 4 5 ..-"t 6 ~ N66°E Q) C\J 4 5 6 26 8' ~ 7 268' Q) W (Y) (Y) (Y) ° ~ 0 0 ~ 0 co ,', o 100 , 300 feet J 500 8 ..-- 5: If) 7 0 (Y) C\J 520' "t 0 9 ~ C\J z o (Y) 11 <0 (X) 8 10 ..-- 534' Fig. 2. Boundary map of habitat improvement unit number 1. SEPT RAF 19/0 �-4j- UNIT 1· PELLET PLOT MAP 20 1 N28°W,151' from post 1-A-1I2 19 16 1 Start stk. to plot 1 = 67 ft. Distance between plots = 100 ft. Line bearing = N 6 6°E P-1-8 18 P-1-8 L LLtotal 2 15 S24°E, 280 from post 1-A-12 S24°E, 205 from post 1-A-3 S24°E, 280 from post 1-A-3 , 17 16 2 P- 2-10 14 13 15 12 , 3 3 11 14 P-3 -16 P-4,..15 , 5 4 6 / - 10 4 plots line number pellet line 13 5 12 7 6 S24°E,153' from post 1-A-6 P-5 ':'11 7 9 8 11 o 100 Fig. 300 feet 500 8 9 10 J. Pellet plot map of habitat improvement ur~t number 1. S£PT 1970 RAF �-44- UNIT 1 VEGETATIVE PLOT MAP 20 1r-------------~----~19 1 16 S24°E , 132' from post -- ~ 1-8-1 2 Start stk. to plot 1 = 22 ft._ D'IStance between plots = 50 ft. V-3 -20 Ltotal plots line number vegetative line .:L 18 N656E " V-1-10 15 17 S24°E,150' from post" 1-8-lm2 S24°E,247' from post 1-8-2 16 2 E-+ 14 <, N65°E ~1(-N67° 13 12 V-2-10 .?' V-3-20 3 3/ N65°E 18·8 ft., not N24°W,125' from post -- ~ 1-8-4 22ft. 11 14 N66°E V-4-15 5 S24°E,97' 4 -------? from post - - 1-8-6 4 5 6 6 N65°E V-5-10 10 7 S24°E,105' -- ~ from post1- 8-7 7 N66°E V-6-10 8 9 11 o 100 300 feet 500 8 9 1 Fig. 4. Vegetation measurement plot map of habitat improvemen~ unit number 1. SEPT 1')7,' �-45- Fig. 5. Ten permanent improvement unit. Fig. 6. Equipment photo points were established needed for measuring vegetation. in each habitat �For~ Designed Dec. 8, 1969 -46- HIGlfl'OHEn Habitat Improvement l'10TlNfAIN VEGETA'.l'IVE l·ll,:t\SU1U~NENT FIELD Unit No. Line No. Time Start Observer Plot No. -------------------- Plant Species "Time End FOmi --------------------------Date ----------------------- ------~-----Tota 1 TiTI)c ---------------~ Green Height Adjusted Green Height Grasses Forbs Br ows e Fig. 7. Hightower Mountain vegetation measurement field data form. Air Dry Weight �Table 1. Observer proficiency in estimating current annual growth green weights on five shrub species. Serviceberry Chokecherry Snowberry Big Sage 19 No. samples needed 1/ 67 No. samples taken 135g act. wt. of samples 570 g Size of largest sample 8,751 g Tot. est. wt. of samples 9,017 g Tot. act. wt. of samples -2.9% % error est.-act. wt. 2/ .94 r value est.-act. wt. - A 1.0304 Error correction factor (R) 11 19 32 60 g 121 g 2,009 g 1,935 g +3.8% .89 .9632 14 47 182 g 5,205 g 5,170 g +0.1% .86 .9933 13 56 57 g 107 g 3,432 g 3,202 g +7.2% .85 .9330 33 59 g 152 g 1,962 g 1,953 g 0.0% .83 .9954 Observer No. 2 No. samples needed 11 26 80 No. samples taken 121 g x act. wt. of samples 410 g Size of largest sample 9,444 g Tot. est. wt. of samples 9,678 g Tot. act. wt. of s amp les -2.4% % error est.-act. wt. 21 .88 r value est.-act. wt. - A 1.0248 Error correction factor (R) 1/ 28 46 53 g 121 g 2,450 g 2,454 g 0.0% .85 1.0016 17 55 103 g 182 g 5,302 g 5,662 g -6.4% .86 1.0679 36 70 51 g 107 g 3,834 g 3,596 g +6.6% .79 .9379 15 47 59 g 152 g 2,655 g 2,775 g -4.3% .86 1.0452 Observer No. 3 21 No. samples needed ~/ 81 No. samples taken 127 g x act. wt. of samples 570 g Size of largest sample 10,202 g Tot. est. wt. of samples 10,248 g Tot. act. wt. of samples 0.0% % error est.-act. wt. 2/ .94 r value est.-act. wt. - A 3 .1.0045 Error correction factor (R) _I 10 46 53 g 121 g 2,608 g 2,454 g +6.3% .95 .9410 7 9 55 103 g 182 g 5,752 g 5,662 g +1.6% .94 .9844 70 51 g 107 g 3,897 g 3,596 g +8.4% .94 .9228 19 47 59 g 152 g 2,854 g 2,775 g +2.8% .81 .9723 Oak Observer No.1 x no g 9 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- , .j:-- , -....J �Table 1. Observer (continued). proficiency in estimating current annual growth green weights Oak Serviceberry Chokecherry Snowberry Big Sage 18 46 53 g 121 g 2,500 g 2,454 g +1.9% .91 .9816 14 55 103 g 182 g 5,329 g 5,662 g -5.9% .88 1.0625 20 70 51 g 107 g 3,723 g 3,596 g +3.5% .88 0.9659 18 47 59 g 152 g 2,629 g 2,775 g -5.3% .80 1.0555 Observer No.4 No. samples needed l/ No. samples taken x act. wt. of samples Size of largest sample Tot. est. wt. of,samples Tot. act. wt. of samples % error est.-act. wt. 2/ r value est.-act. wt. - A Error correction factor (R) Observer No. 5 No. samples needed 24 No. samples taken 81 x act. wt. of samples 127 g Size of largest sample 570 g Tot. est. wt. of samples 10,233 g Tot. act. wt. of samples 10,248 g % error est.-act. wt. 2/ 0.0% r value est.-act. wt. - A .93 1.0015 Error correction factor (R) 1/ 16 81 127 g 570 g 9,790 g 10,248 g -4.5% .95 1/ 1.0468 I 1/ l/ Number 22 46 53 g 121 g 2,471 g 2,454 g +0.1% .89 .9931 of samples needed by an observer to estimate of his true mean error at the 95% confidence level. ~/ Correlation 1/ Correction observer coefficient of estimated factor used to adjust weight estimating error. on five shrub species his weight 17 55 103 g 182 g 5,649 g 5,662 g 0.0% .86 1.0023 18 70 51 g 107 g 3,739 g 3,596 g +'1·.0% .89 .9618 17 46 58 g 2,668 g 2,683 g -0.1% .82 1.0056 error on each shrub species within meter square vegetation measurement I l52g and actual weights. each observer's +=-ex> plot data for 10% �-49- Table 2. Permanent forb moisture content categories and moisture contents of indicator plants collected in 1970. Mean ADW/IOO g GW Mean ADW/100 g OW of 3 Samples of 9 Samples on Each Collection Date (SununerMean) 7-14-70 7-24-70 8- 7 -70 Forb Moisture Category Moisture Indicator Plants Dry Grindelia aphanactis 37.5 40.8 42.6 40.3 Lupinus argentues 30.9 36.2 50.7 39.3 Category mean 1/ 34 38 47 Lathyrus 1eucanthus 29.5 35.6 40.3 35.1 Achillea 1anu1osa 30.3 34.0 38.2 34.2 Tha1ictrum fendleri 30.3 32.6 37.8 33.6 Iris missouriensis 29.0 31.3 32.9 31.1 Galium boreale 31.4 27.8 33.3 30.8 Agastache urticifolia 23.3 31.7 35.1 30.0 Cirsium canescens 24.2 27.8 31.6 27.9 Ligusticum porteri 23.5 26.3 33.1 27.6 Category mean 1/ 28 31 35 He1enium hoopesii 23.1 24.0 27.8 25.0 Rudbeckia montana 22.2 22.6 28.8 24.5 Category mean 1/ 23 23 28 Swertia radiata 19.5 21.1 20.4 Category mean 1/ 19 21 20 Moderate Wet Very Wet l/ Mean of all species in the category. 20.3 �-50- Table 3. Permanent grass moisture content categories of indicator plants collected in 1970. Grass Moisture Category Dry Moisture Indicator Plants Agropyron Mean ADW/IOO g GW of 3 Samples On Each Collection Date 7-14-70 7-24-70 8-7-70 smithii contents Mean ADW/IOO g GW of 9 Samples (Summer Mean) 39.9 45.0 48.8 44.5 35.3 42.2 49.0 42.2 38 44 49 Elymus glaucus 30.4 35.3 41. 2 35.7 Bromus 30.2 36.2 37.7 34. 7 30 36 39 Poa pratensis Category Wet and moisture 1:./ Mean anomalus Category 1:./ Mean 1:./ Mean of all species in the category. Table 4. Permanent of indicator plants Shrub Moisture Category Dry Moisture' Indicator Plants Amelanchier Quercus alnifolia gambel1ii Artemisia Wet shrub moisture content categories collected in 1970. tridentata and moisture contents Mean ADW/IOO g GW of 3 Samples On Each Collection Date 7-14-70 7-24-70 8-7-70 Mean ADW/IOO g GW of 9 Samples (Summer Mean) 46.4 51. 2 53.9 50.5 45.2 48.5 50.7 48.1 44.7 45.6 50.3 46.9 46.9 Symphoricarpos sp. 43.8 47.9 49.1 Category Mean 1:./ 45 48 51 Artemisia cana 40.0 41.0 45.2 42.1 Ch rys othamnus vicidiflorus 37.8 41.9 43.4 41.0 Prunus 38.4 38.8 39.9 39.0 Rosa nutkana 37.3 36.7 39.2 37.7 Ch rysothamnus nauseosus 35.6 37.1 40.0 37.6 38 39 42 virginiana Category Mean 1:./ 1:./ Mean of all species. in category. �-51- Table 5. Moisture content category assignments for plants encountered on meter square plots in 1970, but for which no moisture content samples are collected. Type of Plant Moisture Category Forbs Dry " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " II " " " " " " " " " " " " " Moderate " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Symbol Alac Anse Aradr Arhi Arco Artdr Arlu Cabu Cali Chbe Coum Deri Erum Eppa Giag Lare Lile MagI Mudi Oriu Pamy Pecr Pest Poav Podo Popu Aggi Aster-Erigeron Basa Bere Cagu Dene Deoc Ditr Fram Gepa Hale Lifi Mefr Mopa Phhe Pofo Rain Scientific Name Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Comandra umbel lata Descurainia richardsonii Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Gilia aggregata Lappula redowskii Linum lewisii Madia glomerata Musineon divaricatum Orthocarpus luteus Pachistima myrsinites Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potentilla pulcherrima Agoseris glauca All Aster and Erigeron Species Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Delphinium nelsoni Delphinium occidentale Disporum trachycarpum Fragaria americana Geranium parryi Hackelia leptophylla Ligusticum filicinum Mertensia franciscana Moldavica parviflora Phacelia heterophylla Polemonium foliosissimum Ranunculus inamoenus ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-52- TableS. Moisture content category assignments for plants encountered on meter square plots in 1970, but for which no moisture content samples are collected (continued). Type of Plant Moisture Category Forbs Moderate " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " II " " " " " " " " " " " " Wet " " " " " " " " " " " Very Wet Grasses Dry " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Wet Shrubs Dry " " " " " " " " " Symbol Scientific Seam Sein Sime Smst Sosp Stellaria Taof Trpr Urdi Vebi Vimu Viru Vish Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora All Stellaria Species Taraxacum officinale Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Gehe Hyfe Lasc Opuntia Osmorhiza Pegr Rucr Vaoc Wyam Gentiana heterosepala Hydrophyllum fendleri Lactuca scariola Opuntia sp. All Osmorhiza Species Pedicularis grayi Rumex crispus Valeriana occidentalis Wyethia amplexicaulis Name No Plants in Category Agropyron Brte Feth Kocr Sihy Stipa All Agropyron Species Bromus tectorum Festuca thurberi Koeleria cristata Sitanion hystrix All Stipa Species Carex Brin Dagle Hobr Juba Phpr Carex sp. Bromus inermis Dactylus glomerata Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus balticus Phleum pratense Acgl Cemo Chde Acer glabrum Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus �-53- Table 5. Moisture content category assignments for plants encountered on meter square plots in 1970, but for which no-moisture content samples are collected (continued). Type of Plant Moisture Category Shrubs Dry " " II Wet " II Symbol Crer Putr Rice Scientific Name Crataegus erthroEoda Purshia tridentata Ribes cereum No Plants in Category �-54- Table 6. Plants collected on the Hightower during the summers of 1969 and 1970. Mountain Oak Control Study Area FORBS Herbarium Collection Number 1/ K~25 K-137 K-138 K-27 K-14l K-28 K-29 K-142 K-140 K-33 K-3l K-33 K-34 K-35 K-36 K-37 K-38 K-39 K-40 K-4l K-42 *K-43 K-145 K-144 K-47 K-48 ~'<K-49 K-90 Symbol Acla Agur Aggi Alac Anse Aqco Aradr Arhi Arco Arbi Artdr Arlu AsterErigeron Asha Basa Bere Cagu Cabu Cali Chbe Cica Coli Coum Dene Deoc Deri Ditr K-5l K-50 AsterErigeron K-52 K-53 K-54 K-55 K-56 K-57 ~"K - 58 K-59 Erum Eppa Fram Galiurn Gehe Gepa Giag 2/ Scientific Name 1/ Common Name !l../ Achillea lanulosa Nutt. Agastache urticifolia Kuntz Agbseris glauca (Pursh) D. Dietr. Allium acuminatum Hook. Androsace septentrionalis L. Aquilegia coerulea James Arabis drummondi Gray Arabis hirsuta (L.) Scop. Arenaria congesta Nutt. Artemisia biennis Willd. Artemisia dracunculus L. Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. (Aster adscendens Lindl. (Aster rubrotinctus Blake Astragalus haydenianus A. Gray Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt. Berberis repens Lindl. Calochortus gunnisonii Watson Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) medic. Castilleja linariaefolia Benth. Chenopodium berlandieri Moq. Cirsium canescens (Nutt.) Collomia linearis Nutt. Comandra umbellata (L.) Nutt. Delphinium nelsoni Greene Delphinium occidentale (Wats.) Wats. Descura in ia r ichard son ii (Swce t ) O. E. Schultz Disporulil trachycarpulll(S.Wats.)Benth.& Hook (Erigeron flagellaris A. Gray ( (Erigeron fornlosissium Greene ( (Erigeron speciosus (Lindl.) DC Oregon Fleabane Eriogonulll umbellatum Torr. Epilobiulllpaniculatum Nutt. Fragaria americana (Porter) Britt. Galillill boreale L. Gentiana heterosepala Engelrn. Geranium parryi (Engclm.) Heller Gilia aggregata (Pursh ) Spreng. Sulfur Eriogonum Autumn Willowweed American Strawber~y Northern Bedstraw Annua l Cen tian Parry Geranium Skyrocket Gilia Western Ya rrow Nettleleaf Giant Hyssop Pale Agoseris Tapertip Onion Rockjasmine Colorado Columbine Drummond Rockcress Hairy Rockcress Ballhead Sandwort Biennial Wormwood Tarragon Louisiana Sage brush Common Aster Aster Hayden Poisonvetch Arrowleaf Balsamroot Creeping Mahonia Gunnison Mariposa Shepherds Purse Wyoming Paintcdcup Pitseed Goosefoot Thistle Gilia Common Comandra Menzies Larkspur Duncecap Larkspur Richardson Tansey~ustard Wartberry Fairybells Trailing Fleabane Fleabane ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-55Table 6. Plants collected on the High-tower Mountain during the summers of 1969 aud1970 (continued). Forbs Herbarium Collection Number II K-60 K-44 K-6l K-62 K-63 Symbol ~/ Oak Control Study Area (Continued) Scientific Name 1/ Grap Grindelia aphanactis Rydb. Hale Hackelia leptophyUa (Rydb.) Johnston Hebo lielenium hoopesii A. Gray Hyfe Hydrophyllum fcndleri (Gray) Heller Irmi Iris lIlissouricllsisNutt. K-64 Lasc Lactuca scariola L. K-45 Lare Laprula redowskii (Hornem.) Greene K-136 Lale Lathyrus leucanLhus (Rydb.) K-65 Lede ~id ium dens iflorulIlSchrad. K-46 · {J t' (Ligusticum filicinum S. Wats. L l.g s acurn K-66 (Ligusticum porteri Coult. & Rose K-67 Lile Linum lewisii Pursh K-68 Luar Lupinus argentues Pursh K-149 MagI Madia glomerata Hook. K-69 Mefr Mertensia franciscana Heller K-26 Mopa Moldavica parviflora (Nutt.) Britt. ~'~K70 Mudi Musineon divaricatum (Pursh) Nutt. K-71 Oeca Oenothera caespitosa Nutt. No Specimen Opun t i a Opuntia sp. Orlu *K-72 Orthocarpus luteus Nutt. K-73 (Osmorhiza chilensis Hook & Arn. Osmorhiza K-74 (Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr. K-30 Pamy Pac1~.~~timamyrsinites (Pursh) Raf. K-75 Pegr Pedicularis grayi A. Nels. K-76 Pecr Penstemon crandallii A. Nels. K-77 Pest Penstemon strictus Benth. K-78 Phhe Phacelia heterophylla Pursh Ph10 K-79 Phlox 10ngifolia Nutt. K-80 Pofo Polemonium foliosissimum A. Gray K-15l Poav Polygonum aviculare L. K-147 Podo Polygonum douglasii Greene K-8l Popu Potentilla pulcherrima Lehm. K-146 Rain Ranunculus inamoenus Greene K-152 Rucr Rumex crispus L. K-82 Rumo Rudbeckia montana Gray K-83 Seam Senecio ambrosioides Rydb. K-84 Sein Senecio integerrimus Nutt. K-85 Sese Senecio serra Hook. K-143 S ime Silene lllenziesiiHook. K-86 Smst Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. K-87 Sosp Solidago sparsiflora A. Gray K-88 (g~] a r i.:1j amC!s i.:1 n3 Torr. Stellaria ~\-K-89 (8 t e.L1 a r i ,I J on \~i. [() Li a Huh 1. K-91 Swra S\vc::.rI:raciLlta i.:1 (Ko Ll og g) Kuntze K-92 Taof l'.:lra>s~:!.!.! nffi.cin.JleHiggars ;'~K-93 Thfe TlJillJ:.0rtl1l1fenclll~riEuge Lm , K-94 Trdu ]'r~~~(')()n dllb~ Scop. No Specimen Trpr Tr[q~()pni?on E.:1Lens is L. Common Name ~I Gumweed Stickseed Orange Sneezeweed Fendler Waterleaf Rocky Mountain Iris Prickly Lettuce Sticksced Aspen Peavine Prairie Pepperweed· Privet Porter Ligusticum Lewis Flax Silvery Lupine Cluster Tarweed Franciscan Bluebells Dragonhead Musineon Tufted Eveningprimrose Pricklypear Yellow Owlclover Sweetroot Sweetanise Myrtle Pachistima Grays Pedicularis Crandall Penstemon Rocky Mountain Penstemon Varileaf Phacelia Longleaf Phlox Leafy Polemonium Prostrate Knotweed Douglas Knotweed Beauty Cinquefoil Buttercup Curly Dock Coneflower Ragweed Groundsel Lambstongue Groundsel Butterweed Groundsel Mensies Silene Starry Solomonplume Threenerve Goldenrod Ch ickweed Ch ickweed Showy Frasera Common Dandelion Fendler Me.:1dowruc Sa Ls Lf y Meadow Sa Is ify ---------------------------------------------------- �-56- Table 6. Plants collected on the Hightower Mountain during the summers of 1969 and 1970 (continued). Forbs Herbarium Collection Number 1/ Symbol K'-95 K-Y6 K-97 K-153 K-98 K-99 K-139 K-IOO Urdi Vaoc Veam Vebi Vimu Viru Vish Wyam ]) Oak Control Study Area (Continued) Scientific Name 1/ Urtica dioica L. var. procera (Muhl.)Wedd. Valeriana occidentalis Heller Veronica americana Schwein. Veronica biloba L. Viguiera multiflora (Nutt.) Blake Viola rugulosa Greene Viola sheltonii Torr. Wyethia amplexicaulis (Nutt.) Nutt. Common Name !i/ Big Sting Nettle Western Valerian American Speedwell Speedwell Showy Goldeneye Cheyenne Violet Shelton Violet Mulesears Wyethia GRASSES Herbarium Collection N um b er -1/ Symbol 2/ Scientific Name 1/ K-101 A (Agropyron smithi Rydb. K-102 gropyron(Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Malte. K-103 Bran Bromus anomalus Rupr. K-104 Brin Bromus inermis Leyss. No Specimen Brte Bromus tectorum L. K-154 Carex Carex sp. K-105 Dagl Dactylus glomerata L. K-I06 Eigi Elyrnus glaucus Buckl. K-1l5 Feth Festuca thurberi Vasey K-I07 Hobr Hordeum brachyantherum Nevski K-108 Juba Juncus balticus Willd. K-I09 Kocr Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers. K-110 Drhy Drzyopsis hymenoidcs (R. & S.) Ricker x-r i i Php r Phleum pratense L. K-1l2 (Poa ampia Herr. K-113 Poa (Poa canbyi (Scr ibn.) Piper K-1l4 (Poa pratensis L. K-1l6 Sihy Sitanion hystrix (Nutt.) J. G. Smith K-l17 (Stipa columbiana Macoun. Stipa K-1l8 (Stipa lettermani Vasey Common Name 4/ Bluestem Wheatgrass Slender Wheatgrass Nodding Brome Smooth Brome Cheatgrass Brome Sedge Orchardgrass Blue Wildrye· Thurber Fescue Meadow Barley Baltic Rush Prairie Junegrass Indian Ricegrass Timothy Big Bluegrass Canby Bluegrass Kentucky Bluegrass Bottlebrush Squirreltail Subalpine Needlegrass Letterman Needlegrass ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-57- Table 6. Plants collected on the Hightower Mountain during the summers of 1969 and 1970 ·(continued). Oak Control Study Area BROWSE Herbarium Collection Number 1/ Symbol ~/ K-150 K-ll9 *K-120 K-12l K-l22 K-123 K-148 K-124 *K-125 *K-126 K-127 No Specimen K-128 K-129 K-130 K-13l K-132 K-133 ~"K-134 K-135 Acgl Amal Arca Artr Cefe Cemo Chde Chvi Chna Crer Loin Potr Pofr Prvi Putr Quga Rhsm Rice Ronu Sym. Scientific Na~e 1/ Common Name Acer glabrum Torr. Amelanchicr alnifolia Nutt. Artemisia canaPursh Artemisia tridentata Nutt. Ceanothus fendleri Gray Cercocarpus montanus Raf. Chrysothamnus depressus Nutt. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus (Hook) Nutt. Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallas) Britt Crataegus erythropoda Ashe Lonicera involucrata (Rich.) Banks Populus tremuloides Mich. Potentilla fruiticosa L. Prunus virginiana L. Purshia tridentata (Pursh) DC. Quercus gambellii Nutt. Rhamnus smithi Greene Ribes cereum Dougl. Rosa nutkana Presl. Symphoricarpos sp. !!../ Rocky Mountain Maple Saskatoon Serviceberry Silver Sagebrush Big Sagebrush 'Fendl~r Ceanothus True Mountain Mahogany Dwarf Rabbitbrush Douglas Rabbitbrush Rubber Rabbitbrush Cerro Hawthorn Bearberry Honeysuckle Aspen Bush Cinquefoil Common Chokecherry Antelope Bitterbrush Gambel Oak Smith Buck thorn Wax Gooseberry Nootka Rose Snowberry 1/ Plant specimens are filed in Harold Shepherd's and Bert Baker's Herbarium in Fort Collins. The Herbarium collection numbers listed here designate specimens that were collected as part of the Hightower Mountain Oak Control Study. 1/ Symbol used on vegetation 1/ Scientific Colorado. measurement forms. names are from Harrington, H. D. 1954. Sage Books, Denver, Colorado. 666 pp. Manual of the Plants !!../ Cornmon names are from Kelsey, Harlan P., and William A. Dayton. Standardized Plant Names. J. Horace McFarland Co., Harrisburg, 2nd Ed. 675 pp. * Specimens of all plants except those prefixed H. D. Harrington. of 1942. Pennsylvania. by * have been annotated by �-58- Table 7. Pre-treatment Unit No. 1. Type of Plant Forbs Scientific p roduc tLon of vegetation Namell Achillea 1anulosa Agastache urticifo1ia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastor is Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium ber1andieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbe11ata Delphinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbel1atum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepala Geranium parryi Gil ia aggrega ta Grindelia aphanactis Hacke1ia 1eptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum lc\visii Lupinus argcntues Madia glomerata Mcrtcnsia franciscana Musincon divarcatum Opuntia sp. in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 1.64 0.00 0.04 0.22 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.31 0.00 0.02 5.78 0.03 0.00 0.09 0.01 0.19 0.01 .2.06 0.12 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.12 0.00 '0.55 0.00 0.01 O.Ol 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.61 0.09 0.86 10.85 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.61 27.00 0.00 0.71 3.69 0.00 0.24 0.00 5.12 0.00 0.36 94.81 0.48 0.00 1.42 0.24 3.09 0.12 33.78 2.02 0.00 0.24 0.00 7.49 0.00 0.00 4.04 0.00 1.90 0.00 9.04 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 42.82 1.43 14.04 177.96 0.00 0.00 1.78 9.99 30.27 0.00 0.80 4.13 0.00 0.27 0.00 5.73 0.00 0.40 106.27 0.53 0.00 1.60 0.27 3.47 0.l3 37.87 2.27 0.00 0.27 0.00 8.40 0.00 0.00 4.53 0.00 2.13 0.00 10.13 0.00 0.27 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 48.00 1.60 15.73 199.47 0.00 0.00 2.00 11.20 �-59- Table 7. Unit No.1 Type of Plant Pre-treatment production of vegetation in habitat improvement (continued). Scientific Name }j Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Forbs Orthocaq~us luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandal1ii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophy11a Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potent ilIa pulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambros ioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsif10ra -Stellaria sp. Swertia radiata Taraxacum officina1e Tha1ictrum fendleri Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Va1eriana occidentalis Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola she1tonii Wyethia amp1exicaulis Total Forbs 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.15 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.51 1.02 0.00 0.28 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.17 D.Ol 0.51 0.22 31.04 0.36 0,00 0.00 0.00 .-8.09 2.50 0.48 0.00 0.00 1.67 5.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 16.77 0.00 4.64 0.95 0.12 0.12 0.00 0.71 0.00 2.85 0.24 8.33 3.57 509.61 0.40 O~OO 0.00 0.00 9.07 2.80 0.53 0.00 0.00 1.87 6.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.33 18.80 0.00 5.20 1.07 0.13 0.13 0.00 0.80 0.00 3.20 0.27 9.33 4.00 571.21 Grasses Agropyron s p , Bromus anoma1us Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata E1ymus glaucus Festuca thurberi Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus balticus 4.20 0.44 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 68.99 7.26 0.00 8.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 0.00 77.33 8.13 0.00 9.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.00 ---------------------------------------------------------------.------------ �-60- Table 7. Unit No.1 Pre-treatment (continued). Type of Plant Scientific production Name 11 of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koeleria cristata Phleum prc1tense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.33 0.00 14.60 0.34 0.72 21.19 5.35 0,.00 239.69 5.59 "11.78 347.82 6.00 0.00 268.67 6.27 l3.20 389.87 Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambellii Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.00 6.75 0.88 11.93 0.04 0.00 O.U 1.56 0.00 0.14 0.00 r2.62 0.00 0.39 13.35 47.77 0.00 UO.87 14.39 195.92 0.71 0.00 1.78 25.57 0.00 2.26 0.00 207.22 0.00 6.42 219.12 784.26 '0.00 124.27 16.13 219 60 0.80 0.00 2.00 28.67 0.00 2.53 0.00 232.27 0.00 7.20 245.60 879.07 100.00 1,641.69 1,840.15 Total of All Species 11 All plants 0 which occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are listed even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. -; �-61- Table 8. Unit No.2. Type of Plant Forbs Pre-treatment Scientific production Name II Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia ~goseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Ba1samorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbel lata Delphinium occidentale Descurainia ·richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepala Geranium parryi Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum le,visii Lupinus argentues Madia g10merata Mertensia franciscana Musineon divarcatum Opuntia sp. of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 2.27 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.93 0.08 4.11 0.00 0.00 0.l3 0.00 0.04 0.00 ~.82 0.00 2.06 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 2.40 0.00 0.60 0.04 G.OO 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.09 1.15 0.20 8.11 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 37.23 0~36 0.12 0.00 oioo 0.00 0.12 0.48 15.23 1.31 67.33 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.71 0.00 29.74 0.00 33.78 0.36 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 39.26 0.00 9.75 0.59 0.00 0.24 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 116.10 18.79 3.21 l32.87 1.19 0.12 0.00 0.00 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41. 73 0.40 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.53 17.07 1.47 75.47 0.00 0.00 2.40 0.00 0.80 0.00 33.33 0.00 37.87 0.40 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 44.00 0.00 10.93 0.67 0.00 0.27 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 130.l3 21.07 3.60 148.93. 1.33 0.13 0.00 0.00 �-62- Table 8. Unit No.2 Type of Plant Forbs Grasses Pre-treatment (continued). Scientific production Name !f Orthocarr~us luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Polemonium fo1iosissimum Polygonum avicu1are Polygonum douglasii Potentilla pu1cherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria sp. Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amplexicaulis Total Forbs of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 1.22 0.01 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 '0.00 1.05 0.32 0.73 2.33 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.01 0.28 0.45 1.02 40.14 0.00 6,.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 19.98 0.12 0.00 1.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.25 5.23 12.01 38.18 1.78 0.00 0.00 7.61 0.00 0.12 4.64 7.38 16.77 657.21 Agropyron sp. 0.54 8.92 Bromus anoma1us 0.48 7.85 Bromus incrmis 0.00 0.00 Bromus tectorum 0.00 0.00 Carex sp. 0..00 0.00 Dactylus glomerata 0.20 3.21 E1ymus glaucus 0.33 5.35 Festuca thurbcri 0.00 0.00 Hordeum brach~antherum 0.00 0.00 Juncus balticus 0.00 0.00 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.00 6'.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 22.40 0.13 0.00 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 19.33 5.87 13.47 42.80 2.00 0.00 0.00 8.53 0.00 0.13 5.20 8.27 18.80 736.65 10.00 8.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.60 6.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 �-63- _Tal:iI~:8 Pre-treatment production of vegetation in habitat improvement Unit No.2 -(continued). Type of Plant Scientific Name l/ Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koeleria cristata Phleum pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.00 0.04 19.05 0.00 0.46 21.10 0.00 0.. 71 312.02 0.00 _.. -7~49 345.55 0.00 0.80 349.73 0.00 8.40 387.33 Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier a1nifolia Artemisia ~ Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambe11ii Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.00 4.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.72 0.00 10.41 0.00 4.81 0.00 1.54 16.99 38.76 0.00 70.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11.78 0.00 170.46 0.00 78.75 0.00 25.22 278.12 634.63 0.00 78.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.20 0.00 191.07 0.00 88.27 0.00 28.27 311.73 711.34 100.00 1,637.39 1,835.32 Total of All Species !/ All plants which occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are listed even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. �-64- Table 9. Unit No.3. Type of Plant Forbs Pre-treatment Scientific production Name II Achillea 1anu1osa Agastache urticifo1ia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace scptentriona1is Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia 1udoviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Ca1ochortus gunnisonii Capse11a bursa-pastoris Casti11eia 1inariaefo1ia Chenopodium ber1andieri Cirsium canescens Comandra urub e Ll.at a Delphinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbe11atum Epilobium panicu1atum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepa1a Geraniu~ parryi Gilia aggregata Grindeliaaphanactis Hackelia 1eptophylla He1enium hoopesii Hydro~ly11um £endleri Iris missouricnsis Lactuca scariola Lappula reduwskii Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticllm sp. Liuulll le\v i.s ii ~.nus argcntues Nadia c~l()ll1r;rat.:l Mertensi.:l fcanciscana Musincon divarcaluill 0PUI1tj:1 sp. ---- of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 0.44 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.05 1.97 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 8.21 0.00 0.36 0.59 0.59 0.48 0.36 0.83 0.00 0.95 9.20 0.00 0.40 0.67 0.67 0.53 0.40 0.93 0.00 1.07 37.11 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 4.88 0.00 5.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.48 41.60 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 5.47 0.00 6.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.01 0.00 0.00 .18.68 0.00 6.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 151. 07 0.00 0.00 20.93 0.00 6.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 169.33 2.08 0.00 1. 58 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 39.14 0.00 29.74 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 43.37 0;00 33.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.99 0.00 0.32 b.oo --------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-65-" Table 9 • Pre-treatment Unit No. 3 (continued). Type of Plant Scientific production Name il of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Kilograms Pounds Percent Per Hectare Composition Per Acre Forbs Orthocaq~us luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Po1emonium foliosissimuin Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potentilla Eulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crisEus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sEarsiflora Stellaria sp. Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Tha1ictrum fendleri TragoEogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amplexicaulis Total Forbs 0.00 0.42 1.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00, 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 '0.00 0.58 0.00 0.09 1.39 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 -0.01 0.28 1. 76 22.32 0.00 7..97 25.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.36 0.00 0.00 10.94 0.00 1.67 26.17 0.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.24 5.23 33.19 420.63 0.00 8'.93 28.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.40 0.00 0.00 12.27 0.00 1.87 29.33 1.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.27 5.87 37.20 470.67 Grasses Agropyron sp. Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca thurberi Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus balticus 0.30 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.71 0.83 0.71 0.24 0.00 0.00 6.40 0.93 0.80 0.27 0.00 0.00 2.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 - 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-66- Table No.3 9. Pre-treatment (continued). Type of Plant Scientific production Name 1/ of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koe1eria cristata Ph1eum pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix SUpa sp , Total Grasses 0.00 0.00 17.74 0.00 0.08 18.34 0.00 0.00 334.14 0.00 .- 1.55 345.68 0.00 0,.00 374.53 0.00 1. 73 387.46 Shrubs Acer glabrum Ame1anchier alnifo1ia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysotha~~us depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambe11ii Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.00 9.91 0.00 0.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.74 0.00 28.67 0.00 1.69 8.82 59.34 0.00 187.00 0.00 9.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 183.55 0.00. 540.41 0.00 31.88 166.30 1,118.78 0.00 209.60 0.00 10.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 205.73 0.00 605.73 0.00 35.73 186.40 1,253.99 100.00 1,885.09 2,112.12 Total of All Species 1/ All plants which occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. listed �-67- Table 10. Pre-treatment Unit No.4. Type of Plant Forbs Scientific production Name II Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbel lata Delphinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepala Geranium parryi Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scarioia Lappula redowskii Lathyrus Ieucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum IC,visii Lupinus argentues Had ia£lomerata Mertcnsia franciscana Musincon divarcatum Opuntia sp. of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms ,Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 1.44 0.21 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.00 0.05 3.01 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.00 D.65 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 0.41 0.00 '0.43 0.10 0.48 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.85 1.47 0'.05 6.33 0.46 0.98 0.01 0.00 23.32 3'.45 0.00 ,,_ O.~36 0.12 0.36 0.36 2.50 0.00 0.83 48.77 0.00 0.36 0.59 0.00 0.48 0.00 10.47 0.00 6.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 15.46 0.00 6.66 0.00 6.90 1.67 7.73 4.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 143.22 23.79 0.83 102.42 7.49 15.94 0.24 0.00 26.13 3.87 0.00 0.40 0.13 0.40 0.40 2.80 0.00 0.93 54.67 0.00 0.40 0.67 0.00 0.53 0.00 11. 73 0.00 7.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.33 0.00 7.47 0.00 7.}3 1.87 8.67 4.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 160.53 26.67 0.93 114.80 8.40 17.87 0.27 0.00 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-68- Table 10. Unit No.4 Type or Plant Forbs Grasses Pre-treatment (continued). Scientific production Name II Orthocarr~us luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heteroEhylla Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potentilla Eulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crisEus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sj2arsiflora .Stellaria sp. Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri TragoEogon dubium TragoEogon Eratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amElexicaulis Total Forbs AgroEyron sp. Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata Elymus glallclls Festuca tburberi Hordeum brach:iantherllm JUl1CllSbalticlls of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 0.00 1.25 0.15 0.00 0.30 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.00 0 ..25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 1.03 0.00 0.27 2.73 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.23 0.00 0.07 ·0.12 0.29 0.26 34.34 0.00 20.22 2.38 0.00 4.88 0.24 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 5.47 0.00 0.00 4.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.12 16.77 0.00 4.40 44.25 0.00 0.00 2.50 3.81 0.00 1.19 2.02 4.64 4.28 556.59 0.00 22.67 2.67 0.00 5.47 0.27 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 6.13 0.00 0.00 4.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.13 18.80 0.00 4.93 49.60 0.00 0.00 2.80 4.27 0.00 1.33 2.27 5.20 4.80 623.86 3.66 2.53 0.02 0.07 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.51 0.01 59.36 41.04 0.36 1.19 0.00 0.00 32.36 0.00 8.21 0.24 66.53 46.00 0.40 1.33 0.00 0.09 36.27 0.00 9.20 0.27 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-69- Table 10. Unit No.4 Type of Plant Pre-treatment (continued). Scientific production Name l/ of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koe1eria cristata Ph1eum pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.01 0.00 10.15 0.00 1.66 20.62 0.12 0.00 164.51 0.00 --26.88 334.27 0.l3 0.00 184.40 0.00 30.l3 374.66 Shrubs Acer glabrum Ame1anchier alnifolia Artemisia ~ Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus g2mbe11ii Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.00 8.31 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00·· 0.10 0.00 4.06 0.22 17.33 0.79 1.11 13.00 45.04 0.00 134.78 0.00 0.00 1.90 0.00 0.00 1.55 0.00 65.78 3.57 280.97 12.85 17.96 210.79 730.15 0.00 151. 07 0.00 0.00 2.l3 0.00 0.00 1.73 0.00 73.73 4.00 314.93 14.40 20.13 236.27 818.39 1,621.01 1,816.91 Total 100.00 of All Species l! All plants which listed occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. -; �-70- Table 11. Pre-treatment Unit No.5. production in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Type of Plant Forbs of vegetation Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludbviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbellata Delphinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepala Geranium parryi Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyl1um fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scario1a Lappul! redowskii Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum 1c\,/Lsii Lupinus ar~~cntues Madia glolllcrata Mertensia franciscana Musineon divarcatllm Opuntia sp. 0~84 0.00 D.-DO 0.06 0.26 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00' 3.30 0.00 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.48 0.01 -0.01 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.49 0.03 0.16 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.Q8 0.00 .0.00 0.00 5.08 0.98 0.13 13.58 0.00 0.81 0.00 0.00 14.16 0.00 0.00 0.95 4.40 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 55.55 0.00 0.36 1.07 15.87 0.00 0.00 1.07 4.93 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 62.27 0.00 0.40 1.20 0.00 8.09 0.24 0.24 0.00 1. 55 0.00 0.36 0.48 0.00 0.36 8.21 0.48 2.62 0.00 2.26 0.00 0.00 1.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 85.53 16.53 2.14 228.99 0.00 13.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.07 0.27 0.27 0.00 1.73 0.00 0.40 0.53 0.000.40 9.20 0.53 2.93 0.00 2.53 0.00 0.00 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 95.87 18.53 2.40 256.67 0.00 15.33 0.00 0.00 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-71- Table 11. Unit No.5 Type of Plant Pre-treatment (continued). Scientific production Name II of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Forbs Orthocarpus luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potentilla pulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria sp. . Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictr'um fend1eri Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amplexicaulis Total Forbs 0.00 0.18 0.63 0.28 0.18 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02 '0.20 0.47 0.04 0.08 1.37 0.01 0.00 .0.17 0.53 0.00 0.00 .0.38 0.04 0.51 32.00 0.00 3.09 10.59 4.64 2.97 0.48 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 1. 90 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.36 3.33 7.85 0.59 1.43 23.08 0.12 0.00 2.85 8.92 0.00 0.00 6.42 0.71 8.56 539.28 0.00 3.47 11.87 5.20 3.33 0.53 0.00 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 2.13 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.40 3.73 8.80 0.67 1.60 25.87 0.13 0.00 3.20 10.00 0.00 0.00 7.20 0.80 9.60 604.40 Grasses Agropyron sp. Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca thurberi Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus baltLcus 1.17 0.45 0.00 0.00 0..00 0.00 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 19.75 7.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 22.13 8.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 ---- �-72- Table 11. Unit No.5 Pre-treatment (continued). Type of Plant Scientific production Name l/ of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koeleria cristata Phleurn pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.10 0.00 9.24 0.01 0.18 100.00 1.67 0.00 155.71 0.12 ...2.97 1,685.17 1.87 0.00 174.53 0.13 3.33 1,888.79 Shrubs Acer glabrurn Arnelanchier a1nifo1ia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambellii .Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Sym:ehoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.03 11. 97 0.00 5.12 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.23 0.00 1. 79 0.00 r9.84 1.33 1.26 14.71 56.36 0.48 201. 75 0.00 86.24 0.00 1.31 0.00 3.93 0.00 30.21 0.00 334.38 22.36 21.17 247.90 949.73 0.53 226.13 0.00 96.67 0.00 1.47 0.00 4.40 0.00 33.87 0.00 374.80 25.07 23.73 277.87 1,064.54 100.00 1,685.17 1,888.79 Total of All Species 1/ All plants which occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are listed even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. �-73- Table 12. Pre-treatment production of vegetation in habitat improvement Unit No.6. Type of Plant Forbs Scientific 1/ Name - Achillea 1anu1osa Agastache urticifo1ia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace seEtentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia 1udoviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis reEens Ca1ochortus gunnisonii CaEse11a bursa-Eastoris Castilleja 1inariaefo1ia ChenoEodium ber1andieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbe11ata De1Ehinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii DisEorum trachycarEum Eriogonum umbe11atum EEi10bium Eanicu1atum Fragaria americana Galium sp , Gentiana heteroseEa1a Geranium Earryi Gilia aggregata Grindelia aEhanactis Hacke1ia 1eEtoEhylla He1enium hooEesii HydroEhy11um fend1eri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scario1a LaEpula redowskii Lathyrus 1eucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum lewis ii Lupinlls argentues Nadia glomerata Mertensia franciscana Musineon divarc.:ttum 0Euntia sp. Air Dry Forage Weights Kilograms Pounds Percent Per Hectare Per Acre Composition 1.37 0.31 0.-00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 4.31 0.00 0.00 0.10 0·.00 0.12 0.08 ·0.22 0.20 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 1.20 0.01 0.33 0.00 '0.00 0.00 0.12 O.QO 0.00 ·0.00 0.00 5.80 1. 68 0.35 8.84 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 24.98 . 5.59 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 78.51 0.00 0.00 1. 78 0.00 2.14 1.43 4.04 3.69 7.02 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.00 21. 77 0.24 5.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 105.63 30.45 6.42 160.60 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 28.00 6.27 0.00 0.27 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.00 0.00 88.00 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 2.40 1. 60 4.53 4.13 7.87 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.00 0.00 24.40 0.27 6.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 118.40 34.13 7.20 179.9-9 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-74- Table 12. Unit No.6 Type of Plant Forbs Grasses Pre-treatment (continued). Scientific production Name l/ of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Orthocarpus luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii . Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Po1ygonum douglasii Potentilla pulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Si1ene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stel1aria sp. SWertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica b iloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amplexicaulis Total Forbs 0.00 0.65 0.41 0.00 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 ·0.20 0.56 0.00 0.07 1.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 .0.36 0.00 0.07 0.01 29.39 3.69 10.11 0.00 1.31 21.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 6.54 0.00 1.19 . 0.24 534.11 0.00 13.33 8.27 0.00 1.47 0.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.l3 4.13 11.33 0.00 1.47 23.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.00 7.33 0.00 1.33 0.27 598.64 Agropyron sp. Bromus anomalus Bromlls inermis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata Elymus glallcus Festllca thurberi Hordeum brachyan thcrum JllllCllS balticus 6.03 1.77 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 109.68 32.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 122.93 36.00 0.00 0.00 0..00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 11. 90 7.37 0.00 1.31 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.90 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-75- Table 12. Unit No.6 Type of Plant Pre-treatment production of vegetation in habitat improvement (continued). Scientific Name l/ Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koeleria cristata Ph1eum pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.02 0.00 15.33 0.00 0.29 100.00 0.36 0.00 278.71 0.00 ...5.23 1,817.28 0.40 0.00 312.40 0.00 5.87 2,036.89 Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia ~ Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambellii Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.00 6.23 0.12 0.79 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.14 0.00 7.82 0.00 i8.50 0.06 1.59 11.88 47.16 0.00 113.13 2.14 14.39 0.00 0.00 0.59 2.62 0.00 142.03 0.00 336.17 1.07 28.91 215.90 856.95 0.00 126.80 2.40 16.13 0.00 0.00 0.67 2.93 0.00 159.20 0.00 376.80 1.20 32.40 241.99 960.52 100.00 1,817.28 2,036.89 Total of All Species l/ All plants which occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are listed even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. �-76. Table 13. Pre-treatment Unit No.7. Type of Plant Forbs Scientific production Name ~I Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repen$ Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbellata Delphinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepala Geranium parryi Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophy1lum fend1eri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappu1a redowskii Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum lcw i s ii --Lupinus argentues Mad ia .8lomcr3.ta Mertensia franciscana Musineon divarcatum Opuntia sp. of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 3.50 0.01 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.21 0.39 7.22 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.06 0.48 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.02 0.01 1.12 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.44 0.00 0.11 0.00 2.25 0.00 0.00 1.80 0.15 0.23 5.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 58.76 0;12 0.00 2.02 0.00 0.71 0.59 0.83 3.57 6.54 121.10 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.95 8.09 0.36 0.83 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.64 0.36 0.24 18.79 0.00 1.19 0.00 7.38 0.00 1. 78 0.00 37.71 0.00 0.00 30.21 2.50 3.81 91.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.31 65.87 0.13 0.00 2.27 0.00 0.80 0.67 0.93 4.00 7.33 135.73 0.00 0.00 0.80 1. 07 9.07 0.40 0.93 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.20 0.40 0.27 21. 07 0.00 1.33 0.00 8.27 0.00 2.00 0.00 42.27 0.00 0.00 33.87 2.80 4;27 102.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.47 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-77- Table 13. Pre-treatment Unit No. 7 (continued). Type of Plant Forbs Grasses Scientific production Name 1/ of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Orthocaq~us luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandal1ii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Po1emonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potent illa pulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambros ioides Senecio integerrimus Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria sp. Swertia radiata Taraxacum officina1e Tha1ictrum fend1eri Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugu10sa Viola sheltonii W~ethia amplexicaulis Total Forbs 0.01 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.01 0.00 0.21 0.15 0.45 0.00 0.01 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.00 1.70 0.34 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 '0.50 ·0.07 0.04 0.06 29.15 0.24 3.57 0.00 0.00 ... 0.00 3.21 0.12 0.00 3.57 2.50 7.49 0.00 0.24 5.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.16 0.00 28.55 5.71 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 8.33 1.19 0.59 1.07 489.02 0.27 4'.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.60 0.13 0.00 4.00 2.80 8.40 0.00 0.27 6.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.27 0.00 32.00 6.40 0.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67 9.33 1.33 0.67 1~20 548.15 Agrop~ron sp. Bromus anoma1us Bromus inermis Bromus teetorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata E1~mus glaucus Festuca thurberi Hordeum braehyantherum Juncus ba1ticus 4.23 0.76 0.00 0.03 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.94 0.36 0.23 71.02 12.73 0.00 0.48 3.21 0.00 0.00 15.70 6.07 3.81 79.60 14.27 0.00 0.53 3'.60 0.00 0.00 17.60 6.80 4.27 - ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-78- Table 13. Unit No.7 Type of Plant Pre-treatment (continued). Scientific production Name 11 of vegetation Koeleria cristata Phleum pratense Poa sp. S Hanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.23 0.04 16.70 0.04 1.07 100.00 Shrubs Acer glabr-um Ame1anchier alnifo1ia Artemisia ~ Artemisiatridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambellii Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs 0.00 0.16 0.28 3.86 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.28 0.01 . 1.28 0.00 '8.51 4.81 3.10 23.73 46.03 of All Species !I All plants which listed even though improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Total in habitat 100.00 3.93 0.71 280.26 0.71 17.96 1,678.11 0.00 2.62 4.64 64.83 0.00 0.00 0~24 4.76 0.24 21.53 0.00 142.75 80.77 51. 98 . 398.14 772.50 1,678.11 4.40 (}.80 314.13 0.80 20.13 1,880.95 0.00 2.93 5.20 72.67 0.00 0.00 0.27 5.33 0.27 24.13 0.00 160.00 90.53 58.27 446.27 865.87 1,880.95 occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are some species may not occur in this particular unit. '. �-79- Table 14. Pre-treatment Unit No.8. Type of Plant Forbs Scientific production Name II Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia drac~nculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium canescens Comandra umbellata Delphinium occidentale Descurainia richardsonii Disporum trachycarpum Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium sp. Gentiana heterosepala Geranium parryi Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus leucanthus Ligusticum sp. Linum le\visii Lupinus argentues Madia glomerata Mertensia franciscana Nusineon divarcatum Opuntia sp. of vegetation in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms .Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 2.56 0.28 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.08 0.00 0.19 7.61 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.16 0.02 .0.10 0.29 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 1.54 0.00 0.36 0.00 .0.03 0.15 0.33 0.11 0.81 0.01· 0.00 2.40 0.34 0.10 8.91 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 45.44· 5.00 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.24 0.12 1.43 0.00 3.33 134.78 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.00 2.85 0.36 1.78 5.23 2.14 0.00 0.00 8.56 0.00 0.00 27.24 0.00 6.42 0.00 0.59 2.74 5.83 2.02 14.51 0.12 0.00 42.47 6.07 1.90 157.85 0.00 1.19 0.00 0.00 50.93 ~.•. 60 0.00 0.80 0.00 0.27 0.13 1. 60 0.00 3.73 151.07 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.00 3.20 0.40 2.00 5.87 2.40 0.00 0.00 9.60 0.00 0.00 30.53 0.00 7.20 0.00 0.67 3.07 6.53 2.27 16.27 0.13 0.00 47.60 6.80 2.13 176.93 0.00 1.33 0.00 0.00 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-80- Table 14. Pre-treatment Unit No. 8 (continued). .Type of Plant Forbs Grasses Scientific production Name II Orthocaq~us luteus Osmorhiza sp. Pachistima myrsinites Ped icular is grayi Penstemon cranda11ii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heteroJ2hylla Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonumdouglasii Potentilla Eulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Si1ene menziesii Smi1acina stellata Solidago sJ2arsiflora -Stellaria sp. Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri TragoJ2ogon dubium TragoJ2ogon J2ratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidenta1is Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amJ21exicaulis Total Forbs AgroJ2yron sp. Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca thurberi Hordeum brachyantherum JunCllS balticus of vegetation in habitat improvement Air.Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 0.01 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.27 -0.02 0.16 0.06 30.81 0.24 4.28 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.36 0.00 4.88 2.62 0.24 9.16 0.00 0.00 3.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.64 0.00 6.66 10.11 2.62 0.00 8.45 0.00 0.00 2.74 0.36 2.85 1.07 546.71 2.93 0.27 10.27 0.00 0.00 3.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.20 0.00 7.47 11.33 2.93 0.00 9.47 0.00 0.00 3.07 0.40 3.20 1.20 612.81 2.15 0.40 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.30 0.00 38.07 7.14 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.00 1.78 0.00 5.35 0.00 42.67 8.00 0.00 1.20 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 6.00 0.00 0.15 0.01 0.52 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.38 0.57 0.15 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.27 4.80 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.40 0.00 5.47 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-81- Table 14. Unit No.8 Type of Plant Pre-treatment production of vegetation in habitat improvement (continued). Scientific Name !/ Grasses Koe1eria cristata Phleum pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses Shrubs Acer glabrum Ame1anchier a1nifo1ia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambe11ii ,Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos sp. Total shrubs Total of All Species Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare 0.00 0.00 29.~n 0.03 0.66 100.00 0.00 0.00 . 528.99 0.59 ..'11.66 1,774.44 0.00 0.00 592.93 0.67 13.07 1,988.95 0.00 2.04 0.84 3.39 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.60 7.11 0.00 '6.95 0.00 3.11 11.53 35.68 0.00 36.16 14.99 60.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.90 10.59 126.21 0.00 123.24 0.00 55.20 204.60 633.08 0.00 40.53 16.80 67.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.l3 11.87 141.47 0.00 138.l3 0.00 61.87 229.33 709.60 100.00 1,774.44 1,988.95 l/ All plants which occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units are listed even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. �-84- Table 15. Units No.1 Type of Plant Pre-treatment production of vegetation through 8 combined (Continued). Scientific Name li in habitat improvement Air Dry Forage Weights Percent Pounds Kilograms Composition Per Acre Per Hectare Grasses Koe1eriacristata Ph1eum pratense Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Stipa sp. Total Grasses 0.08 0.01 16.70 0.05 0.62 21.88 1.43 0.18 286.75 0.88 10.69 375.86 1.60 0.20 321.42 0.98 11. 98 421. 30 Shrubs Acer glabrum Ame1anchier a1nifo1ia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothanmus deprcssus Chrysothanmus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Crataegus erythropoda Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata Quercus gambellii .Ribes cereum Rosa nutkana Symphoricarr~os sp. Total shrubs T 6.23 0.26 3.14 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.38 0.08 5.40 0.03 14.88 0.85 1.74 14.13 47.17 0.06 107.07 4.52 53.90 0.33 0.16 0.33 6.51 1.35 92.75 0.45 255.48 14.63 29.84 242.60 809.98 0.07 120.02 5.07 60.42 0.37 0.18 0.37 7.30 1. 52 103.97 0.50 286.37 16.40 33.45 271. 93 907.94 100.00 1,717.46 1,925.14 Total of All Species 1:./ All plants which listed occur in any of the eight habitat improvement units arc' even though some species may not occur in this particular unit. ~/ T (Trace) is less than 0.01% composition. �-81- Table 16. Summary of 1970 pre-treatment vegetation measurement data for habitat improvement Unit Numbers 1 through 8. Green Wt. Pounds Kilograms Per Ac. Per Hectare Dry Wt. Po.unds Kilograms Per Ac. Per Hectare 31.04 47.77 21.19 1572.58 1664.30 856.59 1762.67 1865.47 960.13 509.61 784.26 347.82 571.21 879.07 389.87 Total 100.00 4093.47 4588.27 1641.69 1840.15 Forbs Shrubs Grasses 40.14 38.76 21.10 2128.58 1462.55 889.19 657.21 634.63 345.55 736.65 711.34 387.33 Total 100.00 4480.32 2385.87 1639.33 996.67 5021. 87 1637.39 1835.32 Forbs Shrubs Grasses Total 22.32 59.34 18.34 100.00 1412.23 2504.95 921.90 1582.93 2807.73 1033.33 5423.99 420.60 1118. 78 345.68 1885.09 470.67 1253.99 387.46 2112.12 Forbs Shrubs Grasses Total 34.34 45.04 20.62 100.00 1841.90 1595.90 884.79 4322.59 2064.53 1788.80 991. 73 4845.06 556.59 730.15 334.27 1621.01 623.86 818.39 374.66 1816.91 Forbs Shrubs Grasses 32.00 56.36 11.64 1367.03 1906.49 420.15 1532.27 2136.93 470.93 539.28 949.73 196.16 604.40 1064.54 219.85 Total 100.00 3693.67 4140.13 1685.17 1888.79 6 Forbs Shrubs Grasses Total 29.39 .47.16 23.45 100.00 1425.08 1807.16 925.23 4157.47 1597.33 2025.60 1037.07 4660.00 534.11 856.95 426.22 1817.28 598.64 960.52 477.73 2036.89 7 Forbs Shrubs Grasses Total 29.15 46.03 24.82 100.00 1292.45 1604.70 873.01 3770.16 1448.67 1798.67 978.53 4225.87 489.02 772.50 416.59 1678.11 548.15 865.87 466.93 1880.95 8 Forbs Shrubs Grasses Total 30.81 35.68 33.51 100.00 1417.59 1367.63 1247.60 4032.82 1588.93 1532.93 1398.40 4520.26 546.71 633.08 594.65 1774.44 612.81 709.60 666.54 1988.95 Total of All Units Forbs Shrubs Grasses Total 30.95 47.17 21.88 1557.14 1739.17 877.29 4173.60 1745.39 1949.43 983.35 4678.17 531. 62 809.98 375.86 1717.46 595.90 907.94 421.30 Habitat Unit Number 1 2 3 4 5 Type of Plant % Composition By Dry Wt. Forbs Shrubs Grasses 100.00 4839.08 1925.14 �-86- Table 17. Pre-treatment cattle use on Hightower Mountain Oak Study Area (Summer, 1970). Habitat Improvement Unit.No. Cow Days Use/Ac. 1 4.35 2 8.70 3 0.00 4 0.00 5 3.04 6 1.30 7 9.57 18.26 8 Table 18. Species and seeding rates that have been selected for reseeding Hightower Mountain Oak Control Study Area. Seed SEecifications Purity Fill Germination Pounds Per Ac. AgroEyron cristatum (Fairway strain) 95% 90% 2 Bromus inermis (Lincoln strain) 95% 90% 4 AgroEyron intermedium (Arnurstrain) , 95% 90% 3 Dactylis glome rata (Chinook strain) 95% 90% 1 Festuca ovina duriscula 90% 85% 1 11 Meticago sativa (Nomad variety) 99% 90% Meticago sativa (Rambler variety) 99% 90% Meticago sativa (Ladak variety) 99% 90% Melilotus officinalis Astragalus cf.ce r 99% 90% 99% Purshia tridentata 95% 95% 2 CercocarEus montanus 95% 95% 1 Species Grasses Forbs Shrubs ) ) ) ) 2 1 1 4 3 total � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/ecb291f76fe9d389edb06db64ea61c28.pdf d43196b323d15029a97a3fad9ae7dcd0 PDF Text Text July, 1971 - 87 - JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --~--~~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 2 Job Title: White River Elk Study - Publication of Results Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 7 A Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Raymond J. Boyd ABSTRACT All editing, proof-reading and lay-out was completed. The manuscript was given to the printer and publication completed. Copies of the publication ("Elk of the White River Plateau, Colorado," Technical Publication No. 25) were sent to the Federal Aid office in Albuquerque and others sent to names on the Division mailing list. ��- 89 - WHITE RIVER ELK STUDY - PUBLICATION OF RESULTS Raymond J. Boyd P.S. OBJECTIVE To formulate a management plan for the elk and their habitat on the White River area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To publish all the research findings resulting from the White River elk study through 1965. METHODS AND MATERIALS Publish as a Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks Technical Publication. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The completed manuscript was taken to the printer and delivery of the completed publication was accepted on February 1, 1971. The required number of copies were sent to the Federal Aid office in Albuquerque and persons on the Division's mailing list were also furnished with copies of the completed publication. Raym Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1971 - 91 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 2 Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 8 Hunter Harvest Surveys Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Raymond J. Boyd, Pat Fuqua, Shirley Dunn, Kathy Edwards, Karen Jackson, Velma Merkle and Charlotte Gardner. ABSTRACT Five different elk license types were surveyed by the 1970 random, with a total of 26,104 questionnaires sent out. The total return was 18,779 usable cards for an average return of 71.9 percent. Kill estimates were also determined for Sportsman's License holders in High Country Quality Deer Seasons, Regular Deer Seasons, Primitive Weapons Seasons, 2nd Deer License Purchasers, Archery Elk Hunters and all elk license hunters. All kill statistics are reported in the 1970 Colorado Big Game Harvest Resume. ��- 93 - HUNTER HARVEST SURVEYS Raymond J. Boyd P. S. AND SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To estimate the annual State kill of all big game by species, sex, age, game management unit, County, residence of hunters and type of license, season, period of season and to obtain information on man-days of recreation involved. METHODS AND MATERIALS All big game hunters except deer, will be randomly surveyed by mail questionnaire and one follow-up to obtain management information. Returned cards will be coded by hand for IBM keypunch procedures which will be used in computerized preparation of summaries of the data supplied by returned questionnaire cards. The continuous sheet reports will be manually processed by the clerical staff to obtain reports needed by Game Planning. Complete instructions for coding, keypunching, are detailed in Boyd (1970). etc. for the IBM system RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks had within its big game license framework, during 1970, five different kinds of elk licenses available to the hunting public. These five licenses are further broken into two additional categories -- residents and nonresidents. In effect, then, 10 .different elk license types were surveyed for 1970 big game season kill data. Table 1 indicates the license types surveyed, sent out, the number of usable questionnaires return on each type of questionnaire. Kill Statistics, the number of questionnaires returned and the percent 1970 Big Game Season The total harvest summary for all big game species and special seasons involved in the 1970 random survey are reported in the 1970 Colorado Big Game Harvest Resume, a copy of which is attached as an appendix to this report. Table 2 details only the total kill estimates for species and special seasons surveyed in 1970 by the random survey. �July, 1971 - 97 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ Project No. W-38-R-25 Work plan No. Job Title 6 _ Deer-Elk Job No. Investigations 11 Evaluation of the Effects of SpringSummer Grazing by Deer on Alfalfa Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: David F. Gordon, James A. Ives, Steven F. Steinert, Julius J. Klein, Donald E. Speers, David A. Gordon, Robert B. Gordon, Rifle Gap Conservation Unit inmates and Richard M. Bartmann. ABSTRACT All-night deer counts were made on the Rifle Gap study field from the first week in April through the last week in September. The spring peak in mean deer numbers in 1970 (82.1) was nearly twice that in 1969 (42.2). Future deer counts on the study field in 1971 will be made only at 9:00, 10:00, and 11:00 p.m. , MST, instead of all night as in previous years. This decision was based on correlation analyses of the pooled 1968, 1969, and 1970 deer count data. Lower hay yields were measured on grazed plots than on ungrazed plots during both harvests. This amounted to an estimated 1,216 pounds and 581 pounds difference per acre for the first and second cuttings, respectively. Differences were significant (P<.Ol) only for the first cutting. Production differences cannot be related to mean deer densities until the exact acreage upon which deer are counted is determined. Results of proximate analyses of hay samples showed no significant difference (P>.05) in those factors tested between grazed and ungrazed plots for both harvests. At Little Hills, an II-acre portion of the study field was fenced for the controlled phase of the study and 30 captive deer allowed free access into it. Evidence of deer presence was later found over the entire field. A heavy ·infestation of mustard plagued the first hay growth. This delayed the first cutting and precluded the second harvest and plot pairing. ��- 99 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SPRING-SUMMER GRAZING BY DEER ON ALFALFA David F. Gordon and Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine alfalfa. the effect of spring-summer SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. grazing by deer on production of OBJECTIVES To determine the number and time of night deer use the study field. To determine if there are differences in production of alfalfa between grazed and ungrazed plots on the study field at Rifle Gap. To test for factor(s) that determine a deer's preference for mature over immature alfalfa. To fence the control field, establish paired plots, and trap deer for the controlled phase of the study at Little Hills. METHODS AND MATERIALS - RIFLE GAP Deer Counts Deer were counted using the method outlined in the Segment 23 report (Gordon 1969). This year, weekly counts were made from the first of April through the end of September, except for the third week of August which was the opening of archery season. At each count, the general location of groups of one or more deer were marked on a blank map of the study field. A composite of these maps was made to illustrate deer distribution. Irrigation the study field was sprinkler irrigated twice during only. The irrigation schedule was as follows: Began Terminated Began Interrupted Resumed Terminated the first hay growth April 16 May 3 May 11 May 18 June 1 June 8 Irrigation was begun while night-time temperatures still dropped below freezing and a minor problem occurred with ice forming on the plot fences (Fig. 1). This was easily removed by beating the fences with a shovel. However, one morning the wind blew before the ice was removed and flattened one fence on each of two plots and caused a third to sag. Repairs were completed the same day. �- 100 - Fig. 1. Ice formed on plot fences due to sprinkler irrigation during below freezing temperatures on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1970. �- 101 Problems were also encountered with the irrigation pump engine. After the irrigation season it was checked by a mechanic who indicated it was underpowered for the job. Consequently, a new pump and engine were purchased near the end of the segment., Hay Harvest The hay was cut, baled and stacked by the contractor, W. F. Scarrow of Rifle, Colorado, using the same equipment as last year. Baling of the second cutting was delayed nine days by machinery breakdown and wet weather. The harvest schedule was as follows: Cut First Cutting Second cutting Baled July 13 & 14 September 4 & 7 July 17 & 18 September 20 A new method of marking the last bale from each plot was used. A sheet of newspaper was tucked under the twine of the last bale from each plot as it was ejected from the baler. A crew following the baler weighed the hay to the nearest pound with a Chatillion spring scale of 100-pound capacity. After the baled hay was removed from the field, the edges of each fenced plot were clipped using a Montgomery Ward 14 horsepow~r hydrostatic tractor with a cutterbar attachment. At first cutting the clippings were removed from the field. At second cutting they were sparse enough to leave on the field. Proximate Analysis The last bale from each plot was labeled with plot number, treatment and cutting. These bales were stored in the Rifle Gap barn until both cuttings were complete and then taken to the Research Center in Fort Collins for proximate analysis. Preference Factor(s) Segment Objective 3, "to test for factor(s) that determine a deer's preffor mature over immature alfalfa" was deemed unattainable in this study. There is little information to indicate what nutritional qualities deer might seek in forage, and we could only surmise from the results. Therefore, this objective will be deleted in the future. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - RIFLE GAP Deer Counts The mean number of deer counted per night for 1969 and 1970 is compared Fig. 2. The spring peak in 1970 (82.1) was nearly twice that in 1969 (42.2). There is also an indicated difference in the migration pattern in �- 102 between years. In 1969, the spring deer counts dropped in late April; while in 1970, they did not falloff until late May. The reason for this is unknown. The same observer counted each year and weather conditions, at least during count nights, were not substantially different. An index to deer use on the study field (mean number of deer per acre) cannot be computed at this time. A question has arisen concerning the actual area upon which deer are counted. This will be answered during the coming Segment. The 1968, 1969, and 1970 deer count data are shown in Table 1. Linear regression and correlation analyses were run on the pooled data to determine what hour or combination of hours might be used in lieu of all-night counts. Only the evening hours, through midnight, which generally produced the highest counts were considered. All correlation coefficients (r) were high, 0.903 to 0.988 (Table 2). Too, standard errors (Sy.x) were small, ranging from 3.24 to 8.89. Very slight improvement in both rand Sy.x values occurred with an increased number of hours and later counts. On the basis of these analyses, future deer counts at Rifle Gap will be made from 9:00 thru 11:00 P.M., MST (Fig. 3). An average of several counts is pre.ferred to a single observation to reduce the effects of possible "odd" counts. Figures 4 and 5 indicate the pattern of deer distribution observed during nightly counts. Major access points are at each end and at the middle of the field across from the road. Again, as last year, there was a noticeable reduction of deer opposite the observatory indicating some deterring effect by the close proximity of the counting station to the field. It is assumed deer frequent this area on nights when the observer is gone. This will be checked in 1971. Hay Harvest The first cutting of hay yielded 2.3 tons per acre. Plot yields revealed an average 67 pounds less hay on grazed plots for a 1,216 pound difference per acre (Table 3). A student's paired "t" analysis showed this difference to be highly significant (P<.Ol). The second cutting of hay was not watered and yielded only 0.4 ton per acre. The grazed plots yielded 32 pounds less hay on the average for a 581 pound difference per acre (Table 4). This difference was not significant (P> .05). These production differences cannot be related to deer densities until exact field acreages are determined as explained under "Deer Counts" above. Proximate Analysis Results of the proximate analyses performed on hay samples from the first and second cuttings are summarized in Table 5. None of the differences between grazed and ungrazed plots were significant (P>.05) for any of the factors tested. Even had significance been shown, it could not be definitely attributed to deer grazing, as plot pairing was on a production rather than nutritional basis. Therefore, it is doubtful that any meaningful results will come from this portion of the study or that it will be continued. �- 103 - 70 --·I9M • -1970 60 ~ • • o c: :I" 23451234123412345123412345 Apr May Jun Jul -+- -+ Montt. -+- +- Aug + Sep a Week Fig. 2. Mean number of deer counted each night on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1969 and 1970. �- 104 - Table 1. Number of deer counted on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1968, 1969, and 1970. Date of Count 1900 2000 Hour of Count {Mountain Standard Time) 2100 2200 2300 2400 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 Mean 26 12 62 42 12 66 58 96 89 110 48 41 64 87 78 41 59 39 68 67 35 46 18 72 65 33 43 27 67 17 27 10 16 35 49 9 8 29 46 70 8 19 22 52 54 4 16 24 52 84 2 7 18 l3 2 27.2 29.0 37.7 56.6 55.3 nc 40 nc 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 17 42 52 29 40 13 7 0 0 2 5 0 2 0 13 nc 9 27 47 45 32 8 9 6 6 4 4 6 6 7 22 38 56 33 16 16 4 2 2 0 4 6 6 14 16 14 15 47 54 25 10 6 13 9 49 39 32 25 14 2 3 1 0 5 4 8 10 9 28 47 15 l3 9 8 10 0 2 9 6 1 4 13 10 10 37 21 34 8 8 13 l3 28 46 14 10 9 10 3 5 0 4 6 2 6 12 21 7 38 31 15 6 3 5 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 17 19 6 14 29 2 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 11.7 35.3 42.2 22.8 14.5 8.5 6.3 3.1 1.4 1.8 3.9 3.5 2.8 4.7 10.7 11.2 19 56 72 23 17 36 37 11 0 104 93 72 73 98 118 45 1 4 0 0 0 0 21 55 71 34 54 69 82 52 17 6 4 11 8 6 0 48 49 17 57 58 84 42 20 6 4 6 4 5 0 55 55 1 35 71 88 53 l3 9 1 3 4 6 0 35 58 13 42 55 105 44 14 5 5 3 2 1 0 28 55 22 40 54 91 65 7 5 0 2 1 0 15 48 5 18 9 4 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 3.7 58.5 66.9 28.8 45.6 67.1 82.1 39.6 10.6 4.9 2.8 4.6 3.3 3.9 1968 4-10 4-17 4-24 5-1 5-8 1969 4-2 4-9 4-16 4-23 4-30 5-7 5-12 5-19 5-26 6-2 6-9 6-30 7-21 7-28 8-11 8-18 II 6 5 0 6 5 6 3 5 10 14 II II 5 1 6 7 4 1 4 12 16 1970 3-31 4-6 4-14 4-22 4-28 5-4 5-11 5-18 5-25 5-31 6-8 6-16 6-22 6-28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 93 52 50 39 99 95 51 14 6 4 14 7 II 1 88 87 42 61 96 116 45 17 6 4 2 4 4 0 67 96 38 66 93 83 26 14 7 9 10 5 9 0 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------nc = no count. �- 105 - Table 1. Number of deer counted on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1968, 1969, and 1970 (continued). Date of Count 1900 2000 Hour of Count {Mountain Standard Time} 2100 2200 2300 2400 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 Mean 7-6 7-l3 7-20 7-27 8-4 8-11 8-25 8-30 9-7 9-13 9-20 9-27 8 12 0 14 7 11 5 12 27 7 4 32 14 19 10 23 20 16 20 19 8 8 12 34 5 8 0 7 4 10 4 9 3 9 l3 25 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 1 2 1 3 13 5.2 9.3 3.5 11.5 l3.5 12.5 12.1 16.0 11.1 9.7 12.8 23.4 0 1 0 0 5 3 0 2 0 4 1 22 7 14 1 24 24 18 18 26 8 20 8 30 12 7 15 18 23 24 24 20 14 16 16 28 1 15 5 16 19 14 29 28 15 8 21 22 0 11 2 15 17 11 17 22 16 14 28 19 3 7 2 9 21 15 14 15 16 11 16 15 7 6 3 1 7 13 2 22 l3 9 19 17 METHODS AND RESULTS - LITTLE HILLS No data have come from the Little Hills portion of the alfalfa damage study during the Segment. Therefore, progress will be reported under the combined METHODS AND RESULTS heading. Deer Counts Preliminary counts were made to ascertain relative numbers and use patterns of wild deer on the western one-half of the study field at Little Hills. Counting procedures were the same as at Rifle Gap. Four counts were made at weekly intervals during April after which they were discontinued because of a lack of deer. No deer were seen on the field the first two weeks. The third week, 31 deer left the field early in the evening when the observer arrived. Three deer returned later that night and the same number was observed the following week. If substantially more deer are not observed in 1971, the wild-deer portion of the Little Hills study will be deleted. Fencing an II-acre field for the controlled phase of the study was completed in early May. A herd of 30 deer (10 bucks, 8 does, and 12 fawns) that had been confined in an adjacent 90-acre pasture were then allowed free access to the field. Evidence of deer presence was later found over the entire field and during one spot check, 27 deer were counted on the area. Alfalfa hay and a pelleted concentrate mixture were fed on the study field all winter to supplement a potential forage shortage in the pasture and to encourage the animals to keep coming to the field. �- 106 - Table 2. Linear regressions and correlations relating the mean number of deer counted at various hou~s (X) and the mean number of deer counted per night (Y) on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field using 1968, 1969, and 1970 pooled data. MST Time (PM) n 8 46 9 47 10 47 11 12 r r2 Sy·x 4.11 + 0.54 X 0.948 0.899 6.64 0.71 + 0.71 X 0.936 0.876 7.26 0.63 + 0.71 X 0.979 0.958 4.20 0.33 + 0.78 X 0.953 0.908 6.27 -0.48 + 0.89 X 0.903 0.815 8.89 2.03 + 0.64 X 0.956 0.9l4 6.08 -0.10 + 0.74 X 0.958 0.9l8 4.45 -0.02 + 0.76 X 0.985 0.970 4.23 -1.40 + 0.89 X 0.964 0.929 5.51 1.08 + 0.68 X 0.976 0.953 4.50 -0.63 + 0.78 X 0.985 0.970 3.59 -1.21 + 0.84 X 0.979 0.958 4.21 0.31 + 0.72 X 0.986 0.972 3.57 -1.25 + 0.84 X 0.986 0.972 3.43 -0.05 + 0.83 X 0.988 0.976 3.24 Prediction Equation 1\ Y l\ Y 1\ 47 Y .1\ Y 1\ 47 Y 1\ 8+9 9+10 46 Y = .1\ 47 Y 1\ 10+11 47 Y 1\ 11+12 47 8+9+10 46 9+10+11 47 10+11+12 47 8+9+10+11 46 9+10+11+12 47 7+8+9+ 10+11+ 12 44 Y 1\ Y .1\ Y 1\ Y 1\ Y 1\ Y 1\ Y Irrigation The entire field was sprinkler irrigated twice, once for each growth of hay. The first irrigation ran from May 25 through June 16, and the second from August 11 through September 5. Problems exist with the current irrigation procedure in that about a three-week time lag occurs between the start and finish of one complete irrigation. This creates an added variable in plant growth that becomes especially acute during the relatively short growth period of the second crop. New procedures will be considered in 1971 to help alleviate this situation. �- 107 - 100 90 - • 80 ~ GI Z 70 n= 47 "'" Sy.x = 3.57 • • • • • . Ya-0.63 + 0.18 X r = 0.986 • • • Mean Number of Deer at 9 a 10 a II PM, MST Fig. 3. Relationship between the mean number of deer counted from 9:00 through .11:00 P.M. and the mean number of deer counted per night on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field based on 1968, 1969> and 1970 pooled data. �- 108 - -~- )c_II_J(_t~_)t~" »> ...- ,..--, . ,.....• ~. , •• \•• \ ,/ •••' I' ......" .:-.o" ..\ • ,t. y' ~\'\ 1\.' • I 0:", ••••• I ." • I ••••• \ I ~':.!~~ ~ '.~~ ..~t~":' ~ ~ ' , ~ ..~ ,~.~ . ,'i, : .. 0 ,0\ .'.) .:..'". ..". . ". , . I'· . I': .' " . . : • , ...•• • , ' __ ". ,r ( '\ - •••••• 1":.1.</' ,_....."',f"'" :0 0 0 " 0 • • 0 , ° •• , , I\•• \ •• II ',' '\1 .' • 'It. lot • I" '. ., r. •••• 0 \ :,.0 0 0 , • •" , '0 '. z 0' \..: '... . \.,'. I • \ \ \ • 1. 0 , \ .o~ • • ••• •• ••• '. • , , II , "... .""" . . , , , , .. .'. ..: : .. . \ ·\'" :'. •I,'" .~~;"1' ~..~ i'~"""'>'~~ " ... \ ',' .... ".'~.., " 0.··. , ., '" \ "':;'1'" ,. . · .' . . I.... • " • • .. \ '. .s . 00:".,1 0 ,0 I: " ••0 000 • • • •.0 \.1 "\ • •• \ i-t-, I ., (' I " • '•• .0· • ..•...•.••••••••• ••••••• •••• ••.• J ' ••• If •••• " • I, • • • Ie Q • ., II I, • ,11 II \ ..' I '."'., I ~II' 11 II • , , '. , I It I •• •• I I • " e 0 . •• , \ , I I. 1 " • • •• 0 • , " 11 0 ' I \. .' • •• • & I I • I \ •• • ' I • I I e ., It " •• • , .J( •I • ., '..'. ..: r:,--,-, I ., : " '. • K ).. ' •• '~ •• • 'Ii. t···· . . .•....... I '.','1( I • ..... "'w • • o Fig. 4. Observed Gap alfalfa damage distribution of groups of one or more deer on the Rifle study field during the first hay growth, 1970. �- 109 - • ,_ . .. .... • ••• • \.:.....\ ..'. ·/~ 1 ..... . • ••• , •••• ,. r . ." .'o .,0 • • .0 \ • ••••••• o •• o • o '\ \ o • • , • • • I .,.•• .. ':..: .. ••• \ 0 \ \ \ z 0 l .0 • o '\ I• .f I • • •S· • .' :. • .,., .... .':• , . •• ., • ·'" ....•,...~} • • • • .." . • • .•••• • •• ,I.,..:. • • I • •• \ o .... .... • .... .... ;- .... ..' I I I. 01. • o I ! / .....• • ,. • '.. I IC o J( I , , .•••••.• •. . I . , 0·. I " I I )( I I • , \\ 1 I • ~ I • •• ;I( • I •• • I I• ,.......... \ J It •• I ;I( •• ' ••• ' ~. ..... • •••• .~ ", . /'< J< l Fig. 5. Observed Gap alfalfa distribution of groups of one or more deer on the Rifle damage study field during the second hay growth, 1970. �- 112 - Table 5. Results of proximate analysis of hay samples from the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1970. (n = 14) First Cutting Grazed Ungrazed Second Cutting Grazed Ungrazed Analysis (%) (%) Calculated-II "t".05, 13df Protein 8.25 7.94 0.608 14.81. 15.89 0.553 Fat 2.57 2.49 0.285 3.92 3.66 1.386 Fiber 49.92 51.19 0.619 41.90 42.10 0.073 Ash 6.09 6.09 0.007 7.27 8.07 1.348 Nitrogen Free Extract 33.16 32.01 0.717 32.09 30.28 0.725 11 Tabular "t".05, 13 df (%) (%) Calculated11 "t".05, 13df 2.160. LITERATURE CITED Gordon, D. F. 1969. Evaluation of the effects of spring-summer grazing by deer on alfalfa. P. 25-43. In Game Research Report. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3{Part 1):1-139. Prepared by _ David F. Gordon Assistant Wildlife Researcher {/~-L_/ 7/~~ Richard M. Bartmann~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher �July, 1971 - 113 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. llC Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 1 White River Elk Population Components Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Richard M. Bartmann, George D. Bear, Raymond J. Boyd, Richard N. Denney, Donald M. Hoffman, Richard M. Hopper, Robert E. Keiss, Gary T. Myers, Thomas M. Pojar, Edgar J. Prenzlow, William H. Rutherford, Robert L. Schmidt, Warren D. Snyder, Steven F. Steinert, Michael R. Szymczak and Harold M. Swope. Edgar J. Prenz10w had been in charge of this job since 1966, but in mid-1970 he was transferred to Denver and the writer was reassigned to the job in order to complete the investigation which will end with the termination of Segment 26. ABSTRACT This is the fifth annual progress report of a five-year investigation to determine the effects of specified permit seasons (limited numbers of both antlered and antlerless permits available to hunters) on the White River elk herd in northwestern Colorado. Estimated herd size, determined by formulas using pre and post season sex and age ratios in combination with kill levels, has decreased from about 6,800 to approximately 6,300 from 1966 to 1970. Preseason sex ratios (bulls per 100 cows) increased from about 29 to about 33. Age ratios (calves per 100 cows) decreased from 58 to about 55. The changes in sex ratios resulted from issuing more antlerless and fewer antlered permits to hunters in an attempt to stabilize the female segment of this elk herd. Procedures used to determine kill rates, sex and age ratios and age structures of the herd are compared and evaluated. Data from check stations and random surveys are also included. ��- 115 - WHITE RIVER ELK HERD - POPULATION COMPONENTS Raymond J. Boyd P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for the White River elk herd. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Test a candidate elk harvest formula for the White River elk herd. METHODS AND MATERIALS Data collection (aerial and ground sex and age ratio counts, check stations and mail questionnaires to determine harvest, age composition, etc.) for this project have not varied appreciably since its initiation in 1966 (Prenzlow 1967, 1968, 1969, and 1970). Procedures for determining total elk populations have also remained the same. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Complete descriptions of the area covered by the White River elk herd are included in Harris (1963) and Boyd (1971). Figure 1 locates the study area in general and Area E (Game Management Units 23 and 24) specifically. Other descriptions of the study area can be found in Prenzlow (1967 and 1968). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sex and Age Composition Aerial Surveys Pre-season Sex and Age Ratios--The 1970 pre-season sex and age ratio counts of the elk population in Area E were made with the aid of a helicopter on September 21 through 26, 1970. These classification counts were confined to elk observed only in Area E (Table 1). A total of 854 elk was classified, resulting in a ratio of 32.97 bulls (inculding spikes) per 100 cows and 54.7 calves per 100 cows. Summaries of pre-season sex and age ratio counts for the period 1961 through 1970 are shown in Table 2; while Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the 95 percent confidence limits around these ratios: �116 - N ~--I • AREA LEGEND Fig. 1. Elk Management Area E (Game Management Units 23 and 24) showing boundaries, drainage patterns and highway systems. Solid circles are active check station locations. Check Stations STUDY GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT BOUNDAR'\' HIGHWAY ",=-7 SECONDARY tt RIVER - CREEK ~-::- PEAK J;, LAKE •• ROAO - --- �- 117 .,.. Table 1. Pre-season sex and age ratio classifications in Area E, 1970. Location Mature Bulls Highway 13 to Yellowjacket Young Bulls Spike Bulls Cows Calves Total 1 2 10 3 16 Coal Creek 1 1 Lost Creek 1 1 Lost Park area 4 5 12 45 23 89 Snell Creek, Ripple Creek 3 1 14 39 18 75 Anderson Res. , Skinnyfish Cr. 5 4 4 39 27 79 6 3 9 6 3 10 43 27 89 20 9 29 3 3 7 9 3 14 Crooks Park 1 Ute Creek Marvine Creek 2 3 14 Big Ridge 1 Big Fish Creek Trappers Creek 2 South Fork 7 6 16 62 36 127 Park Creek 2 5 2 41 20 70 Lost Solar Creek 1 2 2 28 14 47 Fowler Bench 5 3 37 21 66 2 6 6 14 3 3 22 11 40 2 5 23 15 45 3 14 7 26 Johnson Park Burro Mt., S. side S. Fk. 1 Patterson Creek Oak Ridge 2 Total 34 34 82 455 249 854 Percent 4.0 4.0 9.6 53.3 29.1 100.0 �Table 2. Summaries of pre-season sex and age ratios from Area E, 1961-1970. Bulls Cows ._- Calves % Total Bulls : Ratio Cows : Calves. 216 33.1 653 41.4 : 100 : 69.9 47.4 298 30.5 976 46.8 : 100 : 64.5 298 47.5 204 32.5 627 41. 9 : 100 : 68.5 17.5 363 52.9 203 29.6 686 33.1 : 100 : 55.9 233 17.3 699 51.8 416 30.9 1,348 33.3 : 100 : 59.5 86 15.4 299 53.7 172 30.9 557 28.8 : 100 : 57.5 Year No. % No. 1961 128 19.6 1962 216 1963 % No. 309 47.3 22.1 462 125 20.0 1964 120 1965 1966 I-' I-' 00 1967 134 16.8 415 52.2 247 31.0 796 32.3 : 100 : 59.5 1968 135 18.7 366 50.7 221 30.6 722 36.9 : 100 : 60.4 1969 324 23.9 645 47.5 389 28.6 1,358 50.2 : 100 : 60.3 1970 150 17.6 455 53.3 249 29.1 854 32.9 : 100 : 54.7 Average 165 19.2 431 50.2 261 30.6 858 38.3 : 100 : 60.6 �- 119 - 60 SO •• ~ 0 U ~ -- co 0 0 •.. 30 .!! :> co 20 0 1961 62 63 65 64 66 67 68 69 70 Years Fig. 2 •. Confidence intervals. on pre-season sex ratios, Area E, 1961- 1970 10 ••• 70 ~ 0 U 0 60 0 •.... 1 --..? •.. 50 II 0 U 40 : 0 )961 62 63 64 6S 66 67 68 69 70 Years Fig. 3. 'Confidence .intervals on pre-season age ratios (ca1ves:100 cows), Area E, 1961- 1970. �- 120 - Post-season Sex and Age Ratios'--Post-season sex and age ratio classifications of the elk population in Area E were conducted, by helicopter, on January 5 through January 8, 1971. A total of 2,406 elk were classified resulting in a ratio of 8.56 bulls (including spikes) per 100 cows and 63.05 calves per 100 cows (Table 3). Summaries of post-season classifications for the period 1961 through 1970 are included in Table 4, while Figure 4 indicates the 95 percent confidence limits around these post-season ratios. Table 3. Post-season sex and age ratio classifications in area E, 1970. Mature Bulls Location Young Bulls Spike Bulls Cows Calves Total Hogback 6 1 5 54 26 92 Highway 13 to Yellowjacket 4 3 8 152 80 247 3 2 76 45 126 Uranium Peak area Coal Creek, Little Beaver 4 3 88 59 154 Oak Ridge - North 2 6 135 90 233 Oak Ridge - South 4 3 10 262 174 453 Big Beaver, Fawn Creek 2 3 4 127 80 216 22 15 37 3 28 13 53 Marvine Creek 1 14 11 26 Ute Creek to S. Fork 2 72 55 129 15 326 206 555 8 46 30 85 Fawn Creek to Lost Creek Lost Creek to Snell Creek 9 5 South Fork 3 Miller Creek 1 Total 35 18 67 1,402 884 2,406 Percent 1.4 0.8 2.8 58.3 36.7 100 �Table 4. Summaries of post-season sex and age ratios from Area E, 1961-1970. % No. % Total Bulls : Ratio Cows : Total Calves Cows Bulls Year No. % No. 1961 106 10.6 465 46.5 430 43.0 1,001 22.8 : 100 : 92.5 1962 125 13.8 446 49.2 335 37.0 906 28.0 : 100 : 75.1 1963 45 6.1 413 55.7 283 38.2 741 10.9 : 100 : 68.5 1964 117 6.0 1,130 58.3 692 35.7 1,939 10.4 : 100 : 61.2 1965 85 5.2 930 57.1 613 37.7 1,628 9.1 : 100 : 65.9 1966 128 6.1 1,245 58.9 739 35.0 2,112 10.3 : 100 : 59.4 1967 214 9.2 1,318 56.4 806 34.5 2,338 16.2 : 100 : 61.2 1968 148 8.2 951 52.9 699 38.9 1,798 15.6 : 100 : 73.5 1969 166 9.0 1,012 55.0 661 36.0 1,839 16.4 : 100 : 65.3 1970 120 5.0 1,402 58.3 884 36.7 2,406 8.6 : 100 : 63.0 Average 125 7.5 931 55.7 614 36.8 1,670 13 .4 : 100 : 66.0 t-' N t-' �- 122 - so '" 40 ~ o U 30 o o ..:::.. 20 w> o L----1-9~6-'--~-6-2------6~3-----6·-4------6~S----~6~6-----6~7-----6~8~--~6~9~--~70 Years Fig. Ground I,. Confidence intervals on post-season sex ratios, Area E, 1961- 1970. Surveys During the years 1967 through 1970, a ground classification of elk in Area E was made each July. This was done to estimate yearling-adult cow ratios, which cannot be accurately obtained during aerial classifications. These data also serve as independent estimates of sex and age structures. It becomes very important to determine the proportion of yearling females in the herd and thus their influence on overall herd productivity. Usually only a small fraction of the yearling females breed, but there is considerable conflicting literature on this particular subject. Observers on horseback, riding during the early morning and evening hours, classified elk in different sections of the Flat Tops Primitive Area. In three days, four teams of two or more men classified a total of 969 elk (Table 5). Many more elk were seen on which no classifications were possible. The average size of elk groups observed was 32.3 animals. Check Station Surveys Number of Elk Checked--Four special research check stations (Meeker, New Castle, Deep Creek, and Ripple Creek) were operated during the first nine days of the 1970 big game season. Research personnel were also stationed at the permanent management check station at Rifle to check elk from Area E. A total of 1,154 elk was checked from Game Management Units 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, and 34. Data were collected from six additional units around Area E (Units 23 and 24) because of their importance in relation to Area E elk. Table 6 lists number of elk checked from the White River area 1964 through 1970. �- 123 - Table 5. Composition of 969 elk classified during July ground counts in Area E, 1970. 'Mature Yearling Bulls Bulls Item Mature Cows Yearling Calves Cows Total Number Observed 52 65 440 133 279 969 Percent Observed 5.4 6.7 45.4 13.7 28.8 100.0 Frequency in Groups 1/ 16 17 28 22 20 30 Mean Group Composition ~/ 1.7 2.2 14.7 4.4 9.3 32.3 1/ Frequency in groups (i.e. , mature bulls were observed in 16 of 30 total groups). ~/ Mean group composition determined by percent of elk observed times 32.3. Table 6. Number of elk checked through stations from White River elk herd, (Game Management Units 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, and 34), 1964-1970. Station 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 Average Meeker 553 506 591 518 725 637 713 606 Deep Creek 338 227 220 303 308 139 189 246 New Castle 321 196 166 227 290 78 164 206 Rifle 137 138 124 92 83 73 51 100 Idaho ~prings 32 137 159 112 120 129 Ripple Creek 227 56 37 1,381 1,204 1,384 114 4 4 Hamilton Total 110 1,381 1,633 983 1,154 1,303 �Table 9. Sex and age determinations of 452 elk checked from Area E, 1970. Age ~:lears2 ]j k2 l~ 2~ 3~ 4~ 5~ 6~ 7~ 8~ 9+ 'I'o t.al : Number 19 202 70 11 11 2 4 3 0 1 323 Percent 5.9 62.5 21.7 3.4 3.4 0.6 1.2 0.9 0 0.3 100 4.2 44.7 15.5 2.4 2.4 0.4 0.9 0.7 0 0.2 71.4 Sex Males Percent Total Females t-' N Number 36 14 17 20 13 8 12 3 2 4 129 Percent 27.9 10.8 13.2 15.5 10.1 6.2 9.3 2.3 1.6 3.1 100 8.0 3.1 3.8 4.4 2.9 1.8 2.6 0.7 0.4 0.9 28.6 55 216 87 31 24 10 16 6 2 5 452 12.2 47.8 19.2 6.8 5.3 2.2 3.5 1.3 0.4 1.1 100 Percent Total Total Elk Number Percent 1/ Ages Total assessed by Quimby and Gaab technique. 0'\ �Table 10. Sex and age determinations of 452 elk checked from Area E by unit of kill, 1970. Age ~years2 1/ 5lz 4lz 6lz 7lz 8lz 9+ Total 4 1 1 1 0 0 115 3.48 3.48 0.87 0.87 0.87 8.36 1.24 1.24 0.31 0.3i 0.31 126 43 7 7 1 3 2 0 1 208 8.65 60.58 20.67 3.36 3.36 0.48 1.44 0.96 - 0.48 5.57 39.01 l3 .31 2.17 2.17 0.31 0.93 0.62 8 4 5 5 4 1 4 1 0 0 32 Percent of Total 25.00 12.50 15.62 15.62 12.50 3.12 12.50 3.12 Percent of all Females 6.20 3.10 3.88 3.88 3.10 0.78 3.10 0.78 28 10 12 15 9 7 8 2 2 4 97 Percent of Total 28.87 10.31 12.37 15.46 7.22 8.25 2.06 2.06 4.12 Percent of all Females 21. 70 7.75 9.30 11.63 5.43 6.20 1.55 1.55 3.10 k2 llz 2lz 3lz 1 76 27 4 Percent of Total 0.87 66.19 23.48 Percent of all Males 0.31 23.53 18 Percent of Total Percent of all Males Unit and Sex 23 - Males Number 24 - Males Number •.... N -...J 23- Females Number 24 - Females Number 1/ Ages assessed by Quimby and Gaab technique. 9.28 6.98 �- 128 - Table II. Percent error in aging 210 yearling White River area units, 1970. Station Dental Cementum Meeker 11 Field Aged 1/ elk at check stations, all Percent Correct Percent Error 152 149 98.03 1.97 Ripple Creek 2 2 100.00 0.0 New Castle 35 35 100.00 0.0 Deep Creek l3 l3 100.00 0.0 Rifle 8 8 100.00 0.0 Total 210 207 98.57 1.43 II Number of teeth checked in the laboratory using the cementum technique. ~I Number of correct ages determined at check stations using tooth wear and replacement techniques. Table 12. Percent error in aging 242 elk older than yearlings all White River units, 1970. Station Dental Cementum Meeker 11 Field Aged ,{I at check stations, Percent Correct Percent Error 155 79 50.97 49.03 Ripple Creek 9 7 77.78 22.22 New Castle 42 22 52.38 41.62 Deep Creek 31 22 70.97 29.03 Rifle 5 0 0.0 Total 242 130 53.72 II Number of teeth checked in the laboratory using the cementum 46.28 technique. II Number of correct ages determined at check stations using tooth wear and replacement techniques. �- 129 Table 13. Percent error between dental cementum and tooth replacement and wear aging tehcniques by age class of 471 elk from the White River study area, 1970. Dental Cementum Age Class 1/ Field Age ~/ Percent Correct Percent Error 1 213 207 97.2 2.8 2 95 80 84.2 15.8 3 79 23 29.1 70.9 4 33 12 36.4 63.6 5 17 4 23.5 76.5 6 13 3 23.1 76.9 7 7 1 14.3 85.7 8 5 o o 100.0 9+ 9 5 55.6 44.4 471 335 71.12 28.9 Total 1/ Number of teeth checked in the laboratory using the dental cementum procedure. ~/ Number of ages correctly replacement procedures. assigned at check stations Table 14. Distribution of assigned ages in relation dental cementum procedures, Area E only, 1970. Cementum Age Class Check Station Assigned 34567 using tooth wear and to ages determined by Ages 8 9+ Total 1 2 1 119 1 1 2 1 60 24 3 2 7 49 4 2 9 17 3 1 5 3 14 1 6 3 6 9 1 2 7 1 1 1 5 1 1 10 1 4 1 6 7 7 10 369 4 121 1 86 2 64 8 34 2 1 9+ Total 122 70 83 28 24 15 9 8 1 20 21 �- 130 - Of the 1,900 hunters sampled, 1,419 (74.68%) returned usable cards. The estimated total elk kill in Area E was 1,360 (C. I. ± 134; Z = 1.96), with 38.4 percent of the active hunters successful. Table 15 gives results of the survey, including kill by type of license, while Table 16 lists active (those who actually hunted elk in 1970) hunters and success ratios. Table 15. Results of the 1970 random survey of 3,810 Area E permittees. Antlered Res. N. .:~:.cs• Ant1erless N. Res. Res . Total Permits Issued 2,159 846 633 172 3,810 Permits in Sample 1,069 431 318 82 1,900 Percent in Sample 49.51 50.94 50.24 47.67 49.87 Sample Returned 748 299 294 78 1,419 Percent Returned 69.97 69.37 92.45 95.12 74.68 Percent of Total Permits 34.65 35.34 46.44 45.35 37.24 Reported "No Hunts" 63 17 17 2 99 Estimated "No Hunts" 168 45 46 6 265 Reported "Kills" 214 108 134 50 516 Estimated Total "Kills" 571 295 357 137 1,360 Table 16. Number of hunters participating during the 1970 Area E elk hunt and success ratios per license and active hunter. Projected from random survey data. Active Hunters 1,991 801 587 166 3,545 Success (kill)/Lic. 26.45 42.20 46.60 79.65 35.70 Success (kill)/Hunter 28.70 44.60 50.30 82.50 38.40 Projections from the random survey indicated that 265 licenses were issued that were not used (7.0%). The number of "no hunts" in Area E have averaged 7.0 percent since 1966. �- 131 - Harvest in Relation to Area and Time Location of Kil1--Ki1l by Game Management Unit was projected random survey and appears in Table 17. These data indicated percent of the 1970 Area E kill occurred in Unit 24. Table 17. Management Composition Unit. of the 1970 estimated Unit Antlered Number Antlerless Number % % from the that 54.12 elk kill in Area E by Game Total Number % 23 395 29.04 229 16.84 624 45.88 24 471 34.63 265 19.48 736 54.12 Total 866 63.68 494 36.32 1,360 100.00 Date of Kill--Dates of kill by hunters in Area E are shown in Table 18. Approximately 74.8 percent of the kill occurred during the first five days of the season, with 90.15 percent occurring during the first 11 days of the season. Hunter Effort--Elk hunting in Area E provided 20.954 man-days of hunting recreation in 1970. This was an increase of 7,845 recreation days compared with 1969. This increase was due, in part, to a 36 percent increase in the number of bull permits in Area E compared to 1969. Mean number of days spent hunting per active hunter increased from 4.6 in 1969 to 5.9 in 1970. Estimates of Mortality Other Than Legal Kill Wounding Loss--Estimates of net wounding loss (number of elk reported wounded minus the number of wounded elk killed by other hunters) are presented in Table 19, while in Table 20, a comparison is presented between wounding loss reported by hunters with antlered licenses and those having a antlerless license. It is assumed these wounding loss figures represent a minimum loss because all hunters probably would not admit wounding an elk, and there are elk wounded that hunters are not aware of. Conversely, hunters who did not wound an elk, most likely would not respond to the question positively. The 5.8 percent loss figure from Table 20, is about one-half that reported in 1969 from Area E. �Table 18. Numbers of elk killed, by day of season, Area E, 1970. October November Unit 17 18 19 20 21 1/ 22 23 24 25 26 27 ~/ 28 29 30 31 1 2 3 4 5 6 23 164 85 90 68 37 31 20 8 31 8 14 14 6 3 11 8 - 6 6 6 8 24 189 133 llO 82 59 37 17 14 11 6 11 6 17 6 8 31 - - - - 6 I-' W N I Total 354 218 200 150 96 68 37 22 42 14 25 20 23 9 19 39 0 6 6 6 1/ 74.8 percent of the total estimated elk kill occurred during the first five days of the open season. 1/ 90.15 percent of the total estimated elk kill occurred during the first eleven days of the open season. 14 �Table 19. Wounded elk salvaged by hunters and net wounding loss, Area E, 1970. Wounding Loss Net Loss Wounded Killed Number of Elk Reported Killed No. Wounded Antlered 322 24 7 17 5.3 Ant1er1ess 184 6 2 4 2.2 Total 516 30 9 21 4.1 License Type Percent Loss t-' Table 20. w w Area E wounding loss - comparison of antlered and ant1er1ess hunters, 1970. License Type No. of Hunters Reporting No. of Elk Rept. Wounded % of Hunters Wounding Elk No. of Elk Rept. Killed % Loss of Kill Proj. Elk Loss Antlered 1,047 24 2.3 322 7.4 49 Ant1er1ess 372 6 1.6 184 3.3 8 1,419 30 2.1 516 5.8 57 Total �- 134 - Population Total Population Estimates and Projections Estimates Formulas were used to estimate the total number of elk present in Area E prior to the 1970 elk hunt. Detailed descriptions of the method are presented in Prenzlow (1968) with examples of how ratios of antlered to antlerless elk from kill, pre- and post-season classification counts, were used in a formula devised by Dr. David Bowden of Colorado State University, to estimate a pre-hunt elk population. Pre-Season Population Estimate, 1970--An estimated 6,347 (C.l. = 162, ~ 1.96, q(= .05) elk were present in Area E just prior to the opening of the 1970 elk hunt (Table 21). This compares to 6,751, 6,313, 6,216 and 5,829 estimated in 1966, 1967, 1968 and 1969, respectively. Since the research and management objective in this area was to hold the elk herd stable, the estimated pre-hunt elk population seemed reasonable. Table 21. Pre-season population and age in Area E, 1970. estimate and proportions of elk by sex Item Estimated Number Expected Percent II Observed Percent 11 Bulls 1,117 20.99 17.56 Cows 3,383 51.08 53.28 Calves 1,847 27.93 29.16 Total 6,347 100.00 100.00 II Percentages expected 11 Percentages observed when making from 1969 post-season population 1970 pre-season data. elk classifications by helicopter. Also, the expected percentages of bulls, cows and calves, based upon 1969 post-season population estimates, were not significantly different from percentages observed when flying in September on sex and age classification counts in 1970. �- 135 - Post-Season Population Estimate, 1970--An estimated 4,987 elk survived the 1970 elk hunt in Area E (Table 22). This population was determined by subtracting the elk kill, as determined by the random survey, from the estimated pre-season population. Table 22. Post-season population sex and age in Area E, 1970. estimates and proportions of elk by Item Pre-Season Population Kill Bulls 1,117 866 251 5.03 4.98 Cows 3,383 453 2,930 58.75 58.27 Calves 1,847 41 1,806 36.22 36.75 Total 6,347 1,360 4,987 100.00 100.00 number of elk (4,987) that 1/ 1/ Based upon 1970 random survey. 1/ Proportions by class of the total estimated remained Post-Season Population No. Exp. % 1/ Obs. % 2/ after the close of the 1970 elk hunt. 2/ Proportions actually observed when flying the 1970 post-season age classifications by helicopter. sex and Total post-season elk populations in Area E declined from 5,336 in 1966 to 4,506 in 1968, then increased slightly to 4,646 in 1969 and 4,987 in 1970. The decline was largely the result of an increased kill in the antler less segment of the elk population. Allowing more antler less permits during these years was necessary, however, to change the composition of the wintering herd to meet the objective of narrowing the sex ratio (more bulls per 100 cows). Proportions of bulls in the post-season elk population have increased from 6.1 percent in 1966 to 9.2, 8.2, and 9.0 in 1967, 1968 and 1969 respectively, then decreased in 1970 to 4.98 percent. Population Projections Each year, based upon the previous years post-season population estimate, projection is made for the next year. This procedure is described in Prenzlow (1968) in detail using 1967 data as examples. a Population Projection for Area E, 1971--Immediately prior to the opening of the 1971 elk hunt in Area E, a projected elk population of 7,084 animals will be available to hunters in this area (Table 23). This figure may change slightly, however, if productivity differs significantly from 54.7 calves per 100 cows. �- 136 - Table 23. Predicted Item 1971 pre-season elk population, 1970 Post-Season Population Bulls 251 Cows 2,930 Calves 1,806 Total 4,987 1971 Pre-Season No. 1/ that of 1,806 calves, 50 percent (903) are females. by adding the remaining POEulation Exp. % 2/ u 16.29 3,833 ]j 54.11 2,097 ~/ 29.60 7,084 100.00 1,154 1/ Assuming ]j Calculated Area E. (903) are males and 50 percent bulls in 1970 (251) and 803 male calves from 1970. 1/ Calculated by adding the remaining calves from 1970. cows in 1970 (2,930) and 903 female ~/ 'Calculated by multiplying the number of cows in 1971 (3,833) by 54.7 percent expected productivity. 2/ Expected proportions of total projected the 1971 hunting season. numbers of elk (7,084) prior to In previous years, population projections have been high because no losses other than the estimated hunting mortality were considered. Annual herd losses of 17.5, 11.5 and 4.3 percent were determined for 1967, 1968 and 1970, respectively. These percentages were calculated by subtracting a particular years popuLat Lon estimate from the projection (Table 24). Recommendations for the 1971 Area E Elk Hunt--To fulfill objectives 3a and 3b of this study, it is our recommendation that 2,150 antlered and 1,110 antlerless permits be issued for the 1971 elk hunt in Area E. Table 25 illustrates the composition of the 1971 pre-season Area E elk population if the projection is reduced by 10 percent to account for over-winter herd losses. The resulting post-season population is projected also based on no significant change in hunter success. �- 137 - Table 24. Estimates of annual herd losses in Area E, 1966-1970. Year Population Estimate 1966 6,751 1967 6,313 7,654 1,341 17.5 1968 6,261 7,075 814 11.5 1969 5,829 1/ 5,829 1970 6,347 6,632 285 4.3 of obvious sampling errors. 1/ Corrected because Population Projection Difference Number Percent Table 25. Modified 1971 Area E pre-season population projection and resulting post-season population with a kill level determined by 2,000 antlered and 1,400 antlerless permits. Item Modified 1971 PreSeason POEulati0n Number Exp. % Bulls 1,039 16.30 560 479 9.63 Cows 3,450 54.11 748 2,702 54.30 Calves 1,887 29.59 92 1,795 36.07 Total 6 ,376 1/ 100.00 1,400 ]j 4,976 100.00 1/ Modified theoretical projection projection 1971 Post-Season Projected Kill resulted from subtracting of 7,084 in Table 26. POEulation Number Exp. % 708 elk (10%) from the 1/ Projected kill is based on 28 percent success on 2,000 antlered and 60 percent success on 1,400 antlerless permits. The 479 bulls and 2,702 cows in the post-season 18.39 bulls per 100 cows. population permits give a ratio of �- 138 - As a check on the above projections, ratios of bulls, cows and calves observed during classification counts will be compared to expected ratios; kill data will again be determined by random survey; and pre-season population estimates will be calculated by formula. It is important to note that these comparisons will be independent estimates of the same population parameter, and if there is close agreement, it would indicate that the above described method is valid for estimating the elk population in Area E. LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. 1971. Elk of the White River plateau, Colorado. Fish and Parks Div., Denver. Tech. Pub. No. 25. 126 p. Harris, J. T. Colorado. Colo. Game, illus. 1963. Population dynamics of the White River elk herd, Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich. 190 p. Keiss, R. E. 1969. Comparison of eruption-wear patterns and cementum annuli as age criteria in elk. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(1):175-180. Prenzlow, E. J. 1967. Population components - White River elk. Job Completion Report, W-38-R-21. p. 251-276. Colorado. 1968. White River elk population components. Progress Report. W-38-R-22. p. 383-421. Colorado. Job 1969. White River elk population components. Progress Report. W-38-R-23. p. 179-234. Colorado. Job 1970. White River elk population components. Progress Report. W-38-R-24. p. 257-286. Colorado. Job Quimby, D. C., and J. E. Gaab. 1957. indicator in Rocky Mountain elk. Prepared by Mandibular dentition as an age J. Wildl. Mgmt. 21(4):435-451. �- 139 - APPENDIX A POST CARD SURVEY - AREA E HUNTERS Please list results from your own elk hunting effort and not information from those with whom you hunted in 1970. 1. Did you hunt elk in your specified area? Yes 2. What Game Mana ement Unit within the AREA did # of nit County Drainage 3. Did you harvest an elk? Yes No Calf Bull Cow 5. List unit of harvest: 6. List county of harvest: 7. Please give date of harvest: 8. How many elk were hit that you weren't able to get? 9. Was your elk wounded before you killed it? Yes No 4. Did you harvest a: DIV USE ONLY ��July, 1971 - 141 - JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W .... 38-R-25 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 1 Middle Park Deer Study - Population Distribution Period Covered: April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, D. W. Reichert, Olof C. Wallmo, Robert L. Schmidt, Julius J. Klein, Willard Travnicek, Steven Horn, Don Merrimen, Dave Hoart, Paul Gilbert, and Laren A. Roper. ABSTRACT A complete revised list of deer trapping and marking data is presented for 1969, 1970 and 1971. The total deer trapped in five separate areas for these years are 279, 205 and 193. ��- 143 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Laren A. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To delineate deer concentration areas in Middle Park and relate changes in deer distribution in time and space to accumulation and physical properties 'of snow. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Define winter range boundaries of the Middle Park deer population under mild, moderate, and severe winter conditions. 2. Define sub-unit boundaries. 3. Delineate 4. Relate changes in deer distribution properties of snow. major deer concentration METHODS areas. to accumulation and physical AND MATERIALS See Gill (1969). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping Trapping and Marking Results Trapping was conducted within five suspected deer population sub-units was reported by Gill (1970). These units are Muddy Creek, Blue River, Williams Fork River, Troublesome Creek and Beaver Creek. as Field records for the 1969, 1970, and 1971 deer trapping data have been reexamined and summarized on automatic data processing cards. As a result several errors were found that were reported in the July 1970 report. This summary supersedes the previous data. Trapping success has increased each year of the trapping operation, however, the total deer tagged each year has decreased due to re-catches of previously tagged deer. In 1969 a total of 279 deer were trapped and tagged, �- 144 - 205 in 1970 and 193 deer in 1971. These represent newly tagged deer. Table I is a summary of the total deer tagged in each sub-unit. Table l. The number of deer tagged in 5 areas suspected populations of deer in Middle Park. Year Muddy Blue 1969 102 36 18 1970 13 56 1971 49 Total 164 Williams Fork Troublesome to be discrete Beaver Total 102 21 279 42 94 0 205 47 43 36 18 193 l39 103 232 39 677 Tables 2 through 15 provide revised lists of deer tagged with either eartags and/or neckbands for the 3-year period. All trap locations have been coded for automatic data processing. 16 provides a list of these sites and their code number. A complete analysis the next segment. Neckbanded of these data is in progress Table and will be reported in Deer Observations These data are currently being analyzed utilizing an automatic data processing program that has been developed this past segment to summarize all trapping data. �- 145 - Table 2. Deer tagged' and marked in the Muddy sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969. Date Tagged 1-16-69 1-16-69 1-17-69 1-17-69 1-18-69 1-18-69 1-20-69 1-24-69 1-26-69 1-26-59 1-26-69 ? 2-5-69 2-5-69 2-5- 69 2-5-69 1-22-69 1-23-69 1-25-69 1-29-69 1-29-69 1-30-69 2-1-69 2-2-69 2-2-69 2-2-69 2-2-69 2-3-69 2-4-69 2-4-69 2-4-69 2-4-69 2-5-69 2-5-69 2-6-69 2-6-69 2-7-69 2-7-69 2-7-69 2-8- 69 2-9-69 Age Tag No. Neck nand Color and Symbol Mature F Fa\\TJ1 F Nature F Hature F Hature F Hature H Yr l.g , H Hature F 1'1 Yrlg. Fawn F 1'1 Fawn MP-2 1vlP5 1'1P-8 MP-9 NP-11 MP-12 MP-23 1'1P-28 MP-33 1'1P-35 1'1P-36 MP-43 MP-47 MP-48 HP-49 MP-50 HP-54 Y1P-56 MP-58 MP-64 MP-65 MP-66 MP-76 HP-79 MP-80 MP-81 MP-82 MP-85 MP-86 MP-91 MP-92 MP-93 MP-94 MP-95 1'1P-102 HP-103 HP-108 MP-109 HP-110 HP-119 MP-124 Red no number Red no number Red no number Red no number Red no number Red no number Red no number Red ;': 20 Red * 12 Red 7"\ 7 Red j" 15 Red 'k 8 Red "k 10 Red I': 4 Red ;': 11 Red * 5 Red -k 1 Red --}, 6 Red -'- 18 Red * 9 Red I': 32 Red -k 31 Red ~: 13 Red i': 14 Red "k 28 Red 7: 29 Red i': 30 Red * 16 Red * 27 Red ..,': 21 Red -k 3 Red * 1 Red -Ie 26 Red "k 23 Red * 24 Red -k 33 Red ~'e 35 Red ofe 40 Red ~'c 34 Red 'Ok 36 Red "k 37 'Sex F ? 1'1 1'1ature Mature F 1'1 Mature Mature F Mature F Mature F F ,Mature 1'1ature F Mature F Mature F 1'1 Fawn 1'1ature F 1'1 Yr1g. 1'1 Yrlg. Mature F Mature F 1'1 F'awn 1'1 Yrlg. 1'1ature F Fawn F Fawn F Yr1g. 1'1 Mature F Mature F 1'1 F'awn 1'1 Yrlg. Fawn F Mature F 1'1 F<1\"n Remarks - - ., - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �- 146 'Table 2. Deer tagged and marked in the Muddy sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969 (continued). Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol M 2-11-69 2-11-69 F M 2-12-69 M 2-12-69 Unk 2-13-69 2-13-69 F 2-13-69 F F 2-15- 69 F 2-16-69 2-10-69 F F 2-10-69 F 2-11-69 2-17-69 F F 2-17-69 F 2-18-69 2-19-69 M 2-19-69 F F 2-19-69 F 2-19- 69 F 2-21-69 2-20-69 F 2-20-69 F F 2-20-69 2-20-69 M F 2-20-69 M 2-27-69 F 2-22-69 2.-22-69 F F 2-22-69 2-23-69 F F 2-23-69 2-23-69 M F 2-23-69 F 2-24-69 M 2-24-69 F 2-25-69 F 2-25-69 F 3-2-69 3-2-69 F 3-2-69 F 3-2-69 F 3-3-69 F 3-3-69 F Eawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature F a\17Il Fawn Fa\l7Il Mature Mature Mature Fa\l7Il Fa\l7Il Fa\l7Il Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fa\l7Il Mature Yr1g. Fa\l7Il Fa\l7Il Mature Mature Fa\l7Il Fa\l7Il Fawn Mature Yr1g. Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Fml7Il Fawn Mature MP-126 MP-127 MP-135 MP-136 MP-137 MP-138 MP-139 MP-148 MP-149 MP-153 MP-154 MP-159 HP-161 MP-162 MP-165 MP-176 MP-l77 MP-178 HP-179 MP-181 MP-183 MP-184 MP-185 MP-186 MP-187 MP-196 MP-201 MP-202 MP-203 MP- 209 MP-210 MP- 211 MP-212 MP-213 MP- 214 MP-217 MP-218 MP-227 MP-228 MP-229 MP- 230 . MP-232 MP-233 Red-{( 27 no neckband Red no number no neckband no neckband Red -{(42 Red * 45 no neckband no neckband Red * 38 Red ok 39 Red 1: 41 Red ~'(44 no neckband no neckband no neckband Red * 46 Red * 41 no neckband Red * 57 Red 1: 48 Red * 49 Red * 50 no neckband Red no number Red 1: 29 no neckband no neckband Red * 54 Red * 53 no neckband no neckband no neckband Red ..,'c 68 Red 1( 22 Red * 51 Red * 52 Red )'(61 Red * 56 Red 1( 58 no neckband no neck band Red * 60 ---- -------------------------------. Date Tagged Sex Remarks �- 147 'Table 2. Deer tagged and marked in the Muddy sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969 (continued). Date Tagged Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol 3-8-69 3-8-69 3-5-69 3-5-69 3-5-69 3-7-69 3-7-69 3-7-69 3-8-69 3-12-69 3-12-69 3-10-69 3-10- 69 3-10-69 3-11-69 3-11-69 3-11-69 3-11-69 Fawn Mature Mature F Unk Fawn F .1'1ature Mature F Yrlg. F Mature F Fm-m F Mature M Fm-m M 17 1'1ature 1'1 Fawn 1'1 Fawn Fawn F Fawn F Fawn 1'1 Mature F MP-239 MP-240 MP-242 MP-243 MP-244 MP-247 MP- 248 MP- 249 MP-251 MP-252 MP-253 1'1P-260 MP-26l MP-262 MP-265 MP-266 MP-267 MP-270 no neckband Red -{(64 Red ok 63 no neckband Red ,'(25 Red ok 55 Red 'Ok 67 Red ,',72 no neckband no neckband no neckband Red >'( 69 no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband Red * 66 * F F Indicates diamond ~ symbol on neckband Remarks �- 148 Table 3. Deer tagged and marked in the Blue River sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe Na t LonaI Forest, 1969. Date Tagged 1- 20-69 1-20-69 . 1-20-69 1-20-69 2-4-69 2-4-69 2-6-69 2-7-69 2-7-69 2-7-69 2-7-69 2-8-69 2-8-69 2-8-69 2-11-69 2-11-69 2-11-69 2-l3-69 2-13-69 2-14-69 2-15-69 2-15-69 2-9-69 2-9-69 2-10-69 2-18-69 2-18-69 2-21-69 2-20-69 2-21-69 2-21-69 2-25-69 2-28-69 2-28-69 3-1-69 3-6-69 * Sex Age Tag No. F F M M 11 F Fawn Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Fawn Fawn l1ature Fawn Mature MP-18 MP-19 MP-20 MP-22 MP-87 MP-88 l1P-l07 MP-115 MP-116 MP-117 MP-118 MP-12l MP-122 MP-123 MP-l3l MP-132 MP-133 MP-141 M F M F F F F F F F M F 1'1 M M M F M M N M M M F M N F M F F Indicate Fmm Mature Nature Mature Fawn l1ature Hature Yrlg. Fawn Mature Ma.ture Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Eawn Mature Nature Fawn Mature Fawn Nature Mature }1P~142 MP-144 MP-146 MP-147 MP-151 MP-152 MP-158 MP-170 MP-l71 MP-180 MP-189 MP- 205 MP- 206 MP-219 MP- 221 MP-222 MP-226 MP-237 Neck Band Color and Symbol Blue no number Blue no number Blue no number Blue no number Blue 7 Blue ,'(4 Blue * 9 Blue 1~ 5 no neckband Blue ~k 2 Blue * 3 Blue i', 19 Blue "k 8 Blue "k 17 Blue 'k 9 Blue ;': 11 no neckband Blue * 12 Blue -}:8 Blue * 20 no neckband Blue ;'~ 10 Blue * 16 Blue no number Blue no number Blue no number Blue no number Blue 'k 21 no neckband Blue -}(26 Blue * 22 no neckband Blue ,'(30 no neckband Blue * 13 Blue '/(14 71t~ d i amond .• symbol on neckband. Remarks �- 149 Table 4. Deer tagged and marked in the Williams Fork sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969. Date Tagged Sex M F 1-16- 69 F 1-20-69 F 1-24-69 F 1-25-69 1-26-69 Unk F 1-25-69 F 1-25-69 M 1-30-69 F 2-5-69 F 2-7-69 F 2-10-69 F 2-17- 69 F 2-21-69 M 2-25-69 F 3-7-69 F 3-9-69 F 3-9-69 ? * Age Tag No. Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Yrlg. Unknown Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Hature Fawn Hature Yrlg. Fawn Mature Fawn MP-3 MP-7 MP-25 MP-29 HP-32 MP-39 MP-40 HP-4l MP-62 HP-101 HP-114 MP-157 MP-164 MP-204 MP-220 MP-238 MP-258 MP-259 Indicates diamond ~ Neck Band Color and Symbol Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow ~'r 4 yellow -k 1 Yellow -/~2 Yellow * 6 Yellow -/,7 Yellow ~',8 Ye LLow -;, 19 Yellow 7~ 9 Yellow * 20 no neckband Yellow 7, 31 ? no neckband Yellow * 33 no neckband symbol on neckband. Remarks �- 150 Table 5. Deer tagged and marked in the Troublesome Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969. Datc Tagged Sex 1-16-69 1-18-69 1-20-69 1-23-69 1-23-69 1-25-69 1-25-69 1-26-69 1-26-69 1-27-69 1-27-69 1-22-69 1-22-69 1-24-69 1- 28-69 1-28-69 1-28-69 1-31-69 2-1-69 2-1-69 2-1-69 2-1- 69 2-1-69 2-2-69 2-3-69 2-5-69 2-5-69 2-5-69 2-5-69 2-6-69 2-6-69 2-7-69 2-7-69 2-8-69 2-9-69 2-11- 69 2-11-69 2-11-69 2-13-69 2-15-69 2-16-69 2-10-69 Yr1g. MP-6 Hature MP-13 1'1atllre MP-24 F 1'1ature MP-26 F 1'1atllre MP-27 F F 1'1ature 1'1P-30 Hature M 1'1P-31 Fawn F 1'1P-37 Fawn M HP-38 1'1 Fawn MP-4S F Fawn MP-46 Fawn M MP-S2 Mature F MP-S3 Fawn F MP-57 F Fawn MP-S9 1'1ature MP-60 F Fawn M MP-61 Mature F MP-67 Fawn F MP-69 Mature 1'1P-70 F Mature F 1'1P-71 Fawn F MP-72 Unknown MP-73 F Mature F MP-78 ·F Mature MP-84 Yrlg. M MP-89 Yrlg. MP-96 M Fawn M MP-97 Mature M MP-98 Fawn MP-104 F Mature }fP-10S F Yr1g. M MP-112 Mature M HP-113 Mature M MP-120 Mature M MP-12S Yr1g. M MP-128 Mature M MP-129 Mature F MP-130 Mature F MP-140 Fawn MP-145 M ;'vi Fawn MP-150 Mature F MP-1S5 - - - - M F Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol sub-unit of Remarks White no number White no numl>er White no number White no numl>er White no number White -k 4 White * 10 White 7( 9 White 7( 5 White "k 12 White ,~ 2 l-lli ite ,'(11 White * 1 White * 3 White ~~ 18 White ,'\ 17 White * 13 v;rhite 15 * 14 White * 20 White * ? 19 ? no neckband White * 6 White no number White * 8 White no number White * 6 White i~ 21 White ,'(2·2 White * 26 White no number White * 30 White -,'c 24 White ~~ 23 White no number White 1r 45 Hhite 7\ 48 White -,'r 46 White -l( 20 no neckband no neckband White * 25 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �- 151 Table 5. Deer tagged and marked in the Troublesome sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969 (continued). Date Tagged Sex Age 2-10-69 F Fawn 2-16-69 M Fawn 2-17-69 F Mature 2-18-69 M Fawn 2-18-69 F Mature 2-18-69 M Mature 2-19-69 F Fawn 2-21-69 F Mature 2-21-69 M Yr1g. 3-4-69 F Fawn 2-20-69 F Fa,VIl 2-21-69 F Fawn 2-25-69 F Mature 2-25-69 F Fawn 2-25-69 F Mature 2-25-69 M Fawn 2-26-69 F Mature 2-28-69 F Mature 3-6-69 F Mature 2-23-69 F Mature 2-24-69 F Fawn 2-24-69 F Mature 3-1::69 ,':co, ""'F"i""Ma ture 3-1":'69 F Mature 3-1-69' M Mature 3-26':'69 F Fawn ,3-3-69 M Yr1g. 3-4-69 F Fawn 3-4-69 M Mature 3-7-69 F Mature 3-12-69 M Mature 3-8-69 M Fawn 3-9-69 M Fawn 3-9-69 F Fawn 3-9-69 F Mature 3-10-69 ? ? 3-10-69 M Fm·m 3-11-69 F Yrlg. 3-11-69 M Fawn 3-11-69 M Mature 3-12-69 M Mature Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol Remarks no neckband MP-156 no neckband MP-160 White * 38 MP-163 no neckband MP-166 White no number MP-167 White no number MP-168 no neckband HP-l73 White 'k 47 MP-174 White * 20 MP-175 White * 36 l1P-182 no neckband MP-188 no neckband. MP-190 White * 53 MP-191 no neckband MP-192 White ~'(54 MP-193 no neckband MP-194 White ~':'59 MP-195 1-11'-198 \'vTIitc * 32 White .;:37 MP-200 White * 27 MP- 207 no neckband l1P-215 White * 52 MP-216 Wh'it'e'" *,. 51,::·''',,: MP- 223 Whitei: 40'" MP- 224 White * 49 MP-225 no neckband MP-231 White no number MP-234 no neckband MP- 235 White no number MP- 236 White ~'(56 MP-250 Whitei: 11 MP-254 no neckband MP-255 no neckband MP-256 no neckband MP-257 White * 31 no ta:;s White -Ie 34 HP-263 no neckband MP-264 no neckband HP- 268 no neckband MP-269 no neckband MP-271 no neckband MP-272 -------------- - - - - - - - - - �- 152 Table 5. Deer tagged and marked in the Troublesome sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest: 1969 (continued). Date Tagged 3-12- 69 3-12-69 3-13-69 3-15-69 3-15-69 3-15-69 3-15-69 3- 26-69 3- 26-69 3- 26-69 3-26-69 3- 27-69 3-28-69 3-28-69 3-29-69 3-30-69 3-30-69 * Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol F M M M M Mature Mature Fawn Yrlg. Mature MP-273 MP-274 MP-275 MP-276 MP-277 MP- 278 MP- 279 HP-280 MP-28l MP- 282 MP-283 MP-284 MP-285 MP-286 MP-288 MP- 289 HP-290 no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband White .,<c 42 White * 7 v,,1l1ite43 * White * 28 no neckband no neckband White "/(16 no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband White * 41 no neckband F Fmm M F F M F F M F M F F Mature Mature Fawn Mature Hature Fawn Fawn Hature Fawn Mature Fawn Indicates diamond. symbol on neckband. Remarks �- 153 - Table 6. Deer tagged and marked in the Beaver Creek sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1969. Date T3gged 1-14-69 1-17-69 1-18-69 1-19-69 1-19-69 1-25-69 1-25-69 1-21-69 1-22-69 1-30-69 2-3-69 ? -69 2-2-69 2-3-69 2-5-69 2-5-69 2-6-69 2-14-69 2-18-69 2-28-69 2-23-69 * Age Tag No. Neck Band color and Symbol Mature Fawn Fawn Yr1g. Mature Mature Mature Yr1g. Mature Mature Fawn Unk Mature Yr1g. Mature Fmro Fawn Fawn Hature J:v1 Mature Yr1g. 1'1 MP-1 MP-10 MP·-14 MP-16 MP-17 HP-42 J:vlP-44 MP-51 MP-55 MP-63 MP-68 MP-74 MP-77 MP-83 MP-99 MP-100 MP-106 MP-143 MP-169 MP-199 MP-208 no neckband Pink no number Pink no number Pink no number Pink no number Pink ~~ 12 Pink * 16 Pink * 5 no neckband Pink * 19 Pink #': 13 Pink 'k 10 Pink ~~ 24 Pink * 15 Pink 'f( 25 no neckband Pink no number no neckband Pink no number Pink no number no neckband Sex 1'1 M 1'1 1'1 1'1 N. 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 1'1 Indicates diamond ~ symbol on neckband Remarks �- 154 - Table 7. Deer tagged and marked in the Muddy sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970. Date Tagged Sex 1-17-70 F 1-20-70 . F 17 1-31-70 F 2-1-70 2-2-70 M 2-6-70 M F 2-7-70 F 2-15-70 2-22-70 M F 2-26-70 M 3-4-70 F 3-7-70 F 3-9-70 * Age Tag No. l'iD-ture MP-333 Nature MP-342 l'iD-ture MP-352 Mature MP-353 Yrlg. MP-355 Fawn MP-368 MD-ture MP-376 }1ature MP-397 MP-418 Fawn MP-430 Mature FaHn MP-441 Mature MP-447 Fawn MP-453 Indicates circle @ Neck Band Color and Symbol Red ole 14 Red "1: 2 Red ;': 12 Red -1. 6 Red -;e 5 7 Red )';; Red "k 58 Red * 4 11 Red Red "l: 17 Red .,': 1 Red "k 16 no neckband ~'( symbol on neckband , Remarks �- 155 Table 8. Deer tagged and marked in the Blue River sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970. Date Tagged 1-8-70 1-8-70 1-9-70 1-9-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-10-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-11-70 1-12-70 1-12-70 1-12-70 1-12-70 ·1-13-70 1-14-70 1-14-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-16-70 1-16-70 1-17-70 1-18-70 1-19-70 1-19-70 1-21-70 1-25-70 1-26-70 2-5-70 2-14-70 2-17-70 2-22-70 2-23-70 2-25-70 2-25-70 2-25-70 --- - Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol F M M M H Mature Yrlg. Yrlg. Mature Mature Hature Fawn Fawn Mature Yrlg. Yr1g. Mature Yrlg. Fawn Fawn Yrlg. Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Ma·ture Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Yrlg. Yrlg. Mature Hature Hature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Hature Hature Mature MP-29l MP-292 MP-293 MP-294 MP-295 MP-296 MP-297 MP-298 MP-299 MP-300 HP-301 MP-302 MP-303 MP-304 MP-305 MP-307 MP-308 MP-309 MP-310 MP-312 MP-313 MP-314 MP-317 MP-3l8 MP-319 MP-320 MP-324 MP-325 MP-332 MP-336 MP-337 MP-338 MP-343 MP-350 MP-35l HP-3G2 MP-396 MP-404 MP-417 MP-423~ MP-427 MP-428 MP-429 Blue * 14 Blue -/,9 Blue * 3 Blue "/e 1 Blue -/e 5 Blue ofe 10 Blue ofe 11 Blue ofe 3 Blue "/e 2 Blue no number Blue * 6 Blue * 4 Blue 7 * Blue * 15 Blue ,'c 12 Blue * 18 Blue * 3.0 Blue * 24 Blue * 27 no neckband Blue ok 16 Blue * 28 Blue * 29 Blue * 28 Blue * 8 Blue ,'c 31 Blue * 34 Blue * 41 Blue -/, 40 Blue ,'e 20 Blue * 23 Blue ~: 39 Blue ,'c 52 Blue * 50 Blue ;'~ 51 Blue ..,,':: 53 Blue -1\ 45 Blue * 49 Blue * 59 Blue '1, 19 no ncckband no neckband no neckband F F M F M F M F F M M M F F M M F F M M F M M F M M M M M M F F F F M F F F - - - - - - - - Remarks ---- - -- --- - - - - - - - - - - �- 156 - Table 8. Deer tagged and marked in the Blue River sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970 (continued). Deer Tagged Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol 2-26-70 2-26-70 2-28-70 3-4-70 3-4-70 3-13-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-21-70 3-22-70 3- 23-70 3- 26-70 3-26-70 F M F F F F M F F F M F F Mature MP-432 F'awn MP-433 Mature MP-437 Mature MP-439 MP-440-50 Fawn Fawn MP-468 Mature MP-479 MP-480 Fawn Mature MP-489 Fawn MP-492 }iature MP-495 Fawn MP-500 Fawn MP-502 Blue ~~ 57 Blue ~'~44 Blue ~'c 60 Blue ~~47 Blue * 46 Blue ~~ 26 Blue * 22 Blue 48 Blue 1~ 37 no neckband Blue no number no neckband no neckband * Indicates circle. * symbol on neckband. Remarks �- 157 Table 9. Deer tagged and marked in the Williams Fork sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970. Date Tagged Sex 1-13-70 1-14-70 1-14-70 1-15-70 1-15-70 1-16-70 1-16-70 1-16-70 1-17-70 1-17-70 1-17-70 1-18-70 1-18-70 1-20-70 1-20-70 1-21-70 1-22-70 1-23-70 1-24-70 2-6-70 2-5-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-9-70 2-14-70 2-14-70 2-15-70 2-20-70 2-22-70 2-22-70 2-24-70 2-27-70 3-6-70 3-7-70 3-9-70 3-10-70 3-14-70 3-17-70 3- 20-70 3-21-70 3-23-70 3-26-70 MP-311 Mature M MP-315 Nature M MP-3l6 1'1 Yr1g. HP-321 Fawn F MP-323 1'1 Nature MP-326 Eawn F MP-327 Yr1g. M MP- 328 Mature M MP-329 Mature F MP-330_ Fawn M HP-33l Mature M MP-334 Mature F MP-335 Mature F MP-339 Mature M MP-340 1'1ature M MP-344 Mature M MP-346 Fawn F MP-348 Mature M MP-349 Fmvu H Fawn MP-357 F MP-36l Mature M MP-373 Mature F MP-374 Fawn F l1ature Y1P-375 F MP-380 Fawn F MP-392 Fawn F HP-393 Mature F MP-398 Eawn H HP-411 Hature H MP-419 Fawn M MP-420 Hature M MP-426 Mature F MP-434 Mature F MP-444 Hature F Fa\,"I1 MP-448 F MP-454 Mature F HP-458 Fawn F MP-469 Fawn M MP-472 Fawn M MP-487 Fmvu F MP-490 Fnwn F MP-496 Mature M no tags Mature M '1c Age Indicntcs circle • Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol Yellow ~'(5 Yellow 'k 9 Yellow "/< 11 Yellow ~~ 16 Ye l.Low ~'< 13 Yellow 'k 4 Yellow "/< 1 Yellow i': 14 Yellow "/c 2 Yellow * 3 Yellow * 35 Yellow * 6 Yellow "/,14 Yellow * 17' Yellow ~'< 19 Yellow "/,7 Yellow * 8 Yellow * 18 Yellow * 26 Yellow * 24 Ye LLow * 21 Yel10\\I* 34 Ye'LLow ~~ 12 Yellow * 31 Yellow * 28 Yellow * 46 Yellow * 44 Yellow "/,23 Yellow * '29 Yellow * 22 Yellow * 33 Yellow ~'c 39 Yellow * 45 Yellow ~'c 10 Yellow 7( 47 Yellow * 53 no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband no ncckband no neckband Yellow -;,20 symbol on ncckb and , Remarks �- 158 Table 10. Deer tagged and.marked in.the Troublesome sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970. Date Tagged 1-22-70 1-~3-70 2-4-70 2-4-70 2-4-70 2-5-70 2-5-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-6-70 2-6·-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-7-70 2-9-70 2-9-70 2-9-70 2-10-70 2-10-70 2-11-70 2-11-70 2-11-70 2-11-70 2-12-70 2-12-7.0 2-13-70 2-13-70 2-13-70 2-14-70 2-14-70 2-15-70 2-15-70 2-16-70 2-17-70 2-17-70 2-18-70 2-19-70 2-19-70 -- - -- Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol F F F H F M Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fa,VIl Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Nature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn MP-345 MP-347 HP-354 MP-356 HP-358 MP-359 MP-360 MP-363 MP-364 MP-365 MP-366 MP-367 MP-369 MP-370 MP-371 MP-372 MP-377 MP-378 MP-379 MP-381 HP-382 MP-383 MP-384 MP-385 MP-386 MP-387 MP-388 MP-389 MP-390 MP-391 MP-394 MJ?-395 MP-399 MP-400 MP-40l MP-402 MP-403 MP-405 MP-407 MP-408 White ~~ 3 White ok 4 l'lhi te ~',5 White * 2 White -k 30 White 'k 1 no neckband White -k 12 White ~': 20 White * 14 White ,;', 13 v.Thite;': 9 White ..,'( 15 White ok 23 White 19 White ..,'( 7 White ;'( 10 White ~. 11 White ..,r: 18 White * 21 White "k 25 White * 816 White * 22 White * 6 White * White ok 39 White of, 17 White of, 29 White * 33 White ~',26 White of, 42 White * 34 White -k 30 White * 24 White * 36 White * 37 White * 28 White -k 43 1rJhite"I, 52 no neckband M F M M M M F F M M M F M F M M F F F F M M M F M M M F F F M F F M ------ Remarks "'!( ----------------------- �- 159 Table 10. Deer tagged and marked in the Troublesome sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970 (continued). Date Tagged Sex 2-19-70 2-19-70 2-20-70 2-21-70 2-21-70 2-21-70 2-22-70 2-22-70 2-23-70 2-23-70 2-26-70 2-28-70 2-28-70 3-2-70 3-4-70 3-4-70 3-5-70 3-6";70 3-6-70 .3-7-70 3-7-70 3-8-70 3-10-70 3-11-70 3-12-70 3-12-70 3-13-70 3-13-7.0 3-13-70 3-13-70 3-14-70 3-16-70 3-16-70 3-16-70 3-17-70 3-17-70 3-17-70 3-17-70 3-19-70 3-18-70 3-19-70 3-20-70 M M M F M M M M F M M F F F F M F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F M M F M F F F M F F --- - Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol Remarks White ,~31 MP-409 Mature White "/,40 .Fawn MP-410 White * 42 Mature MP-412 White HP-414 Mature * 49 no neckband MP-415 Fawn no neckband MP-416 Fawn White "/,45 MP-421 Mature no neckband MP-422 Mature J:.1P-42If White ,~ 38 Mature J:.1P-425 no neckband Hature 53 White MP-431 Mature * White MP-435 Mature * 57 MP-436 White * 35 Fawn White MP-438 Mature * 58 no neckband MP-440-50 Fawn White ,,:56 MP-442 Mature no neckband MP-443 Fawn White MP-445 Mature * 46 White * 47 t-1ature HP-446 MP-449 White * 27 Fawn no neckband MP-451 Fawn MP-452 White * 51 Mature White MP-457 Mature * 44 White MP-459 Mature * 60 White * 50 MP-460 Mature no neckband MP-461 Fawn no neckband MP-462 Fawn White * 67 Mature MP-463 no neckband MP-464 Fawn White * 68 MP-465 Mature no neckband MP-466 Fawn White * 59 Mature MP-467 no neckband HP-470 Mature White * 54 MP-471 Mature White * 61 MP-473 Mature no neckband MP-474 Mature White "/,70 MP-475 Mature no neckband MP-476 Fawn no neckband MP-477 Eawn no neckband MP-478 Fawn no neckband MP-481 Fawn no neckband Mature MP-482 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �- 160 - Table 10. Deer tagged and marked in the Troublesome sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1970 (continued). Date Tagged Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3-19-70 3- 21-70 3-21-70 3-22-70 3-26-70 3-23-70 3-23-70 3-24-70 3-27-70 M M F M F M F M H F M H Fawn Fawn Fawn Hature Fawn Hature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Hature MP-483 MP-484 MP-485 MP-486 HP-488 MP-491 MP-493 MP-494 MP-497 MP-498 MP-499 MP-501 no neckband no ne ckb and no neckband no ne ckb and no neckband no neckband White ~.(63 no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband no neckband * Indicates circle • symbol on neckband. Remarks �- 161 - Table 11. Deer tagged and marked in the Muddy sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1971. Neck Band Color and Symbol Date Tagged Sex Age 1-11-71 1-12-71 1-19-71 1-24-71 1-27-71 1-27-71 1-28-71 1-29-71 1-29-71 1-29-71 2-3-71 2-13-71 2-l3-71 2-l3-71 2-13-71 2-l3-71 2-14-71 2-14-71 2-15-71 2-16-71 2-17-71 2-21-71 2-22-71 2-25-71 2-25-71 2-25-71 2-26-71 2-26-71 2-26-71 2-27-71 3-1-71 3-3-71 3-3-71 3-4-71 3-4-71 3-7-71 3-9-71 3-9-71 3-11-71 3-12-71 3-12-71 3-16-71 3-16-71 3-16-71 3-17-71 3-17-71 1-15-71 2-22-71 2-25-71 F F M F F F M M F M M F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F M F M M· F F M F F F F F F F F M F F F F F F Yr1g. MP 515 Red no number Mature MP 520 Red no number Mature MP 540 Red X 9 MatureMP 550 Red X 1 MP 552 Red X 11 Fawn Mature MP 553 Red Xl3 MP 554 Red X 15 Fawn MP 557 Red X 7 Fawn Mature MP 558 Red X 14 Mature MP 559 Red X 8 Removed for res. at Ft.Co11in~, died 2-28-71 Mature MP 564 ·Red X 18 Mature MP 588 Red X- 22 MP 589 Red X 5 Fawn MP 590 Red X2 Fawn Mature MP 591 Red X 21 Mature MP 592 Red .X 23 Mature MP 595 Red X 12 Mature MP 596 Red X 31 Mature MP 601 Red X 35 Mature MP 602 Red X 34 MP 603 Red X 32 Fawn MP 609 Red X 36 Fawn Mature MP 613 Red X 29 Mature MP 619 Red X 37 MP 620 Red X 30 Fawn Mature MP 621 Red X 38 Fawn .MP 625 Red X 39 MP 626 Red X 27 Fawn Trap mortality 2-26-71 Mature None None Mature MP 632 Red X 24 MP 637 Red X 25 Fawn MP 644 Red X 46 Fawn Mature MP 645 Red X 44 Mature MP 646 Red X 16 Mature MP 647 Red X 48 Mature MP 659 Red X 43 Mature MP 661 Red X 41 Mature MP 662 Red X 40 MP 671 Red X 47 Fawn Mature MP 673 Red X 50 Mature MP 674 Red X 42 Mature MP 681 Red X 45 Trap mortality 3-16-71 None None Fawn Trap mortality 3-16-71 None None Mature Trap mortality 3-17-71 None None Mature Trap mortality 3-17-51 Mature None None mortality 1-15-71 Trap None None Fawn mortality 2-22-71 Trap None None Hature Trap mortality 2-25-71 None None Fawn Tag No -. Remarks �- 162 .Table 12. Deer tagged and marked in the Blue River sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe National Forest, 1971. Date Tagged 1-12-71 1-15-71 1-16-71 1-16-71 1-16-71 1-16-71 1-16-71 1-21-71 1-24-71 1-29-71 1-29-71 2-7-71 2-8-71 2-10-71 2-11-71 2-14-71 2-15-71 2-15-71 2-17-71 2-17-71 2-18-71 2-21-71 2-23-71 2-24-71 2-25-71 2-25-71 2-26-71 2-26-71 2-27-71 2-27-71 3-1-71 3-2-71 3-3-71 3-6-71 3-7-71 3-7-71 3-8-71 3-9-71 3-9-71 3-9-71 3-10-71 3-17-71 3-20-71 3-20-71 3-23-71 3-25-71 3-25-71 Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and SYmbol M F M M M M M M M M M F Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Hature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Hature Mature MP 521 MP 528 MP 529 MP 530 MP 533 MP 534 MP 535 MP 543 MP 549 MP 560 MP 561 MP 573 MP 574 MP 580 MP 581 MP 597 MP 599 MP 600 MP 604 MP 605 MP 606 MP 610 MP 614 MP 616 MP 622 MP 623 MP 627 MP 628 MP 633 MP 634 MP 638 MP 640 MP 643 MP 652 MP 657 MP 658 MP 660 MP 663 MP 664 MP 665 MP 669 MP 684 MP 688 MP 689 MI' 691 HP 695 MP 696 Blue no number Blue nO number No neckband No neckband Blue no number .No neckband Blue no number Blue X 15 Blue X 8 Blue X 14 Blue X 9 Blue X 2 Blue X 3 Blue X 12 Blue X 11 Blue X 17 Blue it 28 Blue X 21 Blue X 16 Blue X 18 Blue X 25 Blue X 24 Blue X 23 Blue :I. 22 Blue X. 4 Blue X 26 Blue X 34 Blue X 05 Blue X 36 Blue X. 19 Blue X 35 Blue X 31 Blue X 30 Blue X 39 Blue X 37 Blue X 40 Blue X 53 Blue X. 52 Blue X 33 Blue Z 29 Blue X 50 Blue X 51 Blue X 58 Blue X 42 Blue X 1+3 Blue X 56 Blue X 45 F F F M F M M M M M M M F F M F F F M M F F F F M M M M F M M F F M F Remarks �- 163 Table 13. Deer tagged and marked in the Williams Fork sub-unit of Middle Park, Aripahoe National Forest, 1971. Date Tagged Sex Age ....Tag Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Yellow no number Yellow X 1 Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow! 2 Yellow no number No neckband No neckband Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow ~. 3 Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow no number Yellow X 4 Yellow X 5 Yellow no number Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn MP539 MP 541 MP 544 MP 545 MP 548 MP 551 MP 555 MP 563 MP 565 MP 566 MP 567 MP 568 MP 582 MP 583 MP 584 MP 607 MP 611 MP 612 MP 615 MP 617 MP 670 MP 676 None None Yellow Z. 6 Yellow X. 9 yellow X 8 Yellow X 11 Ye1l6wX 14 Yellow! 21 . Yellow X 16 Yellow X 23 Yellow X 27 Yellow X 26 Yellow X 28 Yellow X 15 Yellow X 19 Yellow X 29 Yellow X 20 Yellow X 24 Yellow X 30 Yellow X 33 Yellow X 40 Yellow X 17 Yellow X 42 Yellow X 47 None None Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn. Mature Mature Fawn F F 2-§.'C71 2-1'1-71 2-12-71 2-12-71 2-20-71 2-21-71 2-21-71 2-23-71 2-24-71 3-10-71 3-12-71 1-16-71 1-25-71 F M M M F M M M M M F M F M M F F F F M F F Neck Band Color and Symbo 1 MP 505 MP 506 MP 507 MP 508 MP 509 MP 510 MP 511 MP 512 MP 516 MP 517 MP 518 MP 519 MP 523 MP 524 MP 525 MP 526 MP 527 MP 532 1-9-71 M 1-9-71 F 1-'9-71 M 1-10-71 M 1..,10-71 F 1-10 .... 71 M .1':"10-71 M 1:";'10-71 M 1~1l-71 M 1-11-71 M 1-12-711' F 1-l2-71 M 1-15-71 M 1-:15-71 M 1-15-71 M 1-15-71 F 1-15-71 F 1-16-71 F 1-19-71 1-20-71 1-21-71 1-22-71 1-24-71 1-26-71 1-28-71 2.... 2-71 2-4-71 2-6-71 2-6-71 No. Fawn Remarks Removed for research at Fort Collins, Died 3-9-71. Trap mortality 1-16-71 Trap mortality 1-25-71 �ill - 164 - •Table 14 .. Deer tagged and marked in the Troublesome sub-unit of Middle Park, Arapahoe: National Forest, 1971. Date Tagged 1-17-71 1-20-71 1-28-71 2-6-7J. 2-7-71 2-8-71 2-10-71 2-10-71 2-12-71 2-12-71 2-14-71 2-24-71 2-27-71 2-27-71 2-27-71 3-1-71 3-1-71 3-2-71 3-3-71 3-3-71 3-4-71 3-4-71 3-4-71 3-8-71 3-7-71 3-7-71 3-9-71 3-9-71 3-10-71 3-14-71 3-15-71 3-15-71 3-16-71 3-18-71 3-21-71 3-23-71 Age M M M M F M M F M F F F F F F F F F F M F F F F M M M F F M F F F M F F Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature M<1ture Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn .Tage No. MP 536 .MP 542 MP 556 MP 570 MP 572 MP 575 MP .577 MP578 MP585 MP 586 MP 598 MP 618 MP 629 MP 630 MP 631 MP 635 MP 636 MP 639 MP 642 None MP 648 MP 649 NP 650 MP 651 MP 655 MP 656 MP 666 MP 667 MP 668 MP 678 MP 679 MP 680 MP 682 MP 685 MP 690 MP 692 Neck Band Color a.ndSymbol White X 6 White X 7 White X 10 White X 9 White X 4 White X 14 White X 24 White X 19 White X 22 White X 20 White X 01 White X 17 White X 26 . White x 27 White X 29 White X 03 White X 02 White X 18 White X 28 None l.JhiteX 16 White X 30 No neckband White X 41 White X 23 White X 12 White X 13 White X 36 White X 37 White X 35 White X 44 White :x 26 White X 40 White X 15 White X 39 White X 42 Remarks Died 2-15-71 Trap mortality 3-3-71 �165 - Park, T'able15 . Dee'r taggeJ and marked in the Beaver Creek sub-unit of Midd Le Arapahoe National Forest, 1971. Date Tagged 1-1""71 1-15-71 1-16-71 1-17-71 1-17-71 1-24-71 1-31-71 2-6-71 2-9-71 2-10-71 2-11-71 2 -14-71 2-14-71 2-25-71 3-3-71 3-6-71 3-7-71 3-l3-71 Sex Age Tag No. Neck Band Color and Symbol M F M M F M M M F M F M Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature MP 513 MP 522 MP 531 MP 537 MP 538 MP 546 MP 562 MP 569 MP 576 MP 579 MP 587 MP 593 MP 594 MP 624 MP 641 None MP 654 MP 677 No neckband Pink no number Pink no number No neckband No neckband No neckband Pink no number Pink ! 16 Pink X. 2 No neckband Pink X 10 No neckband No neckband Pink:X: 13 Pink X. 05 None Pink Z. Pink X 07 M F F M M F Remarks Trap mortality 2-22-71 Trap mortality 3-6-71 �- 166 - Table 16. Location of trap areas, trap number and automatic data processing code number. Sub'Unit 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 Trap Location Legal Description Trap Location No. Wolford S28 T2N R80W Martin Ranch S23 T2N RS1W S, E. Martin Ranch S25 T2N RSIW Redl1tn., south S10 TIN RSOW Red Mtn., north SlO TIN RSOW City Reservoir S11 TIN RS1W Wo1.ford, upper S28 T2N RSOW ·Wo1ford, lower ~33 T2N RSOW Wolford, west 828 T2N R80W Williams Peak Road S35 TIS R80W Harshy Gulch . S15 TIS R80W Shane Gulch S27T2S R79W Spring' Cr.eekRoad S34 TIS RSOW Cottonwood Gulch s17 T28 R79W Horse Gulch' S7 T2S R79W King Bulch' S23 TIS R80W Junction Butte S16 TIN RSOW Cedar Ridge, west S16 TIN R79W Cedar Ridge, north . Sl3 TIN R79W Ce dar Ridge, sec. IS S18 TIN R79W Cedar Ridge, dam road S14 TIN R79W Cedar Ridge, east boat ramp S24T1N'R79W Beaver S15 TINR7SW Rifle Range S16 TIN R7SW Parshall Divide S17 TIN R78W Corral Creek, lower Sll TIN R79W Corral Creek, upper S2 TIN R79W Sulphur Gulch, lower S8 TIN R79W Sulphur Gulch, upper S29 T2N R79W Scholl Ranch S4 TIN R79W BLM Corrals S4 TIN RSOW Kremmling Dump S9 TIN RSOW 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 28210S0 2321081 252l0S1 ·1021080 1021080 1121081 2821080 3321080 2821080 3522080 1512080 2722079 3412080 1722079 0722079 2312080 16110S0 1611079 1311079 1811079 21 1411079 22 23 24 25 26 32 2411079 1511078 1611078 1711078 1111079 0211079 27 0811079 33 2921079 0411079 0411080 0911080 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 29 9 28 30 31 Sub-Unit ADP Code Muddy Blue Williams Fork Troublesome Beaver 1 2 3 4 5 ADP Code �- 167 - LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population distribution. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Federal Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 1, pp. 79-104. Gill, R. B. 1970. Middle Park deer study - population distribution. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Federal Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 3, pp. 287-309. Prepared by JiM 0.4-- Laren A. Roper Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��- 169 July, JOB PROGRESS State of 1971 REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~------------ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title W-38-R-25 Investigations 2 Job No. 14 Middle Deer-Elk Park Deer Study - Population 10, 1970 through March Density and Structure Period Covered: October 7, 1971 Personnel: R.B. Gill, L.A. Roper, G.L. Brown, L.H. Carpenter, H.R. Shepherd, R.C. Kufeld, W.T. McKean, D. Baker A.E. And~rson, C.E. Braun, J.F. Corey and B.D. Baker. ABSTRACT The estimate of the 1971 Middle Park winter deer population was 5,730 deer. This represented a 20.5 percent decline from 1970 and a 46.1 percent decline from the 1968 high of 10,640 deer. Preseason classifications indicated ratios of 42 bucks:100 does and 72 fawns:100 does in the Middle Park deer population~ Postseason ratios were estimated to be 46 bucks:100 does and 41 fawns:100 does. Examinations of the hunter harvest revealed that the 1969 and 1970 kill contained a higher proportion of does and fawns and a ,lower proportion of bucks than did the 1967 and 1968 harvests. ��~ 171 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate the density and sex and age structure of the Middle Park deer population in order to harvest this population more efficiently. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate the size of the total winter 2. Estimate the sex and age structure METHODS population of the Middle of deer in Middle Park. Park deer population. AND MATERIALS See Gill (1969) for a detailed presentation of methods and materials. Something which has not been discussed in previous reports, concerns the ground rules that we established before the first counts were conducted in 1968. We decided that the perimeters of each section would be flown first so that decisions could be made as to whether peripheral animals were to be included or excluded from the quadrat tally. We decided that to be included in the tally a deer must be within the boundaries of the quadrat when first observed. Every other deer seen along the perimeter was excluded even though fresh tracks might reveal that the animal had just exited from the quadrat. Unless this rule is strictly adhered to, the tendency is to count every animal near the quadrat boundary, thus inflating density estimates. After flying the perimeter, the section is flown in strips, determined by topographical features of the quadrat. For example, if the quadrat is bisected by three draws, each draw and adjacent ridge is covered during one strip. The width of each strip and the number of strips per section are determined by the amount of area that can be observed on each strip, and this depends upon variations of terrain within each quadrat. Quadrats have been numbered in the order in which they are flown each year. This counting order was set up to maximize counting efficiency and thus minimize cost. The counting sequence by sub-unit is depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. �- 172 - Fig. 1. River, N Quajrat count sequences in the Muddy Creek. Blue River, Williams Fork and Troublesome Creek Sub-units. �- 173 N t Fig. 2. Quadrat count sequence in the Granby Sub-unit. �~ 174 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Density Timing of the Count The 1971 Middle Park deer census was conducted much later in the winter than previous years. This year the count was not conducted until March 6 and 7, 1971, while in previous years it was conducted in January. There were two reasons for this late count in 1971: (1) the past winter was exceptionally mild and even though some snow fell in January we did not believe it was sufficient to force deer out of the lower timber zones and into the count areas. (2) snow background was not adequate to insure accurate tallies of deer until early March. Prior to this time the detection of deer was difficult. The effect of the late count period on the density estimates was judged to be negligible because deer distribution was still widespread during March, 1971. However, the entire question of the effects of deer concentrations upon density estimates projected from fixed quadrat locations and based on assumed widespread distribution of deer is still unresolved. This question is scheduled for investigation beginning the winter of 1972-73. Density Estimates The 1971 quadrat counts indicated a mean density of 9.75 ± 3.02 deer per square mile over the 587.7 square miles of winter range. This is projected to a total population estimate of 5,730 ± 1,775 deer. Comparing the 1971 estimates with the projected means from previous years, the 1971 deer population has declined 20.5 percent from 1970 and 46.1 percent from the 1968 peak populations of 10,640 deer (Table 1). An examination of the projected estimates by sub-units over the four-year count period reveals that apparent drops in the Muddy Creek and Troublesome Creek sub-units have contributed most to the overall 1971 decline (Table 2). We speculate the reasons for this decline lie in harvests exceeding net fawn crops in 1969 and 1970. Validating the Estimates Generally, in making estimates of free-ranging wild animal populations, one is never sure if estimates are correct. One way to validate the estimate is to consider all the major birth and death factors affecting the population in question and calculate the expected population level before conducting population census. This expected population level can then be compared with the census estimate, and if the two are compatible over a series of years, confidence in the census estimate is bolstered. �- 175 - Table 2. Population Year Muddy Creek Biue River 1968 4,101 4,074 843 1,622 1969 2,994 3,531 774 1,679 134 9,112 1970 1,429 3,290 271 1,910 306 7,206 1971 794 3,335 . 571 891 139 5,730 estimates by sub-unit Sub-Units Williams Fork River in Middle Park, 1968-71. Troublesome Creek Granby Totals not counted 10,640 We tried this approach with the Middle Park deer population estimates beginning with the 1968 census year as a base. The formula used to calculate expected population levels was: P2 = PI + b - ~ - mw where P = expected n 2 population level; PI = actual population estimate from the previous year; bn = net productivity derived from pre-season classification counts; mh = harvest mortality; and ffiw = winter mortality. Thus, for 1971 the expected population level is: P2 = 7,206 + 2,560 - 2,801 1,135 or P2 = 5,830. The actual quadrat census estimate was 5,730 for a difference of 1.7 percent. Similar close agreement was evident for past years (Table 3), where the maximum difference was 8.4 percent. Table 3. Comparisons of expected population census estimates in Middle Park, 1969-1971. levels with actual quadrat Year Expected Population 1969 9,519 9,112 4.3% 1970 7,862 7,206 8.3% 1971 5,830 5,730 1. 7% Census Estimate Percent Difference �Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within the eight sampling strata, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1971. 1971 N.C. 0 N.C. 0 N.C. 0 N.C. N.C. 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 1 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 25 0 76 31 4 9 134 49 71 124 28 19 0 1 36 88 20 4 102 15 105 58 17 14 0 0 24 77 18 3 20 83 136 49 6 145 54 7 0 34 43 67 104 0 1971 0 0 0 0 0 9 6 18 99 39 66 46 87 31 6 12 0 0 22 37 0 0 0 0 0 9 34 9 20 6 2 2 42 28 5 12 0 0 5 1 0 12 4 0 0 0 0 0 28 68 2 0 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 56 N.C. 0 2 0 0 0 0 8 64 32 124 58 30 32 *N.C. 44 N.C. 20 27 0 1 N.C. Blue River High Density 1970 1969 1968 Muddy Creek Low Density 1970 1969 1968 Muddy Creek High Density 1970 1969 1968 0 Blue River Low Density 1970 1969 1971 1971 1968 47 0 4 10 0 30 32 0 0 31 0 8 10 0 0 35 0 0 36 29 0 17 0 37 34 0 0 26 0 0 13 0 0 0 15 0 0 20 0 -- t = 442 478 175 136 56 21 42 0 565 465 430 501 107 118 114 48 Y= 26.0 23.9 8.8 6.8 9.3 1.8 3.5 0.0 47.1 38.8 35.8 41.8 11.9 13.1 12.7 5.3 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------N.C. = No Count. ,..... -....I 0'\ �Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within the eight sampling sf-rata, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1971 (continued). Williams Fork River High Density 1968 1969 1970 0 2 26 73 4 i= 40 0 45 42 4 0 0 25 21 0 1971 3 0 58 31 0 Williams Fork River Low Density 1968 1969 1970 1971 0 6 14 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 Troublesome Creek High Density 1968 1969 1970 Granby 1971 43 25 0 35 50 65 0 9 0 26 5 41 0 39 76 44 15 36 0 6 11 60 0 51 42 90 7 8 0 29 0 8 0 0 43 36 14 21 10 7 105 131 46 92 20 3 1 4 253 262 298 139 y = 21.0 26.2 9.2 18.4 4.0 0.6 0.2 0.8 25.3 26.2 29.8 13.9 1968 1969 1970 1971 = 20.75 15.52 12.29 9.75 v(yst)= 11.35 4.25 2.55 3.29 yst 1968 z 0 r-t CJ 0 c::l r-t (1) 0- N.C. 1969 1970 1971 7 2 2 0 0 0 N.C. 6 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 11 29 13 1.8 4.1 1.9 •..... -...J -...J �- 178 - Sex and Age Composition Field Sex and Age Composition Counts Pre-season Counts--Pre-season sex and age classifications were obtained from a helicopter during the period October 10-12, 1970. Count conditions were excellent since the counts immediately followed a fresh and abnormally heavy October snowfall which concentrated deer on upper winter ranges in the sagebrush-aspen interfaces. Seven hundred seventy-one deer were classified, yielding a buck:doe ratio of 42:100 and a fawn:doe ratio of 72:100 (Table 4). The buck:doe ratio was very similar to that of 1969, but the fawn:doe ratio was approximately 23 percent lower. The drop in the fawn:doe ratio was attributed to lower fawn production and survival compared with 1969 (Table 5). of 1969 and 1970 pre-season Table 4. Comparisons Middle Park. in deer classifications Fawn:Doe Ratio Buck:Doe Ratio Year Bucks Does Fawns Total 1969 195 (18.3%) 451 (42.4%) 419 (39.3%) 1,065 (100.0%) 43 100 93 100 1970 152 (19.7%) 361 (46.8%) 258 (33.5%) 771 (100.0%) 42 100 72 100 Table 5. Comparisons and 1970. of gross and net fawn production in Middle Park, 1969 Net** Fawn Production Year Gross* Fawn Production 1969 200 100 125 100 1970 167 100 93 100 * Gross fawn productlon . = fetuses per 100 does based upon collections of 32 does each year. ** Net fawn production surveys. = fawns:lOO mothers based upon aerial classification �- 179 - Post-season Counts--No post-season aerial sex and age classifications were attempted in 1971 because these are usually made coincidentally with the quadrat census survey, and in 1971 the quadrat census was not conducted until March when bucks were well into antler shedding. The only sex and age data available were obtained by ground counts from snowmobiles and from afoot. Results from previous years indicated close agreement between aerial classifications and ground classifications (Table 6). The trend in annual fawn:doe ratios has been steadily downward since 1968 (Fig. 3). Possible factors influencing this decline are discussed in the Job Progress Report for WP 14, Job 3. Table 6. Comparison of aerial and ground winter data for Middle Park, 1967-68 through 1970-71. count classification Years Aerial Counts Buck : Doe Fawn : Doe Ratios Ratios 1967-68 56 100 90 100 37 100 93 100 1968-69 53 100 85 100 54 100 87 100 1969-70 45 100 77 100 48 100 82 100 46 100 41 100 1970-71 Sex and Age Composition No Counts Ground Counts Buck : Doe Fawn : Doe Ratios Ratios of the Hunter Harvest Sex and Age Composition of the Season Harvest--Checks were made of the 1970 Middle Park legal deer harvest at two stationary check stations (Idaho Springs and Dillon) and by one checker circulating through Middle Park checking deer at hunter camps. Check stations were operated for nine days and proved far superior to the roving checker in terms of time efficiency per deer checked. The roving checker examined 40 deer in the nine day period while six men manning the two stationary check stations examined 1,012 deer. This amounted to 4.4 deer checked per man-day of effort using a roving checker vs. 18. 7 deer checked per man-day of effort using stationary check stations. The sex and age composition of the 1970 harvest is presented in various formats in Tables 7-10. Comparisons of the 1970 harvest data with those from 1967, 1968, and 1969 reveals an increase in the doe harvest over the past two years and a decrease in the buck harvest while the fawn harvest has remained essentially the same (Table 11). �100 90 80 (fJ Q) 70 0 ~ 0 0 r-I E-< (fJ § C\l ~ 'H 0 (fJ 0 60 S 0 u 0 00 0 \ 50 § ~ I-' \ 40 'M -I.J C\l p::j 30 20 10 0 1967-68 Fig. 3. Trend in post-season 1968-69 1969-70 fawn:doe ratios obtained 1970-71 from ground count surveys, 1967-68 - 1970-71. ��Table 8. Sex and age classes of deer checked from Middle Park in 1970, excluding headless deer. GM Unit Adult Males Yearling Males Male Fawns Adult Females Yearling Females Female Fawns Totals 15 9 18. 7% 8 16.7% 6 12.5% 13 27.1% 12 25.0% 0 0.0% 48 100.0% 18 60 15.4% 100 25.7% 28 7.2% 106 27.3% 60 15.4% 35 9.0% 389 100.0% 27 45 17.6% 60 23.5% 29 11.3% 70 27.3% 27 10.5% 25 9.8% 256 100.0% 28 20 15.2% 38 28.8% 13 9.8% 31 23.5% 21 15.9% 9 6.8% 132 100.0% 37 27 21.6% 32 25.6% 21 16.8% 18 14.4% 16 12.8% 11 8.8% 125 100.0% Totals 161 16.9% 238 25.1% 97 10.2% 238 25.1% 136 14.3% 80 8.4% 950 100.0% I-' co N �Table 9. Number and percent of deer checked from Middle Park in 1970 in each age category by sex classes, excluding headless deer. GM Unit Adult Males Yearling Males Male Fawns Totals Adult Females Yearling Females Female Fawns Totals 15 9 39.1% 8 34.8% 6 26.1% 23 100.0% 13 52.0% 12 48.0% 0 0.0% 25 100.0% 18 60 31.9% 100 53.2% 28 14.9% 188 100.0% 106 52.7% 60 29.9% 35 17.4% 201 100.0% . 27 45 33.6% 60 44.8% 29 21.6% 134 100.0% 70 57.4% 27 22.1% 25 20.5% 122 100.0% 28 20 28.2% 38 53.5% 13 18.3% 71 100.0% 31 50.8% 21 34.4% 9 14.8% 61 100.0% 37 27 33.8% 32 40.0% 21 26.2% 80 100.0% 18 40.0% 16 35.6% 11 24.4% 45 100.0% TOTALS 161 32.4% 238 48.0% 97 19.6% 496 100.0% 238 52.4% 136 30.0% 80 17.6% 454 100.0% . t-' 00 LA) �- 184 - Table 10'. Number and percent adults and yearlings in the Middle Park deer check, 1970. GM Unit Adult Males Yearling Males Total Males Adult Females Yearling Females Total Females 15 9 52.9% 8 47.1% 17 100.0% 13 52.0% 12 48.0% 25 100.0% 18 60 37.5% 100 62.5% 160 100.0% 106 63.9% 60 36.1% 166 100.0% 27 45 42.9% 60 57.1% 105 100.0% 70 72.2% 27 27.8% 97 100.0% 28 20 34.5% 38 65.5% 58 100.0% 31 59.6% 21 40.4% 52 100.0% 37 27 45.8% 32 54.2% 59 100.0% 18 52.9% 16 47.1% 34 100.0% 161 40.4% 238 59.6% 399 100.0% 238 63.6% 136 36.4% 374 100.0% Totals Table II. Comparison of sex and age structure of the Middle Park deer harvest, 1967-1970. Year Males Females Fawns Totals 1967 375 46.1% 260 31.9% 179 22.0% 814 100.0% 1968 342 47.6% 235 32.7% 141 19.7% 718 100.0% 1969 605 40.9% 583 39.4% 291 19.7% 1,479 100.0% 1970 399 42.0% 374 39.4% 177 18.6% 950 100.0% Table 12 presents a summary of the year specific age composition of the 1970 deer harvest in comparison with the three previous years. �Table 12. Year Comparisons of the year specific age composition of the Middle Park deer harvest, 1967-1970. Fawns 1 Yr. 2 Yr s , 3 Yrs. Numbers and Percent in Each Age Class 4 Yrs. 5 Yrs. 6 Yrs. 7 Yrs. 8 Yrs. 9 Yrs. 10 Yrs. 11+ Yrs. Total Males L.O 8.6% 18 3.9% 12 2.6% 7 1.5% 5 1.1% 1 0.2% 3 0.7% 1 0.2% 463 100.0% 52 12.3% 24 5.4% 14 3.3% 8 1.9% 3 0.7% 4 1.0% 3 0.7% 1 0.2% 2 0.5% 424 100.0% 159 21.2% 92 12.3% 38 5.1% 13 1. 7% 11 1.5% 9 1.2% 5 0.7% 4 0.5% 0 0.0% 2 0.3% 748 100.0% 86 17.6% 32 6.5% 12 2.5% 9 1. 8% 2 0.4% 1 0.2% 6 1.2% 3 0.6% 3 0.6% 1 0.2% 490 100.0% 99 21.4% 187 40.4% 45 9.7% 45 9.7% 1968 82 19.3% 181 42.7% 51 12.0% 1969 160 21.4% 255 34.1% 1970 97 19.8% 238 48.6% 1967 I I-' 00 V1 Females 1967 80 22.9% 84 24.0% 39 11.1% 45 12.9% 39 11.1% 22 6.3% 16 4.6% 7 2.0% 4 1.1% 3 0.9% 4 1.1% 7 2.0% 350 100.0% 1968 59 21.1% 58 20.7% 40 14.3% 60 21.4% 20 7.1% 8 2.9% 8 2.9% 8 2.9% 5 1. 8% 7 2.5% 3 1.0% 4 1. 4% 280 100.0% 1969 131 18.8% 142 20.3% 192 27.5% 93 13.3% 51 7.3% 20 2.9% 13 1.9% 14 2.9% 19 2.7% 8 1.1% 3 0.5% 12 1. 7% 698 100.0% 1970 80 18.1% 136 30.8% 128 29.0% 45 10.2% 17 3.9% 9 2.1% 7 1.6% 5 1.1% 2 0.5% 2 0.5% 5 1.1% 5 1.1% 441 100.0% �2,- - 18 Sex and Age Composition of the Daily Check--One occasionally hears the criticism that check station sex and age composition data are biased because they are only gathered during the first nine or ten days of the hunting season instead of season-long. These critics argue that a greater proportion of does and fawns are taken home by hunters during the first half of the season, whereas more bucks are taken home during the latter half. Examination of Figures 4 and 5 reveal no consistent trends in the Middle Park deer check within any single year or over a period of years. We conclude that the nine day check station period provides an accurate sample of the sex and age composition of the Middle Park deer harvest. LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid. Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 1. pp. 105-122. Prepared by __ ~~ •....... ~_"}:...:::J~_-\.='Y-""""-""~---'-\.4-' -"--~=~::.....:' R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher =-_ �- 187 --'---i" I I II i.60 1967 50 M 0 fr.l tn 0 40 / . ..1 ;).~ - __ .- -'- ~-7' - ~ - - - -. --% DO;5 in Total ~ H <11 !::) • 30 rx. 0 f-I :z; fr.l 0 ~ 0... 20 ...•. It- - . .". ..•... ... : '. .....•.. -. ••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••.••• ...•.... :!"II ~ ¢heck F1Iwns in Total Check % Does in Total Check -70 ••••••••• •• 10 '.' · •••••••••.•••• '. '.' : 0 1 2 4 7 5 DAY OF CHECK 3 1968 60 50 :x:: 0 l"<, ::T~ u 1.•0 ..•. ?~ 1-4 ~-.: (.::) .,.. , _ .•... _ _ I~ ... , /.......... _ -t - 30 n, 10 rc:; f-tl ••• ~.~ •... .•. - _..- •.. : ." • • • • ••••• •. •••• ---...-- ..•.. ..... C~ 20 . 'II' tz. E-< ;.:.0:; bJ U ..,..- •••••.•••• •..... • •• _ ..•. - ')..,- - - .•.....• ~ ••• -. • ~ • "".: .. 'It ' •• d ]0 Fawns in Total 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 checks at big game check 9 DAY OF CHECK Fig. 4. Sex and age composition of daily hunter stations, October 1967 and October 1968. Check �- 188 - 1969 60 50 :.::: u ~ p:: u 40 ~ H H « 0 30 ~ 0 E-4 :z: u 20 ~ P:! ~ p.. 10 0 :3 2 1 4 5 DAY OF CHECK 6 8 7 9 1970 60 50 :.::: u ~ p:: u 40 ;-~~~~~--~~~--------------~----~- --- ~ H « 0 30 ~ 0 E-4 :z: ~ u ffi n, ,~Bucks in Total Check . 20 •• :: ... .• •••• D" •••••••••• ..... . 0 • ' -).'~ Does- in Total . .' G . ••••• ... -.. ~.~' •••• '.: .•••••••• -~ Fawns .. •. 10 in Total Check ••••••• 0 1 2 3 4 5 DAY OF CHECK 6 Fig. 5. Sex and age composition of daily hunter stations, ()ctober 1969 and October 1970. Check 7 8 9 check at big game check - �- 189 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 14 Deer-Elk Investigations 3 Job No. Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Productivity Period Covered: October PersonnE!l: L.H. Carpenter, L.A. Roper, L.M. Brown, D. Baker, R. Hoffman, P.F.Gilbert, G.L. Brown, W. Brandes, R.E. Keiss, D.E. Benson and R.B. Gill. 10, 1970 through August and Mortality 5, 1971 ABSTRACT Estimates of prenatal productivity were derived from two sources: counts of corpora lutea and fetus counts. The average number of corpora lutea of pregnancy for 51 does examined was 1.73 C.L./doe. The average number of fetuses from the same sample was 1.61 fetuses/doe. The sex ratio of the 1971 fetus sample did not differ significantly from those of 1969 and 1970, but there were significantly more males than females in the combined three year sample (68 percent males vs. 32 percent females). Conception and parturition dates were calculated from estimated fetal ages. The majority of the 1971 fetuses were conceived during the period November 21 to December 5. The majority of the parturition dates would have occurred during the period June 11-20. Estimates of postnatal fawn survival were calculated for both the 1969 and 1970 fawn crops. Approximately 51 percent of the 1969 fawn crop was estimated to have survived from conception to midwinter (January 15) of the following year, while 46 percent of the 1970 fawn crop survived over a comparable period. Projections of the 1970-71 winter mortality were derived from dead deer surveys. Estimates were that 489 ± 213 deer died. Highway, railroad,and other known miscellaneous losses totaled 115 deer, bringing the total number of deer estimated to have died during the 1970-71 winter to 604. Estimates of the legal harvest for Middle Park were derived from two separate sources: a ratio method involving check station figures and Game Management Unit harvest report card estimates; and a regression prediction based upon the relationship between the Idaho Springs check station tally of Middle Park deer and the Grand and Summit Counties report card deer estimates. These estimates were 2,097 and 2,436 deer, respectively. ��- 191 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate increments and losses to the Middle Park deer population order to formulate more efficient harvest regulations. in SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate productivity rates of Middle Park deer. 2. Estimate range. mortality 3. Estimate the magnitude rates of Middle Park deer over the entire winter of the hunter harvest. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Gill (1969) for details. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Productivity Pre-natal Productivity Corpora Lutea Counts--During the period January-May, 1971, 51 sets of mule deer ovaries were collected and macroscopically examined for the presence of corpora lutea of pregnancy. Does were separated into two age classes, yearlings and older aged does. The average number of C.L.P./doe for eleven yearlings was 1.27 compared to 1.85 C.L.P./doe for older age animals. The average number of C.L.P./doe for all does combined was 1.73. These figures are comparable to data from 1970 does, but are slightly lower than those observed in 1969 (Table 1). Although these data have not been tested for statistical significance, there appears to have been a decline in productivity in 1970 and 1971 from 1969. The proportion of the fertilized ova developing into viable embryos and fetuses also appeared to decline in 1970 and 1971. In 1969 95.5 percent of the fertilized ova developed into viable embryos and fetises as evodemced from comparisons of C.L.P. and fetus counts. In 1970 and 1971 the proportions were 93.2 percent and 93.1 percent, respectively. Thus, not only did initial fertility appear to decline, but also survival from the blastocyst stage to the embryonic and fetal stages of pre-natal development (Fig. 1). �Table 1. Comparisons of numbers of corpora lutea of pregnancy and fetuses occurring in samples of mule deer reproductive tracts collected from Middle Park, Colorado, 1969-1971. Year All Does No. of No. of No. of Does Fertilization Corpora Does Fertilization Corpora Does Fertilization Corpora Examined Rate Fetuses Lutea Examined Rate Fetuses Lutea Examined Rate Lutea Fetuses 1969 1.50 1.00 66.7% 2 2.05 1.97 96.1% 39 2.02 1.93 95.5'% ·41 1970 1.29 1.29 100.0% 7 1.86 1.71 91.9% 35 1.76 1.64 93.2% 42 1971 1.27 1.09 85.8% 11 1.85 1.75 94.6% 40 1.73 1.61 93.1% 51 Total 1.30 1.15 88.5% 20 1.92 1.82 94.8% 114 1.83 1.72 94.0% 134 Adult Does Yearling Does ~ \0 N �II i , i J. i----i--- . i ADULT DOES ... n ='39· ) 2 ! r • o 1969 1970 1971 All Years 1970 1971 All Years n = 41 2 1 o 1969 Fig. 1. Comparison of corpora lutea and fetal rates from female mule deer collected from Middle Park, Colorado, 1969-71. �- 194 - Accessory Corpora Lutea--Various authors have described the occurrence of of luteinized ovarian structures histologically and morphologically similar to primary corpora lutea of pregnancy, only smaller in size (Robinette et al. 1955; Morrison 1960; Simkin 1965; Douglas 1966; and Markgren 1969). Similar structures were noted in the samples of Middle Park deer ovaries. Robinette et al. (1955) suggested that these "accessory" corpora lutea could be distinguished from C.L.P. by their smaller size and lack of a rupture site. In this current study ovaries were not examined microscopically so accessory corpora lutea were distinguished by size alone. Two measurements were made of all the luteinized ovarian structures found in the 1971 ovaries. These were the maximum diameter and the minimum diameter of the structure. The maximum diameter was the greatest distance across the largest section of the structure. The minimum diameter was taken perpendicular to and at a point midway along the axis of the maximum diameter (Fig. 2). Those structures which were judged to be primary cor~ pora lutea of pregnancy generally exceeded 5x7 mm while the accessory corpora lutea measured 5x7 mm or less (Fig. 2). Of the 101 structures measured, 6.9 percent were classed as accessory corpora lutea of pregnancy. Most of the accessory corpora lutea (71.4 percent) occurred in the right ovary. Multiple Ovulation--Brambell (1948) lists three sources of error encountered when counts of C.L.P. are used as indexes to productivity: (1) a follicle may develop into a corpus luteum without liberating an ovum (accessory corpus luteum); (2) a follicle may liberate more than a single ovum; and (3) counting errors may occur. Suspected examples of case 1 were discussed in the previous section. One example of case 2 was noted from specimen 69-3 collected January 17, 1969. This particular doe contained four healthy embryos, each enclosed within a separate amnion, and one additional amnion containing amniotic fluid, but not a fully developed embryo (Fig. 3). Examination of this doe's ovaries revealed only three corpora lutea of pregnancy and was interpreted evidence that multiple ovulation from a single follicle had occurred. Litter Sizes and Fetal Sex Ratios Litter Sizes--Comparisons of the average litter sizes of does examined over the three year collection period (1969-1971) indicated a decrease in the proportion of does bearing triplets, and an increase in the percent of nonpregnant does in 1970 and 1971 from 1969 (Table 2). This provided further evidence of a general drop in productivity for 1970 and 1971 from the 1969 fawn crop. �Fig. 2. Scatter diagram of sizes of luteinized ovarian structures mule deer reproductive May, 1971. tracts collected in Middle Park, Colorado, from January - �- 196 - Fig. 3. Embryos in amniotic sacs recovered in Middle Park, Colorado, January 17,-1969. from mule deer doe number 69-3 �- 197 - Table 2. Litter size frequencies Park, Colorado, 1969-1971. of mule deer does examined from Middle Litter Sizes 2 3 4 n 10 24.4 25 61.0 5 12.2 1 2.4 41 100.0 5 7 28 2 0 42 Percent 11.9 16. 7 66.7 4.7 0.0 100.0 1971 No. Percent 1 2.0 19 37.2 30 58.8 1 2.0 0 0.0 51 100.0 Totals No. 6 36 83 8 1 134 Percent 4.5 26.9 61.9 6.0 0.7 100.0 Year 1969 No. Percent 1970 No. 0 1 0 0.0 Fetal Sex Ratios--Each year that samples of fetuses have been collected from Middle Park male fetuses have dominated the sample (Fig. 4). Chi-square tests failed to detect significant year differences so data for all three years were pooled and tested against the hypothesis that male and female fetuses occurred with equal frequency (i.e. the samples were drawn from a population comprised of 50 percent male fetuses and 50 percent female fetuses). The probability that these samples were drawn from such a population w,as less than .005. Therefore it was concluded that a significantly greater number of male fetuses were produced over the three year period. Conception and Parturition Dates--Forehead-rump lengths were measured on all undamaged fetuses in the 1971 sample. These measurements were then converted to estimated ages using the growth curve presented in Hudson and Browman (1959). Dates of conception for each fetus were calculated by backdating from collection dates. These data are presented in Fig. 5, with comparable data for 1969 and 1970. The majority of fetuses (65-80 percent) examined over the three year period were conceived between November 21 and December 5 of each year. Assuming a gestation period of 202 days (Robinette and Gashwiler 1950) parturition dates were calculated from fetal ages by foredating from collection dates of the 1971 sample. Approximately 50 percent of the projected parturition dates would have occurred within the period June 11-20 (Fig. 6). Estimated dates of parturition for the entire sample ranged from June 4 to July 4. �.•198 - l---l-~"-"-,-,1 Ill,!-~--;illTI.-' ,'!: " +... ' --' , .. ·1· ..-T"71'-'-"'--~1 I ii' , , I .,' •I" i ! + , 'II 11 t:; [' ,J 1 "I : : i 'l't; Ii 'I' (I -r+ r i: I" l i: ! I -L.. .-~-..- ..~ .' I I i : l l:.; ii ·1··.. -j ,'I . i i .1 I I .. ! i i' : f .~ f I , ' ..-~.-Lt..., I .I. '1' il !] 1: "··-·-r··· 1_- ••. i ! : $0 I i , J i : I .. ! ! - .70 . n ~69 ~ ... 60 .40 30 20 10 o 1969 1970 1971 All Years Fig. 4. Proportions of males and females in samples of mule deer fetuses from Middle Park, Colorado, 1969-1971. �00000 o, •..... N <...oJ 0 +- 0 0 0 •..... o N o o +o 'c5 1-" rt()Q j-I. • ::l 11/15-20 11/15-20 11/15-20 11/21-25 11/21-25 11/21-25 p/26-30 11/26-30 11/26-30 12/ 1-5 12/ 1-5 __ ~?l 6-10 12/ 6-10 . . .~.,.. --.- . i ... .. -.~~r"----, In ()Q Hl ti . o t:tj (') CJl rt 1-" S o ,--_.------.L _., S f--' f--' rt rt 1-" •• __ ._ '0-"'- III (1) CD (') p.. ::l 0 f"l:j III o l'ERCEN'1'--OF et)treEP'P I DN5-·--------· PERCENT OF C)NCEPTIONS PERCENT OF N CONCEPTIONS •....• <...oJ +- p,. III rt c, CJlCD .. ---~-,-.--..... 12/ 1-5 III rt 0 CJl rn o III 0 CD -~-~r 12/ 6-10 ,- .-----~.:.......,.~ I r i ::l ::l c, (') CD CD 'd CJl rt rt 1-" 1-" 0 S ::l III rt 0 _~~L~1':·15 r~ 12/11-15 :-J~, rn P..::s: Iir~=i 12/16-20 _,~ ._1. CD -~. __ i-=--'-:.-1. - f--'CD CD - --- ; i ...---I ..-~---~-.. . ti ?I"' . ---- ..-.-.-.-.-:-.-.-.----~, c, o CD CJl " 0" ,Ill CD P.. ---_. - i ..: -_ ..- -~ -------- ... o ::l ~ ..... - --·---·-···--t-:----~~ j ! -~--- en (') , ---- -'---'-~ "'d III 0" III ,. , c, CJl '_'__ j , Hl 1-" (1) p,. rt III I-' III ()Q 1/11-15 I-' \0 \0 12/1i-15 --~~,--,- �- 200 - 60 1971i -1 i 50 (/)' ::r:: ;, ,.j - ... 40 ~ Hi m: .: . •• _M }' .•• . . o V"\ ....• I .-t 0 : ~ ...-I :-~ ...-I <o <o i I V"\! N I O· C"'I '. I -- -- -- ''''-- .-t " N N \.0 <o DA.TES OF--~ARTURITION Fig. 6. Estimate dates of parturition for Middle Park does based on fetal ages and an assumed gestation period of 202 days. �~ 201 - Post-natal Fawn Survival Fawn survival rates were calculated from time of conception through midwinter (January 15) for the 1969 and 1970 fawn crops. Estimates of the number of fawns conceived per 100 does of producing age (2+ years) were derived from counts of corpora lutea of pregnancy. Estimates of the number of fawns born were derived from fetus counts (Table 1). Estimates of fawns surviving to hunting season were based on pre-season classification counts, and estimates of fawn survival to January 15 were based on postseason classification counts (Table 3). Both the pre- and post-season classification data were corrected so does that had not conceived their first fawn were excluded from calculations of young:lOO does. Table 3. Figures used in c~mputing numbers of fawns per 100 does preand post-season, corrected bOy excluding yearling does. No. of Does Counted Percent Yearlings in Doe Population Corrected No. of Does No. of Fawns Counted 1969 451 24.4 341 419 123 100 1970 368 36.4 237 258 109 100 1969-70 471 24.4 356 363 102 100 1970-71 777 36.4 494 317 64 100 Ratio of Fawns : 100 Producing Does Pre-season Classifications Post-season Classifications Survival rates for the 1969 fawn crop for the 59 week period from conception to mid-winter of the following year was approximately 51 percent, while the survival rate for the 1970 fawn crop was 46 percent over a comparable period (Fig. 7). Thus, not only were there fewer fawns produced in 1970, but a smaller percentage survived, resulting in a double depressant on ensuing population levels. �- 202 - Fig. 7. Fawn survival rates for Middle Park mule deer, 1969-1970. �- 203 - Mortality Winter Mortality The projected estimate for 1971 deer winter mortality amounted to 489 deer, or 8.5 percent of the estimated post-season population of 5,730 deer. Ninety percent confidence levels about this estimate indicated the true population winter loss lay somewhere between 274 and 704 deer. Comparisons of 1971 losses with those of previous years are presented in Fig. 8. The estimated winter loss figure was projected from only 15 carcasses encountered on 93 transects. The sex and age composition of 13 of the 15 deer which could be classified was: bucks - 38.4 percent; does - 30.8 percent; and fawns - 30.8 percent. These data are too limited to hazard extrapolation to total population losses by sex and age classes. The pooled data for the past four years may provide a better estimate of the sex and age specific mortality (Table 4). Fawns comprised the greatest proportion of the combined four-year sample (45.1 percent), followed by does (29.2 percent), and lastly, by bucks (25.7 percent). Table 4. Numbers of dead deer by sex and age classes encountered winter mortality survey, 1968-1971. Survey Year 1968 1969 Bucks Does Fawns Total No. 14 11 26 51 Percent 27.4 21. 6 51.0 100.0 6 5 8 19 31. 6 26.3 42.1 100.0 4 13 13 30 13.4 43.3 43.3 100.0 5 4 4 13 Percent 38.4 30.8 30.8 100.0 No. 29 33 51 113 Percent 25.7 29.2 45.1 100.0 No. Percent 1970 No. Percent 1971 Totals in No. �- 204 - 3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 . ~--- 2000 1800 &3 ~ 1600 p.. 0 (I) e5 ~ z 1400 TTfj 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1967-68 1968-69 Fig. 8. Middle Park deer winter mortality estimates, percent confidence limits, 1967-68 to 1970-71. 1969-70 bracketed 1970-71 by the 90 �- 205 - Highway, Railroad, and Miscellaneous Mortality During the period July 1, 1970 and June 30, 1971, WCO's in Middle Park reported 57 deer deaths attributable to highway accidents. Searches of the railroad rights-of-way intersecting major deer winter concentration sites yielded nine deer presumed to have been killed in deertrain collisions (Table 5). Table 5. Known highway and railroad losses, Middle Park, 1963-70. Year Highway Losses Railroad Losses 1963-64 90 1964-65 385 1965-66 7 Totals 1966-67 56 l32 188 1967-68 54 60 114 1968-69 77 56 133 1969-70 67 38 105 1970-71 57 9 66 In addition to losses previously discussed, 33 deer were collected for reproduction studies and 16 were known to have perished from injuries sustained during trapping operations. Combining all aforementioned losses with the dead deer survey estimate, 604 deer were estimated to have died from all identified sources in the 1970-71 winter. Harvest Mortality In the past, three separate estimates of the Middle Park deer harvest have been available. These were: (1) county report card estimates for Grand and Summit counties; (2) a ratio estimate projected from the check and estimated harvest from Game Management Units 18, 28, and 37; and (3) a regression formula prediction based upon the relationship between the Idaho Springs check of Middle Park deer and the Grand and Summit county report card estimates (Gill 1970). Only two of these estimates were available for the 1970 harvest, since the county of kill was not requested �- 209 July, JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ....;C:...:O:..::L:...:o~RAD==...;;.O _ Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title Middle 1971 Deer-Elk Investigations 4 Job No. Park Deer Study - Food Habits and Physical Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, Willard Travnicek, Paul Gilbert and Laren A. Roper. Characteristics 31, 1971 Robert E. Keiss, Joe Griess, ABSTRACT Data on kidney fat and bone marrow fat percentages in mule deer in Middle Park are presented. Regression lines for kidney fat are linear for 1969 and 1970 and show a downward trend from January 15 - April of each year. The 1971 kidney fat percentages show a similar linear trend for the FebruaryApril period, however, unusually low values in January results in a polynomial regression. To date, no biological significance of this phenomena is apparent. Blood counts of collected deer are reported for 1971. An analysis of variance for yearling buck antlers collected in 1968-1970 suggest no significant difference exists between years for the antler weights. The number of points occur in similar proportions each of these years. �- 211 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY FOOD HABITS AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Laren A. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To measure selected physical characteristics related to the assessment of physical condition of deer and to determine forage preferences of mule deer in Middle Park. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. Estimate forage preferences of deer from stomach content analyses. Estimate forage preferences of deer from tame deer observations. Measure selected physical characteristics of deer believed indicative of the state of physical condition. METHODS Forage Preferences Procedures - Stomach Content Analyses are reported by Gill (1969). Forage Preferences Procedures AND MATERIALS - Tame, Trained Deer Observations are reported by Gill (1969). Physical Characteristics Procedures are reported by Gill (1969). The procedures reported by Roper (1970) for blood samples have been changed. During the 1971 collection period blood smears taken from heart blood as soon after death as possible were used. Standard procedures for obtaining counts of segmented neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes were used. All other procedures are reported by Roper (1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forage Preferences - Stomach Content Analyses Samples from 84 stomachs are now being analyzed ported in the next segment. and results will be re- �- 212 - Forage Preferences - Tame, Trained Deer Observations These data will be reported in conjunction with the Job 5 report. This report includes data that may be indicative of the physical condition of deer collected from January 15, through May 21, 1969, 1970 and 1971. Data on kidney fat supersedes that reported by Roper (1970) due to refinement of the statistical treatment. Some information gained from the collection of yearling buck antlers and does killed from highway accidents and miscellaneous causes is included. Kidney Fat and Bone Marrow Fat Indices Deer were collected each winter commencing on January 15 and continuing through April of 1969, 1970 and 1971. Tables 1, 2 and 3 summarize these data. Kidney fat estimates were determined for deer killed by autos and other miscellaneous causes when possible. Data from collected deer is analyzed separately as we suspect differences from deer killed by other causes. This hypothesis will be tested and reported in the final report. Kidney fat percentages are obtained using the method reported by Anderson and Medin (1965). In collected deer for 1969, 1970 and 1971 the right kidney has significantly (P<.05) higher fat percentages than the left. In order to compare to the results reported by other workers these data are pooled. The right femur bone is collected and quick frozen, then the entire marrow content is mixed and analyzed for fat content using the ether extract method. In 1971 the percentage year. of kidney fat was lower in January than any other Regression lines for 1969 and 1970 are linear and appear quite different than the polynomial regression obtained for 1971 (Fig. 1); however, most of the polynomial regression in 1971 results from low January values. At present the biological implications, if any, are not clear. Values for February through April are comparable for each year (Fig. 2). Even though these data suggest differences for January, Bartlett's test (Snedecor and Cochran 1968) for homogenity of variances for each month suggests there is no significant differences between the variances (P<.25) when all 3 years are pooled. An F test indicates no significant difference between the means. Apparently the values for January are too variable to be significant even though the data for 1969 and 1970 fit a linear regression while the 1971 data fit a polynomial regression. Plans are to analyze all the kidney fat data by separate age classes using a multiple regression analysis to try and account for some of the variation. �- 213 - Table 1. Kidney and bone marrow fat percentages for deer collected in Middle Park in 1969. Collection Date Day No. Right Kidney 1-15 1-16 1-17 1-21 1-21 1-22 1-23 1-23 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-17 2-18 2-18 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-7 3-l3 3-20 3-20 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-10 4-10 4-14 4-14 4-15 1 1 3 7 7 8 9 9 21 22 23 24 24 34 35 35 49 50 51 51 52 58 65 65 84 85 86 86 86 90 90 91 11.9 9.6 59.7 38.8 44.0 30.3 32.8 30.8 22.5 46.6 39.5 42.8 32.1 25.7 30.3 9.8 10.2 26.2 10.8 46.0 26.0 14.0 18.8 16.0 8.8 5.3 14.0 9.0 20.6 15.3 7.0 4.3 Percent Fat Left Kidney 6.7 79.8 29.6 23.8 32.0 26.9 30.3 25.8 48.5 49.6 33.0 31.9 30.4 22.7 7.9 14.5 19.5 8.0 37.7 23.9 10.4 16.3 11.1 7.5 9.0 4.7 20.6 10.7 7.4 3.8 Bone Marrow 85 92 90 86 84 87 91 84 91 94 91 89 92 9 91 85 88 93 92 84 91 87 56 60 88 78 84 89 51 11 �- 214 - Table 2. Kidney and bone marrow fat percentages for deer collected in Middle Park in 1970. Collection Date Day No. Right Kidney 1-26 1-26 1-27 1-29 2-5 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 3-12 3-19 3-20 3-23 3-23 3-23 3-25 3-27 4-7 4-7 4-9 4-13 4-13 4-14 4-14 4-15 12 12 13 15 22 26 26 27 29 29 30 42 43 44 45 57 64 65 68 68 68 70 72 83 83 85 89 89 90 90 91 17.6 22.8 40.4 26.9 32.7 23.0 38.5 23.8 28.8 .04 20.0 14.9 10.5 13.7 41.1 28.9 15.2 5.6 18.0 4.6 14.4 7.9 3.7 7.2 14.2 9.2 4.8 6.4 .03 9.5 Percent Fat Left Kidney 55.1 18.8 51.5 23.8 31.0 41.0 20.2 29.3 .04 20.0 15.2 5.1 25.7 17.7 14.1 6.8 18.4 6.7 3.1 7.4 21.8 6.6 7.5 10.5 7.3 .02 11.4 Bone Marrow 90 89 76 84 91 91 95 92 74 3 85 89 53 86 88 81 85 66 86 66 79 61 33 82 85 30 72 33 40 2 72 �- 215 - Table 3. Kidney fat percentages for deer collected in Middle 1971. Collection Date 1-16 1-19 1-22 1-22 1-25 1-26 1-27 1-28 1-28 2-5 2-9 2-10 2-16 2-17 2-23 2-26 3-4 3-8 3-11 3-16 3-19 3-22 3-26 3-30 4-1 4-5 4-7 4-12 4-19 4-21 4-23 Day No. 2 5 8 8 11 12 13 14 14 22 26 27 33 34 40 43 49 51 56 61 64 67 71 75 77 81 83 88 95 97 99 Percent Right Kidney 22.5 15.8 23.0 8.2 18.9 27.4 23.8 38.9 23.6 27.3 24.7 34.1 24.1 37.5 37.8 22.7 21.1 17.3 19.1 10.4 20.2 6.0 19.3 17.7 17.4 5.8 12.8 12.1 10.8 Park in Fat Left Kidney 15.3 14.3 19.4 23.3 5.2 17.4 19.5 15.6 30.4 19.9 16.5 26.9 32.0 26.3 26.4 45.3 17.5 17.6 15.0 16.2 9.5 26.5 7.6 16.5 20.1 5.8 10.7 5.2 16.7 18.4 10.5 �- 216 - REGRESSION EQUATIONS 1969 n = 30 Y = 42.57914 + -.32565X X = 28.95 r .6561 r2 .4304 S.E. 23.3 1970 n = 26 Y = 37.72300 + -.31327X X = 33.25 r = .7190 r2 = .5170 S.E. 17.3 1971 n = 30 100 CI.l 50 :>-< ~ z A H ::.:: 45 E-! r:r.. ~ H 40 X = 30.015 r .4425 r2 .1958 15.5 S.E. A ~ E-! ::r:: '" 35 0 H p:: r:r.. 0 E-! Y = 25.85995 + -.10869X . 30 <: r:r.. :>-< ~ 25 z A H ::.:: 20 E-! Z ~ u p:: ~ P-< 1971 15 1969 z <: ~ ::<:: 1970 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 COLLECTION DAYS COMMENCING JANUARY 15 Fig. 1. Regression of pooled right and left kidney fat percentages in deer collected in Middle Park commencing January 15 for 1969, 1970 and 1971. A test for equality of the three regression lines is significant (P<.025) and indicates there is no significant difference between years. �- 217 100 75 70 Upper ~Confidence Limit 65 60 55 50 45 40 Mean 35 30 25 20 .15 10 5 ~ o JFMA 1969 Lower Confidence Limit J F M A J F M A 1970 1971 MONTH AND YEAR Fig. 2. Mean kidney fat percentage by month for collected deer in Middle Park during the 1969, 1970 and 1971 winters. (95 percent confidence interval). �- 218 - Data from animals killed from causes other than collections have not been analyzed to date. Tables 4 and 5 summarize the kidney fat percentages estimated in these deer in 1969 and 1971. Analyses for bone marrow fat content in 1971 are in progress and will be reported in subsequent reports. Summaries of bone marrow fat for 1969 and 1970 are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Table 4. The percent of fat on the kidneys and in the bone marrow deer killed by autos and other causes in Middle Park in 1969. Collection Date Day No. Right Kidney 2-3 20 35.1 2-5 22 21. 6 2-11 28 2-28 45 3-2 Percent Fat Left Kidney of Bone Marrow 36.3 88 52.0 43 20.0 26.5 74 47 10.0 4.8 51 3-3 48 26.5 14.6 88 3-4 49 19.0 11. 6 67 3-5 50 7.9 3.1 25 3-17 62 3.7 2.2 3-17 62 48.8 45.5 Blood Counts A blood smear was made for each collected deer to provide possible indications of blood composition changes that may be related to tbeir physical condition. These data are summariz~d in Table 6 and graphed in Fig. 3. Analyses will be made in a subsequent report. �- 219 - Table 5. The percent of fat on the kidneys other causes in Middle Park, 1971. of deer killed by autos and Percent Fat Collection Date Day No. 1-27 13 27.7 23.6 2-1 18 25.6 24.0 2-4 21 14.4 15.6 2-9 26 2-15 32 13.3 14.6 2-22 39 12.8 11. 5 2-22 39 3.0 2.9 2-26 43 5.2 5.9 3-4 49 35.2 15.6 3-11 56 9.6 5.1 and Number of Points in Yearling Bucks Antler Weights Right Kidney Left Kidney 8.7 We suspect that the weights and/or number of points of antlers on yearling bucks could be indicative of the previous winters severity (Roper 1970). The left antler of yearling bucks was sawed off just above the burr at hunter check stations. Weights of the left antlers from bucks taken in the 1968, 1969 and 1970 hunting seasons show no significant difference between the years when the data are subjected to an analysis of variance test (Table 7). In Fig. 4, the mean weight, confidence interval and the maximum and minimum weights show a wide range for each year. �Table 6. Summary of blood counts on collected deer in Middle Park, 1971. Blood Count Collection Date Day Number Deer Number 1-22 1-22 1-26 1-27 2-5 2-16 2-17 2-23 3-4 3-8 3-11 3-16 3-19 3-26 3-30 4-1 4-5 4-7 4-12 4-19 4-21 4-23 4-26 8 8 12 13 22 33 34 40 49 53 56 61 64 71 75 77 81 83 88 95 97 99 102 71-3 71-4 71-6 71-7 71-10 71-13 71-14 71-15 71-17 71-18 71-19 71-20 71-21 71-23 71-24 71-25 71-26 71-27 71-28 71-29 71-30 71-31 71-32 Segmented Neutrophi1s 40 26 38 38 26 53 30 34 38 30 66 75 80 81 40 53 75 42 72 60 54 20 62 Eosinophils 0 16 16 2 0 6 6 10 0 10 10 3 0 0 29 13 8 23 2 0 14 8 0 Basophi1s Lymphocytes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 56 46 60 66 37 64 54 62 58 24 22 20 19 27 34 17 31 26 38 30 70 38 Monocytes 0 2 0 0 8 4 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 0 2 2 2 0 N N 0 �-~p~"~.iI~~~~--~~~~--~- 100 '" ,+"" ~~ - --........--- I ------ ~___ =z- ) ........-- 90- ~ ~ c ~ A Mo~ocytes s ~ 80_ Lymphocytes 70_ 60_ H S o N N 50_ u ~ o t-' H 40_Lx.:]z ~ ~ Lx.1 30_ 'tooSi~ot;nilS 20_ Segmented Neutrophils 10_. o~ ,--- 10 _. -------.20 30 40 COLLECTION Fig. 3. Blood composition data from collected Note:. Deer 71-3 not shown. 50 60 DAY NUMBER deer in Middle Park in 1971. 70 80 90 100 10: �- 222 - 240 N=99 200 160 120 80 40 Minimum o 1968 1969 1970 YEAR Fig. 4. Antler weights in grams of the left antler of yearling bucks in Middle Park (1968, 1969, 1970). �- 223 - 30 - · .... · · ·· · ·· ·· ·· ·· ·· ·· 25 - l 20 - 15 - ... · (f.l z 0 0 ~ 0 ,::.:: ... S z 5 - 1-- "- I ·· - - (· I I I .. ·- - J 10 - ~ ~ I I ··· · E-l <: ~ ~ (f.l ~ --I ·· H r: .. I I I I I I I I I I - -r 1-- .. o I 0 C'.I I r-I I 0 -.::t" I r-I C'.I I 0 \0 I r-I -er I I 0 00 I r-I 0 0 r-I I r-I 00 \0 I 0 C'.I r-I I r-I 0 r-I I 0 -.::t" r-I I r-I C'.I r-I I 0 \0 r-I I r-I -.::t" r-I -I - ) . .. r 1 I 0 00 r-I I r-I \0 r-I I 0 0 C'.I I r-I 00 r-I I I 0 C'.I C'.I I r-I 0 C'.I 0 -.::t" C'.I I r-I C'.I C'.I CLASS OF WEIGHTS IN GRAMS Year: 1968 1969 1970 ..... Fig. 5. Frequency distribution of I-year old buck antler weights from Middle Park. �- 224 - Table 7. Analysis of variance of the antler weights of yearling bucks taken during the 1968, 1969 and 1970 hunting seasons. Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Mean Square 3.00 248 (N-l) Total Years (between-among) Error (within-residual)246 2 (K-l) 909.38 (N-K) 1318.88 .6895 To provide a base for comparisons these data have been pooled and will be used to represent winters of light stress on the deer. The mean of the pooled data is 74.2 ± 4.5 grams (standard error = 2.2985). A frequency distribution of the number of points on yearling buck antlers suggests that each years data is similar (Fig. 5). A contingency test shows that each years data is independent and that there is no significant difference between years. We could expect on the basis of this test that the same proportion of 1, 2, 3 and 4 point antlers should occur each year. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1965. Two condition indices of the Cache la Poudre mule deer herd and their application to management .• Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leaflet No. 23. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. 3 p. Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park ·deer study -- food habits and physical characteristics. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Federal Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. Roper, L.A. 1970. Middle Park deer study -- food habits and physical characteristics. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Federal Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 19'68. Statistical Iowa State Press. 6th ed. 2nd printing. 593 p. Prepared byck 0 t?~<---1kr Laren A. Roper Asst. Wildlife Researcher methods. The � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/ca5f79a475f0401277aac0e133bb2d75.pdf 082b315f88f6dc9a04e9775f71f2f80d PDF Text Text - 225 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~~-------- Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Range Fertilization Deer-Elk Job No. Investigations 5 Period Covered: June 15, 1970 through March 15, 1971 Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, Paul F. Gilbert, Laren A. Roper, O. C. Wallmo, Don W. Reichert, Wayne L. Regelin, Robert Davies, Charles Grand Pre, Robert Glaze and Len H. Carpenter. ABSTRACT First year fertilizer and herbicide treatment response data were gathered on th~ee study areas in western Grand County, Colorado. Herbage yield measurements were made on each of ten treatments at each study area. A general linear increase in vegetation production was obtained with each increased increment of nitrogen fertilizer from 30 pounds nitrogen per acre to 120 pounds nitrogen per acre. Fertilizer and herbicide treatments together generally resulted in equal production from treatment to treatment. Botanical composition measurements were made at each study area with no significant measurable changes being noticed. Eight tame, trained mule deer were grazed at each study area during the winter months. A substantial increase in shrubs and grasses was noted in the diet from pretreatment data to the posttreatment data. A corresponding decrease in the forb percentage of the diet was also noted in this period. Treatment preference data showed a definite preference by the deer for the control and fertilizer only treatments over the herbicide only or the herbicide and fertilizer combination treatments. A comparison of the 1969 and 1970 monthly and annual precipitation data with the thirteen year average was made. ��- 227 - MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of fertilizers on deer forage and deer feeding intensity to fertilization of critical winter ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To test the effects of nitrogen and 2,4-D on forage production lected deer winter range areas. 2. To evaluate deer foraging responses on se- to treated areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials by Carpenter (1970). employed in this segment have been detailed previously Certain changes have been made. Vegetation Measurements Herbage Yield Herbage yield measurements were made with an electronic capacitance instrumentmodel 18-1000 in place of model 101-X used previously. A total of 75 subplots was read for each 100' X 100' treatment plot. A ratio of five mete.r read plots to one clipped plot was used resulting in a total of 15 clip plots per treatment. The location of these 75 sUbplots was chosen in a restricted random fashion so that they would cover the entire treatment in a representative manner. The procedure used for a clipped plot was as follows: first, the immediate vegetation around the edge of the meter that was not part of the subplot was clipped and removed to avoid interference; next, plastic golf tees were placec under the corner probes of the instrument so the exact sUbplot location could be relocated when the instrument was removed to do the clipping. After the golf. tees were located, a first meter reading (MR A) was mad-e. This recorded the total vegetation on the subplot. The meter was then removed and the leafy shrub components of the subplot clipped and sacked sE::paratelyby shrub species. The meter was then replaced on the subplot and a second meter reading made and recorded. The meter was then removed and the forb and grass components of the subplot were clipped and sacked sefarately. In addition, all woody material on the sUbplot was clipped and sacked separately �- 228 - by species for analysis of its effect on the meter reading. A residual meter reading was not taken for previous information indicated it was not necessary. All production data were computed on an oven-dry weight basis (1000 C. for 24 hours). Botanical Composition Considerable difficulty was encountered in delineating and counting the number of grass plants per unit area on the permanently established plots. To facilitate and improve this situation a grid of 25 2.4 inch squares was placed on the square foot plot and the number of grids in which a particular grass species occurred was recorded. Deer Grazing Measurements In an attempt to maximize data obtained from the tame mule deer certain changes were made in procedures. The length of the grazing period at each study area was lengthened from four to six days. One grazing period was held at each study area during the winter months. The number of deer used for these measurements was increased from four to eight and the deer were all of equal age (6-8 months). Also, in order to maximize the data obtained, each grazing method was alternated daily. That is, if the grazing trial for day one was the plant preference or plant selection trial, then day two would be the treatment preference or tower observation trial. The sequence of these intervals was randomly chosen at each area. This system allowed the observers to watch the deer for longer continual time periods and allowed the deer to develop more standard daily patterns. At approximately three hour intervals the deer were rotated between observers in both grazing methods each day. Treatment Preference Measurements To increase the information obtained from the observation tower the number of deer observed for each trial was increased from four to six. Each observer was responsible for observing three deer. The time spent on each treatment plot was recorded for all three deer by clock minutes while the grazing seconds were obtained for only one deer by using a cumulative stop watch as that particular deer grazed. All six deer were used throughout the day and rotated between observers. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation .Herbage Measurements Yield All herbage production data were analyzed using a double sample computer program. Production estimates were obtained for each one of the ten treatments �- 229 - at each study area. In order to develop a more accurate predictive equation the data from the five fertilizer treatments (control included) and the data from the five fertilizer and herbicide treatments (control included) were combined into one equation resulting in a small sample (clip) N of 75 and a large sample (meter read only) N of 375. The data indicated that this combination was feasible. This predictive equation was then used to obtain the production estimates for each of the five individual treatments in that group for each study area. Predictive equations were developed for: (1) total leafy vegetation (Weight E) which consisted of all the shrub leaf and current growth plus all forbs and grasses; (2) shrub leaf and current growth only (Weight C). These equations were developed using the first meter reading or (MR A) and the corresponding above mentioned herbage weights. The above mentioned two components of the vegetation gave the best relationship between meter readings and herbage weight in most cases. In certain cases a more precise estimate of shrub leaf and current growth weight could be obtained by relating the second meter reading minus the first meter reading (MR C) against the shrub leaf and current growth weight. However, the first method in most all cases gives an accurate prediction of the shrub current growth yield. The above mentioned methods were applied to the 1969 pretreatment data to obtain comparable values to the first year treatment response data. Tables 1, 2, and 3 present these data. In order to obtain an estimate of forb and grass production the clipped weights of each group were used. These data for all three study areas combined are presented in Figures 1 and 2. No real differences are evident in the grass production for each treatment. There is a slight increase in grass production on the combination treatments as compared with the fertilizer only treatments. The forb data suggest a lower production on the herbicide plots which would be expected. No real differences in forb production are apparent on the fertilizer only treatments. The forb and grass responses should be quite evident in future measurements when the full treatment effects are present. Figures 3 and 4 show the linear response obtained from the nitrogen fertilizer only application on shrub leafy material and on total leafy material. An analysis of the data for main effect of fertilizer, and the interaction effect of fertilizer and herbicide, shows a significant (p = .01) linear response to fertilizer in both shrub and total leafy material. Tests for quadratic, cubic and quartic regressions showed that these contributed little to the sums of squares in the analysis of variance. Although there is a significant linear response there seems to be a decrease in production at the 90 pound nitrogen treatment. This is difficult to understand, but it may be that certain components of the vegetation are not responding to this particular nitrogen level. No explanation of why this might be is available at this time. Figure 5 illustrates the production response obtained in total leafy material at each study area as a function of increased nitrogen levels, with 2,4-D herbicide in combination. In general, this herbicide and fertilizer combination tended to result in rather uniform productivity in all treatments. This is probably due to a somewhat uniform decrease in the shrubby leaf material as a result of the herbicide application. Figure 6 shows the average percent change in the total leafy material produced for each nitrogen level from the control treatments (0 nitrogen and 0 herbicide) for all three study areas. This graph illustrates the general linear increase with increased nitrogen levels and the unexplained drop at the 90 pound nitrogen rate. �- 230 Table l. Pre-treatment and first year herbage production response data for Junction Butte study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. Year and Weight Component 1969 1970 1969 1970 Shrub Current Growth Weight Total Leafy Vegetation (Lbs. Per Acre) Treatment o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 404 582 649 905 30 N " 236 739 443 1099 60 N " 464 957 723 1316 90 N " 392 940 637 1278 120 N " 477 1254 732 1603 o N 2 lb. " 249 365 454 709 30 N " 251 530 461 905 60 N " 427 624 675 1001 90 N " 337 424 585 781 120 N " 485 549 744 915 2,4-D Table 2. Pre-treatment and first year herbage production response data for F1ight1ine study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. (Lbs , Per Acre) Treatment o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D Year and Weight ComEonent 1969 1970 1969 1970 Shrub Current Growth Weight Total Leafy Vegetation 467 606 1177 1519 " 419 497 1187 1399 " 424 861 1134 1852 704 741 1526 1704 822 1625 1620 2633 663 393 1463 1212 696 412 1463 1222 60 N " " 802 582 1593 1437 90 N " 404 290 1147 1059 120 N " 398 357 1090 1162 30 N 60 N 90 N 120 N " " o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N �- 231 - Table 3. Pre-treatment and first year herbage production response data for Corral Creek study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. (Lbs , Per Acre) Treatment o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D Year and Weight ComEonent 1969 1970 1969 1970 Shrub Current Growth Weight Total Leafy Vegetation 435 446 1214 1143 30 N " 722 713 1494 1512 60 N " 513 651 1274 1416 90 N " 632 747 1404 1577 120 N " 422 562 1173 1332 589 188 1398 990 o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 600 233 1374 1034 60 N " 331 225 1115 1082 90 N " 414 227 1173 1080 120 N " 297 225 1077 1107 �- 232 - 350 r-I o !-< +J C o O~ u o I o C"') o I o \0 __ ~ __ ~~~ Control Only o I o 0'1 ~ o I o N r-I and Fertilizer Fig. 1. Forb production combined. by treatment N I o ~ N I o C"') N I N \0 0'1 o I o N I o N ~r-I Fertilizer and Herbicide Combination for all three study areas _ �- 233 - """ CIJ H Cj ~ H CIJ p... rn '"d t:: ;::l 0 p... '-' t:: 0 ,,-1 .., u ;::l -e 200 --I' 0 H p... ! rl 100 o ..,H t:: o u o I o C"') o I o \0 o I o 0"1 N I o N I o C"') N I o \0 N I o 0"1 N I o N rl 0 Control and Fertilizer Only Fig, 2. Grass production combined. Fertilizer and Herbicide Combinations by treatment for all three study areas �- 234 - 2800 Flightline Junction Butte Corral Creek o~ __ -. ~ o 30 ~ ~ ~ 60 90 120 Pounds of Actual Nitrogen Fig. 3. Total leaf material of nitrogen. produced Per Acre as a function of increasing levels _ �- 235 - 1800 Flightline Junction Butte Corral Creek o 30 60 90 120 Pounds of Actual Nitrogen Per Acre (Ammonium Nitrate 335%) Fig. 4. Shrub leaf material of nitrogen. produced as a function of increasing levels �- 236 - 1800 Flight line ____------------------~::::~------~~~~~~~---- Corral Creek Junction Butte 0/2 30/2 60/2 Pounds of Elemental Nitrogen Pounds of 2,4-D Herbicide 90/2 120/2 Per Acre With 2 Per Acre Fig. 5. Total leafy vegetation produced as a function of increased levels of nitrogen with 2,4-D herbicide at three study areas. �- 237 - 30 60 90 Pounds of Elemental Nitrogen Fig. 6. Percent change in production the mean of the control treatments. 120 Per Acre of total leafy vegetation from �- 238 - Botanical Composition The botanical composition measurements were made in late July, 1970. The herbicide was applied in early June, 1970 which left a relatively short period of time between application and measurement. This short time period made it difficult to assess herbicide effect. Mortality rates of affected plants should be evident in the 1971 measurements. Fertilizer was applied in late October, 1969 resulting in less than a full year response, which made it unlikely noticeable botanical composition changes would be observed. Due to these facts only general comments on botanical composition changes will be made in this report. In general, the kill of sagebrush due to the herbicide ranged from about 25 percent to 85 percent over the three study areas. No pattern of enhanced or decreased sagebrush kill could be seen with regard to a particular fertilizer and herbicide treatment. The Junction Butte area resulted in the lowest percent kill of sagebrush on nearly all herbicide treatments. Soil moisture stress and type of growth form of the sagebrush probably accounted for this fact. A definite decrease of most forb plants was recorded on the herbicide plots. Nitrogen applications seemed to encourage abundance of western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum), and squirreltail grass (Sitanion hystrix) noticeably. The 1971 measurements should elucidate these factors. Deer Grazing Measurements Plant Preference Data A summary of the diets of the eight tame, trained mule deer for each study area for both pre-treatment (1969-70) and the first year's treatment data (1970-71) is given in Tables 4, 5, and 6. Table 7 gives all the common and scientific names of the plants used in this report. Table 8 summarizes the diet by plant components for all three study areas for both years. It can be seen from this summary that shrubs and grasses increased substantially in the diet from the pre-treatment data to the post-treatment data. Correspondingly, there is a considerable decrease of forbs in the diet from pre-treatment to post-treatment data. Tables 9, 10, and 11 summarize the diet by plant components for each study area. The greatest increase in shrub and grass percentages of the diet from pre-treatment to post-treatment occurred at the Corral Creek area. In addition, a dramatic drop in the forb percentage was shown at this area. This forb decrease was probably due to two main factors. One, snow depths during the posttreatment grazing trials were greater than during the pre-treatment trials. The snow depth was approximately 12 inches as contrasted with about a three inch average during pre-treatment trials. This increased snow depth precluded use of many of the forb plants that were available in the more shallow snow of the year before. Secondly, the forb decrease can be partially accounted for by the kill obtained with the herbicide applications. This can be better illustrated by the Flightline study area data shown in Table 10. The snow conditions for this area were similar both winters yet �- 239 - there still was approximately a 11 percent decrease in the forb component of the diet. The increase in the grass percentage of the diet at all three study areas is quite impressive. Over all three areas the increase averaged nearly eight percent from pre-treatment to post treatment grazing. Most of this increase in the grass component came with such species as bluebunch wheatgrass, squirreltail grass and western wheatgrass. Each of these species seemed to be first to respond to the treatments. Table 12 gives a cOlnparison of selected plant species in the diet for both winters over all three study areas. This summary shows that sagebrush remained a small portion of the tame deer diets and changed very little from pretreatment to post-treatment grazing. Green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorous) which seemed to respond favorably to the fertilizer showed a significant increase in the diet from pre-treatment grazing to posttreatment grazing. Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) still comprised a large percentage of the diet and did not change appreciably from pretreatment grazing. Table 13 gives a summary of the total number of bites of all species of plants taken on each treatment at each study area for both winter grazing trials. This summary shows that about 60 percent of the bites were taken on the control or fertilizer only treatments while 40 percent were taken on the herbicide or herbicide and fertilizer combination treatments. In comparison, 46 percent of the bites during pre-treatment trials were taken on the control or fertilizer only plots and 54 percent on the herbicide or fertilizer and herbicide combinations. Table 14 illustrates the corresponding decrease in the forb and shrub component of the diet and the increase in the grass component with the herbicide or fertilizer and herbicide combinations. This table shows about 36 percent of the grass was taken on the control and fertilizer only treatments compared with 64 percent on the combination treatments. Ninety-one percent of the forbs were taken on the control and fertilizer plots and only nine percent on the combination treatments. Correspondingly, 64 percent of the shrubs were taken on the control or fertilizer only treatments while 36 percent were taken on the herbicide or fertilizer and herbicide treatments. Treatment Preference Data Tables 15, 16 and 17 summarize the treatment preference data for both winter's grazing trials for all three study areas. Table 15 is a summary of the total observed deer minutes spent per treatment plot. This summary also indicates a greater preference by deer for the control and fertilizer only treatments. Nearly 64 percent of total deer minutes was spent on the control or fertilizer only treatments and about 36 percent on the herbicide or herbicide and fertilizer treatments. These data contrast with the pretreatment data where the time spent per each group was roughly half and half. �- 240 - Table 4. Junction Butte study area grazing observation data and diet composition for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. 1969-70 1970-71 Total Bites Percent of Diet Plant Species Total Bites Percent of Diet Serviceberry 830 36.5 725 22.5 B1uebunch wheatgrass 375 16.5 326 10.1 Snowberry 288 12.6 210 6.5 Pine need1egrass 143 6.3 204 6.3 Snakeweed 131 5.7 Blue gramma 105 4.7 184 5.7 Buckwheat 92 4.0 294 9.1 Big sagebrush 64 2.8 85 2.6 Phlox bryoides 63 2.8 427 l3.3 Bitterbrush 62 2.7 22 0.7 Mutton grass 45 2.0 73 2.3 Fringed sage 27 1.3 Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) 17 0.8 Lichens 12 0.5 Oregon grape 6 0.2 Penstemon cyathoporus 4 0.2 Unknown grass 4 0.1 52 1.6 Western wheatgrass 2 0.1 263 8.2 Phlox multiflora 2 0.1 Junegrass 2 0.1 5 0.1 Green rabbitbrush 290 9.0 Needle and thread grass 14 0.4 Bluebell 5 0.2 Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass 18 0.6 Currant 7 0.2 Indian ricegrass 15 0.5 3,222 100.0 Totals 2,276 100.0 �- 241 - Table 5. F1ight1ine study area grazing observation data and diet composition for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. 1970-71 1969-70 Total Bites Percent of Diet Plant Species Total Bites Percent of Diet Bitterbrush Buckwheat 2,075 462 57.2 12.7 4,051 493 53.1 6.4 Snowberry 290 8.0 299 3.9 Pine need1egrass 176 4.9 359 4.7 B1uebunch wheatgrass 122 3.3 28 0.4 Mutton grass 95 2.6 545 7.1 Mat penstemon 95 2.6 12 0.2 Phlox bryoides 84 2.3 Unknown grass 58 1.6 523 6.8 Serviceberry 45 1.2 299 3.9 Paintbrush 43 1.2 30 0.4 Green rabbitbrush 14 0.4 593 7.8 Rose Penstemon spp. 13 11 0.4 0.3 38 4 0.5 0.05 Phlox multiflora 11 0.3 46 0.6 Sedge 9 0.2 18 0.2 Unknown forbs 6 0.2 5 0.1 Bottlebrush squirre1tail grass 5 0.1 147 1.9 Penstemon cyathoporus Big sagebrush Junegrass Poa spp. 4 0.1 0.1 0.1 12 34 0.2 0.4 63 0.8 Knotweed Rothrock sage Toad flax Arrow1eaf ba1samroot Lupine Astragalus conva1larius Oregon grape Rockcress Bluebell 2 1 19 5 5 5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 Totals 4 3 0.1 0.1 4 1 1 3,628 100.0 7,629 T T 100.0 �- 242 - Table 6. Corral Creek study area grazing observation for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. 1969-70 data and diet composition 1970-71 Total Bites Percent of Diet Total Bites Percent of Diet Bitterbrush 892 33.6 2,294 32.3 Buckwheat 756 28.5 37 0.5 Mat penstemon 375 14.1 Mutton 231 8.7 Pine need1egrass 71 2.7 Pusseytoes 70 2.6 Serviceberry 60 2.3 1,050 14.8 B1uebunch 57 2.2 1,599 22.4 Snowberry 45 1.7 863 12.2 Phlox multiflora 45 1.7 9 0.1 Green rabbitbrush 16 0.6 808 11.4 Unknown forbs 6 0.2 19 0.3 Senecio spp. 6 0.2 Senecio mu1ti1obatus 6 0.2 Gilia 5 0.2 Aster spp. 3 0.1 Sedge 3 0.1 juniper 2 0.1 190 2.7 conva11arius 2 0.1 11 0.1 1 0.1 Plant Species grass wheatgrass Rocky Mountain Astragalus Senecio integerrimus Unknown grass 104 1.5 Big sagebrush 45 0.8 21 0.3 19 0.3 11 0.1 6 0.08 Paintbrush 5 0.07 Poa spp. 4 0.05 7,095 100.0 Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass Horsebrush Chrysothamnus Penstemon Totals nauseosus cyathoporus 2,652 100.0 �- 243 - Table 7. Common and scientific Scientific Common Name Arrowleaf balsamroot Aster Astragalus (Vetch) Beardstongue Big sagebrush Bitterbrush Bluebell Bluebunch wheatgrass Blue gramma Blue grass Bottlebrush squirreltail Buckwheat Currant Fringed sage Scarlet gilia Green rabbitbrush Horsebrush Indian ricegrass Junegrass Knotweed Lupine Mat penstemon Mutton grass Needle and thread grass Oregon grape Paintbrush Penstemon Phlox Pine needlegrass Pusseytoes Rabbitbrush Rockcress Rocky Mountain juniper Rose Rothrock sage Sedge Senecio (Groundsel) Serviceberry Snakeweed Snowberry Toad flax Western wheat names of plants used in the report. grass grass Name Balsamorhiza sagittata Aster spp. Astragalus convallarius Pensterilon spp. Artemisia tridentata Purshia tridentata Mertensia lanceolata Agropyron spicatum Bouteloua gracilis Poa spp. Sitanion hystrix Eriogonum umbellatum Ribes cereum var. inebriums Artemisia frigida Gilia candida Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Tetradymia canescens Oryzopsis hymenoides Koeleria cristata Polygonum sawatchense Lupinus argenteus Penstemon caespitosus Poa fendleriana Stipa comata Berberis repens Castilleja flava Penstemon cyathoporus Phlox bryoides Phlox multiflora Stipa pinetorum Antennaria parviflora Chrysothamnus spp. Arabis drummondii Juniperus scopulorum Rosa woodii Artemisia tridentata spp. rothrockii Carex spp. Senecio spp. Senecio integerrimus Senecio multilobatus Amalanchier alnifolia Gutierrezia sarothrae Symphoricarpos oreophilus Comandra umbellata Agropyron smithii �- 244 - Table 8. Percent diet composition by plant components areas combined for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. for all three study 1969-70 Percent of Diet 1970-71 Percent of Diet Shrubs 55.5 66.4 Grasses 17.6 25.5 Forbs 26.9 8.1 Totals 100.0 100.0 Plant Component Table 9. Summary of Junction Butte study area diet composition ponents for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. by plant com- 1969-70 Percent of Diet 1970-71 Percent of Diet Shrubs 56.7 41. 6 Grasses 29.7 35.8 Forbs 13.6 22.6 Totals 100.0 100.0 Plant Component Table 10. Summary of F1ight1ine study area diet composition for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. by plant components 1969-70 Percent of Diet 1970-71 Percent of Diet Shrubs 67.3 69.5 Grasses 12.9 22.1 Forbs 19.8 8.4 Totals 100.0 100.0 Plant Component �- 245 - Table 11. Summary of Corral Creek study area diet composition by plant components for the 1969-70 and the 1970-71 winters. Plant Component 1969-70 Percent of Diet 1970-71 Percent of Diet Shrubs 38.3 74.4 Grasses 13.6 24.4 Forbs 48.1 1.2 Totals 100.0 100.0 Table 12. Comparison of certain selected plant species in the diet for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters, for all three study areas. 1970-71 Percent of Diet Plant Species 1969-70 Percent of Diet Bitterbrush 35.4 35.5 Serviceberry 10.9 11.5 Snowberry 7.3 7.6 Sagebrush 0.8 0.9 Green rabbitbrush 0.4 9.4 B1uebunch wheatgrass 6.5 10.9 Pine need1egrass 4.8 3.1 Mutton grass 4.4 3.4 Blue gramma 1.2 1.0 Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass t 1.0 Western wheatgrass t 1.5 Buckwheat 15.4 4.6 Phlox 1.7 2.4 �Table 13. Total number of bites of all species of plants taken on each treatment at each study area during the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. 11 Treatment (lbs. per acre) o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D Jct. Butte 1970-71 1969-70 Flight line 1970-71 1969-70 Corral Creek 1969-70 1970-71 Totals 1969-70 1970-71 Percent of Total 1969-70 1970-71 722 354 1,127 1,443 461 214 2,310 2,01l 27.0 16.6 30 N. " 104 293 173 182 6 61 283 536 3.3 4.4 60 N. " 235 0 81 216 67 255 383 471 4.5 3.9 90 N. " 197 147 84 53 86 1,833 367 2,033 4.3 16.7 120 N. " 330 843 155 1,365 126 4 611 2,212 7.1 18.2 46.2 59.8 Subtotals N ~ o lb. N. 2 lb. 2 ,4-D 18 20 881 655 15 27 914 702 10.7 5.8 30 N. " 18 29 231 17 391 60 640 106 7.5 0.9 60 N. " 261 152 126 1,645 591 745 978 2,542 11.4 20.9 90 N. " 299 85 741 185 120 279 1,160 549 13.6 4.5 120 N. " 92 143 29 99 787 740 908 982 10.6 8.1 53.8 40.2 100.0 100.0 Subtotals Totals 2,276 2,066 3,628 5,860 2,650 4,218 8,554 12,144 11 Total bite numbers will not compare exactly to diet composition data because of bites that were taken on the treatment margins. '" �- 247 - Table 14. Grass, forb, and shrub component percentages of the diet by treatment plot for all three study areas for the 1970-71 winter. (lbs. per acre) Treatment o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D Total Bites Grass Percent Grass Total Bites Forbs Percent Forbs Total Bites Shrubs Percent Shrubs 83 2.8 525 46.0 1,403 17.4 30 N. " 151 5.1 262 23.0 123 1.5 60 N. " 95 3.2 92 8.1 284 3.5 90 N. " 122 4.1 2 0.2 1,909 23.7 120 N. " 619 21.0 156 13.7 1,437 17.9 36.2 Subtotals o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 91.0 64.0 17 0.6 7 0.6 678 8.4 30 N. " 61 2.1 6 0.5 39 0.5 60 N. " 854 28.9 80 7.0 1,608 20.0 90 N. " 385 13.0 10 0.9 154 1.9 120 N. " 566 19.2 0 0.0 416 5.2 63.8 Subtotals Totals 2,953 100.0 9.0 1,140 100.0 36.0 8,051 100.0 �Table 15. Total deer minutes spent on each treatment plot obtained during plant preference measurements at each study area for the 1969-70 and the 1970-71 winters. Corral Creek 1969-70 1970-71 Totals 1969-70 1970-71 Percent of Total 1969-70 1970-71 Treatment (lbs. per acre) Jet. Butte 1970-71 1969-70 o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 151 80 187 159 47 25 385 264 18.4 14.9 Flight line 1969-70 1970-71 30 N. 11 19 40 62 58 6 24 87 122 4.2 6.9 60 N. 11 69 2 48 32 29 54 146 88 7.0 5.0 90 N. 11 63 49 97 28 17 183 177 260 8.5 14.7 120 N. 11 116 210 70 195 50 7 236 412 11.3 23.3 49.4 64.3 Subtotals N ~ co I o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 7 8 103 47 12 2 122 57 5.8 3.2 30 N. 11 21 12 82 19 135 12 238 43 11.4 2.4 60 N. 11 65 46 63 184 109 65 237 295 11.4 16.7 90 N. 11 97 17 167 39 10 35 274 91 13.1 5.1 120 N. 11 51 66 42 30 93 43 186 139 8.9 7.8 50.6 35.7 100.0 100.0 Subtotals Totals 659 530 921 791 508 450 2,088 1,771 �Table 16. Total deer grazing seconds obtained from the observation tower for each treatment at each study area for the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters. Flightline 1969-70 1970-71 Corral Creek 1969-70 1970-71 Totals 1969-70 1970-71 Percent of Total 1969-70 1970-71 Treatment (lbs. per acre) Jet. Butte 1970-71 1969-70 o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 1,643 2,366 1,700 1,331 325 1,402 3,668 5,099 15.0 10.8 30 N. " 0 40 287 1,080 129 81 416 1,201 1.7 2.5 60 N. " 3,609 163 574 2,712 0 503 4,183 3,378 17.1 7.1 90 N. " 1,003 724 801 1,562 1,291 9,060 3,095 11,346 12.7 23.9 120 N. " 496 4,700 2,285 7,172 0 10 2,781 11,882 11.4 25.1 57.9 69.4 Subtotals N .p\0 o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 0 230 876 498 30 24 906 752 3.7 1.6 30 N. " 0 78 94 294 0 336 94 708 0.4 1.5 60 N. " 1,462 711 777 2,493 1,787 1,791 4,026 4,995 16.5 10.5 90 N. " 1,186 3,751 28 266 0 347 1,214 4,364 5.0 9.2 120 N. " 0 1,272 653 901 3,359 1,543 4,012 3,716 16.5 7.8 42.1 30.6 100.0 100.0 Subtotals Totals 9,399 14,035 8,075 18,309 6,921 15,097 24,395 47,441 �Table 17. Total number of deer minutes spent standing per treatment plot at each study area during the 1969-70 and 1970-71 winters obtained from the observation tower. Treatment (Lbs, per acre) Jct. Butte Flight line 1970...,.711969-70 1970-71 1969-70 o lb. N. 0 lb. 2 ,4-D 150 321 126 222 17 115 293 658 15.5 12.6 Corral Creek 1969-70 1970-71 Totals 1969-70 1970-71 Percent of Total 1969-70 1970-71 30 N. " 1 26 24 131 8 28 33 185 1.7 3.5 60 N. " 410 66 79 265 24 64 513 395 27.2 7.6 90 N. " 23 103 60 150 84 798 167 1,051 8.9 20.1 120 N. " 49 502 187 564 0 13 236 1,079 12.5 20.6 65.8 64.4 Subtotals N VI 0 o lb. N. 2 lb. 2 ,4-D 0 51 55 65 11 19 66 135 3.5 2.6 30 N. " 0 62 17 56 3 52 20 170 1.1 3.3 60 N. " 130 107 88 309 113 144 331 560 17.5 10.7 90 N. " 92 354 8 40 1 54 101 448 5.4 8.6 120 N. " 0 270 57 59 70 214 127 543 6.7 10.4 34.2 35.6 100.0 100.0 Subtotals Totals 855 1,862 701 1,861 331 1,501 1,887 . 5,224 �Table 18. Comparison of the 1969 and 1970 monthly and annual average precipitation data with the thirteen year average for the Green Mountain, Kremmling *, and Hot Sulphur Springs weather stations.l/ Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Month June 13-year average 0.89 0.76 0.91 0.99 1.04 1.55 1.24 1.66 1969 1.79 0.43 0.33 1.00 0.82 4.65 0.86 1970 0.76 0.31 1.17 1.22 0.13 1.41 0.85 * - l/ Data from Colorado Climatological annual reports. Annual Total Dec. 1.61 1.14 0.80 0.97 13.56 1.23 1.50 3.56 0.49 1.23 17.90- 1.82 2.00 2.01 1.38 0.80 13.86 Aug. Sept. Kremmling we athe r records are incomplete for this time period. - Oct. Nov. July ~ V1 I-' �- 252 - This same trend of treatment preference is also seen in the tower observation data. Table 16 gives a summary of the deer grazing seconds obtained from the observation tower for each treatment at each study area for both winter's grazing trials. These data show that about 70 percent of the grazing time was spent on the control or fertilizer only treatments. The pre-treatment data also showed a slight preference for the control and fertilizer only treatments. Table 17 summarizes the total number of deer minutes spent standing on each treatment plot at each study area for both winters as obtained from the observation tower. Total standing minutes were used to remove the bias of long periods of time accumulated on certain treatments when the deer bed down in commonly used bedding sites. These data show a preference towards the control and fertilizer only treatments also but the same trend was noted in the pre-treatment data. It is felt that this was due mostly to the time spent by deer near areas they prefer to bed in, such as corners, and had little to do with their preference towards grazing. With regards to individual treatment preferences no particular trends were evident from the data. This may be due to the fact that with the narrow increments of 30 pounds of nitrogen the deer are unable to select a treatment difference. However, it is interesting to note that at the Junction Butte and the Flightline study areas the 120 pound nitrogen treatment with no herbicide was most preferred over all individual treatments. Over all three study areas this treatment received about 25 percent of the total grazing seconds and total time spent by the deer. An interesting observation was made with regards to the noted preference for the control or fertilizer only treatments. It was observed while following the deer during the grazing trials that snow crust conditions were quite different in the herbicide plots as contrasted to the fertilizer only plots. With the removal of the shrub crown cover on the herbicide treatments the snow tended to make a more uniform, crusted blanket as opposed to the broken, faster melting snow cover on the fertilizer only treatments where the shrub crown cover remained. The deer preferred to graze in and around breaks in the snow cover adjacent to and under the shrubs. In addition, the deer seemed to dislike traveling in the more crusted snow of the herbicide treatments and avoided those areas. Other Measurements Weather Information Using data obtained from weather stations at Kremmling *, Green Mountain, and Hot Sulphur Springs, a 13 year average of annual monthly precipitation was obtained (Colorado Climatological data annual reports). The 1969 and 1970 data were compared with this summary. Table 18 presents these data. The year the fertilizer treatments were applied (1969) was very moist, receiving almost 4.5 inches more moisture than the 13 year average. October, the month the fertilizer was applied, received about 3.5 inches of moisture as contrasted to the 13 year average of 1.1 inches of moisture. June of 1969 received 4.6 inches of rain compared with a norm of 1.55. This added * Kremmling weather records are incomplete at this time period. �- 253 - moisture should have assured good infiltration and use of the nitrogen fertilizer. The first year of growth response (1970) was fairly normal in total precipitation. The 13-year average total precipitation was 13.56 inches, compared with 13.86 inches received in 1970. Photographs The permanent photo hubs were photographed with black and white and color film at the end of the growing season for a permanent record. LITERATURE CITED Carpenter, L. H. 1970. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Prog. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 3. pp. 371-391. Environmental Science Services Administration. 1965-1970. data, Colorado. U. S. Dept. Commerce. 70-75 (13). U. S. Weather Bureau. Dept. Commerce. 1958-1964. 70-75 (13). Prepared Carpe ter Student Assistant Climatological Climatological data, Colorado. U. S. ��- 255 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R~25 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 6 (Second Year) Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Physiology and Prevention of Deer Starvation Period Covered: June, 1970 through June, 1971 Personnel: Julius G. Nagy, Principal Investigator; Gene G. Schoonveld, Graduate Student; and David S. DeCalesta, Graduate Student. ABSTRACT Approximately 60 .mule deer were maintained for experimental use. Rumen fistulation was unsuccessfully attempted with 12 deer, further attempts with tame deer are planned. Projected metabolic trials were postponed. A simulated malnutrition diet fed 90 days did not appear to induce semistarvation in deer. Rumen-reticular contents of deer fed the malnutrition diet and then fed dehydrated alfalfa hay exhibited differences in pH, VFA concentrations, molar proportions of acetate:propionate, and protozoa numbers. Fawns fed the dehydrated alfalfa hay were more prone to digestive upsets than adults and exhibited elevated serum urea levels. Total starvation of deer indicated: .(a) rumen-reticular numbers of bacteria and digestive effectiveness of these bacteria may not be seriously reduced by starvation; (b) twenty-two days of starvation may be close to the point where supplemental feeding cannot prevent deer losses; (c) does and fawns may succumb sooner than adult males to starvation. Deer fed poor quality alfalfa suffered abomasal hemorrhagic ulcerations and omasal food compaction. Goats and sheep, with larger rumen-reticulums, omasums and abomasums relative to body size than deer, exhibited no upsets when fed the same ration. ��- 257 - PHYSIOLOGY MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY AND PREVENTION OF DEER STARVATION Julius G. Nagy P. S. OBJECTIVE To ascertain what takes place in deer physiology when starvation occurs, and to investigate the economic and biologic feasibility of preventing starvation. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Maintain 2. Refine techniques for rumen content sampling for feeding, handling and examining deer. 3. Conduct metabolic 4. 5. an experimental herd of 15 to 20 mule deer. and improve methodology trials: a. To measure b. To determine the critical ambient temperature where crease their rate of metabolism to combat cold. Conduct basic metabolic starvation rate. deer must in- trials: a. To determine starvation. changes in deer physiology b. To investigate in vitro. effects of starvation c. To determine the "critical" point of no return in deer starvation, beyond which they will not recover. d. To investigate methods point is passed. Prepare during the process of upon rumen microorganisms of aiding deer recovery before the "critical" report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Maintenance of Experimental Deer Facilities for maintaining and handling experimental deer were described previously (Nagy 1970). The experimental herd now numbers 60 deer. Additional deer are necessary for continued starvation trials and investigations �- 258 - into physiological hay diets. effects of feeding deer high-fiber alfalfa or native Rumen Fistulation Rumen fistulation has been unsuccessfully attempted with 12 mule deer. Although comparable surgical techniques used and rumen cannula developed have been successful in fistulating goats, all deer died within 10-21 days after distulation. The apparent cause of death was infection within the oblique abdominal wall muscles, predisposed by excitability and excess movement of fistulated wild deer. Further fistulation attempts are planned using tame deer. Metabolic Trials Determination of deer basic metabolic rate was postponed in light of recent work of Silver et al. (1971) and in preference for more detailed investigations into the apparent inability of deer to digest alfalfa hay. Experimental Trials Deer Malnutrition Nutritional changes of penned mule deer were monitored during a period of prolonged malnutrition and upon subsequent feeding with alfalfa. Five mule deer does and four fawns were fed a formulated "malnutrition" diet (Table 1) for 90 days from February to May and subsequently fed good quality dehydrated alfalfa. Daily food intake was measured, periodic body weight changes noted and rumen contents and blood samples obtained. Rumen contents were analyzed for total volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentrations, molar proportions of acetate to propionate, pH and protozoa concentrations. Blood was analyzed for serum protein and urea. These parameters may reflect physiological changes occurring in wild deer prior to a period of complete starvation and affect deer ability to favorably respond when suddenly offered supplemental feed. Total Starvation Trials Two pilot trials were hensive trials. conducted to provide direcf\on for later, more compre- The first trial investigated effects of starvation on deer rumen bacteria. At intervals of one, two, three, and four weeks of starvation one deer was sacrificed. Viable bacterial numbers and ability of rumen bacteria to digest two selected substrates (ground alfalfa leaves and ground concentrate ration) in vitro from these animals were compared with those of a non-starved deer in excellent condition. Viable bacteria numbers were obtained following anaerobic techniques of Hungate (1966). Digestive ability was obtained �- 259 - according to procedures outlined by Tilley and Terry (1963). The second trial attempted to establish the "critical" point during starvation after which deer cannot recover even if supplemental feed is offered. Groups of three deer were starved for la, 15 and 22 days and subsequently fed a supplemental ration (Table 2) ad libitum. Alfalfa Feeding Trial Preliminary investigations were conducted into the apparent inability of deer to digest alfalfa or native hay when offered as emergency supplements. Two physical forms of poor quality alfalfa, pelleted and cubed, were fed to eight mule deer and four domestic sheep and goats. Comparisons among these animals were made in: (a) ability to digest the rations fed; and (b) relative sizes of digestive organs. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Malnutrition Trial During the trial all deer increased daily food intake (Fig. 1) and exhibited only minor weight changes (Fig. 2). Fawns fed dehydrated alfalfa were more susceptible to digestive upsets than were adults; within 2 weeks one fawn died and two had lost 12 and 17 percent of their pre-trial body weights. Rumen-reticular pH decreased during the trial but increased when alfalfa was fed, becoming alkaline in most deer (Table 3). Rumen-reticular total volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentrations were 58-74 mM/l during the trial and increased to 92-111 mM/l when alfalfa was fed. Corresponding molar proportions of acetic to propionic acids were 4.8:5.8 and 3.7:4.3 respectively (Table 3). Rumen-reticular protozoa numbers decreased during the trial and were significantly reduced or completely eliminated in rumen contents of deer fed alfalfa (Fig. 3). Serum protein and urea levels were within the range of "normal" values in adult deer. Serum urea was significantly higher (30-60 mg/IOO ml) in fawns fed dehydrated alfalfa (Table 4) • Based upon phsyical appearance and weight change data, the formulated diet fed during this trial did not simulate natural malnutrition and appears to have provided minimum nutritional requirements for maintenance. It is unlikely that natural forages with nutrient levels similar to the "malnutrition" diet would provide minimum nutritional requirements for deer. Unlike natural forages, the diet fed was ground into small particles (3 mm or less), a factor that possibly permitted increased dry matter digestion and faster rate of food passage. Digestive upsets, death and moribund conditions in fawns fed dehydrated alfalfa hay are unexplainable at present and warrant further study. �Table 1. Chemical composition (oven dry basis) of the compounded ration and dehydrated alfalfa hay cubes fed during Trial I. Diet Crude Protein Ether Extract Chemical Analysis (Percent) Cell Wall Moisture Ash Constituents ADF 1/ Lignin -Compounded ration (Diet III) 1/ 5.5 4.9 8.5 5.2 74.3 52.8 15.1 Dehydrated alfalfa cubes 15.9 4.0 7.2 7.6 53.0 38.6 6.8 1/ Composition -- 75 percent cotton seed hulls, 15 percent wheat straw and 5 percent each of wheat bran and 32 percent protein supplement. 2/ Acid-detergent fiber. I N 0'1 0 �- 261 - Table 2. Supplemental diet fed to totally starved Component Diet Composition Barley 25% Corn 5% Wheat bran 10% Milo 5% 32% supplement 20% Cottonseed 35% Expected deer. hulls Proximate Analysis Crude protein 15% Crude fiber 30% Nitrogen 50% free extract �Table 3. Average rumino-reticu1ar fluid pH, VFA concentration (mM/1) and molar proportions of acetic: propionic acids (C2:C3) in adult and fawn mule deer during Experiment 1 (observed ranges in parentheses). Week of Trial N pH Adults VFA Cone. VFA C2:C3 pt 1/ N pH Fawns VFA Cone. VFAC2:C3 4 6.4 (6.3-6.5) 39 (31-60) 3.4 (2.7-3.8) 2 5 6.7 (6.4-6.9) 66 (44-101) 4.5 (3.7-5.1) 4 6.8 (6.5-6.9) 62 (45-74) 5.5 (5.4-5.7) 4 5 6.7 (6.5-6.9) 74 (55-87) 4 6.6 (6.6-6.7) 70 (50-79) 5.2 (5.1-5.4) 4 6.6 (6.3-6.9) 73 (52-84) 5.4 (5.0-5.8) 5.1 (4.0-6.2) 6 8 4 6.6 (6.5-6.9) 69 (64-74) 5.1 (4.7-5.4) 4 6.3 (6.1-6.6) 58 (49-75) 5.4 (5.1-5.7) 10 4 6.6 (6.3-7.1) 69 (61-81) 4.9 (4.3-5.9) 4 6.2 (6.2-6.4) 67 (57-76) 5.6 (5.3-6.0) 12 3 6.7 (6.3-7.2) 71 (64-75) 5.2 (4.6-6.4) 3 6.2 (6.2) 71 (67-75) 5.8 (5.4-6.4) 13 3 6.7 (6.1-7.2) 64 (50-76) 4.8 (4.6-5.5) 4 6.2 (6.0-6.4) 71 (53-82) 5.8 (5.5-6.4) 15 J) 3 7.1 (6.8-7.3) 103 (98-111) 3.7 (3.5-3.8) 4 7.0 (6.8-7.1) 94 (91-103) 3.8 (3.5-4.3) 1/ Pre-trial, fed concentrate diet ad libitum. 1/ Fed dehydrated alfalfa cubes ad libitum. N '" N �Table 4. Average Trial I (observed Week of Trial serum urea (mg/IOO ml) and protein ranges in parentheses). (g/IOO ml) in adult and fawn mule. deer during Fawns Adults N Serum Urea Serum Protein pt 1./ N Serum Urea Serum Protein 3 21. 6 (15-35) 7.9 0.2-8.5) -----------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------2 3 6.6 (5-10) 8. 4 (8. 3- 8. 5) 3 21. 6 (20- 30) 3 20 6.6 (6.1-7.2) 4 6 8 3 21.6 (20-25) (15-25) 7.1 (6.6-8.2) N 0\ W 7.5 0.0-8.5) 10 4 21. 2 (20-25) 6.5 (6.0-7.0) 12 l3 3 21.6 (20-25) 7. 1 (6. 4- 7. 8) 4 21. 2 (20-25) 6.4 15 J./ 3 30.0 (25-35) 8.1 (8.0-8.5) 4 42.5 (30-60) 6. 7 ( 5 . 3- 8. 3) 1/ Pre-trial, fed concentrate diet ad libitum. 1/ Fed dehydrated alfalfa cubes ad libitum. (6.0-7.0) �- 264 - 'Cone. t-----'------ Diet III -------I>I-4-Alf.+ 2500 I I I /X__* . ". /x 2000 : ~ . x.-x (3) I ~ ~1500 (4) CIS ••• -tIO I 0..,...,.0-0--0. ~)(-x /" / / ,-)( X : , / I K x( 3) x ~ o C) ~ .•.. CIS " .5 1000 wtv ~x~ I " "I I 500 I -"- X;-XAdults 0-0 Fawns o~~--~~~~~~~~-L--L-~~~~~--~-L~ pt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Weeks Fii;. 1. :::ean dai.Ly food intake of concentrate (p t = pretrial), Diet IL~ and dehydrated alfalfa cubes by adu Lz an c f avn muLe deer during 'lrial I. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers of animals remaining en trial. �- 265 - Diet III -----~I>;t-rt-AII.-+ .. 1 - ~ (-)1 s:: I I ~ ..r:: o (-)2 )C (3) --d> 0- ~ ...• ~ ~~ (-)3 /~ (- )4 I I . X-XAdu1tsl o (-)5 I I 0-0 I \ lj4) Fawnsl 12.6 o~-L--~~--~~--J-~--J-~--J-~--~~~~~ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Weeks Fig. 2. of adult indicate Cumulative weight changes (percent of initial and f awn mule deer during Trial 1. Figures numbers of animals remaining on trial. body weLght ) in parentheses �- 266 - 600 500 s- .~ G) 400 Pc ..., 0 ...• ~ • 0 -..• ~ 300 s:: 0 .•.. CIf ~ .•.. s:: o ~o~ . G) o s:: 200 0 0 Fig. 3. Protozoa concentrations in rumino-reticular fluid of adult and fawn mule deer fed concentrate Cpt = pretrial) niet III and dehydrated alfalfa cubes during Trial I. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers c f animals remaining on trial. �- 267 - Total Starvation Trials Viable bacterial numbers and digestion coefficients from starved deer are presented in Table 5. These data suggest that numbers of viable bacteria and digestive capabilities of these bacteria are not seriously reduced when deer are totally starved. Two deer, starved 22 and 23 days, died with numbers of viable bacteria in their rumens not greatly different from those of non-starved deer. Fates of deer starved and refed are ~resented in Table 6. All deer that died during this trial were necropsied. Rumen fluid parameters measured were recorded for two deer from this trial: one died after 23 days of starvation and the other died after being starved 22 days and then fed the supplemental ration for two days. All deer starved and refed survived except one adult doe starved 22 days which died after two days of refeeding. At death this animal had the greatest number of viable bacteria in its rumen of all deer examined (Table 5). The data presented in Table 6 should be interpreted with caution. These animals were captured at Little Hills Experiment Station of the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division, kept there in pastures for several weeks, then transported 200 miles to Fort Collins. At the time of their arrival they were in poor, possibly semi-starved condition. It seems that, at least for deer in poor condition, three weeks of starvation may be close to the point where supplemental feeding is no longer effective in preventing death. Pregnant does and fawns succumbed much sooner than adult males to total starvation. Does dying of starvation carried healthy appearing fawns; does surviving starvation with refeeding bore healthy appearing fa,vns. Likely hypotheses resulting from these trials are: (a) starving deer retain adequate numbers of viable bacteria in their rumens; and (b) mortality of starved, refed deer is not due to non-functioning or absent rumen bacteria but rather to failure of deer metabolic processes. Future trials will be mainly concerned with investigating these deer-oriented failures. Although an estimate has been made of the "critical" point during starvation, after which supplemental feeding fails to prevent death, more research is required investigating variables that may affect this point. Physiological conditions associated with this point should be understood and methods of determining when deer are at the point must be achieved. �Table 5. Rumen fluid parameters from starved deer. 0 7 14 Per ml rumen fluid 2.lxl07 4.4x166 4.lxl05 Total number per rumen 1.2xlOll 1.3xl010 Alfalfa 0.69 Concentrate Da~s Starved 1/ 21 22 23 28 ---- 3.8xl09 2.5x107 4.9xlO 5 1.6xl09 ---- 4.8xlO13 1.6xl010 9.8xlO 0.65 ---- 0.74 ---- ---- 0.66 0.76 0.71 ---- 0.63 ---- ---- 0.58 Rumen volume contents (ml) 5535 3050 3840 2210 1240 650 2000 Rumen dry matter contents (g) 235 86 263 25 376 527 50 Viable bacteria counts e 9 Digestion coefficients 1/ One deer sacrificed at each date. N 0\ 00 �Table 6. Fate of starved deer. Days Starved Status Adult female 6 Died 6th day of starvation. before dying. Appeared malnourished. Adult female 10 Died 10th day of starvation. normal appearing fawns. Appeared slightly malnourished. Adult females 10 Fed supplemental male 11 Died 11th day of starvation. Appeared malnourished. female 12 Died 12th day of starvation. appearing fawns. Appeared malnourished. Carried 12 Died 12th day of starvation. Appeared malnourished. Infested with lice. 13 Died 13th day of starvation. normal appearing fawns. Both obviously Yearling Adult Yearling Adult (3) male females (2) feed. Each gave birth to healthy Passed 2 dead fawns Carried 2 twins. malnourished, 2 normal both carried 2 N 0\ 1.0 male 14 Died 14th day of starvation. female 15 Fed supplemental feed. Gave birth to 1 healthy 15 Fed supplemental feed. 16 Died 16th day of starvation. appearing fawns. 22 Fed supplemental feed. One died after 2 days on feed. Grossly malnourished and carrying 2 normal appearing fawns. Two survived. Both appeared grossly malnourished, one bore a healthy fawn, the other bore none. male 23 Died 23rd day of starvation. Grossly malnourished. female 27 Died 27th day of starvation. appearing fawn. Grossly malnourished. 28 Died 28th day of starvation. Yearling Adult Adult males (2) Adult female Adult females Yearling Adult Adult male (3) Appeared malnourished. fawn. Grossly malnourished. Carried Carried 2 normal 1 normal �- 270 - Table 7. Mean body weights and weight, volume, percent dry matter and pH of rumino-reticular contents of mule deer and domestic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems (number of animals in parentheses). Mean Body Wt. (kg) Animal Sheep Goats (4) (4) Deer normal digestion >2) omasum impacted 1 (2) abomasum upset 11 (2) Rumino-reticular Contents Weight Dry (percent Vol. Matter body wt.) (1) (percent) pH 51. 7 37.2 19.0 18.5 13.3 7.6 13.3 14.6 6.4 6.6 54.5 60.8 59.0 10.6 12.8 10.4 9.9 12.9 7.1 14.1 2.7 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.1 1/ Deer did not eat for 3-8 days prior to sacrifice; rumen contents very fluid. • Table 8. Mean size of the omasums and weight, percent dry matter and pH of omasal contents of mule deer and domestic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems (number of animals in parentheses). Omasum Size (with conte~ts) Animal Sheep Goats (4) (4) Deer normal digestion >2) omasum impacted 1 (2) abomasum upset 11 (2) Vol. Cir. L. W. (ml) (mm) (mm) (mm) Omasal Contents Dry Wt. Matter (g) (percent) pH 861 546 271 297 189 155 125 101 757 530 17.5 19.8 7.2 6.2 239 1132 126 154 350 138 88 205 100 50 109 49 314 980 107 20.6 18.6 13.0 6.1 7.0 6.8 11 Deer did not eat for 3-8 days prior to sacrifice. �Table 9. Mean size of the abomasums and weight, percent dry matter, and pH of abomasal contents deer and domestic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems (numbers,of animals in parentheses). Abomasum Animal Vol. (mm) Cir. (mm) Size ~with contents2 Inside Dia. Pyloric W. Sphincter L. (mm) (mm) (mm) Abomasal Wt. (g) of mule Contents Dry Matter (percent) pH N --.J I-' Sheep Goats (4) (4) Deer normal digestion 52) omasum impacted 1 (2) abomasum upset 1/ (2) 1570 843 280 260 437 338 l34 121 61 52 1134 759 12.7 l3.3 3.5 3.4 448 215 661 206 174 222 267 244 277 82 71 95 48 44 52 521 212 633 12.4 15.7 17.0 3.3 5.8 6.5 1/ Deer did not eat for 3-8 days prior to sacrifice. �GOAT SHEEP DEER NORMAL DEER OMASUM IMPACTED Or 10 I 20 30 (/) ex: N ~ 40 "'-I w N z ;:: 50 z ',' u 60 70 80 90 Figure 4. Relative sizes of goat, sheep and deer stomach complexes (after a photo by Nagy). �GOAT SHEEP DEER NORMAL DEER OMASUM IMPACiED :~ r 12 16 - 24· N ~ (/) 0:: LV 30 W !- w ::E 36 !Z J..J <> 42 48 54 j I I 60 66 Figure 5. 72 Relative sizes of goat, sheep and deer omasums and abomasums (after a photo by Nagy). �- 274 - Alfalfa Feeding Trials ... Mule deer fed either pelleted or cubed poor-quality alfalfa (7.9 percent crude protein, 44.2 acid detergent fiber, 9.3 percent lignin and 56.1 percent cell wall constituents) during two feeding trials experienced varying degrees of digestive orders. Four domestic sheep and four goats fed these rations did not exhibit symptoms of digestive disorders. Two of eight deer fed pelleted alfalfa and four of eight deer fed cubed alfalfa suffered severe digestive disorders and were sacrificed. Necropsy revealed varying degrees of hemorrhagic ulceration in the abomasum and small intestine of all deer. Two deer, fed cubed alfalfa, also had greatly distended omasums due to food impaction. Figures 4 and 5 show relative sizes of the stomach complexes of goat, sheep, healthy deer and deer after developing impaction. Comparisons among rumen-reticulums, omasums and abomasums of deer, domestic sheep and goats indicated significant size differences (Tables 7-9). Related to body size, deer have smaller rumen-reticulums, omasums and abomasums than either sheep or goats. Deer stomachs do not appear morphologically adapted for digesting high-roughage alfalfa hay diets. LITERATURE Hungate, R. E. New York. CITED 1966. The rumen and its microbes. 533 p . Academic Press, Nagy, J. G. 1970. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - physiology and prevention of deer starvation. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rept., July, Part III. pp. 397-402. Silver, H., J. B. Holter, N. F. Colovos, and H. H. Hayes. 1971. Effect of falling temperature on heat production in fasting white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 35(1):37-46. Tilley, J. M. A., and R. A. Terry. 1963. A two-stage technique for in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Grassland Soc. 18: 104-111. Prepared by __~/~~~/~~~ __~~~~?~.~~ .. ~~~~ Julius G. Nagy /j [I A~sistant Professor, _ Wildlife Biology �- 275 July, 1971 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Deer-Elk W-38-R-25 1 Job No. 15 Job Title: Investigations Deer-Auto Accident Investigations Period Covered: January 15, 1968 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Dale F. Reed, Dennis L. Money, Kenneth C. Dillinger, William B. Zimmerman, Gary T. Myers, Bruce C. Giunta, Jerome J. Cebula, Charles L. Merrell, Thomas M. Pojar. ABSTRACT A total of 727 deer-vehicle collisions were documented on two twenty-mile segments of highway in western Colorado during 1968, 1969 and 1970. The number of deer frequenting the area within approximately ~ mile on either side of the highways. per month was estimated by weekly roadside spotlight counts. The three year total of the monthly mean counts on the Highway 13 study area was 5,046 deer and the total deer kill for the same period was 338 deer. The mean annual traffic volume was 243,322 vehicles. On the Highway 82 study area the three year 'total of the monthly mean counts was 2,569 deer with a total deer kill of 389. The mean annual traffic volume was 1,291,825 vehicles. The highest number of deer-vehicle accidents occurred in October on Highway 13 and February and March on Highway 82. ��- 277 - DEER-AUTO ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS Thomas M. Pojar The number of deer killed on Colorado highways has risen steadily since 1966 (Table 1). The problem of deer-vehicle collisions as a drain on the wildlife resource and as a ha~-:.,'~d to motorists (Fig. 1) has been investigated in many states (Michigan, Allen 1969; several states, Dickerson 1939; Kansas, Hlavachick unpublished; MDine, Howe 1964; Nebraska, McClure 1951; Pennsylvania, Peek and Bellis 1969). Two areas in Colorado where the number of deer-vehicle collisions were consistently high were selected as study areas. An effort was made to determine the circumstances related to deer-vehicle collisions. In addition to information from the two intensive study areas, Colorado State Safety Patrol reports on deer-vehicle collisions from the entire state for 1965-1969 were analyzed for factors related to such accidents. This information is tabulated in the Appendix. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine factors which cause deer-auto accidents on Highway 13 south of the White River bridge in Rio Blanco County and on Highway 82 between Basalt and Glenwood Springs. METHODS AND MATERIALS Number and Location of Deer-Vehicle Collisions The number of vehicle-killed deer found in the study areas of Highways 13 and 82 was recorded. Each study area was checked by vehicle for dead deer at least three times a week during periods when the kill was high. During summer months when the deer kill was very low the highways were usually checked twice a week. Occasionally evidence of a deer-vehicle collision was found (skidmarks, blood smears and deer hair) with the carcass missing. These apparent kills were included in the dead deer tally. To further facilitate the location of dead deer, the Highway Division and State Patrol instructed their field men to leave all deer killed by vehicles at kill sites. State Patrolmen and the State Patrol Dispatcher cooperated by notifying project personnel when investigating a deer-auto collision or when a dead deer was seen along the highway. �Table 1. Number of dead deer removed from Colorado highways by Wildlife Conservation Officers during the period 1965-1970. Month July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June 1965 246 298 356 372 162 104 99 90 82 120 162 163 2,254 1966 163 126 143 105 112 120 99 93 106 194 213 220 1,694 1967 131 235 234 166 156 160 159 150 108 172 200 140 2,011 142 244 245 248 2,367 N 1968 190 216 283 214 179 142 156 108 1969 189 196 397 270 164 137 157 144 171 225 267 222 2,539 1970 270 206 299 284 222>'< 227 223 225 193 282 343 373 3,147 Totals 1,189 1,277 1,712 1,411 995 890 893 810 802 1,237 1,430 1,366 14,012 Avg. 198 213 285 235 166 148 149 135 134 206 238 228 Percent 8.5 9.1 12.2 10.1 7.1 6.4 6.4 5.8 5.7 8.8 10.2 9.7 * Data from NW Region not included. 100.0 '-l o: �N -....I \0 Fig. 1. Occasionally more than one deer is involved in a deer-vehicle collision, increasing the danger to the motorist and adding to the drain on the resource. �- 280 - The locations of deer killed by vehicles were marked in relation to reflective numbers placed at 1/4 mile intervals adjacent to highways in both study areas. The Highway 82 study area was numbered 1 through 74 beginning at the south edge of Glenwood Springs and continuing to the north edge of Basalt. The Highway 13 study area was numbered 1 through 80 beginning at the Rio Blanco and Garfield County line and continuing to the junction of Highways 13 and 64 near Meeker. Deer Density Estimates The number of deer frequenting the area within approximately 1/4 mile on either side of the highway was estimated using the method described by Reed (1969). The number of deer seen adjacent to each quarter mile of highway was recorded. One estimate was made each week on both highways except when counting conditions were poor due to rain or snow. The estimates were discontinued on Highway 82 in the summer because of the very low deer density in this area during this time of year. Traffic Volume Traffic volume was measured hourly with Streeter Amet electric recorders activated by a vehicle passing over a magnetic loop buried in the roadbed. Recorders and loops were provided and installed by the Colorado Division of Highways. Vehicle traffic volume was recorded hourly on each highway since February, 1968. Terrain Adjacent to Study Areas The area within 1/4 mile on each side of the Highway 13 and Highway 82 study areas was divided into about 40-50 acre fields on countour maps. The highway side of each field corresponded to marked quarter mile intervals of highway used to record the location of deer crossings, sightings, and kills. One diagonal line was drawn across each field. The number of 40 foot contour intervals intersected by each diagonal provided a quantitative measure of roughness of terrain for that field. The terrain indices for fields adjacent to the same length of highway were added to get a measure of terrain roughness next to each quarter mile length of highway. This index was used to place areas into five general categories. Fields having indices from 1 to 10 were placed in the flat category, 11 to 20 - gentle rolling, 21 to 30 - rolling, 31 to 40 - medium rough, 41 to 50 - rough, and 51 to 60 - very rough. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Highw~ This study area begins at the Rio Blanco-Garfield County line and continues north to the junction of Highways 13 and 64 near Meeker. The highway in this area is two-lane with a speed limit of 60 mph for about 13 miles and 70 mph for the remaining 7 miles. The highway surface is mixed bituminous material. �- 281 - The south end of the study area is about 7,350 feet elevation while the north end is approximately 6,300 feet. Vegetation consists primarily of sagebrush, browse, and pinyon-juniper types with some grassland and a small amount of cultivated land mostly in small grain (Table 2). Both cattle and sheep are grazed within the study area. In the general vicinity of the study area the human population density is about 1.5 people per square mile (Baker 1970). Table 2. Acreage and percent of various vegetative 1/4 mile of the Highway 13 study area. types present within Acres Percent Sagebrush 3,112 42.7 Browse 1,607 22.1 Pinyon-Juniper 722 9.9 Grassland 563 7.7 Cultivated 543 7.5 Other 740 10.1 Vegetative Type The area is covered with deep washes and steep hills. The Grand Hogback, a ridge as high as 1,500 feet above the valley floor, and as wide as three miles, parallels the east side of the study area. The Little Hills Triangle lies to the west of the study area with a maximum elevation of about 8,300 feet. Most of this area is usable winter range for deer and elk (Baker 1970). Highway 13 follows a valley that is approximately one-half to one mile wide. The bottomland adjacent to the highway is predominately big sage, hayland and grain fields. During the three year study period (April 1968 - March 1971) the extreme temperatures were 900 F and -310 F and the total annual precipitation ranged from 13.17 to 17.13 inches (Table 3). Highway 82 The Highway 82 study area lies between Glenwood Springs and Basalt. In 1968 when this study was started, there were about 5 miles of four-lane highway from Glenwood Springs to the southeast. By the end of June, 1969, this fourlane was extended to 12 miles. The remaining portion of highway is two lane. All of the highway has a mixed bituminous surface. The speed limit is 60 mph except on 3 miles of highway where it is reduced to 50 mph. The study area lies between 5,746 feet elevation at Glenwood Springs and 6,624 feet elevation near Basalt. �- 282 - This study area contains a large amount of land that has been cleared of native vegetation and cultivated at some time during recent years. Native vegetation includes sagebrush and pinon-juniper types. Cultivated land is used primarily to raise alfalfa hay or to produce domestic pasture for livestock (Table 4). The Roaring Fork River parallels the southwest side of Highway 82 throughout the length of the study area. Thus, most of the southwest side of the highway is relatively flat with occasional draws. The other side of the highway is mountainous. Temperatures between April 1968 and March 1971, ranged from 980 F and -200 F at a point in the study area about 7 miles southeast of Glenwood Springs (Table 5). Total annual precipitation during the three year study ranged from 9.75 inches to 14.74 inches. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Kill, Spotlight Counts and Accident Locations Knowledge of when and where deer-vehicle accidents occur is essential to any program aimed at reducing the frequency of deer-vehicle collisions. Highway 13 During the three year study period (1968, 1969 and 1970) there was a total of 338 known road-killed deer on Highway 13. This represents about 7 percent of the total number of deer observed near the highway during the spotlight counts for the same period (Figs. 2 and 3). Thirty percent of the kill occurred during October for the highest kill of any single month. This is three times the kill of any other single month. The kill was mostly concentrated in quarter mile sections 45 through 80 (Fig. 4). Deer distribution during spotlight counts related closely to the location of deer kills (Fig. 5). Highway 82 A total of 389 dead deer were found on the Highway 82 study area during 1968, 1969 and 1970. This represents about 15 percent of the total number of deer observed near the highway during the spotlight counts (Figs. 6 and 7). Over 50 percent of the kills occurred during the months of February and March. The months of May through September accounted for only 7.5 percent of the highway deer mortality. The total live deer count for 1970 was down 37 percent from the average of the total counts for the two previous years and the total kill was down 40 percent. It is hypothesized the decrease in numbers of deer along the highway in 1970 was due to relatively mild weather during the critical winter months. Mild winter conditions resulting in lower snow depth probably leave more forage available to the deer in the higher elevations. �Table 3. Climatological data collected near Highway 13. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March 65 5 35 1.70 2.90 74 6 44 0.95 3.30 85 22 57 0.20 3.54 85 29 62 1.09 4.83 78 31 58 2.78 2.78 80 24 51 1.33 3.94 68 13 43 1.37 3.82 50 2 28 1.67 3.56 40 -24 15 0.47 2.04 44 0 27 1.12 2.74 44 -4 23 0.71 1.16 57 -6 27 0.33 4.88 April 1968 to March 1969 Maximum Temperature (OF) Minimum Temperature (OF) Average Temperature (OF) Total Precipitation (In.) Ave. Wind Velocity (mph) April 1969 to March 1970 Maximum Temperature (OF) Minimum Temperature (OF) Average Temperature (OF) Total Precipitation (In.) Ave. Wind Velocity (mph) N 00 70 17 42 1.34 1.35 80 28 52 0.41 4.81 82 26 54 2.76 3.68 86 40 64 0.73 3.97 90 42 64 1.32 3.19 78 31 56 2.48 4.91 65 8 35 3.57 3.28 56 -13 29 1.20 3.57 60 8 40 2.07 3.4 78 20 56 0.43 3.8 87 22 62 1.15 3.5 86 34 71 1.65 2.7 90 42 68 0.29 2.5 77 18 57 2.14 3.2 75 10 43 2.28 3.0 53 5 37 0.69 3.1 48 -10 24 0.61 2.59 26 1.02 4.26 47 -1 27 0.40 3.26 53 -31 27 0.27 3.1 52 -11 29 0.90 3.8 65 -11 April 1970 to March 1971 Maximum Temperature (OF) Minimum Temperature (OF) Average Temperature (OF) Total Precipitation (In.) Ave. Wind Velocity (mph) 50 -11 28 0.46 3.3 49 3 27 1.29 3.19 w �- 284 - Table 4. Acreage and percent of various vegetative within 1/4 mile of the Highway 82 study area. ' types present Acres Percent Grassland 2,459 42.1 Pinyon-Juniper 1,367 23.4 742 12.7 397 6.8 Browse 350 6.0 Other 527 9.0 Vegetative Type Sagebrush Broad1eaf Trees �Table 5. Climatological data collected near Highway 82. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March 71 18 42 0.79 4.22 84 24 51 0.63 4.18 93 34 62 0.15 3.91 92 33 67 1.51 2.44 86 33 63 1.32 2.57 88 30 57 0.30 2.76 83 18 51 0.93 2.75 59 5 35 1.01 2.37 57 -14 28 0.92 2.16 45 -10 21 1.33 2.45 45 -14 20 0.64 2.32 56 0 26 0.22 2.58 April 1968 to March 1969 Maximum Temperature (OF) Minimum Temperature (OF) Average Temperature (OF) Total Precipitation (In.) Ave. Wind Velocity (mph) April 1969 to March 1970 N co Maximum Temperature (OF) Minimum Temperature (OF) Average Temperature (OF) Total Precipitation (In.) Ave. Wind Velocity (mph) 78 21 46 0.49 3.84 86 30 57 0.50 3.51 87 32 58 2.71 3.29 92 40 68 0.63 2.60 93 43 67 0.54 2.45 85 32 57 1.38 2.40 71 22 40 2.97 2.10 59 8 33 0.30 1.37 54 4 28 1.23 1.50 50 -12 26 0.51 1.90 56 10 34 0.60 2.40 60 10 34 1.02 3.30 70 14 33 1.92 3.1 85 23 49 0.04 1.5 96 30 52 2.74 3.6 98 38 64 1.28 4.1 94 41 65 2.07 4.3 84 24 51 1.12 2.3 80 16 38 1.68 2.4 59 12 34 1.14 4.8 53 -3 26 0.59 1.5 58 -20 27 0.59 3.2 60 0 29 1.06 3.2 73 5 35 0.51 3.7 April 1970 to March 1971 Maximum Temperature (OF) Minimum Temperature (OF) Average Temperature (OF) Total Precipitation (In.) Ave. Wind Velocity (mph) V1 �ROAD KILLED HIGHWAY 13 40 = 118 = 109 = II I TOTAL = 338 1968. 1969 D 1970 ~ ~ 35 ...J ...J -~ 30 DEER TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL 3 YEAR tv 00 0'\ u.. o a:: lLJ CD ::E => z 5 Fig. JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 0.3"0 6.20/0 8.9% 5.3% 7.7% 3.6% 5.6 % 7.1% 7.4% 30.2% 10.7% 5.3% area by month 2. The total number of deer killed on the Hdghway 13 study during 1965 1969, and 1970. �SPOTLIGHT COUNT HIGHWAY 13 TOTAL = 1922 1968 • 1969 0 TOTAL = 1487 TOTAL = 1637 1970 ~ o LLJ > 0:: LLJ en - TOTAL = 5046 3 YEA R m o 0:: N co LLJ LLJ -.J o U. o 0:: lJJ m ~ ::> z z <t w ::E Fig. 3. JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEe 7.8Ofo 12.5Ofo 16.1% 14.0% 6.3% I. 2 Cfo 2.6% 4.8"0 7.2% 8.8% 8.8% 9.9% The mean number of deer counted per month adjacent to Hf.ghway 13 study area during 1968, 1969, and 1970. �NUMBER OF DEER KILLED 1968, BY SECTION 13 - HIGHWAY 1969 AND 1970 20 · ,, ~ ...J · ¥ US · .. ct: · ~ · L&J . .' ' ...J ",,' tv 00 00 -' "-o 10 ,"" . - ~ ~ L&J ;;. CD 2 ~ z ••• , .•.._' - 1 4i 8i I 1 I I r In 12i I I 24i 28i I I I I I I I QUARTER Fig. 4. 32i I I ~ "', ..;i ~ .w .:. •• j,;,; .' 1Wo"'" ~ 36i - ••• 40i 44i 48i 52i 56i 60i 64i 68i 72i 76i 1 1 I I I 1 I I 1 I 1 I I' I 1 I I I I I I 1 •••• I ~ ;..; , " ':1 -I 16: 20i ~ :.,j •• ...• ~ !Oil .•... .:..- - - ,.. ,.. , !5 . ~ .•.: ,.;. MILE SECTION NUMBER The 1968, 1969, and 1970 total kill by quarter mile section of Highway 13 study area. 801 I I �366 Q .. THREE • Q LLI ~ HIGHWAY 13 SPOTLIGHT COUNT BY SECTION 300 .. YEAR AVERAGE 1968, 1969, 1970 •• .. ~ 250· •• •• ~ s 200... ~ 0:: LLI ~ ·• I"'" .• .• .• ~ 150: 0:: .. L&J I"'" ••• r- I- ..• ,... I- .. ii 100.' r- r- I"'" I •.. I Z « LU 2 ••• · · •••••• ,.. · 50.. ••• I- · •• '0_ .' 4 Fig. 5. area. N 00 \0 .- •••• I- Ubhf~ , 28. 36 ~ hm12 20 44 52 60 QUARTER MILE SECTION NUMBER The three year mean of the number of deer observed by quarter mile section 68 16 of the Highway 13 study �46 45 ROAD KILLED HIGHWAY 82 40 a 35 1968 III 1969 0 1970 ~ 34 w ...J ...J ~ 30 TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL 3 YEAR TOTAL .,, a:: w DEER = 146 = 155 = 88 = 389 N \.0 ~ 25 o LL. 21 o a:: 20 w 16 CD ~ 15 z to 5 FEB 262% Fig. 6. MAR 24.9% APR 10.5% MAY 1.0% JUN 2.6% AUG 0.5% SEP 1.5% OCT 7.7% NOV 9.3% 3.6% The total number of deer killed on the Higllway 82 study area by month during 1968, 1969, and 1970. �C\J 0 v 400: 0 w 350 > a:: w en aJ 300 C\J "- C\J 0 0::: w w 0 I 3 YEAR TOTAL = 2569 .1 250 0 LL SPOTLIGHT COUNT HIGHWAY 82 1968 • TOTAL = 990 1969 0 TOTAL = 963 1970 fZJ TOTAL = 616 200 ~II II~ I I N a:: w aJ :E 150 :::> z z 100 <t w :E 50 Fig. 7, JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN 6.7% 24.2% 37.2 % 17.9% 2.6% 0.2% The mean number of deer counted per month adjacent 0.2% AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 0.2% 0.6"0 2.80/0 3.5"0 3.8"0 to the Highway 82 study area for 1968, 1969, and 1970. N \0 t-' �- 292 - The general patterns of kill and count by quarter mile section do not resemble each other as closely as expected (Fig's. 8 and 9). Section numbers 6-9 show a disproportionately large kill and sections 25-28 show a disproportionately large count. In sections 6-9 deer move from good sagebrush and pinyon-juniper cover on the east side of the highway, across the highway to feed in hay fields and on hay stacks. Therefore, during severe winters when deer were forced into the Roaring Fork River Valley for forage, there were numerous deer crossings in this area resulting in a greater number of deer being killed than in other areas. In sections 25-28 a field of crested wheat grass (Agropyron desertorum) is adjacent to the highway. Crested wheatgrass is one of the earliest grasses to green up in the spring and large numbers of deer have been observed grazing in this field at that time. Deer were seldom observed on the opposite side of the highway from the crested wheatgrass field. This, along with track counts indicates that although many deer frequent the area, few cross the highway. This minimizes the road kill in proportion to the number of deer observed. Traffic Volume Traffic volume on Highway 82 increased at a rate of about 12 percent per year during the three year study period. Total traffic volume was 1.14, 1.29 and 1.44 million vehicles in 1968, 1969, and 1970, respectively. Every month showed an increase over the same month of the previous year (Fig. 10). Highway 13 traffic volume increased 1.7 percent from 1968 to 1969 and 5.4 percent from 1969 to 1970. The total traffic volume was 236, 240 and 253 thousand vehicles in 1968, 1969 and 1970 respectively. Although the total traffic volume increased each year, it showed decreases during some months (Fig. 11). Traffic volume on Highway 82 was over 5 times that on Highway 13. However, the general pattern by month was similar with the months of July and August showing the heaviest traffic on both highways (Fig. 12). October showed an increase over other fall and winter months on Highway 13 probably because of hunter traffic during the big game seasons. March had a heavier traffic volume on Highway 82 than other fall and winter months. This may be due to increased ski traffic to the local ski areas. Terrain as Related to Deer-Vehicle Collisions The terrain type on the Highway 82 study area did not appear to have a significant effect on deer kill, with two exceptions. Approximately 30 percent of the terrain was classed "Flat" but less than 15 percent of the mortality occurred in these areas. On the other hand about 15 percent of the area was rated "Rough", while almost 30 percent of the deer kills occurred adjacent to spch terrain (Table 6). Findings were similar on the Highway 13 study area where about 57 percent of the deer kill occurred on rough and medium rough terrain -- which made up less than 33 percent of the adjacent terrain (Table 7). These results indicate that there may be some factor associated with the rougher terrain that causes more deer-vehicle collisions to occur. �39 NUMBER OF DEER KILLED Q ,. BY SECTION - HIGHWAY 82 1968 t 1969 AND 1910 ~ 25- o W ..J 20..J ~ a:: IJJ IJJ ,.., ~ o 15u, o ~-ex: ~ ~ z N . \0 W 1°1 III ~III "h 5-1 ,... I"'T"I P"" ,.., r- P"" ~ ,... I- ••• r-P"" = ... P"" I- 81 ~ "" P"" 4! n ~ IIIIIII rr •.•... 12! rrrn 161 20. 241 281 32' 361 11 Lr1-1 I- ~ .. nmh 40~ 44i 48: 52 56i 50: &4~-.~ 12i 76~ 801 r H ~ i I QUARTER Fig. 8. The combined MILE SECTION NUMBER 1968, 1969, and 1970 deer kill by quarter mile section of Highway 82 study area. �404 ~ 300- " THREE YEAR AVERAGE 1968, 1969, 1970 c ~ 0:: HIGHWAY 82 SPOTLIGHT COUNT BY SECTION 250- IJJ en m o 2000:: IJJ IJJ r-, 1 N -0 C u, o .j::- 150- r- r- 0:: IJJ m ~ 100r- ==> z rr- Z <t r- 50- I- ~ r- 25~ Fig. 9. area. t--, hil- I I 4 12 r- r- I- ~n. I'" r- r- L...r ~ ~ lmI1 b, [rI I 20 28 36 44 52 60 QUARTER MI LE SECTION NUMBER The three year mean of the number of deer observed by quarter mile section Hf,~ 68 of the Highway 82 study �1968, 1969 AND 1970 2 ,. ...JI ) :J: ~ - 010 · ~ z « 00 1 8 5 · :l: I- . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ •• ~ \Jl I iG~ JAN ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ "" ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~'" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~......" " " " ~ ~:: ~ ~ ~ •.. ~"" ~ ~ ~ f, ~ ~ ~.~... ~" ~ . ~. .~ ~ ~ c~ ~ ~ ::: ....:.... ;;. .;,. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1Ij• ..,.. ~ ••• ~ FEBMAR ~ " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r- ~ - · ~~ - \0 ••• I"'" ·.. N ~ ~ ~ u, VOLUME HIGHWAY 82 _ 1968 roJJ 1969 c::J 1970 en I.JJ o TRAFFIC ". a •.. ~ ~ ~ ..."":: ... " ~"" ~"~ ~"~",, ":: ~,,~ ~ ,,~~ ~ H C"'~ ~ " " ~" .•. ,01 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ••~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ... ~ I"'" " "~~,, ~ APR MAY JUN ~ ~ - ~ T JUL AUG SEP ~ • " ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ "" " "~ : "" ..• ~ " ~ ~ E:l •• ~ dlljilj OCT NOV DEe MONTH Fig, 10, The traffic volume by month for 1968, 1969, and 1970 on the Highway 82 study area. �1968, 1969 AND 1970 TRAFFIC CI) LLJ 150 VOLUME HIGHWAY13 --'o _ 1968 rzm 1969 1910 N - Z LLJ t:::J > 100 \.0 0'\ IL. o CI) i<i: CI) :::::> o z IJAN Fig, lL FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL The traffic volume by month for 1968, AUG SEP OCT NOV DEe 1969, and 1970 on the Highway 13 study area. �THREE YEAR MEAN (1968,1969,1970) TRAFFIC VOLUME 200~------------------------------------~ III o fJ) LLI ...J HIGHWAY 13 HIGHWAY 82 16 144 o -::I: LAJ 115 > ~ IVV J 113 100 91 (/) 0 Z ~ :::> 0 z h MONTH Fig, 12, The three year mean traffic volume by month on the Bighway 82 and Highway 13 study areas. I ~ .~ -....J �- 298 - Table 6. Types of terrain within 1/4 mile of either side of the Highway 82 study area and the total 3-year road ki~l by terrain type. Type of Terrain Terrain Index Quarte~ Mile Sections of Highway No. of No. of Sections Percent Deer Killed Percent Flat 1-10 22 30.1 58 14.9 Gentle Rolling ll-20 17 23.3 120 30.8 Rolling 21-30 14 19.2 63 16.2 Medium Rough 31-40 7 9.6 35 9.0 Rough 41-50 11 15.1 110 28.3 Very Rough 51-60 2 2.7 3 0.8 Table 7. Types of terrain within 1/4 mile of either side of the Highway 13 study area and the total 3-year road kill by terrain type. Quarter Mile Sections of Highway Type of Terrain Terrain Index No. of Sections Percent No. of Deer Killed Percent Flat 1-10 5 6.2 4 1.2 Gentle Rolling ll-20 23 28.8 55 16.3 Rolling 21-30 26 32.5 .84 24.9 Medium Rough 31-40 17 21.3 134 39.6 Rough 41-50 9 11.2 61 18.0 �- 299 - Sex and Age Distribution of Deer Killed by Vehicles The sex and age ratios of deer killed on each study area were tested to see if there was a difference between study areas. Since there was no difference in these ratios (P> .10) between study areas, the data from both areas were combined (Table 8).'· The sex ratios in neither the fawn nor yearling age classes differed significantly from 50:50 (P> .50 and P> .25, respectively). However, the matures showed a significant (P < .005) divergence from a 50: 50 sex ratio. Bellis and Graves (1971) obtained essentially the same results in the sex and age composition of road-killed white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. If it is assumed that the sex ratio in the fawn population is 50:50, it can be concluded that there is no difference in the rate of deer killed by vehicles between sexes in this age group. It may be reasonable to assume a 50:50 sex ratio in the fawn age class. The sex ratio of 164 fetuses examined was 89 males to 100 females (Table 9) which is not significantly different (P>.25) from a 50:50 ratio. This close sex ratio plus the fact that hunter selectivity is highly unlikely for or against either sex would support the hypotheses that the fawn age class would have an even sex ratio. However, differential natural mortality between sexes of this age group is a possibility. Taber and Dasmann (1954) found that blacktailed deer in Northern California have a mortality rate of 139 males to 100 females for deer under 18 months of age. The deer killed by vehicles in the yearling age class show a ratio of 84 males to 100 females. This age class would have gone through one hunting season when males can be distinguished from females in the field which should result in higher hunting mortality of the males. If there was a significantly greater natural and hunting mortality in males than in females one would expect a somewhat lower ratio of males to females than 84:100. A lower ratio of males to females in the population than in the road-killed deer would indicate a higher susceptibility of male yearlings to deervehicle collisions than female yearlings. Taber and Dasmann (1954) found that 47 percent of yearling does accompanied adult does and that only 16 percent of the yearling bucks accompanied adult does. Most yearling bucks traveled independently which would leave them without an experienced animal for leadership. Being with an experienced animal when crossing a highway may be beneficial. In the mature age class, the population of mature animals cannot reasonably be assumed to be 50:50 because of hunter selectivity for mature males and/ or a higher rate of natural mortality for males. Therefore, the divergence seen in the sex ratio from 50:50 may be due to an actual difference in the ratio in the population and/or a different behavior and movement pattern for mature deer which makes the females more vulnerable or the males less vulnerable to deer-vehicle collisions. �Table 8. The number of vehicle-killed deer by sex and age class from Highway 13 and 82 study areas. Month Combined Data from 1968 II, 1969, and 1970 Male Female Male Female Fawn Fawn Yearling & Mature Yearling & Mature Jan. 12 17 8 29 4 4 3 2 0 7 Feb. 33 29 10 43 23 22 2 3 5 24 Mar. 29 29 9 52 17 14 2 8 4 31 Apr. 18 9 2 25 11 6 0 2 1 10 May 2 11 5 8 2 9 1 0 3 6 Jun. 6 1 4 9 2 1 3 4 0 3 Combined Data from 1969 and 1970 Male Female Male Female Male Female Fawn Fawn Yearling Mature Mature Yearling 0 0 Jul. 0 3 5 15 0 2 4 8 0 4 Aug. 4 4 5 10 1 3 3 5 1 2 Sep. 4 6 5 14 4 3 4 2 0 3 Oct. 26 25 12 35 17 13 8 7 2 17 Nov. 14 13 15 28 6 9 9 4 2 8 Dec. 8 II 3 10 4 6 2 4 0 3 Total 152 158 83 278 91 92 41 49 18 ll8 Males: .Females 94:100 w 30:100 99:100 84:100 1/ The yearling age class was not distinguished from the mature age class during 1968. 15:100 �- 301 - Table 9. Fetal rate of pregnant does and sex ratios of fetuses collected from Highway 13 and 82 study areas and the general area of Glenwood Springs during 1969, 1970 and 1971. 1/ Year No. of Does Fetal Rate No. of Males No. of Females Males:lOO Females 1969 49 1.55 33 43 78 1970 29 1. 79 27 25 108 1971 24 1.54 17 19 89 Total/Average 102 1.62 77 87 89 February and March. 1/ Includes data only from January, Physical Condition of Deer Killed by Vehicles Although physical condition of deer may not be directly associated with deer-vehicle collisions this data was collected. The kidney fat index was determined on 226 deer using the method described by Anderson and Medin (1965) (Table 10). As would be expected, the low means occurred in late winter and early spring, and the high means occurred in late fall and early winter. The individual high kidney fat index was 104.91 which was recorded for a mature male killed in November, 1968. The individual low index of 1.84 occurred in a female fawn in October, 1969. CONCLUSIONS The original study objective "to determine factors which cause deer-auto accidents" has proven to be very difficult to attain. The factors causing automobiles and deer to collide are numerous and have complicated interactions. However, three of the most obvious measureable parameters involved (number and location of deer kill, deer count or densities, and traffic volume) were investigated. Deer density adjacent to the Highway 82 study area was significantly (P<.Ol) correlated (r2 = .79) with the number of deer killed. Estimates of deer density are important but are not sufficient to describe the cause and effect relationship of deer-vehicle accidents. The monthly traffic volume showed a significant (P <.01) negative correlation with the number of deer killed per month. This can be explained by the fact that deer are not present adjacent to the highway during the summer months when traffic volume is at its peak. �- 302 - Table 10. Kidney fat index of deer killed along the Highway 82 and Highwav 13 study areas during 1968,1969 and 1970. Fawn Female Yearling Mature Fawn Male Yearling January x n 2 6.31 1 23.15 3 25.49 3 15.37 2 8.79 February x n 11 6.70 3 21.03 20 20.44 7 6.31 2 10.06 .March x n 5 6.04 6 12.48 21 10.49 6 6.25 April x n 1 3.92 1 11.17 6 12.55 1 10.83 May x n 1 4.98 1 15.72 1 3.82 June x n 2 8.04 July x n 2 9.74 August x n September x n October x n x November n December x n 2 23.31 1 12.50 Mature 4 6.75 4 5.24 1 6.83 1 12.60 1 8.04 1 6.51 1 19.22 2 13.27 1 43.50 1 24.21 1 11.82 2 45.16 6 17.17 5 66.70 11 28.92 14 12.87 5 68.16 1 96.86 5 21.66 5 49.90 l3 38.52 7 13.14 3 54.93 1 104.91 8 15.23 3 37.95 4 27.18 4 14.57 1 30.30 �- 303 - Neither the number of deer counted (P>. 25) nor traffic volume (P >.05) were significantly related to the number of deer killed on the Highway 13 study area. This would indicate that entirely different situations exist on the two study areas. Perhaps the relatively low traffic volume on Highway 13 is below the threshold necessary to allow the patterns seen in the Highway 82 data to be detected. The traffic volume on Highway 82 was five times that on Highway 13. There were approximately twice as many deer observed adjacent to Highway 13 as Highway 82, yet the number of deer killed on each highway was nearly the same. If it is assumed the number of deer crossing the highway where they could be struck by a vehicle is always proportional to the number of deer observed adjacent to the highway, then it could be concluded that increased traffic volume results in increased deer kill. At this point, the parameters of deer movement in relation to the highway become important. It is believed there are three basic types of deer crossing areas that can be defined by gross examination of the monthly frequency distribution of deer-vehicle collisions. (1) Terminal wintering area: The Roaring Fork River valley is an example of this type. The frequency of deer-vehicle accidents is concentrated in the late winter and early spring months (Fig. 6). In these areas the deer may cross the highway several times in route to and from feeding and watering sites. (2) Migration route area: In the Vail area, an interstate highway severs the route of a migratory deer herd. The highway deer kill frequency peaks in late spring and fall with minimal kill during the rest of the year. (3) A combination of terminal wintering and migration route areas: The Highway 13 study area falls into this general category. The frequency distribution of deer-vehicle accidents by month (Fig. 2) shows peaks in late winter, late spring and fall. It is speculated the winter peak is caused by deer using this locality as a terminal wintering area. The spring and fall peaks may be caused by migrations of the Piceance deer herd across Highway 13. The extremely high frequency of deer-vehicle collisions in October may be due to a combination of factors. First, the fall migration occurs in October and November; second, the Colorado big game season begins in October, which results in increased vehicle traffic on Highway 13 and probably increased deer movement caused by hunter harassment. The procedures or devices needed to help alleviate deer-vehicle accident problems varies with the type of problem di$cussed above. The terminal wintering problem can be mitigated by providing for the needs of deer on one side of the highway, making it unnecessary for them to cross, or by constructing a physical barrier to prevent the movement of deer across the highway. It must be determined that there is no migration through the area before a physical barrier is constructed. The migration route problem must be solved by providing some means for the deer to cross the highway safely. This problem can be complicated by migrations that are not restricted to relatively short segments of highway. The difficulty of alleviating the terminal wintering area and migration route problem is the greatest. Few methods, other than education of the motorist, are feasible in terms of cost effectiveness for reducing deer-vehicle accidents in terminal wintering and migration areas involving long segments of highway. �- 304 - Other jobs under Work Plan 15 emphasize the design and evaluation of various devices and procedures to deal with the above mentioned problem areas. LITERATURE CITED Allen, Ross E. 1969. A study of deer-car accidents M. S. Thesis. U. of Michigan. 66 p. in southern Michigan. Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1965. Two condition indices of the Cache la Poudre mule deer herd and their application to management. Game Information Leaflet No. 23. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. 3 p. Baker, Bertram D. 1970. Survey, inventory, and analysis of deer and elk winter ranges. Appendix B. Big game winter range analysis, Game Unit 22-Piceance. pp. 31-58. In Game Res. Rep. July, Part I. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. 455 p. (processed). Bellis, E. D., and H. B. Graves. 1971. Deer mortality on a Pennsylvania interstate highway. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 35(2):232-237. Dickerson, L. M. 1939. The problem of wildlife traffic. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 3(2):104-116. Howe, W. Sidney. 1964. Fed. Aid W-37-R-13. Experimentation 3 p. destruction with reflecting by automobile devices. Maine McClure, H. Elliot. 1951. An analysis of animal victims on Nebraska's highways. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 15(4):410-420. Peek, Frank W., and Edward D. Bellis. 1969. Deer movements and behavior along an interstate highway. Highway Res. News. 36:36-42. Reed, Dale F. 1969. Techniques for determining potentially critical deer highway crossings. Game Information Leaflet No. 73. Colo. Dept. Natural Resources, Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. 3 p. Taber, R. D., and R. F. Dasmann. young Columbian black-tailed 1954. deer. ,tkk · ~t-6?~-)?/J lap.) Prepared by Thomas M. Pojar Wildlife Researcher Candidate A sex difference J. Wildl. Mgmt. in mortality in 18(3):309-315. �- 305 - A P PEN D I X �Table 11. Number of vehicle accidents involving deer and reported to the Colorado State Patrol by month. 1968 Percent No. 1969 No. Percent Month No. 1965 Percent No. 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent January 20 5.1 33 6.0 34 5.0 40 5.0 39 February 19 4.9 21 3.8 29 4.2 60 7.5 March 14 3.6 25 4.5 38 5.6 73 April 20 5.1 26 4.7 54 7.9 May 22 5.6 33 6.0 58 June 20 5.0 45 8.2 Total Percent 5.5 166 5.3 43 6.1 172 5.5 9.2 67 9.5 217 6.9 77 9.7 53 7.5 230 7.4 8.5 58 7.3 44 6.2 215 6.9 69 10.1 49 6.1 56 7.9 239 7.6 69 8.7 70 9.9 323 10.3 w July 36 9.2 69 12.5 79 11.6 August 38 9.7 40 7.3 53 7.8 37 4.6 45 6.4 213 6.8 September 25 6.4 43 7.8 40 5.8 57 7.2 45 6.4 210 6.7 October 44 11.3 67 12.2 81 11.9 92 11.5 71 10.0 355 11.3 November 70 17.9 96 17.4 96 14.0 104 13.0 97 13.7 463 14.9 December 63 16.1 53 9.6 52 7.6 81 10.2 77 10.9 326 10.4 Total 391 100.0 551 100.0 683 100.0 797 100.0 707 100.0 3,129 100.0 0 '" �Table 12. Number of vehicle accidents involving deer and reported to the Colorado State Patrol by day. Day No. 1965 Percent No. 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent No. 1968 Percent No. 1969 Percent Total Percent Sunday 81 20.7 107 19.4 126 18.4 133 16.7 124 17.6 57l 18.3 Monday 41 10.5 62 11.2 84 12.3 115 14.4 83 11.8 385 12.3 Tuesday 48 12.3 59 10.7 88 12.9 90 11.3 78 11.1 363 11.6 Wednesday 49 12.5 72 13.1 72 10.5 102 12.8 96 13.6 391 12.5 Thursday 46 11.8 55 10.0 92 13.5 76 9.5 83 11.8 352 11.2 Friday 60 15.3 93 16.9 III 16.3 130 16.4 130 18.4 524 16.8 Saturday 66 16.9 103 18.7 110 16.1 150 18.9 111 15.7 540 17.3 Total 391 100.0 551 100.0 683 100.0 796 100.0 705 100.0 3,126 100.0 w 0 '-l �Table 13. Time of reported deer-vehicle accidents in Colorado. Hour by Military Time No. 1965 Percent No. 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent No. 1968 Percent No. 1969 Percent Total Percent 0100 0200 0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 10 5 13 6 14 16 14 7 2 10 3 4 4 0 5 7 38 37 46 49 37 33 18 13 2.6 1.3 3.3 1.5 3.6 4.1 3.6 1.8 .5 2.5 .8 1.0 1.0 0 1.3 1.8 9.7 9.5 11.8 12.5 9.5 8.4 4.6 3.3 22 12 16 17 31 22 9 8 6 1l 4 2 5 3 6 6 50 86 79 51 32 32 20 20 4.0 2.2 2.9 3.1 5.6 4.0 1.6 1.5 1.1 2.0 .7 .4 .9 .5 1.1 1.1 9.1 15.7 14.4 9.3 5.8 5.8 3.6 3.6 27 17 9 28 27 34 15 13 8 3 4 4 3 4 6 9 57 86 106 99 50 30 28 15 4.0 2.5 1.3 4.1 4.0 5.0 2.2 2.0 1.1 .4 .6 .6 .4 .6 .9 1.3 8.4 12.6 15.5 14.5 7.3 4.4 4.1 2.2 25 24 19 17 27 40 20 14 16 8 4 9 2 6 6 1l 58 115 97 107 64 45 41 20 3.1 3.0 2.4 2.1 3.4 5.0 2.5 1.8 2.0 1.0 .4 1.0 .3 .8 .8 1.4 7.3 14.5 12.2 13.5 8.1 5.7 5.2 2.5 24 21 1l 10 31 32 22 12 12 1l 6 4 6 4 4 10 61 97 75 83 76 52 25 16 3.4 3.0 1.6 1.4 4.4 4.5 3.1 1.7 1.7 1.6 .8 .5 .8 .6 .6 1.4 8.7 13.8 10.6 11.8 10.8 7.4 3.5 2.3 108 79 68 78 130 144 80 54 44 43 21 23 20 17 27 43 264 421 403 389 259 192 132 84 3.5 2.5 2.2 2.5 4.2 4.6 2.6 1.7 1.4 1.4 ~7 .6 .6 .5 .9 1.4 8.5 13.5 12.9 12.5 8.3 6.1 4.2 2.7 Total 391 100.0 550 100.0 682 100.0 795 100.0 705 100.0 3,123 100.0 w 0 co �Table 14. sunset. Number and percent of reported deer-vehicle accidents in Colorado in relation to sunrise and Deer-Vehicle Accidents 1967 1968 1966 No. No. Percent No. Percent Percent No. Time Interval No. 1965 Percent I-Jithin3rd hour before sunset 4 1.0 1 .2 9 1.3 8 1.0 5 Within 2nd hour before sunset 5 1.3 10 1.8 10 1.5 11 1.4 At sunset or w.Lt hf.n 1st hour before sunset 11 2.8 17 3.1 27 4.0 38 4.8 1969 Percent Total Percent .7 27 .9 6 .8 42 1.3 32 4.5 125 4.0 I w Within 1st hour after sunset 58 14.9 120 21.9 168 24.5 200 25.3 164 23.2 710 22.8 Within 2nd hour after sunset 74 19.0 88 16.0 120 17.6 115 14.5 127 18.0 524 16.8 Within 3rd hour after sunset 51 13.0 42 7.6 51 7.5 55 6.9 68 9.6 267 8.5 Within 4 hour after sunset 24 6.1 37 6.7 30 4.4 40 5.0 39 5.5 170 5.4 Other times of night 75 19.2 96 17.5 115 16.8 148 18.7 106 15.0 540 17.3 0 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.0 �Table 14. Number and percent of reported deer-vehicle accidents in Co1orado"in relation to sunrise and sunset ( continued). No. 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent No. 1968 Percent No. 1969 Percent Total Percent Time Interval 1965 Percerrt No. Within 3rd hour before sunrise 7 1.8 14 2.5 19 2.8 18 2.3 11 1.6 69 2.2 Within 2nd hour before sunrise 6 1.5 14 2.5 13 1.9 20 2.5 19 2.7 72 2.3 Sunrise or within 1st hour before sunrise 14 3.6 37 6.7 33 4.8 44 5.5 42 6.0 170 5.4 w I-' 0 Within 1st hour after sunrise 17 4.3 17 3.1 28 4.1 24 3.0 16 2.3 102 3.3 Within 2nd hour after sunrise 9 2.3 8 1.5 15 2.2 14 1.8 16 2.3 62 2.0 Within 3rd hour after sunrise 7 1.8 6 1.1 12 1.8 15 1.9 17 2.4 57 1.8 All other times of day 29 7.4 43 7.8 33 4.8 43 5.4 38 5.4 186 6.0 Total 391 100.0 550 100.0 683 100.0 793 100.0 706 100.0 3,123 100.0 �Table 15. Number of Reported deer-vehicle accidents occuring in Colorado under various light conditions. Deer-Vehicle Accidents 1967 1968 No. Percent No. Percent No. 1969 Percent Total Percent 17.8 122 17.9 123 16.0 117 17.2 536 17.5 9.8 60 8.8 87 11.3 57 8.4 301 9.8 Degree of Light No. 1965 Percent No. 1966 Percent Daylight 76 19.4 98 Dusk or Dawn 43 11.0 54 Dark Unlighted w t-' t-' 265 67.8 393 71.3 494 72.3 544 71.0 504 74.3 2,200 71.6 Other 7 1.8 6 1.1 7 1.0 l3 1.7 1 .1 34 1.1 Total 391 100.0 551 100.0 683 100.0 767 100.0 679 100.0 3,071 100.0 �Table 16. Localities in which 3,056 reported deer-vehicle accidents occurred in Co1Qrado. Locality of Accident 1965 Percent No. 1966 Percent No. No. 1967 Percent No. 1968 Percent 1969 Percent No. Total Percent -Open Country 164 42.1 221 40.1 273 40.0 277 36.1 195 29.3 1,130 37.0 Mountainous 154 39.4 221 40.1 280 41.0 365 47.6 296 44.5 1,316 43.0 Farming 68 17.4 94 17.1 117 17.1 112 14.6 157 23.9 548 18.0 Other 5 1.3 15 2.7 13 1.9 13 1.7 16 2.3 62 2.0 Total 391 100.0 551 100.0 683 100.0 767 100.0 664 100.0 3,056 100.0 w ,.... N �Table 17. Game crossing sign control associated with reported deer-vehicle accidents in Colorado. Game Crossing Sign No. 1965 Percent No. 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent No. 1968 Percent No. 1969 Percent Total Percent Present 13 11.0 28 23.7 53 45.0 22 18.6 2 1.7 118 100.0 Absent 9 12.3 19 26.0 28 38.4 17 23.3 0 .0 73 100.0 Unknown 368 12.8 501 17.4 598 20.7 722 25.1 693 24.0 2,882 100.0 Total 390 12.7 548 17.8 679 22.1 761 24.8 695 22.6 3,073 100.0 Vol to-' Vol �- 314 - Table 18. Speed factors associated with reported deer-vehicle accidents in Colorado during 1965-1969. Speed Miles per Hour Estimated SEeed Percent of No. of Accidents Accidents 0-29 52 1.7 30-39 145 4.8 40-49 522 17.2 50-59 973 32.0 60-69 1,099 36.0 70-79 245 8.1 80-89 5 .2 Total 3,041 100.0 �Table 19. Weather conditions associated with 3,066 reported deer-auto accidents in Colorado. Weather Condition 1965 Percent No. No. 1966 Percent No. 1967 Percent No. 1968 Percent No. 1969 Percent Total Percent Clear 283 73.2 455 83.0 467 68.5 533 69.7 651 95.0 2,389 77.8 Cloudy 86 22.2 80 14.6 18!+ 27.0 190 24.8 0 0 540 17.6 I W Rain 7 1.8 6 1.1 15 2.2 18 2.4 20 2.9 66 2.2 Snow 9 2.3 5 .9 12 1.8 18 2.4 4 .6 48 1.6 Other 2 .5 2 .4 4 .6 5 .7 10 1.5 23 .8 Total 387 100.0 548 100.0 682 100.0 764 100.0 685 100.0 3,066 100.0 t-' VI I �- 316 - Table 20. Number of reported deer-vehicle accidents per mile of state highway during 1965-1969 in ten Colorado counties where deer-vehicle accidents were most concentrated. Deer Kill Per Mile Total Miles of State Highway Total Kill La Plata Garfield Archuleta 149 165 94 317 249 132 Ouray 61 84 1.40 1.38 Chaffee 109 147 1.35 Clear Creek 95 83 .87 Douglas 130 112 .86 Rio Blanco 124 103 .83 Eagle 153 126 .82 Moffat 206 l38 .67 County 2.13 1.51 Table 21. Number of reported deer-vehicle collisions in ten counties whe re most of 3,127 reported accidents occurred in Colorado during 1965-1969. County Total Kill Percent of Total Accidents La Plata 317 10.1 Garfield 249 8.0 Chaffee 147 4.7 El Paso Moffat Archuleta 147 138 132 4.7 4.4 4.2 Eagle 126 4.0 Douglas 112 3.6 Rio Blanco 103 3.3 Gunnison 102 3.3 3,127 50.3 Total �- 317 Table 22. Miles of state highway per annual average reported accident during 1965-1968 where the miles per annual reported accident is less than 5.000. State Hwy. No. County Length (Miles) 82 Garfield 18 115 El Paso 10 (160) }j Number of Deer-Vehicle Accidents Reported 1965 1966 1967 1968 Total Miles Per Annual Average Reported Accident 6 13 23 25 67 1.075 20 9 8 16 15 48 1.667 La Plata 52 14 34 36 40 124 1.677 82 Eagle 6 6 2 o 6 14 1. 714 19 (550) La Plata 45 14 29 21 23 87 2.069 185 (1-25) Douglas 12 7 5 7 4 23 2.087 15 (285) Chaffee 29 14 9 12 20 55 2.109 6 (50) Saguache 9 o 3 5 7 15 2.400 19 (550) Ouray 37 14 11 16 20 61 2.426 10 (160) Archuleta 44 9 11 17 31 68 2.588 13 Rio Blanco 41 12 13 18 18 61 2.689 1 (1-25) El Paso 46 15 20 14 13 62 2.968 1 (85) Douglas 37 8 14 17 10 49 3.020 10 (160) Costilla 31 5 8 13 11 37 3.351 78 (6) ]j Eagle 21 3 5 10 7 25 3.360 2 (40) Clear Creek 33 6 12 11 8 37 3.568 4 (1-70) Garfield 89 13 26 27 29 95 3.747 167 Crowley 1 1 o o 4.000 Jefferson 3 2 1 3 4.000 149 Rio Grande 5 o o o o 1 93 o 2 3 5 4.000 91 (1-70) 3/ Clear Creek 22 1 5 7 8 21 4.190 145 Montrose 17 4 6 2 4 16 4.250 13 Garfield 17 2 2 8 3 15 4.533 2 (40) Routt 54 8 12 12 13 45 4.800 4 (24) Chaffee 33 6 6 6 9 27 4.889 1/ Corresponding federal highway number. 2/ Dowd Junction east over Vail Pass. 3/ Georgetown west over Loveland Pass. �__-1 -"--r------------------ J------- . -< '" R 0 A T U T T :.: !J r/J \ 28 -e c::: cC t;.l z • "'-l ~®""" RIO --1 I' B L <9 t- --. -1"I~ G A :: -< f- ~~Tt~ i\~'::-):~ -;-.':.- ;:; ,..J W t-' 00 VJ -< r/J ~~,;~~;.~;-!i:~ z -c :.: r I I" 0 I I .. __ L_ .. __ ._ .. _._ J1 •••.• •••- NEW ________ .. I , "S ~ ~.T·__·__··~· 10)- j IS· ~eported by the Colorado Highway Patrol in 1969. ~I!-)7· I'· IOKLAHOMA MEXICO Fig. 13. The location of 679 deer-vehicle accidents black dot represents one deer-vehicle accident. I Each �- 319 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title _ Deer-Elk Job No. Investigation Investigations 3 of One-Way Deer Structures Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Steven F. Steinert, Gary T. Myers, William Thomas M. Pojar and Dale F. Reed. B. Zimmerman, ABSTRACT Several types of one-way gates that permit deer to move through deer-proof fences from only one direction were tested under controlled conditions at the Little Hills Experiment Station paddocks. Tests indicated that over 90 percent of the deer placed in the experimental paddocks used two of the one-way gates. The total frequence~ of use (preference) on these two gates were not significantly different (X =0.105,P>0.50). Positions used in 2 the deer proof fence did not show a significant difference in use (X =0.421, P>0.50). One-way gates were also tested under field conditions adjacent to Interstate 70 near Vail and adjacent to Highway 82 south of Glenwood Springs. A total of 152 passages have occurred through the eleven one-way gates under the varying field conditions. Ninety-three percent of all field passages were positive (in the direction of the funneling or cone principle). In addition, two one-way fence structures did not meet the one-way criteria during continued preliminary tests. Of a total of only five crossings, three were negative. They were rejected for further testing. �- 320 - RECOMMENDATIONS 1. When deer-proof fencing adjacent to high speed highways is used· to reduce or prevent deer-vehicle accidents, one-way structures should be considered for installation. Deer that move around the ends of the fence, or from the side of the road not fenced, will be able to pass through a one-way gate rather than be trapped on the highway and likely killed. �- 321 - INVESTIGATION OF ONE-WAY DEER STRUCTURES Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of several types of one-way gates and two fence structures to permit one-way movement of mule deer through existing deer-proof fences at Little Hills Experiment Station and elsewhere. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Test the effectiveness of each structure under controlled 2. Test those structures deemed effective under controlled for effectiveness under field conditions. conditions. conditions METHODS AND MATERIALS Testing Under Controlled One-way Conditions Gates Two types of one-way gates were tested with deer placed in the Little Hills paddocks. Tests of preference (frequencies of use) were made with two gates in several positions between two paddocks. The location of each gate was changed in order to eliminate the use of gates because of position. With two gates (I and IIIb) being tested in two possible positions, one sequence was used (if A and C are the positions; and I and IIIb are the gates): AI, Clllb, Alllb CI. Thus, the position of the gate was reduced or eliminated as a possible bias and deer preference was tested. Gate I was tested with Gate II during the last segment. It was felt that for a deer to prefer one gate over the other the animal must have experienced the use of both types. Therefore, small groups of deer or individual deer (Table 1) were oriented to each of the two gates for a period of four days. Only one gate was used at a time and was changed each day with the other so that the deer could experience one gate one day, another the next, etc. Some deer were oriented in small groups rather than individually to reduce the number of days required for the testing. �- 322 - Table 1. Group, Classification, and IIIb preference tests. and number of deer used during Gate I Group Does Fawns J 1 K 2 Bucks Total 1 2 2 L 1 M 2 1 N 3 1 0 1 p 1 Q 6 1 1 1 Total 1 2 1 1 4 12 Once the group was oriented, all except one deer were returned to a holding pen to await individual testing. The deer to be tested was left in a paddock 'not containing food. Both gates were then placed in position between the paddock not containing food and the paddock with hay and pellets, thus beginning the sequence. Each deer was tested for 4 days with the sequence being repeated (i.e. AI Clllb, Alllb CI, and AI ClIlb, Alllb CI). This procedure was repeated until each deer of the group was tested. One-way Fences The number of deer crossing one-way fences I and II (overhanging and slanting respectively) was to be counted each day in a manner similar to that of the one-way gates. Only preliminary tests were conducted and thus, procedures for preference testing were not developed. Testing Under Field Conditions The one-way gates deemed effective under controlled conditions were to be tested in the field. Since there was not a significant difference between the use of Gate I and IIIb under controlled conditions, both types were �- 323 - utilized during the field tests. Gate IIIb was basically the same as Gate I except that the bottom was installed at ground level allowing deer to walk through. Gate I was installed approximately 12 inches off of the ground, necessitating the animal to jump through as previously reported. All installation sites were suitable for the 12 inch above ground level except one. This was a steep slope adjacent to Highway 82 where no level ground was available. By utilizing Gate IIIb's characteristic at this location, the need for a seemingly unreasonable jump was eliminated: Three one-way gates were installed in a quarter mile of eight foot fence adjacent to Highway 82. In addition, eight gates were contracted for and later installed in the eight foot fences associated with the deer underpass at Vail. Four of the eight one-way gates were placed in off-sets (Fig. 1) in the south Vail eight foot fence, while the remainder were strategically located at eight foot fence junctions or areas where deer had frequented the fence on the wrong side. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Controlled One-way Conditions Gates One-way Gates I and IIIb were tested with 12 deer placed in the Little Hills paddocks. These deer of various sex and age classes were used in testing for gate preference. Gates I and IIIb were evaluated simultaneously with each of the 12 individual deer in orientation groups J through Q (Table 2). Eleven of the 12 deer made a total of 20 passages through Gate I and a total of 18 positive and one negative through Gate IIIb (Fig. 2). The frequencies of use (preference) were not significantly different (X2 = 0.105, P>O.sO). Hence, both gates were field tested. Positions A and C used in the deerproof fence did not show a significant difference in use (X2 = 0.421, P>O.sO). One-way Fences Preliminary tests of the one-way fences were considered unsuccessful. The few positive crossings that occurred with the variable height posts in their lowest positions (Fig. 3) were outnumbered by negative crossings (Table 3); consequently, the one-way fences did not meet the previously established one-way criteria. Structures not meeting this criteria were to be modified or rejected. In this case, modifications did not appear feasible and the structures were rejected for further testing. �- 324 - FENCE CONTINUES ~ I X ~ ONE-HAv DEE' OATE I I I ~,,-~ '~D---I )<. nEER-PROO~ I FENCE POST I 't.. (HICm-IAY SIDE) I I DEER-PROOF I FENCE APPROXTI1ATEL Y 100' I I 'I. I I I I I 'I. o ~\ I ONE-'~AY DEER GATE ~ Fig. 1. One of several Vail eight foot fence. one-way deer gate off-sets located in the south �- 325 - Fig. 2. Positive passage of deer through one-way gate IIIb during controlled conditions at the Little Hills Experiment Station (Photo by author) • Fig. 3. One-way Fence II with variable height posts in their lowest positions (Photo by author). �- 326 - Table 2. Frequencies of use (preference) of one-way Gates I and IIIb and of one-way gate positions. Doe No. Group Buck No. Group A C M .25 .75 .25 .75 1 J 0 .25 .75 .25 .75 2 .25 0 .25 .75 .50 .25 0 0 0 Gate I IIb A C 1 J .33 .67 .67 .33 1 2 K .75 .25 .25 .75 2 3 K .75 .25 .75 4 M 0 .25 5 M 0 6 P 0 Table 3. and II. POSe Gate I lIb POSe Fawn No. Group Gate I UIB POSe C A a .50 .50 L .75 .25 .75 .25 3 N .50 .50 0 1.00 4 Q .67 .33 .67 .33 1.00 Passages and days elapsed during preliminary tests with one-way Fences I Days Elapsed Without POSe Passage Days Elapsed Without Neg. Passage Ht. of Fence (In.) Length of Angle (In.) Group or Deer Crossings POSe Neg. Group A (5 deer) 0 5 46 70 Group B (2 deer) 0 7 46 70 Buck (2 pt. from Group A) Buck (3 Pt.) -1 7 46 70 0 3 34 65 Buck (4 P't . ) 1 0 1 4 34 65 Doe 1 -1 4 a 34 65 Doe (from Group M) 0 -1 3 a 34 65 4 34 65 34 65 a Fawn Fawn 0 Total 2 4 -3 24 18 �- 327 - Field Conditions Of eleven one-way gates installed under field conditions, eight were installed adjacent to Interstate 70 and the deer underpass located in the Vail area. Gates designated 70N-4 through 70S-II (Table 4) were installed in both the north and south eight foot fences. (The first number in the designation stands for the highway adjacent to which the gate is installed. The letter N or S signifies whether the gate was installed in the eight foot fence north (N) or south (S) of the highway, and the last number the sequential number of the gate installed). Some of the gates received many more passages than others. For instance, gate 70N-5 received 84 passages while 70S-II received none. This is understandable if the physical layout is considered. Gate 70N-5 was located in a "V" junction near good deer cover and approximately one quarter of a mile from the highway, and may have been used by resident animals throughout the summer months. On the other hand, gate 70S-II, as well as gates 70S-8, 70S-9, and 70S-l0, was not installed until after the peak of the spring migration during 1970 when the greatest number of passages could have been expected. It was also located in an off-set with gate 70S-l0 approximately 100 feet from the highway roadbed. In short, gates 70S-II and 70N-5 may not be comparable. Table 4. The number of one-way gate passages, percent of positive passages, and number of tracks on the negative side when no passages occurred during field tests. Gate Designation and Type Passages During Field Tests No. No. POSe Neg. 82-1 (lIb) 2 0 82-2 (1) 2 82-3 (I) Percent Positive No. of Tracks on Neg. Side When no Passage Type Fence Installation and Comment 100 0 -1 67 0 Straight fence line and trail Off-set 2 0 100 0 Off-set 70N-4 (I) 44 -3 93 54 "V" junction 70N-5 (1) 84 -2 98 28* "V" junction 70N-6 (I) 4 0 100 0* Straight 70N-7 (1) 8 -3 73 78 Straight fence line and cliff near underpass 70S-8 (I) 1 -1 50 159 Off-set 70S-9 (I) 2 0 100 124 Off-set 70S-l0 (I) 3 0 100 218 Off-set 70S-11 0 0 303 Off-set 152 -10 (I) Total * Inaccurate 93 since deer trails pass negative 964 end of gates. fence line �- 328 - The effectiveness of the gates in terms of "one-way passages" is indicated by the few negative passages that occurred. Most of the nine negative passages-(against the funneling or cone principle) according to the size of the tracks, were caused by new born fawns resulting from May and June parturition in the vicinity of gates 70N-4 and 70N-5. In addition, the one negative passage for gate 70S-8 was caused by trying to drive several deer in front of a vehicle at night with a spotlight. Observation of this negative passage indicated that it was not easily negotiated despite the animal's running impact. The gate was visibly bent as a result _of this passage. Another indicator of the "one-way passage" characteristic was the number of tracks counted on the negative side when neither positive or negative passages occurred. A total of 964 tracks indicated activity on the negative sides of the gates where negative passages did not occur; these gates were effective in preventing deer from getting on the 4-lane Interstate Highway (Fig. 4). One-way gates 82-1 through 82-3, located in a quarter mile fence adjacent to Highway 82 south of Glenwood Springs, received few passages. The number of deer in the immediate area has been low during the last two years (1969 and 1970). ~ Prepared ~~ bY~C{\~ Dale F. Reed Asst. Wildlife Researcher �- 329 - Fig. 4. negative Arrows point to several of the 964 tracks imprinted on the sides of the one-way gates at Vail. (Photo by Don Domenick) ��- 331 July, 1971 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 15 Deer-Elk Investigations 4 Job No. Job Title: Evaluation of Devices to Prevent Deer-Auto Period Covered: February Personnel: Gary T. Myers, Dale F. Reed, William Thomas M. Pojar. Accidents 1, 1968 through March 31, 1971 B. Zimmerman and ABSTRACT Brush was removed from the borrow pits and roadside along two segments of Highway 13, each one and three-quarter mile long south of Meeker, Colorado. It was hypothesized that clearing of the roadsides would reduce the frequency of deer-auto accidents on the highway because of increased visibility for the motorists and reduced cover for wildlife. An examination of the ratio between the number of deer killed by deer-auto accidents per 100 deer counted during roadside spotlight counts before and after the removal of roadside brush does not provide sufficient evidence to support the hypothesis. �- 332 - RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Evaluation of brush removal on this project. 2. If brush removal is to be evaluated again at a later date, the following procedures are recommended. 3. should be relegated to low priority a. Obtain quantitative pretreatment data concerning height, and species composition of the vegetation to be removed. b. Keep study area free of all forbs and other plants that may obscure vision. c. Provide for quantitative shrubby species. d. Provide a method for determining the number of deer crossing the highway. This is necessary so that successful and unsuccessful (deer killed) crossings can be compared for pretreatment and treatment time periods. evaluation of a re-vegetation density by Removal of roadside brush for the specific purpose of reducing the number of deer-auto accidents cannot be recommended as a management practice on the basis of this study. �- 333 - EVALUATION OF DEVICES TO PREVENT DEER-AUTO ACCIDENTS Thomas M. Pojar The first phase of the Deer-Auto Accident Study (Job 1) was concerned with the gathering of data related to the circumstances of deer-auto accidents. Such information as location, time and frequency of deer-auto accidents was obtained. The second phase of the Deer-Auto Accident Study is to evaluate procedures and devices that will reduce the number of deer-auto accidents. The evaluation of fencing along Highway 82 was initially an objective of this job, however, the fence was not installed during this segment. The fence evaluation has been made a separate Job (10) and will be reported on for Segment 26. The remaining objective of this job is to investigate the effect of roadside brush removal on the number of deerauto accidents. Tall shrubby species growing in the borrow pits and along the road obscure the vision of the motorist and provide cover for wildlife. It was hypothesized that the clearing of roadsides would reduce the frequency of deer-auto accidents. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if a fence built adjacent to a portion of Highway 82 and brush removal in strategic locations adjacent to Highway 13, south of the White River bridge in Rio Blanco County, affects the numbe~ of deer killed by vehicles in the areas involved. METHODS AND MATERIALS The time, date and location of all deer-auto accidents in the study area were documented. Roadside spotlight counts were conducted weekly using the method described by Reed (1969). The spotlight counts were used as an index to the population of deer frequenting the area within approximately onefourth mile on either side of the highway. The brush (mostly big sage, Artemisia tridentata) was removed from the highway right-of-way by the Colorado Division of Highways. A road grader was used to remove sagebrush plants at ground level when the ground was frozen. The pre- and post-treatment data were not subjected to statistical analysis. Since the relationship between the kill and count has not been established, a ratio between them is not a true proportion; therefore, the chi-square test is inappropriate. A t-test comparing mean ratios is inconclusive because only one degree of freedom is available. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Two segments of Highway 13, each one and three-quarter mile long, located south of Meeker, Colorado, were selected as study areas. Area I (quarter �- 334 - mile sections 65-71) and Area II (quarter mile sections 58-64) began 2.50 and 4.25 miles south of the junction between Highway 64 and Highway 13, respectively. The highway follows a valley approximately one-half to one mile wide. The Grand Hogback, a ridge up to 1,500 feet above the valley floor and as wide as three miles, parallels the east side of the study area (Myers 1969). The bottomland is predominantly Big sage and grain fields. The east and west facing slopes adjacent to the study areas support browse type vegetation as characterized by Baker (1970). The pinyon-juniper community dominates the upper slopes and the mesas above the rim. A dense stand of big sage occupied much of the highway right-of-way prior to removal (Fig. 1). Appearance following brush removal is shown in Figure 2. This general area is traversed by the migratory Piceance deer herd during spring and fall migrations. It is also used by mule deer as a wintering area (Baker 1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-treatment data (roadside spotlight counts and number of deer killed by deer-auto accidents) for Area I was collected from January 1, 1968 to January 1, 1969. During January 1969 the brush was removed from both sides of the road. Post-treatment data collection began February 1, 1969 and was terminated January 1, 1971. Area II pre-treatment data was collected from January 1, 1968 to November 30, 1969 and post-treatment data from January 1, 1970 to January 1, 1971. Brush removal from both sides of the road was completed during December 1969. Data from the months when brush was being removed were disregarded of distrubance caused by machinery. because In Area I the ratio of the number of deer killed per 100 deer counted decreased slightly the first year after brush removal (Fig. 3). However, a sharp decrease, from 2.16 to 1.31, occurred the second year after brush removal (Table 1). If brush removal had a real effect on the ratio of deer killed per deer observed, the data from 1969 should have shown a closer relationship to data from 1970. There is no reason to believe brush removal would have a latent effect on the kill/count ratio. Therefore, it seems very unlikely that brush removal was an influencing factor on the kill/count ratio in Area I. The kill per 100 deer counted ratio for Area II varied from 2.18 to 2.99 (Table 2). This range was observed for the two pre-treatment years, which would indicate a relatively wide range of ratios due to random variation or other factors not measured. There are several inherent problems that may lessen the effect of brush removal as a method of reducing deer-auto accidents. First, by clearing the areas of shrubby species, the primary invaders are usually forbs. The forbs may reach heights that obscure vision as effectively as the shrubby species that were removed, unless measures are taken to control them. �Table 1. Count and kill data for Area I of Highway 13, south of Meeker, Colorado, where roadside brush was removed in an attempt to reduce ORp.r-auto collisions. Month No. of Counts* 1968 Total Count Total Kill No. of Counts 1969 Total Count Total Kill No. of Counts 1970 Total Count Total Kill Jan. 2 37 0 ** ** ** 4 39 0 Feb. 4 188 1 4 135 3 4 100 1 Mar. 4 314 5 4 290 1 4 143 1 Apr. 3 183 5 264 1 4 277 May 5 81 ° 0 4 15 3 4 53 °1 June 4 7 July 4 Aug. 4 3 1 4 3 0 9 °1 5 3 0 5 17 0 5 10 1 4 19 0 4 16 1 Sept. 4 16 3 4 17 0 5 35 1 Oct. 5 84 10 5 43 8 3 15 2 Nov. 4 49 1 4 61 2 4 35 3 4 56 -2 5 28 3 31 0 48 1,034 24 48 878 ° 19 48 764 10 Dec. Total - Ki11/100 deer ccounted 2.32 2.16 * Count refers to a roadside spotlight count as described by Reed (1969). ** Brush was removed during this period. 1.31 w w VI �Table 2. Count and kill data for Area II of Highway 13, south of Meeker was removed in an attemnt to reduce deer-auto collisions. g Colorado, where roadside brush No. of Counts 1969 Total Count Total Kill No. of Counts 1970 Total Count 1 5 107 0 4 1+4 1 55 1 4 165 3 4 78 2 4 224 4 4 178 5 4 104 1 Apr. 3 111 2 5 90 1 4 106 3 May 5 130 1 4 11 1 4 45 2 Month No. of Counts* 1968 Total Count Total Kill Jan 2 25 Feb. 4 Mar. Total Kill Vol Vol June 4 16 0 4 8 2 4 17 2 July 4 22 1 5 25 0 5 27 1 Aug. 5 61 2 4 19 0 4 45 2 Sept. 4 41 4 4 22 1 5 60 0 Oct. 5 111 4 5 91 9 3 66 2 Nov. 4 68 0 4 121 3 4 67 0 Dec. 4 55 0 - ** ** -- ** - 3 79 -2 Total 48 919 20 48 837 25 48 738 18 Kill/100 deer counted 2.18 2.99 * Count refers to a roadside spotlight count as described by Reed (1969). ** Brush was removed during this period. 2.44 0\ �- 337 - Figure 1. Quarter-mile section number 60 of Area II along Highway 13 in 1969 before roadside brush was removed. Figure 2. Quarter-mile section number 60 of Area II along Highway 13 in 1970 after roadside brush was removed. �ROADSIDE o BRUSH I w ~ 3.00 :::> REMOVAL - HIGHWAY 13 I PRE-TREATMENT t:'~;jPOST-TREATMENT o o 0:: ~ 2.00 o o o w w .. 00 0:: a.. 1.00 W ..J ..J - ~ 1968 1969 AREA I 1970 1968 1969 1970 , AREA]I • Figure 3. Pre-treAtment and p'Ost-treatment kill:count ratios for two areas of Highway 13, south of Meeker, Colorado where roadside brush was removed. �- 339 - Forbs may also act as an attractant to deer as a food source, especially in early Summer (Smith 1952), thus increasing the probability of a deer entering the roadway. Second, periodic removal of the shrubby species would probably be necessary because of re-growth from roots and re-invasion from neighboring areas. New shrub growth is attractive to deer as a food source, possibly because of increased succulence (Krefting 1941) and nutritional values (Reynolds and Sampson 1943, Hanson and Smith 1970). The evidence obtained from this study indicates that roadside brush removal has no obvious effect on the ratio of deer killed on the roadway by motor vehicles to deer counted during nighttime spotlight counts. Since these data do not lend themselves to statistical evaluation, a gross difference in either a positive or negative direction would be necessary for a sound recommendation concerning roadside brush removal as an effective measure to reduce deer-auto accidents. LITERATURE CITED Baker, Bertram D. 1970. Survey, inventory, and analysis of deer and elk winter ranges. Appendix B. Big game winter range analysis, Game Unit 22 - Piceance. pp. 31-38. In Game Res. Rep., July Part I. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. 455 p. (Processed). Hanson, W.O., and Justin G. Smith. 1970. Significance of forage quality as a tool in wildlife management. pp. 25-31. In Range and wildlife habitat evaluation, a research symposium. U. S. Dep. of Agr. Forest Service. Misc. Publ. No. 1147. 220 p. Krefting, Lauzits W. Mgmt.4(1):95-l02. 1941. Methods of increasing deer browse. J. Wildl. Myers, Gary T. 1969. Deer-auto accident investigation. pp. 147-178. In Game Res. Rep., July Part II. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. 393 p. (Processed). Reed, Dale F. 1969. Techniques for determining potentially critical deer highway crossings. Game Information Leaflet No. 73. Colo. Dept. of Nat. Res., Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. 3 p. Reynolds, Hudson G., and Arthur W. Sampson. 1943. Chaparral as browse for deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 7(1):119-122. Smith, Justin G. 1952. 16(2):148-155. Prepared Food habits of mule deer in Utah. by Thomas M. Pojar Wildlife Researcher Candidate crown sprouts J. Wildl. Mgmt. ��- 341 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title _ Deer-Elk 6 Job No. Deer Underpass Investigations Evaluation Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: William B. Zimmerman, Gary T. Myers, M. Pojar and Dale F. Reed. Paul F. Gilbert, Thomas ABSTRACT The use of a deer underpass 10 feet by 10 feet and 100 feet long that permits deer to move under a four-lane interstate highway to and from their summer range has been evaluated near Vail. An electro-optical detection system with two Streeter Amet recorders was installed at each end of the underpass. By examining the recorder readings and the number of deer tracks it was estimated that 157 and 297 deer moved through the underpass during the spring and fall of 1970 respectively. According to the hourly Streeter Amet printout, approximately half of the deer during the spring and fall moved through the underpass between 12:00 and 5:00 a.m. The underpass was lighted during nighttime hours. During the spring, an index of entrance versus exit activity was determined by dividing the daily counter readings on the north end of the underpass by that of the south. Totally, about 18 times as much activity was recorded by the counter at the entrance as at the exit. ��- 343 - DEER UNDERPASS EVALUATION Dale F. Reed There are many areas in Colorado where migratory deer cross highways. When these highways carry high speed, high-volume traffic, the potential danger to deer and motorists becomes especially great. Therefore, it is essential to keep the animals off the highway. Underpasses with specified dimensions and characteristics located at strategic points within migration routes may provide adequate means for these necessary deer movements. This study purports to evaluate the use of a specific concrete deer underpass 10 feet by 10 feet and 100 feet long located in the Vail area. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if deer migrating from winter range on one side of Interstate 70 to summer range on the opposite side utilize an underpass constructed the area. in SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of the underpass. METHODS AND MATERIALS A nighttime lighting system and an electro-optical detection system with two Streeter Amet recorders were installed at the underpass. One hundred twenty volt power was provided. Two 150 watt outdoor flood lights were mounted at each end of the structure and two equally spaced sockets with 100 watt incandescant bulbs were installed inside the underpass. The lights were baffled to reduce glare and simulate moonlight conditions. The lighting system was activated by a photo-cell. The electro-optical system and the counters have been described previously (Myers 1969). The Streeter Amet counter records on adding machine tape (3M-carbonless paper rolls) the number of times the near-infrared beam is broken by deer. It prints hourly the number of counts accumulated and the hour of the day. During the spring migration of 1970 such a system was installed at both the entrance (north end) and the exit (south end) of the underpass. During the fall migration only the exit (north end) detection system was activated. In addition, before the spring migration, dirt was spread over a portion of the floor (2/3 of floor width for entire length) constructed of a wooden 2X4 lattice partially submerged in concrete. This raised dirt-covered portion was used as a track bed. The remaining 1/3 concrete portion was left clear for water drainage. �- 344 - The track bed and entrance to the underpass was checked periodically for deer tracks. As deer activity increased and when deer began using the underpass, the counter and the number of deer tracks were checked and recorded daily. The number of deer passing through the underpass was estimated by carefully examining the number of tracks, and comparing them with the counter's reading at the exit. The counter's reading on the entrance was also recorded and compared with that at the exit. During each check the detection system was reset at zero and the tracks raked out by hand. DESCRIPTION OF AREA The deer underpass is located in Eagle County 4.3 miles west of Vail, Colorado, on Interstate Highway 70. The 3.5 mile section of interstate that includes the deer underpass and associated eight foot fences was accepted for completion by the Federal Highway Administration on August 26, 1970. The location utilizes well-established deer migration trails and a natural drainage referred to as Mud Springs Gulch (Fig. 1). Approximately 3.0 miles of associated eight foot fencing generally parallels the highway in both directions from the underpass. The eight foot fencing on both sides of the highway joins six foot chain-link fences near the West Vail Interchange, located about 1.5 miles from the deer underpass (Fig. 2). One-way deer gates and one-way deer gate off-sets are strategically located in the eight foot fences and have been described separately (Reed 1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Spring and Summer Use of the Underpass It was estimated that 157 deer moved south through the underpass during the spring and summer migration of 1970. The first passage (south to the summer range) occurred on May 26 and the last on September 23 (Fig. 3). The greatest use of the underpass occurred during June with a maximum of thirteen deer passing through during one night on June 6th. Deer used the underpass nightly from June 11th through June 24th with periodic use thereafter. Only nine passages occurred after July 18th and these may have been resident deer. An index of entrance versus exit activity was determined by dividing the daily counter reading on the north end of the underpass by that on the south. This index (Fig. 4) shows a reluctance on the part of deer to use the underpass. Overall, approximately 18 times as much activity was recorded by the counter at the entrance as at the exit. The index would be unity, if each deer that came to the entrance went through and was counted once at the entrance and once at the exit. Observations, made from some distance away, bear out the hypothesis that the deer spent a great deal of time at the entrance before, and possibly without, passing through the structure. Most deer were visibly wary of the structure's entrance. Through examination of tracks made in the track bed leading into and out of the underpass, it was estimated that almost all deer used the dirt portion of the floor (1/3 of the floor is concrete). �- 345 - Fig. 1. Mud Springs Gulch from south of Interstate foreground. Highway 70 with Gore Creek in �N / ~;:r-~J::e~ ~ < /) \/.,....~ fVlUD,.SPRI~ GULCH WEST VAIL INTERCHANGE \\.1 ~::::- ?ZF..-r. ~~ -.,.t."-"-- ..t".' " % • Cut or Cliff/£,,\, area \ ../ 1'7~/ \ DO\1VD Deer underpass, associated Chain-link fence '" .{/'l!~ Fig. 2. -- 7" ~ . One-way deer gate off-set w +:- 0'1 8' woven wire fence ,~<'V/ ~ eight foot fences, one-way Deer underpass gates, and the West Vail Interchange. 1j, ~, "'t-o -- '. - .- �" ~. 15 :J: I(!) Z en en 10 <l: 0- w .p... 0:: LLJ LLJ C u, 0 '-I 5 0:: LLJ CD :E :::> z I.- 20 w C\I - '-I r r "j'" 24 I I I I' 28 C\I C\I C\I r<> >- LLJ W W Z Z Z « ~ :::> "") :::> "") :::> "") ~ :::> "") 0 >...J en >...J 10 C\I :::> :::> :::> "") ~ I >...J ~ C\I en (!) (!) - :::> :::> « « r<> C\I I0- w en Fig. 3. Numb~r of deer and dates they moved south through the underpass during the 1970 spring-summer migration. .. �50. INDEX OF DEER ACTIVITY (NORTH COUNT/ SOUTH COUNT) AT THE VAIL UNDERPASS I >- I- > 30 IU <t 1.&... 0 X IJJ 20~ I , I I \ I\ I \ , \ I w +='- 0. 00 a z .~ 0 i I I I i Iii 4 <D j « 8 12 ro (\J ><t ~ i I I f I I j rrT. i I I I Iii ~ :::> -:> 16 20 24 0- eo w z W - :::> -:> 28 i i i i I i F"i 32 36 40 - <D <;;t (\J z lJJ >...J -:> :::> -:> -:> :::> z :::> 44 48 52 56 N >- 0 ...J >...J :::> :::> (\J -:> -:> .": Fig. 4. An index of entrance versus exit activity, determined by dividing readings on the north end of the underpass by th~t on the south, indicates the part of deer to use the underpass. the daily counter a reluctance on ., �- 349 - According to the hourly Streeter Amet printout, 46 percent of 151 deer moved south through the artifica11y lighted underpass between midnight and 5:00 AM (Table 1). Table 1. Estimated times of passages through the underpass as recorded by the exit Streeter Amet recorders during the spring-summer and fall migrations. Spring-Summer Passages Percent Fall Passages Percent Total Percent 2 1.3 5 1.7 7 1.5 7:00-8:00 o o 15 5.1 15 3.3 8:00-9:00 2 1.3 7 2.4 9 2.0 9: 00-10: 00 13 8.3 24 8.1 37 8.2 10:00-11:00 3 1.9 12 4.0 15 3.3 11:00-12:00 6 3.8 16 5.4 22 4.9 6 3.8 35 11. 8 41 9.0 1:00-2:00 6 3.8 30 10.1 36 7.9 2 :00-3:00 16 10.2 30 10.1 46 10.1 3:00-4:00 14 8.9 17 5.7 31 6.8 4:00-5:00 28 17.8 24 8.1 52 11.5 5:00-6:00 25 15.9 18 6.1 43 9.5 6:00-7:00 25 15.9 15 5.1 40 8.8 7:00-8:00 5 3.2 13 4.4 18 4.0 88.1 ]j 412 90.8 Hour 6:00-7:00 12:00-1:00 PM AM 96.1 }/ 261 Total 151 1/ Passages occurred when the counter was inoperative not included 8:00 AM and 6:00 PM. or between �THE NUMBER AND DATE DEER MOVED THRU THE UNDERPASS 20~--------~---------------------------------------' C/) w 15 (!) <t (/) C/) ~ u, 10 o w 0:: o V1 IJ.J CD ::E :::> I'~." -lJj' .,'. 5 Z I~ " o Ut.J, ~';'I , ~r.: I "t , 5 I I, .---1"-···· ...~----'I~"I-·-·-·---I-----i· 10 15 20 2530 35 . 'j'" r' " l~ ~ 40 '"-4- 45 50 J " "'~ in'. 55 60 0') (\J 10 t-- a..t- t- WU U o (/)0 Fig. 5. Number > o z 70 10 o > > o z of deer and dates they moved north through the underpass r<> f'. o U w z during c 75 80 10 f'. - U U W IJJ C C the 1970 fall migration. �- 351 - Sunrise varied from 5:37 to 5:41 AM MDT during June. Fifty two percent of the 151 recorded passages occurred between 4:00 and 7:00 AM, when light conditions associated with sunrise may have been a factor. Decreased deer activity, and an increase in traffic volume and human activity probably account for the decline in passages throughout the remaining morning hours. Fall Use of the Underpass It was estimated that 297 deer moved north through the underpass during the fall migration of 1970. The first passage in the fall (north to the winter range) occurred on September 29 and the last on January 6th. The greatest use of the underpass occurred between October 8th and November 1,2th, with only sporadic use thereafter (Fig. 5). Only 12 passages occurred after December 17. Fifty two percent of 261 deer recorded moved north through the lighted underpass between 12:00 and 5:00 AM (Table 1). Sunrise ranged from 7:02 to 7:33 AM MDT during October. Only 18 percent of the 261 recorded passages occurred between 5:00 and 8:00 AM when morning light may have inhibited their passage. The estimate of 297 passages during the fall is an increase of 89 percent over that of the spring-summer use. The reasons for such an increase are not known. However, herd increment, a shift in overall migration patterns, and the lower hunter harvest are probable factors. The percent of passages occurring between 12:00 and 5:00 AM in the fall, as compared with the spring, were very similar. However, fewer deer (18% in the fall compared to 52% in the spring) passed through when morning light at the underpass may have been a factor. LITERATURE CITED Myers, Gary T. 1969. Development of an electronic deer counting device. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Project W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2, pp. 235-247. Reed, Dale F. 1970. Investigation of one-way structures. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Project W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3, pp. 439-449 . ~... [/ "d~,' Prepared by ,,o:;;tx l\-i¥-~~ Dale F. Reed Asst. Wildlife ./ Researcher ��- 353 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO -------------------------- Project No. W-38-R-25 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 7 Effects of Highway Lighting ~O~n~N~u=m=b~e=r~o=f_=D~e~e=r~K=i=l=l~e~d~b~y~V~e=h=i=c=l=e=s _ Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: William B. Zimmerman, Gary T. Myers, Thomas M. Pojar and Dale F. Reed. �- 354 - EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY LIGHTING ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if highway lighting on a portion of Colorado 82. affects the rate of deer-vehicle accidents SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles at each end of, and within a 3/4 mile lighted portion of Colorado 82. 2. Estimate deer densities by the Ugh ting . 3. Compare pre-treatment count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand deer-auto accident rates are or are not affected by lighting. adjacent to the portion of highway kill and count data to post-treatment affected kill and why RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A joint decision was made by the Colorado Divisions of Highway and Game, Fish and Parks to delay installation of the illuminaries. The attached appendix, a brief report to the Highway Division, discusses the reduced number of deer in the study area during 1970 and 1971, possible reasons for it, and recommendations for further delay. Prepared bY~<ni Dale F. Reed Asst. Wildlife Researcher '} �- 355 - APPENDIX RESEARCH 1971 Deer-Highway Lighting Project Report Since the approval of the highway lighting project on September 11, 1969, the installation of the high intensity illuminaries on Highway 82, south of Glenwood Springs, has been delayed several times. Initially, a shortage of lighting materials delayed installation during the fall of 1969. Secondly, the number of deer and the number of deer-vehicle accidents in the Jammaron study area showed a marked decline during January, February, and March of 1970 compared to the previous two years. Hence, a joint decision was made between the Highway Division and the Game, Fish and Parks Division to further delay installation until 1971 January-March surveys could be made to determine deer numbers and the occurrence of deer-vehicle accidents. During the 1971 period, the number of deer (count) and the number of deervehicle accidents (deer kill) were again low (Fig's.l and 2). Several snowshoe trips by project personnel were made into the higher mountainous terrain adjacent to the study area during February and March of 1971. It was speculated that the deer wintering in this area would move down into the immediate study area if snow depths limited the availability of natural forage and the animals mobility. Numerous deer were found wintering there during the middle of March and snow depths ranged from zero to 16 inches with most of the southern exposures free of snow. Weather, then, is suspected of influencing the movement of deer toward the study area. Weather has been monitored near the Highway 82 study area continuously since 1969. The average minimum temperature for January through March increased greatly from 1969 to 1970 and again slightly for 1971 (Fig. 3). While this increase in the average minimum temperature occurred, the total amount of precipitation per year declined from 2.19 inches in 1969 to 1.52 inches in 1971. Thus, less precipitation and higher temperatures during this period may mean that more winter forage remained available to the animals (less snow cover) and that only a few moved down to the highway area. With acceptance of this hypothesis and by considering the ten year U. S. Weather Bureau average for the city of Glenwood Springs (average minimum temperature 15.40 F, total average precipitation 3.14 inches) the probability of having colder temperatures and greater snow accumulations, and, consequently, deer moving into the study area in relatively large numbers is high. Recommendations Another delay in the installation of the illuminaries is hereby requested. It is felt another year of delay is worthwhile to make sure that deer return in sufficient numbers so that possible reductions in deer-auto accidents can be detected. Meanwhile, a recently installed Animated Deer Crossing Sign will be evaluated in the study area. �HIGHWAY 82 SPOTLIGHT COUNT DATA (JAMrv1l~RON ARE;~) ~------------------------~ --- 130 120 a:: !.LJ lLl o L1... o w 70'- VI 0'\ ------- -- --- -- 0:: l.LJ ~ (1) /'" \9rcla •....••••. 'C',';" c! :::> z-: z ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ • JAN ----:-;-- Fig. 1. Number ---- "'0_ - _ \91 ..,.,. .. -- ---.".,. ~ ---- ---.,..,--- - - -- ---_- 1971 - ---------------------------~--~-~--=--~-_-_-_--_-_------iw --- _ _ ---~ FEB I MAR of deer counted adjacent to the Jammaron study area south of Glenwood Springs. �.~ 30r- Ii ~ HIGHWAY 82 ROt~D' ~(ILL DAT.L\· (JA~.~MARON A,REA) =•• - " o 2~ ~,r LLI ~ . ~ i I -1 ..-I - <, " i Ct: 20r 1.JJ <, <, <, w Q u, \0~/ o 15 a::: w co w \Jl <, / for>:; / :? ~ <. I, -...J <, <, <, fV 10 ...J / ~ o ..- / 1971 .. ----- ---------- \91.~----- Fig.J~~Number -- -------=-----_---- ----- _"-'~...,.----- -. _ ----------- of deer killed by vehicles on the JammaroJFs~u~y area south of Glenwood Springs. f\~AR �HIGHWAY 82 PRECIPITATION JANUARY, !\ND TEMPERATURE FEBF~Ut;RY AND rv1A,RCH PRECIPITATION TEMPERATURE '-- --- 0 u.. .........-----_... - '-'" . LL! c:t:: :::> (l) W ~ . ~2.00 0::: z /--=:...::-----------~ - /' z ../ o ~ ~ w / ~ ~ / :::::> ./ a. ~ Z ~ ,/ ~ ,/" o 0:: 0.. / ,/ /. W C.!) ....J ~ o I- :2! ./ ,/" W W n, <l: 0:: W 1Io---r-------------,r-." -----------..---' 1969 1971 1970 Fig. 3. Average minimum temperature and total precipitation Springs during January, February, and March. for the Jammaron study area south of Glenwood ~ w V1 00 �- 359 July, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~--~---------- Project No. W-38-R-25 Work plan No. 15 Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. --=8 Effect of Lighted Deer Crossing Signs on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles Period Covered: April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: William B. Zimmerman, _ Dale F. Reed and Thomas M. Pojar ABSTRACT A lighted deer crossing sign was evaluated for its effect on the speed of traffic on State Highway 82 near Glenwood Springs, Colorado. Vehicle speeds were recorded with a Newmeyer Model NH-1 Vehicle Speed Recorder. Sixteen days of pretreatment data and twenty eight days of treatment data were collected. The mean speed of vehicles passing the recording station during the pretreatment period was 54.52 mph. The mean speed dropped to 53.03 mph during the treatment period, which is a significant (P<.05) reduction. The value of this small average reduction in speed in preventing deer-vehicle collisions was not determined during this segment. ��- 361 - EFFECT OF LIGHTED DEER CROSSING SIGNS ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Thomas M. Pojar Although segment objectives 1 and 2 were accomplished, their value is limited. As explained in the Job 7 Progress Report, W-38-R-25, few deer were present in the study area. Therefore, the sample of deer killed and deer observed is too small to be meaningful. Although deer were present only in small numbers, evaluation of the effect of the sign on the speed of traffic was still possible. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine accidents if lighted deer crossing on a portion of Colorado signs affect the rate of deer-vehicle 82. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles within highway marked by lighted deer crossing signs. 2. Estimate 3. Compare pre-treatment count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand why deer-auto accident rates are or are not affected by lighted deer crossing signs. deer densities adjacent a mile portion to the signed portion of of the highway. kill and count data to post-treatment kill and METHODS AND MATERIALS The lighted deer crossing sign consisted of a reflectorized yellow, diamondshaped background with the words "Deer Xing" centered on the sign and lighted with neon tubing (Fig. 1). The tubing was covered with a 1/4" sheet of plexiglass to prevent breakage by vandals. Vehicle speeds were recorded with a Newmeyer Model NH-l Vehicle Speed Recorder (Newmeyer Electronics, 4521 West Claremont, Glendale, Arizona). Timers and magnetic loops were located 800 feet behind the deer crossing sign. The sign was turned on at 6:30 PM and off at 10:00 PM every day during test periods. The speeds of nearly all the vehicles that passed the station in the right lane were recorded. Eighty vehicle speeds were randomly sleeted from this sample for tabulation. �- 366 - LITERATURE CITED Yeager, L. E. (ed.). 1969. Colorado game research review. Big game research. Published by Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. 35 p. 7;i' ~~::4J @ R~ , Prepared by Thomas M. Pojar Wildlife Researcher Candidate � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/c7cce922f4314fba056c7323d2c8a766.pdf 7ed5107e0c0203124d73a1732e61af83 PDF Text Text -1- October, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~ _ Project No. W-88-R-16 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: 1 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 1 Waterfowl Production Surveys April 20, 1970 to June 30, 1970 Personnel: C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; R. Pearson, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge; C. Hayes and J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; G. Robinson, Colorado State University; Delwin Benson, C. Braun, W. Carpenter, H. Funk, J. Grieb, J. Hatfield, C. Hector, R. Hopper, J. Houston, W. Russell, S. Steinert, J. Wheeler and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Weather and water conditions were somewhat variable through major breeding areas in the state, yet generally good in the state as a whole. The total estimated number of 57,389 duck breeding pairs was 16.9 percent below the 1969 total and 6.1 percent below the 16 year average. Major reductions in breeding ducks were noted in North Park and Cache 1a Poudre Valley, while total numbers of pairs in other areas remained near the 1969 figures. The mallard continues to be the major breeding species in Colorado. Production of Canada geese in northwest Colorado declined 16.7 percent from the 1969 level but the total number of birds observed in the area w:as nearly the same as in 1969. A major reduction from 1969 in both goslings produced and total number of adult birds in the Denver area resulted in 22.7 percent decline in the total number of geese in north-central Colorado. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harVest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To determine, through statistically reliable sampling techniques, the number of duck and goose breeding pairs, by species, in each major Colorado waterfowl breeding ground. METHODS AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding-pair and production surveys consist of a breeding pair inventory of only major production areas. The 1970 duck surveys were conducted during the period May 11 to May 31. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. Aerial surveys were conducted in North Park and the South Platte and Cache la Poudre Valleys. Intensive aerial counts combined with air-ground comparison studies were conducted in the San Luis Valley. Species visibility ratios attained in the San Luis Valley were also applied to North Park data. All survey methods and sample areas remained the same as in previous years. Flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas ampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. Ground surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 20 to June 19. Production estimates in the Yampa Valley-Brown's Park area were made from as complete a count as possible of breeding pairs, goslings, and eggs. Gosling production and population size in the DenverBoulder-Fort Collins area were determined by conducting a count on June 19, 1970 of all geese on moulting and brood rearing areas and classifying birds as to whether they were adults or go~lings. On the basis of these studies, a report is submitted to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's part in the annual continental cooperative breeding ground survey. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weather and water conditions for waterfowl nesting were somewhat variable through the major breeding areas in the state. A heavy winter snowpack, late spring snows and a retarded run-off were factors affecting all major waterfowl breeding areas except the San Luis Valley. Water was extremely �-6- Springs making the search for nests impossible. Therefore, number of nesting pairs and total goslings recorded is quite possibly an underestimate for the Yampa River (Table 3). Table 3. Number of Canada geese observed and estimated production, Moffat County, Colorado, 1970. Area Nesting Pairs NonNesting Pairs Total Adults Estimated Number Goslingsl/ Total Birds Yampa River y Craig to Juniper Spgs. Juniper to Cross Mtn. Lilly Park 14 12 164 97 133 174 125 157 20 67 53 194 192 210 YAMPA TOTALS 31 394· 456 140 596 Green River (Brown's Park) 31 106 168 117 285 Little Snake River Above upper bridge Below upper bridge 4 5 25 137 13 187 10 87 l! 23 274 Total 29 142 200 97 297 GRAND TOTAL 91 642 824 354 1,178 5 1/ Calculated using average brood size and number of successful nests. 2/ High water inundated nesting islands making it difficult to estimate number of nesting pairs and goslings. 1/ Includes 43 goslings hatched from eggs taken from nests before final survey. The number of birds observed on the Yampa River in 1970 increased by 150 in comparison to the 1969 total (Table 4). The total numbers on the Green and Little Snake Rivers declined about 25 percent. Over-all, an increase was recorded in the total number of adults in the survey area, but lower production estimates, as indicated in Table 5, resulted in a total population similar in size to that of 1969. �-7Table 4. Total Canada geese observed, Moffat County, Colorado, 1970. No. Geese Counted 1956-1969 1969 Average 1970 Area Percent Change From 1956-1969 Average From 1969 Yampa River 596 456 376 +30.7 + 58.5 Green River 285 375 111 -24.0 +156.8 Little. Snake River ]J 297 391 229 -24.0 + 29.7 1,178 1,222 716 - 3.6 + 64.5 Total 1/ Not included in survey until 1962~ Table 5. 1970. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County, Colorado, Area No. of Goslings 1956-1969 1970 1969 Average Percent Change From 1956-1969 Average From 1969 Yampa River 140 172 140 -18.6 0.0 Green River 117 144 40 -18.8 +192.5 Little Snake River ]J 97 109 72 -11.0 + 34.7 Total 354 425 252 -16.7 + 40.5 1/ Not included in survey until 1962. Results of the June 19, 1970 census of Canada geese in the Fort Co11insBoulder, Denver area are presented in Table 6. Goslings that were subsequently removed for transplant purposes are included in totals for the respective areas. In the Wellington production area, geese utilized 17 water areas in 1970 compared to only eight areas in 1969. Geese in the Fort Collins, Loveland, Boulder and Denver areas used essentially the same nesting areas in 1970 as in 1969. �-8- Table 6. Results of north-central Colorado goose census, June 19, 1970. Production Area No.; Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults and Yearlings Total No. of Birds 2 3 0 3 3 1 1 84 7 7 0 11 13 4 4 210 4 6 2 16 45 2 3 294 11 13 2 27 58 6 7 12 7 36 5 32 11 50 12 12 45 109 13 2 38 5 86 16 24 52 145 18 8 70 16 136 28 301 614 915 28 56 27 5 2 28 17 20 9 6 36 4 37 196 21 7 4 30 33 22 13 8 63 '9 65 252 48 12 6 58 50 42 22 14 99 13 238 443 681 18 8 37 56 8 41 74 16 78 63 105 168 Wellington Water Area Terry Lake Deines Reservoir Launer Pond Wood Pond Douglas Lake North Poudre No. 1 North Poudre No. 3 North Poudre No. 5 Bureau of Standards Pond No. 1 Divide No. 8 Elder Reservoir Annex No. 8 Long Pond Cobb Lake Hinkley Reservoir Watson Lake Curtis Lake 3 2 7 1 1 6 2 4 Sub-total Fort Collins Herring Lake College Lake Dean Acres Andrijeski Marsh Claymore Lake Sterling Gravel Pits Linderuneier Lake Anderson Pond Parkwood Lake Kitchel Lake Timnath Reservoir Romily Gravel Pit 5 1 1 6 6 2 1 9 1 Sub-total 6 Loveland Boedecker Reservoir Flatiron Gravel Pits Welch Reservoir Sub-total 5 3 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-9- Table 6. Results of north-central Colorado goose census, June 19, 1970. (continued). No. Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults and Yearlings Total No. of Birds 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 0 18 4 41 10 110 37 2 41 10 110 55 6 9 1 2 1 6 3 34 4 6 5 20 11 144 14 26 123 18 200 178 18 32 128 38 211 102 725 827 124 35 13 11 29 2 2 13 18 328 41 9 4 36 2 2 8 17 452 76 22 15 65 4 4 21 35 Sub-total 247 447 694 GRAND TOTAL 951 2,334 3,285 Production Area Denver Water Area So. Colo. Blvd. and Quincey Mohn Estate Denver City Park Sloan's Lake Hyatt's Lake Cline & Kountee Reservoir Federal Center Clairfield Kings Pond Upper Tule Lake Bowles Sub-total Boulder Valmont Reservoir Terry Lake Crystal Lake Ish Lake Faivre Ponds Hayden Lake Angus Ranch Boulder Valley Farm Peaceful Valley Farm Increases in production from the 1969 level were recorded in the Wellington and Boulder areas (T~ble 7). However, a major decline in production in the Denver area resulted in a 15 percent reduction in total goslings produced. A reduction of approximately 54 percent in total geese in the Denver area resulted in a decline of around 23 percent in the total population (Table 8). �-10- Table 7. Total number of Canada goose goslings observed in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1969-1970. Area Number of Goslings 1970 1969 Percent Change From 1969 Wellington 301 257 + 17.1 Ft. Collins 238 256 7.0 Loveland 63 37 + 70.3 Boulder 247 149 + 65.8 Denver 102 426 - 76.1 Total 951 1,125 - 15.5 Table 8. Total number of Canada geese observed in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1969 and 1970. Area Number of Geese 1970 1969 Percent Change From 1969 Wellington 915 945 - 3.2 Ft. Collins 681 749 - 9.1 Loveland 168 140 +20.0 Boulder 694 630 +10.2 Denver 827 1,784 -53.6 Total 3,285 4,248 -22.7 �-11- Fall Flight Prediction A late season run-off should provide excellent conditions for brood sruvival in most areas. 'However, the size of the fall flight of ducks from Colorado will be smaller than the previous two years. The Canada goose flight from northwestern Colorado will be similar in size to the 1969 flight. The north-central goose flock fall flight will also be similar to 1969 in all areas except those influenced by reduced production in the Denver area. Prepared by J?'hJ.~17P. --4,,, Michael R. Szymczak Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��-13October, JOB PROGRESS S tate of Project Work 1971 REPORT C.=.O.=.L::.O::.;RA=D::.,:O::-_ No. Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: .Migratory .W-88-R.,.16 1 Trapping Bird Investigations Job No. and Banding June 25, 1970 to March 2 Ducks and Geese 31, 1971 Personnel: Charles Hayes, Dale Horne and Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Delwin Benson, George Bock, C1ait Braun, Bill Carpenter, Dale Coven, Gurney Crawford, David Croonquist, Howard Funk, Larry Green, Jack Grieb, Bob Kitzmiller, Mike Robinson, Bill Rutherford, Mike Szymczak, Ken Wagner and Richard Hopper, Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. ABSTRACT Over 9,600 ducks, including 12 species, were banded and released at six locations in Colorado during Segment 16. Mallards contributed 8,278 or 86 percent of the total. The pintail was the next most common species in the banded sample, with 871 or 9 percent of the total. Preseason banding in the San Luis Valley and South Park produced 2,503 and 1,179 ducks, respectively. Postseason banding (winter) in eastern Colorado accounted for the remaining 5,937 ducks in the banded sample. Goose trapping resulted in the banding of 2,293 Canada geese during the Segment. Most of these (1,864) were banded postseason in the Arkansas and Cache 1a Poudre Valleys. The remaining 429 geese were banded as part of the annual gosling transplant program. These transplant birds were released in North Park and the San Luis, South Platte and Dolores Valleys during June and July. �-14-· RECO:MMENDA TrONS 1. Continue preseason duck banding in the San Luis Valley and South Park. Reduce the mallard quota in the San Luis Valley from 4,000 to 1,000 birds. Place add Lt.Lona I emphasis on the banding of other species of ducks, preferably up to 500 of each major species in each area. Attempt to obtain equal age and sex ratios in the sample by species. 2. Initiate preseason duck banding in North Park with quotas of 1,000 mallards and up to 500 of each of the other major species. Attempt obtain equal age and sex ratios in the sample by species. to 3. Initiate a postseason mallard banding program in the UncompahgreGunnison-Colorado River complex. Obtain a quota of up to 1,000 birds, divided approximately equally by age and sex. 4. Continue goose banding for Segment 16. program as outlined in the W-88-R Job Description �-15- TRAPPING AND BANDING DUCKS AND GEESE Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes all waterfowl banding activities of Federal Aid Project W-88-R-16 for the Segment year April 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971. Analysis of band recovery data occurs as a separate job (Work Plan 1, Job 3), and work of this type is not included here. This report merely presents a tabulation of numbers of ducks and geese banded by species and location during the Segment. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band ducks and geese for the purpose tion and annual mortality data. 2. To report species and numbers of ducks winter banded in the South Platte Valley, Arkansas Valley, San Luis Valley, and Bonny Reservoir part of Work Plan 3, Job 6. METHODS of accumulating migra- as AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed during Segment 16 were the same as in previous Segments (Hopper 1968), except that use of the corral trap for drivetrapping ducks during the mid-summer molting period was discontinued. North Park was dropped from the list of duck trapping locations in Segment 16, while the Dolores Valley, being a transplant site, was included as a goose banding area. All other locations and times of trapping and banding remained the same as in Segment 15 (Hopper 1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ducks Numbers and species of ducks banded during Segment 16 are listed in Table 1 by location. Over 9,600 ducks, including 12 species, were banded and released in six locations. As in past years, the mallard was by far the most common species in the banded sample, contributing 8,278, or 86 percent of the total. Pre-season banding in the San Luis Valley and winter banding in eastern Colorado accounted for most of the mallard total. The pintail was the next most abundant species in the banded sample, with 871, or 9 percent of the total. Less than 100 birds of each of the remaining species were banded, except for green-winged teals and redh~ads which yielded 174 and 136 birds, respectively. �Table 1. Number of ducks banded by species, location and period of year, 1970-71. Species Mallard Pre-season'!'! San Luis South Valley Park Cache 1a Poudre Valley South Platte Valley Post-seasonY Bonny Arkansas Reservoir Valley San Luis Valley Total 537 8,278 1,628 767 596 3,064 754 9 5 -- -- -- 3 -- -- -- -- Green-winged teal 45 129 -- -- -- 174 Blue-winged and cinnamon teal 46 40 -- -- 86 Shoveler 2 -- Gadwall American widgeon Pintail Redhead Lesser scaup Ring-necked duck Ruddy duck Total 1/ August-September 1/ January-February -- 932 14 52 -- -- 55 2 634 237 -- -- 133 1 -- -- 1 -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- 1 1 -- -- -- 1 2,503 1,179 596 3,064 -- 871 2 754 986 -- 537 136 9,619 I I-' 0\ I �-17- Pre-season efforts in the San Luis Valley resulted in the banding of 2,503 ducks. Only 1,628 mallards were banded in the northern portion of the Valley, short of the usual 2,000,bird quota. A good sample of pintails (634) was also banded. The final early experimental duck season was held in the San Luis Valley in 1970, and as a result, the "Cooperative Mallard Investigation" will terminate following the 1971 breeding population survey. Pre-season banding should cdntinue as part of Work Plan 1, Job 2, but with a reduced mallard quota. At least 1,000 mallards, divided equally by age and sex, should be banded pre-season in the Valley annually, with 500 north and 500 south of the Rio Grande River. Additional emphasis should be placed on the banding of other species of ducks in all areas. Pre-season banding was continued in South Park for the third consecutive year. A banded sample of 1,179 ducks was attained, with mallards comprising 767 of this total. Pintai1s and green-winged teals contributed 237 and 129 banded birds, respectively. Trapping and banding was not attempted in North Park during Segment 16. Past work involved the drive-'trapping of molting ducks, which yielded poor samples of certain species, sexes, and ages of ducks. Pre-season baittrapping should be initiated in Segment 17 in favor of mid-summer drivetrapping. This would results in pre-season banding being conducted at approximately the same time in all of Colorado's three major high mountain production areas. This is desirable to better understand the relationships of birds among the three areas, and to obtain mortality estimates by species and age. Thus, it will be necessary to band good samples of adult and immature birds of all important species. Winter (post-season) mallard banding quotas were reduced significantly in Segment 16. Quotas were dropped from 1,000 mallards in each of seven areas to 600 in each of nine areas. The Arkansas Valley was divided into two areas and the San Luis Valley was added the previous Segment, accounting for the increase in number of areas. The result was the banding of 5,883 mallards during January and February, 1971, or about 500 birds above the overall quota. Work Plan 3, Job 6 progress report covers this work in greater detail. Geese Colorado's goose trapping program during the 1970-71 Segment resulted in the banding of 2,293 Canada geese (Table 2). Post-season banding of wintering goose populations in the Arkansas and Cache 1a Poudre Valleys accounted for most of this total (1,864). The remaining 429 geese were banded as part of the annual gosling transplant program. Thirty-six goslings, hatched from eggs collected on the Yampa and Little Snake rivers west of Craig, were released on Totten Reservoir in the Dolores Valley. Goslings transplanted in the other three areas originated from eggs collected in the Denver and Fort Collins areas and from birds trapped in the Denver-Boulder-Fort Collins complex. �-18- Table 2. 1970-71. Number of Canada geese banded by location and period of year, Number Banded Summer Transplantsll Post-Season£/ Location Total Arkansas Valley 873 873 Cache la Poudre Valley 991 991 South Platte Valley 19 19 San Luis Valley 68 68 North Park 306 306 Dolores Valley 36 36 Total 429 1,864 2,293 11 June-July '1:/ January LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1968. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Game Research Rept. Oct., p. 7-12. Hopper, R. M. 1970. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Game Research Rept. Oct., p. 11-16. Prepared by:~it~Ju~· ""-'CJ}~~",-. ,.....L-.:...-..:~~~ ',l-1..~ __ Richard M. Hopper ~ Wildlife Researcher �-19October, 1971 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. ~W_-_8_8_~~R~-_1_6 _ Work Plan No. I Job Title: Analysis Period Covered: Personnel: April Higratory Bird Investigations 3 Job No. of Waterfowl Banding Data 1, 1970 through March 30, 1971 Ed Kautz, Dale Coven and Michael R. Szyrmczak ABSTRACT From 1954 through 1969, a total of 14,753 bands were placed on thirteen species of waterfowl and the American coot in the North Park area of Colorado. The bandings resulted in a sufficient number of recoveries enabling varying degrees of analyses of the mallard, pintail, green-winged teal, and American widgeon populations. Apprnximately 84 percent of all mallard recoveries were taken within the Central Flyway portion of the United States, 69.9 percent within Colorado. The Pacific Flyway portion of Colorado accounted for an additional 8.5 percent of the total recoveries. Forty-four percent of all mallard recoveries within Colorado were taken in the northcentral portion of the state, while 27.9 percent were taken in the San Luis Valley. Adult male mallards-had an overall first year recovery rate of .063. The annual mortality rates for mallards calculated for each sex and age" group using the composite dynamic-method w.ere as follows: adult male, .387; adult females, .456; local males, .488; local females, .500. Adult male mallards in North Park have very similar mortality character.istics to their counterparts in the San Luis Valley. Approximately 29 percent and 25 percent of all pintail recoveries were taken in the states of Texas and Louisiana, respectively. The west coastal area of Mexico and the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California are additional pintail recovery areas of note. Pintails recovered in Gulf Coast areas seem to follow a more direct migration path rather than utilizing the "counter-clockwise" migration route described by Low (1949). First year recovery rates for adult male pintai1s in years which had more than 300 birds banded averaged .013. Annual mortality rates for adult male and female pintai1s calculated by the composite dynamic method are .347 and .331, respectively. Thirty-six percent of the adult male green-winged teal recoveries were taken in California, mainly in the San Joaquin and Imperial Valleys. An additional 32 percent of the adult male green-winged recoveries were recovered in Texas and Louisiana, generally in the Gulf Coast region. Adult male green-wings had a first year recovery rate of .013 and an overall recovery rate calculated by the composite dynamic method of .383. Approximately 29 percent of the American widgeon recovered were reported taken in Mexico with the west coast state of Sinaloa the major recovery area. The remainder of the widgeon recoveries were generally scattered with the Pacific Flyway the major recovery area. The first year recovery rate of widgeon banded as locals was .030 compared to .011 for adults. �.... 20- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Duck banding should be continued in No r t h Park, Methods of capture should be employed which will result in a balanced sex and age distribution of the target species. 2. Because of their relative abundance in North Park, the following species should be considered target species: mallard, pintail, green-winged teal, blue-winged teal, cinnamon teal, American widgeon and gadwall. Because of their current importance on a continental basis, bands should also be placed on the canvasback and redhead. 3. The list of target species should be reviewed periodically to determine if additional species should be added to the list or possibly some species deleted. 4. No more thanl,200birds, 300.-of each sex and. age group, Of any: species should be banded during the first year of banding. In subsequent years the size of the banded sample should be de.termined on the basis of information received concerning cohorts banded in previous years. 5. Information concerning banded birds recaptured in North Park and North Park birds recaptured elsewhere should be examined in an attempt to determine the-origin of birds in the North Park moulting population. 6. The results of the completed banding analysis in this repOrt and additional information r'eeeLved from orr-go Lng' Nor th Park- banding should be compared with the results of similar analyses for populations banded in South Park and the San Luis Valley in order to determine if duck populations in Colorado I s high mount.aLn parks ha've similar characteristics. �-21- ANALYSIS OF WATERFOWL Michael BANDING DATA R. Szymczak North Park is an intermountain valley located in Jackson County in northcentral Colorado. The elevation of the park is around 8,000 feet. It is one of Colorado's major duck breeding areas. Duck banding in North Park began in the summer of 1954 ~nd has continued on an annual basis through 1969. Drive trapping of youhg and flightless adults has been the method employed in all but the first two years of banding. These efforts resulted in 14,753 bands being placed on ducks, coots and mergansers. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. METHODS AND MATERIALS All data were obtained from computer tapes received from the Bird Banding Laboratory of the Migratory Bird Populations Station. The tapes contained all bandings from North Park and all recoveries from those banding through the 1969-70 hunting season. The tapes were subjected to automatic data processing programs which were constructed to obtain the desired information. The resulting printouts were used in the analysis. The scientific names for the birds mentioned in the Appendix. in this report are presented RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bands were placed on 13 species of waterfowl and the American coot. The number of birds banded and recoveries received are presented by species in Table 1. Substantial numbers of mallards, pintail, widgeon, and the three species of teal were banded during the 1954 through 1969 period. A relatively small number of each of the other species were banded. Because of the small banded sample of some species and low recovery rate of others, information regarding only the mallard, green-winged teal, pintail, and American widgeon will be considered. Mallard Distribution of Recoveries Approximately 91 percent of the recoveries of male mallards banded as locals and 85 percent of those banded as adults were taken in the Central �-22- Flyway portion of the United States (Tables 2 and 3). About 9 percent of the local male recoveries and 12 percent of the adult male recoveries came from the Pacific Flyway. Colorado was the only recovery area of significance in the, Central Flyway for either locals or adult. Approximately 74 percent of the Pacific 'Flyway recoveries of adult male mallards were also taken in Colorado (Table 2). Scattered recoveries of adult males in New ~~xico and the panhandle area of Texas indicate some movement of birds south and southeast out of Colorado.' Table 1. Number of birds banded by species in North Park, 1954-69, and recoveries received through the 1969-70 hunting season. No. Birds Banded No. Bands Recovered Percent Recovered 3,130 369 11.8 3,687 110 3.0 Pintail 3,390 120 3.5 American widgeon 1,557 62 3.0 1,538 23 1.5 Gadwall 410 14 3.4 Shoveler 298 3 1.0 275 4 1.5 147 5 3.4 135 6 4.4 duck 99 7 7.1 Common merganser 47 4 8.5 'Canvasback 40 5 12.5 Species 1/ Mallard Green-winged Blue-winged American Lesser teal and cinnamon teal coot Scaup Redhead Ring-necked 1/ Includes two birds of unknown age at time of banding. �-23- Table 2. Distribution of recoveries North Park, Colorado, 1954-69. );/ from local male mallards banded in Total No. % Indirect No. Wyoming 1 5.3 0 Nebraska 1 5.3 2 15.4 3 9.4 Colorado 17 89.4 6 46.1 23 71.9 New Mexico 0 1 7.7 1 3.1 Oklahoma 0 1 7.7 1 3.1 10 76.9 29 90.6 Direct Area % No. % 1 3.1 United States Central Flyway Sub-total Pacific 19 100.0 Flyway Idaho o 1 7.7 1 3.1 Washington o 1 7.7 1 3.1 Colorado o 1 7.7 1 3.1 o 3 23.1 3 9.3 19 13 Sub-total Total l/ Includes a limited number of birds recovered 32 which were banded as immatures. �-24- Table 3. Distribution of recoveries North Park, Colorado, 1954-69. Direct No. Area from adult male mallards banded in % Indirect No. % a 0.0 0.0 4 3 2.7 2.0 4 3 1.4 1.1 a 0.0 7 4.7 7 2.5 2 1 1 1.5 0.8 0.8 a a 0.0 0.0 2 0.7 1 0.4 5 1 3.4 6 2.2 0.7 1.4 68.9 1 4 200 12 0.4 1.4 71.9 9 3.2 Total No. % Canada Alberta Saskatchewan ·0 Sub-total (Canada) United States Central Flyway Montana North Dakota Wyoming South Dakota Nebraska Colorado New Mexico Texas o Sub-Total 2 1.5 2 98 75.4 5 4 3.8 3.1 102 7 113 86.9 5 4.7 3.4 122 82.5 235 84.5 1 1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 4.3 Pad fic Flyway a a Utah Oregon Idaho Washington Colorado New Mexico Wyoming 1 14 2 11 1 2 0.7 1.4 2 9.0 1.1 0.7 7.4 1 1 1 25 3 17 13.1 17 11.6 34 12.4 a 0.0 1 0.7 1 0.4 a 0.0 1 0.7 1 0.4 130 100.0 140 94.6 270 97.1 o 0.0 1 0.7 1 0.4 Flyway Sub-total Sub-total Total 1 10.8 1.5 a Ohio Mexico a o Sub-total Mississippi 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.0 0.7 1 (U. S.) 130 148 278 �-25- There was no substantial difference between the distribution of adult males recovered the first season after banding, or directly, and those recovered in following years or indirectly (Table 3). Although based on only a small number of recoveries, birds banded as locals did exhibit some variation in direct and indirect recovery areas (Table 2). Recoveries from both local and adult females showed a similar distribution to that of the males with Colorado being the maj or recovery area (Tables 4 and 5). It is interesting that no male recoveries were received from the southern Pacific Flyway states of Nevada and Arizona, while three of a total of 18 local female recoveries were taken in those states. Male recoveries from the Pacific Flyway, with the exception of Colorado, came for the most part, from the northwestern states and were almost exclusively indirect. These data for males indicate that drakes migrating from North Park directly into the Pacific Flyway may winter exclusively in Colorado. The lack of Canadian recoveries of North Park banded mallards indicate the population is not related to breeding populations utilizing the prai.rie provinces. The recovery distribution of mallards taken within Colorado is presented in Table 6. There is essentially no difference between the distribution of adults recovered directly or indirectly. The immatures show some possible variations, but any analysis is again hampered by sample size of any group other than the adult males. These data in Table 6 indicate that the foothills area of north-central Colorado is the most important recovery area for North Park banded birds. The San Luis Valley is also of major importance. There are indications that North Park females move into the north-central area at a greater rate, percentage-wise than males. However, four years of sex oriented regulation in the San Luis Valley designed to put hunter pressure on the male and reduce pressure on the female may have distorted the true distribution of birds between the two major recovery areas. There is some possibility that some males which breed in the San Luis Valley may migrate to North Park to moult, then return to the San Luis Valley in late summer and early fall. Substantial numbers of North Park mallards apparently do not move into the northeastern part of the state where hunting pressure is relatively high. The west slope does account for a substantial portion of recoveries, particularly adults. If recoveries were weighted simply on the basis of t he :number of active duck hunters, the west slope would be as important a recovery area as north-central Colorado for North Park banded mallards. However, any weighting procedure should also consider such things as season lengths, bag limits and reporting rates and that type of analyses will not be considered for these data. �-26- Table 4. Distribution North Park, Colorado, of recoveries from local female mallards banded in 1954-69. }j Area Direct No. % Indirect No. % Total No. 0 1 14.3 1 5.6 0 1 14.3 1 5.6 14.3 42.9 14.3 1 10 1 1 5.6 55.6 5.6 5.6 % Canada Alberta Sub-total (Canada) United States Central Flyway South Dakota Colorado Kansas Texas 0 7 0 1 63.6 9.1 1 3 1 0 Sub-total 8 72.7 5 71.5 13 72.4 0 2 1 0 14.3 18.2 1 2 5.6 11.2 2 18.2 1 14.3 3 16.8 1 9.1 0 1 5.6 1 9.1 0 1 5.6 11 100.0 6 17 94.4 Pacific Flyway Nevada Arizona Sub-total Mississippi Flyway Louisiana Sub-total Sub-total (U. S. ) Total 1/ Includes 11 a limited number of birds 7 85.7 18 recovered which were banded as immatures. �-27- Table 5. Distribution of recoveries North Park, Colorado 1954.,..69. Direct % No. Area from adult female mallards banded Indirect No. % Total % No. in United States Central Flyway Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Texas 4 10 1 0 20.0 50.0 5.0 0 13 2 1 72.2 11.1 5.6 4 23 3 1 10.S 60.S 7.9 2.6 Sub-total lS 7S.0 16 88.9 31 81.S 3 lS.O 2 11.1 5 13.2 3 lS.O 2 11.1 S 13.2 2 10.0 0 2 S.3 2 10.0 0 2 S.3 18 38 Pacific Flyway Colorado Sub-total Mississippi Flyway Louisiana Sub-Total 20 Total Recovery and Hortality Rates Recovery rates for mallards are presented by age and sex in Table 7. Recovery rates for adult male and female mallards banded during pre-season (August lS-September 20), 1963 through 1969 in the San Luis Valley were very similar to North Park, being 13.2 percent and 8.3 percent, respectively, in the latter area (unpublished data). First hunting season recovery rates for adult males banded in North Park averaged .063 for the 16 year, 19S4 through 1969 banding period and .066 for the 1963 through 1969 period. Bandings in the San Luis Valley resulted in similar first year recovery rates, averaging .063 for the 1963 through 1969 period (Table 8). �Table 6. Distribution of recoveries in Colorado from mallards banded in North Park. Adult Male Direct % Indirect % Local Male Direct % Indirect % Adult Female Direct % Indirect % Local Female Direct % Indirect % North Park 5 4.7 2 1.9 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 2 67.7 South Park 4 3.8 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 - 0 San Luis Valley 30 28.3 38 35.2 4 23.5 1 12.5 1 7.7 2 13.3 1 16.7 0 West Slope 14 13.2 11 10.2 0 - 2 25.0 3 23.1 2 13.3 0 - 0 North Central 43 40.6 46 42.6 8 47.1 2 25.0 9 69.2 9 60.0 4 66.7 0 Northeast 3 2.8 2 1.9 2 11.8 0 - 0 - 1 6.7 0 - 1 Southeast .7 6.6 9 8.3 3 17.6 3 37.5 0 - 1 6.7 1 16.7 0 Area Total 106 I 108 17 8 13 15 6 3 - 33.3 N Cfj I �-29- Table 7. Recovery rates by sex and age through for mallards banded in North Park, 1954-69. the 1969-70 hunting season Percent Recovered No. Birds Banded No. Bands Recovered Adult 2,077 281 13.5 Local 240 26 10.8 Immature 39 6 15.4 516 38 8.4 209 14 6.7 47 4 8.5 Sex and Age Male Female Adult Immature Mortality rate estimates were calculated by sex for adults and locals for the entire banding period using the composite dynamic method. Only computation of the adult data are presented in table form (Tables 9 and 10). Estimates for all categories except adult males are based on very small banded samples and thus are questionable. However, despite the small samples, mortality rates calculated for North Park birds are similar to those rates computed by the same method for birds banded pre-season in the San Luis Valley (Table 11). Mortality rates for adult males banded in North Park and the San Luis Valley remain similar regardless of method of calculation or time period. However, if all adult male bandings in North Park and the associated recoveries prior to 1963 are eliminated, the composite dynamic analysis results in somewhat higher mortality rates (Table 12) than when all banding and recoveries are used (Table 9). The mortality is slightly higher than that experienced by San Luis Valley adult males during the same period. Conversely, by using the relative recovery rate method of analysis the annual mortality rate of adult males banded in North Park is slightly lower, .365 (Table 13), than those males banded during the same period in the San Luis Valley, .386 (Unpublished data). Taking all methods of analyses into account, it is apparent that these two adult male populations have very similar mortality characteristics despite having different recovery patterns. �-30- Table 8. First hunting season recovery rates of adult male mallards banded in North Park. Recovery Rate North Park San Luis Valley 1/ Year Number Banded Number Recovered 1954 40 4 .100 1955 78 2 .026 1956 18 1 .056 1957 7 1 .143 1958 25 1 .040 1959 15 1 .067 1960 15 2 .133 1961 60 0 .000 1962 47 2 .043 1963 115 10 .087 .043 1964 128 6 .047 .091 1965 220 17 .on .062 1966 646 41 .063 .076 1967 225 13 .058 .058 1968 295 23 .078 .062 1969 143 7 .049 .049 Total 2,On 131 .063 .063 �Table 9. The composite dynamic method of estimating mortality rate of adult male mallards banded in North Park, 1954-69. Year of Banding 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Number Birds Banded 40 78 18 7 25 15 15 60 47 115 128 220 646 225 295 143 1 2 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 2 2 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 7 4 4 19 11 9 0 10 6 17 41 13 23 7 Recoveries b~ Hunting Season 3 6 4 5 1 4 0 0 3 0 0 3 1 4 3 6 18 4 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 2 5 11 0 Total Total Banded 2,077 Recovered 131 61 47 27 Banded birds availab1e 2,077 1,934 1,639 1,414 Recoveries/1,000 birds banded 63.1 ~31.5 28.7 19.1 • Alive going into period Mortality rate 164.6 ,101.5 .383 7 8 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 768 10.4 3 548 5.5 1 420 2.4 0 305 0 11.8 6.3 I W I-' I 1 258 3.9; 164.6 3.9; 425.5 101.5 70.0 41.3 22.2 260.9 .389 3.9 .387 �Table 10. The composite dynamic method of estimating mortality of adult female mallards banded in North Park, 1954-69. Year of Banding Number of Birds Banded 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 96 l38 12 2 16 12 10 19 4 41 4 14 119 11 15 3 1 2 8 1 3 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 °4 0 0 0 °0 Recoveries b~ Hunting Season 3 4 5 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ° 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 309 3.2; 77.1 3.2; 169.0 I W N I 0 Total Total Banded 516 Recovered 20 Banded birds available 516 Recoveries/1,000 birds banded 38.8 8 513 \15.6 5 498 10.0 2 487 4.1 Alive going into period ,38.3 22.7 12.7 Mortality rate 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 77 .1 .503 2 0 368 354 5.4 0 38.3 8.6 3.2 91.9 .417 350 0 3.2 .456 �-33- Table 11. Mortality rates of North Park and San Luis Valley banded mallards calculated by the composite dynamic method. Sex and Age First Year N. Park S.L.V. All Years Excluding First N. Park S •L .V. All Years N. Park S.L.V. Males Adult .383 .379 .609 II .404 .387 .394 .488 .411 .511 Immature Local .389 .423 .372 1/ .402 .488 1/ .411 .561 .417 .507 .456 .536 Female Adult .503 Local II Includes .499 .393 1./ classified as immatures .607 );./ some birds .592 .553 .619 Immature .422 .500 }j .457 when banded. Pintails Distribution of Recoveries The Gulf Coast states of Texas and Louisiana are themajor recovery areas for pintails banded in North Park (Tables 14 and 15). Approximately 29 percent and 25 percent of all recoveries were taken in Texas and Louisiana, respectively. The remainder of the recoveries were generally scattered with only the west coastal area of Mexico and the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California worthy of mention. Low (1949), in analyzing continental pintail banding data concluded that a "substantial portion" of pintails west of the Mississippi undergo a "roundrobin, counterclockwise migration". He described this movement as follows: "originates in the breeding grounds; moves southward via the prairie provinces, ~IDntana, and North Dakota; swings westward into California, continues south into Mexico; crosses over to the Gulf coast; and returns north in the spring up through the Central and Mississippi Flyways. He further stated that "this flight passes through California in the early fall and reaches the Gulf coast in November and December". Ballou (1954) reported that young of the year pintails banded in Wyoming dispersed widely in their southern movements while adult birds seemed to follow the routes described by Low (1949). �-34- Table 12. The composite dynamic method of estimating mortality rate of adult male mallards banded in North Park from 1963 through 1969. Year of Banding Number of Birds Banded 1 1963 115 10 7 4 0 1964 128 6 4 3 1965 220 17 4 1966 646 41 1967 225 1968 1969 Total Banded Recoveries bl Hunting Season 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 0 0 2 5 1 6 5 1 19 18 11 13 11 4 295 23 9 143 7 1,772 117 54 35 18 7 1 0 1,772 1,629 1,334 1,109 463 243 115 Banded birds available Recoveries/l ,000 birds banded 66.0 ,33.1 26.2 16.2 94.7 15.1 4.1 0.0, 160.7 Alive going into period 160.7 \94.7 61.6 35.4 215.0 19.2 4.1 0.0, 375.7 Mortality rate .411 .440 .428 �-35- Table 13. The relative recovery rate method of estimating the mortality rate of adult male mallards banded in North Park from 1963 through 1969. Year Banded Number Banded Number l-n 1963 115 CD 12 1964 128 21 15 1965 220 33 1966 646 1967 Recoveries 2-n Recovery l-n Rate 2-n Survival Rate .1043 .636 .364 .1641 .1172 .781 .219 16 .1500 .0727 .528 .472 89 48 .1378 .0743 .597 .403 225 28 15 .1244 .0667 .615 .385 1968 295 32 9 .1085 .0305 .622 .378 1969 143 7 CD .0490 .7338 .4657 Survival rate .635 .630 Mortality rate .365 .370 Recoveries from North Park pintails, banded during their moult, do not for the most part, seem to fit the same patterns as those discussed by Low (1949) and Ballou (1954). For classification, only 2 of 118 recoveries of North Park banded birds were recovered directly as immatures. The counter-clockwise migration for the major portion of the North Park population is not adapted by this writer for the following reasons: (1) More than 50 percent of the total recoveries corne from Texas and Louisiana; California only accounts for 10 to 15 percent. This recovery proportion is much different than that expressed for most counter-clockwise migrating populations. (2) Eight of 12 birds recovered in Mexico were taken after January 1, two in December and two in September. All but four recoveries were taken along the west coast; two in the inland state of Durango in February and March; one in the state of Mexico in January and one in the east coast state of Vera Cruz in February. No late fall west to east movement through Mexico is indicated by these recoveries. (3) The pattern of direct, as well as indirect recoveries from North Park pintails indicates a general southeast movement through Colorado and the Texas p.anhandle into Gulf coastal areas. �-36- 14. Table Park, Distribution of Colorado, 1954-69. recoveries from male pintails Direct Area banded in North Indirect No. % No. % 0 2 3.4 2 2.2 0 2 3.4 2 2.2 1 1 2 0 17 2 1.7 1.7 3.4 28.8 3.4 1 3 2 1 25 2 1.1 3.4 2.2 1.1 28.1 2.2 No. % Total Canada Alberta Sub-total United (Canada) States Central Flyway South Dakota Colorado Kansas New Mexico Texas North Dakota 0 2 0 1 8 0 Sub-Total 11 36.7 23 39.0 34 38.1 0 1 2 1 3.3 6.7 3.3 1 3 6 0 1.7 5.1 10.2 1 4 8 1 1.1 4.5 9.0 1.1 4 13.3 10 17.0 14 15.7 1 0 9 0 3.3 30.0 0 1 15 1 1.7 25.4 1.7 1 1 24 1 1.1 1.1 27.0 1.1 33.3 17 28.8 27 30.3 0 1 1.7 1 1.1 0 1 1.7 1 1.1 6 10.2 11 12.4 Pacific 6.7 3.3 26.7 Flyway Montana Utah California Arizona Sub-Total Mississippi Flyway Missouri Tennessee Louisiana Arkansas 10 Sub-Total Atlantic Flyway North Carolina Sub-Total (U.S.) Hexi co 5 Total 30 16.7 59 89 �-37- Table 15. Distribution of recoveries from female pintails banded in North Park, Colorado, 1954-69. No. % No. % 0 1 4.8 1 3.5 0 1 4.8 1 3.5 No. Area Total Direct Direct % Canada Saskatchewan Sub-Total (Canada) United States Central Flyway Colorado Texas Kansas Sub-Total 0 4 0 50.0 2 5 1 9.5 23.8 4.8 2 9 1 6.9 31.0 3.5 4 50.0 8 38.1 12 41.4 2 2 2 1 9.5 9.5 9.5 4.8 2 4 2 1 6.9 13.8 6.9 3.4 Pacific Flyway Utah California Arizona Washington 0 2 0 0 25.0 2 25.0 7 33.3 9 31.0 0 2 25.0 1 3 4.8 14.3 1 5 3.4 17.2 Sub-Total 2 25.0 4 19.1 6 20.7 Sub-Total (U.S.) 8 100.0 20 95.3 28 96.6 4.8 1 3.4 Sub-Total Mississippi Flyway Arkansas Louisiana Mexico 0 1 Total 8 21 29 �-38- A portion of the North Park population may very well follow the counterclockwise migration. The birds recovered in MeXico probably arrive there by way of California and may migrate north through the Central Flyway in the spring. However, it is doubtful, based on the information available that the birds recovered on the Gulf coast arrived there via California. Recovery and Mortality Rates Recovery rates for pint ails banded in North Park (Table 16) are much lower than those previously presented for the mallards (Table 7). Again, as in the mallard, the pintail data are strongly orierited to adults banded during the moult. Table 16. Recovery for pintails banded rates by sex and age through in North Park 1954-69. the 1969-70 hunting season No. Birds Banded No. Birds Recovered Percent Recovered Adult 2,287 87 3.8 Local 55 4 7.3 Immature 3 o 0.0 Adult 965 23 2.4 Local 72 4 5.6 Immature 8 2 25.0 Sex and Age Male Female First hunting season recovery rates for adult males in years which had more than 300 birds banded varied from .009 to .019 and averaged .013 for all bandings. Adult males banded during the pre-season period in the San Luis Valley from 1962 through 1969 had a .020 first year recovery rate (unpublished data). Calculations of mortality rate~ for pintails may not be reliable because of variability in the banded sample and unusual distribution of recoveries through the years. Overall rates for adult males and females calculated by the composite dynanuc method are .347 and .331, respectively (Tables 17 and 18). Using only data since 1961 which contained generally larger annual �-39- banded samples, particularly for adult males, the mortality rates calculated by the composite method are. 359 and .303 for males and females, respectively. Pint ails banded during the August 15 through September 20 period in the San Luis Valley exhibited mortality rates calculated by the same method of .405 and .436 for males and females respectively. An estimate of .227 was calculated for adult males using the relative recovery rate method for the 1961 through 1969 data. Unrealistic mortality estimates resulted for adult females when using either the normal or "pooled recovery" (Geis et a1. 1971) relative recovery rate methods. Because of inadequate banded samples, mortality rates for immatures. Green-winged Distribution no attempt was made to estimate annual Teal of Recoveries Adult male green-winged teal recoveries showed a general scattering from North Park banding sites with California and Texas the major recovery states (Table 19). Most of the Texas and California recoveries come from locations designated by Moisan (1967) as major wintering areas for the continental green-winged population. Birds migrating into Texas apparently move southeast through the Texas panhandle, generally terminating migration in the gulf coastal areas of Texas and Louisiana. There are two major recovery areas in California, the ImperiaL Valley in the extreme southern part of the state and the San Joaquin Valley of central California. Direct band recoveries present no clear-cut migration route into California. Recoveries suggest one· possible route through northern Utah and another directly south from North Park down through New Mexico and across Arizona into the Imperial Valley area. Moisan (1967) suggested that birds moving through the Salt Lake Valley of Utah fly not only to the central Valley (San Joaquin Valley area) of California but also straight south to the Imperial Valley. The only significant variation in direct and indirect recoveries occurs within the state of California. Twenty of the 36 California recoveries were recovered in two specific latitude and longitude degree blocks. One block in the San Joaquin Valley and one in the Imperial Valley. Six of the eight total recoveries in the Imperial Valley block were taken directly while only three of the twelve recoveries in the San Joaquin block were taken during the first year after banding. These data seem to indicate a somewhat stable migration pattern by North Park adult male green-wings into the San Joaquin block. Along these same lines it is interesting to note that Moisan's (1967) data indicated that no gr~en-winged teal banded in the central Valley of California during the winter were subsequently recovered in the Imperial Valley, whereas large numbers of birds winter banded in the Imperial Valley were subsequently recovered in the Central Valley. �-40- Table 17. The composite dynamic method of estimating male pint ails banded in North Park, 1954-69. Year of Banding Number of Birds Banded 1 4 4 5 3 44 57 15 523 101 49 99 92 593 345 312 41 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 1 1 11 5 6 1 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Total Banded Total Re2,287 covered 30 Banded birds available Recoveries/I, banded 000 birds Alive going into Mortality rate period 2,287 Recoveries b~ Hunting 2 3 4 mortality rate Season 5 6 7 of adult 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 1 0 0 3 6 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 2 1 1 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 1 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 20 13 13 5 2 1 2,246 1,934 1,589 996 904 805 13.1 \8.9 6.7 8.2 32.2 5.0 2.2 1. 2, 45.3 \32.2 23.3 16.6 85.1 8.4 3.4 1. 2{ 130.4 .289 .378 45.3 .347 �-41- Table 18. The compsite dynamic method of estimating mortality rate of adult female pintai1s banded in North Park, 1954-69. Year of Banding Number of Bi rds Banded 1. 0 0 0 1 '0 0 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 11 14 7 4 21 55 21 177 57 69 33 30 331 45 ·84 6 Total Banded Total Re965 covered 6 Banded birds available Recoveries b~ Hunting Season 2 3 4 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 7 2 5 2 1 959 875 830 499 469 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 965 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Recoveries/1,000 birds banded 6.2 \7.3 2.3 6.0 21.7 4.0 2.1 I 27.9 Alive going into period 27.9 ,21.7 14.4 12.1 56.4 6.1 2.1 I 84.3 Mortality rate .222 .385 .331 �-42- Table 19. Distribution of recoveries from adult male green-winged banded in North Park, Colorado, 1954-69. Direct teal Indirect No. % No. % 2.1 12.8 4.3 21.3 0 4 1 18 7.5 1.9 34.0 1 10 3 28 1.0 10.0 3.0 28.0 19 40.5 23 43.4 42 42.0 1 4 15 2 2.1 8.5 31.9 4.3 0 1 21 3 1.9 39.6 5.7 1 5 36 5 1.0 5.0 36.0 5.0 22 46.8 25 47.2 47 47.0 1 1 1 0 1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 0 0 0 1 3 1.9 5.7 1 1 1 1 4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 Sub-Total 4 8.4 4 7.5 8 8.0 Total (U.S.) 45 95.7 52 98.1 97 97.0 Mexico 2 4.3 1 1.9 3 3.0 Total 47 Area No. % 1 6 2 10 Total United States Central Flyway Nebraska Colorado New Mexico Texas Sub-Total Pacific Flyway Colorado Utah California Arizona Sub-Total Hississippi Flyway Michigan Minnesota Missouri Arkansas Louisiana 53 100 �-43Recovery Rates and Mortality Banding efforts in North Park resulted in bands being placed on primarily, adult males (Table 20). The recovery rate for adult males and females banded in North Park is slightly higher for the same yearly period of banding than the 2.3 and 1.2 percent recorded for males and females, respectively, which were banded in the San Luis Valley. . Table 20. Recovery rate by sex and age through the 1969-70 hunting for green-winged teal banded in North Park 1954-69. season No. Birds Banded No. Birds Recovered Percent Recovered Adult 3,314 104 3.1 Local 43 o 0.0 Immature o o Adult 276 6 2.2 Local 54 o 0.0 Immature o o Sex and Age Male Female Adult males banded in North Park exhibited a first year recovery rate of .013. First year recovery rates calculated for adult males banded during the summer in specific continental reference areas varied from .022 in Alberta to .121 in the Imperial Valley of California (Moisan 1967). The Colorado-Wyoming reference area, which includes North Park and is excluded from the above reference, has a first year recovery rate of .008, the lowest rate for any of the continental summer reference areas designated by Moisan (1967). Moisan (1967) reported that adults banded in the Colorado-Wyoming sun®er reference area had a kill rate, adjusted for band reporting rate and crippling loss of .048, the lowest rate for all reference areas. Applying ~bisan's band-reporting rate and crippling loss correction to North Park adult males results in an average annual kill rate of .044. Combining the adult males with the meager adult female data results in the same kill rate for the adult green-wing population. The annual mortality rate calculated by the composite dynamic method for adult male green-winged teal summer banded in North Park is .383 (Table 21). �-44- Table 21. The composite dynamic method of estimating male green-winged teal banded in North Park, 1954-67. Year of Banding rate of adult Number of Birds Banded 1 0 27 1 28 63 60 36 260 207 283 270 98 967 392 491 131 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 3 1 18 6 6 5 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 2 7 8 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 3 1 1 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Total Recovered 44 28 15 6 0 2 2 2,692 2,300 1,333 1,235 965 682 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Total Banded 3,314 Banded birds available Recoveries/l,OOO banded rate 3,183 Recoveries 2 3 by Hunting Season 4 5 6 7 birds Alive goins into period Mortality mortality 13.8 ,10.4 6.5 4.5 26.4 0.0 2.1 2.:..2.t 40.2 40.2 \ 26.4 16.0 9.5 64.8 5.0 5.0 2.91 105.0 .343 .407 Average annual mortality rates for adult males banded in 16 specific reference areas throughout the continent and calculated by the composite methods ranged from .454 for summer banded birds in Alberta to .693 for summer banded birds in the Imperial Valley of California. Moisan (1967) found that average annual mortality rates for summer banded populations varied directly with average first year recovery rates and thus, kill rates. As a brief summary, adult male green-winged teal apparently undergo one of the lowest rates of harvest for green-winged populations in North America. The low rate of harvest results in a low annual mortality rate, theoretically lower mortality than would be expected on the average, for a population undergoing no hunting mortality. .393 �-45- American Widgeon Smith (1949) in analyzing continental band recoveries of American widgeon defined two major migration routes. One route moved southward through the Pacific states and inter-mountain areas, while a second flight moved through the interior portion of the Central Fl.yway, According to the recoveries of widgeon banded in North Park, most birds move into the Pacific Flyway area in the fall with a substantial number of birds recovered in Mexico (Table 22). The recoveries indicate two possible migrational paths. One route has birds moving into northenlUtah, then southwesterly into the San Joaquin Valley of central California or into the Imperial Valley or coastal area of extreme southern California. The other route shows birds moving generally south through Colorado, New Mexico, and into southeastern Arizona. The latter route is most likely followed by birds which winter in Mexico. The majority of the recoveries in Mexico are reported taken in the coastal state of Sinaloa with the adjacent inland state of Durango being the area next in importance. Recovery and Mortality Rates The banded sample of widgeon, unlike the other species, included a good percentage of birds banded as locals (Table 23). Males and females were recovered at essentially the same rate. Locals were recovered at a greater rate than adults. The first year recovery rate for locals was .030 compared to .011 for adults. Annual mortality rates were calculated by the compo sLte dynamic method for both sexes of locals and adult males .. Widgeons banded as local males had an overall mortality rate of .615 compared to .516 for adult males. Local females exhibited a mortality rate of .536. Conclusion The population of mallards banded in North Park is contributing birds to the harvest throughout the state of Colorado. Annual indicated mortality rates are in most cases equal to, or greater than populations of mallards banded in the San Luis Valley. These mortality rates have been attained without the North Park population experiencing early season hunting pressure in the immediate banding area, as has the San Luis Valley population. Therefore, based on this analysis, North Park mallard should not be subjected to any additional hunting pressure at this time without a complete evaluation of the significance additional hunting mortality would have on the population. North Park pintails are currently subject to comparatively low first year recovery rates and annual mortality rates. According to this analysis, additional hunting pressure leading to increased mortality rates should not be a detriment to the North Park pintail population. �-46- Table 22. Distribution of recoveries Park, Colo.rado, 1954-69. Direct from American widgeon banded in North Indirect No. % No. % 3.6 10.7 3.6 7.1 3.6 0 2 0 3 0 0.0 6.7 0.0 10.0 0.0 1 5 1 5 1 1.7 8.6 1.7 8.6 1.7 8 28.6 5 16.7 13 22.4 2 0 3 2 4 7.1 0.0 10.7 7.1 14.3 1 2 3 3 3 3.3 6.7 10.0 10.0 10.0 3 2 6 5 7 5.2 3.4 10.3 8.6 12.1 11 39.3 12 40.0 23 39.7 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 3.6 1 1 2 3.3 3.3 6.7 1 1 3 1.7 1.7 5.2 Sub-Total 1 3.6 4 13.3 5 8.6 Sub-Total (U.S.) 20 71.4 21 70.0 41 70.7 Mexico 8 28.6 9 30.0 17 29.3 Total 2.8 Area No. % Nebraska Colorado .Oklahoma New Mexico Texas 1 3 1 2 1 Sub-Total Total United States Central Pacific Flyway Flyway Colorado Oregon Utah Arizona California Sub-Total ~lississippi Flyway Minnesota Tennessee Louisiana 30 58 �-47- Table 23. Recovery rates by sex and age through the 1969-70 hunting for American widgeon banded in North Park, 1954-69. season No. Birds Banded No. Birds Recovered Percent Recovered Adult 818 25 3.1 Local 310 17 5.5 Sex and Age Male Immature 0 Female Adult 175 6 3.4 Local 251 14 5.6 3 0 0.0 Immature Green-winged teal populations of North Park are currently undergoing one of the Jawest harvest rates for green-winged populations in North America. Additional hunting pressure on North Park green-winged teal should not be detrimental to the population. Throughout this analysis it has been noted that small banded samples of some species and disproportionate banded samples by sex and age of others have hampered attempts to determine various characteristics of the North Park populations. The methods and time period of trapping used throughout the banding period have been selective toward various species and age groups within species. These bandings and the subsequent analyses have resulted in some valuable information. However, I conclude that the population characteristics obtained from these data should only be considered a starting point. The information is, for the most part, barely adequate for making basic management decisions on some species and totally inadequate for the modern day decisions involving species management~ If North Park duck populations are considered vital to waterfowl management in Colorado, then banding programs designed to obtain specific objectives should be initiated and carried out. �-48- LITERATURE CITED Ballou, R. M. 1954. Live-trapping and banding of waterfowl. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. Fed. Aid in Wildl. Restoration Quart. Rep. W-50-R. p , 28-38. Geis, A.. D., R. I. Smith, and J. P. Rogers. harvest characteristics, and survival. Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. No. 139. 1971. Black duck distribution, U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Low, S. H. 1949. The migration of the pintail. In: Migration of some North American waterfowl. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. No. 1:13-16. Moisan, G. 1967. The green-winged teal: it's distribution, migration, and population dynamics. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. No. 100. Smith, A. G. 1949. Migration North American waterfowl. Rep. Wildl. No 1:11-12. Prepared by of the baldpate. In: Migration of some U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. :Y ,/" / J} Iu-j~.(L'( A. /J',,-t-;/rYJG ':r:=jj --7Mi~~~h-a~e~1-R~.-s~Z-y-m-C-Z-ak~--~~#1~--~-~~~--a-·--"~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher �-c to " " rr tD 7 ••••• d.I it: -=--::. -- 1 .:i \ I .,.1 :I , .., '::. &; Ul •.-1 § S cU t:: cU bO Q) ~ t:: w :.::» "i r.:t o .: I: ~ t ~ :::. &..0 ~ ••• LI " ~ ) �-50- APPENDIX Scientific and common names of birds mentioned Common Name in this report. Scientific Name Canvasback Aythya Coot, American Fulica americana Gadwall Anas strepera Mallard Anas platyrhynchos Merganser, Common valisineria Hergus merganser Pintail Anas acuta Redhead Aythya Ring-necked Duck americana Aythya collaris Scaup, Lesser Aythya affinis Shoveler Spatula elypeata Teal, Bl ue-winged An as discors Cinnamon Anas cyanoptera Green-winged Anas carolinensis Widgeon, American Mareca americana �-51October, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RAD~~O Project No. W-88-R-16 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Period Covered: _ Migratory Personnel: Velma Merkle, Howard D. Funk. 5 Job No. Waterfowl October Bird Investigations Kill Survey 1, 1970 through July 1, 1971 Velma Fredrickson, Raymond Boyd, Robert Tully and ABSTRACT Duck stamps sold in Colorado in 1970 numbered 37,972, a substantial increase over the 34,281 sold in 1969, but still not of the n~gnitude of 1957 or 1958 when sales reached almost 42,000. Even with relaxation of season length and bag limits, estimated number of duck hunters on the east slope increased only slightly over the 1969 level to 27,410 participants. Regular duck season was 90 days with harvest limits based on a point-system, with a limit of 100+ points, allowing from 2 to 10 and from 4 to 20 ducks in the daily bag and in possession, respectively. Point allocations for male and female mallards were 20 and 90 points, respectively, allowing from 2 to 5 daily and from 4 to 10 in possession if mallards were the only species taken. Regular season east slope harvest was estimated at about 207,000 ducks, an increase of almost 27,000 over the 1969-70 harvest and again the highest since the 1958-59 season. Duck harvest and hunting pressure on the west slope both increased somewhat over the 1969 levels with almost 27,700 birds taken by about 3,900 hunters. About 2,900 hunters took part in the final experimental San Luis Valley hunting season, also on a point-system, and bagged an estimated 23,000 ducks. Harvest during the special early teal season was estimated at about 5,600 ducks by almost 1,200 hunters in specified east slope areas. Species composition estimates for all seasons combined throughout the State again placed the mallard as the most important species at about 73 percent of the total harvest. The number of east slope goose hunters increased to over 18,000 in 1970-71, an increase of about 5,000 over the previous year. Much of this increase was due to about 11,000 hunters taking part in the north-central Colorado goose season as compared to only about 6,000 in 1969-70. However, estimates by area suggested that goose hunting pressure also increased in the Arkansas Valley from approximately 5,300 hunters a year ago to almost 7,900 this year. Numbers of geese present during hunting season were at all-time highs in both the Arkansas Valley and north-centaal areas and harvest for each area also peaked in 1970-71 with about 40,000 geese taken between the two. West slope hunter participation increased about 28 percent with 375 hunters taking about 770 geese, an increase of about 200 percent. ��-53- WATERFOWL KILL SURVEY Howard D. Funk' This survey of Colorado small game harvest is a cooperative effort between personnel of Federal Aid Projects W-88-R and W-38-R, and the Game Management Section of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. Most data presented herein result from two separate major surveys:(l) the regular annual questionnaire survey limited to purchasers of combination small game hunting and fishing, resident small game hunting, and non-resident small game hunting licenses; and (2) the separate questionnaire survey of holders of the increasingly popular sportsman's license which also allows small game hunting. Other data contributing to this report are gathered from other Federal Aid surveys specific to a particular season such as the special north-central Colorado or San Luis Valley goose seasons, all of which require a permit to hunt. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To estimate by species, the State harvest of waterfowl for the 1970-71 hunting county and interval of the season. METHODS season AND MATERIALS Techniques utilized were similar to those employed in the past with hunter's names drawn in a mechanical random fashion from duplicate license sales stubs. The cutoff dates for license sales figures used in projections were March 31, 1971 for the regular survey and March 1, 1971 for the sportsman's license survey. One follow-up letter was sent to non-reporting hunters after an interval of approximately three weeks. A survey questionnaire similar to the revised form utilized for the 1969 survey was again used in an attempt to simplify reporting by hunters and ultimately obtain higher reporting rates and more valid harvest information than in past years. The sportsman's questionnaire was again somewhat more simplified than the regular survey form. Harvest data collected on this survey under Federal Aid Project W-38-R (Boyd 1971) were added to results of the regular survey. �-54- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Regular survey questionnaires were sent to 12,518 randomly selected 1970 license buyers about January 15, 1971. A total of 7,448 responded for a return of 59.5 percent. This was the lowest response rate since the survey was initiated, even with the more simplified questionnaire. Of the 7,448 returns, 3,953 reported hunting, 3,364 reported they did not hunt, and 131 were not usable. Percentages of license buyers actually hunting were calculated from the survey sample by license type (Table 1). The largest percentage of license buyers not utilizing the opportunity to hunt was found in the combination hunting and fishing license category; these people using their fishing privilege only. Total sales of regular type licenses permitting small game hunting during 1970, other than sportsman's licenses, amounted to 165,322. It is estimated that 96,158 of these actually hunted one or more species of small game, including waterfowl. Table 1. License sales, percent license type, 1970 season. License Type Resident Combination Resident Small Game Non-resident Small Game Sub-total Sportsman's License Resident Non-resident Sub-total TOTAL use and projected estimates of hunters by Sales Percent Used for Hunting Small Game Projected Number Hunters 121,716 40,830 2,776 49.8 81.6 80.2 60,615 33,317 2,226 165,322 15,404 7,897 96,158 64.3 22.3 9,905 1,761 23,301 11,666 188,623 107,824 Survey questionnaires were sent to 4,140 sportsman's license buyers. A total of 2,375 responded and supplied usable information for a response rate of 57 percent. Of the 2,375 returns, 1,399 reported hunting small game, while 976 reported they did not. Percentages of respondents indicating they hunted were calculated separately for residents and non-residents. Thus, �-55- of the total sale of sportsman's licenses in 1970 (23,301), it is estimated that 11,666 of the buyers of this type of license took part in hunting one or more species of small game, including waterfowl (Table 1). Total estimated number of regular and sportsman's license buyers hunting one or more species of small game in 1970 was 107,824 which compares with 105,347 for 1969, 134,606 for 1968, and 98,618 in 1967. Colorado duck stamp sales are listed in Table 2. Numbers sold in 1970 (37,972) indicate the continuing annual increase in waterfowl hunters from the low of approximately 18,000 sold in 1962. However, sales still are not of the magnitude experienced in 1957 and 1958 when almost 42,000 were sold during the most recent peak period of waterfowl populations. Table 2. Duck stamp sales for Colorado, 1954-1970. Year Number of Stamps Sold Percent Change From Previous Year 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 32,450 39,107 36,303 41,794 41,897 31,431 30,592 24,854 17,701 22,940 25,282 20,537 29,377 31,064 31,218 34,281 37,972 + 20.5 + 20.5 7.2 + 15.1 + .02 - 24.9 2.7 - 18.8 - 28.8 + 29.6 + 10.2 - 18.8 + 43.0 + 5.7 + .5 + 9.8 + 10.8 Duck stamp buyers are classified in Table 3 by the type of waterfowl hunting in which they participated in 1970 and the previous 16 years. There was a slight increase in numbers of duck hunters, the highest since 1958, while estimated goose hunters increased about 5,500 for an all time high. As will be discussed later, much of the increase in goose hunting activity took place in north-central Colorado. �-56- Table 3. Estimated number of duck and goose hunters, average number of days hunted, season length, and bag and possession limits, by year, 1954-1970. Year Number of Duck Hunters Number of Goose Hunters Average Number Days Hunted For Ducks Geese 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 31,834 37,816 34,793 37,166 38,773 29,060 29,480 22,920 13,918 17,989 19,189 15,374 23,635 25,347 26,528 30,436 31,326 12,136 17,634 12,477 12,057 14,705 13 ,647 14,107 11 ,245 9,159 10,841 13,678 11 ,344 15,807 13,748 13 ,467 13,282 18,774 7.64 8.87 7.37 6.52 5.78 5.70 6.05 4.40 5.27 5.66 6.30 5.62 5.96 6.49 6.18 5.94 6.54 Season Length {Days} Ducks Geese 60 75 75 75 90 50 60 30 25 ]j 6.64 7.37 5.53 6.25 6.43 6.48 6.45 6.74 35 II 36 II 33 II 40 11 60 11 60 11 33 11 90 1./ 60 60 60 60 60 75 75 60 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 79 Bag and Possession Limit Ducks Geese 5-10 5-10 5-10 5-10 4- 8 4- 8 3- 6 3- 6 2- 4 41 4- 8 21 4- 8 21 4- 8 31 3- 6 21 3- 6 31 3- 6 21 4- 8 21 "fl 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-4 51 2-4 1./ II Hunting regulations for East Slope. West Slope had a general season of 75 days with 4 ducks in bag, and 8 in possession in 1962; and 90 days, 4 in bag and 8 in possession in 1963; 1964 and 1965; and 90 days,S in bag and 10 in possession in 1966 and 1967; and 86 days,S in bag and 10 in possession of which 3 and 6, respectively, could be mallards in 1968; and 86 days,S in bag and 10 in possession in 1969; and 93 days, 6 in bag and 12 in possession in 1970. 11 Two mallards allowed in bag, and four in possession on East Slope. 11 One mallard and pintail allowed in bag and two in possession on East Slope, three mallards or three pintails on West Slope. il One mallard in bag and two in possession on East Slope. il One goose per day and two in possession on West Slope. ~I Point-system allowing from two to ten ducks daily and four to twenty possession. in See text. 21 One goose per day and two in possession on West Slope except for Brown's Park where both bag and possession were two birds. �-57- Duck Harvest Duck hunting statistics for the 1970 season are tabulated and compared with results of past years in Table 4. Total retrieved harvest of 234,514 ducks was significantly greater than in 1969, an increase of approximately 15 percent, and the largest harvest since 1958. Increased numbers of hunters, relaxed hunting seasons, favorable publicity, and special seasons offering a variety of hunting opportunity were probably all responsible for this increase. The estimate on wounding losses obtained through the questionnaire this year was 15 percent of the total bag or about 41,000 birds. An estimate of species composition in the harvest was obtained from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife wing collection survey for the regular season and is presented in Table 5 along with data from the previous 15 years, 1969 excluded. These data show emphasis in 1970 was again oriented strongly toward the,mallard and that total duck harvest was about 61 percent greater than the fifteen-year average. Duck harvest by intervals and season types is illustrated in Table 6 for both the east and west slopes of the State, the Central and Pacific Waterfowl Flyways, respectively. Regular seasons will be discussed here with special season results in following sections. The regular season on the east slope was governed by a point-system regulation which has been tested in the past in early October San Luis Valley seasons and several states in the Central Flyway during late winter periods. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife granted Colorado and seven other Central Flyway states, and two states in each of the Mississippi and Atlantic Flyways the opportunity to further test the regulation on a broad scale during the regular season period. Thus, Colorado was allowed a 90-day season based on a 100-point daily bag regulation. Hen mallards, wood ducks, redheads, canvasbacks, and hooded mergansers plus a few other species of ducks uncommon in the State were assigned 90 points per bird while drake mallards, green-winged teal, hen pintails, ringneck and mottled ducks had a point value of 20. All other species and sexes not mentioned above were designated as 10-point birds. The daily bag limit was reached when the points for the last bird taken caused the accumulated points for all birds bagged to reach or exceed 100 points. Possession limit was two legal daily bag limits. Thus, bag limits could range from two to ten ducks daily, depending on the skill and desire of the hunter to identify birds in flight. Numbers of hunters, while the greatest since 1958, did not increase to any great degree during the regular season over that of 1969, even with the long season. Harvest was indicated to have increased 60 percent over 1969 from about 111,000 birds to 178,000 for 1970 with greatest pressure and harvest occurring during the October 3l-November 20 period. However, harvest was indicated to have been fairly equal throughout the season even though the majority of ducks seemed to migrate south later than usual. Further reports on the point-system season in Colorado and other states, complete with hunter performance survey information and harvest estimates, will be forthcoming from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife later in 1971. Preliminary results indicated the majority of hunters conducted themselves well under the point-system regulation and pressure was placed on the mallard drake and other species and sexes which could stand additional harvest, and that pressure was relaxed on high point birds such as the mallard hen. �-58Table 4. Duck harvest statistics, 1954-1970. Hunters Average Seasonal Bag Total Estimated Harvest Wounding Loss Percent Numbe r Total Estimated Hunting Mortality 31,834 37,816 34,793 37,166 38,773 29,060 29,480 22,920 5.6 6.7 5.9 6.8 6.1 4.2 5.0 3.8 179,856 253,367 185,737 254,587 236,515 122,924 147,400 86,408 14.5 13.1 16.3 14.1 12.3 15.5 13 .1 21.4 30,396 38,182 36,195 41,679 33,088 22,417 22,257 23,608 210,252 29l ,549 221,932 296,266 269,603 145,341 169,667 110,016 Numbe r of Date Slope 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 East West TOTAL 11,349 2,569 13,918 2.6 3.5 2.8 29,507 8,992 38,499 13.5 11.7 13 .1 4,603 1,187 5,790 34,110 10,179 44,289 1963 East West TOTAL 15,627 22362 17 ,989 5.1 3.6 4.9 80,167 88,670 10.7 9.7 10.6 9,636 916 10,552 89,803 92419 99,222 1964 East West TOTAL 16,311 2,878 19,189 4.0 4.0 4.0 65,244 11 2512 76,756 10.6 10.4 10.6 7,764 1,335 9,099 73,008 12,847 85,855 1965 East West TOTAL 12, 747 22627 15,374 5.0 4.3 4.9 64,245 11 2322 75,567 18.7 15.4 18.2 12 ,007 12744 13,751 76,252 13 ,066 89,318 1966 East West TOTAL 19,494 42141 23,635 5.0 4.4 4.9 97,860 182345 116,205 16.4 20.4 17.1 19,278 42715 23,993 117,138 232°60 140,198 1967 East West TOTAL 22,432 2,9l5 25,347 6.5 3.7 6.2 146,032 10,698 156,730 12.0 22.9 12.9 20,006 3,178 23,184 166,038 13 ,876 179,914 1968 East West TOTAL 23,006 32522 26,528 6.2 7.4 6.4 142,578 252954 168,532 10.9 10.9 10.9 17,466 3,179 20,645 160,044 29,133 189,177 1969 East West TOTAL 27,058 32378 30,436 6.7 7.0 6.7 179,848 232781 203,629 - ]} - ]} East West TOTAL 27,410 32916 31,326 7.5 7.1 7.5 206,841 272673 234,514 36,181 52169 41,350 243,022 322842 275,864 1970 81503 1./ Data not requested in survey questionnaire. - ]} 14.9 15.7 15.0 �-59- Table 5. Species composition of the bag, 1954-70. 1/ 1970 15-year Average 1954-1968 NlUDber Percent Harvested of Total Percent Change 1970 from 15-year Average Harvest Number Harvested Percent of Total Mallard 172,133 73.4 99,840 68.5 + Pintail 5,863 2.5 4,941 3.4 + 18.7 Green-winged Teal 12,195 5.2 12,622 8.7 3.4 938 0.4 5,509 3.8 83.0 Baldpate 13,602 5.8 1,720 1.2 + 690.8 Gadwall 16,650 7.1 4,279 2.9 + 289.1 Shoveler 3,283 1.4 1,615 1.1 + 103.3 Scaup 704 0.3 1,139 0.8 38.2 Redhead 3,752 1.6 1,154 0.8 + 225.1 938 0.4 1,062 0.7 11.7 4,456 1.9 11,821 8.1 62.3 234,514 100.0 145,702 100.0 + 61.0 Species Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Canvasback Others and Unknown TOTAL 72.4 1/ No species composition estimate for 1969. Hunting pressure and harvest on the west slope increased over 1969 levels under standard regulations with six birds in the bag and twelve in possession for a 93-day season. Greatest harvest of ducks was indicated to have occurred during the November 30-December 28 period but again relatively similar throughout all other periods, including the last period which was shorter but even more productive than the others in terms of success per hunter (Table 6). Total estimated west slope harvest increased about 16 percent from the 1969 figure of 23,781 to 27,673 ducks. Special Teal Season.--An optional nine-day early teal season was again granted the states in the Mississippi and Central Flyways in 1970. Colorado chose to take the season from September 5-13 but restricted the open area to North Park (Jackson County), Lake and Chaffee counties, and the portion of the State east of Colorado Highway 71, U. S. Highway 350, and U. S. Interstate Highway 25. Estimated harvest was 5,585 birds by 1,179 hunters or approximately 2.7 percent of the total east slope duck harvest by 4.3 percent of the total east slope duck hunters (Table 6). �-60Table 6. Ducks bagged and hunting pressure by season type, area, and interval of the 1970 season. Dates Estimated Harvest % of No. of Tc>ta1 Ducks Estimated Hunting Pressure No. of % of Hunters Total EAST SLOPE Teal Season (Special) Sept. 5-13 5,585 2.7 1,179 4.3 San Luis Valley (Special) Oct. 1-18 22,959 11.1 2,933 10.7 I Regular Season (Point-system) Oct. 17-0ct. 30 Oct. 31-Nov. 20 Nov. 21-Dec. 11 Dec. 12-Jan. 1 Jan. 2-Jan. 14 34,542 44,264 39,093 34,129 26,269 16.7 21.4 18.9 16.5 12.7 206,841 100.0 7,593 8,853 8,579 6,441 4,303 27.7 32.3 31.3 23.5 15.7 1,335 1,735 1,578 736 34.1 44.3 40.3 18.8 WEST SLOPE Regular Season Oct. 10-Nov. 1 Nov. 2-Nov. 29 Nov. 30-Dec. 28 Dec. 29-Jan. 10 7,306 6,835 8,828 4,704 26.4 24.7 31.9 17.0 27,673 100.0 San Luis Valley Experimental Season.--This was the eighth and final year of experimental duck hunting seasons in the San Luis Valley. Bag limit was based on a point-system regulation exactly the same as for the regular season previously described. Results of the season obtained through special field observations and surveys will be reported in a Migratory Bird Populations Station Administrative Report in 1971 (Geis, et a1. 1971). However, information on the season gathered from this survey are presented here. Survey data indicate 2,933 hunters bagged an estimated 22,959 ducks during the October 1-18 season (Table 6). This compares with 1969 figures of 2,706 �-61- hunters harvesting 23,021 birds which indicated harvest remained quite similar between years. However, numbers of hunters listed above are rather meaningless and are no doubt somewhat deflated since they refer to successful hunters rather than estimates of total hunters. On the other hand, estimated harvest is probably somewhat inflated because total harvest is projected from data from the successful hunters. The special Federal survey, because of its intensity, will produce more valid estimates of hunter participation and success. Goose Harvest Results of the 1970 goose season presented in Table 7 indicate 18,774 hunters bagged an average of 2.2 birds each per season for a total of 40,574 geese harvested in the State. This indicates an increase of about 126 percent in harvest and a 41 percent increase in hunters from the previous year, most of which took place on the Central Flyway east slope. Thus, goose harvest and hunting pressure in 1970 was at an all-time high for the l7-year period of survey. Data collected in the questionnaire survey indicated an average crippling loss estimate of about 18 percent. Species composition of geese in the 1970 bag, as in other years, remained about 99 percent Canada geese. The remainder is composed of snow geese and an even smaller portion of white-fronted geese. Arkansas Valley.--Food and water conditions were excellent during the 1970 Arkansas Valley goose season. Census figures indicated goose populations numbered about 80,000 to 90,000 birds through the majority of hunting season, the highest number on record. Approximately 62,000 geese were counted on January 19, 1971, which is about equal to record numbers counted in January, 1970 for Colorado. Major concentrations were present in the Eads Lakes, Two Buttes, John Martin, and Meredith Reservoir areas. Hunting hours from October 31 through December 11, 1970 were from one-half hour before sunrise to noon, only. From December 12 through January 17, 1971, full day shooting was allowed. Birds were present in the area on opening day. This factor, plus half-day shooting which allowed birds to settle in the area and establish feeding patterns, coupled with increased hunting pressure and full-day shooting later in the season, all seemed to contribute to the increase in hunting success. Harvest by area will be discussed in a later section. North-central Colorado.--Numbers of geese wintering in the Denver-GreeleyFort Collins area also increased significantly in 1970. Approximately 50,000 birds were censused in both late November and December with huntable numbers present in early November prior to opening date on November 10. At least 38,000 birds were counted in early January, 1971, the bulk of them probably remaining through hunting season which ended January 17. The high count in 1970-71 is the highest on record and represents an increase of over 10,000 birds from 1969-70. �-62-Table 7. Goose harvest statistics, 1954-1970. Total Estimated Hunting Mortality Number of Hunters Average Seasonal Bag Total Estimated Harvest 12,136 17,364 11,541 12,057 14,705 13 ,647 14,107 11,245 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.1 1.3 8,168 17,711 11,310 14,589 19,704 21,972 15,659 14,056 22.8 18.3 21.6 23.5 22.3 17.8 20.7 24.5 2,410 3,884 3,116 4,473 5,655 4,730 4,087 4,568 10 ,578 21,248 14,426 19,062 25,359 26,702 19,746 18,624 East West TOTAL 8,828 331 9,159 1.5 1.3 1.5 13,241 430 13 ,671 19.5 0.0 19.1 3,218 16,459 430 16,889 East West TOTAL 10,462 379 10,841 1.7 0.3 1.6 17,785 114 17 ,899 1502 0.0 17.8 3,184 3,184 20,969 114 21,083 1964 East West TOTAL 13 ,295 383 13,678 1.8 0.5 1.7 23,931 192 24,123 19.0 0.0 18.9 5,624 0 1/ 5,624 29,555 192 29,747 1965 East West TOTAL 10,941 403 11,344 1.2 1.0 1.2 13 ,239 419 13,658 24.6 27.0 24.7 3,257 113 3,370 16,496 532 17,028 1966 East West TOTAL 15,443 364 15,807 1.9 1.1 1.9 29,613 420 30,033 16.2 0.0 16.2 5,745 87 5,832 35,358 507 35,865 1967 East West TOTAL 13,598 150 13,748 1.7 1.7 1.7 23,117 255 23,372 19.8 19 8 19.8 5,710 63 5,773 28,827 318 29,145 1968 East West TOTAL 13,050 417 13 ,467 1.5 0.7 1.4 19,088 291 19,379 16.6 16.6 16.6 3,806 58 3,864 22,894 349 23,243 1969 East West TOTAL 12,990 292 13 ,282 1.4 0.9 1.4 17,691 248 17,939 ?J Y ?J 8,831 180 9,011 48,634 951 49,585 Year Slope 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1970 East West TOTAL Seventeen-year Wounding Loss Number Percent e. 18,399 2.2 39,803 18.2 375 2.1 771 18.9 18,774 2.2 40,574 18.2 average goose harvest (1954-70) is 19,048. 1/ No cripples reported on the west slope. "fj Data not requested in survey questionnaire. 0 1/ 3,218 0 1/ �-63- For the sixth consecutive year, goose permits with a six-bird season limit and other special regulations were in effect in most of the area between Denver, Fort Collins and east of Greeley. In 1969, the permit area was enlarged but the limit was removed from number of permits which could be issued. A relatively large area between Fort Collins and Interstate Highway 25, closed to hunting in previous years, was opened in 1970 and 13,611 hunting permits were issued. A special random survey sample drawn from these permittees indicated that 11,187 hunters actually hunted geese one or more times in the entire area and bagged 12,112 geese for an average bag of 1.08 birds per hunter. Thus, active hunters increased about 82 percent over 1969-70 and harvest increased about 190 percent. Distribution of harvest was greatest in Larimer County with almost 7,500 birds, while Weld County was second with about 3,500 geese bagged in the area. It is believed that results of this special survey are more reliable than those of the comprehensive small game survey because the survey was specific to the north-central season and the sample size was larger. Results of the regular survey in terms of hunter participation and harvest by county are presented in a later section. San Luis Val1ey.--In 1970-71, the western portion of the San Luis Valley formerly closed to goose hunting was opened to a limited permit hunt. Two hundred permits were allowed and issued and a special survey of permittees suggested 164 took part in the season. Estimated harvest was 107 birds with the majority taken in Rio Grande County. Numbers of geese present during fall and winter ranged from about 1,000 to 1,500 with the majority tallied on the Monte Vista Refuge. Total hunter participation and harvest results in the Valley as estimated by the regular small game survey will be presented in the section relating to goose hunting by county. Waterfowl Harvest by County The reader is cautioned that information presented in this section is subject to a great deal more error in accuracy than estimates in previous sections, since the original sample has been broken down to county, thus decreasing the size of sample on which to base estimates. This is probably even more true of geese than ducks because there are many more duck hunters. Consequently, it is realized that in some counties, both duck and goose harvest has been over-estimated, and in others, under-estimated. However, despite this error, these data represent the most accurate information possible at the present time except for special survey data already mentioned. Tables 8 and 9 compare the 1970 duck and goose harvests, respectively, with averages of previous seasons by county within each waterfowl region. These regional divisions of the State were located on the basis of waterfowl migration, location, and topography, and permit a closer evaluation of annual harvest, yearly changes in harvest patterns, and the effect of different types of hunting seasons in various portions of Colorado. Grossly, it appears that the greatest duck harvest again occurred in the Central Region, although the percentage of total State bag for this area again decreased somewhat from the previous year. The harvest increased �-64about 2,000 birds from about 79,000 bagged in 1969 to 81,000 in 1970. Greatest percentage increases took place in the Northeast and Southeast Regions with an estimated 10,000 bird increase in each totaling 49,000 and 37,000 birds, respectively. Although many hunters still do not seem willing to travel to the eastern portions of the State, there is an increasing trend in use of these areas. The east slope again contributed about 87 percent of the total state duck harvest in 1970. Greatest harvest again took place in Weld County. Number of ducks bagged increased in most areas on the west slope. As indicated in previous sections, the 1970 State goose harvest increased in volume by 126 percent over 1969 figures to over 40,500 birds. The Southeast Region was again indicated by the regular small game harvest survey to be the high harvest area with just over 30,000 geese taken out of the total of almost 40,000 bagged on the entire east slope. Only about 9,000 geese were indicated to have been harvested in the Central Region, which takes in the majority of the north-central goose hunting permit area discussed previously in which about 12,000 birds were suggested to have been bagged through results of the special survey. Thus, a discrepancy of about 3,000 birds exists between the two surveys. The special survey figure of 12,000 is probably the most correct and it is possible the 30,000 goose figure for the Southeast Region is somewhat inflated. In the Southeast Region, which supposedly accounted for almost 75 percent of the State harvest, Baca, Kiowa, Prowers, Crowley, and Bent counties were the top harvest areas in that order. Larimer and Weld counties were indicated to have been high harvest areas in the Central Region and third and fifth in order in the State, respectively. Total harvest in the San Luis Valley was suggested to have been 279 birds. The estimated west slope harvest increased from 248 birds in 1969 to 771 in 1970, the majority of which was taken in Grand County. Waterfowl Management Units Again this year, harvest information has been gathered on the basis of waterfowl management units (Fig. 1). The purpose of this is a better alignment of data to provide information about specific flocks of ducks and geese. For example, Unit 1 encompasses the area utilized by wintering ducks at Jumbo Reservoir, Unit 5 is North Park, and Unit 15 is the San Luis Valley. In many cases, duck and goose flock boundaries transcend county lines and it has been difficult to put together county information so that we could look at the influence of hunting pressure and harvest on separate flocks. We had hoped that management units would help solve this. However, there are still problems with interpreting results which have to be examined by year. Results of this portion of the survey are displayed in Tables 10 and 11 for ducks and geese, respectively. Estimated numbers of hunters and harvest for the 1970 season are shown by management unit and compared with the six-year averages from 1964-1969. No other comments will be made at this time. �.. III '" w -' I .. o '" .'''j:I. o »c u W �-66- LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. 1971. Hunter harvest surveys. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept. July. In press. Geis, A. D., E. M. Martin, R. M. Hopper, and H. D. Funk. 1971. Progress report - 1970 experimental duck hunting season in the San Luis Valley of Colorado - an evaluation of the point system in regulating harvest. Migr. Bird Pop. Sta. Admin. Rept. No. 210. Laurel, Md. July 6. 14 pp. ~:J~-(£_c'..._~_~ Prepared by......J..o:ak~;;;;....::;:::~~, ~t~~. Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research _ �-67Table 8. Duck harvest by Region and County. Waterfowl Region and County 1970 Duck Harvest Percent Number Harvested of Total Estimated 1970 Hunting Pressure Nwnber Percent Hunters of Total Sixteen-year Average 1954-1969 Percent Number of Total Harvested EAST SLOPE NORTHEAST Cheyenne Kit Carson Lincoln Logan Morgan Phillips Sedgwick Washington Yuma NORTHEAST TOTAL 620 1,241 14,065 22,546 207 2,689 2,689 52171 49,228 0.0 0.3 0.6 6.8 10.9 0.1 1.3 1.3 2.5 23.8 27 192 164 1,699 2,823 109 411 4ll 630 6,468 0.1 0.7 0.6 6.2 10.3 0.4 1.5 1.5 2.3 23.6 401 1,590 1,035 7,461 9,721 233 3,717 2,097 32287 29,542 0.3 1.2 0.8 5.7 7.5 0.2 2.9 1.6 2.5 22.7 SOUTHEAST Baca Bent Crowley Huerfano Kiowa Las Animas Otero Prowers Pueblo SOUTHEAST TOTAL 1,241 9,928 3,103 414 4,344 414 5,170 4,344 7 653 36,611 0.6 4.8 1.5 0.2 2.1 0.2 2.5 2.1 3.7 17.7 329 932 521 55 767 llO 630 603 576 4,523 1.2 3.4 1.9 0.2 2.8 0.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 16.5 1,194 3,306 2,760 559 1,686 1,099 2,272 3,752 3 327 19,955 0.1 2.5 2.1 4.3 1.3 0.9 1.7 2.9 2.6 15.4 CENTRAL Adams Arapahoe Boulder Douglas Elbert E1 Paso Jefferson Larimer Weld CENTRAL TOTAL 15,100 1,034 9,722 207 827 2,068 414 14,272 372438 81,082 7.3 0.5 4.7 0.1 0.4 1.0 0.2 6.9 18.1 39.2 1,891 329 1,371 82 55 384 219 3,125 52564 13 ,020 6.9 1.2 5.0 0.3 0.2 1.4 0.8 11.4 20.3 47.5 7,544 1,718 7,607 211 291 1,103 1,468 ll,885 282456 60,283 5.8 1.3 5.9 0.2 0.2 0.8 1.1 9.2 21.9 46.4 SAN LUIS VALLEY Alamosa Conejos Costilla Rio Grande Saguache 12,617 2,482 2,482 15,513 3 2930 6.1 1.2 1.2 7.5 1.9 1,069 27 164 1,015 521 3.9 0.1 0.6 3.7 1.9 4,670 2,507 882 5,756 3 2928 3.6 2.0 0.7 4.4 3.0 SAN LUIS VALLEY TOTAL 37,024 17.9 2,796 10.2 17,743 13.7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-68Table 8. Duck harvest by Region and County, continued. Waterfowl Region and County HIGH COUNTRY (E) Chaffee Clear Creek Cus ter Fremont Gilpin Jackson Lake Park Teller HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL 1970 Duck Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total 620 207 Estimated 1970 Hunting Pressure Numhe r Percent Hunters of Total Sixteen-year Average J 954-1969 Number Percent Harvested of Total 1,242 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.6 110 27 27 248 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.9 504 81 337 780 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.6 620 0.3 137 0.5 0 207 2,896 0.0 0.1 1.4 27 27 603 0.1 0.1 2.2 216 126 276 41 2,361 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.0 1.8 WEST SLOPE NORTHWEST Garfield Moffat Rio Blanco Routt NORTHWEST TOTAL WEST CENTRAL Delta Mesa Montrose Ouray W. CENTRAL TOTAL SOUTHWEST Archuleta Dolores Hinsdale La Plata Mineral Montezuma San Juan San Miguel SOUTHWEST TOTAL HIGH COUNTRY (W) Eagle Grand Gunnison Pitkin Summit HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL 2,795 443 1,494 138 4,870 10.1 1.6 5.4 0.5 17.6 403 133 161 27 724 lO.3 3.4 4.1 0.7 18.5 1,637 533 721 818 3,709 8.5 2.8 3.8 4.3 19.4 3,321 7,002 5,313 12.0 25.3 19.2 540 893 541 13.8 22.8 13.8 15,636 56.5 1,974 50.4 3,163 4,587 2,371 168 10,289 16.5 24.0 12.4 0.8 53.7 830 194 3.0 0.7 161 27 4.1 0.7 1,660 6.0 243 6.2 941 3.4 188 4.8 0 3,625 0.0 13.1 27 646 0.7 16.5 119 28 66 1,475 87 864 14 219 2,872 0.6 0.1 0.3 7.8 0.5 4.5 0.1 1.1 15.0 470 581 2,214 277 1.7 2.1 8.0 1.0 0.0 12.8 82 161 220 82 27 572 2.1 4.1 5.6 2.1 0.7 14.6 801 441 672 273 93 2,280 4.2 2.3 3.5 1.4 0.5 11.9 3,542 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-69Table 8. Duck harvest by Region and County, continued. 1970 Duck Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Waterfowl Region and County Estimated 1970 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Sixteen-year Average 195L~-1969 Number Harvested Percent of Total Summary by Region NORTHEAST SOUTHEAST CENTRAL SAN LUIS VALLEY HIGH COUNTRY (E) NORTHWEST WEST CENTRAL SOUTHWEST HIGH COUNTRY (W) TOTAL OF REGIONS 49,228 36,611 81,082 37,024 2,896 4,870 15,636 3,625 3,542 234,514 20.7 14.4 41.6 8.9 1.9 2.3 6.3 2.1 1.8 100.0 6,468 4,523 l3 ,020 2,796 603 724 1,974 646 572 31,326 20.7 14.4 41.6 8.9 1.9 2.3 6.3 2.1 1.8 100.0 29,542 19,955 60,283 17,743 2,361 3,709 10,289 2,872 2,280 149,034 19.8 l3.4 40.5 11.9 1.6 2.5 6.9 1.9 1.5 100.0 EAST SLOPE WEST SLOPE 206,841 27,673 88.2 11.8 27,410 3,916 87.5 12.5 129,884 19,150 87.2 12.8 Table 9. Goose harvest by Region and County. Haterfow1 Region and County 1970 Goose Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Estimated 1970 Hunting Pressure Percent Number Hunters of Total Sixteen-year Average 1954-1969 Percent Number of Total Harvested EAST SLOPE NORTHEAST Cheyenne Kit Carson Lincoln Logan Morgan Phillips Sedgwick Washington Yuma NORTHEAST TOTAL 0 0 0 80 0 119 0 40 239 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.6 74 18 . 147 644 19 55 55 110 1,122 0.4 0.1 0.8 3.5 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.6 6.1 24 26 14 145 534 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.8 3.1 48 97 84 972 0.3 0.6 0.5 5.6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-70- Table 9. Goose harvest by Region and County, continued. Waterfowl Region aridCounty 1970 Goose Harvest Number Percent Harvested of Total Estimated 1970 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Sixteen-year Average 1954-1969 Number Percent Harvested of Total SOUTHEAST Baca Bent Crowley Huerfano Kiowa Las Animas Otero Prowers Pueblo SOUTHEAST TOTAL 13,055 2,229 3,025 0 7,005 120 557 3,980 358 30,329 32.8 5.6 7.6 0.0 17.6 0.3 1.4 10.0 0.9 76.2 2,613 975 1,067 19 1,619 110 276 975 221 7,875 14.2 5.3 5.8 0.1 8.8 0.6 1.5 5.3 1.2 42.8 5,083 1,913 716 113 3,098 120 359 2,125 183 13,710 29.1 11.0 4.1 0.6 17.7 0.7 2.0 12.1 1.0 78.3 159 80 159 0.4 0.2 0.4 349 74 442 1.9 0.4 2.4 0 0 0 5,214 3z344 8,956 0.0 0.0 0.0 13 .1 8.4 22.5 18 74 18 4,931 3z109 9,015 0.1 0.4 0.1 26.8 16.9 49.0 297 160 88 4 6 28 150 832 927 2,492 1.7 0.9 0.5 T T 0.2 0.8 4.8 5.3 14.2 80 0.2 111 0.6 80 80 39 0.2 0.2 0.1 55 203 18 0.3 1.1 0.1 9 137 117 2 2 0.1 0.8 0.6 T T 279 0.7 387 2.1 267 1.5 3 36 T 0.2 21 0.2 3 T 63 0.4 CENTRAL Adams Arapahoe Boulder Douglas Elbert E1 Paso Jefferson Larimer Weld CENTRAL TOTAL SAN LUIS VALLEY Alamosa Conejos Cos tilla Rio Grande Saguache SAN LUIS VALLEY TOTAL HIGH COUNTRY (EAST) Chaffee Clear Creek Custer Fremont Gilpin Jackson Lake Park Teller HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-71- Table 9. Goose harvest by Region and County, continued. Waterfowl Region and County 1970 Goose Harvest Number Percent of Total Harvested Estimated 1970 Hunting Pressure Number Percent Hunters of Total Sixteen-year Average 1954-1969 Percent Nwnber of Total Harvested WEST SI.OPE NORTHWEST Gar fie1d Moffat Rio Blanco Routt NORTHWEST TOTAL WEST CENTRAL Delta Mesa Montrose Ouray W. CENTRAL TOTAL SOUTHWEST Archuleta Dolores Hinsdale La Plata Mineral Montezuma San Juan San Miguel SOUTHWEST TOTAL HIGH COUNTRY (WEST) Eagle Grand Gunnison Pitkin Sunnnit HIGH COUNTRY TOTAL 179 19 198 0.0 23.2 2.5 25.7 25 175 25 225 1 115 0.6 75.7 60.1 2 118 1.3 77 .6 2.7 0.6 1.3 6.7 46.7 6.7 19 2.5 25 6.7 4 1 2 19 2.5 25 6.7 7 4.6 110 15.4 75 20.0 2.0 2.0 119 15.4 75 20.0 3 3 435 56.4 50 13.2 24 15.8 435 56.4 50 13.2 24 15.8 972 13,710 2,492 267 63 118 7 3 24 172656 17,504 152 5.5 77.7 14.1 1.5 0.4 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 99.1 0.9 Sunnnary by Region NORTHEAST SOUTHEAST CENTRAL SAN LUIS VALLEY HIGH COUNTRY (E) NORTHWEST WEST CENTRAL SOUTHWEST HIGH COUNTRY (W) TOTAL OF REGIONS EAST SLOPE WEST SLOPE 239 30,330 8,956 279 0.6 74.8 22.1 0.7 1,122 7,875 9,015 387 6.0 41.9 48.0 2.1 198 19 119 435 402574 0.4 T 0.3 1.1 100.0 98.1 1.9 225 25 75 50 182774 18,399 375 1.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 100.0 98.0 2.0 39,803 771 �-72- Table 10. Estimated duck hunters and harvest by management unit, 1964-1970. 1970 Season Percent Number of Total Bagged Six-year Average 1964-1969 Number Percent Number Hunters of Total Bagged Management Unit Number Hunters 1 1,817 5.8 EAST SLOPE 15,712 6.7 1,425 6.2 7,89l 5.9 2 2,036 6.5 14,305 6.1 1,392 6.1 7,471 5.6 3 4,980 15.9 31,425 13.4 3,444 15.1 19,451 14.6 4 3,446 11.0 17 ,589 7.5 2,165 9.5 11 ,498 8.7 5 125 0.4 704 0.3 102 0.4 562 0.4 6 5,545 17.7 42,9l6 18.3 4,200 18.5 25,360 19.2 7 282 0.9 938 0.4 272 1.2 1,116 0.8 8 658 2.1 4,456 1.9 383 1.7 1,847 1.4 9 846 2.7 6,332 2.7 506 2.2 2,696 2.0 10 1,159 3.7 7,739 3.3 611 2.7 2,810 2.1 11 344 1.1 1,407 0.6 224 1.0 682 0.5 12 1,598 5.1 11 ,022 4.7 1,200 5.3 6,367 4.8 13 1,128 3.6 12,898 5.5 779 3.4 4,049 3.0 14 313 1.0 1,407 0.6 257 1.1 1,673 1.3 15 3,133 10.0 37,99l 16.2 2,830 12.4 22,313 16.8 Sub-total 27,410 87.5 206,841 88.2 19,790 86.8 115,787 87.1 16 3,916 12.5 WEST SLOPE 11.8 27,673 3,007 13.2 17,116 12.9 GRAND TOTAL 31,326 100.0 234,514 22,797 100.0 132,903 100.0 Percent of Total 100.0 Percent of Total �-73- Table 11. Management Unit Estimated goose hunters and harvest by management unit, 1964-1970. Number Hunters 1970 Season Percent Number of Total Bagged Percent of Total Six-year Average 1964-1969 Number Percent Number Hunters of Total Bagged Percent of Total EAST SLOPE 1 244 1.3 122 0.3 248 1.8 124 0.6 2 357 1.9 203 0.5 490 3.6 482 2.3 3 2,459 l3 .1 2,150 5.3 1,856 13.7 1,957 9.1 4 5,388 28.7 6,289 15.5 1,838 l3.6 1,940 9.1 40 0.3 110 0.5 5 6 1,483 7.9 730 1.8 1,212 8.9 1,100 5.1 7 94 0.5 41 0.1 39 0.3 19 0.1 8 l31 0.7 81 0.2 80 0.6 141 0.7 9 188 1.0 41 0.1 66 0.5 53 0.2 10 1,859 9.9 6,208 15.3 1,913 14.1 4,703 21.9 II 2,967 15.8 15,824 39.0 2,420 17.9 5,358 25.0 12 1,671 8.9 3,165 7.8 2,065 15.2 3,783 17.7 13 1,108 5.9 4,625 1l.4 620 4.6 1,030 4.8 14 131 0.7 81 0.2 126 0.9 130 0.6 15 319 1.7 243 0.6 246 1.8 195 0.9 18,399 98.0 39,803 98.1 13 ,258 97.8 21,125 98.6 Sub-total WEST SLOPE 375 2.0 771 1.9 297 2.2 291 1.4 GRAND TOTAL 18,774 100.0 40,574 100.0 13,555 100.0 21,416 100.0 16 ��-75October, JOB PROGRESS State of ~C~OL~O~RA~D~O~ Project No. W-88-R-16 Work Plan No. 1 1971 REPORT _ Job No. Job Title San Luis Valley Cooperative Period Covered: May 11, 1970 to October 12 Mallard Investigation 18, 1970 Personnel: Charles Hayes and Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Bill Adrian, Ron Arant, Ron Blumberg, George Bock, Clait Braun, Harold Burdick, Bob Clark, Don Crane, David Croonquist, John Ellenberger, Larry Finnell, Howard Funk, John Goettl, Joe Griess, Don Horak, Tom Lines Daryl Luce, Bill Olmstead, Jr., Frank Rinella, Wayne Russell, Bruce Sigler, Mike Szymczak, Ken Wagner, Allen Whitaker, Allen White, Charles Woodward and Richard Hopper, Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. ABSTRACT The duck breeding population in the San Luis Valley was estimated at 29,410 pairs for 1970, including 13,704 pairs of mallards. This represented increases of nearly 1,600 pairs for all species combined and about 1,500 pairs of mallards over 1969. The 1970 mallard estimate was slightly above the sixyear average (1964-1969). Gadwalls increased significantly in 1970, while the three teals dropped sharply below the 1969 level. The point-system regulation was again tested in the San Luis Valley during the October 1-18, 1970 experimental season. This season was similar to the two previous seasons except that the daily bag limit was 100 rather than 70 points, the number of 10 point ducks was increased, and the middle point category was decreased from 30 or 35 to 20 points. Mallard drakes were assigned 20 points with mallard hens being 90 points. Colorado personnel conducted 65 hunter performance surveys during the 1970 experimental season, including 16 on private land and 49 on public land. Survey cards were sent to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for analysis. ��-77- SAN LUIS VALLEY COOPERATIVE MALLARD INVESTIGATION Richard M. Hopper An intensive study of the mallard population in the San Luis Valley was started in 1963 as a cooperative investigation between the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. A major feature of this study has been an annual experimental duck hunting season held during the period October 1-18. The objectives listed below refer to the collection of data designed to evaluate the experimental season and include only those for which the Colorado Division had primary responsibility. Results presented here pertain only to these stated objectives. A complete analysis of the 1970 experimental season and related job activities are found in Administrative Report No. 210 (Geis et al., 1971) prepared by members of both agencies and distributed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Branch of Wildlife Research, Migratory Bird Populations Station. P. S. OBJECTIVE 1. To develop a harvest formula for the San Luis Valley mallard 2. To determine reaction to various hunter types of hunting population. regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES This study was designed to determine the influence of various types of hunting regulations and bag limits on the local breeding population of mallards in the San Luis Valley. Colorado's part of the study is covered under the following segment objectives: 1. Determine the size of the 1970 duck breeding San Luis Valley. 2. Assist in determining the ability and/or willingness of hunters to abide by specific regulations and determine wounding loss during the 1970 experimental season. 3. Evaluate the results of the 1970 experimental season and write reports in cooperation with the personnel from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. METHODS population in the AND MATERIALS Methods for conducting the 1970 breeding population survey, air-ground comparison study, and hunter performance survey remained the same as those in 1967 (Segment 13). A discussion of these procedures appears in a previous report (Hopper and Rutherford, 1968) and will not be repeated here. �-78- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Population Survey Air-Ground Comparison Study Air and ground counts of ducks are compared by species in Table 1 for 122.5 miles of selected transect. The proportion identified from the air (visibility ratio) for the mallard for example, indicates that the air crew identified, as mallards, 25.5 percent of the mallards actually present on the air-ground comparison transects. A high proportion of the pintails were observed from the air (0.370), while the visibility ratio for cinnamon teals was quite low (0.060). An unusually high ratio was calculated for green-winged teals (0.375), perhaps because of the rather small sample size. Visibility ratios were applied to the regular air transect data as correction factors in calculating estimates of total breeding pairs for Russell Lakes and the major portion of the Valley, excluding Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and the total-count areas. Table 1. Air-ground comparison of ducks counted on 122.5 miles of transect in the San Luis Valley. 1970. Species Estimated Breeding Pairs Ground Air Pairs Percent Pairs Percent Mallard 474 48.0 121 59.3 0.255 Gadwall 130 13.2 12 5.9 0.092 Pintail 100 10.1 37 18.1 0.370 Shoveler 27 2.8 6 2.9 0.222 Blue-winged Teal 16 1.6 1 0.5 0.062 Cinnamon Teal 151 15.3 9 4.4 0.060 Green-winged Teal 40 4.1 15 7.4 0.375 American Widgeon 20 2.0 1 0.5 0.050 Redhead 11 1.1 2 1.0 0.182 Other Divers 18 1.8 0 0.0 0.000 Totals 987 100.0 204 100.0 0.207 Proportion Identified From the Air �-79- Duck Breeding Population Estimate Amount of habitat, sample sizes, and estimated number of breeding pairs of ducks are shown in Table 2 for the six areas included in the 1970 survey. The 1969 estimate plus the average for the period 1964-69 are included for comparison. The 1970 survey produced an estimated 29,410 breeding pairs of ducks, or about 1,500 pairs above the 1969 estimate and about 2,000 pairs more than the 6-year average (1964-1969). The estimate for 1970 was the second highest since intensive surveys began in 1964. The largest figure, 32,762 pairs, was obtained in 1964. Species composition of the 1970 San Luis Valley breeding population is presented in Table 3, along with 1969 figures and the 6-year averages. The mallard estimate for 1970 reached 13,704 pairs, an increase of nearly 1,600 pairs over 1969 but only about 150 pairs above the 6-year average. As normal, mallards constituted in the vicinity of 50 percent of the total duck breeding population. Gadwalls were next in importance, contributing 6,402 pairs in 1970, or about 22 percent of the total. This represented a significant increase over 1969 and the 6-year average. Pintail and shoveler numbers remained generally stable, while the three species of teal experienced a large decline in 1970 from the 1969 level. The 1970 sampling error, figures at ±17.3 percent, was less than for any other year of the study. Harvest Information The 1970 experimental duck hunting season (October 1-18) in the San Luis Valley was again regulated by the point system. This marked the third year for testing this type of regulation. The point system tested in 1970 differed from those in 1968 and 1969 in that the daily bag limit was 100 instead of 70 points, more ducks were placed in the 10 point category, and the middle point category was reduced from 30 or 35 to 20 points. Mallard drakes were allocated 20 rather than 10 points, with mallard hens, redheads, canvasbacks, and hooded mergansers assigned to a 90-point category. All other species and sexes were assigned 10 points. The object was to attempt to shift some of the shooting pressure away from mallard drakes and toward 10-point birds. State personnel helped in gathering hunter performance data during the 1970 experimental season in an effort to determine hunter compliance and reaction to the point system regulation in effect. Sixty-five hunter performance surveys were conducted by State men, including 16 on private land and 49 on public land. Survey cards were mailed to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for tabulation and analysis along with those submitted by Federal personnel. Results of this survey, as well as Bureau harvest, wing collection, and hunter opinion surveys, are presented in the joint report mentioned earlier (Geis et al., 1971). �Table 2. Breeding pairs by density type as estimated from the San Luis Valley regular air transects, and nesting transects, 1970, with 1969 and 6-year average for comparison. Square Miles Habitat Percent Sample Estimated No. Breeding Pairs 1/ 6-Year Average 1/ (1964-1969) 1969 1970 Monte Vista NWR 22 4.03 4,367 4,420 3,815 Russell Lakes 6 33.33 489 876 1,188 San Luis Lakes 7 100.00 456 813 268 Mishak Lakes 4 100.00 263 313 315 Adams Lake 1 100.00 19 103 38 Remainder of Valley 1,265 17.95 23,816 21,354 21,846 Totals 1,305 17.80 29,410 27,879 27,470 Type I C» 0 I 1/ Determined from nesting transects on Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and from aerial transects on all other areas. 1/ Only 5-year averages (1965-1969) for San Luis Lakes and Mishak Lakes and a 4-year average (1966-1969) for Adams Lake. �Table 3. Species composition of the San Luis Valley duck breeding population, 1970, with 1969 and 6-year average for comparison. Species 1970 Pairs % 1969 Pairs % Pairs % Mallard 13,704 46.5 12,139 43.5 l3,557 49.4 Gadwall 6,402 21. 7 2,735 9.8 2,543 9.2 Pintail 2,813 9.6 2,397 8.6 3,393 12.4 554 1.9 2,889 10.4 1,540 5.6 Blue-winged/Cinnamon Teal 2,874 9.8 5,496 19.7 3,182 11.6 Shoveler 1,647 Green-winged Teal I 5.6 00 1,080 3.9 1,270 4.6 American Widgeon 785 2.7 o 0.0 56 0.2 Redhead 520 1.8 1,031 3.7 1,652 6.0 Other Divers 1./ 111 0.4 112 0.4 277 1.0 Totals 29,410 100.0 27,879 100.0 27,470 100.0 ± .05 Standard Error ~/ + 17.3% ± 22.8% l/ Includes lesser scaups, canvasbacks, ruddy ducks, and common mergansers. ~/ Excludes Monte Vista NWR and Russell Lakes. ± 24.9% I-' I �-82- LITERATURE CITED Geis, A. D., E. M. Martin, R. Hopper, and H. Funk. 1971. Progress report: 1970 experimental duck hunting season in the San Luis Valley of Colorado - an evaluation of the point system in regulating the harvest. U.S.D.I., Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildl., Migratory Bird Pop. Sta., Admin. Rpt. No. 210. 14 pp. Hopper, R. M., and W. H. Rutherford. 1968. San Luis Valley cooperative mallard investigation. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct. pp. 33-42. Prepared by tt.:.u Jz,z JJo/!1C--f.. Richard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher �-83October, 1971 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-16 Work Plan No. Job Title: 1 Job No. 13 Determination of Method for Developing and Managing Waterfowl Habitat - Shallow Impoundment Period Covered: April Personnel: __ .~~ratory Bird Inves.tigations Study 1, 1967 to March 31, 1971 Ralph Baker, Delwin Benson, Robert Oakleaf and Richard Hopper. ABSTRACT A shallow impoundment study was initiated in 1967 to investigate plant succession in relation to various types of waterfowl use. Unfortunately, the study had to be abandoned because of the lack of sufficent water to meet the demands of the present study design. A literature review, covering wetland ecology and methods of sampling wetland vegetation, was conducted. The west end of Bonny Reservoir in extreme east central Colorado was selected as the study area. Pre-impoundment studies of vegetation in the native meadow portion of impoundment No. 1 in 1969 showed three species of grass with the highest frequencies (percent of total quadrats of occurrence), inland saltgrass (Distichlis stricta), bluestem wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus crytandrus). Inland saltgrass, bluestem wheatgrass, and cheatgrass brome (Bromus tectorum) had the greatest average densities (stems/quadrat). Summercypress (Kochia scoparia) and cammon Russian thistle (Sa1soli kali) had the highest frequencies and densities of the species found in the previously farmed area of impoundment No.1. Impoundment No. 1 was flooded immediately following termination of pre-impoundment studies. Post-impoundment studies of vegetation were conducted one year after flooding in 1970. Most species that dominated in frequency and density in 1969 also dominated in 1970. Nearly all species dropped in frequency from 1969 to 1970 on both the native meadow and farmed portions of the study area. Overall density increased on the native meadow portion from 1969 to 1970, due mostly to a large increase by inland saltgrass. Pre and post impoundment soil samples indicated some differences after only one year of flooding. Conductivity, potassium and iron increased in the samples folloWing flooding, while pH and phosphorus decreased. �-84- RECOMMENDAT IONS 1. Terminate the current investigation as presently outlined because the lack of sufficient water to meet demands of the study design. of 2. Initiate a study designed to evaluate waterfowl food crops planted in two of the three impoundments. A portion of the data collected for Work Plan 1, Job 13 would be of value in such a study, particularly that dealing with soils. �-85- SHALLOW IMPOUNDMENT STUDY .Richard M. Hopper The shallow impoundment study was initiated in 1967 (Segment 13) as a longterm investigation designed to acquire knowledge in the development and management of waterfowl habitat. The object was to construct three impoundments and to permanently flood them at two-year intervals, thereby creating three different stages of plant succession for study and comparison with various types of waterfowl use. Drawdown studies were also planned on two additional impoundments for comparison with the permanent impoundments. The first year of study involved a review of literature and the selection of a study area (Hopper 1968), while the second year entailed the design and construction of the dikes and ditching systems for three permanent impoundments (Hopper 1969). The third (Hopper 1970) and fourth years were concerned mainly with pre-impoundment vegetative and soil studies of the first shallow impoundment to be flooded. Unfortunately, this study had to.be terminated after completion of the fourth year of work because of the lack of sufficient water to meet the demands of the study design. Two wells drilled in 1968 and 1970 simply would not yield enough water to fill and maintain even two of three shallow impoundments. Thus, this report constitutes a "Job Final Report" for Work Plan 1, Job 13 and includes all information collected through the fourth year of study. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of (a) shallow, permanent impoundments; and (b) shallow, drawdown impoundments on waterfowl use and harvest at Bonny Reservoir. METHODS AND MATERIALS Literature Review Pertinent bibliographic abstracts and references were searched for books, articles, papers, etc. covering the subjects of wetland ecology and methods of sampling wetland vegetation. This subject matter was retrieved, read, and reviewed. Information important to the study was abstracted on index cards and a bibliographic list was compiled for later reference. Selection of Study Area Potential development sites in the Bonny Reservoir and San Luis Valley areas were investigated from the standpoint of which would constitute the best study area. Items considered in making a decision included: (1) amount and reliability of water supply; (2) slope of land; (3) amount of land available in a continuous block; and (4) ability of land to maintain surface water. �-86- ... CD :J U :J •... - .•.. ro U') I'rt) = Fig. 1. .L Dike and ditch system of three shallow. Dermanent imDoundments. Bonny.Reservoir. �-87- Design and Construction of Impoundments Dike ";;mdDitch Work A contour map (2-foot interval) was used as a base for designing the dike and ditch systems for the three shallow, pe11manent impoundments. Dike and ditch locations were drawn on an overlay of this map, keeping in mind that thre three resulting impoundments should be as nearl~ equal in size as the topography of the site would allow. Cubic yards (yd ) of earthwork required, including 10 percent for settlement were computed using the height and length of each lOO-foot section of dike. These sections were then added together to determine total yardage of earthwork for each impoundment's dike system. Locations of the dikes were staked on the ground with laths. The following 1. dike and ditch specifications were outlined: Dike work - 3:1 (both faces) (a) Side slopes of dikes (b) Top width of dikes (c) Source of fill for dikes - Fill material should be obtained from the upstream side of dikes. The borrow area should be sufficiently wide (50 feet or more) ,to produce a gently sloping and shallow depression adjacent to the upstream toe of the dikes. Excavation of fill,material should not exceed one foot below the original ground level. This criteria, will determine the actual width of the borrow area. Material for the deeper fills (over 3.5 feet) of Some dike sections in impoundment Nos. 2 and 3 should be taken from the area immediately north of No.3 on the edge of the bench directly above the existing pond (Fig. 1). (d) Clearing dike locations and barrow areas - The area to be covered by the bases of the dikes should be scraped and cleared of all vegetation, including roots, to a depth of four inches below the original ground level. Mowing and burning is also recommended to reduce the bulk of debris. Similar removal of vegetation in the borrow area should be to a depth of at least two inches below the original ground level. Cleared material is to be deposited over the edge of the bench east of impoundment No.3. (e) Compaction of dikes - Suitable compaction should be attained by traveling over the dikes w'ith heavy rubber-tired equipment or similar machinery periodically during construction. Compaction of this nature should occur after the addition of each layer of fill material on the dike. The fill material should be wetted if it is otherwise too dry for desirable compaction. - 6 feet �-88- 2. (f) Installation of water control structures -Three water control structures of the flash-board design were purchased and delivered to the construction site. The contractor need only install these structures. The horizontal tube should be placed a little below the original ground level and in line with the ditches to be constructed across impoundment Nos. 2 and 3. (g) Emergency spillway - An earthen spillway only for impoundment No.3. is to be constructed Ditch work (a) Location of ditches - Ditches are to be constructed across impoundment Nos. 2 and 3. The ditch across impoundment No. 2 should extend in a straight line from the water. control 'structure on impoundment No.1 to the water control structure on impoundment No.2. The ditch across impoundment No. 3 should extend in a similar manner between water control structures of impoundment Nos. 2 and 3. These ditches are necessary to transfer water across the impoundments prior to the time they are to be flooded. (b) Type of ditches - The ditches are to be well trenched farmtype ditches (deep vee) with excavated soil pulled away. Water flowing in ditches should be largely restricted to below original ground level to reduce seepage. The contract for construction of the dikes and ditches was awarded to the Hale Soil Conservation District. They, in turn, subcontracted the work to Virgil Brueggeman of Wray, Colorado. Only the three permanent impoundments were constructed. It was decided not to construct the two drawdown impoundments because of the absence of a sufficient quantity of water to flood all five. As a result, drawdown studies were temporarily abandoned as part of the overall investigation. The three impoundments constructed were to be utilized for drawdown studies following termin~tion of studies involving permanent water levels. Well and Pump Work Permits to drill two wells were obtained from the State Engineer's office, one in 1967 and one in 1969. Specifications called for each well to have a casing of 14 inches and an estimated yield of 900 gallons per mintue (2 c.f.s.). Fifteen horsepower electric pumps were recommended for installation over the wells. Layne-Western Company of Denver was named the drilling contractor. Pre- and Post-impoundment Studies Vegetation Permanent quadrats were selected as one means for describing vegetation associated with the impoundment sites before and after flooding. Forty- �-89- eight, ~-square-meter (~ m. x 1 m.) quadrats were established in impoundment No. 1 (Fig. 1) on the area to constitute the shallow-water and moist soil portion of the impoundment. A different method of vegetative sampling was planned for the deep'-water portion of the impoundment (borrow area) adjacent ·to the upstream face of the dikes where the fill material for the dikes was obtained. Locations of the 48. quadrats were determined through stratified random sampling. The ditch crossing impoundment No •.1 separates two portions of contrasting vegetation and .it was necessary to stratify the impoundment area for. sampling purposes. The area to the north of the ditch covers about two-thirds of impoundment No. 1 and consists of native meadow-type vegetation that has been hayed and grazed in the past but not broken by the plow. Land south of the ditch was farmed prior to 1969, with small grains as the predominant crop. As a result, 32 quadrats were placed in the north area and 16 in the' south area. Twelve reference points were randomly selected and permanently marked with steel posts along the main (east) dike of impoundment No.' 1 (X - Z, Fig. 1), with eight points in section X - Y and four in Y - Z. Corresponding points were permanently marked at the opposite (west) side of the impoundment by running 11 compass-line perpendicular to the main dike and across the impoundment from each of the 12 points on the main dike. These reference points were designated A through L. Four quadrats were established along each compass-line within a 300-ft. distance west of the west edge of the borrow area (deep water portion). This 300-ft. distance was stratified in an east-west direction into four, 75-ft. segments, with one quadrat being randomly placed in each segment along each compass line. These segments were designated as zones 1 through 4. This would insure sampling of vegetation in various depths of water and on moist. and dry soils, since conditions will become progressively drier in an east-west direction upon flooding of the impoundment. The northwest and southeast corners of each quadrat were permanently marked with 18 inch wooden stakes. An aluminum tag, identifying a quadrat by reference point and number was placed on the northwest stake. Designation A-2 on an aluminum tag, for example, refers to the quadrat in the second 75 ft. zone west of the borrow area along compass line A. Information collected at each quadrat included: (1) date, (2) quadrat number, (3) list of species present, and (4) number of individual plants or stems of each species. It was difficult to distinguish individual plants of some species, especially many grasses and grass-like plants, thus stems originating at the soil surface were counted. Analysis of vegetative data involved the determination of frequency (percentage of quadrats in which a species occurred) and density (average number of stems or indivudals per quadrat). Photographs were taken along compass-lines A through L in an east-west direction. Twelve quadrats were also randomly selected for photographing. Quadrat photos were taken 10 feet from the southeast stake in an east-west direction, with a yard stick placed behind the northwest stake. �-90- Soils Nine soil samples were taken during the pre-impoundment phase (August 18, 1969) and nine following the flooding of impoundment No. 1 (September 10, 1970). A core of the top six inches of soil was collected adjacent to five randomly selected vegetative quadrats and along four compass lines in the deep-water portion of impoundment No 1, with the aid of a soil auger. These samples were sent to the Colorado State University Soil Testing Laboratory for analyses of the following items: pH, conductivity, lime, organic matter, phosphorus, potash, zinc, iron, and texture. Flooding of Impoundment Sites and Waterfowl Use Plans called for initial filling of each permanent impoundment from wells in September and maintaining stable water levels on a year-around basis.Waterfowl use of the impoundments by species was to be observed and recorded at two-week intervals from September until freeze up. DESCRIPTION OF AREA The study area is located on the Bonny Reservoir State Recreation Area in extreme east-central Colorado, about 25 miles north of Burlington. Bonny Reservoir is a Bureau of Reclamation facility devoted primarily to controlling flood waters of the South Fork of the Republican River and Landsman Creek. The specific study area lies on a bench above the bottom land of the South Fork of the Republican River at the far west end of the Bonny Reservoir property (Fig. 1). It covers about 75 acres and occurs on the south side of the river above the inlet to the reservoir and directly south of the pothole blasting study area (Work Planl,Job 14). The northern two-thirds of the study area supported native, meadow-type vegetation (sedges, rushes, grasses) that had been hayed and grazed in the past but not broken by the plow. The southern one':'thirdwas farmed prior to 1969, with small grains as the predominant crop. The study area is characterized by 0.3-0.5 percent slopes, well within the less than one percent slope recommended in marsh development work. Soil Conservation Service soils maps and soil auger samples indicated a fairly heavy soil capable of retaining surface water for extended periods. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Literature Review A list of references searched and reviewed as part of this study are presented in bibliographic form at the end of this report (Appendix A). Most of these were abstracted on index cards. An additional 200 references relating to waterfowl habitat preference, a major aspect of this study, were abstracted and summarized in a "Review of Literature" in 1962 and will not be included here (Hopper 1962). A firm background in this subject now exists, but updating of the literature is needed. �-91- Selection of Study Area Bonny Reservoir was selected as the study area, largely because it is statecontrolled property and dev~lopment could begin almost immediately. The San Luis Valley site is on iand administered by the Bureau of Land Management. This federal agency was receptive to our Division doing research on a portion of the land on which they were planning to do waterfowl development work. However, it was later determined that it would be about five years before development funds would be available to them for this work. Dike and Ditch Work The dike and ditch work for the three shallow, permanent impoundments was completed in March, 1969. Figure 1 comprises a map of the resulting dike and ditch systems, while Table 1 presents a summary of some of the physical features. The construction work involved 7,755 feet of dike requ~r~ng 9,345 cubic yards of earth fill for all three impoundments combined. The dike system for impoundment No. 1 was longer and contained more volume· of earth than those of the other two impoundments. The dike forming impoundment No.3 was much shorter than those for the other two impoundments, but required practically as many cubic yards of earth fill as impoundment No. 1 because of its greater height. An earthen, emergency spillway was constructed for impoundment No.3. Construction costs for the three impoundments amounted to $4,901.00 including dike and ditch work, spillway construction, and installation of water control structures. Dike construction was figured at $0.50 per cubic yard of earth work, while ditches were constructed at the rate of $0.15 per linear foot. Spillway construction and installation of water control structures were included as part of the dike construction costs. Well and Pump Work Well drilling, pump installation, and pumphouse construction for well No.1 were completed in September, 1968, but several corrections had to be made by the contractor in October, 1968. Yield of the well was about 450 gallons per minute (1 c.f.s.), only one-half of the desired capacity. As a result, a 7.5 horsepower pump was installed in place of the anticipated IS horsepower pump. Total cost of this facility was about $5,000.00. Well No. 2 was completed during the fall of 1970. Its capacity and cost was similar to that of well No.1. It was fitted with a pumphouse in the spring of 1971. �-92- Table 1. Physical Impoundment No. characteristics of three permanent Length Dikes Earth Fill (Ft.) impoundments. (Cu. Yds.) ]J Ditch Length 1 3,850 3,320 0 2 2,275 2,729 550 3 1,630 3,296 975 7,755 9,345 1,525 Total 1J Includes 10 percent for settlement. Pre- and, Post-impoundment Pre-impoundment (Ft.) Studies Vegetation Forty-five species of plants were encountered in the 48 ~-square-meter quadrats studied in impoundment No.1 during the period August 13-16, 1969 (Tables 2-3). We were unable to identify two of these plants, mainly because of the lack of sufficient vegetative and flowering parts to work with in keying them. Forty-four of the 45 species were found in the 32 quadrats on the native meadow north of the ditch that crosses impoundment No.1 (Table 2), while only seven species occurred in the 16 quadrats located on the previously farmed area south of the ditch (Table 3). All seven species found on the farmed area, except green bristlegrass (Setaria viridus) were also found on the native meadow portion. Tables 2 and 3 show the frequency (percent of the total number of quadrats of occurrence) and density (average number of stems per quadrat) for each plant species encountered on the native meadow and farmed areas, respectively. Only three plant species, all grasses, occurred in over 75 percent of the 32 native meadow quadrats. These were inland saltgrass (Distichlis stricta) (93.8%), bluestem wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) (84.4%), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus) (78.1%). Aster (Aster commutatus) was found in 56.2 percen~ of the quadrats, while western ragweed (Ambrosia coronopifolia) and summercypress (Kochia scoparia) each occurred in 50 percent of the quadrats. Six additional species were found in 25 to 50 percent of the quadrats. Thus, only 12 of the 44 species encountered on the native meadow occurred in 25 percent or more of the 32 quadrats. Inland saltgrass, bluestem wheatgrass, and cheatgrass brome (Bromus tectorum) showed the greatest densities in the native meadow quadrats with averages of 168.5, 62.2, and 50.6 stems per quadrat, respectively. Two other grasses, sand dropseed and blue grama (Boutcloua gracilis) each had densities of about 31 stems per quadrat. All other species exhibited average densities of less than 25 stems per quadrat. �Table 2. Frequency and density data for plant species encountered in 32 quadrats on the native meadow portion of inpoundment No. 1, 1969-70. Species 1/ Agropyron smithii Ambrosia coronopifo1ia Ambrosia e1atior Andropogon gerardi Aristada longiseta Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia fi1ifo1ia Artemisia 1udoviciana Asclepias incarnata Asce1epias pumi1a Asclepias speciosa Aster commutatus Aster spp. Astragalus spp. Bidens spp. Boraginaceae family Boute1oua gracilis Boute1oua spp. Bricke11ia ob1ongifo1ia Bromus tectorum Carex spp. Cirsium spp. Conyza canadensis Danthonia spp. Delphinium spp. Distich1is stricta E1ymus canadensis Hap10pappus phy11ocepha1us Frequency (Percent of Total No. of Quadrats of Occurrence) 1969 1970 84.4 50.0 0 3.1 9.4 25.0 6.2 25.0 3.1 6.2 6.2 56.2 0 3.1 0 0 34.4 9.4 0 34.4 21.9 6.2 12.5 3.1 18.8 93.8 3.1 3.1 He1ianthus annuus 0 Hesperoch1oa spp. Hordeum iubatum 0 0 84.4 25.0 3.1 3.1 6.2 21.9 6.2 15.6 3.1 6.2 6.2 34.4 12.5 3.1 3.1 12.5 31.2 6.2 3.1 25.0 25.0 0 6.2 0 3.1 100.0 3.1 3.1 6.2 3.1 3.1 Densi ty Ave. No. of Stems/Quadrat 1969 1970 62.2 4.6 0 0.6 13.1 6.9 88.4 3.8 T 3.3 11.0 7.0 3.8 T 1/ 0.6 0.1 5.8 0 T 0 0 30.6 8.7 0 50.6 17.2 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.5 168.5 0.1 T 2.9 1.6 0.3 0.3 3.4 0.9 T T 1.2 40.8 7.9 0.1 30.8 36.5 0 0.3 0 T 425.7 1.6 0.1 0 0.1 0 0 T 4.1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I 1.0 w I �-96- Sunnnercypressoccurred in all 16 quadrats on the previously farmed area, while common Russian thistle (Salsoli ,kali) was found in 87.5 percent and lettuce (Lactuca ludoviciana) in 81.2 percent (Table 3). Ground cherry (Physalis longifolia) was the only other species of the seven encountered that occurred in more than one quadrat. Sunnnercypress also had by far the greatest density, averaging 1,070 stems, or in this case, individual plants per quadrat. These plants were noticeably stunted, as might be expected with the extremely high density. The density of connnon Russian thistle (269 stems per quadrat) amounted to only about one-fourth that of summercypress but was greater than any other species in the native meadow during the pre-impoundment phase of the study. All other species in the farmed area had relatively low densities. Species:area curves, as described by Oosting (1956) were applied to the native meadow and farmed samples to determine the minimum number of ~-square-meter quadrats required for adequate sampling of vegetation on each area. This procedure indicated that the numbers of quadrats used (32 and 16, respectively) were sufficient for the present plant composition. Post-impoundment Vegetation Flooding of impoundment No. 1 began on August 10, 1969, but as noted previously only partial filling resulted because of an insufficient quantity of well water. A stable level of water was maintained in the impoundment throughout the remainder of 1969 and in 1970; however, because of the lower than desired water level only a portion. of the vegetative study area was subjected to increased moisture conditions. The 48 vegetative quadrats were again read during the periods August 19-20 and September 8-10, 1970. Fifty-two species of plants were found in the 48 quadrats in 1970, an increase of seven species over 1969 (Tables 2-3. These seven new species occurred only in quadrats lying within the flooded area of the impoundment. Apparently, they found moisture conditions more favorable in 1970 than in 1969. Fifty of the 52 species were located in the 32 native meadow quadrats, with six observed in the 16 quadrats on the previously farmed area. As in 1969, inland saltgrass, bluestem wheatgrass, and sand dropseed had the greatest frequencies in the native meadow area, occurring in 100, 84.4, and 53.1 percent of the 32 quadrats, respectively (Table 2). Other species with frequencies of 25 percent or more included aster (34.4%), blue grama (31.2%), sunnnercypress (31.2%), western ragweed (25.0%), cheatgrass brome (25.0%), sedge (Carex spp.) (25.0%), and prairie coneflower (Ratibida columnifera) (25.0%). Inland saltgrass, bluestem wheatgrass, and sedge were the only species of the top 10 that did not decrease in frequency of occurrence from 1969 to 1970. Most remaining species also showed a decrease in frequency during this period. Inland saltgrass and bluestem wheatgrass were again the donimnat species in the native meadow quadrats in terms of denSity, averaging about 426 and 88 stems per quadrat, respectively. Blue grama, sedge, and cheatgrass brome e~hibited average densities of 40.8, 36.5, and 30.8 stems per quadrat. All of the above five species, except cheatgrass brome, showed increases in density from 1969 to 1970, with the greatest increases occurring for inland saltgrass and sedge. �-97- Summercypress, lettuce, and common Russian thistle were the major species in the farmed area in regard to frequency of occurrence in 1970, just as they were in 1969 (Table 3). They occurred in 93.8, 87.5, and 56.2 percent of the 16 quadrats, respectively; representing a decrease for all except lettuce from 1969 to 1970. Two moist-environment plants, sedge and softstem bulrush (Scirpus va1idus) made their appearance in 1970. Density changes were quite apparent on the farmed area from 1969 to 1970. Summercypress maintained its dominance in this regard, but was reduced by nearly one-half from 1969. The greatest decrease in density was noted for common Russian thistle, going from 269 stems per quadrat in 1969 to only about 28 stems per quadrat in 1970. A tremendous increase in density was recorded for lettuce in 1970. This species increased from an average of only 3.6 stems per quadrat in 1969 to 541.6 stems per quadrat in 1970. I suspect the changes in density noted above for the farmed area had more to do with the natural process of plant succession than to increased moisture brought about by flooding the impoundment. Few conclusive statements can be made regarding changes in plant frequency and density from 1969 to 1970. This represented only bne year of flooding, and only partial flooding at that. Nearly all species dropped in frequency of occurrence from 1969 to 1970 on both the native meadow and farmed portions of the study area. Overall density increased on the native meadow from 1969 to 1970, due mostly to the large increase by inland saltgrass. This species no doubt reacted favorably to increased soil moisture caused by flooding of the impoundment. Natural plant succession was believed to be the reason for density changes on the farmed area. Soils Results of the analyses of soil samples are shown in Tables 4-5. The 1970 samples (post-impoundment) were taken from within a few feet of the 1969 samples (pre-impoundment) and differences in soil properties between the two years mayor may not reflect changes resulting from the flooding of impoundment No.1. Sample number AO, EO, HO, and KO were taken from the borrow area (deep water area) where a foot or more of the top soil had been removed and used for construction of the dike. These four subsurface samples were mostly clay loam in texture. All other samples were taken from the original soil surface and consisted of lighter textures of loams and sandy loams. Generally, it seems that surface soils of impoundment No. 1 are light to medium textured, but that .at least some of the area is underlain with heavy soils. Pre-impoundment samples collected in 1969 showed subsurface soils to be similar to the surface samples in all respects except for lime and organic content (Table 4). The clay loams were all high in lime content, whereas the lighter surface samples ranged from low to high in this regard. Organic matter content was generally lower in the clay loam samples (0.8 - 1.3%) than in the loam and sandy loam samples (1.8 - 3.6%). This difference in organic matter content would be expected when comparing surface and subsurface soils. �Table 4. Pre-impoundment soil test results of nine samples collected in impoundment No. 1 on August 18, 1969. Organic Matter Phosphorus Potassium (ppm) (ppm) Zinc (ppm) Iron (%) Conductivity (salts) (mmhos/cm) High 1.3 0.6 8.7 417+ 0.59 7.2 8.1 High 0.9 0.5 9.2 281 0.29 7.9 Clay Loam 7.9 High 1.1 0.5 7.4 417+ 0.41 8.5 KO Clay Loan 8.5 High 0.8 0.5 2.2 417+ 1.38 6.5 B1 Loam 7.9 High 2.7 0.5 8.1 385 1.40 12.5 F1 Loam 7.5 Low 2.9 0.5 5.2 417+ 0.92 6.0 Texture pH (paste) Lime AO Clay Loam 7.9 EO Clay Loam HO Sample No. (ppm) I \0 00 I G2 Loam 7.7 Low 3.6 0.5 8.5 417+ 1.90 4.8 J1 Loam 7.8 Low 2.5 0.3 4.1 417+ 0.42 2.7 K2 Sandy Loam 7.9 High 1.8 0.4 3.3 417+ 0.50 2.5 �Table 5. Post-impoundment soil test results of nine samples collected in impoundment No. 1 on September 10, 1970. Texture pH (paste) Lime Organic Matter (%) AO Sandy Loam 7.7 Medium 1.3 EO Clay Loam 7.6 Low HO Clay Loam 7.8 KO Clay Bl Sample No. Conductivity (salts) (mmhos/em) Phosphorus Potassium Irori (ppm) (ppm) Zinc (ppm) "(ppm) 1.0 7.5 500+ 0.52 24.2 1.0 0.7 4.3 500+ 0.32 12.2 Medium 1.0 0.6 2.5 500+ 0.46 14.2 7.8 High 1.2 0.7 2.0 500+ 0.32 11.4 Clay Loam 7.6 Medium 2.3 0.8 15.0 500+ 1.66 40+ Fl Loam 7.4 Low 2.1 1.1 5.8 345 1.58 40+ G2 Loam 7.1 Low 2.2 0.7 6.5 418 1.26 ·40+ Jl Loam 7.7 Low 2.2 0.5 2.5 500+ 0.42 4.8 K2 Loam 7.8 Medium 1.6 0.5 2.3 500+ 3.54 4.2 I \0 \0 I �-100- Hydrogen-ion concentrations (pH) of all soil samples in 1969 ranged from 7.5 to 8.5, or slightly to moderately alkaline. Samples taken on the previously farmed portion of the impoundment (Jl and K2) showed smaller amounts of phosphorus, zinc, and iron than did the samples collected from the native meadow. Many years of cropping on farmland can be responsible for declines in these elements. Samples taken in 1970, after one year of partial flooding of impoundment No. I, indicated some differences from 1969 pre-impoundment samples (Table 5). Texture changes from 1969 to 1970 occurred for three of the nine samples: AO (clay loam to sandy loam), Bl (loam to clay loam), and K2 (sandy loam to loam). These changes may have been the result of siltation. Conductivity, potassium,and iron increased in the samples following flooding; while pH and phosphorus decreased. Lime content decreased in the subsurface samples (borrow area) but remained the same for the surface samples from 1969 to 1970. Sampling error, rather than induced changes through flooding may have contributed greatly to the above differences. All other soil properties tested were generally consistent between the two years. , Flooding of Impoundment Site An attempt was made in mid-August, 1969 to fill impoundment No. 1 from the initial well. It was obvious after several days that the well did not produce enough water to meet this demand. A sufficient quantity of water was yielded to fill the borrow area and to begin spreading over the flats, but at least an additional six vertical inches were needed to obtain the desired amount of flooded area. The second well was operated in conjunction with the first well starting in the fall of 1970. Together, they increased the water level in impoundment No. I, but failed to yield any excess water for impoundment No.2 and 3. This situation is completely contrary to study plans and no other sources of water are presently available for use on the study area. Thus, it is recorrnnended that this study be dropped and, if deSirable, another one proposed which can make use of the existing impoundments and quantity of water. Waterfowl Use Intensive waterfowl use observations were scheduled to begin in the late surrnnerand early fall of 1969 following initial filling of impoundment No. 1 to the desired level. However, only partial filling occurred and systematic waterfowl counts were delayed in anticipation that a desired water level would eventually be reached. Since the desired water level was never realized, only general statements can be made regarding waterfowl use of impoundment No.1. Waterfowl began using impoundment No. 1 irrnnediately upon initial flooding in August of 1969. Varying numbers of ducks were seen using the impoundment during the fall, with a peak of 43 observed on October 9, 1969. The impoundment froze over on November 13, 1969, except a sizable area round the inlet. This open water area was maintained throughout the winter and spring �-101- by water flowing from the wells at temperatures ranging from 48-550 F. Heaviest duck use occurred during this period, with excess of 200, mostly mallards, observed at one time. Duck use of the impoundment continued through the spring and summer of 1970, including breeding birds that established territories. TJo or three broods of mallards were seen on the impoundment during the evening of July 6, 1970. Harvest checks were made on impoundment No. I during the fall of 1970. Duck hunting pressure is generally light in the Bonny Reservoir area and hunters were difficult to contact. Only 18 ducks, mostly teal, were checked during six days of contactsi however, this number is believed to be only a small fraction of the total number harvested in the 1970-71 season. Prepared by ~/£t;; m~l . Richard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher �-102- APPENDIX A LITERATURE CITEb Archibald, E. E. A. 1949. J. Ecol. 37:260-288. Ashby, E. 1948. 14:222-234. The specific character of plant communities. Statistical ecology. II. A reassessment. Bot. Rev. Borman, F. H. 1953. The statistical efficiency of sample plot size and shape in forest ecology. Ecology. 34:474-487. Bourdeau, P. F. 1953. A test of random versus systemati~ sampling. Ecology. 34:499-512. Cain, S. A. 1938. The species-area curve. Am. MidI. Nat. 19:573-581. 1943. Sample-plot techniques applied to alpine vegetation in Wyoming. Am. J. Bot. 30:240-247. Cochran, W. G. 206-233. 1963. Sampling techniques. Coker, R. E. 1954. Streams lakes ponds. Press, Chapel Hill. 327p. John Wiley and Sons, N. Y. The University of North Carolina Cottam, G., and B. W. Hale. 1953. Some sampling characteristics of a population of randomly dispersed individuals. Ecology. 34:741-757. Curtis, V. T., and R. P. McIntosh. 1950. The interrelations of certain analytic and snythetic characters. Ecology. 31:434-455. Cutler, D. D. 1955. A permanent plot system of survey for continuous inventory of ponderosa pine stands in the southwest. J. For. 53(2):186-189. Daubenmire, R. 1959. A canopy-coverage method of vegetative analysis. Northwest Sci. 33(1):43-64. Deming, W. E. 602p. 1950. Some theory of sampling. John Wiley and Sons, N. Y. Evans, F. C. 1952. The influence of size of quadrant on the distributional patterns of plant populations. Contr. Lab. Vert. BioI. Univ. Mich., 54:1-15. Goodall, D. W. 1952. Quantitative aspects of plant distribution. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 27:194-245. BioI. �-103- Grieg-Smith, P. 1952. The use of random and contiguous quadrants in the study of the structure of plant communities. Ann. Bot. NS. 16 (62):293-316. 1957. Quantitative plant ecology. Publications, London. 198p. Hall, O. F. 1959. The contribution precision of growth estimates. Hanson, H. C. 1950. Scientific of remeasured sample plots to the J. For. 57(11):807-811. Ecology of the grassland. Harrington, H. D. 1954. Denver. 666pp. Hopper, R. M. grounds. Butterworths II. Bot. Rev. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 16:283-360. Sage Books, 1962. Habitat preference of waterfowl on the breeding Unpubl. Review of Literature. Colo. State Univ. 69pp. 1968. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat"'--shallow impoundment study. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt., Oct. pp. 43-49. 1969. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat--shallow impoundment study. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct. pp. 65-71. 1970. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat-shallow impoundment study. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct. pp. 49-60. Husch, B. N. Y. 1963. Forest mensuration 474p. and statistics. Kelsey, H. P., and W. A. Dayton. 1942. Standardized Horace McFarland Co., Harrisburg, Pa. 675pp. The Ronald Press Co., plant names. J. Kuchler, A. W. 1955. A comprehensive method Assoc. of Amer. Geog. 65:404-415. of mapping vegetation. Odum, E. P. 546p. W. B. Saunders 1959. Fundamentals of ecology. Oosting, H. J. 1956. The study of plant .communities. Co., San Francisco. 440p. Osborne, J. G. cover-type Annals. Co., Philadelphia. W. H. Freeman and 1942. Sampling errors of systematic and random surveys areas. J. Am. Stat. Assn. 37:256-264. of Pechanee, J. F., and G. Stewart. 1940. Sagebrush-grass range sampling studies: size and structure of sampling unit. J. Am. Soc. Agron. 32:669-682. Penfound, W. T. 1945. A study of phytosociological relationships of aggregations of colored cards. Ecology. 26:38-57. by means �-104- Phillips, E. A. 1959. Inc. 107p. Methods of vegetation study. Henry Holt and Co., Rice, E. L. 1952. Phytosotiological analysis of tall-grass Marshall County, Oklahoma. Ecology. 33(1):112-116. prairie ___ Ecology. ., and R. W. Kelting. 36: 7-11. 1955. The species-area curve. in Schumacher, F. S., and R. A. Chapman. 1948. Sampling methods in forestry and range management. Duke Univ. School of Forestry Bull. 7, rev. ed. 22lp. Spurr, S. H. 340p. 1948. Aerial photographs in Forestry. New York Ronald Press. Swindale, D. N., and J. T. Curtis. 1957. Phytosociology of the larger submerged plants in Wisconsin lakes. Ecology. 38(3):397-407. Vestal, A. G. 1949. Minimum BioI. Monog. 30:1-129. areas for different vegetations. Ill. Weller, M. W., and C. S. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Lowa State Univ., Sci. and Tech., Agr. and Home Econ. Exp. Sta., Spec. Rpt. No. 43. 31p. Yates, F. 1953. Sampling methods for censuses Publ. Co ,, New York. p , 230-233. and surveys. Hafner �-105- APPENDIX Scientific and common names of plants Scientific Name 1/ Agropyron smithii Ambrosia coronopifolia Ambrosia elatior Andropogon gerardi Aristada longiseta Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia filifolia Artemisia ludoviciana Asclepias incarnata Asclepias pumila Asclepias speciosa Aster commutatus Aster spp. Astragalus spp. Bidens spp. Boraginaceae family Bouteloua gr&C1Lis Bouteloua spp. Brickellia oblongifolia Bromus tectorum Carex spp. Cirsium spp. Conyza canadensis Danthonia spp. Delphinium spp. Distichlis stricta Elymus canadensis Haplopappus phyllocephalus Helianthus annuus Hesperochloa spp. Hordeum jubatum Juncus spp. Kochia scoparia Lactuca ludoviciana Liatrus punctata Melilotus alba Muhlenbergia asperifolia Opuntia spp. Panicum capillare Physalis longifolia Plantago ~. B referred to in the text. Common Name ]j Bluestem wheatgrass Western ragweed Common ragweed Big bluestem Red threeawn Sagebrush Sand sagebrush Louisiana sagebrush Swamp milkweed Plains milkweed Showy milkweed Aster Aster Milkvetch Beggartick Borage family Blue grama Grama Mohave brickellia Cheatgrass brome Sedge Thistle Horseweed fleabane Danthonia Larkspur Inland saltgrass Canada wild rye Goldenweed Common sunflower Spikefescue Foxtail barley Rush Summercypress Lettuce Dotted gayfeather White sweetclover Alkali muhly Prickly pear Common witchgrass Groundcherry Plantain �-106- APPENDIX B (Continued) Scientific and common names of plants Scientific Name 11 Polygonum aviculare Ratibida columnifera Salsola kali Scirpus validus Setaria viridus Solanum rostratum Solidago graminifolia Sporobolus airoides Sporobolus crytandrus Stellaria media Stipa comata Tragopogon porrifolius II From Harrington (1954). 11 From Kelsey and Dayton (1942). referred to in the text. Common Name 1./ Prostrate knotweed Prairie coneflower Common Russian thistle Softstem bulrush Green bristlegrass Buffalobur nightshade Grassleaf goldenrod Alkali sacaton Sand dropseed Chickweed Needle and thread Salsify �-107October, JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO State of Project 1971 Migratory W-88-R-16 No. Bird Investigations 1 Job No. 14 Determination of Methods for Developing and Managing Job T it1 e __ W_a_t_e_r_f_o_w_l_H_a_b_i_t_a_t_-_A_mm_o._n_i_u_m_N_~_. t_r_a_t_e_P_o_t_h_o_l_e_B_l_a_s_t_~_· n"",g",--_S_t_u_d",-y __ Work Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: April Delwin 1, 1970 to March Benson and Richard 31, 1971 Hopper ABSTRACT Submerged aquatic vegetation was sampled in 36 potholes (9 of each charge size) in September, 1970. Data from these samples were compared with those collected from the same 36 potholes in 1968. Submergents were found in 31 (86%) of the 36 potholes in 1968 and in 3S (97%) in 1970. Six species were encountered, with muskgrass (Chara spp.), longleaf pondweed (Potamogeton nodosus), and sago pondweed (R. pectinatus) dominating in both frequency of occurrence and density during both years. Plant densities more than doubled from 1968 to 1970 for each charge size except the ISO-lb. size, which produced similar densities during both years. Sago pondweed showed the greatest increase in density from 1968 to 1970. Coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) and longleaf pondweed also increased in density from 1968 to 1970, while decreases were noted for leafy pondweed (R. foliosus) and horned-pondweed (Zannichellia palustris). A manuscript entitled "Waterfowl Use in Relation to Size and Cost of Blasted Potholes" was prepared and submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management in September, 1971. If accepted for publication, this paper will satisfy Federal Aid reporting requirements for a portion of this study. Major points brought out in this paper include: (1) The 2S- and 7S-lb. charges produced more square feet of surface area/lb. than the SO- or ISO-lb. sizes; (2) Total cost/lOO sq. ft. of surface area was lowest for7S-lb. charges, followed by the ISO-lb. charges; (3) most duck use occurred in the spring; (4) 10 species of ducks used the potholes with mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and blue-winged teals (Anas discors) contributing most of the duck visits; (S) Potholes produced by 7Sand ISO-lb. charges yielded the largest number of average duck visits/hr. of the four charge sizes; and (6) The 7S-lb. charge was the most efficient in regard to cost/duck visit and number of duck visits/100 sq. ft. of surface area, followed by the ISO-lb. size. �-108- RECOMMENDATIONS I. Both 75 lb. and 150 lb. charges are recommended over 25 lb. or 50 lb. charges for use in pothole blasting. �-109- AMMONIUM NITRATE POTHOLE BLASTING STUDY Richard M. Hopper P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate various size potholes blasted with ammonium nitrate in terms of (a) life expectancy, (b) plant succession, (c) soil and water characters, (d) waterfowl use and hunting potential, and (e) cost. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Collect data pertaining to the vegetative, associated with the potholes. 2. Obtain pothole measurements. 3. Collect waterfowl use and harvest METHODS soil, and water data on and adjacent characteristics to the potholes. AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed during Segment 16 remained used in Segment 14 (Hopper 1969) and will not be repeated the same as those here. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetative, Submerged Vegetation Soil and Water Characteristics in Potholes Submerged aquatic vegetation was sampled in 36 potholes (nine of each charge size) during the period September 9-10, 1970. Sampling consisted of dragging a garden rake through each pothole the following number of times according to charge size: 25 lb. - 3; 50 lb. - 4; 75 lb. - 6; 150 lb. - 8. One drag of the rake through a pothole constituted one sample; thus 189 samples were taken in the 36 potholes. Samples obtained in 1970 were compared by charge size of potholes with those collected from the same 36 potholes in 1968 to give an indication of plant succession (Tables 1-2). Six species of submergents were found in the sampling process during the two years of vegetative study, five in 1968 and the same five plus coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) in 1970. Vegetation was encountered in 31 (86.1%) of the 36 potholes in 1968, with one 25-lb., three 50-lb., and one l50-lh. potholes being void of submerged aquatics in the samples. All but one (150 lb.) of the 36 potholes (97.2 percent) produced vegetation in the samples in 1970. �Table 1. Comparison of frequency of occurrence of submerged aquatic vegetation among charge sizes, as estimated from 189 samples in 36 potholes. 25 Species Freguency of Occurrence (Percent) 1/ Charge Size (lbs.) 50 75 150 1968 1970 1970 1968 1968 Total 1970 1968 1968 1970 0 0 0 ·5.6 0 7.4 0 23.6 0 12.2 Chara spp. 44.4 33.3 5.6 41. 7 55.6 55.6 68.0 16.7 49.2 34.9 Potamogeton fo1iosus 25.9 3.7 25.0 8.3 53.7 24.1 55.6 13.9 45.0 14.3 Potamogeton nodosus 33.3 44.4 11.1 19.4 31.5 48.1 40.3 45.8 31.2 41. 3 Ceratophy11um demersum 1970 I Potamogeton pectinatus 0 66.7 44.4 72.2 24.1 72.2 19.4 47.2 22.8 61.9 Zanniche1lia pa1ustris 7.4 3.7 0 0 18.5 0 0 0 6.3 0.5 Total 77.8 100.0 66.7 91. 7 92.6 100.0 88.9 84.7 84.1 92.6 1/ Percentage of total number of samples in which a species occurred. I-' t-' c ~ �Table 2. Density comparisons of submerged aquatic vegetation among charge sizes, as estimated from 189 samples in 36 potholes. 25 Species Mean Density 1/ Charge Size ~lbs.2 50 75 1968 1970 1968 1970 1968 1970 0 0 0 0.3 0 Chara spp. 1.9 3.0 0.2 2.7 Potamogeton fo1iosus 2.1 0.1 1.6 Potamogeton nodosus 2.0 3.5 0.4 Ceratophy11um demersum Potamogeton pectinatus 0 7.4 2.7 150 Total 1968 1970 1968 1970 0.3 0 2.4 0 1.1 3.1 5.2 6.1 1.3 3.5 2.9 0.9 3.6 3.0 4.0 0.6 3.1 1.2 1.7 1.3 4.5 1.6 3.1 1.4 3.3 7.8 1.1 7.5 1.4 6.0 1.3 7.0 T ];./ ,....I ,.... ,.... I Zanniche11ia pa1ustris 0.2 0.2 0 0 1.0 0 0 0 0.3 Total 6.2 14.2 4.9 13.4 10.1 20.5 13.1 13.4 9.6 1/ Average number of rake teeth covered per sample. ];./Less than 0.1. 15.5 �-115October, JOB PROGRESS State of Project 1971 REPORT C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~~ _ No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Migratory W-88-R-16 2 Bird Investigations Job No. Experimental Studies on Improving Status of Canada Goose Populations April 2 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Personnel: D. Horn, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Delwin Benson, W. Carpenter, C. Crawford, G. Crawford, G. East, H. Gresh, D. Hopper, D. Potts, J. Monarch, C. Slonaker and M. Szymczak of Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT In the spring of 1970, the first nesting attempts by Canada geese were noted in the goose transplant site area near Masters, Colorado. Sixty goslings were released on the K-4 Ranch in August, 1970, bringing the total number of birds released in three years to 346. Band recoveries indicate that most of the birds released at Masters are remaining in Colorado throughout the year. As many as 80 geese were observed at the San Luis Lake transplant site in the spring of 1970. Non-breeding birds from the San Luis Valley population, including transplanted birds from all years since 1967, were members of a moulting population captured at Wheatland Reservoir in Wyoming in June of 1970. Band recoveries indicate that birds released at San Luis Lake may be establishing a fall migration pattern into southwest New Mexico. Geese began returning to the North Park transplant area on April 11, 1970. Birds were sighted intermittently throughout the Park through the spring period. In July, 246 goslings were released at Lake John Annex. After the release, geese were commonly observed on the Annex, at Case Flats, at Hebron Sloughs and on Walden and McFarlane Reservoirs. Band recoveries indicate that the birds released in North Park in 1969 may have had a low survival rate through the first winter. Geese released in 1970 in North Park were recovered primarily in Yuma County, Arizona, exhibiting a similar migration pattern to those released in 1969. Approximately 10 percent of the 1970 North Park transplants were reported recovered by hunters. In June, 1970, 36 goslings were released on Totten Reservoir east of Cortez in Montezuma County. The birds remained on Totten or at nearby Narraguinnep Reservoir throught the fall and winter period. �RECOMMENDATIONS 1. If goslings are available, release birds at North Park, San Luis Lakes, Jumbo Reservoir and Totten Reservoir in 1971.- - �-117- EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPROVING STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the success of attempts to establish breeding populations of Canada geese in suitable habitat where they do not currently exist in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare a technical bulletin on the technique of establishing a breeding population of Canada geese. 2. To expand the breeding flocks of Canada geese in the South Platte Valley, the San Luis Valley and North Park. 3. To begin efforts to establish a breeding flock of Great Basin Canada geese on Totten Reservoir, south of Dolores in Montezuma County. METHODS AND MATERIALS Canada goose goslings for transplant purposes were obtained.from four different sources: (1) goslings and some eggs from the metropolitan Denver area; (2) goslings and some eggs from the Fort Collins area; (3) goslings from Valmont Reservoir in the Boulder area and; (4) eggs from nests in danger of destruction from high water along the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers in Moffat County. All eggs were transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for incubation and subsequent raising. All goslings live-trapped were transported as soon as possible to the release site. Birds obtained from eggs collected in Moffat County were released on Totten Reservoir south of Dolores. Birds collected at other locations were released either at San Luis Lakes, Lake John Annex or the K-4 Ranch. Migration and mortality information were obtained from recovery cards received from the Migratory Bird Population Station. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of Technical Bulletin Very little progress was made on preparing a technical bulletin on the technique of establishing a breeding popUlation of Canada geese during Segment 16. �-118- Extensive work on this bulletin is planned for Segment 17. South Platte Valley - K-4 Ranch Spring and Summer Status In early April birds were encountered at the release site on the K-4 Ranch, along the Platte River near Masters, Colorado, in addition to other nearby locations. A number of nesting attempts were recorded with the result of at least four broods being hatched. A production survey on June 27 recorded one brood of three on Empire Reservoir, one brood of four on the Gallagher Ranch and two broods with a total of seven young on the K-4 Ranch. Additional broods may have been present in the area but were not encountered. Nesting pairs may have been two-year-01d birds which had survived since the original transplant made in the summer of 1968 or possibly migrant birds which had stayed in the area. On August 2, 60 goslings (30 females and 30 males) were released on the K-4 Ranch bringing the total number of geese released in that area in three years to 346. Hunting season recoveries of the transplanted geese continue to indicate that most of the birds are remaining within the state throughout the year (Table 1). Birds transplanted in the summer of 1968 and 1969 were recovered at a greater rate during the 1970-71 season than they had been in previous years. Table 1. Hunting recovery locations of Canada geese released on the K-4 Ranch near Masters, Colorado in Weld County. Year No. Released 1968 217 No. Recovered Direct Indirect 1969 69 No. Recovered Direct Indirect Morgan Co. 5 0 1 0 0 N.A. Weld Co. 0 5 1 2 1 N.A. Adams Co. 1 2 0 2 1 N.A. Larimer Co. 0 4 0 1 1 N.A. Kansas 0 1 0 0 0 N.A. Oklahoma 0 1 0 0 0 N.A. Total 6 13 2 5 3 N.A. Area Recovered 1969 60 No. Recovered Direct Indirect Colorado �-119- The times and locations of the recoveries indicate that many of the birds had dispersed from the release site prior to the start of the hunting season. Most of these bird~ apparently joined other concentrations of geese in the Larimer and Weld County area. The movement of birds away from the transplant site, as indicated by band recoveries, may be an indication of rejection of the transplant site by some of the birds. On the other hand the surviving birds may return to the transplant area the following spring to breed, thus undergoing a short b~t important east-west migration. Continuation of this type of migration, if occurring, would definitely be detrimental to efforts to obtain a wider distribution of wintering geese in north-central Colorado. Approximately 300 square miles around the transplant site remained closed to goose hunting during the 1970-71 season in order to protect the transplanted birds and encourage them to remain in the area. San Luis Valley ~ San Luis Lakes In July of 1969, 160 Canada goose goslings were released on San Luis Lake in the San Luis Valley. Birds were placed at San Luis in an attempt to expand the breeding goose population into the northeastern portion of the Valley. First year recoveries of released birds were reported on by Szymczak, 1970. The transplant site was not extensively surveyed for returning birds in spring of 1970. However, as many as eighty birds were observed on the release area during that spring. Many of these were probably 1969 transplant birds. An additional 7B,goslings were released on the site in the summer of 1970. In June of 1970, five of the 1969 transplants were captured in a goose drive trapping operation on Wheatland Reservoir north of Bosler in Albany County, Wyoming. This reservoir has traditionally been used by non-breeding birds of some populations of Pacific Flyway Great Basin Canada geese as a moulting area. In addition to the 1969 plants, seven of the goslings released in 1967 and 1968 in the San Luis Valley on the Alamosa National Wildli·fe Refuge were also captured. These .recap tures suggest that birds of the San Luis Valley population may be beginning to use Wheatland for moulting purposes. However, it is also possible that the birds recaptured at Wheatland may have drifted into Great Basin goose population areas and subsequently have become members of those popUlations. The recovery of a 1967 San Luis Valley transplant along the Green River in Utah during the 1970-71 hunting season adds to the validity of the latter hypothesis. The recovery locations of goslings released at San Luis Lake are presented in Table 2. Only eight recoveries of 1969 released birds were reported during the 1970-71 reporting year. Two of these were taken during the 1969-70 season. The recoveries of birds during the 1970-71 season outside the San Luis Valley, although small in number, substantiate the variation in recovery locations of birds released on different dates in July, 1969 that was suggested by Szymczak, 1970. Most birds released on July 22 were �-120- recovered in Pacific Flyway areas while those released on July 8 seemed to have migrated into New Mexico, wintering in the Roswell area of Chaves County in southeast New Mexico. Only one bird of the 1969 plant was actually bagged in the Roswell area during the 1970-71 season. However, an additional eight birds from that release were recaptured on January 1, 1971 during goose trapping operations on the Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge near Roswell. Of the nine birds known to be in the Roswell area during the winter of 1970-71, only one was a member of the July 22, 1969 group. Table 2. Hunting season recovery locations of Canada geese released in 1969 and 1970 at San Luis Lake, Alamosa County, San Luis Valley, Colorado. 1969 Date Released No. Released 1970 July 8 July 22 80 San Luis Valley Chaffee Co. 80 June 29 29 July 2 39 2 3 o 2 1 o o o Chaves Co. 9 o 1 San Miguel Co. o 1 o o o o 1 o o o 6 o o o 1 o o 1 o o o 13 12 1 2 Area Recovered United States Colorado New Mexico Arizona Cochise Co. Mexico Sonora Southwest Chihuahua Unknown Canada Saskatchewan Southwest Total �-121- Thirty of the birds released in 1970 on San Luis were also present in the Roswell area during the winter of 1970-71. Twenty-nine of the thirty were also recaptured at Bitter Lakes while one was bagged by a hunter in the vicinity. The Roswell area/was the only location outside of the San Luis Valley where 1970 transplants were harvested or recaptured. The presence in the Roswell area of 1969 transplants for two consecutive winters along with 1970 releases during the winter of 1970-71 indicates that a portion of these transplanted birds may be establishing a migration pattern into southeast New Mexico. The entire San Luis Valley with the exception of the San Luis Lakes-Head Lake transplant area was open to goose hunting during the 1970-71 season. The western portion of the Valley was open to hunting,by permit only, with a maximum of 200 geese the allowable harvest. The additional open season apparently increased the hai~est of transplanted birds in the Valley. However, the increased harvest should not be detrimental to the restoration program at this time. San Luis Lake proper lacks natural nesting sites for Canada geese. Therefore, a number of artificial nesting structures, both pole-type and floatingtype were placed at San Luis prior to the return of geese in the spring of 1970. North Park - Lake John Annex In the summer of 1969, 194 goslings were released on Lake John Annex eight miles west and 2 miles north of Walden. The majority of these birds migrated into the Pacific Flyway generally terminating their southern movement in southwest Arizona and adjacent Mexico (Szymczak, 1970). Spring Returns Because of the variation in band reporting rates by geographic area, it is difficult to estimate the number of birds which survived throughout the 196970 winter and thus were potentially eligible for return to North Park the following spring. Since many of the birds apparently move into Mexico, where reporting rates are very low and hunting regulations are either non-existent or not abided by, there is a good chance that a large number of the 1969 releases did not survive. Some of the birds recovered in Mexico were caught by hand indicating that they were either unwary or possibly unhealthy. On April 11, 1970 the first returning birds were observed in North Park. These 11 birds were sighted on Lake John Annex approximately three days after the ice had begun to break up. Three of the birds were neckbanded. Fourteen geese were observed on the Annex on April 13 and 17, on April 20 and again April 25. On April 20, the 17 birds were observed at close range and only 14 of the birds bore legbands. Assuming that the transplants did not lose their legbands, the unbanded birds may have been members of the remnant population of geese in North Park (Szymczak, 1970) or birds from other populations that accompanied the transplants into the Park. �-122- On May 6, 20 geese were observed on the Annex with 19 there on May 18, but still only 3 birds with neckbands. Since 80 percent of the birds released were neckbanded the geese apparently did not retain their neckbands to the degree expected. One neckbanded bird, which was recovered in Arizona during the 1969-70 hunting season, definitely was not wearing a neckband when bagged. In late May, 34 birds were observed on the Riley Ranch along the North Platte River, 5 miles east of Lake John Annex. This was the largest group of birds sighted in the spring. New Releases On July 2, 1970, ten goslings were released at the transplant site on Lake John Annex. These ten birds were joined by an additional 113 birds on July 24 and 123 more on July 31. Throughout the remainder of the summer and early fall birds were commonly sighted on Lake John Annex, Case Flats and Hebron Sloughs. Birds were also observed at Walden and MacFarlane Reservoirs. An occasional sighting was made on the Delaney Butte Lakes, Boettcher Lakes and Fisher Lake. All areas on which geese were sighted are shown in Fig. 1. A group of 79 birds, the largest flock sighted throughout the late summer and fall, was observed in the Lake John area on October 15, 1970. After that time 19 were sighted on the Annex on October 31 with eight, eight and five birds sighted in the same area on November 24, 27 and 30, respectively. No geese were observed in the Park after November 30. Band Recoveries and Sightings 1969 Transplants--Only five of the 1969 transplants were reported recovered during the 1970-71 hunting season (Table 3). An additional three neckbanded birds were observed at Two Buttes Reservoir in southeast Colorado during the season. Only two of the 1970-71 recoveries were taken in the Pacific Flyway. One bird was taken in Mesa County, Colorado and the other in Mohave County, Arizona. The bird taken in Arizona had been recaptured at Wheatland Reservoir, Wyoming in June of 1970 and when taken was apparently accompanied by a 1970 transplant which was also bagged. This Arizona recovery probably indicates a return of at least a portion of the surviving 1969 transplants to their major 1969-70 wintering area. Two of the other three recoveries were taken in eastern Montana and the final recovery in Emmons County, North Dakota. The bird taken in North Dakota had been recaptured the previous winter at two Buttes Reservoir in southeast Colorado. �-123- z o ..• ;;:r -n o Fd schez, c> Lake ('!!. Delaney But te Ls. -=_",:"!,,,",~D Wolden l.,I OE \)! . S. o Case 4!J" Flats Peterson Pond ()~ a Hebron 00 ## SioughsoMe forlone Res. SCALE o Fig. 1. 2 4 Mi. Areas at which Canada geese have been sighted in North Park. �Table 4. 1970-71 hunting season recoveries of North Park birds released in 1970 plotted according to time and approximate distance from release site. Area Recovered 1-10 October 11-20 21-31 Period of Recovery November December 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 1 2 1 21-31 January 1-10 11-20 United States Wyoming Carbon Co. Arizona Mohave Co. 1 I t-' Yuma Co. 2 11li 1 California San Bernardino Co. 1 Imperial Co. 1 1 Mexico Chihuahua Northwest 1 l/ Eight birds recovered during the hunting season, Nov. 26-Jan. 10, exact dates unknown. 1 N 0\ I �-127- Table 5. First year hunting recovery locations of Canada geese released in 1970 at Lake John Annex, Jackson County, Colorado. Date Released No. Released July 2 10 July 24 113 July 31 123 Area Recovered No. n.ecovered No. Recovered No. Recovered United States Wyoming 0 3 2 Mohave Co. O· 1 0 Yuma Co. 0 8 6 San Bernardino Co. 0 1 0 Imperial Co. 0 2 0 0 1 1 o 16 9 Carbon Co. Arizona California Mexico Chihuahua Northwest Total LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1970. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 81-93 pp. Prepared by ~~£1? ~ Michael R. Szymczak ~ Asst. Wildlife Researcher ~ -'- �-129october, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-16 Work Plan No. 2 Migratory Bird Investigations 5 Job No. Job Title Arkansas Valley Canada Goose Flock Management Period Covered: October 31, 1970 to March Studies 31, 1971 Personnel: Velma Fredrickson, Ann Leckler, Marie Vendeville, M. Robinson, G. Nugent, H. Moorhead, R. Cooper, F. Roth, W. Piper, M. Hickey, J. Wheeler, B. Widhalm, A. Heins, B. Goetze, L. Green, D. Bogart, R. Kitzmiller, G. Bock, D. Croonquist, R. Forbes, P. Olsen and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Water levels of most reservoirs in southeast Colorado were near or at capacity throughout the fall and winter period. Food conditions in southeast Colorado were generally considered to be good. The hunting season was characterized by above normal temperatures and below normal precipitation. A small movement of geese into southeast Colorado was noted about October 15, with a substantial movement on October 30, followed by a major arrival on November 17. Goose numbers in southeast Colorado varied from near 90,000 in late November and early December to 62,720 on January 19. The change from morning only hunting, to full day hunting on December 12 did not stimulate an immediate, large movement of geese out of the state. The mid-winter inventory of the entire short grass prairie population totaled 145,349. Generally, geese left reservoirs to feed twice a day regardless of moon phases or the hunting regulation in effect. Extreme cold temperatures seemed to delay or completely eliminate morning feeding flights. According to check station data, approximately 61 percent of the geese bagged were immatures. There were no indications that feeding flights, in respect to time of day, were age-specific. An estimated record 30,329 geese were bagged by 7,875 hunters throught the 1970-71 hunting season in southeast Colorado. At the Two Buttes Management area 610 hunters bagged 919 geese during the half-day portion of the season, while 788 hunters bagged 814 geese during full-day hunting. At the LamarEads Management area 705 hunters bagged 304 geese throughout the season. Bands were placed on 536 geese at Two Buttes Reservoir and 300 geese at Verhoeff's Pond during postseason trapping operations. Approximately 36 percent of the birds banded were immatures. Birds trapped at Verhoeff's weighed an average of approximately one pound more than those trapped at Two Buttes. Sixty-one percent of southeast Colorado banded birds reported recovered during the 19691970 season were bagged in Canada. An abnormally low twenty percent of banded birds taken during the 1969-1970 season were reported taken in Colorado. The annual hunting mortality rate of all age classes combined continues to be approximately 26 percent. �-130- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Reduce the number of aerial surveys of geese in southeastern conducted under this job. 2q Discontinue the collection, under this job, of information concerning hunting pressure, wounding loss, and hunter success at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management Areas. 3. Discontinue season. observation of feeding flight patterns during Colorado the hunting �-131- ARKANSAS VALLEY CANADA GOOSE FLOCK MANAGEMENT Michael STUDIES R. Szymczak The Arkansas Valley goose study continues to emphasize the evaluation of the effects of experimental harvest regulations on the distribution of the short grass prairie Canada goose population and the general behavior of the southeast Colorado flock. During the 1969-70 hunting season, morning only shooting showed promise a.s a tool to increase the percent of the total short grass population wintering in Colorado. However, the many undesirable aspects of this regulation, mainly pertaining to the hunting public, necessitated alteration of the regulation the following year. During the 1970-71 season, the framework for the goose season in southeast Colorado was as follows: morning-only hunting from October 31, 1970 through December 11, 1970; full day hunting from December 12, 1970 through January 17, 1971. An evaluation of the regulation along with the results of the collection of other data pertinent to the management of the short grass prairie goose population is presented in this report. P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect management information on the wintering short grass pralrle Canada goose population and evaluate new approaches to goose management in southeast Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the time of movement of geese into the Arkansas and the size and distribution of the wintering flock. 2. To obtain an estimate of the age composition 3. To determine loss. pressure 4. To determine the annual mortality pattern of the flock. 5. To evaluate the effects of hunting from one-half hour before sunrise until noon from October 31, 1970 through December 11, 1970, followed by one-half hour before sunrise to sunset hunting from December 12, 1970 through January 17, 1971 on population numbers distribution, harvest and flight patterns of Canada geese in southeast Colorado. hunting Valley of the flock. on the flock and the associated and the migration wounding and/or harvest �-132- METHODS AND MATERIALS Periodic aerial counts of Canada geese were conducted in southeast Colorado. The December 11 and January counts were coordinated with ground and aerial counts made by various state and federal personnel throughout the wintering grounds of the short grass prairie Canada goose population. These counts were made for the purpose of determining the size and distribution of the wintering goose population. Check stations were operated at the Two Buttes Management Area and the Lamar-Eads Management Area to collect information on hunting pressure and harvest. Tail fans from geese bagged were collected at all check stations with some additional fans obtained throughout southeast Colorado. The weights of bagged birds were also recorded. Goose feeding flights were observed at various locations throughout southeast Colorado with information on time of flight, numbers of geese and weather conditions recorded. A total of 836 geese were trapped and banded at Two Buttes Reservoir and Verhoeff's Pond after the close of the hunting season to obtain information on age ratios, mortality rates and migration patterns. The effects of past hunting season regulations ations for the 1971-72 season were made. were evaluated and recommend- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water, Food and Weather Conditions Reservoirs utilized by geese as resting areas in southeast Colorado presented a variety of water levels during the 1970-71 season. Most reservoirs continued to be near capacity, as during the 1969-70 season, in spite of generally below average precipitation throughout southeast Colorado (Table 1). However, John Martin, which in many years is drained completely for irrigation purposes, and Two Buttes, fed only by local precipitation and runoff, showed water levels lower than those present during the 1969-70 season. The major reservoirs in the Eads area were characterized by extreme high water. The water eliminated the possible use as a resting area of the south bar on Nee Noshe which had been used steadily by the geese the previous season. Geese staying on Nee Noshe generally used the north shore area for resting. It is speculated that the extreme high water in reservoirs in the Eads area may have, in part, resulted in fewer birds using the area during the 1970-71 season than during the previous year. �-133Table 1. Yearly precipitation totals for selected southeast Colorado stations for 1970 and the water status of associated reservoirs. Station Location and Associated Reservoirs Rocky Ford 1970 Precipitation (In.) Departure Total from Norm 9.03 Near Near Near Near Near 12.86 Horsecreek Blue Lake Reservoir Eads 12.25 capacity capacity capacity capacity capacity No No No No No open open open open open bars bars bars bars bars Same as 1969-70 Some open, bars available Higher than 1969-70 No open bars Much lower than 1969-70 Some open bars available Same as 1968-69 Open shoreline available; no bars Water at capacity No open bars -1.53 Swede Lake Sweetwater Areas +0.61 Reservoir John Martin Resting -3.28 Dye Reservoir Holbrook Reservoir Cheraw Reservoir Meredith Reservoir Henry Lake Las Animas Water Level weather Reservoir Nee Granda Very small pool Shoreline Flamingo Lower than 1969-70 Some open bars available At capacity No open bars Lake Nee Noshe open Upper Queens Reservoir At capacity No open bars Lower Queens Reservoir At capacity No open bars Near capacity No open bars Lower than 1969-70 Open bars available Lamar Thurston 13.55 -0.65 Reservoir Springfield Two Buttes 14.28 Reservoir -0.45 �-134- John Martin Reservoir was nearly drained completely during the summer of 1970 and provided apparently excellent habitat for the geese during the fall period. In addition to open bars, water running into the reservoir provided continuous floodi.ng of extensive. stands of smartweed (Polygonum sp.) and cocklebur (Xanthium sp.) which were apparently attractive to the birds. The decline in the water level at Two Buttes, resulting from below average rainfall, produced a series of open bars, void of vegetation and extremely attractive to the geese. Food conditiomin southeast Colorado during the 1970-71 season were variable and probably not as good as during the previous year. The dryland milo was hampered by the lack of spring and early summer moisture. However, adequate fall moisture resulted in the establishment of good winter wheat crops, the mainstay of the diet of geese in southeast Colorado. A summary of weather conditions throughout the hunting season is presented in Table 2. In general, temperatures were above normal and precipitation below normal; conditions generally not believed to be most conducive to successful goose hunting. Migrational Movements and Distribution of the Wintering Population Canada geese normally arrive en masse in southeast Colorado sometime between November 5 and November 15, depending on weather conditions on the Canadian staging areas (Grieb 1970; Rutherford 1970). The 1970 fall migration of the short grass prairie population from staging to wintering areas was definitely atypical. Some birds began arriving in southeast Colorado as early as October 15 followed by a substantial movement into the area about October 30. On November 9, at least 25,000 geese were present. About November 17, the major portion of the migrant birds moved into the area with the first aerial survey on November 23 recording about 90,000 birds (Table 3). Early season movement by a portion of the population may have been the result of a cold period on the Alberta-Saskatchewan staging areas (Alex Dzubin, pers. comm.) Normally the first cold period on the staging area moves the birds from the lakes and reservoirs to the rivers, but not to southern wintering areas. An effort was made to detect any large movement of birds out of southeast Colorado stimulated by a change from morning-only hunting to full day hunting. Aerial surveys were conducted on December 11, the day before the change, and again on December 23, after the geese had been subjected to two weekends of full day hunting. A decline in the population between these two flights was recorded, but not considered significant (Table 3). An early January count was scheduled but not conducted because of prohibitive flying weather. However, comparing the results of the December coordinated inventory with the January inventory, a definite movement into Texas is indicated sometime between these two surveys (Table 4). Apparently a substantial number of birds moved out of Colorado into Texas in late December or early January, a period which encompassed unusually cold weather with some locally heavy snows. A combination of continued full day hunting, along with the weather condition may have resulted in this movement. �-135- Table 2. Summary from selected southeast Colorado weather stations, . November 1970 through January 1971. Temperature Average Departure from Maximum Minimum Normal Daily Ave. Precipitation Monthly Departure Total 1/ from Norm Rocky Ford 58.2 26.0 2.4 0.56 (4) 0.10 Las Animas 56.5 26.4 0.9 0.51 (5) 0.03 Eads 55.5 24.0 0.12 (1) -0.37 Lamar 55.9 26.3 0.7 0.03 (1) -0.53 Springfield 57.7 28.2 --- 1.47 (3) Rocky Ford 54.8 15.9 2.9 0 (0) -0.32 Las Animas 54.4 16.7 2.1 0 (0) -0.35 Eads 52.0 16.8 T (0) -0.30 Lamar 51.6 18.1 0 (0) -0.34 Springfield 53.1 19.8 Rocky Ford 49.7 12.5 1.1 0.17 (3) -0.26 Las Animas 49.3 13.6 1.0 0.64 (3) 0.16 Eads 47.8 14.7 0.20 (1) -0.19 Lamar 46.6 15.5 0.29 (2) -0.21 Springfield 48.9 18.5 Location November December 2.1 T (0) January 1.2 0.20 (1) 1./ Number of days of measurable precipitation in parentheses. �-136- Table 3. 1970-71. Results of Canada goose aerial surveys, southeast Colorado, Date December 11 December 23 Area November 23 Meredith Reservoir 9,700 9,350 10,720 Holbrook Reservoir o o 150 o Horsecreek Reservoir 500 o o o o o 9 o Mud Lake o 1,400 o 25 Swede Lake o 3,000 o o Sweetwater Res. 220 o 120 300 Flamingo Lake 7,300 9,000 1,700 o Nee Noshe Res. 5,300 11,600 3,800 600 330 400 5,700 1,500 o o 100 o Blue Lake January 19 4,695 ]../ Eads Group: Upper Queens Res. Thurston Reservoir Two Buttes Reservoir 29,000 24,600 1/ 20,400 32,200 Turk's Pond 12,000 21,200 ]) 20,000 13,400 John Martin Reservoir 23,700 10,000 14,750 9,000 1/ Verhoeff Pond 350 o 1,100 o Bonny Reservoir 1,000 1/ o 1,700 1,000 1/ 90,550 80,249 62,720 Total 1/ Estimate from ground. 89,400 �-137- Table 4. Results of Short Grass Prairie Canada goose coordinated inventories, hunting season, 1968, 1969, and 1970. State 1968 December 1969 1970 1969 January 1970 1971 Nebraska 11,740 10,512 8,000 7,000 8,140 8,000 Colorado 28,633 60,700 90,550 29,201 63,444 63,720 Oklahoma 3,000 1,300 4,000 3,500 1,500 3,000 New Mexico 9,195 7,531 13,842 7,848 10,640 4,654 , Texas 20,100 26,387 33,800 64,850 63,690 65,975 Totals 72,668 106,930 150,192 112,399 147,414 145,399 The distribution of geese within southeast Colorado exhibited some distinct changes from the 1969-70 season. Meredith Reservoir held about 10 percent of the geese through most of the season. This is in contrast to the normal early season build-up in the Meredith area, followed by a decline to between 1,000 - 2,000 birds by the end of the season (Rutherford 1970, Szymczak 1970). Geese did not use Horsecreek Reservoir or Blue Lake during the early portion of the hunting season as they did during the 1969-70 season. During the 1969-70 season, an average of about 35 percent of southeast Colorado geese used the Eads Lakes area as compared to only 14 percent during the 1970-71 season. A substantial decline in use of the Eads area was noted after the switch to full day hunting (Table 3). The increased hunting pressure along with the lack of open bars for resting, as discussed previously, may have resulted in reduced use of that area. For the second year in succession Two Buttes Reservoir maintained large numbers of geese throughout most of the hunting season (Table 3). There continues to be an inter-change of geese between Two Buttes and Turk's Pond. For the past two years the geese have not abandoned Two Buttes completely and moved to Turk's for long periods of time as they had in previous years. Ideal resting situations and the removal of one of the two rows of pits at Two Buttes along with the half-day hunting regulations have all had some influence on this behavioral change. At the same time, hunting pressure at Turk's has become more intense as hunting pits on the south side of the reservoir have been moved closer to the water. The status, in terms of numbers, of the post season populations in Colorado and throughout the entire short grass prairie wintering range is presented �-138- in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. Colorado's 1970-71 post-season population was about 63,000; essentially the same as the 1970 totals and far above population levels recorded for any year previous to 1970. Colorado has definitely retained more birds in the state since the initiation of half-day hunting. The total short grass prairie population numbers in 1970-71 remained quite similar to those recorded in 1969-70. This is unusual in view of the apparent excellent production experienced by this population during the spring of 1970. Reduced numbers are definitely, in part, the result of diffusion of short grass prairie geese into other wintering populations in Colorado, New Mexico and possibly Oklahoma. Table 5. January inventory of Canada geese, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1948-1971. Year Goose Count Year Goose Count Year Goose Count 1948 4,798 1956 24,212 1964 33,750 1949 12,286 1957 24,617 1965 37,693 1950 13,170 1958 35,894 1966 38,635 1951 19,320 1959 44,660 1967 29,835 1952 30,463 1960 37,394 1968 42,682 1953 20,236 1961 31,360 1969 29,201 1954 20,280 1962 40,250 1/ 1970 63,444 1955 25,110 1963 35,889 1971 62,720 ]j 1/ Inventory of February 7, 1962 substituted for January, 1962 inventory. 1/ Inventory of February 15, 1966 substituted for January, 1966 inventory. Table 6. Post-hunting season status of Short Grass Prairie Canada goose population, 1960-71, data generally from regular mid-winter inventories. Year Number of Birds Year Number of Birds 1960 77,709 1966 110,4851/ 1961 103,355 1967 111,452 1962 1963 1964 1965 80,133 1968 127,903 93,940 1969 112,399 81,221 1970 147,414 103,435 1971 145,349 1/ Inventory of Feb. 15, 1966, substituted for unsatisfactory January inventory. �-139- Analysis of Flight Pattern Data The characteristics of feeding flights were recorded throughout the 197071 season in an effort to determine the response of the birds, if any, to variations in hunting pressure dictated by hunting regulations. From 1966 through 1969, the earliest opening date was November 16 and the latest November 22. Geese normally arrive in large numbers in southeast Colorado around November 10. In 1970, the season opened to morning hunting only on October 31 and, as previously mentioned, there were large numbers of birds already in southeast Colorado. The early opening, prior to the normal arrival of geese, resulted in reduced hunting pressure compared to normal opening dates. There was a gradual increase in hunting pressure as the season progressed through November. The progressive increase in hunting pressure may have solicited a different goose response in terms of feeding flights than would a normal opening with immediate heavy hunting pressure (Szymczak 1970). Throughout the entire month of November, geese flew to feed twice daily, morning and afternoon, in all major southeast Colorado goose concentration areas. The light of the moon period preceding and following the full moon on November 13, had very little noticeable effect on feeding flights. In previous years during full moon phases morning flights were retarded for a period of up to 10 days. It is possible that inclement weather on November 13 and 14, during the peak of the full moon, stimulated feeding flights on those two days, whereas with good weather conditions the birds may not have flown twice a day. In 1969, geese, after experiencing two-a-day feeding flights during the pre-season period. reverted exclusively to late afternoon-evening flights following opening day which occurred one day prior to a full moon (Szymczak 1970). The geese responded somewhat differently to the December 12 full moon period. There was a definite decline in the size of the morning flight on December 11. On December 12, the day in which full day hunting began, only a small number of geese fed in the morning. Morning flights did not occur again until December 18 in the Ead's Lakes area and December 20 at Two Buttes. Afternoon flights did continue during this period in spite of moon and weather conditions being conducive to exclusive night feeding. Afternoon flights on December 12 and 13 were somewhat reduced at Two Buttes, as many flocks returned to the reservoir after being fir~d upon. Morning flights from late December through the remainder of the season were much smaller in comparison with morning flights prior to December 12. Portions of late December and early January were characterized by overnight temperatures of 100 F or less. As reported below, these relatively cold temperatures have a definite effect on retarding goose movements during morning hours. In general large afternoon feeding flights continued daily from mid-December throughout the remainder of the season. The light of the moon period occurring around January 4 had no discernable effect on retardation of daytime goose feeding flights. Afternoon flights during cold periods, when no morning flight occurred, would normally begin early in the afternoon. On some days with normal temperatures, birds would leave reservoirs in late afternoon and not return until after dark. �-140- Effects of Cold Temperature on Canada Goose Feeding Flights During the two-year study of feeding flight patterns it was consistently noted that daily minimum temperatures affected the occurrence and timing of Canada goose feeding flights. Information collected daily at Two Buttes Reservoir revealed that if the minimum daily temperature recorded near Springfield, Colorado, 15 miles south of Two Buttes, was 100 F or less, geese would not, for the most part, undergo feeding flights until early afternoon. This occurrence was also recorded in other areas in southeast Colorado but daily feeding flight pattern information was not consistently recorded in other areas. Table 7 shows Springfield temperatures, goose flight times and moon phases for a IS-day period during 1969-70 and a 26-day period during 1970-71. Morning-only hunting was in effect during the 1969-70 period and all-day hunting during the 1970-71 period. Afternoon flight times are incomplete during the 1969-70 period. Age Composition Tail fans were collected throughout the hunting season at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management Areas and in the Meredith Lake area. The age composition of the harvest on the two management areas indicate an increase over the 1969-70 season in the percent of immatures in the harvest (Table 8). Nearly 60 percent of birds bagged at Two Buttes were classified as immatures - the highest figure recorded since the 1959-60 season. A decline in percent immatures from the 1969-70 level was recorded in the Meredith Lake area. A sample of 87 tail feathers collected at Turk's Pond, a firing line area, had only 40.2 percent immatures or a 1:067 adult to immature ratio. This sample, however was collected in late December and early January and thus compares favorably to age data collected at Two Buttes during the same general period (Table 9). During the 1969-70 season, age ratios of birds bagged at the Lamar-Eads and Two Buttes Management Areas exhibited some unusual trends as the season progressed. Immatures during that morning-only hunting season seemed to increase in vulnerability during the first half of the season and then decreased after mid-season (Szymczak 1970). This trend is contrary to a general decrease in vulnerability as the season progresses which was described by Rutherford (1968) as characteristic of the southeast Colorado flock. These unusual age ratio trends were attributed to the half-day hunting season. The large sample of tail fans collected at Two Buttes during the half-day portion of the 1970-71 season provided adequate information to examine age ratio trends. Although not conclusive, the data presented in Table 9 indicates a general decreasing immature vulnerability through the half day season at Two Buttes. Lamar-Eads data show a definite decreasing trend. However, the validity of the Lamar-Eads results are questionable because of the small sample size. After the switch to full day hunting, the Two Buttes vulnerability data shows .a normal trend. Consistent with previous years findings, immatures were taken at a greater rate in the decoy area than on the firing line. �-141- Table 7. Goose feeding flight times at Two Buttes Reservoir in comparison with Springfield, Colorado temperatures for selected periods during the 1969-70 and 1970-71 goose seasons. Date Daily TemEerature Minimum Maximum Time of Morning Feeding Flights 1969-70 December 28 29 30 31 January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 17 12 5 7 9 7 7 8 5 -4 1 -2 1 28 25 26 24 28 34 30 31 37 45 23 22 25 20 46 57 48 9:00 AM 9:30 AM 9: 30 AM (Snow) 1/ No Flight (3:00 AM) No Flight No Flight No Flight No Flight No Flight (12:30 PM) No Flight No Flight (3:00 PM) No Flight (2:30 PM) No Flight 10:00 AM (Small Flight) 7:45 AM 1970-71 December 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 January 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 26 20 7 23 18 20 5 15 3 20 28 19 15 20 16 23 17 10 0 -12 -9 -10 0 16 25 24 67 49 39 54 48 54 37 54 41 43 56 52 53 42 59 46 34 20 10 13 12 25 43 52 59 47 No Time (Small Flight) 7:35 AM No Flight (2:40 PM) 8:00 AM 8:16 AM 7:15 AM No Flight (2:00 PM) No Flight (3:00 PM) No Flight No Flight (3:15 PM) 7:45 AM 8:20 AM 7:00 AM 11:00 AM No Flight (3:15 PM) 8:15 AM No Flight No Flight (1:45 PM) 11:50 AM No Flight (12:10 PM) No Flight No Flight (12:45 PM) No Flight (1:30 PM) 8:35 AM Small Flight Moon Phase Last Quarter New Moon Last Quarter New Moon First Quarter Full Moon 1/ Time of afternoon flight, if known, or pertinent comments in parentheses. �Table 8. Age composition of the goose harvest in selected areas, southeast Colorado. Year Two Buttes (Firing Line) Iunnature Adult No. Percent No. Percent 1951-52 356 1957-58 46.8 404 53.2 Lamar-Eads (Decoy) Adult Immature No. Percent No. Percent Meredith Area Immature Adult Percent Percent No. No. No Data 1958-59 929 47.9 1,010 52.1 1959-60 377 36.5 655 63.5 1960-61 612 45.5 732 54.5 1961-62 527 55.7 419 44.3 I .j::''""" N I 1962-63 204 48.9 213 51.1 1963-64 377 52.1 346 47.9 1964-65 442 63~1 259 36.9 1965-66 571 62.7 340 37.3 1966-67 217 45.3 262 54.7 1967-68 245 59.9 164 40.1 1968-69 136 61. 8 84 38.2 79 51. 3 75 48.7 48 66.7 24 33.3 1969-70 110 55.3 89 44.7 143 35.9 255 64.1 18 40.0 27 60.0 1970-71 630 40.6 922 59.4 77 27.4 204 72.6 42 45.7 50 54.3 �-143- Table 9. Weekly age ratios of Canada geese brought through check stations, southeast Colorado during the 1970-71 season. Date Lamar-Eads (Decoy) Ratio Adult: Immature Number Two Buttes (Firing Line) Ratio Adult: Immature Number 10/31-11/6 1:5.64 73 1: 1. 82 93 11/7-11/13 1:8.80 49 1:2.88 66 11/14-11/20 1:0.86 13 1:1. 75 77 11/21-11/27 1:1.17 13 1:1.93 281 11/28-12/4 1:0.17 7 1:2.25 179 5 1:1. 39 146 12/5-12/11 Total (Half Day) 1:3.57 160 1: 1. 90 842 12/12-12/18 1:2.86 27 1:1.27 209 12/19-12/25 1: 1. 42 29 1:1. 95 162 12/26-1/1 1:2.13 25 1:0.91 204 1/2-1/8 1: 1. 25 9 1:0.42 17 1/9-1/15 1: 1. 63 21 1:0.51 77 1/16-1/17 1:2.33 10 1:0.75 41 Total (Full Day) 1: 1. 88 121 1: 1. 09 710 Season Total 1:2.65 281 1: 1. 46 1,522 �-144- An age-specific feeding flight was hypothesized as a possible reason for unusual age-ratio trends during the half-day season of 1969-70. It was thought that morning flights may have been composed of immature birds and family groups with afternoon flights made up of sub-adults. During the 1970-71 season, the time of harvest was recorded for each bird taken on the two state-controlled.management areas. Table 10 presents the age composition of the harvest by time period. No trends or period preferences are evident during any part of the season. In fact, age ratios for total morning harvest and total afternoon harvest during the full day hunting periods are essentially the same at Two Buttes. Unfortunately the 1970-71 full day season period occurred late in the year and did not coincide with the period in which the unusual age ratios were evident the previous season. Table 10. Age composition of the harvest by time period on two state controlled management areas in southeast Colorado, 1970-71. Hourly Period Lamar-Eads Half Day Full Day Two Buttes Half· Day Full Day 6-7 1:4.67 (34) (0) 1:3.21 (80) (1) 7-8 1:6.25 (58) (1) 1:1.95 (327) 1:3.00 (12) 8-9 1:1. 77 (36) 1:1.50 (5) 1:1.80 (258) 1:1.21 (73) 9-10 1:3.80 (24) 1:6.00 (7) 1:1.38 (114) 1:1.25 (72) 10-11 1:1.33 (7) 1:0.67 (10) 1:1.91 (32) 1:0.94 (64) 11-12 (1) 1:3.00 (4) 1:2.44 (31) 1:0.50 (21) 1:1.70 (27) 1:1.90 (842) 1:1.11 (243) Total (AM) 1:3.57 (160) 12-1 1:2.00 (3) 1-2 (0) 1:1.11 (19) 2-3 1:1.00 (4) 1:1. 37 (64) 3-4 1:2.00 (33) 1:1.25 (189) 4-5 1:2.00 (54) 1:0.88 (186) Total (PM) 1:1.94 (94) 1:1.08 (467) 1:0.5 (9) �-145- Birds were trapped and banded at Two Buttes Reservoir and at Verhoeff's Pond near John Martin Reservoir. The sex and age composition of birds captured in the cannon-net operation is presented in Table 11. Overall, about 36 percent of the birds captured were immatures. Age composition of the total catches at both areas were essentially the same with 35.4 percent immatures at Two Buttes compared to 36.6 percent at Verhoeff's. Table 11. Sex and age composition southeast Colorado, 1971. Location and Date of Canada geese trapped post-season Males Adult Immature Females Adult Immature in Total Percent Immatures Two Buttes 1/24/71 7 1 11 3 22 18.2 Two Buttes 1/25/71 34 14 38 28 114 36.8 Two Buttes 1/26/71 10 3 24 6 43 20.9 Two Buttes 1/27/71 77 31 64 47 219 35.6 Two Buttes 1/28/71 38 29 42 30 139 42.4 Verhoeff 2/1/71 54 15 44 14 127 22.8 Two Buttes 2/2/71 1 0 2 0 3 0.0 Verhoeff 2/8/71 38 50 56 29 173 45.7 Verhoeff 2/13/71 5 1 4 6 16 43.8 264 144 285 163 856 35.9 Total A summary of all age data collected in southeast Colorado is presented in Table 12. In total, immaturesmade up approximately 61 percent of the check station sample and 36 percent of the post-season trapped sample. It is interesting to note that the percent of the harvest composed of immatures taken at Two Buttes during January was 35.9 percent and thus compares favorably to the 35.4 percent immatures in the Two Buttes banded sample trapped directly after the season. In total, the available age ratio data indicate that 1970 was an excellent production year for short grass prairie Canada geese. �-146- Table 12. Age composition of southeast Colorado Canada geese, 1970-71, as estimated by check station and trapping results. No. of Adults Percent Adults No. of Young Percent Young Total Birds Lamar+Eads 77 27.4 204 72.6 281 Two Buttes 630 40.6 922 59.4 1,552 Meredith Lake 42 45.7 50 54.3 92 Total 749 38.9 1,176 61.1 1,925 Check Station Sample Adult/Immature 1:1.57 Trapped Sample Two Buttes 350 64.6 192 35.4 542 Verhoeff's 199 63.4 115 36.6 314 Total 549 64.1 307 35.9 856 Adult/Immature 1:0.56 Hunting Pressure and Harvest A record number of Canada geese were harvested in southeast Colorado during the 1970-71 season. An estimated 30,329 geese were bagged in southeast Colorado (Table 13, Funk, In Press). An additional estimated 5,459 birds were lost because of crippling making the total flock hunting lose 35,788 birds. The high harvest and increased average season bag (Table 13) was the direct result of goose availability. Large numbers of birds were in southeast Colorado throughout the entire hunting season as was discussed earlier. After a one-year absence, Baca County regained its prominence as the leader in goose harvest in southeast Colorado. The harvest in all counties considered major goose areas exceeded the 16 year average (Table 14). �-147- Table 13. Goose hunting season statistics, 1954-70. Arkansas Valley Estimated Average Goose Hunters Season Bag Year Dates of Season Stamp Sales 1954 11/1 - 12/30 32,450 7,071 1.04 7,372 1955 11/1 - 12/30 39,107 9,054 1.54 13,904 1956 11/9 - 1/7 36,303 9,833 1.05 10,276 1957 11/2 - 11/31 41,794 9,113 1.39 12,656 1958 11/17 - 1/15 41,897 10,082 1.51 15,205 1959 10/26 - 1/8 31,431 8,888 1.61 14,309 1960 10/26 - 1/8 30,592 9,838 1.39 13,629 1961 11/10 - 1/8 24,854 7,577 1.68 11,724 1962 10/31 - 1/13 17,701 6,021 1.58 9,495 1963 11/2 - 1/15 22,940 6,668 2.17 14,444 1964 11/2 - 1/15 25,282 8,016 2.30 18,474 1965 11/2 - 1/15 20,537 6,313 1.52 9,613 1966 11/19 - 1/15 29,377 9,357 2.59 24,269 1967 11/18 - 1/14 31,064 6,975 2.23 15,558 1968 11/16 - 1/15 31,218 6,668 1.66 11,046 1969 1/ 11/22 - 1/15 34,281 5,327 1.99 10,597 10/31 - 1/17 37,972 7,875 3.85 30,329 1970 Y 1/ Morning hunting only throughout the season. ~I Morning hunting only through December 11; full day hunting for the remainder of the season. Estimated Kill �-148- Table 14. Comparison of the 1970-71 southeast Colorado goose harvest, by county, with the l6-year average, 1954-69, based on the results of the random small game survey. County Lakes and Reservoirs Number and Percent of Geese Bagged 1970-71 16 Yr. Average No. Percent No. Percent Baca Two Buttes and Turk's 13,055 43.0 5,083 37.1 Kiowa Eads and Blue 7,005 23.1 3,098 22.6 Prowers Two Buttes and Eads 3,980 13.1 2,125 15.5 Crowley Meredith 3,025 10.0 716 5.2 Bent John Martin, Blue and Horsecreek 2,229 7.3 1,913 14.0 Horsecreek, Cheraw, Dye and Holbrook 557 1.8 359 2.6 Pueblo 358 1.2 183 1.3 Las Animas 120 0.4 120 0.9 Huerfano o 0.0 116 0.8 Otero Total Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads 30,329 Management 13,710 Areas Hunting activity and harvest at Two Buttes Management area increased dramatically in 1970-71 over recent years (Table 15). The number of hunters utilizing the Management Area was the highest since the 1965-66 season and the size of the harvest had been exceeded only by that recorded during the 1958-59 seasons. Hunting success, by Two Buttes standards, was phenomenal with participants averaging better than 0.5 birds per day and approximately 1.2 birds per season. Hunters during the.half-day season had better success, on the average, than those hunting during the full day period (Table 15). Hunting pressure at Two Buttes was well distributed throughout the season (Table 16). Hunting pressure was heaviest during the last full week in November, the first full week following the change to full day hunting, and the last full week in December. Hunting success was greatest during the first week of the season and from November 21, through December 4. Hunting success for any given weekly period during the half day season exceeded success for all weekly periods during the full day season except the December 19 to December 25 interval (Table 16). �-149- Table 15. Goose harvest, hunting pressure, and hunter success, Two Buttes Management Area. No. of Individual Hunters No. of Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged Ave. Bag per Hunter Ave. Bag per Hunter Day 1961-62 2,392 4,758 945 0.40 0.20 1962-63 1,479 3,178 418 0.28 0.13 1963-64 1,750 3,659 728 0.42 0.20 1964-65 1,996 3,946 721 0.36 0.19 1965-66 2,596 5,264 941 0.36 0.18 1966-67 1,257 2,413 493 0.39 0.20 1967-68 840 1,554 433 0.52 0.28 1968-69 792 1,309 243 0.31 0.19 1969-70 1/ 659 1,182 248 0.38 0.21 Half Day 610 1,384 919 1.51 0.66 Full Day 788 1,786 814 1.03 0.46 1,398 3,170 1,733 1.24 0.55 Year 1970-71 Total 1/ Morning only hunting throughout the season. Hunter activity on the Lamar-Eads Management area was similar to the 1969-70 season, but hunting success declined (Table 17). Hunting success was high during the first week of the season and declined thereafter (Table 18). After the first week, the geese discontinued use of the management area and began using fields to the north. �-150- Table 16. Hunter activity and goose harvest by weekly intervals, Two Buttes Management Area, 1970-71. Interval Number of Hunter bays 10/31 - 11/6 143 (4.5) 68 102 0.71 11/7 - 11/13 124 (3.9) 50 68 0.55 11/14 - 11/20 143 (4.5) 60 83 0.58 11/21 - 11/27 419 (13.2) 195 304 0.73 11/28 - 12/4 258 (8.1) 137 204 0.79 12/5 - 12/11 297 (9.4) 124 158 0.53 634 919 0.66 Half-day Total 1,384 Successful Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged Ave.Bag Per Hunter Day 12/12 - 12/18 464 (14.6) 162 243 0.52 12/19 - 12/25 296 (9.3) 127 189 0.64 12/26 - 1/1 575 (18.1) 158 220 0.38 1/2 - 1/8 158 (5.0) 20 25 0.16 1/9 - 1/15 171 (5.4) 62 82 0.48 1/16 - 1/17 122 (3.8) 39 55 0.45 Full-day Total 1,786 568 814 0.46 Season Total 3,170 1,202 1,733 0.55 �-151- Table 17. Goose harvest, hunting pressure, and hunter success, LamarEads Management··Area. No. of Individual Hunters No. of Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged 1968-69 598 1,062 160 1969-70 703 1,361 512 0.73 0.38 1970-71 705 1,128 304 0.43 0.27 Year Ave. Bag per Hunter Ave. Bag per Hunter Day 0.15 Table 18. Hunter activity and goose harvest by weekly intervals, LamarEads Management Area, 1970-71. Week Interval Number of Hunter Days 10/31 - 11/6 127 (11.3) 11/7 - 11/13 Successful Hunter Days Number of Geese Bagged Ave. Bag per Hunter Day 52 72 (23.7) 0.57 144 (12.8) 32 49 (16.1) 0.34 11/14 -11/20 64 (5.7) 11 14 (4.6) 0.22 11/21 - 11/27 101 (9.0) 12 14 (4.6) 0.14 11/28 - 12/3 70 (6.2) 6 6 (2.0) 0.09 12/4 - 12/11 49 (4.3) 4 7 (2.3) 0.14 12/12 - 12/18 105 (9.3) 26 34 (11.2) 0.32 12/19 - 12/25 99 (8.8) 25 32 (10.5) 0.32 12/26 - 1/1 193 (17.1) 23 25 (8.2) 0.13 1/2 - 1/8 68 (6.0) 10 11 (3.6) 0.16 1/9 - 1/15 65 (5.8) 18 29 (9.5) 0.44 43 (3.8) 8 11 (3.6) 0.26 304 0.27 1/16 Totals 1/17 1/ 1,128 1./ Percent of total in parentheses. 227 �-152- Banding Investigations Trapping efforts post-season in southeast Colorado resulted in 836 Canada geese being banded (Table 19). Three hundred birds were banded at Verhoeff's Pond near Hasty, Colorado and 536 at Two Buttes Reservoir. Again, as during the 1970 banding operations, about 47 percent of the birds captured were males. Table 19. Sex and age composition of Canada geese banded post-season in southeast Colorado, 1971. Location and Date Males Adult Immature Females Adult Immature Total Two Buttes 1/24/71 7 1 11 3 22 Two Buttes 1/25/71 30 13 36 27 106 Two Buttes 1/26/71 10 3 23 6 42 Two Buttes 1/27/71 76 30 62 47 215 Two Buttes 1/28/71 38 29 41 30 138 Verhoeff 2/1/71 53 15 43 14 125 Two Buttes 2/2/71 1 0 2 0 3 Verhoeff 2/8/71 36 47 55 29 170 1/ Verhoeff 2/13/71 5 1 3 6 15 256 139 276 162 836 Total ]j Includes two females of unknown age and 1 goose of unknown age and sex. Weights The mean weights of all geese harvested on the two state-controlled management areas and trapped post-season are presented in Table 20. As in all past years, except 1969-70, the mean weights of birds bagged at Two Buttes exceeded mean weights of birds trapped there post-season. �-153- Table 20. Comparison of weights, in pounds, of geese from trap and check station samples, southeast Colorado, 1970-71. Adult Ave. Wt. Source Range Imm. Ave. Wt. Range Total Ave. Wt. Range Two Buttes Check Station 5.47 (673)1/ 3.00-9.50 4.92 (949) 2.75-8.75 5.15 (1622) 2.75-9.50 Trapping 5.08 (332) 3.50-8.63 4.59 (192) 3.25-8.38 4.90 (524) 3.25-8.63 5.68 (8) 3.50-8.88 4.99 (2l0) 3.00-7.50 5.18 (288) 3.00-8.88 6.30 (215) 4.00-9.50 5.63 (128) 3.75-9.50 6.05 (343) 3.75-9.50 Lamar Mgmt.Area Check Station Verhoeff's Pond Trapping 1/ Sample size in parentheses. Weights of birds bagged plotted by time period (Table 21) indicate that birds taken during the full day hunting season, which began on December 12, averaged approximately 0.2 lb. less than birds taken earlier during the half-day season. A similar weight loss was recorded when comparing weights for the same time periods for birds bagged during the 1969-70 season with a half-day regulation in effect throughout the season (Szymczak 1970). However, during 1969-70, birds trapped post-season weighed more than birds bagged, indicating the geese may have maintained better body condition during the half-day season and thus were able to increase in weight qUickly soon after the season (Szymczak 1970) • Birds captured post-season at Verhoeff's Pond were, on the average, much larger than those captured at Two Buttes (Table 20). The weights of birds captured are presented by catch, and age and sex group in Table 22. Distribution of Harvest Alberta, Saskatchewan and Colorado continue to be the major harvest areas of short grass prairie geese (Table 23). The High Prairie-Peace River area of Alberta, located north of 53 degrees latitude, is becoming increasingly important as a harvest area. Therefore, recoveries above 53 degrees latitude are now being delineated for analysis purposes. In the provinces below 53 degrees, Saskatchewan reportedly harvested more banded birds than Alberta for only the second year s~nce 1951-52 with the 1967-68 season being the first year. �-154- Table 2l. Average weights of geese bagged by time interval on two state management areas in southeastern Colorado during the 1970-71 hunting season. Lamar-Eads .; Adults Immatures Two Buttes Adults Immatures Oct. 31-Nov. 6 5.92 (1) 1.1 4.92 (67) 5.53 (36) 4.85 (57) Nov. 7-Nov. 13 5.65 (5) 5.01 (43) 5.52 (18) 5.09 (48) Nov. 14-Nov. 20 6.00 (7) 4.92 (6) 6.04 (29) 5.10 (54) Nov. 21-Nov. 27 6.05 (7) 5.54 (7) 5.55 (98) 5.05 (193) Nov. 28-Dec. 4 6.19 (6) 3.50 (1) 5.49 (60) 4.88 (l30) 5.l3 (6) 5.50 (64) 4.73 (87) Intervals Dec. 5-Dec. 11 Dec. 12-Dec. 18 5.56 (6) 5.33 (20) 5.54 (99) 4.82 (120) Dec. 19-Dec. 25 5.60 (l3) 5.30 (18) 5.46 (59) 4.94 (113) Dec. 26-Jan. 1 5.44 (8) 4.62 (17) 5.27 (114) 4.80 (99) Jan. 2-Jan. 8 4.44 (4) 4.94 (4) 4.69 (l3) 4.65 (5) Jan. 9-Jan. 15 5.47 (8) 4.55 (14) 5.40 (52) 5.14 (25) Jan. 16-Jan. 17 5.75 (3) 5.12 (7) 5.54 (31) 5.04 (18) 1./ Sample size in parentheses. The percent of banded birds reported recovered in Colorado declined to its lowest annual level during the 1969-70 season. This decline was primarily a reflection of the reduction in hunting pressure and harvest during the 1969-70 season (Szymczak 1970). Only 105 bands were reported recovered throughout the 1969-70 season in spite of the addition of over 1,000 banded birds to the population after the 1968-69 season. The reduction of the number of bands reported being recovered along with a very low first-year recovery rate may have been a direct result of a major portion of the short grass population remaining in Colorado and thus undergoing a lower harvest rate because of reduced pressure. �-155- Table 22. Weights of Canada geese captured with cannon-nets in southeast Colorado, 1971. Date Location Grouping Number Ave. Weight Range January 24 Two Buttes AM 7 1 AF IF Subtotals 11 22 5.88 5.25 4.96 3.96 5.13 5.00-7.00 1M 4.25-6.25 3.25-5.00 3.25-7.00 AF IF Subtotals 30 14 34 28 106 5.25 4.73 4.58 4.39 4.74 4.38-6.50 4.00-5.25 3.50-5.25 3.38-5.50 3.38-6.50 AM 10 1M 3 AF IF Subtotals 23 42 6.13 5.09 5.33 4.04 5.32 4.25-7.50 4.88-5.38 4.00-8.63 3.75-4.50 3.75-8.63 76 31 62 47 216 5.39 4.95 4.79 4.46 4.95 4.25-7.25 3.75-7.00 3.50-6.50 3.50-5.88 3.50-7.25 38 29 41 30 138 5.37 4.94 4.43 4.32 4.77 4.50-8.13 3.63-8.38 4.00-5.50 3.38-6.38 3.38-8.38 AF IF Subtotals 52 13 41 13 119 6.75 6.52 6.33 5.62 6.46 4.50-9.38 5.13-9.50 4.38-9.50 4.25-7.00 4.25-9.50 AM 10 1M 8 AF IF Subtotals 11 36 7.53 6.69 6.51 6.04 6.74 5.13-9.50 4.25-8.88 5.38-8.50 4.13-7.63 4.13-9.50 34 46 49 23 152 6.34 5.42 5.37 4.99 5.54 5.25-8.00 4.25-7.00 4.00-6.75 3.75-6.38 3.75-8.00 January 25 Two Buttes AM 1M January 26 January 27 Two Buttes Two Buttes AM 1M AF IF Subtotals January 28 Two Buttes AM 1M AF IF Subtotals February 1 Verhoeff Pond AM 1M February 3 February 8 Verhoeff Pond Verhoeff Pond AM 1M AF IF Subtotals 3 6 7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- �Percentages of total band recoveries, Arkansas Valley Eost-season bandings, by area and year of recovery, all banding years combined. Percentage Recovery Year of Total Total No. Five Year Averages Recoveries Recoveries 1951-1955 1956-1960 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 Area Far North Above 530 1.0 2.1 ---N.W. Territories -----7.1 12.4 ---Alberta -----0.7 ---Saskatchewan ------9.4 7.5 9.9 13.4 254 15.2 10.4 15.5 4.7 9.8 7.1 7.9 6.3 Total Table 23. -- -- Provinces Below 530 Alberta Saskatchewan B. C., Manitoba Ontario Central Fl.yway Montana North Dakota Hyoming South Dakota Nebraska Colorado Southeast and Other North-central Total 28.6 18.3 35.3 10.5 34.9 9.3 33.3 19.4 0.4 6.5 5.4 3.1 --- --- --- 25.5 30.9 31. 5 0.4 0.9 1.5 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.8 2.3 2.0 0.8 5.1 2.8 2.2 0.2 5.2 5.4 Pacific Flyway 2.4 2.2 Mississippi 0.1 Flyway 26.8 8.5 27.9 10.9 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.7 0.1 5.4 Kansas Oklahoma New Mexico Texas Panhandle \.JaggonerRanch Gulf Coas t Total 28.4 17.4 Mexico 0.1 Total Number of Recoveries 748 0.7 1.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 5.5 6.7 2.0 1.4 8.8 0.7 0.7 9.7 -- -- --- --- 30.9 21.7 --30.1 35.4 --- 32.4 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.6 5.4 4.6 0.8 0.8 6.2 4.0 2.0 1.0 6.0 7.3 2.4 0.6 10.3 4.8 0.8 1.5 1.2 129 14.2 24.6 0.6 0.6 677 19.4 16.4 129 201 164 1.4 0.7 0.7 21. 9 25.7 1.9 9.0 4.3 1.9 4.8 27.6 1.5 29.1 29.1 2.8 31. 9 19.0 1.0 20.0 1.0 2.7 2.0 7.5 0.7 4.7 8.2 147 23.4 17.0 134 785 416 29.0 15.4 4 0.1 17 2 15 6 166 0.6 773 28.5 0.4 0.6 0.8 T 0.6 0.2 6.1 1.4 1.0 10 15 23 2.2 9.7 5.0 0.7 1.4 7.1 6.7 1.0 1.0 8.7 107 45 17 169 3.9 1.7 0.6 6.2 0.7 1.4 50 1.8 0.7 0.7 3 0.1 1 T 1.5 0.7 7.5 134 141 105 2709 I •..... Ln C1:> I �Table 24. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, Arkansas Valle" , Colorado, 1951-1969. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1<160-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 300 628 578 0 0 0 0 176 298 167 248 123 399 251 198 0 285 270 184 Recoveries by Year Following Bandin~ 11 12 10 8 9 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 0 5 1 0 2 3 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 31 58 52 25 31 25 11 33 25 11 20 24 4 16 20 5 8 11 4 7 11 7 6 9 1 4 2 4 4 0 0 4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 21 25 16 15 10 40 16 15 16 16 10 5 12 24 11 7 X X X X 6 16 3 4 10 9 11 8 4 8 14 7 0 14 13 1 4 7 8 8 1 6 5 0 1 3 0 7 1 4 0 0 3 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 0 1 1 2 0 X 2 2 1 1 X X X I •.... VI '" I X X X 18 16 9 10 9 5 342 201 141 116 79 40 32 27 12 12 5 6 5 3 2 0 3 1 0 Banded Birds Eligible 4105 3921 3651 3366 3366 3168 2917 2518 2395 2147 1980 1682 1506 1506 1506 1506 1506 928 300 Recoveries per 1,000 Banded 83.3 51.3 38.6 34.5 23.5 12.6 11.0 10.7 207.5 5.0 5.6 2.5 3.6 3.3 2.0 0.0 291.9 2.0 1.11 0.0 37.1 818.3 .254 26.4 3.1 - 1111.3 .263 3.1 1.1 ( 0.0 --Total Recoveries 4105 Alive Going Into Period Mortality Rate 291.9 ,208.6 .285 157.3 118.7 84.2 60.7 48.1 1.3 £. 21.4 15.8 13.3 9.7 6.4 = 4.4 ~. �Table 25. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963 -64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 Total Recoveries Recoveries b~ Year Following Banding 12 11 10 8 9 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2 7 2 0 4 4 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 344 650 900 0 0 0 0 347 217 250 306 334 369 335 780 0 389 646 905 45 71 85 23 37 55 19 24 50 10 23 31 7 21 25 12 6 20 5 11 9 3 6 12 3 9 10 2 7 6 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 33 21 27 29 26 35 24 55 27 9 16 13 18 20 12 40 17 7 6 18 12 14 15 20 8 4 12 12 5 4 10 22 5 4 8 4 13 11 4 12 8 2 4 7 3 5 4 2 1 6 3 2 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 0 2 3 X X X X 29 35 22 26 17 9 6772 537 313 211 141 114 71 41 31 29 19 11 8 5 1 2 Banded Birds Eligible 6772 5867 5221 4832 4832 4052 3717 3348 3014 2708 2458 2241 1894 1894 1894 Recoveries per 1,000 Banded 79.3 ,53.3 40.4 29.2 23.6 17.5 11.0 9.3 214.3 9.6 7.0 4.5 3.6 2.6 0.5 1.1 Alive Going Into Period 293.6 '\214.3..1(jl.0_120~ 39.3 828.7 30.0 Mortality Rate .270 91.4 67.8 I •.... Q'I 0 I 50.3 .259 0 0 0 1894 944 344 1.1 0.0 0.0 I 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.01 0.0 2 1894 ~- - 293.6 20.4 13.4 8.9 5.3 2.7 2.2 ~- = 1122.3 .262 �Table 26. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Recoveries by Year Followin~ Bandin~ 11 12 10 8 9 644 1278 1478 0 0 0 0 523 515 417 554 457 768 586 978 0 674 922 1089 76 129 137 48 68 80 30 57 75 21 43 55 11 37 45 17 14 31 9 18 20 10 12 21 4 13 12 3 11 10 2 7 6 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 54 46 43 44 36 75 40 70 43 25 26 18 30 44 23 47 23 23 9 22 22 23 26 28 12 12 26 19 5 18 23 23 9 11 16 12 14 17 9 12 9 5 4 14 4 7 6 6 1 6 6 3 4 2 2 4 4 3 5 1 2 4 3 3 1 X X X X 47 51 31 36 26 14 10883 879 514 352 257 193 III 73 58 41 31 16 14 10 4 4 2 3 1 0 Banded Birds Eligible 10883 9794 8872 8198 8198 7220 6634 5866 5409 4858 4438 3923 3400 3400 3400 3400 3400 1922 644 Recoveries per 1,000 Banded 80.8 ,52.5 39.7 31.3 23.5 15.4 11.0 9.9 211.1 7.6 6.4 3.6 3.6 2.9 1.2 1.2 - 292.5 0-"-6 0.8 0.5, 0.0 Alive Going Into Period 292.5 ,211.7 159.2 119.5 88.2 64.7 49.3 38.3 823.6 28.4 20.8 14.4 10.8 7.2 4.3 3.1 1.9 1.3 0.51 0.0 Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952 -53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 Total Recoveries Mortality Rate .276 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 0 9 5 1 4 5 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 1 0 .... .... I (J\ I .256 ~ z .. = 1116.1 .262 �Table 27. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Winter Banded Number Banded 1950-51 300 cu 1/ 72 -- 1951-52 628 196 138 .3121 1952-53 578 195 CU .3374 1957-58 176 CU 39 1958-59 298 80 1959-60 167 52 Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate .2400 .769 .231 .2197 .651 .349 -- .2216 .825 .175 55 .2685 .1846 .593 .407 36 .3114 .2156 1.028 -- Recover:l Rates 2 - n 1 - n 1960-61 248 52 37 .2097 .1492 .510 .490 1961-62 123 36 26 .2927 .2114 .870 .130 1962 -63 399 97 57 .2431 .1429 .618 .346 1963-64 251 58 42 .2311 .1673 1.068 1964-65 198 31 cu .1566 1966-67 285 CU 15 -- .0526 .568 .432 1967-68 270 25 9 .0926 .0333 .681 .319 1968-69 184 9 -- .0489 -- 4,105 1.1 Cannot use. 2.5041 1.8382 Average Survival rate .734 Average Mortality .266 rate I I-' 0'\ N I �Table 28. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Winter Banded Number Banded 1950-51 344 CD 1/ 89 -- 1951-52 650 229 158 .3523 1952-53 900 313 CD .3478 1957-58 347 CD 73 1958-59 217 50 1959-60 250 85 1960-61 306 91 62 .2974 .2026 .835 .185 1961-62 334 81 55 .2425 .1647 .668 .342 1962-63 369 91 56 .2466 .1518 .737 .246 1963 -64 335 69 45 .2060 .1343 .703 .303 1964-65 780 149 CD .1910 1966.,67 389 CD 35 -- .0900 1.118 1967-68 646 52 17 .0805 .0263 1.082 1968-69 905 22 -- .0243 Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n Recovery Rates 1 - n 2 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate .2587 .734 .266 .2431 .699 .301 -- .2104 .913 .087 29 .2304 .1336 .393 •602~ 58 .3400 .2320 .780 .207 I t-' 0\ W 6,772 1/ Cannot use. 2.5588 1.8475 Average Survival Rate .722 Average Mortality Rate .278 I �Table 29. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Winter Banded Number Banded 1950-51 644 1951-52 Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n Recovery Rates 2 - n 1 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate CD 1/ 161 -- .2500 .752 .248 1,278 425 296 .3326 .2316 .674 .326 1952-53 1,478 508 CD .3437 1957-58 523 CD 112 -- .2141 .848 .152 1958-59 515 130 84 .2524 .1631 .496 .504- 1959-60 417 137 94 .3285 .2254 .873 .127 1960-61 554 143 99 .2581 .1787 .698 .302 1961-62 457 117 81 .2560 .1772 .724 .276 1962-63 768 188 113 .2448 .1471 .679 .321 1963-64 586 127 87 .2167 .1485 .807 .193 1964-65 978 180 CD .1840 1966-67 674 CD 50 -- .0742 .889 .111 ::'967-68 922 77 26 .0835 .0282 .989 .011 1968-69 1,089 31 -- .0285 -lO,883 11 Cannot use. 2.5003 1.8381 Average Survival Rate .735 Average Mortality Rate .265 I I-' <l' .po I �-165October, JOB PROGRESS REPORT S t ate of ...::C...::o..:;;L;.;;o~RAD=...::O'____ _ Project No. W-88-R-16 2 Work Plan No. Job Title Studies Period Covered: of Canada April 1971 Migratory Bird Investigations 6 Job No. Goose Populations in Colorado Transplant Areas 1, 1970 to March 31, 1971 Personnel: C. Brown, E. Cochran, D. Coven, G. Crawford, E. Downer, H. Funk, J. Grieb, J. Hatfield, J. Hobbs, R. Hopper, T. Lynch, S. Palm, J. Pogorelz, C. Roberts, W. Russell, J. w~eeler and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT During the 1970-71 hunting season 179 birds banded in areas outside of Colorado were reported recovered in north-central Colorado. Summer banding locations contributing a significant number of banded birds were: EdmontonCamrose area, Alberta; Dowling Lake area, Alberta; Cypress Hills area, Saskatchewan; Phillips and Garfield counties, Montana. Birds banded as flightless young and recovered in north-central Colorado originated from all of the above areas except Garfield County, Montana. Approzimately 30 percent of the birds banded in January, 1968 have been recovered in southwest Saskatchewan compared to about 45 percent in north-central Colorado. The recovery birds banded as locals in Phillips County, Montana and Dowling Lake, Alberta, definitely classify these breeding areas as contributors to the Hi-Line population. The recovery of birds banded as locals in southwest Saskatchewan in addition to the recovery in southwest Saskatchewan, of birds banded during the winter in north-central Colorado, indicates that area of Saskatchewan may be a major contributor of geese to the Hi-Line population. Based on trapped samples, approximately 15 percent of the winter population in north-central is composed of small Canada geese which are presumable breeding members of the arctic nesting short grass prairie population. Approximately 90 percent of the Hi-Line population wintered in Colorado during 1970-71. An estimated 11,187 hunters harvested 12,112 geese in north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 hunting season, for an average season bag of 1.08 per hunter. Only four percent of the active hunters achieved the season maximum of six birds. Approximately 62 percent of all birds harvested in the north-central permit area. were reported taken in Larimer County. A limited Canada goose hunting season in the San Luis Valley resulted in an estimated 107 birds being harvested by 164 active goose season permit holders for an average season bag of 0.65 birds per hunter. Seven birds were reported recovered which were banded outside the San Luis Valley; five of these birds were banded in Hi-Line population breeding areas. Goose counts in the San Luis Valley totaled 1,490 birds on November 23, 1970, 1,050 on December 24, 1970, and 1,241 on January 5, 1971. Throughout the winter the large majority of the geese in the San Luis Valley remained on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. ��-167- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS MichaelR. IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT AREAS Szymczak Colorado has. had continuing success in establishing Canada goose nesting populations through the use.;of gosling transplants in various selected parts of the state. These programs have resulted in hlintable populations in north-central Colorado and the San Luis Valley. Data must be collected continuously in order to determine the information needed to establish sound hunting regulations. In addition, certain ecological factors which are pertinent to the long term management of these populations must also be examined. This study, which is in its first year, was established to meet those objectives. P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect management da ca on Canada goose populations from transplant.programs·within Colorado. SEGMENT 1. 2. 3. which have resulted OJBECTIVES To examine migration routes and/or harvest patterns and distribution of Canada geese wintering in north-central Colorado and the San Luis Valley. To estimate'hunting pressure on, and hunter harvest of Canada geese in north-central Colorado and the San Luis Valley. To make recommendations for establishing a limited Canada-goose hunting season in the San Luis Valley of Colorado and continuing the hunting season on the north-central Colorado goose population. METHODS AND MATERIALS Complete information on all banded Canada geese which have been reported recovered in north-central Colorado has been requested from the Migratory Bird Population Station. This information has not yet been received. Therefore, recovery data for north-central Colorado as well as the San Luis Valley were hand tabulated and analyzed utilizing the periodic reports distributed by the Migratory Bird Population Station. Recovery data was sorted as to banding location, age at time of banding and estimated breeding area, if possible. Canada goose tail fans collected during the 1969-70 hunting season were measured in an attempt to determine the subspecific classification of the harvest, and thus,possibly delineate breeding areas. Canada geese in north-central Colorado were counted on November 4 and 23, December 22 and January 6 during the 1970-71 season. Geese in the San Luis Valley were censused on November 23, December 24 and January S. �-168- A mechanically random sample or 'hunters issued permits to hunt geese in the north-central Colorado "Special Permit" goose hunting area were mailed questionnaires inquiring about their hunting activity and success. All of the hunters holding special permits to hunt geese in the San Luis Valley were mailed similar questionnaires. All data received were tabulated and statistically analyzed. Reconmenda t Lons were formulated for the 1971-72 goose season in the San Luis Valley and north-central Colorado and submitted to management personnel. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION North-Central Breeding Colorado - The Hi-Line Population Range The wintering Hi-Line population, which now generally terminates its southern inigration in north-central Colorado, has undergone a substantial annual increase 'in size since 1968. During this period the post-season wintering population increased from approximately 17,000 to 45,000. Low 'harvest rates, expansion of the breeding range in northeastern Montana and the innnigration of Canada geese of the short grass prairie population into Hi-Line wintering areas are known factors that have contributed, in some degree, to the population increase. In addition, breeding populations in southeast Alberta and southwest Saskatchewan are believed to contribute 'a significant number of geese to the Hi-Line population. Breeding' areas of these Canadian, and possibly other unidentified population segments must be specifically located in order to monitor reproductive success, and thus provide a basis for establishing hunting season regulations. Foreign Recoveries.--During the 1970-71 hunting season 179 foreign bands were reported recovered in north-central Colorado. An additional 36 foreign banded birds were recaptured during post-season banding operations. Both types of recoveries are classified as to general area, if in a Province, or County of banding if in the United States, in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The term direct recoveries refers to birds 'taken the first hunting season after banding. All birds recovered that were banded in Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and Illinois were members of wintering populations. All other birds were banded during the sunnner or pre-season period. Based on knowledge of the current distribution of the Hi-Line population, the small number of indirect recoveries of Pacific Flyway birds banded at scattered locations do not represent any specific breeding populations which contribute significantly to the Hi-Line wintering flock at this time. These birds were most likely transients, an example of the type of birds that occurs in any population. The birds from Big Horn County, Montana and Fremont County, Wyoming are additional examples of misplaced Pacific Flyway birds. �-169- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 hunting season. Area Keewatin TheIon River . Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area Saskatchewan North Battleford Area Moose Jaw Area Cyprus Hills Area Direct Indirect o 1 6 6 7· 3 15 o o 1 2 o 8 Montana Lake County o 2 Wyoming Lincoln County o 1 Rich County o 1 California Modoc County o 1 3 0 0 o Pacific Flyway Utah Central Flyway Montana Teton Blaine Phillips Fergus Garfield Big Horn 20 0 0 3 39 1 37 0 1 0 3 1 1 Nebraska Keith County 1 1 New Mexico Mora County Socorro County 1 5 0 5 Texas Potter County 0 3 54 lis Wyoming Fremont Albany Total .---~-- ------ �-170- +ab1e 2. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recaptured, postseason in north-central Colorado, January 1971. Area Direct Indirect 1 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Cypress Hi lIs 1 5 2 0 1 Saskatchewan Swift Current -S• Saskatchewan R. Area Moose Jaw Area Cypress Hills Area 0 0 0 1 1 4 Montana Blaine County Phi llips County Fergus County Garfield County 0 3 0 0 1 4 Oklahoma Alfalfa County 0 1 Texas Potter County 0 2 New Mexico Socorro County 0 2 Washington Benton County 0 1 Nevada Washoe County 0 1 0 1 5 31 Central Flyway 1 3 Pacific Flyway Mississippi Flyway Illinois Alexander County Total �-171- The geese banded in Teton and Fergus counties, Montana, were birds hand reared and released in the respective areas. Most transplanted goslings are chronic wanderers, particularly during their first migration season; thus, they may end up as members of any wintering population. The birds from the North Battleford and Moose Jaw areas of Saskatchewan, as well as birds from one banding location in the Edmonton-Camrose area of Alberta, were also tranplants. Probably the best indication of breeding areas is obtained from examining recoveries of birds wild-trapped and banded as locals, the term used for flightless young, or possibly innnatures during the sllIlimer period. Most likely birds classified as immatures captured during surrunerdrive-trapping operations were actually locally raised birds which had attained the capability but not the inclination to fly. All locals or summer banded innnatures recovered or recaptured in north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 season are categorized by location and year of banding in Table 3. Again, Pacific Flyway banded local birds as well as those from Big Horn County, Montana and Fremont County, Wyoming, are most likely transients that were produced in Great Basin Canada goose population breeding areas. Locals originated from five specific areas in Alberta. The Dusty Lake area east to northeast of Camrose looks promising as a potential Hi-Line breeding ,area. Since the number of banded birds in that population is not known, the comparative numerical value of a single recovery canriot be weighted. The Dowling Lake area is a definite contributor to the Hi-Line Population. During the summer of 1970, 177 flightless geese were banded at Dowling (Weaver et al., 1970). Sixteen of these birds were recovered or recaptured (Tables 1 and'2) in north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 season. Nine of these were locals (Table 3). Two locals from the Brooks area were recovered in Colorado. However, none of the 145 flightless b~rds banded near Brooks during the summer of 1970 were recovered in north-central Colorado. The final local banded by Alberta and recovered in 'north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 season came from within the area which I have termed the Cypress Hills area. This artificially termed area is depicted in Figure 1 and is generally bordered by the South Saskatchewan River on the north, Swift Current, Saskatchewan on the east, Medicine Hat, Alberta on the west, and the 49th parallel on the south. According to recoveries of both summer and winter banded birds, this area is apparently quite important to Hi-Line Canada geese. Twelve geese that were banded in the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan were recovered or recaptured in north-central Colorado during 1970-71 (Figure 1). Ten of the 12 were banded as locals. All of the birds were banded in 1965 or before. Apparently no summer banding of Canada geese has been done in that part of Saskatchewan since 1965. The Significance of Cypress Hills area as a Hi-Line population breeding area should definitely be explored further. A total of 59 banded geese recovered during the 1970-71 season in northcentral Colorado originated from Phillips County, Montana (Table 1). Phillips County, which contains Bowdoin National Wildlife Refuge, has historically been a major contributor of Canada geese to the Hi-Line population. Garfield County contributed 37 banded birds to the harvest in Colorado (Table 1). However, only qne of these birds was a "young of the year" (Table 3). Apparently birds banded in Garfield County were captured in an area used predominan~ly for moulting by non-breeding birds. �-172- Table 3. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered or recaptured in north-central Colorado during the winter of 1970-71. 1/ Location Before 1965 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area 10 mi. E of Camrose Dusty Lake Dowling Lake Area ... Brooks Area Year of Banding 1965 1966 1967 1968 1970 1/ 2, (2)-1/ (1)2 1 1 Cypress Hills 40 mi. NE of Medicine Hat Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Supreme Area Crane Lake Maple Creek Area Many Island Lake Cypress Lake 10 mi. N. of Eastend 1969 1 4 1 1 1 2 1 Central Flyway Montana Blaine County Phillips County Garfield County Big Horn County 2 7 1 7 13 4, (5)1/19,(1)1/ (1)1/ 1 Wyoming Fremont 1 Pacific Flyway Montana Lake County 2 Wyoming Lincoln County (1) Utah Rich County 1 1/ Numbers in parentheses indicate geese classified as immatures when banded during the summer period. �I III 0 I I 0 51 - lie) - .- - -. -- " - - o. " ~(~i ~ I I ' ~ ~ ?yj'(.ll. ~-'~'~ - - I - }'"I'''::'~/ ~~ - I 1080 Iv: ' I 1 I .r:.-----=----.., -"- /~-t ~~~...:...--3-.- ;_~~/ ~ -~'---"''- __ ------- 1 1(/ ))\, I I I 8 .,,-f'H:-vlAN <5' o . I 'P.';\<r<' ®I C'. o <1 0 tl'"1 ~ GLcf,e I (it~tx Lake 0 /. ()ror, t.c GVLL LAKe: c:c.P Bute r \'/j~'-: . as a Locol G!I Bonded as on Ad uII EJ Experimental I Transplant 1 •.... I -..J '-' I ~.' ,,'-' /' W I .~ 1 1 I I miles ~~ 1; I Pc k cwk i L 0 ~ Po ~ Banding Loca t Lons I X Bonded 1. o Chi: I:. < 1 clJ'F([N' t-;Iie~'jp,;. I I X ~ -X ~,x C\,-.~ L 0\ . I ,-,-J'-: .__ r-,E~~As;.r ',D I I ~ , " reI) C 17)<:'1 I .1, , ~ ,) I~ I . I ~~. X@ I jn Cypr es s -~h.llsa rea of Canad;'ge-ese fecoveieabr-tecapture-d /' ,_/ ~-/"C3_,~ C;WI" T 81QS1icki I Fig. I I ;Y'-;/' I _______ -=~_~~_~L'~~_~_-~-J_ __ - _.~ t/) I) ~ ~l';=CO_~J Dip ~f~td ...:. f? X , <19<', -J t.~ ~\ ~ D o I o X ,. I,' /) ,', .~ ~X 20 _~ ~. I I inch" I _ ~ ;.: I I .' I gb.I /: ..s-r-: : ~ 10 in ~OTth--ee.rrtTaJ:---E:olotado-dttrin? 197(:)-71. r, ( . �-174Winter Bandings - North-Central Colorado.--In January of 1968, 478 Canada geese were banded in north-central Colorado. Saskatchewan and Colorado have been the major recovery area for these geese (Table 4). A significant number of these. birds have been reported taken in the previously defined Cypress Hills area (Fig. 2). There are three possible explanations for the Cypress Hill area being a major recovery area for these Hi-Line birds: (1) these birds are members of populations which breed farther north and move into the Cypress Hills area prior to the start of any Canadian waterfowl season, (2) these are non-:-breed.ingsub-adult birds which move out of the primary eastern Montana breeding area into the Cypress Hills area or possibly farther north to moult, then are harvested on their return south, (3) these are birds which breed in the Cypress Hills area. There is Some evidence supporting each of·the above hypotheses. In support of (1) birds from Dowling Lake, Alberta are known to pause in their southern migration in the Medicine Hat area of Alberta (Weaver et al. 1971), (2) there has been an annual decrease in the nUITber of 1968 post-season banded birds recovered in the Cypress Hills area (Table 4 Saskatchewan). This decrease would be considered normal had not the total number of recoveries remained stable because of an annual increase in· the number of bands recovered' in the other major harvest area, north-central Colorado. However; increased total harvest in Colorado definitely complicates analysis of these recovery data. (3) As discussed previously, there has been a significant number of recoveries in no r t h+ce nt r.aI Colorado of birds .t.hat; were banded as locals in the Cypress .Hills area. Winter Banding - Southeast Colorado. --The shift of Some arctic nesting short grass prairie Canada geese into Hi-Line wintering areas was first noted during the 1967-68 season when two birds previously banded in .the Colorado's short grass wintering range were recovered in north-central Colorado. Short. grass banded birds have been taken in the Hi-'Line area annually since that time, not only' from southeast Colorado bandings, but also from Texas. The significance of short grass birds, in terms of numbers, in the Hi-Line area will be examined later in this report. Summary.--Analysis of band recoveries of Canada geese reported harvested or recaptured in north-central Colorado has given preliminary indications of Some specific breeding areas of Hi-Line Canada geese. The Dowling Lake area of Alberta joins Phillips County, Montana as a known reproduction area for Hi-Line birds. Some populations in the Edmonton-Camrose area also seem to be contributing to this population. Specifically, birds in the Dusty Lake area and a newly developing transplanted population at Oliver Lake, Alberta are migrating into the Hi-Line winteririg area. The Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan and adjacent Alberta. may possibly be an important reproductive area for Hi-Line birds. The recovery of birds banded in the winter. in north-central Colorado in the Cypress Hills add importance to that area • �J °1 IIO 111 I ~ I . I ~ : . ~ X I I .l()~ I I ," ~ I I I I I : II ~ ~ " ~,1<lny Island r'--.~ ____ /_ .1. _. •••~.J [) C~ o '" Vj 50'.--. ../,..-----/ o "I () 0 ~I '0 Lck,Ie "COICINE@ ~~_ _,,_VHAT ~ _ v, Q X If --:- .. I:?'.~_-~-· I I D. J &)() . () \ I vJi~~<"O~'~"';'-- 510- _ I C; '( J 1 109, Bigstickl Lake f"_ V' D IIVIFT X~ ~JriRENT Po I a e (1Lak~ 0 /\nlelope Lake yl GULL S,,,,, LAKE ~Lk I __ =~'-;l I. o e - -"I ~.-~~.~~~:.~~:-:-.-..-.:..~:~.:::::o~.~.> MAPLE G' .; - I - -- a CnEEK I e , Firs! Year-Bonded as Imm. Fitst Year-Bonded as Adult e Other Years-Bonded as Imm. I X Other Years-Bonded 0& Adult I I Inch: I t I I , 20 mil es I ~ ra!~o\'/ki 1.0 k e ~ I < ,)0 .__. Fig. 2. Recovery I locations Jn - o I X E:'STEND tbl Cypress Hi] 15 area of C.mlad~ geese 'bimcled-in II ( I I .I Pre'lcv:~ I r .. - X La,e I I - u:' I Cy~ress I - I •... - I \ ~--Y,""f-r-~'~ ,j ~ I Ji\ • I =:,,::.. .~,. _/ C:;f' •• '2.- ,,}p- , ,,,-'" _"-._. __ __ " .....--~.'''''.. \ ~, 1'- X ,,,./- »>: iiC;'ctl'FCflltTal"Colorado, ~ ''I,., ~~" i \ I ! .T;anu~..,.-l9F8- \. D X �-176- Table 4. Distribution of recoveries in north-central Colorado, i967-68. of Canada geese banded post-season 1968-69 No. Percent RecoveE2: Year 1969-70 1970-71 No. Percent No. Percent No. British Columbia 0 0.0 1 3.7 0 0.0 1 1.3 Alberta 1 4.2 3 11.1 0 0.0 4 5.3 Saskatchewan 11 45.8 9 33.3 3 12.0 23 30.3 Montana 4 16.7 0 0.0 2 8.0 6 7.9 Idaho 1 4.2 1 3.7 0 0.0 2 2.6 South Dakota· 0 0.0·· 1 3.7 0 0.0 1 1.3 Wyoming 0 0.0 1 3.7 0 0.0 1 1.3 Nebraska 0 0.0 1 3.7 0 0.0 1 1.3 North Central 5 20.8 10 37.0 19 76.0 34 44.7 Southeast 1 4.2 0 0.0 1 4.0 2 2.6 Arizona 1 4.2 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.3 Total 24 Area Total Percent Colorado Migration Routes or Harvest 27 25 76 Patterns The recovery distribution of birds banded in north-central Colorado postseason, 1968 were presented in Table 4. These data indicate Saskatchewan is the major harvest area north of the terminal wintering area in Colorado. Generally, banded birds reported harvested in Saskatchewan were taken from late September to mid-October. Only six birds banded in 1968 have been taken in Montana and these show no specific trends for period of harvest. Recoveries indicate that a good portion of the 1968 banded birds were definitely present in north-central Colorado by November 10. Analysis of foreign banded birds recovered in north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 season indicate some variation in movement of birds into Co1o~ rado. Recovery information indicated that at lea.st a portion of the birds �-177- from Phillips and Garfield counties in Montana were in Colorado prior to the beginning of the season on November 10. Dowling Lake birds apparently did not move into the area until late November-early December. Wintering Flock Composition As was mentioned previously, some birds of the short grass prairie population have been m,oving.irito Hi-L:Lne popuiation wintering areas. These birds are arctic nesters and much smaller in. size than the prairie nesters of the HiLine population. In an effort to .obt a i.na minimal estimate of the number o-f short grass birds in the Hi-Line wintering area, a sample of hunters were asked to send in complete tail fans from the f Lr.s t two geese which they bagged duri.ng the 1969-70 season. The center rectrices were measured and classified according to the method developed by Dzubin (unpublished data) which separate "large" type Canada geese from small geese. Of 143 usable tails, only six, or 4.2 percent were classified as being small geese. Assuming there was no variation in migration chronology between the large and small birds, which would affect early season,availability, a projected 175 small geese would have been harvested during the 1969-70 season in north-central Colorado. Hunter selection for the larger geese negates the possibility of estimating what portion of the entire wintering population consisted of small birds. The number of band recoveries of small Canada geese in north-central Colorado have been inconsistent in reference to the size of the harvest. Continued recoveries annually only indicate that small birds of the short grass prauie are indeed present in the Hi-Line area. From the 1967-68 season through the 1970-71 season, there have been three, seven, four, and nine short grass prairie banded birds taken during the respective seasons in north-central Colorado. One of the birds taken during the 1970-71 season was an adult male of intermediate size when banded (7 lbs., 80z.), atypically large fora short grass prairie bird. An estimate of the percent of small birds in the 1970'-71 post-season HiLine population was attained during trapping and banding operations. Of the 990 birds banded, 147 or 14.8 percent were considered small birds. These birds were all captured at one time in a very large walk-in type trap, thus the trapped birds may be representative of the post-season population. Distribution.--Coordinated inventories throughout the te~inal wintering range of the Hi-Line population during the winter of 1970-71 revealed that approximately 90 percent of the population wintered in Colorado Crable 5). The distribution of geese within Colorado is presented in Table 6 ~ith comparative totals for previous years available in Table 7. The increase in the number of birds utilizing the Longmont-Denver-Boulder area was the only major shift .recorded during the 1970-71 season. This change probably resulted from hunting pressure in areas previously closed to goose hunting in the Ft. Collins-Longmont area. ' �-178- The decline in the number of geese present in the area between the December count and the January count may have been the result of birds dispersing from the area during a late December early January heavy snow and cold period. It is also possible that the late December count may have been too high and the total drop in the number of birds from November to January was an indication of harvest. Table 5. Results of Hi-Line Canada goose population inventories, 1970-71. Nov. 24 Dec. 22 Jan. 5 Location Nov. 4 Saskatchewan 1,800 Montana 12,622 1,812 1,335 800 Wyoming 1,770 1,990 2,635 2,710 Colorado 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 307 1,074 2,644 3,332 31,149 52,926 58,367 44,712 New Mexico Totals Hunting Pressure and Harvest An estimated 11,187 hunters harvested 12,112 geese in north-central Colorado during the 1970-71 season (Tables 8 and 9). Larimer County continues to be the major area of hunter activity and goose harvest (Table 10). The total number of hunter trips and geese bagged increased over 1969-70 levels in all counties except Morgan (Table 10). The large increase in the number of birds in Boulder County through the 1970-71 season (Table 7) was generally not reflected in harvest and hunting success in that County (Table 10). The majority of the active hunters continue to be unsuccessful (Table 11). Only about four percent of the active hunters achieved the season maximum of six birds. San Luis Valley The entire San Luis Valley was open to goose hunting during the 1970-71 season for the first time since Canada goose restoration efforts began in the Valley. Two hundred permits were issued for the taking of one goose per permit in the counties of Hinsdale, Mineral, Rio Grande, and Saguache east of the continental divide; Costilla and Alamosa counties north ofU. S. 160 and west of U. S. 285; and Conejos County west of U. S. 285. Goose hunting in the remainder of the Valley was subject to the general Central Flyway bag limits of two geese per day and four in possession. Significant closures to goose hunting were present in the San Luis Lakes area, and on portions of the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges. �-179Table 6. Results of north-central Colorado Canada goose surveys, 1970-71. Area Ft. Collins-Loveland Area Lindenmeier Lake Reservoir No. 8 Reservoir No. 8 Annex Elder Reservoir Reservoir No. 5 Reservoir No. 6 Bureau of Standards Douglas Reservoir Rocky Ridge Reservoir Cement Plant Reservoir Terry Lake Mountain Supply' Reservoir College Lake Herring Lake Claymore Lake S terling Pond Watson Lake Dean Lake Anderson I s Pond Greenwalt (Nelson) Lake Fossil Creek Reservoir Boyd Lake Horseshoe Lake Hollister Lake (Windsor) New Windsor Reservoir Woods (Eaton) Lake Timnath Reservoir Cobb Lake Black Hollow Reservoir Parkwood Lake Boxe1der Reservoir Sub-total Boulder-Longmont Area Ish Lake Terry Lake (Longmont) McIntosh Lake Foothills Reservoir Faivre Ponds Swede Lake Dodd Lake Gaynor Lakes Baller Lake Boulder Reservoir Va1mont Reservoir Sub-total Nov. 4 Nov. 23 Dec. 22 Jan. 5 .2,500 720 320 460 170 1,020 2,200 150 46 25'., 1,700 250 275 o o o 197 63 250 140 164 830 200 125 o o o o 425 155 35 o 280 290 o 2,100 170 1,750 o o o 220 o 12 o o o o o 600 o 520 1,480 o o o o o o o o o o 20 1,700 o o 4,200 120 .50 1,025 1,025 450 10,947 13 ,500 o o o o o 6,000 1,400 400 400 4,500 6,000 75 250 225 7,000 6 850 155 63 o o 15 50 150 25 o 150 o o o o 450 7,000 535 52 4,500 100 2,100 175 220 400 o o o o 70 2,300 o o 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 170 90 55 9,300 1,225 o o o o o o 4,200 330 185 368 2,095 o o o o o 16 205 o o 530 163 30 12 35 22 175 3,400 725 5,500 11,233 790 14,417 11 ,308 13 ,549 o o o o o o o o -------------------------------------------------------.--------------------- �-180- Table 6. Results. of north-central Colorado Canada goose surveys, 1970-71 (continued). Area Nov. 4 Nov. 23 Dec. 22 Jan. 5 Denver Area C leav iew Reservo ir Mohn La.ke Sloans Lake Stand ley Lake . Bowles Lake Area Marston Reservoir Grant's Reservoir Bonfil 's Es tate Denver City Park Cherry Creek Reservoir Denver Metro Area Ricketson's Pond 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .900 0 5 66 109 155 1,200 75 300 120 290 23 0 0 0 0 105 0 933 0 0 0 240 38 0 40 0 0 135 0 1,282 0 0 0 350 250 0 0 Sub-total 900 2,293 1,356 2,017 190 40 0 18 0 0 100 0 0 0 340 400 400 25 15 35 60 35 60 150 400 400 0 0 650 0 0 400 30 500 350 85 610 425 475 0 50 0 0 0 0 130 0 800 25 348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 Brighton-Greeley-Fort Morgan Area Barr Lake Horsecreek Reservoir Prospect Reservoir Latham Reservoir Milton Reservoir Empire Reservoir Riverside Reservoir Jackson Reservoir Bijou Reservoir K-4 Ranch South Platte River, Greeley Ft. Morgan Mile High Duck Club Sub-total Grand Total 0 0 0 �-181- Table 7. Winter inventories of the Colorado Hi-Line Canada goose population. Count Date Fort Collins,~ove1and Longmont-Bou1derDenver 1967 January 9 9,739 2,883 991 13 ,613 1968 January 10 12,217 4,029 678 16,924 1968-69 November 20 December 19 January 2 & 13 15,848 20,905 19,693 3,461 4,236 4,874 2,667 1,170 775 '21,976 26,311 25,342 1969-70 November 5 November 28 December 23 January 6 8,737 31,350 18,522, 30;650 2,255 3,782 5,668\ 5,060 390 1,374 1,259 1,914 11 ,382 36,506 25,499 37,624 1970-71 November 4 November, 23 December 22 January 6 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 1,690 16,710 12,664 15,566 348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 Brighton~Gree1ey-For t Morgan Total Table 8,. Hunter activity and success in permit area. Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted 1964-65 1,608 1,427 6.1 0.48 1965-66 2,335 1,578 6.5 0.53 1966-67 3,996 2,910 5.1 0.41 1967-68 3,000 2,256 6.7 0.55 1968-69 3,000 2,379 9.2 1.11 1969-70 8,342 6,149 7.4 0.68 1970-71 13 ,611 11,187 6.9 1.08 Year Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter �-182- Table 9. Distribution of harvest, by county, in the permit area. Year Larimer Weld Boulder Morgan Adams Total "'"""'- 1964-65 504 181 1965-66 665 144 29 838 1966 -67 764 409 11 1,184 1967-68. 944 265 37 1,246 1968-69 1,584 886 161 2,631 1969-70 2,431 1,112 383 146 100 4,172 1970-71 7,486 3,544 620 93 370 12,112 Table 10. 1970-71. 685 Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in north-central Colorado, Larimer County 1/ Estimated Number 1969-70 Estimated Number 1970-71 Total Individual Hunters 3,535 (± 6,977 (± Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged 226) Percent Change From 1969.,.70 328) + 97.4 24,139 (±2,722) 43,046 (±3,851) + 78.3 2,431 (± 411) 7,541 (± +210.2 868) Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter 6.8 6.2 8.8 Ave. Bag/Hunter 0.69 1.08 + 56.5 Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 0.101 0.175 + 73.3 1/ Larimer County permit area enlarged in 1970-71. . . ----------------------------------------------------------------------------. , �-183- Table 10. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in north-central. Colorado, 1970-71 (continued). Weld County· Es t Imat.edNumber 1969-70 Estimated Number 1970-71 Percent Change From 1969-70 Total Individual Hunters 2,461 (± 212) 4,293 (+ 308) + 74.4 Total Hunter Trips 12,742 (±1,867) 22,557 (±2,677) + 77.0 Total Geese Bagged 1,112 (± 3,497 (± +214.5 281) 595) 1.9 Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter 5.2 5.3 + Ave. Bag/Hunter 0.45 0.81 + 80.0 Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 0.087 .. 0.155 .+ 78.2 Boulder County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged 728 (± 131) 4,483 (±1,215) 383 (± 179) 186) + 69.1 7,543 (±2,207) + 68.3 620 (± 229) + 61.9 1,231 (± Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter 6.2 6.1 1.6 Ave. Bag/Hunter 0.53 0.50 5.7 Ave. Bag/Hunter Trips 0.085 0.082 3.5 Morgan County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged 575 (± 231) 759 (± 147) + 32.0 2,300 (± 639) 2,147 (± 580) 6.7 93 (± ·64) - 36.3 146 (± 65) Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter 4.0 .2.8 - 30.0 Ave. Bag/Hunter 0.25 0.12 - 52.0 Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 0.063 0.043 - 31.7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-184- Table. 10. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in north-central Colorado, 1970-71 (continued). Adams County Total Individual Hunter Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Estimated Number 1969-70 Estimated Number 1970-71 Percent Change From 1969-70 337 (± 212) 592 (± 131) + 75.7 1,730 (± 645) 2,294 (± 818) + 32.6 361 (± 147) +261.0 100 (± 80) Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter 5.1 3.8 - 25.5 Ave. Bag/Hunter 0.30 0.60 +100.0 Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 0.058 0.157 ·+170.7 Entire Permit Area Total Individual Hunters 6,149 (± 201) 11,187 (± 254) + 81.9 Total Hunter Trips 45,394 (±3,598) 77 ,587 (2:4 ,403) + 70.9 Total Geese Bagged 4,172 (± 12,112 <±1,005) +190.3 583) Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter 7.4 6.9 6.8 Ave. Bag/Hunter 0.68 1.08 + 58.8 Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 0.092 0.156 + 69.6 �-185Table 11. Estimated distribution of season bag for active hunters in the north-central Colorado permit area. 1968-69 Number Percent Hunting Season 1969';'70 Number' Percent' 1,299 54.6 4,263 1 420 17.6 2 259 3 ,Number 1970-71 Percent 69.3 6,588 ,58.9 836 13 .6 1,620 14.5 10.9 452 7.4 1,073 9.6 142 6.0 238 3.9 564 5.0 4 103 4.3 153 2.5 528 4.7 5 78. 3.3 138 2.2 342 3.1 6 78 3.3 69 1.1 472 4.2 Total 2,379 100.0 6,149' '100.0 11,187 100.0 Season Bag ° Foreign Band Recoveries Seven banded birds were reported recovered in the San Luis Valley during the 1970-71 season that were banded outside of the Valley (Table 12). The birds from Alberta and Montana, as well as those from north-central Colorado, are from Hi-Line population breeding areas. The San Luis Valley lies along the route which Hi-Line population birds might be expected to take to their historical Wintering grounds along the lower Rio Grande River in New Mexico. However, the time of recovery of the birds banded at Dowling Lake, early January, is much later than the normal migration period for Hi-Line birds. It is possible that the Dowling Lake birds had moved out of north-central Colorado during the late December heavy snow and cold weather period. An additional bird from Dowling was taken in early January in the Salida area, north of the San Luis Valley. A small influx of birds was noted in the San Luis Valley between the December 24 and January 5 inventories and could have been missed from earlier counts (Table 13). The bird from Wyoming was banded at Wheatland Reservoir, a traditional moulting area for birds of Great Basin Canada goose populations. As was noted under Work.Plan 2, Job 2 of this Federal Aid Report, sub-adults from the San Luis Valley may be beginning to use Wheatland Reservoir for moulting purposes. Distribution and Harvest Aerial surveys conducted during the 1970-71 hunting season indicated that the majority of the birds utilized the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge during the season ,(Table 13). The majority of the 107 birds harvested in the permit area was extrac~ed from the population utilizing the Monte Vista Refuge in Rio Grande County (Table 14). �-186Table 12. Banding areas outside the San Luis Valley of birds recovered within the San Luis Valley during the 1970-71 hunting season. Area Number of Recoveries Recovery Dates 2 1-2-71 1-5-71 1 11-14-70 1 1-12-71 2 11-6-70 .11-14-70 1 11-6-71 Alberta Dowling Lake ~~•. mtana Phillips County Wyoming Albany County Colorado North-central Texas Waggner Ranch-Panhandle Table 13. Res~lts of Canada goose surveys during the 1970-71 hunting season in the San Luis Valley. Location Monte Vista Refuge November 23 Number of Geese December 24 January 5 1,125 975 1,000 285 72 30 Russell Lakes o o 16 Smith Reservoir o 3 160 o o 35 80 o o 1,490 1,050 1,241 Rio Grande River De 1 Nor te-ALames a Conejos River McIntire Springs-Rio Grande Sanchez Reservoir Total �-187- Table 14. area. Distribution of harvest, Year Rio Grande Alamosa Saguache 74 31 2 1970-71 by county in the San Luis Valley Conejos o permit Total 107 It was estimated that 164 of the 200 permit holders actually hunted geese during the special season in the San Luis Valley (Table 15). Rio Grande and Alamosa counties received the greatest amount of hunting pressure but success was much greater in Rio' Grande (Table 16). Since the majority of the harvest was expected to be extracted from locally raised birds that had not been hunted previously, the first part of the season was expected to be the heavy harvest period. However, the maJor harvest period in the permit area extended from late November to late December (Fig. 3). Possibly the hunting pressure was not as great as expected because the opening week ran concurrently with the last few days of the big game season. Table IS. Year 1970-71 Hunter activity Number Permits Issued 200 and success in the San Luis Valley permit area. Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 164 3.4 0.65 LITERATURE Weaver, H., C. Lacey, and D. Neave. Committee Annual Report, 1970. CITED 1971. Alberta Waterfowl 54 p. Prepared by ---IZe-'_J../-f_:t.-:-c...;... A-,-:l =d..L;;;.....[""". , 6--' _"'_X_;~-:-I_+, /.,..,';:/;<....-r'-'}-'-Z~c~.),~d;.=..:;;;,L:;..-/_ M:J-chaelR. SzymczaY '{_"j <~(.:;( Assistant Wildlife Researcher v zr Technical �-188Table 16. Hunting pressure ·andharvest, Valley special goose season, 1970-71. Rio Grande County Total Individual HUnters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Average Hunter Trips/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Trip Alamosa Es timated Number 107 278 74 2.6 0.69 ,0.27 82 237 .31 2.9 0.38 0.13 10 28 2 2.8 0.20 0.07 County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Average Hunter Trips/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Trip Entire the San Luis County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Average Hunter Trips/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Trip Conejos during County Total Individual Hunters Total Hun t.er Trips Total Geese Bagged Average Hunter Trips/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter" Average Bag/Hunter Trip Saguache by county, 6 13 o 2.2 o o Permit Area Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Average Hunter Trips/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Trip 164 (± 3) 556 (±20) 107 (± 4) 3.4 0.65 0.19 1970-71 �-189- . 25 20 -I..l (I) Q) ::-J.I C\1 ::r: IH 0 15 -I..l c:: Q) 0 J.I Q) p.., 10 5 Oct. 31 to Nov. 13 Nov. 14 to Nov. 27 Nov. 28 to Dec. 11 Dec. 12 to Dec. 25 Dec. 26 to Jan. 8 Jan. 9 to Jan. 17 Time Period Fig. 3. Percentage distribution by time period of Canada goose harvest in the San Luis Valley permit area during the 1970-71 hunting ~eason. ��-191October, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project COLORADO No. W-88-R-16 Work Plan No. Job Title 3 Investigation Period Covered: December Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 6 of Mallard Management Units of Eastern 1, 1970 through April 1, 1971 Colorado Personnel: Richard Hopper, Mike Szymczak~ Robert Kitzmiller, Larry Green, Dale Coven, Jack Corey, Michael Robinson, C1ait Braun, Velma Fredrickson, J. Edward Kautz and Howard Funk of the Division of Game, Fish and Parks; Jack E. Randall of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries arld Wildlife. ABSTRACT Winter trapping efforts in eastern Colorado produced a total of 5,884 mallards banded between mid~January through February, 1971. An excellent year of production on breeding grounds resulted in some of the highest winter census figures for Colorado since 1957 and 1958, the last period of peak production. A late November census indicated about 470,000 birds wintering in Central Flyway Colorado, about 430,000 in late December, and about 310,000 in early January. Sex ratio counts again suggested about 60 percent of the Wintering mallard population was composed of males. The point-system regulation in effect in most Central Flyway states, which directs pressure toward the mallard drake, evidently had minimum effect on altering sex composition of the flocks, especially in Colorado. Harvest in Colorado increased substantially even though estimated number of hunters was up only slightly from the 1969 season. Greatest increases in hunting pressure and harvest occurred in the north-central and southeast portions of the state. Programming and machine processing of all banding and recovery data gathered since 1963-64 was accomplished during the segment but examination of printout material will not be completed until the next segment. �-192- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Recovery data for winter banded mallards in the San Luis Valley are similar to those obtained during preseason periods and the Valley does not seem to be as important a wintering area for northern birds as other Central Flyway Units. Thus, winter banding in the San Luis Valley should be terminated. 2. Banding quotas should remain at between 6 to 8 hundred mallards per study unit, depending upon success of trapping efforts. Every effort should be made to obtain at least 600 birds in each of the eight study areas. 3. Analysis 1970-71 of all IBM tapes, including season, should be completed the updating tape which in the 1971-72 segment. covers the �-193- INVESTIGATION OF MALLARD MANAGEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO H6ward D. Funk Winter banding of mallards was continued in 1970-71 for the purpose of investigating populations of birdswinteririg in the Central Flyway portion of Colorado and dividing the State into management units if feasible. Main criteria utilized in defining groups and areas are differences in mortality and migration characteristics of the birds. The study was begun in 1963-64 and expanded in recent years to a cooperative Central Flyway investigation of management units. A report entitled "Justification of the Central Flyway High Plains Mallard Management Unit" (Funk et al. 1971) includes some of the data cdllected in Colorado through 1969-70. However, Colorado data are now being analyzed more intensively by the study units designated upon initiation of the investigation. This analysis will also include data collected through the hunting season of 1970-71 and should be completed in the 1971-72 segment. Thus, this report will cover only results of banding efforts and sur'veys conducted within the designated reporting period. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for Colorado mallard management units. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band mallards after hunting season in the following eight study areas for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history and annual mortality data: (a) South Platte Valley Denver to Greeley, (b) South Platte Valley Greeley to Fort Morgan; (c) South Platte Valley Fort Morgan to Sterling, (d) South Platte Valley Sterling to Julesburg, (e) the Fort Collins area, (f) Bonny Reservoir, (g) Arkansas Valley Pueblo to Rocky Ford, and (h) Arkansas Valley Rocky Ford to the Kansas line. Feasibility of winter banding in the San Luis Valley will also be investigated. 2. To conduct surveys for the purpose of obtaining winter popUlation estimates of mallards; age and sex ratios in the hunter's bag, wintering populations, and trap samples and; hunter pressure and harvest data by study area. 3. To gather and tabulate band recovery data from the Bird Banding Office from mallards banded in Colorado since 1963-64 for use in making preliminary estimates on migration and harvest routes and annual mortality for use in final analysis during a later segment. �-194- 4. To conduct further special mallard seasons designed to take advantage of surplus birds where feasible. METHODS AND MATERIALS Trapping methods and materials were described in earlier segment reports with cage traps being the main type utilized in 1970-710 Trapping began immediately after hunting season, about mid-January, 1971, and continued through February. A sample of birds was again obtained in the San Luis Valley, making a total of nine study areas. Periodic aerial censuses were again conducted to estimate numbers of ducks and movement by time period and area. Ground sex ratio counts were conducted where and when possible to allow a continuing annual account of possible changes in sex composition of mallards in the respective study units. Hunter performance checks were conducted by Division personnel in an effort to evaluate hunter attitude and willingness to abide by pointsystem regulations in effect during the season. The latter data were combined with those gathered in other states having similar regulations to allow an overall analysis. Tapes containing mallard banding and recovery data for Colorado since initiation of this study were obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory at Patuxent Wildlife Research Station. Programs for tabulating, sorting and complete analysis of data by machine processing were constructed by Mr. J. Edward Kautz, Wildlife Biology graduate from Colorado State University. Program analysis included examination of migration routes utilized by the various age and sex classes of birds banded, movement between banding sites or study areas within Colorado, fall movement down the Flyways by age and sex by time periods, and mortality and survival rates of the various age and sex classes. These programs are designed so that, with a minimum of alteration, either card or tape records of recoveries can be used to update any of the analyses as more harvest information is received. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Nine study areas were again sampled in winter banding efforts with results displayed in Table 1. Quotas of birds to be banded in each unit (Fig. 1) remained at 600 birds with as equal proportions by age (adult and immature) and sex as possible. These quotas were reached or exceeded in six of the nine units with a total of 5,884 birds banded. As always, adult males were most prevalent in trap samples. Usually the adult female quota is most difficult to obtain but immature females were also in short supply in samples in 1970-71. It should be noted that percentages listed in Table 1 by age and sex are not representative of trapping ratios because many trapped males were released unbanded. �Table 1. Numbers and percentages of mallards in the banded sample by sex, age and area, eastern Colorado 1970-71. Adult Percent Female No. Percent Immature Male Female No. Percent No. Percent 156 26.2 145 24.3 159 26.7 136 22.B 664 164 24.7 112 16.9 215 32.3 173 26.1 BOO 240 30.0 191 23.9 156 19.5 213 26.6 BOO 227 2B.4 iB7 23.4 23B 29.7 ··148 18.5 800 242 30.3 201 25.1 221 27.6 136 17.0 Bonny Reservoir 754 198 26.3 130 (12) Rocky Ford-Lamar 468 133 28.4 127 27.1 87 18.6 121 25.9 465 151 32.5 128 27.5 117 25.2 69 14.8 537 135 25.1 124 23.1 137 25.5 141 26.3 5,884 1,646 28.0 1,345 22.8 1,539 26.2 1,354 23.0 Management Unit No. Banded No. (4) Fort Collins 596 Denver-Greeley Greeley-Ft. Morgan (6) (3) (2) (1) (9) Ft. Morgan-Sterling Sterling-Julesburg Male I (13) Pueblo-Rocky Ford (15) San Luis Valiey: Totals 17.2 I-' 209 27.7 217 2B.8 1.0 VI I �Ul " '" W Z ••••••• ~ ~ M c.:I ; ~~ ~~ :5; t-;; I " ~ 0 I " 0 u >( ~ w ;: w Z �-197- Tagging and banding in the San Luis Valley had to again be concentrated on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge because of a lack of other suitable areas. Retraps were quite numerous, however almost all were from pre-season bandings in the San Luis Valley and South Park. This factor plus examination of recoveries from San Luis Valley winter bandings in other areas has prompted the decision to terminate winter banding efforts in the Valley and rely on pre-season banding data for the San Luis Valley population. Winter Sex Ratio Counts " Sex ratio counts were conducted in a number of eastern Colorado locations in November, December and January. Lumped data by month on samples of about 5,300, 8,200 and 2,800 mallards produced percentages of about 61, 60 and 59 drakes, respectively. This information suggests annual hunting pressure in Colorado is not sufficient to greatly alter sex ratios in the popUlations through the hunting season even though the point-system regulation directs pressure toward the drake. Sex ratio data obtained after hunting season by unit of study are.shown in Table 2. Only five un~ts were sampled during this period but other areas should have been similar, approximating 60 percent drakes overall which is similar to results of previous efforts since 1963-64. Table 2. Mallard post-season sex ratio ground counts by study unit, winter of 1970-71. Date and Location No. Ducks Counted Male Female Total Percent Males 292 293 214 232 506 525 57.7 55.8 135 216 111 114 246 330 54.9 65.5 313 267 580 54.0 120 157 142 304 332 56 95 87 214 176 176 252 229 518 508 68.2 62.3 62.0 58.9 65.4 141 161 178 119 139 122 260 300 300 54.2 53.7 59.3 Ft. Morgan-Sterling (Unit 2) 1-21-71 1-21-71 South Platte River " " " Ft. Collins Area (Unit 4) 1-28-71 1-28-71 College Lake Lindenmaier Lake Bonny Reservoir Area (Unit 9) 1-16-71 Bonny Reservoir Arkansas Valley (Units 11 & 12) 1-23-71 1-25-71 1-26-71 2-2-71 2-8-71 Two Buttes Reservoir " " " " " " John Martin Reservoir " " " San Luis Valley (Unit 15) 2-19-71 2-19-71 2-19-71 Monte Vista NWR " " " " " " �-198- Winter Aerial Surveys Periodic aerial surveys were again conducted to obtain data on numbers of ducks present by area and time period. Another good year of reproduction was reflected in high numbers of birds censused, especially in the November and December counts (Table 3). However, there was a suggested decline through the winter period, the most drastic decrease in numbers occurring from late December to early January. The high count in 1969-70 was the January Inventory (January 5, 1970) when about 430,000 ducks were censused. In 1970-71, November and December counts were comparable to that figure with 470,000 and 430,000 birds censused, respectively, while the January Inventory was only 310,000, much below that of the previous year. Weather, counting conditions and movement of birds has to affect counts on any specific date so average figures for the winter of 1970-71 have to be utilized to a certain degree when comparing numbers of birds present in Colorado between years. Table 3. Aerial duck counts by interval and study unit, eastern Colorado, 1970-71. Area and Study Unit Number Ducks Counted by Date Nov. 23 Dec. 21 Jan. 5 (1) Sterling-Julesburg 26,250 27,000 17,000 (2) Ft. Morgan-Sterling 64,100 35,400 23,900 (3) Greeley-Ft. Morgan 43,000 70,700 59,000 (4) Ft. Collins 88,400 56,850 9,950 (6) Denver-Greeley 57,000 50,230 59,525 (9) Bonny Reservoir 57,300 51,930 48,000 (1/) Arkansas Valley 75,885 87,160 28,505 (15) San Luis Valley 57,170 52,200 64,060 Grand Totals 469,105 431,470 309,940 1/ Includes Units 10, 11, 12 and 13. �-199- Wing Surveys Information on age and sex ratios in the harvest, as in previous years, was gathered by The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife wing survey. These data are presented in Administrative Reports by The Bureau and will be utilized in the final analysis and report in a future segment. Hunting Pressure Surveys Duck hunting pressure and harvest by unit was again estimated by unit with data illustrated in Table 4. The hunting season was 90 days in length, the longest since 1958, but estimated number of hunters (about 31,000 statewide) was not up to the total estimated for 1958 (almost 39,000). Bag limit was based on the point-system, allowing from 1 to 10 birds in the bag (Funk 1971). Species composition of the bag was estimated at 73 percent mallards on an overall basis. Figures in Table 4, however, are total birds and not restricted to mallards. Table 4. Hunter pressure, harvest and population survey data for comparison between management units and areas, 1970-71 duck season. Area 1/ Estimated Duck Hunters ]:./ Estimated Ducks Bagged 2:..1 Average Bag Per Hunter Number Number Hunters Ducks Present Per 100 Censused 11 Ducks Censused Northeast Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 9 1,817 2,036 846 15,712 14,305 6,332 8.6 7.0 7.5 27,000 35,400 51,930 6.7 5.8 1.6 Total 4,699 36,349 7.7 114,330 4.1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------North Central Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 6 Total 4,980 3,446 5,545 13,971 31,425 17,589 42,916 91,930 6.3 5.1 7.7 6.6 70,700 56,850 50,230 177,780 7.0 6.1 11.0 7.9 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Southeast Und.t; 10 Unit 11 Unit 12 Unit 13 1,159 344 1,598 1,128 7,739 1,407 11,022 12,898 6.7 4.1 6.9 11.4 - il Total 4,229 33,066 7.8 87,160 11 See Fig. 1 for management unit locations. 2:..1 Funk 1971. 11 Data from Table 3. December 21 count data utilized. il Inventory data for Arkansas Valley usable only as total. 4.9 �-200- In comparing data from the 1969 season (Funk 1970) with those in Table 4, hunting pressure in the northeast area was down somewhat in 1970 with harvest about the same. Hunting pressure and harvest were up in 1970 in both the north-central and southeast areas. Average bag per hunter was up somewhat in all areas. As estimated by comparing numbers of hunters per each 100 birds censused, hunting pressure was indicated to have been greatest in the Denver-Greeley area (Unit 6) and lowest at Bonny Reservoir (Unit 9). Most other units were similar in hunting pressure at between 6 and 7 hunters per 100 birds censused, with the exception of the Arkansas Valley at about 5 hunters per 100 birds. The latter, however, was an increase over the estimate for the 1969 season, indicating a continuing added increase in duck hunting interest in the area. Evaluation of the Point-system Duck Season Colorado personnel cooperated in the hunter blind performance effort conducted in all states having the point-system season. Data collected were submitted to The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for analysis and reporting. Reaction of the hunters to the point-system regulation and acceptance of it by them were again judged to be good, based on results of the performance checks and comments by hunters on a harvest questionnaire. Analysis of Band Recovery Data All banding and recovery data on tapes from the initial 1963-64 banding effort through the hunting season of 1969-70 were processed through the various programs constructed for analysis. Due to lack of time, examination of the program results was not completed during the segment but will be forthcoming in the next segment report, including an updating of information through the 1970-71 season. LITERATURE CITED Funk, H. D., J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, G. W. Merrill, J. Sands, T. Kuck, D. Timm, T. Logan, and C. D. Stutzenbaker. 1971. Justification of the Central Flyway High Plains Mallard Management Unit. Cent. Fly. Tech. Comm. Rept. March. 48 pp. Funk, H. D. 1970. Waterfowl kill survey. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks Game Res. Rept. Oct. pp. 19-40. 1971. Waterfowl kill survey. Game Res. Rept. Oct. In press. Prepared d{. t:2J7 L Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks by _~ __ ~~~~U~/~I~~,~~ __ L__._~ ____~_~_,_._~ ~ce _ Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research �-201October, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project No. COLORADO ~W_-~8~8_-~R~-~1~6 _ Work plan No. 4 Job Title Trapping Period Covered: April Migratory Bird Investigations 3 Job No. and Banding Doves 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Charles Hayes, Dale Horne and Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Clait Braun, William Carpenter, Howard Funk, Larry Green, Gary Robinson, Michael Robinson, Steve Steinert and Al White, Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Efforts initiated in 1964 to trap and band samples of mourning doves (Zenaidura macroura) in Colorado were continued in 1970. Cooperative Federal and State efforts resulted in 2,883 birds being newly banded. Of this total, 1,359 were immatures; 821 were adult males while 703 were adult females. Assigned quotas were accomplished for the Eastern Slope of the Rocky Mountains, but not for western Colorado or extreme eastern Colorado. Wing molt data from trapped and harvested immatures indicated three hatching peaks. Peak hatching periods were late May-early June, late June-early July and late July-early August. A sample of 229 hunter-killed birds in southeastern Colorado gave a young-to-old ratio of 5.2:1, more than double the age ratio obtained in the same area and time period in 1969. Wing molt data from harvest immatures in this sample indicated that most early hatched young migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. Fifty-three band returns were reported in 1970 from doves banded by Division personnel. Thirty-six (67.9 percent) of the bands reported were from doves killed in Colorado. Apparent hunting mortality rates for doves banded in Colorado continues to be less than 3 percent. ��-203- MOURNING DOVE TRAPPING AND BANDING Clait E. Braun Intensive efforts to trap and band mourning doves in Colorado initiated in 1964, were continued in 1970 in cooperation with personnel of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1970, the seventh year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate migration patterns and mortality banded in Colorado by age, sex, and area. SEGMENT rates of mourning doves OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band mourning doves in three selected areas of Colorado for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history, and annual mortality data. 2. To estimate harvest size and hunter METHODS success. AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1970 were similar to those described in earlier reports and summarized by Braun (1970). In addition, less than 100 doves were trapped using cannon nets in 1970 during trapping operations for band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata). DESCRIPTION OF TRAPPING AREAS Trapping sites in East Slope areas were similar to those described earlier (Braun 1970). An additional East Slope site was intensively trapped in 1970. This area in the San Luis Valley was an abandoned cultivated field formerly planted to field peas (Pisum sativum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) • Mourning doves were also trapped at an additional West Slope location in 1970. This site, near Durango, was located in an area dominated by small cultivated fields of barley and alfalfa (Medicago sativa) interspersed with pinon pine (Pinus edulis). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping Cooperative and Banding Federal and State trapping and banding efforts resulted in Of this total, 2,101 were banded by 2,883 doves being banded in 1970. �-204- Division personnel. Doves were banded at six major sites on the West Slope. In addition, a few doves were banded at other scattered locations throughout the mountainous areas of Colorado in conjunction with bandtailed pigeon trapping activities. The banding goal of 4,000 birds was not accomplished as no birds were banded in extreme eastern Colorado. Only 527 of the 1,000 quota were banded in western Colorado. Sex and age distribution of birds banded by area are presented in Table 1. As in earlier years of this study, more adult doves were trapped than immature, although the disparity was not great in 1970. The small difference between numbers of adults and immatures trapped is probably a function of time of season that traps were operated. W11en adult:immature ratios are compared by t Lme period, large differences are apparent. Trapping at Meeker was conducted in May and early June with mostly adults being caught. At the major Denver trapping site, traps were operated from June into August. Only 21.7 percent of the birds trapped at this site in June were immatures, this percentage increased to 30.4 in July, and 64.3 in August. Thus, trapping conducted in May, June, and early July results in high adult:young ratios, while trapping in late July and August after most young are flying reverses ratios of birds in trap samples. Similar trends were noted in trap samples from Durango, Monte Vista, and Fort Morgan. Numbers of adult males and females trapped in 1970 were similar, unlike earlier years when substantially more males than females were caught. Hatching Data Wing molt data were available for 1,253 of the 1,359 immatures trapped and banded in 1970. Estimated hatching dates (Allen 1963) are presented in Table 2. Examination of data in Table 2 indicates that few mourning doves trapped in Colorado hatched prior to May 1, with most hatching between mid-May and mid-July. Two definite peaks of hatching about 1 month apart (late May-early June, and late June-early July) are apparent from data presented in Table 2. While few of the doves trapped hatched prior to May 1 or after July 23, progeny of late nesting doves are not represented in Table 2 as trapping ceased on August 20. It should be recognized that percentages of young hatching in each time period are not absolute as trapping effort and success throughout the period was not uniform and that distribution of adults and immatures throughout the State was also not uniform. Upon tabulating the number of immature doves molting p r'LmarLes 1 through 10, it was apparent that there was a constant turnover of young doves available for trapping in the populations sampled. Approximately 65 percent (65.5) of the immatures trapped had not molted primary 1 or were molting primaries 1 or 2. In contrast, only 4 percent (3.6) of the young trapped had molted primary 6 or beyond. These data vary only slightly from those collected in previous years of this investigation, again suggesting that immature doves leave nesting areas within 30 to 40 days of fledging. �-205- Table 1. Sex and age distribution of mourning doves banded by area in Colorado, 1970. Adult Male Number Banded Percent Adult Female Number Banded Percent Immature Number Banded Percent Total Denver l/ 431 30.7 342 24.4 631 44.9 1,404 Honte Vista 'l:../ 74 23.4 64 20.3 178 56.3 316 Vineland 1/ 25 10.2 50 20.4 170 69.4 245 Fort Morgan 55 26.0 59 28.0 97 46.0 211 Fort Collins i/ 51 32.9 21 13.6 83 53.5 155 Rocky Ford 1 4.0 o 0.0 24 96.0 25 Sub-total 637 27.0 536 22.8 1,183 50.2 2,356 Durango 2/ 70 22.8 72 23.5 165 53.7 307 Meeker 2../ 114 51.8 95 43.2 11 5.0 220 Sub-total 184 34.9 167 31. 7 176 33.4 527 Total All Areas 821 28.5 703 24.4 1,359 47.1 2,883 Area Eastern Slope Rocky Mountains Western Slope Rocky Mountains 1/ Includes 14 birds banded in the Evergreen-Aspen Park area. 2/ Includes 1 bird banded near Salida. 3/ Includes 1 bird banded near Rye. 4/ Includes 9 birds banded near Estes Park. 5/ Includes 1 bird banded in Sanborn Park. i/ Includes 1 bird banded at Buford, 6 at Craig, and 4 at Lay. �-206- Harvest No effort was made to collect wings from hunter-killed doves throughout Colorado during the 1970 hunting season. Wings of 229 birds harvested September 1-3 in southeastern Colorado were available for analysis. Of this total, 37 were from adult doves while 192 were from immatures, giving a young-to-o1d ratio of 5.2:1. This is approximately double the 2.4:1 ratio obtained from a sample of 172 birds harvested in this same area in early September 1969 (Braun 1970). Approxi~~te1y 80 percent (81.2) of the young harvested had molted five or fewer primaries, indicating they were less than 63 days of age. This supports data collected in previous years of the study which indicated that most early hatched young (May-June) migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. Molt data from harvested birds also indicate that substantial production occurs after July 23 (Table 2) as over 30 percent (33.3) of the birds shot between September 1-3 hatched after July 23. These young possibly represented the progeny of a third nesting attempt. Harvest data obtained through use of a mail survey of hunters after the hunting season indicated that 24,149 hunters havested 301,562 doves in Colorado in 1970 (Funk and Tully 1971). Fifty-three band returns were received from doves shot in 1970 that were banded by Division personnel. One of these birds had been initially banded in 1967, 4 were banded in 1968. 20 in 1969, while 28 had been banded in 1970. Apparent hunting mortality rate continues to be less than 3 percent. Of the 53 bands reported, 36, (67.9 percent) were recovered in Colorado, 10 in Mexico, 4 in New Mexico and 1 each in Texas, Arizona, and Oklahoma. All but four were shot recoveries. LITERATURE CITED Allen, J. M. 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature doves in Indiana. Ind. Dept. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No 4, Indianapolis. 4 p. Braun, C. E. 1970. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Game, Fish, and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp 143-149. Funk, H. D., and R. J. Tully. 1971. Colorado small game hunter harvest survey, 1970. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Fort Collins. :t-tlmeo Rept. In prep. Prepared by ~rU.::::' cPo· /? C/~ t/,~ , --------------~-------------------Clait E. Braun 0 Assistant Wildlife Researcher �Table 2. Estimated hatching dates for wild-trapped mourning doves, 1970. I Number hatching N Prior to Hay 1 1-7 8-14 15-21 22-28 29-June 4 5-11 12-18 June 19-25 26-Ju1y 2 3-9 10-16 Ju1 17-23 24-30 3 5 14 77 124 178 86 98 137 187 191 93 59 1 Ha 0 ~ I ��-209October, 1971 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~------- Project No. W-88-R-16 Migratory Bird Investigations Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Band-tailed Pigeon Investigations Period Covered: Job No. 4 April 1, 1970 through March 31, 1971 Personnel: Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; personnel of the U.S. Forest Service; Foster M. Barker~ Gene W. Bassett, Clait E. Braun, William Carpenter. Arch Cowan, Velma Fredrickson, Howard D. Funk, Dan Gravestock, Charles Hector, Richard Hopper, Wayne E. Kniselyp Wilbur Ladd, John Leslie, Richard McDonald, Charles Reichert, Nathan Riggs, Charles Roberts, Michael Robinson, Walter Schuett, Michael Szymczak, Marie Vendeville, Kenneth Wagner, J. Allen White and other personnel of the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Investigations of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) initiated in Colorado in 1969 in conjunction with the Four Corners States Cooperative Study (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah) were continued in 1970. Major emphasis was placed on delineating distribution, ascertaining relative abundance, trapping and banding samples of pigeons throughout the State and documenting breeding and nesting phenology. In 1970, band-tails occurred throughout the forested mountains of Colorado from late April into December. Changes in abundance from 1969 were not detected. Apparent densities were highest in southern and southwestern Colorado. Pigeons were trapped at 13 different locations in 1970 with 3,292 bi~d~ (2,744 adults and 548 immatures) being newly banded. Thirty-four birds were retrapped outside of their original banding area, while 34 birds banded in 1969 returned to their initial banding locations. During the experimental hunting season~ 364 permits were issued with 182 individuals actually hunting. Only 77 hunters were successful, each harvesting an average of 5.9 pigeons. Total estimated harvest (including crippling loss) projected from the questionnaire survey (92.3% response) was 541 birds. Crippling loss approximated 15 percent of the birds shot and retrieved. Wings were received from 68 successful hunters. Immature and subadult pigeons comprised 32.2 percent of the 394 wings received. Field checks of 144 (89 adults, 55 immatures) hunter killed birds indicated that 52.3 percent of the adults were still involved with nest activities. Recoveries were received from 34 pigeons banded in Colorado. Twenty-six were from birds recovered in Colorado, 6 from Mexico and one each from Utah and New Mexico. At least 6.3 percent of the birds harvested during the experimental season in Colorado were banded. Data from collected and hunter-killed pigeons indicated that band-tails nested in Colorado from early May to mid-September in 1970. Calculated hatching dates for 658 immature pigeons ranged from mid-April to midAugust with a major peak in mid-June to early July. Helminth infections continue to be low (10.4%) but a survey of blood parasites revealed high levels in both adults (93.6%) and immatures (73.0%). ��-211- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS Clait E. Braun Intensive ecological studies of wild band-tailed pigeons which nest and reside in Colorado from late April to early November, initiated in 1969, continued in 1970. Investigations in Colorado represent a portion of the regionwide Four Corners Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation which was initiated in Arizona in 1967. . P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate distribution and relative numbers of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado by area. 2. To investigate the correlation between abundance and distribution of band-tailed pigeons aridphysical features of the environment. 3. To investigate the breeding and nesting chronology of bandtails in Colorado. 4. To trap, band, age, and sex as many birds as possible in selected areas of Colorado to investigate migration patterns and chronology of Colorado bandtails throughout their range. 5. To conduct an experimental hunting season, gather harvest data, and evaluate results. METHODS AND MATERIALS Most methods and materials used in 1970 were similar to those used in 1969 and described by Braun (1970). Reporting procedures were slightly modified in 1970 as all flocks of 50 or more pigeons were to be reported directly by telephone to the Game Research Center of Fort Collins. In addition, all monthly reports of field personnel in the Southwest Region were sent directly to the Regional Biologist who summarized them and forwarded the summary sheets to Fort Collins. This procedure worked fairly well. �-212- In addition to the one 30- by 75-foot cannon net with l~-inch mesh used in 1969, three 30- by 60-foot three-cannon nets with l~-inch mesh and 24-inch "skirts" were utilized in 1970. These nets were more efficient than .the large net as they were lighter, projected faster, and had smaller mesh which reducedentaqg1ementof the birds. Cloacal inspection for determination of sex was discontinued in 1970 and all adult pigeons trapped were sexed using external plumage characters described and tested by Braun (1970). In adaition to the three major grains used to bait pigeons for trapping in 1969 (barl§!y (Hordeum vulgare), wheat (Triticum aestivum), and mi10 (Sorghum vulgare», large numbers of pigeons were trapped in 1970 utilizing field peas (Pisurilsat! vum) and corn (~ mays) ~ In order to evaluate the experimental hunting season in 1970, all hunters were required to obtain a free individually numbered permit. In addition, each hunter was issued a map of the area open to hunting and a packet containing five numbered wing envelopes. Following the experimental season; iil1hunters were surveyed by questionnaire concerning their hunting activities. One fo11owup letter was sent to all nonrespondents to the initia11etter. Copies of all materials used for the experimental hunting season. are attached (Appendix). Pigeons collected or killed in trapping operations were processed as in 1969 (Braun 1970), except that all crop gland and gonadal material was preserved in Bouin's Fixative. DESCRIPTION OF TRAPPING AREAS Pigeons were trapped at locations near Dolores, Stoner, Bayfield, Durango, Del Norte,· Buford', Evergreen, Sanborn Park, Longmont, Salida, Rye, Monte Vista, and Estes Park in 1970. Trapping sites were primarily in fields in which barley (Dolores, Durango, Del Norte-Davie's, Buford, and Salida), wheat (Bayfield, Sanborn Park, and Rye), or field peas (Del No rt.e-Bauer 's and Monte Vista) had been planted in 1969. These sites were characterized by having an abundance of waata grain scattered on the ground. The trapping site at Longmont consisted of a trench silo where rolled corn with molasses was stored. Areas where pigeons were trapped in the vicinity of EvergreenConifer-Bergen Park and Estes Park were those where residents of these communities put out grain for pigeons and other birds. The trap site at Stoner was located at the bottom of a ski tow. Barley was spread in this area in order to attract pigeons as the previous owner fed birds at this site in the early 1960's. All trap sites were adjacent to areas which had trees suitable for perching. No preference for tree type was observed as pigeons commonly roosted in Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), Gambe1's oak (Quercus gambe1i), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), Douglas fir (Psuedotseuga menziezii), and aspen (Populus tremuloides) • At Monte Vista and Buford, pigeons commonly would sit on power lines before feeding on the baited sites. Areas preferred for feeding were not in crop production in 1970 although most had been cultivated in 1969. �-213- RESUI,TS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Abundance The distribution of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado in 1970 (Fig. 1) was prepared from reported observations of field and project personnel. Differences in distribution between 1969 (Braun 1970) and 1970 were slight as no real changes were detected. As in 1969, pigeons were found to be widely but unevenly distributed throughout the forested mountainous areas of the State. They continue to be absent (not observed) in extreme northwestern Colorado and in the North Park, South Park, and Gunnison Basin regions. In 1970,·399 different observations of pigeons were reported from April into December. Number of reported sightings by month were: April - 6; May - 85; June- 97; July - 72; August - 69; September - 41; October - 17; November - 11; and December - 1. These data indicate that in 1970 pigeons started arriving in Colorado in late April and started migrating south in late August, with the peak of southward migration occurring in September. Only scattered observations of smal L groups of pigeons were reported in October, November, and .December. Data concerning observations of bandtail occurrence by habitat type were available for 363 different sightings. Of these sLghtLngs , 94 (25.9%) were aaaocd at.edwith cropland, primarily grainfields. Eighty-nine sightitfgs (24.5%) were in areas dominated by oak, 65 (17.9%) were from along stream courses dominated primarily by cottonwoods, 59 (16.3%) were in mixed coniferous areas (primarily spruce-fir-aspen), 34 (9.4%) were in areas dominated primarily by ponderosa pine, 21 (5.8%) were in pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus spp.) areas, while only one observation was from an alpine area. Observations are undoubtedly influenced by access and distribution of observers, but reported observations probably give an adequate picture of those areas in which pigeons feed. Few data are available concerning abundance of pigeons in Colorado. From observer reports, it would appear that numbers in 1970 were similar to those in 1969. Abundance of pigeons continues to be highest in areas where mast- ,. producing trees and shrubs are abundant. Thus, densities appear to be highest in southern Colorado and lowest north of a line from Colorado Springs to Grand Junction. This is not to imply that substantial numbers of birds do not occur north of this line. Possibly the concentrations of pigeons near Evergreen and Longmont are fairly recent in origin and cof.n-«cide with the urbanization of foothill areas (Evergreen) and the increase in livestock feeding (Longmont). Banding Banding and trapping activities were intensified in 1970 with pigeons being trapped in 13 different areas, including all five of the 1969 trap sites. As a result of these efforts, 3,292 pigeons were newly banded (Table 1). �COLORADO MOFFAT /fOU" WUI) S£O(;WIClf LOGAN .PHILLIPS MORGAN WASHINGTON I rUMA RIO 8LANCO GARF/CLIJ lOT GAIISON LINCOLN MESA I N' f-I ~ I CHUlNNE 1:L'3. ICROWLEY I.. IKIOWA SAGUACHE SENT I.A.S ANIMAS Figure 1. Band-tailed pigeon distribution, 1970. IPROWERS I SACA �Table 1. Number Area Dolores Bayfield Durango Stoner 0f b and-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1970. Dates Adults No. Banded Percent Immatures No. Banded Percent - Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 198 93 300+ 200+ 448 50 1,000+ 200+ May 11-17 June 12 198 91 100.0 97.8 - May 18-31 June 1-11 448 49 100.0 98.0 - - 1 2.0 May 18-29 June 1-15 137 196. 100.0 97.5 5 2.5 137 200 300+ 300+ June 16-24 July 7 85 16 100.0 100.0 - - 85 16 100i50+ 2 2.2 - I ~ .... VI I Del Norte June 16-18 168 98.8 2 1.2 170 200+ Buford June 22 58 100.0 - - 58 .200+ Evergreen June 27-30 July 1-17 66 237 97.1 90.5 2 25 2.9 9.5 68 262 100+ 300+ Sanborn Park July 5-6 116 96.7 4 3.3 120 300+ Longmont July 8-12 August 5 298 3 92.8 6.7 23 42 7.2 93.3 321 45 400+ 60+ Salida July 10-11 150 94.9 8 5.1 158 250+ Rye July 13-19 88 89.8 10 10.2 98 1.50+ Monte Vista July 27-30 August 1-30 149 181 48.9 40.7 156 264 51.1 59.3 305 445 700+ 1,000+ Estes Park August 7 10 71.4 4 28.6 14 50+ 2,744 83.4 548 16.6 3,292 5,86Ot �-216- Upon examination of data presented in Table 1, it is apparent that number of immatures trapped increased from late June to late August. Only 12 immatures were trapped in June, 226 in July, while 310 were trapped in August. As in 1969, trap data suggest that some pigeons in Colorado hatched in late May-early June, but that peak of fledging occurred in midJuly and early August. Sex of most adult pigeons handled in 1970 was determined from external plumage characters. Of the 2,734 adults newly banded for which sex was determined, 65 percent (1,776) were males and 35 percent (958) were females. Resasons for this disparity are not adequately known, but may be related to time of day that trapping was conducted. A total of 295 previously banded pigeons were retrapped in 1970. Fiftytwo of these had been banded in Colorado in 1969 , five had been banded by private banders in Colorado as early as 1965 (one) and 1967 (four), while one had been banded in Utah. The remaining 237 were banded in Colorado in 1970 and then retrapped. Thirty-four birds were retrapped outside the original banding area (foreign returns), while 34 banded in 1969 returned to their initial banding location (returns). Experimental Hunting Season The first hunting season for band-tailed pigeons in Colorado since 1944 was conducted in 1970 as part of a 3-year experimental harvest program. Hunting was allowed from September 12 through September 20, with a daily bag limit of five birds and a possession limit of 10. During the experimental season only the southern portion of the State was open (Appendix). Hunting was by free permit obtainable at five Division offices with no limit on the number of permits issued. In 1970, only 364 permits were issued. Hunter Questionnaire Survey The experimental hunting season for bandtails closed at sunset on September 20. On September 21, letters containing a self-addressed postage paid return card were sent to all permittees (Appendix). Only one (.3%) questionnaire was returned for lack of sufficient address. On October 5 a followup letter was sent to the 93 permittees (excluding the one permittee for whom we had insufficient address) who had failed to respond to the first letter. Results of the questionnaire survey are presented in Table 2. Data for the 28 non-respondents were calculated using average values of the respondents to the followup survey. It is apparent from data presented in Table 2 that the initial experimental season for band-tailed pigeons in Colorado was not eve rly successful in attracting hunters or productive for those who obtained permits. Only 182 (50%) of those with permits went hunting, and only 77 (42.3%) of these hunters actually bagged one or more pigeons. However, those hunters who were successful harvested about six birds (5.9) each. Total harvest including those pigeons crippled and lost was calculated to be 541 birds, substantially less than originally expected. The reported crippling loss of 15.3 percent is not felt to be excessive but is deplorable. �Table 2. Experimental band-tailed pigeon season, harvest statistics, 1970. 1/ Response First Letter Response Second Letter Number of permittees responding 270 (74.2) 66 (18.1) 336 (92.3) Number of permittees hunting 149 (55.2) 23 (34.8) 172 (51.2) 182 (50.0) 121 (44.8) 43 (65.2) 164 (48.8) 182 (50.0) 63 (42.3) 10 (43.5) 73 (42.4) 77 (42.3) Number of permittees not hunting Sum First and Second Letters Projected All (364) Permittees ", Number of successful hunters Number of hunter days Days per hunter Number of pigeons bagged I 312 43 2.1 363 355 1.9 66 374 429 2.1 458 5.8 6).6 5.9 5.9 Pigeons per hunter 2.4 2.9 2.5 2.5 Number of pigeons crippled and lost 74 6 80 83 .5 .3 e . 5 .•5 Total harvest (bagged + crippled and lost) 437 72 509 541 Percent crippling loss 16.9 8.3 15.7 15.3 1/ Values in parentheses are percentages. " I 2.1 Pigeons per successful hunter Pigeons crippled and lost per hunter .1'.) t-' �-218- The questionnaire was devised in order to obtain LnformatLon concerning date of harvest. It was found that 36.8 percent of the total harvest occurred on the opening weekend, 30.7 percent during the next 5 days, while 32.5 percent occurred on the second and last weekend. These data suggest that a longer season would result in a larger harvest. Concentrations of hunters did not occur in 1970, and hunters were widely scattered in the area open. Of 168 hunters reporting their hunting locations 39 (23.2%) had hunted near Durango and 23 (13.7%) had hunted on Bear Creek near Salida. Of the other 28 hunting areas listed, none had been hunted by 10 percent or more of the hunters. On a regional basis, 91 of 168 hunters (54.1%) hunted in Eastern Slope areas, while 77 hunters reporting hunting west of the Continental Divide. Forty-seven of 91 East Slope hunters (50.6%) were successful, while only 35 percent of the West Slope hunters reported killing at least one bird. Reasons for this disparity are not known but were certainly not related to pigeon abundance. Many written comments were received on questionnaires with many permittees (20) reporting that the season was too late and that.the pigeons had migrated south before the season. This was partially true in 1970 as cool wet we.ather in late August and the opening weekend of the season apparently affected distribution and number of pigeons in hunting areas. Results from the 1970 Small Game Hunter Survey (Funk and Tully 1971) were compared with those obtained from the special questionnaire survey of pigeon hunters. Projected data from the 1970 Small Game Survey indi~ate that 1,041 pigeon hunters havested 5,063 pigeons. However, only 364 hunters actually had pigeon permits (all pigeon hunters were required to have permits), and these hunters killed a total of 541 birds. The difference between the two surveys is highly significant and suggests that either (1) many hunters hunting pigeons did not have permits, or (2) hunters responding to the Small Game Survey reported hunting and killing pigeons when they actually did not, or both. Data from the small game survey are based on projections from 54 hunters who actually reported hunting pigeons. Names and addresses of 20 of these hunters were available for direct comparison with the special survey of pigeon hunters. Only two of these 20 hunters actually had permits for pigeon hunting. Both of these hunters reported harvesting the same number of birds on both surveys. Examination of the addresses of the other 18 hunters who reported hunting pigeons revealed that one-half of them lived in areas far removed from the pigeon hunting area. It is believed that most or all of these people did not hunt pigeons and that possibly they confused pigeons with mourning doves (Zenaidura macroura) or rock doves (Columba livia) in reporting. Wing Survey Packets containing five wing envelopes were issued to each pigeon permit holder in 1970. Envelopes containing 394 wings (excluding three rock dove wings) were received from 68 hunters. Additional data were received concerning hours hunted (343), birds crippled and lost (65), location of kill, and banded birds harvested (25). �-219- Major harvest areas were Bear Creek near Salida (26.1%), Durango (18.7%), Wetmore-Florence (13.7%), and Dolores (12.2%). These data compare favorably with those from the questionnaire survey, but suggest that hunters near Salida were more successful than those hunting near Durango. Also, percent harvest at Wetmore-Florence and Dolores was higher than the percent of hunters hunting in these' areas, suggesting that hunting was good at these sites. Crippling loss calculated from the wing survey was slightly lower (14 •.2%as compared to 15.3%) than that calculated from the questionnaire survey. Differences were not signifieant though.' . Twenty-five of the 394 band-tailed pLgeons reported harvested on the wing survey were, banded (6.3%). Percent of birds harvested that were banded. varied from 12.5 at Dolores,12.2 at Durango, 9.7 at Sal.Lda, to zero for all other hunting areas •. Substantial numbers (Table 1) of pigeons had been banded at other locations but no recoveries were reported. Comparable data were available from both hunt e r questionnaire and wing surveys concerning birds bagged and birds crippled and lost by 65 individual hunters. A reporting difference of 3.6 percent (379 in wing surveys versus 392 in questionnaire survey) was found in number of birds killed, and 8.8 percent (62 versus 68) in numb.er of birds crippled and lost 'for those hunters who sent in wings and also. responded to the questionnaire. These differences are slight, but do suggest that the questionnaire survey gives slightly higher values for total birds bagged and birds crippled and lost than actually occurred. All wings received were measured (carpal and all 10 primaries) and examined in order to obtain age (immature, subadult, and adult) structure of the harvest. Wings were re ceLved from 267 adults, (67.8%), 22 definite sub-adults (5.6%), and 105 inuna.tures (26.6%). SubadUlts were those molting juvenile primaries 5 through 10, while immatures were those molting juvenile primaries 1 through 4 or had not molted primary number 1. The percent of immatures (birds in their first year of life) in the harvest (32.2 when subadults are added) is higher than' that reported in other studies and is probably a reflection of better aging techniques rather than higher production. . However, from all appearances , reproductive success and production were high in Colorado in 1970. Caution should be exercised in using wing surveys to estimate production because several factors may be involved such as differential migration and vulnerability. Hunter Field Checks During the 1970 experimental season, emphasis was placed in contacting pigeon hunters in the field in order to examine harvested birds for crop gland activity.. By examining adequate samples of birds shot during hunting seasons, the percentage of birds still involved with rearing of young can be calculated. The premise is that season dates in succeeding years can be adj usted accordingly. �-220- Crops of all adult pigeons checked were classified as being active (crop gla~ds with curds), stimulated (gland apparent but no curds), or inactive. In addition, sex by gonadal inspection was obtained for as many birds as possible. A total of 144 birds were field checked. Eighty-nine adults (61.8%) and 55 immatures (38.2%) were field checked, with 46 (52.3%) of the adults having either active (28.5%) or stimulated (22.~7%) crops. Sex of 84 adults was determined with 40 (54.l%) being males and 34 (45.9%) females. While sample sizes are sm~ll, a higher percentage of males (65.0) had active or stimulated crops than did females (47.6). Comparisons between areas could not be made because of inadequate ~amples, but no apparent large differences were found~ Mortality Recoveries of 34 band-tailed pigeons initially trapped and banded in Colorado were reported in 1970. Twenty-two of these were initially banded in 1970, while 12 were initially banded in 1969. While numbers of recoveries is inadequate for detailed analyses some general observations can be made. Twenty-four of 'the recoveries were from the 1970 experimental pigeon season in Colorado and all were taken within 25 air miles of original banding location. Two recoveries were from other states {Utah and New Mexico) during their 1970 experimental seasons. One of these birds was banded at Dolores and was shot near Mason Spring, Utah, less than 50 air miles west of the banding location. The other bird was banded near Bergen Park (west of Denver) and was shot in Chloride Canyon near Truth or Consequences, New Mexico. Both birds were recovered the same year banded. Six recoveries were from Mexico with,S being shot recoveries, while cause of death of the other was unknown. These birds were recovered in the Mexican atates of Chihuahua (3) and"Durango (3). Recovery of the remaining two birds was in Colorado with one being a trap casualty, while the other was found dead where it had flown into a stationary object. One pigeon, banded as an adult near Milwaukie, Oregon on 20 April, 1968 was shot by a hunter 15 miles north of Durango, Colorado on 20 September, 1970. This recovery is the first documented movement between the Coastal· and Interior populations of band-tailed pigeons. Based on the few recoveries to date, it appears that known mor~ality is concentrated in breeding areas (Colorado) and wintering areas (Mexico) with little mortality occurring during migration., At present, causes and magnitude of natural mortality are unknown. It also:appears that bandtailed pigeons, which are summer residents in Colorado, have a great ~idelity to'specific areas. as shot recoveries away from general banding areas were not reported in 1970. Breeding Phenology pata on breeding phenology were obtained through crop and gonadal inspection of birds accidentally lost in trapping operations and those systematically collected. Additional data were collected from 89 hunter-killed �-221- adult pigeons examined from September 12 through 20. Excluding the 89 hunter-killed birds, 135 birds were available for detailed examintion. Of this number, 118 were adults (62 males and 56 females), while the remaining l7.were immatures. The sample included birds taken from 10 May through 9 October with the following monthly totals: May - 29, June - 28, July - 39, August - 27, September - 11, and October - 1. As in 1969, data in crop activity and gonadal condition were tabulated but no analyses were. conducted. These data will be utilized by a.graduate student and will be compiled and analyzed in a M. S. thesis at Colorado State University..Cursory examination, of the gonadal data indicates that male and female pigeons were in breeding condition (enlarged testes and egg follicles) from early May until mid-August. Testes of some males began regression by 25 August but two collected females still had enlarged follicles (up to 5.0 mm) on the same date. Crop gland development in collected birds was observed from 12 June to 20 September. Data collected during the hunting season indicated that about 50 percent (52.3) of the adult pigeons (46 of 89) were about to feed young, still feeding young or had recently been feedingyotmg. Thus, nesting of bandtai1s in Colorado in 1970 occurred. from early May to mf.d-Bept.embe r , It is probable that many. pigeons had two nesting attempts in this period. Success of these attempts is not known but wing survey data suggests that production was good. Actual b reedfng age of w.ild bandtai1s has not been reported. Examination of collected birds thought to be subadul.ts (with at least juvenile primaries 10 and 9) revealed that all were either approaching breeding condition or had successfu1y bred (evidence of crop gland development). It is certain that most, if not all, subadult pigeons are capable of breeding in'their first year of life (second calendar year) • Wing Measurement and Molt Data Data concerning length of primaries, rectrices, total body 1ength,carpa1 length and bill length were obtained from all pigeons collected in 1970. Once adequate samples are available, these data will be analyzed to examine differences between age classes of both male and female pigeons. It appears that sex of pigeons will beie1iab1y determinable from measurements of wing characters. Prior to dissection of collected birds, plumage characters of each adult specimen were examined and recorded. Each bird was then classified as either male or female. Upon dissection, gonads were examined and actual sex of each bird was compared with the classification based on plumage appearance. Comparative data were available for 117 adults (62 males and 55 females). Of the 62 adult males compared, one (1.6%) was classified incorrectly, while three (5.5%) of 55 females were classified as males from plumage examination. Total error in classifying pigeons to sex from plumage examination alone was 3.4 percent. These percentages are similar to those reported by Braun (1970) for a sample of 119 adult band-tailed pigeons and illustrate the accuracy with which an experienced observer can sex pigeons using plumage alone. �-222- Primary molt of most pigeons examined in 1970 was systematically recorded. Molt of adult pigeons is irregular and does not connnence in most birds until late July or early August. Most birds molting primaries in May and June are subadults. While the molt of subadults appears to be sequential until juvenile primaries 9 or 10 are molted, molt of adults is n9t. It is not uncommon to find adult pigeons molting two or even three primaries at one time in no apparent sequence. All data on molt patterns, timing and race will be incorporated in a M. S. thesis. at Colorado State University and will not be further discussed at this time. Information concerning primary molt was available for 658 Lmmatures (545 banded and released, 16 collected and 97 from the hunter wing survey). Of the 658 innnatures, 293 had not shed primary 1, 204 were molting PI, 87 were moltingP2, 38 were molting P3; 18 were molting P4, while 18 were moltingP5 or 6. Hatching dates for these birds were estimated using unpublished data collected by H. M. Wight and his students (Personal conununication, H. M. Wight). Number of days used to backdate for each primary class were: 0 = 36, 1 = 43, 2 = 54, 3 = 72, 4 = 81, 5 = 96, 6 ""121. Estimated hatching dates for all immatures for.which data are available are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Estimated hatching dates for wild band-tailed pigeons, 1970 •. Time Period, Number Hatching Time Period Number Hatching April 26 < 2 June 22-28 182 April 27-May 3 2 June 29-July 5 115 May 4-10 8 July 6..;.12 33 May 11-17 2 July 13-19 5 May 18-24 8 July 20-26 8 May 25-31 23 July 27-August 2 9 June 1-7 59 August 3-9 20 June 8-14 38 August 10-16 16 June 15-21 128 August 17 >' 0 �-223- As in 1969 (Braun 1970) hatqhing and fledging of band-tailed pigeons was spread over a wide time period (April 13 to August 15). One obvious peak occurred in 1970 between June 15 and July 5. If bandtai1s were consistently attempting to nest twice, more than one hatching peak would be expected. Multiple broods could occur and not be recognized as trapping operations normally cease in mid-August when pigeons disperse to feed on native foods. Thus, progeny of second nesting attempts would not be available for trapping. However, wings from progeny of late nests could be expected in the hunt.er wing survey. This did 'occur in 1970 as 45 of 97 (46.4%) of the wings received from immature pigeons during the September hunting season were from birds hatching after .JttlY27. The failure to receive an even higher percentage of late hat chfng birds in the September harvest could be' partially related to differential migration. This reasoning is not presently accepted as data collected in 1969 and 1970 suggest that immatures from early nestings and adults comp1~ting their nesting activities in late August are the first to migrate south. All immatures calculated to have hatched in April and May were handled in trapping operations in June and .July. While numbers up to May 25-31 are small; they are puzzling. This is especially true, for the four.b Lrds calculated to have hatched in April. Since present data indicate that bandtai1s do not arrive in Colorado until mid- to late April, these birds cannot reasonably be, assumed to be the result of nesting at.tempts in Colorado. At the present time, delayed molt of immatures has not been conclusively proven. Thus, young calculated to have hatched in April and early May undoub t.edLy are the progeny of pigeons nesting south of Colorado in late winter. Obviously, nesting in wintedng areas is not commontm.1ess progeny of these nests have a high mortality or fail to migrate north in their first year of life. During trapping operations, 33 individual immature pigeons which had molted at least one primary since initial capture were retrapped. Data from these birds' indicated that about 11 days are required between molting of individual primaries, 0 !:o1, 1 to 2, and 2 to 3. However, length of time reqt,rl.red by individual birds was quite variable. This was expected as some birds were undoubtedly about to replace a primary when initially trapped while others had probably just molted prior to initial capture. Parasitic Load Information on helminths was available for 133 band-tailed pigeons (116 adults and 17 immatures) necropsied. Fourteen (13 adults, 1 immature) of the 133 had helminth infections. The infection rate of 10.4 percent is low and only one bird (immature female) was considered to be heavily infested. Six of 55 adult females (14.5%) harbored helminths, while only 5 of 61 (,8.3%)adult males were infected. These data are extremely similar to that reported for a sample of 144 bandtai1s examined by BralUl (1970). Tapeworms were found in 12 birds (4 males, 8 females) while nematodes were found in only two birds (one adult male, one immature female). Worms were found in pigeons collected as early as 18 May and as late as 9 October. No deleterious effects of the observed parasitism were noted. All worms were preserved for later identification. �-224- Blood films were taken from 346 pigeons handled in 1970 representing 201 adults (111 males and 90 females) and 145 immatures with samples from May through September. Bone marrow of an additional 18 birds (unclassified) was also examined. All examinations identification of parasites were by Dr. R. M. Stabler of Colorado College. Four protozoan parasites, Leucocytozoon marchouxi, Haemoproteus columbae, ~. sacharovi, and Trypanosoma' avium and the mfcrofd.Lardae of an unidentified nematode were reported. Of the 201 adults examined, 93.6 percent were positive for at least one parasite, while only 73 percent of the immatures were infected. Leucocytozoon marchouxi and Haemoproteus sacharovi were most commonly found in both adults and immatures (66 and 67%; 64 and 68%) with less than five percent of all birds having microfilariae in the blood. No differences in parasitic load were found between adults and subadults(reported as adults) and males and females. It is not surprising that immatures were less heavily infected than adults. The actual effect that blood parasites have on most birds is unknown, but it has been well documented that young of some birds (especially waterfowl) heavily infested with hematozoa suffer extremely high (up to 100%) losses. The finding of Trypanosoma avium in band+t ad.Led pigeons constitutes a new host record. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1970. Band+t.af.Ledpigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp 151-171.' Funk, H. D., and R. J. Tully. 1971. Colorado small game hunter harvest survey, 1970. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Ft. Collins. Mimeo Rept. In prep. Prepared by _-.,..,"¥::~:l£.s.<:r;JI::i:::::"'---,,:.r:~. _. ~~....L.'!:::k::..:;.::....~_. Clait E. Braun Assistant Wildlife Researcher _ �-225- APPENDIX ��-227- INSTRUCTIONS FOR ISSUING EXPERIMENTAL BAND-tAILED PIGEON HUNTING SEASON PERMITS Hunters may obtain a special permit for hunting band-tails by appearing in person, or by submitting a request by phone or mail. While we have a place for the hunting license number, I see no reason why a person without his license in his possession carmot also receive a permit. This means persons can also pick up permits for dthers if he supplies complete names and addresses. If you can get the license number, even over the phone, get it. Permits may be issued from the time you receive them, throughout the hunting season, which extends from September 12-20, ·1970. Please follow the instructions below carefully. 1. The permits are numbered, so please issue them in sequence. 2. The permits are in duplicate. Please type them when at all possible, or if not, write legibly and with enough force so the carbon copy is clear. 3. The original or top card of the permit is the State Reference Card and is to be retained by us for our files. Please file them in order of issue.· The carbon or bottom card goes to the hunter and is to be carried on his person.while hunting. There is a space for his signature on the back of the permit. 4. Disregard the line for wing collection envelope packet number until you receive further instructions. We don't have any idea as to how many applicants we will have this initial year of hunting so we will draw our sample of hunters to send envelopes to at a later date. We will be in touch with you regarding this later. 5. Utilize the special window envelopes supplied for mailing the permits. Give each applicant one of the sheets, also supplied, showing the open area and information on hunting hours and bag limits. 6. Hold all our copies of the permits (State Reference Cards) until you hear from us. 7. If you have questions, please call Clait Braun, Jack Grieb or me. Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research .. ' �-228(State Reference Card) COLORADO SPECIAL BAND-TAILED Val id PIGEON HUNTING SEASON PERMIT --:Hunting Season No. (Year) Issued to: (Name) (Mailing Address) (City) (State) (Zip Code) Wing Collection Envelope Packet No. : _ Issued by: Date: Hunting License No.: Top -- sheet Nuinber 1. -----------------------~-------. , SPECIAL BAND-TAILED Valid PIGEON HUNTING SEASON PERMIT Hunting Season No. (Year) Issued to: Hunting License No.: --.....:---Issued by: Date: Top -- sheet number 2. _ �-229NOTE. TO ISSUING AGENT Please be sure that the hunter's name and complete mailing address, including zip code, are shown on this permit. Give a packet of.wing collection envelopes to the hunters whose permits end with certain numbers as specified in your letter of special instruction on issuing permits and write the packet number on the S tate Reference Card in :the space provided. SPECIAL BAND-TAILED PIGEON HUNTING SEASON PERMIT This permit authorizes the person whose name and address appear on the reverse side and whose signature appears below, to participate in the special Band-tailed Pigeon hunting season in Colorado in accordance with the proviSions of both Federal and State regulations governing the special season •. Refer to State regulations for State hunting license requirements. The permittee's cooperation, when requested, in State and Federal data-gathering activities (questionnaire survey, wirig collections, etc.) will help determine the feasibility of future special seasons. SIGNATURE OF HUNTER (Not valid unless signed) �-232- r L. 1''PGI THE COLOHADO WILDLIFE ARE STUDYING f:'-;, .4 < d~~, ~~.) OF GAME, FISH jHTD DIVISION TInS FRO!.I PIGEON D" PARKS lIND THE Yr:~lnLY PRODUCT'ION THE BUHr:r.U OF BAND·TAILED OF SPORTS PIGEONS. F'SHERIES WE CAN l,ND DETEIWEi'U:; vn: HEED, YOU~ HELP TO Mf.KE THIS STUDY SUCCESSFUL. WINGS. C'.':~n, ·C..... t :J} r~d ~I C-·" ,}f1r S ' I'N L HeInov!? one complete wing !!:::~_each bird you h:lg. D:;, not WIO.P wings in .i.")lu~;ti(', foil or other material as this causes spoilopo. EUV:':LOPE. us: A SEPAHATE ENVELOPE FOR EliCH DAY'S HFHT. DO NOT ENCLOSE VlINGS rnox ANOTHER 2. PLI.•. CE WINGS BUNTEH'S IN THIS BAG. 3. Mc il this envelope POSTAGE as soon as possible. NO REQUUED. 4. Continue to send us your wings ecich time you go pigeon hunting. 5, Pl~m:/)fill out the quastionnoire below. ,r.lIIJIiUIt:,:s:.uu....~·£~-::~~~~~~ ... :.,~::t.tsII•• Siil2 ~ P LEAS l. Deta of this hunt. E COM Month. .• T(' ..... "':C~~.'";lo~~"Vi.~.i~~:~\.·,.v~.:;; •.. ~~ ...~t"Iff..~v:::~ P LET E Day- ..tr~:;:.~x. 'PI.C<l:.e de> no~_wrire __ ' _Year .. t: _ i -;_..._.. _. _':::-:.;._: in this l:~c~:. ,; r A .~': 2. Location(s) where birds were shot. Loco lity, Direction Norrie 3, Number _ and distcnce from nearest of town, of hours you hunted town _ todcy., 4. Eo w m:my bcridto ils din you knock down within siUllt but could not retrieve i., . _ . ,..; •... , I . .. 'a ...· ~.. , '. ! -', .--.,~ "-'~ -....---- - -. - - .- - -_. --- -- -. �-233STATE OF COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF John NATURAL A. Love, Governor RESOURCES R. Woodward. OF NATURAL T. W. Ten Eyck, DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS Harry DEPARTMENT RESOURCES Director Executive Director GAME, FISH AND COMMISSION PARKS Floyd Getz, President LeRoy Robson, Vice President Harrv Combs, Ser re tarv C. M. F urneau x, Member Ore-s t Ger baz. Member John f. Holden, Member O. K. Niess, September 21, 1970 Dear Band-it.a Ll.edPigeon Hunce r ; a By obtaining permit for the Colorado experimental band~tailed pigeon hunting season from September 12 through September 20, 1970, you have indicated an interest in pigeon hunting and the future of the sport.· We respectfully ask your assistance in evaluating this experimental season by completing the enclosed self-addressed questionIJ,aireand returning it as soon as possible. Information you supply will be instrumental lit determin~ng the potential and feasibility of this type of season in the future. Please read the questionnaire carefully and fill in all requested information completely and accurately. If you did not hunt during the experimental season, we ask that you complete Question No. 1 and return the questionnaire because negative information is also important in our evaluation. If you did participate, please report only on your experimental season hunting activities and not those of your friends or other members of your family. SpeCial Note: Some of you may also receive another questionnaire concerning your activities on hunting all small game species. Please fill out and return that questionnaire as well as this one because the two surveys are completely independent of each other. Thank you for your assistance. CEB:al Enclosure Member W. Robinson, Ford Su-onq, Member Dven Suttle, fAember \A.'i::lu'll MeJl1bH �-234- BAND-TAILED PIGEON HUNTER REPORT 1. Did you hunt band-tailed pigeons during the 1970 season? Yes No 2. County or area most frequently hunted 3. How many days did you hunt during the pigeon season? c=J ~~----------~----- 4. How many pigeons did you bag during the entire season?c=J 5. How many pigeons did you knock down within sight but could not retrieve? 0 6. Please indicate in the appropriate boxes below the number of pigeons killed each day you hunted. Put an "0" for the days you did not .get any birds. Leave days you did not hunt blank. Is t t 2nd 2nd Sat. Sun. MOn. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun. -rs D 0 o 0 o o ODD Band-tailed Pigeon Hunter Survey Game Research Center P. O. Box 567 Fort Collins, Colorado 80521 �-235STAT:E OF COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF John NATURAL A. Love. DEPARTMENT RESOURCES Governor RESOURCES T. W. Ten Eyo'. Execchve DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS Harriy R. Woodward. OF NATURAL Director GAME. FISH AND COMMISSION Director PARKS Floyd Gctz , President LeRoy Robson, Harry Ccmhs C. M. ; Vice Pr e sidvnt Scc-c rorv , -neau- t\~'-':~h(~ Or esr ::'(,rL.).:, t.~( . b'r john O. Game Research Cen~~~~ P. O. Box 567 Fort Collins, Colorado 80521 October 5, 1970 E. Holoeo . K. Niess, Wrllrun Fc.rc . . Thank you! Sincerel~ CEB:a1 Mt:-lI1ht:: Dean Su n.e. N,(: ~.I,,' We recently sent you a questionnaire pertaining to your hunting activities during the experimental band-tailed pigeon hunting season in southern Colorado from September 12 through September 20, 1970. So far we have. not received your reply. Please assist us by completing the questionnaire and returning it to us as quickly as possible. Information you supply, ~ though you did ~ participate, would enable us to fully evaluate the special season and would assist us in determining the potential and feasibility of such a season in the future. ~y ~N. Robino:.or, ~'lrr:·nq, Dear Band-tailed Pigeon Hunter: . A."l'!' R. Woodward, Director h Mt.:'n'.:.N M r-, �-236BAND-TAILED PIGEON - HUNTER BAG CHECK INSTRUCTIONS - USE ONE SHEET PER HUNTING PARTY Crop Condition: .Active: - Be sure to examine interior of crop • Loose curds (white to yellow) of pigeon milk present in crop. Stimulated: Inactive: Convoluted glartdular material side of the inside crop wall. Normal, thin crop wall without glands. Innnature: No white neck ring present gray appearance. Adult: Locat.Lon Age. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 (may be very faint), unf.form slate Definite white neck ring present, bird has purplish brown tint to breast and head. Date Bird No. (appears like brains) on either (A or I) ------------~-------------------------------------- Crop Condition Active Stimulated Inactive .. . Sex· (If Gonads were Checked) Band No. if Banded � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/a522c81949461684c835591b8258aff3.pdf 528703395abb4f0a726fd1c891e15715 PDF Text Text -1- January, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Project No. w-4l'-R-2l-22 Work Plan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 12 Job Title Location and Distribution of Bighorn Sheep Herds in Colorado Period Covered: June 1, 1970 to May 31, 1972 Personnel: George D. Bear ABSTRACT The report is presently being edited and should be published during the summer of 1972. ��-3- January, 1972 JOB FINAL REPORT S ta te of Project Work .::.CO.::.L::.O::::.:RA=D::..:O=-_ No. W-4l-R-2l-22 Bighorn Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title: Evaluation Period June Covered: Personnel: William of Proposed Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations 14 Bighorn Sheep Transplant Sites 1, 1969 to May 31, 1972 H. Rutherford ABSTRACT Game Information Leaflet No. 93, entitled "Guidelines for Evaluating Bighorn Sheep Transplanting Sites in Colorado", is the final report for this job. ��-5- EVALUATION OF PROPOSED BIGHORN SHEEP TRANSPLANT SITES William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To situate bighorn sheep transplant opportunities. METHODS AND MATERIALS Habitat characteristics of a wide variety of bighorn sheep-occupied areas were observed and measured. Primary consideration was given to: Vegetative types, competition of other ungulates with bighorns, topographic features,. snow depth, and human influence. This infor~mation was interpreted and ' applied toward a set of guidelines for evaluating proposed transplant sites. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A set of general guidelines for evaluating potential bighorn sheep transplant sites was developed. These guidelines were published as a Game Information Leaflet (Rutherford 1972), and made available to management personnel in this form. Thus, the formal publication becomes the final report for this job. LITERATURE CITED Rutherford, W. H. 1972. Guidelines for evaluating bighorn sheep transplanting sites in Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Info. Leaflet No. 93. April, 1972. Wildlife Researcher ��-7- January, 1972 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. w-41-R-21 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Work Plan No. 1 ------~----------- Job No. 15 Job Title: Mortality Factors in Declining Bighorn Sheep Herds Period Covered: June 1, 1969 to May 31, 1971 Personnel: Thomas N. Woodard, Ralph J. Gutierrez, William H. Rutherford ABSTRACT A Master of Science thesis (Woodard 1971) is the final report for this job. ��-9- MORTALITY FACTORS IN DECLINING BIGHORN SHEEP HERDS William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To identify factors responsible for, or contributing to, decline in bighorn sheep herds in Colorado. METHODS AND MATERIALS Observation of habits, movements, behavior, and composition of the ewelamb herd inhabiting the Sand Creek area in the Sangre de Cristo Range, from early summer through fall during two separate years, and interpretation of the observation data thus obtained, was done. Necropsy of two lambs collected the second year of study was done by staff members of the College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, with the results made available to the principal investigator. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A Master of Science thesis (Woodard 1971) was prepared, based on the data and information obtained from this study. This thesis, copies of which are on file at the Game, Fish and Parks Division Research Center in Fort Collins and at the Colorado State University Library, becomes the final report for this job. LITERATURE CITED Woodard, Thomas N. 1971. Bighorn sheep lamb production, survival, and mortality in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Colorado. M. S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 84 pp. (unpublished). Prepared by -id(£,. 11 &:-d;;;;~ William H. Rutherford Wildlife Researcher ! ��January, -11- 1972 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-2l-22 Work Plan No. Bighorn 2 Sheep 4 Job No. Job Title: Location Period Covered: June 1, 1965 to May 31, 1972 Personnel: & Mountain Goat Investigations and Distribution L. Dale Hibbs, William of Mountain H. Rutherford, Goat Herds in Colorado Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT Game Information Leaflet No. 90, entitled "Status of Mountain Goats in Colorado", is the final report for this job. In addition, detailed written descriptions for access to specific herd areas, recommendations for census procedures, and forms for recording census and harvest data have been prepared for management personnel. ��-13- LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MOUNTAIN GOAT HERDS IN COLORADO William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine numbers, composition, seasonal range, and location of mountain goat herds in Colorado. METHODS AND MATERIALS Aerial and ground observations of mountain goats were made at all seasons of year, in all known areas of occupancy, in cooperation with Regional Game Biologists. Maps and forms were prepared based on the information thus obtained. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The current (1972) status of mountain goats in Colorado is reported in Game Information Leaflet No. 90 (Rutherford 1972). Detailed written descriptions for access to specific herd areas, recommendations for census procedures, and forms for recording census and harvest data have been prepared. These have all been made available to management personnel, and constitute the final report for this job. LITERATURE CITED Rutherford, W. H. 1972. Status of mountain goats in Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Info. Leaflet No. 90. April, 1972. Wildlife Researcher �-14- Descriptions of access routes and census recommendations for mountain goat herds in Colorado, submitted to Game Management personnel as a part of the requirements for Work Plan 2, Job No.4, W-4l-R. MOUNT EVANS MOUNTAIN GOAT AREA Access: Access to the primary goat range, the Owl's Head Burn on the south-facing slope of Porcupine hill, can be either from the end of the road on Bear Creek or from the Echo Lake-Lincoln Lake trail. The only mode of travel into the area actually frequented by the goats is by foot or horseback. If the access route from the valley bottom in Bear Creek is chosen,climbing will be steep, rough, and rapid. It is suggested that travel by vehicle be made to the Echo Lake Campground by traveling southwest from Idaho Springs on State Highway 103, which will accomplish a great deal of altitudinal gain. From here, it is a fairly easy hike along the Lincoln Lake trail to the top of the ridge south of Vance Creek. At this point, leave the trail and head nearly due east along the south side of the ridge until the burn area is entered. Goats may be found anywhere in this area. Access to the alpine areas to the south and west of the Owl's Head Burn can be from the Mount Evans Highway and then by foot around Mount Evans, by foot or horseback along the Echo Lake-Beartracks Lake trail to the Mount Rosalie-Mount Epaulet area, and from the Grant-Guanella PassGeorgetown road and then by foot around Mount Bierstadt. Census: Because of the difficulty in locating goats in the standing dead timber of the burn area, census by fixed-wing aircraft is almost impossible. Aerial census should be done by helicopter, but even this technique has limitations when sex-age classification data are desired. The most accurate herd composition census is undoubtedly from the ground, by an observer using binoculars and spotting scope. It is suggested that foot travel be made from the Lincoln Lake trail, as described above, to one of the promontories at the edge of the Owl's Head Burn. The goats can then be located by using binoculars, and the observer can use his judgment to either stay where he is or to move to another vantage point. The suggested time for conducting these census observations is late summer and fall. �WP 2, J 4, W~4l-R -15- COLLEGIATE RANGE MOUNTAIN GOAT AREA Access: Access to the Mount Shavano-Jones Peak area is best made from the east side. From the junction of U. S. Highways 50 and 285, north of Poncha Springs, proceed west by vehicle on Highway 50 for 1.7 miles, then turn north on county road. Proceed north for 1.2 miles, at which time the county road becomes a BLM dirt road. Follow this dirt road northwest about 6.0 miles to Blank Cabin, then about another 0.3 miles to the beginning of the Shavano Trail. Then proceed by foot or horseback up the trail to Mount Shavano. Tabeguache Peak and the west side of Mount Shavano are best reached by hiking up McCoy Creek, which is a tributary of the North Fork of the South Arkansas River. Leave U.S. Highway 50 at Maysville and proceed northwest by vehicle on the North Fork road about 6.0 miles to the mouth of McCoy Creek. The Mount Aetna area can be reached by hiking up Hunkydory Gulch, another tributary which enters the North Fork of the South Arkansas River about 2.5 miles upstream from the mouth of McCoy Creek. Access to the Mount Antero-Carbonate Peak area is best made by vehicle travel up the Chalk Creek road from Nathrop, on U.S. Highway 285, about 11.0 miles to the mouth of Baldwin Gulch, which enters Chalk Creek from the south, and then hiking up Baldwin Gulch. Access to the Mount Princeton area is also made from the Chalk Creek Road. Directly opposite the mouth of Baldwin Gulch, on the north side of Chalk Creek, proceed by foot up the Grouse Canyon trail to the west side of Mount Princeton. The Gladstone Ridge-Sheep Mountain area is best reached from South Cottonwood Creek. A climb by foot directly north from the Cottonwood Lake Campground is the shortest way to reach Sheep Mountain. From this point, hiking directly west will enable the traveler to reach Gladstone Ridge; or alternatively, Gladstone Ridge can be reached by vehicle travel up the South Cottonwood Creek road to a point 5.0 miles upstream from the Cottonwood Lake Campground, and then hiking north up Grassy Gulch. Census: Aerial census of mountain goats in the Collegiate Range is entirely feasible and practical. Census from the ground with binoculars and spotting scope, using the access routes to specific herd areas previously described, can be quite accurate if it is done thoroughly, but such a census is too timeconsuming for an area as large as this one. Any census attempt in the Collegiate Range should be planned for collecting herd composition data as well as ordinary enumeration of goats, and for this reason the helicopter is a better choice. �WP 2, J 4, W-4l-R -16- It is suggested that the three main herd areas are the only ones in which aerial census is likely to be productive. A systematic coverage of the alpine areas of Mount Shavano-Jones Peak, Mount Antero-Mount Princeton, and Gladstone Ridge, plus the below-timberline areas of Sheep Mountain, should provide adequate numerical trend and herd composition data. These counts are best made in late summer Or fall. NEEDLES MOUNTAINS MOUNTAIN GOAT AREA Access: There is no access to any portion of the Needles Mountains except by foot or horseback. In either case, the trip should not be made without preparation for spending at least two nights camped out. Horseback access is best made by departing from the trail head above Vallecito Reservoir on Vallecito Creek. Approximately eight miles up Vallecito Creek, the trail forks at the mouth of Johnson Creek which comes in from the west. Take the Johnson Creek trail for a distance of about five miles to the top of Columbine Pass, and then another two miles down into Chicago Basin, at the head of Needle Creek, where good campsites can be found. Most of the access to specific areas such as Mount Aeolus, Sunlight Peak, Windom Mountain, Pigeon Peak, and Turret Peak is by hiking only, as horses cannot be used in the steep cliffs and rockslides. Access from the west side, strongly recommended in case of backpack hiking without horses, is from the narrow gauge railway in Animas Canyon between Durango and Silverton. Departure from the railroad can be made at the mouth of Needle Creek, Ruby Creek, or No Name Creek, according to the wishes of the hiker. Needle Creek has the best trail. Census: The problems in obtaining systematic trend-type census data on goats in the Needles Mountains are almost insurmountable. The best that can be done is to make one or two observation flights per year by fixed-wing aircraft to locate goats and ascertain whether kids are present. A flight in late summer and one in mid-winter should suffice. Until the herd grows larger, the expense of making helicopter flights can hardly be justified, unless such flights can be combined with winter elk census operations in the Animas River Valley. �WP 2, J 4, W-4l-R -17- GORE RANGE MOUNTAIN GOAT AREA Access: Access to the goat release site on Black Creek is by vehicle up the Black Creek Road. The creek comes into the Blue River from the southwest at the upper end of Green Mountain Reservoir. The road extends up the creek for approximately four miles to the boundary of the Gore Range-Eagles Nest Wild area. From this point, the headwater area of Black Creek is reached by hiking. Census: While the goat herd is small and still becoming established, the only purpose in conducting census operations is to check on distribution and reproduction. This is best done with aircraft, either fixed-wing or helicopter. A fixed-wing flight in late summer, and a helicopter flight in conjunction with winter elk census, should be made. ��-19- January, 1972 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-41-R-2l-22 Work Plan No. 2 --------~--------- Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 5 Mountain Goat Habitat Requirements Job No.6 Evaluation·of Proposed Mountain Goat Transplant Sites Period Covered: June 1, 1965 to May 31, 1972 Personnel: L. Dale Hibbs, William H. Rutherford, Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT Game Information Leaflet No. 91, entitled "Guidelines for evaluation of Mountain Goat Transplant Sites", is the final report for these two jobs. ��-21- MOUNTAIN GOAT HABITAT REQUIREMENTS EVALUATION OF PROPOSED MOUNTAIN GOAT TRANSPLANT SITES William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE Job No.5: To determine habitat characteristics of presently occupied mountain goat range in Colorado. Job No.6: To situate mountain goat transplant opportunities. METHODS AND MATERIALS Habitat characteristics of all known mountain goat-occupied areas were observed and measured. Primary consideration was given to: Vegetative types, competition of other ungulates with mountain goats, topographic features, snow depth, and human influence. This information was inter~ preted and applied toward a set of guidelines for evaluating proposed transplant sites. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A set of general guidelines for evaluating potential mountain goat transplant sites was developed. For publication purposes, Jobs 5 and 6 were combined, since both jobs were used as input in developing these guidelines. Publications as a Game Information Leaflet (Rutherford 1972) was done, and made available to management personnel in this form. Thus, the formal publication becomes the final report for these jobs. LITERATURE CITED Rutherford, W. H. 1972. Guidelines for evaluation of mountain goat transplant sites. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Info. Leaflet No. 91. April, 1972. ---7 Prepared by UIk" Ii !fr:;~~ William H. Rutherford Wildlife Researcher ~~V~ ��-23January, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT Sta te of ~CO::::.;L=_O::::.;RAD:::::::::.:O::..._ _ An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado W-lOS-R-l2 Project No. Job No. Work Plan No. 3 Job Title Ecological Period Covered: Personnel: March 1, 1971 to February Robert D. Roughton in press is listed. (Eleventh Year) History of Key Browse Species ABSTRACT A manuscript 6 28, 1972 ��-25- ECOLOGICAL HISTORY OF KEY BROWSE SPECIES Robert D. Roughton P. S. OBJECTIVES 1. Investigate and refine suitable age determination techniques for individuals of selected browse species. 2. Determine the age structure of selected browse populations on the Cache la Poudre deer winter range. 3. Draw ecological inferences such as pattern of species reproduction, successional relations between species, treatment influences, and individual longevity by relating age structures to known site histories and species association. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Prepare manuscript from M. S. Thesis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress A manuscript was submitted, revised and finally accepted by the Editor of Ecology. Manuscript in Press Roughton, R. D. 1972. Shrub age structures on a mule deer winter range in Colorado. Ecology (In Press). Prepared by ~I e~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher ��-27January, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~-------- Project No. W-105-R-12 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Job No. 1 (Eleventh Year) Population Density and Structure Period Covered: Personnel: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado March 1, 1971 to February 28, 1972 Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT A publication and a manuscript in press are listed. ��-29- POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE 1. Estimate population density on each of five selected study locations believed to be representative of the lower~inter, middle-winter, upperwinter, transitional, and summer ranges of the herd to: (a) relate density to changing environmental conditions (Work Plan 3, Jobs 1 and 3), and (b) elucidate density-elevational relationships, particularly between years. 2. Estimate sex and age structure (composition) of the population to provide basic information on herd dynamics. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare manuscripts for publication. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Estimation of herd structure and population densities on selected areas was completed prior to June 1, 1965. Analyses of herd structure samples-timeweather relationships have been completed. Publications: Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972. Mule deer fecal group counts related to site factors on winter range. J. Range Mgmt. 25:66-68. Manuscripts in Press: Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972. Mule deer numbers and shrub-yield utilization on winter range. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36 (April). Future Plans Prepare brief manuscript on the herd structure samples-time-weather Prepared by e ~ ~4""1 Allan E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher relationships. ��-31January, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------~------------- Project No. Work Plan No. An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado W-105-R-12 5 Job Title Job No. 1 (Eleventh Year) Physical Characteristics Period Covered: March 1, 1971 to February 28, 1972 Personnel: Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT Publications, manuscripts in press, and manuscripts in preparation are listed. ��-33- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Measure relevant physiological and morphological characteristics of deer collected seasonally so that: (a) the response of the herd to its environment can be more adequately interpreted. (b) establish "physiological norms", and (c) provide basic morphological data as related to sex and age classes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate, summarize, analyze. and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Physiological and morphological studies on four deer collected each month, 1961-1965 were completed April 27, 1965. The number totaled 192 regular collections plus 33 from supplementary sources. All data were placed on punchcards and blood and tissue chemistry data were completed during Segment 12. The review of literature was continued and about 1,000 references were obtained for project files during Segment 12. Publications Anderson, A. E •• D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. Adrenal weight in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 35(4):689-697. Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1971. Antler phenology in a Colorado mule deer population. Southwestern Naturalist 15(4) :485-494. Nicolls, K. E. 1971. A light microscopic study of nuclear and cytoplasmic size of the aggregate acidophil population in the hypophysis cerebri pars distalis of the mule deer Odocoileus hemionus hemionus relative to seasons of the photoperiod and antler cycles. Z. Zellforsch Mikros. Anat. 115: 314-326. ~~nuscripts in Press Anderson, A. E •• D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972. a population of mule deer. J. Mammal. 53 (May). Total serum protein in �-34- Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972. Indices of carcass fat in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wild1. Mgmt. 36 (April). Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972. Carotene and vitamin A in the liver and blood serum of a Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) population. Compo Biochem. Physiol. 40 p. (April). Manuscripts in Preparation Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. Biometrics of the organs, glands, and carcass of Rocky Mountain mule deer. Wildl. funograph. Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. Seasonal variation in the weight and color of the pelage of mule deer. J. Mammal. Future Plans Complete and submit final manuscripts to appropriate Journals. �-35January, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT Sta te of .:;;.CO.:;;.L;;:;,O,;;.;RA=D=-O:::.._ An Ecological Investigation W-105-R-12 of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado Project No. Work Plan No. Job No. 5 Job Title Reproductive Period Covered: Personnel: March 1, 1971 to February Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT A manuscript in preparation is described. 2 Studies 28, 1972 (Eleventh Year) ��-37- REPRODUCTIVE STUDIES Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the reproductive pattern of the deer herd to provide data on: (a) morphology of the reproductive organs as related to age and season. (b) gross and net productivity between years, and (c) tentatively, the relationship of productivity to measured factors of the environment (Work Plan 3). SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Tabulate. summarize, analyze, and interpret collected data, review recent literature, and prepare final report and publication manuscripts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Reproductive data gathering from collected deer was completed April 27, 1965. Ovarian collections from hunter killed deer were completed with the 1964 hunting season. Growth curves of certain male and female reproductive organs were calculated and plotted. Publications Markwa1d, R. R., R. W. Davis, and R. A. Kainer. 1971. Histological and histochemical periodicity of cervine Leydig cells in relation to antler growth. Gen. Com. Endocrino1. 16:268-280. Short, Catherine. 1970. Morphological development and aging of mule and white-tailed deer fetuses. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. 34(2) :383-388. Manuscripts in Preparation Portions of this material will be included in a monograph on growth of organs and glands as described in Work Plan 5, Job 1, Physical Characteristics. Future Plans Complete and submit monograph manuscript to Wildlife Monographs. Prepared by e ~~ ~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher ��-39January, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-105-R-12 Work Plan No. 5 Job Title Job No. Harvest Analysis Period Covered: Personnel: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd, Colorado March 1, 1971 to February 28, 1972 Allen E. Anderson ABSTRACT Publication plans are outlined. 3 (Eleventh Year) ��-41- HARVEST ANALYSIS Allen E. Anderson P. S. OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the age structure of the deer herd kill to provide estimates of (a) net productivity (percent female yearlings in the kill), and (b) the effects of hunting regulations. 2. Locate the distribution of the kill by sub-unit to relate age and sex structure of the kill to elevational levels and harvest intensity. 3. Measure relevant physical characteristics of the kill to provide a possible index of herd response to winter food quality. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Progress Check station sampling of the fall harvest was completed with the 1965 hunting season. Collected data have been tabulated and statistical treatment has been completed. Most of the literature has been reviewed. Publications None. Manuscripts in Preparation None. Manuscripts Submitted None. Future Plans Incorporate findings relative to Objectives 1 and 2 in a Department Special Report. The first draft will be completed during Segment 13. Prepared by ~e"",.,. ~ ~~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/6b4f7f3cd5c64a43d948688269c419cf.pdf de719859d67f6083929654b326ed5c7c PDF Text Text -1- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-25 1 Work Plan No. Job Title 16 Job No. Pheasant Nest Site Selection Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey Study April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Warren D. Snyder, Carroll J. Grand Pre, Lawrence A. Webster, Robert L. Schmidt, John F. Corey, George G. Harrington, Larry Crooks, John Ellenberger, Thomas Lines, Dale Stahlecker, Rusty Kozacek, Dr. David Bowden and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT Each of the four quadrats were stocked with a minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by January 28, 1971(Segment 24) in preparation for nesting studies in 1971. Fortyeight pheasant nests were found in the 48 nesting plots, representing six vegetative species or combinations of species. Eight nests were found in intermediate wheatgrass mowed plots; six nests were found in alfalfa unmowed plots; five nests each were found in alfalfa mowed, intermediate wheatgrass unmowed, tall wheatgrass unmowed and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass unmowed plots; and four nests each were found in smooth bromegrass unmowed and crested wheatgrass unmowed plots. Fewer numbers of nests were found in other vegetative types and treatments represented. A Chi-square analysis of data showed that a significant preference (P< 0.05) for cover types or treatments could not be shown in 1971. Seventy-seven percent of all nests in 1971 were established 15 feet or less from plot perimeters. Average clutch size of 19 nests, where it was possible to determine this, was 9.1. Field work on this study was concluded in 1971 with the removing of the wing-clipped wild pheasants and windrowing of vegetation in all plots on July 23, 1971. ��-3- PHEASANT NEST SITE SELECTION STUDY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant nesting use of, and success in (1) winter wheat; (2) alfalfa; (3) crested wheatgrass; (4) hairy vetch; (5) white sweet clover; (6) alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixture; (7) smooth bromegrass; (8) tall wheatgrass; and (9) intermediate wheatgrass. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To maintain plots. 2. To measure nesting preference. 3. To determine nesting success by cover type. METHODS AND MATERIALS Fifty-nine wild pheasants were captured by 4 ~enusing hand nets, hand spotlights, and 2 4-wheel drive vehicles in Phillips and Sedgwick counties in only 6 trap nights during Segment 24. In addition, 6 wild pheasants were captured with wire cloverleaf traps at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. All 4 quadrats were stocked with a minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by January 28, 1971. All pheasants were wing clipped on one wing and leg banded prior to release in the quadrats. Considerable effort was again expended to control predation on the wing clipped wild pheasants. Three great horned owls and several feral cats were taken in control operations. Phenology measurements were again secured in 1971 to ascertain readiness of the various vegetative species and cover types for use by nesting pheasants. Three separate, complete nest searches were again made in 1971. An initial nest search in 1971 was made during the period June 3 through 10, with 8 men. Each plot was systematically searched using ropes to divide the plots into narrow segments. Nests were marked, recorded, and removed to encourage renesting. A second nest search was made during the period June 23 through 28 by 3 men searching each plot systematically in strips outlined by lath markers. A third and final search was made by 4 men using methods similar to the second search during the period July 19 through 23, 1971, preceding and following the windrowing of all cover plots on July 23, 1971. Distances were measured from each nest to the nearest edge and to the apex or base of the triangular plot, whichever was closest, with a steel tape. Each nest could later be located on a scaled diagram of the quadrats. Number of eggs, fate of the nest and estimated age of embryos were recorded. In addition, vegetative heights and vegetative species in the 4 cardinal directions from each nest were recorded. �-4- Prior to the windrowing of vegetation on all plots on July 23, 1971, most of the wing clipped pheasants were caught with hand nets. Thirty two of these were released three miles west of Holyoke in Phillips County and the remainder were released outside the quadrats at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Only one incubating hen was killed by the windrowing machine in 1971. Nesting data gathered in the 5 year period from 1967 through 1971 were coded for computer analysis and submitted to Dr. David C. Bowden in October, 1971. Results and interpretations of the statistical data will be included in a final report. Plot Composition Plot Composition for 1971 (Treatment Following 1970 Nesting Season) The changing of vegetative types used very little, or not practical to establish along roadsides, started in 1968, was completed in the fall of 1969. No additional changes were made during 1970. Plot Number 1. Originally Winter Wheat, Now Smooth Bromegrass The 4 original winter wheat plots seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1968 were left unmowed in the summer of 1970. The 4 original winter wheat plots, seeded to smooth bromegrass in the fall of 1969, were mowed in the summer of 1970. A residual cover check was secured in 1971. Plot Number 2. Alfalfa Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed in 1970 allowing a residual cover check in 1971. Two of the alfalfa plots including Number 2, Interior, NW Quadrat and Number 2, Exterior, NE Quadrat, are approaching alfalfacrested wheatgrass mixtures due to invasion by crested wheatgrass. Plot Number 3. Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season, allowing a residual cover check in 1971 on half of the plots. Composition for 1971 was therefore comparable to that of 1970. Plot Number 4. Orignially Hairy Vetch, Now Intermediate Wheatgrass All of these plots were reworked and seeded to intermediate wheat grass following the 1968 nesting season. Four of these intermediate wheatgrass plots were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season, allowing a residual cover check in 1971 on half of the plots. Plot Number 5. Originally White Sweet Clover, Now Tall Wheatgrass The 4 original white sweet clover plots seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1968, were left unmowed in the summer of 1970. The 4 original white sweet clover plots seeded to tall wheatgrass in the fall of 1969, were mowed in the summer of 1970. A residual cover check was secured in 1971. �-5- Plot Number 6. Alfalfa-Crested Wheatgrass Four of these were mowed and 4 were left unmowed following the 1970 nesting season, allowing a residual cover check in 1971 on half of the plots. Composition for 1971 was therefore comparable to 1970. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Stocking of Pheasants for 1971 Only 6 trapnights, using two 4-wheel drive vehicles, 4 hand spotlights, and 2 men per vehicle with hand nets were requred to capture 59 wild pheasants in Phillips and Sedgwick counties in January, 1971. Six additional wild pheasants were captured in wire cloverleaf bait traps at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. All 4 quadrats were stocked with a minimum of 13 hens and 3 cocks by January 28, 1971. All pheasants were leg banded and wing clipped prior to releasing in the quadrats. Predator control was again accomplished in 1971 after 1 hen was killed by a great horned owl in early February, 1971. The removal of 3 great horned owls and several feral domestic cats prevented undue losses of the wing clipped pheasants prior to the first nest search period. At least 5 hens were killed later in June and July, 1971 by a feral cat which entered the southwest quadrat through a small hole in the perimeter fence, mistakenly left open by Station personnel. The cat thought to have been responsible was trapped but most of the surviving pheasants in the southwest quadrat also escaped through this hole in the perimeter fence. Location of Nests Forty eight pheasant nests were found in the 48 triangular shaped nesting plots representing 6 vegetative species or combination of species. Figures 1 through 4 show the approximate locations of nests in the various quadrats. Table 1 lists pheasant nests found by vegetative cover types and treatments in 1971. By number of nests, intermediate wheatgrass mowed (8 nests) ranked highest for nest establishment in 1971, followed by alfalfa unmowed (6 nests); alfalfa mowed, intermediate wheatgrass unmowed, tall wheatgrass unmowed, and alfalfacrested wheatgrass unmowed (each with 5 nests); and smooth bromegrass unmowed and crested wheatgrass unmowed (each with 4 nests). Fewer nests were found in other vegetative types and treatments represented. Numbers of plots by cover type and treatments were equal with 4 of each kind in 1971, so a separate ranking by nests per plot was not required. In a Chi-square analysis of data, significant preferences for individual cover types or treatments (P<0.05) could not be shown in 1971. This result was in contrast to the years 1969 and 1970 when significant preferences were indicated. Two severe hailstorms occurred during the early portion of the 1971 �-6- nesting season on May 22 and June 1. Three nests appeared to have been abandoned following these hails, but more importantly, it also appeared that a number of the hens did not recycle. The 48 nests were probably less than would have been recorded without adverse weather plus feral cat depredations described earlier. Seventy seven percent of all nests in 1971 were established 15 feet or less from plot perimeters, as shown in Table 2. An inspection of plot diagrams indicates that on an average, 70 percent of the total plot area is contained in a perimeter strip 15 feet wide so this may not indicate a significant edge effect. During 1971, 28 nests were found in interior plots and 20 in exterior plots. The terms "interior" and "exterior" refer to the location of the individual plots in relation to a central point where all 4 quadrats join. These are indicated in the margins of Figures 1 through 4. Clutch Sizes TWenty nine nests contained unknown clutch sizes. These were nests where the hen was still laying, or nests which were abandoned for one reason or another without incubation having started. The average clutch size of the remaining 19 nests, which included both incubating and hatched nests was 9.1 eggs, ranging from 4 to 17 (Table 3). Considerable variation was again found in clutch sizes between the various cover types and treatments, as shown in Table 3. Highest average numbers of eggs per clutch was found in the intermediate wheat grass unmowed plots (1 nest with 13 eggs), intermediate wheatgrass mowed plots (4 nests averaged 11.8 eggs), crested wheatgrass unmowed plots (1 nest with 10 eggs), alfalfa unmowed (4 nests averaged 9.2 eggs), and tall wheatgrass mowed plots (1 nest with 9.0 eggs). Fate of Nests Forty eight nests were found and recorded. Of these, 32 were determined to be in an active state of laying or incubation, 5 were hatched successfully, and 11 were apparently abandoned for one reason or another (Table 4). All nests were recorded and removed to encourage renesting. This also prevented the recording of the same nest more than once. Of the 5 nests which hatched successfully, one each was in alfalfa mowed, alfalfa unmowed, intermediate wheatgrass mowed, tall wheatgrass unmowed, and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass unmowed plots. Of 31 total eggs in the 5 nests which had successfully hatched, 28 (90.32 percent) of the eggs hatched. Of the 11 apparently abandoned nests, 3 showed extensive hail damage, 2 were destroyed by nest predators with the hen also killed (probably by a domestic feral cat), and 6 were abandoned for unknown reasons. All three nests thought to have been abandoned because of hail were found in early June, 1971. �-7- 370' 3 Agcr (Ill) 12' 5 Agel hi) 12' 12' Detailed Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Pig. 1. Nest Site Location of pheaaant neata in northwest quadrat, 1971. �-8- 370' 2 o Agc:r (Ill) 7 5 3 Agel (Ill) f / 6 Mesa-Agcr <Ill> , Br1n hll> 12' 12' Detailed 1'1g. 2. Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Nest Site Location of pheasant nests in northeast quadrat, 1971. �-9- 370' \\ 5 0 4 Ag1.n 12' <.) 7 2 / Mesa h.) \JIll) f 10/ 0 \ \ II / .> .> WLiU/ .> kin ~ <.> ~ -. ~ ------- ~ ~ "-- Mesa-Agcr ~ 0 6 ~ o Ag1n < \\ 0 7/ 4 (.) »> ~,~0 »> 2 0 // =./ Agc:r <.) 36' V C i ?7i\~~~~ ~ 3 Q46' Water Agcr \\10' /I I 12' 6 \ I Brin (u.) Detailed Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Location of pheasant nest. 0 ~ 5 Agel (ua) 12' l"1ge 3. (ua) Nest Site in southwest quadrat, 1971. .,.. <:) eN �-10- 370' 2 3 Mesa (UIl) .\gin (m) o § 4 ~ Aq1n (,,111) 12' 12' Detailed Pig. 4. Arrangements of Individual Quadrat, Pheasant Selection Study, Work Plan 1, Job 16 Nest Site Location of pbeasant nests in southeast quadrat, 1971. �Table 1. Number of pheasant nests found in 48 plots representing various vegetative types and treatments, 1971. Plot Number Type and Treatment NW NE SW SE Total Number Plots Nests/ Plot 1 Smooth bromegrass (mowed) 0 0 1 0 1 4 0.25 1 Smo ot.h bromegrass (unmowed) 2 1 0 1 4 4 1.00 2 Alfalfa (mowed) 0 2 3 0 5 4 1.25 2 Alfalfa (unmowed) 3 -1 0 2 6 4 1.50 3 Crested wheatgrass (mowed) 0 0 0 1 1 4 0.25 Quadrats I 3 Crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 2 1 1 0 4 4 1.00 4 Intermediate wheatgrass (mowed) 1 1 4 2 8 4 2.00 4 Intermediate wheatgrass (unmowed) 2 0 2 1 5 4 1.25 5 Tall wheatgrass (mowed) 0 0 1 1 2 4 0.50 5 Tall wheatgrass (unmowed) 1 4 0 0 5 4 1.25 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (mowed) 0 0 1 1 2 4 0.50 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (unmowed) 2 1 1 1 5 4 1.25 13 11 14 10 48 48 Total Average 1.00 t-' t-' I �-12- Table 2. Distance of pheasant nests from plot perimeters, 1971. Distance From Nearest Edge Number of Nests Percent 0 - 5' 6 12.5 5 - 10' 18 37.5 10 - 15' 13 27.0 15 - 20' 3 6.3 20 - 25' 6 12.5 25 - 30' 2 4.2 30 - 35' 0 0.0 35 - 40' 0 0.0 48 100.0 Total Periods of Nest Establishment Table 5 lists periods of nest establishment based upon aging egg embryos according to procedures outlined in Game Information Leaflet Number 15 (Sandfort 1965). Only one peak in nest establishment occurred in 1971. This was during the period May 16-31 when 17 nests out of the 48 recorded were established. Phenology Heights of vegetation measurements were made on April 15 and 27; May 6 and 19; June 2, 14, and 25; and July 5 and 15, 1971. Table 6 summarizes average heights of vegetation on April 15, May 6, June 14, and July 15, 1971. Heights of the new growth vegetation on May 6, 1971 was at least one week ahead of that found in early May, 1970. Suitable nesting cover was considered to be available in early May, 1971. As found in 1970, most vegetative species continued to grow in height throughout the nesting season of 1971. Good early soil moisture has been maintained for the 1969, 1970, and 1971 nesting season by complete plot irrigations during the preceding fall periods. �Table 3. Clutch sizes found in 19 incubating or hatched pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1971. Clutch Size 1 Brin (m) 1 Brin (urn) 2 Mesa (m) 2 Mesa (urn) 3 Agcr (m) 3 Agcr (um) Plot Number and Treatment 4 4 5 5 Agel Agin Agin Agel (m) ( 111) (urn) (um) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (urn) Total 1 2 3 4 1 1 5 2 1 3 6 1 1 7 2 8 1 1 2 1 9 1 10 1 1 11 3 1 1 2 1 12 1 13 1 1 1 2 14 15 16 1 1 17 1 1 18 19 20 Total 0 1 2 4 0 1 Ave.C1utch 0.0 8.0 7.0 9.2 0.0 10.0 4 11.8 1 1 2 1 2 19 13.0 9.0 6.0 6.0 8.5 9.1 •... I w I �Table 4. Fate of 48 pheasant nests in various vegetative types, 1971. Plot Type 2 2 3 Mesa (um) Agcr (urn) ~sa (m) 3 4 4 1 1 1 Brin 1 Brin (m) Active Laying or Incubating Hatched Abandoned or Unsuccessful 1 1 1 (m) Number and Treatment 3 4 4 Agcr Agin Agin (um) (m) (um) 5 5 Agel (m) Agel 5 1 3 3 1 1 1 2 (um) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (um) 3 2 4 32 1 5 1 2 1 Total 11 1 I ..... .pI Total 1 4 5 6 1 4 8 5 2 5 2 5 48 �Table 5. Estimated period of nest establishment in various vegetative types, 1971.1 Period 1 Brin (m) 1 Brin (um) 2 Mesa (m) April 16-30 2 Mesa (um) 3 Agcr (m) Plot Number and Treatment 3 4 4 Agcr Agin Agin (um) (m) (um) 5 Agel (m) 5 Agel (um) 6 Mesa-Agcr (m) 6 Mesa-Agcr (um) 1 1 May 1-15 2 1 May 16-31 1 2 June 1-15 1 June 16-30 1 Total 1 1 3 2 4 1 1 2 1 5 17 2 2 3 8 2 1 I I-' V1 July 1-15 I July 16-30 Unknown 1 1 Total 1 4 5 2 1 1 3 2 1 2 6 1 4 8 5 2 5 2 1 15 5 48 1 Period of nest establishment based upon aging of embryos according to Game Information Leaflet No. 15 (Sandfort 1965) . First nest search was made June 3-4, 1971, second made June 23-28, 1971, third made July 19-21, 1971. �-16- Table 6. Average height of vegetation in pheasant nesting plots, 1971. Plot Number Vegetative Type and Treatment 4-15-71 Average Height (In.) 5-6-71 6-14-71 7-15-71 1 Smooth bromegrass (um) 6 12 18 14 1 Smooth bromegrass (m) 4 8 31 30 2 Alfalfa (urn) 3 11 19 21 2 Alfalfa (m) 4 11 21 25 3 Crested wheatgrass (um) 7 9 9 15 3 Crested wheatgrass (m) 5 9 14 13 4 Intermediate wheatgrass (urn) 8 13 17 17 4 Intermediate wheat grass (m) 6 12 22 38 5 Tall wheatgrass (um) 9 14 19 17 5 Tall wheatgrass (m) 4 8 17 17 6 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass (um) Alfalfa 1 4 1 Crested wheatgrass 6 11 6 16 Alfalfa 3 10 18 12 Crested wheatgrass 4 10 15 22 6 Alfalfa-Crested wheatgrass (m) Height of Vegetation Surrounding Nests Nests found prior to windrowing of all the cover plots on July 23, 1971 provided an opportunity for obtaining vegetative height measurements surrounding 46 nests. Table 7 lists average heights and species of vegetation. An average height of 16.13 inches was found surrounding 30 nests found during the first nest search period of June 3-10. This compares with an average vegetation height of 17.73 inches surrounding 11 nests found in the second nest search period of June 23-28, and 18.80 inches surrounding 5 nests found in the third nest search during July 19-23, 1971. An overall average of 16.80 inches was calculated for vegetation surrounding the 46 nests measured. �Table 7. Nest Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 48 nests, 1971. Quadrat Plot No. Date Measured SE SE SE SE SE SW SW SW SW SW SW SW SW NW NW NW NW NW NW NW NE NE NE NE NE NE SW SW SW SE 2-1 1-1 4-E 3-E 5-E 2-E 2-E 6-E 4-E 4-1 4-1 3-1 6-1 6-1 6-1 3-1 3-1 4-1 4-1 l-E 2-E 5-1 3-1 2-1 1-1 5-1 5-1 4-E 4-E 2-1 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-3-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-4-71 6-9-71 6-10-71 6-10-71 6-14-71 Composition Alfalfa Smooth bromegrass Intermediate ~heatgrass Crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Intermediate wheat grass Smooth bromegrass Alfalfa Tall wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Crested wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Tall wheat grass Tall wheatgrass Intermediate wheat grass Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa Ave. Height (In.) Ave. Height For Period (In.) 15 16 15 16 14 18 18 15 22 12 13 12 17 14 13 13 16 15 14 16 20 16 12 17 16 15 15 22 27 20 I to-' ~ I 16.13 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 7. Heights and composition of vegetation surrounding 48 nests, 1971 (continued). Nest Number Quadrat SE SE SW SW Plot No. Date Measured Composition Ave. Height (In.) 6-23-71 6-23-71 6-24-71 6-24-71 6-24-71 6-24-71 6-24-71 6-24-71 6-28-71 6-28-71 7-5-71 Intermediate wheat grass Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Alfalfa Alfalfa Tall wheatgrass Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Tall wheatgrass Alfalfa 15 19 13 17 19 19 17 20 14 20 22 16 13 19 31 15 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 NE NE SW 2-1 6-E 4-E I-I 2-1 2-1 5-E 4-E 6-1 5-1 2-E 42 43 44 45 46 SE NW NE NE NE 6-1 1-E 2-E 4-E 5-1 7-19-71 7-20-71 7-21-71 7-21-71 7-21-71 Alfalfa-crested wheatgrass Smooth bromegrass Alfalfa Intermediate wheat grass Tall wheatgrass 47 48 SE NW 4-E 2-1 7-23-71 7-23-71 Intermediate wheatgrass Alfalfa NW NW NW NW Ave. Height For Period (In.) 17.73 I 18.80 Average height all measurements I I-' 00 16.80 �-19- KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS Figures 1 through 4 and Tables 3 through 5 Plants Symbol Scientific Name Common Name Agcr Agropyron cristatum Crested wheatgrass Agel Agropyron elongatum Tall wheatgrass Agin Agropyron intermedium Intermediate wheat grass Brin Bromus inermis Smooth bromegrass Mesa Medicago sativa Alfalfa Treatment Following 1970 nesting season: (m) Mowed (um) Unmowed - residual cover check in 1971 LITERATURE CITED Sandfort, W. W. 1965. Aging pheasant embryos. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Outdoor Facts, Game Information Leaflet No. 15. 2 p. Prepared by ---!tf2~L~'~ ---+RV_m " ~q~" ~m.!-/~~ __ Don~offman~ Wildlife Researcher ��-21April, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~-------------- Project No. W-37-R-25 Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 1 Job Title pheasant Roadside Cover Evaluation 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Period Covered: Personnel: April Russell Kozacek, Job No. Carroll Grand Pre and Warren 18 Study Snyder. ABSTRACT Abundant winter and spring moisture stimulated early spring growth and greatly improved the quality of seeded grass and legume stands in 1971. Fourteen additional quarter-mile plots were seeded in late spring to conclude seeding study efforts. Nest searching, conducted on 67 seeded plots, 38 farmed controls and 38 unfarmed controls, yielded 45 nesting attempts. Of these, 12 were successful, 22 were predator destroyed, 4 were abandoned and the fate of 7 remained uncertain. Pheasants attempted significantly more nests in seeded plots than in farmed controls on an acres per nest basis. Both 1970 and 1971 data were combined in the analysis. The unfarmed controls yielded significantly more nests during the two years than the farmed controls did. Discussion of nest association with proximal cover species and adjacent field cover types are provided. Data concerning life-form characteristics of the study plots are presented. ��-23- PHEASANT ROADSIDE COVER EVALUATION STUDY Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roadsides: (1) grass, and (2) grass-legume mixtures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish grass and grass-legume cover on roadside test plots in northeastern Colorado. 2. To 3. To measure life-form characteristics of roadside cover. measure pheasant production in test and control plots. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in selection of plots, establishment of seeded plots and measurement of pheasant production are presented in Snyder (1969, 1970, and 1971). Measurement of Life-form Characteristics of Roadside Cover Height and density measurements were obtained during the second week of May and the second week of June, 1971. Ten groups of plots were included in the sample. Fifty measurements each for height and density were obtained per plot on 20 seeded plots, 9 unfarmed controls, and on 7 farmed controls that contained green wheat. Five measurement sites, each containing ten measurement points were spaced by use of vehicle speedometer readings. The ten measurement points were obtained while walking at an angle across the roadside plot. Measurements were taken one ~ace apart and located six inches to one foot in front of the right foot. Vegetative height was recorded by use of a yard stick. Density levels at heights six inches or more above the ground were obtained by ocular estimates. A scale of 1 to 3 was used with the latter estimate being the highest. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Establishment of Grass and Grass-legume Cover Past Seedings Seeded stands, especially those containing grass showed marked improvement in growth. Natural spreading of the grasses was enhanced by excellent winter �-24- snows and spring and early summer precipitation. Some alfalfa stands were so rank and tangled by mid-June that nest search efforts were nearly impossible. Pitch forks were finally used to lift and separate this dense growth. The excellent growing conditions permitted an increase in the number of seeded plots utilized in the study from 48 in 1970 to 67 in 1971. Accomr panyiug natural unfarmed (C2) controls and farmed (Cl) controls increased the total number of quarter-mile plots from 99 in 1970 to 143 in 1971. Approximately 36 linear miles or about 76 acres were included in the 1971 study results. Seeding Efforts in 1971 The near continuous wet, rainy weather during the spring of 1971 curtailed planting efforts, but helped insure good to excellent grass and/or legume stands on those that were completed. Fourteen additional quarter-mile plots, separated into seven groups, will be available for nest search in 1972. Various combinations of tall wheatgrass (Agropyron elongatum), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum, var. Nebr. 28) and rhyzoma alfalfa (Medicago sativa) were used in these plots. Burnet (Sanquisorba minor), a member of the Rosacae family, was tried in several of the plots. Its initial growth did not compare to that of alfalfa in the roadsides, but more time is needed for a complete evaluation of the species. The 1971 spring and early summer plantings were the final attempts to establish roadside cover as part of this study. Measurement of Pheasant Production Nest Fate Results of 1971 nest searches were generally similar to those obtained in 1970. Table 1 shows the number and fate of nests for both years. Hatching success was higher in 1971 but the number was too small to say a sigificant difference occurred. Predators continued to destroy a large percentage of the nests. Nest search disturbance caused the abandonment of one nest. Second and third checks to determine nest fate were done cautiously only after several days had elapsed. Nest Density Comparisons A compilation of statistics concerning the number of plots, average plot size, total acreage per type, total nests, acres-per-nest and acres-persuccessful nest is illustrated in Table 2. The acres-per-nest columns best illustrate the attractiveness of the three cover types for nesting. Results, which were similar for both 1970 and 1971, indicate seeded stands were proportionally utilized more than either unfarmed (C2) or farmed (Cl) control plots. Nesting attempts on the C2 controls most closely compared to those on seeded roadside plots. Chi-square analyses were conducted based on total nesting attempts per total acres of each roadside cover type. Acres of each cover type were used �-25- instead of number of plots due to slight differences in average plot width between seeded and C2 controls. Widths of farmed controls were considered the same as those of the seeded plots, so their acreages were directly proportional (Table 2). Table 1. Fate of pheasant nests found along roadside study plots during the summers of 1970 and 1971. 1970 1971 Number Percent Number Percent Successful 4 13.8 12 26.7 Predator destroyed 16 55.2 22 48.9 Abandoned 4 13.8 4 8.9 Unknown 5 17.2 7 15.5 Total 29 Nest Fate 45 Chi-square values for combined 1970-71 data indicate pheasant nesting attempts in seeded plots were not significantly greater than those in unfarmed (C2) controls (Table 3). In turn, the unfarmed plots yielded a highly significantly greater number of nests per total acres than the farmed (C1) controls did. Additional Chi-square values comparing seeded plots with Cl and C2 type controls for the respective years, 1970 and 1971, are also presented in Table 3. Similar comparisons based on numbers of successful nests per cover type were not attempted because of inadequate sample sizes. A higher number of nests were found in 1971 than during the previous summer. This resulted primarily from an increase in the number of plots, not an increase in nesting effort. In general, the results in Table 2 indicate one nesting attempt was made along approximately every 0.5 mile of seeded roadside, every 5 miles of farmed roadside, and every 1 mile of unfarmed roadside. Nest Association with Cover Types Proximal Cover Association--Nest searches in 1970 showed that most pheasant nests were associated with green and residual weed cover, even in the seeded plots (Table 4) where grasses and legumes were dominant. The 1971 results, shown in the table, indicate increased use of seeded grasses and marked decrease in use of annual forbs. This may, in part, be due to increased spreading and growth of the seeded stands following excellent spring moisture. �-26Table 2. Statistics concerning roadside study plots and pheasant nesting for 1970 and 1971. Cover Type No. of Plots Acres/:!.! No. of Plot Acres Nesting Attempts Acres/ Nest Successful Nests Acres/ Suc. Nest 6.66 1970 Seeded 48 .5549 26.6337 22 1.21 4 Farmed Control 28 .5549 15.5372 2 7.77 0 Unfarrned Control 23 .5072 11.6656 5 2.33 0 53.8365 29 1.86 4 13.46 5.13 Total 99 1971 67 .5364 35.9358 32 1.12 7 Control 38 .5364 20.3832 2 10.19 0 Un farmed Control 38 .5231 19.8768 11 1.81 5 3.98 Total 143 76.1958 45 1.69 12 6.35 Seeded Farne d 11 The average farmed control plot contained approximately 0.14 acres of ~nfarmed cover along the road shoulder. Total plot width and acreage was considered equal to that of seeded plots for direct comparison purposes. Table 3. Results of Chi-square analyses comparing nesting attempts on seeded, unfarmed (C2) controls and farmed (Cl) controls during 1970 and 1971. Chi-square Values 1971 1970-71 Comb~ned D. F. 1970 Seeded vs. Farmed (C1) 1 8.38** 13.52** 21. 89** Seeded vs. Unfarmed (C2) 1 1.84 1.88 3.57 Farmed (C ) vs. Unfarmed (C2) l 1 -- y 6.46* 8.88** Comparison !I Insufficient sample size. * Significant at 0.05 level. ** Significant at 0.005 level. �-27- Table 4. Utilization of roadside cover types by nesting pheasants during the summers of 1970 and 1971. Plot Type Cover Type Number of Nests 1970 1971 Seeded Roadside Seeded grass 4 9 Grass-alfalfa 1 1 Seeded alfalfa 1 1 Grass-downy brome 0 3 Alfalfa-downy brome 0 4 Straight downy brome 1 6 Grass and residual weeds 0 2 Grass, alfalfa and weeds 2 1 Grass, alfalfa and downy brome 0 2 Alfalfa, weeds and downy brome 1 0 Green weeds 0 2 Weeds and residual 11 1 Weeds, residual and downy brome 1 0 Sub-total 22 32 Unfarmed (C2) Roadside Native grass o 1 3 Straight downy brome o o 2 Downy brome and residual 1 o Green weeds 2 1 Weeds and residual 2 2 Straight residual cover o 2 Sub-total 5 11 Farmed (C1) Roadside Downy brome and residual o 1 Green weeds and residual Native grass and downy brome 2 1 Sub-total 2 2 Total 29 45 �-28- The winter snows and early spring moisture, which favored seeded stands, was ideal for the growth of doWny brome or cheat grass (Bromus tectorum). As noted in Table 4, many of the nests found in 1971 were in partial to pure stands of downy brome. Because of its early growth and maturity characteristics it competed extensively with new seeded perennial grasses and alfalfa. It was considered one of the primary factors suppressing seeded stand establishment. In dryer years its growth form is often too short to provide good nesting cover, but usually it is one of the best available cover types. Farmers, objecting to its invasion of their fields, frequently burn it as it matures in late spring or early summer. One hen, nesting in downy brome, was observed attempting to resume incubation after her nest had been burned over in July 1971. Downy brome can potentially be controlled by use of the chemical, Dacthal. Application must be made prior to summer or early fall germination of the seed, but tests probably should be run to determine the best time and amounts to use in application. Relationship to Adjacent Field Cover Type--Nest occurrences were compared to plot occurrences adjacent to summer fallow, green wheat, and the combination of other field types, such as corn, grain sorghum, etc. Combined 1970 and 1971 data show that 35 nests were found in 100 plots adjacent to fallow; 24 nests were found in 106 plots adjacent to green wheat and 14 nests were found in 36 plots adjacent to other cover. The data do not show any clearcut evidence that pheasants selected nesting sites with regard to adjacent field cover types. The presence of wheat stubble, instead of fallow, at the onset of some nesting attempts further complicates the issue. Life-form Characteristics of Roadside Cover An attempt was made to index growth characteristics of seeded roadsides, unfarmed (C2) controls and farmed (Cl) controls containing green wheat. Three indices, height, density and height X density were obtained during May and again in June. Results of 1971 measurements, summarized in Table 5, indicate heights of seeded stands generally exceeded those of unfarmed (C2) roadsides. As would be expected, green wheat in farmed controls exceeded the other two cover types in height. The farmed and seeded roadside covers were similar in density according to ocular estimates. Cover in unfarmed roadsides was somewhat less dense. Some of the unfarmed plots contained dense matted stands of kochia or other cover which were suppressed in height because of competition for moisture. These were given a lower index rating because the cover was not high enough to hide a nesting hen pheasant. Question arises as to why did pheasants fail to utilize the farmed controls if height and density characteristics were similar to those on the seeded plots? One reason to consider is that 15 of the 38 Cl plots were summer fallowed to the road shoulder. This greatly reduced potential nesting cover. In addition, green wheat stands lacked litter and old vegetation close to the ground. Pheasant nest bowls usually are formed of litter and frequently are positioned so that residual vegetation breaks up the outline of the hen. Additional life-form variables must be measured before attempting to relate nesting attempts to vegetative life-form. �-29- Table 5. Height and density measurements and a product index of the two comparing vegetative growth characteristics on samples of seeded roadsides, unfarmed natural roadsides, and farmed roadsides containing green wheat. Date Seeded Roadside Unfarmed Natural Farmed (Green wheat) Height May, 1971 8.71 6.08 14.18 June, 1971 16.31 13.06 26.72 Density May 1.65 1.35 1.66 June 2.23 2.01 2.19 Height X Density May 14.93 8.33 23.99 June 37.19 27.31 58.98 Sample Size;!! May 20 9 8 June 20 9 6 !/ Number of plots sampled. obtained on each plot. Fifty height and density measurements were LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1969. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp. 37-45. 1970. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp. 109-114. 1971. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Report. April. pp. 27-39. ��-31- JOB PROGRESS S ta te of Project April, 1972 REPORT C.::.O:;,;L=.,O:;,;RA=D::..;O::.-_ 3 Job No. 8a Effects of Sagebrush Control on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-25 No. April 1, 1971 to September 30, 1971 Warren Snyder, Russell Kozacek, Don Gore, Courney Ellenberger, John Monarch and Howard Funk. Crawford, John ABSTRACT The peak periods of sage grouse strutting ground activities in the North Park study area again centered around the middle of April, 1971. There were increases in numbers of males observed on almost every ground with the total of all high counts on each ground being 326, as compared to 274 in 1970. Data from check stations operated the first two days of season at Walden and Cowdrey suggested a decrease in hunter participation in 1971 with only 357 hunters tallied as compared to 564 the previous year. Number of sage grouse bagged by these hunters was 264, which was similar to the year before, despite the lower number of hunters. About 49 percent of the bag was composed of immature birds, which was up slightly from 1970 and about average over the years. ��-33- EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Howard D. Funk An investigation of sage grouse abundance and distribution near Lake John in North Park has been in effect since initiation in 1963. The job relates to various specific study topics in various degrees of intensity. More recent study has been with regard to the immediate effects of a sagebrush spraying project, accomplished in 1965, on sage grouse populations with a study on the long-term effects of this spray project scheduled for a twoyear period beginning the spring of 1973. In the interim period, efforts are to be limited to collection of study area strutting ground data, banding samples of birds on these grounds, and operating check stations near Walden and Cowdrey to obtain harvest data. This report covers these items. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on: (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate the seasonal di~tribution of sage grouse after sagebrush is controlled. 2. To investigate sage grouse numbers by age and sex classes on and adjacent to the area treated. METHODS AND MATERIALS Strutting Ground Counts Wildlife Conservation Officers conduct counts on a number of strutting grounds in North Park annually. Usually, three early morning counts are made on each ground. Data from these counts are gathered from the Regional Biologist, high counts for each ground being reported herein. Check Stations Two check stations near Walden and Cowdrey are operated the first two days of the season to collect various data on harvest such as harvest success, age, and sex ratios, banded bird information, and hunter participation for a check on the year, in comparison with previous years. Project personnel are �-34- responsible for the station, with Conservation Officers also contributing data from field checks. Main emphasis is on checking harvest within the study area. Age and sex of birds are determined by methods described in previous reports. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Strutting Ground Counts Results of strutting ground counts are displayed in Table 1. Peak counts occurred about mid-April on most areas, which is about average, since strutting ground activity is subject to snow conditions in this area. Data on peak numbers of females and total birds were not gathered for this report, but should be obtained from the field men for continuity of data when preparing for the final report. Table 1. Peak counts of male sage grouse on strutting grounds, 1971. Strutting Ground 1:./ High Count Date 10 April 15 '1:./ SG 1 SG 2 SG 3 SG 4 88 April 24 SG 5 81 April 15 SG 6 25 April 12 SG Total Number Males !:.l 7 '1:./ SG 8 5 April 15 SG 9 96 April 13 SG 10 21 April 23 SG 11 0 SG 12 Y 326 1/ Locations of grounds shown in .previous reports. 2/ Counts discontinued~ • �-35- Comparative data on annual fluctuations and high counts by strutting ground are presented in Table 2. }bst grounds showed increases over 1970 in numbers of males present, with the total number of males on all grounds increasing about 19 percent over 1970 results • Thus, the trend has definitely been upward since the recent low in 1965 when only 166 males were observed on all grounds. Table 2. grouse. Comparison of 1960 through 1971 strutting ground counts of male sage Strutting Ground 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 Year 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 SG 1 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 y SG 2 43 4 7 20 26 9 9 10 2 8 8 10 SG 3 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 y SG 4 130 96 219 216 120 53 47 69 58 82 66 88 SG 5 19 2 52 17 65 52 54 59 52 82 57 81 SG 6 5 1 8 9 3 0 2 12 36 36 19 25 SG 7 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 Y SG 8 5 0 0 0 0 0 6 5 2 6 7 5 SG 9 167 109 71 85 99 52 97 81 71 117 97 96 SG 10 17 77 28 19 17 0 6 9 0 16 16 21 SG 11 12 50 5 11 7 0 13 15 6 5 4 0 SG 12 14 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 Y Total 446 363 395 377 337 166 234 265 231 357 274 326 Y Count discontinued. Banding Due to lack of manpower and available time, banding of samples of birds on strutting grounds again was not accomplished. �Table 3. Comparison of North Park sage grouse hunter check information, 1963-1971. !! Hunters Hours Checked Hunted Adult Males Adult Percent Females Adults Juvenile Males Juvenile Percent Females Juveniles Total Birds Birds Per Hunter Hours Hunted Per Bird Year Bag Limit 1963 3 492 2,460 62 150 42 113 181 58 506 1.03 4.86 1964 2 217 624 25 81 59 28 45 41 179 .82 3.49 1965 'l:..,/ 2 150 626 27 30 49 26 26 51 116 .77 5.40 1966 2 306 1,227 31 116 56 45 71 44 263 .86 4.67 I 1967 2 300 1,177 50 127 67 42 46 33 267 .89 4.41 1968 2 546 2,604 80 135 42 156 141 58 512 .94 5.09 1969 2 662 2,936 121 277 70 57 114 30 569 .86 5.16 1970 2 564 2,617 58 89 55 53 66 45 266 .47 9.84 1971 2 357 1,802 28 67 51 54 39 49 264 .74 6.83 !! Based on Walden and Cowdrey check station data during opening weekends. 'l:..,/ A one day season; hence only a one day check station. w 0\ I �-37- Check Station Results Project personnel again manned the check station for the first two days of season. There were 357 hunters checked through the period, which was the lowest total since 1967, and down sharply from the 564 hunters in 1970 (Table 3). However; 264 sage grouse were checked, which was almost equal to the 1970 total, thui producing a higher bird-per-hunter ratio than that in 1970 (.74 compared to .47 birds-per-hunter). Also, amount of time spent hunting per bird in the bag was lower in 1971 (6.83 hours) than in 1970 (9.84 hours), but remained higher than the average of previous years. Juvenile birds increased to 49 percent of the total bag, 'a slight increase over the previous year, but these ratios are not considered good estimates of the actual age ratio in the population. Prepared by _~~:::.-..::::..".::::~:..:~==-:;;;::';;;...;:,;~~~~.....;' :;..;~=..:..::::'=-_ Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research ��-39April, JOB PROGRESS State of ~CO~L~O~RA~D~O~ Project No. _ 10 Job Title Game Bird Survey Job No. Study of Hungarian Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT W~-~3~7_-R~-2~5~ _ Work Plan No. April 1972 1, 1971 to March Partridge 1 Adaptability 31, 1972 Carroll J. Grand Pre, John F. Corey, George G. Harrington, Gordon P. East, Daniel F. Potts, Walter H. Schuett, Robert V. Clark and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT Only four reports of isolated sightings of from two to four Hungarian partridges were recorded for Moffat County in Segment 25. These were observed in the spring of 1971. A total of 1,774 Huns were released in Moffat County from 1964 through 1970. Six hundred and fifty-five pen raised Hungarian partridges were released at three sites in the San Luis Valley on April 23, 1971. This constitutes the first of a planned three-year stocking effort to attempt establishment of the species in south-central Colorado. A total of seven broods ranging in size from one to fourteen chicks were observed by Project personnel or interested landowners on or near the three release sites in the San Luis Valley in August, 1971. In addition, one nest containing eight eggs was destroyed by a farm tractor and one hatched nest with twelve eggs was found by Project personnel. Pairs of Huns were reported at distances of four to eight miles from two of the release sites but pairs are known to have remained near all three release sites as well. A minimum of 28 Huns was known to be ranging in the vicinity of the three release sites during the period December 9-11, 1971. One flock of 16 was observed l~ miles west of Hooper, Colorado on December 11, 1971. �-40- RECOMMENDATIONS Trial field releases are recommended for the San Luis Valley in southcentral Colorado for two more years. Intensive field surveys will also be required to evaluate these stocking efforts. �-41- STUDY OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of Hungarian partridges to establish reproducing populations in mixed brushland-wheatland habitat in selected sites in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce Hungarian partridges. 2. Determine presence and dispersal of Huns and success of previous plants. METHODS AND MATERIALS On April 23, 1971, 655 pen raised Hungarian partridges from holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and the Rocky Ford Bird Farm were released at 3 sites in the San Luis Valley. Intensive field searches of all release sites in the San Luis Valley were made by Project personnel during the periods June 7-11, July 14-15, August 2-6, September 13-16, and December 9-11, 1971. Persons living or working in or near the release sites were interviewed and observations were recorded. Reports of Huns from Moffat County were investigated during the period June 29-July 2, 1971. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 summarizes the 1971 field releases of Hungarian partridges. These were made at 3 sites in the San Luis Valley on April 23, 1971, and consisted of a total of 655 Huns. Figure 1 shows a release on 'the Robert Young property northeast of Alamosa, Colorado. Figures 2, 3, and 4 show the map locations and numbers of Huns released in 1971. Table 2 summarizes Hungarian partridge reports and observations from Moffat County during Segment 25. Isolated sightings of 2 to 4 adults were reported in the spring of 1971, indicating only a few have survived in northwestern Colorado. �-42- Table 1. 1/ Hungarian partridge field releases, San Luis Valley, 1971.Number Released Source of Stock April 23, 1971 286 FCWRS (pen raised) Alamosa County, Robert Young farm. Sec. 7, T38N, RIlE. April 23, 1971 200 FCWRS (pen raised) Conejos County, Hot Creek Management Area. Sec. l5~ T35N, R7E. April 23, 1971 169 FCWRS (pen raised) Saguache County, Ernest Stoeber farm. Sec. 32, T4lN, RIOE. Total 655 Date Release Area 1/ - See Job Progress Report for FA Project W-37-R, Work Plan 10, Job 1, April, 1971 for field releases made in Larimer, Moffat·, and Routt counties from 1964 through 1970 and sources of stock. Table 2. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, Moffat County, 1971. Period Number of Huns Area Observed By April-May, 1971 2 (pair) Two miles north of Highway 13 on Milk Creek. G. Hiltoll April, 1971 3 Three miles north of Lay Postoffice. W. Roland April-May, 1971 4 Along Highway 13 on south- G. Hilton west side of Isles Mountain. Several Two miles east of Gossard L. Kendall Ranch release site on Wagner Ranch. Spring, 1971 �I +:- w I Fig. 1. Hungarian partridge release, Robert Young farm, Alamosa County, April 23, 1971. (D. Hoffman photo). �II •• ~2=+-6-4-----",25:"'-"'1,,----30 \ 2. 2. 29 2. ~ 28 ~~ f.. .. i(~ .~ i ~. 3. 32 32 3' II --.,\0_'0 LocatiOn """ ..-ra t;~===Al\ K ~ Hungar10n partrl.dge nl I~. \) I I 1 ~,\ i ~ ---lL~.1.': .,:. ~: of! 3 /~ : i 3!5.36 3. r---f..-------......... L-+----l--L-I F1g. 4. 33 ( 'II "_ \~~¥ ' sed in Saguache County, 1971..\ I I , i' ••• -<"J R9E. A .-- .. - ... ~ ; ~ L A -----.. ...- .... ~ RIOE. M 0 s A �-47- Table 3 summarizes reports and observations in the San Luis Valley following the 1971 field releases. Pairs were formed shortly after releasing from the crates and some remained on or near the release sites selected. Movements of pairs of Huns were also recorded at distances of 4 to 8 miles from the Robert Young and Ernest Stoeber release sites. Pairs released on the Hot Creek Management Unit probably moved less than a mile, based upon field observations. Six broods were observed by Project personnel and another brood was reported by an interested landowner. All broods were on or near the release sites. One nest with 8 eggs was reportedly destroyed by a farmer in farming operations and 1 hatched nest with 12 eggs was observed by Project personnel. This is the highest number of broods and numbers of nests found in anyone year since field releases were started in 1964. Broods began to appear during early August, 1971 and ranged in size from 1 to 14 chicks. In September, the young could no longer be readily distinguished from the adults. Groups of 1 to 6 birds were observed in 2 of the 3 release sites during this period. At least 28 Huns were known to be ranging in the vicinity of the 3 release sites during the period December 9-11, 1971. One flock of 16 was observed 1-1/2 miles west of Hooper, Colorado on December 11, 1971. Tracks of 2 groups of 2 and 4 were observed on the Hot Creek Management Unit during this period and a report of a group of approximately 6 Huns'was secured from the vicinity of one of the Robert Young releases. Prepared by £~JtYi¥~'~ Wildlife Researcher �Table 3. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, San Luis Valley, 1971. Observed By Date Number of Huns Area May, 1971 Several pairs Area from Mosca to U. S. Highway 160 (from R. Young releases) G. East and area residents May, 1971 Several pairs Area from 4 miles west of Hooper to town of Hooper (from E. Stoeber release) E. Stoeber and area residents May 26, 1971 Several R. Young release site R. Young Early June, 1971 1 nest with 8 eggs (destroyed by tractor) E. Stoeber release site E. Stoeber June 8, 1971 4 pair R. Young release site R. Young's hired hand I ~ 00 I June 9, 1971 7 pair and 2 singles Vicinity of Hot Creek Management Area release sites D. Hoffman June 9, 1971 5 pair and 3 singles Vicinity of E. Stoeber release site D. Hoffman, E. Stoeber and sons June 10, 1971 5 pair Vicinity of Hot Creek Management Area release sites D. Hoffman July 15, 1971 2 pair and 3 singles Vicinity of Hot Creek Management Area release sites D. Hoffman August 3, 1971 1 pair with 3 chicks 1 mi. west of E. Stoeber release site C. Grand Pre August 3, 1971 1 pair with 14 chicks 1-1/2 mi. west of E. Stoeber release site C. Grand Pre August 4, 1971 1 pair with 10 chicks 1 mile southwest of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 3. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, Date Number of Huns San Luis Valley, 1971 (continued). Area Observed By August 4, 1971 1 pair Vicinity of second release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 4, 1971 1 pair 1/2 mi. northwest of second release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 4, 1971 1 nest with 12 hatched eggs 1 mile west of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 4, 1971 1 pair with 1 chick 1-1/2 miles west of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 1 pair with 10 chicks 1/2 mi. southwest of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre and W. Schuett August 5, 1971 1 pair 1/4 mi. east of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 1 pair with 3 chicks 1/2 mi. south of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre and R. Clark August 5, 1971 2 pair Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 1 1/2 mi. south of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 3 Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area c. Grand Pre August, 1971 1 pair with 8 chicks Vicinity of Rogers headquarters, southwest of Hooper Rogers September 14, 1971 1 Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area 1 mi. C. Grand Pre ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I .po \0 I �Table 3. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, Date Number of Huns San Luis Valley, 1971 (continued). Area Observed By September 14, 1971 5 1/4 mi. southwest of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre September 14, 1971 1 Vicinity of second release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre September 14, 1971 4 1/4 mi. west of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre September 14, 1971 4 1/4 mi. west of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre September 15, 1971 6 1/2 mi. southwest of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre September 15, 1971 4 1/2 mi. west of second release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre September 15, 1971 1 Vicinity of second re1ease.I'3Lte,R. Young farm C. Grand Pre September 15, 1971 1 1 mi. west of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre December, 1971 1 group of 6 Huns Vicinity of R. Young's south head~ quarters R. Young's hired hand December 11, 1971 Tracks of groups of 2 and 4 Huns Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area D. Hoffman December 11, 1971 1 group of 16 Huns Abandoned farmhouse 1/4 mi. southwest of release site, E. Stoeber farm D. Hoffman , I.n o , �-Sl- April, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-2S Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 10 Job No Job Title Experimental Breeding Period Covered: Personnel: 2 o of Hungarian Partridge April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Lawrence A. Webster, John F. Corey, Robert L. schmidt, George Harrington, Larry R. Crooks, Carroll J. Grand Pre, Donald M. Hoffman and Dr. Harry D. Muller. G. ABSTRACT In a test in which egg production from six pairs of Hungarian partridge breeders fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed was compared with an equal number of pairs fed a similar feed but containing 16 percent protein, results indicated the 22 percent protein was the better of the two based upon total numbers of eggs produced (114 compared to 79), numbers of fertile eggs produced (82 compared to 69) and numbers of chicks hatched (70 compared to 62). Survival for the first seven days was excellent on both levels of feed. Thus, results were opposite those obtained in 1970, when the 16 percent protein level feed appeared to be the better of the two. In another test which compared numbers of fertile eggs produced by three pairs of Huns receiving two extra hours of artificial light in the morning, three pairs receiving two extra hours in the evening, and three pairs receiving no artificial light (controls), it was found that results were similar to tests run in 1970. The artificial lighting resulted in bringing breeder pairs into production earlier than those receiving no artificial lighting but total eggs produced were not increased using the artificial lighting. In a series of tests in which over-winter survival was compared with various bird densities in holding pens during 1970-71, it was found that excellent survival resulted with densities varying from 41.16 square feet of ground space per bird to SOl.24 square feet of ground space per bird. Similar results were obtained in tests completed in March, 1972 with densities varying from 13.0S square feet of gro~nd space per bird to 109.7 square feet of ground space per bird. However, hysteria was observed in a group of 73 Huns held in the pen with (Abstract continued on reverse side) �-52- only 13.05 square feet of ground space per bird from the time they were approximately 7 weeks of age until they were 15 weeks of age. Over-winter survival in this particular group of birds was 100 percent, indicating they become accustomed to the crowded condition, and the hysteria did not result in losses. In comparing total eggs produced by six pairs each of various ages and sources of breeders, it was found that six pairs of 1969-hatched highest producing adults held over from 1970 tests produced the highest number of total eggs (213), followed by 1970-hatched run-of-the-mill pairs (199), and 1970-hatched females of pure Winchester Farms stock crossed with 1970-hatched males from pens three to nine (109). In considering numbers of fertile eggs produced, the 1970-hatched run-of-the-mill pairs with 175 fertile eggs ranked highest, followed by 1969-hatched adults with 160, and 1970-hatched Winchester Farms females crossed with 1970-hatched males from pens three or nine (96). RECOMMENDATIONS Based upon tests results comparing various protein levels in the breeder it is recommended that the standard 22 percent protein game bird breeder be used in the future. feed, feed One year's data have been collected comparing fertile egg production and hatchability of eggs by source and ages of breeders. It is recommended that these selection tests be continued in 1972. Two years' data have been collected in determining over-winter survival Cif Huns in holding pens with various bird densities. Additional tests are needed to compare survival with higher densities of birds than used in tests completed in April, 1971 and March, 1972. With completion of field work connected with a pheasant nesting study, it is recommended that 12 pairs of wing-clipped 1971 hatched breeders be placed in one quadrat and 15 pairs of similar Huns be placed in a second quadrat in April, 1972. This will allow for an evaluation of rearing young Hungarian partridges under semi-natural conditions in these large open topped quadrats. �-53- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE Donald M. Hoffman Total egg production from the 51 pairs of Hungarian partridge breeders in 1971 was 70 eggs higher than the total produced by 52 pairs of breeders in 1970 (1,217 eggs in 1971 compared with 1,147 in 1970). The 530 pen raised Huns released in the San Luis Valley on April 25, 1972, plus 58 extra Huns held for breeders in 1972 tests (total 588) is 67 birds less that the 655 released in 1971. This lower number of young Huns produced for field releases in 1972 resulted from lower percentage hatch of all eggs set (59.65% in 1971, compared with 68.08% in 1970) and lower percentage hatch of fertile eggs set (78.21% in 1971 compared with 81.31% in 1970). P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for Hungarian partridge. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure the effects of 2 levels of protein in the breeder feed (16% versus 22%) on: (a) (b) (c) (d) Egg production Egg fertility Egg hatchabili ty Chick survival for the first 7 days 2. To compare the numbers of fertile eggs produced by breeders subjected to two extra hours of light each 24 hour period during (1) the early morning, and (2) the evening, with breeders receiving no artificial light. 3. To compare the numbers of surviving Huns held overwinter in holding pens with various bird densities. 4. To compare the numbers of fertile eggs, and hatchability of eggs produced by breeders, consisting of: (a) Six pairs of 1969 hatched adults which were the highest producing pairs in 1970. (b) Six pairs of 1970 hatched progeny consisting of Winchester Farms strain females crossed with males from highest producing pairs in 1970 (pen numbers 3 or 9). (c) Six pairs of 1970 hatched progeny consisting of females from a high producing pair in 1970 (pen number 31) crossed with males from highest producing pairs in 1970 (pen numbers 3 or 9). �-54- (d) Six pairs of 1970 hatched progeny consisting of run-of-the-mill females and males (1970 first hatch minus progeny from highest producing pens). METHODS AND MATERIALS The detailed arrangement of the Hungarian partridge breeding pens for 1971 tests is shown in Figure 1. Individual marked birds of desired sources and ages needed for selection tests were placed in separate pens and allowed to choose mates before placing in the various breeding pens. Mated pairs of runof-the-mill Huns were selected and captured in the large holding pens (Fig. 2). Table 1 lists the pen schedule for the various tests run in 1971. One mated pair of Hungarian partridge was used in each pen. Pens 1 through 36 are located in a converted nursery shadehouse with ground floors, and pens 37 through 51 are a separate series of wire floored experimental breeding pens. Protein Levels in Feed Pens 7 through 18 (12 pens) were used to compare the effects of 2 levels of protein in the feed. All females used in this test were from 1970 hatched progeny from highest producing pens 3 or 9 and all males were of pure Winchester Farms stock. Pairs in even numbered pens were fed a standard game bird breeder feed containing 22 percent protein and those in odd numbered pens were fed a similar feed, but containing 16 percent protein. Eggs were marked and placed in separate incubator trays to facilitate determination of fertile eggs produced and numbers of fertile eggs that hatched. Chicks were held separately in the brooder until they were 7 days of age to detect differences in survival. Extra Lighting The wire floored series of pens were again used for extra lighting tests to recheck results obtained in 1970. U. S. Weather Bureau sunrise-sunset tables were again used to determine times when artificial lights were turned on and off. Pens 46-48 (3 pens) were lighted for 2 extra hours in the early mornings and pens 49-51 (3 pens) were lighted for 2 extra hours in the evening. Starting on March 12, 1971, pens 40-42 (3 pens) were used for controls and were not lighted artificially. Sixteen percent protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. All birds used in these tests were 1970 hatched run-of-the-mill stock. Records were maintained of dates of first eggs, numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs laid, and hatchability of eggs. Survi val in Holding Pens Numbers of Huns placed in holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and at the Rocky Ford Game Farm were recorded by dates in 1970 and 1971. An accurate count of birds recovered by pens was made and percentage survival for the 1970-71 and 1971-72 fall and winter periods was calculated. �-55- N IJ v32 33~1.'34 35 11/36 1 ~ 75' 6'4" l' ~ f If) ." Ground':floored Series 3738 39 4041 42 43 4445 46 47 4S ....... 'v_'-- ,l.--_'-- 'v _ 6'4' A- 2 \v _'--\ v_ ,--' ~- 19' Wire-floored Series l- "L..//-----'---i (\J (\J 49 ~ -' 5_' ..L.-..JII (\J en SCALE 8 , I I I 0' 5' 10' 25' A-3 / Q) FIG.I. Oetailed ArranQement of PartridQe /- o -T CD t-- 16' ----0 If----- .l. L-16"----j 48'------ti BreedinQ Pens. HunQarian �-56Covered Shelter 1 Brooder Houses /~ 3 ·0 '" 4 4' 6 f J 4t-8'~ 4 2 N - .' o I() C\I C\I C\I SCALE ~----~ "'15.5 - ~4'.• ----~----~ o ,•... 15.5-1 ---35 ----------I05~-·--- 15 30 -- •I Fig. 2. Hungarian Partridge Holdino Pens, Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station �Table 1. Pen Ntnnber 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Pen schedule for Hungarian partridge, Protein Level 22% 16% x x x x x x T T T T T T T T T T T T x x x x x x x x x x x x 1971. Artificial Light AM PM None Hatch x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 1969(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1969(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970 (1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970 (1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970 (1) 1969(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970 (1) 1969(1) 1970(1) 1970 (1) 1970(1) 1969(1) 1970(1) Source Highest producing adults F-Win; M- 3 or 9 F- 31; M- 3 or 9 Run-of-the-mill Highest producing adults F-Win; M- 3 or 9 F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 3 or 9; M- Win. F- 31; M- 3 or 9 Run-of-the-mill Highest producing adults F- Win; M- 3 or 9 F- 31; M- 3 or 9 Run-of-the-mill Highest producing adults F- Win; M- 3 or 9 F- 31; M- 3 or 9 Run-of-the-mill Highest producing adults F- Win; M- 3 or 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I U1 -....J I �Table 1. Pen schedule for Hungarian partridge, 1971 (continued). Protein Level 16% 22% Number 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Number Pens on Test Key: 6 T = Pen on Test. 6 AM Artificial Light PM None x x x x x x x x x T T T x x x T T T T T T 3 x = Pen not on Test. 3 3 Hatch Source 1970(1) 1970(1) 1969 (1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) 1970(1) F- 31; M- 3 or 9 Run-of-the-mill Highest producing adults F- Win; M- 3 or 9 F- 31; M- 3 or 9 Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill Run-of-the-mill I VI 00 I �-59- Egg Production and Hatchability by Source and Age of Breeders Pens 1-6 and 19-36 (24 pens) were used to measure egg production and hatchability of eggs by various sources and ages of breeders. Six mated pairs each of (1) 1969 hatched highest producing adults held over from 1970 tests, (2) 1970 hatched females from pure Winchester Farms stock crossed with 1970 hatched males from highest producing pens 3 or 9, (3) 1970 hatched females from high producing pen 31 crossed with 1970 hatched males from highest producing pens 3 or 9, and (4) 1970 hatched females and males of run-of-the-mill stock. These were alternated throughout the 24 pens to reduce or eliminate effect of pen position in so far as possible. All pens were fed a standard 16 percent protein game bird breeder feed and were treated alike as much as possible. For comparison purposes, similar data for 6 pens with 1970 hatched females from highest producing pens 3 or 9 and males from pure Winchester Farms stock on 16 percent protein feed in the Protein Levels in Feed Test series were also calculated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Protein Levels in Feed In 1970, a total of 122 more eggs (337 compared with 215) were laid by 12 pairs of breeders on 16 percent protein feed in comparison with 12 pairs on 22 percent protein feed. A total of 135 more fertile eggs (293 compared with 158) were laid by the breeders using 16 percent protein feed in comparison with the 22 percent protein feed. This difference was significant at the P<O.lO level. Table 2 lists a comparison of numbers of eggs produced and percentage hatch of eggs from breeder pairs in 6 pens using a 16 percent protein level game bird breeder feed with 6 pens using a standard 22 percent protein level feed in 1971. A total of 35 more total eggs (114 compared with 79) were laid by the breeders fed the 22 percent protein feed. In addition, 13 more fertile eggs (82 compared with 69) were laid by the breeders on 22 percent protein feed and 70 eggs from pens fed the 22 percent protein feed hatched compared with 62 from the 16 percent protein feed pens. Excellent survival for the first seven days was found for both the 16 and 22 percent level feed chicks (96.77 percent survival for the 16 percent feed, and 98.46 percent survival for the 22 percent feed). These results are listed in Table 3. Results obtained in the protein level tests in 1971 were therefore quite different from the 1970 tests. In 1970 the 16 percent protein level feed was much better than the 22 percent protein level feed and in 1971 the 22 percent protein level feed showed better results than the 16 percent protein level feed. The standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed will be used for all pens in 1972 tests. Extra Lighting A comparison of numbers of eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, hatchability of eggs, and numbers of chicks hatched by 3 pairs of Huns under artificial lights for 2 extra hours in the morning, 3 pairs under 2 extra hours in the evening, and 3 pairs without artificial lighting (controls) is listed in Table 4. Generally, results in 1971 were similar to 1970 tests. �Table 2. Numbers of eggs produced and hatchability protein in the feed, 1971. of eggs laid by Hungarian partridge on two levels of Protein Level Number Pens Number Eggs Produced Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Percent Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs 16% 6 79 10 69 87.34 62 78.48 22% 6 114 32 82 71.92 70 61. 40 Table 3. Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germ Number Culls 89.85 2 5 10 85.36 2 10 23 Survival of Hungarian partridge on two levels of protein in the feed, 1971. , 0- , 0 Protein Level Number Pens Number Chicks Taken to Brooder House or Battery Brooder 16% 6 589 19 570 96.77 22% 6 65 1 64 98.46 Number Chicks Lost First Seven Days Number Chicks Survived Seven Days Percent Survival First Seven Days �Table 4. A comparison of eggs produced by Hungarian partridge pairs receiving two extra hours of light with those receiving no extra light, 1971. 1/ Treatment Number Pens Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Two Extra Hours A.M. 3 70 13 Two Extra Hours P.M. 3 51 Controls 3 77 Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs 57 28 40.00 49.12 - 29 25 25 15 29.41 60.00 2 8 25 52 41 53.24 78.84 - 11 Number Culls 2 (1 unknown) 2 I at-' I 1/ - A 16 percent protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. �-62- More total eggs were laid by the breeder pairs in the 3 pens receiving no extra lighting or controls (77) compared with those receiving 2 extra hours of artificial lighting in the morning (70) and those receiving 2 extra hours in the evening (51). In comparing numbers of fertile eggs laid, the 3 pairs receiving 2 extra hours of lights in the morning were highest (57), followed by the controls (52) and the 2 extra hours of lights in the evening (25). Percentage hatch of fertile eggs was highest for the controls (78.84%) followed by extra lighted pairs in the evening (60.00%), and the extra lighted pairs in the morning (49.12%). Numbers of chicks hatched was highest for the controls (41) followed by extra lighted pairs in the morning (28) and extra lighted pairs in the evening (15). The extra lighting brought the breeding pairs into production earlier than the breeding pairs without artificial lighting. The extra lighting was started on March 12,1971 and the first egg was laid in pen number 48 (lighted for 2 extra hours in the early morning) on April 14, 1971. Thus, 33 days, or approximately 5 weeks were required to stfmulate this hen into laying eggs. The earliest date which breeders without artificial lighting laid in 1971 was April 29, or 15 days after pen number 48 came into production. On May 8, 1971, all 6 of the extra lighted pens were in production and had laid a total of 32 eggs in comparison to no eggs laid by the controls with no extra lighting. Two of the extra lighted pens were in production in mid-April 1971. Early egg production in 1971 proved to be disadvantageous because enough total eggs were not secured for an incubation setting until May 25, 1971. This caused many of the very early eggs to be held in storage too long for good hatchability. Survival in Holding Pens Table 5 lists results of the overwinter survival tests completed in April, 1971. Densities of birds varied from 41.16 square feet of ground space per bird to 501.24 square feet of ground space per bird. Overwinter survival was excellent under all densities tried for holding pens located both at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station (Fig. 2) and Rocky Ford Game Farm (Fig. 3). Similar results were obtained in overwinter survival tests completed in March, 1972 (Table 6). All birds were held in holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. In one group of 73 Huns (4th hatch, 1971) wintered in a holding pen with 953 square feet of ground space (13.05 square feet per bird), overwinter survival was excellent (100 percent). Hysteria was however observed within this group of birds from October 5, 1971 through November, 1971, after which they appeared quite normal. Thus, the hysteria occurred from the time these birds were approximately 7 weeks of age until they were approximately 15 weeks of age. Hysteria was negligible in other densities of birds tested during the period. Poorest overwinter survival in tests completed in March, 1972 occurred in a group of 14 highest producing, 1970 hatched adults held over from 1971 tests. Three females from this group died in the holding pen, resulting in 78.57 percent survival. Percentage survival in all other groups tested was over 90 percent. �Table 5. Survival of Hungarian partridge during fall and winter periods according to various densities of birds and sizes of pens, 1970-71. Pen and Hatch Size (Ft.) Total Sq. Ft. Date Birds Counted into Pen Number Birds In Sq. Ft. / Bird Date Birds Recovered Number Birds Recovered Percent Survival FCWRS A-I, 1969 (Win.) l6x48 768 9-27-70 5 153.60 2-23-71 5 100.00 A-2, A-3 1969 (1) 16x96 1,536 9-27-70 14 109.71 2-23-71 14 100.00 Pens 1 & 2 1970 (3 & 4) 35x240+ 1lxl1 8,521 12-17-70 207 41.16 4-22-71 199 96.13 I 0"1 Vol I Pens 3 & 4 1970 (2) 35x240+ llx11 8,521 9-27-70 17 501. 24 3-1-71 17 100.00 Pens 5 & 6 1970 (1) 35x240+ llx11 8,521 12-17-70 195 43.70 3-1-71 192 98.46 Pen 6 1969 (1) 50x75 3,750 9-28-70 81 46.29 4-22-71 78 96.29 Pens 4(50x75) 15,000 9-28-70 286 52.45 4-22-71 281 98.25 Rocky Ford 3, 5, 7 & 8 1970 (2) �...••. ~~' 4' .""'" ~ . x ~ x 3 10 8 6 4 2 I -- x 5 N -o x 7 12 ~ 9 II T~' .., • I'- I <l' ~ I SCALE ~---------------300' Fig. 3 Holding Pens, Rocky Ford GameFarm ~50~1 o .0· l 100' �Table 6. Survival of Hungarian partridge during fall and winter periods according to various densities of birds and sizes of pens, 1971-72. !/ Pen and Hatch Size (Ft.) Date Birds Total Counted into Age Sq. Ft. Pen (approx.) Number Birds In Sq. Ft./ Bird Date Birds Recovered Numb er Birds Recovered Percent Survival A-I 1969 (1) l6x48 768 9-22-71 Adults (1969 hatch) 12 64.00 3-6-72 11 ~/ 91. 67 A-2, A-3 1970 (1, 2) 16x96 1,536 9-22-71 Adults (1970 hatch) 14 109.71 3-6-72 11 ~/ 78.57 Pens 1 & 2 1971 (2) 35x240+ 8,521 1lxll 9-22-71 10 wks. 198 43.03 3-24-72 192 96.97 I 0'1 VI I Pens 3 & 4 1971 (3) 35x240+ 8,521 1lxl1 9-22-71 8 wks. 201 42.39 3-24-72 193 96.02 Pen 5 1971 (4) 20x35+ 11x11 12x12 953 9-22-71 5 wks. 73 13.05 3-24-72 73 100.00 Pen 6 1971 (1) 35x200 7,000 .9-22-71 13 wks. 136 51.47 3-17-72 132 97.06 North Pen 53x105 5,565 9-22-71 Adults (1970 hatch) 86 64.70 3-2-72 82 95.35 Totals 719 Average 1/ - All Huns were held in holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. 1/on1y females lost in these two groups of birds. 694 96.52 �-66- Egg Production and Hatchability by Source and Age of Breeders Table 7 lists a comparison of eggs produced and hatchability of eggs by Huns of various ages and sources. Highest numbers of total eggs (213) were produced by the 6 pairs of 1969 hatched highest producing adults held over from 1970 tests, followed by 1970 hatched run-of-the-mill pairs (199), and 1970 hatched females from pure Winchester Farms stock crossed with 1970 hatched males from pens 3 or 9 (109). In considering numbers of fertile eggs laid, the 1970 hatched run-of-the-mill pairs were highest (175) followed by 1969 hatched adults (160), and 1970 hatched females from pure Winchester Farms stock crossed with 1970 hatched males from pens 3 or 9 (96). Numbers of chicks hatched ranked in the same order as numbers of fertile eggs produced. Percentage hatch of all eggs was highest (78.48%) for the 6 pairs of females from pens 3 or 9 crossed with males from pure Winchester Farms stock, followed by 6 pairs of run-of-the-mill stock (71.85%) and 6 pairs of highest producing adults held over from 1970 tests (62.91%). Percentage hatch of fertile eggs was highest (89.86%) for the 6 pairs of females from pens 3 or 9 crossed with males from pure Winchester Farms stock. The next highest percentage hatch of fertile eggs (83.75%) occurred with the 6 pairs of highest producing adults held over from 1970 tests, followed by 6 pairs of run-of-the-mill pairs (81.71%) and 6 pairs of females from pen 31 crossed with males from pens 3 or 9 (77.55%). These results showed the value of holding exceptionally high producing pairs for an additional year's production, considering numbers of fertile eggs laid and hatchability. Additional tests will be made in 1972 to compare the third year's production with the second and first years production. Results of the first year's selection tests were somewhat disappointing but additional tests will be required before the value of selection can be fully evaluated. Prepared by tb:1.(rrL~~ Wildlife Researcher �Table 7. A comparison of eggs produced by Huns of various ages and sources, 1971.1/ Number Eggs Laid Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls Source Hatch No. of Pens Highest Producing Adults 1969 (1) 6 213 53 160 134 62.91 83.75 1 25 3 F-Win. M-3 or 9 1970 (1) 6 109 13 96 63 57.79 65.62 1 32 1 F-31 M-3 or 9 1970 (1) 6 73 24 49 38 52.05 77 .55 - 11 4 I 0\ ......s I Run-ofthe-mil1 1970 (1) 6 199 23 175 143 71.85 81.71 5 27 F- 3 or 9 M- Win. 1970 (1) 6 79 10 69 62 78.48 89.86 2 5 1/ - A 16 percent protein game bird breeder feed was used in all pens. 9 (1 unknown) 10 �I 0\ 00 I Fig. 4. A group of lO-day old Hungarian partridge chicks explore a rearing pen at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. (D. Hoffman photo). �-69April, JOB PROGRESS S tate of 1972 REPORT --=.CO:::.;L=..O:::.;RA=D:..:O:....._ Game Bird Survey W-37-R-25 Project No. 10 Job No. 12 Relationships of the Productivity and Distribution of Wild Turkeys on the Uncompahgre Plateau to the Environment Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 P.S. OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the size, distribution and productivity population on the Uncompahgre Plateau. of the wild turkey 2. Record movements of wild turkeys and determine affect these movements. 3. Determine the sex and age structure of the turkey kill on the Uncompahgre Plateau to provide estimates of total harvest and size of the turkey population. 4. Determine the vegetative types present on the wild turkey summer and winter range and the species composition and abundance of food producing species within each type. Also determine the elevation, describe topography and record certain climatic factors on part of the better turkey summer and winter range. how environmental factors SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile, analyze, summarize and publish information. Progress Field work was completed on October 20, 1967. All data have been summarized, and most data have been analyzed. A manuscript containing these data and results from Work Plan 12, Job 14 is being edited and revised at this time. Future Plans The manuscript should be completed been completed. Prepared in Segment 26. !?:-L~~:::.::::.==" :::-- __ bY_ct~/.;:;....:::~~~~--=, Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research Publication plans have not ��-71April, JOB PROGRESS S ta te of Project Work REPORT C.=.O::..:L=..O::..:RAD=::..;O=--_ Game Bird Survey W-37-R-2S No. Job Title Use of Food Plots Covered: April 14 Job No. 12 Plan No. Period 19'72 1, 1971 to March to Concentrate Wild Turkeys 31, 1972 P.S. OBJECTIVE Determine the effects wild turkeys. of small food plots SEGMENT To compile, analyze, summarize on fall concentrations and harvest of OBJECTIVE and publish information. Progress Field work was completed December 2, 1968. Data were analyzed, written up and incorporated in a manuscript containing information gathered under W-37-R Work Plan 12, Job 10. Due to changes in work assignments of personnel, the final product has been delayed but the manuscript is being edited and revised at present. Future The manuscript completed. will be completed Plans in Segment 26. Publication - .._---_ .._------ Prepared irulI~[)~lA~~~._ by:.----.:L::::.....:::.!.·/~/ Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research plans have not been ---_ ... __ ._---_._ ... _----- ��-73..., April, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO State of Project No. W-37-R-25 Work plan No. 15 Job Title Job No. 2 Study of Mountain Quail Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Ronald B. Arant, Tom W. Barnes, Dwight E. Owens and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT No additional field releases of mountain quail have been made in Colorado since June, 1970. A small covey of eight mountain quail was located approximately two miles northeast of Gateway, Colorado by Wildlife Conservation Officer Dwight Owens (ltr. D. Owens to J. Grieb, 1/18/72). The location of these mountain quail was reported in early December, 1971 by late season deer hunters. ��-75- STUDY OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of mountain quail to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed shrub and pine in selected sites in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Introduce mountain quail. 2. Determine presence and dispersal of mountain quail. METHODS AND MATERIALS An inquiry was made in July, 1971 (pers. comm. D. Hoffman to R. Arant) to determine whether any new leads on locatio~s of mountain quail on the Uncompahgre Plateau had been received sIncc Segment 24. A negative reply was received on July 21, 1971. With no new leads secured from western Colorado, time scheduled for field searching for mountain quail was used for inventory work concerned with Hungarian partridge releases. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 372 wild-trapped and 25 pen-raised mountain quail (total 397) have been released in Mesa County on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau since 1965. The last field release was made in June, 1970 and consisted of 25 surplus pen raised mountain quail from the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. In early December, 1971, late season deer hunters reported seeing chukar partridges with topknots in an area approximately 2 miles northeast of Gateway, Colorado to Wildlife Conservation Officer Dwight Owens. A small covey of 8 mountain quail were later found by Dwight Owens (ltr. D. Owens to J. Grieb, 1/18/72). This is the first sighting of mountain quail since December, 1969 when approximately 20 were observed on the South Fork of Mesa Creek by Conservation Aide Tom Barnes. �-76- Within their native ranges, mountain quail that summer at higher elevations frequently migrate to lower levels in winter. Whether this has been the case with the last 2 observations is not known at this time. Prepared by ~~>rz~~ Don~offman: Wildlife Researcher �-77April, JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-25 Work Plan No. Job Title Personnel: REPORT Game Bird Survey 15 3 Job No. Experimental Period Covered: 1972 Breeding of Mountain Quail April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Lawrence A. Webster, John F. Corey, Robert L. Schmidt, Harrington, Larry R. Crooks and Donald M. Hoffman. George G. ABSTRACT Good success was experienced with the experimental propagation of mountain quail in 1971 with 344 eggs laid (culls excluded), of which 209 were fertile. A total of 173 good chicks were hatched from these eggs. A total of 28 breeders (18 hens and 10 cocks) were used in four pairs (1 hen and 1 cock), four trios (2 hens and 1 cock), and two quads (3 hens and 1 cock) in ten separate pens on test in 1971. The sorting of breeders in early February, 1971 and disturbing the breeders as little as possible appeared to be of considerable value in securing egg production. In a test to compare egg production by various sex ratios of breeders, numbers of fertile eggs laid per hen was highest with the trios (12.50) followed by the quads (11.00) and pairs (10.75). The best hatching of fertile eggs occurred with the trios (92.00%) compared with 83.72 percent for the pairs and 72.72 percent for the quads. Numbers of chicks hatched was also highest for the trios. The clipping of the flight feathers on both wings of breeders in half of the pens calmed these easily stressed birds considerably but also resulted in 20.34 percent fewer fertile eggs being produced (94 for the five pens with clipped flight feathers compared to 118 for the five pens with normal wings). Excellent survival was experienced with the first three hatches for the first seven days (average 94.80%) and good survival was experienced for the first 30 days (average 83.24%) during 1971. No birds were hatched in a fourth setting of 13 eggs. Over-winter survival in pens with various bird densities and ages ranged from 86.67 percent in a holding pen with 26.40 square feet of ground space per bird containing 60 1971-hatched quail to 100 .•00 percent in a holding pen with 144.00 square feet of ground space per bird containing 11 1971-hatched quail. The average over-winter survival was 91.62 percent for the five groups of mountain quail on test. �-78- RECOMMENDATIONS An unanswered_question in mountain quail propagation is whether it is possible to secure egg production from young of the previous year. A test to determine this is recommended for 1972. A test to determine the value of providing 2 extra hours of lighting in the early morning hours on total and fertile egg production is planned for 1972. In addition, tests to compare survival of mountain quail in holding pens containing various bird densities, started in 1971, are recommended for continuation in 1972. �-79- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL Donald M. Hoffman Total egg production (culls excluded) from the 28 mountain quail breeders (18 hens and 10 cocks) was 344 compared with only 1 infertile egg laid by 32 breeders of mixed sexes in 1970. A total of 173 good chicks were hatched from the eggs in 1971. Eighty seven surplus mountain quail were released on the Spanish Peaks Management Area in Las Animas County on April 15, 1972 and 66 were held for breeders for the 1972 test series. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for mountain quail. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To measure the relationship of pair mating versus group matings of 2 hens and 1 cock and 3 hens and 1 cock to fertile egg production. METHODS AND MATERIALS Fertile Egg Production by Various Sex Ratios A new set of 10 experimental breeding pens was completed in April, 1970 (Fig. 1). Table 1 lists the pen schedule for mountain quail for 1971 tests. Pairs (1 hen and 1 cock) were placed in pens 1, 5, 7, and 9; trios (2 hens and 1 cock) were placed in pens 2, 4, 6, and 10; and quads (3 hens and 1 cock) were placed in pens 3 and 8 on February 9, 1971. All breeders were fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed from March 6, 1971 until removed from the breeder pens on July 23, 1971. Primaries and secondaries of both wings were clipped on all breeders in pens 4, 5, 8, 9, and 10. All birds were 1969-hatched or older and all but 4 were pen-raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. The 4 were wild trapped mountain quail received from Oregon in January, 1970. All pens were fed and watered only twice a week and eggs were collected at these times to reduce the disturbance factor. Eggs laid were marked with the date collected and pen number to facilitate determination of total eggs laid, fertile eggs laid, and numbers of chicks hatched by pens. Adequate cover in the form of growing clumps of tall wheatgrass were planted in April, 1970. Perches were installed in the spring of 1971 on the advice of a successful game bird breeder in California. �-80- N· 30'---"- JE---- ~ 1E----12'--~ 12 - 0 CD '\ ex> ~ . - \ m SCALE 8 Fig. 1. Ootall.d ArranGement of Moulttaln .I t I. ·0' 5' 10' 0"011 Broadlng Pent. �-81- Table l. Pen schedule for1ll.ountainquail, 1971. Pen Number Pairs (1 Hen & 1 Cock) 1 T Trios 2 Hens & 1 Cock) T 2 T 3 T* 4 T* 5 T 6 T 7 8 T* 9 T* T* 10 Number of Pens on Test Key: QuadruElets 3 Hens & 1 Cock 4 4 2 T = Pen on test. * = Primaries will be clipped on both wings. Survival Tests Although not specifically written as planned tests for 1971, records of survival of chicks for the first 7 and 30 day periods and for overwinter survival in holding pens were maintained. Numbers of day old mountain quail placed in the brooder houses after removal from the hatcher were recorded and losses experienced were marked on brooder house cards with causes of death when this could be determined. Young removed were also recorded and percentage survival calculated. Figure 2 shows a group of 12-day old mountain quail at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Birds counted into holding pens (Figs. 3 and 4) in either July, 1971 (adult breeders) or in September, 1971 (1971-hatched young) were recorded. Birds recovered in March and April, 1972 were also recorded and survival rates calculated. �I 00 tv I Fig. 2. A group of 12-day old mountain quail chicks leave a brooder house at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. (D. Hoffman photo). �-83., ',1 " ,,. " -> .. ! '.' -.- 10' ~4.!lI 9 8 N "~i ... :: 7 -•.... N SCALE '7---"---' Jt------- O' 30' 5' F 16. 3. MOUNTAlN QUAIL H'OLDING PENS, WEST SECTION 10' �( -84- I I( 1E-8'~ f -. 20' zj E-- 8'---7f~ I ·co N ! I " 1 5 I 3 I 1 \ 6 4 2 . -co It) Stole: o GO' ----------------~ F1g.4. Mountain Ouoll Ho l d in q Pens, EAST SEOTION ,": 15 ft. 15 30 �-85- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fertile Egg Production by Various Sex Ratios Due to the extreme difficulty in sexing mountain quail by external characteristics, it is possible that errors in the sex ratios of pens 6 and 8 were made. In each case, one or more birds originally called hens may actually have been cocks. Birds were not sacrificed for examination of internal organs. Table 2 lists a comparison of eggs produced and hatched by mountain quail in pens with 3 different sex ratios of breeders. Because numbers of hens varied, numbers of total eggs and numbers of fertile eggs per hen were calculated. Highest numbers of fertile eggs per hen were produced by the trios (12.50) followed by the quads (11.00) and pairs (10.75). The best hatch of fertile eggs occurred with the trios (92.00%), compared with 83.72 percent for the pairs and 72.72 percent for the quads. Numbers of chicks hatched was highest for the trios (92 chicks). Based upon these comparisons, it appears that trios (2 hens and 1 cock) produced better than either pairs (1 hen and 1 cock) or quads (3 hens and 1 cock). In comparing numbers of fertile eggs produced by 5 pens of breeders with clipped flight feathers on both wings with an equal number of pens and breeders with normal wings, the pens of breeders with normal wings produced 118 fertile eggs compared with 94 (20.34% less) for the pens of breeders with clipped wings. Thus the advantage of considerably calming the breeders down must be weighed with the disadvantage of fewer fertile eggs being produced. Table 3 lists information relating to the 4 separate settings made in the automatic forced air incubators. Of 344 eggs set, 135 were infertile, 25 were dead germs, 8 pipped but did not hatch, 3 produced cripples, and 173 produced good chicks. About half (51.16%) of the total eggs set hatched and 84.21 percent of the fertile eggs hatched. Hatchability of the last setting of 13 eggs was zero with 11 being infertile and 2 dead germs. Survival Tests Table 4 lists survival percentages of mountain quail by separate hatches in 1971. Excellent survival was experienced for the first 7 days (average 94.80%), and good survival was experienced through the first 30 days (average 83.24%). A number of young mountain quail from the first hatch developed sore eyes, apparently from faulty brooding procedures. Eight of the total of 44 chicks taken to the brood from this hatch were lost due to total blindness and 2 additional were lost from other causes. Brooding procedures were corrected for the second and third hatches and no further losses from this cause were experienced. �Table 2. A comparison of eggs produced and hatched by mountain quail in pens with various sex ratios, 1971. Sex Ratio 1H:1C (pairs) Pen Number Number Good Eggs Laid 1 5* 7 9* 40 35 6 17 Sub-total 2H:1C (trios) 98 -2 4* 6 10* 3H:1C (quads) 3 8* 24.50 17.75 89 15 Sub-total 104 TOTAL 344 AVERAGE Hen 36 28 0 78 142 Sub-total No.1 17.33 19.11 *Primaries on both wings clipped. Number Infertile Eggs Number Fertile Eggs 10 35 6 4 55 43 3 22 0 17 33 6 0 61 42 100 37 1 52 14 38 66 135 209 Number Hatched Percent Hatch All Eggs Percent Hatch Fertile Eggs 30 24 60.00 80.00 a a a - - 0 12 70.58 36 No.1 Hen 13 10.75 12.50 11.00 Number Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 92.30 - 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 36.73 83.72 3 4 6 30 6 0 56 83.33 21.42 90.90 100.00 a 91.80 2 0 0 2 a 71. 79 1 0 0 3 00 0' 4 I 92 64.78 92.00 4 4 9 37 11 41.57 73.33 71.15 78.57 1 a 14 3 8 1 48 46.15 72.72 1 17 9 25 24 - - - 8 176 11.61 51.16 84.21 5 I �Table 3. Mountain quail hatches, 1971. Hatch Number Date and Time Set Number Set 1 5-10-71 6:00 PM 93 6-5-71 11:00 AM 44 1 6 38 4 48.38 83.33 2 6-2-71 11:00 PM 111 6-28-71 11:00 AM 58 1 5 46 1 53.15 90.76 3 6-23-71 11: 49 PM 127 7-19-71 10:00 AM 71 1 12 40 3 56.69 82.75 Date and Time to Brooder Hatched Cripples Good Chicks DG's Not Hatched Inf. Pipped Percent Hatched Fertile Eggs Total Eggs I 00 " I 4 TOTAL AVERAGE 7-17-71 2:00 AM 13 344 8-12-71 Hatch Terminated 0 0 2 11 0 173 3 25 135 8 0.00 0.00 51.16 84.21 �Table 4. Survival of young mountain quail, 1971. Hatch Number Date Number to Brooder 1 6-5-71 2 % Survival Number Surviving 7-Days Date Number % Survival 7-Days Number Surviving 30-Days Number Date 44 1./ 6-12-71 41 93.18 7-5-71 34 77 .27 6-28-71 58 7-5-71 55 94.82 7-28-71 49 84.48 3 7-19-71 71 7-26-71 68 95.77 8-19-71 61 85.91 4 8-12-71 0 30-Days I 00 00 TOTAL 173 94.80 AVERAGE 1/ A number of young from this hatch developed were lost due to blindness. I 144 164 sore eyes from faulty brooding methods. This was corrected in the brooding of later hatches. 83.24 Eight out of 10 listed �-89- Table 5 lists survival of mountain quail during the fall and winter periods while held in holding pens with various densities and ages of birds. Survival ranged from 86.67 percent in a pen with 26.40 square feet of ground space per bird containing 60 1971-hatched mountain quail to 100.00 percent in a pen with 144.00 square feet of ground space per bird containing 11 1971-hatched mountain quail. The average overwinter survival was 91.62 percent for 5 groups of mountain quail. Densities of birds tested,of from a low of 144.00 to a high of 20.57 square feet of ground space per bird in holding pens overwinter were evidently not high enough to affect overwinter survival rates of mountain quail, based upon data gathered. Total numbers of birds held in holding pens may affect survival rates of mountain quail to a greater extent than the amount of ground space per bird which is provided. Prepared by Wildlife Researcher �Table 5. Survival of mountain sizes of pens, 1971-72. quail during fall and winter periods by various densities of birds and Date Birds Released in Pen No. of Birds Sq. Ft.1 Bird Date Birds Recovered No. of Birds Recovered Percent Survival Pen and Hatch 1/ Size (Ft. ) Total Sq. Ft. 1 & 2 1971-2 2Ox76+ 8x8 1584 9-22-71 11 144.00 3-7-72 11 100.00 3 & 4 1971-3 2Ox76+ 8x8 1584 9-22-71 60 26.40 4-14-72 52 86.67 5 & 6 -- 2Ox76+ 8x8 1584 -- 0 -- -- 0 I \0 0 7 (adult breeders) lOx 72 720 7-23-71 29 24.83 3-7-72 27 93.10 8 1971-2 lOx 72 720 9-22-71 35 20.57 3-7-72 34 97.14 9 1971-1 lOx 72 720 9-22-71 32 22.50 3-7-72 29 90.63 TOTALS AVERAGE 11 - See Figures 2 and 3. 167 153 91.62 I �-91- April, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-25 Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Continued Period Covered: Personnel: G?me Bird Survey 2 Job No. Inventory of Selected Ptarmigan Populations April 1, 1971 to October 15, 1971 C1ait E. Braun and Terry A. May. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus 1eucurus) populations in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1971 with major emphasis in ascertaining population levels and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding densities decreased slightly (1.4 birds per square mile) at Rocky Mountain National Park, and significantly (4.7 birds per square mile) at Crown Point, and increased significantly at both Mt. Evans and Independence Pass (5.8 and 10.7 birds per square mile, respectively). The decrease at Crown Point was related to heavy hunter harvest in 1970 and poor recruitment of immature birds. The significant increases at Mt. Evans and Independence Pass were the result of no or little harvest in 1970 and good recruitment of immature birds into the 1971 breeding populations. Weather during periods of egg deposition and incubation in 1971 was warm and dry, and nesting success ranged from about 50 to 65 percent. Survival of chicks to September 1 was similar to most previous years studied, and was 4.3 chicks per successful female. Present data continue to indicate that nesting success and production are closely related to amount of precipitation and number of frost-free nights in June. ��-93- CONTINUED INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS Clait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. The initial 5 years of research on this grouse have been previously reported by Braun and Rogers (1971). This report presents data collected during the second year of the last 5-year segment. Data collected during the initial year of the second 5-year segment were presented by Braun (1971). P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1) populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic, and (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June of the same year. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in four study areas (Mt. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, and Rocky Mountain National Park) • 2. To estimate 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlations between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. To compile nesting success data and prepare METHODS and production progress in the above areas. report. AND MATERIALS Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work Plan 17, Job 1, and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971), and updated by Braun (1971). In 1971, white bandettes with black numerals were used to mark all newly banded birds and those whose older bandettes had become too worn for individual recognition. Weather data were obtained from the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for reasons previously explained (Braun 1971). �-94- Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding population densities, 1966-71. Birds Per Sg,uare Mile 1968 1969 1970 Study Area 1966 1967 1971 Rocky Mountain National Park 29.0 25.2 29.4 30.8 24.8 23.4 Crown Point 14.5 21.2 18.1 14.5 10.4 5.7 Mt. Evans 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.2 11.0 Independence Pass 18.7 18.7 18.7 17.9 10.7 21.4 Breeding population levels in Rocky Mountain National Park have remained markedly stable over the 6-year period studied, varying about seven birds per square mile. At Crown Point, the trend in breeding population is steadily downward, apparently partially because of increased hunter activity at this site coupled with poor production. At Mt. Evans, breeding populations were at low levels when the study was initiated, with no increase being recorded until after the experimental closure of the area to hunting in 1970. The situation at Independence Pass remained stable until 1970, when after 2 successive years of heavy hunter harvests, the breeding population significantly decreased. Hunting at this site was very poor in the fall of 1970 (Braun 1971), and the population rebounded after only 1 year. Although nesting success and production were average or better on all areas in 1970 (Braun 1971), recruitment of subadult birds into the breeding population was good only at Independence Pass and Mt. Evans in 1971. Reasons for the low recruitment of subadult birds at Rocky Mountain National Park and Crown Point are not known. Nesting Success and Production As in most previous years, nesting activities were initiated on all areas between June 10 and June 20, with events at Mt. Evans slightly earlier than those at the other areas. Weather conditions during June were similar to those experienced in 1970, although existing snowfields were much more extensive in 1971. No major snowstorms were recorded after June 1. Estimated peak of hatching in 1971 was between July 13 and July 17. While nesting success was anticipated to be good in 1971, only 20 different successful females were observed on the study areas, while 12 unsuccessful females were observed. This compares with 27 successful females and 5 unsuccessful females observed in 1970. Estimated nesting success was 65 percent in Rocky Mountain National Park, > 50 percent at Mt. Evans, and about 50 percent at Independence Pass. Due to the removal experiment at Crown Point (WP 17, J3) no hens were observed after the breeding period. Initial brood size in 1971 upon hatching was about seven chicks, although no nests were located. By early August this number had decreased to about 4.5, �-95- DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Areas intensively investigated have been described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and have been presented by Braun (1971). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on May 6 in Rocky Mountain National Park, with few males being observed on known territories. Due to heavy snow accumulations in subalpine areas, breeding surveys were not initiated until May 14 at Mt. Evans, June 2 at Crown Point, and June 13 at Independence Pass. Most pairing was completed at Rocky Mountain National Park and Mt. Evans by May 20, and by at least June 1 at Crown Point and Independence Pass. Timing of breeding events in 1971 was later than in 1970 and resembled that observed in 1967 and 1968. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Table 1. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding population denSities, all areas, 1971. Square Miles No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Birds Total Breeding Season Population Birds per Square Mile Tombstone RidgeSundance Mtn. 1.25 8 3 19 15.2 Toll Memorial .19 4 3 11 57.9 Fall River Pass .70 8 4 20 28.6 Total RMNP 2.14 20 10 50 23.4 Crown Point 1.93 4 3 11 5.7 Mt. Evans 1.54 6 5 17 11.0 Independence Pass 1.12 10 4 24 21.4 Study Area Rocky Mountain National Park Breeding densities at Independence Pass and Mt. Evans increased significantly over 1970 levels while the density at Crown Point continued to decline. Numbers of breeding birds observed at Rocky Mountain National Park were essentially unchanged from those recorded in 1970 (Table 2). �-96- with average brood size to September 1 of about 4.2 chicks per successful female (Table 3). This is approximately the same number of chicks per successful female observed in all other years except 1969. Table 3. Number of broods and average brood size, all areas, 1971. 11 Date Number of Broods Observed Average Number of Chicks per Brood July 1-15 0 0 July 16-31 1 7 August 1-15 8 4.5 August 16-31 16 4.2 September 1-30 4 4.0 Total 29 4.3 Average 1./ Only distinct broods are included. Fall Densities Estimates of densities of white-tailed ptarmigan on September 1, while useful in illustrating population gain through production, are difficult to accurately derive due to a number of variables. Estimated fall densities for each area studied are presented in Table 4. These densities were calculated following the three basic assumptions discussed in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Data presented in Table 4 generally depict the situation at all areas. In 1971, all alpine areas of the State were open to ptarmigan hunting from September 11 through September 30, except in southern and southwestern Colorado, where the season was open from September 11 through October 11. Thus, the Crown Point area was open from September 11 through September 30, while the Independence Pass area was open from September 11 through October 11. No ptarmigan hunting was allowed during any of the early big game seasons, and the area ~ mile on either side of the Mt. Evans highway remained closed for the second year to all grouse hunting. Bag and possession limits for ptarmigan alone were 3 and 6. During and following the hunting season no ptarmigan bands were received from Mt. Evans or Crown Point, indicating that the closure at Mt. Evans and the removal experiment (WP 17, J3) at Crown Point were successful. �-97A minimum of 18 birds, of which 7 were banded, were harvested at Independence Pass in 1971. The seven banded birds harvested represented about 17 percent of the 41 banded birds available to hunters. Relationships of Weather:Nesting Success and Production Weather data obtained from the 12,300 level of Niwot Ridge, through the courtesy of INSTAAR for 1971 are presented in Table 5. Detailed analysis and statistical correlations will be completed for the final report in 1975-76. The close correlation between June weather conditions and ptarmigan nesting success and production previously suggested continued in 1971. In general, weather conditions were warm and dry in June and July 1971, and nesting success and production were similar to 1970 when weather conditions were similar, and better than 1969 when the early summer weather was colder and wetter. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1971. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp 91-106. ______ ~' and G. E. Rogers. 1971. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. a~U~· The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Tech. Pub1. No. 27:80 pp. Prepared by _ ••• r~,_~...;;....,. C1ait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ Colo. �Table 4. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed ptarmigan, 1971. Estimated Percent Nesting Success Average Brood Size on September 1 Total Production Total Breeding Population Total Population on September 1 Birds Per Square Mile Percent Gain Ro cky Moun tain National Park 65 4.4 57 50 102 52.3 55.9 Crown Point o 1:../ 0 0 11 0 0 0 Mt. Evans 50 3.0 9 17 24 15.6 37.5 Independence Pass 50 4.5 22 24 44 38.4 50.0 . Area I 1:../ \0 00 Due to experiment conducted under WP17, J3. Table 5. I Weather data, Niwot Ridge, 12,300 ft., May-July, 1971. Number Days Minimum Temperature Less than 32° F Ppt/Month (Inches) Number Days Relative Humidity 90 or Above Average Winds peed/ Month (mph) Month Max. Min. Mean Dail~ Max. Min. May 50°F 7°F 34.70F 20.7°F 31 3.04 19 12.9 June 61°F 22°F 49.loF 35.loF 12 0.39 12 12.8 July 63°F 33°F 53.6°F 39.20F 0 2.43 15 9.5 �-99- April, JOB PROGRESS S ta te of Project 1972 REPORT _=C;.::o:.=L;.::o~RAD=_=O~ _ No. W-37-R-25 Work Plan No. Game Bird Survey Job No. Job Title Experimental Removal Period 1, 1971 to September Covered: Personnel: April of a Breeding Population 3 of White-tailed Ptarmigan 30, 1971 Clait E. Braun and Terry A. May. ABSTRACT All known white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) occupying the Crown Point study area were removed in early June, 1971. This involved nine birds, six males, and three females. Locations of all birds were recorded and all males (5) that had been banded previously on the study area (1967-69) were on the same territories where initially banded. Data on vegetative composition of the study area collected in 1967-68 are presented for descriptive purposes. ��-101- EXPERIMENTAL REMOVAL OF A BREEDING POPULATION OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Clait E. Braun Management of wild animals is dependent upon knowledge about population levels, reproductive capacity and success, survival and mortality rates, and habitat requirments. Without adequate habitat for any given species there would be no need to investigate other aspects of the biology of a given animal. In addition to knowledge about the particular habitat requirments of a species knowledge must also be available on the pioneering abilities of a species and age of pioneers. During preliminary descriptive studies of white-tailed ptarmigan from 1965-69 (Braun and Rogers 1971) all study areas were vegetatively mapped. This work was reported by Braun (197lb). Analyses of ptarmigan movements in relation to vegetative communities revealed that ptarmigan seek and utilize certain areas depending upon season and that the same patterns prevailed throughout the alpine areas of ,Colorado (Braun 1969). Since number of breeding territories controls breeding densities, potential productivity, and fall densities, an experiment was designed to investigate the exact requirments for breeding territories. Crown Point was chosen as the site for the experiment, as it is somewhat isolated from adjacent alpine areas, thus reducing the possibility of ingress between the breeding period and the early fall. This area had been studied from 1966-70 (Braun and Rogers 1971; Braun 1971a), and locations of all previously occupied territories were known. Additionally, hunters removed about 50 percent of the fall population in 1970 (Braun 1971a), and it was anticipated that the population would be low in the spring of 1971. This would reduce the number of birds to be removed. This study was initiated in 1971 and is scheduled to terminate in 1974-75. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1) ptarmigan select sites for breeding territories which contain readily available bushes of Salix spp. (> 10 em. in height) and snowfree locations, (2) immature birds initially pioneer new or empty habitats, and (3) number of occupied territories is affected by age class of male ptarmigan. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To remove the breeding population of ptarmigan from the established Crown Point study area. 2. To map occupied breeding territories at Crown Point prior to removal of breeding birds. 3. To obtain blood samples from all birds removed for eventual establishment of blood parameters for resident and pioneering ptarmigan. �102- 4. To compile data and prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ptarmigan were located during the breeding season through use of taperecorded male challenge calls as described by Braun et al. (1973). Once birds were located they were shot with a .410 shotgun. Immediately after death, blood from each bird was obtained, labeled, and placed on ice for transport to the laboratory where it was centrifuged and frozen. All blood samples were transferr~d to .the University of Alberta for examination of blood serum proteins through starch gel electrophoresis. Location of all birds removed were plotted on standard U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps. The area was systematically surveyed five times in 1971, with both male challenge and chick distress calls following procedures described by Braun et al. (1973), but additional birds were not found after the initial removals. All vegetation mapping was accomplished in 1967-68 following procedures outlined by KUchler (1955). DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA This area was described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and will be redescribed in the final report. Extent of the area investigated is shown in Figure 1. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Removal During the removal period, a total of nine birds were located and removed. This total was comprised of six males and three females. Age of the birds was as follows: 6+ = 1 bird 4+ = 1 bird 4- = 1 bird 3- :z: 3 birds 2+ == 1 bird 2 birds 1Although a total of five searches were made of the area, no other birds were located. It is possible that some birds were missed, but this number could not have exceeded two. For practical puposes, the area was considered to be completely void of ptarmigan from early June until late September. Hunters reported killing no ptarmigan in the Crown Point area in the fall of 1971. Location of Breeding Territories Six of the nine birds] ocated and removed were previously banded. Five of these birds were males and all were on the same territories they occupied in �-103- "~""'.~' ~ , /~ 00 .. .' 10600 ··.X "', ... ; .;::, : . '" ,~, Bd.l, /;~ " j \' ,0 , ,; g, I! " i I I/ point,: , •.\ i:::; I I : / \ J I , ",''/: ~ .- / ,,' I I I ~ " 7' ! ) -, CROWN AREA COLORADO H o POINT t - Study Area Boundary SCALE 'N MILES 1/2 ' Mile Ee=+3==~==e==3~~==~~~~==Ee==3==~==Ee=+3==~~ / Fig. 1. Crown Point study area (X's mark occupied \ breeding territories 1971). �-104- 1970. One male was on the same territory where initially located in 1967, while the other four males were on the same territories where initially banded in 1968 (1) and 1969 (3). Location of all territories occupied are marked on Figure 1. Description of Breeding Territories The vegetative description of the Crown Point area is given in Fig. 2 and Table 1. All vegetative mapping was a.ccomplished during 1967-68 under Work Plan 17, Job 1. Blood Parameter Examination Blood samples from the nine birds collected were sent to the University of Alberta for Examination. No results have been received or are necessary until samples are available from pioneering birds. It is possible that the results from blood testing will be negative, due to small sample size and insufficient knowledge about blood proteins in ptarmigan and grouse in general. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 189 pp, 1971a. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp. 91-106. _____ • 1971b. Habitat requirments of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. Proc. , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. ----Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. No. 27:80 pp. , R. K. Schmidt, Jr., and G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado whitetailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded calls. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 37(1): in press. K~chler, A. W. 1955. A comprehensive method of mapping vegetation. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 45:404-415. Prepared by Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher Ann. �-104- a Fig. 2. Vegetation units, Crown Point.' C-l Salix-~-Carex Alpine Meadow C-2 !2!-Carex Alpine Meadow C-3 Picea-Salix Krummholz C-4 Salix-Poa Alpfne Meadow C-5 Trifo1ium-~-Sa1ix C-6 Trifolium-Poa Alpine Meadow C-7 Silene-Trifolium-Carex-Poa C-8 Dryas-Picea-Sa1ix C-9 Dryas Turf C-lO Pinus-Carex Krummholz C-ll Carex Subalpine Headow C-l2 Dryas-Pinus Subalpine Meadow C-13 Sibba1di~ Sn0W Accl_l1J1,-,l~tf(ll1 Ar::~::1 C-l4 Salix-Poa-Betu1a C-l5 Sa1ix-Picea-Trifolium-Poa C-l6 Artemisia-Trifolium . Alpine Meadow Fellfield Rock Krummholz Alpine Meadow Krummholz Snow Accumulation Area �CROWN POINT I I-' o V1 I '. SCALE IN MILES I 1/2 £3~:=:EE.=== F{ __ 0 �-106- Table 1. Description of vegetation units, Crown Point. UNIT C-1 DESCRIPTION Sa Hx-Poa-Ca'rex Alpine Meadow: Salix spp , and Poa spp. each co;prise 5-25 percent of the total coverag;:-with Carex spp. accounting for at least 20 percent of the total cover. Shrubs are less than 1 m in height, with herbaceous vegetation being less than 1/2 m tall. Plant density is primarily continuous. Rocks cover at least 5 25 percent of the areap with small areas approaching 75 percent rock cover. Rocks larger than 12 inches in diameter are dominant. Lichens are about equally green and black and cover up to one-half the surface of rocks. Percent slope is variable and averages about 10 percent. G C-2 Poa-Carex Alpine Meadow: Between 25 and 50 percent of the area is covered with Poa spp., with Carex spp. covering 5-25 percent of the total area. The vegetation is ahort, less than 1/2 m in height, and density is mostly continuous. Rocks cover less than 25 percent of the total area and are primarily in the 6- to 12inch diameter size class. Green and black lichens predominate, each covering 5-25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slopes are gentle and average about 7 percent. C-3 Picea-Salix Krummholz: Picea engelmannii covers 25-50 percent of the area, while Salix spp. covers 5-25 percent of the total area. Appearance of this unit is ragged, as some shrubs attain a height of 4 m. Most of the vegetation is less than 2 m tall, and the density is mostly continuous. The amount of rock is variable, with small areas covering 75 percent of the total area. Rocks larger than 12 inches are dominant. Lichens are primarily green and black, with each covering up to 5 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slopes are variable but average 16-20 percent. C-4 Salix-Poa Alp:i.neMeadow: More than 75 percent of the area i~overed with Salix spp., with species of Poa amounting to about 5 percent of the total coverage. Plant density in this unit is continuous, and average height of the vegetation is 2-3 m. Few rocks are present and slope averages about 7 percent. C-5 Trifo1ium-Poa-Sa1ix Alpine Meadow: Each of the three dominant genera comprises 5-25 percent of the coverage of the area. Most plants in this unit are less than 1/2 m tall; although the shrubs exceed this height, �-107- Table UNIT 1. Cont. DESCRIPTION they do not attain 1 m. Density of the vegetation is continuous. Rocks cover less than 25 percent of the area and are primarily larger than 6 inches in diameter. Green and black lichens dominate, and each covers up to 25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slope gradient averages about 10 percent. C-6 Trifolium-Poa Alpine Meadow: Trifolium spp. and Poa spp. comprise 5-25 percent each of the total cover;ge of the area. The dominant clover is 1. dasyphyllum in contrast to!. parryi in C-5. Vegetation in this unit is less than 1/2 m in height, and the density is continuous. Rocks cover 5-25 percent of the total area and are primarily in the 6- to l2-inch diameter class. Lichens are predominately green and black and cover up to 50 percent of the surface of exposed rocks. Average percent slope is about 15. C-7 Silene-Trifolium-Carex-Poa Fellfield: Rocks dominate this area and account for about 75 percent of the total coverage. Rocks are primarily larger than 6 inches in diameter. Four plant genera comprise less than 5 percent each of the coverage. Plants are short and occur singly or in small patches. Green and black lichens each covers up to 25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slopes are smooth and average about 30 percent. C-8 Dryas-Picea-Salix Rock Krummholz: Dryas octopetala comprises 25-50 percent of subunit C-8a, with Picea engelmannii and Salix spp. each covering up to 5 percent of the total area. Appearance of this unit is irregular as some Picea bushes attain a height of 4 m. Density is variable, but is mostly continuous or in small patches. Rocks cover at least 5-25 percent of the area with no one size class dominating. Lichens are few but are mO$tly green and black. Slope gradient varies up to 60 percent but averages about 20 percent. Subunit C-8b differs from C-8a in having about equal amounts of the three dominant genera. Picea engelmannii dominates the overs tory of the Krummholz, while Dryas octopetala dominates the interspersed windswept areas. C·~9 Dryas Turf: Mats of Dryas octopetala cover 5-25 percent of the total area, with rocks covering an equal area. Vegetation of this unit is less than 1/2 m in height, although scattered Salix bushes attain a height of 1 m. Density of plants is mostly continuous J �-108- Table UNIT 1. Cont. DESCRIPTION although many plants occur in small patches. Rock size is variable, but most rocks are in the 0-6 and larger than 12 inches diameter size classes. Green and black lichens each COvers 5-25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slopes average 10-12 percent. This unit is similar to R-l in RMNP. C-10 Pinus-Carex Krummholz: Pinus flexilis and Carex spp. each covers 5-25 percent of the area, with rocks amounting to 25~50 percent of the total coverage. Some shrubs attain a height of 3-4 m, but much of the vegetation is less than 1/2 m tall. Plant growth is primarily interrupted, although small patches do occur. One large boulder outcrop is included, and rocks are primarily larger than 12 inches in diameter. Lichens are primarily green and black and cover up to 50 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slopes are variable and average 15-20 percent. c-i i Carex Subalpine Meadow: Different species of Carex cover 5-25 percent of this area. Other subdominants are Poa spp. and Sibbaldia procumbens. Plant density is mostly continuous, and the majority of the plants present are less than 1/2 m tall. Scattered shrubs attain a height of 3-4 m. Rocks comprise less than 25 percent of the entire cover9 with all diameter classes being about equal in cover. Lichens are uncommon. The slope gradient averages 17-18 percent. C-12 Dryas-Pinus Subalpine Meadow: Dryas octopeta1a covers 25-50 percent of this area, with Pinus flexi1is covering up to 5 percent. Appearance of this unit is ragged, with most plants being shorter than 1/2 m. Density of the vegetation is principally continuous, but areas of interrupted growth are present. Total rock coverage is 5-25 pe rcent, with all diameter classes being equally represented. Coverage of exposed rock surfaces is less than 25 percent, with green and black being the dominant colors. Slopes average 12 percent. C-·13 Sibbaldia Snow Accumulation Area: This area is dominated by rocks which cover 50-75 Percent of the entire area. No one rock diameter class predominates. Sibbaldia procumbens is the dominant plant present, covering 5-25 percent of the area. Vegetation in this unit is short, less than 1/4 m in height, and the density is interrupted as plants occur singly or in small groups. Lichens are uncommon on rocks, but a gray lichen covers up to 5 percent of the exposed soil. The average slope gradient is about 15 percent. �-109- Table 1. Cont. UNIT DESCRIPTION C-l4 Salix-Poa-Betula Alpine Meadow: This area is similar to C-4 except Salix spp. covers 5-25 percent of the area and Betula glandulosa occurs only in this unit. Most shrubs in this unit are less than 1 m tal19 but scattered conifers extend to a height of 2 m. Density of the vegetation is mostly continuous. Rocks larger than 12 inches in diameter cover 5-25 percent of the area. Black and green lichens are common, with each covering up to 5 percent of the exposed surface of rocks. Slopes are gentle and average 5-7 percent. C-15 Salix-Picea-Trifolium-Poa Krummholz: Salix spp. covers 25-50 percent of the area9 with the other three dominant genera each amounting to 5-25 percent of the total cover. Vegetation of this unit is irregular as some groups of conifers reach a height of 3 m~ but much of the vegetation is shorter than 2 m. Plant density is primarily continuous. Rocks of all size classes are common but make up less than 25 percent of the coverage. About 50 percent of the exposed surface of stones is covered with green and black lichens. Slope gradient averages 12 percent. C-16 Artemisia-Trifolium Snow Accumulation Area: Species of Artemisia (principally ~. scopulorum and ~. norvegica), and Trifolium parryi each covers 5-25 percent of the area, with Artemisia occurring singlY9 while !. parryi is grouped in small patches. plants in this unit do not exceed 1/2 m in height, and the density is frequently interrupted. Stones of all size classes are common and cover at least 25 percent of the area. Lichens are uncommon, with green and black being the most prevalent colors. Slope gradient averages 10-12 percent. ��-111April, JOB FINAL REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RA==D~O~ Project No. W-37-R-25 Work plan No. 19 Job Title: Game Bird Survey 1 Job No. Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: _ Breeding of Tinamou April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT An article covering results of this study was published as follows: Hoffman, Donald M. 1971. Raising pale spotten tinamou. Game Bird Breeder, Aviculturists, Zoologists, and Conservationists Gazette. Gazette, Salt Lake City, Utah. May. pp , 17-21. 1972 ��-113- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF TINAMOU Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for pale spotted tinamou. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Compile all information, analyze data and prepare a final report. lish in an appropriate journal. Prepared by /()~' /Jd!J. CJ11 ~' Donald M. offman Wildlife Researcher ..~ Pub- ��-115April, 1972 JOB FINAL REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~RA~D~O~ Game Bird Survey W-37-R-25 Project No. Job Title: Study of Tinamou Period Covered: December Warren 2 Job No. 19 Work plan No. Personnel: _ Adaptability 1, 1968 through March 31, 1972 D. Snyder ABSTRACT During the consecutive springs of 1969, 1970 and 1971, a total of 164 pale spotted tinamou, Nothura darwinii, were released in national grasslands along the Sand Arroyo drainage in southern Baca County. To date, positive evidence of their survival, reproduction, or existence in the release vicinity or elsewhere has not been obtained. Unless new information is obtained at a future date it will be concluded that the introduction attempt was unsuccessful. ��-117- STUDY OF TINAMOU Warren ADAPTABILITY D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of pale spotted tinamou to establish populations in areas of mixed tall and mid-grasses, sandsage, the Comanche National Grasslands, Baca County, Colorado. METHODS reproducing and yucca on AND MATERIALS 1. Selection of release sites on Comanche National Grasslands 2. Determine presence tinamou. and dispersal of pale spotted in Baca County. (a) Assistance was asked of the Forest Service personnel responsible for management of the area to secure their help in observing tinamou. They also maintained close liaison with persons residing in the vicinity of the releases and with persons leasing the rangelands for grazing concerning the tinamou releases. (b) Assistance of the area Wildlife Conservation checking likely areas for tinamou. (c) Follow up verification made. checks of reported Officer was asked in tinamou sightings were RECOMMENDATIONS Additional trial releases of this species should not be made using existing release methods. If future tinamou releases are attempted, a large, predator proof pen, approximately 5 or 10 acres in size should be used to permit species adaptation to the site, food, etc. Protected natural reproduction should be permitted by retaining a few of the adult pairs within the pen through the summer. If a species of tinamou exists that is better adapted to cold and snow conditions, as they exist in eastern Colorado, it should be tried in preference to the pale spotted tinamou. Use of radio telemetry tracking equipment on a few of the birds after release is also recommended. DESCRIPTION OF AREA The release sites were located along the Sand Arroyo drainage in southern Baca County in the extreme southeast corner of Colorado. There, within the �-118- Carrizo District of the U. S. Forest Service, rangelands provide some of the best comparative tinamou habitat available in the state. Cover types vary widely within the region from straight short grass and reseeded mid-grass prairie through many densities and interspersions with sandsage (Artemisia filifolia) and yucca (Yucca glauca). In most parts of the County rangelands and pastures are interspersed with private farmland. The reader is referred to Hoffman (1965) and Snyder (1967) for more detailed discussions of the region's habitat. Bump and Bohl (1965) reported a number of characteristics of the pale spotted tinamou's native range. These characteristics are summarized in following paragraphs along with comparative descriptions of the transplant site in Colorado. The native environment of the pale spotted tinamou includes dry grasslands, pastures, open thorny scrub, savannah-like woodlands, cultivated fields and open weedy areas in arid to semi-arid regions. Grass is considered a prime requisite. Southern Baca County rangelands fit well into this type of habitat description. The species occupies level, rolling, or hilly country in South America. Elevations range from 400 feet to 12,000 feet above sea level. Southeast Colorado plains are level to rolling. The general elevation of the region is about 4,000 feet. At the release site soils are primarily sandy and alkaline in pH. Soils in the native range vary from sandy to clayish loam. The pH level is about 6 to 8. Precipitation varies from 4~ to 26 inches annually within the species native range. In semi-arid regions moisture is received throughout the year. Lowest monthly accumulations are during winter and early spring. This pattern of dry winters becomes more pronounced in the arid regions. Drought periods are reported as common and snow is uncommon. Southeast Colorado precipitation fits well within this range. Annual precipitation averages around fifteen inches. Winters are predominately dry. Most rainfall is received in late spring and summer. Snow and blizzards are occasional and snow seldom covers the ground for longer than a week. o 0 0 0 Temperatures average around 85 to 93 F at maximum in summer, and 30 to 40 F at minimum in winter in the species native habitat and in Baca County. Occasionally more severe cold periods of potential detriment to the species do occur in Baca County. However, protective cover, wind chill indices, and other factors have to be taken into consideration when comparing winter extremes. The pale spotted tinamou does not require open water. Foods in native range include seeds, fruits, flower heads, and leaves in winter. Some insects are included in the diet during summer and fall. Waste grain and alfalfa are also consumed. The many successional stages of range revegetation in southern Baca County would provide a variety of similar foods for consumption. Interspersion of farmland adds to this selection. �-119- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Three releases were made during the consecutive springs of 1969, 1970 and 1971. Table 1 summarizes the information concerning numbers released, dates, and locations. All were released at guzzler sites previously installed for scaled quail along the Sand Arroyo drainage. Table 1. Releases of pale spotted in southern Baca County, Colorado. tinamou on the Comanche National Grasslands Release Number Date of Release Number Released Males futal Females 1 4-8-69 25 17 42 13 32S 46W 2 5-1-70 15 25 40 18 32S 45W 3 4-30-71 41 41 82 36 31S 45W 81 83 164 Total Released Location Released Section Township Range Almost no information concerning these birds has been obtained since they were released. Bert Widhalm, Wildlife Conservation Officer, reported finding feathers about two weeks after the initial release. Personnel of the U. S. Forest Service visited the release sites several times after the releases were made. Searches by the writer, using a dog, were completed in and around the release sites in June, 1969; December, 1969; June, 1970; November, 1970; and November, 1971. Tinamou were not observed, nor was evidence of their survival indicated by any of the observers. U. S. Forest Service personnel received only two or three reports of possible sightings from local residents in 1969 and 1970. Subsequent searches of the locations were conducted, but no confirmation of the sightings could be made. An interview of one of the observers instilled doubt as to his correct identification of the species. His description of the bird and its habits more closely fit the resident bobwhite quail. No reports were received in 1971. It is regretful that more information concerning the species could not be obtained. At present we do not know if the birds perished immediately, survived until winter, attempted to reproduce, moved out of the region or are still in existence. The hiding abilities of the species make follow up searches near futile. Unless the species is sighted and positive identification is made in the future it must be assumed that they did not survive and introduction efforts were not successful. �-120- LITERATURE CITED Bump, G., and W. H. Bohl. 1965. Some tinamous of Argentina and Chile. Interim report. U. S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 15 p. Mimeo. (Illust.). Hoffman, D. M. 1965. The scaled quail in Colorado. and Parks Tech. Pub. No. 18. 47 p. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish Snyder, W. D. 1967. Experimental habitat improvement for scaled quail. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Pub. No. 19. 65 p. Prepared by 1:d~e(J~ Wildlife Researcher Colo. �-121- April, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-25 Work Plan No. 20 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey 1 Job No. Investigation of Population Status of Bobwhite Quail in Eastern Colorado April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Russell A. Kozacek, Michael Robinson, Jack Vayhinger, Marvin Gardner, Howard D. Funk and Warren D. Snyder. Frank Stumpf, ABSTRACT Whistling counts of male bobwhite quail, conducted in June and July, 1971, were used to inventory quail in eastern Colorado. A mechanical whistle was used to induce calling as a supplement to natural calling. A direct linear relationship between the two census techniques was observed, however, the natural calling method was deemed adequate for determining general trends. Routes were established and all known or potential quail range was inventoried along the South Platte drainage. Inventory counts were also initiated in the Republican River drainages and in southeast Colorado. Intensive study of bobwhite quail population dynamics were initiated on the Tamarack Management Area along the South Platte River in northeast Colorado. Information gathered at the Tamarack check station indicated that 531 fall banded quail represented 25.1 percent of the total early fall population of 2,114 birds on the area. Crippling loss of approximately 14.8 percent was added to the 486 known harvest to project a total hunting season mortality of 558 quail or 26.4 percent of the early fall population. Lack of a total hunter check on the east part of the Tamarack was considered the primary weakness in estimates of harvest. Density estimates indicated the early fall population exceeded one bird per two acres on the study area. Adults comprised approximately 19.2 percent of the early fall population, 19.3 percent of the hunting season sample and 21.1 percent of the winter banded sample. This latter sample included 68 fall retraps and 155 newly banded quail. Data were calculated separately for the east and west segments of the Tamarack Management Area. Past harvest data indicated 1971 was a high production year. Additional information on sex ratios, weights, movements, hunter success and other variables was compiled. Additional fall banding of 450 bobwhite quail along the South Platte River above Sterling, Colorado provided supplemental information concerning hunting pressure, harvest and population densities and production. This phase of study has been terminated because band return and harvest information were too unreliable to be of use. Preliminary work was initiated on a third phase of study concerning environmental limitations to bobwhite but no quantitative data are presented. �-122- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. To improve fall population estimates two items are needed: (1) larger sampling on the Tamarack Management Area to approximate one-third of the fall population; an~ (2) a more uniformly distributed banded sample within the population. 2. To improve harvest data on the Tamarack, regulations should be implemented making it a misdemeanor to hunt on the area without first reporting through the check station. Signs should be placed at key locations where hunters gain access to the Tamarack Management Area along the north side of the river. �-123- INVESTIGATION OF POPULATION BOBWHITE QUAIL IN EASTERN Warren STATUS OF COLORADO D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate (1) the distribution and relative density of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado; and (2) population structure and level, and rate of harvest, and identify key factors that limit bobwhite on the Tamarack Management Area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate Colorado. the distribution and density of bobwhite 2. To investigate population structure and level, and rate of harvest bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Management Area. 3. To identify Area. key factors limiting METHODS bobwhite in eastern on the Tamarack of Management AND MATERIALS 1. Counts of whistling calls made by male bobwhite in late spring and summer were used to determine species distribution and relative densities (Kabat and Thompson, 1965). Initially, it was thought that because population levels were marginal in some areas, additional stimulus to induce calling would be needed. A female call, recorded and played on a cassette tape player attracted and excited males at close range, but failed to stimulate calling at distances needed in inventory. A mechanical whistle, obtained from Herters, Inc. did provide the volume needed and often induced response from otherwise silent males. As a result, the implemented technique entailed (1) tally of natural calling male bobwhite for two to four minutes, then (2) induced calling of additional males was attempted by use of the whistle for a similar period of time. The call used to obtain whistling response from male bobwhite could not be accurately identified by name in Stoddard (1931). It appeared to be a form of locational or inquiry call which was often heard in the wild. It consisted of five or six replicates spaced at one second intervals. Each call started at a constant level and ascended sharply at the end so as to appear in diagram as ~~.-J would be represented For comparison as __ / (bob white) or the regular bobwhite / call (ah bob white). �-124- Males would respond with either of the two illustrated calls. If the caller remained hidden they often would approach either on foot or wing to within a few feet. Frequently, after initial responses to the call their approach would be silent. Routes were ea t ab Ld.sh ed in, or adjacent to river bottom flood plains which contained quail habita~. and in sandsage range lands of southeast Colorado. Listening stations wer~ spaced at least one-half mile apart. Routes were established at intervals along the rivers and mapped prior to census using state highway maps. Listening stations were pinpointed on these maps. Counts starting at sunrise on r~latively calm mornings were used. At least two replicates per route were obtained along the South Platte with additional counts planned for the following year. Forenoon or evening counts frequently were obtained, but usually were not comparable in tally to those obtained during the early morning. Therefore~ they were usually not used in density evaluations. Irrigation motors, interstate truck traffic and other noises frequently interfered with inventory. Kabat and Thompson (1963) recommended call transects be conducted between June 15 and July 4. In Colorado, most inventory counts were conducted between June 8 and July 3. For evaluation purposes, weekly replicates were conducted on the west Tamarack route from late May through mid-July. These indicated high counts could be obtained into the mid-July period in northeast Colorado. In marginal quail ranges of the upper South Platte River census efforts were supplemented with landowner and Conservation Officer contacts to obtain information on possible existence of bobwhite. Increased use of the whistle to induce calling was also attempted in marginal quail habitat. 2. Population structure and level, and rate of harvest were determined use of the following techniques: by Early fall trapping and banding was initiated in mid-September. A majority of the trap sites were cleared of vegetation with a tractor-mounted rototiller and pre-baited with whole corn and milo. The combination of cleared edge area, cultivated ground, and bait was considered of value in attracting quail coveys. Trap sites were located along the property as shown in Fig. 1. Time limitations and lack of access to some areas on the north side of the river prevented trap distribution throughout the entire river bottom. Fluorescent flagging tape was used to mark trap locations. Pre-baiting for a few days to a week or more was employed in nearly all instances. Small welded wire funnel type bait traps were used. These, in part, were replaced as the trapping season progressed, with circular collapsible nettopped traps designed to reduce the occasional scalping problem. All traps were covered with tree limbs,'leaves, etc. to reduce avian predation. Traps were usually checked between 8:30 and 10:00 A. M. and again starting approximately one-half hour before sunset. Quail were removed from the trap and held in a gunny sack until banded and released. �-125- -' < ~ w V) u o w ex:: « « Z C) w ex:: w \-- ~ :s: o « D w L Fig. 1. The Tamarack Management Area river bottom showing vegetative cover types, and fall (1971) trap sites. �-126- Consecutively numbered aluminum leg bands were placed on all quail. Immatures were distinguished from adults by the appearance of the upper coverts (Taber 1960). Yearling adults could frequently be distinguished from older birds during the fall, prior to the completion of molt. Yearling adults contained both buffy-tipped old feathers and new solid gray replacements, whereas both the old and new feathers of the upper coverts were solid gray on the older birds. Aging of juveniles by the primary feather molt technique (Petrides and Nestler 1943) was attempted d~ring the late fall, however, molt had progressed beyond the point where meaningful data on peak of hatch could be obtained. This effort will be expanded in subsequent years of fall trapping. Quail that were not retrapped at the immediate initial banding location were recorded for movement. Trap sites were plotted with aid bf aerial photos for future reference. Bag checks of hunters were obtained throughout the 1971 hunting season by Division personnel at the Tamarack check station. Specific locations of harvested birds could not be obtained since hunters frequently hunted more than one area. Age 9 sex, weight, crippling loss, crop samples and band numbers were obtained along with numbers of hunters and hours hunted. Since pheasants, rabbits, ducks, squirrel and quail could all be hunted, effort was not directed to delineate the actual hours consumed in quail hunting. A few hunters, who did not report through the Tamarack check station, turned in bands and were queried by mail or phone to determine the number of banded and unbanded quail they had harvested. Pre-hunting season trapping and banding was also conducted on two public and three privately owned areas along the South Platte river between Sterling and Hillrose. The location, size, and other characteristics of these will be listed in the Results section. Trapping and banding techniques followed those used on the Tamarack except a tractor was not employed in site preparation. Roving checks of hunters were conducted on the sites during the first and second weekends of the 1971 quail season. Hunter success, age, sex and band return information was obtained along with information on hunting pressure. Mail in returns provided most of the information concerning quail harvest from the sites. Winter trapping and banding was initiated on the Tamarack in mid-February, 1972, and terminated in late March. Techniques were repetitious of those used in fall except site preparation was not necessary. Special attention was directed toward retrapped fall banded birds and in extending the trapping effort into locations not previously trapped. Direct proportional and change-in-ratio techniques described by Petrides (1954), Selleck and Hart (1957) and others, were used in calculation of population levels, rate of harvest and qther variables. Robson and Regier (1964) was used in interpreting the adequacy of sample sizes. Dr. David C. Bowden and Howard D. Funk reviewed analytical procedures. �-127- 3. Key fact~rs limiting methods: Comparison made. of trapping bobwhite were identified success by use of the following on grazed and ungrazed river bottom were Comparisons of sex ratios of adult quail were made as a possible indicating extensive predation on nesting hens. Quail utilization observed. of habitat types at various DESCRIPTION clue times of the year was OF AREA ;:;enera1Species Rarlge in Colorado Bobwhite quail in Colorado are confined by climate and habitat limitations to two major cover types, (1) eastern Plains river bottoms and (2) sandsage (Artemisia fi1ifo1ia) grasslands with or without interspersed farmland along the eastern edge of the state. Some of the better river bottom flood plain habitats contain population densities equal to those in the primary quail range of southeastern United States. But most bobwhite range in eastern Colorado is marginal. Most of the sandsage rangelands contain only scattered coveys confined to localities by old homestead plum thickets or similar cover which can sustain them through the winter months. It is worth noting that winter cover requirements are not as critical in the southeast corner of the state as in the northeast. Again, winter climate seems to make the difference, so the highest rangeland populations are found in the Southeast. Both the Arkansas and South Platte rivers, which flow east across Colorado from the mountains, support varying bobwhite densities at lower elevations within their unfarmed flood plains. Along the South Platte, this habitataverages between one-fourth and one-half mile in width. Along much of the Arkansas, intensive farming has pushed this into an even more narrow strip in many areas. The Tamarack Management Area, along the South Platte river near Crook, Colorado typifies excellent ungrazed river bottom in the northeast part of the State. Scattered cottonwoods (Populus sargentii) give much of the area a savanna like appearance. Snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), wild rose (Rosa sp.), willow (Salix sp.), poison ivy (Rhus radicans), golden currant (Ribes aureum), indigo bush (Amorpha fr~cosa) and others provide essential shrub and brush cover. Cordgrass (Spartina pectinata) provides the primary ground cover in some areas. Phragmites communis, of tall reed like character forms dense cover in local patches. Numerous annual and perennial forbs of varying densities provide food and cover. Occasional flooding retains early successional vegetative stages in much of the bottomland. Vegetative composition along the Arkansas river is markedly different. Cottonwoods and willow are abundant, but tamarisk or salt cedar (Tamarix sp.) is the primary woody plant of the flood plain. Greasewood �-128- (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) and four-wing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) are often found in unfarmed areas adjacent to the flood plain. Salt grass (Distichlis stricta) and a variety of other grasses and forbs provide ground cover. In the Arkansas valley and its tributaries, low densities of bobwhite are found throughout much of the irrigated farmland and along the irrigation canals which feed this farmland. Therefore, the species range may be several miles in width in places. With few exceptions, bobwhite are nearly exclusively confined to the unfarmad flood plain along the South Platte. Bobwhite populations along the headwater tributaries of the Republican River drainage in eastern Colorado usually are Low in density as a direct result of deficiences of brushy vegetation. Flood plains along these streams are narrow and grazed. Some brush cover such as skunk bush (Rhus trilobata) , exists along the breaks bordering the North Fork and Arikaree drainages. Quail densities are increased as a direct result. Moderate quail densities, both scaled quail and bobwhite, are found in sandsage rangelands of Baca County in extreme southeast Colorado. The Cimarron River, which cuts through the corner of the state, is included in this rangeland area which comprises some of the best general quail range in the state. Tamarack Management Area This public hunting area, along the South Platte river, was utilized for intensive study of population dynamics. Highway 25, south of Crook bisects the area so that approximately 8.25 miles of river bottom lies to the southwest and 5.25 miles lies to the northeast. Additional Tamarack property continues east of Hunting Area 11 East (Fig. 1), but access problems excludes this from hunting and use in this study. One mile of river bottom, just east of Highway 25, remained closed to hunting in 1971 and received moderate grazing through the year. The remaining land in the east and west segments was respectively divided into 11 and 25 hunting areas. Most were approximately one-fourth mile wide and consecutively numbered (Fig. 1). All were open to hunting except areas 16 and part of 17 in the west segment during 1971. Hunters were required to check in and out through a central check station and selected their hunting areas on a first come basis. One hunting party was permitted per area. During the 1971 small game season hunters could hunt adjoining areas on foot after 9:00 A. M. The majority of the overall hunting effort was directed toward ducks. Quail, pheasants, mule deer, white-tailed deer, doves, rabbits and squirrels rank in approximately that order of importance as secondary species. �-129- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Density of Bobwhite Quail The whistling call of bobwhite, used as an index, appeared to be an effective technique for determining distribution and relative density of bobwhite in eastern Colorado. Comparison of natural calling and induced calling indices, Fig. 2, indicates either or both can be used, but the natural calling index is adequate for determining general popuiation trends. Some benefits of the induced calling method may be obtained where existence of quail in a locality is extremely low or uncertain. Table 1 summarizes counts of whistling males in 1971 conducted throughout the known range of the species along the South Platte River. As the table indicates, population levels were consistently higher between the Nebraska state line and Fort Morgan, than those above Fort Morgan. Call counts failed to indicate the existence of bobwhite upriver from Hardin, Colorado in eastern Weld County (Fig. 3). Table 1. A summary of bobwhite quail whistling South Platte River during 1971. counts completed along the Location No. of Counts Number Stops Natural Tally Mean Induced Tally Mean Stateline-Ovid 2 20 78 3.90 107 5.35 Red Lion-East Tamarack 2 20 67 3.35 96 4.80 West Tamarack 6 75 219 2.92 227 };) 3.50 Atwood-Merino 2 20 108 5.40 130 6.50 Balzac 3 28 55 1.96 67 2.40 Brush-Fort Morgan 2 20 77 3.85 101 5.05 Schaeffer Ranch 2 20 37 1. 85 49 2.45 Goodrich-Orchard 2 20 23 1.15 31 1.55 Masters-K-4 2 8 9 1.13 13 1.63 Hardin-Kersey 2 20 0 1/ The total number 0 of stops for the induced tally was 65 instead of 75. �-130- 7 a: Atwood- o Lyon 6 Purgatorie-Ft. ~Stateline-ovid ~rush-FtoMorgan c:)ast TamarackRed Lion 0Campo EastCimarron 0West Schaeffer ~ Tamarack Ranch Balzac Masters K-4 E. pro~s County 0 GoodrichOrchard 1 O South Fork of Republican R. o 1 2 Natural Fig.2. The relationship by male bobwhite quail in 1971. 3 4 Bobwhite Quail Whistling 5 Rate between natural and induced rates of whist! ing per station along Eastern Colorado census routes 6 �"'>:tj 1-'1-'IllOQ rt· rt (1) v.> _ .. __.. .. .. _u -" -'-" -" -" ..--" _ ..--:..- .._-;.:--"-"-"-": - : . Logan ~o. "-j'-" Rf~dn: . .• _, , .Ai .?.a? "".#1 ~. <: (1) t1 :::0 '2~ : 0 ~ ~. r+ 1-'-(1) :;l Ul '.Jeld Co. ~ i.. · ··, :;l r+ \: ·_· -1. f·· · I-'Hl 1.00 -..Jt1 I-' • J-4 :;l -_ . ,~ ,-0. SedgwlcK \.. ":''M~t!ino o ~ o ,O.J Hl , , 0"' g. §. )'Jashington 1-" rt Co. Ft. (1) I I-' I-' v.> I ..0 c: III 1-" I-' (1) • L ~ ..\ -. "_.,, Ul rt ~ I-' I-'Ul ::r (1) Q.. ~ o :;l OQ rt ::r (1) CIl o g ::r 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. _ ;i, M ~ organ '-0. _ , • ..i SOUTHPLATTECENSUSROUTE;S StatelineOvid 8. Gooc1tlich - Orchard Red Lion 9. Masteirs K-4 West Tamarack 10. Hard£n - Kersey Atwood - Merino 11. Mil1*en Balzac: 12. P1at~-eville Brush Con Schaeffer j 1 , i i I �-132- Personal communications with Charles Brown (Wildlife Conservation Officer),. local farmers, and others, indicate a few bobwhite do survive along the South Platte in the Hardin-Kersey area east of Greeley. Earl Downer (Area Supervisor) reported a local small population along the river south and west of Platteville in southern Weld County in past years, but no sightings during the past two years. Lack of adequate access along the river in the Eagles Nest Ranch vicinity between Hardin and Masters in eastern Weld County prevented adequate inventory, but reports indicate low to moderate quail densities do exist there. Completed summaries of counts obtained in the Republican, Arkansas and Cimmaron drainages were considered inadequate for presentation at this time. Range boundaries and relative densities in these areas are pending until surveys are completed during the forthcoming year. Projected birds-per-square mile density estimates were made for the intensively studied Tamarack Management Area as will be shown later in Table 6. Attempts to relate these estimates to call indices and densities in various parts of the species range in Colorado will not be attempted at this time. Population Structure and Level, and Rate of Harvest Tamarack Management Area Fall Banding-- Table 2 summarizes the fall banding results wherein 317 bobwhite were banded along the south side of the South Platte on the west Tamarack and 214 were banded along both sides on the east Tamarack. Observed trapping mortality was very low, with subsequent survival of banded birds considered nearly equal to that of unbanded birds for analysis purposes. Coveys undoubtedly existed in every hunting area during the fall trapping period even though no quail were caught in a few areas. Harvest--The 1971 quail season in.. .nort he as t; Colorado ran from November 27 through December 5 and again, from December 22 through January 2, 1972, in direct conjunction with pheasant season. Sunrise to sunset shooting hours were the rule, except for the noon opening on the first day of season. Bag and possession limits were eight and sixteen, respectively. Harvest of quail by age, sex, and day of season are presented in Table 3. Harvest of other small game is also provided for comparison purposes. Hunting seasons for rabbits, squirrels, and watetfowl extended beyond the dates given for quail. Harvest Sample--Hunters reported 371 bobwhite through the Tamarack check station during the season. Follow-up inquiries from mailed band returns indicated at least 115 additional bobwhite were taken on, or adjoining the Tamarack, but not reported through the check station. This unchecked harvest primarily occurred at two locations: (1) along the north side of the river east of Crook in all areas (1 through 11), and (2) in the vicinity of the Proctor river bridges at the west end of the Tamarack. A few additional quail were undoubtedly taken and not reported. Efforts will be made to curtail unchecked hunting on the area in future years. �-l33Table 2. A summary by area of fall banded bobwhite, hunter use, banded harvest recoveries and total harvest on the west and east sections of the Tamarack Management Area in 1971. Area Number Quail Banded Hunter Hunt e rs !I Hours 1/ Number Total Quail Harvest y Banded Quail Harvest '}j West Tamarack 87 106 78 82 81 62 60 63 67 95 156 98 132 81 132 3 3 0 3 9 3 7 4 0 8 8 5 14 1 23 2 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 1 7 0 0 0 3 30 46 43 57 59 47 46 58 23 85 174 133 250 276 176 210 203 104 0 10 17 27 21 22 17 18 32 0 0 3 11 3 13 5 1 7 872 2,991 255 62 11 19 7 8 11 30 11 34 21 3 1 3 7 2 6 4 13 3 9 8 2 0 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 ~/ 22 7 6 25 35 4 6 22 15 0 0 0 0 0 27 11 0 4 0 24 14 21 17 13 45 25 27 32 26 31 23 26 30 37 39 37 38 31 26 35 Total 317 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II -- ~/ East Tamarack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 31 1 8 6 9 37 13 51 34 0 0 47 49 35 33 33 47 28 34 45 30 29 ll8 142 106 69 77 132 69 164 125 93 101 �-134- Table 2. A summary by area of fall banded bobwhite, hunter use, banded harvest recoveries and total harvest on the west and east sections of the Tamarack Management Area in 1971 (continued). Area Number Quail Banded Number Hunter Hunters 11 Hours 1/ Total Quail Harvest ~/ Banded Quail Harvest 1/ East Tamarack (Continued): Braddock Pasture Armstrong Ranch 24 O§j o o 0 o 75 4 Total 214 410 1,196 231 61 Combined Total 531 1,282 4,187 486 123 1/ Includes only known hunters and hours reported through check station. Some hunting probably went unrecorded. 1/ Quail were not necessarily shot in the exact area to which they are assigned in the table. 4/ Figures include area 25 and land adjoining Proctor Road. S/ Area 16 and most of 17 were closed to public hunting. ~/ Braddock land closed to public hunting. 2/ Includes only known harvest. Wounding Loss--Most of the hunters were queried concerning the number of birds wounded but not retrieved. Responses, if correct, indicate 49 were lost for 330 bagged. This percentage loss was 14.8 percent. Direct proportional projection would indicate that 72 were not retrieved, bringing total harvest mortality to 558 birds. Hunting Effort and Harvest by Area--Table 2 provides a general index of hunting effort and quail harvest by hunting area. The data must be considered indicative rather than accurate for several reasons. First, many hunters covered more than their one assigned area in pursuit of quail. Therefore, many of the quail were not necessarily shot in the area to which they are assigned in the table. Second, differences in duck hunting qualities among the areas was the primary reason some received much more hunting pressure than others. Breakdown of hunting hours by species on an area basis was not attempted. We can, therefore, only assume that man hours of hunting efforts for quail were, in part, in direct proportion to the total hours of effort per area. �-135Table 3. Harvest by day during the 1971-72 Tamarack Management Area. !/ Ducks2/ Rabbits Squirrels quail and pheasant Adult .Adult Male Female season on the Bobwhite Quail Imm. Imm. Male Female uncI. Total Date Pheasants 11-27 17 22 6 o 5 2 21 9 16 53 11-28 18 13 2 1 8 6 15 20 5 54 1 2 o o 1 2 10 9 9 31 11-30 1 1 1 o o o 7 4 o 11 12-1 1 1 1 1 3 4 4 6 o 17 12-2 o o o 7 1 1 4 3 o 9 12-3 4 15 o o 3 1 21 10 o 35 12-4 9 13 9 o 4 1 13 14 16 48 12-5 4 7 1 o 1 3 9 13 13 39 Extended Season 12-22 8 12 1 o 1 1 1 5 o 8 12-23 6 9 o o 3 4 10 6 o 23 12-24 1 7 4 o o 2 2 3 2 9 12-25 o o o o o o o o o 0 12-26 2 6 o o o o o o 2 2 12-27 o 22 o o o o 3 o 1 4 12-28 4 14 1 o o o 3 4 8 15 12-29 4 25 2 o o 1 5 8 o 14 12-30 5 15 2 o 1 2 3 7 1 14 12-31 o 4 o o 1 o 1 1 3 6 1-1 1 2 o o o o 1 o 6 7 1-2 1 6 o o o o 1 4 7 12 Total 87 196 30 9 32 30 134 126 89 411 3/ 1/ Seasons for waterfowl, rabbits, and squirrels extended beyond those listed here. seventy of the harvested ducks were mallards. Late repo rted-harves t data along Armstrong Ranch is not; included. 2/ One-hundred II �-136- A breakdown of hunter effort by species will probably be attempted in the future. But it must be realized that any attempt can.be only partially accurate because of variable types of hunting pursuit. Four general catagories listed as follows might be most informative: (1) exclusive quail hunter, (2) upland game hunter, (3) exclusive waterfowl hunter, and (4) combined upland and waterfowl hunter. The average hunter expended approximately 6.2 hours per animal bagged. Since the exact hours of effort per species is unknown the average time required to bag one quail or one mallard is also unknown. However, observations indicated bobwhite quail probably yielded the greatest return in birds per hunter effort. Comparison with Previous Years of Harvest--Harvest information presented in Fig. 4 indicates 1971 was an excellent production year for bobwhite quail on the Tamarack. The 1971 harvest was indicated to have been surpassed only twice during the previous 19 years. Information fot 1965 is lacking but production failure and poor harvest were known to follow extensive June flooding of the river bottom that year. Northeast region total harvest and average season bag projections taken from Colorado's Small Game Hunter-Harvest Surveys are illustrated in Fig. 4. These data, along with information from the Tamarack, suggest that quail populations in northeastern Colorado fluctuate dramatically from year to year. Projected Small Game Hunter-Harvest Survey data show an upward trend in hunting pressure on bobwhite in northeast Colorado. Hunter numbers averaged 1,600 per year from 1956 to 1960, 1,672 during the 1961-65 period, and 2,022 during the 1966-70 period. This is in direct contrast to a downward trend in hunting pressure on pheasants in Colorado during the same time interval. Winter Banding--Trapping and banding efforts, commencing in midFebruary and terminating in late March, resulted in banding of 155 bobwhite and retrapping of 68 fall banded birds. Mild snow-free weather with an apparent ample supply of natural food made trapping more difficult than expected. The birds also were increasingly wary following hunting season. Trapping efforts were distributed along both sides of the river in a fairly intensive coverage of the area. Reduced size of covey wintering home ranges also made intensified trapping efforts essential. Fig. 5 illustrates the locations of coveys known to exist along the Tamarack during the late winter. Other coveys may have been present. The Fall Population Estimate--Fall banding and harvest data were used in deriving fall population estimates for the west Tamarack (1,304) and the east Tamarack (810) as shown in Table 4. The estimates from the two sections were then combined to provide a total estimate of 2,114 quail. Direct calculation from the last column of figures in Table 4 results in a slightly different estimate, 2,098 quail, because of sample size differences on the east and west sections of the study area. �•.l37Harvest Bobwhite Quail I-' Jl> 0 0 I\) CD 0 0 I-' I\) ~ 0 0 I\) I\) 0 CD 0 ~ - Tamarack Management Area ,s:.. VI ~ ~ w w 01:>0 I\) I\) 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 VI s s ~ 0 1952 -e § 1953 CIl e-, Ql :> 1954 H <, 1955 ::l (/) <, w CIl 1956 '" . 1957 ) -- -' 1958 1959 ' 1960 -,-- .. , .. H C1l ..c: I H Ql W § p:: a 0 H 4-l .. \ 1962 w -, CIl Ql ~ C1l ..c: I::l <, 0 'M 00 Ql --. "-- //\ . ... p::: . --- - -- - - - . . --,., -r-:-. ' ---. " .•.. N E: -" ~··~.!o . .....-.- -, . .q ~lr~~t; 1966 1967 . .,.,.-~/ Ql Ql 0 H P- ~ .s~!& ~~OI2 • " C1l ,.0 9 I::l ) r" ...:I \D CD VI ~ en Thousands of Bobwhite Quail Harvested 0 •.... I\) Ave. Season Bag - I::l Ql a Ql 00 H C1l Ql ~ I-' I-' •.... •.... I\) W N. E. Region w C1l Ql C1l . W C1l ..c: w ~ I\) CIl H <:!! 00 Ha,rlrest I-' 0 0 w C1l Ql Ql I / 4-l 0 CIl CIl 1971 I-' 0 ,.0 § ~ H 00 / Tama,ra~ -e 13<9 • 1970 ,.0 'r) \ 1969 ""w ~ /" 1968 ::l Ql tJ <.~ C1l w z 'M ,,- -" . .--l 'M r:LI 0" .. 1963 1965 :> . 1961 1964 Ql ,j:I. Vl 0\ N. E. Region . 00 'M ~ ~ ~tJ C1l H C1l ~ H �t-,1~ ~~ Ii 111 \J1 TAMA RACK n • po;- MANAGEMENT AREA ~~ 111 ( ()Q ::r m::s rI" (I) (I) •••• rt.o > 111 ~ Ii (I) ~ 111 ~ (Sl • n o ~ :AREAS '<III •.... o n ~ III I •..... 0- tv §' •... / Ii l:1 ()Q ( sri" (I) Ii fAST AREAS SCALE rI" Ii o ~ 't'J s- .. ()Q •.... LEGEND 1 HUNTING AREA _ LOCATION OF ~~- 1971-72 COVEYS . ~ ~UNFARMED RIVER BOTTOM ~ AND RIVER CHANNELS. o M;i{~im~%fHGRASSLAND ~ROW CROPS go _HAY R1!mTREE PLANTING \0 N ::s (I) MEADOW ~ 1 Mi. w co , �-139- Table 4. A summary of fall, 1971 bobwhite quail banding information from the Tamarack Management Area. and harvest West Tamarack Tamarack Total Area 317 214 531 Known harvest 255 231 486 Crippling 38 34 72 Item Number of quail banded Percent loss (projected) crippling Projected 14.8 loss 293 265 558 (harvest) 62 61 123 band recoveries 71 70 141 total harvest Band recoveries Projected EMt mortality Percent harvest 22.5 32.7 26.4 Percent banded 24.3 26.4 25.1 Projected fall population 1,304 810 2,114 Different fall populations could be derived by combining winter trapping information with harvest samples. On the west hunting areas the fall estimate would be increased from 1,304 birds using only the harvest sample to 1,338 birds using the combined harvest-winter sample. In contrast, on the east study group, the population estimate would drop from 810 to 697 when the winter banded sample was added to the harvest sample. Or the total fall population estimate for the Tamarack would be 2,035 quail based on combined harvest-winter trapping samples. Estimates presented in Table 4, which exclude the winter trapping sample, are considered more accurate for the following listed reasons: (1) The fall banded sample was not randomly distributed in the population prior to hunting season nor prior to winter trappin$ because fall trapping was segmented and nearly all coveys remained sedentary from fall to winter. This made it more essential that recapture samples be as randomly taken as possible. (2) Hunting, especially on the east group of areas, was believed more evenly distributed or more random than winter trapping was. For example, hunters gained access along the Armstrong ranch where neither fall nor winter trapping was attempted. Winter trapping was probably biased toward areas where coveys had been banded in fall. Therefore, hunters probably more uniformly sampled the total population. �~140~ Confidence Limits and Sample Size--A formula presented by Davis (1960) was used to obtain confidence limits for the fall population estimates. These are presented in Table 5. Since the Tamarack population could be considered finite, a finite correction (Snedecor, 1956) was applied reducing the confidence limits (Table 5). Table 5. Fall population estimates for the Tamarack confidence intervals at the 95 percent level. Management Area with Population Population Estimate Confidence Interval Confidence Interval with Finite Correction West Tamarack 1,304 ± 288 ± 258 East Tamarack 810 ± 178 ± 150 2,114 ± 327 ± 286 Total area The primary weakness contained within the 1971 fall population estimate appeared to lie within the randomness of sampling. More even distribution of fall banding would reduce this error and make subsequent recapture sampling on a completely random basis less essential. A second weakness resulted from inadequate sample size when harvest data alone were used as the recapture sample. Robson and Regier (1964) state that sample sizes should be sufficient to prevent errors in population estimates greater than 10 percent with 95 percent accuracy in population dynamics studies of the type presented here. According to information presented in their text, fall banding and harvest samples in this study were only sufficient to prevent errors greater than 25 percent with 95 percent accuracy in estimating the population. Fall banding of a least a third of the population would be needed in future years of study. Projected Fall Density--Aerial photo measurements indicated that the Tamarack river bottom from the east edge of Hunting Area 11 East to the Proctor bridges occupied approximately 13.5 linear miles (Table 6). Unfarmed flood plain habitat, which seldom exceeded a half mile in width, occupied approximately 6 square miles. Bobwhite quail were confined to the timbered bottom land by farm lands and short grass pastures along the entire west part of the Tamarack (Fig. 5). A few birds were observed moving into the sand sage rangelands and up along tree plantings bordering the east part of the Tamarack during the spring, summer and fall. But in winter, coveys were again confined to the timbered, brushy river bottom. Feeding in adjacent corn or beet fields was restricted to the edge of those fields. Therefore, the density-per-square-mile figures presented in Table 6 are believed fairly accurate. This density, exceeding one bird per two acres during the fall of 1971, compares favorably with quail densities in the �-141- species primary range in southeast United States. Fall densities there of a bird per acre or more have been attained, but usually occur only under careful management. Table 6. Basic statistics quail habi tat. on Tamarack Management West Tamarack Item Area river bottom East Tamarack Total Area Length in miles 8.25 5.25 1./ 13.5 Average width in miles 0.44 0.46 0.45 Approximate 3.601:./ 2.44 6.04 square miles estimate 1,304 810 2,114 per square mile 361 332 350 Fall population Bobwhite -1/ Includes one mile of unhunted pasture -2/ Includes river channel which averages east of Highway 25. 200 to 250 feet in width. Natural Fall Mortality--The percentage harvest shown in Table 4 is based on population levels existing during the period of fall banding. But natural mortality occurred between the period of banding and the start of hunting season. On the west hunting areas, 66 days elapsed from the mean banding date, September 22, to the start of quail season, which was on November 27. On the east hunting areas the time lapse was 47 days (October 12 to November 27). The actual rate of mortality during the fall is unknown. Kabat and Thompson (1963) used a 2 percent mortality rate per week for bobwhite up to 16 weeks of age. Rosene (1969) found a nest to hunting season mortality rate of slightly over 3 percent per week. Klimstra {195~calculated a 4 percent weekly loss in birds up to eight weeks of age. Robel (1965) found evidence that fall to winter mortality of young increased in December when snows and cold temperatures put greater stress on the population. Nearly all young quail exceeded eight weeks of age prior to banding and hunting season opened prior to the December stress period in 1971 on the Tamarack. Therefore, a weekly mortality rate of 2 percent was hypothesized for the banding to harvest interval. A hypothetical model was constructed, based on the above information, to illustrate fall population change from banding to harvest. This information is presented in Table 7. As shown, 224 birds or 17.2 percent of the early fall population would have been lost prior to hunting season on the west part of the Tamarack. On the east part, 106 quail or 13 percent of �-14:2- the original population would have died. This hypothetical removal of 330 birds on the Tamarack would leave 1,784 alive at the start of hunting season. Thus. projected harvest mortality'WCulcl aGtu~lly percent of the population surviving just prior to hunHnl h~ve removed'lL SHM.i'llH'. 3 (l'~l:lle>1). Table 7. An illustration of population decline from the mean early fall banding date to the start of hunting season based on a hypothetical natural mortality rate of two percent per week. Tamarack Item Mean banding date Interval to season opening (Days) (Weeks) Starting population Natural mortality Population Management East Area Total Sept. 22 Oct. 12 Sept. 29 66 9.4 47 6.7 West removal at season opening Rate of projected total harvest Based on early fall population Based on season opening 1,304 810 2,114 224 106 330 1,080 704 1,784 22.4% 27.1% 32.7% 37.6% 26.6% 31.3% Age Ratios--A summarization of age ratio data obtained during the fall and winter banding and during the hunting season on the Tamarack is presented in Table 8. This table leaves a couple of questions unanswered. First, does hunting provide an unbiased sample of the existing population? According to Leopold (1933), Robel (1965), Rosene (1969) and others, it does. Assuming that the harvest sample is unbiased, a second question arises: Why is there a highly significant lower percentage of adults in the fall banded sample (Table 8) than in the harvest and winter samples (Chi sq. = 10.44 df = I)? Either biased fall sampling existed or differential mortality following the banding period removed a greater proportion of young than were present in population. Highly significant divergence of age ratios between the banded and unbanded segments of the harvest sample indicate that early fall trapping probably was selective toward juveniles (Chi sq. = 8.89 df = 1). The banded harvest sample was similar in ratio to the fall banded sample, whereas the unbanded harvest sample showed a much higher proportion of adults. Little evidence of differential juvenile mortality was indicated during the pre-hunting season period. Instead it is hypothesized that the fall population actually contained approximately 19.2 percent adults instead of 11.5 percent as shown in the fall banded sample. �-143- Table 8. Bobwhite quail age ratio information obtained Management Area during the fall and winter of 1971-72. on the Tamarack Number Adults Number Young Percent Adults Adu1t:Yearling Ratio sample 61 470 11.5 1:7.705 season sample 62 260 19.3 1:4.194 Banded harvest 15 114 11.6 1:7.600 Unbanded harvest 47 146 24.4 1:3.106 fall age ratio 112 470 19.2 1:5.217 47 176 21.1 1:3.745 Item Fall banded Hunting Projected Winter banded sample Age bias in trapping was not evident in late winter when all quail had reached maturity. Some indication of differential mortality is illustrated in Table 8 by the reduced percentage of young in the population. But changes in age ratios from harvest to late winter were not significant (Chi sq. = 0.40 df = 1). If age bias toward young did occur during winter trapping then differential mortality of young would be higher than indicated. Sex Ratios--Kabat and Thompson (1963) provided data and cited numerous references showing that while juvenile sex ratios were usually near equal, adult males consistently exceeded females in the population. In most cited studies approximately 60 percent of the adult population was composed of males. Stress on the hen during the reproductive period was repeatedly listed as the probable reason for this divergent adult sex ratio. Sex ratios, obtained during the fall and winter studies in Colorado (Table 9), suggest some excess of males but samples are inadequate to be certain at this date. Adult males did not reach the 60 percent level shown in many other studies. Table 9. Sex ratios of adult and immature fall and winter banding and harvest. quail obtained during Inun. Male Inun. F emal e 28 179 216 31 28 139 128 banding 25 22 94 82 79 46.7% 412 426 ratio 89 53.5% Sample Period Adult Male Fall banding 33 Hunting season Winter Total Adult bobwhite Adult Female �-144- . Weights of Bobwhite Quail--A large sample of bobwhite quail taken on the Tamarack Management Area were weighed at the check station. Results, illustrated in Table 10 indicate juveniles were near equal in size to adults and a size difference between sexes was not evident during the hunting season. Sinc~ the specimens were taken by hunters at various times of the day and contained varying amounts of shot, blood and food, the tabular data should be considered proximal rather than highly accurate. Table 10. Management Weights of 163 bobwhite quail collected Area during the 1971 hunting season. UncI. Sample size Mean weight (in grams) Adult Male Adul t Female on the Tamarack Imm. Male Imm. Female 37 IS 14 69 6S 193.4 202.7 203.7 202.1 199.S Fall and Winter Movements--Habitat restrictions bordering the Tamarack prevented quail movements except in upstream or downstream directions. In other words, the Tamarack population was isolated except at the upper and lower ends. This reduced ingress and egress movements, so that the existing population could be considered more finite 'than if it was bordered by buffer quail populations on all sides. Accuracy of population estimates was believed improved as a result. Numerous studies of bobwhite quail movements have been published. Therefore, it was not deemed essential to conduct additional intensive movement studies. Fall and winter trapping, banding, retrap and harvest data generally support data from previous studies. Preliminary conclus.ions reached in this year of work include: (1) most of the fall shuffle, if there was one, occurred prior to commencement of all trapping; (2) nearly all coveys banded in fall were still present in the same vicinity in late winter; (3) covey territories became smaller as winter approached; (4) .sustained hunting pressure through the season did not shift coveys into new permanent home ranges to any noti ceable degree; and (S)late fall or winter movements of coveys to areas adjoining cornfields were not in evidence. Such movements might have occurred if snow accumulations had created a food stress. Fall banding to fall retrap data did not produce evidence of movements exceeding one mile. Fall banding to harvest data were not of much value because hunters did not necessarily stay in the specific area to which they were assigned. However, significant quail movements of a mile or more could have been detected, but were not. Winter retrapping of 68 fall banded quail showed nearly all quail were stable in the area from fall through late winter. One quail had moved from Area 8 West to Area IS West or approximately two miles. Some coveys occasionally to frequently crossed �-145the river channel(s). Other coveys seldom, if ever, crossed to the other side. To illustrate the latter point, trapping efforts failed to produce quail in fall along the south side of the west Tamarack in Areas 10 through 14. Late winter trapping in Areas 9 through 13, across the river on the north side, resulted in banding of 34 quail from at least six small coveys. None of these birds had been banded previously indicating that they probably were sedentary in their territories throughout the fall and winter. Late winter baiting and trapping efforts failed to locate quail in several areas where they were known to exist during the fall. In some areas quail may have existed in small interior territories, but this was not believed to be the general case. Searches for tracks were usually futile due to lack of snow. Winter banding produced some evidence that these coveys had shifted a half mile or so either upstream or downstream. Upriver Study Results Site Selection--The Davies easement and the Jones property, both Division administered properties, were utilized for fall banding-harvest studies. Additional properties owned by Keith Propst, John Bianco and Mr. Lutes were also utilized. These private landowners posted their land and reportedly permitted little or no hunting. It was hoped, that these private lands would provide measurements of differences in population characteristics between areas with little or no hunting and those which received more intensive hunting pressure. Locations and approximate sizes of the sites are illustrated. in Fig. 6. Fall Trapping, Banding and Harvest--Summer whistling counts above Sterling along the Atwood-Merino and Balzac routes (Table 1) indicated quail populations were as high or higher in some areas there than they were on the Tamarack Management Area. Fall trapping efforts confirmed this with one exception. The Lutes Property, which received moderate to heavy grazing was deficient in brushy habitat and lacking in quail. Only one or two small coveys were found along the area. Trapping efforts were cut short due to lack of quail on the property. Table 11 summarizes the results to trapping efforts conducted from midOctober to mid-November. Age and sex ratio information for the sites is summarized in Table 12. Hunter contacts, conducted the first and second weekends of season, provided only a partial sample of weekend hunting as hunters on all plots could not be contacted at the time they terminated hunting on a particular area. Hunting and harvest on the sites through weekday periods went unobserved. The majority of the quail bands were mailed in. A return letter was sent to the hunter informing him concerning when and where his quail was or were banded and thanking him for sending in the band number. ~ercentage Harvest--Discussions with numerous hunters revealed information indicating some discarded the bands rather than turn them in. The percentage return was unknown so percentage harvest also remained uncertain. The Davies easement was heavily hunted. On the opening weekend one to two dozen vehicles were consistently parked around this area which contained approximately a section of land. Yet information on only eight bands was obtained (Table 11). In contrast a much higher band �(IJ t-rj rt 1-4 ,: OQ p,.. t-'- (t> (IJ 0\ • o, ,: t-3 Ii Ii t-'- III Logan Coo ::J 'd OQ'd 1-4 rt ::J ::r'OQ (t> (IJ t-h III f-' f-' t-'rt CD (IJ o f-' t-h 0 f-' \0 o III -..,J rt CD f-' p,. ,: 'd Ii t-'- I. I"'"" <: ~ CD 0\ Ii ( t-h Ii o S I Cf.l rt CD i r·----- Ii f-' I t-'- ::J OQ Mor§an Coo ('"} o f-' o I Washington Co•. i N Ii III c, o ,:rt 1-'f-' t-'N CD o, t-'i:J SCale ~AAf!~Mio �-147- return rate was recorded on the Propst land which sustained a much lower rate of hunting pressure. Only one or two parties were obserVed using the property at anyone time. The Jones property which contains less than 160 acres of timbered bottom land apparently sustained the highest rate of harvest with nearly half of the 34 bands returned. Spring movements of quail from adjoining less intensively hunted river bottom would replenish the breeding population on this small area. Fear of overharvest therefore is probably unwarranted. Table 11. A summary of bobwhite quail banding, band return and harvest information from locations banded above Sterling during the fall of 1971. Banded to Unbanded Ratio Percent Banded Location Number Banded Number of Returns Percent Return Bianco 202 6 to 50+ 23.3 47 of 70+ 50+ Jones 34 15 44.1 5 of 23 25-30 Propst 127 22 17.3 10 of 22 4.0-50 Davies 79 8 10.1 No data Table 12. Age and sex ratio information Sterling during the fall of 1971. on quail banded Imm. Males upriver Imm. Females from Total Area Adult Males Adult Females Bianco 13 10 84 95 202 Propst 10 8 54 55 127 Jones 3 3 16 12 34 Davies 2 3 44 30 79 Lutes 1 0 6 1 8 Total 29 24 204 193 450 Questionnaire letters were sent to two persons contacted on, and known to have repeatedly hunted, the Bianco property. In addition, Mr. Bianco kept a rough running total of quail taken on his property by these men. The �-148- questionnaire returns indicated only 11 quail were taken. However, Mr. Bianco reported 70+ quail killed by these men. More than half, 47, were banded. This points out the failure of some hunters to accurately report. Returns in addition to those reported by Mr. Bianco indicate that a least one-fourth of the quail banded on the Bianco property were harvested. Population Estimates--The banded-unbanded ratios obtained from harvest samples (Table 11) provide a general basis .for population estimates. But, .any attempt to accurately determine populations on the banded sites could not be completed for several reasons. First, ingress and egress of quail before and during the hunting season makes it difficult to define the population. Second, some hunters covered adjoining areas during their hunt so that some of the quail were taken from other popUlations. In other words, the sites were not adequate in size for making accurate population or density calculations. Available information indicates the 202 quail banded on the Bianco site represented slightly over one-half of the total population. The trapping area was approximately a quarter-mile wide by a mile in length. The unfarmed river bottom was less than a half mile in width. Projections indicate densities of a bird-per-acre or more may have existed in this localized "hot spot." Approximately a mile and one-half of river bottom was included in the Propst trapping site. Projections from Table 11 again indicate a fall density in excess of one quail-per-two acres on land which was grazed in winter. Data on the Jones and Davies sites were considered inadequate for even proximal density estimates. Studies on the upriver properties have been terminated for two reasons. First, hunting pressure and harvest were higher than expected on the Bianco and Propst sites. Second, difficulties in obtaining accurate harvest data and population estimates do not justify the time and effort needed. Identification of Key Factors Limiting Bobwhite Quail This phase of study primarily involved measurement of habitat characteristics with respect to their impact on bobwhite population levels. Time limitations prevented collection of data quantifying habitat characteristics. Numerous observations were made during other phases of study concering possible habitat deficiencies. Some of these observations are briefly summarized here but more complete information will be forthcoming in future reports. Grazed and Ungrazed River Bottom Trapping success on the Lutes property compared to other lightly to ungrazed sites point out the impact of sustained livestock grazing on river bottom. Grazing, especially in spring and summer, destroys much of shrub and brush cover and suppresses forb production and the maturation of essential forb seeds. Nesting cover is also probably inadequate. �-149- When grazing is restricted to only winter use, as on the Propst site, forbs and brush have a chance to recover during the growing season and the impact on quail habitat is not nearly as critical. The Braddock land, within the Tamarack complex, was lightly pastured through the fall and winter and possibly yearlong. Shrubs and forbs made significant summer growth and provided fairly attractive fall food and cover. A few quail were trapped on the site in early fall. Trap destruction by livestock prevented winter trapping, but continued use by livestock through the winter opened the vegetation until it appeared unattractive as quail cover. It is not known whether any coveys existed there or not in winter. Lack of shrubby cover along the South Fork of the Republican River seemingly curtailed the potential of that drainage for bobwhite. Whistling counts totaled only a fraction of those along the lower South Platte. Again, extensive grazing is practiced along the Republican. Sex Ratio Comparisons As previously cited in the section on Tamarack sex ratios,numerous authors have considered the predominance of adult males in the population as evidence of female loss during the reproductive period. Robel (1965) provided uncertain data concerning a higher than average ratio of hens and speculated that abundant nesting cover was the reason why. Since Tamarack data indicate hens were proportionally more abundant in the adult population than expected, one might speculate that adequate nesting cover was available and/or predation on nesting hens was not too important. Visual Inspection of Quail Utilization of Habitat Types Late winter trapping on the Tamarack provided evidence coveys favored locations which contained above average resulting from early successional vegetative growth in More stable sites containing dense continual. stands of snowberry were not utilized as much. that wintering forb supplies disturbed sites. cordgrass or Plotting of wintering covey locations on a map (Fig. 5) provided little evidence of mass movements to locations adjacent to corn fields. However, those coveys living next to corn fields frequently fed there. More data, which may provide some quantitative support to these observations, will be forthcoming in future reports. �...150- LITERATURE CITED Davis, D. E. 1960. Estimating the numbers of game populations. pp. 5.15.27. In H. S. Mosby (Editor) Manual of Game Investigational Techniques.--The Wildlife Society, Washington, D. C. Kabat, C., and D. R. Thompson. 1963. dynamics and habitat management. 136 pp. Wisconsin quail, 1934-1962 population Wise. Conser. Dept. Tech. Bull. 30. Klimstra, W. D. 1950. Bob-white quail nesting and production in southeastern Iowa. Iowa State ColI. J. Sci. 24(4):385-395. Leopold, A. 1933. Game Management. C. Scribner's Sons, New York. 481 p , Petrides, G. A. 1954. Estimating the percentage kill in ringnecked pheasants and other species. J. Wild1. Mgmt. 18(3): 294-297. _____ , and R. Nestler. 1943. Age determination in juvenile bobwhite quail. Amer. Mid. Nat., 30:773-782. Robel, R. 1965. Differential winter mortality of bobwhites in Kansas. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(2) :261-266. Robson, D. S., and H. A. Regier. 1964. Sample size in Peterson markrecapture experiments. Trans. Amer. Fish. Society 93(3):215-226. Rosene, W. N. J. 1969. The Bobwhite Quail. 418 p. Rutgers Univ. Press, New Brunswick, Selleck, D. M., and C. M. Hart. 1957. Calculating the percentage kill from sex and age ratios. Calif. Fish and Game 43(4):309-316. Snedecor, G. W. 1956. Ames. 534 p. Statistical Methods. The Iowa State ColI. Press, Stoddard, H. L. .1931. The Bobwhi te Quail: Its Habi ts, Preservation and Increase. C. Scribner's Sons, New York. 559 p. + 69 plates. Taber, R. D. 1960. Criteria of sex and age. pp 6.1-6.60. In H~ S. Mosby (Editor) Manual of Game Investigational Techniques. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D. C. Prepared by Warren D. Snyder ~~ Wildlife Researcher . � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/62c7b95b87dff56ca0646f916bff5b98.pdf b5835fa57cb3d477c0b523659a2b49b8 PDF Text Text -71July, JOB PROGRESS State Work 4 Job Title Inventory Covered: Personnel: Game Range W-lOl-R-14 No. Plan No. Period REPORT COLORADO of: Project 1972 April Roland Investigations la Job No. of Range Manipulation 1, 1971 to March C. Kufeld, Regional Projects in Colorado 31, 1972 Biologists. ABSTRACT An inventory of range-type conversion projects located on u.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management lands in Colorado was continued. Since not all data from projects scheduled for evaluation in 1971 have been received from the Game, Fish and Parks Regions, presentation of 1971 data will be delayed until the 15th segment report. ��-73- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes the location, extent, environmental conditions, land use practices, type of treatment and effects of treatment on the range, livestock, and wildlife, for all completed range manipulation projects in Colorado that are located within the ranges of deer, elk and sage grouse, and to develop a processing system for information which describes proposed range manipulation projects. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, 3. To provide desired IBM listings agencies upon their request. codify, process METHODS anq analyze inventory of inventory data. data to cooperating AND MATERIALS An inventory of range-type conversion projects located on U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management lands in Colorado was continued using procedures outlined in Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks Administrative Directive No. 204, entitled "Range Vegetation Modification Projects". Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 204 call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project prior to completion and at the end of the 2nd, 5th and 10th years following treatment. During 1971, 2 year post-treatment evaluations were scheduled to be made on 31 vegetation modification projects completed in 1968. Five requests for retrieval of range vegetation modification project inventory data were processed during the 14th segment. Requests were made by the following: (1) Game, Fish and Parks Commissioner William Robinson; (2) Colorado Coop. Wildlife Research Unit; (3) U. S. Bureau �-74- of Land Management, Colorado State Office; (4) Future Studies Organization, Pioche, Nevada; and (5) U. S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Regional Office. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Inventory data sheets for some type-conversion projects completed in 1971, and some scheduled for 2 year post-treatment evaluations in 1971, have not yet been received from the Game, Fish and Parks Regions who are making the inventories and evaluations. Therefore, presentation of 1971 data will be delayed until the 15th segment report. Prepared by Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �-75July, JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO No. W-lOl-R-14 Investigations 2 Job No. Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer and Elk Winter Ranges - Beaver Creek Job Title Covered: Personnel: Game Range 4 Plan No. Period 1972 April Roland 1, 1971 through March C. Kufeld, William 31, 1972 C. Osborne, Jr., Martin C. Brandt ABSTRACT Two year post-spraying vegetation measurements were made on permanent pointquadrat plots established in 1968. Analysis of data has been delayed until literature reviews on forage value of oak study area plants for elk and deer are completed, so benefits of vegetation changes caused by spraying can be determined. Forty-eight food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by elk, and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response elk have exhibited toward them. Photographs showing vegetation conditions in the spray and control areas were retaken between August 30 and September 1, 1971 at 67 permanent photo points. All 115 permanent .001 acre pellet groups on Septbember 1, 1971. plots were cleared of deer and elk pellet ��-77- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER AND ELK WINTER RANGES - BEAVER CREEK Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk carrying capacity can be increased on oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2,4,5-TP to induce sprouting. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure percentage composition and cover of all plant species on the study area following treatment to determine vegetation changes that have occurred as a result of spraying with 2,4,5-TP in 1969. 2. To measure deer and elk use on the study area following treatment to determine changes in game use that have occurred as a result of spraying with 2,4,5-TP in 1969. 3. To summarize and analyze pre-and game use measurement data. post-treatment vegetation and METHODS AND MATERIALS Vegetation measurements were made on permanent point-quadrat plots established in 1968 (Fig. 1). Procedures for measuring vegetation were exactly the same as those used in 1968, when pre-treatment vegetation measurements were made (Kufeld 1970). Measurements began August 6, 1971 and were completed August 26. Photographs showing vegetation conditions in the spray and control areas were retaken between August 30, and September 1, 1971, at 67 permanent photo points established in 1968. All 115 permanent, .001 acre, circular pellet plots were cleared of deer and elk pellet gro~ps on September 1, 1971. Accumulated pellet groups will be counted in May, 1972, to determine game use changes due to spraying. An extensive review of literature was made to determine the forage value of oak study area plants for elk. Forty-eight food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by elk, and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response elk have exhibited toward them. �-78- Fig. 1. Measuring vegetation on a point quadrat plot. �-79- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A decision was made to delay the analysis of post-treatment vegetation measurement data until the literature review on forage value of oak study area plants for elk and a review for deer are completed. Thus, the vegetation measurement data are not presented herein. Elk forage plants in the 48 food habits studies were categorized by highly valuable, valuable and least valuable. This information will be used to determine the benefits of vegetation changes caused by spraying. Elk and deer forage value data will be entered on I.B.M. cards with vegetation measurement data when pre- and post-treatment vegetation data are analyzed. The elk food habits paper has been completed, and will soon be submitted for publication in a scientific journal or as a Division of Game, Fish and Parks Special Report. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1970. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer and elk winter ranges - Beaver Creek. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W-10l-R-12, WP-4, J-2, Game Research Rept. July. Pt. 1. pp. 95-112. 'j/, , ;. ';i,,-L(l,-,-cl C /t~'-,Lll tv, Prepared by 'I i' . • '-, / Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher ", ��July, -81- JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO No. W-lOl-R-14 4 Plan No. Job Title Period 1972 on Deer, Covered: Personnel: April Roland Game Range Investigations 3 Job No. Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 C. Kufeld ABSTRACT Pre-treatment game use measurements showed an average of 19 deer and 14 elk per square mile on the study area between September 3, 1970 and May 5, 1971. Units 2 and 5 were sprayed by helicopter on July 12, 1971 with 2,4,S-TP at 2 pounds per acre mixed with 4 gallons of water and ~ gallon of No. 2 diesel fuel per acre. Firelanes were bulldozed during August around the portions of units 1 and 7 which were to be burned. These units were burned on October 7 and 8, 1971 by personnel of the U.S. Forest Service with assistance from Game, Fish and Parks employes. Units 3 and 8 were double anchor chained on November 16, 17 and 18, 1971. All six treated units were seeded by helicopter in November between the first and second chainings with a mixture of grasses, forbs and shrubs at a rate of 18.9 pounds per acre. Forty-eight food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by elk and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response elk have exhibited toward them. ��-83- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be increased and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To make pre-treatment game use measurements. 2. To implement selected methods for improving in the 60 acre habitat improvement units. 3. To continue a literature deer and elk habitat review. METHODS AND MATERIALS Pre-treatment Deer and Elk Use Measurements Deer and elk pellet groups were removed from all 480, 0.05 acre pellet plots on September 3, 1970, and accumulated groups were counted May 5, 1971. In this study a pellet group is a definable group with more than 5 pellets. Pre-treatment measurements of cattle use and forage production were reported by Kufeld (1971). Implementation of Habitat Improvement Measures On July 12, 1971, 30 acre areas in the centers of habitat improvement units number 2 and 5 were sprayed by helicopter with 2,4,5-TP herbicide at a rate of 2 pounds per acre mixed with 4 gallons of water and 1/2 gallon of No.2 diesel fuel per acre (Fig. 1). A liquid detergent soap was added at a rate of 0.5 percent of the total spray and carrier volume to facilitate mixing of the chemical, water and diesel fuel. The remaining 30 acre areas within both units were left untreated for cover. In August, 1971, firelanes were constructed around the inside 30 acre perimeters of units 1 and 7. Lanes were about 25 feet wide and bulldozed down to mineral soil (Fig. 2). �-84- Unit 7 was burned on October 7, 1971, and Unit 1 on October 8. Fuels were not prepared before burning because of the additional cost involved. Vegetation was burned in its natural state (Fig. 3). Burning was supervised and conducted by personnel of the Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest. Game, Fish and Parks employees assisted with the burning. Each area was burned in sections for safety reasons. Two pumper trucks and a bulldozer were on hand in case the fire got out of control. The first fire line was ignited on the downwind side of the unit and allowed to burn to the bulldozed firelane. The next fire line was set upwind from the first, and this procedure repeated until the entire unit was burned. Ignition crews used propane brush burners and fuses. Diesel fuel pumped from hand garden sprayers was used to increase the fire intensity. On November 16, 17, and 18, 1971, the 30 acre centers of units 3 and 8 were anchor chained (Fig. 4). A 270 foot chain with 14 inch steel crossbars welded to each link in the center 90 feet was used (Fig. 5). Each foot of chain equipped with crossbars weighed 70 pounds, and the chain had a total weight of 16,570 pounds. The center modified chain was attached to the two 90 foot, smooth leader chains with swivels weighing 500 pounds each. The chain was pulled by two D-8, 46-A Caterpillar tractors. The units were chained twice with the second chaining in the opposite direction from the first. About 8 inches of snow was present when the chaining was done. Between the first and second chainings all six 30 acre treated areas were seeded by helicopter at a rate of 18.9 pounds per acre (Fig. 6). Species used and seeding rates are presented in Table 1. Units 4 and 6 were left untreated sprayed, burned and chained. for purposes of comparison with those An extensive review of literature was made to determine the forage value of oak study area plants for elk. Forty-eight food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by elk, and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response elk have exhibited toward them. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-treatment Deer and Elk Use Measurements Pre-treatment deer and elk use measurements are shown in Table 2. Deer density ranged from 7 deer per square mile in unit 8 to 30 in unit 1 with an average of 19 for all units. The relatively low deer density for the �-85- September 3, through May 5, period is because deer are absent from the area during mid-winter. The study area is primarily a springsummer-fall deer range. Elk density ranged from 8 elk per square mile in unit 4 to 22 in unit 3 with an average of 14 for all units. The study area is primarily a fall-winter-spring elk range and normally receives a higher degree of use than was recorded for this particular year. Many elk which usually winter in the study area summer in the Muddy Pass area to the southeast. An early snowstorm can catch many of the herd on the east side of the divide and force them into the Muddy Creek drainage for the winter. Aerial elk population trend counts made annually by Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks Northwest Regional personnel indicate this happened in the fall of 1970 (White 1971). The lower overall use should not affect pre- and post-treatment elk use comparisons, however, because it is the relative degree of use per unit that is of primary importance. Implementation of Habitat Improvement Measures Spraying Gambel oak in units 2 and 5 appeared to be about 80 percent top killed 5 weeks after spraying. The kill appeared to be fairly uniform in both units with the exception of one or two small spots that appeared to have been missed. The spray was kept within the prescribed boundaries with very little if any adjacent drift damage. Burning Fall burning of Gambel oak can be done only after the leaves have turned brown and begun to drop which happens about October 1. Unless the summer has been particularly dry and fire danger very high a good burn cannot be obtained in green vegetation. A second factor which must be considered is the U.S. Forest Service National Fire Danger Buildup Index, which is based on daily weather data and reflects the ignitability of fuels. The fire danger buildup index on the Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest is considered low from 0-30, moderate 31-55, high 56-90, very high 91-140, and extreme over 140 (U. S. Forest Service 1969). Burning of standing Gambel oak should only be considered when the buildup index is over 40 and preferably between 60 and 75. Above 75 the danger becomes too high for safe prescribed burning. Fall burning is thus confined to a relatively short period between October 1, and the first snowfall during which the buildup index must be at least 40 and no more than 75. Since these conditions do not always prevail there are some years when fall burning is not possible. U. S. Forest Service �-86- weather data from a site 4 miles northwest of the study area shows the potential oak burning period which existed during each of the last 6 years as follows: 1966 - 11 days; 1967 - 53 days; 1968 - 32 days; 1969 - no burning period; 1970 - 3 days; 1971 - 11 days. On October 7 and 8, 1971, the days units 7 and 1 were burned, the fire danger buildup index was 46 and 49 respectively. Weather data for those days are shown in Table 3. Fire danger in 1971, was above the previous 6 year average during June 20-30, July and August, but below average for September (Table 4). Thus, the vegetation was drier than average during the growing season, but wetter weather in September probably made 1971 about an average year for burning in October. Neither unit burned uniformly. Results varied from almost total incineration of all vegetation with just a few dead snags left standing (Fig. 7), to only partial removal of the understory with little or no damage to the larger oaks (Fig. 8). On much of the area most of the understory was removed with partial destruction of the overstory (Fig. 9). Figs. 7, 8 and 9 can be compared with Fig. 10, which shows typical unburned vegetation adjacent to the burned area. The extent to which vegetation was consumed by the fire varied with wind velocity and brush density. Strong wind gusts caused the fire to crown and burn intensely resulting in a good burn. When the wind subsided only the understory was consumed. The heavier the brush the more wind was required to penetrate it and fan the flames. Thus, some of the heaviest thickets were relatively undamaged. Since weather conditions prior to and during the burning appeared to be about average, it is felt that results are typical of the type of burn which one can expect to obtain during the fall in the Gambel oak type. For purposes of big game habitat improvement a non-uniform burn such as this is probably better than a complete burn because patches of cover are left intact. Thus, fall prescribed burning can be used to open large areas of Gambel oak habitat without destroying all of the cover. Anchor Chaining Immediate effects of double chaining are shown in Fig. 11. Results of chaining were uniform throughout beth units. Most large trees were snapped off at the base while a few were uprooted. Some smaller serviceberry, chokecherry and oakbrush whips sprang back after the chain passed, but chaining was very effective in opening the areas. A great deal of slash remains (Fig. 12), but most of this should be concealed from view within 2 or 3 years by new vegetation. �-87- Aerial Seeding Several units were checked on the ground and by helicopter immediately after seed application. Seeds were visible on the snow and appeared to be uniformly distributed. Original project plans called for a survey to determine the rodent population level, and implementation of a control program prior to reseeding to reduce seed loss if a high rodent population was found to exist. Nelson, Wilson and Goebel (1970) compared rodent depredations on seeds on untreated plots and on plots where rodents were controlled by broadcasting zinc phosphide treated wheat 1 week prior to seeding. Within 6 weeks after fall seeding, rodents, particularly Peromyscus maniculatus, had caused 98 percent depredation of all broadcast wheatgrass seeds in plots not protected by poison grain. Little or no damage was observed on poisoned plots. In mid-September, 1971, a trapline was established on the Hightower Mountain study area through cooperation of the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife with a resulting catch of 30 rodents per 100 trap nights. Eighty percent were deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and 20 percent were chipmunks (Eutamias sp.). According to the B.S.F. & W. biologist this population was high enough to warrant control of rodents. However, due to contemporary action by the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Commission prohibiting use of poisons to control predators where state funds are involved the rodent control work was not permitted. Literature Review Elk forage plants in the 48 food habits studies were categorized by highly valuable, valuable and least valuable. This information will be used to determine the benefits of vegetation changes caused by spraying, burning, chaining and reseeding. The information will be submitted for publication in a scientific journal or as a Division of Game, Fish and Parks Special Report. �-88- LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1971. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W-10l-R-13, WP-4, J-3, Game Research Rept. July. Pt. 1. pp. 23-86. Nelson, Jack R., A. M. Wilson, and Carl J. Goebel. 1970. Factors influencing broadcast seeding in bunchgrass range. J. Range Mgt. 23(3) :163-170. U. S. Forest Service. 1969. National fire danger rating system handbook. F.S.H. 5109.11, Reg. 2. Supplement No.1. June, 1969. Amendment No.5. White, Claude E. 1971. Principal Game Biologist, Northwest Region. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Grand Junction, Colo. Personal communication. I Prepared by J .,J. / / 'AI ). /{~'-tJ( L! ~----~~~ _ "tlt:6-LQ ,,,c/ . C·· Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Species and seeding rates used to reseed units 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8 on trre Hightower oak study area on November 17 and 18, 1971. Purity Species Grasses Seed Specifications Percent Germination Mountain Pounds Per Acre Agropyron cristatum (Fairway strain) 95% 90% 2.22 Agropyron intermedium (Amur strain) 95 90 3.33 95 90 4.44 95 90 1.11 95 90 Bromus inermis (Lincoln strain) Dactylis glomerata (Potomac strain) Festuca ovina duriscula Sub-total 1.11 12.21 I co Forbs Shrubs Meticago sativa (Ladak variety) 99% 49% 0.75 Meticago sativa (Nomad variety) 99 80 0.75 Meticago sativa (Rambler variety) 99 73 0.75 Melilotus officinalis 99 85 Cercocarpus montanus Purshia II tridentata Seed collected near Woodland 11 Seed collected near Maybell, Sub-total !I 11 Park, Colorado, Colorado, 98% 85% 99 85 at an elevation at an elevation of 8,000 feet. of 6,000 feet. 1.11 3.36 1.11 Sub-total 2.22 3.33 TOTAL 18.90 <o I �-90- Table 2. . s . -1/ Pre-treatment deer and elk on 8 habitat improvement um.t Animal Unit No. Total Pellet Groups Pellet Groups Per Ac. Animal Days Use Per Ac .J) ,1/ 1 18 150 11.5 30 2.7 2 10 83 6.4 17 4.7 3 15 125 9.6 25 3.2 4 8 67 5.2 14 5.7 5 9 75 5.8 15 5.3 6 15 125 9.6 25 3.2 7 9 75 5.8 15 5.3 8 4 33 2.5 7 11.4 Ave. 11.0 92 7.1 19 4.2 1 7 58 4.5 12 6.6 2 7 58 4.5 12 6.6 3 13 108 8.3 22 3.6 4 5 42 3.2 8 10.0 5 8 67 5.2 14 5.7 6 6 50 3.8 10 8.0 7 11 92 7.1 19 4.2 8 11 92 7.1 19 4.2 Ave. 8.5 71 5.5 14 5.7 ~ ~ ~ Animal Density Per Sq. Mi. Acres per Animal Eer Month _/ t=l ~ H ~ 1/ Period of use was from 9-30-70 to 5-5-71. u Defecation rate for deer and elk = 13 groups per day. 1/ Accumulation period = 244 days or 8.026 months. 4/ One month = 30.4 days. �-91- Table 3. Weather data on days when units 7 and 1 were burned. (Unit 7) October 7, 1971 (Unit 1) October 8, 1971 Temperature: Max. 670 680 Min. 270 280 Precipitation 0 0 Ave. Cloud Cover 0% 10% Relative Humidity 25% 25% Weather Data Wind Direction N, then W, then SW Wind Velocity o to 15 mph NW 0 to 10 mph Table 4. Fire danger buildup index data for 1966-1971 inc. , at Curriers Ranch, 4 miles northwest of the Hightower Mountain oak control study area. Average Fire Danger Bui1duE Index Sept. Aug. July Summer Year June 20-30 1966 103 127 58 61 85 1967 28 33 60 52 46 1968 85 68 18 71 56 1969 13 42 74 35 47 1970 38 38 47 21 36 1971 89 96 61 35 67 Ave. All Years 59 67 53 46 56 �-92- Fig. 1. On July 12, 1971, 30 acre areas in the centers of Units 2 and 5 were sprayed with 2,4,5-TP. Fig. 2. In August, 1971, firelanes were constructed around the inside 30 acre perimeters of Units 1 and 7. �-93- Fig. 3. Units 7 and 1 were burned on October 7 and 8, 1971. Fig. 4. On November 16, 17 and 18, 1971, the 30 acre centers Units 3 and 8 were double anchor chained. of �-94- Fig. 5. The center 90 foot section of the chain used in Units 3 and 8. This section weighs 70 pounds per foot. Fig. 6. In November, 1971, between the first and second chainings all six 30 acre treated areas were seeded by helicopter with grasses, forbs and shrubs at a rate of 18.9 pounds per acre. �-95- Fig. 7. Most effective burn obtained in burned units. Vegetation was almost completely burned with just a few dead snags left standing. Fig. 8. Least effective burn obtained in burned units. Only part of the understory was removed with little or no change to larger oaks. �-96- Fig. 9. On much of the burned area most of the understory removed with partial destruction of the overstory. Fig. 10. Typical unburned vegetation adjacent was to the burned area. �-97- Fig. 11. Edge of the chained area one day after double chaining. Fig. 12. A great deal of slash remains in the chainings but most of this should be concealed from view within 2 or 3 years by new vegetation. ��-99July, JOB PROGRESS State of Work w-10l-R-14 Plan No. 5 Job Title Period REPORT COLORADO No. Project 1972 April Harold Sheep Range 1, 1971 to March Investigations 1 Job No. Bighorn Covered: Personnel: Game Range Inventory 31, 1972 R. Shepherd, Daane A. Crook, James R. Hayward ABSTRACT Work preliminary to a range inventory of the Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks bighorn sheep study areas was performed during the period of this report. This included acquisition of color aerial photographs of the study areas, preparation of field herbaria as plant identification aids, photography of plant species and preparation of photo aids for plant identification, the design and fabrication of an improved Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame, and the field testing of two range-plant inventory devices. ��-101- BIGHORN SHEEP RANGE INVENTORY Harold R. Shepherd P. S. OBJECTIVE To inventory, contrast and evaluate certain range attributes and an unproductive bighorn sheep habitat. of a productive SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Contract color aerial photography of the two study areas to a scale of 1:12000 on Kodak Aero-Negative film, providing 60% lineal series overlap and 30% overlap of adjacent flight lines. Secure 3 sets of 9x9-inch color stereo-pair prints from above negatives and begin delineating vegetative types on prints for the preparation of vegetative-type maps. Delineate types on stereo-pair photographs with mirror stereoscope as described in "Forester's Guide to Aerial Photo Interpretation, Agricultural Handbook No. 308" and "The Manual of Photogrammetry" of the American Society of Photogrammetry. 2. Collect, identify, press and preserve plants representative of the species composition of the vegetation found within the summer and winter bighorn sheep ranges of the Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks areas. Prepare herbarium mounts of plants collected, following standard procedures described by H. D. Harrington and L. W. Durrell (1957). Use Colorado State University herbarium facilities and the assistance of its personnel in the identification of plants. 3. Take in situ color photographs of range plants. Obtain 2-l/2"x3-l/2" color prints and assemble in several sets for the later use of field crews in identifying plants encountered along transects, in typemapping, and in food habits investigation. 4. Prepare several sets of plants mounted between plastic on 8-l/2"xll" herbarium-grade paper and arrange systematically in loose-leaf notebooks as a part of the equipment to be used by student crews in transecting and type mapping and by other personnel in food habits and nutrition studies. 5. Arrange for the manufacture (Daubenmire 1959). 6. Test two types of transecting to learn which is best suited to the vegetational and topographic features of the Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks areas and to the constraints imposed by the size of the areas to be sampled and the objectives of the comprehensive bighorn study. of Daubenmire canopy-coverage frames �-102- (1) The point-contact method 1967, Anderson 1971). (2) Daubenmire's (Drew 1944, Fayle 1959, Loveless canopy-coverage method (Daubenmire 1959, 1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Color Aerial Photography of Study Areas The Trickle Mountain, Sheep Mountain and Buffalo Peaks areas were vertically photographed on Kodak Color Aero-Negative film, at a scale of 1:12000, by Kucera and Associates. The photography was performed August 17, and September 7 and 9, for the Trickle Mountain area, August 17 for the Sheep Mountain area, and September 7 for the Buffalo Peaks area. The photography resulted in three sets of 9x9-inch color and one set of black and white stereograms. rn addition to the aerial photography, many color photographs were taken of selected vegetation types to serve as ground-truth information and aids in the interpretation of aerial photo features and in the delineation of vegetational types. Preparation of Field Herbaria Two hundred and sixty-nine species of plants representative of those occurring on summer and winter bighorn sheep ranges within the three study areas were collected. Nine specimens of each species collected were pressed. Identifications to species were made in the field and through use of Colorado State University Herbarium collections and facilities. The identifications were later checked by Dr. William M. Klein and Dr. Richard G. Walter of the Botany and Plant Pathology Department of Colorado State University. One specimen of each species collected was donated to Dr. Richard M. Hansen, Department of Range Science, Colorado State University and used to prepare reference microscope slides used in bighorn sheep food habits work. A second specimen of each species was donated to Colorado State University for inclusion in the University herbarium, and a standard herbarium mount was prepared of a third specimen of each species for inclusion in the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Research Center Range Project herbarium. The remaining specimens were mounted on 8-l/2xll-inch, heavy, herbarium paper and encased in laminating film. These were then used to prepare five sets of field herbaria organized in loose-leaf binders according to flower color, family, genus and species. The herbaria will be used by student transecting crews as plant identification aids in transecting and vegetation type-mapping work and by other bighorn project personnel concerned with food habits and nutrition studies. �-103- Preparation of Photo Plant Identification Aids Color photographs were made of most of the species of plants collected, showing gross, vegetative and floral characteristics, habitat and associated species. Originals '·'ere35mm Ektachrome transparencies. From these, three sets of 2-l/2x3-l/2-inch color prints were made and labeled with the name of the plant and pertinent collection data. These color prints were then inserted into transparent plastic holders and assembled in three 8-l/2xll-inch loose-leaf binders, organized according to flower color, family, genus and species. The books of photographs will be used in conjunction with the field herbaria as plant identification aids. The collection of transparencies will be used, together with field herbaria and color prints, in intensive plant identification training for student field crews prior to and during field work. The transparencies will also be used in preparation of slide talks describing the study. Design and Manufacture of Canopy-Coverage Frames A Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame, patterned after descriptions by the originator (Daubenmire 1959) was made and field tested during the summer of 1971. Results of the field trials suggested several improvements. Working drawings were prepared for an improved model, and two frames were made. Testing Transecting Methods To learn which of two kinds of frames were best suited to range inventory of bighorn sheep habitat, field tests were made in three different vegetation types, using the Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame, and a point-quadrat frame (Loveless 1967). Forty of each kind of plot were established and read at seven-foot intervals along a 300-foot transect in each vegetation type. The vegetation types were alpine meadow, Douglas fir-ponderosa pine, and pinyon-juniper. Reading time for each plot was recorded as well as canopy-coverage data for each plant species and percentages of bare ground, rock and litter. In each vegetation type tested, the Daubenmire canopy-coverage method required the least time, less than half the time per plot required by the point-quadrat method for alpine meadow and pinyon-juniper types (Table 1). An examination of data from the two methods indicated that many more point-quadrat plots than Daubenmire canopy-coverage plots would be required for the same degree of accuracy. A statistical test was conducted to determine the number of Daubenmire canopy-coverage plots required per 300-foot transect in each of the three types transected to estimate within 95 percent of the mean at the 95 percent confidence level. The mlnlmum number of plots indicated at the stated accuracy was 143 and the maximum 181, depending upon the species involved. �-104- Table 1. Average number of minutes and read Daubenmire canopy-coverage vegetation types. Vegetation Alpine Douglas Type Point-Quadrat meadow fir-ponderosa Pinyon-juniper per plot required and point-quadrat pine (A) to establish plots in three Canopy-Coverage (B) A/B 7.9 3.6 2.2 4.8 2.5 1.9 7.6 3.5 2.2 The point-quadrat frame weighed several times as much as the Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame, and was cumbersome to transport, and required two men and a heavy hammer to set up. Plots whic~ fell among rocks and trees were sometimes impossible to establish at the exact spot desired because supporting stakes struck solid rock. In such instances the plot had either to be shifted a few inches or feet along the transect line or propped up with boulders or tree branches. This was time consuming, frustrating and conducive to subjective bias. In contrast, the Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame was light and small enough to be easily carried in a backpack, an important feature when working at high altitudes and in steep, rocky terrain. Taking into consideration all of the advantages discussed, the Daubenrnire canopy-coverage frame is clearly the better of the two methods tested for the bighorn sheep range inventory. �-105- LITERATURE CITED American Society of Photogrammetry. The manual of photogrammetry. Amer. Soc. Photogrammetry. Menasha, Wis. 876 p. Anderson, Allen E., Dean Medin, and David C. Bowden. 1971. Mule deer fecal group counts related to site factors on winter range. (Unpublished manuscript). Daubenmire, R. 1959. A canopy-coverage method of vegetational Northwest Science. 33(1):43-64. analysis. 1970. Steppe vegetation Sta. Tech. Bull. 62. 131 p. Drew, W. B. analysis of Washington. Wash. Agr. Exp. 1944. Studies on the point-quadrat method of botanical of mixed pasture vegetation. J. Agr. Res. 69:289-297. Fayle, D. C. F. 1959. The point contact method as a three-dimensional measure of ground vegetation. The Forestry Chronicle. 35(2): 135-141. Harrington, H. D., and L. W. Durrell. Sage Books. 203 p. 1957. How to identify plants. Kuchler, A. W. 1955. A comprehensive method of mapping vegetation. Annals Ass. of Amer. Geog. 65:404-415. Loveless, Charles M. 1967. Ecological characteristics of a mule deer winter range. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Tech. Pub. No. 20. 124 p , U. S. Forest Service. 1969. Forester's guide to aerial photo interpretation, Agr. Handbook No. 308. 40 p. Prepared by ::-< . "", ") ~·'h""'.f.-(u:",'1; K. I,' fj.J-f.J;'-. Harold R. Shepherd' Wildlife Researcher L,.",.i fL.L"'·-\" ��-107- JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work 1972 REPORT COLORADO No. W-10l-R-14 Plan No. 6 Job Title Period July, Personnel: LeRoy April Investigations 1 Job No. Pilot Covered: Game Range Plan for Game Management 1, 1971 to March Carlson, Bertram Unit Inventory 31, 1972 Baker, William McKean ABSTRACT Deer and elk distribution and abundance data in map overlay form were obtained from Allen Anderson and land-ownership status information was collected from Archuleta County Clerk records, respectively, for application to Poudre River and Pagosa Springs pilot areas computer mapping test operations. Wildlife and allied data were compiled and tabulated for Wildlife Management Units 61 (West Uncompahgre) and 62 (East Uncompahgre) following selection of those units for consideration this segment. Principal items of information that were compiled for both units included areal extents, human population characteristics of corresponding political entities, physiographic-climatic descriptions, land-ownership and land use acreage summaries, wildlife species checklists by game, nongame, bird and mammal categories, narrative and map descriptions of game species distributions and abundances, game harvests and seasons, game species introductions records and management problems checklists. ��-109- PILOT PLAN FOR GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT INVENTORY Bertram D. Baker and William T. McKean P. S. OBJECTIVE To compile broad descriptive and wildlife by wildlife management unit. species management information SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Describe physical Wildlife Management Units by name, number, boundaries, features, and climate. 2. Inventory by unit the cultural and physical characteristics including landownership status, land use status, and human population. 3. Inventory by unit wildlife characteristics including species lists, distribution and abundance, harvest data, introductions and/or past species records, census areas and routes, and research and/or management studies bibliographies. 4. Inventory habitat (range) characteristics of vegetation types, vegetation condition and trend, restoration projects, and transect records, all from existing sources. 5. Inventory 6. Test application of any item of information compiled or recorded in steps 1.-5. above in pilot computerized map project now in operation. present and future management problems size, by unit. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Activities under this job were temporarily interrupted March 1, 1972, when both authors were assigned duties on Project FW-lO-R~l. Therefore, completion of Unit 61 and 62 inventories will not be completed until late in 1972 or early 1973 after work obligations have been met on the "Planning Project". At that time a report, similar to the one compiled for Unit 22, will be submitted. Prepared by ( " /, /0' j,' (c i>." I') cd-}; V Bertram D. Baker Asst. Wildlife Researcher U ,', -'- ��-111- July, 1972 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project No. COLORADO 6 Work Plan Noo Job Title: Period Covered: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 April, Investigations 11 Job No. Evaluation of the Effects of Spring-SurrunerGrazing by Deer on Alfalfa 1968 through March, 1972 Personnel: Richard M. Bartmann, Marion C. Coghill, John F. Corey, Kenneth C. Dillinger, David A. Gordon, David F. Gordon, Robert Bo Gordon, James Ao Ives, Julius J. Klein, Orville E. Lance, Ruel A. Loucks, Dale F. Reed, Jerry L. Robinson, Donald Eo Speers, Steven Fo Steinert, Harold M. Swope, Fred C. Vanderau, Collidge Woodard, Rifle Falls Hatchery personnel and Rifle Gap Conservation Unit inmates. ABSTRACT The two portions of the alfalfa damage study, one at Rifle Gap and the other at the Little Hills Game Experiment Station, were terminated at the end of Segment 26. Major reasons for termination at Rifle Gap include greater levels of deer use than are found elsewhere in the state, unknown effects of moisture levels on plant responses when interacted with grazing, the limited need for the information and legal questions concerning applicability of results to other areas. Reasons for discontinuing the Little Hills portion include too little deer use on the unfenced field, the unnatural reactions of confined deer on the fenced field during spring and the same last three reasons mentioned above for Rifle Gap. At Rifle Gap, significant (p<.Ol) reductions in hay yields of 1216, 1109 and 835 pounds per acre were recorded for the first cutting in 1970 and 1971 and the second cutting in 1971, respectively. Total deer-nights use corresponding to these losses were 4560, 5224 and 1669 Deer densities during an earlier study of spring damage at Billy Creek were 2.7 deer per acre in both 1958 and 1959. The highest density recorded on a spring damage claim was 2.6 deer per acre. In both cases, deer were present for only about a one month period during spring. Densities for a comparable period at Rifle Gap were 3.6 and 4.0 deer per acre. The loss of air-dry forage on a deer-night basis was estimated at 6.6 and 5.2 pounds for the first cuttings and 14.0 and 12.4 pounds for the second cuttings. No significant (p) .05) differences were found in percentages of protein, fat, fiber, ash and nitrogen free extract between grazed and ungrazed hay samples taken in 1970 0 0 �-112- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Discontinue all research activities related to investigation damage to growing hay crops. 2. When necessary, continue to settle claims of deer damage to growing hay crops on the basis of three pounds of air-dry hay per deer-night. 3. Continue efforts to gain more favorable revisions to the wildlife damage law and, ultimately, to gain repeal of the State's liability for damages to private property incurred by wildlife. of deer �-113- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SPRING-SUMMER GRAZING BY DEER ON ALFALFA Richard M. Bartmann This report covers only the current phase of the alfalfa damage study which began in April, 1968. The initial effort under Work Plan 6, Job 11, occurred from April, 1961, through March, 1965, at Rifle Gap, and was an attempt at assessing the effects of summer-long grazing by deer on alfalfa production (Boyd 1963; Boyd 1964; Boyd 1965a; and Boyd 1965b). Numerous problems were encountered during the four-year study duration and only token data were collected for the first cutting of the final year. Results from five fenced and five unfenced plots, each 30 by 200 feet, indicated slightly more hay produced on areas grazed by deer than on ungrazed areas. Information on deer use was limited to five "spot checks" by the local Wildlife Conservation Officer during the month immediately preceding hay harvest. A second attempt at evaluating the effects of deer grazing on alfalfa production was made from April, 1965, through March, 1968, at the Little Hills Game Experiment Station (Boyd 1966; Gordon 1967; and Gordon 1968). A series of paired plots, each 9.6-square feet in area, were located on two different hayfields; one was to be irrigated and the other unirrigated. Results from the final year indicated nearly equal production on grazed and ungrazed plots. Deer counts showed negligible use on one field and light use on the other, and then only for about a one month period. Numerous uncontrolled variables were cited as responsible for the lack of valid results. The third phase of the alfalfa damage study was a final attempt to answer questions concerning the effects of deer grazing on alfalfa production (Gordon 1969; Gordon 1970; and Gordon and Bartmann 1971). The study was conducted on West Rifle Creek and data were collected for two seasons. The study was terminated at the end of Segment 26 and the following is a final report of this effort. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine alfalfa. the effect of spring-summer DESCRIPTION grazing by deer on production of OF AREA In 1968, the Division of Game, Fish and Parks purchased the Charles W. Clark ranch on West Rifle Creek, about 10 miles north of Rifle, Garfield County, for development as part of the Rifle Gap State Recreation Area. This property had a history of spring and summer deer grazing on alfalfa fields and, since it was now Division property, was considered an appropriate study site. �-114- The Rifle Gap study field is located along West Rifle Creek (Fig. 1). It contains 25.7 acres II and is oriented in a general east-west direction (Fig. 2). The field slopes downward from west to east at about a four percent grade. A road borders the north side behind which are steep hills with pinyon (Pinus edulis)-juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) overstory. West Rifle Creek borders the south side of the field immediately beyond which are steep hills with pinyon-juniper overstory interspersed with open sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) flats. METHODS AND MATERIALS Study Field Preparation During April, 1968, soil samples were taken from the study field and sent to the Soil Testing Laboratory at Colorado State University to determine fertilizer requirements. The following May, about 350 pounds per acre of 45 percent phosphate fertilizer were spread on about a 20-acre portion of the field. These 20 acres were then plowed, disced, and seeded with Ladak alfalfa at 12 pounds per acre and a nurse crop of Colorado 37 oats at 24 pounds per acre by a private contractor. A poor seeding job by the contractor, problems with the irrigation and little rain until late summer created a poor stand of alfalfa. bare areas were reseeded with a hand-operated seeder the following but cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) was still abundant. system, The spring, , , The field had originally been flood irrigated, but it was decided that' better water distribution could be accomplished by sprinkler irrigation. A sprinkling system was set up with water being pumped out of the original main irrigation ditch. Irrigation, once started, was continued around the clock until completed. Sprinkler lines were moved every 12 hours to get the newly seeded field started, and every 24 hours thereafter. The field could be irrigated once in eight days when lines we re moved every 24 hours. Precipitation from April through August, as measured at the nearest weather station in Rifle, was slightly below normal in 1968, slightly above normal in 1969 and 1970, and about 25 percent below normal in 1971 (U. S. Department of Commerce 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971). The norm for this period was 4.69 inches. Study Design A plot size of 12 by 200 feet was selected to sample alfalfa yields on grazed and ungrazed areas. The width conformed to a standard l2-foot l/previous reports listed the field size at 16 acres. Recent calculations show the total acreage to be 25. 7 acres of which nearly 20 acres were reseeded for the study. Accordingly, all data in this final report are considered in relation to the revised acreage figure. �-115- cutterbar on a self-propelled swather. The 200-foot length was convenient to the width of the field and would, hopefully, provide a sufficient sample of hay to minimize variability. Accordingly, the corners of 42 possible 15 by 200 foot plots, spaced 30 feet apart were marked with steel fence posts. The IS-foot width allowed room for the swather and baler to travel through the plots after they were fenced (Figs. 3 and 4). The plots were aligned across the short length of the field to facilitate moving irrigation pipe. Hay production on all plots was measured at both first and second cuttings in 1969. The hay was first cut the long length of the field across the ends of the plots. Care was taken to cut as close to each plot as possible. Hay on the plots was harvested by cutting a swath down the center. The hay adjacent to each plot was then cut with the corner markers being removed and replaced as the swather approached and passed. Baling was accomplished in the same pattern as cutting. The baler was tripped before entering the first plot and again after the last hay from each plot was picked up. The bales were marked as they emerged from the baler. As soon as baling was complete on the plots, the bales were weighed to the nearest pound on a chatillion spring scale (Fig. 5). After the plots were fenced, the swather left a small strip of hay along each side of the fences. This residual hay was mowed with a small garden tractor fitted with a four-foot cutterbar attachment. During the first cutting this loose hay was hauled off the field. At second cutting it was sparse enough to leave on the field. Sample Plot Selection and Fencing Comparison of hay yields on grazed and ungrazed areas was by paired plots. Plot pairing was on a production basis using the 1969 second cutting data (Table 1). There were fewer weeds in the second crop and more pairs could be selected. For purposes of plot palrlng, the field was stratified into three sections; northwest, northeast, and southwest. Only plots within each strata were paired. A five-pound difference was chosen as the maximum allowable between plot pairs. Whenever three or more plots fell within this limit, the two closest to each other in the field were used. Fourteen pairs of plots were selected with a coin toss determining which one would be protected and which one unprotected from deer use. Plot fencing was completed in September, 1969 (Fig. 6). Wooden posts were set at each corner and a 10-foot steel post driven every 10 feet between corners. Two courses of 39-inch woven wire were strung on the posts to produce a 7-l/2-foot high fence. Gates for the plot ends were made of two courses of woven wire fastened to steel posts. The gates were closed at the beginning of the growing season, about April 1, and left open after the second cutting each year. �-116R93W Study Field ~ 10 ~I/I' II HOGBACK U.S. 6-24 Fig. 1. Vicinity map of Ri fle Gap alfalfa damage study field. �N Countinc;» ~ ~t~tl(H'I~~t!If!£J!P \~-- __ ------- Road ;-.--=-"'7.., ••••••• •.....•~ , ", \ , I \ " '\ ) ( Reseeded area \ Freid boundary \ \ \ \ \. "' .•.. Fenced plot Unfenced plot Fig. 2. I Layout of the Rifle Gap study field and paired plot locations. ( , , ) I ~ ~ -...J I �I t-' t-' 00 I Fig. 3. Swathing hay on a fenced plot on the Rifle Gap alfalfa field. R. M. Bartmann photo. �I I-' I-' -0 I Fig. 4. Baling hay on a fenced plot on the Rifle Gap alfalfa field. R. M. Bartmann photo. �I I-' N o I Fig. 5. Weighing baled hay to measure production on plots grazed and ungrazed by deer on the Rifle Gap alfalfa field. R. M~ Bartmann photo. �-121- Table l. Hay yields on potential sample plots on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1969, and plot pairs selected from second cutting data. First Cutting Plot No. Yield (lbs) Second Cutting Yield (lbs) Plot No. Northwest 12 13 10 14 6 9 11 7 2 8 5 4 3 1 Northeast 28 33 16 19 17 15 22 23 18 21 32 29 20 34 31 27 30 26 24 25 294 288 280 278 276 275 251 143 176 172 158 154 145 140 128 127 102 86 70 68 65 40 3 Fenced 3 Unfenced 4 Unfenced 4 Fenced 5 Unfenced 5 Fenced 2 Fenced 2 Unfenced 1 Fenced 1 Unfenced Section of Field 15 16 24 19 29 28 32 27 17 34 23 31 18 25 22 33 26 30 21 20 321 312 292 286 280 270 264 258 256 242 237 236 232 224 220 194 173 169 158 152 Southwest 40 38 39 41 37 42 36 35 Section of Field 8 12 10 13 6 14 7 11 9 5 2 1 3 4 346 326 318 312 294 294 290 289 286 283 278 266 262 250 Plot Pairs 142 142 134 118 115 114 108 107 104 102 98 98 96 85 84 84 76 76 71 No weight 6 Unfenced 6 Fenced 9 Unfenced 9 Fenced 11 Unfenced 11 Fenced 10 Unfenced 10 Fenced 7 Fenced 7 Unfenced 8 Fenced 8 Unfenced Section of Field 36 41 37 38 40 35 42 39 179 168 164 164 164 162 160 141 13 Fenced 12 Fenced 13 Unfenced 12 Unfenced 14 Unfenced 14 Fenced �I i-' N N I Fig. 6. Plots fenced to exclude deer grazing on the Rifle Gap alfalfa field. Harold M. Swope photo. �-123- Deer Counts Deer on the field were counted during the growing season to enable comparison of deer use with differences in hay yields on paired plots. A counting station was located across the road along the north side of the field about one-third the distance from the west end. The observer arrived at the counting station about one-quarter to one-half hour prior to the first count and remained there until the last count was made. Counting was accomplished with a hand-held spotlight and 7-power binoculars. With few exceptions, the deer were not spooked by the observers presence or the light. Deer were counted on the entire 25.7-acre field as it was impossible to differentiate the old from the newly seeded area at night. In 1970, weekly counts were made beginning about the first of April and ending at second cutting about the first of September. A count was made every hour from 7 P.M. to 5 A.M., MST. Weekly counts were again made in 1971, but only three hourly counts were made per night from 9 P.M. to 11 P.M., MST. This reduction in the number of hourly counts was promoted by analysis of previous years' data (Gordon and Bartmann 1971). Proximate Analysis There was some concern over the effects of grazing on the nutritional quality of alfalfa. An attempt at approaching this matter was made in 1970. The last bale from each plot was labeled with plot number, treatment, and cutting. After second cutting, all bales were taken to the Research Center in Fort Collins for proximate analysis. RESULTS Hay Harvest Hay harvest data for 1970 and 1971 are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Grazed plots averaged less hay than protected plots all four times. These differences were significant (p <.01) for the first cutting both years and for the second cutting in 1971, while the difference for the second cutting in 1970 was not (p> .05). In most cases, alfalfa within the fenced plots was noticeably taller than that outside (Fig. 7). The plot yield data were projected acre basis. These estimated are: to estimate production 1970 losses on a per 1971 First cutting 1216 pounds 1109 pounds Second cutting 581 pounds 835 pounds �-124- Table 2. Hay yields on grazed and ungrazed alfalfa damage study field, 1970. Plot Pair Yield Grazed plots at the Rifle Gap (Lbs) Ungrazed Difference First Cutting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 236 308 332 323 298 312 319 219 335 320 235 290 257 212 294 319 272 454 308 394 356 304 392 360 412 388 307 374 58 - 11 + 60 - 131 10 82 37 85 57 - 40 - 177 - 98 50 - 162 x difference - 67 pounds Second Cutting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 51 208 192 100 84 88 58 74 112 92 72_ 122 62 30 63 117 118 216 164 101 123 92 138 120 34 123 134 149 12 + 91 + 74 - 116 80 - 13 65 18 26 28 58 1 72 - 119 x difference 32 pounds �-125- Table 3. Hay yields on grazed and ungrazed plots at the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1971. Plot Pair Yield (Lbs) Grazed Difference Ungrazed First Cutting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 l3 14 224 344 287 290 233 246 248 263 268 344 359 235 227 203 - 148 - 105 40 88 92 66 + 20 56 72 + 57 - 42 31 39 - 154 312 324 343 356 325 318 402 302 299 287 301 275 332 351 61 pounds x difference Second Cutting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 17 112 110 95 30 114 47 68 82 129 79 43 29 28 30 3 23 80 - 117 - 45 - 104 - 90 - 25 + 65 - 10 82 63 - 43 47 109 133 175 147 159 151 158 107 64 89 125 92 71 + x difference - 46 pounds �•... I N 0' I Fig. 7. Differences between grazed and ungrazed alfalfa were usually noticeable to varying degrees. The above photo represents an extreme contrast immediately prior to the second harvest. The poor appearance of the alfalfa is a result of not being irrigated during the second growth period. R. M. Bartmann photo. �-127- Deer Counts The highest count for the hours of 9 P.M. to 11 P.M., MST, are used to calculate deer-nights use on the study field (Fig. 8). The highest number of deer seen on the field, 132, was in the spring of 1971. Both years, deer numbers declined sharply beginning the third week in Mayas the migrant deer left. The estimated 5224 total deer-nights of grazing during the first cutting in 1971 was about 15 percent more than the estimated 4560 deer-nights in 1970. This difference would have been greater had not there been a 15day longer period of deer exclusion (plot gates closed) in 1970; 102 days in 1970 and 87 days in 1971. Deer use of the second crop also was greater in 1971. There were 1669 deer-nights use estimated that year compared to 1021 deer-nights in 1970. The period of deer exclusion was slightly longer the second year; 44 days in 1970 and 50 days in 1971. Mean deer densities on the entire 24.7-acre unfenced portion of the field were estimated for both cuttings both years using the maximum hourly counts from each week. The deer per acre estimates are: 1970 1971 First cutting 1.8 2.4 Second cutting 0.9 1.4 The pattern of deer distribution on the study field in previous years was observed to be non-uniform (Gordon 1970; and Gordon and Bartmann 1971). An area around the counting station had noticeably fewer deer than the rest of the field. The same situation was noted again during counts and also during several "spot checks" on other nights in 1971. Inspection of hay weight data does not reveal any gross irregularities in paired plot yields from that portion of the field around the counting station and those from the remainder of the field. It is probable that deer numbers increased on this area later in the night or on nights when the observer was not present. Alternatively, hay yields may be reduced by lesser numbers of deer, or changes in productivity between plot pairs may have occurred naturally. Proximate Analysis Results of the proximate analyses performed on hay samples from the first and second cuttings in 1970 are summarized in Table 4. None of the differences between grazed and ungrazed plots were significant (p>. 05) for any of the factors tested. �-128- 140 130 120 110 100 ~'1 90 0:: I \ ," , , II I \\ \ , \ I \ ~ 80 , I.L o 70 , , ~ 60 , ::::> \ I , 40 30 20 10 I ,,, \,,I I , " 0:: W 50 1971 \ W z 1970 ,I ,,, , V ,,, ,,, ,,, ,, .. ~- -.. I '"I I ,, 2 345 APR 1 234 .1~ MAY 1 234 .1~ JUN MONTH I 2345123412 .1~ a JUL --I ~ AUG-+SEP WEEK Fig. 8. The high number of deer counted per night during weekly counts on the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1970 pno 1971. �-129- Table 4. Results of proximate analyses of hay samples from the Rifle Gap alfalfa damage study field, 1970. (n = 14). First Cutting Grazed Ungrazed Calc. J:./ Second Cutting Grazed Ungrazed Calc. J:./ (%) (%) "t" .05 13 df 0.608 14.81 15.89 0.553 2.49 0.285 3.92 3.66 1.386 49.92 51.19 0.619 41.90 42.10 0.073 Ash 6.09 6.09 0.007 7.27 8.07 1.348 Nitrogen Free Extract 33.16 32.01 0.717 32.09 30.28 0.725 Analysis (%) (%) "t" .05 13 df Protein 8.25 7.94 Fat 2.57 Fiber )) Tabular "t" .05, 13 df 2.160. DISCUSSION The relationship between deer numbers and loss in hay production for the first cutting was inverse. Estimated hay Los'swas 9 percent less in 1971, while estimated deer use increased about 15 percent. For the second cutting, hay loss and deer use increased 44 and 63 percent, respectively. Estimates of forage loss on a deer-night basis were calculated from the Rifle Gap data to compare with the three pounds per deer-night figure used in settling claims of deer damage to growing hay. These estimates are: 1970 1971 First cutting 6.6 pounds 5.2 pounds Second cutting 14.0 pounds 12.4 pounds The above values are not indicative of forage consumption by deer. Rather, they represent the response of alfalfa to deer grazing interacted with growing conditions. An evaluation of results to date, of problems involved in continuing the study, and of benefits to be derived was made after conclusion of field work and data analysis in Segment 26. It was decided that little could be gained by continuing and the study wa s terminated. Some of the considerations influencing this decision are discussed below. Another portion of the study, to be done at the Little Hills Game Experiment Station, was also terminated. A brief summary of this work is included at the end. �-130- The results from the Rifle Gap field are the first since damage studies were begun in Colorado to show reduced hay production on deer grazed areas. One possible explanation for this relates to intensity and seasonal duration of deer use. Estimated deer densities during the study at Billy Creek (calculated from raw data) were 2.7 deer per acre in both 1958 and 1959. However, this was only for a one month period from mid-April to mid-May. Densities at Rifle Gap for the same period were 3.6 and 4.0 deer per acre in 1970 and 1971, respectively. Calculated densities based on acreage and deer count figures given in claims submitted for spring damage to alfalfa range from 0.1 to 2.6 deer per acre. About 75 percent figured less than 1.0 deer per acre and nearly all were for only a one to two month period in early spring prior to deer migration. No comparison of deer densities for the second cutting can be made as only incomplete data from a previous study are available for this period. A few damage claims were submitted, but nearly all were for irrigated hay. Calculated densities on these areas ranged from 0.04 to 1.0 deer per acre, except for one eight-acre field which had 4.4 deer per acre. Dates of damage varied from August through October. There were 0.9 and 1.4 deer per acre on the unirrigated second hay crop at Rifle Gap during 1970 and 1971, respectively. The s~asonal duration of deer use at Rifle Gap differed somewhat from that at B~ly Creek. The pattern of deer use was similar through mid-May, but at Ri~le Gap, a resident herd maintained relatively light but constant grazing pressure through harvest. How much this contributed to the recorded loss in hay production is not known. The method of irrigation could play an important role in hay response to deer grazing. The efficiency of sprinkler irrigation at Rifle Gap was probably less than with the flood irrigation at Billy Creek. According to water out-put tables for the sprinkler system, 12 inches of water should have been put on the field with two irrigations; whereas only 6 inches were actually measured. Evaporation, particularly during the hotter daylight hours, was probably one reason for this difference. Other factors that could be equally or more important than the ones already mentioned above relate to edaphic and climatic conditions, and alfalfa variety. The effects of deer grazing intensity on alfalfa production still remain largely unanswered. It has been shown at Rifle Gap that, given enough deer, production can be affected. However, deer densities there were considerably above those encountered on any previous study field or on areas where damage claims have been paid. Because of restrictive hunting seasons in 1971, there is a good chance of even higher densities at Rifle Gap in 1972. Thus, the applicability of the results can become even farther removed from other situations. Another consideration in terminating the study is the limited need for information on deer grazing-alfalfa production relationships. The Billy Creek data, since completion of that study in 1959, have been used twice in arbitration proceedings (Boyd 1972). The rancher won the settlement both times. �-131- In neither case was the validity of the study design or the results questioned. The main point of contention was that the study was done in an area removed from that of the claimant's. Additional studies would not remedy this situation as each rancher could still consider his field a special case. The scope of the problem also appears quite limited. Payments for deer damage to growing alfalfa from 1963 through 1970 have averaged about $2900 per year. However, fieldmen's time investigating claims, and processing of claims would involve considerable additional expense. Twothirds of the total amount of claims paid for alfalfa damage in the past eight years has been to six individuals and three-fourths of the amount has been paid in four small geographical areas. In several of these cases, recommendations for payment were partly based on public relations reasons; a situation that research could not ,tackle anyway. The 1971 revision of the wildlife damage law by the Colorado Legislature restricted conditions under which damage to private property by wildlife can be claimed. The law has not been in effect sufficient time to fully evaluate its effectiveness, but in principle the people of the State of Colorado should benefit. However, indications are that problems may arise because of some undefined terminology in the law. Little Hills It was thought desirable to conduct the alfalfa damage study at two locations. The second area selected was the Little Hills Game Experiment Station about IS-air miles west of Meeker. It was also thought desirable to conduct one part of the study using known numbers of confined deer. Again, Little Hills proved suitable because of a series of already existing deer-tight pastures ranging from 76 to 20S acres that could be used to hold deer. Preparations were made for this study but it was terminated before any results were obtained. For the record, a brief synopsis of progress up to termination, and reasons for termination are presented. In 1968 and 1969, an abandoned 60-acre field was plowed, fertilized, disced, and seeded the same as at Rifle Gap. A well was drilled to provide water for a sprinkler irrigation system that was set up. The alfalfa was established and an II-acre area containing 8 acres of alfalfa was fenced for the controlled phase of the study. Deer were trapped from the surrounding area, placed in a 90-acre pasture connected to the field, and allowed free access to the field all year. At this point, the decision was made to discontinue the study. Major reasons for this decision relate to problems of getting sufficient deer use on the field open to natural deer use, and of getting some semblance of "natural" deer use on the fenced field during spring. �-132- The lower, or west, one-half of the field was open to use by freeranging deer. Twenty-one deer were the most ever seen on the 30-acre field at one time and they were gone by the fourth week in April, nearly a month earlier than occurs in most other areas. Also, deer use was limited to only one small portion of the field. Casual observations of deer on the fenced field were made in 1970, and several "spot checks" were made during spring and summer in 1971. All of the confined deer came into the fenced area during spring, but they tended to walk around the fences in a large group and few were actually seen on the alfalfa field. From about mid-May until early July, deer were rarely seen in the fenced area. After this time they were observed on the field regularly through the rest of the summer. Other reasons for discontinuing the study at Little Hills are the expected low precision of the data due to the expected high variability and the small number of plots we could reasonably establish, the problems with application of the results to other situations, and the need for the time and money for more important research projects. LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. 1960. An evaluation of spring grazing on alfalfa by deer in western Colorado. Proc. Western Assoc. Game and Fish Commissioners. 40: l30-l47. 1963. Methods of evaluating deer and elk use of alfalfa under summer-long use. P. 39-42. In Game Research Report. Colorado Dept. Game and Fish, Denver. 1:1-115. 1964. Methods of evaluating deer and elk use on alfalfa under summer-long grazing. P. 42-46. In Game Research Report. Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 2(Part 1):1-69. 1965a. Methods of evaluating deer and elk use on alfalfa under summer-long grazing. P. 69-73. In Game Research Report. Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 1):1-126. 1965b. Methods of evaluating deer and elk use on alfalfa under summer-long grazing. P. 309-332. In Game Research Report. Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver.--3(Part 111):251-410. 1966. Evaluation of deer use on alfalfa under different irrigation rates. P. 201-206. In Game Research Report. Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 11):95-343. 1972. Personal communication. �-133- Gordon, D. F. 1967. Evaluation of deer use on alfalfa under different irrigation rates. P. 175-178. In Game Research Report. Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 11):73-310. 1968. Evaluation of deer use on alfalfa under different irrigation rates. P. 309-322. In Game Research Report. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 111)209-421. 1969. Evaluation of the effects of spring-summer grazing by deer on alfalfa. P. 25-43. In Game Research Report. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 1):1-140. 1970. Evaluation of the effects of spring-sun®er grazing by deer on alfalfa. P. 217-249. In Game Research Report. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 11):127-286. ______ , and R. M. Bartmann. 1971. Evaluation of the effects of springP. 97-112. In Game Research summer grazing by deer on alfalfa. 3(Part II): Report. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 87-224. U. S. Department of Commerce, Environmental 1968. Climatological data, Colorado. 1969. 219-231. Climatological Science Services Administration. Annual summary. 73(13):211-222. data, Colorado. Annual summary. 74(13): U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1970. Climatological data, Colorado. Annual summary. 75(13):217-229. 1971. 213-224. Prepared Climatological data, Colorado. by Richard M. Bartmafin Asst. Wildlife Researcher Annual summary. 76(13): ��-135- July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project NOD W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. Job Title Investigations 1 Job No. White River Elk Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: 11 C Deer-Elk Management Study April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Richard M. Bartmann, Raymond J. Boyd, William G. Smith and Steven F. Steinert. H. Rutherford, Donald ABSTRACT This annual report summarizes the effect of a spike bull protection regulation in 1971 upon an intensively managed elk herd and continues the evaluation of specified permits on herd size, sex and age structure, hunter success and pressure. Estimated herd size, determined by formulas using pre and postseason sex and age ratios in combination with kill levels decreased from about 6,800 in 1966 to 6,300 in 1971 and increased to about 6,400 in 1971. Preseason sex ratios (bulls per 100 cows) increased from about 29 in 1966 to about 31 in 1971. Age ratios (calves per 100 cows) increased from 58 in 1966 to 62 in 1971. Changes in sex ratios resulted from issuing more antlerless and fewer antlered permits to hunters in an attempt to stabilize the female segment of this herd. ��-137- WHITE RIVER ELK EXPERIMENTAL Raymond MANAGEMENT STUDY J. Boyd INTRODUCTION Originally the 1971 pre-season classification counts were to be the last field data collected on this jobo However, in February, 1971, the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Commission established new elk hunt regulations for the entire state which included an across-the-board 25 percent reduction in cow elk licenses and made the spike bull an illegal animal. Because of the great amount of background data available on elk in Area E, this job was amended to include check station work and postseason aerial classification counts. Since we knew from past years work that over 30 percent of the yearling bulls in Area E have extra points, and thus would be legal under the new hunt regulation, attempts were to be made to classify branch-antlered spike bulls in both the preand post-season counts. Data were also to be collected at check stations on numbers of abandoned elk, by sex and age and the number of points on antlered of abandoned bulls. P.S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for the White River elk herd. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 10 Test a candidate 2. Publish study. elk harvest the research formula findings METHODS for the White River elk herd. resulting from the White River elk AND MATERIALS Data collection (aerial and ground sex and age ratio counts, check stations and mail questionnaires to determine harvest, age composition etc.) for this project have not varied appreciably since 1966 (Prenzlow 1967, 1968, 1969 and 1970, Boyd 1971). Procedures for determining total elk populations have also remained the same. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Complete descriptions of the area covered by the White River elk herd are included in Harris (1963) and Boyd (1971). Figure 1 locates the study area in general and Area E (Game Management Units 23 and 24) specificallyo Other descriptions of the study area can be found in Prenzlow (1967 and 1968)0 �-138- N • STUDY AREA LEGEND Figure 1 ~ Elk :';anaeementArea E (Game Hanae:ement Units 23 and 24) showing boundaries, drainage patterns and highway systems. Solid circles were active check stations in 1971. GAME MANAGDI£lIT IIO\NIAI!Y HtGHWI\y --:::? S£co~ ROAD ---- IIIYIIICll!EIC Check ,stations UNIT • LAlli ~~ _ �-139- RESULTSAu~ DISCUSSION Sex and Age Composition Aerial Surveys Pre-season Sex and Age Ratios--The 1971 pre-season sex and age ratio counts of the elk population in Area E were made with the aid of a helicopter on September 27 through 30, 1971. These classification counts were confined to elk observed only in Area E (Table 1). A total of 1,047 elk were classified resulting in a ratio of 31.2 bulls (including spikes) per 100 cows and 62.3 calves per 100 cows. Summaries of preseason sex and age ratio counts for the period 1961 through 1971 are shown in Table 2; while Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the 95 percent confidence limits around these ratios. Table 1. Pre-season Location sex and age ratio classifications in Area E, 1971. Mature Bulls Young Bulls Spike Bulls Cows Calves Total 2 2 1 5 3 23 14 15 10 7 6 6 20 85 129 13 35 14 46 11 2 63 7 60 6 4 6 14 56 72 12 23 8 26 9 3 36 6 31 46 29 1 14 12 13 39 174 238 31 64 31 82 21 8 124 16 100 4 541 51.67 337 1,047 32.19 100.00 Sleepy Cat Area Lost Park Area Skinnyfish Creek Anderson Res. Area Trappers Lake Area Shingle Peak Trappers Peak South Fork Park Creek Lost Solar Creek Marvine Creek East Marvine Creek Big Ridge Big Fish Creek Burro Mountain S. Side of South Fork Patterson Creek Oak Ridge Ellison Mt. 3 11 6 1 4 4 4 7 5 1 1 3 13 2 8 4 Total 46 30 93 Percent 4.39 2.86 8.88 1 1 1 1 1 2 6 7 1 3 1 16 24 4 2 5 3 During these flights, an attempt was made to count branch-antlered spike bulls, but high winds throughout the entire count period prevented us from flying low enough to accurately observe antler branching on yearling bulls. �Table 2. Summaries of elk pre-season sex and age ratio counts, Area E, 1961-1971. Year Bulls No. % Cows No. 1961 128 19.6 309 47.3 1962 216 22.1 462 1963 125 20.0 1964 120 1965 1966 Calves No. % Total Bulls Ratios : Cows : Calves 216 33.1 653 41. 4 : 100 : 69.9 47.4 298 30.5 976 46.8 : 100 : 64.5 298 47.5 204 32.5 627 41.9 : 100 : 68.5 17.5 363 52.9 203 29.6 686 33.1 : 100 : 55.9 233 17.3 699 51. 8 416 30.9 1,348 33.3 : 100 : 59.5 86 15.4 299 53. 7 172 30.9 557 28.8 : 100 : 57.5 % 1967 134 16.8 415 52.2 247 31.0 796 32.3 : 100 : 59.5 1968 135 18.7 366 50.7 221 30.6 722 36.9 : 100 : 60.4 1969 324 23.9 645 47.5 389 28.6 1,358 50.2 : 100 : 60.3 1970 150 17.6 455 53.3 249 29.1 854 33.0 : 100 : 54.7 1971 169 16.1 541 51. 7 337 32.2 1,047 31. 2 : 100 : 62.3 Average 165 18.9 441 50.4 268 30.7 874 37.4 : 100 : 60.8 I I-' .p. 0 I �-141- (I) 60 ~ 0 0 50 0 0 r-I 40 s... (J) ~ 30 (I) r-I r-I ;=j 20 CQ 0 64 61 Fig. CJ) ~ 2. 66 7C 68 95 % ccnf'Ld ence Lnt er-va Ls on IJre-season sex r'ltios t 71 Area E, 1961-1971. (>.0 0 :) 8 r-I s... 70 60 (!) 0.. 5C (JJ (J) > ,.-1 :.:i 0 40 0 61 Fig. 3. 62 64 95 fo co;:firience intervals Area Et 196J-1971. 66 on pre-season 68 70 71 ag(~ r.::.tios (calves/IOO cows) t �-142- Post-season Sex and Age Ratios--Post-season sex and age ratio classifications of the elk population in Area E were conducted on December 6 through December 8, 1971. A total of 1,936 elk were classified resulting in a ratio of 14.5 bulls (including spikes) per 100 cows and 69.9 calves per 100 cows (Table 3). Summaries of post-season classifications for the period 1961 through 1971 are included in Table 4, while Figure 4 indicates the 95 percent confidence limits around the post-season sex ratios. Table 3. Post-season Mature Bulls Location West Miller Middle Creek Miller East Miller sex and age ratio classifications Young Bulls 1:../ Spikes 1 7 Branched Spikes Cows Calves Total 11 76 53 148 9 5 14 1 15 13 29 Creek Creek Hwy. 13 to Yellowjacket 1 12 4 123 82 222 2 32 8 141 98 283 8 123 99 248 93 76 175 28 19 51 1 3 7 30 23 53 240 171 430 Coal Creek Area 2 Big Beaver Creek 2 16 Burro Mt. Area 3 3 South Fork Canyon 2 Park Creek 3 Bloomfield in Area E, 1971. 2 Bench South Fork-Campground down to Buford 1 Oak Ridge 2 Total 10 Percent 0.5 1:../ Typical antler formation 3 15 10 1 171 92 276 7 100 35 1,050 734 1,936 0.4 5.2 1.8 54.2 37.9 100.0 (4-5 points), but light beam. The most obvious facet of these counts was the very apparent lack of large, mature bulls. Of the 17 bulls seen that were older than yearlings, only two were large 6-point bulls, the rest being small 5- and 6-point males. �Table 4. Summaries of elk post-season sex and age ratio counts, Area E, 1961-1971. No. % No. % No. % Total Ratios Bulls : Cows : Calves 1961 106 10.6 465 46.5 430 43.0 1,001 22.8 : 100 : 92.5 1962 125 13.8 446 49.2 335 37.0 906 28.0 : 100 : 75.1 1963 45 6.1 413 55.7 283 38.2 741 10.9 : 100 : 68.5 1964 117 6.0 1,130 58.3 692 35.7 1,939 10.4 : 100 : 61.2 1965 85 5.2 930 57.1 613 37.7 1,628 9.1 : 100 : 65.9 1966 128 6.1 1,245 58.9 739 35.0 2,112 10.3 : 100 : 59.4 1967 214 9.2 1,318 56.4 806 34.5 2,338 16.2 : 100 : 61.2 1968 148 8.2 951 52.9 699 38.9 1,798 15.6 : 100 : 73.5 1969 166 9.0 1,012 55.0 661 36.0 1,839 16.4 : 100 : 65.3 1970 120 4.9 1,402 58.3 884 36.8 2,406 8.6 : 100 : 63.0 1971 152 7.9 1,050 54.2 734 37.9 1,936 14.5 : 100 : 69.9 Average 128 7.6 942 55.6 625 36.8 1,695 13.6 : 100 : 66.3 Year Calves Cows Bulls I I-' .pw I �-144- (I,) ~ 0 0 0 0 r-I H 40 30 <1> c, (I,) r-I r-I :;$ P=l 20 10 0 61 62 6=~ 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Years Fig. 4. 95% confidence intervals on post-season sex ratios, Area E, 1961-1971. An examination of Table 5 shows the reduction in mature bulls per 100 cows that occurred as a direct result of the 1971 elk hunt regulation. In one year, the mature male segment of this herd was reduced back to levels present in Area E at the time specified permits were suggested as one means of increasing this age segment of the male portion of the herd. Table 5. 1971. Year Comparison of bull elk ratios, post-season, Area E, 1964- All Bulls Bulls Per 100 Cows Mature Bulls Yearling Bulls 1971 14.5 1.6 12.9 1970 8.6 3.9 4.7 1969 16.4 2.9 1968 15.6 3.8 13.5 11.8 1967 16.2 12.6 1966 10.3 3.6 1.1 1965 9.1 2.8 6.3 1964 10.4 1.6 8.8 9.2 �-145- Another item of interest is the number of branch-antlered spike bulls observed. This was the first year that a separation of this kind was attempted and several important facts were learned. I feel a snow background is mandatory for this type of classification and that time spent in pre-season counts trying to delineate branch-antlered spikes would be a waste of time and money. Ground Surveys During the years 1967 through 1971, a ground classification of elk in Area E was made each July. This was done to estimate yearling-adult cow ratios which cannot be accurately obtained during aerial classifications. These data also serve as independent estimates of sex and age structures. It becomes very important to determine the proportion of yearling females in the herd and thus their influence on overall herd productivity. Usually only a small fraction of the yearling females breed, but there is considerable conflict in the literature on this particular subject. Observers on horseback, riding during the early morning hours, classified elk in different portions of the Flat Tops Primitive Area. In three days, four teams of two men each classified a total of 1,039 elk (Table 6). Many more elk were seen that could not be accurately classified. The average size of elk groups observed was 23.1 animals. Table 6. Composition in Area E, 1971. Item of 1,039 elk classified during July ground counts Mature Bulls Hature Cows Yearling Bulls Yearling Cows Calves Total Number Observed 62 82 498 142 255 1,039 Percent Observed 6.0 7.9 47.9 13.7 24.5 100.0 25 22 37 24 28 45 Mean Group Composition~./ 1.4 1.8 11.1 3.2 5.6 23.1 Frequency in Groups ]) 1/ Frequency in groups (i.e. mature bulls were observed in 25 of 45 total groups) . 2/ - Mean group composition 23.1 determined by percent of elk observed times �-146- Check Station Surveys Number of Elk Checked--Only one special research check station was operated during the 1971 elk season. No research personnel were stationed at any of the regular management check stations to collect data from Area E elk. A total of 280 elk were checked out through the Meeker station. Table 7 lists the number of elk checked through Meeker from the White River area, 1965 through 1971. Table 7. Number of elk checked through Meeker, 1965-1971. 1970 Average 1971 Percent Change from 5-year Average Day 1966 1967 1968 Year 1969 1 15 11 11 10 19 l3 8 - 38.5 2 45 46 46 21 36 39 l3 - 59.6 3 75 69 117 71 105 87 32 - 61.9 4 115 71 l34 152 no 116 37 - 64.5 5 122 9l 182 l38 129 l32 51 - 63.7 6 91 94 99 123 l31 108 43 - 62.8 7 61 76 93 64 80 75 49 - 59.1 8 43 36 31 38 64 42 23 - 58.2 9 24 29 27 20 39 28 24 - 56.3 Total 59l 523 740 637 713 640 280 - 56.3 Table 8 indicates the daily elk check-out from the two Area E units through the Meeker check station in 1971. Sex and Age Composition of Elk Checked--The percent composition (bulls, cows and calves) of elk checked in 1971 from Area E is shown in Table 9. Sex and age ratios of the 206 elk from Area E were 52.43 percent bulls, 39.32 percent cows and 8.25 percent calves. This compares with 61.5 percent bulls, 31.6 percent cows and 6.9 percent calves in 1970. During the first three years of the experimental management study, a constant number of antlered permits were issued for Area E (2,500). In 1969, however, antlered permits were reduced • �-147- to 2,200; 1970, 3,000 antlered permits and 1971, 2,200 branch-antlered only permits were sold. Ant1er1ess permits varied from 1,000 in 1966 to 1,500 in both 1967 and 1968, down to 1,000 in 1969, 800 in 1970 and 600 in 1971. These changes in permit numbers account, in part, for the changes in bulls to cows to calves in the yearly harvest. Table 8. by day of season, Area E, 1971. Elk check-out Unit and Sex Day of Season 4 5 6 1 2 3 Males 1 1 1 4 4 Females 0 4 1 7 Sub-total 1 5 2 Males 0 5 Females 3 Sub-total 7 8 9 Total 3 5 3 1 23 10 0 3 4 1 30 11 14 3 8 7 2 53 12 9 17 9 19 8 9 88 3 10 5 14 13 9 1 7 65 3 8 22 14 31 22 28 9 16 153 Males 1 6 13 13 21 12 14 11 10 111 Females 3 7 11 12 24 13 12 5 8 95 Total 4 13 24 25 45 25 26 16 18 206 Percent of Total Check 1.9 6.3 11.6 12.1 21.8 12.1 12.6 7.8 8.7 Unit 23 Unit 24 Area E �-148- Table 9. Composition from Area E, 1971. of elk checked through the Meeker check station Bulls % Cows % Calves % Total Unit 23 22 41.5 26 49.0 5 9.5 53 Unit 24 86 56.2 55 35.9 12 7.9 153 Total 108 52.4 81 39.3 17 8.3 206 Age Structure of the Harvest--Of the 206 elk checked in 1971 from Area E, 126 were aged using techniques described by Quimby and Gaab (1957). Table 10 lists these ages, by sex, while Table 11 details similar information by game management unit. One incisor tooth was collected from each elk that came through the station with a jaw present. These teeth were taken to the Research Center Laboratory in Fort Collins where they were aged according to the dental cementum technique reported by Keiss (1969). Assuming that ages determined by dental cementum were correct, this comparison revealed an error of only 4.6 percent in assigning ages to 2-l/2-year old elk, while the error associated with aging elk older than 2-l/2-years was 64.7 percent (Table 12). Table 13 indicates the distribution of error by age class. Overall error was 41.1 percent. This compares with 60.4 percent in 1967, 43.1 percent in 1968, 40.1 percent in 1969 and 28.9 percent in 1970. Of 126 check station assigned ages from Area E, 56 were comparatively aged by the dental cementum technique. Of these 56 animals aged by the two methods, 17 (30.4 percent) were field aged within one year on either side of the actual age as determined by dental cementum procedures. �Table 10. Sex and age determinations of 126 elk checked from Area E, 1971. Age (years) 1/ 5-1/2 4-1/2 3-1/2 6-1/2 7-1/2 8-1/2 9+ Total 4 0 1 1 0 0 72 6.9 5.6 0 1.4 1.4 0 0 100.0 19.0 4.0 3.2 0 0.8 0.8 0 0 57.2 5 9 7 3 2 0 1 2 54 9.2 16.7 l3.0 5.6 3.7 0 1.8 3.7 100.0 7.9 4.0 7.1 5.6 2.4 1.6 0 0.8 1.6 42.8 17 45 29 14 11 3 3 1 1 2 126 l3.5 35.7 23.0 11.1 8.7 2.4 2.4 0.8 0.8 1.6 100.0 1/2 1-1/2 2-1/2 Number 2 35 24 5 Percent 2.8 48.6 33.3 Percent "I'o t aL 1.6 27.8 Number 15 10 Percent 27.8 18.5 Percent Total 11.9 Sex Males Females I I--' ~ <o I Total Elk Number Percent Total -!/ Ages assigned by techniques described by Quimby and Gaab (1957). �Table 11. Sex and age determinations of 126 elk aged from Area E, by unit of kill, 1971. Unit and Sex Age {years~ 1:/ 4-1/2 5-1/2 6-1/2 7-1/2 8-1/2 9+ Total 0 0 0 1 0 0 17 11.8 0 0 0 5.9 0 0 100.0 8.3 2.8 0 0 0 1.4 0 0 23.6 18 3 4 0 1 0 0 0 55 1/2 1-1/2 2-1/2 3-1/2 Number 0 8 6 2 Percent of Total 0 47.0 35.3 Percent of all Males 0 11.1 2 27 Unit 23 - Males Unit 24 - Males Number I I-' Percent of Total 3.6 49.1 32.7 5.4 7.3 0 1.8 0 0 0 100.0 Percent of all Males 2.8 37.5 25.0 4.2 5.6 0 1.4 0 0 0 76.4 5 5 1 6 2 2 1 0 0 2 24 Percent of Total 20.8 20.8 4.2 25.0 8.3 8.3 4.2 0 0 8.3 100.0 Percent of all Females 9.2 9.2 1.8 11.1 3.7 3.7 1.8 0 0 3.7 44.4 10 5 4 3 5 1 1 0 1 0 30 Percent of Total 33.3 16.7 13.3 10.0 16.7 3.3 3.3 0 3.3 0 100.0 Percent of all Females 18.5 9.2 7.4 5.6 9.2 1.8 1.8 0 1.8 0 55.6 Unit 23 - Females Number Unit 24 - Females Number V1 0 I �-151- Table 12. Percent error between dental cementum and tooth replacement and wear aging techniques, by age class, of 56 elk from Area E, 1971. Age Class Dental Cementum Calf 1/ 1 1/ 2 Field Age ]j Percent Correct Percent Error 22 21 95.4 4.6 3 8 6 75.0 25.0 4 11 3 27.3 72.7 5 7 1 14.3 85. 7 6 2 0 0 100.0 7 2 0 0 100.0 8 1 0 0 100.0 9+ 3 2 66.7 33.3 Total 56 33 58.9 41.1 1/ 1/ - Number of teeth checked in the laboratory procedure. ~/ Number of ages correctly assigned wear and replacement procedures • using the dental cementum at the check station using tooth . _3/ Calves and yearlings were not aged by the dental cementum technique. �-152- Table 13. Distribution of assigned ages in relation mined by dental cementum procedures, Area E, 1971. Cementum Age Class 2 2 22 3 3 4 5 Check Station Assigned·Ages 3 4 5 6 7 9+ Total 23 8 2 13 1 4 11 1 1 2 3 7 2 7 1 14 2 4 2 1 14 19 Mortality 9 4 1 9+ 27 18 1 2 8 Harvest 8 1 6 Total to ages deter- 5 3 2 1 3 4 2 3 82 Estimates Estimates Random Survey--Because of annually decreasing hunter report card returns, no report cards were attached to the 1971 elk license and a random survey was run on selected elk license buyers to determine the 1971 elk harvest estimate. While elk hunters with Area E permits were surveyed along with all other elk hunters, an extra large sample (1,370 out of 2,743 permittees, a 49.9 percent sample) was taken from this hunter population to correspond with random samples drawn from hunters in this area since 1968. Of the 1,370 hunters sampled, 1,318 (96.20%) returned usable cards. The estimated 1971 total elk kill in Area E was 632 (C. I. ± 81; ~ = 1.96), with 25.29 percent of the active hunters being successful. Table 14 gives results of the 1971 random survey, including kill by type of license, while Table 15 lists active (those who actually hunted elk in 1971) hunters and success ratios. Projections from the random survey indicated that 244 licenses were issued that were not used (8.9%). The number of "no hunts" in Area E have averaged 7.0 percent since 1966. �-153- It should be pointed out, here, that data shown in Table 14 does not correspond with kill estimates, numbers of hunters or success ratios calculated and published as the 1971 harvest estimates by the Game Management Section. Data published by Game Management is based on a random card return of 1,246, while Table 14 is based on a card return of 1,318. There are two possible reasons for this difference: (1) The 72 additional cards counted by personnel of this project could have come into the Denver Office after the cut-off date and were placed in the file by mistake where they were counted by hand after the computer run, or: (2) When follow-up letters were sent to non-reporting hunters, new questionnaires were included and some cross-over could have occurred. According to Denver Office personnel there is no way we can eliminate duplicate card returns for 1971. This has been remedied for 1972. Table 14. Results of the 1971 random survey of 2,743 Area E permittees. Antlered Res. N. Res. Item Permits Issued Permits Percent Antlerless Res. N. Res. Total 1,482 6S6 499 106 2,743 in Sample 740 329 248 S3 1,370 in Sample 49.93 SO.lS 49.70 SO.OO 49.94 711 322 237 48 1,318 Sample Returned Percent Returned 96.08 97.87 9S.S6 90.S7 96.20 Percent of Total Permits 49.79 49.08 47.49 4S.28 48.0S Reported "No Hunts" 81 20 l3 3 117 Estimated "No Hunts" 169 41 27 7 244 Reported Kills 98 61 114 29 302 Estimated Total Kill 204 124 240 64 632 �-154- Table 15. Number of hunters participating during the 1971 Area E elk hunt and success ratios per license and active hunters. Projected from random survey data. Res. Item Active Hunters Antlered Non. Res. Antlerless Res. Non. Res. Total 1,313 615 472 99 2,499 Success (kill) Per Lie. 13.76 18.90 48.10 60.38 23.04 Success (kill) Per Hunter 15.54 20.16 50.85 64.65 25.29 Harvest in Relation to Area and Time Location of Kill--Kill by Game Management Unit was projected from the random survey data and appears in Table 16. These data indicated that 60.44 percent of the 1971 elk kill in Area E occurred in unit 24. Table 16. Management Composition Unit. Unit Bulls % Number of the 1971 estimated elk kill in Area E by Game Cows Number % Calves Number % Total Number % Unit 23 120 48.00 124 49.60 6 2.40 250 39.56 Unit 24 208 54.45 143 37.43 31 8.12 382 60.44 Total 328 51.90 267 42.25 37 5.85 632 100.00 Date of Kill--Dates of kill by hunters in Area E are shown in Table 17. Approximately 90.3 percent of the kill occurred during the first five days of the season. Hunter Effort--Elk hunting in Area E provided an estimated 11,877 mandays of hunting recreation in 1971. This was a decrease of 9,077 recreation days compared to 1970. This decrease was due, primarily, to a 25 percent reduction in the number of antlerless permits compared to 1970 and further, a 26.67 percent reduction in antlered permits and the further restriction making spike bulls illegal. Mean number of days spent elk hunting decreased from 5.9 days in 1970 to 4.76 days in 1971. �-155- Table 17. Numbers of elk killed, by day of season, Area E, 1971. 1 2 Day of Season 3 4 5 6 Unit 23 17 7 9 11 4 Unit 24 58 24 14 22 Total 75 31 23 33 Estimates of Mortality 7 8 9 Total 1 2 2 0 53 20 1 6 4 4 153 24 2 8 6 4 206 Other Than Legal Kill Wounding Loss--Annual estimates of wounding losses have been gathered in Area E since 1966. In 1971, the random questionnaire was designed and sent out by the Game Management Section in Denver and questions concerning wounding of elk and retrieval of wounded elk were not included on the questionnaire. No comparable data for 1971 are thus available. Population Total Population Estimates and Projections Estimates Formulas were used to estimate the total number of elk present in Area E prior to the 1971 elk hunt. Detailed descriptions of the method are presented in Prenzlow (1968) with examples of how ratios of antlered to antlerless elk from kill, pre- and post-season classification counts, were used in a formula devised by Dr. David Bowden of Colorado State University, to estimate a pre-hunt elk population. Pre-Season Population Estimate, 1971--An estimated 3,358 (C. I. = 85, g = 1.96, ~ = .05) elk were present in Area E just prior to the opening of the 1971 elk hunt (Table 18). This compares to 6,751, 6,313, 6,216, 5,829 and 6,347 estimated in 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969 and 1970, respectively. �-156- Table 18. Pre-season population sex and age in Area E, 1971. Item Estimated Number Bulls estimate and proportions of elk by Expected Percent 1./ Observed Percent ']j 542 16.29 16.14 Cows 1,735 54.11 51.67 Calves 1,081 29.60 32.19 Total 3,358 100.00 100.00 1./ Percentages expected from 1970 post-season population data. 2/ - Percentages actually observed when making classifications from a helicopter. the 1971 pre-season elk Until 1969 and again in 1971, total population data were believed to be reasonable estimates of actual elk population levels in Area E. For instance, predictions for the percentages of bulls, cows and calves made after the post-season counts were within five percent of what was actually observed during pre-season counts the next year during all years of the study (1961-1971) with the exception of 1969. In 1969, the expected and observed percentages of bulls differed almost 20 percent. This was a critical difference, because the change in ratios of bulls from pre- to post-season is a major component of the population estimate formula used to estimate the pre-season elk population. However, as Prenzlow (1970: 280) explained, early severe September snow storms in 1969 probably caused an abnormal movement of the elk herd and samples drawn in 1969 were not taken from the "normal" herd usually found in Area E. The 1971 pre-season population estimate of 3,358 appears to be extremely low for four reasons: (1) 4,271 elk were actually counted in Area E during the 1972 trend count which exceeds the total pre-season population estimate by 913 animals, plus the fact that an additional 632 animals were harvested, resulting in a minimum pre-hunt population of 4,903 animals; (2) The 3,358 elk estimated to be in Area E does not fit the trend in population numbers over the past years and it is less than onehalf the number of elk that should have been in this area based on the 1970 post-hunt population estimates for this herd; (3) The estimated harvest of 632 could not have reduced the population to this low level, even if an additional 10 percent wounding loss is added, and (4) The bull kill estimate is low due to an extremely high spike bull kill that went unreported in 1971, because of the new spike bull protection regulation. Estimates of the loss of spike bulls in Area E for the 1971 �-157 - range from 63 to 139 which if added to the estimated kill would increase the population estimate some 1,600 animals. This unrecorded loss of yearling bulls would have a great depressing effect upon the formula population estimate. Therefore, to accomplish the objective of testing an elk harvest formula, it became necessary to use the 1970 projected population figure of 6,572 (Boyd 1971) rather than the 1971 estimate of 3,358. This was thought justified because past projections, after being corrected for over-winter loss, have been close approximations of total elk population estimates derived by formula. Post-Season Population Estimates, 1971--An estimated 5,940 Area E elk survived the 1971 hunting season (Table 19). This was calculated by subtracting the elk harvest, as determined by the random survey, by class of animal from the pre-season population. Table 19. Post-season population sex and age in Area E, 1971. estimate and proportions of elk by Post-Season POEulation Exp. % J:./ Obs. % 1/ No. Item Pre-Season Population Bulls 1,038 328 710 12.00 7.85 Cows 3,450 267 3,183 53.58 54.24 Calves 2,084 37 2,047 34.42 37.91 Total 6,572 632 5,940 100.00 100.00 Harvest 1/ 1/ Based upon the 1971 random survey. 2/ - Proportions, by class, of the total estimated number that remained following the 1971 elk hunting season. 3/ - Proportions actually observed when making fications by helicopter. of elk (5,940) the 1971 post-season classi- �-158- Total post-season elk populations in Area E declined from 5,336 in 1966, 4,945 in 1967, to 4,506 in 1968, then increased slightly to 4,646 in 1969, 4,987 in 1970 and increased rather strongly to 5,744 in 1971. The decline in the post-season population during the early years was primarily the result of issuing more antlerless permits in order to change the composition of the wintering herd to meet one of the objectives of narrowing the sex ratio (more bulls per 100 cows). Proportions of bulls in the post-season elk populations have increased from 6.1 percent in 1966 to 9.2, 8.2, 9.0 in 1967, 1968 and 1969, decreased to 5.0 in 1970 and again increased to 7.8 percent in 1971. Population Projections Each year, based upon the previous years post-season population estimate, a projection is made for the next year. This procedure is described in Prenzlow (1968) in detail. Population Projection for Area E, 1972--Immediately prior to the opening of the 1972 elk hunt in Area E, a projected elk population of 8,441 animals will be available to hunters in this area (Table 20). This figure may change somewhat, however, if productivity differs significantly from 59.5 calves per 100 cows. Table 20. Predicted 1972 pre-season elk population, 1971 Post-Season Population Item Area E. 1972 Pre-Season No. Population Exp. % ~/ 1/ 20.53 3,183 4,206 1/ 49.83 Calves 2,047 1/ 2 ,502 4/ 29.64 Total 5,940 8,441 100.00 Bulls 710 Cows 1/ 1,733 . - Assumlng that of 2,047 calves, 50 percent cent are females. (1,023) are males and 50 per- ~/Calculated by adding the remaining calves from 1971. bulls in 1971 (710) and 1,023 male 1/ Calculated cows in 1971 (3,183) and 1,023 female by adding the remaining calves from 1971. 4/ Calculated by multiplying the number of cows in 1972 (4,206) by 59.5 percent expected productivity. 5/ Expected proportions of total projected to the 1972 elk hunting season. numbers of elk (8,441) prior �-159- In previous years, population projections have been high because no losses other than the estimated hunting mortality were considered. Annual herd losses of 17.5, 11.5 and 4.3 percent were determined for 1967, 1969 and 1970 respectively. These percentages were calculated by subtracting a particular years population estimate from the projection (Table 21). Table 21. of herd losses in Area E, 1966-1971. Estimates Year Population Estimate 1966 6,751 1967 6,313 7,654 1,314 17.5 1968 6,261 7,075 814 11.5 1969 5,829 1/ 5,829 1970 6,347 6,632 285 4.3 1971 6,572 ].) 6,376 II Corrected because Population Projection of obvious sampling Difference Number Percent error. ~I Corrected because of large increase in illegal kill of spike bulls. Consequences of 1972 Area E Elk Hunt--In 1971, the management of the Area E elk herd was turned back to Regional control and the Research Section made no more season recommendations. In order to assess the impact of the 1971 spike bull protection regulation, this project was continued, but data included in the balance of this report will be based upon the 1972 hunt regulations proposed by the Northwest Region personnel. The 1972 Area E hunt recommendation was recommended to be 2,500 antlered permits, with spike bulls being legal, and 800 antlerless permits. Table 22 illustrates the composition of the 1972 pre-season Area E elk population if the projection is reduced by 10 percent to account for overwinter herd losses. The resulting post-season population is projected based upon no significant change in hunter success in 1972. �-160- Table 22. Modified 1972 Area E pre-season population projection and resulting post-season population with a kill level determined by 2,500 antlered and 800 antlerless permits. Modified 1972 PreSeason Population 1972 Post-Season Item Number Exp. % Projected Kill Bulls 1,560 20.53 625 935 14.49 Cows 3,786 49083 442 3,344 51.83 Calves 2,251 29.64 78 2,173 33.68 Total 7,597 1/ 100.00 1,145 2/ 6,452 100.00 1/ Modified POEulation Number Exp. % projection resulting from subtracting the theoretical projection of 8,441 in Table 20. 844 elk (10%) from ~/ Projected kill is based upon 25 percent success on 2,500 antlered permits and 65 percent success on 800 antlerless permits. The 935 bulls and 3,344 cows in the estimated give a ratio of 27.96 bulls per 100 cows. post-season population As a check on the above projections, ratios of bulls, cows and calves observed during classification counts will be compared to expected ratios; kill data will again be determined by random survey; and preseason population estimates will be calculated by formula. It is important to note that these comparisons will be independent estimates of the same population parameter, and if there is close agreement, it would indicate that the above described method is valid for estimating the elk population in Area E. A first draft of the final report on the effect of specified permits on the sex and age structure of the White River elk herd is nearly complete and should be in the hands of the Project Leader by June 15, 1972. �-161- LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. 1971a. Elk of the White River plateau, Colorado. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Denver. Tech. Publ. No. 25. 126 p. illus. 1971b. White River elk herd - population Job Progress Report, July, No.2. W-38-R-25. Harris, J. T. Colorado. 190 p. components. p. 113-138. Colo. 1963. Population dynamics of the White River elk herd, PhD Thesis. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Keiss, R. E. 1969. Comparison of eruption-wear patterns and cementum annuli as age criteria in elk. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(1):175-180. Prenzlow, E. J. 1967. Population components - White River elk. Colorado. Job Completion Report, W-38-R-2l. p. 251-276. 1968. White River elk population components. Progress Report. W-38-R-22. p. 383-421. Colorado Job 1970. White River elk population components. Progress Report. W-38-R-24. p. 257-286. Colorado Job Quimby, D. C., and J. E. Gaab. 1957. indicator in Rocky Mountain elk. Prepared by __ ~~~~~~~~~~~, Raymo d J. Boyd Wildlife Researcher Mandibular dentition as an age J. Wildl. Mgmt. 21(4):435-451. ��-163- July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. Job Title Investigations 1 Job No. Middle Park Deer Study - Population Period Covered: Personnel: 14 Deer-Elk Distribution April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Greg Ericks, R. Bruce Gill and Laren A. Roper. ABSTRACT All deer trapping records and marked deer observations from 1969-1972 were coded for an automatic data processing program which will be used to summarize these data so that deer population sub-unit boundaries can be defined. ��-165- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Laren A. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To delineate deer concentration areas in Middle Park and relate changes in deer distribution in time and space to accumulation and physical properties of snow. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Define deer population See Gill sub-unit boundaries. METHODS AND MATERIALS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (1969). Trapping and Harking An automatic data processing program was completed and all deer trapping records and marked deer observations from 1969-72 were coded. During the next segment the program will be debugged and the data will be summarized. A department publication describing deer population sub-unit boundaries will be completed for the final report. :'-) Prepared ,T _'~.~~a:"",,,,-~~.-"-__ -. _ by ---',d--=-""",,'L~;/~~"--"~L--,C,,-,-l-=--, 'taren A. Roper Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��-167- July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. 14 Deer-Elk 2 Job No. Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Population Period Covered: October, Personnel: Investigations 1971 through January, Density and Structure 1972 R. Bruce Gill, Laren A. Roper, Gary L. Brown, Len H. Carpenter Paul F. Gilbert. and ABSTRACT Winter range density of the Middle Park deer population was estimated from Estimated density helicopter counts of deer on square mile sample quadrats. population projection for 1972 was 9024 3.26 deer per square mile for a total the Blue River subof 5,429 + 1,913 deer. Empirical evidence suggested that Park deer population population was greatly underestimated and the true Middle numbered approximately 7,000 deer. ± Pre and postseason classification counts indicated fawn production in 1971 was similar to 1970 but lower than 1969. Comparisons of aerial and ground classifications for the past five winters revealed no significant differences between fawn:doe ratios obtained from each method, but buck:doe ratios differed significantly in two of the five years. ��-169- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate the density and sex and age structure of the Middle Park deer population in order to harvest this population more efficiently. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate Park. the size of the total winter population of deer in Middle 2. Estimate the sex and age structure Park deer population. METHODS Methods and materials Gill (1971). of the Middle AND MATERIALS have been detailed previously in Gill (1969) and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Density Estimates of the 1971-72 Middle Park winter deer population level indicated a total population of 5,429 ± 1,913 deer, or 9.24 ± 3.26 deer per square mile of winter range (Table 1). Empirical evidence suggested this figure was conservative. Three of the five sub-unit population sample areas exhibited population increases compared with 1970-71 levels while two appeared to decline (Table 2). The apparent decline in the Granby subunit estimate is of little significance to the total population, but the Blue River decline is of considerable importance. There was no logical explanation why the Blue River population should have declined by approximately 1,100 deer from the 1970-71 estimate. In fact, it should have either remained stable or increased in about the same proportion that the Muddy Creek, William Fork River, and Troublesome Creek sub-unit populations did. Winter loss estimates for the 1970-71 winter were low (489 deer) as was the 1971 harvest (348 deer) and even if all of the mortality associated with these two sources had occurred within the Blue River there still should have been an increase of 0.4% in the Blue River population. On the other hand, if the Blue River population had actually increased the same as the other four sub-unit populations did (32.4%), the Blue River population should have been 4,414 bringing the total estimated Middle Park population to 7,586 deer. This would have been considerably closer to the expected or calculated population estimate (Gill 1971) of 7,072 deer (Table 3) • �Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1972. Mudd~ Creek High Densit~ 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 2 0 0 0 0 8 64 32 124 58 30 32 NC 44 NC 20 27 0 1 NC 0 0 0 0 0 9 6 18 99 39 66 46 87 31 6 12 0 0 22 37 0 0 0 0 0 9 34 9 20 6 2 2 42 28 5 12 0 0 5 1 0 12 4 0 0 0 0 0 28 68 2 0 22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 11 24 39 0 5 35 6 1 1 0 0 0 27 ~ = 442 478 175 136 158 Y = 26.0 23.9 8.8 6.8 7.9 Mudd~ Creek Low Densit~ 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Blue River High Densit~ 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Blue River Low Densit~ 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 56 14 25 0 76 31 4 9 134 49 71 124 28 4 10 0 30 32 0 0 31 0 NCll 0 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC 0 NC NC 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 1 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 19 0 1 36 88 20 4 102 15 105 58 17 14 0 0 24 77 18 3 20 83 136 49 6 47 0 0 145 54 7 0 34 43 67 104 0 9 0 6 19 82 41 29 15 22 64 52 0 8 10 0 0 35 0 0 36 29 0 17 0 37 34 0 0 26 0 0 13 0 0 15 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 30 0 0 2 0 I I-' -....J 0 I 56 21 42 0 8 565 465 430 501 339 107 118 114 48 32 9.3 1.8 3.5 0.0 0.7 47.1 38.8 35.8 41.8 28.3 11.9 13.1 12.7 5.3 3.6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within the eight sampling strata, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1972 (continued). l<lms.Fork River High Densitz 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Wms. Fork River Low Densitz 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Troublesome Cr. Hi~h Density 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 0 2 26 73 4 0 6 14 0 0 43 25 0 35 50 65 0 9 0 26 40 0 45 42 4 0 0 25 21 0 3 0 58 31 0 9 0 52 71 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 41 0 39 76 44 15 36 0 6 11 60 0 51 42 90 7 8 0 29 0 8 0 0 43 36 14 21 10 7 3 24 2 70 20 40 27 21 0 12 1968 z 0 r+ n 0 .:: ::s ro c, r+ Granbz Low Densitz 1969 1970 1971 1972 7 2 2 0 0 0 NC 6 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 I t-' -...J I: = 105 131 46 92 132 20 3 1 4 0 253 262 298 139 219 11 29 13 2 26.2 9.2 18.4 26.4 4.0 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.0 25.3 26.2 29.8 13.9 21.9 1.8 4.1 1.9 0.3 - Y = 21.0 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 = 20.75 15.52 12.29 9.75 9.24 var (yst) = 11.35 4.25 2.55 3.29 1.96 yst 1/ - NC = No count. t-' I �-172- Table 2. Deer population estimates by sub-units in Middle Park, 1968- 1972. Year Muddy Creek Blue River Williams River 1968 4,101 4,074 1969 2,994 1970 Fork Troublesome Creek Granby Total 843 1,622 no count 10,640 3,531 774 1,679 134 9,112 1,429 3,290 271 1,910 306 7,206 1971 794 3,335 571 891 139 5,730 1972 1,002 2,259 742 1,404 22 5,429 Table 3. Comparisons of expected population census estimates in Middle Park, 1968-1972. levels with actual quadrat Year Expected Population Census Estimate Percent Difference 1969 9,519 9,112 + 4.3% 1/ 1970 7,862 7,206 + 8.3% 1971 5,830 5,730 + 1.7% 1972 7,072 5,429 + 30.3% 1/ Indicates the amount that the expected population census estimate. differs from the quadrat There was evidence that significant numbers of deer still remained above the winter range sample areas of the Blue River at the time the census was conducted. Fresh deer tracks were abundant in timbered areas above 9,500 feet in the Ute Pass vicinity which is considered fall and spring transitional range. None of the other four sub-unit areas exhibited similar abnormal deer distribution patterns. Therefore it was concluded that the actual Middle Park deer population level approximated 7,000 deer, or 11.9 deer per square mile of winter range. �-173- Sex and Age Composition Classification Counts Pre-season Counts--The 1971 pre-season deer classifications were conducted from helicopter flights on October 13 and 14 after most of the aspen leaves had fallen. These counts were generally unproductive, and only 91 deer were classified compared with 771 in 1970 and 1,065 in 1969 (Table 4). Lack of snow cover during the 1971 classifications was a major factor contributing to the large decline in numbers of deer observed. Table 4. Park. Comparisons of 1969-1970 pre-season deer classifications in Middle Buck:Doe Ratio Fawn:Mother Ratio ]) FaW'n:Doe Ratio Year Bucks Does Fawns Total 1969 195 (18.3%) 451 (42.4%) 419 (39.3%) 1,065 (100.0%) 43 100 93 100 125 100 1970 152 (19.7%) 361 (46.8%) 258 (33.5%) 771 (100.0%) 42 100 72 100 112 100 1971 20 (22.0%) 41 (45.0%) 30 (33.0%) 91 (100.0%) 49 100 71 100 103 100 ]j l/Fawn:Mother Ratio = Fawn:Doe Ratio recalculated after removing estimated non-producing yearlings from the doe category. the number of 2/ - Assumes 28.9 percent of the doe population were non-producing yearlings, based on the average percent of yearling females in the doe harvest from 1967-1970. The ratio of 49 bucks:lOO does estimated from the 1971 sample compares favorably with 42 bucks:lOO does and 43 bucks:lOO does estimated in 1970 and 1969, respectively. The ratio of 71 fawns:lOO does was not different from the 1970 ratio, but it was approximately 24'percent below the fawn:doe ratio of 1969. The fetus:doe ratios for 1969, 1970, and 1971 (Table 5) supported the conclusion that the observed differences in pre-season fawn:doe ratios were real (Gill 1972). Post-season Counts--Post season classification data were obtained in two ways, helicopter counts and ground counts. Comparisons of these data for the years 1967-68 through 1971-72 are presented in Table 6. Chi-square analyses revealed no significant differences between helicopter and ground count estimates of fawn:doe ratios for any year. Buck:doe ratios computed from helicopter and ground data were significantly different in 1967-68 and 1971-72. Because �-174- of the consistency of the helicopter classification data among years it was concluded that bucks were under-sampled in the 1967-68 ground counts and over-sampled in 1971-72. Buck:doe ratios did not change over the five year period, but fawn:doe ratios showed a steady decline from 196768 through 1970-71 and then an upturn in 1971-72 (Fig. 1). Table 5. Comparisons of gross and net fawn production in Middle Park, 1969-1971. Year Gross Fawn Production 1/ Net Fawn Production 1969 193 100 125 100 1970 164 100 112 100 1971 161 100 103 100 }j 1/ - Gross fawn production collected does. = fetuses 1/ per 100 does in samples of road-killed and 2/ - Net favm production fawns per 100 producing does based upon aerial classifications of deer from helicopter surveys in October of each year. 3/ - 1971 net fawn production the doe population was calculated by assuming were non-producing yearlings. Table 6. Comparison of aerial and ground winter Middle Park, 1968-1972. Year Bucks 1968 HelicoEter Does Surveys Fawns that 28.9 percent classifications of of deer in Ground Surveys Does Fawns Total Bucks 316 558 501 1,375 57 Bucks 100 Does 90 Fawns : 100 Does 147 396 363 906 37 Bucks 100 Does 92 Fawns : 100 Does 1969 261 490 418 1,169 53 Bucks : 100 Does 85 Fawns : 100 Does 319 582 505 1,406 55 Bucks : 100 Does 87 Fawns : 100 Does 1970 211 471 45 Bucks 77 Fawns 363 1,045 100 Does 100 Does 104 231 178 513 45 Bucks : 100 Does 77 Fawns : 100 Does 1971 ------ No Counts ---------- 356 1972 218 244 55 Bucks 100 Does 61 Fawns : 100 Does 783 321 1,460 45 Bucks : 100 Does 41 Bucks : 100 Does 390 261 927 71 Bucks 100 Does 67 Fawns : 100 Does 398 860 276 Total �100 90 80 III Q) CIl Cl ~ g o ~ u 70 o 60 .. § ~ 50 o co ~ rz.. d ~ P:1 E-< ~ 0 Z 0 III 40 I r-' -...J V1 ~ j ~ I 30 20 10 o 1967-68 Fig. 1. Trend in post-season 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 fawn: doe ratios obtained from ground count surveys, 1967-68 - 1971-72. �-176- Sex and Age Composition of the Hunter Harvest The 1971 deer season in Middle Park restricted hunters to taking antlered deer. For this and other reasons the harvest was one of the lowest recorded for Middle Park. Only 107 deer were checked during nine consecutive checking days at Idaho Springs big game check station. This was approximately 90 percent less than the total deer check of 1970 and nearly 73 percent lower than the 1970 buck check. The proportions of yearling bucks and adult bucks are summarized in Table 7. 1/ 1971.- Table 7. Age classes of bucks harvested GM Unit Adult Males Yearling Males Total 15 8 (50.0%) 8 (50.0%) 16 (l00.0%) 18 14 (70.0%) 6 (30.0%) 20 (100.0%) 27 16 (45.7%) 19 (54.3%) 35 (100.0%) 28 11 (9l.7%) 1 ( 8.3%) 12 (100.0%) 37 13 (54.2%) 11 (45.8%) 24 (100.0%) 62 (57.9%) 45 (42.1%) 107 (100.0%) Totals in Middle Park, October, 1/ - The 1971 deer season in Middle antlered deer. Park was restricted to harvesting only �-177- LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1. pp.10s122. 1971. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38R-2s. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp. 169-188. 1972. Productivity studies of mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. Mule Deer Workshop, Proc. 2: 8 pp. Prepared by R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher ��-179July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title 14 Middle Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 October, Investigations Job No. 3 Park Deer Study - Productivity and Mortality 1971 through August, 1972 R. Bruce Gill, Laren A. Roper, Paul Fo Gilbert, Gary L. Brown, Bruce Sigler, David S. DeCalesta, Dan L. Baker, Lonnie M. Brown, Jan L. Wassink and Len H. Carpenter. ABSTRACT Counts of corpora lutea of pregnancy in ovaries from does collected in Middle Park averaged 1.95 CLP per doe, the second highest rate in the four year collection period. Fetuses averaged 1.87 per doeo Fecundity rates were lowest for yearling does, highest for 2 year-olds, followed in order by prime age does and old does. All does examined were pregnant with 87.2 percent producing twins and 12 8 percent containing singletons. No triplets or quadruplets were found in the 1972 sample. Fetal sex ratios were nearly equal in 1972 (107 males:lOO females) in contrast to the previous three years when they were unbalanced in favor of males. Mean breeding date for Middle Park does was estimated to be November 28 with the earliest breeding occurring on November 13 and the latest on January 110 Mean parturition date was June 17. 0 Over-winter mortality rates were estimated by searching 93 dead deer transects. Only two deer were found for a projected mortality total of 50 deero Additionally, 101 deer died as a result of collisions with autos and trains and from collections. The 1971 deer harvest totaled 374 bucks, the lowest total since harvest records have been kept for Middle Park. ��-181- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate increments and losses to the Middle Park deer population order to formulate more efficient harvest regulations. in SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate productivity 2. Estimate range. mortality 3. Estimate the magnitude rates of Middle rates of Middle See Gill Park deer over the entire winter of the Middle METHODS Park deer. Park hunter harvest. AND t-1ATERIALS (1969) and Gill (1970) for details of methodology. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Productivity Pre-natal Productivity Corpora Lutea of Pregnancy--Thirty-two deer were collected by shooting during the period January - April, 1972. In addition, eight does which died from deer-auto collisions were examined. Forty sets of mule deer ovaries were sectioned and examined macroscopically for counts of corpora lutea of pregnancy (CLP). Overall the sample averaged 1.95 CLP per doe for 1972. This figure exceeded the averages for 1970 and 1971 and was only slightly below the 1969 high of 2.02 CLP per doe (Table 1). CLP were found in at least one ovary from every doe examined yielding a conception rate of 100 percent. Right ovaries contained more CLP than left ovaries in the 1972 sample, whereas in all other years left ovaries contained greater numbers of CLP (Table 2). �Table I. Comparisons of numbers of corpora lutea of pregnancy and fetuses occurring in samples of mule deer reproductive tracts collected from Middle Park does, 1969-1972. Yearling Does Adult Does No. of Does Examined All Does No. of Does Examined No. of Corpora Fertilization Does Lutea Fetuses Rate Examined Year Fertilization Corpora Rate Lutea Fetuses 1969 1.50 1.00 66.7% 2 2.05 1.97 96.1% 39 2.02 1.93 95.5% 41 1970 1.29 1.29 100.0% 7 1.86 1.7l 91.9% 35 1.76 1.64 93.2% 42 1971 1.27 1.09 85.8% 11 1.85 1. 75 94.6% 40 1.73 1.61 93.1% 51 1972 1.67 1.67 100.0% 6 2.00 1.91 92.6% 33.Y 1.95 1.87 93.6% 39 ~/ Corpora Fertilization Lutea Fetuses Rate I f-' 00 N I Totals 1.38 1.27 91. 7% 26 1. 94 1.84 II = 34 sets of ovaries were examined, 33 uteri were examined. ~I = 40 sets of ovaries were examined, 39 uteri we re examined. 21 = 148 sets of ovaries were examined, 147 uteri were examined. !il = 174 sets of ovaries were examined, 173 uteri were examined. 94.7% 147 ]j 1.86 1. 75 93.8% 173 !il �-183- Table 2. Number of corpora lutea of pregnancy (CLP) in right and left ovaries collected from Middle Park deer, 1969-1972. Year CLP Right Ovaries No. % CLP Left Ovaries No. % Total CLP No. % 1969 41 49.4 42 50.6 83 100.0 1970 34 45.3 41 54.7 75 100.0 1971 40 44.9 49 55.1 89 100.0 1972 44 56.4 34 43.6 78 100.0 All Years 159 48.9 166 51.1 325 100.0 Accessory Corpora Lutea--The presence of accessory corpora lutea (CLA) has been noted previously (Gill 1971). Accessory corpora lutea were found in samples from all four collection years with 1972 samples containing the greatest proportion relative to CLP and 1970 samples containing the least (Table 3). CLA of the type encountered and tallied in this study apparently arise when small follicles rupture about the same time as primary follicles which ultimately develop into CLP. According to Thomas (1970), these smaller follicles rarely shed viable ova and are most cornmon in younger and older aged deer. The main distinction between CLP and CLA is the relatively smaller size of CLA. CLA are usually less than one-quarter the size of the largest CLP in the sample (Thomas 1970). The significance, if any, of differences in proportions of CLA to CLP among yearly samples is not known. They do not appear to be consistently correlated with the number of CLP per doe (Table 3). Table 3. Accessory corpora lutea (CLA) and corpora found in ovaries of Hiddle Park does, 1969-1972. lutea of pregnancy (CLP) Year No. CLA CLA per Doe No. CLP CLP per Doe Ratio CLA/CLP 1969 5 0.12 83 .06 1 1970 2 0.05 75 2.02 1.76 .03 1 1971 7 0.13 89 1.73 .08 1 1972 7 0.18 74 1.95 .10 1 �-184- Fetus Counts--Thirty-nine does were examined in 1972 to estimate Middle Park pre-natal fawn production. All were pregnant, yielding 73 fetuses for an overall fetus:doe ratio of 1.87 (Table 1). Yearlings averaged 1.67 fetuses per doe and adults (2+ years) averaged 1.91. The 1972 overall fetus:doe ratio was the second highest recorded in the four year doe collection program. Extrapolating from fetus data, 1972 should experience excellent fawn production approaching that of 1969. The combined 1972 sample indicated that right and left uterine horns contained approximately equal numbers of fetuses. This was similar to 1969 while in 1970 a slightly greater proportion of the fetuses was found. in the right uterine horn, and in 1971 the pattern was reversed (Table 4). Table 4. collected Number of fetuses in right and left uterine horns from does in Middle Park, 1969-1972. Horn Year Fetuses Right Uterine No. 1969 41 50.6 40 49.4 81 100.0 1970 39 53.4 34 46.6 73 100.0 1971 38 46.9 43 53.1 81 100.0 1972 37 50.7 36 49.3 73 100.0 All Years 155 50.3 153 49.7 308 100.0 % Fetuses Left Uterine Horn No. % Total Fetuses No. % Age Specific Fecundity--Productivity of does within each age class was estimated by pooling samples from all four collection years into composite tables. Sample sizes were increased in this manner, but potential year differences were masked. Age-specific sample sizes were so small within individual collection years that only very large year to year differences would have been significant anyway, and so pooling was justified. Perusal of individual age classes revealed no consistent patterns except that year classes 1, 9, 11, and 12 appeared to have lower fetal rates than other year classes (Table 5). When age classes 9 and older were grouped into a single 9+ category a general pattern was apparent. Yearlings had the lowest fecundity, age classes 2 through 8 had highest fecundity rates, and age class 9+ was intermediate between yearlings and ages 2-8 (Table 6). Grouping age classes into four broad categories [yearlings, 2 year-olds, prime (3-7), and old (8+) Jas Robinette et al. (1955) did for Utah mule deer, even more distinct patterns were apparent. Yearlings produced fewest numbers of fetuses per doe, followed in order of increasing productivity by the old category, prime does and 2 year-olds (Table 7). �-185- Table 5. Age specific fecundity rates of Middle Park does collected from 1969 to 1972. Age at Breeding No. of Does No. of eLP eLP per Doe No. of Fetuses Fetuses per Doe Percent of Does Pregnant 1.5 26 36 1..38 33 1.27 92.3 2.5 18 38 2.11 38 2.11 100.0 3.5 26 51 1.96 48 1.85 100.0 4.5 21 41 1.95 41 1.95 100.0 5.5 16 31 1.94 28 1. 75 100.0 6.5 17 35 2.06 31 1. 82 94.1 7.5 8 15 1.88 15 1.88 100.0 8.5 11 20 1.82 20 1. 82 100.0 9.5 9 15 1.67 15 1.67 88.9 10.5 9 18 2.00 17 1.89 100.0 11.5 4 7 1. 75 6 1.50 100.0 12.5 2 4 2.00 2 1.00 100.0 13.5 5 10 2.00 9 1.80 100.0 Table 6. Age specific fecundity rates of Middle Park does with age classes 9.5+ grouped into a single age class. No. of eLP eLP per Doe No. of Fetuses Fetuses per Doe Percent of Does Pregnant 26 36 1.38 33 1.27 92.3 2.5 18 38 2.11 38 2.11 100.0 3.5 26 51 1.96 48 1.85 100.0 4.5 21 41 1.95 41 1.95 100.0 5.5 6.5 16 17 31 35 1.94 2.06 28 31 1.75 1.82 100.0 94.1 7.5 8.5 9.5+ 8 15 20 54 1.88 1.82 1.86 15 20 49 1.88 100.0 1.82 1.69 100.0 96.6 Age at Breeding No. of Does 1.5 11 29 �-186- Table 7. Fecundity rates of Middle Park does which have been grouped into four broad age categories. Age Category No. of Does No. of CLP CLP per Doe No. of Fetuses Fetuses per Doe Percent of Does Pregnant Yearlings 26 36 1.38 33 1.27 92.3 Two year-olds 18 38 2.11 38 2.11 100.0 Prime (3.5-7.5) 88 173 1.97 163 1.85 98.9 Old (8.5+) 40 74 1.85 69 1.72 97.5 Litter Sizes and Fetal Sex Ratios Litter Sizes--In 1972 no does were examined which contained more than two fetuses. Additionally, no does were examined which did not contain at least one fetus. The 1972 sample contained the highest percentage of twins (87.2%) and the lowest proportion of singletons (12.8%) (Table 8). This increased proportion of twins accompanied by a decreased percentage of singletons and no does which were not pregnant was sufficient to maintain a high reproductive rate similar to 1969 even though the 1972 sample lacked triplets or quad-. ruplets. Table 8. Litter size frequencies of Middle Park does, 1969-1972. Year 0 Litter Sizes 1 2 3 4 Total Sample Sizl:': 1969 No. Litters Percent 0 0.0 10 24.4 25 61.0 5 12.2 1 2.4 41 100.0 1970 No. Litters Percent 5 11.9 7 16.7 28 66.7 2 4.7 0 0.0 42 100.0 1971 No. Litters Percent 1 2.0 19 37.2 31 60.8 a a 0.0 0.0 51 100.0 No. Litters Percent 0 0.0 5 12.8 34 87.2 0 0.0 0.0 39 100.0 No. Litters Percent 6 3.5 41 23.7 118 68.2 7 4.0 1 0.6 173 100.0 1972 All Years a �-187- Fetal Sex Ratios--Fetal sex ratios of the previous three years have been unbalanced in favor of males (Fig. 1). In contrast, the 1972 sample yielded approximately equal numbers of male and female fetuses (Table 9). Consequently, the 1972 fawn crop should supply a greater proportion of producers to future populations than any of the three previous years, provided the 1972 sample adequately reflects the total Middle Park doe population. Conception Dates and Parturition Dates Conception Dates--Conception dates of Middle Park deer were calculated by backdating from collection dates a number of days equivalent to each estimated fetus age. Fetal ages were estimated from a mule deer growth curve constructed by Hudson and Br owman (1959). Each fetus was aged separately regardless of sex or litter size, and it was assumed that differences between sexes or among individual fetuses within litters were attributable to different conception dates. In 1972, 64 fetuses were aged. The mean breeding date for this sample was computed according to the method of Jackson and Hesselton (1971). Mean breeding dates were calculated by starting from the date on which the first fetus was conceived and counting consecutive days up to the date the last was conceived. Each day was multiplied by the number of fetuses conceived on that day, and these figures were summed over all days. This total was divided by the total number of fetuses to arrive at the mean breeding date. Mean breeding dates were: 1969 collections - November 28, 1968; ·1970 collections - December 1, 1969; 1971 collections - November 28, 1970; and 1972 collections - November 24, 1971 (Fig. 2). No significant differences were found among breeding dates for the four years so all years were combined and a pooled mean breeding date was calculated. This date was November 28, with the earliest conception occurring on November 13 and the latest on January 11 (Fig. 3). Parturition Dates--Parturition dates were computed by adding 202 days to each conception date. An average gestation period of 202 days was assumed for Middle Park deer (Robinette and Gashwiler, 1950; Jackson and Hesselton, 1971). Computations were made only for the pooled sample. The mean date of parturition for Hiddle Park was estimated to be June 17 with parturition dates ranging from June 3 to August 1 (Fig. 4). �-188- o II = Males = Females Fig. 1. Comparative proportions Park does, 1969-1972. of males and females in litters of ?'~iddle �-189- 40 1968-69 30 20 10 0 40 1969-70 30 (I) z 0 20 H t f.:<l (.) z 10 0 (.) H < E-t 0 E-t I%.. 0 40 1970-71 0 E-< ~ 30 u &1 n, 20 10 0 40 1971-72 30 20 10 o NOV. NOV. NOV. NOV. DEC. DEC. DEC. DEC. DEC. DEC. JAN. JAN. JAN. 11-15 16-20 21-25 26=30 1-5 Fig. 2. Histogram 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-31 1-5 6-10 11-15 of Miodle Park deer breeding dates for each of four sample years. �-190- ~ o 40 ~ ~ )0 H f:.-4 o (.) H &S 20 o E-t ~ 10 NOV. NOV. NOV~ NOV. DEC. DEC. DEC. DEC. DEC. DEC. JAN. JAN. JAN. 11-1§-16-20 21-25 26-)0 Fig.). 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-)1 1-5 6-10 11-15 Histogram of Middle Park deer breeding dates pooling data from 1969-1972. �-191- 40_ CIl ::r: E-; p:: H P=l 30 _ H <l! 8 0 8 20 _ r.x.. 0 8 10 _ Z 1%1 U ~ A. 0_ JUNE JUNE 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 1-5 Fig. 4. JUN3 JUNE JUNE JUNE JULY JULY Histogram of Middle Park deer parturition 1969-1972. JULY JULY JULY JULY 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-31 dates, pooling data from A.UG. 1-5 �-192- Table 9. Proportions of males and females does collected from 1969 to 1972. in litters of Middle Males Park Females Ratio of : 100 Females Year No. % No. % 1969 43 63.2 25 36.8 172 100 1970 47 67.1 23 32.9 204 100 1971 43 57.3 32 42.7 134 100 1972 29 51.8 27 48.2 107 100 All Years 162 60.2 107 39.8 151 100 Males Fawn Survival Fawn survival rates were graphed from ratios of fawns per 100 producing does. Four temporarily separate ratio calculations were used to graph changes: estimates of the number of fawns conceived per 100 does were obtained from road-killed deer and doe collections; fawns per 100 does at birth were obtained from the same sources, fawns per 100 does prior to the October regular deer season were calculated from helicopter survey results, and fawns per 100 does in January were computed from ground classification data. Ratios obtained during fawn:doe counts in October and January were corrected to fawn:producing doe ratios by subtracting the proportion of yearling (non-producing) does from the total doe sample. Estimates of the proportion of yearlings in the doe population were obtained from check station data concerning age structure of the doe harvest. In 1971 only bucks were harvested in Middle Park so the yearling doe proportion was approximated by pooling harvest data from 1967-70 and computing the average percent of yearlings (Table 10). Changes in survival rates over the 60 week period are presented in Figure 5. Fewer fawns were conceived and born in 1970 and 1971 than in 1969, but survival rates were similar through 46 weeks in all three years. Survival from 46 to 58 weeks was similar in 1969 and 1971 but somewhat lower in 1970. �-193- Table 10. Percent of yearlings in the Middle Park doe harvest, 1967- 1970. Year Yearlings No. 1967 Adult Totals % No. % No. % 84 32.2 176 67.7 260 100.0 1968 58 24.7 177 75.3 235 100.0 1969 142 24.4 441 75.6 583 100.0 1970 136 36.4 238 63.6 374 100.0 All Years 420 28.9 1,032 71.1 1,452 100.0 Mortality Over-winter Mortality Estimated over-winter mortality of deer in 1971-72 was lowest of any year since sampling was initiated in 1967-68. Only two dead deer of the year (both old bucks) were found on 93 transects for a total mortality projection of 50 deer (Fig. 6). Subjective appraisal of the 1971-72 winter by Area Supervisor Paul F. Gilbert indicated it was one of the mildest winters in Middle Park since 1965-66 and little winter deer mortality was expected. Low mortality combined with indicated high fawn production and survival should result in a large increase in the 1973 deer winter population level. Populations should number from 9,000 to 10,000 deer by January, 1973, provided the October deer harvest does not exceed 1,000. Highway, Railroad, and Collection Mortality Deer losses resulting from deer-auto collisions were summarized from Wildlife Conservation Officer records. Losses resulting from collisions with trains were obtained from counts conducted by Colorado State University wildlife management students in May, 1972. Totals from these two mortality sources were 48 deer perishing from deer-auto collisions and 21 dying from collisions with trains. In addition, 32 does were collected to estimate productivity (Table 11). Therefore, the total non-harvest mortality (minimum) for Middle Park in 1971-72 was estimated at 151 deer. �-194- 100 z 0 H F-< 1969 H ~ 8 50 eJ z 0... 0 Ul e58 ~ ;.2~ Ul I ~ ~ 0 0 10 20 3D 40 50 60 WEEKS FROM CONCEPTION 100 93.2% Z H 0 < H ~ :> H f5 Ul 8 1970 g5 8 p:: 0: 50 8 Z 0 Ul ~ ~ , U p:: I%l A. Ul &i ~ 0... ~ ~ 0 0 100 10 20 3D 93.1% 40 50 ' 60 �1800 -I 1706 • 1600 1400 1200 -, \ &1 1135 ~ w Q ~ 1000 - 0 ~ w ~ Z 800 600 -. v -I 639 400 - I I-' \.0 V1 I I 200 01967-68 Fig. 6. Over-winter mortality 1968-69 of Midd1e Park deer, 1969-70 1967-68 through 1971-72. 1970-71 1971-72 �-196- Table II. Summary of sources of recorded deer mortality other than overwinter mortality and harvest mortality for Middle Park, 1963-64 to 1971-72. Railroad Mortality Trap Mortality and Collections Total (Minimum) 1963-64 90 0 90 1964-65 385 0 385 1965-66 7 0 7 Year Highway Mortality 1966-67 56 132 0 188 1967-68 54 60 0 114 1968-69 77 56 51 184 1969-70 67 38 40 145 1970-71 57 9 49 115 1971-72 48 21 32 101 Harvest Mortality Three different methods were used to estimate harvest mortality (exclusive of wounding loss) in Middle Park for the 1971 hunting season. These methods have been described previously (Gill 1969). In general, all three methods have been in agreement with the regression equation method usually yielding slightly higher estimates than the county report card and ratio-deer check methods. In 1971 deer hunters were restricted to taking only antlered deer and deer and elk seasons were held at separate times. The result was the lowest deer harvest recorded since 1947 when data were first available (Table 12). Estimates of the 1971 harvest ranged from 348 deer (ratiodeer check method) to 516 deer (regression equation method) (Table 13). The county report card ratio-deer check methods probably were more accurate since the regression equation method projected beyond the range of data used in its computation. �-197- Table 12. Year Summary of deer seasons and harvests in Middle Park, 1947-1971. Type of Season Deer Harvest 1947 Either sex - 1 deer 2,639 1948 Either sex - 1 deer; 1st half season Antlered only - 1 deer; 2nd half season 2,314 1949 Either sex - 1 deer 2,247 1950 Either sex - 1 deer; 1/2 area Antlered only - 1 deer; 1/2 area 2,537 1951 Either sex - 1 deer 4,462 1952 Either sex - 1 deer 1,800 1953 Either sex - 1 deer 2,300 1954 Either sex - 1 deer; 1st half season Either sex - multiple licenses; 2nd half 4,656 1955 Either sex - multiple licenses 3,322 1956 Either sex - 2 deer; 1st half season Does only; 2nd half 4,009 1957 Multiple licenses - 2 deer per license 2,747 1958 Either sex - 1 deer 2,170 1959 Either sex - 1 deer 2,881 1960 Either sex - 1 deer 2,386 1961 Either sex - 1 deer 2,468 1962 Either sex - 2 deer 4,338 1963 Either sex - 2 deer 4,719 1964 Either sex - 2 deer 5,012 1965 Either sex - 2 deer 2,392 1966 Either sex - 2 deer 5,264 1967 Either sex - 2 deer 3,510 1968 Either sex - 1 deer; 1st half season Either sex - 2 deer; 2nd half 2,104 1969 Either sex - 1 deer; 1st half season Either sex - 2 deer, 2nd half 4,151 1970 Either sex - 1 deer 2,097 1971 Antlered only 374 �-198- Table l3. Comparison of three different methods for estimating Middle Park deer harvests, 1967-1971. Regression Equation Estimate Year County Report Card Estimate Ratio-Deer Check Estimate 1967 3,510 3,494 X2 161.95 + 3.348 Xl 3,066 1968 2,104 2,237 X2 321.41 + 3.140 Xl 2,909 1969 4,151 4,321 X2 52.00 + 3.329 Xl 4,503 1970 Not Available 2,097 X2 165.90 + 3.184 Xl 2,436 1971 374 348 X2 165.90 + 3.184 Xl 516 Regression Equation LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 1. pp. 105-122. 1970. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 3. pp. 337-354. 1971. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2. pp. 189-207. Hudson, P., and L. G. Browman. 1959. Embryonic and fetal development of the mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 23(2):295-304. Jackson, L. W., and W. T. Hesselton. 1971. Breeding and parturition dates for various age classes of female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus borealis) in New York. NE Sect. Wildl. Soc., Trans. 28:21-35. Robinette, W. L., and J. S. Gashwiler. 1950. Breeding season, productivity, and fawning period of the mule deer in Utah. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 14(4): 457-469. Robinette, W. L., J. S. Gashwiler, D. A. Jones, and H. S. Crane. 1955. Fertility of mule deer in Utah. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 19(1):115-136. Thomas, D. C. 1970. The ovary, reproduction, and productivity of the female Columbian black-tailed deer. PhD Thesis. Univ. British Columbia, prepa:::c:~ver~2~~~. ~ R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher �-199- July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~ Work Plan No. Investigations 4 Job No. 14 Middle Park Deer Study - Physical Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. Job Title _ Characteristics and Food Habits April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 R. Bruce Gill, William Adrian, Sigler and Laren Ao Roper. David DeCalesta, Robert Keiss, Bruce ABSTRACT Kidney fat and bone marrow fat indices were estimated from mature doe mule deer collected and accidently killed in Middle Park from 1969-1972. Findings are presented in tables. Analyses will be reported in the final report due this segment. Blood counts and plasma analyses will also be included in the report. In the 1971 buck only deer hunt, 16 right antlers were collected for comparisons with antlers taken from deer killed in Middle Park in 1969 and 1970. Weights and numbers of points are shown 0 ��-201- PHYSICAL MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY CHARACTERISTICS AND FOOD HABITS Laren A. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To measure selected physical characteristics related to the assessment of physical condition of deer and to determine forage preferences of mule deer in Middle Park. SEGHENT OBJECTIVES 1. Heasure selected to be indicative 2. Estimate physical characteristics of the state of physical forage selections HETHODS Forage Preferences Procedures are reported by Gill Physical of deer which are believed condition of deer. of wild deer from stomach content analysis. AND MATERIALS - Stomach Content Analyses (1969). Characteristics All procedures are reported by Gill (1969) and Roper (1970 and 1971) except for those initiated during this segment for collecting blood samples and analyzing blood plasma. Approximately 40 ml of blood was taken directly from the heart as soon after death as possible and placed into tubes containing .20 grams of sodium heprin. These samples were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 30,000 RPH and the plasma was drawn off with a pipet. The procedure for analyzing these samples will be detailed in the final report as the analysis is yet to be completed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forage Preferences - Stomach Content Analyses Samples from rumen contents were taken from 32 collected will be analyzed at a later date. deer. The data �-202- Condition Kidney Fat and Bone Marrow Indices Fat Deer were collected each winter commencing in mid January and continuing through April of 1969, 1970, 1971 and 1972. In 1969, 1970 and 1971 one deer was collected in May. Kidney fat and bone marrow fat estimates were obtained from road killed deer and some deer accidently killed during trapping operations whenever this was feasible. In preparation for the final report which will be forthcoming this segment all data for kidney fat estimates have been checked for accuracy and are summarized in Tables 1-7. Ages are shown as determined by counts of dental cementum annuli (Erickson and Seliger 1969). Starting January 1 each day was numbered consecutively throughout the collection period. Blood Counts and Plasma Analyses Blood smears were taken from each collected deer. Counts of segmented neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes and eosinophils are being taken. The data will be presented in the final report. Blood plasma from a majority of the collected deer will be analyzed for blood urea nitrogen, glucose, ornithine carbamyl transferase, volatile fatty acids, glucocorticoides, lactic dehydrogenase ratios, aldolase and ketone bodies. These data will be compared with similar samples drawn from experimental deer that were starved and refed in conjunction with Job 6. Antler Weights and Number of Points in Yearling Bucks During the 1971 deer season the right antler was collected from yearling bucks. These antlers were weighed and tabulated according to the number of points (Table 8). Due to the bucks only deer regulation the total harvest was very low. As a result our sample size is much smaller than previous years. Within points the sample of antlers 28 percent were spikes, 55 percent had 2 and 17 percent 3 points. �-203- Table 1. Physical condition indices for mature doe deer collected in Middle Park in 1969. Deer No. Collection Date Day No. Right Area ~/ Kidney 69-1 69-2 69-3 69-4 69-5 69-6 69-7 69-8 69-9 69-10 69-11 69-12 69-13 69-14 69-15 69-16 69-17 69-18 69-19 69-20 69-21 69-22 69-23 69-24 69-25 69-26 69-27 69-28 69-29 69-30 69-31 69-32 69-33 1-15 1-16 1-17 1-21 1-21 1-22 1-23 1-23 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-17 2-18 2-18 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-7 3-13 3-20 3-20 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-10 4-10 4-14 4-14 4-15 5-17 15 16 17 21 21 22 23 23 35 36 37 38 38 38 39 39 63 64 65 65 66 72 79 79 98 99 100 100 100 101 101 102 137 M M B T T W w B B B T T w M M T M W T T M w B B T M B B T W w M M 11.9 9.6 59.7 38.8 44.0 30.3 32.8 30.8 22.5 46.6 39.5 42.8 32.1 25.7 30.3 9.8 10.2 26.2 10.8 46.0 26.0 14.0 18.8 16.0 5.3 14.0 9.0 20.6 20.7 7.0 4.3 Left Kidney 6.7 79.8 29.6 23.8 32.0 26.9 30.3 25.8 48.5 49.6 33.0 31.9 30.4 22.7 7.9 14.5 19.5 8.0 37.7 23.9 10.4 16.3 11.1 8.8 7.5 9.0 4.7 20.6 10.7 7.4 3.8 Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Fat Marrow 8.1 69.8 34.2 33.9 31.1 29.9 30.5 24.2 47.6 44.6 37.9 32.0 28.0 26.5 8.9 12.3 22.9 9.4 41.9 25.0 12.1 17.6 13.5 6.4 11.5 6.8 20.6 15.7 7.2 4.0 85 92 90 86 84 87 91 84 91 94 91 89 92 9 91 85 88 93 92 84 91 87 56 60 88 78 84 89 51 11 Age By Dental Cementum 8 9+ 5 2 1 1 2 13 8 2 Mature 8 2 6 6 3 7 3 7 5 2 5 6 4 2 2 5 3 5 4 6 3 7 Pooled Mean Percent Kidney Fat = 32.5 1/ - Areas: M = Muddy Creek; B = Blue River; W = Williams Fork River; T = Troublesome Creek. �-204- Table 2. Physical condition indices for mature doe deer collected in Middle Park in 1970. Deer No. Collection Date Day No. 70-1 70-2 70-3 70-4 70-5 70-6 70-7 70-8 70-9 70-10 70-11 70-12 70-13 70-14 70-15 70-16 70-17 70-18 70-19 70-20 70-21 70-22 70-23 70-24 70-25 70-26 70-27 70-28 70-29 70-30 70-31 70-32 70-33 1-23 1-26 1-26 1-27 1-29 2-5 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 3-12 3-19 3-20 3-23 3-23 3-23 3-25 3-27 4-7 4-7 4-9 4-13 4-13 4-14 4-14 4-15 5-23 23 26 26 27 29 36 40 40 41 43 43 44 56 57 58 59 71 78 79 82 82 82 84 86 97 97 99 103 103 104 104 105 143 1 Right Area _I Kidney T T T M M B B B W W W M M B W T M T M W W B B T M M B T T W W B B 17.6 22.8 40.4 26.9 32.7 23.0 38.5 23.8 28.8 .04 20.0 14.9 10.5 13.7 41.4 28.9 15.2 5.6 17.9 4.6 14.4 7.9 3.7 7.2 14.2 9.2 4.8 6.4 .03 9.5 Left Kidney Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Fat Marrow 26.2 18.8 51.5 21.9 20.8 45.9 23.8 31.0 41.0 20.2 29.3 .04 20.0 15.2 5.1 15.2 58.0 17.7 14.1 5.5 28.2 27.0 39.7 22.0 29.0 .04 20.0 15.0 7.8 14.4 49.7 23.3 14.6 5.5 6.8 18.4 6.7 2.5 7.4 21.8 6.6 7.5 10.5 7.3 .02 11.4 5.7 16.4 7.3 3.1 7.3 18.0 7.9 6.1 6.8 .02 10.4 Age By Dental Cementum 90 89 76 84 91 91 95 92 74 3 85 89 53 86 88 81 85 66 86 66 79 61 33 82 85 30 72 33 40 2 72 Pooled Mean Percent Kidney Fat l.lAreas: M = Muddy Creek; B = Blue River; W = Williams Fork River; T = Troublesome Creek. 13 12+ 5 1 3 6 10+ 2 4 10 6 1 1 8 10 3 6 6 10+ 6 4 3 3 4 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3 4 3 3+ 2 30.3 �-205- Table 3. Physical condition indices for mature doe deer collected in Middle Park in 1971. Deer No. Collection Date Day No. 71-1 71-2 71-3 71-4 71-5 71-6 71-7 71-8 71-9 71-10 71-11 71-12 71-13 71-14 71-15 71-16 71-17 71-18 71-19 71-20 71-21 71-22 71-23 71-24 71-25 71-26 71-27 71-28 71-29 71-30 71-31 71-32 71-33 1-16 1-19 1-22 1-22 1-25 1-26 1-27 1-28 1-28 2-5 2-9 2-10 2-16 2-17 2-23 2-26 3-4 3-8 3-11 3-16 3-19 3-22 3-26 3-30 4-1 4-5 4-7 4-12 4-19 4-21 4-23 4-26 5-21 16 19 22 22 25 26 27 28 28 36 40 41 47 48 54 57 64 68 71 76 79 82 86 90 92 96 98 103 110 112 114 117 142 Right Area 1/ Kidney Left Kidney 22.5 15.8 15.3 14.3 19.4 23.3 5.2 17.4 19.5 15.6 30.4 19.9 16.5 26.9 32.0 26.3 26.4 45.3 17.5 17.6 15.0 16.2 9.5 26.5 7.6 16.5 20.1 5.8 10.7 5.2 16.7 18.4 10.5 8.2 8.2 M W T B M W T B B M B T H W T W M W T B H W T B M T W B M T W B M 23.0 8.2 18.9 27.4 23.8 38.9 23.6 27.3 24.7 34.1 24.1 37.5 37.8 22.7 21.1 17.3 19.1 10.4 20.2 6.0 19.3 17.7 17.4 5.8 12.8 12.1 10.8 9.3 9.2 Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Marrow Fat 18.9 15.0 23.1 6.6 18.1 23.4 19.7 34.7 21.8 21.9 25.8 33.0 25.2 32.0 41.6 20.1 19.4 16.1 17.7 10.0 23.4 6.8 17.9 18.9 14.0 5.5 14.8 15.2 10.2 8.8 8.7 Age By Dental Cementum 80.1 92.7 85.1 89.6 89.2 91.3 85.1 75.7 89.1 82.2 80.8 1 Mature 6 3-4 8 1 1 11 6 5 3 3 1 2 13 5 3 5 1 7 8 3 9 4 4 4 7 10 12 6 1 3 9-10 91.3 83.2 88.8 94.0 88.6 91.1 87.9 94.4 75.3 74.4 70.6 85.2 78.6 65.1 70.1 22.7 80.0 30.6 89.6 25.4 66.4 Pooled Mean Percent Kidney Fat 18.0 1/ - Areas: M = Muddy Creek; B = Blue River; W = Williams Fork River; T = Troublesome Creek. �-206- Table 4. Physical condition indices for mature doe deer collected in Middle Park in 1972. Deer No. Collection Date Day No. 72-1 72-2 72-3 72-4 72-5 72-6 72-7 72-8 72-9 72-10 72-11 72-14 72-13 72-14 72-15 72-16 72-17 72-18 72-19 72-20 72-21 72-22 72-23 72-24 72-25 72-26 72-27 72-28 72-29 72-30 72-31 72-32 1-14 1-14 1-15 1-15 1-20 1-21 1-24 2-1 2-1 2-3 2-8 2-10 2-15 2-17 2-22 2-28 3-1 3-1 3-7 3-8 3-14 3-16 3-24 3-24 4-3 4-11 4-11 4-19 4-19 4-20 4-20 4-21 14 14 15 15 20 21 24 32 32 35 39 41 46 48 53 59 60 66 66 67 73 75 83 83 93 101 101 109 109 110 Right Area 1/ Kidney M M T T W B W B M T W B M T W B M T W B M T W B M T T W W B III B 112 M 45.8 12.6 52.9 Left Kidney Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Fat Marrow 31.1 41.5 43.6 48.7 17.4 44.8 36.8 24.4 28.8 45.2 21.8 38.4 41.1 28.1 40.0 42.4 20.1 39.2 31.3 23.1 22.5 34.8 21.6 19.5 26.8 24.8 31.2 40.5 28.9 18.7 9.1 21.4 13.1 17 .9 8.0 16.9 7.0 20.4 39.2 22.5 22.7 23.7 28.2 16.7 13.5 32.22 23.7 21.0 27 .1 21.9 12.1 6.6 16.4 13.2 14.8 7.5 12.9 10.1 20.2 39.2 26.9 23.0 23.1 30.6 19.1 16.5 29.5 24.3 24.9 33.8 25.4 15.4 7.9 18.9 13.1 15.4 7.9 15.2 8.5 25.4 39.6 47.2 15.0 48.8 24.9 34.2 92.7 83.4 81.7 86.4 79.4 87.5 86.4 88.0 84.0 76.4 86.2 68.7 89.1 87.0 90.6 90.9 82.5 86.3 67.5 88.7 78.8 90.0 78.8 82.4 82.8 50.7 72.5 73.2 80.3 50.3 86.0 67.3 Age By Dental Cementum 11 10 9 3 1 4 17 2 8 8 5 9 4 6 10 6 3 5 1 2 9 3 9 4 2 1 4 1 4 8 7 9 Pooled Mean Percent Kidney Fat = 32.6 1/ -Areas: M = Muddy Creek; B = Blue River; W - Williams Fork River; T = Troublesome Creek. �-207- Table 5. Physical condition indices for hiway and railroad killed mature doe deer in Middle Park in 1969. Deer No. Collection Date 69-l-RK 69-4-RK 69-5-RK 69-6-RK 2.../ 69-7-RK 69-8-RK 69-l0-PlZ 69-11-RK 69-l2-RK 69-l4-RK 69-l5-RK 1-16 2-3 2-5 2-13 2-11 2-28 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-17 3-17 Day 1\10. Right Area }j Kidney Left Kidney 16 34 35 44 42 59 62 62 63 76 76 M T T M M T M T T T M 21.2 36.3 1/ - Areas: M = Muddy Creek; B Troublesome Creek. 10.8 35.1 21.6 .1 20.0 10.0 26.5 19.0 36.9 48.8 Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Marrow Fat Age By Dental Cementum 16.0 35.7 88 .1 52.0 16.7 4.8 14.6 11.6 21.9 45.5 .1 18.9 5.4 20.6 15.3 29.4 47.1 43 74. 51 88 67 1 1 1 3 Blue River; W = Williams Fork River; T 2/ - Trap mortality. Table 6. Physical condition indices for hiway and railroad and accidentally killed mature doe deer in Middle Park in 1971. Deer No. Collection Date 7l-2-RK 71-3-RK 71-l-A Jj 71-5-RK 71-5-A JJ 7l-6-A Jj 71-7-A 71-9-RK 71-l0-RK 71-S-A Jj 71-l2-ARK 71-11-A Jj 71-l4-A 71-15-A ]j u u 71-16-A 1/ 71-ll-RK 7l-l2-RK 1-27 2-1 2-4 2-9 2-22 2-22 2-26 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-11 3-11 3-11 3-19 3-19 5-18 5-20 Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Fat Marrow Day No. Right Area 1/ Kidney Left Kidney 27 32 35 40 53 53 57 64 64 64 71 71 71 79 79 139 140 M B M T 27.7 25.7 7.5 25 .t. H M M l2.S 3.0 5.2 23.6 24.1 15.6 8.7 11.5 2.S 5.9 B B T 35.1 15.6 25.3 24.9 11.5 12.1 2.9 5.5 M T H M M T T 9.6 5.1 7.3 90.4 83.4 91.3 S.O 39.0 61.2 90.0 78.5 84.4 63.0 2.6 8.7 18.3 44.5 71.8 1/ Areas: M = Muddy Creek; B = Blue River; W = Williams Fork River; T Troublesome Creek. ~/ Trap mortality. Age By Dental Cementum 5 9 1 1 7 11 1 8 1 3 6 1 4 6 1 4 1 �-208- Table 7. Physical condition indices for hiway and railroad killed mature doe deer in Middle Park in 1972. Deer No. Collection Date 72-1-RK 72-2-RK 72-4-RK 72-5-RK 72-6-RK 72-7-RK 72-8-RK 72-9-RK 72-10-RK 72-11-RK 1-2 1-8 1-12 1-12 1-20 1-20 2-8 2-12 3-30 4-13 Day No. Right Area 1/ Kidney 2 8 12 12 20 20 39 43 89 103 M B T B Left Kidney 72.4 52.8 Percent Fat Mean Kidney Bone Fat Marrow Age By Dental Cementum 1 3 1 4 2 7 4 1 1 3 62.6 B M T B 82.2 83.2 75.8 81.2 1/ - Areas: M = Muddy Creek; B - Blue River; W = Williams Fork River; T Troublesome Creek. Table 8. Right antler weights of yearling bucks taken in Middle Park and checked at the Idaho Springs Check Station in 1971. Number of Points CIl § !-I 1 2 3 21.3 52.1 87.9 26.4 48.1 59.9 75.6 107.0 127.7 52.0 85.3 74.1 92.1 c.!l I=l OM .j.J ..c: eo OM (iJ !3 92.2 101.1 109.7 116.4 l32.5 N Mean 18 81.2 4 �-209- LITERATIJRE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - physical characteristics and food habits. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. Roper, L. A. 1970. Middle Park deer study - physical characteristics and food habits. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. 1971. Middle Park deer study - physical characteristics and food habits. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. Erickson, J. A., and W. G. Seliger. 1969. Efficient sectioning of incisors for estimating ages of mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(2):384-388. Laren A. Roper Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��-211July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. Investigations 5 Middle Park Deer Study - Range Fertilization Period Covered: Personnel: 14 Deer-Elk June 15, 1971 through March 15, 1972 R. Bruce Gill, Paul Fo Gilbert, Laren Ao Roper, O. C. Wallmo, Don W. Reichert, Wayne L. Regelin, Lonnie M. Brown, Dan L. Baker, Richard W. Hoffman and Len Ho Carpenter. ABSTRACT Second year fertilizer and herbicide treatment response data were gathered on three study areas in western Grand County, Colorado. The herbage yield data showed a significant linear response to increasing increments of nitrogen fertilizer. The main effect of fertilizer was realized at the 30 pound nitrogen level. Significant responses in vegetation yield were also obtained with the herbicide and fertilizer treatments, where forb production was decreased and grass production increased. Adequate sampling was obtained in most cases for a stated degree of precision of total vegetation yield. Six tame, trained mule deer were grazed at each study area during the winter months. A definite increase in grass and a corresponding decrease in forbs in the diet was noted from the pretreatment period to the second year posttreatment period. Treatment preference data at each study area revealed no preferences by the tame deer for the control or fertilizer only treatments over Additional fertilizer response information on the combination treatmentso a fourth study area is presented. ��-213- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of fertilizers tensity responses to fertilization on deer forage and deer feeding inof critical winter range areas. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To test the effects of nitrogen and 2,4-D on forage production composition on the selected study areas. 2. To evaluate 3. To evaluate the quality of big sagebrush influenced by fertilizer treatment. deer foraging responses METHODS and to treated areas. as a mule deer food as AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in this segment have been detailed previously by Carpenter (1970) and (1971). Certain additions and changes have been made. Vegetation Measurements Herbage Yield No changes made from 1971. Botanical Composition No changes made from 1971. Sagebrush Samples A separate study area was established to evaluate the influence of fertilizer upon the essential oil content and composition and the digestibility of big sagebrush. This study area is in critical mule deer winter range located on Junction Butte Mountain, 3 miles southwest of Kremmling, Colorado. �-214- Ammonium nitrate fertilizer, at the rate of 120 pounds of elemental nitrogen per acre, was applied by hand on March 17, 1971. The fertilizer was applied in three strips 330 feet long by 176 feet wide with a 66 foot control strip between each treatment. The stripping procedure was done so that paired samples could be obtained from treated and untreated adjacent strips. Thirty 200 gram samples of the terminal-inch of big sagebrush stem, plus leaf material, was collected on February 11 and 12, 1972. These thirty samples were obtained from fifteen paired plots. The fifteen paired plots were made up of five lines with three sets of paired plots each. The location of each paired sample was chosen randomly. Once the random location was chosen the plots on the treated and untreated areas were paired as nearly as possible regarding soil conditions, topography, and sagebrush plant size. The 200 grams of plant material were taken from an average of ten sagebrush plants and from all vertical and lateral locations on those plants. Plant samples were immediately placed in plastic bags and frozen for future analysis. In a separate experiment, common epsom salts (magnesium sulfate - MgS04) were applied to plots on the same Junction Butte study area. Fifty pounds of magnesium per acre were applied on March 31, 1972 to six randomly selected square chain plots. Three of the plots were located on strips previously treated with nitrogen and three were located on untreated or control strips. Magnesium was chosen because it is present in the chlorophyll molecule and is important in the photosynthetic process. It was thought the presence of additional magnesium elements would result in more efficient plant photosynthesis, producing fewer essential oils which are by-products of plant metabolism. Some justification for this hypothesis was found in Powell's (1968) work where he found a significant inverse relationship between magnesium content of the soil and volatile oil content in sagebrush. Sagebrush samples from these magnesium treatments have not yet been collected. They will be obtained in December or January in a manner similar to that described above. To determine oil content 100 grams of plant material will be taken from each frozen sample and placed in a steam distillation apparatus and distilled for 6 hours. Previous studies (Ward and Nagy 1966) have demonstrated that 95 percent of the oils are obtained during this period. Total oil content for each sample will be determined on a dry weight basis. At the end of the distillation process, oils will be drained into glass vials and stored in a refrigerator. Analytical determination of the specific compounds present in each of the 30 volatile oil samples will be done in a Varian Aerograph Model 1740 chromatograph with hydrogen flame detector. Column oven temperatures will be linear programmed from 600 to 2300 C. at 4°C./min. Nitrogen gas glow will be 28 ml/min. A 10 foot by 1/8 inch column packed with 5 percent polyetholene glycol (PEG) on chromosorb "w" with a mesh of 80-120 will be used. A varian aerograph model 20 recorder and model 477 integrator �-215- with attached digital printer will be connected to the chromotograph. The digital printout value for each peak will be divided by the total for the sample to express the amount of each terpenoid as a percentage of the total. Tentative identification of the individual terpenoids will be done by the relative retention time. These times will be compared with previous times of terpenoids identified by Ward and Nagy (1966) and Paintner (1971). Digestion Pr9cedures If the above analyses indicate that differences exist between treated and untreated samples in volatile oil content or composition, tests will be made to determine if these differences affect certain digestion parameters. The interest of this study lies in the effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the food values of big sagebrush to mule deer during the winter period, when their diet has a higher fiber content. At this time the role of cellulose digesting bacteria becomes most important. As a result, some measure of the comparative antibacterial effects of treated and untreated volatile oils on rumen cellulo1ytics in vitro will provide information on the comparative food value of treated and untreated big sagebrush. Measuring in vitro cellulolytic activity requires a Rumen Fluid Cellulose Broth to culture rumen organisms. Composition of this broth is described by Bryant and Burkey (1953) and Bryant and Robinson (1961) with modifications described by Ward and Nagy (1966). The rumen fluid to be incorporated into the media will be obtained from a rumen fistulated goat or a tame mule deer receiving an ad libitum diet of concentrate and alfalfa hay. Total volatile oils from three controls and three treatments will be tested for antibacterial action on rumen bacteria (Paintner 1971). Commercially obtained individual terpenoids that may differ (if any do) from the treated and untreated samples will also be tested. Total volatile oils and selected terpenoids will be dispensed into test tubes by means of a microliter syringe in amounts of 0, 3, 6, 12, and 15 microliters for culturing with RFCB. According to Ward and Nagy (1966) these levels should demonstrate a definite antibacterial effect. The culturing broth will be pipetted in 9 ml amounts into test tubes containing the volatile oils or selected terpenoids. The broth will be constantly stirred during dispension and will be maintained at a pH of 6.8. ' Rumen inoculum will be taken from tame deer by stomach pumping. These deer will be maintained on a known concentrate diet. Rumen contents will be immediately taken to the laboratory, strained through cheesecloth, and 1 ml will be placed in an aerobic diluting fluid. Composition of this fluid �-216- is described b Bryant and Burkey (1953). Rumen inoculum will be diluted to 10- by this aerobic solution. This diluted inoculum will then be dispensed in 1 ml amounts to test tubes containing the 9 ml of broth. Duplicates will be run on all oil and terpenoid levels. 3 Cultures will be incubated at 390 C. for three days. After this period, the remaining cellulose in each tube will be weighed to determine percent of cellulose digested. Weights from each test tube culture duplicates will be averaged and subtracted from the mean of the control. This value will be expressed as a percentage of cellulose digested. Deer Grazing Measurements No changes made from 1971. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Herbage Measurements Yield Methods for obtaining total herbage yield estimates are detailed by Carpenter (1971). Yearly comparisons from 1969 to 1971 for the various weight components at each study area are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3. First year vegetation responses to 120 pounds of nitrogen per acre applied to the 4.6 acre sagebrush volatile oil study area are summarized in Table 4. It is interesting to note that the nitrogen treatment resulted in an 81 percent production increase in total leafy material over the untreated areas. Figures 1 and 2 show average forb and grass production by treatment for the 1971 data for all three study areas combined. Definite decreases in forb production are shown in Figure 1 on combination treatments compared to fertilizer only treatments. Mean forb production for all three study areas for all fertilizer only treatments is 136 pounds per acre. Mean forb production for all three study areas for all combination treatments is 84 pounds per acre. Figure 2 shows the increase in grass production of the combination treatments as compared to the fertilizer only treatments. Mean grass production for all three study areas for all fertilizer only treatments is 370 pounds per acre, while mean production of grass for combination treatments is 641 pounds per acre. �-217- Table 1. Pre-treatment, first and second year herbage production response data for Junction Butte study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. (Lbs. Per Acre) Treatment Year and Weight Com:eonent 1971 1969 1970 1971 1969 1970 Shrub Current Growth Weight Total Leafy Vegetation o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 404 236 582 739 614 713 649 443 905 1099 792 961 464 957 853 723 1316 1074 90 N " " 392 940 991 637 1278 1231 120 N " 477 1254 1102 732 1603 1346 249 365 388 454 709 782 505 625 492 461 675 585 905 1001 781 890 1069 902 637 744 915 1077 60 N o N 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N 60 N 90 N " 251 " " 427 337 530 624 424 120 N " 485 549 Table 2. Pre-treatment, first and second year herbage production response data for F1ight1ine study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. (Lbs , Per Acre) Treatment o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " o N 2 lb. 2,4-D Year and Y-JeightCom:eonent 1970 1971 1971 1969 1969 1970 Total Leafy Vegetation Shrub Current Growth Weight 467 606 480 1177 1519 1078 419 497 506 1187 1399 1172 424 861 501 1134 1852 1097 704 741 700 1526 1704 1328 822 1625 1043 1620 2633 1773 633 393 227 1463 1212 1034 30 N " 696 412 265 1463 1222 1110 60 N " 802 582 489 1593 1437 1369 90 N " 404 290 341 1147 1059 1256 120 N " 398 357 373 1090 1162 1209 �-218- Table 3. Pre-treatment, first and second year herbage production response data for Corral Creek study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. (Lbs. Per Acre) Treatment Year and Weight ComEonent 1969 1970 1971 1969 1970 1971 Shrub Current Growth Weight Total Leafy Vegetation o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 435 446 477 1214 1143 1148 30 N " 722 713 687 1494 1512 1385 60 N " 513 651 846 1274 1416 1576 90 N " 632 747 846 1404 1577 1558 120 N " 422 562 812 1173 1332 1538 589 188 247 1398 990 1040 o N 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 600 233 353 1374 1034 1323 60 N " 331 225 270 1115 1082 1172 90 N " 414 227 190 1173 1080 1093 120 N " 297 225 310 1077 1107 1247 Table 4. First year herbage production response data for the volatile oil study area. Values are in pounds per acre on a dry weight basis. Treatment Weight ComEonent Shrub Current Growth Weight Total Leafy Vegetation No nitrogen (Control) 378 730 120 1bs. N per acre 964 1324 �-219- rl 0 b~ 0 0 0 I c- 0 I I '-0 0 o Control and Fertil.iz,er Cnly Fertili z,er and :Ierb::'cide Combination Fig. 1. AV8rage forb pr oduc t.Lcn by tre8t;;'lent for areas combined. 1971 date, "or all three study �-220- 800 s::: o ·rl +' V ~ M 0 'D o !5 0 ~ c, s::: 0 0 0 6 r<"\ Control 0 I 0 <o 0 6 0"> 0 I 0 C\I ~ and Fertilizer Only Fig. 2. Average grass production three study areas combined. C\I I 0 C\I I 0 r<"\ C\I 6 <o C\I 6 0"> C\I I 0 C\I ~ and Herbicide Fertilizer Combina.tion by treatment for 1971 data for all �-221- Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 depict responses of shrub leafy material and total leafy material to increasing levels of nitrogen fertilizer with and without 2,4-D herbicide at each study area. The general linear increase in production with increased levels of nitrogen noted the first year after treatment is still evident. Figures 5 and 6 point out the general leveling effect that herbicide treatments in combination with increasing increments of nitrogen have on vegetation production. Figures 7 and 8 show the average percent change in total leafy material production relative to control treatments. Data are presented for each herbicide and each fertilizer treatment for all three study areas combined, 19691971 where 1969 is the pre-treatment year. A randomized block analysis of variance was used for both shrub leaf production and total leaf production values for all treatments at each study area. First year response data for shrub leaf weight showed a significant (P~.09) response for the main effect of fertilizer and a highly significant response (p <.01) for herbicide effect. Total leaf production showed a significant (P~.07) response for the main effect of fertilizer and a highly significant response (P<.Ol) for the herbicide effect. A breakdown of the main effect of fertilizer into single degree of freedom components allowed tests of significance to be made on each increment of fertilizer. This breakdown showed the main effect of fertilizer on first year shrub leaf responses was received at the 30 pound level. None of the additional increments had a significant effect (P~.05) on production, but each increment did result in increased production. The 30 pound level also gave the only significant response (P<.05) in total leafy material. However, a test for linearity for all levels of nitrogen showed a significant (P<.05) linear response for both weight components with each added increment of nitrogen. Tests for quadratic, cubic and quartic relationships showed that these relationships contributed little to the sum of the squares. Analyses of second year post-treatment data produced similar results. Shrub leaf components showed highly significant (P<.Ol) responses to both the main effect of fertilizer and herbicide. Total leafy material also showed a highly significant (P < .01) response to both the main effect of fertilizer and herbicide. Breakdown of the main effect of fertilizer into single degree of freedom components again pointed out that the main effect of fertilizer was received at the 30 pound level. None of the additional increments resulted in a significant (P~.05) effect. This held true for both shrub leaf and total leaf production. However, the test for linearity once again showed a significant linear response for both weight components with each added increment of nitrogen. Table 5 presents average increases in total leafy material produced per pound of nitrogen applied for 1970 and 1971. It is obvious that initial rates result in the greatest return per pound of nitrogen applied. �-222- «<; (v h C) <;:! s., Q; o. (fJ ~j § 0 c .. ~ 0 0.-, +' () ;:i "0 0 H rOf 0 , ·,',r:::-:j.S o f ~i tro:::en, 1971. �-223- LTun~"'::.ior:. "DU+t.e J'~ir.:h tline �-224- .Junc t.i on But.t.e ~ o .r! +-' o ::< '6.....• n.. 0/2 30/2 60/2 ~'(I;,ds of ::::le:neY)talNi t·ogen Pouid s of ?,Lj.-D tIel~()i.ci-Je ?L:-_ 5. levels of Fer ,kre ".dth 2 ~)er Acre Total leafy v2::"st.ation "!:'ocj.j':,ed as a function of Lr.cr-e as ed ni troe';er. id t.h 2,1.j.-~ her-b ic i de for alJ. three s tudy areas, 1971. �-225- ,-.. (l) r...• 1600 0 "'--r: ~ (l) P-. Ul '0 c ::J 0 r4 c 0 -r1 Junction +) Butte (. ::J -o o ~ o, Fli[fhtline Corral Creek 0 0/2 30/2 60/2 90/2 120/2 POUDrlsof~~J_8J!.ental ntro.ren Fer Acre with 2 ?ounds of 2,1-~-D fi:erb:i.cide Per Acre Fir:o 50 Shrub leaf material nr oduced as a --"lJ.rJ:tion of .incr-eased levels of nitro~~en l...rith2,lj--D herc'cide, 1971. �-226- 1971 Q) b.lJ ~ C!i ..c u 1969 1970 +' s:: Q) o $.., Q) c, 0/2 30/2 90/2 120/2 Fig. 7. ::~vera-"epercsr:t ohan=e in total leafy production 0: each herbicide treatment relative to th':3 ccmtro'l tro"trr,ents for all three study areas co:,~bined "'or the years 1969, 1970, 1971. �-227- 1970 1971 1969 "7it!. (;. ,\V8raze per-cen t. chan-e in total leafy pr-c+uctd on of ea.ch fertilL'8r treatment rAICl-;:,i V(," to the ~0n+rol tr,"'8t"l)ents for 2.11 t'::ree study areas oomb.ined for the years 1969, 1970, and 1971. �-228- Table 5. Average increase in pounds of total leafy material of nitrogen applied for all three study areas combined. Treatment (Lbs. Per Acre) per pound Increased Production Per Pound of Nitrogen Applied 1970 1971 30 N 3.9 5.3 60 N 4.5 4.1 90 N 1.9 2.8 120 N 3.2 3.2 Sample size requirements for total vegetation production estimates were determined by using a double sampling computer program. The degree of precision was set so sample size requirements would result in an estimate within 10 percent of the true population mean 95 percent of the time. Table 6 presents actual samples taken and numbers of both large (meter read plots only) and small (clip plots) samples that would be required to meet the stated degree of precision for estimating total leafy material at each study area for years 1969, 1970, and 1971. Data presented represent the combined units of five fertilizer treatments and five herbicide treatments at each study area for years 1970 and 1971. This results in a large sample size of 375 (75X5) and a small sample size of 75 (15X5) where the ratio between large and small samples is 5:1. The 1969 pre-treatment data represent all 10 treatments combined. The sample required to meet the stated degree of precision for estimating total leafy material has been met in every instance except the small sample taken in 1970 for Junction Butte herbicide treatments and the large 1970 sample of Junction Butte fertilizer treatments. Botanical Composition Botanical composition measurements were made in late July, 1971. All measurement data for years 1969, 1970, and 1971 have been punched on data processing cards for computer analysis. Covariance analysis of variance will be performed on these data to assess treatment effects. �-229- Table 6. Actual number of samples taken and the number of samples required to sample total leafy material produced within 10 percent of the true population mean 95 percent of the time at all study areas for the years 1969, 1970, and 1971. Year Area and Treatments Junction Type of Sample 1969 1/ Actual 1971 1970 Required Actual Required Actual Required Butte Fertilizer Herbicide Large 1/ Small 1/ Large Small 500 100 381 81 375 75 416 2:/ 52 375 75 365 59 375 75 369 / 971. 375 75 365 72 375 75 262 30 375 75 303 58 375 75 258 58 375 75 299 49 375 75 252 34 375 75 252 35 375 75 204 64 375 75 192 57 Flightline Fertilizer Large Small Herbicide Large Small 500 100 317 40 Corral Creek Fertilizer Large Small Herbicide Large Small 1/ - For the 1969 pre-treatment not apply. 2/ - Denotes 3/ adequate 500 100 310 65 data the fertilizer and herbicide breakdowns do sample not taken. - Large sample represents meter readings plots. only; small sample represents clip �-230- Deer Grazing Measurements Plant Preference Data A summary of diets of tame, trained mule deer for each of the three study areas for the 1969-70, 1970-71, and 1971-72 winters is presented in Tables 7, 8, and 9. Table 10 gives all cammon and scientific names of plants used in this report. Table 11 summarizes plant components in diets for all three study areas for three years. It is evident from this table grasses increased and forbs decreased dramatically in 1971-72 compared with 196970 pre-treatment diets. Shrub components in the diets have not changed noticeably. Changes in the grass and forb composition of the diet are believed to result from vegetation composition changes following herbicide treatments. Tables 12, 13, and 14 summarize the diet by plant components for each study area. These tables point out large decreases in forbs consumed by deer at Flightline and Corral Creek for 1969-70 to 197071. This decrease is not noticed at Junction Butte primarily because Phlox bryoides (a low growing, woody-based plant classed as a forb and readily eaten by deer) was not severely reduced by herbicide treatments. Increases in grass percentages can be noted at each study area. This increase is most noticeable at Corral Creek. Greatest grass responses to herbicide treatments also occurred there. For some unknown reason total shrub percentages in the diet did not decrease following herbicide treatments. However, it is suspected that increased growth of shrub species, resulting from nitrogen combined with herbicide, counteracted the decrease (Fig. 6). Table 15 presents a comparison of certain selected plant species in diets for the three winters for all three study areas. Note that most shrub species percentages remained fairly constant for the three years. However, green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) showed a significant increase from pre-treatment to post-treatment grazing. This species also increased following fertilizer-herbicide treatments. Also, bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) increased after chemical treatment and and in the diet. Buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), the most prominent forb in the pre-treatment diet, decreased to an insignificant portion of post-treatment diets but was killed extensively by herbicide treatments, however, snow cover in the 1971-72 winter somewhat precluded deer use of this forb. Phlox bryoides, the other forb listed for comparison, received a slight increase in deer use from pre-treatment to post-treatment. As previously mentioned, it seemed to be unaffected by herbicide treatments. Table 16 summarizes total number of bites of all species of plants taken by deer on each treatment at each study area for three winters. Greater numbers of bites were taken on control and fertilizer-only plots compared with fertilizer-herbicide combinations in 1970-71. This was not evident in 1971-72. In fact, the 1971-72 data are almost identifical to the 1969-70 pre-treatment data. Carpenter (1971) reported snow crust conditions in 197071 differed between herbicide treated plots and those which received no herbicide. Herbicide treated plots generally had harder, thicker crusts than nonherbicide plots. In contrast, there were no apparent differences between snow conditions on herbicide and non-herbicide areas in 1971-72, and this similarity in snow environment may explain the similarity in diets from herbicide and non-herbicide treatments for 1971-72. �-231- Table 7. Junction Butte study area grazing observation data and diet composition for deer during the 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72 winters. Plant Species Serviceberry B1uebunch wheatgrass Snowberry Pine need1egrass Snakeweed Blue granuna Buckwheat Big sagebrush Phlox bryoides Bitterbrush Mutton grass Fringed sage Rabbi tbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) Lichens Oregon grape Penstemon cyathoporus Unknown grass Western wheatgrass Phlox multiflora Junegrass Chrysothamnus Earryi Green rabbitbrush Needle and thread grass Bluebell Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass Currant Indian ricegrass Poa spp. Unknown forb Totals 1969-70 Total Percent Bites of Diet 1970-71 Total Percent Bites of Diet 1971-72 Total Percent Bites of Diet 830 375 288 143 l31 105 92 64 63 62 45 27 36.5 16.5 12.6 6.3 5.7 4.7 4.0 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.0 1.3 725 326 210 204 22.5 10.1 6.5 6.3 184 294 85 427 22 73 5.7 9.1 2.6 l3.3 0.7 2.3 614 1135 53 2 67 143 4 83 675 14.1 26.1 1.2 T 1.6 3.3 T 2.0 16.0 80 386 1.9 9.0 17 12 6 4 4 2 2 2 2 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 4 T 24 90 232 0.1 2.2 5.4 2,276 100.0 3 52 263 0.1 1.6 8.2 5 0.1 290 9.0 729 17.0 14 5 0.4 0.2 8 2 T T 18 7 15 0.6 0.2 0.5 2 T 21 1 0.1 T 4,355 100.0 3,222 100.0 �-232- Table 8. Flight line study area grazing observation data and diet composition for deer during the 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72 winters. Plant Species 1969-70 Total Percent Bites of Diet 1970-71 Total Percent Bites of Diet 1971-72 Total Percent Bites of Diet Bitterbrush 2,075 Buckwheat 462 Snowberry 290 Pine need1egrass 176 B1uebunch wheatgrass 122 Mutton grass 95 Mat penstemon 95 Phlox bryoides 84 Unknown grass 58 Serviceberry 45 Paintbrush 43 Green rabbitbrush 14 Rose 13 Penstemon spp. 11 Phlox multiflora 11 Sedge 9 Unknown forbs 6 Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass 5 Penstemon c~athoEorus 4 Big sagebrush 4 Junegrass 3 Poa spp. Knotweed 2 Rothrock sage 1 Bastard toadf1ax Arrow1eaf ba1samroot Lupine Astragalus conva11arius Oregon grape Rockcress Bluebell Penstemon watsoni Alkali bluegrass Fowl bluegrass Western wheatgrass 57.2 12.7 8.0 4.9 3.3 2.6 2.6 2.3 1.6 1.2 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 4,051 493 299 359 28 545 12 53.1 6.4 3.9 4.7 0.4 7.1 0.2 5,719 5 1,368 94 1,048 129 55.0 0.1 13.1 0.9 10.1 1.2 523 289 30 593 38 4 46 18 5 6.8 3.9 0.4 7.8 0.5 0.05 0.6 0.2 0.1 208 475 2.0 4.6 747 18 7.2 0.2 14 0.1 6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 147 12 34 1.9 0.2 0.4 5 0.1 120 1.2 63 0.8 21 0.2 19 5 5 5 4 1 1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 T T 13 0.1 10 167 38 182 0.1 1.6 0.4 1.7 Totals 100.0 10,387 100.0 3,628 0.1 0.1 7,629 100.0 �-233- Table 9. Corral Creek study area grazing observation data and diet composition for deer during the 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72 winters. Plant Species 1969-70 Total Percent Bites of Diet Bitterbrush 892 Buckwheat 756 Mat penstemon 375 231 Mutton grass 71 Pine need1egrass Pusseytoes 70 60 Serviceberry B1uebunch wheatgrass 57 45 Snowberry Phlox multiflora 45 16 Green rabbitbrush 6 Unknown forbs 6 Senecio spp. 6 Senecio mu1ti1obatus 5 Gilia 3 Aster spp. 3 Sedge 2 Rocky Mountain juniper 2 Astragalus conva11arius 1 Senecio integerrimus Unknown grass Big sagebrush Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass Horsebrush Chrysotharnnusnauseosus Penstemon cyathoporus Paintbrush Poa spp. Junegrass Western wheatgrass Fowl bluegrass Alkali bluegrass Lupine 33.6 28.5 14.1 8.7 2.7 2.6 2.3 2.2 1.7 1.7 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 2,652 100.0 Totals 1970-71 Total Percent Bites of Diet 2,294 37 32.3 0.5 1971-72 Percent Total of Diet Bites 2,213 28 17.9 0.3 54 0.5 1,050 1,599 863 9 808 19 14.8 22.4 12.2 0.1 11.4 0.3 1,557 5,911 449 12.6 47.8 3.6 1,034 29 8.4 0.3 190 11 2.7 0.1 174 11 1.4 T 104 45 1.5 0.8 58 260 0.5 2.1 21 19 11 6 5 4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.08 0.07 0.05 39 0.3 5 10 T T 28 112 360 18 12 2 0.3 0.9 2.9 12,364 100.0 7,095 100.0 O·f T T �-236- Table 14. components Summary of Corral Creek study area diet composition for the 1969-70, 1970-71 and 1971-72 winters. Plant Component by plant 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 Percent of Diet Percent of Diet Percent of Diet Shrubs 38.3 74.4 46.0 Grasses 13.6 48.1 24.4 1.2 53.3 Forbs Totals 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.7 Table 15. Comparison of certain selected plant species in the diet for the 1969-70, 1970-71, and 1971-72 winters, for all three study areas. Plant Species 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 Percent of Diet Percent of Diet Percent of Diet Bitterbrush 35.4 Serviceberry Green rabbitbrush 10.9 7.3 0.8 0.4 Bluebunch wheatgrass 6.5 10.9 29.9 Pine needlegrass 4.8 3.1 0.4 Mutton grass 4.4 3.4 1.0 Blue gramma 1.2 1.0 0.5 Bottlebrush squirreltail grass T 1.0 0.2 Western wheatgrass T 1.5 2.9 Buckwheat 15.4 4.6 0.1 Phlox bryoides 1.7 2.4 2.5 Snowberry Sagebrush 35.5 11.5 7.6 0.9 9.4 29.3 9.8 6.9 1.7 9.3 �Table 16. Total number of bites of all species of plants taken by deer on each treatment at each study area during the 1969-70, 1970-71, and 1971-72 winters. !/ Treatment (Lbs. Per Acre) Jct. Butte 69-70 70-71 71-72 Flightline 69-70 70-71 71-72 Corral Creek 69-70 70-7l 71-72 722 104 235 197 330 1127 173 81 84 155 461 6 67 86 126 Totals 69-70 70-71 71-72 Percent of Total 69-70 70-71 71-72 2310 283 383 367 611 27.0 3.3 4.5 4.3 7.1 16.6 4.4 3.9 16.7 18.2 17.8 1.6 0.6 16.8 10.2 46.2 59.8 47.0 o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N 60 N 90 N 120 N " " " " 354 293 0 147 843 663 99 17 1048 489 1443 182 216 53 1365 2230 46 75 24 1570 214 61 255 1833 4 760 176 26 2383 32 2011 536 471 2033 2212 3653 321 118 3455 209l Subtotals I N o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N 60 N 90 N 120 N " " " II 18 18 261 299 92 20 29 152 85 143 628 398 97 311 145 881 231 126 741 29 655 17 1645 185 99 642 326 2603 539 3 15 391 591 120 787 27 60 745 279 740 686 116 1545 1058 1771 914 640 978 1160 908 702 106 2542 549 982 1956 840 4245 1908 1919 Subtotals Totals !/ 2276 2066 3895 3628 5860 8058 2650 4218 8553 8554 12144 20506 10.7 7.5 11.4 13.6 10.6 5.8 0.9 20.9 4.5 8.1 9.5 4.1 20.7 9.3 9.4 53.8 40.2 53.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total bite numbers will not compare exactly to diet composition data because of bites that were taken on the treatment margins. w -...J I �-238- Table 17 presents grass, forb, and shrub component percentages of diets by treatment for all three study areas combined. A larger percentage (77.8%) of grass was taken on fertilizer and herbicide combination treatments than was taken on control or fertilizer only treatments. In addition, a larger proportion (63.5%) of shrubs was taken on control or fertilizer only treatments as compared with combination treatments. However, in contrast to the 1970-71 winter where 91 percent of the forbs were eaten on the control or fertilizer treatments, only 19 percent of the forbs were taken on these treatments during the 1971-72 winter. This change was attributed to the previously mentioned fact that Phlox bryoides made up over 90 percent of the forb component of the diet, and it was relatively unaffected by herbicide treatments. This resulted in a large percentage of the forb diet being taken on the herbicide treatments. Table 17. Grass, forb, and shrub component percentages of deer diet by treatment plot for all three study areas for the 1970-71 and 1971-72 winters. Percent Grass Treatment (Lbs. Per Acre) Percent Shrubs 1970-71 1971-72 1970-71 1971-72 1970-71 1971-72 0 lb. N. o lb. 2,4-D 2.8 8.8 46.0 13.8 17.4 23.6 Percent Forbs 30 N " 5.1 1.6 23.0 1.7 1.5 1.6 60 N " 3.2 0.2 8.1 0.0 3.5 0.5 90 N " 4.1 8.4 0.2 2.3 23.7 22.9 120 N " 21.0 3.2 13.7 1.2 17.9 14.9 Subtotals 36.2 22.2 91.0 19.0 64.0 63.5 0 lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 0.6 9.2 0.6 44.8 8.4 8.3 30 N " 2.1 7.6 0.5 34.6 0.5 0.8 60 N " 28.9 24.9 7.0 0.6 20.0 20.7 90 N " 13.0 14.4 0.9 0.3 1.9 2.8 120 N " 19.2 21.7 0.0 0.7 5.2 3.9 Subtotals 63.8 77.8 9.0 81.0 36.0 36.5 Totals 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.'0 100.0 100.0 �-239- Treatment Preference Data Tables 18, 19, and 20 summarize deer preference data by treatment for the three winters for all three study areas. Data were recorded from the observation tower for total standing minutes per treatment, bedding minutes and seconds spent grazing. Table 18 summarizes total minutes of deer grazing observed on each treatment plot during species preference grazing trials where the deer are accompanied by the observers. The strong preference shown for control or fertilizer only treatments over fertilizer-herbicide combination treatments in 1970-71 is not evident in 1971-72. Differences in snow crusting conditions mentioned previously at least partially accounted for this change. This same change in preference is also noted in deer grazing seconds obtained from observation towers for each treatment at each study area for the three winters (Table 19). In contrast to the 1970-71 winter in which about 70 percent of the gra~ing time was spent on control or fertilizer only plots, grazing time was split about half and half in 1971-72. In addition, no definite preference in grazing time per individual treatment was noted in 1971-72. Summaries of the number of minutes deer spent standing in each treatment at each study area for all three winters as obtained from the observation tower, show the same treatment preference change that was mentioned previously comparing the 1970-71 and 1971-72 winters (Table 20). Data in 1971-72 show almost 50 percent of the time spent on control and fertilizer only treatments in contrast to 65 percent of the time being spent on these treatments in 1970-71. Again, no definite individual treatment preferences are noted in these data. Additional Deer Grazing Measurements A pasture 610' X 330' was fenced to obtain additional information regarding deer grazing responses to nitrogen fertilizer. This was equivalent to 4.6 acres. Within the fenced area three strips containing about 136,000 square feet were treated with nitrogen, while 65,340 square feet were untreated. The untreated strips were 66 feet wide by 330 feet long alternated between the treated areas. The treatments were well marked to make them obvious during subsequent grazing experiments. To measure deer grazing responses on this study area six tame mule deer were placed in the pasture for a 30 day period from January 19 to February 17, 1972. One observer followed one deer through each grazing trial. Deer food choices and grazing activities were observed morning and evening each day for the entire period. Each grazing trial averaged about 74 minutes. In addition, each time an observer arrived at the study area, location and activity of each deer was noted. During grazing observation trials the location and activity of each deer was recorded every half hour for the duration of the trial. This location and activity record was maintained to provide additional data regarding treatment choices. All six deer were rotated in order during each succeeding grazing trial so that all deer were �-240- observed equal amounts of time. Observers began each trial from a randomly assigned starting point to minimize bias due to starting location. Deer grazing activity was recorded in the same manner described by Carpenter (1970). Deer were weighed at the beginning of their pasture confinement and at weekly intervals thereafter through the duration of the experiment to assess changes in relative physical condition. Weights were taken with a Chatillon scale attached to a tripod and hooked to a suspended deer holding crate (Fig. 9). Deer were weaned from their standard concentrate ration of approximately 2 pounds per deer per day at the start of the experiment, to no concentrate over a 10 day period. The first six days of weaning were conducted before the 30 day trial began. The last four days of the weaning schedule coincided with the first four days of the 30 day trial. A post-treatment ration schedule was also followed and consisted of an increase from 200 grams of concentrate per deer per day from the 25th day of the trial to 500 grams of concentrate per deer per day on the 30th day of the trial. Because the three treated areas were larger than the three untreated, they were further subdivided into 66' X 310' tracts with colored markers placed on the pasture perimeter fence. This partitioned the pasture into 10 subdivisions of nearly equal size and configuration. Subdividing the pasture in such a manner facilitated ultimate comparisons of treated and untreated pasture preferences by deer. Snow measurements were taken throughout the 30 day period. Eighty snow measurements were taken on 8 transects systematically located throughout the pasture. Snow measurements were taken only when snow conditions had changed noticeably from previous measurements. Snow depth and crust conditions were recorded for each plot. Air temperature was recorded at the beginning and end of each grazing observation period. At the termination of the 30 day period following snow melt, a pellet group survey was conducted over the entire area in an additional attempt to measure deer use on each treatment area. Twenty-six transects of 10, .001 acre plots were located in the pasture. Both "old" and "new" pellet groups were recorded. A record of the old pellet groups represented previous wild deer use of the pasture area. Plant Preference Data A total of 72,531 bites was gathered during the 30 day period during a total observation time of 5,881 minutes (98.017 hours). A total of 79 deer trials was conducted throughout this period for an average of 2.6 trials per day and an average of 918 bites per trial. Deer diets for the 30 day period are summarized in Table 21. Grasses comprised 70.2 percent of the combined diets. The main grass species eaten was bluebunch wheatgrass which made up 43.4 percent of the diet. Big sagebrush comprised a considerably larger portion of the diet than had been noted previously in other grazing trials in this study. Sagebrush percentages in the diet increased steadily from the beginning of the 20 day trial until the end (Fig. 10). Grass percentages increased until midway through the 30 day period and then decreased (Fig. 11). Forbs made up a relatively small percentage (9.1) of the diet while shrubs made up 20.7 percent of the total diet for the 30 day period. �Table 18. Total deer minutes spent on each treatment while obtaining plant preference measurements at each study area for the 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72 winters. Treatment (Lbs. Per Acre) Jet. Butte 69-70 70-71 71-72 Flightline 69-70 70-71 71-72 Corral Creek 69-70 70-71 71-72 Totals 69-70 70-71 71-72 Percent of Total 69-70 70-71 71-72 500 66 39 441 301 18.4 4.2 7.0 8.5 11.3 14.9 6.9 5.0 14.7 23.3 20.0 2.6 1.6 17.6 12.0 49.4 64.3 53.8 o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " 151 19 69 63 116 80 40 2 49 210 157 31 16 163 156 187 62 48 97 70 159 58 32 28 195 267 14 14 7 137 47 6 29 17 50 25 24 54 183 7 76 21 9 271 8 385 87 146 177 236 264 122 88 260 412 Subtotals 1 N +-- r-' 1 o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " 7 21 65 97 51 8 12 46 17 66 92 72 13 30 93 103 82 63 167 42 47 19 184 39 30 72 75 234 101 8 12 135 109 10 93 2 12 65 35 43 47 12 82 73 154 122 238 237 274 186 57 43 295 91 139 211 159 329 204 255 Subtotals Totals 659 530 823 921 79l 929 508 450 753 2088 1771 2505 5.8 11.4 11.4 13.1 8.9 3.2 2.4 16.7 5.1 7.8 8.4 6.4 13.1 8.1 10.2 50.6 35.7 46.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 �Table 19. Total deer grazing seconds obtained from the observation tower fo~ each treatment at eaeh study area for the 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72 winters. Treatment (Lbs . Per Acre) o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " Jet. Butte 69-70 70-71 71-72 1643 0 3609 1003 496 2366 40 163 724 4700 1432 1626 845 995 2202 Flight1ine 69-70 70-71 71-72 Corral Creek 69-70 70-71 71-72 69-70 1700 287 574 801 2285 325 129 0 1291 0 1183 0 978 8122 273 3668 416 4183 3095 2781 1331 1080 2712 1562 7172 3301 1700 2169 110 5856 1402 81 503 9060 10 Totals 70-71 71-72 5099 1201 3378 11346 11882 5916 3326 3992 9227 8331 Subtotals Percent of Total 69-70 70-71 71-72 15.0 1.7 17.1 12.7 11.4 10.8 2.5 7.1 23.9 25.1 9.8 5.5 6.6 15.3 13.8 57.9 69.4 51.0 I N .pN I o lb. N. 2 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " 0 0 1462 1186 0 230 78 711 3751 1272 3028 648 1678 5149 1358 876 94 777 28 653 498 294 2493 266 901 3355 422 2090 6742 826 30 0 1787 0 3359 24 336 1791 347 1543 951 1039 327 121 1934 906 94 4026 1214 4012 752 7334 708 2109 4995 4095 4364 12012 3716 4118 Subtotals Totals 9399 14035 18961 8075 18309 26571 6921 15097 14928 24395 47441 60460 3.7 0.4 16.5 5.0 16.5 1.6 1.5 10.5 9.2 7.8 12.1 3.5 6.8 19.8 6.8 42.1 30.6 49.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 �Table 20. Total number of deer standing minutes from observation towers per treatment plot at each study area during the 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72 winters. Treatment (Lbs . Per Acre) Jet. Butte 69-70 70-71 71-72 Flightline 69-70 70-71 71-72 150 1 410 23 49 126 24 79 60 187 Corral Creek 69-70 70-71 71-72 69-70 Totals 70-71 71-72 Percent of Total 69-70 70-71 71-72 o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " 321 26 66 103 502 179 175 77 75 257 222 131 265 150 564 277 171 142 7 457 17 8 24 84 0 115 28 64 798 13 105 10 30 813 15 293 33 513 167 236 658 185 395 1051 1079 561 356 249 895 729 Subtotals 15.1 1.7 27.2 8.9 12.5 12.6 3.5 7.6 20.1 20.6 10.4 6.6 4.6 16.6 l3.5 65.8 64.4 51.7 , N +:w , o lb. N. 0 lb. 2,4-D 30 N " 60 N " 90 N " 120 N " 0 0 130 92 0 51 62 107 354 270 290 114 108 396 225 55 17 88 8 57 65 56 309 40 59 328 21 161 589 62 11 3 113 1 70 19 52 144 54 214 94 73 58 8 73 66 20 331 101 127 l35 170 560 448 543 712 208 327 993 360 Subtotals Totals 855 1862 1896 701 1861 2215 331 1501 1279 1887 5224 5390 3.5 1.1 17.5 5.4 6.7 2.6 3.3 10.7 8.6 10.4 l3.2 3.9 6.1 18.4 6.7 34.2 35.6 48.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 �-244- Fig. 9. Device used in deer weighing procedures. �-245- Table 21. Junction Butte volatile oil study area grazing observation data for the 30 day period from January 19 to February 17, 1972. Plant Species Bluebunch wheatgrass Total Bites Percent 31,473 43.4 Big sagebrush 9,334 12.9 Unknown grass 7,400 10.2 Phlox bryoides 6,277 8.7 Pine need1egrass 3,995 5.5 Western wheatgrass 2,325 3.2 Mutton grass 2,023 2.8 Serviceberry 1,967 2.7 Snowberry 1,402 2.0 Green rabbitbrush 1,394 1.9 Blue gramma 1,173 1.6 869 1.2 777 1.1 569 0.8 Junegrass 444 0.6 Needle 387 0.6 188 0.3 180 0.3 103 0.1 75 0.1 48 T 30 T 29 T Indian ricegrass 9 T Mat penstemon 2 T Others 58 T Totals 72,531 100.0 Poa spp. Fringed sage Bott1ebrush squirrel tail grass and thread grass Sandberg bluegrass Buckwheat Penstemon Ground spp. lichen Greasewood Unknown Penstemon forb cyathoporus of Diet �-246- 25-26-27 31-1-2 22-23-24 28-29-30 3-4- 5 19-20-21 -Janusr'y 12- .1.)-14- 9-10-11 15-16-17 February Fig. 10. Percent bif: sat~e'orush in diets of tame mule deer by three day periods for Junction 3utte vclatile oil study area, 1972. �-247- 19-20-21 25-21)-27 31-1-2 22-2)-2'-!2[<,-29-30 6-7-8 j-~}-5 12-1j-14 9-10-11 15-16-17 Fi::r. 11. Percent cr-ass in diets of t.arne 'TIule deer for Junction :::utte votat.i.l.e oil s t.udy ar-ea , 1972. by three day "geriods �-248- Treatment Preference Data A thorough analysis of the data has not been completed at this time. However, data summarized at this point indicate no uniform preference for fertilized areas in contrast to unfertilized areas. A chi-square analysis of the total number of bites observed for all treatments showed there was a significant (P=.05) preference for the fertilized treatments, but a closer analysis of the data revealed that this difference was attributable to only one treatment strip and not to all fertilizer strips. In fact, the other two fertilizer treatments had fewer observed bites than would be expected if all treatments had been equal. It was felt the one strip was preferred by deer because of biological factors, such as preferred bedding sites, location in the pasture, and basic deer behavior, and did not represent an actual preference for treated forage. A complete analysis of total minutes observed per treatment strip has not been completed, but these data seem to follow the same pattern as the total bites data with no apparent preference being shown for the fertilizer treatments. An analysis will also be made of deer bites on sagebrush, bluebunch wheatgrass and total grasses on fertilized and untreated plots. Summaries of deer locations and activities throughout the 30 day grazing period did not show any differences between fertilized and unfertilized strips. The pellet group survey which was conducted on April 5, 1972, also failed to reveal significant (P=.05) differences in pellet densities on treated versus untreated strips. A total of 147 new pellet groups was counted on the 260 plots, with 82 groups (56%) on fertilized strips and 65 (44%) on control strips. An analysis of old pellet groups on the strips showed an even larger percentage (71%) on fertilized strips as opposed to control strips (29%). The difference may indicate that wild deer even prior to the establishment of the pasture favored locations where fertilizer was subsequently applied. Deer Weight Changes Deer gradually lost weight during the 30 days they were entirely dependent upon native pasture forage (Fig. 12). The maximum loss in weight was recorded at the February 9 weighing. The gain in weight from February 9-13 is not fully understood. Deer began recelvlng small amounts of concentrate after February 13 and again showed a loss from that weighing period to the terminal weighing period on February 17. Other Measurements Precipitation Records Table 22 presents comparisons of 1969, 1970, and 1971 precipitation data with 13 year averages for Kremmling, Green Mountain, and Hot Sulphur Springs weather stations. Precipitation in 1971 was lowest since the study began. Total precipitation in 1971 was about 1.1 inches below the 13 year average. �-249- +8 (I) •.. ~:Ij ,.... I.:: ..c u +-' ...c 0 till ·rl <l' ~: +-' ~ (J) o 1-< (I) p., 1-19 1-26 Janl18.ry 1!ig. 2-9 2-17 2-13 Febr-uar-y 12. Aver:::l:~e pro:r?SSlVS ~;,:8iz:ht ch:'":lr..-~e of six +ams mul.e deer on a 4.6 s8~ebrl1sh nas t.ur-e "'8rlrti.31J.~,:t tre.":1"Sed i.,ri t.h ni,t.ro,;.:en f'er t.i.I izer dur mz t.he 30 - dayoed_od from J anuar y 19 to ?88r,18ry 17, 1972. �Table 22. Comparison of the 1969, 1970, and 1971 monthly and annual average precipitation data with the thirteen year averages for the Green Mountain, Kremmling !/, and Hot Sulphur Springs weather stations. ]:./ Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Month July June Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual Total 13-year Average 0.89 0.76 0.91 0.99 1.04 1.55 1. 24 1. 66 1. 61 1.14 0.80 0.97 13.56 1969 1. 79 0.43 0.33 1.00 0.82 4.65 0.86 1.23 1.50 3.56 0.49 1.23 17.90 1970 0.76 0.31 1.17 1.22 0.13 1.41 0.85 1.82 2.00 2.01 1.38 0.80 13.86 1971 0.83 0.70 0.96 1.33 1.38 0.37 0.93 1.05 1.78 0.57 0.99 1.56 12.45 I !/Kremmling weather records are incomplete for this time period. llData from Colorado Climatological annual reports. N V1 0 I �-251- Photographs The permanent photo hubs were photographed with black and white and color film at the end of the growing season. LITERATURE CITED Bryant, M. P., and L. A. Burkey. 1953. Cultural methods and some characteristics of some of the more numerous groups of bacteria in the bovine rumen. J. Dairy Sci. 36:205-217. Bryant, M. P., and 1. M. Robinson. 1961. An improved non-selective culture medium for ruminal bacteria and its use in determining diurnal variation in numbers of bacteria in the rumen. J. Dairy Sci.44:l446-l456. Carpenter, L. H. 1970. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Prog. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Dept. July, Part 3. pp. 371-391. 1971. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Prog. W-38-R-2S. Game Res. Dept. July, Part 3. pp. 225-253. Environmental Science Services Administration. 1965-1971. data, Colorado. U. S. Dept. Commerce. 70-76 (13). Climatological Paintner, W. W. 1971. Volatile oil content and composition of juniper and its effect on deer rumen microorganisms. M.S. Thesis, Colo. State Univ. Ft. Collins. 40 pp. Powell, J. 1968. Site factor relationships with volatile brush. PhD. Diss. Colo. State Univ. 82 pp. U. S. Weather Bureau. Dept. Commerce. 1958-1964. 63-69 (13). Climatological oils in big sage- data, Colorado. U. S. Ward, G. M., and J. G. Nagy. 1966. Bacterial inhibition by the essential oils of sagebrush. Final report to the National Sci. Foundation, Grant No. GB 1507. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 54 pp. -F «>. .s.»: Prepared by __ f-::~7)':"/':;:·-"':":~%7·" ...;'..:,.' :=--'-_-_'_c.....,.ci-,f'Len H. Carpenter Student Assistant L.::.. _ �� https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/05aa93c020fc36b9013798600852fada.pdf 298990a4c54d1884d0e073f11c4a1267 PDF Text Text -253July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. Investigations 7 Job No. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Remote Sensing of Deer Population Parameters 14 June 1, 1971 to May 31, 1972 Ro Bruce Gill, R. S. Driscoll, Ho Do Parker, Jro (Graduate Student), T. Ho Watson, Po Lo Shaw, Paul Fo Gilbert, Gary Brown, Larry Roper, Dan Baker, Lonnie Brown, Rick Hoffman, F. W. Knott, R. E. Francis, CSU Wildlife Biology Students. ABSTRACT An airborne, thermal infrared scanner was flown over three study sites in Middle Park, Simultaneously with black and white aerial photographic coverage. AI"though intended to provide a check on the number of deer detected by the thermal scanner, the photographs failed to detect any animals due primarily to minimum light conditions under which the photography 'was flown. The thermal scanner did detect deer, cattle and elk. However, without the aerial photographs, the only positive identifications of animals in the thermal imagery were those on animals visually spotted from the aircraft during the scanning operation. Further analysis, including electronic imagery enhancement procedures of the taped video data, is planned for 1972-1973. Aerial color infrared (CIR) photographs at two scales were obtained on July 2-3, 1971 of three transects 1 mile long by 1/10 mile wide located in the Middle Park deer winter range. The hypothesis of this experiment was that this kind of aerial photography could be used to estimate over-winter mule deer mortality. On the average, eight interpreters detected and identified 57 percent of the carcasses in the transect areas using 1:2000 scale photographs and verified by ground truth. Five interpreters with previous training using CIR aerial photographs detected and identified an average of 68 percent of the carcasses. The other three interpreters with minimum training using CIR photographs identified an average of 36 percent of the carcasses. Interpretation should improve significantly by flying early in the spring after snow melt but before advanced carcass erosiono ��-255- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY REMOTE SENSING OF DEER POPULATION PARAMETERS R. S. Driscoll and R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the capabilities of aerial thermal and color infrared remote sensing techniques to estimate: densities of live and dead deer. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Test the capability of an airborne thermal infrared scanner to detect numbers of live deer occupying a selected study area in Middle Park. 2. Compare ground search estimates of simulated deer winter mortality with estimates obtained from aerial color infrared photographic imagery. METHOD::;AND MATERIALS Thermal Scanning Test for Live Deer Detection The thermal scanner used was a Texas Instruments Model FFS-l, owned by the U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Region 1, Missoula, Montana. It was a modified Texas Instruments ~[odel RS-7, specifically designed for detection of forest fires. The scanner was flown in a Forest Service Beechcraft Kingair, modified and equipped for the purpose. Characteristics of the scanner were as follows: Instantaneous Angular Field of View (IFOV): Total Angular Field of View: Detectors: 2.0 milliradians 120° Indium antitnonide (Channel A) and mercury-cadmium-telluride (Channel B) Thermal Sensitivity: 2°C (0.2°C with 20x overscan) �-256- Scanning Speed (t): .005 sec. per scan line Wavelength Response: Channel A - 3.0 - 4.1 micrometers Channel B - 8.5 - 11.0 micrometers Data Output Mode: 127 mm filmstrip, 1/2 inch electrical tape Further discussion of the system may be found in Wilson, et al. (1971). On-board processing of the filmed imagery was provided by an Ansco Model KD-14 rapid film processor and camera system. This system provides black and white film imagery within a few seconds after scanning. The video was also recorded on electromagnetic tape, by an Ampex Model FR 1300 analog tape recorder, operating at 60 inches per second tape speed. Video from both channels was recorded on tape; only Channel B was recorded on film. Simultaneous black and white aerial photographs of the test areas was provided by a Zeiss, Model RMK A 21/23 9 X 9-inch aerial camera, using Kodak Tri-X Aerographic (Type 2403) film. The camera system was flown in a North American Rockwell Aerocommander 500B owned by the U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Region 5, Berkeley, California. The Aerocommander flew above the Kingair, at an altitude between 10,000 and 11,000 feet. The test was conducted on January 25, 26, and 27, 1972, in three missions over one intensive test site and two extensive sites. Each mission was flown as early in the morning as possible, consistent with flying safety. Both aircraft were hangared at Denver, Colorado, about 30 minutes flying time from Middle Park. They departed from Denver each morning before daylight and data gathering from the aircraft occurred between 0700 and 0800 hours. There was approximately 90 percent low cloud cover during all three mission days; ceiling approximately 4,000 feet above ground datum. Three areas were selected from which thermal scanner imagery would be obtained: Jensen Creek, Cedar Ridge, and Junction Butte. These areas are described in the next section. The Jensen Creek area was divided into four flight lines 1,500 feet apart. They were all flown in the same direction at a magnetic heading of 229°. Coverage was planned at two altitudes, approximately 650 and 1,000 feet above the ground. The 120° sweep of the scanner provided imagery overlap between adjacent flight lines of 375 feet at the 650-ft. altitude, and about 577 feet at the 1,000-ft. altitude. The 1,000-ft. altitude was flown first, to minimize disturbance of deer in the area. �-257- The Cedar Ridge area was divided into eight flight lines for a total distance of about 22 miles. The magnetic heading for all flight lines was 271°. Only one altitude, 650 feet, was flown on the Cedar Ridge ar~a. The height above ground was only approximate, however, due to topographic variation. A deer pasture at Junction Butte was flown at three altitudes, 300, 600, and 1,000 feet above the ground. Only one pass at each altitude was required to cover the area. The initial points of all flight lines on the Jensen Creek and Cedar Ridge areas were marked with either fluorescent orange panel markers or red flares. The panel markers were arranged into a "T" shaped pattern. The flares used were standard, IS-minute highway flares. Although intended to be supplementary to the panel markers, the flares proved to be the primary means of locating the flight lines from the air. The panel markers were almost invisible under the 10~1 light conditions prevailing. The use of flares necessitated the presence of ground personnel to ignite them at each of the test areas during the flights. The panel markers were laid out the day before each mission and were anchored to the ground with steel rods. Two Barnes PRT-5 infrared radiometers were used to record radiant temperatures of vegetation, snow, and rocks during all missions. On the morning of the Junction Butte mission, radiant temperatures of six tame deer were also recorded. Aerial Color Infrared Photography for Deer Mortality At each of three locations described in the next section, a belt transect 1 mile long by 1/10 mile wide was established. These represented sample units used to obtain ground sample estimates of mule deer over-winter mortality (Gill, 1969). Each transect was divided into 640 one-chain-square blocks. Ten blocks were randomly selected from each transect and a deer carcass was placed in the center of each block. Each carcass was placed flat on the ground to simulate the appearance of a naturally fallen deer. For example, no carcasses were draped over bushes. After placement, each carcass was described as to whether it was an adult or fawn, relative stage of decomposition, and the degree to which it was obscured by surrounding vegetation. The carcasses, resulting from natural death, had been previously stock-piled so there would be an adequate number for the experiment. �-258- Aerial photographs of the transect areas were obtained on July 2-3, 1971, between 0900 and 1100 hours MST. This represented a 3-week delay in original planning due to logistics problems in securing an airplane to the area with the required photographic equipment. A Forest Service Cessna 180, in which two 70 mm Maurer KB-8A cameras equipped with 150 mm Schneider Xenator lenses had been mounted, was used for the mission. Two film types were used, one in each camera; Ektachrome Infrared Areo, type 8443 and Aerochrome Infrared, type 2443. The CIR film type was selected because previous research not specifically designed for deer mortality estimates indicated it to be superior to normal color film to detect and identify deer carcasses (Driscoll, 1971). The type 2443 film was used because it was reported to have improved color balance (Driscoll, 1969). These are both "false color" reversal films and differ from ordinary color film in that the three dye layers are sensitive to green, red, and infrared radiation instead of the usual blue, green, and red used for normal rendition of the visible spectrum. However, since all three layers are also sensitive to blue radiation, a yellow Wratten 12 filter was used in front of the lenses to absorb that part of the spectrum. When exposed and processed properly, this combination of sensitizations and dyes produces false colors for most natural objects. For example, rapidly growing green vegetation produces an image in shades of magenta or red. Bare soil or mature drying vegetation appears as shades of cyan or blue. Heller (1970) describes in more detail the light/film physics involved when using this film type. Two photo scales were planned: 1:1500 and 1:3400. The smallest scale was selected because previous work indicated that it might be near the maximum for deer carcass detection and identification (Driscoll, 1971). The largest scale was selected to determine if it might be the optimum for the objective. Severe ground turbulance at the time of the mission precluded securing these photo scales precisely; the resultant scales averaged 1:2000 and 1:4000 over the three transects. Even then, three of the carcasses were not photographed because airplane drift could not be controlled. Consequently, 27 of the total carcass population of 30 were photographed. The laboratory procedure consisted of developing a photointerpretation test which was subsequently presented to eight photointerpreters with varying amounts of photointerpretation experience. Since all transects were not completely photographed at the largest scale, all stereo frames in which deer carcasses were imaged, validated by ground truth and carcass location maps, were selected for the test. Therefore, some carcasses images were represented more than once, but in different stereo pairs, in the test. In total, 47 imaged carcasses formed the population for the photointerpretation test. �-259- DESCRIPTION OF AREA Thermal Scanning Test for Live Deer Detection The intensive test area was on the southwest slope of Junction Butte. A 330- X 6l0-ft. deer enclosure, built by the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks, was used to hold six tame mule deer, three bucks and three does, while the area was scanned. The deer, all 19 months old, weighed 90, 96, 116, 124, 152, and 155 pounds on the morning of the flight. They were put into the pen on January 19. The first of the extensive sites flown was an area of about 2 square miles, along Jensen Creek, north of Parshall, Colorado. The area was selected because, historically, large numbers of mule deer concentrate on it during part of the winter. Also, the area has little topographic relief (about 400 ft.) compared to much of Middle Park, and there is no coniferous overstory. Most of the Jensen Creek area is open, slightly rolling terrain, characterized by big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and other shrubby species, with a few small pockets of aspen (Populus tremuloides). The largest of the two extensive sites was Cedar Ridge. This area, southwest of Parhsall, is about 7 square miles in size, and is characterized by considerable topographic variation. Elevation varies from approximately 7,600 to 8,400 feet above mean sea level. Bounded on the north by the Colorado River, on the south by a county road, and on the east by the Williams Fork River, the area was described by Gilbert and Grieb (1957) as follows: "The terrain consists of high rolling ridges with numerous rocky outcrops. There are pockets of dense Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) timber on the north-facing exposure and the south-facing slopes support big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) with an open overstory of juniper (Juniperus monosperma). Patches of aspen (Populus tremuloides var. aurea) are scattered throughout." The area was selected because it was to be drive-censused on the Saturday following the thermal scanning mission (January 29), and a comparison between the two census methods could be made. The Cedar Ridge area is drive-censused each winter by the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks with the help of wildlife biology students from Colorado State University. Also, the rough terrain and juniper overstory provided conditions for testing which were similar to those which would be encountered in practical applications of the technique for deer census. �-260- Aerial Color Infrared Photography for Deer Mortality The transects for the research in this segment objective were located in the big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) type in Middle Park near Kremmling. The areas selected were within that strata of the winter range where previous mortality estimates were greatest (Gill, 1969). The specific transect locations were purposefully selected to exclude a tree overs tory since the aerial camera lens does not "see" through a tree canopy. A mixed shrub community was common to all locations and was represented by a very dense to very sparse canopy cover. Specifically the three transects that were selected occurred at the following locations: 1. Little Wolford: Wl/2, El/2, S2l, T2N, R8W; immediately east and south of Little Wolford Mountain. 2. Cow Gulch: Center S32, T2N, R8W; approximately 2 miles north of Kremmling. 3. Elliott Creek: Center S32, TIN, R8W; lower northwest flank of Lawson Ridge and south of Elliott Creek. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Thermal Scanning Test for Live Deer Detection The most comprehensive set of radiant temperature data was obtained at the Junction Butte site on January 26. These measurements of snow, vegetation, bare soil, and tame deer were made between 6:00 and 6:30 a.m. Thermal contrast between deer and sagebrush (~Ts) averaged 1.6°C, with a minimum potential ~Ts of O.SoC. Average ~Tn (deer vs. snow) was 6.9°C, and average ~Tsoil (deer vs. bare soil) was 4.0°C. Air temperature was 1°C. Radiometer malfunction rendered ERT measurements on the Jensen Creek and Cedar Ridge sites unusable. The photographs were generally unusable due to very poor photographic light conditions when the data were obtained. Even under clear skies, the early morning missions with diffuse light would not be optimum for obtaining high quality photographs. However, we needed to know not only numbers but location of animals to provide validation of data obtained by the scanner. Aerial photographs provided the only possible way to secure this information. �-261- The photographic scale varied from about 1:3000 to 1:5000 as camerato-ground distance varied with terrain elevation. Flight altitude of the Aerocommander was constant at 10,050 feet on the Jensen Creek site, and 10,800 feet over Cedar Ridge. These scales were inadequate to visually detect deer in the photos under the prevailing poor light conditions. Neither could cattle present along the Colorado River be seen. Scale, however, was near the minimum of 1:5000 in the low areas bordering the river. Both the Jensen Creek and Cedar Ridge missions produced thermal imagery in which some animals were apparent. However, since the corroborating aerial photography was not obtained, the only positive identifications were those which were made on animals visually noted from aircraft. The deer in the pen at Junction Butte could not be distinguished from the vegetation in the original thermal imagery. Although spots were noted in the imagery at the positions in the pen recorded by ground observers as deer locations, their presence would not have been detected without prior knowledge. The Jensen Creek site was spe.c Lf Lca Ll.y chosen for its topographic uniformity and history of deer use. During an aerial check of the sites about 6 weeks prior to the tests, an estimated 200 to 300 deer were observed in the Jensen Creek area. No deer were observed from the aircraft in the Jensen Creek test site on the day of the mission, January 26. Consequently, the mission was aborted when half completed. However, a small band of elk (Cervus canadensis) was seen just prior to the beginning of flight lin~on Jensen Creek, and they were imaged by the scanner. Air temperature during the Jensen Creek mission was about -6°C and wind was less than 5 m.p.h. Only two sightings of deer were made visually from the scanning aircraft on the Cedar Ridge site. At least 25 deer were ide:ntified in the original imagery as verified by the actual sighting. Numerous cattle along the Colorado River were successfully imaged by the scanner at the end of several flight lines. Again, SinCE! no photography was available to compare with the thermal imagery, there was no way of knowing how many deer were actually detected by the scanner. Many spots were apparent in the Cedar Ridge imagery which could have been deer. The drive census. by the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division, in cooperation with Colorado State University wildlife management students, on January 29, produced a count of 487 deer. During the Cedar Ridge mission, air temperature was -5°C, and winds were gusty at an estimated 10 to 20 m.p.h. Considerable distortion was apparent in the original thermal imagery because of problems with the on-board film processing system. This accounted for the difficulty in identifying deer in this imagery. �-262- The video taped data recorded in-flight was taken to the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas, where the equipment required for optimum tape-to-film conversion eliminating distortion was available. Additional film imagery was obtained which was better than the original imagery in some respects, but inferior in others. Limited time precluded attempts at electronic imagery enhancement techniques which may improve the imagery considerably, from the standpoint of seeing deer on the film. Additional work is planned for 1972, to apply these electronic enhancement techniques to the taped data, and to attempt development of automatic (computer) recognition procedures. Aerial Color Infrared Photography for Deer Mortality Detailed examination of both scales of photographs by two experienced photointerpreters showed that the 1:4000 scale imagery was too small to obtain reliable estimates of deer mortality. In many cases, the carcasses were in such advanced stages of erosion or had been so severely disturbed by scavangers, that potential identifiable image characteristics could not be detected in that scale of imagery. This was due primarily to the fact that when the mission was flown in July, preceding hot weather and scavangers had reduced many of the carcasses to non-descript masses when viewed from a distance. Consequently, only the 1:2000 scale photographs were used for the interpretation test. A total of 47 carcasses were imaged in the photographs and used in the interpretation for reasons previously explained. The number of correct identifications ranged from 12 to 35 for an average of 57 percent (Table 1). Commission errors, identifying an imaged object as a deer carcass when in fact it was not, ranged from 0 to 19. However, with two exceptions, interpreters C and F, commission errors were less than 17 percent. Errors of omission, not classifying any image as a peer carcass, ranged from 25 percent to 75 percent. Interpreter results can be grouped into two classes: interpreters A through E and interpreters F through H. The first group of interpreters represented individuals with considerable experience with CIR photographs. This group identified 68 percent of the imaged carcasses correctly. The other group identified only 36 percent of the carcasses correctly. This group represented the more cautious type of interpreter requiring very positive evidence before calling an image a carcass. For example, they apparently needed to see a leg, a head, or the absolute body configuration in the photography before they would commit to an interpretation. The first group of interpreters used associated evidences such as color and relative shape and position to other objects in the scene to commit their interpretation of an image. �-263- Table 1. Photointerpretation test results. Photo interpreters A B C D E F G H 1/ Correct (47 possible) 35 33 32 31 29 22 19 12 Error of Commission 8 6 19 6 3 13 0 2 Total Identified 43 39 51 37 32 35 19 14 Error of Omission 12 14 15 16 18 25 28 35 �-264- Commission and omission errors are believed to be related to three hypotheses. Some of the carcasses were so severely decomposed that even detection on the ground was difficult except by a very close look. To compound this problem, the carcasses had been moved while in a state of decomposition to the transect areas and this further aggravated the disturbance problem. Groups of rocks and piles of dead shrubby material also presented confusion to the interpreters. Images of these objects closely resembled piles of bones which were the de facto representation of some carcasses. This problem can be minimized by planning photo missions earlier in the year, preferably immediately after snow melt. Bare, light-colored soil areas, frequent in some of the transect areas, resulted in the most frequent misclassification of the deer carcasses. In most cases, these areas were about the same relative size as a carcass. Consequently, both commission and omission errors ~'ere made by classifying the bare soil areas as carcasses or not c:lassifying them at all. These errors should be significantly reduced by photo mission planning prior to serious decomposition. Time to interpret the photography versus time to ground search for carcasses in the three areas was used to develop an eatfmate of lcelative efficiency comparing the two techniques. On the average, ,each interpreter required 6 hours or 3/4 man-days to interpret the :photography from the three t ransect; areas. It required a four-man ground search party 8 hours, or 4 man-days, to ground search the same areas. This represents an approximate 5:1 efficiency ratio in favor of CIR aerial photointerpretation for estimating deer mortality. This does not include cost of the airplane, equipment, or flying time. Such items could be prorated for other jobs for multi-purpose mission planning. The results of this segment objective were very encouraging considering the constraints imposed by the photographs obtained. We will test the hypothesis that estimates of deer mortality can be improved by obtaining 1:2000 CIR aerial photographs in May, 1972. This mission is planned. LITERATURE CITED Driscoll, R. S. 1969. Personal communication with N. L. Fritz, Photographic Research Division, Research Laboratories, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester, New York. Driscoll, R. S. 1971. range management. U p ,, iUus. Color aerial photography--a new view for U.S.D.A. Forest Servo Res. Pap. RM-67. �-265- Gilbert, P. F. and J. R. Grieb. 1957. Comparison of air and ground deer counts in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 21:33-27. Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study--population productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep. July. Part 1. p. 105-122. Heller, R. C. 1970. Imaging with photographic sensors. p. 35-72. In Remote Sensing with Special Reference to Agriculture and Forestry. Wash., D.C. Nat. Acad. Sci. Wilson, R. A., S. N. Hirsch, F. H. Madden, and B. J. Losensky. 1971. Airborne, infrared forest fire detection system; final report. U.S.D.A. Forest Servo Res. Pap. INT-93. 102 p., illus. ~;f~~~'~~~ __ ~~_~_~ '__ . Prepared by__ _ ~ S. Driscoll Project Leader Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station ��-267- July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project Noo W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: 15 Deer-Elk Investigations la Job No. Monitor Potentially Critical Deer-Vehicle Accident Areas Statewide April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Thomas No Woodard, Dale F. Reed, Marion Lowery, Russ Mason, Richard McDonald (and all Wildlife Conservation Officers in his area), Larry Green, J. Kris Moser, Thomas M. Pojar and William B. Zimmerman 0 ABSTRACT The number and location of deer-vehicle accidents were monitored in five general areas of Colorado. Recommendations for installation of devices to alleviate deer-vehicle accidents were submitted to the Division of Highways where sample size (number of deer killed by vehicles) and other conditions permit reasonable evaluation of the devices. ��-269- MONITOR POTENTIALLY CRITICAL DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENT AREAS STATEWIDE Thomas M. Pojar P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish statewide, the location and number of deer-vehicle in areas appropriate to the evaluation of devices. accidents SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Examine potentially critical management and as determined deer-vehicle by Job 1. accident areas reported 2. As appropriate, record all deer found killed 3. As appropriate, estimate deer densities in each selected highway 4. Measure deer activity along the roadside selected highway area when feasible. or in the median of each 5. Summarize the Highway Department's highway area as needed. in selected highway traffic volume by area. area. data for each selected METHODS AND MATERIALS The locations of vehicle-killed deer were recorded to the nearest 0.1 mile from some identifiable structure or land mark (such as bridges, roads or prominent topographic features). On the areas where quarter-mile section markers have been installed, the kills were recorded in relation to these markers. Spotlight conducted counts, to estimate density of deer adjacent using the method described by Reed (1969). DESCRIPTION Highway to highways, were OF AREAS 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West This area begins at the west edge of Rifle and extends to five miles west of Grand Valley (18 miles total). In general, this is used as a wintering area by mule deer. Highway 6-24, a 2-lane highway, follows the Colorado River Valley on the north side of the river. The Book Cliffs are adjacent to the Colorado River Valley to the north and Grand Mesa to the south. At this writing the development of the interstate highway, which will replace Highway 6-24, is in the preliminary planning and design stages. �-270- Highway 1-70 Eagle East During this segment, highway construction crews completed the grading of the 1-70 roadbed from Eagle to a point 8.5 miles east. The new roadbed follows the north side of the Eagle River Valley at the base of southfacing slopes. The south-facing slopes are typically sagebrush and pinyonjuniper communities and are used as a wintering area by deer. The fields on the south side of the new roadbed are irrigated hay land. 1-70 Avon-Wolcott A l4-mile segment of Interstate 70 beginning at the Eagle River bridge 2.5 miles east of the Avon interchange to 1.5 miles west of the Wolcott interchange constitutes this study area. This segment of interstate was completed and opened to traffic October 1, 1971. Durango Area The Durango area includes Highway 550, 15 miles both north and south of Durango, and Highway 160 from Mancos to Pagosa Springs. A total of 118 miles of highway are included in this area, all of which is two-lane. This general area is inhabited by deer year-long with some winter concentration and possibly some migration through the area. Highway 82 Carbondale East This study area extends from the junction of Highways 133 and 82 near Carbondale, southeast on Highway 82 for 1.75 miles to the Crystal Springs Road. The highway is adjacent to south-facing slopes that are covered with either sagebrush or pinyon-juniper communities. This area is used by deer during midwinter. south facing slopes are irrigated hayfields in the fall and early spring. Above and to the north of the that are used heavily by deer The highway is currently 2-lane but the Division place this with 4-lanes during the next segment. RESULTS Highway of Highways plans to re- AND DISCUSSION 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West A total of 321 known road-killed deer have been documented on this l8-mile segment of highway since November 1, 1969. The months of January, February and March account for 75 percent of the kill, which indicates this area is used principally as a wintering area by deer. Approximately 75-80 percent of the total kills have occurred on two 3-mile and one 2-mile segment of this highway. �-271- Coordination with the Division of Highways is continuing so provlslons for reducing deer-vehicle accidents can be incorporated in the original highway design. Highway 1-70 Eagle East There was no road-kill on this area because it was not completed and was not open to vehicular traffic. However, this situation permitted estimating deer density adjacent to the roadbed and deer movement in relation to the roadbed without the influence of vehicular traffic. Mean monthly spotlight count (Fig. 1), location of deer counted (Fig. 2), and location of deer crossings based on track counts (Fig. 3) have been obtained for this area. It appears that most of this segment of 1-70 is a potentially serious deervehicle accident area. However, until one year of data is gathered with the highway complete and open to traffic, identification of critical areas and actual magnitude of the problem cannot be determined. Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott Three areas of this l4-mile segment of interstate deer kill areas. have proven to be critical The first area, from the Avon interchange east to the Eagle River bridge (quarter-mile section number 1-9) is 2.25 miles long and has sustained a deer kill of 18 animals since October 1, 1971. Installation of 8-foot fencing on the north side of the highway for this distance has been recommended to the Division of Highways. The second area extends from the Edwards interchange westerly for 2.25 miles (quarter-mile section number 25-34). Fourteen deer have been killed in this area since October 1, 1971. Recommendations for 8-foot fencing on the north side of the highway have been submitted to the Division of Highways. The third critical area begins 0.5 miles west of the Eagle River bridge east of Wolcott and extends one mile in a westerly direction towards Wolcott. Fifteen deer have been killed on this segment of highway. The exact nature of the deer movement on and across this segment is not fully understood, but it is suspected that this is both a wintering area and migratory route. No devices have yet been recommended for this area because further information is needed on the deer movement patterns. Durango Area The number and location of road-killed deer have been documented for one year. A total of 446 deer and 29 elk have been killed on the 118 miles of highway that constitute the Durango area. The kill is spread fairly evenly over the entire area with few real concentration areas. Unless devices that do not require highway construction to install are deemed �-272- feasible, recommendations construction is proposed. will be limited to those areas where highway Highway 82 - Carbondale East Road kill and spotlight count data have been collected on this segment of highway since 1968. A 5-year total of 98 deer kills have been recorded. This segment of highway is scheduled for conversion to 4-lanes during the next segment. Recommendations have been submitted to the Division of Highways to include 8-foot fencing along the north side of the highway in the construction project. LITERATURE CITED Reed, Dale F. 1969. Techniques for determining potentially critical deer highway crossings. Game Information Leaflet No. 73. Colo. Dept. Natural Resources, Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. 3 p. /? Prepared j by -c,;~/,~~/,""i.c-:~,-,' ,"",,:':..:;;'--=:'-'---'_/_/h..:.. + ...•... --,L<)_" _,,'--ti_·f'1," ,,·}'----1:.,,1 If}/) . "', Thomas M. Poj ar 'J Asst. Wildlife Researcher n,,· .•··j �-273- 100~----------------------~ 80 - 78.3 ~ IZ ;:) 860 - w 50.5 ~ (!) « :5 40 - 4~0 3~3 26.0 ~ ~ 20 - . DEe JAN FEB MAR APR Fig. 1. The mean number of deer counted per month adjacent to 1-70 from 1.15 miles west of Wolcott Interchange to Eagle (Dec. 1971 - Apr. 1972). �~140 · ...- 0 ~ 120 · - > 0::100 · w (f) CD 80 r-- r-- 0 ffiw 60 I - - c 40 ...J ~ 20 0 •••• r- r-- r-- r-~ n r-Ih-fili 5 r-- ~ •..... tr 10 15 20 25 QUARTER MILE SECTIONS N -..J +:I - •..... - - 30 Fig. 2. Total number of deer observations adjacent to 1-70 roadbed from 1.15 miles west of Wolcott Interchange to Eagle (Dec. 1971 - Apr. 1972). 35 �-275- 440 ruJ ~ 00 .. .. ,...... 250 .. 00 G r-- .-- I-- - .. ~200 en en o ,......r-- - a:: 150 .. u .. r-- ri-- r-- r-- I-- .. r- r- t-- 100 .. .. 50 .. I-- I-- r-f-- r-f-- n5 ~ ,...... !-- u 10 15 QUARTER MILE 20 25 30 SECTIONS Fig. 3. Total number of deer crossings counted from 1.15 miles west of Wolcott Interchange to Eagle during winter of 1971-1972. Based on track counts in November, 1971 (n=3); December, 1971 (n=12); January, 1972 (n=3); and February, 1972 (n=4). 35 ��-277July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO State of Work Plan No. Job Title 15 Job No. Investigation Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. Investigations 3 of One-Way Deer Structures April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Thomas N. Woodard, Dale F. Reed. William B. Zimmerman, Thomas M. Pojar and ABSTRACT A number of one-way gates that permit deer to move through deer-proof fences from only one direction were evaluated under field conditions adjacent to Interstate 70 near Vail and adjacent to Highway 82 south of Glenwood Springs. A total of 413 passages have occurred through thirteen one-way gates under the varying field conditions. Ninety-seven percent of all field passages were positive (in the direction of the funneling or cone principle). ��-279- INVESTIGATION OF ONE-WAY DEER STRUCTURES Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of several types of one-way gates and two fence structures to permit one-way movement of mule deer through existing deer-proof fences at Little Hills Experiment Station and elsewhere. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Test those structures deemed effective under controlled for effectiveness under field conditions. conditions METHODS AND MATERIALS Testing Under Field Conditions The one-way gate deemed most effective under controlled conditions was further tested in the field. Three of these one-way gates were evaluated in a quarter mile of 8-foot fence adjacent to Highway 82 and eight in the 8-foot fences associated with the deer underpass near Vail. Four of the eight one-way gates at Vail were in off-sets (Reed 1971) in the south 8foot fence, while the others were strategically located at fence junctions or areas where deer have frequented the fence on the wrong side. In addition, two one-way deer gates were installed in a 1.1 mile section of Uni-strut 8-foot fence adjacent to Highway 82. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Field Conditions Of the l3-one way gates being evaluated under field conditions, the eight located adjacent to Interstate 70 and the deer underpass in the Vail area received the greatest use. However, some of these gates received many more passages than others. For instance, gate 70N-S has received an accumulation of 261 passages while 70S-II has received only six (Table 1). Gate 70N-S was located in a "V" junction near good deer cover approximately one quarter of a mile from the highway, and was used by resident animals that moved around the end of a wing fence during the summer months. On the other hand, gate 70S-II was located near the highway with little cover and could be used only by animals escaping the immediate highway right-of-way. �-280- Table 1. The accumulated number of one-way deer gate passages, percent of positive passages, and number of tracks on the negative side when no passages occurred during 1970 and 1971 field tests. Gate . D. eSlgnatlon 1/ - Passages during field tests No. No. Po s , Neg. Percent Positive No. of Tracks on Neg. Side When No Passage Type Fence Installation and Comment 82-1 2 o 100 o Straight fence line & trail 82-2 3 -1 75.0 o Off-set 82-3 2 o 100 o Off-set 70N-4 76 -4 95.0 504 "v" junction (R-O-W) ]j "v" junction wing fence 70N-5 261 -2 99.2 70N-6 21 o 100 Straight fence line (R-O-W) 70N-7 9 -9 50.0 Fence line/changed in '71 to half offset (R-O-W) 1/ 70S-8 9 -1 90.0 322 70S-9 10 o 100 192 70S-l0 14 100 441 103 ) -, Off-set (R-O-W) Off-set (R-Q-W) 70S-11 6 o o 82-12 o o 12 Half off-set 82-13 '0 o 3 Half off-set Total 413 -17 ~ 100 97.1 in 754 2331 1/ - The first number designates the highway adjacent to the gate location, the N (north) or S (south) the side of the highway, and the last number the sequential number of the gate installed. J:../"v" junction refers to two 8-foot fences which join to form an apex or funnel effect. Deer tend to move along the fences to the apex. R-O-W refers to the gate being located off the highway right-of-way. l/Half off-set refers to half of the off-set previously described (Reed 1971). �-281- The effectiveness of the gates in terms of "one-way passages" is indicated by the few negative passages that occurred. Most of the negative passages occurring during 1971 (against the funneling or cone principle) resulted from human interference (leaving gate open). Gate 70N-7 received so much human use and interference that it was decided to relocate the structure to a different area of the 8-foot fence. Another indicator of the "oneway passage" characteristic was the number of tracks counted on the negative side when neither positive or negative passages occurred. A total of 2331 tracks indicated activity on the negative sides of the gates where negative passages did not occur. These gates were effective in preventing deer from getting on the 4-lane Interstate Highway while providing a means of escape for deer that were trapped on the highway side of the fence. According to the track counts an estimate of 145 deer have escaped the highway rights-of-way since the structures were installed. One-way gates 82-1 through 82-3, located in a O.25-mile fence section adjacent to Highway 82 south of Glenwood Springs, received few passages. The number of deer in the immediate area has been low during the last three years (1969 through 1971). Gates 82-12 and 82-13 were installed in a 1.1 mile fence section also adjacent to Highway 82. These gates received no passages although several deer moved along the highway side of the 8-foot fence. LITERATURE CITED Reed, Dale F. 1971. Investigation of One-Way Deer Structures. 324. In Game Research Report, July, Part 3, Federal Aid. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. --~Prepared by i ·--/0 /' )~i{lf!-~et\ ,Sa Asst. Wildlife ( Researcher p. 323Colo. ��-283- July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W_-~3_8_-_R_-_2_6 _ Work Plan No. Investigations 6 15 Job No. ----------~~--------- Job Title Deer Underpass Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Evaluation April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 J. Kris Moser, Thomas M. Pojar, Thomas N. Woodard, Zimmerman and Dale F. Reed. William B. ABSTRACT The use of a concrete box deer underpass 10 feet by 10 feet and 100 feet long that permits deer to move under Interstate 70 to and from their summer range has been evaluated. The structure is located 4.3 miles west of Vail and utilizes a well-established deer migration trail and a natural drainage referred to as Mud Springs Gulch. According to the number of passages recorded by the electro-optical detection system, an increase of 31 percent occurred from 1970 to 1971. The greatest use of the underpass occurred during the June and the October-November periods with maximums of 16 and 28 deer per days, respectively. An index of entrance versus exit activity has indicated a behavioral reluctance on the part of the animals to use the underpass. ��-285- DEER UNDERPASS EVALUATION Dale F. Reed There are many areas in Colorado where migrating deer cross highways. When these highways carry high speed, high-volume traffic, the potential danger to deer and motorists becomes especially great. Therefore, it is essential to keep the animals off the highway. Underpasses with specified dimensions and characteristics located at strategic points within migration routes may provide adequate means for these necessary deer movements. This study purports to evaluate the use of a specific concrete deer underpass 10 feet by 10 feet and 100 feet long located in the Vail area. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if deer migrating from winter range on one side of Interstate 70 to summer range on the opposite side utilize an underpass constructed in the area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of the underpass. METHODS AND MATERIALS A nighttime lighting system and an electro-optical detection system with two Streeter Amet recorders (previously described by Myers 1969, and Reed 1970) were maintained at the underpass. During the spring migration of 1970 and 1971, and during the fall migration of 1971, the detection system was activated at both the entrance (north end) and the exit (south end) of the underpass. However, during the fall migration of 1970 only the exit (north end) detection system was used. Before the spring migration, dirt was spread over two-thirds of the floor width of the underpass for the entire length. This raised dirt-covered portion was used as a track bed. The track bed and entrance to the underpass were checked periodically for deer tracks. As deer activity increased and when deer began using the underpass, the counters and the number of deer tracks were checked and recorded daily. The number of deer passing through the underpass was estimated by carefully examining the number of tracks, and comparing them with the counter's reading at the exit. The counter's reading on the entrance was also recorded and compared with that at the exit. During each check the detection system was reset at zero and the tracks raked out by hand. �-286- During the 1971 fall migration a weather station housing containing a hygrothermograph and maximum and minimum thermometers was installed, along with a Belfort rain gage, anemometer, and snow depth measuring stake. In addition, acoustical housings were constructed and installed for the two Streeter Amet recorders. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Spring and Summer Use of the Underpass It was estimated that 227 deer moved south through the underpass during the spring and summer migration of 1971. The first passage, south toward higher summer range, occurred on May 18. The greatest use of the underpass occurred during June with an estimated maximum of 16 deer passing through during one night •• Use of the underpass slackened during July as it had during the spring and summer of 1970 (Fig. 1). Compared with 1970, the number of passages during the spring and summer of 1971 increased by 44.6 percent. This may have been caused by an increase in the population or a shift in the migration pattern. In addition, an estimated 42 negative passages (north toward winter range) occurred during July through September when relatively dry conditions existed. Some animals appeared to be passing through the underpass in both directions on a nightly basis. It was hypothesized that resident deer may have used Gore Creek as a water source. An index activity was determined by dividing the daily counter reading at the entrance of the underpass by that at the exit. This index (Fig. 2) illustrates an apparent reluctance on the part of deer to use the underpass. This index of activity would equal 1.0, if each deer that came to the entrance went through and was counted once at the entrance and once at the exit. The greater the index, the greater the number of counts at the entrance as compared with the exit, and the greater the amount of time and energy expended there by deer. Observations, made from some distance away, bear out the hypothesis that most groups of deer spend a great deal of time at the entrance before, and possibly without, passing through the structure. This provides a possible explanation for the sharp peaks represented in Fig. 2. Fall Use of the Underpass It was estimated that 367 deer moved north through the underpass during the fall migration of 1971. The first passage recorded for the fall migration occurred on October 2 and the last on December 18. However, passages in both directions occurred during September. The greatest use of the underpass occurred during October and November with a mean of 10.6 deer passages per day during the first week of November (Fig. 1). A maximum of 28 deer passed through the underpass during one night. �-287- MEAN PASSAGES so CD MAY 15-3 1 0 -- \ \ JUN 16-31 ./' ./ ./' ./ ./ / ,, JUL 16-31 / / w W / ~ ~ 0 I / 0 l> -< / AUG16-31 en SEP 16- OCT 16-31 // -- --- -- ---:::-. / / ".,/ .,; DEC 16-31 Fig. 1. The mean number of passages per day is represented for each 2-week period for both the spring-summer and fall migrations for 1970 and 1971. �50------------------------------------------~ 1970 197 I ------ A , >- , I ,, ,,I,,, ,, , I •••• I " > •••• o I <t o A /1 II ! I X W C ,~ ,, II ' I I: \ ,I I' , ,, , I' I \ Z , I 1\ I, ' II , u, ,I AI'" I 10 1'1 ,I , t I, I I J \,..-/ \ ,~ I, I \ \ I' \ \ 00 00 I I I ~ ,: Il',~ \ ,, . "I, I I I N \ \I I 0 4 8 12 CD ro (\J UJ Z >c:t ::E ~ -:> 32 36 40 44 48 ex> CD v (\J Z Z UJ Z ~ -:> -:> ~ ~ -:> 16 20 0 UJ ~ 24 UJ ~ 28 (\J ~ >...J -:> -:> 52 56 0 (\J >...J ~ -:> Fig. 2. An index of activity, determined by dividing the daily counter readings at the entrance of the underpass by that at the exit, indicates a reluctance on the part of deer to use the underpass during the spring and summer of 19?O and 1971. �-289- The estimate of 367 passages during the fall is an increase of 61.7 percent over that of the 1970 spring-summer use. The reasons for such an increase are not known. However, herd increment, a shift in overall migration patterns, and the lower hunter harvest are probable factors. The variation in seasonal use of the underpass occurring between 1970 and 1971 fall migrations (Fig. 1) may be due to weather conditions, primarily the timeliness and severity of snowfalls. Fifteen snowfalls were recorded during October and November of the 1971 fall migration period. The mean temperatures (F) when passages occurred during October, November, and December were 28.0, 21.0, and 10.3, respectively. One hundred nineteen deer were recorded moving north through the underpass during clear weather (Table 1). In addition 120 deer were recorded moving north through the structure during snowfalls or within 24 hours following snowfall cessation. Additional weather collection and data analysis will be conducted during the next segment. Table 1. The number of passages through November, and December, 1971 in relation conditions. the underpass during October, to snowfalls and weather In Relation to Snow: Oct. Nov. Dec.]/ Total Following snow 1/ 33 73 14 120 26 140 14 180 Not following snow ]j Unknown 0 67 Total 367 In Relation to Weather Conditions: Cloudy and snowing 18 14 11 43 Cloudy to partly cloudy 6 18 5 29 Clear 20 88 11 119 Clear and moonlight 4 79 0 83 Unknown 14 93 Total l/Within 367 snowfall period or 24 hours following cessation. ]j Not during or> 2lf hours following cessation of snows. 3/ - Data only from December 1-10. �··290- The index of entrance versus exit activity for the 1971 fall migration was much lower than the spring-summer indexes previously discussed. A comparison by year will be made during the next segment. LITERATURE CITED Myers, Gary T. 1969. Development of an electronic deer counting device. p. 235-247. In Game Research Report, July, Part 2. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. p. 341-351. In Game Research Report, July, Part 3. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Prepared �-291July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Work Plan Noo Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. 15 Investigations 7 Job Noo Effects of Highway Lighting on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 William B. Zimmerman, Gary T. Myers, Thomas Mo Pojar, Dale Fo Reed and Thomas N. Woodard. ABSTRACT ��-293- EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY LIGHTING ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if highway lighting on a portion of Colorado 82. affects the rate of deer-vehicle accidents SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles at each end of, and within a 3/4 mile lighted portion of Colorado 82. 2. Estimate deer densities by lighting. 3. Compare pre-treatment count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand deer-auto accident rates are or are not affected by lighting. adjacent to the portion of highway kill and count data to post-treatment RESULTS affected kill and why AND DISCUSSION A joint decision was made by the Colorado Division of Highways and Game, Fish and Parks Division to delay installation of the illuminaries. The attached appendix discusses the number of deer and the number of deervehicle accidents in the study area, and the recommendations for installation. Prepared byCZAi14-1c':~Q Dale F. Reed Asst. Wildlife Researcher �-294- APPENDIX A RESEARCH 1972 Deer-Highway Lighting Project Report Since the deer-highway lighting project's approval on September 11, 1969, the installation of the high intensity illuminaries on Highway 82, south of Glenwood Springs, has been delayed several times. The number of deer and the number of deer-vehicle accidents in the Jammaron study area has shown a marked decline since 1970 (Figs. 1 and 2). However, during the 1972 period, the number of deer-vehicle accidents (deer kill) was relatively high in January (Fig. 1) but declined during February and March. Weather continued to be suspect in terms of influencing the movement of deer toward the study area. Snow depths adjacent to and above the study area approximated 14.0, 13.2, 7.0, and inches for December, January, February, and March, respectively. Hence, the relatively moderate to severe winter conditions in December diminished during mild weather in January, February, and March. The average minimum temperature for January through March increased in 1972 (Fig. 3), while the total amount of precipitation declined to 1.36 inches. ° Recommendations A cooperative Deer-vehicle Accident Research Proposal submitted to the Highway Division in May, 1972 included a time schedule for the highway lighting project. A request for approximately 0.25 miles of lighting will be submitted in January, 1973. .~. '>?(J; .' ~- ./ ~A- ~I(J:t_ (j \~./ ,...... -. / ., Dale F. Reed Assistant Wildlife Researcher . ~.r ) Thomas M. Pojar Assistant Wildlife COLORADO Researcher DIV. OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS �HIGHWAY 82 ROAD KILL DATA (JAMMARON AREA) 30~----------------~-------------------------------' 025 w ..J ..J <, ~ <, <, 0::: 20 w w o <, / lL.. o 15 \OJ~ 0:::' <, I tv '-D <, -> W rn ~"l ~ ~ 10 00 • 00 0 o~ 0 000 ..J 00000 0 o • • ----- ------ ---- ---- -------- \91<L--- -- JAN fig. 1. 0 o -- -- <, 00. o '97' <, ......... ......... / / U1 I 1972 / ~ ~ <, Number of deer killed by vehicles ------_ -------_--- -- 0 o 0 o 0 o ··0. --=......•.•.~~:....~ -- ..-0 ~,.':"---00 study area south of Glenwood 00 MAR FEB on the Jammaron _ Springs. �HIGHWAY 82 SPOTLIGHT COUNT DATA (JAMMARON AREA) IJ... I o N -0 a:: ------- lLJ CO ~ ~ \9t;l!J~ ~ ::> z-: z 0\ I -------- ~~ ~ ~ 1972 - -.- ... ........ .... .....•. ..•.... . ..... -.. . .. 0 ~.. . . . . . .. .. .. . \9~ - - ..... - 1971 ---_----... -- ---- ------.------- -- -....-.::: .",. ."...:-_-------JAN Fig. --- 2. - - Number of deer counted adjacent -- - - - --------- --J~~ FEB to the Jammaron study area south of Glenwood _ ••.,. •••••• .... MAR Springs. �HIGHWAY 82 PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE JANUARY, FEBRUARY, AND MARCH ~ (J) -PRECIPITATION ---TEMPERATURE LaJ ::J: o - ~2PO o - =>0 // •••••• // « 0- I- 16 /// U zLaJ i~ I (Do:: «LaJ // 12 .// 10 ffi>LaJ~ « I- ~ g 1969 1970 1971 I tv \D LaJ~ / LaJ 0...J ~- /._--------_._---------_. z 0:: 20 :i.-. u, 1972 Fig. 3. Average minimum temperature and total precipitation for the Jammaron study area south of Glenwood Springs during January, February, and March. -....J ��-299July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. Personnel: Investigations 15 Job Noo 8 Effect of Lighted Deer Crossing Signs on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles Job Title Period Covered: Deer-Elk April _ 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Larry Green, Thomas N. Woodard, and Thomas M. Pojar. Dale F. Reed, William B. Zimmerman ABSTRACT Lighted, animated deer crossing signs were tested to determine their effect on the rate of deer-vehicle accidents and their effect on the speed of traffico Vehicle speeds were monitored at three distances behind the signs. The differences in mean vehicular speed was 2 88, 1042 and 1016 miles per hour at 0.15, 0065, and 1.50 miles behind the signs, respectively. The mean speeds were significantly (P<0005) lower at all three stations with the signs on. The number of estimated crossings per kill increased 43.6 percent with the signs on, compared with the estimated crossings per kill with the signs offo However, this was not a significant difference (P)O.50) in ratios according to chisquare analysiso 0 ��-301- EFFECT OF LIGHTED DEER CROSSING SIGNS ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Thomas M. Pojar P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine accidents if lighted deer crossing on a portion of Colorado signs affect the rate of deer-vehicle 82. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles within highway marked by lighted deer crossing signs. 2. Estimate 3. Compare pre-treatment count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand why deer-auto accident rates are or are not affected by lighted deer crossing signs. deer densities adjacent a mile portion to the signed portion of the highway. kill and count data to post-treatment METHODS of kill and AND MATERIALS In early April, 1971, two lighted, animated deer crossing signs were installed on the same Highway 82 study area where lighted deer crossing signs were evaluated previously (Pojar 1971). The animated deer crossing signs used in this study (Fig. 1) were described by Pojar, Reseigh and Reed (1972). Estimates of the number of deer crossing the highway were made by making nightly spotlight counts. The total number of deer seen in the fields southwest of the highway was multiplied by two, assuming that each deer in the field had crossed the highway once and would cross again that same night to return to the pinyon-juniper cover on the northeast side of the highway. For every deer killed on the highway, one crossing was arbitrarily added to the total crossings for that night. The deer crossing signs were activated and turned toward traffic for a I-week period, then deactivated and turned away from traffic the following week. This routine of alternating on a weekly basis the treatment and pre-treatment effect of the signs on both the deer kill and the speed of traffic was continued until the number of deer in the area diminished to near zero. Vehicle speeds were recorded with an automatic vehicle speed recorder at stations located 0.15, 0.65, and 1.50 miles behind the signs to monitor the effect of the signs on the speed of traffic. The speeds of nearly all the vehicles that passed the speed stations between 6:00 and 10:00 P.M. were recorded. Eighty vehicle speeds were randomly selected from this sample for tabulations. �-302- Fig. 1. The animated deer crossing sign shows deer silhouettes in sequence from right to left (photo by Don Domenick). lighted �-303- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer occupied the study area for four weeks, allowing two I-week periods of data collection with the signs off and two I-week periods with the signs on. The number of estimated crossings per kill increased 43.6 percent with the signs on compared with the estimated crossings per kill with the signs off (Table 1). According to chi-square analysis there is no significant difference (P> 0.50) in the ratios. Table 1. The estimated deer crossings and total kill on Highway 82 study area during two I-week periods with the animated deer crossing sign off and two I-week periods with the sign on. Estimated crossings Sign Off Sign On 227 163 6 3 37.8 54.3 Total kill Crossings/kill The results of the vehicular speed evaluation are presented in Fig. 2. The mean speeds were significantly (P<0.05) lower at all three speed stations with the signs on. The differences in mean vehicular speed was 2.88, 1.42, and 1.16 miles per hour at 0.15, 0.65, and 1.50 miles behind the sign, respectively. LITERATURE CITED Pojar, Thomas M. 1971. Effect of lighted deer crossing signs on number of deer killed by vehicles. p. 359-366. In Game Research Report, July, Part 3. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Pojar, Thomas M., T. C. Reseigh, and Dale F. Reed. 1972. "Deer Crossing" signs may prove valuable in reducing accidents and animal deaths. Highway Research News, Winter. No. 46:20-23. Prepared by __ i_,",_""_" c:_~/;~1_./---"-_"_"/.~:i.: _ Thomas M. Pojar Asst. Wildlife Researcher �58 I :I: a.. 57 :E '"" C 56 • LLJ LLJ • • Cf) ..,~ LLJ • ..J :I: LLJ > •• • e• 0 0 - 51 I « LLJ o ~I 0 0- - -G!"'O o I W o .p- o 0 ---0 OFF ON o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 10 15 (1.50 MILES) (0.65 MILES) (0.15 MILES) 5 o I ~. 0 - • Y=52.7~ --- 0 g X=o417 000 00 I .. - ••i • 0 0 00 0 ••• -X=54~21 o 0 0 •~=i5.~3• •o •••• • 0 0 Z :E 50 • 0 ---0---0-'-- 52 •• ·X = 55.32 • • o X=52.4.f 53 SPEEDS 1972 • •• a.. 55 ~ VEHICLE I I I I I 20 25 0 5 10 o sign. Each circle or dot 5 DAYS Fig. 2. Vehicular speed at three distances behind represents a mean of 80 randomly selected speeds. the animated deer crossing 10 �-305July, JOB PROGRESS State of ~C~O~L~O~RA==D~O REPORT _ Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. 1972 Investigations 10 Job No. An Evaluation of Deer-proof Fence Length Job Title __~R~e~q~u~~~'r~e~d~t~o~P~r~e~v~e=n~t~D~e~e~r~M~o~v~e=m~e~n~t~o~n~o~r~A~c~r~o~s~s~H=i~g~ _ Work Plan Noo Period Covered: Personnel: 15 April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Thomas N. Woodard, Dale F. Reed, Larry Green, William Thomas M. Pojar, J. Kris Moser and Russ Mason. B. Zimmerman, ABSTRACT A 1.1 mile 8-foot fence was erected along Highway 82 near the Diamond S Ranch to prevent deer movement across the 4-lane highway. Prior to installation of the 8-foot fence, the mean number of deer crossings per 24 hour period during March-May 1971 was 12.8 (n=29) with two deer killed on the highway and a mean spotlight count of 47 6 (n==ll) In the vicinity of the V:lil underpass-fencing complex, sightings of marked deer were used to monitor their movements in relation to the fenceo 0 0 ��-307- AN EVALUATION OF DEER-PROOF FENCE LENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT DEER MOVEMENTS ON OR ACROSS HIGH SPEED HIGHWAYS Thomas M. Pojar P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate length of deer-proof or across high speed highways. fence in relation to deer movement on SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Install deer-proof fence along appropriate determined by Job la. 2. Evaluate the effectiveness of various in affecting deer movements. METHODS sections lengths of highway of deer-proof as fence AND MATERIALS Track counts in the median of the 4-lane highway were used to estimate the number and location of deer crossings. Conditions were normally favorable for maintenance of soil track beds during March, April, and May. During winter, when the soil was frozen, track counts were made in the snow. Deer density adjacent to the highway was estimated using the method described by Reed (1969) and the locations of all vehicle-killed deer were documented in relation to quarter-mile section markers. Location and length of the 8-foot fence was determined by the concentration of kills and/or crossings. Deer were marked with numbered neck bands or automatic tagging devices (Siglin 1966), both in the Vail underpass-fencing complex (Reed 1971) and on the winter range of the migratory Vail deer herd. A drop-net and automatic tagging devices were used during fall and spring when deer frequented areas behind the 8-foot fence that leads to the underpass. Clover traps were used on the winter range. Sightings of marked deer in the vicinity of the 8-foot fence were used to monitor their movements in relation to the fence. DESCRIPTION Highway OF AREA 82 - Diamond S The Highway 82 study area has been described by Pojar (1971). The segment of Highway 82 near the Diamond S Ranch is 1.5 miles long (quarter-mile ��-309- sections 24-30). A field of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) is located on the east side of the highway and is one of the earliest grasses to green up in the spring (Reynolds and Springfield 1953). Sagebrush is abundant around the perimeter of the crested wheatgrass field and is replaced by pinyon-juniper type as elevation increases to the east. Alfalfa fields line the west side of the highway. Deer concentrate in the crested wheatgrass field and sagebrush the highway in late winter and early spring. The Vail underpass-fencing Reed (1971). complex and adjoining east of area is described by RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 82 -Diamond S The existing 42" Uni-strut telespar fence along the east highway rightof-way boundary was extended in height to eight feet during October 1971. The 8-foot fence is 1.1 miles long and is roughly centered on the quartermile section where the greatest number of deer kill and crossings occur. A soil track bed was established in the median of the 4-lane highway with a 6-foot wide spring tooth harrow. This track bed extended past the ends of the 8-foot fence so that deer coming around the ends of the fence and across the highway could be detected. In addition, small track beds about 5 feet wide by 10 feet long were established at each end of the fence. Mean crossings between quarter mile section markers 25 to 30 during MarchMay 1971 (before 8-foot fence was installed) was 12.8 (n=28) with two deer killed on the highway and a mean spotlight count of 47.6 (n=ll). The comparable 1972 data are currently being obtained. Although extensive track count data (crossings) was not gathered prior to 1971, accurate kill and spotlight count information is available since 1968. The March-May mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts and the number of road-killed deer between quarter-mile section markers 25 to 30 are: 1968, 47.8 (n=13) and 1 kill; 1969, 77.4 (n=lO) and 5 kill; and 1970, 63.7 (n=ll and 8 kill. Highway 1-70 - Vail Area A total of 39 deer have been marked. Twenty-three were marked on winter range and 16 were originally marked near the Vail underpass-fencing complex. Preliminary results on the movements of four deer in relation to the 8-foot fence are available at this time. Deer number l66b traveled north perpendicular to the north Vail fence a minimum of 1.5 miles. Deer number 70b remained in the vicinity of the fence for a minimum of five days and traveled parallel to the fence a minimum of 0.5 miles. Deer number 22 and 190b traveled parallel to the fence 0.4 and 0.7 miles, respectively. �-310- LITERATURE CITED Pojar, Thomas M. 1971. Deer-auto accident investigations. p. 275-318. In Game Research Report. July, Part 3. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Division. Federal Aid. Reed, Dale F. 1969. Techniques for determining potentially critical deer highway crossings. Game Information Leaflet No. 73. Colo. Dept. of Nat. Res., Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. 3 p. 1971. Report. Deer underpass evaluation. p. 341-351. In Game Research July, Part 3. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Reynolds, H. G., and H. W. Springfield. 1953. Reseeding southwestern range lands with crested wheatgrass. Farmers' Bulletin No. 2056. U. S. Department of Agriculture. U. S. Government Printing Office. 20 p. Siglin, Roger J. 1966. Marking mule deer with an automatic J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(3):631-633. / Prepared .z:-,-_..',,-; ~i;.....>_·:'+i by -"(,-"/I",,,-'~-,-~t,,;,,;:"-"'k,,,-I!.:....~_· Thomas M.I Po j ar .; Asst. Wildlife Researcher - tagging device. �-311July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~------------ Work Plan No. Job Title Investigations 11 Job No. Effects ~f 8-foot Fence Angle ~i~n~D~i~v~e~r~t~1~·n~g~D~e~e~r~~f~r~o~m~t~h~e~i~r~E~s~t~a~b~l~i~s~h~e~d~D~.~ir~e~c~ Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. 15 April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Thomas Mo Pojar, William Dale Fo Reed. B. Zimmerman, ABSTRACT Thomas N. Woodard and ��-313- EFFECTS OF 8-FOOT FENCE ANGLE IN DIVERTING DEER FROM THEIR ESTABLISHED DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of three angles of 8-foot fence to divert deer from their established direction of movement at Little Hills Experiment Station and elsewhere. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Design and construct a movable closure at Little Hills. 8-foot fence section in a deer en- 2. Test the effectiveness 3. Evaluate those angles deemed effective under controlled for effectiveness under field conditions. of each angle under controlled conditions. conditions RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A decision was made to modify the Segment 26 Job Description to include only simulated fence angles tested under field conditions. The photo detectors (DSI Type 1050) necessary for the original plan failed to function adequately under low light and morning light conditions. The modified plans will be implemented during the next segment. Prepared Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��-315July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Piceance Period Covered: Personnel: December Deer-Elk Job No. Deer study - Population Investigations 1 Distribution 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 R. M. Bartmann, F. C. Vanderau, So F. Steinert, J. Jo Klein, Jr., D. C. Hoart, D. E. Merriam and G. E. Lewis. ABSTRACT From January 3 to March 9, 1972, 378 deer were trapped and marked on the Piceance winter range. This included 99 deer in Area 1, 207 in Area 2, 4 in Area 3 and 78 in Area 4. The sex and age composition of the total was 70 male fawns, 58 female fawns, 67 mature males, 182 mature fema.les, and one female of unknown age. An aerial deer distribution survey was made in December and again in January. Little change in the upper winter range boundaries was noted from December to January, presumably because of the relatively mild and open winter. No survey was made in February because of insufficient new snow. ��-317- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methodology for the systematic collection of data relating to mule deer population status on pinyon-juniper rangeland for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To delineate deer sub-population on the Piceance winter range. boundaries and concentration areas (a) Define the winter range boundaries of the Piceance deer population under mile, moderate, and severe winter conditions. (b) Define deer sub-population winter range. boundaries (c) Delineate major deer concentration winter range. METHODS within the Piceance areas within the Piceance AND MATERIALS Deer Trapping The deer winter range in Game Management Unit 22 was sub-divided into seven areas for trapping purposes (Fig. 1). Tentative winter range boundaries were those described by Baker (1970:35-39) based on browse form and age class and relative pellet group density data gathered from 1965 through 1967. Descriptions of trapping area boundaries are given below. Descriptions start at the northwest corner of each area and proceed in a clockwise direction. Area 1 Boise-Barcus--That area bounded by the Game Management Unit 22 boundary along Colorado Highway 64, Yellow Creek, Main Barcus Creek, the upper deer winter range limit, and the Game Management Unit 22 boundary along Boise Creek. Area 2 Barcus-Ryan--That area bounded by the Game Management Unit 22 boundary �-318- along Colorado Highway 64, Piceance Creek, Ryan Gulch, the upper deer winter range limit, Main Barcus Creek, and Yellow Creek. Area 3 Ryan-Stuart--That area bounded range limit, and Ryan Gulch. by Piceance Creek, the upper deer winter Area 4 White River-Dry Fork--That area bounded by the Game Management Unit 22 boundary along Colorado Highways 64 and 13, the upper deer winter range limit, Timber Gulch, Dry Fork, and Piceance Creek. Area 5 Dry Fork-Greasewood--That area bounded by Dry Fork, Timber Gulch, the upper deer winter range limit, the divide between Dry Fork-Timber Gulch and upper Piceance Creek, Greasewood Gulch, and Piceance Creek. Area 6 Greasewood-Dudley Bluffs--That area bounded by Greasewood Gulch, the divide between Hatch Gulch and upper Piceance Creek, the divide formed by the Dudley Bluffs, and Piceance Creek. Area 7 Dudley Bluffs-Fourteenmile--That area bounded by the divide formed by the Dudley Bluffs, the divide between Hatch Gulch and upper Piceance Creek, the divide between Dry Fork-Timber Gulch and upper Piceance Creek, the upper deer winter range limit, and Piceance Creek. Neckband colors and the number of deer to be marked in each area are: No. of Deer Color Area Neckband 1 Blue 140 2 White 220 3 Pink 100 4 Green with white stripe 250 5 Yellow with red stripe 110 6 Blue and white (~ & ~) 100 7 Red with white stripe 130 �N t Scale o I 2 3 4 5 miles E _- ~ r--l (- I I W •..... 1 Upper winter range limit (Baker. 1970) G'I \ \ '" I ~ /.:£,-; \ \ \\~, ,, ~ '\ ') , L~__ , Fig. 1. Location trapping areas on of seven deer the Piceance winter range. "'-""'\, Unit "'22 ~ I I \ (A"" _" •••••• '\, ~_ bo • un OIj r-"' \ --~,) �-320- A quota of 1,000 deer was originally set for the entire Unit 22 with area quotas based on relative pellet group densities given by Baker (1970:56) and the size of each area. No area was to have less than 100 marked deer. Adjustments were later made in some areas based on observations during the winter of 1971-72 raising the unit total to 1,050 deer. Deer were trapped with Clover traps used only in Area 4. Each deer was in both ears. A number was painted identification of animals. The red served only as an "attention-getter" easily seen in poor light. and box traps, the latter being neckbanded, and tagged and streamered on each neckband for individual streamer attached with each eartag as some neckband colors were not Sightings and recoveries of marked deer will be recorded from all available sources. In addition, fixed-wing airplane flights will be made during the spring migration to observe marked deer as they disperse from the winter range. Deer Distribution Deer winter range boundaries and concentration areas were plotted at monthly intervals from December through February. Two methods were used to gather this information. The first was snowmobile transects located throughout the winter range. Mechanical problems with machines, rapidly changing snow conditions due to the highly variable topography, and the relatively long interval required to adequately cover the entire winter range forced discontinuance of this approach. However, snowmobiles were still used to check snow conditions on the ground. Subsequently, fixed-wing airplane flights were made immediately after a snowfall of at least four inches. This amount was usually sufficient to cover old deer tracks and, if cold weather followed, allow completion of the survey before the south slopes became bare. Each aerial survey took two days. Flight patterns followed natural terrain features, usually ridges. Two observers made separate notes of relative deer track abundance (little or none, moderate, or heavy) on field maps. Notes were later compared and a composite deer distribution map overlay drawn. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Trapping Deer trapping was done only in Areas 1, 2, 3, and 4 during the 1971-72 winter. Each area was further sub-divided into smaller trapping locales with all of the traps being set in several of these. As the desired number �-321- of deer were caught, or trapping success dropped, all traps in a particular locale were moved to a new one. It was thought that this procedure would improve trapping efficiency by reducing the number of recatches and the time necessary to check the traps. Sixty Clover traps were used during most of the 66-day trapping period from January 3 to March 9. In addition 20 box traps were used at odd times and accounted for nearly all the deer marked in Area 4. In all, 378 deer were marked: 99 in Area 1, 207 in Area 2, 4 in Area 3, and 78 in Area 4 (Table 1). The total sex and age composition was 70 male fawns, 58 female fawns, 67 mature males, 182 mature females, and 1 female of unknown age. No records were kept of recatches because of the trapping procedure used, but these records will be kept next year. Quotas of marked deer were not reached in any area because of the unusually mild and open winter. During the March 23-24, 1972, meeting of the Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Commission, a portion of the west boundary of Game Management Unit 22 was moved eastward about 2 miles from Hammond Draw to Boise Creek. This places about 11 square miles of Unit 22 into Unit 21. About 35 deer were marked on these 11 square miles. All figures in this report show the old boundary as the change came into effect after the winter fieldwork. Deer Distribution Only two aerial surveys were made during the winter of 1971-72; December and one in January. Insufficient new snow in February that month's flight. one in precluded From 10 to 18 inches of powder snow were present during the December survey on the 16th and 17th. Deer were generally scattered over the entire winter range with high concentrations occurring only along the extreme east and north sides of the unit (Fig. 2). Cattle were still present on some BLM grazing allotments on the west side of Piceance Creek from Black Sulphur Creek to Greasewood Creek. Cattle and deer tracks intermixed in the deep snow created some difficulty in assessing relative deer track densities from the air. The problem would have been reduced somewhat had this area been flown first before an extra day's accumulation of tracks occurred. The entire area was classified as moderate deer density to acknowledge that deer were present over most of the area. Wild horses, also present throughout this western portion of the unit, were found in small localized groups and their tracks were usually easily recognized. Elk were found at the upper limits of the deer winter range in the southeast part of the unit from Stuart Gulch to Cow Creek. Some �-322- confusion of tracks occurred there but was considered minimal as the area is open brushland and the animals could usually be seen. Upper elevational limits of deer winter range during December varied by area. In the Piceance triangle, upper limits averaged around 7,500 to 7,600 feet. However, the steep heavily timbered northerly exposures below these levels were generally void of deer. In the south and western portions of the unit, upper limits were more variable ranging from about 7,300 to 7,800 feet. By the last week in December, nearly all the snow had melted at the lower elevations and on south slopes at higher elevations. Little new snow fell until the four to six inches received immediately prior to the second aerial survey on January 14 and 15. Accumulated snow depths at that time varied from four inches at the lowest elevations to 12 to 16 inches at the higher elevations. Mean upper elevational limits of deer use decreased only slightly from that observed in December (Fig. 3). Although snow depths were generally less, varying degrees of crusting were found. More concentration areas were located within the winter range as well as scattered areas of little or no use. The problems with cattle experienced previously were almost lacking. Casual observations indicate that the spring migration to summer range occurred earlier than normal. The usual build-up of deer on open sagebrush parks and on meadowlands along Piceance Creek and other drainages during late March and early April did not occur; and few deer were seen on the meadows by the end of March. Some deer were reported on summer ranges along Cathedral Bluffs and the Roan Plateau shortly after April 1. LITERATURE CITED Baker, B. D. 1970. Survey, inventory, and analysis of deer and elk winter ranges. p. 15-58. In Game Research Report. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. 3(Part 1):1-126. /"'/ /~. Prepared by I . .: /).:-, -.:.,-&'., .•... .r . -c .. -+:~7~... ;.~: ... "",~_.~ __ ,._ -- Richard M. Bartmann Asst. Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Date (1972) Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72. Sex Age Eartag Numbers Neckband No. Tnp. Location Rg. Sec. 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W lOOW 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W lOOW 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 11 11 10 10 11 11 2 11 10 10 10 10 11 23 11 2 24 24 10 14 14 11 11 2 12 24 1 36 14 11 Remarks Area 1 -- Blue Neckbands 1-4 1-4 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-6 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-8 1-8 Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Male Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn L-1084 L-1086 L-1088 L-1090 L-1101 L-1103 L-1105 L-1107 L-1109 L-1116 L-1111 L-1113 L-1115 L-1119 L-1121 L-1123 L-1151 L-1153 L-1125 L-1127 L-1129 L-1131 L-1133 L-1135 L-1154 L-1158 L-1160 L-1162 L-1137 L-1139 L-1085 L-1087 L-1089 L-1091 L-1102 L-1104 L-1106 L-1108 L-1110 L-1117 L-1112 L-1114 L-1118 L-1120 L-1122 L-1124 L-1152 L-1155 L-1126 L-1128 L-1130 L-1132 L-1134 L-1136 L-1157 L-1159 L-1161 L-1163 L-1138 L-1140 1 5 8 3 9 2 11 4 6 26 28 27 23 24 22 25 16 17 48 15 49 45 19 14 31 30 18 36 44 61 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w N w I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-13 Sex Age Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Eartag Numbers L-1141 L-1143 L-1149 L-1145 L-1164 L-1147 L-1156 L-1168 L-1170 L-1174 L-1172 L-1167 L-l177 L-1179 L-1181 L-1183 L-1185 L-1137 L-1189 L-1191 L-1193 L-1195 L-1197 L-1199 L-1201 L-1228 L-1230 L-1232 L-1234 L-1236 L-1238 L-1205 L-1142 L-1144 L-1150 L-1146 L-1165 L-1148 L-1166 L-1169 L-l171 L-1175 L-1173 L-1176 L-1178 L-1180 L-1182 L-1184 L-1186 L-1138 L-1190 L-1192 L-1194 L-1196 L-1198 L-1200 L-1202 L-1229 L-1231 L-1233 L-1235 L-1237 L-1239 L-1206 Neckband No. 67 68 65 62 20 66 21 60 29 63 64 12 13 32 33 82 7 34 47 46 35 38 71 39 77 40 41 42 10 50 74 79 Tnp. 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 3N 3N 3N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 3N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N ? Location Rg. 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 100W 99W 99W 991,;1 100W 100W 100W 99W 99W 99W 98W 98W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 99W Sec. Remarks 11 11 12 11 13 24 24 24 13 36 34 36 13 14 24 1 11 12 8 9 1 12 12 12 12 3 8 8 8 8 8 ? I w N .pI Steadman Mesa -----------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------ �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Age Eartag Numbers 1-l3 1-l3 1-13 1-13 1-l3 1-13 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-17 1-17 1-18 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-22 1-23 1-24 Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature ? Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn 1-1215 1-1203 1-1207 1-1209 1-1211 1-1213 1-1217 1-1219 L-1221 1-1223 1-1277 1-1279 1-1281 1-1283 1-1285 1-1287 1-1289 1-1295 1-1297 1-1299 1-1301 1-1303 1-l305 1-1240 1-1242 1-1323 1-1244 1-1246 1-1248 1-1262 1-l361 1-1367 1-1216 1-1204 1-1208 1-1210 1-1212 1-1214 1-1218 1-1220 1-1222 1-1224 1-1278 1-1280 1-1282 1-1284 1-1286 1-1288 1-1290 1-1296 1-1298 1-l300 1,-1302 1-1304 1-1306 1-1241 1-1243 1-1324 1-1245 1-1247 1-1249 1-1263 1-1362 1-1368 Neckband No. Tnp. 94 69 70 72 53 80 43 51 91 54 83 87 84 86 52 55 104 90 88 56 106 89 108 111 110 81 99 37 116 97 32 98 ? 3N 2N ? 3N? ? 3N ? 2N 2N 3N 2N 3N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 3N 3N 3N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 1ocation Rg. Sec. Remarks ? 99W 36? 99W 12 99W ? 99W 36? 99W ? 99W 99',;r 36? ? 99W 4 99W 4 99W 34 99W 1 99W 34 99W 4 99W 4 99W 4 99W 12 99W 99W 9 12 99W 12 99W 34 99W 36 99W 31 99W 12 99W 12 99W 11 99W 99W 9 99W 9 9 99W 33 99W 34 99W 34 99W Steadman Mesa Steadman Mesa Steadman Mesa Steadman Mesa Steadman Mesa Steadman Mesa Steadman Mesa I w N V1 I Has a white neckband ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Age Eartag Numbers 1-26 1-27 1-28 1-28 1-28 Female Male Female Female Hale Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn L-1375 L-1417 L-1423 L-1425 L-1427 Summary: 19 male fawns; 19 female fawns; L-1376 L-1418 L-1424 L-1426 L-1428 Neckband No. Tnp. Location Rg. Sec. 100 75 102 57 117 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 34 34 34 34 34 15 mature males; 45 mature females; Rema rks 1 female of unknown age. Area 2 -- White Neckbands 1-12 1-15 1-16 1-16 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-18 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-21 1-21 1-21 1-21 Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fmvn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature L-1226 L-1227 L-1225 L-1276 L-1291 L-1292 L-1293 L-1294 L-1307 L-1308 L-1309 L-1310 L-1311 L-1312 L-1313 L-1314 L-1319 L-1320 L-1321 L-1322 L-1325 L-1326 L-1327 L-1328 L-1329 L-1330 L-1331 L-1332 L-1250 L-1251 L-1252 L-1253 L-1254 L-1255 L-1256 L-1257 L-1258 L-1259 L-1260 L-1261 L-1333 L-1334 L-1335 L-1336 L-1337 L-1338 L-1341 L-1342 1 15 2 3 22 21 17 18 6 25 13 12 9 14 8 16 19 29 30 33 35 36 7 50 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IN 2N 2N 2N IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 98W 98W 98W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 98W 10 14 14 14 14 14 11 11 10 14 15 14 14 10 15 14 11 11 10 10 18 32 32 10 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w N 0"\ I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Neckband No. Tnp. Location Rg. L-1340 L-1344 L-1346 L-1348 L-1350 L-1352 L-1354 L-1356 L-1358 L-1360 L-1265 L-1267 L-1269 L-1271 L-1273 L-1275 L-1364 L-1366 L-1370 L-1372 L-1374 40 37 38 5 11 10 31 20 23 24 49 51 52 75 53 76 28 65 4 44 73 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W L-1402 L-1404 L-1406 L-1408 L-1410 L-1414 L-1416 L-1422 L-1420 L-1430 L-1432 ·77 60 42 39 74 57 26 58 124 86 61 IN 2N IS 2N IN IS 2N IN IS IS IN 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W Sex Age Eartag Numbers 1-21 1-21 1-21 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-23 1-23 1-23 1-23 1-23 1-23 1-24 1-24 1-24 Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn L-1339 L-1343 L-1345 L-1347 L-1349 L-1351 L-1353 L-1355 L-1357 L-1359 L-1264 L-1266 L-1268 L-1270 L-1272 L-1274 L-1363 L-1365 L-1369 L-1371 L-1373 1-24 1-25 1-26 1-26 1-26 1-27 1-27 1-28 1-28 1-29 1-29 Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-1401 L-1403 L-1405 L-1407 L-1409 L-1413 L-1415 L-1421 L-1419 L-1429 L-1431 Sec. Remarks 10 14 14 18 29 29 32 14 23 14 10 10 I w 14 N --.J 11 I 32 33 18 29 18 19> Caught in same trap and 19.both chewed on slightly by dog 10 18 5 31 8 5 31 28 17 5 15 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued). Date (1972) 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-3 Sex Age Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Eartag Numbers Neckband No. Tnp. Location Rg. Sec. L-1433 L-1435 L-1437 L-1439 L-1441 L-1443 L-1445 L-1447 L-1449 L-1504 L-1506 L-1508 L-1510 L-1512 L-1514 L-1516 L-1518 L-1520 L-1522 L-1524 L-1526 L-1528 L-1530 L-1532 L-1534 L-1536 L-1538 L-1540 L-1542 L-1450 L-1544 L-1546 45 43 82 89 80 55 59 54 56 71 41 122 123 79 47 67 121 48 81 78 98 96 85 88 87 103 90 92 91 97 99 100 IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IS IN 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S IN 2N 2N 2N IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IS 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 35 35 19 28 15 25 8 5 10 12 12 19 17 8 8 8 15 8 1 1 35 35 19 8 5 5 5 28 28 5 5 8 L-1434 L-1436 L-1438 L-1440 L-1442 L-1444 L-1446 L-1448 L-1501 L-1505 L-1507 L-1509 L-1511 L-1513 L-1515 L-1517 L-1519 L-1521 L-1523 L-1525 L-1527 L-1529 L-1531 L-1533 L-1535 L-1537 L-1539 L-1541 L-1543 L-1451 L-1545 L-1547 Remarks ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I w N 00 I �Table 1- Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Age Eartag Numbers 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-7 Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature L-1548 L-1550 L-149l L-1493 L-1495 L-1497 L-1499 L-1551 L-1553 L-1555 L-1557 L-1558 L-1569 L-1570 L-1571 L-1572 L-1573 L-1574 L-1559 L-1560 L-1561 L-1562 L-1563 L-1564 L-1565 L-1575 L-1566 L-1567 L-1568 L-1576 L-1577 L-1607 L-1549 L-1490 L-1492 L-1494 L-1496 L-1498 L-1500 L-1552 L-1554 L-1556 L-1557 L-1558 L-1569 L-1570 L-1571 L-1572 L-1573 L-1574 L-1559 L-1560 L-1561 L-1562 L-1563 L-1564 L-1565 L-1575 L-1566 L-1567 L-1568 L-1576 L-1577 L-1607 Neckband No. Tnp. 95 68 84 109 125 46 34 112 111 62 105 104 118 129 126 128 113 114 63 64 66 101 69 70 71 72 102 93 119 83 94 146 IS IS IS IS IS 1S 1S 2S 2S 1S 1S 2S 1S 1S 1S IS 1S IS IN IS IS 1S IS IS IS 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS Location Rg. 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98\-J 98W 97W 97~-J 97~-J Sec. 8 5 5 8 19 19 25 3 3 32 8 12 29 29 32 32 31 18 22 5 5 5 8 19 25 4 18 18 35 32 32 31 Remarks Possible neck injury ------------------------------------------------------------~---------------------------------------------- I LV N -o I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 Sex Age Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Eartag Numbers Neckband No. Tnp. L-1579 L-1601 L-1602 L-1603 L-1604 L-1605 L-1606 L-1608 L-1609 L-1610 L-1611 L-1612 L-1580 L-1581 L-1613 L-1614 L-1615 L-1616 L-1582 L-1583 L-1584 L-1585 L-1586 L-1587 L-1588 L-1589 L-1590 L-1591 L-1592 L-1593 L-1594 L-1595 120 116 117 127 134 130 145 107 110 140 139 115 108 155 147 135 148 138 156 159 157 142 158 141 131 149 106 137 144 151 143 150 2S IN IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS L-1579 L-1601 L-1602 L-1603 L-1604 L-1605 L-1606 L-1608 L-1609 L-1610 L-1611 L-1612 L-1580 L-1581 L-1613 L-1614 L-1615 L-1616 L-1582 L-1583 L-1584 L-1585 L-1586 L-1587 L-1588 L-1589 L-1590 L-1591 L-1592 L-1593 L-1594 L-1595 Location Rg. 98W 97W 97~J 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 99W 99W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W Sec. Remarks 4 28 28 5 8 35 31 29 32 31 31 18 5 5 32 10 10 18 28 5 8 8 8 4 4 25 5 8 13 13 25 18 ----------~-----------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------ I w w 0 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Age Eartag Numbers Neckband No. Tnp. Location Rg. 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-l3 2-13 2-l3 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Hale Female Male Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Hature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Hature Mature Fawn L-1596 L-1596 L-1597 L-1597 L-1598 L-1598 L-1599 L-1599 L-1600 L-1600 L-1617 L-1617 L-1618 L-1618 L-1619 L-1619 L-1620 L-1620 L-1621 L-1621 L-1622 L-1622 L-1623 L-1623 L-1651 L-1651 L-1652 L-1652 L-1624 L-1624 L-1625 L-1625 L-1626 L-1626 L-1672 L-1672 L-1673 L-1673 L-1627 L-1627 L-1628 L-1628 L-1629 L-1629 L-1630 L-1630 L-1631 L-1631 L-1632 L-1632 L-1674 L-1674 L-1633 L-1633 L-1634 L-1634 L-1635 L-1635 L-1636 L-1636 L-1637 L-1637 L-1638 L-1638 l36 l33 152 169 172 171 179 153 170 154 160 168 176 177 161 184 167 181 183 162 l32 164 165 163 178 185 182 193 166 174 180 173 IS IS IS IS IS 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS 2S 2S IS 2S 2S 2S 2S IN IN IN IN IS IS 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IN 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 98W 99W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 99W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W Sec. Remarks 31 32 32 19 25 3 32 32 19 11 29 32 4 3 19 18 18 4 8 32 20 33 33 4 18 l3 8 17 18 3 3 33 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I w w t-' I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued). Date (1972) Sex Age 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-27 3-2 3-2 3-6 3-7 3-9 Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Summary: 35 male fawns ; 28 female fawns; Eartag Numbers L-1653 L-1654 L-1655 L-1656 L-1657 L-1658 L-1659 L-1713 L-1660 L-1661 L-1662 L-1663 L-1701 L-1707 L-1706 L-1705 L-1704 L-1703 L-1709 L-1708 L-1691 L-1694 L-1696 L-1653 L-1654 L-1655 L-1656 L-1657 L-1658 L-1659 L-1713 L-1660 L-1661 L-1662 L-1663 L-1702 L-1707 L-1706 L-1705 L-1704 L-1703 L-1709 L-1708 L-1691 L-1694 L-1696 Neckband No. Tnp. 186 187 175 191 195 192 188 200 199 198 120 197 196 201 204 202 203 205 189 206 190 194 208 IN IS IN IN 2S IN IN 2S IS 2S 2S 2S IN 2S 2S IS IS IN 2S 2S IS IS IN 39 mature males; Location Rg. Sec. 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 99W 98W 99W 99W 98W 98W 99W 98W 98W 98W 98W 99W 99W 98W 98W 98W Remarks 28 19 29 20 8 27 33 13 18 13 13 8 32 13 4 18 2 32 13 13 3 2 32 105 mature females. Area 3 -- Pink Neckbartds 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-6 Summary: Female Mature L-1710 Male Fawn L-1711 Female Mature L-1712 Female Mature L-1692 1 male fawn; 3 mature females. L-1710 L-1711 L-1712 L-1692 1 12 2 5 2S 2S 2S 2S 97W 97W 97W 97W 32 29 32 29 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I w w N I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Eartag Numbers Age Neckband No. 1ocation Rg. Tnp. Sec. Remarks Area 4 -- Green with White Stripe'Neckban ds 1-23 1-23 1-23 1-23 1-25 1-25 1-25 1-25 1-26 1-26 1-26 1-26 1-26 1-27 1-27 1-28 1-28 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-30 1-30 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-2 Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature 1-1377 1-1379 1-1381 1-1383 1-1385 1-1387 1-1389 1-1391 1-1393 1-1395 1-1397 1-1399 1-1411 1-1452 1-1454 1-1456 1-1458 1-1466 1-1460 1-1462 1-1464 1-1468 1-1470 1-1472 1-1474 1-1476 1-1478 1-1480 1-1482 1-1484 1-1486 1-1488 1-1378 1-1380 1-1382 1-1384 1-1386 1-1388 1-1390 1-1392 1-1394 1-1396 1-1398 1-1400 1-1412 1-1453 1-1455 1-1457 1-1459 1-1467 1-1461 1-1463 1-1465 1-1469 1-1471 1-1473 1-1475 1-1477 1-1479 1-1481 1-1483 1-1485 1-1487 1-1489 11 12 1 13 15 2 3 4 17 5 14 6 16 7 8 18 20 22 28 26 27 None 10 9 19 21 23 32 24 30 25 29 IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 28 28 34 20 28 21 34 20 28 21 20 20 20 28 20 28 28 20 28 20 20 21 21 28 34 34 20 20 34 28 34 34 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I w w w I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Age Eartag Numbers 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-16 Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature L-1639 L-1640 L-1641 L-1642 L-1643 L-1644 L-1645 L-1646 L-1648 L-1649 L-1639 L-1640 L-1641 L-1642 L-1643 L-1644 L-1645 L-1646 L-1648 L-1649 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-23 2-24 Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature L-1664 L-1650 L-1665 L-1666 L-1667 L-1668 L-1669 L-1670 L-1671 L-1675 L-1676 L-1677 L-1678 L-1679 L-1680 L-1681 L-1682 L-1664 L-1650 L-1665 L-1666 L-1667 L-1668 L-1669 L-1670 L-1671 L-1675 L-1676 L-1677 L-1678 L-1679 L-1680 L-1681 L-1682 Neckband No. Location Tnp. Rg. Sec. 31 37 38 36 39 35 34 33 42 43 IN IN IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IS 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 34 34 3 11 18 34 34 3 12 12 45 44 40 41 49 47 48 50 53 46 54 51 52 73 55 75 76 IS IS IS IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IN IN 96W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96W 13 13 18 34 11 11 2 13 18 3 12 11 19 11 34 36 26 Remarks Collar may be #34 also Velvet covered antler nubbin on right side which was broken at the ~ w skull .p. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1971-72 (continued) . Date (1972) Sex Age Eartag Numbers 2-26 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-27 3-1 3-4 3-6 3-7 Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature L-1683 L-1684 L-1685 L-1686 L-1687 L-1688 L-1689 L-1690 L-1693 Sununary: 15 male fawns; 11 female fawns; L-1683 L-1684 L-1685 L-1686 L-1687 L-1688 L-1689 L-1690 L-1693 Neckband No. 56 64 77 78 57 58 83 85 59 13 mature males; Location Rg. Tnp. Sec. lS IN lS lS IS lN lS lN lN 6 36 12 13 19 36 6 36 36 95W 96W 96W 96W 95W 96W 95W 96W 96W Remarks 29 mature females I Vol Vol V1 I Grand Summary: 70 male fawns; 58 female fawns; 67 mature males; 182 mature females; 1 female of unknown age �N t \ II Scale o -.--.--.... I 2 3 4 5 ml les »J/ . t" I -. . . ,.,. I W W 0'\ 1 \\ \ \ \\~, ~OI IEGEND ~ W#iWi'JhUXI Heavy use , ." .. I -~ , , ,. , Moder Little or no use r , ""-,-,..,.,.,., Fig. 2. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range. December 16 and 17. 1971. "-~ Unit "'- cc' (I" -, """""', \ I '\,1 ) .-I ' ;:darY �o i I Scale 2 3 ;;;;;-,. 4 5 miles ?rw-'I ,/ J (- I r<') I 1 Heavy use I ... . ···. . . ·1. Moderate use I '-J I 1:1 ~ 1£ \ \ ~\ ~ ~~ '\ %. , ffi'@mmml] W .C 01 <B \ ~ LEGEND w. >. J "4..--,_,_~ ) I Little or no use~ Fig. 3. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range, Janua~ 14 and 15, 1972 • Unif ~"' c;< _ Ir-'~don' •••••••• ~ .'~\ ..,~j 1 bell \ {~ "'\' ...•...""".../ ,\'111\.'1- ~, ��-339July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~RA==D~O _ Deer-Elk W-38-R-26 Project No. Job No. Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Piceance Period Covered: Personnel: November Investigations Deer Study - Population 2 Density 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 R. M. Bartmann, R. B. Gill, J. J. Klein, Jr., S. F. Steinert and F~ C. Vanderau. ABSTRACT Experimental helicopter counts of deer in three of the Little Hills pastures and on 1/16-square mile and 1/4-square mile quadrats on open range were made during February to assess the feasibility of such counts on pinyon-juniper winter range. All three aerial counts in the pastures were in agreement with ground counts. Subjective evaluation of the two quadrat sizes favored the 1/4-square mile area as probably the most efficient of the two. Other conditions that were recognized include the need for adequate quadrat corner marking, the use of two observers and the impracticality of classifying animals during counts. ��-341- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DENSITY Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methodology for the systematic collection of data relating to mule deer population status on pinyon-juniper rangeland for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. To establish a deer density estimate yon-juniper winter range. technique (a) for estimating Evaluate the use of a helicopter pinyon-juniper winter range. METHODS for the Piceance pin- deer density on AND MATERIALS The use of a helicopter for aerial counting of deer on the Piceance pinyonjuniper winter range was tested February 4, 1972. Mr. R. Bruce Gill, who has had five years experience in deer quadrat census from a helicopter in Middle Park, Colorado, did the counting. Two aspects of helicopter counting on pinyon-juniper winter range were checked. One was a test of accuracy of counts. Deer, already present in three of the Little Hills pastures, were counted and results compared to ground tallies. A conscious effort was made to count each pasture as an actual quadrat and not take advantage of the fenced boundaries. The other aspect was to subjectively evaluate two sizes of quadrats for counting; 1/16-square mile and 1/4-square mile. Three quadrats of each size were located in four different situations representative of various terrain and overstory conditions present on the winter range. These included (1) lightly broken terrain with scattered stands of pinyon-juniper, (2) moderately steep terrain with moderate to heavy pinyon-juniper overstory, (3) extremely steep terrain with variable pinyon-juniper overstory, and (4) extremely steep terrain with variable pinyon-juniper overs tory and with Douglas fir stands on northerly exposures. The fourth situation comprises only a small proportion of the total winter range area. Selection of quadrat sites was entirely subjective. In addition to sampling the above situations, they were located in areas of suspected high deer density. Quadrat corners were plotted on aerial photos and later marked in the field with surveyors flagging. The time to count each quadrat and the number of deer seen were recorded. �-342- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Snow cover for the experimental helicopter counts was less than desired for good counting conditions, but was probably typical of conditions that would be encountered during some years. Patchy snow cover occurred on south slopes with mostly complete cover on north exposures. Aerial and ground counts of deer in the pastures agreed in all three instances (Table 1). Grount counts in Pastures 4 and 7 were completed within 4 and 12 days, respectively, of the aerial counts. Thus the possibility of ingress, egress, or mortality was small. Pasture 3 did not lend itself to ground counting and the deer had to be trapped. Gates were opened into an adjacent group trap and the deer baited out with alfalfa hay. Fourteen deer were removed in this manner from March 8 through March 17. A drive through the pasture was made April 5 and one deer was seen for a total of 15 deer believed present. The possibility of population change was greater than in the other pastures because of the longer period between the aerial count and final ground check. Despite only three pastures being counted, the artificiality of the pasture situation, and the possibility for population changes between the times of the air and ground counts, it is encouraging that the results were in agreement all three times. Table 1. Results of experimental helicopter Hills pastures, February 4, 1972. counts of deer in the Little Pasture Acres Number of Deer Air Ground 3 162 15 15 6:20 6:15 4 144 10 10 5:55 6:35 7 121 "l/ 12 12 4:35 6:05 Includes about 30 acres in an adjacent Time to Count (minutes and seconds) Actual Adjusted to 160 Acres "l/ gulch. The results of deer counts on the two sizes of quadrats are shown in Table 2. Because the quadrat locations were non-randomly selected, little can be extrapolated from the results. However, the data do suggest considerably higher variability associated with the smaller quadrats. The 1/4--square mile quadrat was selected for continued evaluation because it presents a larger area for counting which does not seem unwieldy, and it should be less variable which would result in smaller sample sizes. The possibility of further increase in quadrat size is not ruled out and will be considered during the next segment. �-343- Table 2. Results of experimental helicopter counts of deer on two sizes of quadrats on the Piceance pinyon-juniper winter range, February 4, 1972. No. of Deer Quadrat 1/16-square Time to Count (min. & sec. ) Quadrat No. of Deer 1/4-square mile Time to Count (min. & sec.) mile 1 4 3:30 2 14 4:00 3 24 2:35 4 11 3:35 5 3 1:55 6 19 4:35 7 0 1:45 8 24 3:30 9 3 1:50 10 12 5:15 11 0 1:55 12 3 5:45 13 0 2:10 14 4 6:15 15 13 2./ 16 18 5:15 17 0 2:00 18 0 6:15 19 0 1:45 20 4 5:55 21 0 2:50 22 0 3:45 23 0 1:55 24 3 6:15 3.9 2:10 9.3 5:00 x = 1/ Starting x = time not recorded. Several problems were identified during the course of the preliminary helicopter counts. A major one was adequate marking of quadrat corners. Much of the flagging on open ridgetops had been removed by the wind, and flagging in other areas was difficult to see. It is estimated that only about 10 percent of the marked corners were actually seen during the counts even though aerial photos with quadrat boundaries marked on them were referred to during flight. An associated problem is keeping oriented on quadrat boundaries. Many corners will not be seen until almost above them because of the rough terrain and the overstory. Placing of markings high in trees whenever possible and reference to aerial photos during counts should help alleviate much of the problem. �-344- Deer visibility, as long as the animals were moving, was good. Although, extra care was required to keep track of animals as they darted under trees and were momentarily out of sight. An extra observer, in addition to keeping track of quadrat boundaries, can help locate and count deer. If the animals are not moving, they could very easily be missed. Since nearly all deer seem to run at the approach of a helicopter, and with two observers and the relatively small quadrat size, it is hoped this error will be minimal. A good job of sex and age classification does not seem possible during the counts. It is a full-time job for two people just to keep track of deer on the quadrat. Such classifications may have to be made separately either from the air or on the ground. Ground speed, altitude, and counting pattern will be dictated terrain and cover conditions present on each quadrat. Prepared by the �-345July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~~-------- Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Job No. Picenace Deer Study - Productivity Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations 3 and Mortality April l~ 1971 through March 31, 1972 R. M. Bar tmann , J. J. Klein, Jr., S. F. Steinert and F. C. Vanderau. ABSTRACT Seventeen does were collected from March through June, 1971 and 20 does from January through April, 1972. Twenty-three were killed along highways, 11 were trapping mortalities and three died from other causes. Prenatal productivity data for these deer in 1971 show 1.65 fetuses:doe with a sex ratio of 87 males: 100 females. In 1972, they averaged 1.45 fetuses:doe with a sex ratio of 123 males:lOO females. ��-347- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methodology for the systematic collection of data relating to mule deer population status on pinyon-juniper rangeland for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. To estimate increments and losses to the Piceance (a) Estimate productivity rates for the Piceance deer population. deer population. METHODS AND YillTERIALS Prenatal productivity data were recorded for female mule deer of reproductive age during the 1971 and 1972 gestation periods. Major sources of animals were road-kills along Colorado Highways 13 and 64 and the Piceance road, and trapping mortalities. Ovaries were preserved in 10 percent formalin. They were later sectioned and examined macroscopically for corpora lutea of pregnancy. The number and sex of fetuses was recorded. Forehead-rump measurements were taken in millimeters and converted to age in days according to the fetal growth curve of Hudson and Browman (1959). Conception dates were estimated by back-dating from date of death. The first incisor on the left mandible was preserved in formalin for later age estimation by counts of dental cementum annuli (Erickson and Seliger, 1969). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seventeen does were examined from March through June, 1971; 14 died along highways, 2 died while being removed from one of the Little Hills pastures, and 1 died from predation. From January through April, 1972, 20 does were examined; 11 died from trapping injuries and 9 died along highways. How representative the above animals are of the entire population with respect to productivity parameters is not known. Yearly sample sizes are admittedly small, but these are the first prenatal productivity data collected for the Piceance herd. �-348- All does in 1971 and all but one in 1972 were pregnant sex ratios favored females in 1971 and males in 1972. (Table 1). Fetal Estimated conception dates based on forehead-rump measurements of 21 fetuses in 1971 and 27 fetuses in 1972 range from November 24 to December 29 the first year, and from November 14 to December 3 the second year (Fig. 1). The majority of breeding activity, based on both years data, occurred between November 16 and December 5. LITERATURE CITED Erickson, J. A., and W. C. Seliger. 1969. Efficient sectioning of incisors for estimating ages of mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(2):384-388. Hudson, P., and L. G. Browman. 1959. Embryonic and fetal development of the mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 23(3): 295-304. /i ' :/./ ?/ Prepared ~/ hi / .r=::»:-------- by r/c f-,,?,: __ ,._'0 /' / -'-::::::::;;t:-o 1'/.•.,.;_ ._,. .•• ..~ Richard M. Bar~n Asst. Wildlife Researcher �-349- Table 1. Prenatal productivity data for mule deer does dying from various causes in and around Game Management Unit 22, 1971 and 1972. Collection Number Estimated Age 1/ Date Killed How Killed No. of Fetuses Female Male Corpora Lutea of Pregnancy Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Predator Vehicle Hit fence Hit fence Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 One ovary missing 1971 P-l P-3 P-4 P-5 P-7 P-I0 P-ll P-12 P-15 P-16 P-17 P-22 P-23 P-26 P-27 P-28 P-29 Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature 165 fetuses:l00 3-12 3-24 3-30 4-1 4-1 4-5 4-5 4-6 4-9 4-9 4-8 4-15 4-18 5-2 5-12 5-12 6-14 P-50 P-51 P-52 P-53 P-54 P-55 P-56 P-57 P-58 P-59 P-60 P-61 P-62 P-63 P-64 P-66 P-67 P-68 P-69 P-70 Mature Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Yrlg. Yrlg. 1.20 CLP:yearling does 87 male fetuses:l00 female fetuses 1972 1-21 1-21 1-31 2-3 2-6 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-15 2-16 2-20 2-27 3-7 3-8 3-8 4-2 4-2 4-5 4-6 4-14 Trap Vehicle Trap Trap Trap Trap Trap Trap Trap Trap Trap Vehicle Vehicle Trap Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle 145 fetuses:l00 does 123 male fetuses:l00 female fetuses 1/ Age estimated 2 2 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 1 by tooth replacement. 2.09 CLP:mature 2 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 doe doe 0 2 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1.00 CLP:yearling doe 1.87 CLP:mature doe 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1 1 �-350- _1971 t:::J 1972 III s:: 0 .r-! +' o, <D o s:: 7 6 5 0 4 4-l 3 (.) 0 ,.. <D ~ ~ 2 1 \.f\ 0..-1 >0..-1I Z..-I 0 oN I O~ Z..-i > \.f\ oN >0..-1I ZN 0 o C'\ I O~ ZN > \.f\ 0 ()\.f\ <D I ~..-i 00 ()..-I Q) I ~~ o ..-i o I Q)..-I ~..-I 0 oN o I Q)~ ~..-I \.f\ oN o I Q)..-I ~N 0 o C'\ I Q)~ ~N o Date Fig. 1..Estimated conception dates of Piceance deer fetuses, 1971 and 1972. �-351July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Investigations Job No. 4 Piceance Deer Study - Food Habits Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 R. M. Bar tmann , J. J. Klein, Jr., S. F. Steinert and F. C. Vanderau. ABSTRACT Twenty-three deer rumen content samples were collected from March through May, 1971. Grass and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) were the most important food items comprising 41 and 33 percent, respectively, of the total volume. ��-353- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - FOOD HABITS Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methodology for the systematic collection of data relating to mule deer population status on pinyon-juniper rangeland for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. To evaluate deer forage use on pinyon-juniper winter range. (a) Estimate forage use by deer from stomach content analyses. METHODS AND MATERIALS Rumen content samples were collected from deer found freshly killed along Colorado Highways 13 and 64, and the Piceance road. After thoroughly mixing contents of the rumen and reticulum, about one quart of food material was squeezed to remove excess rumen fluid and then frozen for later analysis. Another 103 rumen content samples were made available from Work Plan 15, Deer-Auto Accident Investigations. These samples were collected yearlong from deer killed along Colorado Highway 13 during 1969 and 1970. Samples were preserved in 10 percent formalin. In preparation for analysis, samples were washed over an 8-millimeter mesh screen. The material was air-dried and thoroughly mixed. Analysis was by the point method described by Chamrad and Box (1964). Shrubs and forbs were identified to species when possible, but no attempt was made to do the same for grass and grass-like plants. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Twenty-three rumen content samples were collected from March through May, 1971 (Table 1). The two most important food items were grass and big sagebrush. Together they comprised 74 percent of the total food volume. Pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) and Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) each contributed 4 percent. Total forb volume was small, comprising only 7 percent. �-354- Sixteen rumen content samples were collected during November, 1971, and one each December, 1971, and January, 1972. These samples have not been analyzed nor have most of those collected under the deerauto accident study. LITERATURE CITED A point frame for sampling Chamrad, A. D., and T. W. Box. 1964. rumen contents. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Prepared ~ // /. a.- ~'/ 28(3) :473-477. . by I~-/.:/~~'_',f//!~c j;.. £•• ,~~-.-,.;..-,-Richard M. Bartiitinn Asst. Wildlife Researcher �-355- Table 1. Food items found in 23 rumen content samples collected from mule deer killed along highways within and around Game Management Unit 22 during March, April, and May, 1971. Food Item Mean Volume (Percent) Frequency Browse Artemisia tridentata Pinus edulis Juniperus osteosperma Symphoricarpos tetonensis Cercocarpus montanus Berberis repens Amelanchier utahensis Populus angustifolia Atriplex confertifolia Prunus virginianus Sarcobatus vermiculatus Quercus gambellii Pachystima myrsinites Unidentified browse 33 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 tr. tr. tr. tr. 1 Total Browse 52 Eriogonum umbellatum Phlox caespitosa Gutierrezia sarothrae Eriogonum tristichum Cryptantha sp. Medicago sativa Penstemon caespitosus Unidentified forbs 3 2 1 tr. tr. tr. tr. 1 Total Forbs 7 Grass and Grass-like 41 0.96 0.39 0.43 0.17 0.22 0.26 0.17 0.09 0.09 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.43 Forbs 0.35 0.17 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.04 0.04 0.43 1.00 Index ��-357July, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-26 Work Plan No. 14 Middle Physiology Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. Park Cooperative Deer Study and Prevention of Deer Starvation 6 June, 1971 - June, 1972 Julius G. Nagy, Principal Investigator; David S. DeCalesta, Student, David E. Reeder, Graduate Student. Graduate ABSTRACT Six male mule deer dropped their rate of food intake 47-98 percent two to nine days subsequent to an abrupt change from a concentrate ration to a ration of 50 percent concentrate, 50 percent alfalfa hay. It was hypothesized that the maximum alfalfa hay concentration in a ground, pelleted ration that deer can survive on is 50 percent. Six deer and six sheep exhibited similar feed intake rates and mean retention times when fed concentrate diets containing no alfalfa hay. Increasing percent composition of alfalfa in the rations fed to sheep and deer resulted in decreasing mean retention times and higher food intakes in sheep but not in deer. Retention times under these circumstances were statistically significantly different between deer and sheep. Rumen fluid of four deer starved to death exhibited no statistically significant differences in counts of viable bacteria or in vitro digestion of three rations than that from three non-starved deer. These results suggest that rumen bacteria in starved deer neither die nor lose the ability to digest feeds. Lack of significant differences in the parameters between starved deer permitted to eat soil and feces infected with rumen bacteria and starved deer not provided with dirt and feces indicated that starving deer maintain large numbers of viable rumen bacteria without reinfecting their rumens by eating bacteria in soil or feces. Starv~d deer exhibited little differences in weight change upon refeeding, whether refed a high-protein, low-fiber diet or a high-fiber, low protein diet. Neither diet caused observable pigestive upsets. There may have been slightly better (but not statistically significant) weight gains in deer refed the high-protein, low-fiber diet. Comparison of fawns born from non-starved does and does starved 10-33 days revealed no statistically significant differences in mean birth weights. Fawns born from starved does suffered 40 percent mortality, whereas those born from non-starved does suffered no mortality. IThanks are due to Dr. James A. Bailey for supervision during my absence. of graduate students ��-359- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY PHYSIOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF DEER STARVATION Julius G. Nagy Mass starvation of deer during severe winters is a reoccurring problem in northern and western United States. It was estimated, for example, that approximately 40 percent of the Middle Park (Colorado) deer herd died of starvation and causes connected with starvation during the last hard winter in 1964-65. Many of these animals died by haystacks, their digestive organs full of undigested hay particles. During the past decades several explanations have been offered of why and how deer die during these stress periods with their stomachs full of food. All explanations have been based on speculation rather than on clinical evidence. This annual report is part of a cooperative study on the Middle Park deer herd in which Colorado Division of Wildlife, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Colorado State University Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology are working together to learn more about this herd through basic and applied research. In the segment of study reported here we have investigated the effect of quantity of fiber on digestion, how long rumen bacteria remain functional during starvation, length of time deer can survive starvation, and acceptable kinds of supplemental feed that can be utilized by deer during prolonged nutritional stress. P. S. OBJECTIVE To ascertain what takes place in deer physiology when starvation occurs and to investigate the economic and biologic feasibility of preventing starvation. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. To publish reports on: a. Responses of mule deer to alfalfa feed, and b. Responses of rumen microflora in mule deer to complete starvation. To measure physiological responses of mule deer starved in pens to refeeding with: a. A moderately digestible high-protein diet, and b. A poorly digestible low-protein diet. �-360- 3. To test diets for refeeding deer kept in field pens and malnourished to simulate natural conditions during a severe winter. 4. Prepare report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Effects of Abrupt Diet Changes on Food Intake Six male mule deer were placed in separate pens. They had been on an alfalfa hay and concentrate diet ad libitum for three to four months previously. For the first nine days of the trial a standard concentrate ration was offered ad libitum and daily intake measured. On the tenth day the diet was changed abruptly to a ground, mixed and pelleted ration consisting of 50 percent concentrate and 50 percent alfalfa hay (good quality, third cutting hay) diet. Animals were fed this diet for 11 days and daily intake measured. Rate of Food Passage Through the Digestive Tract Six yearling mule deer and six yearling crossbred sheep were used for the study. Five trials were conducted using the radioisotope chromium-51 and a red stain, basic fuchsine, as inert food markers. Four pelleted rations were formulated (Appendix A) with 0, 15, 35, and 50 percent alfalfa hay mixed in the diet. Rations were fed to deer and sheep in order 6f increasing alfalfa hay content. The feeds were offered ad libitum and daily food intake measured. Each trial consisted of feeding a different ration to all animals. The ration with zero percent alfalfa hay was fed first and last. A five day adjustment period was allowed for each diet and five days for feces collection and sampling for the markers. Mean retention times were calculated by using cumulative excretion curves after Castle (1956). Effects of Starvation on Rumen Microbial Activity Nine adult deer were starved in pens until death. Three control deer were kept on their normal ration and sacrificed at 20, 30 and 40 days after the start of the experiment. Deer were divided into four groups (Table 1). Upon death of a deer viable rumen microorganisms were cultured and counted, and in vitro digestion trials were conducted as in 1971. �-361- Table 1. Division of deer into four starvation groups. Group N I 4 1-60' x 40' pen, dirt floor II 2 2-20' x floor 6' pens, concrete Water, sterilized soil III 3 3-20' x floor 6' pens, concrete Water IV 3 (control) 1-100' x 100' pen, dirt floor Intake Holding Facility Water, soil, feces Water and feed Comparison of counts of viable bacteria and in vitro digestion from rumen bacteria and in vitro digestion from rumen fluid from deer in groups I and IV tested the hypothesis that rumen bacteria in starving deer die or lose their ability to digest foods. A comparison of these two parameters among groups I, II and III further tested the hypothesis that starving deer maintain large numbers of viable rumen bacteria by eating dirt and feces. If higher counts of viable bacteria and higher in vitro digestion were exhibited in group I deer compared to deer in groups II and III, eating soil and feces might be a mechanism for preserving viable rumen bacteria during starvation. If these parameters for groups I and II are similar or higher than those for group III deer, eating dirt and feces might sustain rumen bacteria during starvation by providing a nutrient source. If no discernable differences in bacteria-population parameters exist among group I, II and III deer, other mechanisms must account for maintenance of high counts of viable, functioning rumen bacteria in starved deer. Refeeding Trial Beginning February 29, 1972, thirteen fawns and thirteen does were divided into two groups, starved for 10 to 61 days (Appendix G) and refed. One group was refed with a low fiber, high protein diet (Diet I) the other with a high fiber, low protein diet (Diet II) (Appendix B). All deer were weighed immediately before starvation began, the first day of refeeding and ten days after refeeding. Daily food and water intakes were recorded for each refed deer during the first ten days of refeeding. Condition and weights of fawns born to starved does that survived refeeding were recorded after parturition. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effects of Abrupt Diet Changes on Food Intake During the first day six male mule deer readily consumed the abruptly changed diet (50% alfalfa hay, 50% ~oncentrate) b~t between the second and ninth day, �-364- Effects of Starvation on Rumen Microbial Activity Results of in vitro digestion trials indicate that no statistically significant differences in in vitro digestibility exist between deer in groups I and IV and deer in groups I-III. Counts of viable bacteria were also not statistically significantly different between deer in groups I and IV, and between deer in groups I and II. These counts were statistically significantly different between deer in groups II and III and I and III (Table 2). These data indicate: a) that rumen bacteria in starving deer do not die nor lose the ability to digest food; b) that deer do not require ingestion of dirt or feces infected with rumen bacteria to maintain large numbers of viable rumen bacteria. It is believed that contamination and poor technique may have led to the high counts of viable bacteria recorded for group III deer. To better understand effect of length of starvation on counts of viable bacteria and in vitro digestion, data from group I, II and III deer were pooled. This pooling was felt justified by the lack of significant differences between group I-III in vitro digestion data and group I and II counts of viable bacteria. The uncertain reliability of group III count data may justify including group III deer in this pooling. Results of in vitro digestion trials with rumen fluid obtained from deer starved 16-47 days and from non-starved deer are presented in Fig. 2. Buffer solution digestion represents non-bacterial digestion whereas in vitro digestion by starved versus non-starved deer rumen fluid represents impairment of bacterial digestion due to starvation. Digestion of dry matter, cell contents and cell wall contents by starved deer rumen fluid declined slightly as starvation length increased but remained above levels of digestion by buffer solution. Slopes of regressions of percent feed digestion with length of starvation are slightly negative, but 90 percent confidence intervals of these slopes include zero. Thus, in vitro digestion by rumen bacteria of starved deer declined slightly, but not statistically significant, from that of non-starved deer. Counts of viable rumen bacteria cultured from non-starved deer were statistically significantly higher than those from deer starved 16, 20, 22 and 47 days. Counts from deer starved 29, 31 and 37 days were significantly higher than those of non-starved deer (Appendix F). This latter finding is difficult to understand. Counts for the deer starved 37 days were known to be contaminated and the correction factor used to derive the counts may have led to the inflated counts. Counts for deer starved 29 and 31 days may have been contaminated and escaped detection. Refeeding Trial One fawn and doe were refedDiet I and one fawn and doe refed Diet II after 10, 17, 31 and 38 days of starvation with the assumption that after approximately 20 days of starvation refeeding would not prevent death. Failure of any deer to appear weak or die after 24 days of starvation and refed led us to redesign the refeeding schedule (Appendix G). �-365- Table 2. Parameters from starved and non-starved deer. Starvation Regime I II III IV Number of Deer 4 2 3 3 Days Starved 20, 22 22, 29 16, 22 31, 37 47 o 372.3 142.0 4191. 0 350.0 Alfalfa 37.2 43.1 29.7 36.0 Concentrate 57.3 60.4 53.5 61.5 Pelleted Feed 34.8 39.4 34.8 42.9 Alfalfa 80.8 86.3 75.9 88.4 Concentrate 93.3 90.8 90.7 94.8 Pe11eted Feed 90.4 87.6 85.1 91. 6 Alfalfa 63.8 69.3 58.2 65.7 Concentrate 81.4 80.5 78.6 84.9 Pe11eted Feed 61. 8 64.7 63.6 66.4 Mean Counts of Viable Bacteria Per m1 Rumen Fluid (X 106) Mean In Vitro Digestion (Percent) Cell Wall Cell Contents Dry Matter �0 -: Does 6 Fawns -: -: 40 Y = 7.3 + 0.61X (fawns) CJl CJl / 0 ...;I ~ ..c:: ..-lec Q) ~ 35 6 30 1M "'C 0 ~ 25 0 ..-l0 6 -: ~ t1I ~ t1I ~ CJl I Q) ~ p., ~ ~ Q) u ~ Q) p., ,/ D 0/ >- !Xl 00 20 15 1°0 6 / Y = 6.0 + 0.44x (does) I \.oJ 0 0\ 0 6/ -: l /' /~: ~ 0 0 5 10 Figure 3. 20 30 40 50 60 Days Starved Before Refed Percent pre-starvation body weight loss associated with length of starvation. 00 I �-369- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS As expected, the nutritional physiology of deer is somewhat different from that of other ruminants. Failures in emergency feeding programs obviously were due to the fact that they did not meet the nutritional needs of the deer - not that starving deer cannot be successfully refed. Most feeding programs in America were necessarily based on experience with sheep and cattle. During the past two years we have shown that although deer rumen bacteria are able to digest hay, their digestive organs are apparently not as efficient in handling alfalfa hay fiber as those of sheep and goats. Deer not in a starved condition and given a good quality (leafy) hay may choose between the leafy and the stemmy parts and survive without complication or digestive upsets. Healthy deer should be able to survive on leafy alfalfa hay, since it is digestible and nutritious to other ruminants (Johnson 1972). Poor quality hay (mostly stems) causes severe digestive upsets even if the hay is ground. Reaction of the animal to sudden diet stresses is affected strongly by previous nutritional history of deer. Deer previously in prime condition can adjust to the stress and survive much longer than those in poor condition. In order to survive the hardships of winter deer evidently need a better quality (low fiber) forage than e.g., sheep which are able to increase their food intake and rate of passage of ingesta through the digestive tract. We have shown in the starvation trials that deer rumen bacteria can survive long periods of starvation. This finding is contrary to our previous hypothesis that if deer are subjected to complete starvation rumen microorganisms will die or pass down the digestive tract. It seems now that viable and functional rumen microorganisms will remain in the rumen as long or possibly longer than the starved animal is able to sustain life. Our studies with high fiber diets suggest that deer can be eating but passing food through the digestive tract too slowly to extract the nutrients needed. How long deer are able to live without food would depend again on previous condition and very likely on other factors such as environmental temperature, wind and other stress (harrassment, etc.). We did not study these factors. It should be emphasized that although we were able to starve deer in 1972 for very long periods, in 1971 when condition of the experimental animals was poor, deer started to die much sooner after the start of the experiment. Starving deer therefore should be provided with forage as early as possible. Fawns of does subjected to severe starvation during gestation can be expected to suffer greater mortality than fawns of does kept on a goodto-fair nutritional plane, as previously documented by Verme (1963). This loss therefore should be added to any winter mortality in which severe starvation was the cause of death. Although many starved does will survive, their fawns will be subjected to a high rate of mortality after birth. �-370- LITERATURE CITED Castle, Elizabeth J. 1956. The rate of passage of foodstuffs through the alimentary tract of the goat. 1. Studies on adult animals fed on hay and concentrates. British J. Nutrition 10(1):15-23. Johnson, R. R. 1972. Feedstuffs utilized by ruminants. Pages 9-34. In D. C. Church (Editor), Digestive physiology and nutrition of rumin;,nts. Vol. 3, Practical nutrition. O.S.U. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon. 350pp. Nagy, J. G., G. G. ,Schoonveld, and D. S. DeCalesta. 1971. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study--Physiology and Prevention of Deer Starvation. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rept., July. 22pp. Schoonveld, G. G. 1971. Feeding mule deer high-fiber diets. Colorado State University. 96pp. M. S. Thesis. Verme, L. J. 1963. Effect of nutrition on growth of white-tailed deer fawns. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf. 28:431-443. Prepared by_~-..,~J __ ~\_~ __ ...,Dp.).,..' __ ~_ A_ ~--IEn,--~ ~G.Na{; ~ Associate Professor, Wildlife Biology �-371- Appendix A. trials. Chemical analysis of four diets fed during rate of passage Chemical Analysis Ether Crude Extract Fiber Diet Percent Alfalfaa Protein I 0 13.8 2.4 18.6 52.9 II 15 13.8 2.3 20.1 51.0 III 35 13.4 2.1 22.8 47.7 IV 50 13.5 2.0 24.9 45.3 NEF b a The remaining portions of the compounded rations consisted of 40 percent barley, 30 percent cottonseed hulls, 20 percent of 32 percent protein supplement and 10 percent corn. b Nitrogen free extract. Appendix B. Feeds used in refeeding and effect of previous diet trials. Chemical Analysis Crude Protein Fat Crude Fiber NFE 1 13.99% 3.97% 9.65% 57.11% lIb 3.78% 1.32% 41.26% 39.28% Diet 8 a Diet I composition by percent dry weight: rolled barley = 12.5; rolled corn 20.0; corn chop = 12.5; rolled oats = 10.0; beet pulp = 2.5; brewers pulp = 35.0; molasses = 7.5. b Diet II composition by percent dry weight: cottonseed hulls straw = 60.0. 40.0; barley �-374- Appendix E. Mean daily food consumption (g) of deer and sheep feeding on diets with varying percentages of alfalfa hay. Trial I 0% Alfalfa Trial II 15% Alfalfa Trial III 35% Alfalfa Trial IV 50% Alfalfa Trial V 0% Alfalfa Deer 1 841 901 910 1172 788 2 1095 1598 1513 1306 500 3 488 820 1027 1062 458 4 250 474 473 721 779 5 827 951 1013 1075 798 6 685 954 1018 326 706 Means 698 933 992 944 672 Sheep 1 1313 1176 819a 2 1579 1678 1739 1881 1591 3 774 1329 1301 1464 1190 4 1469 1636 1447 1839 1609 5 1201 1319 1426 1531 1279 6 1325 1582 1550 1588 1397 Means 1277 1453 1493 1660 1413 a Animal ceased to eat and subsequently died. �-375- Appendix F. Counts of viable bacteria cultured from deer rumen fluid. Bacteria per ml Rumen Fluid (x105) Total Bacteria in Rumen (x109) Days to Death Group Oa IV 350.0 98.7 16 II 35.0 10.0 20 I 110.0 22.0 22 I 181.0 28.9 22 I 22.7 4.1 22 II 250.0 16.0 29 I 960.0 130.0 31 III 8300.0 1500.0 37 III 2400.0 850.0 47 III 82.0 3.6 a Mean of three control deer. �Appendix G. Fate of starved deer. Body Weisht Chanses PrePostRefeedinga Refeedingb Deer Number Age Class Days Starved Diet Refed 5 FC 10 I -19.3 + 3.0 SSRd 8 F 10 II - 9.7 +10.1 SSR 24 De 10 I -10.4 + 0.8 SSR 18 D 10 II - 7.4 - 1.5 SSR; bore 2 fawns, both alive doing well 2 F 17 I -19.8 +11.4 SSR 10 F 17 II -14.6 + 2.6 SSR Final Disposition I 22 D 17 I - 7.5 + 2.0 SSR; bore 2 fawns, both alive doing well w --.I 0I 15 D 17 II -24.6 + 17.0 SSR; bore 2 fawns, one died next day, other doing well 7 F 24 I -24.0 + 4.0 SSR 3 F 24 II -11.9 - 5.6 SSR 23 D 24 I - 7.1 0.0 SSR 20 D 24 II -14.9 -13.6 SSR; both fawns born died next day 1 F 33 I -27.4 Died Died 3.5 hours after being refed 12 F 33 II -19.8 + 4.1 SSR 9 F 33 None -29.5 - Died before could be refed 26 D 33 I -15.3 + 2.6 SSR; bore 2 fawns, one died 22 days age, other missing at 19 days age ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Appendix G. Fate of starved deer (continued). BodX Weight Changes PrePostRefeedinga Refeedingb Deer Number Age Class Days Starved Diet Refed 19 D 33 II -16.4 - 1.6 SSR 4 F 34 II -33.9 Died Died same day refed; ate 157g feed 11 F 34 II -28.1 Died Died same day refed; ate unknown amount 13 F 35 I -30.0 + 7.5 SSR 6 F 35 II -28.6 + 5.3 SSR 14 D 36 II -29.7 + 5.4 SSR 17 D 54 None -37.0 - 16 D 55 I -26.0 + 6.0 21 D 56 II -36.3 - 25 D 61 II -24.2 -6.0 a Final Disposition Died before could be refed; carried 2 normal appearing fawns SSR Died 5th day of refeeding; carried 2 healthy appearing fawns SSR Percent body weight change from pre-starved weight to day of refeeding weight. bpercent body weight change from day of refeeding weight to 10th day of refeeding weight. c Fawn. d e Survived starvation and refeeding. Doe. I \..V -..J -..J I � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/f1df74b3b4454b2f9eee35172ee115d3.pdf bc3a16cfea86e67b598cc959e15317b8 PDF Text Text October) 1972 -1- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of __ ---::::C.:::.,OL:::,O:;:,;RA:.;:,::D::.,:O::...... _ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: W-88-R-17 1 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 1 Waterfowl Production Surveys April 19, 1971 to June 25, 1971 Personnel: C. Bryant and staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; C. Hayes, D. Horne and J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; F.N. Folks, Utah Division of Fish and Game; C. Braun, D. Coven, G. Crawford, H. Funk, R. Hopper, E. Kautz, R. Lowry, W. Miller, D. OWens, W. Russell, K. Wagner and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Weather and water conditions were considered adequate to good for all major breeding areas of the State except the San Luis Valley which had the driest conditions observed during the past eight years. The total estimated number of 60,691 breeding pairs was 5.8 percent above the 1970 total and 2.3 percent above the long term average. The mallard continues to be the major breeding species in Colorado. Production of Canada geese in northwest Colorado increased approximately 15 percent from the 1970 level but the total post-nesting season population size remained essentially the same for the third successive year. A Canada goose production trend route initiated in west-central Colorado resulted in 50 adults and 60 goslings observed. Production of Canada geese in north-central Colorado increased 40.3 percent over the 1970 level, while the total population increased to approximately 4,000 birds, 23.9 percent above the 1970 level. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION.SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To determine, through statistically reliable sampl±ng techniques, the number of duck and goose breeding pairs. by species, in each major Colorado waterfowl breeding ground. METHODS AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding-pair and production inventory of only major production areas. surveys consist of a breeding pair The 1971 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 10 to June 25. Surveys in North Park and the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 19 to June 18. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates in north-central Colorado were obtained from counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which the birds were flightless. The west-central Colorado production survey was conducted from the air. Results from the latter survey is presented in this report for the first time. All flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas sampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. On the basis of these studies. a report is submitted Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's continental cooperative breeding ground survey. to the Bureau of Sport part in the annual �-4- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weather and water conditions were variable through the major breeding areas in the state. Light snowfall on mountain ranges surrounding the San Luis Valley combined with essentially no winter or spring moisture on the Valley floor produced the driest conditions observed for the past eight years. Heavy winter snows in the mountains around North Park produced excellent water conditions in the Park. Heavy spring rains in the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys produced fair water conditions. However, these same late rains retarded the initiation of irrigation of farmlands, and thus delayed the development of irrigation drainage ditches and seepage ponds which are normally available for duck use. Unseasonably cool weather delayed the melting of very heavy snowpacks draining into the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers, thus allowing geese and ducks to complete their nesting cycle prior to high water. The total number of duck breeding pairs on Colorado's major production areas increased slightly over the 1970 level (Table 1). Brown's Park and the San Luis and South Platte valleys had increases in duck populations with North Park, the Cache la Poudre and Yampa Valleys registering declines. The 1971 breeding population was within two percent of the long term average. Table 1. Summary of Colorado duck breeding ground population estimates in selected areas, 1971, with 1970 and long-term averages for comparison. Area Total Estimated Breedin~ Pairs Long Term 1971 1970 Averagel/ .Percent Chan~e From From Long 1970 Term Average San Luis Valley 30,272 27,059 27,462 + 11.9 + 10.2 North Park :?:.l 14,711 15,356 19,081 4.2 - 22.9 South Platte Valley 8,672 6,912 5,852 + 25.5 + 48.2 Cache la Poudre Valley 3,115 4,360 3,017 - 28.6 3.2 Yampa Valley 2,340 2,350 2,898 0.4 - 19.3 Brown's Park 1,581 1,352 996 + 16.9 + 58.7 Totals 60,691 57,389 59,306 + 5.8 + 2.3 1/ San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through 1970 and 1968 through 1970 surveys, respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 17 year averages. 1/ Aerial counts corrected by species fro~ visibility ratios obtained in the San Luis Valley. �-5- The mallard breeding population increased slightly in total numbers, but declined in terms of composition of the total breeding population in comparison with 1970 figures (Table 2). Significant increases were noted in the number of blue-winged-cinnamon teal, shoveLers , and redheads. Gadwall was the only species to register a major decline in comparison with 1970 figures. All species, with the exception of the mallard and green-winged teal, were above the l7-year average in terms of numbers. Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1971 duck breeding population, with 1970 and 17 year average for comparison. Number of Breeding Pairs 1954-1970 1971 1970 Averagel/ Percent Species Composition 1954-1970 1971 1970 Average Mallard 24,150 23,255 28,355 39.8 40.5 57.9 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 7,901 4.893 4,574 13.0 8.5 9.3 Gadwall 9,884 14,989 4,877 16.3 26.1 10.0 Pintail 3,862 3,736 3,393 6.4 6.5 6.9 Green-winged Teal 1,923 2,587 2,316 3.2 4.5 4.7 Shoveler 4,354 3,461 1,940 7.2 6.0 4.0 Redhead 4,276 1,141 1,668 7.0 2.0 3.4 American Widgeon 2,640 2,636 748 4.3 4.6 1.5 Other Divers 1,701 691 1,109 2.8 1.2 2.3 Total 60.691 57.389 48,980 Species !/ Species composition computed from data from all areas for the 17 year period regardless of changes in survey methods. A 1971 post-nesting season population of 1,518 geese was estimated for trend areas for the three major river systems in Moffat County (Table 3). Included in this total for the first time were estimates for populations utilizing the Green River in the Dinosaur National Monument. A preliminary survey of the Monument in 1970 indicated a significant number of geese were utilizing the canyon-type habitat for nesting. �-6- Table 3. Number of Canada geese observed and estimated production, Moffat County, Colorado, 1971. Nesting Pairs Area Non-nesting Birds Total Adults Estimated No. Goslings 1:../ Total Birds Yampa River Craig to Juniper Spgs. 14 178 206 62 268 Juniper to Cross Mtn. 13 85 111 67 178 Lily Park 14 80 108 44 2:./ 152 41 343 425 173 598 28 93 149 101 250 33 187 253 136 389 Sub-total 61 280 402 237 639 Little Snake River 31 87 149 132 !!l 281 GRAND TOTAL 133 710 976 542 Sub-total Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur Nat' 1. Monument 1/ 1,518 !/ Calculated using average brood size and number of successful nests. lJ Includes 20 goslings hatched from eggs taken from nests before final survey. 1/ Area first surveyed in 1970; data supplied by F. Neil Folks, Utah Division of Fish and Game. 4/ - Includes 29 goslings hatched from eggs taken from nests before final survey. �-7- Excluding geese in the Monument, the MOffat County post-nesting population remained at approximately the same level as recorded the previous two years (Table 4). A 15 percent increase in gosling production was noted (Table 5), but a four percent decline in adult birds negated any possible gain in total population. Table 4. Total Canada geese observed, MOffat County, Colorado, 1971. Area Yampa River No. Geese Counted 1956-70 1971 1970 Average Percent Change From 1956-1970 From 1970 Average 598 596 391 + 0.3 + 52.9 Brown's Park 250 285 123 -12.3 +103.3 Dinosaur Nat'1 Monumentl 389 400 281 297 234 - 5.4 + 20.1 1~129 1,178 748 - 4.2 + 50.9 Green River Little Snake River2 Total3 1 - 2.8 Area first surveyed in 1970. 2 Not included in survey until 1962. 3 Dinosaur Nat' 1. MOnument not included in total. The results of an aerial survey of a recently developed Canada goose nesting population in west-central Colorado are presented in Table 6. This population is composed of Great Basin Canada geese and was developed through Colorado's restoration program, Table 6 presents the results of an aerial trend route and is definitely not a total count of birds in the area. High water during the census made counting difficult. Results of the June 15, 1971 census of Canada geese in the Ft. CollinsBoulder-Denver area are presented in Table 7. Successfully hatched eggs or goslings that were subsequently removed for restoration programs in other parts of the state are included in totals for the respective areas. Gosling production increased in 1971 over 1970 levels in all production trend areas except Wellington where production remained stable (Table 8). Increases were substantial in the Loveland, Boulder, and Denver areas. �-8- Table 5. 1971. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, MOffat County, Colorado, No. of Gos1in~s 1956-70 1971 1970 Average Area Yampa River Percent Change From 1956-1970 From 1970 Average 173 140 140 + 23.6 + 23.6 Brown's Park 101 117 45 - 13.7 +124.4 Dinosaur Nat'1 Monument 1 136 90 132 97 74 + 36.1 + 78.4 406 354 259 + 14.7 + 56.8 Green River Little Snake River 2 Total 1 2 3 + 51.1 Area first surveyed in 1970. Not included in survey until 1962. Dinosaur Nat'l. Monument not included in total. Table 6. Canada goose production survey, west-central Colorado, 1971. Area No. of Canada Geese Observed Adults Goslings Colorado River Silt to Grand Junction 17 21 Grand Junction to Utah Border 26 28 7 11 50 60 Gunnison River Delta to Whitewater Total �-9- Table 7. Results of the north-central Colorado goose census, June 15, 1971. Production Area Wellington Water Area Terry Lake Launer Pond Douglas Lake North Poudre No. 1 Dry Creek Reservoir North Poudre No. 3 North Poudre No. 2 North Poudre No.5 Bureau of Standards Pond No. 1 Divide No. 8 Elder Reservoir Annex No. 8 Van Sant Pond Cobb Lake Hinkley Reservoir Dale Pond Watson Lake Curtis Lake No. Total No. Total No. Total No. Broods Goslings Adults & Yrlgs. of Birds 3 2 3 0 0 1 2 2 5 5 0 1 2 1 2 Total Fort Collins Peterson Pond He rring Lake College Lake Dean Acres C1aymo re Lake Sterling Gravel Pits Lindenmeier Lake Grey Lakes Novak Reservoir Winick Ponds Anderson's Pond Timnath Reservoir Romily Gravel Pit Parkwood Lake 1 3 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 Total Loveland Total Flatiron Reservoir Boedeaker Reservoir Flatiron Gravel Pits McNeil Reserv9ir Welch Reservoir 1 2 4 87 1/ 14 6 10 0 0 5 8 93 6 9 39 11 3 2 4 180 20 15 49 11 3 7 12 6 38 10 3 62 7 9 45 72 17 2 83 4 11 63 48 15 66 90 17 8 121 14 14 125 55 301 521 822 5 18 108 !/ 28 18 25 4 2 5 3 19 11 4 5 2 12 146 21 60 61 41 2 2 2 18 51 12 5 7 30 254 49 78 86 45 4 7 5 37 62 16 10 255 435 690 3 36 10 58 18 2 60 4 48 10 5 96 14 106 28 125 124 249 21 18 0 6 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-10- Table 7. Results of the north-central Production Area Water Area Boulder Colorado goose census, June 15, 1971 (cont.). No. Total No. Total No. Total No. Broods Goslings Adults & Yrlgs. of Birds Valmont Reservoir Terry Lake Crystal Lake Ish Lake Faivre Ponds Boulder Valley Farm Saw Hill Ponds Total Denver Total Grand Total S. Colo. Blvd. & Quincy B lackme r Lake Reservoir No. 3 Denver City Park Sloans Lake Kountze Reservoir Federal Center Pond Clairfield Reservoir Gallup Reservoir Columbine Country Club Bowles Lake Kings Pond Lowe r Tule Lake Marston Reservoir Grant B Reservoir Grant C Reservoir o 191 53 10 10 34 22 37 360 32 551 9 30 36 15 23 19 40 70 37 60 357 505 862 o 49 26 23 212 50 110 13 24 89 49 35 32 252 90 110 53 63 107 9 3 o 1 4 o 9 40 40 o 40 ]:/ 39 18 o 85 5 5 o 234 105 57 o o 5 58 4 17 22 71 24 57 291 105 63 71 41 79 296 1,150 1,446 1,334 2,735 4,069 o 1 1/ Includes goslings produced from eggs collected on the area. A definite reduction was noted in the number of adult and sub-adult birds in the Wellington and Ft. Collins areas. However, the total number of Canada geese observed throughout the area in 1971 was approximately 24 percent above the 1970 total (Table 9). �-11- Table 8. Total number of Canada goose goslings produced in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1971. Area No. of Goslings 1969-70 1971 1970 Average Percent Change From 1969-70 From 1970 Average Wellington 301 301 279 Fort Collins 255 238 247 + Loveland 125 63 50 + 98.4 +150.0 Boulder 357 247 198 + 44.5 + 80.3 Denver 296 102 264 +190.2 + 12.1 Total 1,334 951 1,038 + 40.3 + 28.5 0.0 + 7.9 7.1 + 3.2 Table 9. Total number of Canada geese observed in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1971. No. of Geese 1969-70 1971 1970 Average Percent Change From 1969-70 From 1970 Average Wellington 822 915 930 - 10.2 - 11.6 Fort Collins 690 681 715 + 1.3 3.5 Loveland 249 168 154 + 48.2 + 61. 7 Boulder 862 694 662 + 24.2 + 30.2 Denver 1,446 827 1,286 + 74.8 + 12.4 Total 4,069 3,285 3,747 + 23.9 + Area 8.6 �-12- FALL FLIGHT PREDICTION Dry conditions in the major duck breeding area, the San Luis Valley, will definitely retard Colorado's total production. The results should be the smallest fall flight of ducks from Colorado since 1966. Canada goose populations in northwest Colorado and north-central Colorado remain essentially stable. Prepared by -7lLU"-L~;:::::':....!. ~:...-....:·7<:L..::~_L~'-'9=~:...cz:l -~_ £/:L-__ Michael R. szym~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher �October, 1972 -13- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: W~-_8~8_-~R~-~1~7 _ 1 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 2 ------------------------------------- Trapping and Banding Ducks and Geese April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972. Personnel: J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Dr. R. Ryder, Colorado State University; M. Babler, C. Braun, R. Clippinger, J. Corey, D. Coven, C. Crawford" G. Crawford, R. Desilet, J. Ellenberger, G. Eyre, H. Funk, T. Henry, R. Kitzmiller, W. Ladd, Jr., C. Leonard, J. Lorentzson, T. Lytle, B. Petersen, T. Rauch, M. Robinson, Wo Rutherford, J. Seidel, D. Snyder, M. Szymczak, D. Todd, K. Wagner, J. Wolfe, R. Hopper, Colorado Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT Trapping activities during Segment 17 resulted in the banding of 12,630 ducks of 10 species at seven locations in Colorado. Mallards were again the major species, contributing 9,420, or 75 percent of the total. Pre-season efforts involved the initiation of a new study aimed at investigating relationships among the three major high country production areas (North Park, South Park, San Luis Valley) in regard to migration routes, harvest areas, and mortality rates. Information derived from this study will help us to evaluate the justification for establishing duck hunting season dates in Colorado based on elevation. Banded samples for these high country areas in 1971 amounted to 2,286 in North Park, 1,593 in South Park, and 3,101 in the San Luis Valley. Post-season banding (Winter) yielded 6,564 mallards to the banded sample. Nearly 2,600 Canada geese were banded during Segment 17. Goslings, transplanted to various locations during the summer, contributed 504 to this total. The rema1n1ng birds were banded post-season in the Arkansas Valley (1,032) and the Cache 1a Poudre Vall~y (1,043). �-14- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue pre-season duck banding in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, Quotas should include 1,000 mallards, 1,000 pintails and at least 500 each of the other major species in each of the three areas. Attempt to obtain equal age and sex ratios in the sample by species. Experiment with new capturing techniques, such as night lighting in an effort to increase sample sizes of species other than mallards and pintails. 2. Initiate a post-season mallard banding program in the UncompahgreGunnison-Colorado River complex. Obtain a quota of up to 1,000 birds, divided about equally by age and sex. 3. Continue goose banding program as outlined in the W-88-R Job Description for Segment 17. �-15- TRAPPING AND BANDING DUCKS AND GEESE Richard M. Hoppe r This report summarizes all waterfowl banding activities of Federal Aid Project W-88-R-17 for the Segment year April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972. Band recovery data are analyzed separately under another job (Work Plan 1, Job 3), and work of this nature is omitted from this report. This report simply presents a tabulation of numbers of ducks and geese banded by species and location during the Segment. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES . 1. To provide adequate samples of banded ducks and geese in Colorado's major breeding and harvest areas for purposes of accumulating migration and annual mortality data. 2. To report species and number of ducks winter banded in the South Platte Valley, Arkansas Valley, and Bonny Reservoir as part of Work Plan 3, Job 6. METHODS AND MATERIALS The overall banding program remained similar to past years with operations limited to three phases: (1) mid-summer goose transplant banding, (2) late summer (pre-season) duck banding, and (3) winter (post-season) duck and goose banding. Goslings for transplant purposes are hand-reared and also obtained from the wild through drive-trapping or by using baited walk-in traps prior to the time the birds are capable of flight. Pre-season duck banding is conducted in August and September and utilizes baited Salt Plains traps (cage-type) to capture birds in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. Post-season banding (January-February) presently limited to the eastern slope, employs baited Salt Plains traps and cannon-nets for duck trapping, and baited cannon-nets and a large walk-in trap for goose trapping. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ducks Numbers and species of ducks banded during Segment 17 by State personnel are listed in Table 1 by location. The banded sample amounted to 12,630 ducks of 10 species in seven locations involved. This was an increase of about 1,000 ducks over the previous segment. largely because of the addition of North Park to the list of banding sites and the increase of quotas during postseason banding. �Table 1. Number of ducks banded by species, location, and period of year, 1971-72. Species North Park Pre-season!'! South San Luis Park Valley Cache 1a Poudre Valley Post-season!.! South Platte Bonny Valley Reservoir Arkansas Valley Total 1,333 9,420 Mallard 1,105 1,079 672 831 3,400 1,000 Gadwall 1 1 17 - - - American Widgeon 13 3 - - - Green-winged Teal 231 163 413 - - - 807 33 100 102 - - - 235 Blue-winged 19 16 and Cinnamon Teal ...• I 0\ I Pintail 879 245 950 - - - 2,074 Redhead 24 0 33 - - - 57 Canvasback - 1 - - - Wood Duck - 1 - - - - - 1 2,286 1,593 2,187 831 3,400 1,000 1,333 12,630 Total !/ August-September. l/ January-February. 1 �-17- The mallard, again, was the major species represented, contributing 9,420, or 75 percent of the total. Only mallards were banded during the post-season period, and this species was also the most prominent during pre-season efforts. Pintai1s and green-winged teals were the only other species that contributed significantly to the banded sample, with 2,074 and 807, respectively. High Country Study Pre-season banding efforts in 1971 marked the beginning of an overall investigation of high country duck populations in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. Samples of ducks will be banded annua11y'in all three areas during the same period for the next five years. Attempts will be made to band good samples of each major species, with approximately equal numbers by age and sex. The objective is to determine relationships among the three areas in regard to migration routes, harvest areas, and mortality rates. Information derived from this study will allow us to evaluate the justification for establishing duck hunting season dates in Colorado based on elevation. This can be termed "altitudinal zonation" of hunting season dates. This could provide earlier and separate season dates for the high country, thereby yielding additional duck hunting opportunity where little occurred before. Tables 2-5 show the age and sex composition by species for 6,980 ducks banded in the three high country areas during the first year of work. The San Luis Valley figures include bandings by both State and Federal personnel. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife is cooperating in this study by banding a portion of the Valley quota on the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges. Results of the first years work were not completely satisfactory because of the lack of adequate banded samples for species other than the mallard and pintail. Presently our traps are selective toward the mallard and pintail, but means must be found to capture other species in significant numbers if this study is to be wholly successful. Other species for which good samples are particularly needed include gadwall, American widgeon, and the three teal. Night lighting will be attempted in North Park during next Segment as a possible technique for capturing these species. Winter Banding Post-season mallard banding was continued as part of the investigation of eastern Colorado mallard management units (Work Plan 3, Job 6). Trapping conditions were good, reSUlting in the banding of 6,564 mallards during a 30-day period from mid-January to mid-February (Table 1). Quotas were reached or slightly exceeded in all but one of the eight banding areas. Geese Nearly 2,600 Canada geese were banded during Segment 17 (Table 6). Summer transplant geese accounted for 504 of this total. These goslings were banded �-18- and released at Totten Reservoir in the Dolores Valley (38), Lake John Annex in North Park (241), San Luis Lake in the San Luis Valley (123), and Jumbo Reservoir Annex in the South Platte Valley (102). Work Plan 2, Job 2 covers the transplant program in more detail. Two thousand and seventy-five Canada geese were banded post-season in the Arkansas and Cache la Poudre Valleys. These birds were banded at Turks Pond and Two Buttes Reservoir in the Arkansas Valley (1,032) and at New Windsor Reservoir in the Cache la Poudre Valley (1,043). Wildlife Researcher �-19- Table 2. 1971. Sex and age composition of ducks banded pre-season in North Park, AM 1M Age and Sex AF IF UNK. Total Mallard 245 311 237 312 0 1,105 Gadwall 0 0 0 1 0 1 American Widgeon 0 9 1 3 0 13 Green-winged Teal 61 79 41 50 0 231 0 14 2 17 0 33 Pintail 205 239 223 210 2 879 Redhead 5 3 13 3 0 24 Total 516 655 517 596 2 2,286 Species Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Table 3. Sex and age composition of ducks banded pre-season in South Park, 1971. AM 1M Age and Sex AF IF UNK. Mallard 411 203 373 92 0 1,079 Gadwall 0 1 0 0 0 1 American Widgeon 0 1 2 0 0 3 Green-winged Teal 75 28 26 34 0 163 Cinnamon Teal 29 34 2 34 1 100 Pintail 70 72 28 74 1 245 Canvasback 0 1 0 0 0 1 Wood Duck 1 0 0 0 0 1 586 340 431 234 2 1,593 Species Total B1ue-winged and Total �-20- Table 4. Sex and age composition of ducks banded pre-season in the San Luis Valley, 1971. AM 1M Age and Sex AF IF UNK. Mallard 312 353 305 254 2 1,226 Gadwall 0 4 4 12 0 20 241 84 41 55 0 421 Cinnamon Teal 39 49 14 30 0 132 Pintail 359 286 346 258 0 1,249 Redhead 3 24 5 21 0 53 Total 954 800 715 630 2 3,101 Species Green-winged Teal Total Blue-winged and Table 5. Sex and age composition of ducks banded pre-season in the three highcountry areas combined, 1971. AM 1M Age and Sex AF IF UNK. Total Mallard 968 867 915 658 2 3,410 Gadwall 0 5 4 13 0 22 American Widgeon 0 10 3 3 0 16 Green-winged Teal 377 191 108 139 0 815 Cinnamon Teal 68 97 18 81 1 265 Pintail 634 597 597 542 3 2,373 Redhead 8 27 18 24 0 77 Canvasback 0 1 0 0 0 1 Wood Duck 1 0 0 0 0 1 2,056 1,795 1,663 1,460 6 6,980 Species Blue-winged and Total �-21- Table 6. Number of Canada geese banded by location and period of year, 1971-72. Number Banded Location Arkansas Valley Cache la Poudre Valley Dolores Valley Summer Transplants ° ° 38 North Park 241 San Luis Valley 123 South Platte Valley 102 Total 504 1/ June-July. IJ January 1./ Post-season J:./ Total 1,032 1,032 1,043 1,043 ° ° ° ° 38 2,075 241 123 102 2,579 ��October, 1972 -23- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of -=-C,;;:.OL::.O:::.;RAD=:::..:O::...._ Project No. Work Plan W-88-R-17 1 Job No. -----------~--------- Job Title 3 Analysis of Waterfowl Banding Data Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972. Dale Coven, Ed Kautz, Michael Szymczak and Richard M. Hopper. ABSTRACT Banding and recovery tapes were obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory for all banding from North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley and all recoveries from those bandings through the 1969-70 hunting season. Programs were written and the desired data were retrieved from the tapes through computers. Preliminary tabulations were prepared for much of the San Luis Valley data, but none of this information is currently ready for presentation. Work in Segments 18 and 19 will include preparation of final and updated analyses for all three high mountain areas. �-24- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue pre-season duck banding in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, with existing quotas by species, sex and age. �-25- ANALYSIS OF WATERFOWL BANDING DATA Richard M. Hopper P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution, and relationships among populations of ducks banded in Colorado's high country, specifically in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS All data were obtained from computer tapes supplied by the Bird Banding Laboratory of the Migratory Bird Populations Station, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. These tapes contained all bandings from North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley and all recoveries from those bandings through the 1969-70 hunting season. Programs were written and the desired information was retrieved from the banding and recovery tapes through the use of automatic data processing machines. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The following information was obtained on print-out sheets (tabs) of specific format from the banding and recovery tapes: 1. Number of birds banded by year and species (species included mallard, gadwall, American widgeon, green-winged teal, blue-winged teal, cinnamon teal, blue-winged or cinnamon teal, shoveler, pintail, redhead, lesser scaup, and ring-necked duck). 2. Number of recoveries by year, species, age, and sex. 3., Recovery tables by year of banding and season of recovery after banding for each species, sex and age (some species). 4. Recovery locations by degree block, species, sex, and age (some species) for first year and all year recoveries. 5. Banding locations of recoveries for some species by degree block, age, and sex for pre-season bandings~ including first year and all year recoveries during the following periods: Oct. 1-10, 11-20, 21-31, Oct.Jan., and Nov.-Jan. �-26- 6. Banding locations of Colorado recoveries (by location) for some species by degree block, age, and sex for pre-season bandings, including both first year and all year recoveries. 7. Banding locations of Colorado recoveries (by location) for some species by degree block, age, and sex for winter bandings~ including both first year and all year recoveries. 8. Percentage of recoveries occurring at each recovery location by banding location, species, sex, and age (some species) for both first year and all year recoveries. 9. Summary of Colorado recoveries of bandings from everywhere by species and recovery location. An analysis of North Park banding data was recently completed by Szymczak (1971). This analysis was done through use of the print-outs listed above. Preliminary tabulations have been prepared for much of the San Luis Valley banding and recovery data on the print-out sheets, but none of this information is currently ready for presentation. Final and updated analyses will hopefully be conducted for all three high mountain areas in Segments 18 and 19. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1971. Analysis of waterfowl banding data. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt., Oct. pp. 19-50. Prepared by --~~~i~~~~~a~·~~~~~~·~~·~~-o-pp~~~r~·~~~L~~~ Wildlife Researcher �October, 1972 -27- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: ~CO.;;;.L;;:.O.;;;.RAD=:...;O:..._ _ W-88-R-17 1 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 12 San Luis Valley Cooperative Mallard Investigation April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Personnel: D. Horne and J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; C. Braun, E. Kautz, W. Russell, M. Szymczak, K. Wagner and R. Hopper, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT The duck breeding population in the San Luis Valley was estimated at 30,176 pairs for 1971, including 12,311 pairs of mallards. This represented an increase of about 850 pairs for all species combined, and a decrease of about 1,300 pairs of mallards from 1970. The mallard estimate was about 1,250 pairs below the 7-year average. Gadwalls and pintails showed significant decreases in 1971 from 1970, but shovelers and the three species of teal were up over 1970. Progress is being made in evaluating the 8-year study, with both Bureau and State personnel contributing to all phases of the data analysis and preparation of the final report. ��-29- SAN LUIS VALLEY COOPERATIVE MALLARD INVESTIGATION Richard M. Hopper An intensive study of the mallard population in the San Luis Valley was initiated in 1963 as a cooperative investigation between the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Colorado Division of Wildlife. An important part of this study has been an annual experimental hunting season held during the period October 1-18. The eighth and final experimental season was conducted in 1970. Preliminary results of these seasons, as well as all phases of the study, were presented in Administrative Report No's. 42, 49, 79, 120, 130, 158, 175, 195, and 210 prepared by members of both agencies and distributed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Branch of Wildlife Research, Migratory Bird Populations Station. Segment 17 (1971) marked the final year of field work for the overall investigation. This involved conducting the last intensive survey of the breeding population of ducks in the spring of 1971; thus, completing the assessment of breeding numbers following each experimental season. Also, work during Segment 17 included initial steps in evaluating the results of the overall cooperative study in preparation for writing final job report. P. S. OBJECTIVE 1. To develop a harvest formula for the San Luis Valley mallard population. 2. To determine hunter reaction to various types of hunting regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate the size of the 1971 breeding population of ducks in the San Luis Valley. 2. Evaluate results of the experimental hunting seasons since 1963 and begin preparation of final reports covering all phases of the investigation in cooperation with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods for conducting the 1971 breeding popUlation survey and air-ground comparison study remained the same as those employed since 1967 (Segment 13). A discussion of the procedures appears in a previous report (Hopper and Rutherford 1968) and will not be repeated here. �-30- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Population Survey Air-Ground Comparison Study Air and ground counts of ducks are compared by species in Table 1 for 122.5 miles of selected transects. The proportion identified from the air (visibility ratio) for the mallard for example, indicated that the air crew identified, as mallards, 23.5 percent of the mallards actually present on the air-ground comparison transects. These ratios were applied to the regular air transect data as correction factors in projecting estimates of total breeding pairs by species for Russell Lakes and the major portion of the Valley, excluding Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and the total-count areas. Table 1. Air-ground comparison of ducks counted on 122.5 miles of transect in the San Luis Valley, 1971. Species Estimated Breeding Pairs Ground Air Pairs Percent Pairs Percent Mallard 434 46.9 102 50.7 0.235 Gadwall 114 12.3 22 10.9 0.193 Pintail 52 5.6 17 8.5 0.327 Shoveler 44 4.8 8 4.0 0.182 Blue-winged Teal 44 4.8 3 1.5 0.068 Cinnamon Teal 139 15.0 13 6.5 0.094 Green-winged Teal 46 5.0 9 4.5 0.196 American Widgeon 5 0.5 2 1.0 0.400 Redhead 32 3.4 4 2.0 0.125 Other Divers 16 1.7 21 10.4 0.333 1/ Totals 926 100.0 201 100.0 0.217 1/ - Estimate based on previous years. Proportion Identified From the Air �-31- Duck Breeding Population Estimate Amount of habitat, sample sizes, and estimated number of breeding pairs of ducks are shown in Table 2 for the six areas included in the 1971 survey. The 1970 estimate plus the 1964-1970 averages are included for comparison. The 1971 estimate amounted to 30,176 pairs of breeding ducks, or about 850 pairs above the 1970 estimate and about 2,300 pairs more than the 7-year average (1964-1970). The estimate for 1971 was the second highest since intensive surveys began in 1964. The largest figure, 33,035 pairs, was obtained in 1964. Species composition of the 1971 San Luis Valley breeding population is presented in Table 3, along with 1970 figures and the 7-year averages. The mallard estimate for 1971 was 12,311 pairs, a decrease of about 1,300 pairs from the 1970 figure of 13,662 pairs. As usual, the mallard was the dominant breeding species, contributing about 41 percent to the total population estimate. Gadwalls were next in importance, with almost 5,000 pairs, or 16.5 percent of the total. This represented a significant decrease from 1970, but was well above the 7-year average. Pintail numbers decreased in 1971, while shovelers and the three species of teal all showed increases. Sampling error, expressed as a percentage (coefficient of variation) was slightly larger in 1971 (11.8%) than in 1970 (10.0%), but remained in line with the 7-year average (12.3%). Preparation of Fi;nal Report Work was initiated in Segment 17 on tabulations and analysis of data covering all phases and years of the cooperative study. Both State and Bureau personnel were assigned to work on various segments of the data and report. A report outline was prepared and sent to the contributors for approval. All persons concerned are now actively engaged in the preparation of this final report. We are hopeful that this paper can be published as a Wildlife Monograph. LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M., and W. H. Rutherford. 1968. San Luis Valley cooperative mallard investigation. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rpt., Oct. pp. 33-42. Prepared by i;<kj)??7 2bJjL'chard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher �Table 2. Breeding pairs by density type as estimated from the San Luis Valley regular air transects, and nesting transects, 1971, with 1970 and 7-year averages for comparison. Estimated No. of Breeding Pairs 11 7-Year Average 1971 1970 (1964-1970) Square Miles Habitat Percent Sample Monte Vista NWR 22 2.01 3,633 4,367 3,894 Russell Lakes 6 33.33 1,428 489 1,088 San Luis Lakes 7 100.00 722 456 300 Mishak Lakes 4 100.00 180 263 306 Adams Lake 1 100.00 58 19 34 Type 27 I w N Remainder of Valley 1,265 18.02 24,155 23,734 22,235 Totals 1,305 18.57 30,176 29,328 27,857 11 Determined from nesting transects on Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and from aerial transects on all other areas. 11 Only 6-year averages (1965-1970) for San Luis Lakes and Mishak Lakes and a 5-year average (1966-1970) for Adams Lake. I �Table 3. Species composition of the San Luis Valley duck breeding population, 1971, with 1970 and 7-year averages for comparison. 1971 % 7-Year Average ~1964-1970~ Pairs % Species Pairs % 1970 Pairs Mallard 12,311 40.8 13,662 46.6 13,583 48.9 Gadwall 4,986 16.5 6,379 21. 7 3,094 11.2 Pintail 2,136 7.1 2,804 9.6 3,315 11.9 Green-winged Teal 1,076 3.6 557 1.9 1,457 5.2 Cinnamon Teal 2,788 9.2 2,597 8.8 2,282 8.2 880 3.0 276 0.9 796 2.9 2,305 7.6 1,642 5.6 1,326 4.8 38 0.1 782 2.7 160 0.6 3,049 10.1 518 1.8 1,494 5.4 607 2.0 III 0.4 254 0.9 30,176 100.0 29,328 100.0 27,761 100.0 Blue-winged Teal I Shoveler American Widgeon Redhead Other Divers 1/ Totals Coefficient of Variation l/ 11.8 10.0 -1/ Includes lesser scaups, canvasbacks, ruddy ducks, and common mergansers. 1/ Excludes Monte Vista NWR and Russell Lakes. 12.3 w w I ��October, 1972 -35- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-88-R-17 Work Plan No. Job Title 1 Job No. 14 Determination of Methods for Developing and Managing Waterfowl Habitat - Ammonium Nitrate Pothole Blasting Study Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations April 1, 1971 to February 28, 1972 Richard M. Hopper ABSTRACT A paper entitled '~aterfowl Use in Relation to Size and Cost of Potholes" was published in the April, 1972 issue of The Journal of Wildlife Management 36(2):459-468. This publication constitutes the Job Final Report for items (d) and (e) under the P.S. Objective and satisfies Federal Aid requirements for those portions of the study. �-36- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Either the 7S-lb. or ISO-lb. charge of ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixture is recommended for use in pothole blasting. Both were far superior to either the 2S-lb. or 50-lb. size in terms of efficiency. �-37- AMMONIUM NITRATE POTHOLE BLASTING STUDY Richard M. Hopper P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate various size potholes blasted with ammonium nitrate in terms of (a) life expectancy, (b) plant succession, (c) soil and water characters, (d) waterfowl use and hunting potential, and (e) cost. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES Compile and analyze all data collected during the course of the study and prepare a final report covering all phases except that related to "life expectancy" of the potholes. METHODS AND MATERIALS Dr. David Bowden, statistician at Colorado State University, was consulted regarding the appropriate statistical tests to apply to the pothole blasting data. These tests were conducted and the overall results were evaluated. A final report was prepared, following The Journal of Wildlife Management format and standards. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A manuscript entitled ''Waterfowl Use in Relation to Size and Cost of Potholes" was published in the April 1972 issue of The Journal of Wildlife Management 36(2):459-468. This publication constitutes the Job Final Report for items (d) and (e) under the P. S. Objective for Work Plan 1, Job 14, and thereby satisfies Federal Aid requirements for those portions of the study. All other items will be covered in the next segment. Prepared by ~r k ~ Wildlife Researcher Migratory Bird Investigations ��October, -39- 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. Work W-88-R-17 Migratory 2 Plan No. Job No. Job Title Experimental Studies Period Covered: 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 April on Improving Bird Investigations 2 Status of Canada Goose Populations Personnel: C. Hayes and D. Horne, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, D. Coven, J. Corey, D. Crane, C. Crawford, G. Crawford, G. East, J. Ellenberger, H. Gresh, R. Hopper, T. Lines, J. Monarch, T. Rauch, S. Steinert, L. Webster and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. ABSTRACT In the spring of 1971, at least five nests were noted in the K-4 Ranch transplant area near Masters, Colorado. The transplant program at Jumbo Reservoir in the South Platte River Valley in extreme northeast Colorado was initiated in 1971, with the release of 102 Canada goose goslings. Only one of the birds released at Jumbo was reported recovered during the 1971-72 hunting season. Some Canada goose pairs were noted to be frequenting artificial nest structures at San Luis Lake but no broods were observed in the area. One hundred and twenty three goslings were released at San Luis Lake in 1971, raising the total number of birds released at that site to 351. A portion of the birds released at San Luis Lakes continue to use the Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge in southeast New Mexico during the winter. The first group of Canada geese observed in the spring of 1971 in North Park were sighted on Lake John Annex on April 10. The largest group of geese, approximately 50 birds, was sighted in late May on the Annex. Wheatland Reservoir, north of Laramie in Wyoming, continues to be used as a molting area by birds released at Lake John Annex. An additional 241 goslings were released on the Annex in July of 1971. Riverside and Imperial counties of extreme southern California and adjacent Yuma County, Arizona were the major recovery areas during the 1971-72 season for geese released at Lake John Annex. About 19 percent of the birds released at Lake John Annex in 1971 were reported recovered during the 1971-72 season. In July, 1971, 38 goslings were added to the Totten Reservoir flock near Cortez in Montezuma County. In mid-December the majority of the birds released at Totten left the area and apparently moved straight south, terminating migration on the Gila River in Graham County, where a total of eight birds were reported taken by hunters. ��-41- EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPROVING STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the success of attempts to establish breeding populations of Canada geese in suitable habitat where they do not currently exist in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare a technical bulletin on the technique of establishing a breeding population of Canada geese. 2. To expand the breeding flocks of Canada geese in the South Platte Valley, the San Luis Valley, and North Park. 3. To continue efforts to establish a breeding flock of Great Basin Canada geese on Totten Reservoir, south of Dolores in MOntezuma County. METHODS AND MATERIALS Canada goose goslings for transplant purposes were obtained from four different sources: (1) goslings from the metropolitan Denver area; (2) goslings and some eggs from the Fort Collins area; (3) goslings from Valmont Reservoir and Fairvre Ponds in the Boulder area, and (4) eggs from nests in danger of destruction from high water along the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers in MOffat County. All eggs were transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for incubation and subsequent raising. All goslings live-trapped, were transported as soon as possible to the release site. Birds obtained from eggs collected in Moffat County were released on Totten Reservoir south of Dolores. Birds collected at other locations were released either at San Luis Lakes, Lake John Annex or the K-4 Ranch. Migration and mortality information were obtained from recovery cards received from the Migratory Bird Population Station. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of Technical Bulletin Because of an increasing work load no progress was made on preparIng a technical bulletin on the technique of establishing a breeding population of Canada geese. �-42- South Platte Valley-Jumbo Reservoir Annex A total of 346 Canada goose goslings were released from 1968 through 1970 on the K-4 Ranch along the South Platte River near Masters, Colorado. At least five nests were noted in the K-4 transplant area in the spring of 1971. Goose transplant efforts in the South Platte Valley were moved to Jumbo Reservoir Annex, a Division controlled property in extreme northeast Colorado, with the release of 102 goslings in June and July of 1971. Sixty two birds were released on June 22 and an additional forty on July 13. An area of approximately 250 square miles was closed to goose hunting around the transplant site during the 1971-72 season. Generally, the geese remained in the area throughout the winter. They were joined by as many as 5,000 migrant Canada geese of the short grass prairie population during late fall and winter. Only one of the birds released was reported taken during the 1971~72 hunting season. That bird was harvested near the south boundary of the closed area, directly south of the release site. San Luis Valley-San Luis Lakes A total of 228 Canada goose goslings were released on San Luis Lake in the San Luis Valley in June and July of 1969 and 1970. In the spring of 1971 variable numbers of geese were observed at San Luis Lake. Some pairs were noted to be frequenting the floating type artificial goose nesting structures but no broods were observed in the area. An additional 123 goslings were released on San Luis Lake in June and July of 1971, the last scheduled release for that area. In June of 1971, two of the birds released on San Luis Lakes in 1969 were captured in a goose drive trapping operation on Wheatland Reservoir north of Bosler in Albany County, Wyoming. Five of the 1969 transplants were captured on that same reservoir in June, 1970, along with seven goslings released in 1967 and 1968 on the Alamosa Refuge in the San Luis Valley (Szymczak 1971). Szymczak (1971) postulated that either geese from the San Luis Valley were using Wheatland as a molting area, or the Valley birds captured at Wheatland had drifted into Great Basin Canada goose population area and subsequently became members of those populations. Recoveries during the 1971-72 period provided only a limited amount of evidence as to whether Wheatland Reservoir is important to the San Luis Valley birds. Only one of the San Luis Valley transplants recaptured at Wheatland has been recovered. That bird, a 1968 Alamosa Refuge transplant, was recovered in Sevier County in central Utah in a Great Basin population area. The number of reported recoveries of birds released on San Luis Lakes in 1970 and 1971 has been somewhat limi~ed (Table 1). However, recoveries along with recapture data continue to indicate that a portion of the San Luis Lake birds are using the Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge in Chaves County, New Mexico in the winter. During the 1971-72 Winter, two birds from San Luis Lakes were harvested in Chaves County, one released in 1970 and one in 1971, and six birds were recaptured on the Bitter Lake Refuge, three from 1969 and three from 1971. The bird harvested in Chaves County from the 1970 group had been recaptured at Bitter Lakes the previous year. Three birds were reported �-43taken in southeast Colorado during the 1971-72 season, one each in the counties of Bent, Prowers, and Otero (Table 1). The bird taken in Otero County was released in the San Luis Valley in 1971, indicating an eastern movement out of the Valley. The bird taken in Prowers County had been recaptured in January, 1971 at the Bitter Lake Refuge. Table 1. Hunting season recovery locations of Canada geese released at San Luis Lakes, Alamosa County, San Luis Valley, Colorado. Year Released Number Released Area Recovered 1969 160 No. Recovered Direct Indirect 1970 1971 68 123 No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect United States Colorado San Luis Valley 2 3 2 o 3 N. A. Chaffee County o 1 o o o N. A. Bent County o o o 1 o N. A. Prowers County o o o 1 o N. A. Otero County o o o o 1 N. A. Chaves County 9 o 1 1 1 N. A. San Miguel County 1 o o o o N. A. o 1 o o o N. A. 5 1 o o o N. A. 1 o o o o N. A. o 1 o o o N. A. 18 7 3 3 5 New Mexico Arizona Cochise County Mexico Sonora Southwest Chihuahua Unknown Canada Saskatchewan Southwest Total �-44- The entire San Luis Valley, with the exception of the San Luis Lakes-Head Lake transplant area was open to goose hunting during the 1971-72 season. The western portion of the Valley was open to hunting by permit only, with a maximum of 350 geese the allowable harvest. North Park-Lake John Annex During the summers of 1969 and 1970 a total of 440 Canada goose goslings were released on Lake John Annex, eight miles west and 2 miles north of Walden. Band recoveries indicate that these birds migrated to the southwest and spent the winter along the lower Colorado River bordering Arizona and California (Szymczak 1971). Spring Returns Although an additional 246 birds were added to the transplant population in the summer of 1970, only a relatively small number of returning birds were observed in North Park in the early spring of 1971. Ten birds were first observed in North Park on April 10, 1971, along the Illinois River just west of Walden. About the same time, 27 birds were found at Lake John Annex. On April 19, 25 birds were counted on Lake John Annex. Among the 25 birds were: two single geese, which may have been defending territories; 2 specific pairs, of which three birds wore neckbands identifying them as birds released in 1969; one distinct group of three birds; and the remaining 16 birds, one of which wore a neckband. The largest group of birds in North Park during the spring period was approximately 50 observed on the Annex in late May. No coordinated survey of waters in North Park was conducted. It was reported that one brood of three goslings was produced on Lake John Annex. Molting On June 22, 1970, 16 birds released on Lake John Annex in the summer of 1969 were recaptured at Wheatland Reservoir north of Laramie, Wyoming. The significance of Wheatland Reservoir as a molting area for various Great Basin Canada goose populations was discussed in an earlier section. Only one of the 16 birds was subsequently recovered during the 1970-71 hunting season. That bird was taken along the lower Colorado River in Arizona (Szymczak 1971). On June 21, 1971, four birds from the 1969 release and four from the 1970 release were recaptured at Wheatland. All four of the 1969 birds were present at Wheatland the year before. It is possible that all of the North Park transplants at Wheatland in 1971 were not identified as such, because not all of the banded birds recaptured were recorded (G. Wrakestraw, personal communication). From all indications, it seems that Wheatland may become a major molting area for North Park geese. �-45- New Releases and Summer Observations On July 22, 1971, 241 goslings were released on Lake John Annex. Throughout the remainder of the summer and early fall the birds frequented most of the large water bodies, as had the birds released the previous year (Szymczak 1971). The largest daily number of geese observed between August 14 and September 9 was a total of 189 sighted on Walden Reservoir, Lake John Annex, MacFarlane Reservoir and Hebron Sloughs on August 27. At least 20 geese were still present in North Park on October 20, the last recorded observation date during the fall period. Only one goose with a neckband (1969 release) was observed during the 1971 summer and fall period. That bird, a member of a pair, was observed on the Boettcher Lakes on September 5, 1971. Band Recoveries Only five of the birds released in 1969 and six of the birds released in 1970 were reported recovered during the 1971-72 hunting season. These birds are recorded in the indirect recovery column for their respective years in Table 2. Seven of the 11 total recoveries came from the lower California counties of Riverside and Imperial. Fifteen of the 45 first year recoveries of birds released in 1971 also came from Riverside and Imperial counties. Of the 25 recoveries from the three southern California counties (Table 2) during the three year period 22 were reported taken during the 1971-72 season (15 direct and 7 indirect recoveries) indicating the importance of California as a recovery area during that season. Yuma County, Arizona was also an important recovery area in 1971-72, but only for birds released in 1971. In fact, all 46 of the recoveries from Yuma County, Arizona during the three year period have been direct (Table 2), indicating the birds have not returned to that area in subsequent winters. The birds released in 1971 exhibited the same general cohesiveness during the fall and winter period as birds released in 1970. Only two, one each from Graham County, Arizona, and Santa Fe County, New Mexico~ of the 45 birds recovered were taken outside the expected migration route and winter area. The birds released in 1971 and taken in Yuma County were harvested earlier (Table 3) than were their counterparts released in 1970 and harvested during the 1970-71 season (Szymczak 1971). This was probably the result of an earlier opening date in 1971 (November 13) than in 1970 (November 26). The recoveries recorded by time period in Table 3 seem to indicate a movement of birds from the Yuma County, Arizona area into the Imperial Valley of California. The goose season in the Imperial Valley did not open until November 27. Hunting pressure applied in mid-November in Arizona may have moved the birds across the border into California. Only one bird was taken in Yuma County Arizona after December 10, even though the goose season did not end until January 9. �-46- Table 2. Hunting season recovery locations for all years of Canada geese released at Lake John Annex, Jackson County, Colorado. Year Released No. Released 1969 193 Area Recovered No. Recovered Direct Indirect 1970 246 ·1971 241 All Years 680 No. Recovered ...No ~ .Recovered Direct Indirect Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect United States North Dakota Emmons Co. 0 1 0 0 0 N.A. 0 1 Custer Co. 0 1 0 0 0 N.A. 0 1 Rosebud Co. 0 1 0 0 0 N.A. 0 1 Montana W:l!:0mins Park Co. Albany Co. 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 N.A. N.A. 0 0 0 1 Carbon Co. 2 0 5 0 0 N.A. 7 0 1 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 Colorado Jackson Co.!/ Larimer Co. Baca Co. Moffat Co. 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Mesa Co. 0 1 0 0 0 N.A. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 N.A. N.A. 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 N.A. 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 N.A. 1 0 Utah Emery Co. Cane Co. New Mexico Santa Fe Co. Texas E1 Paso Co. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-47- Table 2. Hunting season recovery locations ·for all years of Canada geese released at Lake John Annex, Jackson County, Colorado (continued). Year Released No. Released 1969 193 Area Recovered No. Recovered Direct Indirect ''1911 241 1970 246 No. Recovered Direct Indirect All Years 680 .No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect Arizona Yavapai Co. 1 0 0 0 0 N.A. 1 0 Gila Co. 1 0 0 0 0 N.A. 1 0 Graham Co. 0 0 0 0 1 N.A. 1 0 Mohave Co. 0 1 1 0 0 N.A. 1 1 Yuma Co. 6 0 14 0 26 N.A. 46 0 San Bernardino Co. 0 0 1 0 0 N.A. 1 0 Riverside Co. 0 2 0 4 6 N.A. 6 6 Imperial Co. 0 1 2 0 9 N.A. 11 1 Northwest 1 0 0 0 0 N.A. 1 0 Unknown 1 0 0 0 0 N.A. 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 N.A. 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 N.A. 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 N.A. 2 0 22 10 25 6 45 92 16 California Mexico Baja Chihuahua Northwest Coahuila West-central Sinaloa Northwest Totals 1/ - Area closed to goose hunting. �-48- Table 3. 1971-72 hunting season recoveries of North Park birds released in 1971 plotted according to time period and area of harvest. Area Recovered November 1-10 11-20 21-30 Period of Recovery December 1-10 11-20 21-31 January 1-10 11-20 Colorado Jackson County II 2 New Mexico Santa Fe County 1 Arizona Graham Coun ty Yuma County 1 6 14 5 1 Riverside County 1 2 1 Imperial County 1 3 5 California !I 1 1 Area closed to hunting. Mortality Forty five or 18.7 percent of the birds released in 1971 were reported recovered. Comparative first year recovery rates for 1969 and 1970 transplants were 11.4 and 10.2 percent, respectively. The earlier season in Arizona may very well be responsible for the increased harvest of the birds released in 1971 as compared to the 1970 group. As mentioned before, both groups showed similar migration route and wintering area tendencies. Totten Reservoir The first release of Canada goose goslings was made at Totten Reservoir east of Cortez in Montezuma County, in June, 1970. These birds, 36 in number, stayed in the area throughout the winter, using both Totten and nearby Narraguinnep Reservoir (Szymczak 1971). �-49- On July 2, 1971, 38 goslings were added to the Totten Reservoir flock. These birds also used Narraguinnep and Totten through the summer and fall, along with the previous year's plants. However, sometime in mid- to late December the entire flock left the area. Approximately one month later, 23 birds returned to Totten. According to band recoveries the majority of the birds apparently moved almost straight south and terminated migration on the Gila River in Graham County near Stafford in southeast Arizona. Two of the birds released in 1970 and six of those released in 1971 were reported harvested in the Stafford area. In addition, the earliest bird reported recover.d (12-18-71) was taken upriver on the Gila from Stafford near the Arizona-New Mexico border. To complete the recovery picture, one bird was found dead near the release site. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1971. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 115-127 pp. f~._.-~~~_l~ __ Prepared by --.77Z~~---<-~-127...p...f~gCo....:.::-"g? •...•-"-,,,.~ Michael R. SZymCz~UV~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��-51- October, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------~~--~-------- Project No. W-88-R-17 Work Plan No. 2 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. Job Title Arkansas Valley Canada Goose Flock Management Period Covered: November 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 5 Studies Personnel: Ann Leckler, D. Clippinger, R. Forbes, A. Heins, T. Henry, R. Kitzmiller, W. Ladd, C. Leonard, T. Lytle, H. Moorhead, P. Olson, Potts, R. Rosette, R. Velarde, B. Widhalm and M. Szymczak. n. ABSTRACT Forty thousand geese were present in southeast Colorado by November 3, 1972. By November 9, 1972, 80,200 geese were in the area and from that time through early January, aerial surveys indicated that numbers varied from 65,050 to 87,750. The total number of geese in the Two Buttes-Turk's Pond area built throughout the season reaching a high of 59,000 by December 21, 1972. The mid-winter inventory for the entire short grass prairie population totaled 134,500 birds. According to the tail fans collected in southeast Colorado during the season, approximately 44 percent of the geese bagged were immatures. An estimated 29,114 geese were bagged by 9,468 hunters in southeast Colorado during the 1971-72 season. Bands were placed on 1,032 geese during post-season trapping operations at Two Buttes Reservoir and Turk's Pond. Approximately 33 percent of the birds banded were immatures. For the first time since the Lamar-Eads check station was established in 1968, the average weight of geese harvested at Lamar-Eads did not exceed the mean weight of geese harvest at Two Buttes. Weights of birds harvested plotted by time period, indicated the birds did not lose weight as the season progressed. The record harvest of Canada geese in southeast Colorado during the 1970-71 season was reflected in the distribution of band recoveries during that season. The annual mortality rate of all age classes combined, as reflected in band recoveries, is 26 percent when calculated by the composite dynamic method, and about 27 percent when calculated by the relative recovery rate method. ��-53- ARKANSAS VALLEY CANADA GOOSE FLOCK MANAGEMENT STUDIES Michael R. Szymczak After two years of intensive evaluation of half-day goose hunting in southeast Colorado, the Arkansas Valley Canada Goose Flock Management Study geared down to the primary function of monitoring the annual status of the short grass prairie popUlation. The collectiort of information concerning hunting pressure, wounding loss, and hUnter success at the Two Buttes and LamarEads Management area was discontinued under this job. The observation of goose feeding flight patterns was also discontinued. A greater emphasis was placed on obtaining a better distribution of tail fans collected from harvested birds across Colorado's wintering range. Banding operations continued as a major part of the study. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of Canada geese wintering in southeast Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate the size of the wintering flock. 2. Estimate the age composition of the flock. 3. Estimate the hunting pressure on, and harvest of the flock under varying types of harvest regulations. 4. Investigate the annual mortality and the migration and/or harvest pattern of the flock under varying types of harvest regulations. METHODS AND MATERIALS Coordinated inventories were conducted throughout the short grass prairie populations wintering range in Nebraska, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico on December 13 and again in early January. In addition, periodic counts were made in Colorado throughout the hunting season. Although these periodic counts are not included in the procedures, result will be reported as a part of this job. Tail fans from geese bagged were collected at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management Area check stations. In addition, some fans were collected near Turk's Pond, and in the John Martin and Meredith Reservoir areas. Hunting pressure and harvest information was obtained from the regular Colorado Small Game Harvest Survey. A total of 1,032 Canada geese were banded during trapping operations at Turk's Pond and Two Buttes Reservoir after the close of the hunting season in order to obtain information on age ratios, mortality rates and migration patterns. �-54- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Size and Distribution of Wintering Population A total of seven aerial surveys were conducted in southeast Colorado during the fall and winter of 1971-72 (Table 1). These surveys indicated Colorado wintered approximately the same number of birds in 1971-72 as during 1970-71. In comparison with the 1970-71 season, there was a definite decline in the number of birds utilizing Meredith Reservoir. Blue Lake held a significant number of geese throughout November and late December, whereas in 1970-71, essentially no geese used Blue Lake (Szymczak 1971). For the second consecutive year, John Martin Reservoir held comparatively large numbers of geese throughout the season. Also, for the second year in succession, the number of birds in the northern areas (Meredith, Blue, Eads group), excluding those on John Martin, declined from mid-December through January. This decline seemed to begin about the time the change over from half-day morning-only hunting to full-day hunting occurred. The Two Buttes-Turk's population continued to build throughout the season, reaching a peak of 59,000 in late December. Approximately 75 percent of the record number of geese recorded for the regular January lnventory in southeast Colorado (Table 2) were located in the Two Buttes-Turk's Pond area. Surveys conducted on December 13 and January 4 were coordinated with counts in other states throughout the short grass prairie popUlations wintering range in order to determine the total number of birds in the population. In December, a total of 148,570 birds were recorded. The January figure of 134,500 was the lowest total recorded since 1969 (Table 3). The degree to which short grass prairie birds are utilizing other wintering areas outside their historical range is not known. However, there is definite evidence that substantial numbers of birds are mixing with the Hi-Line population wintering in north-central Colorado (Szymczak 1971). Therefore, the results presented in Table 3 include only birds utilizing the traditional range. Age Composition Goose tail fans were collected from harvested birds throughout the 1971-72 season at a number of locations in southeast Colorado. Tail fans collected at Turk's Pond and John Martin Reservoir supplemented samples obtained from the normal collection points of the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management Areas and the Meredith Lake area. Collection from all locations indicated a much larger percent of adults in the harvest in 1971-72 than in the 1970-71 season (Table 4). The change in age distribution of the harvest does not necessarily indicate a decline 1n production in 1971, but may in fact, be a sign of a large number of subadults in the population resulting from excellent production in 1970 (Szymczak 1971). This type of a distribution change has been noted before, and is generally expected. �Table l. Results of Canada goose aerial surveys, southeast Colorado, 1971-72. Nov. 3 Nov. 9 Nov. 22 Date Dec. 6 Dec. 13 Dec. 21 Jan. 4 Meredith Reservoir 3,400 13,000 1,300 5,200 3,000 250 1,500 Horsecreek Reservoir 600 3,800 600 0 0 0 Blue Lake 100 6,000 0 7,500 7,000 300 ° ° Sweetwater 0 0 1,400 3,000 0 0 0 Flamingo 0 4,100 8,000 8,000 0 Nee Noshe 0 15,000 12,000 6,000 ° 0 12,000 0 Area Eads Group: 5,000 Upper Queens 10,600 2,700 50 1,500 Lower Queens 3,400 0 0 0 Two Buttes Reservoir 11,000 14,000 16,400 6,700 18,500 25,000 6,000 Turk's Pond 8,300 16,000 17,300 32,000 25,000 34,000 51,000 John Martin Reservoir 2,000 5,600 8,000 15,000 22,500 2,200 9,500 600 -- -- -- -- 300 80,200 65,050 85,000 87,750 Bonny Reservoir Total 40,000 60O 85,500 4,000 14,000 ° 0 8,100 ° 76,400 I VI VI I �-56- Table 2 • January Inventory of Canada geese, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1948-1972. Year Goose Count Year Goose Count Year Goose Count 1948 4,798 1957 24,617 1965 37,693 1949 12,286 1958 35,894 1966 38,635 II 1950 13,170 1959 44,660 1967 29,835 1951 19,320 1960 37,394 1968 42,682 1952 30,463 1961 31,360 1969 29,201 1953 20,236 1962 40,250 II 1970 63,444 1954 20,280 1963 35,889 1971 62,720 1955 25,110 1964 33,750 1972 76,400 1956 24,212 !/Inventory of February 7, 1962 substituted for January, 1962 inventory. IIInventory of February 15, 1966 substituted for January, 1966 inventory. Table 3. Post-hunting season status of Short Grass Prairie Canada goose population, 1960-72, data generally from regular mid-winter inventories. Year Number of Birds Year Number of Birds 1960 77,709 1967 111,452 1961 103,355 1968 127,903 1962 80,133 1969 112,399 1963 93,940 1970 147,414 1964 81,221 1971 152,734 1965 103,435 1972 134,500 1966 110,485 :!/ :!/ Inventory of Feburary 15, 1966 substituted for unsatisfactory January inventory. �Table 4. Age composition of the goose harvest in selected areas, southeast Colorado. Year Two Buttes (Firing Line) Immature Adult No. Percent Percent No. 1951-52 356 46.8 404 53.2 Lamar-Eads (Decol) Immature Adult Percent No. Percent No. Meredith Area Immature Adult Percent No. Percent No. No Data 1957-58 1958-59 929 47.9 1,010 52.1 1959-60 377 36.5 655 63.5 1960-61 612 45.5 732 54.5 1961-62 527 55.7 419 44.3 1962-63 204 48.9 213 51.1 1963-64 377 52.1 346 47.9 I \J1 1964-65 442 63.1 259 36.9 I 1965-66 571 62.7 340 37.3 1966-67 217 45.3 262 54.7 1967-68 245 59.9 164 40.1 1968-69 136 61. 8 84 38.2 79 51.3 75 48.7 48 66.7 24 33.3 1969-70 110 55.3 89 44.7 143 35.9 255 64.1 18 40.0 27 60.0 1970-71 630 40.6 922 59.4 77 27.4 204 72.6 42 45.7 50 54.3 1971-72 !/ 804 63.5 463 36.5 128 33.7 252 66.3 63 51.6 59 48.4 .....• !/ Data for Two Buttes also includes some birds bagged in the Turk's Pond area. some birds bagged in the John Martin Reservoir area. Data for Meredith area includes �-58- The overall ratio of adults to immatures in the harvest in southeast Colorado was 1:0.78. This ratio in comparison with the age ratios of geese harvested on the Canadian prairies reflects the general accepted trend of a decline in immatures in the harvest as the season progressed. Age ratios in the prairie harvest were 1:1.18 in western Saskatchewan and 1:1.35 in eastern Alberta (A. Dzubin, personal communication). The age composition of Canada geese trapped during post-season banding operations varied considerably by individual catch (Table 5). The percent of immatures in individual catches ranged from 15.3 percent to 55.2 percent at Two Buttes and averaged 29.2 percent or 1:0.41 adult/immature. Birds captured in the one catch at Turk's Pond were composed of 37.4 percent immatures 1:0.59 adult/immature. A summary of all age ratios obtained in southeast Colorado is presented in Table 6. Table 5. Sex and age composition of Canada geese trapped post-season in southeast Colorado, 1972. Location and Date Two Buttes Total Male Immature Adult Female Immature Total Percent Immature 1-20-72 80 15 69 12 176 15.3 1-21-72 50 5 29 12 96 17.7 1-23-72 47 17 41 31 136 35.3 1-25-72 14 4 8 4 30 26.7 1-29-72 11 9 3 1 25 ~/ 41. 7 1-30-72 14 11 13 4 42 35.7 2-1-72 15 33 24 15 87 55.2 231 94 187 79 592 29.2 166 85 119 85 455 37.4 397 179 306 164 1,047 ~/ 32.8 Sub-total Turk's Pond Adult 1-28-72 ~/ Includes one female of unknown age. �-59- Table 6. Age composition of southeast Colorado Canada geese, 1971-72, as estimated by check station, field checks, and trapping results. No. of Adults Percent Adults No. of Young Percent Young Total Birds Lamar-Eads 128 33.7 252 66.3 380 Two Buttes 474 68.4 219 31.6 693 Turkts Pond 330 57.5 244 42.5 574 John Martin-BlueMeredith 63 51.6 59 48.4 122 Total 995 56.2 774 43.8 1,769 Check Station-Field Check Sample Adult/Immature 1:0.78 Trapped Sample Two Buttes 418 70.7 173 29.3 591 Turk's Pond 285 62.6 170 37.4 455 Total 703 67.2 343 32.8 1,046 Adult/Immature 1:0.49 Hunting Pressure and Harvest Goose hunters enjoyed generally excellent success in southeast Colorado during the 1971-72 hunting season. An estimated 9,468 hunters bagged 29,114 birds during the 1971-72 season (Table 7) (Riffel and Tulley, personal cormnunication). The total harvest in the area was nearly identical to the record harvest taken during the 1970-71 season. An estimated additional 5,299 birds were reported crippled, resulting in a total flock loss of 34,413 geese. Baca County continues to be the major harvest area with over 45 percent of the birds taken in that area (Table 8). The distribution of total harvest by county during the 1971-72 season closely paralleled that observed during the 1970-71 season. �-60- Table 7. Goose hunting season statistics, 1954-71. Southeast Colorado Estimated Average Estimated Goose Hunters Season Bag Kill Year Dates of Season Stamp Sales 1954 11/1 - 12/30 32,450 7,071 1.04 7,372 1955 11/1 - 12/30 39,107 9,054 1.54 13,904 1956 11/9 - 1/7 36,303 9,833 1.05 10,276 1957 11/2 - 11/31 41,794 9,113 1. 39 12,656 1958 11/17 - 1/15 41,897 10,082 1.51 15,205 1959 10/26 - 1/8 31,431 8,888 1.61 14,309 1960 10/26 - 1/8 30,592 9,838 1. 39 13,629 1961 11/10 - 1/8 24,854 7,577 1.68 11,724 1962 10/31 - 1/13 17,701 6,021 1.58 9,495 1963 11/2 - 1/15 22,940 6,668 2.17 14,444 1964 11/2 - 1/15 25,282 8,016 2.30 18,474 1965 11/2 - 1/15 20,537 6,313 1.52 9,613 1966 11/19 - 1/15 29,377 9,357 2.59 24,269 1967 11/18 - 1/14 31,064 6,975 2.23 15,558 1968 11/16 - 1/15 31,218 6,668 1.66 11,046 1969 };./ 11/22 - 1/15 34,281 5,327 1.99 10,597 1970 'f:../ 10/31 - 1/17 37,972 7,875 3.85 30,329 1971 1./ 11/1 - 1/16 43,743 9,468 3.07 29,114 1/ Morning hunting only throughout the season. 'f:../ M:>rning hunting only through December 11, full day hunting for the remainder of the season. 1/ Morning hunting only through December 11, full day hunting for the remainder of the season. �-61- Table 8. Comparison of the 1971-72 southeast Colorado goose harvest, by county, with the l7-year average, 1954-70, based on the results of the random small game survey. Number and Percent of Geese Bagged 1971-72 l7-Yr. Average No. Percent No. Percent County Lakes and Reservoirs Baca Two Buttes and Turk's 13,264 45.6 5,552 37.8 Kiowa Eads and Blue 6,039 20.7 3,328 22.7 Prowers Two Buttes and Eads 2,686 9.2 2,234 15.2 Bent John Martin, Blue and Horsecreek 2,620 9.0 1,932 13.2 Meredith 2,305 7.9 852 5.8 880 3.0 120 0.8 734 2.5 371 2.5 Pueblo 534 1.8 193 1.3 Huerfano 52 0.2 109 0.7 Crowley Las Animas Otero Total Horsecreek, Cheraw, Dye and Holbrook 29,114 14,691 Banding Investigations Trapping efforts post-season in southeast Colorado resulted in 1,032 Canada geese being banded (Table 9). All birds banded were captured either at Two Buttes Reservoir or at Turk's Pond. Very few geese were using reservoirs in the John Martin or Ead's Lakes areas so no attempt was made to capture geese in those areas. Forty-three percent of the birds captured were females. This compares with 53 percent females captured during the previous two years of trapping. Weights The mean weights of all geese harvested on the two state controlled management areas and trapped post-season are presented in Table 10. Some weights from geese bagged at Turk's Pond are also included. �-62- Table 9. Sex and age composition of Canada geese banded post-season in southeast Colorado, 1972. Location and Date Two Buttes Turk's Pond Adult Males Immature Females Adult Immature Total 1/20/72 80 15 68 12 175 1/21/72 50 5 29 12 96 1/23/72 47 17 41 31 136 1/25/72 14 4 8 4 30 1/29/72 11 9 3 1 25 1:/ 1/30/72 14 11 13 4 42 2/1/72 15 32 24 15 86 1/28/72 161 83 116 82 442 392 176 302 161 1,032 1:/ Total 1:/ Includes one female of unknown age. Table 10. Comparison of weights, in pounds, of geese from trap and check station samples, southeast Colorado 1971-72. Adult Ave. Wt. Range Check Station 5.49(126)1 4.00-7.75 Trapping 5.49(695) 5.50(126) Source Immature Ave. Wt. Range Total Ave. Wt. Range 5.12 ( 79) 4.00-7.00 5.35 4.00-7.75 3.25-9.88 5.37(343) 3.38-9.38 5.45 3.25-9.88 3.38-9.20 4.78(254) 3.13-7.00 5.02 3.13-9.20 Two ButtesTurk's Pond Lamar-Eads Check Station 1 Sample size in parentheses. �-63- Geese trapped post season in the Two Buttes-Turk's area weighed, on the average, slightly more than those harvested in that same area. Only in 1969-70 have trapped birds weighed more than harvested birds. However, in 1969-70 the trapped birds weighed about .5 pounds more than harvested birds. The difference in 1971-72 is only .1 of a pound and is a result only of differences in the immature category. For the first time since the Lamar-Eads check station was established, in 1968-69, the average weight of geese harvested at Lamar-Eads did not exceed the mean weight of geese harvest at Two Buttes (Table 10). Weights of birds harvested plotted by time period (Table 11) indicated no distinct weight loss as the season progressed as had occurred during 1969-70 and 1970-71. The validity of the analysis is hampered by generally small samples during the latter part or full day portion of the season. However, the fact that birds trapped post season in the Two Buttes-Turk's area weighed, on the average, more than birds bagged there (Table 10), seems to indicate that geese may not have lost weight during the 1971-72 season as they normally had during past seasons. The groups of geese captured on January 29 at Two Buttes were unusually heavy and those captured on January 30 were slightly heavier than the average (Table 12). The average weights by age and sex groups for other catches were considered "normal". Distribution of Harvest The record harvest of Canada geese in southeast Colorado during the 1970-71 season (Szymczak 1971) was reflected in the distribution of band recoveries during that season (Table 13). Approximately 38 percent of the bands reported recovered were taken in Colorado. Of the major harvest areas, only Saskatchewan failed to record a significant decline in the percent of bands recovered in response to the heavy Colorado harvest. For the second consecutive year, and for the third year out of the past four, the percent of bands recovered below 530 in the Provinces was greater in Saskatchewan than in Alberta. Hunting Mortality Estimates Mortality estimates calculated by the composite dynamic method for juveniles, adults and both age classes combined continue to be approximately 26 percent (Tables 14, 15, and 16). The first year mortality rate for juveniles declined from .285 calculated for recoveries through the 1968-69 season (Szymczak 1971) to .283 calculated for recoveries through the 1969-70season(Tab1e 14). The first year recovery rate for adults took a greater drop from .270 to .265. Mortality rates calculated by the relative recovery rate method for juveniles, adults, and all age classes (Tables 17, 18, and 19) are all slightly higher than the rates calculated by the composite dynamic method. �-64- Table 1l. Average weights of geese bagged by time interval on two major harvest areas in southeastern Colorado during the 1971-72 hunting season. Lamar-Eads Adults Immatures Time Interval Two Buttes-Turk's Pond Adults Immatures Nov. 1 - Nov. 7 5.49( 56)1 4.78(152) 5.56( Nov. 8 - Nov. 14 5.66( 16) 4.97( 35) 5.80( 24) 5.09( 17) Nov. 15 - Nov. 21 5.76( 20) 4.75(19) 5.43( 16) 5.07( 17) Nov. 22 - Nov. 28 5.03( 13) 4.48( 27) 5.63( 22) 4.80( 14) Nov. 29 - Dec. 6 6.08( 4) 4.33( Dec. 7 - Dec. 10 4.75( 2) Dec. 11 - Dec. 17 6.13( 2) 5.25( 2) 4.78( Dec. 18 - Dec. 24 5.15( 4) 4.91( 5) 5.24 ( 25) 5.33( 10) Dec. 25 - Dec. 31 4.57( 3) 4.97( 6) 5.48( 25) 5.09( 11) Jan. 1 - Jan. 7 5.80( 2) 5.20( 1) Jan. 8 - Jan. 16 5.76( 4) 5.06( 1) 5.25( 5.38( Average 5.50(126) 1 8) 5.30( 5) 6) 4.78(254) 4) 2) 5.49(126) 6.50( 2) 5.25( 1) 2) 5.12( 79) Sample size in parentheses. Table 12. Weights of Canada geese captured with cannon-nets in southeast Colorado, 1972. Date Location Grouping Number Ave. Weight Range January 20 Two Buttes AM 74 5.29 4.13-7.25 1M 15 5.13 4.38-6.63 AF 69 4.74 3.25-6.50 IF 12 4.67 3.50-6.75 Subtotal 170 5.01 3.25-7.25 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-65Table 12. Weights of Canada geese captured with cannon-nets in southeast Colorado, 1972 (continued) • Date Location Grouping Number Ave. Weight Range January 21 Two Buttes AM 50 5.27 4.00-7.25 1M 5 6.10 5.25-8.00 AF 29 4.88 3.63-6.25 IF 12 4.54 3.63-5.25 Subtotal 96 5.11 3.63-8.00 AM 47 5.79 4.00-7.38 1M 17 5.37 4.25-6.63 AF 40 5.12 3.50-8.38 IF 31 4.74 3.50-6.00 Subtotal 135 5.30 3.50-8.38 AM 13 6.08 4.63-8.00 1M 4 5.76 4.88-6.38 AF 8 4.99 4.50-5.75 IF 4 5.19 4.25-5.88 Subtotal 29 5.61 4.25-8.00 AM 11 7.14 6.63-7.75 1M 9 7.35 6.13-9.38 AF 3 7.88 7.25-8.75 IF 1 7.13 Subtotal 24 7.31 6.13-9.38 AM 14 6.36 4.25-9.88 1M 11 6.23 4.25-9.13 AF 13 5.49 4.00-7.00 IF 4 6.16 4.75-6.88 Subtotal 42 6.04 4.00-9.88 January 23 January 25 January 29 January 30 Two Buttes Two Buttes Two Buttes Two Buttes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-66- Table 12. Weights of Canada geese captured with cannon-nets in southeast Colorado, 1972 (continued). Date Location Grouping Number Ave. Weight Range February 1 Two Buttes AM 15 5.79 4.25-7.25 1M 33 5.25 3.50-6.63 AF 24 5.16 3.38-6.63 IF 15 5.19 3.88-6.00 Subtotal 87 5.31 3.38-7.25 AM 224 5.63 4.00-9.88 1M 94 5.63 3.50-9.38 AF 186 5.01 3.25-8.75 IF 79 4.91 3.50-6.88 Total 583 5.34 3.25-9.88 AM 166 5.92 4.13-7.88 1M 85 5.72 3.50-7.00 AF 119 5.40 3.63-7.38 IF 85 5.14 3.38-6.25 Total 455 5.60 3.38-7.88 AM 390 5.75 4.00-9.88 1M 179 5.68 3.50-9.38 AF 305 5.16 3.25-8.75 IF 164 5.03 3.38-6.88 Total 1,038 5.45 3.25-9.88 Average Two Buttes All Dates January 28 Turk '9 Pond Average Two Buttes-Turk's Pond, All Dates �Table 13. Percentages of total band recoveries, Arkansas Valley post-season bandings, by area and year of recovery, all bandings. Recovery Year Area Five Year Averages 1951-1955 1956-1960 Percentage Total No. of Total 1970-71 Recoveries Recoveries 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 -- -- 1.0 12.4 0.5 6.1 13.4 6.6 267 9.2 21.9 25.7 15.7 24.7 816 465 28.1 16.0 4 0.1 17 2 16 7 175 0.6 0.1 0.6 0.2 6.0 848 12 15 27 29.2 0.4 0.5 0.9 Far North Above 530 N. W. Territories Alberta Saskatchewan Total -- -- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- 9.8 7.1 7.9 6.3 15.5 28.6 18.3 35.3 10.5 34.9 9.3 33.3 19.4 28.4 17.4 -- -- -- -- --- ---- 15.2 4.7 10.4 7.5 2.1 7.1 0.7 9.9 26.8 8.5 27.9 10.9 19.4 16.4 14.2 24.6 23.4 17.0 0.7 1.5 0.7 -- Provinces Below 530 Alberta Saskatchewan B.C., Hanitoba, Ontario 0.1 Central F1~ Hontana North Dakota Wyoming South Dakota Nebraska Colorado Southeast and Other North-central Total Kansas Oklahoma New Hexico 0.8 0.1 0.7 0.1 5.4 -- 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.7 2.0 1.4 8.8 0.7 0.7 9.7 0.5 0.6 6.5 5.4 3.1 5.5 6.7 --- --- -- --- 30.1 35.4 0.7 1.4 32.4 -- -- -- -- -- --- 25.5 0.4 0.9 1.5 30.9 0.3 0.3 0.7 31.5 0.8 30.9 21.7 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.6 -- 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.7 1.9 1.9 4.8 0.5 0.5 4.5 9.0 4.3 27.6 1.5 29.1 29.1 2.8 31.9 19.0 1.0 20.0 1.0 34.3 3.0 37.9 1.0 1.5 0.7 1.4 1.0 2.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_._------------------------------------ I a- -..J I �Table 13. Percentages of total band recoveries, Arkansas Valley post-season bandings, by area and year of recovery, a11bandings Recovery Year Area Five Year Averages 1951-1955 1956-1960 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 5.4 4.0 2.0 1.0 6.0 7.3 2.4 0.6 10.3 2.7 2.0 7.5 0.7 7.5 4.7 8.2 2.2 9.7 5.0 0.7 1.4 7.1 6.7 1.0 1.0 8.7 1.5 1.2 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.7 (continued). Percentage Total No. of Total 1970-71 Recoveries Recoveries Central F1ywaX (continued) Texas Panhandle Waggoner Ranch Gulf Coast Total 2.3 2.0 0.8 5.1 2.8 2.2 0.2 5.2 5.4 4.6 0.8 0.8 6.2 Pacific Flyway 2.4 2.2 4.8 0.8 Mississipp~ Flyway 0.1 Mexico 0.1 Total Number Of Recoveries 748 2.5 3.0 5.5 112 51 17 180 3.9 1.8 0.6 6.2 1.0 52 1.8 3 0.1 1 0.1 I 0\ 00 I 677 129 129 201 164 147 134 134 141 105 198 2,907 �Table 14. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 300 628 578 0 0 0 0 176 298 167 248 123 399 251 198 0 285 270 184 241 Recoveries bl Year Following Banding 11 10 12 13 8 9 14 15 16 17 0 2 3 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 1 0 Ts----i9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 31 58 52 25 31 25 11 33 25 11 20 24 4 16 20 5 8 11 4 7 11 7 6 9 1 4 2 1 4 4 0 0 4 0 5 1 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 21 25 16 15 10 40 16 15 16 16 10 5 12 24 11 7 6 16 3 4 10 9 11 8 4 8 14 7 0 14 13 1 4 7 8 8 1 6 5 0 1 3 0 7 1 2 2 3 4 0 0 3 1 2 8 0 1 1 2 1 4 3 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 X 43 40 31 13 14 6 7 5 3 2 0 3 1 4,346 4,105 3,921 3,651 3,366 3,366 3,168 2,917 2,518 2,395 2,147 1,980 1,682 1,506 1,506 1,506 1,506 1,506 5.8 209.5 21.1 26.3 822.9 .255 2.8 3.5 3.0 2.0 1.3 0.0 2.0 O.J..J 0.0 6.0 4.0 ""-= 1,115.2 .262 2.7 2.7 0.7 / 0.0 X X X X 18 16 9 18 10 9 9 5 8 10 360 210 149 126 2 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 I co '"' I Total Recoveries 4,346 Banded Birds Eligible Recoveries per 1,000 Banded Alive Going into Period Mortality Rate 82.8 \51.2 38.0 34.5 292.3,209.5 158.3 120.3 .283 79 23.5 85.8 12.8 62.3 12.6 49.5 10.6 36.9 5.2 0 928 £ =292.3 15.3 12.5 9.0 �Table 15. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-69. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 344 650 900 0 0 0 0 347 217 250 306 334 369 335 780 0 389 646 905 358 X 29 35 22 21 Total Recoveries 7,130 558 351 -- Recoveries bl Year Following Banding 11 12 13 10 9 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 45 71 85 23 37 55 19 24 50 10 23 31 7 21 25 12 6 20 5 11 9 3 6 12 3 9 10 2 7 6 2 7 2 0 4 4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 33 21 27 29 26 35 24 55 27 9 16 13 18 20 12 40 17 7 6 18 12 14 15 20 8 4 12 12 5 4 10 22 5 4 8 4 13 11 4 12 8 2 4 7 3 5 4 12 2 1 6 3 2 2 11 2 1 3 2 2 5 2 0 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 X X X X 26 17 38 9 28 9 239 150 83 62 36 33 20 12 8 6 1 2 2 0 0 0 7,130 6,772 5,867 5,221 4,832 4,832 4,052 3,717 3,348 3,014 2,708 2,402 2,152 1,935 1,588 1,588 1,588 1,588 1,588 9.9 6.6 217.1 20.2 856.1 .254 4.4 3.3 1.3 0.5 295.4 3.1 2.6 5.9 £ = 1,151.5 .257 1.3 0.0 0.0/ 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0/ 0.0 Banded Birds Eligible Recoveries per 1,000 Banded Alive Going into Period 295.4,217.1 165.312~.6 Mortality Rate .265 78.3 ,51. 8 40.7 28.7 114 23.6 95.9 17.2 72.3 15.3 55.1 9.7 39.8 0 I -J 0 I 30.1 2.8 1£ = 13.6 9.2 �Table 16. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 644 1,278 1,478 0 0 0 0 523 515 417 554 457 768 586 978 0 674 922 1,089 599 Total Recoveries 11,482 Banded Birds Eligible Recoveries per 1,000 Banded Alive Going into Period Mortality Rate Recoveries b~ Year Following Banding 13 11 12 14 10 15 16 Ii 18 19 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 76 129 137 48 68 80 30 57 75 21 43 55 11 37 45 17 14 31 9 18 20 10 12 21 4 13 12 3 11 10 2 7 6 0 9 5 1 4 5 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 54 46 43 44 36 75 40 70 43 25 26 18 30 44 23 47 23 23 9 22 22 23 26 28 9 5 4 14 4 7 6 15 6 1 6 6 3 4 19 2 2 4 4 3 9 5 1 2 4 5 3 3 1 3 0 1 2 0 1 1 26 19 5 18 23 23 9 11 16 12 14 17 9 12 X 126 92 67 46 34 18 15 11 4 4 2 3 1 0 11,482 10,883 9,794 8,872 8,198 8,198 7,220 6,634 5,866 5,409 4,855 4,438 3,923 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 1,922 3.7 212.1 20.4 14.1 829.9 .256 3.4 2.8 1.2 1.2 0.6 0.9 0.3 / 0.0 1.8 1.2 0.3 / 0.0 12 12 X X X X 47 51 31 39 36 26 47 14 36 19 918 561 388 276 80.0 \51.5 39.6 31.1 292.1\212.1 160.6 121.0 .274 193 23.5 89.9 15.4 66.4 12.7 51.0 10.1 38.3 I -.J •... I 7.8 28.2 6.3 ~ = 292.1 10.4 7.0 4.2 3.0 £ = 1,122.0 .260 �Table 17. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Winter Banded Number Banded 1950-51 300 cJ 72 1951-52 628 196 1952-53 578 1957-58 Number Recoveries 1 - n 2 - n Rates 2 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate -- .2400 .769 .231 138 .3121 .2197 .651 .349 195 CU .3374 176 CU 39 -- .2216 .815 .185 1958.;.59 298 81 56 .2718 .1879 .592 .408 1959-60 167 53 37 .3174 .2216 1.018 0.000 1960-61 248 54 39 .2177 .1573 .523 .477 1961-62 123 37 27 .3008 .2195 .867 .133 1962-63 399 101 61 .2531 .1529 .582 .418 1963-64 251 66 50 .2629 .1992 1.160 0.000 1964-65 198 34 CU .1717 1966-67 285 CU 25 -- .0877 .718 .282 1967-68 270 33 17 .1222 .0630 .644 .356 1968-69 184 18 9 .0978 .0489 .655 .345 1969-70 241 18 -- .0747 4.346 1 Cannot use. Recove~ 1 - n 2.7396 2.0193 Average Survival Rate Average Mortality Rate .737 .263 ....,I I\.) I �Table 18. Relative recovery rate Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults. Arkansas Winter Banded Number Banded 1 - n 2 - n 1 - n 2 - n Survival Rate Mortality Rate 1950-51 344 cJ 89 -- .2587 .734 .266 1951-52 650 229 158 .3523 .2431 .699 .301 1952-53 900 313 CU .3478 1957-58 347 CU 74 -- .2133 .926 .074 1958-59 217 50 29 .2304 .1336 .388 .612 1959-60 250 86 59 .3440 .2360 .785 .215 1060-61 306 92 63 .3007 .2059 .809 .191 Number Recoveries Recove!1: Rates 1961-62 334 85 59 .2545 .1766 .679 .321 1962-63 369 96 61 .2602 .1653 .692 .308 1963-64 335 80 56 .2388 .1672 .810 .190 1964-65 780 161 CU .2064 1966-67 389 CU 44 -- .1131 .914 .086 1967-68 646 80 45 .1238 .0697 1.051 0.00 1968-69 905 60 38 .0663 .0420 .716 .284 1969-70 358 21 -- .0587 7,130 2.7839 I 2.0245 Average Survival Average Mortality 1 Cannot use. I "" W Rate Rate .•727 .273 �Table 19. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1969. Winter Banded Number Banded 1950-51 644 CUI 161 -- 1951-52 1,278 425 296 .3326 1952-53 1,478 508 CU .3437 1957-58 523 CU 113 1958-59 515 131 1959-60 417 1960-61 l:inmb~I ~!:'Q:ll~I1~a 1 - n 2 - n Recove!1 Rates 1 - n 2 - n Survival Rate ~rta1ity Rate .2500 .752 .248 .2316 .674 .326 -- .2161 .849 .151 85 .2544 .1650 .495 .505 139 96 .3333 .2302 .874 .126 554 146 102 .2635 .1841 .690 .310 1961-62 457 122 86 .2670 .1882 .734 .266 1962-63 768 197 122 .2565 .1589 .638 .362 1963-64 586 146 106 .2491 .1809 .907 .093 1964-65 978 195 CU .1994 1966-67 674 CU 69 -- .1024 .835 .165 1967-68 922 113 62 .1226 .0672 .939 .061 1968-69 1,089 78 47 .0716 .0432 .664 .336 1969-70 599 39 -- .0651 I ~ .J:'I 11,482 1 Cannot use. 2.7588 2.0178 Average survival rate Average mortality rate .731 .269 �-75- LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1971. Arkansas Valley Canada goose flock management studies. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. Oct. pp. 129-164. ��October, -77- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~---------- Project No. W-88-R-17 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Migratory 2 Studies of Canada Covered: April 1972 Bird Investigations Job No. Goose Populations 6 in Colorado Transplant Areas 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Personnel: D. Benson, C. Braun, C. Brown, E. Cochran, J. Corey, D. Coven, G. Crawford, E. Downer, G. East, H. Funk, B. Goetze, J. Grieb, J. Hatfield J. Hobbs, R. Hopper, T. Lynch, J. Monarch, S. Palm, J. Pogorelz, C. Roberts, W. Russell, L. Searle and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT During the 1971-72 hunting season, 208 geese banded outside Colorado were reported recovered in north-central Colorado. The recoveries indicated that Big Horn County, in south-central Montana, is a probable additional breeding area for Hi-Line Canada geese. Phillips County, Montana and the EdmontonCamrose.and Dowling Lake areas of Alberta, as well as the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan were well represented in the list of banding areas contributing geese to the north-central Colorado population. During the 1971-72 hunting season Alberta was an important recovery area for birds banded in January, 1971 in north-central Colorado, particularly for those birds judged to be' small, and thus members of the short grass prairie population. Alberta has not been an important recovery area for previous bandings in north-central Colorado. During the 1971-72 season Colorado accounted for' 62.1 percent and 43.0 percent of the recoveries from post-season bandings in north-central Colorado in January, 1968 and January, 1971 respectively. Band recoveries indicate that birds believed to be members of the Arctic nesting short grass prairie population that are present in north-central Colorado's Hi-Line population area are not consistent in their migrational habits and may return to their historical winter range in subsequent years. Coordinated counts throughout the Hi-Line population range totaled 61,054 on November 3, 1971; 62,552 on November 23, 1971; 61,236 on December 21, 1971; and 37,113 on January 10, 1972. Between 85 and 90 percent of the population was located in Colorado from late November through mid-January. There was a substantial percentage increase in the number of geese in the Brighton-Gree1ey-Ft. Morgan area during 1971-72 hunting season, as compared to the 1970-71 hunting season. continued �-78- An estimated 12,920 hunters harvested 14,771 geese in north-central Colorado. Approximately 52 percent of the birds harvested were reported taken in Larimer County. A limited goose season in the San Luis Valley resulted in an estimated 296 hunters bagging 177 geese. Analysis of banded birds recovered in the San Luis Valley disclosed evidence indicating sub-adult birds from the San Luis Valley breeding population are using Wheatland Reservoir in Albany County, Wyoming for molting purposes. Aerial surveys indicated there was approximately 1,200 to 1,500 Canada geese in the San Luis Valley during the 1971-72 season, with the large majority of the birds located on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. A limited goose hunting season in west-central Colorado was initiated in 1971 with an estimated 112 hunters harvesting 33 geese. Approximately 55 percent of the birds harvested were taken within five miles ·of High1ine Reservoir, northwest of Grand Junction. Aerial counts in the west-central permit area resulted in a total of 485 birds observed on November 24, 1971 and 989 birds counted on January 5, 1972. �-79- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORAOO TRANSPLANT AREAS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of re~ident and migrant Canada goose flocks and their inter-relationships in areas in which populations have been established through transplant programs in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES La , To examine migration routes and/or harvest patt.erns and distribution of Canada geese Wintering in north-central Colorado and the San Luis Valley. lb. To determine breeding areas of Canada geese wintering in north-central Colorado. 2. To estimate hunting pressure on, and hunter harvest of Canada geese in north-central Colorado, the San Luis Valley and west-central Colorado. 3. To make recommendations for establishing a limited Canada goose hunting season in west-central Colorado and continuing the hunting season on the north-central Colorado and San Luis Valley goose populations. METHODS AND MATERIALS Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery location, sex, and age, at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with the San Luis Valley and north-central Colorado. Canada geese in north-central Colorado were counted on November 3, November 23, and December 21, 1971; and January 10, 1972. In the San Luis Valley birds were counted on October 31, November 23, and December 21, 1971; and January 6, 1972. A mechanically random sample of hunters issued permits to hunt geese in the north-central Colorado "Special Permit" goose hunting area were mailed questionnaires inquiring about their hunting activity and success. All of the hunters holding special permits to hunt geese in the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado were mailed similar questionnaires. All data received were tabulated and statistically analyzed. Recommendations concerning regulations for the 1972-73 goose seasons in northcentral Colorado, the San Luis Valley, and west-central Colorado were formulated and submitted to management personnel. �-80- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION North-Central Colorado-The Hi-Line Population Breeding Range Foreign Recoveries During the 1971-72 hunting season 208 foreign bands were reported recovered in north-central Colorado. An additional 36 foreign-banded birds were recaptured during post-season banding operations. Both types of recoveries are classified as to general area of banding if in a Province, or County if in the United States, in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Analysis of the banding areas presented in Tables 1 and 2, along with the banding locations of recovered wild-trapped locals presented in Table 3 revealed only one potential breeding area for Hi-Line Canada geese not discussed by Szymczak, 1971a. Big Horn County in south-central Montana may be an area occupied by breeding birds migrating into Hi-Line population areas. A total of five birds banded in Big Horn County were reported recovered in north-central Colorado during the 1971-72 season (Table 1). All five birds were banded as wild-trapped locals, two in 1969 and three in 1971. Phillips County, Montana and the Edmonton-Camrose and Dowling Lake area of Alberta were well represented in the list of banding areas contributing birds to the north-central Colorado population (Table 1). In addition, 11 birds banded as locals during the summer of 1971 in the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan were reported taken or were recaptured in north-central Colorado during the winter of 1971-72 (Table 3). These latter recoveries further substantiate that breeding Canada geese in Cypress Hills area are members of the Hi-Line goose popualtion. All 15 of the 1971-72 recoveries or recaptures from the Cypress Hills area as defined by Szymczak 1971a, were banded within one degree block, 49 degrees latitude and 109 degrees longitude. Winter Banding-North Central Colorado Substantial numbers of Canada geese were banded in north-central Colorado in January 1971. This was the first major banding operation since January 1968. A total of 991 birds were banded during the 1971 operation. The distribution of the birds recovered during the 1971-72 season north of Colorado are plotted in Figures 1 and 2. Alberta was an important recovery area for birds banded in January 1971. This was generally not true for the cohort banded in 1968. The recoveries of "large" birds (size 8 bands) in Alberta, were from scattered locations from 530 latitude south and are not particularly useful in pinpointing additional unknown breeding areas in Alberta which contribute birds to the Hi-Line population. The recovery distribution of "small" birds (size 7 bands) in Alberta follows the same pattern expected for birds of the short grass prairie population (Grieb 1970). It is of interest that only one "small" bird was reported recovered in Saskatchewan, and that an atypically large 7 pound immature male taken south of the major staging area for short grass prairie geese. �-81- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1971-72 hunting season. Area Direct Indirect 12 3 Dow.l Ln g Lake Area 18 9 Brooks Area o 1 3 2 Swift Current-South Saskatchewan River Area o 1 Cypress Hills Area 9 3 La Fleche Area o 2 Teton County o 1 Blaine Coun ty 4 1 Phillips County 32 39 Fergus County o 4 Garfield County o 19 McCone County o 1 Big Horn County 3 2 o 1 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Saskatchewan Moose Jaw Area Eyeb row Lake CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana North Dakota Ward County --------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-82Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1971-72 hunting season (continued). Area Direct Indirect o 1 3 3 2 o 1 o 4 o 4 5 3 o 1 5 o 1 o 1 o 1 Davis County o 1 Weber County o 1 Wayne County o 1 99 109 South Dakota Hughes County Wyoming Albany County Kansas Phillips County New Mexico Mora County San Miguel County Socorro County Chaves County Texas Randall County PACIFIC FLYWAY Montana Lake County Oregon Lake County Nevada Washoe County Utah Total �-83Table 2. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recaptured, postseason in north-central Colorado, January 1972. Area Direct Indirect 2 2 Dowling Lake Area o 3 Brooks Area o 1 Eyebrow Lake 1 o Cypress Hills Area 2 1 Blaine County o 1 Phillips County 4 4 o 1 1 1 Mora County 4 2 Socorro County 1 1 Chaves County 1 1 o 1 o 1 16 20 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Saskatchewan Moose Jaw Area CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana South Dakota Charles Mix County Wyoming Albany County New Mexico Texas Randall County PACIFIC FLYWAY Montana Lake County Total �-84Table 3. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered or recaptured in north-central Colorado during the winter of 1971-72. Year of Banding Location Before 1966 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 2 5 19 Alberta Edmonton Camrose Area 10 miles E. of Camrose 1 Dowling Lake Aeea Brooks Area 1 1 Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Area Supreme Area 2 Maple Creek Area Cypress Lake 7 2 4 Moose Jaw Area Eyebrow Lake 1 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Blaine County 2 Phillips County 3 Garfield County Bighorn County 3 3 6 7 8 1 20, (12) (1) 2 3 North Dakota Ward County (1) PACIFIC FLYWAY Oregon Lake County 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-85- Table 3. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered or recaptured in north-central Colorado during the winter of 1971-72 (continued). Year of Banding Location Before 1966 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 Utah Weber County 1 Davis County Wayne Coun ty 1 1 1/ Numbers in parentheses indicate geese classified as immatures when banded during the summer period. The most recent harvest distribution for short grass geese on the Canadian prairies shows an approximate 50-50 split for the two provinces (Szymczak 1971b). As is indicated in the combined Figs. 1 and 2. six small birds were reported taken in Alberta, compared to the one mentioned above, in Saskatchewan. This distribution suggests the small geese wintering in northcentral Colorado may be closely associated to the Alberta portion of the short grass prairie population and do not use the Saskatchewan side to any great degree. Grieb (1970) suggested that birds of the short grass prairie population using predominantly Alberta as a staging area were generally members of a western segment of that population which breed along the Mackenzie River, and on south into northern Alberta. Additional recovery years are definitely needed to substantiate any migrational boundaries. All recoveries in Saskatchewan were south of the South Saskatchewan River and within the defined Cypress Hills area (Fig. 2). a suspected breeding concentration area for Hi-Line Canada geese (Szymczak 1971a). The distribution of recoveries in Saskatchewan for 1971 bandings was very similar to the distribution of the 1968 banded cohort (Szymczak 1971a). Four of the eight recoveries in Montana for 1971 banded birds were taken along the Yellowstone River and adjacent areas in Big Horn and Treasure counties. This area was discussed earlier as a potential breeding area for Hi-Line geese and these recoveries of winter banded birds lend support to that claim. Color Marking--Approximately 130 geese were color-marked during January 1971 post-season banding operations in Colorado and New Mexico. It was hoped that sightings of these marked birds would help define breeding areas in the Canadian Provinces. Only one bird was observed. That bird was sighted in the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan, a suspected Hi-Line breeding area. �, ; I ' I ~ /' II I,i I ! , ---1-1-tt1' 7· -T'I ! Ii, ' , ,---- ; ! : I ! I ! • Banded as 1mm. X Banded as Adult o Banded as lrnrn, (size 7) e Banded as Adult (size 7) S Experimental i Fig. 1. Distribution of recoveries reported taken outside of Colorado during the 1971-72 hunting season of birds banded in north-central Colorado, January 1971. ...J �I'- o Co o 'J en o -- ~ x x -87- J I \- I l0 ; to o - - - I'N <I) ~ E <{ "0 "3 E E .:!!- '" . - "0 <I) -- - - I/) 0 OJ ® >< w. <D a. QJ. c: 0 E •... 0 "0 ~ III <I) X 0 • x <I) ~ -"0-~c: c: c: 0 0 0 en m (Q ::c ~x· ~ .><<0 ...., ;1; - -)(- Q x Fig. 2. Distribution of recoveries reported taken in the Cypress Hills area and the two adjacent degree blocks to the west during the 1971-72 hunting season of birds banded in north-central Colorado, January 1971. (J') o V �-88- SUMMARY Band recoveries during the 1970-71 season presented additional evidence that the Edrnonton-Camrose and Dowling Lake areas in Alberta, and the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan are Hi-Line population production areas. Further analysis indicated that the Yellowstone River and adjacent areas in Big Horn and Treasure counties may be Hi-Line production areas. In addition, the small Canada geese wintering in north-central Colorado may be members of the western segment on the short grass prairie population as described by Grieb 1970. Migration Routes or Harv~st Patterns The distribution of harvest during the 1971-72 season of birds banded in north-central Colorado in January 1968 was essentially the same as during the 1970-71 season (Table 3). Colorado continues to be the major recovery area in the south, with Saskatchewan and Montana the northern harvest areas. Table 3. Distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded post-season in north-central Colorado, 1967-68. Area Recovery Year 1969-70 1970-71 No. Percent No. Percent 1971-72 No. Percent No. Percent British Columbia 0 0.0 1 3.7 0 0.0 0 0.0 Alberta 1 4.2 3 11.1 0 0.0 a 0.0 Saskatchewan 11 45.8 9 33.3 3 12.0 3 10.3 Montana 4 16.7 a 0.0 2 8.0 4 13.8 Idaho 1 4.2 1 3.7 a 0.0 a 0.0 South Dakota 0 0.0 1 3.7 a 0.0 1 3.4 Wyoming a 0.0 1 3.7 a 0.0 2 6.9 Nebraska a 0.0 1 3.7 a 0.0 1 3.4 North Central 5 20.8 10 37.0 19 76.0 18 62.1 Southeast 1 4.2 a 0.0 1 4.0 a 0.0 Arizona 1 4.2 0 0.0 a 0.0 a 0.0 Total 24 Colorado 27 25 29 �-89- The first year recovery distribution of birds banded in January 1971 presented a somewhat different picture than the 1968 bandings (Table 4). Alberta became a recovery area of some significance for "large" birds wearing size 8 bands, as well as for small birds, as was discussed in a previous section. Alberta accounted for 18.5 percent of the total number of recoveries, 40 percent of the small birds, 12.7 percent of the large, and 33.3 percent of the experimentals, which were also large. Saskatchewan was the major northern recovery area for 1971 banded "large" birds as it generally has been for the 1968 bandings. A smaller percent of the recoveries from the 1971 banding were taken in Colorado during the 1971-72 season than from the 1968 bandings. Additional recovery years will be needed to substantiate any population distributional changes that may have occurred. Of significant interest is the apparent erratic migration and resulting winter distribution pattern of small Canada geese9 supposedly members of the short grass prairie population, which are sometimes present in the Hi-Line population area of Colorado. In January 1971. 148 birds subjectively judged to be "small", were banded in north-central Colorado. During the first recovery year, five of those small birds were taken in Colorado, three in the north-central portion of the state and two in the normal short grass prairie population range in the southeast part of the state. Conversely, from bandings in January and February, 1971 in the southeast part of the state, one bird was recovered and three recaptured during the winter of 1971-72 in north-central Colorado. From the 1967-68 season through the 1971-72 season there have been 3, 7, 4, 9, and 5 short grass prairie banded birds from southeast Colorado reported taken during the respective seasons in northcentral Colorado. This continued erratic migrational pattern makes it totally impossible to predict the number of supposedly short grass prairie birds that can be expected in the Hi-Line area of Colorado during anyone year. Distribution Coordinated counts throughout the Hi-Line population range during the fall and winter period of 1971-72 indicated a slight increase in total population numbers over 1970-71 levels (Table 5). The distribution remainded essentially the same as the previous year, with the bulk of the birds in Colorado. Within the state of Colorado there were some mentionable shifts in the distribution (Table 6). There was a definite increase in the number of birds using the Brighton-Greeley-Ft. Morgan area. During the 1970-71 season an average of four percent of the geese in the Hi-Line area were located in the Brighton-Greeley-Ft. Morgan area. During the 1971-72 season an average of 16 percent used that same area. Another population shift occurred within the Longmont-Boulder-Denver area resulting in a substantial increase in geese in the Metropolitan Denver area and a reduction in numbers in the Longmont area, in comparison to the 1970-71 distribution. The distribution by water area is presented in Table 7. Again in 1971-72, as during the previous two years, there was a substantial decrease in the number of geese recorded in the Colorado Hi-Line area between the late December and early January counts (Table 6). The reason for this consistent yearly decline is still unknown. �-90Table 4. Distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded post-season in north-central Colorado, 1970-71. Area Alberta Band Size 8-746 No. Percent Band Size 7B-148 No. Percent Experimental (Lar~e)-97 No. Percent No. Total Percent 9 12.5 6 40.0 2 33.3 17 18.3 Saskatchewan 13 18.1 1 6.7 2 33.3 16 17.2 Montana 6 8.3 2 13.3 0 0.0 8 8.6 South Dakota 2 2.8 1 6.7 0 0.0 3 3.2 Wyoming 2 2.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 2 2.2 Nebraska 2 2.8 0 0.0 O. 0.0 2 2.2 NorthCentral 35 48.6 3 20.0 2 33.3 40 43.0 Southeast 0 0.0 2 13.3 0 0.0 2 2.2 Arizona 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.1 Pennsylvania 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.1 Unknown 1 1.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 1.1 Total 72 Colorado Percent Recovered 15 9.7 6 10.1 93 6.5 9.4 �-91- Table 5. Results of Hi-Line Canada goose population inventories, 1971-72. Location Nov. 3 Saskatchewan 9,415 Montana Nov. 23 Dec. 21 Jan. 10 12,902 5,629 323 481 Wyoming 3,900 2,032 3,335 1,150 Colorado 34,419 53,778 55,517 33,520 418 1,113 2,061 1,962 Totals 61,054 62,552 61,236 37,113 Comparati ve Totals 1970-71 31,149 52,926 58,367 44,712 New Mexico Hunting Pressure and Harvest An estimated 12,920 hunters harvested 14,771 geese in north-central Colorado during the 1971-72 season (Tables 8 and 9). Substantial increases in harvest on a percentage basis were recorded in Weld, Boulder, and Morgan counties (Table 10). The harvest in Larimer County remained essentially the same, with the Adams County harvest declining slightly (Table 10). The large percentage increase in harvest in Boulder County was probably the result of a decrease in the size of the closed area in that county. Again the majority of the active hunters did not harvest any geese (Table 11). However, this majority is decreasing in size on a yearly basis. San Luis Valley Foreign Band Recoveries The number of foreign bands reported recovered in the San Luis Valley during the first two San Luis Valley Special goose seasons are presented in Table 12. The recoveries show very little consistency in terms of the area of banding between the two years. Birds from Hi-Line areas (Garfield County) are represented in the 1971-72 season recoveries but defnitely not to the degree exhibited in 1970-71 (Dowling Lake, Phillips County, MOntana; north-central Colorado) . �-92- Table 6. Winter inventories of the Colorado Hi-Line Canada goose population. Count Date Fort Co11insLoveland LongmontBou1derDenver BrightonGree1eyFort Morgan 9,739 2,883 991 13,613 12,217 4,029 678 16,924 15,848 20,905 19,693 3,461 4,236 4,874 2,667 1,170 775 21,976 26,311 25,342 8,737 31,350 18,522 30,650 2,255 3,782 5,668 5,060 390 1,374 1,259 1,914 11,382 36,506 25,499 37,624 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 1,690 16,710 12,664 15,566 348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 25,699 31,072 31,516 19,117 1,815 1/ 9,181 19,525 10,742 6,905 13,525 4,476 3,661 34,419 53,778 55,517 33,520 Total 1967 January 9 1968 January 10 1968-69 November 20 December 19 January 2 & 13 1969-70 November 5 November 28 December 23 January 6 1970-71 November 4 November 23 December 22 January 6 1971-72 November 4 November 23 December 21 January 10 1/ Denver area not included. �-93- Table 7. Results of north-central Colorado goose surveys, 1971-72. Area Nov. 3 Nov. 23 Dec. 21 Jan. 10 3,500 2,450 340 2,000 2,360 170 2,100 19 1,195 11 8 1 o o 107 10 253 Ft. Collins-Loveland Lindenmeier Lake Reservoir No. 8 Reservoir No. 8 Annex Elder Reservoir Reservoir No. 5 Reservoir No. 6 Bureau of Standards Douglas Reservoir Rocky Ridge Reservoir Cement Plant Reservoir Terry Lake Mountain Supply Reservoir College Lake Herring Lake Claymore Lake Sterling Pond Watson Lake Dean Lake Greenwalt (Nelson) Lake Fossil Creek Reservoir Boyd Lake Horseshoe Lake Hollister Lake New Windsor Rservoir Woods (Eaton) Lake Timnath Reservoir Cobb Lake Black Hollow Reservoir Park Wood Lake Boxelder Reservoir Warren Reservoir Dixon Reservoir Reservoir No. 15 Owl Creek Reservoir Newel Lake Reservoir No.4 Demmel Lake Sub-total o o 1,325 63 31 127 o o o 10 o 2,400 130 1,000 o 1,200 156 320 311 o 1,900 320 21 o 3,000 o 1,050 350 1,050 273 850 18 575 550 600 o o o 25,699 475 2,728 o 2,140 2,395 1,590 2,559 1,138 1,456 o o o o o 426 200 o o o o 4,270 757 o o 3,252 5,150 o o 651 2,610 1,045 661 3 o 1,500 200 1,000 500 5,500 250 63 218 84 425 2,510 665 2,500 3,500 411 656 1,195 242 o 75 3,700 300 130 3,087 300 51 517 95 340 o 150 8,750 350 51 530 o 2 323 4 o o o 335 178 400 154 o o o o o o o 310 o 128 o 65 o 31,072 31,516 19,117 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-94- Table 7. Results of north-central Colorado goose surveys, 1971-72 (cont.). Area Nov. 3 Brighton-Gree1ey-Ft. Dec. 21 Jan. 10 850 500 525 15 0 2,500 1,955 50 0 20 1,450 0 525 0 0 2,476 0 460 0 0 6,905 13,525 4,476 3,661 34,419 53,778 55,517 33,520 Morgan Area (continued) Empire Reservoir Riverside Reservoir Jackson Reservoir Pond near Cornish K-4 Ranch Sub-total Grand Total Table 8. area. Nov. 23 Hunter activity and success in north-central Colorado goose permit Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1964-65 1,608 1,427 6.1 0.48 1965-66 2,335 1,578 6.5 0.53 1966-67 3,996 2,910 5.1 0.41 1967-68 3,000 2,256 6.7 0.55 1968-69 3,000 2,379 9.2 1.11 1969-70 8,342 6,149 7.4 0.68 1970-71 13,611 11,187 6.9 1.08 1971-72 14,847 12,920 7.3 1.14 Year �-95- Table 7. Results of north-central Colorado goose surveys, 1971-72 (cont.). Area Boulder-Longmont Nov. 3 Nov. 23 Dec. 21 Jan. 10 450 430 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 850 20 20 0 0 0 33 4,450 52 29 25 0 300 300 150 2,450 22 0 44 25 150 44 4,625 360 0 25 0 50 150 0 9,000 0 0 18 0 0 28 1,286 930 12 0 500 100 0 100 4,500 0 0 77 0 0 1,815 8,030 14,272 7,533 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 57 0 107 0 0 84 3 63 11 43 783 0 133 95 1,970 382 0 37 '0 0 0 74 0 462 2,100 0 153 291 1,870 0 257 0 256 0 0 0 0 0 0 382 0 1,151 5,253 3,209 260 2,800 150 0 1,805 1,200 1,500 3,000 3,000 300 900 700 1 500 400 350 275 0 100 0 Area Ish Lake Terry Lake (Longmont) McIntosh Lake Foothills Reservoir Faivre Ponds Swede Lake Dodd Lake Baller Lake Boulder Reservoir Valmont Reservoir Crystal Lake Highland Lake Union Reservoir Steel Lake Lugerman Lake Sub-total ". Denver Area Sloans Lake Standley Lake Bowles Lake Area Marston Reservoir Denver City Park Great Western Reservoir Cherry Creek Reservoir Washington Park Rocky Mountain Arsenal Tule Lake Lower TUle Lake Kings Pond Green Gables Country Club Englewood Reservoir Sub-total Brighton-Greele~-Ft. Morgan Area Barr Lake Horsecreek Reservoir Prospect Reservoir Latham Reservoir Milton Reservoir ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-96- Table 9. Distribution of harvest, by county, in the north-central Colorado goose permit area. Year Larimer Weld 1964-65 504 181 1965-66 665 144 29 838 1966-67 764 409 11 1,184 1967-68 944 265 37 1,246 1968-69 1,584 886 161 2,631 1969-70 2,431 1,112 383 146 100 4,172 1970-71 7,486 3,544 620 93 370 12,112 1971-72 7,723 4,484 1,804 464 296 14,771 Boulder Morgan Adams Total 685 Table 10. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in north-central Colorado, 1971- 72. Larimer County Estimated Number 1970-71 Estimated Number 1971-72 Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 6,977 (+ 328) 43,046 (+3,851) 7,541 (± 868) 6.2 1.08 0.175 6,760 (+ 285) 41,535 (+3,217) 7,723 693) 6.1 1.14 0.186 4,293 (+ 308) 22,557 (±2,677) 3,497 (+ 595) 5.3 0.81 0.155 5,911 (+ 280) 31,914 (+3,126) 4,484 (± 514) 5.4 0.76 0.141 (± Percent Change From 1970-71 + + + 3.1 5.5 2.4 1.6 5.6 6.3 Weld County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip + + + + 37.7 41.5 28.2 1.9 6.2 9.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-97- Table 10. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in north-central 1971-72 (continued). Colorado, Estimated Number 1970-71 Estimated Number 1971-72 1,231 (+ 186) 7,543 (+2,207) 620 (+ 229) 6.1 0.50 0.082 2,296 (+ 206) 14,961 (+1,962) 1,804 (+ 353) 6.5 0.79 0.121 + 86.5 + 98.3 + 191.0 + 6.6 + 58.0 + 47.6 759 (+ 147) 2,147 (+ 580) 93 (± 64) 2.8 0.12 0.043 1,104 (+ 149) 3,774 (+ 738) 464 (+ 166) 3.4 0.42 0.123 + 45.5 + 75.8 + 398.9 + 21.4 + 250.0 + 186.0 592 (+ 131) 2,294 (+.: 818) 361 (+ 147) 3.8 0.60 0.157 545 (+ 107) 2,288 (+ 681) 296 (± 152) 4.2 0.54 0.129 7.9 0.3 18.0 10.5 10.0 17.8 11,187 (+ 254) 77,587 (+4,403) 12,112 (±:1,005) 6.9 1.08 0.156 12,920 (+ 189) 94,472 (+4,027) 14,771 (+ 850) 7.3 1.14 0.156 Pe rcen t Change From 1970-71 Boulder County 1/ Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip Morgan County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip Adams County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip + Entire Permit Area Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 1/ Boulder County permit area enlarged in 1971-72. + + + + + 15.5 21.8 22.0 5.8 5.6 o �-98- Table 11. Estimated distribution of season bag for active hunters in the north-central Colorado permit area. Season Bag Total 1969-70 Number Percent Hunting Season 1970-71 Number Percent 1971-72 Number Percent 0 4,263 69.3 6,588 58.9 7,006 54.2 1 836 13.6 1,620 14.5 2,209 17.1 2 452 7.4 1,073 9.6 1,428 11.1 3 238 3.9 564 5.0 768 5.9 4 153 2.5 528 4.7 633 4.9 5 138 2.2 342 3.1 371 2.9 6 69 1.1 472 4.2 505 3.9 6,149 100.0 11,187 100.0 12,920 100.0 The most informative recoveries are those from Wheatland Reservoir in Albany County, Wyoming. Evidence that sub-adult geese from the San Luis Valley have been migrating to Wheatland to molt has been accumulating since goose restoration efforts began at San Luis Lake in the San Luis Valley in 1969. Most of this evidence has been documented by Szymczak, 1970 and Szymczak 1971c. The five recoveries of Wheatland banded birds is the most conclusive positive evidence uncovered to date. Three of the Wheatland birds recoverd were banded in 1970 and two in 1971. Distribution and Harvest Aerial surveys conducted in the San Luis Valley during the 1971-72 season indicated that for the second consecutive year the majority of the birds were utilizing the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge (Table 13). After the original count on October 31, the birds not located on the Refuge were found on the rivers. There were generally about the same number of geese in the San Luis Valley during the 1971-72 season as during the 1970-71 season (Table 14). A total of 350 permits were issued authorizing the taking of one goose for the 1971-72 special San Luis Valley season. According to the special goose harvest survey, an estimated 296 hunters harvested 177 geese for an average season bag of 0.60 (Tables 15 and 16). Approximately 60 percent of the birds harvested were reported taken within two miles of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. The majority of the remainder of the harvest was taken along the Rio Grande River between Monte Vista and Alamosa. �-99- Table 12. Banding areas outside the San Luis Valley of geese recovered within the San Luis Valley during the 1970-71 and 1971-72 hunting seasons. 1970-71 Area Number of Recoveries Recovery Date 2 1-2-71 1971-72 Number of Recoveries Recovery Date 2 12-2-71 Alberta Dowling Lake 1-5-71 Montana Phillips County 1 11-14-70 Garfield County 12-11-71 Wyoming, Albany County 1 1-12-71 5 (Wheatland Reservoir) 11-27-71 12-17-71 1-15-72 1-16-72 3-4-72 1/ Fremont County (Ocean Lake) 1 11-4-71 1 11-23-71 1 11-24-71 Colorado North-central 2 11-6-70 11-14-70 1 11-6-71 Texas Waggner Ranch-Panhandle New Mexico Soccoro County Wisconsin Columbia County 1/ Found dead. Assumed shot during the season. �-100- Table 13. Results of Canada goose surveys during the 1971-72 hunting season in the San Luis Valley. Area October 31 Number of Geese November 23 December 21 January 6 Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge 1,000 400 980 1,100 125 131 Rio Grande River Del Norte to Monte Vista 10 Monte Vista to Alamosa 200 483 );/ 140 0 Alamosa South 45 0 0 0 0 0 10 55 San Luis - Head Lakes 300 0 0 0 Smith Reservoir 15 0 0 0 Pond North of La Jara 0 30 0 0 1,570 913 1,255 1,286 Conejos River Total !/ Includes birds from Del Norte to Monte Vista, if present. Table 14. Comparison of 1970-71 to 1971-72 Canada goose winter inventories in the San Luis Valley. Year October 1970-71 1971-72 1,570 Number of Geesell November December January 1,490 1,050 1,261 913 1,255 1,286 !/ Compared monthly, inventories for the two years were taken within five days of each other. �-101- Table 15. Hunter activity and success in the San Luis Valley permit area. Year Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Days Hunted 1970-71 200 164 3.4 0.65 1971-72 350 296 4.2 0.60 Average Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter Table 16. area. Distribution of harvest, by county, in the San Luis Valley permit Year Rio Grande Alamosa Saguache Conejos Total 1970-71 74 31 2 o 107 1971-72 121 50 1 5 177 Harvest and hunter activity for the entire permit area for both the 1970-71 and 1971-72 seasons are presented in Table 17. Table 17. Hunting pressure and harvest in the San Luis Valley goose permit area, 1971-72. Estimated Number 1970-71 Estimated Number 1971-72 Total Individual Hunters 164 (+ 3) 296 (+ 5) Total Hunter Trips 556 (+ 20) 1,236 (+ 36) Total Geese Bagged 107 (+ 4) 177 (+ Entire Permit Area Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 3.4 4.2 Average Bag/Hunter 0.65 0.60 Average Bag/Hunter Trip 0.19 0.14 6) �-102- West-central Colorado A limited Canada goose hunting season was initiated in west-central Colorado in 1971. The west-central Colorado population was established through restoration efforts along the Colorado Ri'Terbelow Grand Jucntion which began in 1967. The resulting breeding population has been essentially nonmigratory and birds from other populations have begun using the area during the fall and winter period. Hunter Activity and Harvest One hundred and fifty permits were issued authorizing the taking of one Canada goose within the west-central goose permit area. The season ran from November 27, 1971 to December 19, 1971. The permit area included all of Mesa and Garfield counties. An estimated 112 hunters harvested 33 geese for an average seasonal bag of 0.29 birds per active hunter (Tables 18 and 19). Table 18. Hunter activity and success in the west-central Colorado goose permit area. Year Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1971-72 150 112 2.9 .29 Table 19. Hunting pressure and harvest in the west-central Colorado goose permit area, 1971. Total Individual Hunters 112 (+ 4) Total Hunter Trips 329 (+ 20) Total Geese Bagged 33 (+ 4) Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 2.9 Average Bag/Hunter 0.29 Average Bag/Hunter Trip 0.10 Approximately 55 percent of the birds harvested were taken within five miles of Highline Reservoir. Another 28 percent were taken along the Colorado River below Loma. �-103- The results of pre- and post-season aerial inventories of birds within the permit area are presented in Table 20. Table 20. Canada goose inventories, west-central Colorado. Date November 24, 1971 January 5, 1972 Area Highline Lake 365 53 Silt to Palisade 49 259 Grand Junction to Fruita Bridge o 6 Fruita Bridge to Utah Stateline 71 583 Colorado River Gunnison River Black Canyon to North Fork 21 Confluence North Fork and Gunnison 35 Delta to Grand Junction 32 Total 485 989 LITERATURE CITED Grieb, J. R. 1970. The short grass prairie Canada goose popUlation. Monogr. No. 22. 49 pp. Wild!. Szymczak, M. R. 1970. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 81-93 pp. Szymczak, M. R. 1971a. Studies of Canada goose popUlations in Colorado transplant areas. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game. Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 165-189 pp. Szymczak, M. R. 1971b. Arkansas Valley Canada goose flock management studies. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. 129-164 pp. Szymczak, M. R. 1971c. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 115-127 pp. Prepared by 711.;.&,.. P aZ 4r G-L Michael R. Szymczak Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��October, -105- 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C~O~L~O~RA~D~O~~ _ Project No. W-88-R-17 Work Plan No. Job Title December of Mallard Management 1, 1971 through April Richard Hopper, Michael Szymczak, Dale Coven and Howard Funk. Bird Investigations 6 Job No. Investigations Period Covered: Personnel: Kitzmiller, 3 Migratory Units of Eastern Colorado 1, 1972 Clait Braun, Jack Corey, Robert ABSTRACT Post-season mallard trapping and banding efforts for the winter of 1971-72 were again successful. Division personnel banded 6,564 mallards in 9 study units in eastern Colorado from mid-January through most of February, 1972. Winter census figures peaked higher in 1971-72 than the previous year to a new high since 1957 and 1958. Early November, 1971 produced a high of 422,000 birds in eastern Colorado, 453,000 were censused in late November, and peak numbers of 566,000 were observed in mid-December. The January count dropped somewhat to 344,000 birds. Sex ratio counts averaged about 58 percent males in January and February populations, similar to those of previous years, again indicating the point system drake mallard-oriented regulations had little effect on altering sex ratios of wintering mallards in the western Central Flyway. Hunting pressure was indicated to have increased substantially in 1971-72 over the previous year and harvest increased correspondingly. Greatest increase in pressure and harvest occurred in north-central Colorado. ��-107- INVESTIGATIONS OF MALLARD MANAGEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO Howard D. Funk Banding of wintering populations of mallards post-season in eastern Colorado, initiated in 1963-64, was continued in 1971-72. Purpose of the effort is to contribute data to the cooperative Central Flyway program to determine the feasibility of splitting the Flyway into two management units. Recognition of the western or High Plains Unit has been progressing well in the past few years. Also, more intensive analysis is being accomplished within Colorado to see if management can be refined even more so on a unit basis within Colorado. Further, mallards banded in Colorado since initiation of the study have been aged (adult or immature) according to wing characteristics, which is a very reliable method. Thus, differential mortality and survival estimates, as well as differing migration routes will be discernable over the years by age as well as sex. Monitor banding will continue in Colorado until the initial cohort of birds banded in 1963-64 are eliminated from the population. This report mainly covers the results of banding and survey data collected during the segments. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for eastern Colorado management units. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To analyze for each of nine eastern Colorado study areas of wintering mallards, all data collected from 1963-64 through the 1970-71 hunting season on the discreteness of populations and publish results in an appropriate journal. 2. To determine the feasibility of requesting special hunting regulations for individual mallard management units within Colorado. 3. To trap, band, age, and sex samples of mallards during winter in each management unit, based on results of final analYSis, of sufficient size to allow adequate monitoring of each population. 4. To investigate the ability and/or willingness of hunters to abide by the point-system regulation established for the 1971-72 duck hunting season. METHODS AND MATERIALS Cage traps were again the main type of trap utilized although some birds were captured with cannon-nets. Trapping was again conducted from immediately after season, mid-January, until almost the end of February. Because �-108- data have shown the San Luis Valley no longer seems to be an important wintering area for northern ducks, no birds were trapped in that area. study areas were again reduced to eight units. Thus, Periodic aerial censuses were again conducted to estimate movements and numbers of birds present in the State. Ground sex ratio counts were conducted as described in previous segment reports. A tape containing updated information on band recoveries through the 1970-71 season was obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory. Data were extracted and made ready for analysis during the segment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Banding quotas of six to eight hundred mallards were set for each of the eight study areas, and quotas were reached or exceeded in all but one area (Table 1). Management Units 11 and 12 are listed separately in Table 1, but for this study are considered one unit. Good weather conditions for trapping were conducive to excellent results, with the trapping effort being completed prior to the end of February. Attempts to band nearly equal numbers of birds by age (adult and immature) and sex were quite successful (Table 1). As usual, adult male mallards were the easiest to obtain, followed by immature males, immature females and adult females. Many birds, especially adult males, were released unbanded so as not to cheapen the band recovery rates by excessive numbers banded for any age or sex group. Winter Sex Ratio Counts Results of sex ratio ground counts are displayed in Table 2 by area. A total of 11,484 birds were observed with an overall rate of 58.1 percent males present. This is close to rates observed in past years, those averaging about 60 percent males. There was some variation observed among areas and dates of observation, but this can be expected. The important factor is that ratios continue to be high toward males, suggesting males continue to have higher survival rates than females even though regulations have been aimed toward greater harvest of the drake. The data also suggest that Colorado, or even western Central Flyway hunting pressure is not sufficient to have greatly altered the sex ratios under drake-oriented regulations in recent years. Winter Aerial Surveys Dates and results of the periodic aerial counts are shown in Table 3 by area. Birds were in good supply over most of eastern Colorado by early November and peaked to near record high levels in mid-December. Numbers dropped by early January, which usually occurs in most years. Bonny Reservoir had record numbers of birds from mid-November through the January count; about twice the average wintering population in comparison with other years. Ample food in the area, a relatively mild winter, and little hunting pressure all probably contributed to this event. �Table 1. 1971-72. Numbers and percentages of mallards in the banded sample by age, sex, and area, eastern Colorado, Adult Female Male Percent No. Percent Immature Male Female Percent No. Percent No. Banded No. (1) Sterling-Julesburg 900 252 28.0 169 18.8 255 28.3 224 24.9 (2) Fort Morgan-Sterling 800 200 25.0 239 29.9 193 24.1 168 21.0 (3) Greeley-Fort Morgan 800 207 25.9 161 20.1 209 26.1 223 27.9 (4) Fort Collins 831 205 24.7 155 18.6 217 26.1 254 30.6 (6) Denver-Greeley 900 232 25.8 132 14.7 228 25.3 308 34.2 Management Unit No. I I-' (9) Bonny Reservoir 1,000 257 25.7 250 25.0 247 24.7 246 24.6 (11) Two Buttes Reservoir 487 122 25.0 175 35.9 66 13.6 124 25.5 (12) Rocky Ford-Lamar 400 197 49.2 98 24.5 42 10.5 63 15.8 (13) Pueb1o~Rocky Ford 446 180 40.4 73 16.4 89 20.0 104 23.2 6,564 1,852 28.2 1,452 22.1 1,546 23.6 1,714 26.1 Totals 0 \0 I �-110- Table 2. Mallard post-season sex ratio counts by study unit, winter of 1971-72. Managemen t Uni t and Date No. Ducks Counted Male Female Total Percent Males Ster1ing-Julesburs ~Unit 1) 2-17-72 South platte River 2-18-72 Jumbo Reservoir 312 322 197 192 509 514 61. 3 62.6 Fort Morgan-Ster1ins (Unit 2~ 2-17-72 South Platte River 2-18-72 South Platte River 303 302 210 236 513 538 59.1 56.1 Gree1e~-Fort Morgan (Unit 3) 2-17-72 South Platte River 2-18-72 South Platte River 252 194 180 156 432 350 58.3 55.4 Fort Collins Area (Unit 4) 2-7-72 Woods Lake 2-18-72 Hollister Lake 289 308 229 229 518 537 55.8 57.4 Denver-Gree1e~ (Unit 6~ 2-17-72 South Platte River 2-18-72 South Platte River 309 286 199 217 508 503 60.8 56.8 Bonn~ Reservoir Area (Unit 9) 1-15-72 Bonny Reservoir 1-16-72 Bonny Reservoir 1-17-72 Bonny Reservoir 1-17-72 Bonny Reservoir 1-17-72 Bonny Reservoir 1-18-72 Bonny Reservoir 1-19-72 Bonny Reservoir 2-11-72 Bonny Reservoir 2-11-72 Bonny Reservoir 2-12-72 Bonny Reservoir 310 310 299 270 280 295 303 260 288 295 204 231 239 248 229 207 205 240 226 239 514 541 538 518 509 502 508 500 514 534 60.3 57.3 55.6 52.1 55.0 58.8 59.6 52.0 56.0 55.2 Arkansas Val1e~ (Units 11 and 12) 1-15-72 John Martin Reservoir 1-15-72 Verhoeff Reservoir 1-16-72 Turk's Pond 1-16-72 Two Buttes Reservoir 2-3-72 Two Buttes Reservoir 75 54 171 259 327 49 47 64 211 127 124 101 235 470 454 60.5 53.5 72.8 55.1 72.0 6,673 4,811 11,484 58.1 Total �Table 3. Aerial duck counts by date interval and study unit, eastern Colorado, 1971-72. Management Unit Nov. 3-4 Number of Ducks Counted Nov. 22-24 Dec. 20-22 Jan. 4, 6 (1) Sterling-Julesburg 64,500 55,100 60,030 21,800 (2) Fort Morgan-Sterling 43,200 34,800 78,100 34,600 (3) Greeley-Fort Morgan 53,400 64,800 81,200 50,250 (4) Fort Collins 144,820 82,055 58,200 31,850 (6) Denver-Greeley 65,260 63,700 116,350 76,000 (9) Bonny Reservoir 30,000 63,200 !/ 77 ,000 69,000 Y 71 ,400 35,000 (10-13) (15) Arkansas Valley San Luis Valley Total !/ December 6, 1971. ~/ Not censused. 1/ San Luis Valley not included. 21,100 69,700 -- 'fj 19,635 24,148 25t940 452,990 566,428 344,440 422,280 ]j I I-' I-' I-' I �-112- Wing Surveys As in previous years, age and sex ratios of mallards harvested in Colorado were obtained through the annual Wing Bee conducted by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. These data are presented in Bureau administrative reports and will be utilized in final analyses and reports. Hunting Pressure Surveys Duck hunting pressure and harvest by unit was again examined (Table 4). Number of hunters and harvest estimated from the small game harvest survey were paired with estimated numbers of birds censused by unit. As the year before, the mid-December count data were utilized in the comparison. This method has to be considered quite crude and comparisons are good only for the year and not between years, mainly because of varying numbers of birds present. However, the comparison continues to show relative hunting pressure is greatest nearer the more highly population cities. The Bonny Reservoir area (Unit 9) continues to have fewest hunters present per available birds. Unit 1 also dropped quite low in relation to other areas. This is partially explained by an indicated drop in numbers of hunters from 1970 while all other areas increased in numbers as estimated from the harvest survey. The Arkansas Valley also increased in comparative. pressure. Evaluation of the Point-system Duck Season Colorado again participated in gathering hunter performance data to evaluate the ability and/or willingness of hunters to abide by point-system regulations. Data were gathered and submitted to Patuxent Research Station for analysis by a group of State and Federal personnel. A total of 28 usable hunter checks were obtained in the State. Findings from all participating states were reported in the Bureau's Administrative Report No. 215 (Kimball et al.). As per previous years, data indicated the assigned point values tended to direct hunting pressure away from high point birds, such as the mallard hen, and toward lower point birds, including mallard drakes. Behavior of hunters was indicated to have been good with relatively few violations directly related to point-system regulations observed. Analysis of Band Recovery Data Considerable time was spent in analysis of band recovery data through the 1969-70 hunting season. Also, the Bureau furnished an update tape which was utilized for extracting data for the 1970-71 season. These data are in the process of being combined. One of the major efforts during the next segment will be to ascertain which of the management units contain duck populations with like migration and harvest characteristics. Preliminary analyses suggest Units 1, 2, and 9 are similar, Units 3, 4, and 6 seem closely related, and that Units in the Arkansas Valley are all closely related. This information will be utilized mainly for distinguishing areas of monitor banding in the continuing cooperative study of the High Plains Mallard Management Unit. �-113- Table 4. Hunter pressure, harvest and population survey data for comparison between management units and areas, 1971-72 duck season. .;» Estimated Estimated Duck Ducks Hunters '];/ Bag.ged J:../ Average Bag Per Hunter2/ Number Number Hunters Ducks Present Per 100 Censused3/ Ducks Censused Northeast Unit 1 1,652 12,400 7.5 60,030 2.8 Unit 2 3,273 27,292 8.3 78,100 4.2 Unit 9 1,038 6,634 6.4 77 ,000 1.3 5,963 46,326 7.8 215,130 2.8 Unit 3 6,265 54,033 8.6 81,200 7.7 Unit 4 4,248 25,988 6.1 58,200 7.3 Unit 6 6,438 49.716 7.7 116,350 5.5 16,951 129,737 7.7 255,750 6.6 Unit 10 1,069 6,113 5.7 Unit 11 297 811 2.7 Unit 12 2,013 14,312 7.1 Unit 13 1,434 12,342 8.6 Total 4,813 33,578 7.0 71,400 6.7 Total North Central Total Southeast l/ See Fig. 1 for management unit locations. J:../ Figures from 1971-72 Colorado small game harvest survey. 1/ Data from Table 3, December 21 census. ~/ Inventory data for Arkansas Valley usable only as total. LITERATURE CITED Kimball, C. F., R. Bridges, C. D. Crider, J. H. Dunks, R. M. Hopper, D. D. Kennedy, J. McDaniels and W. Okamoto. 1972. Results in the hunter performance survey in the point regulation test states, 1971. Mig. Bird Pop. Sta. Admin. Rept. No. 215. Bur. of Sport Fish. & Wi1d1., Laurel, Md. June 28. 21 pp. Prepared by arQ~auJ2[}d~z,-L How::Irnn 1<'••~ 1. •..•_ _ ,,1.. -'_ s: �< <J) " w z < :E 0 .J :r -c 0 '" , :1 -, �October, -115- 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Migratory 4 Bird Investigations Job No. Trapping 3 and Banding Doves April 1, 1971 through March 31, 1972 Personnel: Charles Hayes, Dale Horne and Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Clait E. Braun, Howard D. Funk, J. Edward Kautz, Wilbur Ladd, Brett Petersen, Michael Robinson, Steve Steinert and J. Allen White, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Efforts initiated in 1964 to trap and band samples of mourning doves (Zenaidura macroura) in Colorado were continued in 1971. Cooperative Federal and State efforts resulted in 5,233 birds being newly banded. Of this total 2,470 were immatures; 8 were unsexed adults; 1,565 were adult males; while 1,190 were adult females. Assigned quotas were accomplished for all areas except extreme eastern Colorado. Wing molt data from trapped and harvested imrnatures suggested three hatching peaks in 1971. Peak hatching periods were late May-early June, late June-early July, and late July-early August. A sample of 310 hunter-harvested birds, mostly from southeastern Colorado, gave a young-to-old ratio of 11.9:1, more than double that obtained in 1970. Wing molt data from harvested immatures in this sample indicated that most early hatched young migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. Thirty-six band recoveries were reported in 1971 from doves banded by Division personnel. Nineteen (52.8 percent) of the bands I'eported were from doves killed in Colorado. Apparent hunting mortality for doves ~anded in Colorado continues to be less thant 3 percent. . ��-117- MOURNING DOVE TRAPPING AND BANDING Clait E. Braun Intensive efforts to trap and band mourning doves in Colorado initiated in 1964 were continued in 1971, in cooperation with personnel of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1971, the seventh year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate migration patterns and mortality rates of mourning doves banded in Colorado by age, sex, and area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band mourning doves in three selected areas of Colorado for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history, and annual mortality data. 2. To estimate harvest size and hunter success. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1971 were similar to those described in earlier reports and summarized by Braun (1970). In addition, less than 100 doves were trapped in cannon nets in 1971 during trapping operations for band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata). DESCRIPTION OF TRAPPING AREAS Most trapping sites in Eastern Slope areas were similar to those described earlier (Braun 1970). Two new areas were utilized in 1971 east of the Rocky Mountains in addition to those also trapped in 1970. These were near Bonny Reservoir and at Fort Carson Military Reservation. At Bonny Reservoir, trapping was conducted near plantings of introduced trees adjacent to grainfields (primarily wheat, Triticum aestivum), while trapping at Fort Carson was accomplished primarily near established cultivated food plots (primarily wheat and barley, Hordeum vulgare). West Slope trap sites were essentially those also used in 1970, with the exception of one site. This site in Unaweep Canyon was a livestock feeding area surrounded by fairly dense stands of oak (Quercus gambelli) and sparse pinyon pine (Pinus edulis). �-118- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Cooperative Federal and State trapping and bartding efforts resulted in 5,233 doves being newly banded in 1971. Of this total, 4,401 were banded by Division personnel. One hundred and twenty-two of the immature doves caught were additionally banded with reward bands as part of a cooperative Central Management Unit study to ascertain band reporting rates. Doves were banded at eight major locations on the Eastern Slope and at four major sites west of the Continental Divide. Additionally, some doves were banded at five other scattered locations in conjunction with band-tailed pigeon trapping activities. The banding goal of 4,000 birds was accomplished with over 1,000 being banded in western Colorado and over 2,000 banded along the eastern slope of the Rockies. The 1,000 quota for extreme eastern Colorado was not met as only 602 birds were trapped at two different locations. Sex and age distribution of birds banded by area are presented in Table 1. As in earlier years of this study, more adult doves were trapped than immature, although the disparity was not great in 1971. Differences in numbers of adults and immatures trapped is undoubtedly a function of time of season of trapping effort. Trapping at Meeker, Durango, and Fort Collins was accomplished primarily in June and less than 25 percent of the doves caught were immatures. On the other hand, trapping at Denver and Fort Garland was principally in August and over 60 percent of the birds trapped were immatures. However, trapping in July near Fort Morgan resulted in about 90 percent of the doves caught being young-of-the-year. This illustrates the infeasibility of using age ratios in trapped samples to estimate productivity. While significantly more doves were banded in 1971 than 1970 (5,233 versus 2,883) percentages of males (29.9 to 28.5), females (22.8 to 24.4) and immatures (47.3 to 47.1) banded were not significantly different. Hatching Data Wing molt data were available for 2,467 of the 2,470 immature doves trapped and banded in 1971. Estimated hatching dates (Allen 1963) are presented in Table 2. Examination of data in Table 2 indicates that few mourning doves trapped in Colorado hatched prior to May 1, with most hatching in late May and late June. Definite hatching peaks are difficult to ascertain from data in Table 2, but two peaks are suggested about 20-30 days apart. Some bias is certainly present in Table 2 as trapping effort and success and distribution of adults and immatures were not uniform. Progeny of latenesting doves are not represented in trap samples since all dove trapping ceases by August 20. �-119- Table 1. Sex and age distribution of mourning doves banded by area in Colorado, 1971. Adult Male No. Banded Percent Area Adult Female No. Banded Percent Immature No. Banded Percent Total Eastern Colorado Fort Morgan 27 5.1 21 4.0 480 90.9 528 Bonny Reservoir 8 10.8 1 1.4 65 87.8 74 Subtotal 35 5.8 22 3.7 545 90.5 602 Fort Garland 140 21.5 57 8.8 454 69.7 651 Monte Vista 227 37.5 155 25.6 223 36.9 605 Denver 78 15.0 121 23.3 320 61. 7 519 Fort Collins 172 33.9 212 41. 7 124 24.4 508 Fort Carson 160 37.5 132 30.9 135 31.6 427 1./ Vineland 95 76 57.0 398 5 19.1 41. 7 227 Missouri Park 23.9 41. 7 2 16.6 12 LaVeta 7 70.0 3 0 7 77.8 1 1 0.0 11.1 10 Evergreen 30.0 11.1 Woodland Park 1 12.5 7 87.5 0 0.0 8 Subtotal 892 28.3 769 24.4 1,486 47.2 3,147 Durango 252 50.1 180 35.8 71 14.1 503 5:../ Craig-Hayden 115 28.8 73 18.2 212 53.0 400 Unaweep 125 40.2 66 21.2 120 38.6 311 Meeker 135 54.6 77 31.2 35 14.2 247 Stoner 11 73.3 3 20.0 1 6.7 15 638 43.2 399 27.0 439 29.7 1,476 1,565 29.9 1,190 22.8 2,470 47.3 5,225 Eastern Slope 5 9 Western SloEe Subtotal Total All Areas 1/ Total does not include 7 AHY-U's. 2/ Total does not include 1 AHY-U. �Table 2. Estimated hatching dates for wild-trapped Prior to May 1 1-7 8-14 Ma:z: 15-21 22-28 Number Hatching 3 20 57 155 Percent of Total 0.1 0.8 2.3 6.3 mourning doves, 1971. 29-June 4 5-11 June 12-18 19-25 26-Ju1y 2 3-9 Ju1:z: 10-16 17-23 24-30 337 281 313 292 286 308 202 193 20 0 13.7 11.4 12.7 11.8 11.6 12.5 8.2 7.8 0.8 0 I •.... N 0 I �-121- Harvest No effort was made to collect wings from hunter-harvested doves throughout Colorado during the 1971 hunting season. Wings from 310 doves harvested between September 1 and September 11 from southeast Colorado (272), southcentral (17), and northwest Colorado (21) were available for analysis. Of this total, only 24 were from adults, while 286 were from immatures, giving a young-to-old ratio of 11.9:1. This is approximately double the 5.2:1 ratio obtained from a sample of 229 birds checked in 1970 (Braun 1971). Obviously, the young-to-old ratio in this small sample does not relate to production but rather is a function of flocking and use patterns of the birds. Eighty-five percent of the immatures examined had replaced five or fewer juvenile primaries, indicating they were less than 63 days of age. This supports data collected in previous years of the study which indicated that most early hatched young (May-June) migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. Molt data from harvested birds also indicate that substantial production occurs after July 23 (Table 2) as over 30 percent (33.9) of the birds shot and examined in early September hatched after this date. These young may represent progeny of a third nesting attempt. Harvest data obtained through use of a mail survey of hunters after the hunting season indicated that 22,033 hunters harvested 298.767 doves in Colorado in 1971 (Tully et ale 1972). Thirty-six band recoveries (dead) were received in 1971 that had been banded by Division personnel. One of these birds had been initially banded in 1967, one was banded in 1968, nine in 1969, eight in 1970. while 17 had been banded in 1971. Apparent hunting mortality continues to be quite low (less than 3 percent). Of the 36 bands reported, 19 (52.8 percent) were recovered in Colorado, 7 in Mexico, 3 each in Arizona and Texas, and 2 each in California and New Mexico. All but four were shot recoveries. LITERATURE CITED Allen. J. M. 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature doves in Indiana. Ind. Dept. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No.4. Indianapolis. 4 p. Braun, C. E. 1970. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept •• Fed. Aid. Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 143149. 1971. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid. Proj. W-88-R. Oct. Pp.20l-207. Tully, R. J •• H. Riffel. and H. D. Funk. 1972. Colorado small game hunter harvest surveys -- 1971 and 1972. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Denver. In press. Prepared by _--=eg~U-_~f:.:... -'-~...w:..~~_ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher ��October, -123- JOB PROGRESS S ta te of Project Work REPORT -:::.Co:::.L:::::.o~RA~D:::.:O:::.._ _ No. Plan No. Job Title Period 1972 Covered: W-88-R-17 Migratory 4 Bird Investigations 4 Job No. Band-tailed Pigeon Investi~ations April 1, 1971 through March 3l~ 1972 Personnel: Ken Baer and Jack R8ndall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; personnel of the U.S. Forest Service; John Arthur, Del Benson, Clait Braun, Herb Browning, Frank Cordova, Les Denton, Howard Funk, Richard Hopper, J. Edward Kautz, Bill Kent, Wilbur Ladd, Ann Leckler, Tom Lynch, Richard McDonald, Brett Petersen, Charles Roberts, Robert Rouse, Marvin Smith, Marie Vendeville, Ken Wagner, Pat Waters, J. Allen White, Mike Zgainer, Wildlife Conservation Officers and other personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) initiated in Colorado in 1969 in conjunction with the Four Corners States Cooperative Study were continued in 1971. Major emphasis was placed on ascertaining relative abundance, trapping and banding samples of pigeons throughout the State, and conducting an experimental hunting season. Changes in abundance from 1969 and 1970 were detected in southwest Colorado with numbers being down at least by half in 1971. Pigeons were trapped at 15 different locations in 1971 with 4,006 birds (3,718 adults and 288 immatures) being newly banded. Over eight hundred (801) pigeons were retrapped in 1971, including 14 banded outside of Colorado. During the experimental hunting season, 524 permits were issued with 344 individuals actually hunting. Two hundred and one hunters were successful, each harvesting an average of 7.6 pigeons. Total estimated harvest (including crippling loss) projected from the questionnaire survey (91.0 percent response) was 1,723 birds. Crippling loss approximated 11 percent of the birds shot and retrieved. Wings were received from 154 successful hunters. Immature and sub-adult pigeons comprised 32 percent of the 1,113 wings received. Field checks of 428 (324 adults, 104 immatures) hunter-killed birds indicated that 28.7 percent of the adults were still involved with nest activities. Recoveries were received from 157 pigeons banded in Colorado. The majority of these (120) were recovered in Colorado, with 25 being recovered in Mexico and 12 in New Mexico. At least 9.3 percent of the birds harvested during the experimental season in Colorado were banded. Calculated hatching dates for 617 immature pigeons ranged from mid-April to early September. Helminth infections continue to be low (18.3 percent) with females being more frequently parasitized than males. ��-125- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS C1ait E. Braun Intensive ecological studies of wild band-tailed pigeons which nest and reside in Colorado from late April to early November, initiated in 1969, continued in 1971. Investigations in Colorado represent a portion of the regionwide Four Corners Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation which was initiated in Arizona in 19670 Data presented in this report are those collected in 1971, the third year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate distribution and relative numbers of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado by area. 2. To investigate the correlation between abundance and distribution of bandtails and physical features of the environment. 3. To trap, band, age, and sex as many birds as possible in selected areas of Colorado to investigate migration patterns and chronology of Colorado bandtails throughout their range. 4. To conduct an experimental hunting season, gather harvest data, and evaluate results. METHODS AND MATERIALS Most methods and materials used in 1971 were identical to those used in 1969 and 1970 (Braun 1970; 1971). Reporting procedures for field personnel were standardized in all regions with all monthly reports being sent to the regional biologists for tabulating and forwarding to Fort Collins. Trapping methodology in 1971 was that used in 1970 (Braun 1971). Evaluation of the experimental hunting season and disposition of collected birds were the same as in 1970 and described by Braun (1971). �-126- DESCRIPTION OF TRAPPING AREAS In 1971, pigeons were trapped at seven locations also utilized in 1969 or 1970. These locations were near Stoner, Bayfield, Del Norte, Evergreen, Longmont, Salida, and Monte Vista, and have been previously described (Braun 1970; 1971). In addition to these sites, pigeons were trapped near Unaweep Divide, LaVeta, Fort Garland, Aspen-Basalt area, Minturn, Manitou Springs, Woodland Park, and Be~lah. These sites were typically old grainfields (LaVeta, Fort Garland, Beulah), livestock feeding areas (Unaweep Divide, Aspen-Basalt area, Minturn), or in residential areas where residents fed a variety of birds (Manitou Springs, Woodland Park). As in previous years, all trap sites were immediately adjacent to readily accessible trees or power lines used for perches. Trees used were pri~ari1y ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Gambe1's oak (Quercus gambe11i), Pinyon pine (Pinus edu1is), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). It was difficult to ascertain feeding preferences as about equal numbers of pigeons were trapped in fields where they were feeding on waste barley (Hordium vulgare) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Abundance The distribution of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado in 1971 was essentially that reported in 1969 and 1970 (Braun 1970; 1971). No real differences were detected in distribution between any of the three years studied. Pigeons continue to be absent (not observed) in extreme northwestern Colorado, North Park, South Park, and in the Gunnison Basin. The lack of observations in all of these areas except northwestern Colorado may be related to the lack of grain production and the scarcity of livestock feeding operations utilizing grain. Oak is absent from all of these areas except northwestern Colorado. In 1971, 520 different observations of pigeons were reported from April into November. Number of reported sightings by month were: April - 18; May - 130; June - 73; July - 95; August - 118; September - 77; October - 5; and November 4. These data indicate that in 1971 pigeons started arriving in Colorado in late April and started migration south in September, with the peak of southward migration occurring in September. Only scattered observations of small groups of pigeons, primarily at feeders in residential areas, were reported in October and November. Data concerning observations of band-tail occurrence by habitat type were available for 472 different sightings. Of these sightings, 157 (33.3 percent) were associated with cropland, primarily grainfields. One hundred and twenty sightings (25.4 percent) were in areas dominated by oak, 58 (12.3 percent) were from along stream courses dominated primarily by cottonwoods, 47 (10.0 percent) were in mixed coniferous areas (primarily spruce-fir-aspen), 61 (12.9 percent) were in areas dominated primarily by ponderosa pine, while the remaining observations were scattered in orchards (7), pinyon pine-juniper (15), open rangeland (6), and in the alpine zone (1). Observations are undoubtedly influenced by access and distribution of observers, but reported observations probably give an adequate picture of those areas in which pigeons feed. �-127- Few data are available concerning abundance of pigeons in Colorado. From observer reports it would appear that numbers in 1971 were similar to those in 1969 and 1970. This was not true as numbers of pigeons in central and southwestern Colorado were substantially less than in 1969 or 1970. In the San Juan Basin numbers appeared to be down by at least one-half to two-thirds. This is illustrated by the fact that only 168 pigeons were banded in this area in contrast to 1,228 in 1970. This is a decrease of 86.3 percent. Reasons for the apparent decrease are not fully known, but may include poor food conditions compounded by extensive drought extending into New Mexico and Mexico. Trapping effort was essentially the same in this area in both 1970 and 1971. Abundance of pigeons continues to be highest in areas where mast producing trees and shrubs are abundant. Banding Banding and trapping activities were comparable to that of 1970. Trapping was conducted at 15 sites including three of the five 1969 trap sites and seven of the thirteen 1970 sites. In all, 4006 pigeons were newly banded (Table 1). While numbers of immatures banded were exceedingly low in 1971 (288), it is apparent that numbers in trap samples increased from June (2), to July (72), and August (148) and decreased in September (66). In 1971, few pigeons hatched prior to June, with the peak of fledging occurring in late July and August. Sex of most adult pigeons banded in 1971 was determined from external plumage characters. Of the 3,718 adults (including subadults) newly banded, 48.1 percent (1,789) were males and 51.9 percent (1,929) were females. Reasons for the slight disparity are not fully understood but may be related to time of day that trapping was conducted. Time of day of trapping was recorded for all but three pigeons banded in 1971. These data are presented in Table 2. It is obvious from data in Table 2 that sex ratios of birds available for trapping changed during the daylight hours. This change is undoubtedly due to differences between males and females in incubation and squab brooding and feeding periods. Also, it is apparent from Table 2 that more than half of the trapping effort or at least trap success occurred after 1000 MDT. This is probably the major reason that more females than males were banded in 1971. �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1971. Adults No. Banded Percent lnunatures No. Banded Percent Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 0.0 2.1 66 97 100+ 200+ 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 2.0 10 5 51 40+ 10+ 100+ 0 0 1 48 0.0 0.0 5.9 13.8 404 175 17 349 600+ 600+ 50+ 500+ Area Dates Unaweep May 9-20 June 16-27 66 95 100.0 97.9 0 2 Monte Vista May 12-13 July 12-16 August 5 10 5 50 100.0 100.0 98.0 LaVeta May 20-25 June 11-12 July 3 August 18-22 404 175 16 301 100.0 100.0 94.1 86.2 .... I N 00 I Del Norte May 27 June 9-10 August 6-29 52 112 72 100.0 100.0 72.7 0 0 27 0.0 0.0 27.3 52 112 99 100+ 200+ 200+ Longmont June 4 July 11 August 7 & 20 119 123 16 100.0 96.1 94.1 0 5 1 0.0 3.9 5.9 119 128 17 200+ 200+ 50+ Salida June 2-16 July 9-14 254 70 100.0 97.2 0 2 0.0 2.8 254 72 400+ 100+ Bayfield June 8-Ju1y 7 153 100.0 0 0.0 153 200+ Fort Garland June 30-Ju1y 7 August 4-17 424 220 99.5 90.5 4 23 .5 9.5 426 243 600+ 300+ Aspen-Basalt June 28-29 July 12-21 27 105 100.0 91. 3 0 10 0.0 8.7 27 115 50+ 200+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1971 (continued). Area Dates Adults No. Banded Percent Minturn July 18-23 173 94.0 11 Stoner July 25 10 66.7 Evergreen July 14-27 September 28 174 13 Woodland Park July 21-Aug. 4 September 16 Immatures No. Banded Percent Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 6.0 184 250+ 5 33.3 15 50+ 91.1 40.6 17 19 8.9 59.4 191 32 200+ 50+ 107 54 85.6 79.4 18 14 14.4 20.6 125 68 150+ 100+ Manitou Springs Aug. 5-17 September 13-15 171 92 79.2 73.6 45 33 20.8 26.4 216 125 300+ 200+ Beulah 57 96.6 2 3.4 59 100+ 3,718 92.8 288 7.2 4,006 6,400+ I t-O N \0 I Totals August 19 �-130- Table 2. Time of day of band-tailed pigeon trapping, 1971. !I Time (MDT) Males Females Percent of Total Adults 0600-0959 67.4 32.6 35.B 29.7 1000-1559 36.6 63.4 57.B 59.B 1600- 45.0 55.5 6.4 10.5 Adults Percent of Total Juveniles l/All values are in percent. A total of BOI previously banded pigeons were retrapped in 1971. All but 14 of these had been banded in Colorado, with 377 of this total being recaptured out of the original degree block of banding or were banded in earlier years. Four hundred and nine were retrapped in the same degree block and same year as originally banded, while one, banded by a private bander in 1967, also was recaptured in the degree block of original banding. Of the 14 out-of-state-bandings retrapped in Colorado, 11 were originally banded in New Mexico, 2 in Utah, while 1 was originally banded in Arizona. Data on all recaptures through 31 December 1971 were analyzed in detail and were reported by Braun (1972). Experimental Hunting Season 1971 was the second year of the 3-year experimental harvest program initiated in 1970. Hunting was allowed from September 4 through 26, with a daily bag limit of five birds and a possession limit of 10. During the experimental season only the southern portion of the State was open (Appendix). Hunting was by free permit obtainable at seven Division offices with no limit on the total number of permits to be issued. In 1971, 524 permits were issued, an increase of 160 (44.0 percent) over 1970. Hunter Questionnaire Survey The experimental hunting season for bandtails in 1971 closed at sunset on September 26. On September 27, letters containing a self-addressed, postagepaid return card were sent to all permittees (Appendix). Only two (.4 percent) questionnaires were returned for lack of sufficient address. On October 11, a followup letter was sent to the 130 permittees (excluding the two permittees for which insufficient addresses were available) who had failed to respond to the initial letter. Results of the questionnaire survey are presented in Table 3. Data for the 47 non-respondents were calculated using average values of the respondents to the fol10wup survey. �Table 3. Experimental band-tailed pigeon season, harvest statistics, 1971. -1/ Response First Letter Response Second Letter Sum First and Second Letters Number of Permittees Responding 392 (74.8) 85 (16.2) 477 (91.0) Number of Permittees Hunting 259 (66.1) 55 (64.7) 314 (65.8) 344 (65.6) Number of Permittees Not Hunting 133 (33.9) 30 (35.3) 163 (34.2) 180 (34.4) Number of Successful Hunters 152 (58.7) 32 (58.2) 184 (58.6) 201 (58.4) Number of Hunter Days 630 143 773 851 Days Hunted Per Hunter 2.4 Number of Pigeons Bagged 1,214 2.6 209 2.5 1,423 Projected All (524) Permittees 2.5 1,537 Pigeons Per Successful Hunter 8.0 6.5 7.7 7.6 Pigeons Per Hunter 4.7 3.8 4.5 4.5 Number of Pigeons Crippled and Lost 138 Pigeons Crippled and Lost Per Hunter Total Harvest (Bagged + Crippled and Lost) Percent Crippling Loss .5 1,352 10.2 II Values in parentheses 31 are percentages. 169 .6 240 12.9 186 .5 1,592 10.6 .5 1,723 10.8 I t-' t-'I w �-132- Interest in pigeon hunting increased substantially (44 percent) in 1971 over 1970. Along with the increase in hunter interest, increases were also recorded in hunter success (59 percent versus 42 percent) and in total harvest (1,723 versus 541). However, as in 1970, a substantial number of permittees did not hunt (34.4 percent). Possibly some hunters do not know how to hunt pigeons or they just obtain a permit because of the novelty or on the chance they may see pigeons while hunting other game animals. Average number of days hunted per hunter increased slightly in 1971 from 1970 (2.1 to 2.5) as did the nUmber of pigeons bagged per successful hunter (5.9 to 7.6). Percent crippling loss (total number of pigeons reported lost divided by total harvest (bagged + crippled and lost» was 10.8 in 1971, substantially less than the 15.3 percent reported in 1970. Undoubtedly reported crippling loss is minimal and actual crippling loss may represent as much as 20 percent of the birds actually retrieved. The questionnaire was devised in order to ascertain the proportion of the harvest that occurred in given time periods. It was found that 29.3 percent of the total harvest occurred on the opening weekend, 17.4 percent on the second weekend, 12.3 percent on the third weekend, and only 7.6 percent on the final weekend. Some hunting occurred during the week as 13.1 percent of the total harvest occurred during the first week, 13.9 percent during the second week, but only 6.4 percent during the third week. Thus harvest was well spaced during the 1971 season, suggesting that hunting remained productive throughout the season. Pigeon hunters were clumped in 1971 with three areas, Fort Carson (22.7 percent), Durango (15.9 percent), and LaVeta (12.6 percent) receiving more than 50 percent of the total pressure. In all, 309 hunters reported hunting at 25 different locations. Other hunter concentrations occurred near Monte Vista (7.8 percent), Arboles (7.1 percent), Salida (6.8 percent), and Dolores-Mancos (6.1 percent). None of the remaining 18 locations received more than 4 percent of the total hunter pressure. On a regional basis, 158 of the 309 hunters (51.1 percent) hunted in southeastern Colorado, while 137 (44.4 percent) hunted in southwestern Colorado, and only 14 (4.5 percent) hunted in northwestern Colorado. There were no significant differences in hunter success between regions in 1971 as 58.2 percent of the hunters in the southeast were successful, 57.1 percent in the northwest, while 56.9 percent were successful in the southwest region. Many written comments were received from hunters with the majority of the comments relating to a lack of pigeons, poor acorn crops, or to bad weather early in the season. All of these comments had some validity as many pigeons had left areas where they had been all summer, the acorn crop was extremely spotty, and some areas of the State did have wet, cool weather during the opening weekend of the season. Wing Survey Packets containing five wing envelopes were issued to each pigeon permit holder in 1971. Envelopes containing 1,113 wings were received from 154 �-133- hunters. Additional data were received concerning hours hunted (834.5), birds crippled and lost (118), location of kill and banded birds harvested (103). Major harvest areas were near LaVeta (18.1 percent), Fort Carson (16.4 percent), Arboles-Pagosa Springs (13.4 percent), Monte Vista (12.1 percent), and Dolores-Mancos (10.1 percent). These data are somewhat different than the distribution of hunters obtained from the questionnaire survey. Thus LaVeta with 18 percent of the total harvest had only 13 percent of the total hunters, while Fort Carson with 23 percent of the total hunters had only 16 percent of the total kill. Hunting was also better than average near Arboles (13 percent of the harvest and 7 percent of the hunters), Monte Vista (12 percent of the harvest and 8 percent of the hunters), and Dolores-Mancos (10 percent of the harvest and 6 percent of the hunters). In contrast, Salida had 7 percent of the hunters and only .9 percent of the harvest indicating that hunting was extremely poor in that area in 1971. Crippling loss calculated from the wing survey was slightly lower (9.6 percent as compared to 10.8 percent) than that calculated from the questionnaire survey but the slight difference is not significant. In all, 103 of the 1,113 band-tailed pigeons reported harvested on the wing survey were banded (9.3 percent). Percent of birds harvested that were banded varied from 19.1 (N = 183) at Fort Carson, 11.5 (N = 52) at Dolores, 9.7 (N = 196) at LaVeta, 7.4 (N = 135) at Monte Vista, 4.6 (N = 153) at Durango, to 2.1 (N = 149) at Arboles-Pagosa Springs. Bands were reported from seven other locations but sample sizes of wings received were too small (less than 40) for meaningful comparisons. None of the banded birds shot were harvested at trap sites. It is therefore possible that for the areas from which substantial numbers of wings were available, the above percentages of banded birds in the harvest may give an adequate picture of the percent of the populations that were banded. It is believed that the 9.3 percent banded birds in the harvest is representative and that possibly 10 percent of the band-tailed pigeons present in Colorado in fall, 1971, were banded. Comparable data were available from both hunter questionnaire and wing surveys concerning numbers of birds bagged and those crippled and lost by 136 individual hunters. A reporting difference of 13.1 percent (978 in wing surveys versus 1,126 in questionnaire survey) was found in number of birds killed, and 12.5 percent (98 versus 112) in number of birds crippled and lost for those hunters who sent in wings and also responded to the questionnaire. The difference in birds harvested and retrieved could be related to the fact that hunters only received five wing envelopes each and could thus send in only 25 wings. Some hunters reported killing as many as 69 birds. The difference in crippling loss can also be attributed to the number of wing envelopes each hunter received as the number of pigeons reported lost on wing envelopes was less than on the questionnaire survey. Since both percentages are similar, (13.1 and 12.5), it is assumed that reporting differences were slight between the questionnaire and wing surveys. All wings received were measured (carpal and all 10 primaries) and classified as immature, subadult, and adult in order to derive age structure of the harvest. Wings were received from 779 adults (68.0 percent), 122 subadults (10.6 percent), and 245 immatures (21.4 percent). Percent of adults �-134- in the harvest was similar to that recorded in 1970 (68.0 versus 67.8 percent), while percent immatures decreased from 1970 levels (21.4 versus 26.6). If the subadult (birds less than 1 year of age but having molted past P5) age class is added to the immature class, data for all birds less than 1 year of age are comparable between the two years (32.0 in 1971 and 32.2 percent in 1970). Age ratios in the harvest were different than expected from trapping results. It was expected that substantially fewer immatures (percent) would be harvested in 1971 than in 1970 as all indications were that production was substantially less in 1971 than in 1970. Reasons why the expected decrease did not occur are not known, but may be related to differential migration and differences in vulnerability. It is also possible that production was higher than that predicted from trapping results. Hunter Field Checks During the 1971 experimental season emphasis was again placed on contacting pigeon hunters in the field in order to examine harvested birds for crop gland activity. Crops of all adult pigeons checked were classified as being active (crop gland with curds), stimulated (gland apparent but no curds), or inactive. In addition, sex by gonadal inspection was obtained for as many birds as possible. In all, 428 birds were checked with 104 being immatures (24.3 percent), 320 birds being adults (74.8 percent), and 4 being subadults (0.9 percent). Of the adults, 13.9 percent were classified as having active crop glands while 14.8 percent were classified as being stimulated. Percent of crops showing glandular activity (active + stimulated) was significantly less in 1971 than in 1970 (28.7 versus 52.3) even though the hunting season was 1 week earlier. This suggests that either nesting was earlier in 1971 than in 1970, or that fewer pigeons had second or late nests. None of the field data collected support the theory that nesting was earlier in 1971. These data thus support the theory that only one nesting attempt was most common in 1971. Data on sex were available for 300 adults. Of this number 58.0 percent were males and 42.0 percent were females. Of the males, 33.9 percent exhibited some glandular development while only 23.3 percent of the females showed development of the crop gland. While samples of adults examined by area were not high, there were some interesting differences between areas in crop gland development. At Durango, 55.5 percent of the adults exhibited gland development (N = 27), it was 44.9 percent at Monte Vista (N = 69), 20.0 percent at Arboles (N = 40), 19.7 percent at LaVeta (N = 71) and only 9.6 percent at Fort Carson (N = 73). Mortality Recoveries of 157 band-tailed pigeons initially trapped and banded in Colorado were reported in 1971. Eleven of these were initially banded in 1969, 45 were banded in 1970, while 101 were initially banded in 1971. All but six were shot recoveries. Of the 151 shot recoveries, 117 were shot in Colorado during the 1971 experimental season, 12 were shot in New Mexico �-135- during their 1971 experimental season, while 22 were shot in Mexico, principally in the States of Durango (10) and Sinaloa (7)'. Four pigeons, banded outside of Colorado, were reported shot in 1971 in Colorado. Three of these were from New Mexico and one was from Utah. In a preliminary analysis of all bandings and recoveries from 1969 through 31 December 1971, Braun (1972) found that the reported hunting mortality of Colorado bandtails was less than 3 percent per year and that most hunting mortality was concentrated in breeding (77.6 percent) and wintering areas (14.8 percent). Breeding Phenology Data on breeding phenology were obtained through crop and gonadal inspection of birds accidently lost in trapping operations and those systematically collected. Additional data were collected from 324 hunter-killed adult pigeons examined from September 4 through 26. Excluding the 324 hunterkilled birds, 177 birds were available for detailed examination. Of this number, 150 were adults (68 males and 82 females) while the remaining 27 were immatures. The sample included birds taken from 7 May through 28 September with the following monthly totals: May - 13, June - 19, July 22, August - 35, and September - 88. Five additional birds were available that died in the aviary during the October-March period. Data from the above collected birds are reported elsewhere (Braun and Benson 1972). Wing Measurement and Molt Data Data concerning length of primaries, rectrices, total body length, carpal length, and bill length were obtained from all pigeons collected in 1970. Once adequate samples are available, these data will be analyzed to examine differences between age classes of both male and female pigeons. Prior to dissection of collected birds, plumage characters of each adult specimen were examined and recorded. Each bird was then classified as either male or female. Upon dissection, gonads were examined and actual sex of each bird was compared with the classification based on plumage appearance. Comparative data were available for 126 adults (56 males and 70 females). Of the 56 adult males compared, two (3.6 percent) were classified incorrectly, while one (1.4 percent) of 70 females was classified as a male from plumage examination. Total error in classifying pigeons to sex from plumage examination alone was 2.4 percent. These percentages are similar to those reported by Braun (1970; 1971) for samples of 119 and 117 adults. Information concerning primary molt was available for 617 immatures (284 banded and released, 234 from the hunter wing survey, 72 trapped and placed in the aviary, and 27 collected). Of the 617 immatures, 329 had not molted primary 1, 133 were molting PI, 75 were molting P2, 41 were molting P3, 33 were molting P4, and 6 were molting P5. Hatching dates for these birds were estimated using unpublished data from White (1972). Estimated hatching dates for all immatures for which data are available are presented in Table 4. �-136- Table 4. Estimated hatching dates for wild band-tailed pigeons, 1971. Time Period Number Hatching Time Period Number Hatching April 12-21 2 July 1-10 70 April 22-May 1 4 July 11-20 82 May 2-11 12 July 21-30 58 May 12-21 26 July 31- Aug. 9 47 May 22-31 35 August 10-19 55 June 1-10 49 August 20-29 37 June 11-20 69 Aug. 30-Sept. 8 2 June 21-30 69 As in earlier years (Braun 1970; 1971), hatching and fledging of band-tailed pigeons were spread over a wide time period. It is questionable if pigeons estimated to have hatched in April were progeny of nesting attempts in Colorado. If the few pigeons arriving in early April nested as soon as they arrived, it is possible that the few young estimated to have hatched could have been produced in Colorado. Progeny of late nests (after September 8) have little chance of being shot or trapped and thus are not represented in Table 4. Parasitic Load Information on helminths was available for 120 band-tailed pigeons (106 adults and 14 irnmatures) necropsied. Twenty-two (all adults) of the 120 birds examined had helminth infections. The infection rate of 18.3 percent, while higher than that found in 1969 (13.2 percent) and 1970 (10.4 percent), is low and none of the infected birds was heavily parasitized. As in other years, more adult females (26.2 percent) harbored helminths than did males (13.3 percent). Tapeworms were found in 16 birds while 7 birds had nematodes (one bird had both tapeworms and nematodes). Worms were found in pigeons collected as early as 4 June and as late as 26 September. No deleterious effects of the observed parasitism were noted. All worms were preserved for later identification. �-137- LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 151-171. 1971. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 209236. 1972. Movements and hunting mortality of Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Trans. No. Am. Wildl. & Nat. Resour. Conf. 37:326-334. ______ , and D. E. Benson. 1972. Band-tailed pigeon nesting and breeding phenology investigations. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. In press. White, J. A. 1972. Plumage studies of band-tailed pigeons. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. In press. Prepared by f!t;/ c. ~~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher oaf' �APPENDIX EXPERIMENTAL BAND·TAILED PIGEON SEASON .1971 GENERAL OPEN SEASON SEPTEMBER 4 through SEPTEMBER 26, 1971, in all lands west of U. S. Interstate Highway No. 25 from the New Mexico state line to its intersection with U. S. Highway No. 24 at Colorado Springs; south and west of U. S. Highway No. 24 to its intersection with U. S. Interstate Highway No. 70 at Dowd Junction; and south of U. S. Interstate Highway No. 70 to the Utah state line. HUNTING HOURS: Sunrise to sunset DAILY BAG AND POSSESSION LIMITS DAILY BAG LIMIT - five (5). POSSESSION LIMIT - ten (10). SPECIAL PERMIT REQUIRED All hunters participating in this season must first obtain and have in his possession while hunting band-tailed pigeons a special hunting permit. Permits unlimited in number and issued free of charge will be available from Division of Game, Fish and Parks offices at Denver, Fort Collins, Colorado Springs, Grand Junction, Durango, Glenwood Springs, and Montrose. Permits will be available starting AUGUST 16 and will be issued upon request throughout the season. �-139STATE OF COLORADO .John A. Love, Govarnor DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS Harry R. Woodward, 6060 Broadway Director Denver, Colorado 80216 • 825-1192 September 27, 1971 Dear Band-tailed DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES r. W. Ten Eyck, Executive Harry Combs, Chairman Dean Sullie, Vice Chairman William W. Robinson, Secretary Wilton W. Cogswell, Jr., Member R. Withers Cool, Member Charles A. Gebauer, Member Oresl Gerbaz, M"mbcr Lonnie Pippin, Member LeRoy Robson, Member Ford SIrong, Member Pigeon Hunter: By obtaining a permit for the Colorado experimental band-tailed pigeon hunting season from September 4 through September 26, 1971, you have indicated an interest in pigeon hunting and the future of the sport. We respectfully ask your assistance in evaluating this experimental season by completing the enclosed self-addressed questionnaire and returning it as soon as possible. Information you supply will be instrumental in determining the potential and feasibility of this type of season in the future. Please read the questionnaire carefully and fill in all requested information completely and accurately. If you did not hunt during the experimental season, we ask that you complete Question No. 1 and return the questionnaire because negative information is also important in our evaluation. If you did participate, please report only on your experimental season hunting activities and not those of your friends or other members of your family. Thank you for your assistance. CEB:jc Enclosure Director GAME, fiSH AND PARKS COMMISSION �-140- BAND-TAILED PIGEON HUNTER REPORT 1. Did you hunt band-tailed pigeons during the 1971 season? Yes No, _ 2. County or area most frequently hunted, 3. How many days did you hunt during the pigeon season? _ c:::J 4. How many pigeons did you bag during the entire season? I~_---I 5. How many pigeons did you knock down within sight but could not retrieve? 6. Please indicate in the appropriate boxes below the nu~f pigeons killed each time period you hunted. Put an "0" for the periods you did ~ get any birds. Leave periods you did not hunt blank. First First Second Second Third Third Fourth Weekend Week Weekend Week Weekend Week Weekend 4 &5 6-10 11 & 12 13-17 18 & 19 20-24 25 & 26 r---l c:J c:J c:J Cl CJ I I Paul Revere Band-tailed Pigeon Hunter Survey Wildlife Research C~nter P. O. Box 567 Fort Collins, Colorado 80521 I I �-141STATE OF COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF NATUkAl RESOURCES .John A. Love, Govel'nor DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF GAME, FISH AND PARKS Harry R. Woodwal'd, Dlrectol' 6060 Broadway Denver, Colorado 80216 • 825-1192 Wildlife Research Center P. O. Box 567 Fort Collins, Colorado 80521 October Dear Band-tailed T. W. Ten Evck, Executive Director GAME, FISH AND PARKS COMMISSION Harry Combs, Chairman Dean Suttle, Vice Chairman William W. Robinson, Secretary Wilton W. Cog~well, Jr., Membor R. Withers Cool, Member Charles A. Gebau~r, Member O,elt G.,baz, Member Lonnie Pippin, Mambar LeRov Robson, Member Fo,d Strong, Member 11, 1971 Pigeon Hunter: We recently sent you a questionnaire pertaining to your hunting activities during the experimental band-tailed pigeon hunting season in southern Colorado from Septe~er 4 through September 26, 1971. So far we have not received your reply. Please assist us by completing the questionnaire and returning it to us as quickly as possible. Information you supply, ~ though you did ~ participate, would enable us to fully evaluate the special season and would assist us in determining the potential and feasibility of such a season in the future. Thank you! CEB:jc ��-143- October, 1972 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~RAD~~O~ Project No. W-88-R-17 Work Plan No. 4 _ Migratory Bird Investigations· Job No. 5 Job Title ~B~a~n~d~-_t~a~i~l~e~d~P~i~g~e~o~n~I~n~v~e~s~t~i~g~a~t~L~·~o~ns~: __~P~l~u~m~a~g~e~S~t~u~d~i~e~~s _ Period Covered: April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Personnel: Clait E. Braun, Jack Corey, J. Edward Kautz, Breet Petersen, Julie M. White, J. Allen White. ABSTRACT This aviary study of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) was attempted in order to develop techniques suitable for care, maintenance and breeding of captive bandtails; document progression of molts and subsequent plumages from juvenile to adult age classes; and investigate the validity of plumage characters as aids in accurately distinguishing between juvenile, sub-adult, and adult age classes. Results indicate the bandtails are not difficult to keep and rear if adequate housing, minimum disturbance and patience are used. Progression of postjuvenile molt in all feather tracts were studies. It was found that captive pigeons complete this molt at about 8 months of age. Primaries are molted and replaced in sequence from the inner primary (PI) to outer primary (PlO), a primary being lost and replaced about every 20 days. Subsequently, it was ascertained that certain plumage characters are useful in age and sex determination. Color of the head and upper breast is at least 95 percent accurate in determining sex in bandtails over 65 days of age. Wing characters, including primary measurements, are of little value in determination of sex. Juvenile bandtails are eaSily distinguished by gross plumage examination, while sub-adults can be identified by buffy tipping in the upper wing coverts or the presence of juvenile primaries or secondaries until they are about 8 months of age. ��-145- PLUMAGE STUDIES OF BAND-TAILED PIGEONS J. Allen White In recent years, interest in many so-called ''minor''game species has intensified, partly because of increased demands for added recreational opportunities and partly to fill voids in present knowledge. The band-tailed pigeon is a minor game species, even though having a wide distribution in the western hemisphere. In order to obtain sufficient knowledge upon which to base management programs, research on this native Columbid has intesified in the past few years. In the management of any species, estimates of popUlation trends, annual production, and survival rates are essential. However the manager must first be able to quickly classify individual animals into age and sex categories. Unfortunately, the available methods of age and sex determination for bandtails were for the most part inadequate for application in game management programs. This study, involving the documentation of moLts and subsequent plumage and time required for each change, was undertaken to further the knowledge needed to manage band-tailed pigeons. The objectives of this study are: (1) develop techniques suitable for care, maintenance, and breeding of wild pigeons in captivity, (2) document progression of molts and subsequent plumages from juvenile to adult age classes, and (3) investigate the validity of plumage characters as aids in accurately distinguishing between juvenile, subadult, and adult age classes and between sexes. P. S. OBJECTI VE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and keep in captivity band-tailed pigeons. 2. To document timing and duration of molts and subsequent plumages of bandtailed pigeons from immature to the adult age class. 3. To compile data and prepare progress report. REVIEW OF LITERATURE The band-tailed pigeon is a widely distributed game bird found in most mountainous regions of western North America, Central America, and northwestern South America (Goodwin 1967). There are several recognized subspecies including two which occur in the United States (A.O.U. 1957). The larger �-146- coastal pigeon (C. f. moni1is) winters in southern California and Baja California, migrating north as far as southern British Columbia during warmer seasons. The smaller interior bandtai1 (C. f. fasciata) winters in central Mexico and seasonally migrates into Arizona,-Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Fitzhugh (1970) compiled the most complete literature review of the band-tailed pigeon to date. He foUnd that most of the available references are of limited scientific value. However, some of the more recent works are worth noting. These include Neff (1947), Glover (1953), Houston (1963), Mace and Batterson (1961), Macgregor and Smith (1955), Silovsky (1969), Smith (1968), Silovsky et al. (1968), and Wight et al. (1967), among others. Unfortunately, few individuals have been successful in keeping and rearing band-tailed pigeons, and no published material is available on this subject. M. R. Blankenship of Walnut Creek, California (personal communication), is probably the most successful person to raise bandtails, a hobby he has been working with for nearly 20 years. Levi (1969) wrote extensively on care and breeding of domestic pigeons (Columba livia), but makes no mention of wild. breeds. However, much of his information on housing, feeding, and disease prevention are applicable to keeping wild birds. An attempt has been made to study post-juvenile primary molt in bandtails by H. Wight (unpublished data). Levi (1969) studied the post-juvenile molt of primaries, secondaries, and rectrices in domestic pigeons. Both of these studies dealt with very small sample sizes. Methods of age determination for bandtails during fall and early winter have been suggested by Silovsky et al. (1968). This method has some obvious limitations for use in spring and midsummer banding operations, although some of the characters discussed are useful. Miller and Wagner (1955) detailed a method of sex determination for Columbids using cloacal characters. Their method is good, but proved to be slow when large numbers of birds are to be quickly processed. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ten pens were used during this study to house pigeons. Six were in two banks, three pens per bank, and each pen was 6 feet high, 6 feet wide, and 12 feet deep. Other pens measured 6 feet high, 6 feet wide, and 6 feet deep; and 5 feet high, 8 feet wide, and 5 feet deep. A goose brooderhouse of redwood construction measuring 18 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 9 feet high was used to house sick birds during cold weather. All pens were provided with adequate perches and shelter suitable for keeping pigeons. During August and September, 76 immature band-tailed pigeons were trapped, individually marked with yellow plastic bandettes, and placed in the aviary for plumage studies. Four of these birds were obtained from F. John Ward, Pebble Beach, California, including one fawn-colored (imperfect albino or schizochromic mutation) bird. The other 72 pigeons were trapped by Colorado Division of Wildlife personnel at Evergreen, Longmont, Manitou Springs, Fort Garland, Monte Vista, Del Norte, and La Veta. �-147- All pigeons had free access to food and water with grit being available from the fine gravel which was provided on the floor of each pen. The grain mixtures fed to pigeons during the plumage investigations varied slightly to ascertain any preferences. Among the grains tested were whole and cracked dent corn (Zea mays), field peas (Pisum sativum), whole wheat (Triticum aestivum), whole milo (Sorghum vulgare), whole barley (Hordeum vulgare), and oats (Avena sativa). The basic food mixture fed consisted of six parts whole milo, three parts whole corn, and one part whole wheat. Water was provided in 3-gallon galvanized pans, while food was placed on the gravel floor. During October, November, and December, ten birds became sick and seven of these subsequently died. One dead bird was sent to the Diagnostic Laboratory at Colorado State University and the cause of death was determined to be peritonitis. Ano,tner sick bird was taken to the Colorado State University Small Animal Clinic for examination and treatment. The diagnosis was probable Aspergillus fum!gatus, a fungal infection caused by damp conditions and moldy grain. Symptoms were similar in all sick pigeons and were characterized by a slow decline in weight following infection, until the birds became extremely thin and weak. Shortly before death, breathing became labored and traces of blood became apparent in the saliva. At death, hemorrhaging in the respiratory tract occurred and the lungs were filled with mixed saliva and blood. During post-juvenile molt of primaries, each pigeon was examined at least three times each month, with four examinations being preferred. Data concerning each bird were tape-recorded or taken by an assistant for later transcription onto individual data sheets. Data taken during examinations include the following 29 categories: 1 through 10. Timing and replacement with measurement of each primary as it was replaced until maximum length was attained. .In addition, the length and width of P8, P9, and PIO were taken before and after post-juvenile molt for comparative puposes. 11. Primary edging 12. Secondary wear 13. Molt and replacement of secondaries 14. Replacement of rectrices. In addition, length and width of outer and center rectrices were originally taken for comparative purposes. 15. Tail covert edging 16. Upper wing covert edging 17. Alular edging 18. Alular covert edging 19. First and second greater secondary coverts edging 20. Color of crown and upper breast �-148- 21. Crescent appearance 22. Nape color 23. Eye color 24. Cuticle color 25. Feathering of nares (completion of juvenile plumages) 26. Bill color 27. Foot and leg color 28. Weight 29. Other The pigeons were disturbed as little as possible, even though they did not generally become alarmed when being handled. All extensive cleaning of pens was done after pigeons had been caught and placed in covered holding boxes prior to routine examination. Feeding and watering took only a short time each day, and was done without entering the pens. Subdued clothing colors were essential, as bright colors, whites, and some plaids caused the birds to become nervous, and at times, to panic. Dark greens, browns, or faded camouflage attire was best, and resulted in the birds being much calmer, reducing the chance of feather damage. As the post-juvenile molt was completed, individual birds were either released, placed in a large breeding pen, or transferred to other aviaries. Two pairs were transferred to Dr. R. M. Stabler at Colorado College in Colorado Springs for breeding studies. These were later released. One pair was transferred to Mary Gilbert, a graduate student at Colorado State University for breeding and behavior studies. One pair was transferred to Dr. H. D. Muller, Avian Science Department, Colorado State University, for breeding studies. An additional 13 pigeons were released from the aviary to reduce crowding. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Care and Maintenance M. R. Blankenship is probably the most successful breeder of band~tailed pigeons in the United States, having over 20 years experience and unfailing results in raising bandtails, as well as many other species of wild doves and pigeons. Oddly enough, his techniques are simple. According to Blankenship (personal communication), the three most important considerations in raising any wild pigeon are adequate facilities, providing a minimum of disturbance, and patience. Care should be kept to a minimum, set time period each day, and should be restricted to feeding, watering, and cage cleaning. If the keeper is present at the same time each day the pigeons will learn to expect him and remain calm. Normally, the best time is around noon, but never �-149in late afternoon. It is also desirable to wear the same subdued colored clothing each time the pen is entered. Pigeons, like most birds, appear to "recognize" their caretaker and wearing the same clothing each day causes less disturbance. Feeds Levi (1969) and Blankenship agree that grain mixtures are adequate rations for pigeons. Levi (1969) suggests a mixture of whole corn, milo, wheat, and field peas for domestic pigeons. Blankenship (personal communication) has fed only whole corn and mi10 for 20 years with excellent success. During this study over 60 immature pigeons were kept on a mixed ration of whole corn, whole milo, and wheat, with no apparent problems. It is doubtful, however, that grain mixtures would be the ideal ration for breeding pairs or young birds. Commercial pigeon rations and gamebird breeder rations are available and are probably better than grain mixtures. Housing Another factor limiting success in raising bandtails is the use of inadequate facilities. ~vi (1969) discusses types of housing used for domestic pigeon breeds. The bandtai1, however, will not tolerate crowding and conditions which are optimum for domestic birds. While it is possible to keep '~arn pigeons" in very small cages, bandtai1s require cages at least 6 feet high, 6 feet wide, and 12 feet deep. Such a cage will hold a maximum of 10 nonbreeding birds. In all such cases, the size of the pen determines the amount of stress and injury caused by routine care. In large pens, the birds simply do not panic when approached. All pens should be covered with 1-inch mesh poultry netting. Smaller mesh is too expensive and 2-inch mesh wire will cause injury. Bandtai1s are strong fliers and can easily reach speeds over 60 miles per hour (Fitzhugh, personal communication). At such speeds (nearly double that of most gallinaceous birds) 1-inch wire is bad, but 2-inch wire results in badly cut crops and dead birds. Several other requirements must be met in pen construction. All pens should provide shelter from storms, wind protection, shade, privacy from outside disturbance, and adequate perches. Bandtai1s, like any other pigeon, prefer to perch well above ground level and require a roof for protection from storms. Wind protection can be provided with existing vegetation, snow fencing, or burlap. Blankenship (personal communication) prefers a natural windbreak of native plants which he maintains around each pen. Although this restricts cleaning activities, it looks good (reducing complaints from neighbors), and provides shade and wind protection. A suitable temporary measure to provide privacy is the application or burlap. Means of providing perches are endless, but the best perches are made from 2-inch lumber. Straight tree limbs work and are inexpensive, but they are hard to clean and maintain. Blankenship (personal communication) uses a combination of the first two types of perches, plus some brush piles and small live trees. �-150- Disease Problems Apparently, disease problems do not occur frequently in bandtails if normal precautions are taken. Pens should always be arranged so that sunlight enters each pen. Normal cleaning is, of course, required. The only problem to occur in this study was an infection of Aspergillus fumigatus caused by moist conditions and possibly moldy grain. Tetracycline (Terramycin) was used during this study for treatment of Aspergillosis with poor success. In this case, a tetracycline solution was used to replace the normal water supply. DeLaRonde and Greichus (1972) had good results treating Aspergillosis-infected double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) with a fog of tetracycline. Birds were treated three times the first week, and once each of two following weeks. This treatment should also work well for band-tailed pigeons. Post-juvenile Molt Primary Molt and Replacement Molt of primaries is in sequence from innermost (PI) to outermost (PlO). At about 45 days of age, primary molt begins and progresses at an uninterrupted interval of one primary every 20 days. Individual primaries are fully replaced in about 25 days, although some minor growth may occur for 4 or 5 weeks. Table 1 shows the average number of days for bandtails to attain selected stages of primary development during post-juvenile molt. For this table, primaries were visually classified as empty (E), one-fourth replaced (1/4), onehalf replaced (1/2), three-quarters replaced (3/4), or fully replaced (F). The table shows that all juvenile primaries are replaced at 248 days or 8 months. Primary Tipping or Edging Both immature and adult bandtails show some light edging on the primaries. In adult pigeons the edging is a fine white or cream colored line, while immatures normally have a slightly wider brown line. Edging appears to be less evident on the outer primaries. Thus, edging should be of minor value as an age determination technique. In outer primaries the immature edging is difficult to distinguish from adult edging of the innermost primaries. Age determination while pigeons still retain juvenile primaries can be more easily and reliably accomplished using primary molt, secondary examination, and covert examination. Secondary Wear No wear, as it occurs in wild-caught pigeons, has been observe~ in the captive pigeons.. Some damage and accidental loss has occurred, but noticeable or extensive wear have not occurred to date. �-151Table l. Primary replacement of band-tailed pigeons, in days. (Ntnnbers in parentheses are sample sizes). Upper numbers represent means. Lower numbers represent one standard deviation. MOLT E Primaries 1 1/4 (N) 1/2 (N) 45* 52 (N) 60 (72) 16 2 64 13 3 19 84 17 4 108 114 (67) 20 5 18 125 133 (66) 18 6 19 145 20 7 25 164 20 8 22 183 18 9 23 202 21 10 24 221 23 * Assume 45 days at loss of Pl. 27 (51) 22 241 (49) 22 226 (51) 26 235 (49) (56) 26 221 (52) 23 226 (49) 200 (58) 23 214 (54) (66) 20 199 (59) 19 206 (55) 190 (66) 20 195 (60) (66) 24 182 (66) 26 189 (60) 165 (66) 19 179 (66) (66) 19 163 (66) 21 171 (66) 150 (66) 22 155 (66) (67) 23 143 (66) 20 151 (66) 126 (67) 19 138 (67) 20 125 (67) (66) 110 (67) 21 20 (69) 19 104 119 (67) 89 (69) (67) 19 (71) 25 25 97 16 68 82 (70) (68) (N) (71) 20 20 92 (68) 65 75 (70) F (N) (72) 22 70 (70) 3/4 248 (49) 24 (49) 25 �152- Secondary Replacement Most captive pigeons began post-juvenile molt of secondaries after P6 had been molted, and continued until after the primary molt was completed (Fig. 1). About 80 percent of the pigeons molted in sequence from outer (1) to inner (10). Some pigeons exhibited irregular molt of secondaries in a sequence from 1 to 6 and then 10 to 7, or from 1 to 6 and simultaneously from 7 to 10. Timing and initiation of molt is irregular and replacement is rapid. This character is, therefore, of little use in calculation of hatching dates. Examination of secondaries 1 through 5 or 6 appears to be useful for age determination purposes. Juveniles secondaries have rounded margins at the tip. Secondaries 1 through 5 or 6 are replaced by square or slightly emarginated secondaries in the post-juvenile molt. The presence of rounded, juvenile secondaries 1 through 5 or 6 would indicate a juvenile pigeon. Molt data indicates that about 60 percent of juveniles retain S4, S5 or S6 after PlO is replaced. Examination of secondaries, with practice, might allow recognition of juveniles or sub-adults after primary molt is completed in no more than 60 percent of the birds. Molt and Replacement of Rectrices and Tail Coverts Tail characteristics are of little value in age determination because rectrices and coverts are easily damaged and accidently lost. It is probable that this is also true for wild-trapped pigeons. Molt of rectrices was not documented in this study; however, Levi (1969) found that molt is in an irregular sequence which occurs between 100 and 225 days of age (Fig. 1) in rock doves. Scattered data were collected concerning molt of tail coverts and subsequent loss of tail covert edging. The findings are summaried in Fig. 1. Molt of tail coverts occurs between fledging and complete replacement of P4. Upper Wing Covert Edging Molt of upper wing coverts (including alula, alular coverts, and greater secondary coverts) is summaried in Fig. 1. Wing coverts are lost continuously from 0 molt until after PlO is completely replaced. About 20 percent of the bandtails retained one or two buffy-tipped coverts after PlO was completely replaced. About 30 percent retained buffy-tipped coverts after P9 was replaced. As a result, wing covert edging is one of the best indicators of a juvenile pigeon. This characteristic, in combination with primary and secondary examination allows accurate determination of age, and in some cases, hatching date. Color of Crown and Upper Breast The chronology of the molt of the crown and upper breast feathers is expressed in Fig. 1. Little replacement occurred until PJ was molted. At this time, a fairly heavy molt occurred in this region, as well as on the nape. By the time P7 was molted, most imma~ures have completed molt of the breast feathers. At about 8 weeks of age (assuming 45 days at PIE) it is possible to distinguish sexes using the breast color as the criteria. As part of this study, �Character Loss of Natal Feathering Down* of Nares Wing Coverts Alula Alular Coverts Greater Secondary Upper Breast, Coverts Crown and Throat Crescent I t-I Nape VI IN • I Secondaries Eye Cuticle Tail Coverts Rectrices** Fig. * 1. Molt sequence Estimated ** After Levi (1969) Fledging o of juvenile band-tailed PI P2 pigeons P3 P4 from fledging P5 P6 to completion P7 P8 of primary P9 molt. PIO �-154- it waadetermined that, with practice, sex determination based primarily upon breast color is at least 95 percent accurate. This figure is baaed on gonadal examination of about 400 band-tailed pigeons of all age and sex classes. This is baaed on the evidence that adult males have a purple hue on the crown, throat, and breast, while females are more brown or gray. Crescent and Nape Immature bandtails have no crescent or irridescent nape as observed in adult birds. MOst 0 molt pigeons have a uniform gray nape, although a few have a very light crescent or irridescence. After P3 haa molted, a moderately heavy molt occurs on the head and neck. By the time P6 or P7 have been molted, most birds have completed molt of the nape and crescent (Fig. 1). These "subadults" are indistinguishable from adults; i.e., males have a Wide, clear white crescent and well developed irridescence, while females have a thin or mottled crescent and pale irridescence. This characteristic, used in combination with breast color is a useful indicator of sex. Eye Color Pigeons at 0 primary molt have a brownish-pink iris. Iris color rapidly changes to reddish-brown after PI molt, and finally, to a blood red, characteristic of adults, by P4 molt (Fig. 1). Cuticle Color The color of the eye ring, or cuticle, in immatures is highly variable. Colors observed included pinkish-yellow, pinkish-brown, gray, orange, yelloworange, and brownish orange. These colors changed rapidly after P3 waa molted and by molt of P4 most pigeons had the dark pink adult cuticle (Fig. 1). Nares Feathering of the nares completes the juvenile plumage in band-tailed pigeons. This generally occurs after fledging and by molt of PI is completed (Fig. 1). Loss of Natal Down Several immatures were captured each summer which still retained some of the yellow natal down. This is probably lost just at fledging (Fig. 1) or before. Bill, Foot, and Leg Color Most immatures have pale, light colored bills, feet and legs. Most adults normally have much darker pigmentation in these areas, although some do not. By the time of P3 molt, all immatures were similar to adults in bill, foot and leg color. Levi (1969) and other domestic pigeon raisers suggest that this character may be used as an indicator of health. Presumably, dark or bright colors indicate good health. �-155- Weight Weight gain was rapid in captive immatures until a peak was reached in midOctober (Fig. 2). At capture, weights of immatures ranged from 190 to 290 grams. By mid-October the average weight was 345 grams. Since then the average weight has dropped to about 330 grams and has remained remarkably stable. The increase and subsequent slight decrease may have been related to normal pre-migratory fat deposition with a return to "normal" after the migratory period passed. Stability of observed weights is probably attributable to the apparent good health of all birds. Sex Determination Using Wings Alone While all available data has not been analyzed, some progress is being made in this area. Using 1969 pigeon collection data, it was determined that about 25 percent of all pigeons could be classified correctly as to sex, using measurements of the outer primaries. However, more data from 1970 and 1971 should be analyzed before making any final conclusion. During examination of about 250 known sex wings from pigeon collections, it was discovered that a large portion of the adult wings could be correctly classified as to sex, using wing covert characteristics. In a test, just over 90 percent of adult males were correctly classified as to sex, while only 80 percent of the females were correctly classified. However, sub-adults and immatures could not be correctly classified as to sex. It was noted that adult male coverts show a light metallic blue hue, while females present a much darker gray with a faint touch of irridescent green. In the near future, attempts will be made to improve methods of sex determination using wings alone. Perhaps, with practice, sex determination by covert color, in combination with measurements of primaries, will yield a usable method. Abnormal Plumage in the Band-tailed Pigeon The incidence of abnormal plumage in birds varies greatly within different species. Gross (1965) reported albinism in 276 species of North American birds with only 28 species compriSing 51.54 percent of all recorded albinos. In general, species with close associations with man show a higher incidence of abnormal plumage because of the increased chance of observation. Because of this, the robin (Turdus migratorius) , house sparrow (Passer domesticus), common crow (Corvus brachyrhychos), and red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus) share 20.01 percent of the recorded albinos (Gross 1965). In addition, many game birds show a high incidence of albinism. Bobwhites (Colinus virginianus), mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), ring-necked pheasants (Pnasianus colchicus), Canada geese (Branta canadensis), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), and California quail (Lophortyx californicus) total 9.01 percent of recorded albinos (Gross 1965). During recent investigations of band-tailed pigeons in Arizona, California, and Colorado, several individuals displaying abnormal plumage have been encountered. Three of these birds were partial albinos with patches of white in the primaries. Lee Fitzhugh of the Arizona Cooperative Wildlife Research �~eight (In Grams) 425 400 375 345 350 325 I 340 '. 310 300 '(69) 285 I 275 I f45 1335t30 t35 , I t340 330 (66) (55) (66) (66) (49) I ••• (60) VI Q\ (67) I (70) 250; I I (73) 230 225 200 (76) 175 o 1 2 3 4 Primary 5 6 7 1 1 r 8 9 10 Molt Fig. 2. Weights of juvenile band-tailed pigeons at replacement of each primary. vertical bars indicate ranges, numbers in parentheses i.ndicate sample sizes). (Horizontal bars indicate means, �-157- Unit has observed two of these. Both were banded and released. One, a juvenile, was shot by a hunter afterward, and the wing was returned to State Game and Fish personnel. The wing was loaned by Lee Fitzhugh for examination. It is completely normal except that the two outer primaries are white. The other partial albino was collected on June 6, 1970 at Stoner, MOntezuma County, Colorado. This bird shows a pure white spot in the center of the primaries. This pigeon is presently being mounted at the Denver Museum of Natural History. Two bandtails have been encountered with imperfect albinism. One that was noticeably lighter than normal was banded and released by J. Edward Kautz and Brett Peterson in southern Colorado in 1971. The second imperfect albino was captured near Carmel, California by F. John Ward on August 19, 1971. This fawn-colored juvenile was sent to us for examination and at pr~sent it is still alive and healthy. It appears normal in every way except for color. The fawn color is apparently the result of a lack of dark eumelanin which produces gray, black, and dark brown colors. However ,phaeomelanin, which causes light brown and yellow-brown is still present and causes the light brown color of this bird (Sage 1970). Two melanistic bandtails have been observed by F. John Ward near Carmel, California. One was captured, but later escaped. These seven birds have been encountered during the handling of over 17,000 band-tailed pigeons. This seems to indicate the rarity of abnormal plumage in band-tailed pigeons. The occurrence of abnormality in plumage color is probably at least one in 5,000 individuals based on trapping in Colorado, Arizona, and California. LITERATURE CITED American Ornithologists Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc. Baltimore. 691 pp. DeLaRonde, G. G., II, and Yvonne A. Greichus. 1972. Care and behavior of penned double-crested cormorants. Auk 89(3):644-650. Fitzhugh, E. L. 1970. Literature review and bibliography of the band-tailed pigeons of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Spec. Rept., Arizona Game and Fish Dept. 53 pp. Glover, F. A. 1953. A nesting study of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba i. fasciata) in northwestern California. Calif. Fish and Game 39(3) :397-407. Goodwin, D. 1967. Pigeons and doves of the world. Hist., London. Publ. No. 663. 446 pp. British Museum Nat. Gross, A. o. 1965. The incidence of albinism in North American birds. Banding 36:67-71. Bird- Houston, D. B. 1963. A contribution to the ecology of the band-tailed pigeon Columba fasciata, Say. M. S. Thesis, Univ. Wyoming, Laramie. 74 pp. �-158- Levi, W. M. 1969. 667 pp. The pigeon. Levi Publ. Co., Sumter, South Carolina. Mace, R. U., and W. M. Batterson. 1961. Results of a band-tailed pigeon banding study at Nehalem, Oregon. Proc. Ann. Conf. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 41 :151-153. Macgregor, W. G., and W. M. Smith. 1955. Nesting and reproduction of the band-tailed pigeon in California. Calif. Fish and Game 41(4) :315-326. Miller, W. J., and F. H. Wagner. 1955. Sexing mature Columbiformes by cloacal characters. Auk 72(3):279-285. Neff, J. A. 1947. Habits, food and economic status of the band-tailed pigeon. U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., No. Amer. Fauna 58. 76 pp. Sage, B. L. 1970. Albinism and melanism. Birds 3(6):130-133. Si1ovosky, G. D. 1969. Distribution and mortality of the Pacd Hc .Coast band-tailed pigeon. M. S. Thesis. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. 70 pp. , H. M. Wight, L. H. Sisson, T. L. Fox, and S. W. Harris. 1968. ---Methods of determining age of band-tailed pigeons. J. Wild1. Mgmt. 32(2):421-424. Smith, W. A. 1968. The band-tailed pigeon in California. and Game. 54(1):4-16. California Fish Wight, H. M., R. U. Mace, and W. M. Batterson. 1967. Mortality estimates of an adult band-tailed pigeon population in Oregon. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 31(3):519-575. Prepared by _-=-::L~~~QlV~·-=--_f._ . ..L..~L.L.::..==';~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �October, -159- JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work ~CO~L~O~RAD~~O~ No. W-88-R-17 Plan No. 4 Job Tit Ie Period Covered: April Personnel: Del Benson, J. Allen White. 1972 REPORT _ Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. ~6 _ Rand-tailed l'igeon Investigations .::B:.::r...:;e:.:::;e;..:::d:,:i;.:;n:,cgt....:::a::,;n;..:::d:.....:.N:,:;e _ 1, 1971 to March 31, 1972 Clait E. Braun, J. Edward Kautz, Brett Petersen and ABSTRACT Investigations were initiated in 1971 to locate areas where band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) breed and nest in order to intensively study these facets of pigeon biology. Efforts were continued to collect pigeons in order to study ovarian and testicular cycles and their relationship to body condition and crop gland activity. Intensive field investigations in four different areas suspected of being utilized for breeding and nesting by bandtails failed in locating active nests. Only one inactive nest was found. It is apparent that nesting densities of pigeons in Colorado are extremely low, possibly no more than three pairs per square mile. Examination of gonadal materials and crop glands indicate that bandtailed pigeons are inbreeding condition when they arrive in Colorado in late April and are capable of breeding into late August and early September. While one egg is most commonly laid, a Rmall percentage of females may produce two eggs per clutch. All c o Ll cc t cd tna.t:crlftl/'J ~u~geF:Jr-- 1hi'll 114ml! 4111'l may attempt two to three nests per breeding season. Sub~tidult pf-geollB definitely attempt to nest, but they may initiate breeding activities later than adults. �-160- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that the field portion of this study concerning locating and observing free-living band-tailed pigeons in breeding and nesting areas be discontinued. 2. The gonadal and crop gland investigation of this project should be continued through 31 March 1973 with most analyses to be completed by Ralph Gutierrez, Graduate Student, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. �-161- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS BREEDING AND NESTING CHRONOLOGY STUDIES Clait E. Braun and Delwin E. Benson The band-tailed pigeon, a native forest-dwelling Columbid, occurs throughout the southern Rocky Mountains and along the west flank of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains in Western North America. Little is known about the life history, biology, or ecological relationships of this species as few detailed studies have been undertaken. The lack of systematic studies is primarily related to the secretive nature of bandtails away from feeding sites, poor access throughout most of their range, and purported low numbers of pigeons in some regions. As part of a larger, comprehensive study of band-tailed pigeons seasonally resident in Colorado, this study was initiated to investigate nesting habits and breeding chronology of these pigeons living in Colorado. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To locate several breeding and nesting areas of free-living band-tailed pigeons suitable for intensive studies. 2. To document breeding and nesting chronology from field observations, gonadal, and crop gland examination of pigeons systematically collected in Colorado. 3. To compile data and prepare progress report. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Two major populations of band-tailed pigeons occur north of Mexico with ~. i· monilis found from southern California north through Oregon, Washington, into south-central British Columbia, primarily west of the summit of the Sierras and Cascade Mountains. The interior population, ~. i. fasciata, appears to be more restricted in range as it occurs from Utah and Colorado south through New Mexico and Arizona, wintering in north-central Mexico (A.O.U. 1957). Other subspecies occur south of the International Boundary �-164- La Veta - Wahatoya Creek; 8,000-9,000 feet in ponderosa pine, Gambel oak (Quercus gambeli), and Douglas-fir. Salida - Methodist Mountain; 8,000-10,000 feet in Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), limber pine (Pinus flexilis), and bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata). Longmont - Flying over ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir at 7,000 feet. Castle Rock - Bear Canyon and adjoining areas in the Rampart Range; 8,0009,000 feet in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), Douglas-fir, limber pine, and quaking aspen. At this time, no specific vegetation type or elevation can be correlated with nesting. Following pigeons to nesting areas from feeding sites worked for a portion of the distance. As the vegetation became thicker and the terrain more diversified, selecting correct observation points became difficult. Pigeons did not follow exact drainage routes and once feeding flight patterns were lost, it took many trial and error locations to again find the flight path. Spiral nuptial flights were not observed. Birds were found cooing from sunrise to 9:30 a.m., MDT, and from 4:00 p.m., MDT, to sunset. These areas were searched for nests, but none ~as found. Cooing activity was observed mainly in Bear Canyon and surrounding areas in the Rampart Range west of Castle Rock. This area was intensively studied because of published reports of nests found there in the late 1940's. Cooing was also commonly heard and observed at pigeon feeding sites. Ground reconnaissance surveys in probable nesting areas did not prove productive. Band-tailed pigeons were flushed and observed flying, but the magnitude of vegetation and land area to support nesting birds was too great to adequately cover. Analyses of all collected materials have not been completed at this time. Cursory examinations of gonadal materials and crop glands indicate that band-tailed pigeons are in breeding condition (enlarges testes and ova) when they arrive in Colorado in late April. Testes remain enlarged throughout the summer and start regressing in late August and early September. There is some suggestion that testes may slightly regress (about 1 to 2 mm) during the period of late incubation and feeding of young. Females show ovarian activity from late April until early September with up to six ova being larger than 5.0 mm at one time. Examination of ovarian. materials indicates that up to 30 percent of the females in some years may lay clutches of two eggs. However, one egg clutches would appear to be most common. There is little doubt that most pigeons in Colorado attempt at least two nests each year and possibly three nests in extremely early years or when feeding conditions are good. Crops exhibiting glandular development have been examined from late May until late September. It could be argued that this finding just suggests that pigeons are asynchronous nesters, allowing individual birds to be in various stages of one nesting attempt. This �-165- argument is not reasonable as it does not explain those pigeons that have been collected with "active or stimulated" crops and having enlarged testes or a developing follicle indicative of breeding readiness. While two nesting attempts were most common in 1969 and 1970, probably only one nesting attempt occurred per pair of pigeons in 1971. This was undoubtedly the result of extremely poor food conditions in that year. Only one adult or subadu1t pigeon has been collected that apparently had not been in breeding condition during the time interval prior to death. All field data indicate that subadu1t pigeons (less than 1 year of age) breed. However, this age class does appear to nest later than adults. While most pigeons are capable of breeding, not all males appear to be successful in attracting a mate. Present Status Graduate Research Assistant Delwin E. Benson terminated his contract with the Colorado Division of Wildlife by mutual consent on December 31, 1971. The nesting and breeding phenology segment was held inactive from that time until May 1, 1972. At that time an agreement was reached with Ralph Gutierrez, a graduate student at the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, to continue and complete the study using primarily the collected gonadal materials. All materials, measurements, descriptions, etc., were turned over to him for analyses. Additionally, it was agreed that fresh materials would be provided through 1972. The final report will be compiled primarily from the M.S. thesis of Gutierrez with additional data from the aviary studies of White (1972). LITERATURE CITED Abbott, C. G. 1927. Notes on the nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor 29(2):121-123. Allen, W. I. 1941. Nesting of band-tailed pigeons at Altadena, California. Condor 43(3):156-157. American Ornithologist's Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th ed., Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore. 69lpp. Brandt, H. 1937. Brown, W. W., Jr. Some Arizona bird studies. 1909. Correspondence. Auk 54(1):62. Condor 9(4):143. Burleigh, T. D. 1929. Notes on the bird life of northwestern Washington. Auk 46(4):502-519. Cooke, W. W. 1898. Further notes on the birds of Colorado. Expt. Sta., Ft. Collins, Bull. 44:147-176,179-239. Agric. �-166- Cottam, C. 1941. Indigo bunting and band-tailed pigeon in Utah. Condor 43(2):122. Davis, J. M. 1938. Nesting dates from the Humboldt Bay region. Condor 40(4):182-183. Dawson, W. L. 1923. The birds of California. South Moulton Co., San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco. Vol. 3 of 4, 2l2lpp. Fitzhugh, E. L. 1970. Literature review and bibliography of the band-tailed pfgeons of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah. Spec. Rept., Arizona Game and Fish Dept. 53pp. Gilman, M. F. 1903. More about the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata). Condor 5(5):134-135'. Glover, F. A. 1953. A nesting study of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba f. fasciata) in northwestern California. Calif. Fish and Game 39(3):397-407. Grinnell, J. 1938. September nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor 30(1):126-127. ______ , H. C. Bryant, and T. I. Storer. 1918. The game birds of California. Univ. California Press, Berkeley. 642pp. Hargrave, L. L. 1935. Condor 37(6):285. Nine new birds from Williams, Arizona. Houston, D. B. 1963a. A contribution to the ecology of the bandtailed pigeon, Columba fasciata, Say. M. A. thesis, Univ. Wyoming, Laramie. 74pp. 1963b. The reproductive ecology of the band-tailed pigeon, Columba fasciata. Jour. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 5(4):42. Huey, L. M. 1913. With the band-tailed pigeon in San Diego County. Condor 15(4):151-153. Jensen, J. K. 1923. Notes on the nesting birds of northern Santa Fe County, New Mexico. Auk 40(3):455. Jewett, S. G. 1941. 43 (1) : 78. Late nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor. Johnson, N. K. 1965. The breeding avifaunas of the Sheep and Spring Ranges in southern Nevada. Condor 67(2):93-124. Lamb, C. C. 1926. The viosca pigeon. Condor 28(6):262-263. Macgregor, W. G., and W. M. Smith. 1955. Nesting and production of the band-tailed pigeon in California. Calif. Fish and Game. 41(4):315-326. �-167- March, G. L., and R. M. F. S. Sadleir. 1970. Studies on the bandtailed pigeon (Columba fasciata) in British Columbia. I. Seasonal changes in gonadal development and crop gland activity. Canadian Jour. Zool. 48(6):1353-1357. Matteson, C. P. 1948. Life history (wild and aviary). Game and Fish Fed. Aid Rept. October. pp. 20-22. Colo. Dept. 1949. Life history (natural and aviary). Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Fed. Aid Rept. October. pp. 36-37. Mearns, E. A., M.D. 1890. Observations Arizona. Auk 7(1):52-53. on the avifauna of portions of Michael, C. W. 1928. Nesting time of the band-tailed Valley. Condor 30(1):127. Morse, W. B. 1949. The band-tailed Bull. 4(7):1,5,7. pigeon. pigeons in Yosemite Oregon State Game Comm. Neff, J. A. 1947. Habits, food and economic status of the band-tailed pigeon. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Ser., No. Amer. Fauna 58, 76pp. ___ , and J. C. Culbreath. 1947. Status of the band-tailed pigeon in Colorado, season of 1946. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Mgmt. Div. Fed. Aid Sec. Rept. 24pp. ____ ~, and R. J. Niedrach. 1946 •. Nesting of the band-tailed in Colorado. Condor 48(2):72-74. Peeters, H. J. 1962. Nuptial behavior of the band-tailed the San Francisco Bay Area. Condor 64(6):445-470. pigeon pigeon in Pemberton, J. R., and H. W. Garriger. 1915. A partial list of the summer resident land birds of Monterey County, California. Condor 17(5):189-201. Peyton, S. B. 1937. Minutes of Cooper Club Meeting - Southern Division. Condor 39(2):95. Pierce, W. M. 1913. 15(5) :227. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor Racey, K. 1926. Notes on birds observed in the Alta Lake region, British Columbia. Auk 43(3):319-325. 1948. Birds of the Alta Lake region, British Columbia. Auk 65(3):383-401. Rockwell, R. B. 1908. An annotated list of the birds of Mesa County, Colorado. Condor 10(4):152-180. �-168- Rowley, J. s. 1934. Notes on the nesting of band-tailed pigeons. Condor 36(5):216-217. Schwi11ing, M. D. 1950. More band-tails nesting in Co10~ado. Unpubl. Note. Files of Colo. Div. Wi1d1., Ft. Collins. Sharp, C. S. 1919. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon in San Diego County, California. Condor 21(1):40. Smith, A. P. 1917. 19(5):161-165. Some birds of the Davis Mountains, Texas. Condor Stager, K. E. 1954. Birds of the Barranca De Cobre region of southwestern Chihauhua, Mexico. Condor 56(1):21-32. Stephens, F. 1913. 15(3):129. 1914. Swarth, H. S. 1908. Early nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Arizona records. 1900. Condor Condor 16(5):259. Avifauna of a 100-acre ranch. Condor 2(1):16. Some fall migration notes from Al-izona. Condor 10(3): 108. Thayer, J. E. 1909a. Letter to the editor. Condor 11(4):142-143. 190,9b. Some rare birds and sets of eggs from the Cape region of Lower California. Condor 11(1):10-11. Vorhies, C. T. 1928. Band-tailed pigeon nesting in Arizona in September. Condor 30(4):253. White, J. A. 1972. Plumage studies of band-tailed pigeons. Colo. Div. Wi1d1., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. In Press. Willard, F. C. 1913. Some late nesting notes from the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona. Condor 15 (1):41. 1916. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon in southern Arizona. Condor 18(3):110-112. Ziegler, D. L. 1971. Crop4mi1k cycles in band-tailed pigeons and losses of squabs due to hunting pigeons in September. M.S. thesis. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. 48pp. Prepared by i _~~~",-,fJ~~J: ~,-- _ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/345d1c8ba5a078945bb26ba11936a7a4.pdf b666c2f8b9da082675712d3f190d4bf9 PDF Text Text January, -1- 1973 JOB FINAL REPORT State of .COLORADO ------~~~~~-------------- Work Plan NO'. Job Title: 2 Investigations 3 Job No. Physiological Period Covered: Personnel: Antelope W-40-R-13 Project No. Studies May 1, 1965 through April 30, George D. Bear, Allen E. Anderson, Florence Fields. 1971 John P. Goettl, Robert Keiss, ABSTRACT Seventy-five antelope were collected and necropsied during this study. Buck and doe antelope were collected at monthly intervals for a one-year period in Moffat County and Saguache County; also wounded or dead animals were collected following the hunting season. Measurements were recorded in the following categories for each animal: external measurements - (shoulder height, total body length, tail length, body length, head length and width, ear lengths, hindfoot lengths, hoof lengths, horn lengths, girth, neck circumference and carcass weights); measurements of organs - (heart, liver, brain, spleen, kidney, eyeballs, lungs); measurements of glands - (thyroid, adrenal and pituitary); measurements of the male reproductive system (testes, prostate gland, scrotum and penis); measurements of the female reproductive system (ovaries, uterine horn, vagina, cervix, uterine body and embryos); blood analysis erythrocytes, leucocytes, neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, hemoglobin and hematocrit); stomach weights; body temperatures; and body condition indices (thoracic fat, visceral fat, kidney fat, bone marrow, and rump fat). These data were grouped into age and sex categories: fawns (sexes combined), yearlings (buck or doe), and mature (buck or doe). Single mean values were computed for various measurements and entered in tables under the sex and age categories; except for the measurements on the reproductive systems, which were presented by monthly intervals in an effort to establish seasonal trends or changes. �-2- Body, organ and gland measurements increased most rapidly during the period from the fawn to the yearling age class. Increase in these measurements were less pronounced between the yearling and mature age categories. Individual variations and small sample sizes obscured differences due to sex, if such differences do occur. Measurements of the female reproductive system showed seasonal changes; whereas, data for the male reproductive system was erratic and did not show pronounced changes. .Changes in the female reproductive system were closely associated with .fetus,development, which accelerated in the latter four months of pregnancy. .. ..... . . Mean muscle and rectal temperatures taken soon after the death of the animals were 38.7 and 38.4 degrees centtgrade, respectively. Heat loss from the carcass was most pronounced during the first three hours after the animal was eviscerated. Measurements on body fat deposits were reported in a technical publication entitled "Seasonal trends in fat levels of pronghorns, Antilocapra americana, in Colorado"; J. Mammalogy 52(3):583-589. Data from this study were also printed in the following publication, "The annual testicular cycle and horn casting in the pronghorn (Antilocapra american)"; J. Mammology 52(3):537-544. �-3- PHYSIOLOGICAL STUDIES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE To measure physiological and morphological characteristics of antelope collected seasonally to establish "physiological norms" and to provide basic morphological data as related to sex and age classes. METHODS AND MATERIAL S 1/ Antelope were collected at monthly intervals on study areas near Maybell in Moffat County, Colorado and near Saguache in Saguache County, Colorado; also, a few dead or wounded antelope were picked up following the 1964 hunting season in Moffat County. A total of 75 antelope were collected and necropsied during this study. With the exception of the data concerning female reproductive systems, there appeared to be little difference in the data cQllected from each of the two study areas, thus the data were combined for firlal analysis. Field Procedures Shooting of Antelope Location of Shot--When the neck and shoulder. possible, the antelope was shot at the junction of Observations Recorded--The following observations were recorded: behavior of the antelope before and after shooting, time of shooting, time of death, estimated distance of shot in yards, weather conditions, and number and behavior of associated antelope. Collection of Blood Samples Method of Entering Heart--Blood samples were collected within 15 minutes of shooting. The blood was aspirated from the heart with a syringe and needle. The heart was entered from the left side between the fourth and fifth ribs and about two inches above the sternum. The index finger was 1/ - Field and laboratory Anderson and Medin, procedures 1962. were patterned after those developed by �-4- used to push aside the pelage at the point of needle entry until the point was inside the thoracic cavity. Both hands were then used to introduce the needle into the heart; the syringe plunger being slowly withdrawn when contact was made with the heart. Anti-Coagulant Samp·le--When about 20 cc of blood had been obtained, the syringe was detached from the needle and about 7 cc of blood was gently flushed into each of two anti-coagulant tubes. The blood was flushed gently and allowed to trickle down the tube walls. Immediately after filling, each tube was stoppered, held downward momentarily, and its top moved gently through an arc of 1800 for about two minutes. Serum Sample--After the anti-coagulant sample had been obtained, two samples of about 50 cc each were aspirated in the same manner and flushed into each of the two 60 ml centrifuge tubes. Female Reproductive Tract Vulva Measurements--The maximum length and width of the vulva were measured with a transparent rule to the nearest millimeter as soon as possible after death. External Body Measurements General Methods--Three additional external body measurements were made as soon as possible after death. They were taken with a flexible steel tape to the nearest centimeter with the carcass lying on a flat surface. Measurements Total Length--The distance measured from the tip of the nose to the distal end of the last tail vertebrae. The carcass is laid on its right side with head extended forward so that the nose is brought into as nearly a straight line with the back as possible, the tape being passed from the end of the nose over the top of the head directly to the top of the shoulders and along the backbone to the distal edge of the last coccygeal vertebrae. Shoulder Height--The distance measured from the posterior edge of the left hoof to the top of the scapula. Girth--The circumference of the body within the first inch posterior to the edge of the scapula. The tape is held firmly but without undue tension. �-5- Laboratory Blood Analyses Procedures and Chemical Determination The blood samples w.ere analyzed for the following: erythrocyte count, leucocyte count, differential leucocyte count (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils), hemoglobin, and hematocrit. This work was done at the Game, Fish and Parks Division Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado, by the laboratory technicians. External Body Measurements General Methods All external body measurements were made in the metric system at three to 24 hours from the time of death. The measurements, instruments used and their precision were described as follows: Measurements Ear Lengths--Intertragic notch to the tip of the auricle of both ears, not including hair, with a transparent rule to the nearest millimeter. Head Length--Occiput to the incisors with a caliper to the nearest millimeter. Inter-orbital Width--The maximum distance between the zygomatic measured with a caliper to the nearest millimeter. arches Neck Circumference--Two measurements: oue (a) made at a point approximately 10 centimeters posterior to the occiput and the other (b) at the extreme lower base of the neck. Both measurements were made with a steel tape and measured to the nearest millimeter. The tape was held snugly but without excessive tension. Hoof Lengths--Measured on all four feet as the maximum distance between the tip of the outside claw to its posterior edge. These measurements were made with a vernier caliper to the nearest millimeter. Hind Feet Lengths--Measured on both limbs from the tuber calcis (calcaneum) of the fibular tarsal bone to the tip of the hoof (outside claw) with a tape to the nearest millimeter. �-6- Tail Length--Measured from the perianal region to the distal end of the last coccygeal vertebrae with a transparent rule to the nearest one-half centimeter. The tail was held straight in relation to the spine and its ventral surface laid along the edge of the rule. Mammary gland--The maximum length and width were measured from the hair line, or point of swelling, and the maximum depth of a medial, longitudinal inclSl0n. A transparent rule was used in all cases, the length and width being measured to the nearest centimeter and also measured with a transparent rule to the nearest millimeter while their basal diameters were measured with a vernier caliper to the longitudinal axis of the body. Male Reproductive Organs--Measurements include the maximum length, width, and depth of the scrotum and the length of the penile sheath from the scrotum to the distal end. These were measured with a transparent rule to the nearest one-half centimeter. Eviscerated Carcass--Weighed with all viscera and visceral fat removed. Gland Methodology General Methods Immediately after dissection the glands were placed in individual, labeled, beakers containing physiological saline (prepared with tap water and either non-iodized table NaCl or reagent grade NaCl) until all fat and extraneous tissue could be removed. After blotting, measurements including longitudinal, transverse, and height diameters were made with a vernier caliper to the nearest 0.1 millimeter. Fresh weights were then obtained on a triplebeam balance scale to the nearest centigram. Volumes were calculated using their weight in air and submerged weights in water in the following formula based on Archimedes' principle and as illustrated by White (1956:219): gland + apparatus Volume in cc (wt. in air - wt. in H2O) apparatus - (wt. in air - wt. in H2O) Measurements, Weights, Volumes, Special Treatments Adrenals--Longitudinal, were measured. transverse, and vertical diameters of each adrenal �-7- Thyroid--The maximum longitudinal, transverse and vertical the weight and volume of each lobe were obtained. diameters and Pituitary--Following dissection of the brain, this gland was removed from the sella turcica by cutting the dura mater at the rim of the sella turcica with a scalpel, cutting the infundibular stalk and gently removing the encapsulating dura mater with a probe. The maximum and minimum diameters were measured and its weight and volume determined. Testes and Epididymides--Each testis was removed from the scrotum by severing the spermatic cord at the caudad portion of the ductus deferens as welt as the tunica vaginalis where attached to the testes. The tunica albuginea was then carefully stripped from the testes exterior and the epididymis is removed by severing the coni vasculosi at their junction with the testes. The longitudinal and transverse diameters of each testes were measured with a vernier caliper to the nearest millimeter; their individual weights and volumes were recorded. Prostate--The prostate bladder and its weight gland was dissected from the neck of the urinary and volume determined. Ovaries--The maximum longitudinal, transverse, and vertical diameters were measured to the nearest 0.1 millimeter with a vernier caliper; fresh w~ights and volumes were also obtained. Organ Methodology General Methods After dissection, each organ was washed in tap water and placed in physiological saline. Paired or fragile organs were placed in separate marked containers while the larger, discrete organs were placed in a common container. Following the removal of fat and extraneous tissue the organs were blotted, measured, and weighed on a triangle or double beam balance scale to the nearest 0.1 gram of I gram as stated below. Volumes were determined as described for glands. Dissection, Measurements, Weights, Volumes Special Treatments Liver--The maximum longitudinal (left to right lobes), transverse (right lobe at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the liver), and height (along the transverse bisection) diameters were measured to the nearest millimeter. A caliper was used to measure the longitudinal and transverse diameters and a transparent rule for the vertical diameter measured along the transverse bisection. �-8- Kidneys--Each kidney was removed by first cutting the fat anterior and posterior to the kidney and at right angles to its longitudinal axis. A cut was then made parallel to its longitudinal axis and immediately adjacent to the kidney capsules thereby severing the fat, ureter pelvis, and the renal arteries and veins. The kidney was weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram with fat after removal of the ureter pelvis and the renal arteries and veins at the point of their junction with the hilum. The attached fat was then removed and the kidney was weighed without fat. The maximum longitudinal, transverse (at the hilum), and vertical (opposite the hilum) diameters were measured with a caliper to the nearest millimeter. The kidney fat index (percent) for each kidney was computed by subtracting the kidney weight without fat from the kidney weight with fat and dividing the difference by the kidney weight without fat. The result was multiplied by 100. Total kidney fat index was computed the same way from the summed values of both kidneys. Heart--The pericardium was removed, coagulated blood in the chambers washed out with tap water, and all vessels cut at their junction with the heart. Preparatory to measurement, the heart was placed so the left side was facing the measurer. The maximum longitudinal diameter was measured from the left atrium (auricle) between the aortic arch and superior vena cava to the apex. The maximum transverse diameter was measured at the point of greatest heart breadth. Both measurements were taken with a caliper and read to the nearest millimeter. The weight was recorded to the nearest gram, and the volume was taken. Spleen--Weight to the nearest gram and volume were recorded also the longitudinal and transverse diameters. for this organ, Lungs--The left and right lungs were separated gram. No measurements or volumes were taken. to the nearest and weighed Brain--It was removed by first making three cuts with a bone saw; two along the edge of the frontal and parietal bones and one at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the skull and at, or just above the post-orbital process of the frontal bone. A rongeur forceps was then used to remove the frontal, parietal, and interparietal bones thus completely exposing the dorsal surface of the brain from the olfactory bulbs to the medulla oblongata. A probe and blunt scissors were used to separate the meninges from the brain case and to sever the cranial nerves and the infundibulum stalk at the ventral surface of the cranium. When the brain was completely free in the cranium it was moved forward and the spinal cord was severed at the extreme posterior portion of the rhomboid fossa or level of the obex. This appeared as the posterior point of a shallow depression on the dorsal surface of the medulla oblongata. The described point of severance corresponds roughly to the junction of the medulla oblongata and spinal cord. Following removal of the meninges the maximum longitudinal diameter was measured with the brain on its �-9- ventral surface from the frontal to the occipital lobes of the cerebrum immediately parallel to the longitudinal fissure. The maximum transverse diameter of the brain was measured at a selected point on the temporal lobes. All measurements were made with a caliper to the nearest millimeter; weight was recorded to the nearest gram • .Eyeballs--Both eyeballs were removed from their orbits by first cutting the conjunctiva (the mucous membrane which lines the eyelids) completely around the eyeball then pressing the eyeball gently outward and to the side. The extrinsic nerves, muscles, and vessels were severed with scissors and the eyeball withdrawn from its socket. Two external maximum diameter measurements were made with a vernier caliper to the nearest 0.1 millimeter as follows: Longitudinal, from the cornea to the extreme posterior wall; transverse, from wall to wall at a right angle to the longitudinal measurement. Weights were taken to the nearest 0.1 gram. Stomach and Contents--The stomach was removed by severing at the cardia and pylorus and tying each end with string to retain the contents. It was weighed to the nearest gram on a balance scale. The omasum and abomasum were removed, then the rumen and reticulum and their contents were weighed. The entire stomach without the contents was then weighed. Measurements of Teeth and Bones Mandibular and Maxillary Teeth Row Series--The series were measured with a vernier caliper to the nearest 0.1 millimeter. Measurements included (1) the alveolar distance from the anterior border of the anterior premolar to the posterior border of the posterior molar. Length of Mandible--It was measured with a caliper to the nearest millimeter. The maximum length of the left ramus was measured, not including any part of a tooth that extends forward from the anterior end of the bone. Length of Mandibular Diastema--The distance from the posterior-most margin of the alveolus of the lower incisor to the anterior-most margin of the first fourth cheek tooth was measured with a caliper to the nearest millimeter. Left Femur and Tibia--Before dissection, the femur was cracked, marrow from the central portion of the shaft was removed, placed in a crucible and macerated into a homogenous mass. Marrow color was immediately classified using the color charts of Munsell (1929-1960). The marrow consistency was rated in one of three categories, (a) solid, (b) putty-like, and (c) gelatinous. Right Femur and Tibia--No measurements were taken. The bones were fairly well cleaned, labeled, and placed in a labeled polyethylene bag and frozen immediately. After storage the marrow was removed for analysis of fat at the laboratory. �-10- Female Reproductive Tract General Methods--Immediately after dissection the intact tract was placed in physiological saline. After draining, blotting, and trimming all fat and the bladder (at its junction with the urethra), the tract was measured and weighed as described below. Measurements--Allmeasurements were made with the tract lying on its dorsal surface and include the length and width of the uterine horns and body, vagina, and cervix. All measurements were made with a transparent rule to the nearest millimeter. Weight--Weights were obtained with balance scales to either the nearest one or ten grams depending on its size. In the gravid uterus, the weight of the tract with its uterine fluids and membrane was found by subtracting the weight of the embryo(s) or fetus(es). Measurements of Fetuses and Embryos External measurements of the fetuses were made as for the larger adult animals. No internal measurements were made. Only a rump-crown measurement was made on very small embryos. Fat Deposition Records of fat deposition on the brisket, rump, and visceral fat were made in addition to the kidney fat index and the marrow fat indices. Depth of the brisket fat was measured on the sternum at the third rib, when a cut was made parallel to the longitudinal axis of the carcass. Depth of the rump fat was measured at the maximum fat depth along a cut approximately 12 inches long made at a 450 angle to the backbone starting at the base of the tail and proceeding anteriorly across the right side of the rump. These measurements were made with a transparent rule to the nearest millimeter. Fat in the visceral cavity, including mesenteric fat and kidney fat, was removed and weighed to the nearest gram. RESULTS External AND DISCUSSION Body Measurements There was a general increase in the external body measurements of the antelope as related to the three age classes, fawn, yearling, and mature (Tables 1-5). The only fawns necropsied were ones found after the 1964 hunting season. These animals were approximately three to four months old. The yearling age class included animals from eight months to twenty-four months old; while the mature class was all animals over twenty-four months �-11- old. Growth or increase in body measurements was much more pronounced from the fawn class to yearling, than from yearling to mature age class. It is difficult to make a reliable comparison between the groups due to the small sample sizes and distribution of the animals within each of the broader age categories. However, these data indicated there were minor differences in the body measurements due to sex. Mature bucks were slightly heavier, had slightly larger girth measurements, and larger head measurements than mature does. Percent decrease in body weight following evisceration was as follows: fawns 25 percent, yearling bucks 21 percent, yearling does 28 percent, mature bucks 27 percent, and mature does 31 percent. Organ Measurements Organs generally increased in size in relation to the general growth pattern, with the increase being most pronounced from the fawn age group to the yearling age group (Tables 6-10). Mean organ measurements for yearlings and mature bucks were slightly greater than similar measurements for yearling and mature does. However, variations in each of these measurements within each sex and age class were quite large, and larger samples would be needed to determine the validity of the above statement. Measurements for the left and right eyeball and left and right kidney were very similar for each of the animals necropsied, so a mean figure was computed for each animal. The left lung weighed less than the right lung in all animals necropsied. Gland Measurements As in previous measurements, the gland measurements showed a greater increase in size from the fawn class to yearling than yearling to mature age class (Tables 11-15). Any differences in gland measurements due to sex of the animals are likely due to small samples and the method of grouping the data. Reproductive Sy~ Measurements on the reproductive systems of yearling animals were combined with measurements of the mature age class, since the yearling animals were reproductively mature. Data from the fawn age classes are presented in Tables 16 and 17. There appeared to be a slight increase in testes size and the longitudinal measurements for bucks in August and October; but other measurements on the prostate gland, scrotum and penis did not indicate a seasonal change (Table 18). The female reproductive system showed seasonal changes. Ovarian and vaginal measurements did not show significant changes while the remainder of the reproductive system changed with fetal development (Tables 19 and 20). Data collected in Moffat County was presented in a table separate from data �-12- collected in Saguache County because fetal development in the Saguache County does appeared to be one month behind the Moffat County does. The uterine horns and uterine body greatly increased in size from November through Mayas the fetus developed; then decreased abruptly in June when parturition occurred. Fetal development was very pronounced during the last four months of pregnancy; weight of the fetuses nearly doubled each. month during this period. Blood Analysis Data obtained on blood chemistry showed considerable variation, although for does and bucks the mean values were similar (Tables 21 and 22). The data were examined on a monthly basis but the trends were very erratic. Stomach Measurements Increase in'stomach size was most pronounced between the fawn and yearling age classes, which is the most active period of growth (Table 23). There was little difference in mean stomach weights for bucks and does in the same age class. Body Temperatures There was little difference in the muscle temperature and rectal temperature of the antelope collected with means of 38.7 degrees and 38.4 degrees Centigrade (Table 24). There was always a few minutes lag after the animal was shot before the temperatures could be taken, thus these mean values are likely to vary from temperatures of living animals. The muscle temperature recorded for the antelope after they were eviscerated showed a marked decrease during the first three hours, after that heat loss was much slower. These temperatures were collected under field conditions in which the air temperatures were extremely variable. Therefore, a study with stricter controls on air temperatures would yield more reliable data. Body Condition Indices Seasonal trends in the fat levels of males and females were traced using thoracic fat, visceral fat, kidney fat, bone marrow, and rump fat measurements. The results of these findings were reported in a technical publication entitled "Seasonal trends in fat levels of pronghorn, Antilocapra americana, in Colorado", published in the Journal of Mammalogy, 52 (3): 583-589, 1971. �-13- LITERATURE·CITED Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1962. An ecological investigation of the Cache la Poudre deer herd, Colorado -- physiological studies. Colorado Quarterly Report, July 1962, pp. 253-275. Munsell, A. H. 1929-1960. Munsell book of color, pocket edition. Munsell Color Co., Inc. Baltimore, Maryland. White, H. E. 1956. Modern college physics. New York. 824 pp. .r H" : Prepared by / _/~v_~,.-~1-;;./___ ',-~/ ) ~-; ,~~,-{ George j{'. Bear Wildlife Researcher 4 . D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. �-14- Table three 1. to Body measurements four months old. (centimeters) for fawn antelope approximately Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Shoulder height 75.3 87.1- 66.5 7 6.6 Total body length 113.0 125.0-107.5 8 6.3 Tail length 10.3 15.2- 6.5 8 2.5 Body length 102.8 109.8- 97.3 7 4.7 Head length 22.5 24.2- 21.3 6 1.0 10.3 10.6- 9.9 6 0.2 Ear lengths 14.2 15.2- 12.2 8 0.9 Hindfoot 37.4 39.7- 34.2 8 1.9 5.8 6.2- 4.8 8 0.5 5.2- 4.7 8 0.4 Interorbital width lengths Standard Deviation Hoof lengths Front Rear Horn length 2.9 4.5- 1.2 9 1.6 Girth 74.6 83.8- 67.2 8 5.0 Neck Point a 30.0 32.7- 22.5 8 3.4 Point b 41.4 47.8- 33.8 8 4.3 Bled 51.3 68.0- 37.4 8 10.0 Eviscerated 36.9 41.1- 29.0 6 4.7 Carcass weights (lbs) �-15- Table 2. External body measurements for yearling buck antelope. Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Shoulder height 86.7 95.0- 78.0 17 5.0 Total body length 134.4 147.0-112.7 17 10.2 Tail length 12.2 15.2- 8.2 17 2.4 Body length 122.2 134.2-102.5 17 9.9 Head length 27.6 29.6- 24.2 15 1.6 Interorbital width 12.8 14.1- 11.3 17 1.0 Ear length 14.5 17.2- 12.2 17 1.0 Hind foot length 43.7 45.5- 37.5 17 2.1 Front 6.8 7.9- 5.7 17 0.6 Rear 6.5 7.3- 5.3 17 0.6 Basal circumference 11.1 14.9- 5.7 16 2.1 Length 17.5 25.4- 4.3 17 4.5 Prong length 2.3 7.0- 0.0 17 2.2 Spread (tip to tip) 17.1 21.0- 6.8 15 4.9 91.2 106.0- 74.6 17 7.5 Point a 40.5 52.5- 22.5 14 8.6 Point b 52.7 63.2- 42.6 15 6.6 Bled 92 113 - 68 17 17.1 Eviscerated 73 88 - 58 11 12.1 Hoof length Horns Girth Neck Carcass weights (lbs) �-16- Table 3. External body measurements for yearling doe antelope. Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Shoulder height 90.0 96.7- 84.5 8 4.1 Total body length 139.0 151.0-126.0 7 7.9 Tail length 13.3 15.6- 10.7 9 1.6 Body length 124.2 136.9-113.6 5 8.7 Head length 27.3 30.1- 25.1 9 1.9 Interorbital width 12.6 13.2- 12.9 7 0.4 Ear length 14.4 16.5- 13.4 16 1.0 Hind foot length 37.9 45.4- 4.9 18 9.0 Front 6.4 7.7- 5.2 18 1.0 Rear 6.0 7.0- 4.7 18 0.7 Horn length 1.7 5.1- 0.1 18 1.9 Girth 87.5 74.0- 58.0 8 3.6 Point a 34.3 39.0- 30.7 7 3.2 Point b 47.2 53.3- 39.6 7 4.9 Bled 94.4 112.0- 79.0 9 11. 7 Eviscerated 68.4 79.0- 59.0 9 7.9 Hoof length Neck Carcass weights (lbs) �-17- Table 4. External body measurements (centimeters) for mature buck antelope. Standard Deviation Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Shoulder height 90.9 97.0- 82.0 15 4.3 Total body length 139.1 146.0-132.8 15 3.7 Tail length 13.0 15.6- 10.5 15 1.4 Body length 126.1 l34.5-117.2 15 4.4 Head length 28.7 31.1- 24.7 15 1.6 14.2 14.7- 12.8 15 0.4 Ear lengths 14.6 17.2- 12.3 15 1.3 Hindfeet 41.8 45.5- 36.8 15 2.0 Front 6.6 7.5- 5.4 15 0.6 Rear 6.1 7.1- 5.3 15 0.5 Length 27.3 37.3- 18.1 15 4.7 Prong length 5.6 11.0- 0.0 15 2.6 Spread (tip to tip) 16.8 25.7- 3.7 15 6.0 Spread (maximum inside) 22.3 33.6- 16.0 15 4.3 14.4 20.5- 11.6 15 2.1 93.5 99.0- 85.7 15 4.5 Point a 38.6 49.0- 37.2 12 5.2 Point b 56.3 63.0- 47.5 13 5.0 Bled 111 123 - 89 15 10.4 Eviscerated 81 92 15 7.6 Interorbital width lengths Hoof length Horns Basal circumference Girth Neck Carcass weights (lbs) - 64 �-18- Table 5. External body me as uremerrt s (centimeters) for mature doe antelope. Standard Deviation Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Shoulder height 88.9 98.0- 77.0 32 5.3 Total body length 139.7 150.~-1l4.2 31 7.9 Tail length 12.0 17.1- 7.4 32 2.3 . Body length 127.8 138.2-103.6 31 5.9 Head length 25.9 31.0- 26.3 31 1.1 11.1 13.7- 10.1 30 0.8 14.9 16.4- 13.4 32 0.6 41.8 45.0- 36.5 31 2.0 Front 7.0 8.8- 5.4 31 1.0 Rear 6.9 13.4- 5.4 31 1.4 Horn Lengths 2.5 6.3- 0.0 31 1.9 Girth 90.8 82.0- 98.2 30 4.7 Interorbital width Ear lengths Hind feet lengths Hoof lengths Neck Point a 34.1 40.4- 24.6 26 3.8 Point b 49.1 55.7- 42.1 24 3.6 Bled 102 125 - 79 32 12.2 Eviscerated 70 86 - 63 31 7.1 Carcass weights (lbs) �-19- Table 6. Measurements (millimeters), weights (grams) , and volwnes (cubic centimeters) of organs of fawn antelope approximately three to four months old. Range Sample Size Standard Deviation 111 81 198 119 - 96 95 - 72 284 - 259 7 7 7 8.1 7.3 43.9 256 l30 31 541 284 - 222 160 - 116 38 - 23 1010 - 390 7 7 7 7 20.1 15.7 6.0 220.2 Organ Mean Heart Longitudinal Transverse Weight Liver Longi tudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Brain Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume Spleen Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume Kidney Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 1 1 121 70 43 49 58 29 7 1 11.7 71 45 30 56 81 53 49 102 - 64 30 11 41 14 14 14 14 5.6 5.3 10.2 15.8 2 2 2 2 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.0 6 6 35.4 61.1 Eyeball Longitudinai Transverse Weight Volume 30 34 17 17 Lung Weights Left Right 192 258 230 - 130 340 - 200 �-20- Table 7. Measurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) of organs of yearling buck antelope. Organ Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Heart Longitudinal Transverse Weight Voltnne 131 103 348 348 153 - 103 122 - 79 497 - 236 467 - 224 12 12 12 8 14.5 13.2 84.9 89.1 Liver Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 276 156 39 831 829 313 - 233 182 - 124 50 - 25 1430 - 462 1324 - 432 13 13 13 13 8 26.9 19.5 6.9 267.9 293.7 Brain Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 76 66 39 108 104 83 78 42 127 122 - 68 59 37 91 88 5 5 4 7 7 5.9 7.3 2.6 13.6 12.9 Spleen Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 134 92 12 77 72 155 - 120 109 - 70 14 - 19 13353 94 - 50 8 8 6 13 6 13.7 13.2 1.7 22.4 15.9 Kidney Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 82 46 47 95 91 94 61 61 155 147 - 70 37 24 66 63 22 22 22 25 17 6.4 7.2 9.8 22.9 24.8 Eyeball Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 32 35 19 19 33 37 22 21 - 29 34 17 16 19 19 19 19 1.1 1.0 1.8 1.7 Lung Weights Left Right 262 394 370 - 180 563 - 240 8 8 55.8 106.0 �-21- Table 8. Measurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) of organs of yearling doe antelope. Organ Hean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Heart Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 128 97 340 324 143 - 116 117 - 82 421 - 269 405 - 254 9 9 9 8 7.9 10.3 47.5 49.8 Liver Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 280 151 42 825 757 302 - 249 173 - 136 55 - 34 1230 - 575 1152 - 535 8 8 8 8 7 17.8 12.4 6.6 202.0 202.0 Brain Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 73 65 41 107 101 7774 47 122 108 - 69 58 37 97 93 6 7 3.1 5.9 3.4 8.6 6.1 Spleen Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 138 94 12 72 67 192 - 117 105 - 78 17 9 105 - 56 99 - 53 9 9 7 9 8 23.5 8.3 3.0 17.7 17.6 Kidney Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 78 42 47 83 76 95 48 56 120 114 - 72 35 37 63 60 18 18 18 17 15 6.1 3.8 5.1 16.0 15.5 Eyeball Longitudinal Transverse ~.iTeight Volume 32 35 20 19 35 37 22 21 - 30 31 18 17 15 14 15 13 1.6 1.9 1.3 1.2 Lung Weights Left Right 205 388 268 - 155 580 - 245 5 5 50.2 137.0 6 6 8 �-22- Table 9. Measurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) of the organs of mature buck antelope. Organ Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Heart Longitudinal Transverse Weight Voltnne 140 109 423 403 150 - 127 124 - 91 524 - 352 508 - 334 14 14 14 14 8.2 8.4 49.4 42.9 Liver Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 320 185 48 1144 1067 335 - 274 197 - 150 54 - 37 1500 705 1392 - 655 14 14 14 14 14 18.6 13.6 5.6 218.9 203.8 Brain Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 77 68 39 114 111 83 - 72 80 - 60 43 - 32 138- 100 13494 9 9 8 12 12 4.0 6.1 4.0 12.4 12.6 Spleen Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Voltnne 153 106 13 98 92 175 - 134 13691 15 - 10 122 - 80 116 - 76 15 15 11 15 15 12.4 15.1 1.3 16.5 15.5 Kidney Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 85 48 53 114 112 96 60 63 178 171 - 71 37 45 86 82 15 15 15 15 15 8.0 5.9 4.8 30.7 29.3 Eyeball Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 33 36 21 21 37 38 24 23 - 32 33 20 19 14 14 14 14 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.7 Lung Weights Left Right 303 422 415 - 185 580 - 240 10 10 82.2 121.5 ~" �-23- Table 10. Measurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) of the organs of mature does. Organ Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Heart Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume l33 101 355 340 151 - 115 ll3 - 87 430 - 270 404 - 273 29 29 29 24 9.2 6.8 40.2 32.8 Liver Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Voltnne 293 170 46 1013 982 324 - 249 201 - 143 55 - 25 1440 - 665 l343 - 615 25 25 25 25 20 22.0 18.6 22.2 224.7 214.1 Brain Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 75 65 39 108 103 84 72 47 l33 129 - 68 37 31 85 82 16 16 15 19 19 4.0 8.4 5.4 12.5 14.5 Spleen Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 146 100 11 82 80 168 - 125 122 - 79 16 7 113 - 20 106 - 64 24 24 16 29 24 13.0 12.1 2.5 19.0 12.7 85 47 50 104 99 56 59 289 149 - 76 39 27 74 71 30 30 30 30 25 5.3 5.6 8.7 39.1 20.5 Eyeball Longi tudinal Transverse Weight Volume 33 37 23 22 35 39 26 25 - 31 34 20 19 22 22 22 19 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.3 Lung Weights Left Right 248 362 340 - 180 500 - 260 16 16 86.4 100.8 Kidney Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Voltnne III �-24- Table 11. Gland measurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) for fawn antelope approximately three to four months old. Gland and Measurement Mean Range Thyroid (Left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 25.1 11.8 5.0 0.9 1.2 26.5 12.6 Thyroid (Right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 5.0 0.9 0.9 Sample Size Standard Deviation 33.3 - 2.3 14.0 - 10.5 6.5 - 3.8 1.4 - 0.9 7 7 7 7 1 10.7 1.4 1.0 0.3 32.5 - 19.0 15.0 - 11.1 6.1 - 4.0 1.2 0.5 7 7 4.7 1.2 0.9 0.4 7 1 Adrenal (Left)I Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Voltnne 27.4 10.1 5.3 1.0 0.9 30.6 - 24.8 11.4 - 9.9 6.9 - 3.7 1.60.6 Adrenal (Right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 26.9 11.0 4.8 1.0 1.0 35.5 - 20.2 17.5 - 7.5 6.7 - 3.2 1.70.6 Pituitary Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 7 7 2.6 7 7 0.8 1.4 0.4 7 1 7 5.4 7 7 7 1 3.4 1.2 0.4 �-25- Table 12. Gland measurements (millimeters),weights (cubic centimeters) for yearling buck antelope. (grams), and volumes Gland and Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Thyroid (Left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 35.6 11.7 7.2 1.7 1.6 43.8 - 27.9 16.7 - 9.9 9.4 - 4.1 2.5 - 1.6 2.3 - 1.7 8 8 8 8 7 5.5 2.4 1.5 0.5 0.4 Thyroid (Right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 33.4 12.6 6.4 1.6 1.6 44.6 - 19.0 19.1 - 9.9 9.0 - 3.8 2.7 - 0.8 2.5 - 0.9 10 10 10 10 8 7.1 2.9 1.5 0.7 0.6 Adrenal (Left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 33.4 11.1 5.2 1.2 1.2 38.7 - 26.8 16.9 - 9.1 7.1 - 2.6 2.1 - 0.9 2.0 - 0.9 13 13 13 13 9 4.2 2.1 1.9 0.5 0.4 Adrenal (Right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 31.8 12.0 5.5 1.5 1.3 36.9 - 26.3 18.9 - 9.7 6.2 - 4.9 2.3 - 0.9 2.2 - 1.3 11 11 11 11 9 3.9 3.1 0.9 0.4 0.4 Pituitary Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 10.4 8.3 0.5 0.4 11.5 10.1 0.5 0.4 - 5 5 7 7 1.1 1.9 0.1 0.1 8.8 5.2 0.6 0.5 �-26- Table 13. Gland measurments (millimeters), weights (grams) , and volumes (cubic centimeters) for yearling doe antelope. Gland and Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Thyroid (left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 34.0 11.9 6.9 1.5 1.4 38.0- 31.8 14.3- 9.5 8.7- 5.4 2.4- 0.9 2.0- 0.8 7 7 7 7 6 2.5 1.7 1.3 0.5 0.4 Thyroid (right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 29.3 l3.9 6.4 1.5 1.4 40.3- 19.4 16.3- 11.4 8.6- 4.9 2.3- 1.0 2.1- 0.9 8 8 8 8 7 5.9 1.5 1.2 0.5 0.4 Adrenal (left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 34.5 12.3 6.7 1.7 1.6 41.1- 28.8 16.0- 10.3 9.7- 5.1 2.4- 1.3 2.2- 1.2 8 8 7 8 7 4.3 2.1 1.6 0.3 0.3 Adrenal (right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 28.9 13.8 6.3 1.4 1.3 34.7- 21.3 18.3- 9.1 8.7- 4.6 2.1- 1.4 1.4- 0.9 7 7 6 7 6 4.4 3.0 1.4 0.4 0.4 Pituitary Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 10.0 8.5 0.5 0.4 10.69.60.60.4- 6 6 7 6 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 8.9 7.1 0.3 0.2 �-27- Table 14. Gland measurement (millimeters), weights (cubic centimeters), for buck (mature) antelope. (grams) , and volumes Sample Size Standard Deviation Glands and Measurements Mean Range Thyroid (left) Longitundinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 35.5 15.2 7.4 2.4 2.2 38.8- 28.5 19.8- 10.9 9.9- 5.2 3.2- 1.2 2.8- 1.0 13 13 13 l3 13 5.4 3.1 1.4 0.8 0.8 Thyroid (right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 34.6 14.6 8.1 2.2 2.0 42.8- 25.5 19.0- 10.9 9.8- 4.2 3.2- 1.0 2.8- 0.9 12 12 12 12 12 5.8 4.5 1.4 0.6 0.6 Adrenal (left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 35.0 13.4 7.1 2.0 1.8 42.5- 30.9 15.5- 10.3 8.9- 5.5 2.9- 1.5 2.7- 1.4 14 14 14 14 14 9.0 1.4 1.1 0.4 0.4 Adrenal (right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 30.1 l3.3 7.5 1.8 1.6 34.8- 29.7 17.2- 10.3 9.8- 5.1 2.5- 1.3 2.3- 1.2 11 11 11 11 11 2.2 2.4 1.7 0.4 0.3 Pituitary Lon gitudin al Transverse Weight Volume 10.4 9.8 0.5 0.4 12.611. 50.80.7- 8 8 9 9 1.5 1.0 0.2 0.3 9.6 9.9 0.2 0.1 7 �-28- Table 15. Gland measurements (millimeters) , weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) for mature doe antelope. Gland and Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Thyroid (Left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 41.4 16.1 7.6 2.8 2.6 71.9 - 31.5 23.8 - 11.5 11.9 - 4.4 6.0 - 1.3 5.8 - 1.5 27 27 27 27 24 9.6 3.2 1.8 1.1 1.1 Thyroid (Right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 35.5 15.6 7.3 2.4 2.3 51.6 - 27.3 36.6 - 10.6 12.1 - 2.1 5.4 - 1.1 5.2 - 1.3 21 21 21 21 18 6.6 3.4 2.7 1.3 1.3 Adrenal (Left) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 36.7 12.9 6.6 2.0 1.9 46.5 - 28.3 19.0 - 10.0 8.8 - 2.0 3.9 - 1.3 3.7 - 1.2 27 27 27 27 22 4.3 1.4 1.6 0.4 0.3 Adrenal (Right) Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 32.7 13.2 7.2 1.9 1.8 42.4 - 24.7 18.1 9.6 12.2 - 4.9 3.1 - 1.1 2.7 - 1.3 25 26 26 26 23 4.1 2.4 1.6 0.4 0.3 Pituitary Longitudinal Transverse Weight Volume 11.5 9.0 0.6 0.6 14.0 10.8 1.00.9 - 15 14 16 1.3 1.1 0.2 0.2 9.2 6.8 0.4 0.3 16 �-29Table 16. Measurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) for the reproductive system of male antelope fawns (3-4 months old). Measurement Mean Range Sample Size Standard Deviation Testes Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 22.3 16.0 13.7 2.7 2.3 24.5 - 18.6 18.0 - 13.2 18.0 - 11.2 3.3 - 1.5 2.3 - 2.3 10 10 10 10 2 2.2 1.9 1.5 0.8 Prostate Weight 4.1 11.8 - 0.3 3 7.7 Scrotum Length Width Height 4.1 3.6 1.6 5.5 4.5 2.0 - 3.0 2.5 1.5 5 5 5 1.0 0.7 0.4 Penis Length 11.0 13.6 - 10.5 5 1.4 Table 17. Heasurements (millimeters), weights (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) for the reproductive system of female antelope fawns. Sample Size Standard Deviation 1.6 0.8 3 3 2.0 0.6 13.3 8.3 4.4 0.3 - 8.5 5.4 2.2 0.1 6 6 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.1 3.4 1.0 4.0 1.0- 2.8 0.9 6 6 0.6 0.1 9.5 1.5 10.5 1.8- 9.0 1.6 3 3 0.9 0.3 2.7 0.9 1.5 2.4 16.7 3.1 - 2.5 1.00.8 1.4 1.82.6 - 1.8 17.4 - 15.4 3 3 3 3 3 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.1 Measurement Mean Range Mammary Length Depth 3.7 1.4 5.5 2.0 - Ovary Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight 11.5 7.0 4.0 0.2 Uterine Body Uterine Horns Longitudinal Transverse Vagina Longitudinal Transverse Cervix Longitudinal Transverse Median Septum Length True Length Weight of Uterine Body 6 6 �Table 18. Means of measurements (millimeters), weights reproductive system of buck antelope. (grams), and volumes (cubic centimeters) for the Measurement Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Month Ju1. June Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Bucks Collected 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 Testes Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume 33.3 22.6 23.7 10.4 9.7 33.3 22.8 21.8 8.5 8.1 35.7 24.0 22.6 10.4 9.9 39.9 27.3 23.7 13.5 12.8 42.4 28.0 27.6 17.7 17.0 41. 7 28.4 26.3 16.4 15.8 41. 8 28.6 23.7 17.2 16.4 44.3 33.0 30.0 23.9 22.7 42.3 28.3 25.9 17.4 16.7 50.0 31.0 27.9 24.5 23.4 36.3 23.5 22.5 10.5 9.8 43.0 31.5 16.6 14.3 13.7 Prostate Longitudinal Weight Volume 11.1 1.2 1.1 17.3 1.4 1.3 15.7 1.5 1.4 19.7 1.9 1.7 18.2 2.5 2.4 1.6 1.6 - 17.6 1.9 1.6 24.1 1.9 1.8 - - 22.0 1.7 1.6 14.0 1.8 1.6 17.0 1.2 1.1 Scrotum Length Height Width 42 48 38 40 51 42 64 47 30 50 48 45 53 53 38 60 53 33 58 53 38 58 55 58 60 55 60 70 50 43 60 45 35 45 53 40 Penis Length 125 155 135 135 150 137 138 153 140 143 150 155 I Vol 0 I �Table 19. Measurements (millimeters) and weights (grams) for the reproductive tracts, ovaries, and embryos from doe antelope collected in Moffat County. Month Ju1. June Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 2 2 7 2 2 2 16.3 13.2 8.1 1.0 0.1 16.9 13.2 8.1 1.1 0.1 13.1 10.9 7.6 0.7 0.1 15.9 13.0 7.6 1.1 0.1 18.4 14.2 10.2 1.5 0.1 16.8 13.4 9.6 1.2 0.1 18.6 13.8 l1.6 1.3 0.1 450 197 l17 58 75 14 55 14 61 21 67 18 103 46 125 62 180 26 195 30 151 28 153 32 150 33 135 34 145 30 155 29 158 30 90 18 102 12 87 25 55 20 50 15 61 15 60 15 65 l1 70 17 43 169 3203 433 45 85 230 170 5390 12565 795 l165 33 43 24 33 25 25 29 32 27 33 36 40 1249 153 684 242 332 248 1443 348 430 304 20 64 Measurement Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Does Collected 1 2 2 1 1 2 Ovaries Longitudinal Transverse Vertical lveight Volume (cc) 17.6 16.7 9.0 1.7 0.2 19.1 16.6 9.5 1.6 0.1 16.9 13.1 7.6 1.3 0.1 18.1 14.0 9.5 1.3 0.1 22.9 18.1 10.8 2.4 0.1 Uterine Horn Longitudinal Transverse 235 103 251 126 227 142 240 223 Vagina Longitudinal Transverse 165 20 175 20 189 23 Cervix Longitudinal Transverse l10 15 93 18 63 19 Uterine Body Median Septum Length True Uterine Length Weight with Young lveight without Young 35 60 1590 270 60 113 2630 500 159 163 175 365 227 261 172 Embryos 1/ ~]eight Rump-Crown Length Total Length Shoulder Height 1/ - 22 embryos were measured. - 3538 630 485 - - - - - 204 94 68 95 104 57 35 259 107 - ,- - - - 4 35 I W ..... I �Table 20. Measurements (millimeters) and weights (grams) for the reproductive tracts, ovaries, and embryos from doe antelope collected in Saguache County. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Month June Ju1. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Measurement Jan. Does Collected 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Ovaries Longitudinal Transverse Vertical Weight Volume (cc) 16.4 11.6 8.9 0.9 0.1 16.1 15.1 8.3 1.2 0.1 16.6 11.8 9.0 1.3 0.1 16.4 13.2 9.6 1.6 0.2 23.7 15.4 9.4 2.0 0.2 12.3 11.4 6.5 0.6 0.1 15.6 l3.3 9.2 1.2 0.1 15.1 9.8 9.2 1.0 l3.1 8.7 - 15.1 11.6 7.4 1.0 0.1 0.8 0.1 16.7 13.6 9.9 1.6 0.2 21.2 16.4 9.2 2.0 0.2 Uterine Horn Longitudinal Transverse 153 80 232 119 219 104 145 79 335 183 91 25 70 32 74 14 53 12 44 14 72 23 165 78 I - I W N Vagina Longitudinal Transverse 150 22 150 25 155 21 161 29 210 20 150 20 160 36 l34 25 140 32 132 29 149 19 140 20 Cervix Longitudinal Transverse 75 12 65 17 90 10 66 15 105 22 40 18 71 18 60 15 65 15 66 12 75 12 75 12 44 28 1055 150 42 104 1720 60 72 1345 215 42 83 1720 240 70 180 8765 920 32 36 23 25 27 29 20 15 26 16 32 23 88 81 49 28 725 99 137 164 102 186 174 203 123 605 243 400 198 2575 1.1 21.3 24.5 89.9 Uterine Body Median Septum Length True Uterine Length Weight with Young 1.veightwithout Young Embryos Weight Rump-Crown Length Total Length Shoulder Height - 197 - 520 383 - - - - - 104 83 77 68 62 - - - - - - I �-33Table 21. Blood analysis for buck antelope. Mean Erythrocytes M/cu. mm Leucocytes per cu. mm 9.47 Range 12.25- Sample Size 7.50 10 1830 4000 - 1100 10 Neutrophi1s Segs/percent Immature 29 32 4 - 16 0 9 9 Lymphocytes 46 66 - 24 9 18 32 2 9 6 16 0 9 2 0 9 Monocytes - percent - percent Eosinophi1s - percent .4 Basophi1s - percent .2 Hemoglobin '1,/100 m1 16.5 22.5 - 13.7 10 Hematocrit - percent 49 58 10 Table 22. Blood analysis for doe antelope. Mean Erythrocytes M/cu. mm Leucocytes per cu. mm - 42 9.48 Range 12.65- Sample Size 5.60 19 1756 3100 - 570 19 Neutrophi1s Segs/percent Immature 40 0.2 56 3 - 20 0 16 16 Lymphocytes 46 65 - 40 17 14 36 0 17 2 8 0 17 0 17 Monocytes - percent - percent Eosinophils - percent Basophils - percent 0.1 1 Hemoglobin g/100 m1 16.5 29.0 - 11.0 19 Hematocrit - percent 49 75 19 - 33 �-34- Table 23. Stomach weights Weights (grams) for antelope. Mean Range Sample Size 2469 3470 - 1510 7 748 2103 450 3020 - 1090 7 1 749 4638 5150 - 4330 7 322 3968 646 4600 - 3430 730 - 550 7 4 425 95 4725 6460 - 3250 6 1291 3907 608 5680 - 2405 755 - 515 6 6 1250 109 5678 7030 - 3970 14 ,905 4910 838 6260 - 3540 1020 - 670 14 13 759 145 4995 9620 - 2670 30 1610 4171 852 8190 - 2300 1300 - 530 30 25 1459 252 Standard Deviation Fawns Entire stomach and contents Rumen and reticulum and contents Stomach without contents Yearling males Entire stomach and contents Rumen and reticulum and contents Stomach without contents Yearling females Entire stomach and contents Rumen and reticulum with contents Stomach without contents Mature males Entire stomach and contents Rumen and reticulum with contents Stomach without contents Mature females En tire stomach and contents Rumen and reticulum with contents Stomach without contents �-35- Table 24. Mean body temperatures (degrees centigrade) of antelope. Time (hrs.) Mean Range Sample Muscle 38.7 41.0 - 37.5 48 Rectal 38.4 40.5 - 37.0 49 1 3.4 5.0 - 1.0 18 2 5.5 8.5 - 1.5 14 3 11.0 12.5 - 5.0 13 4 11.3 15.5 - 9.0 7 5 11.4 17.0 - 7.5 7 6 13.4 18.0 - 10.0 5 7 16.9 22.0 - ll.O 6 8 18.7 30.0 - 12.0 5 At death Degrees decrease in muscle temperature after evisceration 9 10 14.0 16 19.2 17 20.0 1 18 22.3 2 20 25.0 1 1 25.5 - 12.5 3 ��January, -37- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~------------- Project No. W-40-R-13 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title: Job No. Investigations 2 Food Habits of Antelope Period Covered: Personnel: Antelope May 1, 1965 through May 31, 1972 George Do Bear, James Olterman, Jerrry Robinson. ABSTRACT Study areas were established on three range types in Colorado, (a) bitterbrush, (b) sagebrush and (c) rabbitbrush. A total of 76 antelope rumen samples were obtained from these areas at monthly intervals for a one-year period and from hunter harvested animals. Also, seasonal and daily feeding activity patterns were established for antelope on the study areas. There were seasonal variations in the antelope diets, and the diets varied between range-types. Browse plants were the major food items eaten, forbs secondary and 'grasses minor. Forbs increased in the diet and browse decreased during the spring and summer periods. Forbs were more important in the antelope diet on the sagebrush-type than on the other areas. Shrubs in the samples from the bitterbrush range did not decrease during the summer to the extent they decreased in the rumen samples from the other ranges. Vegetation surveys indicated antelope selectively sought forbs to eat. A few plants were selected over others, but in general a large variety of plant species were eaten in relative proportion to their availability on the range. There were seasonal variations in the daily feeding pattern of antelope. They were most active in early morning and late evening hours. Feeding activity increased in the fall-winter period, showing less fluctuation during mid-day. 1973 ��-39- FOOD HABITS OF ANTELOPE George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine antelope forage preferences LITERATURE and use. REVIEW Information concerning food preferences and plants eaten by herbivores are of major importance when managing rangelands. Year-long data is needed since feeding behavior varies throughout the year. Hoover, Till, and Ogilvie (1959) studied the food habits of antelope in the plains region in eastern Colorado with limited work in the mountain bunchgrass type and the intermountain shrub type. Percent composition of grasses in the rumen samples collected in the shortgrass plains was: winter, 4.6 percent; spring, 20.3 percent; summer, 1.3 percent; and fall 1.3 percent. Forbs comprised the following portion of the diet: winter, 26.0 percent; spring, 50.5 percent; summer, 65.6 percent; and fall 22.1 percent. Comparable figures for browse were: winter, 54.2 percent; spring, 24.7 percent; summer, 22.3 percent; and fall, 71.6 percent. Cacti comprised 15.1, 4.3, 10.7, and 5.0 percent of the rumen samples during the winter, spring, summer, and fall seasons, respectively. Rumen samples from August to September only were analyzed for the South Park, Colorado mountain bunchgrass type. Shrubs were the more important forage class eaten, then forbs, next grasses. Cacti were eaten only in minor amounts. Hoover et ale (1959) also examined rumen samples collected in September on the mountain brush type and intermountain desert shrub types in Moffat County, which are comparable to the bitterbrush and sagebrush ranges used for this study, respectively. Browse made up 93.7 percent of the diet in the mountain brush area, followed by forbs, grasses, and cacti in respective order of abundance. For the intermountain desert shrub type forbs were most important (60.1 percent), followed by shrubs, cacti, and grasses. Antelope food habits studies in Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Montana and Wyoming indicated similar patterns in the antelope diets (Beale and Scotter 1968; Mason 1952; Cole and Wilkins 1958; Severson, May, and Hepworth 1968; and Bayless 1968). Browse was the most important forage class in the winter and fall, with forbs increasing in the diet during the spring and summer months. Grasses were minor food items in the antelope diets. Mason (1952) listed Artemisia sp., Purshia tridentata, Chrysothamnus sp., Phlox sp., Polygonum sp., Iva axillaris, Trifolium sp., Erigeron austinae and Bromus tectorum,as the more important plants eaten by antelope in Nevada-Oregon. Severson et ale (1968) listed Chrysothamnusviscidiflorus and Artemisia tridentata as major food items in Wyoming. Bayless (1968) �-40- listed Artemisia tridentata, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Opuntia polycantha, and Artemisia frigida as important food items in Montana. There were deviations in the dietary pattern mentioned above. Cole and Wilkins (1958) found browse to be the major food item in the fall, winter, and spring diets with forbs being the major item in the summer diet. This occurred on the silver sagebrush-grassland and the big sagebrushgrassland range types. However, on grassland range forbs were the most important food item in the spring, summer, and fall; while browse was most important in the winter diet. Beuchner (1950) found forbs to be the most important forage class throughout the year in Texas, followed by browse. Grasses were of minor importance but its consumption was highest in the autumn when plants were actively growing. In Kansas antelope consumed a larger amount of grasses and forbs than browse (Hlavachick 1966). The area occupied by antelope is primarily grassland with little shrub cover. Opuntia macrorhiza was also a major food item during the summer months. Russel (1964) found forbs were of major importance in antelope diets in New Mexico, browse was secondary, and grasses were taken in minor amounts. This pattern varied in some of the different areas under study. Therefore, browse was not the major forage class in the diets of antelope in Kansas, New Mexico, and Texas that it was in the other states cited above. Several authors found antelope to be most active in early morning and late evening hours (Kautz 1942, Prenzlow 1968, Beuchner 1950, and Einarsen 1948). Kautz (1942) reported there was an extended period of resting or lying down during the warmer part of the day; lasting just a few hours in April, but extending from 8 or 9 A.M. to about 5:00 P.M. during July. Beuchner (1950) reported the following average daily percentages of feeding time for antelope: autumn - 72.8 percent, 77.8 percent for winter, 63.0 percent in spring, and 67.0 percent for summer. He commented that antelope on poor ranges spent more time feeding than . antelope on good ranges. Also, antelope spent more time feeding in the winter period because food was scarcer and the daylight hours were shorter. METHODS AND MATERIALS Rumen Analysis Antelope were collected at monthly intervals in Moffat and Saguache counties during the period from June 1, 1965 to April 30, 1967 (one year in each locality). Three animals were collected each month in Moffat County, where two were taken on a rangeland characterized by sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and the third on a rangeland characterized by bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Two animals were collected each month in Saguache County on rangeland characterized by a rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus sp.) overstory. Additional rumen samples �-41- were obtained from the bitterbrush rangeland during the hunting season in September. Two-quart rumen samples were taken from each antelope and preserved in formalin. In the laboratory rumen samples were washed through graduated sieves and air dried on blotters. These samples were hand sorted (using forceps) to individual plant species. Plant species were identified with the use of a binocular microscope and reference specimens collected in each area, identified, pressed, dried, and placed on cards. Plants were weighed to the nearest gram and the percent composition for each species computed for each rumen sample. Vegetation Surveys Vegetation surveys were conducted in the locality where each antelope was collected to determine plant availability to the animal and the relative abundance of each plant species present. A temporary linetransect was run in each locality with 50 circular plots (three square feet in size) established on each transect. The plots were placed at 125-foot intervals. Percent crown coverage was recorded for each plant species occurring on each plot. Percent coverage was determined by visual projection of the plant canopy onto the plane surface of the ground and related to the total area within the plot. Feeding Activity An effort was made to determine seasonal and daily fluctuations in :.antelope feeding activity. Antelope activities were classified into two broad categories: (1) inactive or lying down, and (2) active or feeding. Activity of all undisturbed antelope encountered on the study areas was recorded when the animals were first observed. Time-of-day and date were recorded with each observation. RESULTS Rumen Analysis and Vegetation Surveys A total of 76 rumen samples were analyzed. They were grouped into three seasonal categories: (1) spring (April-May-June), (2) summer (July-AugustSeptember), and (3) fall-winter (October through March). These categories were based on the general phenology of the plants in the area. Spring was the period during which plants were actively growing; summer the period when plants were maturing and developing seeds; and fall-winter the dormant, curing-out period. �-42- Sagebrush Rangeland Spring--Forbs were the most abundant food item in the diet during spring. They comprised 64 percent of the diet, shrubs 34 percent and grasses 2 percent (Table 1). Vegetation surveys indicated shrubs were most important (59 percent); then grasses (32 percent), and forbs least abundant (9 percent) (Table 2). Forbs most abundant in the diet were: Cilia laxiflorus, Caura sp., Sphaeralcea coeeirtea; Erigeron sp.,Chertop6dium sp., Astragalus sp., Cirsium sp., and Eriogortum sp. Artemisia tridentata, Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus, Artemisia frigida, and Purshia tridentata were the more abundant shrubs in the diet. Three species of grasses were eaten in trace amounts. In general, plant species occurred in the spring rumen samples in the relative proportion they were available on the range. A wide variety of forbs and shrubs were available and many were eaten by antelope. However, numerous species of grasses were available but only three species were consumed. Another discrepancy was that Caura sp. and Cilia laxiflorus were very important food items but were not encountered on the vegetation surveys. Summer--Forbs were the most important class of vegetation in the summer diet. They comprised 79 percent of the diet, shrubs 20 percent, and grasses 1 percent (Table 3). Vegetation surveys indicated shrubs were the most abundant class of plants in the area (64 percent), followed by grasses (23 percent), and forbs (12 percent) (Table 4). The most important forbs in the rumen samples were Cilia laxiflorus, Astragalus desperatus, Sphaeralcea coccinea, Lygodesmia sp., Catira sp., and Erigeron sp. Purshia tridentata was the most abundant shrub in the diet. Bromus tectorum and Stipa comata occurred in most samples, but comprised very little of the diet. In general, there was a wide variety of plants available and many of them were eaten by antelope. Numerous grasses were present but the antelope fed only on two species. Cilia laxiflorus was a major food item, but was not encountered on the vegetation survey; and Astragalus desperatus was a major food item but was minor in forage abundance. Artemisia tridentata was the major shrub encountered on the vegetation surveys, however, Purshia tridentata was the most important shrub in the diet. Other plants occurred in the diet in relative proportion to their availability. Fall-Winter--Shrubs were the major class of vegetation in the fall-winter diet. They comprised 90 percent of the diet, forbs 9 percent, and grasses 1 percent (Table 5). The vegetation surveys indicated shrubs were the most abundant forage class on the area (85 percent), followed by grasses (12 percent), with forbs least abundant (2 percent) (Table 6). The more abundant shrubs in the rumen samples were: Artemisia tridentata, Artemisia cana, and Atriplex canescens. The more important forbs were: Erigeron sp., �-43- Eriogonum sp., Chenopodium sp., Gaura sp., Leptodactylon pungens, and Sphaeralcea coccinea. Agropyron sp., Bromustectorum, andStipa comata were the grasses identified in the rumen samples. Plant species generally occurred in the same relative abundance in the rumen samples as on the vegetation surveys. Artemisia tridentata was the most important item in the diet (69 percent) and was the most abundant species encountered on the range surveys (64 percent). Other species of plants made up minor portions of the diet as well as the overall available forage on the range. Several species of grasses were represented in the range surveys, and three species were eaten by antelope. Bitterbrush Rangeland Spring--Shrubs were the most abundant class of forage in the spring diet of the antelope on this range-type. They comprised 68 percent of the diet, forbs 23 percent, and grasses 6 percent (Table 7). The vegetation surveys indicated shrubs were the most abundant forage class (75 percent), followed by grasses (21 pe r cent ) , and forbs (4 percent) (Table 8). The more important shrubs in the rumen samples were: Artemisia cana, Purshia tridentata, and Artemisia frigida. The most abundant forbs in the diet were: Cleome sp., an unidentified legume, and Eriogonum sp. Bromus tectorum was the most abundant grass in the samples. There was some correlation between the availability of plant species on the range and their relative abundance in the rumen samples. Bromus tectorum was the more abundant grass in the diet and on the rangeland. Artemisia cana and Purshia tridentata were important species in the diet and on the area. However, a large variety of forbs occurred in trace amounts in the diet but only a few species were represented on the range surveys. Also, Chrysothamnus species were abundant; in the area, but had relatively low occurrence in rumen samples. Summer--Shrubs were a major forage class in the summer diet of antelope. They comprised 84 percent of the diet, forbs 14 percent, and grasses 1 percent (Table 9). The vegetation surveys indicated shrubs were most abundant (76 percent), followed by grasses (16 percent), and forbs (7 percent) (Table 10). The most abundant shrubs in the rumen samples werePurshia tridentata and Artemisia cana. The most important forbs in the samp~es were: Salsola kali, Psoralea sp., Erigeron sp., Chenopodium sp., Eriogonum sp., and Polygonum sp. Several species of grasses occurred in trace amounts, but Bromus tectorum occurred in the rumen samples with greater frequency. In general, the plant species occurring in the diet were common in the area. Artemisia cana and Purshia tridentata were the most common plants in the area and in the diet. However, Opuntia was common in the area, but was not eaten by the antelope. Salsola kali was the most abundant forb in the rumen samples, yet it was not encountered on the vegetation surveys. �-44- Fall-Winter--Shrubs were the most abundant class of plants in the fallwinter antelope diet. They comprised 96 percent of the diet, forbs 3 percent, and grasses 1 (Table 11). The vegetation surveys indicated shrubs were most abundant in the area (86 percent), followed by grasses (13 percent), and forbs (1 percent) (Table 12). The most important shrubs in the diet were: Purshia tridentata, Artemisia tridentata, and Artemisia cana. Erigeron sp., Leptodactylon pungens, Stipa comata and Bromus tectorum were the most common forbs and grasses eaten, but only comprised a minor portion of the diet. There were some correlations between plant availability and relative abundance in the diet. Purshia tridentata, Artemisia cana, Artemisia tridentata, Stipa comata, and Bromus tectorum were common in the area and were the more common plants in the antelope rumen samples. However, Chrysothamnus species and Opuntia sp. were fairly common to the area, but eaten only in trace amounts. Rabbitbrush Rangeland Spring--Shrubs were the most abundant forage class eaten by antelope in the spring. They comprised 67 percent of the diet, forbs 31 percent, and grasses 1 percent (Table 13). Vegetation surveys indicated grasses were most abundant in the area (61 percent), followed by shrubs (28 percent), and forbs (3 percent) (Table 14). Artemisia frigida was the most abundant species in the diet (37 percent), followed by Opuntia sp. (7 percent), Eriogonum sp. (5 percent), and Eriogonum alatum (4 percent). A wide variety of forbs, shrubs, and grasses were consumed in lesser amounts. In general, plants were consumed in amounts relative to their occurrence on the range, with two exceptions. Bouteloua gracilis was the most common plant species on the area, but it occurred only in trace amounts in the rumen samples. The reverse was true for Artemisia frigida. Summer--Shrubs were the major class of vegetation in the antelope summer diet. They comprised 53 percent of the diet, forbs 44 percent, and grasses 1 percent (Table 15). The vegetation surveys indicated grasses were most abundant (60 percent), then shrubs (22 percent), and forbs (9 percent) (Table 16). The more abundant shrubs in the diet were: Symphoricarpos sp., Artemisia dracunculus, Rhus trilobata, Opuntia sp. and Artemisia frigida. The most important forbs were: an unidentified composite, Sphaeralcea coccinea, Eriogonum sp., Chenopodium sp., and Erysimum aspermum. Bouteloua gracilis was eaten in minor amounts, but occurred in most rumen samples. There was general correlation between the quantity of a given plant species in the rumen samples and its relative abundance in the area, however, there were several exceptions. Artemisia dracunculus, �-45- Symphoricarpos sp., and Rhus trilobata were important food items, however, they were not common in the area. Boutelouagracilis was the most common plant species in the area, but was a minor food item. Fall-Winter--Shrubs were the most abundant class of plants in the rumen samples, comprising 94 percent of the total. Forbs made up 3 percent, grasses 1 percent, and miscellaneous items 1 percent (Table 17). The vegetation surveys indicated grasses were most abundant (50 percent), then shrubs (34 percent), next forbs (9 percent), and miscellaneous items least abundant (6 percent) (Table 18). Opuntia sp., Artemisia frigida, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, Atriplex sp., and Artemisia dracunculus were the most common food items. Most plants appeared in the diet in the same relative proportions they occurred on the area, however, Bouteloua gracilis and Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus were minor food items, but were fairly common in the area. �-46- Table 1. Analysis of three antelope rumen samples collected on the sagebrush study area in Moffat County during the period April-June. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 67 33 67 T Grasses Bromus tectorum Festuca ovina Stipa comata Unid. grass fragments T T 2 Sub-total 2 Forbs Agoseris sp. Astragalus sp. Campanula sp. Chenopodium sp. Cirsium sp. Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Gaura sp. Gilia laxiflorus Lappula redowski Lepidium sp. Leptodactylon pungens Penstemon sp. Solanum nigrum Sphaeralcea coccinea Trifolium gymnocarpum Zygadenus elegans Unid. forb fragments 33 67 33 67 33 33 100 100 100 33 33 33 33 33 67 33 33 T 1 T 3 1 4 T 11 22 T T T T T 7 T T 13 Sub-total 64 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Juniperus scopulorum Purshia tridentata Rhus trilobata Unid. shrub fragments T 33 33 67 100 33 67 33 1 24 2 T 1 T 5 Sub-total 34 Miscellaneous Insects Antelope hair T T 33 33 Sub-total Total T 100 �-47- Table 2. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the sagebrush study area in Moffat County during the period April-June. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 30 23 3 2 2 3 T 1 4 T T 2 3 12 Grasses AgroEyron sp. AgroEyron smithii Boute1oua gracilis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Festuca sp. Koe1eria cristata Muh1enbergia torreyi Oryzopsis hymenoides Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix StiEa comata 7 14 1 27 53 2 1 24 37 61 Sub-total 32 Forbs Agoseris sp. Allium sp , Antennaria sp. Asc1eEias sp. Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. LaEEu1a redowski LeEtodacty1on Eungens Lesguere11a montana Linum 1ewisi LUEinus sp. Oenothera trichoca1yx OxytroEis sp. Penstemon sp. Phlox sp. PseudocymoEterus montanus SEhaera1cea coccinea Trifolium gymnocarEum Unidentified forbs 2 19 16 1 16 23 22 25 13 11 8 2 2 2 32 13 21 18 T T T T 1 1 1 2 T T T T T T 2 T 1 T 1 Sub-total 9 Shrubs Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Atrip1ex canescens Atrip1ex confertifo1ia Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Eurotia 1anata Gutierrezia sarothrae 0Euntia sp. Purshia tridentata 'I'e t radvmf a canescens 5 75 4 2 3 20 1 30 17 9 1 T 40 3 1 1 4 T 2 4 4 T Sub-total 59 Total 100 �-48- Table 3. sagebrush Plant Analysis of five antelope rumen samples collected on the study area in Moffat County during the period July-September. Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 100 60 1 T Grasses Bromus tectorum Stipa comata Sub-total 1 Forbs Astragalus desperaterus ChenoEodium sp. Cryptantha jamesii Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Gaura sp. Gilia laxiflorus Lappula sp. Lepidium sp. Lesquerella montana LYl?;0desmia sp. Mertensia sp. Polygonum sp. Psoralea. sp. sp. Pseudoc~oEterus Salsola kali Sisymbrium sp. SEhaeralcea coccinea Tral?;°E°l?;°n Trifolium g~nocarpum Zygadenus elegans Unid. ComEositae Unid. Cruciferae Unid. forb fragments 21 1 T 1 T 2 34 60 40 20 80 40 60 100 60 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 80 20 20 20 40 40 T T T 2 T T 1 T T T 2 1 T T T T 14 Sub-total 79 Shrubs --Artemisia cana Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Purshia tridentata Unid. shrub fragments T 1 T T 18 1 20 60 60 40 100 Sub-total 20 Miscellaneous Insects Antelope hair T T 20 20 Sub-total Total T 100 �-49- Table 4. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the sagebrush in Moffat County during the period July-September. Plant Species Percent Frequency study area Percent Composition Grasses Agropyron sp. Agropyron spicatum Agropyron ttachycaulum Bouteloua gracilis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. Koeleria cristata Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Stipa comata 4 19 32 6 21 7 40 18 46 56 T 4 2 T 2 T 2 2 4 7 Sub-total 23 Forbs Allium sp. Arenaria fendleri Aster sp. Astragalus sp. Chenopodium sp. Chrysopsis villosa Erigeron sp. Eriogonum a1atum Eriogonum umbe11atum Erysimum asperum Lappu1a sp. Linum 1ewisi Lesquere11a montana Lupinus sp. Lygodesmia sp. Oenothera trichoca1yx Penstemon sp. Phlox sp. Sa1so1a ka1i Sphaera1cea coccinea Trifolium gymnocarpum Unidentified forbs 15 1 1 1 3 1 17 19 24 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 15 1 18 12 1 T T T T T 1 2 2 T T T T T T T T 1 T 1 1 3 Sub-total 12 Shrubs Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus sp. Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Eurotia 1anata Gutierrezia sarothrae Leptodacty1on sp. Opuntia sp. Purshia tridentata Tetradymia canescens 5 83 1 3 24 4 22 15 25 7 9 T 51 T T 5 T 2 1 2 2 1 Sub-total 64 Total 99 �Table 5. Analysis of eleven antelope rumen .samples collected on the sagebrush study area in Moffat County during the period October-March. Plant species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 18 27 27 T T T Grasses Agropyron sp. Bromus tectorum Stipa comata Unid. grass fragments 1 Sub-total 1 Forbs Chenopodium sp. Cryptantha jamesii Erigeron sp. Erigonum sp. Gaura sp. Gilia laxiflorus Koshia sp. Leptodactylon pungens Oxytropis sp. Phlox sp. Polygonurn sp. Salsola kali Sphaeralcea coccinea Unid. forb fragments 27 9 T 36 T 45 T 18 9 T 9 T 27 9 9 1 T 1 T 1 1 9 18 27 T 1 4 Sub-total 9 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Atriplex canescens Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Opuntia sp. Purshia tridentata Unid. shrub fragments 18 18 18 82 11 36 3 T 1 T 69 27 64 18 27 1 T T 5 Sub-total 90 Miscellaneous Insects Antelope hair Rocks 55 9 T T 9 T Sub-total Total T 100 �-51- Table 6. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the sagebrush in Moffat County during the period October-March. Plant Species study area Percent Frequency Percent Composition 20 14 1 3 14 8 14 44 2 1 T 1 1 1 1 5 Grasses Agropyron sp. Agropyron smithii Agropyron trachycaulum Bromus tectorum Koeleria cristata Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Stipa comata Sub-total 12 Forbs Antennaria sp. Aster sp. Chenopodium sp. Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Leptodactylon pungens Phlox sp. Salsola kali Sphaeralcea coccinea Unidentified forbs 3 1 1 1 3 4 6 1 2 T T T T T T 1 T T 1 Sub-total 2 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Atriplex canescens Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Eurotia lanata Gutierrezia sarothrae Opuntia sp. Purshia tridentata Tetradymia canescens 3 2 80 T T 64 6 1 9 T 2 3 T T 5 5 23 1 12 16 1 2 Sub-total 85 Total 99 �-52- Table 7. Analysis of five antelope rumen samples collected on the bitterbrush study area in Moffat County during the period April-June. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition Grasses Bromus tectorum Festuca ovina Oryzopsis hymenoides Stipa comata Unid. grass fragments 5 100 20 20 20 T T T 1 Sub-total 6 Forbs Agoseris sp. Astragalus sp. Chenopodium sp. Cleome sp. Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Gaura sp. Lappula redowski Lepidium sp. Leptodactylon pungens Lupinus sp. Lygodesia sp. Oenothera sp. Polygonum sp. Salsola kali Sisymbrium sp , Sphaeralcea coccinea Zygadenus elegans Unid. Compositae Unid. legume Unid. forb fragments T T 1 40 20 40 20 40 80 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 40 40 20 20 20 20 20 9 1 T T T T T T T T T T T T T T 6 6 Sub-total 23 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Purshia tridentata Unid. shrub fragments 27 60 80 80 40 60 40 100 1 5 T 2 T 16 17 Sub-total 68 Miscellaneous Insects Rocks Antelope hair T T T 60 20 40 Sub-total Total T 100 �-53- Table 8. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the bitterbrush area in Moffat County during the period April-June. Plant Species study Percent Frequency Percent Composition 14 96 2 19 Grasses Agropyron sp. Bromus tectorurn Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Stipa comata T 2 T T 42 2 Sub-total 21 Forbs Chrysopsis villosa Delphinium sp. Lappula sp , Phlox sp. Unidentified forbs 4 8 2 2 T T T T 4 Sub-total 4 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Opuntia sp. Purshia tridentata 24 8 2 60 14 52 56 14 T 2 12 9 5 33 Sub-total 75 Total 100 �-54- Table 9. Analysis of twenty-one antelope rumen samples collected on the bitterbrush study area in Moffat County during the period July-September. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 5 33 5 19 T T T T 1 Grasses Agropyron sp. Bromus tectorum Oryzopsis hymenoides Stipa comata Unid. grass fragments Sub-total 1 Forbs Astragalus sp. Chenopodium sp. Cryptantha jamesii Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Gaura sp. Lappula redowski Lupinus sp. Lygodesmia sp. Oxytropis sp. Penstemon sp. Polygonum sp. Psoralea sp. Rumex sp. Salsola kali Senecio Sisymbrium sp , Sphaeralcea coccinea Verbena sp. Unid. Cruciferae Unid. forb fragments sP:- T T T T T T T T T T T T 2 T 6 T T T T T 6 5 29 10 52 29 5 10 5 5 5 10 29 57 10 71 5 5 5 5 5 Sub-total 14 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Eurotia lanata Purshia tridentata Unid. shrub fragments 21 1 1 T 3 2 T 44 12 86 24 24 10 48 62 5 95 Sub-total 84 Miscellaneous Antelope hair 10 T Sub-total T Total 99 �-55- Table 10. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the bitterbrush study area in Moffat County during the period July-September. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition Grasses Agropyron trachycaulum Bouteloua gracilis Bromus tectorum Carex sp. KOleria cristata Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Sporobolus cryptandrus Stipa comata 22 2 T T 45 4 2 T 9 8 T 8 T 11 94 12 T T Sub-total 16 Forbs Agoseris sp. Allium sp , Antennaria sp. Chenopodium sp. Chrysopsis villosa Erigeron sp. Eriogonum alatum Er~ogonum umbellatum Erysimum asperum Lappula sp. Lupinus sp. Lygodesmia sp. Oenthera trichocalyx Phlox sp. sph&eralcea coccinea Zygadenus elegans Unidentified forbs 2 2 1 42 T T T 2 4 1 T T 10 1 6 1 T T 1 1 29 9 1 T T 15 2 5 T T 1 T 2 Sub-total 7 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia IiIifolia Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Gutierrezia sarothrae Opuntia sp. Purshia tridentata Tetradymia canescens 53 5 13 3 15 14 T 1 T 4 8 48 8 64 T 10 39 59 2 T Sub-total 76 Total 99 �-56- Table 11. Analysis of six antelope rumen samples collected on the bitterbrush study area in Moffat County during the period October-March. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 67 17 67 1 T T Grasses Bromus tectorum Oryzopsishymerioides Stipa corriata Unid. grass fragments T Sub-total 1 Forbs Chenopodium sp. Cryptantha janiesii Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Leptodactylon pungens Mentzelia sp. Unid. forb fragments 17 17 33. 17 33 17 T T 1 T 1 T 1 Sub-total 3 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Opuntia sp. Purshia tridentata Unid. shrub fragments 83 17 33 67 17 50 17 100 19 T 1 26 T T T 35 15 Sub-total 96 Miscellaneous Antelope Rocks hair 17 17 T T Sub-total Total T 100 �-57- Table 12. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the bitterbrush area in Moffat County during the period October-March. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 2 2 70 2 2 12 1 3 63 T T 5 T T 1 T 1 6 T Grasses Agropyron sp. Agropyron trachycaulum Bromus tecto:tum Carex sp. Koleria cristata Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Sporobolus cryptandrus Stipa comata Unidentified grasses Sub-total 13 Forbs Chenopodium sp. Chrysopsis villosa Eriogonum sp. Lappula redowski Lupinus sp. Oenothera trichocalyx Phlox sp. Senecio sp. Tragopogon porrifolius Zygadenus elegans Unidentified forbs 3 T T 1 12 1 1 T T T T T T T T 1 5 2 1 1 1 Sub-total 1 Shrubs Artemisia cana Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Gutierrezia sarothrae Opuntia sp , Purshia tridentata study 30 16 4 11 35 7 39 65 7 1 4 4 9 T 5 56 Sub-total 86 Total 100 �-58- Table 13. Analysis of six antelope rumen samples collected on the rabbitbrush study area in Saguache County during the period April-June. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 33 17 17 17 17 T T T Grasses Boute1oua gracilis Muh1enbergia montana Poa fend1eriana Sitanion hystrix Stipa comata Unid. grass fragments T T 1 Sub-total 1 Forbs Arenaria fend1eri Chenopodium sp. Chrysops is vi110sa Cryptantha jamesii Eriogonum sp. Eriogonum ~ Gaura coccinea ~sp. Lappu1a sp. Leucocrinum montanum Lygodesmia sp. LapiDus Sp. Oenothera trichoca1yx Oxytropis sp. Potentilla sp , Pseudocymopsis Sa1so1a kali Senecio sp. Sisymbrium sp . Sphaera1cea coccinea Unid. forb fragments T T 50 33 17 17 T T 5 4 1 T T 1 T 50 33 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 33 17 17 33 T T T T 1 T 1 T 1 17 Sub-total Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Opuntia sp. Quercus gambe11i Rhus tri10bata Ribes cereum ------Sarcobatus vermicu1atus Symphoricarpos sp. Unidentified vine Unid. shrub fragments 31 2 17 67 17 33 17 37 T 1 3 2 7 T 1 3 4 50 50 17 17 17 17 17 17 T 1 6 Sub-total 67 Miscellaneous Insects Lichen Antelope hair T T 33 33 17 T Sub-total Total T 99 �-59- Table 14. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the rabbitbrush study area in Saguache County during the period April-June. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 2 T T Grasses Agropyron smithii Agropyron trachycaulum Aristid..'! sp. Boute1oua gracilis Muh1enbergia richardsonis Muhlenbergia torreyi Oryzopsis hymenoides Sit anion hystrix Sporobo1us crytandrus Stipa comata Stipa lettermani 1 1 T 82 2 22 49 1 T 9 1 2 2 1 T 6 14 14 3 Sub-total 61 Forbs Allium sp. Chenopodium sp. Chrysopsis vi110sa Cryptantha jamesii Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Gaura coccinea Hymenoxys richardsoni Lappula sp. Lupinus sp. Oenothera trichoca1yx Phlox sp. Potentilla sp. Sa1so1a ka1i Sphaera1~coccinea Unidentified forbs 6 T T 4 T 2 2 1 T T 7 2 T T 1 15 1 1 5 1 T 1 T T T T 1 1 17 7 T Sub-total 3 Shrubs Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia frigida Atriplex canescens Atrip1ex sp. Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Echinocactus sp. Eurotia 1anata Gutierrezia sarothrae Leptodactylon sp. Opuntia sp. Quercus gambe11i Ribes cereum ------Symphoricarpos sp. Yucca sp. 1 T 2 32 5 1 16 31 T T 2 T 10 3 T 7 8 1 1 13 1 1 T 6 1 1 T T 1 1 Sub-total 28 Mis ce11aneous Lichen 8 63 Total 100 �-60- Table 15. Analysis of six antelope rumen samples collected on the rabbitbrush study area in Saguache County during the period July-September. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 87 17 17 17 17 T T T T T 1 Grasses Boute1oua gracilis Carex sp. MUhIenbergia montana Muh1enbergiatorreyi Oryzopsis hymenoides Unid. grass fragments Sub-total 1 Forbs Allium ~ia fend1eri Aster co1oradoensis CfieriOpodiumsp , Cryptantha jamesii Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Erysimum aspermum Hymenoxys richardsoni Lappu1a sp. Lupinus sp. Lygodesmia sp , Mentzalia sp. Oenothera trichoca1yx Penstemon sp. Phlox sp. P"Otentil1a s p , Polygonum sp , Sa1so1a ka1i Sedum sp-.-SiSYIDbrium sp , Sphaera1cea coccinea Unid. Compositae Unid. forb fragments 17 33 17 87 33 87 87 17 17 17 17 33 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 3 T T 2 T 1 6 5 T T T T T T T T 1 1 T 1 T 9 15 3 Sub-total 44 Shrubs .Art emf.sLa dracuncu1us Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Atrip1ex confertifo1ia Cercocarpus sp. Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Opuntia sp. Rhus tri10bata Ribes cereum Rosa sp-.-$Yiiij?horicarposs p , Unid. shrub fragments 33 50 17 33 17 33 50 50 33 33 17 17 50 10 3 T 2 T 2 1 T 4 9 T T 18 4 Sub-total 53 Miscellaneous Insects Lichen Rocks Antelope hair T T 1 T 33 17 17 33 Sub-total 1 Total 99 �-61Table 16. Summary of the vegetation surveys on the rabbitbrush study area in Saguache County during the period July-September. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 9 91 16 1 T 52 1 1 2 T T Grasses Agropyron smithii Aristida sp. Bouteloua gracilis Carex sp. ~ria cristata Muh1enbergia richardsonis Muhlenbergia torreyi Poa fend1eriana Sitanion hystrix Sporobo1us crytandrus Stipa comata Stipa 1ettermani Unidentified grasses 2 19 3 2 T 8 5 T T 3 T T 14 1 Sub-total 60 Forbs Allium sp . Arenaria fend1eri Castilleja sp . Chenopodium sp. Crvptantha jamesii Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Hymeno~s richardsoni Lappu1a sp , Lupinus sp. Lygodesmia sp. Oenothera trichoca1yx Penstemon sp. Phlox sp . Potentil1a sp , Sa1so1a ka1i Senecio sp , Sphaera1cea coccinea Unidentified forbs 1 6 1 14 1 T T T 1 T T 1 T 9 12 5 6 6 1 1 1 11 1 12 4 21 T 2 T T T 1 T 2 T 1 1 Sub-total 9 Shrubs Artemisia dracunculus Artemsia frigida Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus ~ Chrysothamnus vis cidifl0 rus Echinocactus sp. Eurotia 1anata Gutierrezia sarothrae Opuntia sp. Quercus gambe11i Rhus t r i.Lob at.a Ribes cereum ------SymEhoricaq)os sp. Yucca sp. T 3 3 T 4 T 1 T 9 4 26 11 1 16 1 10 4 34 1 1 1 1 2 T 1 T 1 T Sub-total 22 Mis ce11aneous Lichen 8 55 Total 99 �-62- Table 17. Analysis of thirteen antelope rumen samples collected on the rabbitbrush study area in Saguache County during the period October-March. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 8 T T T T T T T T 1 Grasses Agropyron smithii Bouteloua gracilis Festuca sp. Muhlenbergia sp. Muhlenbergia richardsoni Sitanion hystrix Sporobolus cryptandrus Stipa comata Unid. grass fragments 77 8 8 8 23 8 15 Sub-total 1 Forbs Antennaria parva Arenaria fendleri Astra!\a1us sp. Chenopodium sp. Eris;eron sp. Erios;onum sp. Erysimum aspermum Lupinus sp. Oenothera trichocalyx Oxytropis sp. Salsola kali Sedum sp-.-Sphaeralcea coccinea Unid. Compositae Unid. Cruciferae Unid. forb fragments T T T T T 1 T T T T 1 T T T T 1 8 15 15 23 8 46 8 8 8 8 15 15 54 8 8 Sub-total 3 Shrubs Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Atriplex sp . Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Juniperus scopulorum Opuntia sp. Pinus ponderosa Rhus trilobata Sarcobatus vermiculatus Symphoricarpos sp. Unid. vine Unid. shrub fragments 5 23 T 9 15 2 T T 35 69 77 8 54 46 31 38 8 100 8 15 8 8 8 T T T T T 5 Sub-total 94 Miscellaneous Lichen Insects Rocks Antelope hair T T 23 8 15 23 1 T Sub-total 1 Total 99 �-63- Table 18. Summary of vegetation surveys on the rabbitbrush study area in Saguache County during the period October-March. Plant Species Percent Frequency Percent Composition 11 1 90 2 4 1 3 1 15 5 1 T 43 T 1 T 1 T 1 1 2 Grasses Agropyron smithii Aristida sp. Bouteloua gracilis Buchloe dactyloides Carex sp. Muhlenbergia richardsoni Muhlenbergia torreyi Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Sporobolus cryptandrus Stipa~ Unidentified grasses 7 T Sub-total 50 Forbs Came1ina microcarpa Castilleja sp , Chenopodium sp. Chrysops is villosa Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Helianthus sp. Hymenoxys richardsoni Lappula sp. Leptodactylon sp. Lupinus sp. Lygodesmia sp. Oenthera trichocalyx Phlox sp. POt"elltillasp , Salsola kali Sphaeralcea coccinea Thermopsis sp. Unidentified forbs 1 1 T T 6 T 1 1 12 1 2 9 1 1 1 1 2 1 14 9 1 T T 2 T T 1 T T T T T T 5 1 T T Sub-total 9 Shrubs Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Atriplex canescens Atriplex sp. Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothanmus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Echinocactus sp. Eurotia lanata Gutierre~rothrae Opuntia sp. Quercus sp. Rhus trilobata Ribes cereum SyTilj?ho os sp • Tetradymia canescens Yucca sp. ric;u:p 3 38 3 1 4 1 1 4 T 9 T 2 T 11 1 T T T T T 2 l3 1 34 1 l3 3 26 1 1 1 1 3 1 Sub-total 34 Miscellaneous Lichens 6 Sub-total Total 6 99 ----- �-64- Feeding Activity Observations from the three areas were combined and classified by the three seasons of the year used above. A total of 7,958 observations were recorded. There were fluctuations in the daily and seasonal feeding patterns of antelope; however, activity patterns during the spring and summer seasons were very similar. Most antelope observed from daybreak to 10 A.M. were active (71-78 percent), with activity decreasing until noon (Fig. 1). Activity increased again from noon to 2 P.M., then decreased again until 4:00 P.M. Activity increased again until dark. The antelope generally were more active during the fallwinter period than during the other two seasons. In the fall-winter season nearly all antelope observed from daybreak to 8:00 A.M. were actively feeding (98 percent). During this season feeding activity decreased earlier in the day and remained more constant during mid-day than it did during spring or summer. Antelope activity in the fallwinter season increased from 2:00 P.M. until dark. During the later part of this time period, 4:01 P.M. - dark, 99 percent of the animals observed were feeding. Antelope are active at night, however, the only successful night-time observations were made near a waterho1e during the summer when there was bright moonlight. The antelope activity at the waterho1e peakedout at approximately 10:00 P.M. and again at 1:00 A.M. DISCUSSION Diets The basic antelope diet on the three range types in this study is comparable to findings in eastern Colorado and states in the northern extension of the antelope distribution. Shrubs were the major food items during the fall-winter periods; forbs were then secondary in importance, increasing during the spring and summer periods. Grasses were a minor food item throughout the year. There appeared to be a certain degree of selectivity in the antelope feeding behavior, particularly during the summer periods. Vegetation surveys indicated forbs were the least abundant class of 'forage on the three areas, yet were major food items. Grasses were abundant on the areas, but were of minor importance. There were differences in the relative amounts of forbs and shrubs in the rumen samples from the three areas. Forbs were more prominent in the spring and summer diets on sagebrush ranges than on bitterbrush or rabbitbrush range types (Fig. 2). Browse was most prominent in spring and summer diets on bitterbrush range. The rabbitbrush range was intermediate. Palatability and availability of vegetation undoubtedly plays an important role in antelope feeding behavior. As the forbs become green and succulent during the spring and summer months antelope seek them out, even though forbs are less abundant than other classes of vegetation on the range. �-65- Grasses were never very abundant in the rumen samples; however, grass consumption increased during the spring of the year when many of these plants were actively growing. Antelope use on grasses and forbs decreased as the plants matured and cured-out. Snow accumulation during winter months often made grasses and forbs unavailable to antelope, thus they were forced to feed on the shrubs available above the snow. However, shrubs were preferred foods in the late fall and early winter peTiods, before snow accumulated on the areas. Shrubs were not dormant at this time and were likely more palatable than the cured forbs and grasses. Chemical content of the plants probably affected antelope selectivity also, but this was beyond the scope of the study. Antelope ate a wide variety of plants which were available. Generally plants occurred in the rumen samples in the same relative abundance vegetation surveys indicated they occurred on the range. However, a few species were preferred and sought by antelope. Plants comprising a major portion of the rumen samples in the sagebrush type were: Artemisia .tridEmtata, Purshia tridentata, Artemisia cana, Gilia laxiflorus, Sphaeralcea coccinea, Astragalus sp., and ~a sp. Artemisia tridentata was the most common· plant on the area and was a major plant in the diet. Gilia laxiflorus and Gaura sp. were not common on the area, but were important food items. The more important plants in the diets of antelope on the bitterbrush type were: Purshia tridentata, Artemisia cana, Chrysothamnus sp., Erigeron sp., Eriogonum sp., Sphaeralcea coccinea, Bromus tectorum, and Stipa comata. Purshia tridentata was the most common plant on the area and most common plant in the diet. Bromus tectorum and Stipa comata were the most common grasses on the area and in the rumen samples. The more important plants in the antelope diets on the rabbitbrush area were: Artemisia frigida, Artemisia dracunculus, Chrysothamnus sp., Opuntia sp., Sphaeralcea coccinea, Erigeron sp., Eriogonum sp., and Bouteloua gracilis. Bouteloua gracilis was the most common plant on the range, but eaten in minor amounts. In general the plant species eaten by the antelope was different for each of the three range types. There are a few interesting observations concerning plant species eaten by antelope. Artemisia sp. is a common plant species in the diets of antelope in many areas. Also, Sphaeralcea sp. is a common plant listed for many areas. It.was interesting to note Opuntia sp. was common in all three areas studied here , but was only an important food item on the rabbitbrush area, which was more of a grassland range than the other two areas. There is some 'similarity in that Opuntia sp. were important food items in the grasslands of eastern Colorado and Kansas (Hoover et. al 1959; Hlavachick 1966). There is inadequate information on this relationship, but cacti on these grassland areas may have been a substitute for woody plants. Cacti may also have been eaten for succulence. In evaluating the food habits data for bitterbrush and sagebrush ranges in Moffat County, shrubs greatly decreased in the diet during the summer and spring on the sagebrush area more than on the bitterbrush area. This difference may be due to the species involved. Artemisia tridentata was the more important browse species on the sagebrush area and may be less acceptable when green forbs are present than the Purshia tridentata and Artemisia cana on the bitterbrush area. Deming (1963) in discussing antelope food habits stated, "It may well be that the high incidence of sagebrush in the diet of antelope today may be through availability rather than palatability." These discrepancies and similarities are interesting, but much information is lacking concerning the causes. �-66- 100 15 bO s:: .~ 50 Po U) 25 100~ 15 ~I 100- . I r---"'""""" r--- , r--- 15 ,.---- ~ '. ! '. """ 1······ 25 l- I I ! o AM-8 Fig. 1. 8-10 10-12 12-2 2-4 4-PM Time of Day Daily and seasonal activity patterns for antelope. �-67Range-Types Sagebrush Bitterbrush Rabbitbrush 100 80 60 :z; 0 I/) H.o ~ ~ 0 (f)~ 40 0 ~ -:"'""'j 0 u ~ ILl u , 0:: ILl p.. . 9j':! ":c:iJ , 100 rl 1 1 80 t ! ~ I , " I/) .0 60 :, .. '1 .•.. ~ ~ .c , '. f ! ~.: j II .' (f) 40 i ; " " . " ! . ! I ;: I ·l·:'.: -: t '. j' j' ~.'.-J "'1 {" j Spring '0' " " • 4 - ~ .. ~. Summer Fall-Winter SEASON OF YEAR Fig. 2. Relative abundance of shrubs, forbs, and grasses in the antelope rumen samples collected on three range types. �-68- Activity Activity patterns established in this study were very similar to findings in other studies. Antelope were most active in early morning and late evening hours yearlong. Antelope were more active during mid-day in the winter than during spring or summer. Beuchner (1950) reported the following average daily percentages of feeding time: autumn 72.8, winter 77.8, spring 63.0, and summer 67.0. The average daily percentages of feeding time on this study were: fall-winter 79, spring 68, and summer 65. Rest periods during the day were followed by short periods of activity in other studies (Beuchner 1950; Einerson 1948). This may account for the increased activity shown from noon to 2:00 P.M. during spring and summer in this study. SUMMARY 1. Study areas were established in three range types in Moffat and Saguache counties; (a) sagebrush, (b) bitterbrush, and (c) rabbitbrush. 2. A total of 76 antelope rumen samples were obtained at monthly intervals for one year. 3. Vegetation surveys were conducted in the area when each antelope was collected to determine plant species available to the antelope. 4. Antelope feeding, 5. Antelope diets on this area were comparable other states. 6. Browse was a major forage class in antelope diets and forbs were secondary. Forbs increased in the diet during spring and summer periods. Grasses were minor food items throughout the year. 7. Plant species were generally found in rumen samples in the same relative proportions as they occurred on the range; although the antelope were selective for a few species, and forbs in general. 8. There were some differences areas studied. 9. Palatability and availability of the plants likely influenced foraging habits of the antelope. 10. Important plant species in the rumen samples from the sagebrush range were: Artemisia tridentata, Purshia tridentata, Artemisia cana, Gilia laxiflorus, Sphaeralcea coccinea, Astragalus sp., and Gaura sp. 11. Important plant species in the rumen samples from the bitterbrush range were: Purshia tridentata, Artemisia cana, Chrysothamnus sp., Erigeron sp., Eriogonum sp., Sphaeralcea coccinea, Bromus tectorum, and Stipa comata. from these areas activities were recorded in two categories, and (b) lying down or inactive. (a) active or to those reported in the food habits between in the three the �\ -69- 12. Important plant species in the rumen samples from the rabbitbrush range were: Artemisia frigida, Artemisia dracunculus, Chrysothamnus sp., Opurttia sp., Sphaeralcea coccinea, Erigeron sp., Eriogonum sp., and Bouteloua gracilis. 13. Antelope 14. Antelope were more active during mid-day through the fall-winter than during either the spring or summer periods. were most active during early morning LITERATURE and late evening hours. period CITED Bayless, S. 1968. Food habits, range use and home range of pronghorn antelope in central Montana during winter. Proc. Antelope States Workshop. 3:104-114. Beale, D. M., and G. W. Scotter. 1968. Seasonal forage use by pronghorn antelope in western Utah. Utah Science, p. 3-6, 16. Beuchner, H. K. 1950. Life history, ecology, and range use of the pronghorn antelope in Trans-Pecos Texas. The Amer. Midland Nat. 43(2): 257-354. Cole, G. F., and B. T. Wilkins. 1958. The pronghorn antelope. Its range use and food habits in central Montana with special reference to wheat. Mont. Fish and Game Dept., Tech. Bull. No.2. 39 pp. Deming, O. V. 1963. Antelope Conf. 1963. p. 55-60.· and sagebrush. Trans. Interstate Antelope Einerson, A. S. 1948. The pronghorn antelope and its management. pole Co., Harrisburg, Pa. 238 pp. Stack- Hlavachick, B. D. 1966. Some preferred Antelope States Workshop. 2:60-65. Proc. foods of Kansas antelope. Hoover, R. L., C. E. Till, and S. Ogilvie. 1958. The antelope of Colorado. Colo. Game and Fish Dept., Tech. Bull. No.4. 110 pp. Kautz, L. G. 1942. Report of the antelope Dept., Fed. Aid Report W-4-R. survey. Mason, E. 1952. Food habits and measurements J. Wildl. Mgmt. 16(3):387-389. Prenzlow, E. J., D. L. Gilbert, patterns of the pronghorn. Report No.7. 15 pp. Colo. Game and Fish of Hart Mountain antelope. and F. A. Glover. 1968. Some behavior Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Spec. �-70- Russell, T. P. 1964. Antelope of New Mexico. Game and Fish, Santa Fe, N.M. 103 pp. New Mexico Dept. of Severson, K., M. May, and W. Hepworth. 1968. Food preferences, carrying capacities, and forage competition between antelope and domestic sheep in Wyoming's Red Desert. Univ. Wyo. Agri. Exper. Sta., Laramie,. Wyo. Sci. Mono. No. 10. 51 pp • Prepared by .~~--tf.'~ Ceo rge . Bear Wildlife Researcher �-71January, JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-22 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Work Plan No. 1 Job No. 12 Job Title Location Period Covered: 'Personnel: and Distribution Goat Investigations of Bighorn Sheep Herds in Colorado June 1, 1971 to May 31, 1972 George D. Bear ABSTRACT A final report- has been comp Le't ed and is in the last editing stage. The report wili be published in the. Game Research Report format but under separate cover in a spe~ial binder to~provide a readily usable source of information for wildlife managers. . 1973 ��-73- LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIGHORN SHEEP HERDS IN COLORADO George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine numbers, composition, seasonal of bighorn sheep herds in Colorado. range and distribution SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To publish final report manuscript. METHODS AND MATERIALS This is strictly a publications job which during the past segment has been concerned with editing and final printing. It is expected the publication will be completed and ready for distribution by April 1, 1973. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This report, which will appear under separate cover, is a compilation of all available information for each bighorn sheep herd in Colorado. It is hoped wildlife managers will not only find this publication useful but also will add to it as additional information becomes available for a particular sheep herd. Prepared by ~.v" _~c"'-"L. 'f ..C:. /.. . ~.•••.•. /.- ~.;.:.j~ . _" , _ Geojfge D. Bear Wildlife Researcher 1_" i .. ��-75January, JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO No. W-4l-R-22 Bighorn Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Period Evaluation Covered: Personnel: June, Robert of the Nutritional 1971 to May, L. Schmidt, Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations 16 Requirements of Bighorn Sheep 1972 Robert E. Keiss and Gene G. Schoonveld ABSTRACT First year collections of bighorn sheep fecal samples and forage plants were obtained from the Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak ranges. Collections were made monthly June-September and thereafter during November, January and March. Bighorn sheep food-habits were determined using the fecal microanalysis technique. Grass and grasslike forages comprised the major proportion of yearly sheep diets, however increased utilization of browse species occurred during early fall. Use of forbs was insignificant by sheep on all three ranges - totals of all species used being less than 4 percent of their diets. Two l2-day feeding trials were conducted to measure accuracy of fecal microanalysis for identifying plant species and estimating percent realtive density of forages ingested by an animal. A fistulated domestic goat (Capra sp.) was force fed through the fistula two formulated diets compounded with varying percentages of seven plant species. Fecal samples collected after the animal had been fed the test diets for 10 and 12 days were analyzed by the microanalysis technique for identifiable plant residues. For unknown reasons the majority of residues were unidentifiable woody-stem material and no determination of species composition in the diets could be made. Unfed samples of the test diets were also analyzed by the microanalysis technique. All plant species in both diets were identified. However, two plant species not in the diets were also estimated to be present in minor amounts. Ratios of percentages of known composition to estimated compossition varied from 0.1 to 4.2. Percentages of Artemisia frigida were highly overestimated while Purshia tridentata and Cercocarpus montanus underestimated in both diets. 1973 ��-77- EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF BIGHORN SHEEP Gene G. Schoonveld P. S. OBJECTIVE Develop methods: (a) for evaluation of the nutritional requirements bighorn sheep under natural conditions, and (b) to measure adequacy selected ranges to meet these requirements. of of SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the nutritional bighorn sheep. quality of forage species utilized by 2. To evaluate if the nutritional level of selected bighorn sheep ranges is adequate to meet nutrient requirements of bighorn sheep during all seasons of the year. (AMENDMENT ) To measure accuracy of fecal sample microanalysis for identifying plant species and estimating percent relative density of forages ingested by a ruminant. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Three bighorn sheep ranges were selected for nutritional investigations. Study areas chosen were considered indicative of differing quality sheep ranges based upon trend of the population and estimated numbers of sheep currently using the range. Study Area No.1, Trickle Hountain, Saguache County, Colorado, is a low altitude (8,400-12,100 ft.) primarily pinyon-juniper type bighorn sheep range. Quality of this range was arbitrarily considered good in that the bighorn sheep population has been generally increasing. Area No.2, the Buffalo Peaks, Park County, Colorado, is primarily an alpine (11,600-12,900 ft.) sheep range. Quality of this range was considered marginal as the bighorn population has been declining. Area No.3, Pikes Peak, El Paso and Teller counties, Colorado, is both alpine and sub-alpine (10,20014,100 ft.) bighorn sheep range. Since a major sheep die-off during 1953-54, the bighorn population has been steadily increasing which is thought to be directly related to mineral supplementation. �-78- METHODS Nutritional AND MATERIALS Quality of Forage Species Used by Bighorn Sheep Bighorn sheep fecal samples (for food-habits analysis) and forage samples were collected from the three study areas beginning June 1971. Collections were made monthly, June-September and thereafter during November, January and March. Food-habits Analyses Estimates of forage species used by bighorn sheep were made using microanalysis techniques to identify residues of plant tissues in fecal samples. Samples were collected after first observing sheep and subsequently collecting only fresh material from the area where sheep had been observed. This procedure insured fecal samples collected were definitely from bighorn sheep and also representative of the season. A minimum of 10 pellet groups were collected during each period. Individual groups were placed in envelopes and labeled as to study area and date. Efforts were made to collect the entire pellet group, however, this was not always done due to snow conditions or elimination while the animal had been moving. Preparatory to analysis samples were placed in a 4mm soil sieve and agitated to remove foreign matter (gravel, plant parts, etc.). If dust or soil particles remained,the sample was rinsed using minimal quantities of water and air-dried 10-14 days. Sub-samples of 6-8 pellets from each group were composited and ground in a Wiley mill using a 2 mm screen. Determinations of bighorn sheep foob-habits from these samples were subsequently made by the Composition Analysis Laboratory, Department of Range Science, Colorado State University, using microanalysis techniques. Procedures used for preparing microscope slides, identifying tissue residues and estimating percent relative density of forage species comprising sheep diets were those used by Sparks and Malechek (1968). Twenty systematically located fields were observed on each of 10 slides using 100 X magnification. Residues of plant species were identified and percent relative density of forage estimated. Forage Quality Analyses Representative forage samples were also collected from areas in which sheep were observed to have been feeding. Initially, all forage plants in an area were collected, however,' as food-habits became known only those forages used by sheep were collected. Grasses and grasslike species were collected by clipping the entire plant as close to the ground as possible; browse by clipping current years growth. Clipped material was placed in paper bags and labeled as to tentative identification, date, and study area. Prior to chemical analysis forage species collected were definitely identified using Bighorn Sheep Herbarium Reference Manuals (Shepherd 1972) or Manual of the Plants of Colorado (Harrington 1954). Samples collected were air dried 2-3 weeks, ground in a Wiley mill using 1 mm screen, and stored in 4 oz sample jars until chemically analyzed. �-79- Forage species were analyzed for nutritional quality using standard laboratory procedures for determination of percent dry matter, crude protein, crude fat and ash (AOAC 1965), cell-wall constituents (Van Soest and Wine 1967), acid-detergent fiber (ADF) and lignin (Van Soest 1962). Trace minerals (calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, manganese, copper, zinc and iron) were determined using a Perkin-Elmer 303 atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Phosphorus content was estimated using the vanadate-molybdate procedure and analyzing content with a Spection 20 spectrophotometer. Forage Digestibility Digestion coefficients and total digestible nutrients (TDN) of bighorn sheep diets were estimated by simulating diets (based on percent relative density of forages in actual diets determined by fecal microanalysis) and chemically analyzing diets and fecal material for proximate constituents. Chemical analyses used are those previously described. Differences in percent lignin between simulated diets and fecal samples was used as an indirect indicator of digestion and used to estimate diet digestibility and TDN. Evaluate Nutritional Level of Ranges in Furnishing Nutrient Requirements of Bighorn Sheep Nutrient requirements of bighorn sheep are not known. Nutritional data, obtained through Procedure One for the three study areas, will therefore be compared for indications of possible nutrient deficiencies. Such comparisons will not define nutrient requirements of bighorn sheep but will permit nutritional evaluation of different ranges supporting sheep. Accuracy of Fecal Microanalysis Technique in Determining Food-Habits Feeding Trials Two consecutive l2-day feeding trials using a fistulated domestic goat were conducted. The animal was put into an isolation pen (6.1 X 1.8 m, with cement floor) 2 weeks prior to the first trial to accustom it to confinement and measure its normal daily food intake. Daily intake of its regular feed was used as a basis for the amount of test diet fed during the trials. Ad libitum intake was measured by offering a weighed amount of feed and weighing back uneaten amounts each following day. Prior to feeding a test diet, the animal was fasted 48 hours to aid in voiding its digestive tract of previously ingested food. During the l2-day trials, test diets were force-fed twice daily by introducing 250g of the diet through the fistula directly into the rumen. No other food was available to the animal. After each feeding the most recent fecal group was collected, placed in a paper sack and labeled as to date and time of collection. The pen was then swept clean of all remaining fecal pellets. �-80- Test Diets Test diets fed were formulated with true mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida), rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), snow willow (Salix nivalis) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Plant species, except Salix and Medicago, were collected during late winter by hand-clipping the previous year's growth from plants along the front range near Fort Collins. Salix was collected from the Pikes Peak range during June when the species was in full leaf with mature catkins present. Alfalfa used was an exceptionally leafy, baled, third-cutting from the previous season. Each plant species was ground individually in a hammer mill with a 3 mm screen resulting in particles varying from extremely small to 3 em in length. After grinding, material was stored in plastic sacks at -10 C. Two test diets were formulated with varying percentages of individual plant species (Table 1). Species used were sampled to determine moisture content, compounded, thoroughly mixed and stored in plastic bags at 0 C until fed. Table 1. Composition (percent dry weight fed during feeding trials. basis) of two formulated ComEosition (Percent) Diet II Plant Species Diet I Artemisia tridentata 9.3 5.0 Artemisia frigida 14.1 10.0 9.7 25.0 0 9.9 Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Medicago sativa 35.5 10.7 Purshia tridentata 9.3 24.9 22.1 14.5 Salix nivalis Microanalysis diets of Fecal SamEles Fecal samples were analyzed by the Composition Analysis Laboratory, Department of Range Science, Colorado State University, using micro-techniques identical to those outlined for Procedure One. �-81- The laboratory technician who prepared and read the slides had extensive training and experience in micro-techniques. She did not have prior knowledge of the diet-compositions but was furnished a complete list of all browse species that could be expected but were not necessarily included in the diets. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nutritional Quality of Forage Species Used by Bighorn Sheep Food-habits Primary forage species identified in bighorn sheep fecal samples collected from the three study areas are listed in Table 2. Comparisons of data among the three areas indicate sheep using the Trickle Mountain range are utilizing greater numbers of different plant species than sheep on either Pikes Peak or the Buffalo Peaks. Grasses and grass-like forage comprise the major proportion of bighorn sheep diets (Fig. 1), however, there was increased utilization of browsel species during early fall (Fig. 2). Use of forbs2 by sheep on all three ranges was insignificant - totals of all species used being less than 4 percent of the diets. Comparisons of food-habits data between summers 1971 and 1972 show extreme variation in all study areas. Variability of data may be due to actual differences in food-habits of sheep between years due to different climatic conditions or errors in identifying and estimating percent relative density of plant species in sheep diets. Extremely high utilization of browse species, primarily Artemisia frigida by bighorn sheep on Trickle Mountain during November 1971 and January 1972 are thought to be overestimates (See Amendment results). Forage Quality Chemical analysis of forage samples collected during this segment have not been completed or data obtained to date analyzed. Results will therefore not be presented until all aspects have been completed. Forage Digestibility Chemical analysis of forage and fecal samples needed to estimate digestion coefficients and compute TDN are continuing. Results will be reported in future segments. Evaluate Nutritional Level of Ranges in Furnishing Nutrient Requirements of Bighorn Sheep Range evaluations are dependent upon comparisons of nutritional data obtained from Procedure One. Complete evaluations cannot adequately be done until after all samples and data have been analyzed at which time the final report for this study will be written. 1 Browse - a broad-leafed woody plant, shrub, bush or tree of small stature. 2 Forb - a broad-leafed herbaceous plant. �-82- Table 2. Primary forage species identified in fecal samples of bighorn sheep collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges, June 1971 - September 1972. Plant Species Agropyron spp. Buffalo Peaks 0.6 - 7.4 Percent (Range) Pikes Peak Trickle Mountain 0.8 - 10.3 Bouteloua gracilis Carex spp. 1.1 - 29.9 2.7 - 53.6 7.8 - 91. 8 Danthonia parryi 0.1 - 6.7 Deschampsia caespitosa 6.0 - Festuca spp. 13.0 - 66.8 Muhlenbergia spp. 0.1 - 6.8 0.5 - 57.6 5.6 0.7 - 52.9 0.1 - 56.6 Oryzopsis hymenoides Poa spp. 4.2 - 19.2 0.2 - 11.0 2.4 - 10.5 0.5 - 14.7 3.5 - 15.2 Stipa spp. 2.5 - 10.7 0.1 - Artemisia frigida 0.1 - 7.7 0.2 - 75.4 0.2 - 7.4 0.1 - 14.1 Cercocarpus montanus 12.3 Holodiscus dumosus Pinus spp. Salix spp. 0.7 - 42.0 0.4 - 6.8 0.1 - 28.8 27.6 35.1 Yucca spp. Shrub (not identified) 5.4 0.5 - 9.9 0.3 - 15.7 8.4 - 53.4 0.2 - 68.3 0.7 40.4 �GRASSES 100 90 \ \\ >- 80 •••• -.. -- \ \ Q W 60 50 > - •.••40 <t ..J W ," ,, ,, ,, , .', , \ It' \ \ I \ \ II ~: I \ I •........ ' .... .•..•..,,.," "---- _, ,, ....••.•...••.._--, " ,; ; ,,\" " ,,'9 " I I I \ I '\ ••.•••• J. 30 ;" \ 20 \V / I I Buffalo Pk. Pikes Pk. / ------ Trickle Mtn. --- June July 10 June 1971 July . Aug Sept Nov -.on I 00 L,..) I I a:: ~ 0 , ..... ... \ , GRASSLIKE r+r=>: .,'4'; .•. , I ......I ' l, \ \" •.. ~ \ -/) 70 \ C Z W ,,,""" ,," ,,"', \ and Mar Aug Sept 1972 N;ONTH Fig. 1. Use of grasses and grass-like forages by bighorn sheep on Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak ranges, June 1971 - September 1972. �SHRUBS 100 90 r-. >- 30 f- I I C/) 70 z ~ 60 I I I I I W 50 > I- <! -- ,~ ' I /\ / / a:: ~ 20] o 10 / I I I I Pikes \ Trickle \\ I 0:> .l:"I I "- , ,", \ , , ,, ,, .•...••. •.. .-------------,-------------,--------- 1971 Mtn. --- \ .. \/ ',, "- Aug --- \ \ \ "- July --- \ '''''' June Pk. \ \ 'I •.. / Pk. \ \ ~\ / »->: \ \ \ I I -1 W 30 Buffalo I I 40 I --. ., "- Sept Nov Jon Mar, June •••• -r•••••••••••• .,---- ••------ •• Aug Sept July 1972 MONTH Fig. 2. Use of browse species by bighorn sheep on Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak ranges, June 1971 - September 1972. �-85- Accuracy of Fecal Microanalysis Technique in Determining Food-Habits Force feeding test diets directly into the rumen through a fistula proved to be an effective means of feeding a diet of known composition to an animal. The method eliminated any selectivity of food intake by the animal which might have occurred if the diets were offered free-choice or in a cafeteria type feeding trial. During the trials rumination appeared normal, the animal remained in good flesh and quite often was observed contentedly chewing cud. Feces eliminated were a normal size and consistency. Fecal samples collected after the animal had been fed the test diet for 10 and 12 days during each trial, contained little identifiable plant-residues a few Artemisia trichomes and a few unattached trichomes which may have been from Salix, Cercocarpus or Purshia. The bulk of material was unidentifiable woody-stem material (Hanson, letter or 20 Sept , 1972). Similar results were reported by Zyznar and Urness (1969), who fed 17 tree, shrub and herbaceous plant species separately to captive mule and white-tailed deer. They found only low percentages of recognizable plant residues in fecal samples using microanalysis techniques. Unfed samples of the test diets were also analyzed by microanalysis techniques as an additional test of the method's accuracy in identifying plant species in the diets and estimating percent composition. All species in the diets were identified. However, microanalysis results include 2.1 percent Chrysothanmus sp. and 0.2 percent Pinus sp. in Diets I and II respectively (Table 3). These species were not formulated in the respective diets. Estimates of the relative percentages of some plant species in the diets were also highly over or underestimated Crable 3). Stewart (1967) questions validity of the microanalysis technique for estimating relative percent of plant species in an animal's diet due to some forage plants fragmenting more easily than others. We found, after feeding a number of perennial grasses to African ungulates, that some plants easily fragmented and consequently appeared more important in their diets although intake was the same or less than that of other species. These results question usefulness and accuracy of fecal microanalysis techniques for detenning food-habits of ruminants. Reasons why no identifiable plant residues were found in fecal sanlples from these trials are unknown. Other investigators (Regg 1961, Kiley 1966, Lay 1965, Stewart 1967, Zyznar and Urness 1969) have used the method, with varying success, to identify plant residues in feces from other ruminants. Differences in digestive capabilities among various species of ruminants studied during these investigations and the domestic goat used during these trials may account for differences of results obtained. Digestion may be more complete in ruminants possessing relatively large capacity digestive organs such as the goat, compared to ruminants with small organs. Easily digestible plants or plant parts may have been completely digested by the goats digestive system leaving only undigestible wood-stem material to be eliminated in feces. �-86- Table 3. Composition (percent dry weight basis) of two test diets compared to the estimated relative composition determined by microanalysis. (y/x is ratio of known percent (y) to estimated percent (x ) ; values> 1 are overestimates and-C 1 underestimates). I \\ Plant Species Compo Diet I Estimated y/x Compo Artemisia tridentata 9.3 6.4 0.7 5.0 10.7 2.1 Artemisia frigida 14.1 42.1 3.0 10.0 41.6 4.2 9.7 1.3 0.1 25.0 5.8 0.2 0 2.1 9.9 8.6 0.9 Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Diet II Estimated y/x Medicago sativa 35.6 25.6 0.7 10.7 11. 7 1.1 Purshia tridentata 9.3 2.1 0.2 24.9 10.0 0.4 22.1 20.4 0.9 14.5 11.4 0.8 0 0 0 0.2 Salix nivalis Pinus sp , Accurate food-habits data are essential for nutritional studies involving any species of animal. Based on results of these trials, application of fecal microanalysis techniques for determining food-habits of bighorn sheep in our current studies cannot be reliably used. However, determining foodhabits of free-ranging wild animals is extremely difficult and to date fecal microanalysis offers the best approach to the problem. It is recommended therefore, that use of the technique be continued and further investigations be made to clearly define its application and limitations. LITERATURE CITED Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. analysis. 10th Ed. Wash., D.C. 957 p. Harrington, H. D. 1954. Manual Denver, Colo. 652 pp. 1965. Official of the plants of Colorado. methods of Sage Books, Hegg, O. 1961. Analyses of big-game droppings to determine their dietary composition in Swiss National Park. Revue Suisse de Zoologie 68 (12): 156-165. (Transl. by J. J. Stransky, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Southern Forest Exp. Sta., 9 pp.). �-87- Kiley, M. 1966. A preliminary investigation into the feeding habits of the waterbuck by faecal analysis. Jour. E. Africa Wildl. 4:153-157. Lay, D. W. 1965. Fruit utilization by deer in southern J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(2):370-375. forests. Shepherd, H. R. 1972. Game range investigations. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-lOl-R. Game Res. Rept. ,'July. Sparks, D. R., and J. C. Malechek. 1968. Estimating percentage dry weight in diets using a microscope technique. J. Range Mgmt. 21(4):261-265. Stewart, D. R. M. 1967. Analysis of plant epidermis in faeces; a technique for studying the food preference of grazing herbivores. J. Appl. Exol. 4(1):83-111. Van Soest, P. J. 1963. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. II. A rapid method for the determination of fiber and lignin. J. Assn. Official Agr. Chem. 46(5):829-835. ______ , and R. H. Wine. 1967. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. IV. Determination of plant cell-wall constituents. J. Assn. Official Agr. Chem. 50(1):50-55. Zyznar, E., and P. J. Urness. 1969. Qualitative identification of forage remnants in deer feces. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(3):506-510. Prepared by ,Z:::··<L-dfJ}H??U"t«·tl! Gene G. Schoonveld Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��January, -89- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-22 Bighorn Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Manipulation Period Covered: Personnel: Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations 17 of Vegetation on Bighorn Sheep Ranges June 1, 1971 to May 31, 1972 Thomas N. Woodard and George D. Bear ABSTRACT Test plots were established on two study areas, Cebolla Creek and alpine range. Nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers were applied to designated plots. Nitrogen was applied at the rates of 0, 30, 60 and 90 pounds per acre. Phosphorus was applied at the rate of and 30 pounds per acre. A herbicide (2,4-D) will be applied in the next work segment. ° Preliminary sampling indicated a 16-inch quadrat should be used for the vegetative frequency sampling on Cebolla Creek, while a split-sampling system (I-inch and 8-inch quadrats) should be used in the alpine • .A Neal Electronics Herbage Meter was used to determine herbage production. Sampling indicated a minimum sample of 40 plots per treatment should be used in the alpine and 39 plots on Cebolla Creek. There was a strong correlation between green weight of the forage and the meter readings; .95 in the alpine and .81 on Cebolla Creek. There was very little bighorn use on the study areas; likely due to minor snow accumulation on the winter ranges. 1973 ��-91- MANIPULATION OF VEGETATION ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE Improve the herbage on selected bighorn yield, vegetative density sheep ranges in Colorado. and vegetative composition SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Alter the quality and quantity of forage on specific study areas with varied treatments of chemical fertilizers and herbicides. 2. Determine the effect of each treatment and chemical content of plant species. 3. Determine grazing preferences to each treatment. METHODS on the composition, of wild bighorns production, on the area in respect AND MATERIALS The study area is located about 35 miles south of Gunnison, Colorado. The resident bighorn herd winters in two areas: in a low (8,000 feet elevation) bunchgrass and ponderosa pine type, and in a high (11,000 feet elevation) alpine type. The following work was or will be conducted on each winter range: 1. Bighorn preference and response of the vegetation will be measured on plots treated with 2,4-D (herbicide), nitrogen, and phosphorus. Two levels of treatment (0 and 2 lbs./acre) will be evaluated for 2,4-D; four levels of treatment (0, 30, 60, and 90 lbs./acre) for nitrogen; and two levels of treatment (0 and 30 lbs./acre) for phosphorus. These will be evaluated in all possible combinations, or a 2x4x2 factorial for a total of 16 treatments, as outlined in the following table: �-92- 2,4-D Treatment Nitrogen Phosphorus 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 30 3 0 30 0 4 0 30 30 5 0 60 0 6 0 60 30 7 0 90 0 8 0 90 30 9 2 0 0 10 2 0 30 11 2 30 0 12 2 30 30 13 2 60 0 14 2 60 30 15 2 90 0 16 2 90 30 Treatment Number Treatment plots were established, measuring 50 feet by 100 feet. Each corner was marked with a metal fence post. These markers were numbered to assist in identifying plots when bighorns are grazing on them. Three replications were randomly established on each study area. Each replication consisted of the 16 treatment plots listed above. Plots in each replication were arranged in a rectangular area eight plots long and two plots deep (see following diagram). Randomized selection of treatment for each plot was determined by using a table of random numbers (Huntsberger 1961). The arrangement is as follows, with the corresponding treatment number (from preceding table) listed in each plot: �-93- Replication No. 1 Replication No. 2 Replication No. 3 Ammonium nitrate and treble super phosphate were used as sources for nitrogen and phosphorous treatments. Approximately 0, 90, 180, and 270 pounds of ammonium nitrate were applied to obtain corresponding nitrogen treatment levels of 0, 30, 60, and 90 pounds per acre. These compounds were applied in the "pellet form" last fall before the ground froze, using a whirling broadcaster. The herbicide will be applied in the spring of 1972, as soon as the ground thaws (next work segment). This chemical will be applied with a back-pack sprayer. 2. Plant Identification. Representatives of all plant species occurring on the study area were collected and dried. Collections were made during the flowering and fruiting stages to assist in identification. Permanent mounts of each species were made on cards measuring 8-1/2 X 11 inches. Frequency Sampling. Transects will be established on each plot to determine any changes in vegetative composition which may result from the various treatments. Work here was directed toward establishing the sampling procedures needed to detect changes in vegetative composition. Temporary transects were established in several plots to test for the proper quadrat size to be used. The following quadrat sizes were tested on the Cebolla Creek winter range: 4, 8, 12, and 16 inches square. Quadrats measuring 1, 2, 4, and 8 inches square were tested on the alpine winter range. �-94- Frequency percentages were derived for all plant species encountered on the quadrats. To be considered as occurring on a given quadrat, the center of an individual plant or one-half of its basal area must be inside the quadrat. An "individual" for bunchgrasses shall be a clump; for a single stem species, such as wheatgrass, it will be individual stems; for cactus it shall be a lobe; and for shrubs and forbs it will be the basal area of all stems. Frequency (p) is defined p = mln, where m is the number of quadrats containing a given species and n is the total number of quadrats observed in each treatment. Yield Plots. Quantity of forage produced on the treatment plots shall be determined by using a Neal Electronics Herbage Meter. The herbage meter measures an area 24 inches by 12 inches, which will be designated as a yield plot. A series of meter readings were taken on each replication to determine the variability to be expected and the sample sizes needed. In addition to the herbage meter readings, the vegetation on every fifth plot was clipped and weighed. All green vegetation on these plots is clipped off at the root crown and placed in a labeled paper sack. These samples are taken to the laboratory, oven dried, and then weighed to the nearest gram. The weights are then used to compute regression equations for converting herbage meter readings into pounds of forage per acre. Again, work in this segment is being done to check for variability. Chemical Analysis. Vegetative samples shall be analyzed for phosphorus, potassium, and protein content. This work shall be done at the Fort Collins Research Center Laboratory. Since the study areas are bighorn sheep winter ranges, the vegetation should be sampled at the completion of the growing season, again in mid-winter, and in late winter. Samples of the most common plant species will be collected from the treated areas. Since the fertilizers were applied in September, following the growing season, the chemical composition of the plant could not be changed, thus plant collections were not made in this segment. 3. Bighorn preference or selection of treatment plots shall be determined. Numbers of bighorn sheep using the study areas are to be recorded during scheduled observation periods. Again, since the vegetation was not affected by the late application of the fertilizers, observations were limited to times when other work was being conducted in the area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The replications and treatment plots were surveyed and marked with metal fence posts, as outlined in the procedures. Fertilizer was applied on the designated plots. In using plant frequency percentages to detect changes in vegetative composition the quadrat must be large enough to adequately represent the less abundant plant species, yet the most abundant species must have frequency percentages somewhat below 100 percent to detect increases that may occur. �-:95- Visual evaluation of the data in Tables 1-3 indicated the l6-inch quadrat to be the proper size for the Cebolla Creek study area. Data in Tables 4-6 indicated a split-sampling scheme should be used on the alpine; a quadrat measuring 1 inch x 1 inch for Trifolium nanum and Carex sp., and a l6X16-inch quadrat for all other species. It was decided that four transects should be established on each treatment plot. The transects are to be parallel to the base of the plot with approximately a 10-foot spacing between transects. A total of 15 quadrats are to be located at 5-foot intervals along each transect, or a total of 60 quadrats for each treatment plot. Each quadrat is to be permanently marked with a metal stake. Data collected with the herbage meter indicated 40 quadrats were needed on each treatment plot in the alpine study area for a statistically valid (P .10) sample, and 30 quadrats were needed on the Cebolla Creek study area. The 60 quadrats established on each treatment to determine frequency will also be used to locate yield plots. Obviously the 60 plots is considerably greater than the recommended numbers given above; however, the vegetation may be changing due to treatment and larger samples will be needed as variation increases. There was a strong correlation between herbage meter readings and forage (weight) on the plots (Fig's. 1-4). The correlation coefficient for green weight to meter readings in the alpine was .95 and the dry weight correlation coefficient was also .95; the regression equations were: green weight = -19.53 + 3.24 (meter reading), and dry weight = -3.11+ 1.06 (meter reading). The correlation coefficient for green weight to meter readings on Cebolla Creek was .81 and the dry weight correlation coefficient was .76; the regression equations were: green weight= -13.96 + 1.71 (meter reading), and dry weight = -7.38 + 1.00 (meter reading). The Cebolla Creek study area is very rocky, thus the correlation coefficients were lower than those obtained on the alpine. Sheep-use on the study areas appeared to be extremely light during the 1971-72 winter. Bighorns fed on the adjacent areas near the alpine plots, but were never observed on the plots. Snowfall was below normal in this area and the entire south-exposure of the ridge below the plots was relatively free of snow all winter. Five to seven inch drifts had accumulated on plots 7 and 15 (Replication 1) and on plots 10 and 11 (Replication 2) in late February; otherwise, the study area was relatively free of snow accumulation. The Cebolla Creek area was also free of snow accumulation (except immediately following a storm) throughout the winter. Three rams were observed on plot 10 (Replication 1) in late May. The plots were fertilized after the growing season last fall so there could not have been a change in the vegetation to attract the sheep. Snow depths were so minimal sheep were not forced to concentrate in the area where plots are located. �Table l. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, Replication No.1, 1 4 8U Plot Number and Quadrat Size (Inches) 3 4 5 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 8 12 4 2 8 12 8 11 15 3 5 - - 8 - - - - - 3 50 4 15 4 34 7 54 1 70 4 16 1 1 8 - - - - 3 3 4 - 3 1 3 1 - - - - - 1971. 6 8 12 4 7 8 12 48 12 - - 7 1 26 8 4 57 18 4 67 3 1 18 15 1 45 - 12 1 18 5 16 24 15 3 32 3 47 3 18 4 36 9 51 12 33 1 43 4 - - 1 - 3 1 54 4 1 7 3 4 8 Grasses Agropyron sp. Bouteloua gracilis Carex sp. Festuca arizonica Festuca sp. Koe1eria cristata Muh1enbergia montana Muhlenbergia richardsoni Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix Stipa comata 7 13 3 4 - 4 5 22 - - - 37 54 - - - - 18 8 8 34 1 65 - 1 3 3 1 3 4 - - - - - 15 30 - - 22 1 38 1 57 - - 1 1 1 3 - - - - - - 1 - - - - 25 - - 53 - - - - 4 7 34 1 1 22 - 5 8 51 3 5 30 18 34 - - 4 3 18 4 4 33 4 5 45 - 4 53 - - - - - 1 1 4 - - 1 1 1 - 1 - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - 1 1 1 1 1 - Forbs Androsace sp. Antennaria parva Cruciferae Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Geranium sp. Hymenoxys richardsoni Mertensia sp. Penstemon sp. Potentil1a sp. Senecio sp. Unid. forbs - - 1 - 1 1 - 3 5 - - 3 1 3 - - 1 - - 8 - - 4 - - 1 1 1 - - - - 1 - - 9 - - - 1 3 .., 1 11 1 - - - - 1 1 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 - - 1 - 3 - - - - 1 3 - - - 4 8 - - - 5 1 4 - - 13 1 - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - 1 - 1 1 1 - - 3 - - 4 4 - - - - 1 3 - - - - - 1 1 4 - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 1 - - - - - - 3 - -------------------_._---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- , ,'" 'J:) �Table 1. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, Replication No.1, Plot Number and ~adrat 4 3 12 8 4 12 8 4 4 2 8 12 - - - - - - - - 37 5 1 16 3 4 28 4 7 40 9 11 15 3 24 4 34 4 16 4 28 4 - - - - - - - - - 1 1 1 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 - - 4 1 8 12 - - - 8 3 1 21 3 1 Size (Inchesl 5 12 8 4 1971 (continued). 6 7 8 8 8 12 12 1 1 32 3 1 46 4 - - 3 12 4 33 4 3 46 5 - - 4 8 12 4 - 1 28 5 1 38 15 - - 12 1 15 1 1 1 1 - Shrubs Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia ~rigida Chrxsothamnus parryi Leptodacty1on pungens Physocarpus sp. Rhus trilobata Ribes cereum ----- 1 - - - - - - - - - 3 1 45 5 1 3 - - 1 3 - - 18 - 34 4 47 5 1 1 1 3 1 4 - - - - - I '"-..j I �Table 2. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, Replication No.2, 1 4 812 4 2 8 11 1 4 15 1 9 15 1 22 l3 21 - - - 12 - - 5 - 41 62 - 71 25 - 40 - 58 - - 5 5 - - - - 1 - 9 12 28 - - 12 28 Plot Number and Quadrat Size (Inches) 3 4 5 4 8 12 4 8 12 8 12 16 1971. 6 8 12 16 8 7 12 8 1 20 11 1 26 15 1 42 4 3 28 12 7 4 8 5 45 21 16 5 - - 1 22 1 30 1 4 1 8 16 8 SIT 16 G~ Boute1oua gracilis Carex sp , Festuca arizonica Koe1eria cristata Muh1enbergia montana Muh1enbergia torreyi Oryzopsis hyrnenoides Poa secunda Sitanion hystrix Forbs Antennaria parva Cruciferae Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Geranium sp. Hyrnenoxysrichardsoni Lappu1a sp , Penstemon sp. Potent::t11a sp. Senecio sp. Unid. forbs - - - - 1 1 - - 1 - - - 1 1 - 20 1 - - 1 1 l3 1 3 25 - - - - 9 22 34 4 - - - - - 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 - - 1 21 4 1 30 5 - - 16 3 21 7 38 9 - - - - - - - - - 12 8 50 4 57 - - - - 3 9 3 3 20 34 3 16 38 - - - - - - 1 1 - - 5 8 - - 17 8 30 1 20 - - 1 5 5 8 - - - - 9 1 48 8 41 - 8 18 - 8 - 34 - - - - - 46 59 75 24 37 57 - - - - 5 1 - 1 - - - - - - 1 1 - - - 1 1 - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17 22 1 3 1 - 8 - 43 - - - - - - - - 12 17 16 21 30 1 1 1 - - - 1 4 4 - - - 21 - - 1 3 3 1 3 3 - - - - - - - - 1 1 3 3 3 - 1 59 4 1 78 5 36 1 57 4 74 5 1 3 1 3 - - 1 - - - - - - - 3 - - - - - - - 1 - 3 - - - 9 1 51 3 33 1 11 5 - - 8 4 7 9 1 1 65 24 38 25 - 3 18 18 24 9 - 1 1 1 43 11 16 Shrubs Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia frigida Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus LeE!Qdacty1on pungens - 7 3 - - - - - - - - - - 16 - 38 - - - - 62 1 21 37 54 42 68 - 87 - - - 38 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 58 4 78 5 36 - - - - - 1 4 4 3 I '!) ex> I �Table 3. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, Replication No.3, 1 Grasses Boute1oua gracilis ~sp. Danthonia parryi Festuca arizonica Koe1eria cristata Muh1enbergia montana Muh1enbergia richardsoni Muh1enbergia torreyi Oryzopsis hymenoides Sitanion hystrix 8 12--r6 8 45 40 21 4 25 30 34 34 - - - - 16 25 1 49 30 1 59 15 3 32 29 1971. 2 12 16 8 Plot Number and Quadrat Size (Inches) 5 4 3 8 16 8 12 16 8 12 16 12 29 5 1 20 3 43 38 7 1 28 3 54 15 8 1 21 21 22 3 37 26 24 3 45 - - 22 32 - 1 9 18 - - - - - - 4 4 1 5 - - 4 - - - 16 18 29 15 21 7 1 36 - - 4 5 - 4 12 16 32 9 3 58 17 21 26 11 13 15 1 20 1 33 17 29 - - 4 29 - - - 43 51 55 - - - - 30 1 53 1 62 1 33 16 22 29 5 15 29 1 - - - 43 40 53 67 - - 15 25 - 12 24 8 3 42 21 - 8 17 3 36 20 3 41 12 13 - - - 15 - - - 8 16 20 29 17 1 29 21 12 7 6 12 - 812 16 - - 53 66 - - - - - 59 72 80 - - - 66 7 80 8 1 42 1 87 9 12 13 18 3 12 16 33 I '-D '-D Forbs Cruciferae Erigeron sp. Lappu1a sp. Potenti11a sp. Senecio sp. Unid. forbs I 1 - 1 3 3 3 - - - 1 1 3 1 4 3 - - - 30 3 50 4 68 5 - - - - - - - - - 1 1 1 5 8 1 7 9 1 1 66 3 3 84 3 4 - - 1 - 1 1 - 1 - 7 1 - - 4 3 7 7 1 1 1 3 - 3 - - 9 16 - - 1 1 1 - 1 - - - 1 - - - - 24 1 1 3 1 3 1 8 1 47 13 1 1 7 9 1 9 7 1 29 7 1 46 1 1 1 3 - 5 1 3 5 - 1 ~ 13 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 15 1 21 - 11 - - - 26 3 1 43 4 5 59 4 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 - - Shrubs 1 Artemisia dracunculus 45 Artemisia frigida 3 Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidif1orusEchinocactus sp. Leptodacty1on pungens Rhus tri10bata RibesCer~ - ----- - - - - - 1 24 4 1 30 8 1 - - 1 3 4 3 4 7 21 22 37 13 36 53 �Table 4. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Alpine Study Area, Replication No.1, 1 2 4 8 1 rIot Number and Quadrat Size (Inches) 2 3 15 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 20 8 15 30 49 13 62 37 57 15 7 7 18 7 11 22 12 30 45 20 51 - 1 3 1 1971. 16 8 1 2 4 8 45 5 25 71 7 38 87 13 45 87 18 55 - - - 1 Grasses Carex sp. Festuca ovina Poa sp. Sitanion hystrix Trisetum spicatum Unid. grasses 1 - 22 18 26 1 1 5 3 - 1 - - 67 34 79 3 4 - 8 1 9 3 1 - 9 7 18 4 24 49 29 59 81 - 40 7 1 3 - 74 9 11 - 96 11 4 7 20 99 1 33 - - - - - - 3 Forbs Achillea 1anu1osa Anemone sp. Androsace sp. Artemisia scopu1orum Caltha 1eptosepa1a Cerastrium beeringianum Dryas octopetala Erigeron sp. Geum turbinatum Hymenoxys grandif10rus Mertensia bakeri Phlox caespitosa Po1ygonum bistortoides Po1emonium viscosum Potentil1a diversifo1ia I t-' - - - - - 9 1 4 26 1 11 - - 17 26 3 - - - 2 - - - - - - - - - 1 1 - - - 44 3 22 3 1 68 15 36 12 - - - - 40 8 1 5 59 20 1 24 24 3 38 4 3 4 - - 9 2 9 1 - 17 8 21 1 3 46 15 34 3 0 0 1. 1 3 4· - 1 1 4 1 3 1 - - 1 4 3 - - - - 3 14 11 5 1 3 3 1 - 1 4 7 4 - - 49 17 4 66 33 43 7 1 62 40 9 1 12 3 9 22 1 1 I 1 - 1 5 1 1 5 34 1 3 - - 11 1 1 11 58 22 1 1 3 - - 3 - 3 7 1 16 11 22 75 4 18 5 46 20 71 30 92 3 - - 60 29 - - 18 8 4 4 25 20 9 1 25 26 70 59 83 88 88 96 45 13 3 45 34 4 49 70 5 50 88 11 26 - - - - - - - 3 4 13 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 4. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Alpine Study Area, Replication No.1, 1 1 2 4 8 1 1 9 4 16 22 30 1 3 15 24 1 1 11 16 4 4 75 82 3 17 1 Plot Number and Quadrat Size (Inches) 15 3 2 2 4 1 2 8 1 4 4 8 2 1971 (continued). 8 1 16 4 2 - - - 3 1 16 57 8 Forbs (continued) Potenti11a nivea Pseudoc~oEterus sp. Rununcu1us inamoenus Saxifraga sp , Sedum sp. Si1ene acau1is Solidago sp. Trifolium nanum Trifolium Earryi Tro11ius a1bif1orus Unid. compositae Unid. forbs 1 1 15 1 9 - - 1 7 3 57 45 - - - - 1 1 1 3 3 - - - - - - - 3 4 7 12 17 22 36 30 1 1 12 1 1 25 1 4 41 - - - - - - - 1 - 16 6 13 32 17 29 40 34 55 47 53 76 7 1 3 16 3 4 32 3 8 38 4 25 3 1 - - - - - - 1 1 5 25 1 12 13 41 1 24 36 51 3 36 4 17 9 15 - - - - - 15 1 51 20 3 72 29 4 84 41 8 90 3 5 - - 30 46 13 37 1 20 1 15 1 67 - - - - - - - 22 54 4 34 3 20 4 83 1 1 3 1 5 - - 1 3 1 - - 5 25 - - - - I t-' 0 t-' I �Table 5. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Alpine Study Area, Replication No.2, Plot Number and Quadrat Size (Inches) 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 1 1 2 55 70 - - 15 18 26 25 - - 88 1 59 38 1 1971. 3 2 4 8 Grasses Carex sp. Deschampsia caespitosa Festuca ovina Poa sp. Trisetum spicatum 90 4 75 55 9 36 53 66 71 55 76 91 91 29 11 3 45 18 4 65 26 7 91 42 22 16 13 3 29 21 7 42 36 17 63 51 26 - - 4 5 8 - - - 21 17 - - 5 1 61 57 - 8 9 5 1 37 34 - - 17 25 44 - - 78 - - 21 9 1 20 1 37 22 1 36 1 1 1 - 4 - - 13 1 7 28 1 8 3 25 54 3 15 3 41 - - - 36 20 1 8 5 25 25 1 34 12 13 41 49 3 66 Forbs Achillea 1anu1osa Androsace sp. Artemisia scopu1orum Cerastrium beeringianum Erigeron sp. Erigeron pinnatisecta Eritrichium e10ngatum Gentiana sp. Geranium sp. Geum turbinatum Hymenoxys grandif10ra Lycopodium sp. Mertensia sp. Phlox caespitosa Po1emonium viscosum Po1ygonum bistortoides Potenti11a nivea Pseudoc~opterus sp. Rununcu1us inamoenus Saxifraga sp , Sedum sp. Si1ene acau1is Trifolium nanum Trifolium parryi Tro11ius a1bif1orus 1 5 5 7 - - - - 21 7 15 32 12 1 21 45 37 8 36 - 66 62 12 50 - - - 4 5 7 - 13 - - - 13 4 1 25 1 1 5 1 38 4 3 7 3 - - 11 - 51 8 7 7 9 - - 12 - - - 4 11 4 7 1 18 3 3 24 15 28 36 17 8 5 21 8 9 45 18 47 - 1 3 1 11 8 - 7 5 1 7 - - 8 12 1 1 18 9 16 1 13 4 7 5 4 4 3 11 7 1 8 - 5 3 12 12 1 13 12 4 - - 5 13 - - 21 1 66 49 5 49 3 1 1 30 3 4 9 3 1 3 8 16 1 3 3 4 13 30 5 13 7 15 26 49 8 37 17 18 1 4 11 1 21 7 1 58 4 71 11 1 - - - - - 15 26 42 1 40 - - 7 20 I •....• 0 N I �Table 6. Frequency of plant species (percent) on the Alpine Study Area, Replication No.3, 1971. 4 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 1 2 4 8 1 58 5 9 1 3 80 11 21 3 5 93 17 32 3 12 99 29 63 5 25 55 4 16 71 9 25 - - 4 5 90 21 38 3 11 91 50 76 13 37 71 3 12 4 5 90 8 18 5 8 96 24 29 8 25 97 54 47 20_ 58 51 5 5 5 4 72 5 11 11 9 80 24 20 22 17 86 54 33 51 33 - - - - - 42 59 1 15 11 3 7 12 20 25 30 7 - - - - - 1 12 22 1 8 47 3 - - 9 - - 3 5 7 15 1 1 7 13 1 9 21 32 30 - 7 1 1 1 17 - 7 13 1 43 50 - - 3 1 24 24 - 8 16 - - - - 1 1 1 1 3 4 7 1 3 1 5 4 7 28 9 Grasses Carex sp. Festuca ovina Poa sp. Trisetum spicatum Unid. grasses Forbs Artemisia scopu1orum Arenaria fend1eri Cerastrium beeringianum Dryas octopeta1a Erigeron sp. Erigeron pinnatisecta Eritrichium e10ngatum Geum turbinatum Phlox caespitosa Po1ygonum bistortoides Potentilla diversifo1ia Potenti11a nivea PseudocymoEterus sp. Saxifraga sp. Sedum sp. Si1ene acau1is Trifolium nanum Trollius a1biflorus Unid. compositae Unid. forbs 8 1 - - - 1 - - - - - 1 1 3 3 1 9 4 1 - - - - 28 5 8 1 3 5 17 13 9 3 13 4 3 20 16 9 26 24 28 5 1 3 5 8 5 9 12 - - - 3 63 18 3 82 29 9 9 18 1 3 87 54 1 1 1 - - - 1 1 32 1 - - - 1 4 3 8 9 9 1 7 4 13 12 18 - - - 28 16 5 5 38 8 5 34 20 - - - - - - 1 37 7 1 54 12 4 96 30 1 1 38 5 1 50 18 1 75 29 1 93 42 38 16 63 29 82 51 91 62 3 42 9 - 3 80 20 1 - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - 30 1 - 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - I ~ 0 w I �-104- 80 70 60 30 20 10 . • , O~------~--------~-------L----~~----~_ 10 20 Fig. 1. Relationship Cebolla Creek Study Areat 30 METER READING 40 50 of meter readings to green weight of the forage, 1971. �-105- 45 • 40 35 30 1.5 • • • ••• • 10 • •• •• • • • 5 • • •• • • • • • • o • 10 • 20 30 40 50 METER READING Fig. 2. Relationship of the meter readings to the dry wejght of the forage, Cebolla Creek Study Area, 1971. �-106- 350 300 250 ,-.. III S <:"J ~ d <:» ~ ;:r:: 200 CJ H ~ Z r.il r.il ~ CJ 150 100 50 25 75 100 125 METER READING Fig. 3. Relationship of meter readings to green weight of the forage, Alpine Study Area, 1971. �-107- • • 50 ---CI) s Ct! ~ C '-" E-< ::r: c 40 H ~ :>-I 0:: Q <II ;z; ~ 0 30 10 Fig. 4. 20 40 MEI'ER READING 30 50 60 Relationship of meter readings to dry weight of the forage, Alpine study Area, 1971. 70 �-108- LITERATURE CITED Huntsberger, D. /1961. Elements of statistical inference. Bacon, Inc., Boston. 291p. ( Prepared by ~_~_'_~_~~~~~~--.--c-/-· '__/_:_~_-~_~_' _." " George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher Allyn and �January, -109- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO W-4l-R-22 Project No. Work plan No. Job Title Job No. Control of Lungworm Period Covered: Personnel: 1 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations 18 in Bighorn Sheep June 1, 1971 to May 31, 1972 Robert Lange, Steven Steinert, Julius Klein, George Bear, Robert Keiss, Charles Hibler. ABSTRACT Five bighorn sheep were captured near Glenwood Springs and placed in a 363 acre pasture at Colorado Division of Wildlife Little Hills Experiment Station near Meeker, Colorado. Two adult ewes were successfully treated with Tramisol to test this drug's therepeutic effect against Protostrongylid lungworms. Tramisol did not reduce lungworm larvae output in fecal pellets of treated sheep. The experiment will be repeated under contractual agreement with Colorado State University personnel, with some modifications. 1973 ��-111- CONTROL OF LUNGWORM IN BIGHORN SHEEP Robert Lange and George Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluation of potentially bighorn sheep. useful drugs in the control of lungworm in SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Establish lungworm larvae output prior to treatment 2. Determine the effect of therapeutic orally to bighorn sheep. METHODS with drugs. doses of the drugs administered AND MATERIALS Five bighorn sheep were transplanted from a semi-domesticated herd near Glenwood Springs and placed in a 363 acre pasture at Colorado Divlsion of Wildlife Little Hills Experiment Station near Meeker, Colorado. These sheep were used as experimental animals for this study. This study was conducted by contractual agreement with Colorado State University College of Veterinary Medicine personnel after it had been approved for implementation in this project. Therefore project personnel (George Bear) duties were limited to assisting with initial capture of the sheep, treating sick sheep during the summer, and assisting in administering Tramisol to the sheep. Robert Lange (student in Pathology) and Steven Steinert (Research Assistant, Little Hills Experiment Station) conducted all research in this study. 1. The initial job proposal stated that the captive bighorns were to be monitored for lungworm larvae output prior to treatment with drugs; however, this portion of the study was modified to be compatible with Mr. Lange's schedule at Colorado State University. The sheep were divided into two groups; those treated with the drug and those untreated. The larvae output of treated sheep was compared with that of untreated sheep and pretreatment output was compared with post-treatment output. 2. The initial proposal stated two drugs, Tramisol and Hygromycin B, were to be evaluated; however, an insufficient number of bighorn sheep were available for this study, therefore only Tramisol was evaluated. Therapeutic doses of Tramisol (8 mg./lb. B.W.) were administered orally in gelatin capsules to three ewes after they were tranquilized with M-99. One yearling ewe died five hours post-treatment. The effects of treatment on the other two ewes (adults) was estimated by larvae output in the feces. �-112- Fecal pellets were collected only when they were positively known to have been dropped by an individual sheep under observation. Each pellet group was placed in individual envelopes and labeled with the bighorn's name and date of collection. Samples were then air-dried and stored until they could be analyzed in the laboratory. The Baermann funnel technique was used to determine the lungworm larvae per gram of feces. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Two treated adult ewes and two untreated ewes, a yearling and an adult, were monitored through the winter and spring. No effects of Tramisol on larvae output are evident (Table 1). Table 1. Larvae output in treated and untreated Hills Experiment Station, 1971-72. Pre-treatment Date Collected bighorn sheep, Little Larvae Output (larvae/gm. feces) and Post-treatment Adult Ewe Adult Ewe Adult Ewe Yearling Ewe (Boss) (Smoky) (Mom) (Blackie) 11-5-71 11-15-71 11-16-71 11-29-71 147 204 12-11-71 12-12-71 12-13-71 12-14-71 12-18-71 12-19-71 12-20-71 12-21-71 12-30-71 58 42 treated 142 128 32 244 12 131 0 20 52 36 25 41 10 21 26 151 22 treated 2 170 159 42 14 45 56 84 1-6-72 1-13-72 1-27-72 40 103 10 245 113 234 2 39 2-5-72 2-14-72 2-29-72 59 230 60 27 128 133 222 387 153 16 43 65 81 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-113- Table 1. Larvae output in treated and untreated Hills Experiment Station, 1971-72 (continued). Pre-treatment Date Collected sheep, Little Larvae Output (larvae/gm. feces) and Post-treatment Yearling Ewe Adult Ewe Adult Ewe Adult Ewe (Boss) (Smoky) (Mom) (Blackie) 3-4-72 3-5-72 3-6-72 3-7-72 3-8-72 3-9-72 3-10-72 3-13-72 3-14-72 3-15-72 3-16-72 3-18-72 508 290 153 49 18 86 1 61 230 81 123 36 112 153 24 33 105 186 5 4-5-72 4-17-72 4-19-72 13 5-13-72 bighorn 177 66 122 102 176 64 265 205 25 16 41 67 16 35 32 21 5 27 51 32 27 77 38 4 59 33 0 8 34 There are several possible reasons for the poor results. (1) Inactive or irregular quality of commercial Tramisol preparation, (2) Refractivity of lungworms to Tramisol, (3) Inability of Tramisol levels (8 mg/lb. B.W.) to penetrate lungworm lesions in adult sheep, and (4) Experimental errors such as improper administration or collection of fecal pellets from wrong sheep. Pr epared by __ -;::/.:..~_.:...._:'/'_L.,f~/::,.'~_~_:....<_'_/_~-_~_'.A_/ __ George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher ��January, -115- JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO No. W-4l-R-22 Bighorn Plan No. 1 Job No: Job Title Period Mineral Covered: Personnel: November William & Mountain Goat Investigations 19 Block Experimentation 1, 1971 to April H. Rutherford Sheep 30, 1972 and Dale W. Stahlecker ABSTRACT . . Two separate brands of range livestock mineral blocks, the Moorman Special Range Mineral Block and the Carey Range-Min Block, were placed on bighorn sheep winter range at Tarryall and Georgetown. Usage of these blocks was noted by observation and by periodic weighing of the blocks. Loss of weight due to weathering was assessed by the use of controls. The CArey block, containing about 50 percent salt (NaCl) , was invariably selected by bighorn sheep in preference to the Moorman block, which contains only about 20 percent salt. Blocks placed in sites where sheep naturally move received the most use, and blocks placed in well-drained sites showed the least deterioration by weathering. 1973 ��-117- MINERAL BLOCK EXPERIMENTATION William H. Rutherford Previous attempts to improve the welfare of bighorn sheep by providing mineralized salt blocks have indicated that such dietary supplementation has a place as a management technique, and should be continued. Hopefully, studies of nutritional needs and deficiencies on bighorn sheep range will eventually provide information on precisely what elements need to be supplemented, and in what proportions. At the present time, however, it appears that mineralized salt blocks standardized by the livestock industry for general range use offer the best available source of supplementary minerals. It was recognized that information on acceptance and use of such blocks by bighorns, and on efficient location and placement of blocks, was lacking. The study reported here is thus limited in scope to an investigation of acceptance, use and placement, and is intended only to provide guidelines for efficiency in providing supplementation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To assess factors involved in use of mineral blocks by bighorn sheep. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine relative by bighorns. 2. Determine rate of use of mineral 3. Determine best location preference of various mineral block formulae blocks by bighorns. and placement of mineral blocks. METHODS AND MATERIALS Materials consisted of mineralized salt blocks from two separate manufacturers, Carey and Moorman. Initially, it was intended to test several different mineral block formulations, but limitations on availability dictated that the standard range mineral block supplied by each of these two manufacturers would be the only two that could be tested. The major differences between the two blocks are that the Carey Range-Min Block contains from 50.0 to 53.0 percent salt (NaCl) while the Moorman Special Range Mineral Block contains only from 17.5 to 21.0 percent salt; and the Moorman block contains from 15.0 to 18.0 percent calcium while the Carey block contains only from 7.5 to 9.0 percent calcium. Levels of other minerals, particularly the trace elements, are approximately equal in the two blocks. �-118- Blocks were placed in several dissimilar types of terrain on two separate bighorn sheep winter ranges during the winter of 1971-72. Generally, the various locations consisted of open rocky ridge-tops, open flat areas, timbered or brushy hillsides, and bottoms of small watercourses, all of which showed past usage by bighorns. In addition, a location was selected on each of the two ranges where blocks could be placed out of reach of all ungulates, but still exposed to weathering. Usage of the blocks was noted at frequent, but irregular, intervals by observers residing in the vicinity of the two winter ranges. Each of the ranges was visited four different times during the winter, and all blocks were weighed with a set of spring scales accurate to 1/4 pound. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Winter ranges in the Tarryall and Georgetown areas were selected as sites for this study. Both are easily accessible, and bighorn sheep are usually in full view of observers who travel the adjacent roads. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION According to some Wildlife Conservation Officers who have used the Moorman block at various times in the past, acceptance by bighorn sheep has been rather indifferent. In a few cases it would be lightly used, but typically the block could be placed where sheep would pass by it every day and it would not be used during an entire winter. Its main attribute seemed to be that it withstood weathering quite well. Accordingly, the Moorman block was used with some skepticism in this study, and was not placed at every location selected as a station. Rather, the Carey block was placed at every station, and after a period of use by bighorns, a Moorman block was placed next to the Carey block at the one station on each winter range that showed the greatest use. Usage of the blocks is presented as tabular data with comments in Table 1. Past experience has indicated that the higher the salt (NaCl) content of a block, the more attractive and palatable it is to bighorns, to the point that if bighorns are offered a pure white salt block they will use it to the complete exclusion of any mineralized block if a choice exists. Thus, it appears that if mineral blocks are to be of value in bighorn dietary supplements, the formula must be a compromise between salt content and mineral content. In the current study, when the sheep were offered a choice between a block containing approximately 20 percent salt and a block containing approximately 50 percent salt, the block with the lower salt content was not used at all even though it was situated next to a block which was used. The Carey Range-Min Block appears to offer the best compromise between acceptability and mineral content. Bighorns will use this block if it is the only one provided for them. �Table 1. Weights of mineral blocks placed on bighorn sheep winter ranges winter, 1971-72. Initial Weight, (Pounds) l2/13/7l Weight (Pounds) 1/29/72 Weight (Pounds) 2/19/72 Weight (Pounds) 3/25/72 North Control 50.25 50.00 50.00 50.00 South Control 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 Ute Creek West 50.00 49.00 47.50 Ute Creek East 49.50 49.00 47.50 46.75 ) )___ Used by approx. 12 sheep, no deer. 46.50 ) Hay Creek West 49.00 49.00 47.50 Hay Creek East Hay Creek East 1/ 49.50 50.00 48.00 50.00 44.50 50.00 47.25 ) )___ Used by approx. 20 sheep, no deer. Lf3.00 ) 50.00 Never used. Quartz Mine 50.25 50.25 50.00 49.75 Never used. Spruce Grove Upper 49.75 49.75 49.75 49.75 Never used. Spruce Grove Lower 50.00 50.00 50.00 49.75 Never used. Tarryall Townsite 49.75 49.75 48.75 48.75 Used some by deer, never by sheep 1/21/72 2/26/72 3/8/72 3/25/72 Control 50.00 49.75 49.75 49.75 St. George Upper 49.75 49.50 49.50 49.50 Never used. St. George Lower 50.00 48.75 46.00 44.50 Used by approx. 8 sheep, no deer St. George Lower 1/ 50.00 50.00 50.00 50.00 Never used. Block Location Comments Tarryal1 Range: Georgetown: 1/ - Moorman Special Range Mineral Block. All other blocks are Carey Range-Min Blocks. I t-' t-' 1.0 I �-120- Blocks placed on open rocky ridge-tops, and on open flat areas close to rocky escape cover, receive more use than blocks placed in depressions, brushy areas, or open flat areas away from escape cover. This simply corroborates what is known to be generally true regarding bighorn habitat preferences. In selecting locations for placing mineral blocks, it seems more logical to choose those sites to which sheep will naturally move, rather than attempting to use the blocks as attractants to less desirable locations, assuming that the primary purpose is to provide mineral supplements. If, in certain instances, it is desirable to use blocks for their attractant value (e.g., keeping sheep away from heavily-traveled highways) it would be better to use the plain white block than any mineral block. Finally, the observation that blocks placed on open rocky ridge-tops are not subject to deterioration from accumulated moisture is in order. In the current study, the control blocks were placed where drainage was perfect. No weathering or sloughing was evident during the entire winter period. In contrast, the block placed at the Quartz Mine in the Tarryall Range was situated where some moisture could collect. Even though never used, it lost a half-pound in weight during a three~onth period. Wildlife Researcher �January, -121. I JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-22 Work Plan No. Job Title 1 & Mountain Goat Investigations Sheep Job No. Collection Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn of Bighorn Lambs June 1, 1971 to September Robert L. Schmidt, 20 30, 1971 Gene G. Schoonveld and William H. Rutherford ABSTRACT Bighorn sheep lambs were collected from four separate areas in Colorado during 1971,and were turned over to the Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, for necropsy examination. Three' lambs and one yearling were collected on Buffalo Peaks, seven lambs were collected on Trickle Mountain, three lambs and one yearling were collected in the Sangre de Cristo Range and five lambs were collected on Pikes Peak. In addition, one lamb was found dead in the Sangre de Cristo Range. 1973 ��-123- COLLECTION William OF BIGHORN LAMBS H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect bighorn lambs as specimens to be done on outside contract basis. for necropsy study; such study SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Collect bighorn lambs at time intervals prescribed by contractual agreement from herds having a history of high lamb mortality, and from a productive herd to serve as a control. METHODS AND MATERIALS Bighorn lambs were collected by hunting them on foot on Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain, and from a helicopter in the Sangre de Cristo Range. Collection attempts using the Cap-Chur gun were unsuccessful. All lambs collected were taken with conventional firearms. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Bighorn lambs were collected on Buffalo Peaks, lying on the west side of South Park between Fairplay and Buena Vista; on Pikes Peak, lying just west of Colorado Springs; on Trickle Mountain, lying in the northwest part of the San Luis Valley between Saguache and Cochetopa Pass; and in the Sangre de Cristo Range, lying between the Wet Mountain Valley and the San Luis Valley in south-central Colorado. RESULTS Bighorn sheep collected during this segment are listed in Table 1, following. All sheep collected were turned over to the Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, for necropsy study by contractual agreement. The results of this study will be reported by the contractor as a part of the contract obligation. Prepared by ~~~~~~~~~~~~ William H. Rutherford Wildlife Researcher ~ �-124- Table 1. Bighorn sheep collected for necropsy study, 1971. Area Buffalo Peaks Trickle Mountain Sangre de Cristo Pikes Peak 1/ Found dead. Date Sex Age Weight (kg.) 6/16 F Lamb 12.5 6/29 F Lamb 9.0 8/10 F Yr1g. 38.6 8/23 H Lamb 28.2 6/17 F Lamb 4.8 6/30 F Lamb 11.5 7/27 F Lamb 20.0 7/28 M Lamb 23.0 8/19 F Lamb 27.3 9/3 F Lamb 19.1 9/3 M Lamb 26.0 8/26 M Lamb 12.71/ 8/28 M Lamb 8/30 F Yr1g. 49.0 9/2 M Lamb 14.6 9/2 M Lamb 18.2 9/13 F Lamb 21.0 9/13 F Lamb 19.0 9/16 M Lamb 17.3 9/16 M Lamb 14.0 ·9/16 M Lamb 18.2 �-125- January, JOB PROGRESS State of Work W-4l-R-22 Plan No. 1 Job Title Period REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~---------No. Project 1973 J~ Spontaneous Covered: Personnel: Bighorn July Sheep Goat Investigations CONTRACT ~. Diseases & Mountain in Bighorn Sheep 1, 1971 to June 30, 1972 Game, Fish and Parks: H. Rutherford, Robert Gene Schoonveld, E. Keiss. Robert L. Schmidt, William Colorado State University: J. L. Adcock and C.P. Hibler, Co-Principal Investigators; G. C. Solomon, Pathology; J. B. Parks, Virology; Harold Breen, Bacteriology; L. J. Rich, Hematology; R. E. Pierson, Clinical Pathology. ABSTRACT Twenty-two bighorn sheep (20 lambs and 2 yearlings) were presented to the Department of Pathology, Colorado State University for post-mortem examination and collection of tissues, fluids and contents. Weights of lambs (9F and 11M) ranged from 4.8 kg. to 28.2 kg. The two female yearlings weighed 38.6 kg. (#7) and 49 kg. (#11). Animals collected from the Buffalo Peaks and Trickle Mountain herds were in good to excellent physical conditioD. No severe lung lesions were observed until August 26, 1971. Ten of the eleven animals from the Pikes Peak and the Sangre de Cristo herds were diagnosed grossly as pneumonia of varying degrees as well as lungworm lesions. The female yearling (#11) from the Sangre de Cristo herd was in excellent condition although affected with lungworms. The Histopathological examination revealed few lesions in tissues except for the lungs. The bacteriological results suggested no consistent pattern especially for pathogenic bacteria. The hematological results were reasonably normal in hemoglobin, platelet, total protein and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration values. A wide variation existed in the blood cell counts and these should not be used for interpretation at this time. The virological results were revealing in that positive antibody titers against PI3 virus was demonstrated. The parasitological examination revealed that all animals had infections with Protostrongylus stilesi. Some had light infections, many were severe. A few sheep had light infections with gastrointestinal nematodes and coccidia. Transplacental transmission of lungworm was observed in a ewe from the Pikes Peak herd. Snails have been established in the laboratory, infected with Protostrongylus larvae, and experimental infections are currently in progress. Treatment of sheep with tramisol furnished inconsistent results. ��-127- SPONTANEOUS DISEASES IN BIGHORN SHEEP P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine causes, nature and effects of spontaneous diseases in Colorado bighorn sheep with particular reference to mortality in lambs, and study efficiency of chemotherapeutic agents on Protostrongylus in bighorn sheep. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #1 Obtain bighorn sheep from the commission in such numbers locations as indicated in procedures below. and from such Twenty-two Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep were collected for studies on lamb mortality and necropsied by the personnel in the College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences. A summary of these collections, including dates, sources of the animals, and gross necropsy findings are summarized in Table 1. Details are included in an appendix to this report. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Conduct chemical and necropsy examinations #2 of bighorn sheep. PROCEDURES 1. Live animals will be delivered to Colorado State University where they will undergo thorough clinical evaluation by veterinary personnel. Based upon the clinical findings the decision will be made whether to maintain the animal for further evaluation or subject it to postmortem examination. 2. Necropsy examinations of animals killed or dead when submitted will be conducted by a veterinary pathologist and will include gross and histologic evaluation of all organs and tissues as well as collection of appropriate specimens, as indicated, for nutritional, parasitologic, bacteriologic, virologic and toxicologic studies. �-128- Table 1. Summary of necropsy findings on 22 bighorn sheep. Date Wt. (Kg.) Sex Area 1/ 1 6-16 12.5 F B.P. 2 6-17 4.8 F T .M. NVL 3 6-29 9.0 F B.P. NVL 4 6-30 11.5 F T.M. 5 7-27 20 F B.P. LWL 6 7-28 23 M T .M. NVL 7 8-10 38.6 F B.P. NVL yr1g. 8 8-19 27.3 F T.M. LWL 9 8-23 28.2 M B.P. LWL 10 8-26 12.7 M S.C. LWL+P 11 8-30 49 F S.C. LWL yrlg. 12 8-28 M S.C. LWL+P 13 9-2 14.6 M S.C. LWL+P 14 9-2 18.2 M S.C. LWL+P 15 9-3 19.1 F T .M. NVL 16 9-3 26 M T .N. LWL 17 9-13 21 F P.P. LWL+P 18 9-13 19 F P.P. LWL+P 19 9-16 17.3 M P.P. LWL+P 20 9-16 14 M P.P. LWL+P 21 9-16 18.2 M P.P. U1L+P 22 9-16 27.2 F RMPT. LWL+P Gross Lesions II - B.P.=Buffalo Peaks; T.M.=Trick1e Mt.; S.C.=Sangre de Cristo; P.P.=Pikes Peak; RMPT.=Rampart Range. l/NVL=No visible lesions except for gunshot wound and attendant pathology. LWL=Lungworm lesions. LWL+P=Lungworm lesions + pneumonia. �-129- RESULTS The only live animal delivered to the University was a 2 or 3 day old bighorn male lamb. This animal was captured at Pikes Peak on May 15, 1972. A complete clinical, bacteriological, parasitological and virological examination was conducted on this animal. Questionable results on the virological tests of nasal washings and the blood suggests that add i t Lona L tests are needed to clarify the initial results. Lungworms would not be detected before mid-July, 1972. If the animal is normal and' since it is needed in Meeker, Colorado in the semi-tame herd, it will be raised in captivity and eventually released in the pasture with the other animals. In the meantime, regular examinations will be conducted on this animal to obtain as much baseline data as possible. NECROPSY EXAMINATION The necropsy examinations revealed that the respiratory system was the one most commonly affected. No grossly visible lesions were obtained in four lambs (#1, 2, 3, 4) and one yearling (#7). For a brief summary, see -Table 1. The lesions in the respiratory (1) No visible lesions (2) Mild to moderate (3) Marked (WL) system varied: - 5 animals - 4 lambs (ffl, 2, 3, 4) - 1 yearling (#7) lesions - 7 animals - 6 lambs (#5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 16) - 1 yearling (#11) to severe lesions - 10 animals Mild to moderate lesions were characterized by: (1) Presence of lungworm nodules primarily surface of the diaphragmatic lobes. (2) Few to no microabscesses (3) Few to no yellowish Marked on the posterio-dorsal in lung parenchyma. to cream colored foci. to severe lesions wer e characterized (1) Fibrino-purulent (#10, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22) by: exudate in the pleural cavity. (2) Adhesions between lobes of lungs, between lobes and costal pleura, between lobes and the diaphragm and between pericardium and pleura. (3) Consolidation of lung tissue with a meaty texture and plum coloration especially in the ventral 1/2 to 1/3 of the lobes of the lung. �-130- (4) Purulent exudate expressed parenchyma. (5) Enlarged from the cut surface of lung and edematous bronchial (6) Granular appearance development. Summary of individual and mediastinal lymph nodes. of many lobes due to lymphofollicular necropsy examinations: #1 Female lamb approximately 21 days old. 12.5 kg. Buffalo Peaks. Excellent condition. No grossly visible lesions observed. #2 Female lamb. Youngest lamb collected. 4.8 kg. Trickle Mountain. Excellent condition. No grossly visible lesions. #3 Female lamb. 9.0 kg. Buffalo grossly visible lesions. #4 Female lamb. 11.5 kg. Trickle Mountain. grossly visible lesions. #5 Female lamb. 20 kg. Buffalo Peaks. Good condition. Few nodules observed on the posterio-dorsal surface of the right diaphragmatic lobe. #6 Male lamb. 23 kg. Trickle Mountain. nodules present on the posterio-dorsal lobes. #7 Female yearling. 38.6 kg. grossly visible lesions. #8 Female lamb. 27.3 kg. Trickle Mountain. Excellent condition. Several yellowish, circumscribed nodules (2-3 mm) on the posteriodorsal surface of both diaphragmatic lobes. Edema in bronchial lymph nodes. #9 Male lamb. 28.2 kg. Buffalo Peaks. Good condition. Several elevated nodules (1 to 4.5 mm) on the posterio-dorsal surface of the diaphragmatic lobes. Whipworms present in cecum. Mesenteric lymph nodes moderately enlarged. #10 Male lamb. 12.7 kg. Sangre de Cristo. Very poor condition. Rough hair coat. Enophthalmus. Fibrino-purulent exudate in pleural cavity. Adhesions between ventral one-half of lobes and costal pleura. Mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes enlarged. Ventral portions of all lobes consolidated with a meaty plum colored texture. Numerous nodules posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes and intermediate lobe. Microabscesses present. Adhesions between Peaks. Excellent condition. Excellent No condition. No Excellent condition. Few surface of the diaphragmatic Buffalo Peaks. Excellent condition. No �-131- diaphragm and diaphragmatic lobes; also between pericardium and pleura. Mesenteric nodes enlarged. Small thymus. Peyer's patches of ilium dark red. Fluid in tarsal joints. Purulent exudate in frontal sinuses. #11 Female yearling. 49 kg. Sangre de Cristo. Excellent physical condition. Post mort5n autolysis very marked throughout. Nodules present on posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes. #12 Male lamb. No weight. Sangre de Cristo. Poor condition. Adhesions of right diaphragmatic and cardiac lobes to costal pleura. Adhesions of cardiac to apical lobe. Purulent exudate expressed from cut surface. Hilar lymph nodes edematous. #13 Male lamb. 14.6 kg. Sangre de Cristo. Poor condition. Adhesions between lobes of lung and costal pleura. Ventral 1/2 of right diaphragmatic intermediate, and cardiac lobes consolidated and meaty in texture. A large abscess was present in right apical lobe. #14 Male lamb. 18.2 kg. Sangre de Cristo. Poor condition. Rough hair coat. Thymus very reduced in size. Hilar lymph nodes hemorrhagic and edematous. Adhesions of liver to diaphragm (1-2 rom) consisted of a capsule and reddish colored fluid within the capsule (a cyst). Adhesions between apical lobes and costal pleura. Ventral ~/3 or all lobes we re consolidated, meaty and plum colored in texture. Purulent exudate was expressed from the cut surface of the lung tissue. Small granular wh Lte foci (0.5 mm to 1 mm) were present t'':-rroughout the consolidated areas. Posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes contained several circumscribed and organized yellowish foci. fi15 Female lamb. 19.1 kg. Trickle Mountain. Excellent condition. Large thymus. Few elevated nodules on the posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes. #16 Male lamb. 26 kg. Trickle Mountain. Good cond it Lon , Few elevated nodules on pos t.er i o+doz sa.L sur f ace of di2pl'1rag~tlatic lobes. Two microabscesses in dLaph r agrnat Lc lobe. #17 Female lamb. 21 kg. Pikes Peak. Fair condition. Fibrin tags and adhesions from borders and edges of all Lob es to the costal and diaphragmatic pleura. Ventral 1/3 of all lobes were consolidated ~ meaty in texture and p Lum colored. Purulent exudate was expressed from cut surfaces. Hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes were enlarged and edematous. Several elevated nodules were present on the posterio-dorsal d i.aphr agmat.Lc lobes. Hucoid sinusitis of frontal sinuses. Kidneys 'were pale, mottled, and contained dark pigment. I· �-132- #18 Female lamb. 19 kg. Pikes Peak. Fair condition. Fibrin tags and adhesions between lobes and costal pleura. Ventral 1/3 of all lobes were consolidated, meaty in texture, and plum colored. Purulent exudate expressed from the surface. Hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes were enlarged and edematous. Elevated nodules were present on the posterio-dorsal surface of the diaphragmatic lobes. Mucoid sinusitis of frontal sinuses. Kidneys were mottled and pigmented. Milk curd in abomasum and rumen was full. #19 Male lamb. 17.3 kg. Pikes Peak. Good condition. Rough hair coat. Curds of milk in abomasum. Pebbles in rumen which was full. Palatine tonsil enlarged. Hilar lymph nodes edematous. Elevated nodules were present on posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes. Ventral 1/3 of right cardiac lobe and right apical lobe consolidated with a meaty texture and plum coloration. Lymphofollicular development marked. Opacity of left lens. #20 Male lamb. 14 kg. Pikes Peak. Very poor condition. Milk curd in abomasum. Pebbles and vegetable matter in rumen. All lobes of both lungs consolidated, meaty in texture, and plum colored. Numerous granular greyish-white foci (lymphofollicular nodules) present throughout the consolidated areas. Numerous elevated nodules and microabscesses were present on the posteriodorsal surface of the diaphragmatic lobes. Hilar lymph nodes were enlarged and edematous. Purulent exudate was expressed from cut surfaces of lung tissue. #21 Hale lamb. 18.2 kg. Pikes Peak. Very poor condition. Chewing lice present around penis and testicles. Ventral 1/2 of all lobes grey in appearance. Lobules demarcated by these granular areas. Adhesions between lobes of the lung and costal pleura. Purulent exudate expressed from cut surface. Several elevated nodules were present on the posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes (4-5 rom). Mediastinal, tracheal, and hilar lymph nodes enlarged. Healing fractures of ribs #8 and 11. Pleura thickened. Mesenteric lymph node enlarged. #22 Female lamb. 27.2 kg. Rampart Range. Good condition. This animal was observed the day before it died walking very slowly and in a lateral motion. It was found dead the following day. The hair coat was smooth. Autolysis was extensive. Blood colored fluid present in thoracic cavity. Few nodules on posterio-dorsal surface of diaphragmatic lobes. Ventral 1/3 of all lobes were dense, meaty, and plum colored. Purulent material could be expressed from the cut surface. Abscesses were present in the right apical and intermediate lobes. �-133- Summary and interpretation of gross findings: Weights of lambs ranged from 4.8 kg. to 28.2 kg. The yearlings weighed 38.6 kg. (#7) and 49 kg. (#11). The animals collected from the Buffalo Peaks and Trickle Mountain herds were in good to excellent physical condition including the two collected from Trickle Mountain September 3, 1971. The two yearlings (#7 from Buffalo Peaks and #11 from Sangre de Cristo) were in excellent condition. The four lambs from the Sangre de Cristo range were in poor condition while only two of the six lambs (#20 and #21) from the Pikes Peak and Rampart Range were in poor condition. Milk curds were present in the abomasum of many lambs including #20 which was collected from the Pikes Peak herd September 16, 1971. The rumen of each, except #2 which was still on a milk diet, was full of plant material. Hair-balls in the abomasum and small pebbles in the rumen were observed in several lambs. No severe lung lesions were observed until August 26, 1971 at which time a male lamb (#10) was found dead in the Sangre de Cristo area. Of the eleven animals collected from the Sangre de Cristo (5) and Pikes Peak or Rampart Range (6) herds each of the lungs contained nodules in the posterio-dorsal area of the diaphragmatic lobes. In addition, all animals except the yearling from the Sangre de Cristo area (#11) had a severe pneumonia in the pendant (lower) portions of the lung. This varied from the ventral portion of a single lobe being affected to a large percentage of all lobes affected. The gross characterization of the affected lobes was dense, meaty and plum colored, accompanied by numerous foci of small granular greyish-white areas believed to be lymphoid follicles. Purulent exudate could be expressed from the cut surface of the lungs from several animals. In those from which no exudate could be expressed the changes were suggestive of a "viral" pneumonia. VIROLOGICAL Virus isolation attempts: Thus far, thirty different tissues from six animals (71 BHL - 13, l4~ 15. 19, 20, 21) were inoculated onto bovine embryonic kidney. bovine emb ryorrLc Lung and lamb kidney tissue cultures. Three blind passages were made from all Lno cu Iums . All results were negative. Serology: anti PI3 71 BHL 5 7 17 18 19 20 1:4 1:8 1:4 1:64 1:16 1:8 72 BHL 1 2 0 0 anti IBR 0 0 0 0 0 0 anti Bluetongue 0 0 0 0 0 0 �-134- Tissue Culture Initiation--A bighorn lamb foetus was collected aseptically and primary tissue cultures were started from heart, lung, adrenal, thyroid, spleen and kidney. All tissues are presently in their fifth passage and still growing well. Early passages of each tissue have been frozen and should supply cells for at least one year. Most primary cells show spontaneous degeneration at about the third passage. These cells have already been passed long enough to classify as cell strains and there may be a possibility of establishing a cell line (infinite subpassage capacity) from one or more cell types. All of the bighorn lamb cell cultures except heart are very susceptible to the strain of PI3 isolated from the Wyoming bighorn herd. The virus exhibits a more marked cytopathic effect and grows to a higher titer in the bighorn lamb tissue than it does in the domestic lamb lung which was used for the initial isolation. The bighorn lamb tissue cultures may be an excellent isolation attempts. substrate for future Significance of Findings--The negative results encountered in viral isolation attempts from improperly collected field tissue and the positive isolations from usable field tissue stresses the importance of proper procedures for collection of material and the uselessness of indiscriminate wholesale sampling, without correct equipment. Serological studies indicate a widespread (85%) incidence of exposure to PI3. The absence of antibody titers to IBR and bluetongue may mean that these diseases do not occur in bighorn sheep in this area, but the small number of serum samples must be taken into consideration. A large number of serum samples might be more indicative. The isolation of PI3 virus from the sheep at Sybille substantiates earlier indirect (serologic) evidence that PI3 viral infections occur in this species. At the time of their capture, 4 sheep had HI titers to PI3 virus, which indicates that the virus was not acquired from adjacent animals while in captivity. After 1 month in captivity, all sheep had HI titers to PI3 virus. The close confinement might have precipitated the spread of PI3 virus from sheep that were infected in their natural habitat to the remainder of the flock while in captivity and the PI3 virus, isolated from 3 of the sheep, could have contributed to the deaths of all 10 sheep. The isolation of PI3 virus indicates that bighorn sheep are definitely capable of supporting infection with this agent. Parainfluenza-3 virus has been isolated from domestic sheep and has been shown to cause experimental virus pneumonia in domestic lambs. The next area of investigation should be the role that PI3 virus plays in the pneumonia complex of bighorn sheep. �-135- The initiation of tissue culture cells from the bighorn lamb fetus may provide a substrate that is mere Se~sitive ror the isolation of additional viral agents. It also provides an in vitro method for testing the susceptibility or bighorn sheep to various viral agents. If bighorn cells in tissue culture are susceptible to a virus, it is likely that the animal will be susceptible also. BACTERrOLOG reAL Procedure: Swabs and/or tissue were inoculated (a) thioglycollate (b) agar plate media into (onto); broth (1) B+ (Blood agar) (2) EMB (eosin methylene blue) (3) BG (brilliant green) (4) NaAz (sodium azide - crystal violet) After inoculation, the tubes I/leTeincubated aeriobically at; 37°C and plates were incubated at 370C under aerobic, CO2 and anaerobic environments (complete replicate sets of inoculated media for each of the environments). Readings and re-inoculations were carried on as follows: (a) Thioglycollate broth tubes - after 24 hours incubation, were re-inoculated onto the respective plate media and incubated under the three different enviro~ments for 24 more hours and read. (b) The direct inoculations onto the plate media (all 3 environments) were incubated at 37°C for 48 hours, read, reincubated for 24 hours and read again. (c) Reading consisted of observing gross morphology, pigment, hemo Iy t Lc pattern and other distinctive, recognizable. identifying colony characteristics and gram staining. (d) Where indicated for purposes of typing (or process of elimination) recognized biochemical tests were run (i.e. iron milk, sugars, etc.) and/or serological tests using Salmonella polyvalent 0 anti sera. �-136- Interpretations of Findings: Of all the specimens sampled, assuming that all external contaminants were eliminated, the samples where various bacterial growth would be expected are: abomasum, eyes, intestine and nasal cavity; the other tissues in healthy, disease-free animals routinely reveal no growth unless there is a localized bacterial infection or a systemic bacteremia, or depending on interval between death and necropsy, agonal invasion and spread. The most consistent and most widespread bacteria were Staphylococcus (nonhemolytic) and Alpha Hemolytic Streptococcus (Table 2). Ordinarily, unless associated with suggestive tissue changes, these organisms would be considered questionable pathogenic significance. The Bacil~us species (practically all~. subtilis) are common environmental inhabitants. The finding of Clostridium perfringens and!. coli in the gastrointestinal tract is considered normal in many or most ruminants. The V = unidentLfied coliform mostly was classed as a non-lactose ferment or that was negative on the Salmonella polyvalent 0 anti serum test; its significance is not evaluated, but noted that it appeared in 11 of the composite summaries (samples) (!. coli appeared in 10); 9 of these composite summaries (samples) had both !. coli and the unidentified coliform, while!. coli appeared one time without it, and the unidentified coliform appeared twice without !. coli. Of the other organisms found, a diphtheroid (Corynebacterium) was found once, Proteus once, Pseudomonas three times, Gamma Streptococcus once. Only the Pseudomonas and/or Proteus would ordinarily be incriminated, if lesions or infection (i.e. cystitis or nephritis) were present. As is commonly found in domestic animal (bacterial) disease study, the presence of various bacteria at varying levels are not considered significant primary etiologic agents. However, should there be other initiating causes of localized tissue or systemic pathology, many bacteria can and do act as secondary invaders and are associated with various lesions and disease entities. HEMATOLOGY Hematologic Table 3. data obtained from the lambs collected in 1971 are presented in A total of eight complete hematological examinations were made. Six partial examinations were made and no samples were collected from seven animals. From one animal (#7), only serum was available (Table HI). All serum samples were given to the virologist and the results are included in his report. Hematologic values determined from the field collections are difficult to assess. All except two (#7 and #11) are lambs and it is difficult to determine the true variation between lambs of different ages and sex and the difference between lambs and adults. It appears that the hemoglobin value falls within or close to the range of values determined by Franzmann (1971) on captive and wild adult bighorn sheep except for animal #4 with a value of 9.3. of �Table 2. Summary of B= Bacillus Bacteriological s p . ; C= Clost. p= Pseudomonas sp.; findings. :=..= Corynebacterium perfr.; S= non hem. staph.; ~= alpha s p . ; E=J;. strep; N"" no growth; colLi G>=~mma strep.; @=protein; U= undetermined BHL if 1 Specimen Abomasum Blood Brain Cerv, 2 3 4 I I l 6 C E S B C E 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 E s C . 1\ S B E s B Co~oosite I B C N s B N Summar E S s S s U s N i & CNS 5 s s s s N I s TI N S I l·~ I , I N I ~ w Eye(s) I N t: S Intest. Joints S S I , I 1 S s B C E I\' E F N B E E B s s B S s E B C E s s 1; 1\ C s C B s S 'IT U S 1\' IT 'IT u s E U U N N s S Ki.dney i N K N (j?) S S S s s Liver , I N N N N S S S N s U B E B B S U E P i B E N S S I B C E S s U E N S s U B E New @l U I N ~ I P U S I B E N P U S U s S TI , -----------------------------------------------------------------------------_._---------------------- o@u " I �Table 2. Summary B= Bacillus sp.; p= Pseudomonas of Bacteriological C== Clost. sp.; findings S:..~.= Corynebacterium perfr.; S== non hem. (continued). staph.; ~== alpha BHL Soecimen , 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 E.o::J;. _coIL; N" no G> "" gCimma s trep.; strep; N S s Lymphnodes S B N N cavity @==protein; U== unde termined -if 10 11 12 13 l!t 1516 17 18 19 20 21 E N B N S s - G) ~ B s s U B S B B B s E EP Ep U -sU SsU Ss S S U Hesentery Nasal growth; Co~posite E S ~ E S s B E s B P s s E - pancreas N s U s - U U IB E N P S S U IB N S s U E P S N N B s U B 00 I N Peritoneum N N B B N N N U S S s S s B E s S s S s s - - Urine I s I N E s s S s c N N B s U I N N -s w N N U N N Spleen s !-' N Pericardium Trachea S1.llr'J:\arv i I Ss Lung 2 sp.; S s - s U S s U B E N S s U B s U IB c E S s U IN �/ Table 3. Hb Hematological data obtained from bighorn sheep lambs examined in 1971. Platelets Total Protein PCV (MCRC) )~ % 53 6.3 OK 18 28 8.0 OK 10.1 40 5.3 OK 13.5 27 4.6 OK 9.3 43 5.0 OK 5 15.2 43 4.7 OK 6 15.2 7 only serum available 6.3 41 8 15.0 6.3 41 9 15.0 10 no blood sample (lamb was found dead) 11 no blood sample 7.6 46 12 16 5.5 53 13 19.4 14~8 6.1 38 14 13.2 5.5 32 15 no blood sample 16 17 18 no blood sample 19 clotted - no determination 20 21 clotted - no determination 22 no blood sample 1 2 3 4 Hb 1 RMBR l8.1±3 29 3. 7 29 29 29 29 WBC Segs (103) 4.1 30 7.6 3.2 5.4 23 23 27 27 25 84 35 40 Lymphs 16 70 61 60 7.6 42 39 2.0 2.5 too few cells 40 58 61 39 2.7 28.5 Bands 16.9 3.2 0.87 Total Protein PCV + 6.5~L5 + 45.2-6.6 Eosinos 1 3 57 56 71 23 cells disintegrated cells disintegrated too fe,v cells 71 Monos 23 2 4 2 \0 I 6 WBC 6.4-11.7 54-56 3.1±10.6 18-22. 2 Stone Sheep 1, Franzmann~ Albert W. 1971. Comparative Physiologic Values in Captive and Wild Bighorn Sheep, ;!.. \-lilctUfeDis., Vol. 7:105-108. 2. Franzmann, Albert W. 1971. Physiologic Values of Stone Sheep, ;!.. Wildlife Di.s , , Vol. 7 :139-141. i'HCRC :::. mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, which is the relationship between Hb in mean corpuscular volume in cubic microns (%). Reduced in microcytic anemias, iron deficiency, and chronic blood loss. I t-' W �-140- Total protein values are rather consistent and agree generally with values determined by Franzmann (1971).· The packed cell volume (PCV) except for animals 1/2, 1/4, and 1/15 appear to be acceptable. The mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCRC) is consistent and suggests that there is not microcytic anemia, iron deficiency, or chronic blood loss. The complete blood count (CBC) is the most inconsistent and difficult to evaluate. The white blood cell count (WBC) varies so much that additional samples under more ideal conditions should be collected. The very low white blood cell counts in animals 1/8, 9, 12 and 15 mayor may not be significant. The high WEC for animal 1/13 is not reliable since many cells were disintegrated prior to counting. The variation in the numhers of neutrophiles and lymphocytes and the ratio between them is too great to evaluate accurately. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1/3 Survey bighorn sheep for the incidence of infection and level of infection with ectoparasites and endoparasites and evaluate the significance of these parasites on the health and well-being of the animal. PROCEDURE After the pathologist had examined the lambs, and obtained all the tissues, cultures, etc., they were then examined for ectoparasites and endoparasites. Lungs were opened and the air passages examined for Protostrongylus rushi; the parenchyma was examined for Protostrongylus stilesi. Following this examination, the lungs were finely chopped and placed in Baermann funnels for 24 hours to recover first stage larvae of Protostronglyus. The abomasu~, small intestine and large intestines were opened, the contents flushed . through screens, and examined for nematodes and tapeworms. In addition, fecal flotations were done on all animals to determine presence or absence of parasites. RESULTS The results of this examination are given in Table 4. None of the 23 lambs examined were infected with Protostrongylus rushi. All were infected with Protostrongylus stilesi. For an interpretation of the severity of infection, read pathology section (Segment Objective 1/2), and compare. Animals numbered 1, 7, 10, 12, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23 all possessed first stage larvae of Protostrongylus in numbers sufficient to be considered detrimental to the host. These numbers of larvae are indicative of a heavy infection with adult parasites. Animals 17 through 20 and 22 had extremely low infections with a species of Nematodirus not yet identified, and animals 7,11, 16 and 22 each had 2-7 �I ~ -141- Marshallagia marshalli. The numbers of both parasites were insignificant. Bighorn sheep #22 had a very low infection with Trichuris ovis. No other nematodes or tapeworms were found in these animals. All of the species of coccidia found in the lambs were very few in number. The range was 25 to 200 oocysts per grmn of feces, which consistutes an insignificant infection. Only one bighorn sheep lamb was infested with ectoparasites, animal had a few Linognathus sp., a suckling louse. and this �Table 4. Endoparasites found in lambs collected during 1971. Sheep Identification Protostrongylus larvae Nematodirus sp. Marshallagia marshalli 7lBHL - 1 ?lBI-IL - 2 7lBHL - 3 7lBHL - 4 19,937 Patent Lnfec t Lon' 43 300 - - E. crandallis E. arloingi 7lBHL - 5 7lBHL - 6 7lBHL - 7 16,333 - + 7lBHL - 8 71BHL - 9 71BHL - 10 71BHL - 11 1,699 2,120 151,515 2,748 - - E. faurei E. arloingi E. faurei - + ?lBHL - 12 7lBHL - 13 7lBHL - 14 71BHL - 15 71BHL - 16 71BHL - 17 14,092 2 ,117 5,250 1,596 1,560 9,998 - - + + - 71BHL - 18 6,333 + - 71BHL - 19 17,575 + - 7lBHL - 20 401,750 + - 7lBHL - 21 337,500 - - 65,585 23,400 + + 7lBHL - 22 7lBHL - 23 l" . Eimeria species E. crandallis E. arloingi - Other - ~ ~ I - E. intricata E. iaurei E. faarei E. arloirtgi E~ arloingi E. faurei E. ah-sa-ta E. arloirtgi E. arloingi E. faarei E. crandallis E. faurei First stage larvae too few in number to obtain an accurate count. Trichuris ovis �-143- SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Elucidate the biological 114 cycle of Protostrongylus in Colorado bighorn sheep. PROCEDURE Establish a colony of land snails in the laboratory and expose these snails to infection with the larvae of Protostrongylus by placing larvae with the snails. Once snails are infected, and then infective (about 60 days later) they will be fed to domestic lmnbs. Domestic lambs with and without immune suppressant compounds will be used. Bighorn sheep lambs will be infected as known uninfected lmnbs become available at Little Hills Experiment Station. RESULTS Culturing Snail Intermediate Hosts During the past year, Vallonia pulchalla. a suitable intermediate host for Protostrongylus, was successfully established in the laboratory. They are cultured in four inch diameter glass fil1.gerbowls covered with a glass plate. The substrate consists of a coarse basal layer of sand covered with a fine sand surface. The sand is sterilized in an autoclave and is kept moistened by adding an eyedropper-full of water every few days. Condensation should not be allowed to accumulate within .. he dish or on the underside of the glass plate. Snails are fed a mixture of pulverized oatmeal mixed with calcium carbonate, ground calf-starter pellets or cottonwood leaves. Some mold growth can be expected but this appears to be acceptable to the snails in moderate amounts and, in fact, is eaten by them. Maintaining cultures in a cool (700F) fairly dark area is beneficial. Culture dishes may be changed every month or so. When cultures are initiated, many eggs will be deposited by the adult snails. It is best to transfer these adults to another culture dish to prevent cannibalism. Eggs will hatch in 14-21 days. Young snails can be maintained in nursery cultures until they reach maturity. about 3-4 months. We have had greater success in raising snails from eggs than we have had maintaining adults . collected in the field. This may be related to pathogens carried by ·fieldcollected snails, changes in feed, or age of snails. Infecting Snails With !,ung,.;rorin La·rvae Methods of successfully infecting snails in ·[he laboratory loped this past year. Excellent success has been obtained have been deve-' using two methods: The simplest method is to place infected pellets in a circle on sand contained within a culture chamber. He use 12-16 pellets from samples that have about .' . �-144- 100-300 larvae per gram of feces. Pellets are soaked in water for 5-10 seconds before being placed in a circle. Snails can be activated when placed in a drop of water. They are then put onto the pellets. If snails are reintroduced onto the pellets every half hour or so for 5-6 hours, infections of 1-8 larvae per snail will be obtained. The other method is more suitable for heavier infections. First stage larvae are collected from pellets suspended in a Baermann Apparatus. The supernatant is removed from the collecting tube and discarded. The remaining fluid contains the first stage larvae. This is placed on a glass plate. The fluid is then mixed with pulverized oatmeal, or a similar food and the result is a thin film of food containing first stage larvae. Snails are activated and placed on the plate. They become infected as they feed. The plate can be kept from drying by placing it upside down over a culture dish. This technique often produces undesirably heavy infections; consequently, it has not been used often. Infected snails become less active after they are infected and are much more subject to changes in culture moisture, humidity, temperature and food. They must be carefully attended. Often they become dormant but the larvae will continue to develop. This is a critical time and they must not be allowed to become too dry or too damp. After about three we.eks, black cuticles, characteristic of third stage infective larvae, begin to appear. In another two weeks larvae are ready for infection experiments. Infection Experiments A pregnant domestic ewe was fed 150 infective lungworm larvae by trickle doses over a four week period. This ewe subsequently gave birth to twin lambs. One lamb was sacrificed and the critical tissues (liver, lungs and lymph nodes) run through the Baermann Apparatus to check to transplacental transmission of the infective larvae. The ewe and her remaining lamb are being checked for evidence of infection. Feces are being collected biweekly and run through the Baermann Apparatus. The results of this experiment are not yet known. Similar infection experiments using bighorn sheep will be initiated at Little Hills within the next few weeks. The objective of these infections will be to investigate the possibility of Protostrongylus spp. as a triggering mechanism resulting in pneumonia. Transplacental Transmission of Protostrongylus ~. in Bighorn Sheep During the course of investigations into the causes of excessive lamb mortality among bighorn sheep in Colorado, a 9-10 year old pregnant ewe was collected from the Pikes Peak herd on May 16, 1972. The purpose of the collection was to obtain foetal tissues for use in tissue culture media, and to examine tissues for evidence of transplacental or transmammary transmission of Protostronglyus spp. �-145- A complete postmortem examination of this aclimal revealed that she was in excellent pLysical condition fOT a ewe ::::o·lected in early spring. Nodules caused by infection wid'! Protostrongylus stilesi wer-e evident in the diaphragmatic lobes of both lungs but these were few in number. No additional changes were detected. Following postmortem examination, two cotyledons, the mamma.ry gland, the, mesenteric, hilar and bronchial lymph nodes from the ewe; the mesenteric, hilar and bronchial lymph nodes f rom the foetus; and a Sill 11 piece of foetal lung from one d Laph r agma t i.c lobe (approxi-mately 5 x 50 rom) were Baermannized separately for 24 hours and examil'ceGf or Laxv ae of Protostrongylus ~. One third stage larva was recovered from the cotyledons, 11 third stage larvae from the foetal liver, and one from the foetal lung. Except for size, these 13 third stage larvae are morphologically identical to the infective larvae of Protostrongylus found in the snail host. Vallonia pulchella. They measure 532 to 606 microns long and 33 to 40 microns wide. Third stage from snails infected 33 to LW days previously average 505 microns long and 30 microns wide. The majority of the foetal lung was -USed for the tissue culture medium, and the remainder of the cotyledons 'were discarded; o t herwf se , a greater number of third stage larvae -might have been recovered. Post (personal communication) and a number of other inVestigators have excellent circumstantial evidence that P:cotostrongylus s p , was transmitted transplacentally; however, this is the first time that t-hird stage infective larvae have been isolated from the foetal tissues. Monson and Post (J. Parasitol., 1972. 58:29-33) have shown that infection of an animal can occur by ingestion of the third stage larva with the snail. Presumably, infection of the foetus occurs when the ewe eats infected snails, releasing the third stage to cross the placenta. SEGMENT OBjECTIVE Study the epidemiology of Protostrongylus If 5 in biglorn sheep. PROC:EDURES The epizootiology of Protostrongylus in bighorn sheep will be accomplished by the study of a herd of six semi-t:filr:e sheep in a 200-acre pasture at Lft t Le Hills Experiment Station. These sheep '(,]e:ce put in a clean pasture to establish a herd for future use. Lungteo rm larval output will be determined at bi-monthly intervals for each sheep. The date that lambs from these sheep begin producing larvae will also be determined. The longevity and dispersal �-146- of the larvae from sheep feces will also be determined. These data will be obtained by extracting and counting larvae f~om the feces and/or soil using the Baermann Apparatus. The species, number and distribution of snails will be determined, and the level of their infection evaluated by periodic collection and examination for lungworm larvae. RESULTS Monitoring Program Several hundred samples have been collected from the small herd of bighorn sheep at Little Hills and analyzed for lungworm larvae. At no time have parasite loads, as measured by larval output, been high. They have varied between 0 and 350 larvae per gram of feces during the past year (Table 5). Seasonal fluctuations occur, with the highest larvae output occurring in the winter; the lowest in the summer. Levels of infection appear to be stable. An uninfected ram was put into the pasture at Little Hills a year ago and he is still uninfected. Last year's lamb shows less than 20 larvae per gram of feces which is about what she showed last summer. These observations indicate that the sheep are not picking up infected snails from the range within the pasture. Intermediate Host Species The following land snails have been recovered from within the pasture at Little Hills: Oreohelix ~., Vallonia cyclophorella, Pupilla blandi, and Vertigo~. The last three of these snails were reported by Pillmore to be suitable intermediate hosts. Only a few of the snails collected have been alive and none of them have been infected. All of them, with the exception of Oreohelix ~., are rare in the pasture. Vallonia cyclophorella and Pupilla blandi are found widely in duff under oakbrush, pinon pine, and mountain mahogany or in moss that grows under sagebrush which grows in the bottoms of the canyons. Vertigo~. is found on grass roots and under rocks in moist, shaded areas in the bottoms of the ravines. �-147- 'Tab1e 5. Bighorn Date Smokey** 6/8"/71 25 6/9/7"J6/21/71 227 6/22/716/27/71 62 7/8/71 7/11/71 7/14/71 7/15/71 6 7/16/71 7/24/71 9 7/28/71 2 8/1/71 8/5/71 1 8/18/71 8/13/71 8/15/71-4 8/20/71 5 9/1/71 10/2/7,1 11 10/18/71 11/5/71 11/15/7132 11/16/71 - 11/29/71 244 52 12/11/71 36 12/12/71 25 12/13/71 12/19/71 42 12/20/71 14 12/21/71 12/30/71 45 1/6/72 245 1/13/72 113 1/27/72 27 2/5/72 128 2/14/72 133 2/29/72 290 3/4/72 3/5/72 3/6/72 3/7/72 3/8/72 3/9/72 3/10/72 3/13/72 3/14/72 ,'. &.~~'. *i;* Sheep Larval Mom 211 Monitoring Boss* B'l ack i e 19 14 37 (larvae/gm. feces) B1ondie>'<*>'< . Ram Lamb Program 13 31 171 0 80 12 35 0 0 130 0 4 199 22 8 12 8 106 30 11 67 51 233 128 12 131 41 10 151 56 84 23~' 2 222 387 153 177 66 20 20 10 31 23 17 31 3 66 11 24 45 8 21 59 70 147 204 7 8 10 21 22 16 6 12 59 lLf2 58 42 2 170 159 40 103 10 59 230 60 508 0 20 21 26 22 81 39 16 4·3 65 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 8 0 0 4·1 13 41 23 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 3 0 67 153 Boss given tramiso1 on 12/18/71Smokey given tramiso1 on 12/14/71. Blondie died on 12/14/71. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 5 2 0 0 2 2_ 9 T-I 1 1 17 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 0 1 2 0 �-148- Larvae Longevity on Range at Little Hills In early July, 1971, caged pellet groups collected from individual bighorn sheep were placed on the ground at various locations in the pasture at Little Hills. These groups were sampled periodically and have been analyzed for larvae levels since that time. Larvae, at the same level as when the study was initiated, are still being isolated from the pellets (Table 6). During most of the winter the pellets were encased in ice beneath 12-18 inches of snow. Temperatures reached 30 below zero. During last summer ground temperatures exceeded 110 degrees Fahrenheit and larvae were subject to severe dessication. Apparently, the larvae possess the ability to resist severe environmental conditions. Table 6. Larval longevity. July August 48.7 47.5 58.7 Ledges Slope Bottom Ledges Slope Bottom (All figures are larvae per gram of feces). Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Feb. 59 65.5 65.2 55 21 13 21.7 9.4 3.6 25.5 56 9 44 17 6.7 42.5 27.5 6.7 25 35.9 48.3 109.7 58.3 110 33.3 25.6 11.1 30.4 ·26 23 1.8 34.5 26.7 30 45.8 16 36.4 35.8 14 8.8 96.4 12.3 71.4 46 177 72.2 ·88.5 30 28.8 35.4 9.4 37.3 56.2 72.1 28.3 86.4 37.5 20 12.9 13.3 20 27.3 18.2 25.8 26.4 30.5 33.3 o 7.8 9.1 31.3 60 8 lost Boss Ledges* Slope ** Bottom*** Smokey Mom lost 12.2 Blondie Ledges Slope Bottom 6 6 6.9 12 13.3 *Ledges: Are the rock ledges found on the sides of hills in the pastures. They are the driest areas in the summer and are blown free of snow most of the winter. The pellets were under snow for 3-4 months. ** Slope: Forming the sides of the hills below the ledges. most of the winter but it is less snow than in the bottoms. *** Bottom: They hold snow Forms the ravines draining the pasture. During the winter these areas carry snow all of the time. In the summer these areas are the coolest and dampest parts of the pasture. Intermediate host snails are most easily found here. �-149- SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Develop a procedure for controlling 116 Protostrongylus in bighorn sheep. PROCEDURE I. I' Once the lungworm larval output for each sheep at Little Hills has been established, one-half will be fed a vermifage (Tramisol) known to have some efficacy against lungwonns. Reduc t Lon in lungworm larval output will be used to evaluate efficacy of this treabnent. If the compound proves effective, a means of administration will be evaluated using these animals. Background 1"°- •• Tramiso1 is a parasiticide, produced by knerican Cyanamid, and said to be effective against lungworm (Dictyocaulus) and many gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle. In this study it is noped that its efficacy against Protostrongyline infections of bighorn sheep ca.n be determined. George Bear has used it with some. success at Glenwood Springs where a dose of 2-3 mgm./lb. body weight suppressed larval output in bighorn sheep lambs for up to 12 weeks, in a yearling for about 5 weeks, and in an adult for 3-4 weeks. This study is a continuation of that effort. It is hoped that oral dosages, administered at a known level by gelatin capsules can be related to specific decreases in layval output. Also, it is hoped that the technique of an oral oblet, capsule or dosage at a known level can be utilized in bighorn sheep transplanting progrffiTIs.The next step is to incorporate tramisol into feed and to monitor its effects in treated sheep versus controls. Dosages with Tramisol--Earlier tre.atTIe~Ti:s at Glenwood Springs were made with an effective dose of between 2 2nd 3 mgl. tramisol/lb. body weight. This study was designed for delivery of a dose of about 8 mgm , effective tramisol/lb. body weight. Dr- Bergstrom of the Wyoming State Veterinary Service in Laramie says Drs. Tho:C!.l.e ar:.d. Harley have used this dose and higher ones up to 16 mgm , body we:::'ght in treating big}-,o';.l.!. sheep , The sheep selected for use in this study had Deen showing 12:cvae output greater than the other sheep. The following tables give a description of the treated (Table 7) and contro~ (Table 8) sheep and the dosages used for treated sheep. ns., Table 7. Treated sheep. 'I'r amf.so L Estimated Wt. Sheep Smokey Boss B10ndie Description ewe; 3 yrs. old ewe; at least 3 years ewe; yearling Dose (Ibs. ) (mgm. ) 180 1440 200 1600 1040 130 Highest Larval Output in Last Hanth (W!gm. feces) 244 204 40 �-150- The control sheep were those remaining in Table 8. Table 8. Descriptions of them are Control sheep_ Sheep Mom .·Blackie Ram Lamb sheep. Description ewe; ewe; ram; ewe; at least 3 yrs. yearling yearling lamb Estimated wt. (lbs.) Highest Larval Output ln Last Month (lllgm. feces) 180 233 140 130 90 21 The dosages were encapsulated in Nmaber 11 gelatin the Wyoming State Veterinary Service in Laramie. o 17 capsules obtained from Pretreatment Monitoring Program--In the past six months over 100 fecal pellet samples have been collected and analyzed for larvae level from this group of sheep_ These samples have been dried and stored in envelopes. Then a quantity of them is weighed, crushed with a mortar and pestle and suspended for 24 hours in a Baermann setup. The number of larvae collected in the collecting tube is counted and related to one gram of feces as a standard. It is recognized that this technique is not the ideal method of relating larvae output to infection level. No suitable substitute has been found. The monitoring program has established that larvae output in this group of sheep is quite low compared to other Colorado and Montana counts. Prior to treatment this group of sheep was more intensively monitored than it had been in the past months. Between Dec. 11 and 14 daily samples were collected from most of the sheep_ Table 5 shows the results of the monitoring program so far. Treatment Techniques--Treated sheep were tranquilized with 2 cc. of M-99 in a physiological saline carrier shot in a dart syringe from a tranquilizer gun. The tramisol was administered orally in a Number 11 gelatin capsule given by using a balling gun. Nasal swabs were taken and preserved for Dr. John Parks who is doing viral work on bighorn sheep. Each of the treated sheep were given 3 cc. of PDC, a penicillin-dihydrostreptomycin preparation, 1M in the rump. Each of the sheep was given 2 cc. of M 50-50, the antidote to M--99, IM in the rump when the work was completed. Each of the sheep, except Boss, was ear tagged for identification purposes. �-151- It was hoped that Tuesday, Dec. lL;, ';Jo-:.Jld be che day ';;JteI'" all the test sheep cou Ld be treated. OL odds <:1ey t'viO sheep, S;:,jOkeYa~'!.i BlancHe, ~.Jere treated. One of these sheep" Blo~cdie, diee:. This sheep -was more excitable and younger t han the 0'LheT ":_~JO _ ~est sheep 2'-"10 she was trea'c:ed under adverse conda t Lons iYl d2e~) s; __ (/v.l or; E.. s-;:c2:P side!-l.ill.. ;~{he Last test sheep was treated on Su~day> ~ec. IS. The two sheep r~naining show no ill effects and appear to De heelthy. Post-Treat':!ent Monitorin;;: ProgTeL.1--Af-i:er Ltce fi::st treatments {Dec. 1-4) the sheep were not coming down into the elfalfa field and would not let people approach. Since treatL"1g tll"" last sheep ~ Boss> (Dee. 18) they have been easier to approach a,-",:; f e ca L pellet samples have been collected (see 'I'ab Le 5).. The Tesul-ts o~E tl~.:.is -~~i-=-~ i~ldicate tl"1at Tr.arnisol does no t have any efficacy against =--,"-:C1.g\'lO~iTi in 2c-ult b Lgho-rri sheep. Dr" Thorne (Wyoming Game and Fish) a::1':: :Jy. Pc s z , in i:2.depenacLlt experiments obtained similar r e su.l t s , This failu:ce)l af-eel: past succes ses , cou l d be due to inconsistent quality cont rc i s he the p:coacct. �-152- ADDENDUM 1. General 2. Histopathological and Special Protocol (Bighorn 3. Histopathological of Tissues Description Investigations at the Northern from the 71 on the Epidemiology in Bighorn in Colorado. Wild Sheep Council Some Observations Sheep in Colorado. A report during April 1971 of "The Lungworm-Pneumonia A progress report sub- to the Commission. Isolation Sheep. from the 71 BHL Sheep) Collection. Park, Canada. mitted and/or Necropsy. of Lung Sections at Jasper National Complex" 6. for Examination Description Bighorn Lamb Mortality presented 5. REPORT Sheep) Collection. BHL (Bighorn 4. TO 1971 PROGRESS of Parainfluenza A publication Veterinary Medicine. 3 Virus from Rocky Mountain submitted Bighorn to the American Journal of �-153BIGHORN PROJECT 1971-72 Department of Pathology Colorado State University General Protocol Examination and/or Necropsy Drs. Solomon & Adcock Field Collection of Bighorn Sheep Dept. of G, F, & P Personnel 1 History i i W \I Live Dead 1 Field <:Necropsy CSU .- ...-- ...--- .------ . 1 , ! II 1 csu ,t Clinical Examination and Evaluation (Dr. Pierson) I I J .J./ MTCE ------- --'-....\ of Animal .:::>. r- Termlnatlon or / A' 1 nlma I Necropsy (G,F & P Dept.) ----~------~-----------.~----------------~(----~---------y--~ Virology (Hold Frozen) (Dr. Parks) Histopathology and Impression (Dr. Solomon) • Toxicology (Hr. Keiss) Smears ~ Bacteriology and Hycology (Dr. Breen) Parasitology (Dr. Hibler) / " 1 Assay (Mr. Keiss) Clinical ! Pathology j I (Dr. Rich) I j ~ Immunology (Dr. Larson) ��-155- Histopathological Description of Tissues from the 7lBHL (Bighorn Sheep) Collection Dr. G.C. Solomon ��-157 - BIGHORN Pl~OJECT 1971-72 DepaJCCiTLen'c of Pathology Colorado St az.e Urri.ver s Lt y The following individuals spective responsibilities diseases of b Lgho rn sheep 2.-::.3./or2ge::"1'::::les are listed with their reor -:o:ces L~ t.ne investigation of spontaneous il".. 201orado fr.:>m July 1> 1971 - June 30, 1972. Project Leaders - Dr s , Jer-:y Accodz a:.-1 Charles Hibler Field Collection of Bighorn S:-.ee? - DE:pt" of G&u.e>Fish & Parks Personnel Transportation of Animals to 2SU - :Jcp':::" of Came , Fish & Parks Personnel Clinical Examination and Evaluation - Dr Pf e r son , Dept. Clinical Science Clinical Pathology - Dr, Lon Ric~1.9 Dept. of Clinical Science Bacteriology and Mycology - Dr. Baro16 Ereen, Dept. of Pathology Virology - Specimens f:cozeu for iutu:ce study Parasitology - Dr. Hibler 9 Dep': _ of ?c:L:c:ology Histopathology - Dr. Solomon.> Dep;:, of Pathology Toxicology (selected) - "i'lr. Robe r t Reiss> DeV;:. of Game> Fish & Parks Assay (selected) - Mr. Robe'rc Reiss, D2f-t. of Came , Fish & Parks Immunology (selected) - Dr , Ke::-l Lar son , Dept , of Microbiology Photography - Mr. Pat H.::::Nar[~2:=c> De?t. or Pathology 0 �-158Bighorn Project 1971-72 Department of Pathology Colorado State University Special Protocol I. Field collection of Bighorn Sheep - Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks Personnel A. Complete history 1. Date, location, time of collection 2. Flock and site (area) observations B. Live or dead collection 1. Method 2. Time C. Photographs 1. Area 2. Individual lamb or adult 3. Flock II. Transportation of animals to CSU - Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks Personnel A. Method of transportation B. Time enroute C. Observations enroute III. Live animals A. Clinical examination and evaluation - Dr. Pierson L Physical examination 2. Complete records B. Clinical pathology - Dr. Lon Rich 1. Blood a. Smears - Thick and thin - save slides b. CBC c. Hemoglobin and hematocrit d. Platelet enumeration if indicated e. Sedimentation rate if indicated f. Parasites g. Bone marrow biopsy if indicated 2. Serum Serum sample will be divided"into two aliquots and frozen a. Icterus index b. Immunology - Dr. Ken Larson 1) Total protein 2) A/G ratio 3) Enzymes, ego SGOT if indicated 3. Urinalysis - routine 4. External lesions a. Scrapings b. Culture c. Biopsy for histopathology 5. Fecal specimens a. Parasites - Dr. Rubin b. Gross observations ? �-1:':9- 6. IV. Necropsy Cerebral - spinal fluid if i~Jicn:2~ Dr. Solomon If a Bighorn Sheep is to be t£:rminated following the clinical examination and evaluation, electrocution is tte mathod of choice. Dead animals transported to CSU \-1i2..1 be :,acr0psiec. as soon as possible after General arrival. A. 1. 2. 3. , 4. CompLet e ne c rc ps y xe c or ds by:.:rac'"scripc::'oI;' from tape recordings Piio t og r aph.i c equipment available ~ 11::. Pat Ik:Namara Equipment, supplies and re2.ge::ts for c0I:':plete necropsy a. Fixatives - Zenke rs ~ 5o,-~L~s, 3..."'lc. 10% buffered neutral fo rma Li.n , Unless 3~2'::i£i.2d~ 9.2.2..tissues will be Virology Samples selected f.or ·vir0~0g~c:s..l st~C2-2:S \-1:"11 be removed as soon as possible, pl2.cad ::..,_w~:irl-,?acks> labeled ~ and stored frozen at -JOe c. ao Routine co Ll.e c t Lcri L) Lung tissue ~ p2~ip~·~2~21 P\)=~i0:1. of e ach lobe (7) and 2 dorsal portions b. 2) FeCeS ~ ~aeco-colic ~~23 Other tissues if'indicaced 1) 2) 3) 4) Blood 5) Kidney Liver 6) 7) 5. Lymph nodas -- ~ila.r .and :1.1ese:rit2ric Sr.-leeL'Nerve 'Cissue: PO:cti0::1S of bYa.:i.n and spinal cord Joints and synovia Bacteriology and my co Logy Samples selected for bacteriological and mycological studies will be take::1 as soon as possible. Cauterization of the external surface w i.Ll. be emp Loye d and eseptic techniques for collectioc will be tol19wec. The presence of pathogenic ae r co Lc and ar.ae rob Lc bacte::i2.>::nyccplas~11a1 and fungal organisms' will be de te rmi.ne d , Pos i.t i.ve cul.t ures will be s aved for further study. =r0:2 each qces t i.onab Le lesion and/or tissue will be madcv 80 Ro u t Lne co Ll e ct.Lor; 1) Respiratory t r ac t ~ n as aL mucos a , Larynx, trachea , bronchi 9 Lungs 2) fillomasal contents 3) Sections of ileum b, Other t=-SSCleS if i"Ci3.:'C2t:2G. 1) Ly~ph nodes ~ hilar and mesenteric SDJec~1. 2) 3) spinal cord L) ) Bleod 5) 6) ~(idr~2y L:i:Ve:':- 7) Joints and synovia Co Mjcopl.u.S~·.-~2 r: :"J2.~gc: 2\Jab S~~')i..:ld:,)2 ',:JscC to suf f Lc Len t ma t e r i a L fo::: C\.:::";:::c::e,. Tl:'12: 2\;J.c.b s:_0uld be ~le2.d in the refrigerator cverll-:igh~ 0~ l(ept =::-oz~~':i£ cult~!'£.:1.g 'Wil:t.. be delayed beyond o'bta2.11 �-160- 12-18 hours. impression smears - covered with spraycite 1. Nasal and conj unctival mucosa 2. External lesions 3. Trachea and lung LI• Bone marrow 5. Spleen C. Integument and subcutis 1. Description of external lesions 2. Scrapings, cult ure, and spe cf.men for histopathology 3. Eyes a. Remove eyes, eyelids, and lachrymal apparatus. Remove as much of 'the optic nerve as possible so that the orbital rete is present l>. Trim orbital fat and conjunctiva. Leave rectus muscles attached c. Place eye and trimmed portion in Zenker's fixative for two hours. Dilute fixative 50/50 with tap water and maintain eyes for 2 hours. Wash overnight. The following morning place eye in 70% ethyl alcohol for 24 hours. Gross and cut eye, optic nerve, and trimmed portions. D. Cardiovascular system 1. Pericardial fluid - test for glucose and save for, culture 2. Blood - culture 3. Heart a. Anterior and posterior papillary muscles; left ventricular wall b. Right ventricle, atrium and pulmonary artery c. Coronary and aortic vessels d. Valves E. Lymphohemopoietic system 1. Spleen - samples for, impression smear, vt rologf.cal,and bacteriological studies, and histopathology 2. Lymph nodes and tiss ue a. Hilar and mesenteric especially b. Others - Peyer's patches 3. Tonsils a. Lingual or faucial b. Pharyngeal 4. Hone marrow - impression smear and sample for histopathology 5. Thymus F. Digestive system 1. Lips 2. Teeth - incisor and a portion of the mandible 3. Tongue - several sections 4. Soft palate - nasopharynx 5. Pharynx 6. Salivary glands 7. Esophagus 8. Stomach, intestine, caecum, colon, rectum, anus 9. Liver and gall bladder 10. Pancreas 11. Peritoneum B. �-161- G. H. 1. J. K. Rcspi.r a t o ry system 1. Nasal mucosa 2. Turhinates J. Larynx 4. Trachea and bronchi s. LW1gS - fixed in Bouin' s and fo rmalin i1. Peripheral section from each lobe (7) b. Dorsal portion from diaphragmatic lobe (2) 6. Pleura Musculoskeletal system 1. Df.aph r agrn and heavy musculature - gluteal region 2. Skelcton--' a. Calvaria 0. iZiglltfemur - wrapped in Saran l-]r.:;.f.; for Hr. Ke Ls a c. Left femur One half frozen; other half in formalin d. Lumbar vertebra 1) One wrapped in Saran Vlrap for Hr. Keiss 2) One half of a vertebra frozen; other half in formalin e. 'i'empo raI region to Ln cLude ear canal, middle and inner ear Open bulla slightly to permit penetration of fixative 3. Ligaments ) 4. Joints, tendons, and tendon sheaths i:l. Tarsal joints D. Antlanto-occipital joint Urogc:nit:al system 1. Urine for urinalysis and test stix 2. Kidney, ureters, large vessels 3. i\ Lndde r and tirethra Ii. CUil ;JUS, accessory glands ~ genitalia 5. rmmma ry glands and contiguous lymph nodes G. Fetus and placenta Endocrine system 1. TIlyroids and parathyroids 2. Adrcnals 3. 4. Pancreas 1. Brain a. Remove cornp Le tely and hcmt se c t , Place one half in formalin. From the other half remove sections from the medulla ob Loug a tLon , ce rel.eLl.um, nri d=b raf.n region and telecephalon for virological and bacteriological studies. Place remainder 2. Spinal cord Hcn i.n ge s Pituitary - remove pituitary in ~;itll with sphclloiJ 2nd other structures 5. Pineal ~ervous system .i.n f or'ma l Ln 3. 4", Pe r i.ph e ra I. rie xve <> SeC£lGTI from sciatic adjacent parts of �\ -162- Samples of tissues for histopathological examination were collected from different organs from all anatomical systems and from the majority of animals. Selected tissues were taken from animals which were markedly autolyzed. The most severe and consistent changes were observed in sections from lungs. These changes were characterized primarily by perivascular cuffing of lymphocytes, lymphofollicular nodules, lungworms, pleuritis, edema, the presence of neutrophils, hyperplasia of respiratory epithelium, healing lesions, and necrosis and/or abscesses (Table Ml). These changes seldom occurred singly. Perivascular cuffing (accumulation of lymphocytes around blood vessels) was observed in 20 of the 21 lung samples. Lymphofollicular nodules (group of lymphocytes) were observed in 19 of the 21 lung samples. In a normal healthy lung, these nodules are very difficult to observe. In the effected animals, the nodules were very obvious and randomly scattered throughout the substance of the lung section. The six animals in which lungworms wer-e not observed in tissue sections were from Trickle Mountain (4 of 6) and Buffalo Peaks (1 of 5). However, these results do not agree with the results of parasite recovery from the lungs by the parasitologist. Edema and pleuritis (inflammation of the thin membrane covering the thoracic wall, diaphragm, and lungs) were quite common and are considered to be reactive processes to the concurrent pathology in the lungs. The occurrence of healing lesions in 3 of 21 lung samples were characterized by the localization, death, and removal of parasites and cellular debris by macrophages. Necrosis or death of tissue and/or abscess formation in 3 of 21 lung samples was/ were suggestive of bacterial infection and the presence of neutrophils in the alveoli and bronchioles of several lung sections was probably related to the presence of bacteria. Major histopathological findings in lungs by geographic area is presented (Table M2). In several lung sections there were many areas characterized by the presence of numerous alveolar mononuclear cells (macrophages), thickened alveolar walls, and hyperplasia of bronchiolar epithelium. These areas were not directly associated with lungworm, bacterial, or necrotic lesions. These changes were similar to those described as "viral" pneumonia in other species and are suggestive that agents other than lungworm and bacteria may be involved. A complete narrative description is included in this report. of the histopathology for lung sections A histopathological summary of the examination of tissues except lung shows that the lymphatic system is the one most commonly affected (Table M3). It is difficult in young animals to determine the growth and maturation of the lymphatic system especially if these animals are exposed to an agent which causes the lymphatic system to respond. It seems that with the animals collected through July 10, 1971, the lymph nodes and spleen were not mature. These were compared with animal #7, a yearling, in which the nodes and spleen appear morphologically to be mature. Maturity or reaction of the lymph nodes and spleen were based primarily upon the appearance of the germinal centers. Immaturity was characterized by a deficiency of mature lymphocytes an~ rather well organized activity of immature lymphocytes and zones of maturation from the center of the germinal center outward to the periphery. A reactive node was characterized by not only a deficiency of mature lymphocytes but rather disorganized activity with no zones of maturation from the center of the germinal center outward to the periphery. �to ,I, , + + + + + .--.------_.- ...-- .•..• -I- + -1- -I ~ ••••. _. +. + '1- -" + •• + -I- i 1 ,1-, -I - - -." N CO \.0 I~ _._~ ~ I~j _ + 'I- .+ ••••• . ,lfl c: •• ~_ + 0 _._ + -I- + -._ + ••• + .- + + _-_ .. _. -_"_' + (j) o •••• •• + -+ y~_ of ...- __ l..,J N -...J co ~_ .•••_~_ , .. • .--_~ .1- + -+ ~ + + + I + ...• -.---,-------- --------~-----.+ + CO w -...J + . __ + _._~~~._..._ ._ .• -+ + •••••••••• -- + •• ,H ~ e ... tTj + + ••••• + + + + + + + + + I-' I-' .l>- o o VI . · . 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I-' \.0 N 1'.) -...J N 0 N f--' (Kg,) Autolysis Mineraliza t i.on Healing Necrosis or Abscess Epithelial Hyperplasia Pleuritis Edema Ne ut roph i.l.s Lymphoid Follicles Perivascular Cuffing Lun gwo rms Area Sex VIt. Animal No. o c; ::::l [j) OQ I-' '<: ti III ~ :::. c C{) o ,,'" o ){) '<: ::r' f"i· f" '0 (J r+ [j) /-'- ~{j f•••• \D -...J 1-" r+ o (\l w. '"0 Ii :::l o ~ ::r' 0tI /-'- /:).J . I-' ro ~ 0I-' >-'l OJ I W I 0\ .... �Table M2. Bighorn Project 1971. Lung Sections. FINDINGS Perivascular cuffing Lymphofollicular nodules Lungworms Pleuritis Healing Necrosis Histopathological findings by area - T .N. B.P. S. C. P.P. & RMPT. + + - + + 5 5 4 0 0 1 4 4 4 4 2 2 1 3 - 5 4 2 2 2 4 4 0 0 6 6 1 2 4 1 4 3 1 0 0 0 0 - 6 0 6 0 6 0 6 0 3 3 1 5 I I-' (j'\ T.M. = Trickle Nt. B.P. = Buffalo Peaks RMPT. = Rampart Range s.c. :::: Sangre de Christo P.P. :::: Pike's Peak +' I �I-' N Iv 0 Iv -.J (,.l .J>- , 0 0 \.0 I-' 0 I-' N -.J ~ '"'" 7' ~~ I':Ij 1'Ij '< ...." ,•...) t"Xj . ~s: N I-' I-(J , "J I'D rei , rJ "0 . '1:i I--d ,. IQ ti:J e )-.7" ..-;., , -- .. -----~ ~s: ,H 0 -.J , I-' N I-' 0 ~ ~ CJ Cfl (') [j') Cfl (') ,Cfl 0 . .. . . .. ~ ro , e t.d '<' •..... ---'--.~-----"'''''--'-'--"''---'''-''-''''''''''''-~-~--''~--''-'-'- (') VJ , I':Ij N CXJ V-> CXJ ....r + ~ , , t.d "xj 0'\ . .ro H >Tj l,o) '-..J N CXJ ~ o e H ~ 0 N V-> 0> N 0 V1 + ._. + + t-O + + _I-'--.-~' •.-·, . + ,__ + •• ~ -I- + _ ~_~ + ..--------.------------~--------.- ______ + + ." ." + + -I- + (l) I'i ru + + q--------------_. (I) (fJ + + '< + CfJ I-'----,,-~---(I) .J>- N I-' N I-' H I':Ij V1 t.d I':Ij 0 I"'~ I':Ij CXJ b:J J-rj V1 + .•.. ---_. + ~ I Sex I Wt. ,::£: '0 No. (Kg.) I Animal .. + + ~. + + + Kidney + X (1) t:d >-0 Eosinophiles I Thymus I Eyes Inclusion-like bodies in lymphatics Nematodes Other tissues t-i '<! Ul (1) c CfJ CfJ 1-" rt 1 ~ III CfJ I-' III o 1-" OQ 0 I-' 0 ::r' r+ '0 pJ 0 r+ CfJ ~ r" I-' -.J I...• 1..0 r+ (') (D w. 0 t-i ::l 0 t"i :.T 1-" ()Q Nematodes in Lymph nodes ()Q ::l I-'V-> ~ (1) t:: I-' (1) o- 1--'3 III '0 rt (') Liver ~-=1 .. ---- Heart Spleen Reactive Lmma t ur e :~::~ve Immature Lymph nodes -. Lymph nodes +-=------_ + + , "d ----.-------------.-~----------....- I-' () .. r+ r.: ~> ..-.----- ..-..---+------.----_. __.... _-----,-------- + _·=··.~_u _ + + + ~_ ...• ~ •.--~~------~-~-.-~--.--.- + + _ ,-- •...•... -~-- + + __~_._ ..~.~ .~_~ ..._.~_F_._. '_ _ '"_~_,_.~,~ "_-.·~...__~ -- + + .-..;J ._.._. .__"..__~"_._,_. -_._. +--~.-.~_._.. .. ,-._.. . . + + + .__._~----"--- ,~....--...--__._...__. _. . + \.0 V-> . · . . . I Area · t.d I':Ij 0 I-' I-' +:- . . . . . · . . . N \.0 ------~-.---------------. --,...---....----l-----.-------.--------.. -~"&'--''''''.---'-'''--'''''--~-'-'''''''~~---~'--- H 0 1-\3 . \.0 .1-' I-' I-' ---- .........-.,..,...,.--_._-------- 0'\ . +'- I-' I-' V-> .~-----...--.-""-..-.-------... ------,,-.--_&_.~~.. ~ .... - .._._---._. .. ---~--.- 17; .. 1'-:> I-' , co , \!) 0 . I-' +'- I......• I-' I-' Ul 0> N I-' 0> . . . . I-' I-' I-' CXJ ------~~~,-------------~ .co N . I-' N -.J \.0 I-' 1-••.• ----------- N N I 0'\ V1 I ~ �-166- The thymus in each of the young animals through July _0, 1971 was very extensive being observed from the midcervical region to the base of the heart. Morphologically, the thymus was mature and active. Within the medulla of different lobes of the thymuses of 6 ardma.I s , nests of eosinophils were present. The significance of these are not known. Heart--The heart sections from two animals (117 and #9) was observed to have minor pathological alterations. Sarcosporidia and a focal myoca~dial degeneration were observed in the sections from animal #7, a female yearling. A focal area of inflm,~ation characterized by edema and lymphocytic infiltration was observed in one heart section from animal #9. Kidney--A very focal and minor glomerulosclerosis and interstitial nephritis were observed in kidney sections from animal #7, a female yearling. Sections from animal #9 showed a focal toxic tubular necrosis and interstitial nephritis. A focal interstitial nephritis was observed in sections from animal #18. These findings in the kidney sections from three animals appeared to be very limited and minor and would not be considered significant in the functioning of the kidney. Liver--Minor liver pathology was observed in six animals. One focus of degeneration was observed in liver section from animal #3. Hypertrophy of the reticulo-endothelial cells in the liver section from an.ima.Ls 119 and 10 was noted. Focal hepatitis (undetermined cause) was observed in a section from animals #12 and #17. Chronic infl&~nation characterized by focal tibro,sis of the capsule, focal portal fibrosis, bile duct proliferation, and the presence of a yellowish-brown pigment was observed in a section from animal 1114. Nematode Larvae--Nematode larvae were observed in sections of lymph nodes from animals #8 and 1116. The ones (3) in animal lis appeared to be viable while six in #16 were encapsulated and dead or dying. In addition to lymph nodes, degenerate larvae were observed in the submucosa of the o:.cal mucocutaneous junction and the peril1.odaltissue of a non-mesenteric lymph node of animal #16. In a section of thymus from animal #19, degenerate larvae appear to be present in the medulla of two lobes. Inclusion-like Bodies--In five of the animals, "inclusion-like" bodies were observed in several of the reticular and mononuclear cells of different lymph nodes and the spleen. These were characterized by being nuclear, acidophilic to basophilic, disorganization of the cytoplasm, and the presence of a halo around the body. These are called "inclusion-like" "because they are only suggestive and must be confirmed by additional observations and experimentation. These were observed in animals #10, 12, 13, 17; and 20. Miscellaneous Observations--Focal from both eyes from animal 113. conjunctivitis A small focal area of mineralization brain from animal 114. was obServed in sections was obs€:.cved. in a section of the mi':'='- �-167- Histopathological of Lung Sections Description from the 71BHL Collection Dr. G.C. Solomon (Bighorn Sheep) ��-169- A histopathological description of the lung seC::lons from 7lBHL-l, a female lamb approximately 21 cays old. Weight 12.5 kilograms. Collected from Buffalo Peaks on 16 June 1971. The lamb was in excellent physical condition and no gross lesions were observed. Microscopically, there is marked congestion or all vessels, including the interalveolar capillaries, the venules, arterioles and larger vessels. Lymphatics are not remarkable. There is separction of lobules (slide #14) which suggests interstitial edema. Sections (slides #15 and 16) are 2~~~~cterized by marked congestion of all vessels. All stages (eggs, Larvae and adults) of Lungwo rm parasites are present in the alveoli. Ad"uILS were observed in the Lumf.na of some bronchioles. Accumu.lar Lons of. lymphocytes are present> especially perivascularly. Focal areas of epithelialization are present, which may have originated from the mucosa of terminal bronchioles. Septal cells (macrophages) are present and abundant in many alveoli. Small foci of polymorphonuclear leucocytes are present. The pleura adjacent to the par as Lt e+af f e ct.ed lung is cuboidal rz the'r than squamous. Lymphatics are apparent in the subpleural area. 'l'hereappears to be hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the epithelium of the bronchioles. Lymphofollicular development is present in focal areas (slide #16). These appear to be adjacent to the bronchioles and/or in lung parenchyma not associated with the perivascular lymphocytic accumulations. Slides illS and 1116 are from the dorsal region of the diaphragmatic lobes of the lungs. Following is a histopathological description of lung sections from animal 7lBHL-2, a female lamb which weighed 4.8 kg. Collected from Trickle Mountain 17 June 1971. The lamb was in excellent physical condition and no gross lesions were observed. All 18 sections of lung were characterized by congestion of all vessels and focal areas of atelectasis. There was no microscopic evidence of lymphofollic.ular development nor the presence of any stage of parasites in the sections. This animal was the youngest one of the 22 which wer e selected. Marked lobulation of lung tissue is evident and probably nonnal. Histopathological description of lung sections from animal 71BHL-3: A female lamb we Lgh Lng 9>.0 kg. co Ll.ect.ed from Buffalo Peaks 29 June 197L The animal was in excellent physical condition and no gross lesions were observed. There is marked lobulation of. lung tissue which is probably normal. Congestion of all vessels is apparent. There are focal areas of blood in alveoli and focal areas of atelectasis. There are also areas of intra-alveo_ar edema. Perivascular accumulations of lymphocytes are present around one arteriole (slide #17). A focus of peribronchiolar lymphocytic follicular development is seen in slide #19. Focal interstitial edema is present {slide #26). There is no microscopic evidence of parasites in lung sections. Histopathologicel de s cr Lpr Lon of lung sect:ions from animal 7lBHL-4: A female lamb which ~.veighed11. 5 kg. collected. 30 June 1971 from Trickle Mountain. The lamb was in excellent physical condition and no gross lesions were observed. There is mC!.:cKed lobulation of lcng tissue. There is congestion of all vessels and focal areas of atelectasis. There is focal thickening of �-170- pleura (slide #22). Many lymphocytes and mononuclear cells are present in the lumen of one arteriole (slide #21). There are focal areas of perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes. No lungworms were observed. Histopathological description of lung sections from animal 7lBHL-S: Female lamb which weighed 20 kg. collected from Buffa 0 Peaks 27 June 1971. The animal was in good physical condition and nodules were observed in the right posterior diaphragmatic lobe. These nodules varied in size from 1-2 mm. and were cream-colored in consistency. There are numerous areas of perivascular lymphocytic accumulations (slide #19). One large focus in this lung section is characterized by marked lymphofollicular development, perivascular cuffing, atelectasis of adjacent lung tissue and caseation necrosis of alveolar cells. Within the center of the necrotic area are several giant cells, fibroplasia and parts or sections of dead parasites. The necrotic center is surrounded by mononuclear macrophages, lymphocytes and eosinophils, and epithelialization of alveolar and/or terminal bronchiolar epithelium is evident. A small subpleural focus is characterized by epithelialization and the presence of lymphocytes, eosinophils and macrophages. There is congestion of all vessels within this lung section (slide #10). The pleura is normal except for slight thickening adjacent to the areas of infection. Lungworms are present in the lung sections. The eggs especially are visible with few larvae and few adults throughout the tissue. The most striking thing about this section is the rrumerous and marked areas of lymphofollicular development. In addition to this, there are numerous foci of perivascular lymphocytic accumulat:ons around most of the arterioles. Within the large focus of lymphocytic development, there are several giant cells. Areas of fibroplasia, atelectasis of lung tissue within and adjacent to this large focus, and small pockets or nests of neutrophils are present. Th70 foci in the lung sections are characterized by a necrotic area and mineralization and the presence of dead sections of parasites. primarily larvae, which were trapped and killed. Surrounding these areas are accumulations of lymphocytes and some fibroplasia that has taken place. Huch of the response of the lung tissue to the infection in these described areas appears to be the accumulation or presence of many alveolar macrophages, the presence of neutrophils either in nests or singly and in addition, the epithelialization of the terminal bronchiolar epithelium or alveolar epithelium. There appears to be hypertrophy and hyperplasia of some of the epithelium in the proximal regions of the bronchioles. Histopathological description from the lung sections from animal 71BHL-6: A male lamb collected 28 July 1971 from Trickle Mountain. The estimated weight was 23 kg. and the necropsy was performed by Dr. Hibler and no visible lesions were apparent and the recording of the gross necropsy was by tape. The tape was garbled, so there is no good record of the necropsy, but apparently the lamb was in excellent physical condition and there were no gross lesions observed. Sections are characterized by marked congestion of most of the vessels within the lung tissue. In addition, there is scattered throughout the lung tissue free blood within the alveolar �-171- spaces and accumuLat.Lons of Lymphocy tes a::ound most or the arterioles. areas W'1'}icl1Seer:l. to "[,2 ·~2:~.i·.c~i·:~·.lgp2:·.:Ci£·Dllic~21ar lY.:'ilPh,Qcytic development close to broc,d!.i01es. There is ,"0 evidence of parasites in any of the s eccLons , There are focal areas of atelectasis and some which are probably emphysematous. Ac:ctmmlation of blood in large numbers of the alveoli in the different sections may result in difficulty in observing parasites if they ssec e present. There are Histopathological descziptioC'l of hi.o_g sectio:"s f::OYl1 animal 71BHL-7: Collected 10 August 1971. F'sD.ai2 yes.:::::'L"lgweighed 38.6 kg. ·which was collected from Bu:::':falo Feaks. S·::-l'~ l':"...cd been dead about 14 hours prior to necropsy> but; she appea:,ced 'co be L"..eycel1e::-.t physical condition and there was no gross lesio~l.s c;bserved exc epr; those associated with the gunshot w011l1.d iri t·~'1e: Yt11d.C2.T\lic21 Te.gio~1.~ I. There is evid.ence of ms:cke:C! 2."Jl:olysis wil::h all of the blood being hemolyzed withiTl the vesse:_s and witidn most of the alveoli. ·Where there is no hemolysis bLood , d"'..ere is ederaa in many of the alveoli. The ep i.t.heLf.um of the bronchf.o Les has autolyzed to the point that normal distinctive morphology wes not retained. There is however (slide #8) a focus in which there: is the preseEce or all stages of parasites (eggs. larvae and adu Lt ) witI1.Ll. the: alveoli. SurroUl_dii..... g this area and ad j ac enc to t':J.e b:colichioles .ifi thin t·bis ar e a , ar e ll1..rmerousfoci of lynlphofollicular nodule:s. Also pre:se:nt is marked perivascular lymphocytic accumu.Lat.Lon, or Histopathological description of lung sections from animal 7lBHL-8: A female bighorn lamb collected 19 August 1971 f rom Trickle Mountain. The animal weighed. 27.3 kg. She appeared to be in excellent physical condition, although the posterior borders OT both diaphragmatic lobes contained yellowish. circGY!scribed nodu Les , approximately 2-3 mm. in diameter. There was, in addition, SO"f!1e pathology that resulted from the gunshot; wound. hi terms of 1-_emo::.:Thage and in che vent r aL anterior cervical region. There is marked cOl"..ges tion of all vessels. hemolysis of blood contained Ln the ve s s e Ls (s::'..ide 118). Ln addition, there is free blood iT" many of the alveoli, "itich is fte:molyzed and there is evidence of lYIT;.phoiollicular CE::'Je:10plT,ei.i:c adjacent to many of the bronchioles and in addition:::b,::re is perivascular ac cumu.La t Lon of lymphocytes around t.he, smaller a:cterio12s" Atelectasis is present in many of the areas of this section. LobuLat t.on of the lung tissue was very evident in those se:ctions which are not from the di2pnragmatic lobes. In addition to the conge:stion of the vessels, the presence of free blood in the alveoli, all of which is hemolyzed, and the atelectasis in focal areas, there are 2 major foci in w·hich there are all stages of parasites present (slide. #11) a LL ·~Jithin the alveolL These stages are r ep r e.sen t.ed by eggs, la.:cvae, ard ad.ults and in addition there is the presence of adults in the br0nchio~es in one of the areas. The striking thing about ·both of these elcas is that there is marked Lympho+ follicular development, especially adjacent to bronchioles. as well as perivascular lymphocytic 2ccUi.Trulation. vJithin the lesions themselves �-172- there is atelectasis and epithelialization and the presence of many septal cells or macrophages. There appears not to be any mineralization or the presence of dead or dying parasites. Adjacent to the pleura in one of the affected areas there is also the presence of these lymphofollicular nodules as well as the presence of accumulations of parasites in the subpleural space. A section contains parasitic stages with eggs, larvae and also adults in the alveoli (slide #7). The most striking thing about this section is the very marked lymphofollicular nodules. Many of these are located close to the bronchioles and in addition there is marked perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes. The atelectasis is quite marked in the area where the parasites are observed and in addition there is a great accumulation of septal cells or macrophages and epithelialization occurring. In longitudinal section of a bronchiolar lymph node, it is characterized by edema in the peripheral zone of the lymph node as well as in and among the germinal centers. The microscopic appearance of this node is one of a reactive node. There are pale germinal centers and the presence of lymphoblasts and at the periphery more mature lymphocytes. Congestion of the vessels is very prominent. Cross sections of adult lungworms are present in the sinuses of the zone (slide #20). The histopathological description of animal 7lBHL-9: A ram or male bighorn lamb collected 23 August 1971 from Buffalo Peaks which weighed 28.2 kg. There were elevated nodules in both diaphragmatic lobes, especially on the caudal posterior borders. They ranged in size from I mm. to 4-5 mm. Some of these nodules were pale, with greenish-black centers and others were plum-colored. Whipworms were present in the cecum. In sections from the left diaphragmatic lobe there are foci in the peripheral portion of the section characterized by the presence of many large lymphofollicular nodules and the presence of lungworms in and among these nodules with all stages represented (eggs, larvae and adults of both sexes (slide #12). Most of these appear to be located in alveoli. There are numerous giant cells observed throughout the parenchyma. Septal cells or macrophages are present in the alveoli. There are numerous neutrophils and free lymphocytes present in alveoli and within nests throughout the affected tissue. Perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around the smaller arterioles is present especially in the areas in which there are no lungworms. There are foci of epithelialization and it appears that these cells are originating from the epithelium of the terminal bronchioles. A section of lung from the left diaphragmatic lobe characterized by atelectasis is prominent throughout the section (slide #13). The vessels are congested and in the center of the section there is a rather large focus in which all stages of the lungwonn parasite are evident (eggs, larvae and adult) and all seem to be contained within alveolar spaces. The lymphofollicular development is not as marked as in slide #12, but there are foci of these nodules and in addition there is perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around many of the arterioles. Section of the lung tissue around the parasites is characterized by atelectasis, the presence of many alveolar macrophages, the presence of lymphocytic nodules as well as many lymphocytes in and around the parasites �-173- and in addition there are several foci of eosinophils in the stroma surrounding the parasites. The parasites appear to be alive at the time the tissue was taken. There appears to be S0me epithelialization and these cells appear to origiL3.te from the epithelium lining the terminal bronchioles. In addition> in the Lar ge'r b ronchf oLes , there appears to be some hypertrophy and ~yperplasia associated with the lining epithelium. This seems to be especially true or in close to the area in which the parasites are present. A section from the left diaphragmatic lobe is characterized primarily by atelectasis, the presence of much free blood in many of the alveoli, congestion of vessels and a large focus in whidl different stages of the lungworm are present (slide #14). The pleura is not r emar kab Le , a.lchough there is distention of many of t:1"'~<2 Lymphat.Lcs that are located in the subpleural :regions. Perivascular accu.mulation of lympr:ocytes is the prominent feature in. this secti2."i~ and again there is not; tl~e marked lymphofollicular development that there was in slide ff12. All the tissue sections are taken from the same lobeo Focal epithelialization is present and again appears to originate fro~ the terminal portions of the terminal bronchio1es. Alveolar macrcphages are very numerous and very large and fill many of the alveolar spaces within the affected area of this lung section" Accurnu Lat.Lons of Ileutrophils are present throughout the affected portions of the lung. Cross section of several adult lungworms are seen in alveoli which are some dista~ce from the focus of extreme reaction. Once again, the bronchiolar epithelium, especially among the bronchi, in and close to the affected area, appears to exhibit extreme degrees of hyperplasia and hypertrophy (slide #15). Section of lung tissue from the right diaphragmatic lobe is characterized by many areas or atelectasis and the presence of many lY:fiphofo_licular nodules. There is perivascular accumulation of lympho.::ytesaround some of the arterioles. The larger bronchioles 2;'".::1 smaller broneh i contain within their lumina massive numb ers of cells some or which are identifiable as alveolar or mononuclear mac:copl,ages and some of the cells can be identified as epithelial" p robab Ly origL-lating from the .Lining epithelium of the b roncha or b-ro ach Lo Les , Neut::-ophils are present in the alveoli, but this is restricted to a few small f oc L. ,\)0 Lungwc rms were observed in this section. Ther e are foci of e;:,-;:ihysema, especially in the subpleural areas. The sections from the diaphrzgmatic lobe are no t as lobulated, if one compar-es ttis "CO 'che lo'b"lations of the other lobes of the lung. A section of lung tissue from t.he right: diaphragmatic lobe was taken from a nodular area that was observed grossly (slide #16). This section is characterized by marked atelectasis, some areas of 2mphysema, free blood in a Iveo Lf and the presence of 3-4 smai Ler foci in whi.ch Lungworms are present. There is not the marked presence of lymphofollicular nodules in this section as was previously seen in other sections containing lungworms. however, there is rnuch perivascu:lar ac cum i.l.at Lon of lymphocytes around many of the arterioles. In the large affected focus, only eggs and larvae of the lungworm are observed. Section of the lung tissue in this focus is sIm'iLa'r to that of other sections which contain the lungworm larvae with the presence of nU::'Ti2rOUS al\Y2:o1armac rophage s , lymphocytes, �-174- neutrophils and few eosinophils. Epithelialization is also present and again the cells seem to originate from the epithelium of the terminal bronchioles. In the smaller localized foci there are larvae which are present and the reaction in and around these parasites of these larvae are similar to that described for the large focus but not to the same degree. A section of lung from the right diaphragmatic lobe which upon gross examination contained a focus which appeared to be greyish-white and firm in consistency (slide #17). This section is characterized by the presence of widespread atelectasis, the presence of perivascular accumulations of lymphocytes around many of the vessels, but the most marked characteristic of this section is the very numerous and large lymphofollicular nodules present in and around a large focus which contains within it all stages of the lungworm. It is interesting to note that there appears to be a chain of lymphofollicular nodules just beneath the pleura at the periphery of this lung section. And in addition, there is, in a section removed from the large focus, the presence of adult parasites in the alveoli. The reaction of the lung tissue is quite typical as has been described previously in that there are numerous alveolar macrophages, lymphofollicular nodules, as well as free lymphocytes in the affected area, small nests of neutrophils and the presence of focal epithelialization within the mass itself. The extent of necrosis of the alveolar walls within focus is difficult to determine; however, it appears that there is atelectasis and the great accumulations of the cells described previously. A section of lung from the right diaphragmatic lobe which upon gross inspection contained a greyish-white focus and was firm in consistency (slide #18). Changes present in this section are very similar to those described for slide #17. Sections from the hilar lymph node and changes are characterized by the presence of free blood in the sinuses focally and a reaction in which the germinal centers contain quite immature lymphocytes and scant mature ones at the edge. There are along with the lymphocytes and in the sinuses a number of large mononuclear round cells filled with an eosinophilic granular material. A section of tissue from the right apical lobe characterized primarily by the presence of free blood in almost every alveoli, so much so that the normal architecture of the alveoli is very difficult to discern (slide #12). In addition, there are several foci of perivascular accumulations of lymphocytes around the smaller vessels. No lungworm parasites were observed in this section. Sections from the right cardiac lobe are characterized by the presence of free blood in many of the alveolar spaces, focal atelectasis, emphysema, and the presence of perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around the smaller arterioles (slides 23, 24, and 25). No lungworms were observed in any of these three sections. �-175- Histopathological description of aUDual 71BHL-IO: Male lmnb weighing 12.7 kg. collected 26 August 1971 from the Sangre de Cristo Mountain range. The animal was in very poor condition and the major lesions were found in the lungs: lun.gworm lesions and pneumonia. Sections from the r Lght; cardiac Lcb e are characterized by congestion of all vessels and hemolysis of many of the erythrocytes indicating postmortem changes (slides 4, 5, 6). In addition, there are several areas of atelectasis. EpitheliDn1 of many of the smaller bronchi and bronchioles has been sloughed away from the basement; membr-ane and in. the Lumf.na of some of the bronchioles, there are cross sections of adult w rms and larvae. In one large focus within the lung parenchyma are the presence of lungworms in all stages (eggs, larvae and adults) which are located in the ~lveolar spaces. In addition to the presence of numerous alveolar macro phages and some epithelialization of bronchiolar epithelium there is the presence of foci which is indicative of a bacterial infection. Around these small foci are numerous ne.utrophils, lymphocytes and mononuclear macrophages with little or no connectiVe tissue. There are many foci of neutrophil accumulations in alveoli in which there doesn't seem to be bacteria present and likewise there are many parasites in which there is no netruophil accumulation around these that are located in the alveolar spaces. In another smaller foci within this S&ile section, it appears that there are many alveolar macrophages whose cytoplasm contains blueish granular ma t.erLa L which pr esumab Ly is bacteria that has been phagocytized. In other smaller foci in the same section there appears to be necrosis of cells and these might be the alveolar macrophages which have been necrotized by the bacteria "which were engulfed" leaving karyorrhectic nuclei and granular cytoplasm with ill-defined cytoplasmic borders and these being in alveoli in the form of a granular debris. In addition to showing marked congestion and desquamation of much of the lining epithelium of the smaller bronchi and bronchioles, there are several foci of different sizes, each characteristically showing early to late coagulative necrosis (slide 116). Foci in the section are characterized by coagulative necrosis and at the periphery, blue granular material which contains bacteria and peripheral to that are primarily mononuclear cells with some neutrophils and all of this deliTnited by a cOl1.:r-.cective tissue capsule so that in effect it is a microabscess. Smalley and earlier foci show coagulative necrosis without the capsule hut with the presence of mononuclear cells and some neutrophils. There is some perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around the smaller vessels" but there is a marked absence of lymphofollicular nodules. In many areas the alveoli contain alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes, neutrophils and plasma cells. Sections from the right apical lobe are characterized prilnarily by the appearance of relatively small to large foci of early to marked coagulative necrosis (slides 1, 2, 3). The microscopic picture or the large areas of coagulative necrosis are the srune as described for slide #6. The pleura in some areas appears to be quite thickened anc lymphatics in the pleura seem to be enlarged (slide HI). A section of pleura, in addition to being thickened, also shows inflammation in that many mononuclear cells and neutrophils are present among the collagenous fibers. These �-176- sections from the intermediate lobes are similar to the ones described previously and characterized by a complete disruption in the microscopic architecture of the lung (slides #7 & 8). There is marked congestion of all the vessels in the section. There is desquamation of much of the epithelial lining of the smaller bronchioles and bronchi. There is, in some foci, the presence of lymphofollicular nodules especially around the bronchioles. The disruption in the architecture observed grossly which may have been described as consolidation, is due in part to atelectasis of many of the alveoli. In addition the presence of cells within alveoli: alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes, and in some foci, neutrophils add to the overall picture of consolidation. There are in these sections foci of coagulative necrosis varying from small beginning or early necrosis to larger ones in which necrosis is well advanced and also delimited by the presence of mononuclear cells and connective tissue capsule. In many foci, it appears that many of the alveolar macrophages have coalesced into a mass of dark and probably degenerating nuclei. These are within alveolar spaces and within the lumina of the bronchioles. The pleura in these slides is not markedly affected, although there is enlargement of some of the lymphatic vessels. Lobulation of this particular section is quite marked and again this is quite different from that seen in the diaphragmatic lobes, in which lobulation is either not very well marked or completely absent. Sections from the right diaphragmatic lobe present a somewhat different microscopic picture than ones previously described from this animal (slides 9, 10, 11, 12). There is a pleuritis and this is evident in the pleura which does remain in the section. In addition, there are at least very small to large necrotic foci scattered throughout the section. There is a disruption in the architecture of the tissue in that alveoli are very difficult to find. These alveoli are filled, as in previous sections, with many alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils, but in addition there are several foci in which lungworm parasites are seen, some of these different stages of the parasite are observed in relatively normal areas or areas free from the necrotic foci. There is also in a large bronchus numerous parasites with larvae being the predominant stage of the parasite found in the lumen. There are, however, stages of the lung parasite (eggs, larvae and adults) within the necrotic foci. Some of these parasites seem to be dying or dead and others seem to be quite healthy and existing amidst the surrounding focus of necrotic tissue. There are very few, if any, lymphofollicular nodules in any of the sections and likewise there is very little perivascular lymphocytic accumulations around the vessels. Again, the consolidated appearance that might have been observed grossly between and among the necrotic foci is probably due in part to atelectasis as well as the accumulation of these different cells within the existing spaces between the alveolar walls. The presence of the accumulations of blue granular material are probably colonies of bacteria. These are also present in the areas where there is early necrosis present as well as at the edge of the larger foci of coagulative necrosis. Sections from the left apical lobe are characterized by marked congestion of all vessels, a focal pleuritis and the presence of small to large necrotic foci (slides #13 & 14). The accumulations of blue granular material is probably bacteria. The septa which separate these lobules is somewhat edematous. The architecture of the lung tissue is disrupted in �-177- the area where there is the Lecrotic feci 2nd agaiL £he consolidation which. might have bec!l obs erve d g r os s Ly is dUe in part to a t.e Lec t as Ls and in part to the co LLect f.on or acc:wr,~la.tio-':l or ce.LLs it •.the alveoli and especially the alveolar mecrophag2s. The-:e is a section of relatively normal lung in this particular slide in which the a~veoli are quite distinct. There is scattered -::hrocgl':out this section Lungwo rms of different stages (eggs. leyv2.e:, and adults). These Ior the most part are present within the alveolar spaces. Desquamiition of much of the epi rhe Li.um c f t~le sl"aaller bro:':--ichi and t.he brorichf.o.Les is evf den t. The microscopic picture of t.he s ec t.Lon f r om t~le left ca:cd..:'..aclobe is very s iraf.Lar to that de s cx fb ed f or tile left apical lobe, except; that lungworms were not observed in this s ect Lon (slide iIlS)_ f r cm t.he left dia'ptil:."agfD.2tic lobe sugge s t t'b.at the Inic.Toscopic for ·(hese sections is very similar 'to ·c~.at des cr fb ed fOT the Tight diaphragmatic lobe (slides 1f16,17,18;19). There is a. marked infection of the lengwolil1 parasite with ell stages present and tneY2 are also larvae that iire observed. in the smaLLer bTOnC~1.iana the hrmcchioles. There are also foci of early and late necrotic focL Se c t Loris p Lccirre I 10 Hf s t opat ho.LogLcaL description of tissues from animal 71BHL-ll: Lf9 kg" Female yearling bighorn collected from the Sangre de Cristo Mountain r ange 28 August 1971. The animal was in excellent physical condd t Lon grossly, but had been dead about 36 hours before po st.Lug , Therefore> po stmo r t em autolysis was very marked t.hroughouL Sect:ions f rom the ap i.ca.L and caro Lac and intermediate Lob es showed primarily hemolysis of free blced which was preSeil.t in ".::h2 alveoli. Wf.ere lung tissue is di8ce rriab Le , che re is present SO·~Tle revl to ·iuoderate numbers of Lymphof oLki ca.Lar nodules and there is some perivascular lymphocytic ace'illuulation around the smaller vas s e Ls , Desquamation of most of the lining epithelilnn of the respiratory tract is marked (slides /15,0,7> B, 9,10,11). Section from the right diep:'ycegms.tic lobe is from a Les i on described grossly as a smaLl, greyish-white area (slide 1112). This section is characterized by v2ry little, if any, normal lung tissue. There are several foci where lymphofolliCular nodules are present, especially adjaCent or near some or the pre-existing bronchioles_ TherE: are several l-:lngwoymparasites present, especially La'rvae and adu l.t s . There is a.I.so present 'througOrwut 'c::his lesion much connec t Lve tissue comprised of yOU11g co LLagenous fibers and fibroblasts and mature connec1:ive tissue, There is a Tiiarked absence of the alveolar macrophages and other cells 'within the collapsed alveolar spaces _ There is marked hyperplasia of bronchiolar 2pithelium thro'u.ghout the lesion. Therefore, this lesion iT!. my opinion represents a healing stage of t.he disease r at.he r tl12i1. 2:.11. active one .. A sffiall greyish-white area (slide #13) was grossly observed on a section from the right diaphragmatic. lobe. Changes observed in this section are similar to those described for slide #12. except t.hat; the area of fibroplasia, or healing, is much mcre marked than that in slide ff12" There is also rhe presence of eggs, larvae, ana adults in the alveoli which are still fur.c t Loria L. A s Lmf.La r s"[£13.11grE:yisb.-'{olhite ar e a was also grossly observed on the left dLaphr agmat.Lc lobe (slide H14). Grossly, tr_2: e:f,aEges �-178- were similar to those described for tissues used for slides #12 and 13 in that there is a large area which has been replaced by fibrous connective tissue. In the sections from this particular animal, there is an abundance of saprophytic bacteria. There is also in this slide the presence of lungworm parasites in all stages. Some are in the area where fibroplasia has occurred and there are also different stages of the parasite in the alveoli which appear to be more normal. Lung sections are missing at this time from animal was posted by Mr. Keiss and Dr. Post. 7lBHL-12: This animal Histopathological description of lung sections taken from animal 7lBHL-13: A male bighorn lamb collected 2 September 1971 from the Sangre de Cristo Mountain range. Ventral portion of the lobes of the right lung were consolidated and numerous adhesions between the costal pleura and the lung surface were observed. An abscess was also grossly observed on a section of lungs (slide #1). Microscopically, there is marked congestion of all vessels. There is also free blood in alveoli of part of the sections. The outstanding feature of the section is the appearance of most of the tissue to be consolidated and the marked hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the lining epithelium of the bronchioles and smaller bronchi and the foci of epithelialization which is present throughout the section. The consolidated appearance is due in part to partial atelectasis of the alveoli and the presence of numerous macrophages, neutrophils, lymphocytes within the spaces. Perivascular lymphocytic accumulation is moderate around most of the smaller arterioles and there is not much evidence of lymphofollicular development. There are numerous nests of neutrophils. These nests are within the alveolar spaces, although partially collapsed, and within the lumen of the bronchioles. There is no evidence of any stage of the lungworm parasite in this section. A section of lung from the posterior portion of one of the diaphragmatic lobes is shown in slide #2. The changes observed here are similar to those described for slide #1, except there is the presence of parasite (eggs and larvae) within some of the alveoli. In these foci where the parasites are located there is consolidation and there appears to be fibroplasia as well as the presence of the alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes. This focus is probably indicative of an early healing lesion. In this section of the lung, it seems that the picture of consolidation is due to a less chronic process than the one just described. In this particular focus, there is the presence of numerous alveolar macrophages and some lymphocytes, but the alveolar walls are still quite discernable with a minimum of fibroplasia occurring. One of the most outstanding features of this section as in the previous slide is the hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the lining epithelium of the bronchioles and the epithelialization which is evident. A section from a diaphragmatic lobe and the changes seen here are very similar to the ones described in slide #2, except that there are numerous nests of neutrophils within the partially collapsed alveolar spaces of the tissue (slide #3). Also lymphofollicular development as well as perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes is present. The appearance of this section is also less chronic than that described previously in that there is numerous alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophils. There are few stages of lung parasites seen in this section. Some of eggs and adults appear to be dead or dying. One area within this focus of �-179- consolidation is cha ract.e.rd z.ed by the presence of dead paras Lt.e s and fibroplasia which is in progress. This wO;Jld s-ugges-cthat there are smaller foci of nealing or fibroplasia withir< the larger focus of consolidation whLch is less ch ror.Lc chan toat of che smaller foci. A section of lung from one of the diaphragmatic lobes and again the microscopic picture is very similar to that described for slide #3, except that there are more numerous nests of neutrophils in alveoli and bronchioles (slide #4). There are present many larvae within the alveoli but many of these appear to be dead or dy Lng , Th2"re is marked fibroplasia within these areas of consolidation and in one or two foci it appears that there is some mineralization occurring. There are several lymphofollicular nodules as well as perivascular ac cumu La t Lons of lymphocytes around the SInaller arterioles. There is, as in the previous slide, marked hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the lining epithelium of the bronchioles and epithelialization which is evident throughout the section. Histopathologic~l description for animal 71BHL-14: A male bighorn lamb co Ll.e cz ed 2 September 1971 from the Sangre de Cristo Mountain range. He weighed 18.2 kg. The general condition of the lamb was poor and the major lesions observed grossly were in the lungs. There were adhesions of both apical lobes to the thoracic wall and the ventral third of all lobes appeared to be meaty a~d consolidated. There are numerous lymphofollicular nodules as well as perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around the arterioles (slide #1). The large focus in the section appears to be one of consolidation and composed primarily of partially atelectic alveoli and numerous alveolar macrophcges, lymphocytes and neutrophils, and other macrophages wienie, the alveolar spaces (slide #1). Epithelialization originated from the bronchiolar epithelium as well as hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the b ronchf.o Lar epithelium itself. No lungworm parasites were observed in this section. A section of the hilar lymph node suggests a reactive node and the presence of edema at the periphery or i:..1. the cortex of the node (slide 1f2). Erythrocytes are present: in the sinuses of medulla but this probably is the result of "the gunshot ~mund.. A section from the right cardiac lobe and the microscopic changes in this section are very sblilar to those described in slide III (siiae #3). A se c t Lcn f:CCi:1~ the left car df.ac lc~€: 2:~'1d nucr oscopf,c changes ir-l this slide are vei.-Y simi12:;'to those GescTibed in slides 113 and 1 (slide #4). A sec t i.on rron, "c"he left diap"~~::-2g-:flatic lobe a:.d the changes in ":::his seetieD. are char aet er i zed by marked consolidation rhz oughou c the Section and again this consc Lxdat.Lcn is due partially to atelectasis, but pr Imar Ll.y the ac cumu Laz Lon of a.Lveo Lar raac rophages , lymphocytes, and neutrophils in alveol2Y s pace s (slice #5). There ar e numerous Lympho fo Ll.LeuLar nodules pr es errc ~ Theye is hype;~trop[,y and. hype rp Las La of the lining epitheli1.~m of the bronchi and bTonchioles and also foci where epithelialization is evident. There are I2"7 Lungwo rms in this section and those that are observed appear to be adults. They are located in the alveoli. Congestion of all vessels is apparent. These changes would suggest a rather acute pneumonic process. C~langes in these s ec t.Lorrs are similccT to those described for sections from slide 5 (slides #6 & 7). In addition, there are mrne'r o us Ei8.St cells wh Lch are pr e sent; witt! GeiiTiSa. strain and ~tler2 ar e s eve.r a.L 2C-C~.-: lu~ng'Cv'orl113 lo~ated :II"! t:j:le alveo~j_.. Thes e Ere '::O".!.1.fil'l2d to Oi1.e s:nall section. of ti'12 SJ..lC:·2;" ,(,;Ji·cI-;;.ir_ SO~11e of t~1.esma.t l e r b~0nchi �-180- and bronchioles, there appears to have been a great proliferation of the lining epithelium and the appearance of degeneration of many of these lining cells into a rather homogenous pinkish material, which lie primarily near the edge or within the actual lumen of these altered bronchioles. A section from the left apical lobe and the changes in this section are similar to those described for slide #1, a section of the right apical lobe, and slides #3 and 4, the right and left cardiac lobes (slide #8). In certain areas of the pleura, there is thickening and there is one focus of pleuritis which may have been a point of adhesion to the thoracic wall. No lungworms were observed in this particular section. A section from the left diaphragmatic lobe and changes observed in this section are similar to those described in slides #5, 6 and 7 (slide #9). A section from the caudal border of the right diaphragmatic lobe is shown in slide #10. The changes in this section are similar to those described for the left diaphragmatic lobe, with the exception that no lungworms were observed in this particular section. Histopathological description of lung tissues from animal 7lBHL-15: A female bighorn lamb collected from Trickle Mountain 3 September 1971. The weight of the animal was 19.1 kg. Grossly, the animal was in very good condition and no visible lesions were observed. Sections of lung from all lobes and in addition included in this number are two sections from hilar lymph nodes (slides #5-l5)~ The hilar lymph nodes are normal. Sections of lung are characterized by the fairly normal except for some perivascular lymphocytic accumulations around the arterioles and few lymphofollicular nodules near or adjacent to the bronchioles. There is congestion of most of the vessels and there are foci of atelectasis. Lungworms were not observed in any of the sections, although one might be suspicious with the presence of the lymphofollicular nodules and the perivascular cuffing. Histopathological description from lung sections from animal 7lBHL-16: A male bighorn lamb collected 3 September 1971 from Trickle Mountain. The weight of the lamb was 26 kg. The lamb was in generally good physical condition and there were lungworm lesions observed grossly on the caudal borders of the diaphragmatic lobes. Sections of lung from lobes other than the diaphragmatic lobes are characterized by being relatively normal in appearance (slides #5-10). There are focal areas of atelectasis and smaller foci of emphysema. The small arterioles show perivascular lymphocytic accumulations and the vessels for the most part are congested. No lungworms were seen in any of these sections. A section from one of the diaphragmatic lobes is characterized by congestion of all vessels, the presence of numerous lymphofollicular nodules and a rather small focus in which numerous lungworm parasites are observed and all stages are present (eggs, larvae and adults) (slide #11). There is a cellular reaction as determined by the presence of alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes and some eosinophils in the alveoli and adjacent and around the parasites. There is perivascular lymphocytic accumulation around the arterioles. A section from one of the diaphragmatic lobes is characterized by changes similar to that described for slide #11 (slide #12). However, there is no focus of lungworm parasites and the changes associated with those parasites as described in slide #11. A section from the diaphragmatic lobe which grossly appeared as a nodule and the �-181- changes in this section are very similar to those described in slide II 11 (slide #13). A section Iron a diaphragmatic lobe through a nodule that was grossly observed is shown in slide 1114. The changes in this slide are similar to those described in slides #11 and 13. A section from one of the diaphragmatic lobes and the changes in this section are primarily ones of ccnges t t on of all vessels, rather large areas of atelectasis> perivascular accumulations of lymphocytes around arterioles, a few lymphofollicular nodules present but no lungwonns were observed in this particular section (slide #15). Histopathological des.cr Lpt.Lon of the Lung sections from anama.l 7lBHL-17: A female bighorn lamb collecteD. 1.3 Septem"!:)er1971 f rom Pikes Peak area. The weight of the lamb was 21 kg. Grossly. there were lesions observed in the lungs, particularly along the border of the posterior caudal border of the diaphragmatic 10'0e in "jhich several nodules of varying sizes were present. On the cut surface or some of the lobes a purulent exudate was expressed and fib-'::lL tags m~Te present on the borders and edges of all lobes> some of "ll1.ic~1. wec:e a t t ached to the pari.etal pleura. A section from the right diaphragr:,atic lobe and this 5ec:t10'-1.'Nas t aken from the gross sample in whic~r a ye:llowish area of quite firm. consistency was obse rved (slide 1/5). This seC'1.:io:"iis characterized. generally as one with moderate congestion of all vessels, the presence of nuaerous lymphofollicular nodules> numero us Ties::s or neutrophils in alveoli> some mild to moderate perivascular aCC;.ii"ula·cion of Lymphocyt es around the arterioles, the presence of many larvae tr.i-.r£)"aghoutthe section and the consolidated appearance of the lung tissue.i·herE: are large number's of multicellular macrophages which contain at least 15 nuclei and completely fill, with the cytoplasm, the alveolar space. L_ 3.G.Ctition, there 31.-e lymphocytes and nests of rieut r ophf Ls . There is c.lso epithelializ3.tio:C':.. originating from the lil'1in.g 2pi~r!.eliull1 of the ·b:,:-c"{.!.(:'~2.io12s 8.1'1(1ill t1'_e larger bronchioles and smaL'l.e r bronchi. T::.c-.ceappears to be some hypertrophy' and hyperplasia of lini"ng e:"?i-cheliUiiL :vi2-~lY of the larvae s w:hich are observed in the section seem to be healthy. while numer-ous at'_lers thrcughout the section appear to De G.egeEeratingo and in cross section many of the disintegrated Larvae can be observecL The pleura appears to be somewhat thickened in some areas. but no evideEce at acute Lnf Lammat.Lo n is suggested. The changes observed in t{-,is section are veTY similar "Cothose described for slide 115 (slide If6). T:ais section is from the right diaphragmatic lobe also. The microscopic pic:t-ure in a section of lung from the left diaphragmatic lobe, grossly referred to as lymphoid-like foci, is very similar to that described for slides #5 and 6 (slide #7). The gross description is probably true L_ '.::ILat there are many lymphofollicular nodules as well as many large nests of neutrophils, which would give it the appearance of a lymphoid-like appearance , Changes in a section from the left diaphragmatic lobe wer e very similar to those de s cr Ib ed for the section on slide 117 (slide 118). Section f r om a portion of lobe other than the diaphragmatic lobe and '.::1:12 chaug es iI"~ this section are characterized primarily by numerous 1 npho f oLl.LcuLa'r nodules, per tvas cuLar accufflulations of lymphocytes ar ound arterioles, edema, and numerous nests of neut roph Ll.s , many of which are in the lumina of the smaller bronchioles and smallEr bronchi (slide #9). The appearance of coriso Lf.dat Lon is not as marked as ill. ~;~evio·i.2s s~:Lde3:1 but "c:ner2 ere :ca~tr:!.2r l:2.-.cge J.~-urnbers of a~l\..Ye<)laT mac r o-: pha.ges, =-·.:l•. )ypr~cc'yteE: ann T.te-otrc,pl1.ils ~LTl. t.l~.e a~-v'2,:,:"i ~ but:: t~h.e ar ch Ltee 'CUTe �-182- of most of the alveoli in this section can be discerned" Edema is present in the interlobular septae, which is very marked. The pleura of that which is intact does not appear to be abnormal. No lung parasites were observed in this section. A lung section from a lobe other than diaphragmatic lobe and the changes observed in this section are similar to t.ho se observed. in se c t Lcn If9 (slide illO). In addition, there are changes in the lining epithelium of these large bronchioles and the smaller bronchi and this is in the form of hypertrophy and perhaps some hyperplasia of the ciliated columnar epithelium. A section from a lobe other than the diaphragmatic lobe and the changes in this section are similar to those described for slide #10, except the consolidation appears to be more ma-,,:-l.(2':,iLl. ti:is 3e;::oti0T"i b ecaus e of the larger numbe-r of a Lveo Lar mac rophages which are o'Dsc:rved in the alvecJ,.i> but the alveoli themselves are still disc21:nable even 'with the presence of the alveolar macrophages (slide #11). A section from a lobe of the lung other than the diaphra~natic lobes and the changes here are very similar to those described in slide #11 (slide #12). A section from a lobe other than diaphragmatic lobe and the most outstanding feature in this section is the presence of lyraphofo1licular nodules and perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around the arterioles (slide #13). There are several nests of neutrophils in alveoli and in the l~~ina of some of the bronchioles, but there is much less consolidation as judged by the number of cellular elements in alveoli. There are several foci of atelectasis and few smaller foci of physema. No lung parasites were observed in this section. Sections or lung from lobes other than the diaphragmatic lobe have numer-ous ly'iflphJfollicu12rnodules present; also many nests of neutrophils and alveoli in the Imuiua of the bronchioles (slides 1114 & 15). The outstanding feature of these sections is the alveolar edema which is present in almost every alveoli in this section and accompanying this are moderate numbers of veolar macrophages and lymphocytes which are also present in the alveoli. There is some interstitial edema. The pleura, which has remained, is somewhat thickened and there seems to be an enlargement of the lymphatics in the subpleural region. No parasites were observed in this particular section. Histopathological examination of lung sections from animal 71BHL-18: Female bighorn lamb collected on 13 September 1971 from the Pikes Peak area. She weighed 19 kg. Nodules were present on the posterior caudal surface of the diaphragmatic lobe grossly. The lobes of the other portions of the lung were consolidated and purulent exudate COl d be expressed from the cut surface. Fibrin tags were present on the surface of the visceral pleura and the bronchial and mediastinal l~nph nodes were enlarged and edematous. Section of lung from the diaphragmatic lobe which grossly was observed as a circumscribed area and microscopically the outstanding feature about this section is the massive number of neutrophi Is in the alveoli and in the bronchi and bronchioles (slide 114). In addition, there are numerous lymphofollicular nodules, some of which have been exhausted. There is also marked congestion of all the vessels. There is, in addition to the neutrophi1s present, large numbers of alveolar macrophages and some lymphocytes in the alveoli. There is also alveolar edema and in some alveoli, the presence of granular fibrillar material. Interstitial edema is present and in areas where the pleura is still intact there is inflammation of the pleura and enlargement of the lymphatic �-183- spaces in the subpleural regions. Lu~gwonns were observed in this section. A section of lung from the diaphragmatic lobe and grossly observed to be a nodular area is sho~" in slide #5. The changes in this section are similar to 'chose described in s Lf.de !f4. > except there is not the degree and number of r:.aut::ophilsin alveo Lar spaces, but there are many neutrophils in the bronchi and "bronchioles. TLere are many more alveolar macrophages and neutrcphils in the alveoli. There are foci which are relatively normal in appearance in and around a large focus of consolidation. There are nume rcus lymphofollic-u:lar nodules> some or 1ihich appear to be reactive a:C!'Q some at a point or having been exhausted. There are foci of atelectasis. No Lungwo rms were observed in this particula:c section. A section from a diaphragmatic Lobe (slide In) shows numerous Lymphofo Ll acu Lar r.od·:.::les present t.hr oughout; In addition, there seems to be a marked change in the epithelium of t.he br-orich Lo Las which suggest hyperchromatic nuclei wit:, some hyperplasia and hypertrophy of this epithelium. The large focus of consolidation appears to be one of a healing lesion in which there aTe not only numerous mac rophages in the alveoli, but also fibrin and SOi e collagen. Many slooth muscle fibers appea:c to be very evident in tbe lesion and there are very few neutrophils present. One isolated focus within the lesion appears to contain dead lungworms. In addition there is the presence of multinuclear macrophages and this focus of dead lungworms is surrounded and infiltrated with nmnerous lymphocytes. In many areas of the section dead parasites can be identified. A section of lung from one of the diaphragmatic lobes and the changes in this section are similar to those described for slide #7 except no parasiteS, live or dead, were observed in this section (slide #8). A section of lung irom a diaphragmatic lobe showed varied changes (slide #9). Thera aTe foci of rather normal lung tissue, foci of atelectasis and emphysema, marked congestion of all vessels, the presence of some lymphofollicular nodules s.djacent to or near bronchioles. There is perivascular lymphocytic accumu.Lat.Lon around the smaller arterioles. There is one large focus which is very similar to that described in slides 7 ffild8, in which it appears more of an active healing lesion. Throughout the whole section the lining epithelium of the bronchioles and smaller bronchi is hyperchromatic and appears to be hyperplastic. and hypertrophied. In anoth8r focus, few Lung parasites are observed, but these appear to be dead or dying and in this particular focus there are numerous alveolar macrophages and some lymphocytes. There is a striking absence of neutrophi_s throughout the section. There is slight to moderate interstitia~ edema and the pleura, which has been preserved, does not show any marked changes. A section of lung from the apical lobe and changes in this section are characterized by the presence of a few 1~fiphofol1icular nodules, perivascular cuffing around the smaller a::terioles, congestion of most of the vessels, hyperc:nron1c:.tism of the nuclei of the lining ep Lt.heLf.um '(.7ith hypertrophy and hyperplasia of this epf t he l.Lum, the presence of many parasites of all stages, but each one appears to be degenerating or dead (slide #10). The consolidated .appearance of many areas in the section appear to be that of a healing lesion with the presence of alveolar macrophages, some neut ropha Ls , some lymphocytes, and fibroplasia that appears to be occurring. There are sec<::ions in the lung which appear rather nonnal. There are many areas of atelecLasis and emphysema. u �-184- Histopathological description of lung sections from animal 7lBHL-19: Collected 16 September 1971 from the Pikes Peak region. A male weighing 17.3 kg. Grossly, several nodules were observed on the posterior caudal borders of both diaphragmatic lobes and in addition the ventral third of the right cardiac lobe and right apical lobe contained areas with what appeared to be lymphofollicular nodules. The general condition of the lamb was good, as determined by fat deposition in the coronary grooves and around the kidneys. Sections of lung from the right apical lobes characterized primarily by the presence of numerous lymphofollicular nodules, many of which indicate or suggest a reactive state (slides #7 and 8). The center of these nodules contain many immature lymphocytes, while the periphery does show mature lymphocytes but they are relatively scarce in numbers. There are focal areas of atelectasis and congestion is present in all of the vessels that are observed. There is no indication of any pneumonic process and no lung parasites were observed. Sections of lung from the left apical lobes characterized by a relatively large area involving more than one lobule in which there are lung parasites of different stages present (eggs, larvae and adults), and marked consolidation of the alveoli in which there are numerous alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes, and nests of eosinophils (slides #9 and 10). Congestion of all vessels is marked. There are several lymphofollicular nodules and many of the smaller arterioles show perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes. There are sections of relatively normal lung and some of the bronchiolar epithelium appears to be hyperplastic and hypertrophic. Pleura in many areas is somewhat thickened and the mesothelial cells are cuboidal in nature, rather than squamous. Sections of lung from the right cardiac lobe and the changes in this section are very similar to those described in slides 7 and 8 in that there are numerous lymphofollicular nodules, foci of atelectasis, congestion of vessels and some perivascular cuffing around the smaller arterioles, but no consolidation nor lung parasites were observed (slides #11 and 12). In slide #12 there are numerous bronchioles and smaller bronchi whose lumina contain numbers of neutrophils. Much alveolar macrophages are present in many of the alveoli, along with few lymphocytes, but the alveoli themselves are still discernable. Thus, there is not the consolidation and disruption of the architecture of the lung, as in many of the previous sections which have been observed. Sections of lung from the left cardiac lobes characterized by the presence of numerous lymphofollicular nodules, many of which are reactive, marked perivascular lymphocytic accumulations around small arterioles and large confluent foci of consolidation in which there is marked epithelialization of the lining epithelium of terminal bronchioles, the presence of numerous large alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes and partial atelectasis and thickening of the alveolar walls (slides #13 and 14). Congestion is marked throughout the sections and there is hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the bronchiolar epithelium. The pleura in some areas appears to be thickened and there is also enlargement of many of the lymphatic vessels in the pleura and subpleural areas. Sections of lung from the intermediate lobe and these sections are characterized by the presence of a few lymphofollicular nodules, congestion of most vessels, some epithelialization of the lining epithelium of terminal bronchioles, a rather small area of consolidation in which there is partial atelectasis, the presence of large alveolar rnacrophages in the alveolar spaces and some thickening of the alveolar walls (slides #15 and 16). Parasites were �-135- observed in both sections. tl1.icke:::''1i~{'ig and ed.2·.:::~3. in tl'!.e pleu:ra.. S2c·~io:..1.s of Lung from the right diaphragmatic ~obe :::.re c~-2:C3.c'cerized.by re2.atively large areas of consolidation in w~!.ic"!:': ~:'"2::ceare GUl;lero-usLyrapho+ f o Ll.Lcu Lar l'loa:ules)I SO;Ti.e.of 'wr~ic:~\2::-2 -:\:::~c.·Li:ve:; 2:.11 s'tag2s of Lung parasites pr es enr. (eggs, l&rvb.s &.:-.:.d 2c'~lt) i::.:.. ':=":lC 2.~\?eoli:; :''''::.·~_!inerous large a1v201a:::-macr ophage.s a:.d lyap-:.;)c:y-::::es (slides ill? s 18 3.1."<1 19). There appears to be a conspict:.ous absence Le.utrophils" There is partial at e Lect.as Ls or collapse of the alveoli and. h1. 80"[,120 an~as ,..rithin the Lazge ai"re.ct2G. r eg Lorr i'c 2P~)c&''':s t~~at tricTE: is Su'lf~e fi~jYQPlasia takil1.g place.. -TrIere a15;:) t!ie pr,sSE'!:'1.C2 fibers 'V.Thich aye -'\;f2~y appa.:ce::c.:.'~ ~ "9JC'o·.:')2.-t~y arot:cA.1.C trlc ·::2r~T:.::':::..-.•.a L ~b:rOIj.cr...ioles There is much epi l:heiializat:ion ci:ld ':::h2 2.ii.1.ingcpithelh:,,'ii_ of '1:-£le larger bronchioles 2nd sn aIle".::"bronc"j".i ap?ear to be hyperplastic 2n6 hypertrophic. A large nuabe r of lY111phofollicular nodu.Le s are app2rent just beneath the pleura which is somewhat thickened and congested. Giant cells or multinucleated cells are prese •.. t within alveoli in certain areas, and some of the parasites appaar to be degener at Ing or dead while others appear to be alive and functionaL Sections from a hilar lymph node which are characterized by ederr.a in the co:ctical regions, reaction of tr:e Lymph node il~ vihicI-:. t-:-le gerfflil'1al cent.er i:''1cicates stages of immature lymphocytes with more mature lymphocytes at the periphery and in the interstitial area among the nodes the:ce is erythropoiesis occurring with the presence of few megakaryocytes and nucleated red blood cells (slides 1120 and 21). Sections from the left diaphragmatic lobe which are characterized by the presence of a few lymphofollicular nodules, congestion of vessels, very little perivascular cuffing of smaI Ler 2!rterio:2s. and a :cather clrrorrl.c picture of s cor._solidated lung section in whic~-l there is pao:--sfal atelectasis, the presence of alveolar macrophages and some lymphocytes (slides #22 and 23). There are no neutrophils and the alveol.::!.r walls appear to be thickened with in some areas fibroplasia and the marked presence of smooth muscle at the terminal portion of the bronchioles. there is SO:TLe or or hea.l fng is of s-..~:.oot1J. Hi.stopat.ho Log.tcaf description mus cLe 0 of lung sections f r om amma.l 71BffL-20: Collected 16 September 1971 f r om the Pikes ?eek ar ea , Male bighorn Lamb weig~,iEg 2.4 kg. The condition of t.1is lamb was ex t r eraeLy poor and all Lobas c f bo t.h Lungs were af f ect ed to the degree that ve:cy little f1.ln.c:~iorlal z Ls sue Yif8..S Lef t , Th e \j'ent~al -half of each lobe was dark red, markedly cons;)lidated 3::ld cO:C1.t:aL-:ed -:lillile:cousf ocf. of ·what appeared to be Lymphof oLl.Lcu Ler nodules gzos s Ly , N-umerous nodules arid abscesses were present -::hroughout most of the diaphra.gmatic lobes. Sections of lung from the left apical lobes 3re characterized by -ehe presence of numerous lymphofollicular nodu Les , many or which are reactive (slides #7 and 8). Large areas of consolidation indicate a partial collapse of alveoli, the presence numerous and large alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes and neut.r oph.i Ls present in a:-'..veo::'L M"G1Y or -the 2.lr,11iYla t~1.ebronchioles contain masses of neutrophils. There is marked congestion of all vessels. The pleura is t.hickened, congested and infla~~ation is present in localized foci. Interstitial edema is moder at e between lobules. There is marked reaction of the lining epitheliu:.Tl of tIle bronchioles in that there is hyperplasia and hypertrophy end ex~e~sive projections of vi~~i. Lymphofollicular no duLes are observed ill. ~t~1.is particular section and t~'1ere is or 0= �-186- also marked perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes. Sections of lung from the right cardiac lobe and the changes in these sections are very similar to those described in slides #7 and 8 (slides #9 and 10). Sections from the left cardiac lobe and the changes in these sections are very similar to those described for the previous four slides (slides #11 and 12). Sections of lung from the intermediate lobe and the changes in these sections are similar to those described for the previous slides (slides 1113. 14 and 15). Sec t Loris from the right diaphragmatic lobe are characterized. by a marked pleuritis, numerous lymphofollicular nodules, some of which are very reactive. p2rivascular cuffing of small arterioles, foci in which lungworms are present and large areas of consolidation in which there are partially collapsed alveoli or atelectasis, numerous large alveolar macrophages with l}~lphocytes and nests of neutrophils present (slides 1116, 17 and 18). There 2.:::\2' neutrophils present in many of the lumina of bronchioles. There is hyp erpLas La and hyperplastic reaction of bronchiolar epithelium; epithelialization is not as marked in these sections as others. There are localized areas of relatively normal lung tissue. A section of lung tissue from the left diaphragmatic lobe is shown in slide #19 and appeared grossly to be a nodule. This section is characterized by the presence of a number of lymphofollicular nodules and a large area in which numerous lungwoTms are observed and are primarily larvae. In another section of this lung adults are observed and in another section, eggs and larvae are observed. The large area in which many larvae are seen appears to be a healing lesion in that there are many degenerating or dead larvae present. There are numerous alveolar macrophages, some lymphocytes and some neutrophils. There does appear to be fibroplasia in progress in some of these areas. In contrast to this in the area where the eggs and larvae are seen, there appears to be more of an acute reaction with the presence of alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes and some neutrophils. The eggs and larvae in this section appear to be alive and functional. There is marked congestion of all vessels and in the consolidated areas where the lungworms are present there is partial atelectasis and thickening of the alveolar walls and the presence of cells within the alveoli. A section of lung from the left diaphragmatic lobe through a nodule was observed grossly. The changes in this section are similar to those described for slide #19 (slide #20). A section from the left diaphragmatic lobe in which there appeared to be lymphofollicular areas was grossly observed (slide #21). This section is characterized by marked focal pleuritis. the presence of many lymphofollicular nodules, most of which are reactive, and large areas of consolidation in which there are partial atelectasis, accumulation of large numbers of alveolar macrophages, lymphocytes and in focal areas, and nests of neutrophils. There are also neutrophils present in the lumina of many of the bronchioles and small bronchi. There are areas of relatively normal lung present in the section. Congestion is marked in all vessels. There is some perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around the smaller arterioles. No parasites were observed in this particular section. Histopathology of lung sections from animal 7lBHL-2l collected 16 September 1971 from the Pikes Peak area: Male bighorn lamb weighing 18.2 kg. Thin and in poor general condition. The pathology that was seen grossly was �-187- primaTily that in the lungs in which there was pL2urnonic involvement of the right lung. early fibrous 2-2:1esio':cs chat for-Heo. bet1Afeenthe ventral border or the ap Lca.I cazd i ac :;'obes 0.;::21.:h2 pari2"Cal pleura. The vent.r a.L half of the whole lung -;lias rather g:;:ey Ln appearance and these individual lobules were demar car ed grey> somewhat gr anu l.ar and between each of these lobules was a distinct hyperemic area. Demarcation was relatively sharp across the midportions of '.::l':.eLur.g, 'I'here were numerous scattered nodu Les , presci"ably containing lungworm larvae and adults. A section of lung from one of the apical lobes characterized by a raar ke d pleuritis, the p:cesel,-ce iIl areas or fi'brir. within the alveoli and in other areas the presence of serum in the alveoli is shown in slide 1f7. There is llYterstitial involvement and the presence of fibrin thin lymphatic ve s s eLs 'which are extremely enlarged. The lining epithelium of the smaller bronchi and bronchioles are hyperplastic and in some cases hyper~rophied. There aTe n~~2rous lymphofollicular nodules present, many of whi ch are reactive" There are numerous nests of neut roph i.Ls , congestion of all '\i8sse2-s is marked and some of the smaller arterioles appear to have hyalinized vessel walls. There are four different ioci ranging from small to very large of basophilic areas that appear to be oat cell ';o.acTOpC2.ges which have proliferated and have "Deen fon:,2C1 iru::o rather ci::ec::uler i..• :2.SSes. "("Jithin some areas of these masses appear 'co be coLorn.es of bacteria. There are free macrophages within 'l,any of the alveoli ani. in some foci there is fibrosis of the lung t Lssue itself and especially '"here there has been involvement and a telectas is. No Lurigworms ,Iere observed in this s e ct Lon, A section from one oE the a~ical lobes 2.::.0' the cnange s in this section <:ire very similar to those described in #7, except that there is much rcor e marked oat cell macrophage proliferation than in slide if7 (slide ji8), Otherwise> the changes are very siIr:ilar, Lung+ worms were obs erved in this part LcuLax see t Lon, See;tion of lung from one of the apical lobes is ShOWL in slide #9. In this pa:-:-ticular section there is relatively normaL l'CTlg t:iSS"ll2 and an a:::-2:aJ.n wl-:ich almost all of the lung tissue is affectei". Tl-:e demar car Lon is \l2ry sharp followin.g along t.ne iIlte".:lol::lJ.lar sep·~G..Ihoy,je~s ~=t~:_e"Ye is SOIne interstitial LnvoIvercent; as well 28 a pleuritis:7 especialljJ i:c. tl~·c pleura that is covering the affected ar eas . \i:fithin the section 2::::efew eggs. larvae and adults or I-uIlg·worI!:[,s.. T:rLf:::::-_~e aYe n·i.lI!}.el~O·US 2_YTil~~:h.of.;)11icular nodules, some of 'which s eem to be qui'ce reacti"'le v 'i:i:'E:.reis c.iso bronchiolitis of varying degrees ar ound the different b:c0nchioles. Conge s t.Lon is very mar ked , Ther e are rie s r s of neu1:Top'hils" ri'he lil1.irig epithelium of the bronchioles is hyperp Last Lc and/or hypertrophic. There is atelectasis with the presence of numerous macrophage s , 'I'her e is thickening of many of the alveolar septae 9 and in some cases a fibrosisv Epithelialization of the lining epitheliruu or the terminal bronchioles is present and in some cases this gives 'c"heappearance "that there are large multinucleated cells present. There are neutrophils in ,,"i v Some of the smaller vessel walls appear to be undergoing hyalinization. In the more normal portion of the section there are lYil,-phofol1icular nodules, congestion of vessels, hyperplasia and smn2 nypertrophy of the lining epithelium of the broTichioles. Presence of neutrophils is in the lumen of the Dronchioles, and in several of the alveoli there are numerous alveolar macrophages and neut rophf Ls present arid so .e of the �-188- walls of the small arterioles seem to be degenerating. A section of one of the apical lobes containing rather normal lung tissue and lung tissue which is markedly affected is shown in slide #10. The changes that are present in this section are very similar to those changes described for slide #9, except there is present a rather large focus of oat cell macrophages which appears to be melted off by inflammatory elements and surrounding this appears to be a conSiderable amount of fibrosis of the lung parenchyma. Parasites, especially larvae, are very numerous in this section. A section from one of the apical lobes and the changes in this section are similar to those described for slide #10 except no parasites were observed in this section and there were no oat cell macrophages observed (slide #11). There is also no adjacent or contiguous normal lung tissue which was present in slide #10. A section from one of the apical lobes and the changes observed in this section are similar to those described for slide #11, except the changes are less marked than those in slide #11 (slide #12). A section from one of the cardiac lobes characterized by relatively normal lung tissue in terms of the ability to discern specific alveoli is shown in slide #13. There are numerous lymphofollicular nodules and bronchiolitis is present in almost every bronchiole. There is marked congestion of all the vessels and focal atelectasis. No lung parasites were observed. There is within the lumen of one of the smaller bronchi strands of fibrin and a mixture of cellular elements among which are macrophages and neutrophils. Lining epithelium of many of the bronchioles is hyperplastic. There is some perivascular accumulation of lymphocytes around some of the smaller arterioles and in some of alveoli there are few to numerous alveolar macrophages. A section from one of the cardiac lobes characterized by the presence of numerous lung parasites of all stages is shown in slide #14. There is an area or focus of this section in which there are numerous eggs as well as adults and larvae, and congestion of vessels is marked. There is much atelectasis and along with this thickening of the alveolar walls. There are several lymphofollicular nodules, and bronchiolitis is present. There are small foci where in addition to the thickening of the alveolar walls, there is epithelialization of the lining epithelium of the terminal bronchioles and fibrosis. There are numerous alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes present, especially within the areas or adjacent to the areas in which lungworms are found. Bronchiolitis is present and the lining epithelium is hyperplastic and perhaps hypertrophic. Neutrophils are few in this particular section. The pleura is somewhat thickened in some of the regions of this section. A section from the cardiac lobe was examined and the whole section was affected (slide #15). Microscopically, it gives one the appearance of consolidation and the absence of distinct architecture of the lung tissue. There are numerous lymphofollicular nodules, some of which are very reactive. Congestion is well marked. There is bronchiolitis and the lining epithelium is hyperplastic and hypertrophic. There is epithelialization, resulting from the reaction of the lining epithelium of the terminal bronchioles. There are numerous foci of neutrophils, both within alveoli and within the lumina of the bronchioles. There are numerous alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes within the alveoli. The consolidation is due partially to atelectasis and thickening of the alveolar walls, but in addition, the presence of numerous cellular elements within spaces between the alveolar walls. There is pleuritis in areas or �-189- regions of the pleura which remain attached ~o the IUTi):! tissue. No parasites were observed in this particular section. A section from one of the diaphragmatic lobes is shown in slide #16. There is congestion of all vessels. There is a large area within the section which is relatively normal and the architecture is quite discernable. In another area of this particular section is the presence of supposedly what was observed grossly as a nodule and <Nithin this area there are all stages of the lungworm (egg, larvae. and adults). Most of these are present within the alveoli and within this area appe ar s to be foci in which most of the parasites are either degenerating or dead. In another focus the parasites seem to be rather healthy and alive at the time of death of the animal. In this nodular area, then~ is atelectasis and. the presence of alveolar macr-ophages , In t.hf.s small fo cus in which the parasites appear to be degenerating or dead there s eems to be f ewe r macropZlages than in the area where they appear to be alive. The alveolar walls have become thickened and there is some fibrosis present. The smooth muscle of the terminal bronchioles in this particular area is very easy to d:j.scernand it appears that there may be hypertrophy of the smoot h musc Le , There is bronchiolitis present in all the bronchioles -withL,- this particular section. There are numerous lymphofollicular nodules acme of wh i ch appear to be very reactive. There is epithelialization and there are small areas in which multinucleated giant cells are forming or have formed and these seem to be originating from some of the lining cells of the epithelium or the alveolar lining cells. The pleura appears 'Co be rather nOr!nal even over the area where the nodule is located. Lining epitbelium of the bronchioles and smaller b ron ch.I appear to be somewhat; hypertrophic and hyperplastic. A section from one of the diaphragmatic lobes is shown in slide 1f17. The changes in this section are similar to slide 1116 in which there is a relatively normal lung tissue and areas in which are probably those described grossly as nodules and within these nodules there are numerous lung parasites of all stages present. ~nthin these nodules are many parasites which are degenerating or dead and the reaction of the s'Jrrounain-s tissue is one primarily of healing in which there are numerous macrophages and mahY of these macropnages do contain pigment which probably origi:n&tes from the degenerating parasites within the alveoli. There is epi'(belialization of the lining epithelium of the tenni:-:.al bronchioles. The smooth muscle fibers stand out very mar~edly in these areas anQ there is a rather marked absence of neutrophils. The consolication as i..t.t previous slides is due Ln part to collapse of the alveolar waL'l , or at.eLeccas Ls , The thickening and in some foci, fibrosis. of the alveolar wall and the presence of the macrophages within the spaces are partially responsible for the consolidation. There are ll.tmlerouslymphofollicular nodules, some of which appear to be quite reactive. Bronchiolitis is present and the lL1.ing epithelium of the bronchioles is reactive and appears to either be hyperplastic or hypertrophic. There is a focal pleuritis. A section from the diaphragmatic lobe and the changes in this slide are very similar to those described for slide 1f17 (slice #18). Sections rom one of the diaphragmatic lobes and the changes observed in these sections aTe similar to those described for slide #18, but less marked than in that particular slide (slides #19 and 20). 9 �-190- Histopathological description of lung sections from animal 7lBHL-22: Collected 26 September 1971 from Pikes Peak. Female bighorn lamb weighing 27.2 kg. It was found dead and before dying it was observed the day before walking with a lateral motion and very slowly. Autolysis was extensive throughout. The animal seemed to be in generally good condition. The hair coat was smooth. Upon posting, the thoracic cavity contained quite a volume of blood colored fluid. The lungs contained 3-4 palpable nodules in the caudal dorsal region of the diaphragmatic lobes. The ventral third of all lobes were consolidated and purulent material could be expressed from the cut surface. A large abscess of approximately I cm.3 was present in the right apical lobe. More abscesses were present in the ventral third of the intermediate lobe. Section of lung tissue from an unidentified lobe characterized by congestion of all vessels, widespread atelectasis, very little change in the lining epithelium of bronchioles, and no lymphofollicular nodules nor perivascular cuffing of arterioles was shown (slide #1). In one region of the section it appears that there is a pleuritis and an organization of fibrin in alveoli deep to the pleura with the presence of many mononuclear cells and this may have been adjacent to or close to an area in which a small abscess was described in one of the anterior lobes. A section of lung from one of the diaphragmatic lobes is shown in slide #2. In general the whole lung section is affected. The most striking thing about this section is the tremendous number of parasites of all stages (eggs, larvae and adults) but especially the large number of eggs that are present in the alveoli. There are numerous lymphofollicular nodules, some of which are very reactive. There is perivascular cuffing of some of the smaller arterioles. The pleura has been thickened greatly and some areas show a marked infiltration of lymphocytes especially within the pleura and subpleural space. Bronchiolitis is present and there is some evidence of reaction of the lining epithelium in terms of hyperplasia and perhaps hypertrophy. The alveolar walls have been thickened and has been partially collapsed. There are numerous alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes present. There is very few, if any, neutrophils present. A section of lung from the diaphragmatic lobe and the changes in this section are very similar to those described in slide #2 (slide #3). A section of lung from one of the diaphragmatic lobes is shown in slide #4. This section is characterized primarily as consolidation with very few alveolar spaces recognizable. There is a marked pleuritis. There are several paribronchial areas in which there is an accumulation of lymphocytes and a chronchiolitis. The lining cells of/the bronchi and bronchioles have reacted and appear to be somewhat ~yperplastic or hypertrophic. The consolidated appearance of the lung tissue is due to the thickening of the alveolar walls, the partial collapse of many of these walls and the presence of alveolar macrophages and lymphocytes. There is also hypertrophy of many of the lining cells although they are still attached to the alveolar wall. There are numerous nests of neutrophils, both within the alveoli and within the lumina of bronchioles. Few lungworm larvae are present in the alveoli. A section of lung from an unidentified lobe which appears microscopically to be a section from �-191- the diaphragmatic lobe is shown in slide #5. Marked congestion of all vessels is present. There is diffuse or widespread atelectasis or consolidation of lung tissue. The bronchi and bronchioles appear to be quite normal. There are few lymphofollicular nodules present. No lungworms were observed in this section and again the consolidated appearance of the lung tissue appears to be due to partial thickening of alveolar walls and accumulation of macrophages within the spaces, and hypertrophy of some of the lining cells which are still attached to the wall. Section from a hilar Lymph node is shown l:i slide #6. There is marked congestion of all vessels in the lymph node, The node presents a picture of being a very reactive one in which there is exhaustion of many of the geL'il1incl cerrt.e rs with very rei.)" 1l1at-Grelymphocytes at the periphery of the cent.er , The sinus of the node and the spaces around the trabeculae contain a mixture of cells, most of which are plasma cells, but also scattered among these are neut r ophf.Ls . Reticular cells are quite prominent throughout the tiSSUe and there are also immature lymphocytes of the Lymphob Last Lc series present. A section from the right apical lobe in which an ab sce sswas observed grossly is shown in slide #7, This sec t tcn is characterized by marked bronchiolitis, marked congestion of all vessels, interstitial edema, diffuse atelectasis, and the presence of many alveolar macrophages within the spaces. No parasites were observed in this section. There is no visible evidence of an abscess within this section, although along the pleura in one region it appears that there was an extremely inflammatory r-es pons e and there is a marked pleuritis. Two lungworm larvae were observed in the alveoli of this section. �-192- BIGHORN LAMB MORTALITY Colorado Division University, INVESTIGATIONS IN COLORADO of Game, Fish and Parks and Colorado College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical State Sciences The Sangre de Cristo mountain range in south-central Colorado is a long, narrow chain of rugged peaks and steep rocky slopes. The portion lying in Colorado is over 100 miles long, and rarely more than 12 miles wide at any point along its length. This range contains 8 of Colorado's 54 mountain peaks over 14,000 feet high. Rocks are largely of sedimentary origin, not highly mineralized, and for this reason the area has not suffered the impact of mining activity so common in other parts of the state. Only a very few roads exist, and with the exception of one major east-west highway, all are quite primitive. The earliest explorers documented the presence of bighorn sheep in this range, and throughout the latter part of the 19th Century, up to the present date, it has been the location of one of the major bighorn herds of the state. At one time, sheep could be found the entire length of the range, but during the past two or three decades, the herd has become more or less concentrated in one portion not over 15 miles long. With this concentration has come a decrease in total numbers, but as recently as ten years ago the herd was judged to be healthy on the basis of population age-class structure. Starting some time in the early 1960's, a drastic change in age-class structure began to occur. Survival of lambs to reach the yearling age-class diminished to a very low level, reSUlting in almost no recruitment and replacement. The herd continued to decline in numbers, and of course became dominated by old age-class members. By 1968, it became obvious that the annual lack of herd increment was a persistent and recurrent problem that showed no indication of abatement. The first investigation aimed at identifying the cause of the problem was a two-year study done by Woodard, then a graduate student in the Dept. of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, and initiated in the spring of 1969. Objectives of this study were to: (1) ascertain herd composition, (2) determine breeding success in terms of conception and live births, (3) follow the herd from time of lamb drop through the summer and fall, and document lamb survival, and (4) assess the importance of predation, trauma, weather, and disease in mortality of lambs. It became evident early in the investigation that the problem did not involve lack of conception or failure to bear live lambs. By mid-June of 1969, most breeding-age females in the herd were accompanied by seemingly healthy and active lambs. The same pattern was repeated in 1970. Also, during both years the ewe:yearling ratio was exceptionally low (100:11 and 100:17, respectively) reflecting the lack of lamb survival from the previous year. �-193- According to previous experience, the classic symptoms of respiratory illness should have appeared by mid-July in lambs frcm Euffalc Peaks. When they did not appear, it was decided by memb ers of the ream that collections should immediately begin in the Sangre de Cristo Range, in spite of the handicap of almost impossibly difficult terrain. Ultimately, all collections made in the Sangre de Cristos in 1971 were done by helicopter. By early August, lamb mortality began to appear on Pikes Peak, approximately 75 miles east of Buffalo Peaks. The Pikes Peak herd had previously been considered to be a very healthy herd, having a high rate of recrui tmen t and replacement. The Sengre de Cristo and the Pikes Peak herds thus became the collection locations fer sick lambs. By the end of Septe,£i;:'er. five lambs had been taken from. each of these tsao herds> 2.::dJ.lorD3;.li ty of remail:!.inglambs was almost complete. Lambs collected from the Buffalo Peaks and Sagua che Creek-Trickle 110untain herds were essentially healthy i~ appearance and of nonnal weight for their age. Postmortem examinaLlon of these lambs did not reveal any significant pathological changes (Tables 1 an~ 2). Five of the 18nbs were infected with Protostrongylus s t Ll.esI , bur the :':"evel of i'Clfectior. "JaS quite low and no significant lesions compatible with "verminous pneumonia" were present. Lambs collected from the Sangre de Cristo and Pikes Peak herds were obviously ill, small for 1:1:.eir age and light in color. Coughing and dsypnea were frequently observed. Pos tmo r rem examination revealed that all animals, except a yea.rling accidentally killed in the Sangre de Cristo herd, had pneumonia compatible with "verminous pneumon.ta'". Protostrongylus stilesi wa.s numerous in a_I of these animals (Tables 3 and 4). One lamb frOB ~he Sangre de Cristo he~d and one from the Pikes Peak herd had a species or Pasteure-Jla and a gram rieg a t Lve diplococcus, chough t to be a species ih the genus "Neisseria., in their lungs. An adciitiona.l lamb from Pikss Peak also had this gram nega.tive diplococcus in the lungs. Bacteria.l results are incoThp12te as yet, but: thus far the results have not revealed any add.itior.&lLambs infected with psthOgei::ic species. Virological studies are '::ime-consuming and consequently, incomplete at rhi.s time. Low titers (1:2 to 1:64) aga.inst bovine PI-3 virus 'was demonstrated in two Lambs from Buffalo Peaks, a.ni f ou r lambs f rom Pikes Peak. Gastro-intestioilal parasitism was not a problem in any ci these lambs. Very lig'nt infections \.JithMarshalla.gia n1arshal1 -1, Nematodirus spp. and six sp ec Les of Eimeri a '.Jerefound in 10 of 20 Lamb s . This rese2.rcD.is currently being i.nv2s tiga'c:edby a team. cons is t i.ng of William H. Ruthe:::-ford.Wildlife Researcher; Thomas N. Woodard, Gradual:e Student, 'C,.0T,J Senior Research 'I'e chn Lc.Lan; Gene Schoonveld, Wildlife Researcher; Robert Schmidt, Wildlife Technician; George Bear, Wildlife Researcher; Robert Keiss, Wildlife Researcher; Gordon Solomon, Associate Professor of Pathology; John Parks, Assistant Professor of Virology; �-194- Loss of lambs in the herd began to occur generally in late July and early August during both summers. The rate of loss reached peaks in early September of both years, and by mid-September most lambs had succumbed. The ewe:lamb ratio dropped from 100:83 on July 3, 1969 to 100:17 on September 10, 1969; and from 100:72 on June 30, 1970 to 100:22 on September 18, 1970. At no time during the course of this two-year study could any lamb mortality be ascribed to predation or accidents. Physical appearance and observed coughing in lambs, beginning in late July, 1969, indicated that disease was the most likely factor in mortality, and when the pattern was repeated in the summer of 1970, it was decided to collect lambs in an attempt to learn something about this phenomenon. Accordingly, two lambs were collected, one on August 6, 1970 and another on September 9, 1970. The first one collected exhibited early stages of two different types of pneumonia, a verminous proliferative type and a purulent bacterial bronchopneumonia. Although not clinically ill at the time of collection, it appeared to be host to elements that could bring about its eventual demise. The second lamb collected exhibited the classic pattern of advanced respiratory illness, diagnosed as verminous pneumonia. It was in extremely poor body condition, and at the time of collection appeared not to have the strength to accompany the herd in its flight from danger. It stood without moving while the rest of the herd ran out of sight. The peak in lamb losses during both summers, but particularly during the summer of 1969, appeared to coincide with a period of cold, wet weather, more or less typical of the Colorado Rockies during August. Critical analysis of the combination of circumstances and conditions encountered by these bighorns, seemed to support the conclusion that high lamb mortality was the result of respiratory disease caused by lung parasitism, enhanced by inclement weather at critical periods, with possible nutritional deficiencies or imbalances contributing. This general conclusion formed the basis for a greatly expanded research effort, initiated in the spring of 1971, involving a team approach by personnel in the Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, and personnel of the Colorado Divison of Game, Fish and Parks. This investigation aimed at precise identification of the factors or combination of factors responsible for a high rate of mortality of lambs in certain bighorn sheep herds in the state. A collection schedule, to take lambs from a herd known to have a high rate of lamb mortality and from a herd known to have a high rate of lamb survival, at two-week intervals through the summer and fall, was established. Initially, the Buffalo Peaks herd, located in approximately the geographic center of the state, was selected as the herd having a high mortality rate. This selection was based on work done three years previously by graduate student Robert G. Streeter, and also on the fact that the terrain lends itself to ease of collection. The herd selected for the control was the Saguache CreekTrickle Mountain herd, located about 60 miles southwest of Buffalo Peaks. Five animals were taken from the Buffalo Peaks herd, and five from the Saguache Creek-Trickle Mountain herd. �-195- Harold Breen, Professor of Pathology (Bacteriology); Jerry Adcock, Professor of Pathology; and Charles P. Hibler, Professor of Parasitology. Considerable assistance has come from George Post, Associate Professor of Microbiology. �-196- Table 1. Bighorn sheep collected from the Buffalo Peaks herd. I.ESIO~S DATE HT. (kr;) SEX 6/16 6/29 7/27 8/10 8/23 12.5 9.0 20.0 38 . 6;'~ 28.2 F Viral Parasitic .~~--~~~--~~~~~ Racterial Pro ros t:rongylus F F Protostrongylus F :r-[ Protostrongylus ~':yearling Table 2. Bighorn sheep collected from the Saguache Creek - Trickle Mountain herd. LESIONS DATE HT. 6/17 6/30 7/28 8/19 9/3 9/3 4.8 11.5 23.0 27.3 19.1 26.0 (kg) SEX Bacterial Viral Parasitic F F N F F Protostrongylus N Protostrongylus �-197- Table 3. Bighorn sheep collected from the Sangre de Cristo herd. DATE HT. 8/26 8/28 12.7 8/30 49 .oli,.6 18.2 LESIONS':~"'" 9/2 9/2 (kg) .,'~ yearling ,,<-{, All animals pneumonia" SEX Bacterial Viral Parasitic Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Protostrongylus M H F H M except yearling Table 4. Bighorn sheep collected DATE HTo 9/13 9/13 9/16 9/16 9/16 21.0 had the classical "verminous from the Pikes Peak herd. LESIONS"': 19.0 17.3 14.0 18.2 (kg) SEX F F N H Ba c t e r i al Viral Parasitic Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Protostrongylus Protostrongylus �-198- sons OBSERVATIONS "THE LUNGWORl'1-PNEUMONIA ON THE EPIDEHIOLOGY OF COllLPLEX" IN BIGHORN SHEEP IN COLORlillO Lamb mortality among bighorn sheep in some Colorado herds, often claims 90 to 100% of the animals born eVery year. The cause of this mortality is primarily pneumonia. Ir.vestigato:cs c~:.:cocghout the ·(,J2sterE Uai::::ed States and Canada have spent their lifetir:,esar remp t t ng to d.etermine the disease agents responsible for this die-off. At the time rife ini tiated a study in Colorado we had some of the facts; 'VIe also had many of th e fallacies to contend with and overcome; in addition, we have enough umanswe red que srLons to frighten away even the most seasoned. sciei.1.tific investigators. The lungworm, Protostrongylus stilesi, is said to be primarily responsible for the pneumonia in bighorn sheep, and it may well "be; hcweve r , it may also be just a part of the total picture. The biological cy;::leof the lungworm is extremely complex and since much of the problem revolves around it, we should discuss this cycle, at least briefly. Adult Lungwo rms liVe in the tissues or air sacs in the lungs of their host an.lma l , Their life Sp::L1 is unknown, but they probably live several years. Adult males and females mate, and the females begin producing a multitude of eggs wh i ch they scatter about themselves in the lung tissue. These eggs develop and an extremely small larval form, the "first stage larva", emerges. This larva then makes its way into the air passages, eventually crawling up the trachea and into the mouth. The larva is then s'Wal10wed, and goes through the gastro-intestinal tract, passing out with the fecal pellets as the sheep defecates. This 2.arva is unbelievably resistant to envt ronment al. conditions. Fecal pellets can be dried or frozen for months and the larvae will all be alive, active, and ready to further develop. Before the larva is infective to the bighc:cn sheep, it must undergo at least 40 to 60 days of development in a small land snail. Vallonia pulchella, an ubiquitous snail in the Rocky Mountain Region, is one of the most important species in Colorado. This snail is rather tiny, about the size of the head of a pin. \\flieD. the f i rs t stage larva of the Lungwo rm penetrates the foot of this snail, it begins a period of grovJth and development. As it grows the outer skin (cuticle) is shed; a process called "molting", 2nd. the larva is then known as a "second stage larva". "With further growth and development another molt occurs, ane. the larva is then a "third stage larva". This third stage does not deve Lop further, for it is the stagevihich :'s infective for the bighorn sheep. Once the: Larv a is infective, it remains in the snail, living as long as the snail and snails g ene raIly survive about two years. Richard Pillmore, a biologist formerly with the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks was the first investigator to take the biological cycle through the sna.iL, He vJas unable to put the ·worms back LOLe the sheep because uninfected sheep were not available. Dr. George· Post, an Associate Professor at CSU, and Ruth Monson, a Cz aduar;e S·tuder~t"iiE211y succeeded in completing the cycle. They fed infected snails to Mouflon-bighorn sheep �-199- crosses and recovered adult parasites 6 to 8 weeks later. This finally proved what appeared to be so obvious: the bighorn sheep becomes infected with lungworm after eating infected snails. Yet several questions remained unanswered. Lambs frequently b ecame ill "with "ve rn.Lnous pneurr.onia" in midJuly, at an age of 6 to 8 weeks. At this age they were far too young to have acquired very many lungworms by eating snails because in mid-July they are no t eating very much grass. Mas t of us wo rk i.ng wi th the problem believed that these lambs were born with their lungworms (transplacental transmission) or acquired them shortly after birth (transmammary transmission). In the course of our investigation on the causes of excessive lamb mortality among bighorn sheep in Colorado we showed that transplacental transmission of lungworm infective larvae does indeed o ccuz , a discovery which filled a rather large gap in our know Le dg e about the "Lungwo rm-P'neumonLa Complex". We found infective larvae in the placenta. foetal liver and foetal lungs, which is about all the proof we need to make the statement that lambs are born with Lungwo rm . What we can say about the cycle from this po Lnt; on is theoretical, and will require several years of hard work to prove, but ?roo£ is now within our grasp. Theoretically, the pregnant ewe obtains "third stage (infective) larvae with snails Which she accidentally ingests while grazing. When these larvae are released in her gastro-intestinal tract, apparently they enter her circulatory system and cross the placenta, entering the foetal circulation. The first stop is the foetal liver. Eventually, they make their way to the foetal lungs. When the la~b is born, infective larvae are already present, ready to continue their development. In the lungs the infective larvae grow, develop, and molt to the fourth stage. They continue to develop. finally molting to the fifth and last stage, the adult. Adult parasites reach sexual maturity, mate, and begin producing eggs. First stage larvae begin to appear in the feces 6 to 8 weeks later. There are a number of reasons why this mode of transmission is extremely important, and all of them are impor~ant to the management of a bighorn sheep herd; consequently, the problem must be thoroughly studied and all of its implications evaluated. When the ewe eets snails, and acquires infective larvae, some of these larvae may be destined to cross the placenta and enter the foetus, and some may be destined to enter her lungs and mature. However, since she already has lungworm, the odds are gooa that she is immune to a higher level of infection, especially if she is healthy; thus, the majority of the larvae are probably destined to cross the placenta and enter the foetds. Another very good possibility to be considered is that Larvae acqua re d by the ecre i:::l the: course of grazing throughout the year may go into her body tiSSUeS and become: dormant. Here they could accumulate, often in great ll.mabers, to be released during pregnancy yec..r after year, even \;Jitl-: !1.0 f;:;.rther Lnt ake of Larvae , 7his is not too rar-fetched, for the dog asca:cid hs.s an identical cycle. The infective larvae accumu Lat e in the bi t ch and a hormonal t.r Lgge r ma cr.anf.sm s t Lmu Laz es larvae to cross the placenta and ence r the foetal liver on about tl'ce 54th day of gestation (abou t one vleek b ef ore b Lr ch) . They z emaf.n in the LLve r un t i.L birth, tL2:'1. complete their cycle _ A "Di-;::d. can Lnf ect; "her pups year after year with no further intake of larvae. �-200- Perhaps one important management problem which that lungworm free herds cannot be established snail-free environment. ;- .;l . •.. 0 rm.na 1S comes iIT~ediately by p Lan t Lng Lambs raised in a Another significant implication of transplacental transmission of lungworm is the potential problems which could. (and probably do) develop on poor and overgrazed sheep ranges. All par2sites require certain factors to insure perpetuation of their own kind; crowding and malnutrition are the avo most important. During the pas t 50 to 70 years we have seen the bighorn sheep range become smaller and smaller, forcing anir:;als :::'.0.1:0 a crmhlad s Lt uat Lcn , When sheep are c rowd ed together this means more snails per dHi t area are being infected, furnishing a better chance for ewes to accumulate g re ar e r numb e r s of infective larvae for their offspring. Cr'owd mg prorno t e s overgrazing, and this too means more snails ingested because grasses arc being rac r e closely cropped. If the Bighorn Sheep is on poor, ove rg r azed range, .ir is undoubtedly in a marginal or suboptimal plane of nutrition. Most likely the lambs born of these ewes are in the same condition. The ewe gives birth to a weak lamb, and does not furnish adequate milk for the l&mb. Thus the lamb has several strikes ag a i.nst it at: birth. HovY iOes the p.ar as f t.e fit into eLis picture? If ewes are crowded and in an overgrazed area, they will be passing a greater numbe r of 13:L-v",e to the foetus" If they are in a poor p Lane of nutrition, the number may he even greater. For ex ampLe , a healthy animal can "throw off" heavy infections of parasites, but a ewe in poor co nd Lt.Lc n probably loses some of her in~~unity. Some of the parasites she might have thrown off probably develop in her, pulling her down further, and a greater number may cross the placenta. When these factors are all put: together, and the parasite added as the final ingredient, the result is that the lambs are born predestined to die. How and when do the lambs die? Tom Woodard (MS Thesis, CSU) studied the die-off in the Sangre de Cristo herd f o r two years. Tom observed that lambs begin coughing about the middle of July (6 to 8 weeks after b i r th) wh i.ch coincides perfectly with the maturation of the lungwo:cms. Also, the summer rains begin in the high country at thE: same ·time. This added environmental s tress is extremely important> for it seems co "kf ck-o ff " the p ne'cmon i a . Field biologists have observed that the ill animals (those destined LO di.e ? ) are light in \-leight, Lf.ght in co Lo r , \weak; "snoety-nosed" aed ::iave f r equ en t; paroxysms of cough i.ng ; t.he ryp i c a.l "1,LT'.g,,;rOI.-m-PneClmonia'" synd rcme • By ·che time summer' r a i.ns have ended rh es e Lamb s have seV2:;:-2. pneumcn i.a , Ir~. Augcst or early September lamb mortality is essentially complete. given us some answers, b'Jt The discovery of transplacental transmission h' we do not by any means feel that we can say unequivocally that; we have them all. It is important to understand that several agents have been blamed as (or suggested) causes of mor t a.Lf ty. First, the lUc,g\JOZIn is quire capable or causing pneumonia. Second, the Lungworm may furnish an avenue for pathogenic bacteria to become es t ab Lt she d L. lung tiSS1':c. Tliird,':: virus may be a factor. ~Jirh all these pc s s Lbl I i r i es now in mind, let us orice again exp Lore lamb mor t a Lf ty . If ewes in a poor plane of nutrition givE:' -bL~th to unhealthy lambs ,.j:hicll have Lungworm 'Alhen they are bo rri , and the Lamo s are s tressed by summe r rains about the time they have developed a "verminous pneumon i a'", t.he s e ~,reakc:ccedanimals are then h::ig1:-iljsucep t tb Le to invas::'on by pa·chogenic bacteria which are frequently found in the lungs of ·0ighorn sheep. A species �-201- of Pasteurella is the primary pathogen involved. It is not unusual for us to find a bighorn sheep lamb showing pnaumond c lesions prLla:cily of bacterial origin and secondarily of Lungworm origin; however, the ill Lamb next to it may have lesions primarily of lungworm origin and secondarily of bacterial origin. The lambs collected from the Pikes Peak and Sangre de Cristo herds during 1971 had pneumonic lesions attributable primarily -co lungworm. Last, but not least by any means) Dr. John Parks, a virologist who is a member of the research tea~ has isolated a virus called Parainfluenza-3. This virus is quite capable of causing all the problems we have seen, without the help of bacteria and/or lungworm. }'lanyhave attempted viral isolation, but Dr. Parks of CSU was the first to succeed. Thus far no lesions in the lungs attributable to a virus has been seen; however, these lesions could be masked by lungworm and/or bacterial i:;}ctuced lesions. Viral titers were found in ill lambs examined from the Pikes Peak herd in 197:. ':£'"'18 significance of the virus, and its role in lamb mortality must be carefully considered this year and in coming years. We need to have blood and nasal swabs from wi:d bighorn sheep to determine how many have titers against PI-3. We also need to experimentally infect lambs with this virus, and we have plans to do so this year. One other aspect of the transplacental transmission of Lungwo rm and the isolation of PI-3 virus which bothers all of us is the knmvledge rha t in. other animals (swine, for exmnple) viral agents have been transmitted by Lungwo rms (swine cholera and Lungco rm) . The possibili ty that this situation exists must be f<llly explored. This last year we acquired the ability to raise snails in the laboratory and infect these snails with lungworm larvae. Dr. Parks can isolate and culture the virus if one is presen t; in the lungworm larva. This coming year we will attempt to LsoLa'ce a virus from the third stage (infective) larva. If we succeed, then our problem has truly become complex: This is the problem as we see it. What caused the problem? Nutrition is probably the answe r . Disease kills the lambs, but if these lambs were healthier most of them would have survived the diseases wh i ch they faced early in life. Where do we go from here? fraught with The road is Long and rough; moreover, tr... dang er s of public. opi~c:..iono..f:d p re s sur e . ·2 Lots of it is t Lrae , effort and quite a little h aar tbreak were ::eqc:'r2dto gec us this far) and we could not have done so without: the effort of many hard\vorking men and women. We are not going to solve the question of bighorn sheep lrunbmoYtali t.y this year, nor will sse have the answers nexc year, but we will make h eadway this year, and. next year--eveDtually we w'ill ob t aLn those answers. There 2.r2 a l1.<.L.nber of aspects to be Lnve stigated > and :?riorit Les to be assigne~; thus far this has not been done and I can only give you a list at present. 1. Collect more pregnant t r s.nsmt ss Lon of ewes and study the tr2.nsplacental luri.gT~or~ 0> �-202- 2. Study the transplacental transmission tame herd at Meeker, Colorado. 3. Attempt transplacental transmission sheep (currently underway). 4. Experimentally infect bighorn to produce pneumonia. 5. Experimentally infect bighorn sheep vlith PI-3 virus and attempt to produce the pnelliilonia. 6. Experimentally infect bighorn sheep Hith the species of Pasteurella said to cause pneumonia. 7. Experimentally infect b i.ghorn sheep wi th a comb i.nat.Lon of parasites, bacteria and virus. 8. Develop a treatment for lungvlorm in bighorn sheep. A product which will eliminate both zhe adults and larvae is required. 9. Develop a vaccine for PI-3 virus be responsible for mortality. of lungworm using the of Lungworm to domestic sheep with lungworm :i.f and attempt this agen t is shown to More could probably be added to this lis t and no doubt \.Jillbe. Some of this research is basic, some applied, and throughout, of course, there are academic aspects to it. Eventually, however, everything we do must be aimed at management. How do we get this done'? We use a research team composed of the specialists at the universities, game biologists and game management personnel. This is to insure that our goals are directed at production of bighorn sheep and not research for the sake of research. This research has progressed satisfactorily, and has accOll1plished the things we talked about because of teamwork by the following personnel (listed in alphabetical order); Dr. Jerry Adcock, Professor of Pathology at CSU; George Bear, Wildlife Researcher with Game and Fish; Dr. Harold Breen, Professor of Pathology at CSU: Dr. Charles Hibler, Professor of Parasitology at CSU; Robert Ke Lss , Wildlife Researcher \vith Game arid Fish; Robert Lange, Graduate Student in Parasitology at CSU; Carol Metzger, Research Assistant in Parasitology at CSU; Dr. John Parks, Assistant Professor of Virology at CSU; Dr. George Post, Associate Professor of Microbiology at CSU; William Rutherford, vJildlife Researcher TN'ithGame and Fish; Robert Schmidt, Wildlife Researcher li7ith Game and Fish; Gene Schoonveld, Wildlife Researcher with Game and Fish; Dr. Gordon Solomon, Associate Professor of Pathology at CSU; and Tom Woodard, Wildlife Researcher wi th Game and Fish .. �-203- ISOLATION OF PARAINFLUENZA J. B. Parks, D.V.M., Department Biomedical Ph.D.; 3 VIRUS George Post, of Microbiology, Sc.f.erice s , Colorado and the FROH B.S., College State 1Alyoming ROCZY M.S., Ph.D.; of Veterinary University, G-.31i--:c BIGHOR..."N' SHEEP HGUj:~IAIN Fort and Ef.sh Tom Thorne, Hedicine Collins, D.V.M. and Colorado 80521 D2pa.rti.TIC1.1.i: Parainfluenza 3 (PI-3) virus -itJ2Sisolated from nas al. "(.yashings of 3 of 10 Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis c anade ns Ls ) a-t the Sybille Big Came Research Unit near am.i wyomiEg. -':-;:1e tiTlE: t:-"C 2,-,:::'::12ls had been in captivity for 1 month. Several animals were febrile and exhibite<i clinical signs of a respiratory disease. Hemagg Lu t i nat Lori inhibition (HI) titers to PI-3 virus increased markedly during the conf Lneraerrt period in 9 of the 10 animals. All 10 of the bighorn sheep eventually died. Lar e , At of s amp l rng , INTRODUCTION 7 The bighorn sheep pneumonia complex ,22 is suspected of being che primary cause for a decline in the populacion of bighorn sheep and many diseasecausing organisEs have been incriminated as etiological agents. The lungworm, Protostrongylus stilesi,was initially i",;;<Licated as a:" irritant factor predisposing sheep to bacterial infections8•17> 20. The bacterid mosr ofte? i~oIated from the respiratory tracts of bighorn sheep were CorYLebacterium ,1. , ? 21 'D' i'lploco.:::cuS-»-'. -=<?C , -.. P j prllT,ary p i ty h_as not been direc.r.ly at t.r Ibut ab Le "LO t.h em, 1~vco~Jla;sI!1c. .:=_::cgi~'"'.iir!.:_. was isolated f rom pne~lli110ni~ ~·u.ngs of ·Digl~_QY-;"1. S:1.22P i!.1d.i2a·:ir~g "t}-lC"tt~is o=:ga:"i.:'sI:.: !nay be pathogenlc . 1 - ast eure 1 La->- - and but a tnogena c a rway s With the lack of ag re emeri c as to ch e ac t.ua.I cause of the pneuraonLa complex, viruses we r e sugges ted as a possibility. At =-'east: 4 viral agents have been associ~ted with biZhorn sheep, ei~her in _~apt,i:ity or ~n their _natural habitat. Con t ag i ous e cthyma " \oJas detected In Canad i.ar, b Lgho rn srieep , but: has not been 2b.-wa~s Imp Lf, ca t.•..e d ",'Q ~. caus az(....L i ve ~b! az en t'- __ -i r-, -;-"\--_c -;~ R1-·,pto'-,o-ue .1 U ~......, L.. '-~L'"-.• '''''~'''-''T''~'' .!:-' s: _c....:;._ :.U.l._ ....•.... .......;.r-~-.wn p ~ "-""'l.... ..•....'-.1.-0 shown to be the cause of death in a young desert bighorn ram by inoculation of a suspension of its lung -[issue Lito a susceptible dorae s t f,c ::'amb in VJ~ich it caus e d typical bluetongue symp t oms and s t imu La t ed tl-:e prod-:.;;ction of bluetongue ant.Lbod Le s . Epizootic hemorrhagic d Ls eas e (ERD) was diagrcosed in a bighorn s haap at -tr:.2 San Di2g0 zoo on tIl2 b as i s of e:.lill.:'cal S::.g:'1S._ 2T!C pathological c lesions during an outbreak of ERD involving 7 sp e ci es oJ:: exotic ruminants..). Finally P~-3 virus has been incriminated becaus~ of serological eVidence14. The virus has never been isolated, bUL several negative :e.ttempts have been -~r '8.:L '<'1--.-', -'n""'" .:l~-.~~-=-,~", .,.1-·, -',-. l •. ---;nPT_'" f ror Rocky reporLea. .1.. .•. l.-LS pC-pc .•... Uc:0l.-~...!....LH::::v •..... .:.._c:~ 1.:::.O_Ci.._..;...UL! O.f .l. ..2. . ..) '"_._-"" v.~l.u::;:' .. rvlll K '-_ '-"iJ •.•• Co. 'j -- Hount.a.Ln -.. bigl"lo:cn sheep and discEsses:::he s Lgnf f i.cance of that isolation. �-204- Y.•. ATERIALS AND r-ffiTHODS Animals Ten Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep were taken into captivity from their natural habitat. The animals ranged in age from 7 to 8 months to 2 years. The animals had not coming led with domestic animals on their ranges. During their captivity period the entire group of 10 bighorn sheep was penned together wi th no other animals present. Hov;rever,domestic sheep, elk, mule deer and pronghorn antelope could have ranged up to the pen and were separated iroTI the bighorn sheep only by a stockade fence. Tissue Culture Primary cell cultures of domestic lamb lung were pre-prepared from trypsinized lung cell suspensions and grown in minilT::C:Hl essential medium (Jvf-EM) containing 10% fetal calf SerlliTI (FCS) as descriced by Madin 15 Isolation Technique Nasal washings 'were accomplished by irriga Ling rhe nasal cavi ties wi th 8 ml of MEM and collecting the effluence wi.th a funnel and tube combination. Samples were taken one month after the date of c pture. Tubes were immediately frozen at -70 C until tissue cultures could be inoculated. Samples were thawed, clarified at 1,000 g for 10 min. at 4 C and 0.1 ml from each sample was inoculated onto each of S Lubes of secondary lamb lung cell cultures. Incubation was at 37 C in a stationary position. Tubes were examined daily for evidence of cytopathic effects (CPE). Cultures were maintained with MEM containing 2% FCS and antibiotics, Identificat:Lon . 1 Identification of viral agents causing CPE was accomplished by HI and serum neutralizati9n19 using specific ant.ise cum prepared in rabbits against the 2J SF-4 strain of PI-3 virusa. An iserum was produced by inoculating 107 TCIDSO I s of PI-3 virus. intravenously tHice 2 week for 3 weel,:sand waiting 2 weeks after the fiEal injection to collect the hype:ci::::mune serum. Serology Detection of PI-3 viral an t.Lbo d.ies in t.he bighorn sheep was accomplished by HII. Serum was obtained on the date of viral sampling. 2 weeks before sampling and L;weeks prior to samp Li.ng 'V;rhich coincided with the date of capture. aStrain SF-4 of PI-3 virus was obtained from Dr. A. Bo Microbiology, Colorado State University. Roerlein, Dept. of �-205- ?2SDD:'S The 'results obtained in this iE\f8stigBcioCl, a:ce SUlTi£,:a:ciZed if, 'I'abI,e 1. Parainfluenza 3 virus was recovered from 3 of tree Ie bighorn sheep sampled. Each animal had relatively low HI titers to PI-3 at the t Lme of capture. At the second serum sampling, 2 weeks later, titers had risen in 5 of the animals while declining in 1. The third serlli~ sample taken coincideuLal with viral sampling showed marked elevations of titers in 9 of the bighorn sheep and a fall in titer in 1 individual. Body temperatures were recorded for each bighorn sheep on the day of viral sampling. Sever21 2ni-;Eals were febrile and many showed clinical signs of respiratory disease. Nasal 'W'&shingsof some animals were filled with thick muco-purulent nasal exudaces. Coughing and dyspnea was COTIl.lT •.on ~ The first mortality occurred 2 days aiLer viral sampling and all 10 bighorns died within a f.ew weeks . Post-mortem investigatiOlLs have not been completed, but gross examinations revealed pneumonia present in ell. DIscussrm:; The first isolation of PI-3 virus from Rocky Hountain b Lgho r n sheep reported herein substantiates previous yeports indicating se~ological evidence of PI-3 viral infections in this species14" 18. Negative attempts to isolate PI-3 virus from bighorn shesp have bee-C!,T2portec.8 ,14, but the authors qualified their data by s t at.Lng thE..z; ·~iSSt:2S used for iSQls..t~Jll a-ct.2T.:'p"CS "had been stored at -IS C for several months befoO:E:tes-cingS and t:la~- paramyxoviruses at that 'temperature 'will lose infectivity in a £e':J days. He also encountered negative results in virel isolation attempts from r-ume rcus s amoLe s collected in the field ~,]ithout proper handling proc~dur2s18. The posit:!.:~e results obtained in 6_i8 study were probably faeilita'ted by the i'irillediate freezing of nasal washings at -70 C, a terr:perature at which paralllyxoviruses may survive for Several months and to the fo r t.unat.e 'ciming of sample collection whi.ch happened to be eluring the -viral shedding s -cage of cliIi.ical p::lelli~cmia. Parainfluenza 3 infection is rather transienc and tbe virus can be recovered for only a few days following experiraental inocula'.::io'il16. This could explein the failure to isolate the virus from more ':han 3 of the i0 animals. Serum vlas collected from all 10 bigho:cn she ep at t.he t Lme of their capture. Four had HI t Lt.e r s to PI-3 virus, which indica'Ces thatc'c,e t.nf ec t t on was a nat.uz a I one; occ'urring Ln the w:iId ar40. IJ.Ot fY"OTI.l adjac2r.l.t a:Liyaals 'vihi2-e in captivity. After 1 month in captivity, all 10 bighorn steep had HI Liters to PI-3 virus and the titers were elevated in 9 of the animals. One interpretation is -:::hc:.tthe clOSE: conf t.nemenc precipitated. the spr e.ad of PI-3 virus f r om those rha t were infected in their natural h&bitat to the remainder of the herd while in cc:.ptivi-cy and that the PI-3 virus, isolated from 3 of the animals, could have been instrumental in the ells-uir:g dea ths of all 10 bighorn sheep. �-206- Table l. Parainfluenza bighorn sheep. 3 isolation results arid HI titers in captive Body Temp. Day 29 Isolation Day 29 Day of Death PI-3 HI AntiboG:Y Titers Day 0* Day IL, Day 29 Animal Number Age 1 1 1:32 1:16 1:16 105.0 pas. 84 2 1 1:16 1:32 1:64 103.1 neg. 82 3 lamb 0 0 1:4 105.0 pas. 48 4 lamb 0 0 l:8 102.3 pos. 31 5 1 1:8 1:32 1:64 103.6 neg , 43 6 1 0 1:8 1:32 105.4 neg. 44 7 2 0 0 1:4 103.1 ne"'. c» 44 8 2 0 1:4 1:32 105.0 neg. 73 9 lamb 0 0 1:8 105.8 neg. 35 10 1 1:4 1:8 1:64 102.5 neg. 44 * Days from date of capture. �-207- Previous serological studies indicated that bighorn sheep had been in contact with PI-3 virus. The primary isolation of PI-3 virus repo rred he rei.n shows that they are definitely capable of supporting infection with the agent. Parainfluenza-3 virus has been isolated from domestic sheeplO.12 and has been shown to cause experimental virus pneumonia in domestic lambsl1. The next question to be answered is, "'(AThat is the role of PI-3 virus in the pneumonis. complex of bighorn sheep'?"· ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Mr. Peter Nash of the Depa:ctment of Microbiology, Colorado State university, and Hr. Floyd Blunt of the Wyoming Game and Fish Department for their assistance in obtaining samples for this work. Support for this research was funded by the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. �-208- REFEP..ENCES 1. Abianti, F. R., A. B. Hoerlein, R. L. Watson, and R. J. Huebner. 1961. Serological studies of iliy:w']iruspara-influenza 3 -virus infection in cattle and the prevalence of antibodies in bovines. J. Immunology 86: 505-511 2. Al-Aubaidi, J. M., ~L D. Taylor, G. R. Bub ash , and A. H. ;}arcliri. 1972. Ider~Lification and characterization of ~':y'->'::IL)lClS;Ul Clrgillini AJVR 33: 87-90. from bighorn sheep (Ov:L~ canadens" s) and goats. 3. Bingham, D. A. 1962. Study of paste-c:::-,e:llt;sis in bighorn sheep. Fed. Aid Div., Quarr. Rept., Wyo. Dept. of Game and Fish. p. 20. 4. Blood, D. A. 1971. Contagious ecthyma in Rocky Mountain sheep. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 35: 270-275. 5. Griner, L. A. 1970. Hemorrhagic zoo. JAvl 1A 157: 600-603. disease bighorn in exotic ruminants in a v 6. Forrester, D. J. 1964. A survey of lungworm infection sheep of Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28: 481. in bighorn 7. 1971. Bighorn Sheep Lungworm-Pneumonia Complex. In Parasitic Disease of Wild Animals. Edited by J. W. Davis and R. C. Anderson. The Iowa State University Press, Ames: 158-173. 8. , and E. M. Wada. 1967. An attempt to isolate viruses from lung tissue and lung nematodes of bighorn sheep. Bull. Wildlife Disease Assn. 3: 74-76. 9. Hadlow, W. J., and W. L. Jellison. 1962. bighorn sheep. JAVMA 141: 243. Amyloidosis 10. Hore, D. E. 1966. Isolation of Ovine Strain of Parainfluenza Serologically Related to Type 3. Vet. Rec. 79: 466. Virus 11. , and R. G. Stevenson. 1967. Lambs. Vet. Rec. 80: 26-27. 12. 1968. Isolation of PI-3 viruses from the Lungs and Nasal Passages of Sheep showing Respiratory Disease. J. Compo Path. 78: 259. 13. Experimental in Rocky Mountain Virus Pneumonia Howe, D. L. 1964. Etiology of pneumonia in bighorn Div. Quart. Rept., Wyo. Dept. of Game and Fish. sheep. p. 68. in Fed. Aid. �-209- 14. Howe, D. L., G. T. Woods, and G. Narquis. 1966. Infection of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) wit:h Jv1yxovirusparainfluenza-3 and other respiratory viruses. Results of Serologic tests and culture of nasal swabs and lung tissue. BulL Wildlife Disease Assoc. 2: 34-37. 15. Madin, S. H., P. C. Andriese, and N. B. Darby. 1957. The in vitro cultivation of tissues of domestic and lab animals. AJVR 18: 932. 16. Marshall, R. G., and G. H. Frank. 1971. Neutralizing antibody in serum and nasal secretions of calves exposed to parainfluenza-3. 17. Marsh, H. 18. Parks, J. B. 19. Paul, J. R., and J. L. Melnick. and Rickettsial diseases. New York, N. Y. 53 p. 1938. Pneumonia 19: 214-219. 1971. in Rocky Mountain Unpublished bighorn sheep. J. Ma~TIal. data. 1956. Diagnostic procedures for Virus 2nd. ed. Am. Public Health Assoc. Press, 20. Pillmore, R. E. 1961. Study of lung nematodes of bighorn aheep , Aid Div. Quart. Rept., Colo. Dept. of Gmae and Fish, p. 69. Fed. 21. Post, G., and K. B. Winter. 1967. Life cycle of lungworms. Div. Quart. Rept., Wyo. Dept. of G@me and Fish. p. 68. 22. Post, G. 1971. The Pneumonia Comp Lex in bighorn Am. Wild Sheep Conf. 1: 98-102. 23. 1959. A Myxovirus (SF-4) Reisinger, R., K. Heddleston, and C. Manthei. JAVMA 135: 141-152. associated with Shipping Fever or cattle. 24. Robinson, R. M. 1967. Bluetongue Wildlife Mgmt. 31: 165-168. Fed. Aid sheep. Trans. North in the desert "bighorn sheep. J. of ��January, -211- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Project No. W-105-R-13 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title 1 Job No. Population Period Covered: Personnel: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd Density and Structure March 1, 1972 to February 28, 1973 Allen E. Anderson. ABSTRACT The population density portion of this job has been published (Anderson et al. 1972 J. Wildlife Mgmt. 36(2):571-578). The population structure data were partially analyzed and the literature reviewed. Tentatively, this material will be incorporated into a Division Special Report • ...... ..:.,." . ~. Prepared by: r.A.--I.-f-,;:;}"~ 'i.::; //.. ;:-'~/{I.';, .1('7''--' Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher -~ .' 1973 ��January, -213- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~---------- Project No. Job Title Physical Period Covered: March 1 Job No. 5 Work Plan No. Personnel: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd W-105-R-13 Characteristics 1, 1972 to February 28, 1973 Allen E. Anderson. ABSTRACT The first draft of a long manuscript on the growth and morphometry of the carcass, and selected organs and glands of mule deer was about 3/4 complete as the segment ended. It is planned that the final version will be summitted to Wildlife Monographs. Prepared by: /" :"'" ,_( ( t, r;. C." {, ,: Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher ('.' /,',,~ ?',r( / ,: :. ('/ , •• 1973 ��January, -215- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~---------- Project No. W-105-R-13 Work Plan No. 5 Job Title March 2 Job No. Reproductive Period Covered: Personnel: An Ecological Investigation of the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd Studies 1, 1972 to February 28, 1973 Allen E. Anderson. ABSTRACT Histological studies of ovarian material begun during 1965 by Dr. Schoultz of the University of Colorado Medical School were continued by Dr. Bruce Criley of Illinois Wesleyan University, Bloomington, Illinois. Morphometric studies on the reproductive tract of both sexes were in progress as the segment ended. The morphometry of the reproductive organs will be included in the Work plan 5, Job 1 (Physical Characteristics) manuscript to be submitted to Wildlife Monographs during Segment 14. Prepared by: (/{{;;t:.~~. ~-?~(;~~.<r,"(:;1"/" Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher 7\ ;' 1973 ��January, -217- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No~ w-105-R-13 Work Plan No. 5 An Ecological Investigation the Cache la Poudre Deer Herd Job Title Period Harvest Analysis Covered: Personnel: 3 Job No. March 1, 1972 to February 28, 1973 Allen E. Anderson. ABSTRACT All analyses were virtually completed •. The current literature was reviewed. Tentatively, this material will be incorporated into a Division Special Report. Prepared by: /~, ( •• -{ for ·c",.? ....,_. r:: (.". I ,~-, L. ~ t 'rt (~'',.{/-'-4;·-Z __/ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher of 1973 � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/efdeddf8f6342258b7753b291709e0c0.pdf 2c09673e4fc63845992d91b3cb2dc39b PDF Text Text -155- April, 1973 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title: Job No. 16 pheasant Nest Site Selection Study Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Many individuals have contributed to the completion of this study. A complete listing is found in Hoffman (1973b). ABSTRACT A publication covering results of this study was published as follows: Hoffman, D.M. 1973b pheasant nest site selection. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver. 27 p. o Special Report No. 32. ��-157- PHEASANT NEST SITE SELECTION i STUDY Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVES During the early years of the study (1964-1966), objectives were to establish the necessary facilities and plant selected species. During 1967 and 1968, objectives were to compare pheasant nesting use of, and success in (1) winter wheat, (2) alfalfa, (3) crested wheatgrass, (4) hairy vetch, (5) white sweet clover, and (6) alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixture. Following the 1968 nesting season, change over of three types (winter wheat, hairy vetch, and white sweet clover), which were used very little for nesting cover, or not practical to maintain along roadsides, was started, and three new cover types (smooth bromegrass, intermediate wheatgrass, and tall wheatgrass) were establi~hed. Objectives for 1969 through 1971 therefore included comparing nesting use of, and success in these three additional cover types, plus the older cover types. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The objectives of this study have been completed, and manuscript written, and results were published in the Division's Special Report series as follows: Hoffman, D. M. 1973b. Pheasant nest site selection. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver. 27 p. Prepared by --",tu"",-:-~",'L' ~""""''-!I!Q._·__?r/--::-:~'::'~--L~MI---C~ ~Hoffman Wildlife Researcher _ \ \ Special Report No. 32. ��April, -159- 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O=L~ORA~D~O~ Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title .Game Bird Survey April 18 Job No. Pheasant Period Covered: Personnel: _ Roadside Cover Evaluation study 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Thomas Lederhos, Carroll Grand Pre and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT Pheasant nest searches of 76 seeded plots, 42 farmed controls and 42 unfarmed natural roadsides yielded 58 nesting attempts and 16 successful nests in 1972. Nest density per acre on seeded stands was significantly greater, and approximately twice that found on either of the controls. Combined data for the three years of study produced similar results, except that in 1970 and 1971, roadsides farmed to the shoulder contained significantly fewer nests than either of the other cover types. Predators continued to destroy over half the nests. Approximately 24 percent of the nests hatched successfully over the three year period. Nesting success increased as the season progressed from spring to summer. New growth and residual cover, remaining over winter, were both rated good to excellent in 1972, and provided better nesting cover than in previous years. Spring, 1972 applications of nitrogen fertilizer greatly increased growth of old stands of intermediate wheat grass and smooth brome, but had little noticeable effect on new seeded stands. ��-161- PHEASANT ROADSIDE COVER EVALUATION Warren STUDY D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roadsides: (1) grass, and (2) grass-legume mixtures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure pheasant production 2. To measure life-form characteristics METHODS in test and control plots. of roadside cover. AND MATERIALS Reference is made to Snyder (1969, 1970, 1971 and 1972) concerning methods and materials used in this study. A supplement to these is added as follows: Dry pelletized 33 percent nitrogen fertilizer was broadcast onto linear segments of a number of new and old seeded roadside stands in March 1972. A cyclone seeder was used to apply the nitrogen at approximat~ly 110 pounds per acre, bulk rate, or 35 pounds of active ingredient per acre. Both ends of the test strips within the seeded plots were marked for later inspection and comparison of growth characteristics. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Measurement Nest Density of Pheasant Production Comparisons Seeded roadsides contained one nest per 1.06 acres of 39 nests on 76 quarter mile plots during the summer of 1972 (Table 1). This compared with one nest per 2.37 acres on 42 natural unfarmed (e2) plots and one nest per 2.29 acres on farmed (Cl) roadside control plots. Nest establishment on seeded plots was significantly greater than on either of the control acreages (Chi-square = 4.92*, 1 d.f.). No significant difference was detected in nesting attempts between natural and farmed control acreages. Combined nest search results for 1970, 1971 and 1972 are illustrated in Table 2. Seeded plots showed nest densities that were greater than those on farmed controls with high significance (Chi-square = 24.61**, 1 d. f.). The �-162- difference in nest densities between seeded and natural roadsides was also highly significant (Chi square = 8.23**, 1 d. f.). Natural controls yielded a Significantly higher nest density than farmed controls over the three year period (Chi square = 4.42*, 1 d. f.) even though farmed controls contained slightly higher nest densities in 1972 (Table 1). An abundant growth of downy brome (Bromus tectorum) potentially attracted nesting hens to farmed roadsides in 1972. Table 1. Densities of nesting attempts and successful nests in roadside study plots in 1972. Number of Plots Total Acres x Plot Size Number of Nests Seeded 76 41.52 0.546 39 1.06 9 4.61 Un farmed Contno1 42 21.30 0.516 9 2.37 4 5.32 Farmed Control 42 22.94 0.546 10 2.29 3 7.65 Cover Type Acres/ Success. Acres/ Nest Nests Sue. Nest Chi square Values Seeded vs. farmed 4.92* Seeded vs , un farmed = 4.92* Farmed vs. unfarmed = 0.004 A slight increase in nest density on the seeded plots has been indicated each year. In 1970 there were 1.21 acres per nest. In 1971 the figure was 1.12 acres per nest and in 1972 the average was 1.06 acres per nest on seeded plots. On all plots (seeded and controls) one nest was found per 1.86, per 1.69, and per 1.48 acres in 1970, 1971 and 1972, respectively. Whether these results can be attributed to increased attractiveness of the plots for nesting hens, increased pheasant populations, or increased efficiency in nest search, remains unknown. Higher nesting success tended to compensate for fewer nests in the unfarmed natural control plots when compared with nesting in the seeded plots (Table 2). Nine of 25 nests, or 36 percent, were successful in tqe unfarmed controls, whereas approximately'21 percent were successful in the seeded and farmed control plots. Therefore, on the basis of acres per successful nest, natural controls were nearly as productive as seeded plots. �-163- Table 2. Densities of nesting attempts and succ~ssiul nests in roadside study plots during three years, 1970, 1971, and 1972 combined. Number of Plots Total Acres Nesting Attempts Acres/ Nest Successful Nest Acres /Succeas f Seeded 191 104.09 93 1.12 20 5.20 Unfarmed Control 103 52.84 25 2.11 9 5.87 Farmed Control 108 58.87 14 4.20 3 19.62 Cover Type Nest Chi square Values Comparisons Nesting Attempts Successful Nests Seeded vs. Farmed Controls 24.61** 5.31* Seeded vs. Unfarmed Controls 8.23** 0.09 Farmed vs. Unfarmed Controls 4.42* 3.68 Chi square values indicate that seeded roadsides produced significantly more successful nests per acre than did farmed controls (Chi square = 5.31, 1 d.f.: There was no difference between seeded and unfarmed controls, nor was the difference between farmed and unfarmed controls significant (Table 2). Fate of Pheasant Nests Along Roadsides Nesting Success--Table 3 itemizes nest fate in'all plots for the three years of nest search and provides an overall average. Predation destroyed about half or more of the nests each year. Some, probably most, of the unknown fate could be added to this category. Success of about one-fourth of the nesting attempts is evident. How does this hatching success compare with information from other similar studies? In general, it is about the same, In Illinois, Joselyn (1970) found, on the average, approximately 27 to 29 percent of pheasant nests hatched successfully during the years 1963 to 1970. A slightly lower percent, 23-28 percent, were abandoned, and between 40 and 50 percent were destroyed by predators. In South Dakota, Trautman (1960) recorded 20 and 28.8 percent hatching success along roadsides in 1958 and 1959, respectively. In Nebraska 19.3 percent of the roadside nests succeeded (range 11.8 to 45.4 percent) compared to a 24.8 percent mean success rate in adjoining wheat fields (Linder,et al. 1960). �-164- Nest Fate Relative to Time--In both 1971 and 1972, higher predation was noted on early nests found during the first nest search prior to July 15 (Table 4). Nesting success rates were much higher during the second search. No difference was noted in 1970 when only four successful nests were found. The low sample did not permit a valid comparison. Table 3. Fate of pheasant nests found within the summers of 1970, 1971 and 1972. roadside study plots during No. 1970 Percent No. 1971 Percent No. 1972 Percent No. Total Percent Successful 4 13.8 12 26.7 16 27.6 32 24.2 P~edator 16 55.2 22 48.9 33 56.9 71 53.8 Abandoned 4 13.8 4 8.9 5 8.6 13 9.9 Unknown 5 17.2 7 15.5 4 6.9 16 12.1 Nest Fate Destroyed Table 4. Early and late season nest success 1970, 1971 and 1972. in the roadside study areas, Year Period Total Nests Number Successful Percent Successful 1970 Before July 15 14 2 14.3 After July 15 14 2 14.3 Before July 15 22 4 18.2 After July 15 23 8 34.8 Before July 15 41 7 17.1 After July 15 17 9 53.0 1971 1972 �-165- Proximal Cover Associations Seeded grasses, alfalfa and their combinations with weeds, downy brome and residual cover were used extensively by pheasants for nesting in 1972 (Table 5). Weeds and residual cover, which ranked high in use in 1970 were utilized much less in 1972. Downy brome continued to rank as secondary, but important, nesting cover in the seeded plots. These results probably reflect declines in quantities of weeds and residual blown in cover in the seeded roadsides. Meanwhile, downy brome has continued to compete with seeded stands in many of the seeded plots. The farmed roadside controls contained an abundance of downy brome which spread, in many instances, into the edge of the green wheat in 1972. Ample spring moisture permitted higher than normal growth which apparently attracted nesting hens. Six of ten nests found in farmed controls were associated with downy b rome • There is some evidence indicating pheasants primarily utilize cover along road edges of farmed controls when cover is present in the farmed portion of the plot. Lesser use is received when summer fallow is adjacent. Nine of 14 nests were found in plots adjacent to green wheat fields during the past three years. The remaining five were adjacent to summer fallow when found, but actually may have been started when wheat stubble was still present. One of these was located in a 10 to 12 foot wide atypical road shoulder. Most road shoulders average only two to four feet in width, in farmed controls, and the remainder acreage is farmed. During the three years of nest search, nests have not been fOlmd in green wheat, although this cover occupies about 35 percent of the farmed controls. Winter wheat often possesses height and above ground canopies equal or better than grasses, but it lacks the residual camouflage cover and litter possessed by untilled cover types (Table 6). Past studies in Nebraska (Linder et ale 1960), South Dakota (Trautman 1960) and other states all indicate that nest densities in small grain fields are low in comparison to those in natural roadsides. However, because of large acreages and relative safe nesting conditions in small grain lands, a majority of the pheasants produced come from these fields. Since wheat fields comprise even a greater percent of the available nesting cover in Northeast Colorado than in Nebraska and South Dakota study areas, it can be assumed with confidence that these fields are the key to pheasant production here. Roadside cover approximates one-half of one percent of the land area, or about three acres in every 640 acre section (Snyder 1970). Green wheat occupies about 250 o.r mo re acres out of every 640. Pheasants also used a wide variety of cover types for nesting in the unfarmed . natural controls. Weeds and residual cover ranked high. Native grasses, downy brome and a variety of others, were also included (Table 5). �-166- Table 5. pheasants Utilization of vegetation within roadside cover types by nesting during the summers of 1970, 1971 and 1972. Plot Type Seeded Cover Type Combined Total Roadside Seeded Grass Grass-Alfalfa Seeded Alfalfa Grass-Downy Brome Alfalfa-Downy Brome Straight Downy Brome Grass and Residual Weeds Grass, Alfalfa and Weeds Grass, Alfalfa and Downy Brome Alfalfa, Weeds and Downy Brome Green Weeds Weeds and Residual Weeds, Residual and Downy Brome Grass, Green Weeds and Residual Subtotal Unfarmed Number of Nests 1970 1971 1972 4 1 9 1 8 6 1 1 o o 2 6 9 o 3 4 6 2 2 1 o 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 o o 1 1 o 11 1 o 22 Roadside o o o 21 8 1 5 4 11 4 4 3 2 3 4 2 4 12 4 4 32 39 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 4 4 2 4 6 3 93 (C2) o o o Native Grass Native Grass and Downy Brome Straight Downy Brome Downy Brome and Residual Green Weeds Green Weeds and Residual Straight Residual Cover Downy Brome, Weeds and Residual o o 2 o 2 1 1 Subtotal 5 11 9 25 o o o 1 o 1 2 1 3 3 3 2 Farmed Roadside o 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 (Cl) Native Grass Downy Brome and Residual Green Weeds and Residual Straight Downy Brome Green Weeds Downy Brome and Green Weeds Green Weeds, Residual and Downy Brome Subtotal 1 2 o o o o o 2 2 2 o o 1 1 2 2 10 14 2 o o �-167- Table 6. Comparisons study plot types. l/ of height and density for 1971 and 1972 on roadside June Measurement Density Height 1972 1971 1972 1971 Plot Type May Measurement Density Height 1972 1971 1972 1971 Seeded 8.71 l3.l8 1.65 2.14 16.31 19.00 2.23 2.51 Control 6.08 8.07 1. 35 1.71 13.06 15.10 2.01 2.50 Farmed Control~/ 14.18 17.33 1.66 1.95 26.72 25.53 2.19 2.43 Unfarmed 1I Ocular estimates of density were based on a scale of 1 to 3 using the latter figure for high density. Height is represented as inches above ground. ~/ Only plots containing Life-Form small grains were sampled. Characteristics of Roadside Cover Height and Density Measurements Mid-May and late June height and density measurements were completed on 15 seeded plots, 10 unfarmed controls, and 10 farmed controls. In the latter group, only those containing stands of small grain were sampled, both in 1971 and 1972. Density estimates on all groups were higher than in the preceding year (Table 6). In seeded and unfarmed controls, residual cover remained standing because of lack of snow over winter. Spring moisture also prompted excellent new growth on all plots. Cover in seeded and unfarmed controls was also slightly taller than were samples obtained in previous years. Fertilization of Seeded Stands Little observable effect of nitrogen applications was noted by visual inspection of new seeded stands (4 years or younger). Two old seeded stands showed readily observable effects of nitrogen application. The first was a pure seeded stand of intermediate wheat grass (Group 10-7-45) seeded by the farmer in approximately 1965. When the stand was initially seeded, it was dense and quickly became root bound and suppressed in overall vigor. By 1970, the stems were open in placement and not considered attractive to nesting pheasants. In late July, 1972, height and weight samples were randomly obtained on the sample area fertilized in March, 1972, and proximal unfertilized portions of the plot. Twelve height measurements averaged 29.3 inches tall on the fertilized section compared to 21.2 inches on the unfertilized sample. �-168- Twelve square foot wet weight samples averaged 100.4 grams on the fertilized section, compared to 57.6 grams in the unfertilized samples. Both height and weight were significantly greater on the fertilized strip (Table 7). Table 7. A comparison of vegetative height and weight unfertilized old grass stands, July 1972. Grass Type Treatment Sample Size Mean Height X Sample Weight Intermediate Wheatgrass Fertilized 12 29.3 100.4 Untreated 12 21.2 57.6 Fertilized 12 22.7 131.4 Untreated 12 16.1 67.S Brome Grass on fertilized and t Value of Height t Value of Weight 3.66** 5.32** 3.43** 5.70** A second test was made on an old stand of pure brome grass. The age of the stand is unknown. It contained high stem density but height was considered inadequate for good nesting cover in all but wet years. Again statistically significant growth results were obtained by use of the nitrogen (Table 7). Visual inspection also showed dramatic differences between treated and untreated portions of the plot. LITERATURE CITED Joselyn G. B. 1970. Management of roadside cover for nesting pheasants. Job Completion Rpt. Illinois Proj. 10-66-R-S. Job No.3. 41 p. Linder, R. L., D. L. Lyon, and C. P. Agee. 1960. An analysis of pheasant nesting in South-central Nebr. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 25:214-230. Snyder, W. D. 1969. Pheasant of Game, Fish and Parks. roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. Game Res. Rpt. April. pp. 37-45. 1970a. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April. pp. 109-114. 1970b. Pheasant Hen Harvest Investigation - Final Report. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April. pp. 3-81. �-169- Snyder, W. D. 1971. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April. pp. 27-39. 1972. Pheasant roadside cover evaluation study. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April. pp. 21-29. Trautman, C. G. 1960. Evaluation of pheasant nesting habitat in Eastern South Dakota. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 25:202-213. ,o/Lalz/teJi- &. .d-rt~/rI:Uc./' ~ Prepared by )/,} Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher r ~ / f I ��April, 1973 -171- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~------------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 3 Game Bird Survey Job Title Job No .. Sa Effects of Sagebrush Control on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse Period Covered: April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Personnel: Robert Streeter, Russell Kozacek and Jack Gustafson, Cooperative Research Unit, Warren Snyder, Don Hoffman, Tom Lederhos, Clait Braun, Don Gore, Courtney Crawford, John Ellenberger, Don Benson, Mike Szymczak and Howard Funk, Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Low numbers of sage grouse observed on strutting grounds in spring of 1973 seem to indicate peak periods of activity were missed by the observers. Only one ground increased in numbers counted, while the remainder declined Significantly. Other factors also seem to contribute to making the total counts for the grounds invalid. Hunter participation during the season increased over 1971, but birds bagged per hunter remained stable. Thus, hunter success decreased. A low percentage of immatures in the bag suggested 1972 production was almost at a record low. Trapping efforts were revived in the spring of 1973 with 288 birds banded on Wintering and strutting ground areas. ��-173- EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Howard D. Funk This job has been active since 1963, with an initial 2-year study of sage grouse abundance and distribution in the Lake John area northwest of Walden. The study produced recommended patterns for spraying for sagebrush control, with spraying accomplished to design specifications in 1965. An investigation of the immediate effects of the spray project on the sage grouse population was initiated in 1965 for a 2-year period. This was followed by an additional two years of banding arid instrumenting birds with telemetry equipment for movement studies. Investigation of the long term effects of the spray project was scheduled for 1973-74 and 1974-75. During the interim period between 1969 and 1973 efforts have been limited to collection of study area strutting ground data, banding of birds when possible, and operating check stations near Walden and Cowdrey to obtain harvest data. This report is limited to coverage of the latter,it~s for the 1972-73 period. . ; . P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on: (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. SEGMENT the seasonal OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate is con trolled. 2. To investigate sage grouse numbers to the area treated. METHODS distribution of sage grouse after sagebrush by age and sex classes on and adjacent AND MATERIALS Wildlife Conservation Officers in North Park conduct annual counts on a number of strutting grounds including those in the study area. Usually, three early morning counts are made on each ground. Data from these counts were gathered from the Regional Biologist, high counts for each ground being reported herein. Two check stations near Walden and Cowdrey were again operated the first two days of season to collect various data on harvest such as harvest success, age and sex ratios, banded bird information, and hunter participation for a �-174- check on the year in comparison with other years. Project personnel were responsible for the station, with Conservation Officers also contributing data from field checks. Main emphasis was on collecting information from the study area. Age and sex of bagged birds were determined by methods described in previous reports. In early March, 1973, two temporary employees hired by the Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit began trapping, banding and color marking sage grouse in the Walden area under the direction of Assistant Unit Leader Dr. Robert G. Streeter. Most birds were captured with hand nets and night lighting equipment. Standard leg bands were placed ,on the birds, along with colored bandette-type leg bands to assist in recognition of birds by sex from specific wintering or strutting ground areas. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Strutting Ground Counts Strutting ground count data are shown in Table 1. Peak counts seem to have occurred from mid- to late April, which is somewhat later than average. Usually high counts are obtained about mid-April, depending upon snow and weather conditions. However, results also seem to indicate peak of strutting activity was missed by the observers, thus negating the value of the counts in comparison with other years. The MOnahan Draw ground (SG5), for example, dropped from a high of 81 cocks present in 1971 to 10 in 1972, with the high total bird count also being 10 birds, which were probably all cocks. Both items strongly suggest invalid data, especially when the high count date was as late as April 29. All areas, with the exception of the Alkali Lake ground (SG4), showed declines in numbers (Table 2), which could occur in a given year. However, this was probably not the case, because of late counts, for whatever reason, and peak activity probably was not observed. Strutting ground data by year are presented in Table 2, illustrating annual high count figures for cocks and relative annual fluctuations. As shown, there was a drastic decrease in numbers of cocks seen in 1972 as compared to 1971. Also, number observed in 1972 was the lowest since 1965, when only 166 cocks were recorded on four grounds. There is a possibility that some of the birds had moved to new grounds in 1972, which would have some effect on numbers observed on the 12 known grounds. The reason for this statement is that three new grounds were observed in, or adjacent to the study area in spring of 1973. If these grounds were active in spring of 1972 as well, numbers of birds present on the known grounds might be expected to drop. This is only a possibility, but it has to be considered as at least part of the reason for the decline in numbers. Data on the new grounds for 1973 will be presented in the next segment report, along with those from the 12 known grounds. Check Station Results The Cowdrey and Walden check stations were again operated by project personnel for the first two days of season, September 9 and 10, 1972. Number of �-175- hunters checked increased over 1971, but this was still the second lowest indicated level of participation since 1967 (Table 3). Birds per hunter (.56) decreased from the 1971 level making 1972 the second lowest year on record for success since 1963. Only 1970 was lower with only .47 birds per hunter. Hours hunted per bird also increased over 1971, which made 1972 the second highest year on record since 1963 in this category. Juvenile birds in the bag decreased to 33 percent, almost a record low, which suggests a relatively poor production year in 1972. However, sage grouse check station results are probably not the best estimates of production, especially in North Park. Table 1. Peak counts of male and total sage grouse on strutting Strutting Ground Jj SG 1 ]j SG 2 SG 3 2:./ SG Number Males Total Birds grounds, High Count Date o o 4 96 127 -1/ SG 5 10 10 April 29 SG 6 4 4 April 20 SG 7 '!:../ SG 8 o o - 1/ SG 9 62 86 April 18 SG 10 7 12 -1/ SG 11 No count No count SG 12 2:./ Total !/ Locations 179 of grounds shown in previous '!:../ Counts discontinued. 1/ No date given. 239 reports. 1972. �Table 2. Comparison of 1960 through 1972 strutting ground counts of male sage grouse. Strutting Ground 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 Year 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 SG 1 10 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/ 11 SG 2 43 4 7 20 26 9 9 10 2 8 8 10 0 SG 3 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1./ 1/ SG- 4 130 96 219 216 120 53 47 69 58 82 66 88 96 SG 5 19 2 52 17 65 52 54 59 52 82 57 81 10 SG 6 5 1 8 9 3 0 2 12 36 36 19 25 4 SG 7 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 1/ 1/ SG 8 5 0 0 0 0 0 6 5 2 6 7 5 0 SG 9 167 109 71 85 99 52 97 81 71 117 97 96 62 SG 10 17 77 28 19 17 0 6 9 0 16 16 21 7 SG 11 12 50 5 11 7 0 13 15 6 5 4 0 Y SG 12 14 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 11 1/ Total 446 363 395 377 337 166 234 265 231 357 274 326 179 1/ Count discontinued. '!:.../ No coun t , I ~ ..•..• Q'\ I �Table 3. Comparison of North Park sage grouse hunter check information, 1963-1972. 1/ Year Bag Limit Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Males Adult Females Percent Adults Juvenile Males Juvenile Females Percent Juveniles Total Birds Birds Per Hunter Hours Hunted Per Bird 1963 3 492 2,460 62 150 42 113 181 58 506 1.03 4.86 1964 2 217 624 25 81 59 28 45 41 179 .82 3.49 2 150 626 27 30 49 26 26 51 116 .77 5.40 1966 2 306 1,227 31 116 56 45 71 44 263 .86 4.67 1967 2 300 1,177 50 127 67 42 46 33 267 .89 4.41 1968 2 546 2,604 80 135 42 156 141 58 512 .94 5.09 1969 2 662 2,936 121 277 70 57 114 30 569 .86 5.16 1970 2 564 2,617 58 89 55 53 66 45 266 .47 9.84 1971 2 357 1,802 28 67 51 54 39 49 264 .74 6.83 1972 2 452 2,377 50 69 67 40 18 33 253 .56 9.40 1965 u I t-' "'-I "'-I !.J Based on Walden and Cowdrey check station data during opening weekends. ~/ A one day season, hence only a one day check station. I �-178- Trapping and Banding As mentioned previously, trapping and banding efforts were again initiated in North Park during the spring of 1973. Because the majority of work was accomplished after the close of this segment period, complete results will be listed in the next segment report. Briefly, Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit personnel, with the cooperation of local Conservation Officers, banded 109 female and 179 male sage grouse from March 26 through May 24, 1973. Some were trapped on winter areas off the study area to obtain information on dispersal to strutting grounds. The remainder were trapped on study area grounds. Mr. Thomas Beck was chosen for, and accepted the graduate assistantship with the Unit, and joined the project as the principal investigator in June, 1973. Prepa red by __ L J r, -'I 7 ,_,_,_J_(.(_,J".C_(.' ._)G_i!_ .u{ __':-~ _::-:_'_<_7_' _ LL_«(_/_1!'_'l._J_~ .» _ Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research �April, 1973 -179- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 8 Job Title Job No. 2 Inventory of Lesser Prairie Chickens Period Co~ered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Ann Leckler and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A complete census of known lesse~ pra~r~e chicken booming grounds was attempted in 1972 following a 10-year period when no counts were conducted except for limited counts on a few grounds by u. S. Forest Service personnel and others. Weather conditions in the spring of 1972 were unfavorable for censusing work during approximately one-half of the mornings when attempts were made. This was due to high winds, rain and/or thunderstorms. A recheck of 13 known booming grounds discovered prior to 1962 showed 7 have apparently been abandoned for various reasons and the remaining 6 are still being used. Three new grounds were located in 1972. In 1972, a total of 110 lesser prairie chickens were counted on 9 active grounds compared with 130 on the 13 active grounds in 1962. This amounts to an apparent reduction in population of 15 percent although numbers of birds counted per ground was 12.22 in 1972, compared with 10.00 in 1962. Because of unfavorable weather conditions in 1972, caution should be exercised in comparing 1972 population counts with those of 1962. Early morning listening checks in areas in Lincoln. County and Baca County where releases of wild-trapped lesser prairie chickens from Kansas were made failed to disclose the locations of booming grounds. No releases have as yet been made in El Paso County so this area was not checked. �-180- RECOMMENDATIONS Southeast Regional personnel have expressed a desire to assume population counts of lesser prairie chickens in Colorado. Census activities by Project W-37-R personnel should, however, be continued during the spring of 1973 (Segment 27) to instruct Regional personnel on ground locations and methods of census. It is recommended that this study be completed with the write up of final results following the spring, 1973 inventory. �-181- INVENTORY OF LESSER PRAIRIE CHICKENS Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the population status of lesser prairie chickens in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To inventory booming grounds located during the period 1959 through 1962 in Baca and Prowers counties. 2. To locate additional booming grounds in Baca, Prowers, Lincoln, and El Paso counties and obtain population status data. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ntnnbers of males and female lesser prairie chickens using known booming grounds were determined through early morning counts during the period mid April through late May, 1972. Census work was conducted in alternate weeks during the period. Flushing counts were secured after completing counts on both accessible and inaccessible grounds. Early morning listening checks were made along roads and trails in occupied ranges to locate additional display grounds. Persons living and working within lesser prairie chicken ranges were interviewed to secure leads on the locations of new flocks. Early morning listening checks were conducted in the vicinities where lesser prairie chickens were released in (1) Lincoln County, south of Hugo (1968) and Co Baca County, southeast of Springfield (1972). The proposed release for EI Paso County had not materialized so no checks were conducted in this area. Maps of locations of new booming grounds were drawn from field sketches made and will be included in the final report (Segment 27). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During January and February, 1972, 49 additional lesser pra1r1e chickens were received from Kansas through a wildlife trade agreement for antelope. Thirty-six of these (18 hens and 18 cocks) were used for a new release on the Comanche National Grasslands southeast of Springfield, Colorado, and 13 excess cocks were used to add new bloodlines to existing populations southeast of Campo, Colorado. All birds released were leg banded prior to release (Fig. 1). A view of the sand sagebrush-grassland habitat where the 36 lesser prairie chickens were released along Sand Arroya in Baca County is shown in Fig. 2. Table 1 summarizes all lesser prairie chickens received from Kansas to date and results of past releases made. �Table 1. Lesser prairie chickens received from Kansas. Date ·Hens No. Birds Cocks Total March 23, 1968 10 12 1/ 22 April 2, 1968 4 2 6 Sub-totals 14 14 28 January 20, 1972 8 13 21 January 29, 1972 8 2:./ 2 10 February 24, 1972 2 3 5 -- -- -- 18 18 36 January 29, 1972 0 13 13 TOTALS 32 45 77 Sub-totals Area Released Results to Date and Remarks Lincoln County, Big Sandy Creek, 7 mi. south of Hugo " " " Baca County, Sand Arroya, 11 mi. southeast of Springfield. " " One band recovered by W.C.O. Lengel from road-killed lesser near Boyero (15 miles southeast of release site). Group apparently moved down Big Sandy Creek. One band recovered from bird killed by flying into fence on May 28, 1972 on Dale Schroder farm, approximately 2 mi. southwest of release site. " Baca County, Dye, Glover pasture, 12 mi. southeast of Campo. 1/ - One of these cocks died enroute to release site. 2/ - One of these hens could not fly so sacrificed and used for study skin. I I-' +:00 I These were excess cocks released in an occupied lesser range to add new bloodlines to existing flocks. �-185- Early morning listening checks conducted in the vicinities where lesser prairie chickens received from Kansas in a wildlife trade agreement including (1) Lincoln County, south of Hugo and (2):Baca County, southeast of Springfield, ,failed to disclose the locations of booming grounds. "Table 2 lists a comparison of highest numbers of lesser prairie chickens counted on booming grounds in 1962 and 1972. Of 13 known grounds censused in 1962, 7 have apparently been abandoned for various reasons and 6 are still being used. Three new grounds were located in 1972. A total of 110 lesser prairie chickens were counted on 9 active grounds in 1972, compared with 130 on 13 active grounds in 1962. This amounts to an apparent reduction in population of 15 percent although numbers of birds counted per ground was 12.22 in 1972, compared with 10.00 in 1962. Fig. 3 shows 2 cocks on an active booming ground in Baca County in 1972. Weather conditions were often unfavorable for censusing lesser prairie chickens in 1972. During alternating weeks during the period from April 11 to May 26, 1972, counts were attempted in Baca and Prowers counties with approximately one-half of the mornings determined to be unsuitable because of high winds, rain, and/or thunderstorms. For this reason, caution should be exercised in comparing 1972 population levels with those of 1962 until additional census work is completed. Prepared by J)~~~ DonaldlM.~offman Wildlife Researcher ..., �I •..... 00 ~ I Fig. 3. Two lesser prairir chicken cocks pause during display activities on a ground in Baca County, 1972. (Photo by D. Hoffman) �Table 2. A comparison of highest numbers of lesser prairie chickens counted on booming grounds, 1962 and 1972. 1972 -Unc.Iass , Hens Display Ground County Cocks Hens 1962 Unclass. Total Cocks C. Low (a) 11 Prowers 5 1 0 6 0 T. Stalford (a) Baca 10 0 3 13 Dye, Glover (a) Baca 12 0 3 15 11 T. Stalford (c) ~I Baca 13 0 3 16 0 Hanes (a) Baca 12 0 8 20 Abandoned Perkins, Tanner (a) Baca 4 0 2 6 Abandoned C. Low (b) 11 Prowers 7 0 1 8 Total 8 8 1 0 12 0 23 23 20 20 0 Abandoned 0 0 I t-' 00 .....• Dye, Glover (b) Baca 5 0 1 6 Abandoned T. Stalford (d) 11 Baca 2 0 0 2 Abandoned Lowder (a) Baca 13 0 3 16 10 0 5 15 Dye, Glover (c) Baca 7 0 0 7 15 1 0 16 Chick, Dow (a) Baca 9 0 1 10 Abandoned Shell Oil (a) Baca 5 0 0 5 Dye, Glover (e) 11 Baca 5 Abandoned 0 0 5 Shell Oil (b) Baca 4 0 3 7 Dye, Glover (f) !I Baca 4 0 0 4 49 2 59 110 I Totals Average Per Ground 104 1 25 130 10.00 12.22 -- II - Letters a, b, c, etc. refer to first, second, third, etc. ground located on various properties. (d) was a ground discovered in 1963 by Warren D. Snyder and was abandoned prior to 1972. Dye, Glover ��April, 1973 -189- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 10 Job Title: Job No. 1 Study of Hungarian Partridge Adaptablity Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Charles Brown, Gary Brown, Robert Clark, John Corey, Gurney Crawford, Corrin Davidson, David de Calesta, Ronald Desilet, Harry Dobbs, Gordon East, Roger Evans, Mark Frasier, Carroll Grand Pre, Aden Greer, George Harrington, James Houston, Roger Lowry, Ted McKinney, Jon Moser, Daniel Potts, Dale Reed, William Roland, Tom Rauch, Wayne Sandfort, Robert schmidt, Walter Schuett, Bruce Sigler, Warren Snyder, Dale Stahlecker, Harold Swope, Henry Wilson, Michael Zgainer, Ann Leckler and Donald Hoffman. ABSTRACT From 1964 through 1973, a total of 4,299 Hungarian partridges were released in Colorado in 3 main areas A total of 135 were released in Larimer County, 1,744 in Moffat County and 2,376 in the San Luis Valley (Alamosa, Conejos and Saguache counties). Fourteen were also released in Routt County during this period. By sources, 175 of these were wild-trapped birds from Oregon and Idaho and the remainder (4,124) were pen-raised by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. o Although some reproduction followed the release of 135 wild trapped Huns in the Douglas Lake area of Larimer County in early 1964, this population had completely disappeared by 1965. Limited reproduction followed the releasing of 40 wild trapped and 1,734 pen raised Huns in Moffat County from 1964 through 1970, but the species failed to become established. Results of trial releases of 2,376 pen raised Huns in the San Luis Valley (Alamosa, Conejos and Saguache counties) from 1971 through 1973 are very questionable as to the success in establishing reproducing populations. Late fall surveys in December, 1971 and December, 1972 indicated only small nuclei populations of Huns had survived but no follow up checks were made following the final releases made in March, 1973. The probability that the species will become established in the San Luis Valley is slim. �-190- RECOMMENDATIONS The decision was made during the Small Game Project Review meeting in January, 1973 to release all remaining pen raised Hungarian partridges during the spring of 1973, because development from all preceding releases was far less than had been hoped for at the start of the study. Wildlife Conservation Officers and other Division of Wildlife personnel who work in the areas of past releases have been requested to submit future sightings of Hungarian partridges to the Research Section. It is recommended that this job be terminated with this final report and any further introduction of exotic game bird species await the outcome of these Hungarian partridge releases. -r �-191- STUDY OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman INTRODUCTION Early introductions of Hungarian or gray partridges (Perdix perdix perdix) into Colorado were unsuccessful in establishing permanent populations. Twenty-five pairs of Huns were initially imported in 1910 and released along the foothill areas in the eastern part of the State. This effort was followed by subsequent releases in many areas of Colorado over several years, involving a total of around 5,000 birds (McKinney unpublished). Even though these early introductions failed. the Colorado Department of Game, Fish and Parks in 1959 again became interested in trying to establish this desirable exotic game bird species. Evans and Sandfort (1960) concluded the climates and habitats of the Fort Collins, Craig, Del Norte, Montrose, and Norwood areas were suitable for the Hungarian partridge. An initial trade agreement was made between the States of Colorado and Oregon whereby 20 wild turkeys from Colorado would be traded to Oregon for 80 to 100 wild trapped Hungarian partridges (Sandfort 1962). Additional wild trapped and pen raised Huns were later secured from Oregon and Idaho through wildlife trades. In 1964, eleven pairs of wild trapped Huns were held for artificial propagation purposes and 51 pen raised Huns from Oregon were added to this stock in 1965, since it was deemed desirable to release relatively large groups of birds and the potential for securing wild trapped stock was low. The study was initiated by Wayne W. Sandfort from September, 1961 to March, 1963, continued by Harold M. Swope from April 1963 to July 1968, continued and concluded by Donald M. Hoffman during the period August 1968 to March 1973. Throughout the entire period of the study (1961-1973) the two main objectives were to release Hungarian partridges and determine the success of Ln t roduc t Lons . P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of Hungarian partridges to establish reproducing populations in mixed brushland~heatland habitat in selected sites in Colorado. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this study have varied by years and by individual investigator. These are summarized with the source of data given in parentheses after the year as follows: 1961 (Sandfort 1962) A trade agreement was made between the states of Colorado and Oregon whereby 20 wild turkeys from Colorado would be traded to Oregon for 80-100 wild �-192- Hungarian partridges. The wild turkeys were shipped to Oregon during February 1961. Preliminary to release of the Huns, surveys were made within several areas suggested by Evans and Sandfort (1960). Two initial sites selected for release of the wild birds were the Round Bottom Area of Moffat County and the Douglas Lake Area of Larimer County. 1962 (Sandfort 1963) Procedures of the study, in the event birds are received, will involve gentle release from a holding pen in the excellent ~over around Douglas Lake, north of Fort Collins. Several birds will be held in captivity in attempts to establish a sizable breeding flock, making large scale trial releases eventually possible. Following introduction, periodic field surveys will be conducted to determine reproductive success, disperson, general survival and adaptability. 1963 (Swope 1964) About half the birds received from Oregon and Idaho were held in small pens at the release sites for several days prior to liberation. They were fed, watered and allowed to leave the pens voluntarily. Feed and water were placed near the release sites through the late winter months. Release areas were covered on foot and nearby roadsides were driven in an effort to observe the Huns. Local Department personnel assisted in these surveys. People working and living in the vicinity of the releases were interviewed regarding their observations. 1964 (Swope 1965) It was found that standard roadside census techniques were of little use in observing Huns. The intensive search of large areas of cover on foot produced very few observations. Most birds were seen by accident while observers were working or passing through the area. Local ranchers were again interviewed. Release techniques were similar to those used a year ago. About half the birds were held in a small pen for several days while the remainder were released in the same area. Feed was scattered around the release area until the snow disappeared. A graduate student (Ted D. McKinney) from Colorado State University was assigned to a study of the Hungarian partridge in the Douglas Lake area. His work included the compilation of basic life history data and an evaluation of the Larimer County release. 1965 (Swope 1966) Roadside census methods and searches of release site vicinities on foot proved ineffective. Interviews of local residents, and observations by resident Game, Fish and Parks Department personnel were also made without success. 1966 (Swope 1967) Wildlife Conservation Officers and ranchers in the vicinities of the release sites have been asked through newspaper articles and personal contact to be �-193- on the lookout for Huns and to record number, location, and observation date. These persons were interviewed by a mailed questionnaire to check on the results of their observations and some were contacted personally. 1967 (Swope 1968) Followup personal contacts were made on a landowner questionnaire circulated in 1966. Locally assigned Department personnel were asked to obtain and report information on Hun sightings. Hungarian partridge produced at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station as a result of a study to develop production techniques were released in the Craig area. 1968 (Hoffman 1969) Twenty followup mail questionnaires were sent in December 1968 to landowners in Moffat County who answered the 1966 mail questionnaire. Due to personnel changes, no landowner contacts were made during 1968. 1969 (Hoffman 1970) Field releases of pen raised stock were made with the use of a helicopter to fly the crated birds from Round Bottom on the north side of the Yampa River to Isles Mountain south of the river. Intensive field searches were made by Project W-37-R personnel during the periods June 11-13. July 14-17, August 5-8, 18-22, 26-29 and September 2-5, 1969. In addition, persons living and ,working_ in or near the release site were interviewed and observations reported were recorded. A winter search of the release sites and surrounding areas in MOffat County by 12 Division employees including 2 Researchers, 6 w.c.o Trainees, 3 W.C.O.'s, and 1 Area Supervisor was made during the last week of February 1970. 1970 (Hoffman 1971) Field releases of pen raised Huns were made in 3 areas an Moffat County on April 24, 1970. Intensive field searches were made by Project W-37-R personnel during the periods June 15-19; August 25-28; and September 14-17, 1970. In addition, persons living and working in or near the release sites were interviewed and observations were recorded. 1971 (Hoffman 1972) On April 23, 1971, 655 pen raised Hungarian partridges from holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and the Rocky Ford Bird Farm were released at 3 sites in the San Luis Valley. Intensive field searches of all release sites in the San Luis Valley were made by Project personnel during the periods June 7-11, July 14-15, August 2-6, September 13-16, and December 9-11, 1971. Persons living or working in or near the release sites were interviewed and observations were recorded. Reports of Huns from Moffat County were investigated during the period June 29-July 2, 1971. 1972 (Hoffman 1973) On April 25, 1972, 530 pen raised Hungarian partridges from holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station were released at the same 3 sites �-194- in the San Luis.Valley as the 1971 releases. On July 24, 1972, 86 breeders used in the 1972 test series were transported to the Hot Creek Management Area site in the San Luis Valley and added to the earlier releases. Intensive field searches of all release sites in the San Luis Valley were made by Project personnel in June, July. and December, 1972. Persons living or working in or near the release sites and surrounding areas were interviewed and observations were recorded. During the period March 20 through March 24, 1973 additional field releases were made of 1,105 pen raised Huns at 5 sites in the San Luis Valley. These were the remainder of the pen raised stock held at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 lists all field releases of Hungarian partridges in Colorado for the period 1964 through 1973. IX total of 135 Huns were released in Larimer County in 1964 at a site shown in Fig. I, 1.774 in Moffat County at sites shown in Fig. 2, 1,928 in Alamosa and Saguache counties at sites shown in Fig. 3, and 448 in Conejos County at a site shown in Fig. 4. The map location of a release of 14 on April 30, 1968 in Routt County is not shown because the exact location is unknown. Thus, a total of 4,299 Hungarian partridges were released in Colorado in 3 main areas from 1964 through 1973. By source, 175 of these we re wil d trapped birds from Ore gon and Idaho and the remainde r (4 ,124) we re pen ~aised by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Table 2 lists Hungarian partridge reports and observations for Moffat County for the years 1969 through 1971, and Table 3 lists similar information for the San Luis Valley (Alamosa, Conejos, and Saguache counties) for 1971 and 1972. Findings are summarized by years with the source of data 3hown in parentheses as follows: 1961 (Sandfort 1962) Attempts to trap wild Hungarian partridge during the winter of 1961-62 in Oregon, were unsuccessful. Trapping efforts will be resumed during the fall and winter of 1962-63. 1962 (Sandfort 1963) No birds were received during this segment. 1963 .(Swope 1964) The following is a record of the receipt and dispOSition of the Hungarian partridges received from Idaho and Oregon. 120 - birds received from Oregon (83 live birds received, one died later) 120 - birds received from Idaho (115 live birds received, 131 shipped) 22 - birds taken to Rocky Ford Experimental Bird Farm (paired) 135 - released at Doug.LasLake release site 40 - released at Round Bottom release site. In the Round Bottom area only 1 authenticated report of a Hun observation was received in the several months following release. They were released near the end of March, 1964. A local rancher (Lorence Ellgen) saw 2 birds at the release site 1 week later. �-195- Table 1. Hungarian partridge field releases, all areas, 1964-1973. Date Jan. & Feb., 1964 Number Released Source of Stock Release Area 135* Oregon & Idaho (wild trapped) Larimer County, Douglas Lake Sec. 36, T9N, R69W Subtotal 135 March 28, 1964 40 Idaho (wild trapped) M::>ffatCounty, Round Bottom Sec. 34, T6N, R92W March 23, 1965 124 Oregon (pen raised) MOffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 33, T6N, R92W April 18, 1967 71 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 21, T6N, R92W April 30 and May 1, 1968 236 FCWRS (pen raised) MOffat County, Round Bottom Sec. 29, T6N, R92W April 30, 1968 14 FCWRS (pen raised) Routt County, Northeast of Hayden April 19, 1969 389 FCWRS (374) & CSU (15) (pen raised) Moffat County, Isles Mountain Sec. 24 & 25, T5N, R92W April 19, 1969 240 FCWRS (pen raised) MOffat County, Isles Mtn, Sec. 16, T5N, R92W April 24, 1970 170 FCWRS (pen raised) MOffat County, Johnson Gulch Sec. 15, T6N, R91W April 24, 1970 234 FCWRS (pen raised) MOffat County, Jubb Creek Sec. 35, T5N, R93W April 24, 1970 270 FCWRS (pen raised) Moffat County, Price Creek Sec. 30 & 31, T4N, R95W Subtotal 1,788 April 23, 1971 286 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Alamosa Co., Robert Young-farm Sec. 7, T38N, RllE April 23, 1971 200 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Conejos Co., Hot Creek Management Area Sec. 15, T35N, R7E �-196- Table 1. Hungarian partridge field releases, all areas, 1964-1973 (cont.). Number Released Source of Stock April 23, 1971 169 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Saguache Co., Ernest Stoeber farm Sec. 32, T4lN, RlOE April 25, 1972 103 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Alamosa Co., Robert Young farm Sec. 7, T38N, RlIE April 25, 1972 162 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Conejos Co., Hot Creek Management Area Sec. 15, T35N, R7E April 25, 1972 265 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley Saguache Co., Ernest Stoeber farm Sec. 32, T41N, RlOE July 24, 1972 86 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Conejos Co., Hot Creek Management Area Sec. 15, T35N, R7E March 20, 1973 328 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Alamosa Co., Ernest Stoeber farm Sec. 25, T40N, R9E March 21, 1973 180 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Alamosa Co., Robert Young farm Sec. 7, T39N, RlOE March 21, 1973 180 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley Saguache Co., Ernest Stoeber farm Sec. 22, T4lN, RlOE March 24, 1973 240 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Alamosa Co., William McKinley farm Sec. 35, T40N, RlOE March 24, 1973 177 FCWRS (pen raised) San Luis Valley, Alamosa Co., Eric Ecklund farm Sec. 18, T40N, RlOE Subtotal 2,376 Grand Total -4,299 Date Release Area * An additional 22 birds (11 pairs) were taken to Rocky Ford Experimental Bird Farm from this shipment. On October 6, 1965, 51 (pen raised) birds were received from Oregon and were taken to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental breeding purposes. On February 19, 1970, 13 1969 hatched Huns from eggs secured from wild trapped birds in England were received from Winchester Farms, Alton, Illinois and were used for experimental breeding purposes in 1970 and later years. �Fig. 1. Portion of Larimer County showing location with numbers of Hungarian partridge released during 1964. ofuL_ ~n_~~~ R.68W I _ ~ -!l." _~ I_.ft! ~ ~ �.. , R91W SHEET 3 T.6 N N \ .. T5N. 10 II ,. ,. Fig. 2. Portions of Moffat County showing locations with numbers of Hungarian partridge released from 1964 through 1970. �-199A u G c A E H 10 I. 18 17 I. I. 17 I. 12 ~ 15 " T39N., ;;; 23 2. 20 " 21 0 2. 2' 20 21 22 23 30 2. 28 27 2. 31 32 " 30 ~ 2. 35 2. 28 32 33 27 I i .! Fig. 3. Portions of Alamosa and Saguache counties showing locations numbers of Hungarian partridge released from 1971 through 1973. FAP I: • ,".~I~I __ ~'~.__ ~I_. .. with ~lP~ __ ~~_p __~_~_"_V__... �-200- --------_ .. - .~- o G R A N E 0 C 0 U T y '"~ f5'- N i? ~ Line I I g ~ <3 10 ... B .4.0 10 18 i I. 17 0 ----15 13 !T36N. 2' 0 12 ,. 18 Ai 15 22 2' '9 21 19 • 30 MORGAN I ~35N . •... Ul Ul :x: (/) >.... z :::> o o ( 10 12 12 (/) o .., Ul Z o u CONEJOS COUNTY II II /1 I I. I T.34N. ~'.-;.==:::= 23 '9 2' 22 0' o. OJ r{ 2' l II " ., 1/ SCALE Fig. 4. Portion , 29 OF MILES t of Conejos County showing locations Hungarian partridge released during 1971 and 1972. 28 27 II /I Q) 2. ·5 o \\ with numbers 25 "0 of 30 I �-201- Table 2. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observation, Moffat County, 1969-1971. Date Number Huns Area Observed By Late Winter 1969 Several Round Bottom area L. Ellgen Spring 1969 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, BLM catchment G. Hilton 4 (2 pair) Isles Mountain, saddle south G. Hilton of BLM catchment Few Round Bottom, Fuhr Gulch J. Counts 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, south of Meade Ranch Headquarters Meade Brothers 6 (3 pair) Isles Mountain, north of Meade Ranch Headquarters Meade Brothers 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain area Meade Brothers 4 Isles Mountain, Bowers fields B. Bowers 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, Meade Brothers property D. de Ca1esta July 16, 1969 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, Meade Brothers property D. de Ca1esta August 5, 1969 4 chicks Isles Mountain, Bowers fields D. de Ca1esta Summer 1969 July 15, 1969 (~ grown) August 6, 1969 3 broods Isles Mountain Bowers fields B. Bowers August 7, 1969 2 (1 pair) Isles Mountain, Bowers fields D. de Ca1esta August 19, 1969 1 adult, male Isles Mountain, Meade Brothers property D. de Calesta October 20, 1969 60 to 80 Cedar Mountain Hunters report to D. Reed April, 1970 3 groups of approx. 8 each Jubb Creek, vincinity of release sites L. Kendall ---------------------------------------------------------------~------------ �Table 3. SummarY of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, San Luis Valley, 1971 and 1972 (continued). Date Number of Huns Area Observed By August 4, 1971 1 pair ~ mile northwest of second release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 4, 1971 1 nest with H?: hatched eggs 1 mile west of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 4, 1971 1 pair with 1 chick 1~ miles west of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 1 pair with 10 chicks ~ mile southwest of first release site, Hot Creek Managemen t Area W. Schuett August 5, 1971 1 pair C. Grand Pre and ~ mile east of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 1 pair with 3 chicks ~ mile south of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre and R. Clark August 5, 1971 2 pair Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 1 ~ mile south of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August 5, 1971 3 Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre August, 1971 1 pair with 8 chicks Vicinity of Rogers headquarters, 1 mile southwest of Hooper Rogers September 14, 1971 1 Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre September 14, 1971 5 ~ mile southwest of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I N 0 .pI �Table 3. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, San Luis Valley, 1971 and 1972 (continued). Date Numbe r 0 f Huns Area Observed By September 14, 1971 1 Vicinity of second release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. Grand Pre Septembe r 14, 4 ~ mile west of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area C. GEand Pre September 15, 1971 6 ~ mile southwest of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre September 15, 1971 4 ~ mile west of second release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre , o , N September 15, 1971 1 Vicinity of second release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre September 15, 1971 1 1 mile west of first release site, R. Young farm C. Grand Pre December, 1971 1 group of 6 Huns Vicinity of R. Young's south headquarters R. Young's hired hand December 11, 1971 Tracks of groups of 2 and 4 Huns Vicinity of first release site, Hot Creek Management Area D. Hoffman December 11, 1971 1 group of 16 Huns Abandoned farmhouse ~ mile southwest of release site, E. Stoeber farm D. Hoffman June 20, 1972 8 (3 pair and 2 singles) Hot Creek Managment Unit vicinity of release sites C. Grand Pre June 2 1, 1972 5 (1 pair and 3 singles) Robert Young property vicinity release sites C. Grand Pre June 22, 1972 12 (5 pair and 2 singles) West of Hooper within 1.5 miles of release sites C. Grand Pre July 25, 1972 3 (1 pair and 1 single) Hot Creek Management Unit vicinity of release sites C. Grand Pre ---------------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------------- V1 �Table 3. Summary of Hungarian partridge reports and observations, Date Number of Huns, San Luis Valley, 1971 and 1972 (continued). Area Observed By July 26, 1972 10 (adults) Robert Young property vicinity of release sites C. Grand Pre and R. Young July 27, 1972 Approx. 45 (8 pair, 25-30 chicks and 1 single) West of Hooper, within 2 miles of release sites C. Grand Pre, E. Ekl und and Ro ge rs Summer, 1972 Brood of pair and 12 chicks Farber farm, vicinity of Hooper release site Farber September, 1972 Group of 22 Robert Yo ung property vicinity of release sites G. York, reported I to J. Corey N October, 1972 Few groups November, 1972 0f 5 or 6 o ~ Hot Creek Management Area vicinity of release sites Deer hunters reported to R. Desilet 4 (2 pairs) E. Stoeber farm, 6 miles S. of Hooper release site E. Stoeber November, 1972 12 McEwen farm, 3 miles S. of Hooper release site McEwen December, 1972 Groups of 7, 3, and 2 (total 12 birds) Vicinity R. Yowg R. Young December 11, 1972 5 Whittier December 12, 1972 Groups of 5 or 6 Vicinity of Hooper release site Farber, Eklund and others December 12, 1972 6 (adults) Vicinity of Hooper release site D. Hoffman December 13, 1972 Tracks of groups of 5 and 10 Vicinity of Hot Creek release sites D. Hoffman December 13, 1972 Tracks of 7 Vicinity of R. Young release site D. Hoffman release site farm, 2 miles SW of Hooper release site Whittier I �-207- From 4 to 10 birds were observed on numerous occasions in the Douglas Lake release area during February and March by Wildlife Conservation Officer Crawford. I too, saw these birds several times during the same period. No observat~ons were reported by local residents, though a ditch rider (Glen Corbin) did see a few Huns in the immediate vicinity of the release site. 1964 (Swope 1965) No recorded Hungarian partridge observations were made from March 31, 1964 until July 30, 1964, when 15 young and 1 adult were flushed by Swope near the Douglas Lake release site. The young were about two thirds grown. During August and September at least 3 brood observations were made in the Douglas Lake area. Conservation officer Gurney Crawford saw a covey of 16 Huns, 10 of which were young birds nearly grown, on September 3, 1964. Several ranchers reported rare to frequent observations of these birds ranging from 1 to 300. Some of these reports were surely valid, but others are questionable. Graduate student Ted McKinney observed a covey of 6 Huns near Douglas Lake on January 9, 1965. In the Round Bottom area southwest of Craig even better reproductive success was reported. Conservation officer Charles Brown saw about 15 Huns, mostly young, while checking deer hunters on August 22. About the same time a rancher (Charles Counts) combining wheat in the area flushed approximately 30 Huns from his grain field. He said most of these birds were young ones. The Craig area experienced one of the severest winters on record, from the standpoint of snow depth in 1964-65. Snow depths of from 2 to 5 feet persisted over most of the area for at least 3 months. The effect of these deep, persistent snows on the Huns has been undetermined, but heavy losses or total annihilation are feared. In contrast the Douglas Lake area experienced a very mild winter. On March 23, 1965, 130 Huns (6 of these died in transit) were received from the Oregon State Game COmmission. These were immediately transported to the Round Bottom site and about half of them released. The remainder were held for several days and also released. This plant was delayed 6 weeks from initial arrangements because of the deep snow persisting in the area. Even on the release date there was still 2 feet of snow covering much of the ground, but the south facing slopes were bare. Food was scattered around the release site until the snow melted, however, heavy wet snows continued well into April and may have been detrimental to these pen raised birds. As happened after the 1964 releases, the birds just seemed to disappear. Ted McKinney asked 16 states and Canadian provinces for information on Hun partridge census methods. None of them reported a specific method for observing and counting the birds. Several reported that they count Huns while making surveys for other upland game species. Searching for Huns in the vast release site areas certainly gives the field worker the feeling he is hunting for the proverbial needle in the haystack. 1965 (Swope 1966) No Huns have been released in the Douglas Lake vicinity since March, 1964. There were no reported sightings of these birds during the period covered by �-208- Segment 19. Numerous roadside checks and walking searches were made within a 3 mile circle of the release site. Tracks were observed in fresh snow approximately 2 miles north of the release site that could have been made by Hungarian partridges, but no verification was possible. Discussions with several persons who live and work in the area failed to yield evidence of ~un survival. Following the March, 1965 release of 124 pen raised Huns from Oregon in the Craig area, feed was scattered around the release site and checked every few days by local conservation officers. They reported occasional sightings of these birds very close to the release site until June. No other authenticated observations were made, however, a rancher did report a brood he thought to be Huns, sighted during wheat harvest operations in August. Because of the relatively small number of Huns released in such a vast area of homogeneous habitat, with no known concentration area, intensive searches were not attempted. 1966 (Swope 1967) Contacts with landowners, ditch riders, and Game, Fish and Parks Department personnel worki~g in the Douglas Lake area have failed to reveal any Hungarian partridge sightings during 1966. Complete attention has since been focused on releases made in the Craig area. Several unconfirmed Hun sightings were reported from the Craig area. A landowner questionnaire was sent to 41 persons in the release vicinity. Seven of the 24 who responded claimed to have seen Hungarian partridge during 1966. Though 192 Huns were reported, it is likely that some of these birds were chukar partridge or sharp-tailed grouse. Personal contacts will be made with those reporting Hun observations. 1967 (Swope 1968) The 1966 mail questionnaire resulted in the follOWing information: Lorence Ellgen who owns land where initial releases were made,observed approximately 6 Huns about the middle of the summer. He felt hawks had taken a heavy toll of birds released in 1965. Jim Wilson saw 20 Huns the middle of October in a brushy draw on a lower north slope of Isles Mountain. This is approximately 2 miles south of the site of the initial release in 1964. Bud Bowers reported consistently seeing 3 bunches of Huns on top of Isles Mluntain during the summer and fall of 1966. These observations totaled about 100 birds. During the past summer, Mr. Bowers has frequently seen 50 Huns in his grain fields on Isles Mountain. He attributes the decline in numbers observed to the taller, denser vegetation in 1967. I made follow up checks on this report. No birds were located, but tracks and sign that were very probably made by Huns were observed. This mountain appears to be an ideal location for future releases. �-209- George Counts, who farms the land immediately north of Lorence Ellgen claimed to have seen 8 to 10 Hungarian partridge about the middle of the summer. This was close to the 1967 release site. Near the first of September, his hired man saw a brood of 10 Huns approximately 1 mile west of the release site. This appeared to be a fairly "hot" lead, so I searched the brushy draw between two wheat fields, near where these birds were reported. A Hungarian partridge nest, with the intact caps f~om 17 hatched eggs was found. The nest was located under 2 live sagebrush plants about 25" tall. The draw along which this nest was found contained intermittent water. A stock pond full of water was .2 mile to the north. This area also appeared to be another good potential release site. Lowry Seely reported seeing several Huns in Axle Basin during the summer. Huns were seen last spring (1967) in Maudlin Gulch by Elton Gent. Two I. P. Bicket, who reported seeing 1 Hungarian partridge during the 1966 grain harvest, 15 miles north of the initial release site, has seen none since. Wildlife Conservation Officer Bill Roland and Area Supervisor Harry Dobbs received reports from land owners in the Round Bottom area that Hungarian partridge were frequently seen on top of the snow along the main access road during February and March, 1967. No details were given. Deep, persistent snow occurred during late winter and early spring of 1967, so it was gratifying to learn that birds did survive until the warming up period commenced. Seventy-one pen raised Huns from stock produced at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station were released in Round Bottom area of Moffat County on April 18, 1967. 1968 (Hoffman 1969) Two-hundred and thirty-six more Hungarian partridge produced at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station were released in the Round Bottom area of Moffat County on April 30, and May 1, 1968, and 14 from the same source were released in Routt County northeast of Hayden on April 30, 1968. These releases were made by Harold M. Swope and other Division personnel. Twenty follow up questionnaires were mailed in December 1968 to landowners in Moffat County who answered the 1966 mail questionnaires. The names of the landowners who were sent the 1966 questionnaires had been obtained by Harold M. Swope from the County Assessor's office in Craig. A sample copy of the personal letter and questionnaire can be found in Hoffman (1969). These were sent with a copy of a photograph, a brief description of a Hun and an addressed, postage paid envelope. Thirteen of these questionnaires were returned with 4 individuals reporting seeing approximately 130 Huns during 1968 in groups ranging from a few to over 100 birds. The report of one-hundred Huns is from an area in northwest Moffat County, which is northeast of Dinosaur National Monument. This area is at least 55 airline miles from the Round Bottom release sites, so it is extremely doubtful that these were Hun sightings. The other 30 plus birds reported were from areas near the release sites. �-210- 1969 (Hoffman 1970) On April 19, 1969, 629 additional pen raised Huns from Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and Little Hills Experiment Station holding pens were released at 3 sites on Isles MOuntain, southwest of Craig, Colorado in Moffat County. Although only 11 Huns were observed during the intensive field searches conducted in the summer of 1969 in Moffat County, a brood of at least 4 chicks was located by Division personnel. Past reports of peaks of Hun numbers sighted by land owners on Isles MOuntain have coincided closely with wheat harvests. This occurs normally in late August in MOffat County. Many of these reports of Huns may have been confused with sharp-tailed grouse based upon observations made in 1969. From 27 to 29 sharp-tailed grouse in 4 different groups were observed by D. de Calesta on or near wheat fields during the period August 16-29, 1969. Three of these locations were the same or nearly the same as where groups of Huns had been reported in recent years, mostly during wheat harvests. Only 1 Hun was observed by de Calesta during this same period. It appears that sharptailed grouse congregate in the wheat fields at harvest time, and may be difficult to distinguish from Huns by untrained observers. There exists a strong possibility that many of the past Hun reports on Isles MOuntain were actually sharp-tailed grouse. One report of 60 to 80 Huns seen in the Cedar Mountain area northwest of Craig about October 20, 1969 was secured from hunters by Dale F. Reed. A winter search of the release sites and surrounding areas including Cedar Mountain was made by 12 Division employees during the last week of February, 1970. No Huns were observed, no field sign found and no new leads were secured from land owners interviewed. 1970 (Hoffman 1971) Six hundred and seventy-four more pen raised Hungarian partripge were released in MOffat County at 3 sites on April 24, 1970. This brought the total number of Huns released in Moffat and Routt counties to 1,788 during the period of 1964-1970. Intensive field searches were made by W-37-R Project personnel during the months of June, August and September 1970. Only 10 Huns were observed by Project personnel, these near 2 of the 3 1970 release sites. Some of the released Huns were seen in the vicinity of all 3 release sites from May through August 1970 by local residents. Although previously planted areas were searched, no reports or observations of Huns could be secured, indicating little or no carry over populations and little or no increases in populations from previous years. One brood of a hen with 2 chicks was reported by a rancher in the Jubb Creek area in late August, 1970 in the vicinity of one of the 1970 releases. Reports of Huns being seen distances of 4 and 5 air miles from 2 of the 1970 release sites were secured. Specific experiments have not been run to determine the best time for field releases of Hungarian partridge in Colorado. Traditionally, the early spring period has been selected because of the advantages of ample food conditions with the growing green grass and forbs and most of the severe winter weather �-211- periods are past. A field release time during the last half of April is a compromise between the near approach of the egg laying season (early May under penned conditions) and late snows which may occur as late as early May in areas selected for Hungarian partridge releases. Birds held in the large holding pens begin to pair as early as February each year, and most are believed to be paired by release time. By releasing all birds from a single holding pen at one site, they have the opportunity to select the same mate upon release. Handling of the birds is known to cause stress as measured in weight loss and transporting the birds undoubtedly adds to this stress. This may delay the nesting activities of the birds somewhat, however, there should still be ample time for the birds to establish territories and nest following release. Upon release from the crates, most of the Huns stay in a rather loose group and appear to start pairing almost instantaneously. Whether they pair with the same birds as in the large holding pens is not known. Birds observed later at the release site or at a distance from the release site are usually observed in pairs, so there appears to be no problem in the birds finding mates following release. 1971 (Hoffman 1972) Only 4 reports of isolated sightings of from 2 to 4 Hungarian partridges were recorded for Moffat County in 1971. These were observed in the spring of 1971. A total of 1,774 Huns were released in MOffat County from 1964 through 1970. Six hundred and fifty-five pen raised Hungarian partridges were released at 3 sites in the San Luis Valley on April 23, 1971. This constitutes the first of a planned 3 year stocking effort to attempt establishment of the species in south-central Colorado. A total of 7 broods ranging in size from 1 to 14 chicks were observed by Project personnel or interested landowners on or near the 3 release sites in the San Luis Valley in August, 1971. In addition, 1 nest containing 8 eggs was destroyed by a farm tractor, and 1 hatched nest with 12 eggs was found by Project personnel. Pairs of Huns were reported at distances of 4 to 8 miles from 2 of the release sites, but pairs are known to have remained near all 3 release sites as well. A minimum of 28 Huns was known to be ranging in the vicinity of the 3 release sites during the period December 9-11, 1971. One flock of 16 was observed l~ miles west of Hooper, Colorado on December 11, 1971. 1972 (Hoffman 1973) Sightings of both adults and broods in 1972 were far less than observed in 1971. A severe drought occurred in this area in the spring and summer of 1972, followed by heavy snows and severe cold during the fall period. These conditions apparently affected both reproduction and survival, based upon numba ra of birds observed. Although movements of Huns of up to 6 miles from the Hooper release site, 3 miles from the Robert Young farm release site, and 1 mile from the Hot Creek Management Area release site were recorded, birds apparently did not locate away from the actual release sites. Field surveys made in December, 1972 indicated a small nuclei population existed in all 3 release site areas, �-212- including 12 near the Hooper site, 12 near the Robert Young farm release site, and 15 near the Hot Creek Management Area site. This minimum of 39 Huns for December, 1972 is only slightly more than the minimum of 28 Huns known to be ranging in the vicinity of the same 3 release sites in December, 1971. Fig. 5 shows a pair of Huns near the release site west of Hooper in Saguache County in December, 1972. Five hundred thirty additional pen raised Huns were released in the San Luis Valley on April 25, 1972 at the same 3 sites where the 1971 releases were made. Eighty six pen raised surplus breeders were also released at the Hot Creek Management Area site on July 24, 1972. 1973 (Hoffman, Final) All remaining pen raised stock held in pens (1,105 Huns) was released at 5 sites in the San Luis Valley from March 20, 1973 to March 24, 1973. Two of the 3 previously stocked sites received additional Huns but 1 site (Hot Creek Management Area) could not be reached because deep snow drifts blocked nhe access road. No follow up checks were made by Project W-37-R personnel during 1973. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS From 1964 through 1973, a total of 4,299 Hungarian partridges (175 wild trapped, and 4,124 pen rais~d birds) were released in Colorado in 3 main areas. A total of 135 were released in Larimer County in 1964, 1,774 in Moffat County from 1964 through 1970, and 2,376 in the San Luis Valley (Alamosa, Conejos and Saguache counties) from 1971 through 1973. Fourteen were also released in Routt County in 1968. Results of releases in the 3 main areas are discussed separately as follows: Larimer County Frequent sightings of Huns in 1964 in the Douglas Lake area were made following the release of 135 Huns in January and February, 1964. One brood of 15 young was observed by Harold M. Swope and at least 3 broods were observed by Gurney Crawford in the summer of 1964. During 1965 and later years, no further sightings of these birds were secured, indicating complete disappearance. Movements of up to 15 miles from the release site were recorded in 1964 by McKinney (unpublished). This trial release involving wild trapped stock failed to survive. Moffat County Frequent sightings of Huns in MOffat County following releases totaling 1,774 birds from 1964 through 1970 occurred. At least 4 broods were observed or reported in 1969 and 1 brood was reported in 1970 so some reproduction is known to have occurred. MOvements of Huns from 4 to 5 miles from the release sites were recorded. A mid-winter search of the release sites and surrounding areas made by 12 Division employees indicated few, if any, of these Huns were surviving through the winter period with no birds observed, no field sign found, and no new �I N t-l W I Fig. 5. A pair of Huns in the San Luis Valley on December 13, 1972. These were part of a group of 12 ranging near the release site, 1 mile west of Hooper, Colorado. (D. Hoffman, photo). �-214- leads secured from landowners. During 1971, only 4 reports of isolated sightings of from 2 to 4 Huns were recorded for Moffat County. Trial releases involving 40 wild trapped and 1,734 pen raised Huns in Moffat County also failed to establish reproducing populations. San Luis Valley Frequent sightings of Huns were also secured in the San Luis Valley during 1971 and 1972 following releases made. No follow up checks were made in 1973 following final field releases made in March, 1973, because of a decision to abandon the study. During 1971, 35 separate sightings and observations were recorded (Table 3) including 7 broods ranging from 1 to 14 chicks. During 1972, 17 separate sightings and observations were recorded, including several broods (Table 3). Movements of up to 6 miles from the release sites were recorded for 1971 and 1972. Late fall surveys made in December, 1971 and December, 1972 indicated only small nuclei populations of Huns had survived from these respective releases in the viCinity of the release sites and none in the surrounding areas. Results of trial releases of 2,376 pen raised Huns in the San Luis Valley from 1971 through 1973 are very questionable as to the success in establishing reproducing populations, even though results appear to be better than experienced in the Larimer County and Moffat County releases. Future surveys will be required to properly evaluate these releases, but the probability that the species will become established in the San Luis ·Valley is slim. LITERATURE CITED Evans, R. L., and W. W. Sandfort. 1960. Ecological appraisal of Hungarian partridge habitat with reference to adaptation of this species in Colorado. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish, Denver. Mimeo. 2~8p. Hoffman, D. M. 1969. Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Progress Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-22, Work Plan 10, Job 1. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 87-96. 1970. Stu4y of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Prog. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-23,.WP 10, .Job iL, Colo. Dfrv,of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 139-148. 1971. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Prog. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-24, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 49-58. 1972. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Prog. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-25, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. p. 39-50. McKinney, T. D. 1966. Survival, distribution, and reproduction of an introduced gray partridge population. M. S. Thesis, Colorado State University. Fort Collins. 55 p. Unpub. �-215- Sandfort, W. W. 1962. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Comp1. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-15, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish, Denver. p. 133-134. 1963. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Comp1. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-16, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 239-240. Swope. H. M. 1964. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Comp1. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-17, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 237-239. 1964. The Huns are coming. Colo. Outdoors 13(6) :24-26. 1965. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Comp1. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-18, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 85-87. 1966. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Comp1. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-19, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 61-64. 1967. Hungarian partridge adaptability. Job Comp1. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-20, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. ~ 157-162. 1968. Study of Hungarian partrdige adaptability. Job Prog. Rpt., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-21, WP 10, Job 1. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 65-68. Prepared by 4.~~ nald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher ��-217- .April, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 10 Job Title Job No. 2 Experimental Breeding of Hungarian Partridge Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Lawrence Webster, John Corey, Larry Crooks, Carroll Grand Pre, David Bowden, Ann Leckler and Donald Hoffman. ABSTRACT During 1972, a total of 2,010 eggs were produced by 52 pairs of Huns, of which 1,640 were fertile, and 1,410 hatched. This was the highest number of eggs and chicks produced in any single year for the 7 year period from 1966 through 1972. Only one group of 5 pens of selected breeders produced significantly (P~0.05) more total eggs per hen (X = 53.60) than the 12 pens of random bred controls (X = 39.00) for a gain of 14.60 eggs per hen. All other matings tried in 1972 produced nonsignificant (P«0.05) results in regard to differences in total eggs produced, percent fertility of eggs, and percent hatchability of eggs. Excellent survival for the first 7 days (98.56) percent) and for the first 21 days (96.89 percent) was recorded for the young Huns in 1972. Overwinter survival of Huns was also excellent (91.44 percent) with 1,121 live birds tallied in March, 1973, out of the 1,226 released into the holding pens in August, 1972. All remaining breeders and young were used for field releases during the period March 20 through March 24, 1973. Twenty seven pairs of wing-clipped Huns were released in 2 large open topped quadrats and allowed to incubate their eggs in order to study nesting success under semi-natural conditions. A total of 15 nests were located, of which 6 hatched (40 percent). Clutch sizes range from 1 to 19 with an average of 11.2 eggs. �-218- RECOMMENDATIONS With all rema~n~ng pen raised Hungarian partridges released in the San Luis Valley in March, 1973, it is recommended that this job be terminated and data summarized in a final report during Segment 27. �-219- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE Don ald M. Ho ffman Total egg production from 52 pairs of Hungarian partridge breeders in 1972 was 793 eggs higher than the total produced by 51 pairs in 1971 (2,010 eggs in 1972 compared with 1,217 in 1971). Numbers of eggs laid and numbers of birds raised until field release time reached a peak in 1972 for the 7 year period 1966 through 1972. The 1,105 pen raised Huns released in the San Luis Valley during the period March 20 through 24, 1973, plus 86 older breeders released on July 24, 1972 (total 1,191) terminated Colorado's efforts t·o establish populations through use of pen raised stock. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques for Hungarian part ridge. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To compare numbers of Huns surviving overwinter with numbers in holding pens containing various bird densities. 2. To compare numbers of total eggs laid, percentage fertility of eggs, and percentage hatchability of eggs produced by breeders consisting of: 3. released a. Twelve pairs of 1971 hatched young from pens 5 and 25 in 1971. These are the Fl progeny from the highest producing adults (1969 hatched) . b. Twelve pairs of 1971 hatched young from 1971 pens 11, 14; 17 or 18. These are F2 p ro geny produced by crossbreeding hens from 1970 pens 3 or 9 with Winchester Farm Cocks. c. Twelve pairs of 1971 hatched random bred controls. To determine the value of rearing Huns under semi-natural conditions, using wing clipped, 1971 hatched random bred stock in large open topped pens with adequate nesting cover. METHODS Survival AND MATERIALS' Tests The detailed arrangement of the Hungarian partridge holding pens (rearing and conditioning runs) is shown in Fig. 1. With the large number of Huns on hand, holding pens Ql, Q2, Q5 and Q6, formerly used for mountain quail �-220Covered Brooder Shelter 1 Houses /~ L--.-...l-_-f-_--''===~ ,12_' -+--"-' --...I._---J4'~8'-1 3 6 r J -0 N 4 2 ; .~" " N o N N SCALE •.4'1 ~ 15.5 ="- ,- -'5-5--j--'--- . ---35 o ----- t----------.--I05~--------Fig. 1. Hungarian "':: Por tr idqe ' HoldinCJ Pens 1 15 30 �-221- (Fig. 2) were also used for holding Huns. Numbers of Huns placed in the various holding pens on August 22, 1972 were tallied and an accurate count of birds recovered from the various pens on March 19-23, 1973 was made. Percentage of overwinter survival was then calculated. Hatchability Egg Production, Fertility of Eggs and of Fertile Eggs by Various Sources of Breeders Fig. 3 shows the pen arrangement for the 1972 test series and Table 1 lists the pen schedule for 1972. Egg production was compared by 3 main sources of stock (12 pens each), and then the 3 main sources of stock were subdivided into 5 known sources (with varying numbers of pens) for statistical analyses. Standard t-tests were used by Dr. David C. Bowden to test for significant (P< 0.05) differences in total eggs laid, percentage fertile eggs produced, and percentage hatchability of fertile eggs by known sources of breeding stock. Pens of the 3 main sources of stock were alternated through the entire group of 36 ground floored pens to reduce the effect of pen location. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent game bird breeder ration. Rearing Huns Under Semi-natural Conditions Fifty four (27 pairs) of 1971 hatched pen raised Huns of random bred source were wing clipped, leg banded and released in 2 large open topped quadrats. These quadrats each measured 370 ft by 405 ft each. The east quadrat was stocked with 15 pairs of Huns on March 13, 1972 and the west was stocked with 12 pairs on March 15 and 16, 1972. Each quadrat contained 12 vegetative plots of 6 different species or combination of species left over from a pheasant nesting study. These included 2 each of alfalfa, crested wheat grass , intermediate wheatgrass, tall wheatgrass, bromegrass, and alfalfa-crested wheatgrass mixtures (Fig. 4). All cover plots were windrowed after the nesting season to facilitate nest searching. Prior to windrowing, all birds were removed from the quadrats and released in the surrounding areas to prevent unnecessary death loss. Efforts were made to control predators, particularly feral cats and horned owls. Two separate nest searches were completed to evaluate nesting success. The initial nest search was made during the period July 10 through 13. Each plot was systematically searched by use of laths used to divide each plot into narrow strips. The final nest search was made on July 17, prior to windrowing the vegetation in the quadrats. Nests were marked, recorded as to total number of eggs, fate of nest, and estimated age of embryos. These were then removed to avoid duplication of effort. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2 lists a summary of Hungarian partridge propagation by the. Colorado Division of Wildlife from 1966 through 1972. Improvement has been accomplished both in increasing numbers of chicks hatched and rearing of young �-222- I( 20' ~ ~e'-)re'---7f~ i -Q) 'N \. 5 3 I 1 \ 6 4 2 , - Q) It) Scole: o I": 15 ft. 15 GO' Fig. ::>. M0 u n t a In partridges 0 u a i I H0 I din Q Pen S ( Pens 1,2,5, during 1972-73). and 6 were used for Hungarian 30 �-223- N 31 32 33 34 35 ~ O£ 62 82 L2 92 75' 6'4" J I' , eo - Ii) J'/l Ground -f loored Series 37E813914041 42 43 4445 4647 4c w _ v __ .'\v -'--'\11' _'-, l> '- Wire-floored ~) rt)\ A-2 1"/ N N - L \ 49,9C 51 / '-- ~ 0 01 N--", , <D - _v. I (7) - \j./ It SCALE 8 / <X) I"- - ~ .: N en - (J) Q N N - -v / Series I I I O' 5' 10' 25' -.J / "- A-3 / m Fig. 3. Detailed ArranQement <D / .... Partridge /- to - 0 v - / .... - (N rt) t-16'----o 16 ---i 48' I cD .!, Breeding of Pens. HunQorian , �-224- until field release time. Numbers of chicks hatched has increased from 236 in 1966 to 1,410 in 1972, and percentage of survival of young birds until field release time has been increased from a low of 49.32 percent in 1967 to a high of 91.44 percent in 1972. Table 1. Pen schedule for Hungarian Pen Number Year Hatched Hatch Number 1 1 34 35 36 37 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1969 1 1 38 1969 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 and 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 and 2 1 2 1 and 2 1 2 1 and 2 1 2 1 and 2 1 2 1 and 2 partridge, 1972. !/ Source Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run a f the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens' 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14,:17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run a f the mill Pens. 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run of the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run a f the mill Pens 5 and 25 Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 Run a f the mill High producing adults from Pen 3 in 1970 High.producing adults from Pen 9"in 1970 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-225- Table 1. partridge, 1972l../(continued) . Pen schedule for Hungarian Pen Number Year Hatched Hatch Number 39 40 1971 1969 1 1 Run of the mill (spare) High producing adults from Pen 31 in 41 1969 1 High producing Source 1970 adults from Pen 32 in 1970 42 1970 1 High producing adults from Pen 4 in 1971 43 1970 1 and 2 44 1970 1 45 1970 1 46 47 48 49 51 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 2 2 1 2 1 1 and 2 1 and 2 High producing adults from Pen 14 in 1971 High producing adults from Pen 24 in 1971 High producing adults from Pen 36 in 1971 Pens 5 and 25 (spare) Pens 11, 14, 17 and 18 (spare) Run of the mill (spare) Pens 5 and 25 (spare) Run of the mill (spare) Pens 25 and 18 (spare) Pens 5 and 17 (spare) McCarty McCarty (W) l/ Birds in all pens were fed a standard (E) 22 percent game bird breeder ration. Numbers of eggs produced per hen have shown increases from a low of 22.06 in 1966 to a high of 38.65 in 1972. These accomplishments have been secured through, (1) the use of modern game bird farm techniques, (2) improvements to the environments, and (3) application of artificial selection pressures during the period 1970 through 1972. Survival Tests Table 3 lists survival of young Hungarian partridges, ages 1 to 21 days, for the 5 hatches in 1972. Excellent percentage survival for the first 7 days (98.56 percent) and for the first 21 days (96.89 percent) was recorded. Table 4 lists results of the overwinter survival tests completed in 1973. Densities of birds varied from 13.54 square feet of ground space per bird to 102.40 square feet of ground space per bird. Highest survival (98.53 percent) occurred in a group of 68 Huns from hatch number 5 in 1972 held in a pen with 14.01 square feet of ground space per bird. Lowest survival (66.67 percent) occurred in a group of 15 adult breeders, 4 of which were 1969 hatched and 11 were 1971 hatched. Of these 15 adult breeders, 2 1969 hatched and 3 1971 hatched Huns died ove rwtnt e r, Overall survival of 91.44 percent was the highest recorded for the 7 year period 1966 through 1972. �-226·- Plot Number Species of Vegetation Planted I Smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) 2 Alfalfa sativa) 3 Crested wheat grass (Agropyron 4 Intermediate 5 Tall wheat grass (Agropyron 6 Alfalfa-crested Fig. 4. Diagramatic enclosures. (Medicago arrangement cristatum) wheat grass (Agropyron intermedium) elongatum) wheat grass of the vegetative plats in the east and west �Table 2. Summary of gray partridge (fJ .~ cU "t:l Q (l) ::I:: ....:l ~ (l) "t:l (l) (l) ~ cU (l) :>< (fJ 00 00 I'tl ~ ~ . .-i z H cU .j..J 0 0 (fJ 00 00 I'tl . z . propagation, 1966-1972. (l) .-i (fJ -e .j..J (l) ~ U) (fJ .-i (fJ ,-... (fJ .~ .j..J (l) .-i '.-4 .j..J & .c ~ H & .j..J Q (l) (J 0 0 (l) .-i .~ .j..J ~ (l) 4-l Q ~ :J & U 0 00 00 I'tl <tl::I:: ~ ~ ~;§ 0 Z Z Z ~ (l) e, 0 .~ Q . ~ . (fJ "t:l 0. (l) '.-4 (JU .j..J cU ::I::.-i (J • Q OH .c "5.j..J cU (fJ ::I:: 00 00 .j..J1'tl Q (l).-i (J cU ~ .j..J (l) 0 (J (fJ .j..J 00 cU 00 ::I::1'tl .j..J (l) Q.-i (l) -.-4 (J .j..J (l) Z'-' p..,~ (l) -e cU (l) .-i 0. 0. •.-4 p.., ~ U 0 0 0 "t:l (l) 0. 0. '.-4 . ~ ~ p..,H ~ ~ -e . "t:l (l) .-i 0. 0. -.-4 ~ U ~ . Z Z Z '";i1 :::;1 "t:l (l) (fJ :> .~ ~ ;:I U) .j..J Q (l) (J -.-4 .j..J ~ (l) (J (l) 0 Z p.., ~ p.., . P ~ (l) 19662:,/ 341/ 750 22.06 -- 699 255 444 63.52 236 33.76 53.15 -- -- -- -- 121 51.27 1967 50 1203 24.06 46 1157 281 876 75.71 511 44.17 58.33 35 264 64 12.52 252 49.32 1968 51 1783 34.96 64 1719 376 1343 78.13 1003 58.35 74.68 34 306 11 1.10 614 61.22 1969 52 1818 34.96 28 1793 344 1449 80.81 945 52.71 65.22 53 451 64 6.77 674 71.32 1970 52 1147 22.06 35 1112 181 931 83.72 757 68.08 81.31 22 152 34 4.49 675 89.17 1971 51 1217 23.86 64 1153 274 879 76.24 689 59.76 78.38 16 176 35 5.08 584 84.76 1972 52 2010 38.65 77 1933 293 1640 84.84 1410 72 .94 85.98 65 165 90 6.38 1121 91.44 l/ Survival of young birds until following 2/ Data deleted from reports where blanks spring period when field releases were made. are shown 3/ Sex ratio 1:1 except for 1 community pen with 11H:2C. Sex ratio of 1:1 used from 1967 through 1972. I N N " I �Survival of Hungarian Hatch Number Date Hatched Number Chicks Battery BrooderBrooder House 1 6-12-72 159 29 0 2 0 0 188 186 100.00 98.94 2 6-27-72 326 25 10 15 0 0 341 336 97.15 95.73 3 7-11-72 377 0 6 10 - - 371 367 98.41 97.35 4 7-31-72 336 0 3 13 - 333 323 99.11 96.13 5 8-15-72 68 0 0 1 - - 68 67 100.00 98.53 Table 3. partridges, ages 1 to 21 days, 1972. Number Chicks Lost Battery House 21 da 7 da 21 da 7 da Number Chicks Survived 21 days 7 days First Percent Survival First 21 days 7 days I tv tv 00 I Totals Average 1266 54 19 41 0 0 l301 1279 98.56 96.89 �Table 4. Survival of Hungarian partridge during late summer, fall, and winter periods according to various densities of birds and sizes of pens, 1972-73. Pen and Hatch Size (Ft.) Total Sq. Ft. Date Birds Counted In Age (Approx.) Number Birds In Sq. Ft. Per Bird Date Birds Recovered Number Birds Out Percent Survival A-2 & A-3 (adults) 16 X 96 1,536 8-22-72 Adults 15 102.40 3-23-73 10 66.67 1 & 2 1972 (4) 35 X 240 + llX11 8,521 8-22-72 3 weeks 315 27.05 3-19-73 265 84.13 3 1972 (5) 35 X 20 + llX11+ 12 X 11 953 8-22-72 1 week 68 14.01 3-19-73 67 98.53 35 X 220 7,700 8-22-72 7 weeks 286 26.92 3-20-73 273 95.45 5 & 6 1972 (3) 35 X 240 + llXll 8,521 8-22-72 6 weeks 351 24.28 3-23-73 326 92.88 Q1 & Q2 1972 (1) 20 X 76 + 8 X 8 1,584 8-22-72 9 weeks 117 13.54 3-23-73 109 93.16 Q5 & Q6 1972 (1&2) 20 X 76 + 8 X 8 1,584 8-22-72 9 weeks 74 21.41 3-23-73 71 95.95 4 I N N \0 . 1972 (2) Totals Average 1,226 1,121 9l.44 I �-230- Egg Production, Fertility of Eggs, and Hatchability of Fertile Eggs by Various Sources of Breeders Table 5 lists egg production, fertility of eggs, and ,hatchability of fertile eggs by 3 main groups of breeders on test during 1972. The main groups involved known but combined ancestries. Group A consisted of 1971 hatched Fl progeny from pens 5 and 25 (and reciprocal crosses). These were the 2 highest producing pens from the closed flock maintained at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Group B consisted of 1971 hatched F2 progeny strain crosses between selected high producing birds from the closed flock maintained at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station and the Winchester Farm st rain. Group C consisted of 1971 hatched F2 progeny of the random bred birds used for controls. Group A birds produced 44.33 eggs per hen in 1972 compared with 38.42 for Group B, and 39.00 for Group C. Percent fertility and percent hatchability was lower for Group A birds than either Group B or C (which were about equal). Birds in the various groups indicated in Table 5 were then sorted by individual ancestry as indicated in Table 6, and placed into Source Codes 9 through 14. These source code numbers were those assigned for computer analysis for the 1972 tests. Pens 5, 25, 11, 14, 17 and 18 listed in Table 6 are the same as pens 5, 25, etc. listed in Table 5. Results of t-tests by Dr. David C. Bowden, Department of Statistics, Colorado State University, comparing total eggs laid, numbers of fertile eggs, and numbers of fertile eggs which hatched by source code of stock (Table 7) indicated that significantly (P< 0.05) more total eggs were laid by only 1 group of breeders (5 pens) on test, in comparison with the random bred controls (12 pens). These 5 pens laid an average of 53.60 eggs per hen compared with only 39.00 eggs per hen for the controls for a gain of 14.60 eggs per hen. All other matings tested in 1972 produced nonsignificant (P< 0.05) results in regard to differences in total eggs produced, percent fertility of eggs, and percent hatchability of eggs. Rearing of Huns Under Semi-natural Conditions A total of 15 Hun nests were located in the open topped pens where 27 pairs of wing clipped breeders were released in March 1972. Fourteen of these nests were found on the first nest search and 1 on the second. By quadrat, 9 nests were found in the east quadrat and 6 in the west (Fig. 4). Of the 15 nests recorded, 6 were hatched successfully, (40 percent) and 9 were abandoned or unsuccessful (60 percent) as indicated in Table 8. Three of the 6 successfully hatched nests contained a total of 37 eggs, of which 24 hatched, for an average hatchability of 64.86 percent. The remaining three of the 6 successfully hatched nests contained an unknown number of eggs. Of the 9 abandoned or unsuccessful nests, 6 were abandoned for unknown reasons, and 3 were thought to have been abandoned as a result of human disturbance. Three of the 15 nests found contained unknown clutch sizes because the nests had deteriorated prior to discovery ..The average clutch size of the remaining 12 nests was 11.2 eggs, with a range of 1 to 19 eggs. �-231Table 5. by source, Egg production Source Total Eggs Pen Number Group A - Crosses Pens 5 X 25 and 25 X 5 ( Reciprocal) Number Fertiles (of small Percent Fertile Number Fertiles Hatched Percent Fertiles Hatched size) within a closed flock 43 37 14 60 52 46 18 61 48 53 55 45 42 37 13 59 48 45 17 58 46 51 54 42 33 33 8 59 46 26 14 54 38 42 . 46 39 78.57 89.19 61.54 100.00 95.83 57.78 82.35 93.10 82.61 82.35 85.19 92.86 29 31 1 57 42 10 13 43 22 38 38 31 87.88 93.94 12.50 96.61 91.30 38.46 92.86 79.63 57.89 90.48 82.61 79.49 532 44.33 512 42.67 438 36.50 83.45 355 29.58 75.30 46 53 23 34 20 39 20 49 15 62 66 34 44 51 23 34 20 38 19 46 15 58 65 33 36 50 21 22 17 34 18 44 15 57 62 32 81.82 98.04 91.30 64.71 85.00 89.47 94.74 95.65 100.00 98.28 95.38 96.97 31 45 21 17 15 26 15 39 13 43 48 28 86.11 90.00 100.00 77.27 88.24 76.47 83.33 88.64 86.67 75.44 77.42 87.50 461 38.42 446 37.17 408 34.00 90.95 341 28.42 84.76 28 30 32 40 35 41 28 34 52 68 31 49 27 30 31 40 34 39 26 34 52 67 31 45 19 30 31 39 33 28 25 31 51 60 31 32 70.37 100.00 100.00 97.50 97.06 71.79 96.15 91.18 98.08 89.55 100.00 71.11 18 27 27 34 32 13 24 28 41 58 28 31 94.74 90.00 87.10 87.18 96.97 46.43 96.00 90.32 80.39 96.67 90.32 96.88 468 39.00 456 38.00 4lO 34.17 90.23 361 30.08 87.75 crosses 02 05 08 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 32 35 Subtotals Averages Group C - Random Bred 03 06 09 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 Subtotals Averages Total Eggs Set 01 04 07 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 Subtotals Averages Group B - Strain Pens 11 or 14 X 17 or 18 and 17 or 18 X 11 or 14 (Reciprocal) 1972. Controls �Table 6. Ancest ry of Hungarian part ridges on progeny testing program, 1972. Ancestry Year Source Code Number Pens 1972 9 12 10 Year Hatched Cocks Year Hatched F2 - FCWRS (Rb ).!.I 1971 F2 - FCWRS (Rb) 1971 7 F1 - Pen 1125 (FCWRS) 1971 F1 - Pen 115 (FCWRS) 1971 11 5 F1 - Pen 115 (FCWRS) 1971 F1 - Pen 1125 (FCWRS) 1971 12 6 F2 - Pen 1111 (H-FCWRS X C-Win. ) 1971 F2 - Pen 1117 or 18 (H-FCWRS XC-Win.) 1971 Hens I N 4 13 Subtotal' 1/ Rb 34 random bred controls. F2 - Pen 1114 (H-FCWRS X C-Win. ) 1971 F2 - Pen 1118 (H-FCWRS XC-Win. ) 1971 w N I �Table 7. Results of t-tests comparing total eggs laid, numbers hatched by source of breeding stock. 11 Source Code Number Pens Source Code Number Pens of fertile eggs, and numbers Significant Difference Indicated In of fertile eggs Conclusion 9 12 Compared with 10 7 9 12 Comp ared with 11 5 9 12 Compared with 12 6 Non-significant 9 12 Compared with 13 4 Non-significant Non-significant Total eggs laid t = -3.6591 (15df) Source Code 11 (X = 53.60) laid significantly (P 0.05) more total eggs than Source code 9 (X = 39.00) I N W W I 1/ See Table 6 for ancestry of breeding stock by Source Code. �Table 8. Nest Number Clutch sizes found in 15 hatched or unsuccessful Hungarian partridge nests, 1972. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 7 8 9 10 Clutch Size 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Unk. 1H Total Eggs 7 2 1H 9 3 lU 9 4 IH 1 5 lU 6 14 lU 10 7 I lU 8 19 +:-- lU 9 11 lU 12 10 lU 11 lU 12 lU 14 13 lH 14 IH 12 15 Total IH 1 0 0 0 0 Average Clutch Size 11.2 Key: H = Hatched = 6 (40%) U = Unsuccessful = 9 (60%) 0 7 0 18 10 11 N W 24 0 28 0 16 16 0 0 19 0 -- 134 I �-235- As of July 31, 1972, a total of 17 casualties were found in and near the quadrats, including 4 adult hens, 4 adult cocks, 2 unclassified adults, and 7 young Huns. Nine of these dead birds were found in the east quadrat, 6 in the west, and 2 on the adjacent grounds. In each case, the cause of death was unknown, since the carcasses had badly deteriorated. Routine observations by station personnel indicated approximately 20 to 30 Huns resulting from this study ranged on or near the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station from late July through September, 1972. By late January, 1973, a group of 8 Huns were still being observed intermittently on the Station grounds. Prepared by Wildlife Researcher ��-237- State of April, 1973 COLORADO ------~~~~~~--------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title: Job No. 2 Study of Mountain Quail Adaptability Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Ronald B. Arant, Tom W. Barnes, john F. Corey, Alexander Hamilton, Donald E. Lengel, Gary T. Myers, Dwight E. OWens, Robert W. Paintin, Glenn E. Rogers, John Serra, Thomas J. Sherrill, J. Allen White, Ann Leck1er and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A total of 574 mountain quail were released in 2 different areas of Colorado from 1965 through 1973. Of these, 372 were wild-trapped birds received from California and Oregon in wildlife trades and 202 were pen-raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. By area, 397 were released in Mesa County on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau and 177 were released in Las Animas County on the Spanish Peaks Management Area. One confirmed movement of 25 airline miles distance from a release site was recorded after three mountain quail were confiscated from hunters in Mesa County by Gary Myers. Other reported movements of 15, 7, 3~, 3 and 1 miles from release sites were recorded during the period 1966 through 1972. The status of mountain quail in Colorado is very questionable because (1) numbers observed and reported since 1966 have been small relative to numbers released, (2) no instance of reproduction has been recorded, and (3) consistent observations for anyone locality are lacking. The probability that the species will become established in Colorado is slim. Game farm propagation of mountain quail was terminated and all remaining stock released on March 20, 1973. �-238- RECOMMENDATIONS Because relatively poor success was attained in propagating mountain quail at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station since 1967, due to traits which appear to be inherent with the species, game farm propagation was terminated and all remaining stock released on March 20, 1973. If further releases of mountain quail are made, wild-trapped stock should be obtained through wildlife trade agreements with other states. Wildlife Conservation Officers and other Division of Wildlife personnel working in the areas of past releases have been requested to submit future sightings and observations of mountain quail to the Research Section. It is recommended that this job be terminated with this final report. �-239- STUDY OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL ADAPTABILITY Donald M. Hoffman During the 1960's, the State of Colorado became interested in extending populations of upland game birds by introducing exotic species. An appraisal of habitat by Rogers (1965) indicated selected areas of Colorado contained suitable food, terrain, and climate for establishing mountain quail populations. The area selected for initial releases was the Indian Creek drainage in Mesa County on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau but he concluded that several other mountainous areas would also be available. Releases of 397 mountain quail on Indian Creek in Mesa County were made with 372 wild-trapped birds from California and Oregon secured through wildlife trade agreements and 25 surplus breeders held at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station from 1965 through 1970. Two releases of 87 and 90 mountain quail in 1972 and 1973 were made on the Spanish Peak Management Area in Las Animas County from pen-raised stock reared at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. This study was initiated in 1967 to (1) introduce mountain quail in selected areas, and (2) determine success of introductions in establishing reproducing populations. The study was conducted from 1966 through 1968 by Glenn E. Rogers and by Donald M. Hoffman from 1969 through 1972. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the ability of mountain quail to establish reproducing populations in areas of mixed shrub and pine in selected sites in Colorado. METHODS AND MATERIALS An appraisal of mountain quail habitat (Rogers 1965) indicated that selected areas of Colorado appeared suitable in regard to food, terrain, and climate for mountain quail. Prior to an initial release of 143 mountain quail on Indian Creek in Mesa County and release of 16 in holding pens at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for propagation purposes, a job was initiated to (1) release mountain quail in selected areas and (2) to determine the success of these releases (Rogers 1966). All field releases, with the exception of 90 birds released on March 20, 1973, consisted of transporting birds to the selected release site in State �-240- vehicles and releasing the birds as quicky as possible in hard type releases. Scratch grain was scattered prior to releasing 25 birds on June 23, 1970 in Mesa County and 87 on April 15, 1972 in Las Animas County in an attempt to hold the birds in the release areas. There was no indication that the birds used this, however. On March 20, 1973, 30 mountain quail were placed in a temporary holding pen for one week in Las Animas County and 60 were released outright, following the scattering of scratch grain in the vicinity. Early methods to determine success of releases consisted of (1) use of educational media (radio and TV) to inform people in the vicinity of the releases and request sighting information, (2) contacting of Wildlife Conservation Officers, ranchers, sportsmen and personnel of State and Federal agencies requesting information on numbers and locations of birds observed, and (3) field searches of release sites and areas where sightings were recorded. All reports and observations were recorded on maps and in tables to evaluate the degree of success in establishing the species (Rogers 1966). From 1969 on, methods for evaluation of success were quite similar except the use of educational media to inform people of releases was not used since little earlier response was secured. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Field Releases A total of 574 mountain quail were released in 2 different areas of Colorado from 1965 through 1973. Table 1 summarizes all releases by date, numbers of birds, source of birds, and release areas. Fig. 1 shows the map locations and numbers of mountain quail released in Mesa County from 1965 through 1970 and Fig. 2 shows similar information for Las Animas County for 1972 and 1973. Three hundred seventy-two wild-trapped and 25 pen-raised mountain quail (total 397) were released in Mesa County on the west side of the Uncompahgre Plateau from 1965 through 1970 (Table 1). In addition, the State of Utah released approximately 100 mountain quail in Willow Basin on the north end of La Sal Mountain in August, 1968 (pers. comm. D. Nish to D. Hoffman). The Willow Basin site in Utah is approximately 15 to 20 miles southwest of Gateway, Colorado (Fig. 1). Eighty-seven pen-raised mountain quail were released in Vigil Canyon on April 15, 1972, and all remaining (90) mountain quail were released in Burro Canyon on the Spanish Peaks Management Area in Las Animas County on March 20, 1973 (Fig. 2). Fig. 3 shows the habitat in the vicinity of Vigil Canyon site and Fig. 4 shows the release in Burro Canyon. Success of Introductions Figures 1 and 2 show map locations and numbers through 1972. Results of surveys to determine summarized (Table 2) by years as follows: of birds observed from 1965 the success of releases are �Table 1. Summary of mountain quail field releases. Date Number of Birds Source of Birds Release Area Reference Aug. 19 and 25, 1965 1431:./ California (wild-trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek Sec. 27, T51N, Rl7W. Rogers (1966), Aug. 20, 1966 163 California (wild-trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek, approx. 4 miles west of 1965 releases. Rogers (1967) Jan. 25, 1968 66 Oregon (wild-trapped) Mesa County, Indian Creek approx. 1 mile east of west Uncompahgre National Forest boundary. Rogers (1968) Mesa County, South Fork Mesa Creek, Sec. 17, T49N, R16W Hoffman (1971) FCWRS (surplus breeders) June 23, 1970 25 Sub-total 397 April 15, 1972 87 FCWRS (pen raised) Las Animas County, Vigil Canyon, Spanish Peaks Management Area Sec. 11, T32S, R67W. March 20, 1973 90 FCWRS (pen raised) Las Animas County, Burro Canyon Spanish Peaks Management Area Sec. 7, T32S, R66W. Sub-total 177 TOTAL 574 I N ~ •.... l/ Sixteen additional mountain quail from these shipments were taken to Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for experimental propagation studies. On January 18, 1970, 12 wild-trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added to the breeding stock at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. These constitute the source of our breeding stock. I �Table 2. Summary of mountain quail reports and observations, 1965-1972 (continued). Date Numbers of Mountain Quail Area Observed Distance (airline miles) and Direction from Release Site Observed By April 20, 1972 3 Las Animas County, R. Dochter tract hdq., Burro Canyon 3 miles SE of Vigil Canyon release site. R. Paintin Early May, 1972 4 Las Animas County, B. Haught Ranch hdq ,, Wet Canyon 3 miles SW of Vigil Canyon release site. B. Haught Mid May, 1972 5 Las Animas County, Oberhausler tract hdq., Burro Canyon 3-1/2 miles SE of Vigil Canyon release site. R. Paintin Las Animas County, Vigil Canyon 1 mile NE of Vigil Canyon re~ lease site I N .p- -...] I Mid August, 1972 1 !/ Willow Basin was the site where Utah released approximately 100 mountain quail in August, 1968. J. Serra �-248- 1965 One indefinite report of a mountain quail sighting of 14 mountain quail in August, 1965 was secured from a California hunter following an initial release of 143 wild-trapped birds in Mesa County (Rogers 1966). In the late fall of 1965, Mr. J. D. Sloggett of Grand Junction, Colorado sighted an unknown number of mountain quail on Blue Mesa (3 miles southeast of the 1966 Indian Creek release site (Rogers 1967). 1966 On November 21, 1966, Gary T. Myers confiscated 3 mountain quail that had been killed by hunters on November 19, 1966. The hunters stated there were 12 birds in the covey and more were heard calling in the area. These quail were killed on the East Fork of Escalante Creek, about one and one-half miles above Pickett Corral and 25 airline miles southeast of a release site on Indian Creek (Rogers 1967). In October, 1966, Mr. High, a State mine inspector, reported seeing 12 to 14 mountain quail at a spring about one mile below (southwest of) the site where birds were released in 1966 according to Rogers (1967). 1967 On June 6, 1967, Wildlife Conservation Officer Tom Sherrill observed 4 mountain quail on South Fork of Mesa Creek, about 1 mile west of the Uncompahgre National Forest boundary and 11 miles southeast of the 1966 Indian Creek release site. On October 28, 1967, deer hunters from California reported to Wildlife Conservation Officer Sherrill of seeing 42 mountain quail in the same vicinity (Rogers 1968). 1968 Four to 6 mountain quail were reportedly seen by a Mr. Smith, one-fourth mile below Blue Creek Ranch Headquarters in the spring of 1968. This location is approximately 6 airline miles southwest of the 1966 Indian Creek release site (Hoffman 1969). All mountain quail sightings and reports during the period 1966 through 1968 were summarized in Hoffman (1969). 1969 Twenty mountain quail were observed by Conservation Aide Tom Barnes on the South Fork of Mesa Creek in December, 1969. These were observed approximately one-half mile above the old Bogus Mine (Hoffman 1971). This location is approximately 10 airline miles southeast of the 1966 Indian Creek release site. 1970 No additional mountain quail sightings were recorded for 1970 (Hoffman 1971). �-249- 1971 In early December, 1971, late season deer hunters reported seeing 8 mountain quail in an area approximately 2 miles northeast of Gateway, Colorado. These were observed intermittently until the early spring of 1972 by W.C.O. Dwight Owens (Table 2). The Gateway Postoffice (elevation 4,570 feet) is approximately 9 airline miles northwest of the 1968 Indian Creek release site in Colorado and approximately 15 to 20 airline miles northeast of Utah's Willow Basin release site. Whether this small flock of 8 birds moved from Indian Creek or Willow Basin is not known. These birds apparently moved during the early spring of 1972, probably to higher summer ranges. 1972 The 1972 release of 87 birds constituted the initial release of mountain quail on the eastern slope of Colorado. Thirteen mountain quail were observed following the 1972 release and ali but 1 of these birds were seen at sites at least 3 airline miles from the release site (Table 2). One bird was seen approximately 1 mile from the release site in Vigil Canyon. Field searches and interviews with Division personnel and landowners indicate that most of the 87 mountain quail released in 1972 dispersed in at least 3 different directions (NE, SE, SW) shortly after the release was made (Table 2). These dispersed in small groups of 1 to 5 or 6. 1973 Follow-up checks were not made in 1973 following the releasing of .all remaining pen-raised mountain quail (90) on March 20, 1973 on the Spanish Peaks Management Area, because of a decision to abandon the study. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The status of mountain quail in Colorado is very uncertain at this time because (1) numbers observed and reported since 1966 have been small relative to numbers released, (2) no instance of reproduction has been recorded to date, and (3) consistent observations for anyone locality are lacking. In view of these findings, past releases of mountain quail must be considered as questionable as to success in establishing populations in Colorado. �-250- LITERATURE CITED Hoffman, Donald M. 1969. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Progress Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-22, WP 15, J2. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 155-158. 1970. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Progress Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-23, WP 15, J2. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 167-170. 1971. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Progress Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-24, WP 15, J2. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 79-83. 1972. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Progress Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-25, WP 15, J2. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 73-76. Rogers, Glenn E. 1965. Appraisal of mountain quail habitat. Compl. Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-18, WP 15, Jl. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 217-225. Job Colo. 1966. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Compl. Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-19, WP 15, J2. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 125-133. 1967. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Compl. Report, Federal Aid Project W-37-R-20, WP 15, J2. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 215-218. 1968. Study of mountain quail adaptability. Job Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-21, WP 15, Job 2. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. pp. 113-116. Prepared by ;Y~m~ Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher �-251- April, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 20 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey Job No. 1 Investigation of Population Status of Bobwhite Quail in Eastern Colorado --~~~--~------------------- April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Tom Lederhos, John Corey, Bruce MCCloskey and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT Bobwhite quail whistling counts obtained on the Tamarack Management Area from mid-June to mid-July, 1972 were higher in number than in 1971. Corresponding fall populations and harvest also were higher in 1972. In general, counts throughout the South Platte Drainage were higher than those of the previous year. Counts also were completed on routes established within the Arkansas, Cimarron and Republican River drainages. A distribution and density map based, in part, on whistling counts was prepared. Approximate square miles of various range densities were tallied. The 1971 fall population estimate was revised downwar downward to 1,745 quail based on additional band return information, exclusion of the northeast corner fo the Tamarack from the sample, and minor corrections for fall emigration. Approximately 27 percent of that population was removed by hunting and 16.3 percent was lost to natural fall and winter mortality so that 988 quail remained by March, 1972. Spring and summer mortality subsequently removed 34.9 percent of the original fall population leaving 227 males and 152 females, or 379 adults in early fall, 1972. The fall to fall mortality totaled 78.3 percent. Significantly higher mortality of females than males was noted over-summer. Production was high as a result of tenacious nesting efforts even into August, resulting in a fall population estimate of 2,319 quail. Of these, 802 were fall banded and 34 previously banded adults were retrapped. Hunters removed approximately 548 quail plus a crippling loss of about 15.7 percent of that number. Total harvest mortality approximated 26.7 percent. Severe cold and snow conditions in November and December, 1972 in unison with hunting is believed to have substantially increased mortality over the previous year. Only 47 bobwhite were banded and 31 previously banded retraps were taken in . February, 1973 as evidence of a much reduced population. Vegetation, food habits, and climatic conditions as limiting factors to bobwhite on the Tamarack were discussed. ��-253- INVESTIGATION OF POPULATION STATUS OF BOBWHITE QUAIL IN EASTERN COLORADO Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate (1) the distribution and relative density of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado; and (2) population structure and level, and rate of harvest, and identify key factors that limit bobwhite on the Tamarack Management Area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate Colorado. the distribution and density 2. To investigate population structure and level~ and rate of harvest bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Management Area. 3. To identify Area. key factors limiting METHODS bobwhite of bobwhite in eastern on the Tamarack of Management AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this investigation were previously listed by Snyder (1972). Amendments to this listing are presented as follows: 1. Distribution and density of bobwhite quail in Eastern Colorado. Inventory was expanded to include additional routes along the Arkansas Valley. Replicate counts were also completed on all routes previously established in eastern Colorado. Wildlife Conservation Officers assisted in inventory counts along the South Platte River. The Red Lion - East Tamarack route was extended along the meadow, west of the ranch headquarters, to more thoroughly census the East Tamarack Management Unit. Because of high calling rates obtained the previous year, use of the induced call technique was reduced or eliminated along many of the census routes in 1972. 2. Population structure, level and rate of harvest. Quail trapping on the Tamarack study and terminated on October 31, 1972. Low trapping over a greater part of the area bution. Trap sites were prepared by use area was initiated on September 25 water levels permitted expansion of to attain increased sampling distriof shovel and rake instead of using �-254- a tractor and rototiller. Signs were placed at key access areas along the Tamarack boundaries to inform the hunting public that check station sign-up was required to hunt in this controlled access hunting unit. The Tamarack was used exclusively for population studies in 1972. During the previous year, some additional properties, up-river, were also included in study efforts. 3. Key limiting factors. Ground cover samples measuring the occurrence of grass, brush and vines, forbs, dead vegetation, litter and bare ground were obtained at six locations along the Tamarack and at one pastured location (Lutes Property) southwest of Merino. Brush, vines and forbs were distinguished by species. Over-story canopies of cottonwoods were not included in the samples. A metal ring, approximately three inches in diameter, held at arm's length a foot in front of the right leg, projected a field of view for sampling vegetation. The predominate cover type or species observed within the observation field was recorded. Samples were obtained at one or two pace intervals while walking somewhat at random through the sample areas. One person sampled while a second person recorded. This technique permitted obtaining a high number of samples widely distributed over a large area in a relatively short period of time. Sampling was not completely random, but effort was directed toward wide dispersal of sampling as opposed to sampling intensively within a small area. Vegetation height was obtained by use of a yardstick. Vegetative density within the metal ring field of view was measured by ocular estimate on a scale of 1, 2, or 3 representing sparse, medium or dense cover. The amount and duration of snow cover along with temperature comparisons for the November-February period were obtained from U. S. Bureau of Weather records. Data'obtained at a station five miles south of Sedgwick, Colorado were utilized as most typical of conditions along the Tamarack. Natural mortality estimates for winter and summer were obtained by use of banded-unbanded ratios to project populations alive during the fall, late winter and subsequent fall periods. Comparisons with snow cover and winter andsurnmer weather conditions were made. Hunting season removal, natural winter mortality and subsequent duction figures were related to check for evidence of over-harvest. pro- Late hatched quail potentially were subject to higher mortality than earlier broods under fall weather conditions in 1972. Ages of banded quail, harvested in December or retrapped in Feburary, were compared to the overall age structure of fall banded juveniles to determine if differential mortality did occur. �-255- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bobwhite Distribution and Density in Eastern Colorado Distribution and density of bobwhite in eastern Colorado are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. Approximate square miles of various range densities per county and region are summarized in Table 1. Although these data are not considered highly accurate, they provide a base on which to revise and improve. As these data indicate, habitat of fair to high quality for bobwhite is not abundant in Colorado. South Platte River Drainage Whistling count indices of male bobwhite indicated breeding popuiations along the South Platte were generally higher in 1972 than during the previous year. Comparisons of 1971 and 1972 natural (not induced) tally indices are presented in Table 2. The overall average for all routes was 2.91 calling males per stop in 1971 and 4.37 calling males per stop in 1972. The SterlingIliff route was excluded in this comparison. The figures for 1972 may be skewed slightly above those for 1971 since induced call indices were not used on all counts during the latter year. This reduced the time needed per station and route permitting coverage of more stations within the optimum listening time interval. Induced calling was of little value when natural counts of 6, 8, or more males per stop made it difficult to distinguish calls of additional males. Indices representing high counts obtained per route are included for comparison (Table 3). Averaging nine routes along the South Platte River, they project a 55 percent increase in calling rate for 1972 over 1971. The average of all counts (Table 2) resulted in a 50 percent increase in calling rate for 1972 over 1971. The Atwood-Merino area continued to provide the highest calling rate attained along the river (Tables 2 and 3). Markedly higher tallies were also obtained in the Brush-Fort Morgan area and upriver along the Con Schaefer Ranch near Weldona. The State-line-Ovid route was believed, in part, to rank lower because of high noise interference from proximal highway traffic. Other variables such as location of listening stations, weather conditions, and calling variance among mornings undoubtedly influenced the data. Calling peaked in late June and continued high through the first two weeks in July. Bobwhite quail hunter survey harvest information is not yet available for comparison with call indices. However, an increased fall population and increased harvest on the Tamarack over 1971 figures (presented in subsequent sections) correspond favorably with increased call indices obtained there in 1972. Reference is made to Ellis, Thomas and Moore (1972), who provide one of the best examples of the relationship between call indices and pre-hunt population levels available in recent literature. �W E L D WAS H I N G TON I N V1 '" I FIG. L BOBWHITE DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY IN NORTHEASTCOLORADOBASED ON 1971-72 SURVEYS. Range Classification Whistling Birds/Sq.Mi. Count Index (Spring) ~ Isolatedto Scattered None 0 to 4 ~ ContinuousLow 0.5 - 0.9 5 to 9 ® Fair to Moderate 1.0 - 2.4 10 to 24 ~ 2.5 - 3.9 25 to 39 4.0 + 40 + Moderate to High <CD High to Very High �LINCOLN I N VI '-I I FIG. 2. BOBWHITEDISTRIBUTION ANDDENSITY IN SOUTHEASTCOLORADO BASEDON 1971-72 SURVEYS· Whistling Count Index Range Classification ~ Isolated ® Continuous ~ Fair Low 0.5 to Moderate 1.0 @ Moderate ~ to Scattered to High High to Very High 2.5 BirdS/Sq. Mile (S~rin51) None 0 to 4 - 0.9 5 to 9 10 to 24 25 to - 2.4 - 3.9 4.0 + 40 + 39 �-258- Table 1. The approximate square miles of bobwhite quail range by density classification per county and region in eastern Colorado, 1972. County Isolated to Scattered Densit~ Classification Continuous Fair to Moderate Low Moderate to High High to Very High Total Southeast Region Baca 600 Prowers 360 Bent 137 Otero 118 Crowley 38 Pueblo 5 18 23 Kiowa 137 20 157 1395 147 Sub-total 105 183 52 940 18 4 378 13 8 25 187 6 7 9 140 38 220 67 34 1863 Northeast Region Republican River Drainage Kit Carson Yuma Phillips Sub-total 65 6 1070 54 71 12 5 1141 85 1220 85 60 12 5 1297 South Platte Drainage Sedgwick 15 Logan 35 3 Washington 3 2 Morgan 10 Weld 10 4 4 73 9 12 12 57 163 Sub-total 1293 69 24 17 57 1460 Grand Total 2688 216 244 84 91 3323 Sub-total 15 30 1 28 67 4 3 12 11 36 3 12 18 �-259- Table 2. A comparison of 1971 and 1972 bobwhite quail whistling counts completed along the South Platte River. Route Year Number of Counts Number of Stops Natural Tally Mean Stateline - Ovid 1971 1972 2 2 20 20 78 65 3.90 3.25 Red Lion E. Tamarack 1971 1972 2 4 20 45 67 202 3.35 4.49 West Tamarack 1971 1972 6 7 75 79 219 312 2.92 3.95 Sterling-Iliff 1972 2 19 63 3.33 Atwood - Merino 1971 1972 2 2 20 20 108 182 5.40 9.16 Balzac 1971 1972 3 2 28 21 55 72 1.96 3.43 Brush - Ft. Morgan 1971 1972 2 2 20 20 77 163 3.85 8.15 Con Schaefer 1971 1972 2 2 20 13 37 56 1.85 4.31 Goodrich - Orchard 1971 1972 2 2 20 23 23 32 1.15 1.39 Masters K-4 1971 1972 2 2 8 9 9 8 1.13 0.89 Overall Average!/ 1971 1972 231 250 673 1,092 2.91 4.37 1/ - The Sterling-Iliff route was excluded in this comparison. �-260- Table 3. A comparison of high counts obtained on bobwhite quail census routes in eastern Colorado during 1971 and 1972. Route 1971 1972 South Platte Drainage Stateline - Ovid 5.3 3.4 East Tamarack - Sonneburg 4.0 6.1 West Tamarack 4.1 8.2 Sterling-IlHf 4.3 Atwood - Merino 6.7 9.1 Balzac 2.5 5.8 Brush - Ft. Morgan 3.9 8.3 Con Schaefer 2.2 4.3 Goodrich-Orchard 1.4 2.3 Masters - K-4 1.2 1.0 Hardin - Kersey 0.0 0.0 Republican Drainage South Fork - Bonny 1.4 0.5 Arikaree - Blk. Wolf Creek North Fork (Laird - Wray) 1.4 2.8 1.9 Arkansas Drainage E. Prowers County 0.8 1.8 Purgatoire - Ft. Lyon 5.2 9.4 La Junta - Las Animas 6.1 La Junta - Rocky Ford 3.5 Manzanola 0.9 Boone - E. Pueblo Co. 0.4 Cimarron Drainage Campo East - Cimarron 3.8 5.5 �-261- Arkansas River Drainage Whistling counts were generally lower along the Arkansas River than along the South Platte (Tables 2, 3 and 4). One exception was observed near the town of Las Animas where the Purgatoire joins the Arkansas. Moderate to high counts were also obtained along the Arkansas upstream to Rocky Ford. Extension of low densities was noted to the east edge of Pueblo. Bobwhite are confined to a narrow flood plain along the Arkansas east of John Martin Reservoir by intensively farmed irrigated land and short-grass pastures. The flood plain, itself, is grazed in most locations resulting in fairly low populations of bobwhite (Table 4) (Fig. 2). Table 4. A summary of bobwhite whistling counts completed in southeast Colorado and the Republican River Drainage in 1971 and 1972. Location and Route Year Number of Counts Number of Stops Natural .Tally Mean E. Prowers County 1971 1972 1 3 10 30 8 33 0.8 1.1 Purgatoire - Ft. Lyon 1971 1972 1 2 10 24 52 194 5.2 8.1 Las Animas - La Junta 1972 2 27 152 5.6 La Junta - Rocky Ford 1972 2 23 76 3.3 Rocky Ford Manzanola 1972 2 18 8 0.4 Fowler Boone E. Pueblo 1972 3 34 9 0.3 1971 1972 1 2 10 28 38 145 3.8 5.2 Arkansas River Valley Cimarron River VaHey S. E. Baca County ReEub1ican River Drainage South Fork - Bonny 1971 1972 3 2 30 27 21 12 0.7 0.4 Arikaree 1972 1 11 31 2.8 North Fork 1971 1972 1 1 7 9 10 17 1.4 1.9 �-262- Induced calling inventories were conducted along the Huerfano River, Fountain Creek, Apishapa River and accessible sections of the Purgatoire River northeast of Trinidad and south of La Junta. Low bobwhite quail densities apparently extend only a few miles up the Huerfano and Apishapa Rivers (Fig. 2). Quail were not located along Fountain Creek north of Pueblo. Alex Hamilton, Area Supervisor, and John Stevenson, Wildlife Conservation Officer, reported that they were unaware of any populations above Pueblo either on the Arkansas River or Fountain Creek. Carl Leonard, Area Supervisor, reported observing quail in the Higby area along the Purgatoire River. Farmlands exist along the Purgatoire in that area. Low scattered bobwhite popUlations exist throughout the irrigated areas along the Arkansas River from Pueblo east to Kansas. Some of these coveys may winter proximal to the river while others probably winter along irrigation ditches, in farm yard shelterbelts, and at other suitable locations. Range boundaries to the north and south are abruptly cut short by semi-arid short-grass rangelands in most areas. Bobwhite show much closer reliance on irrigated farmland interspersions with cover than do scaled quail also resident along the Arkansas Valley. Winter weather conditions are observably less severe in extreme southeast Colorado than in the northeast corner of the State. As an apparent consequence, higher densities of bobwhite can survive in sand sage rangelands of southeastern Colorado (Fig. 2). Bobwhite and scaled quail coveys often intermingle in southern Baca County, but the latter species usually is dominant in number. Populations of both species fluctuate widely from year to year. Call indices along the southeast Baca County census route (Table 4) were considered disproportionately higher than those obtained along river drainages. Therefore, spring densities were adjusted downward in proportion to calling indices (Fig. 2). Census along rivers usually sampled a semi-circle of quail habitat. The remainder of the circle was farmland or pasture. Proximal highway traffic and heavy tree growth impeded tally of distant calling males. In the rangelands of Baca County, whistling bobwhite were usually distributed in all directions rather than in a semicircle. Neither tree growth or traffic noise interfered with listening for calls although winds presented an increased obstacle at times. As a result, it was assumed that about twice as much bobwhite habitat was censused in rangelands compared to river-bottom census. Republican River Drainage Lack of brush cover along the South Fork, North Fork, Frenchman and Arikaree drainages limits quail densities in east-central Colorado. The Arikaree, with adjacent sand sage and scattered brushy draws, is the best among this group of drainages (Table 4). Bobwhite exist along the Arikaree up river to near the town of Cope in southeast Washington County (Fig. 1). Other Rangeland Along Areas the east edge of Colorado most of the sand sage rangelands, especially �-263- where integrated with farmland, contained scattered to isolated coveys as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. These coveY$ winter in plum or current thickets at old homestead sites, and in windbreaks and other coverts around occupied farm and ranch yards. In spring they disperse into the rangelands for reproduction. Bobwhite occur across eastern Colorado at other isolated areas. Reports have been received from numerous straight, dryland farm areas along the east edge of the state. In addition, reports have been received from Karval, Fort Collins, Estes Park, Vail and near Denver. In many cases these are stocked 'birds which mayor may not persist in the area. Such populations are considered too scattered to merit placement on the distribution map. Quail Harvest in Relation to Distribution and Density As indicated in Table 1 the southeast region contains slightly more bobwhite range classed as isolated to scattered than the northeast region, which includes Kit Carson County. But range classes from continuous low to high comprise approximately 167 square miles in the northeast region compared to 468 square miles in the southeast region. These statistics would mean that more bobwhite exist in the southeast part of the state and harvest should be accordingly higher. However, Small Game HunterHarvest Survey statistics, averaged for 1968 through 1971, fail to agree. As Table 5 shows, apparently more quail were bagged by slightly more hunters in the northeast region. Reasons for these discrepancies are uncertain. However, availability of bobwhite is probably a primary reason. Moderate to very high densities along the Arkansas River reside primarily in salt cedar (Tamarisk) brush. Hunting these coveys is difficult to impossible in this tall, dense brush. Many of the bobwhite found elsewhere in southeast Colorado winter around occupied farm residences where they are not available to the hunter. Those dwelling in the rangelands are more difficult to find than scaled quail. Census of the two species in the early 1960's in southern Baca County rangelands revealed a ratio of bobwhite to scaled quail of 1 to 4.25. Hunters checked in the locality bagged approximately one bobwhite to eleven scaled quail (Snyder 1967). In northeast Colorado, harvest occurs mainly along the South Platte River where high to very high densities exist. Rose bushes, buck brush and other brush, grasses and weeds provide excellent huntable cover. Much of the river is leased and nearly every mile is hunted to some degree. The percentage harvest seems much higher. �-264- Table 5. Bobwhite quail harvest in eastern Colorado per region based on the 1968-1971 average. Management Unit Location Hunters Harvest Average Season Bag 1 and 2 South Platte, Arikaree & N. Fork of the Republican 2,049 9,188 4.48 14 S. Fork of Republican and Kit Carson Co. 197 788 4.00 2,246 9,976 Total: Northeast Region 12, 13 & 14 Arkansas Valley 1,511 5,112 3.38 26 Southern Baca Co. 415 2,047 4.93 1,916 7,159 4,172 17,135 Total: Southeast Region State Total 4.11 Relating Whistling Counts to Populations Resident on the Tamarack An estimated 400 male bobwhite resided on the Tamarack in June, 1972 based on change-in-ratio projections and mortality data presented later in the text. Or, there were approximately 29 males per linear mile of river. This compares to an average call index of 4.2 whistling males per stop or 8.4 males per linear mile since stops were at one-half mile intervals. The average maximum distance for hearing a whistling bobwhite is unknown but along the river it is assumed to approximate one-fourth mile. If so, then less than half of the calling quail per linear mile of river were heard since the river averaged .45 mile wide and census was taken along the south edge. Past experience with induced calling indicates that additional quail usually were resident, but not calling except on peak census mornings. Table 6 relates average calling indices on the Tamarack with late-winter and subsequent fall population densities per 100 acres. Other reference materials are included in the table for general comparison. Direct comparisons can not'be made due to differences in habitat and census conditions, among other variables. �-265- Table 6. Comparisons of calling males with previous subsequent fall population levels. Mean Calling Males Per Stop Source 3.0 to 3.3 , 4.0 to 4.5 Tamarack Illinois (Edwards 1972) Quail Density Per 100 Acres Subsequent Previous Fall Late Winter 47 1:../ (1971) (1972) 26 1.0 to 1.3 3.8 to 6.0 1.5 to 2.1 7.5 to 8.0 0.8 Indiana 0.6 (Hoekstra & Kirkpatrick 1972) Illinois (Ell is & Thomas and Moore 1972) late winter and 59 2 1.5 9.4 2.3 14.2 3.9 18.2 4.2 23.3 5.0 26.1 5.2 33.3 5.5 36.4 1:../ Habitat and census conditions are probably not comparable between Illinois and Colorado. Therefore, in a general way. Population the Illinois data are applicable Structure, to Colorado only Level and Rate of Harvest Some of the band return information obtained during this segment supplements information obtained in the previous segment (Snyder 1972). This new information necessitates reassessment, and in some cases, correction of information previously presented. These changes are presented in the following pages before proceeding to statistics compiled during the 1972 harvest. �-266Movements and Emigration of Banded Quail Fall Movement - 1972--Habitat barriers on either side of the river greatly restrict banded quail egress from the Tamarack. But, during the fall of 1972, band returns from locations, both up and down river, gave evidence that some emigration of banded quail had occurred. Some of these move-. ments covered long distances. To illustrate, 5 bands with close consecutive numbers were obtained by hunters southeast of Sedgwick on November 11, 1972. They came from quail banded on Area 7-West in late September (Fig. 3). Linear movement of these quail downstream approximated 19 miles. Two quail, banded in October on Area 9-West, moved upstream for approximately 30 miles to the John Bianco farm near Atwood where they were taken on November 11, 1972. Clayton Wetherill, Wildlife Conservation Officer, made a followup check on this report which verified its accuracy. Three additional quail bands, returned by hunters, were reportedly taken in the Iliff-Proctor region. Locations were not pinpointed so it is possible one or more could have been taken on the west end of the Tamarack. One of these quail was banded on Area 9-West and two were banded on Area 25-West. Review of trap, retrap and harvest information promotes some interesting speculation concerning the previously described movements. This information is summarized as follows: 1. Evidence of high quail densities on Areas 7-West and 9-West is indicated by the high numbers of quail banded on these areas, (64 and 56 respectively), (Table 16). 2. Relative low harvest returns on these areas many of the banded quail moved elsewhere. (Table 16) lend evidence that 3. These movements are confirmed by fall retrap information which showed some of the quail on Area 9-West moved rapidly upstream where successive retraps were made in West Areas 19, 21 and 22 within a few days after initial banding. Harvest recoveries indicate at least one, and possibly more, remained on the west end of the Tamarack while others of the covey continued on. Banded quail, taken near Sedgwick, initially were found on Area 6-West. They moved to Area 7-West, then to Area 9-West before reversing directions and heading downstream. One retrap of a member of this covey was recorded in the Braddock pasture on the East Tamarack. Retrap information indicates one other covey initially banded on Area l2-West, moved upstream but remained on the study area through the hunting season. 4. Additional fall and winter retrap and harvest return information (Table 7) shows nearly all other coveys remained resident where banded in fallon the Tamarack. 5. Available evidence indicates greater movement occurred during the fall of 1972 than in 1971. A much higher density (2,319 compared to 1,745) existed on the Tamarack the second fall. Possibly increased movement. was a result of increased density. Whether the quail leaving Areas 7 and 9-West were resident and exceeding the carrying capacity, which induced movement, or were already shifting locations when trapped, remains unknown. Trap disturbance, itself, may have induced movement, but it is evident that higher than average densities of quail were banded in the two or three hunting areas. �TAMA RACK MANAGEMENT AREA ~ tS1 ~RE~S I N -..J '" I tv / EAST AREAS o SC ALE y. Mi. LEGEND 1 HUNTING ~UNFARMED ~ AND AREA RIVER RIVER BOTTOM CHANNELS li;oiIGRASSLAND DHAY MEADOW ~. AL.FALFA ~ ROW CROPS LD PLANTING Fig. 3. Bobwhite habitat within the Tamarack Management Area along the South Platte River in northeastern Colorado. �-268- Table 7. Approximate movements of bobwhite quail between various time intervals on the Tamarack Management Area. Period 0 1/4 1/2 Distance Moved 'irtMiles 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 3-1/2 4 4+ Number of Quail Moving Duting 'Fall'Periods Fall-71to Harvest-7l 51 28 23 4 9 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 Fall-71 to Winter-72 33 20 10 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Fall-72 to Harvest-72 57 70 28 3 3 1 5 0 4 2 1 10 Fall-72 to Winter-73 6 13 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Movements Over Longer Time Intervals Fall-71 to Fall-72 6 7 2 2 1 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 Fall-71 to Harvest-72 4 2 8 5 6 1 1 3 0 1 2 1 Winter-72 to Fall-72 5 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Winter-72 to Winter-73 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Fall-71 to Winter-73 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 7 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Winter-72 to Harvest-72 Number of Quail Leaving the Tamarack-Fall, 1972--Available information indicates two or possibly three coveys left the Tamarack, while nearly all, if not all, the other coveys remained resident. If thii,is correct, then potentially 40 to 60 bobwhite left the study area, bas~~~n general covey sizes in early fall. Since portions of these coveys were trapped and retrapped more than once, at least half probably were banded. If so, then 20 to 30 banded quail potentially left the study area. Hunters reported bands from 7 to 10 quail taken outside the Tamarack during the fall of 1972. Assuming randomness of selection, a 20 percent harvest and 100 percent reporting, then approximately 50 banded quail left the Tamarack. �-269- Since little confidence can be placed in either of the above listed calculations, a systematic approach to fall emigration of banded quail was constructed and has been used for calculating egress in both 1971 and 1972. Although its accuracy is also questionable, it does provide a relative base for comparing movement between and among years and for making subsequent corrections in fall population estimates. One important weakness, inherent in this method, is that quail usually move as a covey in fall, not as individuals. In addition, since hunters walk from area to area while hunting, many of the harvest recoveries were not taken in the area which the hunter initially selected for hunting. Therefore, harvested quail were frequently tallied in one area when they were actually killed in another nearby hunting area. So, on the average they were probably taken slightly closer to their initial trap site than is depicted in Table 7. However, due to compensating errors, actual movements were probably only slightly less than those illustrated in the table. The method applied and illustrated in Table 8 determines the percentage of banded quail, based on movement data, which would leave the Tamarack from the upstream or downstream ends of the Tamarack. Areas proximal to the two ends would lose the highest percentage of banded quail. Those near the center of the Tamarack would lose few, if any. Usually, only half of the quail would be lost among those moving distances great enough to put them out of the Tamarack. The other half would simply move inward and remain on the Tamarack. Table 8. Banded bobwhite quail leaving the Tamarack Management Area based on movement-recovery data from fall to harvest and fall to winter, 1972-73. Movement in Miles Percent of Quail Moving o to .25 70.2 None None 0.50 14.9 25-W 0.75 2.4 1.0 to 1.75 1.50 to 1.75 Areas Influenced West East Total Quail Banded Number Quail Leaving !/ ll-E 56 8.3 24-w 10-E 39 2.9 1.4 23-W 9-E 56 3.5 0.5 22-W 8-E 51 2.8 2.00 to 2.25 2.4 21, 20 7, 6 96 5.1 2.50 to 2.75 0 19, 18 5, 4 60 2.4 3.00 to 3.25 1.9 17, 16 3, 2 72 3.0 3.50 to 3.75 1.0 IS, 14 1 27 0.8 4.00 to 4.25 0.5 13, 12 1/2 Brad.Past. 37 1.0 Greater Distances 4.8 ll-W to Brad Past. Total Quail 308 14.8 802 44.6 ~/Assumes one-half of the quail were leaving via each end of the Tamarack except for the 308 quail in the center of which 4.8 percent would leave by either end. Movement distances by other quail would not put them out of the l':Tnrlv ~"P::l_ �-270- Impact of Movement onChange-in~Ratio Ca1cu1ations--Based on calculations in Table 8, 45 banded quail emigrated from the study area following fall banding in 1972, compared to 12 lost the previous fall. We can only assume that a directly proportional number of unbanded quail also left the Tamarack. If there was no immigration of unbanded quail, the ratio of banded to unbanded would not change and adjustments prior to calculation of fall population estimates would not be needed. However, it must be assumed, without evidence to the contrary, that directly proportional immigration of unbanded birds did occur. Therefore, necessary corrections have been made in estimates of resident fall populations on the Tamarack (Tables 9 and 14). Movement - Spring and Summer,1972--The number of quail banded in late winter, 1972 which were retrapped the subsequent fall (Table 7) is too small to use as a base for movement calculations. All other data in the table include at least one, if not two fall movement intervals. Fall movements might tend to compensate summer movements or be additives. Therefore, fall movement data can not be subtracted from total movement data to derive summer movement. Rosene (1969) reported that quail usually moved only short distances in early spring after covey breakup. Results of most studies that he cited confirmed this. Available evidence from the Tamarack indicates summer movement upstream or downstream was not of significance. First, hunters did not report bands of adult quail in adjacent river areas. Second, the percentage of 1971 fall banded quail in the population did not decline over-summer. Samples indicated a slight increase (Table 9). If banded quail moved out of the study area over-summer and unbanded quail moved in we would expect a percentage decline of banded quail. Population Levels and Mortality Rates From 1971 Through 1972 Proportion Banded in the 1971 Fall Population--Band recoveries obtained during harvest, 1971 indicate that approximately 25 percent of the fall population had been banded prior to hunting season (Snyder 1972). Winter sampling indicated that 30.5 percent were banded. Subsequent samples obtained in fall, 1972 and winter, 1973 indicated that 33.3 percent were banded of that original population. Since there was no basis for assuming a higher mortality rate among unbanded quail, a reassessment of the discrepancies was in order. Review of information obtained during harvest, 1971 indicated that of 411 quail originally included in the harvest sample, 119, or 29 percent were banded. It was only the July report of one party, hunting in the vicinity of the Armstrong Ranch, that altered the projected sample. That party reported four banded quail among approximately 75 quail taken. Inclusion of this information into the total harvest greatly increased the projected total fall popUlation estimate of quail resident on the east part of the Tamarack. The exact location of harvest by this hunting party is unknown. Some hunting apparently was on, or proximal to, the Armstrong property along the north edge of the East Tamarack. Additional quail probably were taken to the east on Division property along the north side of the River (Fig. 3). In general, �-271- this latter location is not sampled by hunters repprting through the check station and hunting from the south side of the'Riv'er., Because of access difficulties trapping was not attempted in the location except in the winter of 1972. Then only five quail were banded there. Only minor harvest return information came from the region during 1972. Based on the above information, it seems justified to exclude this portion of the Tamarack from the study. The one late report of 75 quail will also be excluded from the 1971 harvest sample for purposes of analysis in the following sections of this report. Revised Fall Population Estimates, 1971--Table 9 summarizes revised 1971 fall population estimates including corrections for quail lost to emigration. Two population estimates are presented in the table. The first projects an estimate of 1,849 quail based only on corrected 1971 harvest returns. Inclusion of samples from winter, 1972, fall, 1972 and winter, 1973 samples reduced the estimate further to 1,745 quail as shown at the bottom of Table 9. This latter estimate, based on a sample of 817 quail handled, is considered most accurate and will be used in subsequent derivations of natural mortality and population turnover. Based on data from Robson and Regier (1964) this sample size was sufficient to prevent errors greater than 10 percent with 95 percent accuracy. Natural Mortality - Fall to Late Winter, 1971-72--The ratio of fall, 1971 banded quail to winter, 1972 banded quail that were recovered in subsequent samples permits an estimate of natural mortality from fall to late winter. Change-in-ratio computations used in deriving the late winter population are presented in Table 10. The recovery of 61 banded quail from fall, 1971 and 32 banded quail from winter, 1972 does not provide a large sample on which to place high confidence of accuracy. However, because of high annual mortality rates, little additional information will be available in subsequent samples. If the late winter population estimate of 988 quail is near accurate, natural mortality approximated only 16.3 percent based on a fall population estimate of 1,745 quail. For comparison another method of calculation was used. Natural and harvest mortality were added to surviving quail (based on 30.3 percent banded). A 1971 fall population estimate of 1,776 quail was derived, which compares favorably with the previous estimate of 1,745. Therefore, we can conclude that banded (fall - winter) recovery ratios obtained in fall, 1972 and winter, 1973 were closely proximal to the actual. Combined natural mortality and harvest mortality approximated 43 percent for the fall through winter period. Rosene (1969) recommended a 45 percent harvest plus winter loss mortality as maximum for northern regions of the species range. �-272- Table 9. Revised fall population estimates for 1971 based on (1) adjusted fall~ 1971 harvest samples and (2) addition of subsequent samples obtained through the winter ·of1972.,.,.73. West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area Number Banded 317 214 531 Marked Lost to Emigration 10 2 12 Banded Rema ining 307 212 519 Adjusted Harvest 255 156 411 Crippling Loss 38 23 61 Item 14.8 Percent Crippling Loss Projected Total Harvest Mortality 293 179 472 Band Recoveries 62 57 119 Projected Band Recoveries 71 64 135 Percent Harvest 23.1 30.2 26.0 586 Fall Population Estimate 1~263 + (Based on Harvest Returns Alone) Subsequent Sample Additions Sample/Banded (Winter, 1972) = 77/35 146/33 223/68 30.5 Percent Banded Sample/Banded (Fall & Winter, 1972-73) 183/61 50/21 133/40 33.3 Percent Banded 817/248 283/113 Sample/Banded (Combined Totals) 534/135 Percent Banded 25.3 39.9 30.3 Percent Harvest 24.1 33.7 27.0 Fall Population Estimate (Based on Combined Samples) 1,214 + 531 = 1,745 �-273- Table 10. 1971-72. Derivation of natural mortality during the fall and winter of West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Fall Banded Quail Remaining (After Emigration) 307 212 519 Projected Harvest Removal 71 64 135 Banded Quail Subject to Nat. Mortality 236 148 384 Retraps, Fall-72 15 9 24 Recoveries, Harvest-72 23 11 34 Retraps, Winter-73 2 1 3 Total 40 21 61 113 42 155 7 3 10 Recoveries, Harvest-72 13 5 18 Retraps, Winter-73 4 o 4 Total 24 8 32 Fall Banded Alive at End of Winter-72 188 llO 298 Fall Banded Natural Mortality 48 38 86 Total Natural Mortality 190 95 285 15.6 17.9 16.3 293 179 472 Percent Harvest Hortality 23.1 30.2 27.0 Natural Plus Harvest Mortality 483 274 757 Percent Total Mortality Quail Surviving on March 5, 1972 39.8 731 51.6 257 43.3 988 Item Fall, 1971 Retraps or Band Recoveries Quail Banded Late Winter, 1972 Winter, 1972 Retraps or Band Recoveries Retraps, Fall-72 Percent Natural Mortality Total Harvest Mortality �-274- Weekly Rate of Natural Mortality - Fall to Late Winter, 1971-72--A hypothetical model was presented by Snyder (1972) to calculate the number of quail alive at the start of the 1971 hunting season. A,mortality rate of two percent per week was used as a base for these calculations. If information just presented on fall to winter natural mortality is near correct then the actual weekly rate of mortality was slightly less than one percent per week. Based on a standard one percent per week loss approximately 133 quail died of natural causes prior to the start of hunting season in 1971 (Fig. 4). Natural Mortality - Adults Through Spring 'and 'Sunlmer,"1972--Previous projections indicated there were approximately 988 quail on the Tamarack in March, 1972. Of these, 520 were males and 468 were females (Table 11). By October, 1972 their total number had dropped to approximately 379 or a decline of 61.6 percent. The ratio of adult males to adult females, combined from fall trapping and harvest, indicates 60 percent, or 227, were males. Forty percent, or 152 hens, were still alive. Spring-summer mortality of males equalled 56.3 percent whereas hens declined in number by 67.5 percent from the late winter population level. Based on the original fall population estimate of 1,745 quail, spring and summer mortality equalled 34.9 percent compared to 27.0 harvest mortality and 16.3 percent fall and winter natural mortality. In total, 1,366, or 78.3 percent, of the original population were lost from early fall, 1971 to early fall, 1972. Fall Banding--The fall trapping effort along the Tamarack resulted in banding of 802 bobwhite and retrap of 34 previously banded adults. Trapping commenced on September 25 and was terminated on October 31 when heavy snowfall shut down operations. Table 19 summarizes the composition of the trapped sample by age and sex. Net top traps, used for the most part, resulted in minimal scalping. Two quail, severely scalped in one trap were released on September 25. Both when retrapped a few days later were rapidly healing. One was bagged later in the same vicinity of November 16, apparently without evidence of the previous scalping. A few quail were lost to predation during the fall trap efforts, but the number was not over one or two percent of the total number banded. Low water levels in the river, dry ground conditions and additional time permitted trapping to be extended into more areas along the Tamarack than during the preceding fall. Therefore, a much better distribution of sampling was attained. �-2752,600 \ I I 2,500 I 2,400 , \ \ I \ \ ,, , I 2,300 2,319 Quail alive Oct. 8, 1972 2,200 2,100 r-t 2,000 ~ II ~ 1,900 ~ .v 1,800 ftI 1,745 Quail alive r-t 5. 1,700 Oct. 1971 0 0. ~ 1,600 ftI 6 1,500 Hunting Season Removal ftI ~ 1,400 i 1,300 ! 1,200 ftI Hunting Season Removal ~ 1,100 M 1,000 ~ a 900 800 700 600 500 400 335 Adults Adults 300 200 100 o Oct. Nov. 1971 Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May 1972 Fig. 4. Projected population levels of bobwhite quail 1972 on the Tamarack ManagementArea. June July Aug. from October, Sept. Oct. Nov. 1971 to October, �-276- Table 11. Natural mortality of bobwhite quail through the spring and sunnner of 1972 on the Tamarack Management Area •. Item Males Females Total Projected Quail Alive March, 1972 520 468 988 Projected Alive, October, 1972 227 152 379 Natural Mortality, Spring and Summer 293 316 609 Percent Composition of Survivors 60.0 40.0 100.0 Percent Mortality (Spring Base) 56.3 67.5 61.6 Percent Mortality (Previous Fall Base) 34.4 35.4 34.9 Percent Annual Mortality (Fall to Fall) 75.7 83.0 78.3 Projected Period and Peak of Hatch. 1972--As illustrated in Fig. 5, the hatch of quail during the summer of 1972 was spread across the entire summer. The initial and main peak of hatch occurred in late June and early July. A second peak of lower impact occurred in mid-August. A few late quail were hatched in early September. Information, illustrated in Fig. 5 is based on aging of 768 quail during the fall trapping period. Ages were not precisely determined, but it is believed they tended to average out within various age intervals. Harvest, 1972--The 1972 quail season in Small Game ,Management Unit 1 began at noon on Saturday, November 11 and continued through November 19. An extended season opened on the 9th of December and continued through the 31st. The,resultant 31.5 day season compared with 20.5 days for the previous year. Harvest by age, sex and day of season are presented in Table 12. Harvest of other small game species is also included in the Table for comparison. Rabbit, squirrel and waterfowl seasons extended beyond the dates given for quail. Therefore, the totals in Table 12 do not reflect the total season bag for those species. Table 13 compares the harvest of species or groups of species between 1971 and 1972. Waterfowl harvest increased most significantly, due primarily to weather conditions. Pheasants, quail, and cottontail harvests also were proportionally above those of the previous year. �120 110 100 ~)'t?~~ Per iod and Peak of Hatch 90 l~~~~~~~l Winter Survivors 80 by Age t=l < s 70 ell ~ ~ ro sr... 0 I N 60 ~ ~ I 50 a: w ~ ~ 40 30 20 10 0 14-21 Mf-\.Y . 22-29 30-5 I 6-13 14-21 22.-29 30-7 JUNE , 8-15 16-23 24-31 1-8 JULY I 9-16 17-24 25-2 3-10 t.UGUST I 1,'iEEKLY INTcf<V!.L Fig. 5. The period and peak of bobwhite hatch on the Tamarack based on 768 aged quei.l.in 1972. The suppl ernent al. small graph depicts ages of qua Ll, surviving in December and Februory. SEPT. �-278Table 12. Harvest of small game per day on the Tamarack Management Area during the 1972 quail and pheasant season. 1/ Date Pheasants Ducks llRabbits Squirrels Ad. Male Bobwhite Quail Ad. Imm. Imm. Fem-~Male Fem •.Unc1. Total First Season 11-11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 16 29 17 4 6 3 4 11 0 27 14 42 25 29 29 25 17 15 8 13 1 0 0 1 8 26 5 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 8 6 2 0 1 1 1 4 5 2 3 2 0 1 1 1 1 2 28 13 6 5 7 15 7 12 11 35 18 9 6 9 7 8 6 8 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 74 42 19 11 18 24 17 25 29 Sub-total 90 223 62 2 28 13 104 106 8 259 5 9 0 1 3 10 9 15 10 1 1 5 0 3 4 0 0 0 1 5 1 6 2 1 1 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 27 4 17 23 31 12 46 20 3 4 10 1 9 8 0 0 1 1 14 4 13 3 Extended Season 12-09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 6 2 0 1 1 4 0 13 6 0 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 5 1 1 0 68 54 9 18 17 59 39 33 11 0 11 13 16 6 9 9 0 21 9 18 18 38 5 12 5 1 3 0 6 4 19 4 1 7 2 0 5 0 3 0 2 4 5 1 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 4 3 5 1 7 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 5 3 0 5 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 14 14 1 3 12 13 2 19 5 2 3 3 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 8 2 6 0 Sub-total 53 481 94 2 35 26 113 91 10 275 Total 704 156 4 63 39 217 197 18 534 143 ---- II - Seasons for waterfowl, rabbits and squirrels extend beyond dates listed here. llInc1uded 518 mallard drakes, 139 mallard hens and 47 others of mixed species. �-279- Table 13. A compar ison of small game harvest quail and pheasant seasons. Year Length of Season Quail 1971 20.5 days 411 1972 1s t 20. 5 days 1972 31. 5 days during the 1971 and 1972 Ducks Rabbits Squirrels 87 196 30 9 480 130 555 126 4 548 143 704 156 4 Pheasants Harvest Sample--Hunters removed 533 bobwhite from the Tamarack in 1972 as reported through the check station. Information from mailed-in returns indicated at least 15 additional quail were removed, but not reported through the check station bringing the total check to 548. In 1971, 371 quail were checked in 21 days of hunting. The first 21 days of the 1972 seasons produced 480 quail in the bag. Total hunter use per day on the Tamarack was approximately equal dur ing both years. Posting of access areas to the lamarack with controlled access signs was only partially successful in curtailing unchecked lrunting along the north side of the river and in the Proctor Bridge vicinity. A regulation is needed making it a misdemeanor to trespass on controlled access areas such as the Tamarack where hunting access is regulated through a check station. WoundingLoss-Hunters questioned concerning crippling loss reported 78 wounded and not recovered. Inclusion of a few parties missed in the inquiry, proj ects the total to 86 bobwhite lost. This represents 15.7 percent of the knownmortality compared to 14.8 percent reported lost in 1971. Knownharvest plus crippl ing loss brings the proj ected total harvest mortality to 634 quail during the 1972 season (Table 14). Use of Hunting Dogs--Most quail hunters use dogs as indicated by a sample of those checked with quail at the check station. Hunting parties with dogs totaled 120 or 71.4 percent, contrasted to 48 parties without dogs (Table 15). Amongsuccessful hunting parties, the quail bagged per hunter averaged higher, 1.42 quail, for those using dogs, than for those without dogs, where the average was 0.82 quail per hunter. Despite more shots and a higher bag for hunters using dogs, the crippling loss was slightly less, 0.197 cripples per hunter, contrasted to 0.217 cripples per lrunter without dogs (Table 15). Most significant is the ratio of crippling loss per quail bagged. The ratio is nearly 2 to 1 in preference toward hunters with dogs. Unsuccessful hunting parties are not included in these samples. �-280- Table 14. A summary of fall, 1972 bobwhite quail banding and harvest information from the Tamarack Management Area. West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area Number of Fall Banded Quail 490 312 802 Number of Retrapped Adults 22 12 34 512 324 836 29 18 47 483 306 789 113 '62 175 8 2 10 Total Band Recoveries 121 64 185 Crippling Loss (Projected) 63 23 86 Percent Crippling Loss 16.5 13.8 15.7 Known Harvest 381 167 548 Projected Total Harvest 444 190 634 Projected Total Band Recoveries 138 73 211 Percent Banded 31.75 38.32 33.75 Percent Harvest (Projected Total) 28.57 23.86 26.74 798 2,319 Item Total Marked Marked Lost to Emigration Marked Remaining Band Recoveries - Fall Banded Retrapped Adults Fall Population Estimate 1,521 + As illustrated in Table 15 the proportion of those hunting without dogs was much higher during the first nine-day season than during the second season. Two reasons for this are possible. First, more of the hunters participating in the second season may have possessed dogs, or hunters with dogs were more successful in finding and bagging quail during the second season than those without dogs. Both variables probably are true to a degree. �-281- Table 15. Quail hunter success and crippling loss among hunters with and without hunting dogs during the 1972 Tamarack quail season 1/. Hunters Using Dogs Number of Number of Quail Hunters Hunters Without Dogs Number of Number of Number of Cripples Hunters Quail Number of Cripples First Season 112 174 81 66 21 39 32 5 120 98 26 29 Second Season 162 214 25 Combined 274 Total 54 388 Quail Per Hunter 0.82 0.197 Cripples Per Hunter 0.217 0.139 Cripples Bagged Per Quail 0.265 142 1/ - Sample includes information only from successful hunting parties. Harvest and Hunting Effort by Hunting Area--Utilization of hunting areas or zones along the Tamarack property is indicated in a general way (Table 16). Since hunters could walk into other areas after 9 AM, much of the quail harvest assigned to these areas may actually have occurred in adjoining areas. But the tabular data do provide a general index of hunter use and success in the various areas or groups of areas. It must be noted that much of the selectivity for specific areas was for duck hu~ting rather than for quail hunting. A breakdown of hunter effort by species was ~ttempted, but soon abandoned as futile. After the early morning duck hunting effort, nearly all hunters were opportunists and attempted to bag any available species of game. �-282- Table 16. A summary by hunting area of fall banded bobwhite, hunter use, total harvest and banded harvest recoveries on the Tamarack Management area in 1972. Area Number Quail .Number of Banded Hunters !/ Hunter Hours !/ Total Quail Harvest 'l:../ Banded Quail Harvest 3/ 28 54 26 14 18 28 16 22 West Tamarack 1 2 4 16 6 21 24 5 6 5 32 7 8 64 11 56 10 43 30 7 0 5 3 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 11 18 57 49 39 181 133 126 82 198 170 31 61 39 57 52 163 5 14 10 60 166 120 199 194 34 126 57 48 67 173 157 261 35 !!../ 12 21 7 9 3 7 1 6 10 3 8 5 5 10 1 2 2 4 2 7 21 4 21 2 0 16 22 53 312 263 8 45 209 29 22 28 20 55 318 44 19 7 62 8 21 4 43 46 188 319 343 192 10 27 13 Sub...,.tota1 504 1,175 4,593 381 149 23 24 25 71 70 3 4 6 East Tamarack Braddock P. 63 1 11 2 44 3 4 10 16 5 6 6 7 8 4/ 63 45 47 48 41 68 59 196 4 3 139 20 11 13 8 6 14 27 10 26 4 9 23 36 29 28 10 19 63 44 30 11 13 73 168 117 126 225 198 214 170 109 223 298 581 Grand Total 802 1,756 Sub-total 1/ 2/ 3/ 4/ 8 18 7 15 9 14 19 4 1 4 1,885 167 78 6,478 548 227 Includes only known hunters and hours reported through the check station. Includes only known harvest. Some hunting probably went unrecorded. Approximates the location where quail were shot. Exact location unknown. Area closed to public hunting. �-283- Comparison With Previous Years of Harvest--Approximately 4.3 hours were expended per animal bagged in 1972 by the average hunter compared to 6.2 hours per animal in 1971. Duck hunting during the period yielded a greater return than quail hunting did in contrast to the previous year. Direct comparisons in Table 13 show that 1972 was a significantly better year for harvest of most species. Quail harvest on the Tamarack in 1972 was second highest on record since 1952 according to information presented by Snyder (1972). Only in 1958 was a higher harvest of quail recorded. Hunting Success with Season Progression--Some decline in hunting success was noted with season progression both in 1971 and 1972 (Table 17). The most significant decline occurred during the last eight days of the extended 1972 season when very few quail were taken. This probably reflects a combination of factors including a declining quail population due to .previous harvest and increased wariness of remaining quail~ It is also possible that significant natural mortality occurred prior to the last week in December, 1972 as a result of severe weather in combination with prolonged snow cover and hunting stress. Table 17. Hunter success ratios on bobwhite quail with the progression of hunting seasons in 1971 and 1972. Interval Number of Hunters 1/ Number of Quail Hunters/Quail 1971 Season 1st 8 Days 638 258 2.47 2nd 8 days 363 100 3.63 Last 5 Days 258 53 4.87 1972 Season 1st 8 Days 606 230 2.63 2nd 8 Days 386 167 2.31 3rd 8 Days 369 100 3.69 4th 8 Days 392 36 10.89 1:./ Includes all hunters using the Tamarack and not just quail hunters. �-284- Winter Bartding--Trapping was conducted through the month of February, 1973, with generally poor success. Only 47 quail were banded and 31 retraps were taken. Retraps included 24 fall, 1972 banded quail, 4 winter, 1972 banded, and 3 quail banded in fall, 1971. The trapping effort and success indicated a marked drop in the number of wintering quail compared to the previous year. Approximately half as many man-days of effort were utilized in 1973 as in 1972 winter trapping, but less than a third as many quail were trapped. Considerably fewer coveys were located and most were much smaller in number, averaging only 5 to 10 birds. Muddy trails and high water conditions in 1973 hindered trapping operations. Notably higher cottontail populations resulted in more frequent catches of this species. As a consequence, use of metal-topped traps was mandatory. Age Ratios - Fall to Winter, 1972--A highly significant difference in adult to young ratios existed between banded and unbanded samples in the total harvest sample (Table 18) •(Chi-square = 24.33** 1 d.f.). As previously described (Snyder 1972) this indicates trap bias toward young during fall trapping. It is assumed that harvest provides an unbiased sample of age and sex in bobwhite quail. Corrections to determine the actual proportion of adults in the early fall sample are complicated by discrepancies between banded and unbanded samples between the early (November) season and the second (December) season (Table 18). The banded samples show no evidence of disproportionately greater juvenile mortality between the two seasons. The unbanded samples, containing much higher samples, show considerable evidence of first season to second season differential loss of young. A chi-square analysis of the total (banded + unbanded) ratios between the two seasons show significance at the 0.05 level for a 1 tailed test (Chi-square = 3.63 with 1 d.f.). This would indicate differentially higher juvenile mortality did occur between the two hunting seasons. It is supported by ratios obtained in late winter samples (Table 18). • Apparently, the percentage adults in the early fall population lay somewhere between 15.36 and 19.76. Assuming little or no differential mortality between fall banding and the first season and significant differential mortality between the two harvest periods, 16.33 will be used as the percentage of adults originally present in the fall population. Robel (1965) in Kansas found that differentially greater mortality of young came when snows, sub-freezing temperatures and lower food supplies were first encountered in December. On the Tamarack, these conditions prevailed in close unison with the November and December hunting seasons in 1972. Assuming adults comprised 16.33 percent of the early fall population of 2,319 quail, then there were 379 adults within that population at the mid-point of fall trapping. �-285- Table 18. Quail age ratio information obtained on the Tamarack Management Area during the fall and winter of 1972-73. Total Percent Adults Adult: Young Ratio 776 836 7.18 1 : 12.93 8 84 92 8.70 33 126 159 20.75 41 210 251 16.33 Banded 7 85 92 7.61 Unbanded 54 119 173 31.21 61 204 265 23.02 Banded 15 169 184 8.15 Unbanded 87 245 332 26.20 102 414 516 19.76 Banded 0 24 24 0 Unbanded 19 35 47 40.43 19 59 78 24.35 Number Adults Number Young 60 Banded Unbanded Item Fall Banded Sample Hunting Season Sample November Season Total 1 5.12 1 3.34 1 4.06 1 3.10 December Season Total Combined Seasons Total Winter Trapped Total Age Ratio Comparison With the Previous Year--The banded retrapped and banded adults in the 1972 fall population represent only 7.18 percent of the total sample compared to 11.5 percent banded adults in the 1971 fall banded sample. Best estimates indicate that 19.2 percent and 16.3 percent of the fall populations were adults respectively in 1971 and 1972. If these ratios are correct, then 1972 was a better production year. The higher fall population present in 1972 provides support to that s t atiement; , �-286- The 1972 Fall Population Estimate--Projections based on fall banded minus movement samples indicate there were approximately 1,521 quail on the west section of the Tamarack and 798 quail on the east section (Table 14) in early October, 1972. The combined total of 2,319 quail is proximal to an estimate of 2,337 obtained by direct calculation in the last column of Table 14. If immigration of unbanded quail was not considered, then the total population estimate for 1972 would equal 2,457 birds. These estimates may again be revised following collection of additional band returns during the fall and winter of 1973 and 1974. During the early fall of 1972 there were approximately 384 quail per square mile or 60 quail per 100 acres resident on the Tamarack river bottom. This compares to 289 quail per square mile or 45 quail per 100 acres found on the Tamarack in the fall of 1971. Sex Ratios--The higher rate of mortality among hens than among males over summer was previously illustrated and discussed (Table 11). This phenomenon routinely occurs in bobwhite populations as shown by numerous references in the literature. A summary of sex ratios for adult and immature quail obtained in fall and winter, 1972-73 is provided in Table 19. Table 19. Sex ratios of adult and immature quail obtained during fall and winter trapping and harvest, 1972-73. Sample Adult Male Adult Female Immature Male Immature Female Fall Trapped 36 22 375 313 Hunting Season 63 39 217 197 Winter Trapped 11 8 27 32 Total 110 69 619 542 61.45 38.55 53.32 46.68 Percent of Totals By Age Class Confidence limits calculated from a formula provided by Davis (1960) are presented in Table 20. Finite corrections for this finite population are also included (Snedecor 1956). �-287- Table 20. Fall population estimates for 1972 with confidence limits at the 95 percent level for the Tamarack Study Area. Fall Population Estimate Population Confidence Limits Conf. Interval With Finite Correction West Tamarack 1,521 ± 228.4 ± 197.8 East Tamarack 798 ± 156.8 ± 139.5 2,319 ± 279.7 ± 244.4 Total Area Robson and Regier (1964) recommend that samples should be large enough to prevent errors in population estimates greater than 10 percent with 95 percent accuracy for the type study presented here. Comparison of the 1972 fall banded sample and harvest recovery information with charts included in Robson and Regier (1964) show that sample sizes were adequate to achieve this degree of accuracy. Examination of additional members of the population for bands in the future will further improve accuracy. Factors Limiting Bobwhite Quail on the Tamarack Habitat Conditions as Limiting Factors The high densities attained both in 1971 and 1972 provide evidence that conditions along the ungrazed South Platte flood plain are quite well suited to bobwhite. Apparently brush, food, nesting cover and the other requirements needed by bobwhite are generally in good supply. Periodic floods along the river may temporarily disrupt nesting and curtail reproduction, but in the long run, they insure numerous forbs and early successional vegetation needed by bobwhite. Vegetation Sampling Late summer inventories show a wide variety of annual and perennial forbs abound along the South Platte (Table 21). By general occurrence these forbs occupy about 30 to 40 percent of the sampled sites within the Tamarack (Table 22). Grasses usually rank second in abundance with varied lesser amounts of brush and trees, dead vegetation, litter and bare ground. Overstory cottonwoods were not included in the samples. General height and density measurements are provided in Table 23. �Table 21. Forb occurrence on six sites along the Tamarack Management Area in late summer, 1972. 6-7 West 14-15 West 3-6 East Braddock 111 '!:..I Braddock Genera or species Per. Ragweed Lamb's Quart. Clover Kochia Horseweed spp. Sunflower Annual Ragweed Wild Lettuce Four-O'Clock Milk Purslane Purslane Curly Cock Ground Cherry Poison Hemlock Dandelion Gumweed Crotons Snow-on-the-Mountain Pigweed spp. Milkweed Indian Hemp Mustard spp. Mullein Licorice Vervain spp. Goldenrod Mint Plantain Horsetail 24 45 15 54 8 14 8 3 3 5 2 7 4 10 0 0 8 0 2 3 1 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 85 36 36 17 18 39 7 8 23 10 3 5 19 1 0 5 5 2 2 12 5 5 0 7 0 1 2 1 0 101 l3 35 0 17 7 45 35 25 3 3 3 5 1 0 1 1 2 0 9 18 1 2 1 1 2 0 0 0 33 4 45 2 24 11 0 10 3 40 16 9 0 6 3 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 6 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 0 0 6 0 3 30 12 1 0 1 0 0 3 5 14 22 0 0 12 1 112 3-6 Sand Baril 0 1 5 4 5 7 1 5 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/ Total Percent Occurrence 252 99 142 80 72 79 61 61 56 58 24 24 29 22 32 22 15 4 5 24 24 14 9 23 23 4 6 l3 2 17.97 7.06 10.13 5.71 5.14 5.63 4.35 4.35 3.99 4.11 1.71 1.71 2.07 1.57 2.28 1.57 1.07 0.29 0.36 1.71 1.71 1.00 0.64 1.64 1.64 0.29 0.43 0.93 0.14 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N (1:) (1:) I �Table 21. Forb occurrence on six sites along the Tamarack Management Area in late summer, 1972. l/ (continued) Genera or species Prickly Pear Cocklebur Russian Thistle Canadian Thistle ClannnyWeed Tall Eve. Primrose Prostrate Primrose Butterfly Guara Goatsbeard Asparagus Pro Coneflower Gilia Knotweed Smart Weed Unid. Composites Sunnnation 6-7 West 14-15 West 3-6 East Braddock III '!:.../ Braddock fI2 3-6 Sand Bar o o o o 15 o 1 o 1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1 o o o o o o o o o o 1 o 3 o o o 1 1 o 1 o 6 3 1 o o o o o o 7 1 o o o 30 o o o o o o 1 o o 11 2 o 1 1 o o o o o o Total 16 13 3 31 2 4 6 3 1 1 1 7 1 2 o 12 2 2 3 14 o o 12 21 227 356 354 333 72 60 1,402 Percent Occurrence 1.14 0.93 0.21 2.21 0.14 0.28 0.43 0.21 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.50 0.14 0.86 1.50 !/ Different sample sizes were obtained on different sites, therefore direct comparisons between or among sites should not be made. '!:.../ Braddock #1 sample was obtained in timbered flood plain. cover along the south side of the flood plain. }j A frequently flooded site with the channel system of the river where annual forbs alone were resident. Braddock #2 was taken in open grass-brush I N CI) 1.0 I �-290- Table 22. Percentage occurrence of vegetation, on several sites within the Tamarack Management property near Merino, Colorado. litter and bare ground Area and on the Lutes Location 6-7 14-15 3-6 Cover Type West West East Braddock Pasture Lutes Property Grass 38.24 32.35 31.75 23.70 62.17 Brush and Vines 5.84 11.17 21.30 14.51 7.95 Forbs 34.87 37.16 31.66 40.26 21.20 Dead Vegetation 6.30 3.76 3.04 0.24 2.41 Litter 7~07 5.64 8.05 4.72 4.10 Bare Ground 7.68 9.92 4.20 16.57 2.17 , Table 23. Comparisons of height and density measurements habitats of the Tamarack and Lutes properties. Location Site Mean Height in Inches obtained in quail Mean Density Tamarack 6-7 West 16.40 1.70 14-15 West 22.58 2.12 Braddock Pasture 12.62 1.19 Braddock Pasture-South 15.08 1.35 21.08 2.09 12.13 1.99 3-6 East Lutes Property Density is based on a scale of 1 to 3 with the latter representing highest density. the 1/ �-291- Quail Winter Use in Relation to Vegetation On the Tamarack different areas were selected for measurement on the basis of their occupancy by quail coveys during the previous winter. Areas 14 and 15 on the West Tamarack contained several small coveys during the winter of 1971-72, whereas no quail were found in Areas 6 and 7 in that section, nor in Areas 3 to 6 on the East Tamarack. The Braddock pasture, which is lightly grazed yearlong, provided another situation for comparison. The Lutes property, which lies up-river near Merino (Snyder, 1972) receives moderate to heavy grazing. Quail winter use of specific locations along the Tamarack was not consistent between winters of 1971-72 and 1972-73. As a consequence, comparisons with site vegetation cannot be made. Little use of Areas l4-West and l5-West was observed during the winter of 1972-73, however, a covey was resident on Area 7-West. Undoubtedly the variables within hunting and weather play an important role as to the location of wintering coveys on the Tamarack. Markedly fewer forbs were tallied on the Lutes property (Table 22), where grazing evidently had an impact on quail populations. Limited trapping in that location during the fall of 1971 showed very few quail were resident there (Snyder 1972).. Nearby locations, less heavily grazed, showed densities comparable to those found on the Tamarack. Therefore, it seems probable that grazing was important in reducing quail density on the Lutes property. Crouch (1961) observed significantly more bobwhite on his ungrazed Tamarack Study A~ea than on his grazed plot located a few miles upstream. The greatest contrast was in summer and fall. No quail were observed on the ungrazed section in winter, but observations are often difficult in heavy cover sites after hunting season. Crouch also recorded a significantly higher occurrence of forbs on his ungrazed plot than on bis grazed study area. Quail Movement in Relation to Vegetation The previously mentioned Braddock pasture, lying east of the Crook River Bridges (Fig. 3), has been lightly grazed. As a result, brush cover is observably open in many locations over-winter and apparently less attractive to wintering quail. Fall banding had been conducted within this pasture both in 1971 and 1972. Harvest recoveries and winter retraps indicate many of these quail apparently move either east or west to better cover sites for winter. Most recoveries have been obtained in Areas I-West and 2-West, indicating this is the primary direction of movement. Since the Braddock pasture is not heavily grazed, numerous forbs are able to reproduce each year. Therefore, the site appears to be an attractive brood rearing and feeding location through late summer and early fall. Food Habits in Relation to Forb Occurrence Wassink (1972) conducted an analysis during the November-December hunting of 50 bobwhite quail crops collected season in 1971 on the Tamarack. Bait �-292- grain, corn and milo, was still present from trapping operations which ended just prior to harvest. This undoubtedly biased results as 52 percent of the consumed food by volume was comprised of corn and milo. Important natural food included knot weed, Polygonum aviculare, which comprised 20 percent by volume and 80 percent by occurrence (Table 24). Penny cress, Thaspia arvense, occurred in 58 percent of the crops and made up 5 percent of the volume. Giant ragweed, Ambrosia trifida, occurred in 68 percent of the crops and totaled 5 percent by volume. Other lesser species are illustrated in Table 24 as adapted from Wassink's report. Quantities of forbs vary greatly from year to year depending on growing conditions. Therefore, comparisons of 1971 crop analysis with 1972 forb abundance can only be related in a general way. Natural Mortality, Weather and Sex Ratio Changes Information presented in previous sections of this report indicate that natural mortality was quite low over-winter in 1971-72, but relatively high during the spring and summer of 1972. Preliminary data indicate higher natural mortality occurred in late fall and early winter, 1972-73. Winter Mortality and Weather--Other studies conducted in northern and central parts of the species range show that winter mortality is directly proportional to the duration of snow cover on the ground over-winter. Roseberry and Klimstra (1972) in Illinois, Latham and Studholme (1952) in Pennsylvania, Kabat and Thompson (1963) in Wisconsin are among the primary examples. It seems probable that this same stress factor applies to quail in Colorado. If so, then low mortality in winter, 1971-72 and high mortality in winter, 1972-73 are to be expected. Table 25 shows that the first winter had only 16 days of snow cover compared to 75 days in 1972-73. Temperatures in November and December of 1972 also ranged well below those for the same months in 1971. Spring and Summer Mortality--Mortality in spring and/or summer, 1972 was relatively high, but apparently was not a significant detriment to productivity since the fall popUlation was higher in 1972 than in 1971. POSSibly, this rate of mortality is to be expected. But why this mortality occurred, just when it occurred, or how it occurred, remains unknown. It was significantly higher among hens than males (Chi-square = 5.83 with 1 d.f.). Numerous authors have cited this higher loss of hens as probably attributable to hen efforts in nesting and/or brood rearing. The prolonged period of hatch illustrated in Fig. 5 indicates most hens probably made more than one nesting attempt. Undoubtedly successive egg laying and nesting attempts induced stress on hens and increased their vulnerability to predation, parasitism and other mortality factors. �-293- Table 24. Principal foods of a sample of bobwhite quail collected on the Tamarack during the late fall of 1971. !/ Percent by Food Item Occurrence Volume Polygonum aviculare 80 20 Giant Ragweed Ambrosia trifida 68 5 Field Penny-cress Th1aspia arvense 58 5 Sunflower Spp. Helianthus spp. 58 4 Corn Zea mays 48 32 Curled-leaf Dock Rumex crispus 44 T Wild Buckwheat Polygonum convolvulus 40 4 Halberd-leaved Orache Atriplex patula hastata 38 1 Milkweed Asclepias spp. 30 1 Snow-on-the-Mt. Euphorbia marginata 22 T Kochia Kochia scoparia 20 1 Sorghum Sorghum vulgare 18 18 Pigweed Spp. Amaranthus spp. 16 T Green Foxtail Setaria viridis 14 3 Sweet Clover Melilotus spp. 14 T Buffalo Burr Solanum rostratum 4 T Poison Ivy Rhus radicans 4 T Witchgrass Panicum capil1are 4 T Vervain Verbena stricta 2 T Smart Weed Polygonum pennsy1vanica 2 T Russian Olive E1eagnus angustifolia 2 T Night Shade Solanum spp. 2 T Common Name Scientific Name Knot Weed !/ Data revised from Wassink (1972) include samples from 50 bobwhite. �-294- Table 25. Average monthly temperature, snowfall and days with snow on ground during the winters of 1971-72 and 1972-73 !/. 1971-72 1972-73 Snowfall Days of Snow Cover 50.1 3.3 1 November 39.1 l:/ 1.0 December 29.2 January Snowfall Days of Snow Cover 50.0 0.5 1 2 29.8 29.0 25 3.0 5 19.6 6.0 23 24.4 5.0 8 24.6 13.5 9 February 36.4 T 0 31.7 3.0 9 March 45.8 0 0 39.6 6.0 4 12.3 16 58.0 75 Month X Temp. October Total X Temp. 37.5 X Temp. 32.5 1/ - Data from U. S. weather station located 5 miles south of Sedgwick, Colorado. 2/ - Underscoring denotes large temperature differences between the two winters. Harvest as a Limiting Factor Quail in the bag plus crippling loss approximated 26 to 27 percent of the original fall population in both 1971 and 1972. This harvest appears relatively low and not of significant impact in itself when contrasted to other studies. Rosene (1969) recommended that combined harvest and winter loss not exceed 45 percent of the fall population in northern states. The combined 1971-72 loss approximated 43 percent on the Tamarack. Vance and Ellis (1972) presented data showing that harvest rates of 60 to 70 percent, excluding crippling loss, were not detrimental to subsequent population levels over a seven year period. They also found that low winter losses occurred after high harvest rates and high winter losses followed lower harvest rates. They concluded that 70 percent harvest was a safe level in southern Illinois, but stated that this rate of harvest would not be attained during years of low population. After their presentation at the First National Bobwhite Quail Symposium at Stillwater, others questioned the possibilities of immigration of surrounding quail to potentially help sustain these study area populations. �-295- Roseberry and Klimstra (1972) reported an average harvest of about 44 percent on another southern Illinois population without apparent detriment. November to April mortality totaled 66 percent of the original population on the hunted area compared to 54 percent decline on a nearby unhunted population. Hunting stress may be additive in increasing mortality when combined with snow cover and extreme cold. These conditions occurred on the Tamarack during the late fall of 1972, but over-winter mortality rates are not yet certain. Frequent covey disturbance, which often occurred on the Tamarack, would undoubtedly have much greater impact than only occasional covey disturbance on less intensively hunted sites. Rosene (1969) stated that bobwhite have a low number of feathers and are quite susceptible to cold and exposure when their feathers become wet. Snows and cold weather came unusually early in the fall of 1972. Short days, long nights, snow and severe cold usually are not a significant problem until mid-December in Colorado. Therefore, it is recommended that quail seasons begin earlier, preferably around the first of November, and run c9ntinuous to termination. Most years this would put harvest ahead of the main stress period, and also permit harvest of some quail otherwise lost to natural mortality. Early Hatched Versus Late Hatched Survival The stress of November snow and severe cold and snow cover that persisted into December, 1972 potentially induced increased mortality among late hatched quail. Some of these birds were not fully grown or feathered at the start of the hunting season on November 11. A sample obtained from banded quail taken during the December (extended) season and winter trapping operations is illustrated in Fig. 5. As shown in the illustration, there is little indication of excessive mortality among younger juveniles. The data show that these birds survived the adverse weather about as well as the older juveniles did. LITERATURE CITED Crouch, G. L. 1961. Inventory and analysis of wildlife populations and habitat, South Platte River Valley. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-l04-R. Job Compl. Rpt. July. 68 p. Mimeo. Davis, D. E. 1960. Estimating the numbers of game populations, pp. 5.15.27. In H. S. Mosby (Editor) Manual of Game Investigational Techniques.--The Wildlife Society, Washington, D. C. Edwards,W. R. 1972. Quail, land use, and weather in Illinois, 1956-70. National Bobwhite Quail Symposium. 1:174-183. �-296- Ellis, J. A., K. P. Thomas, and P. Moore. 1972. Bobwhite whistling activity and population density on two public hunting areas in Illinois. National Bobwhite Quail Symposium. 1:282-289. Hoekstra, T. W., and C. M. Kirkpatrick. 1972. The bobwhite quail on the Crane Naval Ammunition Depot, Indiana -- 25 years of protection and plant succession. National Bobwhite Quail Symposium. 1:184-194. Kabat, C. D., and D. R. Thompson. 1963. Wisconsin quail, 1834-1962, population dynamics and habitat management. Tech. Bull. No. 30. Wisc. Cons. Dept., Madison. 136 p. Latham, R. M., and C. R. Studholme. 1952. The bobwhite quail in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Game News. Special Issue 4, 95 p. Robson, D. S., and H. A. Regier. 1964. Sample sizes in Peterson markrecapture experiments. Trans. Amer. Fish Society. 93(3):215-226. Robel, R. 1965. Differential winter mortality of bobwhite in Kansas. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 29(2):261-266. Roseberry, J. L., and W. D. Klimstra. of a hunted bobwhite population. 1:268-282. 1972. Some aspects of the dynamics National Bobwhite Quail Symposium. Rosene, W. N. J. Rutgers Univ. Press, New Brunswick, 1969. The Bobwhite Quail. 418 p. Snedecor, C. W. 1956. Ames. 534 p. Statistical methods. The Iowa State ColI. Press, Snyder, W. D. 1967. Experimental habitat improvement for scaled quail. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Bull. No. 19. 65 p. 1972. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April. pp. 121-150. Vance, D. R., and J. A. Ellis. 1972. Bobwhite populations and hunting on Illinois public hunting areas. National Bobwhite Quail Symposium. 1:165-174. Wassink, J. L. 1972. Fall food habits of bobwhite in eastern Colorado. Colo. State Univ., Dept. of Fishery and Wildl. Biology. Mimeo Rpt. 9 p. ~J I ) I ~; ) Prepared by _-.:" /:"::-::-':.../_/_~/:...('-=,_) _"-:I):-1_/-::-_/_J_, _I '-I' _~&_''Zh_,-,_ _ Warren D. snyd~r Wildlife Researcher J �April, 1973 -297- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~--~------------- Project No. W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey Job No. 4 Migration of White-tailed Ptarmigan to and from a Major Wintering Area ----~~~~------------------------ April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Richard W. Hoffman, Clait E. Braun and Terry A. May. ABSTRACT Studies on migration of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) were initiated in Colorado in the spring of 1972. Major emphasis was to document movements by sex and age class from and to a major wintering area in order to ascertain the importance of such areas to surrounding breeding sites and the distances and directions involved in annual movements. Guanel1a Pass was the major wintering area investigated. Of 147 birds individually identified on the wintering area from October 1, 1972 to March 31, 1973, 114 (77.4 percent) were females, while 42.3 percent were young of the year. Movement data were available for 58 ptarmigan. These data indicated females of all age classes moved significantly greater distances than males, with subadult females moving longest distances to breeding or summering sites. Both adult and subadult males were relatively .sedentary, showing a high fidelity to natal areas and generally moving less than 2,air miles. However, males became more mobile upon cessation of breeding activities. Average female movements were 3.62 air miles, but 3 subadults moved over 10 air miles to breeding sites. Wintering areas for females are believed to be limited; thus forcing hens to move greater distances to breeding sites. The longer movements of subadults was attributed to their wandering in search of available breeding areas. Significantly more birds (16 of 58 recoveries) ~ved northwest from Guanella Pass than in any other direction. In addition, the longest movements were also recorded in this direction. Seventy percent (11) of the birds moving northwest were subadults, primarily females. Only 7 birds moved in any other single direction. Birds could move over 15 air miles northwest across continuous alpine habitat, which was probably the primary reason for documenting significantly more movements in this direction. Approximately 44 percent of the birds banded each winter returned the following winter. It was concluded that Guanel1a Pass attracted major numbers of ptarmigan, especially females, from 15 to 20 square miles of surrounding breeding habitat. �-298- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Efforts should be increased to trap and band chicks in order to document movements from natal areas to wintering and breeding sites. 2. Major wintering areas for ptarmigan should be protected from motor vehicle use and livestock grazing. 3. Additional efforts should be made to investigate other wintering areas in the State to fully assess sex ratios in differing types of habitats. �-299- MIGRATION OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN TO AND FROM A MAJOR WINTERING AREA Richard W. Ho ffman White-tailed ptarmigan, the smallest member of the Tetraonidae, live primarily in alpine habitats of western North America. It occupies suitable habitat from south-central Alaska, the Yukon, British Columbia, western Alberta, and Vancouver Island sout.hwa'r d to Mt. Ranier and the Cascade Mountains of Washington, east to western Montana, and south in the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico (Aldrich 1963). The distribution of ptarmigan in Colorado correlates with the distribution of alpine tundra from 11,000 to over 14,000 ft in elevation, an area of approximately 3,750 square miles (Braun and Rogers 1971). Studies of ptarmigan have been conducted at Guanella Pass since 1966 and relate primarily to bird collection, description of habitat and general winter ecology (Braun and Schmidt 1971). Some banding of this winter population had been accomplished as about 350 individuals were marked prior to the initiation of this study. Only 11 band recoveries were documented prior to 1972. The intensively studied Mt. Evans area (Braun and Rodgers 1971) lies 3 miles east of Guanella Pass. Prior to 1972, only one bird banded at Guanella was recovered on Mt. Evans, while two birds from Mt. Evans were recaptured at Guanella during the winter. Most of the other bands recovered (mainly biy hunters) indicated birds wintering at Guanella Pass moved northwest with females novang the greatest distances. The extent of the movements was not known, although banded females had been recovered 6 and 10 miles away. Previous banding studies at Guanella indicated that approximately 80% of the 200-300 birds wintering there were females. It is known that breeding densities are remarkably stable between years, averaging 15 to 20 birds per square mile, of which one half are females. Thus, initial indications were that Guanella Pass must be supplying breeding females to 15 to 20 square miles of surrounding breeding areas (Braun and Schmidt 1971). The question investigated concerned the annual migration of ptarmigan, principally females, to and from a major wintering area and involved understanding the importance of such an area to surrounding breeding sites. P. S. OBJECflVE To document lOOvements of white-tailed ptarmigan by age and sex class from and to a major wintering area in order to evaluate importance of such areas and distances involved in annual migrations. SEGMENT OBJECfIVES 1. Individually identify at least 100 different birds during the winter period at Guanella Pass. �-300- 2. Locate winter banded birds on breeding of established census techniques. 3. Compute distances and directions involved in normal from wintering areas by age and sex class. 4. To compile data and prepare progress and summering areas through use migrations to and report. In addition, attempts were made to: (1) document departure and arrival dates, (2) record and analyze flock sizes, (3) describe the distribution of birds on the wintering area, (4) determine the affinity of birds for the wintering area, and (5) individually identify at least 50 chicks on summering areas in order to document their movements to wintering sites. Limited observations were made at four smaller wintering sites in the Georgetown-Montezuma area. This was done in order to document movements of birds banded at Guane11a Pass to other winter use sites, locate chicks banded during the summer, estimate numbers of birds using these sites, and estimate sex and age composition of winter flocks utilizing the areas. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Intensive studies of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado (Braun 1969, Haskins 1969, Schmidt 1969. and May 1970, 1973) have provided extensive data on general ecology, population dynamics, movements, habitat, seasonal foods, behavior and parasites. Weeden (1959, 1967) and Choate (1960, 1963a and b) have also studied this grouse. Other than these studies, the literature contains limited scientific references to this species. Seasonal movements have been described in general terms by several authors. Packard (1945), Racey (1948), Bailey (1927), Bent (1932), and Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) describe the species as spending the summer (breeding) above timberline descending to or below timberline in winter. Choate (1960) suggested that some flocks remain above timberline in winter, while others descend to areas dominated by willow (Salix spp.) and poplar (Populus spp.) below timberline. Weeden (1964) indicated male (and some female) rock ptarmigan (L. mutus) spend the winter at the upper fringe of timber, moving higher to alpine habitats for breeding. He found that females (and some males) primarily wintered along stream courses dominated by willow 10 to 20 miles from the nearest alpine breeding areas. Irving et al. (1967) extensively monitored the migration of willow ptarmigan (L. lagopus) at Anaktuvuk Pass in the Brooks Range of Alaska. It was documented that willow ptarmigan, expecially females, may move 200 miles south of their northern breeding range to winter in willow dominated stream bottoms below timberline. Adult males predomianted in winter in their northern range near breeding areas. Evidence indicated each sex and age category moved according to its own program. Braun (1969) documented movements of white-tailed ptarmigan throughout the year, however, he suggests his data for the fall and winter periods are limited and may not represent true situations. His studies indicated that �-301- males are relatively sedentary, usually moving less than one mile in a given year, while females are highly mobile with some birds moving 10 to 15 miles from wintering to breeding areas. He also found that subadults move farther than adults, with subadult females moving the greatest distances. Techniques for locating, capturing, aging and sexing white-tailed ptarmigan have been described by Braun and Rogers (1971)', and Braun et al. (1973). The telescoping noose pole used to capture ptarmigan was adapted from Zwickel and Bendell (1967). Braun and Schmidt (1971) intensively studied wintering populations of whitetailed ptarmigan. Objectives were to describe the habitat and environmental features typical of wintering areas, determine the composition of winter flocks, and delineate behavior and movements of individual birds and flocks in relation to changes in environmental conditions. Study Areas Guanella Pass was chosen for study principally due to an abundance of wintering ptarmigan at this site, year round accessibility, and availability of information on this site from prior studies. Four additional smaller wintering areas were briefly investigated. These were Waldorf, Naylor Lake, Stevens Gulch and Horseshoe Basin. The Guanella Pass area is approximately 5 air miles south of Georgetown, Colorado, in the Pike and Arapaho National Forests, Clear Creek and Park counties, T5S, R74W. Topography of the area is gentle, with slopes varying from 5 to 30% and elevation extremes of 11,400 to 11,990 ft above sea level. Total area investigated was 3.5 square miles (Fig. 1). Surrounding breeding and summering sites, referred to as the MbntezumaGeorgtown study area, were searched for birds banded at Guanella Pass. This area encompasses approximately 113 square miles (Fig. 2), however, probably only 25 to 30 square miles are suitable as breeding and summering sites. Alpine areas searched included parts of T4S, R75 and 76W; T5S, R73, 74, 75 and 76W; and T6S, R73, 74, 75 and 76W in Clear Creek, Park and Summitt counties. Topography of the area is irregular, varying from sharp peaks over 14,000 ft to gently rolling expanses of hundreds of acres. This area included the four additional wintering areas that were briefly investigated. METHODS AND MATERIALS Locating Ptarmigan Winter flocks of ptarmigan were located by concentrated searching on foot with periodic stops to scan surrounding areas for birds or their sign. During the breeding and brood seasons birds were located by the use of a �\ t -/ \ / OJ ," ~ iI \ -302- J e( I.LI e( 0: e( e( q)0 q)O 0..0: 0 ..) e( ..)0 ..)0 uJ 'Z e( :::I Cl •. .., c ~ " OJ .. ~ u; , j f I I I i I j J .i r j . .-l �r::- ... -::: '" =- .~~ .;,- I W o W I Fig. 2. MOntezuma-Georgetown study area. �-304- portable cassette-type tape recorder utilizing "distress" calls (Braun et al. 1973). male "challenge" and chick The male "challenge" call was used during the breeding season to locate territorial males. Non-territorial males usually did not respond, but sat quietly or fled from the area, consequently many were probably not located. Once territorial males were located, their females could usually be found nearby. At times, upon hearing the call, the male would leave the female and fly to vantage points on the boundary of his territory where he would commence calling. MOst frequently, males would return to their hens in 10 to 15 minutes, but on several occasions an hour or more was ~pent before a male would return to his mate. Use of tape recorded chick "distress" calls resulted in the location of females with broods. OccaSionally, females without chicks responded, and it is believed these hens had recently lost their broods. Intensity with which females responded varied with age of chicks, and closeness to the source of the distress call. In general, as chicks got older, females were less likely to respond. Males and unsuccessful females congregated in flocks along rocky ridge tops following the breeding s.eason (Bz atm 1971). These groups were located by intensively searching edges of rocky areas along ridge tops. Once birds were located, they were observed through 7 X 50 binoculars, classified as banded or unbanded, and during the winter, the number of birds comprising each flock was determined. Unbanded birds located during the winter were pursued until caught or flushed and not relocated. Only unbanded females (and chicks) were captured and banded during the spring and summer. Attempts we~e made to identify previously banded birds by reading the bandette number. If not readable, efforts were made to recapture the bird. In Winter, band numbers would frequently be obscured by leg feathers or snow. Only 2 banded ptarmigan were observed away from wintering areas that could not be identified or caught. Each observation was recorded at the time on standardized observation cards. All locations were subsequently plotted on 7.5 minute U.S.G.S. topographic maps. Capturing and Banding Ptarmigan Ptarmigan were captured with a 16 ft telescoping noose pole described by Zwickel and Bendell (1967). Nooses were made from 60 pound nylon covered leader wire. For chicks older than 2 weeks, 18 pound test was more suitable. Known mortality due to this technique was less than one percent. Upon capture, birds were aged and sexed by techniques described by Braun and Rogers (1971). Each bird was banded with a gold, aluminum, seriallynumbered size 8 band. Chicks were banded on the right leg only, with this band. In addition, adults were banded with numbered, colored, plastic bandettes (no. 6). �-305- Delineating Distribution of Ptarmigan Distribution of ptarmigan on the wintering area was determined by periodically traversing the entire area and from reports of sightings by reliable observers. Sites were classified as being utilized if signs such as droppings, tracks, roosts, or the birds themselves were observed. Data were available for all winters since 1966. Although all locations on the wintering areas were not equally searched, it is believed that during the 6 years for which data were available, all sites being utilized by ptarmigan were noted. Documenting Movements of Ptarmigan Movements of birds banded at Guanella and recovered on breeding or summering areas were plotted on 7.5 minute USGS topographic map. A straight line was drawn from the banding site on the wintering area to the recovery or reobservation location. Thus, all movements represent minimum distance traveled in air miles. Directions were determined from the wintering area to the recovery or reobservation site. All initial ages were taken as the age of the bird when banded on the wintering area. Additional information recorded included: (1) date banded and recovered, (2) band numbers, (3) sex, and (4) years returning to the wintering area. If a bird banded at Guanella in 1969 was reobserved on the wintering area in 1972 it was assumed this bird also returned in 1970 and 1971 and will return in following winters until it is Los't from the population. Birds banded at Guanellaand reobserved on breeding or summering areas, but not reobserved at Guanella, were assumed to have dispersed from the area and were designated as utilizing other wintering sites. Extensive efforts were made to contact hunters in the area primarily to obtain information on locations where banded birds were harvested. Data were also available from hunter recoveries, collections, and observations from years prior to the initiation of this study through the courtesy of C. E. Braun, Colorado Division of Wildlife. Arrival and departure study area in October Analysis dates were documented and April. through periodic search of the of Data Statistical methods employed in the analysis of data were tested at the .05 level of significance through use of chi square and students t tests. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Composition of the Wintering Population Six hundred and sixty eight individual bd r ds were identified on the Guanella Pass study area from 1966 through 1973 (34 in 1966-67, 66 in 1967-68, 43 in 1968-69, III in 1969-70, 125 in 1970-71, 142 in 1971-72, and 147 in 1972-73). �-306- Winter on the alpine was arbitrarily designated as the period starting in late October when ptarmigan became entirely white through mid- to late April when the prenuptial molt of males was initiated. Present estimates indicate 200 to 300 birds utilize this site each winter. Males comprised 21.7% of the birds handled since 1967 (27.3 in 1967-68, 18.6 in 1968-69, 21.6 in 196970, 19.2 in 1970-71, 21.1 in 1971-72, and 22.6 in 1972-73). Percent immatures varied considerably with year (45.5 in 1967-68, 30.2 in 1968-69, 21.6 in 1969-70, 38.4 in'1970-7l, 43.7 in 1971-72, and 42.3 in 1972-73) and averaged 36.9% (Table 1). Thus, Guanella Pass was utilized principally by females (78.3%) and primarily adults, varying from a high of 78.4% in 1969-70 to a low of 54.5% in 1967-68. The number of recaptures (birds banded in previous winters) varied with year but there was a tendency for percentage of recaptures to increase in succeeding winters (Table 1). This would be expected, as the number of banded birds in the population increased each year. Initial investigations in 1973 at Horseshoe Basin located 5 air miles northwest of Guanella Pass, revealed this area was primarily utilized by males. Twelve birds were identified, of which 10 were males (83.3%). This was the reverse of the situation at Guanella Pass. The primary difference between Guanella Pass and Horseshoe Basin appears to be availability of willow. Less wind action in Horseshoe Basin allows snow to accumulate and cover much of the willow. Brief observations at the Waldorf wintering site, located 4 air miles northwest of Guanella Pass, indicated no apparent differences in percent of males and females utilizing the area. Of 11 birds identified, 6 were males (54%) indicating flocks were comprised of approximately equal numbers of both sexes. However, sample sizes were small and may not reflect the true situation. Winter Flocks Like many grouse, ptarmigan are gregarious birds. The basic population unit, the flock, is fragmented temporarily by territorial activities accompanying reproduction. In winter it is known that segregation of sexes, while not complete, results in the separation of a large proportion of the males and females by habitat types (Braun and Schmidt 1971). Weeden (1964) reported similar findings for rock and willow ptarmigan. Weeden also examined 17 white-tailed ptarmigan shot by hunters from one flock near Summit Lake in the Alaska Range, and found that 14 were hens. Choate (1963) suggests a slight tendency toward sexual segregation by white-tailed ptarmigan in Montana, but he had little information on winter flocks. Braun and Schmidt (1971) documented sex segregation of wintering birds at Guanella Pass. One hundred and sixty-four flocks were observed on the Guanella Pass study area from 1966 through April 1973 (16 in 1966-67, 18 in 1967-68, 9 in 1968-69, 29 in 1969-70, 24 in 1970-71, 33 in 1971-72 and 35 in 1972-73. Winter flock ,size varied from less than 5 to over 75 birds, but most flocks contained either less than 10 or between 11 to 25 birds (Table 2). Comparison of flock size by months revealed no significant differences (Table 3). �-307- Table 1. Composition of the Guanella Pass population. Sex and Age Com,Eosition Percent Percent Percent Percent Recaptures Males Females Juveniles Total Identified Winter Percent Adults 1967-68 54.5 45.5 72.7 27.3 6.0 66 1968-69 70.0 30.2 81.4 18.6 16.2 43 1969-70 78.4 21.6 78.4 21.6 16.2 III 1970-71 61.6 38.4 80.8 19.2 24.8 125 1971-72 56.3 43.7 78.9 21.1 26.8 142 1972-Apr.11,' 73 57.7 42.3 77.4 22.6 34.3 147 Average 63.0 36.9 78.3 21.7 20.7 1/ The winter of 1966-67 was excluded due to small sample sizes. Table 2. to 1973. Number of Flocks Size of flocks observed at the Guanella Pass wintering area, 1966 1-10 11-25 26-40 Flock Size 41-60 61-75 Over 75 74 47 30 7 2 4 Similarly, no significant differences in flock size were apparent between the winters of 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72, and 1972-73 (Table 4). Due to small sample sizes, data from the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69 were not included in the analysis. Since 1966, only 11 single birds have been observed at Guanella Pass. Eight of the 11 were males. Flocks of males were usually small (less than 15 birds) while females generally congregated in flocks of larger size. Possibly there is an optimum flock size for males and females most beneficial for utilization of food supplies and escape from predators. �-308Table 3. Size of winter flocks observed at Guane11a Pass, pooled data, 1966-1973. October Number of Birds Per Flock Per Month November December January February March April 16 14 12 12 18 35 6 3 13 35 12 25-30 40 31+ 5 5 15 7 8 35+ 20 30+ 60+ 15+ 20 35 15-16 5-6 10 15 9 25 1 35-40 75+ 7 5 30+ 3 30+ 5 40+ 5 11 75+ 14 7-8 60+ 50+ 15+ 2 40 30 20+ 15 8 2 19 2 2 5 23 11 6 4 12 5 42 3 15 7 70 2 1 30 5-6 5-6 9 53 35-40 11 5-6 40 14 6 10 1 9 6 4 12 4 12-15 1 20 5 12 30 25 75 40 1 6 75 2 12 6 25 8 30 3 50-60 3 4 3 5 30 26 21 30 6 13 15-20 4 8 37 35 11 4 58 20 1 15 20 1 60 42 2 1 12 2 4 4 18 5 15 1 1 12 35 8 5 11 2 30 11 20 2 1 17 10 3 3 Total Flocks 5 29 21 27 18 29 34 Mean 14.4 19.9 25.7 14.7 16.0 18.0 13.3 �-309- Table 4. Size of winter flocks by years, Guane11a Pass. Years 1969-70 1972-Apr.11, '73 1970-71 1971-72 35 15 20 35 5 30 3 2 2 5 23 11 14 6 2 10-14 3 50-60 3 4 3 5 12 2 4 4 18 5 11 12 12 6 3 13 35 15 5 30 5 40 15 11 6 6 4 12 5 42 3 4 12 30 15 18 18 12 25-30 40 10 15 5 10-12 2 40 6 10 1 4 12-15 1 20 6 26 20-22 25-35 6 13 1 2 20 2 11 5 8 35 12 1 31 5 5 15 9 25 1 35-40 75+ 14 7-8 30 20 15 15 7 70 2 5 12 30 25 75+ 15-20 4 8 35-40 35 4 10-12 1 17 10 3 3 9 29 24 33 35 30.9 12.0 14.2 13.2 19.5 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 7 8 35+ 1 6 30+ 5-6 5-6 8 2 19 9 25 8 58+ 30+ 16 20 30+ 75+ 7 60 50 9 53 40 1 30 20 1 15 20 1 60 14 60 35-40 35-45 6 75+ 40-45 2 1 14 Total Flocks 15 18 Mean 16.1 28.2 �-310- Differences in flock sizes of males and females also may possibly be related to differences in winter habitat utilized. Females typically winter in areas where willow is dense, thus, food supplies are abundant and they can afford to congregate in large groups. Males. winter at higher elevations where willow is sparsely distributed. If males congregated in large flocks they possibly could over utilize food supplies. Braun and Schmidt (1971) noted some indication that larger flocks were comprised of discrete subunits of up to 15 birds all of the same age and sex. This feature was also noted in the current study, but was not fully investigated. Individual birds were not always associated with the same flock. Although numbers can be cited, some ptarmigan banded at Guanella were found several times throughout the winter associated with flocks of various sizes comprised of different birds at different locations. There appeared to be no aggressive behavior towards a new member of a flock. Irving et al. (1967) noted similar behavior for willow ptarmigan in Alaska. Birds favored certain localities on the wintering area, but the same group of birds could not always be located at these sites. At Horseshoe Basin flocks of primarily males, were scattered throughout the area with the largest flock comprised of 14 birds. This suggests that males do not congregate in large flocks typical of wintering females. Due to the scarcity of exposed willow, this area probably could not support more than 50 birds. At Waldorf all birds were found utilizing areas above 12,000 ft where willow was sparsely distributed and large areas we'f'edevoid of snow. Although more willow was available at lower elevations, birds or sign were not observed below 12,000 ft. This area was investigated in mid-April about the time birds depart from wintering areas to breeding sites. Possibly females utilized the lower areas earlier in the winter but had vacated these areas and moved uphill, joining males in flocks closer'to breeding sites. Thus, sex segregation may have been evident on the Waldorf wintering area earlier in the winter. Visual estimates indicate Waldorf has more willow available than Horseshoe Basin and this possibly could mean more birds, especially females, utilize the area. However, both areas encompass only about 1.5 square miles each and could not support large numbers of birds. Movements Movements of Chicks Sixty chicks were individually marked from July through September, in order to ascertain movements to wintering areas. Thirty-five of these were banded within 2 miles of Guanella Pass, while the others were banded from 2 to 10 miles away. Of the sixty-one juvenile birds identified at Guanella Pass from late October through April none were banded as chicks the previous summer. In addition, no banded chicks were observed on other wintering areas investigated. �-311- Two birds, a male and a female, banded as chicks at Mt. Evans in 1971, were recovered at Guanella Pass in 1972-73. The movement was 4 air miles W for the female, and 3.46 air miles WNW for the male. Neither bird had been observed on a territory since banded. Five banded chicks were known to be harvested by hunters during the 1972 hunting season. All were shot within a mile of where they were banded during the summer. Since chicks suffer a 60 to 70% mortality during their first year of life, it can be assumed that a considerable number of the chicks banded were no longer alive by late winter. Studies by Braun (1969) indicate that after brood breakup in late Septemberearly October, groups of chicks wander widely over the tundra. Of those females banded as chicks, only two were located in subsequent years. One was located as a transient 6 miles from where originally banded, while the other was established on a breeding territory approximately 12 miles from original banding location. Braun (1969) also found that males banded as chicks showed a tendency to return to natal areas and no males banded as chicks were observed during the breeding period more than 1 mile from where initially banded. He suggested that undoubtedly some males, banded as chicks, become established some distance from natal areas but were not located due to relatively small size of areas studied «3 sq miles). Contrary to males, females banded as chicks seldom return to natal areas. This behavior of females allows for gene flow and results in the integrity of the subspecies of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Bendell and Elliot (1967), Gullion and Marshall (1968), Zwickel et al. (1968), and Robel et al. (1970) have reported increased movements of juvenile grouse in the fall and have interpreted this increased mobility as dispersal. If increased movements of juveniles in the fall actually represents dispersal, this may act as a population regulatory mechanism. Documented mortalities for white-tailed ptarmigan suggest that mortality occurs primarily in May and June and in September and October (Braun 1969). Most ptarmigan lost in the fall are young of the year. This mortality is probably attributable to increased mobility of juveniles at this time. If such mortality is representative for dispersing juveniles, then dispersal could be an effective regulatory force. Locations where ptarmigan banded as chicks spend their first winter are unknown. It is known that chicks, especially females, are highly mobile and wander great distances during fall and early winter. Possibly some chicks continue their nomadic life throughout the winter and wander between wintering areas. This is suggested from data collected at Guanella Pass during April when small flocks of unbanded juveniles were often encountered. Possibly competition for space on wintering sites results in few sub adults becoming established, and forces others to continue to wander. Larger sample sizes of banded chicks and increased surveys in other wintering areas may be necessary to counterbalance high mortality rates and area involved if chick movements to wintering areas are to be documented. Directions Moved Fifty-eight movements were documented from Guanella Pass to territories or summering areas (18 adult females, 21 subadult females, 9 adult males, and �-31210 subadult males). Directions were determined from banding location on the wintering area to the summer recovery site. In addition, three directions were recorded on movements of birds from the Mt. Evans area to breeding or summering sites in the Guanella Pass area (adult female moving NW, adult female novfng NE, and adult male moving SW). Two females banded on territories in 1972 were reobserved at Guanella Pass during the winter of 1972-73. Since experienced birds generally return to the same breeding site each year (Schmidt 1969), it was assumed these birds would return to the same territory from Guanella in 1973. Consequently, the direction recorded was from Guanella Pass to the territory in order that these movements be comparable with known movements from Guanella Pass. If a bird was observed on a territory and summering area, two directions were recorded; one from the wintering area to the territory and the other from the wintering area to the summering area. Two males (G3 and B99) and one female (YlOO) were observed on both breeding and summering sites. Directions moved by sex and age class of birds banded at Guanella Pass and recovered on breeding or summering areas are given in Table 5. Upon examination of these data it is evident that significantly more birds moved northwest. Twenty-eight percent (16) of the 58 known movements were in this direction. In addition, 70% (11) of the birds moving northwest were .sub adults • Distances moved in each direction are presented in Table 6. As with direction, the longest movements were also to the northwest. Birds could move approximately 15 air miles northwest across continuous alpine habitat, while maximum distance they could IOOve in any other direction without encountering unsuitable habitat, mainly forest, was 7 miles. Thus, subadult birds leaving Guanella Pass in late April were more likely to find vacant breeding territories to the northwest since the largest amount of alpine habitat occurred in this direction. The longest movements recorded were by 3 subadult females moving over 10 air miles northwest to the Loveland Pass area. No birds were recorded moving east and only one bird was documented to move in each of the following directions: north-northeast, east~southeast, southeast, and south-southeast. The only significant IOOvements in the easterly direction was northeast (four birds). Thus, birds departing from Guanella Pass in early spring preferred to move in the westerly directions. Ptarmigan investigations on the Mt. Evans area, which lies 3 miles east of Guanella Pass, indicated breeding densities of ptarmigan were at a maximum. in 1972 due to a closure of the area to hunting in 1970 and 1971 (Braun 1973). It was originally believed that Guanella Pass birds were not moving east because they were unlikely to find available breeding sites. However, breeding densities prior to the closure (1966, 1967, and 1968) were the lowest reported in the state (Braun 1969) and considerable breeding sites were available. Only 2 birds banded at Guanella were recorded moving to the Mt. Evans area prior to the closure, consequently, neither the high breeding density in 1972 nor the low densities in earlier years were reasons why few Guanella Pass birds moved east to the Mt. Evans area. �Table 5. Directions moved by ptarmigan from the Guane11a Pass wintering Direction SSE S Sex Age!./ N NNE NE ENE E ESE SE Female 2+ 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Female 1- 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 Male 2+ 0 0 1 1 0 0 Male 1- 1 0 1 1 0 1 area to territories WSW W or summering SSW SW WNW NW 1 0 1 4 2 2 4 0 0 0 1 1 2 3 1 8 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 3 0 3 12 1 sites. NNW I Vol 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 6 5 Females 2 1 Total Males 1 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 4 Total Both Sexes 3 1 4 3 0 1 1 1 2 3 3 7 7 4 16 -l/ Age when banded. 2 1 Total •.... Vol I 1 , 2 �Table 6. Distances moved by ptarmigan from Guane11a Pass by directions.1/ N 1.12 1.12 1.68 Mean N NNE NE ENE 3.31 1.60 2.89 3.52 3.70 .67 2.28 4.50 - 1. 31 3 1 1/ In air miles. 2.92 2.48 4 3 ESE SE Direction SSE S 4.47 1.50 1.92 E 0 1 1 I 1.43 .94 SSW SW WSW W WNN NW NNW .79 1.12 .63 1.49 2.10 4.94 5.77 2.l3 .59 1.71 7.76 6.14 2.38 2.25 1.56 2.86 1.00 1.00 .40 2.74 .86 .22 6.95 5.67 10.64 2.60 10.89 .60 10.01 5.40 6. 76 3.20 2.18 8.55 3.l3 4.05 5.27 8.46 3.21 3.84 1. 34 2.92 1.18 2 .85 3 I w ~ ~ I 2.84 3.78 1.69 3.43 5.55 2.13 3 7 7 4 16 2 �-315- Only one bird (subadult male) banded at Guanella Pass, has been able to become established on a territory in Mt. Evans (1972). Two additional males shot and recovered at Mt. Evans in 1972 were located on summering sites and were known to breed elsewhere. No females banded at Guanella were found to move to the Mt. Evans area. Thus, mainly males moved east to Mt. Evans, primarily to summering sites. Three birds banded at Mt. Evans (2 females and 1 male) were recovered on breeding sites in the vicinity of Guanella Pass. The adult male moved 4.94 air miles southwest from Mt. Evans to a territory approximately 2.5 miles south-southeast from the top of Guanella Pass. This was the longest movement recorded for a male as most males moved less than 2 miles to a territory. It was concluded that minimal movement occurred from Guanella Pass east to Mt. Evans, and west from Mt. Evans to Guanella. Adult males showed no significant movements in any given direction. Most adult males occupied territories in the immediate vicinity surrounding areas where they spent the winter. Unlike males, both adult and subadult females exhibited significant movements to the)n01ljthwest. In addition, significantly more females than males moved west,southwest and west. Of 14 birds moving in these directions, 11 were females. Also, more adult females moved west-southwest than males or juvenile females. Since most adjacent alpine areas lie to the west, more females were attracted to Guanella from this area. Consequently, in spring when birds depart from the wintering areas most females move in the westerly directions, primarily northwest, west and west--southwest. I Movements from Wintering to Breeding or Summering Areas Four hundred and ninety-seven different ptarmigan have been banded at Guanella Pass since 1966. Locations were described in detail when birds were initially banded and upon subsequent reobservation on breeding or summering areas. During 1972-73, 50 individual movements were documented. In addition, 8 movements were recorded from band recoveries prior to the initiation of intensive study. Movements were plotted on topographic maps (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6) and distances (air miles) between observations were measured. Tables 7 and 8 summarize movements from wintering to breeding and summering areas, respectively. Upon examination of Table 7, three generalizations can be made: (1) females of all age classes moved farther than males from wintering to breeding sites, (2) subadult males moved greater distances than adult males, and (3) subadult females moved the greatest distances. Similar results were reported by Braun (1969). Observed differences in movements between adult and subadult males were not signficant, but this may be due to the small sample size of males recovered on breeding areas. Most subadult males do not become established on territories their first year, and therefore cannot be located with the tape recorded call. With no prior attachment to breeding sites, subadult males leave the wintering area in late April in search of places where they can become established. Adult males are experienced and generally winter at the lower edge of their breeding site. Thus, adult males moved short distances (1. 34 air miles) to the territory occupied the previous year. However, on the average, subadult males only moved .31 air miles further than adults to �! W t-' 0\ e Fig. 3, Movements of adult female white-tailed ptarmigan from the Guane11a Pass wintering area (and Mt. Evans) to breeding or summering areas, pooled data from 1966-1972. (Solid line = movement to breeding site; dashed line = movement to summering site). �I W I-' ......• I Fig. 4. Movements of subadult females from the Guanella Pass wintering area to breeding or summering areas, pooled data from 1966~72. (Solid line = movement to breeding site; dashed line = movement to summering site). �~ =- \ ..=- -I::l --:.-.; -=::I:"" •... -= < I .... W 00 I Fig. 5. Movements of subadult males from the Guanella Pass wintering or summering areas, pooled data from 1966-72. (Solid line = movement dashed line = movement to summering site). area to breeding to breeding site; �u W I-' 1.0 I Fig. 6. Movements of adult males from the Guane11a Pass wintering area (and Mt. Evans) to breeding or summering areas, pooled data from 1966-72. (Solid line = movement to breeding site; dashed line = movement to summering site). �-320- breeding sites. Since most males return to natal areas, larger sample sizes may indicate no significant differences in movements of males of all age classes. Table 7. Movements of white-tailed ptarmigan from wintering to breeding areas. 1./ Adu1ts Females Subadu1ts Males Adults Subadults 1.00 1.50 1.00 2.89 1.71 1.60 .67 1.12 2.10 2.28 .60 .79 1.43 .87 .59 .40 1.92 1.49 .63 .22 3.52 10.01 4.94 4.50 1.68 1.12 2.18 3.31 8.55 5.40 1.12 6.76 'i '.94, 1.34 3.20 2.92 7.76 10.64 10.89 N 10 15 8 6 Ave nage 2.52 4.72 1.34 1.65 1./ In air miles. �-321- Table 8. summering Movements of white-tailed areas. 1:../ ptarmigan from wintering to Males Adults Females Subadults Adults Sub adults 6.95 2.38 3.70 3.13 4.05 3.84 6.14 2.74 4.47 5.27 ~/ 8.46 2.60 3.212/ 2.86 1.56 2.25 5.67 ?J 2.13 5.77 1 N 8 6 Average 4.60 3.79 4 3.51 1/ In air miles. ~I Unsuccessful females. Departure from wintering areas in 1972 (spring of 1971-72) was abrupt, with winter use sites being essentially devoid of ptarmigan after April 25. Adult males, occupying territories .in the immediate vicinity of the wintering area, probably moved directly to their breeding site while subadults wandered, looking for available sites. Female movements were probably gradual over a 10-15 day period, with short flights between areas. Similar results were reported by Irving et ale (1967) for movements of willow ptarmigan in Alaska. Females undoubtedly c~ossed timbered areas during longer movements to territories and upon their subsequent return to the wintering area. Movements To and On Wintering Areas Movements of ptarmigan to wintering areas are gradual and greatly influenced by climatic conditions (Braun and Schmidt 1971). Birds generally appeared on the wintering area by late October. However, moderate weather conditions during the fall of 1972 delayed the arrival of birds to Guanella Pass by approximately two weeks. �-322- Both adult and sub adult females moved longer distances than males to wintering areas. Differences in wintering habitat preferred by males and females were probably the major factors affecting movements. Considerable data were available on the affinity of birds for wintering areas. Braun (1969) noted that once males have successfully competed for breeding sites, they return to these areas in following years. Similarly, females generally return to the same territory, but if the previous territorial male dies, the female may seek a male on another territory. It is also believed that birds must establish themselves on wintering areas similar to their establishment on breeding sites. Once established, most birds return to the same wintering area year after year. Table 9 presents the analysis of birds returning to the wintering area. With the exception of 1968-69, approximately 28% of the birds banded during the previous winter returned to the same area in following winters. Due to small sample sizes, data for 1968-69 may not represent the true situation. Seventy-two percent of the birds banded in most years were not observed again, and are assumed not to have returned. Undoubtedly this is an overestimate as some birds, which normally would have returned, died, and all birds returning were not located. Approximately 39% of the adult males banded returned, while only 18.5% of the banded subadult males returned. Together, about 24% of the banded males returned. Unlike males, more subadult (36.5 %) than adult (27.5%) females returned to the wintering area, with approximately 31.5% of all banded females returning. It is evident then that at least 28% of the birds banded at Guanella are migrating from and to the wintering area. The 72% not returning include: (1) birds dying, which normally would have returned, (2) birds returning but not located, (3) birds dying, which would not have returned, and (4) birds dispersing from the wintering area and becoming established on other sites. Undoubtedly, the figure for birds returning was underestimated. of 52 birds banded at Guanella and observed on breeding or summering areas, 17 were known to return in winters following initial banding, and 22 were.!not reobserved at Guanella. With subtraction of known losses, a more accurate estimate (43.6%) of birds returning is attained. Forty-five percent of the females returned, while only 30% of the males returned. The figure fo~ males returning probably is underestimated, as wintering areas for males are not searched as thoroughly as those where females winter at Guanella Pass. 13 were known to be removed from the population, Significantly more adult than juvenile males returned to the wintering site used the previous year. Since territorial males generally winter at the lower edge of their territories, only subadult males which become established on territories in the vicinity of Guanella Pass should return the following winter. Those becoming established farther away probably winter at the lower edge of their territories and do not return. Most territorial males are adults, consequently, adult males banded at Guanella probably occupy territories on the breeding areas immediately surrounding the Guanella Pass �-323- wintering area and return year after year. It was concluded that once established on territories, males of all age classes show a high fidelity to these sites and adjacent wintering areas. Since most territorial males are adults, more adults are observed returning to the same wintering site 6f previous years. No significant differences were found in the number of adult and subadult females returning to Guanella Pass. Females were found to return from greater distances away (over 8 miles) than males. Thus, Guanella Pass attracts major numbers of ptarmigan, primarily females of all age classes, from at least 8 miles away. This supports the hypothesis that wintering sites for females may possibly be limited. Once ptarmigan reached areas suitable for wintering, movements became restricted. There were no significant differences in movements between sexes and age classes during the winter period. Daily movements varied, but generally, birds were more sedentary during the earlier months of winter, with increasing movements in mid- to late winter. Increased mobility was also noted in mid- to late April. It was believed that snow depths directly affected ptarmigan movements on the wintering area. Increasing snowfall in mid- to late winter covered much of the willow and birds increased their daily movements to find available willow. In addition, soft snow suitable for night roosting was: often located in large snowfields or near forested areas some distance from exposed willow. Consequently, most birds were believed to more 200 to 300 yards from roosting to feeding sites. Upon completion of feeding, birds usually flew to a day roost. Braun and Schmidt (1971) noted feeding movements were often circular, with much of the same area covered each day. Individuals were documented to move over 1 mile between sightings on the wintering area. An adult female, observed on 5 consecutuve weekends, moved 1.2, .5, 1.4, and .75 miles from the location observed the previous weekend. Reobservations in mid- to late April indicated some birds banded east of the road moved to areas on the west side. Reasons for the observed movements to the west side were not definitely known, but appear related to snow conditions. Areas suitable for roosting on the west side may have been limited due to wind action until early spring. As weather moderated, in late winter, ptarmigan snow roost less, thus they could utilize the relatively unused willow exposed as the snow settled west of the road. Distribution on the Wintering Area Analysis of observation data revealed no apparent differences in distribution of ptarmigan on the wintering area between years. However, differences in monthly distribution in winter were documented. Essentially, all sites on the wintering area were utilized, with some being highly preferred to others. During most months, about 90% of the birds utilizing the Guanella Pass wintering area were east of the road. This was probably due to differences in snow quality. Snow conditions on the wintering area appeared to have a pronounced influence upon the distribution of birds. During January and February, when most snow on exposed willow sites was crusted, birds were most often observed near timbered areas where soft snow was present. �Table 9. White-tailed ptarmigan returning to the Guanella Pass wintering area.11 Winter Females Returning Adult Females Returning Subadult Females Returning Males Returning Adult Males Returning 1967-68 39.0 28.0 53.3 18.7 50.0 8.4 32.7 1968-69~/ 46.7 50.0 40.0 66.0 66.0 0.0 50.0 1969-70 36.7 36.2 38.5 26.3 30.0 22.0 30.4 1970-71 23.6 20.0 28.0 30.0 40.0 26.6 25.0 1971-72 28.7 26.4 27.0 21.7 33.0 17.6 25.5 Subadult Males Returning Total Birds Returning I Ave rage-31 32.0 27.7 36.7 24.2 38.0 18.6 II Percent of birds banded previous winter. 21 Due to small sample size (only 18 birds banded) this may not reflect the true situation. 11 Excluding 1968-69. 28.4 w N ~ I �-325- Birds could normally be found along the east side of a low ridge running southeast from the top. of Guanella Pass. Significantly more birds were found along this ridge than any other site on the wintering area. Currently, no reason can be postulated for this occurrence, but perhaps a combination of abundant food supply, suitable snow conditions, and protection from the prevailing westerly winds attracts birds to this site. Increased hUman activity at Guanella in recent years has appeared to influence ptarmigan distribution. In earlier years(1966-67, 1967-68, and 196869) birds were often located within 100 yards of the road. Possibly due to increased traffic and human activity, ptarmigan appeared reluctant to utilize willow areas near the road in recent years. Buds and twigs of willow provide the bulk of the food eaten by ptarmigan during the winter (May 1970). Thus, ptarmigan were seldom found where willow was absent. Sites used early by ptarmigan were devoid of birds later in the winter, primarily because increasing snow depths covered the willow in these areas. Thus, there was a change in distribution with increasing snow depth, birds gradually moved from the outer boundaries of the study area where willow bushes were generally short and sparsely distributed to the more central portions where tall dense stands of willow were never completely snow covered. In mid- to late April birds were again observed on the outer boundaries of the wintering area. At this time, birds were preparing to move to breeding sites. It was concluded that weather was the primary factor determining distribution of ptarmigan in winter because it influenced availability of food and location of roosting sites. LITERATURE Aldrich, J. W. 1963. Geographic Wildl. Mgmt. 27(4) :529-545. Bailey, A. M. 1927. 44(2) :184-205. CITED orientation of American Notes on the birds of southeastern tetraonidae. Alaska. J. Auk Bendell, J. F., and P. W. Elliott. 1967. Behavior and regulation of numbers of blue grouse. Canadian Wildl. Servo Rept. Series No.4. Bent, A. C. 1932. Life histories of North American U. S. Natl. Museum Bull. 162. 490 p. gallinaceous 76p. birds. Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Colo. State Univ. Ft. Collins. 189 p. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. West. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm., 51:284-292. 1973. Continued inventory of selected Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid Rept. In Prep. ptarmigan populations. Colo. �-326- Braun, C. E., and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 p. --- , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan. Pp. 238-250. In Haugen, A. 0., (ed.), Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 280 p. ____ , and G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan with tape recorded calls. J ..Wildl. Mgmt. 37(1) :90-93. Choate, T. S. 1960. Observations on the reproductive activities of whitetailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Glacier Park, Montana. M. A. Thesis. Univ. MOntana, Missoula. 113 p. 1963. Ecology and population dynamics of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Glacier National Park, Montana. Ph. D. Thesis. Univ. MOntana, Missoula. 205 p , Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln. Co., Harrisburg, Pa. 922 p. 1959. The birds of Alaska. Stackpole Gullion, G. W., and W. H. Marshall. 1968. Survival of ruffed grouse in a boreal forest. Living Bird 7:117-167. Haskins, A. G. 1969. Endoparasites of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) from Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 147 p , Irving, L., G. C. West, L. J. Peyton, and S. Paneak. 1967. Migration of willow ptarmigan in arctic Alaska. Arttic 20(2) :77-85. May, T. A. 1970. Seasonal foods of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 55p. 1973. Bioenergetics of white-tailed ptarmigan. Univ. of Colorado, Boulder. In Prep. Ph. D. Thesis. Packard, F. M. 1945. The birds of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Auk 62(3):371-394. Racey, K. 1948. Birds of the Alta Lake region, B. C. Auk 65(4) :383-401. Robel, R. J., J. N. Briggs, J. J. Cebula, N. J. Silvy, C. E. Viers, and P. G. Watt. 1970. Greater prairie chicken range, movements and habitat usage in Kansas. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):286-306. Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 174 p. Weeden, R. B. 1959. The ecology and distribution of ptarmigan in western North America. Ph. D. Dissertation. Univ. British Columbia, Vancouver. 247 p. �-327- Weeden, R. B. 1964. migan in winter. Spatial separation of sexes in rock and willow Auk 81(4):534-541. ptar- 1957. Seasonal and geographic variation in the foods of adult white-tailed ptarmigan. Condor 69(3):303-309. F., and J. F. Bendell. 1967. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 31(1) :202-204. Zwickel, ___ A snare for capturing blue grouse. , 1. O. Buss, and J. H. Brigham. 1968. Autunm movements grouse and their relevance to populations and management. Mgmt. 32(3) :456-468. Prepared by ~~ Richard W. Ho f fman of blue J. Wildl. ��April, 1973 -329- JOB FINAL REPORT Sta te of __ Project Work ---.:.C,;:..O.::;L,;:..ORAD=::..O::.._ Plan No. 15 Job Title: April 3 Job No. Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-26 No. Breeding l~ 1972 through March of Mountain Quail 31, 1973 Thomas A. Barber, John F. Corey~ Larry R. Crooks, Carroll J. Grand Pre, George Harrington, Willis G. Mansfield, Robert L. schmidt, Lawrence A. Webster, Harold M. Swope) Ann Leckler and Donald M. Hoffman. ~')STRACT During the period 1967 through 1972 when efforts were made to propagate mountain quail in captivity at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station, fair to good egg production occurred in 1967, 1969 and 1971 and no or very poor egg production in the alternate years of 1968, 1970 and 1972. Possible reasons include: (1) an inadequate number of birds were held at the start of the propagation effort, resulting in significant gains in inbreeding per generation, (2) adequate breeding pen facilities were not available until 1970, and (3) the species was found to stress easily from a variety of causes. Fertility averaged 63.14 percent for the 7 year period and the hatchability of fertile eggs set was 82.53 percent for the period. Survival of young and adults was considered fair to good. Mountain quail are considered to be one of the more difficult game birds to propagate in captivity due primarily to their tempermental nature in egg production. The study was terminated in March, 1973 and all remaining pen raised stock was released due to the erratic production secured with the species. �-330- RECOMMENDATIONS Any future plans for releasing mountain quail in Colorado should be based upon an evaluation of the success or failure of past field releases. Primary considerations prior to contemplating future exotic game bird propagation efforts should be advance planning for adequate facilities and adequate numbers of breeders. �-331- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF MOUNTAIN QUAIL IX:>naldM. Hoffman Initial releases of mountain quail in Colorado were made from wild trapped stock from California and Oregon received through wildlife trade agreements. It became apparent early in the study, if continuing releases of mountain quail to selected areas of Colorado were to be made an attempt should be made to propagate the species in captivity.: Only 16 mountain quail from' 159 received initially from California in 1965 were held for experimental propagation studies. Twelve wild trapped birds from Oregon were added to the penned stock in 1970. This study was begun in 1967 in order to, (1) propagate mountain quail in numbers suitable for field releases, and (2) to study techniques in reproducing the species. The study was conducted by Harold M. Swope during 1967 and 1968, and by Donald M. Hoffman from 1969 through 1972. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop game farm production techniques SEGMENT Segment objectives varied for mountain quail. OBJECTIVES by year as follows: 1967 To determine the effects of a special high protein diet (with supplemental calcium) on fertile egg production. To determine the effects of artificial light stimu1ighting on fertile egg production. 1968 To measure the effects 28 percent) on fertile egg production. of two levels of protein in the feed (22 percent vs. 1969 To measure fertile the relationship of flock mating and selected groups mating to egg production. 1970 To measure the relationship of pair mating, mating to fertile egg production. selected group mating and flock 1971 To measure the relationship of pair mating versus group matings and 1 cock, and 3 hens and 1 cock to fertile egg production. of 2 hens �-332- 1972 To compare numbers of survavang mountain quail with numbers released in holding pens (rearing and conditioning runs) containing various bird densities. To compare earliness of egg production and numbers of fertile eggs produced by breeders receiving 2 extra hours of lighting in the mornings during each 24 hour period, with breeders receiving only normal daylight. To compare fertile egg production and hatchability of eggs according to the following ages of breeders: (a) adults (1969 hatched or older), (b) first hatch young from 1971, and (c) second hatch young from 1971. METHODS AND MATE RIALS From 1967 through 1969 attempts were made to propagate mountain quail even though very inadequate facilities were available at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station, due to intensive efforts to propagate 2 other upland game birds (Hungarian partridge and pale spotted tinamou). Because ground floored breeding pens were unavailable, wire floored pens had to be utilized. These proved unsuitable because the mountain quail breeders soon became sore footed and stressed, on the wire floors. A new set of 10 mountain quail breeding pens was completed on April 13, 1970 (Fig. 1), and a similar set of 10 breeding pens formerly used for tinamou breeding pens (Figs. 2 and 3) was used in 1972 after tinamou propagation was terminated. Thus, adequate facilities suitable for experimental mountain quail propagation were aVailable only from 1970 through 1972. Methods and materials used by years are discussed below. 1967 (Swope 1968) Four hens and one cock were placed in pen number 1 and fed a hen lay feed containing 20 percent protein. The remaining three hens and one cock were fed a 22 percent protein game bird feed in pen number 2. Birds were not available to test the effects of stimulighting. The fact that only 9 mountain quail (7 hens and 2 cocks) were available for the 1967 tests indicates that an inadequate number of these birds were held for propagation purposes at the start of the study. The gain in inbreeding per year with the number of breeders in a closed population can be calculated by the formula (MUller, unpublished). F(gain) F(gain) ~ = 1 8(M) + 1 8(F) 1 = 8(2) + 1 8(7) = 8 percent gain in inbreeding per generation (Hoffman 1969) Forty mountain quail breeders were on hand for 1968 tests. Mountain quail breeders were placed in breeding pens 1 and 3, and fed the standard game bird breeder feed containing 22 percent protein. Birds in pen 2 were fed a similar feed, but with a protein content of 28 percent. Plans were to mark all eggs so that fertile egg production could be determined by protein level in the feed, but no eggs were produced. �-333- N 30l----"------~ fiE--------- rE----12'---7I iE---- 12 _~-)I I o - \ SCALE 8 - L,---_-I-l-:--_---li . -0' 51 10' Fig- L. OO~(lilQ" ArrtlnOQmont of Moulltoin Quail 6rctedino Pens ,South section, �-334- ~----------------30'----------------~ IL 7i" ; I' , 12 =» IL 4J -0) I 1 - 0 "1" (0 / -~ v ro - ~ - - CX> N ~ / -, - en - ){ N J 12 i; SCALE 8 L_._I 0' 5' -----1 10' Fig_ 2•. Detail.w Arrangement of Mountain Quail Breeding Pens t North Section �-335- Fig. 3. A set of 10 breeding pens (north section) used for experimental mountain quail breeding studies in 1972. (D. Hoffman, photo). �-336- 1969 (Hoffman 1970) Wire floored pens number Ql and Q3 were divided into 2 approximately equal size pens. each with a wood framework and 1 inch chicken wire. Selected groups of 1967 hatched birds or earlier hatched birds, consisting of 2 hens and 1 cock were placed in each of these 4 pens of equal size and a flock of 8 hens and 4 cocks were placed in the larger undivided pen Q2 on March 24, 1969. On April 2,' 1969, after only 10 days confinement on wire, 10 of the 12 mountain quail in pen Q2 had extremely sore and bleeding feet. Several of these birds on wire had started to develop a white diarrhea, apparently due to stress conditions. Some of the birds in the selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each (4 pens) had also started to exhibit these symptoms of stress, although not as many as in the more crowded community breeding pen. All birds were then moved to the ground floored quail runs shown in Fig. 4. Pens I, 3, and 5 contained selected groups of 2 hens and 1 cock each, and pen 6 contained a community of 6 hens and 3 cocks. The surplus breeders (5 sore footed hens, plus 1 cock) were held in pen 4, and 1 hen plus 3 cocks were held in pen 2. 1970 (Hoffman 1971) A new set of 10 mountain quail breeding pens was completed on April 13, 1970 (Fig. 1). It was planned to have these completed by mid-March, but inclement weather plus a manpower shortage delayed the completion. Pairs of mountain quail were placed in pen numbers 1, 5, 7, and 9; trios (2 hens and 1 cock) in pen numbers 2, 4, 6, and 10; and a community pen of 8 hens and 4 cocks was placed in the combined pen numbers 3, 8, and alleyway, on April 14, 1970. All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed and all were 1969 hatched birds. Numbers of fertile eggs produced were to be recorded by individual pens. Ten wild trapped mountain quail of mixed sexes received from Oregon in Segment 23 were placed in combined holding pen numbers 1 and 2, eleven 1969 hatched birds including 2 hens and 9 cocks not needed to fill the experimental breeding pens were left in combined holding pen numbers 3 and 4, and seventeen 1967 hatched or older breeders of mixeti sexes were placed in combined holding pen numbers 5 and 6. 1971 (Hoffman 1972) Pairs (1 hen and 1 cock) were placed in pens 1, 5, 7, and 9 (Fig. 1); trios (2 hens and 1 cock) were placed in pens 2, 4, 6, and 10; and quads (3 hens and 1 cock) were placed in pens 3 and 8 OIl February 9, 1971. All breeders were fed a standard 22 percent protein level game bird breeder feed from March 6, 1971 until removed from the breeder pens on July 23, 1971. Primaries and secondaries of both wings were clipped on all breeders in pens 4, 5. 8, 9, and 10. All birds were 1969 hatched or older, and all but 4 were pen raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. The 4 were wild trapped mountain quail received from Oregon in January 1970. �-337- !( 20' i 1E-8'~ r 8'--) E-~ \ N i I I\. I 3 15 \ , \ : 2 4 6 .' , o ll---------- Fig" 60' 4,,, Moui'l~oln Ouoil HoldinCJ Pens, EAST SECTION 15 30 �-338- All pens were fed and watered only twice a week and eggs were collected at these times to reduce the disturbance factor. Eggs laid were marked with the date collected and pen number to facilitate determination of total eggs laid, fertile eggs laid, and numbers of chicks hatched by pens. Adequate cover in the form of growing clumps of tall wheat grass were planted in April 1970. Perches were installed in the spring of 1971 on the advice of a successful game bird breeder in California. Although not specifically written as planned tests for 1971, records of survival of chicks for the first 7 and 30 day periods and for overwinter survival in holding pens were maintained. Numbers of day old mountain quail placed in the brooder houses after removal from the hatcher were recorded and losses experienced were marked on brooder house cards with causes of death when this could be determined. Young removed were also recorded and percentage survival calculated. Birds counted into holding pens in either July 1971 (adult breeders), or in September 1971 (1971 hatched young) were recorded. Birds recovered in March and April 1972 were also recorded and survival rates calculated. 1972 (Hoffman 1973) A set of 10 breeding pens (south section), built specifically for mountain quail propagation (Fig. 1), plus a set of similar breeding pens (north section) used previously for tinamou propagation (Figs. 2 and 3) were used for both extra lighting and egg production by age of breeder tests. Breeding pen numbe rs 11 through 20 (north section) were wired for lights, and an automatic timer installed during the winter period, prior to sorting the mountain quail breeders. Mountain quail of various ages were selected" and trios (2 hens and 1 cock) placed in each breeding pen on February 7, 1972. Trios were also placed in 2 McCarty brooder units placed in one of the mountain quail holding pens (number 8). All breeders in all of the 22 pens used as breeding pens were fed a standard 22 percent protein game bird breeder feed in 1972. Table 1 lists the pen schedule used for mountain quail in 1972. All pens were fed and watered twice a week and eggs were collected at these times, similar to procedures used in 1971. Eggs laid were marked with the date collected and pen number to facilitate determination of total eggs laid, fertile eggs laid, and numbers of chicks hatched by pens. The center portion of the mountain quail holding pens (east section) (pens 3 and 4) shown in Fig. 4, and the 3 holding pens (west section) (pens 7, 8, and 9) shown in Fig. 5 were used for overwinter survival tests. Known numbers of mountain quail of the different age groups were placed in these holding pens in July 1972, when collected from breeding pens (1969 hatched or older adults) or moved from brooding pens (1972 hatched young). Numbers recovered on March 19, 1973 when banding and crating for field release were determined and overwinter survival calculated. �-339- Table 1- Pen schedule for mountain quail, 1972. 1/ Hatch Number Artificial Light None A.M. Year Hatched 1 T 1969 or older 2 T 1971 1 3 T 1971 2 4 T 1969 or older 5 T 1971 1 6 T 1971 2 7 T 1969 or older 8 T 1971 1 9 T 1971 2 10 x 1971 1 (not on test) Pen Number 11 T 1969 or older 12 T 1971 1 13 T 1971 2 14 T 1969 or older 15 T 1971 1 16 T 1971 2 17 T 1969 or older 18 T 1971 1 19 T 1971 2 20 x 1971 2 (not on test) McCarty (8) 1971 2 (H) and 1 (C) MCarty (N) 1971 2 Number Pens on Test 9 9 l/ All pens,were fed a standard 22 percent protein game bird breeder feed. Each pen contained 2 hens and 1 cock (trio). �-.340- r----..--:../ ' • ---.----~--10 I(- 4-lI 9 8 N 7 -.N ,... SCALE '7----'----. I{------_ fiG. 5" 30' 0' 5' 10' �-341- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results obtained by years include: 1967 (Swope 1968) Only nine mountain quail were on hand for research to develop production techniques. Four hens fed a 20 percent protein hen lay feed laid 19 eggs. Three other hens fed. a game bird feed containing 22.percent protein laid 146 eggs. Sixty-five young quail were hatched from the 165 eggs. Of the 161 eggs set (four culls) 98 were fertile. 1968 (Hoffman 1969) The 40 breeders did not produce any eggs. Station personnel feel that this may have been due to the poor condition of birds from confinement in wirefloored pens during a relatively severe winter. Although the breeders were wintered in these same wire-floored pens successfully the previous winter, the winter of 1967-68 was more severe. This resulted in many mountain quail having sore feet and a general unthrifty condition. During early 1968, all of the mountain quail were medicated with "Piperazine" in the drinking water after a few Trichamonas spp. organisms were found in the digestive tract of a bird which had died. This probably induced additional stress in these birds just prior to the normal laying season. In addition, all of the breeders were penned in3 wire-floored community mating pens during 1968, in contrast to breeding groups of 3 hens with 1 cock or 4 hens with 1 cock in 1967. 1969 (Hoffman 1970) Good progress was made in the experimental game farm propagation of mountain quail in 1969, with 100 eggs being laid by 28 breeders of mixed sexes (18 hens and 10 cocks) and 68 young hatched, compared with no egg production in 1968. Of the 68 young hatched in 1969. there are 45 healthy birds to be used in the 1970 tests, plus 23 older breeders at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. In addition, twelve wild trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added to this breeding stock on January 18, 1970. Ten of these wild trapped birds survived until the breeding season. A test to compare fertile egg production by three selected groups of two hens and one cock each, with a community pen of six hens and three cocks cannot be considered a valid test, due to stresses induced on the breeders by holding them in wire-floored pens because of inadequate ground floored facilities. 1970 (Hoffman 1971) Although procedures for the 1970 mountain quail tests were carried planned, except for being approximately 1 month late in completing experimental breeding pens, only 1 egg was laid. This was laid on 1970 in the community pen (combined pen Numbers 3, 8 and alleyway) infertile. out as a set of 10 May 1, and was �-342- It was found in previous years tests that mountain quail stress easily. Catching and sorting the breeders at approximately the time when they should have started to lay may have been the reason for almost no egg production in 1970. No eggs were laid by t.enwild trapped mountain quail of mixed sexes received from Oregon in Segment 23, eleven surplus 1969 hatched birds (2 hens and 9 cocks), or seventeen 1967 hatched or older breeders of mixed sexes held in separate mountain quail holding pens in 1970. It was necessary to catch and move these surplus breeders in order to select breeders used in the experimental breeding pens and to utilize holding pens with the best cover. 1971 (Hoffman 1972) Good success was experienced with the experimental propagation of mountain quail in 1971, with 344 eggs set (culls excluded), of which 209 were fertile. A total of 176 chicks were hatched from these eggs. A total of 28 breeders (18 hens and 10 cocks) were used in four pairs (1 hen and 1 cock), four trios (2 hens and 1 cock), and two quads (3 hens and 1 cock) in ten separate pens on test in 1971. The sorting of breeders in early February, 1971 and disturbing the breeders as little as possible appeared to be of considerable value in securing egg production. In a test to compare egg production by various sex ratios of breeders, numbers of fertile eggs laid per hen was highest with the trios (12.50), followed by the quads (11.00), and pairs (10.75). The best hatching of fertile eggs occurred with the trios (92.00 percent) compared with 83.72 percent for the pairs, and 72.72 percent for the quads. Numbers of chicks hatched was also highest for the trios. The clipping of the flight feathers on both wings of breeders in half of the pens calmed these easily stressed birds conSiderably, but also resulted in 20.34 percent fewer fertile eggs being produced (94 for the five pens with clipped flight feathers, compared to 118 for the five pens with normal wings). Excellent survival was experienced with the first three hatches for the first seven days (average 94.80 percent) and good survival was experienced for the first 30 days (average 83.24 percent) during 1971. No birds were hatched in a fourth setting of 13 eggs. Overwinter survival in pens with various bird densities and ages ranged from 86.67 percent in a holding pen with 26.40 square ft of ground space per bird containing 60 1971 hatched quail to 100.00 percent in a holding pen with 144.00 square ft of ground space per bird containing 11 1971 hatched quail. The average overwinter survival was 91.62 percent for the five groups of mountain quail on test. 1972 Procedures used in 1972 were similar, for the most part, to those used in 1971 when good egg production was secured from the mountain quail breeders. These included selecting and sorting breeders in early February, disturbing the breeders as little as pOSSible, and providing feed and water twice per week during the egg laying period.' Eggs were gathered when feeding and watering the birds. The provision of 2 hours of extra lighting in the early mornings was started on March 1, 1972. �-343- Numbers of eggs produced in 1972 are listed by pens in Table 2. Total egg production (culls excluded) from the 66 mountain quail breeders (44 hens and 22 cocks) was only 83 eggs, compared with 368 total eggs produced by 28 breeders (18 hens and 10 cocks) in 1971. Thus, 1972 proved consistent in the trend of securing fair to good egg production from the mountain quail only in alternate years since 1967. Breeders (Fig. 6) in 5 pens, including 2 with no extra lighting (numbers 2 and 5). and 3 with extra lighting in the early morning hours (numbers 11, 17 and 20), began producing eggs in early April 1972, and hopes were high that egg pro duct Lon would continue. During April 1972, 26 eggs (includes 3 culls) were laid by breeders in the 5 pens listed above, but by the second week of May only 1 pen (number 17) was still in production. Hens in pen number 17 continued to produce eggs until July 10, 1972, but all eggs laid after June 3, 1972 (25 eggs) were infertile. Reasons why egg production beg&L in 5 breeding pens and then all but 1 quit early is not known. Weather factors are not a likely explanation, since Hungarian partridge breeders at the Station experienced a peak egg production year in 1972. At least 3 factors were different .in the spring of 1972 compared to 1971, including (1) 3 stray dogs were observed intermittently and tracks indicated these frequented the breeding pen area, (2) colonies of Norway rats moved into the breeding pens during the spring, and (3) vehicular traffic on Interstate Highway 25 (approximately 100 yards west of the breeding pens) appears to be increasing with time, although no traffic counts have been made. It is possible that the mountain quail breeders were stressed during the early egg production period by 1 or more of these factors or possibly some unknown factor. A check on breeder feed composition ruled out a change of ingredients in the 22 percent protein game bird breeder feed as a factor. Earliness of Egg Production and Egg Production by Ages of Breeders Because egg production began in 5 pens (numbers 2,5,11,17 and 20) but continued in only 1 pen (number 17), planned tests in 1972 to compare earliness of egg production with extra lighting in the early morning hours, and compare egg production by various ages of breeders were invalid. The fact that limited egg production was secured from both first hatch young from 1971 and second hatch young from 1971 indicates that young of the previous year are capable of producing eggs. This was not previously known. Table 2 lists a comparison of eggs produced in various pens in 1972 and Table 3 lists information relating to the mountain quail hatches in 1972. Although 3 separate settings of eggs were made in 1972, ,all 19 eggs set in the third setting were infertile, as they were late eggs from pen number 17. An average of 97.92 percent of all fertile eggs hatched, showing the high hatchability of fertile mountain quail eggs. Table 4 lists information relating to survival of mountain quail young for 1972. An average survival rate of 82.98 percent is indicated for the first 7 days and 78.72 percent for the first 21 days. �Table 2. A comparison of eggs produced and hatched by mountain quail in various pens, 1972. 11 Artificial Lights Number Good Eggs Laid Hen Number Fertile Eggs 1971-1 None 8 4.00 8 8 100.00 100.00 5 1971-1 None 1 0.50 1 1 100.00 11 1969 or older A.M. 1 0.50 0 0 17 1969 or older A.M. 69 34.50 39 38 Pen 2 Year and Number-I Hatch No. 2 No.1 Percent Number Hatch Hatched All Eggs Percent Hatch Number Fertiles Pipped Number Dead Germs Number Culls 0 0 0 100.00 0 0 0 00.00 -- 0 0 0 55.07 97.44 0 1 5 I w .p. .p. I 20 1972-2 . A.M. Totals Averages 11 Sex ratio of all pens was 2H:1C. 4 2.00 83 8.30 0 0 48 47 00.00 56.63 -- 0 o 1 0 1 6 97.92 All birds were fed a standard 22 percent protein game bird breeder feed and none of the wing primaries were clipped. Only pens which produced eggs are listed (17 produced no eggs). 'l:..1 See Figs. 1 and 2. �-345- Fig. 6. An adult mountain quail. (D. Hoffman, photo). �Table Hatch Number 3. Mountafn quail Date and Time Set Number Set -_._-----_. -.---.-1 2 3 hatches, 5-18-72 7 :00 P. M. 39 6-9-72 9:00 P.M. 19 7-13-72 11:59 P.M. 19 1972. Date and Time to Brooder ------Hatched Good Chicks Cripples DG's Not Hatched Inf. Pipped Total Percent Eggs Hatched Fertile 6-13-72 1:00 P.M. 34 0 1 4 0 87.17 97.14 7-5-72 2:00 P.M. 13 0 0 6 0 68.42 100.00 8-8-72 Hatch Terminated 6:00 P.M. 0 0 0 19 0 00.00 Eggs I w .r:-eI Totals 77 47 0 1 29 0 Averages 61.04 97.92 �-347- Table 4. Survival of young mountain quail, 1972. Hatch Number Date Number to Brooder 1 6-13-72 34 28 27 82.35 79.41 2 7-5-72 13 11 10 84.62 76.92 3 8-8-72 0 39 37 82.98 78.72 Totals Number Survivin~ at End 21 Days 7 days 47 Percent Survival 21 Days 7 Days Averages Overwinter Survival by Various Densities in Holding Pens Table 5 lists information relating to the survival of mountain quail in holding pens (rearing and conditioning runs) during the period July 1972 through March 1973. An overall survival of 89.11 percent was determined. The small number of mountain quail (101) in 4 different age groups limited the effectiveness of this test. None of the density tests in 1972 (highest was 1 bird per 21.06 square ft of ground space) exceeded those tried in 1971 when excellent survival was demonstrated with densities as high as 1 bird per 20.57 square feet of ground space. Summary of Mountain Quail Propagation 1967-1972 Segment objectives were seldom attained due to the erratic nature of the species in producing eggs for reasons which include: 1. An inadequate nUmber of birds were held at the start of the propagation e f fort;, resulting in significant gains in inbreeding per generation. A few (10) wild trapped mountain quail from Oregon were added in 1970. 2. Adequate breeding pen facilities were not available until 1970. 3. The species was found to stress easily from a variety of causes. An early effect of stress in game birds is reduced or termination of egg production. Possible stress factors recorded during this study include: (a) Abrupt changes in diet. (b) Poor condition of birds following severe winter period. (c) Working of breeders just prior to egg laying period. (d) Holding birds in wire floored pens. �-348- (e) Sorting and handling birds just prior to egg laying period. (f) Presence of stray dogs in vicinity (g) Infestations (h) Noise from vehicles of Norway of breeding pens. rats in pens. on a nearby Interstate Highway. Table 6 summarizes mountain quail propagation at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station from 1967 through 1972. Fair to goo d :egg production was secured in the alternate years of 1967, 1969, and 1971, and no or very poor egg production in 1968, 1970 and 1972. This demonstrates an irregularity in egg production which cannot be fully explained, although the species is known to stress easily. An average of 63.14 percent of all mountain quail eggs were fertile and 82.53 percent of the fertile eggs hatched during the period 1967 through 1972. Fig. 7 shows a group of 12 day old mountain quail leaving a brood house at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. A search of available literature failed to reveal whether years of no, or very poor reproduction occurs in wild populations of mountain quail. In this study, inbreeding could have been a factor, since a gain of 8 percent per generation would be expected in a closed flock when only 7 hens and 2 cocks were used initially. Sex Ratios in Breeding Pens In 1967, 7 mountain quail hens laid 165 eggs in 2 community pens. One pen had 4 hens and 1 cock, and produced a total of 19 eggs and the other pen contained 3 hens and 1 cock and produced a total of 146 eggs During 1971, the only year when comparative tests were made, egg production was compared among breeders in 4 pens, each containing 1 hen and 1 cock (pairs), 4 pens, each containing 2 hens and 1 cock (trios), and 2 pens, each containing 3 hens and 1 cock (quads). Numbers of fertile eggs laid per hen was highest with the trios (12.50), followed by the quads (11.00), and pairs (10.75). Based upon these results, all breeders used in 1972 tests were housed as trios and trios are recommended in propagating the species. Clipping of Primaries of Breeders In 1971, clipping of primary flight feathers on both wings on half of the breeders calmed these easily stressed birds conSiderably, but 20.34 percent fewer fertile eggs were produced (94 fertile eggs were produced by breeders in 5 pens with clipped wing feathers, compared to 118 fertile eggs produced by breeders in 5 pens with normal wings). Based upon these results, recommendations are not to clip flight feathers. Incubation Procedures An automatic, forced air incubator was used for hatching mountain quail eggs. Standard incubation temperatures (99.750 F + .250) and incubation humidites of approximately 55 percent relative humidity (850 F wet bulb) worked well for hatching mountain quail eggs. The average time required to incubate mountain quail eggs was 24 days + 18 hours, and the young chicks were normally held in the hatcher for an additional 24 hours prior to moving to the brooderhouse. �Table 5. Survival of mountain quail sizes of pens, 1972-73. during summer through w Lnt.er period Pen and Hatch Numbers 1/ Size (Ft. ) Total Sq. Ft. Date Birds Released in Pen 3 & 4, 1972-1 20X76+ 8X8 1,584 7, 1972-2 10X72 8, 1971 adults by various densities of birds and No. of Birds Sq. Ft. / Bird Date Birds Recovered No. of Birds Recovered Percent Survival 7-4-72 27 58.67 3-19-73 24 88.89 720 7-26-72 10 72.00 3-19-73 7 70.00 10X72+ 6X45 990 7-13-72 47 21.06 3-19-73 45 95.74 10X72 720 I w .j:-o \0 9, 1969 or older, adults 17 101 Totals 42.35 3-19-73 14 82.35 90 89.11 Averages 1/ See Figs. 7-13-72 4 and 5. I �Table 6. Summary of mountain quail propagation, 1967-1972. Year Number Breeder Hens 1967 7 1968 21 1/ 1969 18 1970 1971 1972 Totals Averages ~ Total Eggs Ave. No. Laid Eggs/Hen 165 23.57 0 0.00 100 5.56 No. No. Eggs Culls Set No. Inf. No. Percent Fert. Fertile Number Chicks Hatched Percent Hatch Total Fertile Eggs Eggs 63 98 60.87 65 40.37 66.33 0 100 20 80 80.00 68 68.00 85.00 1 11 84.21 8 25 97.92 0 1 0 9 37 3 0.05 0 1 1 0 0.00 0 0.00 18 368 20.44 24 344 135 209 60.76 176 51.16 126 21 1.98 717 120 6 34 5.71 No. Crippled 161 1 83 No. DC's 4 20 42 No. Pips 83 35 48 689 254 435 I 3 (.oJ VI 0 57.83 47 56.63 356 63.14 52.10 A sex ratio of 1H:1C assumed in 1968 since no record was made of number of hens. 82.53 I �-351- Fig. 7. A group of 12 day old mountain Research Station. (D. Hoffman, photo). quail at the Fort Collins Wildlife �-352- Brooding A modified Jamesway electric heat ring brooding unit with an attached fan worked better than heat lamps for brooding mountain quail chicks. Temperatures in the brooderhouse were maintained at 950 F for the first week and gradually lowered thereafter in accord&~ce with usual game bird rearing procedures. Feeding Based upon very limited data gathered in 1967 (Swope 1968) mountain breeders should be fed a standard game bird breeder feed containing protein in pellet form. quail 22 percent For chicks, a 28 percent protein game bird starter, in crumble form, should be used for six weeks. Game bird grower, 26 percent protein, in a one-eighth inch pellet form~ should be used from six to twelve weeks of age. The birds may then be changed to a scratch feed, richer in carbohydrates, which will provide them with more body heat during the winter months. A suggested scratch feed or winter maintenance moisture by weight would be 35 percent whole milo, 30 percent whole wheat, 15 percent cracked corn, 10 percent cracked barley, and 10 percent cracked oats (Webster unpublished notes). Survival of Young During 1971, excellent survival (94.80 percent) was experienced for the 3 successful hatches for the first 7 days, and good survival (83.24 percent) continued through the first 30 days. In 1972, good survial (82.98 percent) was experienced for the 2 successful hatches for the first 7 days, and fair survival (78.72 percent) survival continued through the first 21 days. Overwinter Survival in Holding Pens by Bird Densities Overwinter survival of mountain quail held in holding pens during the 1971-72 period ranged from a low of 86.67 percent in a pen with 26.40 square ft of ground space per bird, containing 60 1971 hatched quail to a high of 100.00 percent in a pen with 144.00 square ft of ground space per bird containing 11 1971 hatched quail. None of the densities tested in 1972 exceeded those of 1971 because fewer numbers of mountain quail were held. Facilities Required Adequate breeding pen facilities are necessary in mountain quail propagation. Isolation of breeders is important and breeding pens should have adequate natur cover. Breeders should be selected and moved to individual breeding pens by early February to allow time for these easily stressed birds to become accustomed to their new environment. Wire floored pens proved unsatisfactory for housing mountain quail. Clumps of tall wheatgrass were used to provide adequate natural cover in breeding pens. �-353- winter holding pens such as those shown in Fig. 4 are adequate for holding 60 birds per each 20' X 76v pen when protection and seclusion is provided, using bales of hay plus natural weed and grass cover. LITERATURE CITED Hoffman, D. M. 1969. Mountain quail production techniques. Job Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-22, WP 15, Job 3. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 159-160. 1970. Experimental breeding of mountain quail. Job Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-23, WP 15, Job 3. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 171-179. 1971. Experimental breeding of mountain quail. Job Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-24, WP 15, Job 3, Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 85-90. 1972. Experimental breeding of mountain quail. Job Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-25, WP 15, Job 3. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. p. 77-79. Muller, H. D. Unpubl. Inbreeding handout. Colo. State Univ. 2 p. Swope, H. M. 1968. Experimental breeding of mountain quail. Job Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-21, WP 15, Job 3. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 117-119. Webster, L. A. Unpubl. Notes. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Ft. Collins. Wildlife Researcher ��April, 1973 -355- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O=L~ORA~t~D~O~ _ Game Bird Survey W-37-R-26 Project No. Work Plan No. 17 Job No. 2 Job Title Continued Inventory of Selected Ptarmigan populations Period Covered: Apri11, Personnel: 1972 through October 20, 1972 Clait E. Braun, Howard Funk, Richard Hoffman, Terry A. May and Charles Wagner. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) populations in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1972 with major emphasis in ascertaining population levels and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding densities decreased slightly at Rocky Mountain National Park and Independence Pass and declined significantly at Crown Point. Reasons for the slight reductions at Rocky Mountain National Park and Independence Pass were unknown, but were linked to lower overwinter hen survival and poor recruitment of subadults into the breeding population. The major cause of the decrease at Crown Point was failure of birds to emigrate into the area following the 1971 removal. The breeding density at Mt. Evans increased significantly, the result of closure of the hunting seasons in 1970 and 1971. Nesting success was higher on all areas than in 1971 but production to September 1 increased only at Mt. Evans. Survival of chicks to September 1 was similar to most previous years studied. Weather conditions during the May through July period were warmer in May and June, 1972 than in 1971, but were cooler in July. While exact moisture data were not available, indications were that slightly more moisture fell in June and July, 1972 than in 1971. ��-357- CONTINUED INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS Clait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. The initial 5 years of research on this grouse have been previously reported by Braun and Rogers (1971). This report presents data collected during the third year of the last 5-year segment. Data collected during the first two years of the second 5-year segment were presented by Braun (1971, 1972). P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1:)populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic, (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June and early July of the same year, and (3) harvest of over 50 percent of the fall populations adversely affects breeding densities the following spring. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in four study areas (Mt. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, and Rocky MOuntain National Park) . 2. To estimate nesting 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlations between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. Manipulate hunting seasons at Mt. Evans through closures, late timing, etc. in order to affect breeding densities. 5. To compile data and prepare success and production METHODS progress in the above areas. reduced length, report. AND MATERIALS Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work Plan 17, Job 1 and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971), and updated by Braun (1971). In 1972 pink bandettes with black numerals were used to mark all newly banded birds and those whose older bandettes had become too worn for individual recognition. Weather data were obtained from the Institute of �~358Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR),University of Colorado, for reasons previously explained (Braun 1971). Hunting statistics were collected through return of bands from successful hunters (Independence Pass and CrownPoint) and a check station (Mt. Evans). Description of Area Areas intensively investigated have been described in detail Rogers (1971) and have been presented by Braun (1971). by Braun and RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on May2 in R.M.N.P. with only solitary males being observed. Breeding surveys were initiated on May16 at Mt. EVans, May 23 at CrownPo.int and May 31 and Independence Pass. While SlOme pa.iring was observed as early as April 17 at CoronOaPass and April 18 at Loveland Basin, most pairing did not occur until between May4 and 15. Timing of breeding events was somewhat earlier than in 1971 and was similar to 1969 and 1970. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Table 1. White-tailed ptannigan breeding densities, Study Area all areas, 1972. No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Males Total Breeding Population Birds per Square Mile Rocky Mountain National Park Tombstone RidgeSundance Mm. 1.25 6 5 17 13.6 Toll Me~w:)1';,ial .19 4 4 12 63.2 s .70 8 3 19 27.1 Total Rocky Mtn. National Park 2.14 18 12 48 22.4 CrownPoint 1.93 o 2 2 1.0 Mt. EVans 1.54 13 4 30 19.5 Independence Pus 1.12 8 5 21 18.7 Fall R1ver P 1/ In square miles. . ... �-359- Breeding densities were lower on all study areas except Mt. Evans in 1972 from levels observed in 1971. Decreases were not significant at either R.M.N.P. or Independence Pass, but the low number of birds at Crown Point was much less than anticipated. Reasons for the observed decline in numbers of breeding ptarmigan were not apparent although recruitment of subadults into spring populations was low. While the decrease at Independence Pass fell within the range observed in prior years (Table 2), the decrease at R.M.N.P. continued the reduction of numbers of breeding birds that has been observed since 1969. The increase at Mt. Evans was the second since 1970 and was the result of two years of hunting season closure at that site. The decrease at Crown Point followed the complete removal (Work Plan 17, Job 3) of all breeding birds in 1971. Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding densiities, 1966-72. Study Area 1966 1967 Birds Per Sguare Mile 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Rocky Mo lID tain National Park 29.0 25.2 29.4 30.8 24.8 23.4 22.4 Crown Point 14.5 21.2 18.1 14.5 10.4 5.7 1.0 Mt. Evans 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.2 11.0 19.5 Independence Pass 18.7 18.7 18.7 17.9 10.7 21.4 18.7 Wnile the trend in breeding densities at R.M.N.P. is downward, breeding populations appear to have stabilized as witnessed by only the slight fluctuation from 1970 to 1972. However, recruitment of subadults remains low, with most of the breeding population being comprised of birds in the older age classes. At Crown Point, the trend has been downward since 1967 with the low densities in 1970 and 1971 being due, in part, to heavy hunting pressure in 1969 and 1970. The marked decrease at this site in 1972 was due in part to the removal of all breeding birds in 1971 as part of an experiment (Work Plan 17, Job 3). Recovery is slower than expected, possibly due to the distance this site is from other occupied range, and the few subadults available in the Mummy Range in the spring of 1972. The population at Mt. Evans continued the increase first observed in 1971 and is the direct result of the hunting closure at this site in the fall of 1970 and 1971. This increase is due to good survival of all age classes, average to good production in 1970 and 1971 and excellent recruitment of subadu1ts into the breeding population. With the exception of 1970, the breeding population at Independence Pass has remained remarkedly stable since 1966. Apparently little affects the breeding population at this site except severe hunting pressure during at least two successive years. �Table 4. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed ptarmigan, 1972. Total Production Total Breeding Population Total Population on September 1 Birds Per Square Mile Pe rcen t Gain 3.3 43 48 86 40.2 50.0 0 0 0 2 2 1.0 0.0 Mt. Evans 75 4.4 44 30 71 46.1 62.0 Independence Pass 45 4.5 14 21 33 29.5 42.4 Estimated Percent Nesting Success Average Brood Size on September 1 Rocky Mountain NationaL Park 75 Crown Point Area I w 0\ N I Table 5. Weather data, Niwot Ridge, 12,300 ft, May-July, 1972. Number Days Minimum Temperature Less Than 32° F Pre cipitation/ Month (Inches) Number Days Relative Humidity 90 or Above Average Wind Speed/ M:mth Month Maximum Temperature Mean Dail~ Maximum Minimum Hinimum May 49° F - 1° F 35.6° F 22.8° F 29 Y 18 12.5 June 53° F 28° F 48.60 F 34.2° F 7 1/ 20 12.5 July 61° F 26° F 53.3° F .37.7° F 4 Y 17 11. 3 1/ Data not presently available. (mph) �-363- April, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------~~~~------------ Project No. ·W-37-R-26 Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Job No. 3 ExperiITenta1 Removal of a Breeding population of White-tailed Ptarmigan Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1972 through September 30, 1972 C1ait E. Braun. ABSTRACT Despite intensive searching, only two white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus 1eucurus) (both males) were located on the Crown Point study area in 1972. All areas occupied were sites previously used by territorial males in preceding years. One male was banded and was a subadult. Behavior of the one unbanded male also suggested that it was a subadult. �-364- .i RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that examination of blood parameters "be discontinued due to small samples involved. �-365- EXPERIMENTAL REMOVAL OF A BREEDING POPULATION OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Clait E. Bratlll Management of wild animals is dependent upon knowledge about population levels, reproductive capacity and success, survival and mortality rates, and habitat requirements. This study to investigate habitat preferences and pioneering ability of white-tailed ptarmigan was initiated in 1971 after five years of previous study of the Crown Point population (Braun and Rogers 1971, Braun 1971). This report presents data collected during the second year of a 4 year study. Data collected during the initial year of the study were presented by Braun (1972). P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses. that (1) ptarmigan select sites for breeding territories which contain readily available bushes of Salix spp. (>10 cm in height) and snowfree locations, (2) immature birds initially pioneer new or empty habitats, and (3) number of occupied territories is affected by age class of male ptarmigan. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To map and compare number and characteristics of all occupied breeding territories at Crown Point. 2. To obtain blood samples from all breeding birds present for eventual establishment of blood parameters for resident and pioneering ptarmigan. 3. To compile data and prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ptarmigan were located during the breeding season through use of taperecorded male challenge calls as described by Braun et al. (1973). Techniques used in capturing, observing, banding, etc. were essentially those described in detail by Bratllland Rogers (1971) and updated by Braun (1972). Description of Study Area This area was described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and will be redescribed in the final report. Extent of the area investigated was shown in the initial report (Braun 1972). �-366- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Status The study area was systematically surveyed 3 times during the breeding season and twice during the late summer brood period. Only two males were located during the entire period surveyed. One male was captured, banded and released. This bird was a subadult (less than one year of age). The other bird was observed and was unbanded. Efforts to capture it were unsuccessful. This bird exhibited all the characteristics of an unmated, non-territorial subadult. Ptarmigan P31 was initially observed just above the saddle between Crown Point and Crown Mountain in mid-May, but subsequently moved south to an area about 200 yards north of the top of Crown Mountain where it appeared territorial. Both areas where this male were observed had been occupied by territorial males in previous years. The unbanded male was also observed in the area just north of the summit of Crown Mountain on a previously occupied territory, but this male did not appear to be territorial. Neither of these two birds had prior experience at Crown POint, but both selected areas which had been previously occupied. This supports the hypothesis that willow and snow free areas are essential for breeding territories. At least one bird was a subadult and behavior of the second male also suggested that it too was less than one year of age, supporting the hypothesis that subadult birds tend to pioneer new or vacant habitats. Description of Breeding Territories Since all areas occupied or used by the two males in 1972 had been previously described (Braun 1971). no mapping was done in 1972. Present plans are for all occupied areas to be remapped and described in 1974. Blood Parameter Examination Due to small samples involved (one bird), blood was not obtained for electrophoresis study. It is felt that samples will be too small for analysis of blood parameters of resident and pioneeering ptarmigan. Consequently, it is recommended that this aspect of the study be terminated. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. 1972. Experimental removal of a breeding population of white-tailed ptarmigan. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 99-109. �-367- Braun, C. E., and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 p. _____ , R. K. Schmidt, Jr., and G. E. Rogers. 1973. white-tailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded calls. 37 (1):90-93. Prepared by _~-::-=-tfa_U __' __r._o ~~"-Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ Census of Colorado J. Wildl. Mgmt. �-368- '- "' ~"'- ~' • "-0<5'00" " \ ! .,./'" • -' '~- I '-" j .r: '. .- '- ' ---- ...•.. ~ r --------.:.. - --. '... -~ -"'... . 10600 I i I , I .•.I. I, I' '/ tJ""~ "/.~""'~ ~~ , IOOOo~ :"/J--- '--"-~'~-.-=-..;:-:.-;-: -OJ \ ._ffOOO~ CROWN POINT AREA COLORADO - Fig. 1. Study Area Boundary Crown Point study area (x's mark occupied breeding areas, 1972). � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/0b367f610138137c5996e300b92b675a.pdf 28e33febaff98eabcba3c907ec68be66 PDF Text Text -1- July, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-lOl-R-15 Work Plan No. 4 Game Range Investigations Job No. la Job Title Inventory of Range Manipulation Period Covered: April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld and Regional Projects in Colorado Game Biologists ABSTRACT An inventory was made of all range vegetation-modification projects completed during 1971, in the western half of Colorado, on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 6,728 acres and Bureau of Land Management - 2,822 acres. Total - 9,550 acres. ��-3- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld F. S. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock; and to provide desired IBM listings of these data to cooperating agencies upon their request. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, 3. To provide desired IBM listings agencies upon their request. codify, process METHODS and analyze inventory of inventory range and data. data to cooperating AND MATERIALS An inventory was made of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1970, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25, on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (Kufeld 1968, 1970 and 1971). Kufeld (1968 and 1970) also covered projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations through 1969. Indian Reservations projects were dropped from the inventory after 1969. This report concerns vegetation modification projects completed on U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Bureau of Land Management lands west of Interstate Highway 25 during 1971. Data were collected using procedures outlined in Colorado Division of Wildlife Administrative Directive No. 24, entitled "Range Vegetation Modification Projects", and by Kufeld (1968 and 1970). Inventory data were transferred from original Reader Forms, and then to I.B.M. cards. data sheets to Mark Page Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 24, call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project at the end of the 2nd, 5th, and 10th years following treatment. During 1971, 2 year post-treatment �-4- evaluations were made on 23 vegetation modification projects that were completed in 1969, and data recorded on a form described by Kufeld (1971). Seven requests for retrieval of range vegetation modification project inventory data were processed during the 14th segment. These were for Stearns-Roger Corporation of Denver, Colo.; Future Studies Organization of Pioche, Nevada; Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit; Colorado Wildlife Commissioner William Robinson; U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Regional Office; and two for the Colorado State Office of the U. S. Bureau of Land Management. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Acreages treated during 1971, on all lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management are shown by vegetation type and kind of treatment in Tables 1 through 3. These acreages are shown by individual National Forests and Bureau of Land Management Districts in Tables 4 and 5. A total of 9,550 acres were treated in 1971, of which 6,728 were treated by the U.S. Forest Service, and 2,822 acres by the Bureau of Land Management. To date (through Dec. 31, 1971) a total of 578,382 acres have been treated in Colorado on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Of this total 238,875 acres were on Forest Service and 339,507 acres were on Bureau of Land Management lands. Since 1971 was only the second year for 2 year post-treatment evaluations of completed vegetation modification projects, data from post-treatment evaluations of 1968 and 1969 projects will be kept on file and covered in a future report when enough 2 year post-treatment evaluations have been made to provide a basis for a meaningful data analysis. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1968. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Project W-lOl-R-lO, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-121. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-12, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 59-94. 1971. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-13, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-15. Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �-5- Table 1. Acreages of rangeland the u.s. Forest Service. treated during 1971, in Colorado Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed Only 2 390 390 Spray 2 160 160 Pitting 5 455 455 9 1,005 1,005 Spray 8 3,934 0 Pitting 1 150 150 9 4,084 150 Spray 1 60 60 Chain 2:...1 5 859 859 Burn 2 660 60 Hand Cutting 1 60 0 9 1,639 979 27 6,728 2,134 Sagebrush Browse 1:./ All Vegetation Types GRAND TOTAL !/All vegetation modification projects vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" conducted subtype. 2:.../Chaining includes railing chaining, cabling, Table 2. Acreages of rangeland treated during the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. during by 1971 , in the "browse" and bulldozing. 1971, in Colorado by Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Seed Only 2 1,222 1,222 Pinyon-Juniper Chain - 2 1,600 1,600 All Vegetation Types GRAND TOTAL 4 2,822 2,822 !/Chaining II includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-6- Table 3. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1971, in Colorado by the U.S. Forest Service and u.S. Bureau of Land Management. ----- Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed Only 2 390 390 Spray 2 160 160 Pitting 5 455 455 9 1,005 1,005 Seed Only 2 1,222 1,222 Spray 8 3,934 0 Pitting 1 150 150 11 5,306 1,372 Spray 1 60 60 Chain ]j 5 859 859 Burn 2 660 60 Hand Cutting 1 60 0 9 1,639 979 2 1,600 1,600 2 1,600 1,600 31 9,550 4,956 Sagebrush Browse 1.1 Pinyon-Juni per Chain'l;./ All Vegetation Types GRAND TOTAL 1/ - All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1971, in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. 2/ - Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-7 - Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1971, within each National Forest in Colorado. National Forest Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment Grand Mesa Sagebrush Spray Browse 1./ Routt San Juan Browse 1./ Grass Sagebrush Browse 1./ Uncompahgre Sagebrush No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment 2 1,235 o 2 1,235 o Spray 1 60 60 Burn 1 60 60 Chain 2:,./ 1 60 60 3 180 180 1 60 o 1 60 o Seed Only 1 215 215 Pit 5 455 455 6 670 670 1 150 150 1 150 150 1 600 o 1 600 o 4 1,699 o 4 1,699 o Hand Cutting Pit Burn Spray �-8- Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated during 1971, within National Forest in Colorado (continued). each National Forest Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment White River Grass Seed Only 1 175 175 Spray 2 160 160 3 335 335 2 1,000 0 2 1,000 0 4 799 799 4 799 799 27 6,728 2,134 Sagebrush Spray . 2/ Ch aln- Browse }/ Total all Forests, and Treatments Vegetation Acres Treated Types 1/ - All vegetation modification projects vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" ~/Chaining includes chaining, conducted sUbtype. during 1971 in the "browse" cabling, railing and bulldozing. Table 5. Acreages of range land treated during 1971, within Land Management District in Colorado. each Bureau of BLM District Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Montrose Sagebrush Seed Only 1 102 102 1 102 102 1 1,120 1,120 1 1,120 1,120 2 1,600 1,600 2 1,600 1,600 4 2,822 2,822 Grand Junction Sagebrush Seed Only PinyonJuniper Chain }/ Total all Districts, and Treatments Vegetation 1.lChaining includes chaining, Acres Treated Types cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-9- July, 1973 JOB PROGRESS State Project Work COLORADO of No. W-10l-R-1S plan No. 4 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range --------- April Roland Investigatio_n__s _ 2 Job No. Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer and Elk Winter Ranges-B~e~a~v~e~r~C~r~e~e~k~ 1, 1972 through March _ 31, 1973 C. Kufeld ABSTRACT Elk use between September and May increased 73 percent on a 67 acre Gambel oak type range two years after spraying with 2,4,S-TP at a rate of 2 lbs. per acre mixed in 10 gallons of water per acre. Game use was measured by pellet group counts made on the sprayed area, and compared with similar counts on an adjacent 68 acre control. Deer use on the same areas decreased 41 percent; however, the sprayed plot received 16 percent more deer use than the control acreage. Ninety-nine food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by mule deer and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint, based on the response deer have exhibited toward them. A paper summarizing 48 elk food habits studies and ranking plants eaten by relative value was published in The Journal of Range Management 26(2):106-113. A decision was made to delay analysis of 2 year post-treatment vegetation measurement data until the literature review on forage value of oak study plants for elk and deer could be completed. area ��-11- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER AND ELK WINTER RANGES-BEAVER CREEK Roland C. Kufe1d P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk forage production and game use can be increased on overage Gambe1 oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2,4,S-TP to induce sprouting. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure deer and elk use on the study area following treatment determine changes in game use that have occurred as a result of spraying with 2,4,S-TP in 1969. 2. To review the literature in order to determine oak study area plants for mule deer and elk. 3. To summarize and analyze pre- and post-treatment use measurement data. vegetation 4. To write a report of the findings journal. in a scientific to the forage value of for publication and game METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer and elk pellet groups which were deposited plots after the plots were cleared on September May 8, 1972. in circular, 0.001 acre 1, 1971, were counted on An extensive review of literature was made to determine the forage value of oak study area plants for mule deer. Ninety-nine food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by mule deer, and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint, based on the response deer have exhibited toward them. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Effects of Spraying on Elk The overall elk population in the vicinity of the study area appears to have been higher in 1972, the year of 2 year post-treatment evaluation, than 1969, when pre-treatment game use measurements were made. Aerial trend counts �-12- flown in January in the Williams Fork area (Game Management Unit 12, where the study area is located) showed 1,217 elk during the winter of 1968-69 and 1,540 during the winter of 1971-72 (White 1972). This 27 percent increase may have been due to the restrictions on shooting spike bulls and the reduction of cow permits during the 1971 elk season. Data showing changes in elk use on the study area two years following spraying with 2,4,5-TP are presented in Table 1. Prior to spraying the control area received twice as much elk use as the area designated for spraying. Two years after spraying, elk density per square mile on the spray areas, as reflected by pellet counts, increased 106 percent, while a 19 percent increase was recorded on the control area. Comparison of ratios of elk use intensity measured in 1969 and 1972 on the control with the same ratios on the spray area indicates the increase in elk density per square mile attributable to spraying is 73 percent. This is an increase in elk density of 67 animals per square mile. Elk use on the study area two years following spraying was quite heavy, averaging 62.5 elk days use per acre. The 19 percent increase on the control area roughly coincides with the 27 percent population increase reflected by aerial counts. However, part of the increase on the control area may have been due to it's close proximity to the spray area. Elk attracted to the spray area would also use the control because it is adjacent. Thus, the actual increase due to spraying could have been higher than 73 percent, but doubtful if much higher. Effects of Spraying on Deer Deer use on the study area (spray and control areas combined) as represented by "deer per square mile" was down 41% in 1972 from the 1969 level. It is not known whether this represents a drop in the overall deer population because there were no aerial deer trend counts flown in the Williams Fork area in January, 1972 to provide pre- and post-treatment population comparisons. It may be possible, however, that the decline in deer use on the study area is due to the high elk use which forced the deer to leave. Deer use in 1972 declined 45% on the control area and 37% on the spray area from levels recorded in 1969. Since deer use declined less on the sprayed portion than on the control, comparison of ratios of deer use intensity before and after treatment on the two areas suggests that spraying, in effect, resulted in an increase of 16 percent in deer density per square mile (Table 1). Literature Review Deer forage plants in the 99 food habits studies were categorized by heavily, moderately or lightly eaten. This information will be used to determine the benefits of vegetation changes caused by spraying. Current plans call for submitting the information for publication as a U. S. Department of Agriculture Conservation Research Report. Authors will be Roland �-13- C. Kufeld of Colorado Division of Wildlife, and o. C. Wallmo and Charles Feddema of the U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. A paper entitled "Foods Eaten by the Rocky Mountain Elk" by Roland C. Kufeld was published in The Journal of Range Management 26(2) :106-113. This was based on a literature review of elk food habits completed during the 15th project segment. Forty-eight food habits studies were combined to determine plants normally eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni), and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response elk have exhibited toward them. Plant species are classified as highly valuable, valuable, or least valuable on the basis of their contribution to the diet in food habits studies where they were recorded. A total of 159 forbs, 59 grasses, and 95 shrubs are listed as elk forage and categorized according to relative value. Analysis of Post-treatment Vegetation Measurement Data A decision was made to delay analysis of 2 year post-treatment vegetation measurement data until the literature review on forage value of oak study area plants for elk and deer could be completed. Thus, the vegetation measurement data are not presented herein. LITERATURE CITED White, Claude E. 1972. Principal Game Biologist, Div. Wildlife. Personal communication. Prepared by -L;e_),,--::Cl....:.{"-....·(.:;:,.i.::.;;..l.i..::::;.;{/ __ C_l_, ,_L,-='--:....:..{.~Lr-::.~=t-=j-';/{::::.L·l Roland C. Kufeld t Wildlife Researcher Northwest _ Region. Colo. �Table 1. Changes in elk and deer use two years following spraying with 2,4,5-TP on the Beaver Creek oak study area.1/ Animal Days Use Per Acre Observed Change Due 5/ To SprayingI\. No. E4/ No. % No. Animal Density / 3 Per Square MileObserved Change Due I\. To Spraying Acres Per Animal Pe r Month Observed Change Due To Spraying I\. No. E No. % Animal Area Year Total Pellet Groups~/ Elk Control 1969 41 55 l36 0.552 1972 47 63 162 0.484 1969 23 31 77 0.975 1972 47 62 Spray 36 +26 +72 159 E 92 No. +67 % +73 0.493 0.855 -0.362 -42 I •..... Deer Control Spray 1969 59 80 198 0.379 1972 31 42 108 0.726 1969 42 56 138 0.544 1972 26 34 29 + 5 1/ Pre-treatment period of use was from 8-19-68 to 5-5-69. +17 87 75 +12 +16 0.902 +'"I 1.042 -0.140 -13 Post-treatment period of use was from 9-1-71 to 5-8-72. 2/ Spray area contains 58 .001 acre plots and totals 67 acres. Control area contains 57 .001 acre plots and totals 68 acres. 1/ This reflects percent change more accurately than animals days use per acre, because it takes the length of the pellet accumulation period into account. ~/ Denotes the amount of use expected on the spray area in 1972 if elk and deer use on the spray area in 1969 and 1972 had occurred in the same proportion as on the control area. 2/ The change in animal use which can be attributed to spraying. This has been adjusted to consider animal use changes on the control area. �July, 1973 -15- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-lOl-R-15 Work Job Title 3 Job No. Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer, Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain Period Covered: April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Plan No. Personnel: Game Range Investigations 4 Roland C. Kufe1d ABSTRACT Post-treatment photos were taken at permanent photo points established prior to treatment in 1971. These show effects of spraying, burning and chaining during the first summer following treatment. Ninety-nine food habits studies were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by mule deer, and the relative value of these plants from a Manager's viewpoint based on the response deer have exhibited toward them. A paper summarizing 48 elk food habits studies and ranking plants eaten by relative value was published in The Journal of Range Management 26(2):106-113. ��-17- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be increased and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To replace study plot stakes destroyed construction and anchor chaining. 2. To retake photographs 3. To review the literature in order to determine the forage value of oak study area plants for mule deer, elk and cattle. at established METHODS as a result of fire lane photo points. AND MATERIALS Study Plot Stake Replacement Permanent vegetation measurement and pellet plot stakes destroyed as a result of fire lane construction and anchor chaining were replaced using surveying techniques described by Kufeld (1971). In most cases the old steel stakes were bent over flat against the ground and could be straightened. In very few cases were the stakes actually missing so the plot locations had to be resurveyed. Photo Point Photographs Post-treatment photos were taken at permanent photo points established prior to treatment in 1971. These show effects of spraying, burning and chaining during the first summer following treatment. A black and white and a 35 mm color slide was taken at each photo point with the same cameras used to take pre-treatment photos. Literature Review An extensive review of literature was made to determine the forage value of oak study area plants for mule deer. Ninety-nine food habits studies �-18- were combined to determine what plants are normally eaten by mule deer, and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response deer have exhibited toward them. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Photo Point Photographs Photos showing conditions in the chained, sprayed and burned areas before and the first summer after treatment are shown in Fig's. 1,2 and 3. From initial appearances chaining seems to have done the best job of opening the oak stand with burning second and spraying third. The first posttreatment evaluation to determine which of the three treatments was most successful in increasing forage production and deer, elk and cattle use, however, will be made during the summer of 1973, which is the second growing season after treatment. Sprouting of oak (Quercus gambellii), serviceberry (Amelanchier a1nifolia), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.) was profuse in the two burned units (Fig. 4), and occurred to a lesse~ extent in the chained areas. Sprouting appeared to be least prominent in the sprayed units. Reseeding success during the first summer after treatment was very poor. Young plants of all seeded grass and forb species listed by Kufe1d (1972) were observed, but germination was very spotty. No germination of bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) or mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) was observed. Poor germination is attributed to the extremely dry winter, spring and summer of 1972. The best seeding success occurred in the burned units with intermediate wheatgrass (Agropyron intermedium) (Fig. 5). Some of the best seeding success with other reseeded grasses and forbs occurred in the fire lanes constructed around the two burned units. Hopefully the rest of the seed will remain viable and undisturbed and germinate during the 1973 growing season. Literature Review Deer forage plants in the 99 food habits studies were categorized by heavily, moderately or lightly eaten. This information will be used to determine the benefits of vegetation changes caused by spraying, burning, chaining and reseeding. Current plans call for submitting the information for publication as a U.S. Department of Agriculture Conservation Research Report. Authors will be Roland C. Kufeld of Colorado Division of Wildlife, and O. C. Wallmo and Charles Feddema of the U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. A paper entitled "Foods Eaten by the Rocky Mountain Elk" by Roland C. Kufeld was published in the Journal of Range Management 26(2):106-113. This was based on a literature review of elk food habits completed during the 15th �-19- project segment. Forty-eight food habits studies were combined to determine plants normally eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni), and the relative value of these plants from a manager's viewpoint based on the response elk have exhibited toward them. Plant species are classified as highly valuable, valuable, or least valuable on the basis of their contribution to the diet in food habits studies where they were recorded. A total of 159 forbs, 59 grasses, and 95 shrubs are listed as elk forage and categorized according to relative value. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1971. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Proj. W-lOl-R-13, WP-4, J-3, Game Research Rept. Part 1. pp. 23-86. 1972. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. P-R Proj. W-lOl-R-14, WP-4, J-3. Game Research Rept. Part 2. pp. 81-97. ;; ( / /~ I Prepared by "t . // /1/ I ',. /,, . k ---"'-'.l..\ ..L;,i',-"~"":(.;J..'i....li,-"C....I(_',i-' _(":::"~'"-' .,:.,_/_\._, Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher "-1'- - ,{,I :....I_·\-::L L ,: �-20- Fig. 1. Vegetation conditions on the chained areas one year before and the first summer after double anchor chaining. These photos are identical views taken from the same permanent photo point. �-21- Fig. 2. Vegetation conditions on the sprayed areas one year before and the first summer after spraying with 2,4,5-TP. taken from the same permanent photo point. These photos are identical views �-22- Fig. 3. Vegetation conditions on the burned areas one year before and the first summer after burning. These photos are identical views taken from the same permanent photo point. �-23- Fig. 4. Vegetation conditions on the burned area one day after and the first summer after burning shows profuse resprouting. These photos are identical views taken from the same photo point. �-24- Fig. 5. Seeding success of intermediate wheatgrass in a burned area. Unfortunately such seeding response was obtained in only a few scattered areas. �July, 1973 -25- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~------------- Project No. W-101-R-15 Work Plan No. 5 Job Title 1 Job No. Bighorn Sheep Range Inventory Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations April 1, 1972 to March 31, 1973 Harold R. Shepherd, Jack E. Gustafson, Rowe and Robert J. Saban James R. Hayward, Douglas J. ABSTRACT A range inventory of the Trickle Mountain Bighorn Sheep Study Area, near Saguache, Colorado was completed. This included preparations for and sampling with the Daubenmire canopy-coverage method an area of 7,270 acres. \ ��-27- BIGHORN SHEEP RANGE INVENTORY Harold R. Shepherd P. S. OBJECTIVE To inventory, contrast and evaluate ductive and an unproductive bighorn certain range attributes sheep habitat. of a pro- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the distribution and extent of vegetation types in relation to physical features of the habitat on ranges with good (Trickle Mountain) and poor (Buffalo Peaks) bighorn sheep production. 2. Estimate percentages plant species composition, frequency, crown cover, litter, rock and bare ground on ranges with good (Trickle Mountain) and poor (Buffalo Peaks) bighorn sheep production. METHODS Establishing AND MATERIALS Study Area Boundaries Department personnel who, in previous years, had observed the habits and movements of bighorn sheep in the general Trickle Mountain area had come to recognize two distinct concentration areas. These had come to be known as the Winter Range, and Lambing Range. A long, narrow strip of country along East Pass Creek through which sheep traveled be tween the Winter Range and Lambing Range we named the Intermediate Range. The locations of these ranges are shown in Fig. 1. The Winter Range is comprised of 3,241 acres, the Intermediate Range of 2,130 acres, and the Lambing Range of 1,899 acres. Preparation of Photo Mosaics A photo mosaic of the Trickle Mountain study area, Fig. 2, was prepared by arranging 9 x 9-inch black and white aerial prints in overlapping flightline patterns and stapling them to a 4 x 8-foot sheet of plywood, painted white. Additional large photo numbers were placed on selected photos for better legibility. Study areas names of prominent topographic features and landmarks were supplied. The mosaic was then photographed by a photogrammetric company and reduced to several 20 x 24-inch prints for laboratory and field use. The mosaic prints were useful for selection of proper color prints for recording vegetation type and transect location and for correlation and identification of photo and topographic map features. �1 B.L.M. U.S.F.S. Nl --- IGHORN SHEEPSTUDY AREA Si~guache .County, Colo. 1-- 1 UPPER SAGUACHE GUARD . STATION TRICKLE MOUNTAIN 1 MIL tv 00 I �Wieb"ctrCi '~" U.S.F. S. B.L.M. -.-A,\ • N \0 ~~~ '-!({'(C' GUlQ£, ..- '-'''~ NJ --- UPPER SAGUACHE GUARD , STATION - ------ ------- ------ TRICKLE MOUNTAIN BIGHOIRN SHEEP STUDY ARE 1 MILE .-Fig. 1. Trickle ~ountain bi~horn sheep study area • _- -_._._._. _._-.-._-------_._- ._--_._--------_ ..;--._-------------_._---_.- .. -- Saguache County, Cole . ..", -, • �TRICKLE MOUTAI:I BIGHORN SHEEP STUDY AREA Soguache County. Cote Pho!oqrophed for Cola DiVision Game, rl~h 8 P(J'~$ By Kucera 8 Assoc., Denver, Coo. Prepared by H R Shepherd 8 Negative Scale 1'15840 Aug 1971 J R Hayward r~i J I W o I Fig. 2. Mosaic of Trickle Mountain bighorn sheep study area. �-31- Delineation of Vegetation Types All aerial photographs of the study areas were prepared for vegetationtype mapping and field use in the following manner: Principal and coordinate principal points and flight lines were established for each photo. To eliminate as much photographic distortion as possible, effective areas were outlined with red pencil for each photo, using a method commonly used by the U.S. Forest Service. If a portion of a study area boundary occurred in a photo it was shown as a dotted red line. For easy reference all photos comprlslng a mosaic of a study area were number coded to show their positional relationships to one another. Next, photos were laminated with cold laminating acetate to protect them from handling, dirt and moisture and to permit erasures of type line and transect information. Laminated stereo pairs of photographs were viewed through a mirror stereoscope, and vegetation types were delineated on the acetate in black with a Sanford's "Sharpie" marker. Many different brands of pencils and pens were tried, but the "Sharpie" was the only one that would produce a sharp, black line that was waterproof and smearproof yet erasable on acetate. Training Student Crew A student field crew of four men reported for work June 5. The first week was a period of intensive training in plant identification, using the field herbarium of mounted plants collected in the study areas. The second week was devoted to training in transecting procedures in the Winter Range portion of the Trickle Mountain Study Area. Field Checking of Vegetation Type Lines Before an area of vegetation type delineated on aerial photos was transected, the location of type boundaries was checked on the ground and, if needed, type-line boundaries were adjusted on photos. Transecting Vegetation Types Before vegetation sampling was begun in a vegetation type, the Project Leader made a cursorial examination of the type, noting kinds, extent and locations of vegetation stands present. The type was assigned a number, and the number was written within the type boundary in black with a "Sharpie" marker. In each vegetation stand, transects were located by the Project Leader to sample parts of the stand most representative of the entire stand. �-32- This might require one or many transects, depending on the size and variability of the stand. When sampling was first begun, an attempt was made to randomly select sites for transects. However, this was abandoned after the first week's work as being impractical, considering the large size of the area to be sampled, the denseness of the timber types, the roughness of terrain, and the time constraint imposed of three months to complete the range inventory of 7,270 acres. It is recognized that many American researchers will fault the study because transects were not located randomly. However, those more in sympathy with the European school of vegetation sampling may be more inclined to approve the subjective method placing more reliance on judgment and experience and less on blind, mechanical selection of sites to be sampled. Transects were laid out along a 300-foot steel tape secured between two steel stakes driven into the ground. Ends of the transect were marked with rock cairns. Transects were run along the contour so that they could be kept within the same general soil type, and as a consequence, changes in vegetation composition would be kept to a minimum. Vegetation was sampled systematically along the transect every five feet with the Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame. When 40 plots had been sampled, speciesarea curves were constructed for species having a canopy coverage of 1 percent or greater. If more plots were needed for the accuracy desired, additional plots were sampled, following Daubenmire's suggestions. After several types had been sampled, we learned that 60 plots would be sufficient for the most variable types we would be likely to sample. So to save time, we sampled this number of plots as a general rule, testing only for those types which appeared variable enough to justify the extra work. The sampling crew of four men worked as teams of two men each. The composition of teams remained the same through the summer. However, the men of a team alternately estimated and recorded data and verified each other's plant identifications and canopy-coverage estimates. On the basis of field testing the point-quadrat frame and the Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame from the previous summer, the latter was selected for use in the range inventory (Fig. 3). Modifications from the frame described by Daubenmire (1959) were found desirable. Consequently, a frame was designed having one end that hinged, permitting placing it around the trunk of a shrub. Also, its four pins were made adjustable so that it would rest securely on steep, rocky slopes. Quarter sections of the frame edges were painted contrasting colors and stamped with canopy-coverage percentage ranges they represented. Each transect was photographed from one of its ends. A small slate on which was written with chalk important transect identifying information usually was propped against a transect stake or cairn. Photos were taken with an Exakta camera and Kodacolor film. Both a 3" x 5" color print and color transparency were made from the color negative. Prints were later attached to transect data forms to provide help in the interpretation of transect data. �I Vol Vol I • " -, \ -\ , r '\ \ •... Fig. J. Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame, modified to permit one end to open and close around the bases of shrubs. �-34- The ends of a transect were marked with rock cairns for possible future reference and its location was marked on an aerial photograph by the Project Leader at the time he selected the transect site. Using a rapidigraph pen, a short, red line to scale was marked on the photograph to indicate the position, length and bearing of the transect. A numeral indicating the number of the transect in its type was placed at one end of the mark designating the transect. Canopy-coverage and ground-surface data were recorded by two-man teams, using the system of Daubenmire (1959). The men of a team would alternately estimate and record canopy coverage, each estimating or recording for all plots along a transect. These data were recorded on prepared forms (Fig. 4). When all of the plots along a transect had been read, physiognomic data for that transect and its stand in the immediate vicinity were recorded on a prepared form (Fig. 5). The Braun-Blanquet system of vegetation analysis and description (Kuchler 1955) was used to record physiognomic data for each species. The two men of a team collaborated in assigning the physiognomic descriptions. Consequently, they compared each other's estimates of sociability and coverage, thus increasing the uniformity and reliability of their estimates. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Upon termination of transecting, Sept. 8, the crew was brought to the Research Center where they began the task of compiling and summarizing the summer's collection of data from 17,434 plots and 292 transects. For each transect, a form was prepared, summarizing the data for all canopy-coverage plots occurring along it (Fig. 6). To the physiognomic data form was stapled a 3 x 5-in. color photograph, showing the location of the transect and the vegetation and the characteristics of the ground surface and topography of the site. All of this information was assembled into large loose-leaf binders, arranged by vegetation type, for each of the three study areas (Fig. 7). The task of relating transect data to acres of vegetation type was begun but not completed during this segment of the project. It will be completed during the later part of the next segment devoted to compilation of data and publication of results. �-35- CANOPY-COVERA(;E-PLOTDL\'J'L\ FOltM Sheet Study Area Stand No. Name &i.::.k.Ie 11+". -kf//i gz Stand Location: Aspect & Slope Veg. 7- /.)- 72 Date Type Photo & No. Range ------ s- 8/ Soil: Series Physiognomy & Structure Transect: No. __ Location No. :;;--:- i~~ -6- .1:£:1: Exnminers & Bearing If _ Class ------- W<2Qt D.( rn'/~ 6 ~o,-I-h / fr1:le Plot ~S:~.- Section~ -------------- "--1 I ~----~---------- ruap ) 7- ~ ~ No. Town S7"1t:u; ..j,c:. (from No. llab,,~.J~ !-Ii vf/4) -f 0 //7'. I -------Canopy Species Class No. I G-, /l()611 I Coverage & Vegetation Ground-surface Es tLma t es Point -.'.~ I I I Class Midpoint Bare Ground at -c Rock Litter h _. :J.S 37.S- J % % ~:oss I-!,ichens_~ Vascular __~ant % :IS 0-0 0 0 I I I ... , I I ! I i -- . . i . , i j ! i. Totals No. I --- --- ; I j I I i Plot t- I I --- 3..1. ...7 ------ &Z. ------Canopy Species CLas s No. T Ground-surface & Vegetation Point Estj~~a:~t~e~s _ --::C:C::1-a-s-s--r--=B-a-r--e---'-P-.o-c-=-kLi-t t ;:';0 s s Coverage I ~Hdpoi.nt i~ Ground % -t=- 16,0 I--S-:T.=-.s-L-----~-'2-.. 1--'I?t=-o..L>"'-'6oL8.'-+- 0_ t-_..:..I_-+~_'_'. S .... -_-+ ---------------t------t----------j---·---I--·--+----+-------·- e-; -.- % 7S +-__ ~~ :1.$f- __ .-t Lichens 0 % r ] Vas c.'u far Plant 0 1__ .._.._ ------ % �-36VEGE'J'A'l'ION-TYPE DA'l'AHJi:COIW Sheet Stand S Aspect 'l'ransect: Aerial Soil Stand and Slope __ Bearing Photo No. /J oL1l-fe r: s; z e.. Recorded £JOY) Transect I<oc.ky h;/ls,;c1e. BOtt/{ a/; srs.: :lJ G/~ A!<.F~ Oz..r +.?.. +. / /1V.A{O G/rJ /-If/If) I/Ir VVkA HljO Oz.r -1-./ NI,.- +.1 Hi,... t.1 G/r +/ GI12_ + I. / - cA£L3 p/£fJ JIJ.5 c. 5;/1 )1 J /~4rn. ro,./<$ 40 _ of 8,,,,v<: Cover and Sociability CRY/~ ST,tJA J I ---"------ _ and Structure A TeA No. =S'---.....:3"--'I'--o I Physiognomy Floristic Composition (Suecies !_ No.:< _ _~~g,----=-1-=---o__ Length_IOO !J CArds No. Plots G._O'-7- ~:l. Stand Photo No. 7£ - S ~ Date 7- IS- 72 & Ground Surface By I T~/CkLG ~T£-W/~TL_F_~ __~~A~M_~_E Study Area. Name Type No. No. Remarks - ASL7e<..t J ;.$ J?J:- 80Gf( :z. +. / I. - J./ +.1 s/- - -- -- -- - ------_._--- 1---------------~L_ -------- ----~=____ 1___ -- Fig. 5. Physiognomic data field form and sample transect data. - �'1HI\.N:>£CT :jU!',li'iidC{ Pago 1 -37Study Aroa Name Typo --(~-----.- Vog. Aspect Phy s Slope __ & & i.ognomy Stan'j 110. .,':u...:0 St.r uc 7-22 Photo No. -;---1 Tr-ans oc t No. ,------ Soil & Groun~ Surf~co _ ~(.l..:' ,. 7/ 15/7?_, _ Date 2 T[,','iJl t.ur-e ~_ Cr-ound-Eur f'nc e & Vcreb.tion Dare -:f Ground /~ Hock % Li t tel' Point, S,;timatcs T Lc hr.n Total 1150 2775 2075 0 AVe. 19.17 46.25 )4.58 0 Average No. of Spec i es y Fl.o t Vascular Plant '% I'-loss f f' 4 ,) - ',' Total No. Canopy-Coveraf,e Entries --------------- 0 0 92 1·53 -----------~~----Tot.al Canopy Species Cano py ,A % ition :::overago A '0 Cov o r a r-e Oc c ur r-ed C~;'POS-::] fiver'age r.V0rarcc rotal Ti:T;cS Fr-equency .,-C' GRJ\}iINOIDS BOGR 992.5 52 86.67 16.54 HU1I;O 1)0.0 12 2.17 -9.07 r,iUFI2 15.0 1 20.00 1.67 0.25 1.05 50.0 5 8.3) 15·0 1 1.67 0.25 1.05 55.0 ) 5.00 0.92 J.85 CAEL) TOTLL GRM-:IKOIDS . o.G) I --+-------JI----L--~--L-I- --~ FORDS I _ BIrr: , 123.3J 1257.5 .-- 0 69.15 '"' / 17.5 1 2.5 ., 15.0 4 -: J' ~"":l. • .././ : •'= 7 1 I 1.67 :-. c...-. .....• ') ~;::l 2.LI? J5·0 ~------------------.~-~~-+-----~----~--.-.~)-v-+r-------------------~---_4,----4_----~--- .. ------~------------------~------+----~---~~----~-------/,RFR ATeA 1'01'/,1 EitC;.SE ___ ================ Iolal '-- . . . 1.21 17.5 7 11.67 115.0 J 5.00 1.92 ~3.0) 10.0 4 6.67 0.17 0.71 1112..5 14 23.)) 2.}3 9.95 --::.=_------- :== -L __ ~( =--=:-_~__~ 1435.0 Fig. 6. Transect summary form and san.ple canopy -c over-age 92 dat.a, -.====-__ ==------:-.----1 ~~_+___ 153.J3 -_--t_ 2).92 100 Ot_1_] 0 �I W 00 I Fig. 7. Loose-leaf binder containing summarized data by transect and vegetation type by range area. �-39- BIBLIOGRAPHY and LITERATURE CITED American Society of Photograrnmetry. The manual Amer. Soc. Photograrnmetry. Menasha, Wis. of photograrnmetry. 876 p. Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. fecal group counts related to site factors (Unpublished manuscript). 1971. Mule deer on winter range. Daubenmire, R. analysis. 1970. Sta. Tech. 1959. A canopy-coverage method of vegetational Northwest Science. 33(1):43-64. Steppe vegetation of Washington. Bull. 62. 131 p. Wash. Agr. Exp. Drew, W. B. 1944. Studies on the point-quadrat method of botanical analysis of mixed pasture vegetation. J. Agr. Res. 69:289-297. Fayle, D. C. F. 1959. The point contact method measure of ground vegetation. The Forestry as a three-dimensional Chronicle. 35(2): 135-141. Harrington, H. D., and L. W. Durrell. Sage Books. 203 p. 1957. Kuchler, A. W. 1955. A comprehensive method Annals Ass. of Amer. Geog. 65:404-415. How to identify of mapping plants. vegetation. Loveless, C. M. 1967. Ecological characteristics of a mule deer winter range. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Tech. Pub. No. 20. 124 p. U. S. Forest Service. 1969. pretation, Agr. Handbook U. S. Forest Prepared Service. Forester's guide No. 308. 40 p. B.P.I. workbook. by --'H..:...·~.j:.:o.1..~;.;Jl....<:d..1...1 R...cl..•...••-' S-h"-" e-(p •.•. (:h '~f'-'r(.",;} d"'-/ .•... '....• 'c;.!,'_ Wildlife Researcher to aerial Washington, D.C. photo inter- 47 p. ��July, -41- / / JOB PROGRESS State of Work COLORADO --------~~~~~---No. W-10l-R-1S Plan No. 6 Project Job Title Period REPORT April Bertram 1, 1972 to March D. Baker, LeRoy Unit Investigations 1 Job No. Game Management Covered: Personnel: Game Range Inventory 31, 1973 C. Carlson and William T. McKean ABSTRACT Broad descriptive and wildlife species management information is compiled separately for Wildlife Management Units 61 and 62 (Uncompahgre Plateau). Subjects discussed included: Unit Description (Boundaries, Size, Physical Features and Climate); Landownership Status; Land Use Status; Human Populations (by County with projections); Wildlife Species Checklists, Harvests and Seasons; Narrative and Map Descriptions of Game Species Distribution and Abundance; Introductions of Game Species; Census Areas and Routes; Habitat Restoration Projects; Management Problems Checklist; and Pertinent Research References by Game Species and Author. 1973 ��-43- GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT INVENTORY Bertram D. Baker and William T. McKean The Job Progress Report for the previous segment (14) called attention to a delay in work on this proj'ect due to assignment of both authors to P~oject FW-lO-R-l. The special assignment began March 1, 1972; it ended April 1, 1973 - one year and one month later. Thus, this report summarizes work planned and very nearly completed under W-lOl-R-14. P. S. OBJECTIVE To compile broad descriptive and wildlife by wildlife management unit. species management information SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Describe physical Wildlife Management Units by name. number, boundaries, features, and climate. 2. Inventory by unit the cultural and physical characteristics including landownership status, land use status, and human population. 3. Inventory by unit wildlife characteristics including species lists, distribution and abundance, harvest data, introductions and/or past species records, census areas and routes, and research and/or management studies bibliographies. 4. Inventory habitat (range) characteristics of vegetation types, vegetation condition and trend, restoration projects, and transect records, all from existing sources. 5. Inventory 6. Test application qf any item of information compiled or recorded in steps 1-5 above in pilot computerized map project now in operation. present and future management METHODS Five steps were necessary Wildlife Uni t : to produce problems size, by unit. AND MATERIALS the desired information about each 1. The priorities of units to be studied were determined, recommendations of field and administrative personnel. based upon 2. Working with sources in Fort Collins and Denver, as much data as possible concerning each item were assembled and condensed (see APPENDICES A and B). �-44- 3. First-draft copies of descriptive material were submitted to Southwest Regional personnel and to knowledgeable Denver office persons for review and correction. 4. Group meetings were arranged with field personnel and others to make pencilled corrections on 1/2"/mile species distribution maps and to make refinements to the narrative. 5. Final revisions to narratives and maps were made and all information was gathered into file binder folders, except for the 1/2"/ mile maps which were reproduced by hand and bound in separate folders. Copies of all this material were distributed to the Southwest Regional office, the Denver office (Game Management Section), and to the Federal Aid Section. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For the work done on T.VildlifeHanagement Units 61 and 62 final corrections, collations, and distributions were made as indicated in step five above. Complete copies of the information accumulated are attached as two appendices, except for maps of game animal distribution. APPENDIX A contains data for Wildlife Management Unit 61; APPENDIX B contains data for Wildlife Management Unit 62. No information was obtained concerning habitat (range) characteristics of vegetative types, nor about vegetative condition and trend (objective four). Data gathered under this project should be useful in the pilot computerized map project now in operation by the Division Planning Section (objective six), but this has not been realized as yet. Prepared by 1f:c tt34,')-'J'l..-}( 2}i' C:/(Jla_1L-O William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher �APPENDIX A HILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 nol. UNCOMPAHGRE) Mesa, Montrose, and San Miguel Counties, Colorado Information on Unit Description, Landownership, Land Use, Human Population; Wildlife Species Checklists, Harvests, Seasons, Narrative and Map Descriptions of Distribution and Abundance; and Other Allied Data. To: March 15, 1972. Compiled by: W. T. McKean and B. D. Baker �lA DESCRIPTION . 2/, B oun d arles- - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT 3/ "hT at portlon . -.-- 0f UNIT 61 (W. UNCOHPAHGRE)];./ Mesa County east 0f th e Dol ores River, south of State Highway No. 141 from the town of Gateway to the Uncompahgre Plateau the Gunnison divide between of MOntrose Highway River and Dolores River; that portion County east of the Dolores No. 90 from its intersection section with State Highway River and north and east of State with the Dolores River to its inter- No. 145, and north and east of State Highway No. 145 and south and west of the Uncompahgre of San Miguel Size.--Unit in size. County north of State Highway 61 was determined A planimeter scale Uncompahgre Physical River near Uravan, to be 1,067.7 square miles or 683,272 acres from a 1/4" = 1 mile Forest map. exception Redvale, divide; that portion No. 145." was used to obtain the acreage National Features.--With Plateau of included and Norwood, areas south of the San Miguel Unit 61 approximates the southwestern 1/ Legally termed "Big Game Hanagement Unit" (see footnote 2/ below) but tentatively called ''Wildlife Management Unit" here to include broader aspects of animal life present. ~/ Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division (p. 12, Chap. 2 - Big Game). 3/ As of Harch 23, 1972, Commission Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970 action changed the boundaries of Unit Involved was a transfer of about 2 to 2~ townships of land to Unit 70, with the area lost being territory enclosed by the Dolores and San Higuel Rivers and State Highway 90. Inasmuch as voluminous mapwork and all tabular and narrative data had been compiled using boundaries observed here, it was decided not to revise data to correspond with new houndaries. 61. �2A one-half of the Uncompahgre Plateau. The plateau is a broad structural uplift that lies within the Canyon Lands section of the Colorado Plateaus physiographic Oldest rocks are Precambrian exposed province. in wes t e rn Unaweep whe ra in the northern Canyon and generally portion of the unit. stones and Mesozoic sandstones, siltstones, crop out variously over remaining crystalline rocks at higher elevations Paleozoic else- gray shales and lime- and shales of several formations parts of Unit 61 (U. S. Dept. of Agricul- ture 1971). Much of the west side of the plateau and steeply sloping mesas. sloping broad valleys near Redvale Minimum Contrasting with those features are gently such as East Paradox and Norwood elevation consists of deep canyons, sharp cliffs, and gently rolling tablelands (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 1971). is about 4,570 feet where State Highway No. 141 inter- cepts the Dolores River near Gateway. Maximum elevations plateau divide and range from about 6,900 feet in Unaweep 10,338 feet on Horsefly are found on the Canyon up to Peak and back down to near 8,900 feet at-Dallas Divide. Most of the plateau generally drop below crest is above 9,000 feet, but elevations that figure within short distances southwestwardly from the divide. Unit 61's two principal streams are the northwestwardly and San Miguel Rivers; they lie near, unit's southern and western edges. flowing Dolores form, or help form boundaries North to south, in order, and flowing south and west to the rivers are the following main tributaries: Mes a, Tabeguache, Horsefly at the and Leopard Creeks. Besides West, many small stock �3A ponds, the unit has Casto Reservoir surface acres at full capacity. Both detailed consulting Norwood and more general soils information U. S. Soil Conservation office or examining report cited previously Climate.--Climate 44 0 Service Work Unit personnel at their of Agriculture (1971) herein. of Unit 61 is variable due to differing climate, having o recorded topography. Gate- a mean annual temp0 of about 54 F and average annual growing season of 194 days (28 F Uravan and Norwood freeze threshold). about 40 can be obtained by the U. S. Department way lSW perhaps has the mildest erature on Gill Creek that contains have mean temperatures of 53.5 o F and 0 F and growing seasons of about 180 days and 133 days, respectively F freeze threshold). Growing season lengths scale downward with increase in elevation to an estimated Precipitation is variable, 30 days or less on the Uncompahgre too. Plateau Nine inches or less in East Paradox is the least mean annual amount reported inches ~ Uravan 12 inches, Redvale for Unit 61. 15 inches, Norwood Gateway 15+ inches, 25 inches extends top. of Unit 61 receives extreme from 12 to 16 inches, to 20-inch zone. Norwood growing season. Short cloudbursts However, 20 and the greatest followed next by the 16- gets about 55 percent of its precipitation characterize Valley and Placer- A narrow belt of between over the plateau's crest. receives 11 ville 14 inches mean annual precipitation. portion (28 summer rainfall in the at lower elevations. Disc ussions in preceding ment of Agriculture paragraphs were based upcn data f rorn U. S. Dep ar t=- (1971) and U. S. Department of Commerce (Continuing) �4A reports. Besides Unit 61, possible Service the information other useful records can be obtained cooperating just outside given for those stations located within stations at Paradox U. S. Department of Agriculture. Service, and related land resources, and Utah. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo- of Commerce. Service. February. (Continuing). and Annual Summaries. Asheville, Water Board and U.S.D.A. Econ , Res. Service, and Soil Conserv. U. S. Department Cited 1971. River Basin in Colorado rado Water Conserv. Monthly which are located of the unit. Literature Dolores and Telluride for National Weather National Denver. Climatological Climatic N. C. 28801. B. D. Baker February 1972 Forest (processed). data, Colorado. Center, Fed. Bldg., �SA LANDmmERSHIP STATUS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 Bureau of Land Management 222,176 Acres Forest Service 283,803 Acres Private lands excluding lands within National Forest boundaries 155,576 Acres Private lands within National Forest boundaries 19,477 Acres Colorado Division Game, Fish and Parks o Acres Other Federal lands including Park Service, Indian and Military Reservations, and Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 0 Acres State Land Board Administration lands 640 Acres Municipal lands 801 Acres Total 682,473 Acres * (1066.4 sq. miles) * Total land acreage differs from total in Unit Description Section (683,272 A. or 1067.7 sq. miles). Forest Service lands and private lands within the National Forest were derived by planimetering on 2" = 1 mile Uncompahgre National Forest township plat maps. B.L.M. lands, Game, Fish and Parks lands and other private land acreages resulted from planimetering and estimating on 1/2" = 1 mile Uncompahgre National Forest map. Municipal lands include Nucla and those portions of Naturita and Norwood within Unit 61. W. T. McKean and L. C. Carlson September 1971 �6A LAND USE STATUS - HILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 Irrigated croplands 21,698 Acres Non-irrigated croplands 1,599 Acres Grasslands 26,118 Acres Sagebrush 75,030 Acres Brush 110,643 Acres Woodland - pinyon-juniper, oakbrush 304,524 Acres Aspen 21,418 Acres Corrnnercialtimber 112,947 Acres River bottom vegetation 1,489 Acres Miscellaneous 7,007 Acres ,J Total 682,473 Acres * (1066.4 sq. miles) * Cover type categories and acreages were derived from planimetering on 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S. Land Use and Cover Type Maps, 1954, for Mesa, Montrose, and San Miguel counties. Computations were 7% over landownership status total acreage. An adjustment was made to each category so that the total would conform to the landownership figure. L. C. Carlson November 1971 �7A HUMAN POPULATION - WILDLIFE Inasmuch as Unit 61 involves counties and unit bounding Norwood, determination difficult. Instead, are presented spite being involved portions highways UNIT 61 of Mesa, Montrose, and San Miguel split the towns of Naturita of specifically applicable populations and would be rural and urban data and trends for 1960 and 1970 in total for Montrose (Table 1). municipalities MANAGEMENT comparatively and San Miguel counties Mesa County data are excluded large in size, that portion in Unit 61 contains an indeterminable, and their because, de- of the county very small and entirely rural, human population. This analysis sources, differs from those of the Bureau of the Census and other since they consider lation as being rural in character. towns are considered populations cities and towns of less than 2,500 popu- being as being urban regardless very slightly third between cities and of size, with remainder rural. Data shown on Table 1 indicate increased Here, all incorporated the years that the population and that of San Miguel 1960 and 1970. increased moderately, Montrose. Other municipalities of Montrose County County dropped by one- Montrose County urban population being carried by the strong increase for the city of in the two counties varied both ways but were generally downward in populations. lation showed a rather sharp decline of about 19%. both Montrose and San Miguel dropped noticeably, counties The San Miguel County urban popu- Rural populations of with the latter �SA declining 793 people or about 44%. lations in Mesa, Hontrose, Additional and San Miguel detailed analyses of popu- counties can be found by con- suIting pages 4-5 through 4-8 of the f o Ll.ow i ng report: U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1971. Water and related land resources, Dolores River Basin in Colorado and Utah. Coop. Study Rep. of Colorado Water Conserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, February. (processed). Denver. and Soil Conserve Table 1. Populations and trends of counties and municipalities part, w i.t.h Unit 61 1/. Population County 1960 1970 Change Population Inc. Cities % and Towns 1960 1970 Change Hontrose 18,286 18,366 +0.5 Montrose 5,044 6,413 +27.1 Naturita 979 820 -16.1 Nucla 906 949 + 4.7 Olathe 773 756 - 2.2 Totals 7,702 8,938 +16.0 % -----------------------------------------------------San Hf.gue L 1/ Sources 2,944 1,949 -33.8 involved, 10,584 9,428 Telluride 677 510 -24.7 Norwood 443 408 - 7.9 Totals 1,120 918 -18.7 (urban population). -10.9 -------------------------------~ is based upon total county population cities and towns in Rural Population 2/ % 1960 1970 Change 1,824 1,031 are the U.S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, 2/ County rural population incorporated Service. 1959-61. less total of -43.5 �9A Starting with a population also gives advanced of 10,422 in 1960, the aforementioned population projections to be: 1980 - 10,800; 2000 - 12,300; Colorado State Planning Office for Montrose Similarly, San Miguel specific in indicating 2020 - 13,700. River Basin Estimates by the (pers. comm. 1971) placed populations County at 18,500 in 1980 and 20,000 by 2010 and thereafter. Both of these sources being for the Dolores report County's population was given as 2,000 "forevermore". for county and basin projections for Unit 61, but the projections that generally are far from are fairly consistent light gains will occur within the next 40 to 50 years in and near the unit. B. D. Baker July 1971 �lOA GAME SPECIES Big game mammals - WILDLIFE t£~AGEMENT UNIT 61 (W. UNCOMPAHGRE) !I Black bear (Ursus americanus) Elk (Cervus canadensis) Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Small game mammals 11 Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii; .§..~nuttallii) Pine (red) squirrel (Tamiasciurus'hudsonicus) Snowshoe hare (Lepusamericartus) Abert's squirrel (Sciurus aberti) Game birds Jj Migratory waterfowl and shorebirds Great Basin Canada goose'(Branta canadensis moffitti) Black brant (Brantanigricans) 11 White-fronted goose (Anser albifronsfrontalis) 11 Snow goose (Chen hyperborea hyperhorea) Mallard (Anas platvrhynchos platyrhyllchos) Gadwall. (Anas strepera) , Pintail (Anas acuta) Green-winged teal (Anas carolinensis) Blue-winged teal (Anas discors discors) Cinnamon teal (Ana~anoptera septentrionalium) American widgeon (Mareca amez Lcana) Shoveler (Spa,tula clypeata) Wood duck (Aix sponsa) Redhead (Aythya americana) Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) Canvasback CAythya valisineria) Greater scaup (Aythya marila nearctica) 11 Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula americana) Barrow's golden-eye (Bucephala islandica) 11 _:!/ Nomenclature Colorado. according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Wild mammals -~/Nomenclature according to Bailey, A. E", and R. J. Neidrach. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Rist. llunverified in hunter's game in 1970-71. bag checks but possible ( rare migrant of 1967. 168 pp. and legal �llA Game birds - Migratory waterfowl and shorebirds (continued) Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) Ruddy duck (Oxyura j amaic.ensis rubida) Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Common merganser (Mergus merganser americanus) Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator serrator) Common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) American coot (Fulica americana americana) Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus obscurus) Sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus urophasianus) Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Chukar (Alectoris graeca) . Band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata fasciata) Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura marginella) Sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus) Mountain quail (Oreortyxpicta) Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) T. McKean November 1971 W. �12A OTHER MAMMALIAN SPECIES 1/ - VlILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 CW. UNCOMPAHGRE) Furbearers ]j Beaver (Castor canadensis) Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) Weasels (Mustela erminea; M.ftenata) Mink (Mustela vison) Marten (Hartes amer'Lcana) Nongame mammals 1/ White-tailed jack rabbit (Lepustownsendii) Black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus"califomicus) Yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventtis) White-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucutus) Gunnison's prairie dog (Cynomysgunnisoni) Rock squirrel (Spermophilusvatiegatus) White-tailed antelope squirrel (Ammospermophilus leucurus) Golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimllS) Colorado chipmunk (Eutamias"quadrivittatus) Coyote (Canis latrans) Red fox (Vulpes fulva) Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Kit (swift) fox (Vulpes velox) Raccoon (Procyon lotor) American badger (Taxidea taxus) Spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) Bobcat (Lynx rufus) Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) 1/ These species, grouped separately as "Furbearers" and "Nongame mammals" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1962 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970 (Art. 1, Item 3, Definitions, p. 327). 1/ Nomenclature according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Colorado. 254 Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder, Colo. Wild mammals of pp. W. T. McKean November 1971 �13A OTHER AVIAN SPECIES Nongame birds 1/ - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNITS 61 AND 62 1/ Common loon (Gavia immer) Rare migrant. Horned grebe (Podiceps auritus cornutus) Rare migrant. Eared grebe (PodiceDs caspicus californicus) Uncommon migrant. Western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) Possible rare migrant. Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps podiceps) Uncommon migrant 1/ and possible rare summer resident. Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus) Rare migrant. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident and few in winter 1/, !!../. Snowy egret (Leucophoyx thula brewsteri) Uncommon summer resident. Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nyctic0rax hoactli) Uncommon summer resident. Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis exilis) Possible accidental summer vlsitor. American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Possible rare migrant. White-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) Possible rare migrant. Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) Rare migrant. Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis canadensis; G. c. tabida) Common migrant. Virginia rail (R~s limicola limicola) Pos~ible uncommon summer resident. Sora (Porzana carolina) Possible uncommon SUmmer resident. Semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) Possible rare migrant. Snot .• :ry plover (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus) Possible accidental migrant. Killdeer (CharadriliS--vQc-iferus ~ociferus)- -C-;~on summer and uncommon winter resident 3/. Mountain plover (Eupoda montana) Possible accidental migrant. Black-bellied plover (Sguatarola sguatarola) Possible rare migrant. 1/ These species, grouped separately as "Nongame birds" and "Raptores" and -;-utside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970. (Art. 1, item 3, Definitions, p. 327). 1/ Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Neidrach. 19~5. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist. 2 Vols. 895 pp. Information on occurrence and method for reporting same are adapted from the foregoing reference and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornith. 61 pp., with the system of Davis (1969:6) favored and followed closely throughout. Presence of term "possible" is an author judgement connotating that the species could occur in the units some time even though evidence is presently lacking that it does. Absence of term means that evidence by Bailey and Neidrach (1964) and/or Davis (1969) makes occurrence a near certainty or that sighting(s) have been reported verbally by anyone or more of Division personnel H. Burdick, T. Quick, L. Denton [and others, as appropriate] or qualified by additional footnotes that follow. 1/ Unpublished checklist of birds of the Uncompahgre Plateau by Dr. A. S. Hyde, 1971. 4/ Sight record of A. E. Anderson as given in APPENDIX A - PARTIAL CHECKLIST OF VERTEBRATE FAUNA OBSERVED IN VICINITY OF STUDY AREA, pp. 59-60, of Anderson, A. E. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Fed. Aid Job Compo Rep. Proj. W-38-R-13, July, Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp , (processed). �Nongame birds (continued) Long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus americanus) Possible rare migrant. Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia) Common Summer resident 2/. Solitary sandpiper (Tringa solitaria cinnamomea) Common migrant and occasional summer visitor. Willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus) Rare migrant. Greater yellowlegs (Totanus melanoleucus) Possible common migrant. Lesser yellowlegs (Totanus flavipes) Possible uncommon migrant. Knot (Calidris canutus rufa) Possible accidental migrant. Pectoral sandpiper CErolia melanotos) Possible rare migrant. Baird's sandpiper (Erolia bairdii) Possible uncommon migrant. Least sandpiper (Erolia minutilla) Possible common migrant. Long-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) Possible rare migrant. Semipalmated sandpiper (Ereunetes pusillus) Rare migrant 2/. Western sandpiper (Ereunetes mauri) Possible uncommon migrant. Marbled godwit (Limosa fedoa) Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Crocethia alba) Possible accidental migrant. American avocet (Recurvirostra americana) Rare migrant. Black-necked stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) Possible rare migrant. Wilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) Common migrant and uncommop Summer res ident . . Northern phalarope (Lobipes lobatus) Possible rare migrant. Herring gull (Larus argentatus smithsonianus) Possible uncommon migrant. California gull (Larus californicus) Possible rare migrant. Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) Uncommon migrant. Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) Cornmon migrant. Bonaparte's gull (Larus philadelphia) Possible rare migrant. Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) Possible rare migrant. Common tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo) Possible accidental migrant. Leas i, i.er n (SLeL"UCl a.lui.L~cuH6 d.ti!cild65(5) Possible: acc i.dent.a Lrni.grunt • Black tern (Chlidonias niger surinamensis) Possible rare migrant. Rock dove (Columba livia) Common resident. Yellow-billed cuckoo (COCCYZU3 americanus americanus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Poor-will (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii nuttallii) Common summer resident 4/. Cornmon nighthawk (Chordeiles minor powelli ; ~. ~. henryi ) Common Summer resident if. Black swift (Cypseloides niger borealis) Possible accidental Summer migrant. White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxatalis sclateri) Common Summer resident 2/, if. Black-chinned hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) Common summer resident. Broad-tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus platycercus) Common summer resident 2/. Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) Common late Summer and fall migrant. Calliope hummingbird (Stellula calliope) Rare Summer migrant i/and Possible rare Summer resident. Rivoli's hummingbird (Eugenes fulgens aureoviridis) Possible rare summer visitor. Belted kingfisher (Megacerle alcyon alcyon) Common resident 3/. Yellow-shafted flicker (Colaptes auratus luteus) Possible accidental migrant. : \' �15A Nongame birds (continued) Red-shafted flicker (Colaptes cafer collaris) Common resident 3/,4/. Lewis' woodpecker (Asyndesmus lewis) Common resident 11. -Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius muchalis) Common summer resident. . Williamson's sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus nataliae) Common summer resident. Hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos villosus monticola) Uncommon resident i/. Downy woodpecker (Dendrocopos pubescens leucurus) Uncommon resident. Northern three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus dorsalis) Rare resident. Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) Uncommon summer resident 11. Western kingbird (Tyrannusverticalis) Common summer resident 1/· Cassin's kingbird (Tyrannus vociferans vociferans) Possible uncommon summer resident. Ash-thro?ted flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident. Say's phoebe (Sayornis saya saya) Common summer resident. Traill's flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) Uncommon summer resident 11. Hammond's flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii) Uncommon summer resident. Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) Uncommon summer resident. Gray flycatcher (Emphidonax wrightii) Common summer resident. Western flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis hellmayri) Common summer resident. Western wood peewee (Contopus sordidulus veliei) Common summer resident i/. Olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealis) Uncommon summer resident. l''T ..l 1.1.ULllCU '1 1_ ..LC1.Lr\. /l.' L...!1 __ \.1.:J.LCWUPL1..L..La. 1 __ CL..Lpc:.v ....• "-_...: l.-J....1..Ct 1 __ -::-::' _,..,\ ..L.\-,..U,-V.J..CLL.J.UQ./ ~ ...........•.•.•...•.... __ o ..;,:t"_r VLlllllUoV.LL ");/ .L~"""..L.'-'-_"'''''''' .:::...' • Violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina lepid~) Common summer resident 3/, 4/. Tree swallow-(Irfdiprocne bicolor) Common summer resident 3/. Bank swallow (Riparia riparia riparia) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx ruficollis serripennis) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica erythrogaster) Common migrant and summer resident 3/. Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota) Common summer resident. Purple martin (Progne subis subis) Possible accidental summer migrant. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis capitalis) Common resident. Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stelleri macrolopha) Common resident 1/, i/. Scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens woodhouseii) Common resident 11. Black-billed magpie (Pica pica hudsonia) Common resident 11, i/. Common raven (Corvus corax sinuatus) Common resident 11, i/. Common crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos) Common resident 1/· Pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) Common resident 11, i/. Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) Common resident i/. Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus garrinus) Common resident 4/. Mountain chickadee (Parus gambeli gambeli) Common resident Plain titmouse (Parus inornatus r Ldgway i ) Common resident. Common bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus plumbeus) Common resident 11, i/. White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis nelsoni) Uncommon resident i/. i/. �16A Nongame birds (continued) Red-breasted nuthatch (Sittacanadensis) Rare resident. Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea melanotis) Common resident ii/. Brown creeper. (Certhia familiaris montana) Uncommon resident. Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus unicolor) Common resident. House wren (Troglodytes aedon parkmanii) Common summer resident 3/., 4/. Winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes pacificus) Status unknown iil. Bewick's wren (Thryomanes bewickii eremophilus) Common summer and rare winter resident 1/. Long-billed marsh wren (Telmatodytes palustris plesius) Uncommon summer resident 3/. . Canyon wren (Salpinctes mexicanus conspersus) Uncommon summer 1/ and possible rare .winter resident. . Rock wren (Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus) Common.summer and possibl~ rare winter resident. Mockingblrd (Mimus polyglottos leucopterus) Uncommon·resident. Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) Possible rare summer resident. Brown thrasher (Toxostoma·rufum longicauda) Possible accidental migrant. Sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) Common summer resident ~/. Robin (Turdus migratorius propinguus) Common resident 1/, ii/. Hermit thrush (Hylocichla guttata auduboni) Common summer resident. Swainson's thrush (Hylocichla ustulata almae) Possible common migrant and rare summer resident. Veery (Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola) Common summer resident. Western bluebird (Sialia mexicana bairdi) Common migrant, uncommon . summer resident ii/, and possible rare winter resident. Mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides) Common migrant and summer resident 1/, ~/, and possible winter resident • .Townsend's solitaire (Myadestes townsendi townsendi) Uncommon resident 4/. Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea amoenissima) Common summer resident 1/. Golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa amoenus) Possible common summer and uncommon winter resident. Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula cineraceus) Common migrant 1/ and summer resident 4/ and possible accidental winter resident. Water pipit (Anthus-spinoletta alticola) Common migrant 1/ 'and possible winter resident. Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceps) Common winter migrant. Cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) Irregular visitor. Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor invictus) Common winter resident 3/. Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides) Uncommon summer and common winter resident 3/. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris) Common resident 1/. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Uncommon summer resident. Solitary vireo (Vireo solitarius plumbeus) Common summer resident 1/. Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Possible rare summer resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus swainsonii) Common summer resident. Tennessee warbler (Vermivora peregrina) Possible rare migrant. Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata orestera) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla rid~]ayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia's warbler (Vermivora virginiae) Common summer resident. Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia aestiva) Common summer resident 1/. Myrtle warbler (Dendroica coronata coronata) Uncommon migrant. ; F �17A Nongame birds (continued) Audubon's warbler (Dendroica auduboni memorabilis) Common summer resident 1/, ~/ and possible rare winter resident. Black-throated gray warbler (Dendroica nigrescens) Common summer resident 3/. Townsend's w;rbler (Dendroica townsendi) Uncommon migrant 4/. Grace's warbler (Dendroica graciae graciae) Rare summer re;ident ~/. Northern waterthrush (Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis) Rare migrant 1/. MacGillivray's warbler (Opor~rnis tolmiei monticola) Common migrant and uncommon summer resident 3/. Yellowthroat (Geothlypis tri~has occidentalis; G. t. campicola) Uncommon summer resident 1/. - Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens auricollis) Common summer resident. Wilson's warbler (Wilsonia pusilla pileolata) Common migrant and possible summer resident. American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla tricolora) Possible rare migrant. House sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) Common resident 3/. Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) Possible rare summer migrant~ Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta neglect a) Common summer 1/ and uncommon winter resident. Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Common summer resident 3/. Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus fortis) Common resident 1/. Orchard oriole (Icterus spurius) Possible accidental summer visitor. Bullock's oriole (Icterus bullockii bullockii) Common summer resident 1/. Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus carolinus) Possible late winter visitor. Brewer's blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) Common resident 1/. Br own=he aded cowb i rd (:iVlolotnrus ater ar t em'i.s i.ae ) Common summe r resLd en t ; Western tanager (Piranga ludovic~) Common migrant and summer resident ~/. Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) Possible accidental summer migrant. Rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus) Possible accidental spring migrant. Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus melanocephalus) Common summer resident. Blue grosbeak (Guiraca caerulea interfusa) Uncommon summer resident 1/. Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena) Uncommon summer resident. Dickcissel (Spiza americana) Possible accidental migrant. Evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona vespertina brooks i) Irregular resident. Cassin's finch (Carpodacus cassinii) Common resident. House finch (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis) Common summer and uncommon winter resident 1/. Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator montana) Uncommo~ resident. Gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis tephrocotis; ~. t. littoralis) Common winter migrant. Black rosy finch (Leucosticte atrata) Uncommon winter migrant. Brown-capped rosy fincD (Leucosticte australis) Common winter resident. Common redpoll (Acanthis flammea flammea) Possible accidental winter migrant. Pine siskin (Spinus pinus pinus) Common resident ~/. American goldfinch (Spinus tristis tristis; ~. ~. pallidus) Common summer 1/ and possible uncommon winter resident. Lesser goldfinch (Spinus psaltria psaltria) Possible uncommon summer resident" and accidental winter migrant. Red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) Irregular visitor. White-winged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera leucoptera) Possible accidental winter migrant. �18A Non-game birds (continued) Green-tailed towhee (Chlorura chlorura) Common Summer resident 11, ~/ and possible rare winter resident. Rufous-sided towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus montanus) Uncommon resident 1/. Lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) Possible uncommon summer resident. Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis nevadensis; f. ~. anthinus) Possible uncommon migrant and Summer resident. Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum perpallidus) Uncommon Summer resident 5/. LeConte's sp;rrow (Passerherbulus caudacutus) Possible accidental migrant. Sharp-tailed sparrow (Ammospiza caudacuta nelsoni) Possible accidental migrant. Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus confinis) Common migrant and summer res ident 11, ~/. Lark sparrow (Chondestes grammacus strigatus) Common migrant and summer resident 1/. Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata deserticola) Common summer res ident. Sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli nevaden3is) Common summer resident. White-winged junco (Junco aikeni) Possible accidental winter visitor. Slate-colored junco (Junco hyemalis hyemalis; cismontanus) Possible rare winter resident. Oregon junco (Junco oreganus oreganus; L. Q. mearnsi) Common winter resident 3/. Gray-headed junco (Junco caniceps caniceps) Common resident ~/. Tree sparrow (Spizella arborea ochracea) Uncommon winter visitor 1/. Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina boreophila) Common summer resident 1/, ~/. Brewer's spar-row (Spizella breweri breweri) Common summer resident 11, ~/. narri~' ~parrow \.L.OnOLr~cn~a querUl.a) .LO::;~~Dl.e rare w~nLer re~~ueni... White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys leuchophrys; ~. 1. gambelii) Common resident 1/. White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) Possible ac~idental migrant. Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca schistacea) Rare Summer resident. Lincoln's sparrow (Melospizalincolnii alticola) Common migrant and Summer resident. Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Common resident 11. Lapland longspur (Calcarius lapponicus alascensis) Possible rare winter migrant. Chestnut-collared longs pur (Calcarius ornatus) Possible accidental winter migrant. L. h. �19A Raptores ~/ Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura meridionalis) Common summer i/, ~/ and rare winter resident. Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis atricapillus) Uncommon resident ~/. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus velox) Uncommon summer i/ and winter resident. Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Uncommon summer ~/ and winter resident. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis calurus) Common resident i/, ~/. Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus ~. johannis) Common winter resident. Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) Rare summer resident. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis) Common resident ~/, 2/' Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus) Common winter resident 2/. Marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus hudsonius) Common resident 4/. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis) Rare migrant. Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Uncommon resident. Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Rare resident. Pigeon hawk (Falco columbarius) Rare winter migrant. Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius sparverius) Common summer and uncommon winter resident 3/, 4/. Screech owl (Otus asio) Possible rare resident. Flammulated owl (Otis flammeolus flammeolus) Possible accidental summer resident. GrPRr hornpc1 mJl (R1Jb0 Yirgi!li9.!lus) C0~0!"! ree Lderrt 1/, 5.-./. Pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma californicum) Uncommon resident 3/. Burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea) Uncommon summer and possible accidental winter resident. Long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus) Uncommon resident. Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus flammeus) Uncommon winter migrant and resident. Saw-whet owl (Aeg~s acadicus acadicus) Uncommon resident. 5/ Golden and bald eagles specifically excluded from statutes defining "Raptore" as cited in footnote 1:./ but herein listed to avoid omission. B. D. Baker February 1972 �20A DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME HAMHALS WILDLIFE :MANAGEHENT UNIT 61 (W'oUNCOHPAHGRE) BLACK BEAR Black bears occupy approximately the area between 7,000 and 10,000 feet in Unit 61, though at times they may wander over almost the entire unit (Gilbert 1953). Based upon the hunter kill surveys, an average annual kill of 19 bears occurred 1960-1970 in Unit 61, ranging from 3 to 62 animals. ,During preseason deer sex ratio counts six bears were counted in 1970 and nine in 1971 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). Southwest Regional office files contain details of locations observed. ELK Big game winter range surveys conducted jointly with the BLM and Grand Hesa-Uncompahgre National Forest from 1961 through 1963 failed to produce much information on distribution of elk in Unit 61. In fact, of 71 browse range-pellet group transects that were read within or near the wintering deer zone, only five contained any elk groups at all (F.A. Project W-IOI-R files). Current information supplied by Southwest Region staff and field personnel through group and individual interviews in 1972 yielded year-round distribution for elk. That information has been displayed by mylar overlay (see accompanying map portfolio). Interview data regarding distribution also revealed that elk apparently move upwards to the extreme plateau crest (over 10,000 feet on Horsefly Peak) in summer and downward to about 7,000 feet in winter. In addition, �21A elk probably Generally, boundary can be found anywhere the lower limit line corresponds or southwestward outside As is the case with adjoining 61. in between Supporting those elevations with the National of it two to four miles. is the low average head for the years 1965-70. Division are distributed small groups where MOUNTAIN The literature distribution occurrence available one 2 miles northeast Dixon listed, however, Hunter collections) of Norwood, of the forested report summaries it within during of 40 say that herds found. to mountain three specimens taken lion habitats more isolated at least a minimum any mountain of and one near Gateway. that the rougher, inclusive. lion (1972) whose records any of the better fail to indicate killed by people other than hunters recorded people reference indicate area would harbor 61 for the years 1965-1970 annual harvest one west of Redvale, it seems reasonable in Unit LION makes no specific (1967) does not include portions regional within Unit 61, except Armstrong (from museum Forest Unit 62, elk are not very numerous this contention in relatively any time. population. lions taken in Unit A few lions could easily have been and no reports recorded. Nonewere deer trend counts. MULE DEER Joint BLM-Forest Service-Division Project files) were primarily W-lOl-R zone of winter information deer use. aimed at establishing Data from those investigations from interviews an upper winter big game range surveys of 1961-63 of region personnel limits line roughly including the average combined in February the following (F.A. with 1972 yielded areas (see �22A mylar map 1. overlay): At Unit 61's extreme southeastern corner, Iron Springs Mesa, upper Sheep Draw, and all lower and middle and McKenzie 2. Creeks. Lower Craig Draw and lower Clay, Horsefly, and Cottonwood Creeks areas inside of the Forest boundary two to four miles (northeast 3. Middle and north of Norwood). Coal Canyon and Tabeguache Pinto Mesa and The Meadows 4. Upper middle (northeast 5. areas of Goodenough Campbell, Creek to include most of all north of Nucla. Atkinson, and Mesa Creeks areas and north of Uravan). Lower Pine Mountain and most of upper Ute Creek southeast and east of Gateway. 6. Bottomland and extreme Gulch to the divide The lower limits of winter Lowe r slopes of West Creek from Turner in Unaweep Canyon. deer distribution generally Unit 61's southern and western cultivated near Nucla which would not be included farmland boundary. coincide An exception All of Unit 61 is believed to be occupied drier portions light populations. at higher supporting elevations with would be the as winter range. by deer in summer, with lower, Heaviest from about 7,000 feet elevation summer use occurs to the crest of the plateau. Joint winter range surveys high fall-winter Creek area; Calamity yielded pellet group count indices deer use in: (1) the Sanborn Park-Craig (2) the Dry Park-Cottonwood Creek area. of fairly Draw-Goodenough Creek area; and (3) Calamity }1esa- The Shavano-Campbell-Spring Creeks and Blue Hesa- �23A North Fork Mesa Creek areas also produced moderately high indices of winter use. More currently, deer aerial count data for the Uravan trend area (see DEER overlay) are available at the Division Southwest Region office in Montrose. Total counts of deer have varied between a low of 749 in 1969 and a high of 1,411 in 1971 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). Literature Cited Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of Mammals in Colorado. Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Dixon, K. R. 1967. pp. 141-164. 415 pp. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, In Game Res. Rep., July-Part II. Fish and Parks. Gilbert, D. L. Univ. of 1953. Colo. Dept. Game, pp. 73-310. Fur resources and bear studies. Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 59-60. 141 pp. W. T. McKean and B. D. Baker February 1972 In �'24A DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME MAMMALS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 CW. UNCOMPAHGRE) COTTONTAIL Every square mile in this unit is occupied by cottontails, or capable of being so, with the possible exception of three or four urban areas. Based on reported altitudinal preferences CLech1eitner 1969, Armstrong 1972), both the desert cottontail and Nuttall's cottontail would be present. No specific study of cottontail distribution pertinent to the unit is known. Shepherd (1965a) indicates a possible density of 150-200 animals per square mile for most of the better areas of the state excluding cyclic highs or Lows , This estimate should be applicable to Unit 61. SNOWSHOE HARE Shepherd (1965b) indicates that snowshoe hares occupy, or could occupy, Unit 61 between 8,000 and 10,000 feet elevation in the coniferous forest for its entire length (see accompanying mylar map portfolio). Shepherd (1965b) postulates a statewide mean density of 125 hares per section on the habitable range. This is believed to be applicable to the higher areas of this unit. PINE (RED) SQUIRREL Pine squirrels are reportedly distributed throughout the upper one-half (elevationally) of Unit 61 in the coniferous forests. Armstrong (1972) indicates, on a distribution map, that they are pres ent; , Southwest Regional personnel indicate tnat where pine squirrels are present at all in the unit, they exist in maximum numbers. �25A ABERT'S SQUIRREL Southwest Regional personnel have seen this squirrel in Unit 61 in widely scattered sites, but one specific area lies between McKenzie and Clay Creek drainages. Lechleitner (1969) states that it occurs in the ponderosa pine forests at 5,000 to 8,000 feet. Maps in Armstrong (1972) and Hall and Kelson (1959) do not show the distribution to extend this far into westcentral Colorado. Abundance of this squirrel is undocumented for Unit 61, but it is definitely present (see accompanying map portfolio). Literature Cited Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Hall, R. E., and K. R. Kelson. Ronald Press, N. Y. Lechleitner, R. R. Boulder. 1969. 1959. 2 Vols. 415 pp. The mammals of North America. The 1083 pp. Hild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publ. Co. 254 pp. Shepherd, H. R. 1965a. Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-75, for cottontail rabbits. Dept. Rep. 1965b. 11 pp. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks (Mimeo). Colorado long range man agemerit; plans for game species, 1965-1975, for snowshoe hares. 11 pp. Univ. of Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Rep. (Himeo). W. T. HcKean February 1972 �26A DISTRIBUTION At'ID ABm'l'Dk"il'CE OF SMALL -.:AME BIRDS WIL:QLIFE--.!1!WAGj:J~NT mUT 61 (W. UNCOMPi\1-IGl~) SAGE GROUSE Southwest regional the southeast Rogers personnel quarter (1964) states indicate that sage grouse are dispersed over of the unit. that populations of only 1-10 birds per square mile, or less, were found in the areas listed as occupied range (see accompanying map portfolio). BLUE GROUSE Rogers (1968) indicates in his maps that the blue grouse Unit 61 is largely within Uncompahgre entirely. habitat The important National distribution Forest boundaries, of fir (Abies) species, in but not as well as mixed brushy areas and aspen occur on Bureau of Land Management private lands, but not as extensively. Blue grouse occur at 7,000 to 10,000 feet most commonly. A census by Rogers between (1968) of 62.5 road miles along the Uncompahgre Units 61 and 62 in 1961-1963 blue grouse being lands as well as per mile, conducted ranging developed from 0.025 to 0.097. count of 0.039 This census route is not at present. SHARP-TAILED Rogers (1969) reports grounds or observed on the Tongue; an average Divide elsewhere }~ntrose of Sams; San Miguel sma1~ populations GROUSE of sharp tails either at dancing in Unit 61 as follows: County-on Horsefly County-scattered Mesa Count.y -Out.Law Mesa, Creek, near Johnson Springs north small flocks in the southwest portion �27A of the Uncompahgre T-Bone Springs accompanying Plateau. More recently, area, Montrose County counts have been made in the (Arant pers. comm. 1972). (See map portfolio). Only very small numbers of birds were observed at these sites. CHUKARS Sandfort (1965) in surnrnarizin~ chukar distributions, bird had been introduced recently, at many sites within Southwest regional flocks from Gateway to Nucla. During the period 1958-1963 densities better varied widely, personnal ranging stated More that there are scattered ones, population from 47 to 26 birds per square mile in the 1965). Projected kill figures show an increase (total) taken in Small Game Unit 18 in 1968 and 1969 to 498 in 1970 (Funk and Tully 1971). ) RING-NECKED Distribution that this Unit 61 previously. in this unit, and adjoining chukar range (Sandfort from 82 birds indicated coincides areas, occupying PHEASh~T with the extreme west side of the unit in farmland approximately 36.7 square miles of fair to poor range (Swope 1965). Recent updated population data are available Region office, including sex ratios, success (Burdick pers. COnTIno 1972). and on file in the Southwest crmv count routes, and reproductive �WILD TURKEYS (1964 through 1967) mapped the appropriate Hyers turkeys within Units 61 and 62 for four years. were widely observed He showed that turkeys of Unit 61. in Unit 61 in which turkeys were consistently throughout at one or more seasons of the year were: Tabegauche Creek, Cottonwood Turkeys generally Creek, McKenzie wintered (5,500 to 7,000 feet), or near. the pinon-juniper and summering and aspen areas were largely types; however, A Blue' Creek, Spring Creek, Creek, Clay Creek, Horsefly Creek, Sanborn Park, and 47 Creek. elevations of wild the forested portions dispersed few of the drainages distribution at lower type; breeding at 8,000-9,500 feet in the ponderosa they have often been observed pine along the top of the plateau. Myers (1964 to 1967) indicated that the most reliable census method several tried, was the count at artifically winter. The data at hand are for the entire Uncompahgre bining both Big Game Units 61 and 62. birds, ranging numbers 1963 through 1967. be twe en units. a considerable drop in turkey popUlations, unchecked) that similar decreases have occurred scattered throughout of dense, fruit-producing in roughly stations equal in Unit 62 it seems probable (but in Unit 61. that band-tailed both Wildlife Management The occurrence 'seems to relate to areas where an abundant supply area, com- PIGEON (1970, and pers. comm. 1971) indicates irregularly in drop in population Birds were counted indicated Braun Plateau a considerable Since recent counts on similar BAND-TAILED food stations An average feed ground count of 306 from ~40 to 485, indicated for thie five winters established among pigeons are Units 61 and 62. and consistent native shrubs exist, as well as an abundance �29A of acorns from Gambel' s oak. Also, valleys wh ere cultivated grains are grown have appreciable numbers of pigeons. occurs in the spruce-fir pine zones; therefore and various is used at all seasons, Only generalizations reported except winter concerning observations, are possible as one of the places No differences in bird densities Highest and grain) are readily cover. Burdick Plateau through April). pigeon (Braun 1970). abundance, based The uncompahgre upon Plateau in Colorado where pigeons are most abundant. have been detected Wildlife observed available commonly the entire Uncompahgre (December band-tailed is mentioned Units 61 and 62. Nesting densities occurred and adjacent (pers. comm. 1972) reported between where to forested having Managemep_t food (berries, roosting acorns and escape counted in 1970 by helicop- ter in excess of 2,500 birds within Units 61 and 62. MOUkNmG Mourning doves are distributed spring, summer, Unit and fall over the entire Uncompahgre (Braun pers. comm. 1971). (Quick pers. comm. 1972). doves on the Uncompahgre DOv""ES Braun during A few doves winter No data exist concerning Plateau. Plateau densities in the of mourning (pers. comm. 1971) stated that higher concentrations occur in the pinon-juniper and farmland or spruce-fir. Over three hundred birds were trapped types than in the pine in Unaweep Canyon during the summer of 1971. WATERFOHL Breeding population: of dabbling Dolores Hopper (pers. ducks are dispersed comm.197l) along creeks tributary Rivers and on those rivers themselves, irrigated farmlands adjacent. indicated that low populations to the San Miguel and as well as in the limited Also, small numbers nest in isolated beaver �30A ponds and other high elevation wat er areas. Hopper (pers. comm. 1971) estimated the spring population be about two breeding pairs per square mile made over comparable land in the San Luis Valley. of 50 square miles of irrigated cropland produces a population of 200 ducks. Wintering Population: No information tribution or abundance of wintering numbers A very rough estimate and river bottom vegetation concerning types either dis- ducks in Unit Gl, but obviously the are small. Four transplants INTRODUCTIONS. (S.27, R.l7W, T.5lN). Subsequently, . For details 25 birds were planted 1965 see section on on South Fork of Mesa . (S.17,.T.49N., The introductions R16H). (See accompnaying above-mentioned 25 on South Fork of Mesa Creek. in a flock wintering totaled 1970. Res. Rep., Oct. 340 birds on Indian Creek and the have revealed up to 25 on South Fork of Hes a Creek (Barnes pers. comm. 1972). Band-tailed pigeon Cited investigations, Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Funk, H. D., and R. J. Tully. survey -- 1970. map portfolio). Recent observations Literature C. E. QUAIL of this exotic bird were made into Unit 61 between and 1970 on Indian Creek Braun, (4 ducks), based on counts is available MOUNTAIN Creek of Unit 61 to 1971. Colorado pp. 151-171. In Game 171 pp. small game hunter harvest Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Planning Services. �31A Myers, G. T. 1964 thru 1967. Game bird surveys. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Rogers, G. E. 1964. No. 16. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. The blue grouse in Colorado. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. 1969. 132 pp. Tech. Publ. No. 21. The sharp-tailed grouse in Colorado. Sandfort, W. W. 1965. for pheasants. Colo. Tech. Publ. No. 23. 94 pp. Colorado long range plans for game species, 1965- 1975, for Chukar partridge. 1965. Tech. Publ. 63 pp. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Swope , R. H. Pages variable by years (proc~ssed). Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., 1968. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Rep. 19 pp. Colorado long range plans for game species, 1965-1975, Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. rep. W. T. HcKean February 1972 54 pp. �32A DEER KILLI SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE HILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 YEAR HUNTING PRESS URE~'~ BUCKS DOES FA"I-lNS TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1956 959 449 266 46 761 ESM T 10/15 12/1 10/31 12/31, In Part 1957 1,316 669 433 144 1,246 2DM 10/15 11/17 1958 2,272 793 642 291 1,726 1DM 1DM 10/15 11/3 11/2 12/31, In Part 1959 2,382 900 782 267 1,949 1DM 1DM 2DM 10/17 11/4 12/5 11/3 11/17, In Part 12/31, In Part 1960 1,754 981 714 257 1,952 lDM 10/17 11/30 1961 2,242 1,484 1,277 605 3,366 3D 10/21 11/30 1962 1,751 933 749 280 1,962 1DM 10/20 11/4 1963 1,911 945 902 385 2,232 lDM 1DM 10/19 11/23 11/7 12/15, In Part 1964 2,041 1,049 703 217 1,969 lDM 10/17 11/5 ·1965 2,266 946 794 280 2,020 1DM 1DM 10/16 12/4 11/5 12/19, In Part 1966 1,709 487 318 98 903 ES ES 10/15 12/3 11/6 12/11, In Part 1967 1,509 519 369 56 944 ES 10/21 11/9 1968 1,571 502 413 82 997 ES 10/19 11/7 1969 2,953 969 495 116 1,580 ES 10/18 11/6 1970 2,763 1,094 92 ·12 1,198 AO ES 10/17 10/17 11/6, In Part 11/6, In Part Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses. ES = Either Sex, One Deer. T = t.va Deer, Either Sex, One License. ESM = Either Sex Multiple (Unlimited licenses and deer per individual). 2DM = Two Deer Hultiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 4 dcer per indivi.dual). IDM = One Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). 3D Three Deer, One Each Either Sex (1st and 2nd licenses and 3rd deer coupon with 2nd license). Note: IDM evolved into 2D, HC or THO Deer, Hunter's Choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. -k B. D. Baker �33A ARCHERY DEER KILL AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 YE.AR]),]j .BUCKS DOES HUNT AND SEASON FA\oJNS TOTAL 1954 ES 10/1 1955 ES T 10/1 10/15 ES ESM T 10/1 10/15 12/1 2DM 10/1 ES 1DM ES 9/1 10/15 11/3 - 1956 1957 1958 5 0 0 5 10/14 - 10/13 10/31 10/14 10/31 12/31, In Part 11/17 - 9/30 11/2 12/31, In Part 1959 0 0 0 0 ES . 1DM 2DM 9/15 10/17 12/5 - 9/30 11/17, In Part 12/31, In Part 1960 9 0 0 9 ES 1DM 2DM 9/10 10/17 12/17 - 9/30 11/30 12/31, In Part 3D 3D 8/26 10/21 - 9/10 11/30 ES 1DM 8/25 10/20 - 9/23 11/4 ES lDM 1DM 8/17 10/19 11/23 - 9/8" 11/7 12/15, In Part ES lDM 8/15 10/17 - 9/13 11/5 1961 1962 1963 2 4 2 2 5 5 10 0 0 4 19 7 21 - - 1964 14 1965 13 5 0 18 ES lDM 1DM 8/21 10/16 12/4 1966 16 10 0 26 ES ES ES 8/20 iO/15 12/3 - ES ES 8/19 10/21 - ES ES 8/17 10/19 - 1967 ]j 1"'8 ~o -4/ 5 5 7 0 - 4 5 0 0 9 10 - 9/12 11/5 12/19 , In Part 9/18 11/6 12L11 , In Part 9/17 11L9 9/15 110 �34-A Archery YEAR Deer Kill & Seasons - Wildlife Management Unit 61 (Continued) 1/, Jj BUCKS DOES FAWNS TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON ----'"-j 1969 2/ 39 0 0 39 AO ES 8/16 10/18 9/14 11/6 1970 !jj 21 0 a 21 AO ES AO ES 8/15 9/1 10/17 10/17 8/31 9/20 11/6, In Part 11/6, In Part 1/ Years 1954-1956 free permits were issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by application only. Years 1957-1960 there was no issue of special permits; archery hunting was allowed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1971 separate archery license regulations have been in effect. 1/ Inconclusive kill data are omitted for years 1954-1957. 1/ 72 total resident and non-resident archery licenses recorded for unit. ~/ 66 total resident and non-resident archery licenses recorded for unit. 1/ 1,163 total hunts recorded for unit. &/ 101 total hunters recorded for unit. Note: AO ES ESM lDM Hunt symbols are explained as follows: == Antlered Only, One Deer. Either Sex, One Deer. Either Sex Multiple (Unlimited licenses and deer per individual). == One Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual), which evolved into 2D, HC or Two Deer, Hunter's Choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. lDMA == One Deer Multiple, One Must Be Antlerless (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) . T == Two Deer, Either Sex, One Licenseo 2DM == Two Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). 3D Three Deer, One Each Either Sex (1st and 2nd licenses and 3rd deer Coupon with 2nd license). 3DA Three Deer, One Must Be Antlerless (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). B. D. Baker .September 1971 �35A ELK KILL, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 61 YEARY ;HUNTING PRESSURE.Y 1957 HUNT AND SEASON TOTAL BULLS COWS CALVES l3 2 0 0 2 25 AOP]/ 1958 55 9 0 0 9 AO 10/15 1959 29 12 0 0 12 AO 10/17 - 11/3 1960 81 12 0 0 12 AO 10/17 - 11/6 1961 43 20 0 0 20 AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 36 6 0 0 6 AO 10/20 -.11/4 1963 40 14 0 0 14 AO 10/19 - 11/7 1964 59 13 0 0 13 AO 10/17 - 11/5 1965 98 20 4 2 26 AO + 30 ASOP]/ 10/16 - 11/5 1966 73 20 5 4 29 AO + 50 ASOP]/ 10/15 - 11/3 1967 80 15 3 0 18 AO + 50 ASOPJ./ 10/21 - 11/9 1958 133 16 12 0 28 AO + 50 ASOP]/ 10/19 - 11/7 1969 339 67 11 2 80 AO + 50 ASOP]/ 10/18 - 11/6 1970 329 45 12 3 60 AO + 50 Asopl/ 10/15 - 10/31 10/17 - 11/6 1/ Unit was closed to elk hunting within recent historj prior to 1957. ~/ Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales expressed in nwnber of licenses. Years of antlered only seasons, either singly or combined with cow permits, very probably yield conservative hunting pressure statistics. Despite difficulties in verifying the foregoing assumption, unknown numbers of deer hunters also carry elk licenses hoping for a bull elk. This happens regardless of how low elk populations might be. Thus, because of low success and tendency (above s t.a t ewi.d e nonreporting percentages that are used in projections) for unsuccessful elk license holders not to report by card, elk present in Unit 61 probably receive extra pressure over that indicated by card return projection years of antlered only seasons. (Footnotes continued on following page) . 11/2 �36A ELK KILL, SEASOtjS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 61, continued 1/ Unit is combined with Unit 62. Note: AO AOP ASOP Hunt symbols are explained as follows: = Antlered Only. Antlered Only Permits. Antlerless Only Permits. B. D. Baker September 1971 �37A ARCHERY ELK KILL AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 HUNTING PRESSURE ]j BULLS.?! cm~sJj CALVEs'll TOTAI2./ YEAR ]j HUNT AND SEASON 1965 AO + 30 ASOP 10/16 - 11/5 1966 . AO + 50 ASOP 10/15 - 11/3 1967 ]/ ES AO + 50 ASOP - 9/17 9/2 10/21 - 11/9 1968 !!../ 0 0 0 0 ES AO + 50 ASOP 8/17 - 9/15 10/19 - 11/7 1969 33 1/ 0 0 0 0 AO AO + 50 ASOP 8/16 - 9/14 10/18 - 11/6 1970 17 &./ 0 0 0 0 AO ES 8/15 9/1 - 8/31 - 9/20 1/ 1957 was first elk season in recent history; and, the 25 antlered only regular elk season permits for Units 61 and 62 combined that year could have been legally obtained, however unlikely, by archers. For the years of 1958-1964, archery .elk hunting was permitted for regular elk license holders during regular seasons under antlered only regulations as well as for 1965-1969 regular seasons under antlered only-specified antlerless (cow) permit regulations. 1/ Dash denotes no data available. Zero means no kill(s) recorded. 1/ First year that archery elk licenses were authorized and sold •. .i/ Does not include harvest by archers during gun season. 5/ Expressed as number of hunts. &./ Expressed as total participating resident and nonresident license holders. Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO = Antlered Only, One Elk. ES Either Sex, One Elk. ASOP Antlerless Only Permits (For Units 61 and 62 combined). B. D. Baker September 1971 �38A BLACK BEAR HARVESTS AND SEASONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 YEAR HARVEST 1/ 1955 l7R 8/15 - 10/1; regular deer and regular archery bear seasons. 1956 0 5/15 - 8/15; regular and post deer and regular archery bear seasons. 1957 3R+4S=7 4/1 through regular deer, elk, and archery seasons ending 11/15/1957. 1958 10R+3S=13 4/1 through regular deer, elk, and archery seasons and extended deer season, in part, ending 11/15/1958. 1959 5R 4/1 through regular deer, elk, and archery seasons ending 11/1/1959. 1960 3R 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer, elk and archery seasons ending 11/6/1960. 1961 22R+10S=32 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/9/196l. 1962 3R+3S=6 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/4/1962. 1963 6R 4/1 1964 9R+14S=23 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/5/1964. 1965 2R 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/5/1965. 1966 12R+3S=15 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons' ending 11/6/1966. 1967 17 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/9/1967. 1968 30R+32S=62 4/1 - 9/30 ; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/7/1968. 1969 16 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6/1969. 1970 11R+1lS=22 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6/1970. HUNT AND SEASON ]j, jj 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/7/1963. 1/ R=Regular Big Game (Deer and/or Elk) License; S= Bear License for Special Spring, Summer, or Spring-Summer seasons; Unaugmented numbers represent total animals harvested not differentiated by season and license controls. 11 1955 was the first year of bear license sales and corresponding season regulations. From 1955-1959, 1 bear per bear license and/or 1 bear per bear coupon on either or both deer and elk licenses were allowed; from 1960-1965, same as 1955-1959, except bear license variously invalid after 9/1 or 9/30, as noted, when bear coupon on either or both deer and elk licenses covered take and possession for the regular big game seasons; 1966, same as for 1960-1965, except one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year was the allowable bag (footnotes continued on next page) �39A BLACK BEAR HARVESTS AND SEASONS - WILDLIFE MANACEMENT UNIT 61 (Continued) 1/ continued limit; for 1967 to the present, 1 bear, hunter's choice, per bear or sportsman's license per person per calendar year only during special bear and regular deer and elk seasons. See deer and elk gun and archery kill and season summary tables herein and/or annual regulations for dates and more details of seasons. 1/ Dogs were permitted except during bear seasons concurrent with deer and elk seasons. B. D. Baker September 1971 �40A MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST AND SEASONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 YEAR 1/ HARVEST ]j HUNT AND SEASON 1965 (0 - Mesa Co. ,1965-66) 10/16/65 - 3/31/66 West ~lope; 10/23/65 _ 3/31/66 East Slope; 1 either sex 1966 (5M - Mesa Co ,,1966-67) 1/1/66 - 12/31/66 counties west of Continental Divide plus Jackson, Conejos, Alamosa, Mineral, Saguache, Rio Grande, Costilla, Archuleta, Hinsdale, and San Juan counties; 3 lions per year. 10/22/66 - 2/28/67 counties east of Continental Divide except those above; 3 lions per year. 1967 No Data 1968 o 9/1/68 - 9/1/69; 1 either sex per year. 1969 o --9/1/69 - 3/31/70; 1 either sex per year. 1970 o 9/1/67 - 3/31/68 statewide; 9/1/67 - 5/31/68 west of State Hwy. #13 and north of U.S. Hwy. #6; 1 either sex per year. 10/17/70 - 11/6/70 concurrent with regular big game seasons; 1 lion, either sex. 1/ Bounty of $50 per lion was paid within period of May 7, 1929 through March 12, 1965; lions became protected by statute July 1, 1965 when licensed hunting was authorized. 2/ Data for Mesa County for years 1965-1966 are from Dixon (1967:147). Dixon (1967:152) also said that lions we re uncommon in Hesa County south of the Colorado River to indicate that kills originating in the Unit 61 portion of Mesa County are improbable (but very possible). Data for 1968-1970 are hopefully accurate under compulsory reporting regulations for hunters, although the present damage law allows lax reporting of kills of suspected marauders by offended citizens. LITEP~~TURE CITED Dixon, K. R. 1967. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation. pp. 147, 152. In Game Res. Rep ,, July - Part II. CcLo , Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 73-310. B. D. Baker September '1971 �41A SMALL GAME HARVESTS AND HUNTING UNIT 18 1/, ']j SMALL GANE MANAGEMENT NUMBER SPECIES )j PRESSURE HARVEST OF HUNTERS 1970 1968 1969 0 Closed Closed 0 580 334 845 1,459 545 70 104 76 76 84 498 485 708 681 5,224 7,461 4,525 No Data 326 169 No Data 2,590 905 23 0 61 0 0 153 Pheasant 439 1,104 840 1,759 5,943 1,900 Ptarmigan 0 30 34 0 0 0 148 301 64 328 526 318 25 199 74 0 0 0 71 128 73 115 156 l30 1970 1968 1969 Closed Closed Blue grouse 298 Chukar partridge pigeon Band-tailed rabbit Cottontail Dove Gambe1's quail Sage grouse Sharp-tailed Snowshoe hare grouse 1/ See Chap. 3 - Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Division Laws and Regulations Handbook; Hild1ife Nanagement Unit 61 is wholly contained within Small Game Management Unit 18 and approximates the latter's northern half. 1/ Colorado Small Game and/or Waterfowl Harvest Surveys reports for 19551970 also present hunting pressure and kill by region and county, including Nesa, Nontrose, and San Niguel Counties; harvest by Small Game Nanagement Unit are only available in reports of 1968-1970. ]j Since July 1, 1969, w i l.d turkey has had legal status as a "game bird" w i t.h i.n the broader category of "small game." Prior to 1969, the turkey wa s treated as "big game." Because of these irregularities and the bird' s relatively high ranking as a game species, separate information has been presented in the table "Turkey Harvests and Hunting Pressure" elsewhere in th is report. B. D. Baker September 1971 �42A DUCK AND GOOSE HARVESTS AND HUNTING PRESSURE _ SAN MIGUEL COUNTY 1/, 1954-1970 Jj YEAR DUCKS EST. NO. HUNTERS 1954 No Data 522 No Data 0 1955 83 405 27 0 1956 No Data 0 No Data 0 1957 No Data 840 No Data 0 1958 34 186 0 0 1959 81 98 29 0 1960 0 0 0 0 1961 0 0 0 0 1962 33 144 0 0 1963 0 0 0 0 1964 0 0 0 0 1965 13 0 0 0 1966 6 ]/ 220 0 0 1967 52 96 25 21 1968 53 337 0 0 1969 64 595 0 0 1970 27 0 0 0 EST. HARVEST ].1 GEESE ]j EST. NO HUNTERS , EST. HARVEST 1/ Data do not have great applicability to Unit 61 but are best onhand. Although available and involved, Mesa and Montrose County information can not be interpreted in relation to Unit 61. Information for those counties are thus omitted. ]j Accuracy of data is questionable, probably due to sampling difficulties associated with comparatively small populations. Geese data are presented to indicate that kills are mostly accidental and bird abundance and hunter numbers so far are very negligible. 3/ Very inaccurate. Figures are considerably inconsistent w.i t.h other data. B. D. Baker September 1971 �43A TURKEY HARVESTS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HANAGE:1'1ENT UNIT 61 }j HARVEST YEAR TOMS HENS POULTS TOTAL 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 ]./ 1970 2 2 3 3 0 l3 27 36 38 38 29 3 7 5 2 2 0 2 0 0 6 2 11 49 88 45 35 36 7 4 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 11 8 20. 23 22 18 11 11 0 0 2 0 4 2 3 9 7 35 84 144 106 95 83 21 22 HUNTING PRESSURE 1./ N.D. N.D. N.D. 21 11 37 151 126 144 119 156 68 50 7 9 N.D. 21 5 5 8 0 1/ For years 1954-1967; effective 1968, Unit 61 became part of Small Game Management Unit 18, so data for years 1968-1970 apply to the latter area. 1./ Expressed as "total hunters" for years of records. N.D. = No Data. 1/ The legal definition of wild turkey was changed July 1, 1969 from that of "big game" to that of "game bird", the latter also within the broader category of "small game." B. D. Baker .September 1971 �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 Species Chukar= Date Hales Females Young Total - - - 174 3-26-59 3-29-60 3-16-62 3-21-63 87 134 - - 221 126 50 150 8-19-65 - - - 48 8-25-65 8-20-66 - - - 95 163 1-25-68 - - - 66 6-23-70 - - - 25 12-7-55 - - .1>-.J>!J> Release Area Source of Stock 1 mt . SE Gateway, E. of Dolores River. Paradox Valley. Game farm. " " 11 Sandfort's files " " " Mesa Creek, Montrose Co. S5,T49N,R18W; Blue Creek. Reference Sandfort's Sandfort's Sandfort's Sandfort's files files files files " " " " -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Mountain quail S27,T5lN,R17W; Indian Cr., Mesa County. " " " " About 4 mi. W. of 1965 releases. 1 mi.W. USFS Bdy. on Indian Cr. ,Mesa Co. S17,T49N,R16W; S. Fork of Mesa Cr. ,Mesa Co. Wild-trapped California from Rogers (1966) " " " Rogers (1966) " " " Rogers (1967) Rogers (1968) Wild-trapped from Oregon Game farm. Hoffman (1971) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------lVild turkey 1934 1935-36 1945 - 1946 - Unknown - Gateway " - Ute Ranger Station 8 Calamity Creek - 1-8-46 11-22-46 12-4-46 4 6 9 24 1947 - - 3 3 - 12 28 - 15 4 9 *No records are available for years prior to 1955. very likely included releases in Unit 61. " N.Mex. ,Burget (1957) " " " " " Clay Creek " Variable,-Ok1a., Texas, Mexico Unknown " Turkey Ranch f1 " Tabeguache Basin " " Cottonwood Creek Unknown Myers (pers. comm. 1972) " " " f1 Burget (1960) Burget (1960) Burget (1960) Myers (pers. comm. 1972) Division transplanting program, using game farm stock in the 1940's, �45A Gfu~E SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 (Continued) Literature Cited Burget, H. L. 1957. The wild turkey in Colorado. Hild Turkey Invest., F.A. Proj. W-39-R, Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 68 pp. (processed). 1960. July. Jan. Wild turkey development, pp. 11-42. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. Hoffman, D. L. 1971. 1966. (processed). Summary of mountain quail field releases. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Rogers, G. E. 110 pp. In Quart. Rep., 1 p. (mimeo). Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 125-133. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. 192 pp. (pr oces s ed) • 1967. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 215-218. Game Res. Rep., April - Part 2. In Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. (processed). 1968. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 113-116. Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. (processed). B. D. Baker February 1972 In 131 pp. �~·6A --- ---------------- .1 BIG GAJvlEMAMMAL RESEARCH WILDLIFE REFERENCES MANAGE~ffiNTUNIT 61 BLACK BEAR Boyd, R. J. 1970. Hunter harvest survey, pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies, pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Gilbert, , D. L. 1951. Fur resources study and bear investigations, pp. 1-8. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. 1951. Fur resources Quart. Prog. Rep ,, Oct. study and bear investigations, pp. 1-9. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp , 1953. Extent of bear ranges in Colorado, pp. 59-60. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. Gilbert, P. E. 1946. Bear studies. Game and Fish. 4 pp. In In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog. Rep., June. Colo. Dept. Oct. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 30-34. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1952. Checking station survey, pp. 39-43. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. 1953. Checking station survey, pp. 59-61. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1954. Checking station survey, pp. 125-128. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. Hammit, H. C. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 10-14. Proj. W-38-R. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 21 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Fish and Parks. Colorado 41 pp. big game harvest, 1959-1965. Fed. Aid Colo. Dept. Game, McKean, W. T. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1975, for black bear. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 6 pp. 1965- Tigner, J. R., and D. L. Gilbert. 1960. A contribution toward a bibliography on the black bear. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Tech. Publ. No.6. 43 pp. �47A ELK Boyd, R. J. 1970. Hunter harvest survey, pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for elk. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 61 pp. Gilbert, P. F. 1953. Checking station survey, pp. 59-61. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. In Quart. Prog. Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Checking station survey, pp. 125128. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. Hammit, H. C. 1951. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 16-22. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. In Quart. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colorado big game harvest, 1959-1965. Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp. Colo. Dept. Rogers, G. E. 1951. Checking station survey, pp •.32-33. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. In Quart. Prog. MULE DEER Anderson, A. E. 1959. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife, pp , ll3-l28. In Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Fed. Aid Job CampI. Rep., Proj. W-38-R-13. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp, 345420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush, and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Special Rep., No. 21., July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp , 1969. Sagebrush vegetation before and six years after 2,4-D application. Outdoor Facts, No. 67. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 4 pp. Baker, B. D. 1955. Detailed study of range forage by use of fenced exclosures, pp. 149-157. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 117-175. �48A 1956. Detailed study of range forage by use of fenced exclosures, pp. 43-64. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-102. 1957. A directory of Colorado big game exclosures concerning their locations, studies and other general information. Spec. Rep., Fed. Aid P'ro j , hT-38-R,Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. 1961. A directory of Colorado big game exclosures concerning program history, study techniques, location and other general information. Spec. Rep. - revised edition, Fed. Aid Proj. W-IOI-R-3, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 51 pp. 1964 A detailed study of range forage by use of fenced exclosures, pp. 3-15. In Game Re. Rep., Jan. - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-121. 1966. Browse transect analysis and application, pp. 53-67. InGame Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 93 pp. 1970. Survey, inventory, and analysis of deer and elk winter range, pp. 15-58. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 126 pp. Boyd, R. J. 1970. Hunter harvest survey, pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep ,, July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. Carhart, A. H. 1940. Deer-elk survey, Vol. 4. Game and Fish Commission. 19 pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-4-R. Gilbert, P. F. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 14-18. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 54 pp. Colo. In Quart. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 31-34. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 83 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 30-34. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 42-45. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 67 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 47-51. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 98 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 33-36. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 84 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 41-44. R~p.: Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 66 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 60-64. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. In Quart. Prog. �49A 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations, Three Year Sum. Rep., 19471950. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 21 pp. Jan. 1952. Checking station survey, pp. 39-43. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep.,. 1952. Deer-elk investigations, pp. 41-64, 66-67,69-82, 93-97; Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 171 pp. 1953. Checking station survey, pp. 59-61. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. In In Quart. Prog. Rep.;', 1953. Detailed study of range forage by use of·fenced exclosures, pp , 47-49. In Quart. Prog. Rep ,, July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 129 pp. 1954. Correlation of aerial trend counts with ground counts, sex .. · ratios, pellet group counts, pre-season and post-season sexing, winter loss, trend checks, trend counts, sex-ratio counts to determine big game. numbers, pp. 129-143. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and. Fish. 182 pp. Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Checking station survey, pp. 125~128. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. Gilbert, P. F., et ala 1951. Location and extent of summer ranges, pp.l09110. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. Hammit, H. C. 1950. Deer-elk-bear "Lnvest LgatLo'ns, pp. 10-14. Proj. W-38-R. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 21 pp. 1951. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 16-22. W-38-R. Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. Hammit, H. C., and P. F. Gilbert. 1950. 35-37. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Fed. Aid Fed. Aid Proj. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80.pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colorado big game harvest, 1959-1965. Special Mgmt. Rep., No.1. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp. Jeep, F. T., and L. E. Riordan. 1947. Deer-elk studies. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. - Part IV. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 7 pp. Kufeld, R. C. 1967. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado, pp. 63-71. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-71. 1968. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-121. In 1969. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado, pp. 299-304. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp , 249-393. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado, pp. 5994. In Game Res. Rep ., July - Part 1. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-126. �50A McKean, IV. T. 1958. Location, extent and ownershLp of wi.nt er ranges, pp . 3-23. In Quart. Rep , , July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-103. Medin, D. E. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for mule deer. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Lf pp , Minnich, D. IV. 1969. Vegetative response and pattern of deer use following chaining of pinon and juniper forests. J. Range Mgmt., Abstracts of Papers, 22nd Ann. Mtg. Amer. Soc. Range Mgmt. 59 pp. Riordan, L. E. 1948. Prog. Rep., Jan. Deer-elk-bear investigations, pp. 14-30. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 49 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1951. Checking station survey, pp. 32-33. W-38-R, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. In Quart. Fed. Aid Proj. :.:" . Shepherd, H. R. 1966. San Miguel project, pp. 91-92. July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. In Game Res. Rep., pp. 1-93. Williams, J. E. 1951. Deer-elk investigations, pp. 68-71. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1956. Study of mortality factors - winter loss, starvation, disease, parasites, highway kills, pp. 1~10. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 119pp. lVilliams, J. E., et al. 1952. Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Deer-elk investigations, pp. 57-62. Colo"." Dept. Game and Fish. 62 pp. In PRONGHORN Anderson, A. E. 1965. Colorado long range management plans, 1965-1975, for antelope. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 6 pp. Douglas, G., and C. E. Till. 1950. Antelope surveys and investigations, Three Year Sum. Rep., 1947-1950, July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 9 pp. Elliott, R. R. 1957. Antelope investigations, pp. 1,6-8. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. '22 pp. 1949. Antelope restoration, pp. 19-24, 83-91. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 98 pp. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Hoover, R. L., C. E. Till, and S. Ogilvie. 1959. The antelope of Colorado. Tech. Bul., No.4. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 110 pp. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �51A SMALL GAflli M&~L RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 COTTONTAIL RABBIT Anderson, A. E. 1959. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife, pp. 113-128. In Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job Completion Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345-42Q. .', 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush, and mule deer-cattle use of upper w Lnt.e r range. Special Rep., No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studLes, pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Sandfort, W. W. 1951. Cottontail rabbits spring census, pp. 45-47. Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Shepherd, H. R. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for cottontail rabbit. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. SNOWSHOE HARE Shepherd, H. D. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for snowshoe hare. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 11 pp. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �52A •• »-: / NONGAME MAMMAL RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 BOBCAT Boyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Burget, M. L. 1957. The wild turkey in Colorado, pp. 53-54. Game and Fish. January. 68 pp. Colo. Dept. Burget, M. L., and D. M. Hoffman. 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investigations, pp. 11-29. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. COYOTE Boyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Burget, M. L. 1949. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 91-106. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. 1957. The wild turkey in Colorado. January. 68 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Burget, M. L., and D. M. Hoffman. 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investigations, pp. 11-29. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. 1956. Wild turkey investigations, pp. 107-131. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 103-138. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies, pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. SKUNK Boyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and ?arks. 21 pp. Burget, M. L. 1957. Fish. January. The wild turkey in Colorado. 68 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and �53A Burget, M. L., and D. M. Hoffman. 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investigations, pp. 11-29. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. 1954. Population limiting studies - disease, accident, predator factors, pp. 25-30. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies, pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �FURBEARER RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 MINK Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource surveys, pp. 75-80. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. Nemanic, W. M. 1942. Fur resource survey, Vol. 2. and Fish Commission. 6 pp. In Quart. Prog. Jan. Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur harvest survey, pp. 17-23. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Colo. Game In Quart. Prog. Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado.long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. MUSKRAT Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey, pp. 93-10l. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish-~ 101 pp. 1950. Fur resource survey, pp. 75-80. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies, pp. 1-3l. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Nemanic, W. M. 1942. Fish Commission. Fur resource survey, Vol. 2, Jan. 6 pp. Colo. Game and Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur harvest survey, pp. 17-23. Rep ,, Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. WEASEL Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey, pp. 93-101. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. 1950. Fur resource survey, pp. 75-80. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. �55A Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies, pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Fur resource survey, Vol. 2, Jan. 6 pp. Colo. Game and Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur harvest survey, pp. 17-23. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. In Quart. Prog. Nemanic, H. M. 1942. 'Fish Commission. Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp •. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �56A GANE BIRD RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 61 BAND-TAILED PIGEON Braun, C. E. 1970. The band-tailed pigeon, pp. 26-29. Colo. Outdoors, No.5, Sept.-Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 48 pp. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations, pp. 151-171. Res. Rep., Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 171 pp. In Game Matteson, C. P. 1950. Band-tail pigeons, location and census, pp. 39-40. Fed. Aid. Proj. 37-R, Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. Neff, J. A., and J. C. Culbreath. 1946. Colorado band-tailed pigeon, pp. 1-24. Fed. Aid Proj. 4-R. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 24 pp. BLUE GROUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955.. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Anderson, A. E. 1959. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife, pp. 113-128. In Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job CampI. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345-420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Spec. Rep., No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks.· 21 pp. Myers, G. T. season. 1965. Evaluation of a combined blue g rouse-w.i Ld turkey hunting Outdoor Facts, No. 27. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1 p. Rogers, G. E. 1962. Blue grouse, pp. 121-131. I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-160. J~ Quart. Rep., July - Part 1963. Development of blue grouse census techniques, pp. 157-168,191. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-241. �57A 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp~tailed grouse, ptarmigan. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 16 pp. 1968. The blue grouse in Colorado. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 63 pp. Tech. Publ. No. 21. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Grouse brood counts, p. 37. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. Colo. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, CHlITCAR Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Dis tribution of American game birds. D.S.D.1. Ff sh and \\Tildl.Ser. ,Circular No. 34. gallinaceous 23 pp. Bartmann, R. H. 1963. Chukar partridge, pp. 33-40,45-69. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part l. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-108. 1964. Mapping zones and routes for chukar partridge census, pp. 151-178. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 71-233. Evans, R. L., and \-1. W. Sandfort. 1957. -Chuka r partridge, pp. 55-67. Quart. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 116 pp. Manning, .1111v D. D. .- "PRrt: 1962. L Chukar partridge, r.nln. TlPl")t.. (;RDlP RM1 pp. 9-16,25-31. T<'ish. In Quart. Rep., T'~. ]-160. Miller, J. 1959. Chukar partridge, pp. 99-107,115-124. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 124 pp. In Quart. Miller, J., and W. H. Sandfort. 1959. Chukar production studies, In Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. Sandfort, H. W. 1951. Chukar Wildl. Conf., Jan. 16-19. In Re p . , pp. 67-73. census, pp. 22-31. Spec. Rep., Glenwood Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 85 pp. 1952. Game bird survey, p p , 40-56. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 62 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1952. Nesting and production studies, pp , 93-95. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105pp. Rep , , Sprgs. April. -In Quart. Prog. 1954. Adaptability, survival, and population checks, pp. 23-32. Quart. Prog. Rep , , April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 79 pp. 1955. Game bird survey, pp. 17-18. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 94 pp . In In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. 1957. Chukar partridge, p p , 29-38, 45-51. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-119. ___ 1958. Trapping and transplanting chuka r partridge, pp. 131-134. In Quart. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 105-181. �S8A 1959. Chulcar partridge, Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp . 59-65,75-77. 128 pp. In Quart. Rep , , Jan. 1959. Trapping and transplanting, pp. 33-36. In Quart. Rep., April - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp . 1-116. 1959. Location of chukar partridge release sites, pp. 109-113. In Quart. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 124 pp. 1960. Trapping and transplanting, pp. 91-94. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 161 pp. In Quart. Rep., 1961. Chukar partridge, pp. 119-126,139-155. In Quart. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 97-208. 1962. Chukar partridge, pp. 17-23,33-44. In Quart. Rep., July Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-160. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19t51975, for chukar partridge. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 18·pp . .GAl-fEEL r S QUAIL ,. Sandfort, 1-1. W. 1950. Game bird surveys, pp. 17-21. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , 1952. Nesting and production studies, pp. 93-95. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. In Quart. Frog. 1965. Colo. long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for Gambe1's quail. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 8 pp. MOUNTAIN QUAIL Hoffman, D. M. 1969. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 155-158. GarneRes. Rep , , April. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 181 pp. 1970. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 167-169. Res. Rep ; , April. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 198 pp. In In Game Rogers, G. E. 1965. Appraisal of mountain quail habitat, pp. 217-225. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 175-235. 1967. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 215-218. In Game Res. Rep ; , April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 107241. 1968. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 113-116. Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 131 pp. In Game �59A MOURNING DOVE Nolting, D., et a1. 1952. Population trends, pp. 99-101. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. In Quart. Prog. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Mourning dove population trends, pp. 41-42. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. 1951. Mourning dove spring census, pp. 42-43. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. Fed. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1951. Mourning dove population trends, pp. 83-84. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. In Quart. Prog. RING-NECKED PHEASANT Aldrich, J. H., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distr:i.::'ution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Game bird survey, pp. 17-21. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. Oct. 1950. Pheasant brood survey, pp. 9-12. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp , In Quart. Prog. Rep ;, Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, 1951. Pheasant pre-nesting study, pp. 9-19. Julv. Colo. Dent. Game and Fish. 102 pp. 1952. Brood survey, pp. 37-41. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep., .Oct. Colo. 1955. Pheasant brood survey, pp. 1-9'. In Quart. Prog. Rep ,, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 94 pp. 1955. Game bird survey, pp. 65-69. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 115 pp. ______ 1960. Game bird survey, pp. 37-55,59-65. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 161 pp. II. In Quart. Rep., April. 1961. Pre-nesting study, pp. 97-102. In Quart. Rep., April - Part Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 97-208. 1963. Programming computer machine analysis of pheasant census and hunter check data, pp. 213-223. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-241. Swop e , H. M. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for pheasant. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 54 pp. �60A SAGE GROUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.1., Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Anderson, A. E. 1959. Effects of sagebrush eradication·by chemical means on deer and related wildlife, pp. 113-128. In Quart. Rep , , Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job Completion Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. .Game and Fish. 72 pp , 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before 'and two months after2,4-D appiication. ~f.S. Thesis. Colo. State Dniv., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 19E6. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep., July ~ Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Special Rep., No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1963. Programming computer machine analysis of sage grouse census and hunter check data, pp. 13-32. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. I-lOB. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks. 132 pp. Tech. Publ. No. 16. SHARP-TAILED GROUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. D.S.D.I., Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Anderson, A. E. 1959. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related ,vildlife, pp, 113-128. In Quart. Rep ,, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job Completion Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp , 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in we s t ern Colorado before and t w o months after 2,4-D application. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. .. \ �61A 1966. An.investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep ,, July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345-420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Special Rep., No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1963. Happing sharp--tailedgrouse range, pp. 187-192.··.In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Park.s. pp. 109-241. i ______ 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ptarmigan. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 16 pp. 1965. S~~rp-tailed grouse, pp. 209-214. In Game Res. Rep., AprilPart II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp , 175-235. Nov. 1969. The sharp-tailed grouse in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 94 pp. Tech. Publ., No. 23, Rogers, G. E., and F. D. Stearns. 1964 .. Sharp-tailed grouse, pp. 291-341. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 235-397. HATERFOWL Funk, H. D. 1970. Waterfowl kill survey, pp. 19-40. Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 17lpp. In Game Res. Rep., Grieb, J. R. 1959. Haterfowl kill survey, pp. 145-155. In Quart. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 145-238. 1960. Haterfm.Jl kill survey, pp. 93-103. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 103 pp. In Quart. Rep., Oct. 1961. Haterfowl kill survey, pp. 9-21. Dept. Game and Fish. 103 pp. In Quart. Rep., Oct. Colo. 1962. Waterfowl kill survey, pp. 15-25; Dept. Game and Fish. 137 pp. In -Quart. Rep ., Oct. Colo. 1965. Haterfowl kill survey, pp, 23-40. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 199 pp , In Game Res. Rep., Oct. 1966. Waterfowl kill survey, pp. 17-31. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 187 pp. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. 1967. WaterfoHl kill survey, pp. 15-30. Colo. De~t. Gmnes, Fish and Parks. 103 pp. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. �62A Oct. 1968. Waterfowl kill survey, pr. 15-31. In Game Res. Rep., Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 135 pp. Oct. 1969. Waterfowl kill survey, pp. 39-56. In Game Res. Rep., Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 162 pp . Grieb, J. R., and G. N. Hunter. 1963. Waterfowl kill report, pp. 1-20. In Game Res. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 51 pp. 1964. Waterfowl kill survey, pp. 65-78. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 78 pp. In Game Res. Rep., July. 1968. Wetlands of Colorado, Tech. Pub1., No. 22, March. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 89 pp. Colo. WILD TURKEY Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.L, Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Burget, M. L. 1946. Fish. 21 pp. Colorado wild turkey. Vol. II. Colo. Dept. Game and 1948. Wild turkey surveys and investigations, pp. 47-62. Prog. Rep , , Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. 1949. Wild turkey surveys and investigations, pp. 91-106. ~rog. Kep.) Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. In Quart. 1949. Wild turkey development, pp . 3-18. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 98 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , April. 1951. Wild turkey rehabilitation in Colorado, pp. 7-17. Spec. Rep., Glenwood Sprgs. Wildl. Conf., Jan. 16-19. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 85 pp. 1956. Brood counts, pp. 29-38. Dept. Game and Fish. III pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Jan. 1957. The wild turkey in Colorado. 68 pp. Jan. 1959. Wild turkey development, pp. 25-26,33-38. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. Colo. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. In Quart. Rep., 1959. Wild turkey development, pp. 71-84. In Quart. Rep., April _ Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-116. 1960. Wild turkey development, pp. 1-42. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 110 pp. Oct. In Quart. Rep., July. 1961. l.JiJ.d turkey development, pr. 23-43,51-55. Colo. Dept. GRme and Fish. 103 pp. In Quart. Rep ,, �63A 1963. Mapping of ",i1d, turkey ,range, pp.' 71-85. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 109 pp. In Game Res. Rep., .... :. " Burget, M. L., and C. Ford. 1951. Wild turkey development, pp. 1-7. Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept.Game and Fish. 64 pp. Burget, M. L., and D. M. Hoffman. 1950. Wild turkey gations, Three Year Sum. Rep , , 1947-1950, July. Fish. 4 pp. 1950. Wild turkey investigations. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 18 pp. In surveys and investiColo. Dept. Game and Fed. Aid Proj. W-39-R, ..oct. In 1951. \H1d turkey surveys and investigations, pp. 11-29. Quart. Frog. Rep, , Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. 1952. 1.Ji1d turkey investigations, pp , 1-5. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 62 pp. In Quart. -w Prog. 1952. Hild turkey investigations, pp. 1-9,11-14,21-24.· Frog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. Rep. , In Qua-rt. 33. 1953. Trapping and transplanting of Herriam's ",ild turkey, pp. 19In Quart. Prog. Rep, , April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. July. 1953. Hild turkey survival checks, pp. 1-6. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 129 pp. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. In Quart. Frog. 79 pp. 1954. Hild turkey s urv Lva l checks, pp , 13-24. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pro In Quart. 1954. Food studies, pp. 39-57. Dept. Game and Fish. III pp. Rep., Part Rep., In Quart. Frog. 1955. Survival checks, pp . 93-99. In Quart. I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-115. 1955. Hi1d turkey investigations, Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Frog. pp. 1-8,13-19. 108 pp. Frog. Oct. Rep., Colo. July In Quart. Rep., - Prog. 1956. Trapping and transplanting Herriam' s w i Ld turkey, pp. 29-38. In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. 1956. Wild turkey investigations, pp. 107-121,123-131. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 103-138. 1957. \.Ji1d turkey development, pp. 45-70. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 108 pp. In Quart. Rep. , April. 1957. Brood counts, Game and Fish. 116 pp. Rep., Colo. pp. 69-86. In Quart. Oct. Dept. �1958. Hild turkey investigations, pp. 1/-17:-169. 112 Quart. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 105-181. Evans, R. 1. 1963. Relationships of the environment to w i Ld turkey productivity and distribution, pp. 71-85. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 109 pp. Hoffman, D. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for wild turkey. Colo. Dept~ Game, Fish and Parks. 11 pp. Hoffman, D. M., and M. L. Burget. 1959. Study of food plot usage by wild, turkey, pp. 27-32. In Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish .. 128 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colo. big game harvest, 1959-1965. No.1. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp. Special Mgmt. Rep ,, Myers, G. T. 1963. Relationships of the productivity and distribution of w LLd turkeys on the Uncompahgre Plateau t c the environment, pp , 173-178. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game,Fish and Porks. pp. 109-241. 1964. Relationships of the productivity and distribution of wild turkeys on the Uncompahgre Plateau to the environment, pp. 243-280. In Game Res. Rep ;, April - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 235-397. 1965. Evaluation of a combined blue grouse-wild turkey hunting season. Outdoor Facts, No. 27. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. I p. 1965. Reliability of turkey sex and age ratio data based on hunter report card returns. Outdoor Facts, No. 29. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 2 pp. 1965. Relationships of the productivity and distribution of wild turkeys on the Uncompahgre Plateau to the environment, pp. 91-174. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-174. 1966. Relationships of the productivity and distribution of w i Ld turkeys on the Uncompahgre Plateau to the environment, pp. 69-84. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 192 pp. 1967. Wild turkeys, pp. 167-182,205-211. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 107-241. 1968. lhld turkeys, pp. 71,99-110. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 131 pp. 1969. IHld turkeys, pp. 107,153. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 181 pp. In Game Res. Rep ,, April. 1969. The topic is turke~, pp. 30~34. Colo. Outdoors, No.5, Sept.-Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 48 pp. Colo. �65A 1970. Wild turkeys, pp. 161,165. In Game Res. Rcp ,, April. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 198 pp. Sheats, C. C. 1970. My experience with the turkey, pp. 30-31. Colo. Outdoors, No. 30, May-June. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 48 pp. L C. Carlson October 1971 �66A GENERAL MAMMALIAN REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Anthony, H. E. 1928. Putnam's Sons~ Hall, E. R., and K. R. Kelson. Ronald Press Co. Lechleitner, R. R. Co. Boulder, Colo. 1959. The mammals of North America. 2 Vols. 1162 pp. ~.J'ild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publ. 254 pp. Miller, G. S., Jr., and R. Kellogg. 205. G. P. 674 pp. New York. 1969. recent mammals. 4l5pp. Field book of North American mammals. New York. Univ. 1955. List of North American Smithsonian Institution. Hash. D. C. Bulletin 954 pp. Palmer, R. s. 1954. City, N. Y. Warren, R. R. Doubleday & Co., Inc. Garden 384 pp. 1942. Norman, Okla. The mammal guide. The mammals of Colo. Univ. of Okla. Press, 330 pp. L. C. Carlson February 1972 �67A GENERAL AVIAN REFERENCES WILDLIFE ~~NAGEMENT UNIT 61 Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. of Nat. Rist., Den., 2 Vol. 895 pp. Birds of Colorado. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Rist., Den. 168 pp. Davis, W. A. 61 pp. 1969. Birds of western Colorado. Den. Mus. Den. Mus. of Nat. Colo. Field Ornithologists. Kortright, F. A. 1943. The ducks, geese, and swans of North America. The Amer. Wi1dl. Institute, Wash. D. C. 476 pp. Linduska, J. P. 1964. Waterfowl tomorrow. Wi1d1., Wash. D. C. 770 pp. Pearson, T. G. 1940. N. Y. 289 pp. Birds of America. U.S.D.I. Bur. Sp. Fish and Garden City Publ. Co., Inc., Peterson, R. T. 1941. A field guide to western birds. Co., Boston. 240 pp. Robbins, C. D., B. Bruun, and R. S. Zim. Golden Press, N. Y. 340 pp. 1966. Roughton Mifflin Birds of North America. L. C. Carlson February 1972 �68A ---CENSUS AREAS AND ROUTES - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 61 BLACK BEAR Black bear are counted ratio censuses. in Unit 61 incidental to aerial deer pre-hunt Data are on file at both the Division's and Denver offices (Burdick pers. Southwest sex Region comm. 1972). BLUE GROUSE A blue grouse census route was established by Rogers (1963) in 1961 and repeated in 1962 and 63. and 62. This route was 62.5 miles long and was divided of approximately traversed, 12.5 miles each. elevation, the feasibility It lay along the Divide Road between The sections and water proximity. of counting into five sections varied as to range type The purpose was to determine birds on specific counts were made all three years; Units 61 production routes. Brood IIhootingltcounts were attempted in 1962 along parts of the same route. Counts on Roger's currently route were discontinued after 1963, and none are conducted in Unit 61 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). CHUKARS The Gateway Census Area is in part within Unit 61. 141 east and north of Gateway Report for April 1964. vegetated dog. for observing About 4.3 miles of Highway are mapped and described Those areas \-Thichwere too wide or too densely the birds Here covered on foot with the aid of a Counts were made at least three' times in August. for the 1963 count may be found in the report cited. personnel have continued that office in the Federal Aid Tabulated SouthHest this count and more recent records as well as in the Denver office. results Regional are available in �69A ELK Elk numbers are currently recorded incidental to aerial deer counts in Unit 61 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). MULE DEER A helicopter aerial trend area, established continuously since then .. The area is called the Uravan located between separate in 1967, has been counted Blue and Campbell Creeks near Unit 61's north end (under cover see 1/2-inch scale map overlay). Pellet group count data, discussed in a foregoing MAMMAL DISTRIBUTION constituted deer population AND ABUNDANCE, locations, RING-NECY~D Aid Project W-37-R, sex ratios, spring personnel This included procedures and run annually around Nucla, up-to-date. Roadside from 1955-1965 with appropriate sheets being produced and filled out. regions. Finally, was prepared routes field forms a manual com- for each major For Unit 61 all these counts were and they have been continued by Southwest Maps of these routes and tabular records may be found in the Southwest for counts for winter crowing counts, and summer brood counts. area within management established tables (B. D. Baker unpublished). these data, together with instructions, pheasant More detailed the Game Bird Survey, developed census record in the early 50's. piling to establish PHEASA1~T a pheasant and summary an older attempt data, and results of this work are available in the files of Federal Aid Project W-IOI-R were selected section on BIG GA}lli trend data for Unit 61, however meagre. and maps concerning Federal trend and is Regional of results Region and Denver office of the Division. �70A SHARP-TAILED Counts on sharp tails on dancing grounds were made by Rogers Unit 61 in the Outlaw 11esa vicinity on the Tongue, Location at Mud Springs, (Cold Springs), and at Cillilands (1969) in on Horsefly Creek, in 1964 and 1965. maps for three of these sites as well as lists of all by county appear in Rogers Dancing pers. CROUSE ground (1969). counts are not currently being made in Unit 61 (Burdick comm. 1972). WILD TURKEYS Myers (1967 and pers. at 'which winter comm. 1971) reports having feed stations were located (approx S.l, T.49N., R.18W). Creek 3. Hill Ranch files of the Southwest Aid Report continued 2. Cottonwood R.12W.). Regional cited. R.13W.), 1. Blue Creek and 4. McKenzie for these counts are in the Denver office, The feed stations and in the and counts have been dis- since 1967 •. Burdick (pers. comm. 1972) reported Sanborn Park (Clay Creek) that C. T. 1967. April - Part 2. wf.n t er feed station counts in are currently being done. Literature Hyers, Records office, as follows: In Creek (approx. S.36, T.47N., (approx. S.30, T.46N., (approx. S.3l, T.45N., Federal feed stations counts of turkeys were made from 1963 through 1967. Unit 61 the principle R.14W.). established Cited Came Bird Survey, pp. 167-182. In Quart. Rep., Colo. Div. Came, Fish and Parks. (processed). �7lA Rogers, G. E. 1963. Game bird surveys, pp. 157-168. Rep., Oct. - Part 2. 1968. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. The blue grouse in Colorado. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1969. In Fed. Aid Quart. (processed). Tech. Publ. No. 21. Colo. 63 pp. The sharp-tailed grouse in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 23. 94 pp. B.D. Baker and W.T. HcKean February 1972 �72A HABITAT Detailed Kufeld RESTORATION information PROJECTS on projects at the Research details available. So, depending Mr. Kufeld compiled Simply make your requests on only one project are needed, for restoration UNIT 61 are kept in the office of Mr. Ron could be conveniently days work. If specific requests MANAGEMENT Center, Fort Collins. that all Unit 61 projects by about one-half - WILDLIFE informed and summarized directly information to him. that, too, is readily upon what data are needed, we recommend project us be sent directly that to Mr. Kufeld. The above approach McKean and I take the attitude data retrieval habitat to handling this information that a central repository system have been established data current is alterable, and easily available. and efficient to keep rapidly Another but Mr. middleman not be necessary. B. D. Baker December 1971 changeable should �73A }~NAGEMENT A. PROBLEMS CHECKLIST - WILDLIFE ~AGEMENT UNIT 61 Present 1. Boyd Deer-auto collision losses, State Highway (1961, 1962, and 1964) reported killed by auto collisions 10 miles of Highway Bear Canyon confluences. drain problem partially that a minimum during the 1961-63 141 in Unaweep These losses represent will also increase. As vehicular Highway Assistance W-38-R who are working personnel the Ute Creek and a continuing yearlong residents traffic increases, structures are needed here. of 17 deer were period in approximately Canyon between on deer which are partially migratory. 141. designed can be solicited herdand this problem to prevent collisions from Federal Aid Project on similar problems on Interstate High- way I 70 and elsewhere. 2. Need for techniques to provide population of selected wildlife densities reliable periodic indices to annual species by area or drainage. The numerous, present and elk. abrupt topographic special sampling problems Also, census techniques changes from ridge top to creek bottom for pellet group count work for many other wildlife for deer species are needed. 3. Agricultural crop damage. Alfalfa standing crops near Redvale and Nucla are currently apparent damaging use by deer (Division pers. comm. 1972). receiving �74A B. Future. 1. San Miguel Project, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. The San Miguel Project has bee~ proposed by the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation to control and better utilize stream flow of the San Miguel River (U.S. Bur. Recl. 1966). An estimated mule deer range would be lost when project (U.S. Bur. Sport Fish. and Wildlife 25,000 acres of lands are cultivated 1966, 1968). 2,752 acres would be lost through inundation An additional of reservoir sites. Most of these losses of deer range would occur in Wildlife ment Unit 70 (San Miguel), in the San Miguel confluence but inundation Canyon between at the Saltado Manage- Reservoir Placerville and the Specie Creek and canal and control structures in the Mail Box Park area north of Norwood would directly affect wildlife habitat" in Unit 61. In addition construction, would to direct losses caused by reservoir expansion also increase strative problems Several methods suggested 1968). big-game cropland for mitigation in Mail Box Park damage to crops and attendant of losses of big-game by the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries Acquisition control admini- for the Division. of lands for intensive would be the principal scheme, of agricultural and water method either singly or in combination and Wildlife management of mitigation. range have been (1966, by the Division Nevertheless, that· with other contingent proposals, �75A very probably could not effect full compensation loss of habitat 2. Tabeguache that the project will cause. Watershed Project, U. S. Department This project is a potential improvement of irrigation distribution Cooperative Ditch Company CU.S.D.A. 1971). project for the permanent upon wildlife PL566 activity of Agriculture. that would mainly systems served by the Colorado Possible have not been evaluated involve impacts of the but are assumed to be minor. 3. Naturita Watershed Project, U. S. Department This proposed project involves a very small acreage and is listed mainly 4. as a reminder of Agriculture. that plans exist for its development. Coal strip mining, There is an estimated Nucla area. reserve of three million tons of Grade A bi- tuminous coal in the Dolores River Basin. Strip-mined supplies the power to generate by the Colorado-Ute electricity Association plant near Nucla. power would require an estimated coal of 60,000 tons a year Potential doubling CU.S.D.A. increase coal now in demand for electric of current production 1971). Electric Depending rate of upon where new strip mines would be located and how much effort is made to adequately rehabilitate resulting spoils areas, wildlife habitat might well suffer degradation. 5. Housing developments in existing natural wildlife habitat. �76A Literature Cited Boyd, R. J. 82. 1961. Study of deer losses on Colorado hLghways , pp , 75- In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., April - Part I. Fish. 96 pp. 1962. Colo. Dept. Game and (processed). Study of deer losses on Colorado highways, pp. 93-100. In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 69 pp. (processed). 1964. Study of deer losses on Colorado highways, pp. 36-41. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., April - Part I. Parks. 69 pp. February. 1966. San Miguel Project, Colorado. U. S. Dept. Int.-,Reg. 4 Bur. Reel., Salt Lake City. 63 pp. + 15 p. Addenda. U. S. Bureau Sport Fisheries and Hildli£e. Colorado. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and (processed). U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. Feasibility Rep. In 1966. Bur. Sport Fish. and Wild1. Rep. and Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque, June 30. 1968. San Miguel Project, Colorado. San Miguel Project, U. S. Dept. Int., Fish 19 pp. + 2 plates (Maps). Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildl. Rep. Supply. U. S. Dept. Int., Fish and Wildl. Serv., Albuquerque. February 13. 5 pp. + I plate (Map). U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1971. Water and related land resources, Dolores River Basin in Colorado and Utah. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Hater Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and soil Conserv. Service. February. Denver. (pp. val:'. by chapter) + sep. bound Soil Conserv. Service Appendix 1 - Hatershed Investigations Reps. W. T. HcKean and B. D. Baker FphY--ll;:,r'T 1 Q7? �APPENDIX B WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (E. UNCOMPARGRE) Delta, Mesa, Montrose, and Ouray Counties, Colorado Information on Unit Description, Landownership; Land Use, Human Population; Wildlife Species Checklists, Harvests, Seasons, Narrative and Map Descriptions of Distribution and Abundance; and Other Allied Data. To: March 15, 1912. Compiled by: 'W. T. McKean and B. D. Baker �IB DESCRIPTION Boundaries - WILDLIFE J:../.--"Thatportion No. 141 from the Uncompahgre County of Mesa County south and east of State Highway Plateau divide to the tmvn of Whitewater, No. 50 from the town of Whitewater and west of U.S. Highway line, and east of the Uncompahgre Plateau Delta County south and west of U.S. Highway line to the Montrose-Delta County line; that portion No. 50 from the Delta-Montrose of U.S. Highway No. 550 from Montrose north and east of the Uncompahgre its intersection divide; of Montrose of County County west County line to Montrose, divide; County that portion No. 550 from the Montrose-Ouray with State Highway to the Mesa-Delta that portion to the Ouray-Montrose Plateau south No. 50 from the Mesa-Delta of U.S. Highway County west of U.S. Highway 1/ UNIT 62 (E. UNCOMPAHGRE) MANAGEMENT west line, and of Ouray County line to No. 62 and north and west of State Highway No. 62." Size.--Unit size. 62 was determined A planimeter Uncompahgre National to be 1,334.1 square miles or 853,824 acres in was used to obtain the acreage from a 1/4" = 1 mile scale Forest map and a 1/2" = 1 mile scale Colorado Division Mesa County map. Physical Features.--Unit 62 coincides approximately half of the Uncompahgre Plateau. uplift the Canyon Lands section that lies within Geologically, with State Highway the northeastern the plateau is a broad of the Colorado one- structural Plateaus 1/ Legally termed "Big Game Management Unit" (see footnote 2/ below) but tentatively called "Wildlife Management Unit" here to include broader aspects of animal life present. 2/ Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970 (pp. 12-13, Chap. 2 - Big Game). �2B physiographic province. granites to Mesozoic include a comparatively mesas Parent materials sandstones, between sharply-rimmed undulating farmland toward the Uncompahgre that support a substantial flood plains 1962, 1971). The Uncompahgre and Gunnison Principal Rivers, acreage at Unit 62's eastern tributaries of the rivers, Creeks. No sizable lakes or reservoirs Depending upon specific Descriptions and northern peri- Tributary streamflow Escalante, Monitor, is northeastwardly. exist in Unit 62. portion(s) Montrose. (U. S. Dept. in order from north Dry, and Dallas Work Unit personnel of irrigated They both flow in a northwestwardly Roubideau, Service Rivers and gentle to moderate East, Big and Little Dominguez, information features and Gunnison to south, are as follows: needed, Terrain south and west of Delta and Montrose are the unit's main streams. here. crystalline gentle to strong sloping parallel canyons, at lower elevations direction summit, and shales. or steep-sided of Agriculture meter, siltstones, flat plateau that run northeastwardly vary from Precambrian can be.obtained located of the unit where soils data might be by contacting at offices U. S. Soil Conservation in Grand Junction, and a map of broad soil classifications in a previously· cited report of the U. S. Department Delta, or can be found of Agriculture (1962). �Climate.--The climate wide extremes resulting precipitation varies Montrose, to between of Unit 62 is typical from variations and short duration tation is fairly uniform, National Wea~her spectively, higher Service long growing records ward, depending seasons from reports Department generally receiving a greater and at Montrose present, re- on the Gunnison canyon bottoms of garden, exposure, seasons River also have comThese warmer field, and orchard plants site frost-free periods and other factors, for scale down- to about 30 days divide. information of Commerce Tributary and mesa-top was obtained, (Continuing). aforementioned National station close to but outside southeast of precipi- distribution season near Whitewater of the U. S. Department fairly Seasonal for much of their lower portions. upon elevations, climatic Cloudburst of 51.00 F and 49.60 F an~ growing selection Canyon-rim or less along the plateau Preceding crest. areas and for near Delta Growing permit wider crop production. Mean annual occur over localized elevations to be about 175 days. microc1imates features. in the form of snowfall. of 146 days and 152 days. paratively conditions. mean annual temperatures is estimated slope, with 20 and 25 inches along the plateau result from summer convective in winter in topographic western from about 7.75 inches at Delta, about 9 inches at storms of high intensity proportion of Colorado's Weather of Grand Junction. and in some cases interpreted, of Agriculture (1962, 1971) and U. S. The latter agency is parent bureau Service which also administers of the unit's perimeter to the a cooperating six miles east- �4B Literature Cited U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1962. Gunnison River Basin - Colorado. Water and related land resources, Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. 1971. November. Denver. 103 pp. (processed). Water and related land resources, Dolores River Basin in Colorado and Utah. Coop. Study Rep. of Colorado Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. February. Denve r, (processed). U. S. Department of Commerce. (Continuing). Climatological data, Colorado. Monthly and Annual Summaries. Asheville, N. C. National Climatic Center, Fed. Bldg., 28801. B. D. Baker August 1971 �5B LANDOWNERSHIP STATUS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 Bureau of Land Management 319,240 Acres Forest Service 255,841 Acres Private lands excluding lands within National Forest boundaries 249,170 Acres Private lands within National Forest boundaries 14,923 Acres Colorado Division Game, Fish and Parks 7,299 Acres o Acres 160 Acres 1,280 Acres 847,913 Acres Other Federal lands including Park Service, Indian and Military Reservations, and Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildlife State Land Board Administration lands Municipal lands Total * (1324.9 sq. miles) * Total land acreage differs from total in Unit Description Section (853,824 A. or 1334.1 sq. miles). Forest Service lands and private lands within the National Forest were derived by planimetering on 2" = 1 mile Uncompahgre National Forest township plat maps. B.L.M. lands, Game, Fish and Parks lands and other private land acreages resulted from planimetering and estimating on 1/2" = 1 mile Uncompahgre National Forest map and 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. Glade Park Recreation map. Municipal lands include those parts of Delta, Olathe, and Montrose within Unit 62. w. T. McKean and L. C. Carlson September 1971 �'J 6B LAND USE STATUS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 Irrigated croplands 72,428 Acres Non-irrigated croplands 2,229 Acres Grasslands 20,708 Acres Sagebrush 72,710 Acres Brush 165,404 Acres Woodland-Pinon-juniper, oakbrush 297,404 Acres Aspen 38,014 Acres Commercial timber 131,420 Acres River bottom vegetation 8,674 Acres Miscellaneous 38,922 Acres Total 847,913 Acres * (1324.9 sq. miles) *Cover type categories and acreages were derived from planimetering on 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S. Land Use and Cover Type Maps, 1954, for Delta, Mesa, Montrose, and Ouray counties. Computations were 3% over landownership status total acreages. An adjustment was made to each category so that the total would conform to the landownership figure. L. C. Carlson November 1971 �7B HUMAN POPULATION Since Unit 62 involves - WILDLIFE portions counties and unit bounding Montrose, and Ridgway, Bureau (Table 1). of the Census Instead of specifically in total for the counties This analysis differs By comparing as being rural in character. populations of Delta and Ouray counties of Montrose of municipalities showed about 27% to exhibit supported cities being as being urban rural. 1970 figures with those of 1960 in Table 1, it is apparent that populations the population from those of the cities and towns are considered of size, with remainder popu- and their in that they consider and towns of less than 2,500 population regardless applicable urban and rural data and trends and other sources Here, all incorporated and Ouray split the towns of Delta, Olathe, determination for 1960 and 1970 are prese~ted UNIT 62 of Mesa, Delta, Montrose, highways lations would be difficult. municipalities MANAGEMENT County increased are evident of Montrose and 1970, only slightly County. Additional counties are presented Montrose's increase County dropped noticeably analyses of populations U. S. Department of Agriculture. land resources, Dolores Light between 1971. in Mesa and Montrose Water Conserv. February. (processed). report: Water and related River Basin in Colorado Forest Service, 1960 in Ouray 4-8 of the following Econ. Res. Service, Denver. evidently County. and gained slightly on pages 4-5 through Coop. Study Rep. of Colorado gaining for both Delta and Ouray counties. in Delta County, detailed while Populations with Montrose of total urban growth for Montrose losses of urban populations The rural population trend. slightly very slightly. changes both directions, the strongest the increase decreased and Utah. Board and U.S.D.A. and Soil Conserv. Service. �8B Table 1. Populations and trends of counties and municipalities involved, in part, with Unit 62 -1/ • POEulation 2/ County - 1960 1970 Change Inc. Cities Population and % Towns 1960 1970 Change Delta 15,602 15,286 -2.0 Delta 3,832 3,602 - 6.0 Paonia 1,083 1,161 + 7.2 Hotchkiss 626 507 -19.0 Cederedge 549 581 + 5.8 Crawford 147 171 +16.3 Totals 6,237 6,022 - 3.4 Montrose 5,044 6,413 +27.1 Naturita 979 820 -16.1 Nucla 906 949 + 4.7 Olathe 773 756 - 2.2 Totals 7,702 8,938 Ouray 785 709 - 9.7 Ridgway 254 262 + 3.1 Totals 1,039 971 - 6.5 Montrose Ouray % 18,286 18,366 1,601 1,546 +0.5 -3.4 Rural Population 1/ % 1960 1970 Change 9,365 9,264 - 1.1 +16.0 10,584 9,428 -10.9 562 575 1/ Sources are the U. S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, 1959-61. ~/ Excludes Mesa County because, despite being comparatively large in size, that portion of the county involved in Unit 62 contains an indeterminable, very small and entirely rural, human population. 1/ County rural population is based upon total county population less total of incorporated cities and towns (urban population). + 2.3 �9B The Colorado State Planning Office (pers. comm. 1971) provided the following advance population projections for the three counties listed· in Table 1: 1980 Montrose County 18,500 2010 and Thereafter Forevermore 20,000 15,000 Delta County 1,500 Ouray County B. D. TIakeI July 1971 �lOB GAME SPECIES - WILDLIFE Big game mammals MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (E. UNCOMPAHGRE) ~I Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) Black bear (Ursus americanus) Elk (Cervus canadensis) Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Small game mammals 11 Cottontail rabbit (~vilagus audubonii; ~. nuttallii) Pine (red) squt rre I (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) Abert's squirrel (Sciurus aberti) Game birds ]j Migratory waterfowl and shorebirds Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadensis Black brant (Brant a nigricans) 11 T.TL...:.•..........£:....-,..._+"U ...LL..c:. J... LULJ.\...C\..L ..3 __ -. 6vvoIL- IA_ _ \.C'"l...LLOL.L, 11....:+=_-.-. Q..l..U..J...L .LULL':" 1::_ moffitti) _+-_1.:_\ .L. LULLLOJ....L0I -s r .::!....I Snow goose (Chen hyperborea hyperborea) 11 Mallard (~as platyrhynchos platyrhynchos) Gadwall (Anas strepera) Pintail (Anas acuta) Green-winged teal (Anas carolinensis) Blue-winged teal (Anas discors discors) Cinnamon teal (Ana~anoptera septentrionalium) American widgeon (Mareca americana) Shoveler (Spatula clypeata) Wood duck (Aix sponsa) Redhead (Aythya americana) Ring-necked duck (Aythya _collaris) Canvasback (Aythva valisineria) Greater scaup (Aythya marila nearctica) 11 Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula americana) Barrow's golden-eye (Bucephala islandica) 11 11 Nomenclature Colorado. according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Wild mammals 11 Nomenclature Pictorial according to Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Neidrach. checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Rist. 11 Unverified in hunter's game in 1970-71. bag checks but possible rare migrant of 1967. 168 pp . and legal �llB Game birds - Migratory waterfowl and shorebirds (continued) Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) Ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis rubida) Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Connnon merganser (Hergus merganser americanus) Red-breasted merganser (~serrator serrator) COlumon snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) American coot (Fulica americana americana) Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus obscurus) Sage grouse (Cp.ntrocercus urophasianus urophasianus) Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Chukar (Alectoris graeca) Band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata fasciata) Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura marginella) Sharp-tailed grouse (Pediocetes phasianellus columbianus) Gambel's quail (Lophortyx gambelii sanus) Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) Mountain quail (Oreortyx picta) W. T. McKean November 1971 �12B OTHER MA}~IAN Furbearers SPECIES 1/ - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (E. UNCOMPAHGRE) Jj Beaver (Castor canadensis) Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) Weasels (Mus tela erminea; M. frenata) Mink (Hustela vison) Marten (Martes americana) Nongame mammals 1/ White-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus townsendii) Black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus c.all f orn.Lcus) Yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) White-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) Gunnison's prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni) Rock squirrel (Spermophilus variegatus) White-tailed antelope squirrel (Ammospermophilus leucurus) Golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Colorado chipmunk (Eutamias quadrivittatus) Coyote (Canis latrans) Red iox (Vulpes iulva) Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Raccoon (Procyon lotor) American badger (Taxidea taxus) Spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) Bobcat (Lynx rufus) 1/ These species, grouped separately as "Furbearers" and "Nongame mammals" ~nd outside of "game" categories, follm., Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1962 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970 (Art. 1, Item 3, Definitions, p. 327). 1/ Nomenclature Colorado. actording to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder, Colo. 254 pp. W. T. McKean November 1971 of �l3B /' Nongame OTHER AVIAN SPECIES birds 1/ WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNITS 61 AND 62 1/ Common loon (Gavia immer) Rare migrant. Horned grebe (Podiceps auritus cornutus) Rare migrant. Eared grebe (Podiceps caspicus californicus) Uncommon migrant. Western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) Possible rare migrant. Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps podiceps) Uncommon migrant ]/ and possible rare summer resident. Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus) Rare migrant. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident and few in winter 3/, 4/. Snowy egret (Leuc;phoyx thula brewsteri) Uncommon summer resident. Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli) Uncommon summer resident. Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis exilis) Possible accidental summer visitor. American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Possible rare migrant. White-faced ibis (Plegadis ch Lh i.) Possible rare migrant. Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) Rare migrant. Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis canadensis; Q. ~. tabida) Common migrant. Virginia rail (Rallus limicola limicola) Possible uncommon summer resident. Sora (Porzana carolina) Possible uncommon summer resident. Semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) Possible rare migrant. Snowy plover (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus) Possible accidental migrant. Killcieer(ClldLadLiu5 v0cifcLUO vvcif~~u3) COu~0u 3ulliill2r olid u~~G~~G~ wi~t~~ resident 3/. Mountain plo~er (Eupoda montana) Possible accidental migrant. Black-bellied plover (Sguatarola sguatarola) Possible rare migrant. ll 1/ These species, grouped separately as IINongame birds" and IIRaptores and ;utside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970. (Art. 1, item 3, Definitions, p. 327). 1/ Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Neidrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. Nat~ Hist. 2 Vols. 895 pp. Information on occurrence and method for reporting same are adapted from the foregoing reference and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornith. 61 pp., with the system of Davis (1969: 6) favored and f oLl.owed closely throughout. Presence of term "possible" is an author judgement connotating that the species could occur in the units some time even though evidence is presently lacking that it does. Absence of term means that evidence by Bailey and Neidrach (1964) and/or Davis (1969) makes occurrence a near certainty or that sighting(s) have been reported verbally by anyone or more of Division personnel H. Burdick, T. Quick, L. Denton [and others, as appropriate] or qualified by additional footnotes that follow. 1/ Unpublished checklist of birds of the Uncompahgre Plateau by Dr. A. S. Hyde, 1971. 4/ Sight record of A. E. Anderson as given in APPENDIX A - PARTIAL CHECKLIST OF VERTEBRATE FAUNA OBSERVED IN VICINITY OF STUDY AREA, pp. 59-60, of Anderson, A. E. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by: chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Fed. Aid Job Compo Rep. Proj. W-38-R-13, July, Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. (processed). �Nongrune birds (continued) Eong+b i.l.Ledcurlew (Numenius americanus americanus) Poss ible ra re mi.gran t , Spotted sandpiper (Actitis macularia) Common summer resident 2/. $olitary sandpiper (Tringa solitaria cinnamomea) Common migrant and occasional summer visitor. Willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus) Rare migrant. Greater yellowlegs (Totanus melanoleucus) Possible common migrant. Lesser yellowlegs (Totanus flavipes) Possible uncommon migrant. Knot (Calidris canutus rufa) Possible accidental migrant. Pectoral sandpiper (Erolia melanotos) Possible rare migrant. Ba Lr'd s sandpiper (Erolia bairdii) Possible uncommon migrant. Least sandpiper (Erolia minutilla) Possible COmmon migrant. Long-billed dowitcher (L'Lmnodr-omus scolopaceus) Possible rare migrant. Semipalmated sandpiper (Ereunetes pusillus) Rare migrant 2./. Western sandpiper (Ereunetes mauri) Possible uncommon migrant. Marbled godwit (Limosa fedoa) Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Crocethia alba) Possible accidental migrant. American avocet (Recurvirostra americana) Rare migrant. Black-necked stilt (Himantopus mexicanus) Possible rare migrant. Wilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) Common migrant and uncommon Summer resident. Northern phalarope (Lobipes lobatus) Possible rare migrant. Herring gull (Larus argentatus smithsonianus) Possible unCOmmon migrant. California gull (Larus californicus) Possible rare migrant. Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) Upcommon migrant. Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) Common migrant. Bonaparte's gull (Larus philadelphia) Possible rare migrant. forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) Possible rare migrant. Common tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo) Possible accidental migrant. ~east tern (Sterna albifrons athalassos) Possible accidental migrant. Black tern (Chlidonias niger surinamensis) Possible rare migrant. Rock dove (Columba livia) Common resident. yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus americanus) Possible uncommon summer resident. roor-will (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii nuttallii) Common summer resident ~/. Common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor powelli ; f. ~. henryi ) Common " Summer res ident 41. " Black swift (Cypsel;ides niger borealis) Possible accidental Summer migrant. White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxatalis sclateri) Common Summer , resident 3/,4/. alack-chinned hu~ingbird (Archilochus alexandri) Common Summer resident. aroad-tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus platycercus) Common : summer resident 2/. Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) Common late s~mmer and fall migrant. ~alliope hummingbird (Stellula calliope) Rare summer migrant ~/and Possible " rare Summer resident. ~ivoli's hummingbird (Eugenes fulgens aureoviridis) Possible rare summer " visitor. Belted kingfisher (Megacerle alcyon alcyon) Common resident 2/. Ye lLow-cs ha f t ed flicker (Colaptes auratus luteus) Possible accidental migrant. t �15B Nongame birds (continued) Red-shafted flicker (Colaptes cafer collatis) Common resident 3/, 4/. Lewis' woodpecker (Asyndesmus lewis) Common resident 3/. -Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius muchalis) Common summer resident. Williamson's sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus nataliae) Common summer resident. Hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos villosus monticola) Uncommon resident if. Downy woodpecker (Dendrocopos pubescens leucurus) Uncommon resident. Northern three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus dorsalis) Rare resident. Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) Uncommon summer resident 1/. Western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) Common summer resident 1/. Cassin's kingbird (Tyrannus vociferans vociferans) Possible uncommon summer resident. Ash-throated flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident. Say's phoebe (Sayornis saya saya) Common summer resident. Traill's flycatcher (Ernpidonax traillii) Uncommon summer resident 1/· Hammond's flycatcher (Ernpidonax hammondii) Uncommon summer resident. Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) Uncommon summer resident. Gray flycatcher (Ernphidonax wrightii) Common summer resident. Western flycatcher (Ernpidonax difficilis hellmayri) Common summer resident. Western wood peewee (Contopus sordidulus veliei) Common summer resident if. Olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealis) Uncommon summer resident. R0:!:'n",rl l?yk (Fr",rn_<:mh;1::l ::llnp.~rri~lell;:;'.8p.m.8) Common resident 3/. Violet-green swallow (Tachycineta thalassina lepi~a) Common summer resident 3/, 4/. Tree swallow-(Irfdiprocne bicolor) Common summer resident 1/. Bank swallow (Riparia riparia riparia) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx ruficollis serripennis) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica erythrogaster) Common migrant and summer resident 3/. Cliff swallo; (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota) Common summer resident. Purple martin (Progne subis subis) Possible accidental summer migrant. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis capitalis) Common resident. Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stelleri macrolopha) Common resident 11, if. Scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens woodhouseii) Common resident 1/· Black-billed magpie (Pica pica hudsonia) Common resident 11, !/. Common raven (Corvus corax sinuatus) Cornmon resident' 11, Common crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos) Common resident 1/· Pinyon jay (Gyrnnorhinus cyanocephalus) Common resident 1/, ~/. Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) Common resident Black-capped chickadee '(Paru s atricapillus garrinus) Common resident Mountain chickadee (Parus gambeli gambeli) Common resident Plain titmouse (Parus inornatus ridgwayi) Common resident. Common bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus plumbeus) Cornmon resident 1/, !!.. White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis nelsoni) Uncommon resident if. i/. i/. i/. i/. �loB Nongame birds (continued) Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Rare resident. Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea melanotis) Common resident ~/. Brown creeper (Certhia familiaris montana) Uncommon resident. Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus unicolor) Common resident. House wren (Troglodytes aedon parkrnanii) Common summer resident 3/, 4/. Winter wren (Troglodytes troglodytes pacificus) Status unknown Bewick's wren (Thryomanes bewickii eremophilus) Common summer and rare winter resident 1/. Long-billed marsh wren (Telmatodytes palustris plesius) Uncommon summer resident 3/. Canyon wren (Salpinctes mexicanus conspersus) Uncommon summer 1/ and possible rare winter resident. Rock wren (Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus) Common summer and possible rare winter resident. Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos leucopterus) Uncommon resident. Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) Possible rare summer resident. Brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum longicauda) Possible accidental migrant. Sage thrasher (OreoscoDte~ montanus) Common summer resident ~/. Robin (Turdus migratorius propinguus) Common resident 1/, ~/. Hermit thrush (Hylocichla guttata auduboni) Common summer resident. Swainson's thrush (Hvlocichla ustulata almae) Possible common migrant and rare summer resident. Veery (Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola) Common summer resident. Western bluebird (Sialia mexicana bairdi) Common migrant, uncommon summer resident ~/, and possible rare winter resident. Mountain bluebird (Sialia currucoides) Common migrant and summer resident ]/, ~/, and poss-ib-i-e-~·i-nter-r;sident. Townsend's solitaire (Myadestes townsendi townsendi) Uncommon resident ~/. Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea amoenissima) Common summer resident ]..1. 47. - Golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa amoenus) Possible common summer and uncommon winter resident. Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula cineraceus) Common migrant 1/ and summer resident 4/ and possible accidental winter resident. Water pipit (Anthus-spinoletta alticola) Common migrant 1/ and possible winter resident. Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceps) Common winter migrant. Cedar waA~ing (Bombvcilla cedrorum) Irregular visitor. Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor invictus) Common winter resident ]j. Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides) Uncommon summer and common winter resident 3/. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris) Common resident 1/. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Uncommon summer resident. Solitary vireo (Vireo solitarius plumbeus) Common summer resident 11. Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Possible rare summer resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus s1.J"ainsonii)Common summer resident. Tennessee warbler (Vermivora peregrina) Possible rare migrant. Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata orestera) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla ridgwayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia's warbler (Vermivora virginiae) Common summer resident. Yellow warbler (Dendroica netechia aestiva) Common summer resident 1/. Myrtle warbler (Dendroica coronata co ron a t a) Uncommon migrant.· �l7B Nongame birds (continued) Audubon's warbler (Dendroica auduboni memorabilis) Common summer resident 3/, 4/ and possible rare winter resident. Black-throat~d g~ay warbler (Dendroica nigrescens) Common summer resident 3/. Townsend's w~rbler (Dendroica townsendi) Uncommon migrant 4/. Grace's warbler (Den~~aciae graciae) Rare summer re;ident ~/. Northern waterthrush (Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis) Rare migrant 1/. MacGillivray's warbler (Oporornis tolmiei monticola) Common migrant and uncommon summer resident 1/. Yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas occidentalis; G. ~. campicola) Uncommon summer resident 1/. Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens auricollis) Common summer resident. Wilson's wa rbLer (Hilsonia pusilla pileolata) Common migrant and possible summer resident. American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla tricolora) Possible rare migrant. House sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) Common resident 1/. Bobolink (Doli~honyx oryzivorus) Possible rare summer migrant. Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta neglecta) Common summer 1/ and uncommon winter resident. Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Common summer resident 3/. Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus fortis) Common resident 1/. Orchard oriole (Icterus spurius) Possible accidental summer visitor. Bullock's oriole (Icterus bullockii bullockii) Common summer resident 1/. Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus carolinus) Possible late winter visitor. Brewer's blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) Common resident 1/. Brown-headed cowbird (Mol~thrus atel:'_ artemisiae) Common summer resident. Western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana) Common migrant and summer resident i/. Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) Possible accidental summer migrant. Rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus) Possible accidental spring migrant. Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus melanocephalus) Common summer resident. Blue grosbeak (Guiraca caerulea interfusa) Uncommon summer resident 1/. Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena) Uncommon summer resident. Dickcissel (Spiza americana) Possible accidental migrant. Evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona vespertina brooksi) Irregular resident. Cassin's finch (Carpodacus cassinii) Common resident. House finch (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis) Common summer and uncommon winter resident 1/. Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator montana) Uncommon resident. Gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis tephrocotis; ~. t. littoralis) Common winter migrant. Black rosy finch" (Leucosticte atrata) Uncommon winter migrant. Brown-capped rosy finch (Leucosticte australis) Common winter resident. Common redpoll (Acanthis flammea flammea) Possible accidental winter migrant. Pine siskin (Spinus pinus pinus) Common resident ~/. American goldfinch (Spinus tristis tristis; ~. ~. pallidus) Common summer 1/ and possible uncommon winter resident. Lesser goldfinch (Spinus psaltria psaltria) Possible uncommon summer resident and accidental winter migrant. Red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) Irregular visitor. White-winged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera leucoptera) Possible accidental winter migrant. �l8B Non-game birds (continued) v. Green-tailed towhee (Chlorura chlorura) Common summe r res ident ~j and possible rare winter resident. Rufous-sided towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus montanus) Uncommon resident '}../. Lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) Possible uncormnon Surmner resident. Savannah sparrow (Passerc~lus sandwichensis nevadcnsis; f. ~. anthinus) Possible uncormnon migrant and surmner resident. Grasshopper sparrow (Armnodramus savannarum perpallidus) Uncormnon surmner res ident 5 I . LeConte's sp;rrow (Passerherbulus caudacutus) Possible accidental migrant. Sharp-tailed sparrow (Armnospiza caudacuta nelsoni) Possible accidental migrant. Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus confinis) Cormnon migrant and surmner res ident '}../, i/. Lark sparrow (Chondestes grarmnacus strigatus) Common migrant and surmner res ident ,}j. Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata deserticola) Cormnon surmner res ident. Sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli nevadensis) Cormnon sununer resident. White-winged junco (Junco aikeni) Possible accidental winter visitor. Slate-colored junco (Junco hyemalis hyemalis; I. h. cismontanus) Possible rare winter res ident. Oregon junco (Junco oreganus oreganus; I. ~. mearnsi) Cormnon winter res ident 3 I . Gray-headed junco (Junco caniceps caniceps) Cormnon resident i/. Tree sparrow (Spizella arborea ochracea)Uncormnon winter visitor 1/. Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina boreophila) Common Surmner resident 1/,4/. Brewer's sparrow (Spizella breweri breweri) Common summer resident 1/, i/. Har-r+s ' s ps.r row (7.nnnt:rir.hiR (JITF>rI11;]) Po s s t b l a r2rp. wintF>r resinF>nt:_ 1. White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys leuchophrys; ~. gambelii) Cormnon resident 3/. White-throated spar~w (Zonotrichia albicollis) Possible accidental migrant. Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca schistacea) Rare summer resident. Lincoln's sparrow (Melospiza lincolnii alticola) Cormnon migrant and Surmner resident. Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Common resident 1/. Lapland longs pur (Calcarius lapponicus alascensis) Possible rare winter migrant. Chestnut-collared longs pur (Calcarius ornatus) Possible accidental winter migrant. �19B Raptores l:.../ Turkey vulture (Cathartes ~ meridionalis) Common sunnner ;}/, !!/ and rare winter resident. ) Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis atricapillus) Uncommon resident ~/. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus velox) Unconnnon summer ;}j and winter resident. Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Uncommon summer ~/ and winter resident. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis calurus) Common res Lden t ;}../,~/. Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus ~. johannis) Common winter resident. Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) Rare summer resident. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis) Common resident if, ~/. Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus) Common winter resident 5/. Marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus hudsonius) Common resident ~/. Osprey'(Pandion haliaetus carolinensis) Rare migrant. Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Uncommon resident. Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Rare resident. Pigeon hawk (Falco columbarius) Rare wLnt.e r migrant. Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius sparverius) Common summer and uncommon winter resident 3/, 4/. Screech owl (Otus ;sio) Possible rare resident. Flammulated owl (Otis flammeolus flammeolus) Possible accidental summer resident. Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Common resident 3/: 4/. Pygmy owl (Glaucid~g;-oma"--califo-rnicum) Uncommon resid-ent 3/. Burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea) Uncommon summer and possible accidental winter resident. Long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus) Uncommon resident. Short-eared owl (Asio~mmeus flammeus) Uncommon winter migrant and resident. Saw-whet owl (Aeg~s acadicus acadicus) Uncommon resident. 5/ Golden and bald eagles specifically excluded from statutes defining "Raptore" as cited in footnote 1) but herein listed to avoid omission. B. D. Baker February 1972 �20B DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME MAMMALS IHLDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (E. UNCOHPAHGRE) BLACK BEAR Black bears occupy approximately the area between 6,000 and 10,000 feet elevation in Unit 62, though at times they wander over almost the entire unit. Their yearlong habitat here is largely within the timbered belt and canyon country where fruit-bearing shrubs are common. The only consistent index to black bear abundance is the hunter report card survey. Estimated annual black bear kill for the period 1960-1970 inclusive, averaged 24 head. On a statewide basis, this unit ranked no less than fourth in kill during seven years out of the past ten (1960-1970). In addition, during sex-ratio counts of deer a count of 18 black bears was made in 1971 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). ELK The 1962 Division-Uncompahgre National Forest big game winter range inventory of Unit 62 did not yield much data on elk distribution. 20 widely-distributed Only pellet group transects were read that year, with negligible winter occupancy indicated for all of the areas transected. Project W-lOl-R files at the Fort Collins Research Center hold transect data and summaries. Current information obtained from Southwest Region staff and field personnel through group and individual interviews in February 1972 �21B included year-raund elk distributian via map display. That effort yielded lawer limits af elk use essentially carresponding with the Natiana1 Farest baundary, except for the fo1lawing areas af which the Farest baundary daes not accaunt: 1. A three- to.five-mile wide zone that extends northward fram Dallas Divide east of the Hontrase-Ouray Caunty line. 2. The upper-mid Dry Creek drainage area east af Silesca Ranger Statian in a zo.netwo.to five miles wide east af the Farest baundary. 3. Middle Big Daminguez and Gibb1er Canyan areas east and north af the Farest baundary. Also, the lawer elk limit line excludes comparatively small areas of National Farest an Dry Mesa and near middle Raubideau Creek. Present Unit 62 elk numbers are not great in comparison with much larger herds f ound eLsewhere in Colorado. Nevertheless, from former nanexistence on the plateau, elk numbers have increased to allow far the first apen season in 1957 (no animals taken), to. a peak total harvest of 199 in 1969. MOUNTAIN LION The literature makes no specific reference to. mountain lian distributian within Unit 62. Dixan (1967) daes not include it within any af the better lian habitats listed, hawever, the rougher, mare isalated portians af the canyan areas do harbor at least a law populatian. �22B Perusal of all available data on hunter reports for the years 19651970 inclusive, failed to reveal conclusively a single lion taken in Unit 62. A few lions could have been killed by people other than hunters. However, their scarcity in this unit is evident. MULE DEER The cooperative Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre National Forest and Division big game winter range inventory in 1962 yielded a tentative average upper winter limit line for all National Forest lands plus nonForest areas in T15S, RlOOW, 6 PM; T50 and 5lN, R14W, llifPM;and T49 and 50N, RI3W, NMPM. The upper limit line corresponds closely with the National Forest boundary from Unaweep Canyon on the north to about the Corral Gulch fork of Little Dominguez Creek on the south. From the latter place, the line traverses alternating corners of non- caused a gap on lands largely controlled by the BLM. The line was again placed to include a very small corner portion of the Forest in T47N, RlOW, NMPM. Discontinuance of the line here left the extent of winter range in the unit's extreme southwest corner undetermined. The upper winter line varies between extreme elevations of about 6,600 and 8,200 feet but falls more frequently between 7,000 and 7,600 feet. Although the 1962 survey did not set a lower winter limit line, it is assumed that a lower boundary would logically include all suitable habitat west of cultivated cropland from Delta southward in the Uncompahgre Valley, More information is needed for locating the lower line northwest of Delta in Unit 62. �23B Extent of occupied summer deer range is not available at this writing. It is a reasonable assumption, deer can be found in all territory however, that summering not under intensive the latter occasionally. Heaviest cultivation, summer use probably about 8,000 feet to the crest of the Uncompahgre (1969) reported elevations that the upper Big Dominguez and even in occurs from Plateau. Anderson area lying between of 7,900 and 8,570 feet constituted upper winter and lower summer range for deer. Pellet group count data obtained ditions transect on the abundance readings in 1962 concurrently (see Elk) produced of deer in Unit 62. con- information read in too little data from which to conclusions. More recently, the Montrose BLM District also conducted counts in Unit 62 (Hollis pers. comm. 1972). life Biologist Hollis data, and possibly Abundance meager With just 20 transects all of the unit, the small base yielded draw valid with browse range Although is no longer at Montrose, a report, were to have been available ratio and trend counting. That information Montrose office Perhaps a rough but valid concept of general inferred from past harvest data. that la-year District Wild- he said that study of deer by year and census area is available years 1959-68, pellet group by late 1972. from aerial sex- is kept at the Division's (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). deer abundance On the basis of total harvest Unit 62 ranked a strong 5th statewide. span was 34,548, can be or an approximate annual for Total kill for average of nearly �3,455 animals. As elsewhere in Colorado, deer numbers declined in the late 1960s. Despite that skid, Unit 62 ranked 4th in statewide harvest as recently as 1971 (total yield of 1,588 head taken). Thus, it is possible to state that Unit 62 has exhibited good to excellent deer abundance in spanning high and low population trend fluctuations experienced statewide. PRONGHORN The only occurrence of pronghorns within this unit is near the extreme northeast boundary (Douglas and Ogilvie 1953). Pronghorns commonly move north and south across Hf.ghway 50 from the site of introduction (1948-50) in the Wells Gulch area of Unit 411. They occur between the Gunnison River and Highway 50 (see 1/2" scale overlay and 1/411 scale distribution maps). Population estimates, based upon aerial censuses, over the years for the small area of occupied range in Unit 62 vary from about six in 1954 (Ogilvie and Hoover 1954) upward to 75. These animals are only part time residents due to movements across U.S. Highway 50. Literature Cited Anderson, A. E. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush, and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Fish and Parks. Dixon, K. R. 1967. pp , 141-164. Spec. Rep. No. 21. July. Colo. Div. Game, 21 pp. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Fish and Parks. pp. 73-310. Colo. Dept. Game, �25B Douglas, C., and S. Ogilvie. sites, pp. 123-125. Game and Fish. 1953. Survey of antelope at transplant In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. pp. 1-129. Ogilvie, S., and R. L. Hoover. 1954. Survey of antelope at transplant sites, pp. 96-97.' In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. and Fish. Colo. Dept. Colo. Dept. Game pp. 1-182. w. T. McKean and B. D. Baker February 1972 �26£ DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME MAMMALS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (E. UNCOMPAHGRE) COTTONTAIL Every square mile in this unit is occupied by cottontails, or capable of being so, with the possible exception of three or four urban areas. Based on reported altitudinal and habitat preferences (Lechleitner 1969, Armstrong 1972) both the desert cottontail and Nuttall's cottontail would be present. No specific study of cottontail distribution pertinent to the unit is known. Recent large scale chaining operations on pinon-juniper covered. lands have created heavy concentrations of cottontails, due to improved brush and herbaceous cover. Shepherd (1965a) indicates a possible density of 150-200 rabbits per square milp f0r ~0~r of rhe.he.tter ~reas of the.st~te excluding highs or lows. This estimate should be applicable to Unit 62. SNOWSHOE HARE Shepherd (1965b) indicates that snowshoe hares occupy, or could occupy, Unit 62 between 8,000 and 10,000 feet elevation in the coniferous forests for its entire length. A statewide mean density of 125 hares per section on the habitable range is postulated by Shepherd (1965b). the higher areas of this unit. This is believed to be applicable to Anderson (1959) reported that in 1958, snowshoe hares were apparently very scarce on the upper Big Dominguez study area which lies between elevations of 7,900 and 8,570 feet. �27B PINE (RED) SQUIRREL Pine squirrels are reportedly distributed throughout the upper two-thirds elevationally of Unit 62 in the coniferous forests. Armstrong indicates, on a distribution map, this fact also. Southwest regional personnel indicate present at all in the unit ,they that where pine squirrels SQUIRREL Currently there are no field or written occurrence in Unit 62. should be found there in the ponderosa Maps in Armstrong No data on abundance seen this squirrel reported in Unit 62. The fact that several 1959. units, suggest Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. D. M. 1972. Kansas Printing field men have Cited eradication pp. 113-128. by chemical means In Quart. Rep., Jan. 128 pp. Distribution Service, Colorado. that it very probably will be Effects of sagebrush on deer and related wildlife, Armstrong, (1959) Unit 61, and that no physical throughout Literature fu1derson A. E. at 5,000 to 8,000 to extend this far into west-central scattered exist between pine forests (1972) and Hall and Kelson are available. barriers records of this squirrel's (1969) implies that this squirrel Lechleitner do not show the distribution are exist in maximum numbers. ABERT'S feet elevation. (1972) of mammals Lawrence. 415 pp. in Colorado. Univ. of �28B Hall, R. E., and K. R. Kelson. Ronald Press, N. Y. Lechleitner, R. R. Boulder. 1959. 2 Vols. 1969. The mammals of North America. 1083 pp. Wild mammals of Colorado. 254 pp. Shepherd, H. R. 1965a. Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for cottontail rabbits. Parks Dept. Rep. 1965b. Colo. Game, Fish and 11 pp. (Mimeo). Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for snowshoe hares. Rep. Pruett Pub L, .Co , 11 pp. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. (Mimeo). W. T. McKean February 1972 The �29B DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME BIRDS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (E. UNCOMPAHGRE) SAGE GROUSE Rogers (1964) indicated two areas within Unit 62 where sage grouse populations had been consistently observed. These were: Dominguez Creek-Smith Fork area on the north plateau and the Sims Mesa-Duckett Drat" area "lest of Colona. Only light populations (1-10 birds per square mile) were found in the areas listed as occupied range. Anderson (1960) also reported ou in- dices of sage grouse numbers on the northeast portion of Uncompahgre National Forest. Southwest Regional personnel report that sage grouse populations have diminished considerably in this unit over the last ten years (Burdick pers. comma 1972). BLUE GROUSE Rogers (1968) indicates in his maps that the blue grouse distribution in Unit 62 is largely within the National Forest boundary, but not entirely. The important habitat of fir (Abies) species, as well as mixed brushy areas and aspen occur on Bureau of Land Management lands as well as private lands, but not as extensively. Blue grouse occur at 7,000 to 10,000 feet elevation most commonly. A grouse census (Rogers 1968) of 62.5 road miles along the Uncompahgre Divide between Units 61 and 62 in 1961-63 developed an average count of 0.039 blue grouse per mile, ranging from 0.025 to 0.097. �30B SHARP-TAILED GROUSE Rogers (1969) reports small populations of sharp tails either at dancing grounds or observed elsewhere in Unit 62 as follows: Mesa County - near junction of Uncompahgre Divide Road and DOT Cow Camp Road; Montrose County - near T-Bone Springs on Sawmill Mesa, and on old Paradox Road; Ouray County - south end of Uncompahgre Plateau (no definite land marks noted). None were reported in that portion of Delta County encompassing this unit. The only available data on density is that of Rogers (1969) in which observations on dancing grounds were made on the north end of the Uncompahgre Plateau for 1963-1965. Density estimates high of 3.0 birds per square mile to 0.0 in 1965. varied from a Current indications by Southwest Regional personnel are that only a very light population remains. GAMBEL'S QUAIL Sandfort (1965) states that birds are found along the Gunnison and Uncompahgre Rivers ~vithin this unit at elevations of 4,500 to 6,200 feet in drier, brushy sites where, "... irrigated farmlands, creek bottoms, thickets and brushy sides of mesas are found in desirable combination". No data on density per unit area within Unit 62 have been found. Har- vest surveys do indicate that a few birds have been taken annually since 1955, at least, in Small Game Unit 19. HildlifeManagement Unit 62 comprises approximately the southwestern third of Small Game Unit 19. �3IB CHUKARS Sandfort (1965) in summarizing statewide chukar distributions, indicated that this bird had been introduced at several sites within Unit 62 previously. Populations were established by 1965 in Escalante and Dominguez Creeks, as well as in the Roubideau Creek area by 1967. During the period 1958-1963 in this unit, and adjoining ones, population densities varied widely, varying from 47 to 26 birds per square mile (Sandfort 1965) in the better chukar range. Fair numbers are indicated at the present time in Roubideau Creek (Cox pers. comm. 1972) and light numbers in Escalante Creek (~ink pers. comm. 1972). RING-NECKED PHEASANT Fair to poor pheasant populations have existed in the irrigated farmlands of Unit 62, principally along the Gunnison and Uncompahgre Rivers and their tributaries for many years (Swope 1965). The area between Delta and Montrose contains the largest single block of pheasant range. There are approximately 91.3 square miles of pheasant range within Unit 62. Recent updated data on abundance are available and on file in the Southwest Regional office, including sex ratios, crow count routes, and reproductive success. WILD TURKEY Myers (1964 through 1967) mapped the approximate distribution of wild turkeys within Unit 61 and 62 for four years. He showed that turkeys were widely dispersed throughout the forested portions of Unit 62. A few of the drainages in Unit 62 in which turkeys were consistently �observed at one or more seasons of the year were: Big Dominguez, / Dry Fork Escalante, Dry Creek, Spring Cre~, Horse Fly Creek, and Pleasant Valley Turkeys at lower elevations Creek. generally~intered 7,000 feet) .within, or near to the pinon-juniper summering areas were largely at 8,000-9,000 pine and aspen types, although of the plateau. indicated Myers Currently in winter. Plateau, combining is more restricted that the most reliable than above considerable for the five winters Birds were counted in roughly Recent counts at similar stations 100 birds on the entire unit a population Their occurrence commonly a units. of less than PIGEON throughout that band-tailed both Wildlife seems to relate of acorns from Gambel's native oak. grains are grown have appreciable occurs in the spruce-fir Management pigeons Units 61 to areas where an abundant supply of dense, fruit-producing as well as an abundance feed (Burdick pers. corom. 1972). (1970 and pers. carom. 1971) indicates cultivated food 1963 through equal numbers between indicate BAND-TAILED scattered An average from 140 to 485, indicated 1967. and consistent established both Big Game Units 61 and 62. drop in population are irregularly census method The data at hand are for the entire Uncompahgre ground count of 306 birds, ranging Nesting feet in the ponderosa tried, was the count at artifically stations where and (Cox and Mink pers. comm. 1972). among several and 62. type; breeding they had often been seen along the top distribution (1964 to 1967) indicated Braun (5,500- shrubs exist, Also, valleys numbers and various of pigeons. pine zones; �33B therefore the entire Uncompahgre Plateau is used at all seasons, except winter (Dec. through April). Only generalizations concerning band-tailed pigeon abundance, based upon reported observations, are possible (Braun 1970). The Uncompahgre Plateau is mentioned as one of the places in Colorado where pigeons are most abundant. No differences in bird densities have been detected between Wildlife Management Units 61 and 62. Highest observed densities occurred where food (berries, acorns, and grain) are readily available and adjacent to forested roosting and escape cover. Burdick (pers. comm. 1972) reported having counted in 1970 by helicopter in excess of 2,500 birds within Units 61 and 62. Quick (pers. comm. 1972) also indicated an increase in Unit 62. MOUKNING DOVE Mourning doves are distributed over the entire Uncompahgre Plateau during spring, summer and fall (Braun pers. comm. 1971). A few winter on the unit (Quick pers. comm. 1972). No data exist concerning densities of mourning doves on the Uncompahgre Plateau. Braun (pers. comm. 1971) stated that higher concentration occurs in the pinon-juniper and farmland types than in the pine or sprucefir. Over three hundred birds were trapped in Unaweep Canyon during the summer of 1971. WATERFOWL Breeding population: Grieb (1965) indicated that fair to high breeding populations of green-winged teal and coots occur in Unit 62, with fair �34·B to low populations of mallards. and a few other dabbling Hopper (1968) added that mallards ducks breed along the Uncompahgre Montrose to Delta and along the Gunnison Adjoining these rivers are irrigated ponds. These provide numbers also nest in isolated beaver River from River from Delta to Whitewater. farmlands with their canals and food and cover for additional ducks. ponds throughout Small the unit (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). Hopper (pers. corom. 1971) estimated to be between the spring population two and three breeding based on counts made over comparable Planimetered acreages of irrigated types add up to 127 square miles. of Unit 62 pairs per square mile (4-6 ducks), land in the San Luis Valley. cropland and river bottom vegetation An estimated population of 500 to 800 total birds results. Wintering population: geese, winter within sections bottom The only known areas where waterfowl, Unit 62 are in open waters of the Uncompahgre lands. Black Canyon Large numbers (Unit 64). and Gunnison including of the above mentioned Rivers and small ponds of river of ducks, principally They rest on the Gunnision mallards, winter in River but feed in Unit 62, in corn and waste grain fields. The river bottom 1968-1971, duck population within based upon aerial censuses in January has averaged 2,605 birds ranging birds ranging from 32 to 69 (unpublished by Regional from 817 to 4,986. MOUNTAIN A number of birds were reported Unit 62 for the four year period information personnel, Geese averaged 57 - Colo. G.F.& P.). QUAIL 1-1/2 miles above Pickett Corral ranch �35B on East Fork Escalante Creek by Gary Myers and others in 1966. These had apparently moved across the Uncompahgre Plateau from the Indian Creek release site a distance of about 25 miles (Rogers 1967). As of 1972, the flock at Pickett Corral did not number in excess of 25 head (Burdick pers. corom.1972). Literature Cited Anderson, A. E. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. Braun, C. E. M.S. Thesis. 1970. 1965. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Hopper, R. M. 1968. April. Wetlands of Colorado. 1964 through 1967. Colo. Game, Fish and Tech. Publ. No. 22. Colo. 88 pp. Game bird surveys. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. (processed). 171 pp. 36 pp. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. Myers, G. T. In Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for migratory birds. Parks Dept. Rep. 130 pp. Band-tailed pigeon investigations, pp. 151-171. Game Res. Rep., Oct. Grieb, J. R. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. In Game Res. Rep., pp. variable by year �36B Rogers, G. E. 1964. Pub1. No. 16. 1967. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Tech. 132 pp. Study of mountain quail adaptability, pp. 215-218. Game Res. Rep., April - Part 2. In Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 107-241. 1968. The blue grouse in Colorado. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 1969. 23. The sharp-tailed grouse in Colorado. Sandfort, W. W. 1965. 1965. 8 pp. 94 pp. Colo. Game, Fish and (Mimeo). Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for pheasants. Dept. Rep. Tech. Pub1. No. Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for Gambe1's quail. Parks Dept. Rep. Colo. 63 pp. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Swope, H. M. Tech. Pub1. No. 21. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks 54 pp. W. T. McKean February 1972 �37B DEER KILLl SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE* BUCKS DOES FAWNS HUNT AND SEASON TOTAL 1956 1429 633 308 57 998 1957 2229 1261 863 293 2417 1958 3285 1181 827 381 2389 1959 4159 1789 1277 390 3456 1960 3374 1871 1392 546 3809 1961 4112 2729 2305 983 6017 1962 3201 1538 1313 478 3329 1963 3549 1654 1367 648 3669 1964 4315 2055 1536 475 4066 1965 4546 1701 1585 645 3931 1966 3524 985 681 216 1882 1967 3793 1553 838 227 2618 1968 2449 1060 651 162 1873 1969 4826 1988 1423 406 3817 1970 3794 1603 271 25 1899 ESM T ESM 2DM 2DM 1DM 1DM 1DM 1DM 1DM 3D 3D 10/15 - 10/31 12/1 - 12/31, In Part 11/17 - 11/26, In Part 10/15 - 11/17 12/1 - 12/31, In Part 10/15 - 11/2 11/3 - 12/31, In Part 10/17 - 11/3 11/4 - 11/17 10/17 - 11/30 10/21 - 11/30 12/2 - 12/31, In Part IDM 1DM 1DM 10/20 - 11/4 10/19 - 11/7 11/23 - 12/15, In Part 1DM 1DM 1DM ES ES 10/17 - 11/5 10/16 - 11/5 12/4 - 12/19, In Part 10/15 - 11/6 12.fj - 12iJ.l, in .l:'art ES ES ES IDM ES ES 1DM AO ES 10/21 - 11/9 10/19 - 11/7, In Part 10/19 - 10/21 and 10/22 -- 11/7, In Part 10/18 - 11/6, In Part 10/18 - 10/20 and 10/21 - 11/11, In Part 10/17 - 11/6, In Part 10/17 - 11/6l In Part * Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses. ES Either Sex, One Deer. T Two Deer, Either Sex, One License. ESM Either Sex Multiple (Unlimited licenses and deer per individual). 2DM Two Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). 1DM One Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). 3D Three Deer, One Each Either Sex 1st and 2nd licenses and 3rd deer coupon with 2nd license. Note:1DH evolved into 2D, HC or Two Deer, Hunter's Choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. B. D. Baker September 1971 �38B ARCHERY DEER KILL AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT. UNIT 62 YEAR u .u BUCKS DOES FAWNS TOTAL HUNT AND SEAS ON 1954 ES 10/1 1955 ES ES T 10/1 10/15 10/15 - 10/l3 10/31, In Part 10/31, In Part ES ESM ESM 10/1 10/15 11/17 - 10/14 10/31 11/26, In Part 2DM 2DM 10/1 12/1 ES 1DM ES 9/1 10/15 11/3 ES 1DM 1956 1957 1958 3 1959 0 4 0 2 3 0 6 10/14 11/17 12/31, In Part - 9/30 11/2 12/31, In Part 9/15 10/17 - 9/30 11/17 1960 0 4 0 4 ES 1DM ?DM 9/10 10/17 P/P - 9/30 11/30 )2/3', In PE!r"r 1961 5 2 10 17 3D 3D 3D 8/26 10/21 12/2 - 9/10 ES IDM ·8/25 10/20 ES 1DM 1DM 8/17 10/19 11/23 ES 1DM 8/15 10/17 ES 1DM 1DM 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1.1 2 11 15 25 24 33 14 4 16 40 10 13 0 0 5 7 0 6 16 15 36 52 34 52 11130 12/31, In Part - 9/23 11/4 - - 9/8 11/7 12/15, In Part - 9/l3 11/5 8/21 10/16 12/4 - 9/12 11/5 12/19, In Part ES ES ES 8/20 10/15 12/3 - 9/18 11/6 12/11, In Part ES ES 8/19 10/21 - 9/17 11/9 �39B Archery Deer Kill & Seasons - Wildlife Management Unit 62 (Continued) YEAR u .u BUCKS 1968 !if HUNT AND SEASON DOES FAWNS TOTAL 15 7 11 33 ES ES ES 1DM 8/17 10/19 10/19 10/22 9/15 11/7, In Part 10/21 and 11/7, In Part 1969 2/ 17 0 0 17 AO ES ES lDM 8/16 10/18 10/18 10/2i 9/14 11/6, In Part 10/20 and 11/11, In Part 1970 ~/ 44 18 0 62 AO ES AO ES 8/15 9/1 10/17 10/17 8/31 9/20 11/6, In Part 11/6, In Part 1/ Years 1954-1956 free permits were issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by application only. Years 1957-1960 there was no issue of special permits; archery hunting was allowed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1971 separate archery license regulations have been in effect. Jj Inconclusive kill data are omitted for years 1954-1957. ]j 237 total res ident and non-res ident archery licenses recorded for unit. !if 119 total resident and non-resident archery licenses recorded for unit. 2/ 1,744 total hunts recorded for unit. ~/ 271 total hunters recorded for unit. Hunt symbols are explained as follows: .No t e : AO ES ESM lDM lDMA T 2DM 3D = 3DA = Antlered Only, One Deer. Either Sex, One Deer. Either Sex Multiple (Unlimited licenses and deer per individual). One Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 2,deer per individual), which evolved into 2D, HC or ~vo Deer, Hunter's Choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. One Deer Multiple, One Must Be Antler1ess (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). Two Deer, Either Sex, One License. Two Deer Multiple, Either Sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). Three Deer, One Each Either Sex (1st and 2nd licenses and 3rd deer coupon with 2nd license). Three Deer, One Must Be Antlerless (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd 'license). B. D. Baker September 1971 �ELK KILL, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 YE~/ HUNTING 2/ PRES SURE- BULLS COWS CALVES TOTAL 1957 12 0 0 0 0 1958 116 11 0 0 11 AO 10/15 - 11/2 1959 69 23 0 0 23 AO 10/17 - 11/3 1960 97 18 0 0 18 AO 10/17 - 11/6 1961 170 17 0 0 17 AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 204 19 0 0 19 AO 10/20 - 11/4 1963 243 33 0 0 33 AO 10/19 - 11/7 1964 212 32 0 0 32 AO 10/17 - 11/5 1965 276 31 6 2 39 AO + 30 Asopl/ 10/16-11/5 1966 293 44 2 6 52 AO + 50 ASOP]./ 10/15 - 11/3 HUNT AND SEASON 25 AO-rl-/ 10/15 - 10/31 ~ I 1967 352 47 8 0 55 AO + 50 ASOP~f 10/21 - 11/9 1968 536 50 34 4 88 AO + 50 ASOpl/ 10/19 - 11/7 1969 591 182 17 0 199 AO + 50 ASOP]/ 10/18 - 11/6 1970 536 161 9 0 170 AO + 50 ASO-rl-/ 10/17 - 11/6 1/ Unit was closed to elk hunting within recent history prior to 1957. Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales expressed in number of licenses. Years of antlered only seasons, either singly or combined with cow permits, very probably yield conservative hunting pressure statistics. Despite difficulties in verifying the foregoing assumption, unknown numbers of deer hunters also carry elk licenses hoping for a bull elk. This happens regardless of how low elk populations might be. Thus, because of low success and tendency (above statewide nonreporting percentages that are used in projections) for unsuccessful elk license holders not to report by card, elk present in Unit 62 probably receive extra pressure over that indicated by card return projection years of antlered only seasons. 2/ (Footnotes continued on following page) . �41B ELK KILL, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62, continued 1/ Unit is combined with Unit 61. Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO AOP ASOP = = Antlered Only. Antlered Only Permits. Antlerless Only Permits. B. D. Baker September 1971 �42B ARCHERY ELK KILL AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 HUNTING / PRESStJREl BULLd/ YEAR 1/ cowd/ CALVEd/ TOTAL~/ HUNT AND SEASON 1965 AO + 30 ASOP 10/16 - 11/5 '1966 AO + 50 ASOP 10/15 1967 1/ ES AO + 50 ASOP 9/2 - 9/17 10/21 - 11/9 1968 .!i/ 11/3 0 3 0 3 ES AO + 50 ASOP 8/17 - 9/15 10/19 - 11/7 1969 134 i/ 0 0 0 0 AO AO + 50 ASOP 8/16 9/14 10/18 - 11/6 1970 32 ~/ 0 0 5 5 AO ES 8/15 9/1 - 8/31 - 9/20 1/ 1957 was first elk season in recent history; and, the antlered only regular elk season permits for Units 61 and 62 combined that year could have been legally obtained, however unlikely, by archers. For the years of 1958-1964, archery elk hunting was permitted for regular elk license holders during --------,--J..C:5U..1..0,L ~- ...•.---- ~c:a.OVLLO ..1 ..... ULLUCJ.. 4....1 .•...•..•...... ..l aUL.-LCLC:U .•..._, VLL..J....Y ,_ .•.. ..! LC51.1..Lac.....LUUb " Ob WC.L..L _ .•... C1b c 1nt:c .1.Ul... .1..'JU-l-..L/V/ ,nt:n _ .L..C- gular seasons under antlered only-specified antlerless (cow) permit regulations. ~/ Dash denotes no data availab12. Zero means no kill(s) reccrded. 1/ First year that archery elk licenses were authorized and sold. ~/ Does not include harvest by archers during gun season. i/ Expressed as number of hunts. ~/ Expressed as total participating resident and nonresident license holders. Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO = Antlered Only, One Elk. ES = Either ASOP = Ant1erless Only Permits (For Units 61 and 62 combined). Sex, One Elk B. D. Baker September 1971 �43B BLACK BEAR HARVESTS AND SEASONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 YEAR HARVEST 1/ 1955 39R 8/15 - 10/1; regular deer and regular archery bear seasons. 1956 8R 5/15 - 8/15; regular and post deer and regular archery bear seasons. 1957 14R 4/1 through regular deer, elk and archery seasons ending 11/15/1957. 1958 24R+5S=29 4/1 through regular deer, elk, and archery seasons and extended deer season, in par t , ending 11/15/1958. 1959 17R 4/1 through regular deer, elk, and archery seasons ending 11/1/1959. 1960 13R+3.:3=16 4/i - 9/15; regular deer, elk, and archery seasons ending 11/6/1960. 1961 19R+9S=28 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/9/1961. 1962 22R+3S=25 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/4/1962. 1963 20R+5S=25 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/7/1963. 1964 29R+14S=43 4/1 - 9/15; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/5/1964. 1965 9R 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/5/1965. 1966 18R+21S=39 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6/1966. 1967 18 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/9/1967. 1968 16R 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/7/1968. 1969 3R+13S=16 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6/1969, in part~ regular deer season ending 11/11/1969, in part. 1970 15R+16S=31 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6/1970. HUNT AND SEASON ~/, 3/ 1/ R=Regular Big Game (Deer and/or Elk) License; S=Bear License for Special Spring, Summer, or Spring-Summer seasons; Unaugmented numbers represent total animals harvested not differentiated by season and license controls. ~/ 1955 was the first year of bear license sales and corresponding seasons regulations. From 1955-1959, 1 bear per bear license and/or 1 bear per bear coupon on either or both deer and elk licenses were allowed in bag limit; from 1960-1965, same as 1955-1959, except bear license variously invalid after 9/1 or 9/30, as noted, when bear coupon on deer and elk licenses covered take and possession for the regular big game seasons; 1966, same as for 1960-1965, except one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year was the allowable bag limit; for 1967 to the present, 1 bear, hunter's choice, per bear or sportsman's license per person per calendar year, only during special bear and regular deer and elk seasons. See deer and elk gun and archery kill and season summary tables herein and/or (footnotes continued on next page) �44B BLACK BEAR HARVESTS AND SEASONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 (Continued). !:..I continued annual regulations for dates and more details of seasons. 11 Dogs were permitted except during bear seasons concurrent with deer and elk seasons. B. D. Baker September 1971 �45B MOUNTAIN LION HARVESTS AND·SEASONS - WILDLIFEMANAGEMENT·UNIT·62 YEAR 1/ HARVEST I/ HUNT AND SEASON 1965 (0 - Mesa Co., 1965-66) 10/16/65 - 3/31/66 West Slope; 10/23/65 3/31/66 East Slope; 1 either sex. 1966 (5M - Mesa Co., 1966-67) 1/1/66 - 12/31/66 counties west of Continental Divide plus Jackson, Conejos, Alamosa, Mineral, Saguache, Rio Grande, Costilla, Archuleta, Hinsdale, and San Juan counties; 3 lions per year. 10/22/66 - 2/28/67 counties east of Continental Divide except those above; 3·lions per year. 1967 No Data 9/1/67 - 3/31/68 statewide; 9/1/67 - 5/31/68 west of State H~.Jy.1113 and north of U. S. Hwy. #6; 1 either sex per year. 1968 o 9/1/68 - 9/1/69; 1 either sex per year. 1969 o 9/1/69 - 3/31/70; 1 either sex per year. 1970 o 10/17/70 - 11/6/70 concurrent with regular big game seasons; 1 lion, either sex. 1/ Bounty of $50 per lion was paid within period of May 7, 1929 through March 12, 1965; lions became protected by statute July 1, 1965 when licensed hunting was authorized. 2/ Data for Mesa County for years 1965-1966 are from Dixon (1967:147). Dixon (1967: 152) also said that lions were uncommon in Hesa County south of the Colorado River to indicate that kills originating in the Unit 62 portion of Mesa County are improbable (but very possible). Data for 1968-1970 are hopefully accurate under compulsory reporting regulations for hunters, although the present damage law allows lax reporting of kills of suspected marauders by offended citizens. LITERATURE CITED Dixon, K. R. 1967. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation. pp. 147, 152. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 73-310. B. D. Baker September 1971 �46B SMALL GAME HARVESTS AND HUNTING UNIT 19 ]j, SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT NUMBER SPECIES ]..1 PRESSURE Jj OF HUNTERS HARVEST 1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 Closed Closed 44 Closed Closed 344 Blue grouse 465 663 396 1,036 437 604 Chukar 460 417 418 1,072 404 710 1,499 1,107 2,000 10,447 7,737 15,159 No Data 276 483 No Data 2,914 6,6~4 486 1,032 550 1,237 3,426 1,398 Pheasant 3,196 3,588 4,652 14,363 15,900 14,824 Ptarmigan 0 30 34 0 0 34 Sage grouse 95 274 36 144 767 0 49 249 0 157 236 0 116 280 367 211 1,187 686 Band-tailed pigeon partridge Cottontail rabbit Dove Gambel's quail Sharp-tailed Snowshoe hare grouse 1/ See Chap. 3- Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Division Laws and Regulations Handbook; Wildlife Management Unit 62 is wholly contained whithin Small Game Management Unit 19 and approximates the latter's sout~western onethird. 1/ Colorado Small Game and/or Waterfowl Harvest Surveys reports for 19551970 also present hunting pressure and kill by region and county, including Mesa, Delta, Montrose, and Ouray Counties; harvests by Small Game Hanagement Unit are Only available in reports of 1968-1976. . 1/ Since July 1, 1969, wild turkey has had legal status as a "game bird" within the broader category of "small game." Prior to 1969, the turkey was treated as "big game." Because of these irregularities and the bird's relatively high ranking as a game species, separate information has been presented in the table "Turkey Harvests and Hunting Pressure" elsewhere in this report. B. D. Baker September 1971 �47B DUCK AND GOOSE HARVESTS AND HUNTING PRESSURE DELTA, MONTROSE, AND OURAY COUNTIES II, 1954-1970 GEESE 'lj DUCKS YEAR EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST EST. NO HUNTERS EST. HARVEST 1954 No Data 14,550 No Data 0 1955 1,119 8,437 83 25 1956 1957 No Data No Data 7,706 6,238 No Data No 'Data 0 24 1958 1959 1960 1961 980 862 708 55G 6,798 3,564 4,908 2,661 78 0 78 35 175 0 31 0 1962 650 2,167 99 166 1963 499 1,726 40 0 1964 1,053 4,040 104 76 1965 815 3,963 64 0 1966 107 11 5,265 48 0 1967 1,014 3,958 0 0 1968 982 8,090 13 19 1969 1,082 6,064 0 0 1970 1,081 8,634 25 19 ~I Totals for these three counties are best available but only roughly comparable indicators of harvests and pressures for Unit 62. Mesa County data are.omitted in assuming that there is negligible pressure on that county's portion of Unit 62. 11 Accuracy of data is questionable and probably due to sampling difficulties associated with very small populations, geese and goose hunters alike. 11 Obvious inaccuracy. About 1,000 hunters would be more correct. B. D. Baker September 1971 �TURKEY HARVESTS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 11 HARVEST YEAR TOMS 19541955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1/ 1970 HENS POULTS TOTAL 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 53 52 35 56 45 18 7 5 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 3 2 16 124 100 54 149 135 37 18 8 5 2 0 0 3 2 6 52 31 16 56 58 8 7 3 0 0 0 0 0 8 19 17 3 37 32 11 4 0 3 2 0 1/ For years 1954-1967; effective 1968, Unit 62 became Game Management area. ]j Expressed Unit 19, so data for years as "total hunters" HUNTING PRESSURE u N.D. N.D. N.D. 3 11 29 261 203 149 221 268 171 58 18 15 N.D. 14 part of Small 1968-1970 apply to the latter for years of records. N.D. == No Data. 1/ The legal definition of wild turkey was changed July 1, 1969 from that of "big game" to that of "game bird," the latter also within the broader category of "small game." B. D. Baker September. 1971 �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 Source of Stock Species Date Males Females Young Total Release Area Pronghorn 2-16-49 5 12 0 17 l.;rells Gulch near U. S. Hwy. 50 NW Delta 1/. 12-30-49 1 5 7 13 " " " rr " " 2-11-50 6 10 0 16 " " " " " " 1-29-70 - - - 50 " " II " " " Wild-trapped; Chico Basin E. of Pueblo Wild-trapped; Ingle Rch.E. of Co10.Spgs. Wild-trapped; 20 mi. W. of Grover Wild-trapped; Chico Basin Reference Elliott (1949) Bear (1969) Till (1950) Bear (1969) XiII (1950) Bear (1969) Mink (pers. comm , 1972) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sandfort's files Wild-trapped from Kannah Cr.,3/4 mi. from 16 8 8 Chukar 2/ 1-02-52 11-09-52 12-09-52 14 6 16 11 - 30 17 12-18-52 3-03-54 3-24-55 11-09-56 11 7 18 3 99 30 confl. W/Gunnison River. Dry Creek, Montrose Co. Kannah Cr.,3/4 mi. from confl. W/Gunnison River. " " " " " " Sandfort's files Sandfort's files II II II II " II " " Sandfort's files 8andfort's files Sandfort's files Sandfort's files - - 59 15 40 15 - 3-21-63 4-20-64 7-14-64 3-16-67 - - - - - - 150 258 55 127 1938 - - - 15 Musser's Rch.-Escalante 1938 - - - 15 Head Spring Creek 12-30-48 3 9 - 12 Log Hi11 Mesa 1-15-58 3-07-58 2 2 5 1 - 7 3 Big Dominguez Canyon - - " " II " " " II II Dry Creek, Montrose Co. Cottonwood Cr.; 833, T50N, R13W. Vicinity of Montrose •. Escalante Creek. II II Escalante Cr. Game farm. Wild-trapped from Escalante Cr. Game farm. II II II " " Roubideau Creek. " 8andfort's Sandfort's Sandfort's Sandfort's files files files files --------------------------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------------Hild turkey l/Transplant - " " Fks. Unknown " Wild-trapped from Turkey Ranch. " " " " " " " Myers (pers. comm. 1972) Myers (pers . comm. 1972) Burget (1960) Burget (1960) Burget (1960) actually made in Unit 411 but close enough to be effective for Unit 62. ~/No records are available for years prior to 1952. Division transplanting program9 very likely included releases in Unit 62 and was the origin of trappable populations using game farm stock in the 1940's, in Escalante Creek. .po. 1..0 b:l �SOB GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGflfENT UNIT 62 (Continued) Literature Cited Bear, G. D. 1969. Antelope transplants in Colorado. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 70. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. October. 3 pp. Burget, M. L. 1960. Wild turkey development, pp. 11-42. In Quart. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 110 pp. (processed)-.Elliott, R. R. 1949. Antelope restoration, pp. 19-24. In Quart. Prog. Rept., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 98 pp. (processed). Till, C. E. 1950. Rept., April. Antelope restoration, pp. 17-21. In Quart. Prog. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp-.-(processed). B. D. Baker November 1971 �51B· BIG GAME MAMMAL WILDLIFE RESEARCH MANAGEMENT REFERENCES UNIT 62 BLACK BEAR Boyd, R. J. 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Gilbert, D. L. 1951. Fur resources study and b~ar investigations. pp. 1-8. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. 1951. Fur resources study and bear investigations. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 1953. Rep., Jan. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 59-60. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. Gilbert, P. E. 1946. Bear studies. Dept. Game and Fish. 4 pp. 1948. Rep., Oct. pp. 1-9. 117 pp. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog. Rep., June. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 30-34. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. Colo. In Quart. Prog. 1952. Checking station survey. pp • .39-43. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Jan. pp. 59-61. Checking station survey, Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. 1953. April. Gilbert, 128. In Quart. Prog. Rep., P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Checking station survey. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Hammit, H. C. 1950. Deer-elk~bear investigations. pp. 10-14. Proj. \o.1-38-R. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 21 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colorado big game harvest, Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp. 1959-1965. pp. 125182 pp. Fed. Aid Colo. Dept. \0.1. T. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for black bear. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 6 pp. McKean, Tigner, J. R., and D. L. Gilbert. 1960. A contribution toward a bibliography on the black bear. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Tech. Publ. No. 6. 43 pp. �52B ELK Boyd, R. J. 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for elk. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 61 pp. Gilbert, P. F. 1953. Checking station survey. pp. 59-61. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. In Quart. Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954~ Checking station survey, pp. 125-128. IE. Quart. Prog. Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. Hammit, H. C. 1951. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 16-22. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colorado big game harvest, 1959-1965. Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp , Colo. Dept. Rogers, G. E. 1951. Checking station survey. pp. 32-33. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. In Quart. Prog. MULE DEER Anderson, A. E. Rep , , Jan. 1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 113-128. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. In Quart. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Fed. Aid Job Compl. Rep., Proj. W-38-R-13. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345-420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush/and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Special Rep., No. 21. July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. 1969. Sagebrush vegetation before and six years after 2,4-D application. Outdoor Facts, No. 67. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 4 pp. Baker, B. D. 1955. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 149-157. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 117-175. �53B 1956. Deer-elk investigations, pp. 43-64. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-102. 1957. A directory of Colorado big game exclosures concerning their locations, studies and other general information. Spec. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. 1961. A directory of Colorado big game exclosures concerning program history, study techniques, location and other general information. Spec. Rep. - revised edition, Fed. Aid Proj. W-10l-R-3, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 51 pp. 1964. Game range investigations. pp. 3-15. In Game Res. Rep. , Jan. - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. l-12l. 1966. Game range investigations. pp. 53-67. July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. In Game Res. Rep. , 93 pp. 1970. Game range investigations. pp. 15-58. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 126 pp. Boyd, R. J. 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. Carhart, A. H. 1940. Deer-elk survey. Vol. 4. Colo. Game and Fish Commission. 19 pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-4-R. Gilbert~ P. F. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 14-18. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 54 pp. In Quart. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 31-34. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 83 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 30-34. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 42-45. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 67 pp. In Quart. Prog. pp. 47-5l. 98 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 33-36. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 84 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 41-44. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 66 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 60-64. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. �Sl:·B 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigati.ons. Three Year Sum. Rep., 1947-1950. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 21 pp. 1952. Checking station survey. pp. 39-43. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1952. Deer-elk investigations. pp , 41-64,66-67, 69-82, 83-84. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 171 pp. 1953. Checking station survey. pp. 59-61. In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. 1954. Rep ,. , July. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 129-143. Colo. Dept..Game and Fish. 182 pp. In Quart. Prog. Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Checking station survey. pp. 125-128. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. Gilbert, P. F., et a1. 1951. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 109-110. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. Hammit, H. C. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 10-14. Proj. W-38-R. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 21 pp. 1951. Deer-elk-bear investigations. p p , 16-22. W-38-R. Jan. Colo. Dent. Game and Fish. 33 pp. In Fed. Aid Fed. Aid Proj. Hammit, H. C., and P. F. Gilbert. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 35-37. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colorado big game harvest, 1959-1965. Special Mgmt. Rep., No.1. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp. Jeep, F. T., and L. E. Riordan. 1947. Deer-elk studies. In ~uart. Prog. Rep., Jan. - Part IV. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 7 pp , Kufe1d, R. C. 1968. Game range investigations. In Game Res. Rep., July _ Part I. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-121. 1969. Game range investigations. pp. 299-304. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 249-393. 1970. Game range investigations. pp. 59-94. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-126. McKean, W. T. 1958. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 1-23. In Quart. Rep., July - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-103. Medin, D. E. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for mule deer. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 4 pp. Minnich, D. W. 1969. Vegetative response and pattern of deer use following chaining of pinon and juniper forests. J. Range Mgmt., Abstracts of Papers, 22nd. Ann. Htg. Amer. Soc. Range Hgmt. 59 pp. �55B Riordan, L. E. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. lLf- 30. Quart. Prog. Rep. , Jan. Colo. Dept. Game·and Fish. 49 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1951. Checking station survey. pp. 32-33. Proj. W-38-R, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. In Fed. Aid Shepherd, H. R. 1966. Game range investigations. pp. 91-92. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-93. Williams, J. E. 1951. Prog. Rep ,, July. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 68-71. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. 1956. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 1-10. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 119 pp. Williams, J. E., et al. 1952. Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 57-62. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 62 pp. In PRONGHORN Anderson, A. E. 1965. Colorado long range management plans, 1965-1975, for antelope. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 6 pp. Douglas, G., and C. E. Till. 1950. Antelope surveys and investigations. Three Year Sum. Rep., 1947-1950, July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 9 pp. DcugLas ,': G. ,2nd S. Ogilvie. 1952. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. July. Antelope 1953. Antelope restoration. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Elliott, R. R. 1947. Prog. Rep., Oct. r as t or at Lon, pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 123-128. 129 pp. 168-17L 171 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Antelope investigations. pp. 1, 6-8. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 22 pp. .1949. Antelope restoration. pp. 19-24, 83-91. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 98 pp. In Quart. In Quart. Prog. Hoover, R. L. 1955. Antelope restoration. pp. 39-48. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-115. Hoover, R. 1., C. E. Till, and S. Ogilvie. 1959. The" antelope of Colorado. Tech. Bul., No.4. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 110 pp. Ogilvie, S., and R. L. Hoover. 1954. Antelope restoration. In Quart. Prog. Rep.; July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 94-104. 182 pp. Till, C. E. 1950. Antelope restoration. pp. 17-21. In Quart. Prog. Rep ;, April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. 1. C. Carlson October 1971 �56B SHALL GAME HAMMAL RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 62 COTTONTAIL RABBIT Anderson, A. E. Rep., Jan. 1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 113-128. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. In Quart. 1960. Deer-elk investigations, effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related Hildlife. Job Completion Rep_, July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush Hithin a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. De.pt.Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345-420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper Hinter range. Special Rep., No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Sandfort, W. W. 1951. Game bird surveys. pp. 45-47. Rep., July. 'Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Prog. Shepherd, H. R. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for cottontail rabbit. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. SNm\1SHOEHARE Shepherd, H. D. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for snOHshoe hare. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 11 pp. 1. C. Carlson October 1971 �57B NONGAME MAMMAL RESEARCH HILDLIFE MANAGEMENT REFERENCES UNIT 62 BOBCAT 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Boyd, R. J. Burget, M. L. 1957. The wild turkey in Colorado. Dept. Game and Fish. January. 68 pp. pp. 53-54. Colo. Burget, M. L., and D. M. Hoffman. 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 11-29. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. COYOTE 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Boyd, R. J. Burget, H, L. 1949. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. pp , 91-106. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. : .;. 1957. January. The wild turkey in Colorado. 68 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Burget, M. L., and D. M. Hoffman. 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 11-29. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp , 1956. Wild turkey investigations. pp. 107-131. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 103-138. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. SKUNK 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975. for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Boyd, R. J. Ourget, M. L. 1957. Fish. January. The wild turkey in Colorado. 68 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and �S8B Burget. M. 1., and D. M. Hoffman. 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investig at i.ons , pp , 11-29. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. 1954. Wild turkey investigations. pp , 25-30. Ren., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. In Quart. Prog. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Rutherford. \\1. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game. Fish and Parks. 12 pp. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �59B FURBEARER RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGE}-llNTUNIT 62 MINK Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource surveys, pp. 75-80. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. survey. Vol. 2 .. Jan. Colo. Game Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur resources and bear studies. Quart. Prog. Rep. , Oct. Colo. Dept. Game aud Fish. pp. 17-23. 60 pp. Nemanic, W. M. 1942. Fur resource and Fish Commission. 6 pp. In Rutherford, W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975. for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. MUSKRAT Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 57-66. Rep ,, Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 66 pp. 1950. April. Fur resource survey. pp. 93-101. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. 1950. July. Fur resource survey. pp. 75-80. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1951. Fur resource survey. Dept. Game and Fish. 8 pp. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Denney, R. N .• and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp , 1-3l. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 np , Nemanic, W. M. 1942. Fish Commission. Fur resource 6 pp. survey. Vol. 2, Jan. Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur resources and bear studies. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Colo. Game and 17-23. 60 pp. pp . In W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. Rutherford, WEASEL Denney. R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 93-101. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., �60B ____ 1950. July. Fur resource survey. pp , 75-80. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp , In Quart. Prog. Rep ,, Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Nemanic, H. M. 1942. Fish Commission. Fur resource 6 pp. survey. Vol. 2 •. .Ian , Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur resources and bear studies. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Colo. Game and pp , 17-23. 60 pp. In W. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975. for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. Rutherford, L. C. Carlson October 1971 �61B GAME BIRD RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 BAND-TAILED PIGEON Braun, C. E. 1970. The band-tailed pigeon. pp. 26-29. No.5, Sept.-Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Colo. Outdoors, 48 pp. 1970. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 151-171. Rep., Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 171 pp. In Game Res. Neff, J. A., and J. C. Culbreath. 1946. Colorado band-tailed pigeon. pp. 1-24. Fed. Aid Proj. 4-R. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 24 pp. BLUE GROUSE Aldrich, J. 1-1., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. -Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildl. Ser .• Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Anc1ersono A. E. Rep., Jan. ]q,)q. Deer-elk investiERtionl':. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 11.'1-128. Tn C)llRrt. 128 pp. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job Cornp L, Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp . 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ•• Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345-420. 1969. 2,4~D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Spec. Rep. No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Myers, G. T. season. 1965. Evaluation of a combined blue grouse-wild turkey hunting Outdoor Facts, No. 27. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1 p. Rogers, G. E. 1962. Game bird survey. pp. 121-131. Part 1. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-160. In Quart. Rep., July - 1963. Game bird survey. pp. 157-168,191. In Game Res. Rep., Oct.Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-241. �62B 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ptarmigan. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 16 pp. 196B. The blue grouse in Colorado. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 63 .pp. Tech. Pub1., No. 21. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Game bird surveys. p. 37. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp . Colo. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. CHUKAR Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. D.S.D.I. Fish and Wild1. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Bartmann, R. M. 1963. Game bird surveys. pp. 33-40,45-69. Rep., Oct. - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. In Game Res. pp , I-lOB .. 1964. Game bird survey. pp. 15l-17B. In Game Res. Rep., AprilPart II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 71-233. Evans, R. L., and W. W. Sandfort. 1957. Game bird survey. Quart. Rep,, Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 116 pp , pp. 55-67. In Hurd, C. L., and W. W. Sandfort. pp. 85-88. In 1955. Game bird survey. lOR - 1956. Game bird survey. pp. 75-81. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. nn rr· In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Manning, D. D. 1962. Game bird survey. pp. 9-16, 25-31. In Quart. Rep., July - Part I. .Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp , 1-160. Miller, J. 1959. Game bird survey. pp. 99-107,115-124. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 124 pp. In Quart. Rep ,, Miller, J., and W. W. Sandfort. 1959. Game bird survey. pp. 67-73. Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Game bird survey. pp. 51-52. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. 1950. Game bird survey. pp. 37-39. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. In In Quart. Prog. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Oct. 1951. Chukar census. pp. 22-31. Spec. Rep., Glenwood Sprgs. Wildl. Conf., Jan. 16-19. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 85 pp. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 37-41. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. BO-82. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. �63B 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 40~56. In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 62 pp. Oct. 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 93-95. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. 1953. Game bird survey. pp. 81-89. In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. 1953. Game bird survey. p. 107. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 129 pp. 1954. Game bird survey. pp. 13-33. In Quart. Prog. Repp., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 79 pp. 1954. Game bird survey. pp. 67-72. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. 1955. Game bird survey. pp. 17-18. Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 94 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1955. Game bird survey. pp. 82-84. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-115. 1957. Game bird survey. pp. 29-38,45-51. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-119. 1958. Game bird survev. DD. 129-134. In Quart. Rep •. July Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 105-181. 1959. Game bird survey. pp. 53-65. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. In Quart. Rep., Jan. 1959. Game bird survey. pp. 33-36. In Quart. Rep., April Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-116. 1960. Game bird survey. Dept. Game and Fish. 74 pp. pp. 49-54. 1960. Game bird survey. pp. 91-94. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 161 pp. In Quart. Rep., Jan. Colo. In Quart. Rep., April. 1961. Game bird surveys. pp. 119-126,139-155. In Quart. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 97-208. 1962. Game bird survey. pp. 17-23,33-44. In Quart. Rep., July Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-160. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for chukar partridge. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 18 pp. Sandfort, W. W., and D. Nolting. 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 89-91. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. White, C., and J. E. Hi1liams. 1960. Escalante. pp. 21-23. No.5, Sept.-Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 32 pp. In Colo. Outdoors, �64B GAMBEL'S QUAIL Sandfort, W. H. 1950. Game bird surveys. pp. 17-21. Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. Oct. 1950. Game bird survey. pp. 37-39. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Oct. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 80-82. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. Oct. 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 93-95. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. 1953. Game bird survey. pp. 81-89. In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. 1965. Colo. long range game species management plans, 19651975, for gambe1's quail. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 8 pp. Sandfort, W. W., and D. Nolting. 1952. Game bird surveys. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 89-9l. 105 pp. Sandfort, W. W., and H. M. Swope. 1954. Game bird survey. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 19-29. 113 pp. MOUNTAIN QUAIL , Hoffman, D. M. 1969. Game bird survey. pp. 155-158. April. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 181 pp. 1970. Game bird survey. pp. 167-169. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 198 pp. In Game Res. Rep., In Game Res. Rep., April. Rogers, G. E. 1965. Game bird survey, pp. 217-225. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. l75~235. 1967. Game bird survey. pp. 215-218. In Game Res. Rep., April Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 107-241. 1968. Game bird survey. pp. 113-116. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 131 pp. In Game Res. Rep., April. MOURNING DOVE Nolting, D., et a1. 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 99-101. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. Sandfort, W. H. 1950. Game bird survey. pp. 41-42. Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. In Quart. Prog. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, " �65B 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 42-ff3. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 83-84. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. 1954. Game bird survey. pp. 23-24. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. III pp. 1955. Game bird survey. pp. 91-92. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 115 pp. pp. 103-105. Sandfort, W. W., and D. Nolting. 1952. Game bird survey. 105 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. RING-NECKED PHEASANT Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D. 1., Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circula:r: No. 34. 23 pp. Figge, H. Jan. 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 45-60. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Figge, H., et al. 1953. Game bird survey. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. In Quart. Prog. Rep., pp. 75-86. 141 pp. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Game bird survey. pp. 17-21. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. Oct. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog. 1950. Game bird survey. pp. 1-12. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 44 pp. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 1-7. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 35 pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Jan. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 9-20. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. 1952. Game bird survey .. pp. 115-119. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 171 pp. In Quart. Prog., Rep., 1952. Game bird investigations. pp. 37-41. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. 1955. Game bird survey. pp. 1-9. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 94 pp. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan •. 1955. Game bird survey. pp. 49-63,65-69. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 115 pp. 1960. Game bird survey. pp. 37-55,59-65. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 161 pp. In Quart. Rep., April. �66B 1961. Game bird survey. pp. 97-102. In Quart. Rep., July _ Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp.97-20S. 1963. Game bird survey. pp. 213-223. In Game Res. Rep., Oct - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-241. Sandfort, W. W., and H. M. Swope, 1954. Game bird survey. In Quart. Prog. Rep.) Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Stiehm, H. A. 1950. Game bird survey. p p . 1-4. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. SO pp. pp. 19-29. 113 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Swope, H. M. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for pheasant. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 54 pp. SAGE GROUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildl. Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp , Anderson, A. E. Rep., Jan. 1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 113-12S. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 12S pp. In Quart. 1960. Deer-elk investigations, effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job Completion Rep. , J~ly~ C0lc. Dept. G~~e ~~d Fish. 72 pp. ---- 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Vniva, Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush within a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep , , July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 345420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Special Rep., No. 21~ July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1955. July - Part II. Game bird survey. pp. 123~125. "In Quart. Rep., Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 105-lS1. 1963. Game bird survey. pp. 13-32. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. _ Part 1. ~olo. Dept. "Game, Fish and Parks. pp. I-IDS. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks. 132 pp. Tech. Publ., No. 16. �67B SHARP-TAILED GROUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.I., Fish and WildIe Ser., Circular No. 34. 23 pp. Anderson, A. E. Rep., Jan. 1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 113-128. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. In Quart. 1960. Deer-elk investigations, effects of sagebrush~radication by chemical means on deer and related Hildlife. Job Completion Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in Hestern Colorado before and tHO months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 130 pp. 1966. An investigation of 2,4-D application to sagebrush witain a mountain shrub-conifer complex, Uncompahgre National Forest. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp , 345-420. 1969. 2,4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use of upper winter range. Special Rep., No. 21, July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1963. Oct. - Part II. Game bird survey. pp. 187-192. In Game Res. Rep., Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp.109-24L 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ptarmigan. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 16 pp •. 1965. Game bird survey. pp. 209-214. In Game Res. Rep., April Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 175-235. Nov. 1969. The sharp-tailed grouse in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 94 pp. Tech. Publ., No. 23, Rogers, G. E., and F. D. Stearns. 1964. Game bird survey. pp. 291-341. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part III. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 235-397. WATERFOHL Funk, H. D. 1970. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 19-40. Rep., Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 171 pp. In Game Res. Grieb, J. R. 1959. Waterfowl surveys and investigations. pp. 145-155. In Quart. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 145-238. 1960. Waterfmv1 investigations. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 103 pp. pp , 93-103. In Quart. Rep ., Oct. �68B 1961. Waterfowl investigations. pp ..9-21. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 103 pp. Oct. In Quart. Rcp ,, 1962. Waterfowl surveys and investigations. pp. 15-25. Quart. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 137 pp. In .< ---'. 1965. Rep , , Oct. 1966. Rep , , Oct. 1967. Rep , , Oct. 1968. Rep , , Oct. 1969. Rep., Oct. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 23-40. In Game Res. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 199 pp . Migratory bird investigations. pp, 17...;.31. In Game Res. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 187 pp. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 15-30. In Game Res. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 103 pp. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 15-31. CGlo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 135 pp. In Game Res. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 39-56. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 162 pp. In Game Res. Grieb, J. R., and G. N. Hunter. 1963. Waterfowl surveys and investigations. pp. 1-20. In Game Res. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 51 pp. 1964. Rep., July. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 65-78. In Game Res. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 78 pp. Hopper, R. M. 1965. Res. Rep , , Oct. Migratory bird investigations. pp. 41-58. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 199 pp. In Game 1968. Wetlands of Colorado. Tech. Pub L; , No. 22, March. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 89 pp. Sandfort, W. W. 1950. Game bird surveys. pp. 46-51. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. Colo. In Quart. Prog. Rep., WILD TURKEY Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U.S.D.I., Fish and Wild~. Ser., Circular 34. 23 pp. Burget, M. L. 1946. Fish. 21 pp , Colorado wild turkey. Vol. II. Colo. Dept. Game and 1948. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 47-62. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1949. Rep. J Wild turkey surveys and investigations. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. No. pp. 91-106. In Quart. In Quart.Prog. �69B \1949. Wild turkey development. pp. 3-lS.ln Quart. Prog. Rep.',April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 9S pp0';~. 1951. Wild turkey rehabilitation in Colorado. pp. 7-17. Spec. Rep. Glenwood Sprgs. Wildl. Conf,, Jan. 16-19. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 85 pp. Jan. 1957. The wild turkey in Colorado. 68 pp , 1960. Wild turkey development. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 110 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 5-:-42.In Quart. Rep., July. In Quart. Rep., 1961. Wild turkey Oct. Colo. Dept. Game .1963. Wild turkey investigations.'pp. 71-85. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 109.pp. In Game Res. Rep., Burget, M. L., and C. Ford. 1951. Wild turkey development. pp. 1-7. Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 64 pp. In Burget, M. L., andD. M. Hoffman. 1950. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. Three Year Sum. Rep., 1947-1950, July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 4 pp. 1950. Wild turkey investigations. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. lS pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-39-R, Oct. " 1951. Wild turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 11-29. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. 1952. \.Jildturkey investigati6ns. pp , 1-5. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 62 pp. In In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1952. Wild turkey investigations. pp , 1-9,11-14,21-'24. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. 1953. Wild turkey investigations. pp. 19-33. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. 1953. Wild turkey investigations~ pp. 1-6. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 129 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , In Quart. Prog. Rep. , 1954. \-Jildturkey investigations. pp. 13-24. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , 1955. Wild turkey investigations. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-S,13-19. 108 pp. 1957. Wild turkey investigations. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 116 pp. pp. 69-86. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Rep., Oct. �70B 1958. Wild turkey investigations. pp, 1117-169. In Quart. Rep ,, July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 105-181. Evans, R. L. 1963. Wild turkey investigaUons. pp. 71-85. Rep , , April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 109 pp. In Game Res. Hoffman, D. M. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for wild turkey. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 11 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1965. Colo. big game harvest, 1959-1965. Special Mgmt. Rep. No. 1. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 41 pp. Myers, G. T. 1963. Game bird survey. pp. 173-178. In Game Res. Rep., Oct. - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-241. 1964. Part III. Game bird survey. pp. 243-280. In Game Res. Rep., April _ Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 235-397. 1965. Evaluation of a combined blue g rouse-wi Ld turkey hunting season. Outdoor Facts, No. 27. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1 p. 1965. Reliability of turkey sex and age ratio data based on hunter report card returns. Outdoor Facts, .No , 29. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 2 pp. 1965. Game bird survey. pp. 91-174. In Game Res. Rep., April Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-174. 1966. Game bird survey. pp. 69-84. In Game Res. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 192 pp. 1967. Game bird survey. pp. 167-182,205-211. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 107-241. 1968. Game bird survey. pp , 71,99-110. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 131 pp. 1969. Game bird survey. pp. 107,153. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 181 pp. In Game Res. Rep , , April. In Game Res. Rep., April. 1969. The topic is turkey. pp. 30-34. Colo. Outdoors, No.5, Sept.-Oct. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 48 pp. 1970. Game bird survey. pp , 161,165. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 198 pp. In Game Res. Rep , , April. Sheats, C. C. 1970. Hy experience w Lth the turkey. pp , 30-31. Colo. Outdoors, No. 30, May-June. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 48 pp. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �7lB GENERAL MAMHALIAN REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 Anthony, H. E. 1928. Field book of North American mammals. Putnam's Sons, New York. Armstrong, D. M. 1972. 674 pp. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Hall, E. R., and K. R. Kelson. Ronald Press Co. Lechleitner, R. R. New York. 1969. Boulder, Colo. 1959. The mammals of North America. 1162 pp. Wild mammals of Colorado. N. Y. 1955. List of North American recent Bulletin ?05. 954 pp. The mammal guide. Doubleday & Co., Inc. Garden City, 384 pp. Warren, R. R. Okla. Pruett Publ. Co. 254 pp. mannnals. Smithsonian lnst.,Washington, D. C. 1954. Univ. 415 pp. 2 Vols. Miller, G. S., Jr., and R. Kellogg. Palmer, R. S. G. P. 1942. The mammals of Colo. Univ. of Okla. Press, Norman, 330 pp. L. C. Carlson February 1972 �72B GENERAL AVIAN REFERENCES WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 62 Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. of Nat. Hist., Den., 2 Vol. 895 pp. Birds of Colorado. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Hist., Den. 168 pp. Davis, W. A. 61 pp. 1969. Birds of western Colorado. Den. Mus. Den. Mus. of Nat. Colo. Field Ornithologists. Kortright, F. A. 1943. The ducks, geese, and swans of North America. The Amer. Wildl. Institute, Wash. D.C. 476 pp. Linduska, J. P. 1964. Waterfowl tomorrow. Wildl., Wash. D.C. 770 pp , U.S.D.I. Bur.Sp. Pearson, T. G. 1940. N.Y. 289 pp. Birds of America. Peterson, R. T. 1941. Boston. 240 pp. A field guide to western birds. Robbins, C. D~, B. Bruun, and H. S. Zim. Golden Press, N.Y. 340 pp. Fish and Garden City Publ. Co., Inc., 1966. Houghton Mifflin Co., Birds of North America. L. C. Carlson October 1971 �73B CENSUS AREAS AND ROUTES - \.;rILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 62 MULE DEER The pellet group count data, discussed in the foregoing section on BIG GANE HAMMAL ABUNDANCE, constitute one fairly recent attempt to establish deer population trend data for Unit 62, however meagre. More detailed tables and maps concerning locations, dates, and results of this work are available in the files of Federal Aid Project W-10l-R (B. D. Baker unpublished). Currently the unit is sampled by four aerial trend areas. Sex ratio data, both pre and post hunting, are also gathered throughout the area. ELK Incidental to aerial deer pre and post hunt sex ratio counts~ elk are tallied in Units 61 and 62 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). BLACK BEAR Incidental to aerial deer pre and post hunt sex ratio counts, black bear are tallied in Units 61 and 62 (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). PRONGHORN Annual aerial census of pronghorns in Units 62, 41, and 411 have been conducted by the Southwest Regional personnel. For results see that office. SAGE GROUSE Strutting ground counts were made by Rogers (1964) on Sims Nesa and on Dominguez Creek in 1960. A brood count route on the latter area was �14B established in 1959. Currently, all sage grouse counting has been discontinued due to low populations. (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). BLUE GROUSE A blue grouse census route was established by Rogers (1963) in 1961 and repeated in 1962 and 1963. Units 61 and 62. It lay along the Divide Road between This route was 62.5 miles long and was divided into five sections of approximately 12.5 miles each. The sections varied as to range type traversed, elevation, and water proximity. The purpose was to determine the feasibility of counting birds on specifi~ production routes. Brood counts were made all three years; "hooting" counts were attempted in 1962 along parts of the same route. Currently, all blue grouse counting has been discontinued (Burdick pers. comm. 1972) . SHARP-TAILED GROUSE Counts of sharp tails on dancing grounds were made by Rogers (1969) in Unit 62 as follows: near the junction of Divide Road and DOT Cow Camp Road, near T-Bone Springs, Sa'Wffiill Hesa on old Paradox Road, and at an unidentified spot on the south end of Uncompahgre Plateau in Ouray County. Location maps for two of these sites appear in Rogers (1969) and lists of all by county. Currently these counts have been discontinued (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). GAMBEL'S QUAIL During the period 1950-52 Gambel's quail counts were made incidental to pheasant crowing and brood counts in Unit 62 (Sandfort 1950-1952). �75B Routes covered probably varied yearly as: 1. Delta-Montrose, Colona. in length, but were identified 2. Pea Green Corner-Montrose, 3. Shavano Valley- No counts have been made since 1952. CHUKARS The Escalante Census Area was established been censused annually long, beginning River. since then. at the confluence Those portions densely vegetated This comprises of Escalante of Escalante for observing by Sandfort in 1950 and has an area eight miles Creek and the Gunnison Canyon which were too wide or too the birds are sometimes foot with the aid of a bird dog. Counts usually covered on are made at least three times in August. The Indian Rock Ranch Census Area was established (Bartmann 1963). way, beginning Gunnison This comprised by Sandfort in 1950 an area about 3.3 miles long, one at or near the junction of Dominguez Creek and the River. Maps and descriptions of these census routes, may be found in Federal Aid Reports together with field forms, for October 1963 and Apr-il Tabulated results for the 1963 counts are in the April Southwest Regional personnel have continued for recents years are available 1964 report. these counts, in that office 1964. and records as well as in the Denver office. RING-NECKED PHEASANT Federal Aid Project W-37-R, the Game Bird Survey, developed for a pheasant in the early 50's. This included census record procedures counts �76B for winter Roadside spring crowing counts were selected appropriate out. sex ratios, was prepared and run annually field forms and summary Finally, a manual counts, and summer brood counts. compiling from 1955-1965 sheets being produced with and filled these data together with instructions, for each major pheasant area within management regions. For Unit 62 all these counts were established on a route known as Delta-Olathe-Montrose by management .up-to-date. and have been continued Maps of these routes and tabular records be found in the Southwest Regional personnel of results may and Denver offices of the Division. WILD TURKEY Myers (1967 and pers. comm. 1971) reports stations 1967. at which winter Creek feed stations were located (approx. S.15, T.15S., Corral Ranch on East Escalante and 3. Spring Creek Creek R.100W). (approx. S.9, T.48N., (approx. S.14, T.48N., RlOW). Records Regional and in the Federal Aid Report The feed stations cited. office, as follows: 2. Pickett counts are in files of the Southwest R.16W.), for these the Denver been discontinued since 1967, except those near Pickett Escalante (Burdick pers. comm. 1972). Canyon feed counts of turkeys were made from 1963 through In Unit 62 the principle 1. Big Dominguez having established office, and counts have Corral in WATERFOWL Wintering populations annually from fixed-wing Regional Management River from Montrose of ducks and geese in Unit 62 were censused aircraft personnel. in January 1968 through Areas covered included to Delta and the Gunnison 1971 by the Uncompahgre River from Delta to �77B Whitewater. Results are on file in the Southwest Regional office and in unpublished records of Federal Aid Project W-88-R, Migratory Bird Investigations, in Fort Collins. Literature Cited Bartmann, R. M. 1963. Game bird surveys, pp. 61-70.· In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., October - Part 1. Myers, G. T. 1967. April - Part 2. Rogers, G. E. 1963. Game bird surveys. No. 16. (processed). Game bird surveys, pp. 157-168. In Fed. Aid Quart. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1950 through 1952. (processed). Tech. Pub1. 132 pp. The sharp-tailed grouse in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Sandfort, W. H. Tech. Pub1. No. 94 pp. Game bird surveys.· In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. year. In Quart. Rep., Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. 1969. 23. pp. 167-182. (processed). Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Rep., October - Part 2. 1964. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Pages variable by (processed). W. T. McKean February 1972 �78B HABITAT Detailed RESTORATION information PROJECTS on projects Center, Unit 62 projects could be conveniently day's work. specific details able. for restoration Fort Collins. information to handling and I take the attitude compiled us that all and summarized directly are needed, this information to him. Another middleman If avail- that requests to Mr. Kufeld. is alterable, repository to keep rapidly by about that too is readily be sent dire~tly that a central system have been established and easily available. UNIT 62 upon what data are needed, we recommend project The above approach Mr. Kufeld informed Simply make your requests on only one project So, depending MANAGEMENT are kept in the office of Mr. Ron Kufeld at the Research one-half - WILDLIFE but Mr. MCKean and efficient changeable habitat should not be necessary. B. D. Baker December 1971 data retrieval data current �79B MANAGEMENT A. PROBLEHS CHECKLIST - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 62 Present. 1. Deer-auto Boyd collision losses, U.S. Highway (1961, 1962, and 1964) reports were killed by auto ~ollisions roughly 14 miles recently, of highway ten deer deaths per month on this portion that a minimum during between of U.S. Highway herd-drain problem dominantly yearlong residents. 2. collisions similar problems are reported As vehicular 62 and 65 a are pre-- increases, designed to can be solicited I 70 and elsewhere. southeast portion winter, traffic Assistance have been common and persistent of Unit 62, and more of Unit 65. from farmers especially, Decreased is alleged because Damage by deer to stacked Units structures Complaints and spring grasses 3. Highway to farm crops. portion to have occurred The se losses represent Deer damage westcentral Hore on a group of deer which are needed here. on Hi.ghway period on Colona and Ridgway. 550, lying between this problem will also increase. prevent of 58 deer the 1961-1963 (Denton, Cox, Roy pers. comm. 1972). continuing 550. in the in the adjoining production of alfalfa of early grazing by deer. alfalfa has been fairly common in as well as to orchards in this area. Need for techniques to provide population of selected wildlife species by area and topographic from ridge top to creek densities reliable periodic indices to annual drainage. The numerous, abrupt changes �bottom present special sampling problems for pellet group work for deer and elk. aunt Techniques for censusing many other wild- life species are also needed. 4. Habitat manipulation, federal agencies and private landowners. Removal of food and cover vegetation over large blocks of land create serious survival problems for both big game and various grouse species. In recent years progress has been made in cooperative planning and advice-giving on new projects. B. Future. 1. Dallas Creek Project, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. Proposed by the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation (1965) is the Dallas Creek Project which would involve construction of three reservoirs and several canals. Principal impoundment would be Ridgway Reser- voir on the Uncompahgre River and Dallas Creek near Ridgway. Smaller reservoirs would be the Dallas Divide Reservoir on upper Pleasant Valley Creek and Sneva Reservoir on a Cow Creek offstream site. The project would supply irrigation water for new and existing agricultural cropland on the Log Hill Mesa area northwest of Ridgway and supplemental water for other croplands of the Uncompahgre River Basin between Ridgway and Colona, on both sides of the river. Additional benefits would result from improved domestic rural and municipal and industrial water supplies for the Uncompahgre Valley from Montrose to Delta. An estimated 14,690 acres of Log Hill Mesa would be changed from �8IB deer and turkey habitat duction of range is judged with an ultimate hunting to farmland with the project. carrying Also, some 300 man-days to be lost annually ments would practically of deer eliminate are Farm develop- sage grouse on Sims Mesa, Sport Fish. and Wildlife of of turkey hunting with the project. the Log Hill Mesa blue grouse population (U. S.Bur. capacity loss of 600 or more deer and 1,000 man-days annually. estimated to reduce This re- and would be displaced 1966). Losses of Log Hill Mesa deer habitat are proposed in part, by acquisition Game, Fish and Parks Division development and Colorado of 1,900 acres of land adjoining Billy Creek Big Game Management by the project. would present losses. an opportunity and Wildlife Division Area, with all costs to be borne Establishment for mitigating of Ridgway for developing area which would be administered Sport Fisheries the existing There are no feasible means and grouse habitat to be mitigated, Reservoir a waterfowl and managed turkey production by the Bureau of (U. S. Bur. Sport Fish. and Wildlife 1966). 2. PL 566 Watershed There is one knmm southwest Project, U. S. Department active small watershed of Delta. Updated project status of several jects that have been considered is not known but names of them are given as follows: Creek, Happy Canyon, of Agriculture. on Roatcap Wash other PL 566 pro- as of this writing, Horsefly Creek, Dolores Spring Creek, Shavano Valley, Sandy Creek, Sumner Dr aw , and Buttermilk Dry Creek, ~oJash(U.S .D.A. 1962). �82B In view of flood prevention-watershed protection objectives of these projects, it is assumed that adverse impacts on wildlife would be minor. Nevertheless, if such activity as injudicious brush control is included in practices designed to effect erosion and f Loodwat.e'r be reduced. control, habitat of deer and grouse could Other wildlife species, as well, could be placed at a disadvantage depending upon kinds of practices used. 3. Housing developments in existing natural wildlife habitat. Literature Cited Boyd, R. J. 82. 1961. Study of deer losses on Colorado highways, pp. 75- In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., April - Part I. and Fish. 1962. 96 pp. (processed). Study of deer losses on Colorado highways, pp. 93-100. In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., October. pp. Colo. Dept. G&~e Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 137 (processed). 1964. Study of deer losses on Colorado highways, .pp. 36-41. In Game Res. Rep., April - Part I. Parks. 69 pp. (processed). U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. Feasibility Rep. March. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and 1965. Dallas Creek Project, Colorado. U. S. Dept. Int., Bur. RecL, Salt Lake City. 75 pp. + Reps. of Coop. Agencies addenda, 59 pp. �83B 'U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Project, Colorado. 1966. Dallas Creek Bur. Sport Fish. and Wildlife Rev. Rep. U.S.D.l., Fish and Wildl. Ser. Albuquerque. July 27. 7 pp. + Dallas Cr. Proj. Substantiating Rep., 18 pp. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1962. Water and related land resources, Gunnison River Basin - Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conservation Service, Denver. November. 103 pp. W. T. McKean and B. D. Baker February 1972 � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/a342ec82784f2b6eabe68e8455976345.pdf 06a0159814cedf4bc0ac8244a5408736 PDF Text Text July, 1973 -45- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. llC Job Title April Raymond William Investigations 1 Job No. Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Elk Harvest Regulations 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 J. Boyd, Walter T. Burkhard, Larry E. Harris, H. Rutherford and Richard Sherman. Donald Horak, ABSTRACT This annual report summarizes the effect of a 4-point bull restriction in 1972 on an intensively managed elk herd and continued the evaluation of the impact of specified permits on herd size, sex and age structure, hunter success and pressure. Estimated herd size, determined by formulae using pre and post-hunt sex and age ratios in combination with kill levels, decreased from about 6,800 in 1966 to 6,300 in 1970 and increased to near 6,400 in 1972 and to approximately 7,400 in 1972. Pre-hunt sex ratios (bulls per 100 cows) increased from about 29 in 1966 to near 49 in 1972. Age ratios (calves per 100 cows) increased from 58 in 1966 to 65 in 1972. The changes in sex ratios were caused by issuing more antlerless and fewer antlered permits to hunters in an attempt to stabilize the female segment of this herd. ��-47- EXPERIMENTAL ELK HARVEST REGULATIONS Raymond J. Boyd P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if modified specified permits fOF elk will enable gers to achieve a pre-determined kill level on bulls. game mana- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Continue review of relevant 2. Determine accurate sex and age ratios in the elk herd, both pre- and posthunt by classifying at least 1,000 animals in late September and early December. 3. Estimate the number of mature bull elk in the 1972 pre-hunt elk population that would have antlers with at least 6 points on one side. 4. Establish the number of trophy bull permits that could conceivably remove one-half of the estimated 6 point bull population. 5. Request the Division of Wildlife Commission to set a trophy bull elk hunt, with the restriction that a legal bull must have 6 points or more on at least one antler. 6. Measure the kill by age class. 7. Prepare annual report. METHODS literature on population analysis. AND MATERIALS The Colorado Division of Wildlife Commission did not accept our recommendations for an experimental 6 point bull elk "trophy" hunt in the White River for 1972. Instead, they established a regulation for the 1972 elk season requiring that a legal bull elk had to have at least 4 points on one antler. They also stated that this regulation would be in force during the regular elk season (October 28 through November 12, 1972) and there would be no special early "trophy" hunt in the study area. For these reasons, methods and materials reported below and data analysis in succeeding portions of this report-will not adhere strictly to the segment objectives listed above. 1. Check Wildlife Review and other biological and statistical articles concerning animal population analysis. reviews for �-48- 2. See Prenzlow (1968). 3. Using data collected during the 1971 post-hunt classification counts in Area E, total the number of bulls observed that had 4 points or more on at least one antler and add to these animals those whose antler conformation would probably develop into a 4 point antler by September, 1972. Utilize the population projection formula (Prenzlow 1968) to estimate the total bull population in Area E in September, 1972 and calculate the number of 4 point or larger bulls that would be available to hunters during the 1972 elk season. 4. During the regular elk season in 1972, biologists familiar with the tooth wear and replacement method of'aging elk were stationed at the regular Game Management check station at Rifle where they aged all elk taken from Area E. Aging of these elk took place during the first nine days of the elk season. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sex and Age Composition Aerial Surveys Pre-hunt Sex and Age Ratios--The 1972 pre-hunt sex and age ratio counts of the elk population in Area E were made with the aid of a helicopter on September 25 through September 28, 1972. These classification counts were confined to elk observed only in Area E (Table 1). A total of 1,103 elk was classified, resulting in ratios of 64.92 calves per 100 cows, 48.84 bulls (includes all bulls) per 100 cows, 21. 70 branch-antlered bulls (legal bulls, not branched spikes) and 27.13 yearling bulls per 100 cows. Summaries of pre-hunt sex and age ratio counts for Area E during the period 1965 through 1972 are shown in Table 2. Post-hunt Sex and Age Ratios--Post-hunt sex and age ratio classifications of elk in Area E were flown on December 18 and 19, 1972. A total of 2,290 elk were classified giving ratios as follows: 68.68 calves per 100 cows, 23.12 bulls (includes all bulls) per 100 cows, 3.77 mature (branch-antlered) bulls per 100 cows, and 19.35 yearling bulls per 100 cows (Table 3). Summaries of post-hunt classifications for this area from 1965 through 1972 are shown in Table 4. Ground Surveys During the years 1967 through 1972 a ground classification of elk in Area E was made each July. This was done to estimate yearling-adult cow ratios, which cannot be accurately obtained during early fall aerial classification counts. These data can also serve as independent estimates of sex and age structure. It becomes very important to determine the proportion of yearling females in the herd, and thus their influence on overall herd productivity. Usually only a small fraction of the yearling females breed, however there is considerable conflicting literature on this particular subject. �-49- Table l. Pre-hunt Mature Bulls Young Bulls Spikes Cows Calves Total 1 3 8 20 11 43 Nine-Mile 3 1 21 13 8 46 Sleepy Cat Area 1 9 28 59 36 133 Lost Park Area 2 4 10 33 11 60 Oak Ridge 4 3 8 Cattle Creek 27 20 67 Big Ridge 3 3 7 Trappers Creek Peak Area sex and age ratio classifications 1 4 4 12 1 in Area E, 1972. Location to Yellowjacket 1 1 1 10 9 22 Shingle 15 7 10 104 82 218 South Fork to Campground, north side 6 5 2 38 26 77 Park Creek 2 2 5 11 8 28 Bloomfield 1 13 9 26 Lost Solar Creek 1 2 1 4 Ute Creek 3 Bench 10 2 4 43 24 83 Marvine 2 4 3 34 22 65 East Marvine 5 2 1 8 Burro Mountain Creek Creek 2 1 4 10 6 23 S. Side of South Fork 1 2 5 23 12 43 Patterson 3 2 24 15 44 Skinny fish Creek 5 2 20 43 28 98 Anderson 61 51 140 516 335 1,103 Total 5.53 4.63 12.69 46.78 30.37 100.0 Percent Creek Reservoir �T~Q1e _2. Year 1965 1966 1967 1968 Bulls Counted Mature Young Spikes 23 17 17 49 161 15 -54 29 17 1969 1970 Summary of pre-hunt aerial sex and age ratio counts in Area E, 1965-1972. 37 113 34 88 81 211 34 1971 46 30 1972 61 51 82 93 140 Ratios Per 100 Cows Branch-Antlered Spike Bulls Bulls Cows Counted Calves Counted Total Count Mature Bulls Young Bulls 699 416 1,348 3.3 7.0 10.3 23.0 59.5 299 172 557 5.7 5.0 10.7 18.1 57.5 415 247 796 4.1 7.0 11.1 21.2 59.5 366 221 722 4.6 10.1 14.7 22.1 60.4 645 389 1,358 17.5 32.7 60.3 455 249 854 15.0 18.0 54.7 17.5 7.5 7.5 Calves 541 337 1,047 8.5 5.5 14.0 17.2 62.3 516 335 1,103 11.8 9.9 21.7 27.1 64.9 I IJ1 0 I �-51- Table 3. Post-hunt sex and age ratio classifications in Area E, 1972. Mature Bulls Young Bulls Spikes Cows Calves Total 6 78 46 130 Hiway 13 to Ye1lowjacket Location 4 4 47 197 113 365 Coal Creek 1 6 43 240 169 459 Oak Ridge, N. Side 17 8 28 Little Beaver 3 2 5 67 236 170 480 Big Beaver 2 1 6 59 45 113 Oak Ridge, S. Side 1 14 93 74 182 Buford to Fawn Creek 1 0 8 27 23 59 Fawn Creek 3 6 3 34 25 71 Fawn Creek to Lost Creek 5 16 13 34 Marvine Creek 8 27 28 63 Crooks Park Area 1 7 64 44 116 Burro Mountain 2 1 11 59 37 110 South Fork, Park Creek to Campground 1 1 6 47 25 80 Miller Creek 19 26 231 1,194 820 2,290 Total 0.83 1.14 10.09 52.14 35.80 100.00 Percent Observers on horseback, during the early morning hours, classified elk in different sections of the Flat Tops Primitive Area. In three days teams of observers classified a total of 1,111 elk (Table 5). Many more elk were observed but classifications could not be completed, so they were not included in the totals. �Table 4. Summary of post-hunt aerial sex and age ratio counts in Area E, 1965-1972. Year 1965 1966 1967 1968 Bulls Counted Mature Young Spikes 13 7 7 18 14 1969 1970 13 1971 10 1972 19 Calves Counted Total Count Mature Bulls Young Bulls 59 930 613 1,628 1.4 1.4 2.8 6.3 65.9 !/ 114 1,245 739 2,112 0.6 0.6 1.2 9.2 Y 61.1 Y 30 166 1,318 806 2,338 1.4 2.3 3.7 12.6 22 112 951 699 1,798 1.5 2.3 3.8 11.8 1,012 661 1,839 2.9 13.5 29 35 Ratios Per 100 Cows Branch-Antlered Spike Bulls Bulls Cows Counted 137 2.9 Calves 59.4 Y 65.3 Y 73.5 18 67 1,402 884 2,406 2.5 1.3 3.8 4.8 63.0 '£/ 7 135 1,050 734 1,936 1.0 0.7 1.7 12.8 69.9 2/ 26 231 1,194 820 2,290 1.6 2.2 3.8 19.3 68.7 ~/ !/ Wide open bull hunting, no restriction on numbers of bull hunters, but only 650 ant1er1ess only permits. ~/ Specified permit hunting, numbers of bull hunters restricted each year; 1966, 1967 and 1968 had 2,500 bull only permits; 1969 had 2,200 bull only permits, and 1970 had 3,000 bull only permits. Ant1erless elk hunting was also restricted with 1,000 permits in 1966; 1,500 in both 1967 and 1968; 1,000 in 1969, and 800 in 1970. 1/ Only 2,200 branch antlered bull permits (spike bulls were not legal) with 600 ant1erless permits. ~/ Only 2,500,4 point bull permits (only bulls with 4 points or more on at least one antler were legal) and 800 antlerless only permits. I VI N I �-53- Table 5. Composition in Area E, 1972. of 1,111 elk c.l as sLf Led du rLng .lu ly gl'lltllld l'llllllt~, Mature Bulls Yearling Bulls Mature Cows Yearling Cows Calves Total 71 77 486 129 348 1,111 6.39 6.93 43.74 11.61 31.33 100 25 27 43 31 33 47 Me an G roup CompoS1t10n" 2/ 1.51 1.64 10.34 2.74 7.19 23.42 1.1 Frequency (i.e., mature bulls were observed Item Number Observed Percent Observed Frequency . G roups-1/ 1n in groups means total groups). ~/ Mean group composition (average group size). determined by percent of elk observed in 25 of 47 times 23.42 Check Station Surveys Number of Elk Checked--Check station data from elk harvested in Area E during the 1972 elk hunt were gathered only at the regular management check station at Rifle, Colorado. A total of 300 elk were checked during the first nine days of the hunt. Table 6 lists the daily elk check out from the two Area E units through the Rifle station in 1972. Sex and Age Composition of Elk Checked--The percent composition (bulls, cows and calves) of elk checked in 1972 from Area E is shown in Table 7. Sex and age ratios of the 300 elk from the study area were 47.67 percent bulls, 43.00 percent cows and 9.33 percent calves. This compares to 52.43 percent bulls, 39.32 percent cows and 8.25 percent calves checked out in 1971. Age Structure of the Harvest--Of the 300 elk checked in 1972 from the study area, 128 were aged using techniques described by Quimby and Gaab (1957). Table 8 lists these ages, by sex, while Table 9 details similar data by game management unit. One incisor tooth was collected from each elk that was field aged to be older than 2 1/3 years. These teeth were taken to the Research Laboratory in Fort Collins where they were aged according to the dental cementum technique reported by Keiss (1969). Assuming that ages determined by dental cementum were correct, comparisons of field ages and dental cementum revealed an error of 37.50 percent in assigning ages to 3-1/3 year old elk, while the error associated with aging elk older than 3-1/3 years was 83.33 percent (Table 10). �-54Table 6. Elk check out by day of season, Area E, 1972. Unit and Sex Da~ of Season 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 0 8 1 13 7 8 1 1 4 9 4 1 9 5 22 0 3 10 1 1 1 Males 8 9 Total 9 19 3 68 16 7 7 1 50 11 24 16 26 4 118 3 13 17 16 10 11 83 9 4 17 20 21 15 11 99 4 19 7 30 37 37 25 22 182 0 11 11 16 20 25 25 29 15 152 Females 2 2 13 13 21 36 28 22 12 149 Subtotal 2 13 24 29 41 61 53 51 27 301 Percent of Total Check 0.7 4.3 8.0 9.6 13.6 20.3 17.6 16.9 9.0 Unit 23 Males Females Subtotal Unit 24 Males Females Subtotal Area E 100.00 Table 7. Composition of elk checked through the Rifle check station from Area E, 1972. Bulls Percent Cows Percent Calves Percent Total Unit 23 67 56.78 41 34.75 10 8.47 118 Unit 24 76 41.76 88 48.35 18 9.89 182 Total 143 47.67 129 43.00 28 9.33 300 �Table 8. Sex and age determinations of 128 elk checked from Area E, 1972 Sex Age (Years) !/ 4-1/3 5-1/3 1/3 1-1/3 2-1/3 3-1/3 Number 8 7 48 7 1 Percent 10.96 9.59 65.75 9.59 Percent Total 6.25 5.47 37.50 5.47 6-1/3 7-1/3 8-1/3 2 0 0 0 0 73 1. 37 2.74 0 0 0 0 100.00 0.78 1.56 0 0 0 0 57.03 9+ Total Males Females Number 20 9 10 9 1 4 1 0 0 1 55 Percent 36.37 16.36 18.18 16.36 1. 82 7.27 1.82 0 0 1. 82 100.00 Percent Total 15.63 7.03 7.82 7.03 0.78 3.12 0.78 0 0 0.78 42.97 Number 28 16 58 16 2 6 1 0 0 1 128 Percent Total 21. 88 12.50 45.31 12.50 1.56 4.69 0.78 0 0 0.78 100.00 Total Elk l/ Ages assigned by field techniques described by Quimby and Gaab (1957). I \.II \.II I �Table 9. Sex and age determinations of 128 elk aged from Area E, by unit of kill, 1972. Unit and Sex 1/3 1-1/3 2-1/3 Age (Years) 1/ 3-1/3 4-1/3 5-1/3 6-1/3 7-1/3 8-1/3 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 39 12.82 2.56 2.56 0 0 0 0 100.00 6.85 1. 37 1.37 0 0 0 0 53.42 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 34 9+ Total Unit 23 - Males Number 1 Percent of Total Percent of All Males 4 2.56 10.26 1.37 5.48 27 69.23 36.99 Uni t 24 - Males Number Percent of Total Pe rcent of All Males 7 3 20.59 8.82 9.59 4.11 21 61. 76 28.77 5.88 0 2.94 0 0 0 0 100.00 2.74 0 1. 37 0 ,0 0 0 46.58 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 24 8.33 4.17 12.50 0 0 0 0 100.00 3.64 1.82 5.46 0 0 0 0 43.64 7" 0 1 1 0 0 1 31 22.58 0 3.23 3.23 0 0 3.23 100.00 12.73 0 1. 82 1.82 0 0 1.82 56.36 I Unit 23 - Females Number Percent of Total Percent of All Females 9 37.50 5 4 20.83 16.36 9.09 16.67 7.27 Unit 24 - Females Number Percent of Total 11 35.48 Percent of All Females 20.00 4 6 12.90 7.27 !/ Ages assigned by field techniques 19.36 10.91 described by Quimby and Gaab (1957). I V1 0-, �-57- Table 10. Percent error between dental cementum and tooth replacement and wear aging techniques, by age class, of 20 elk from Area E, 1972. Dental Cementum Age Class 1/ Field Age '!:./ Percent Correct Percent Error Calf 1 2 3 8 5 62.50 37.50 4 6 1 16.67 83.33 5 2 1 50.00 50.00 6 3 o o 100.00 7 1 o o 100.00 8 o o 9+ o o Total 20 7 35.00 65.00 !/ Number of teeth checked in the laboratory using the dental cementum procedure. '!:.../ Nurilberof ages correctly and replacement assigned at the check station using tooth wear procedures. 1/ Calves, yearlings and 2 year olds were not aged by the dental cementum procedure. Table 11 indicates the distribution of error by age class. Overall error was 65.00 percent and this compares with 64.31 percent in 1971. Of 25 check station assigned ages from elk older than 2-1/3 years, 20 were com·parative1y aged by the dental cementum technique. Of these 20 animals aged by the two methods, 12 (60.00 percent) were field aged within one year on either side of the actual age as determined by dental cementum procedures. �-58- Table 11. Distribution of assigned ages in relation to ages determined by dental cementum procedures, Area E, 1972. Cementum Age Class 3 4 Check Station Assigged Ages 2 3 1 8 3 4 6 1 4 5 6 1 7 5 6 7 8 9+ 1 Total 13 11 2 1 3 2 3 6 1 1 8 2 0 0 9+ Total 2 13 9 5 5 1 0 0 0 0 35 Mortality Estimates Harvest Estimates Random Survey--Because of annually decreasing hunter report card returns, no report cards were attached to the 1972 elk licenses. A random survey was conducted on 31 percent of the elk license buyers to determine the 1972 elk harvest estimate. While elk hunters in the study area were surveyed along with all other elk hunters, an extra large sample (1,032 hunters out of 3,300 permittees, a 31.27 percent sample) was drawn from this hunter _ population to obtain a more accurate estimate of the elk harvest. The 31.37 percent sample drawn in 1972 compares with a 50.00 percent sample drawn from hunters in this area since 1968. Of the 1,032 hunters sampled, 926 (89.73 percent) returned usable cards. The estimated total elk kill in Area E for 1972 was 976 elk (500 bulls, 413 cows and 63 calves), with 34.01 percent of the 2,870 active hunters successful. Table 12 gives results of the 1972 random survey, Lnc.Luddrrg kill by type of license, while Table 13 lists active (those who actually hunted elk in 1972) hunters and success ratios. Projections from the random suryey indicated that 430 licenses were issued that were not used (13.03 percent). The number of no hunts in Area E have averaged 7.0 percent since 1966. �-59- Table 12. Results of the 1972 random survey of Area E elk hunt permit holders. II Item Permits Issued Antlered NonResident Resident Antlerless NonResident Resident Total 1,773 727 637 163 3,300 Permits in Sample 452 180 323 77 1,032 Percent in Sample 25.49 24.76 50.71 47.24 31.27 Sample Returned 416 161 282 67 926 Percent Returned 92.04 89.44 87.31 87.01 89.73 Percent of Total Permits 23.46 22.15 44.27 41.10 28.06 Reported'"No Hunts" 69 17 23 3 112 Estimated "No Hunts" 294 77 52 7 430 Reported Kills 75 40 159 48 322 Estimated Total Kill 320 180 359 117 976 !I These data will not agree with published figures from the Game Management Section, as these were compiled from a hand count of the returned survey cards. Actual count and projected figures are slightly different when the hand count and the computer run are compared. Table 13. Number of hunters participating during the 1972 Area E elk hunt and success ratios per license and active hunters. Projected from random survey data. Item Antlered Resident Non-Resident Antlerless Resident Non-Resident Active Hunters 1,479 650 585 156 Success (Kill) per License 18.05 24.76 56.36 71.78 Success (Kill) per Hunter 21.64 27.69 61.39 75.00 �--60- Harvest in Relation to Area and Time Location of Kill--Kill by Game Management Unit was projected from the random survey data and appears in Table 14. These data indicate that 65.37 percent of the 1972 elk kill in Area E occurred in Unit 23. This is a radical departure from past harvest statistics. The usual pattern is for 60 to 65 percent of the elk harvest to take place in Unit 24. However, because of the deep snow that occurred in Area E in 1972 many of the elk had moved to lower ranges in Unit 23 and this was the probable cause of the increased kill in this unit. Table 14. Composition of the 1972 estimated elk kill in Area E by Game Management Unit. Unit Number Bulls Percent Number Cows Percent Unit 23 321 50.31 285 44.67 32 5.02 638 65.37 52.96 128 37.87 31 9.17 338 34.63 51.23 413 42.32 63 6.45 976 100.00 Unit 24 179 Total 500 Calves Number Percent Total Number Percent Date of Kill--Dates of kill by hunters in Area E are shown in Table 15. Approximately 81 percent of the kill occurred during the first five days of the season. Table 15. E, 1972. Numbers of elk killed, by 1 Unit 23 Unit 24 Total Percent 22 49 71 24.2 2 27 21 48 16.4 day of season, check station data, Area 3 4 Da~ of Season 5 6 7 8 9 Total 15 13 22 7 8 3 0 117 16 30 22 14 14 4 6 176 31 43 44 21 22 7 6 293 10.6 14.7 15.0 7.2 7.5 2.4 2.0 �-61- Estimates of MOrtality Other Than Legal Kill Wounding Losses--Annual estimates of wounding losses have been made in Area E since 1966. In 1971 and 1972 the random questionnaire was designed and sent out by the Game Management Section in Denver, and questions concerning wounding of elk and retrieval of wounded elk were not included on the questionnaire, thus no comparable data for 1971 and 1972 are available. Population Total Population Estimates and Projections Estimates Formulas were used to estimate the total number of elk present in Area E prior to the 1972 elk hunt. Detailed descriptions of the method are presented in Prenzlow (1968) with examples of how ratios of antlered to antlerless elk from kill, pre- and post-hunt classifications counts were used in a formula devised by Dr. David Bowden of Colorado State University to estimate a pre-hunt elk population. Pre-Hunt Population Estimate 1972--An estimated 3,729 elk were present in Area E just prior to the opening of the 1972 elk season (Table 16). This compares to 6,751, 6,313, 6,216, 5,829, 6,347, and 3,358 estimated in 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970 and 1971, respectively. Table 16. Pre-hunt population age in Area E, 1972. Item Estimated Number estimate and proportions of elk by sex and Expected Percent 1./ Observed Percent 1./ Bulls 852 20.53 22.85 Cows 1,744 49.83 46.78 Calves 1,133 29.64 30.37 Total 3,729 100.00 100.00 1/ Percentages 1./ Percentages expected from 1971 post-hunt actually observed cation counts from a helicopter. when making population data. the 1972 pre-hunt elk classifi- �-62- Until 1969, and again in 1971 and 1972 total elk populatIon dntn Wl'.'(' believed to be reasonable estimates of actual elk populat Lou Le ve Ls 1n Are a E. For instance, predictions for the percentages of bulls, cows and calves made after the post-hunt counts were within five percent of what was actually observed during pre-hunt counts the next year during all years of the study (1961-1972), with the exception of 1969, 1970 and 1972. In 1969, the expected and observed percentages of bulls differed almost 20 percent. This was a critical difference, because the change in ratios of bulls from preto post-hunt is a major component of the population estimate formula used to estimate the pre-hunt elk population. However, as Prenzlow (1970:280). explained, early severe September snow storms in 1969 probably caused an abnormal movement of the elk herd and samples that were counted in 1969 were not taken from the "normal" herd usually found in Area E. In 1970, the expected and observed percentages of bulls differed again by almost 20 percent. Counting conditions during these flights were very difficult because of very bad weather conditions and elk that acted very spooky and were not in areas that elk are normally found during pre-hunt counts. In 1972, the observed and expected ratios of bulls differed by 15 percent, caused in all probability by flying at a later date than normal, and the fact that most of the aspens had not lost their leaves, nor had the oakbrush lost their leaves. The flying of inexperienced helicopter pilots also left much to be desired, as they flew too high and too fast in spite of repeated requests to do a better job. The 1972 pre-hunt population estimate of 3,729 appears to be extremely low for three reasons: (1) 4,440 elk were actually counted in Area E during the 1972 post-hunt trend count, which exceeds the total pre-hunt population estimate by 711 animals, add to this an additional 976 harvested animals and there had to be a minimum pre-hunt population of 5,416 elk; (2) the 3,729 elk estimated to be in Area E does not fit the population trend in recent years, and is less than one-half the number of elk that should have been in this area based on the 1971 post-hunt population estimate for this herd; and (3) the bull kill estimate is low due to an extremely high illegal bull kill that went unreported in 1972 because of a 4 point bull restriction placed on hunters in this area. Estimates of the illegal kill of bulls not retrieved in Area E in 1972 were 447 animals, which if added to the estimated legal kill, would increase the total pre-hunt population estimate some 3,637 animals. This unrecorded loss of illegally killed bulls would have a great depressing effect upon the formula population estimate. A modified pre-hunt population estimate for Area E can be calculated by adding in the estimated illegal kill to increase the harvest figures and recalculating the pre-hunt population by formula (Table 17). Therefore, to accomplish the objective of testing an elk harvest formula, it becomes necessary to use the best estimate of the pre-hunt population rather than the population estimate of 3,729 derived by using legal harvest and estimates of wounding loss in combination with changes from pre- to posthunt sex ratios. Recalculating the pre-hunt population using the total herd drain figure in Table 17 gives an estimated pre-hunt elk population in Area E in 1972 of 7,366, which appears to fit the herd population trend better than the 3,729 figure. �-63- Table 17. Modified elk harvest data, Area E ,1972, illegal kill. Item Estimated Legal Kill 1/ including estimated Wounding Loss '!:.../ Abandoned Elk 1/ Total Herd Drain Bulls 500 34 447 981 Cows 413 15 64 492 Calves 63 3 Total 976 52 66 511 1,539 !/ From random survey data in Table 12. Reported by hunters at check stations, wounded elk minus wounded elk retrieved. '!:.../ 1/ Illegal kill of spikes, 2 points and 3 point bulls. Post-Hunt Population Estimates, 1972--An estimated 5,827 elk survived the 1972 hunting season (Table 18). This was calculated by subtracting the total herd drain in Table 17, by class of animal, from the pre-hunt population estimate of 7,366. Table 18. Post-hunt population estimate and proportions of elk by sex and age in Area E, 1972. Post-Hunt POEulation Expected Observed Percent Percent 1/ Item Pre-Hunt Population Harvest !/ Bulls 1,683 981 702 12.05 12.06 Cows 3,446 492 2,954 50.71 52.14. Calves 2,237 66 2,171 37.25 35.80 Total 7,366 1,539 5,827 Number u 1/ From Table 17. 2/ Proportions, by class of animal, of the total estimated number of elk (5,827) that remained following the 1972 elk hunt. ' 1/ Proportions actually observed when making the 1972 post-hunt classifications by helicopter. �-64- During the 1966-1970 period, the management objective for the Area E elk herd was to hold the post-hunt herd to 5,000 animals. In 1971 and 1972 the herd objective was changed to one of increasing elk with no numerical limit stated. Table 19 details the trend in post-hunt population estimates for this elk herd. The reduction in elk numbers during the early years of the study was primarily the result of issuing more antlerless permits to narrow the sex ratio of the wintering herd. Data in Table 19 indicates that management of this herd to a 5,000 animals post-hunt population was achieved rather well, and the desired herd increase for 1971 was also achieved. Table 19. Post-hunt elk population figures, 1966-1972, Area E. Year 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Post-Hunt Population Estimate 5,336 4,945 4,506 4,646 4,987 5,744 5,827 Population Projections Each year based on the previous years post-hunt population estimate, a projection is made for the next year. This procedure is described in Prenzlow (1968) in detail. Population Projection for Area E, 1973--Immediately prior to the opening of the 1973 elk hunt in Area E, a projected elk popUlation of 8,249 animals will be available to hunters in this area (Table 20). This figure may change somewhat, however, if productivity differs significantly from 60 calves per 100 cows. Consequences of the 1972 Area E Elk Hunt~-In 1971, management of the Area E elk herd reverted to Regional control, and the Research Section made no more �-65- season recommendations. The Wildlife Commission instigated a spike bull protection regulation for this ~rea in 1971, and a 4 point bull restriction regulation in 1972. In order to maintain data continuity so evaluation of the effects of these two special regulations on the bull structure of the herd could be determined, the Research Section continued to make pre- and post-hunt classification counts, and to sex and age elk at check stations. Table 20. Predicted 1973 pre-hunt elk population, A:J;eaE. Item 1972 Post-Hunt Population Bulls 702 Cows 2,954 Calves Total .1973 Pre-Hunt POEulation Expected Number Percent 2/ 1,787 J:..I 21.66 4,039 11 48.96 2,171 1/ 2,423 !il 29.38 5,827 8,249 !/Assuming that of 2,171 calves, 50 percent (1,085) are males and 50 percent are females. J:..ICalculated by adding the remainin~ bulls in 1972 (702) and 1,085 male calves from 1972. 11Calculated by adding the remaining cows in 1972 (2,954) and 1,085 female calves from 1972. !iICalculated by mUltiplying the number of cows in 1973 (4,039) by the expected productivity of 60 percent. ilExpected proportions of total projected numbers of elk (8,249) prior to the 1973 elk hunt. When check station data from the 1972 elk hunt were examined, it became evident that a hunt regulation designed to increase "trophy" antlered bulls by protecting yearling bulls (by making only bulls with 4 point antlers or larger legal) placed all bull hunting pressure on the mature bull segment of the herd and actually reduced chances of bulls living long enough to develop "trophy" class antlers. Fig. 1 indicates what happened in 1972 compared with the 5 year period 19661970. By making only bulls with 4 point or larger antlers legal, the 2 year old bull kill jumped from about 15 to 65 percent of the total bull kill. �t AGE AGE 1 a T 9+ 7 6 I I 55 60 I I ~~ e 1 I-- 7 6 5 4 3 2 I I c I 50 40 % 1966 -1970 30 I I 20 15 10 5 MALES DATA - I '"'" I-- 1 J I I I 5 J 14 I r I I I 5 /0 15 20 % FEMALES BASED ON 3,148 n I ELK I 65 60 I 0/0 1972 I I I I I I 20 /5 /0 5 5 /0 15 20 MALES DATA I I I 40 I c r I 3 2 0/0 - BASED ON r28 Fig. 1. Comparison of age pyramids of Area E elk, 1966-1970 and 1972, showing effects of the 4-point bull restriction on the bull age structure. I FEMALES ELK I I 30 �-67- About 10 percent of the harvest was composed of legal yearling bulls and the kill of three-year old bulls was nearly tripled. No bulls older than 5 years of age were taken. Contrast this with the situation in the left age pyramid in Fig. 1 where it is evident that older age classes of bulls began to show up in the harvest after only 5 years of limited bull hunter pressure caused by the specified permit regulation. By making all bulls legal, with reduced hunting pressure, illegal kill of bulls was virtually nonexistent. When the above data were presented to the Colorado Wildlife Commission in March, 1973, they voted not to continue the 4 point restriction regulation and to return to a bull hunt regulation with all age classes of bulls being legal. A second draft of the final report on the effect of specified permits on the sex and age structure of the White River elk herd has been completed and is now in the hands of the co-author for his review. When this review is completed, the manuscript will be submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management for consideration for publication in the new Bulletin of the Wildlife Society. LITERATURE CITED Keiss, R. E. 1969. Comparison of eruption-wear patterns and cementum annuli as age criteria in elk. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. 33(1) :175-180. Prenzlow, E. J. 1968. White River elk population Job Progress Report. W-38-R-22. p. 383-421. 1970. White River elk population Report. W-38-R-24. p.257-286. Quimby, D. C., and J. E. Gaab. 1957. indicator in Rocky Mountain elk. components. components. Colorado Colorado Job Progress Mandibular dentition as an age J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. 21(4) :435-451. ��July, 1973 -69- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work plan No. 14 Job Title Job No. 1 Middle Park Deer Study - Population Distribution Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973. R. Bruce Gill and Laren A. Roper. ABSTRACT Field work has been completed and a Division Special Report is in preparation that will be published during the next project segment. ��-71- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION LarenA. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To delineate deer concentration areas in Middle Park and relate changes in deer distribution in time and space to accumulation and physical properties of snow. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Define deer population sub-unit boundaries. 2. Compile data and prepare report. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Gill (1969). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Field work has been completed and a Division Special Report is in preparation that will be published during the next project segment. LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. Bruce. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population distribution. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Research Report, July, Part 1. pp. 79-103. Researcher ��-73- July, 1973 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title: Job No. 2 Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Population Density and Structure Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations January 1, 1973 through March 31, 1973 R. Bruce Gill. ABSTRACT Several publications have already emanated from this job. Remaining data are presented in a manuscript currently in preparation for the Journal of Wildlife Management. Management recommendations will be published in a Division Special Report. . ��-75- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE R. Bruce Gill • P~ S. OBJECTIVE To estimate the density and sex and age structure of the Middle Park deer population in order to harvest this population more efficiently. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Publish the results of this job. 2. Prepare management recommendations. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been detailed previously by Gill (1969 and 1971). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A manuscript titled, "Estimating total numbers of a migratory mule deer population" is in preparation. This will be submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management approximately January 15, 1974. Recommendations for management are being placed in a Division Special Report which will be submitted to the printer by March 1, 1974. Several publications have already emanated from this job, in addition to the annual Game Research Reports. These are listed in the Bibliography section. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1. pp. 105-122. 1969. A quadrat count system for estimating game populations. Div. of Wildl. Game Info. Leaflet No. 36. 2 pp. 1969. An apology for a deer season. ____~, o. C. Wallmo, and J. G. Nagy. Colo. Outdoors. 19(5):14-15. 1970. Colo. Outdoors. Colo. 18(6):30-33. The Middle Park deer study. �-76- Gill, R. B. 1971. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-2S. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. pp. 169-188. ----)~:~')- 9! Prepared by __ \~:' .•... ,_§...;;;;z ••.·-''J.~....• L~(:~C'.•.•• <'--'7~~:::::i/.•••. ;;;.;(_ ...--f...-= _ R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher �July, 1973 -77- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------------------------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title: Middle Park Deer Study - Productivity and Mortality Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 3 April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973. R. Bruce Gill, Laren A. Roper, Paul F. Gilbert, Dan L. Baker, Lonnie M. Brown, Jan L. Wassink ,and Len H. Carpenter. ABSTRACT All field data obtained during this segment were reported by Gill, 1972. Publications emanating from this study are listed in the bibliography. A Division Special Report which will tie Work Plan 14, Jobs 1, 2 and 3 together and provide management recommendations is in preparation. ��-79- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To estimate increments and losses to the Middle Park deer population in order to formulate more efficient harv~st. regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Complete doe collections initiated in the previous segment. 2. Estimate mortality rates of Middle Park deer over the entire winter range. 3. Publish the results of this job. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Gill (1969) and Gill (1970) for methodology details. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Doe collections were completed in April, 1972 and these data were reported by Gill (1972). Over-winter mortality for 1971-72 was assessed and these data were reported by Gill (1972). Several pUblications have already emanated from this job. These are listed in the bibliography section. A Division Special Report is currently being prepared that will summarize all of the production and mortality data obtained during the five year study. Recommendations for management will be an essential part of this publication. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gill, R. B. 1969. An apology for a deer season. Colo. Outdoors. 18(6):30-33. 1969. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 1. pp. 105-122. 1970. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 3. pp. 337-354. �-80- Gill, R. B., O. C. Wallmo, and J. G. Nagy. 1970. study. Colo. Outdoors. 19(5):14-15. The Middle Park deer Gill, R. B. 1971. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2. pp. 189-207. 1972. Productivity studies of mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. Mule Deer Workshop, Proc. 2:40-47. 1972. Middle Park deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 2. pp. 179-198. Wallmo, o. C., and R. B. Gill. 1971. Snow, winter distribution and population dynamics of mule deer in the Central Rocky Mountains. Snow and Ice in Relation to Wildlife and Recreation Symposium, Proc. 1:1-15. -"--- Prepared by "----" , (.~ , ,,-="'>,(t ~ >,~);") \ \ R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher ,1 �-81- JOB State of Project ~CO~L~O~RA~D~O~ plan Job Tit Ie :__ Period 1973 REPORT _ Deer-Elk 14 No. Job Investigations 4 No. .:;.M~i::.:d::.:d::;l::.:e~P::..:a::.r~k::...D~e~e,;;,r.....!;;S~t;;:u:.::d:..2y:....--.-....::P:. c:::;a:::.:::.l....:::C:::.h::::a,;;,r..::a:;:c:;:t:;:e:. c:.:s:-;a::.n:,;d::....::..F,.::o,. Covered: Personnel: PROGRESS W-38-R-27 No. Work July, O.C. L.R. April 1, 1972 through March Wallmo, D.W. Reichert, Carpenter, W.J. Adrian, 31, 1973. W.L. Regelin, R.E. Keiss, D.L. Baker, L.A. Roper. R.B. Gill, ABSTRACT Forage selections of tame deer were observed during 715 deer-hours of grazing in nine seasonal periods during the year. Forbs and shrubs predominated in the deer diets April through September. In fall the leaves and a small amount of the current-growth stems of Populus tremu1oides, Ame1anchier a1nifolia, Prunus virginiana and Salix spp. comprised about 40 percent of the diet. Only in December, January and February were woody stems a significant component. Grasses were a negligible part of the diet in summer but prominent in fall, spring, and especially winter. Crude protein in the diet was below levels considered adequate from October through April. Apparent digestibility was highest in August and lowest in April. ��-83- MIDDU~ PARK DEER STUDY·· PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FOOD HABITS O. C. Wallmo and R. Bruce Gill P. S. OBJECTIVE To measure selected physical characteristics related to the assessment of physical condition of deer and to determine forage preferences of mule deer in Middle Park. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Analyze and report data compiled from measured, selected physical characteristics of deer which are believed to be indicative of their physical condition. 2. Identify deer forage items on: a. b. c. Alpine and alpine margin areas. Transitional fall ranges. Transitional spring ranges. METHODS AND MATERIALS Procedures were reported by Gill (1969) and Roper (1970, 1971 and 1972). Under other phases of the Middle Park Deer Ecology program, tame, trained mule deer have been used to determine their forage preferences in various seasonal habitat types. During this project segment, seasonal food habits sampling was completed on spring and fall range, samples of the major foods in the diet were collected for all seasonal periods, and nutritional analyses of the samples were initiated. The food habits sampling method begins with training newborn fawns to be dependent physchologically on the handlers, to willingly enter a truck and ride to the study areas, and to permit the handlers to follow them closely while they graze at will (Reichert 1972). A total of 20 different deer (10 males and 10 females), including fawns (beginning at 2 months of age) and adults (up to 42 months age), were used. Each day during a sampling period, one to four deer - each with an observer were taken to the study area early in the morning and late in the afternoon and allowed to roam as long as they grazed effectively. Data were recorded on portable tape recorders as numbers of bites taken of each species and plant part (procedures in Wallmo et al. 1972). Study areas were subjectively chosen as being a representative portion of the habitat types used by wild deer during that period. A minimum of 10,000 bites was arbitrarily set as the sample goal for each period. Altogether, 243,365 bites were recorded in 715 deer-hours of grazing during 509 individual deer outings. �-84- The habitat types and localities sampled are: June-July lodgepole-spruce-fir, 9,500-11,500 feet, Fraser Experimental Forest August lodgepole-spruce-fir, 9,500-11,500 feet, Fraser Experimental Forest September lodgepole-spruce-fir, 9,500-11,500 feet, Fraser Experimental Forest October conifer-aspen-sagebrush ecotone, 8,500-9,300 feet, 4" miles N of Parshall November conifer-aspen-sagebrush ecotone, 8,500-9,300 feet, 4 miles N of Parshall December-January mid-elevation sagebrush-bitterbrush-snowberry, 8,000-8,400 feet, 2-1/2 miles N of Parshall January-February low-elevation sagebrush, 7,800 feet, 3 miles SE of Kremmling April same as October-November, 8,500-8,700 feet May same as October-November, 8,700-9,000 feet At the end of each sampling period from each species approximately 300 g of plant material representative of that used by the deer were collected from the 10-15 leading species in the composite diet of all deer. The samples were frozen for storage, and later oven-dried and ground in a Wiley mill through a 0.5 mm screen for analysis. In vitro digestions were conducted in triplicate by the method of Tilley and Terry (1963) with Pearson's (1968) modification. Rumen fluid for the digestions was obtained from three deer maintained on a uniform, nutritionally balanced diet; the three samples were mixed to avoid the influence of individual variations. Crude protein content was estimated by the microkjeldal method (A.O.A.C. 1955) with selenium as the digestive catalyst. Cell-wall constituents were determined by techniques outlined by Van Soest and Wine (1967). Cellulose and lignin were separated by the procedure of Van Soest (1963). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical Characteristics A Division Game Information Leaflet listing the physical characteristics of deer in Middle Park is being prepared. A portion of the physical characteristics data from this job was presented in July at the Western Association of Game and Fish Commissioners at Salt Lake City. Title of the paper, "Estimating Winter Losses of Mule Deer in Northern Colorado Using a Winter Severity Index". �-85- Seasonal Forage Selections Table 1 lists for each season the plants that ranked among the first 20 in total bites eaten and comprised at least 1 percent of the composite diets. It includes 77 species. An additional 117 species were grazed but are not listed. Many of them (61 species) never comprised as much as 10 bites in anyone grazing trial. Seasonal contribution of trees and shrubs, forbs, and grasses, sedges, and rushes to the diet is shown in Figure 1. Forbs and subshrubs predominated April through September. In summer, leaves and terminal portions of current-growth stems of the low shrubs Vaccinium scoparium and y. myrtillus comprised two-thirds of the diet. In fall the leaves and a small amount of current-growth stems of Populus tremuloides, Amelanchier alnifolia, Prunus virginiana, and Salix spp. comprised about 40 percent of the diet. Only in December, January, and February were woody stems (especially of Purshia tridentata, Amelanchier alnifolia and Symphoricarpos oreophilus) a significant component. Forbs, primarily Eriogonum umbellatum, made up the largest part of the diet in April and May, and in a small March sample. Through summer and fall, forbs constituted only 20 percent of the intake, but in each of those seasons 63 different forb species were used. Grasses were a negligible part of the diet in summer but prominent in fall, spring, and especially winter. In one 30-day sampling period from midJanuary to mid-February grasses made up 70 percent of th(~ diet in 79 grazing observations with six deer subsisting exclusively on native forage for that period. Agropyron spicatum far outranked all other species of grass used. The three species that were used most heavily periods are shown in Table 2. Nutritional in various seasonal sampling Analyses Tables 3, 4, and 5 list the digestible dry matter percentage (in vitro digestibility), crude protein content, and cell-wall content for all of the species that were analyzed. Figure 2 shows the mean level of digestibility and crude protein content of the diet of the tame deer for each season (the level of the constituent in the forage times the percentage of that forage in the diet). Approximately 7 percent crude protein is considered necessary for body maintenance in deer. The diet means were well below that level October through April. The cellulose and lignin determinations were not completed in time for this report, and cell-wall constituents alone are not a useful measure of nutritional limitations so they are not presented in Figure 2. (The uncompleted portions will be presented next year in conjunction with the report on nutritional investigations under Job No.7). �-86- LITERATURE CITED Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. 1955. analysis. 8th Ed. Washington, D.C. 1008 p. Official methods of Pearson, H. A. 1968. Digestibility trials: in vitro techniques. Pages 85-93 in Range and Wildlife Habitat Evaluation, A Research Symposium. USDA For. Servo Misc. Publ. 1147. 220 p. Reichert, D. W. 1972. Rearing and training deer for food habits studies. USDA For. Servo Res. Note RM-208, 7 p. Rocky Mt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, Colo. Tilley, V. M. A., and R. A. Terry. 1963. A two-stage technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 18:104-111. Van Soest, P. J. 1963. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. II. A rapid method for the determination of fiber and lignin. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chern. J. 46:829-835. Van Soest, P. J.,and R. H. Wine. 1967. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. IV. Determination of plant cell-wall constituents. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chern. J. 50:50-55. Wallmo, o. C., W. L. Regelin, and D. W. Reichert. 1972. Forage use by mule deer relative to logging in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:1025-1033. Prepared by Q. (/J ?ckL12c<A..A..,r--, o. C. Wallmo Principal Wildlife Biologist Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station �-87- Table 1. Major species in seasonal diets. Species Dec.-Mar. Apr.-May June-Sep. Oct.-Nov. Trees and Tall Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia tridentata * 1:./ + + * + Ceanothus velutinus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Juniperus scopulorum + Lonicera involucrata + Pinus contorta + Populus tremuloides * + Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata * + + Ribes cereum Ribes lacustre + Rosa acicularis + + Salix spp , * Salix brachycarpa Sarcobatus vermiculatus + Shepherdia canadensis Symphoricarpos oreophilus + ---------------------_ .. _------------------------------------------------------------------- �-88- Table 1. Major species in seasonal diets (continued). Species Dec.-Mar. Apr.-May June-Sep. Oct.-Nov. Sub-Shrubs -2/ Arctostaphylos ~-ursi + Berberis repens Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus * Pachystima myrsinites + Salix anglo rum Vaccinium scoparium and myrtillus * Forbs 2:..1 Arnica cordifolia Artemisia fr1gida + + Artemisia scopulorum Aster spp. + Balsamorhiza sagittata + Castilleja flava Clematis hirsutissima Epilobium angustifolia Eriogonum umbellatum + + * * Fragaria ovalis Geum rossii Gutierrezia sarothrae + + Lathyrus leucanthus + Parmelia chlorochroa ----------------------------.--.-----~~------------------------------------------------------- �-89- Table 1. Major species in seasonal diets (continued). Species Dec.-Mar. Apr.-May June-Sep. Pedicularis bracteosa + Pedicular is racemosa Penstemon spp. Penstemon caespitosus * + Penstemon cyathophorus Phlox bryoides Phlox multiflora * + Polygonum bistortoides Potentilla spp. Potentilla concinna + Pyrola asarifolia and/or minor Saxifraga arguta Saxifraga bronchialis Senecio spp. Senecio crassulus Sibbaldia procumbens Streptopus amplexifolius Taraxacum officinale + Trifolium repens + Grasses and Sedges Agropyron sp. Agropyron desertorum Oct.-Nov. �-90Table 1. Major species Species in seasonal diets (continued). Dec.-Mar. Agropyron smithii + Agropyron spicatum * Bouteloua gracilis + Apr.-May June-Sep. Oct.-Nov. + Bromus anomalus ---- + Bromus ciliatus Carex arapahoensis Care x geyeri Deschampsia Oryeopsis + caespitosa hymenoides Poa spp. + Poa fendleriana + Poa juncifolia Poa secunda Sitanion hystrix Stipa comata Stipa pinetorum + + * !/ The symbol indicates that the plant comprised over 10.0% of the foods consumed in at least one of the seasonal sampling periods; + indicates 1.0 to 10.0%, and _ indicates less than 1.0%. ~/ Low shrubs are those generally less than 30 cm. in height. Forbs include all herbaceous plants that do not fit in another category and some low shrubs with primarily herbaceous stems. �100 80 FORPS; bOI-j I 11111 SUBSHRUPS r r I r I r I I I&,j IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII~~ ••••••••••••••••• lOFlI. I r I r I • _, I 11111"'i'IIIJIf'IIIIIIIII I I I I I r r_; II:! t-t;; ! IVII I :;0 t%j (") t%j Z 1-3 4o~1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I IIII II III I I IIII ! II ~ 1.0 o ~ t::::I H t%j 20R-llllllllllllllilll.IIIIII~1111111-3 JuL Fig. 1. AUG SEP MAR Contribution of major forage classes to the diets of tame mule deer in Middle Park. MAY ";"' �-92- Table 2. The three (3) leading forage species in the composite diets of tame deer during seasonal sampling periods. Season and sample size Species Major parts Percent of plant of diet December-January Purshia tridentata stems 39.9 47,128 bites Agropyron spicatum all 18.8 Symphoricarpos oreophilus stems 9.5 January-February Agropyron spicatum all 40.4 82,199 bites Artemisia tridentata leaves & stems 11.6 Phlox bryoides leaves & stems 9.6 Eriogonum umbellatum leaves & stems 44.3 All grasses 1/ new growth 24.3 Populus tremuloides stems 7.3 April-May 20,613 bites July-September Vaccinium spp. leaves & stems 62.2 58,175 bites Salix brachycarpa leaves & stems 10.2 leaves,stems,flowers 4.5 Epilobium angustifolium October-November Populus tremuloides leaves 23.6 21,604 bites Eriogonum umbellatum leaves & stems 13.4 Amelanchier alnifolia leaves 7.5 1/ Grasses lumped due to difficulty of identification. �Table 3. Percent digestible dry matter of major forage species (mean of 3 determinations). Collection Dates .-l .-l ~I 4J ~ ro Agropyron !-I p..,p..,ro .-l Species . ~ 00 " ~ M III 4J I ro . .0 Gl smithii LS 45.9 48.8 Agropyron spicatum LSH 38.5 47.5 Ame1anchier L -- a1nifo1ia S Arctostaphylos uva-ursi . \0 .-l . eo M .-l I 00 Po <.J ~ Gl U t/) M .-l r-... . 0 . . Artemisia frigida LS Artemisia LS tridentata sagittata - green dry Bromus anomalus LS Carex geyeri LS Ceanothus velutinus LS Chrysothamnus LSH . 39.1 52.2 20.1 12.8 28.1 17.3 45.9 31.5 37.0 36.3 28.2 28.4 .-I ;j " 0 > z 0 42.2 61.4 .I 67.8 66.1 I 37.5 64.2 53.5 70.8 L L ...; « L Bouteloua gracilis C\ :>. ~ !-I Po ~ LS viscidiflorus 35.1 LS ----- Arnica cordifo1ia Balsamorrhiza 36.2 0 00 .-l 24.8 27.3 33.2 39.4 47.2 48.1 49.1 52.0 4L..4 42.6 41.5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 3. Percent digestible dry matter of major forage species (mean of 3 determinations) (continued). Collection Dates r-I r-I :::;-, Species ~~lobium .j.I r:: CJ) .j.I (Ij 1-1 r-I (Ij p..p.. angustifolium Eriogonum umbellatum ...., (Ij co . .0 Q) r:r.. 0 co r-I . 1-1 p.. < r-I \0 r-I :>, (Ij ):: 7.8 15.8 11.4 'l:../ Lathyrus leucanthus ,..... M r-I r-I ....,::l eo ~ 47.3 52.7 . 57.5 LS 54.4 . 0 M I . co 0\ r-I p.. .j.I Q) Cf.l u :> 0 0 Z 17.9 18.7 53.0 LS Pachystima myrsinites LS Penstemon caespitosus LS Phlox bryoides LS Phlox multiflora LS Poa fendleriana -- LS Populus tremuloides L - from ground . 49.8 69.0 56.3 LS Lonicera involucrata . 51.4 18.6 L Grasses, mixed, unid. Prunus virginiana . r:: I LSH LSH Fragaria oval is M 53.4 I \0 ~ 64.5 64.5 I 65.5 42.0 55.0 42.7 46.0 39.8 48.1 57.9 16.3 44.7 39.5 S 45.9 44.4 L 20.1 16.7 46.3 34.8 L 51.8 S 34.8 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24.4 �Table 3. Percent digestible dry matter of major forage species (mean of 3 determinations) (continued) . Co llec tion Dates ~I ("") +J II) ~ +J t1S \-I t1S .-t Species p.,p., . ~ CIS ""J .-t .-t I co . co .-t . \0 .-t .c \-I r:..Q) ~ :>. ~ 29.9 25.7 36.6 r-.. ("") .-t Ill) . ;j ""J .-t . 0 ("") . Po .;J U) Q) 0 .-t I 00 0\ +J >0 . .-t . u 0 z Purshia tridentata S Pyro1a spp. 11 LS 36.4 45.8 47.1 Rosa acicu1aris LS 55.4 53.2 50.3 Salix spp. L 38.1 26.0 S 43.3 43.0 -- -- I LS 49.2 Saxifraga arguta LS 62.9 Senecio crassu1us LS Senecio sp. LS 76.4 Shepherdia canadensis LS Stipa pinetorum LS Streptopus amp1exifo1ius LS Symphoricarpos S - - or eophLl.us Taraxacum officina1e Vaccinium spp. il L LS 50.4 " 47.5 v I 45.3 33.7 38.0 33.0 48.0 32.3 67.2 65.4 76.6 74.4 45.2 50.3 53.2 71.4 73.7 72.6 64.7 66.8 69.7 32.9 33.3 33.8 64.3 34.5 35.2 28.4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �J) L = leaves, S = stems, H = inflorescence or fruiting stalk. 2/ - When unidentifiable, all grasses used by deer were collected together. 3/ - P. minor or P. asarifolia or both. !!/ V. scoparium or y. myrtillus or both. I \ji) m I �Table 4. Crude protein content (percent) of major forage species (mean of 2 determinations). Collection Dates 0 .-j .-j ~I .-j 00 =' < . .-j Po ~ +J f.) U) 0 > 0 . ~~ ..., .c ~ ~ ~ 4.6 7.2 6.5 5.2 3.8 4.6 4.5 4.8 . rz,.~ LS 5.5 3.1 Agropyron spicatum L8H 3.0 2.3 L alnifo1ia >.. . I 0\ 00 C"') . § smithii Ame1anchier . \0 ,... .-j C"') Agropyron -- .-j 00 0 00 +J (/j I=l +J Cd ~ .-j Cd Species I C"') .-j S 4.6 4.4 .-j . ...,=' . z 3.3 I \0 -..J Arctostaphylos Arnica cordifo1ia LS Artemisia frigida LS Artemisia tridentata LS Ba1samorrhiza 3.8 LS uva-ursi ----- sagittata - green - dry Bromus anoma1us LS Carex geyeri L8 Ceanothus ve1utinus LS Chrysothamnus L8H viscidif10rus 11. 7 5.6 6.7 8.1 9.3 24.5 4.4 L L -- 18.2 L Boute1oua gracilis I 4.2 5.5 5.3 5.1 4.6 5.4 4.7 4.5 8.9 4.9 6.8 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 4. Crude protein content (percent) of major forage species (mean of 2 determinations) (continued). �Table 4, Crude protein content (percent) of major forage species (mean of 2 determinations) (continued)" Collection Dates ..-I ..-I :::;-1 . 00 ..., cu J:x.< C") +J rJ) ~ +J co •.• ..-I Species t1l p..p.. I _ ~ t1l . ..0 0 ..-I 00 ..-I . C") \0 ..-I >- ••• ~ ~ 6.9 7.3 ". ..-I ..-I . be 0 I 0\ ..-I +J 0 > z0 . . 00 cu (,) C") Po. ...,::s ~ en , Purshia tridentata S Pyro1a spp. 1./ LS 10.9 9.9 9.8 Rosa acicu1aris LS 16.3 12.2 7.2 Salix spp. L 5.4 9.4 S 5.6 7.4 -- 7.2 LS 18.7 13.2 10.5 Saxifraga arguta LS 20.6 14.3 9.6 Senecio crassu1us LS 12.0 8.0 Senecio sp. L8 Shepherdia canadensis LS 23.8 16.6 15.5 Stipa pinetorum L8 Streptopus amp1exifo1ius LS 21.7 14.9 8.6 Symphoricarpos oreophi1us S Taraxacum officina1e L 20.6 13.8 11.1 Vaccinium spp. fl..! L8 13.9 10.8 9.4 I \0 \0 I - -'-- -- 15.6 6.2 4.5 4.9 5.0 5.4 3.6 10.2 7.3 14.4 5.4 �Table 5. Percent cell wall constituents of major forage species (mean of 2 determinations) Collection Dates :::tl ,.....j ,.....j . ('f) +J = I'IS +J J.I ,.....j CIS Species ~ropyron CIl ~~ = I'IS ~ I 00 . ,c OJ ~ smithii LS 63.1 68.8 A~ropyron §picatum LSH 69.5 74.4 Amelanchier alnifolia L S Arctosta~hylos ~-ursi 58.6 60.2 LS 00 ,.....j . 0 ,.....j \0 ,.....j ,..... . ('f) ,.....j . eo 0 I . ('f) 00 . 0\ ,.....j . J.I e-. ,.....j ~ ~ ~ 53.2 62.9 50.3 55.9 44.1 40.6 56.4 59.5 54.1 54.8 33.9 27.6 ;:J ~ Po. OJ +J U en 0 :> 0 z 70.5 I t-' Arnica cordifolia LS Artemisia frigida LS Artemisia tridentata LS Balsamorrhiza sagittata - green L - dry 39.6 L Bromus anomalus LS Carex geyeri LS 0 0 29.7 I 47.5 28.4 41.9 40.7 L Bouteloua gracilis 31.7 36.7 38.7 59.3 67.0 Ceanothus velutinus 62.7 62.8 64.9 58.4 LS 24.3 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus LSH 50.6 47.0 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 5. Percent cell wall constituents of major forage species (mean of 2 determinations) (continued). Collection Dates ...-i ...-i ::;-, .j..I ~ tlI C/l .j..I 101 ...-i tlI ~~ Species Epi10bium angustifo1ium LSH Eriogonum umbe11atum LSH Fragaria ova1is "t, LS Lathyrus 1eucanthus LS Lonicera invo1ucrata LS Pachystima myrsinites LS Penstemon caespitosus LS Phlox bryoides LS Phlox multiflora LS Poa fend1eriana LS Populus tremu10ides L Prunus virginiana tlI ~ 36.2 0 00 ...-i .0 101 . Qj ~ 38.1 ...-i 00 . \C r-- >. )!l ;:I ...-i c, <: 38.7 58.7 . ...-i M 0 ...-i M ;:I Qj . eo ~ -e tf.l 29.4 27.6 20.5 40.4 36.0 I . 00 . ~ 32.1 ~ L Grasses, mixed, unid. ];./ - from ground . s:: M I 26.5 .j..I t) 35.6 32.1 '" 33.1 26.1 34.5 I •.... 0 •.... I 33.6 39.1 ~ 33.7 43.1 28.8 . Z 51.2 27.1 ...-i 0 46.0 22.5 0\ 24.6 23.4 67.9 43.4 S 43.3 45.2 49.5 44.3 L 46.0 51.4 35.5 41.1 L 27.8 S 53.9 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 5. Percent cell wall constituents of major forage species (mean of 2 determinations) (continued). Collection Dates ....• •...• ~J ~ II) =~ CIS 1-1 ••••• CIS Species . C"') Il-IP-< ...,= CIS I co . ,.0 co ....• . 1-1 ....• \0 :>. ~ )¥ 44.4 53.2 Q) ~ 0 ....• . ,.... •...• C"') •...• . CIO 0 C"') . co I 0\ •...• Po. Q) ~ CJ 0 :> ~ 43.2 51.2 29.6 44.0 ...,:::I ~ CI.l Purshia tridentata S Pyrola spp. 1/ LS 32.3 28.7 28.0 Rosa acicularis LS 37.1 33.6 22.7 Salix spp. L 45.6 S L8 41.0 33.6 . . 29.9 I 8axifraga arguta LS 34.8 27.7 I-' 0 22.3 N I Senecio crassulus LS Senecio sp. LS Shepherdia canadensis LS Stipa pinetorum LS Streptopus amplexifolius LS Symphoricarpos S oreophilus Taraxacum officinale Vaccinium spp. if L LS 33.0 26.1 44.7 33.0 28.7 39.2 34.1 28.7 37.9 30.8 25.7 51.5 47.4 40.6 17.3 66.9 59.5 69.9 66.2 61.6 71.2 57.0 60.8 22.4 56.7 �16 42 15 40 /" .•••. __ I D~D.M. -"" I , , 14 13 ", , "" " ,,' " v ~-", ~ ,~ ;I' 36 '" " Protein 12 38 , , " " I , " , " iN! H ~ E-i ~ ~ 34 , I , 11 .. z I ,-' I 32 I " ~ 10 30 9 28 ·· ~ ~· :E! I I-' 0 W I 8 26 7 24 6 22 5 20 4 18 JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN WEIGHTED MEAN OF MAJOR DIET ITEMS Fig. 2. Seasonal variation in digestible dry matter (D.D.M.) and crude protein content .of the diets of tame mule deer in Middle Park. ��-105- July, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title: Job No. 5 Middle Park Deer Study - Range Fertilization Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 R. Bruce Gill, Paul F. Gilbert, Laren A. Roper, O.C. Wa11mo, Dan L. Baker, Lonnie M. Brown, Jan L. Wassink and Len H. Carpenter. ABSTRACT All field work was completed during the project year. A final report is being prepared and will be published in the July, 1974 Game Research Report. ��-107- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of fertilizers on deer forage and deer feeding intensity responses to fertilization of critical winter range areas. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Test the effects of fertilizers on forage production and composition on the selected study areas. 2. Analyze and summarize all data from all segments of this study and prepare a final report and a PhD Thesis. Begin work on publication(s) of study results. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been detailed previously by Carpenter (1970 and 1971) . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All vegetation measurements pertinent to this study were completed during the segment. Data compilation and analysis were initiated. Plans called for a final report to be written during this segment, however, the complexity and volume of data obtained from this study have made it impossible to maintain this reporting schedule. Rather than prepare a meaningless, superficial report at this time it has been deemed advisable to devote all energies towards completing the final report. This will be prepared as a PhD thesis and will be published in the July, 1974 Game Research Report. LITERATURE CITED' Carpenter, L. H. 1970. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 3. pp. 371-391. 1971. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 3. pp. 225-253. Prepared by ��-109- July, 1973 JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------- Project No. Deer-Elk W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT Investigations .14 6 Job No. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Physiology and Prevention of Deer Starvation June, 1972 through June, 1973. Julius G. Nagy, Principal Student, David E. Reeder, Investigator, David S. DeCa1esta, Graduate Student. Graduate ABSTRACT Eleven adult male mule deer were fed ad libitum concentrate and alfalfa hay approximately three months pre-trial. During the trial, six deer were fed an alfalfa hay diet and five were fed native hay. Two levels (37 and 75%) of each hay were mixed with a concentrate mixture. The five deer fed the native hay diet consumed more of the pelleted ration than the deer fed the pelleted alfalfa hay ration. Chemical composition of both rations were similar in moisture, crude protein, ash, cell wall constituents and acid detergent fiber. However, lignin composition of the alfalfa hay diet was considerably higher than that of the native hay diet. Thirteen mule deer were used to study the effects of starvation and refeeding upon deer physiology. During starvation deer catabolized stored fat and muscle protein, indicated by increased blood levels of free fatty acids and urea nitrogen. As a result deer lost weight, which was linearly related to length of starvation. Stored fat seemed to be the major source of endogenous energy used by starving deer. Deer that died as a result of starvation had exhausted fat reserves and increased catabolism of muscle protein. Under these conditions glucose production was inadequate for sustenance. Starved deer showed marked hypoglycemia, glucose levels being 24-32.6 mg percent. Glucose levels in deer surviving starvation were 73 mg percent or higher. Refeeding toxicity, starved deer either good or poor quality liver malfunction or high mortality. diets did not result in Analysis of blood from a doe that died during refeeding revealed occurrence of hypoglycemia. Other blood parameters were similar to those for deer that survived with refeeding. After 10 days of refeeding, blood levels of most energy-metabolites were similar to those of non-starved deer, indicating that metabolism of deer refed for 10 days had normalized. ��-111- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY PHYSIOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF DEER STARVATION Julius G. Nagy P. S. OBJECTIVE To ascertain what takes place in deer physiology when starvation occurs and to investigate the economic and biological feasibility of preventing starvation. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To publish reports on: a. b. 2. Responses of mule deer to alfalfa feeds, Responses of rumen microflora of mule deer to complete starvation. To measure physiological responses of mule deer starved in pens to refeeding with: a. A moderately digestible high protein diet, b .. A poorly digestible low protein diet. 3. To test diets for refeeding deer kept in field pens and malnourished to simulate natural conditions during a severe winter. 4. Prepare report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Alfalfa Hay vs. Native Hay as Deer Feed In previous experiments (Schoonveld 1971) deer experienced low food intakes and digestive problems when fed diets containing alfalfa stems but did not evidence these problems when fed a native hay diet. This experiment was designed to investigate if compounded diets, containing various percentages of alfalfa or native hay, would result in digestive problems. Eleven adult mule deer, weighing 60-75 kg and judged to be in good health, were used. Five were adult castrated males, and six were adult females. All had been raised in captivity and were fed ad libitum a high quality ration, including alfalfa hay for 3 months before the experiment. During the trial, they were confined individually in pens measuring 6.1 X 1.8 X 2.4 m high. �-112- Five rations (Table 1), including their normal ration as a control, were ground and pelleted. The control ration was a concentrate without hay. For the four test rations, alfalfa and native hay were each substituted to provide 37 and 75 percent of the diet. Alfalfa hay used was a leafy, third cutting and the native hay was also of good quality, containing mostly timothy (Phleum pratense) and sedge (Carex spp.). Native hay was obtained from North Park, Colorado. All five rations contained similar levels of protein (Table 2). Except for lignin content, the diet containing 37 percent alfalfa was similar to that containing 37 percent native hay and the diet containing 75 percent alfalfa was similar to that containing 75 percent native hay (Table 2). Table 1. Compositions of five pelleted rations used in the alfalfa hay and native hay feeding trials. ComEosition (Percent Air-Dr~ Weight) Corn Protein Supp •. !/ Native Hay Ration Barley Control 60 20 20 0 0 N 37 38 12.5 12.5 37 0 N 75 15 5 5 75 0 A 37 38 12.5 12.5 0 37 A 75 15 5 5 0 75 Alfalfa Hay 1/ - 32 percent protein supplement. Table 2. Chemical composition of five rations used in the alfalfa hay and native hay feeding trials. Ration Cru e Protein Control Com osition Ash Constituents ADF !/ Lignin 14.7 5.2 74.6 14.2 3.6 N 37 14.9 5.4 70.2 24.0 3.5 N 75 15.4 6.4 64.4 32.1 3.4 A 37 14.8 6.5 69.7 23.1 5.4 A 75 15.6 6.9 63.9 32.3 7.3 1/ - Acid-detergent fiber. �-113- Deer were divided into two groups with six rece1v1ng the diet containing alfalfa and five receiving the diet containing native day. A 3 X 3 Latin Square design was used in the experiment, the rations being randomized among 3 groups of deer in 3 consecutive 7-day periods (Tables 3 and 4). In each sequence, the diet was changed after each 7-day period. Food consumption by each deer was measured daily. Throughout the experiment water was available ad libitum and intake not measured. Table 3. Average daily food intake (grams) of six deer fed alfalfa-hay rations during 7-day periods !/. Rations control (0), A 37 and A 75 contained 0, 37, and 75 percent alfalfa, respectively. Deer Number I Period II III 0 A 37 A 75 5 392 1078 854 6 913 442 1253 Mean 652 760 1053 A 37 A 75 0 1 1466 260 1078 2 1945 226 1522 Mean 1706 243 1300 A 75 0 A 37 3 590 1103 861 10 1102 1028 962 Mean 846 1065 911 !/ 0 (control) , overall mean intake = 1006 g. 37, overall mean intake = 1126 g. A A 75, overall mean intake = 714 g. �-114- Table 4. Average daily food intake (grams) of five deer fed native-hay rations during 7-day periods l/. Rations control (0), N 37 and N 75 contained 0, 37 and 75 percent native hay, respectively. Deer Number 11 7 8 Mean 4 9 Mean Period I II III 0 N 37 N 75 972 1851 1948 N 37 N 75 0 298 1182 761 1931 1526 947 1114 1354 854 N 75 0 N 37 1450 138 1542 1371 186 1115 1410 162 1328 II - 0 (control), overall mean intake = 601 g. N 37, overall mean intake 1347 g. N 75, overall mean intake = 1495 g. Average daily food intakes for the last 5 days of each feeding period, within each series (alfalfa and native hay), were analyzed using the procedure of Dixon and Massey (1969:310). Average food intake between the alfalfa-hay and the native-hay series were analyzed by the method of Dixon and Massey (1969:175). �-115- Physiological Response of Deer Starved and Refed From January 4 to January 13, 1973, food intake was measured for 13 deer kept individually in isolation and fed ad libitum a diet containing 14.0 percent protein, 4.0 percent fat, 23.2 percent cell-wall constituents, and 57.1 percent nitrogen-free extract. Five of the deer were then selected as controls and the remainder matched to control deer on the basis of mean feed consumption and body weight. A six-week conditioning period to simulate malnutrition condition was conducted from January 16 to March 1, 1973. In the conditioning period the control deer continued on an ad libitum diet and the treatment deer were given one-fourth of their previous mean intake. At the end of the conditioning period all deer were deprived of all feed until any three deer died, whereupon remaining deer were refed the same diet ad libitum for 10 days. Jugular blood samples and body weights were obtained at initiation of conditioning, after 3 weeks of conditioning, at initiation of starvation, at initiation of refeeding, and 10 days post-refeeding. Daily feed intake was recorded during refeeding. Blood Samples Forty ml jugular blood samples were withdrawn with a 50 ml syringe. Approximately 0.05 ml of blood was drawn from the syringe tip into a heparinized capillary tube. Remaining blood was immediately placed in a 50 ml centrifuge tube containing sodium-flourine heparin. Forty ml blood samples were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3000 rpm and plasma withdrawn and frozen. Blood Parameters Examined Toxicity Indicators--Plasma urea nitrogen levels were determined from blood samples collected during 1972 (see report for Segment 26) and 1973 spring trials. Evaluation of plasma ammonia levels was desired as an index of ammonia toxicity. Liver Malfunction--Plasma levels of two liver enzymes, glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (GOT) and ornithine carbamyl transferase (OCT) were determined from 11 deer in the spring 1972 trial. Deer sampled were two non-starved deer, four starved deer, four refed deer and the one deer that died during refeeding. Energy Metabolism--Levels of plasma glucose, urea nitrogen and free fatty acids were determined from deer in spring 1972 and 1973 trials. Hematocrits of deer from spring trials in 1972 and 1973 were determined by placing centrifuged capillary tubes containing heparinized blood in an International Micro-capillary Reader (International Equipment Co.) and reading hematocrit from a sliding scale. Two drops of plasma from each centrifuged �-116capillary tube were placed onto a Goldberg Tic Refractometer and optical density recorded. Plasma total protein levels were obtained from conversion tables based on optical density. More detailed information concerning methods and materials can be obtained from the PhO dissertation of David S. deCalesta (1973). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Alfalfa VS. Native Hay as Supplemental Deer Feed No deer on either the alfalfa or native-hay rations showed serious symptoms of digestive problems. However, some deer evidenced low consumption during some periods, apparently due to abrupt changes in diets (Tables 3 and 4). Average daily food intake of deer in both the alfalfa and native-hay series showed no significant (P> 0.10) effects due to periods (columns), animals (rows), or to percent of hay in the ration (treatments) (Table 5). However, sample sizes are small, variation among deer is large and treatment effects are confounded with the sequence in which rations were fed. Further, the short feeding periods (7 days) may not have allowed sufficient adjustment to the rations. Table 5. Analyses of variance of data from the alfalfa and native-hay feeding trial. Source df Mean Square Alfalfa Hay Rations Total 8 Columns (Periods) 2 151361.8 0.44 Rows (Order) 2 51357.4 0.15 Treatments (% Hay) 2 134469.4 0.40 Residual 2 340280.4 Native-Hay Rations Total 8 Columns (Periods) 2 55598.1 0.10 Rows (Order) 2 321018.11 0.57 Treatments (% Hay) 2 217153.45 0.38 Residual 2 566183.4 II - F ratios for columns, rows, and treatments are to be compared with F.90 (2,2) = 9.00. �-117- Throughout the experiment (Tables 3 and 4) deer consumed more (P<O.lO) of the rations containing native hay than of the rations containing alfalfa. This difference in consumption was greater for the rations containing 75 percent hay than for the rations containing 37 percent hay. Greater consumption of native hay may be related to the higher concentrations of lignin in the alfalfa-hay rations (Table 2). Physiological Response of Deer Starved and Refed Experimental deer lost an average of 12.0 percent body weight during conditioning, whereas control deer gained an average of 3.7 percent (Table 6). Mean PUN (plasma urea nitrogen) level for experimental deer at the third week of conditioning was significantly lower (P~0.05) than when conditioning began (Table 7). This was contrary to the expectation of an increase in PUN level as a reflection of catabolism of muscle protein. During conditioning mean level of plasma FFA (free fatty acids) for the control deer did not change (Table 8). At the end of conditioning, mean level of plasma FFA for experimental deer was significantly higher (P< 0.1) than that for control deer. Mean level of plasma glucose for control and experimental deer exhibited large, non-significant (P>O.l) variations during conditioning (Table 9). Mean hematocrit did not differ significantly (P> 0 .1) between control and experimental deer during conditioning (Table 10). Mean level of plasma total protein did not differ significantly (P> 0.1) between control and experimental deer at the end of the conditioning (Table 11) • Pre-,Starvation Nutritional Plane and Starvation Performance Of eight experimental deer starved three died; one at 11, one at 12 and one at 23 days of starvation. Difference between mortality of experimental deer (37.8 percent) and control deer was not significant (P~ 0.1). Percent weight loss during starvation for control deer was not significantly different (P>O.l) from that for experimental deer (Table 6). Percent weight loss during the entire trial for experimental deer was significantly higher (P < 0.01) than that for control deer (Table 6). A blood sample was collected immediately prior to death, from the experimental deer dying on the 12th day of starvation. Mean PUN levels, plasma FFA, plasma glucose, hematocrit and plasma total protein for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation were not significantly different (P> 0.1). �Table 6. Body weight changes of starved and refed deer. Deer Control Experimental deer surviving starvation Experimental deer dying during starvation Percent Weight Loss During Conditioning n 5 5 X -11. 9 ]j ,]j Percent Weight Loss, Entire Trial Percent Weight Gain During Refeeding X X SD X SD - SD + 3.7 )j,]j Percent Weight Loss During Starvation SD 3.0 -14.8 Jj 5.6 -13.4 ']) 7.5 +5.8 6.5 5.1 -16.4 1/ 3.3 -25.9 1/ 5.2 +6.7 3.7 I •.... •.... 00 3 .u 1.4 -12.2 ]./ I -15.8 1/ 2.7 1/ - Differences between means in columns significant (P~0.05) 2/ - Differences between means in columns significant (P< 0.01). 1/ Differences between means in rows significant (P<O.l). -26.7 ]) 2.5 �-119- Table 7. Means and standard deviations of plasma urea nitrogen concentrations 1/, spring 1973 trial. Control Deer EXEerimental Deer SD Trial Phase X SD n X Begin Conditioning J:.../ 21.4 1/ ,§/ ,J../ 3.6 4 25.1 1/ ,tE/ ,2./ 3.6 8 3 !!;./ Week of Conditioning 1./ 20.4 u. 2./ 3.7 5 18.4 §.../,Jj ,10/ 1.6 8 Begin Starvation !!;./ l6.41/,§.../,2../ 3.0 5 20 5 1/ ,§.../,J../ , • 10/ 4.3 7 Begin Refeeding i/ 16.7 8.3 5 22.6 10.9 6 Ten Days Post-Feeding E.../ 17.1 9.9 4 17.2 5.9 5 n " 1/ - Mg urea nitrogen per 100 ml plasma. 2/ - Beginning of conditioning period, control deer fed ad libitum, experimental deer fed one-quarter of control deer intake. 3/ - Twenty-third day of conditioning. 4/ - Forty-fourth day of conditioning, beginning of food deprivation, all deer. Twenty-third day of food deprivation, beginning of refeeding, all deer. 6/ - Tenth day of refeeding. 7/ - Differences between means in rows significant at P<0.05. 8/, 9/ - Differences between means in columns significant at P<0.05. 10/ -- Differences between means in columns significant at P<O.l. �-120- Table 8. Means and standard deviations of plasma free fatty acid concentrations 1.f, spring 1973 trial. Control Deer Trial Phase Begin Conditioning !:./ SD n EXEerimental Deer X SD n 0.29 if 0.08 4 0.25 if 0.03 8 0.26 if 0.05 ·5 0.33 if,}./ 0.10 8 0.13 5 0.43 ]./,if ,:2./ 0.20 7 0.70 if 0.28 5 0.73 if 0.20 6 0.27 if 0.15 4 0.20 if 0.06 5 X 2f 3 - Week of Conditioning !:./ Begin Starvation !:./ Begin Refeeding !:./ Ten Days Post-Feeding !:./ 0.30 ]j ,if !f Micro-equivalents of free fatty acids per ml plasma. !:) See Table 7. 3f Differences between means in rows significant at P<O.l. 4f Differences between means in columns significant at P<0.05. Differences between means in columns significant at P~O.l. �-121- Table 9. Means and standard deviations of plasma glucose concentrations J) , spring 1973 trial. Trial Phase Control Deer X SD n EXEerimental Deer SD X n III Begin Conditioning ];/ 114.3. 28.4 5 131.5 20.0 8 3 !:...I Week of Conditioning !:...I 129.1 1/ 17.5 5 112.8 1/ 19.9 8 Begin Starvation !:...I 101.5 38.9 5 119.3 54.9 8 Begin Refeeding !:...I 132.8 46.2 5 108.9 III 26.4 6 Ten Days Post-Feeding !:.../ 138.5 40.9 4 113.4 33.9 5 1/ - Mg glucose per 100 m1 plasma. 21 - See Table 7. 3/ - Differences between means in rows significant at P< 0.1 41 - Differences between means in columns significant at P<0.05. �-122- Table 10. Hematocrit means and standard deviations, spring 1973 trial. Control Deer X SD n EXEerimental Deer X SD Conditioning l/ 52.6 2.9 5 54.6 2:../ 2.5 7 Begin Starvation 1:../ 51.0 3.7 5 52.3 2:../ 2.5 7 Begin Refeeding l/ 50.2 2:../ 3.0 5 50.8 2/ 5.1 6 Ten Days Post-Feeding 1:../ 45.5 2:../ 0.7 2 43.8 1/ 4.9 5 Trial Phase n Begin Conditioning l/ 3 l/ Week of 1/ - See Table 7. 2/ - Differences be tween means in columns significant at P< 0.1. 3/ - Differences between means in columns significant at P<0.05. �-123- Table 11. Means and standard deviations of total protein concentration spring 1973 trial. l/, Experimental Deer Control Deer I' Trial Phase X SD n X SD n Begin 21 Conditioning - 7.6 0.5 4 8.0 §j 0.5 8 3 2:...1Week of Conditioning 2:...1 7.6 11 0.4 5 8.011,2-1 0.5 7 Begin Starvation 2:...1 7.6 0.6 5 7.7 2./ 0.6 7 Begin Refeeding 2:...1 7.5 0.5 5 7.3 ~./,!l./ 0.4 6 Ten Days Post-Feeding 2:...1 8.0!J 0.4 2 7.0!!./ 5 I; 0.4 11 - G total protein per 100 ml whole blood. 2:...1 See Table 7. 11 Differences between means in rows significant at P<O.1. !!../ Differences between means in rows significant at P$.0.5. 2./ Differences between means in columns significant at P$.O.1. 2-1 Differences between means in columns significant at P~ 0.05. �-124- Pre-Starvation Nutritional Plane and Refeeding Performance Neither control nor experimental deer experienced refeeding mortality. Percent weight gain during refeeding for control deer was not significantly different (P;>O.l) from that for experimental deer (Table 6). On the tenth day of refeeding mean PUN levels, plasma FFA, plasma glucose, and hematocrits for experimental and control deer were not significantly different (P> 0.1). Mean level of plasma total protein on the tenth day of refeeding for control deer was significantly higher (P~0.05) than that for experimental deer. Experimental deer ate significantly more (P~.005) during refeeding than controls. Intakes of experimental and control deer approximately doubled by the third day of refeeding. Experimental deer tripled initial intake during 6-8 days of refeeding; intake of the control deer appeared to increase at a slower rate and never tripled that of the first day. Blood Energy-Metabolites from Spring 1972 Trial Deer Starvation--Mean PUN levels for does and fawns differed significantly (P~0.025) only at 33-36 days of starvation (Table 12). Three of six fawns starved 33-36 days died; mean PUN for these deer (42.3 mg percent) was significantly higher (P~0.05) than that for surviving fawns (26.5 mg percent). Mean PUN level for fawns starved 33-36 days was significantly higher (P< 0.001) than that for non-starved fawns. Mean levels of plasma FFA for noU:starved does and fawns were not significantly different (p> 0.1). During starvation mean levels of plasma FFA for does were significantly higher (P<0.05) than those for fawns (Table 13). Mean level of plasma FFA for fawns starved 33-36 days was Significantly higher (P~ 0.1) than that for non-starved fawns. Mean level of plasma glucose for does starved 55-64 days was significantly lower (P~0.05) than that for non-starved does. Mean levels of plasma glucose for starved fawns and other starved does were not significantly different (P>O.l) from each other nor from those of respective age-class non-starved deer (Table 14). Mean hematocrit for fawns and does were not significantly different (P>O.l) (Table 15). Mean hematocrit for does and fawns starved ten days were significantly higher (P<O.l) than those for respective age-class non-starved deer. Refeeding--Levels of blood energy-metabolites on the tenth day of refeeding were compared respectively between: (1) fawns; and (2) does refed Diet III and Diet IV for each starvation period. There were no significant differences (P>O.l) in levels of blood energy metabolites between deer refed Diet III and deer refed Diet IV. Assuming levels of blood energy metabolites were not affected by diet refed, values of each blood parameter on the tenth day of refeeding were regressed on length of starvation prior to refeeding. This was done to determine whether or not length of starvation prior to refeeding affected levels of blood energy-metabolites on the tenth day of refeeding. Hematocrit of does on the tenth day of refeeding declined Significantly (P~0.05) as length of starvation increased prior to refeeding (Table 16). Further information concerning results and discussion can be obtained from deCalesta (1973). �-125- Table 12. Means and standard deviations of plasma urea nitrogen concentrations "J:./ from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. Does Days Starved X SD n 0 17.7 3.0 10 22.3 17 24 X Fawns SD n 13 17.2 3.0 13 6.7 2 17.0 0.0 2 15.0 1.4 ,2 - 20.5 4.9 2 17 .5 1.4 2 20.5 0.7 2 33-36 18.0 ];./ 5.2 3 34.4 ];./ 11.0 6 55-64 20.5 2.8 3 1/ - Mg urea nitrogen per 100 m1 plasma. ];./Differencesbetw~en means significant at P<0.025. Table 13. Means and standard deviations of plasma free fatty acid concentrations 1:./ from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 ];./trial. Days Starved X Does SD n X Fawns SD n 0 0.24 1/ 0.04 13 0.26 1/ ,!!./ 0.04 13 10 0.53 1/ 0.24 2 0.34 1/ 0.08 2 17 1.32 1/ 0.54 2 0.39 1/ 0.01 2 24 0.65 1/ 0.16 2 0.37 1/ 0.16 2 33-36 0.61 1/ 0.42 3 0.29 i/ 0.06 6 55-64 0.69 1/ 0.61 3 !/Micro-eQUiValents of free fatty acids per m1 plasma. ~/Accumu1ated comparisons of doe and fawn mean values during starvation significant at P~ 0.05. 3/Means of non-starved deer significantly lower (P~O.025) starved deer. 4/Differences between means significant at P<O.l. than those of all �-126- Table 14. Means and standard deviations of plasma glucose concentrations 1:.../ from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. Days Starved X Does SD n X Fawns SD n 0 126.5 l.:/ 28.9 13 145.1 35.5 13 10 162.5 48.8 2 183.3 22.9 2 17 97.8 30.1 2 106.0 22.9 2 24 118.8 36.4 2 145.5 2.8 2 33-36 101.5 28.2 3 73.3 49.9 6 55-64 89.7 l.:/ 41.9 3 l/Mg glucose per 100 m1 plasma. 2/ - Differences between means significant at P<O.Ol. Table 15. Hematocrit means and standard deviations from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. Days Starved Does X .u Fawns SD n X SD n 2.8 13 50.3 1:.../ 4.2 13 0 52.1 1:.../ 10 56.5 1/ 0.7 2 56.0 1/ 1.4 2 17 55.0 1.4 2 53.5 5.0 2 24 54.0 4.2 2 53.5 3.5 2 33-36 53.5 1:.../ 0.7 2 50.3 6.1 6 55-64 46.3 l.:/ 3.1 3 1/ - Differences between means significant at P<O.l. - 2/ - Differences between means significant at P< 0.01. �Table 16. Slopes and associated 90 percent confidence intervals for regression of mean level of blood parameters (at the tenth day of refeeding) on length of starvation prior to refeeding. PUN 1/ Does FFA 2/ Glucose Slope ]/ O.OS 0.00 Confidence Level ±0.21 ±O.OO PUN 1/ FFA 2/ Fawns Glucose -0.19 !!.../ 0.00 0.00 0.61 -0.24 ±O.lS ±0.42 ±0.01 ±2.S1 ±0.32 Hematocrit -0.12 ±0.7S Hematocrit 1/ - PUN = plasma urea nitrogen. 2/ - FFA = free fatty acid. I I-' N -...J I l/Change in mean blood parameter value per day of starvation. 4/ - Slope significantly different from zero (P<O.OS). �-128- Energy Intake of Starving and Refed Deer None of the diets fed to starving deer in this study resulted in observable urea toxicity or acute indigestion. During 1973 trials, deer voluntarily restricted food intake the first 2 days of refeeding following starvation. Of 40 starved and refed deer, only 2 died during refeeding. Refeeding starved deer Diets II, III and IV (Table 17) did not result in observable toxicity nor in appreciable mortality. Table 17. Diets used in study. Chemical Analysis Crude Protein Fat CWC II NFE 2:..1 Diet I 18.0% 3.7% 26.1% 58.4% Diet II 15.0% 2.0% 42.0% 51.0% Diet III 14.0% 4.0% 23.2% 57.1% Diet IV 3.8% 1.3% 42.0% 39.3% Alfalfa 15.0% 1.7% 33.5% 38.3% !/cwC 2:..1 NFE = cell wall contents. nitrogen free extract. Blood levels of two liver enzymes (OCT and GOT) were well below those considered indicative of liver damage or malfunction. These results, coupled with low feeding mort~lity, refute the hypothesis that liver malfunction during refeeding is an important mortality agent of starved and refed deer. Spring 1973 Trial Deer in two differing nutritional strata were produced during conditioning. Control deer did not lose weight or exhibit elevational PUN (plasma urea nitrogen) or plasma FFA (free fatty acid). Experimental deer exhibited significant weight losses and plasma FFA elevations during conditioning, indicating that fat stores were mobilized to offset inadequate exogenous energy intake. Experimental deer PUN did not increase during conditioning. This result may be interpreted as indicating that catabolism of muscle protein was not occurring in experimental deer during conditioning. �-129- Weight loss and levels of blood energy metabolites for the first 3 deer that died were not significantly different from those deer surviving starvation. However, levels of blood energy-metabolites obtained from one deer dying during starvation strongly suggest that it succumbed to inadequate energy metabolism. Likely catabolism of muscle protein did not provide the degree of gluconeogenesis required to mai~tain energy balance. Extremely low plasma glucose level (24 mg percent) of the deer dying during starvation suggests that hypoglycemia was the primary mortality agent. Surviving starved deer had levels of plasma glucose greater than 73 mg percent. I. Control deer and experimental deer surv1v1ng starvation exhibited similar levels of blood parameters (excepting total plasma protein which is unexplainable), weight changes and lack of mortality after 24 days of starvation and 10 days of refeeding. Mean levels of plasma glucose, FFA, PUN and total proteins on the tenth day of refeeding for both groups of deer were similar to those at beginning of conditioning. Mean hematocrits, however, were significantly lower than during conditioning, starvation and those of non-starved deer in the spring 1972 trial, indicating that an unexplicable hyper-hydration occurred in spring 1973 trial deer. These results indicate that: (1) deer starved to the point of death can be successfully refed (assuming experimental deer surviving starvation were physiologically equivalent to experiment deer dying during starvation); (2) experimental deer surviving starvation were catabolizing stored fat during starvation and metabolically equivalent to control deer during starvation and refeeding, and (3) deer dying during starvation failed to maintain levels of blood energy-metabolites required for sustenance. Spring 1972 Trial As in the 1973 spring trial, starving does lost weight and exhibited increasing plasma FFA levels and constant PUN levels. Plasma glucose levels remained constant until 55-64 days of starvation when they declined lower than before starvation. Weight loss was linearly related to length of starvation, whereas plasma FFA levels appeared to increase rapidly, peaking at 17 days of starvation, and dropping to a constant level as length of starvation increased. Fawns also lost weight but at a significantly higher rate than does. Fawn plasma FFA levels were significantly lower than those of does during starvation. PUN levels for starved fawns remained at a prestarvation level until 33-36 days of starvation whereupon they increased sharply and were significantly higher than those for does starved the same length of time. Differences in levels of blood energy-metabolites between fawns dying and fawns surviving 33-36 days starvation were of particular interest. Dying fawns exhibited significantly higher PUN, lower plasma glucose and nonsignificantly lower FFA and higher weight loss than surviving fawns. Mean weight loss of fawns dying during starvation was 30 percent. Higher rate of weight loss during starvation for fawns suggest that they catabolized stored fat and muscle protein at higher rates than does. �-130- Levels of blood energy-metabolites for fawns on the tenth day of refeeding were similar to non-starved levels, indicating that fawns, as did does in the 1973 spring trial, normalized their metabolism by the tenth day of refeeding. These results indicate that: (1) starving deer can be refed successfully; (2) does and fawns are not metabolically equivalent during starvation and refeeding; and (3) deer dying during starvation and refeeding succumbed to hypoglycemia. LITERATURE CITED deCalesta, D. S. 1973. Starving and refeeding mule deer. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 109 pp. PhD Dissertation. Dixon, W. J., and F. J. Massey, Jr. 1969. Introduction to statistical analysis. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 638 pp. Schoonveld, G. G. 1971. Some nutritional and physiological effects of feeding mule deer high-fiber diets. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 95 pp. Dan L. Baker for: Julius G. Nagy �July, 1973 -131- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 14 Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 7 Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Remote Sensing of Deer Population Parameters Job Title Period Covered: REPORT March 1, 1972 through February 28, 1973 Richard S. Driscoll and H. Dennison Parker, Jr., of the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. ABSTRACT Both V/H correction and frequency filtering were required to process experimental thermal imagery secured over Cedar Ridge in Middle Park, Colorado, for thermal detection and identification of wild deer. V/H correction is a function of aircraft speed (V) and altitude above terrain (H) in relation to scanner speed and resolution. A V/H aspect ratio of approximately 1:1 was required to separate the thermal images of animals in close proximity to each other. This provided interpretation of imagery in which contiguous scan lines were presented rather than "stacked" scan lines. Frequency filtering is a process whereby either certain frequency bands or frequencies above or below established base levels read in taped thermal imagery are allowed to be processed. The various frequencies relate to certain thermal imaged objects in the ground scene. Highpass frequency filtering at 20,000 hz (hertz) produced the apparent best imagery of the deer thermal targets. ��-133- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY REMOTE SENSING OF DEER POPULATION PARAMETERS Richard Parker, S. Driscoll and H. Dennison Jr. This is the second and final report for Job 7, Remote Sensing of Deer Population Parameters, Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study, on using an airborne thermal scanner for mule deer detection. A thermal scanner is a device which detects and records thermal (radiant) energy emitted by an object. The scanner, after energy detection, transforms this information into electrical voltage levels proportional to the magnitude of the energy impinging on it. The data are recorded in two ways: (1) as photographs of the energy displayed on a cathode-ray tube or (2) on magnetic tape. The previous report summarized results obtained by visually interpreting the photographic film products produced by the scanner system on-board the aircraft (Driscoll and Gill 1972). The original photographic data was "impure" due to variances in on-board film processing and difficulty in establishing the best image contrasts for display on the cathoderay tube. The current report summarizes the findings obtained by processing more "pure" magnetic taped data. P.S. OBJECTIVE Test the capabilities of aerial thermal remote sensing estimate live deer densities in Middle Park. DESCRIPTION techniques to OF THE AREAS Three areas within Middle Park, Colorado were selected to be overflown to secure thermal imagery. All were relatively representative of the total ~1iddle Park deer winter range. They were: 1. Junction Butte: The specific test area was on the southwest slope of Junction Butte. It included an enclosure, 330- X 610- feet, within which six tame mule deer were placed. This area was selected for control purposes where known numbers of deer were present. 2. Jensen Creek: This was an area approximately 2 square miles in size located along Jensen Creek north of Parshall, Colorado. The area had little topographic relief (about 400 feet per mile) and was characterized by open, slightly rolling terrain with big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and other low-growing shrubby species the primary vegetation. �-134- 3. Cedar Ridge: This was an area approximately 7 square miles in size southwest of Parshall, Colorado. It included considerable topographic relief in relation to the thermal scanner capabilities subsequently defined. Mean elevation differences within the area was approxi~ately 800 feet, but changes were rapid; as much as 400 feet within one-quarter mile. Generally, the vegetation consisted of dense pockets of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) on the north-facing slopes, big sagebrush and open stands of Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) on the south-facing slopes, and big sagebrush with associated shrubs across the more gentle terrain. METHODS AND MATERIALS Equipment The thermal scanner used was a Texas Instruments Model FFS-l, owned and operated by the U.S. Forest Service. The instrument, a modified Texas Instruments Model RS-7, had been specifically designed for forest fire detection and mapping, but had characteristics conducive to detection of large mammals. The characteristics of the scanner were: Instantaneous Angular Field of View (IFOV): Total Angular Field of View: Detectors: 2.0 milliradians 120 degrees Channel A; indium antimonide Channel B; mercury-cadmium-telluride Wavelength Response: Channel A; 3.0 - 4.1 micrometers Channel B; 8.5 - 11.0 micrometers Thermal Sensitivity: Scanning Speed: Data Output Mode: 2° C (0.2° C with 20X overscan) 0.005 seconds per scan line 127 mm film strip 1/2 inch magnetic tape Wilson et ale (1971) provides a more detailed description of the system. The instrument was flown in a Forest Service Beechcraft Kingair, modified and equipped for the purpose. Data gathering missions occurred on January 25, 26, and 27, 1972, and at a time to comply with the constraints set forth by Parker (1972). Basically, he determined that the highest probability of success for detecting deer in a cold environment using a thermal scanner would be when there was no direct beam solar radiation, low air temperatures, and a �-135- snow background. Consequently, the missions were flown as early in the morning as possible, consistent with flying safety at an altitude of approximately 650 feet above terrain. This altitude was s~lected to be consistent with the capabilities of the scanner used to theoretically resolve a ground target the size of deer in the environments they occurred. Black and white aerial photographs, using Kodak Tri-X Aerographic film, were secured at the same time the scanner imagery was flown. This was done in an attempt to obtain data on the number and location of deer in the Jensen Creek and Cedar Ridge area to provide positive validation of the processed scanner data. The photo missions were flown under severe atmospheric conditions; early morning with complete cloud cover and low solar angle producing low-intensity diffuse light. Due to these conditions, the photographs were unusable for which they were flown. Consequently, we had to rely on visual sightings of deer from the air to use for control information in the thermal data processing. There were two visual sightings, both in the Cedar Ridge area, of a total of 14 deer. This constituted a very small sample, 2.9 percent, of the estimated number of deer on Cedar Ridge (487), determined by a drive count 2 days after the mission. These sightings were used as references for processing taped data sequences. DATA PROCESSING The processing techniques selected were ones which would potentially electronically enhance the thermal scanner data to facilitate tape-to-film conversion of that data for detection of wild mule deer. Three techniques were used to determine the system that would provide the best information. These included: V/H Correction The term V/H is a ratio factor used to determine the intensity at which a particular scanner should be adjusted to secure data about the terrain over which it is flown. This factor expresses the relationship between aircraft speed (V), aircraft altitude above the terrain (H), the speed of the scanners rotating mirror systems, and the instantaneous field of view of the scanner. A v/H aspect ratio of 1:1 says that the recording mechanism of the scanner system is recording data as quickly as it is produced. The scanner used was capable of providing contiguous terrain coverage at the alti~ude flown. However, the scanner film recording system, limited by the film processer, was incapable of moving film at a sufficient speed to record the data as quickly as it was produced. The result was severely compressed or "stacked" imagery, adjacent imager scan lines superimposed on one another, in the direction of the flight line. This caused a difficult detection problem in the original imagery. Therefore, the taped scanner imagery, which contained all information, was "stretched" to produce a record of the taped video data at an aspect ratio of approximately 1:1. �-136- Video Signal Frequency Filtering This technique involves determining the recorded frequency signal of the object of interest, deer in this case, and electronically filtering all unwanted information to highlight that object. The technique has considerable value for differentiating objects of near-equal temperature but different size. For example, under conditions of constant ground spatial resolution and target (deer) orientation with respect to direction of scanner movement, it should be possible to isolate the targets (deer) of interest and subdue ,all other information. A general explanation of how the technique works requires consideration of how ground targets are recorded in the imagery. Figure I shows the relationship between target size, radiant temperature which is detected by the scanner, and the reSUlting taped signal. Figure lea) depicts typical scene surfaces found in the Cedar Ridge test area. In Figure l(b) the video signal produced by scanning the scene area is shown in which all surfaces have the same radiant temperature. In Figure l(c) the same video signal is illustrated except that the surfaces scanned have different radiant temperatures. The variation in video signal pulse width (Figures l(b) and l(c)) is frequency variation caused by variation in target size seen from the vertical. Variation in pulse height (Figure l(c)) is amplitude variation caused by differences in radiant temperatures of the targets seen from the vertical. Therefore, the objective in applying the filtering technique was to attempt to discover a particular bandpass frequency or range of frequencies which would optimize the resulting imagery for detection of deer. The frequency filtering is accomplished by designing and inserting into the data processing circuitry certain resistance networks which "pass" pulses of certain frequencies only and suppresses all others. Amplitude Thresholding As shown in Figure l(c) variation in radiant temperatures of different objects in the scene causes variation in the scanner electrical signal levels recorded on the magnetic tape. As a target is scanned, which has a radiant temperature greater than the radiant temperature of adjacent surfaces, the resulting electrical pulse has greater amplitude than those preceding and following it. This change is theoretically exploitable by use of electronic hardware which senses pulses above a given amplitude. Thresholding implies a sharp dividing line between two adjacent quantities. Although it is possible to construct a circuit which would provide this type of discrete division, such equipment requires custom construction for a specific purpose and was not available for processing the Middle Park taped imagery. However, an attempt was made to approximate the thresholding effect by selective manipulation of gain and level adjustments on a film recorder used to record a scene from the taped data displayed on a cathode-ray tube. The manner in which gain and level adjustments in the thresholding system affect displayed imagery is fairly straightforward. An increase in gain causes an increase in both positive and negative amplitude from an established reference source. �~ SCANNED VIDEO SCENE ---------~ "" SIGNAL RECORDED LIJ o ::J I- ", -1 "" o, "" I •...•. (Y') .-l I ( B) Constant ERT (C) Variable ERT 2 ct "" --1 "" LIJ "" tree deer I hrub roc k > LIJ -1 "" "~ -1 « z (!) CI) shrub tre e ro ck (A) ---ONE Figure SCAN LlNE---- 1 - Relationships between a ground scene (A) and the resulting video signal under conditions of constant ERT (B) and variable ERT (C). �.... __ ...._" .- - . -- '-'---~--~---."-- - . .. ... ".'.' ,.- •. .",--- "--., ." , -_._"_._-_ .. , --.-.---:" . . " - ...•. -138- This reference source is a certain voltage level recorded on the tape and is set at a "zero" level. Therefore, a change in level adjustment causes the reference to change and results in a total shift of the data recorded on the tape. A positive shift in the level causes more of the signal to be positive with regard to the zero level of the film recorder. Sincethe zero level of the recorder is a true zero voltage level and does not change, a shift in the input signal results in a change of the whole signal with respect to the film recorder. Thus, the recorded film or the latent magnetic tape image can be made to appear lighter or darker, a more negative or positive electrical amplitude, by gain and level adjustments. The result is an enhancement of the desired sc ena target, wild deer in this case, f rom all other information in the scene. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Junction Butte All three enhancement and processing techniques were applied to that imagery secured of the Junction Butte pens where absolute numbers of deer were located. Imagery was secured by flying the scanner at three altitudes above terrain: 300, 600, and 1,000 feet. None of the processing procedures described were successful in isolating the six known deer from other terrain targets. This was due primarily to environmental conditions immediately prior to and during the data collection mission. Parker (1972) had determined that the highest probability of detecting deer in a cold environment would occur when there was (1) no direct beam solar radiation (no direct sunlight), (2) air temperature lower than the radiant temperatures of deer, and (3) a snow background. These constraints were not entirely met at the time of the data mission. For 2 days prior to the mission, unseasonably warm weather resulted in snow melt which caused patches of bare ground. This resulted in a heat-sink into the soil and higher than usual bare soil radiant temperatures the morning of the mission. In addition, measured air temperatures (1° C) were higher, rather than lower, than the deer radiant temperatures (_20 C) and the relatively high air temperatures resulted in relatively high radiant temperature (-3.6° C) of shrubs protruding through the patchy snow cover. Even though "hot spots" were detected in the imagery, those believed to be deer could not be absolutely ascertained by the various data processing techniques without knowledge of deer location determined by ground observers. The radiant temperature difference between deer and vegetation (1.4° C) was not within the detection capabilities of the scanner under the conditions it was flown. Cedar Ridge Two segments of the Cedar Ridge taped imagery were selected to investigate the data processing techniques previously discussed. These include those areas where deer sightings were made from the scanner aircraft during the data gathering mission. �-139- VIR Correction The previous discussion of the viR ratio function identified that there was a probable "stacking" of information in the imagery processed at the time of the data missiop by the scanner processing unit on-board the aircraft. The stacking resulted in a compression of the data such that required information about the deer in the taped imagery was lost. The laboratory procedures. required decompression of the taped imagery so that an apparent VIR aspect ratio of 1:1 was accomplished. An exact viR value to provide an aspect ratio of 1:1 was difficult to determine because absolute aircraft ground speed or altitude above the ground were not known. Rowever, the results of the decompression processing are illustrated in Figure 2. The apparent number of animals at the arrow in Figure 2(a) is three. This imagery was produc~d at an aspect ratio of approximately 1:0.3, that is three adjacent scan lines were stacked on one another, and represents the kind of imagery produced by the scanner processing unit. Increasing the laboratory processer speed by a factor of 3 produced the imagery shown in Figure 2(b). The original group of three deer now appears to contain four, the number accounted for in the aircraft sighting. This represents taped data processing at an aspect ratio of approximately 1:1, or processing the imagery for contiguous scan lines. It should be understood that the correct data processer viR for one area in the experimental imagery would not be the same for all areas in the imagery due to the highly yariable terrain relief of Cedar Ridge. The absolute altitude of the scanner aircraft was not constant; it varied as much as 40 percent as the pilot attempted to fly as low as possible within the established 650-ft maximum altitude above terrain. The required control for total processing of all the experimental imagery would entail segmenting the imagery into units of equivalent elevation relative to known aircraft flying height. Some of these segments could be relatively large, such as over relatively smooth terrain, or relatively small, such as over terrain where elevation changes rapidly. Video Signal Frequency Filtering The video signal from the airborne thermal scanner was very complex in terms of the frequencies contained in the data relative to the sensed energy responses of the ground scene. This was caused by a number of factors but was primarily related to the contents of the ground scene resolved within a single digital resolution element of the scanner as a function of aircraft flying altitude. The variable topography of Cedar Ridge caused a considerable amount of apparent artificial variation in both signal level and frequency. It appeared artificial in that some of the variation was a function of scene energy integration by the scanner optical system. The integration effect caused all the energy in a single digital resolution element to be recorded as though it were emanating from the entire element. In factp however, warmer parts of the element were radiating disproportionate amounts of the total energy which obscured other information in the scene. A real source of variation was due to changes in elevation of the scanner aboveground. In this case, the energy detected per unit of scanner detector area varied according to the distance from the source �-140- (a) ~) Fig. 2. The effects of adjusting vIR to decompress the thermal imagery for deer detection. Note that in (a) there appears to be three deer at the arrow (VIR:: 1:0.3). At (b), four deer thermal images can be discriminated at the arrow rather than three (VIR:: 1:1). �-l41- to the scanner detector system. For example, if the altitude (H) is halved (H/2) as the aircraft passes over a hill, energy (E) at the detector varies from a value E at H to E2 at H/2. A base level video signal voltage of 300 hz was established for the frequency filtering processing. The term hz (hertz) is a unit of electrical frequency with a periodic process equal to one cycle per second. Although the lowest frequency component of the scanner taped data was 200 hz, the 300 hz base had to be established to remove distortion at the lower frequency levels. Three modes of filtering were applied to the data: low-pass which means allowing those frequencies below a given frequency to be passed and recorded by the processer; high-pass which refers to the passing and recording of frequencies above a given frequency; and band-pass filtering which means to allow frequencies to be passed and recorded in a band or range of frequencies with cut-offs both on the low and high ends. Low-pass filtering produced negative results. This would be expected since the low frequencies corresponded to relatively cool surfaces in the scene such as snow and partially snow-covered shrubs and rocks. Band-pass filtering indicated that image sharpness and small detail were lost when frequencies below approximately 12,000 - 15,000 hz were filtered from the imagery. This should be expected since a frequency pulse, indicating a change in detected radiant temperature, which exhibits a relatively large change in amplitude over a short time or space interval, is a high frequency pulse. This loss of detail is exemplified in Figure 3 in which the deer images at the arrow are barely discernible and could be easily confused with other objects in the thermal scene. Since deer images were of primary interest, it was apparent that high-pass filtering was required to preserve the deer thermal images. High-pass filtering was tested at frequencies of 15-, 20-, 25-, 35-, 45-, 50-, and 100-thousand hz. There was an integration of large detail with each high frequency step increase. This integration or loss of large detail in the imagery was created as a result of relative large target surfaces scanned in the area which appeared as wide pulses in the taped data. Thus, the higher the frequency the narrower the pulse width and, therefore, the information cut off by the frequency filter is rendered nondescript. Most of the high-pass filtered imagery up to 45,000 hz improved or maintained the thermal signal of known groups of deer. Above 50,000 hz, the signals faded to non-detectable images. High-pass filtering at 20,000 hz appeared to provide the best overall filtering for deer recognition by their thermal image (Fig. 4). This was a compromise since the apparent deer image size varied with terrain relief. Over flat terrain, it would be possible to define the specific frequency range which would discriminate deer images from all other objects in the scene. Such inmgery would allow more positive characterization of deer frequency signal in relation to size (amplitude) of the signal. �-142- Fig. 3. Image sharpness was lost by band-pass filtering below approximately 12,000 - 15,000 hz (hertz). Deer images at the arrow are difficult to discern in this 1,000 - 10,000 hz band-pass filtered image. �-143- F~g. 4. High-pass filtering at ,approximately 20,000 hz (hertz) provided the best recognition thermal signature of deer in the Cedar Ridge area. Thermal signatures of three deer are at the arrow point. �Amplitude Thresholding This processing technique did not provide any improvement in the experimental imagery for detection and identification of deer thermal signals. This was primarily due to lack of access to the equipment required to experiment with amplitude thresholding. Theoretically, the technique might be useful for reasons previously explained. We did simulate amplitude thresholding empirically by increasing the gain setting in a film recorder to increase image contrasts among the ground scene targets. Although the simulation improved identification of some scene objects, it did not improve deer detection in the imagery. Jensen Creek The first two image processing techniques, v/H correction and video signal frequency filtering, were applied to the taped thermal imagery secured over the Jensen Creek area. No deer thermal signals were detected in this imagery. Even though an estimated 200 deer were visually sighted from an aircraft in the area 6 weeks prior to the scanner mission, there apparently were none there at the time of the data mission. This was confirmed by the aircraft ground control crew the morning of the mission. No tracks were observed leading into or out of the area and no animals could be seen from vantage points. CONCLUSIONS Both v/H correction and frequency filtering of experimental thermal imagery of Cedar Ridge in Middle Park, Colorado improved detection and identification of deer thermal signals. Simulated amplitude thresholding was of no value. A v/H ratio value of 3.0 for the data processer was required to secure an apparent v/H aspect ratio of 1:1. This technique essentially stretched the magnetic taped data so that scan lines in the processed imagery were contiguous and not stacked as in the original imagery. This technique provided for detection and identification of the thermal signals of animals in close proximity. High-pass frequency filtering to approximately 20,000 hz (hertz) provided the best frequency filter for detection and identification of deer by their thermal signals. Filtering for less than this amount resulted in highlighting ground scene thermal signals that would result in confused discrimination between deer and other ground features. Higher frequency filtering resulted in a fading of the deer targets into nondescript images. At the present, variable terrain like that of Cedar Ridge presents serious problems for thermal detection of deer. Rapid changes in relief, 400-500 feet in one-quarter mile, requires that the imagery be segmented into units of equivalent elevation for data processing. This would be required to develop data processing functions which must consider the critical values of spatial resolution and thermal sensitivity of the scanner which are directly related to scanner altitude above ground. �-145- LITERATURE CITED Driscoll, R. S. and R. Bruce Gill. 1972. Middle Park deer study--remote sensing of deer population parameters. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Sect. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep. July 1972. Part 3: 253-265. Parker, H. Dennison, Jr. 1972. Airborne infrared detection of deer. Thesi&, 186 p. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. Ph.D. Wilson, R. A., S. N. Hirsch, F. H. Madden, and B. J. Losensky. 1971. Airborne infrared forest fire detection system: final report. USDA For. Servo Res. Pap. INT-93 , 102 p., illus. Prepared by: ([j Richard S. Driscoll Project Leader Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station ��-147- JOB PROGRESS State of ~C~O~L~O~RAD~~O~ REPORT _ Deer-Elk W-38-R-27 Project No. Work Plan No. Job No. 14 Job Title Middle Period Covered: April Personnel: July, 1973 Park Deer Study - Experimental Investigations 8 Harvest Regulations 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 W.J. Adrian, D.L. Baker, G.L. Brown, L.M. Brown, L.R. Carpenter, R.D. Clippenger, P.F. Gilbert, R.B. Gill, R. E. Keiss, J. F. Lipscomb, D. Luce, L.A. Roper, G.G. Schoonveld, J.L. Wassink and J.L. Wolfe. ABSTRACT Population dynamics information resulted in an estimate of 10,087 ± 2,239 (p<.lO) deer in January, 1973. Prior to this date pre-1972 hunt data suggested the population consisted of 72 bucks per 100 female deer per 88 fawns. An attempt to survey all deer hunters resulted in an 81.6 percent check and gave a known minimum harvest of 288 deer. An estimated maximum was 356. A random survey of these same permittees gave an estimated harvest of 336 ± 35 (p< .05) deer. Following the 1972 hunt post season, sex and age classifications were 64 bucks per 100 females per 82 fawns. Pre-natal fawn ratios for 1973 were 162 fawns per 100 road killed does. These estimates were used in a life equation to formulate recommendations for the 1973 deer hunt. Included in the life equation model were winter mortality estimates (.7 percent or 50 deer) for 1972. The harvest objective in 1972 was to achieve a m~n~mum harvest of bucks. The 1973 objective is to harvest approximately 2900 deer. ��-149- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - EXPERIMENTAL HARVEST REGULATIONS Laren A. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To adjust a mule deer population to a specified density on the winter range. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate deer density, Middle Park. structure, 2. Recommend season regulations and publicize the procedures for hunters to obtain permits and participate in the experimental hunt. 3. Measure and estimate of hunters. 4. Determine if the hunting public will participate to achieve adequate harvests utilizing specified hunts. 5. Determine if specified harvest goals. the. harvest permits METHODS 1. Structure, deer density and structure. Productivity have been detailed deer productivity predetermined AND MATERIALS Estimate Estimate in on a continuing basis permits in post season are capable of achieving Deer Density, and materials and winter mortality by sex and age class and the success Estimate Methods 2. productivity and Winter Mortality previously by Gill (1969 and 1971). and mortality. To estimate deer productivity, mature road-killed does obtained from January through May were necropsied to obtain a doe-fawn pre-natal estimate. In addition, a helicopter survey classifying fawns, does and mature bucks was made prior to the 1972 deer hunting season. Methods for estimating winter mortality have been detailed by Gill (1969). �-150- Recommending and Publicizing Season Recommendations Recommendations for the deer hunting season were designed to provide a recreational hunt during the regular deer season that would in all probability result in an underharvest of deer. To take the balance of deer needed to provide an adequate harvest a post-season in mid-December was recommended using specified numbers of permits. The recommendations were formulated with Division Wildlife Conservation Officers and the Area Supervisor. They were then presented to the Wildlife Commission for approval. The Middle Park area was marked with informational signs at 14 highway locations to inform hunters they were with'in'the confines of the experimental harvest area. Information was also released to the public through the newspaper, radio and television news medias, special talks to local rod and gun clubs, and a popularized article in the Colorado Outdoors magazine. Special hunting permits were delivered to license agents within the Middle Park area' and to Division offices in Denver and 4 regions. Permits were checked out to each agent or office so that control of hunters' names could be maintained. Regulations enforcing the special permits and establishing the experimental harvest regulations were set by the Wildlife Commission. These regulations were included in the Division's hunting regulation brochure. Estimate the Harvest and Success of Hunters Four procedures to obtain an estimate of harvest were used. The game management section randomly surveys a percentage of all deer hunters in the State. This estimate has been reported by Gill (1969, 1970, 1971 and 1972) as the report card check for Summit and Grand counties. Three additional estimates were: 1) a regression projection from the 9 day check of hunters at the Idaho Springs check station, 2) an attempt to survey all Middle Park hunters (100% check), and 3) a randomly selected 20 percent survey of all Middle Park hunters. In order to secure a complete listing of hunters each was required to obtain a special free permit. Each permit included a detachable report to be completed by the hunter and either mailed in a self-enclosed envelope or dropped in a box at one of four locations within Middle Park. The boxes were identified as self-service check stations and located at service stations within Granby, Hot Sulphur Springs, Kremmling and Breckenridge. Each hunter was identified by a permit number which was placed on an automatic data processing program. This program was developed by James Lipscomb (Division of Wildlife) to automatically print-out: 1) a total permit listing, and 2) a list of non-responding permittees. As hunter reports were returned, the permit number was put into the computer program so that names could be removed from the current list of non-respondents. Follow-up letters were designed for each survey. �-151- To obtain an estimate sampled by telephone. of kill from non-respondents Determine 20 individuals were If Hunters Will Participate A subjective analysis of how many hunters to the special regulations will be used. participated Determine If Specified Permits Are Capable of Achieving Predetermined Harvest and their reaction Goals The population was monitored and the goal for harvest compared vest actually achieved according to the 100 percent survey. RESULTS to the har- AND DISCUSSION Density Estimates The 1972-73 winter population estimate of deer for Middle Park was 10,087 ± 2239 (p<.lO) deer or 17.14 deer per square mile of winter range. Table 1 is a summary of deer counted per quadrat and Table 2 is a list of population estimates by each deer herd sub-unit. Table 3 is a presentation of all the information we have in a life equation (R. B. Gill and L. A. Roper, Div. Wildl., unpub. data, 1973), and Table 4 is a more specific life equation for January 1972 through January 1973. Structure Pre-season (Sex and Age Composition) Counts From October 8-11, 1972 two observers classified deer throughout Middle Park using a helicopter. The weather was clear and windy on four flights, and rainy on two classification counts. Count conditions were poor with no snow background. The best counting success was during 2 flights of rainy weather. Total deer observed wa~ 273 by one observer and 267 by the other. Total classified was 264. Averages for the two observers were 29 mature bucks, 43 young bucks and 88 fawns per 100 mature doe deer (Table 5). The only differences between the two observers classifying independently were 2 fawns and 1 mature buck per 100 females. Post-season Counts A total of 3146 deer were classified observers walking deer concentration 1972. in 48 man-days by two independent areas from November 24-December 29, . �-152- Classifications were 495 mature bucks, 323 young bucks, 1281 mature females and 1047 fawns. Ratios wer-e : 39 rna t ure bu cks r lOt) Ct'.mnlcs:2') \','1Jllp, bucks: 100 females; 82 f awn s :100 females. Aerial classifications were also obtained during census flights un January 5 and 6, 1973. Comparisons of post-season deer classifications by ground observers and aerial observations are presented in Table 6. Productivity Estimates Pre-season fawn:doe estimates prior to the 1972 deer season were 88 fawns: 100 mature doe deer (Table 5). Productivity estimates obtained from JanuaryMay 1973 from road:-killed mature does were 162 fawns per 100 mature doe deer. Table 7 is a comparison of pre-natal fawns per 100 does from 1969-1973. Mortality: Over-winter mortality for the 1971-72 winter was completed during this segment and reported by Gill (1972). The estimate was 0.7 percent or 50 deer (Table 8). Highway and railroad loss estimates for the period June 1972-May 1973 were 136 and 56, respectively. Total losses since 1967-68 are listed in Table 8. Recommending and Publicizing Season Recommendations During the 1972 deer season the public was informed that Middle Park was an experimental hunting area. To help accomplish this, permits were required to hunt in Middle Park and a special information letter was given to each hunter with the permit. Apparently the hunter information signs, news releases, special talks and the popular article in Colorado Outdoors (Roper 1972) were sufficient for Wildlife Conservation Officers reported a high degree of compliance by hunters in obtaining permits. Recommendations for the 1973 deer season were based on a life equation model of the deer herd. Assumptions used to estimate the harvest needed in the 1973 hunt were: I} a 10 percent over-winter mortality, 2) a 20 percent wounding loss in 1973, and 3) a reproductive rate of 49.8 percent or 91 fawns per 100 does. Using these assumptions~ a harvest of 2900 deer will be required to leave 10,000 deer on the winter range following the 1973 deer season. Recommendations to the Wildlife Commission were: 1) antlered only unrestricted buck permits and 2000 either sex permits available by a drawing for the regular deer season; 2) a post-season to take the balance of the needed harvest provided 2900 deer are not removed from the herd in the regular season. Unsuccessful regular season buck only permit holders will be able to apply for the post-hunt drawing. It was also recommended that all hunters �-153- obtaining special Middle Park permits in the regular season would be restricted to hunting in the experimental area.· To obtain the estimate of the regular season kill a projected estimate from the 9-day check at the Idaho Springs check station will be used. These recommendations were accepted by the Commission for the 1973 deer seasons. Estimate the Harvest By Sex and Age Class and Success of Hunters Harvest and Hunter Success Estimates All hunters were required to have a permit to hunt in Middle Park in 1972. This provided a total listing of 4109 hunters. Permits were issued by the Denver office, 4 Regional offices, the research office in Kremmling and all license agents within Middle Park. To maintain control of the permits a check-out list of permit numbers was maintained for each office or agency. Control efforts were only partially successful as our records showed 593 missing permits. An attempt was made to contact all hunters to obtain the total harvest. Hunters were asked to voluntarily return a report card attached to their Middle Park permit. Four self-service boxes located in Granby, Hot Sulphur Springs, Kremmling and Breckenridge were used for collection. These "selfservice check stations" accounted for only 134 reports. After the hunt, surveys were sent to all hunters not returning report cards. Subsequent to this letter follow-up reminders were mailed at two-week intervals to nonrespondents. A computer program updated the list of non-respondents. Final results were 3524 returns with 288 total deer harvested and a hunter success of. 8.2 percent. Since 575 hunters (18.4 percent) did not return their surveys, 20 were selected at random to be contacted by telephone so that an estimate of kill could be made for non-respondents. Only 11 of the 20 could be contacted and one of these was successful. Since the success ratio of the 11 hunters (9 percent) was close to 8.2 percent, this rate was used for non-respondents and resulted in an additional 47 deer. Seventy-nine of the 1562 voluntarily returned reports were not on the computer file because permit copies were lost or not turned in. This means that some of the 593 "missing permits" were obtained by hunters. Assuming these 79 permits were returned at the same rate (38 percent) as the other 1562 volunteer reports, then 208 additional hunters had Middle Park permits. This revises the estimate to 4317 permit holders and increases the harvest by 17 (8.2 percent success rate). There were 52 undeliverable follow-up surveys due to incorrect or incomplete addresses. By applying the 8.2 percent success ratio to these the kill is augmented by 4 more deer. The total estimated kill from the. 100 percent survey was a known minimum of 288 and a possible maximum of 356 deer. For use in the life equation a harvest of 356 was used. �-154- Since it is expensive and difficult to obtain a 100 percent check of hunters each year, a 20 percent random sample of the 4109 hunters was taken to determine if it would be adequate. An initial survey letter and two follow-ups resulted in a 79.9 percent return from 842 mailed surveys. Only 790 surveys were deliverable due to incorrect addresses which made the actual sample size 16.37 percent. The percent return of deliverable surveys was 85.2 percent and the success was 55 deer out of 673 hunters or 8.2 percent of permit holders. The estimated harvest was 336 ± 35 (p <.05) (Snedecor 1968). On the random 20 percent sample respondents were asked if they hunted in Middle Park. Only 77.27 percent of the permit holders actually hunted in the area. This gave an estimate of 3336 ± 53.96 (p<.05) hunters (Snedecor 1968) and a real ·success ratio of 10.07 percent. The real success ratio for the 100 percent survey attempt was 10.67 percent. Since the known minimum harvest was 288 deer and the maximum was estimated at 356, it is interesting to note the minimum and maximmn values of the 95 percent confidence interval of the random survey (301 and 369, respecti.vely) are within 4.5 percent of these values (Table 9). In the future it is planned to estimate the harvest. to randomly sample 20 percent of the permittees Another method used to estimate the legal take of deer in Middle Park was a regression estimate based on the 9-day check at the Idaho Springs check station (Gill 1969). This estimate for 1972 was 341. The Game Management survey used to estimate the deer harvest in all herd management units in Colorado sampled 11.5 percent of Colorado hunters in 1972. This has been reported in previous years by Gill (1969) as the County report card estimate. The 1972 harvest for Middle Park using this method was 554 deer taken by 3405 hunters. Their average success was 16.3 percent. Some hunters with Middle Park permits did not hunt in Middle Park (22.73 percent in our sample). I am surmising that these hunters may have hunted in other units and were successful at a higher rate than Middle Park hunters. Some may have reported they did hunt in Middle Park on the Game Management survey while in fact they may not have. If this were true the total kill could be inflated. This hypothesis cannot be substantiated but it seems reasonable. Table 10 is a summary of the four methods to estimate ratio for hunters in Middle Park in 1972. Sex and Age Structure the harvest and success of the Harvest A total of 105 bucks were aged. All were classed as either yearlings or mature animals using the tooth replacement and wear method (Erickson and Seliger 1969). Fifty-four of 55 animals field aged as yearlings were also classed as yearlings by the dental cementum technique (Erickson and Seliger 1969). One was judged to be a two-year-01d and the other was not aged using �-155- the dental cementum method. Thirty-three mature animals were aged with dental cementum annuli counts. Table 11 is a summary of these data and shows 52.4 percent yearling males and 47.6 percent bucks over 2 years old. Determine If Hunters Will Participate on a Continuing Basis To attain this objective data will need to be analyzed as the study continues, however after one year of requiring permits it appears that hunters will cooperate and obtain a permit to hunt in the area. Out of 4317 permits 3336 (77.27 percent) permit holders actually did hunt in the area. Determine If Specified Permits Help Obtain Harvest Goals In 1972 the harvest goal was to have a minimum harvest to allow the deer herd to increase to an estimated 10,000 deer on the winter range. The buck only season was apparently successful in minimizing the harvest. The census estimate for January 1973 was 10,087. The 1973 deer season will be designed to maintain this population level. This should provide a test of the achievement of harvest goals using specified permits. LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969, 1970, 1971 and 1972. Middle Park deer study - population density and structure - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. Erickson, J. A., and W. G. Seliger. 1969. Efficient sectioning of incisors for estimating ages of mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(2):384-388. Roper, L. A. 1972. Deer permits: Sept.-Oct. p. 20-22. a look at the future. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1968. State Univ. Press. Ames. 593 p. Prepared bYJ&~Q~R~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher Statistical Colo. Outdoors. methods. The Iowa �jIII= Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1973. Muddy Creek High Density 1968 ·1969 1970 1972 1973 o 12 o o o o 4 o 2 o o o o o o o o o 8 9 9 64 6 34 32 18 9 o o o o o 124 99 20 28 2 o o o 58 30 39 66 o o o o o 6 68 2 Muddy Creek Low Density 1971 1969 56 o o 0 24 132 Ne 0 46 2 o 5 46 42 22 35 42 31 28 5 o o 20 12 12 27 o o o o o 1 22 5 NC 37 1 o o o o o o o 6 6 t ..442 478 175 Y •. 260 23.9 8.8 1 1 o o o o o 3 3 27 3 136 158 480 6.8' 7.9 24.0 0 o .0 NC ~5 Ne o o o o o o o 60 87 o 0 11 NC 44 NC o o o o 30. 40 52 o '0 f: 1 O. 8 o 1973 o o 32 1972 0 1 97 1971 o· o o Blue River High Density 1970 6 NC 1/ NC 00 NC 39 2 1968 o o o o o o o o o 11 o 2 o o o o o o o o o 1968 1969 1970 1971 14 25 19 0 14 0 Blue River Low Density 1972 1973 47 9 o 25 0 o 10 o 63 50 o 145 30 37 88 77 o 82 41 156 32 35 34 15 9 o o 19 29 o o 30 28 o o o o o o o o o o o o 4 20 18 9 4 3 o 134 102 20 34 15 78 31 36 26 20 49 15 83 24 22 74 o 2 43 29 o o o 3 50 104 52 102 6 28 17 600 565 465 0.7 0.5 47.1 38.8 430 35.8 .. 339 I 41.8 28.3 637 107 118 114 48 32 50 53.2 11.9 13.1 12.7 5.3 3.6 5.6 ., , . I 2 501 .I (I' , ' " / • .... \J1 '" ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.. ~ 4 o o 54 7 49 0.0 ,0 o 31 58 3.5 o o 24 124 1.8 o 13 36 64 9.3 o 17 76 67 6 8 10 1973 6 136 8 4 1972 o 105 o 1971 o o 71 42 1970 6 19 010 o o o 21 1969 o o o o 56 1968 �..• • ,;' I' , . ~ ~ ,~ I. I ... ,.. Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1971 (continued). Wms. Fork River High Densitl 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 0 2 40 0 0 0 26 25 21 58 73 45 42 4 4 0 Wms. Fork River Low Densitl 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 7 2 6 23 0 0 1 0 3 0 2 0 0 13 0 1 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 '0 5 41 11 60 0 8 3 24 21 40 0 35 0 39 0 51 0 0 2 0 0 0 70 2 70 0 0 50 76 42 43 20 55 65 0 44 15 90 7 36 14 40 27 61 31 9 0 26 36 8 21 21 31 0 6 0 29 10 7 0 12 21 33 253 262 298 139 219 365 11 29 13 25.3 26.2 29.8 13.9 21.9 36.5 1.8 4.1 1.9 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 45 54 14 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 31 52 71 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 GranbI'Low Densitl 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 43 25 9 0 3 Troublesome Cr. High Densitl 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 0 z 0 rt C"l 0 0 § rt ~ ~ 0 0 NC 0 0 •.. I t. - 105 131 99 20 Y -21.0 26.2 9.2 18.4 26.4 19.8 4.0 46 92 yst Sy 1.1 NC - No count. 132 - 1 4 0 0 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.0 0.0 3 V1 --.j I 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 20.75 15.52 12.29 9.75 9.24 17.14 3.37 2.02 1.92 1.81 1.64 2.29 2 14 0.3 2.0 �Table 2. Deer population estimates by sub-units in Middle Park, 1968-1973. Muddy Creek Year Blue River Williams Fork River Troublesome Creek Granby Total 1968 4,101 4,074 843 1,622 No Count 1969 10,640 2,994 3,531 774 1,679 134 1970 9,112 1,429 3,291 271 1,910 306 7,207 794 3,335 569 889 137 5,724 1972 1,002 2,259 742 1,404 22 1973 5,429 2,856 4,186 556 2,340 149 10,987 1971 Table 3. Life equation for deer in Middle Park, winter 1967-68 through 1972-73. I t-' V1 00 I PreFawn Pop. Fawn ReEroduction % No. PreHunt Pop. Harvest % No. 8,934 42.65 3,810 12,744 23 639 8,473 53.48 4,531 13,004 15.8 1,135 6,070 45.35 2,753 5,719 8.6 489 5,230 47.36 1971-72 5,429 •7 50 7,038 1972-73 10,087 6.4 647 * Year Jan. Pop. Est. Winter Loss % No. 1967-68 10,640 16.0 1,706 1968-69 9,112 7.0 1969-70 7,205 1970-71 *Data not available this segment. Wounding Loss (20% Harvest) Other Known Losses 2,909 582 51 4,503 901 8,823 28 2,436 487 2,477 7,707 7 516 103 - 52.22 3,675 10,713 3 356 71 * * * * * * Post-hunt POE. Census Calculated Est. 9,253 9,112 7,600 7,206 5,900 5,730 7,088 5,429 101 10,541 10,987 * * * �Table 4. Life equation for deer in Middle Park from January 1972 through January 1973. PostSeason Pop. Bucks Harvest Wounding Loss (20% of Harvest) PostSeason Pop. 27.9% 2,909 100.0% 356 100.0% 71 24.9% 2,873 38.5% 4,129 0 0 39.8% 4,129 18.9% 2,021 0 0 19.4% 2,021 Winter Mort. PreFawn Pop. New Fawns 89:100 PreSeason Pop. 24.8% 1,758 27.0% 14 40.0%yr1g. 2,909 -- Does 45.0% 3,190 28.7% 14 23.1%yr1g. -4,129 B. Fawns 16.6% 1,177 24.4% 12 -- 55.0% 2,021 Other Known Losses* Calculated Pop. Est. 1 t-' V1 ~ -I D. Fawns 13.6% 963 19.9% 10 -- 45.0% 1,654 15.4% 1,654 0 0 15.9% 1,654 Total 100.0% 7,088 100.0% 50 63.1% 7,038 100.0% 3,675 100.0% 10,713 100.0% 356 100.0% 71 100.0% 10,642 1972-73 Census * Highway mortality 101 10,541 10,087 = 48; railroad mortality = 21; miscellaneous mortality = 32. �-160- Table 5. Pre-season deer classification comparisons from 1968-1972. Year Bucks Does Fawns Total Bucks: 100 does Fawns: 100 does 1969 195 451 419 1,065 1970 43 152 93 361 258 771 1971 42 20 72 41 30 91 1972 49 73 71 102 89 264 72 88 Table 6. Year 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Comparison of aerial and ground winter classifications of deer in Middle Park, 1968-1973. Bucks He1icoEter Surve~s Does Fawns Ground Surve~s Does Fawns Total Bucks 316 558 501 1,375 57 Bucks 100 Does 90 Fawns : 100 Does 147 396 363 906 37 Bucks 100 Does 92 Fawns: 100 Does 261 490 418 1,169 53 Bucks 100 Does 85 Fawns : 100 Does 319 582 505 1,406 55 Bucks 100 Does 87 Fawns : 100 Does 211 471 45 Bucks 77 Fawns 104 231 178 513 45 Bucks 100 Does 77 Fawns : 100 Does 356 783 321 1,460 45 Bucks 100 Does 41 Fawns : 100 Does 818 1,281 1,047 3,146 64 Bucks 100 Does 82 Fawns : 100 Does 363 1,045 100 Does 100 Does ------- No Counts ------------ 362 693 540 1,595 52 Bucks 100 Does 78 Fawns : 100 Does Total Table 7. Comparisons of fetuses per 100 mature female deer in Middle Park, 1969-1973, in road killed does examined from January-May. Year 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Fetuses per 100 Females 193 164 161 187 162 100 100 100 100 100 �-161Table 8. Summary of over-winter mortality, highway and railroad kills, and miscellaneous losses from 1967-1973 in Middle Park. Winter Winter Loss Estimate Highway Loss Railroad Loss Miscellaneous Losses Total 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1,706 639 1,135 54 77 67 132 56 38 0 51 40 1,892 823 1,280 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 489 50 647 57 48 136 9 21 56 49 32 0 604 151 839 Table 9. Comparison of minimum and maximum estimates of harvest using a 100 percent survey attempt and a 16 percent random survey, Middle Park, 1972. 100 Percent Survey 16 Percent Random Survey Diff. % Diff. 288 356 301* 369* +13 +13 +4.5 +3.7 Minimum Estimate Maximum Estimate * p(301<Mean< 369) .95, Snedecor 1968. Table 10. A comparison of four methods estimating total deer harvest, number of hunters and hunter success in Middle Park in 1972. Number Harvest Estimate Percent Success Permits Issued (known) Estimate of Total Permits Issued 4,109 356* 8.7 4,317 356 8.2 Estimate of Total Hunters 3,336** 356 10.7 Min. Harvest Estimates 1. 100% Survey (81.6% actual) 2. 20% Survey (16.4% actual) 3. Regression Estimate 4. Game Mgmt. Survey Estimate (No. Hunters = 3,405) 288 301 Mean 336 341 554 Max. % Success 356 369 8.6-10.7 9.0-11.1 10.2 16.3 *This estimate will be used for projections in the life equation for deer in Middle Park. ** This estimate is derived from the 20% survey where 77.27% of the permjt holders reported they actually hunted in Middle Park in 1972. The balance of the permittees either reported hunting in other areas or did not hunt. �-162- Table 11. Summary of the age structure of male deer in the harvest, Middle Park, 1972. Age Class Number 1 55 2 13 No. Aged By Dental Cementum 52.4 54 12.4 13 3 10 9.5 10 4 4 3.8 4 5 3 2.9 3 6 1 .9 1 .9 1 .0 o .0 o .9 1 .0 o 16.3 o 100.0 87 7 1 8 0 9 0 10 1 11 0 Unclassified Mature 17 Total Percent 105 �July, 1973 -163- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~LO~RA~D~O~ Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title: Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. la Monitor Potentially Critical Deer-Vehicle Accident Areas Statewide Period Covered: Personnel: _ April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973. Don Crane, Larry L. Green, William R. Heicher, Marion Lowery, RichardF. McDonald (and all Wildlife Conservation Officers in his area), J. Kris Moser, John W. Seidel, Thomas M. Pojar, Dale F. Reed and Thomas N. Woodard. ABSTRACT The number and location of deer-vehicle accidents were monitored in five general areas of Colorado. Recommendations for installation of devices to alleviate deer-vehicle accidents were submitted to the Division of Highways when warranted. �-164- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Recommendations were developed from this study and made to the Colorado Division of Highways for erection of the 9-foot fences and attendant structures referred to in this report. �-165- MONITOR POTENTIALLY CRITICAL DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENT AREAS STATEWIDE Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish statewide, the location and number of deer-vehicle accidents in areas appropriate to the evaluation of devices. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas reported by management and as determined by Job 1. 2. As appropriate, record all deer found killed in selected highway area. 3. As appropriate, estimate deer densities in each selected highway area. 4. Measure deer activity along the roadside or in the median of each selected highway area when feasible. 5. Sunnnarize the Highway Department's traffic volume data for each selected highway area as needed. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972). DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West See Pojar (1972). Preliminary planning and design of the interstate highway which will replace Highway 6-24 is completed but construction has not begun. A total of 8 underpasses and 1 overpass with associated 8-foot fencing has been incorporated in the original highway design. Highway 1-70 Eagle East Pojar (1972) described this area. The 8.5 miles of 1-70 from Eagle east constituting this area was opened to tnaffic October 5, 1972. A 4.75 mile 8-faat fence will be installed along the north right-of-way during summer, 1973. �-167- Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott Pojar (1972) described this area. Two 2.25 mile 8-foot fences were installed adjacent to the highway in this area in 1972. Durango Area Pojar (1972) described this area. Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Myers (1969) described this area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West A total of 92 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 18 miles of highway in the Rifle-West study area during this segment. Eighty-three percent of these were killed during December, January, and February. Seventy percent were killed along a 7 mile length beginning approximately 5 miles west of Rifle. Highway (1-70) Eagle East A total of 165 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 8.5 miles of highway in the Eagle East study area from October 5, 1972, to March 31, 1973. Deer crossed nightly to the south side to feed on irrigated hayland and back to the north for cover in the pinyon-juniper communities common on that side. Deer kill declined in January when snow depth precluded use of the hayland (Fig. 1). The majority of deer were killed along the section of highway beginning 1/2 mile east of Eagle Interchange and proceeding east 4.5 miles (Fig. 2). The 4.75 mile 8-foot fence will be installed along this section of highway. Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott A total of 131 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 14 miles of highway in the Avon-Wolcott study area during this segment. Deer kill was reduced on the portions of highway opposite two sections of 8-foot fence (Woodard 1973) . Deer kill increased along the section of highway from the Eagle River Bridge, 2 miles east of Wolcott, to approximately lA5 miles east of that point. Two deer were killed in this area from January through March in 1972 and 13 were killed in 1973 durt ng the same period. A 14 x 14 foot equipment underpass is situated near the center of this area. It could be used, with associated 8-foot fencing, as a deer underpass. �..-54 5 )- ..-44 a:: 4 1- w w 0 LL 3 - 2 - 0 ,.22. ..-28 a:: w I 00 \0 .-I I CD ~ => 2 • .-- 7 6 OCT rr: NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. MONTH Fig. 1. The total number of deer killed on I-70 from 1.15 miles west of Wolcott Interchange to Eagle Interchange (Oct. 5, 1972 - March 31, 1973). �8- FOOT FENCE TO BE INSTALLED IN 1973 20 0: w lJ..J 0 I.J... 0 I 0"1 \0 .-4 I · 15 • • • • a:: lJ..J · 10 • CD .. ::E ::::> z - · ~ -- - I- .. ~ •••• 5 • - ·• .. - ~ ~ • ~ ~ I 5 ~ -, 10 - -I- "'" •• 15 QUARTER - MILE 20 25 !O 35 SECTIONS Fig. 2. The total number of deer killed on 1-70 by quarter-mile section from Oct. 5, 1972 - ~arch 31, 1973 from 1.15 miles west of Wolcott Interchange (section 1) to Eagle Interchange (section 35). �-170- Durango Area A total of 356 deer and 52 elk was killed by vehicles on the 118 miles of highway in the Durango study area during this segment. This total constitutes a decrease of 90 deer and an increase of 23 elk from the previous year period. A deer underpass with associated 8-foot fencing has been incorporated into a highway construction project on Highway 160 west of Durango between Cherry Creek and Mancos. Twelve deer were killed in the underpass area during this segment. Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt One hundred sixty~five vehicle-killed deer were documented on 18 miles of highway in the Glenwood-Basalt study area during this segment. Seventy-five percent were killed from January through March. March, with 51 deer, had the highest monthly kill. Traffic volume has increased annually by approximately 12 percent since 1968. The 1972 traffic volume was 1.73 million vehicles. A highway construction project which includes 8-foot fencing in the Carbondale East area (Pojar 1972), 9 miles southeast of Glenwood, will begin during the next segment. A 1.1 mile 8-foot fence in the Diamond-S area, 7 miles southeast of Glenwood is currently being evaluated (Woodard 1973). LITERATURE CITED Myers, Gary T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp. 147-178. Pojar, Thomas M. 1972. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj".W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. 305-310. Woodard, Thomas N. 1973. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-27. Game Res. Rep. In progress. ./ "L. ) r I . Prepared by -1 {-n,:/;::. (J/J.et!llMj! Thomas N. Woodard Senior Research Technician �-171- July, 1973 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~------------ Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title: Job No. 3 Investigation of One-Way Deer Structures Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Thomas N. Woodard, Thomas M. Pojar and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACT Gates designed to allow passage of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) in only one direction were tested under controlled and field conditions. Two gate types had significantly (P~0.02) different frequencies of use under controlled conditions. Eight gates of type deemed most effective were installed in 8-foot fences adjacent to Interstate Highway 70 near Vail, Colorado. A total of 406 passages were recorded through these gates during 1970-71 and over 96.2 percent of these were in the one-way direction for which the gate was designed. Based on track counts, we estimate five of these gates permitted about 145 deer to escape the immediate highway right-of-way. Two one-way fences did not meet the one-way criteria. More negative crossings occurred than positive under controlled conditions. They were rejected for field tests. �-172- RECOMMENDATIONS When deer-proof fencing adjacent to high-speed highways is used to reduce or prevent deer-vehicle accidents, one-way structures should be considered for installation. Deer that move around the ends of the fence, or from the side of the road not fenced, will be able to pass through a one-way gate rather than be trapped on the highway and likely killed. �-173- INVESTIGATION OF DEE.I{ :-;T!\UCTU KES ONE-\.JAY Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of three types of one-way gates and two fence structures to permit one-way movement of mule deer through existing deerproof fences at Little Hills Experiment Station and elsewhere. METHODS AND MATERIALS One-Way See manuscript in preparation Gates described One-Way below. Fences Two one-way fences, similar to the overhanging and slanting fences of Long-. hurst and Jones (1962) were constructed. Each was made with variable vertical sections and with either a variable overhanging or slanting section. Table 1 lists the characteristics and adjustable features of both fences. The variable sections were accomplished by use of telescoping square steel tubing (Unistrut Western, Inc., 601 S. Jason St., Denver, Colorado). Table 1. One-Way Characteristics Fence and adjustable Max. -Min. Vertical (In. ) features of one-way fences I and II. Max. -Min. Depth (In. ) Variable Angle Limits (from Vertical) Operational Principle I 66-42 64-34 450- 900 Ove rh anging II 72-48 90-48 1150-1300 Slanting The number of deer crossing one-way fences I and II (overhanging and slanting, respectively) was to be counted each day in a manner similar to that of the one-way gates. Only preliminary tests were conducted. Procedures for further testing were not developed. �-174- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION One-Way Manuscript Gates in Pre~ration Reed, Dale F. and Thomas M. Pojar. Wildlife Mgmt. One-Way Use of one-way gates by mule deer. J. Fences Preliminary tests of the one-way fences were considered unsuccessful. The few positive crossings that occurred with the variable height posts in their lowest positions were outnumbered by negative crossings (Table 2); consequently, the one-way fences did not meet the previously established oneway criteria. Structures not meeting this criteria were to be modified or rejected. In this case, modifications did not appear feasible and the structures were rejected for further testing. Longhurst William H., Milton and Maynard W. Cummings. Circular 514. pp. 7-13. 9 Prepared by ~dL~ B. Jones, Ralph R. Parks, Loren W. Neubauer, 1962. Fences for controlling deer damage. Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher �-175- Table 2. Passages and days elapsed during preliminary tests with one-way Fences I and II. Days Elapsed Without Pos. Passage Days Elapsed Without Neg. Passage Ht. of Fence (In.) Length of Angle (In.) Group or Deer Crossings Pos. Neg. Group A (5 deer) 0 5 46 70 Group B (2 deer) 0 7 46 70 Buck (2 pt. from Group A) -1 7 46 70 Buck (3 p t , ) 0 3 34 65 Buck (4 Pt.) Doe Doe (from Group M) 1 0 1 4 34 65 1 -1 4 0 34 65 0 -1 3 o 34 65 4 34 65 34 65 Fawn Fawn Total 0 0 2 4 -3 24 18 ��July, 1973 -177- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title Job No. 6 Deer Underpass Evaluation Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Thomas M. Pojar, Thomas N. Woodard and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACT The use of a concrete box underpass 10 feet by 10 feet and 100 feet long that permits deer to move under Interstate 70 to and from their summer range was evaluated. The structure, located 4.3 miles west of Vail, utilizes a well established deer migration trail and a natural drainage referred to as Mud Springs Gulch. According to the number of passages recorded by the electrooptical detection system and video surveillance, deer increased their use of the structure by 40 percent from 1971 to 1972. The greatest use of the underpass occurred during June and November with maximums of 28 and 39 net passages per day respectively. An index of entrance versus exit activity indicated a behavioral reluctance on the part of deer to use the underpass. ��-179- DEER UNDERPASS EVALUATION Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if deer migrating from winter range on one side of Interstate 70 to summer range on the opposite side utilize an underpass constructed in the area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of the underpass. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Reed (1971). In addition, a video time-lapse surveillance system was used during the 1972 spring and fall migration periods. This system and its application has been described separately (Reed, Pojar, and Woodard 1973). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Spring and Summer Use of the Underpass It was estimated that 286 deer moved south through the underpass during the spring and summer migration of 1972. The first passage, south toward higher summer range, occurred on May 18. The greatest use occurred during June with a maximum of 28 deer passing through during one night. Use slackened during July to a greater extent than it had during the two previous spring and summer migrations (Fig. 1). Compared with 1971, the number of passages during the spring and summer of 1972 increased 26.0 percent. This may have been caused by an increase in the population, a shift in the migration pattern, or by estimating the number of net passages with the video system instead of the electro-optical system (Myers 1969). Indices of activity were determined by dividing counter readings at the entrance to the underpass by those at the exit (Fig. 2). These indices would equal 1.0, if each deer that came to the entrance went through and was counted once at the entrance and once at the exit. The greater the index, the greater the number of counts at the entrance as compared with the exit, and the greater the amount of time and energy expended there by deer. The indices, indicators of apparent reluctance on the part of deer to use the underpass, decreased during 1972 (Fig. 2). Observations, made via the video system, confirm th~hypothesis that most deer spend time at the entrance before, and possibly without, passing through the structure. Results including the number of deer approaches, entrances, exits and passages recorded by the video system has been described separately (Reed, Pojar, and Woodard 1973). �(J) ~ l> o 16 -31 JUl . '" I , . " .... ....•... -- . "'2:..___ I _-- """'- b ....., (JI -> ~/ .•...•........•. ...• \ --. -- ---\ -~ ~. - - ~-:::.-=--.::..-.=::"- _.i' -- -. .---- ~~,,.----!B / , " " I ,,, ., ./ / . ,'." " ,. , ,.• . _-- -- -+-. I I .... Fig. 1. The mean number of passages per day for each 2-week period, spring-summer and fall migrations 1970, 1971, and 1972. DEC \ DEC /. \"~ I ,I NOV 16- NOV OCT OCT SEP 16- SEP I AUG AUG I JUL JUN JUN I MEAN PASSAGES -180- �40 . . -" " > > lo 1970 1911 1972 ------- ~ " I , I , I ,' '' I ' ,, ,, ,, I ~ , I I « ,, 020 , ,,, ,, ,, , I LL I I . , I X W ," c """, ,• Z « W :'\"' . Z 10 • ,/ • - 0 I I I MAY - 0 - - \'I It) N CoSiJ __ .' CD It) \ CD \ \ N I N ,, ,, ,, ,"''' , ,.,...,.'" ", "- " "" • " ~ • ~ JUNE TIME . ,, &I) -- -. I ," " //\ / . It) CD __ . 1"~"\ , ,,----- ... "", :E , -• JULY 10 • 0 CD It) 0 I ~ CD PERIOD Fig. 2. Mean indices of activity at Vail underpass during the spring and summer migrations, 1971, and 1972. 1970, 1$ �-182- Fall Use of the Underpass It was estimated that 546 deer moved north through the underpass during the fall migration of 1972. The first passage occurred on October 1 and the last on December 22. The greatest use occurred during October and November with a mean of 16.9 deer passages per day during the first 15 days of November (Fig. 1). A maximum of 39 deer passed through the underpass during one night. The fall use increased by 90.9 percent over spring-summer use. Herd increment, a shift in overall migration patterns, and low hunter harvest are probably responsible for such an increase. The number of passages during the fall of 1972 increased 48.8 percent over a comparable period in 1971. As with the increase in the spring migration between 1971 and 1972, this may also have been caused by estimating the number of passages with the video system instead of with the electro-optical system. Variation in seasonal use of the underpass occurring between fall migrations (Fig. 1) may have been due to weather conditions, primarily the timeliness and severity of snowfalls. Approximately 21 rains or snowfalls occurred during October and November of the 1972 fall migration period. The mean temperatures (OF) when deer passages occurred during October and November were 30.9 and 21.8, repectively. Two hundred twenty-eight deer (Table 1) were recorded moving north through the structure during, or within 24 hours following, precipitation. Additional weather data will be collected and analyzed during the next segment. The indices of activity for the 1971 and 1972 fall migrations were much lower than the spring-summer indices previously discussed (Fig. 3). LITERATURE CITED Myers, Gary T. 1969. Development of an electronic deer counting device. p. 235-247. In Game Research Report, July Part 2. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. p. 341-351. In Game Research Report, July Part 3. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Reed, D. F., T. M. Pojar, and T. N. Woodard. 1973. A video- time-lapse system for wildlife surveillance. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Game Inform. Leafl. No. 94. 3 p. Prepared by c:o tti&yczl} Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher �-183- Table 1. Passages through the underpass during October, November, December, 1972 in relation to precipitation and weather conditions. Oct. Nov. Following Snow l/ 140 88 228 Not Following Snow:!:../ 85 166 251 Unknown 43 17 Dec.2/ Total In Relation to Snow: 67 7 Total 546 In Relation to Weather Condi tions': Cloudy and Snowing 94 35 129 Cloudy and Partly Cloudy 65 140 205 Clear 25 29 54 Clear and Moonlight 38 12 50 Unknown 46 55 Total 7 108 546 1/ - During precipitation or 24 hours following cessation. 2/ - Not during or within 24 hours following cessation of precipitation. 3/ - Data through December 22. �i~/\ ~ 51 > - ---1972 • - I- 1971 ~ u, 0 e 1 3 <, , • z 2 ",'.~ ./ '.' . ",. <t W II- •..• \ \ . It I \ :E 10 0 10 I I I - - CD - 0 N I 10 N I - If) It) I I CD N OCTOBER CD .N - 0 U') 0 It) I I N N t\I NOVEMBER I CD -I CD TIME PERk)O Fig. 3. Mean indices of activity at Vail underpass during the fall migration of 1971 and 1972. �July, 1973 -185- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of --------~~~~-------COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title Job No. 7 Effects of Highway Lighting on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Thomas M. Pojar, Thomas N. Woodard and Dale F. Reed. ��-187- EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY LIGHTING ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if highway lighting affects the rate of deer-vehicle accidents on a portion of Colorado 82. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles at each end of, and within a 1/4 mile lighted portion of Colorado 82. 2. Estimate deer densities adjacent to the portion of highway affected by lighting. 3. Compare pre-treatment kill and count data to post-treatment kill and count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand why deer-vehicle accident rates are or are not affected by lighting. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The decision made by the Colorado Division of Highways and Division of Wildlife to delay installation of the i11uminaries was continued through this segment. However, implementation of the agreement to install the luminaries was initiated February 8, 1973 (Appendix A). The number of deer, the number of deer-vehicle accidents, and several weather measurements were monitored (Appendix B). Prepared bY~4k:{CkQ Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher �-188- February 8, 1973 APPENDIX A DEER-HIGHWAY LIGHTING PROJECT (F.H.A. Project 1478) The Deer-Highway Lighting Project (F.H.A. No. 1478) was approved September 11,1969. The installation of the luminaries for this study has been delayed for various reasons. We recommended implementation of the agreement (dated September 19, 1969) between the Colorado Division of Wildlife and the Colorado Division of Highways. Installation of the luminaries is to be completed during the summer of 1973 with the exact location of the lighted area to be coordinated with the Deer-Vehicle Accident Study personnel in Glenwood Springs. The following changes are suggested by the Division of Wildlife to update the agreement. 1) Light a one-quarter mile section of highway rather than a threequarter mile section as originally proposed. 2) Under Section 4, Method of Study, add the following to paragraph one: "In order that pre-treatment and treatment data can be gathered during the same season, the lights will be turned on at dusk nightly for a one-week period and then be turned off and left off for a one-week period during the season of evaluation." 3) Section 13 wording to be changed to read: "Work on this project is scheduled for two seasons of evaluation. The final report is to be completed no later than six months after the final season of evaluation." �-189- APPENDIX B RESEARCH 1973 Deer-Highway Lighting Project Report The number of deer-vehicle accidents and the number of deer counted in the Jammaron study area showed an increase in 1973 over the past two years (Figs. 1 and 2). The number of deer-vehicle accidents (deer kill) increased linearly from January to March (Fig. 1). Snow depths adjacent to and above the study area approximated 10.0, 18.5 18.8, and 9.5 inches for December, January, February, and March, respectively. Hence, the relatively moderate to severe winter conditions continued during the January, February, and March period. The average minimum temperature for January through March decreased in 1973 (Fig. 3), while the total amount of precipitation increased to 1.69 inches. Installation Installation of the luminaries was recommended as of February 8, 1973. �'"" 1-" ::s C/l - OQ CJ) "d o 0.- ~ o f-> CD c;J HI o ::r' rt o c: CJ) ~ '"" CD '< ~ c: 0.- rt CJ) - >rj - ,,~ -(Q I I I : ,I.. , :,.J, :"/ I ~.: -,~ : ' -. f..... " " .' I: . " ,,:I . ":I!! : :. '-l \ / \ / \, \ '" \ \ ' . \0' I . .\ . \--' : d) .\ \; \: \ \ ~ \ ~ -(0 _ ,:.i\f ~ I I I I \ \' \ \ \ 'I~ ,- ,O;~ \_ In \~ \ --- / \ / \, '\ ~.\ \/ " \ '\ " -, \ ~ \ \-!"oo.. -:,<~~ .' <: \ '~ '\" , x ~ !"-, \ ~ \ \ \ l> ::0. :' s: » ~.z c, -~--- / o I\) / / TOTAL NUMBER OF DEER KILLED - o Oi l> ~ ~ c »C ::0 A rn»r _r 00 Zl> :0:;:0 »1') ~~ ~Q) c:..:E _:t G) .~ �HIGHWAY 82 SPOTLIGHT COUNT DATA (JAMMARON 130 AREA) 120 0' 10 w ~ ::::> 0 <.) 100 00 0:: ~ 80 0 LL 70 0 a:: 60 w ~ ~~ 50 \9 9,-.......... .>.> 6 .------ ;..---- 1.. ••..•. .> .-----'9 ;,l-•...... --\~1 2: rz 40 !« :w 30 ~ 20 10 ~. ,~ --- ' --- .../': ..--: ' ..,..,' ------ - ......- ••..•.. ...-- -- -------=-=-=-- -- - --::- ----- •••••• .> \91... ...1972 ... ~.~.....:.:;;..:.•... 0 ""' .•.- - ------ ----- --- -- -- ------- ------. ..-·7-..------. . . . .-_-------- ._c--------1971 ------ --- -----.-----.:..t. . '"-- -- -- ----.-.- .---- -. . .. .. . JM ~B Fig. 2. Number of deer counted adjacent to the Jammaron study area south of Glenwood Springs. MAA �HIGHWAY 82 PRECIPITATION AND TEMPERATURE JANUARY, FEBRUARY, AND MARCH ....(f) UJ :I: ----- • 0 Z ••••••• ti -- ~ 0'1 .-I I a:: ,,.-------- ---- -_._------------_. ,, , , , , \, , , ,, ,, , sC'I o~ 20 LaJ - I LA: PRECIPITATION TEMPERATURE Q.. ---- /\ . " "" , , frl a:: Q. ti 0:: 16 ~ :i ' . LLJ " ,' ,, ,, , , ,• .' ..J ~ C[ 6 1.00 12 t-: z :i LIJ 10 ~ a.: I.&J •••• ~ 1969 1970 1971 Fig. 3. Average minimum temperature and total precipitation of Glenwood Springs during January, February, and March. 1972 1973 for the Jammaron study area south �July, 1973 -193- JOB FINAL REPORT State of .:;:.CO:::,;L::;,;O::.,:RA=D:,;;O:..._ Project No. W-38-R-27 Work plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: 15 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. :--....;8~ Ef.f.ec.t ..o.f.Light.ed.D.e.er Crossing Signs on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles - __ April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Larry Green, Thomas N. Woodard, Dale F. Reed and Thomas M. Pojar. ABSTRACT Two lighted, animated deer crossing signs were installed adjacent to State Highway 82, south of Glenwood Springs, Colorado, delineating a one-mile segment of highway where deer-vehicle accidents frequently occurred. The signs were turned on and off for alternate weekly periods in 1972 and 1973 during the time when most deer-auto accidents were expected to occur. Numbers of deer crossing the highway were estimated and all deer-vehicle accidents were documented. The number of crossings per deer killed on the highway was 56.9:1 and 56.5:1 with the signs on and with the signs off respectively. There was no difference in the ratios (P">0.50). Mean vehicle speeds were lower (P<0.05) with the signs on but the reduction in speed was less than 3.0 mph. When three deer carcasses were placed along the highway with the signs on the mean vehicular speed dropped 6.27 mph. With the signs off the difference was 7.85 mph. There was no significant difference in the mean speeds (P<O.OOl) when dead deer were on the highway whether the signs were on or off. Apparently motorists did see the sign but their response in the form of speed reduction and/or increased awareness was not sufficient to affect the crossings per kill ratio. - �-194- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. In areas where deer-vehicle accidents are especially numerous the motorist should be given some warning for public relations and liability reasons. A prototype of the lighted, animated sign cost $2,000 (1971 prices) and line power (110 volt) was needed. Use of conventional signs which cost $94 (1973 prices) each for materials, is more practical. �-195- EFFECT OF LIGHTED DEER CROSSING SIGNS ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Thomas M. Pojar P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if lighted deer crossing signs affect the rate of deer-vehicle accidents on a portion of Colorado 82. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Two seasons of evaluation of a lighted, animated deer crossing sign were completed by the end of this segment. A manuscript was prepared, edited and forwarded to the Federal Highway Administration for permission to submit it to the Journal of Wildlife Management. Manuscript in Preparation Pojar, Thomas M., Richard A. Prosence, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard. Effectiveness of a lighted, animated deer crossing sign. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Prepared by--tl;;::::J 1!?, I~ Thomas M. Pojar Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1973 -197- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of -:;C,;;,OLO::;;;,;RA;;;;:;:D:;,;O::._ Pro.ject No. W-38-R-27 Wo.rk Plan No. 15 Jo.b No. ~1~0~ ~~-------An Bva IuatLon iof Deer'-Proof Fence Length Required to. Prevent Deer Movements o.n or Acro.ss High Speed Highways Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations Perio.d Co.vered: April 1, 1972 thro.ugh March 31, 1973 Perso.nnel: Dale F. Reed, Tho.mas M. Po.jar, William R. Heicher, Larry L. Green, J. Kris Moser and Tho.mas N. Wo.o.dard. ABSTRACT Deer cro.ssings were reduced 82 percent during the first March-May perio.d after the 1.1 mile 8-fo.ot fence o.n Highway 82 was installed. Annual deer kill was reduced by 61 percent. Deer kill was reduced by 72 percent and 71 percent after two. 2.25 mile 8-fo.o.tfences were installed adjacent to. Interstate 70 near Avon and Edwards, respectively. Sightings of 6 marked deer near the Vail underpass-fencing complex indicated mo.vements parallel to the fence distances o.f 0.25 to. 1.00 miles. ��-199- AN EVALUATION OF DEER-PROOF FENCE LENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT DE.ER MOVEMENTS ON OR ACROSS HIGH SPEED HIGHWAYS Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate length of deer-proof fence in relation to deer movement on or across high speed highways. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Install deer-proof fence along appropriate sections of highway as determined by Job 1a. 2. Evaluate the effectiveness of various lengths of deer-proof fence in affecting deer movements. METHODS AND ~TERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972). DESCRIPTION OF AREA Highway 82 - Diamond S The Highway 82 study area has been described by Pojar (1972). Interstate 70 - Avon Area The Interstate 70 - Avon study area consists of a segment of the Interstate from the Avon Interchange east 2.25 miles to the Eagle River Bridge. This section of highway was opened to traffic October 1, 1971. An 8-foot fence was completed along the north highway rightof-way on October 5, 1972 (Fig. 1). Open sagebrush areas and various browse species are common on the north side of the highway. Alfalfa fields are prevalent south of the highway. Deer inhabit this area from August until snow depth precludes use, usually by late December. �-200- Fig. 1. The Colorado Division of Highways and Division of Wildlife cooperated in planning and installation of 8-foot fence adjacent to 1-70 near Avon. �-201- Interstate 70 - Edwards Area The Interstate 70 - Edwards study area consists of a segment of the Interstate from the Edwards Interchange west 2.25 miles. This section of highway was opened to traffic October 1, 1971. An 8-foot fence was completed along the north highway right-of-way in July, 1972. Deer utilize the area adjacent the highway to the north during the winter. Sagebrush flats and pinyon-juniper communities are common. Interstate 70 - Vail Area The Vail underpass-fencing complex and adjoinirig area has been described by Reed (1971). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 82 - Diamond S Deer concentrate in the crested wheatgrass fields northeast of the highway in late winter and early spring (Table 1). Table 1. The March-May mean nUmber of deer observations on spotlight counts between quarter-mile section markers 25 to 30 for 1968 through 1972 on Highway 82. Mean Count Month 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 134.75 (n=4) 151.25 (n=4) 104.50 (n=4) 66.75 (n=4) 102.25 (n=4) 73.00 (n=4) 34.00 (n=5) 56.00 (n=5) 51.40 (n=5) 4.50 (n=4) May 6.00 (n=5) 0.00 (n=l) 1.50 (n=2) 0.00 (n=2) MEAN TOTAL 66.23 (n=13) 77.50 (n=lO) 63.73 (n=ll) 47.63 (n=ll) March April 53.37 (n=8) Mean deer crossings during March-May periods in 1971 (before 8-foot fence was installed) and 1972 (after 8-foot fence was installed) were: 1971, 11.7 (n=32); and 1972, 2.1 (n=38). This represents an 82 percent reduction in crossings in 1972. The mean deer kill per year before the 8-foot fence was installed (1968-1971) was 7.75. Three deer were killed in 1972 (after 8-foot fence was installed); a reduction of 61 percent. �-202- Interstate 70 - Avon Area The mean number of deer observations on spotlight counts during the August - December periods was 15.5 (n=Lf ) in 1971 and 13.4 (n=21) in 1972. Mean daily deer crossings during the period November 12 - December 29 in 1971 was 35.8 (n=24). ~ean daily crossings in 1972 before the 8-foot fence was completed was 13.6 (n=62) for the period August 7 - October 5. After the fence was completed in 1972 the mean daily crossings was 3.6 (n=28) for the period October 6 - November 2. Eighteen deer were killed from October 5, 1971, to March 31, 1972, before the fence was ins ta1led. Five were killed from October 5, 1972, to March 31, 1973, after the fence; a 72 percent reduction. Interstate 70 - Edwards Area Fourteen deer were killed on this stretch of highway before the fence was installed from October 5, 1971, to ~farch 31, 1972. Four were killed after the fence from October 5, 1972, to March 31, 1973; a reduction of 71 percent. Interstate 70 - Vail Area The movements of six marked deer in relation to the Vail fencing have been monitored. Two travelled parallel to the south fence a minimum of 0.4 and 0.7 miles. Four travelled parallel to the north fence a minimum of 0.25, 0.5, 0.65 and 1.0 miles. LITERATURE CITED Poiar, Thomas M. 1972. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wi1dl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid. Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. 305-310. Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Julv, Part 3. pp. 341-351. Prepared bv _~~~~~ffYK~~a~5~~~~.~~~~~~ Thomas Senior Research Technician Colo. Div. Hildl. Game Res. Rep , , �July, 1973 -203- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-27. Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. Job Title 15 Job No. __~ ~~~l~l~ Effects .0£ a Simulate.d8;-.footFence Angle in Diverting Deer from Their Established Direction of Movement Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Thomas N. Woodard, Thomas M. Pojar and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACT Time was measured and observations made on mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) response to five simulated fence angles. Of 19 deer, only 10 successfully moved through the control time zone. The mean time was 101.3 seconds. Sample sizes (n) of the angle variables (45, 60, 90, 120 and 135 degrees) were severely limited. _ ��-205- Fig. 1. A permanent 8-foot wire deer fence is shown in the foreground. The simulated fence (netting) is shown installed at the 60° angle (right center) from the permanent fence. The wires to the left and the far right are the 90° and 45° angles, respectively. ��-207- EFFECTS OF A SIMULATED 8-FOOT FENCE ANGLE IN DIVERTING DEER FROM THEIR ESTABLISHED DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of three angles of a simulated 8-foot fence to divert deer from their established direction of movement. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Install a movable 8-foot section of 4-inch square netting adjacent to and across heavily traveled deer trails and concentration points. 2. Test the effectiveness of three angles under field conditions. METHODS AND MATERIALS An 8-foot high simulated fence made of 4-inch netting (350 lb. test) wa5 easily installed for a length of 90 feet and at one of three angles (45 , 600, and 900; plus converse angles of 1200 and 1350) in relation to a permanent 8-foot wire deer fence (Fig. 1). The permanent wire fence had been placed across a deer migration route to divert migrating deer. There was a heavily traveled deer trail along this fence. The time for a deer to travel the 90-foot length of permanent 8-foot deer fence, (hereafter referred to as the "control"), and the same length of simulated fence at each angle (variables 450,600, and 900; plus converse angles of 1200 and 1350) was measured by making early morning observations and recording the time each deer spent between two clearly marked points with a stop watch. The amount of time was recorded to the nearest second for each animal. If a group approached, the first animal moving into the marked area (time zone) was chosen for timing. When two or more deer moved into the zone simultaneously either the "lead" animal or a tagged animal was used. Observations were made during early morning hours for 33 days from June 6 to July 19, 1972. The sequence of the simulated fence angles tested was: 0 0 (control), 450, 60°, and 90°. This sequence was repeated throughout the above period. The simulated fence was installed at the angle specified by the above sequence during the evening before the day's observation. Factors such as the wind, light, natural cover, and camouflage clothing were utilized to advantage during the observations. However, if the observer was detected by the animals, the day's observations were terminated. �-208- DESCRIPTION OF AREA The observations on deer response to the 8-foot fence angle simulation were made near Vail, Colorado, adjacent to the north 8-foot fence of the Vail underpass - fencing complex (Reed 1971). The observation site was located on the edge of a conifer community with interspersed aspen (Populus tremuloides) and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Sunrise occurred behind the observer's location and normal westerly winds or breezes placed the location on the lee side of most deer during the observations. A dirt road paralleled the 8-foot fence, and curved away from it near the point where the simulated fence was attached to the wire fence. There was a gradual slope located adjacent to the road opposite the observation point. The simulated fence angle of 900 was installed across the road and up this slope. The fence angle of 600 was tangent to the outer shoulder of the bend in the road. The fence angle of 450 was installed down an incline to the east and 20 to 30 feet from the road and slope at the closest point. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Time was measured on deer in the simulated fence angle area on 64 occasions. Of 19 deer recorded in the time zone during control measurements, only 10 were successful in moving through the zone (Table 1). Nine failed in that they moved into the zone, turned around, and left in the direction they had come. Sample sizes (n) obtained during the evaluation of the angle variables were not sufficient to determine a meaningful pattern. To increase the sample sizes during the next segment, the angle of 600 (and converse angle of 1200) will be omitted from the evaluation. LITERATURE CITED Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. In Game Research Report. July, Part 3. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Div., Federal Aid. p. 344. Prepared by A'2~¢r~ Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher �-209- Table 1. The mean times (seconds) of successes or f u ll ures of dcor moving through the zone with either the simulated fence angle removed (control.) or installed (variables: 45°, 60°, or 90°). Successful animals either moved 1) along the simulated fence and then around the end, 2) along a dirt road (during angles of 450 and 600 only), or 3) up an adjacent slope. Failure animals moved into the zone, turned around, and left in the direction that they had come. Successful Failure Percent Successful 101.3 (n=lO) i/ 61.8 (n= 8) 95.3 (n= 3) 92.1 (n=9) , 0 74.5 (n=2) 53 100 60 Fence Road Slope 0 116.3 (n= 3) 75.0 (n= 1) 52.0 (n=2) 62.0 (n=2) 211. 3 (n=3) 0 60 25 Fence Road Slope 0 189.7 (n= 3) 93.0 (n= 4) 0 150.7 (n=3) 0 50 100 Fence Road Slope 309.0 (n= 1) 206.0 (n= 2) 126.0 (n= 1) 69.0 (n=L) 0 0 50 100 100 121. 3 (n=4) 0 0 0 Angles 00 (Control) Fence 1:./ Road ];./ Slope 1/ 45 ° 60° 90° 120° 0 0 0 Fence Road Slope 135 ° Fence Road Slope 73.0 (n= 1) 0 51.0 (n= 1) 0 0 0 100 100 1:./ Deer that moved along the trail adjacent to the permanent 8-foot fence. 2/ - Deer that moved along the dirt road. 3/ - Deer that came from the trail adjacent the 8-foot fence or from the road, and moved up an adjacent slope. 4/ - Number of observations (n). 5/ - When deer approached the simulated fence angles of 60° and 45° from the opposite direction (east), they encountered converse angles of 120° and 135°. ��-211- July, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Job No. 1 Piceance Deer Study - Population Distribution Period Covered: Personnel: Deer~E1k Investigations April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 R. M. Bartmann, S. F. Steinert, J. J. Klein, Jr., L. Crooks, R. Stone and D. Talcott. ABSTRACT From December 12, 1972 to March 9, 1973, 427 deer were neckbanded on the Piceance winter range and another 90 eartagged only. The sex and age composition of the marked deer was 65 male fawns, 67 female fawns, 90 mature males and 295 mature females. Sightings of 196 marked deer were reported and 37 were recovered. Aerial deer distribution surveys were made in December, January and February. A considerable decrease in occupied winter range occurred from December to January because of deep snow. Little new snow fell after Janaury 10 and so the February survey was based on accumulated rather than new tracks. From the air, deer distribution appeared little different from what it had been in January. Ground checks later revealed that deer were more concentrated than was indicated by aerial observation of accumulated tracks. ��-213- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To delineate deer sub-population boundaries and concentration areas on the Piceance winter range. a. Define winter range boundaries of the Piceance deer population under mild, moderate, and severe winter conditions. b. Define deer sub-population boundaries. c. Delineate major deer concentration areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Bartmann (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Trapping Deer trapping began December 12, 1972, and terminated March 9, 1973. Trapping conditions the past winter were markedly different from those of the relatively mild winter the preceding year. Deep snow restricted vehicular access in many areas and srtowmobiles were used to move and check traps most of the winter; consequently only 30 to 40 traps were set at anyone time. Although this was only about half of the number used the previous year, the mean number of deer marked per day was comparable; 5.9 in 1973 and 5.7 i~ 1972. Marked deer quotas were reached in five of the seven trapping areas and about 250 deer remain to be neckbanded in Areas 4 and 5. Beginning in mid-January, fawns were eartagged only. The condition of fawns deteriorated noticeably late December to March and many were not expected to survive the winter. �-214- The use of ear-streamers was also discontinued this past winter. From the comments of hunters and others who observed marked deer, the red streamers did help attract attention to marked animals. However, there were several reports during the 1972 big game season of deer with red streamers and red neckbands. To our knowledge, no deer anywhere near the White River area were marked in this manner. Most people probably confused the streamers with neckbands. Since red neckbands were used this past winter, the ear-streamers were not. Four hundred twenty-seven deer were both eartagged and neckbanded during the 87-day trapping period. Another 90 deer, mostly fawns, were eartagged only for a total of 517 deer marked (Table 1). The sex and age composition was 65 male fawns, 67 female fawns, 90 mature males, and 295 mature females. The percent fawns was 26, or 8 percent less than in the previous year. This decline was offset by an increase in mature females from 48 to 57 percent. The percent of mature males was nearly constant, 18 and 17 in 1972 and 1973, respectively. There was only one recatch of a deer banded the previous year even though about three weeks were spent in areas trapped in 1972. Another recatch was made in Area 6 of a deer banded earlier in the winter in Area 1. Marked Deer Sightings and Recoveries Sightings of 196 marked deer were reported through March 15, 1973 (Table 2). Forty-seven were considered summer sightings (May through September) and 149 winter sightings (October through April). In addition, 37 marked deer were recovered, most during the deer hunting season in October (Table 3). Comments and conclusions concerning the results of the trapping program will be reserved until data from all portions of the winter range provide a more complete picture of deer movements. Deer Distribution The 1972-73 winter was unusually severe. Snow depths ranged from 15 to 30 inches over much of the winter range during January and February and mean temperatures averaged about 100 F lower than in 1972 according to Little Hills weather records. Even though little snow fell after January 10, low temperatures prevented much melting and settling of the snow pack until late February. South slopes, which are usually bare within a week after most snowfalls, remained snow-covered nearly all winter. Little snow-crusting occurred until February and then only on south exposures. Deep powder snow prevented travel by snowmobile over much of the higher winter range areas and ground checks of snow depths and deer distribution were kept to a minimum. During the first aerial distribution survey December 6, 10 and 11, 1972, snow depths varied from about 12 inches at lower elevations to 20 inches �-215- or more at the higher levels. As this was the first large accumulation of snow for the winter, deer were still fairly well scattered. Several areas of heavy deer use were noted along Highway 13, adjacent the upper White River, and along Hunter Creek (Fig. 1). Deer had already vacated some of the treeless areas and steep timbered north slopes at higher elevations in the Piceance triangle. Some of the larger open sagebrush and chained areas in the western portion of the winter range were also devoid of deer tracks. Although deer were present on the more extensive south slope areas, track densities indicated only light to moderate use. During the January 5,6 and 7, 1973 survey, it was difficult to assign track density ratings. Deep snow, ranging from 18 to 30 inches, had forced deer to use defined trails in many areas. The upper limits of deer use had lowered since the previous month and additional concentration areas were noted (Fig. 2). Deer sign was particularly heavy in the small sagebrush parks found at the heads of most drainages and deer were beginning to concentrate around haystacks on irrigated meadows. Use on south slopes was also becoming heavier. The final survey was flown February 19 and 20, 1973. No attempt was made to classify track densities as distribution had to be based on accumulated rather than new tracks. Only 2-1/2 inches of snow fell after January 10 and it was hoped that this small amount of new snow together with windblown snow would cover most of the older tracks. Some southerly exposures were beginning to bare but snow depths on the rest of the area averaged only two to three inches less than during the January ,survey. Upper deer distribution limits had constricted in some areas but not as much as expected (Fig. 3). Spot checks on the ground later revealed that the deer were actually concentrated more than indicated by the aerial survey. Apparently, new and blowing snow failed to cover many older tracks as assumed. Also, deer use was heavier on south slopes than estimated from the air. The presence of snow-free patches together with the slow but continuous melting of snow tended to obscure tracks on those areas. Deer were concentrating heavily in and around bottomlands and dead animals, mostly fawns, were largely found around haystacks. LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - population distribution. p. 315-337. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 3):253-377. 2 Prepared by . -:?"'-<..~-~ Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �Tah1e 1. Date (1972) Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73. Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. Location Range Sec. IN IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W Remarks Area 1 - Blue Neckbands 12-13 12-16 12-14 12-14 12-14 12-14 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-17 12-1712-17 12-17 12-17 12-18 Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-1697 L-1698 L-1726 L-1727 L-1728 L-1729 L-1730 L-1731 L-1732 L-1733 L-1734 L-1735 L-1736 L-1737 L-1738 L-1739 L-1740 L-1741 L-1742 L-1743 L-1744 L-1745 L-1746 L-1747 L-1700 L-1714 L-1715 L-1716 L-1717 L-1719 96 115 58 59 85 95 121 76 78 119 120 73 92 124 122 101 93 None None 103 125 126 None 127 129 114 118 132 131 134 36 11 36 35 35 14 35 35 35 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 35 35 14 14 14 14 14 12 12 11 11 11 12 I f',,) ..... 0'1 I Found dead 3-17-73 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the Kinter range in Game Management (continued) . Date (1972) Age Eartag No. Neckband Sex No • Twp. 12-21 12-21 12-22 12-22 12-22 12-25 12-25 12-27 12-28 12-28 12-24 12-24 12-24 12-29 Female Male Female Male Female Female :1a1e Female Female Female Female Female ~1a1e Female i'1ature Hature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature L-1722 L-1723 L-1725 L-1764 L-1765 L-1749 L-1754 L-1755 L-1760 L-1756 L-1750 L-1751 L-1752 L-1757 128 123 130 None 135 136 105 133 107 112 137 138 113 109 IN IN IN IN IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N Summary: 7 Hale Fawns; 9_X~m_al_e_Xawn~; 7 Mature Males; Location Range Sec. 99W 99W 99W 99Wo 99W 99W 991>1 99W 99W 991>1 99W 99W 99W 99W 11 11 12 12 11 16 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 21 Mature Females Area 2 - White Neckbands 12--17 12-18 12-20 12-21 12-22 12-22 12-23 12-23 12-24 12-24 12-24 12--25 _____________ Hale Female ~1a1e Female Male Female Female Female Female :Female :Female Female 0 Mature Mature Hature Hature Fawn Mature Mature Mature :v1ature Hature l1ature Fawn _________________________________________________________________________________________________ L-1718 L-1720 L-1721 L-1724 L-1766 L-1767 L-1768 L-1769 L-1770 L-1771 L-1722 L-1774 214 213 207 218 211 219 210 220 215 216 212 222 IS 18 18 IS 18 IS IS IS IS IS IS IS Unit 22, winter 1972-73 99W 991i7 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99v7 99W 98:~ 99W 34 34 34 11 11 34 11 10 10 34 31 34 Remarks I N t-' " I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the'Kinter range in Game Management (continued) . Date (1972-73) Sex Age 12-25 12-25 12-27 12-28 12-29 12-30 12-31 1-1-73 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Summary: 5 Male Fawns; Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Eartag No. Neckband ~~o• Twp. L-1773 L-1775 L-1753 L-1759 L-1761 L-1762 L-1814 L-1818 L-1823 L-1824 L-1825 L-1758 L-1807 L-1808 L-1833 L-1834 L-1835 L-1836 225 221 217 223 227 229 230 228 235 226 None 236 224 231 232 240 238 239 IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 4 Female F~.3 5 Hat ure Hales; Unit 22, winter 1972-73 Location Range Sec. 99w 99W 98W 99W 99W 98W 98w 98W 99W 99W 98W 98W 98W 99w 98W 98w 98W 98W Remarks 34 34 31 31 34 31 31 31 10 3 31 31 31 33 32 32 31 31 I N t-I 00 I 16 Hature Females Area 3 - Pink Neckbands 12-29-72 12-30 12-31 12-31 12-31 1-1-73 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-2 Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature L-1801 L-1763 L-1815 L-1816 L-1817 L-1819 L-1820 L-1821 L-1822 L-1802 26 63 27 16 59 '58 28 19 30 29 2S 2S 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97T-J 971" 97W 971" 29 29 9 4 9 29 29 29 29 29 May be neckband No. 61 Hay be neckband No.4':; --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the t-;interrange in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued) . .Date (1973) 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-6 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 Sex Age Eartag No. Keckband "J .~o• Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn . Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn L-1803 L-1804 L-1805 L-1806 L-1830 L-1829 L-1828 L-1827 L-1826 L-1831 L-1832 L-1837 L-1851 L-1852 L-1853 L-1854 1-1855 L-1856 L-1857 L-1858 L-1859 L-1860' L-1863 L-1776 L-1777 L-1778 L-1779 L-1780 L-1781 L-1782 L-1783 L-1784 L-1861 L-1862 53 62 54 31 10 9 8 6 7 11 13 65 41 57 61 34 51 39 24 18 66 64 32 21 15 37 14 22 20 36 33 35 17 25 Twp. 28 28 38 3S 38 28 28 28 28 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 35 38 38 28 28 38 38 Location Range Sec. 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97Ti! 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 96W 96W 29 29 9 9 9 32 29 29 29 9 9 4 4 2 9 21 9 2 2 11 9 9 16 16 2 2 4 4 4 9 24 24 15 15 Remarks I N I-' \0 I May be neckband No. 16 May be eartag L-1859 May be eartag L-1858 May be eartag L-1777 May be ear tag L-1863 --------------------~-------------------------------------------~~-------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). Date (1973) 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-11 1-11 l-ll r-ri l-ll 1-11 l-ll 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-11 Sex Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male 7emale Female Female Hale Female Female Female Hale Female Hale Female Age Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Hature Fawn Mature Eartag No. L-1785 L-l786 L-l787 L-1838 . L-1839 L-1840 L-1841 L-1842 L-1843 L-1844 L-1845 L-1846 L-1847 L-1809 L-1810 L-1811 L-1812 L-1813 L-1788 L-1789 L-1890 L-1791 L-1791 L-1793 L-1794 L-1795 L-1796 L-1797 L-1798 L-1848 L-1849 r-:"e ckband No. Twp. Location Range Sec. 73 68 46 70 72 55 44 71 67 74 69 None None 90 75 96 97 76 77 47 86 89 3 95 91 None None None None 43 82 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 28 28 28 28 28 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 3S 38 38 38 38 3S 38 38 38 2S 28 96W 96W 96W 96w 96W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 9 15 16 21 9 Remarks May be neckband No. 59 2 14 4 24 24 7 7 7 15 16 16 14 4 4 9 16 16 2 2 4 4 9 9 9 7 7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N N 0 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the wtnter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued) . Date (1973) Sex Eartag No. Age Ke ckband :~o• Twp. Location Range Sec. Remarks 1-21 1-24 1-25 1-27 1-27 Female Female Female Female Male Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature StmlIIlar.r: 14 Male Fawns; L-1942 L-1946 L-1953 L-1963 L-1968 20 Female Fawns; 40 None 23 None 50 21 Mature Males; 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 29 29 29 29 29 56 Mature Females Area 5 - Yellow with Red Stripe Neckband 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-28 2-28 2-28 3-1 3-1 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-5 3-5 3-5 3-5 Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Hale Female Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Hature Mature Mature L-2l82 L-2184 L-2l86 L-230l L-2302 L-2303 L-2l88 L-2304 L-2305 L-2306 L-2307 L-2308 L-2309 L-23l0 L-23ll L-2312 L-2313 L-2314 L-2315 L-23l6 1 3 5 14 13 6 12 15 4 2 20 None 18 None 19 None 25 7 16 17 IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 5 8 15 23 23 26 9 9 23 26 15 26 15 15 16 15 15 22 16 17 ------------~-------~---------------~---------------------------------~--~------------------.---~--------------- I N N t-' I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the Kinter range in Game Management (continued). Date (1973) Sex Age 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-12 1-12 Male Male Female Male Female Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn 1-12 1-12 1-12 Male Female Female Mature Mature Mature 1-12 1-12 Female Female Mature Mature Eartag No. Ne ckband Location Range Sec. Ho. Twp. L-1850 L-1864 L-1865 L-1866 L-1867 99 100 81 56 87 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 98W 98w 98W 98W 98W 12 12 12 12 12 L"'"1799 L-1800 L-1876 52 94 2S 3S 3S 98w 97W 96W 24 2 '9 L-1877 L-1868 80 88 3S 2S 96W 97W 15 7 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 7 16 16 21 21 12 2 12 12 7 18 18 {j 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Hale Female Female Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn ' Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature L-1869 L-1878 L-1879 L-1880 L-1881 L-1883 L-1882 L-1870 L-1871 L-1872 L-1873 L-1874 79 49 48 None None 42 60 85 84 38 78 28 3S 38 38 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 28 2S 1-13 1-13 1-14 1-14 Male Female Female Female Fawn Mature Mature Mature L-1875 L-1888 L-1899 L-1898 None 45 None 93 2S 2S 2S 2S 97W 98W 97W 97W 18 24 12 12 L-1889 L-1890 L-1891 83 89 None 3S 3S 3S 97W 97W 97W 2 2 2 1-14 1-14 1-14 Female Female Female Mature Mature Fawn 92 Unit 22, winter 19i2-73 Remarks May be neckband No. 78 or 88 Sex and age could be in error May be neckband No. 78 or 87 Hay be neckband No. 93 May be neckband No. 87 or 88 May be neckband No. 92 and ear tag No. L-1896 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 N N ~ I' �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the Kinter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued) . --, Date (1973) Sex Age Eartag No. Keckband No. Twp. 1-20 1-20 Female Female Fawn Mature L-1940 L-194l None 62 28 28 97W 97W 29 29 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-7 3-7 3-7 3-7 3-7 3-8 3-8 3-8 3-9 3-9 3-9 3-9 Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-23l7 .L-23l8 L-23l9 L-2320 L-232l L-2322 L-2323 L-2324 L-2325 L-2326 L-2327 L-2328 L-2329 L-2330 L-233l 21 34 32 22 24 10 26 29 28 23 36 11 8 38 39 IS 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 IS 18 IS 18 18 18 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 23 15 15 15 15 15 9 23 23 15 23 23 23 15 8ummarx.: 1 Male Fawn; 2 Female Fawns; 7 Ma ture Ha l.es; Location Range Sec. Remarks Has red with white stripe neckband 8 25 Mature Females Area 6 - Blue and White Neckbarids 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-10 Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-2048 L-2035 L-2036 L-2037 L-2068 L-2069 L-2070 L-2071 L-2072 13 11 None 2 14 15 20 16 17 2S 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 2S 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 10 3 10 10 4 4 10 4 4 ------------------_ .._------------------------------------------------------------_._-------..;..------------------------ I N N w I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the w.l nter range in Game Hanagement Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued) . Date (1973) 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 Sex Eartag No. Ne ckband Age Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-2073 L-2074 L-2075 L-208l L-2082 L-2083 L-2084 L-2085 L-2086 L-2087 L-2088 L-2089 L-2090 L-209l L-2092 L-2093 L"-2094 L-2095 L-2096 L-2097 L-2098 L-2099 L-2l0l L-2102 L-2103 L-2l04 L-2l05 L-2l06 L-2107 L-2108 L-2l09 6 10 1 ~o• -.. 35 30 29 24 23 None 31 5 None 7 None 12 18 21 26 4 8 None None 39 40 42 43 41 50 22 23 24 , Twp. Location Range Sec. IS 18 IS 28 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W Remarks 27 27 26 4 4 10 3 3 27 26 24 24 14 22 22 22 26 26 4 10 4 5 13 13 14 14 13 24 24 14 22 ---------------------------~---------------------------------~----------------------------------------------- I N N .pI �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the wl.nt er range in Game Hanagement Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued) . Date (1973) Age Eartag No. Ne ckband Sex Ho. Twp. 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 Female Female Female Female .Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Maturw Mature Mature Fawn . Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn ,. Mature Mature Mature L-2110 L-2111 L-2112 L-2113 L-2076 L-2114 L-2115 L-2116 L-2117 L-2118 L-2119 L-2120 L-2121 L-2122 1-2123 L-2124 L-2125 L-2126 L-2127 L-2128 L-2129 L-2130 L-213l L-2132 L-2133 L-2134 L-2135 L-2136 L-2137 L-2l39 L-2138 L-2140 25 52 57 53 None 49 33 32 None 54 46 59 58 63 60 55 None 51 37 38 None None None 65 67 71 78 68 None 74 64 80 IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 1S IS 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS 1S IS IS 1S IS IS IS IS Location Range Sec. 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97liJ 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W Remarks 22 27 26 26 12 12 13 29 14 14 12 13 14 13 14 26 ' 4 4 14 14 14 22 26 26 12 12 13 14 13 13 13 22 ------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------------ I N N VI I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the ~-lnter range: in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). Date) (1973) 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-21 2-21 Sex Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Age Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Eartag No. Keckband No. L-2141 L-2142 L-2143 L-2145 L-2146 L-2147 L-2148 L-2149 L-2150 L-2151 L-2152 L-2153 L-2154 L-2155 L-2156 L-2157 L-2158 L-2159 L-2160 L-2161 L-2162 L-2163 L-2164 L-2165 L-2166 L-2167 L-2168 L-2169 L-2170 L-2171 L-2172 62 None 69 73 70 79 None None 56 66 None 72 44 19 34 96 None 47 None 104 103 83 None 106 107 88 None 94 100 36 82 Twp. IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS Location Range Sec. 97W 97W 97w 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97ft! 97W 97lv 97W Remarks 22 27 27 13 14 14 13 13 13 13 22 27 26 26 4 14 13 13 22 27 26 4 3 3 3 13 26 26 14 22 26 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N N 0-. I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the wtnter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). Date (1973) Age Ear tag No. Neckband Sex i~o• Twp. 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-25 2-25 Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature L-2173 L-2174 L-2175 L-2176 L-2177 L-2178 L-2179 L-2180 L-2181 L-2189 L-2190 L-2191 L-2192 L-1193 L-2194 L-2195 L-2196 L-2197 L-2198 L-2199 L-2200 L-2183 L-2185 L-2187 92 48 None None 86 87 85 95 97 75 None 90 102 None None None 93 45 76 None 105 84 101 77 IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IS IS 15 2S IS 1$ IS IS IS IS IS 15 IS IS Summarz: 18 Male Fawns; 10 Female Fawns; 18 Mature Males; Location Range Sec. 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W Remarks 12 19 14 22 4 4 4 3 3 14 22 22 26 3 13 13 13 19 19 14 27 26 12 14 81 Mature Females Area 7 - Red with White Stripe Neckbands 1-13 1-13 Female Female Fawn Mature L-1884 L-1885 6 7 35 35 95W 95W 4 4 --~----~---------------------------------------------------------------~---------------------------------------- I N N -...J I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued) . Date (1973) 1-13 1-13 1-14 1-14 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 Sex Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Na1e Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Eartag No. Age Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature I L-1886 L-1887 L-1897 L-1896 L-1900 L-1901 L-1902 L-1903 L-1904 L-1905 L-1906 L-1907 L-1908 L-1892 L-1893 L-1894 L-1895 L-1909 L-1910 L-1911 L-1912 L-1913 L-1914 L-1915 L-1916 L-1917 L-1918 L-1919 L-1920 L-1921 L-1922 L-1923 t'eekband ;~o. 5 3 2 10 11 12 22 25 14 15 21 16 13 1 8 4 9 37 36 26 27 38 24 20 None 40 35 30 29 28 33 18 Twp. 38 28 28 28 28 28 28 38 38 28 28 28 28 28 38 38 38 28 28 3S 3S 38 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 Location Range Sec. 95W 95W 95W 95W 96W 96W 96W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 97W 95W 95W 95W 97W 96W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96w 96W 96w 4 34 34 34 30 30 19 4 '4 343434 34 24 4 4 4 25 30 4 4 4 34 34 34 25 25 30 30 30 30 30 Remarks May be eartag L-1898 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N N 00 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). Date (1973) Sex Age Eartag No. Keckband No. Twp. 1-17 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-25 1-25 1-25 1-26 1-26 Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female F:ema1e Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature L-1924 L-1925 L-1926 L-1927 L-1928 L-1929 L-1930 L-1931 L-1932 L-1933 L-1934 L-1935 L-1936 L-1937 L-1938 L-1939 L-1943 L-1944 L-1945 L-1947 L-1948 L-1949 L-1950 L-1951 L-1952 L-1964 L-1954 L-1965 L-1966 L-1955 L-1956 31 34 46 32 47 None 51 None 52 23 53 None 54 50 None 19 None 55 72 77 None None 76 None 56 None None 79 78 75 None 28 28 2S 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 38 28 28 28 28 28 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 28 38 28 28 3S 28 28 Location Range. Sec. 96W 97W 97W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 95W 97W 96W 95W 97W 97H Remarks 19 25 25 30 30 25 24 24 24 30 30 30 30 11 25 25 25 24 24 25 24 24 24 24 24 12 25 34 12 25 25 --------------~--------------~-----------------------------------~------------------------------------~------- I N N \0 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management (continued) . Date (1973) 1-26 1-26 1-26 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-31 1-31 Sex Age Eartag No. 1\'e ckband :~o• Twp. Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Hale Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature L-1957 L-1958 L-1959 L-1960 L-1961 L-1962 L-1969 L-1970 L-1971 L-1972 L-1973 L-1974 L-1975 L-1976 L-1977 L-1978 L-1979 L-1980 L-198l L-1982 L-1983 L-1984 L-1985 L-1986 L-1987 L-1988 L-1989 L-1990 L-1991 L-1992 L-1993 45 48 17 74 90 89 None 88 60 73 71 87 68 None 86 39 92 93 None None 102 None 103 None 104 110 42 None 95 41 112 3S 2S 2S 3S 3S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 3S 3S Unit 22, winter 1972-73 Location Range Sec. 96W 96W 96w 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96w 96w 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96w 96W 96w 96W 96W 96W 96W 96w 12 34 34 12 12 34 12 12 12 2 2 34 34 12 12 12 2 2 34 12 12 12 12 34 34 34 34 34 34 12 12 Remarks May be neckband No. 86 I tv w 0 I Maybe neckband No. 89 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the ,",'Lnter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). Location Date (1973) Age Eartag No. Neekband Sex No , Twp. -Range Sec. 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 2-1 2-1 2-1 2...;1 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature L-1994 L-1995 L-1996 L-1997 L-1998 L-1999 L-2000 L-2014 L-2015 L-2016 L-2018 L-2017 L-2019 L-2020 L-202l L-2022 L-2023 L-2024 L-2025 L-200l L-2002 L-2003 L-2004 L-2005 L-2006 L-2007 L-2008 L-2009 L-20l0 L-20ll L-2012 None 120 118 117 121 119 105 None 111 83 61 80 81 None None None 106 113 None 82 None 114 116 None 115 84 58 None None None 100 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 28 38 38 3S 3S 3S 38 2S 2S 3S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 3S 3S 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 2 2 2 2 3 35 34 12 i2 2 3 3 35 34 34 3 34 2 12 12 12 2 3 3 34 34 34 27 27 2 2 Remarks ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~-----------~----------- I N (,.0.) ~ I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). ,-. Date (1973) 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 Sex Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Hale Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Age Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Eartag No. L-2013 L-2026 L-2027 L-2028 L-2029 L-2038 L-2039 L-2040 L-204l L-204~ L-2043 L-2045 L-2044 L-2046 L-2047 L-2050 L-2049 L-2030 L-2031 L-2032 L-2033 L-2034 L-2051 L-2052 L-2053 L-2054 L-2055 L-2056 L-2057 L-2058 L-2059 },'eekband No. None '. 85 122 108 64 127 None None 59 63 124 125 None None 99 128 3 129 107 96 130 101 None 65 43 57 109 .44 49 97 None Twp. 3S 38 28 28 38 38 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 38 38 )8 Location Range Sec. 96W 96W 96W 96w 96W 96W 96W 96w 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96w 96w 3 3 34 35 2 3 34 35 15 15 15 14 14 15 14 16 16 16 16 15 14 14 16 16 16 15 15 14 2 2 2 Remarks I N w N I Has a blue & white neckband --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the ",'Lnterrange in Game Hanagement Unit 22, winter 1972-73 (continued). -, Location Range Sec. Date (1973) Age Eartag No. Neckband Sex j~o. Twp. 2-8 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-10 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature L-2060 L-2061 L-2062 L-2063 L...;2064 L-2065 L-2066 L-2067 L-1967 L-2078 L-2079 L-2080 98 70 67 69 66 None 91 126 94 None 123 None 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 28 2S 28 2S 2S 28 28 8ummaEl: 20 Male Fawns; 22 Female Fawns ; 32 Mature Males; 96 Mature Females 65 Male Fawns; 67 Female Fawns; 90 Hature Males; 295 Mature Females 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W Remarks 2 16 16 15 15 14 14 16 15 15 14 14 I N w w I Grand Summarz: Corrections to 1972 TraEEing Records (Corrections ~ Underlined) 2-1-72 2-1-72 2-1-72 2-1-72 Male Female Male Male Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L-1504 L-1520 L-1522 L-1524 27 48 81 78 2S IN IN IN 98W 97W 98W 98W 12 8 1 1 White neckband White neck band White neckband "White neckband 5 128 2S IS 97W 97W 29 14 Pink neckband Blue neckband & 1505 & 1521 & 1523 & 1525 RecaEtures 12-30-72 2-17-73 Female Female Mature Mature L-1692 L-I722 �-234- Table 2. Sightings of deer lleckballdedon the winter Management Unit 22, through March 15, 1973. Date 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-16-72 3-25-72 3-25-72 4-03-72 4-05-72 4-06-72 4-07-72 4-09-72 4-10-72 4-10-72 4-10-72 4-11-72 4-13-72 4-15-72 4-21-72 4-21-72 4-24-72 4-25-72 4-25-72 4-25-72 4-27-72 4-28-72 4-28-72 4-28-72 5-10-72 5-14-72 5-20-72 5-20-72 5-26-72 6-04-72 6-04-72 6-08-72 6-08-72 6-08-72 6-11-72 6-11-72 6-21-72 r;lI1ge Neckband Color White White White White White White White Blue Blue Blue Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White Green w/white stripe White Green w/white stripe White White White White Green w/white stripe Blue Pink White White Blue Blue Blue Blue White White Green w/white stripe White White Green w/white stripe Blue Blue Blue Pink White Blue Blue Blue White Blue Blue Ntnnber 17 18 30 40 75 27 53 41 46 72 51 73 179 73 156 12 83 91 32 110 34 38 46 12 36 9 Twp. 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IS IS IS IS 3S 2S 2N IN IN IN IS IS 5S 2S 2S IN 2N IN IN 4S IS 2S 5S 2S 2S 2N 2N 6N 4S 2N 3N 3N 3N 2S 3N 2N :In(:mne Location Range Sec. 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 96W 96W 97W 96W 98W 95W 98W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 96W 97W 97W 97W 99W 97W 97W 96W 95W 95W 96W 94w 90W 93W 93W 90W 95W 93W 94w 94W 94w 91W 94W 88W 3 3 3 3 3 18 18 9 4 4 10 10 28 10 5 2 11 9 9 9 1 22 6 35 35 1 12 8 8 18 35 10 10 14 7 9 9 13 34 15 26 26 26 5 35 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-235- Table 2. Sightings of deer neckbanded on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, through March 15, 1973 (continued) . Neckband Date 7-01-72 .7-01-72 7-04-72 7-07-72 7-25-72 7-26-72 7-30-72 7-31-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 7- ?-72 8-01-72 8-10-72 8-12-72 8-20-72 8-26-72 8-27-72 8-28-72 8-28-72 8-28-72 8-29-72 9-10-72 9-10-72 9-27-72 9- ?-72 10-6-72 10-6-72 10-6-72 10-6-72 10-10-72 10-10-72 10-10-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 Color Blue White Blue White White Blue Blue White White White Blue Blue White White White White White White White White White Green w/white stripe White White Blue Blue White White White White Blue Blue Blue Blue White White White White Blue Blue White Green w/white stripe Blue White White Blue Blue Number Twp. IS 4S IN 100 81 112 161 12 43 39 IN IS 3N 3N 3S 4S 4S 2N 5S 55 5S 5S 5S 5S 5S 5S 5S IN 2S 2S 7S 2N 4N 2N 58 5S 5S 2S 2S 3N 2S 48 5S 6S 48 2N 2N 2N IN 4S IS IS 2S 2S Location Range Sec. 94W 97W 89W 90W 9lW 94W 93W 99W 97W 98W 86W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 94W 90W 90W 97W 94W 95W 94W 94W 94\-1 94W 90W 90W 99W 94W 95W 96W 97W 96W 98W 98W 98W 96W 94W 99W 99W 91W 91W 36 27 1 19 7 27 7 22 29 26 4 17 4 15 15 29 21 21 21 21 25 7 23 24 12 27 12 28 29 26 23 23 33 1 23 29 17 29 3 3 2 36 4 30 30 18 18 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-236Table 2. Sightings of deer neckbanded on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, through March 15, 1973 (continued). Neckband Date 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10,-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-17-72 10-17-72 10-17-72 10-17-72 10-17-72 10-17-72 10-18-72 10-19-72 10-20-72 10-20-72 10-21-72 10-21-72 10-21-72 10-22-72 10-22-72 10-22-72 10-22-72 Color White White White White White White White White White White White White Green w/white stripe White White White White Blue Blue Green·w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White· White White White White White White Green w/white stripe White White Blue White Blue White White Blue White Green w/white stripe White White Blue White Blue Pink White White White White Number 115 39 Twp. 4S 2S IS 3S 3N IS 3N 2N IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2S IS IN 4S 3S 3S IS IN IS IS IS 2S 4S 2S IS 2S IS 3S IN IS IS IS IS 2N 2N 3S 5N IS 4N 5N 5N 4S 4N IS IS IS Location Range 96W 100W 99W 99W 95W 100W 95W 96W 96W 98W 98W 98W 94W 100W 99W 93W 95W 95W 95W 95W 96W 100W 100W 100W 97W 99W 95W 100W 95W 99W 96W loOW 97W 99W 99W 99W 98W 98W 96W 91W 96W 90W 96W 93W 94W 92W 97W 97W 97W Sec. 26 36 17 18 18 36 16 24 30 32 32 32 15 35 17 25 34 36 36 10 30 35 35 35 15 2 14 36 28 17 26 14 21 17 17 8 30 10 15 31 3 27 35 3 6 24 16 16 16 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-237Table 2. Sightings of de~r ncckbanded on the winter range in Cnme Management Unit 22» through March 15, 1973 (c on t Lnuc-d ) • Neckband Date Color 10-22-72 10- ?-72 10- ?-72 11-12-72 11-16-72 11-21-72 11-22-72 11-22-72 11-22-72 11-24-72 11-29-72 12-07-72 12-12-72 12-13-72 12-13-72 12-14-72 12-14-72 12-14-72 12-14-72 12-15-72 12-15-72' 12-22-72 12-22-72 12-22-72 12-23-72 12-23-72 12-26-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-27-72 12-28-72 12-28-72 12-28-72 1-06-73 1-06-73 2-03-73 White White White White Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White White Blue White Blue Green w/white stripe Greenw/white stripe White White Pink White White Green w/white stripe White White Pink Pink Green w/white stripe White White White White White White White White White White White Pink Pink Pink White White Green w/white stripe Number 49 47 13 14 44 41 40 12 15 47 Twp. IS 6S 3S 2N IS IS IN IN 18 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IN IN 28 28 2S 2S IS IS 28 IN 28 28 IN 18 IS 18 18 18 IS IS 18 IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IS Location Range Sec. 97W 95W 97W 98W 96W 96W 96W 96W 99W 97W 97W 99W 97W 99W 96W 96W 98W 98l.o1 98W 97W 98W 96W 99W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 96W 16 28 21 4 10 14 16 16 21 20 19 11 28 35 28 26 12 12 12 6 8 11 26 21 20 20 28 29 21 16 36 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 29 29 29 5 17 11 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-238- Table 2. Sightings of deer neckbanded on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, through March 15, 1973 (continued). Neckband Date Color 2-08-73 2-08-73 2-19-73 2-26-73 2-26-73 2-26-73 2-26-73 2-26-73 2-28-73 3-04-73 Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Blue Blue Blue Blue Green w/white stripe Blue Blue White Ntnnber 13 128 118 131 36 132 54 Twp. IS IS 3N IS IS IS IS IS IS IN Location Range Sec. 96W 96W 98W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 96W 97W 4 4 31 14 14 14 11 14 9 14 �-239- Recoveries of deer neckbanded Table 3. ment UnLt; 22, through Harch 17, 1973. Neckband Color Date of Recovery 4-6-72 4-27-72 5-25-72 6-21-72 8-29-72 10-14-72 10-19-72 10-22-72 10-19-72 10-15-72 10-14-72 10-15-72 10-15-72 10-14-72 10-17-72 10-18-72 10-16-72 10-16-72 10-14-72 10-15-72 10-14-72 10-16-72 10-14-72 10-14-72 10-17-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 10-?-72 3-9-73 3-17-73 White White Green Green White Green Green White White White Green White White White White Green White White Green Green White Green White White White Green White White White White Blue White Blue White White White Blue w/white w/white stripe stripe w/white w/white stripe stripe w/white stripe w/white stripe w/white w/white stripe stripe w/white stripe w/white stripe on the w Ln t.c r No. Twp. Location Range Sec. 15 70 37 35 171 76 38 123 143 119 57 25 124 137 68 1 165 11 40 32 79 18 205 97 42 76 90 8 120 76 10 158 71 100 91 54 129 2N 2S IN 2S lS 2N IS IS 5S 1S IS 2N 2S 3S 1N 3S 3S 3N IN IN 3S 2S IN IN 3S 2N 2S IN 3S ? 5N IS 2N 2S 3N IN 1N 98W 97W 96W 95W 98W 94W 95W 97W 98W 98W 95W 98W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 96W 93W 96W 95W 95W 99W 97W 95W 94W 96W 94W 99W ? 90W 97W 93W 97W 91W 97W 97W 13 9 26 2 33 28 29 20 2 4 20 32 23 5 29 23 7 30 30 27 30 14 29 31 30 20 16 35 34 ? 32 16 22 36 16 14 15 r an ge in Came ~tmage- Remarks Died soon after Died soon after Died soon after tagging tagging tagging Died soon after tagging Died soon after tagging Strawberry Creek Area Died soon after tagging' �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 ..... •.. -PICEANCE- ~ l r )------ I I ~ o \ .f:" n u I I \~\ •• LEGEND =~",",," Heavy use ~:::::::::::;::l Moderate use !·.·.·.·t·.·.·.·~~ ,-----' i - I I Fig. 1. Little or no use Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range, December 6, 10 and 11, 1972. �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- ~-•..• r )------ I r-> .p0- I I-' ~ n u I I \--\ \ 1. "I \ \ ''\ LEGEND Heavy use ~"":lM t:::.d~ 0d erat e use '"' "I--\,. " :r'---•... -" c====JLittle or no use I, ,..•.. Fig. 2. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range, January 5, 6 and 7, 1973. �~ .-_ .... - .._.. . ..:.. GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- l I N .j::-o N I Fig. J. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter r-ange , February 19 and 26-, 197J. �July, -243- JOB PROGRESS S ta te of Project REPORT .;:::C.;:::OL;:::,O::::,;' RA:.:;.;:;:D::..;O:;.' :.Deer-Elk W-38-R-27 No. 16 Job No. Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Population Period April Work 1973 Plan No. Covered: Personnel: 1, 1972 through March Investigations 2 Density and Structure 31, 1973 R. M. Bartmann, S. F. Steinert, J. J. Klein, Jr., D. Hoart, J. Ellenberger, C. H. Gore, T. A. Lytle, C. W. Reichert, C. H. Roberts and D. J. Todd. ABSTRACT A helicopter count of deer on the Piceance winter range was made on two sizes of quadrats on December 21 and 22, 1972; ~ square mile and ~ square mile. The smaller quadrat was selected for future counts as the loss in precision from the larger quadrat was not considered great and, subjectively, it could be counted more efficiently. The mean number of deer on 60 ~ square mile quadrats was 7.4, or 29.6 deer per square mile. The projected deer population estimate with 90 percent confidence limits was 19,684 + 3,990. Based on sample size estimates, 120 quadrats will be counted next year. Combined ground and air sex and age classification data gave a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 28:100:74. The sex and age breakdown of the Piceance deer population was estimated at 2,756 adult males, 2,748 yearling females, 6,995 mature females, 3,945 male fawns, and 3,240 female fawns. A range of sample sizes at different prevision l~vels were calculated from preliminary pellet group count data from 200 100 ft circular plots per section on 12 sections of land on the Piceance winter range. The major problem anticipated in field application of a large-scale pellet group survey is getting enough dependab Le manpower. " ��-245- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To establish mule deer population density and sex and age structure estimate techniques for the Piceance ~inter range. la. Evaluate the use of a helicopter for estimating lb. Estimate levels. quadrat 2a. Evaluate density. the pellet group c9unt technique 2b. Assist Field Services personnel in establishing a pellet group survey on the Piceance winter range so that problems arising in the field application of this technique can be identified and remedied or considered for further research. 3a. Evaluate the "key browse" concept of forage production-utilization surveys used for deer pOpulation trend assessment. 3b. Estimate species composition of forage consumed by deer from stomach content analyses. sample size requirements METHODS deer density. at various precision for estimating deer during winter AND MATERIALS Deer Density In February, 1972, trial helicopter counts of deer on two sizes of quadrats (1/4-square-mi1e and 1/16-square-mile) were made on the Piceance winter range. From subjective evaluation, the larger quadrat was selected for future counts. As no work was done with the possibility of using an even larger quadrat, this was incorporated into the 1972-73 winter count. Sixty 1/4-square-mile (1/2 X 1/2-mile) quadrats were randomly selected on the Piceance winter range (Fig. 1). A second 1/4-square-mile quadrat was placed adjacent to the first on the cardinal side, within the section, that would provide the greatest elevational relief. This produced an over-all quadrat of 1/2 X I-mile. The four outside corners and the two common corners of each set of quadrats were marked with 6 X lO-inch orange markers. Markers were placed in tree tops when possible or on tall shrubs or fence posts. ��~---- ~.J:~. -~,... -/):'f" -"- .» \ ~./ II i f/' \\ ... -. -o-. GAME (i..'~~,ri "-. \ MANAGE'FNT . ~~I , ' --.~ 'f)., t· / D~> .: __'/ ~,~ ,/~, ) ~ M \ -~. /.,-~...,. J " ! _ , \ I,i ,/7; >,_/~./'--// ~ / ,p'?, \-j ,., ) II:] r""L .J -: ...I .ee _ x. ~~~~/ ~.~. /. /c --./ ("..-..:J/ .s> ....::::r ) //, ';;-"._\\ / ':'")f! /~\ J/, C_: I ) -, £J .-_>/ ..- () .p// I / • ..iuo.· • Count Section l, , ~" ~"-- .: /: ' 0,." / / ~'I ~I /. .» ,. / / / I / / ./ "\,;' -;"',.. .• " fi/ / "/,' I, /. ".f' ,/I! '. •••• _"./ I f. / /; I'" ," ., f "', • r , ," "," :' '':.r ' " '---\. / ',: / (I : tr "~ '1' : .,'/ I,'// ", ••••• -" ;" ( '........ \ II I' ••••• ~, ,/ "x I: " ," : L' I : , _s-: , ./, " i'. , ~\ " ~ , ~ t" ,~',,I', /> ,,:, 'i i i I r, il II !J 1" I i' I~ I _._" "~I j"" '.' ,: ,,"- 9")J -, 'I ! /1 t .• ~. ; ,I" 7/'" l I ',~ '~ r: .! 'I ;: /, /' I II / '//1 0- I s. I ~.-.t. ij if,/ !/ '.( ",' /, g,,' I. /;.' --.J ~~"~-f~', - -1\I r'~ I(~" I N +:- <, :' ,c., I II ,!, ii , <>, '.' ..// ~/,,/' / :0 ,..--".,~ f'.- I , . , /,1 f." I.;'.' -: 1/ I '7' __ " '< /.'. ",: /, " ,. '/ ;/ : . lII"h- ) -, i /...---,.....-( '.' \ Group ~, ~",~ !:, liP /. tp I~/ Two ~-square-m1.l IiiiICensus Quadrats \ .... ... / ,~/ /....... \ \ •.. C Pellet / ,,/ff"J f."/ \ -'O~, ~ ~~ ~' / • 0 .~ ... ~.~ C (~ ", n /.-2'-c'-.-/ Y ,f/ .--:' ./ ilCII}/ ':' / I ,// / \;:;:~.:: - \ -: ' t "., 0 . ; :~;:~,;;;---/ ~,Y O>-~, .. ~/-/ 22 , ,.~ ' l!iii"~------." ".. .•.. ~ "r'- . i..-J. ~ ., ,./ UNiT -PICE MiCE- r"~/ -' /\\, \.. ..._ v-/", , __ (\ '--. \' \ \, __l "7 l,,j/ i I Fig. 1. Piceance Locat i.ons of dear census winter range, 1972. quadrats And preliminary pellet group count sections on the �-248- Each set of quadrats was counted as one but deer observed were recorded separately for each half of the 1/2-mile quadrat. Deer were assigned to the half they were first seen in. Two observers were used; one to count and the other to count and navigate. Aerial photos of each quadrat were carried in the helicopter to help insure staying within the plot bounds. I Population Structure The composition of the winter deer population was estimated from postseason sex and age classifications made from the ground. Additional data from the southern one-third of Game Management Unit 22 were obtained from post-season helicopter classifications made by Northwest Region personnel. Check station data from the 1972 deer season were used to estimate fawn sex ratios and percent yearling females. Pellet Group Count A preliminary deer pellet group count was made on the Piceance winter range to help Field Services personnel get information upon which to base sample size projections and to identify problems that might be encountered in a large-scale survey. Twelve sections of land were randomly selected on the winter range (Fig. 1). Each section was divided into four 1/4 X I-mile segments with the long axes oriented in the cardinal direction giving the greatest elevational change. Four one-mile-long transects were then randomly selected, one in each segment. Fifty 100 ft2 circular plots were systematically spaced about 100 feet apart, by pacing, along each transect for a total of 200 plots per section. Two-man crews followed the guidelines for pellet group counting given by Smith, Neff, and McCulloch (1969). Food Habits No work was done on this job during the segment. The student assistant assigned this work resigned before doing any analyses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Densitx: A helicopter count to determine deer density was made December 21 and 22, 1972. This was probably earlier than will occur most years, but heavy snows pushed deer down within the pre-determined winter range limits set for the count. Snow background conditions were considered excellent for counting. Four hundred forty-four and 434 deer were counted on each set of 1/4-squaremile quadrats for a mean of 7.4 and 7.2 deer per quadrat (Table 1). Accordingly, the large quadrats contained 878 deer or 14.6 deer per quadrat. The �-249- coefficient of variation decreased an average 19 percent from the larger This relatively small gain in precision was not to the smaller quadrat. considered sufficient to warrant using the larger plot. Subjective evaluation of counting efficiency also favored the smaller quadrat. The rough and varied topography of the winter range made it difficult to keep oriented in a 1/2-square-mile area which, together with the tree overstory, increased the chances of missing deer. The possibility of increasing sampling efficiency through stratification was considered. On the basis of two years' deer distribution data, the winter range was divided into high and low deer density areas. The original set of 60 1/4-square-mile quadrats were then assigned to the proper strata. Twenty-six were located in the low density area and 34 in the high density area. Stratification produced no increase in preClslon over the original random sample. The standard error of the mean of the stratified sample (0.89) was the same as that of the random sample (Snedecor 1956:507). Therefore, unless additional information shows otherwise, a random sampling design will be used for density estimates. Sample size estimates were made using the formula n = t2s2/d2; where t = the tabular "t" value at a selected confidence level, s = the sample standard deviation, and d = the allowable error in the estimate (Snedecor 1956:501-502). Separate sample sizes were estimated using data from each set of 1/4-square-mile quadrats. Acceptable precision was ± 15 percent of x at the 90 percent confidence level. Sample sizes of 107 and 146 plots were indicated and a sample size of 120 plots was selected. Data from the original set of 1/4-square-mile quadrats yielded an estimate of 29.6 deer per square mi.le. The total winter range area measured from USGS topographic quadrangle maps was 665 square miles. At the 90 percent confidence level, the total winter population was estimated at 19,684 ± 3,990 deer. This estimate is a minimal one as the probability of missing animals is considered greater than that of recounting them. This is particularly true of this count as the relatively large 1/2 X I-mile quadrat proved cumbersome and a greater than "normal" number of animals were probably missed. The magnitude of this error cannot be estimated at this time. Population Structure Post-season sex and age classifications made from the ground November 1730, 1972, resulted in 1,712 deer being classified. This work was done entirely from vehicles and complete coverage of the winter range was not achieved although most areas with substantial deer concentrations were sampled. Post-season helicopter classifications made by Northwest Region personnel added another 724 deer. The combined ground and air data gave a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 28:100:74 (Table 2). Check station data for Game Management Unit 22 show that of 328 fawns examined, 54.9 percent were males and 45.1 percent were females. Of 817 does older than fawns examined at check stations, 28.2 percent were classed as yearlings by tooth replacement. Incisors of females older than fawns were collected for aging by aental cementum (Erickson and Seliger 1969), but this information is still unavailable. �-250- Table l. Numbers of deer counted on \-square-mile quadrats randomly located on the Piceance winter range during the 1972-73 winter. Quadrat Number of Deer First Second Both Half Half Halves 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1 11 10 7 1 0 17 0 0 4 10 13 0 0 6 4 0 14 5 1 5 4 11 2 21 14 13 23 13 4 14 17 0 0 0 6 9 10 4 1 4 15 4 14 10 3 2 7 5 2 3 0 0 0 4 2 2 0 12 19 34 26 13 0 17 20 25 0 3 0 7 20 20 11 2 4 32 4 14 14 13 15 7 5 8 7 0 14 5 5 7 6 11 14 40 48 39 36 13 21 34 42 0 3 0 Quadrat First Half Second Half Both Halves 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 0 1 0 9 2 26 4 19 6 13 7 18 0 3 16 0 10 4 12 16 1 9 0 14 9 6 4 0 8 12 15 14 3 6 3 0 1 1 1 7 0 3 10 1 25 2 17 17 0 6 5 0 17 4 38 19 33 9 19 10 18 1 4 17 7 10 7 22 17 26 11 17 31 9 444 434 878 ~ X x = s Coeff. Var. = 2 7.4 7.2 14.6 6.97 7.93 12.07 94% 110% 83% �-251- Table 2. Post-season deer sex and age classification the Piceance winter range during the 1972-73 winter. count results on Type of Count Date (1972) Bucks Does Fawns Total Ground Nov. 17-30 267 822 623 1,712 74 384 266 724 341 1,206 889 2,436 Buck:Doe:Fawn Helicopter Ratio 32:100:76 Dec. 27 Btick:Doe:Fawn Ratio 19:100:69 All Counts Buck:Doe:Fawn A summary below: Ratio 28:100:74 of the 1972 deer population Area of winter range in Game Management Total adult males 2,756 Total 9,743 adult females Yearling Mature Total females females fawns and structure Unit 22 data is given 665 square miles. 2,748 = 6,995 = 7,185 Male fawns 3,945 Female 3,240 fawns density Pellet GrauE Count The pellet group count was made from April 24 through May 15, 1972. The range in mean pellet group densities was from 0.15 to 1.44 groups per plot with an overall mean of 0.91 groups per plot (Table 3). Sample sizes were estimated for both the number of plots per section and the number of sections. The formula n = t2s2/d2 was again used in both cases. The calculated sample sizes at various prec Ls Lon levels are shown as follows: �Number of Plots per Section ± X% of the Hean __ +-5 10 15 20 95% I 2945 755 335 188 :> ~ ...~ 90% 2078 533 236 l33 u 80% 1258 322 143 81 (!) () ~ (!) '""d -r-i 'H r-i OJ (!) 0 Number of Sections ± X% of the Mean OJ o $:l ~5% OJ '""d .-I 'H (!) I 5 10 15 20 243 61 27 16 171 43 19 11 104 26 12 7 I Ql or! i> ~ H 90% u 80% 0 I I As expected, estimated sample sizes indicate that a full-scale pellet group survey in Game Management Unit 22 would be a major efforto However, the statistical aspect is not necessarily the main limiting factor. Rather, experience in conducting the preliminary survey points to dependable rnan+powaj- as the key limitation. Although it was possible to get the requested number of people for the start of the survey, no help was available following a few days delay because of a snowstorm. This is, of course, not a fault of the survey itself. The high pellet group density found in the preliminary survey probably stems, in part, from locating plots by pacing and mistaking old groups for new. Locating permanent plot centers with chain and compass would be a prerequisite to clearing plots which, together, should reduce bias from both sources to a minimum. Initial locating and marking of plots would be a major one-time effort while clearing would be an annual chore. Ideally, clearing plots should be done in the fall and would at least double the overall workload and the associated man-power problems. The starting and ending times were recorded for each 50-plot transect. This included counting, but not clearing, pellet groups and pacing between plots. The range in times was from 40 to 165 minutes with a mean of 75 minutes. The shorter times are overly fast and are probably attributable to the general lack of experience by most participants. �2 Table 3. Results of deer pellet group counts on 200 uncleared 100-ft circular plots per section on the Piceance winter range during spring, 1972. Number of Plots Containing X Number of GrouEs 10 8 9 6 7 4 5 3 Section Total Pellet Groups/Four Transects 1 30 178 16 4 2 2 85 133 53 11 2 1 3 140 116 50 20 8 4 2 4 170 101 54 28 10 5 2 5 173 113 50 13 11 4 7 1 1 6 185 100 49 28 17 4- 1 - - X = 0 1 2 1 I - - 1 - 1 2 1 1 4 4 1 1.27 Coefficient Var. = 140% s = 72 .10 Coefficient Var. = -40% 7 191 96 59 24 9 6 3 3 - - 8 194 105 45 21 17 7 3 1 1 - 9 222 87 56 31 15 3 3 4 - 1 10 240 80 59 29 17 6 6 3 11 261 72 57 41 14 9 4 1 - 12 288 80 51 27 17 10 5 6 Totals 2,179 1,261 599 277 139 59 36 19 s = x pellet groups/plot = 0.91 x pellet groups/four transects = 181.6 1 N VI W I �-254- Clearing plots would, of course~ have added considerable extra time. A two-man crew might reasonably expect to cover about 100 plots per day including travel time if plots were both counted and cleared, and probably two to three times this many if plots were only counted. No attempt was made to convert pellet group density to deer density because of problems mentioned above. Methods for making this conversion are described by Smith, Neff, and McCulloch (1969). One of the key components in this conversion, the mean daily deer defecation rate, seems warrant of additional research to estimate annual variability and factors affecting it if pellet group data are to be used for deer management. LITERATURE CITED Erickson, J. A., and W. C. Seliger. 1969. Efficient sectioning of incisors for estimating ages of mule deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(2):384-388. Smith, R. H., D. J. Neff, and C. Y. McCulloch. 1969. A model for the installation and use of a deer pellet group survey. Arizona Game and Fish Dept. Spec. Rept. No. I. 30 p. Snedecor, G. W. 1956. Statistical Press, Ames. 534 p. Prepared by Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher methods. The Iowa State College �July, 1973 -255- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~--------~---- Project No. W-38-R-27 Work Plan No. 16 Deer~Elk Investigations job No. 3 Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Productivity and Mortality Period Covered: April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, S. F. Steinert, J. J. Klein, Jr., L. Crooks, R. Stone and D. Talcott. ABSTRACT Pre-natal productivity data in 1973 were collected, all or in part, from 65 does killed on highways and during trapping operations in and around Game Management Unit 22. Productivity was generally similar to that in 1972. Yearlings had 1.0 CLP:doe and 100 fetuses:100 does. Mature animals had 1.9 CLP:doe and 163 fetuses:lOO does. The fetal sex ratio was 96 males:lOO females. The percent of does pregnant was 86 which is 9 percent lower than in 1972. The peak of conceptions was estimated from December 6-10, 1972. The mean date was December 4. Some problems are suspected in application of the fetal growth curve to Piceance deer. Data for 13 does found dead in fences suggest these animals were generally older and less productive than road-kills and trap mortalities. ��-2':/7- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. To estimate increments and losses to the Piceance deer population, a sub-population thereof, to allow evaluation of density estimate techniques. a. To estimate productivity METHODS See Bartmann or rates. AND MATERIALS (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The 1973 pre-natal productivity data were collected, all or in part, from 65 does killed in and around Game Management Unit 22. Most were road-kills, some trap mortalities, and two were from miscellaneous sources. Another 13 does were found dead in fences and are considered separately. Animals were aged as yearlings or mature by tooth replacement. A breakdown by year class will be available later from ages assigned by the dental cementum technique (Erickson and Seliger 1969). Ovulation rates were estimated from counts of corpora lutea of pregnancy (CLP) in ovaries of 59 does. Yearlings averaged 1.0 CLP and mature does 1.9 CLP which is the same as in 1972 (Table 1). The overall conception rate, based on 65 does, was 86 percent or 9 percent lower than in 1972. Fetus:doe ratios, also based on 65 does, were about the same as in 1972. Yearlings had 100 fetuses:lOO does and mature animals 163 fetuses:lOO does. All yearlings in previous years were pregnant with one fetus each. In 1973, 11 yearlings had singletons, four had twins, and four were barren. The fetal sex ratio was nearly even, 96 males:lOO females. Most fetuses appeared skinny compared to those in previous years. This is purely subjective as no measurements were taken that would reflect this, but if true, it could be attributable to poor nutrition during the severe winter. �-258.. Table l. Pre-natal productivity data for mule deer does dying from various causes in and around Game Management Unit 22, 1973. Call. No. Est. Age Date Killed (1973) How Killed P-72 P-73 P-74 P-75 P-76 P-77 P-78 P-80 P-81 P-82 P-83 P-84 P-85 P-86 P-87 P-88 P-89 P-90 P-91 P-92 P-93 P-94 P-95 P-96 P-97 P-98 P-99 P-100 P-10l P-102 P-103 P-104 P-105 P-108 P-109 P-1l4 P-115 P-116 P-1l7 P-118 P-119 P-12l P-123 P-125 P-127 P-128 P-129 Mature Mature Mature Mature Yr1g. Mature Yr1g. Yr1g. Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Yr1g. Mature Mature Yrlg. Yr1g. Mature Mature Nature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Yrlg. Yrlg. Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Yr1g. Yrlg. Yrlg. Yr1g. Mature Mature Mature Yr1g. Mature 1-19 1-21 1-27 1-24 2-01 2-08 2-08 2-19 2-19 2-18 2-15 2-21 2-22 2-22 2-25 3-01 3-05 3-05 3-09 3-14 3-14 3-14 3-14 3-18 3-21 3-21 3-21 3-24 3-24 3-24 3-24 3-28 3-28 3-28 3-28 3-31 3-31 3-31 4-04 4-04 4-04 4-04 4-04 4- 07 4-11 4-11 4-11 Vehicle Vehicle Trap Trap Vehicle Trap Trap Vehicle Trap Trap Shot Blind Trap Trap Vehicle Vehicle Trap Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle No. of Fetuses Male Female 1 0 2 0 1 0 1? 1? 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 Corpora Lutea of Pregnancy 1 2 4 2 1 2 1 1 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 4 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-259- Table I. Pre-natal productivity data for mule deer does dying from various causes in and around Game Management Unit 22, 1973 (continued). ce u. No. Est. Age Date Killed (1973) How Killed No. of Fetuses Female Male P-13l P-133 P-134 P-135 P-136 P-138 P-139 P-140 P-14l P-143 P-144 P-145 P-146 P-149 P-150 P-151 P-152 P-153 Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. Mature Mature Mature Mature Yrlg. 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-18 4-21 4-24 4-25 4-25 4-25 4-27 4-30 5-04 5-05 5-06 5-08 5-13 Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle 1 1 1 1 100 fetuses:lOO yearling does 163 fetuses:lOO mature does 145 fetuses:lOO does 96 male fetuses:lOO female fetuses 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 1 Corpora Lutea of Pregnancy 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 0 1 1.0 CLP:yearling doe 1.9 CLP:mature doe Percent pregnant 86% The 13 does found dead in fences appeared older and less productive than road-kills and trap mortalities. Therefore, productivity data for them were summarized separately (Table 2). These suspicions are strengthened by comparison of data for both groups. All fence-kills were estimated as mature with many aged as 9 years or older. Also, productivity was lower according to ovulation, pregnancy, and fetal rates. It seems that inclusion of fencekills with the other sources of mortality could bias productivity data. Whether or not road-kills and trap mortalities also provide biased information is not known, but will be checked as soon as additional data become available. Seventy-three fetal ages were estimated from forehead-rump 'measurements using Hudson and Browman's (1959) growth curve. Conception dates were estimated by back-dating from date of death. The range in conception dates was from November 12, 1972, to January 9, 1973 (Fig. 1). The peak number of conceptions occurred from December 6 to 10, 1972. The mean date was December 4 which was about the same as in 1971 and 9 days later than in 1972. �-263- July, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~-------------------- Project No. W-38-R-27 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Systems Modeling Big Game Populations --------~------------------------ Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. 1 September 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Allen E. Anderson, Ronald G. Blumberg, Raymond J. Boyd, Harold E. Burdick, V. Robert Clark, Harvey Donaho, Marcus P. Elkins, R. Bruce Gill, James F. Lipscomb, Richard L. Norman, Perry D. Olson and LareriA. Roper. ABSTRACT Simulation models were developed for the White River elk herd (Area E) and the Uncompahgre deer herd. A method was developed and programmed in Fortran IV for calculating expected values for herd characteristics under sustained yield management based on information gained through simulation modeling. The computer program is used to produce nomograph plots. ��-265- SYSTEMS MODELING BIG GAME POPULATIONS James F. Lipscomb P. S. OBJECTIVE To construct workable and usable systems models of big game populations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Identify and select one deer and one elk herd which have sufficient information for modeling purposes. 2. Construct production models which will simulate the output of these populations. METHODS AND MATERIALS - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Herd Selection Criteria Population information currently available on Colorado elk and deer herds was collected from regional biologists and researchers A. E. Anderson, R. J. Boyd, R. B. Gill and L. A. Roper. The big game herds which were considered to be candidates for modeling were Middle Park, Poudre and Uncompahgre deer, and San Juan, Rio Grande and White River elk. The White River elk herd, with population data collected under Work Plan 11 of this project continuously since 1958, was judged to have the best information of any herd for the purpose of systems modeling. This herd was chosen as the first to be modeled. The Uncompahgre deer herd was selected for modeling based on four years of population data. The primary reason for this choice was that the data on this herd had been collected by regional biologists using regular game management procedures rather than under an intensive research project. If modeling is to be a usable tool it must be capable of working with the kinds of data that can be collected on a management basis. Modeling Procedures Trial and error adjustment of natural mortality rate estimates for the Area E elk herd produced the simulation summarized in Table 1, which shows close agreement with the observed sex ratio values over the period 1965-1972. �-266- Table l. Simulated population dynamics of the White River (Area E) elk herd - prehunt 1966 to prehunt 1972. Prehunt 1966 No. Bulls No. Cows No. Calves Total 1,040 3,375 1,944 6,359 31 29 Ma1es/100 Females Simulated Observed Harvest 719 578 118 Posthunt 1966 32l 2,797 1,826 4,944 11 10 3,301 1,964 6,308 32 32 Prehunt 1967 1,042 Harvest 619 623 135 Posthunt 1967 423 2,678 1,829 4,931 16 16 3,191 1,928 6,263 36 37 Prehunt 1968 1,143 Harvest 800 781 174 Posthunt 1968 343 2,410 1,754 4,508 14 16 2,916 1,758 5,707 35 50 Prehunt 1969 1,034 Harvest 610 488 85 Posthunt 1969 424 2,428 1,673 4,524 17 16 2,907 1,592 5,577 37 33 Prehunt 1970 1,077 Harvest 866 453 41 Posthunt 1970 211 2,454 1,551 4,217 9 9 2,891 1,802 5,504 28 31 Prehunt 1971 812 Harvest 429 267 37 Posthunt 1971 383 2,624 1,765 4,772 15 15 3,124 2,028 6,230 35 49 Prehunt 1972 1,078 �-267- Simulations were limited to this period when it became apparent that harvest figures for these years (based on a random survey of 50 percent of the hunters) were considerably better than those of previous years. This simulation is based on the assumptions that harvest data and cow:calf counts are accurate and that natural mortality rates are relatively constant over the period of the simulation. Given these assumptions, natural mortality rates and 1965 population size were varied to obtain a simulation that provided close agreement with the observed sex ratio data. Annual natural mortality rates used in this simulation were 0.19 on calves, 0.02 on yearlings, 2 year olds and 3 year olds, 0.03 on 4 year olds, 0.07 on 5 year olds, 0.15 on 6 year olds, 0.30 on 7 year olds, 0.40 on 8 year olds and 100 percent on 9 year olds. This simulation is believed to be a good approximation of the population dynamics of the Area E herd. It agrees well with herd size estimates made under Work Plan 11, especially for the first years of the simulation period. In order to project what could be accomplished with this herd it was necessary to estimate expected reproductive rates as a function of winter population size. This relationship was approximated by a linear density dependent function. Between 1966 and 1972 posthunt populations averaged 4650 while calf crops averaged 60 calves/lOO cows. From 1958 to 1962 herd size averaged around 3000 (based on a comparison of helicopter trend counts) while average reproduction was 67 calves/lOO cows. These two points determined the regression = 0.8 - 0.0000435X, ~vhere Yis the expected reproductive rate and X is the population size the previous winter. Y It should be noted that this function and any projections based on it are not likely to be accurate for population sizes greatly differ from recent levels. It is, however, a first approximation of what might happen. Based on this function and natural mortality rates estimated by simulation, response surfaces were drawn to show long term average expected levels of herd characteristics for sustained yield management plans. All combinations of antlered and antlerless harvest rates from 0 to 100 percent were considered, although many of these would be obviously infeasible. The procedure for computer calculation of these response surfaces is discussed below. These were assembled in the form of a nomograph (ouija board) as described by Gross et al. (1972). Uncompahgre deer data was treated in the same way using information from 1969 to 1972. Table 2 summarizes simulation results for the Uncompahgre herd. Mortality rates were 30 percent for fawns and 12 percent for all adult age classes. The reproductive function was estimated as Y = 1.6 0.00003X. �-268- Table 2. Simulated population prehunt 1969 to prehunt 1972. Prehunt 1969 Harvest Posthunt Prehunt 1969 1970 Harvest Posthunt Prehunt 1970 1971 Harvest Posthunt Prehunt 1971 1972 dynamics of the Uncompahgre deer herd _ No. Bucks No. Does No. Fawns Total 6,780 13,067 12,153 32,000 52 49 2,580 2,101 580 4,200 10,966 11,573 26,739 38 41 7,747 13,701 9,865 31,313 56 44 2,893 464 111 4,854 13,237 9,754 27,845 37 37 7,686 15,063 11,900 34,649 51 50 1,929 0 0 5,757 15,063 11,900 32,720 38 37 9,231 17,420 12,542 39,193 53 61 Nomograph Calculation Males/IOO Simulated Females Observed Procedures A computer program was developed to make the calculations necessary for a nomograph. Prior to the development of this program, information for a nomograph had to be derived from a series of long term simulations. Values for population characteristics are calculated for each of 441 combinations of antlered and antler1ess harvest rates. These data are graphed as contour maps to produce the nomograph plots. The computer program uses the following logic to perform these calculations. Basic Principles 1. and Underlying Assumptions There exists a single average expected value for every characteristic of a population under any sustained yield management plan (a management plan is defined here as a combination of an antlered harvest rate and an antlerless harvest rate to be maintained over a period of time). �-269- 2. Certain features of a population remain constant (or vary around a mean value in an unpredictable way). These features include the percent males in the young, the distribution of hunting effort by age class, natural mortality rates by age class, and wounding loss rates. 3. Reproductive rates tend to decrease as population size increases. This relationship may be approximated by expressing reproductive rates as linear functions of population size at some point in the year. For species subjected to a "winter pinch period", the beginning of the winter season is an appropriate time. Derivation of Calculation Procedure Given: . a value for the percent bucks in the fawn crop = PCB. a SQt of age specific natural mortality rates for winter summer = WMi, SMi• and a set of sex and age specific effort rates BEFi, DEF • i a wounding loss rate for antlered and antlerless animals WLB, WLD. a set of reproductive parameters: Al fawn reproductive rate intercept. A2 yearling A3 adult reproductive rate intercept. Bl fawn reproductive rate slope. B2 yearling reproductive rate slope. adult reproductive ro!lteslope. B3 reproductive rate intercept. a management plan consisting of the percent of the antlered population to be harvested annually and the percent of the antlerless population to be harvested annually = BRR, DHR Let: WMSi 1 - WMi SMSi == 1 - SMi BHSl 1 DHR*EEFl* (1 + WLD) BHS 1 BHR*BEF.* (1 + WLB), DHR*DEF.* (1 + l<!LD) i DHSi F 1 1 1 i :f 1 number of fawns at the time of the preseason count. �-270- Then: # buck fawns at preseason count = PCB*F # buck fawns prehunt = PCB*F*SMS l = PCB*F*SMS1* BHSl # buck fawns posthunt # yearling bucks at preseason count = PCB*F*SMS1*BHS1*WMSl # yeariing bucks prehunt PCB*F*SMS1* BHS * WMS * SMS 1 1 2 # yearling bucks posthunt = PCB*F*SMS1*BHS1*WMS * SMS * BHS 1 2 1 In general the number of bucks of age class "n" (n ~ 2) at the preseason count is: n-l n PC:S*F* i=l == BHS.* SMS·* WMS. 111 and the total buck population (~2) at the preseason count is: PCB*F* similarly the number of antlerless animals of age class n (n ~ 2) at the first reference point (preseason count) is: n-l (1 - PCB)*F* ~ DHS *SMS * WMS. i i=l i 1 and the total doe population (~2) at this point is: (1 - PCB)*F* t [J DHSi * SMS * i Total fawns at this point of course is "F". Now the fawn/doe ratio is: FI t*(1 - PCB) * tQ~J DHS/ J SMS/ WMSJ �-271- the unknown "F" values computed as: cancel each other and the ratio can be By the same reasoning the buck/doe to a simplified form by cancelling numerator and denominator. ratio may be reduced from: out the F's which occur in both Note that the preseason fawn/doe and buck/doe ratios can be calculated for any sustained yield management plan without considering reproductive rates. The total number of bucks PCB*F* (~2) L [(1 i BHS *SMS(WMS and the total number of does posthunt iJ (~2) *SMYBHS j posthunt J *F*"t. n j-1 (l - PCB) is: .*WMS . [ . I DHS.1*SMS 1 1 *SMS *DHS j j=2 1= and the total number of fawns posthunt F*(PCB*SMS is: j is: *BHS + (1-- PCB)*SMS *DHS ) 1 1 I I· The ratios can again be calculated because the F's can be cancelled. The sum of the 3 expressions above is the posthunt or prewinter population size. This is the value used in the reproductive functions. To save space from now on this sum will be represented as SUMF. Note that the F can be factored from this sum. Therefore SUMF/F contains no F's. Call this quantity SUM. �-272- The number of does who were fawns at breeding season can be calculated from expression (1) by setting n = 2. Denote this quantity as FDI and note that F may be factored out and that FDI/F contains no Fls. Call this quantity D • l The number of yearling does can be calculated n = 3. Define FD2 and D2 as above. the same way with The remainder of the preseason doe population is the number of adult does. Define FD3 and D3 for these animals. Now the number of fawns at the preseason calculated as follows: Divide through by F leaving: Multiply this out to get: Collect count is F and can be terms: Rearranging again: Since SUMF = SUM*F: F ~ (Dl* Al + D2*A2 + D3*A3 - 1) I [:SUM* (Dl* Bl + D2*B2 + D3* B3~ Now F is defined in terms of the reproductive parameters, the Di values, and SUM. None of these contains any left over F values so this is a computational formula for F, which in turn can be plugged back into the earlier formulae to give actual values for such things as total population pre and posthunt, buck and doe harvests, etc. Any characteristic of the steady-state population may now be calculated. It should be noted that all population characteristics of interest are either entirely independent of the reproductive parameters (the ratios) or directly proportional to F. This means that any error in estimating the reproductive parameters which results in a calculated fawn crop size 10 percent higher than the true value will not affect the ratio characteristics (fawns/doe, bucks/doe, etc.) at all, but will result in calculated values for the other characteristics that will be exactly 10 percent too high. �-273- It is therefore possible to calculate a relative sensitivity to error in estimating reproductive parameters for any management plan. The most straightforward approach is to utilize the population size at the midpoint of the observed data points used to calculate the reproductive functions. Any reproductive function must be forced through this point. A change in slope therefore must result in a change of intercept as well. For example if the population size and reproductive rate through which any function must be forced are X and R respectively, and the intercept of the current function is A; then if the slope of a new function is 10 percent less than that of the current function. the new intercept may be calculated as A' = .9A + .1R since " (A - R)/X is the current slope and A' must satisfy (A' - R)/X = .9 [(A '- R)/X]. In this example - 10 percent was chosen arbitrarily. For a sensitivity test a value should be chosen to reflect the highest reasonable amount of slope variation that might exist. Now with the new A' and B' values a new F' can be calculated for any management plan, and the ratio F'/F is a measure of the relative sensitivity of that management plan to possible error in estimating the reproductive parameters. As stated before, the ratio characteristics are unaffected by such errors, but characteristics such as population or harvest sizes may have true values which differ from the calculated values by as much as I - F'/F 100 percent. I LITERATURE 1* CITED Gross, .J. E., J. E. Roelle, and G. L. Williams. 1972. Progress report - program ONEPOP and information processor: A systems modeling and communications project. Colo. Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit, Ft. Collins, Colo. 327 pp. J ·1 Prepared . .e:.: / • , by _'·..J.:4/~· ·,~·<-",,·lut:"':'i..!.(.lo!""_· .::x:::"-:"':-;"-/";:'~.,JoL...:.J:::.'--=c .;. e'~,>,,~~::.:/~;_-.-_ /James F. Lipscoml{ Wildlife Resear&her Candidate .j ��July, -275- JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO No. W-38-R-27 Experimental. Elk Harvest Covered: April Raymond Investigations Job No. Job Title: Personnel: Deer-Elk lIe Plan No. Period 1973 1, 1972 through March 2 Regulations 31, 1973 J. Boyd ABSTRACT Publication of this job was not for submission of an article to be delayed because of personnel completed and it is anticipated Segment 29. completed during this segment. Plans called a professional Wildlife Journal but had to transfers. The article is about 50 percent that it can be submitted for publication during � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/a3d902499a287f35d1f6466e4bec3b05.pdf e3d09c7fa15fb1bb740c7168b6021e5e PDF Text Text -1- JOB PROGRESS October, REPORT S tate of .:::.Co.:::.L::::.o.:::.RA~D::.:O::.._ _ Project No. W-SS-R-1S Work Plan No. 1 Job Title April Production 16, 1972 through Bird Investigations 1 Job No. Waterfowl Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Surveys June 30, 1972 C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; W. Blanchard and Staff, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge; C. Hayes, D. Kirkland and J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; F. N. Folks and C. Jensen, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; C. Braun, J. Corey, D. Coven, G. Crawford, R. Desilet, W. Dolezal, H. Funk, R. Hopper, J. Houston, J. Lorentzson, R. Lowry, W. Russell, K. Wagner and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Generally dry conditions were found throughout most of Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas. The total estimated number of 47,276 breeding pairs of ducks was the smallest total recorded for the state since 1964 and was 20 percent below the long term average. The mallard continued as the major breeding species and in 1972 constituted nearly half of the entire breeding population. The post-nesting season population in Moffat County declined approximately eight percent below the 1971 level as a result of production being down nearly 16 percent. Gosling production in northcentral Colorado was approximately 17 percent below the 1971 level but the total number of geese observed in the area was unchanged from 1971. 1973 ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION Michael SURVEYS R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations SEGMENT for Colorado. OBJECTIVES To estimate the number of duck and goose breeding pairs, each of Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas. METHODS by species, in AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pair and production surveys pair inventory of only major production areas. consist of a breeding The 1972 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 8 to June 30. Surveys in North Park and the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 16 to June 16. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates in north-central Colorado were obtained fro.m counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which the birds were flightless. The west-central Colorado survey was conducted, however, poor results were obtained and are therefore not presented in this report. All flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas sampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. On the basis of these studies, a report is submitted Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's continental cooperative breeding ground survey. to the Bureau of Sport part in the annual �-4- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Generally dry conditions were found throughout most of Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas. The San Luis Valley, Colorado's most important duck breeding area continued in a dry cycle which began in 1971. The run off from the snow pack in the mountains surrounding North Park produced only fair water conditions. Marshes and drainage basins in the Cache la Poudre and South Platte River Valleys were very dry and river flows extremely low. Low water along the rivers in northwest Colorado was detrimental to duck nesting, but did insure that island nesting Canada geese would not be threatened by flooding. The reduction in the number of breeding pairs in Colorado's two major breeding areas, the San Luis Valley and North Park, resulted in the smallest breeding pair total recorded for the state since 1964. The 47,276 breeding pairs are nearly 20 percent below the long term average (Table 1). Only in the Cache la Poudre Valley were more breeding birds observed in 1972 than in 1971. The mallard, although recording a decrease in total numbers from the 1971 level, increased in terms of the composition of the total breeding population (Table 2). Three species, the gadwall, redhead, and widgeon recorded major declines from the 1971 level on a percentage basis. All species, except the green-winged teal decreased in number. The post-nesting season Moffat County population of Canada geese was estimated to be approximately 1,400 birds in 1972 (Table 3). The total is eight percent below the 1971 level (Table 4). Production estimates in Moffat County in 1972 were down approximately 16 percent from 1971 levels (Table 5). The lower estimates were mainly a result of a decline in brood sizes on the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers rather than a reduction in the estimated number of nesting pairs. Production on the Green River increased substantially over the 1971 level in the Brown's Park area and remained stable in the Dinosaur National Monument. The results of the 1972 Canada goose production census in the Ft. CollinsBoulder-Denver area are presented by individual area in Table 6. Gosling production was down approximately 17 percent from the 1971 level (Table 7). Only Fort Collins recorded an increase among the five trend areas. The greatest decline was measured in the Boulder area. The total number of geese observed on the trend areas in 1972 was essentially unchanged from both the 1971 total and the three year average (Table 8). FALL FLIGHT PREDICTION Dry conditions throughout Colorado's major duck breeding areas in 1972 will definitely result in a much smaller fall flight than in 1971 and probably the smallest since 1964. The Canada goose flight from both northwest and north-central Colorado in 1972 will be very similar to the 1971 flight. Prepared by2n:.~,j!L~ R. Michael Szymcz~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher �-5- Table 1. Summary of Colorado duck breeding ground population estimates in selected areas, 1972. Area Percent Change Total Estimated Breeding Paris From Long From Long Term Term Average Average 1:./ 1971 1971 1972 San Luis Valley 23,509 30,272 27,813 -22.3 -15.5 North Park 'l:../ 8,922 14,711 17,989 -39.4 -50.4 South Platte Valley 7,019 8,672 6,009 -19.1 +16.8 Cache 1a Poudre Valley 4,630 3,115 3,022 +48.6 +53.2 Yampa Valley 1,857 2,340 2,867 -20.6 -35.2 Brown's Park 1,339 1,581 1,029 -15.3 +30.1 Totals 47,276 60,691 58,729 -22.1 -19.5 1/ San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through 1971 and 1968 through 1971 surveys, respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 18 year averages. Aerial counts corrected by species from visibility ratios obtained in the San Luis Valley. 'l:../ �-6- Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1972 duck breeding population. Number of Breeding Pairs 1954-1971 1972 1971 Average 1/ Percent S2ecies Composition 1954-1971 1972 1971 Average 22,504 24,150 28,121 47.6 39.8 56.7 6,532 7,901 4,759 13.8 13.0 9.6 Gadwall 4,666 9,884 5,155 9.9 16.3 10.4 Pintail 3,073 3,862 3,419 6.5 6.4 6.9 Green -winged Teal 2,094 1,923 2,294 4.4 3.2 4.6 Shoveler 4,152 4,354 2,074 8.8 7.2 4.2 Redhead 1,802 4,276 1,813 3.8 7.0 3.7 American Widgeon 1,331 2,640 853 2.8 4.3 1.7 Other Divers 1,122 1,701 1,142 2.4 2.8 2.3 Total 47,276 60,69l 49,630 Species Mallard Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal l/ Species composition computed from data from all areas for the 18 year period regardless of changes in survey methods. �-7- Table 3. Number of Canada geese observed County, Colorado, 1972. and estimated production, Moffat Estimated Goslings Total Birds Nesting Pairs Non-nesting Birds Total Adults Spgs. 13 183 209 47 'l:...1 256 to Cross Mtn. 21 31 73 48 121 Lily Park 5 104 114 122 136 Sub-total 39 318 396 117 513 Area No. !.I Yampa River Craig to Juniper Juniper Green River Brown's Park 29 67 125 139 264 Dinosaur Nat' 1 Manum. 11 29 106 164 136 300 58 173 289 275 564 27 205 259 61 !!! 320 124 696 944 453 Sub-Total Little Snake River Grand Total 11 Calculated 'l:...1Includes using average brood size and number 12 goslings hatched 11 20 goslings hatched nests. from eggs taken from nests before Area first surveyed in 1970, data supplied Division of Wildlife Resources. il Includes of successful 1,397 final survey. by F. Neil Folks, Utah State from eggs taken from nests before final survey. �Table 6. Results of the north-central Colorado goose census, June 15, 1972,(continued). Production Area Fort Collins (continued) Water Area No. Broods Total No. Goslings 2 4 1 7 15 2 4 15 2 11 30 4 295 550 845 26 4 44 16 1 58 42 5 102 74 75 149 58 29 6 18 36 11 3 26 6 6 0 264 92 2 8 31 15 15 45 2 2 4 322 121 8 26 67 26 18 71 8 8 4 199 480 679 0 15 0 0 42 28 48 125 42 43 48 125 Parkwood Lake Kitchel Lake Horseshoe Lake Sub-total Loveland Boedeaker Reservoir Mariana Reservoir McNeil Reservoir 5 1 - Sub-total Boulder Valmont Reservoir Terry Lake Crystal Lake Ish Lake Faivre Ponds Boulder Valley Farm Hayden Lake Peaceful Meadows Eddy Lake Angus Ranch McCall Lake - - - Sub-total Denver S. Colo. Blvd. & Quincy Blackmer Lake Reservoir No. 3 Denver City Park 0 0 0 Total No. Adults and Yrlgs. Total No. of Birds .....I 0 I --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 6. Results of the north-central Colorado goose census, June 15, 1972 (continued). No. Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yrlgs. Total No. of Birds 0 0 0 0 18 31 50 25 60 37 0 2 9 6 8 0 8 25 105 3 26 30 72 30 336 104 7 108 66 4 40 13 16 33 105 3 44 61 122 55 396 141 7 llO 75 10 48 13 24 58 Sub-total 294 1,236 1,530 Grand Total 1,081 2,853 3,934 Production Area Denver (continued) Water Area Sloans Lake Kountze Reservoir Federal Center Pond Clairfield Reservoir Gallup Reservoir Columbine Coun try Club Bowles Lake Kings Pond Lower Tule Lake Marston Reservoir Grant B Reservoir Patrick Lake Pinehurst Country Club Kendrick Lake Mohn Estate Standley Lake 0 1 3 2 2 0 3 - I I-' I-' I �-12- Table 7. Total number of Canada goose goslings produced in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1972. No. of Goslings 1969-1971 1972. 1971 ,,1iverage Percent Change From 1969-1971 From 1971 Average Wellington 219 301 286 -27.2 -23.4 Fort Collins 318 1/ 255 250 +24.7 +27.2 Loveland 74· 125. 75 -40.8 - 1.3 Boulder 199 357 251 -44.3 -20.7 Denver 294 296 21g, - 0.7 + 6.9 1,137 -17.2 - 2.9 Area ".{f .,' .. ;. ~: Total 1,104 J 1,334. ,;1 !/ Includes 23 birds raililedat Ft. Colli,ns Wildlife Research Center. " 0::" t.:;:-. Table 8. Total number of Canada geese observed in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1972. No. of Geese 1969-1971 1972 197~ Average Percent Change From 1969-1971 From 1971 Average Wellington 731 822 894 -11.1 -18.2 Fort Collins 868 690 707 +25.8 +22.8 Loveland 149 249 186 -40.2 -19.9 Boulder 679 862 729 -21.2 - 6.9 Denver 1,530 1,446 1,339 + 5.8 +14.3 Total 3,957 4,069 3,855 - 2.8 + 2.6 Area �-13- October, 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~---------- Project No. W-88-R-18 Work plan No. 1 Job Title Job No. Trapping Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations 2 and Banding Ducks and Geese April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; R. Baker, C. Braun, J. Corey, D. Coven, C. Crawford, G. Crawford, W. Dolezal, J. Ellenberger, H. Funk, A. Hemmert, R. Henry, J. Jackson, R. Kitzmiller, J. Lorentzson, J. Olterman, B. Peterson, L. Rottman, W. Rutherford, N. Smith, H. Spear, M. Stromberg, M. Szymczak, K. Wagner, R. Hopper, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Trapping activities during Segment 18 resulted in the banding of 12,721 ducks of 10 species at seven locations in Colorado. The mallard was again the major species in the banded sample, contributing 8,853, or about 70 percent of the total. Pre-season efforts continued in the high country production areas, where a study was undertaken to' investigate migration routes, harvest characteristics and mortality rates of duck populations here. The banded sample in these high country areas in 1972 totaled 8,272 ducks, or 2,758 in North Park, 1,623 in South Park and 3,891 in the San Luis Valley. Progress was made in increasing the banded samples of some species other than mallards and pintails by employing the night-lighting technique and by using smaller funnel hoops on the Salt Plains traps. Post-season banding (winter) resulted in a banded sample of 6,021 mallards during the Segment. Segment 18 goose trapping operations resulted in the banding of 1,169 Canada geese. Goslings, hand-reared or captured in the wild and transplanted in various locations during the summer, accounted for 427 of this total. The remalnlng geese were banded post-season in the Arkansas Valley (564) and the Cache 1a Poudre Valley (178). �-14- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue all pre- and post-season duck and goose trapping and banding operations as outlined in the W-88-R Job Description for Segment 18. Make additional effort to band a sample of mallards wintering in western Colorado. 2. Continue to experiment with new trapping techniques, including night-lighting, ftrive-trapping at night and funnel modification. �-15- TRAPPING AND BANDING DUCKS AND GEESE Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes all waterfowl banding activities under Federal Aid Project W-88-R-18 for the segment year April 1, 1972 to March 31, 1973. Analyses of band recovery data are conducted under a separate job (Work Plan 1, Job 3) and thus, will not be included in this report. This report merely presents a listing of numbers of ducks and geese banded by species and location during th¢ segment. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest re&ulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To provide adequate samples of banded ducks and geese in Colorado's major breeding and harvest areas for the purpose of accumulating migration and annual mortality data. 2. To report species and numbers of mallards winter banded in the South Platte Valley, Arkansas Valley, and Bonny Reservoir as part of Work Plan 3, Job 6. 3. To report transplant geese banded under Work Plan 2, Job 2. METHODS AND MATERIALS The banding program in Segment 18 remained the same as in past years with operations consisting of three phases: (1) mid-summer goose transplant banding, (2) late summer (pre-season duck banding, and (3) winter (postseason) duck and goose banding. Goslings for transplanting were handreared and also secured from the wild by drive-trapping or by using baited walk-in traps prior to the time the birds were capable of flight. Preseason duck banding was conducted in August and September utilizing baited Salt Plains traps (cage-type) to capture birds in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. An additional method, night-lighting, was also used on an experimental basis to catch ducks in North Park during the preseason period. The night-lighting technique used is best described by Cummings and Hewitt (1964) and Drewin et al. (1967). Post-season banding (January-February) employed baited Salt Plains traps and cannon-nets for duck trapping, and baited cannon-nets and a large walk-in trap for goose trapping. �-16- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ducks Numbers and species of ducks banded during Segment 18 by State personnel are listed in Table 1 by location. The banded sample was similar to the previous year, totaling 12,721 ducks of 10 species. Seven locations were again involved, with the South Platte Valley contributing the largest number (3,744) followed by North Park (2,758) and the San Luis Valley (2,269). As usual, the mallard was the dominant species represented in the banded sample, constituting 8,853, or about 70 percent of the total. However, this percentage was somewhat less than in the previous year, mainly because of an effort to band greater numbers of other species in the high country areas during the pre-season period. Even with this added effort to band other species, pintails and green~inged teals were still the only other species that contributed a significant number of birds to the banded sample, with 2,524 and 835, respectively. High Country Study Pre-season banding was continued in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley as the basis for an overall investigation of high country duck populations in Colorado. Samples of ducks were banded Simultaneously in all three areas for the second consecutive year. This procedure is expected to continue for at least the next four years. The objective is to investigate relationships among the three areas in terms of migration routes, harvest characteristics, and mortality rates. Information resulting from this study will allow us to evaluate the justification for establishing duck hunting season dates in Colorado based on elevation. This can be termed "altitudinal zonation" of hunting season dates. This could provide earlier and separate season dates for the high country, thereby yielding additional duck hunting opportunity where little occurred before. Species composition by age and sex for 8,272 ducks banded in the three high country areas is shown in Tables 2-5. Figures for the San Luis Valley include bandings by both State and Federal personnel. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife is cooperating in this study by banding a portion of the Valley quota on the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges. sample of 8,272 ducks for the three areas combined during Segment above that of the previous Segment (6,980). This increase was due to larger samples being obtained in North Park and the San Luis Valley. Sizable increases were attained for the gadwall and pintail in North Park and for the gadwall, green-winged teal and blue-winged and cinnamon teal in the San Luis Valley. Total number of birds banded in South Park was similar during Segments 17 and 18. The decrease in the mallard sample for this area in Segment 18 was compensated for by an increase in number of pintails banded. The banded 18 was substantially �Table 1. Number of ducks banded by species, location, and period of year, 1972-73. Species North Park Pre-season I7 San Luis South Valley Park Number of Ducks Banded Post-season '1.7 Bonny Cache la South Platte Reservoir Valley Poudre Valley Arkansas Valley Total Mallard 1,114 868 800 645 3,744 618 1,064 8,853 Gadwall 123 - 5 - - - - 128 American Widgeon 27 1 - - - - - 28 Green-winged Teal 247 140 448 - - - - 835 I B1ue-winged and Cinnamon Teal ~ '-I 76 84 87 - - - - 247 Pintail 1,103 521 900 - - - - 2,524 Redhead 68 6 29 - - - - 103 Lesser Scaup - 1 - - - - - 1 Wood Duck - 2 - - - - - 2 2,758 1,623 2,269 645 3,744 618 1,064 Total l/ August-September. ~/ January-February. 12,721 I �-18- Table 2. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in North Park, 1972. AM Number of Ducks Banded Age aridSex 1M AF IF Mallard 262 303 285 264 1,114 Gadwall 49 11 46 17 123 American Widgeon 5 10 4 8 27 Green-winged Teal 69 82 31 65 247 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 8 36 6 26 76 Pintail 280 277 273 273 1,103 Redhead 23 11 25 9 68 Total 696 730 670 662 2,758 Species Table 3. Total Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in South Park, 1972. AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex IF AF 1M 250 209 250 159 868 American Widgeon 0 0 1 0 1 Green-winged Teal 45 56 16 23 140 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 5 42 4 33 84 Pintail 150 125 125 121 521 Wood Duck 0 1 0 1 2 Redhead 0 2 4 0 6 Lesser Scaup 1 0 0 0 1 451 435 400 337 1,623 Species Mallard Total Total �Table 4, Age and sex c.omposition Luis VaI Ley , 1972. 1:./ of ducks banded p re+s e as on in the San --------------_.-_ ...-.-._._--_ .._..._---_ ..._-.----._----_. __ ._-.•._-----._-----_._----_._---------------Number of Ducks Banded --,.-.---.~-,--~.~~~~-.-~.•. ._._._ .________ Age and=-=S:...:e:..:x~ __ 1M. AF IF Total ME.llard 372 368 338 1,421 Gadwell1 1~4 9 40 94 5 2 2 1 10 3fQ '+~ 153 82 89 673 67 131 28 84 310 o .1 0 0 1 298 397 234 408 1,337 9 10 44 Species American Hidgeon Green --winged 'I'e 81 Blue-\vi.nged and CinrUll1JOn Shoveler Pintail Teal Redhead Lesse:!: Sc.aup Total }j Includes National ducks "\Hldlife 1 o 0 0 1 1.0n 19112 732 970 3,891 banded by Fede xa.l, pe raonneL on Alamosa and Monte Vista Refuges as part of hLgh+coun t ry duck study. Progress vms made in incre2.sin.g the s amp I e s Lzes of species other than mallards and pLnt.a I Ls , (is indicat.ed abo ve , t.he most notable i.ncreases were for gadw al.Ls , gre(::n.--Ij\;-]:Dged t.';:~als, and blu.e--v!iIl.ged and cinnamon teals. This improvement was due p:cJ_lIw.ril:y to Lnc r'e as ed arfo rt; and time expended by the banders. The n.I.ght r-Lf.ghti.n g t.echnLque was heLpful, and showed great p ro mt se , Smaller funnel hoops in the Salt Pla.:Lnstcap!:; appe a.re d to increase the selectivity fo these traps toward tee ..1 and &.'VJaY f rom the larger species. However, much larger samples of spec:;_.es other than mall.a rds and pintails are needed in order to make the study complete" �-20- Table 5. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season high-country areas combined, 1972. !/ in the three AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Total Mallard 855 884 903 761 3,403 Gadwall 50 5» 55 57 217 10 12 7 9 38 Species American Widgeon Green-winged Teal 463 291 129 177 1,060 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 80 209 38 143 470 Shoveler 0 1 0 0 1 Pintail 728 799 632 802 2,961 Wood Duck 0 1 0 1 2 Redhead 36 25 38 19 118 2 0 0 0 2 2,224 2,277 1,802 1,969 8,272 Lesser Scaup Total !/ Includes ducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges in the San Luis Valley as part of the high-country duck study. Winter Banding Post-season banding of mallards was continued in eastern Colorado under Work Plan 3, Job 6 (Investigation of Mallard Management Units of Eastern Colorado). Quotas were difficult to attain in three of the eight banding areas because of a poor distribution of the duck population. Quotas were increased in some of the other areas to make up for this situation, but the total banded sample of 6,021 mallards was somewhat below the 6,564 birds banded the previous year (Table 1). Some effort was made to band a sample of mallards that winter in west-central Colorado. This venture was unsuccessful in terms of birds banded, as most of the few days of effort expended were spent becoming acquainted with the �-21country and searching for bandable populations. Highline Lake, northwest of Grand Junction, showed considerable promise as a trapping site. More effort will be made in this area next Segment. Geese About 1,200 Canada geese were banded during Segment 18 (Table 6). This number represented less than one-half of that banded during Segment 17, mainly because of poor success during the winter or post-season banding period. Table 6. Number of Canada geese banded by location and period of year, 1972-73. Number Banded Summer Transplants Location Arkansas Valley 1./ Post-season 2/ Total 0 564 564 0 178 178 32 0 32 North Park 150 0 150 South Park 75 0 75 170 0 170 427 742 1,169 Cache la Poudre Dolores Valley Valley South Platte Valley Total 1/ June-July. I./ January-February. Summer transplant geese accounted for 427 of the total banded sample (Table 6). These goslings were banded and released at Totten Reservoir in the Dolores Valley (32). Walden Lake in North Park (150). Antero Reservoir in South Park (75), and Jumbo Reservoir (100) and Prewitt Reservoir (70) in the South Platte Valley. Numbers of males and females were nearly equal for the overall composition of transplant birds (Table 7). Work Plan 2, Job 2 discusses the transplant program in more detail. Only 742 Canada geese were banded post-season in the Arkansas and Cache la Poudre Valleys (Table 8). The number banded was much below the 1,000 quota �-22- desired for each area. A fair sample was obtained at Turk's Pond (564) in the Arkansas Valley, but an inadequate sample was taken at New Windsor Reservoir (178) in the Cache la Poudre Valley. A different density and .distribution of geese from previous years were the main problems encountered in acquiring a suitable sample in the Cache la Poudre Valley during Segment 18. The age and sex composition of both banded samples was distorted in favor of adults, espeC~ally males (T~ble 8). Additional information regarding post-season banding for Work Plan 2, Jobs 5-6.activities can be found in the Job Progress Report Table 7. Sex compositib~ of goslings banded for summer transplants, 1972-73. Number Banded Sex Location I1tle '~~. Female Total '..-+,'< Dolores Valley 1;3 North Park 72 South Park 39 South Platte V~l1ey 86 19 32 78 150 36 75 84 170 217 427 Total 210 Table 8. Age and sex composition eastern Colorado, 1972-73. of Canada geese banded post-season Location AM Arkansas Valley 249 Cache 1a Poudre Valley 77 Total 326 r Number of Geese Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF 41 23 64 in UF Total 24 0 564 2 0 76 178 252 24 76 742 250 �-23- LITERATURE CITED Cummings, G. E., and o. H. Hewitt. 1964. birds at night with light and sound. Capturing waterfowl and marsh J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28(1):120-126. Drewin, R. C~, H. M. Reeves, P. F. Springer, and T. L. Kuck. 1967. Backpack unit for capturing waterfowl and upland game by night-lighting. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 31(4): 778-783. ��October, -25- 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-88-R-18 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title of Waterfowl Bird Investigations 3 Job No. Analysis Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Banding Data April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 James Jackson, Robin Henry, Michael Szymczak and Richard Hopper. ABSTRACT This job is dependent upon the banding program conducted under Work Plan 1, Job 2. The current banding analysis phase is concerned with that portion of the banding program dealing with high country duck populations, specifically in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley. Pre-season banding was continued in these three areas during Segment 18 to yield band recovery data necessary in implementing this analysis job. Pre-season banding in all three .high country areas as a group has been done for only two years (1971 and 1972), thus it will probably take at least three more years of banding here to provide enough data for a reliable analysis. Banding and recovery tapes were obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory prior to last segment. Programs were written and the desired information was retrieved from the tapes through computers. Preliminary work using the resulting print-outs included mapping of recovery locations and calculating recovery end mortality rate estimates by species, age and sex. Also, all fully punched recovery cards received have been sorted and filed by species, banding location, year of recovery and how obtained. �-26- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue pre-season duck banding in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, with existing quotas by spec1es, age and sex. �-27- ANALYSIS OF WATERFOWL BANDING DATA Richard M. Hopper This particular job is directly related to and dependent upon the banding program carried out under Work Plan 1, Job 2. The current segment as well as the next few segments of Work Plan 1, Job 3 will deal specifically with the portion of the banding program aimed at high country duck populations. Pre-season banding was initiated in the three major high country areas (North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley) as a group in 1971, with at least a five-year program in mind (1971-1975). Recovery data from these bandings will provide the basis for the band analysis job in question. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution, and relationships among populations of ducks banded in Colorado's high country, specifically in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS Computer tapes containing all bandings from the three high country areas and all recoveries from those bandings through the 1969-70 hunting season were obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. During last segment, programs were written and the desired information was retrieved from the banding and recovery tapes through the use of automatic data processing machines. Fully punched recovery cards have also been supplied by the Bird Banding Laboratory for all recoveries through the 1971-72 hunting season. The Bird Banding Laboratory will continue to provide these throughout future recovery years. The tape program mentioned above was modified to handle cards, thus making annual updating of recovery data a relatively simple task. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-season banding was continued during Segment 18 to supply band recovery data necessary in the implementations of this job. Results of this 1972 preseason banding effort are presented in a prior section of this issue of the Game Research Report (Hopper 1973). The only major problem confronted thus far in the banding program is the difficulty in obtaining good banded samples of important species of ducks other than mallards and pintails. We hope to improve these samples in future years. �-28- Pre-season banding has been conducted in the San Luis Valley since 1963 and in South Park since 1968, but was not initiated in North Park until 1971. The earlier years in the San Luis Valley and South Park yielded some valuable data that will be useful in the overall high country analysis, but information resulting from years of simultaneous banding in all three areas will give us the best look at the high country situation. Thus, it will probably take at least another three years of banding in all three areas, or a total of about five years of recoveries, to supply sufficient data for a reliable analysis. The types of information obtained on print-out sheets (tabs) from the banding and recovery tapes were listed in the previous segment report (Hopper 1972) and will not be repeated here. Work during Segment 18 involved some preliminary, but incomplete, mapping of recovery locations, and recovery and mortality rate estimates by species, age and sex. Also, all fullypunched recovery cards received as of March 31, 1973 have been sorted and filed by species, banding location, year of recovery, and how obtained. Plans for next segment include an update of all recovery data through the 1972-73 hunting season from bandings in all three high country areas. This will involve processing recovery cards through the established programs to obtain print-outs of recovery data from the 1970-71 through 1972-73 hunting season. This information will then be combined with that processed earlier from tapes containing recovery data through the 1969-70 hunting season. LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1972. Analysis of waterfowl banding data. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 23-26. 1973. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Oct. Prepared by ~?=-z. ~jP&. R. M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher Colo. Div. of Colo. Div. of �October, -29- 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------ Project No. W.,.88-R-18 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title April Bird Investigations Job No. San Luis Valley Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Cooperative 12 Mallard Investigation 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Dr. Aelred D. Geis, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Dr. Lewis Nelson, Jr., University of California; Jack R. Grieb and Richard M. Hopper, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT A final report covering the 8-year study of duck populations and experimental seasons in the San Luis Valley is progressing smoothly. The first rough draft of this report was finished during Segment 18. The final manuscript will be completed during Segment 19 and submitted to Wildlife Monographs for possible publication. ��-31- SAN LUIS VALLEY COOPERATIVE Richard MALLARD INVESTIGATION M. Hopper An intensive study of the duck population in the San Luis Valley was started in 1963 as a cooperative investigation between the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Colorado Division of Wildlife. A major portion of this study was an annual experimental hunting season held during the period October 1-18. The eighth and final experimental season was conducted in 1970. Preliminary results of these seasons, as well as all phases of the study, were presented in Administrative Report Numbers 42, 49, 79, 120, 130, 158, 175, 195, and 210 prepared by members of both agencies and printed and distributed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Branch of Wildlife Research, Migratory Bird Populations Station. Segment 17 (1971) was the last year of field work for the overall study. Work during part of Segment 17 and all of Segment 18 included the analysis of data, evaluation of results, and writing the final job report covering the entire investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE 1. To develop a harvest 2. To determine hunter formula for the San Luis Valley mallard reaction to various types of hunting population. regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Evaluate results of the experimental hunting seasons since 1963 and begin preparation of final reports covering all phases of the investigation in cooperation with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. METHODS AND MATERIALS All data gathered during the course of the investigation were compiled and analyzed. The Bird Banding Laboratory provided printouts of banding data including computations of mortality rates, etc. necessary in the overall analysis. Preparation of the final report followed the style of Wildlife Monographs. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All data were analyzed during Segment 18 and the first rough draft of the final report was finished. The four coauthors, Jack R. Grieb, Dr. Aelred D. Geis, Dr. Lewis Nelson, Jr., and Richard M. Hopper were assigned specific �-32- segments of the report for which they were responsible. Work on this report will continue into Segment 19, with reviewing, editing, and typing being the major considerations. The final manuscript will hopefully be completed by January 1, 1974 and submitted to Wildlife Monographs for possible publication. Prepared by -...:1{;.~"::~:Joh~f-=rl..t$~d::;.:i2=-. -~-o+~-'~:"'.e...,¢9JJ~· w~/."-':.lo>-",-_ .1.0. Wildlife Researcher �October, -33- 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO State of Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-18 Project No. Bird Investigations 2 Job No. Experimental Studies on Improving the Status of Canada Goose Populations 2 April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 C. Hayes, D. Kirkland and J. Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; R. Baker, J. Corey, D. Coven, G. Crawford, J. Ellenberger, H. Gresh, R. Hopper, T. Lines, G. Lorentzson, W. Olmstead, S. Steinert, K. Wagner, L. Webster and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT An additional 100 goslings were added to the Jumbo Reservoir restoration flock in the South Platte River Valley, making the total number released there in two years, 202. Band recoveries indicate that a portion of the birds released on Jumbo in 1971 migrated north in the spring of 1972. All geese moved out of the Jumbo area in response to inclement weather in late November and early December, 1972. In early spring, 1973, about 100 birds were present in the Jumbo Reservoir area. Restoration efforts at Prewitt Reservoir in Washington County in northeast Colorado were initiated, with the release of 70 goslings in July, 1972. Five of the birds released at Prewitt were reported taken during the 1972-73 hunting season. It appeared that the birds left the Prewitt release site about mid-November. In North Park, 150 birds were released on Walden Reservoir, located about 1 mile west of Walden, Colorado, making a total of 830 birds released in North Park in the last four years. A total of 65 adult geese and three broods with a total of 17 goslings were observed in North Park in late May, 1972. Two additional nests, which later hatched, were also found in late May. At least 85 geese were present in North Park in mid-June. A total of 13 geese which had been released in North Park during previous years were captured on Wheatland Reservoir in late June, 1972. Only 12 geese from all North Park releases were reported recovered during the 1972-73 hunting season, six from the group released in 1972. Restoration efforts in South Park were initiated with the release of 76 goslings on Antero Reservoir in July, 1972. Five of the birds released on Antero were reported recovered during the 1972-73 hunting season. Restoration efforts at Totten Reservoir near Cortez in southwest Colorado were concluded with the release of 32 goslings. In early January, 1973 the birds left the Totten area for about two weeks, and according to band recoveries, moved into eastern yavapai County, Arizona. ��-35- IMPROVING EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the succes s of attempts to establish breeding Canada geese in su i.t abLa hab Lt at whe re they do not currently rado. populations of exist in Colo- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare a technical bulletin on the technique breeding population of Canada geese. 2. To expand the breeding flocks of Canada geese in the South Platte Valley, and North Park, to begin efforts to establish a breeding flock of Canada geese in South Park. 3. To continue efforts to establish a breeding geese on Totten Reservoir, south of Dolores METHODS of establishing a flock of Great Basin Canada in Montezuma County. AND MATERIALS Canada goose goslings for transplant purposes were obtained from four different sources: (1) goslings from the metropolitan Denver area; (2) goslings and some eggs from the Fort Collins area; (3) goslings from Valmont Reservoir and Faivre Ponds in the Boulder area, and (4) eggs from nests in danger of destruction from high water along the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers in Moffat County. All eggs were transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for incubation and subsequent raising. All goslings livetrapped, were transported as soon as possible to the release site. Birds obtained from eggs collected in Moffat County were released on Totten Reservoir south of Dolores. Birds collected at other locations were released either at Lake John Annex, Prewitt Reservoir, Jumbo Reservoir Annex, or Antero Reservoir. Migration and mortality information were obtained from recovery received from the Migratory Bird Population Station. cards RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of Technical Bulletin Progress was made on preparing a technical bulletin outlining the foothills area goose restoration project. The bulletin will be completed during the next Segment. �-36- South Platte Valley-Jumbo Reservoir Annex In the summer of 1971, Canada goose restoration efforts were initiated at Jumbo Reservoir, near Segwick, Colorado, with the release of 102 goslings. The lack of reported band recoveries during the 1971-72 season indicated the released birds stayed within the established 250 square mile closed area throughout the hunting season (Table 1). On April 28, 1972, 44 geese were observed on the release site. In June and July of 1972, 48 male and 52 female goslings were added to the Jumbo Annex population. Banded birds from the 1971 release reported recovered in October in Minnesota and western Nebraska indicate that a portion of the birds released in 1971 moved north during the spring of 1972, probably in accompaniment of migrant popUlations (Table 1). Heavy snows and extreme cold temperatures in late November and early December of 1972 stimulated movement by all geese from the release area. According to the band recoveries, the birds moved straight south, with recoveries in Baca County, Colorado, the Panhandle of Texas and an area about 100 miles west southwest of San Antonio, Texas (Table 1). Reports in the early spring 1973 indicate there are approximately 100 birds in the Jumbo Reservoir area. About 30 artificial nest sites have been erected at Jumbo Reservoir Annex and on adjacent small ponds. South Platte Valley-Prewitt Reservoir In July 1972, 37 male and 33 female Canada goose goslings were released on Prewitt Reservoir, located near the South Platte River in Washington County, northeast Colorado. An area of about 100 square miles was closed to goose hunting around the release site. Five of the seventy birds were reported recovered during the 1972-73 season. Four birds were taken near the release site and one in Randall County in the Texas Panhandle in a short grass prairie population Wintering area. No recoveries near the release site came after November 13, 1972, indicating that the birds may have moved south after that time. North Park By late summer 1971, a total of 681 Canada goose goslings had been released on Lake John Annex, eight miles west and two miles north of Walden. These birds had established the lower Colorado River bordering California and Arizona and the Imperial Valley of California as their wintering areas (Szymczak 1972). Some released birds have been recaptured in the summers of 1970 and 1971 on Wheatland Reservoir, in Albany County, Wyoming during drive trapping operations on a moulting flock of Canada geese, indicating some of the birds are using that area for moulting (Szymczak 1972). But very few of the 440 birds released in 1970 and 1971 had returned to spend the spring and summer in North Park (Szymczak 1971, 1972). �-37- Table 1. Hunting season recovery locations of Canada geese released Jumbo Reservoir, near Sedgwick, in extreme no rt.he as t e rn Colorado. --------------------------_._-_ Year Released Number Released Area Recovered 1971 102 No. Recovered Direct Indirect nt _._---_ .. _---- .. 1972 No. Recovered Direct Indirect Colorado Logan County 1 0 0 Baca County 0 0 1 Chase County 0- 1 0 Keith County 0 1 0 0 1 0 County 0 0 1 Uvalde County 0 0 1 Zavala County 0 0 2 1 3 5 Nebraska Minnesota Chippewa County Texas Hockley Total Spring Returns Geese began returning to North Park in the spring of 1972 as early as March 12, when 16 birds were observed on the North Platte River near Delaney Butte Lakes. At that time, short stretches of the rivers provided the only open water in the Park. On March 15 four geese were observed near the feeder on Lake John Annex. A complete survey was made on all major water areas in North Park, with the exception of the rivers, on May 23 and 24, 1972. The search turned up a total of 65 adult geese, and sixteen gosling~ in three broods. There were eleven definite pairs observed. One brood was found on Lake John Annex �-38- and two broods on Boettcher Lake. In addition, one active nest was found on Lake John Annex and one nest was reported on the Arapahoe National Wildlife Refuge. Both of these active nests were eventually successful. One goose was found dead near a nest which had been destroyed. The dead goose was banded, however, it was not a bird released at the Annex. The bird had been banded at Wheatland Reservoir in Wyoming in June 1970. This recovery further indicates the Wheatland Reservoir may play a significant role. It was later reported that there were at least 85 geese in North Park in mid-June, with the majority being on Lake John Annex. Moulting Some Canada geese released in North Park continue to be recovered on Wheatland Reservoir in Wyoming during their moult. In June 1970, 16 North Park birds were captured on Wheatland. Eight were captured at Wheatland in 1971, and 13 in 1972. One bird was captured at Wheatland for the three consecutive years. Two of the birds captured at Wheatland in 1972 were reported harvested the following season, one near Yuma, Arizona, and one near Fort Collins, Colorado. In addition, one bird was captured as a member of a mou Lt Lng flock at Turbid Lake in Yellowstone National Park. New Releases and Summer Observations On July 13, 1972, 46 male and 50 female goslings were released on the southeast side of Walden ReserVOir, which is located about 1 mile west of the town of Walden. An additional 54 birds, 26 males and 28 females were released at that same location on July 21. A feeder filled with milo maize was placed at the release site. As during the previous four summers the birds moved throughout North Park using IOOSt of the major water area, but seemed to prefer Hebron Sloughs, Walden Reservoir and Lake John Annex. The largest number of birds observed on anyone day was 207, 128 at Walden Reservoir and 79 at Hebron. Band Recoveries Only 12 birds brom all North Park releases were reported recovered during the 1972-73 hunting season, 3 from releases in 1969, 1 from 1970, 2 from 1971, and 6 from the 1972 release. Four birds, representing all years of release except 1971 were reported taken along the lower Colorado River in Arizona (3), and California (1). Three birds, 1 from 1971 and 2 from 1972 were reported taken in Moffat County in northwestern Colorado. One of the birds taken in Moffat County was recovered in the Brown's Park area, as was 1 bird reported taken in adjacent Daggett County, Utah. A summary of all recoveries to date is presented in Table 2. �Table 2. Hunting season recovery locations for all years of Canada geese released at Lake John Annex, Jackson County, Colorado. Year Released No. Released 1969 193 1970 246 Area Recovered No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect All Years 830 1972 150 1971 241 No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect United States North Dakota -- Emmons Co. 0 0 0 0 - 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 1 0 1 2 0 Montana Custer Co. Rosebud Co. Wyoming Park Co. Albany Co. Carbon Co. 0 0 Colorado Jackson Co.}) Larimer Co. Baca Co. Moffat Co. Mesa Co. Hinsdale Co. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 4 0 Utah Daggett Co. Emery Co. Cane Co. 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 New Mexico 0 1 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Santa Fe Co. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 I W '-0 I �Table 2. Hunting season recovery locations Jackson County, Colorado (continued). Year Released No. Released . 1969 193 Area Recovered No. Recovered Direct Indirect for all years of Canada geese,released 1970 246 1971 241 No. Recovered Direct Indirect at Lake John Annex, 1972 150 No. Recovered Direct Indirect All Years -830 No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect Texas El Paso Co. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 6 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 14 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 28 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 - 1 0 1 1 1 1 49 0 0 0 1 3 Arizona Yavapai Co. Gila Co. Graham Co. Mohave Co. Yuma Co. - - California San Bernardino Co. Riverside Co. Imperial Co. Mexico 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 4 0 6 1 1 0 0 0 0 Northwest 0 1 Coahuila West-central 2 0 - 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 - 1 7 11 0 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 - 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 2 0 22 13 25 ~8 47 2 6 - 100 23 Baja Northwest Unknown Chihuahua Sinaloa -- Northwest Totals ------- l/Area closed to goose hunting. I ~ 0 I �-41- Mortality The birds released in 1972 suffered the least amount of first year hunting mortality of all groups that have been released in North Park. Only 4 percent o f the birds released in 1972 were reported recovered compared to 11.4, 10.2 and 19.5 percent in 1969, 1970, and 1971, respectively. The overall first year recovery rate average for released birds in North Park is 12 ••0 percent. South Park-Antero Reservoir Canada goose goslings were released on Antero Reservoir in Park County for the first time in July 1972. A release of 26 males and 22 females was made on July 10 followed by 13 males and 15 females liberated on July 28. Restoration efforts in South Park are designed to supplement a small nesting population which is now present on Antero Reservoir. An inventory of geese on Antero in June 1972 found 33 adults and 5 broods with a total of 17 goslings. Five of the birds released on Antero Reservoir were reported taken during the fall of 1972. Two birds were reported taken in Reeves County along the Pecos River in southwestern Texas. The other three birds were reported taken in Colorado, 1 in Fremont County near Canon City, 1 in the San Luis Valley, and 1 in Pueblo County near Avondale. Totten Reservoir Thirty-six and 38 geese were released on Totten Reservoir in June of 1970 and 1971, respectively. During the winter of 1970-71 the birds generally stayed in the release area. During the 1971-72 winter the birds migrated generally straight south and stayed on the Gila River near Stafford, Arizona (Szymczak 1972). At least 23 birds returned from the 1971-72 excursion. In ~uly 1972, 32 goslings were added to the Totten Reservoir flock. The birds stayed in the release area until early January, at which time they left for about two weeks. According to band recoveries, the birds migrated into eastern Yavapai County, Arizona where 3 birds were harvested along the Verde River. Again, as in 1972, at least 23 birds returned to the release site after about a two week absence. Reports in March 1973 indicate no utilization erected in the release area. of artificial structures �-42- LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1971. ExperLmen t af studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 115-127 p. Szymczak, M. R. 1972. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. 39-49 p. Prepared by m.:d. ,L l?~,()4 Michael R. Szymc~~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher �October, -43- 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------Migratory W-88-R-18 Project No. Work Plan No. 2 Job No. Bird Investigations 5 Job Title Arkansas Valley Canada Goose Flock Management Period Covered: November 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Personnel: Studies R. Baker, J. Carsella, G. Claasen, G. Eyre, R. Forbes, R. Kitzmiller, P. Olson, S. Porter, D. Potts, R. Rosette and M. szymczak. ABSTRACT According to aerial surveys the size of the wintering population of Canada geese in southeast Colorado reached a high of 47,500 in late November. Results of coordinated inventories throughout the short grass prairie Canada goose wintering flock in early January indicated the total population numbered 257,500 birds. The age composition of the harvest in southeast Colorado during the 1972-73 hunting season indicated that short grass prairie geese had a poor production year in 1972. Trapping operations in southeast ,Colorado in January, 1973 resulted in 564 birds being banded. During the 1971-72 hunting season the percent of recoveries of birds banded post-season in southeast Colorado reported taken on the Canadian prairies in Alberta and Saskatchewan reached a record low of 33.7 percent, the southeast colorado harvest reached a record 46.5 percent. Average annual mortality estimates for Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado remain at approximately 25 percent. ��-45- ARKANSAS VALLEY CANADA GOOSE FLOCK MANAGEMENT Michael STUDIES R. Szymczak The final report for the Arkansas Valley Canada goose flock management study is in preparation. Data presented in this progress report is being incorporated into the final report. Therefore, this progress report will be abbreviated in order to prevent needless repetition. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of Canada geese wintering in southeast Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate the size of the wintering 2. Estimate the age composition 3. Estimate the hunting pressure types of harvest regulations. 4. Investigate the annual mortality and the migration and/or harvest of the flock under varying types of harvest regulations. METHODS flock. of the flock. on, and harvest of the flock under varying pattern AND MATERIALS Coordinated inventories were conducted throughout the short grass pra~r~e populations wintering range in Nebraska, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico on December 12 and again in early January. In addition, periodic counts were made in Colorado throughout the hunting season. Although these periodic counts are not included in the procedures, results will be reported as a part of this job. Tail fans from geese bagged were collected Management Area check stations. Hunting pressure and harvest information rado Small Game Harvest Survey. at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads was obtained from the regular Colo- A total of 564 Canada geese were banded during trapping operations at Turk's Pond after the close of the hunting season, in order to obtain information on age ratios, mortality rates and migration patterns. �-46- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Size and Distribution of the Wintering Population According to aerial surveys, the size of the 1972-73 wintering population of Canada geese in southeast Colorado was substantially reduced in comparison to 1970-71 and 1971-72 levels. The largest count in southeast Colorado was obtained in late November when 47,500 birds were observed (Table 1). This compares with high counts of 90,550 on December 11, 1971 and 87,750 on December 21, 1972. Reduced numbers were thought to be largely the result of continuous inclement weather in the area. Again, as in previous years, the majority of the birds within the state congregated iri the Turk's PondTwo Buttes area (Table 1). Table 1. Results of Canada goose aerial surveys, southeast Colorado, 1972-73. Date Area Nov. 10 Nov. 28 Dec. 12 3,500 1,100 50 200 Henry Lake o 300 o o Blue Lake 400 o o o Nee Noshe 2,000 11,000 3,000 o Upper Queens 2,200 200 700 100 Two Buttes Reservoir 1,300 11 ,500 10,000 13,000 Turk's Pond 10,900 10,000 18,000 23,000 3,900 13,100 900 5,000 32,650 41,300 Meredith Reservoir Jan. 12 Eads Group: John Martin Reservoir Bonny Reservoir Total 300 24,200 47,500 Results of the coordinated January inventory were surprising. The survey totaled 257,500 geese (Table 2), with only 41,300 birds being in Colorado (Table 3). The large majority of the birds were located in the Texas panhandle where a much larger area was surveyed than in previous years. Coordinated surveys in the same areas during the 1973-74 season should indicate whether the short grass prairie population has actually reached the 250,000 bird level. �-47Table 2. Post-hunting season status of Short Grass Prairie population, 1960-73, data generally from regular mid-winter Canada goose inventories. Year Number Number of Birds Year of Birds 1960 77,709 1967 111 ,452 1961 103,355 1968 127,903 1962 80,133 1969 112,399 1963 93,940 1970 147,414 1964 81,221 1971 152,734 1965 103,435 1972 134,500 1966 llO ,485 1/ 1973 257,500 1/ Inventory of Feb. 15, 1966 substituted Table 3. January Inventory for unsatisfactory of Canada geese, Arkansas Valley, January Colorado inventory. 1948-73. Year Goose Count Year Goose Count Year Goose Count 1948 4,798 1957 24,617 1966 38,635 1949 12,286 1958 35,894 1967 29,835 1950 13,170 1959 44,660 1968 42,682 1951 19,320 1960 37,394 1969 29,201 1952 30,463 1961 31,360 1970 63,444 1953 20,236 40,250 1/ 1971 62,720 1954 20,280 1963 35,889 1972 76,400 1955 25,llO 1964 33,750 1973 41,300 1956 24,212 1965 37,693 1/ Inventory of February 7, 1962 substituted for January, 1962 inventory. 1/ of February 15, 1966 substituted for January, 1966 inventory. Inventory Y �-48- Age Composition Goose tail fans collected at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management areas during the 1972-73 hunting season indicated that an overwhelming portion of the harvest was made up of adults (Table 4). Comparative estimates obtained from tail fans collected through the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife's Parts Collection Survey indicated that 76.2 percent of the harvest in southeast Colorado was composed of adults. In addition, only 12 percent of 564 Canada geese captured during post-season banding operations at Turk's Pond in southeast Colorado were classified as immatures (Table 5). All the above measurements indicate extremely poor production during the spring of 1972. Hunting Pressure and Harvest The results of the Colorado small game harvest survey for 1972-73 are not available at this time. The information will be presented in the final report. Banding Investigations Trapping efforts post-season in southeast Colorado were concentrated in the Turk's Pond-Two Buttes area. However, all birds were captured at Turk's Pond. The sex and age composition of each catch are presented in Table 5. Approximately 48 percent of the birds captured were female. Distribution of Harvest During the 1971-72 season, the percent of recoveries of birds banded postseason in southeast Colorado reported taken on the Canadian prairies in Alberta and Saskatchewan reached a record low of 33.7 percent (Table 6). The percent harvest in southeast Colorado, which on a long term basis has averaged about 30 percent, reached a record high of 46.5 percent. The high percentage harvest in southeast Colorado was no doubt the result of large numbers of geese being present in the state throughout the 1971-72 season (Szymczak 1972). Mortality Estimates Average annual mortality estimates for Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado calculated by the composite dynamic or relative recovery rate method remain at approximately 25 percent for any and all age groupings. Tables are withheld from this report and will be included in the final report. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1972. Arkansas Valley Canada goose flock management studies. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 51-75. l I }/f '. I by _1,--' t:->:.i.-'-(-",.'-A-"'("-'(-"" -; "'-'._/_;....;{'-'-.----'~::....-:;""'<;,.;,~"f.. ,.;....f_(..,<.i...:; •...;;·~::.../-43'"""~. ""./•.•• ;:•• Michael R. SzyritC'z'!lk .', Assistant Wildlife Researcher I' Prepared /. .;;() _ �Table 4. Age composition of the goose harvest in selected areas, southeast Colorado. Year Two Buttes (Firing Line) Adult Immature No. Percent No. Percent 1951-52 356 1957-58 46.8 404 Lamar-Eads (Deco~) Adult Immature No. Percent No. Percent Meredith Area Adult Immature No. Percent No. Percent 53.2 No Data 1958-59 929 47.9 1,010 52.1 1959-60 377 36.5 655 63.5 1960-61 612 45.5 732 54.5 1961..;62 527 55.7 419 44.3 1962-63 204 48.9 213 51.1 1963-64 377 52.1 346 47.9 1964-65 442 63.1 259 36.9 1965-66 571 62.7 340 37.3 1966-67 217 45.3 262 54.7 1967-68 245 59.9 164 40.1 1968-69 136 61.8 84 38.2 79 51. 3 75 48. 7 48 1969-70 110 55.3 89 44.7 143 35.9 255 64.1 1970-71 630 40.6 922 59.4 77 27.4 204 1971-72 1./ 804 63.5 463 36.5 128 33.7 1972-73 62 92.5 102 71. 3 5 7.5 I ~ \0 I 24 33.3 18 66.7 40.0 27 60.0 72.6 42 45.7 50 54.3 252 66.3 63 51. 6 59 48.4 41 28.7 1/ Data for Two Buttes also includes some birds bagged in the Turk's Pond area. some birds bagged in the John Martin Reservoir area. Data for Meredith area includes �-50- Table 5. southeast Sex and age composition Colorado, 1973. Location and Date Turk's Total Adult of Canada geese trapped Male Immature Adult Female Immature post-season in Total Percent Immature Pond 1-18-73 101 8 80 3 192 5.7 1-20-73 37 6 38 2 83 9.6 1-31-73 47 18 68 7 140 17.9 2-7-73 20 2 29 9 60 18.3 2-12-73 44 9 32 4 89 14.6 249 43 247 25 564 12.0 �Table 6. Percentages of total band recoveries, Area 1951-55 Arkansas Five Year Averages 1956-60 1961-65 Valley post-season 1966-67 1967-68 - - bandings, by area and year of recovery, Recove!2: .Ye ar 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 all bandings. 1971-72 Total No. Recoveries Percentage of Total Recoveries 274 8.8 Far North Above 530 N. W. Territories Alberta Saskatchewan Total Provinces - - 9.8 - - - 1.0 12.4 0.5 6.1 7.5 2. 1 7.1 0.7 9.9 13.4 6.6 0.5 2.4 0.5 3.3 23.4 17.0 21.9 25.7 15.7 24.7 11.9 21.8 841 511 27.0 16.4 0.5 5 0.2 1.9 1.0 1.4 5.2 21 4 19 7 186 0.7 0.1 0.6 0.2 6.0 44.6 1.9 46.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 946 14 16 28 30.3 0.4 0.5 0.9 - 7.1 10.2 10.4 35.3 10.5 28.9 11.5 19.4 16.4 14.2 24.6 0.7 1.5 0.7 Below 530 Alberta Saskatchewan B.C., Manitoba, Ontario Central - 28.6 18.3 0.1 I VI Flyway Montana North Dakota Wyoming South Dakota Nebraska Colorado Southeast and Other Northcent ra1 Total Kansas Oklahoma New Mexico 0.8 0.1 0.7 0.1 5.4 - 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.3 5.8 0.7 0.7 9.7 6.5 - - - 25.5 0.4 0.9 1.5 30.9 0.3 0.3 0.7 28.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 32.4 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.7 1.9 1.9 4.8 0.5 0.5 4.5 9.0 4.3 27.6 1.5 29.1 29.1 2.8 31.9 19.0 1.0 20.0 1.0 34.3 3.0 37.9 1.0 1.5 0.7 1.4 1.0 2.0 ------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------------- •... I �Table 6. Percentages of total band recoveries, Arkansas Valley post-season Five Year Averages 1951-55 1956-60 1961-65 Area 1966-67 1967-68 7.5 0.7 7.5 bandings, by area and year of recovery, Recove!}: Year 1968-69 1969-70 all bandings (continued) . Total No. Recoveries Percentage of Total Recoveries 3.8 1.7 0.5 6.0 1970-71 1971-72 2.5 3.0 2.4 1.0 5.5 3.3 117 53 17 187 1.0 1.4 55 1.8 3 0.1 1 0.03 Cent ra1 Fly_way (continued) Texas Panhandle Waggoner Ranch Gulf Coast Total Pacific Flyway Mississippi Flyway 2.3 2.0 0.8 5.1 2.8 2.2 0.2 5.2 4.6 1.5 0.5 5.5 2.4 2.2 0.8 8.2 0.1 Mexico 0.1 Total Number Of Recoveries 748 677 795 134 2.2 9.7 5.0 0.7 1.4 7.1 0.7 1.4 0.7 0.7 134 141 6.7 1.0 1.0 8.7 105 198 211 3,118 - _.-". I Vl N I �october, -53- 1973 JOB PROGRESS REPORT .COLORADO State of 2 Work plan No. Job Title Studies Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-18 Project No. Bird Investigations 6 Job No. of Canada Goose Populations in Colorado Transplant Areas April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Charles Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; D. Benson, C. Brown, R. Clark, E. Cochran, J. Corey, G. Crawford, G. East, J. Frothingham, H. Funk, B. Goetze, J. Hatfield, T. Henry, J. Hobbs, C. Leonard, J. Lorentzson, T. Lynch, F. Marcoux, J. Monarch, D. Owens, S. Palm, J. Pogorelz, C. Roberts, W. Russell, G. Saville, L. Searle, E. Wagner and M. szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT During the 1972-73 hunting season, 95 geese banded outside Colorado were reported recovered in north-central Colorado. As in past years, the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan and Phillips County area of Montana were well represented by banded birds in the north-central Colorado harvest. On the Canadian prairies, Saskatchewan was the major recovery area during the 1972-73 hunting season for birds banded in north-central Colorado in January, 1971. First year recoveries of birds banded in January, 1972 in north-central Colorado showed an equal distribution between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The recovery distribution of birds banded in north-central Colorado indicated a shift by a portion of the 1972-73 Hi-Line wintering population from north-central Colorado to the southeast portion of the State. Coordinated counts throughout the Hi-Line wintering range indicated population numbers were below 1971-72 levels. An estimated 9,938 hunters harvested 5,270 geese in north-central Colorado during the 1972 season, a 64 percent decline in harvest compared to the 1971-72 season level. Five birds banded at Wheatland Reservoir, Wyoming were reported recovered in the San Luis Valley during the 1972-73 special season. An estimated 311 hunters bagged 255 geese during the special season in the San Luis Valley. Aerial surveys in the San Luis Valley indicated there were between 1,000 and 1,600 geese in the Valley during the 1972-73 season. An estimated 182 hunters harvested 58 geese in the special west-central colorado goose permit area. Approximately 41 percent of the birds harvested in west-central Colorado were taken within five miles of Highline Reservoir. Goose inventories in west-central Colorado totaled 329 on November 21, 1972 and 1,183 on January 11, 1973. ��-55- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT AREAS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of resident and migrant Canada goose flocks and their interrelationships in areas in which populations have been established through transplant programs in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. To examine migration routes and/or harvest patterns and distribution of Canada geese wintering in northcentral Colorado and the San Luis Valley. lb. To determine breeding areas of Canada geese wintering in northcentral Colorado. 2. To estimate hunting pressure on, and hunter harvest of Canada geese in northcen tral Colorado, the San Luis Valley, and westcen tral Colorado. 3. To make recommendations for continuing Canada goose hunting seasons on population in westcentral Colorado, northcentral Colorado and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery location, sex, and age at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with the San Luis Valley and northcentral Colorado. Canada geese in northcentral Colorado were counted on November 6, November 22, and December 20, 1972; and January 10, 1973. In the San Luis Valley birds were counted on October 25, November 22, and December 18, 1972; and January 8, 1973. A mechanically random sample of hunters issued permits to hunt geese in the northcentral Colorado "Special Permit" goose hunting area were mailed questionnaires inquiring about their hunting activity and success. All of the hunters holding special permits to hunt geese in the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado were mailed similar qQestionnaires. All data received were tabulated and statistically analyzed. Recommendations concerning regulations for the 1973-74 goose seasons in northcentral Colorado, the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado were formulated and submitted to management personnel. �-56- RESULTS Northcentral Colorado-The AND DISCUSSION Hi-Line Population Breeding Range Foreign Recoveries During the 1972-73 hunting season 95 geese wearing foreign bands were reported recovered in northcentral Colorado. An additional 15 foreign banded birds were recaptured during the post-season banding operations. Both types of recoveries are classified as to general area of banding if in a Province, or County if in the United States in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Banding locations of wild trapped locals recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1972-73 season are presented in Table 3. AnalYSis of banding areas presented in Tables 1, 2 or 3 did not reveal any new possible production areas for Hi-Line Canada geese. There continues to be significant numbers of recoveries of birds banded in the Cypress Hills area of southeast Saskatchewan, and from Phillips County, Montana where annual banding programs are in progress. A renewed banding effort in southern Alberta during the summer of 1972 produced only one recovery in the Hi-Line area in Colorado. Collection of banding area information during the 1972-73 season was hampered by a reduced harvest in the Hi-Line area in Colorado. Win ter Banding-Northcentral Colorado In January 1972, 1,041 Canada geese were banded post-season in northcentral Colorado. Size 8 bands were placed on 580 birds that were subjectively considered large, while 461 small birds were banded with size 7 bands. These bandings bring the two year total of birds banded post-season in northcentral Colorado to 2,034, 1,326 with size 8 and 708 with size 7 bands. The distribution of second year recoveries from birds banded in January 1971 varied considerably from first year recoveries of that banding cohort. During the 1971-72 season, the number of recoveries in Alberta and Saskatche~ wan of birds banded with size 8 bands were nearly equal (Table 4). During the 1972-73 season, reported recoveries on the Canadian prairies of birds wearing size 8 bands came almost exclusively from Saskatchewan. In addition, Alberta was not predominant in the recovery of birds wearing size 7 bands during the 1972-73 season, as it had been during the 1971-72 season (Table 4). First year recoveries of birds banded in January 1972 showed an equal distribution of recoveries between the two provinces regardless of band size (Table 5). A similar provincial distribution was noted for first year recoveries of birds wearing size 8 bands from January 1971 bandings in northcentral Colorado (Table 4). In general, recoveries of Colorado-banded birds during the 1972-73 season did not reveal any new potential Hi-Line production areas. �-57- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1972-73 hunting season. Direct Indirect District of Keewatin Thelon River o 1 Alberta Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area o 6 1 1 o 1 10 3 Montana Phillips County Fergus County Garfield Coun ty Sheridan County Bighorn County Treasure County 22 0 1 1 2 1 15 1 Wyoming Goshen County Sheridan County Albany County Fremont County 2 2 1 1 0 0 1 1 Kansas Phillips County 1 0 New Mexico Mora County San Miguel County Socorro County 0 0 1 2 2 1 o 1 o Area Saskatchewan Moose Jaw Area Eyebrow Lake Cypress Hills Area CENTRAL FLYWAY 4 1 3 0 4 PACIFIC FLYWAY Idaho Canyon County Utah Dagget County Weber County Total 1 o 49 46 �-58- Table 2. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recaptured, postseason, in northcentral Colorado, January 1973. Area Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Area Direct Indirect o 1 1 3 o o 5 1 1 o 1 1 o 3 12 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Blaine Coun ty Phillips County New Mexico Socorro County Texas Randall County 1 PACIFIC FLYWAY Idaho Canyon County Total Migration Routes and Harvest Patterns During the 1972-73 hunting season, the percentage of total recoveries of birds banded post-season in northcentral Colorado increased over 1971-72 levels in Saskatchewan for both large (size 8) and small (size 7) geese (Table 6). A slight decline in harvest was noted in Montana and a major decline was apparent in northcentral Colorado. The recovery distribution in Colorado during the 1972-73 season indicates a major shift occurred from the northcentral area to southeast Colorado (Table 6). The Colorado harvest distribution confirms that a portion of the Hi-Line population moved south and southeast, apparently in response to persistent inclement weather conditions in northcentral Colorado. Recoveries of large birds (size 8 bands) occurred in non-traditional goose harvest areas along the foothills in southern Colorado (Pueblo and Las Animas counties) •. Plotting the distribution of recoveries north of Colorado did not reveal any new possible breeding areas for Hi-Line geese. �-59- Table 3. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered or recaptured in northcentral Colorado during the winter of 1972-73. Year of Banding Location Before 1967 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Hay Lakes Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area 30 mi. S. Bow River 30 mi. SE Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Area N. of Eastend Vidora Area Maple Creek Area Masefie1d Area Divide Area Cypress Hills Park 1967 1968 1 1969 1970 1971 1 1 2 1 1972 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 1 18 1 1 1 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Blaine County Phillips County Bighorn County Treasure County Wyoming Goshen County 1 4 2 3 1 1 PACIFIC FLYWAY Utah Daggett County 1 �-60- Table 4. Percentage distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado, January 1971. Location Hun ting Season Band Size Alberta Saskatchewan 1971-72 (First Year~ B 7 1972-73 (Second Year) 8 7 13.B (11) 40.0 (6) 2.4 (1) 12.5 (1) lB. B (15) 6.7 (1) 33.3 (14) 12.5 (1) 7.5 (6) 13.3 (2) 4.B (2) 12.5 (1) 2.5 (2) 6.7 (1) 0.0 (0) (0) 2.5 (2) (0) 2.4 (1) (0) 2.5 (2) (0) 2.4 (0) (0) 46.3 (37) 20.0 (3) 35.7 (15) 25.0 (2) 0.0 (0) 13.3 (2) 7.1 (3) 37.5 (3) 0.0 (0) (0) 4.B (2) (0) 1.3 (1) (0) 2.4 (1) (0) 0.0 (0) (0) 2.4 (1) (0) 2.5 (2) (0) 2.4 (1) (0) Montana South Dakota Wyoming Nebraska Colorado Northcentral Southeast New Mexico Arizona Nevada California Total Recoveries BO 15 42 B Distribution Coordinated counts throughout the Hi-Line population wintering area indicated a reduced total population in comparison to the 1971-72 levels (Table 7). The January count, in 1973, however, was nearly identical to the 1972 total. Weather conditions, which induced unusual movement as was discussed above, definitely created some census problems. However, according to the figures presented, the distribution by state in wintering areas remained about the same as in previous years. �-61- Table 5. Percentage distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded postseason in northcentral Colorado, January 1972, and recovered during the 1972-73 season. Area Band Size 8 Band Size 7 Total Alberta 24.5 (12) 42.1 (8) 29.4 (20) Saskatchewan 22.4 (11) 31.6 (6) 25.0 (17) Manitoba 2.0 (1) (0) 1.5 (1) Montana 6.1 (3) (0) 4.4 (3) Idaho 2.0 (1) (0) 1.5 (1) Wyoming 2.0 (1) (0) 1.5 (1) Nebraska 2.0 (1) (0) 1.5 (1) Northcentral 24.5 (12) 5.3 (1) 19.1 (13) Southeast 12.2 (6) 15.8 (3) 13.2 (9) Other 2.0 (1) (0) 1.5 (1) Arizona 0.0 (0) 5.3 (1) 1.5 (1) Total Recoveries 49 19 Colorado 68 Extreme cold weather resulted in an unusual distribution of geese in northcentral Colorado from mid-December through early January. The birds moved in increasing numbers to College Lake in the Fort Collins area, and Va1mont Reservoir in the Boulder area (Table 8). By January 10, 1973, nearly 80 percent of the geese in northcentral Colorado were located on these two areas. The extensive movement of geese to Valmont Reservoir resulted in there being for the first time, more geese in the Longmont-Boulder-Denver area during late December and early January than in the Fort Collins-Loveland area (Table 9). Water releases from the adjacent power plant at Valmont maintains open water on the reservoir regardless of weather conditions. �-62- Table 6. Percentage distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded postseason in northcentral Colorado, 1970-71 and 1971-72. Hunting Season Area Size 8 Alberta 1972-73 Size 7 13.8 (11) 1972-73 Size 8 Size 7 Size 8 Total Size 7 40.0 (6) 14.3 (13) 33.3 (9) 14.0 (24) 35.7 (15) 6.7 (1) 27.5 (25) 25.9 (7) 23.4 (40) 19.0 (8) 0.0 (0) 1.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.6 (1) 0.0 (0) 13.3 (2) 5.5 (5) 3.7 (1) 6.4 (11) 7.1 (3) 6.7 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 1.2 (2) 2.4 (1) 0.0 (0) 2.2 (2) 0.0 (0) 2.3 (4) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 1.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.6 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 2.2 (2) 0.0 (0) 2.3 (4) 0.0 (0) 46.3 (37) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 20.0 (3) 13.3 (2) 0.0 (0) 29.7 (27) 9.9 (9) 1.1 (1) 11.1 (3) 22.2 (6) 0.0 (0) 37.4 (64) 5.3 (9) 0.6 (1) 14.3 (6) 19.0 (8) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 2.2 (2) 0.0 (0) 1.2 (2) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 1.1 (1) 3.7 (1) 1.2 (2) 2.4 (1) 0.0 (0) 1.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.6 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 1.1 (1) 0.0 (0) 1.8 (3) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.6 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.6 (1) 0.0 (0) 15 91 27 Saskatchewan 18.8 (15) Manitoba 0.0 (0) Montana 7.5 (6) South Dakota 2.5 (2) Wyoming 2.5 (2) Idaho 0.0 (0) Nebraska 2.5 (2) Colorado Northcentral Southeast Other New Mexico Arizona Nevada California Pennsylvania Unknown Total 1.3 (1) 0.0 (0) 2.5 (2) 1.3 (1) 1.3 (1) 80 171 42 �-63- Table 7. Results of Hi-Line Canada goose population inventories, 1972-73. Location November 6 November 22 December 20 January 10 --------- Saskatchewan 1/ Montana 10,130 8,594 1,050 920 Wyoming 4,971 3,000 1,956 1,272 Colorado 17,520 31,863 34,356 33,709 539 859 2,434 2,409 Totals 33,160 44,316 39,796 38.310 Comparative Totals 1972-73 61,054 62,552 61,236 37.113 New Mexico !/ No counts in Saskatchewan. Table 8. Area Results of northcentral Colorado goose surveys, 1972-73. November 6 1/ November 21 December 20 January 10 Ft. Collins-Loveland Lindenmeir Lake 1,200 Reservoir No. 8 1,300 Reservoir No. 8 Annex 0 Elder Reservoir 0 Reservoir No. 5 0 Reservoir No.6 300 Douglas Reservoir 0 Rocky Ridge Res. 0 Cement Plant Res. 0 Terry Lake 500 College Lake 600 Claymore Lake 0 Sterling Pond 0 Watson Lake 0 Dean Lake 0 Greenwalt (Nelson) Lake 0 Fossil Creek Res. 1,200 Boyd Lake 30 1,272 0 275 43 0 0 0 21 195 100 18 585 2,789 3,400 1,750 80 1,125 43 72 0 0 0 0 0 0 875 7,270 81 114 137 107 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 720 8,650 43 0 800 0 3 3,000 475 0 25 0 0 20 0 2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-64- Table 8. Results of northcentral Colorado goose surveys, 1972-73 (continued). Area November 6 1./ November 21 December 20 January 10 2,000 0 750 0 0 0 0 0 610 0 30 21,118 2,000 0 2,050 40 19 110 0 1 562 1 59 0 13,841 0 13,595 0 360 0 0 600 1 0 322 38 0 200 0 0 0 0 12 50 0 30 10 3,000 180 60 0 0 4,241 0 0 17,000 42 0 57 0 17,659 0 0 18,000 0 0 0 27 18,089 124 81 960 0 257 23 73 30 0 1,561 40 0 0 0 33 0 31 0 309 0 0 5 0 1,523 0 0 1,631 0 247 620 Ft. Collins-Loveland (continued) Horseshoe Lake 0 Hollister Lake 1,000 New Windsor Reservoir 5,500 Woods (Eaton) Lake 700 Timnath Reservoir 1,300 Cobb Lake 1,600 Black Hollow Reservoir 0 Park Wood Lake 0 Boxelder Reservoir 0 Warren Reservoir 0 Horsetooth Reservoir Owl Creek Reservoir 0 Sub-total 15,230 0 353 4,729 100 80 330 20 88 530 2 Boulder-Longmont Area Ish Lake Terry Lake (Longmont) McIntosh Lake Foothills Reservoir Faivre Ponds Swede Lake Lonetree Reservoir Baller Lake Boulder Reservoir Valmont Reservoir McCall Lakes Gaynor Lakes Union Reservoir Stamp Pond Sub-total 15 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 1,200 0 0 0 0 1,240 Denver Area Sloans Lake Standley Lake Bowles Lake Area Youngfield Lake Denver City Park Gravel Ponds Washington Park Tule Lake S. Colo. Blvd. at Quincy Various Fields Sub-total ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-65Table 8. Results of northcentral Area November Brighton-Greeley-Ft. Colorado goose surveys, 61:./ November 21 1972-73 (cont.). December 20 10 January Morgan Area Barr Lake Horsecreek Reservoir Prospect Reservoir Latham Reservoir Milton Reservoir Empire Reservoir Riverside Reservoir Jackson Reservoir S. Platte River near Jackson Res. Sub-total Grand Total 100 0 250 0 0 0 500 100 1,400 2,700 0 6 30 25 450 370 225 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 0 0 400 0 100 1,050 0 4,981 1,000 1,225 880 1,405 17,520 31,863 34,356 33,709 0 0 50 1:./ No count in the Denver area. Hunting Pressure and Harvest An estimated 9,938 hunters harvested 5,270 geese in northcentral Colorado during the 1972-73 season (Tables 10 and 11). Declines in harvest from the 1972-73 season levels were recorded in all counties (Table 11). The average seasonal bag per active hunter declined to about one-half a bird, even though the average days hunted remained comparatively high (Table 10). Nearly 70 percent of the active hunters failed to bag a goose in the permit area during the 1972-73 season (Table 12). Comparative statistics concerning hunting pressure and harvest by County for the 1971-72 and 1972-73 hunting seasons are presented in Table 13. San Luis Valley Foreign Band Recoveries During the 1972-73 goose season, nine birds that were banded outside of the San Luis Valley were reported recovered in the Valley. Five of the birds were banded at Wheatland Reservoir in Albany County, Wyoming (Table 14). Consistent recoveries of Wheatland Reservoir banded birds in the San Luis Valley essentially confirm that Wheatland Reservoir, exclusively a molting area for geese, is being utilized by molt migrants from the San Luis Valley population. The other three recoveries during the 1972-73 season were banded during post-season banding operations in New Mexico, two birds from Soccoro County in the Rio Grande Valley and one from Mora County. For the first time in three years, no birds banded in Hi-Line production areas were recovered in the San Luis Valley. �-66- Table 9. Winter inventories of the Colorado Hi-Line Canada goose population. Count Date Fort Co11insLoveland Longmont-BoulderDenver Brighton-Gree1eyFort ~rgan Total 1967 January 9 9,739 2,883 991 13,613 1968 January 10 12,217 4,029 678 16,924 1968-69 November 20 December 19 January 2 & 13 15,848 20,905 19,693 3,461 4,236 4,874 2,667 1,170 775 21,976 26,311 25,342 1969-70 November 5 November 28 December 23 January 6 8,737 31,350 18,522 30,650 2,255 3,782 5,668 5,060 390 1,374 1,259 1,914 11,382 36,506 25,499 37,624 1970-71 November 4 November 23 December 22 January 6 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 1,690 16,710 12,664 15,566 348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 1971-72 November 4 November 23 December 21 January 10 25,699 31,072 31,516 19,117 1,815 !/ 9,181 19,525 10,742 6,905 13,525 4,476 3,661 34,419 53,788 55,517 33,520 1972-73 November 6 November 22 December 20 January 10 15,230 21,118 13,841 13,595 1,240 1/ 5,764 19,290 18,709 1,050 4,981 1,225 1,405 17,520 31,863 34,356 33,709 1/ Denver area not included. �-67Table 10. Hunter activity and success in permit .area. Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1,427 6.1 0.48 2,335 1,578 6.5 0.53 1966-67 3,996 2,910 5.1 0.41 1967-68 3,000 2,256 6.7 0.55 1968-69 3,000 2,379 9.2 1.11 1969-70 8,342 6,149 7.4 0.68 1970-71 13,611 11,187 6.9 1.08 1971-72 14,847 12,920 7.3 1.14 1972-73 12,702 9,938 6.1 0.53 Year Number Permits Issued 1964-65 1,608 1965-66 Table 11. Est. Number Active Hunters Distribution of harvest, by county, in the permit area. Boulder furgan Adams Total Year Larimer Weld 1964-65 504 181 1965-66 665 144 29 838 1966-67 764 409 11 1,184 1967-68 944 265 37 1,246 1968-69 1,584 886 161 2,631 1969-70 2,431 1,112 383 146 100 4,172 1970-71 7,486 3,544 620 93 370 12,112 1971-72 7,723 4,484 1,804 464 296 14,771 1972-73 2,855 1,547 413 329 126 5,270 685 �Table 12. 1969-70 Number Percent 1970-71 Number Percent 1971-72 Number Percent 1972-73 Number Percent 0 4,263 69.3 6,588 58.9 7,006 54.2 6,857 69.0 1 836 13.6 1,620 14.5 2,209 17.1 1,391 14.0 2 452 7.4 1,073 9.6 1,428 11.1 666 6.7 3 238 3.9 564 5.0 768 5.9 298 3.0 4 153 2.5 528 4.7 633 4.9 616 6.2 Season Bag Total Estimated distribution of season bag for active hunters in the northcental Colorado permit area. 5 138 2.2 342 3.1 371 2.9 50 0.5 6 69 1.1 472 4.2 505 3.9 60 0.6 6,149 100.0 11,187 100.0 12,920 100.0 9,938 100.0 , 0- , 00 �-69- Table 13. 1972-73. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in northcentral Colorado, Larimer County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip Estimated Number 1971-72 Estimated Number 1972-73 6,760 (+ 285) 41,535 (+3,217) 7,723 (+ 693) 5,067 (± 265) 27,141 (+2,455) 2,855 (+ 403) 6.1 5.4 Percent Change From 1971-72 0.56 0.105 -25.1 -34.7 -63.0 -11. 5 -50.9 -43.6 5,911 (+ 280) 31,914 (+3,126) 4,484 (+ 514) 5.4 0.76 0.141 4,332 (+ 259) 18,007 (+1,815) 1,547 (+ 290) 4.2 0.36 0.086 -26.7 -43.6 -65.5 -22.2 -52.6 -39.0 2,296 (+ 206) 14,961 (+1,962) 1,804 (+ 353) 1,757 (+ 187) 10,570 (+1,885) 413 (+ 141) -23.5 -29.4 -77 .1 - 7.7 -69.6 -67.8 1.14 0.186 Weld Count Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip Boulder County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 6.S o. 79 6.0 0.121 0.24 0.039 1,104 (+ 149) 3,774 (± 738) 464 (+ 166) 3.4 0.42 0.123 924 (+ 143) 3,157 (+ 703) 329 (+ 141) 3.4 0.36 0.104 Morgan County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hqpter Trip -16.3 -16.4 -29.1 -14.3 -15.5 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------~- �-70- Table 13. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, in northcentral Colorado, 1971-72 (continued). Adams County Estimated Number 1971-72 Estimated Number 1972-73 Total Individual Hunters Total Hun ter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trips 545 (+ 107) 2,288 (+ 681) 296 (+ 152) 4.2 0.54 0.129 462 (+ 108) 2,191 (+ 780) 126 (± 96) 4.7 0.27 0.058 -15.2 - 4.2 -57.9 +11.9 -50.0 -55.0 12,920 (± 189) 94,472 (+4,027) 14,771 850) 7.3 1.14 0.156 9,938 (+ 223) 61,066 (+3,059) 5,270 (+ 516) 6.1 0.53 0.086 -23.1 -35.4 -64.3 -16.4 -53.5 -44.9 Percent Change From 1971-72 Entire Permit Area Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip (± Distribution and Harvest The general distribution of Canada geese during the 1972-73 hunting season was consistent with previous years. The majority of the geese were located either along the Rio Grande River or on the MOnte Vista National Wildlife Refuge (Table 15). The number of geese on the MOnte Vista Refuge increased as the season progressed. The total number of geese counted in the Valley during the 1972-73 season varied from 1,000 in October to 1,600 in January (Table 16). A total of 400 permits were issued authorizing the taking of one goose during the 1972-73 special San Luis Valley goose season. According to the harvest survey, an estimated 311 active hunters harvested 255 geese for an average season bag of 0.82 (Tables 17 and 18). During the 1972-73 hunting season, about 47 percent of harvest occurred on or within two miles of the MOnte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, compared to 60 percent in that area during the 1971-72 season. Another 35 percent of the harvest was reported taken along the Rio Grande River between Del Norte and Alamosa. �-71- Table 14. Banding areas outside the San Luis Valley of Canada geese recovered within the San Luis Valley during the 1970-71, 1971-72 and 1972-73 hunting seasons. Number of Recoveries 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 Area Alberta Dowling Lake 2 o o Montana Phillips Coun ty 1 o '0 Garfield County o 2 o 1 5 5 o 1 o 2 o o 1 o o So ccoro County o 1 2 Mora County o o 1 o 1 o Wyoming Albany County Wheatland Fremont Reservoir County Ocean Lake Colorado Northcentral Texas Panhandle New Mexico Wisconsin Columbia Coun ty �-7:'- Table 15. Results of Canada goose surveys during the 1972-73 hunting season in the San Luis Valley. Area October 25 November 22 December 18 January 8 565 481 725 1,156 Del Norte to Monte Vista 158 38 30 45 Monte Vista to Alamosa 5 222 81 30 Alamosa to State Line 126 240 226 o Conejos River 4 o 15 40 San Luis Lakes 119 215 o o Smith Reservoir 20 o 2 o Russell Lakes 9 o o o Monte Vista Nat'l Wildlife Refuge Rio Grand River Area 15 miles South, 2 miles East of Saguache Total Table 16. Colorado. Year 350 1,006 1,196 1,079 1,621 Winter inventories of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley of October 1970-71 Number of GeesJ:.! November December January 1,490 1,050 1,261 1971-72 1,570 913 1,255 1,286 1972-73 1,006 1,196 1,079 1,621 1/ Compared monthly, inventories for the three years generally taken within fiv~ days of each other. �-73- Table 17. Hunter activity and success Year Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1970-71 200 164 3.4 0.65 L971-72 350 296 4.2 0.60 L972-73 400 311 4.6 0.82 in permit area. Table 18. Distribution of harvest, by county in the permit area. Year Rio Grande Alamosa Saguache Conejos Costilla Total 1970-71 74 31 2 o o 107 1971-72 121 50 1 5 o 177 1972-73 195 51 2 1 6 255 Only 27 percent of the harvest during the 1972-73 season was reported taken during the first six weeks of the season. During the 1970-71 and 1971-72 seasons, 53.5 percent and 59.4 percent of the birds taken were reported harvested during the same six week time period in.the respective years. Harvest hunting and hunter activity for the entire permit area for each of the three seasons are presented in Table 19. Westcentral Hunter Activity Colorado and Harvest Two hundred and fifty goose permits were issued, authorizing the taking of one goose during the November 22 to December 17, 1972 hunting season, within the westcentral goose permit area. An estimated 182 active hunters harvested 58 geese, for an average seasonal bag of 0.32 birds per hunter (Tables 20, 21). Approximately 41 percent of the birds harvested were taken within five miles of Highline Reservoir, which is located approximately 20 miles northwest of Grand Junction. The results of pre-and post-season aerial inventories in westcentral Colorado for 1972-73 with comparative 1971-72 totals are presented in Table 22. �Table 19. Hunting pressure and harvest area, 1971-72 through 1972-73. Estimated Number 1970-71 Entire Permit Area Total Individual in the San Luis Valley goose permit Hunters Estimated Number 1971-72 164 (± 3) 296 (± 5) Total Hunter Trips 556 (± 20) 1,236 (± 36) Total Geese Bagged 107 (± 4) 177 (± 6) Estimated Number 1972-73 311 (±- 6) (± 54) 1,440 255 (±. Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 3.4 4.2 4.6 Average Bag/Hunter 0.65 0.60 0.82 Average Bag/Hun ter Trip 0.19 0.14 0.18 8) " ,1 Table 20. Hunter activity permit area. and success in the westcentral Colorado goose Il " Ij 11 Ii Number Permits Issued Year !j Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter l1 IJ ! 1 1971-72 150 112 2.9 .29 1972-73 250 182 3.7 .32 in the westcentra1 Estimated Colorado 1972 112 (± 4) 182 Trips 329 (± 20) 579 (±. 30) Cee se Bagged 33 (± 4) 58 Total Hunter Total goose Number 1971 Hunters I ·1 Table 21. Hunting pressure and harvest permit area, 1971 and 1972. Total Individual I (± 5) (± 5) Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 2.9 3.7 Average Bag/Hunter 0.29 0.32 Average Bag/Hunter 0.10 0.086 Trips �-75- Table 22. Canada goose inventories, Area westcentral November Highline Lake Colorado River Colorado, 1972-73. 21, 1972 Date January 11, 1973 215 225 107 139 7 45 o 5 B1 ack Canyon o 204 Delta o 95 o 470 329 1,183 485 989 Rifle to Debeque Canyon Grand Junction to Utah State Line North Fork River Hotchkiss Gunnison to Gunnison River River to Grand Junction In fields in Colorado River Valley below Grand Junction Total Comparative 1971-72 Prepared ><~>!f.> :/}.;../1 iT' /..:i;',}.---1-Y,,<c; /a// by Totals Michael R. Szymczak 'j ::' () Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��October, 1973 -77- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~L~O~RAD~~O~ Migratory Bird Investigations W-88-R-18 Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: _ 2 Job No. ~~7 _ Non-hunting 'Mortality Investigations ~o~f~~C=a=n=a=d=a~q~e~e~s~e~i=n~S~o~u~th~e~a=s=t=e=r~n~C~o~l=o~r~a~d~o ---_ October 3, 1972 through March 31, 1973 W. Adrian, R. Baker, G. Claassen, D.Coven, G. Eyre, R. Keiss, R. Kitzmiller, S. Porter, R. Rosette, L. Webster and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Lead shot was found in 26 of 215 soil samples extracted from the basin of Turk's Pond in Baca County, southeast Colorado. On a percentage basis, positive samples were more numerous along the south-southeast portion of the basin where soil was granular and not subject to washing by irrigation water and resulting siltation. About 48 percent of the lead shot found was size number two. None of 59 blood samples extracted from normal appearing geese captured in January and February, 1973 contained any measurable lead. ��-79- NON-HUNTING MORTALITY INVESTIGATIONS OF CANADA GEESE IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak In late January and early February of 1972, Canada geese of the Short Grass Prairie population wintering at Turk's Pond were noted to be undergoing an unexplained mortality. As many as 2,000 geese may have succumbed. Ten live birds and 15 dead birds were collected at Turk's Pond. The live birds were in visibly poor condition. Sample birds were sent to the Colorado State University Diagnostic Laboratory and the Bear River Wildlife Disease Research Station. No infectious disease organisms were isolated from birds sent to Bear River. One organism was isolated in at least one of the birds at CoLorado State University. However, that organism has never been reported as associated with goose mortality. At least one worn lead shot was found in five of the eight birds sent to Bear River. In addition, post mortem findings were generally consistent with diagnoses of lead poisoning. This study was directed toward confirming the possibility of mortality due to lead poisoning with additional procedures incorporated to identify other possible causative organisms or poisons. However, during the winter of 1972-73 no unusual mortality was discernable at Turk's. Therefore, the majority of the procedures outlined in the project documents we~e not initiated. Only those procedures followed and the concluding results will be dealt with here. P. S. OBJEGrIVE To identify non-hunting mortality factors of Canada geese at Turk's Pond in southeast Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the incidence of lead shot in the environment at Turk's Pond and local vicinity. 2. Determine if lead poisoning occurs in the waterfowl population at Turk's Pond. 3. Determine if other causative agents of disease or poisoning are responsible for mortality of Canada geese at Turk's Pond. 4. Determine the magnitude of non-hunting mortality in the Turk's Pond area. 5. Analyze data and formulate recommendations for preventative measures designed to lessen non-hunting mortality of €anada geese at Turk's Pond. �-82- Table 2. Lead shot size of pellets found in soil samples from the basin area of Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado. Sam~le Orisins Below HiSh Water Line Above Hi~h Water Line No. Percent No. Percent No. 6 1 5.3 0 0.0 1 3.4 4 3 15.8 0 0.0 3 10.3 2 9 47.4 5 50.0 14 48.3 BB 4 21.1 3 30.0 7 24.1 No. 4 Buck 2 10.5 1 10.0 3 10.3 No. 0 Buck 0 0.0 1 10.0 1 3.4 Total 19 Shot Size Prepared by 10 m;/JE~ Michael R. Szymc~ Asst. Wildlife Researcher 29 Total Percent �October, 1973 -83- JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work REPORT COLORADO -----------------------No. W-88-R-18 Plan No. Migratory 3 Bird Job No. Investigations 6 Job Tit Le -'- __ ..;I:;...n_v_e_s.;....t.;....l. .... ·g•.•. __t..;i_o_n--"o..;f_· a _M_a_1_l_a_r_d--.;M~a_n_a-,glo4;..em __e_n_t-..::U_n_i_t_s __o....,.f __E..;..a __s _te __r_n_C_o_l_o_t_a_d_o_ Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Michael Szymczak, Clait Braun, Jack Corey, Robert Kitzmiller, James Jackson, Robin Henry, Delwin Smith, Ed Kautz, Howard Funk and Richard Hopper. ABSTRACT Post-season mallard trapping efforts resulted in the banding of 6,071 birds in eight study areas during the winter of 1972-73. Quotas were met or exceeded in all but one area. Wintering populations of mallards apparently reached a peak in late November at about 250,000 birds. This number was much lower than the peak of over 500,000 mallards counted in late December of the previous year. Extreme winter weather conditions in 1972-73, plus low production, probably accounted for much of this decline. Sex ratio counts conducted during January and February, 1973 produced an overall average of 60.3 percent males in the Colorado mallard wintering population. A mallard age ratio of 0.4 immatures per adult in the Colorado harvest (1972-73) was the lowest since the 1961-62 hunting season. Updating of band recovery data to include the 1964-65 through the 1970-71 hunting seasons showed the continued high survival rates of male mallards. ��-85- INVESTIGATION OF MALLARD MANAGEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO Richard M. Hopper Post-season banding of wintering populations of mallards was continued in eastern Colorado in 1972-73. Past banding data collected as part of this job contributed much to the cooperative Central Flyway program which finally resulted in the acceptance of the High Plains Mallard Management Unit in 1972 by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. This management unit concept, as justified by Funk et al. (1971), essentially split the Central Flyway into two units for the management of mallard populations. However, banding work is being continued in Colorado to investigate the feasibility of managing mallard populations or flocks within the State on a IOOre refined basis. Colorado probably has the best post-season mallard banding data in the country, largely because birds have been aged since initiation of the study 1963-64, and we want to continue banding until the cohort of birds from this first year of banding no longer remains in the population. This report mostly covers results of banding and survey data collected during the segment, but it also includes some updating of the overall banding analysis. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for eastern Colorado management units. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To analyze, for each of nine eastern Colorado study areas of Wintering mallards, all data collected from 1963-64 through the 1971-72 hunting season on the discreteness of populations and publish results in an appropriate journal. 2. To determine the feasibility of requesting special hunting regulations for individual mallard management units within Colorado. 3. To trap, band, age, and sex samples of mallards during winter in each management unit of study, based on results of final analysis, of sufficient size to allow adequate monitoring of each population. METHODS AND MATERIALS Cage traps of the Salt Plains type were used to capture most mallards, although cannon-nets were also employed in the Arkansas Valley. Trapping began immediately following the end of the duck hunting season on January 14, 1973 and continued through February 22, 1973. Banding was accomplished in �-86- nine units of eastern Colorado, including five in the South Platte Valley, three in the Arkansas Valley, and one in the Bonny Reservoir area. All birds were aged by use of the wing according to Carney (1964) and Hopper and Funk (1970). Periodic aerial censuses were again conducted during the fall and winter to estimate movements and numbers of birds present in the State. Sex ratio counts were conducted from the ground as described in previous segment reports. A partial update of the banding analysis was accomplished for bandings from 1963-64 through 1969-70, representing recoveries from the 1964-65 through the 1970-71 hunting seasons. Programs were developed and data from tapes supplied by the Bird Banding Laboratory were used to obtain print outs of desired information. As in past years, age and sex ratios of mallards harvested in Colorado were obtained through the annual Wing Bee conducted by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Colorado again participated in gathering hunter performance data to evaluate the 1972-73 experimental point system duck season. Methods used in conducting hunter performance surveys are described in detail by Mikula et ale (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Banding quotas of six to eight hundred mallards were set for each of eight study areas. and these were met or exceeded in all but one area (Table 1). Management Units 10, 11 and 12 (Fig. 1) are listed separately in Table 1, but for this study are considered one unit. Cold and snowy weather prevailed during most of the banding period, which resulted in good trapping conditions and the ultimate attainment of quotas in most areas. Nearly 6,100 mallards were banded as a result of trapping efforts in the eight study areas (Table 1). Efforts to band about equal numbers of birds by age and sex were mostly successful. Adult males were again the easiest to obtain. Adult females, normally the most difficult to get of the four age and sex classes, were banded in good numbers this year, with samples being even better than those for immature males in many areas. Immature females replaced adult females as the group hardest to obtain, with only 988 birds of the former category being banded during the segment. Immature birds of both sexes were especially difficult to obtain in the Fort Collins area (Unit 4). Severe weather conditions during the winter may have pushed many immature birds out of Colorado, thus making them unavailable for banding. Winter Aerial Surveys JateS and results of the periodic aerial counts are shown by management unit i~ Table 2. Mallard numbers appeared to reach a peak in late November when �-87- about 250,000 birds were counted. This figure was considerably lower than peak numbers observed during the previous year when over one-half million birds were counted in late December (Funk 1972). A drastic reduction in mallard numbers from 1971-72 to 1972-73 occurred during every counting period, as well as in all management units except the San Luis Valley (15). This difference between years is no doubt partly explained by extreme weather conditions during 1972-73 that forced many birds out of the state. Mild weather, in addition to a good production year, contributed to the above average mallard populations that existed in Colorado during the fall and winter of 1971-72. Winter Sex Ratio Counts Mallard sex ratio counts are listed by management unit and area in Table 3. Nearly 15,000 birds were classified, producing an overall estimate of 60.3 percent males in the wintering sample. This compares closely with past years, and continues to indicate a preponderance of males in the wintering population. An extensive survey of mallard sex ratios was conducted by all 10 states in the Central Flyway during the nationwide mid-winter count in early January of 1973 (Funk 1973). This survey, representing a total sample size of over 61,000 mallards, yielded a weighted average of 61.9 percent males in the Central Flyway wintering mallard population. Individual states varied from 52.5 percent males in New Mexico to 78.5 percent males in North Dakota. Sex ratio surveys conducted in Colorado in recent years, plus the extensive survey done in the Central Flyway in 1973, adds further evidence to support the contention that a significant imbalance in the sex ratio in favor of males exists in wintering populations of mallards in the Central Flyway. These data also suggest that in Colorado, and probably the remainder of the Central Flyway states, hunting pressure has not been of sufficient magnitude to greatly alter sex ratios under drake-oriented regulations experience the past few years. Wing Surveys A mallard age ratio of 0.4 immatures per adult was estimated to be in the Colorado harvest during the 1972-73 hunting season, based on the Bureau's wing collection survey (Sorensen et al. 1973). This ratio was the lowest encountered in Colorado since the 1961-62 hunting season when the Bureau's Parts Collection Survey came into existence. However, this was also true of most other states throughout the country, which reflected the earlier prediction of relatively poor production on the major breeding grounds and the beginning of a new drouth period. �c,., •••••• ~ es ) •••••• :it:: ~ c:.:s ~ (,; ...•.•... ~" e :t: •••• ••••• ~ v :"i H 'tj 1 n o ] ] J 0 u x w ::F ru, t'j ~ ~ 0 !3: ..-1 H 4-1 Q) t'j .w :3 . ..-1 eo 'r-! Ii< I ~ I :::; 0:: 0..I c..r.. o �Table 1. 1972-73. Numbers and percentages of mallards in the banded sample by location, age and sex, eastern Colorado, Adult No. Banded No. Male Percent (1) Sterling-Julesburg 749 247 (2) Ft. MOrgan-Sterling 994 (3) Greeley-Ft. MOrgan (4) Ft. Collins Managemen t Unit Immature Male Female Percent Percent No. Female No. Percent No. 33.0 204 27.2 202 27.0 96 12.8 244 24.5 250 25.2 295 29.7 205 20.6 889 242 27.2 278 31. 3 226 25.4 143 16.1 645 200 31.0 266 41.2 95 14.7 84 13.0 I 00 (6) Denver-Greeley 1,112 313 28.1 321 28.9 317 28.5 161 14.5 (9) Bonny Reservoir 618 198 32.0 148 23.9 156 25.2 116 18.8 (10) Lamar-Holly 141 53 37.6 13 9.2 46 32.6 29 20.6 (11) Two Buttes Reservoir 246 87 35.4 88 35.8 24 9.8 47 19.1 (12) Rocky Ford-Lamar 628 241 38.4 110 17.5 172 27.4 105 16.7 (13) Pueblo-Rocky 49 35 71.4 7 14.3 5 10.2 2 4.1 6,071 1,860 30.6 1,685 27.8 1,538 25.3 988 16.3 Totals Ford \,C) I �Table 2. Aerial duck counts by date interval and study unit, eastern Colorado, 1972-73. Managemen t Unit November 6, 10 (1) Sterling-Julesburg (4) Ft. Collins (6) Denver-Greeley (9) Bonny Reservoir (10-13) Arkansas Valley (15) San Luis Valley Totals 18,560 8,625 2,800 -- }j 25,970 24,800 22,700 31,300 37,220 19,500 53,250 39,000 64,775 4,025 8,700 31,450 11,200 26,625 43,750 30,000 37,500 -- 1./ 18,200 22,000 40,500 35,500 25,562 ]) 29,044 27,170 35,538 1./ 246,269 151,245 if 233,038 175,512 1f October 25, 1972. Ft. Morgan-Julesburg I \D 0 I 1f Not censused. 1/ January 8-10, 12 -- }j (2) Ft. Morgan-Sterling (3) Greeley-Ft. Morgan Number of Ducks Counted November 21-22, 28 December 11-12, 15, 18 not included. if Bonny Reservoir not included. 30,800 �-91- Table 3. 1972-73. Mallard post-season sex ratio counts by study unit, winter of Management Unit and Date Sterling-Julesburg Male No. Ducks Counted Female Total Percent Males (Unit 1) 1-18-73 Jumbo Reservoir 269 155 424 63.4 2-3-73 South Platte River 304 186 490 62.0 386 214 600 64.3 1-10-73 Boxe1der Reservoir 280 160 440 63.6 2-6-73 Timnath Outlet Ditch 329 205 534 61.6 2-6-73 New Windsor Reservoir 1,477 1,210 2,687 55.0 2-6-73 Woods Lake 80 51 131 61.1 2-7-73 Windsor Area 238 129 367 64.8 1-9-73 Valmont Reservoir 616 405 1,021 60.3 1-11-73 Valmont Reservoir 1,840 1,170 3,010 61.1 1-11-73 Bonny Reservoir 650 350 1,000 65.0 1-15-73 Bonny Reservoir 315 212 527 59.8 1-17-73 Bonny Reservoir 839 672 1,511 55.5 1-18-73 Bonny Reservoir 178 125 303 58.7 1-19-73 Bonny Reservoir 297 226 523 56.8 1-15-73 Two Buttes Reservoir 488 240 728 67.0 1-18-73 Two Buttes Reservoir 351 176 527 66.6 8,937 5,886 14,823 60.3 Greeley-Ft. Morgan (Thlit 3) 1-20-73 South Platte River Ft. Collins Area (Unit 4) Denver-Greeley (Unit 6) Bonny Reservoir Area (Unit 9) Arkansas Valley (Unit 11) Totals �-94- Table 4. Relative recovery rate method estimates on survival and mortality rates of mallards winter-banded in Units 1, 2 and 9 in eastern Colorado from 1963-64 through 1969-70 by age and sex at time of banding. (Data represent recoveries from the 1964-65 through 1970-71 seasons) (continued). Unit of Banding and Age and Sex No. B'anded First Year Recovery Rates Second and Later Years Total Survival Rate M:>rtality Rate Units 1, 2 and 9 Combined Adult Male 5,660 .024 .067 .091 .856 .144 Immature Male 4,312 .036 .062 .098 .777 .223 Total 9,972 .029 .065 .094 .819 .181 Adu1 t Female 2,531 .017 .019 .036 .647 .353 Innnature Female 3,434 .019 .024 .043 .603 .397 5,965 .018 .022 .040 .627 .373 Total �-95- Table 5. Relative recovery rate method estimates on survival and mortality rates of mallards wint~r banded in Units 3, 4 and 6 in eastern Colorado from 1963-64 through 1969-70 by age and sex at time of banding. (Data represent recoveries from the 1964-65 through 1970-71 seasons). Banded First Year Recovery Rates Second and Later Years Total Survival Rate Mortality Rate Adult Male 1,611 .039 .069 .108 .677 .323 Immature Male 1,592 .031· .067 .098 .781 .219 Total 3,203 .035 .068 .103 .724 .276 Adul t Female 885 .019 .030 .049 .853 .147 1,346 .023 .033 .056 .740 .260 2,231 .022 .032 .054 .811 .189 Adult Male 2,103 .026 .074 .100 .828 .172 Immature Male 1,729 .035 .073 .108 .824 .176 Total 3,832 .030 .074 .104 .822 .178 Adult Female 1,158 .024 .022 .046 .634 .366 Immature Female 1,367 .020 .021 .041 .585 .415 2,525 .022 .021 .043 .529 .471 Adult Male 2,327 .034 .092 .126 .745 .255 Immature Male 1,454 .046 .080 .126 .611 .389 Total 3,781 .038 .087 .125 .674 .326 Adult Female 931 .015 .017 .032 .623 .377 1,066 .024 .030 .054 .570 .430 1,997 .020 .024 .044 .597 .403 Unit of Banding and Age and Sex No. Unit 3 Immature Female Total Unit 4 Total Unit 6 Immature Female Total ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-96- Table 5. Relative recovery rate method estimates on survival and mortality rates of mallards winter banded in Units 3, 4 and 6 in eastern COlorado from 1963-64 through 1969-70 by age and sex at time of banding. (Data represent recoveries from the 1964-65 through 1970-71 seasons) (continued). Unit of Banding and Age and Sex No. Banded First Year Recovery Rates Second and Later Years Total Survival Rate Mortality Rate Units 32 4 and 6 Combine,d Adult Male 6,041 .032 .079 .111 .777 .223 Immature 4,775 .037 .073 .110 .798 .202 Total 10,816 .034 .077 .111 .787 .213 Adult Female 2,974 .020 .023 .043 .609 .391 Immature 3,779 .022 .028 .050 .663 .337 6,753 .021 .026 .047 .644 .356 Total Male Female �-97- Table 6. Relative recovery rate method estimates on survival and mortality rates of mallards winter banded in Units 10, 11, 12 and 13 in eastern Colorado from 1963-64 through 1969-70 by age and sex at time of banding. (Data represent recoveries from the 1964-65 through 1970-71 season). Unit of Banding and Age and Sex No. Banded First Year Recovery Rates Second and Later Years Total Survival Rate Mortality Rate Units 10, 11 and 12 Combined Adult Male 1,429 .021 .061 .082 1.102 -.102 Immature Male 1,162 .025 .038 .063 .742 .276 Total 2,591 .023 .050 .073 .817 .183 Adult Female 796 .011 .025 .036 .602 .398 1,030 .018 .012 .030 .428 .572 1,826 .015 .018 .033 .510 .490 Adult Male 603 .030 .045 .075 .860 .140 Immature Male 327 .034 .058 .092 1.007 -.007 Total 930 .031 .052 .083 .946 .054 Adul t Female 311 .013 .010 .023 .684 .316 Immature Female 253 .024 .024 .048 .411 .589 564 .018 .016 .034 .774 .226 Immature Female Total Unit 13 Total Units 10,11, 12 and 13 Combined Adult Male 2,032 .024 .056 .080 .996 .004 Immature Male 1,489 .032 .043 .075 .652 .348 Total 3,521 .027 .050 .077 .830 .170 Adult Female 1,107 .012 .021 .033 .867 .133 Immature Female 1,283 .019 .014 .033 .446 .554 2,390 .016 .017 .033 .742 .258 Total �-98- LITERATURE CITED Carney, S. M. 1964. Preliminary keys to waterfowl age and sex identification by means of wing plumage. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. :Wildl. No. 82, 47 p. Funk, H. D. 1969. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Oct. p. 131-156. _____ , J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, G. W. Merrill, J. Sands, T. Kuck, D. Timm, T. Logan, and C. D. Stutzenbaker. 1971. Justification of the Central Flyway High Plains Mallard Management Unit. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. COlDIn.Rept. (Mimeo). 48 p , 1972. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Oct. p. 105-114. 1973. Central Flyway mallard sex ratio survey midwinter count. Central Flyway Tech. Comm. Rept., (Mimeo). 4 p. Hopper, R. M., and H. D. Funk. 1970. Reliability of the mallard wing age.determination technique for field use. J. Wildl.Mgmt. 34(2) :333-339. Kimball, C. F. 1973. Results from the hunter performance survey, 1970-1972, and the bag check temperature survey, 1972. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Div. of Wildl. Res. Unpublished Rept. (Mimeo). 25 p. Mikula, E. J., G. F. Martz, and C. L. Bennett, Jr. 1972. Field evaluation of three types of waterfowl hunting regulations. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36(2):441-459. Sorenson, M. F., S. M. Carney, and L. D. Schroeder. 1973. Species, age, and sex composition of ducks bagged in the 1972 hunting season in comparison with prior years. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Office of Migratory Bird Mgmt. Admin. Rept. 50 p , Prepared by ----l/£=:.J.~4;"'Jz::....:.L-:;..!:"~~~=4Z_ .. ---::7~-+~J=----4.?h....L.J.~Mi.;;l<11..'-:L0!:::::- ~_ Richard M. Hopper ~~ Wildlife Researcher �October, 1973 -99- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~--------- Project No. Work plan No. 4 Job Title April Bird Investigations 3 Job No. Trapping Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-18 and Banding Doves 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Clait E. Braun, Howard D. Funk, J. Edward Kautz, Brett Petersen, Norwin Smith, Steve Steinert, Mark Stromberg and J. Allen White, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Efforts initiated in 1964 to trap and band samples of mourning doves (Zenaida macroura)in Colorado were continued in 1972. Cooperative federal and state efforts resulted in 4,SSS birds being newly banded. Of this total, 2,3SS were immatures, 1,238 were adult males, 961 were adult females and one was an unsexed adult. Assigned quotas were accomplished for all areas except extreme eastern Colorado. Wing molt data from trapped and harvested immatures suggested four hatching peaks in 1972. Peak hatching periods were mid- to late May, mid-June, mid-July and early August. A sample of 1,200 hunter-harvested birds, mostly from eastern Colorado, gave a young-to-old ratio of 1.S:1. Wing molt data from harvested immatures in this sample indicated that most early hatched young had migrated from Colorado prior to September 1. Fifty-five band recoveries were reported in 1972 from doves banded by Division personnel. Only 23 (41.8 percent) had been banded in 1972. Twenty-three (41.8 percent) were recovered in Colorado, while 14 (2S.S percent) were from Mexico with the remainder being from scattered locations mostly south and west of Colorado. Apparent hunting mortality for doves banded in Colorado continues to be less than 3 percent. ��-101- MOURNING DOVE TRAPPING AND BANDING C1ait E. Braun Intensive efforts to trap and band mourning doves in Colorado initiated in 1964 were continued in 1972 in cooperation with personnel from the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1972, the ninth year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate migration patterns and mortality rates of mourning doves banded in Colorado by age, sex and area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band mourning doves in three selected areas of Colorado for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history, and annual mortality data. 2. To estimate harvest size and hunter success. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1972 were similar to those described in earlier reports and summarized by Braun (1970). In addition, less than 100 doves were trapped in cannon nets in 1972 during trapping operations for bandtailed pigeons (Columba fasciata). Description of Trapping Sites Most trapping sites in Eastern Slope areas were similar to those described earlier (Braun 1970). One new site was utilized in 1972 east of the Rocky Mountains, in addition to those also trapped in 1971. This site was near Springfield where trapping was conducted near p1antings of introduced trees adjacent to grainfields (primarily wheat, Triticum aestivum). West slope trap sites were essentially those also used in 1971, with the exception of one site. This site near MOntrose was a livestock feeding area surrounded mostly by small residential home sites with an abundance of cottonwood trees (Populus spp.). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Cooperative Federal and State trapping and banding efforts resulted in 4,555 doves being newly banded in 1972. Of this total, 4,100 were banded by Division �-102- personnel. Doves were banded at four major sites on the eastern slope, two sites on the eastern plains and at two major sites west of the Continental Divide. Additionally, some doves were banded at five other scattered locations in conjunction with band-tailed pigeon trapping activities. The banding goal of 4,000 birds was essentially accomplished as over 1,000 were banded in western Colorado, slightly less than 1,000 in extreme eastern Colorado and over 2,000 were banded along the eastern slope of the Rockies. Sex and age distribution of birds banded by area are presented in Table 1. Slightly more immature doves than adults were banded in 1972, a change from the situation prevailing in most previous years of the study. Production in 1972 was believed to be good to excellent, possibly explaining the higher percentage of immatures trapped and banded. However, differences in numbers of adults and immatures trapped is undoubtedly a function of time of season of trapping effort. Trapping at Vineland, Ft. Collins and Durango was accomplished primarily in June, while trapping at Ft. MOrgan, MOnte Vista and Montrose was conducted principally in July and early August. As in previous years of the study, a higher percentage of males were trapped than females (27.2 to 21.1 percent). This disparity is probably related to timing of incubation and brood sharing, as females would normally be exposed to only one trapping period per day. Hatching Data Wing molt data were available for 2,323 of the 2,355 immature doves trapped and banded in 1972 and from 653 hunter harvested immatures. Estimated hatching dates (Allen 1963) are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Examination of data in Table 2 indicates that few mourning doves trapped in Colorado hatched prior to May 1, with most hatching in mid- to late May and mid-June. While definite hatching peaks are difficult to ascertain from data in Table 2, peaks are suggested in mid-May and mid-June. Since trapping ceases in early to mid-August, progeny of late nests are not represented in Table 2. This can clearly be seen upon examining Table 3, as 3 peaks of hatching can be ascertained (late June, mid-July, and late July to early August). These data from hunter-harvested immature doves are biased toward late hatching juveniles while trapping data are biased toward early hatching doves. These data also support the hypo"thesis that progeny of early nests in Colorado are not available during the hunting season in Colorado. It should be remembered that neither trap or hunter samples may actually represent doves produced in Colorado. This is especially true for hunter-harvested birds. Harvest Efforts were made to collect wings from hunter-harvested doves throughout Colorado during the 1972 hunting season. Through this effort, 1,200 wings were examined for age (adult or immature) and primary molt. All but 15 of these wings were from east slope areas, with the largest samples from Ft. Carson (756), Pritchett (196), and LaVeta (57). All wings were from September with over 80 percent being from the first two weekends of the month. �-103- Table 1. Sex and age distribution of mourning doves banded by area in Colorado, 1972. Adult Male No. Banded Percent Area Adul t Female No. Banded Percent Immature No. Banded Percent Total Eastern Colorado Ft. Morgan 34 6.8 58 11.6 408 81.6 500 Vineland 128 30.4 164 39.0 129 30.6 421 1 4.4 5 21.7 17 73.9 23 163 17.3 227 24.0 554 58.7 944 Ft. Garland 257 29.9 145 16.8 459 53.3 Monte Vista 101 17.9 84 14.9 380 67.2 565 Denve.;!:/ 200 39.9 85 17.0 216 43.1 501 Ft. Collins 150 30.0 169 33.8 181 36.2 500 Ft. Carson 22 64.7 6 17.6 6 17.7 34 LaVeta 3 100.0 o 0.0 o 0.0 3 Subtotal 733 29.8 489 19.8 1,242 50.4 2,464 51 9.4 56 10.4 433 80.2 540 Durango- 247 47.9 159 30.8 110 21.3 516 Unaweep 26 55.3 11 23.4 10 21.3 47 Meeker-Craig 18 41.9 19 44.2 6 13.9 43 Subtotal 342 29.8 245 21.4 559 48.8 1,146 Total All Areas 1,238 27.2 961 21.1 2,355 51.7 Springfield Subtotal Eastern Slope Western Slope 3/ Montrose4/ !/ Total does not include one AHY unknown sex. ~/ Including one bird banded at Evergreen. 1/ Including 9 birds banded at Carbondale. i/ Including 3 birds banded at Arboles. �Table 2. Estimated hatching dates for wild-trapped Prior to May 1 Number Hatching 3 Percent of Total 0.1 immature mourning doves, 1972. Mal 1-7 44 1.9 8-14 15-21 125 22-28 283 5.4 29-June 4 340 12.2 344 14.6 5-11 June 12-18 19-25 26-Ju1y 2 3-9 Ju1l 10-16 17-23 24-30 326 196 139 135 78 22 0 14.0 8.4 6.0 5.8 3.4 1.0 0 288 14.8 12.4 .... I Table 3. .Estimated hatching dat.es for hunter-harvested Prior Number Hatching Percent of Total Prior to May 21 0 0 Mal 22-28 5 0.8 29-June 4 2 0.3 5-11 2 0.3 June 12-18 4 0.6 o .p- innnature mourning doves, .1972. 19-25 102 15.6 26-July 2 15 2.3 3-9 48 7.3 Ju1l 10-16 17-23 I 24-30 31-August 6 August 7-13 14-20 21"'2: 109 79 46 111 90 20 20 16.7 12.1 7.0 17.0 13.8 3.1 3.1 �-105- Immature to adult ratios varied from a high of 4:1 at Monte Vista (N = 35), 2.6:1 at Pritchett (N = 196) to 1.2:1 at Fort Carson (N = 756). For all wings sampled, the immature to adult ratio was 1.5:1 (654 immatures to 446 adults). Comparable data for an extensive area and large sample size were not available for previous years. Wing molt data were available for 653 of the 654 immatures. Calculated hatching dates are presented in Table 3. Harvest data obtained through use of a mail survey of hunters after the hunting season indicated that 33,299 hunters harvested 513,898 doves in Colorado in 1972 (H. Riffel, personal communication). These figures are significantly (P<.Ol) higher than in 1971 when an estimated 22,033 hunters harvested 298,767 doves. Reasons for the large disparity are not know, but must relate to sampling problems. Reported band recovery rates did not change between 1971 and 1972. A total of 55 band recoveries were received for doves recovered in 1972 that had been banded by Division personnel. One of these birds had been initially banded in 1968, 4 in 1969, 3 in 1970, 24 in 1971, while 23 had been banded in 1972. All but 7 of these were shot recoveries. Of the 55 recoveries, only 9 were from West Slope bandings, with 2 each recovered in Arizona, California. Mexico and western Colorado, and one from near Las Cruces, New Mexico. Based on this small sample, it would appear that the majority of doves banded west of the Continental Divide migrate southwest from Colorado. In contrast, doves banded in the San Luis Valley (Monte Vista and Ft. Garland) move primarily south (one recovery each from New Mexico and Texas and 5 from Mexico). However, some doves banded in this area tend to disperse widely as ~ recovery each was reported from California, Oregon and Illinois. Considering all recoveries, 23 (41.8 percent) were from Colorado, 14 (25.5 percent) were from Mexico, while 5 were reogvered in Texas, 3 each in California and New Mexico, 2 in Arizona, and 1 each from E1 Salvador, Nicaragua, Oregon, Illinois and South Dakota. Apparent hunting mortality continues to be less than 3 percent of all doves banded in a given year or of a particular age class banded in the same year. Recoveries of doves banded outside of Colorado were reported to the Division of Wildlife for the initial time in 1972. Four doves (all banded as immatures) banded elsewhere were reported killed in Colorado in 1972. Two each were from Montana and Nebraska. LITERATURE CITED Allen, J. M. 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature doves in Indiana. Ind. Dept. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No.4. Indianapolis. 4 p. Braun, C. E. 1970. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p , 143-149. Prepared by__ --==L.=.~~ -===.-=Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher ",::~~~~ •.... • _ ��October, -107- JOB PROGRESS REPORT S ta te of .....:::.CO::::.;L:::,.O::::;RA:.:;::;D:::.,:O::_ Project No. W-88-R-18 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: .. ~ Migratory April Bird Investigations 4 Job No. Band-tailed 1973 Pigeon Investigations 1, 1972 through March 31, 1973 Spencer Amend and Ken Baer, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; Jim Cruse, Wayne Paintner and other personnel of the U. S. Forest Service; John Arther, Lyle Bennett, Clait Braun, Harold Burdick, Bob Clark, Jack Corey, Howard Funk, J. Edward Kautz, Marie Vendeville Kautz, Ann Leckler, Richard McDonald, Kris Moser, Brett Petersen, Charles Roberts, Carl Roy, John Seidel, Norwin Smith, Mark Stromberg, Charles Taylor, J. Allen White, Wildlife Conservation Officers and other personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) initiated in Colorado in 1969 in conjunction with the Four Corners States Cooperative Study were continued in 1972. Major emphasis was placed on ascertaining relative abundance, trapping and banding samples of pigeons throughout the State, and conducting an experimental hunting season. Analysis of all distribution and abundance data indicated no major shifts in distribution or changes in abundance from 1946 to 1972. Distribution of pigeons was found to be closely correlated with Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and oak (Quercus spp.). Pigeons were trapped at 23 different locations in 1972 with 7,251 birds (5,981 adults, 285 subadults and 985 immatures) being newly banded. Over sixteen hundred (1,647) pigeons were retrapped, including 21 banded outside of Colorado (12 from New Mexico and 9 from Utah). During the experimental hunting season, 562 permits were issued with 298 individuals actually hunting. One hundred and twenty-four hunters were successful, each harvesting an average of 5.9 pigeons. Total estimated harvest (including crippling loss) projected from the questionnaire survey (92.5 percent response) was 822 birds, less than one-half of the number harvested in 1971. Crippling loss approximated 11 percent of the birds shot and retrieved. Wings were received from 93 successful hunters. Immature and subadult pigeons comprised 35.2 percent of the 515 band-tail wings received. Field checks of 266 (169 adults, 97 immatures) hunter-killed birds indicated that 50.9 percent of the adults were still involved with nest activities and/or feeding of young. Recoveries were received from 125 pigeons banded in Colorado. The majority of these (85) were recovered in Colorado, with 20 being recovered in New Mexico, 12 in Mexico, 3 each in Arizona and California, and 1 each in Utah and Washington. At least 13.6 percent of the birds harvested during the experimental season in Colorado were banded. Hatching dates were calculated for 1,169 immature pigeons, with most hatching between 2 May and 29 August. Helminth infections continue to be low (9.5 percent) with females being more frequently parasitized than males. ��-109- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS Clait E. Braun Intensive ecological studies of wild band-tailed pigeons which nest and reside in Colorado from late April to early November, initiated in 1969, continued in 1972. Investigations in Colorado represent a portion of the regionwide Four Corners Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation which was initiated in Arizona in 1967. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1972, the fourth year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate distribution and relative numbers of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado by area. 2. To investigate the correlation between abundance and distribution of bandtails and physical features of the environment. 3. To trap, band, age, and sex as many birds as possible in selected areas of Colorado to investigate migration patterns and chronology of Colorado bandtails throughout their range. 4. To conduct an experimental hunting season, gather harvest data, and evaluate results. METHODS AND MATERIALS Most methods and materials used in 1972 were identical to those used in 1969, 1970, and 1971 (Braun 1970; 1971; 1972a). Reporting procedures for field personnel were standardized in all regions with all monthly reports being sent to the regional biologists for tabulating and forwarding to Fort Collins. Trapping methodology in 1972 was that used in 1970 (Braun 1971). Evaluation of the experimental hunting season and disposition of collected birds were the same as in 1970 and described by Braun (1971). �-110- Description of Trapping Areas In 1972, pigeons were trapped at 16 locations also utilized in 1969, 1970 and 1971. These locations were near Durango, LaVeta, Monte Vista, Sanborn Park, Evergreen, Ft. Garland, Unaweep, Beulah, Woodland Park, Longmont, Estes Park, Stoner, Aspen, Bayfield, Avon, and Manitou Springs, and have been previously described (Braun 1970; 1971; 1972a). In addition to these sites, pigeons were trapped near MOntrose, Carbondale, Wetmore, Arboles, Glenhaven, Pagosa Springs, and Woodmen Valley. These sites were typically grain fields (Carbondale, Wetmore and Pagosa Springs), livestock feeding sites (Montrose and Woodmen Valley), grain storage areas (Arboles), or residential areas where reSidents fed a variety of birds (Glenhaven). As in previous years, all trap sites were immediately adjacent to readily accessible trees or power lines used for perches. Trees used were primarily ponderosa pine, Gambel's oak (Quercus gambelii), Pinyon pine (Pinus edulis), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). It was difficult to ascertain feeding preferences as about equal numbers of pigeons were trapped in fields where they were feeding on waste barley (Hordeum vulgare) and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Whole or cracked corn (Zea mays) was frequently used as an attractant and bandtails clearly indicated a preference for this grain. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Abundance Data collection for this objective terminated at the end of the field season in 1972. All data collected have been analyzed and presented in a technical paper (Braun 1973). The summary of that paper is as follows. Band-tailed pigeons are widely distributed throughout the forested mountains of Colorado, occurring primarily between 5,000 and 9,000 ft in elevation. They prefer habitats dominated by Ponderosa pine and Gambel's oak, especially where these vegetative types are interspersed with cultivated fields of small grains. Nesting habitats utilized vary, with most observations outside of feeding areas being from the higher limits of Ponderosa pine forests through the spruce-fir-aspen forests into areas dominated by lodgepole pine and limber pine. Abundance of pigeons appears related to vegetative type and possibly parent materials. Bandtails in Colorado are most abundant in areas where Gambel's oak is a co-dominant and where soils have derived from volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Mineral springs and salt, while occaSionally used, are not of major importance for bandtails in Colorado. It is concluded that no significant changes in distribution and abundance of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado have occurred since 1946. Banding Trapping and banding activities increased over all previous years of the study. Trapping was conducted at 23 sites including 3 of the 5 1969 trap sites, 8 of the 13 sites used in 1970, and 13 of the 15 sites trapped in 1971. �-111- In all, 7,251 pigeons were newly banded (Table 1). Of the 7,251 birds, 985 (13.6 percent) were immatures and it is apparent from examination of Table 1 that percent of immatures increased throughout the summer. This was especially apparent at LaVeta, Evergreen, Longmont, and Estes Park where trapping was conducted throughout the summer. The high percentage of immatures trapped at Woodmen and Evergreen in September may be misleading, as adults that were previously banded.are not included in the calculations. However, results of trapping in September were supported by observational data which suggested that immature pigeons remained at trap sites after adults had dispersed to new feeding sites or migrated south. Sex of most adult and subadult pigeons banded in 1972 was determined through examination of external plumage characters. Of the 5,981 adults, 2,985 were males (49.9 percent), and 2,996 were females (50.1 percent), while only 84 of the 285 subadults were males (29.5 percent) with the remainder (201) being females (69.5 percent). These data are similar to those collected in previous years. The disparity in the sex ratio of subadults is not understood but may be related to sex differences in rate of plumage molt. It is assumed that sex ratios are equal at time of fertilization. Time of day was recorded for all but 24 pigeons captured in 1972. A summary of these data is presented in Table 2. It is obvious that sex ratios of birds available for trapping changed during daylight hours. These changes are undoubtedly due to differences between males and females in timing of incubation, brooding and feeding. It is also apparent that more than half of the trapping effort and success occurred after 1000 MDT. This is probably the major reason why more females than males were trapped. With the exception of the data for immatures, percentages of birds caught by time period for adults are remarkably similar to those collected in prior years of the study. Reasons why juveniles frequent trap sites in higher numbers in early morning are not known. If time of day that attempts to capture pigeons were made is examined (Table 2) it is readily apparent that both age and sex ratios varied independently of time alone. One thousand, six hundred and forty seven previously banded pigeons were retrapped in 1972. All but 21 of these had been banded in Colorado, with 277 of this total being recaptured out of the original degree block of banding. In all, 759 birds were banded prior to 1972. Of this total, 56 were from 1969, 241 were from 1970, and 462 were banded in 1971. Of the 21 out-of-state bandings retrapped in Colorado, 12 were originally banded in New Mexico, while 9 were originally banded in Utah. In addition, it was learned that 17 pigeons first banded in Colorado were retrapped in 1972 in New Mexico, while 5 were retrapped in Utah. Experimental Hunting Season 1972 was the third year of the 3-year experimental harvest program initiated in 1970. Hunting was allowed from September 9 through October 1, with a daily bag limit of 5 birds and a possession limit of 10. During the experimental season all of the state west of Interstate Highway No. 25 was open to �Table 1. Area Durango Bayfield Carbondale LaVeta Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1972. Adults 1,/ No. Banded Percent Immatures No. Banded Percent Totals May 8-30 June 1-21 July 1-2 August 16-25 361 481 17 34 100.0 97.0 94.4 89.5 0 15 1 4 0.0 3.0 5.6 10.5 361 496 18 38 600+ 1,000+ 50+ 50+ May 9 21 100.0 0 0.0 21 50+ 100.0 0 0.0 340 500+ 500+ 50+ 1,000+ Dates May 11-24 340 Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites May 11-17 July 18 August 6-24 256 28 409 100.0 90.3 71.3 0 3 165 0.0 9.7 28.7 256 31 574 May 18-24 July 19 223 20 100.0 95.2 0 1 0.0 4.8 223 21 400+ 50+ May 20 June 15 July 6-27 August 9 Sept. 5-21 8 16 128 63 57 100.0 100.0 66.3 55.8 38.5 0 0 65 50 91 0.0 0.0 33.7 44.2 61.5 8 16 193 113 148 <50 < 50 200+ 200+ 200+ Monte Vista May 26 June 26-28 July 5-26 August 5-7 41 101 201 107 100.0 96.2 73.6 79.3 0 4 72 28 0.0 3.8 26.4 20.7 41 105 273 135 100+ 200+ 400+ 300+ 168 19 36 100.0 100.0 81.8 0 0 8 0.0 0.0 18.2 168 19 44 300+ 50+ 100+ Beulah Evergreen Woodland Park -- May 27 June 2 August 22 I •.... •.... N I ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1972 (continued). Adults 1/ No. Banded Percent Immatures No. Banded Percent Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 0.0 3.3 47 60 100+ 100+ 0 2 32 0.0 2.7 54.2 76 74 59 100+ 200+ 100+ 97.5 13 2.5 524 1,000+ Area Dates Stoner May 31 June 23 47 58 100.0 96.7 0 2 Longmont June 4-21 July 5 August 8 76 72 27 100.0 97.3 45.8 Sanborn Pk. June 12-25 511 Estes Park June 13 July 7 August 14 & 15 5 32 47 100.0 97.0 52.2 0 1 43 0.0 3.0 47.8 5 33 90 20+ 50+ 150+ Unaweep June 14 & 27 267 95.0 14 5.0 281 400+ Glenhaven June 22 & 24 July 9 124 2 100.0 100.0 0 0 0.0 0.0 124 2 200+ 10+ Montrose June 26 July 11-19 493 369 97.4 85.8 13 61 2.6 14.2 506 430 1,500+ 1,000+ Ft. Garland July 7-13 305 95.3 15 4.7 320 500+ Arboles July 20 August 5 149 67 87.6 74.3 21 25 12.4 25.7 170 92 300+ 150+ Avon August 3 20 95.2 1 4.8 21 50+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------- I I-' I-' w I �Table 1. Area Aspen Wetmore Pagosa .§prings Manitou S~rings Woodmen Number of band-tailed Dates pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1972 (continued). Adults 1/ No. Banded Percent August 9 36 August 16-25 September 3 September 9 Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 76.6 11 23.4 47 100+ 72.7 86 27.3 315 500+ 95 77 .9 27 22.1 122 300+ 67 62.6 40 37.4 107 200+ 33 31. 7 71 68.3 104 200+ 229 August 27 Immatures No. Banded Percent I t-' t-' .pI Totals 6,266 86.4 !/ Includes pigeons classified as subadults. 9'85 13.6 7,251 �Table 2. Time of day of band-tailed pigeon trapping, 1972. Percent of All CaEtures Adults 1/ Males Females Percent of All Males Captured.£/ Percent of All Females CapturedY Percent of All Immat ures Captured Percent of All Adults Capturedl/ Time MIYr Percent of All Success ful Trap Attempts 0600-0959 34.6 68.0 32.0 51.1 23.1 49.3 36.8 1000-1559 48.7 34.3 65.7 36.8 68.0 34.7 52.7 1600- 16.7 56.6 43.4 12.1 8.9 16.0 10.5 I !/ Including subadults. t-' t-' VI I 2/ Adults and subadults only. �-116- hunting. As in previous years, hunting was by free permit obtainable at 7 Division Offices and the headquarters of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. No limit was placed on total number of permits to be issued and 562 permits were obtained by hunters. This was an increase of 38 (6.8 percent) over 1971. Hunter Questionnaire Survez The experimental hunting season for bandtails in 1972 closed at sunset on October 1. On October 2 and 3, letters containing a self-addressed, postagepaid return card were sent to all permittees. Only one (.2 percent) questionnaire was returned for lack of sufficient address. On October 16, a followup letter was sent to the 176 permittees (excluding the one permittee for which an insufficient address was available) who had failed to respond to the initial letter. Results of the questionnaire survey are presented in Table 3. Data for the 42 non-respondents were calculated using average values of the respondents to the follow up survey. While interest in pigeon hunting increased slightly (6.8 percent) there was a significant decrease in hunter success (41.6 percent versus 58.4 percent) and total harvest (822 pigeons versus 1,723) in 1972 when compared to 1971. As in previous years, a significant number of people who obtained permits did not hunt (47.0 percent). These people probably obtained a permit in order to hunt if they saw pigeons while engaged in some other activity. If pigeons were not observed, they did not hunt. It is doubtful that these individuals can be classified as serious pigeon hunters. Average number of days hunted per hunter increased slightly in 1972 from 1971 (2.6 to 2.5), while number of pigeons bagged per successful hunter decreased (7.6 to 5.9). Percent crippling loss (total number of pigeons reported lost divided by total harvest) (bagged + crippled and lost) was 11.3 in 1972, similar to the 10.8 percent reported in 1971. Reported crippling loss is minimal and observations of actual cr~ppling loss indicate that it may represent as much as 20 percent of the b1rdii actually retrieved. > The questionnaire was devised in order to ascertain the proportion of the harvest that occurred in given time periods. It was found that 44.2 percent of the total harvest occurred on the opening weekend, 20.6 percent occurred on the second weekend, 9.4 percent occurred on the third weekend, while only 1.5 percent occurred on the last weekend of the season. Not surprisingly, only 27.2 percent of the total harvest occurred during the non-weekend portion of the season (15 days) with 19.0 percent of this occurring during the initial week of the hunting season. Harvest was not well spaced during the 1972 hunting season, as 83.8 percent of the total harvest occurred during the first 9 days. This suggests that either hunting was poor later in the season or that hunter interest declined as the season progressed. It is believed that both factors are involved. Hunting pressure in 1972 was diffuse, although q areas, Durango (17.3 percent), Monte Vista (13.7 percent), La Veta (8.1 percent) and Colorado Springs (8.1 percent) received almost 50 percent (47.2) of the total hunting effort. In �Table 3. Experimental band-tailed pigeon season, harvest statistics, 1972. !/ Response First Letter Response Second Letter Sum First and Second Letters Number of Permittees Responding 385 (68.5) 135 (24.0) 520 (92.5) Number of Permittees Hunting 213 (55.3) 65 (48.1) 278 (53.5) 298 (53.0) Number of Permittees Not ,Hunting 172 (44.7) 70 (51. 9) 242 (46.5) 264 (47.0) Number of Successful Hunters 95 (44.6) 22 (33.8) 117 (42.1) 124 (41.6) Number of Hunter Days 539 171 710 762 Days Hunted Per Hunter 2.5 2.6 2.6 Pro j ec t ed All (562) Permittees 2.6 I Number of Pigeons Bagged 523 156 679 t-' t-' 729 '-I I Pigeons Per Successful Hunter 5.5 7.1 5.8 5.9 Pigeons Per Hunter 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 Number of Pigeons Crippled and Lost 68 19 87 93 Pigeons Crippled and Lost Per Hunter .3 .3 .3 .3 Total Harvest (Bagged + Crippled and Lost) 591 175 766 822 Percent Crippling Loss 11.5 10.9 11.4 11.3 !/ Values in parentheses are percentages. �-118- all, 271 hunters reported hunting at 54 locations. On a regional basis, 156 of the 271 hunters (57.6 percent) hunted in southwestern Colorado, 68 (25.1 percent) hunted in southeastern Colorado, 27 (10 percent) hunted in northeastern Colorado, while only 20 (7.3 percent) hunted in northwestern Colorado. Many written connnentswere received from hunters with the majority relating to a lack of pigeons seen'during the open season. This connnentwas valid, as in many locations pigeons did leave areas where they had been in mid- to late sunnner just prior to opening of the season. These movements away from areas where they can be readily observed appear to be normal and are related to ripening of berry and acorn c~QPS in more inaccessible locations. It is also probable that some pigeons initiate southward migration at this time. Wing Survey Packets containing 5 w~ng envelo~s with pne days' bag to be placed in each envelope were issued to each pigeon permit holder in 1972. Envelopes containing 516 wings were rece:f.vedf'rom9~ hunters. Additional data were received concerning hours hunted (443.8), birds crippled and lost (66), location of kill and banded birds harvested (70). Major harvest areas were near Durango (34.9 percent of the harvest), La Veta (18.6 percent), and MOnte Vista (11.8). All other areas contributed less than 6 percent each of the total harvest. These data are somewhat different than the distribution of hunters obtained from the questionnaire survey. Thus, Durango with 17 percent of the total hunters had 35 percent of the harvest, while the Colorado Springs area had 8 percent of the hunters and 0 percent of the harvest. This suggests that hunting at Durango was good in 1972, while hunting was extremely poor in the Colorado Springs area. Crippling loss calculated from the wing survey was essentially identical (11.2 percent as compared to 11.3 percent) to that calculated from the questionnaire survey. Seventy of the 515 bandtails (excluding one wing from a feral pigeon, Columba livia) reported harvested on the wing ~urv~y were banded (13.6 percent). This is the highest percentage recorded in any of the 3 years of the experiment (6.3 percent in 1970, and 9.3 percent in 1971). Percent of birds harvested that were banded varied from 36.7 (N = 30) at Longmont, 30.0 (N = 20) at Ft. Garland, 18.7 (N = 96) at La Veta, 12.8 (N = 180) at Durango, to 8.2 (N = 61) at Monte Vista. Bands were reported from 5 other locations but sample sizes of wings received were too small (less than 20) for meaningful comparisons. With the exception of La Veta and Longmont, none of the banded birds shot were harvested within one-half mile of a trap site. It is believed that the 13.6 percent banded birds in the harvest is somewhat higher than the actual percentage of bands in the popUlation. However, it is believed that at least 10 percent of the fall population in Colorado in 1972 was banded. Comparable data were available from both hunter questionnaires and wing surveys concerning numbers of birds bagged and those crippled and lost by 83 individual hunters. A reporting difference of 15.0 percent (466 in wing survey versus 536 in questionnaire survey) was found in number of birds killed and 5.2 percent (58 versus 61) in number of birds crippled and lost for those �-119- hunters who s:entin wings and also responded to the questionnaire. The difference in birds harvested and retrieved could be related to the fact that hunters only received 5 wing envelopes each and could thus send in a maximum of only 25 wings. Several hunters reported killing more than 25 pigeons with one hunter reporting a season harvest of 37 birds. The slight difference in crippling loss can also be attributed to the number of wing envelopes each hunter received as the number of pigeons reported lost on wing envelopes was less than on the questionnaire survey. It is probable that hunters tend to underestimate or report birds crippled and lost. All wings received were measured (carpal and all 10 primaries) and classified as immature, subadult and adult in order to derive age structure of the harvest. Wings were received from 334 adults (64.8 percent), 6 subadults (1.2 percent), and 175 immatures (34.0 percent). Percent of adults was slightly lower than in 1970 or 1971 (67.8 and 68.0 percent), while percent immatures increased markedly from 1970 and 1971 levels (26.6 and 21.4 percent). When the subadult (birds less than 1 year of age but having molted past P5) age class is added to the immature class, data for all birds less than 1 year of age are comparable for all 3 years (32.3 percent in 1970, 32.0 percent in 1971, and 35.2 percent in 1972). Age ratios in the 1972 harvest were somewhat different to that expected,' based on trapping results in late August and early September. It was expected that substantially more immatures(in percent) would be harvested in 1972 than in either 1970 or 1971 as all indications were that production was excellent in 1972. Reasons why the expected increase did not occur to a greater extent are not fully understood but may be related to differential migration of adults and immatures. It is also possible that production was lower than that predicted from trapping results. Hunter Field Checks During the 1972 experimental season, emphasis was again placed on contacting pigeon hunters in the field in order to examine harvested birds for crop gland activity. Crops of all adult pigeons checked were classified as being active (crop gland with curds), stimulated (gland apparent but no curds), or inactive. In addition, sex by gonadal inspection was obtained for as many birds as possible. In all, 266 pigeons were checked, with 97 being immatures (36.5 percent), with the remainder (169) being classified as adults. Of the adults, 23.0 percent were classified as having active crop glands, while 27.9 percent were classified as being stimulated. Percent of crops showing glandular activity (active + stimulated) was significantly higher in 1972 than in 1971 (50.9 versus 28.7), and was similar to that observed in 1970 (52.3 percent). This supports field observations that indicated that nesting and/or feeding of young continued late into August and September. Data on sex was available for 160 adults. Of this number, 64.4 percent were males, and 35.6 percent were females. Of the males, 55.3 percent exhibited some glandular development, while 42.1 percent of the females showed development of the crop gland. These data are somewhat similar to that collected in previous years. Reasons for these disparities are not fully known, but may be related to time of day of hunting. However, this would not explain the differences between males and females in crop activity. �-120When samples of adults examined by area are compared, it is apparent that nesting was still occurring in most areas of the state during the hunting season. These data indicated that 41.7 percent of the 24 birds examined in the San Luis Valley were still associated with nest activities, this percentage was 51.7 percent in the San Juan Basin (N = 118), 53.3 percent (N = 15) from Wetmore to La Veta, and 58.3 percent (N = 12) at Longmont. Mortality Recoveries of 125 band-tailed pigeons .initially trapped and banded in Colorado were reported in 1972. Five of these were initially banded in 1969, 22 were banded in 1970, 25 were banded in 1971, while 73 were initially banded in 1972. All but 10 were shot recoveries. Of the 115 shot recoveries, 73 were first year recoveries, 21 were second year recoveries, 19 were third year recoveries, while only 2 were fourth year reoaveries. Including all recoveries, 85 were recovered in Colorado, 20 in New Mexico, 12 in Mexico, 3 each in Arizona and California, and 1 each in Utah and Washington. It would appear that hunting mortality during migration (primarily in New Mexico) is substantially higher than originally anticipated (Braun 1972b). Overall, reported hunting mortality remains low and it is doubtful that hunting is presently an important cause of lIlortality. Hunting seasons for bandtails were also conducted in New Mexico (September 224), Utah (September 1-23), and Arizona (Occobe r 14-23) in 1972. One Colorado banded bird was recovered on 26 September in eastern Utah, just west of where it was banded, while 3 were recovered in Arizona on 14 October (2) and 15 October (1). These 3 birds were south and west of initial banding and presumed breeding locations. Of the 20 birds banded in Colorado that were shot in New Mexico 2 were harvested the initial weekend of the season, 4 during the first week, 6 the second weekend, 3 the second week, and 5 during the third weekend of the season. These data sugges t , provided all banded birds shot were summer residents of Colorado, that migration from Colorado had started by September,l with major numbers of birds passing through New Mexico from September 4 t1l.~ouih15. Thus, 1il portion of the Colorado population, possibly as high as 30 percent, had migrated from the state prior to opening of the hunting season. No pattern could be discerned in age class, as only 1 of the 20 birds harvested in New Mexico was an innnature. This bird was harvested on 15 September. Of the 20 birds harvested, 2 were banded in 1970, 4 in 1971, and 14 in 1972. Four of the 6 birds shot in New Mexico prior to the season opening in Colorado were banded in 1972. Origin of birds shot in New Mexico varied with the majority being from La Veta (6), Ft. Garland (4), Monte Vista-Del Norte (3), Salida (2), and Rye-Beulah (2). Of the 20 banded birds harvested in New Mexico, only 1 (Montrose) was banded west of the Continental Divide. Breeding Phenology Data on breeding phenology were obtained through crop and gonadal inspection of birds accidentally lost in trapping operations, and those systematically collected. Additional data were collected from 217 hunter-killed pigeons examined from September 8 through October 1. Excluding the 217 hunter-killed �-121- birds, 138 birds were available for detailed examination. Of this number, 117 were adults or subadults (53 males and 64 females), while the remaining 21 were immatures. The sample included birds taken from 8 May through 1 October, with the following monthly totals: May - 15, June - 51, July - 9, August - 8, September - 52, and October - 3. The 1972 field season represented the last year of this phase of the study. All pertinent data have been analyzed and reported in the Job Final -Report for Work Plan 4, Job 5 (Gutierrez 1973). Wing Measurement and Molt Data Data concerning length of primaries, rectrices, total body length, carpal length and bill length were obtained from most pigeons collected in 1972. Once adequate samples are available, these data will be analyzed to examine differences between age and sex classes of pigeons. Prior to dissection of collected birds, plumage characters of each adult specimen were examined and recorded. Each bird was then classified as either male or female. Upon dissection, gonads were examined and actual sex of each bird was compared with the classification based on plumage appearance. Comparative data were available for 116 adults and subadults (53 males and 63 females) and 10 immatures. Only 1 bird was inaccurately sexed. This bird appeared to be a male by plumage, but was actually a female. This percentage of error (0.8) was the lowest of the 4 years studied. Information concerning primary molt was available for 1,169 immatures (974 banded and released, 174 from the hunter wing survey, and 21 collected). Of the 1,169 immatures, 587 had not molted primary 1, 283 were" molting PI, 180 were molting P2, 80 were molting P3, 26 were molting P4, 8 were molting P5, no birds were molting P6 and 7, 1 was molting P8, 1 was molting P9, while 3 were molting PIO. Hatching dates were estrurnated usin& data from White (1973). Estimated hatching dates for all immatures for which data are available are presented in Table 4. As in earlier years (Braun 1970; 1971; 1972a) hatching and fledging of bandtailed pigeons were spread over a wide time period. It is interesting to note that of the :j pigeons hatching prior to April 11, ;L was estimated to have hatched on 6 December 1971, 1 on 12 January, 1 on 31 January, 1 on 6 February, 1 on 7 March, 1 on 22 March, and 1 on 2 April. It is exceedingly questionable if any pigeons hatched in Colorado prior to 1 May, 1972, as few, if any bandtails occur in Colorado from early December through midApril (Braun 1973). Young pigeons fledging after early September are not represented in Table 4, as they had little chance of being shot or trapped. It is important to note the steady decrease in number of pigeons hatching after August 9. These data suggest that most young pigeons fledge by September 10-15. Thus, hunting after this period should be of little importance in nestling loss. Of the 1,169 immatures for which data are available, only 166 (14.2 percent) would have fledged after 1 September, with only 81 (6.9 percent) fledging after 10 September. During the hunting season, 51 percent of the adults har~ vested that were examined were found to have some development of the crop �-122- glands. These disparities are difficult to understand unless adults feed free flying young or most adults that had terminated all young feeding activity had migrated south. Data supporting either of these ideas are not available, although imttlaturepigeons have been observed begging and being fed while sitting on power lines. Table 4. Estimated hatching dates for wild band-tailed pigeons, 1972. Time Period Number Hatching Prior to April 11 April 12-21 April 22-May 1 May 2-11 May 12-21 May 22-31 June 1-10 July 11-20 Percent TilliePeriod· Number Hatching Percent 7 0.6 June 21-30 155 13.3 9 0.8 July 1-10 113 9.7 7 0.6 July 11-20 125 10.7 44 3.8 July 21-30 47 4.0 88 7.5 July 31-August 9 85 7.3 77 6.6 August 10-19 46 3.9 171 14.6 August 20-29 33 2.8 160 13.7 Aug. 30-Sept. 8 2 0.2 Data collected through the survey indicated that about 65 percent of the harvest was comprised of adults. This would approximate about 534 of the 822 pigeons harvested. When it is realized that 51 percent (272 birds) of this total exhibited some crop gland development, and that one parent can successfully rear a squab to flight stage, it is readily apparent that hunting as it presently Occurs in Colorado has little effect on overall production. Parasitic Load Information on helminths was available for 137 band-tailed pigeons (116 adults and 21 immatures) necropsied. Thirteen (all adults) of the 137 birds examined had helminth infections. The infection rate of 9.5 percent is about onehalf of that found in 1971, but similar to the 10.4 and 13.2 percent found in 1970 and 1969, respectively. As in other years, more adult females (15.9 percent) harbored helminths than did males (5.7 percent). Tapeworms were found in 8 birds, while 6 birds had nematodes (1 bird, an adult female, had both tapeworms and nematodes). Worms were found in pigeons collected as early as 8 May and as late as 17 September. No deleterious effects of the observed parasitism were noted. All worms were preserved for later .identification. �-123- LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 151-171. 1971. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 209-236. 1972a. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 123-142. Game 1972b. Movements and hunting mortality of Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Trans. No. Am. Wi1d1. and Nat. Resour. Conf. 37:326-334. 1973. Distribution and habitats of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comma. 53:In Press. . / d Gut1errez, R. J. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations:breeding an nesting chronology studies. Colo. Div. Wi1dl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. In Press. White, J. A. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations:p1umage studies. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. In Press. Prepared by _--'&~~~. =:=-:·~r=::-. ---L.~~--':'-'--=-C1ait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ ��October, -125- 1973 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-18 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title: Bird Investigations Job No. Band-tailed Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory April 1, Pigeon Investigations 5 - Plumage Studies 1971 through March 31, 1973 Clait E. Braun, Jack Corey, J. Edward Kautz, Brett Petersen, Larry Webster and J. Allen White. ABSTRACT Band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) were studied in captivity to develop techniques suitable for care, maintenance and breeding; to document progression of molts and plumages from juvenile to adult age; and to investigate the validity of using plumage characters in accurately distinguishing among juvenile (HY), sub-adult (SY), and adult (AHY) age classes and between sexes. These pigeons were easily maintained in captivity using techniques suitable for domestic pigeons (Columba livia) when special attention was given to pen size, wire mesh size and amount of privacy given to breeding birds. Immature pigeons began post-juvenal molt at 47 days (n = 9) and completed this molt at 318 days (n = 47, range = 284-340). Only three plumage characters were found useful for identification of HY and SY band-tailed pigeons. These were the presence of juvenal wing coverts, secondaries. and primaries. While juvenal primaries were still present, it was found that hatching dates could be accurately calculated up to a mean of 252 days (n = 84). Presence and stage of secondary molt could be used to identify SY individuals for more than 340 days (n = 24). The last greater secondary coverts (over S3-S6) were molted by 260 days of age. Using coloration of the head and breast, it was found that 96 percent of the immature pigeons examined (n = 110) could be accurately classified according to sex by 80 days of age. ��-127- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the members of my graduate committee, Dr. Clait E. Braun, Dr. Dale Hein, Dr. Ronald A. Ryder, and Dr. Vern E. Youngman for guidance concerning my research and course work at Colorado State University. To Dr. Dale Hein, my graduate adviser~ for reviewing and editing rough drafts of this thesis and encouragement throughout my stay at Colorado State University, go special thanks. Without his interest I would never have been able to complete my education and I would never have been associated with the Colorado band-tailed pigeon investigation. Special thanks to Clait E. Braun, Wildlife Researcher of the Colorado Division of Wildlife, my supervisor, close friend and the most industrious researcher that I have ever met. Without his support this study would never have been undertaken. My close friends, Larry Webster and Jack Corey, Colorado Division of Wildlife, helped design and construct most of the facilities used in this study and helped care for the pigeons over the past two years. Howard Funk, Wildlife Research Leader, Colorado Division of Wildlife, provided administrative assistance. Finally, thanks to all other Division of Wildlife personnel who contributed to this project. I would like to thank the Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, for faculty assistance and use of facilities; their support was appreciated. Funding for this project was obtained through the Accelerated Research Program of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, administered through Colorado Federal Aid in Wildlife ~toration Project W-88-R. To my wife, Julie, for helping care for pigeons, recording data, typing parts of this manuscript and most of all for encouragement, without which I could not have started or completed this work. ��-129- TABLE OF CONTENTS ........ INTRODUCTION • . • . • • METHODS AND MATERIALS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION • . Care, Maintenance and Breeding Post-juvenal Molt • . SUMMARY LITERATURE CITED • ........... LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Sequence and timing of primary and secondary feather molt • • • • • • • • • •••• • ..... LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Overall sequence and timing of post-juvenal molt in band-tailed pigeons (horizontal bars indicate ranges, exact days in parentheses) • • • . • • . 2 Sequence and timing of post-juvenal secondary molt in band-tailed pigeons (horizontal bars indicate ranges, vertical bars indicate means, sample sizes in parentheses) ••..••••••••••.•. �.•130- LIST OF FIGURlS ('ot\tit\"~<i) Figure 3 Timing and extent of upper wing covert molt compared to mean stageoi, primary molt ..... 4 Percentage of ~~-tail.d pigeons molting upper wing coverts;compared to mean stage of primary molt • • 5 Timing and extent of breast feather molt compared to mean stage of primary molt . • • • • • • • • 6 Percenta~e of band-r~~ R~geone molting breast feathers compareci to~me.n titOilge of primary molt 7 Timing and extent of crown, occiput, nape and upper back molt compared to mean stage of primary mol t . . . . . . . . ,. . . . . . . . . 8 Percentage of band-tailed pigeons molting crown, occiput, nape and upper back compared to mean stage of primary molt .•• • • • • . • • • • • 9 Weight of band-tailed pigeons from hatching until beginning of post-juvenal molt (horizontal bars indicate ranges.,vertical bars indicate means, sample sizes in parentheses) . • • • • • • • • . 10 Weights of band-tailed pigeons at mean stages of post-juvenal primary molt (vertical bars indicate ranges, horizontal bars indicate means, sample sizes in parentheses) •••••••••••••• �-131- PLUMAGE STUDIES OF BAND-TAILED PIGEONS J. Allen White iNTRODUCTION The band-tailed pigeon (Col~~ fasciata) is widely distributed in the Western Hemisphere (Goodwin 1967) from I)orth-western South America through western North America. Two subspecies occur in the United States. A coastal race (C. f. monilis) is found fro~ ~aja California through southern British Coltnnbia.- The interior ~ce (C. "f. fasciata) winters in Central Mexico and migrates seasonally tOA!:izona:- C'oior~do,'New Mexico and Utah (A.O.U. 1957). Estimates of annual productioll, survival rates for all age classes, and indices to population tren<is are n~~ded to a wildlife species. However, managers must first be able"to cl~ssifi1 individuals into age and sex categories. Often it is necessary to accomplish this using only certain parts of an animal, such as wings collected in mail surveys. Unfortunately, the available literature on methods of ascertaining age and sex of band-tailed pigeons was, for the most part, i~deq~ate for use ;Lna).l management programs. maP.,e Miller and Wagner (1955), Silovsky et ill. (1968), Houston (1963) and Drewien et al. (1966) discussed use of cloacal and bursal characters for determination of age and sex of band-tailed pigeons. However, cloacal examination is difficult to learn and too slow for large trapping operations during warm months. Smith (1968), Houston (1963), and Morse (1950) suggested that color of the plumage of band-tailed pigeons was an accurate means of sex determination. Braun (1970, 1971, 1972) verJf1ed their reports and found that an experienced 1:~"lOO percent of adult band-tailed observer could correctly class:J,.,f~::95 pigeons Ln.t;o sex categories using plumage' coloration alone. Silovsky et a1. (1968) devised a key for age determination of band-tailed pigeons during September through December. According to Silovsky, useful characters include buffy tipping on upper wini coverts and primaries, amount of wear of the primaries and secondaries, and stage of primary molt. His key, designed for use during fall and winter, has obvious limitations for use during banding operations in spring and summer. Also, before a satisfactory key for determination of age could be constructed, it was essential to first ascertain the age when juvenal plumage characters are lost, and adult plumage attained. Few comments in the literature refer to molt of band-tailed pigeons (Houston 1963, Peeters 1962) and no extensive studies of their molt have been made. Unpublished observations obtained by H. M. Wight (personal communication) indicated that hatching dates can be calculated for immature band-tailed pigeons using primary molt patterns. This technique is routinely used for mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) (Reeves et a1. 1968). Studies of molt in other species of pigeons (Levi 1969, Niethammer 1970) indicated that age of band-tailed pigeons could probably be estimated in a similar manner. �-132- This study of molts and plumages in captive band-tailed pigeons and time required for each change, was undertaken to provide knowledge needed to help manage this species. The objectives were: (1) develop techniques suitable for care, maintenance and breeding of band-tailed pigeons in captivity; (2) document progression of molts and plumages from juvenile to adult age; and (3) investigate the validity of using plumage characters as aids in accurately distinguishing among juvenile (HY), sub-adult (SY), and adult (AllY)age classes and between sexes. METHODS AND MATERIALS During August and September, 1971, cannon nets were used to capture 72 immature band-tailed pigeons (Braun 1972), in Colorado for subsequent plumage studies in an aviary. In addition, four immature pig~ons were supplied from California by F. John Ward of Pebble Beach. In July and August, 1972, a second group of 28 immatures was trapped and placed in the aviary. Nine young birds raised by the captive flock in the aviary were added to the second group of pigeons. All pigeons were marked with serially numbered yellow, green, or blue plastic bandettes so that each bird could be identified. All pigeons used in this study, except those from California, were trapped by Colorado Division of Wildlife personnel at locations near Evergreen, Longmont, Fort Garland, Manitou Springs, Monte Vista, Del Norte, La Veta, Woodland Park, and Glenhaven. Ten pens were used to ascertain type of facilities best suited for keeping captive band-tailed pigeons. Six of these were in two banks, three pens per bank and each pen was 1.8 m high, 1.8 m wide, and 3.7 m deep. Other small pens were 1.8 m high, 1.8 m wide, and 1.8 m deep and 1.5 m high, 2.4 m wide, and 1.5 m deep. A redwood shed 2.8 m high, 3.0 m wide and 5.6 m long was used to house sick birds during cold weather. One pen 2.4 m high, 16.8 m wide, and 22.9 m long was used for breeding. All pens were provided with adequate perches of both natural limbs and 5-cm by 5-cm lumber. Wooden boxes, plastic sheeting, and steel or fibre glass roofing material was provided for shelter as weather conditions required. Food, water and grit were supplied ad libitum in several different ways throughout the study. Water was supplied in l2-liter galvanized pans with or without electric water warmers, depending upon time of year and ambient temperatures. Suitable grit was available in all pens. Different feeds were provided to breeding birds and to those being examined for molt studies. Breeders were fed a commercial pigeon ration (Purina Pigeon Checkers) which supplied all necessary nutrients. Grain mixtures fed to pigeons during plumage investigations were varied in order to learn food preferences. Among the grains tested were whole and cracked dent corn (Zea mays), field peas (Pisum sativum), whole wheat (Triticum aestivum), whole milo (Sorghum bicolor), and whole and rolled oats (Avena sativa). A basic ration of equal parts of whole corn and whole milo was used between trials of other grains during the first year and exclusively during 1972-73. Breeding studies to provide known-age immatures began in late April, 1971. Nest boxes measuring 30.4 cm long, 30.4 cm wide, and 15.2 em deep were �-133- provided. Two were placed in each of the six main pens and 18 in the large breeding pen. Nesting material consisting of pine (Pinus spp.) needles, sticks, twigs, and some meadow hay and alfalfa (Medicago sativa) hay were placed in each box and on the floor of each pen. Where possible, burlap was placed on the sides of each pen so the birds would be .disturbed as little as possible. Data collected from this segment of the study included: weight of young at intervals of 3 to 5 days from hatching until beginning of the postjuvenal molt; and age whenpost-juvenal molt began. During post-juvenal molt of primaries, each pigeon was examined at least three times each month, with four examinations being preferred. Data concerning each bird was tape recorded or listed by an assistant for later transcription onto individual data sheets. Data recorded during examinations included the following categories: 1. Sequence and timing of primary feather molt. 2. Presence or absence of buffy edging on juvenal primary feathers. 3. Sequence and timing of secondary feather molt. 4. Presence or absence of fraying or wear on secondary feathers. 5. Sequence and timing of molt of rectrices. 6. Timing of tail covert molt. 7. Presence or absence of buffy edging on j uvenal tail coverts. 8. Timing and extent (light, moderate, heavy) of upper wing covert molt. 9. Timing of alular quill covert molt. 10. Timing of greater secondary covert molt. 11. Timing and extent (light, moderate, heavy) of breast feather molt. 12. Color of crown and breast to ascertain earliest time sex may be determined using plumage characters. 13. Timing and extent (light, moderate, heavy) of crown, occiput, nape and upper back molt. 14. Absence or estimated percentage of adult crescent present. 15. Absence or estimated percentage of adult nape color present. 16. Timing and description of eye color change. 17. Timing and description of cuticle color change. 18. Timing and description of bill color change. 19. Timing and description of foot and leg color change. �-134.- 20. Weight. 21. Descriptive connnents on overall plumage aspect of each pigeon (e g ,, adult or juvenile in overall appearance or unusual observed characteristics). s Analysis of all data was confined to calculation of simple descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation and range. Where possible, arrays of data were sunnnarized in tables and figures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Care, Maintenance and Breeding M. R. Blankenship is probably the most successful breeder of band-tailed pigeons in the United States, having over 20 years experience and unfailing results. His techniques are simple. According to Blankenship (personal communication), the three most important considerations in raising any wild pigeon are: adequate facilities, Prtlviding a minimum of disturbance, and patience. Care should be kept to a minimum during a set time period each day, and should be restricted to {ee4ing, watering, supplying nest materials and cage cleaning. If the keep,eris present at the same time each day, pigeons will learn to expect him and remain calm. Normally, the best time is around noon, but never in late afternoon or early morning. These are the peak activity periods for band-tailed pigeons, and if disturbed they may not return to the nest. It is also deSirable to wear the same subdued-colored clothing each time the pen is entered. Pigeons, like most birds, appear to recognize their caretaker and wearing the same clothing each day causes less disturbance. Although the caretaker can segregate birds into pairs with some success, they prefer to choose a mate. Once a pair begins to breed they will produce from four to seven young each year (Blankenship, personal communication). Blankenship believes that the greatest barrier to.raising band-tailed pigeons is the average caretaker's urge to' constantly"do something. This invariably leads to stressed birds that will not breed, broken eggs, or abandoned young. The key is to do as little as necessary. Levi (1969) described detailed methods for care, maintenance, and breeding of domestic pigeons. He included chapters on breeding, diseases and disease control, feeds and feeding, and housing. While all of these subjects should concern persons raiSing band-tailed pigeons, the most important consideration is adequate housing. The principal criterion in selection and construction of housing should be to simulate the natural habitat of the species (Levi 1969). This factor accounts for the main differences between adequate facilities for domestic pigeons (primarily descendents of colonial cave and cliff nesters) and those most suitable for band-tailed pigeons (solitary pine-oak woodland nesters). While domestic pigeons require only a small 10ft with many covered platforms for nesting, band-tailed pigeons do not respond well to those circumstances. Large flypens are ideal for keeping and rearing band-tailed pigeons. M. R. Blankenship (personal communication) produces band-tailed pigeons for sale, �-135- using both large flypens and modified courtyard arrangements as described by Muller et ale (1971). During my study, success was obtained using a breeding pen 22.9 m long, 16.8 m wide and 2.4 m high. Smaller pens were best suited for keeping unmated birds or pigeons that were to be examined at regular intervals. Pens smaller than 1.8 m high, 1.8 m wide, and 3.7 m deep were found unsuitable for band-tailed pigeons, because of the tendency for the birds to panic when closely approached. Another major consideration in pen construction is type and size of netting used. During this study most pigeon injuries and fatalities were directly caused through use of 5-cm wire mesh, poultry netting. Five-cm mesh resulted in cut crops, necks and heads. Small pens, where pigeons do not attain high speeds in flight, may be covered with' 2.5-cm wire netting without concern for 1nJuries. However, large flypens or breeding pens should be covered with vinyl-covered wire or nylon poultry netting to avoid injuries and fatalities. In addition to providing perches, breeding pens should contain two or three nesting structures for each breeding pair. Suitable structures can be made from small wooden boxes approximately 30 cm long, 30 cm wide, and 10 to 15 cm deep. While band-tailed pigeons will build a nest of coarse twigs, it is best to place a padding of hay or grass in each box. Other nesting materials may be supplied on the floor of the pen. Band-tailed pigeons prefer twigs and sticks from 2 to 6 mm in diameter, although pine needles were frequently selected. Several other requirements must be met in pen construction. All pens should provide shelter from storms, protection from extreme winds, shade, and privacy from outside disturbances. Ventilation and drainage of water from all pens is also important. During fall and winter, 1971, all small pens used in this study were covered with plastic sheeting to provide protection and shelter. As a result, 10 birds became sick and seven eventually died. One dead bird was sent to the Diagnostic Laboratory at Colorado State University; cause of death was determined to be peritonitis. Another sick bird was taken to the Colorado State University Small An;imal Clinic for examination and treatment. The diagnosis was probable aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus), a fungal condition caused by dampness and moldy grain. Symptoms were similar in all other sick pigeons and were characterized by a slow decline in weight following infection, until the birds became extremely weak and thin. Shortly before death, breathing became labored and traces of blood became apparent in the saliva. At death, hemorrhaging in the respiratory tract occurred and the lungs were filled with saliva and blood. Post-juvenal Molt At 47 days of age (n = 9) post-juvenal molt began with loss of the innermost primary (PI). This molt continued until pigeons were 318 days old (n = 47). However, one individual required only 284 days to complete post-juvenal molt, and 24 (22 percent) retained secondary 6 and/or S7 for 340 days or longer. Band-tailed pigeons over 150 days of age were similar to adults in overall plumage appearance, although these birds could be distinguished from adults by examination of primary feathers, secondary feathers and upper wing coverts. Overall sequence of timing of post-juvenal molt is sho~Yn in Fig. 1. �DAYS OF AGE 25 JUVENAL PWMAGE 50 75 (4O) (70) 100 125 150 175 200. 225 250 275 (130) ~ (215) I (35) (1:~0) TAIL COVERTS l:2 ffif-. 350 (340) (100) RECTRICES f:: 325 -----j COMPLETE SECONDARIES U 300 (60) r----------------------- UPPER WING COVERTS ~ (260) U < ~ (75) AWLAR QUILL COVERTS GREATER SECONDARY (165) U I-' (90) COVERTS (260) I (45) .(165) ~-------------~ BREAST (45) CROWN, I --I I OCCIPUT, NAPE (200) I Pl- P2 P3 P4 PS - ~ P~ ~ ~ pIo (56 )(74) (95) ;(118)(140)(156)(176)(195)(218:)(239) MEAN STAGE OF PRIMARY MOLT Figure 1. Overall sequence and timing of post -j .• vens 1 molt. in band-tailed pigeons (horizontal bars indicate ranges, exact days in parentheses). W 0\ I �-137- Immature band-tailed pigeons molted primaries in sequence from the innermost primary (PI) to the outermost primary (PlO). In this sequence, a new primary was molted every 19 to 20 days. Each primary was lost and fully replaced in 22 to 26 days, although some minor growth (1 to 4 mm) occasionally occurred for up to 40 days. Normally, this sequence was not interrupted and no longterm suspension of molt was observed. However, during cold weather in November and December, 1972, (3 week period: maximum temp = 540F, minimum = -180F, weekly means = 29.00F, 2.00F, 8.70F, overall mean = l3.20F) 17 pigeons displayed a short-term (8 to 13 days) interruption of molt. Five stopped on P5, 9 on P6, and 3 on P7. None stopped on more than one primary. Cold weather usually has no effect on molt rate in birds (Payne 1972) but Keast (1968) found that chilling may stop molt for a short time. Mean number of days for band-tailed pigeons to attain selected stages of primary development during post-juvenal molt are shown in Table 1. In this study, primaries were visually classified as empty (E), quill one-fourth of its full length (1/4), new feather one-half of its full length (1/2), new feather three-quarters of its full length (3/4), or a new feather that was full length (F). Using Table 1 it is possible to estimate hatching dates for immature band-tailed pigeons. Juvenal primaries are easily distinguished from adult primaries on the basis of color and shape. Adult primaries are noticeably darker in color and are gray. Juvenal primaries are lighter in color and appear brown. This brown tinge in juveniles is most noticeable at the edge of the primary feathers and often appears as a buffy edge at the tip. Nearly all (92 percent) juvenile pigeons had this characteristic on the inner primaries (PI through P6), while only 24 percent of the immatures examined displayed this characteristic on the outer primaries :(P7 through PlO). This edge varies in color from nearly white to brown. An interesting variation in the color of this edge occurs in males and less commonly in females. I found that 28 percent of the pigeons examined had an orange edge on the inner primaries (PI through P4). Of these, only 10 percent were females. Braun (personal communication) had also noticed this characteristic, but did not relate it to the sex of the individual. Shape was also useful in distinguishing between adult and juvenal primaries. In adults, PI through P6 were broad and tended to be truncate at the apex, while primaries P7 through PIO were rounded at the apex. Juvenal primaries PI through P6 were narrower and rounded, but P7 through PIO were narrow and pointed when compared to adult feathers. Secondary feathers are numbered from the outermost (Sl) to the innermost (SlO). Timing of secondary feather molt is shown in Fig. 2. While there was obvious overlap in timing of individual secondary molt, the average sequence appeared to be Sl, S2, S3, SlO, S9, S5, S8, S6, and S7. Secondaries S6 and S7 were particularly important, because these were the last juvenal feathers to be molted. Juvenal secondary feathers were rounded and narrow, while adjacent adult secondaries were obviously truncate and broader in comparison. One study (Silovsky et al. 1968) used fraying of secondary feathers to identify immature (HY) band-tailed p~geons. However, during this study no fraying or wear of secondaries was observed in immature pigeons. Fraying may not have occurred because of the conditions of captivity, but it seems likely that some wear would have been noted if this characteristic was a useful indicator of age. �-138Table 1. Sequence and timing of primary and Mean Days of Age Standard Deviation Feather Molt Stage of Primary Molt 47 2 IE 2 1 1/4 110 0 3 1 1/2 110 0 4 2E 109 0 3 1 3/4 108 0 3 IF 108 0 5 2 1/4 108 0 5 2 1/2 107 0 7 3E 107 0 5 2 3/4 107 0 7 3 1/4 107 0 6 2F 107 0 8 3 1/2 106 0 7 3 3/4 106 0 9 4E 106 0 8 3F 106 0 9 4 1/4 105 0 9 4 1/2 105 0 11 5E 105 0 9 4 3/4 105 0 10 4F 105 0 10 5 1/4 105 0 11 5 1/2 105 0 59 61 65 68 73 79 81 84 90 95 111 114 119 126 129 131 131 136 Secondaries Most Often Molting 0 59 105 Sample Size 9 51 101 secondary feather molt. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-139- Table 1. Sequence and timing of primary and secondary feather molt (continued). Mean Days of Age Standard Deviation Feather Molt Stage of Primary Molt Sample Size 145 11 5 3/4 104 0 149 13 6E 104 1 153 14 6 1/4 104 1 155 12 SF 104 1 158 14 6 1/2 105 1-2 165 14 6 3/4 104 1-2 167 16 7E 103 1-2 168 15 6F 103 1-2 173 17 7 1/4 103 1-2 179 17 7 1/2 103 1-2-3 185 18 7 3/4 102 1-2-3 186 21 8E 102 1-2-3 191 19 7F 102 1-2-3 191 22 8 1/4 99 2-3-4 195 22 8 1/2 98 2-3-4 199 21 8 3/4 97 2-3-4 203 24 8F 95 2-3-4-10 205 25 9E 94 2-3-4-5-10 209 25 9 1/4 93 3-4-5-10 216 25 9 1/2 92 3-4-5-10 223 25 9 3/4 91 4-5-9-10 226 27 10E 89 4-5-9-10 Secondaries Most Often Molting ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-140- Table 1. Sequence and timing of primary and secondary feather molt (continued) • Feather Molt Stage of PriIDilryMolt Sample Size Secondaries Most Often Molting 9F 87 4-5-9-10 28 10 1/4 85 4-5-9"-10 236 28 10 1/2 85 4-5-6-9 245 28 10 3/4 84 5-6-8-9 252 29 lOF 84 6-7-8-9 265 59 6-7-8 285 31 6-7-8 305 29 6-7 320 25 6-7 340 24 6-7 Mean Days of Age Standard Deviation 230 28 230 Sequence and timing of molt of rectrices was difficult to delineate because of accidental loss of these featherlil. As.a result, sequence of molt of rectrices was not discerned during this study. However, timing of this molt is illustrated in Fig. 1. Because of ease of accidental loss of rectrices, they appeared to be of little benefit in determination of age in band-tailed pigeons. Timing of molt of tail coverts is shown in Fig. 1. Loss of these feathers through accident was also common and this characteristic was of little value in age determination because of unreliability and the early age at which replacement occurred. However, juvenal tail coverts were distinguishable from adult tail coverts. Juveniles showed a buffy edge similar to that found on primaries. Of the juvenile pigeons examined, only 12 percent did not show discernable buffy edging on the tail coverts. Timing and extent of upper wing covert molt are presented in Figs. 3 and 4. This molt extends to a maximum of 260 days of age and juvenal wing coverts are eaSily distinguished from those of the adult. This character therefore becomes one of the best indicators of age in band-tailed pigeons. Like primaries and tail coverts, wing coverts of juveniles are clearly buffy-edged, while adults show uniform blue gray colored covert feathers. �10 I I -~(85) -:-.1 . I 9 I (84) I I 8 1(59) 7 1------+---- -(59) Ul 6 f.------f------- (59) ~ 5 fiI ~ o z o o w Ul I, , 4 , 3 2 1 I --; I ' I I 150 125 175 I t-" ~ t-" (85) I (9'~) I I (84) I (941) 1(103) 200 250 225 275 ·300 325 350 DAYS OF AGE Figure 2. Sequence and timing of po s t j uve nal . secondary molt in band-tailed pigeons (horizontal bars indicate ranges, vertical bars indicate means, sample sizes in c parentheses) . �.. PRIMAR Y MOLT PI p~ P? - - ~ ~ P4 .L -. P5 l='h 07 DO '[")/"1 .----==~~ I t-' +' N I I 40 50 60 70 80 90 "j -.,..---r-""""-"""'-"""'--r---r---r'--r---,..---r'100 110 120 130 140 150 IE-O 170 180 190200210220230240250260 270 AGE IN DAY~:; Figure 3. Timing and extent of upper wing COV,'~l'tmolt compared to mean stage of primary molt. �PRIMAR Y MOLT .•.... , to '0'1 '0" 'DA 1 80 % 60 40 _ •• 2: 46 5'0 r , ,. _ •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• _ • _ •• ____ 6~...u~~ I t-" .po w I I AGE IN DAYS Figure 4. Percentage of band-tailed stage of primary molt. pigeons molting upper wing coverts compared to mean �-144- Timing of alular quill covert molt and greater secondary covert molt is shown in Fig. 1. Alular quill coverts were molted early in post-juvenal molt and it was difficult to distinguish juvenal feathers of this region from those of adults. As a result, &lular quill coverts are not useful in age determination of band-tailed pigeons. Greater secondary coverts of juveniles are readily distinguished from those new feathers replacing them during post-juvenal molt. In addition, these are the last upper wing coverts to be molted. Those greater secondary coverts adjacent to secondaries S4 through S7 were molted last in all cases. Fifty percent of the pigeons examined retained one or more greater secondary coverts with typical buffy edging for 220 days (see Fig. 4). Therefore, greater secondary coverts appear to be a good character for age determination for this species. Timing and extent of molt of the breast feathers are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Since molt in this region begins while birds are fairly young, it is possible to distinguish sex of bandtails at an early age (see Braun 1972). At 80 days of age (P2 molt), all pigeons examined had molted one or more breast feathers and showed enough adult breast coloration to be accurately sexed. During this study, I classified 96 percent of the immature pigeons examined correctly as to sex, determined from later adult plumsie, at 80 days age or less. In most cases it {s.possible to determine sex of an immature bandtailed pigeon as soon as one breast feather is replaced. However, one must look much closer to distinguish between adult female and tMmature female breast feathers than between the adult male and immature male. Early in this study it was thought t~~t the neck crescent and irridescent nape of band-tailed pigeons might be"key characters in age and sex determination. This was subsequently determined not to be the case. Timing and extent of this molt are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Since this molt occurs at an early stage compared to malt of wing coverts, secondaries and primaries, it was found not to be as good a measure of age in band-tailed pigeons as were these other characters. Obviously, pigeons without the crescent or metallic nape should be classifiec:ias ~tures~ At later stages of post-juvenal molt, however, it is essellti#'t;hat other characters,specifically the upper wing coverts, primaries, and secondaries, be checked for positive age classification. As an indicator of sex, these two characters are less useful than breast feather color. If sex is in doubt and time permits, cloacal examination (Miller and Wagner 1955) should be used. Color of the eye, cuticle, bill, foot and leg was found to be of little value in determining age or sex of band-tailed pigeons. In each of these characters, the immature color is obviously different from that of the adult. The iris of juvenile pigeons is brownish-pink to brown. This color gradually changed to reddish-brown after primary molt began with the blood-red eye of the adult being attained by 100 days of age in all pigeons examined. The color of the cuticle or eye ring in immatures was found to be highly variable, with pale shades of pink, orange, or yellow present but with the overall color being brown. This color also changed by 100 days to the typical dark pink adult cuticle in 80 percent of the pigeons observed. All pigeons attained typical cuticle color by 120 days. Eighty-four percent of the immatures examined had bills, feet and legs noticeably paler than adults. By 85 days of age all immatures had pigmentation in these areas identical to that of adults. �PRIMARY MOLT PI P2 P3 P4 I ::)~) P6 P7 P8 P9 PI0 .~' I ~ VI I ~~--~~--~~~~--~~--~--~I'--II--r--T--~~r--r--T-~--~--~~-40 50 60 7"0 80 90 100 110120 130 140 150 160 170 180 1902002102202302402502.60 AGE IN DAYS Figure 5. Timing and extent of breast feather molt compared to mean stage of primary molt. �I_~ PI 100, P2 1 80 0/0 P3 PRIMARY P4 MOLT P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 PI0 60 40 I. 20/ 0' I-' ~ ~~~~ i 40 0'\ /$1//!/1'/1?01'(fjm0'W(111'm/P&4'~~~ 1 .' 50 60 70 80 90 HH) 110 120 130 140 ISO • .. 1 i i. i i , I 1&0 170 180 190200210220230240250 AGE IN DAYS Figure 6. Percentage of band-tailed stage of primary molt. pige ons molting breast feathers compared to mean I �PRIMARY MOLT PI P2 I P3 P4 I i P5 I~----~----~----~~----~ P6 ~----- I ~ .po. ....• I , 4050607080 1 90 1001l012013014015CL60170180190200210220230240250260270 AGE IN DP.YS Figure 7. Timing and extent of crown, stage of primary molt. occiput, nape and upper back molt compared to mean , �PRIMA:~Y 100 •• • c.. P3 MOLT P7 P4 . ~." ~~. f 1 ~J J , • 80 % 60 40 J •.... .j::'(Xl 20 o J I 40 -a It If / /I { /I / , { , . (/ / ( {/ U If!, I .i I II 50 60 70 80 90 (/ . /I 1 ' (III' D I{t.! (/11'.1./ I, '. 1 . I I '." . I , '1"', 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 ISO 190200210 22023-0240250 AGE IN DAYS ",,' ':~. Figure 8. Percentage of band- tailed pigeor·.s niQlting on crown, compared lomean stage of primary molt. occiput, nape and upper back �WEIGH r IN GRAMS I 50 1~0 1~0 200 250 300 350 1 I 48-51 295 ----+----(8) 281 44- 47 260 40- 43 248 I 36- 39 ~ 32 - 35 <t: a 28 - 31 ~ 0 24-27 Ui >< 20-23 0 16-19 202 r---(10) I (10) tal (9) (10) I •.... +:'- \0 _I I 150 1-(10) i--{10) 12-15 102 . 8-11 0-3 (9) (10) <t: 4-7 I I j -(10) ( 13) 59 29 1 (14) _+-1 -(17) I I 1·- 50 100 150 , ,.... 200 , , I 250 300 350 . ..-.-----T---·-·- --~~--,-~~________, WEIGHT IN GRAMS Figure 9. Weight of band-tailed pi ge ons from hatching until beginning of post-juvenal molt (horizontal bars indicate r an ge s , vertical bars indicate means, sample sizes in parentheses) �25 50 75 D~\.YS OF AGE 125 150 175 100 20.0 225 250 275 400 375 350 345 -to340 v: -IT34.cr-h335 -;p,340 .: 325 t. ]345 . ..",.~., l350 335, ~ -< 0:: 0 Z ~ f-i ..,... 300 275 ..... 0 ~ W I 305 106) 280 I =. ( 107) I I . 1(95) (93) (99) . " I 1(92) '(84) I-' 1(8~f (105) (109) 225 200 PI P2 (56) (74) P3 (95) P4 P5 P6' P7 P8 P9 ( 118) ( :.40 )( 15 6H 176)( 195) (2 18) MEAN STAG::; OF PRIMARY <:> I 250 ~ VI PI0 (2 39 ) MOLT Figure 10. Weights of band- tailed pigeor.s at mean stages of post- juvenal primary molt (vertical bars indicate ranges, hor i aont.a.l bars indicate means, sample sizes in parentheses) �-151- Weights of summer-hatched immature pigeons followed a typical pattern with a peak (of fall weights) in October (see Figs. 9 and 10). This may be due to a combination of factors, with deposition of fat during the premigratory period being most important. It is also possible that this peak could be explained through the normal increase of weight that occurs just prior to the time when the most feathers are molted (Payne 1972) apparently because of the intense growth of feather papillae during this time. It was noted that at this time the pigeons were 80 to 140 days 01d and were at the peak of molt activity (Figs. 1, 3, 5, and 7). SUMMARY The results of this study indicate that band-tailed pigeons readily adapt to captive conditions if special attention is given to cage size, wire mesh size used in pen construction, and if not disturbed at frequent intervals. In most cases, except where pigeons must be handled regularly, large pens with small wire mesh, nylon mesh or vinyl-covered wire mesh netting are recommended. Post-juvenal molt in band-tailed pigeons began at 47 days (molt of primary PI) and continued until 318 days (secondary S6 or 87 fully replaced) with a peak of molt occurring from 100 to 140 days of age. Of the plumage characters observed, only breast feather coloration was found to be a valid indicator of sex in band-tailed pigeons over 80 days of age. Primaries, secondaries, and upper wing coverts are the only three characters useful to determine age of these pigeons. Through use of post-juvenal primary molt, accurate estimates of hatching dates are possible and by using post-juvenal secondary molt rough estimates (BY or SY) can be made up to 340 days of age. It is hoped that with the knowledge gained through this study managers will be better able to delineate the popUlation dynamics of the band-tailed pigeon through estimates of mortality in all age classes and improved estimates of annual production. LITERATURE CITED American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Checklist of North American Birds. 5th ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Baltimore. 691 pp. Braun, C. E. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 151-171. 1971. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 209-236. 1972. Wildlife. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colorado Division of Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 123-141. �-152- Drewien, R. C., R. J. Vernimen, S. W. Harris, and C. F. Yocum. 1966. Spring weights of band-tailed pigeons. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 30(1):190-192. Goodwin, D. 1967. Pigeons and doves of the world. London. 446 pp. British Mus. Nat. Hist., Houston, D. B. 1963. A contribution to the ecology of the band-tailed pigeon, Columba fasciata Say. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Wyoming, Laramie. 74 pp. Keast, A. 1968. Moult in birds of the Australian dry country relative to rainfall and breeding. J. Zool. 155:185-200. Levi, W. M. 1969. 667 pp. The pigeon. Levi Pub1. Co., Sumter, South Carolina. Miller, W. J., and F. H. W~gner. 1955. Sexing immature columbiformes by cloacal characters. Auk 72(3):279-285. Morse, W. B. 1950. Observations on the band-tailed pigeon in Oregon. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm. 30:l02~104. Proc. Muller, H. D., D. D. Neill, and W. J. Werner. 1971 Reproduction, raising and releasing gray partridge. Colo. State Univ. Expt. Sta., Fort Collins. 16 pp. Niethannner, G. 1970. Zur mauser der ringeltaube (Columba palumbus). Ornith. 111:367-377. J. Payne, R. B. 1972. Mechanisms and control of molt. pp. 103-155. In Farner, D. S. and J. R. King. Avian Biology, Vol. II. AcademiC-Press, New York. 612 p. Peeters, H. J. 1962. Nuptial behavior of the band-tailed pigeon in the San Francisco Bay area. Condor 64(6):445-470. Reeves, H. M., A. D. Geis, and F. C. Kniffen. 1968. Mourning dove capture and banding. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept.--Wildlife No. 117. 63 pp. Si1ovsky, G. D., H. M. Wight, L. H. Sisson, T. L. Fox, and S. W. Harris. 1968. Methods of determining age of band-tailed pigeons. J. WildL Manage. 32(2):421-424. Smith, W. A. 1968. Fish and Game. The band-tailed pigeon of California. 54(1):4-16. Prepared by __~J~.~A=1=1=e=n_Wh~=1·~te=.1/ ...t-, 1'. ~. Approved by ~~(;{~~~~__ ~L~'-L~~~~~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ _ California �October, 1973 -153- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~---------- Project No. W-88-R-18 Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations 6 Job No. Band-tailed Pigeon Investigations: Breeding and Nesting Chronology Studies April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1973 Clait E. Braun, Howard D. Funk, Ralph J. Gutierfez, J. Edward Kautz, Chet McCord, Brett Petersen, Michael Robinson, Mark Stromberg, Michael Watkins and J. Allen White. ABSTRACT The reproductive biology of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata) was studied from May through September during 1969-1972 in Colorado, and during 1972 in New Mexico. Gonads, body weight, percent body fat and crop activity from 619 male and female pigeons were used in the analyses of gonadal cycles of wild birds. Photoperiodic responses were studied experimentally during 1972-73 to help explain the unusual reproductive patterns in this bird. The breeding season extends from May through August and two nesting attempts probably occur during this period. This pigeon normally lays one egg per clutch, but up to eight percent of the females may lay two eggs per clutch. Fall breeding was observed in one population of pigeons, indicating that bandtailed pigeons responded to environmental conditions other than photoperiod. The photoperiodic responses showed that these pigeons do not exhibit a characteristic refractory period and that testes responded to light periods as short as 10 hours. Ovarian follicles of unmated females can regress once they have become enlarged (e.g. greater than 5.5 rom in diameter). The testes of captive birds held in outdoor aviaries continued gonadal regression from 23 September 1972 until the winter solstice (during December), at which time they began to increase. Full breeding capability was reached during March, 1973. Female pigeons housed with these males showed no follicle growth until March. ��-155- CONTENTS ... Abstract Contents List of Tables List of Figures • • • • • Acknowledgments • Introduction Materials and Methods Gonadal Studies Photoperiod Studies Results Gonadal Cycles • • • • Photoperiod Studies Body Weight, Body Fat, Crop Activity • Discussion •• • • Summary • • • • • • Literature Cited .. . . ... . .... LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Ovarian condition of female band-tailed pigeons from Colorado and New Mexico 1969-1972. 2 Correlation coefficients of testes volume and body weight in male band-tailed pigeons. LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Geographical subpopulations of band-tailed pigeons within Colorado and New Mexico. 2 Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1969 •. Vertical lines indicate ran~e, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. 3 Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1970. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. 4 Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1971. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. �-156- LIST OF FIGURES (continued) Figure Page 5 Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1972. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. Dashed line and box represent testes data from southwestern New Mexico. 6 The relationship of testes volume, and stage of spermatogenesis. Range, mean, standard error of mean, and sample size are shown. 7 Relationship of 30 day photoperiod treatments to testes development. Beginning volumes are indicated by "A", ending volumes at same photoperiod as liB" Mean, range, standard error of mean are shown. OJ 8 Gonadal cycles and body weights of captive male band-tailed pigeons. Sample size is four in all cases. Mean, standard error of mean, and range are shown. 9 Gonadal cycles and body weights of captive female band-tailed pigeons. Sample size is four in all cases. Mean only is shown for follicle diameter. ACKNOWLEDGMENT S I would like to thank M. Kaye Giffin for encouragement and help in every phase of the research and typing of the manuscript. Without her help I surely would not have completed this work by this,date. Clait E. Braun, Colorado Division of Wildlife, and Thomas P. Zapatka, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, collected all field specimens. I would like to thank my major professor, J. David Ligon, for his support of the project and sharing of valuable ideas throughout my studies. My graduate committee members, Donald W. Duszynski, J. Scott Altenbach, James R. Gosz, and Clait E. Braun critically reviewed the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions. Russell Lenth, Department of Mathematics wrote the computer programs used in this study, Steven Cito helped construct aviaries, and Phillip W. Day, Medical School, provided ketamine hydrochloride and technical assistance. I acknowledge financial Support of the Colorado Division of Wildlife, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-88-R, and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service's Accelerated Research Program. Spencer Amend of the Migratory Bird Population Station, Laurel, Maryland, was instrumental in obtaining support from the Accelerated Re~earch Program. I Ralph J. Gutierrez Department of Biology University of New MeXico, Albuquerque May 1973 �-157- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS BREEDING AND NESTING CHRONOLOGY STUDIES / Ralph J. Gutierrez INTRODUCTION The band-tailed pigeon, a forest-dwelling columbid, consists of two major populations in western North America a coastai and an interior population. The interior population reported on here, inhabits Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Texas and Mexico. This bird is one of several species of western North America which sometimes exhibits unseasonal and variable nesting periods (e.i. see Ligon 1971). Active nests have been found in some portion of the species' range in every month of the year (Swarth 1900, Thayer 1909, Stephens 1913, Lambl926, Abbott 1927, Vorhies 1928, Neff 1947, MacGregor and Smith 1955). Although several studies of the breedf.ngbiology of the band-tailed pigeon have been undertaken on the Pacific Coast;population (Glover 1953, MacGregor and Smith 1955, Houston 1963, March and Sadleir 1970, Zeigler 1971) few have been conducted on the interior population (Fitzhugh 1970). The breeding cycle of the interior band-tailed pigeon is poorly understood, although many observations of nests have been reported (Neff 1947, Fitzhugh 1970). This study was undertaken to better understand the seasonal breeding cycle and breeding potential of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado and New Mexico. Results of the field studies on nesting and associated literature review have previously been reported by Braun and Benson (1972) and will not be repeated in this final report. METHODS !ND MATERIALS Gonadal Studies Band-tailed pigeons were obtained from trapping-banding mortalities, farmer kills (as a result of crop depredations), hunter kills, and systematic collections. The last occurred primarily during May through August 1972, and provided fewest birds. Gonadal materials were collected from 144 birds in 1969, 135 in 1970, 171 in 1971, and 169 in 1972. May through September is the period that most band-tailed pigeons are present in Colorado and New Mexico. All data from 1969, 1970, and 1971 were taken from birds collected in Colorado. Pigeons from both Colorado and New Mexico were studied in 1972. Age was determined as adult or juvenile by plumage characteristics (Silovsky et al. 1968). C. E. Braun (unpublished data) classified some subadults in 1970-72. Sex was determined by inspection of the gonads. Prior to 1972, all collected specimens were enclosed in plastic bags and frozen. Later, each bird was thawed, weighed (nearest 0.1 gram) and the �-158- gonads measured in situ with vernier calipers to the nearest 0.1 mm. The gonads were excised and stored in either Bouin's fixative or 10 percent buffered formalin. All collection procedures were the same in 1972 except that gonads were measured in situ and excised within 15 minutes of death and fixed in either Bouin's fixative er FAA. Crop activity was determined by visual inspection of the inner layer of crop lining and assigned to one of three categories - active, inactive, or stimulated. This visual characterization followed the classification developed for coastal populations of band-tailed pigeons (March and Sadleir 1970, Zeigler 1971). Crops were fixed in Bouin's fixative or 10 percent buffered formalin. The skin, feet, wings, and head were removed; as much fat as possible was retained on the body. Crop, gizzard and gut contents were removed and then the remaining carcass (including bones) was thoroughly ground following procedures outlined by the Association of.Official Agricultural Chemists for the determination of body fat percentage (Horwitz 1960). Weight, fat, and crop activity were used as physical parameters indicative of changes in breeding activity. For purposes of statistical analyses, pigeons were separated into geographical subpopulations within Colorado and New Mexico. Braun (1972) established Colorado subpopulations on the basis of less than 10 percent movement between subpopulations; mountain ranges were used to delineate subpopulations in New Mexico (Fig. 1). Volumes of the left testis were calculated using the formula for an ellipsoid, V = 1/2 LW2 where L = 1/2 length and W = 1/2 width at widest point (Lofts et al. 1966). Samples of testes of different volumes were processed using standard histological techniques and sectioned at 10 p to observe the relationship between volume and spermatogenic state. Sections were stained with Harris' haematoxylin and counter-stained with eosin. Spermatogenic stages were classified according to Lofts et al. (1966). The diameter of the largest follicle was measured and in most cases the number of follicles greater than 5.5 mm was recorded. Follicles of unmated females are said not to exceed 5.5 mm; when pair bonds form rapid growth of the follicle (up to 20 mm) can occur in a short time (Bartelmez 1912). All ovaries with follicles less than 2.0 mm were classified as granular. Each ovary was examined macroscopically for ruptured follicles (Meyer et al. 1947). Photoperiod Studies Adult pigeons were trapped using cannon nets near La Veta, Colorado in late August 1972. These birds were transported to the University of New Mexico and placed in outdoor aviaries (8' x 8' x 8')•. Sex was determined by laparotomy. Experiments designed to illustrate the relationship of testes growth to day length are described with the results for the sake of clarity. In addition, food type was the experimental variable in one experiment. �-159- .' COLORADO NEW MEXICO .- Fig. 1. Colorado .; Geographical subpopulations and New Mexico. .~..•. of band-tailed pigeons within �-160- All birds housed in outdoor aviaries were fed a mixture of cracked corn and wheat; grit and water were provided ad libitum. Perch space sufficient to prevent excessive aggressive behavior-was provided. Roofing covering half of each enclosure provided shade and weather protection. Birds in the laboratory were housed in cages (4' x 3' x 2'), with either one or two birds per cage. Temperature was about 250 C. Each experimental group received the light intensity provided by four 150 watt light bulbs. These birds also were fed wheat and cracked corn (except group A of experiment 2). Water and granite grit were always available. Gonadal activity was determined by laparotomy. The birds were anesthetized with an intra-muscular injection of ketamine hydrochloride (Ketaset). Dosage varied from 30 milligrams/kilo in early fall to 100 milligrams/kilo in winter. The reason for this change in sensitivity to the drug is not fully understood, but may be related to seasonal change in the physiological state of the birds. Ether and methoxyflurane (Metophane), both inhalent anesthetics, proved inefficient and dangerous to the birds. Each bird was weighed and the operation begun within 7-10 minutes of injection. Feathers were wetted with alcohol to expose the area of the last rib and top of the leg on the left side of the body. A dorsal-ventral incision was made posterior to the last rib through the skin, fat layer, and first mesentary above the muscles. Two blunt probes were used to push the muscle aside and break the mesentary to expose the abdominal cavity. A sharp-focus light source was then directed into the abdominal cavity to illuminate the gonads. The length and width of the testes were measured by inserting dividers over the testes (length and width) and withdrawing these dividers and placing the points on a piece of paper. These points were then measured with vernier calipers. Little or no error was encountered using this method as opposed to measuring with calipers in situ. The left testis was measured in each case, as was done with birds taken in the wild. The largest follicle of the females' ovaries was measured in the same manner. In all photoperiod experiments, gonads were measured by experimental laparotomy at the beginning and end of each photoperiod treatment. Statistical tests were used to determine whether or not change had occurred between starting and ending volumes as a result of light treatment. The testes of the group showing no statistical difference in volume increase (10 hr photoperiod) were examined histologically. Gonads of band-tailed pigeons on natural photoperiod were measured about the first of each month. Student's t distribution was used to test significant differences between two means. Analysis of variance was used for significance testing when more than two variables were involved. Correlation analysis was used to determine if a consistent relationship existed between gonad size and body weight, body fat, or crop activity during the entire summer, early summer or late summer for all years. The level of statistical significance used was at least equal to 0.05 in all tests unless otherwise indicated. RESULTS Gonadal Cycles Testes volumes of males are shown in Figs. 2-5. Gonadal cycles of males could not be pooled for all years, because there is evidence that significant �-161- 900 ISO 55 100 7S0 100 'SO ·600 .. '" 1 sso 0 8 M E E 3 SOO u..o :::.; :::> -' 'so 0 :> V> W >u..o >- '00 V> HO 300 na 200 3 ~ ISO 100 50 IS MAY - 31 IS JUNE 30 IS JULY 31 IS .•, - AUGUST 31 3 , 15 30 "SEPTEMBER' Fig. 2. Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1969. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. �-162- 14 900 ISO aoo 6 7S0 8 9 710 2 a 6S0 600 ..,•.....• SSO E E SOD •.... ~ :::> -' =- 'SO en •.... <II •.... .00 0- 350 0 0- I 0 20 5 10 + so IS MAY 31 IS JUNE 30 IS JULY 31 15 ., AUGUST 31 IS 30 "SEPTEMBER' Fig. 3 •. Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1970. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. �-163- 90. 6 5 .~o 3 810 no 7410- 6S0 7 600 1 ~~o 0 & M r' l- soo 0 UJ ;:.;; ~ -' 0 7 ,,!to· > ....• VI qOO tV) ...• 3S0 t- 6 300 2S0 200 ISO 100 4 + so IS MAY II IS JUNE 30 IS JULY 31 IS 31 IS 30 .. AUGUST ••SEPTEMBER- Fig. 4. Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado in 1971. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. �-164- 'HO 900- &50 I o aoo2 ]So 700 I o HO 600. ...,. ••• E 6 E •...• 7 T I I I 2 I , I I I I I ,.1-, ,I, ',', -:... 0-1-0 I I I I I I I I I 3 1 r 19 31 IS l 6 so IS -IAAY JUNE '0 "-JULY IS + 30 - ••-AUuUST---SEPTEMBER.' Fig. 5. Testes volumes of male band-tailed pigeons from Colorado 1972. Vertical lines indicate range, horizontal lines mean, box standard error of mean. Sample size is given above range line. Dashed line and box represent testes data from southwestern New Mexico. in �-165- differences exist between years (e.g. 1969 vs. 1971). Subadult testes are significantly smaller than those of adults. They may develop more slowly as in the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) (Lofts et al. 1966). However, subadults were included with adults in the analyses because histological examination of testes indicated a capability to breed as early as adults. Also, subadults have been observed to breed as early as April in captivity (C. E. Braun, personal communication). The period 16 A~gust-15 October was the only one studied in which a significant decrease in testes size occurred. The decrease occurred in each year except 1971, when testes remained large until September. Only one locale-time set of data differed significantly from the others (Fig. 5). These pigeons were taken in September 1972 from the Gila National Forest in southwestern New Mexico (area 17 in Fig. 1). Testes from this group were larger in early September than those from any other area, including birds at the same latitude (350 N) in the Lincoln National Forest (area 16 in Fig. 1). I checked many areas in New Mexico for acorns (Quercus spp.) in 1972, but found them only in southwestern New Mexico, within 50 miles of area 17 (Fig. 1). However, an average acorn crop apparently was produced in Colorado (C. E. Braun, personal communication). Conditions of ovaries from females collected in Colorado and New Mexico are listed in Table 1. A one-way analysis of variance showed no significant differences between 1969 and the other collection years, ,between subadults and adults, or between time periods. This is not unexpected, since an enlarged follicle is a temporary, short-term condition. The female pigeon undergoes a rapid final stage of follicle enlargement when sexually stimulated by the male (Bartelmez 1912). The data do indicate, however, that most females taken (88 percent) were in breeding condition (follicle diameter 2.1-5.5 mm+) from May through August. Altogether, 19 birds (8.6 percent) had two or more follicles greater than 5.5 mm. Seven birds contained either an egg and large follicle or two ovulated follicles. Females taken from the Gila National Forest in September 1972 showed significantly larger follicles than those taken at the same time from other areas (Table 1). No birds from this area had granular ovaries. One pigeon collected on 2 September 1972 had two large ruptured follicles (15.5 and 10.7 mm, after fixation and storage). Another bird had one large ruptured follicle of 10.1 mm. Results of the histological examination of testes are shown in Fig. 6. A significant correlation (r = .654, n = 46; P< 0.01) exists between increase in testes volume and increasing stage of spermatogenesis. All testes examined above 181 mm3 volume were in stage 5 (producing sperm). On the basis of this examination, most subadults were thought to be in breeding condition. Juvenile birds were not considered in the gonadal analyses because statistical analyses of 23 individuals (X = 11.0 mm3; standard error of the mean = 5.6; range = 4.5 - 30.4 mm3) indicated they were not capable of breeding. �Table 1. Ovarian condition of female band-tailed pigeons from Colorado and New Mexico, 1969-1972. Diameter of Largest Follicle <2.0 mm 2.1 to Granular 5.4 mm > 5.5 mm Number of Birds in Size Class 1-15 May No. of Birds with 2 Follicles > 5.5 mm No. of Birds With 3 or More Follicles > 5.5 mm No. of Birds With an Oviductal Egg or Ruptured Follicle 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 6 9 1 0 0 1-15 June 1 9 6 2 1 2 16-30 June 9 17 10 3 3 4 1-15 July 4 35 28 4 0 10 16-31 July 0 5 7 0 1 3 1-15 August 1 9 2 1 0 2 16-31 August 3 5 0 0 0 0 1-15 September 21 4 (5)* (3) (1) (2) (2) 16-30 September 16 0 0 0 0 0 Total 57 97 67 12 7 23 16-31 May I t-' 0\ 0\ I *(n) indicates birds which were taken in southwestern New Mexico 1972. �-167- 33 M s W :=0; :;) -' C> > '00 •... •... (IJ en ••• •... no 300 250 3 200 3 ISO 100 so 6 $ $ I 0 $ 3 STAGE OF II s SPERMATOGENESIS Fig. 6. The relationship of testes volume and stage of spermatogenesis. Range, mean standard error of mean, and sample size are shown. �-168- Photoperiod Studies Results of the photoperiod experiments are shown in Figs. 7-9. Experiment l.--Five males with regressed or regressing testes were subjected to 14 hr light - 10 hr dark photoperiod from 23 September to 23 October 1972. These birds showed a highly significant (P<O.Ol) testicular volume increase. This experiment was designed to determine the presence or absence of a refractory period in band-tailed pigeons. The responses obtained suggest that these pigeons are continuously photoresponsive. Experiment 2.--Two groups of five males with regressed testes were subjected to 12.5 hr light - 11.5 hr dark photoperiod from 30 November 1972 to 3 January 1973. One group was fed only acorns and the other group a mixture of wheat and cracked corn. Band-tailed pigeons appear to be dependent on mast production (acorns and seeds of pinon pines, Pinus edulis) over much of their range (Neff 1947, Fitzhugh 1970), although they take a wide variety of vegetable foods (Neff 1947, Salt 1953). I hoped to obtain information both on the role of food on reproductive patterns and on the effects of this photoperiodic regime on gonadal development. Additionally, exposure of the birds to a 12.5 hr light regime 30 days after experiment 1 might demonstrate a refractory period in the event the birds in experimen~ 1 had not yet become refactory. A two way analysis of variance (light and food) showed a highly significant (P< 0.01) increase in testes volume of both groups of birds. No significant increase could be attributed to the type of food the birds received, nor was there a significant interaction between the two variables. Experiment 3.--Four males with regressed testes were subjected to 10 hr light _ 14 hr dark photoperiod from 15 January to 15 February 1973. Ten hours of light caused some increase in testes size, however, the increase was not statistically significant. Histological examination of the testes showed spermatogenesis had begun (stages 2 or 3, see Lofts et ale 1966) in all but one bird. Experiment 4.--Eight males and four females were housed in outdoor aviaries from 23 September to 1 November 1972. Five of the males and one female were lost and subsequently were replaced by a single male and female. These eight birds (two pairs in each aViary) were maintained from 1 November 1972 to 3 April 1973. Since band-tailed pigeons normally overwinter in Mexico, specimens available for gonadal analyses are rare. Accordingly, this experiment was designed to monitor gonadal change throughout the fall, winter, and spring in relation to naturally decreaSing and increasing photoperiod. Apparently, male pigeons continue a slight testicular regression until day length begins to increase (sometime during the period 1 December _ 4 January). The testicular increase for this period was significant (P < 0.01). Testes volume did not increase significantly between 4 January - 1 March 1973. The testes again increased significantly in the period 1 March - 3 April 1973. �-169- ~OO 31S B HO us 3.0 '" ••• E E US n. UI :=;; ;:, ....• 22S B 0 > •... •... 200 .... I7S en en UI B ISO· US 100 B 7S A A A so 2S ++ + + 18 12.5 ('U •• ) 12.S f 10' ('CORNsl HOURS OF llC,HT Fig. 7. Relationship of 30 day photoperiod treatments to testes development. Begtnnf.ng volumes are indicated by "A", ending volumes at same photoperiod as "B". Mean, range, standard error of mean are shown. �-170- HO ~n ~OO_ i J1 s I S HO .• $ , T ~ 1 1 r 83 I I 1 ., .•. 8 I 1 lH JOO ..., E E 21~ 250 2~0 •... UJ ::,; ~ 'H ~ 22S 0 > VI UJ •... ..... •... C) :c C) UJ ~ 200 200 >0 0 CD VI 115 115 I~O 100 1!> ; 50 2S fj3 n .oVEMUA 23 S(rIlM'U I IOUMIU S H •• UlIY , JUU&IY 3 "UL , M&IC" Fig. 8. Gonadal cycles and body weights of captive male bandtailed pigeons. Sample size is four in all cases. Mean, standard error of mean, and range are shown. �-171- ~so ~2S ~oo ,.' $ $ $ 315 - 3S0 32S ~ cr, 300 275 ,... 2S0 S.O •.... i'"'" ! '.S· 22S ~.O 200 x C) w iI= • w ~ .., >0 0 115 a::I 3.\ -' -' 3.0- ~ ISO -; •.... ."~ 2.\ " 125 0:: cC J 100 •.••2.0 C> 0:: • ~ 1.5 .... ~ cC C 1.0 • • • • • 7!0 50 2S .S 5 fU~UY 29 UwEMUI 23 U'UM'U I MOHMIE. • JAIiUlU 3 AP"~ I MUe;_ Fig. 9. Gonadal cycles and body we~ghts of captive female bandtailed pigeons. Sample size is f4ui in all cases. Mean only is shown for follicle diameter. :~" �-172- The ovaries of female pigeons tember 1972 and 1 March 1973. and 3 April 1973. showed no significant growth between 23 SepFollicles grew significantly between 1 March Experiment 5.--Two females were held in outdoor aviaries from September 1971August 1972 under natural photoperiod to observe ovarian change in the absence of a male. Fem~le rock doves (Columba livia) and wood pigeons apparently do not undergo final ovarian development if no male is present (Bartelmez 1912, Murton and Isaacson 1962). Ovaries of both females remained granular (follicles less than 2.0 rom in diameter) until the period 1 April _ 1 May 1972, when they increased to 5.0 and 4.2 rom. They reached maximum follicular diameter in June (6.4 rom, 6.8 rom), then began to decrease gradually until September, when they were once again classified as granular. Bartelmez (1912) suggested that in domestic pigeons a follicle greater than 5.5 rom would continue to increase until ovulation occurred. Others have used this 5.5 rom criterion as a measure of pigeon breeding activity (Lofts et al. 1966, March and Sadleir 1970). Body Weight, Body Fat, Crop Activity Correlation coefficients of body weight, body fat, and crop gland to gonad size for males are listed in Table 2. These were computed both for the entire summer and for each half of the summer (early and late). A significant positive correlation exists between testes volume and body weight during early summer for all years, and a significant positive entire summer correlation for 1969 and 1970. The slight indication of a negative correlation in late summer is not significant because weight changes are not great (Figs. 8 and 9). A significant correlation between body weight and gonad size was obtained. No consistent significant correlations were observed with respect to body fat or crop activity in males or to body weight, body fat, or crop activity in females for all years and time periods. The relationship of body weight to gonad size is clearly seen in Figs. 8 and 9. DISCUSSION Band-tailed pigeons breed in Colorado from at least May through August. The season may be even longer, however, no birds were collected during March or April. In New Mexico the breeding season is Similar, except that fall breeding apparently has occurred in southwestern New Mexico. The length of the breeding season is not a latitudinal response per se as suggested by March and Sadleir (1970), but almost certainly is a response to environmental conditions. Two populations of pigeons sampled in September 1972 at the same latitude (330 N), but 150 miles apart, document this. Specimens from one population were in breeding condition, whereas the others were not. Acorns were locally abundant in southwestern New Mexico in 1972 and bandtailed pigeons apparently bred in the fall in response to abundan t acorns. Ligon (1971) found pinon jays (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) breeding in fall in southwestern New MeXico, presumably in response to an abundance of pin~n pine seeds. �" -173- Table 2. Correlation coefficients of testes volwne and eody weight in male band-tailed pigeons. Year Entire Sutmner Early Summar Late Summer 1969 r = 0.242* r = 0.294* r = -0.347 ns 1970 1971 1972 (67) (57) r = 0.514* r = 0.554* (10) r = 0.341 ns (49) (36) (13) r = 0.250 ns r = 0.54:)* r = -0.157 ns (35) (19) (16) r = 0.114 ns (56) * - significant (P<0.05) ns - not significant (P<0.05) r = 0.442(25) r = -0.092 ns (31) (n) - sample size Nomadic bahavior of band-tailed pigeons in response to mast production has been suggested by Neff (1947) and Smith (1968);· Braun (1972), however, found that Colorado pigeons have a high fideliti to a given area. The production of acorns and pinon seeds in the southwest is not predictable. Since band-tailed pigeons apparently do not possess a true refractory period they may move until locating a food supply large enough to support a breeding effort, regardless of increasing or decreasing daylength. Reproductive success must be considered the ultimate factor in the control of any species' breeding cycle. Food as well as light probably interact as proximate factors which trigger breeding in band-tailed pigeons. Nomadism is a reasonable response to local shortages of food. The great mobility of these pigeons can be considered as an adaptation which allows breeding in an environment with an Wlpredictable local food supply. Numerous observations of nomadic behavior in this pigeon have been made in southwestern New Mexico (J. D. Ligon, personal cotmnWlication). In this respect, the biology of the band-tailed pigeon is similar to that of the extinct passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) (Schorger 1955). Most of BraWl's (1972) study areas are near agricultural areas (e.g. small grains, orchards). This modifies the environment in that some predictability �-l/4- in food supply is attained. Response to these locally predictable supplies may explain the high fidelity he found to these areas. food Band-tailed pigeons in Colorado and New Mexico retain sexual competency until mid-August. The incubation period is 19 days and nestling life is about 20 days (MacGregor and Smith 1955). Therefore, the birds could easily lay two clutches of eggs. Also, this bird will sometimes lay eggs in a nest containing a nestling (C. E. Braun, unpublished data). If this is a common occurrence, it would considerably shorten two nesting cycles. Enlarged ovarian follicles are a general indicator of breeding condition. March and Sadleir (1970) did not find more than one swollen follicle in any ovary, suggesting that pigeons from British Columbia lay only one egg per clutch. Eight percent of the females I examined had two or more enlarged follicles suggesting that a small percentage of interior pigeons do lay two eggs. I do not believe that band-tailed pigeons lay three eggs, although specimens containing three or more follicles greater than 7.0 rom were recorded (see Bartelmez 1912). Neff (1947) and MacGregor and Smith (1955) also reported clutches of two eggs from interior populations, although these were not common. Band-tailed pigeons may attempt to breed three times in years of favorable environmental conditions, as suggested by fall breeding in at least one population. MacGregor and Smith (1955) observed that a pair of band-tailed pigeons successfully reared three broods in one year. Gonadal cycles of interior and British Columbia band-tailed pigeons are similar (see March and Sadleir 1970). In Britian, the wood pigeon, stock dove (ColUmba oenas), and rock dove exhibit similar gonadal cycles (Lofts et ale 1966). Wood pigeons depend on cereal grains and stock doves on weed seeds during the breeding season (Lofts et ale 1966). As in these columbids, band-tailed pigeons undoubtedly respond to food as a proximate factor. This is also the case in many other birds (Lofts and Murton 1968). Other columbids, e. g. the wood pigeon, stock dove, rock dove, and possibly the mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), show no refractory period like that seen in many passerines (Cole 1933, Lofts et ale 1966, Lofts et ale 1967a, Lofts et ale 1967b, Lofts and Murton 1968). However, another columbid, the turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur), does show a refractory period (Lofts et ale 1967c). The experiment involving light and food indicated that light, rather than the kind or amount of food (acorn group was fed twice daily), was the determining factor in testicular recrudescence. This does not discredit the suggestion that pigeons respond to abundant food in the wild. Most psycholigical stimuli necessary for breeding are miSSing in a controlled laboratory environment. However, the environmental situation dictates the relative importance of each factor. Another point brought out by the experiment involving light and food type is that gonads responded to light per ~, rather than to more food intake as a result of long daylength, contradicting the suggestion of Ward (1972). The fact that band-tailed pigeons are responsive to photoperiods at least as short as 10 hours (1 January at 350 N) helps to explain the breeding �-175- records from Mexico in December and January (Thayer 1909, Lamb 1926). As day1ength is always greater than 10 hours in Mexico, breeding presumably may be attempted if the proximate factors of food and weather are favorable. The pigeons kept outdoors on natural photoperiods showed a gradual gonadal regression from September until December (probably until the winter solstice); when gonads increased rapidly as daylength increased. Absence of further growth during January and February may have been the result of overcrowding in the aviaries. In any case, after this situation was relieved on 1 March, gonadal growth resumed. These data help to explain the ability of the band-tailed pigeon to attempt unseasonal breeding or to show extended breeding seasons as a response to environmental conditions (Neff 1947, MacGregor and Smith 1955, Fitzhugh 1970). SUMMARY Band-tailed pigeons breed in Colorado and New Mexico from at least May through August and may attempt two nesting cycles. Earlier breeding is a possibility. Band-tailed pigeons normally lay one egg per clutch, although small percentage probably lay two eggs. a Photoperiod studies of the band-tailed pigeon indicate that the birds are stimulated by light periods as short as 10 hours a day and that they do not exhibit a characteristic refractory period. Gonadal regression begins in September with a rapid decrease in testes volume. Further regression takes place slowly in October and November. Significant growth, presumably in response to increasing daylength was observed by 4 January 1972 in birds kept out of doors, and full breeding capability was reached in March. The response to photoperiod stimulation and the probable response to other environmental cues explain the reports of winter nesting and the unusually long and varied breeding seasons sometimes recorded for this pigeon. The band-tailed pigeon apparently responds to proximate environmental cues, particularly mast production, in parts of its range (southwestern New Mexico) and fall breeding may occur at least occasionally. This response is not latitudinal per se but may be influenced by environmental conditions. This pattern of breeding in response to environmental cues is also seen in another southwestern species, the pinon jay. If conditions are poor in a given area, these pigeons may show nomadic behavior, not unlike that of the extinct passenger pigeon until finding food adequate to sustain breeding. This data help explain the unusual in the band-tailed pigeons. reproductive patterns previously observed �-176- LITERATURE CITED Abbott, C. G. 1927. Notes on the nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor 29:121-123. Bartelmez, G. W. 1912. The bilaterality of the pigeon's egg: a study in egg organization from the first growth period of the oocyte to the beginning of cleavage. J. MOrphol. 23:269-330. Braun, C. E. pigeons. 1972. Movements and hunting mortality of Colorado band-tailed Tr. N. Am. Wild!. Nat. Resour. Conf. 37:326-334. ---, and D. E. Benson. 1972. Band-tailed pigeon investigations, breeding and nesting chronology studies. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 159-168. Cole, L. J. 1933. The relation of light periodicity to the reproductive cycle, migration and distribution of the mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura carolensis). Auk 50:284-296. Fitzhugh, L. 1970. Literature review and bibliography of the band-tailed pigeon of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah. Spec. Rept., Arizona Game and Fish Dept. 53 p. Glover, F. A. 1953. A nesting study of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba f. fasciata) in n0rthwestern California. Calif. Fish and Game 39:397-407. Horwitz, W. 1960. Official methods of analysis. Agr. Chemists. Washington, D. C. 832 p. 9th Ed. Assoc. of Off. Houston, D. B. 1963. A contribution to the ecology of the band-tailed pigeon, Columba fasciata, Say. M. A. Thesis. Univ. of Wyo., Laramie. 74 p. Lamb, C. C. 1926. The Viosca pigeon. Condor 28:262-263. Ligon, J. D. Mexico. 1971. Late summer-autumnal breeding of the pinon jay in New Condor 73:147-153. Lofts, B., R. K. Murton, and N. J. Westwood. 1966. Gonadal cycles and the evolution of breeding seasons in British Columbidae. J. Zool., London 150:249-272. ---, , and 1967a. Experimental demonstration of a postnuptial refractory period in the turtle dove, Streptopelia turtur. Ibis 109:352-358. ---, , and 1967b. Photoresponses of the woodpigeon, Columba palumbus, in relation to the breeding season. Ibis 109:338-351. �-177- Lofts, B., R. K. Murton, and N. J. Westwood. 1967c. Interspecific differences in photosensitivity between three closely related species of pigeons. J. Zool., London 151:17-25. Lofts, B., and R. K. Murton. 1968. Photoperiodic and physiological adaptions regulating avian breeding cycles and their ecological significance. J. Zool., London 155:327-394. MacGregor, W. G., and W. M. Smith. 1955. Nesting and production of the band-tailed pigeon in California. Calif. Fish and Game 41:315-326. March, G. L., and R.M.F.S. Sadleir •. 1970. Studies on the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata) in British Columbia. 1. Seasonal changes in gonadal development and crop gland activity. Can. J. Zool. 48:1353-1357. Meyer, R. K., C. Kabat, and I. o. Buss. 1947. Early involuntary changes in the post-ovulatory follicles of the ring-neck pheasant. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 11:43-49. Murton, R. K., and A. J. Isaacson. 1962. The functional basis of some behavior in the wood-pigeon (Columba palumb~s). Ibis 104:503-521. Neff, J. A. 1947. Habits" food, and economic status of the band-tailed pigeon. N. Am. Fauna 58:1-76. Salt, G. W. 1953. An ecologic analysis of thr~e California avifaunas. Condor 55:258-273. Schorger, A. W. 1955. The ~assenger pigeon. Univ. Okla. Press. Norman. 424 p. Silovsky, G. D., H. M. Wight, L. H. Sisson, T. L. Fox, and S. W. Harris. 1968. Methods for determining age in band-tailed pigeons. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32 :421-424. Smith, W. A. 1968. Game 54 :4-16. The band-tailed pigeon in California. Calif. Fish and Stephens, F. 1913.· Early nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Swarth, H. S. 1900. Avifauna of a 100-acre ranch. Thayer, J. E. 1909. Letter to the editor. Vorhies, C. T. 1928. Condor 30:253. Condor 15 :129. Condor 2 :14-16. Condor 11:142-143. Band-tailed pigeon nesting in Arizona in September. Ward, P. 1972. An appeal to physiologists Ibis 114 :275. reporting photoperiod experiments. Zeigler, D. L. 1971. Crop-milk cycles in band-tailed pigeons and losses of squabs due to hunting pigeons in September. M. S. Thesis. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. 48 p. Prepared by / Ralph J. Gutierrez Approved by _~t4-=-=V:..:..-.· ~r.==-=-. -+~-c.:.....:=~~ Clai t E. Braim Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/88c0930967705a21d863fbefca35fdcf.pdf affff4c85e9d676e736ff9aa93b8409d PDF Text Text -1- January, 1974 JOB FINAL REPORT State of __ -=C-=O=LO.;:;,;RA=D::..;O~_ Project No. .W-4l-R-23 Work Plan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 12 Job Title: Location and Distribution of Bighorn Sheep Herds in Colorado Period Covered: June 1, 1972 through May 31, 1973 Personnel: George D. Bear and George W. Jones. ABSTRACT A final report has now been completed, published and distributed during this segment, in the Game Research Report format under a special cover and binder to provide usable sources of information for wildlife managers, under the title "History and Distribution of Bighorn Sheep in Colorado". . Prepared by r -_--_-_/._;'_~-~~~<~-!---.-.-~-.-- George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher r ~'" _ , •.. ,-, ��January, -3- JOB PROGRESS State of Project 1974 REPORT .:;.CO.:::.;L::;.O::;,;RAD=:...:O:.-. _ No. Work Plan No. Job Title Bighorn 1 Job No. Evaluation Period Covered: Personnel: W-4l-R-23 of the Nutritional Sheep and Mountain Requirements Goat Investigations 16 of Bighorn Sheep June 1, 1972 through May 31, 1973 Gene G. Schoonveld - Field Collections, bighorn sheep food-habits. Robert E. Keiss and William J. Adrian - laboratory analyses. ABSTRACT This investigation concerns nutrition of bighorn sheep and the role of nutrition to the overall welfare of this animal species. These past two segments have centered primarily on making field collections of forages and bighorn sheep fecal samples from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges, determining what plants are eaten by sheep, and testing laboratory techniques for measuring nutritional quality of forages and nutrients eliminated in feces. Food-habits data obtained during this second segment do not show extreme fluctuations in plants eaten between months as previously reported and is believed to better estimate relative proportions of forages actually eaten. Grasses and sedges were predominantly eaten throughout the year with increased usage of browse species occurring during fall and early winter. Only one forb species, Arenaria fendleri was eaten by sheep in substantial quantities. Testing laboratory techniques for measuring nutritional quality of forages as well as analyses of fecal samples for nutrients eliminated has been accomplished. The results of utilizing these techniques on forages and fecal samples are also contained in this report. ��-5- EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF BIGHORN SHEEP • . !J' Robert E. Keiss Gene G. Schoonveld P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methods:, (a) for the evaluation of nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep under natural conditions, and (b) to measure the adequacy of selected ranges to meet these requirements. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the nutritional level o f forage species utilized by bighorn sheep. 2. To evaluate if the nutritional level of selected bighorn sheep ranges is adequate to meet nutrient requirements of bighorn sheep at all seasons of the year. METHODS AND MATERIALS Nutritional Quality of Forage Species Used by Bighorn Sheep Sample Collections and Food-Habits Analysis Procedures for collecting forages and bighorn sheep fecal samples and microtechniques used in determining food-habits were previously described (Schoonveld 1973) .. Fecal samples collected during this·segmentwere also analyzed for numbers of lungworm larvae. Results of these analyses are reported under the contract segment, "Spontaneous Diseases in Bighorn Sheep". Laboratory Methods General • In the early years chemists attempted to define the nutritive quality of feeds (Thaer 1809; Boussingault 1843; Henneberg and Stohmann 1860) and their chemical methods were ultimately adopted and developed into the total digestible nutrient (TDN) system of feed analysis as proposed by Henry and �-6- Morrison (1910). The Weendemethod of partitioning forages is based upon the TDN system (crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and nitrogen free extract) but has several major flaws and assumptions which are very questionable by today's standards of feed analysis. Other modifications and improvements have been made by a number of workers in recent years (Crampton and Maynard 1938; Van Soest 1964; Colburn and Evans 1967; Van Soest and Wine 1967). Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) and Harris (1970) have developed a procedure for examining the cell wall constituents of all types of feeds which have been adopted by our laboratory and were used throughout this experiment. The plant I:!ellis basically separated into two main components, the cell walls and the cell contents. The cell contents.include the majority of the nutritive matter that is digested by enzymatic action within the digestive system and subsequently absorbed and utilized by the animal. This includes both partially nutritive matter and non-nutritive matter. Partially nutritive matter includes cell wall carbohydrates, cellulose and hemicellulose. These chemically complex compounds are partially broken down by the action of bacterial enzymes within the gastro-intestinal tract and the total digestibility of the cellulose and hemicellulose can be combined and reported as holocellulose as the differences for most animals is not significantly different to report separately. The non-nutritive matter within the cell walls includes lignin and acid insoluble ash. These constituents have no known nutritive value. The system used for analysis of the nutritive value of feeds used in this experiment requires the determinations of protein, ether extract, ash, cell walls, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, acid insoluble ash, soluble ash, and soluble carbohydrate. Mineral analysis for calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, iron, potassium were made on selected forages as a part of this study • .Protein The micro-Kjeldahl method for the determination of crude protein (total nitrogen x 6.25) was used. Two hundred fifty milligrams of plant material was placed in a 100 ml Kjeldahl flask with 1 gm of catalytic mixture and 3 m1 of concentrated H2S04. The material was predigested overnight then placed upon a micro-Kjeldahl digester and heated until the sample was completely clear. After cooling, the digested sample was transferred to a micro-Kjeldahldistillation chamber. Ten ml of 12 N.NaOH is added and the sample distilled with steam into a boric acid solution containing 2 drops each of bromocresol green and 2,4, dinitro-phenol indicator solutions. The boric acid solution was titrated with 0.05715 N. H2S04. , .,.- �-7- Calculation: Percent Protein = m1. titrant x 2 Reagents: 1. Catalytic Mixture 100gm Cu~04 2. Boric Acid 3.·Bromocreso1 Green Indicator 4.; 2,4 Dinitro-pheno1 Indicator ,5."12 N. NaOH ~. 0.05715 N. H2S04 250 gm Na2S04 Ether Extract A one gram (ove.ndry) sample is weighed into a previously tared, fat-free extraction thimble. iThe thimble was placed in aSaxh1et fat extraction apparatus and extracted for eight hours with anhydrous petro1etnn ether.' After the extraction period the thimbles were removed, allowed to dry overnight, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The loss in weight of the sample was calculated as percent ether extract on a: dry weight basis •. Ash A one gram (oven dry) sample was weighed into a previously tared crucible and placed into a cold muffle furnace. The heat was allowed to buildup slowly to 5500 C artd'held overnight. The following day the heat was shut off, allowiIlg the~rucibles to cool. After the crucibles were cooled to approximately 2000'C they were transferred to a desiccator where they were allowed to cool to room temperature'and weighed. Percent ash was calculated on a dry weight basis. The ash was then dissolved in 2 m1 of concentratedNH03 ov'er a steam bath and quantitatively transferred to a 50 ml vo1tnnetric flask, made to vo1tnne, and the solution kept for mineral analysis. Cell Walls .-;.: • 19ram (oven dry) .samp1e was added to a 600m1 Berze1ius beaker and 75 m1 of citrate buffer and 1 m1 deca LLn added. .The beakers were placed on a refluxing apparatus consisting of six individually controlled hot plates and 500 m1 round bottom water cooled flasks on top of the beakers. The samples were brought to a boil and allowed to reflux for 30 minutes from �-8- the onset of boiling. The beakers were removed, cooled and 25 ml of pepsin solution added. The beakers were placed in a water bath at 450 C.Since we had no means to keep the flasks in constant motion as recommended, we allowed the digestion to proceed for approximately 48 hours with occasional stirring. After the pepsin digestion the liquids were removed from the beakers and the residue rinsed with hot water, followed by a thorough acetone washing. After the acetone washing, 100 ml of detergent solution was added and the beakers refluxed for 60 minutes on the refluxing apparatus. The detergent samples are then poured into a previously tared filter crucible while drawing off the liquid with suction. The cell walls were then thoroughly washed with large volumes of hot water, followed by thorough rinsing with acetone. The filter crucibles were dried at 1050 C overnight, placed in a desiccator to cool, and weighed. Calculation: Percent Cell Walls Weight of Cell Walls Weight of Sample X 100 Reagents: 1. 42 gm Citric Acid 10 gm Tween 40 1,000 ml Water (Adjust pH to 3.0 ,.nthNH40H) 2. Pepsin Solution Pepsin '40 gm Citric Acid 40 gm Water 1,000 ml (Make fresh as needed - 1 gm pepsin and 1 gm citric acid per 25 ml - which is required for each sample) 3. Detergent Solution Citric Acid 42 gm Dodecyl Sodium Sulfate 20 gm Water 1,000 ml (Adjust to pH 3.0 with NH40H) 4. Decalin (Decahydronaphthalene) 5. Acetone Citrate Buffer Hemicellulose The residue from the cell wall determination was removed from the filter crucible and placed in the Berzelius beaker, taking great care to remove all the material. Seventy-five ml of 8 percent H2S04 was added to the beaker and they were refluxed on the refluxing apparatus for 1 hour. After refluxing, each sample was washed back into the same filter crucible from which it was removed, the residue washed in large volumes of hot, water followed by a thorough acetone rinse. The filter crucibles were placed in the drying oven overnight, removed to a desiccator until cool and weighed. Hemicellulose was computed as the loss of weight from the cell wall residue. �-9':' .Calctilation : Wt. Cell Wall Residue Wt. Extracted·Cell Wall Residue ·X 100 Sample Weight % Hemicellulose Reagents: 1. 8% Sulfuric Acid (Specific gravity of 1.052 at 20o C) Lignin and Acid Insoluble Ash The residue from the hemicellulose determination is digested with 72% H2S04 by placing the filter crucible into a beaker containing the acid. The acid is allowed to soak into the residue from the bottom through the fritted disc so that the residue is wetted from the bottom up. The residue was left in the acid for 3 hours after which the acid was filtered off, followed by a thorough washing with large volumes of hot water. It is important .. to remove all traces of acid from the residue and filter crucible. The residue was then dried overnight, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The filter crucibles were then placed in the muffle furnace at 5000 Covernight, removed, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Calculation: % Lignin = Wt.Residue BeforeAshing":" wt. Residue After Ashing X 100 Sample Weight % Acid Insoluble Ash Wt. Residue After Ashing - Wt. Tared Crucible Sample Weight Reagents: 1. 72% Sulfuric ACid (Specific gravity of 1.63 at 200 C) Celluiose, by Ca Lcu'Lat.Lon: Calculation: % Cellulose % GellWalls - (% Hemicellulose + % Acid Insoluble Ash) Soluble Ash, by Calculation Calculation: % Soluble Ash % Ash - % Acid Insoluble Ash Cell Contents, by Calculation Calculation: % Cell Contents = 100 -% Cell Walls XIOO �-10- Soluble Carbohydrate, by Calculation Calculation: % Soluble Carbohydrate =% Cell Contents - (% Protein + % Soluble Ash + % Ether Extract) Summary of Procedures: The cellular components are chemically separated and evaluated by these methods as described by Fonnesbeckand Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) and Harris (1970) with a few modifications to better adapt the procedures to our particular laboratory and needs. The basic data produced by these procedures areas follows: % Cell Content % Protein % Lipid- Ether Extract % Soluble Ash % Soluble Carbohydrate % Cell Walls % Hemicellulose ) % Holocellulose ) . % Ce11u 1ose % Acid Insoluble Ash % Lignin Mineral Analysis After dry ashing a one gram sample for percent ash determination, the ash was dissolved in 2 ml concentrated HN03 and transferred to a 50ml volumetric flask. This solution was the stock solution for running mineral analysis. Phosphorous was determined by the molybdophosphoric acid spectrophotometrically using a B & L Spectronic 20. All other minerals were determined using a Perkin-Elmer 303 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer using standard procedures~ The following minerals were analysed for, in selected samples: ..,. ' Phosphorous Calcium Magnesium Manganese Zinc} Copper Iron Pota,ssium RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nutritional Quality of Forages Used by Bighorn Sheep Food-Habits Residues of plant species identified in fecal samples were similar to those �-11- • ;' previously reported (Schoonveld 1973) however, estimated relative proportions of major forage classes (grasses and sedges, browse, forbs) do not show extreme monthly fluctuation (Fig. lA). Food-habits data obtained during this segment is more closely substantiated by field observations of what sheep were seen to be using and is believed to better represent relative proportions of forages used. Improved data accuracy is probably the result of increased knowledge of sheep using the range, better field collection techniques, and more experience on the part of the technician in preparing microscope slides, identifying plant residues and estimating relative proportions· of plants eaten. A comparison of major forages used (species consistently identified in substantial amounts > 5 percent of the diet) among the three study areas is given in Table lA. Complete lists of all grasses and sedges, trees and shrubs, and forbs identified in fecal samples collected June 1971 May 1973 are listed in Tables 2A through 4A. Grasses and sedges were predominantly eaten throughout the year with increased utilization of browse species occurring during fall and early winter (Fig. lA). Only one forb species, Arenaria fendleri was used by Pikes Peak and Buffalo Peaks sheep in substantial amounts (Table lA). Digestion Coefficients, Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) and Nutritive Ratios • Accurate data concerning relative proportions of individual plant species comprising sheep diets are essential in determining digestion coefficients, TDN,· and nutritive ratios of the diet. Previous studies (Zyznar and Urness 1969, Stewart 1967, Schoonveld 1973) suggest substantial bias exists in use of fecal microanalysis techniques for estimating relative proportions of plants ingested. Recently, an exacting investigation on validity of the technique (Dearden 1973) found that differential digestion does influence percent relative proportions of plant residues discernible in feces and correction factors must be used in making diet composition estimates. He found relative proportions of grasses and grasslike forages were consistently overestimated while forbs and shrubs were underestimated. Determining correction factors for all major forages used by sheep would involve extensive feeding trials, preferably using captive bighorn sheep, which is not feasible at. this time, nor included in the scope of this investigation. The determination of digestion coefficients, TDN, nutritive ratios and digestible energy of sheep diets cannot be done with a reasonable degree of accuracy and is therefore deleted from this study • • �GRASSES :. AN'O GRASSL.IK E ;. 100 '" " / 90 '" f] . , / " '" " " """ ",._- -- -- _. . /1' " / UJ / Q . x" ••• z ,, . " ," o UJ (,) ;' 70 / , ,'" .0: UJ Q. , -, -.. ,' /'" ",' i JUL JUN I AUG SEP -' , I I I-" i I N I I I / I I I . .i: I I I I I - Iii I .•.....•...• •...... . I OCT /'" '" "'x'" I i I I " ",' , ," , . -----, --- ..---a 5 O' •.... " ,~/ 60 '" / I /' -, , II / '" '" I J ~/ / ..;'' /{" J / ,.......;' .. . I / " U. I J '" / J , •••• ,~X ,. •.. 80 I· -~ - NOV x - PlKfS PEAK ., - 'BUFFALO . II. - TRICKLE I .: •••••• D ...... DEe .' 'i' ; JAN ". ".'" I '; ". .FEBMAR , I APR i MAY Fig. lA. Percent grasses and grasslike forages identified in diets of bighorn sheep using the Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak ranges, June 1972 - May 197'3•. Estimates of percent relative density were made using fecal sampl~ micro-techniques. '" " • .. .J. .-., �-13- Table lA. Major forage species used by bighorn sheep occupying the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges June 1971-May 1973. Plant species were identified and percent relative proportions estimated using fecal sample micro-techniques •. Species Percent of Diet (Range) Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Trickle Mtn. Grasses and Grasslikes Agropyron spp. T-7 T-IO Bouteloua gracilis T-9 11 T-31./ Bromus spp. T-ll Carex spp. 3-54 1-30 T-14 8-92 Danthonia parryi 4-19 T-7 Deschampsia caespitosa T-17 T-4 Festuca spp. T-67 T-58 Muh1enbergia spp. T-6 T-56 Oxyzopsis hymenoides T-5 T-ll Paa spp. 2-11 T-15 Sporobo1us cryptandus T-53 4-15 T-8 Stipa spp. T-ll T-5 T-17 T-12 T-2 Artemisia frigida T-4 !/ T':S1./ T-15 Cercocarpus montanus T-12 1./ T-7 1.1 T-14 Forbs Arenaria fend1eri Shrubs and Trees Eurotia lanata T-16 T 1/ Ho1odiscus dumosus •• T-42 Pinus spp. T-7 Shepherdia canadensis T-1~ Salix spp. T-28 T-35 'I-I 0 Yucca spp. T-61/ T !/ T-16 T-29 1/ - Indicates sheep are moving and foraging between alpine and sub-a1plne ranges • .. ",.:-- �-14Table 2A. Grass and grasslike forages identified in bighorn sheep fecal samples collected June 1971 - May 1973·from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges ... Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Agropyron spp. X X X Agrostis variabilis X X X X X Species Aristida spp. Trickle Mtn. Bouteloua gracilis X X X Bromus spp. X X X Calamagrostis canadensis X X X Carex spp. X X X Carex nigricans X X X X X Cyperaceae spp. Danthonia parryi X X X Deschampsia caespitosa X X X X X X Festuca idahoensis F. thurberi X X Hordeum jubatum X X Juncus spp. X X X X X Koe1eria cristata Kobresia be1lardi X X X Muh1enbergia spp. X X X Oryzopsishymenoides X X X X Phleum alpinum Poa spp. X X X Sporobolus cr:¥:ptandus X X X Stipa spp , X X X Trisetum spicatum X X ~ �-15- Table 3A. Forbs identified in bighorn sheep fecal samples collected June 1971 - May 1973 from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges. ;<iI' , '\ ;; Species Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Achillea 1antilosa x Allium spp. Anemone spp. X X Amaranthus spp. X X Arenaria fend1eri X X X Astragalus spp. x, X X Calochortus nutta11i '. X Castilleja spp ,. X X Chrysopsis vil10sa X X Cryptantha spp. X X Delphinium spp. X Draba spp. x Erigeron spp. X X X Erigeronum spp. X X X Erysimum aspertim Euphorbia 1athyris X X X Geum'turbinatum Hymenoxys spp , X Lesquerel1a spp. X Lupinus spp. X X X X X X X Ranunculus spp. Senecio spp. X Sphaeralcea coccinea X Townsendia sericea Trifolium parryi X X Po1emonium spp. Potentil1a spp. X X Opun tia spp , Oxytropis hymenoides X X Mertensia1anceo1ata • Trickle Mtn. X X X X X X X X X �-16- Table 4A. Shrubs and trees identified in bighorn sheep fecal samples collected June 1971 - May 1973 from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges .. Species Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Trickle Mtn. Artemisia frigida x x x A. tridentata x x x Atriplex canescens x x Berberis repens x x x x x x Cercocarpus montanus x Chrysothamnus spp. Eurotia lanata x x x Holodiscus dumosus x x x Juniperus spp. x x x Pinus spp. x x x Potentilla fruiticosa x x Rosa spp. ·x x x Shepherdia canadensis x x x Salix spp. x x x Yucca spp. x x x . ." .... �-17- Evaluation of Selected Forages by Chemical Procedures In order to test the analytical procedures for the evaluation of feeds and feces by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) as well as to become proficient in the use of these procedures an experiment was designed using a series of forage samples. For this work grass samples collected at two seasons of the year (Summer-Winter) were selected for testing. These included grasses of the genus Poa, Bouteloua Festuca, Muhlenbergia, and KObresia. Eight replicate samples collected in summer and eight replicate samples collected in winter (with the exception of Bouteloua where no winter collections were available) were analyzed giving a total of 72 grass samples. All samples were analyzed to determine the percent cell content (% protein, % ether extract, % soluble ash, % soluble carbohydrate), percent cell walls (% insoluble ash, % lignin, % cellulose, % hemicellulose). The results of these determinations are shown in Tables 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9. All grass samples were analyzed for mineral content using the methods previously described. All samples were analyzed for calcium, phosphorous, manganese, magnesium, copper, iron, potassium, and zinc. The results of these analyses are shown in Tables 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17, and 18. Sample numbers assigned to forage samples in the cell content-cell wall analysis correspond to those assigned for mineral analysis. Evaluate Nutritional Level of Ranges in Furnishing Nutrient Requirements of Bighorn Sheep Range evaluations are dependerit upon comparisons of nutritional data or "qua1ityU of forages used by sheep on the three study areas. These analyses are continuing and complete evaluations cannot be done until all samples and data have been analyzed and comparisons made • •• �Table 1. Poa (swnmer) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). Cell Content Soluble Ether Extract Ash (%) Percent of Total (%) (%) (%) (%) 2.n 1.59 2.32 3.21 1.89 2.26 2.42 2.92 12.48 14.61 20.16 5.48 15.15 11.19 22.72 20.82 67.98 68·.15 61.63 70.97 68.03 n.57 60.80 61.90 2.41 2.84 2.10 2.96 2.67 2.83 1.98 2.79 5.51 6.33 6.30 6.13 5.94 5.81 5.72 5.63 34.71 29.96 26.19 33.86 31. 89 34.77 24.29 26.01 25.35 29.02 26.77 28.02 27 ~53 29.16 28.81 27.47 2.42 15.33 66.47 2.57 5.92 30.21 27.77 Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 32.02 31.85 38.64 29.03 31.97 27.43 39.20 38.10 11.60 10.80 11.60 15.60 10.80 9.60 10.00 10.40 5.22 4.85 4.56 4.74 4.13 4.38 4.06 3.96 - 33.53 11.30 4.49 x Cell Walls HemiLignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash Soluble Carbohydrate Cellulose I t-' 00 I Table 2. Poa (Winter) - chemical- partitioning of the nutritive constituents by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). Cell Content Soluble Ether Ash Extract Cell Walls Hemi.Lignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash (%) (%) (%) (%) 12.50 14.31 12.40 13.84 35.93 34.46 33.71 34.43 34.58 33.48 35.73 33.25 34.45 Sample Number of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 14.64 16.71 18.10 17.65 16.28 18.71 17.22 16.19 4.80 6.60 6.20 6.80 6.40 6.60 6.60 6.80 5.56 2.42 3.10 4.30 3.92 4.17 3.17 2.03 3.90 2.07 2.69 2.52 2.02 2.42 3.23 2.75 .38 5.62 6.11 4.03 3.94 5.52 4.22 4.61 85.36 83.29 81.90 82.35 83.72 81.29 82.78 83.81 2.25 3.15 3.14 2.22 3.66 3.10 3.32 2.52 12.64 12.41 12.68 34.68 31.37 32.65 31.86 31. 76 32.07 31.32 34.86 x 16.94 6.35 3.58 2.70 4.30 83.06 2.92 13.06 32.57 Per cent : (I. If Soluble Carbohydrate .-1 .~ 13. t: j .~ Cellulose �., ~ • " .~ " Table 3. Kobresia (summer) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris. (1970a, 1970b, 1971). CellCorttent Ether Soluble Extract Ash Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%). (%) 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 31. 76 29.92 31.47 27.86 . 31.51 30.95 37.00 35.99 14.80 10.40 11.20 9.60 10.40 10.80 10.40 10.40 4.34 5.9l 4.70 4.59 4.85 4.52 4.09 4.83 - 32.06 11.00 4.73 x Soluble Carbohydrate Cell Walls HemiLignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash (%) Percent of Total (%) (%) (%) (%) 2.84 2.74 3.23 2.96 2.71 3.34 3.33 4.02 9.78 10.87 12.34 10.71 13.55 12.29 19.18 16.74 68.24 70.80 68.53 72.14 68.49 69.05 63.00 64.01 3.19 3.26 2.86 3.42 3.38 3.30 3.20 3.27 9.03 9.53 8.27 7.64 8.64 7.69 8.40 7.55 28.88 30.59 29.76 34.77 31.72 31.28 26.96 29.23 27.14 26.70 27.64 26.31 24.75 26.78 24.80 23.96 3.15 13.18 67.94 3.24 8.34 30.40 26.01 Cellulose I I-' 1.0 I Table 4. Kobresia (winter) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). Cell Content Soluble Ether Ash Extract Soluble Carbohydrate Cell Walls HemiLignin Cellulose Percent of Total Insoluble Ash (%) (%) (%) (%) Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 23.00 22.68 24.62 22.39 21.06 21.88 22.84 24.51 7.60 6.40 6.80 7.. 20 6.20 7.20 7.60 9.00 3.52 3.37 1.9l 3.07 2.39 2.38 2.12 3.06 3.15 3.54 3.75 3.44 3.04 3.11 2.82 3.28 8.73 9.37 12.16 8.68 9.43 9.19 10.30 9.17 77 .00 77.32 75.38 77.61 78.94 78.12 77.16 75.49 3.32 3.36 2.80 2.96 3.62 3.95 3.52 2.96 11.86 12.15 13.11 11.92 12.67 11.79 14.06 14.45 30.28 30.21 29.65 29.79 30.47 29.86 28.86 26.• 91 31.54 30.60 29.82 32.94 32.18 32.52 30.72 31.17 - 22.87 7.25 2.73 3.27 9.63 77.13 3.31 12.75 29.50 31.44 x Cellulose �iI Table 5. Fes tuca (swnmer) -chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). Cell Content Ether Soluble Extract Ash Soluble Carbohydrate Cell Walls HemiLignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash (%) Percent of Total (%) (%) (%) (%) 4.74 4.27 4.71 3.95 2.25 3.76 3.98 4.14 6.05 7.06 9.35 11.86 14.62 8.07 5.74 10.46 76.09 71.91 65.63 72.56 67.29 69.91 66.04 69.27 9.47 6.48 5.03 8.80 7.37 6.77 5.88 7.68 7.27 8;24 7.00 6.58 7.07 7.83 7.07 7.21 25.20 26.29 25.80 22.38 27.61 28.68 23.67 25.16 34.15 30.90 27.80 34.80 25.24 26.63 29.42 29.22 3.98 9.15 69.84 7.19 7.28 25.60 29.77 Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) 33 34 35 36 31 38 39 40 23.91 28.09 34.37 27.44 32.71 30.09 33.96 30.73 8.40 11.60 14.40 7.20 10.40 13.20 15.20 11.20 4.72 5.16 5.91 4.43 5.44 5.06 9.04 4.93 x 30.16 11. 45 5.59 Cellulose , I -tv 0 I of the nutritive constituents by the methods of Table 6. Festuca (winter) - chemical partition:i,.ng Fonneab eck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971).' Sample Nuinber Percent of Total 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 19.14 20.98 20.02 22.68 20.97 21.02 20.94 24.42 x 21.27 ~ 'T' Cell Con tent Soluble Ether Ash Extract (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total 3~80 3.40 4.00 5.40 5.60 5.00 6.40 7.60 2.55 2.30 3.11 4.17 3.35 4.48 4.39 5.94 3.92 4;24 3.23 3.11 2.89 3.18 2.18 3.14 8.89 11.04 9.68 10.00 9.13 8.36 7.97 7.74 80.86 79.02 79.98 77 .32 79.03 78.98 79.06 75.58 .8.98 6.01 7.80 7.52 6.63 7~78 5.96 5.86 '5.15 3~79 3.24 9.10 78.73 7.07 Protein (%) Soluble Carbohydrate Insoluble Ash Cell \val1s HemiLignin Cellulose (%) Cellulose (%) (%) .(%) 9.26 9.63 9.30 10.54 9.52 11.03 11.66 12.41 27.89 27.96 27.73 26.68 28.25 27.44 28.99 26.90 34.73 35.42 35.15 32.58 34.63 32.73 32.45 30.41 10.42 27.73 33.51 - .' ~ ", . ~ )" �• l. 'jI Table 7. Muhlertbergia (summer) - chemical partitioning Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) Cell Content Soluble Ether Ash Ex.tract •• " of the nutritive (%) (%) Percent of Total 4.26 3.99 4.20 3.69 4.08 4.02 3.55 4.00 6.24 6.36 9.68 7.87 6.18 6.75 8.60 8.70 77.•91 70.20 71.23 76.99 75.30 73.44 72.30 72.86 '3.97. 7.55 (%) Soluble Carbohydrate ~. ! constituents by the methods of Cell ~valls HemiLignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash (%) (%) (%) (%) 7.06 4.07 4.20 5.53 4.30 . 4.36 4.21 3.26 9.76 8.62 8.95 9.89 9.83 9.81 10.30 9.67 30.77 29.03 29.05 33.40 31.53 32.57 29.93 30.66 30.32 28.48 29.03 28.17 29.64 26.70 27.86 29.27 30.87. 28.68 Cellulose . ;~,-: ',' 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 -. x 22.09 29.80 28.77 23~01 24.70 26.56 27.70 27.14 .' -. 7.00 13.00 10.40 7.80 10.40 11.00 11.40 11.40 4.59 .: 6.45 4.49 3.65 4.04 4.79 4.15 3.04 .. ' 26.22' I N I-' . I '. ; Ta.ble a.Muhlertberg-ia.(W1nteJ:)-chemica.1 partitioni~g Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). . Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) Cell Content Soluble Ether Ash Extract (%) 64 2.13 4.00 .··2.33 2.40 '1.65' 4.80 5.60' 2'~21· 2~16' 18037 S.2.b -. 1. 81 .6;00 .. 18.2.1 1.-96 .16.~88'.' 5.40 3.04 6.60 20.95 x 18.35 57 .58 ···.·.59· ··~··60 61' 6.2 63 16.42 17.04 '18.;76" "'20~17 5.00 2.16 of i:he'nutritiv~ cortstit:uentsby the methods of .' Cell Walls HemiLignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total 3.41 3.56 '3.43 2.91 2.52 2.49 2.37 3.20 6.88 8.75 8~88 9~45 8.49 7.91 7.15 8.11 83.58 82.96 81.24 79.83 81. 63 81. 79 83.12 79.05 6.27 7.09 4.76 4.97 4.44 4.12 4.64 4.09 10.27 9.84 10.34 10.34 11.22 11. 77 10.91 10.42 38.48 35.56 33.31 33.29 34.95 35.17 34.65 34.43 28.56 30.47 32.83 31.23 31.02 30.73 32.96 30.11 8.20 81.65 5.05 10.64 34.98 30.99 2.99 Soluble Carbohydrate '.' Cellulose �Table 9. Bouteloua (summer) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents by the methods of .Fontlesbeck>andHarris (1970a, 1970b, 1971). Sample Number Percent. of Protein (%), Total Cell Content .. Ether Soluble Extract Ash Soluble Carbohydrate (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total Cel1 Walls HemiLignin Cellulose Insoluble Ash (%) (%) (%) (%) Cellulose 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 26.21 33.81· 30.90 26.51 29.79 29.58 30.99 30.73 11.60 17.60 17.20 12.40 14.80 . 16.40 17.20 16.00 3.38 3.26 2.49 2.62 3.14. 3.41 3.07 2.92 5.57 5.80 5.33 5.41 4.32 4.26 5.76 5.63 5.66 7.15 5.88 6.08 7.53 5.51 4.96 6.18 73.79 66.19 69.10 73.49 70.21 70.42 69.01 69.27 8.09 4.98 5.09 9.11 7.46 6.10 6.31 5.74 7.68 7.62 7.75 8.29 7.47 7.83 7.63 7.81 29.42 27.58 29.58 29.25 25.72 29.19 29.17 29.18 28.60 26.01 26.68 26.84 29.56 27.30 25.90 26.54 x 29.82 15.40 3.04 5.26 6.12 70.18 6.61 7.76 28.64 27.18 b. r: .; .£ ..r I N N I �-23- i Table 10. Poa (summer) - mineral analysis. .Sample Number Ca P % % 1 .37 .34 .34 . .46 .34 ..40 .34 .43 .17 .10 .18 .20 .11 .10 .09 .18 .38 .14 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ppm Hn Mg ppm Cu ppm K % Fe % ppm Zn 1:2.18 1:3.40 1:1.89 1:2.30 1:3.09 1:4.00 1:3.78 1:2.39 32.5 29.0. 29.0 65.0 29.0 42.0 29.0 50.0 .12 .10 .12 .l3 .11 .11 .10 .12 3~0 2.5 1.7 3.4 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 25.5 23.5 22.0 27.5 22.0 33.0 22.0 23.5 .94 .66 .80 1.15 .71 .62 .57 .71 20.5 19.0 19.0 23.0 19.0 17.5 19.0 25.0 1:2.71 38.2 .11 2.1 24.9 .77 17.4 ppm Mn Mg prm Cu ppm Fe K % % ppm Zn Ca/p Table 11. Poa (winter) - mineral analysis. Sample Number Ca P % Cat % 9 10 11 12 l3 14 15 16 .49 .48 .55 .44 .46 .58 .55 .39 .06 .04 .03 .05 .06 .09 .06 .06 1: 8.17 1:12.00 1:18.33 1: 8.80 1: 7.67 1: 6.44 1: 9.17 1: 6.50 31.5 32.5 41.0 35.5 31.0 35.5 32.0 35.5 .12 .10 .11 .11 .12 .11 .13 .11 4.2 3.7 3.8 3.2 3.1 4.1 3.4 ·3.8 41.5 40.0 44.0 42.5 44.0 41.5 42.0 42.0 .15 .15 .15 .15 .13 .17 .15 .13 12.5 ·12.5 10 •. 5 11.0 12.5 11.0 l3.0 14.5 x .51 .06 1.:8.50 34.3 .11 3.7 42.2 .15 12.2 P �-24- Table 12. Kobresia (summer) - mineral analysis. Sample Number Ca P % <1' 70 Ca/p 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 .83 .80 .80 .70 .95 .89 .78 .48 .19 .14 .18 .12 .20 .18 .12 .10 x .78 .15 ppm . Mn Mg % ppm Cu ppm Fe .% ppm Zn 1:4.37 1:5.71 1:4.44 1:5.83 1:4.75 1:4.94 1:6.50 1:4.80 70.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 65.0 .17 .16 .15 .11 .18 .16 .14 .16 3.8 2.5 2.5 1.6 3.0 3.0 2.1 2.2 23.5 20.0 22.0 20.0 23.5 27.5 27.5 14.5 .54 .50 .57 .66 .57 .57 .54 .43 34.0 12.5 23.0 25.0 21.0 45.0 25.0 19.0 1:5.20 71.3 .15 2.6 22.3 .55 24.0 K ''r •• �-25- ~ Table Festuca (summer) - mineral analysis. 14. Sample Number Ca P % Ca/ p ppm Mn Mg % 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 .87 .89 .44 .39 .37 .38 .87 .36 .16 .16 .19 .12 .16 .18 .16 .17 1:5.44 1:5.56 1:2.32 1:3.25 1:2.31 1:2.11 1:5.44 1:2.12 32.5 39.0 42.0 25.5 35.5 45.0 45.0 39.0 .10 .11 .12 .08 .10 .17 .15 .12 x .58 .16 1:3.63 37.9 .12 % ppm Cu ppm Fe K % ppm Zn 2.1 3.4 3.0 2.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 47.5 70.0 70.0 58.5 36.5 65.5 58.5 51.5 .46 .66 .75 .43 .62 .66 .66 .57 17.0 16.0 12.5 11.0 12.5 25.0 14.5 14.0 2.9 57.3 .60 15.3 3.8 •• Table 15. Festtica (winter) - mineral analysis. Sample Number Ca a, P % Cal p ppm Mn 'Hg % ppm Cu ppm Fe K % ppm Zn 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 •35 .32 .33 .36 .36 .•41 .37 .48 .04 .07 .04 .09 .07 .05 .04 .10 1:8.75 1:4.57 1:8.25 1:4.00 1:5.14 1:8.20 1:9.25 1:4.80 42.0 32.5 35.5 35.5 45.0 29.0 39.0 60.0 .07 .07 .07 .09 .07 .09 .08 .09 2.5 2.1 3.0 2.5 3.8 2.5 3.4 2.5 36.5 36.5 31.0 36:5 35.0 31.0 33.0 33.0 .15 .17 .13 .17 .13 .21 .13 .15 12.5 12.5 12.5 16.0 11.0 9.5 11.0 9.5. x .37 .06 1:6.17 39.8 •08 2.8 34.1 . .16 11.8 Ie 'c, \ �-26- ,.~. ~ Table 16. Muh1enbergia (sunnner)- mineral analysis. Sample Number Ca % P % Ca/p 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 .50 .53 .53 .43 .43 .39 .46 .53 .15 .16 .16 .12 .16 .17 .14 .16 x .48 .15 Table 17. Muh1enbergia (winter) - mineral analysis. Sample ~umber P % Ca % lP ppm Mn ~~ % ppm Cu 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 .43 .48 .41 .43 .44 .39 .45 .50 .07 .08 .04 .04 .06 .07 .05 .14 1: 6.14 1: 6.00 1:10.25 1:10.75 1: 7.33 1: 5.57 1: 9.00 1: 3.57 19.5 25.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 19.5 22.5 22.5 .07 .07 .07 .08 .07 .08 .08 .08 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.5 2.1 5.0 2.1 2.1 31.0 46.5 29.5 33.0 26.5 31.0 33.0 29.5 .13 .13 .17 .17 .15 .15 .18 .17 10.0 12.0 11.5 13.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 11.0 x .44 .07 1: 6.29 22.1 .08 2.5 32.5 .16 11.9 Ca ppm Mn Mg ppm Cu ppm Fe K % % ppm Zn 1:3.33 1:3.31 1:3.31 1:3.58 1:2.69 1:2.29 1:3.29 1:3.31 25.5 39.0 42.0 19.5 35.5 25.5 25.5 25.5 .11 .13 .12 .10 .10 .11 .11 .13 3.4 2.5 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.1 2.1 45.5 41.5 40.5 42.0 44.0 45.5 38.5 45.5 .31 .66 .62 .35 •57 .62 .57 .71 25.0 30.5 19.5 19.0 19.5 . 21.5 16.0 22.0 1:3.20 29.8 .11 2.7 42.9 .55 21.6 ppm .K Fe 10 ppm Zn "I �-27- ,~ \ Table 18.· Boute1oua (summer) - mineral analysis. Sample Number Ca P % Cal p ppm Mn Mg % % ppm Cu ppm Fe K % ppm Zn 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 .63 .73 .72 .60 .69 .65 .67 .75 .26 .26 .25 ~22 .25 .26 .23 .24 1:2.42 1:2.81 1:2.88· 1:3.00 1:2.76 1:2.50 1:2.91 1:3.13 42.0 65.0 80.0 39.0· 55.0 39.0 55.0 60.0 .16 .19 .18 .16 .17 .18 .18 .19 3.0 4.7 2.1 2.5 2.1 1.6 2.1 3.8 65.5 58.5 62.0 58.5 58.5 49.5 50.5 58.5 .85 1.11 1.07 .75 .98 .94 1.11 .98 16.0 21.0 17.5 22.0 21.5 14.5 19.5 19.5 x .68 .25 1:2.72 54.4 .18 2.7 57.7 .97 18.9 EXperimental Conclusions The data presented shows the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) to be a realistic way to partition feeds, and the procedures developed have been adopted by this laboratory for use in nutrition studies. The results of these analyses show signi:ficantdifferences between the nutritional quality of forages from summer and winter ranges. The mean values of each group of samples are summarized in Tables 19 and 20 and graphically shown in Fig. 1. �Table 19. Mean values of nutrient constituents of forages collected from bighorn sheep rangell in summer and winter. Genus Season Percent of Total Poa Summer Protein Percent Cell Content Soluble of Ether Soluble Carbohydrate Total Extract Ash Cell Walls HemiInsoluble Ash Lignin Cellulose Cellulose (%) (%) 5.92 30.21 27.77 2.92 13.06 32.57 34.45 3.24 8.34 30.40 20.01 (%) .(%) (%) (%) (%) 33.53 11.30 4.49 2.42 15.33 66.47 2.57 Winter 16.94 6.35 3.58 2.70 4.30 83.06 Summer 32.06 11.00 4.70 3.15 13.18 68.03 (%) "- Kobresia I Fe~ Muhlenbergia Boute1oua Winter 22.87 7.25 2.73 3.27 9.63 77.13 3.31. 12.75 29.50 31.44 ~ Summer 30.16 11.45 5.59 3.98 9.15 69.84 7.19 7.28 25.60 29.77 Winter 21. 27 5.15 3.79 3.24 9.10 78.73 7.07 10.42 27.73 33.51 Summer 26.22 10.30 4.40 3.97 7.55 73.78 4.62 9.60 30.87 28.68 Winter 18.35 5.00 2.16 2.99 8.20 81.65 5.05 10.64 34.98 30.99 Summer 29.82 15.40 3.00 5.26 6.1~ 70.18 6.61 7.76 28.64 27.18 Winter . . ~ ~( .." . .. . . , '" ... -f .~ I �., II ... ~ ...• Table 20. Mean values of mineral content from forages collected from bighorn sheep ranges in summer and winter. ~. �40 30 20 I W o I 10 Protein §E'J Fig. 1. l\ Summer; EXtract Carbohydrate Ash Ash Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose •• Winter Comparison of the nutritive constituents of all grass samples collected in the summer and winter. 'I ..,. 4. -{ ~ �.-3'1- Evaluation of Methods for Partitioning Chemical Constituents of Feces 1f' In order to evaluate the nutritive quality of bighorn sheep ranges by adopting nutritional procedures using the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971), it was necessary to collect bighorn sheep feces and partition the nutritive constituents. In this phase of the project a series of bighorn sheep fecal samples were examined for three reasons. One phase was to test for individual animal variation in chemical breakdown of the feces. Another purpose was to determine if a composite sample of ten individual pellet groups would represent the average values of all the individual pellet groups in the composite. It was felt that the only real "common denominator" for all three study areas was the fecal samples as the plant compositions were different, therefore, it would afford some opportunity to compare the three study areas. Ten individual pellet groups were collected at three study areas (Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak) at two seasons of the year (summer-winter). Each pellet group was dried, ground in a Wiley Mill and thoroughly mixed. One gram subsamples of each pellet group were composited and mixed making a total of eleven samples for each study area at each season of the year for a grand total of 66 samples for the experiment. All fecal samples were processed for percent cell content (% protein, % ether extract, % soluble ash, % soluble carbohydrate) and percent cell walls (% lignin, % insoluble ash, % holocellulose) by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Har rd.s (1970a, 1970b, 1971). The results of these determinations are shown in Tables 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26. The results of the composited samples are shown in Table 27 and the analysis of the results of the experiment are shown in Fig's. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. '1 �-32- - r- 50% -r-- - •.. ." ~~ 45% - ,... 40% ..,, -,... _L.. )I"-~ ," ~~ _L.. - •... 35% ~~ "':'~ ;k -~ 30% 25% - - s w Trickle Mtn. .•.. s W Buffalo Peaks·· s W Pikes Peak Fig. 2. Mean values of percent cell contents arid standard deviation (.05) of the results often fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated byX. �-33- 15% 14% - •... -- 12% ,~ -,..... ~I' - ,j, , Jf\ 11% J K -,..... )~ _L... -"- _L... -,..... 10% r- - •... "J' ,,~ _L... 9% _w .r [ ·0 s W Trickle Mtn. [ I:J s W Buffalo Peaks - I" I ] s W Pikes Peak Fig. 3. Mean values of percent protein and standard deviation (.05) of the analytical results of 'ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated by X. �-34- 16% - .•... - ..... -~ 15 )K 14% ,~ J~ -~ -~ ;k 13 -~ 12% -)( 11 - .•... '. ,I,- 10% _ •... J _L... 9 8% -r- 7 "'7 ., 6% T 1 s w Trickle Mtn. s w Buffalo Peaks J 1 w s Pikes Peak Fig. 4. Mean values of percent ether extract and standard deviation(. 05) of.the analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of.each is designated by X. �-35- .. 12 .~ 11 .~ 10 .~ 9 . , -r- 'if J~ ..I8 7 -,~ -r- 6 ,It 41' 5 .11 ~I' . -r~. 4 -•... -'- . ..or- ,~ _I- Ii' )~ 3 - •... -I- 2 ~ 1 . s w Trickle Mtn. s w Buffalo Peaks s w Pikes Peak Fig. 5. Mean values of percent soluble ash and standard deviation (.05) of analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated by X. �-36- -,- 22 · 20 ~ -r- - .... 18 -r- 16 · -r- 14 12 10 ~( · ;~ . · ..... -r- ,~ ..• ~ ," _L.. _ •.... ,~ _L.. -I"" 8 · 6 ..• , ", 4 ~ .... 2 s w Trickle Mtn. s w Buffalo Peaks s w Pikes Peak Fig. 6. Mean value of soluble carbohydrate and standard deviation (.05) of analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated by X. �-37- 70 65 -~ 60 .. -'~~. -~~ 55 .L... 50 45 - T I s .,. T· .~ I w Trickle Mtn . [71 1 s w Buffalo Peaks [ - [ s I W Pikes Peak Fig.· 7. Mean values .of cell wall content and. standard deviation (.05) of analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value ofa composite sample of each is designated by X. �-38- .. 20 . - 18 16 .~ 14 .. 12 . 10 . -•... ( -r- ~K X - •.... 8 ,~ i" 'If ~ 6 ~r- 'If I~ "1\ _ .... -~ -r- 'Ir . ,,1\ to 4 2 -~ - •.... . _ •.... -'- .~ s w Trickle Mtn. s w Buffalo Peaks s w Pikes Peak Fig. 8. Mean values of acid insoluble ash and standard deviation (.05) of analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated by X. �-39- .,.. 25 "-,.. 24 -23 . I( - -r- I"" " J 22 .• .1- ~ " 21 .100 " ;~ 20 " 1\ -I'" 19 .- -- 1i1 ,~ 18 ...•.. .- 17 - 16 15 T [ #a s I ...w 1 r sJw J r s w Trickle Mtn. Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Fig. 9. Mean values of lignin and standard deviation (.05) of analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated by X. " �-40- 36 X 34 -~ 32 30 .~ J~ -- •••• -: ~ 28 ; 1\ -- 26 24 "I""' ,I' .... 22 20 0 T [ 1 s W c T s l [ w s w Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Trickle Mtn. Fig. 10. Mean value of holoce11u1ose and standard deviation (.05) of analytical results of ten fecal samples from three study.areas at two seasons of the year. The value of a composite sample of each is designated by X. �,. x , 36.72 .4 12.00 14.65 3.75 6.32 « '" 63.28 12.75 20.25 ;~, 30.28 �Table 22. Trickle Mountain (winter) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents in bighorn sheep feces. Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) Cell Contents Ether Soluble Extract Ash (%) (%) 11 31.04 10.40 8.46 12 28.58 7.20 13 30.58 14 35.82 Cell Walls Soluble Carbohydrate (%) Percent of Total Insoluble Ash (%) Lignin (%) HoloCellulose (%) 4.37 7.81 68.96 11.41 19.80 37.75 7.36 5.27 8.75 71.42 10.09 25.13 36.20 10.00 8.07 4.38 8.13 69.42 11.99 20.61 36.82 10.00 6.28 3.13 16.41 64.18 11.83 20.91 31.44 N I 15 32.14 9.20 7.00 4.17 11.77 67.86 10.11 21.57 36.18 16 34.86 10.40 7.43 4.26 12.77 65.14 11.59 22.93 30.62 17 34.94 10.00 7.70 3.72 13.52 65.06 12.35 23.10 29.61 18 35.40 9.60 7.17 3.11 15.52 64.60 11.76 23.09 29.75 19 35.60 9.20 8.06 4.37 13.97 64.32 10.57 19.44 34.31 20 37.18 8.80 7.44 5.37 15.57 62.82 10.52 24.71 27.59 x 33.61 9.48 7.49 4.22 12.42 65.48 11.22 22.13 33.03 .q (>: ...•. I +"- .. ..{ ~ �11 .• ~ ~ "" ).. Table 23. Buffalo Peaks (summer) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents in bighorn sheep feces ~ Cell Contents Ether Soluble Extract Ash Ceil Walls Insoluble Ash Lignin ;Ho1oCellulose (%) (%) (%) Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total 21 46.96 11.60 15.83 4.08 15.45 53.04 2.91 19.78 30.35 22 39.39 13.20 15.22 5.57 10.97 60.61 12.30 20.04 28.27 23 55.48 15.60 16.79 7.81 15.28 44.52 1.12 16.04 27.36 ... '24 53.12 14.40 14.02 9.63 lS.07 46.88 4.44 15.71 26.73 Soluble Carbohydrate I .p.. Vol I 25 46.18 16.00 17.73 3.08 9.37 53.82 7.70 20.41 25.71 26 46.88 10.00 14.08 8.S9 14.21 53.12 5.88 18.31 28.93 27 47.42 11.60 15.18 6.20 14.44 52.58 4.50 18.90 29.18 28 3S.44 10.40 11.95 3.88 9.21 64.56 18.79 17.1S 28.62 29 39.09 10.00 15.14 4.68 9.27 60.91 14.05 16.55 30.31 30 46.22 9.60 12.83 8.76 15.03 53.78 6.55 18.32 28.91 x 45.62 12.24 14.88 6.23 12.83 54.31 7.83 18.12 28.44 �Table 24. Buffalo Peaks (winter) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents in bighorn sheep feces. Cell Contents Ether Soluble' Soluble Extract Ash Carbohydrate Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) 31 48.28 10.80 11.63 32 49.34 7.60 33 46.78 34 Cell Walls Insoluble Ash Lignin (%) Percent of Total (%) , (%) HoloCellulose (%) 9.97 15.88 51.72 3.66 25.69 22.37 9.85 7.51 24.38 50.66 3.42 25.52 21. 72 11.60 11.97 .9.77 13.44 53.22 14.75. 18.28 20.19 49.70 11.60 13.00 9.31 15.79 50.30 11.27 19.82 19.21 35 46.78 12.00 10.27 10.72 13.79 53.22 11.52 20.33 21.37 36 47.24 11.60 10.65 8.61 16.38 52.76 9.28 20.27 23.21 37 45.54 11.20 9.15 7.22 14.38 54.46 10.41 19.88 24.17 38 45.64 11.20 7.27 9.33 17.84 54.36 10.51 21.66 22.19 39 45.84 10.00 10.19 12.41 13.24 54.16 7.52 20.92 25.72 40 45.58 10.60 11.83 12.65 10.50 54.42 10.43 17.78 26.31 x 47.07 10.82 10.58 9.75 15.56 52.93 9.28 21.02 22.65 I .1>-' .l>I Q « -q .4. -1' �~ Table 25. feces. .. • J, ~. "" Pikes Peak (summer) - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents in bighorn sheep Cell Contents Ether Soluble Extract Ash Cell Walls Insoluble Ash Lignin HoloCellulose (%) Percent of Total (%) (%) (%) 2.95 11.54 59.54 11.59 22.23 25.72 14.02 4.93 14.97 54.48 7.54 19.63 27.31 9.20 15.23 2.01 9.30 64.26 11.17 24.37 28.72 10.40 15.65 3.72 10.05 60.18 8.36 24.07 27.75 Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) 41 40.46 10.80 15.17 42 45.52 11.60 43 35.74 44 39.82 Soluble Carbohydrate I I I' I I .pV1 I 45 48.00 8.40 11.38 3.89 24.33 52.00 11.25 16.12 24.63 46 42.14 10.80 12.46 4.10 14.78 57.86 11.32 19.33 27.21 47 39.34 8.40 15.04 3.17 12.73 60.66 6.48 23.87 30.31 48 37 •. 36 .11.60 14.72 2.43 8.61 62.64 12.02 21.35 29.27 49 41.80 10.00 10.17 2.46 19.17 58.20 8.09 24.95 25.16 50 42.36 11.60 12.54 3.18 15.04 57.64 8.92 24.41 24.31 x 41.25 10.28· 13.64 3.28 14.05 58.75 9.67 22.03 27.04 �Table 26. feces. Pikes Peak (winter) -chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents in bighorn sheep Cell Contents Soluble Ether Extract Ash Cell Walls Insoluble Ash Lignin HoloCellulose (%) (%) (%) Sample Number Percent of Total Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total 51 45.50 11. 20 8.67 8.82 16.81 54.50 6.98 21.80 25.72 52 45.34 11.60 8.32 7.18 18.24 54.66 11.09 20.21 23.36 53 43.86 11. 20 11.20 5.41 16.05 56.14 6.27 25.58 24.29 54 45.20 11. 60 . 10.70 4.69 18.21 54.80 1.57 25.60 27.63 .j::-o 55 48.36 10.80 9.93 5.95 21.68 51. 64' 8.76 21. 63 21.25 . "" 56 46.42 11.20 10.85 4.71 19.66 53.58 8.16 . 21.45 23.96 57 44.34 . 10.40 10.36 5.64 .17.94 55.66 2.65 29.28 23.73 58 47.88 12.00 8.21 7.42 20.25 52.12 2.27 25.44 24.41 59 .43.36 10.40 9.31 4.91 18.74 56.64 11.13 21. 79 23.72 60 42.96 10.00 10.54 2.32 20.10 51.04 4.02 21.30 25.72 x 45.32 11.04 9.81. 5.71 18.77 55.08 6.29 23.41 24.38 'l Soluble Carbohydrate I ~ ! ""'l' ..{ 1" I" I I �.II • ~ .., '" _J Table 27. Chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents in composited bighorn sheep feces from three study areas at two seasons of the year. Cell Content Composite Fecal Sample Trickle Mountain Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak Cell Walls Protein (%) Ether Extract (%) Soluble Soluble Ash Carbohydrate (%) (%) Percent Insoluble of Ash Total (%) Lignin Ho1oCellulose (%) (%) 34.37 11.80 14.21 3.25 5.11 65.63 10.85 19.63 35.15 33.47 9.60 7.02 4.95 11.90 66.53 9.36 21.66 35.51 Season Percent of Total Summer Winter I oj:'- Summer 43.86 11.20 13.94 5.81 12.91 56.14 7.66 18.38 30.10 Winter 46.24 11.00 11.22 9.33 14.69 53.76 8.47 20.18 25.11 Summer 41.16 10.20 13.00 3.61 14.35 58.84 8.49 22.26 28.09 Winter 44.21 11.20 10.05 5.03 17.93 55.79 7.76 23.65 24.38 --.J I �-48- Digestibility Experiments The digestibility of a particular type of feed or combination of feeds by specific animals can be determined by feeding trials. These feeding trials are carried out under very carefully controlled conditions where all feed consumed by the animal is precisely measured and all feces from the animal is collected. Chemical partitioning of both the feed being tested and the feces being eliminated are made and the difference between those values being consumed and those values being eliminated is the digestibility of that forage. . The "classical" methods employed in ·the conduct of digestion trials are not applicable to the free ranging big game animals so several modifications and innovations have been employed in this experiment. These methods allow digestion trials to be analyzed on bighorn sheep under natural conditions on their natural ranges. It should be emphasized that these digestion trials are experimental and are not to be interpreted as be·ing without problems and shortcomings. This segment of the project was devoted to trial runs on these digestion evaluation methods and the results are reported here. The methods employed depend upon two main factors - one being the use of an indigestible indicator occurring naturally in the forage and the other is the accuracy of the identification of plant fragments in the bighorn sheep feces by the Foods Habits Laboratory at Colorado State University. The "indicator" used in these studies was lignin. The plant constituent is relatively undigestible and is easily assayed for by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) as discussed previously. The theory of this procedure then involves the analysis of lignin as indicator and using the fecal analysis as inference on the food intake of the animal. By chemically partitioning the forages making up the diet of the animal and the chemical partitioning of the feces we can then estimate digestibility by using the following formula: Digestibility 100 - (100 % Indicator % Indicator in Feed X % Nutrient in Feces % Nutrient in Feces) in Feed In order to compute the total digestible nutrients (TDN) value of a feed, the digestion coefficient of each nutritive constituent is computed by multiplying the amount of that nutrient in 100 pounds of total feed by the digestibility for that constituent. (The digestibility of fat is multiplied by 2.25 because it has more energy value than the other nutrients). The nutritive ratio is that ratio between the digestible protein, expressed as unity, to the sum of digestible ether extract, digestible carbohydrate, and digestible holocellulose (cellulose + hemicellulose). Two separate experiments were designed to test the feasibility of the procedure to estimate digestibility. Each experiment consisted of collecting feeds and feces from three study areas (Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks, and �-49- Pikes Peak) at three seasons of the year (summer, fall, winter). In the first experiment forages were grouped into two categories (grass and browse) where a composite sample from each grass and each browse species collected were "pooled", thoroughly mixed and analyzed for the nutrient constituents. Fecal samples from each area at each season of the year were "pooled" by taking equal quantities of at least ten separate pellet groups. These "pooled" fecal samples were thoroughly mixed and one portion sent to the Food Habits Laboratory at Colorado State University where they were examined for plant composition by microanalysis of plant fragments, and the other portion was analyzed chemically to partition the nutritive constituents. Table 28 shows the laboratory results of the percent grass and percent browse present in each of the pooled fecal samples. Tables 29, 30, and 31 show the chemical analysis for the nutritive constituents in the pooled grass, browse and fecal samples from the three study areas at three seasons of the year. Table 28. Pooled fecal sample analysis by micro techniques for forage identification for percent grass and percent browse. Study Area Season Percent Grass Percent Browse Trickle Mountain Summer 84.58 15.42 Fall 27.52 72.48 Winter 17.74 82.26 Summer 89.62 10.38 Fall 35.29 64.71 Winter 95.47 4.54 Summer 50.00 50.00 Fall 90.12 9.88 Winter 81.26 18.74 Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak .' �Table 29. Chemical partitioning of pooled grass, browse and fecal samples from the Trickle Mountain Study Area. Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total Grass 28.72 6.20 3.72 3.43 15.37 Browse 40.97 9.80 14.01 4.79 Feces 34.41 8.30 9.85 Grass 31.19 8.20 8.81 Season Summer ,Fall Cell Content Soluble Soluble Ether Carbohydrate Extract Ash Percent of Total Cell Walls Insoluble Lignin Ash HoloCellulose (%) (%) (%) 71.28 7.47 5.61 58.20 12.37 59.03 6.79 7.37 44.87 7.63 ·8.63 65.59 11.38 20.32 33.89 .4.21 9.97 68.81 '9.98 7.45 51.38 I VI 0 I Winter 'i Browse 35.26 8.60 12.73 5.18 8.75 64.74 8.32 8.63 47.79 Feces 38.74 12.40 13.75 8.23 ·4.36 61.26 13.76 21.53 25.97 Grass 21.63 .3.40 3.11 8.75 6.37 78.37 .10.21 9.37 58.79 Browse 27.37 6.20 9.13 5.45 · 6.59 72.63 8.11 7.39 57.13 Feces 30.39 6.40 11.79 8.93 3.27 69.61 11.46 26. rt 31.38 { '<) « -( )1 �• « Ii j '" Table 30. Chemical partitioning of pooled gr ass., browse and fecal samples from the Buffalo Peaks Study Area; Cellt.Jalls Insoluble Lignin Ash Holo..,. Cellulose Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total Grass 39.15 10.40 11.45 7.93 9.37 Browse 35.93 12.20 13.37 5.17 Feces 38.27 13.00 ·12.17 8.37 Grass 31.55 8.20 10.35 6.63 6.37 68.45 5.33 7.93 55.28 Browse 33.12 7.60 13.83 5.07 6.72 66.78 5.19 6.37 55.22 Feces 35.23 12.30 11.27 8.68 2.98 64.77 12.63 20.13 32.01 . Grass 22.44 6.00 4.63 7.44 4.37 77 .56 .8.39 10.37 58.80 Browse 27.70 8.20 7.95 5.82 5.73 72.30 5.72 7.78 58.80 Feces 28.37 9.40 ·8.25 7.36 3.,36 71.63 11.76 24.73 35.14 Season Summer Cell Content Soluble Ether Soluble Extract Ash Carbohydrate Percent of Total (%) (%) (%) 60.85 4.39 7.76 48.70 5.19 64.07 4.63 8.76 50.68 4.73 61. 73 11.91 19.37 30.45 I V1 Fall Winter t-' I �Table 31. Chemical partitioning of pooled grass, browse and fecal samples from the Pikes Peak Study Area. Fall Cell Walls Insoluble Lignin Ash (%) (%) Ho Lo+ Protein (%) (%) (%) (%) Percent of Total Grass 34.96 8.80 6.73 7.70 11.73 65.04 5.63 6.48 51.93 Browse 34.61 8.80 12.17 4.32 9.32 65.39 3.31 8.37 53.71 Feces 34.03 9.80 10.36 9.51 4.36 65.97 12.17 19.33 34.47 Grass 31.68 7.80 9.94 4.57 9.37 68.32 5.73 8.37 54.22 Season Sunnner Cell Content Soluble Soluble Ether Extract Ash Carbohydrate Percent of Total Cellulose (%) I lJl N I Winter .>:( Browse 33.19 8.00 13.27 5.96 5.96 66.81 4.37 8.79 53.65 Feces 35.09 . 11060 10.81 8.36 4.33 64.91 13.39 22.37 29.15 Grass 24.61 5.00 4.37 7.37 7.87 75.39 6.37 10.73 58.29 Browse 26.44 7.60 8.97 4.93 4.94 73.56 5.78 8.77 59.01 Feces 26.02 7.10 7.23 8.96 2.73 73.98 13.39 28.73 31.86 .. <i -< ~ �-53- After the laboratory analyses were completed, the total digestible nutrient (TDN) and the nutritive ratio (NR) were computed for each combination of grass-browse and feces from each study area at each time of the year. Tables 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, and 40 show the computations used in deriving these data. -..,1 Composite diet values for protein, ether extract, soluble carbohydrate, holocellulose, and lignin were derived by multiplying each value of the nutrient as determined by laboratory analysis by the percent of that feed component in the total diet and then adding -these together. For example, if grass was analyzed as having 6.20 percent protein and grass made up 84.58 percent of t.he diet then grass contributed 5.24 percent protein (6.20 X .8458) and if browse was analyzed as having 9.80 percent protein and made up 15.42 percent of the diet, then browse contributed 1.51 pe-rcent of the total protein (9.80 X .1542). Adding 5.24 percent and 1.51 percent protein gives an adjusted value of 6.75 percent protein in the composite diet. �-54Table 32. Trickle Mountain Study Area (summer) - computations "for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grass-browse and feces. 84.58 % Grass ----Analysis Adjusted 15.42 % Browse Analysis Adjusted Composit2 Diet Feces Analysis Protein 6.20 5.24 9.80 1.51 6.75 8.30 Ether Extract 3.72 3.15 14.01 2.16 5.31" 9.85 Sol. 15.37 13.00 12.37 "" 1.91 14.91 8.63 Ho10ce11ulose 58.20 49.23 44.87 6.92 56.15 33.89 Lignin 5.61 4.74 7.37 1.17 5.91 20.32 Carbohydrate --------_ Protein 100 (100 Ether Ext;rac t 100 (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 .. Digestion Coefficient: _. "5~21 ""8."3Q" 6.75 9.85 5.31 X 20.32 5.91 20.32 X ~.21 X 20.32 Ho Lo ce l.Lu Los e 100 - (100 5.91 20.32 X ) 64.24 ) 46.06 8.63 14.91 ) 83.17 56.15 33.89 ) = 51.82 Pounds of Nutrient in 100/'/ Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 6.75 .6424 -4.34 Ether Extract 5.31 .4606 5.50 Sol. Carbohydr~te 14.91 .8317 12.40 Ho10cel1u10se 56.15 .5182 29.10 Total Digestible Nutrients 51.34 Nutritive Ratio = NR (2.25) Digestible ( Digestible) (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate (Digestible Protein) (5~50)(12.40)(29~1.Q.L __ 0= (4.34) " NR = (Digestible) + Ho10ce11u10se 1 10.80 "-----""-- '"'_____ 47.00 4.34 = 10.80 1"'-" �-55Table 33. Trickle Mountain Study Area (fall) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grass-browse and feces~ 72.48 x Browse Analysis Adjusted 27.52 % Grass Analysis Adjusted Composite Diet Feces An3.1ysis Protein 8.20 2.26 8.60 6.23 8.49 12.40 Ether Extract 8.81 2.42 12.73 9.23 1l.65 13.75 Sol. Carbohydrate 9.97 2.74 8.75 6.34 9.08 4.36 Holocellulose 51.38 14.14 47.79 34.64 48.78 25.97 Lignin· 7.45 2.05 8.63 6.26 8.31 21.53 Digesti.on COef[icien~ 8.31 21.53 Protein 100 (100 Ether Extract 100 (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 HolocelluJ.ose 100 - (100 X 8.31 21.53 (100 - 8 31 21.53 X X 8,31 21.53 X 12~) 8.49 13.75 11.65 4,36 9.08 25.97 = 43.62 ) = 54.44 ) = 81.46 ) = 79.45 48.78 Pounds of Nutrient in 10011 Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 8.49 .4362 3.70 Ether Ex t r act; 11.65 .5444 14.27 Sol.Carbohydra re 9.08 .8146 7.39 Holocellulose 48.78 .7945 38.76 Total Di.gestible Nutrients 64.12 (2.25) Digestible (Digcst:ible ).-I- (Digestible (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate Holocellulose) Nutritive Ratio = NR= ..(Df.gcs t Lb Le .(14.27)(7.3~~. (3.70) 16.33 Protein) 76':!J.)~_ 60.42 3.70 = 16.33 �-56Table 34. Trickle ~1:ountainStudy Area (winter) - computation for tetal digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grass-browse and feces. 17.74 % Grass Analysis Adjusted 82.26 % Br ows e Analysis Adjusted Composite Diet Analysis Fe ce s Protein 3.40 0.60 6.20 5.10 5.70 6.40 Ether Extract 3.11 0.55 9.13 7.51 8.06 11.79 Sol. Ca rb ohyd r at e 6.37 1.13 6.59 5.42 6.55 3.27 Holoc.ellulose 58.79 10.43 57.13 46'.99 47.42 31.38 9.37 1.66 7.39 6.08 7.74 26.77 TOO .wlgnln f"'. Digestion .Coefficient -----Protei.n 100 (100 7.74 26.77 X 6.40 5.70 ) = 67.54 Et.he r Extract 100 - (100 7.74 26.77 X 11. 79 8.06 ) = 57.71 Sol. 100 (100 "1 2{~ Carbohydrate 100 - (100 Ho10cellulose 26.77 3 2Z X 6.55 ) 85.57 ) 84.20 31.38 7.74 X 26.77 57.42 Pounds of Nutrient in 100ft Feed .Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 5.70 .6754 3.85 Ether Extract 8.06 .5771 10.47 Sol. 6.55 .8557 5.60 57.42 .8420 48.35 Total Digestible Nutrients 68.27 Carbohydrate Holocellulose (2.25) .: Digestible ( Digestible ) Digestible (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate + (Holocellulose) Nutriiive Ratio = (Digestible Protein) (l0.47) (5•. .60.) (48.J.oL,,5)L--_ __6_4_.4.;..:.2 __ = 16.73 /T (3.85) }ffi 1 16.73 3.85 �-57Trible 35. Buffalo Peaks Study Area (s~~er) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grass-browse and feces.· -_._-_._---'- _------_ .. 10.38 % Browse Analysis Adjusted 89.62 % Grass Analysis Adjusted ·~l Composite Diet Feces Analysis Protein 10.40 9.26 12.20 1.22 10.48 13.00 Ether Extract 11.45 10.19 13.37 1.34 11.53 12.17 Sol. Carbohydrate 9.37 8.34 5.19 0.52 8.86 4.73 Holocel1u1ose 48.70 43.34 50.68 5.07 48.41 30.45 Lignin 7.76 6.91 8.76 0.88 7.79 19.37 .. -Digestion Coef Id c i.crrt ,.. 7.79 19.37 . Protein 100 (100 Ether Extract 100 (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 HoLcce.lIu Los e 100 - (100 7.79 19.37 Z~Z9 19.37 7.79 19.37 - X X X 13.00 10.48 ) 50.11 12.17 11.53 ) 57.55 ~.Z3 ) 8.86 30.45 48.41 X = ) 78.53 74.70 _._--_.Pounds of Nutrient in 100!,fFeed . Diges t Lo n Coefficient DigestibJ.e ·Protein 10.48 .5011 5.25 Ether Extract 11.53 .5755 14.93 Sol. Carbohydrate 8.86 .•7853 6.96 ·48.41 .7470 36.16 Total Digestible Nutrients 63.30 Holocellulosc. (2.25) Digestible ( Digestible) (Ether Extract) + Ca rbohyd rate .Nutritive Ratio = NR = NR (Digestible) + Hol~ccllulose (Digestible Protein) (14.93)(6.96)(36.16) (5.25) 1 .: ._--_._----..:..:....11.08 Nutrient 58.05 5.25 11.08 �-58Table 36. Buffalo Peaks Study Area (fall) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grassbrowse and feces. 64.71 % Browse Analysis Adjusted 35.29 % Crass Analysis Adjusted Composite Diet Feces Analysis Protein 8.20 2.89 7.60 4.92 7.81 12.30 Ether Extract 10.35 3.65 13.83 .. 8.95 12.60 11.27 Sol. Carbohydrate 6.37 2.25 6.72 4.35 6.60 2.98 Ho1ocellulose 55.28 19.51· 55.22 35.73 55.24 32.01 Lignin 7.93 2.80 6.37 4.12 6.92 20.13 Digestion Coeff i.c~ent Protein 100 (100 6.92 20.13 X Ether Extract 100 (100 6.92 20.13 X Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 6 92 X Ho Lo cc Ll.u.Los e 100 - (100 20.13 6.92 20.13 X 12.30 7.81 11.27 12.60 2 98 6.60 32.01 55.24 ) 45.85 ) 69.25 ) 84.48 ) = 80.08 Pounds of Nutrient in 10011 Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 7.81 .4585 3.58 Ether Extract 12.60 .6925 19.63 Sol. Carbohydrate 6.60 .8448 5.58 Holocellu1ose 55.24 .8008 44.24 Total Digestible Nutrients 73.03 (2.25) Digestible ( Digestible ) Digestible (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate + (Holocellu1ose) Nutritive Ratio = (Di~estible Protein) (19.63)(5.58)(44.24) --- NR= (3.58) NR == I 19.40 69.45 3.58 = 19.40 "- �-59Table 37. Buffalo Peaks Study Area (winter) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grassbrowse and feces. --------95.47 % Grass Analysis Adjusted 4.54 % Br ows e Analysis Adjusted Compo si te Fe ce s Diet Analysis Protein 6.00 5.73 8.20 0.37 6.10 9.40 Ether Extract. 4.63 4.42 7.95 0.36 4.78 8.25 Sol. Carbohydrate 4.37 4.17 5.73 0.26 4.43 3.36 Holocellulose 58.80 56.14 58.80 2.67 58.81 35.14 Lignin 10.37 9.90 7.78 0.35 10.25 24.73 Digestion Coef f Lc Lent Protein 100 (100 Ether Extract ··100 (100· Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 Ho Lo ce Ll.u Los.e 100 - (100 10.25 24.73 10.25 24.73 10.25 24.73 10.25 24.73 9.40 6.10 X 8.25 ) 4.78 3~3L-) 4.43 X X X 35.14 58.81 36.13 ) = 28.46 -. 68.56 ) 75.23 Pounds of Nutrient in 100ft Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrie.nt Protein 6.10 .3613 2.20 Ether Extract ·4.78 .2846 3.06 Sol. Carbohydrate 4.43 .6856 3.04 Holocellu10se 58.81 .•7523 44.24 Total Digestible Nutrients 52.54 (2.25) Digestible Digestible ..( Digestible ) + (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate . (Holocellulose) Nutritive Ratio = .: -'----~-'-~----'---=----.:.-......:.------(Digestible Protein) __ (3.06)(3.04)(44.24) 50.34 == 22.88 NR= (2.20) 2.20 NR =: 1 22.88 --- �-60Table 38. Pikes Peak Study Area (summer) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each combination of grassbrowse and feces. ---~-.-.--50.00% Grass Analysis Adjusted 50.00 % Br ows e Analysis Adjusted Composite Diet Feces Analysis Protein 8.80 4.40 8.80 4.40 8.80 9.80 Ether Extract 6.73 3.36 12.17 6.08 9.44 10.36 Sol. Carbohydrate 11.73 5.86 9.32 4.66 10.52 4.36 Ho10-::el1ulose 51.93 25.96 53.71 26.86 52.82 34.47 Lignin 6.48· 3.24 . 8.37 4.18 7.42 19.33 Digestion Coeffici2i1t Protein 100 (100 7.42 19.33 X Ether Extract 100 (100 7.42 19.33 X Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 1.42 - X Holocel1u10se 100 - (100 19.33 7.42 19.33 X 9.80 8.80 10.36 9.44 ll.36 10.52 34.47 52.82 Pounds of Nutrient in 100fi Feed ) = 57.25 ) = 57.87 ) = 84.09 ) = 74.95 Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient .5725 5.04 .5787 12.29 Protein 8.80 Ether Extract 9.44 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.52 .8409 8.85 Holocellulose 52.82 .7495 39.59 Total Digestibl~ Nutrients 65.77 (2.25) Digestible ( Digestible ) + (Digestible ) (Ether Extract;:L+ Carboi1ydrate rio Loce l.Lu Io s e Nutritiv~ Ratio (Digestible Protein) __ NR = 1 (.!..::1~ .. 29) (8.85L(39.5~._.:::: (5.04) 12.05 _ _---60.73 .. 5.04 12:05 fJr'- �-61Table 39. Pikes Peak Study Area (fall) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for e~ch combination of grassbrowse and feces. 90.12 Analysis % Crass --'--Adjusted Protein 7.80 7.02 8.00 . Ether Extract 9.94 8.95 301. Carbohydrate 9.37 Holocellulose Lignin 9.88 % Browse Composite Diet Feces Analysis 0.72 7.74 11.60 13.27 1.31 10.26 10.81 8.43 5.96 0.59 9.02 4.33 54.22 48.80 53.65 5.30 .' 54.10 29.15 8.37 7.53 8.79 0.87 8.40 22.37 Analysis Adjusted 1)i~estion COGff :i.c~.en t 8.40 22.37 11.60 7.74 x Protein 100 (100 Ether 100 (100 _-::-::-8_. 4:-,0 __ X ~~l_) 22.37 10.26 X 4.33) (100 --'-2~~.!..::j;u,~~9.02 Extract Sol. Carbohydrate 100 Holocellulose 100 _ (100 _---><.8 4""'0'---_ x 22.37 0..;:' ) .29.12 __ ) 54.10 43.72 = 60.44 81.98 79.77 = Pounds of Nuffieht in 10011. Feed . '!)igesti.on Coefficient D:tgesti.ble :\utr:ient Protein 7.74 .4372 3.38 Ether Extract 10.26 Sol. Carbohydrate 9.02 .8198 7.39 Holocellulose 54.10 .7977 . 43.16 (2.25) .6044 Total Digestible 67.88 Nutrients ====================================================-:===--_ .._-Digestible. (Ether Extract) Nutritive Ratio ::: Digestible) Carbohydrate (Dig~stible -,--~(1:.;:.3.::...::. 95}(7. 39) (43.16) (3..38) JI.'R ::::,' l-.'R - '( + 1 19.08 ._-------'-- + Digestible· (Holocellulose) Protein) 64.)0 3.38 ' '.';" 19.08 �-62Table 40. Pikes Feak Study Area (winter) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive rati,ofor each combination of gxaas+ browse and feces. 81.26 % Grass Analysis Adjusted 18.74 % Browse Analysis Adjusted Composite Diet Feces Analysis Protein 5.00 4.06 7.60 1.42 5.48 7.10 Ether Extract 4.37 3.55 8.97 1.68 5.23 7.23 Sol. Carbohydrate 7.87 6.39 4.94- 0.93 7.32 2.73 Holocellulose 58.29 47.37 59.01 11.06 58.43 31.86 Lignin 10.73 8.72 8.77 1.64 10.36 28.73 Digestion Coefficient Protein 100 (100 Ether Extract 100 (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 Holocellulose 100 - (100 10.36 28.73 10.36 28.73 10.36 28.73 10.36 28.73 7.10 5.48 X X X X 7.23 5.23 2~73 7.32 ·31.86 58.43 53.28 ) ) = 50.15 ) = 86.55 ) 80.34 Pounds of Nutrient in lOOt!-Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 5.48 .5328 .2.92 Ether Extract 5.23 .5015 5.90 Sol. Carbuhydrate 7.32 .8655 6.34 Holocellulose 58.43 .8034 46.94 (2.25) Total Digestible Nut.rients 62.10 Digestible (Digestible ) Digestible (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate· + (Holocellulos) Nutritive Ratio NR = (Digestible Protein) (5.90) (6.34) (.~4~6~. 9--:.4L.) (2.92) NR =: 1 :20.27 -----------_._-,-- = 59.18 2.92 = 20.27 ,0-.. �-63- The second experiment was conducted using specially compounded diets based upon the percent food composition found in the feces. The compounded diet was based upon those genera of plants which were found, to be greater than 5 percent in the feces. Tables 41, 42 and 43 show the genera of plants which were collected at the indicated season of the year, from the specific study areas and then compounded prior to chemical analysis. Fecal samples were divided into two parts, one part was sent to the food habits laboratory for analysis and the other part was kept for chemical analysis. Table 44 shows the results of these analyses. Tables 45 through 53 show the computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for each compounded forage sample and fecal sample collected from each study area at three seasons of the year. Table 41. Forage sample compositions from Trickle Mountain based upon fecal analysis. Season and Genera of Plants Percent Summer Poa 7.0 Bouteloua 18.0 Carex 12.0 Festuca 57.0 Artemisia frlgida 6.0 'Fall Carex 7.0 Festuca 18.0 Bouteloua 17.0 Artemisia frigida 46.0 Poa 12.0 Winter Car ex 10.0 Festuca 8.0 Muhlenbergia 40.0 Poa 6.0 Artemisia frigida 20.0 Yucca 16.0 �-64- Table 42. Forage sample compositions from Buffalo Peaks based upon fecal analysis. Season and Genera of Plants Percent Summer Festuca 68.0 Carex 26.0 Poa 6.0 Carex 24.0 Festuca 12.0 .Kobr es La 7.0 Fall Poa Salix .. 12.0 45.0 Winter Carex 6.0 Poa 8.0 Fescue 69.0 Kobresia 9.0 Salix 8.0 �-65- Table 43. Forage sample compositions from Pikes Peak based upon, fecal analysis. Season and Genera of P'lantia Percent Summer Carex 63.0 Festuca 13.0 Poa 7.0 Kobresia 8.0 Pinus 9.0 Carex 52.0 Fall Festuca ( ( . 8.0 ) Poa 7.0 Stipa 6.0 Salix 27.0 Winter Agropyron 6.0 Carex 22.0 Fescue 52.0 Kobresia 6.0 Pinus 9.0 Poa 5.0 �Table 44. Chemical analysis of compounded forage samples and fecal samples collected from three study areas at three seasons of the year. Cell Content Percent of Total Protein (%) Ether Extract (%) Cell Walls Soluble Soluble Carbohydrate Ash (%) (%) Percent of Total Insoluble Ash (%) Lignin (%) Ho1oCellulose (%) Area Season Trickle Mtn. Summer Forage Feces 29.72 26.76 9.00 12.20 2.89 4.45 3.73 7.75 14.10 2.36 65.28 73.24 5.82 12.75 6.48 25.98 57.98 34.51 Fall Forage Feces 20.85 30.20 8.60 8.20 4.94 6.39 3.31 5.81 6.99 9.80 79.16 69.80 2.65 13.60 11.69 24.49 64.82 31. 71 Winter Forage Feces 25.14 34.76 7.40 9.20 4.71 6.94 4.27 6.93 8.76 8.69 74.86 65.24 5.80 12.18 10.78 20.60 58.28 32.46 I Summer· Forage Feces 25.50 31.02 9.20 60.20 2.54 4.13 3.73 7.31 10.03 3.38 74.50· 68.98 6.29 15.11 8.02 28.52 60.19 25.35 Fall Forage Feces 28.04 43.30 10.00 13.40 . 6.71 8.67 3.69 12.27 7.64 8.69 71.96 56.70 3.89 6.46 11.27 23.11 56.80 27.13 Winter Forage Feces 21.79 28.53 4.60 6.53 4.16 5.07 2.15 5.91 10.88 8.55 78.21 71.47 .2.48 11.35 8.28 23.07 67.45 37.05 Summer Forage Feces 34.06 36.09 14.20 17.00 4.05 5.22 4.19 9.32 11.62 4.55 65.94 69.91 3.82 8.43 8.39 26.14 53.73 29.34 Fall Forage Feces 20.19 32.30 5.80 10.00 5.07 4.61 3.21 6.80 6.11 10.89 79.81 67.70 4.44 10.66 9.88 24.35 73.17 32.69 Winter Forage Feces 27.84 40.93 8.60 16.20 4.94 6.97 3.31 10.36 10.99 7.40· 72.16 59.07 2.65 3.87 11.69 28.91 57.82 26.29 Buffalo Peaks Pikes Peak "' ¢ A -4 ~ -~ 0\ 0\ I �-67Table 45. Trickle Mountain Study Area (summer) - computations for· total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Ana1;ysis . "'\ Forage Feces Protein 9.00 12.20 Ether Extract 2.89 4.45 Sol. Carbohydrate 14.10 2.36 Ho10cel1u10se 57.98 34.51 Lignin 6.48 25.98 Digest:ion Coeffident Protein 100 (100 6.48 25.9a X 12.20 9.00 ) = 66.19 Ether Extract 100 - (100 6~ 25.98 X ~lo !i5 ) = 61.60 ) = 95.83 ) = 85.16 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 Ho 16ceLl.uLose 100 - (100 6.tiS (100 25.98 • 6.48 25.98 2.89 X X 2.36 14.10 34.51 57.98 Pounds of Nutrient in 100/1 Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 9.00 .6619 5.96 Ether Extract 2.89 .6160 4.01 Sol. Carbohydrate 14.10 .9583 13.51 Ho10ce11u10se 57.98 .8516 49.37 Total Digestible Nutrients 72.85 (2.25) Digestible ,( Digestible ) + (Digestible ) (Ether Extract)' Carbohydrate Holoce11u10se Nutr.l~ive Ratio = (Df.ge s t LbLe (4.01) (13.51) (49.37) ------------------------~~ NR= NR;:; (5.96) 1 11.22 Protein) = __ 66.89 =---=~_;:; 5.96 11. 22 �-68Table 46. Trickle Mountain Study Area (fall) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Analysis ,.c-- Forage Feces Protein 8.60 8.20 Ether Extract 4.94 6.39 Sol. Carbohydrate 3.99 9.80 Holocellulose 64.82 31. 71 Lignin 11.69 24.49 Digestion Coe f f i.cd erit; Protein 100 (100 -Ether Extract 100 (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 Holoce11ulose 100 - (100 11.69 24.49 11.69 24.49 11.62 24.49 ]].62 24.49 B.20 8.60 X 6.39 4.94 2.8Q 6.99 X X X 3] •Z] 64.82 ) 54.49 = 38.27 ) ) - 33.0B 76.65 \ I Pounds of Nutrient in 100fi Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 8.60 .5449 4.69 Ether Extract 4.94 .3827 4.25 Sol. Carbohydrate 3.99 .3308 1.32 Holoce11ulose 64.B2 .7665 49.68 Total Digestible Nutrients 59.94 (2.25) Digestible Digestible ( Digestfble ) (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate + (Holocell.ulose) Nutr itive.Ratio = (Digestible Protein) ~(4~._25~)~(=1.=3=2~)(~4~9.~6=B~)~ = NR= NR - (4.69) 1 11.78 55.25 4.69 = 11.78 C,.. �-69Table 47. Trickle Mountain Study Area (winter) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Analysis ,,-,. , Forage Feces Protein 7.40 9.20 Ether Extract 4.71 6.94 Sol. Carbohydrate 8.76 -B.69 Holocellulose 58.28 32.46 Lignin 10.78 20.60 Dj.~estion Coefficient Protein 100 (100 Ether Extract 100 (100 ...,.. 10.78 20.60 X lQ.18 X 20.60 -1..0..78 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 Holocellulose 100 - (100 (100 - 20.60 10.18 20.60 X X 9.20 7.40 ) 34.94 6.21 4.71 8.62 8.76 ) 22.89 32.~Q 58.28 ) ) 48.09 = 70.85 Pounds of Nutrient in 1001/ Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible .Nutrient Protein 7.40' .3494 2.59 Ether Extract 4.71 .2289 2.43 Sol. Carbohydrate 8.76 .4809 4.21 Holocellulose 58.28 •. 7085 41.29 Total Digestible Nutrients 50.52 (2.25) Digestible ( Digestible) (Ether R'<:tract) + Carbohydrate Nutr:i:tiveRatio = (Digestible Protein) (2.43)(4.21)(41.29) - NR= (2.59 ) NR (Digestible) + Holocellulose J. 19.50 50.52 2.59 = 19.50 �-70Table 48. Buffalo Peaks Study Area (summer) - computations for t ot'a.l digestible nutrients and.nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Anal;t:sis Forage Feces Protein 9.20 16.20 Ether Extract 2.54 4.13 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.03 3.38 Holocellulose 60.19 25.35 . Lignin 8.02 28.52 (.1 Digestiorl Coefficient 100 - (100 Protein 8.02 28.52 X 12.20 9.20 ) = 50.48 X 4.13 2.54 ) = 54.28 3.38 ) = 90.52 ) = 88.16 -y Ether Extract 100 - (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 Ho10cel1ulose 100 - (100 (100 8.02 28.52 8.02 28.52 8.02 28.52 X X 10.03 25.35 60.19 Pounds of Nutrient in 100/tFeed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 9.20 .5048 4.64 Ether Extract 2.54 .5428 3.11 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.03 .9052 9.08 Holocellulose 60.19 .•8816 53.06 (2.25) Total Digestible Nutrients Digestible ( Digestible) (Ether Extract) +. Carbohydrate Nutritive Ratio = (Digestible Protein) (3.11)(9.~3.06) = ~m;:: (4.64) NR + 1 14.06 69.89 . Digestible . (Holocellu10se) 65.25 4.64 = -.;:-:- 14.06 �-71Table 49. Buffalo Peaks Study Area (fall) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. ....• Anal~sis \ Forage Feces Protein 10.00 13.40 Ether Extract 6.71 8.67 Sol. Carbohydrate 7.64 .8.69 Ho10ce11u1ose 56.80 27.13 Lignin 11.27 23.11 Digestion Coeffic:i,ent Protein 100 (100 11.27 23.11 X Ether Extract 100 (100 11.27 23.11 X Sol. Carbohydrate 100 (100 lIolocellulose 100 - (100 II z: 23.11 13.40 10.00 816Z 6.71 8 69 .7.64 X ) = 34.65 ) = 36.98 ) = 44.53 ; 11.27 23.11 27.13 56.80 X 76.71 ) Pounds of Nutrient in 100/1 Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 10.00 .3465 3.47 Ether Extract 6.71 .3698 5.58 Sol. Carbohydrate 7.64 .4453 3.40 Ho10ce11u1ose 56. 80~ .7671 43.57 Total Digestible Nutrients 56.02 (2.25) Digestible Digestible .( Digestible ) + (Holocellulose) (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate NutriUve ----------~------- Ratio = (Digestible Protein) .(5.58)(7.64)(56180) = _---.,;5_2 _. 5_5 __ (3.74) 3.74 NR = NR = 1 15.14 = 15.14 �-72Table 50. Buffalo Peaks Study Area (winter) - computations for-total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Ana1~sis -,.0--. Forage Feces Protein 4.60 9.00 Ether Extract 4.16 5.07 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.88 8.55 ,Ho1oce11u10se 67.45 37.05 Lignin 8.28 23.07 Digestion Coefficient Protein 100 - (100 Ether Extract 100 - (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 HCJ1oce11u10se 100 - (100 (100 8.28 23.07 8.28 23.07 8.28 23.07 8.28 23.07 6.53 4.60 X X X X 5.~) 4.16 8.55 10.88 37.05 67.45 = 49~05 = 56.26 ) = 71.80 ) = 80.29 ) Pounds of Nutrient in 100fi Feed Digestion Coe.fficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 4.60 .4905 2.25 Ether Extract 4.16 .5626 5.27 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.88 .7180 7.81 Ro1ocellulose 67.45 .8029 54.16 Total Digestible Nutrients 69.49 (2.25) Digestible ( Digestibl-e ) + Digestible (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate (Ho1ocellulose) Nutritive Ratio = (Digestib1e Protein) __ ~(5~.=2~7~)(~7~.=81~)~(=54~.~1~6L)= (2.25) NE == NR '" 1 29.88 67.24 2.25 = 29.88 �-73Table 51. Pikes Peak Study Area (summer) - computations for total digestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples.· ' Analzsis ..•. Forage Feces Protein 14.20 17.00 Ether Extract 4.05 5.22 Sol. Carbohydrate 11.62 .4.55 Ho1oce1lulose 53.73 29.34 Lignin 8.39 26.14 Digestion Co ef f Lc f ent; Protein 100 Ether Extract 100 - (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 Holoce11u1ose 100 - (100 (100 (100 8.39 26.14 8.39 26.14 8,39 26.14 X X X 8.39 26.14 17.00 14.20 5.22 4.05 4,55 11.62 ) = 58.63 ) ) - 29.34 X 53.73 61.57 ) 87.43 82.47 Pounds of Nutrient in 100# Feed Digestion Coefficient Dig2stible :Nutrient Protein 14.20 .6157 8.74 Ether Extract 4.05 .5863 5.33 Sol. Carbohydrate 11.62 .8743 10.16 Ho1oce11u1ose 53.73 .8247 44.31 Total Digestible Nutrients 68.54 (2.25) Digestible ( Df.g e.st Ib ke ) Digestible (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate + (Ho1ocellulose) -0- Nutritiv~ Ratio = NR= (Digestible Protein) (5.33)(10.16)(44.31) (8.74) NT? 1 ---- 6.84 59.80 8.74 6.84 �-74Table 52. Pikes Peak Study Area (fall) - computations for total d~gestible nutrients and nutritive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Analysis Forage Feces Protein 5.80 10.00 Ether Extract 5.07 4.61 Sol. Carbohydrate 6.11 10.89 Holoce1lulose 73.17 32.69 Lignin 9.88 24.35 Digestion Coefficient Protein 100 - (100 9.88 24.35 X 10.00 5.80 ) = '57.60 Ether Extract 100 - (100 9.88 24.35 X 4.61 5.07 ) = 63.11 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 - (100 9 88 X ' O. 89 ) = 27.69 Holocel1ulose 100 - (100 X 32.69 73.17 ) = 81.87 24.35 9.88 24.35 6.11 Pounds of ,Nutrient in 100/1'Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 5.80 .5760 3.34 Ether Extract 5.07 .6311 '7.20 Sol. Carbohydrate 6.11 .2769 1.69 Holocellulose 73.17 .8187 59.90, Total Digestible Nutrients 72.13 (2.25) Digestible Digestible ( Digestible ) + (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate (Holocc11ulose) ------------------ Nutritive Ratio (Digestible Protein) _->( 7. 2Qlli..Ji.ll.ill~.~90.t..J.)~ __ (3.34) NR 1 20.60 = 68.79 _ ------3.34 20.60 �-75Table 53. Pikes Peak Study Area (winter) - computations for total.digestible nutrients. and nutri.tive ratio for compounded forage and fecal samples. Analysis ';". . " Forage Feces Protein 8.60 16..20 Ether Extract 4.94 6.97 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.99 7.40 Holocellulose 57.82 26.29 Lignin 11.69 28.91 Digestion Coefficient Protein 100 - (100 Ether Extract 100 - (100 Sol. Carbohydrate 100 Holocellulose 100 - (100 (100 11.69 28.91 11.69 28.91 ll.62 28.91 11.69 28.91 X X X X 16.20 8.60 6.97 4.94 Z.40 10.99 26.29 57.82 ) = 23.82 ) 42.94 ) 72.77 ) = 81.6I. Pounds of Nutrient in 10011 Feed Digestion Coefficient Digestible Nutrient Protein 8.60 .2382 2.05 Ether Extract 4.94 .4294 4.77 Sol. Carbohydrate 10.99 .7277 7.99 Holocellulose 57.82 .8161 47.19 Total Digestible Nutrients 62.00 (2.25) Digestible (Digestible ) + ( Digestible' (Ether Extract) + Carbohydrate Holocellu1ose) Nutritive Ratio = (Digestible Protein) (4.77) (Z~9)(47 .19) (2.05) NR= 1 29.24 ------ = '59.95 -----2.05 29.24 �-76- Tables 54 and 55 show the results of the two experiments previously described. The total digestible nutrients and the nutritive ratio resulting from the two methods are comparable, but a great deal of additional work must be done before either technique can be used to evaluate range quality for big game animals. Table 54. Results of nutritive quality of bighorn sheep ranges by the technique of compounding forage samples by percent grass and percent browse. Buffalo Peaks NR TDN . Pikes .Peak . NR TDN Season Trickle Mountain NR TDN Sunnner 51.34 1:10.80 63.30 1:11.08 65.77 1:12.05 Fall 64.12 1:16.33 73.03 1:19.40 67.88 1:19.08 Winter 68.27 1:16.73 52.54 1:22.88 62.10 1:20.27 Table 55. Results of nutritive quality of bighorn sheep ranges by the technique of compounding forage samples by the percent plant composition. Buffalo Peaks TDN NR .Pikes Peak NR TDN Season Trickle Mountain NR TDN Sunnner 72.85 1:11.22 69.89 1:14.06 68.54 1: 6.84 Fall 59.94 1:11. 78 56.02 1:15.14 72.13 1:20.60 Winter 50.52 1:19.50 69.49 1:29.88 62.00 1:29.24 -y �-77- LITERATURE CITED Boussingault, Jean-Baptiste. 1843. Economic Rurale Consideree dans ses Rapports avec la chimie, la Physique et la meteorologie. Bechet Jeunne. Paris. (In 2 volumes). Transplated by Sir George. Laws. 1845. Rural economics in its relation with chemistry, physics and meteorology. D. Appleton and Company, New York. Colburn, M. W., and J. L. Evans. 1967. Chemical composition of the cell wall constituent and acid detergent fiber fraction of forages. J. Dairy Sci. 50:1130. Crampton, E. W., and L. A. Maynard. 1938. The relation of cellulose and lignin content to the nutritive value of animal feeds. J. Nutr. 15:383. Dearden, B. L. 1973. Analyses of the discernibility of plant species during digestion. PhD Dissertation, Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 126 pp. Fonnesbeck, P. V., and L. E.Harris. 1970a. Determination of plant cell walls in feeds. Proc. Western Sec., Amer. Soc. Animal Sci. 21:153. ~ , and 1970b. Determination of holocellulose, lignin and silica of plant cell walls. proc. Western Sec., Amer. Soc. Animal ScL 21:162. , and 1971. Determing hemicellulose in plant cell walls. ----Proc. Western Sec., Amer. Soc. Animal Sci. 22:77. Harris, L. E. 1970. Nutrition techniques for domestic and wild animals. Vol. 1, An international record system and procedures for analyzing samples. L. E. Harris, Logan, Utah. Henneberg, W., and F. Stohmann. fritterung der Weiderkur. 1860. Henry, W. A., and F. B. Morrison. 1910. W. A. Henry, Madison, Wisconsin. Berundung einer rationellen Feeds and feeding. 10th ed. Schoonveld, G. G. 1973. Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Evaluation of the nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep. Colo. Div.of Wildl. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-4l-R-22. Game Res. Rept. January. Stewart, D. R. M. 1967. Analysis of plant epidermis in faeces; a technique for studying the food preferences of grazing herbivores. J. App1. Ecol. 4 (1):83-111. �-78- Thaer, A. 1809. Grundsatze der ratione11e Landwirtschaft. Sec. 275, Die Realschu1buchhand1ung. Berlin. Vol. 1, Van Soest, P. J. 1964. Symposium on nutrition and forage and pastures: New chemical procedures for evaluating forages. J. Animal Sci., 28: 838. __~_; and R. H. Wine. 1967. Use of detergents in the analysis of feeds. IV. Determination of plant cell-wall constituents. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 50:50. Zyznar, E., and P. J. Urness. 1969. Qualitative identification of forage remnants in deer feces" J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(3) :506-510. =.•. -=:.~K.. •. Prepared by _ZJ!·~"t:.!=· I!!~ ~:"I!!'''''''''LRobert E. Keiss Wildlife Researcher =. ~~:... .. �January, -79- JOB PROGRESS State of 1974 REPORT COLORADO --------~~~------------------- Project No. W-4l-R-23 Work Plan No. Job Title Personnel: 1 Manipulation Period Covered: Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Job No. of Vegetation Goat Investigations 17 on Bighorn Sheep Ranges June 1, 1972 through May 31, 1973. George D. Bear, Dennis Davis, Richard Greene, William Adrian,and Robert Keiss. ABSTRACT Study ,areas were treated with nitrogen fertilizer, phosphorous fertilizer and 2,4-D herbicide. Work this segment was dire~ted at monitoring the effects of these treatments. Frequency of occurrence was established for each plant species on the study plots. Herbage production data indicated there was a significant increase in the forage produced on the Cebolla Creek (subalpine) study area due to nitrogen treatment, but there appeared to be little difference resulting from the level of nitrogen treatment. There was no significant difference due to phosphorous or herbicide trea:bments. Alpine study plots showed a significant decrease in forage production due to herbicide treatment, and a significant increase due to phosphorous treatment. There was not a significant response to the application of nitrogen fertilizer. Plants collected from the Cebolla Creek study area showed an increase in protein content due to nitrogen treatments. There was no change in the phosphorous or calcium content due to the various treatments. Chemical composition of the alpine plants was unchanged by the various treatments. Bighorn sheep on the alpine area did not show a preference for the vegetation on the various plots, whereas, elk on Cebolla Creek showed a marked preference for plots treated with nitrogen fertilizer. ��-81MANIPULATION OF VEGETATION ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES GeorgeD. ·P.S. Bear OBJECTIVE Improve the herbage yield, vegetative density and vegetative composition on selected bighorn sheep ranges in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Alter the quality and quantity of forage on specific study areas with varied treatments of chemical fertilizers and herbicides. 2. Determine the effect of each treatment on the composition, production, and chemical content of plant species. 3. Determine grazing preferences of wild bighorns on the area in respect to each treatment. METHODS AND MATERIALS The study area is located about 35 miles south of Gunnison, Colorado. This bighorn herd winters in two areas: in a low (8,000 feet elevation) bunchgrass and ponderosa pine type, and in a high (11,000-14,000 feet elevation) alpine type. The following work is being conducted on each winter range. 1. Bighorn preference and response of the vegetation was measured on plots treated with 2,4-D (herbicide), nitrogen, and phosphorus. Two levels of treatment (0 and 2 lbs./acre) was evaluated for 2,4-D; four levels of treatment (0, 30, 60, and 90 lbs./acre) for nitrogen; and two levels of treatment (0 and 30 lbs./acre) for phosphorus. These were evaluated in all .possible combinations, ·or a 2x4x2 factorial for a total of 16 treatments, as outlined in the following table: Treatment Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 2,4-D 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Treatment Nitrogen 0 0 30 30 60 60 90 90 0 0 30 30 60 60 90 90 Phosphorus 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 �-82·· Treatment plots. measuring 50 feet by 100 feet. were established last segment. Each corner was marked with a metal fence post. These markers were numbered to assist in identifying plots when bighorns are grazing on them. Three replications were randomly established on each study area. Each replication consisted of the 16 treatment plots listed on the preceding page. Plots in each replication were arranged in a rectangular area eight plots long and two plots deep. Randomized selection of treatment for each plot was determined by using a table of random numbers. 2. Frequertcysampling. Transects were established on each plot to determine changes in vegetative composition which may result from the various treatments. Four transects were established in each plot. The transects parallel the base of the plot with approximatelylO-foot spacing between transects. A total of 15 quadrats are located at 6-foot intervals along each transect. or a total of 60 quadrats for each treatment plot. Preliminary sampling work completed during the last segment indicated a quadrat size measuring l6x16 inches should be used on the low winter range at Cebolla Creek; and a split-sampling scheme should be used on the alpine area. Two quadrat sizes are used on the alpine: 1 inch by 1 inch for measuring Trifoliumrtanum and Carex sp •• and 8x8 inches for all other species. Frequency percentages were derived for all plant species encountered on the quadrats. To be considered as occurring on a given quadrat, the center of an individual plant or one-half of its basal area must be inside the quadrat. An "individual" for bunchgrasses was a clump; for single stem species, such as wheatgrass, it was individual stems; for cactus it was a lobe; and for shrubs and forbs it was the basal area of all stems. Obviously, these data are acceptable for determining changes in frequencies for each individual species only. and cannot be used to compare one species to another. Frequency (p) is defined p=m/n. where m is the number of quadrats containing a given species and n is the total number of quadrats observed in each treatment. These transects were read in June and July. when the vegetation was growing well, but before the crowns become so large they interfered with observations. Yield plots. Quantity of forage produced on the treatment plots was determined by using a Neal Electronics Herbage meter. The herbage meter measures an area 24 inches by 12 inches. which is designated as a yield plot. Preliminary sampling data gathered last segment indicated 40 plots were needed on the alpine area for a statistically valid (p = .10) sample and 30 plots on the Cebolla Creek area. The 60 plots established on each treatment for the frequency plots above were also used for the yield plots. Obviously the 60 plots is considerably greater than the recommended numbers given above; however. the vegetation will be changing due to treatment and larger samples will be needed as variation increases. �-83- In addition to the herbage meter readings, the vegetation on five plots on each treatment was clipped and weighed. All green vegetation on these plots was clipped at the root crown and placed in a labeled paper sack. These samples were taken to the laboratory, oven dried, and then weighed to the nearest gram. The weights were used to compute regression equations for converting herbage meter readings into pounds of forage per acre. Preliminary sampling last segment indicated at least S clip-plots were needed on the alpine area and 3 clip-plots on each treatment on the Cebolla Creek area to obtain statistically sound results (P = .10). Wire cages will be placed on the study areas to monitor the effect of grazing on the area. The cages measuring 3 feet by 3 feet by 1 foot high will be placed on each area. Vegetation produced inside the cages (no grazing) will be compared with vegetation produced on areas outside the cages (grazed areas) to get a general idea concerning the effects of grazing. Photo points were established on each treatment. Photos will be taken each year at the end of the growing season to establish visual records of changes occurring in the vegetation due to the various treatments. Chemical analysis. Vegetative samples were analyzed for phosphorus, potassium, and protein content. This work was done at the Fort Collins Research Center Laboratory. Since the study area is a bighorn. winter range, the vegetation was sampled at the completion of the growing season, again in mid-winter, and in late winter. Samples of the most common plant species were collected from the treated areas. 3. Bighorn preference or selection of treatment plots shall be determined. Number of bighorns on each treatment plot was recorded at IS-minute intervals during the observation periods. Sex and age of the sheep, time of day, general activity of the animals, weather conditions, and snow depth (if present) was also recorded. Observations were made with a spotting scope during daylight hours. Sampling periods extended throughout the time the sheep occupied the winter range. Notations were also kept on other animals (deer or elk) that use the study plots. Records were kept on the snow depth on each treatment plot to be related to bighorn preference for given plots. The fence posts marking the corners of the plots provided permanent snow depth markers. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Treatment of Study Plots Ammonium nitrate and phosphate fertilizers were applied to the plots during the last work segment (September, 1971). Herbicide (2,4-D) applications were made on the designated plots in June, 1972, when plant growth was just starting. �-84- Monitoring Treated Plots Frequency Sampling Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers and herbicide are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Data from the three replications (180 sampling plots) are combined to give a single percentage-figure for each plant species within each level of treatment. These frequency percentages were derived at the beginning of the growing season; therefore the effects of the fertilizer and herbicide treatments are not reflected here and the data serves as a baseline to evaluate changes that occur in following years. Most common plants encountered on the Cebolla Creek study area were: Muhlenbergia montana, Festtica atizortica, Sitartiorthysttix; 'BOutelouagtacilis,ArtemiSia frigida,Chrysothamrtuspattyi,Chenopodium sp., andCrucifetae. The most common plants on the alpine study area were: Kobresicibellardi,Poa sp., Festuca ovina, Ttisetumspicatum; AttemisiaScoptilotum; Gem turb~tum, Umbelliferae,Polygonum bistottoides;Ttifolium nanum, Potentillaconcinna, Phlox caespitosa, and Cerastium beeringianum. Yield Plots The relationship of herbage meter readings to herbage weights was stronger for green weights than for oven-dry weights (Table 3). However, these differences do not appear to be great enough to require taking both green weights and dry weights for all samples. Since fertilizers generally stimulate the water intake of plants as growth is increased, it is assumed dry weights would be a better measure of the actual forage produced. Only dry weight measurements will be made for this study in the future, thus eliminating unnecessary labor. The correlation coefficients were lower for these data than those computed from the sample-data collected during the last work segment. This can possibly be accounted for by a series of mishaps that interfered with data collection. Equipment "breaking down" caused a delay that allowed the alpine vegetation to start drying out before readings could be made. A second herbage meter was borrowed to complete the readings and it is unknown how these readings compare to those made with the original meter. It was obvious that the borrowed meter was less stable and frequent adjustments and checks were made to try to keep the machine "zeroed out". Of course, the original sampling (1971) could have been inadequate. However, the meter readings are still within acceptable limits of accuracy and the speed of data gathering is far superior to other techniques. Herbage production data indicated there was a significant (95 percent level) increase in the forage produced on the Cebolla Creek study area due to the nitrogen treatment, but there appeared to be little difference due to the level of nitrogen treatment. There was no significant difference due to the application of either phosphorus fertilizer or herbicide. There were very few forbs on this area to be affected by the herbicide treatment; whereas, forbs were abundant on the alpine area where herbage production was significantly (99 percent level) reduced by the application of herbicide (Table 4). The alpine area showed �-85- a significant (90 percent level) response to application of phosphorous fertilizer, but not to the application of nitrogen fertilizer. Even though there were significant statistical differences in production data, the differences in pounds of forage produced were probably not sufficient for management purposes. This was a very dry year for the study area. It is hoped the vegetation will respond more dramatically to the fertilizer treatments with increased precipitation in future years. The Cebolla Creek study area received several rainfalls in late August and the response of the vegetation on the plots to the additional moisture was quite noticeable. Chemical Analysis Samples of the following plant species were collected from the Cebolla Creek study plots and analyzed for protein, phosphorus, and calcium; Artemisia frigida, Muhlenbergia montana, Festuca arizonica, and Bouteloua gracilis (Tables 5-8). Protein content of Artemisia in the fall sampling period did not show a change as a result of treatment, however, from mid to late winter the protein content appeared to be higher in this species due to nitrogen treatment. Protein content in the three species of grasses was higher on the nitrogen-treated plots throughout the winter. There were not any definite changes in the protein levels of these four plant species tested due to ~he various levels of nitrogen treatment. Also, there weren't any apparent changes in the phosphorus or calcium levelsdue to the fertilizer and herbicide treatments. Kobresia bellardi, Poa rupicola, Trifolium nanum, Oreoxis bakeri, and Geum turbinatum were collected from the alpine study plots for chemical analysis (Tables 9-13). The latter three species are relatively unavailable in late winter, thus, were collected only during the fall sampling period. There did not appear to be any change in the chemical content of these plant species due to fertilizer or herbicide treatments. Grazing Preference Bighorn sheep in the alpine did not show a preference for any of the treated plots. Plots used by the sheep are listed in Table 14; these plots were all on replication number 1 and happened to be nearest. the bedding area. On many occasions sheep grazed near the plots without venturing onto them. Most plots were nearly free of snow throughout the winter so sheep had ready access to the vegetation. The Cebolla Creek area was frequented by bighorn sheep, elk, and deer but sheep were never observed on the study plots. It was difficult to accurately record deer and elk usage on the plots since they were most active during the nights. A small band of elk that frequented the locality of replication number 2 were very selective for plants on the nitrogen treated plots. Arizona fescue plants not treated with nitrogen were 10-14 inches tall, whereas the fescue plants on the nitrogen-treated plots were grazed-down to a 4-inch height by March. The boundary-line contrast was �-86- very pronounced. winter. This area was relatively free of snow throughout the Prepared by ......:~~~_~J_./-:' =-._. _L--_~_'/_". _/_~_. George 'ii. Bear Wildlife Researcher _-L--_' �I Table 1. Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the·study plots treated with fertilizers and herbicide, CX> -...J Cebolla Creek, 1972. I ,"( Treatment! Species 0-0-00-30-0 Pounds Per Acrua Nitrogen - Phos2horus - Herbicide 30-0-0 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-: G~ Agro2yron smithii Bouteloua gracilis Car'~ sp , Danthonia 23rryi Fes[uca arizonica Koelcria cristata }!uhlcnbergia montana - - - 25 12 21 2 17 1 51 8 62 66 38 1 65 - - T 69 - }~uh.lenb(;r~ rlchardsoni ~luhll'nbL'rglatorreyi Ory;~ol''' Is hymcrioide.• Poa secunda Sitan10n hystrix Stil~~ Vnid. Grass T - - 3 24 - 3 - 3 - 26 - 1 2 1 1 32 - 2 19 14 2 59 47 53 - 4 2 25 3 - - - - 3 13 7 T - 13 8 20 8 21 14 15 4 8 17 57 1 70 48 2 45 45 7 57 51 4 64 47 4 80 67 2 70 - - - 2 - - - - 1 21 2 - - 5 2 22 T - - - 2 1 - 7 3 27 22 22 - - - - - - 25 - - 3 - T T 13 - 1 - - T 7 12 8 2 17 7 69 -7 11 3 20 8 19 9 8 5 - 54 2 77 58 1 49 54 3 65 45 4 69 44 4 62 - -2 3 1 1 1 - 23 28 - 6 - 3 5 31 2 32 38 - -- 3 6 3 3 7 7 5 5 T 1 1 - 61 T - 22 T - - - - - - - - - 3 T T Forbs ~~sp. Castilleja sp. Cheuopod Lum sp. Cruc:ifcrae Dral~ sp. Erigcron sp. Eriogonum sp. .E.ri:!1;a rea sp. GE'ranium sp. Heuchera sp , ~'noxys richardsoni Liwnula sp , -- -T- - T T 2 T - 8 5 1 - T - - 1 T - - 2 T 2 7 - 1 8 - - - - T - - 1 1 T T 1 2 1 2 T 1 2 3 - 4 7 -8 T 3 - 2 7 - 4 -9- 7 6 - - 3 - - - .•. T 3 T T T T T 2 1 1 1 - 4 1 - 3 - 3 - T T T 6 2 T - -2 -2 - 2 1 - 2 - - - 2 T 1 - T T 1 T 1 3 --------------------------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~---------------------------------------_. LC'ptodactylon pungens 4 4 -1 3 - 2 T �I 00 00 I Table 1. Percent frequency of occurrence Species Forbs (continued) Hertensia sp. PenstcMon teucrioides Potentilla concinna Senecio sp. Sph3crnlcea coccinea Unid. III Unid. 112 Unid. 113 Un Ld , 114 Unid. 115 Unid. Sage for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers 30-0-0 Treatmentl Pounds Per Acrel Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide 30-0-2 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 60-30-0 90-0-0 30-30-0 60-0-0 0-0-0 0-30-0 4 -- 2 T 1 - - T 1 59 4 47 3 65 2 51 7 5 - - T - - 4 - - - - 1 1 2 - and herbicide, 7 T T - 20 1 T 7 T T - - - 2 4 1 1 T T T - - - - - - - 72 - 4 69 59 59 13 2 5 8 T - T 1 - - T - 17 - T - - - 59 5 48 3 - T - - - - 2 - Cebolla 30-30-2 - Creek, 1972 (continued). 60-0-:'Z-60-::3<f-2 90-0-2 - T 1 2 -2 - 90':"30- T 3 4 2 - 2 1 - - - - 2 53 1 54 2 49 48 1 55 1 47 3 5 1 4 6 9 5 - - '. - - T 1 1 1 T - - T - 2 5 3 - - ~ Artemisia dracuncu1us Artemisia frigida Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus parryi Chrysothamnus viscidi.florus Echinocactus sp , Physocarpus sp , Rhus trilohata Ribes cereum ------ T 2 -3 - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - - T 5 - T T 3 1 - T - - 4 1 - - 2 - T 1 - T - T - T �, , cc Table 2. Percent frequency of occurrence Species 0-0-0 0-30-0 for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers 30-0-0 and herbicides, <o Alpine, 1972. 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-: 8 12 11 18 2 22 24 T - T T 43 2 19 6 27 3 Pounds Per Acre, Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide Treatment 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 Grasses Agr(~ scribneri 4 41 Carl~ spp. Dcsch ••mosia caespitosa Festuca ovina 35 Fcst,yca T Bel i.c t o t rlcon m<>rtonlanum 8 Lu-;'-;;]7J sEicatum 3 Poa sp. 75 Trj"etum sElcatum 9 Ko h res i a bellardi 34 Un Ld , Grass sP:-- - - 1 16 36 3 18 36 T T 2 6 45 27 47 10 - 6 31 - - T 2 13 42 24 - - - 8 27 5 22 T - 23 T 43 1 33 2 35 1 31 3 27 2 43 T 9 6 8 4 86 T T - 4 2 79 22 46 8 5 58 21 41 9 3 72 8 37 T 9 - 66 26 47 11 67 34 45 3 61 28 47 7 3 40 2 41 4 36 35 T r - 79 6 50 2 11 2 75 20 30 4 T 10 63 32 45 T 3 4 71 21 38 2 8 8 80 19 45 2 2 T T 3 - - 3 7 17 1 T 74 2 15 36 18 26 - - - 20 17 7 - - - - 9 14 2 38 2 36 3 - 4 49 3 16 67 1 45 - - - - - - 67 23 36 4 44 1 T 2 - 3 T 1 - T T 19 14 - T 6 25 1 1 66 6 Forbs Achillea 1anu1osa Androsace s"Etentrionalis Arcnaria fendleri Arter.lisia scoEulorum Caltha leptosepala Castilleja nee.Ldr-n t n 1 is CastJ.ll.lli rhexffo1ia Castj_Ll eja sp , Cer'l2.t r i um .h.,:~[in, ..Ianum ~, if "T..'.!.£ (l) 2 - 2 T 14 14 T 67 12 25 T - - - - -5 28 - J:.uu:.i[!' T ,11:' (2) ELi~~:u'n .rinn;1ti.secta 13 E.r~.r.t'-D. .0rllll£A 3 - - - - 20 4 10 20 - 8 18 - 33 2 5 3 1 19 T 19 1 - 22 17 1 17 25 T - - 3 36 - 2 T 11 11 21 34 54 - - - 32 4 4 13 4 33 11 17 6 18 22 18 18 8 28 50 23 7 6 14 12 16 5 22 14 10 18 4 25 10 25 - - T - T 1 T 10 20 1 17 T - 40 4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~---------------- T �I 1.0 Table 2. Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers and herbicide, Alpine, 1972 (continued). Species 0-0-0 0-30-0 Treatment. Pounds Per Acre. Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide 30-0-0 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 0 I 90-30-2 Forbs (continued) Eritrichium e10ngatum 7 14 Geurr.turbinatum HaElopappus pygoanuB 3 Hy~cnoxys rrondif1ora 3 H8rtensia bakeri 6 Pedicular.i.s scopulorum Phocelia sericea Phlo~ caespitosa 39 Polcmont um viscosum 2 ~3.9..!1Ilmbistortoides 20 Polvgonum sp. 5 Potentilla concinna 40 Potentilla diversifolia Potentilla rubricaulis 9 Ranunc u l us Lnamo enus 4 Saxifr::lI~af Lagel In ris - - Sax Lf racn r hombo Ldca SeduClstenopetalum Sf Lc ne acnul.Ls Tha:laspialpestre Trifolium dasyphylum Trifolium nanum Trifoliumparryi Unid. (1) Gentiana sp. Umbe 11iferae UnLd, Forbs - T 14 T 2 39 2 57 - 3 9 - 7 36 2 1 - - 22 38 54 5 7 34 - - 3 15 2 4 -2 - - 39 - 7 13 T - 2 2 2 T - 30 - 25 22 33 1 62 2 - - 26 - 67 - 31 2 49 - 5 20 1 5 1 T 29 - 14 2 30 - 4 T 1 2 3 8 T 28 - 12 19 5 43 3 62 T 3 2 3 8 4 6 3 6 1 7 46 54 38 35 34 29 17 2 41 31 7 41 42 1 24 21 50 3 13 48 6 2 6 5 1 2 2 2 1 5 3 2 2 T T T 7 8 9 14 5 18 2 37 37 1 15 14 2 25 2 67 2 25 T 2 7 6 31 4 T T 1 9 8 2 3 14 T 50 5 43 37 26 33 39 18 10 27 28 3 32 4 7 3 2 - 10 3 12 2 4 4 - 13 3 1 29 - - T 3 - 33 - - 1 7 2 8 1 - 6 2 3 T 14 - 2 - 20 4 17 3 2 18 4 58 26 15 38 T T 34 - - T 19 - T -3 9 16 25 T 31 - 3 48 1 44 - T 29 4 56 1 59 28 8 30 1 2 4 24 2 72 2 9 T 13 12 3 42 1 3 13 2 1 T 34 11 3 4 27 19 8 21 - 57 - - T - 63 2 - - - - - 12 3 1 49 32 42 - - - 23 2 50 - 12 - 61 - - T - 2 16 3 4 25 T - T 13 71 38 3 23 2 62 T T - T - 16 69 - - 77 T Shrubs Salix niva1is - - - T 2 4 1 2 �-91- Table 3. Relationship of herbage meter readings to oven-dry and green weights of forage on meter read plots. .Treatment Nitrogen-PhosphorusHerbicide Cebolla Creek Corr. Coef Sample Dry Green Size Weight Weight Alpine Corr. Coef. Sample Dry Green Size Weight Weight 0- 0-0 37 .70 .70 30 .87 .88 0-30-0 36 .78 .80 34 .83 .91 30- 0-0 36 .70 .87 36 .80 .84 30-30-0 36 .57 .59 34 .67 .65 60-.., 0-0 36 .87 .88 30 .75 .78 60-30-0 36 .68 .68 34 .83 .90 90- 0-0 36 .86 .86 30 .88 .89 90-30-0 36 .81 .80 30 .53 .76 0- 0-2 35 .74 .78 30 .56 .78 0-30-2 35 .57 .50 30 .85 .85 30- 0-2 36 .81 .81 34 .75 .75 30-30-2 36 .85 .85 34 .55 .59 60- 0-2 36 .71 .70 30 .69 .72 60-30-2 36 .72 .80 34 .78 .83 90- 0-2 36 .80 .84 30 .78 .84 90-30-2 36 .83 .88 36 .88 .91 �-92- Table 4. Mean herbage production (pounds per acre) on plots treated with nitrogen fertilizer, phosphorus fertilizer, and 2,4-D, 1972. Treatment };..! Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Herbicide Herbage Production (Pounds Per Acre) 2/ Cebolla Alpine 0- 0-0 694 1145 0-30-0 627 1663 30- 0-0 794 1884 30-30-0 757 1234 60- 0-0 827 1155 60-30-0 774 1238 90- 0-0 801 1055 90-30-0 699 1456 0- 0-2 577 871 0-30-2 731 689 30- 0-2 857 837 30-30-2 999 841 60-0-2 770 915 60-30-2 908 1024 90- 0-2 797 1023 90-30-2 697 1496 1./ Treatment rate is in pounds per acre. 2/ - Pounds per acre figure for herbage was computed on a dry weight basis. �Table 5. Chemical analysis of Artemisia frigida collected on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, 1972-73. Collection Date and Ana1xsis (%2 Januarx Calcium Phosphorus Protein Protein AEril Phosphorus Calcium .94 9.4 .16 .78 .14 .88 10.6 .18 .93 9.4 .15 .78 13.2 .21 .85 .93 9.4 .16 .78 13.2 .16 1.08 .14 .90 10.2 .13 .75 13.0 .18 .82 17.2 .18 .90 10.0 .07 .79 14.4 .25 ·95 90- 0-0 15.6 .14 .76 10.2 .16 .85 15.4 .23 .84 90-30-0 16.8 .19 .86 11.4 .19 .81 17.4 .25 .96 Protein SeEtember Phosphorus Calcium 0-0-0 14.8 .16 .81 7.0 .13 0-30-0 15.2 .16 .83 7.4 30-0-0 16.8 .18 .86 30-30-0 14.0 .16 60- 0-0 16.0 60-30-0 Treatment (N-P-H) I \0 w I �Table 6 • Chemical analysis of Muh1enbergia montana collected on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, 1972-73. Treatment (N-P-H) Collection Date and Analysis (%) January Phosphorus Calcium Protein Protein SeEtember Phosphorus Calcium Protein AEril Phosphorus Calcium 0-0-0 8.8 .16 .42 4.0 .07 .43 3.0 -- .47 0-30-0 7.6 .19 .51 2.4 .08 .48 3.6 .04 .51 30-0-0 13.2 .17 .41 4.8 .04 .41 4.4 .04 .49 30-30-0 11.2 .18 .40 5.6 .01 .43 4.2 .04 .52 60-0-0 13.2 .16 1.70 5.2 .06 .44 5.6 .05 .55 60-30-0 11.6 .17 .41 6.0 .07 .39 6.0 .05 .58 90-0-0 12.4 .16 .47 5.4 .05 .45 6.4 .05 .58 90-30-0 14.4 .18 .81 6.6 .14 .50 7.0 .07 .62 0-0-2 10.0 .16 1.34 4.0 .07 .55 3.6 .06 .45 0-30-2 8.4 .18 .41 3.4 -- -- 3.6 .04 .42 30-0-2 10.0 .18 .50 4.4 -- -- 4.4 .04 .47 30-30-2 10.8 .17 .42 5.2 .07 .53 5.8 .05 .49 60-0-2 12.0 .17 .58 5.8 .07 .68 5.2 .05 .58 60-30-2 12.4 .17 .63 6.0 .06 .60 5.0 .05 .56 90-0-2 13.6 .16 .58 5.0 -- -- 5.4 .04 .67 90-30-2 14.0 .16 .58 7.4 .08 .73 6.4 .07 .58 I \0 ~ I �Table.7 . Chemical analysis of Festuca ariZortica collected on the Cebolla Creek Study Area, 1972-73. Collection Date and Analysis (%) January Calcium Phosphorus Protein Protein .04 .35 3.8 .06 .45 3.4 .07 .32 5.6 .06 .52 .34 4.0 .04 .33 3.6 .04 .49 .14 .40 5.4 .09 .36 4.0 .06 .52 14.0 .13 .37 5.6 .07 .34 4.6 .06 .45 14.4 .14 .37 5.0 .05 .41 5.0 .06 .52 4.6 .05 .42 Protein SeEtember Phosphorus Calcium 0-0-0 7.2 .10 1. 70 3.8 0-30-0 8.4 .16 .41 30-0-0 .14 30-30-0 10.8 11.2 60-0-0 60-30-0 Treatment (N-P-H) April T'hosphorus Calcium ------ 90-0-0 15.2 .15 .50 6.4 .04 .37 90-30-0 14.4 .14 .43 7.6 .10 .48 4.8 .07 .45 0-0-2 9.2 .12 .43 3.6 -- -- 3.8 .06 .49 0-30-2 8.4 .14 .38 3.4 .10 .58 4.8 .06 .45 30-0-2 13.6 .12 .47 5.0 .08 .53 4.2 .06 .45 30-30-2 10.4 .18 .41 5.8 .09 .53 4.4 .05 .42 60-0-2 11.2 .13 .38 6.6 .10 .55 5.2 .05 .49 60-30-2 14.4 .14 .44 6.0 .09 .53 4.8 .07 .49 90-0-2 11.6 .14 .38 5.0 .17 .53 5.0 .04 .47 90-30-2 13.2 .14 .44 3.6 .08 .43 4.4 .07 .45 I \0 VI I �Table 10- Chemical analysis of Poa rupicola collected on the Alpine Study Area, 1972-73. Collection Date and Anal~sis (%) Januar~ Calcium Phosphorus Protein Protein April Phosphorus Calcium .49 4.0 .04 .58 .04 .48 4.2 .07 .68 6.2 .03 .55 5.4 '.04 .65 .33 6.8 .05 .44 5.4 .06 .55 .11 .30 6.4 .06 .41 6.2 .04 .65 15.6 .10 .44 6.6 .09 .58 5.6 .05 .62 .10 .34 6.6 .06 .52 6.8 .04 .68 90-30-0 13.6 11.6 .14 .31 6.8 .06 .39 6.4 .07 .82 0-0-2 9.6 .10 .37 5.2 .07 .61 4'.8 .04 .62 0-30-2 10.4 .12 .42 5.2 .07 .50 5.0 .05 .68 30-0-2 10.0 .10 .33 4.6 -- -- 4.6 .03 .65 30-30-2 13.2 .11 .30 5.4 .05 .68 5.4 .04 .65 60-0-2 10.8 .09 .35 6.0 .06 .61 5.4 .04 .64 60-30-2 14.0 .10 .35 5.8 .04 .43 5.8 .05 .57 90-0-2 13.2 .10 .31 5.8 .05 .61 6.2 .06 .62 90-30-2 12.4 .11 .30 5.0 .08 .58 6.0 .09 .68 Protein SeEtember Phosphorus Calcium 0-0-0 11.2 .10 .43 4.8 .06 0-30-0 10.8 .10 .81 6.6 30-0-0 10.8 .10 .34 30-30-0 11.6 .11 60-0-0 12.0 60-30-0 90-0-0 Treatment (N-P-H) I \0 00 I �-99- Table 11. Chemical analysis of Trifolium nanum collected on the Alpine Study Area, Sept. 1972. Treatment (N-P-H) Protein -AnalysiS -(%) Phosphorus Calcium 0"';0-0 17.2 .14 2.20 0-30-0 17.2 .16 2.34 30- 0-0 16.0 .11 2.34 30-30-0 19.6 .15 2.28 60- 0-0 16.8 .32 2.26 60-30-0 14.4 .15 2.28 90- 0-0 19.6 .12 2.28 .16 2.34 90-30-0 Table 12. Chemical analysis of Oreoxisbakeri Alpine Study Area, September, 1972. collected on the Treatment (N-P-H) Protein Ana1ysis-(%) Phosphorus ,__ Calcium 0- 0-0 10.8 .10 1.65 0-30-0 10.0 .10 1.51 30-CO';'0 11.2 .10 1.70 30-30-0 12.0 .12 1.49 60- 0-0 9.2 .09 1.70 60-30-0 12.0 .13 1.70 90- 0-0 11.2 .13 1.64 90-30-0 14.0 .14 1.50 �-100Table 13. Chemical analysis ofGeum Alpine Study Area, September, 1972. turbinatum collected on the Treatment (N-P-H) Protein Arta1xsis (%) Phosphorus Calcium 0- 0-0 8.0 .10 1.44 0-30-0 6.8 .10 1.25 30- 0-0 7.6 .09 1.22 30-30-0 9.2 .09 1.40 60- 0-0 8.0 .09 0.49 60-30-0 8.8 .09 1.50 90- 0-0 10.4 .11 1.40 90-30-0 10.1 . .08 0.43 Table 14. Number of bighorn sheep, deer and elk observed grazing on the study plots during the period January-May, 1973. Plot Treatment (N-P-H) Number of Observations Cebolla Creek A1Eine Bighorn SheeE Elk Deer .Bighorn SheeE Ewes Lambs Rams Total Ewes Lambs Rams Total No. No. 0- 0-0 3 3 0-30-0 30- 0-0 2 30-30-0 3 60- 0-0 5 3 8 1 60-30-0 10 4 14 1 9 90- 0-0 6 90-30-0 6 00- 0-2 ...• 6 0-30-2 3 3 30-00-2 4 6 10 30-30-2 4 5 9 6 4 4 60- 0-2 60-30-2 90- 0-2 90-30-2 2 4· 2 �January, 1974 ~lOl- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-23 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 18 Control of Lungworm in Bighorn Sheep Period Covered: Personnel: 1 Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations June 1, 1972 through May 31, 1973 Robert Lange, Steven Steinert, Julius Klein, George Bear and Robert Keiss, Colorado Division of Wildlife; Dr. Charles Hibler, Department of Pathology, Colorado State University. ABSTRACT This portion of the study is covered under contractual agreement with Colorado State University personnel in a report entitled II Spontaneous Diseases of Bighorn Sheep", W~4l-R, Job Contract. No 4l-R funds were expended on this Job (Work Plan 1, Job 18). :', . ��-103- January, 1974 JOB FINAL REPORT .State of COLORADO Project No. W-41-R-23 Work Plan No. :;.1 Job Title: Period Covered: Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations --'-_--'- _ Job No. Mineral Block Experimentation June 1, 1971 through May 31, 1973 Personnel: William H.Rutherford and Pale W. Stahlecker. ABSTRACT Publication plans are outlined. 19 ��-105- MINERAL BLOCK EXPERIMENTATION William H. Rutherford P. S~ OBJECTIVE To assess factors involved in use of mineral blocks by bighorn sheep. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A manuscript entitled "Techniques for Supplementing Diet, and Attracting and Baiting Bighorn Sheeptl is being prepared for publication as a Game Information Leaflet by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. The section of this publication dealing with the use of mineral blocks constitutes the Job Final Report under the P.S. Objective for Work Plan 1, Job 19, and thereby satisfies Federal Aid requirements for this study. ��January, 1974 -107- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~~------------- Project No. W-41-R-23 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 20 Collection of Bighorn Lambs Period Covered: Personnel: 1 Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations June 15, 1972 through September 15, 1972 Robert L. Schmidt, Gene G. Schoonve1d and William H. Rutherford. ABSTRACT Surveillance of bighorn sheep herds and collecting of lambs resulted in four lambs being taken from Pikes Peak, two from Trickle Mountain, and one from Buffalo Peaks, all taken as specimens for necropsy study to be done on an outside contract basis. ��-109- COLLECTION OF BIGHORN LAMBS William H. Rutherford P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect bighorn lambs as specimens for necropsy study; such study to be done on out.s'Lde contract basis. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor bighorn sheep herds to detect clinically ill lambs. 2. Collect six clinically ill lambs. METHODS AND MATERIALS Surveillance of bighorn sheep herds on Pikes Peak, Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks was started in mid-June and continued into September in an attempt to document characteristics of lamb behavior and appearance that would be indicative of the progression of illness. Collection of lambs was done on foot, using conventional firearms and placing shots for neck hits only. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Lambs on Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks were never observed to show any external indications of illness. On Pikes Peak, many lambs were showing a light-colored scruffy pelage, small size, lethargic behavior, and spasms of coughing by late July and early August. Collections were initiated on August 15 and terminated on September 13. During this time, seven lambs were collected. Four were taken from Pikes Peak on August 15, 17, 18 and 21. Two were taken from Trickle Mountain on August 29 and 30, and one was taken from Buffalo Peaks on September 13. The complete descriptions and necropsy reports on these lambs appear in the report submitted by the contractor, the Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University. Prepared by __~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Rutherf rd Wildlife Researcher ��-i u- January, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~-------------- Project No. W-4l-R-23 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Job No. CONTRACT Spontaneous Diseases of Bighorn Sheep Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations July 1, 1972 through June 30, 1973. Gene Schoonveld, Robert L. Schmidt, William H. Rutherford, Robert E. Keiss of Colorado Division of Wildlife. C. P. Hibler, G. C. Solomon, L. H. Lauerman, T.R. Spraker, R. E. Lange, C. J. Metzger, G. Heideman of the Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Seven bighorn lambs were collected during the summer of 1972 and given a complete postmortem examination to determine the cause of the pneumonia in some herds inColorado. The first four were collected on Pikes Peak. All four had severe pneumonia, with the ventral lobes of both lungs completely consolidated. These animals had heavy lungworm infection and Pasteurella spp. were isolated from the upper and lower respiratory tract. PI-3 virus was isolated from 3 of the 4. Two lambs were collected from the Saguache, Colorado herd. These were extremely healthy lambs that did not have pneumonia, a light infection with lungworm and no PI-3 virus. One of the two had Pasteurella in the upper respiratory tract. The last lamb was collected at Buffalo Peaks. It had some small areas of pneumonia, but a light lungworm infection. Pasteurella was isolated from both the upper and lower respiratory tract, and PI-3 virus was isolated. . Six foetal and neonatal bighorn lambs were examined for evidence of transplacental transmission of lungworm and in all six the results indicated that this type of transmission is the usual means by which bighorn sheep obtain their initial infection with lungworm, at least on Pikes Peak in Colorado. Most of these lambs were born with heavy burdens of lungworm. An experiment was initiated using captive sheep to experimentally reproduce this type of transmission and determine if the ewe was capable of storing the larvae for long periods. The results, although incomplete at present, indicate the experiment was successful. The data have not been evaluated at this time. (Abstract continued on reverse) �-112- A program of monitoring bighorn sheep herds for.evidence of their health status by the nulnber of lungworm larvae in fecal droppings was initiated in the Pikes Peak, Buffalo,Peaks, Trickle Mountain and Poudre Canyon herds. The results, although inconclusive, indicate that if the sample size is sufficient, the procedure is a good criterion for evaluating health status. Chemotherapy trials to evaluate the efficacy of tramisol and cambendazole for efficacy 'against the adult lungworm and third stage larvae stor~d in the ewe's tissues indicate that.the drugs will not kill the adult paras Ltie or the third stage larvae, but will decrease larval output by 95-98 percent for periods of six weeks. �.-113- SPONTANEOUS DISEASES OF BIGHORN SHEEP Dr. Charles Hibler P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine causes, nature and effects of spontaneous diseases in Colorado bighorn sheep with particular reference to mortality in lambs, and study various means of controlling these diseases. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 1 1. Obtain 6 clinically ill bighorn lambs from the commission for a detailed postmortem examination. Seven Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep were collected for studies on lamb mortality and necropsied by the personnel in the College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences. Details of these collections, including dates, sources of the animals, and gross and histopathology findings are given below. PROCEDURE Necropsy examinations of animals killed or dead were conducted by a veterinary pathologist and included gross and histopathologic evaluation of all organs and tissues as well as collection of appropriate specimens, as indicated, for nutritional, parasitologic, bacteriologic, virologic, and toxicologic studies. RESULTS The results are given separately for each sheep. A tabular summary, Table 1, precedes the written results. A detailed histologic description was written for 72BHL-3 and 72BHL-6 and all other lambs were compared to these two lambs. �Table 1. Summary of pos tmo rtem resu1t.s froIl1s.evenbighorn .Lambs co.l.Lec ted in .19.72. Lamb Number Location of collection and date Sex Condition of hair coat Body weight Pneumonia AbdoIl1ina1 fat LungworIl1s Pasteurella isolated spp. PI-3 Isolated 72BHL-2 Pike's Peak 8-15-72 Male Good 5011 Severe + +H+ + 72BHL-3 Pike's Peak 8-17-72 Male Good 5611 Severe + +H+ + 72BHL-4 Pike's Peak 8-18-72 Male Yellow and rough 4011 Severe - +H+ + + 72BHL-5 Pike's Peak 8-22-72 Male Yellow and rough 38/1 Severe - +H+ + + 72BHL-6 Trickle Mt. 8-29-72 FeII1ale Excellent xe. FeIl1ale Excellent 57/1 Male 7011 + I 72BHL-7 Trickle 8-30-72 72BHL-8 Buffalo Peaks 9-13-72 Excellent 55/1 ++ + -. None ++ + + Two sII1all areas of pneumonia ++ + + None - + I-' I-' .pI �-115- I. PATHOLOGY 72BHL-2 History This lamb was collected on August 15, 1972 from the Cog Railroad on the southeast side of the summit of Pikes Peak. The animal was in good physical condition and had a normal hair coat, but was observed to be coughing at the time of collection. Postmortem This animal was a male lamb, weight 50 pounds, shot in the head. Blood was taken immediately after death. Fifteen minutes after collection, postmortem examination was initiated. Respiratory Tract Nasal Cavity-- The nasal mucosa was inflammed, however, no exudate was present. The retropharyngeal lymph nodes were enlarged and moist. Trachea--The trachea was mildly inflammed, but no exudate was present on the mucosa. Lungs--The changes in both the left and right lungs were essentially identical. The ventral one-third of the apical, cardiac and diaphragmatic lobes were completely consolidated and had a firm, meaty texture. They were dark red in color, very similar to liver, both in color and consistency. The cut surface was very granular as the result of many small (~ to 1 mm) nodules, all of which bulged out from the cut surface. Very little fluid could be expressed from the cut surfaces. The granular nodules were probably the result of lymphofollicular hyperplasia. Distended lymphatics were obvious in the subpleural layer of the lungs. The dorsal portion of the lungs were sprinkled with white to reddish-brown foci measuring 1 to 2 mm in size. The extreme posterior aspect of the diaphragmatic lobe was very firm and yellowish-white in color. The involved area was about 2.5 to 3.5 cm in size. This area was examined in the Baermann funnel and found to contain well over a million first stage larvae of Protostrongylus, indicating the presence of an extremely large mass of P. stilesi. !. rushi was not found in any of the bronchioles. The hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes were enlarged and quite moist. Digestive System No gross lesions were present in the digestive system. The rumen was filled with grass and milk curd was present in the abomasum. The mesenteric lymph �-116- nodes were small, white and moist. Formed feces were present in the colon and rectum. There was a moderate amount of abdominal fat present in the abdomen. Musculoskeletal System No gross lesions were present. Central Nervous System The eyes and brain were grossly normal. Skin This lamb had a smooth, tan hair coat. Cardiovascular No ectoparasites were found. System There was a moderate amount of fat around the coronary band of the heart. No lesions were present. Urogenital System The testicles had both descended. No lesions were present. There was a small amount of kidney fat. Histopathological Respiratory Changes System Nasal Cavity and Trachea--Same as 72BHL-3 (see 72BHL-3). Lungs--There were more areas of alveolar and pleural edema in these sections compared to 72BHL-3. Some of the lymphocytic hyperplasia was lighter staining and had been replaced by fibrous connective tissue. The main histological difference from 72BHL-2 was the lungworm nodules. The area was completely consolidated with Langerhans' giant cells and macrophages. Lymphocytes, eosinophils and a few neutrophils were present. Peribronchiolar lymphocytic hyperplasia was also very prominent. There were three to ten adults in all the nodules and all adults were dead. The dead adults were usually surrounded by an amorphous eosinophilic material, macrophages, Langerhans' giant cells, and eosinophils (small granulomas). Most first stage larvae were alive; however, a few were dead and had a similar reaction as the adults. Very few eggs were present. There was an extensive amount of fibrosis in the alveolar walls. The pleura was thickened in most areas due to infiltration of mononuclear cells and eosinophils. Mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes were similar to 72BHL-3. �-117- Digestive System This lamb had several mononuclear cell infiltrations in the liver. lesions were found in any other organ of the digestive system. No Musculoskeletal System No lesions found. Cardiovascular System No lesions found. Urogenital System No lesions found. Endocrine System No lesions found. Central Nervous System No lesions found. 73BHL-3 History This lamb was collected on August 17, 1972 from Pikes Peak. He was first observed in a large herd which included several ewes and lambs. When observed, he appeared to be quite normal and healthy, but would frequently have paroxysms of coughing and lag behind the herd. Postmortem This animal was a male lamb, weight 56 pounds. He had a smooth, tan hair coat. He was shot in the anterior cervical region. One hour and 10 minutes after collection tpe postmortem examination was initiated. Respiratory Tract Nasal Cavity--The nasal mucosa was slightly inflammed, but no exudate was p~esent. The retropharyngeal lymph nodes were enlarged and moist (about 1.5 em in diameter). �-118- Trachea--The mucosa was slightly inflammed, but no exudate was present. Lungs--(Right lung); The entire apical lobe, the ventral two-thirds of the cardiac lobe, and the lower one-third of the diaphragmatic lobe and lower one-half of the intermediate lobe were reddish-brown, firm and meaty (texture of liver) and granular in appearance. The granular appearance was due to small (~ to I mm) white foci which was probably lymphofo~licular hyperplasia. A sharp line of demarcation was also present between the diseased and functional portion of ~he lung. Emphysema was present on the tips of many of the lobes and between the dark red consolidated lung and the functional dorsal portion of the lung. The dorsal portion of the lung was sprinkled with white and red foci on a pink background. There were 3 to 4 large, white, firm, circular areas on the posterior dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic lobe. The cut surface of the lung (ventral aspect) had a dry, granular appearance. Only a small amount of a mucoid material could be expressed from the bronchioles. No Protostrongylus rushi were found in the large bronchi. (Left lung); The lower one-half of the apical lobe, lower threefourths of the cardiac and lower one-fourth of the diaphragmatic lobe were reddish-brown and firm. In all aspects the left lung was identical to the right. Mediastinal lymph nodes--These nodes were enlarged and moist. Digestive System There was a moderate amount of abdominal fat present in this lamb. The rumen was filled with grass, and milk curd was present in the abomasum. Musculoskeletal System No lesions were found. Central Nervous System No lesions were found in the brain or eyes. Integument Hair coat was smooth and tan. Cardiovascular System A moderate amount of fat was around the coronary band. were found. No gross lesions �-119- Urogenital System Both testicles had descended. There was a small amount of renal fat. lesions were found in the kidneys. No Histopathological Changes Respiratory System Nasal Turbinates--Lymphocytes, plasma cells and a few neutrophils were present in substantial numbers in the lamina propria of the nasal cavity. The lymphatics and small capillaries appear slightly dilated in the lamina propria. A moderate number of mononuclear cells and plasma cells were encircled around the mucous glands. One mucous gland contained cellular debris. Focal areas of eosinophilia were present in the lamina propria. Trachea--The ciliated pseudostriated squamous epithelium of the trachea was hyperplastic in areas and atrophied in other areas (squamous metaplasia). Short cilia were present over the hyperplastic epithelium but were absent over the atrophied epithelium. There were a few neutrophils migrating through the epithelium of the trachea. There was a substantial number of mononuclear cells (lymphocytes and macrophages) and plasma cells in the lamina propria beneath the areas of hyperplasia compared to the cellularity beneath the areas under the atrophied mucosa. There were several large eosinophilic amorphous structures located intracellularly in the mucosa. Several mucous glands in the lamina propria contained exudate consisting of cellular debris and neutrophils. ' Lungs--(Bronchi): The mucosa of the bronchi was hyperplastic in most areas. Cilia was also present on the epithelium. Neutrophils, eosinophils and mononuclear cells were migrating through the epithelium in many areas. A normal number of goblet cells and mucous glands were also present. The lamina propria was thicker than normal due to an infiltration of mononuclear cells and plasma cells with a few eosinophils and neutrophils. Many of the bronchi contained distended blood and lymphatic vessels in their lamina propria. Nearly all of the bronchi had hyperplastic lymphofollicular nodules. These nodules contained large and small lymphocytes with very few mitotic figures. The muscle coats of most bronchi were normal in thickness, however some were atrophied. The lumen of most bronchi were partly filled with cellular debris, composed of leukocytes, macrophages, desquamated epithelial cells, mucus, and first stage larvae of Protostrongylus stilesi. Several vessels near bronchi had foamy muscular coats. Many eosinophils were associated with these vessels. The bronchioles and respiratory bronchioles were all partly filled with cellular debris composed of neutrophils, macrophages, eosinophils, desquamated epithelial cells, mucus, and edema. First stage larvae of P. stilesi were also present. Some of the bronchioles were normally constricted but others remained dilated. Cilia was still present on the epithelium of many bronchioles. �-120- The mucosa was hyperplastic with a normal number of goblet cells. Desquamation of epithelial cells was very common and leukocytes were migrating through the mucosa into the lumen of many bronchioles. The main cellular reaction of the bronchioles was a peribronchiolar lymphocytic hyperplasia. In some areas this was in the form of germinal centers in the lamina propria while in others a complete encircling of the medium-sized bronchioles occurred. This complete encircling of lymphocyte hyperplasia appeared to cause a total obstruction of many bronchioles. There was also a large number of macrophages and a few eosinophils and neutrophils in the lamina propria. The majority of eosinophils were, however, outside of the muscular coat and especially around vessels. Many of the vessels appeared to have cystic areas or holes in their tunica muscularis. The bronchioles in the ventral aspects of the consolidated lobes often had severely atrophied muscular layers, or none at all. Many bronchioles in lungworm nodules in the posterior dorsal portion of the diaphragmatic lobe were hypertrophied. Perivascular lymphocytic cuffing occurred around many of the vessels. A few had foamy muscular layers with eosinophils nearby. Very few vessels in the consolidated areas were thrombosed. The alveoli in the ventral aspects of the lobes had several different characteristics. Some lobules appeared normal except for mild peribronchiolar lymphocytic hyperplasia. Other lobules contained alveoli which were atelectatic with an accompanying alveolar epithelial hyperplasia. In these collapsed lobules many alveolar macrophages were present in the alveolar spaces. Neutrophils were thinly scattered through these lobules. Many respiratory bronchioles were packed with neutrophils and there appeared to be an endobronchiolar spread of pneumonia, i.e. the number of neutrophils were highest near the respiratory bronchioles and decreased in number as the distance from bronchioles increased. Also, in less affected lobules, the alveoli encircling the bronchioles were edematous and filled with macrophages and neutrophils indicating also a peribronchiolar spread of pneumonia. Only a few first stage Protostrongylus larvae were found in the ventral aspect of the lobes. The majority of the P. stilesi were found in nodules in the most posterior dorsal aspect of the-diaphragmatic lobes. These nodules contained many adults (all alive), first stage larvae and eggs. The primary cellular reaction was a mononuclear cellular, plasma cell and eosinophilic cellular infiltration around the worms, eggs and larvae. Langerhans' giant cells were very common in some areas. Many lymphocytic germinal centers were present in the tissue especially around bronchioles and blood vessels and in the subpleura. Many areas had a hyperplasia of the smooth muscle coat around these bronchioles and throughout the alveolar tissue. Many bronchioles had an increased number of goblet cells in the mucosa. Cellular debris, mucus and first stage Protostrongylus larvae almost filled many of the bronchioles. Very few dead larvae are present. These dead larvae are usually encircled by an eosinophilic substance, eosinophils, macrophages, ~angerhans' giant cells, and mononuclear cells. The pleura was relatively uninvolved over the pneumonic areas of the ventral aspect of the lungs. The pleura over the lungworm nodules was thickened due to mononuclear cells, eosinophils and many subpleur~l lymphocytic nodules. �-121- Mediastinal, Hilar, Retropharyngeal Lymph Nodes--The cortex was thickened as a result ·of many active germinal centers. The sinuses were filled with lymphocytes, erythrocytes and plasma cells. Thus, there was a lymphoid hyperplasia with a high mitotic index. Also, a reticuloendothelial cell hyperplasia was present (RE hyperplasia). Few foamy vessels were present in the hilar nodes. Reticuloendothelial System Thymus--Several foamy vessels were present. The primary change was islets of eosinophils in the medulla of the thymus. Spleen--No histologic lesion seen. Digestive System Liver--Several areas of lymphocytic infiltration were present. These were probably due to the protostrongyloid larvae migrating in the liver before birth. No other histologic lesions were present in the digestive system. Cardiovascular System No lesion seen. Urogenital System No lesion seen. Endocrine System,. Adrenal and thyroids - normal. Central Nervous System Brain and cord - normal. 72BHL-4 History This lamb was collected on August 18, 1972 about 100 yards off the Pikes Peak toll road, near the summit. It was small, and had frequent paroxysms of coughing. The lamb lagged behind the ewe; however, she would wait for it to �-122- catch-up. 'Postmortem This was a male lamb, weight 42 pounds. The hair coat was a dull, yellowish-tan, ragged in appearance and brittle. The postmortem interval was 40 minutes. Respiratory System Nasal Mucosa--The nasal mucosa was slightly inflammed and a thick, tenacious, white exudate was present between the turbinates. Trachea--The mucosa was slightly inflammed and a thick, white, tenacious exudate was present in the lumen. About 10 to 20 cc of this exudate poured out from the bifurcation of the trachea when the rear of the animal was elevated. Right Lung--The lungs did not collapse when the thorax was opened. No excess of fluid was present in the thoracic cavity. There was a sharp line of demarcation between the lower one-half of the entire lung and the upper portion. No emphysema was present above this line of demarcation as in 72BHL-3. The lower portion was dark red, meaty and firm in texture. The cut surface was granular in appearance due to many small, one-half to threequarter nun sized nodules. There was a considerable amount of a mucoid exudate in the small bronchiolesof these lungs. The entire apical lobe was consolidated, the lower three-fourths of the cardiac, about one-half of the anterior ventral aspect of the diaphragmatic, and the entire intermediate were completely consolidated. No f.rushi were seen in the bronchi. Several small adhesions affixed the lower diaphragmatic lobe to the diaphragm. Three small abscesses were associated with these adhesions. Left Lung--The left lung was grossly identical to the right. Mediastinal, and moist. Hilar and Retropharyngeal Cardiovascular Lymph Nodes--These nodes were enlarged System No fat was present around the heart. No lesions were found in the heart. Digestive System No abdominal fat was present. The rumen was filled with vegetation and milk curd was present in the abomasum. �-123- Musculoskeletal System The muscles appeared to be a little pale, but this may have been due to the fact that this lamb's heart beat was still strong during removal of blood from the heart. A very large volume of blood was removed. Urogenital System No lesions; no fat around the kidney. Endocrine System The adrenal appeared to be congested. Thyroids appeared normal. Central Nervous System No lesions were seen in the eyes or brain. Histopathological Changes Respiratory System Nasal Cavity--The cellular reaction was similar to 72BHL-3 except there were more inflammatory cells present and exudate was present in the nasal cavity. Trachea--The trachea was similar to 72BHL-3. Lungs--The lungs were similar to 72BHL-3. The most impressive change was a peribronchiolar lymphocytic hyperplasia encircling medium-sized bronchioles. The alveoli were very hyperplastic and alveolar macrophages completely filled the alveolar spaces. Digestive System No lesions were seen. Lymphohemopoietic System No lesions were seen. Musculoskeletal System No lesions were seen. �-124- Urogenital 'System No lesions were seen~ Endocrine.System No lesions were seen. Central Nervous System No lesions were seen. '72BHL-5 HiStory This lamb was collected on August 22, 1972. He had frequent paroxyms of coughing and lagged behind the herd but the ewe waited for him to catch-up. Postmortem This was a small male lamb, weighing 38 pounds. He had a dull, yellow, ragged, brittle hair coat. The body temperature was 104.20 F at the time of death. The postmortem interval was 60 minutes. Respiratory System Nasal Cavity--The mucosa was slightly inflammed, but no exudate was present. Trachea--The tracheal mucosa was slightly inflammed. Lungs--The lower one-half of both lungs were identically involved. The typical line of demarcation was present, dividing the more normal dorsal part from the ventral dark reddish-brown, meaty tissue. Several lungworm nodules were present in the dorsal posterior area of the diaphragmatic lobe. Mediastinal, Hi1ar and Retropharyngea1 inf1ammed and moist. Digestive Lymph Nodes--These nodes were enlarged, System Liver--There were several white foci (about one-half mm in diameter) just under the capsule of the liver. The remaining portion of the digestive tract �.-125- appeared normaL The rumen was filled with vegetation and milk curd was present in the abomasum. No abdominal fat was present. Musculoskeletal System Normal except again the muscle appeared a little pale. Urogenital System No lesions were found. No fat was present around the kidneys. Central Nervous System No lesions were found. Histopathological Changes All histologic changes are similar to 72BHL-3. 73BlU.-6 History This lamb was collected on August 29, 1972 in Saguache, Colorado~ She appeared to be quite healthy. Her hair coat was smooth and tan, and she did not cough or lag behind the herd. Postmortem This lamb was a female, weight 55 pounds, body temperature 104.60 F (she ran a short distance before collection). She was in excellent body condition and had a large amount of subcutaneous body fat. No ectoparasites were found. The postmortem interval was 15 minutes. Respiratory System Nasal Cavity--Lamb 72BlU.-6was shot at the base of the head. The nasal turbinates and nasopharynx were totally destroyed. The trachea appeared normal. Lungs--The lungs collapsed normally when opened. They were a soft, salmonpink color. The only lesions were 2 or 3 small, whitish-yellow, firm nodules (one~half to one cc in diameter) located in the most dorsal posterior aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes. The mediastinal and hilar nodes were small and dry. No adhesions or pleural fluid were present. No P. rushi were found. �-126- Cardiovascular System The heart was normal grossly. the coronary vessels. There was a large amount of fat around Digestive System The rumen was filled with vegetation and there was a small amount of milk curd in the abomasum. The digestive tract seemed to be larger in this lamb than the lambs from Pikes Peak. The mesenteric lymph nodes were large, white and moist (this is normal for these nodes). Lymphohemopoietic System The spleen was small and contracted. There were many red, raised foci around the peripheral area of the spleen which are normal. A small amount of fat was present in the bone marrow. Musculoskeletal System No gross lesion. Urogenital System No gross lesion. Fat was present around both kidneys. Endocrine System Thyroids and adrenals were grossly normal. Central Nervous System Brain and eyes were grossly normal. Histopathological Changes Respiratory System Nasal Turbinates--A few eosinophils, mononuclear cells and plasma cells were present in the lamina propria. Trachea--Qne section showed that the mucosa on the ventral aspect of the trachea was slightly thicker than the dorsal part. This ventral aspect also had a few eosinophils, mononuclear and plasma cells in the lamina propria under the slightly thickened epithelium. �-127- Bronchi--There were no lesions in the bronchi. BronchiolesandRespiratorYBronchioles: A few bronchioles contained mucus and cellular debris. Most bronchioleswere clear. The mucosa was not hyperplastic and the lamina propria had a normal cell population. About 10 to 20 percent of the bronchioles had a peribronchiolar lymphocytic hyperplasia in the apical and cardiac lobes and ventral aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes. From 50 to 70 percent of the bronchioles in and near lupgworm nodules also had this lymphocytic hyperplasia. These lymphatic nodules were usually round and were located either in the lamina propria or just outside the muscle coats of the bronchioles. Alveoli--There was a diffuse stromal thickening of all slides of all lobes. There were very few neutrophils, eosinophils and large mononuclear cells in these areas. The importance of this was not known - possibly some type of allergic response. There was a minimal amount of perivascular cuffing of lymphocytes. The dorsal posterior aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes had small lungworm nodules. These nodules were characterized by several adults and many eosinophilic staining eggs and first stage larvae. The first stage larvae could be identified as Protostrongylus larvae by their sharply pointed tail, with a nick at the base of the tail. The adults were usually at the periphery of the nodule. Some adults had no cellular reaction around them. It appears that the adults crawl around and deposit their eggs then leave to another area. The eggs then hatch into first stage larvae and make their way into the bronchioles. The majority of the cellular reaction was associated with the eggs and larvae and around some of the adults. The total cellular reaction is minimal compared to lungworm nodules of "sick lambs". The cellular response in this lamb was an epithelial hyperplasia in some areas; many bronchioles and vessels were encircled by a lymphocytic hyperplasia (germinal centers). Macrophages, eosinophils, Langerhans' giant cells, and lymphocytes were associated with these larvae and eggs. Many germinal centers of lymphocytic tissue were subpleural. Mediastinal Lymph Node--This lymph node contained many active germinal centers in the cortex. These germinal centers had a mixture of small and large lymphocytes. Mitotic figures were few. TWo parasites were present. There was an eosinophilic and lymphocytic infiltration around one of the worms. The other worm had no noticeable cellular reaction. The afferent lymphatics were filled with lymphocytes and a few eosinophils. Digestive System The liver had one small focus which was an area of lymphocytic infiltration. All Other Systems All other systems were histologically normal. �-128- . 72BHL-7 .·HistorY This lamb was collected on August 30, 1972 at Saguache, Colorado. She appeared to be quite healthy and did not cough or lag behind the herd. Postmortem 72BHL-7 was a female lamb, weight 57 pounds. Her hair coat was in excellent condition and she had a considerable amount of body fat. The postmortem interval was 65 minutes. Respiratory System Nasal Cavity--The lamb regurgitated before death and rumen contents were present in the nasal cavity; however, the cavity appeared to be quite normal. Trachea--Rumen contents did not extend beyond the larynx. The tracheal mucosa was grossly normal. No exudate was present. The retrophar:yngeal lymph nodes were small (about one mm in diameter) and dry, with a white cortex and slightly brown medulla. Lungs--Both lungs collapsed normally when the thoracic cavity was opened. The lungs were a soft salmon-pink with a soft, spongy consistency. There were three small, firm, whitish-yellow nodules located in the posterior dorsal aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes. No adhesions were present and no fluid was present in the thoracic cavity. The pleura seemed normal on gross examination. Cardiovascular System There was considerable fat around the coronary band of the heart. lesions were present in the heart or the vessels. Lymphohemopoietic No gross System The spleen was small and contracted. There were many small, red foci around the peripheral aspect of the organ. ' Digestive System The rumen was filled with vegetation. The abomasum had a small amount of milk curd. No parasites were found. The entire digestive tract was as large as 72BHL-6. There were three focal hemorrhages in the cecum. Abdominal fat was present in this animal. The liver was grossly normal. �-129- Musculoskeletal System No gross lesions. Urogenital· System Renal fat was present. productive tract. No gross lesions were found in the kidneys or re- Endocrine·System Thyroids andadrenals - normal. Central Nervous System The animal had been shot in the brain. Histopathological Eyes were normal. Chartges The histopathological changes in 72BHL-7 were very similar to 72BHL-6. Only stromal thickening with infiltration of inflammatory cells was obvious. Focal areas of pneumonia were present in this lamb. Foamy vessels in the lung were also present in this animal. Some vessels were in the center of hemorrhagic areas and eosinophils and mononuclears were surrounding these vessels. The only other difference in 72BHL-7 was the presence of 6 parasites, three alive and three dead, located in a mandibular lymph node. Another parasite was present in the anterior part of the muzzle. The thymus has focal islets of eosinophils in the medulla of the gland. One area of eosinophilic infiltration was present in the liver. 72BHL-8 History This lamb was collected on September 13, 1972 at Buffalo Peaks. The animal was in excellent physical condition and did not cough or lag behind the herd. Postmortem 72BHL-8 was a 70 pound male lamb in excellent body condition with a smooth, tan hair coat and considerable body fat. The postmortem interval was 2 hours. �-130- Respiratory System Nasal Cavity--Nasal turbinates were slightly inflammed, with a slight excess of mucus. Trachea--The trachea was reddened with an increase in mucoid material present on its mucosa. Lungs-~(Right lung): The lungs collapsed moderately when the thorax was opened. There was a small, firm, dark red, depressed lobule on the most ventral aspect of the anterior diaphragmatic lobe. There was a very small adhesion from this depressed, firm area to the diaphragm. Four to five firm, yellowish-white, circular nodules were present on the dorsal posterior aspect of the diaphragmatic lobe. A copious amount of a mucoid exudate was present at the bifurcation of the trachea and extended downward into both mainstem bronchi. Exudate (mucoid) was not noticed in the small bronchioles of the lung. (Left lung):. The left lung was similar grossly.' There was a firm, dark red, depressed area located on the ventral aspect of the cardiac lobe. Four to five circular, yellowish-white nodules were present on the dorsal posterior diaphragmatic lobe. One small focus of hemorrhage was present on the dorsal aspect of the cardiac lobe. Mediastinal and Retropharyngeal Lymph Nodes--The mediastinal and retropharyngeal lymph nodes were slightly enlarged. Cardiovascular System There was a moderate amount of fat around the coronary band. No excess of fluid was present in the pericardial sac. No lesions were seen on the heart. Lymphohemopoietic System No lesions were seen in the spleen. The spleen was small and contracted and had many small red foci around the periphery of the organ. Digestive System No lesions in the liver or intestines were observed. The rumen and abomasum were filled with vegetation; no milk curd was present in the abomasum. Formed feces were present in the colon and rectum. Considerable abdominal fat was present. Musculoskeletal System The right frontal sinus contained an excessive amount of a mucoid exudate �-131- which contained white flecks of material (Pasteurella hemolytica and Streptococcus spp. were cultured from the sinus). Urogenital SYstem No lesions were seen. Renal fat was present. Endocrine System Thyroids and adrenals appeared normal. Central Nervous System No lesions in the brain or eyes were noted. Histopathological Changes Respiratory System Nasal Turbinates--Some areas of nasal mucosa were hyperplastic and others were beginning to undergo metaplasia to a more cuboidal type epithelium. The mucosa seemed normal in other areas. There was an increased number of mononuclear cells and plasma cells in the lamina propria, but only a few neutrophils or eosinophils could be found. The capillaries in the lamina propria appeared slightly dilated. Trachea--The mucosa was normal to slightly hyperplastic in areas. The cilia were either absent or small. There were a few neutrophils and mononuclear cells migrating through the mucosa. An increase in mononuclear cells and plasma cells was present in the lamina propria just below the mucosa. The capillaries in the lamina propria were engorged. There appeared to be a normal number of goblet cells in the mucosa. Lungs--(Bronchi): Most bronchi had a moderate amount of mucus and cellular debris. The mucosa was slightly hyperplastic with a few neutrophils and mononuclear cells migrating through the mucosa. A few desquamating epithelial cells were present. The lamina propria had an increased number of plasma cells and mononuclear cells (mostly lymphocytes) present just under the lamina propria. The muscular coat was of normal thickness. The vessels appeared normal. (Bronchioles): The primary cellular change in the bronchioles was again a lymphocytic hyperplasia around the medium-sized bronchioles. Sections taken more ventrally have a higher percentage of bronchioles involved with peribronchiolar lymphocytic hyperplasia. The magnitude of this lymphocytic hyperplasia appears to have completely cut off or obstructed some of the medium sized bronchioles. The mucosa of these bronchioles was hyperplastic �-132- and some of their epithelial cells were desquamating. The brortchioles are partly filled with a mucoid exudate with cellular debris. Leukocytes were migrating through the mucosa in many places. There was an increase in cell population in the lamina propria which was made up mostly of mononuclear cells and plasma cells, with a few neutrophils and very few eosinophils. The muscular coat around vessels which were encircled by lymphocytic hyperplasia had atrophied. Areas where there were no lymphocytic hyperplasia, the muscle coat was normal in thickness. Many small an4 medium-sized vessels were also encircled by lymphocytis. (Alveoli): In most sections, a similar type of stroma thickening as in 72BHL-7 was also present in this lamb. Several lobules were atelectatic (collapsed). These atelectatic lobules were associated with areas in which nearly all of the bronchioles were severely involved or encircled with this lymphocytic hyperplasia. These atelectatic areas were characterized by collapsed alveolar walls and alveolar epithelial cell hyperplasia with a few large macro phages in the narrow alveolar space. In most areas, alveolar capillaries were still open and transporting erythrocytes. Very few neutrophils were in these areas; in fact they were difficult to find. The lungworm nodules are similar to 72BHL-7 except there were more adults present. Cardiovascular System No lesions were seen. Lymphohemopoietic System The spleen appeared normal. medulla of the gland. The thymus had islets of eosinophils in the Digestive System Liver had several focal areas of a mononuclear cell infiltration. maining digestive tract had no histologic lesions. Musculoskeletal System No lesions were seen. Urogenital System No lesions were seen. Endocrine and Central Nervous System No lesions were seen. The re- �-133- II. PARASITOLOGY Lamb Collections During 1972, a total of seyen lambs were collected and examined to determine the cause of the pneumonia responsible for the severe mortality among some herds in Colorado. Routine parasitology examinations were conducted on all of these lambs to determine if ectoparasites and gastrointestinal parasites were a contributing factor. Ectoparasites No ectoparasites were found on any of the lambs. Gastrointestinal Parasites A few of the lambs had an extremely low level of infection with a"Marsha11agia sp. Most of the lambs had a low level of infection with Eimeria spp. The pattern and level of infection was not significantly different from the results obtained in 1971. For the species of Eimeria found in these animals, please refer to the 1971 report. Protostrongylus The only species of Protostrongylus found in any of the lambs collected was P. sti1esi (Table 2). As with last year, interpretation of the level of infection is based upon the number of first stage larvae recovered from the Baermann funnel. This, of course, furnished information relative to the level of infection between lambs and between areas. Unfortunately, there is no accurate method of determining the number of adult parasites. Table 2. The number of first stage larvae ofP.stilesi lungs of lambs collected in 1972. recovered from the Lamb Area Number of Larvae Recovered 72BHL-2 Pikes Peak 3,062 72BHL-3 Pikes Peak 2,052 72BHL-4 Pikes Peak 4,623 72BHL-5 Pikes Peak 2,866 72BHL-6 Saguache 282 72BHL-7 Saguache 326 72BHL-8 Buffalo Peaks 305 �-134- The results of this year's collection indicate that a much higher level of infection with P. stilesi exists among animals on Pikes Peak as compared to Saguache Buffalo Peaks. Comparisons with 1971 must be interpreted with caution because lambs were collected much earlier this year on Pikes Peak; thus the female parasites had not yet reached their full reproductive capacity. See the section on transplacental transmission for an interpretation of the reasons for such a high level of infection in Pikes Peak. or III. BACTERIOLOGY Collected Lambs The procedure for the isolation and identification of bacteria found in bighorn sheep lambs has been outlined in the 1971-72 annual report. The same procedure was used this past year. The bacteriology results for lambs collected during 1972-73 are summarized separately in tabular form. The most significant findings in the collected lambs were the presence of Pasteurella hemolytica, Pasteurella multocida and a Neisseria sp. deep down in the respiratory system of the lambs collected on Pikes Peak. These lambs, of course, had heavy prenatal lungworm burdens and severe pneumonia. The lambs collected from Saguache were healthy and had low levels of lungworm. One of these lambs (72BHL-6) did not have Pasteurella and the other (72BHL-7) had Pasteurella only in the upper respiratory tract. The last lamb was collected on Buffalo Peaks and had a slight pneumonia. As expected, P. hemolytica was distributed throughout the respiratory system. Meaningful interpretations are difficult because so few control lambs were examined, but the discovery of heavy lungworm burdens as a result of transplacental transmission of f. stilesi to lambs born on Pikes Peak indicates that this overwhelming burden of parasites predisposes the lamb to infection with Pasteurella and Neisseria, both of which are opportunistic organisms. Either one, or both, are quite capable of causing pneumonia, but more often than not they are both secondary invaders. �-135- (J) c SUMMARY 72BHL-2 Right apical lobe + Right cardiac 10be ~~+----~--+_--.+_--+--~--+~--_+--_+.--_4'------~--~--+_-----------------_ + Right diaphragmat i c lobe + ~_e_f_t_~ardiaclOb~e~ Left diar:>hrai<tllatic lobe +-_+ __-4 lobe + Left apical lobe + Intermediate ~ __~---_+---~--~--4---_+-----~I--_+---+--------------------_ i i + + I + Bronchus - E_~lt'::._~s-=i~d=-e ~-+--_+----+-+--~--+--+--_+-+--+-+--~--+ __--_+--_+--~-----I + ~r~x + + + + Nasal cavity + + Nasophar~x + Trachea Mediastinal lymph node Pharyngeal lymph node + Gram + rods + + Urine Spleen + Kidney - right Thymus Liv ' Duodenum + Jejunum + Ileum + Cecum + Colon + + + Gram + rod~ + Pleura - right + Abomasl!ID Pericardial + + Peritoneum fluid + Blood - heart + Conjunctiva + Pleura - left Lateral ventricle + + Gram - rods _ �-136- ...• III SUMMARY 72BHL-3 ~as ~C) CII •••• ••••• ;:I >QI~ ••0 : m Po.c Right apical lobe Right cardiac lobe Right diaphragmatic Intermediate ...• El Q, . III~ III III C)~ tJO oEl C)CII o.c ~ ~CII -..4as "";:I ""CII CII III III •• ...• III III Po CII l2: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ;:1>- •• Q,III III Q, III ••• C) C) Q, ~~ 0 III § ...• III 'tl 0 Q, CII.c •••Q, ~~ en< ••• ••• ••• III .c ~ ~ CII Q, ;:I C) ~0 >.c Q, III ~ en ;:I ~ ~ -..4 C) III I'Q Q, III ~ -..4•.... § -..4 CII •• ~ C) as III -..4 .c ~ "" III CII 0 ~ u ••• CII CII C) as ~g:, 11~ c:: "" 0 o >UQ, ••• 0 U III CII CII 110 0 ••• CII III ••• CII •• C) III .c 0 ••• ~ 5 0 12 :5 lobe Left cardiac lobe Left diaphragmatic Q, ~ ...• Q, IIItJ . c:: CII . C) 0 ~ ~;:I UI d III 'tl lobe lobe Left apical lobe Bronchus - right side + Larynx Nasal cavity Nasopharynx Trachea Mediastinal lymph node Pharyngeal lymph node + + + + Urine Spleen + Kidnev - riltht Thymus Liv~-Duodenum Je1unum Ileum Cecum + Colon + + + + + + + + + + Gram + rods + Pleura - right Peritoneum Abomasum Pericardial + + + fluid Blood - heart Conjunctiva Gram - rods Pleura - left Lateral ventricle + + + (Continued) �-137- III e QI ~ ...• ~ •••• ~ QI \IS. "0- -..4 U 0 4.1 ....• ::l S SUMMARY 72BHL-3 Continued t\I •.•.• co •.•.•U QI-..4 ~ 4.1 ::l >- QI •••.• 4.10 : m Po<..c:: Diaphragmatic Bronchus co ....• ....• QI ~ ::l QI 4.1 10 00 Po< e, . Ilo 10 111 -..4 ~ QI III III -..4 QI Z nodule + - left 1unR + Pharynx Left bronchial Bronchus Abdominal fluid RiKht diaphra2matic nodule lymph node Mesenteric Left kidney Posterior nasal cavity Bronchus -left Tracheal diaphragmatic bifurcation Bronchus - riRht apical Bronchus - left Lateral ventricle Bronchus - distal diaphra2matic Bronchus - distal riRht diaphra2matic RiRht frontal sinus exudate Let.. frontal sinus exudate Left diaphragmatic nodule Rbht diaphraRmatic abscess Rbht intermediate lobe Diaphragmatic lobe bronchus Diaphragmatic med. bronchus Right cardiac lobe Thorax Retropbar)'DAeal lymph node + Ilo IOU -..4 qI ..c:: 1114.1 Ilo ::l>U •.•.• uO oS uQI o..c:: 4.1 1lo00 ~ ~ ....• 0 Ilo ••• p.. 4.1 •••.• III ::l U U 0 ~ ~ . § Ilo 10 U 0 ....• >..c:: e, QI..c:: en< 10 00 4.1 en ~ ~ QI co .0 4.1 U 111 -..4 4.1 U 4.1 U :::I 4.1 10 0 ~ QI c: QI co 0 -..4 as III .0 QI QI c: III ~ ~ QI -..4 ...• U 111 I:Q III Ilo CD ::l ....• ....• ci. ~ QI co ~ QI ~:o ~ .g~ ....• ••• 0 u Ullo o >- ••• 0 U ~ ~ 0 ~ :::> �-138, I:: Q) "Cl ....• U 41 •••.• •... ~;::I e <IS ~ ~41 SUMMARY 72BHL-4 ;::I >. ;::I Q)~ 41 •... ~ ~ III ~ <IS <IS ~ t) •... •... •..• 0 A...c Ri.ght apical lobe •... <IS A.. c:>. en ....• U c:>. III <IS ....• •... 41 III III ....• Q) Z Ill ••.• ;::I>. u~ UO oS UQ) o.c •... c:>.<Il Q).c •..• c:>. •...~ en": ....• e, <IS .c c, •... 0 ~~ 0 c:>. m ....• ~ •... ""'•... Q) c, en en ;::I U U 0 U 0 >. .c c:>. III § ....• en "Cl •... c, ~ ~ ....• •... U <IS ~ <Il en ;::I !Xl ....• •... c:>. III § Q) I:: 41 bI) 0 § ....• •... •... <IS 41 •... 41 •... •... U <IS 41 •... •... U <IS III ..0 41 41 I:: ..0 ~~ Qj •..• 0 ~ •... u U u ~ Ul ....• 0 en o >. c:>. 0 41 U <IS ..0 0 •... ..: 41 ~ 0 ~r:: :J + + + + + Right cardiac lobe . bI) I:: 0 Right diaphragmatic en <IS + lobe Left cardiac lobe Left diaphragmatic Intermediate lobe lobe + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Left apical lobe + Bronchus - right side + + + Nasopharynx + + + + + + Trachea + + + + + Gram + rods Larynx and exudate Nasal cavity Mediast"inal lymph node Pharyngeal lymph node Urine + Spleen Kidnev - dght Gram - and + rods + ThYJlluS Liv2"' Duodenum + Je1unum + Ileum + + Cecum + + Colon Gram + rods + + + Gram + rods + + Gram + rods + + Gram + rods + + Gram + rods Pleura - dght Peritoneum Abomasum Pericardial + fluid Blood - heart + + + + Conjunctiva Pleura - left Lateral ventricle (Continued) �-139- III ~ Q) 00 ~ ....• t1I 'tl ....• . ..-t ~u •... SUMMARY 72BHL-4 Continued ::l S t1I ..-t t1I ..-t<J Q) •••.• ,.. •... ::l >- Q)..-t •..• 0 tD S t1I Q) Il<.c: Diaphra~atic u 0 t1I ..-t ..-t Q) ,..::l Q) •... III t1I ~ . p. III t1I ....• ,.. Q) III III ....• Q) Z ....• Ill •..• ::l>- u..-t uO oS uQ) o.c: •... p.t1I Q).c: ,..p. •..•..-t tIl~ e, tD t1I .c: ,.. P. tD ::l u U . P. ,.. .•.. ,.. § ....• P. ,.. Q) 0 tD § ....• 0 III >- ::l -e ....• .c: ..-t ..-t ~ ....• ....• tD t1I •... :E U t1I tIl I'Q ~ ..-t 0 p. u ..-t e, ,.. •... Q) •... t1I tD .0 Q) Q) ~ o p. III § ....• ,.. Q) •... u t1I .0 Q) ~g:, ,..~ o >0 0 ..-t ,.. 0 o ()P. () III Q) ~ Q) 00 ,.. 0 Q) t1I ,.. Q) •... u t1I .0 0 ,.. Q) ~ 50 .e ~ => nodule Bronchus - left lung Pharynx Left bronchial Bronchus Abdominal fluid Right diaphragmatic Mesenteric nodule + lymph node Grar - rod Left kidney Posterior nasal cavity Bronchus - left diaphra2matic + + + + + Tracheal bifurcation Bronchus - ri2ht apical Bronchus - left Lateral ventricle Bronchus - distal diaphralllllatic Bronchus - distal right diaDhra2matic Right frontal sinus exudate Leh frontal sinus exudate + + Left diaphra2matic nodule Ri2ht diaphra~tic abscess + lobe + + Diaphragmatic lobe bronchus + + + + + Diaphra2matic med. bronchus + + + + + R12ht intermediate Right cardiac lobe + + Thorax Retropharvn2eal + lymph node + + Grar + rod �-142- <IJ s:: Q) <1S ....• "d 0 SUMMARY 72BHL-6 <1S M <1S M U Q) ••..• ,... •... ::s » Q)M •..• 0 ~ m p...s:: •... p. M ::s COU -rl . s Po <1S I/) .-l .-l Q) ,... ::s Q) •... <IJ <1S p.. <U ....• ,... Q) I/) co ....• Q) Z 1/) ••.• ::s» U.-l uo oS U Q) o.s:: •... p.<1S I/) <1S ,...Po en< <IJ Po Q) Po ::s ,... o U Po ~ 0 I/) 0 c, .-l » .s:: 0 co 0 U .-l Q).s:: •... .-; s:: ....• ,... ..... ,... Po .s:: ~ :E: p. <1S •... en . eo . U ::s .-l M ....• U <1S !Xl p. I/) § 0 M U <1S Q) •... ,... U Q) •... <U co <IJ ,... Q) ,... •... ,... ee 0 ,... ....• § •... § ....• -e ....• ....• <IJ Q) s:: Q) U .0 Q) Q) s:: ~g:, ,...0 o » UPo <U .0 Q) ~ ,... 0 U Q) U <U .0 0 ,... Q) < ~ 0 ] s:: ::> Ri,ght apical lobe Ri,ght cardiac lobe Gram + rods R:!&ht diaphra2Dlatic lobe Gram + rods Left cardiac lobe Left d Iaphr agraatLc lobe Intermediate lobe Left apical lobe Bronchus - right side Larynx Nasal cavity + Nasopharynx + Trachea Mediastinal lymph node Pharyngeal lymph node Urine Spleen + + Kidney - rbht Thymus Livc:r + Duodenum Jejunum + + Ileum + Cecum + + + Colon + + + + Pleura - right Peritoneum Abomasum Per icardial fluid Blood - heart Conjunctiva + Pleura - left Lateral ventricle (Continued) �-143- GI ~ ~ as "t:I "" •.. SUMMARY 72BHL-6 Continued GlO a GI'" as M M QI (11M ""::l Q) •.. •.•0 ~ m Il-o..c: Bronchus M M as M 0 QI"" ""::l >- Diaphra£matic c:lo ::l as ... GI as Il-o e,. . 0 0 "c:lo GI as """" QI GI GI ""z Q) "" ::l>OM 00 ot:! 0Q) o..c: ...c:loas Q)..c: ""c:lo ",M CIl< as ..c: e, "" ~ M 0 c:lo ~ "" :E "" GI '101 "" GI QI ""e, ::l 0 0 0 0 0 M >- ..c: e, e, GI GI ::l M M as ""as •.. 0 CIl pC! nodule - left lung Pharynx Left bronchial Bronchus Abdominal + fluid Right diaphra2matic nodule lymph node Mesenteric Left kidney Posterior nasal cavitv Bronchus - left diaphraRmatic Tracheal bifurcation Bronchus - riltht apical Bronchus - left Lateral ventricle Bronchus - distal diaohra2m8tic Bronchus - distal ri2ht diaphra2matic Ri2ht frontal sinus exudate Leh frontal sinus exudate Left df.aohraRmS tic nodule' Ri2ht diaphra2m8tic abscess Ri2ht intermediate lobe Diaphra2matic lobe bronchus DiaphraRmatic med. bronchus Riaht cardiac lobe Thorax Retropharyngeal lymph node e, § ""~ GI ~ ~ """" """" ... ... Q) QI 0 0 as GI ..."" .oQ) U Uc:lo GI 0 M as .0 GI QI c:: QI co 0 ""QI as ..."" Q) 0 ~!~ .gas ~ 0 "" o 0 >- ""QI < ~ ::> ""0 U �-144- d "0 ..-4 tJ 0 ,..,j 00 d CII •.. SUMMARY 72BHL-7 P. 1-0 OJ.( III IIltJ CIS 1-0. ;::j ..-4 ,c III CII § P. ;::j S Ill'" P. ..-4 P. ;::j>" 1-0 tJ 1-0 tJ,..,j eo CIS III tJ P. 0 ,..,j ,..,j co CII tJO § 0 III ,..,j tJ ,..,j eo ~ tJ III ..-4 tJ ,..,j CII..-4 CII ..-4 oS tJ CII 0 "0 CIS 1-0 ••• ,..,j ;::j ..-4 ,J:l III 1-0 1-0 o,c 0 CII ::l >.. ;::j ,..,j p. CII p.eo >.. CIId CII,..,j ,c ,..,j 1-0 CII Ul •.•0 CII,c p. ell ..-4 <Il ..-4 1-oC><Il tJ 0 m eo eo CIS ..-4 ~ m Ilo. CII •.•..-i 1) ~. Ilo.,c en< Z l:: en up. ~ M u Right apical lobe Right cardiac lobe Right diaphragmatic Left cardiac Left d Laphr azmat Lc . . Intermediate lobe lobe •.. ... •.. ~g:, •.. II) § CII CII d 00 0 ..-4 1-0CII 1-0 eo CII 1-0 tJ CII co ,J:l tJ CII eo ~ ,J:l 0 •.. ~ 1-0 0 u •.. 0 CII ~d 1-0 < ~ + + lobe + lobe Left Bronchus Ul ..-4 P. p. •.. apical Ul eo + lobe + + + + - riJ;1;ht side Gram - rods Unknowns + Larynx Nasal cavity NasoPharvnx + + Trachea + + Mediastinal lymph node PharvnJ;1;eal lymph node Lots of unknowns Gram - and + rods Gram + rods Gram - and + rods Gram - rods Urine Spleen Kidney - right + Thymus I Liv·.~' Duodenum + + + + Jeiunum + Ileum + Cecum + + + + + + Colon Pleura - right Peritoneum + Abomasum + Pericardia1 Blood fluid . - heart Conjunctiva Pleura - left Lateral ventricle + + (Continued) �-145- III s:: QI l'\l "0 ..-I 0 U ~ :::s a l'\l l'\l ~ l'\l ~ ~ U ~<II QI ••.•• SUMMARY 72BHL-7 Continued I-< U :::s <II~ >. Diaphragmatic Bronchus CIl U~ ..... uO a I-< I-< o UQI o..c <II <II CIl U p.l'\l :::s ••• 0 U III l'\l QI p....c p.. a P. ..... OOU :::S>. ooU l'\l CIl l'\l rn ..... <II z s:: ..-II-< P. P. QI..c I-<p. u~ tI'l< 00 ••• I-< 00 QI l'\l ..c e, ... ~~ 0 P. l'\l ..-Ia ~ :::s . U U P. 0 III U ~0>. ..c p. l'\l U tI'l . 00 . U 00 :::s ~ ~ ..-I U l'\l c:Q p. § ..-I "0 ..-I I-< U CIl ~0 U P. III § ..-II-< QI § ..-II-< QI U U U III CIl ,&J QI QI s:: ,&J QI ~~ I-< 0 o >. up. U III QI s:: QI 00 0 I-< QI l'\l I-< QI III U e >. ,&J I-< 0 u U l'\l 0 I-< <II <: ~ 0 .e s:: ~ nodule - left lunlt PharYnx Left bronchial Bronchus Abdominal fluid Ri2ht diaohramatic Mesenteric + nodule + + lvmoh node + + Left kidnev Posterior nasal cavity Bronchus - left diaphraltDlatic Tracheal bifurcation Bronchus - riltht apical Bronchus - left Lateral ventricle Bronchus - distal diaphragmatic Bronchus - distal right diaphragmatic + + + + + + + Riltht frontal sinus exudate Left frontal sinus exudate Left df.anhragma tic nodule Riltht diaphragmatic abscess Ri2ht intermediate lobe Diaphragmatic lobe bronchus DiaphraltDlatic med. bronchus Riaht cardiac lobe Thorax Rat ronharvnzeaj, lymph node + Gr Pn - rods �en s:: -146- co Q) 00 "0 ~ . c, U 0 •.. ...-f ;:J SUMMARY 72BHL-8 e co ...-f ." ...-f U Q)~ "";:J •.. e-, Q)...-f •.• 0 ~ ~ Il..o!: co ...-f ...-f Q) "";:J Q) •... en ." Il.. III U c:l. en co ~ ""Q) III III ~ en •.• ;:J>. U...-f U 0 o e UQ) •.. Oo!: ~Q) c:l.'" Q)o!: ).jc:l. •.•...-f Z CIl< s:: co e, o!: ).j 0 ~ ...-f 0 e, ~~ ~ ....."" III en ;:J U U 0 U 0 ...-f >. o!: c, co •... CIl ""Q) c, e, en en ;:J ...-f ...-f ~ U ~." ~3 "0 ~ c:l. III § § ~ ""Q) •... ~ •.. ""Q) U co en .0 Q) Q) s:: •.. "" ~g:, en 0 ...-f U en s:: Q) ~ e, o 0>. "" U Po. U ." .0 Q) ~ ""0 U Q) 00 0 ""Q) co "" •.. Q) U ." .0 0 ""Q) < 5 0 ] s:: ::> Right apical lobe , + Right cardiac lobe Right diaphra2ll1atic lobe Left cardiac lobe + + Left d Laphr azmat ic lobe + + Intermediate lobe Left apical lobe + + Bronchus - right side Larynx Nasal cavity + Nasopharynx + + Trachea Mediastinal lymph node Pharyngeal lymph node + Urine Spleen Kidn~ + - right + + T~us I Liv2-': + + + Ileum + + Cecum + + Colon + + Duodenum Jeiunum + Pleura - ri2ht Peritoneum + Abomasum Pericardial fluid Blood - heart Gram - rods + + Conjunctiva Pleura - left Lateral ventricle (Continued) �-147- III c:: oS Q) "" ~ . 0 M SUMMARY :::l a 72BHL-8 Continued ." M ." M 0 Q) ••.•• "" .j..I ;:I >-. Q/M .j..I 0 III ." Q) p....c:: a Diaphragmatic oS M M Q) "":::l Q) .j..I III oS p.. . p.. III oS ..... ""Q) III III ..... Q) z !E'o ..... 1II.j..1 ;:1>-. C)M C)O oa OQ/ o..c:: .j..I p..oS Q)..c:: ""p.. .j..IM 00< nodule + Bronchus - left luna Pharynx Left bronchial Bronchus Abdominal fluid Riaht diaDhraamatic Mesenteric nodule + Lvmoh node Left kidney Posterior nasal cavity Bronchus - left diaphraamatic Tracheal bifurcation + Bronchus - riaht aDical + + Bronchus - left Lateral ventricle + + Bronchus - distal diaDhra~tic + + Bronchus - distal riaht diaDhragmatic Ri2ht frontal sinus exudate Lei.. frontal sinus exudate + + + + Left ddaphr aama tic nodule Rbht diaDhraamatic abscess Rbht intermediate lobe Diaphra~tic lobe bronchus Diaphra~atic med. bronchus Riaht cardiac lobe Thorax RetroDharyngeal lymph node Bronchus - dorsal right dia~hragmatic + + ~~ .•... "" c, 0 .j..I III oS ..c:: e, "" III ;:I 0 0 . p.. III ~ M 0 0 III 0 e, M >-. ;:I ..c:: M M ~ ..... ::E: 0 e, oS .j..I 00 ""Q) p.. s ~ -e ~ ~ .j..I ""III ." M 0 IQ 0 U p.. III ~~ ~ ..... ""Q) .j..I ""Q) .j..I 0 ." III .oQ) Q) 0 c:: ~g:, "" o 0 >-. up.. III Q) c:: Q) co 0 ""Q) ." ." ""Q) .j..I 0 s:: .0 ""0 U ""Q/ < .0 Q) >-. ." 0 50 ~ P �..;.148- IV. VIROLOGY Lamb Collections The seven bighorn sheep lambs collected during the summer of 1972 were examined for possible infection with, or exposure to, 5 different viruses, including Parainfluenza-3 (PI-3), Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR), Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD), Bluetongue (BT), and the Parvoviruses. The serological results are presented in tabular form (Table 3). PI-3 was isolated from 72BHL-2, 72BHL-4, 72BHL-5, and 72BHL-8. PI-3 was not isolated from 72BHL-3, 72BHL-6 and 72BHL-7. No other virus was isolated from these animals. PI-3 is a ubiquitous virus and it is not at all unusual to find a titer in most animal~ asa result of infection; undoubtedly it does contribute to the overall picture of pneumonia. However, present evidence indicates that this organism alone does not induce the serious pneumonia responsible for such high lamb mortality. In 1971 and in 1972, some of the lambs were examined for serological evidence of infection with adenoviruses, many of which are capable of producing respiratory infection. Some of the lambs from both years had rather high titers to adenovirus, but the significance of this finding has not yet been determined (see Table 3). �-149- Table 3. Serology for evidence of virus infection in Colorado bighorn sheep. Lamb Number PI-3 IBR BVD 71BHL- 5 2 0 0 0 128 71BHL- 6 8 0 0 0 16 71BHL- 7 8 0 71BHL-17 2 0 0 0 64 71BHL-18 64 0 0 0 32 71BHL-19 8 0 0 0 128 71BHV-20 4 0 0 0 128 71BHL-21 0 0 0 0 George 8 0 64 512 George 0 ND 32 8 George 2 NA NA NA George 0 0 16 >64 32 George 0 0 16 16 72BHL- 2 16 0 0 0 16 72BHL- 3 0 0 0 0 64 72BHL- 4 4 0 0 0 64 72BHL- 5 4 0 0 0 32 72BHL- 6 0 0 0 0 16 72BHL- 7 0 0 0 0 0 72BHL- 8 4- 0 0 0 0 BT Parvovirus 8 >64 �-150- V. MYCOPLASMA Lamb Collections Four of the seven lambs collected in 1972 were examined for evidence of Mycoplasma infection by the egg-inoculation technique. All four were nesative. Mycoplasma spp. are capable of producing respiratory disease in some animals, but this examination was routinely conducted to incriminate or eliminate this as a possibility. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 2 Perform complete necropsy examination of animals experimentally infected with bacteria, virus and lungworms. PROCEDURE Previously uninfected animals are to be inoculated with bacteria, virus and lungworms and then examined at postmortem when clinical signs of infection appear. RESULTS Two male lambs obtained from the Denver Zoo were not infected with lungworm, and did not have a titer to PI-3 virus, but one had Pasteurella in the upper respiratory tract. In view of the numbers, the research team decided to challenge these animals with PI-3 to determine if the virus alone, or in combination with Pasteurella but in the absence of lungworm would induce pneumonia. Two days after inoculation both animals developed a slight nasal exudate, but recovered without any noticeable serious effects from PI-3. Both then developed a substantial titer to this v:i.rus.· Experimental infections with Protostrongylus were conducted on sheep at the Little Hills Experiment Station. Following the discovery of transplacental transmission, the emphasis on experimental infections was shifted to favor this approach. These results are given partially under Segment Objectives 4 and 8. No attempts have been made to inoculate lambs with Pasteurella or Neisseria; both seem to be ubiquitous inhabitants of the respiratory tract and the logistics involved in checking an animal for the presence or absence of these bacteria was just recently worked out to the satisfaction of the research team. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 3 Examine the 7 bighorn sheep for the incidence of infection and level of infection with ectoparasites and endoparasites and evaluate the significance �-151- of these parasites on the health and well-being of the animal. PROCEDURE Survey of the incidence and level of infection with parasites will be accomplished by: a. Following examination by the pathologist, the sheep listed under Item 3 above will be examined for any evidence of ectoparasites. b. The lungs will be opened, the parasites removed and identified. To facilitate recovery, the lungs will also be Baermannized. Assessment of the severity of infection will be done in cooperation with the pathologist. c. The parasites in the abomasum, small intestine and large intestine will be washed out and the total counted by species. RESULTS See under Segment Objection Number 1, section II, lamb collections for parasitology examination. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 4 Elucidate the bioloKical cycle of Protostrongylus. PROCEDURE Elucidate the biological cycle of Protostrongylus. Land snails have been colonized in the laboratory, and successfully infected with the first stage larva of Protostrongylus. Snails with infective larvae will be used to experimentally infect domestic sheep, bighorn sheep and domestic goats. Domestic sheep and goats will be purchased locally, and bighorn sheep will be obtained as lambs from the Little Hills herd and at zoos throughout the state. These animals will be infected by introducing infected snails orally. Some of the domestic sheep will be given immunosuppressants to enhance susceptibility to the parasite. RESULTS Following discovery that Protostrongylus was transmitted transplacentally to the lambs, all efforts on the biological cycle were directed towards proving this portion of the cycle because present evidence strongly indicates that transplacental infection predisposes the lambs to the pneumonia that follows. Thus, elucidation of the biological cycle, and experimental infection of lambs by feeding infected snails would be purely academic. �-152- The basic life cycle of lungworms was completed by Ruth Monson in 1971. She completed the life cycle in mouflon-bighorn crossbred sheep at Rachelwood Wildlife Research Preserve, New Florence, Pennsylvania. There are two species of Protostrongylinlungworms in bighorn sheep, protostrongylus stilesi and Protostrongylus rushi. AdultProtostrorigylus stilesi are found with the parenchyma of the lung andProtostrOrigylus ·rushi are found within the bronchi and bronchioles. The adult lungworms mate in the lungs and an embryonated egg is produced which develops and hatches within the lung. A first stage infective larvae exits~the egg. It makes its way either actively or by coughing and ciliate motion in the trachea to the pharynx. The larvae is swallowed and passes unharmed through the gastrointestinal tract of the sheep. It passes out of the body in fecal pellets during defecation. Development of the first stage larvae is halted unless it is able to enter a suitable intermediate host'and undergo several moults in a process of maturation. Suitable intermediate hosts are any of several species of land molluscs, all exceedingly small. After an appropriate period of maturation the larvae within the foot tissues of the snail are third stage larvae and are infective to bighorn sheep. No other mammal has been successfully infected with them. The snail is consumed incidentally with forage while the sheep grazes. The infected snail enters the digestive tract of the final host. It penetrates the alimentary mucosa and makes its way to the lungs by way of the hepatic portal system, the liver and the posterior vena cava. Within the lungs third stage larvae mature to adults, mate and renew the life cycle. This basic life cycle has recently been supplemented by an alternate route of migration indicated by recent work. That is, the isolation of third and fourth stage lungworm larvae from fetal and neonatal bighorn lamb tissues. In transplacental transmission of lungworms the third stage larvae crosses from the ewe through the placenta and into the fetus at some time in pregnancy. Larval development in the fetus is halted after transmission and most of them remain in the liver. After birth larvae complete migration to the lungs where they mature, mate and renew the life cycle. Thus, a neonatal lamb is infected with lungworms before it ever hits the ground. This method of infection has previously been shown with Toxocara canis andAncylostomacariinum in dogs and with Neoascaris vitulorum in calves (Sprent 1954; Yutuc 1949). There have been indications of transplacental transmission of lungworm larvae for many years. Pillmore (1956a) collected lamb pellet group samples on the Buffalo Peaks range in Colorado during June and July. One of four pellet groups contained lungworm larvae on June 16, 1955. A sample collected June 22 was positive. Four samples collected July 26 and two of three samples collected July 29 were positive for first stage lungworm larvae. Pillmore (1959b) recalls a lamb that was born in captivity in Denver on June 1, 1940. It was coughing, had a rough hair coat and breathed with difficulty when exercised. On July 19 the lamb was found to have 1ungworms. The pen it occupied was dry and there was minimal chance for presence of intermediate host land snails. Another example he recounts occurred at Sybille Wildlife Research Station in Wyoming. Six ewes had been brought to the station after being trapped near Dubois in January 1956. Five of them produced lambs and all of these began passing first stage larvae in July. Suitable intermediate �-153- hosts were found in the pasture. Another example is the lamb out of a ewe caught at Glenn Eyrie, Colorado Springs in January, 1958. The lamb began passing first stage larvae about a month after birth. It had been a healthy, active lamb but three weeks after first passage of larvae it died. A necropsy was performed and a very heavy lungworm infection of the diaphragmatic lobes of the lungs was found. A similar example is a lamb caught on the Buffalo Peaks range on May 23, 1958 when still too young to follow its mother. It was penned at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo in Colorado Springs where bighorn sheep had not been kept for a number of years. A lactating goat was used as a foster mother. On June 23 the lamb began passing first stage lungworm larvae. Pillmore (1959b)"believed these last two cases in particular indicated en utero infection of the fetus with lungworms. Pillmore (1961) recall;-another lamb kept at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo. It died on July 7, 1959 from pneumonia and in necropsy first stage Protostrongylin larvae were isolated. All of these examples are strong indications of prenatal infection but none of them are conclusive. Attempts to prove the mechanism were unsuccessful. Pillmore (1959b) suggested early first stage larvae passage in lambs could come from three sources. First they could reflect coprophagous habits of lambs who might eat pellets of infected sheep. It should be considered how many pellets a lamb would have to eat to produce a significant larvae output in its own feces. Pellets eaten by a lamb would be diluted'by the contents of its gastrointestinal tract. A lamb would have to eat a lot of infected pellets to pass many first stage larvae. One of us (Lange), has sat with lambs while they played, nibbled at vegetation and rested and have observed very little of this behavior. A second explanation of early first stage larvae passage is postnatal infection of lambs. While a lamb does begin almost immediately after birth to nibble vegetation there is little likelihood that he could consume sufficient numbers of infected snails to produce the levels of larvae output that we have witnessed. One lamb from Pikes Peak produced over 10,000 first stage larvae per gram of feces (Hibler 1972). The third possibility Pillmore suggested is prenatal infection. He thought this mechanism the most likely. A fourth possibility exists. This is transmammary transmission soon after birth. Third stage infective larvae would cross from the ewe to the neonatal lamb through her milk. This mechanism has been observed with Toxocara cati in cats (Swerczek, Nielsen and Helmboldt 1971), with Ancylostoma-canium in dogs (Stone and Girardeau 1966), with Toxocara canis in dogs (Stone and Girardeau 1967), with Strongyloides westeri in horses (Lyons, Drudge and Tolliver 1969), and with Neoascaris vitulorum in cattle (Warren 1969). We have examined mammary tissues of several post-parturient ewes and found no larvae but we cannot rule out this possibility. In May, 1972 a pregnant ewe in late gestation was delivered to the Colorado State University Wildlife Disease Center by State Division of Wildlife personnel. Third stage lungworm larvae were isolated from liver, lung and cotyledonary tissues of the fetus and placenta (Hibler, Lange and Metzger 1972). This was the first direct evidence of transplacental transmission of protostrongylin lungworm larvae. Since then third or fourth stage lungworm larvae have been recovered from six other fetal or immediately postnatal lambs (Hibler et al. 1973). The numbers of larvae recovered have varied from one to 20~-rhis despite the fact that a fair proportion of the tissues �-154- were lost to histopathological, viral and bacteriological sampling. It is apparent that prenatal infection does occur on the Pikes Peak range, at least. It is more likely that this mechanism occurs on most Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep range throughout western North America. Lungworm larvae consumed during grazing by the ewe can cross the placenta to infect the fetus. An important question is whether the ewe can accumulate third stage larvae through the year or must larvae cross the placenta soon after being consumed by the ewe. That is, does somatic storage of third stage larvae exist in bighorn sheep? This is an important question. If ewes can transmit larvae to the fetus only at some point in gestation and are unable to store larvae they encountered at other times of the year they will pass far fewer larvae to the fetus. However, if they can store larvae all year long and then transmit them in a large migration to the fetus during gestation a large dose will be delivered in a relatively short period. This mechanism would make range density and availability of winter range vital because year-round population density would influence the intensity of infection among intermediate and definitive hosts. Any changes to increase density or decrease seasonal home range would add significantly to the dose of third stage iarvae available to cross the placenta. Somatic storage has been observed with the dog ascarid, Toxocara canis. Immature stages of larvae of this species are stored in the muscles, central nervous system, kidneys, liver, and other highly vascular organs (Webster 1958). They are mobilized during the last two weeks of gestation at which time they cross the placenta to infect the fetus. PURPOSE The objective is to elucidate the mechanisms of transplacental transmission. First, can it be reproduced and second, can we demonstrate somatic storage of third stage lungworm larvae. METHODS AND MATERIALS Two ewes were selected at Little Hills Game Experiment Station near Meeker, Colorado to test somatic storage of third stage protostrongylin lungworm larvae. Ewe I received 754 and Ewe II 760 mature third stage larvae (see Table 4). The intermediate host snails were cultured and infected in the laboratory at Colorado State University. Larvae were permitted to mature in the snails, Vallonia pulchella andcyclophorella for known periods of time (Table 4). Periodically, infected snails were transported to Little Hills where they were administered to the test sheep. Infected snails were placed in number one gelatin capsules and these were secreted in alfalfa cubes that had been hollowed out. The alfalfa cubes could be fed by hand to the test sheep in most cases. Administrations were made by Steve Steinert, Research Assistant at Little Hills, and by the author. Total dosages to these two ewes were completed before breeding season. The test was set-up so lambs of these two ewes, to pass first stage larvae during the following summer, could only do so through the mechanism of somatic storage of administered third stage larvae and prenatal infection of the fetus with them. �-155- In the second portion of the study two other ewes, Ewe III and Ewe IV, were selected for infection postbreeding. These ewes were administered third stage larvae between February and late April (Table 5). Ewe III received 1643 larvae and Ewe IV received 1489. Each of the larvae matured in snails for a specific amount of time. Lambs of these two ewes would demonstrate direct transplacental transmission if somatic storage did not exist. Lambs of these two ewes could not rule out somatic storage though if they did pass first stage larvae. Only lambs born to Ewes I and II could do that. The ram in the herd at Little Hills would serve as a control because he never had a patent lungworm infection. There are two questions that will occur to the reader. How do we know that ours are the only third stage larvae the ewe might encounter and how do we know no somatically stored larvae from years past in the ewes could cloud our results? First, it unlikely there is completion of the life cycle through intermediate hosts on this range. The range at Little Hills is semiarid and is composed of a pinon-juniper association on rocky hills with cliffs and sagebrush bottoms. I have surveyed the range at Little Hills and have found four species of land snails. Two of these species are suitable intermediate hosts. However, after two years of searching I have been unable to find live specimens of either of these snails, Pupilla blandi or Vallonia cyclophorella. I find older, bleached shells. Obviously, there are live intermediate hosts present but they must be scarce. On every other bighorn range I have examined, including Pikes Peak, Buffalo Peaks, Ramparts Range, Trickle Mountain, and the Pecos Wilderness and Red River area in New Mexico, I have been able to find suitable intermediate hosts. Little Hills is a dry range and seems to be in a dry cycle. It is not extraordinary to find an area where the life cycle is not completed. The Arkansas Canyon herd between Cotapaxi and Royal Gorge was entirely free of lungworms in the 1950's (Pillmore 1958). Furthermore, the sheep at Little Hills are primarily browsers. They consume mostly mountain mahogany, serviceberry and bitterbrush, thus not being exposed often to surface feeding when they might consume a snail. Finally, we have monitored larvae putput of each of the sheep at Little Hills since June, 1971. This has been done by collecting pellet group samples several times per month and baermannizing them. One of these sheep is a ram who has no lungworm infection and presumably no resistance to infection. He has never had a lungworm infection and he has not picked one up at Little Hills. He spends his time with the other sheep. If infected intermediate host snails were available for consumption by the sheep the ram should pick them ~p and develop a patent infection. We may be fairly certain, though not conclusively, that artificial dosages of lungworm larvae are the only ones the sheep have encountered at Little Hills. The second question is whether the lungworms of the lambs could be traced to somatic storage of larvae acquired before the sheep were transplanted to Little Hills. The answer is probably not but it doesn't matter. Ewe I bore a lamb on this range two years ago which passed no more than a trace of first stage larvae for 18 months (Table 4, Ewe II). If she had any third stage larvae in somatic storage they should have passed to her lamb two years ago, and that lamb's larvae output should have reflected the event. Apparently, she had few third stage larvae to transmit to her fetus. The second test ewe, Ewe II, used to test somatic storage was the lamb born to Ewe I in 1971. She was 18 months old at breeding and 24 months old at parturition. She has been on the Little: Hills: range all her life and it is unlikely she has been exposed to infection there. In Ewes III and IV we are not testing somatic storage. Though some few larvae may derive from earlier somatic storage of third stage larvae it does not affect our objective of showing transplacental transmission with these two ewes. �-156- Table 4. Preconception doses of third stage Protostrongylus ~. administered to two ewes at Little Hills. Ewe I (Mom) larvae Ewe II (Lamb) Date Larvae Snails Days in Snails 7-15-72 15 12 over 40 9-23-72 200 148 46 11-11-72 193 110 39 11-11-72 132 69 48 11~11-72 214 89 45 Larvae Snails Days in Snails 124 95 46 11-11-72 236 149 35 11-11-72 33 31 36 1.1-11-72 367 118 47 760 393 TOTALS 754 428 Table 5. Postconception doses of third stage Protostrongylus ~. administered to two ewes at Little Hills. Ewe III ~Boss) Date Larvae Snails Days in Snails 2-10-73 68 47 over 61 2-24-73 163 108 53 4-7-73 659 225 46 larvae Ewe IV (Smok:~~) Days in Larvae Snails Snails 189 91 46 4-8-73 180 75 47 4-9-73 197 75 48 387 110 49 4-20-73 330 100 50 4-21-73 206 57 51 1489 508 4-19-73 TOTALS 753 1643 225 605 49 �-157- Plans to.test sematic sterage and transplacental transmissien ef third stage lungwerm larvae were helped when all feur test ewes bere lambs. Ewe I bere a ewe lamb between June 19 and 24. Ewe II had a ewe lamb between June 2 and 8. Ewe III had a ram lamb between May 20 and 31 in Ewe IV had a ewe lamb between May 20 and 31. The study area enclesed 363 acres ef pasture at Little Hills. It is hilly, with cliffs and steep hillsides. A pinen-juniper asseciatien is predeminant with sagebrush flats en the canyen bettems. Annual precipitatien averages 12.5 inches including up to. 18 inches ef censtant snew cever en the ridgeteps and in the canyen bettems during the winter. Temperatures range from 30 degress Fahrenheit belew zero. in the winter to.100 degrees during the summer. The sheep are en a high plane ef nutritien. They are given pelleted feed as a supplement during the winter. The state ef these animals is addressed by the fact that a two.year eld ewe bere a lamb in 1973. The sheep are Recky Meuntain bighern sheep (Ovis canadensis). While the ram came frem a Birmingham, Alabama zee the ether animals were transplanted frem Glenweed Canyen, Celerade in the winter ef 1971. They are tame because they have been werked with extensively. Each sheep can be distinguished frem the ethers by hem characteristics, size and persenality. . Intermediate hest land snails used were Vallenia cyclepherella and pulchella. The latter species is the ene used successfully by Mensen (1971) to. complete the pretestrengylin life cycle in meuflen-bighern hybirds. Land snails fer initial laberatery cultures were cellected at Glenn Eyrie and at a private residence in Celerade Springs. Culture, prepagatien and infectien ef intermediate hests was discussed in the 1971 repert. RESULTS At this writing (7-6-73) the study is incemplete. One lamb, frem Ewe IV, passed first stage lungwerm larvae at the rate ef 6 larvae/gram ef dried feces in a sample cellected 7-3-73. This is censistent with earlier werk and indicates that lungwerms are just new maturing in these sheep. Signs that weuld indicate develepment ef respiratery pathelegy have been few to. date. AlIef the lambs have reugh ceats with the eldest enes leeking the reughest. One lamb has been ebserved ceughing fer a minute er two. en two. eccasiens. This study is centinuing. In the weeks to. ceme we expect to. track the rise in larvae eutput as lungwerms mature, shewing transplacental transmissien. Also., frequent ebservatiens are being made to.watch fer signs of respiratory disease. . SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 5 Study the epid~ielegy ef Pretestrengt1us in Celerade bighorn sheep. PROCEDURE Fecal samples from various herds throughout the state will be collected at random on a menthly basis and the lungworm larval output between herds compared; �-158- hopefully this procedure will be an indication of herd health. RESULTS During this study the sheep were continually monitored for level of first stage larvae putput. Using this method, larvae counted in dried, crushed fecal samples were related in larvae per gram of feces. A legitimate question is what do larvae output figures tell us? First, larvae output figures can tell us if a herd is infected. This is not particularly valuable information since all herds are infected. Second, larvae output figures detect seasonal variation. Forrester and Senger (1964) noted that high concentrations of larvae in monthly fecal samples collected on Wildhorse Island, Montana during 1959-60 and 1961-62 occurred during April and May. They observed that most moisture fell in the area during April, May and June. Pillmore (1958c) collected fecal pellets at Glenn Eyrie in Colorado Springs. He observed higher larvae outputs during and after January than he had seen in November and December. During the past year personnel of the Colorado State Division of Wildlife have collected 260 pellet groups on Pikes Peak, Trickle Mountain, Cache la Poudre and Buffalo Peaks ranges. A cursory glance at these larvae output figures (Table 6) shows differences between seasons on these ranges. Lower larvae outputs are in August and September. Higher counts are during winter and spring. There are several interpretations of seasonal fluctuation. Larvae outputs may reflect depressed immune response to first stage larvae, increased infection with adult lungworms from range snails, greater concentration of fecal material during winter months, or activation and infection with somatically stored larvae. Most of the increase probably reflects a stress-related decline in the immune response. There is a third piece of information that larvae output figures may furnish. There is some indication they can be used to compare the state of infestation between herds. Forrester and Senger (1964) felt that there was an association between the level of infection with lungworms in the sheep and the larval output when compared on a herd basis. That is to say that differences in levels of infection in herds are reflected by differences in larvae output. This appears to be true. Such a comparison may be made between January and March 1973 figures on Pikes Peak and January and March figures at East Trickle Mountain (Table 7). The value of such information is that it may describe the general health of the herd. The herd on Pikes Peak is unhealthy and declining at present while the herd at Trickle Mountain seems to be healthy and increasing. The figures seem to reflect this. The comparisons are interesting but more work must be done to see if larvae output can be used to compare the health state of herds. Finally there are some things that larval output cannot do. A single pellet group cannot be counted and interpreted. It may be possible to collect a series of pellet groups and make a statement as discussed above. Larval output figures are not repeatable from day to day except at very low levels of infection. There is so much randomness of larval putput that large numbers of samples are needed from a herd or repeated samples from an individual sheep if a trend is to be established. �-159- Table 6. Lungworm larvae output in four Colorado bighorn sheep herds. Aug. 72 Sept. 72 Nov. 72 Dec. 72 Jan. 73 Mar. 73 Pike's Peak 63 11 530 116 364 253 Buffalo Peaks 19 42 East 8 22 Middle 67 West 56 Area May 73 561 129 Trickle Mountain 121 117 89 147 9 46 Cache la Poudre Figures represent first stage lungworm larvae per gram of air-dried feces and are averages of mUltiple samples. 344 212 �-160- Table 7 • Lungworm larvae output in four Colorado bighorn sheep herds*. Aug. 1972 Ave. Sept. 1972 P I K E ' S PEA Nov. 1972 Dec. 1972 Jan. 1973 March 1973 K 1 1 717 38 610 None None 27 107 7 1471 144 None 1 2489 338 699 292 None 26 77 46 423 133 None 4 487 23 184 767 1 4 149 63 129 251 None 13 173 294 158 142 92 56 44 360 719 183 2 55 153 121 None 160 102 1 24 12 192 449 10 104 138 19 22 231 1 19 None 22 3 1 None 2 None 63 11 364 253 530 116 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------*Numbers in larvae per gram of air-dried feces. �-161- Table 7 • Lungworm larvae output in four Colorado bighorn sheepherds* (continued). PEA BUFFALO K S Sept. 1972 Jan. 1973 May 1973 1 None 61 355 92 9 27 298 16 48 77 430 None 1 395 81 8 .17 29 338 7 1 423 1832 None 28 253 249 20 229 69 1857 None 109 54 518 5 1 25 577 37 11 30 428 58 47 100 263 Aug. 1972 72 15 13 Ave. 19 42 129 561 --------------------------------------------------*Numbers in larvae per gram of air-dried feces. �-162- Table 7 .• .Lungwo.nnlarvae. Qut:put:in JQuz:Go19radQ ~:lgllQ:rn ~heep herds* .. . . . . . TRICKLE Aug. 1972 Sept. 1972 MOUNTAIN (continued) • . E A S T Nov. 1972 Jan. 1973 March 1973 May 1973 12 9 21 54 68 644 5 4 183 85 16 30 None 18 63 92 28 49 10 1 329 196 58 137 None 58 211 221 145 32 10 3 12 208 10 67 15 13 61 81 369 121 19 3 69 54 100 181 11 1 36 10 93 193 5 6 38 3 20 1 133 .243 89 18 19 24 None Ave. 8 22 121 117 89 147 --------------------------------------------~---------------------------------------*Numbers in larvae per gram of air-dried feces. �-163- Table 7. Lungworm larvae output in four Colorado bighorn sheep herds* (cont Imied) • TRICKLE MOUNTAIN MIDDLE TRICKLE MOUNTAIN WEST Aug. 1972 Nov. 1972 Aug. 1972 Sept. 1972 May 1973 178 7 159 16 323 27 None 25 43 1672 163 None 20 68 78 29 10 10 36 299 47 7 159 36 601 38 None 20 2 222 138 10 22 51 44 156 None 65 111 129 24 44 20 136 39 27 36 46 344 14 34 14 22 Ave. 67 9 56 CACHE LA POUDRE May 1973 130 99 40 125 88 1 123 360 3 337 307 389 478 482 Ave. 212 * Numbers in larvae per gram of air-dried feces. �-166- third-stage larvae in the liver and lungs at birth, for a projected total of 253, and the other had 147 in the liver and lungs, fora projected total of 221 (see Segment Objective Number 8). Obviously the Cambendazole did not kill the infective larvae stored in her tissues. A young ewe lamb captured on Pikes Peak in late May, 1973 was treated with Cambendazole to determine if this compound would kill her third stage larvae. When she died, a total of 57 third and fourth stage lungworm were found in he~ liver and lungs. Many of the fourth stage were digested; consequently, there is no way of arriving at the exact level of infection (see Segment Objective Number 8). While Cambendazole may have reduced the burden of infection, the drug certainly did not eliminate the parasites. Of the 12 ewes brought into captivity, four gave birth to five lambs, but the twin lambs from one ewe died, leaving three alive. Fortunately, one lamb is from a control ewe, one from a Tramisol-treated ewe, and one from a Cambendazole-treated ewe. The lambs are presently at the age when they should begin showing signs of infection in the wilds; thus, there is no way of evaluating the efficacy of treatment for another two to four weeks. The sheep captured, treated, banded, and released on Pikes Peak (see Segment Objective Number 18), are currently being monitored, but evaluation must be postponed until after the lamb die-off on Pikes Peak. This will be in late September or early October of 1973. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 8 Examination of bighorn sheep for possible transplacental or transmammary transmission of Protostrongylus. PROCEDURE Recent evidence strongly suggests that infection may be acquired in ways other than by oral ingestion of infected snails. One effective means of evaluating this possibility is to collect and examine ewes in late pregnancy. At least two pregnant ewes should be examined. The placenta and mammary glands from the ewes and the liver, lungs and lymph nodes from the foetus should be macerated and run through the Baermann funnel to collect any larvae of Protostrongylus which might be present. A portion of each organ or tissue would be preserved for histopathology. The foetal kidneys would be needed by the virologist for tissue culture procedures used in the isolation of viral agents. RESULTS A ewe in late pregnancy was collected from Pikes Peak on May 16, 1972 and her foetal tissues were examined for evidence of transplacental transmission of Protostrongylus. The results of that examination revealed that transplacental transmission does indeed occur. These findings are reported in the 1971 annual report. Since one case of transplacental transmission merely suggests �-167- that this is the usual means by which lambs receive their initial infection, additional evidence was necessary. Therefore, all pregnant ewes or lambs dying accidentally were carefully examined for additional instances of this type of transmission. During the first week of April, 1973 a pregnant ewe died accidentally during routine trapping operations on Pikes Peak. Measurement of her foetus indicated that she was within six weeks of lambing. Tissues from the ewe and the foetus were exhaustively examined in an effort to obtain additional evidence of transplacental transmission, and find the site of somatic storage in the adult animal. Tissues from the ewe included lymph nodes, liver, uterus, cotyledons, muscles from the diaphragm, and all four limbs. Tissues from the foetus included the liver, lungs and lymph nodes. About two-thirds was used to recover intact larvae, the remaining one-third was preserved for histopathology study. These tissues were finely minced and placed in the Baermann funnel for 24 hours. The material collected was preserved in 10 percent formalin for subsequent study. A total of 43 third-stage larvae of Protostrongylus sp. was recovered from the foetal liver; none was recovered from any of the other tissues listed above. In the second week of April, 1973 a captive ewe died of pasteurellosis. Measurements of her foetus indicated that she was 2-2~ months from lambing. A similar examination of this ewe and the foetus was performed using the Baermann apparatus. One third-stage larva was recovered from the cotyledons; none were found in any of the other tissues. On April 29, 1973 a captive ewe aborted a full-term ewe lamb. This ewe had been ill for several months and the dominant animals in the herd fought her continuously. Examination of this lamb revealed that third stage larvae of Protostrongylus were present in the fetal liver and lungs. The liver weighed 116 grams and 45 grams were used to recover third stage larvae. The remainder was preserved for histopathology. A total of 189 larvae were found in the liver. Theoretically the liver possessed 472 larvae. The left lung was perfused with 10 percent formalin for histopathology study, the right was baermannized for the recovery of third-stage larvae. Seven infective larvae were found in the right diaphragmatic lobe, 17 in the right apical lobe and 22 in the right cardiac lobe making a total of 46 larvae. Theoretically, the lamb had 92 larvae in the lungs at the time of birth. On May 21, 1973, a lamb born to a captive ewe died a day after birth and was examined for evidence of transplacental transmission of Protostronglyus. The tissues from this lamb were examined by the Baermann funnel and the pepsinhydrochloric acid digestion technique. Seventy-five percent of the lungs were digested, the remainder was preserved for histopathology examination. A total of 147 third stage larvae were recovered from the lungs. Theoretically, the lungs possessed a "total of 196 larvae. Seventy-five percent of the liver was digested, the remaining 25 percent was preserved for histopathology examination. A total of 43 third stage larvae was recovered. Theoretically the liver possessed 57 larvae." The total for this lamb was 189, with a proj ected total of 253. The Baermann funnel is extremely effective for separating larval stages from �-168- feces 9 cultures, etc., but efficiency decreases when tissues such as lung, liver or cotyledons are examined.· These tissues readily break down and the finer particles block the screens, inhibiting passage of the larvae. Considerable difficulty was encountered with tissues from the first sheep, which may account for the low number recovered, but with the last three animals the technique was improved by usirig smaller amounts of tissue in more funnels. The pepsin-hydrochloric acid digestion technique, which is so effective in removing nematodes from tissues, will digest Protostrorigylus adults; therefore, we thought that larvae would also digest. Thus, the material obtained from the first three sheep was not subjected .to the digestion technique, but after the material from the fourth sheep had been baermannized it was subjected to digestion. A total of 58 larvae were found by the Baermann technique, 131 by the digestion technique; consequently, we must assume that baermannization is a very poor procedure. We must also assume that the number of larvae recovered from the first three sheep represents a small fraction of the total present in fetal tissues. In mid-May, 1973, a lamb (73BHL-lO) born of captive ewe BHE-4 died of an enteric clostridial infection 2~ to 3 days after birth. As with the preceding lamb, 75 percent of the lung and liver tissue was examined for larvae, the remaining 25 percent preserved for histopathology study. Examination by the Baermann technique revealed that 30 third stage larvae were present in the lungs and 19 in the liver. By the digestion technique, using the same tissue, 103 were recovered from the lungs and 14 from the liver. This is an actual recovery of 166 third stage larvae. Theoretically, the animal possessed a total of 44 in the liver and 177 in the lungs, or a theoretical total of 221 third stage larvae. . In late May, 1973 a newborn female lamb was captured on Pikes Peak and maintained in captivity. Seven days later, on the lamb's eighth day of life, she died of a clostridial infection of the gastrointestinal tract. Since this animal was old enough to be infected withProtostrorigylus which would be in the process of developing from third to fourth stage, and possibly even to immature adults (fifth stage), she was examined first of all by the Baermann technique and her tissues were then digested. As with the preceding animals, 75 percent of the liver and 75 percent of her lungs were examined. The remainder preserved for histopathology. No larvae were found in the liver tissue examined by the Baermann technique9 but five were recovered after digestion. A total of 39 larvae, essentially equal numbers of late third stage and fourth stages, were recovered from lung tissue examined by the Baermann technique. The great majority (36) were recovered from the diaphragmatic lobes. This same lung tissue was then digested and an additional 13 larvae were recovered from the diaphragmatic lobes, but none were found in the other lobes. These 13 were all developing third stage larvae. However, large numbers of partially to almost totally digested larvae were evident in the digest. There was no satisfactory procedure for counting these pieces, but an estimate of 100 worms was considered conservative. A total of 57 third and fourth stages were recovered from this lamb. Five of these came from the liver, the remaining 52 from the lungs. Undoubtedly, the great majority had already migrated to the lungl;land began development. The 52 found in the lungs theoretically represents a total of 70 in the lungs; �-169- however, since development to the fourth stage had occurred, and many digested pieces were found, it must be concluded that this number represents only a fraction of the total. Moreover, the discovery of digested larvae indicates that the fourth stage, like the adult, is susceptible to digestion. Thus the accuracy is considerably reduced. Thus far, evidence of transplacental transmission has been obtained from all lambs or foetuses examined. However, present techniques indicate that results obtained with the first three animals was not accurate (see paragraph discussing the Baermann funnel). When the ewe was collected on Pikes Peak in late May of 1972, some additional circumstantial evidence in support of transplacental transmission of lungworm was fortuf.tously obtained. A young lamb, not more than one or two days old, was captured and reared in captivity. At an estimated age of 35 days, he began passing first stage lungworm larvae in the feces. Over the next three weeks his output increased, eventually reaching the extremely high level of lO,OOO/gram. Concomitant with this heavy infection, the lamb developed a chronic cough, shallow respiration and tired easily. He was also light in weight, light in color and had a rough hair coat, most of which was ascribed to his diet at that time. About the first of August, this lamb had learned to eat grass and had a free-choice of grass, hay and grain in addition to the cow's milk he received three times daily. At this time he began to grow and put on considerable weight. His high larvel output remained unchanged until about August 15, 1972, when, in the short span of a week, the output dropped from lO,OOO/gram to lO/gram of feces. Presently, this lamb is an extremely healthy animal and his larval output is a consistent lO/gram of feces. Several conclusions can be drawn from studies on transplacental transmission of· Protostrongylus: (1) the data, while incomplete, indicates that this is the usual means by which lambs receive their initial infection with P. stilesi in herds experiencing high lamb mortality; (2) transmission probably occurs in late pregnancy; (3) the larvae are stored in the foetal liver until birth, or shortly before, and then migrate to the lungs; (4) the ewe probably accumulates these larvae throughout the year and stores them (somatic storage) in some site presently unknown; and (5) the lamb is born with an overwhelming infection which probably predisposes it to secondary invasion by bacteria. Now that we are aware of transplacental transmission of lungworm in bighorn sheep, what can be said about the cycle from this point on is theoretical, and will require several years of difficult work to prove, but proof is now within our grasp. Theoretically, the pregnant ewe obtains third stage (infective) larvae with snails she aceidentally ingests while grazing. When these larvae are released in the gastrointestinal tract, they apparently enter her circulatory system, cross the placenta, and accumulate in the foetal liver until birth. When the lamb is born, infective larvae are already present, ready to enter the lungs and continue development. In the lung they grow, develop, and molt through two additional stages to the adult parasite. Adult parasites reach sexual maturity, mate and begin producing eggs. First stage larvae appear in the feces 4-6 weeks after birth. There are a number of reasons why this mode of transmission is extremely important, and all of them are important to the management of the bighorn sheep herd; consequently, the problem·must be thoroughly studied and all of its implications evaluated. �-170- When the ewe eats snails, and acquires infective larvae, some of these larvae may be destined to cross the placenta and enter the foetus, and some may be destined to enter her lungs and mature. However, since she already has lungworm, she is probably immune to a higher level 6f infection, especially if she is healthy; thus, the majority of the larvae are destined to cross the placenta and enter the foetus. Presently, circumstantial evidence indicates that the larvae acquired by a ewe in the course of grazing throughout the year go into her body tissues and become dormant. Here they could accumulate, often in great numbers, to be released during pregnancy year after year, even with no further intake of larvae. One important management problem which comes immediately to mind is that lungworm-free herds cannot be established by planting lambs raised in a snail-free environment. Another significant implication of transplacental transmission of lungworm is the potential problems which could (and probably do) develop on poor and overgrazed sheep ranges. All parasites require a number of factors to insure perpetuation of their own kind; crowding and malnutrition are possibly the most important. During the past 50-70 years the bighorn sheep ranges have become smaller and smaller, forcing animals into crowded situations. When the sheep are crowded together, more snails per unit area are infected (especially on lambing grounds), furnishing a better chance for ewes to accumulate greater numbers of infective larvae for their offspring. Crowding promotes overgrazing, and this too means more snails ingested because grasses are more closely cropped. If the bighorn sheep is on poor, overgrazed range, it is undoubtedly in a marginal or suboptimal plane of nutrition. Most likely the lambs born of these ewes are in the same condition. If the ewe gives birth to a weak lamb, and does not furnish adequate milk, the lamb has several strikes against it at birth. When these factors are combined and the parasites added as a final ingredient, the result is that most lambs are born predestined to die. If this is the correct interpretation of the cause of lamb mortality, at least two avenues of control must be explored: (1) kill the third stage larvae in the ewe before she can transmit the parasite to the lamb; and/or (2) kill the third stage larvae in the bedding and lambing grounds, thus insuring that ewes will not acquire large numbers to pass to the lambs. Presently (see above under Segment Objective Number 6) treatment of the ewe is being explored with Tramisol and Cambendazole. This summer and next year, the feasibility of treating the lambing and bedding grounds will be explored. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 9 Identify the virus recently isolated from captive bighorn sheep in Wyoming. This virus was identified as PI-3 and reported in 1971. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 10 Experimentally inoculate domestic lambs with the virus mentioned above to determine the effect of the agent on susceptible animals. Since the virus was PI-3, and the effect on domestic sheep is well-documented, there was no need to pursue this objective. �-171- SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 11 Develop and evaluate a vaccine against the virus named above if warranted. Present results indicate that PI-3 is one of the agents responsible for fatal pneumonia in lambs, but not the predisposing agent; therefore, preparation of a vaccine seems unwarranted, moreover, no long-term benefits can be obtained by inoculating sheep other than captive animals because PI-3 is essentially an ubiquitous virus. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 12 Initiate tissue cultures from a healthy lamb. This is a routine step necessary to isolate viruses and this objective was met in 1971 with the collection of a pregnant ewe on Pikes Peak. In 1972, other tissue culture systems were employed. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 13 Continuation of serology, using the serum samples on hand and procurement of additional serum samples. This objective was met, and the results are reported in Segment Objectives Number 1 and 18. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 14 Obtain fresh tissue and nasal washings from bighorn sheep and attempt viral isolation. This objective was met and the results are reported in Segment Objective Number 1. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 15 Attempt isolation of chlamydial agents. This objective was not met and unfortunately no attempt was made to do so. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 16 Microscopic examination of tissue culture cells for evidence of viral infection (cytology). This is a routine objective and is a procedure required of the virologist to interpret presence or absence of infection. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 17 Report on Segment Objectives. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NUMBER 18 This objective was not written into the plans by the research team but came about as the result of discoveries made after the plans had developed. The �-172- plan was conceived by the Division of Wildlife as a multipurpose, multidisciplinary objective. That objective was to trap, band and release sheep on Pikes Peak to: (1) determine behaviour and migratory habits; (2) determine the age structure, (3) determine the presence or absence of pathogens in the herd; and (4) acquire captive animals for study. A summary of the results are presented in Tables 8, 9 and 10. Six of the ewes captured early in the experiment died as a result of age and stress. All of these animals were old and debilitated. The postmortem examination revealed that they had a chronic pneumonia of long-standing duration, accompanied by severe pleural adhesions; thus they apparently died of a combination of stress, age and pneumonia. Moreover, the first four animals were to be transported to Little Hills, Colorado and a severe storm delayed progress for 24 hours, which was an added stress. These died shortly after their arrival. Nasal swabs were taken and examined for the presence of Pasteurella in the upper respiratory tract in as many of the sheep as was possible under the circumstances. Pasteurella was isolated from only a few of the sheep, but postmortem examination of those dying revealed that the organism was present. For example, Pasteurella was obtained from the upper respiratory tract of only one of the first 5 sheep that died, but was obtained from the lower respiratory tract (lungs) of all of them. Winter conditions on Pikes Peak are extremely rigorous and our present interpretation is that Pasteurella cannot survive the cold (as low as -200 F) air in the nasal passage. As expected, most of the sheep had a titer to PI-3, indicating exposure to this virus at sometime in their life. The only titers run at present are the 1:2, which indicates only exposure and does not reveal the strength of the immunity; the press of other work has delayed these studies, necessitating they be reported in the 1973 annual report. �Table 8. Bighorn ewes - 0 through 26; April 6, 1973. Treatment Pasteurella Isolated From Nasal Swabs Titer PI-3 1:2 Blood Taken Place of Capture Captive or Released Tag Color and Number 7-8 yr. Tram. * --- + Yes Old Trap Site Captivet Red/White 114 73BBE- 5 6-7 yr. Tram. * --- + Yes Old Trap Site Captivet Red/White 115 1-9 73BBE- 6 7-8 yr. Tram. * --- + Yes Old Trap Site Captivet Red/White 116 1-9 13BBE- 7 7-8 yr. Tram .•* --- + Yes Old Trap Site Captivet Red/White 117 1-11 73BBE;" 8 6-8 yr. Tram. * P. hemolytica + Yes Old Trap Site Captivet Red/White 118 1-11 13BHE- 0 6-7 yr. Tram. * + Yes Old Trap Site Captivet Red/White 110 + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White Date cap. Ewe Number Age 1-9 73BHE- 4 1...• 9 I 2-13 13BBE- 9 6 yr. Camb.** ----- 2-13 73BBE-IO 8ye :Control Past. ap. + Yes Sheep Mt. Cap tivet t Red/White 114 2..;.13 73BHE-l1 6yr Tram. * --- + Yes Sheep Mt. Cap tivet t Red/White 116 ....• ....• W I 113 2-13 7111HE-12 8-'9 yr. Tram. * P. hemolytica + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 2-16 73BHE-13 6-.7 yr. Camb.** + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 118 2-16 73BHE-14 4 yr. Control + Yes Sheep Mt. Cap tivet t Red/White 119 2-21 13BBE-lS 1-9 yr. Camb.** ------- + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 1110 2-21 73BUE-16 5-:6 yr. Tram. * --- + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 1111 2-21 73JmE-17 5~yr. Control --- + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 1112 3-1 73BHE-18 6-7 yr. Camb.** --- + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Orange 111 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 115 �Table 8 - Bighorn ewes - 0 through 26; April 6, 1973 (continued). Treatment Pasteurella Isolated From Nasal Swabs Titer PI-3 1:2 Blood Taken Place of Capture Captive or Released Tag Color and Number 7-8 yr. Camb.** --- + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Orange 112 73BHE-20 5-6 yr. Camb.** + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Orange 114 3-1 73BHE-21 5-6 yr. Tram. * + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Red/White 113 3-1 73BHE-22 7-8 yr. Tram.** ------- + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Red/White 1f4 3-1 73BHE-23 4 yr Tram. * --- + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivet Red/Whi te 111 3-1 73BHE-24 4 yr. Camb.** + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 3-1 73BHE-25 3 yr. Control ----- + Yes Sheep Mt. Captivett Red/White 1113 4-4 73BHE-26 4 yr. Dead in net (4-mile location) --- ------- -------- * ** Tramisol Cambendazole Dead Alive Date Cap. Ewe Number Age 3-1 73BHE-19 3-1 + tt In .....I ~ " I ------- �Table 9. Bighorn rams - 1 through 19. Date Ca2· Ram Number Age Treatment 1-9 73BHR- 1 5 yr. 1-9 73BHR- 2 5 yr. 1-9 73BHR- 3 5 yr. 1-9 73BHR- 4 7 yr. Pasteurella Isolated From Nasal Swabs Titer PI-3 1:2 Blood Taken Place of Ca2ture Captive or Released Tag Color and Number No Sample + Yes Old Trap Site Released Tag 111 ---- - Yes Old Trap Site Released Tag 112 ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Captive* Tag 1/3 ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released ------ ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released ------ 1-9 73BHR- 5 9 yr. ----------- 1-9 73BHR- 6 11 yr. --- ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released ------ 1-9 73BHR- 7 8 yr. --- No Sample + Yes Old Trap Site Released ------ 1-9 73BHR- 8 9 yr. --- ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released ------ 1-11 73BHR- 9 7 yr. ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released ------ 2-1 73BHR-10 5 yr. ----- ---- No Blood Lost Old Trap Site Released Red Tape 2-1 73BHR-ll 7 yr ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released Red Tape 2-1 73BHR-12 8 yr. ----- + No Blood --- Old Trap Site Released Red Tape 2-1 73BHR-13 9 yr. --- ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Released Red Tape 2-1 73BHR-14 4 yr. --- ---- + Yes Old Trap Site Net Death ------ --- I f-I Red Tape Sheep Mt. Released Yes ---+ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2-16 73BHR-15 5 yr. " \JI I �Table 9 - Bighorn ~ams - 1 through 19 (continued). Date Cap. Ram Number Age Pasteurella Isolated From Nasal Swabs 2-13 73BHR-16 5 yr. 2-13 73BHR-17 3 yr. 2-16 73BHR-18 5 yr. Cl. perf. D. Vacc. 3-1 73BHR-19 6 yr. 70 cc. Cambin. Treatment No Sample Titer PI-3 1:2 Blood Taken Place of Capture Captive or Released Tag Color and Number + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Red Tape Yes Sheep Mt. Released Red Tape + Yes Sheep Mt. Captive* White/Red /17 + Yes Sheep Mt. Released Red Tape I •.... -...J 0\ * Alive I �Table 10. Bighorn lamb Number 1. Date Cap. Lamb Number Age Treatment Pasteurella Isolated From Nasal Swabs 1-9 73BHL-l 8 mo. 10 cc P-S P. multiocidia Titer PI-3 1:4 Blood Taken Place of Capture Yes Old Trap Site Captive or Released Tag Color and Number Captive Dead None I t-' " " I �-178- REFERENCES CITED Baermann, G. 1917. Ein einfache methodezur auffindung von Ankylos~omun (Nematoden) larvel in erdproben. Geneeskun. Tijdschr. voor Nederlandsche-Indie. 57:131-137. Bandy, P. J. 1966. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep mortality in British Columbia. Paper presented to the N.W. Section, Wildlife Society, La Grande, Oregon. March 25-26. 1968. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep losses in the East Kootenay region of British Columbia, 1965-67. A paper presented to the N.W. Section, Wildlife Society, University of Alberta. Edmonton, Alberta. March 23. Blood, D. A. 1963. Parasites from California bighorn sheep in southern British Columbia. Can. J. Zool. 41(6):913-918. Bonds, R. M. 1936. Special report on bighorn and bighorn sickness in Glacier National Park. U. S. Dept. Int. 12 pp. Buechner, H. K. 1960. The bighorn sheep in the United States, its past, present, and future. Wildl. Monographs 4. 174 pp. Carrico, W. 1959. Life cycle of lungworms. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. 46-48. Couey, E. M. 1950. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep of Montana. and Fish Comma Bull. 2. 90 pp. Mont. Game Davis, W. B. 1938. Summer activity of mountain sheep on Mt. Washburn, Yellowstone National Park. J. Mammal. 19:88-94. Dikmans, G. 1931. Two new lungworms from North American ruminants and a note on the lungworms of sheep in the United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 79(18):1-6. 1943. The lungworm, Protostrongylus rushi Dikmans, 1937, of the mountain sheep, Ovis canadensis. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 10(1):8-9. Fernando, S. T. 1968. Immunological response of the hosts to Toxocara canis Werner, 1782, infection. Parasitol. 58:547-559. Forrester, D. J., and C. M. Senger. 1963. Effects of temperature and humidity on survival of first stage Protostrongylus stilesi larvae. Expt. Parasite 13(2):83-89. 1964. A survey of lungworm infection in bighorn sheep of Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28(3):481-491. �-179- Forrester, D. J., and C. M. Senger. 1969. Gastropods as intermediate hosts of Protostrongy1id 1ungworms of bighorn sheep. Unpub. Manuscript. Geist, V. 1971. Mountain sheep; a study in behavior and evolution. of Chicago Press. Chicago, Ill. 383 pp. Univ. Gerichter, C. 1948. Observations on the life history of lung nematodes using snails as intermediate hosts. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 9:109-112. Greve, J. H. 1971. Age resistance to Toxocara canis in ascarid free dogs. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 32(8):1185-1192. Hibler, C., et a1. 1973. J. Wi1d1. Dis. Assoc. Hibler, C., R. E. Lange and Carol Metzger. Dis. Assoc. 1972. Research note; J. Wi1d1. Hobmaier, Adele, and M. Hobmaier. 1930. Life history of Protostrongylus (SynthetocaUlus) rufescens. Proc. Soc. Expt1. Bio1. and Med. 28:156-158. 1934. The route of infestation and the site of localization of 1ungworms in mollusks. Science. 80:229. Honess, R. F. Wyoming. 1942. Lungworms of domestic sheep and bighorn sheep in Univ. Wyo. Agric. Expt. Stat Bull. 225. 24 pp. 1954a. Life cycle of the lungworm (Protostrongylus sp.) of bighorn sheep. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Wyo. Game and Fish Connn. 7-9. 1954b. Two bighorn rams, Dubois, Torrey Creek. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. 10-12. 1955. Projects. Land snails and the lungworm of bighorn sheep. Fed. Aid Quarterly Reports. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. 64-65. ___ , and M. Frost. 1942. A Wyoming bighorn sheep study. Fish Comm. Bull. 1. 127 pp. Wyo. Game and __ ~, and K. B. Winter. 1955. Incidence of lungworm parasitism in bighorn sheep. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. 58-61. Hunter, G. N., and R. E. Pi11more. 1954. Hunting as a technique in studying lungworm infestations. in bighorn sheep. Trans. N. Amer. Wi1d1. Conf. 19:117-131. Jones, G. W., and C. E. White. 1949. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep survey. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and ELsh-Dep t , 93-98. �-180- Jones, G. W., and C. E. White. 1950. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep surveys and investigations. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 1-11. ________ , and C. A. Moser. 1953. Census and distribution studies on herds throughout the state. Fed. Aid Project. Quarterly Reports. Game and Fish Dept. 9-11. Kassai, T. 1958. Larvae of protostrongylins 8(3):224-236. in snails. Keyes, M. C. 1965. Pathology of the Northern fur seal. Med. Assoc. 147(10):1090-1095. Lyons, E. T., J. H. Drudge, and T. S. Tolliver. mare's milk. Blood-Horse. 95:2270-2271. 1961. Acta Vet. J. Amer. Vet. Parasites from Marquardt, W. C., and C. M. Senger. 1956. Lungworms in the bighorn sheep of Montana. Proc. Helmintho1. Soc. Wash. 23(1):68-69. Marsh, H. 1938. 19:214-219. Pneumonia in Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. Mills, H. B. 1937. National Park. J. Mammal. A preliminary study of the bighorn sheep of Yellowstone J. Mammal. 18:205-213. Monson, Ruth A. 1971. Experimental transmission of Protostrongylus stilesi to bighorn and mouflon sheep hybrids. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State University. Fort Collins, Colo. 49 pp. Moser, C. A. 1954. Census and distribution studies on herds throughout the state. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 49-51. __~ , and G. W. Jones. 1954. Lambing study and predator loss to lambs. Fed. Aid Project. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 43-44. , and R. E. Pillmore. 1954. --------Projects. Quarterly Reports. Study of mortality factors. Fed. Aid Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 53-56. Ogren, H. A. 1954. A population study of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis, Shaw, on Wi1dhorse Island. M. S. Thesis. MOntana State University, Bozeman, Mont. Olsen, O. W., and E. T. Lyons. 1965. Life cycle of Uncinaria lucasi Stiles, 1901 (Nematoda:Ancy10stomidae) of fur seals, Callorhinusursinus, on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. J. Parasitol. 5l(5):689-7QO. Packard, F. M. 1946. An ecological study of the bighorn sheep in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. J. Mammal. 27:3-28. �-181- Pillmore, R. E. 1954a. Quarterly Reports. 1954b. 19-21. Study of mortality factors. Fed. Aid Projects. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 53-66. Report on the bighorn. Colorado Conservation. 3(1): 1955. Investigations of the life history and ecology of the lungworm, Protostrongylus stilesi. Fed. Aid. Project. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 61-75. 1956a. Investigations of the life history and ecology of the lungworm, Protostrongylus stilesi. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 47-70. 1956b. Study of mortality factors. Fed. Aid Projects. Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 43-45. Quarterly 1957. Lungworm and its relationship to bighorn sheep management. Proc. Ann. Conf. W. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm. 37:198-205. 1958a. Problems of lungworm infection in wild sheep. Desert Bighorn Council. 2:57-63. Trans. 1958b. Life cycles of the lungworm genus Protostrongylus in Colorado. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. of Science. 4(10):44-45. 1958c. Study of the lung nematodes of game animals. Projects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. Fed. Aid 1-28. 1959a. The evidence for the prenatal lungworm infection of bighorn lambs. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. of Science. 4(11):60-61. 1959b. Study of lung nematodes of bighorn sheep. jects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. Fed. Aid Pro73-83. 1961. Study of lung nematodes of bighorn sheep. Fed. Aid Projects. Quarterly Reports. Colo. Game and Fish Dept. 69-97. Post, G., and K. B. Winter. 1957. Projects. Quarterly Reports. Life cycle of lungworms. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm. Fed. Aid 48-52. Rufi, G. V. 1961. Life cycle of lungworms. Fed. Aid Projects. Reports. Wyo. Game and Fish Corom. 60-61. Rush, W. M. 1928. Seton, E. T. 1929. Co. New York. Diseases in mountain sheep. Lives of game animals. 780 pp. Outdoor Life. Vol. 3. Smith, D. W. 1954. The bighorn sheep in Idaho. Wildl. Bull. 1. 154 pp. Quarterly 62(4):36. Doubleday, Doran and Idaho Dept. Fish and Game. �-182- Spencer, C. C. 1943. Notes on the life history of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep in the Tarryall Mountains of Colorado. J. Mammal. 24(1): 1-11. Sprent, J. F. A. 1954. The life cycles of nematodes in the family Ascarididae Blanchard, 1896. J. Par?sitol. 40(5):608-617. 1958. Observations on the development of Toxocara canis Werner, 1782, in the dog. Parasitol. 48(2):184-209. Stelfox, J. G. 1800-1970. 1971. Bighorn sheep in the Canadian Rockies Can. Field-Naturalist. 85(2):101-122. a history Stone, W. M., and M. H. Girardeau. 1966. Ancylostoma canirtum larvae present in the colostrum of a bitch. Vet. Rec. 79:773-774. 1967. Transmammary passage of infective stage nematode larvae. Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clinic. 62:252-253. Swerczek, T. W., S. W. Nielsen, and C. F. Helmboldt. 1971. Transmammary passage of Toxocara cati in the cat. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 32(1):89-92. U. S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data Service, Colorado. 1947-1972. Climatological data. Warren, E. G. 1969. Nematode larvae in milk. Austral. Vet. J. 45:388. Webster, Gloria A. 1956. A preliminary report on the biology of Toxocara canis Werner, 1782. Can. J. Zool. 34(6):725-726. 1958. On prenatal infection and the migration of Toxocaracartis Werner, 1782, in dogs. Can. J. Zool. 36(3):435-441. Woodard, T. 1971. Bighorn sheep lamb production, survival, and mortality in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Yutuc, L. M. 1949. Prenatal infection of dogs with ascarids, Toxocara canis, and hookworms; Ancylostoma caninum. J. Parasitol. 35(4):358-360. �-183- ADDENDUM �-184- 31 Bighorn Rams Captured on Pike's Peak in the Winter of 1973 Date Capt. Ram Number Age Tag Color and Number Place of Capture 1-9 73BHR- 1 5 yr. Red/White III Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 2 5 yr. Red/White 112 Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 3 4 yr. Red/White 113* Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 4 4 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 5 9 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 6 11 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 7 8 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 1-9 73BHR- 8 9 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 1-9 4 yr. ----- Old Trap Site 1-9 6 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 1-11 73BHR- 9 7 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 2-1 73BHR-lO 5 yr. Red Tape Old Trap Site 2-1 73BHR-11 7 yr. Red Tape Old Trap Site 2-1 73BHR-12 8 yr. Red Tape Old Trap Site 2-1 73BHR-13 9 yr. Red Tape Old Trap Site 2-1 73BHR-14 4 yr. ------ Old Trap Site 2-16 73BHR-15 5 yr. Red Tape Sheep Mt. 2-13 73BHR-16 5 yr. Red Tape Sheep Mt. ,2.,..13 73BHR-17 .5 yr. Red Tape Sheep Mt. ?-16 73BHR-18 3 yr. Red/White** Sheep Mt. 3.• 1 73BHR-19 6 yr. Red Tape SheeP Mt. 3••• 23 ...... 4 yr. Red Tape Cathedral Park Treatment Net death Net death ---~~ Camb , ~.~.~~__.__~_w~_.~~_-. _____~~_____~~__~~___~~~~__~~____---~~---~----_~ __________ ~~__ �-185- 31 Bighorn Rams Captured on Pike's Peak in the Winter of 1973 - Continued. Age Tag Color and Number Place of Capture 3-23 5 yr. Red Tag Cathedral Park 4-1 4 yr. Red/White 115 Cathedral Park 4-1 5 yr. Red/White 116 Cathedral Park 4-1 4 yr. Red Tape Cathedral Park 4-4 4 yr. Blue 112 Four-Mile 4-4 4 yr. Blue 113 Four-Mile 4-4 7 yr. Blue 114 Four-Mile 4-4 4 yr. Blue 118 Four-Mile 4 yr. Orange 1111 Gravel Pits Date Capt. 5-12 * ** Ram Number 73BHR-20 Sheep taken to Little Hills Sheep taken to Fort Collins Treatment Camb. �-lS6- 43 Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pike's Peak in the Winter of 1973 Date Cap. Ewe Number Age Tag Color and Number Place of Cap. Treatment Captive or Released 1-9 73BHE- 4 7-S yr. Red/White /14 Old Trap Site Tram. Capt. - D* 1-9 73BHE- 5 6-7 yr. Red/White /15 Old Trap Site Tram. Capt. - D* 1-9 73BHE- 6 7-S yr. Red/White /16 Old Trap Site Tram. Capt. - D* 1-9 73BHE- 7 7-S yr. Red/White 117 Old Trap Site Tram. Capt. - D* 1-11 73BHE- S 6-S yr. Red/White /IS Old Trap Site Tram. Capt. - D*** 1-11 73BHE- 0 6-7 yr. Red/White /10 Old Trap Site Tram. Capt. - D*** 2-1.3 73BHE- 9 6 yr. Red/White 113 Sheep Mt. Camb. Capt.** 2-13 73BHE-10 S yr. Red/White /14 Sheep Mt. Control Capt.** 2-13 73BHE-11 6 yr. Red/White fl6 Sheep Mt. Tram. Capt.** 2-13 73BHE-12 S-9 yr. Red/White 115 Sheep Mt. Tram. Capt.** 2-16 73BHE-13 6-7 yr. Red/White lIS Sheep Mt. Camb. Capt.** 2-16 73BHE-14 4 yr. Red/White 119 Sheep Mt. 2-21 73BHE-15 7-9 yr. Red/White 1110 Sheep Mt. Camb. Capt.** 2-21 73BHE-16 5-6 yr. Red/White 1111 Sheep Mt. Tram. Capt.** 2-21 73BHE-17 5-6 yr. Red/White 1112 Sheep Mt. 3-1 73BHE-18 6-7 yr. Orange 111 Sheep Mt. Camb. Released 3-1 73BHE-19 7-S yr. Orange 112 Sheep Mt. Camb . Released 3-1 73BHE-20 5-6 yr. Orange 114 Sheep Mt. Camb. Released 3-1 73BHE-21 5-6 yr. Red/White 113 Sheep xe. Tram. Released 3-1 73BHE-22 7-8 yr. Red/White 114 Sheep Mt. Tram. Released 3-1 73BHE-23 4 yr. Red/White 111 Sheep Mt. Tram. Capt.** Capt.** Capt.** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-187- 43 Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pike's Peak in the Winter of 1973 - Continued. Date Cap. Ewe Number Age Tag Color and Number Place of Cap. 3-1 73BHE-24 4 yr. Red/White fI2 Sheep Mt. 3-1 73BHE-25 3 yr. Red/White 113 Sheep Mt. 4-1 8 yr. Orange 115 Cathedral Park Camb , Released 4-1 6 yr. Orange 116 Cathedral Park Camb , Released 4-4 4 yr. Orange 113 Four-Mile Camb , Released 4-4 4 yr. Blue 111 Four-Mile Camb. Released 4-4 8 yr. Blue 112 Four-Mile Camb. Released 4-4 5 yr. Blue 113 Four-Mile Camb , Released 4-4 6 yr. Blue 114 Four-Mile Camb , Released 4-4 4 yr. Blue 115 Four-Mile Camb. Released 4-4 3 yr. White 1114 Four-Mile Tram. Released 4-4 4 yr. White 1115 Four-Mile Tram. Released 4-4 5 yr. White 1116 Four-Mile Tram. Released 4-4 5 yr. White 1/17 Four-Mile Tram. Released 4-4 3 yr. Blue 1/6 Four-Mile Camb. Released Treatment Camb . Captive or Released Capt.** Capt.** 4-4 73BHE-26 4 yr. 5-12 73BHE-28 6 yr. Orange 117 Gravel Pits Camb , Released 5-12 73BHE-27 7 yr. Orange 118 Gravel Pits Camb. Released 5-12 73BHE-29 7 yr. Orange 119 Gravel Pits Camb. Released 5-12 73BHE-30 7 yr. Red/White 117 Gravel Pits Tram. Released 5-12 73BHE-31 6 yr. Red/White 118 Gravel Pits Tram. Released 5-12 73BHE-32 10 yr. Orange 1110 Gravel Pits Camb , Released * ** *** Four-Mile Sheep' taken to Little Hills Sheep taken to Fort Collins Died Net death �-188- One Bighorn Lamb Captured on Pike's Peak in the Winter of 1973 Date Lamb Number Age 1-9 73BID..-l 8 mo. Tag Place of Cap. Old Trap Site Treatment Captive Fort Collins �-189- Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pike's Peak Treated and Released Tag Color and Number Place of Capture 6-7 yr. Orange 111 Sheep Mt. Camb. 73BHE-19 7-8 yr. Orange /12 Sheep Mt. Camb. 3-1 73BHE-20 5-6 yr. Orange 114 Sheep Mt. Camb. 3-1 73BHE-2l 5-6 yr. Red/White 113 Sheep Mt. Tram. 3-1 73BHE-22 7-8 yr. Red/White 114 Sheep Mt. Tram. 4-1 8 yr. Orange //5 Cathedral Park Camb. 4-1 6 yr. Orange 116 Cathedral Park Camb. *4-4 4 yr. Orange 113 Four Mile Camb. 4-4 4 yr. Blue /11 Four Mile Camb. 4-4 8 yr. Blue /12 Four Mile Camb. 4-4 5 yr. Blue //3 Four Mile Camb. 4-4 6 yr. Blue 114 Four Mile Camb , 4-4 4 yr. Blue 115 Four Mile Camb. 4-4 3 yr. White /114 Four Mile Tram. 4-4 4 yr. White 1115 Four Mile Tram. 4-4 5 yr. White 1116 Four Mile Tram. 4-4 5 yr. White 1117 Four Mile Tram. 4-4 3 yr. Blue 116 Four Mile Camb . Date Capt. Ewe Nwnber Age 3-1 73BHE-18 3-1 Treatment 5-12 73BHE-28 6 yr. Orange 117 Gravel Pits Camb. 5-12 73BHE-27 7 yr. Orange 118 Gravel Pits Camb. 5-12 73BHE-29 7 yr. Orange /19 Gravel Pits Camb. 5-12. 73BHE-30 7 yr. Red/White 117 Gravel Pits Tram. 5-12 73BHE-3l 6 yr. Red/White fl8 Gravel Pits Tram. 5-12 . 73BHE-32 10 yr. Orange /110 Gravel Pits Camb , ��-191- Determination of Some Trace Elements in Body Tissues and Blood Serum of Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) Project No. W41R-22 Robert H. Udall and Timothy Jon Raczniak Department of Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado ��-193- INTRODUCTION Analysis of trace elements in biological substances by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) has been a very useful technique in the field of medicine. The development of methods of analysis have led to an increased understanding of the roll of trace elements in metabolism as well as the pathologic conditions resulting from metabolic disorders. It is the purpose of this preliminary report to present a method suitable for trace element study in the bighorn sheep. We present data collected by the technique of AAS and compare it to the literature. PROCEDURES Sample Collection Eight Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep were collected (August-October, 1972) from various herds in Colorado. All animals were necropsied in the field. Postmortem examination included the collection of tissues for histopathological examination and fluids for hematological, bacteriological and virological analysis. Tissue samples taken for trace element analysis were placed in polyethylene bags at necropsy, frozen immediately, and kept frozen until processed in the laboratory. Blood samples were taken by venipuncture, refrigerated immediately. The blood was then centrifuged at the laboratory and the serum layer removed and frozen until analyzed. Sample Preparation A modification of the method by Adrian (1973) was used for the digestion of tissue. Subsamp1es of frozen tissue were taken, dried for 48-60 hr at 600 C., cooled, weighted (to the fourth place), and recorded as dry-weight. The tissue samples were placed in Na1ge narrow mouth bottles (Na1ge-Syborn Corporation, Rochester, New York), 3 m1 of perch10ric acid (HC104) and 6 m1 of nitric acid (HN03) were added. The acids were delivered via an automatic buret assembly, increasing speed and accuracy with which the acids cou1d·be added. The samples were capped and allowed to predigest for 24 hr at 250 C. The samples were then placed in a water bath at 700 C. for 5 hr. After further digestion in the water bath the caps were removed from the bottles and approximately 5 m1 of distilled, de-ionized water was added to each sample, to expel the excess volatile acid. The samples were then diluted in 25 ml volumetric flasks and made to volume with distilled, de-ionized water. The diluted solutions were returned to new Na1ge bottles and capped, ready for analysis by AAS. Serum samples were diluted (1:10) with lanthanum chloride in an automatic diluter. Standa,rd preparation of lanthanum chloride, LaC1 ·7Hz0, was carried 3 out and diluted to make a 1 percent solution (w/v). Standard solutions of calcium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and zinc.were prepared commercially (Aztec Instruments, West Port, Connecticut). In all preparations spectrographic grade reagents were used; all glassware was washed in dilute sulfuric acid and rinsed thoroughly in distilled, deionized water. �-194- Trace element analysis was carried out on a Perkin-Elmer Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Model 303, equipped with a Perkin-Elmer Recorder Model 165. A prepared standard was aspirated every 25 samples, if there was a deviation from the baseline, the calibration control was readjusted. Total phosphorus was determined as a yellow molybdivandophosphoric spectrophotometrically. acid A program for tissue analysis was written and statistical analysis was carried out on a SCM Marchant Cognito/1016PR calculator. RESULTS The mean concentration and deviation of detected elements of various tissues and blood samples are shown in the Appendix (Tables 5-13). Table 1 demonstrates copper concentration in the liver, comparing normal and copper-deficient diets. Copper concentration in the blood of ovine, bovine, and bighorn sheep is shown in Table 3. A composition of zinc values is shown in Table 4. Phosphorus values were determined spectrophotometrically; but a heavy precipitate prevented accurate phosphorus determinations of spleen and liver tissues. Chromium, cadmium, selenium, cobalt, and molybdenum analysis were also carried out on AAS; however, reproducible results were unattainable and analysis for these trace elements was discontinued. DISCUSSION Perhaps the most important observation made during the experiment was that copper appeared in relatively low amounts in the serum as well as tissue samples. For humans, dogs, cats, and sheep the range of copper in blood is given as .5 - 1.5 ug/ml. Levels of copper below .6 ug/ml in the plasma of sheep are indicative of copper deficiency (Beck 1961). Copper deficiency is manifested clinically by reproductive failure, due to fetal death and reabsorption (Dutt 1960; Hall 1969). In addition, copper deficiency affects many other body systems, showing anemia (hypochromic and microcytic), hypopigmentation and abnormalities of hair texture, and defective structure of vascular intima (Sandstead 1970a; 1970b). Copper is also a component of numerous oxidative enzymes, including cytochrome, oxidase, tyrosinase, ascorbate oxidase, and uricase. Underwood (1971) and Everson (1968) have shown abnormalities of myelin formation in copper-deficient lambs and guinea pigs, respectively. Little is known of the iron requirement of sheep. Lawlor (1965) found that 10 ug/ml of copper in blood of sheep is inadequate. Iron deficiency tends �-195- to decrease growth, decrease resistance to infection, and decrease the ability to protect against infestation of parasites (Richard 1954). Ott (1966a; 1966b) conducted studies on tissue changes in zinc toxicity in sheep and cattle. He found with high levels of zinc, subnormal liver copper concentrations and increased iron concentrations. We found with high zinc levels a decrease in both copper and iron concentration levels (Tables 2-3). Sandstead (1969) found with high levels of dietary zinc (0.5 ppm) there is a high incidence of abortion. Zinc is also essential for the growth of tissue and plays an important role in enzyme function (Hurley 1969: Prasad 1969; Parisi 1969). Chromium, cadmium, selenium, cobalt, and molybdenum analysis proved to be unsatisfactory using AAS; however, using a more sensitive analytical technique (gas chromatography) additional studies aimed at detecting these trace elements in bighorn sheep could be conceived and carried through. �Table 1. Copper concentrations (ug/G) * of liver tissue. Species Age & treatment Sheep New born:norma1 Sheep No. of animals Copper concentration (ug/G) Reference diet· 27 168 (74~430) Cunningham, 1946 New born:Cu-deficient diet 29 13 (4-34) " Sheep Mature:norma1 44 599(186-13741 " Sheep Mature: Cu-deficient diet 35 27(7-106) " Bighorn Sheep *dry-weight basis Pooled diet 7 15(3-27) Present study I '""" 1.0 0\ I �Table 2. Serum iron (ug!m1). No. of animals Serum iron (ug/m1) Reference Normal cows. 10 14.6(8.9-25.3) UnderwoodJ1963 Normal bulls 10 14.5 (9.2-27 .0) Normal ewes 12 18.2 (10.2-30.4) Normal rams 12 15 •2 (11.4-19 .1) 7 10.7(2.0-24.5) Species Bovine Adults II Ovine Adults Bighorn Sheep II II .... I \0 .....• Present study I �Table 3. Copper concentration in the blood of several species. Species Age Copper concentration (ug/ml) Reference Ovine Mature Beck,1956 Ovine Mature l.Ol±.96 a .9la Bovine Mature .93a Bighorn Sheep Pooled .O6±.O8 b Cunningham, 1946 " Present study ...• I \0 00 I awhole blood b serum �Table 4. Zinc concentrations of various tissues *. (ug/G). Tissue Mana Ratb PigC Bighorn Sheepd Kidney 55 21 23 40 104 28 33 55 15 24 21 30 22 111 80 173 142 54 13 Spleen Cardiac Liver Lung Skeletal muscle 40 153 I ~ 1.0 1.0 I *dry-weight basis aTipton and Cook, 1963 bGilbert and Talyor,1956; Mawson and Fischer,1953 c Hoekstra, 1967 d Present study �-200- REFERENCES 1. Adrian, W.J. in press The Analyst, 1973. 2. Beck, A.B., Aust. J. Zool., i, 1, 1956. 3. Beck, A.B., Aust. ~. Agr. Res., 12, 743, 1961. 4. Cunningham, 5. Dut t , B. and C.F. Mills, ~.Comp. 6. Everson, G.J., R.E. Shrader, and 1. Wang, ~. Nutri., 94, 89,1968. 7. Gilbert, 1.G., and D .M. Taylor, Biochem. Biophys. Acta., ~ 8. Hall, G.A. and J. McChowell, 9. Hoekstra, W.G., E.C. Faltin, C.W. lin, R.F. Roberts, and R.R. Grummer, ~. Animal Sci., 26, 1348, 1967. 10. Hurley, L. S., Am. ~. Clin. Nutri., 22, 1332, 1969. 11. Lawlor, M.J., W.R. Smith, W.M. Beeson, ~. Animal Sci. 24, 742, 1965. 12. Mawson, C.A., M.I. Fischer, Biochemtstry, 55, 696, 1953. 13. Ott, E.A., W.R. Smith, R.B. Harrington, and W.M. Beeson, J. Animal Sci" ~, 414 and 419, 1966a. 14. Ott, E.A., W.R. Smith, R.B. Harrington, M. Stod, R.E. Parker j and W. M. Beeson, ~. Animal Sci. ,25, 432, 1966b. 15. Parisi, A. and B. Vallee, Am. ~. Clinical Nutri., ~, 16. Prasad, A.,D. Oberleass, P. Wolp, and J. Rorwitz, ~. Lab. Clin. Med., 11, 486, 19Ei9. 17. Richard, R. M., R. Shumard, A. Pope, P.R. Phillips, C.A. Rerrick, and G. Bohsteadt, ~. Animal Sci., 13, 274 and 674, 1954. 18. Sandstead, H.R., and Glasser, SS, R., Clin. Res. 17, 549, 1969. 19. Sandstead, R.R., C. Lanier, G. Shepard, and P. Gillespie, Am. J. C1in. Nutri., 23, 514, 1970a. 20. Sandstead, R.R., R.F. Burk, G.R. Booth, W.J. Darby, Med. Clinics N. Am., ~, 1509, 1970b. 21. Tipton, r.u, and ~1.J. Cook, RealthPhys., 22. Underwood, 1. J., New Zeal. ~. Sci. Tech~ Sect. A Y..., 372,381, 1946. Path. 70, 120, 1960. Brit. ~. Nutri., Q, 41, 1969. 1222, 1969. 2., 103, 1963. E.J. and E. Morgan, Aust. J. Exp. BioI. Med. Sci. 41, 247, 1963. 23. 546, 1956. Underwood, E.J. Trace Elements in Ruman and Animal Nutrition, New York and London, Academic Press, 3 rd. Edition, 1971. �-201- APPENDIX ��Table 5. Serum calcium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, and zinc (ug/m1). Calcium Copper Iron Potassium Magnesium Zinc 2 14.00 .25 15.00 1070.00 5.90 .90 3 31.50 .10 17.50 1350.00 9.80 1.50 4 9.00 .03 5.00 850.00 4.40 .50 5 6.00 .02 24.50 2150.00 12.60 1.40 6 14.30 .01 2.00 400.00 22.00 .50 7 13:90 .01 8.00 1150.00 4.60 .60 Animal No. I N 0 8 15.00 .01 3.00 820.00 4.10 .80 14.8±8.07 .06±.08 10.71±8.46 1112.85±547.54 9.05±6.54 .88±.41 w I �Table 6. Calcium concentration Animal No. Kidney Spleen Heart Liver Lung Skeletal Muscle 2 .34 .18 .17 .13 .36 .14 3 .42 .22 .18 .16 .31 .17 4 .34 .20 .13 .16 .38 .15 5 .33 .22 .04 .15 .17 .18 6 .29 .20 .14 .13 .33 .08 7 .27 .19 .01 .12 .30 .13 8 in tissue (mg/G). I N 0 .po .47 .23 .18 .17 .50 .15 .35±.07 .20±.01 .12±.06 .14±.01 .33±.09 .14±.03 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �Table 6. Calcium concentration in tissue (mg/G) (continued). Abomasum (Greater Curve) Jejunum 4.62 .63 .52 1.11 4.44 .36 .80 .78 6.11 1.09 .46 .24 1.03 .88 1.16 4.82 .35 .43 1.43 1.61 5.20 3.09 .35 .57 2 1.27 1.24 4.91 3 1.03 1.21 4 1.03 5 6 Animal No. Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Neck Hair Rump Hair I N 7 1.23 1.26 8 1.29 1.18±.15 .38 1.99 4.87 2.42 .78 4.49 1.38 .12 1.17 1.10±.30 3.97±2.00 3.12±1. 55 .37±.15 .81±.59 0 VI I �Table 7. Animal No. Copper concentration in tissue (ug/G). Kidney Spleen Heart Liver Lung 2 20.01 2.65 13.66 3.64 8.46 5.82 3 12.44 2.54 15.73 13.46 7.60 4.86 4 4.92 3.50 14.35 15.37 4.65 4.01 5 10.29 4.05 15.74 14.13 8.57 6.86 6 13.40 4.52 18.26 18.27 10.66 12.91 7 13.23 4.34 14.68 27.77 11.13 9.42 10.06 2.55 18.72 16.16 11.83 3.77 12.05±4.55 3.45±.87 15.87±1.93 15.54±7.13 8.98±2.47 6.80±3.31 Skeletal Muscle I N 0 0\ 8 I -------------~-------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 7. Copper concentration in tissue (ug/G) (continued). Abomasum (Greater Curve) Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Jejunum Neck Hair Rump Hair 7.61 6.43 15.30 6.80 12.67 3.02 2 3.90 7.05 9.80 .52 .97 9.14 3 4.34 5.10 18.22 .77 8.43 6.20 4 3.71 9.18 47.68 .87 9.24 32.87 5 1.81 3.94 8.81 10.32 17.45 9.61 6 Animal No. I N 5.53 5.07 14.32 6.06 13.20 25.23 7 3.17 4.01 13.79 1.97 2.41 4.33 8 4.29±1. 84 5. 81±1. 87 18.27±13.35 3.90±3.83 9.19±5.92 12.91±11.48 0 ....• I �Table 8. Animal No. Iron concentration in tissue (ug/G). Kidney Spleen Heart Liver Lung 2 31.42 83.54 40.27 45.51 66.51 13.11 3 31.10 50.23 43.00 23.43 71.25 6.67 4 23.88 37.51 26.18 40.89 62.71 6.82 5 48.69 30.99 26.24 45.09 67.22 7.91 6 54.87 46.85 28.66 24.02 39.99 8.72 7 55.12 49.80 28.51 21.36 101.19 13.85 8 Skeletal Muscle 32.83 31.36 26.37 20.42 68.25 8.17 39.70±12.83 47.18±18.00 31.31±7.16 31.53±11.66 68.23±17.91 9.32±2.93 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N 0 00 I �Table 8. Iron concentration in tissue (ug/G) (continued). Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Jejunum 38.26 23.82 53.88 26.80 80.70 10.42 6.58 35.04 28.57 129.26 91.88 49.36 18.06 29.87 18.60 5 91.29 108.37 18.23 24.79 30.80 17.48 6 36.38 29.62 20.66 21.50 34.97 28.84 Neck Hair Rump Hair 2 95.22 150.25 3 32.97 4 Animal No. Abomasum (Greater Curve) , , N 7 72.28 34.89 18.57 30.34 38.78 16.79 8 34.43 107.80 17.93 5.93 12.08 14.96 72.88±35.37 86.2l±42.73 24.77±13.76 18.7l±9.28 33.63±12.42 21.64±6.00 0 \0 �Table 9. Magnesitnn concentration in tissue (mg/G). Animal No. Kidney Spleen Heart Liver Lung 2 .83 .72 1.02 .63 .65 1.00 3 •BO .89 1.09 .66 .63 1.22 4 .75 .87 1.05 .65 .77 1.31 5 .77 .99 .74 .66 .89 1.26 6 .68 .97 .99 .64 .77 1.11 7 1.43 .B3 .83 .64 .60 1.10 8 .75 .88 1.08 .67 .63 1.25 •85±. 25 .B7±.08 .97±.13· .65±.01 .70±.10 1.17±.11 Skeletal Muscle I N •..... 0 ---------------------------------------------------_.------------------------------------------------------ I �Table 9. Magnesium concentration in tissue (mg/G) (continued). Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus .89 .95 .84 1.85 .40 .36 .21 .63 .91 .36 .25 1.67 .31 .99 1.53 5 .30 .62 .89 .75 1.23 1.04 6 .36 .39 1.02 .94 1.05 .96 Neck Hair Rump Hair 2 .38 .55 3 .24 4 Animal No. Abomasum (Greater Curve) Jejunum 7 .36 .38 1.35· .85 1.35 2.31 8 .41 .26 .79 .63 1.00 1. 73 .34±.05 .40±.13 .99±.41 .66±.29 1. 01±. 23 1.47±.52 I N to-' to-' I �Table 10. Potassium concentration in tissue (mg/G). Skeletal Muscle Kidney Spleen Heart Liver Lung 2 10.70 11.96 4.75 7.20 10.88 9.71 3 10.10 15.10 10.98 6.77 10.68 7.65 4 10.85 11.25 10.21 7.61 11.24 8.02 5 10.43 10.03 7.83 6.91 11.91 10.81 6 8.80 13.18 11.68 6.27 10.96 12.39 7 16.53 13.13 5.87 7.26 10.62 12.74 8 9.78 4.64 10.22 7.08 10.23 11.18 11. 02±2. 52 11. 32±3. 35 8.79±2.67 7.01±.42 10.93±.53 10. 35±1. 99 Animal No. I N J-I N ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I �Table 10. in tissue (mg/G) (continued). Neck Hair Rump Hair Abomasum (Greater Curve) 2 5.57 6.43 5.00 3 3.41 6.75 4 4.83 5 6 Animal No. Potassium concentration Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Jejunum .89 8.45 10.23 2.63 2.37 9.96 4.28 2.50 15.18 3.37 18.90 6.57 5.10 5.69 5.32 4.31 18.99 13.29 5.45 7.56 6.97 5.80 19.2;3 5.76 l I: ,... N· 7 4.92 5.49 3.53 5.26 19.87 6.83 8 9.03 7.52 2.60 8.11 17.13 6.30 5. 47:!:1. 72 S.99:!:1. 73 S.89:!:4.38 4.30:!:2.37 16. 07:!:4. 78 7.60:!:3.08 W' I �Table 11. Phosphorus concentration in tissue (mg/G). Animal No. 2 Kidney Spleen* Heart .48 ND .53 Skeletal Muscle Liver* Lung ND .55 .39 I 3 .58 ND .55 ND .58 .37 4 .59 ND .60 ND .48 .46 5 .60 ND .16 ND .46 .55 6 .54 ND .46 ND .35 .53 7 .34 ND .56 ND .36 .48 8 .57 ND .59 ND .35 .32 .52±.09 ND .49±.15 ND .44±.09 .44±.08 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Not determined. N I-' ~ I �Table 1l. Animal No. Phosphorus concentration in tissue (mg/G) (continued) • Neck Hair Rump Hair Abomasum (Greater Curve) Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Jejunum 2 .41 .50 .32 .27 .23 .55 3 .45 .55 .42 .16 .57 .48 4 .35 .42 .36 .18 .53 1.50 5 .52 .44 .34 .26 .47 .57 6 .54 .46 .38 .34 .55 .53 I N .35 .27 .54 .46 7 .35 .40 8 .55 .54 .40 .25 .46 .42 .45±.08 .47±.05 •36±.03 .24±.06 .47±.1l .45±.14 •..... V'I I �Table 12.Sodiwa concentration in tissue (illIG). An1llal No •. IClclney Spleen Heart Liver Luna' 2 8.96 4.27 5.00 4.24 6.89 .68 3 7.38 4:.13 5.21 2.42 6.57 2.19 4 8.32 3.50 4.98 4.28 6.14 1.92' 5 6.95 3.77 1.22 4.20 6.60 2.04 6 5.76 3.81 1.32 2.78 6.96 1.74 7 8.26 4.07 3.04 2.67 6.32 2.07 9.92 1.74 4.15 2.47 8.41 1.19 7.93±1. 36 3.61±.86 3.56±1. 72 3.29±.89 6.84±.74 1.69±.55 Skeletal'!Iu8cle I N ,,... 0\ 8 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �Table 12. Sodium concentration Animal No. Neck Hair Rtmlp 2 1.08 1.07 3 1.46 4 (mg/G) (continued). Abomasum (Greater Curve) Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Jejunum 4.76 7.75 8.98 5.95 1.15 2.75 2.76 6.31 4.00 1.38 1.14 2.50 1.55 7.39 3.34 5 1.39 .91 3.23 3.34 5.13 5.59 6 1. 72 1. 38 4.30 5.23 6.68 4.32 7 8 1.99 Hair 1.16 2.60 6.01 6.78 7.35 .94 3.84 4.87 4.15 5.01 3.54 1.42±. 35 1.52±1.03 3.57±1.04 4.39±2.10 6.61±1.36 4. 87±1. 47 I N •.... -...J I �Table 13. Zinc concentration in tissue (ug/G). Skeletal Muscle Animal No. Kidney Spleen Heart Liver Lung 2 208.24 96.84 82.98 273.09 91.91 182.84 3 87.09 136.69 77.78 238.69 83.91 123.54 4 98.73 92.28 83.40 162.59 73.82 122.85 5 93.35 146.51 84.99 103.72 445.75 175.68 6 65.16 105.23 89.19 200.23 115.54 124.64 I 7 104.74 108.66 72.56 106.81 80.95 130.72 N t-' 00 I 8 77 .13 92.94 70.42 126.04 106.93 213.71 104.92±47.46 111.30±21.74 80.18±6.85 173.01±66.52 142.68±134.44 153.42±36.89 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- !; �Table 13. Zinc concentration in tissue (ug/G) (continued). Abomasum (Greater Curve) Abomasum (Pylorus) Thymus Jejunum 159.43 115.70 41.20 115.23 97.37 42.67 27.70 50.53 29.72 94.30 100.23 208.83 31.27 62.98 111.63 5 80.46 87.54 109.40 97.30 102.69 118.91 6 97.33 98.73 94.76 103.23 80.73 105.76 7 110.74 97.28 67.23 86.18 87.27 103.31 8 86.07 73.87 88.31 81.55 96.68 94.51 95.83±11.21 93.39±9.57 110.09±56.68 77.56±34.69 74.54±23.51 97.01±30.75 Animal No. Neck Hair Rump Hair 2 92.50 98.73 3 109.43 4 I N I-' \0 I ��-221- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State Project of Colorado ----------~--~~~--No. W-l.24-R-l Work Plan No. 1 Raptor Investigations Job No. Job Title: Raptor Populations Period Covered: February 1, 1972 through january Personnel: 1 and Characteristics Studies 31, 1973 Gerald R. Craig ABSTRACT Four inventory methods were investigated to monitor populations of '·wintering raptors. These were: 1) statewide eagle census by fieldmen, 2) aerial flights for eagles in northeastern Colorado, 3) 56 square mile censuses in northeastern Golo-rado, and 4) ground transects. The aerial flights show merit for monitoring population trends and age structure of eagles, while the ground transects and area counts should establish chronology of . movement and habitat preferences of smaller raptors. Nesting investigations were initiated and total of 59 golden eagle nests and 34 prairie falcon eyries were located. The productivity of golden eagles averaged 1.6 young per nest in Northwestern Colorado, .5 young per nest in Northeastern Colorado and .4 young per nest in Southeastern Colorado. Productivity of prairie falcons averaged 2.9 in Northeastern Colorado and 3.7 in east-central Colorado. Jackrabbits and cottontail rabbits accounted for the majority (91%) of the l'rey ite~s present in the golden eagle nests of northeastern Colorado. Shooting accounted for 37%and starvation and collision each accounted for 8% of the causes of mortality of 62 raptors turned into the Colorado Division of Wildlife. August, September and November were the months of highest mortality. Forty-four prairie falcons and six golden eagles were amongthe 87 rapt ors banded. ��-223- RAPTOR POPUlATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS STUDIES Gerald R. Craig To determine status of current populations, characteristics and trends including'distribution, migration patterns and chronology of Bald and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in or through Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop and refine inventory methods for Bald,and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado. 2. Locate and categorize major and important habitats and associated Bald and Golden Eagle, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owl populations in Colorado. 3. Establish and maintain annual or periodic inventories of Bald and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado from inventory methods selected from the literature. 4. To monitor mortalities of Bald and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado and, where possible, determine causes. 5. To initiate and maintain a ten year raptor banding program in support of Project Statement Objective I. METHODS AND MA.TERIALS Inventory Methods Winter Inventories Four census techniques were selected for testing to establish their worth as indicators of population densities, fluctuations and trends of winter raptor populations present in Colorado. While both golden and ,bald eagles were initially designated for census, attempts were made to census all raptors observed in a given area. These four techniques were: (1) counts of eagles observed by WCOls in February and March, (2) aerial censuses from fixed-wing aircraft in northeastern Colorado, (3) area censuses of given sample sites, and (4) linear transects from vehicles traveling along secondary roads. All WCOls were requested to locate and count eagles observed in their districts during the periods of February 14-16 and March 1-3. The purpose was to locate major concentration areas of eagles and establish the responsiveness of WCOls to raptor censuses. The request was made in the form of a field order (Appendix A through C) • �-224- The aerial census was established in the manner described by Boeker and Ray (1971) and Wrakestraw (1972). An area of 3,000 square miles was designated in northeastern Colorado and 13 north-south transects were randomly selected so that each transect was at least two miles away from its neighbor (Fig. 1). The transects represented a total of 600 linear miles. The transects were then flown in a Cessna 185 and all raptors observed within ~ mile of either side of the aircraft were mapped and recorded (Appendix D). Thus, the transects accounted for 300 square miles, or a 10% sample of the study area. Upon completion of this count, the aircraft would then be flown along the South Platte River b.etween Fort Morgan and Greeley and all eagles sighted along the river were counted. Aerial censuses were flown in December of 1972 and January and February of 1973. Incidental eagle sightings were also recorded on aerial censuses for other wildlife such as antelope, deer, elk and waterfowl and will be compared for compatability. One 56 square mile census area and technique that was established by Dr. R. A. Ryder for International Biological Programme studies on the Pawnee National Grasslands (Ryder, 1969) was again censused to provide long term information on the densities of wintering raptors. In addition, two other 56 square mile census areas were delineated in agricultural areas to compare raptor densities and composition. To accomplish these censuses, each area was traversed slowly in a vehicle and all raptors that were Sighted within one mile of the vehicle were identified and pertinent information such as location and activity was recorded on an observation card (Appendix E). Several localities were investigated for potential as linear transects to establish trends and changes in species composition of raptors and a census form was developed (Appendix F). Bait stations in the Meeker. area were established and will be investigated for potential as counting, trapping and marking stations. Unpublished data from transects in southeastern Colorado has been made available for integration into this study by William A. Anderson of Otero Junior College. Nesting Investigations Nesting investigations were commenced in northwestern Colorado. In general, likely areas were surveyed using four-wheel drive vehicles, trail bikes and foot. All active and inactive sites were mapped and pertinent data about each site was recorded on forms like that in Appendix G. Similar work was done by Olendorff in northeastern Colorado under Amendment I to Job 1, and WilliamA. Andersen provided data for nest sites in the southeastern portion of the state. In addition, all field personnel were requested to complete and submit nest report forms (Appendix H) for each active raptor nest about which they had knowledge. These reports, as well as information obtained from other sources were investigated where practical. �-225HABITATS Information about habitat type, disturbance factors and site descriptions were recorded on all nest sites that were investigated. Major vegetation types and response to disturbances were also noted for raptors observed on winter inventories. MORTALITY Mortality report forms (Appendix I) were distributed to all WCO's in an attempt to obtain information on dead raptors. Where feasible, carcasses were collected·for analysis as to cause of death. Also, injured raptors that were discovered by the Division (Appendix J), the public, or other personnel were inspected for the cause of incapacitation and the birds were turned over to a group that was authorized to care for and rehabilitate them. For the purposes of analysis, all sick, injured or incapacitated raptors that were received were considered as mortalities since, had they not been discovered, they would have died. BANDING Federal and state bird banding permits were obtained. Nestlings were banded when the investigator visited nest sites to obtain information on prey items and productivity. Several trapping blinds were established in the foothills west of Denver to trap and band adult raptors moving through on migration. Raptors were trapped and banded from the vehicle during winter inventories. Several Swedish goshawk traps were constructed, but were not utilized in 1972. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Inventory WCO Eagle Concentration Methods Census Four hundred and sixty-six eagles were counted by fifty-seven field men from February 12-18 and three hundred and thirty-three eagles were counted by fifty-four persons from March 1-6. Table 1 -- Summary of the Preliminary Type Eagle Concentration Counts, 1972. Bald Golden Adult Immature Unknown 150 17 64 153 39 14 29 SUBTOTAL 231 206 29 Unknown Count Period: February 12-18 No. of Respondents: 57 TOTAL: 466 �-226Table 1 --Summary (Cont'd.) of the Preliminary Eagle Concentration. Count s ,..1972. . Type . . . :.: ...... Bald Golden Adult Immature Unknown 101 32 137 o 26 21· SUBTOTAL 133 184 - , , . ...... UIlknOwn Count Period: March 1-6 No. of Respondents: 54 TOTAL: . -15· 333 The observation forms also provided space for the observer to record the behavior and activity of eagles observed. Although several were seen pursuing quarry, no eagles were observed catching prey. A total of 59 eagles were observed feeding on carrion (see Table 2) and in only 10 of 24 instances solitary eagles were seen on carrion. This indicates that both species are gregarious and will share their meals. ,-..> Table 2 -- Eagles Observed Feeding on Carrion February 12-18 and March 1-6, 1972. SEecies of Eagle Golden Bald 1 7 1 1 2 2 Total Number of Eagles ·Per Carcass 1 7 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 7 7 1 1 3 3 2 2 2 2 5 2 5 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 .2 1 1 1 .1 4 TOTALS: 41 18 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1- .. 59 Kind of Carcass Cow Cow Calf Elk Elk Elk Elk Deer Deer Sheep Sheep Sheep Coyote Coyote Jackrabbit Jackrabbit Jackrabbit Jackrabbit Rabbit (Unk. Spp.) Rabbit (Unk, Spp.) Rabbit (Unk. Spp.) Rabbit (Unk. Spp.) Rabbit (Unk. Spp ,) Unknown 24 G -Ii. �-227- As was expected, the majority of the bald eagles were concentrated along the major rivers and .large reservoirs. The accessibility of fish and waterfowl is possibly the cause for this behavior. The following appear to be the major areas of concentration although birds were observed elsewhere. San IllisValley - 61 observed in the February count below Monte Vista on the Rio Grande. - 30 near Riverside, Jackson and Empire Reservoir complex. 25 scattered along the river from Glenwood Springs to the Utah line. 24 scattered.along the river from Meeker to Rangely. South Platte River Colorado River Drainage White River Drainage. (See Map Showing Bald Eagle Concentrations, Figure 112) Due to their nature, golden eagles were scattered throughout the state and no large concentrations were noted. Observations confirmed earlier reports of major wintering populations. in several areas. The number of golden eagles observad in North Park was surprising as relatively few birds have been reported wintering in this area. It is believed that substantial wintering populations occur on the eastern plains near Wyoming in the northeast and throughout the southeast quarter of the state. (See Map Showing Golden Eagle Concentrations, Figure 1/:3) As expected, the results cannot be used as any indication of actual numbers of wintering eagles present in Colorado. The technique does show merit as method of obtaining an index of relative abundance, species composition and possibly age ratio.' The reports also give insight into activities, behavior, habitat preferences and prey preferences of eagles. Aerial Golden Eagle Censuses Three aerial flights were made in northeastern Colorado, on December 19, 1972, January 24, 1973 and February 16, 1973 to count golden eagles on a 3,000 square mile study area (Fig. 1). Table 3 summarizes the results of these flights. Table 3 -- Results of Aerial Flights for Golden Eagles in NE Colorado, 1972-73. Date Golden Eagles Ad. Juv. Unk. Dec. 19 Jan. 241/ Feb. 16- 22 16 18 6 8 7 4 0 0 Total Area Estimate Eagles per 100 Sq. Miles 320 240 250 10.6 8.0 8.3 1./ While this flight was made in project year 2, it is included here for continuity. �-228- In the future, the number of flights will probably be reduced to one in January. Results from one year to the next will be compared for trend data. Results from these flights will also be provided to the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife to enable them to compare these flights to those made in northwestern Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico and Idaho. Another aerial flight should be designated in east-central or southeastern Colorado for 1974. Aerial Bald Eagle Census After the aerial golden eagle census was completed, the investigators would fly above the South Platte River between Fort Morgan and Greeley, Colorado and count those bald eagles present along the river. Table 4 provides the results of these flights. Table 4 -- Results of Aerial Flights for Bald Eagles in NE Colorado, 1972-73. Date Ad. Juv. Unk. Total % Juv. Dec~ 19 Jan. 24 Feb. 26 23 18 47 15 13 19 0 0 0 38 31 66 39 42 29 ,~ This is a direct count of all eagles seen along the riverbottom. Since bald eagles tend to concentrate along watercourses where waterfowl are in abundance, an exact count is feasible. The adult to juvenile ratio is important since it is an indicator of the viability of this particular population. Considering that juveniles don't attain their adult plumage until they are four to five years of age and that the potential lifespan of a bald eagle may be thirty to forty years, a population containing thirty to forty percent juveniles would indicate a high reproductive success. With a little practice, it is a simple matter to distinguish immature bald eagles from adult golden. eagles. The former have more mottling and are not as uniform in color as the golden eagles. The lighter head and neck feathers of the golden eagles also stand out. This method shows the greatest potential for obtaining an accurate census of bald eagles. With their predilection for open water, it is a simple matter of flying the major watercourses to obtain a very close estimate of the actual wintering population present. lJ Area Censuses in Northeastern Colorado Three 56 square mile census areas on grassland, dryland farming and irrigated farming vegetative types were censused at two week intervals from December 17, 1972 through March 10, 1973 (Figure 4, 5, 6 & 7). The counts of February and. �-229- • March 1973 are included here for continuity of data. A total of twenty counts were conducted. The total number of birds seen on each area was similar but total biomass was twice as great for the short grass prairie as the wheat farming and five times greater for the irrigated farmland. Of the eight raptor species observed, the red-tailed hawks and American kestrels were peculiar only to .the irrigated site, while ferruginous hawks (72% of those observed) and golden eagles (75% of those observed) were present on the short grass prairie site (Table 5) •..Rough-legged hawks and golden eagles accounted for more than 7fJ% of the total raptor biomass on each study area (Table 6). �-230- Table 5 -- Total Numbers of Each Species of Raptor Counted on Three 56 Sq. Mile Stud~ Areas During Winter 1972-73. Pawnee Site Briggsdale Ault Total Golden eagle 48 14 2 64 Ferruginous 13 1 4 18 Rough-legged hawk 33 45 30 108 Red-tailed hawk 0 0 5 5 Unidentified Buteo 1 5 9 15 Marsh hawk 4 4 6 14 American kestrel 0 0 23 23 Prairie falcon 6 7 7 20 Merlin 1 2 3 6 TOTAL 106 78 89 273 S:eecies Table 6 -- Percent TOtal Biomass of Rough-legged Hawks and Golden Eagles on ~hree 56 Square Mile Study Areas During Winter 1972-73. Site Rough-legged H'lwk Biomass % Total No. (kg.) Biomass Golden Fagle Biomass % Total (kg.) Biomass No. Pawnee 33 33.0 12.6 48 206.4 75.0 Briggsdale ·45 45.0 39.3 14 60.2 52.5 Ault 30 30.0 54.9 2 18.6 15.8 Linear Transects Several routes were investigated in the San Luis Valley for potential andaithough one route.was not settled upon, at least one transect will be selected. The information will be recorded on forms similar to that in Appendix F. Two transect lines were experimentally followed on the praari,e east and north of Denver. However, these routes will have to be followed-for several more years before sufficient data will be gathered to permit comparisons. Nesting Investigations Northwestern Colorado The prime areas of investigation in northwestern Colorado were: Rio Blanco, Moffat and the western portion of Routt counties. The topography of this �-231- region provides numerous escarpments, river canyons, and erosional reminants that are ideal nest sites for golden eagles, red-tailed hawks and to a lesser extent ferruginous hawks and Swainson's hawks. A total of 38 golden eagle eyries were located. The reproductive success for these nests averaged 1.6 young per nestwhich is comparable to other localities. Eight of the nests were visited to band the young and note the prey items. Jackrabbits and cottontail rabbits were the predominant prey items accounting for 91% of the prey items present. Table 7 -- Prey Items Present in Golden Eagle Nest in NW ·Colorado. Prey Item Number % of Total Lagomorphs (unk. spp.) 86 76.8 Jackrabbit (sp.?) 10 8.9 Cottontail Rabbit (sp .?) 6 5.3 Black-bi11edMagpie Mule Deer (Fawn)·!.! 2 2 1.8 1.8 Marmot 1 0.9 Sage Grouse 1 0.9 Red-headed Duck 1 0.9 Fish (sp.?) 1 0.9 Snake (sp,?) 1 0.9 Bird (sp.?) 1 0.9 112 100.0 TOTAL 11 Day old fawns, probably still-born, were present in two nests located in deer habitat. (pinyon-juniper) Listed in Table 8 are data regarding other raptor nests that were located in the region. Table 8 Other Raptors Nesting inNW Species ~ Colorado. Nests Young Young/~est Ferruginous hawk 2 6 3.0 Swinson's hawk 2 4 2.0 Red-tailed hawk 28 57 2.0 �-232- Northeastern Colorado Information discussed here is covered in greater detail in the 'report submitted as part of the requirements of Job 1, Amendment I. Table 9 Breeding Densities and Nesting Success of Raptors in NE Colorado. No. of Pairs Species Pairs/IOO Sq. Mi. Successful Pairs Golden Eagle 12 1.20 5 (41.6%) Prairie Falcon 14 1.40 11 (78.6%) Ferruginous Hawk 26 2.60 16(16.6%) Red-tailed Hawk 8 0.80 ?!j Swainson's Hawk 68 6.80 38(56.8%) Great Horned Owl 30.5 3.05 8(29.1%) All Species 158.5 15.85 78(53.5%) !/ Productivity was not determined. ,-t:) Table 10 Productivity of Raptors in NE Colorado. Species Young Produced Young/Pair w/Known Production Young Produced/ 100 Sq. Miles Golden Eagle 6 0.50 0.60 Prairie Falcon 41 2.93 4.10 Ferruginous Hawk Red-tai led HawJ;./ 48 1.85 4.80 (8) (1.00) (0.80) Swains on's Hawk 80 1.19 8.00 Great Horned Owl 18 0.65 0.69 All Species 201 1.37 20.10 !/ Estimated productivity. East Central Colorado This region was surveyed only to locate pra~r~e falcon eyries and attempt to establich productivity. A total of 20 eyries were located and the data is summarized in Table 110 �-233- Table 11 -- Productivity Falcons in East-Central Site Clutch Size No. Produced 1 2 5 5 5 5 5 4 0 3 •• of Prairie 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1/ Colorado. No. Fledged 2 (undet ermined) (undetermined) (unde"termined) (undetermined) (undetermined) 4 (undetermined) but not breeding (undetermined) (undetermined) (undetermined) (undet ermined) (undetermined) (undetermined) 4 4 (undetermined) Inactive 5 Pair present, 3 3 5 (4)}) 4 4 5 5 1 4 2 4 5 (4)·Y (5)1/ (5)·Y (l)·Y (4))) (2)1/ (4)]) (5)!/ 0 4 (undetermined) 5 1 4 2 4 5 Estimated from later visit after young had hatched. minimum figure. Average clutch size -- 4.17. Number of young produced per pair Number of young produced -- probably Southeastern This represent a 3.71. quite close to 3.71 figure. Colorado The area of this study consists of the Comanche National Grasslands and in the vicinity of LaJunta, Colorado and northward. The following informati7on was provided by William C. Andersen of Otero Junior College. Table 12 Productivity SEecies Golden cj Eagle in SE Colorado. Nests Young Produced 9 4 0.44 Young/nest Ferruginous Hawk 19 41 2.19 Red-tailed Hawk 11 12 1.09 Swainson's Hawk 113 157 1.85 Kestrel 3 7 2.33 Kite 3 2 0.66 Great. Horned Owl 36 43 1.19 White-necked 15 44 2.93 American Mississippi ~ of RaEtors Raven �-234- -- Table 13 Swmnary of Dead arid Injured Raptors Turned into the Division During Jan. - Dec. 1972. .u Il-4 .u III 0 ....., <IJ ~ 0 .r-! .u ::l bO ~ ...• 0 0 co .r-! .....• .....• 0 u > .u "'" <IJ .....• S,eecies tI.l r::l -e Golden Eagle 2 2 1 .u 0 .u ::l -' Bald Eagle ,!J 0 0 'r-! III "'" 0 - ~ .u III 0 "'" III .bO <IJ .....• M ~ <IJ ~ .....•. E-I u 0 ...• co ...• .....• tI.l u. 0 M H III f'"' 'r-! "'" ~ ~ 0 .c :>. .....• .....• ~ ~ ...•. co 0 ...• .....• 0 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ .....• III .u ::> H 2 10 3 Goshawk 2 Marsh Hawk 1 0 3 1 3 3 4 1 2 5 4 9 Swainson's Hawk 1 1 2 Rough-legged 1 Ferruginous Hawk 1 - Red-tailed Hawk - Hawk 1 1 Pigeon Hawk 1 American 1 2 ·1 5 4 3 3 10 1 2 8 1 1 Owl .... Screech Owl TOTAL 5 2 1 Great Horned Owl Short-eared 1 3 Kestrel Barn Owl' 0 1 Peregrine Falcon Prairie Falcon -e 2 2 23 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 19 62 \...._~ Of a total of 62 raptors that were turned into the Division, 37% were shot, 8% were starving, 8% had collided with some object, 3% were electrocuted, 3% collided with automobiles and 30% were injured or died of undetermined causes. All of the bald eagles (3 individuals) were shot, the majority (4%) of the prairie falcons suffered injuries from collisions with objects. �-235Figure 8 -- Breakdown by Month of Dead or Injured Raptors Reported to the Division. No. of Raptors Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Ju1 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 108- 6- 420- This graph roughly shows the seasons of highest mortality, assuming that ·al1 other factors, such as percentage of persons reporting injuredraptors, remains constant. Generally, late winter is the time of least mortality, most the raptors have already encountered various factors that adversely affect them. Mortality drops sharply when the adults enter the breeding season in the spring. Mortality increases as juveniles fledge and encounter problems, and reaches its peak in the fall when migration commences and naive juveniles move into new territories. Unfortunately, the mortality factors, such as shooting and weather. do not remain constant. The number of gunners in the field increases greatly in the fall, thus more raptors are shot. In the fall, the raptors encounter harsher weather conditions and survival is difficult. Ideally, mortality should drop late in the winter when raptor acclimate to the harsh surroundings and become wary of humans. BANDING No special point was made to attempt to band raptors specifically for that purpose in 1972. Those raptors that were encountered in the course of study that were available were banded. In the future, when more intensive work, such as nest site viSitations, is undertaken, more nestings will be encountered and banded. Table 14 lists those .raptors banded in the course of study. Table 14 Raptors Banded by'the Division in 1972. Species ;j Number Banded Prairie· Falcon Red-tailed Hawk Goshawk American Kestrel Golden Eagle Swainson's Hawk Coope r 's Hawk Ferruginous Hawk Great Horned Owl Rough-legged Hawk 44 14 9 7 TOTAL 87 6 3 1 1 I 1 �-236- LITERATURE CITED Ryder, R.A. 1969. Diurnal Raptors on the Pawnee Site. U.S. IntI. BioI. Prof., Grassland Biome Tech. Rep. 26, l6p. Boeker, E.L. and T.D. Ray 1971. Golden Eagle Population, Studies in the Southeast. Condou, 73, (no 4) 463-467. Wrakestraw, G. F. 1972. 1972 Wyoming Bald and Golden Eagle Survey. Completion Report, Game Bird Survey Proj. No. W-50-R-2l. Title: Establish Number of Bald and Golden Eagles. Proj. Objective No.7, Job No. 31. Job a 15 �'o.l. ..t' ~ z. .,;. ~. Figure 1 -- Aerial Eagle Census of NE Colorado ._'"!W!r..:..... 5 .. h ,. "'- __ I '~"'T--""--""'"61 641'" ~.' .;" \' ------.J \ . J\ \ ". {) .. ",.\.') .., , . ---_.' Ij;'...•) :,"- . (.,.J -.t:~:~~1 / . I "'1'··.. '..':" , ... - , •• , rr~ '~1: '\ --' ."\~} .. -, \~~ (L (_. I \ '\ ••••• < D':'~' ", "-~"~' li~:~,,:-::-.. .. '.' -' 'f'l\,Cr J .. ~ _. _ .. 1 .._L. .. <:> .•... , , •....., ;::; f, ;l:"~' (I I J ('\. "-A:ti~;-,ft r\ '\.·..,L: \. J.'!....v< B"1'lc~iii~" I " M.~ 'l:, B .r -, • 1: .. /. ;t1:ln~:~s'I' . r., if"'='t';' ~.' - W Ik(- :: ~.~ I' :. r .. N VJ . \ '\. i,[ Pi: q'J:','~' "- Ii'+\ •••••... t , <') --~~ ~.' ....J:, :i1t tl'I1'~"JJ " ---. 9\ c... \ '\ ~ 'JHUrp~h:\ --~;; \" ~. \. v~r\l"i:;;"-''''- ~5' . -., \ •• \,11 /,1'1 ;'~ __ ~_ "--'\.. "- . '--r'IC v. ·0 l1 ~l,.,,'__ '10 .'"\ <__ ~ U,· .. ~.. l/ ~~:~ '. ~'%. (,,~~.: I, t:I t,.;·' , [ :t.'. .... ·····1::I .--.rr ~~~~J'S"" . ~' ~~';';' '"1·1110J~ 'I'::"~'-'" -, '~-~~~ V\C. (~: ":"Q'UF.·"-Y~· 58"":""-- 57~ ee, "': /' / '\ ~J5 _ .,-I-'-" .....~: ..-.- c.. . ( ~ •• "-f~- '---,1,\ \ - (t "'11 - f~ I - - /'. '! >7i\T::-'r-' '~~i/~~:(,; 'I:" ~'\ t "-'W'\~'I' '1/1, ) " !/." :1> ~":'~fr .'. 1- ~.• ~.r.r:lT:lt. -.....:,... ---L. 1_.. '~~ ), N. G .:..-' . bWS·1 \ ': . . 'V' 1 .. 5 v (::11 -~'~t--o' ~rJ (.' "\~!~I • ),. "LL /C f-' t' 111'·1,',1. . " . ~. ~ "7 S"yd'.~'_-'I . ":', '/' "~ ImI1,\r ,.) ��..~ ), �-240Figure 4 -- 56 Sq. Mile Census Areas ~ . .. --------- ~. CHEYEl'!NE Wyoming -------------------- Neb!a~k:. ffiIJ FORT CCLLINS ~ STUDY· AREAS 'n a II .~ Prairie Dryland .Irrigated , 16 miles, _ �-241Figure 5 -- Pawnee 56 Sq. Mile Census Area. -f · J~ ~ (j .···· .· ~ .. ~ '.f ~ ! .~ ..:: J~ I 0' I .~ If \ l <, . ~ .. II \ It. - . j"i\ t .' L.., "'"' ~- . tart _- .N KEY ~ r Census Route ~ Standing Water ~. Intern)i t tent Water t mile • - - • Q �-2426 -.:. Ault 56 Sq. Mile Census Area. Figure . , .... Fini:. h .. ~. IT ~~ "; 4l11IP , ..• 4I~ iIr ~ -d. ":, .'. 'ir .. 'd1iW r~. .' '.' .. -c I i .. I~ 11~' .. i ;~ . ~~ I~f ,!r ':' ~ i I I I .. . start .. I l~ ~ . I ~J i KEY N ~ Census Route f :;, 1 mile ,,!)a. �-243Figure 7 -- Briggsdale 56 Sq. Mile Census Area. ,., ....,.~. Sh.rt . Fi11 sh 'I·· " Ql. ~"" , IT •.. 'c ,:,. , .,. " ' I. , v, : , -- r . ~, . " d•• ; " A ,'" '" , @ ~\ c.. -_. ~ ~ ! , .- ~':1 -- - 6 - Z ''''~~~ . ~~f .~ l_~f --~~~.~,~,--'----~-------~ A . - .... ~. KEY a N Intermittent Sections 6mStted from study r Hater 1 roDe-4 �-244- APPENDIX A Use separate form for each eagle or group of eagles. MLD Date & GOLDEN EAGLE OBSERVATION FORM Time -------------------- Species and No. P~esent: Bald _ lJo. of Adults _ No. of Unknown or Activity Location drainage (Direction in miies or i~poundllient) Weather Condition Other _ No. of Juv. _ Behavior Eab Lt.at; Golden --------- Unknown Age: _ _ from ne3.rest tOvm or other (Hind, Cloud Cover, landmark, PPT) .-----------------------------------~-~~. ---- Not es. Comments --' _ ---- --------------------- Observed by _ i! �,..245- . APPENDIXB KEYTO THE FIELD IDENTIFICATIONOF BALDANDGOLDEN EAGLES The Bald and .Golden Eagles are among the largest birds of prey of North America. The wingspan of the Bald Eagle approaches seven feet while that of the Golden Eagle is nearlrsix and one half feet. The only North American bird of prey larger than the eagle is the California Condor whLch is restricted to Southern California. BALDEAGLE Adult Haliaeetus leucocephalus -- Body and wi.ngs completely brownish black. pletely~. Bill, eye and feet are bright Head and tail yellow. are com- Emmat.ure -~ Body, wings, head and tail are completely br own, but not as da r k as the adult. Attainment of Lie adult plumage is gradual with the head and tail becoming white at four or five years of age. Eye and cere* are pale ye l l.owi.sh grey; bill is br own; legs are pale yellow. Field Ch~:!:~cte~§.-- II!lI'Jature Btlld Eagles may be confused with the adult Golden Eagle, but can be distinguished by the larger 1!.eac!~heavier andunfeather.ed vellmv legf:.. GOLDEN EAGLE Aguila bill, chrysaetos Ad~lt;. -- Crown and nape feathers edged. w:tth golden buff (which gives the head The rest of the body, tail and wings are dark a "Golden ·appearance). brown. May"be a slight \"lh_itish' patch on the und erwi.ng at the "wr Lst " joint. Legs are feathered down to the toes. Cere* and feet yellow. ll Immature -- The cr ovn and nape are darker than the adult (doe sn ' t appear as "go Iden"}, Tail feathers are basally whi.t e ''lith 2/3 the terminal portion blackish. Both on the top and under the wing is a conspicuous white patch formed by the whLt e bases of the inner primaries and secondaries ~ Eye is darker br-own than the adult; cere* and feet are yellow. Leg is feathered down to the toes. Field Characte~..§. _.. Golden Eagles can be distinguished from either adult or immature Bald Eagles by the feathered legs down to the toes, but thi s characteristic is usually ev Lderrt only at close r ange , Immat.ur e Golden Eagles can be distinguished from either adu Lt; 0: Lmmatur e Bald Eagles by the large areas of white at the baG€.:. of the tG.:i.l and "wrist" joint of the wing in flight. ~~The fleshy, the nostrils membranous covering open. at the base 01: t.he upper beak through whLch �-246- APPENDIX B (Continued) KEY TO NORTH AMERICAN EAGLES 1. 2. a.· Basal 1/3 of tail \\Thite;large patch at "wrist" of wing • . • • • • IMMATURE GOLDEN EAGLE b. Tail all white or all dark; white patch small . n. Tail and head all white; bright yellow legs and bill 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . • • 2 ADULT BALD EAGLE h. Tail and head not white • • '. a. Completely brown eagle with "Golden" head and small ~.Jhitishpatch at wri~t on underwfng ; legs feathered . . . . . . . . . . . . • • ADULT GOLDEN EAGLE Completely brown eagle with !!£ white; light yellow legs are feathered • • • • • • IMHATURE BALD EAGLE b. • . 3 If �-247- APPENDIX C HA.BITATS PREFERRED' BY EA.GLES Bald Eagles: Bald Eagles arrive in Colorado during the fall migration and soine remain throughout the winter, departing in early Spring. Most of the Bald Eagles inColcrado belong to northern nestidng populations. They are often gregarious and from two to nearly a hundred may congregate near open water such as large river drainages and large reservoirs. A. diet of fish is preferred and winter-killed fish will attract them. They may also frequent areas where waterfowl concentrate and feed on the dead or crippled ducks and tg eese , They can be seen standing on. the ice near open water or perched in bare trees and snags surrounding the reservoirs. Bald Eagles have been reported on the eastern pra Lr'Les with up to half a dozen birds in a solitary tree. In these cases, tl:J.eyprobab ly feed on carrion and jackrabbits. Large Iivestock die-offs will also concentrate both Bald and Golden Eagles. Golden Eagles: In Colorado, Golden Eagles are more numerous than Bald Eagles and may be found throughout the state from above timberline tbthe prairies. They are especially abundant on the prairies and open mountain parks in the winter. Golden Eagles do inhabit forested areas, but they are not abundant and they are difficult to observe, so such areas generally should not be included in winter census activities. Golden. Eagles take more live prey than Balds but will feed on Carrion when.the occasion presents itself, so they may also be found in:'the company of Bald Eagles. Because of this, care nrustbe' taken to avoid confusing adult Golden with immature Bald Eagles. �-248Appendix AERIA.L EAGLE Date: -- _ Locaticn: D CC:SUS Flight A.M. Time: to -----------_ P.M. to _ Crew: WE.~THER: Start -- Temp. Mid. -- Temp. End -- Temp. _ Wind _ _ Visibility Cloud Cover Wind _ Visibility Cloud Cover Wind _ Visibility Cloud Cover _ ---- ---- Counting c~nditions: Trans.j f>.':"I.D r~\G~_S _-:::G...::.G=.:i[)~!c::.::r---=-·:..\:...:G;.=L.::..i:'_;_-:_Other Coyotes & Ur:ident. Buteo J ? Adult I~;::. I Eagles Hawks Ar::..: 1t ....::.;:!: ·~-+----.:.._+-=:::..::...::'__-+-_=:::;.:.._+---..::==~f__-==.::..:.:.:==--_+_-=R=a~=.;:.t.::..or:..:s~--=.A:.:.n.:..::t:.::::e-=-l ~o;J::....:e=-- I I No. ~::,::,."-:1::..:. I ! ! I I i j i I I I I 1 ! I I I II I I j~ --i---'I-----+I- I -I --I I i --7I --.- ---+---+-----+1------+ 1 If. _____ ' i I l! I . I --, ..-.-.--!--,-! --1-·----1rl I I .__ -+- __ I .;... +__- . ."" ~--+I---1---+---+--- il _ I I :---1---1 I :=t~-~---1--~· I -+- --il---~- ---'----·-L---t--- l--_-;--. -s- t --f--. -s --!-I_ l-+! r---. --( i I I I 1----·-.=--=·I L_+_ ----.J----' --1-' ± ~ ----~---~ r--.---.. . i I I I 1 I i I i I ! !' I L j I I --;---+- r'--- I ; ~~~-=-l=l-±=+=i =t=.--+ _L __ ' ,!----l----+----- I I I L ;:(::.\2.~i F . - n·,,, r:~ ?P. - p~·,:_.'.·.l.· 1 ~ .••• 1 • ., • i •...•.. I-J.;'i. I _ ~_J._---, - 'U r: deli 11 G. - GrOU;1c! F .1' . o.e j _----1 - F'enc e Post - Outcropping __ - ~-. __ .: '\ --1...L_ T. Tree O. - Ot he'r /J �-249- Appendix E OBSERVATION CARD Band No. Species Sex No. present Date Location f1f' Weather Behaviour Observed or collected by Other notes J Vegetation Age Time �. .. Appendix F DATE: -250- OBSERVERS: TIME START: MILE.o\GE START: TIME I1ILFAGE &'W: END: WEATHER: TINE - MILFAGE l SPECTES I I ACTIVITY • u~ ,- I I I , I j I I I l I I I i .. I I I i I " j I I i I [ I i ! I i I I ! I l I 1 ! I , ! I I I I I --, ! f I I l==~1--~---~--'-'~:~------r-----~------.~--------~ -- I i ! j I I I I I ! i i I I I I i I I I I I I I i I .. I ~ ! r= : !_ i .---.L--.-. ---'-----,_L LI , ,----+------,- , I ~I'----- ,---- I ..;..------+------------'------I ' ( \. �Appendix G Date NEST DATA ,J Species _ Time _ Landowner Location: T N or S; R, _ W; Sec. County I. -251- _ ___ ,,"--_1/4 Additional Details Supporting Structor Information CLIFF OR OUTCROPPING Pothole: width Ledge: width~ height _ _ len~th _ _ 1ength, ----------- Over'hang : width, Other: ~ _ depth _ ht to overhang _ _ Direction of Avis -------------------------- ~eol"gy:_ _:_----------------------------------------------TREE ~:I)ecies: ------------------------ rio _ of trees in vicinity height DBH~ _ _ c~m":R STRUCTURE (describe) ,.-- _ I1c;tails of nest Ht. above ground:..--. Ht. to top of structure Exposure (directLou) _ Size: _ Nest Materials ----~-------------------------~----------------- II. Habitat nata Topography -:__~ ~ ------- Dominant Vegetation~ _ GeologicFormations ~ ~ Drainages/Impoundments: Direction:..--.------------ Distance~ _ Soil types~----------------~---~-------------------------Land Use-----:~- _ IiI.,Behavior Adult s Activity; Male ----~-------------------------------- Female Young Activity: ------------------------------------ �-252- IV. Prey Items Species No. of Individuals Portion Remaining Unidentified item I.D. No. V. _ Eggs/Young No. Present Band No. Age~ _ -------------------------_ Sex _ o VI. Nest Failure No. of unhatched eggs No. of dead young, ------- _ No. of destroyed eggs_· Age. Cause of Destroyed eggs~ _ ~ Cause of Dead Young, _ ~ ~ Remains and Shell I.D. No. VIi. Disturbance Factors type 1oad/Highway type TC'lil/Track h::: b itation: Other Human Activities VII. _ _ ~~-------------- _ _ Degree Use.~ _ Dist.& Direct. Degree Use. _ Dist.& Direct. Dist. & Direct • ~ ------------_ _ Additional Comments: ---_.------ - .-. - - -------_. --.--------------------------------- �-253Date: _ Property Owner Data: Name: ------ Phone: _ Mailing Address: _ Location of Residence: _ Attitude toward raptors and willingness to protect raptors nesting on his property: ----------- Att Lt.ude toward pub lic access : --..,.- ------------- Description (sketch map) of land he holds in the vicinity of the nest site(s). List of rapt or nests on his property Species Location Were the following left with the landowner? ,=1 Division Identification Card Yes 'Violation Report Card Yes 0 NoP No 0 �· --254Appendix H BIRD 010· PREY NEST· REPORT Species ~-- __ -- Observer _ Discovery Date -------- _ r ------------------------------------------------ Phone number and where may be contacted -------------------------------- Exact location of nest (legal description by township, range, .section and 1/4 s ec t Lon , a Lso give :lirection from a known landmark. \.Jheneverpossible, include map show i ng access): Property owne r (if known) Description of surrounding habitat Description of nest (supporting structure, aspect, height above ground) Activity at nest (building, incubating, etc) ~~ ~~ __~ _ Reffiarks ------------------------~----------~---------------- Mail form to: Gerald R. Craig .Colorado Gawe, Fish & Parks Division 6060 Broadway Denver, CO 80216 [! �-255.' Appendix I Colorado Division of Wildlife .~. RAPTOR MORTALITY REPORT 1. Date of discovery 2. Approximate date when mortality occurred 3. Location (county, nearest post office, township, name of electric utility and pole number) 4. Species, age, sex (if known) of each bird found .5. Probable cause of mortality (electrocution, gunshot, etc.) 6. Vegetation (forest, grassland, etc.) and terrairt (hilly~ flat, etc.) 7. Check pole type from those below N6 crDssarm ----~ . 8. No crossarm, but transformer present ___ Crossarm(s) Disposition of carcass (left, picked up, etc.) 9. '.Name. address, phone numbe.r and agency of person making report Send Report to: Hildli fe ~!anagemcnt 6060 !!roaJway Denver, CO 80216 Other ---(describe on back) . �-256- Appendix J REPORT OF INJURED RAPTORS The Colorado Division of Hi1dlife requires' this form to be completed upon the acquisition of each raptor that is accepted. This form should be mailed 19ith- ; in 48 hours to: Gerald R. Craig, Raptor Biologist Colorado Division of Wildlife 6060 Broadway Denver, CO 80216 (Phone: 825-1192) Species of raptor: Information on party that first found the r.apt6r Phone Name: Address: (Street) Locality where the raptorwas (City) (Zip) (State) discovered: Date of Discovery: Details of injury: Information on party that brought the rapt or in (if you know the individual, just provide his name): Name: Address: (Street) Raptor received by: (City) . ________________________________ ~ (State) ~Date.~ (Zip) -- ---- (f �-257- FIGURES 111 Map of Aerial Eagle Census of NE Colorado. #2 Map of Bald Eagle Concentrations #3 Map of Golden Eagle Concentrations 114 Map of 56 Sq. Mile Census Areas. 115 Pawnee 56 Sq. Mile Census Area. llq- Au1t 56 Sq. Mile Census Area. #7 Briggsdale 56 Sq. Mile Census Area. 118 Breaksown by Month of Dead or Injured Raptors Reported to the Division. TABLES t J 1fl Summary of the Preliminary Eagle Concentration Counts, 1972. 1foZ Eagles Observed Feeding on Carrion February 12-18 and March 1-6, 1972. 113 Results of Aerial Flights for Golden Eagles in NE Colorado 1972-73. 114 Results of Aerial Flights for Bald Eagles in NE Colorado 1972-73. 115 Total Number of Each Species of Rap t or- Counted on the Study Areas During Winter 1972-73. 116 Percent Total Biomass of the Rough-legged Hawk and Golden Eagle on the Study Areas During Winter 1972-73. 1F? Prey Items Present in Golden Eagle Nests in NW Colorado. 118 Other Raptors Nesting in NW Colorado. 119 B'reedLng Densities and Nesting Success of Raptors in NE Colorado. 1110 Productivity of Raptors in NE Colorado. 1111 Productivity of Prairie Falcons in East-Central Colorado. 1112 Productivity of Raptors in SE Colorado. ns .. ., 1114 Summary of Dead and Injured RaptorsTurned During Jan. - Dec. 1972. Raptors Banded by the Division in 1972 • into the Division � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/e502c2cae9498d57c512321c9c96f139.pdf cd318061feddc26af81ce650dec24a28 PDF Text Text -1- Jon State Project COLOl<..'1 i":0. 01: _ Game Bird Survey 1 \<Jork Plan No. Job ;-;0.-0. .1::..:.8 Pheasant Roadside Cover Evaluation ~t_u_d~y Period Covered: Personnel: PROGRESS m:PORT W-37-R-27 No. Job Title April 1974 . _ _ April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Ted Behlke, John Klein, Mike Loftsgard and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT Pheasant nesting utilization of seeded roadside plots dropped from 0.94 nests per acre in 1972 to 0.54 nests per acre in 1973. Unfarmed nat.ural, roadsides retained slightly higher nesting use than in previous years. Farmed controls received decreased use in comparisons with 1972. Decreased nest occurrence was possibly attributed to (1) heavy winter snow pack which flattened all residual cover, (2) decreased hen pheasant density, or (3) late spring stubble plowing which prompted hens to move into green wheat to renest. Approximately 21 percent of the-nests hatched successfully in 1973, whereas about 58 percent were predator destroyed. These figures are similar to those obtained in previous 'years. During the four years'of study, one successful nest was found per 2.42 miles of seeded roadside, per 3.54 miles of unfarmed roadside, and per 12.23 miles of farmed roadside. Currently it is estimated that unfarmed and farmed roadside yields only five to six percent of the total pheasant production in the tablelands of northeast Colorado. Unfarmed roadside occupies 38 percent and farmed roadside occupies 62 percent of the total roadside -in the region. If all roadsides were seeded, total pheasant production Would be increased by about eleven percent. There was no evidence that hens selected roadsides for nesting in relation to adjacent field crop types. Vegetative measurements in May, 1973 were markedly shorter and less dense than those taken in previous years, however, by late June roadside vegetation had made rapid growth and achieved normal height and density. ��-3- PHEASANT ROADSIDE COVER EVALUATION STUDY Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roadsides: (1) grass, and (2) grass-legume mixtures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To measure pheasant production in test and control plots. 2. To measure life-form characteristics of roadside cover. METHODS AND MATERIALS Reference is made to Snyder (1969, 1970, 1971 and 1972) concerning methods and materials used in this study. A minor supplement to these is added as follows: In addition to height and density measurements of vegetation, ocular estimates of litter were obtained during the first (May) sample period. One sample of litter density was obtained each time a vegetation measurement was obtained. Estimates were calibrated on a scale of one to three for sparse to dense litter cover, repectively. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Measurement of Pheasant Production Factors Influencing 1973 Roadside Pheasant Production Pheasant use of roadsides for nesting declined markedly in 1973 compared to the three previous years of study. Tom Lines, Wildlife Conservation Officer, (pers. comm.) reported that spring 1973 crowing indices did not provide evidence of significant pheasant population decline following prolonged cold and snow conditions in November and December 1972. However, persistent heavy snows did flatten nearly all residual vegetation in the roadsides so that most offered marginal to poor nesting habitat in May. �-4- Above normal precipitation in March and April 1973 slowed vegetative growth and also prevented plowing of wheat stubble during the usual April to early May period. Instead, plowing was not initiated until mid-May and progressed into early June on many farms before completion. If pheasants started nesting in late April or early Mayas usual, then many nests undoubtedly were destroyed in the vast stubble fields. It is probable that some hens were also killed on the nests in instances where incubation was underway. Warming temperatures in May resulted in rapid wheat growth which advanced far ahead of roadside vegetation. Potentially, then, hens moved directly from plowed stubble fields to green wheat to renest. Pheasant brood count indices, numerous hunting season contacts, Fleming Check Station data, and reports following the season indicate a greatly reduced fall population level existed in 1973 compared to 1972. Therefore, the reduced nesting density observed during nest searches apparently was indicative of generally reduced production. Pheasants may not have bypassed roadsides for nesting in 1973. Instead it is possible there were fewer hens surviving either following spring plowing or early winter snows. Nesting Rate of Pheasants per Cover Type in Roadsides In 1972, 58 nests were found in approximately 86 acres of roadside. In 1973 only 38 nests were found in approximately 80 acres of roadside. This represents a nest density reduction of about 30 percent from one year to the next which corresponds to a 30 percent reduction in birds per mile observed in August brood counts. In seeded roadsides densities dropped from 0.94 nests per acre in 1972 to 0.54 in 1973 (Table 1). In farmed roadsides they declined from 0.44 nests per acre to 0.19 nests per acre. Natural unfarmed roadsides however, showed an increase in use from 0.42 nests per acre in 1972 to 0.65 in 1973. This latter figure exceeded nest densities found in seeded roadsides for the first time during the four year period of study. Nests per acre figures for successive years, 1970 through 1973 are presented in Table 1. As observed in Table 1, nest densities in seeded plots increased slightly each year until 1973 when they dropped markedly. Unfarmed roadsides were more stable in use at a lower level. Nest densities in farmed roadsides were quite low each year except in 1972 when nesting use approximated that in unfarmed controls. In 1973 seeded roadsides contained significantly more nesting attempts than farmed controls (Chi-square = 4.05* 1 d. f.), but there was no significant difference between seeded and unfarmed roadside utilization (Chi-square = 1.63, 1 d. f.). Unfarmed plots contained significantly more nests per acre than farmed controls (Chi-square = 4.93*, 1 d. f.). Pooled four-year nesting data, presented in Table 2 are sub-tended by chisquare values of comparisons among cover types. Seeded plots contained 0.80 nests per acre which was greater with high significance than either of the controls. Unfarmed controls averaged 0.52 nests per acre which was significantly greater than densities of 0.23 nests per acre found in farmed controls. �-5- Table 1. Nesting attempts and successful nests found along roadsides during successive years of the four year evaluation. !/ Cover Type Number of Plots Total Acres Nesting Attempts Nests/ Acre Success. Nests Success. Nests per Acre 0.15 1970 Seeded 48 26.63 22 0.83 4 Un farmed 23 11.67 5 0.43 0 Farmed 28 15.54 2 0.13 0 1971 Seeded 67 35.94 32 0.89 7 0.19 Unfarmed 38 19.88 11 0.55 5 0.25 Farmed 38 20.38 2 0.10 0 1972 Seeded 76 41.52 39 0.94 9 0.22 Unfarmed 42 21.30 9 0.42 4 0.19 Farmed 42 22.94 10 0.44 3 0.13 1973 Seeded 71 38.76 21 0.54 7 0.18 Unfarmed 39 20.12 13 0.65 1 0.05 Farmed 39 21.29 4 0.19 0 1/ -For four year average see Table 2. �-6- Table 2. Nesting attempts and successful nests found along roadsides during four years of evaluation, 1970-1973. Number of Plots Total Acres Nesting Attempts Nests/ Acre Success. Nests Success. Nests per Acre Seeded 262 142.85 114 0.80 27 0.19 Unfarmed Control 142 72.96 38 0.52 10 0.14 Farmed Control 147 80.16 18 0.23 3 0.04 295.92 170 Cover Type Total 40 Chi-square Values Comparison Total Nesting Attempts Successful Nesting Attempts Seeded vs. Unfarmed Control 12.80** !/ 3.06 Seeded vs. Farmed Control 29.50** 8.72* Unfarmed vs. Farmed Control 17.43** 5.66* 1/ - One asterisk denotes significance, two denote high significance with 1 degree of freedom. Production Rate per Cover Type in Roadsides More nesting attempts per acre were found in seeded plots than in natural unfarmed controls, but nesting success was apparently lower in seeded plots resulting in no significant difference in production between the two groups (Table 2). However, both seeded and unfarmed controls contained significantly higher successful nest densities than were found in farmed roadsides. Over the four-year period less than one-fourth of the nests hatched successfully so that the production rate per acre was very low (Tables 1 and 2). In seeded plots, one successful nest was found per 2.42 miles of roadside (0.19 nests per acre). In natural roadsides one successful nest was recorded per �-7- 3.54 miles (0.14 nests per acre), and in farmed controls one hatched nest per 12.23 miles was observed (0.04 nests per acre). Both seeded and natural roadsides produced significantly more young than farmed roadsides, but there was no significant difference between seeded and natural plots (Table 2). The low production rate in roadsides reflects a fairly high rate of predation (Table 3) by a variety of predators. However, this rate of nesting success is proximal to that found along roadsides in other states as illustrated in Table 4. The narrow strips of cover lend themselves well to predators, especially skunks, which have been observed in early mornings conducting their own nest searches along roadsides. Apparently, few nests escape predation in early spring when cover is sparse and little other cover exists elsewhere. Higher nesting success was observed in mid-summer along roadsides after cover on and off the plots developed, rodent populations increased, and predation became less a factor. Table 3. Fate of pheasant nests found in roadside study plots during the sununers of 1970, 1971, 1972 and 1973. 1970 1971 1972 1973 Total No. Nest Fate No. % No. % No. % No. % Successful 4 13.8 12 26.7 16 27.6 8 21.1 40 23.5 Predator Destroyed 16 55.2 22 48.9 33 56.9 22 57.9 93 54.7 Abandoned 4 13.8 4 8.9 5 8.6 6 15.8 19 11.2 Unknown 5 17.2 7 15.5 4 6.9 2 5.2 18 10.6 % Pheasant Production From Roadsides Projected on a Square Mile Basis Current Pheasant Production from Roadsides in Northeast Colorado:--Accurate pheasant population information is not available for northeast Colorado. Therefore, rough calculations based on (1) harvest-juvenile mortality data, and (2) spring density data, are presented in Appendix A. These calculations provide estimates of 88 to over 100 young hatched per square mile in the tablelands of Phillips and Sedgwick counties. Or there were at least eleven successful nests per section since the average successful nest in roadsides produced about 8 young. �-8- Table 4. Percentage of pheasant nests terminated successfully in various study sites. State Reference Roadsides Small Grain All Covers South Dakota Trautman (1965) 22.2 43.7 23.9 Nebraska Linder et al. (1960) 19.3 24.8 15.1 Pennsylvania Hartman (1971) 16.7 !! 33.3 Iowa Klonglan (1955) 29.0 18.8 17.3 Colorado Lyon (1950) 34.4 !! 48.4 24.0 Illinois Joselyn (1970) 26-29 Colorado This Study 23.5 1/ Permanent cover including roadsides. A systematic sample of 528 miles of roadside in 22 townships shows that 38 percent of the roadsides were un farmed , whereas about 62 percent were farmed to the road shoulder in 1973. Calculations presented in Table 5 show that only 0.63 successful nests could be expected from natural (unfarmed) and farmed roadsides per section per year. If eleven nests per section is near accurate, then only five to six percent of the current production comes from roadsides. In terms of young, five would be hatched. Based on calculations in Appendix A, only 0.75 cocks per section are contributed to the hunter's bag per section from roadsides. Hunter harvest surveys indicate about 19 cocks per section are bagged in the region of the roadside study. In other words, roadsides supply a very small percent of the total harvest in northeast Colorado at present. Production Assessment if all Roadsides Were Farmed If all roadsides per section were farmed, and in some localities they are, then we can expect only 0.33 successful nest per section (Table 5). On the average, 2.4 chicks would be produced, yielding about 0.36 cocks per section to the hunter's bag. It should be remembered that the average farmed roadside is approximately four feet wide and contains 0.56 acres of weeds or grassy cover per linear mile. �-9- Table 5~ Pheasant production in roadsides in northeast Colorado based on projections from study results. Roadside Status , Percent ·PerSeatiOnStattis Linear Total Miles Acres 1/ Successful Nests Number Young ?:/ Harvested Cocks 3/ Yield Under Existing Northeast Colorado Conditions Farmed 62 2.48 5.42 1/ 0.20 Unfarmed 38 1.52 3.14 0.43 Total 100 4.00 8.56 0.63 5.0 0.75 2.4 0.36 9.0 1.35 13.2 2.00 Yield in Farmed Roadsides Eer Section Farmed 100 4.00 8.74 1/ 0.33 Yield in Unfarmed Roadsides Eer Section Unfarmed 100 4.00 8.26 1.13 Yield in Seeded Roadsides Eer Section Seeded 100 4.00 8.74 1.65 1/ - Farmed roadside includes farmed and road shoulder acreage equivalent to that of seeded plots used in study. The road shoulder portion would total 2.24 acres per section. 2/ - Based on 8 young per successful nest as observed during study nest searches. 3/ - Based on 40 percent natural mortality to harvest and 50 percent cock harvest as illustrated in Appendix A. �-10- Production Assessment if all Roadsides Were Unfarmed:--If all roadsides per section were unfarmed, then production would increase to about 1.13 successful nests, or 9 young per section. Based on 40 percent mortality to hunting season and 50 percent cock harvest, 1.35 roosters per square mile would be added to the hunter's bag from roadsides. Data in Table 5 show that conversion of roadside from unfarmed natural state to farmed status reduces cock harvest by about a bird per section per year. Unfarmed roadsides produce about four times as many young per year as do farmed roadsides. Production Assessment if all Roadsides Were Seeded:--Seeding of all roadsides per section would result in 1.65 successful nests per year or production of 13.2 young. Two cocks per section would be added to the hunter's bag per year (Table 5). An approximate 11 percent increase in production would result from seeding 1.36 percent of the total land area. Seeded roadsides are more than five times more productive than farmed roadsides, but as previously stated, production in seeded roadsides was not significantly greater than in unfarmed roadsides (Table 2). Additional cover provided by seeded or natural roadsides for brood rearing and winter cover are other assets to pheasants for which there is no ready measurement. Pheasant Production in Small Grains Compared with that in Roadsides Cover mapping in the 1960's provided information showing that 39.6 percent of 642,000 acres in northeast Colorado was in small grains, primarily green wheat (Snyder 1970). The average section contained about 250 acres of wheat and a slightly greater amount of summer fallow to be planted in fall. Corn, sorghums, millets, beets, and beans were not considered as nesting cover. Pastures, which comprised about 10 percent of the land area, were sodded shortgrass for the most part, and of little value to pheasants. Linder et ale (1960) found that pastures in southcentral Nebraska only occasionally produced pheasants. Pasture cover is less abundant in the tablelands of northeast Colorado. Alfalfa occupied less than two percent of the land, but probably contributed a small fraction of the total pheasant production. Most studies show alfalfa as highly attractive for nesting, but due to haying, pheasant production is almost nil. Vacant farmlots, draws and low areas occupied about one percent of the land and undoubtedly provided fair to good nesting cover in many instances. Assuming nesting success on these was the same as on unfarmed roadsides, they contributed 0.88 successful nests per section. Based on these data, small grains contribute most of the successful nests in the tablelands of northeast Colorado. Assuming 9 nests per 250 acres, the nest density is low, one nest per 28 acres. However, the vast acreage, in comparison with roadsides, and the lower probability of predation apparently establishes small grains as the predominant producer of pheasants in eastern Colorado. For the most part, there is little other cover available for their use in nesting. Meanwhile, the transition to less roadside and more irrigated row crops continues. It is fortunate for the pheasant, that much of eastern Colorado will remain dryland and in wheat, due to lack of irrigation water. �-11- Reference is made to Table 6 which illustrates that small grains usually have low nest densities compared with roadsides. But most studies show lower predation rates in small grains and much higher percentage nesting success. Table 6. Comparisons small grain fields. of pheasant (Harvard) and Reference Pheasants per Square Mile Pheasant Roadsides Linder et al. 29 1.67 0.15 37 1.91 0.20 147 1. 87-2.82 0.14-0.57 Location Nebraska, density and nest density of roadsides Nests per Acre Small Grain (1960) Nebraska, Combined Data Baxter & Wolfe (1973) South Dakota Trautman (1960) Illinois Joselyn (1970) Pennsylvania Colorado, Hartmann (1971) This Study of Nesting 40-120 to Adjacent 0.10 0.04 25-30 Nest Association Relationship 2.6 Seeded 1.2 Unmanaged 0.8 Seeded 0.5 Un farmed 0.2 Farmed 0.03 with Cover Trees Field Cover Type t . ... - _ There was no evidence during the four years of st:1Jdythat pheasants selecteo nests in any of the roadsides in relation to adjac;.entfield typeel. Ind1v:t, ..• dual comparisions for seeded, fa~d, unfarmed and combined data, tot31e4 for the four years, revealed that ohset;'vedoccurrences app:ro~:t.matedtho expected. In no instance did Chi-square values app:r;oachlevels of s:lgn:U1~ cance in any 0 f the comparisons. Wheat stubble J p:resent ,in sPl"inS,wa@ soo.n plowed under, leAVing fallow througll the SUll111ler.Determinations CQW,d. not be made as to whether most nests were established while adjacent stybble existed or after it was plowed. �-12- Table 7. Utilization of vegetation within roadside cover types by nesting pheasants during the summers of 1970 through 1973. Number of Nests Plot and Cover Type Combined Total 1970 1971 1972 1973 4 1 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 11 1 0 9 1 1 3 4 6 2 1 2 0 2 1 0 0 8 6 0 6 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 0 3 4 8~ 6 4 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 22 32 39 21 114 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 r 3 2 0 1 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 3 2 1 3 0 3 1 1 4 7 4 5 11 9 13 38 Native Grass D. Brome and Residual Green Weeds and Residual Straight Downy Brome Green Weeds D. Brome and Green Weeds Green Weeds, Residual and D. Brome 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 2 2 0 0 1 0 1 Sub-total 2 2 10 4 18 Seeded Roadside Seeded Grass Grass-Alfalfa Seeded Alfalfa Grass - D. Brome Alfalfa - D. Brome Straight Downy Brome Grass and Residual Weeds Grass, Alfalfa and Weeds Grass, Alfalfa and D. Brome Alfalfa, Weeds and D. Brome Green Weeds Weeds and Residual Weeds, Residual and D. Brome Grass, G. Weeds and Residual Sub-total 29 14 6 9 6 11 5 4 3 2 4 12 5 4 Unfarmed Roadside (C2) Native Grass N. Grass and Downy Brome Straight Downy Brome Downy Brome and Residual Green Weeds G. Weeds and Residual Straight Residual Cover D. Brome, Weeds and Residual N. Grass and G. Weeds Sub-total 5 9 3 4 1 Farmed Roadside (Cl) 2 3 3 4 3 �-13- Proximal Cover Association In seeded roadsides, proportionally increased use of seeded grass and alfalfa for immediate nesting cover was noted over previous years of study (Table 7). Downy brome received high use in the unfarmed, natural roadsides. The combined four year total shown in the table indicates that a wide variety of covers and cover combinations were used by pheasants. Direct comparisons of use and vegetative type occurrence cannot be made to show preference. Life Form Characteristics of Roadside Cover Vegetative Measurements Measurements of height and density were taken in early May and again in late June, 1973 as in prevtous years. Twelve plots, each, of seeded, unfarmed and farmed roadside were sampled. In the farmed sample, only plots containing green wheat were measured. In May, both height and density measurements were markedly lower than in previous years (Table 8). This was primarily due to lodging of residual cover under heavy snow during the previous winter followed by a cold spring which delayed new growth. By mid-June, warming temperatures and ample moisture had stimulated growth so that evidence of reduced cover no longer existed, as shown in 'Table 8. Table 8. Comparisons of height and density for 1971, 1972 and 1973 on roadside study plots. );/ Plot Type 1971 May Measurement 1972 1973 1971 June Measurement 1972 1973 Height Seeded 8.71 l3.l8 6.37 16.31 19.00 21.28 Unfarmed 6.08 8.07 4.72 13.06 15.10 15.05 Farmed 14.18 17.33 6.18 26.72 25.53 26.56 Density Seeded 1.65 2.14 1.14 2.23 2.51 2.36 Unfarmed 1.35 1.71 1.l3 2.01 2.50 2.13 Farmed 1.66 1.95 1.17 2.19 2.43 1.84 �-14- Ground Cover Measurement Residual ground cover is considered an important factor in pheasant nest establishment. The bowls of pheasant nests are composed of litter and it also serves in breaking up the outline of the nest and the hen. Usually, the hen's natural color closely approximates the color of dead vegetation. Therefore, in May 1973 a sample of litter density was obtained. Based on a sparse to dense litter index of 1 to 3, seeded roadside yielded an index of 2.36. Farmed roadside had a much lower index of 1.84 compared to a medium index of 2.13 for unfarmed natural roadside. Although. the actual importance of this variable in nest selection is unknown, seeded and unfarmed roadside offered much better litter cover for pheasant use. Green wheat planted in roadsides offers almost no residual litter for use in nesting. LITERATURE CITED Baxter, W. L., and C. W. Wolfe. 1973. Life history and ecology of the ringnecked pheasant in Nebraska. Nebr. Game and Parks Comm. Tech. Pub. 83 p. Hartmann, F. E., and D. E. Sheffer. 1971. Population dynamics and hunter harvest of ring-necked pheasant populations in Pennsylvania's primary range. Northeast Fish and Wildl. Conf. 28. 39 p. Joselyn, G. B. 1970. Management of roadside cover for nesting pheasants. Job Compl. Rpt. Ill. Proj. 10-66-R-8, Job No. 3. 41 p. Klonglan, E. D. Ia. , 1954. 1955. Pheasant nesting and production in Winnebago County, Proc. Ia. Acad. Sci. 62:626-637. Linder, R. L., D. L. Lyon, and C. P. Agee. 1960. An analysis of pheasant nesting in southcentral Nebr. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 25:214-230. Lyon, L. J. 1950. Pheasant nesting success on agricultural land in Colo. Colo. Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit. Quart. Rpt. 4(1):1-19. Snyder, W. D. 1970. Pheasant hen harvest investigation - final rpt. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rpt. April. p. 3-81. Colo. Trautman, C. G. 1960. Evaluation of pheasant nesting habitat in eastern South Dakota. Trans. N. Am. Wild1. Conf. 25:202-213. 1965. Evaluation of pheasant nesting habitat in eastern South Dakota. S. Dak. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. F. A. Comp1. Rept. W-75-R. Prepared by 1fa~s~ Wildlife Researcher �-15- APPENDIX A Part 1. Projected pheasant production per square mile in Phillips County based on hunter harvest survey data. Variable Per Square Mile Harvest on 600 square miles averaged over a 14 year period (1955-1968) 18.9 cocks Seventy percent of cocks are young (1966-1970) 13.2 young cocks Assuming a 50 percent harvest, then 26.4 young cocks were present at start of hunting season or the total young approximated 52.8 young birds Numerous references show an average 35 percent mortality from hatch to 6-10 weeks of age. Assuming an additional 5 percent mortality to hunting season, then 52.8 young equals 60 percent of the original hatch or 88 young hatched Nest searches show mean clutch size approximated 8 eggs per nest, or successful nests numbered 11 successful nests Part 2. Projected pheasant production per square mile in Phillips County based on breeding population density. Variable Per Square Mile Mean pheasant crowing index equaled 49.75 calls per station (1963-1968) or there were about (Assumes an approximate 1 mile hearing distance) 12.4 cocks Hens per cock equaled 2.34 (1963-1968), or 29.0 hens Wide variation in percentage nesting success is cited in the literature, so a conservative 50 percent success rate is used here. Assuming 50 percent of hens nest successfully, then there were 14.5 nests 14.5 nests times 8.eggs per nest equals 116.0 young birds ��April 1974 -17- JOB PROGRESS REPORT .State of ~C:::O::.;:LO::::..::RAD::.::::..::.O _ Project No. W-37-R-27 Work Plan No. 3 Job Title Game Bird Survey Job No. B_a _ Effects of Sagebrush Control,on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel: Fred Giese and Robert Streeter, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; ·Thomas Beck, Clait Braun, Jack Corey, Courtney Crawford, John Ellenberger, Heather Flanagan, Howard Funk, Jack Gustafson, Richard Hoffman, Russell Kozacek, Ronald Oakleaf,Steven Porter, Wayne Russell, Michael Szymczak, John Wagner, Richard Wenger, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT In all, 321 sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) were banded during this segment, 134 on strutting grounds, 154 on nearby areas of concentration, .and 33 on wintering areas. Eight active strutting grounds were located within or adjacent to the study area, three of which were new or relocated grounds. The peak male count was 257 cocks. Two strutting grounds accounted for 54.5 percent (140) of the cocks observed. Twelve nests were located in 280 acres of nest search plots, none in the block sprayed areas. Of the 71 adult females observed during the summer of 1973, 32.4 percent (23) had broods. Mean brood size was 4.05 chicks per hen and the young per adult female ratio was 1.15:1. No significant differences existed between relative frequencies of grasses, forbs, and shrubs in sprayedvs. unsprayed plots. Sagebrush densities by age class in sprayed and control blocks indicate the range is in a rejuvenative stage. Thirty-one percent (127) of all sage grouse sighted during the summer of 1973 were in treated areas. Three hundred sixty-six hunters checked 193 sage grouse through check stations on the opening weekend of a three day season. W.inter distribution was plotted on the basis of 130 flock sightings, amounting to 2,755 birds. Six high use areas comprisingless·than 27 square miles of the sagebrush lands in North Pal:k were evident. Strong segregation by sexes is evident in sage grouse flocks. Of the 118 flocks classified, 74 percent (87) were composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex , Mean size of male flocks was 11 birds; that of female flocks 32 birds. Flock size was less than 50 birds in 92 percent of all observations. No differences could be detected in vegetal characteristics of winter sites used by male and female flocks. Sixty-four percent (N = 87) of the winter use sites had slopes less than 5 percent while only 2 percent of the areas had slopes greater than 15 percent. Seventy-one percent (N = 86) of the winter flock locations were on south, southwest, or west facing slopes. Winter sightings of 71 banded birds provided mean distance traveled for males of 6.7 miles (N = 51) and for females of 11.9 miles (N = 5). Sex ratio of 2,356,birds observed during the winter of 1973-74 was 61 males:lOO females. . �-18RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Nest searches on permanent 2. Nest searches should be conducted in suitable habitat in areas not included in the original study area with the objective of locating areas of high nesting density. 3. Vegetation 4. Brood counts should be made throughout North Park with emphasis locating females banded in the Lake John Area. 5. All areas of sagebrush acreage determined. transects 5 acre plots should be. discontinued. should be discontinued. disturbance on in North Park should be mapped and �~19- EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Thomas D. I. Beck Sage grouse, the largest North American member of the Tetraonidae, inhabit areas dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and sub-dominant grass types with interspersed wild hay meadows. As a result of agricultural demands, overgrazing, and encroachment of man-made developments, there has been a continued and rapid destruction of sage grouse habitat. In the face of such changing land use patterns sage grouse have continued to be highly specialized in their habitat requirements. They have not adjusted and it is doubtful if they can adjust their life processes to fit a land use pattern which eliminates or disturbs large tracts of lands dominated by sagebrush. Compounding this habitat specialization problem sage grouse are one of relatively few animals which depend upon a climax vegetation stage. Climax vegetation types are hazardous food sources due to their slow recovery after natural or man-caused catastrophies. Due to pressures to alter sagebrush r?Ugelands, the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks (now Colorado Division of Wildlife) in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, initiated a study in North Park, Colorado to document the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on sage grouse abundance and distribution. At the time of the study's initiation in 1963, 2,4-D spraying to reduce or eliminate sagebrush was a popular tool of land management agencies. Pre-treatment studies were accomplished in 1963-65 with study patterns for spraying designated and actual spraying accomplished in June, 1965 (Gill 1965). nvO years of study on the immediate effects of spraying sagebrush followed, being completed in 1967 (Carr 1967). During the summers of 1968 and 1969, studies were conducted on distribtuion of females in relation to the sprayed areas, by use of radio telemetry (Poley 1969, May 1970). During this research segment, the third and final segment of the North Park research project was initiated. Emphasis during this study will be directed toward the winter period on the assumption that if sagebrush eradication programs did affect North Park sage grouse populations, any such changes should be manifested during a time of limited habitat - winter. The question investigated concerned winter distribution of sage grouse and characteristics of winter use areas. In addition, most of the parameters investigated by earlier researchers are being monitored to provide longterm comparisons. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. �-20- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate seasonal numbers of sage grouse present by age and sex throughout the year. 2. To investigate the seasonal distribution of sage grouse throughout the year. 3. To investigate the current correlation between numbers and distribution of sage grouse in relation to vegetative and habitat composition, patterns and characteristics, and initiate comparisons of current results with those obtained in previous segments. 4. To prepare the required annual job progress report. In addition, attempts were made to (1) characterize winter flocks by sex composition and size of flock, (2) detect shifts in distribution during the winter, and (3) locate banded birds and calculate movements. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Intensive studies of sage grouse throughout the west have provided extensive data on most phases of the life history of this bird. MOst research has been devoted to the requirements for successful population maintenance or to behavioral studies. Food habits studies have been conducted in most states, with the seasonal food requirements of sage grouse being well documented. Sagebrush is the major food item throughout the year except for the summer months (Griner 1939, Wallestad et al. 1973). Throughout the summer months, succulent forbs were the main food item for adults (Patterson 1952, Martin 1970, Wallestad et al. 1973), with juvenile birds utilizing succulent forbs and insects (Klebenow and Gray 1968, Peterson 1970). The winter diet of sage grouse is almost 100 percent sagebrush (Bean 1941, Patterson 1952, Dalke et al. 1963). All food studies have clearly shown that sage grouse are dependent on sagebrush for food. Most researchers have characterized strutting sites as being an open area surrounded by sagebrush (Scott 1942, Patterson 1952, Dalke et al. 1963, Gill 1965). Dalke et al. (1963) suggested that a possible management tool is the clearing of ~ - ~ acre areas in dense stands of sagebrush to provide areas for males to strut and open up adjacent lands for nesting. This reference to nesting implies that nesting distribution is dependent upon strutting ground locations. Gill (1965), Martin (1970) and Wallestad and Pyrah (1973) reported over 80 percent of the sage grouse nests located in their study areas were within two miles of a strutting ground. However, Autenrieth (1970), studying a migratory population on the Snake River plain in Idaho reported that a four mile radius was needed to include 80 percent of the nests located. In studying two sedentary populations, Autenrieth (1969) found that a five mile radius was needed to include 80 percent of all nests located in the Little Lost River drainage and a three mile radius �-21- was needed to include 80 percent of all nests found in the Shoshone Basin. Canopy coverage of the three areas was similar (24, 30 and 29 percent, respectively). Distance from water appeared to have no relation to distances of nests from strutting grounds. Nearly all nests located have been under sagebrush, although nests have been found under various shrub species and in open areas (Patterson 1952, Gill 1965, Klebenow 1969, Autenrieth 1970). Stands of 20 to 30 percent canopy coverage are most often selected for nesting (Patterson 1952, Klebenow 1969, Autenrieth 1970), and thus, areas where sagebrush has been eradicated provide no nesting habitat (Klebenow 1970). Brood rearing habitat studies have shown that meadows provide needed forbs and insects for chicks in most areas (Griner 1939, Gill 1965, Autenrieth 1970, Oakleaf 1971, Wal1estad 1971). Klebenow (1969) detected altitudinal movements of sage grouse broods as they moved to higher elevations when succulent forbs on lower ranges dried out. Autenrieth (1969) points out that in areas of high precipitation, sagebrush eradication programs can benefit grouse populations by opening up dense stands of sagebrush and allowing forbs to become established. He has documented such an occurrence on Edie Creek Bench in southern Idaho. The annual precipitation in this area is about 18 inches. Klebenow (1970) also found that some sprayed ranges were providing excellent brood habitat but only after several years had passed since spraying. During the interim years the sprayed areas received little sage grouse use. Little scientific effort has been directed toward the winter ecology of sage grouse. Numerous references have referred to winter distribution of sage grouse, but little or no quantitative data has been presented. In areas of greatly varying elevations, winter distribution and movements of sage grouse are dependent upon snow depth, with birds moving to lower elevations as snow covers the sagebrush on higher ranges (Griner 1939, Patterson 1952, Dalke et a1. 1963). Eng and Sch1adweiler (1972), studying five radio telemetered hens, found little movement during the winter, with birds primarily using areas where canopy coverage exceeded 20 percent. Their study area in central Montana does not have elevational variation as great as the areas studied by Griner, Dalke and Patterson. Eng and Schladweiler also reported that wintering sage grouse preferred areas of low relief and avoided dense stands of sagebrush on steep slopes. No studies on sage grouse have been devoted to winter flock composition. However, Patterson (1952) referred to partial segregation of sexes in winter flocks in Wyoming, "There was no complete segregation of sexes or age groups in any of the large concentration areas, although flocks composed predominately of males or females were commonly seen within the scope of the concentration areas." He p.rovided no quantitative data indicating the degree of segregation. Patterson further states that "there was a pronounced tendency for adult birds to segregate themselves according to sex on their wintering grounds." Patterson noted that the prevalent social unit was the flock, and flock sizes generally varied between 10-100 birds, with occasional flocks of 100-200 birds. �-22- Autenrieth (1969), working in Owyhee County, Idaho, noted that "it is not uncommon for adult cocks to winter in groups away from hens and juveniles." Flock sizes for 56 flocks in Owyhee County varied between 2-110 during the mild winter of 1969-70, whereas during the severe winter of 1968-69 several groups of 500+ birds were seen. No distinction was made as to whether these 500+ bird sightings were one flock or numerous flocks in close proximity (Autenrieth 1970). Scientific references to all grouse species during the winter are limited. Weeden (1964) documented sexual segregation of Alaskan'rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) during the winter. Segregation occurred by habitat types with males utilizing wind blown areas near their breeding territories, while females moved great distances to areas with abundant willow (Salix spp.) stands. Braun and Schmidt (1971) reported similar results from research on whitetailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Colorado. Partial segregation of sexes in winter occurred, with males utilizing high windswept areas and females utilizing lower areas near tree line, where tall, dense willow stands provided food. Snow quality was of extreme importance to white-tailed pta:nnigan and bird~ Vi'e.~e. ~lQt;.e.(1 t;.Q W.Q'le. ~ t;Q. one mile frorafeedmg areas in search 'of snow suitable for roosting. Seiskari (1962), in comparing winter habitats of capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) and black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) in Finland, observed partial segregation of sexes in wintering flocks of both species. Segregation was stronger in capercaillie, a sp~cies in which females and males utilize different winter habitats. Both sexes of black grouse utilized similar habitat. Koskimies (1957), in describing flocking behavior of capercaillie and black grouse, postulated that capercaillie male flocks were probably composed of males utilizing the same display area, owing to the sedentary nature of males. Black grouse winter flocks show some sexual segregation, whereas capercaillie flocks are distinctly unisexual (75 to 85 percent of one sex in a flock). Strongest segregation occurred in flocks composed of adult males, suggesting that female flocks may be composed of family aggregations, including subadult males. Ellison (1973) found little segregation by sex of spruce grouse (Canachities canadensis) in winter flocks. In general, females and juveniles of both sexes were found in association, while most adult males were found with females or as singles. In most references, flocking is generally attributed to being a response to unfavorable weather conditions. Koskimies (1957) presents evidence to suggest that temperature is a factor in flocking intensity, with lower temperatures resulting in more intense flocking. Braun and Schmidt (1971) noted that birds began to appear on known wintering areas following intense snow storms. Flocking is not as pronounced in capercaillie (Koskimies 1957), spruce grouse (Ellison 1973), and ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (Gullion 1970) as in �-23- White-tailed ptarmigan (Hoffman 1973), rock ptarmigan (Weeden 1964) and black grouse (Koskimies 1957), based on frequency of sightings of single birds, nor is flock size as large in the capercaillie, spruce grouse, and ruffed grouse as in the other grouse species studied. Flock sizes of capercaillie and black grouse were greater in areas of large uniform habitat blocks (Koskimies 1957). Of all investigations on winter flocking of grouse mentioned in this review, only Ellison (1973) used an arbitrary distance (18 meters) of association between birds as a basis for determining flock size. All others based flock size on the decision of the observer as to Which birds seen were in association. METHODS AND MATERIALS Capturing and Banding Capturing and banding of sage grouse in the Lake John area was initiated on 26 March 1973 and continued until 1 May 1973 when capture activities were switched to strutting grounds. Trapping continued on strutting grounds until 30 May 1973. Capture operations were conducted sporadically throughout the period 7 January 1974 to 13 March 1974. More intensive capture operations were conducted after 13 March when birds were located on strutting grounds. Birds were located by spotlighting and were then netted While on roosting areas as described by Gill (1965). An adaptation to this procedure was developed during the spring of 1973. Instead of using a motor vehicle electrical system for the light source, an automobile battery (12 volt) fastened to a pack frame was used. This allowed greater mobility for personnel and enabled workers to search areas inaccessible to motor vehicles. Best results were obtained when using an aircraft landing light (250 watt bulb) for spotlighting, a long handled (3 meter) net for capturing, and a tape recording of snowmobile noises to mask sounds of the approach. In 1973, 3.8 centimeter mesh cotton netting was used, with a hoop diameter of 100 cm. In 1974, 1.25 centimeter mesh nylon netting was used in efforts to reduce injuries to primary feathers. In addition, hoop diameter was reduced to 70 cm and lighter, aluminum tubing was used in net construction to provide greater maneuverability. Captured birds were placed in burlap bags for holding until they could be banded. All captured birds were banded with aluminum, serially-numbered bands. Males were banded with size 16 bands, and females with size 14 bands. Colored plastic bandettes were placed on all but 55 of the birds. Any bird recaptured during 1974 which did not have a plastic bandette was banded with the color which was coded to the initial capture site. Each capture area was assigned a specific color code. Birds caught on strutting grounds were color banded on their left leg while birds caught in all other areas were color banded on their right leg. Age, sex, weight, date, and location of capture were recorded for each bird. Age and sex of all birds handled were determined by techniques described by June (1967). In addition, blood smears for parasitological examination were taken from most birds captured during 1974. �-24- Strutting Ground Counts Known strutting grounds in the area were censused regularly from 23 April 1973 until most strutting activity had ceased, near the middle of May. During this period three new or relocated grounds were found and were censused regularly thereafter. These grounds were located from the air during two mornings of aerial search in early May. The primary study area was searched by flying east-west transects at quarter mile intervals. All grounds censused were approached in a slow moving vehicle and observers attempted to obtain accurate counts of the numbers of birds present by sex class. Frequently, observers had to approach grounds on foot due to deep snow or impassable roads. All counts were made within one half hour of sunrise. - In 1974, birds were first observed on strutting grounds on 13 March, 10-14 days earlier than normal, probably due to the mild winter and early spring. Data collected include high count of males and females, number of banded birds, time of strutting, and adult male:sub-adult male ratios. Aging of males on strutting grounds is based on the shape and length of rectrices (Lumsden 1968). This method is somewhat questionable (Dalke et al. 1963) and all captured males will be examined to learn if aging by rectrices corresponds to the accepted technique of aging by appearance of the outer primaries. Nest Search Systematic nest searches were initiated on June 20 on five acre plots originally established and marked by Carr (1967). The areas were searched by two and three man teams on foot. A distance of ten feet was maintained between the searchers. All nests of the year, old nests, and shell fragments found were recorded. Plots are unevenly distributed throughout the large block spray area, the small block spray area, the strip sprayed area, and two control areas. Brood Counts Brood counts were conducted on a regular basis throughout July and the first three weeks of August. Routes were usually run during the three hour period immediately following sunrise and immediately preceding sunset. Records of brood sightings were also recorded during mid-day. Routes along the river bottoms were covered from horseback while routes through the sagebrush were covered on foot or in a vehicle. Veh~cle speed was maintained between 5-10 mph. The intent of the brood counts WqS to achieve maximum number of sig~tings, therefore no attempt was made to record mileage or always run the same routes. All sightings of sage grouse were recorded, as Well as observations of predator;yanimals. Vesetation Transects Vegetation transects were run on plots established by G;L11(196.5). All transects were run dUring early August after the grasses had headed out. Measurements were taken to provide information on percent composition and shrub density. A detailed description of the methods used was presented by Gill (l,965) , , .' �-25- Summer Movements Data on summer movements of sage grouse from s~rutting grounds and nearby concentration areas were collected from observations of color marked birds and from band recoveries obtained during the hunting season (early September). All locations of the sightings or kills were plotted on a map (D.S.G.S. 7.5 minute) and the airline distance from the banding site was measured. Distances reported are not necessarily the total distance traveled by the bird, only the minimum distance traveled. Summer Distribution and Abundance All sage grouse observed were counted, classified by sex when possible and the location and vegetative type were recorded. Special emphasis was placed on categorizing as treated or untreated areas where grouse were observed. This was frequently difficult as the strip sprayed areas had a poor initial kill of sagebrush and boundaries were often difficult to discern. Harvest Data Check stations were operated at Walden and Cowdrey on September 8 and 9, the first two days of the three day season. Grouse wings were collected from hunters for aging and sexing, using the technique described by Crunden (1963). Bands were collected and hunters questioned as to the location where banded birds were shot. This information was used to calculate age and sex composition of the harvest, movements of banded birds, peak of hatch, and fall production estimates. Delineation of Winter Distribution Distribution of wintering sage grouse in North Park was determined by searching all sagebrush lands in the park with all probable areas used being searched at least once. An area was considered a probable use area if any sagebrush was visible above the snow. Areas inaccessible by four wheel drive vehicle were searched from snowmobile or snowshoes. Aerial search of North Park along random transects was conducted on 21-22 February and 17 March. Data concerning grouse flocks observed from the air were used in mapping distribution but were disregarded when calculating flock sizes due to inaccuracies involved in counting flying grouse. Written records were made on both grouse observations and indications of grouse use (droppings, tracks, roosts). Observations reported by reliable observers were followed up by intensive searches of reported locations within one day of the initial sighting. The winter distribution work covers the period 8 January to 8 March, 1974. March 8 was selected as the ending date as the Lake John study area was approximately 90 percent snow free at this time. Characterization of Winter Flocks A flock was considered to be any group (2 or more) of birds in close·'p-roxdmf.t y to each other. The decision as to flock size was made by the observer as �-26- flocks often ranged over distances from 10-200 meters, thus inhibiting the use of standard distances between birds as criterion for flock size. The total number of birds in a flock was recorded, and when possible, flocks were classified as to sex composition. For example~ a flock comprised of greater than 50 percent females was referred to as a female flock, and vice versa. Sightings of single birds were also recorded. Sage grouse are sexually dimorphic, thus enabling one to sex birds visually at a distance. Male sage grouse in breeding plumage are best characterized by contrasting color zones of black and white from the base of the lower mandible to the abdomen. The head is dark in appearance with a mixture of gray and black feathers. The black and white speckled area at the base of the lower mandible is separated from the black throat by a narrow white collar. This collar runs from the eye down under the head and is visible from the front and side. Lines of demarcation are distinct on the collar; The black feathers of the throat are white tipped, but contrast sharply with the solid white breast feathers. The feathers on the lower breast are white with black tips. The black portion of these feathers becomes greater as one progresses to the abdomen. The abdomen appears solid black. Males have long (10-15 mm) filoplumes extending from the side of the neck which are readily visible, especially on windy days. Males are much larger in size, averaging twice as large and heavy as females. Adult sage grouse undergo a complete post-nuptial molt which is completed by late September and juvenile birds acquire their first adult or winter plumage by late October. Thus, all males were in breeding plumage during the study period (Patterson 1952, Bent 1932). Female sage grouse are smaller and more drab colored than males. The abdomen is black but not as solid as in males, being splotched with gray and white. The breast is white, gray, and tan, giving a splotched appearance with no discrete color patterns visible. There is no white neck collar nor any filoplumes on females. The area at the base of their lower mandible is more white in females than it is in males. The back and sides of females are lighter in color, having less black than males. Using these criteria, over 85 percent (2,356 of 2,755) of all birds observed were classified as to sex. Characteristics of Winter Use Sites The location of each flock sighting was plotted and recorded to the nearest quarter section. The following physical and vegetal characteristics of each site were recorded: aspect, slope, snow depth and condition, sagebrush density, average crown breadth, and height of sagebrush above snow. Weather conditions such as temperature, cloud cover, precipitation, and wind direction were also recorded for each sighting. Winter Movements Sightings of banded birds were recorded, as well as the number of definitely unbanded birds by sex classes. MOvement data were obtained from observations of birds banded with colored bandettes coded to banding sites. The location of each sighting was plotted on a map and the airline distance from the banding site measured. Distances reported are measures of minimum distances travelled. Directions of movements were determined from banding location to observation sites by plotting the two locations on a map. �-27- Aerial Search Two aerial censuses were made, one each in February and March. These flights were along 12 random transects running east-west across North Park. Two observers were present on each flight and were responsible for counting all grouse observed in a one eighth mile strip of ground on either side of the plane. This resulted in each transect being one quarter mile wide. In this way, approximately 9 percent of the park was covered. The location and size of each flock were recorded On cassette tapes. The purpose of these flights was to examine the feasibility of random aerial census for estimating sage grouse populations just prior to the breeding season. Analysis of Data from Previous Years Comparisons were made of weather data, strutting ground counts, brood counts and harvest data. Various statistics were graphed in an attempt to find visible correlations. Sage grouse management in Colorado was established on the premise that harvest data are a reflection of strutting ground counts and production estimates. These comparisons serve as a test for the accuracy of the management plan. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA North Park (Jackson County) was chosen for study due to a proposed land management plan by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) which would result in every acre of BLM controlled sagebrush lands in North Park being sprayed. In addition, North Park supported the highest population of sage grouse in Colorado (Rogers 1964:47). Pre-treatment investigations outlined an intensive study area in the northwest portion of North Park. This area, in the Lake John vicinity, encompasses approximately 60 square miles. MOst of the land in the study area is under the control of the BLM. The remainder of the intensive study area, primarily meadowland along streams is under private control. The area is bounded on the north by Independence Mountain, on the east by the North Platte River, on the south by the North Fork of the North Platte, and on the west by Sheep Mountain and Boettcher Ridge. There are two major vegetation types in the area: sagebrush-grassland, and wild hay-meadowland. The meadowland is restricted to the water courses, with two major drainages in the area, the North Platte River on the east side and the Lake John-Lake Creek drainage on the west. The sagebrush-grassland type is found in the hilly terrain between the two major stream systems. A more detailed description is presented by Gill (1965). Areas adjacent to the described study area are considered as part of the study unit for the winter distribution work. These areas lie to the east and south of the formal study area and are necessarily included due to suspected limited wintering habitat within the Lake John study area and the mobility of sage grouse flocks. �-28- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Capturing and Banding In all, 288 birds were banded during the spring of 1973, 134 on strutting grounds and 154 on nearby areas of concentration. In addition, 33 birds were caught during the period 8 January-31 March 1974. This brings the total number of birds banded in this segment to 321, 230 more than the previous high number banded in any segment (91 in 1967). Data on sex, age and specific locations of the spring caught birds are presented in Table 1. Twenty-two birds were recaptured during the spring period and none during the winter. One-half of the birds recaptured were caught within seven days of initial capture and were in the same general area. Four birds were killed during capture operations for a capture mortality rate of 1.2 percent. During spring operations, 0.83 hours of field time were required to capture and band one bird, whereas during the winter this figure rose to 3.8 hours per bird. Winter trapping was not successful for two reasons. First, birds were difficult to locate in areas accessible to four wheel drive vehicles. Second, birds generally roosted in a small area which meant only one or two birds could be netted before the flock flushed. Roosting in restricted areas is contrary to the situation found during all other seasons when birds are usually spread out over an area with seldom more than 3-5 birds in close proximity. No lab work has been completed on the blood smears taken from birds caught in 1974. Analysis of this portion of the work will be presented in the final report. Strutting Ground Counts Eight active grounds were located within or immediately adjacent to the primary study area. The total male peak for these eight grounds in 1973 was 257 cocks. Incomplete counts were made in 1972, so no comparison can be made, but the 1973 count was less than the 1971 count of 326 cocks. The five year average for the years preceding 1973 (excluding 1972) is 291 cocks. It is possible that the difference may be due to natural fluctuations or human error rather than a major population decline. Possibly, counts were affected by weather conditions as the preceding winter (1972-73) was one of heavy snow cover. Also, storms frequently occurred throughout April, 1973. Active strutting was either delayed and/or not detected until late in the normal strutting season. Two strutting grounds accounted for 54.5 percent (140) of the cocks observed. The peak periods for males and females on these strutting grounds, Alkali Lake and Boettcher Junction, are plotted in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. Table 2 gives the results of strutting ground counts on the eight active grounds for the spring of 1973. The Monahan Draw strutting ground, which is in the large block spray area, only had 11 cocks present this spring. This ground had maintained high numbers of birds in the years since the spraying (64 in 1966, 74 in 1967, 53 in 1968, 80 in 1969, 57 in 1970, 81 in 1971), and the sudden drop in 1972 (10), and 1973 (11) is at present unexplainable. Counts on the grounds as of 31 March 1974 were approaching 50 percent of the peak male �Age and sex classes of sage grouse banded at specific locations, spring 1973. Table l. Color Marking Area Unknown Age F M Ad M SA M Ad F SA F Total Y on B RL 3 1 2 2 5 9 22 Y on R RL 0 1 6 9 13 6 35 Jackson Co. 7 (2-5 mi S of L. John) Ron Y RL 0 1 11 5 5 3 25 Jackson Co. 7 (0-2 mi S of L. John) B on Y RL 0 0 1 1 3 1 6 Jackson Co. 7 (N of L. John) Y RL 0 0 5 2 4 1 12 Jackson Co. 6 (E of Michigan River) G RL 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 Case Flats R RL 1 8 2 3 14 10 38 Jackson Co. 12 Y on G RL 0 3 3 0 2 1 9 Jackson Co. 6 (W of Michigan River) B RL 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 E of Walden G on B RL 1 0 2 0 0 1 4 Boettcher Jct. S. G. Y LL 0 0 15 8 5 1 29 Alkali Lake S. G. R on Y LL 4 0 24 20 2 2 52 Walden S. G. Y on B LL 0 0 8 7 0 2 17 Monahan Draw S. G. B on G LL 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 Riley S. G. Ron LL 0 0 1 4 0 0 5 New Cowdrey S. G. B LL 0 0 2 7 0 0 9 Y on R LL 0 0 3 12 1 4 20 9 14 90 80 54 41 288 Jackson County 33 Jackson Co. 7 (5-7 mi Sof , } Wattenburg #2 S. G. Total L. John) B I N \0 I �-30- •• •• •• •• •• •• •• ••• •• •• •• .- 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 Q Z 60 ::) o 50 ~ C!) z o 30 10 DAY E (mo./day) 4/24 4/27 4/28 4/305/2 I MALES Fi 9 .1. A 1k ~ ,Ii L a k eSt rut tin 5/5 5/8 5/13 5/14 ! FEMALES 9 G r 0 u n d, 19 73. 5/17 �Q Z ~ o t.: C) z I o W •..... I l:1li: UoI &G I no grouse ~ z DATE 4/25/13 Fig.a. 4/26/13 Boettcher !!FEMALES 4/28/13 4/30/13 Lake Jet. Strutting .MAL ES 5/2/13 5/4/13 Ground. 5/1/13 5/16/13 �-34- and unsprayed strips were indistinguishable. Therefore, in most of the strip sprayed areas there was little change in gross habitat features and one wouldn't suspect nesting incidence to be substantially altered. The Lake John area appears to contain poor nesting habitat, as evidence by low numbers of nests and broods located. However, the Walden Reservoir area two miles east of the study area has possibly the best nesting habitat in North Park. Two miles is not a great distance for hens to travel in search of ~ nesting site (Autenrieth 1970). During the upcoming segment, extensive efforts will be made to survey areas near Walden Reservoir and other apparently suitable nesting locations throughout North Park in search of females banded in the Lake John area. This work will test the hypothesis that sage grouse disperse throughout North Park during the summer as well as in winter (see section on Winter Movements). Brood Counts Three hundred and sixty-seven sage grouse were seen in the study area from 11 June through 23 August 1973. Of these, 154 were adult males, 55 were unclassified, with the remainder being hens and broods. A total of 71 adult females.were observed with 32.4 percent (23) of these having broods. Average brood size was determined for hens where complete counts of broods were made. The average brood size was 4.05 chicks per hen for 19 broods. The young per adult female ratio was 1.15:1. No large decrease in brood size was evident as the summer progressed nor were any hens seen with more than six chicks. This is contrary to the general pattern of hens "adopting" chicks from several broods in late summer as reported by Patterson (1952). A partial explanation may be in the delayed hatch in 1973 as indicated from juvenile wing molt (see Harvest Data). Previous researchers in North Park (Gill 1965, Carr 1967, Poley 1969, May 1970) all reported concentrations of broods along stream bottoms during the summer. However, of the 23 broods found in 1973 only one was along a stream bottom. Well distributed rains throughout the summer resulted in apparent abundance of succulent forbs in sagebrush areas and may be the reason that concentrations of grouse were not observed in meadows. Vegetation Transects Relative frequencies of forbs, grasses, and shrubs for 1973 are presented in Table 4. There were no significant differences (P < .05) in relative frequencies of shrubs, forbs, and grasses between sprayed and unsprayed areas. Comparisons of relative frequencies with results of previous workers are of little value due to varying weather conditions and differing times of the year when measurements were taken. Density of sagebrush by age classes was determined on each plot and is presented in Table 5. Comparisons of sagebrush densities for 1973 can be compared to densities recorded in 1964 and 1966 as abundance of sagebrush is not dependent upon weather conditions for that year. Spraying of sagebrush with 2,4-D was conducted during June, 1965, so densities for 1964 and 1966 represent the pre- and post-spray years (Table 6). �-35Table 4. Relative frequencies by major plant groupings, 1973. Values are means from 4 sprayed plots and 3 unsprayed plots in each sage type. ~/ Growth Form Forbs Grass Sage Total Shrubs Including Sage Al Sprayed 35.3 43.0 9.6 21.6 Al Unsprayed 42.4 32.3 12.9 24.9 A2 Sprayed 31.0 46.8 9.3 22.1 A2 Unsprayed 36.1 33.9 14.7 29.8 A3 Sprayed 19.2 53.3 14.5 27.4 A3 Unsprayed 23.4 51.6 18.2 24.9 ~/ All values are in percent. Table 5. Densities of Artemisia tridentata. Al Sprayed Unsprayed Seedling-Young: Strip Block x Mature-Decadent: Strip Block x 1.6 8.0 4.8 56.0 11.6 33.8 A2 Sprayed Unsprayed 1.2 22.4 8.1 15.2 55.0 14.5 11.2 12.9 5.5 11.8 l3.8 12.8 1.7 31.9 23.9 27.9 85.7 27.9 34.0 31.0 12.6 40.2 42.1 41.1 A3 Sprayed Unsprayed 4.1 43.8 38.2 41.0 25.9 32.6 22.2 19.0 20.6 47.6 6.6 19.8 12.9 16.3 12.7 8.1 47.8 34.0 50.9 30.8 74.6 29.0 25.6 27.3 53.7 Dead: Strip Block x Seedling-Young: Strip Block x Mature-Decadent: Strip Block x 8.5 13.1 10.8 4.8 24.6 14.7 72.3 33.5 52.9 Dead: Strip Block x 22.8 41.8 32.4 23.2 17.3 20.4 21.8 15.6 �-36- Table 6. Densities of sagebrush by age classes and growth forms, 1964, 1966, 1973. Growth Form Type of Plot Al Sprayed AI Unsprayed A2 Sprayed A2 Unsprayed A3 Sprayed. A3 Unsprayed Densit~ of Sagebrush (Plants/IOO ft~ 1964i7 196627 1973 Seedling- MatureSeedling- MatureSeedling- MatureYoung Decadent Young Decadent Young Decadent 1.0 6.0 76.0 50.0 28.0 22.0 0.1 10.0 4.8 33.8 0.0 44.0 1.2 55.0 3.0 11.0 15.0 13.0 0.8 29.0 4.0 32.6 43.0 15.0 41.0 20.6 137.0 68.0 26.0 47.6 1./ From Gill 1965. J:../ From Carr 1967. Table 6 may at first glance, pose more questions than provide answers in regard to changes in sagebrush densities. One should first examine the data for each year for relationships rather than just for numbers. The control year, 1964 requires little explanation. From the 1966 data, collected one year after spraying, it is apparent that sagebrush densities in sprayed plots were lower within each growth form. Thus, it would appear that spraying substantially reduced the amount of sagebrush. Two important relationships are apparent in the 1973 data. First, in all growth forms, the density of seedling and young plants in sprayed plots exceeded the density in the unsprayed plots. This indicates the sagebrush is re-invading the sprayed areas. Second, densities of mature and decadent sagebrush in sprayed plots are still less than those found in unsprayed plots, thus sprayed areas have not regenerated to the stage they were eight years ago. Based on the 1973 data, it is apparent that sprayed areas are still in the recuperative stage following the spraying in 1965. The major discrepancy in Table 6 is found in the unsprayed plots in the A-3 growth form. In both 1964 and 1966 density of seedlings and young plants greatly exceeded density of mature plants, yet in 1973 the reverse was true. One possible, and probable, explanation is observer differences in classifying plants as either young or mature. In all plots total shrub occurrence is greater than sage occurrence, primarily due to the high incidence of snakeweed (Gutierrezia) found in the area. No mention of this species was made by previous researchers. �-37- Summer Movements and Distribution Movements were determined from 20 band recoveries obtained during the hunting season and from 6 observations of color banded birds during the summer. Of the 20 birds killed during the season, 9 were banded on spring concentration areas and 11 were banded on strutting grounds. The birds banded on strutting grounds (1 female and 10 males) moved an average distance. of 3.1 miles, with a range of 0.5 to 5.5 miles. The nine birds banded on spring concentration areas (6 females and 3 males) moved an average of 10.4 miles with a range of 1.5 to 20 miles. Three of these birds (two females and male) moved 17, 20 and 17.5 miles, respectively. Of the six marked birds observed in mid-summer, five were males banded on strutting grounds. These birds had moved an average of 2.6 miles, with a range of 1.2 to 7.2 miles. One unclassified bird which had been banded on a spring concentration area was seen 5.5 miles from this area in late August. a Average distance traveled for females (N = 7) was 9.5 miles, with a range of 2 to 20 miles, whereas the average distance traveled by males (N = 13) was 4.7 miles, with a range of 0.5 to 17.5 miles. The long female movements were to the south. Sample sizes were too small to detect any pattern in directional movements. Distribution information is based on the sighting of 405 birds in the Lake John area from 11 June to 30 September 1973. Thirty-one percent (127) of all birds sighted were in treated areas. Most of these birds were seen in crested wheat (Agropyron spicatum) and rye (Elymuss spp.) fields. No birds were seen in the large block spray area. According to observation data, no grouse fed on the wheatgrass or rye. There is a substantial stand of young sagebrush in these fields, which were disked and seeded in 1961. The large number of sightings in the crested wheatgrass field may be biased as the field is along a major road through the study area and birds are more visible in grass cover. Of the 127 grouse seen in treated areas, 100 were adult males. From these observations, it is apparent that treated areas are being utilized by sage grouse, primarily bachelor flocks of males. Harvest Data Results of the 1973 check station operations are presented in Table 7 as part of the 18 year summary. The age ratio in the harvest was 91 juveniles: 100 adults. Sex ratios were determined for each age class, with a ratio of of 69 males: 100 females for juveniles and 44 males: 100 females for adults. The 17 year pooled data ratios are 78 males:lOO females for juveniles, and 55 males: 100 females for adults. All juvenile wings were aged in order to estimate the peak of hatch (Eng 1955). Data from 60 wings indicated that 75 percent of the young hatched between 10 June and 30 June. The peak week was June 17-23 (35 percent), roughly eight weeks after the peak of mating activity. This is considerably longer than reported by others (Patterson 1952, Griner 1939), but may be explained by adverse weather conditions during the spring of 1973. The young to adult female ratio in the harvest varied little from the ratio obtained from brood counts, 1.3:1 and 1.15:1, respectively. �Table 7. Year North Park sage grouse hunter checks, 1955-1973.·Y Bag Limit 2 1955 1956 3 2 1957 1958 2 1959 3 1960 1961 3 1962 2 1963 2 2 1964 1965 2:../ 2 2 1966 1967 2 2 1968 2 1969 2 1970 2 1971 2 1972 2 1973 Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Cocks 221 349 198 285 257 641 1,251 728 863 1,003 47 119 45 51 72 193 551 592 217 150 306 300 546 662 564 357 452 366 612 2,001 2,460 624 626 1,227 1,177 2,604 2,936 2,617 1,802 2,377 1,599 Adult Hens Percent Adults 41 46 132 48 70 58 71 45 151 67 No checks made 66 91 69 12 44 38 42 62 150 25 81 59 27 30 49 31 116 56 50 127 67 42 135 80 180 70 79 58 55 89 28 51 67 67 50 69 52 24 54 Birds Hours Unclassified Per Hunted (Dressed) Total Birds Birds Hunter Per Bird Juvenile Cocks Juvenile Hens Percent Juvenile 48 122 36 48 40 85 150 46 102 68 59 52 42 55 33 57 129 25 150 44 283 652 222 422 375 1.28 1.67 1.12 1.48 1.46 2.27 1. 92 3.28 2.05 2.67 37 34 113 28 26 45 42 156 37 53 54 40 29 35 29 181 45 26 71 46 141 74 66 39 18 42 31 56 58 41 51 44 33 58 30 45 49 33 48 39 393 - 3/ 268 506 506 179 116 263 267 512 569 266 264 253 193 1.39 0.91 1.03 0.82 0.77 0.86 0.89 0.94 0.86 0.47 0.74 0.56 0.53 2.28 3.95 4.86 I 3.49 w 00 5.40 I 4.67 4.41 5.09 5.16 9.84 6.83 9.40 8.28 l/ Based on Walden and Cowdrey check station data during opening weekends. 2:../ A one day season; hence only a one day check. 1/ Composition of kill projected from wing samples; hence no unclassified birds. - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ -]j 199 76 76 44 �-39- Delineation of Winter Distribution One hundred thirty sage grouse flocks were sighted, amounting to 2,755 birds. The winter period was divided into four two-week periods. Number of flocks and total birds seen during each period are presented in Table 8. No explanation is presently available for the pattern of sightings. Weather data alone (average high and low temperatures and precipitation for the period) do not provide evidence that climatic factors affected frequency of sightings nor flock size. As can be seen from Table 9, the winter of 1973-74 was warmer than the winter of 1972-73 in North Park. The location of each flock was plotted by period observed to detect obvious shifts in areas utilized during the winter. No significant changes were apparent. In general, sage grouse could be found throughout the winter anywhere that sagebrush was available above the existing snow cover. It appeared that flocks were very mobile, showing little fidelity to a certain area. However, six areas of heavy use were evident from the plotted locations of 130 flock sightings. Sixty-eight percent (N = 130) of the flocks, and 71 percent of the birds observed were seen in these six areas (Table 10). These six areas comprise less than 27 square miles of the 611 square miles of sagebrush lands in North Park (Rogers 1964). Undoubtedly, acreage of sagebrush in North Park has been reduced due to sagebrush control activities since Roger's work in the early 1960's. The exact acreage of disturbed sagebrush lands in North Park is presently unknown. This will be investigated during the 1974 field period. One estimate is that less than 15 percent of the 611 square miles of sagebrush lands have been altered. Approximately 75 percent of the sagebrush lands provided possible habitat for sage grouse in the winter of 197374. Most areas where snow completely covered the sagebrush were in the southern part of North Park, where elevations range 500-600 feet higher than in the northern part. The indicated heavy usage of these 27 square miles of sagebrush lands shows selectivity by grouse rather than random distribution throughout the available sagebrush lands. Birds could not always be found in preferred areas, indicating movement into and out of the area. Flock sizes in these areas varied and since birds are not individually marked, it was impossible to tell if a particular flock was habitually in an area. It was also impossible to judge stability in numbers of a flock. There were no significant differences in the vegetal and physical characteristics measured between the six heavy use areas and the remaining areas of sightings. At present, data are not available to show obvious reasons for birds selecting these areas. These six areas were not searched more frequently than otheI less productive areas, thus eliminating the bias of heavy use due to a high frequency of observation time. Searches for sage grouse were conducted during 60 days during the winter period. At least one or more of the six heavy use areas was searched on 34 of the total days. Areas that were subsequently determined to be used lightly or not at all were covered on at least 25 days during the period. �Table 8. Observations of sage grouse flocks, North Park, winter 1974. Time Period Hours of Search Total Flocks Flocks Observed/ Hour Total Birds Birds Observed/ Hour 70 18 0.26 283 4.0 17 191 1 52 - 40 121.5 45 0.37 826 6.8 23 305 17 427 5 94 Male Flocks No. of Total Flocks Birds Female Flocks No. of Total Flocks Birds Unclassified No. of Total Flocks Birds 1/ January 8January 21 January 22 February 7 I February 8 - .p- o I 107 21 ']j 0.20 576 5.4 10 206 7 290 3 80 March 8 110 46 0.42 1,070 9.7 17 192 25 693 4 185 Total 408.5 130 0.32 2,755 6.7 67 894 50 1,462 12 399 February 21 February 22- 1/ One flock of 50 percent males and females. ~/ Includes unclassified birds from male and female flocks. �1/ 2/ Table 9. Temperature- and precipitation- data for winter months, North Park. November ~:ean Daily Me an Nax. Hin. Daily Pp t , Winter 1973-74 37.2 17.4 27.3 Winter 1972-73 33.3 9.2 ~~x. December Daily Mean Hin. Daily Mean Ppt. Max. January Daily ~~an Hin. Daily 1.91 31.4 6.6 19.0 0.69 25.4 2.5 21.3 0.31 24.5 3.0 13.8 1.51 21.7 -4.3 28.2 0.48 17.0 0.57 Hean Ppt. Mean Max. February Daily Mean Hin. Daily Ppt. Mean Max. March Daily Mean Min. Daily Ppt. 14.0 0.99 29.2 2.8 16.0 0.18 41.6 20.6 31.1 0.94 8.7 0.25 25.0 -5.6 9.7 0.03 33.8 8.1 21.0 0.54 12.9 0.53 17.6 0.42 22.6 0.39 "Average" Winterl/ I .;- •... I 11 In degrees Fahrenheit. !:. / In inches. .~/ Averages for 1961-67 (temperature) and 1961-70 (precipitation). �-42- Only two of the six heavy use areas are in the original intensive study area. One, the California Gulch area (No.4, Table 10) is the only area in the Lake John study area where wintering sage grouse were located in the winters of 1963-64, 1964-65 and 1965-66 (Gill 1965, Carr 1967). Both of these researchers reported concentrations of birds along Colorado State Highway 125 north of Walden. This area corresponds to winter use area number two in Table 10. Birds banded on Lake John complex strutting grounds were observed in each of the six high use areas. Characterization of Winter Flocks Sage grouse in North Park are gregarious, being found in flocks most of the time. Only nine single birds (seven males, two females) were seen in the winter of 1973-74 out of a total of 2,755 birds observed. Strong segregation by sexes is evident in sage grouse flocks. Of the 118 flocks classified, 74 percent (87) were composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex (Table 11). Male flocks were smaller than female flocks, averaging 11 birds, compared to 32 females per flock. Flock size was less than 50 birds in 92 percent of all cases. The strong segregation of sexes and differing flock sizes suggests the possibility of differential niche selection within the sagebrush vegetation type. This question will be further investigated in the next segment, as present data indicate no apparent differences in characteristics of areas used by male and female flocks. Characterization of Winter Use Sites The vegetal characteristics for 68 flock locations are presented in Table 12. Measurements were not taken at all flock locations as this required flushing the birds which would prevent trapping during the night. In these situations, strong winds and snowfall would frequently change characteristics of the site before the area could be revisited the following day. Measurements were only taken at sites where the sex classification of the flock could be determined, thus eliminating 13 flock locations. Statistical analysis of this data has not been completed. The only difference appears to be that female flocks may be utilizing denser stands of sagebrush than male flocks. Slope appears to be a significant factor in selection of a use site by sage grouse. The average percent slope for areas used by female flocks was 4.9, and for male flocks was 6.9. Sixty-four percent (N = 87) of the areas had slopes less than 5 percent, while only 2 percent of the areas had slopes greater than 15 percent. Many areas of North Park have abundant sagebrush available during the winter on slopes greater than 15 percent, but few birds were ever seen in these areas. Eng and Schladweiler (1972) noted that sage grouse winteriIlg in the Winnet area in central Montana utilized nearly level terrain, avoiding areas of steep slopes even though such areas had dense stands of sagebrush. Aspect also appears to be a significant factor in site selection. Seventyone percent (N = 86) of the flock locations were on south, southwest, or west faciIlg slopes. The prevailing wind in North Park is from the southwest and strong wiIlds were present most days during the study period. �Table 10. Areas of high use by wintering sage grouse, North Park. Description Area Approximate Square Miles No. of Flocks Observed Total Birds Observed 1 NE 1/4 Sect. 13, E 1/2 Sect. 12; R80W, T10N Sect. 18, W 1/2, SE 1/4 Sect. 7; R79W, T10N 2.5 14 114 2 SE 1/4 Sect. 19, S 1/2 Sect. 20, SW 1/4 Sect. 27, S 1/2, NW 1/4 Sect. 28, Sect. 29, E 1/2 Sect. 32, Sect. 33, Sect. 34; R79W, T10N N 1/2 Sect. 3, N 1/2 Sect. 4, NE 1/4 Sect. 5, R79W 6.5 16 214 19 223 p T9N I 3 SE 1/4 Sect. 1, E 1/2 Sect. 12, NE 1/4 Sect. 13; R81W, T9N SW 1/4 Sect. 7, NW 1/4, S 1/2 Sect. 18, N 1/2 Sect. 19; R80W, T9N 2.5 4 SE 1/4 Sect. 7, S 1/2 Sect. 8, N 1/2, SE 1/4, Sect. 17, W 1/2 Sect. 16, NE 1/4 Sect. 20, Sect. 21; R80W, T10N 3.25 8 179 5 E 1/2 Sect. 7, SW 1/4 Sect. 8, SW 1/4 Sect. 16, Sect. 17, E 1/2 Sect. 18, E 1/2 Sect. 19, Sect. 20, Sect. 21, SW 1/4 Sect. 22, W 1/2 Sect. 27, Sect. 28, Sect. 29, NE 1/4 Sect. 30, NE 1/4 Sect. 33; R78W, T9N 8.25 19 866 6 S 1/2 Sect. 31, S 1/2 Sect. 32: R78W, T8N W 1/2, NE 1/4 Sect. 5, Sect. 6, N 1/2 Sect. 7, NW 1/4 Sect. 8, R78W, T7N 3.5 13 371 26.5 89 1,967 Total f } .j::W I �-44- Table II. Sex composition of winter flocks of sage grouse, North Park. 1/ Size of Flock 51-59 60-69 Percent in Flock 70-79 80-89 90-100 Total Males 0-9 1 2 1 29 33 10-19 1 3 21 25 20-29 1 2 3 6 1 3 6 54 67 3 2 11 16 10-19 1 2 12 15 20-29 1 2 2 5 30-39 1 1 2 5 40-49 3 3 75-99 1 1 50-74 1 1 Sub-total 1 2 4 Females 0-9 >100 Sub-total 1 1 2 2 5 6 2 9 33 50 117 Total 1 8 6 15 87 Percent of all Flocks 1 7 5 13 74 1/ Excluding one flock of 50:50 males and females. �-45- Table 12. Vegetal characteristics of winter use sites. N Mean Sagebrush Density (Plants/O.Ol Acre) Mean Height of Sagebrush Above Snow (em) Mean of Average Crown Breadth of Sagebrush (cm) M 16 50.8 25.1 47.6 0-9 F 9 67.7 26.0 50.1 10-19 M 15 42.6 18.9 . 48.9 10-19 F 7 79.4 19.4 42.6 20-29 M 5 47.2 27.2 56.6 20-29 F 5 55.2 20.4 55.2 30-39 F 4 71.5 20.8 38.6 40-49 F 2 61.5 25.5 67.7 50-74 M 2 60.0 12.5 31.4 75-99 F 1 35.0 20.0 56.0 >100 F 2 59.5 21.0 59.9 x for male flocks N = 38 47.6 22.3 48.4 x for female flocks N = 30 66.8 22.3 51.0 No. in Flock Main Sex of Flock 0-9 Winter Movements A total of 71 banded birds were seen in the winter of 1973-74, of which only five were females. Of the 66 banded males sighted, 51 were banded with colored bandettes. Average distance traveled from banding sites for males was 6.7 miles (N = 51), and for females 11.9 miles (N = 5). The small number of female sightings prevents valid comparisons with males. Eighty-four percent(N = 51) of the male movements were in the following four directions: north, northeast, east, southeast. This corresponds strongly with the directions of the main winter use areas from banding sites. The longest movement was 21.8 miles by a male trapped on a strutting ground in May, 1973. There are several possibilities as to why so few banded females were~bserved. One is that females have a higher mortality rate than males, thus red~ing the number of banded females in the winter population. Another possibility is that there are many more females in the population than males, thus �-46- resulting in more unbanded females in relation to banded females than is the case for males. A third possibility is that major areas of winter use by banded females were not located. Observational data from the winter of 1973-74 support the second possibility. Of the 2,755 birds observed, 2,356 were classified as to sex. The sex ratio of these 2,356 birds was 61 males:lOO females (894:1,462). This represents a significant deviation from a 1:1 sex ratio and is distorted in favor of females. This ratio is very similar to that (55 males:lOO females) derived from pooled harvest data for adults from 1955-1973. Of the 1,462 females observed, 886 were definitely unbanded, while only 5 were banded. The maximum number of banded females in the population was 102 (number banded in spring minus known hunting mortality). Of the 894 males observed, 462 were definitely unbanded and 66 were banded. The maximum number of banded males in the population was 166. The much lower ratio of banded to unbanded birds for females supports the observed distorted sex ratio. Further evidence which supports the observed ratio is the sex ratio of juvenile birds in the harvest. The sex ratio determined from check stations over the period 19551973 is 78 males:lOO females. Efforts will be made during the next research segment to document seasonal movements of females and extensive searches for female flocks will be conducted. Aerial Search Aerial censuses were flown along random transect lines in North Park on February 21-22 and March 17, 1974. The flights in February were conducted under ideal observing conditions, bright sun and fresh snow cover. The southern half of North Park was covered on 21 February. The search was halted by a low cloud mass moving in from the north. The north half of North Park was covered the following day. Five flocks totaling 108 birds were counted. An extrapolation of this figure (108 birds, 9 percent of the area) would result in a sage grouse population of 1,200 birds. This is suspected to be a low estimate. It is important to note that none of the transects included any of the six high use areas. Two transects passed along the boundaries of two wintering areas. The possibility of using an orderly random census method to include these areas will be investigated next winter. The second flight, on 17 March resulted in few observations, 3 flocks and 27 birds, due to poor visibility caused by patchiness of snow cover. The Lake John study area was 90 percent bare ground on 8 March and observation of grouse flocks in this area would have been most difficult. The plotted sightings of grouse flocks were used in outlining winter distribution. Analysis of Data from Previous Years Graphs were made in attempts to correlate various weather characteristics, strutting ground counts, brood counts, and harvest in a multitude (greater than 60) of combinations. However, no visible correlations existed. �-47- Regression values will be calculated for two possible correlations which compare percent of juveniles in harvest to the number of days where minimum temperatures were below 00 C during the months of May and June. Results of all correlations will be presented in the final report. LITERATURE CITED Autenrieth, R. E. 1969. Sage grouse investigations. Rept. Idaho Fish and Game Dept. 25 p. Mimeo. Third Annual Prog. 1970. Sage grouse investigations. Fourth Annual Prog. Rept. Idaho Fish and Game Dept. 21 p. Mimeo. Bean, R. 1941. Life history studies of the sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in Clark County, Idaho. M. S. Thesis, Utah State Agric. Coll., Logan. Bent, A. C. 1932. Life histories of North American gallinaceous birds. Smithsonian Inst., U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 162. 490 p. Braun, C. E., and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow apd wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. In Haugen, A. o. (Ed.). 1971. Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium, Iowa State University, Ames. 280 p. Carr, H. D. 1967. Effects of sagebrush control on abundance, distribution, and movements of sage grouse. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Game Res. Rept., Proj. W-37-R-20. 106 p. Crunden, C. W. 1963. Age and sex of sage grouse from wings. Mgmt. 27(4):846-849. J. Wildl. Dalke, P. D., D. B. Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, J. E. Crawford, and E. F. Schlatterer. 1963. Ecology, productivity and management of sage grouse in Idaho. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 27(4):811-841. Ellison, L. N. 1973. Seasonal social organization and movements of spruce grouse. Condor 75(4):375-385. Eng, R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 19(2):267-272. _____ , and P. Schladweiler. 1972. Sage grouse winter movements and habitat use in central MOntana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 36(1):141-146. Gill, R. B. 1965. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and movements of sage grouse. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Game Res. Rept., Part 3. W-37-R-17. 185 p. Griner, L. A. 1939. A study of the sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), with special reference to life history, habitat requirments, and numbers and distribution. M. S. Thesis. Utah State Agric. ColI. 83 p. �-4B- Gullion, G. W. 1970. The ruffed grouse in northern Minnesota. Univ. Minnesota. Forest Wildl. Relations Proj. 37 p. Multilith. Hoffman, R. W. 1973. Migration of white-tailed ptarmigan to and from a major wintering area. Colorado Div. of Wildlife, Job Prog. Rept. W-37-R-26. 30 p. June, J. W. 1967. Sage, blue and ruffed grouse sexing and aging characteristics. Wyoming Game and Fish Comm. 59 p. Klebenow, D. A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting and brood habitat in Idaho. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(3):649-661. 1970. Sage grouse versus sagebrush control in Idaho. 23(6): 396-400. -----, and G. M. Gray. 196B. Range Mgmt. 21(2):BO-B3. J. Range Mgmt. Food habits of juvenile sage grouse. J. Koskimies, J. 1957. Flocking behavior in capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus (1.), and blackgame, Lyrurus tetrix (L). Finnish Papers on Game Research No. lB. 32 p. Lumsden, H. G. 196B. The displays of the sage grouse. Res. Rept. (Wildlife) No. B3. Ontario Dept. of Lands and Forests. 94 p. Martin, N. S. 1970. Sagebrush control related to habitat and sage grouse occurrence. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(2):313-320. May, T. A. 1970. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Job Prog. Rept. Proj. W-37-R-23, Work Plan 3, Job Ba. 23 p. Oakleaf, R. J. 1971. The relationship of sage grouse to upland meadows in Nevada. Nevada Dept. of Fish and Game. Job Final Report W-4B-2. 64 p. Patterson, R. L. 1952. Denver. 341 p. The sage grouse in Wyoming. Sage Books, Inc. Peterson, J. G. 1970. The food habits and summer distribution of juvenile sage grouse in central Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34(1):147-155. Poley, B. E. 1969. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Job Compl. Rept. Proj. W-37-R-22, Work Plan 3; Job Ba. 31 p. Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Fish and Parks Dept. Tech. Pub. 16. 132 p. Colo. Game, �-49- Scott, J. W. 498. 1942. Mating behavior of the sage grouse. Auk 59(10):477- Seiskari, P. 1962. On the winter ecology of the capercai11ie, Tetrao uroga11us, and the black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix, in Finland. Finnish Papers on Game Research No. 22. 119 p. Walles tad , R. O. 1971. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse broods in central Montana. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. 35(1):129-136. _____ , and D. B. Pyrah. 1973. Movements and nesting requirements of sage grouse hens in central Montana. J. Wi1d1. Mgmt. (In Press). _____ , J. G. Peterson, and R. L. Eng. grouse in central Montana. 1973. Food habits of adult sage J. Wi1dl. Mgmt. (In Press). Weeden, R. B. 1964. Spatial separation of sexes in rock and willow ptarmigan in winter. Auk 81(4):534-541. ~d~· J~'...........;d;.."..-;;.~-----=-~_ Prepared By_J=--:;;~~· Thomas D. I. Beck Graduate Research Assistant ��April 1974 -51- JOB State of Project FINAL REPORT CO::..::..:LO=RAD=~O _ W-37-R-27 No. Work Plan No. Game Bird Survey Job Nc. 8 Job Title Inventory Period April 1, 1959 to March Covered: Personnel: of Lesser Prairie 2 _ Chickens 31, 1974. Charles H. Gibson and Elmer Miller, U. S. Forest Service, Glen Eyre, Lloyd Hazzard, Daniel Potts, Walter Schuett, Warren Snyder and Donald Hoffman, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRAcr A basic inventory of lesser prairie chickens (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) was conducted during the four year period from 1959 through 1962 in southeastern Colorado. A re-inventory was completed during the two year period from 1972 through 1973, approximately 10 years after the basic inventory on this species. During the spring of 1962, 130 lesser prairie chickens were counted on 13 active grounds. Included in this total were 104 cocks, one hen and 25 unclassified as to sex. Total numbers of lesser prairie chickens counted in the spring of 1973 on 10 active booming grounds was 129, and included 60 cocks, 5 hens, and 64 unclassified as to sex. In occupied ~ habitat southeast of Holly, Colorado in Prowers County, two booming grounds were active in 1962 and 1972. Only the one ground nearest the state line was being used in 1973. Populations had increased from a total of 14 on two grounds in 1962 to 28 on the one ground in 1973, indicating redistribution had occurred. Extensive disking to reduce sand sagebrush and increase grasses in 1962 on privately owned grazing lands resulted in no apparent changes in habitat by 1973. In two areas southwest and southeast of Campo, Colorado in Baca County, three booming grounds were located during the period 1959 through 1962. All three grounds, however, had disappeared by 1972. No major habitat changes or land use practices were noted in comparing 1973 with 1962 but an isolation factor may have resulted in their disappearance. In occupied habitat south of the towns of Vilas and Walsh in Baca County, 69 lesser prairie chickens were counted on six active booming grounds in 1962 compared with 72 lessers counted on seven active booming grounds in 1973. Populations have remained relatively stable, even though two grounds on private land disappeared with large scale gravel mining operations, and two grounds apparently moved for unknown reasons. Five new grounds were established since 1962 to stabilize this population. In the area south of the Cimarron River in Baca County, three active booming grounds with a total of 31 birds were counted in 1962, compared with a total of 29 birds counted on two active booming grounds in 1973. Populations have remained relatively stable, even though some redistribution has occurred. Fewer resident farm families, additional clearing of sand sagebrush habitat for farmground, and installation of several circular sprinkler systems were changes noted from 1962 to 1973. �-52RECOMM:ENDATIONS Continued spring counts of lesser prairie chickens on booming grounds are reconunended for this species, which has been classified as endangered in Colorado. Occupied habitats in Colorado are on the northwestern fringe of their historical range, so quality of habitat is 'lower than found in Oklahoma and Kansas. For this reason, booming grounds in Colorado are often not as permanent as those in higher quality range. Annual counts are reconunended since population shifts and changes are more easily determined than use of counts every five or 10 years. Only through periodic inventories can the future welfare of lesser prairie chickens be revealed. Future inventories should, however, be accomplished by Southeast Region personnel of the Division of Wildlife. Cooperative counts with personnel of the U. S. Forest Service for all booming grounds located on the Comanche National Grasslands are reconunended. Six inventory booklets listing all past counts and locations have been prepared for individuals involved and Wildlife Conservation Officers in the Springfield, Colorado and Lamar, Colorado districts have been orientated in ground locations and counting procedures. �-53- INVENTORY OF LESSER PRAIRIE CHICKENS Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the population status of lesser prairie chickens in Colorado. METHODS AND MATERIALS Early morning listening checks were made along roads and trails to locate booming grounds during the periods April through June, 1959 through 1962, and 1972 through 1973. Reports of past sightings were used along with surveys in preferred habitat types to locate populations. Most of the potential lesser prairie chicken habitat in Baca, Bent, Las Animas and Prowers counties were searched during the years of the study. Limited amounts of time were spent in Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Lincoln counties searching for populations without success. Potential lesser prairie chicken habitat along the Big Sandy Creek drainage from Chivington in Kiowa County to south of Hugo in Lincoln County was worked very little because of its inaccessibility. Numbers of males and females using booming grounds were determined through early morning counts. Flushing counts were secured on both accessible and inaccessible grounds. A partial inventory of known populations in southern Baca County was made by Warren D. Snyder in 1963. Persons living and working within lesser prairie chicken viewed to secure leads on locations of new flocks. ranges were inter- Maps of locations of booming grounds were drawn for future reference inventory booklets were prepared to assist in future inventories. and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 lists highest numbers of lesser prairie chickens counted by individual booming ground and by year during the years 1959-1962 and 1972-73. Data for 1963 when only a partial count was secured is also included in Table 1. Grounds were numbered consecutively by date located, and individual grounds were further identified by land ownership in naming the grounds. Where more than one ground was located on an individual landowner's place, these were designated by the letters b, c, d, etc., in the order located. The map locations of all known booming grounds (active and abandoned) are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. Total numbers of birds counted in 1973 on 10 active booming grounds were approximately equal to the number counted in 1962 on 13 active grounds (129 in 1973 compared with 130 in 1962, Table 1). Only five of the 13 active grounds being used in 1962 were still active in 1973. Of the 130 birds counted in 1962, 104 were cocks, one was a hen and 25 were unclassified as to sex (Table 1). Of the 129 birds counted in 1973, 60 were cocks, five were hens, and 64 were unclassified as to sex (Table 1). �Table 1. Summary of highest lesser prairie chicken booming ground counts, 1959-1973. Booming Ground Number I ...;:t II) I Name Year 1959 Cocks Unclass. Hens Total 1 C. Low (a) 4 2 T. Sta1ford (a) 0 3 Dye, Glover (a) 2 4 T. Sta1ford (b) 5 T. Stalford (c) 6 Hanes (a) 7 Perkins, Tanner (a) 8 C. Low (b) 9 Hanes (b) 10 Dye, Glover (b) 11 T. Sta1ford (d) 12 Lowder (a) 13 Dye, Glover (c) 14 Schnauffer (a) 15 Chick, Dow (a) 16 Shell Oil (a) 17 Dye, Glover (d) 18 Dye, Glover (e) 19 Shell Oil (b) 20 Dye, Glover (f) 21 Schnauffer (b) 22 T. Sta1ford (e) Totals 2 0 2 6 4 0 8 0 8 6 8 4 18 1/ Counts by W. D. Snyder (1963). 1960 Cocks Unc1ass. Hens Total 1961 Cocks lhc1ass. Hens Total 1962 Cocks Unc1ass. Total Hens 1963.1. Cocks Unc1ass. Total Hens 1972 Cocks Unc1ass. Hens Total 1973 Cocks Unc1ass. Total Hens 7 10 6 7 2 6 2 0 5 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 9 12 11 7 2 6 6 4 0 7 0 2 12 0 0 Abandoned 5 0 8 0 0 13 10 9 12 5 1 0 10 0 3 12 0 3 Abandoned 13 0 3 12 0 8 Not counted Not counted 20 2 0 22 Abandoned Not counted 19 0 7 26 0 0 8 Abandoned 11 1 0 Abandoned 0 0 23 Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned 12 0 1 Abandoned 25 0 0 Abandoned 1 0 0 1 7 5 0 4 2 6 0 2 8 6 7 4 2 10 4 2 5 0 0 5 Not counted Abandoned 4 0 0 4 Not counted 17 1 0 18 0 1 15 16 Abandoned 0 0 13 13 0 0 7 7 11 0 11 0 0 0 3 3 Abandoned 0 0 20 Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned 10 0 5 15 1 0 Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned 5 0 0 4 0 3 4 0 0 76 4 49 39 7 2 48 56 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 6 0 1 7 0 0 3 4 0 13 13 38 100 4 0 2 7 0 1 Abandoned 5 0 1 2 0 0 13 0 3 7 0 0 Abandoned 9 0 1 5 0 0 104 1 25 6 13 15 16 20 6 8 6 2 16 7 10 5 130 45 125 2 59 8 12 23 20 15 16 5 7 4 110 13 25 Abandoned 12 1 15 Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned 12 0 2 13 3 0 Abandonecj Abandoned Abandoned Abandoned 2 0 6 7 0 0 6 1 3 0 0 4 1 3 0 8 7 10 4 4 64 129 60 5 28 14 16 �-55Populations and Habitat Changes by Area-1962 to 1973 (1) Area Southeast of Holly, Colorado in Prowers County (Fig. 1). Although two grounds (Table 1 and Fig. 1, numbers 1 and 8) were active in 1962 and 1972 only the one ground (number 8) nearest the state line was being used in 1973. Populations had increased from a total of 14 on the two grounds in 1962 to 28 on the one ground in 1973 (Table 1). Several large tracts, including the booming ground sites and 'surrounding areas were known to'have been disked in the spring of 1962 to reduce sand sagebrush and increase grasses on privately owned grazing lands. The sand sagebrush had recovered by 1972 with little evidence noted, except for scattered dead sand sagebrush stems. A large area to the west of the booming grounds was aerial sprayed with a herbicide in the spring of 1973 also, to reduce the amount of sand sagebrush and increase the grasses. (2) Areas Southwest and Southeast of Campo, Colorado in Baca County (Fig. 2). During the early 1960's, small isolated populations of lesser prairie chickens were found approximately five miles southwest of Campo, Colorado (Table 1, Fig. 2, ground number 7), and four to six miles southeast of Campo (Table 1, Fig. 2, ground numbers 14 and 15). Both of these isolated populations, however, had disappeared by 1972. All other resident populations in Colorado are in close proximity with populations in either Kansas or Oklahoma so it is possible that the isolation factor may have resulted in their eventual disappearance. No major apparent changes in habitat was found for either area in comparing 1973 with 1962 and land use practices appeared to be similar (3) Area South of Vilas and Walsh, Colorado in Baca County (Fig. 3). During 1962, a total of 69 lesser prairie chickens were counted on six ,active booming grounds in this area (Table 1, Fig. 3, numbers 3, 6, 10, 12, 13 and 16) compared with 72 lessers counted on seven activing booming grounds in 1973 (Table 1, Fig. 3, numbers 3, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, and 21). Populations have remained relatively stable even though two grounds on private land (Table 1, Fig. 3, numbers 6 and 9) have disappeared due to gravel mining operations, and two grounds on Federal lands (Fig. 3, numbers 16 and 17) have moved for unknown reasons. One ground (Fig. 3 number 17 was discovered in 1963, but was abandoned by 1972). There is little or no apparent change in habitat orland use patterns in this area except as noted above. This area is pri~ marily grazing lands within the Comanche National Grasslands, and appears to have the best potential for long term survival of the species in Colorado. (4) Area South of Cimarron River in Baca County (Fig. 3). Three booming grounds in the area south of the Cimarron River were active in 1962 (Table 1, Fig. 3, numbers 2, 5 and 11) with a total of 31 birds, and two (Table 1, Fig. 3, ground numbers 5 and 22) were being used in 1973 with a total of 29 birds, so populations appear to have remained relatively stable, even though some redistribution has occurred. One ground (Fig. 3, number 4) was discovered in 1960, but was abandoned in 1961. There were only two farm �R,.4IW. \ T. 23 S. 23 19 24 ..; I 26 ~ 25 I -- 2 II o . 27 26 2~ • o 21 H 26 25 30 "II 29 • =~:~i R ·~~~~[JJ~f~l=~tJi5:T~T~:;~~",3.-= -1. U.- ,. 28 I ~..=....--~ II II II • 6 I) V1 0\ I 5 /' . II II .2 7 0 0 / T 10 " 12 I I I I I I , r " 'I I I I 'IL _IF Q I I I I . t Fig. 1. County. Location and reference number (Table 1) of lesser prairie Active grounds (in 1973) are indicated in solid color. chicken booming grounds in Prowers �r~-~-~ KEY I N~ rl ---~''777777'7777777777'77'!". T\ J ----" 27 i I ~~ II _, • - II 26 / 30 25\ 2. 29 \ II ' II II ~~~ ~~~~~J' ,," ,," " W TOT ., I " - "" :: 27 II II II ~ :~~~~~~" bII II 33" ." :: 34 I 1 " \" - ~, 1," ::C "9'-. T.34S I VI ~ I En 36 ~·\'·b":~. ~ :~:~'., .e -. '; '::.>:;i.,.: :':'~-~>::::it::. 1t j 10 E~~ Fig. 2. Locations and reference numbers (Table 1) of lesser prairie chicken booming grounds central Baca County. All grounds shown on this map were classified as abandoned (in 1973). -,37(; in south- �N I II IIH - , I " 25 ![~. ~ '.H" Ilwz ~l-IrrT I " '\ q, ~::~, 30 Ii 29 ~ I 2. ~27 ~ ~ ii i 2. \:o"~ 25:1 t 29 r 2. 27 2. N , I~ .~ ~" II L •• :."'1 III i.1 SHEET:iI :::' ",~~ "',, z __ SHEET 51 I 32 [] I 33 34 fl 35 II 36 2 1 I 1 1 'I I ~ 121 I 2. 25 I t I I' II 3. II 31 I 32 I I 33 I 3' I 3S"':- 41 301 I" '~i I "r J" ,22 , 13 R.44W. I n: •.•• ~ vv "' Colo.' w I ra I '7 I I. I '5 I 11 " " 1 '2 I ,. :35J .- R.42W. Fig. 3. Locations and reference numbers (Table 1) of lesser prairie chicken booming grounds in ~outheastern Baca County. Active grounds (in 1973) are indicated in solid color. VI 00 I �-59- families residing in the area in 1972 and 1973, compared with four families in 1962, similar to trends in many farming areas of Colorado and elsewhere. Several circular sprinkler systems have been installed and are in use in this area. In addition, two large tracts near the booming ground locations of approximately one square mile each have been cleared of sand sagebrush and are now being farmed. These are farther west than previously farmed areas. The remaining sand sagebrush-grassland type appears similar to that of the early 1960's. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Basic inventories of lesser prairie chickens conducted during the period 1959 through 1962, and 1972 through 1973 indicated overall populations in Colorado have remained relatively stable during the period. Isolated populations southwest and southeast of Campo, Colorado in Baca County have disappeared, possibly due to an isolation factor. Overall status remained similar due to establishment of new grounds and redistribution of established populations. A total of 130 lesser prairie chickens was counted on 13 active booming grounds in 1962, compared with 129 on 10 active booming grounds in 1973. The total popUlation of lesser prairie chickens in Colorado is probably less than 250 birds based upon these inventory results. Annual counts to be accomplished by Southeast Region personnel of the Division of Wildlife are recommended since population shifts and changes are more easily determined than using periodic counts conducted every five or 10 years. The Colorado Division of Wildlife hosted the Tenth Conference of the Prairie Grouse Technical Council on September 5-7, 1973 in Lamar, Colorado. Fiftytwo people from various states with an interest in prairie grouse research and management attended. A proceeding of 22 pages was compiled and distributed to those attending. PUBLICATIONS RESULTING FROM STUDY Hoffman, D. M. 28-30. 1960. Prairie chicken comeback. Colorado Outdoors 9(3): 1963. The lesser prairie chicken in Colorado. 27(4):726-732. J. Wildl. Manage. 1965. Prospects for the extension of lesser pra~r~e chicken range in Colorado. Paper presented at Sixth Conference, Prairie Grouse Tech. Council, Warroad, Minnesota. September 14-16. 3 p. Mimeo. 1973. Changes in populations and habitats of lesser prairie chickens in Colorado, 1962 to 1973. Paper presented at Tenth Conference, Prairie Grouse Tech. Council, Lamar, Colo. September 5-7.7 p. Mimeo. (Compiler). 1973. Proceedings Tenth Conference Prairie Grouse_Tech. Council, Lamar, Colorado. Colo. Division of Wildlife, Denver. Sept. 5-7. 22 p. �-60- LITERATURE CITED Hoffman, D. M. 1959. Habitat requirements of lesser prairie chickens. Fed. Aid Job CampI. Rept. Proj. W-37-R-13. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish, Denver. p. 9-31. 1961. Census of lesser pra~r~e chickens. Fed. Aid Job CampI. Rept. Proj. W-37-R-14. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish, Denver. p. 195-201. 1962. Census of lesser prairie chickens. Fed. Aid Job Camp!. Rept., Proj. W-37-R-15. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish, Denver. p. 93-99. 1963. Census of lesser prairie chickens. Fed. Aid Job CampI. Rept., Proj. W-37-R-16. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Denver. p. 145149. 1973. Inventory of lesser pra~r~e chickens. Fed. Aid Job Prog. Rept., Proj. W-37-R-26. Colo. Division of Wildlife, Denver. (In Press). Prepared by i~~~ Donald M. Hoff Wildlife Researcher �-61 .... April, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~---~----W-37-R-27 Project No. Game Bird Survey --------------------~ Work Plan No. 10 Job No. 2 ----~-------------------------- Job Title Experimental Breeding of Hungarian Partridge Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974. Personnel: Many individuals have contributed to the completion of this study. A complete listing is found in Hoffman et a1. (1974b). ABSTR.,.\CT . Publications and a manuscript awaiting final editing covering results of this study include: Hoffman, D. M. 1973. Reproductive performance in the gray partridge. Ph.D. Dissertation. Dept. of Animal Science,Colorado State University, Fort Gollins. 89 p. _____ , C; L. Quarles,L. A. Webster, and L. R. Crooks. 1974a. Raising gray (Hungarian) partridge. Game Bird Breeders Gazette 23 (2):30-35. 1974b. Experimental propagation of ----, and gray partridges. Special Report. Colo. Division of Wildlife, Denver. (awaiting final editing and publication). ��-63- EXPERIMENTAL BREEDING OF HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGES Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop gamebird farm production techniques for Hungarian or gray partridges (Perdixperdix perdix). SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To compile data, summarize, and prepare final reports. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The objective of this study has been completed and three manuscripts have been written. Two of these manuscripts including an article submitted to the Game Bird Breeders Gazette and a Ph.D. dissertation have been either published or accepted. A third manuscript to be published in the Colorado Division of Wildlife's Special Report series was completed and submitted to the Small Game Section Leader on November 29, 1973. Final editing and publication will be accomplished during 1974. ,(' Prepared by .. (k~~<rrJ~~ Donald M~f~ Wildlife Researcher .. ��April 1974 -65- Jon l'ROGP-ESSREPORT State of . C::..'O::.:LOf ...=";A...:;T::...;) 0=---'- W-37-R-27 Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title _ Game Bird Survey ~~----~----------- 17 Job No. 2 Continued Inventory of Selected Ptarmigan Populations Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to October 20, 1973 Personnel: Clait E. Braun, Richard W. Hoffman, Tom Lytle and Charles Wagner. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) populations in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1973 with major emphasis in ascertaining popUlation levels and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding densities decreased on all areas studied except Crown Point where they increased. Reasons> for the observed decreases at Mt. Evans and Independence Pass were related to heavy htinter harvest in 1972. The continued decrease at Rocky Mountain National Park was related to lower overwinter hen survival and poor recruitment of sub,... adults into the breeding. popuLatLon , Nesting failed at Crown Point in 1973 and success was low (about 30 percent) on all areas studied •. The observed low nesting success was possibly related to age of females and late nesting due to cooler temperatures and late lying snow cover in 1973. Hunter interest was low in 1973 and pressure was almost non-existent at the two study areas open to hunting. ��-67- CONTINUED INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS Clait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. The initial 5 years of research on this grouse have been previously reported by Braun and Rogers (1971). This report presents data collected during the fourth year of the last 5-year segment. Data collected during the first three years of the second 5-year segment were presented by Braun (1971, 1972, 1973). P. S. OBJECTIVES To test the hypotheses that (1) populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic, (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June and early July of the same year, and (3) harvest of over 50 percent of the fall population adversely affects breeding densities the following spring. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in 4 study areas (Mt. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, and Rocky Mountain National Park). 2. To estimate nesting success and production in the above areas. 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlations between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. Manipulate hunting seasons at Mt. Evans through closures, reduced length, late timing, etc., in order to affect breeding densities. 5. To compile data and prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work Plan 17, Job 1 and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971), and updated by Braun (1971). In 1973 green bandettes with black numerals were used to mark all newly banded birds and those whose older bandettes had become too worn for individual recognition at Crown Point and Independence Pass. Yellow bandettes were used in Rocky MOuntain National Park, while white, green, yellow and blue bandettes were used at Mt. Evans. �-68- Weather data were obtained from the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for reasons previously explained (Braun 1971). Hunting statistics were collected through return of bands from successful hunters (Independence Pass and Crown Point). Description of Area Areas intensively investigated have been described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and have been presented by Braun (1971). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on May 5 in Rocky MOuntain National Park, with several pairs being observed along with lone males, and males with more than one female. Breeding surveys were initiated on May 11 at Mt. Evans, May 12 at Crown Point, and May 31 at Independence Pass. Most pairing in 1973 appeared to have occurred between May 1 and 15 except at Independence Pass where it appeared to have occurred in mid- to late May. While timing of breeding events was similar to that observed in most recent years except 1971, fidelity to breeding territories was sporadic due to frequent storms in May. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Table 1. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding densities, all areas, 1973. No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Males Total Breeding Population Birds per Square Mile 1.25 7 4 18 14.4 Toll Memorial .19 3 3 9 47.4 Fall River Pass .70 6 4 16 22.9 Total Rocky Mountain National Park 2.14 16 11 43 20.1 Crown Point 1.93 3 3 9 4.7 Mt. Evans 1.54 11 3 25 16.2 Independence Pass 1.12 8 3 19 17.0 Study Area - S. 1ze-1/ Rocky Mountain National Park Tombstone Ridge-Sundance Mtn. 1/ In square miles. �-69- Breeding densities in 1973 decreased o.nall study areas except Cro.wn Po.int f rom levels obse rve'd in 1972 as illustrated in Table 2. The significant increase at Cro.wn Po.int (fro.m1.0 to.4.7 birds per square mile) was expected earlier (1972), after the co.mp1ete remo.va1 o.f all breeding birds in 1971. It wo.uld appear that it takes at least two. years fo.ra po.pulatio.no.f ptarmigan to.reco.ver fo.11o.wingmajo.r lo.sses. This waS indicated fro.m earlier wo.rk at Mt. Evans (Braun 1971, 1972). Po.pulatio.nsat Mt. Evans o.n1y decreased abo.ut 3 birds per square mile fo.11o.wingthe o.verharvest (54 percent o.f the fall po.pu1atio.n)during the 1972 hunting seaso.n. Ho.wever, o.ver o.ne-ha1f (15 o.f 25) o.f the breeding birds at Mt. Evans in 1973 were subadu1ts, thus reflecting the heavy harvest of adults the preceding fall. At Independence Pass appro.ximate1y 60 percent (61.1) o.f the fall po.pu1atio.nwas harvested in 1972. While this o.verharvest was no.t reflected in a majo.r decline in breeding po.pulatio.nin 1973 (a decrease o.fo.n1y 1.7 birds per square mile), it was reflected in the age co.mpo.sitio.n o.f the breeding po.pu1atio.n. Only 3 o.f 19 birds were o.lder than 1 year. In co.ntrast, 35 o.f 43 breeding birds at Ro.cky Mo.untain Natio.na1 Park were o.lder than 1 year in 1973. The decrease o.bserved at R.M.N.P. in 1973 was the fo.urth year o.f the decline first o.bserved in 1970 (Table 2). This po.pu1atio.nhas no.w decreased by o.ne-third as the decline is the result o.f increased hen mortality and decreased recruitment of yo.ung birds into. the spring breeding po.pu1atio.n. With the exceptio.n o.f1970, the breeding po.pu1ation at Independence Pass has remained remarkably stable since 1966. Apparently, little affects the po.pulatio.nat this site except severe hunting pressure fo.r at least 2 successive years (Braun 1971). Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding densities 1966-73. Study Area 1966 1967 Birds Per Sguare Mile 1968 1971 1969 1970 1972 1973 Ro.cky Mo.untain Natio.na1 Park 29.0 25.2 29.4 30.8 24.8 23.4 22.4 20.1 Cro.wn Po.int 14.5 21.2 18.1 14.5 10.4 5.7 1.0 4.7 Mt. Evans 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.2 11.0 19.5 16.2 Independence Pass 18.7 18.7 18.7 17.9 10.7 21.4 18.7 17.0 Nesting Success and Pro.ductio.n Laying was initiated o.nmo.st areas by June 10, with incubatio.n underway as early as June 20. One nest was lo.cated in 1973, fo.und o.n June 20 with 5 eggs. This nest was unsuccessful as it was destro.yed by a weasel o.n June 22. The earliest calculated hatching date was July 23 and the latest was August 4. �-70- Calculated peak of hatch was between July 23-30, about one week later than that observed in most years. Nesting success in 1973 was poor, possibly the lowest of the 8 years of study. Nesting at Crown Point failed in 1973, as no successful hens were located. In all, only 10 successful hens were located on the study areas, whereas 12 unsuccessful hens were observed. This is misleading, as unsuccessful females do not respond to tape recorded calls and have low fidelity to breeding areas, whereas successful hens do. Estimated nesting success on all areas was between 25 and 30 percent in 1973. This could be attributed partly to inexperience of hens (most were subadults) and delayed nesting due to late-lying snow cover. In a larger survey in 1973, R. Hoffman (personal communication) located 22 successful and 12 unsuccessful females. His data also suggest that nesting success was lower in 1973 than in 1972. In 1972 in the same area, he located 37 successful hens and 8 without broods. His data suggests that nesting success in 1973 decreased by about 40 percent (40.5) from levels estimated in 1972 (about 70-75 percent). Initial brood size in 1973 upon hatching was about 4 chicks. By September 1 this number had decreased to about 3 chicks per succ~ssful female (Table 3). These data are different from all years, except 1969 when average brood size was one chick less than normal on September 1. Normal brood size to September 1 is 4 chicks per successful hen. Table 3. Month Number of broods and average brood size, all areas, 1973.l1 Number of Broods Observed Average Number of Chicks per Brood July 0 (0)];.1 0.0 August 10 (22 )?:..I 3.4 (3.3)];.1 September 2 (O)?:..I (0)];.1 3.0 (O)?:..I II Only distinct broods are included. 21 Data from R. Hoffman gathered in the Guanella Pass-Loveland Pass area (personal communication). Fall Densities Estimates of densities of white-tailed ptarmigan on September 1, while useful in illustrating population gain through production, are difficult to accurately derive due to a number of variables. Estimated fall densities for each area studied are presented in Table 4. These densities were calculated following the three basic assumptions discussed in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). �Table 4. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed ptarmigan, 1973. Total Population on September 1 Estimated Percent Nesting Success Average Brood Size on September 1 Total Production Total Breeding Population Rocky Mountain National Park 30 3.2 16 43 55 Crown Point 0 0.0 0 9 8 4.1 0.0 Mt. Evans 30 4.0 16 25 39 25.3 41.0 Independence Pass 30 3.7 11 19 28 25.0 39.3 Area Birds Per Square Mile Percent Gain 25.7 29.1 -..JI •...• I �-72- In 1973 all alpine areas of the state were open to ptarmigan hunting from September 8 through October 8, except for the area lying within ~ mile of the Mt. Evans highway where the season was closed. As in recent years, no ptarmigan hunting was allowed during any of the early big game seasons. Bag and possession limits for ptarmigan were 3 and 6. With the closure of the area along the Mt. Evans highway, no check station was operated in 1973 and no reports of hunting were received. No bands were returned from Crown Point for the second consecutive year, reflecting both low hunting pressure and the few birds available. Reports from Wildlife Conservation Officers Tom Lytle at Leadville and Al Whitaker of Aspen indicated no hunters at Independence Pass in 1973. Only one band was received from this site and the reporting hunter failed to respond to an inquiry about his hunting success. All observations indicate that few hunters were afield for ptarmigan in 1973. Reasons for this are not known. Relationships of Weather:Nesting Success and Production Weather data obtained from the 12,300 ft level of Niwot Ridge, through the courtesy of INSTAAR are not yet available for 1973. These data are normally available about June 1 of the year following collection. These data will be obtained once available, and detailed analysis and statistical correlation will be completed for the final report in 1975-76. In general, weather conditions in 1973 appeared to be cooler and possibly wetter than in 1972, with the result that much of the study areas remained snow covered into mid-June. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1971. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 91-106. 1972. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan popul.at Lons , Co l.o , Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 91-98. 1973. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wild 1. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. In Press. and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colo. ---,Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 p. Prepared by __ J-6~/~r.a:'~1-~,;~7_-~(~;;....).::..;2d.ivW~_' Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ Colo. �April 1974 -73- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C;;..;O:;.,;;LO=RAD=..;;;.O _ Project No. W-37-R-27 Work Plan No. 17 Game Bird Survey Job No. ----3------------------~~ Job Title Experimental Removal of a Breeding Population of White-tailed Ptarmigan Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1973 to October 30, 1973. Clait E. Braun and RichardW. Hoffman ABSTRACT A minimum of 9 white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) occupied the Crown Point study area in 1973. This total was comprised of3 pairs and 3 urunated males. All females and at least 1 male were .subadult s, with the other 4 unmarked males also classed as subadults based on their behavior. The.l subadult male marked on the area in 1972 returned in 1973. No broods were observed in 1973, and most, if not all birds left the area by early August. All areas used by ptarmigan had been used in prior years of the study. ��-75- EXPERIMENTAL REMOVAL OF A BREEDING POPULATION OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Clait E. Braun Management of wild animals is dependent upon knowledge about population levels, reproductive capacity and success, survival and mortality rates, and habitat requirements. This study to investigate habitat preferences and pioneering ability of white-tailed ptarmigan was initiated in 1971 after five years of previous study of the Crown Point population (Bratm and Rogers 1971, Bratm 1971). This report presents data collected during the third year of a 4 year study. Data collected during the first 2 years of the study were presented by Bratm (1972, 1973). P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1) ptarmigan select sites for breeding territories which contain readily available bushes of Salix spp. (> 10 cm in height), and snowfree locations, (2) immature birds initially pioneer new or empty habitats, and (3) number of occupied territories is affected by age class of male ptarmigan. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To map and compare number and characteristics of all occupied breeding territories at Crown Point. 2. To compile data and prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ptarmigan were located during the breeding season through use of taperecorded male challenge calls as described by Bratm et al. (1973). Techniques used in capturing, observing, banding, etc. were essentially those described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and updated by Braun (1972). Description of Study Area This area was described in detail by Bratm and Rogers (1971) and will be redescribed in the final report. Extent of the area investigated was shown in the initial report (Braun 1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Status The study area was systematically surveyed 3 times during the breeding season and twice during the late summer brood period. A total of 13 different birds �-76- were observed of which 8 were newly banded. Six males occupied territories in 1973 of which 1 was banded as a subadu1t in 1972, 1 was banded as a subadult in 1973, and 4 were unmarked males. These males were extremely wild and were thought to be subadults based on behavior and reaction to the taperecorded male challenge call. Three of these males were unmated. Seven females were banded on the study area, and 2 additional unmarked hens were observed in early May. Only 3 hens became paired and remained on the study area. All other females disappeared by late May and are presumed to have moved to the Mummy Range in search of suitable males or territories. During the breeding period only 3 pairs and 3 unmated birds occurred on the Crown Point study area. This density of 4.7 birds per square mile is up significantly from 1972 (1.0 birds per square mile) but still below the 5.7 birds per square mile that were present in 1971 when the removal experiment was initiated. Areas occupied in 1973 are shown in Fig. 1. No broods were located at Crown Point in 1973, and it is assumed that all hens were unsuccessful. Observations indicated that most, if not all birds had left the area by early August. Description of Breeding Territories All areas used by ptarmigan in 1973 had been used in one or more prior years and had been previously described (Braun 1971). All areas occupied in 1972, 1973, and 1974 will be vegetatively described in 1974. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. 1972. Experimental removal of a breeding population of white-tailed ptarmigan. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p , 99-109. 1973. Experimental removal of a breeding population of white-tailed ptarmigan. Colo. Div. Wi1d1., Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. In Press. Braun, C. E.,and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 p. , R. K. Schmidt, Jr., and G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado -----white-tailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded calls. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 37(1) :90-93. Prepared by _--!:a~d.-::=:'.L..· -=Z:..;.. .. -J<..~==-:...;-'---C1a.it E. Bra.un Wildlife Researcher �-77- "~.... 0 6'00 ~.---., I . • / ~ __ -'. --~. - --.: - I" I I '1, , -, J I XII14S,"'" 10600 ••. .... "'-. -- -""'-_. , I .. -~--.--- -~- " /' <>:>, ;;:. ~. ". ." ---- ~----. CROWN AREA COLORADO N f POINT - Study Area Boundary .,~' Fig. -1. Crown Point study area (X's mark occupied breeding areas, 1973). ��April 1974 -79- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~--------~ Project No. W-37-R-27 Game Bird Survey 17 Job Title: 4 : Job No. C~h-a-r-a-c-t~e~r~i-s~t~i-c-s--an~a Migration ot Wintering P_o~p_u_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_·_o~f __C_o_l_o_r_a_d_o __W_h_l_Ot_e_-_t_a_l_Ol_e __d__P_t_a_rm __i_g_an Period April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1974. Work Plan No. Covered: Personnel: _ C. Braun, H. Funk, P. Gilbert, R. Hoffman, D. Luce, R. Oakleaf, and C. Wagner, Division of Wildlife; D. Hein, P. Lehner, S. Martin and R. Ryder, Colorado State University; T. May, University of Colorado, and J. Kitzmiller. ABSTRACT Studies of the characteristics and migration of wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) were conducted in north-central Colorado from April 1972 through April 1974 primarily at Guanella Pass. In all, 293 km2 of alpine .habl t at were selected for studying movements from and to the wintering area. Guanella Pass was utilized principally by females (80 percent of 799 birds identified) and primarily adults (65 percent). Numbers of subadults varied with year depending upon production success. The 172 winter flocks observed ranged from 2 to over 80 birds per flock, but most contained 2 to 25. Females typically congregated in larger flocks (20-30. birds) than males « 15 birds); probably the result of differences in winter habitat preference as partial segregation of sexes occurred. Apparently, winter flocks were not composed ot family units nor were the same group of individuals associated together throughout the winter. Sixty percent of the ptarmigan banded at Guanella Pass and relocated on breeding or summering sites returned in subsequent winters. Adults exhibited the greatest affinity for the wintering grounds with 73 percent returning, while only 51 percent of the subadults returned. Willow (Salix spp.) was the most important vegetation found on wintering areas. Essentially all sites on the winter range were utilized, but some preferences were noted. Major factors affecting distribution were availability of willow and snow quality. Eight chick movements were documented to wintering or breeding sites. Hunter recoveries indicated chicks were relatively sedentary prior to brood dispersal. Females banded as chicks traveled greater distances than males. Males showed high fidelity to natal areas. Ninety-nine and 45 movementswere documented from and to winter use sites, respectively. Subadults were more mobile than adults, with subadult females traversing the greatest distances. Female grouse were consistently more mobile than males. Average movements of males were generally restricted to less than 2.5 km for adults and 4.0 km for subadults, while movements of females frequently exceeded these distances. The longest movement was 22.7 km for a subadult female. Seventy-four percent of the movements from Guanella Pass were in westerly directions with 28 percent to the northwest. �-80- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -; I wish to thank Dr. Ronald A. Ryder, Professor, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, for serving as my graduate advisor, for providing advice and assistance throughout my graduate training, . and for reviewing and editing this thesis. Thanks are expressed to Dr. Stephen Martin, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Colorado State University, for serving as a memberof my graduate committee and for reading this manuscript. Special thanks are extended to Dr. Clait E. Braun, Wildlife Researcher, Colorado Division of Wildlife, who.was instrumental in initiating this project and assisted with fieldWOrk throughout the study. Dr. :Braun as a memberof mycommittee, contributed many helpful suggestions, provided additional data, and critically evaluated the thesis. His understanding and encouragement -are greatly appreciated. .. .' I also thank the Colorado Division of Wildlife through Federal Aid in Wildlife . Restoration Project W-37-Rfor providing equipment, financial support, and use of their facilities during this project. Howard Funk, Project Leader,Colorado Division of Wildlife, provided administrative assistance and reviewed this manuscript. Myappreciation is extended to all other Division of Wildlife personnel who contributed to this proj ect. in field to Ronald Oakleaf and James Kitzmiller .for assisting work, ".and to D:r.Dale Hein , . Associate Professor, .Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State Uni:versity, for providing helpful suggestions. Thanks are extended to'rerry A. May for aiding in fieldwork and providing suggestions concerning my research, arid to Dr. PhillipN . Lehner, Assistant 'Pro fes sor , Department of Zoology, for evaluating the thesis. I am grateful :". : ", Finally, tomy wife, Barbara, I wish to express my deepest appreciation her support and. patience, .without which I could not have completed this study. for �-81- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Montezuma-Georgetown Distribution Colorado 86 study area of alpine tundra and ptarmigan in 3 Guanella Pass study area 4 Percentage of different age and sex classes of white-tailed ptarmigan returning to Guanella Pass • 5 6 87 89 100 Distances traveled by white -tai.Ied ptarmigan from wintering to breeding or summering a re a s .' . . 105 Directions and distances recorded for movements of white-tailed ptarmigan from Guanella Pass to breeding or summering sites • 107 �-82- LIST OF TAB LES Table 1 Arrival and departure Guanella Pass . dates of pta rrn ig an at 2 Sex and age cornpo s it ion of white -tailed pta rrn igan wintering at Guanella Pass . 3 Nurnb e r and frequency of encounters with lone birds and flocks of white -tailed pta rrn igan, Guanella Pass, 1966-1974 4 5 6 7 91 92 94 Yearly trends in flock size of white-tailed pta rrntgan at Guanella Pass . • 94 Monthly trends in flock size of white -t ai Led pta rrn igan at Guanella Pass . • 95 Com puted chi square values for corrrpa r is ona between nurnb e r s of white -rai Ied' pta rrn igan of different age and sex classes returning to Guanella Pas s . • 99 Contrasting statistical analyses for distances rn oved by different age and sex classes of white -tailed pt a rrn iga n . ·106 �-83- TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION • 85 DESCRIP TION OF STUDY AREAS 85 METHODS AND MATERIALS. 88 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION • 90 Winter Investigations Arrival and Departure. Sex and Age Composition. Flocking Behavior Distribution. Affinity for Wintering Sites 90 90 • 91 • 93 97 . Movements Movements of Chicks to Wintering and Breeding Areas • Movements from Wintering to Breeding or Summering Sites. Movements from Breeding or Summering to Wintering Sites SUMMARY. LITERATURE • 98 • 102 · 102 .104 • 109 • 110 CITED •113 ��-85- INTRODUCTION White-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus), the only species of Lagopus confined to North America, occupy alpine habitats from south-central Alaska, the Yukon Territory south through the mountains of western Canada and United States to northern New Mexico (Aldrich 1963). The range of the southern white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus altipetens) in Colorado correlates with the distribution of alpine tundra from 3353 to over 4267 m in elevation, an area of approximately 9713 km2 (Braun and Rogers 1971). Seasonal movements of white-tailed ptarmigan have been described in general terms by several authors. Packard (1945), Racey (1948), Bailey (1927), Bent (1932), and Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) describe the species as spending the summer above timberline and descending to or below treeline in winter. Choate (1963), suggested some flocks remain above timberline during the winter, while others move below timberline. Braun (1969) documented the movements of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado throughout the year. His studies indicated that males are relatively sedentary, usually moving less than 2 km in a year, while females are highly mobile with some birds moving 16 to 24 km from wintering to breeding areas. in Colorado (Braun 1969, Haskins extensive data on general ecology, population dynamics, movements, habitat, seasonal foods, behavior and parasites. In order to further understand seasonal movements of ptarmigan in Colorado, this study was initiated in 1972. The primary objective was to document movements by age and sex class from and to a major wintering area in order to ascertain the importance of such areas to surrounding breeding sites and to determine the directions and distances involved in annual migrations. In addition, attempts were made to: (1) document departure and arrival dates to and from wintering areas, (2) record and analyze winter flock sizes, (3) describe the distribution of birds on a wintering area, (4) ascertain the affinity of birds for individual wintering sites, and (5) individually identify chicks on summering areas in order to document their movements to wintering areas. Intensive studies of white-tailed ptarmigan 1969, Schmidt 1969, and May 1970, 1974) have provided DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Approximately 293 km2 of alpine habitat in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado were selected for studying movements of ptarmigan to and from a major wintering area. This area, hereafter referred to as the Montezuma-Georgetown study area (Fig. 1), centers around Guanella Pass, which was chosen as the primary winter study area principally because of the relative abundance of wintering ptarmigan, accessibility, and availability of information on this area from prior studies (Schmidt 1969, May 1970, Braun and Schmidt 1971). In addition, limited winter investigations were conducted near Waldorf, Naylor Lake, Steven's Gulch, and Horseshoe Basin where there were small numbers of ptarmigan. Fig. 2 depicts the location of study areas in relation to alpine tundra in Colorado. �-86- . . r-I rx.. eo •..-l �• Cre., • ,e,t ,elll •• ~ ~ ~ , -'. • O ••••.• r ••TrV ••• CU'.ILL ••••• NAnOfil LA'" I • G'.lIIt 00 ,h"'ti •• "-J I ~ o .c•.•• _ ••..••• • b t "MI ••10n,O""" .,. (;P .'" ..... Fig. 2. Distribution and Rogers of alpine 1971). tundra and ptarmigan in Colorado (after Braun �-88- Weimer and Haun (1960) have described the geology of the Front Range in Colorado while Judson (1965) and Marr (1961) have discussed the climatic features of the area. Marr (1961) also characterized the vegetation of the alpine tundra in the Front Range of Colorado. Descriptions of habitats seasonally occupied by ptarmigan in Colorado were presented by Braun (1971). Much of the above information concerning the Guanella Pass area has been summarized by Braun and Schmidt (1971) and only limited discussion follows. Guanella Pass lies 13 km south of Georgetown, Colorado, in the Pike and Arapaho National Forests. Area investigated is in T5S, R74W in parts of Clear Creek and Park counties at 1050 37'W long., and 390 35'N lat. Total area investigated was 9 km2 (Fig. 3). The four additional wintering sites briefly investigated were smaller, varying in size from 2 to 4 km2. Guanella Pass is primarily dominated by Salix spp. Higher, in Krummholz areas, Salix is codominant with Picea engelmannii. The presence and abundance of Salix spp. were the most important factors determining where ptarmigan wintered on all areas studied. The topography is rolling, with slopes ranging from 5 to 30 percent and elevations from 3475 to 3655 m above sea level. Snow depths vary considerably within the study area, however, much of the area is unprotected from the prevailing westerly winds with Salix never completely snow covered. The larger Montezuma-Georgetown study encompassed approximately 293 km2 but only 65 to 78 km2 were considered suitable breeding and summering sites. Alpine areas searched included portions of T4S, R75 and 76W; T5S, R73, 74, 75 and 76W; and T6S, R73, 74, 75 and 76W in Clear Creek, Park, and Summit counties. The topography is irregular, varying from precipitous slopes and sharp peaks to gently rolling expanses of hundreds of hectares. Elevations range from over 4267 to 3353 m. About 99 percent of the area studied is public land administered by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. METHODS AND MATERIALS Winter groups of ptarmigan were located by concentrated searching on foot with periodic stops to scan surrounding areas for tracks, snow roosts, and/ or birds themselves (Braun and Schmidt 1971). During the breeding and brood seasons, ptarmigan were located through use of tape recorded calls (Braun et al. 1973), while summer flocks of males and unsuccessful females were found by systematically searching rocky areas along ridgetops. Once birds were located, they were first observed through 7 X 50 binoculars to determine if they were banded. Also, efforts were made to ascertain sex of adults and count the birds present. Attempts were made to determine band color and number of those birds already banded. Some unbanded ptarmigan and all birds with unreadable bandettes were pursued until caught or flushed and not relocated. Each observation was recorded at the time on standardized observation cards (Braun 1969). All locations were subsequently plotted on 7.5 minute U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps. Birds were captured with a 5 or 7 m long telescoping noose pole as described by Zwickel and Bendell (1967) for blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) and �',~ '.,--- --' , / Ii' ;- ~,\,.I•f•t..nkf ...•. J-"':- / /' <, /' ~ -, -. r-: ,Pj{j-......... G\Janelia p~ s /' --"J <; V/ --- r-" T(.p I 00 \0 I The Sawtooth '~ " GUANELLA r t -- PASS COLORADO Siudy Area Bo un d r y SCAl:E IN o ==:J ~~;\ '::9JO /' t::1 :d - f!~ -1- ~. ?l~~ -@' ", co -'---;---------, j APPROXJWAT£80UWOA'RY <, ~-" Fig. 3. __ ._. ' \':\ Guanella Pass study area. KlL(H/.[rCi{$ 1/2 I ~ AREA _ .,.~ �-90- reported by Braun and Rogers (1971) for white-tailed ptarmigan. Upon capture, birds were banded, and classified to age and sex following methods described by Braun and Rogers (1971). Distribution of ptarmigan on the wintering area was determined by periodically traversing the entire area and through reports of sightings from reliable observers. Sites were classified as being utilized if tracks, roosts, droppings, or ptarmigan were observed. Data were available on the location of wintering flocks at Guanella Pass since 1966 (files of C. E. Braun, Colorado Division of Wildlife). Although all sites on the wintering area were not equally searched, it is believed that during the 7 years for which data were available, all sites being utilized by ptarmigan were noted. Arrival and departure dates to and from the wintering area were documented by frequently searching the study area in October and April. Throughout the winter, efforts were concentrated on identifying as many birds as possible. Surrounding breeding and summering areas were searched from late April until mid-September to locate birds banded on wintering sites. During the summer, hens and chicks were banded to document their movements to winter sites. Movements were plotted on 7.5 minute (scale 1:24,000) U.S.G.S. topographic maps. Straight lines were drawn from initial banding sites to recovery locations, thus, all movements represent minimum distances traveled. Directions in which movements occurred were determined from wintering areas to breeding or summering sites where birds were observed. All information about each movement and bird involved was recorded on a standardized form. Hunter bags were checked on weekends during 1972 and 1973 primarily to obtain data on banded birds harvested. Data prior to 1972 were available from hunter recoveries, collections, and observations, courtesy of C. E. Braun. Arrival RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Winter Investigations and Departure Winter was arbitrarily designated as late October, when ptarmigan became entirely white, through mid- to late April when the prenuptial molt of males was initiated. During these 6 months, ptarmigan were rarely observed away from winter use sites. As previosuly reported (Braun and Schmidt 1971), arrival and departure to and from wintering areas were greatly influenced by climatic conditions. Prolonged mild weather during the fall of 1972 delayed the arrival of birds to Guanella Pass until early November, while extended winter conditions the following spring delayed departure until early May. However, in most years birds were on the wintering area by late October and remained within the area until late April when they departed for breeding areas. Arrival and departure dates are shown in Table 1. �-91- Table 1. Arrival and departure dates of ptarmigan at Guane11a Pass. Winter Arrival Date Departure Date 1971-72 23-26 October 19-22 April 1972-73 3-5 November 3-10 May 1973-74 20-26 October 27-30 April Sex and Age Composition A total of 799 ptarmigan were identified on the Guane11a Pass study area from 1966 through 1974. These included observations and recaptures of birds banded in previous winters, newly banded birds, and collections for scientific study. Significantly (P<O.OOl) more females than males were identified each year (Table 2). However, no significant difference (p> 0.50) was evident in the proportion of males and females occupying the area between different winters. Nearly 80 percent of the estimated 200-300 birds annually utilizing this area were females, while only 20 percent were males. Apparently, suitable wintering grounds for hens are limited; consequently, considerable numbers of females are attracted to the few suitable sites. A significant difference (P<O.005) was detected in the number of adults and juveniles annually utilizing the wintering area; consistently more adults than juveniles were present each winter. Numbers of juveniles appeared correlated with nesting success in the previous summer. Thus, a summer of good production resulted in a high percent of juveniles during the following winter. In the summer of 1972, 37 (82.2 percent) of 45 females encountered on breeding areas surrounding Guane11a Pass were accompanied by chicks, while in 1973 only 19 (54.2 percent) of 35 females located were with broods. The estimated peak of hatch occurred approximately 3 weeks later in 1973 (July 28) than in 1972 (July 5). Similar indications of good nesting success in 1972 and poor success in 1973 were reported by Braun (1973, 1974) for other areas of the state, including the Mt. Evans area which lies approximately 6 km east of Guane11a Pass. Juveniles comprised 42.3 and 27.2 percent of the birds identified at Guane11a Pass during the 1972-73 and 1973-74 winters, respectively (Table 2). These data support the hypothesis that more juveniles (percent of total birds) occur on the wintering area following summers of good production than after summers of poor production. Some error in sex determination is possible in winter as sex characters are not visible. However, through measurements of certain wing characteristics (Braun and Rogers 1971) over 90 percent of the birds can be accurately sexed. During this study, of 115 birds identified on the wintering area and relocated in spring or summer when the sex could be determined by plumage differences alone, only 3 (2.6 percent) had been incorrectly sexed when initially banded �Table 2. Sex and age composition of white-tailed Winter N b wintering b at Guanella Pass. = Males Females Juveniles Adults a ptarmigan b b Percent N Percent N Percent N Percent b N 1967-68 66 54.5 36 45.5 30 72.7 48 27.3 18 1968-69 43 70.0 30 30.2 13 81.4 35 18.6 8 1969-70 III 78.4 87 21.6 24 78.4 87 21.6 24 1970-71 125 61.6 77 38.4 48 80.8 101 19.2 24 1971-72 142 56.3 80 43.7 62 78.9 112 21.1 30 1972-73 153 57.7 88 42.3 65 77.4 118 22.6 35 1973-74 125 72.8 91 27.2 34 84.0 105 16.0 20 Total Mean 765 I I b Total winter of 1966-67 number of birds was excluded identified. 21.0 79.0 35.5 due to small sample 159 606 276 489 64.5 aThe \0 N size (34 birds identified). �-93- on the wintering area. Some error also exists in separating age classes. Age determination is based on the presence (subadult) or absence (adult) of pigmentation on the ninth primary. Developing and using this technique, Braun and Rogers (1971) reported that 98 percent of the ptarmigan handled were correctly placed in one of the two age classes. Considering the small error in aging and sexing techniques, it is unlikely that considerable bias occurs in Table 2. Flocking Behavior Like many grouse, ptarmigan are gregarious and generally associate in flocks throughout the year. Flocks are temporarily fragmented from late April until mid-July due to territorial activities accompanying reproduction. Flocking tendencies are most evident from late October until late April when ptarmigan are concentrated on winter use sites. During the winters of 1966-67 through 1973-74, 172 individual flocks totaling over 3,165 ptarmigan were observed on the Guanella Pass study area. Following Koskimies (1957), two or more grouse were considered a flock. Ellison (1973) in studying seasonal flock size of spruce grouse (Canachities canadensis) arbitrarily chose 18 m as the distance two birds had to be within each other to be considered a flock. He based this distance on visibility in the forest. In this study, no specific distance was designated because of greater visibility in alpine areas and the tendency for ptarmigan to congregate in large, loose flocks with individuals scattered over an area of 50 m2 or more. The decision as to whether a group of birds comprised a flock was decided by the observer. A bias in estimating flock size resulted when all birds present could not be counted. This bias was most serious when considerable numbers 30) of birds were dispersed over a large area such that all could not be seen, or when the birds flushed before all individuals could be counted. In such instances, only minimum estimates of numbers of individuals in flocks were obtained. Flock sizes recorded during the winters of 1966-67, 1967-68, and 1968-69 were excluded from the comparison of flock sizes between winters because of small sample sizes « 15 flocks observed per winter). Since only 2 to 8 flocks per month were observed in anyone year, sampie sizes were not large enough to compare differences in monthly flock sizes between or within years. Consequently, monthly analysis of flock size was based on pooled data which included flock size information collected during all winters from 1966 through 1974. o- Winter flock size varied from less than 5 to over 80 birds, but 68.6 percent of the flocks observed contained between 2 and 25 individuals. Of 185 grouse encounters, only 13 (7.1 percent) were of lone birds (Table 3), indicating the social nature of ptarmigan during the winter. Mean flock size was not significantly different (p> 0.05) between winters for the 5 winters of 196974 (Table 4). The 135 flocks observed during these 5 winters averaged 15.5 birds per flock. No signficant difference (P> 0.05) was noted in mean flock size for each of the 7 winter months, as average flock size varied from 16.0 to 23.8 birds per flock (Table 5). However, flocks tended to be smaller in October and April, 16.0 and 16.2 birds per flock, respectively. Both months �-96- represent transition periods when birds are either arrlvlng on (October), or departing from (April) the wintering area. Since birds do not arrive or depart simultaneously, probably fewer birds were present at these times to form flo cks • Arrival of ptarmigan on wintering areas and formation of flocks were correlated with unfavorable weather. Braun and Schmidt (1971) noted that following intense snow storms in October, birds appeared along the periphery of known winter use sites. A similar relationship between winter flock formation and adverse weather has been reported for rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) (Watson 1965), red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) (Watson and Jenkins 1964), black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), and capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) (Koskimies 1957). Size of winter flocks of white-tailed ptarmigan at Guanella Pass were similar to that reported for rock ptarmigan (Weeden 1964), willow ptarmigan (Lagppus lagopus) (Irving et al. 1967), and black grouse (Koskimies 1957), whereas spruce grouse (Ellison 1973), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (Gullion 1970), and capercaillie (Koskimies 1957) generally form smaller flocks. Encounters with lone ptarmigan were also less than reported for ruffed grouse, spruce grouse and capercaillie. Percentage of grouse encounters during winter that were with lone birds was 58 percent for spruce grouse (Ellison 1973),70 percent for ruffed grouse (Gullion 1970), and 30 percent for capercaillie (Koskimies 1957). Koskimies (1957) suggested increased population numbers and good nesting success led to larger flocks, and to a lesser degree, more flocks. Considering the failure to detect a significant difference between years in mean size of winter flocks observed at Guanella Pass from 1969 through 1974, even though nesting success varied from year to year, there was no indication that nesting success influenced winter flock size. However, following the good production of 1972, 2.37 flocks were observed per day on the wintering area, while in the winter of 1973-74 following a poor production year, only 1.29 flocks were located per day. These data suggest a possible relationship between nesting success and number of flocks utilizing the wintering area. Assuming more birds are present on the wintering area following a good production year, they apparently form more flocks instead of gathering into larger flocks. However, this observation is based on only two years of data which may not be representative. Mild weather during the winter period did not cause disintegration of winter flocks as reported by Koskimies (1957) for black grouse and capercaillie. On the contrary, large flocks appeared to divide into smaller units during inclement weather. Apparently, winter flocks were not composed of family units. Ptarmigan broods disperse in late September or early October (Braun 1969) prior to arrival on wintering areas. In no instances were females or any of their chicks that were banded together during the sunnner relocated in the same winter flock. In addition, considerable interchange of members occurred between flocks, as the same group of individuals were seldom observed together on consecutive visits to the wintering area. Although exact numbers cannot be Cited, many birds banded at Guanella Pass were relocated several times throughout the winter associated with flocks of various sizes comprised of different individuals at different locations. No noticeable aggressive �-97- behavior was exhibited towards new members of a flock. A similar observation was reported for willow ptarmigan in Alaska (Irving et al. 1967). Partial segregation of sexes of white-tailed ptarmigan occur on wintering areas (Braun and Schmidt 1971). Flocks of mostly males were seldom observed at Guanella Pass during this study because most banding efforts were concentrated on areas utilized principally by females. Thus, minimum data were collected for determining differences in size of winter flocks of males and females. Since sex of ptarmigan cannot be distinguished by visual characteristics during the winter, it was impossible to ascertain sex composition of a flock unless most birds could be captured or individually identified through observation of bands. Flocks of primarily females observed at Guanella Pass varied considerably in size (2-80 birds per flock) but usually contained 20 to 30 birds. Seven flocks of males were observed on the Horseshoe Basin wintering area, with the largest flock being 14 birds. Only 4 flocks of primarily males were encountered at Guanella Pass during this study, with the largest flock consisting of 9 individuals. It should also be noted that of 13 lone birds found, 8 (61.5 percent) were males, 3 (23 percent) were females, and 2 (15.5 percent) were of unknown sex. These data suggest that males do not gather in large flocks typical of wintering females. Similar results were reported by Braun and Schmidt (1971), who observed that flocks of males were usually small « 15 birds), while females congregated in larger flocks. Differences in flock sizes of males and females may possibly be related to differences in the winter habitat utilized. Females typically winter in areas where dense, tall stands of willow occur; thus, food supplies are abundant and they can afford to congregate in large groups. Conversely, males winter at higher elevations where willow is sparsely distributed and food availability is primarily dependent upon wind action. Such areas are limited in size and scattered in distribution with each site possibly capable of supporting only a small group of birds. Distribution Locations of 172 winter flocks, plus 13 lone birds observed at Guanella Pass since 1966 were plotted on both a monthly and yearly basis in order to determine if there were changes in distribution between months or years. Examination of these data indicated that: (1) essentially all sites on the wintering area were utilized, (2) some sites were highly preferred to others, (3) there were no apparent differences in distribution of birds on the wintering area between years, and (4) changes in monthly distribution occurred. Since the buds and twigs of willow provide the bulk of the food eaten by ptarmigan during the winter (May and Braun 1973), flocks were seldom found where willow was absent. Changes in monthly distribution appeared related to changes in the availability of willow as influenced by the amount of snow present (Braun and Schmidt 1971). Sites used by ptarmigan early in the winte.r were devoid of birds later, primarily because increasing snow depths covered the willow. The birds moved to other sites where tall stands of willow occurred and snow rarely covered all the bushes. As spring approached, the snow settled, exposing unused buds, and birds were again observed on areas previously abandoned. �-100- o 0 I PERCENT RETURNING CD (Jl m ~ (JI ~ N o o o o 0 I I I I I o -- TOTAL I~ FEMALES l~ I I I~ - IOJ- ADULTS - l~ I~ ADULT FEMALES SUBADULT FEMALES ADULT MALES SUBADULT MALES I I o o - MALES SUBADULTS o w o g - I~ I§ - ]~ Fig. 4. Percentage of different age and sex classes of white-tailed ptarmigan returning to Guanella Pass (excluding known losses). Sample sizes are given in paren theses. �-101- Subadults suffer a higher mortality than adults (Braun 1969); consequently, few are available to return. In addition, subadults have no prior attachment to breeding sites and upon leaving wintering areas in spring they frequently travel considerable distances in search of vacant territories where they can establish. Because territorial males generally winter adjacent to their territories (Braun and Rogers 1971), only subadult males becoming established on territories in the vicinity of Guanella Pass should return. Those becoming established farther away probably winter adjacent to their territories and thus, do not return. Documented movements of subadult males indicate they frequently move over 3 km to a breeding site. Movements of adult males to breeding areas seldom exceed this distance. Thus, because most adult males banded at Guanella Pass were established on territories in the viCinity, they returned year after year. Only subadult males becoming successfully established on territories within 3 km of Guanella Pass returned in succeeding winters. All but one failing to return were located over 4 km from Guanella Pass and probably wintered elsewhere. The situation with females is similar to that of males except females returned from greater distances. While most s.ubadult males moving over 4 km away from Guanella Pass failed to return, subadult females returned from at least 10 km away. This supports the hypothesis that areas capable of supporting females during the winter period are limited. Of the 15 subadult females banded at Guanella Pass that were located on breeding or sunnnering areas and that failed to return, 10 (67 percent) were located over 8 km from Guanella Pass. Only 5 (29 percent) of 17 returning subadult females located on breeding or summering areas moved greater than 8 km. This suggests that most subadult females traveling beyond a certain distance (8 km) in search of unmated territorial males generally do not return. Undoubtedly, some die, while others probably winter closer to their territories. Since movements of adult females to breeding sites rarely exceeded 8 km, they showed a greater tendency to return. Sufficient time was not available to intensively investigate other winter use sites; thus, limited evidence was obtained to support the hypothesis that some birds (primarily subadults) initially banded at Guanella Pass were utilizing other sites during the winter period. Of 40 birds identified on other winter use sites during 6 field days, 4 (10 percent) were initially banded at Guanella Pass. All were banded as subadults with 2 males being located at Naylor Lake, 1 female at Waldorf, while 1 female was observed at Steven's Gulch. Although the sample is small, it does indicate that ptarmigan banded as subadults are more likely to disperse from wintering areas where they were initially banded and subsequently winter elsewhere. No differences were apparent in the proportion of adult males (75 percent) and females (73 percent) returning to Guanella Pass. Since wintering sites utilized by males were not searched as thoroughly as areas used by females the proportion of males returning may possibly be underestimated. Braun (1969) reported a 25 percent annual turnover of adult males in an unhunted population of ptarmigan. This value is identical to the percent of adult males (25 percent) failing LO return to the wintering site. For the same unhunted population, Braun reported a 30 percent annual turnover for adult females. �-102- This percentage is almost identical to the proportion of adult females (27 percent) failing to return to Guanella Pass. Since adults show a high fidelity to wintering sites, it can be assumed that those not returning were probably dead, consequently, percent of adults returning approximates annual survival rates for this population. No similar assumption can be made for subadults because non-returning subadults are not necessarily lost from the population. MOVEMENTS Movements of Chicks to Wintering and Breeding Areas One hundred and twenty six chicks were individually marked on the MontezumaGeorgetown study area during the summers of 1972 (75) and 1973 (51). Chicks were banded from less than 1 to over 18 km from Guanella Pass. The sample included 47 males, 47 females, and 32 birds of unknown sex. In order to estimate percentage of birds initially banded as chicks that were recovered on wintering and breeding sites, 16 birds (7 males, 5 females, and 4 of unknown sex) were excluded from the sample since they were harvested before having an opportunity to move to a wintering area. All were shot within 2 km of their initial banding site, indicating that broods are relatively sedentary during summer and early fall prior to brood dispersal in late September and October. Braun (1969) similarly noted that females and their broods remained in the same general area throughout the summer. Of 99 subadult ptarmigan identified at Guanella Pass during the winters of 1972-74, only 2 (both females) were initially banded as chicks during this study. Additionally, none of the 12 subadults identified on other winter use sites was banded as a chick. Based on 110 chicks (excluding losses) banded on the Montezuma-Georgetown study area, movements to wintering areas were documented for only 1.8 percent (2 of 110) of the birds. Both individuals identified at Guanella Pass were banded on brooding areas in 1973 and recovered the following winter (1973-74). Distances and directions traveled from original banding location to Guanella Pass were 10.7 km east-northeast and 9.9 km northeast. An additional 2 birds (one male and one female) banded as chicks on Mt. Evans in 1971 were known to have moved 5.6 km west-northwest and 6.4 km west, respectively, to Guanella Pass. Studies by Braun (1969) indicate that following brood dispersal chicks may wander several kilometers from their natal areas in a few days. Probably, the two chicks banded at Mt. Evans in October 1971 hatched elsewhere; thus, their movements to wintering sites were not comparable with the movements of the two chicks banded and recovered in this study. Both chicks banded at Mt. Evans in 1971 were not relocated at Guanella Pass until the winter of 1972-73. Where they spent the winter of 1971-72 is unknown. Only four (all males) of the 70 chicks (excluding 5 losses) marked on the study area in 1972 were relocated on breeding sites in 1973. Distances traveled from their initial summer banding location to a territory were 0.9 km, 0.7 km, 0.7 km, and 1.2 km. Braun (1969) reported that males banded as �-103- chicks were not observed during the next breeding season more than 1.0 km from where originally banded (N = 26). Thus, males show high fidelity to natal areas. Probably some males banded as chicks which are unsuccessful in competing for territories near their natal areas search elsewhere for unoccupied areas where they can become established. Others may remain near natal areas as non-territorial males occupying areas on the periphery of established territories. Since no females banded as chicks were relocated on territories, any statements about their movements to breeding sites are speculative. Braun (1969) found that females banded as chicks traveled considerable distances from their natal areas. Of the two females banded as chicks that Braun relocated in subsequent years, one was found as a transient 9.6 km from where originally banded, while the other was established on a territory 19.3 km from the initial banding site. The high mortality rate of ptarmigan during their first year of life is undoubtedly a major factor responsible for the low reobservation rate of banded chicks. Nearly 70 percent of the chicks hatched do not survive their first year (Braun and Rogers 1971). Additional factors possibly contribute to the low rate of reobservations of marked chicks. Most juvenile males are unsuccenssful in competing for territories and consequently, cannot be located using tape recorded calls. Obviously, chicks are moving to Guanella Pass as indicated by the 99 subadults identified during this study. This suggests that chicks hatched outside the study area were moving to the wintering area. It is also possible that many broods within the study area went undetected. Thus, the banded sample may only represent a small proportion of the chicks available to move to wintering sites. Finally, and probably most important, insufficient numbers of chicks were banded to offset their high mortality rate. Increased surveys in other wintering sites, extending the area searched during the breeding and brood rearing periods, and larger samples of banded chicks may be necessary if chick movements are to be documented. Because findings from the present study are based on small samples, movements of white-tailed ptarmigan chicks are still basically unknown. Present evi~ dence indicates that females accompanied by chicks remain within a limited area during summer and early fall. Documented mortalities of ptarmigan suggests that most losses occurring in the fall are young of the year (Braun and Rogers 1971). This mortality can be attributed to increased mobility of juveniles following brood breakup. Bendell and Elliott (1967), Gullion and Marshall (1968), Zwickel et al. (1968), and Robel et al. (1970) all reported similar increased movements of juvenile grouse in fall, and interpreted this increased mobility as dispersal. Possibly, competition for space on wintering areas results in some juveniles becoming established, while others continue their nomadic life and wander between wintering sites. Inexperienced females (young of the year) travel greater distances than inexperienced males to winter use sites. It is possible that wintering areas suitable for females are limited, forcing females to move longer distances. Upon departing from wintering areas in spring, most juvenile males return to their natal areas to compete for breeding territory. Juvenile fe1i1alesmove greater distances than juvenile males to breeding sites, and do not return to their natal areas. �-104- Movements From Wintering to Breeding or Summering Sites Prior to 1972, 351 different ptarmigan were marked during the winter at Guanella Pass. Originally, hunter recoveries were expected to provide enough data to document movements of white-tailed ptarmigan from wintering areas. However, due to the inaccessibility of ptarmigan habitat and lack of hunter participation, only 11 band recoveries were obtained from 1967 through 1971. As a result, the present study was initiated in 1972. From 1972 to 1974, 278 different ptarmigan were individually identified at Guanella Pass. An additional 40 birds were marked on other winter use sites in the MontezumaGeorgetown study area, including 12 at Naylor Lake, 10 at Waldorf, 12 at Horseshoe Basin, and 6 at Steven's Gulch. Ninety nine birds were known to move from wintering to breeding or summering sites; 28 adult females, 39 subadult females, 14 adult males, and 18 subadult males. This sample includes eight of 11 movements recorded prior to 1972. Three of the 11 movements were excluded because of incomplete records. Ten movements were obtained from hunter recoveries during the 1972 (4) and 1973 (6) grouse seasons. The remaining 81 movements were obtained by locating banded ptarmigan during the spring and summer through the use of tape recorded calls (Braun et ale 1973). Forty six and 35 movements were documented by this method in 1972 and 1973, respectively. Compared to the number of birds identified on wintering areas, few were actually relocated on breeding or summering sites. Undoubtedly, some birds died or emigrated from the area, but the difficulty of thoroughly searching all breeding and summering sites within the study area was the primary limitation. Probably many banded birds went undetected, especially marked grouse occupying territories outside the Montezuma-Georgetown study area. Most ptarmigan (90) for which movements were documented were initially banded at Guanella Pass, however, 3 were banded at Mt. Evans, 3 at Horseshoe Basin, 2 at Waldorf, and 1 at Steven's Gulch. Distances traveled by birds banded on all winter use sites were similar. All data were analyzed to identify degree of variation in movements between years. Differences were tested between movements from wintering to breeding areas and wintering to summering areas. No statistically significant differences (P >0.05) were evident in comparisons between years for grouse of the same age and sex. Consequently, data for all years were combined. Differences between each age and sex class in distances traveled were tested through standard statistical analyses. These data are given in Table 7, and graphically presented in Fig. 5. Differences between means were tested by student "t" tests for adult females vs. subadult females, adult males vs. subadult males, adult females vs. adult males, subadult females vs. subadult males, adult females vs. subadult males, and subadult females vs. adult males. Results of these tests indicate that (1) females of both age classes moved significantly greater distances (P<O.Ol) than males, (2) no significant difference (P> 0.05) was detected in distances traveled between adult and subadult females, and (3) no significant difference (P> 0.05) was evident in distances traveled between the age classes of males. �-105- 30- 25- - en 0:: W ~ 20~ o -l ~ z 15••••• z w ~ lOw > o ::E ..,,.. -H-t-(39) (28) -+-t-t- 5- -I'" -++-+-(18) -- Fig. 5. Distances traveled by white-tailed ptarmigan from wintering to breeding or summering areas. Vertical line = range, horizontal line = mean, vertical bar = standard deviation. Sample sizes are given in parentheses. �-106- On the average, subadults moved greater distances than adults of the same sex. The failure to detect a significant difference in distances traveled between age classes of the same sex was apparently the result of small samples for adults and because several adults included in these samples made unusually long movements. For example, the sample of adult males was small (14 birds) and included two birds moving 7.9 and 5.9 km to breeding sites. The other 12 adult males each moved less than 2.5 km. In contrast, 9 of 18 subadult males moved over 4 km with the longest movement exceeding 10 km. Similar findings were noted for females. While most adult hens (19) did not venture beyond 8 km from the wintering area, 5 moved over 10 km. Movements over 10 km were not uncommon for subadu1t females, as 15 of 3~ movements exceeded this distance. Thus, although some adults and subadults made extensive moves, subadults of both sexes moved further than their adult counterparts. Table 7. Contrasting statistical analyses for distances moved by different age and sex classes of white-tailed ptarmigan. Males Adult Females Males Subadu1t Females Distances Traveled Mean (km) 2.3 6.3 3.8 8.5 Range (km) .6-7.9 1.6-15.7 .2-10.8 .8-22.7 Standard deviation 2.1 4.0 2.9 6.0 Sample size 14 28 18 39 Birds departing from Guanella Pass showed a striking tendency to move westerly, especially northwest (Fig. 6). This tendency was mainly noted for females of both age classes and subadult males. Adult males did not prefer to move in one direction more than another. The longest movements were also in the westerly directions, being longest towards the northwest (Fig. 6). Of 90 total movements documented from Guanella Pass, 67 (74.4 percent) were ~rom southsouthwest to north-northwest with 25 (27.8 percent) to the northwest. The average distance traveled by grouse moving northwest was 10.1 km. This distance was significantly greater than the mean distance traveled in any other direction. Additionally, more subadults (19) than adults (6) moved northwest. No birds were recorded moving east and apparently only 4 birds moved in any other easterly direction. The longest movements in easterly directions were �-107- .. Q ..,CD ZI)( '-" Fig. 6. Directions and distances recorded for movements of white-tailed ptarmigan from Guanella Pass to breeding or summering sites. Each concentric circle represent one kilometer. The number of birds moving in each direction (N) and the mean distance traveled (X) are shown in parentheses. Movements are plotted along the nearest directional heading. �-108- by males (2 adults and 2 subadults), while females of both age classes exhibited minimal movements in these directions. The 4 males were recover.ed on the Mt. Evans study area which lies about 6 km east of Guanella Pass. Ptarmigan investigations have been conducted at Mt. Evans since 1966, and no females banded at Guanella Pass have been recovered there. Reasons for the observed differences in movement patterns between age classes of the same sex and between sex classes are not definitely known. However, using data collected during this and prior studies (Braun 1969, Braun and Schmidt 1971, Braun and Rogers 1971, and Schmidt 1969), the following explanation is presented. Nearly 80 percent of the 200-300 birds annually utilizing Guanella Pass are females and sites utilized by females during the winter are generally farther from breeding areas than locations where males winter. In addition, although wintering females were located in three other sites within the MontezumaGeorgetown study area the only major concentration was at Guanella Pass. At breeding densities of 4 females per km2, the 160 to 240 females wintering at Guanella Pass must disperse into 40 to 60 km2 of surrounding breeding habitat. It would appear then that suitable wintering grounds for females are limited, consequently, females are attracted from considerable distances to suitable sites. Since adult ptarmigan have great fidelity to breeding and wintering sites used in prior years, it follows that movements from wintering to breeding areas must be similar to those from breeding and/or summering sites to wintering areas. Subadult females have no prior attachment to breeding areas and must search for territories occupied by unmated males. Some subadult females are able to establish themselves close to the area where they initially wintered, while others must travel considerable distances to locate unmated territorial males. However, this factor alone cannot account for the almost complete failure to relocate females that were banded as chicks on brood areas. Most adult males winter adjacent to breeding areas and only have to move short distances to these areas in the spring. Subadult males must compete with established adults for space on their natal areas. Only a few are successful in becoming established in their first year, while most remain on peripheral areas as non-territorial males. Undoubtedly, some subadult males unsuccessful in competing for space on their natal areas search elsewhere for unoccupied territories. These birds probably account for the exceptionally long movements recorded for some subadult males. Most alpine habitat and consequently, most breeding habitat occurs west to northwest of Guanella Pass (Fig. 1). Birds could travel about 32 km northwest across continuous alpine habitat, while the maximum distance they could travel in any other direction without encountering extensive areas of unsuitable habitat, mainly forest, was 18 km. Considering only the easterly directions, the maximum distance ptarmigan could venture from Guanella Pass was 14 km. The greater probability of finding vacant territories in the direction where most breeding habitat occurs may explain why subadults preferred to move northwest. �-109- As most adult males banded at Guane11a Pass occupied territories immediately surrounding the wintering grounds, it is not unusual that they showed no significant movements in anyone direction. At present, no evidence is available to explain why females avoided moving longer distances in easterly directions. From studies conducted at Mt. Evans, there is no indication that lack of vacant territories or quality of the breeding habitat controlled easterly movements of females. Perhaps females breeding on areas east of Guane11a Pass winter elsewhere. While evidence to support this hypothesis is not presently available, it is believed that many of these females winter in a large willow basin approximately 6 km south of Mt. Evans. Unfortunately, this basin was inaccessible during the winter, and consequently, could not be investigated. Movements from Breeding or Summering to Wintering Sites Although the major emphasis of this study was to document movements from winter use sites, 45 movements were documented to Guane11a Pass. This sample included 16 adult females, 17 subadu1t females, 6 adult males, and 6 subadu1t males. Mean distances traveled by these birds to Guane11a Pass were 6.8, 6.5, 1.4, and 3.1 km, respectively. In all cases, movements to winter use sites were shorter than movements from these sites, but differences were not statistically significant (P> 0.05). From.data presented earlier it is apparent that most females moving over 10 km and males moving over 4 km failed to return to the wintering site where they were banded. This can be partially attributed to mortality during the spring and summer, but it was noted that some birds (primarily subadu1ts) traveling long distances from the wintering site where they were initially banded utilized other areas closer to their territories in subsequent winters. This may explain why return movements were shorter. Almost identical patterns were noted for movements of ptarmigan to wintering areas as described for movements from these sites. Since the majority of adult males banded at Guane11a Pass were established as breeding birds in the immediate vicinity, they showed the shortest movements to the wintering area. Experienced (adults) and inexperienced (subadu1ts) females moved longer distances than males to Guane11a Pass. Differences in wintering habitat previously described were probably major factors affecting hen movements to winter use sites. As expected,birds moved towards Guane11a Pass mainly from breeding and summering sites west to northwest of the wintering area. However, returning movements were not as prevalent from areas to the northwest as were movements in this direction. While 25 birds moved northwest from Guane11a Pass, only 12 were known to return. Considering that mainly subadu1ts moved northwest and the extensive distances they traveled in this direction, it is probable that many of these birds wintered elsewhere. Even so, the longest returning movements ( > 15 km) were by subadult females originally moving northwest from Guane11a Pass. Movement patterns noted in this study are similar to those reported by Braun (1969). Similar findings relating to the greater mobility of females have also been preported for rock (Weeden 1964) and willow ptarmigan (Irving et a1. 1967). Both studies found that most males winter near their breeding grounds, �-110- while females frequently moved long distances to or below treeline to winter ranges. As suggested by Weeden (1964) migration patterns and segregation of sexes of rock and willow ptarmigan during winter appear to be closely related. This relationship is also true for white-tailed ptarmigan. No evidence is available to explain why sexes need to live separately during the winter. Perhaps this is an adaptation to allow for more efficient utilization of winter food supplies. The greater mobility of females is not unique to ptarmigan as demonstrated from studies of other species of tetraonids including: sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus)(Hillman and Jackson 1973); ruffed grouse (Hale and Dorney 1963, and Gullion 1970); greater prairie chicken (Typanuchus cupido pinnatus) (Hamerstrom and Hamerstrom 1973); black grouse, and capercaillie (Koskimies 1957). Compared to many species of grouse, white-tailed ptarmigan do not move unusually long distances. When compared to documented movements of rock (Weeden 1964) and willow ptarmigan (Irving et al. 1967), movements of white-tailed ptarmigan are relatively short. Thus, ptarmigan are migratory with white-tailed ptarmigan exhibiting the shortest annual migrations documented to date. SUMMARY Intensive studies of characteristics and migration of wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan were conducted at Guanella Pass and surrounding alpine areas in north-central Colorado. Data were collected from April 1972 to April 1974. Arrival and departure from and to winter use sites were greatly influenced by climatic conditions. However, in most years, ptarmigan were on wintering areas by late October and remained on these areas until late April when they departed for their breeding grounds. Seven hundred and ninety nine ptarmigan were identified at Guanella Pass. Nearly 80 percent of the birds handled each year were females. Consistently more adults than subadults utilized the area; however, the age composition varied considerably between winters. Proportionally, more subadults were identified on the wintering area following summers of good production (1972) than poor production (1973). One hundred and seventy two flocks were observed at Guanella Pass. Flock sizes ranged from 2 to over 80 birds, but 69 percent of the flocks encountered contained 2 to 25 members. Mean yearly flock sizes ranged from 12 to 21 birds, but differences were not significant. Flocks tended to be smaller in October and April (about 16 birds per flock); however, mean monthly flock sizes were not significantly different. Flocks were not composed of family units nor were the same individuals associated together in the same flock throughout the winter. Following a summer of good production, ptarmigan apparently formed more winter flocks instead of gathering into larger groups. Partial segregation of sexes was observed, with males preferring higher, more windswept ridges than females. Flocks of males were usually small « 15 birds) while females congregated in flocks of larger size (20-30 birds). �-111- Sixty percent of the ptarmigan banded at Guanella Pass and relocated on breeding or summering sites returned in subsequent winters. Seventy three percent of the adults returned, while only 51 percent of the subadults returned. Differences were due to greater mobility and higher mortality of subadults. Most adults failing to return were probably dead, while some subadults wintered elsewhere in winters following their banding at Guanella Pass. Presence and abundance of willow were the most important factors determining where ptarmigan wintered. Essentially all sites on the Guanella Pass wintering area were utilized, but some sites were highly preferred to others. Yearly differences in distribution were not evident. Monthly differences in distribution resulting from changes in availability of willow and snow quality were detected. Human disturbance had some influence upon the distribution of birds at Guanella Pass. Females and their broods moved relatively short distances in summer and early fall prior to brood breakup. Of 126 chicks banded during this study, only 2 were located on winter use sites. Four other chicks were located on breeding areas .the year following banding. This low reobservation rate was primarily the results of high mortality of chicks. Females banded as chicks traveled farther than males. Males showed a high fidelity to natal areas, with no males banded as chicks relocated on breeding sites more than 1.2 km from their initial banding location. Ninety nine movements were documented from wintering to breeding or summering sites. On the average, subadu1ts moved greater distances than adults of the same sex. Females were consistently more mobile than males. Females wintered farther from breeding sites; possibly because wintering areas suitable for females were limited. Adult and subadult males were relatively sedentary, usually moving less than 2.5 to 4.0 km, respectively. Average movements of females were 6.3 km for adults and 8.5 km for subadults, with the longest movement being 22.7 km for a subadu1t female. Birds departing from Guanella Pass showed a striking tendency to move in the westerly directions, especially northwest. This tendency was probably related to the large amount of alpine habitat located west to northwest of the wintering area. Forty five movements were documented to Guane11a Pass. Movements to winter use sites were shorter than movements from these sites; however, movement patterns were similar. Most birds moved towards Guane11a Pass from breeding or summering sites west to northwest of the wintering area. �-113- LITERATURE CITED Aldrich, J. W. 1963. Geographic orientation of American onidae. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):529-545. Bailey, A. M. 1927. Notes on the birds of southeastern Auk 44(2): 184-2 05. Tetra- Alaska. Bendell. J. F •• and P. W. Elliott. 1967. Behavior and the regulation of numbers in blue grouse. Canadian Wildl. Ser v . Rept. Ser. 4. 76pp. Bent, A. C. birds. 1932. Life histories of North American U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 162. 490pp. Braun. ·C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, of white-tailed ptarmigan in- Color ado . Ph.D. rado State Univ., Fort Collins. 189pp. gallinaceous and movements Thesis. Colo- 1972. Habitat requirements of Colorado white -tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Commissioners 51:284-292. 1973. Continued inventory of. selected ptarmigan populations. Colorado D'iv, Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid P'r oj . W-37-R. 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N., and F. C. Lincoln. 1959. The birds of Alaska. The Stackpole Co. and Wildl. Manage. Inst., Harrisburg, Fa. and Washington, D. C. 922pp. Gullion, G. W. 1970. Univ. Minnesota, (m.ultilith) . ____ The ruffed grouse in Northern Minnesota. Forest Wildl. Relations Proj. 37pp. , and W. H. Marshall. 1968. Survival of ruffed grouse in a boreal forest. The Living Bird 7:117-167. Hale, J. B., and R. S. Dorney. 1963. Seasonal movements of ruffed grouse in Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):648-656. Hamerstrom, F., and F. Hamerstrom. 1973. The prairie chicken in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Dept. Nat. Res. Tech. Bull. 64. 52pp. Haskins, A. G. 1969. Endoparasites of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) from Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 147pp. Hillman, C. N., and W. W. Jackson. 1973.· The sharp-tailed grouse in South Dakota. South Dakota Dept. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Pub!. 3. 64pp. Irving, L., G. C. West, L. J. Peyton, and S. Paneak. 1967. Migralion of willow ptarmigan in arctic Alaska. Arctic 20(2 ):77-85. Judson, A. 1965. The weather and climate of a high mountain pass in the Colorado Rockies. U. S. Forest Servo Res. Paper RM-16. 28pp. �-115- Koskimies, J. 1957. Flocking behavior in capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus (L.), and blackgame, Lyrurus tetrix (L.). Finnish Papers on Game Res. 18:1-32. Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the east slope of the Front Range in Colorado. Univ. Colorado Studies. Sere BioI. 8. 134pp. May, T. A. 1970. Seasonal foods of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 55pp. 1974. Bioenergetics of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Colorado, Boulder. (In prep.) , and C. E. Braun. 1973. Seasonal foods of adult white-----.tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. J. Wildi. Manage. 36(4}:11801186. Packard, F. M. 1945. The birds of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Auk 62(3 ):371-394. Racey K. 1948. Birds of the Alta Lake region, Auk 65(4}:383-401. I British Columbia. Robel, R. J., J. N. Briggs, J. J. Cebula, N. J. Silvy, C. E. Viers, and P. G•.Watt. 1970. Greater prairie chicken range, movements and habitat usage in Kansas. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2}: 286-306. Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 174pp. Simpson, G. G., A. Roe, andR. C. Lewontin. 1960. Quantitative zoology. Revised Ed., Harcourt, Brace and Co . , New York. 440pp. Watson, A. 1965. A population study of ptarmigan in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecoi. 34:135-172. ____ (Lagopus mutus) "_, and D. Jenkins. 1964. Notes on the behavior grouse. British Birds 57(4):137-170. Weeden, R. B. ptarmigan of red 1964. Spatial separation of sexes in rock and willow in winter. Auk 81(4):534-541. �-116- Weimer, R. J., and J. D. Haunt eds. 1960. Guide.to the geology of Colorado. Ge o l , Soc. Ame r, , Rocky Mountain Assoc. Geol., ColoradoSci. Soc., Denver. 310pp. Zwickel, F., grouse. and J. F. Bendel!. J. Wildl. Manage. 1967. A snare 31(1}:202-204. for capturing blue , 1. O. Buss, and J. H. Brigham. 1968. Autumn move---ments of blue grouse and their relevance to populations and J. Wildl. management. Prepared . L«~ by I Richard Manage. dfItiFffL- W.' offman 32(3):456-468. �-117- April 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-37-R-27 Work Plan No. Game Bird Survey 20 Job No. 1 Investigation of Population Status of Bobwhite Quail in Eastern Colorado ----------~~------------------- Job Title Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel: Donald Hoffman, Marvin Gardner, Earl Downer, Mike Loftsgard, Ted Behlke and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT Summer whistling counts on the Tamarack Study Area and elsewhere along the South Platte and Republican River drainages generally dropped from 1972 levels. Change in ratio projections indicated that bobwhite quail suffered an approxiinate 60 percent natural mortality from fall banding, 1972 to February 1973 on the Tamarack. This loss, in combination with harvest removal of 26.7 percent accounted for an 86.8 percent late fall and winter lIlOrtality rate. Only six percent of the original 2,319 quail were lost through the subsequent spring and summer of 1973, bringing the annual fall to fall mortality rate to 93.7 percent on the Tamarack. Severe cold and prolonged snow through the 1972 hunting season was responsible for the except tonal.Lyhigh winter loss. A major flood inundated the South Platte VClll,~y and the study area for several weeks during the spring of 1973. Subsequent vegetative growth and weather conditions permitted nesting which was delayed by about two weeks in comparison with the previous year. The 1973 fall population estimate of 722 quail was 254 percent greater than the late winter, 1973 population. In comparison, the 1972over-sunnner gain was 235 percent above the late winter base. Hunters removed.about 31.7 percent of the quail, including crippling loss, during the 33 day season in 1973. Six to ten inches of snow cover and extreme cold starting December 18, 1973 and lasting for almost a month, caused high quail loss similar to that of the previous winter. Winter, 1974 trapping efforts were near futile. It is estimated that only about 100 quail survived the winter to reproduce in 1974. �-118- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Whistling count indices should be continued on the Tamarack to determine their relationship to preceding late winter and subsequent fall population and harvest levels. It is recommended that Wildlife Conservation Officers continue inventory counts on routes established elsewhere in eastern Colorado. 2~ Quail hunting seasons should cOIllIIlence in early November and run continuously to termination by early to mid-December at the latest. A split or delayed second season for bobwhite is not recommended. 3. Phragmites stand locations along the Tamarack should be plotted. The merits and problems connected with uSe of this winter cover for all wildlife should be weighed •. Transplants of phragmites into new locations would potentially follow. �-119- INVESTIGATION OF POPULATION STATUS OF BOBWHITE QUAIL IN EASTERN COLORADO Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate (1) the distribution and relative density of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado, and (2) population structure and level, and rate of harvest, and identify key factors that limit bobwhite on the Tamarack Management Area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate the distribution and density of bobwhite in eastern Colorado. 2. To investigate population structure and level, and rate of harvest of bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Management Area. 3. To identify key factors limiting bobwhite on the Tamarack Management Area. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this investigation were previously listed by Snyder (1972, 1973) in previous segment reports. A brief clarification is presented here as to analytical procedures used in the section on Population Structure, Level and Rate of Harvest. To increase sample sizes, these data utilize fall retrapped adults to supplement fall banded samples. For example in the fall of 1972, 802 quail were banded and 34 previously banded adults were retrapped. The combined total, 836 quail, were used as the fall sample on which to base population level estimates, and other variables. However, subsequent recoveries of other previously banded quail, not retrapped in the fall, were not utilized in these data analyses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bobwhite Distribution and Density in Eastern Colorado South Platte River Count summaries are provided in Tables 1 and 3. With the exception of Atwood-Merino and Sterling-Iliff routes, the counts were generally down. The greatest decline was noted in the Brush-Fort Morgan area. Eleven counts on the Tamarack indicated about half ~s many calling males as in 1972. Note the overall summary at the bottom of Table 1. �-120- Table 1. A comparison of 1971, 1972 and 1973 bobwhite quail whistling counts completed along the south Platte River. Number of Counts Number of Stops 2 Natural Tally Mean 20 20 40 78 65 93 3.90 3.25 2.33 2 4' 6 20 45 64 67 202 135 3.35 4.49 2.10 1971 1972 1973 6 7 5 75 79 57 219 312 109 2.92 3.95 1.91 Sterling-Iliff .1972 1973 2 2 19 20 63 73 3.33 3.65 Atwood-Merino 1971 1972 1973 2 2 3 20 20 30 108 182 246 5.40 9.16 8.20 Brush-Fort Morgan 1971 1972 1973 2 2 3 20 20 30 77 163 60 3.85 8.15 2.00 Goodrich-Orchard 1971 1972 1973 2 2 1 20 23 11 23 32 7 1.15 1.39 0.64 South Platte River Average for all counts 1971 1972 1973 175 226 252 572 1,019 723 3.27 4.51 2.87 Route Year Stateline-Ovid 1971 1972 1973 2 4 East Tamarack 1971 1972 1973 West Tamarack r �-121- Arkansas River The primary bobwhite areas along the river from Las Animas to Rocky Ford show a decline in bobwhite numbers compared with 1972 (Table 2). The lower Purgatoire, which contains a high concentration of bobwhite was also down in population levels. The overall average along the Arkansas drainage was 3.03 calling males per stop in 1972, compared to 2.40 calling males per stop in 1973. Cimarron Drainage Table 2 indicates a considerable decline in the 1973 population compared with previous years. Since the Baca County route runs through sand sage rangelands, quail are heard calling in all directions rather than in a semicircle as along the rivers. Less vegetation and less noise interference also permit location of calling males at greater distances. Therefore, the BacaCounty counts cannot be directly compared with other counts. Republican Drainage Results from past years (Tables 2 and 3) indicate the Republican drainages generally possess low densities of bobwhite. The count on the Arikaree was down considerably from the previous year. Whistling Counts and Subsequent Fall Population Trends on the Tamarack Study Area Do summer whistling counts foretell fall population levels? Preliminary Tamarack data presented in Table 4 indicate that whistling counts can be used to predict population changes. In 1972, when the call index was up by about a third, fall population levels and harvest also increased by about that amount. In 1973, the index, the fall population level, and harvest decreased, but not by quite the same percentages. Additional years of evaluation plus complete review of previous studies on the subject are planned for the future. Population Structure, Level and Rate of Harvest on the Tamarack Study Area Past Segment Band Recoveries and Population Estimates First Segment Band Recoveries.--In the fall of 1971, 531 bobwhite were banded. Only two recoveries from this original sample were obtained during the fall and winter samples in 1973-74. Four bands were recovered during the same period from 155 birds banded in the late winter of 1972. These data are considered inadequate for use in revision of previously established population estimates. They do illustrate the short life span of bobwhite and will be utilized later in the derivation of mortality and survival rates. Second Segment Band Recoveries.--The initial projection of 2,3l9 quail alive in October, 1972 will be retained as the best estimate of population level �-122- Table 2. A summary of bobwhite whistling counts completed in southeast Colorado and the Republican River Drainage in 1971, 1972 and 1973. Year Nwnber of Counts Number of Stops Natural Tally Mean E. Prowers County 1971 1972 1973 1 3 2 10 30 26 8 33 45 0.8 1.1 1.73 Purgatoire 1971 1972 1973 1 2 3 10 24 40 52 194 158 5.2 8.1 3.95 Las Animas-La Junta 1972 1973 2 4 27 47 152 128 5.6 2.72 La Junta-Rocky Ford 1972 1973 2 3 23 37 76 87 3.3 2.35 Rocky FordManzanola 1972 1973 2 2 18 17 8 12 0.4 0.71 Fowler-Boone 1972 1973 3 1 34 14 9 4 0.3 0.29 1971 1972 1973 1 2 2 10 28 25 38 145 49 3.8 5.2 1.96 Arikaree 1972 1973 1 2 11 20 31 8 2.8 0.40 South Fork-Bonny 1971 1972 1973 3 30 2 27 No counts made 21 12 0.7 0.4 Location and Route Arkansas River Valley Cimarron River Valley S. E. Baca County Republican River Drainage �-123- Table 3. A comparison of high counts obtained on bobwhite quail census routes in eastern Colorado during 1971, 1972 and 1973. Route 1971 Year 1972 1973 South Platte Drainage Stateline-Ovid 5.3 3.4 4.0 East Tamarack 4.0 6.1 3.1 West Tamarack 4.1 8.2 2.2 4.3 4.6 Sterling-Iliff Atwood-Merino 6.7 9.1 9.5 Brush-Fort Morgan 3.9 8.3 2.3 Goodrich-Orchard 1.4 2.3 0.6 2.8 0.6 Republican Drainage Arikaree Arkansas Drainage E. Prowers County 0.8 1.8 1.8 Purgatoire 5.2 9.4 4.5 Las Animas-La Junta 6.1 3.7 La Junta-Rocky Ford 3.5 2.5 Rocky Ford-Manzanola 0.9 0.7 Fowler-Boone 0.4 0.3 5.5 2.1 Cimarron Drainage S. E. Baca County 3.8 �-126Table 5. Derivation of natural mortality of bobwhite during the fall and winter of 1972-73. West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Fall, 1972 banded quail remalnlng (corrected for emigration) 483 306 789 Projected 1972 harvest removal (corrected for crippling loss) 138 73 211 Fall, 1972 quail subject to natural mortality 345 233 578 Quail banded or retrapped in February, 1973 63 15 78 From Fall, 1972 banded sample From February, 1973 sample 11 10 4 2 15 12 Fall, 1972 banded alive at end of winter, 1973 1./ 69 29 98 Fall-winter natural mortality of banded sample 276 204 480 Projected 1972 fall population estimate 1,521 798 2,319 Fall-winter natural mortality of total population 2:./ 869 532 1,401 57.13 66.67 60.04 444 190 634 28.57 23.86 26.74 Item Recoveries obtained during fall and winter, 1973-74: Percent natural mortality, fall and winter Total 1972 season harvest and crippling loss Percent harvest mortality Total mortality, natural + harvest Percent mortality, natural + harvest Total bobwhite alive mid-February, 1973 1,313 722 2,035 85.70 90.53 86.78 208 76 284 l/ The ratio of fall to winter band recoveries based on the total winter banded sample was used to project the number of fall-banded quail alive in late winter, 1973. £/ Based on a 33.77 percent fall-banded sample as shown in the 1972 harvest recovery of 548 quail. �-127- Table 6. Natural mortality of bobwhite through the 1973 on the Tamarack Study Area. Item spring and summer of Males Females Total Bobwhite alive February, 1973 11 154 130 284 Adult bobwhite projected alive October, 1973 11 82 64 146 56.2 43.8 72 66 Proportion of mortality between sexes 52.2% 47.8% Percent mortality, Spring through Summer based on February population level 46.7 50.8 48.6 Percent mortality, Spring through Summer based on 1972 Fall population level 5.7 6.2 5.9 Percent composition of survivors Natural mortality--Spring through Summer, 1973 11 Annual mortality--Fall, 1972 to Fall, 1973 Percent annual mortality, Fall, 1972 to Fall, 1973 1,180 93.5 993 138 2,173 93.9 1lBased on sex ratio data from Table 19 in Snyder, 1973. 1lBased on 1973 fall population estimate (Table 8) and age and se~ ratios (Tables 14 and 15). liThe difference between line 1 and line 2 above. 93.7 �-128- Table 7. An estimate of mortality and survival of bobwhite quail from 1971 through 1973 based on the relative recovery rate method. !! Period Banded Number Banded Number of Recoveries Each Year After Banding 1 2 Fatl, 1971 531 119 34 Fall, 1972 802 175 13 Fall, 1973 300 83 Recovery Rate Each Year After Banding 1 2 0.0640 0.2182 0.0162 0.2767 0.4949 Percent 0.0802 Percent First Year Survival Rate 29.33 Mortality Rate 70.67 Second Year Survival Rate 5.85 Mortality Rate 94.15 Average Survival Rate 16.21 Mortality Rate 83.79 "};/ Based on procedures from Funk, 1966. Fall Banding, 1973 During the fall of 1973, 197 bobwhite were banded on the West Tamarack and 103 quail were banded on the East Tamarack. Nine retrapped adults brought the total sample to 309. CIR data in Table 8 indicate that 41 percent of the quail were marked. High river levels restricted much of the trapping to the south side of the Tamarack. Harvest also was restricted in the same way to some degree. If neither banding or harvest was randomly distributed, then a higher proportion of banded quail were taken and the actual population level was higher than that projected in Table 8. It is not believed that the bias was too great, and for the most part, it was confined to the West Tamarack. Future samples will be too small to permit correction. Fall :t-k>vemen t Correction for movements and loss of banded quail from the study area prior to harvest were calculated by the same method as in previous years (Snyder 1973). Most coveys were quite stable, with only one known covey moving a long distance upstream to near Sterling. Correction for loss of banded quail is applied in Table 8. �-129- Table 8. A summary of Fall, 1973 bobwhite banding and harvest information from the Tamarack Management Area. West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area 197 103 300 3 9 203 106 309 13 3 16 190 103 293 58 23 81 2 o 2 60 23 83 Crippling loss (projected) total quail 17 8 25 Known harves t 139 63 202 Projected total harvest 161 70 227 Percent crippling loss 15.83 11.11 12.38 Projected total band recoveries 67 26 93 Percent banded 43.16 36.51 41.09 Percent harvest (projected total) 35.26 25.Z4 31. 74 Item Number of Fall, 1973 banded qu~i1 Number of retrapped adults Total marked Marked lost to emigration Marked remaining Band recoveries--Fa11, 1973 banded Retrapped adults Total band recoveries Fall population estimate 440 Confidence limits ± 85.22 ± 97.28 ± 113.96 Confidence limits with finite correction ± 67.80 ± 84.28 ± + 282 = 722 94.38 �-130- Fall Population Estimate The fall population in 1973 was much lower than that in preceding years (Tables 8 and 9). Marked and recapture samples were not sufficient to prevent errors greater than 10 percent, with 95 percent accuracy as recommended by Robson and Regier (1964). Due to high winter mortality, this level of sampling will not be achieved. Confidence limits for the fall population are presented in Table 8. Table 9. 1973. Bobwhite fall popUlation and harvest statistics for 1971 through Item Fall population estimate 197i 1972 1973 1,745 2,319 722 Season length (days) 20.5 31.5 32.5 Known harvest 411 548 202 Projected total harvest mortality !/ 472 634 227 Percent harvest mortality y 27.0 26.7 31.7 !/ Includes projected crippling loss. Harvest 1973 The 1973 quail season in Small Game Management Unit #1 began at noon on Saturday, November 17 and ended on the 25th. An extended season along the South Platte River opened on December 8 and terminated at the end of the month. Quail and pheasant hunting was thus permitted for 32.5 days in 1973, compared to 31.5 days in 1972, and 20.5 days in 1971. Hunters removed 202 bobwhite from the Tamarack during the 1973 season. Projected crippling loss increased the mortality to 227 birds (Table 8). This harvest was well below that of either of the two preceding years (Table 9). Hunting Pressure and Hunting Success Hunting success of bobwhite was much lower in 1973 than in either 1971 or 1972. During the first 8 days of the 1973 season, 5.8 hunters checked into the Tamarack per each quail taken from the area (Table 10). In contrast, in 1971 and 1972, 2.47 and 2.63 hunters per bagged quail, respectively, were checked. Hunter success declined with season progression each year, but again, the most dramatic decline occurred in 1973 (Table 10). �-131- Table 10. Hunter success ratios on bobwhite quail with the progression of hunting seasons in 1971, 1972 and 1973. Interval Number of Hunters!.! Number of Quail Hunters/Quail 1971 Season First 8 days 638 258 2.47 Second 8 days 363 100 3.63 Last 5 days 258 53 4.87 1972 Season First 8 days 606 230 2.63 Second 8 days 386 167 2.31 Third 8 days 369 100 3.69 Fourth 8 days 392 36 10.89 1973 Season First 8 days 823 142 5.80 Second 8 days 339 36 9.42 Third 8 days 161 10 16.10 Fourth 9 days 303 13 23.30 !/ Includes all hunters using the Tamarack. During 1972 and 1973 hunters during the latter part of the season were primarily duck hunters. Hunting pressure was nearly the same during the early parts of the 1971 and 1972 seasons, whereas increased pressure was recorded during the first eight days of 1973 (Table 10). This pressure dropped off more rapidly than in previous years, undoubtedly due to poor hunting success on most species (Table 11). Increased hunting pressure, primarily attributed to duck hunters, was noted during the holiday period of late December. �Table 11. Harvest of small game per day on the Tamarack Management Area during the 1973 quail and pheasant season. y Bobwhite Quail Date Pheasants Duck;!:..! Rabbits Squirrels Adult Male Adult Female Imm. Male Female Unclassified Total 5 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 18 8 4 8 6 1 10 7 3 8 17 4 3 4 3 6 6 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 O· 40 28 9 14 10 4 22 14 12 13 65 53 4 153 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 3 3 0 2 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 11 5 0 4 0 4 1 2 1 3 0 0 4 Imm. First Season 11-17 11-18 11-19 11-20 11-21 11-22 11-23 11-24 11-25 Subtotal : 0 1 0 9 9 7 3 3 1 1 3 5 45 37 15 50 15 4 11 23 7 8 4 4 0 8 0 5 4 1 0 0 0 1 0 6 1 0 1 0 0 5 1 4 41 207 34 2 18 o Extended Season 12-8 12-9 12-10 12-11 12-12 12-13 12-14 12-15 12-16 12-17 12-18 12-19 12-20 5 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 10 5 2 1 3 3 0 3 0 0 22 27 7 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0' 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 '0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I •...• w N I �Table 11. Harvest of small game per day on the Tamarack Management Area during the 1973 quail and pheasant season (continued). 1./ Date Pheasants Ducks-2/ Rabbits Squirrels Adult Male Adult Female Imm. Male Bobwhite guail Imm. Female Unclassified Total Extended Season (cont.) 12-21 12-22 12-23 12-24 12-25 12-26 12-27 12-28 12-29 12-30 12-31 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 3 0 0 9 30 15 2 0 15 8 12 23 21 16 0 5 2 1 0 0 2 0 11 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 4 1 4 0 2 Subtotal 21 234 29 1 7 5 16 20 1 49 Total 62 441 63 3 25 18 81 73 5 202 1/ Seasons for waterfowl, rabbits and squirrels extend beyond dates listed here. '!:../ Includes 393 mallards and 48 others of several species. I ~ w w I �-134- Hunter Use and Success by Hunting Area Utilization of hunting areas is indicated in Table 12. Also included are hunter hours, quail banded, total quail harvested and banded quail harvest per area, and per east and west sections of the Tamarack. Assuming six square miles of hunting area (Snyder 1972), each square mile of the 'I'amanac k river bottom was hunted by about 270 hunters. Each square mile sustained about 909 man hours of hunting pressure during the quail season. Categorizing this hunting pressure per species or even between upland game and waterfowl cannot be made. Many additional hunter days and man hours of use were accumulated during dove, deer, duck and rabbit seasons which extended through various parts of the fall and winter. Harvest of Bobwhite in Relation to That of Other Species Species harvest by day of season is illustrated in Table 11. Harvest of quail is broken down to age and sex. Table 13 compares the harvest of small game for years 1971, 1972 and 1973. Harvest of all species declined in 1973 from 1972 levels. Only 1973 duck and rabbit harvests exceeded those in 1971. Winter Banding 1974 Most of February, 1974 was utilized in quail trapping efforts. Donald M. Hoffman assisted for two weeks. Despite these tenacious efforts, only twelve bobwhite were banded, and six were retrapped at various locations on the Tamarack. Efforts to locate quail by tracking in snow in combination with use of bird dogs was productive. However, these efforts were restricted due to lack of snow cover through most of the month. Searches that were completed indicated that large areas of the Tamarack were completely void of bobwhite, and the few coveys that were located by baiting or searches were all quite small. Only about 40 quail were found through trapping, searches and contacts, but it is possible that two to three times that number of quail are present. The small trapped sample will not provide an adequate base for use in CIR projections from subsequent band returns. A map is enclosed (Fig. 1) showing known covey locations, but it must be accepted that accuracy in measurement of population variables is directly related to population size. The smaller the population, the less accurately we can measure it. Age Ratios-Fall to Winter, 1973-74 Trap bias toward young was again evident in the fall banded sample as in previous years (Table 14). The percentage of adults taken during the November hunting season (20.3 percent) was considered to benost closely approximate the proportion of adults in the fall population. Disproportionately higher juvenile mortality may have increased the proportion of adults in the subsequent harvest and winter banding samples. In 1972, approximately 16.3 percent of the population were adults and in 1971 the percentage adults was 19.2 �-135Table 12. A summary by hunting area of fall banded bobwhite, hunter use, total harvest and banded harvest recoveries on the Tamarack Management Area in 1973. Area Number Quail Banded Number of Hunters y Hunter Hours }j Total Quail Harvest '!;.I Banded Quail Harvest 11 9 4 3 West Tamarack 1 2 4 3 4 5 16 6 7 16 53 50 46 47 27 48 41 8 2 33 9 2 6 o 2 o 146 114 69 79 66 13 o 14 15 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 5 46 39 53 57 50 54 o 33 17 97 9 55 11 27 18 30 48 47 59 43 39 30 128 102 64 119 106 175 174 206 179 128 414 222 256 194 230 211 148 188 197 1,095 3,718 10 6 11 18 12 Subtotal o 8 o 5 3 o o o o o 6 1 2 2 o 4 1 1 6 o 8 8 3 2 4 12 20 12 3 14 10 o o o o o 6 11 8 1 7 6 1 o 11 2 139 57 o o East Tamarack Braddock Pasture 34 ~I 1 14 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6 1 2 9 13 6 2 25 o o 68 58 49 35 45 50 54 36 30 45 182 203 151 120 140 184 187 4 3 7 11 1 2 15 12 III III 7 2 o o 8 6 5 1 o 172 172 o 55 3 o o Subtotal 103 525 1,733 63 23 Total 300 1,620 5,451 202 80 10 11 II Includes only known hunters and hours reported through the check station. 21 Includes only known harvest. Some hunting probably went unrecorded. Exact location unknown. ~I Braddock pasture and Areas 16 and 17 West are closed to public hunting. 11 Approximates the location where quail were shot. �-136- Table 13. A comparison of small game harvest during the 1971, 1972 and 1973 quail and pheasant seasons. Year Length of Season Quail 1971 20.5 days 411 1972 First 20.5 days 1972 Pheasants Duck Rabbits Squirrels 87 196 30 9 480 130 555 126 4 31.5 days 548 143 704 156 4 1973 First 20.5 days 184 53 283 40 3 1973 32.5 days 202 62 441 63 3 Sex Ratios Table 15 illustrates the greater proportional mortality among adult hens than among adult cocks. As in 1972, this differential mortality occurred during the summer. Some difficulties are encountered in sexing young juveniles during fall banding. Therefore, the sex ratios of fall trapped juveniles are not considered highly accurate. Factors Limiting Bobwhite on the Tamarack Fall and Winter Mortality Available evidence indicates that two successive winters with prolonged snow cover accompanied by extreme cold have nearly wiped out the Tamarack quail population. These weather conditions came in conjunction with the 1972 hunting season, so hunting stress probably added to the natural mortality. Rosene (1969) stated that bobwhite are quite susceptible to cold and exposure when their feathers become wet. Short days and long nights in winter limit the hours of feeding. Coveys must be united to provide communal warmth over night in below zero weather. Hunting, especially under snow conditions and in late afternoon could greatly heighten stress by causing wet feathers and by preventing feeding and covey reorganization. Available evidence indicates hunting removed about 634 quail in 1972, while 1,401 birds were lost to unknown causes. The drastic decline in hunter success by the end of the 1972 season (Table 10) provided evidence that much of this mortality had occurred prior to the end of the hunting season. Pre-baiting and covey searches in January, 1973 confirmed this. �TAMA RACK MANAGEMENT AREA 'fl £$1 AREAS I •..... w ~ IV / EAST AREAS SCALE o LEGEND 1 l>iY!GRASSLAND Fig. 1. 1 Mi. () Covey Location - 1973 ~ Covey Location - 1974 HUNTING AREA ~UNFARMED RIVER BOTTOM ~ ALFALFA ~ AND RIVER CHANNELS L.:.-J DHAY Yo MEADOW [:~~:~ ROW CROPS PLANTING Bobwhite coveys located during late winter trapping efforts in 1973 and 1974. I �-138- Table 14. Bobwhite age ratio information obtained during the fall and winter of 1973-74. Sample Number Adults Number Young Total Percent Adults Adul t:Yearling Ratio Fall Banded 31 278 309 10.03 1:8.97 Banded 4 62 66 6.06 Unbanded 26 56 82 31.71 Total 30 118 148 20.27 Banded 3 l3 16 18.75 Unbanded 8 23 31 25.80 Total 11 36 47 23.40 Banded 7 75 82 8.54 Unbanded 34 79 113 30.09 Total 41 154 195 21.03 1:3.76 5 13 18 27.78 1:2.60 November Season 1:3.93 December Season 1:3.27 Combined Season Data Winter Banded In 1973, snow cover began about December 18, after the main hunting stress had passed. Snows, deeper than in the previous year (8 to 10 inches), persisted until mid-January. Two small coveys were observed flying an eighth of a mile or more out to exposed roadways to feed, indicating a stress for food. The few small coveys that survived the winter were resident in the heaviest available cover. Snow berry (Symphoricarpos sp.) and wild rose (Rosa sp.) generally did not provide adequate cover in the deep snow. Most willow (Salix sp.) clumps were too sparse and open. Cordgrass (Spartina pectinata), other grasses and most forbs were flattened under the snow. The tall dense stands of Phragmites grass provided the key to survival for most rema1n1ng coveys. Pheasants also concentrated in these locations. Many of the Phragmites stands, which did not contain quail, also did not contain pheasants. Lack of food and adequate adjacent cover were probably factors limiting use of these cover patches. The presence of pheasants probably increased food stress to bobwhite. �-139- Table 15. Sex ratios of adult and juvenile and winter trapping and harvest, 1973-74. bobwhites obtained during fall Adult Males Adult Females Immature Sample Males!1 Immature Females Fall trapped 21 10 126 146 Percent by age class 67.7 32.3 46.3 53.7 Hunting 25 18 81 73 Percent by age class 58.1 41.9 52.6 47.4 Winter trapped 4 1 6 7 Percent by age class 80.0 20.0 46.2 53.8 Total 50 29 21.3 226 Mean percent by age class 63.3 36.7 48.5 51.5 determined during this Season (total birds) II Sex of immatures sample period. could not always be accurately The part which predators played in decimating quail populations under snow stress conditions remains unknown. However, it undoubtedly played an important part, since the quail were forced to expose themselves when feeding and could not readily find escape cover. Goshawks, great horned owls and coyotes were among the most active predators along the river during snow stress periods. Spring and Summer Mortality and Reproduction Whistling counts conducted along the South Platte and Tamarack indicated population declines occurred in 1973 based on 1972 levels (Table 4). A second variable, spring flooding in 1973 was also a factor to consider in quail survival and reproduction. Present evidence indicates the snow stress, not flooding, decimated the population. The flood delayed nesting, but a significant reduction in nesting and reproduction is not evident. Flooding occurred early enough in spring to permit abundant vegetative growth and midto late summer quail reproduction. Projected Period and Peak of Hatch.--Fig. 2 illustrates the period and general peak of quail hatch on a sample of 288 birds measured during fall trapp~g. �-139- Table 15. Sex ratios of adult and juvenile and winter trapping and harvest, 1973-74. bobwhites obtained during fall Adult Males Adult Females Immature Sample Males!1 Immature Females Fall trapped 21 10 126 146 Percent by age class 67.7 32.3 46.3 53.7 Hunting 25 18 81 73 Percent by age class 58.1 41.9 52.6 47.4 Winter trapped 4 1 6 7 Percent by age class 80.0 20.0 46.2 53.8 Total 50 29 21.3 226 Mean percent by age class 63.3 36.7 48.5 51.5 determined during this Season (total birds) II Sex of immatures sample period. could not always be accurately The part which predators played in decimating quail populations under snow stress conditions remains unknown. However, it undoubtedly played an important part, since the quail were forced to expose themselves when feeding and could not readily find escape cover. Goshawks, great horned owls and coyotes were among the most active predators along the river during snow stress periods. Spring and Summer Mortality and Reproduction Whistling counts conducted along the South Platte and Tamarack indicated population declines occurred in 1973 based on 1972 levels (Table 4). A second variable, spring flooding in 1973 was also a factor to consider in quail survival and reproduction. Present evidence indicates the snow stress, not flooding, decimated the population. The flood delayed nesting, but a significant reduction in nesting and reproduction is not evident. Flooding occurred early enough in spring to permit abundant vegetative growth and midto late summer quail reproduction. Projected Period and Peak of Hatch.--Fig. 2 illustrates the period and general peak of quail hatch on a sample of 288 birds measured during fall trapp~g. �-140- 16 ~ 15 ;" , \ ,, I 14 ,, 13 I 12 , 11 I I .c 10 u .,.,1 '0 Q) ,,' +I ::r:: 9 ,I ttI I ttI ....• +I 0 E-t 4-t 0 -iJ \ 8 \ \ \ \ \ , I I \ \ I rvl 7 c 111 u 6 ~ Il. 5 \ \\ [hI ..." ,/ v ..•. " I r-_ -1 I I 4 Sample Size I I 3 N = 768 in 1972 f I N = 288 in 1973 / 2 I I 1 , I I o 18 25 May 2 9 17 June 24 3 11 19 27 July 4 12 20 August 28 7 14 Sept. Weekly Mid-points Fig. 2. Period and peak of bobwhite quail hatch projected from prima~y feather growth for 1972 and 1973 on a percent of total basis. �-141- Wings were measured and age data projected using a method described by Rosene (1969). Very little hatching occurred prior to mid-June, and most occurred after the first week in July. A second high peak occurred during the second week of August. Newly hatched broods were present even as late as the second week of September illustrating the tenacious efforts of the hens to bring off a brood. Most of the hatch in 1972 came about two weeks ahead of that in 1973 (Fig. 2). Nesting Success.--The February, 1973 base population of 284 quail gained in number by 254 percent to a fall level of 722 birds. In the preceding year, the gain from the February base of 988 quail was 235 percent. This indicates that the 1973 population made a better gain percentage-wise than in the previous year, despite the spring flood. Since the population level was much lower in 1973, this probably helped in reducing mort.ality over summer and in making available more optimum nesting sites. The percentage of adults in fall was 19.2, 16.3, and 20.3 for 1971, 1972 and 1973, respectively. The higher percentage adults in 1973 might indicate lower nesting success that year. However, it might also indicate a higher rate of survival among adults. Previously, presented data also indicate a higher percent adult survival in 1973 than in 1972 from late winter to early fall. Vegetation Sampling Late summer inventories of vegetation were again obtained along the Tamarack in 1973. Samples were collected in west areas 2-3, 6-7, and 21-25, and in east areas 4-6 and the Braddock pasture. Results are illustrated in Tables 16, 17 and 18. Notable differences from the previous year included increases in bare ground, curly dock and cockle burr due to flooding. Sweet clover which was abundant in 1972 was near non-existent in 1973. Ragweeds continued among the dominant forbs. Cordgrass, witchgrass, barnyard grass and Canada wild rye remained among the most abundant grasses. Cover density averaged slightly less in 1973 and height averaged slightly greater than in 1972. However, two of the locations were not sampled the previous year, so direct year to year comparisons are questionable. Michael Loftsgard, a Colorado State University Wildlife Management Student conducted food habits analyses on quail crops collected through the November, 1973 hunting season, and on a limited sample obtained during the 1972 hunting season. His information, presented in Table 19, provides a comparison of fall food consumption in relation to plant species occurrence along the study area. Wassink's (1972) information is also included. Ragweeds (Ambrosia spp.), knotweed and other Polygonum spp. were among the most important fall foods. Sunflower (Helianthus spp.), milkweed (Asclepias spp.), and sweet clover (Melilotus spp ,) were also commonly utilized. Field penny cress (Thlaspia arvense) and other mustards mature early in spring and summer, so may be more important as food earlier in the year. �Table 16. Percentage occurrence of vegetation, litter and bare ground on several sites within the Tamarack Management Area in late summer, 1973. Cover Type 2-3 West Sum Percent 6-7 West Sum Percent Location 21-25 West 4-6 East Sum Percent Sum Percent Braddock Sum Percent Grass 436 43.9 334 39.2 656 54.6 407 40.1 322 33.0 2,155 42.8 Brush and vines 312 31.4 94 11.0 147 12.2 367 36.2 244 25.0 1,164 23.1 Forbs 141 14.2 218 25.6 262 21.8 110 10.8 184 18.9 915 18.2 Dead vegetation 12 1.2 9 1.1 5 0.4 3 0.3 12 1.2 41 0.8 Combined Sum Percent I Litter 31 3.1 27 3.2 15 1.3 15 1.5 3 0.3 91 1.8 I-' .po N I Bare ground 61 Total Occurrences 993 6.2 169 851 19.9 116 1,201 9.7 112 1,014 11.1 210 975 21.6 668 5,034 13.3 �-143- Table 17. Height and density measurements obtained at several locations along the Tamarck Management Area in late summer, 1973. Location No. of Measurements Mean Height in Inches . 1/ Mean Densl.ty- 2-3 West 210 28.82 1.62 6-7 West 210 18.87 1.96 18-19 West 210 25.43 2.47 4-6 East 210 15.80 1.98 Braddock Pasture 210 21.06 2.13 18.33 1.69 Average 1/ Based on an ocular estimate scale of 1, 2, or 3, respectively, representing open, medium and dense cover. LITERATURE CITED Funk, H. D. 1966. Review of duck literature relating to population dynamics, and banding analysis techniques and findings. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. Oct. p. 77-108. Loftsgard, M. 1974. Fall food habits .of bobwhite on the Tamarack 11anagement. Area. Colo. State Univ., Dept. of Fishery and Wild1. Biology. Mimeo Rept. Robson, D. S., and H. A. Regier. 1964. Sample sized in Peterson mark-recapture experiments. Trans. Amer. Fish. Society 93(3):215-226. Rosene, W. 1969. The bobwhite quail. New Jersey. 418 p. Rutgers Dniv. Press, New Brunswick, Snyder, W. D. 1972. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. April. p. 121-150. 1973. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Div. of Wildlife. Game Res. Rept. April. (In Press). Colo. Wassink, J. L. 1972. Fall food habits of bobwhite in eastern Colorado. State Dniv., Dept. of Fishery and Wildl. Biology. Mimeo Rept. Colo. Prepared bY ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~ wa;renrJ.SrlYde~ Wildlife Researcher )_ �Table 18. Forb occurrence on five sites along the Tamarack Management Area in late summer, 1973.!I Genera or Species 2-3 West 6-7 West 21-25 West 4-6 East Braddock Pasture Total Percent Occurrence Per. Ragweed Lambs quarter Kochia Horseweed spp. Sunflower Annual ragweed Wild lettuce Milk purslane Purslane Curly dock Ground cherry Poison hemlock Dandelion Gumweed Crotons Snow-on-the-mountain Pigweed spp. Milkweed Indian hemp Mustard spp. Licorice Vervain spp, Goldenrod Mint Plantain Prickly pear Cocklebur Canadian thistle Clammy weed 13 1 3 0 3 1 0 0 0 14 5 8 0 0 0 0 0 21 34 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 7 3 10 2 5 0 4 16 1 2 0 40 5 6 0 0 0 3 32 4 14 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 25 0 4 29 0 0 1 14 4 0 1 0 88 6 6 0 0 0 5 3 49 0 0 9 0 0 2 0 3 26 0 5 26 0 0 0 3 4 0 5 0 1 4 12 2 1 0 1 7 8 16 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 5 0 2 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 19 14 0 3 7 0 1 1 4 0 1 0 18 9 0 0 1 1 34 0 8 93 3 8 1 24 25 1 13 19 157 20 35 9 1 1 10 46 82 65 2 30 9 1 2 1 14 92 7 22 10.16 0.33 0.87 0.11 2.62 2.73 0.11 1.42 2.08 17.16 2.19 3.83 0.98 0.11 0.11 1.09 5.03 8.96 7.10 0.22 3.28 0.98 0.11 0.22 0.11 1.53 10.05 0.77 2.40 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I •..... .p. .p. I �Table 18. Forb occurrence on five sites along the Tamarack Management Area in late summer, 1973 (cont.).l/ Genera or Species 2-3 West 6-7 West 21-25 West 4-6 East Braddock Pasture Total Percent Occurrence 0 13 0 8 1 0 0 0 0 18 5 1 14 0 2 1 0 0 0 5 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 0 2 7 4 9 6 0 0 1 14 20 30 5 36 11 4 1 1 14 2.19 3.28 0.55 3.93 1.20 0.44 0.11 0.11 1.53 -Knotweed Smartweed Uniden t·ified compos itae Tickseed Snakeweed Sedges Buffalo burr Puncture vine Unidentified forb I •.... .po V1 I Summation 141 218 262 110 184 915 1/ Species present in 1972 but not in 1973 - clover, four o'clock, mullein, horsetail, Russian thistle, tall evening primrose, prostrate primrose, butterfly guara, goatsbeard, gi1ia. �-146- Table 19. A summary of principal foods utilized by bobwhite quail during late fall periods in comparison with occurrences of some of these species in late summer vegetative samples. !I Species Presence in CroEs Percent Occurrence Percent b~ Volume 1973 1972 1971 1973 1972 1971 Annual ragweed 45.4 12.8 Perren~a1 ragweed 27.9 12.8 Milkweed 32.6 10.3 Halberd-leaved orache 19.8 46.2 Lambs quarter 3.5 10.3 Pigweed 14.0 7.7 Clammy weed 45.4 0.0 Smart weed 3.5 7.7 Knot weed 31.4 Sunflower 68 14.9 0.2 2.8 4.3 30 4.0 1.3 38 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.0 T T 3.2 0.0 2 T 0.1 10.3 80 6.8 52.3 41.0 58 Kochia 18.6 15.1 Curly dock 36.1 5 Percent Occurr. in Veg. SamEles 1973 1972 2.7 4.3 10.2 18.0 1 9.0 1.7 1 Y 0.3 7.1 5.0 0.4 2.4 0.1 T 3.3 0.9 0.2 20 2.2 0.1 7.0 2.8 4 2.6 5.6 20 T 0.2 1 0.9 5.7 33.3 44 0.8 1.2 T 17.2 1.7 Snow-on-the-mountain 16.3 2.6 22 0.9 0.1 T 1.1 0.3 Texas croton 18.6 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.1 1.1 Spurge 1.1 0.0 T 0.0 2/ Milk purslane 2.3 0.0 T 0.0 1.4 4.1 Ground cherry 23.3 2.6 0.3 0.1 2.2 2.1 Verbena spp. 17.4 2.6 2 T 0.1 T 1.0 1.6 Sweet clover 4.6 23.1 14 0.1 1.2 T 0.0 10.1 Russian thistle 7.0 2.6 T 0.1 0.0 0.2 Motherwort 2.3 0.0 T 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mint sage 9.3 16 T -------~----------------------------------------------------------------------- �-147Table 19. A summary of principal foods utilized by bobwhite quail during late fall periods in comparison with occurrences of some of these species in late summer vegetative samples. 1/ Species Presence Percent Occurrence 1973 1972 1971 Field penny cress 7.0 61.5 Crownbeard 12.8 0.0 Night shade 3.5 0.0 Mercury 3.5 0.0 Poison ivy 5.8 7.7 Grape 12.8 7.7 Witchgrass 19.8 0.0 Switch grass 16.3 0.0 Foxtail 2.3 0.0 Dropseed 11.6 Proso millet 58 in Crops Percent by Volume 1973 1972 1971 T 22.8 0.6 0·0 0.9 0.0 T 0.0 4.0 1.1 0.8 0.7 T 0.0 T 0.0 T 0.0 0.0 2.3 0.0 7.0 0.0 13.5 0.0 Corn 16.3 28.2 21.7 53.7 Insect matter 54.7 7.7 9.4 0.4 Vegetative 29.1 10.3 0.1 0.1 matter 2 4 4 14 48 5 Percent Occurr. in Veg. Samples 1973 1972 0.2 1.0 Not identified T 0.0 0.0 Not identified T T 32 4 1/ Crop analysis Wassink data for 1972 and 1973 by Loftsgard (1974). Data from 1971 by (1972). Crop sample size for 1972 was considerably below that for 1973. ~ Orache and lambs quarter were not identified sampling. Croton and spurge were also combined separately in vegetative in sampling. 11 Poison ivy and grape are both common, but were not listed by percent occurrence. ~ Grasses were not separated by species in vegetative sampling. are common to abundant in occurrence along the Tamarack. All listed ~/ Proso millet was planted in food plots on the east Tamarack. Corn was used in pre-season trapping and is also available adjacent to the river bottom in a few locations each year. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/4b134b32c852120d01b0f1b0649e265a.pdf 0ef9e62d89a92a68f33004fb822f50a5 PDF Text Text -1- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project No. COLORADO 4 \-lork Plan No. Job Title Job No. 1a _ ----~.----------~------.--------- Inventory of Range Manipulation Projects in Colorado Period Covered: Per sonnal.: Game Range !~ves_t_i~g~a~t_i_o_n_s ~ ---W-101-R-16 April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974. Roland C. Kufe1d and Regional Game Biologists. ABSTf\ACT An inventory was made of all range vegetation-modification projects completed during 1971, in the western half of Colorado, on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 3,690 and Bureau of Land Management - O. ��-3- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock; and to provide desired IBM listings of these data to cooperating agencies upon their request. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, codify, process and analyze inventory data. 3. To provide desired IBM listings of inventory data to cooperating agencies upon their request. METHODS AND MATERIALS An inventory was made of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1971, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25 on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (Kufe1d 1968, 1970, 1971 and 1973). Kufeld (1968 and 1970) also covered projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations through 1969. Indian Reservation projects were dropped from the inventory after 1969. This report concerns vegetation modification projects completed on U. S. Forest Service and U. S. Bureau of Land Management lands west of Interstate Highway 25 during 1972. Data were collected using procedures outlined in Colorado Division of Wildlife Administrative Directive No. 204 entitled "Range Vegetation Modification Projects", and by Kufeld (1968 and 1970). Additional procedures initiated this year and which will continue to be used during future post-treatment evaluations are described by Greg L. Schenbeck and included in this report. Schenbeck's report also includes helpful suggestions which will increase the efficiency of those involved in making post treatment evaluations. Inventory data were transferred from original data sheets to Mark Page Reader Forms, and then to IBM cards. Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 204, call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project at the end of the 2nd, 5th, �-4- and 10th years following treatment. During 1972, 2 year post-treatment evaluations were made on 15 vegetation modification projects that were completed in 1970, and data recorded on a form described by Kufeld (1971). Two requests for range vegetation modification project inventory information were processed during the 15th segment. These were for the U. S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Regional Office and the Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Acreages treated during 1972, on all lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service west of Interstate Highway 25, are shown by vegetation type and kinds of treatment in Table 1. These acreages are shown by individual National Forests in Table 2. No vegetation modification projects were completed on Bureau of Land Management lands in Colorado during 1972. A total of 3,690 acres were treated on National Forest lands in 1972. To date (through Dec. 31, 1972)a total of 582,072 acres have been treated in Colorado west of I~25 on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Of this total 242,565 acres were on Forest Service and 339,507 acres were on Bureau of Land Management lands. Since 1972 was only the third year for 2 year post-treatment evaluations of completed vegetation modification projects, and since no 5 year evaluations have yet been made, data from post-treatment evaluations of 1968, 1969 and 1970 projects will be kept on file and covered in a future report when enough 2 and 5 year post-treatment evaluations have been made to provide a basis for a meaningful data analysis. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1968. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P. R. Proj. W-lOl-R-lO WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-121. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. .Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-12, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 59-94. 1971. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-13, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-15. 1973. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept. P. R. Proj. W-lOl-R-15, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p , 1-8. Prepared bY~C/~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �-5- Table 1. Acreages of range land treated during 1972, in Colorado by the U. S. Forest Service. Vegetation Type Grass Sagebrush Browse !/ Conifer Abandoned Land All Veg. Types Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as . Part of Treatment Spray 1 500 500 1 500 500 3 1,370 0 3 1,370 0 Seed Only 1 20 20 Chain 2:../ 8 1,690 1,145 9 1,710 1,165 1 10 10 1 10 10 1 100 100 1 100 100 15 3,690 1,775 Spray Seed Only Seed Only GRAND TOTAL !/ Except for one 20 acre project all vegetation modification projects conducted during 1972 in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. 2/ - Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-6- Table 2. Acreages of range land treated during 1972, within each National Forest in Colorado. National Forest Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seed as Part of Treatment Grand Mesa Sagebrush Spray 1 150 0 Gunnison Sagebrush Spray 2 1,220 0 Rio Grande Browse Seed Only 1 20 20 San Juan Grass Spray 1 500 500 8 1,690 1,145 Total all Forests !/ J:./ Browse !/ Chain Conifer Seed Only 1 10 10 Abandoned Land Seed Only 1 100 100 Total all Veg. Types Total all Treatments 15 3,690 1,775 !l Except for one 20 acre project on the Rio Grande National Forest all vegetation modification projects conducted during 1972 in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. J:./ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-7- ADDITIONAL PROCEDURES FOR EVALUATION of RANGE TYPE CONVERSION PROJECTS Greg L. Schenbeck Introduction A uniform procedure for evaluating range-type conversion projects must be established to insure acceptable accuracy in the findings. Basically, the evaluation is composed of the following 3 steps: 1. Completion of a #4A or #4B form. (See A System for Inventory, Evaluation and Exchange of Information on Range Type Conversion Projects) • 2. Making a photographic comparison between the treated and adjacent untreated area and between successive pictures of the treated area at various time intervals. 3. Completion of a lOO-point paced transect to determine range condition and trend. (See Step 5 - Determine Range Condition and Trend). The procedures to follow for each step will be described in entirety. Procedures To complete the #4A or #4B form the agency responsible for the project must be consulted. Prior to the time of the evaluation, the agency is contacted, and a representative of the agency is invited to accompany you. If a representative can accompany you, make sure to inform him that you will be at the site for several hours; he may wish to take another vehicle. If it is not possible for them to send a representative into the field with you, an appointment should be made to come to their office to get the necessary information. It is helpful to get a copy of their surveyor planning report on the project. It is also advisable to acquire the treatment dates of all proposed projects early in the summer. After you get the dates, schedule your inspections so you can evaluate the areas before the treatment is started. On the back of the #4A and #4B forms there is a series of questions pertaining to wildlife use of the area. This information can be acquired from a representative of the agency or from the W.C.O. whose district includes the project. Problems will usually arise when trying to schedule appointments with the W.C.O.; do your best. �-8A System of Evaluation of Range Type Conversion Projects Page 2 Make sure that you include on the forms both the code numbers and verbal description in the blanks. By including the verbal descriptions, it is not necessary to return to the revegetation manual each time the forms are examined. Also, at the request of the Regional Manager, C. E. Till, write "pretreatment evaluation" at the top of thef/4A forms and "posttreatment evaluation" with the number of the years since the treatment at the top of the #4B forms. Any extra information that would help to evaluate the range modification projects should be included in the remarks sections of the forms. When in the office, a written evaluation of each project should be made using the available information. Be careful which data is compared because in a few cases the transects may have been run in different areas of the project. It is necessary that a uniform procedure be followed in order that a photograph be taken of an identical area in the treated portion. First, a cross-section of the area is chosen to represent the treated area. This cross-section will be the route of the 100-point paced transect and is also included in the photograph. Drive a post (a 6'6" CF&I fence post) approximately 30 feet inward from the beginning of the cross-section. Measure 30 feet outward from this stake, and from this point, record the bearing of the driven stake from where you're standing. At this point, drive in an orange-topped post, and from some nearby, noticeable landmark, record the bearing and distance from that landmark to the orange post. The PhotoPoint Reference Form lists the data which needs to be determined and recorded. At the bottom of the form draw a sketch of how to get to the photopoint from some main roadway. A forester's compass, Jacob staff, and 100-foot tape are required to gather the necessary data. When pictures are taken, the camera is rested on the top of the orange-topped post, and a chalk board is placed on the other post. The date, project number or name, and the forest or BLM district are placed on the board. The photographer places the chalk board in the center of the frame, focuses on the board, and snaps the picture. Photographs of the untreated areas are not taken in identical areas year after year. Therefore, a photo-point is not established. It is suggested that the photographer walk about 50 yards into the untreated area to take the picture. The chalkboard with the necessary data on it can be placed against a rock or trunk, etc. When returning to photo-points already established, follow the sketch map on the photo-point form. Find the orange-topped post and sight through the opposite post; this is the route of the transect. A landmark that is in line with the 2 posts is chosen, and this landmark is used to help keep you on the transect course. �-9- A System of Evaluation of Range Type Conversion Projects Page 3 When evaluating a proposed project, a transect needs to be completed only in the proposed site. If an area is proposed for treatment, a transect is run only in the area to be treated. However, if the area has been completed years previous, transects should be run in both the treated and untreated areas. There will be times when you cannot complete a transect in untreated areas because of thick vegetation. Other situations will occur that will require you to make your own adjustments in the procedures. Transects in untreated areas cannot always be run in straight lines. For example, large oak or P-J trees will have to be circumvented. At each hit, the item found is dot-tallied. Chained oak. sage or pinyonjuniper plants are counted as litter if the plants are dying or dead. Also, the nearest browse and grass species within a 1800 arc in front of the hit and within 5 steps are identified, recorded, and dot-tallied. It has been recommended that the initial move be 15 steps and the consecutive moves be 5 steps each. At each tenth hit, a pellet-group count is made. To be counted, a group must contain at least 5 pellets, and at least one-half of the group must be in the plot. All groups are counted, regardless of age. The number of browse stems in the plot are dot-tallied according to age class. Step 5 of the Reg. 2 U. S. Forest Service Range Analysis Handbook for big game "Determine Range Condition and Trend" gives instruction and advice in completing the transect. In addition, the number of living pinyon-juniper plants per plot is determined and recorded. While at the project site, plant species which are not in the plant collection should be taken and prepared for the collection. Note: Staple all forms in file to each copy. 4A, 4B, Transect, Photo-point. �-10PACED TRANSECT RECORD - BROWSE RANGE CONDITION Project Area _ Forest or BLM District Examiners Date --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Type Identification No. (from map) point, direction of travel, interval between samples) GROUND COVER DATA Item Dot tally transect hits Bare ground and era!': na1le Rock Moss Litter Grasses Forbs Browse Browse No. of Hits Ground cover % PELLET GROUP COUNTS Plot D -.-No. E 1 t 1 2 i , I , 3 1! C S Other i II I I I I , I I ! ; i 4 I i I ; 5 6 I I 7 i 8 Grass 9 10 Totals J I Per Acre Factor I ! 15 13 12 13 Days/A. Totals BROWSE CONDITION & DENSITY/ACRE I Age Class y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 M D P-J Total �-11- PHOTO-POINT REFERENCE Project Agency CPS CBS _ _ Camera Point Stake (Orange-Topped) Chalk Board Stake CPS From: _ Bearing _ Distance -------------~-------- CBS From CPS Bearing Distance _ _ Camera Height (Top of CPS) _ Distance From Lower Edge of Chalk Board to Ground Sketch ----------------------------- ��-13- July, 1974 Jon PROGRESS REPORT State 0 f COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-lOl-R-16 Work Plan No. 4 Game Range Investigations Job No. 2 Job Title Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer and Elk Winter Ranges - Beaver Creek Period Covered: April 1, 1973 through March 3l~ 1974. Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld. ABSTRACT A contract was entered into with Colorado State University Statistics Department to computerize and analyze pre- and post-treatment oak study data. The analysis was not completed during this project segment so results will be presented in a later report. A "Research Paper" by Roland C. Kufeld, O. C. Wallmo and Charles Feddema summarizing 99 mule deer food habits studies, and ranking plants eaten by relative value was published by the U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (Res. Pap. RM-lll, 31 p.). _ ��-15- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER AND ELK WINTER RANGES - BEAVER CREEK Roland C. Kufe1d P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk forage production and game use can be increased on overage Gambe1 oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2,4,5-TP to induce sprouting. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To summarize and analyze pre- and post-treatment vegetation measurement data. 2. To write a report of the findings for publication in a scientific journal. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A contract was entered into with Colorado State University Statistics Department to computerize and analyze pre- and post-treatment data from both the Beaver Creek and Hightower MOuntain oak study areas. The analysis was not completed during this segment so the results will be presented in a later report. A publication entitled "Foods of the Rocky Mountain Mule Deer" by Roland C. Kufeld, O. C. Wallmo and Charles Feddema was published by the U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (Research Paper RM-lll, 31 p.). This was based on a literature review of mule deer food habits completed during the 15th project segment. Ninety-nine food habits studies were combined to determine plants normally eaten by the Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and the relative value from a manager's viewpoint based on the response deer have exhibited toward them. Plant species are classified as heavily, moderately or lightly eaten on the basis of their contribution to the diet in food habits studies where they were recorded. A total of 202 shrubs and trees, 484 forbs, 84 grasses, sedges and rushes, and 18 lower plants are listed as deer forage and categorized according to relative value. C, /(@ Prepared by ~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher ��-17- July~ 1974 JOB PROGRESS RErORT Stat e 0 f C::.:(::.;JL::.:O::.;R:=U.::ill:..,:O=-----''---- Project No. W-lOl-R-16 Game Range Investigations 4 Job No._._--''---=-3--------~ __ --Experimental Improvement of Job Ti t l,e_....:O~a::k~b~ru~~sh~~o!!n~D-=e:::e~r..1~-=E:=l:.!::k~a:=n~d~C~a!:.!t:..!t:.:l~e~Ra=n:! ogh~t~o.!!w.=e:.=.r--=:-'M~o""un~t~a. Work Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1973 through March 3l~ 1974. Roland C. Kuf eld , Matthias Kn.Lesel.,John Arthur~ John Eer rdauo.l,o , Galen Burrell. ABSTRACT Two year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made in 600 permanent meter square plots on the Hightower Mountain oak study area. Data analysis is underway and results will be presented in a future report. Cattle preference for burned oakbrush areas 2 years after treatment averaged about 6 times that exhibited for areas treated by spraying and chaining. Cattle use increased 18.7 cow days per acre on two 30 acre burned areas. This was sIgnf.f Icant; of the 5 percent confidence level. Cattle use on two 30 acre sprayed areas increased 3.3 cow days per acre. A valid average cattle use estimate could not be computed for the chained areas because of the influence of an adjacent preferred burned area to one chaining~ and physical barriers, which kept cattle from using another chaining. Because of these factors it could not be concluded that chained areas were less preferred than sprayed areas~ although. data indicated chainings were not more preferred. A "Research Paper" by Roland C. Kufeld~ o. C. Wallmo and Charles Feddema summarizing 99 mule deer food habits studies~ and ranking plants eaten by relative value was published by the U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (Res. Pap. RM-lll~ 31 p.). ��-19- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufe1d P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be increased and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on overage Gambe1 oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. To determine the extent of vegetative composition and forage production changes, and the extent of deer and elk use changes which have resulted from implementation of each habitat improvement method tested. Determine if cattle exhibit a preference toward certain habitat improvement units. METHODS AND MATERIALS Post-treatment Vegetation Measurements Two year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made in 600 permanent meter square plots on the Hightower Mountain oak study area using the same procedures employed during pre-treatment evaluations (Kufeld 1971). The measurement period was July 9, 1973 through August 16, 1973. Prior to beginning vegetation measurements observers were trained in the use of vegetation measurement technique, and in identification of all plants on the study area. Determination of Nutrient Quality Changes Samples of plant species designated by Kufe1d (1971) as "moisture indicator plants" and used to reflect changes in vegetation moisture content during the measurement period were collected in Units 5, 6, 7 and 8 between July 24, and July 27, 1973, inc. Samples consisted of approximately 100 grams green weight of each species collected throughout each habitat improvement unit. In units 5 and 7 samples were collected from those areas where it was certain burning and spraying had been severe. Samples will be compared with pre-treatment samples of the same species collected in unit 6, a control area, to determine changes in nutrient quality of forage resulting from chaining, burning and spraying. Standard laboratory procedures will be used to give an estimate of digestible dry matter, digestible �-20- protein~ digestible energy and trace mineral values. These procedures will involve the use of fistulated goats to arrive at estimates of digestibility. Laboratory analysis has not been completed at the end of the 16th project segment, so results will be presented in a later report. Photo Point Photographs Post-treatment photos were taken at permanent photo points established in 1970, prior to treatment. These show effects of spraying~ burning and chaining during the first summer following treatment. A black and white photo, and a 35 mm color slide was taken at each photo point with the same cameras used to take pre-treatment photos. Post-treatment Deer, Elk and Cattle Use Measurements Accumulated deer and elk pellet groups were removed from all pellet plots on September 3, 1973. Groups deposited during the winter of 1973-74 will be counted in May, 1974. When plots in units 1, 5~ 6~ 7, 8 and a portion of 3 were cleared a record was kept of the number of cow chips in each plot in order to provide an index to cattle use. Cow chip counts in units 2, 4 and the remainder of 3 were delayed until October 3~ because these units are in a different cattle allotment~ and cattle were still grazing until the end of September. Only those chips which could be identified as having been deposited during the summer of 1973, were counted. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Post-treatment Vegetation Measurements Data have been summarized and a contract has been entered into with Colorado State University Statistics Department to computerize and analyze pre- and post-treatment data from both the Hightower Mountain and Beaver Creek oak study areas. The analysis was not completed during this segment, so the results will be contained in a later report. Post-treatment Cattle Use Measurements An analysis of 1970 and 1973 cattle use data to determine cattle preference two years after treatment for areas burned, sprayed and chained is presented in Table 1. Control Areas Data show cattle use increases in both units 4 and 6~ although neither increase is Significant at the 5 percent confidence level. Much of the increase in �-21- unit 6 is believed due to movement of cattle around unit 7 and between units 5 and 7 to which cattle were attracted. Unit 6 lies directly between units 5 and 7. Thus, there was very little, if any, actual change in cattle use on the control areas. Burned Areas The most preferred treatment by cattle two years after treatment was definitely burning. Units 1 and 7 showed the greatest increases in cattle use after treatment, and these were significant at the 5 percent confidence level. Cattle use in units 1 and 7 increased 15.2 and 22.1 cow days per acre respectively, and averaged 18.7. Cattle preferences for these units were also obvious from field observations. Preference for the burned areas was approximately 6 times greater than for the sprayed or chained areas. Sprayed Areas One spray area (unit 5) showed a substantial increase in cattle use which was significant at the 5 percent confidence level as a result of spraying. The other (unit 2) showed a slight decrease~ although not significant at the 5 percent level. According to the data, which show an average increase of 3.3 cow days use per acre in the sprayed areas, spraying would appear to be the second most preferred treatment by cattle. However, due to circumstances described in the following discussion on chaining it is not valid to conclude that cattle preferred the sprayed areas more than the chained areas at the end of the second year following treatment. Chained Areas No use was recorded in unit 3 in 1973, probably due to the fact that it is on the south side of Buzzard Creek and high water during 1973 kept Buzzard allotment cattle on the north side. Also, unit 3 is difficult for both Buzzard and Porter allotment cattle to find. The almost impenetrable oak thicket in unit 3 was opened substantially by chaining, and it is felt cattle use would have occurred in 1973, if cattle had been able to get to the area. Cattle use in unit 8 dropped from 18.3 cow days use per acre in 1970 to 8.7 in 1973. Although this drop was not significant at the 5 percent confidence level it appeared that cattle were simply drawn off unit 8 into the more preferred burned area of adjacent unit 7. This occurred even though conditions in unit 8 were improved for cattle by chaining. Because of the statistical insignificance of the drop in unit 8, and inability of cattle to find and get into unit 3, it is not valid to conclude that chained areas were any less preferred by cattle than sprayed areas. Had it not been for the existence of the highly preferred burned areas cattle would have probably exhibited a greater preference for areas treated by spraying and chaining. �Table 1. Cattle use of burned, sprayed, chained and control areas before (1970) and two years after (1973) treatment. !/ Cow Days Use Per Acre During 1970 Season 1:./ Cow Days Use Per Acre During 1973 Season 1/ Change in Cow Days Use Per Acre From 1970 to 1973 Significance of Change at d... .05 level Unit Treatment 4 Control 0.0 3.0 + 3.0 No 6 Control 1.3 6.5 No 4 & 6 Control 0.7 4.8 + 5.2 + 4.1 1 Burn 4.4 19.6 7 Burn 9.6 31. 7 1 & 7 Burn 7.0 25.7 + 15.2 + 22.1 + 18.7 2 Spray 8.7 5 Spray 2 & 5 No Yes Yes Yes I N N I 7.4 - 1.3 No 3.0 10.9 Yes Spray 5.9 9.2 + 7.9 + 3.3 3 Chain 0.0 0.0 0.0 No 8 Chain 18.3 8.7 - 9.6 No Chain --=-r;J 3 & 8 l/Burned, No sprayed and chained areas were also seeded. ~/Cow defecation rate is 11.5 chips per day as determined by Ju1ander (1955). 3/ - Post-treatment data for all units have been adjusted for differential cattle stocking rates which existed during 1970 and 1973. Data have also been adjusted for differences in stocking rates between two cattle allotments which comprise the study area. Units 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and a portion of 3 are in Buzzard allotment, and 2, 4 and the remainder of 3 are in Porter allotment. i/Data for chained areas were not averaged. High creek water and difficulty for cattle in finding Unit 3 caused the absence of cattle use in unit 3 during 1973, even though the area had been substantially improved for cattle by chaining. �-23- LITERATURE REVIEW A publication entitled "Foods of the Rocky Mountain Mule Deer" by Roland C. Kufe1d, O. C. Wa11mo and Charles Feddema was published by the U. S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station (Research Paper RM-lll, 31 p.). This was based on a literature review of mule deer food habits completed during the 15th project segment. Ninety-nine food habits studies were combined to determine plants normally eaten by the Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) and the relative value from a manager's viewpoint based on the response deer have exhibited toward them. Plant species are classified as heavily, moderately or lightly eaten on the basis of their contribution to the diet in food habits studies where they were recorded. A total of 202 shrubs and trees, 484 forbs, 84 grasses, sedges and rushes, and 18 lower plants are listed as deer forage and categorized according to relative value. LITERATURE CITED Julander, Odell. 1955. Determining grazing use by cow chip counts. Range Manage. 8(4) :182. J. Kufeld, Roland C. 1971. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W~101-R-13, WP-4, J-3, Game Research Rept. July. Part One. pp. 23-86. Prepared by ~CI%/rhJ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher ��-25- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~--~--~--- Project No. W-101-R-16 ·Work Plan No. 5 Game Range Investigations Job Title Bighorn Sheep Range Inventory Period Covered: April 1, 1973 .toMarch 31, 1974 Personnel: Harold R. Shepherd, Roger Bradshaw, Denis Davis, JamesL. Shepherd son , Alan Titche, and John Weins. ABSTRACT A range inventory of the Buffalo Peaks Bighorn Sheep study Area, near Fairplay, Colorado was completed. The resulting data were compiled and summarized by transect and vegetation type, and a map was prepared showing the distribution, extent and composition of vegetation and the loca~ tion and extent of seasonal ranges in the study area. ��-27- BIGHORN SHEEP RANGE INVENTORY Harold R. Shepherd P. S. OBJECTIVE To inventory, contrast and evaluate certain range attributes of a productive and an unproductive bighorn sheep habitat. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the distribution and extent of vegetation types in relation to physical features of the habitat on ranges with good (Trickle Mountain) and poor (Buffalo Peaks) bighorn sheep production. 2. Estimate percentages plant species composition, frequency, crown cover, litter, rock and bare ground on ranges with good (Trickle Mountain) and poor (Buffalo Peaks) bighorn sheep production. 3. Organize, compile and summarize data by vegetation type. DESCRIPTION OF AREA The study area is located on East and West Buffalo Peaks on the boundary between Park and Lake counties, Colorado in South Park, and it is 16 miles south and 7 miles west of the town of Fairplay (Fig. 1). The county boundary is also a common boundary between the Pike and San Isabel National Forests. Generally, the study area is delimited by timberline at about 11,800 feet around the two peaks, and it extends upward to the top of West Buffalo Peak at an elevation of 13,326 feet. METHODS AND MATERIALS Establishing Study Area Boundaries It is the consensus of Division personnel and others who have studied and observed the Buffalo Peaks bighorn sheep that in recent years the herd has, for the most part, restricted itself to that portion of the Buffalo Peaks area above timberline. Consequently, for the purposes of this study, timber line or a few hundred feet below timberline on the extreme eastern edge of the area marks the boundary of the study area. Preparation of Photo Mosaics A photo mosaic of the study area was prepared from 9X9-inch color aerial photographs, and the study area boundary was delineated on it in red ink. Photographic copies of the master mosaic were made, and from one of these was prepared a cloth-backed folding mosaic map used in the field during transecting activities. �:( I W o r BUFFALQ n:CHORN SHEEP PEAKS STUDY Po", Counties, ana Chaffee Son 'socer and P,ke Nat! t)t'o!oqrCOhed for Colo. Division AREA Colo Forests N J of W'k1lrte By i<"(~n and "r8[<III)(j Ly J~g0~1'Jr; I~S$OC. H.R Sco!t~ Denver. Colo., Sept 7. 1971 Shepherd 8, J.L I 15840 Shepherdson Fig. 2. Mosaic showing black and white and color aerial photograph Bighorn Sheep Study Area. coverage available of Buffalo Peaks �-31- Preparations for Transecting A field crew of four game management students reported for work June 4. The first seven days of the field season the crew was trained in plant identification, using the field herbarium of mounted plants and color slides of plants previously collected in the study areas. June 13th, the crew left Fort Collins for Buffalo Peaks, and the next four days were devoted to clearing snowdrifts and down timber from the road up Lynch Creek to a permanent camp site just below timberline in the cirque between east and west Buffalo Peaks. A condition of permission from the Forest Service to conduct the range inventory and to camp within the cirque was that we would establish locked gates blocking the lower end of the road up Lynch Creek to the public and that we would erect signs declaring that the country behind the signs was a bighorn sheep study area and off limits to the general public. This was done. A temporary camp was established at the old saw mill site near the junction of the Lynch Creek and Rough and Tumbling Creek roads. Actual transecting was begun east of the Buffalo Peaks cirque on June 17 and was completed September 6. Before and during the transecting of a vegetation type, its boundary as previously delineated under stereo was checked against on-the-ground conditions and any desired modifications made on the photos. In only a few instances were changes made, and these were slight. Transecting Vegetation Types Because of the extremely rocky and precipitous terrain and absence of roads, vehicular travel within the study area was impossible. In fact, only the perimeter of the area could be reached by automobile and this in only five places, three on the north and two on the south sides of the area. Consequently, the field crew was transported from base camp in the Buffalo Peaks cirque to the four other avenues of approach. From these the entire area was covered on foot. The long driving time required from base camp to the two southern approaches to the area, made the use of these approaches less economical of time for all except the transecting of nearby areas than the base-camp approach. Consequently, most of the area was reached on foot from the base camp. Each crew member carried a back pack on a pack frame in which he transported his share of the equipment load besides items of personal gear. The transecting equipment and supplies included two Daubenmire plot frames, two 300-foot steel tapes and reels, four steel stakes, three clipboards, two hand levels, three compasses, two ball peen hammers, a chalk board, aerial photos and a folding aerial mosaic map of the study area, pencils, sharpie pens, Kohinoor pens and ink, a small metric scale, a protractor, several plant manuals, a plant press with blotters and folders, hand lenses, a plant collecting trowel, three field glasses, a 35 rom reflex camera and film, and a supply of data forms. In addition to transecting equipment, each man carried such personal gear as a down jacket, rain poncho, thermal underwear, camera equipment, emergency first aid and survival items and his lunch. �-32- The Wildlife Researcher as crew leader, led the crews to sampling sites located, as previously described, on aerial photos. The location of each sample site was determined approximately by reference to features of the terrain recognizable on the ground and in the photos. These were such features as rock outcrops, individual or clumps of trees, patches of willows, different kinds and colors of rock and soil. gullies. streams, rock garlands, rock streams, rock stripes, rock polygons and circles comprising patterned ground, etc. Each sample site became one end of a 300-foot transect placed parallel to the contour. Each end was marked with a rock cairn. Steel stakes were driven at either end and a 300-foot steel tape stretched between them. Each sample site was photographed by the crew leader along the transect from one of its ends, using a 35 rom Exakta camera and Kodacolor film. A small slate on which was written with white chalk the transect's number and the type number and date was included in the picture foreground. Two men comprised a transect crew. At the outset. each took turns reading and recording transect data so that each would be familiar with the procedures and the vegetation. Later, as differences in skills and aptitudes became evident, certain individuals were designated readers and others recorders. But throughout the investigation, members of a team collaborated with and double-checked one another's plant Ldent.Lf Lca t Lon, canopy-coverage estimates and physiognomic descriptions. The crew leader attemped to so organize and direct the order of transecting that the two crews, each reading a different transect. would be near enough that he could supervise each. Transects were placed along the contour so that they could be kept within the same general soil type and, as a consequence, changes in vegetation composition would be kept to a minimum. Vegetation was sampled systematically along the transect at five-foot intervals with a Daubenmire canopy-coverage frame. When transect data from the Trickle Mountain study area had been tested the previous summer with species-area curves it had been found that 40 plots per transect did not yield acceptable accuracy in some types but that 60 plots were sufficient in most cases. Similar results were found for selected Buffalo Peaks data, so 60 plots were read for each Buffalo Peaks transect. The Daubenmire (1959) canopy-coverage plot frame (Fig. 3) used for the Trickle Mountain inventory was used for the Buffalo Peaks inventory. Its modifications and use were described (Shepherd 1973) in the previous report. Upon establishment of a transect, the crew leader marked its location within the vegetation type on the aerial photograph. Using a rapidograph pen, a short, red line to scale was marked on the photograph to indicate the pOSition, length and bearing of the transect. A numeral indicating the number of the transect in its type was placed at one end of the mark designating the transect. �-33- �-34- Using the system described by Daubenmire (1959), the two men of a transecting team esti.mated and recorded the canopy-coverage per species and the ground-surface data within each of 60 plots of a transect. These data were recorded on prepared forms (Fig. 4). When all of the plots along a transect had been read, physiognomic data for that transect and its stand in the immediate vicinity were recorded on a prepared form (Fig. 5). The Braun-Blanquet system of vegetation analysis and description (Kuchler 1955) was used to record physiognomic data for each species. The two men of a team collaborated in assigning the physiognomic descriptions. Consequently, they compared each other's estimates of sociability and coverage, thus increasing the uniformity and reliability of their estimates. Transecting was completed September 6. The crew was brought to the Research Center where they began compiling and summarizing the summer's collection of data from 12,060 plots and 201 transects. Data Compilation and Summarization A form was prepared for each transect, summarizing the data for all plots along the transect (Fig. 6). To the original physiognomic data form was stapled a 3X5-inch color photograph, showing the transect's location, the vegetation it sampled and the characteristics of the ground surface and topography of the site. Data for all the transects within a type were displayed together in an abbreviated, simplified manner on a form prepared for the purpose so that comparisons could more readily be made between types. Using this information together with physiognomic and photographic data, similar types were combined to form larger areas of vegetation, and these were given names descriptive of the three or four dominant plant species characterizing them. All of this information was assembled into large loose-leaf binders to provide an organized file of data with which to prepare a final report for publication of the results of the combined range inventories of Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks study areas. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the comprehensive range inventory for both the Trickle Mountain and Buffalo Peaks bighorn study areas will be presented as a final report in the next project segment. Since the data collected, although in summarized form, is too voluminous to justify inclusion in a Progress Report, only a vegetation type map of the Buffalo Peaks study area (Fig. 7) and detailed data (Fig.8) for one of its plant associations comprising the lambing range on East Buffalo Peak are shown here. The seasonal ranges on the Buffalo Peaks Bighorn Study Area (Fig. 7) are comprised of 197 acres of summer range, 261 acres of winter range and 44 acres of lambing range. Other range included within the boundary of the study area is used much less intensively or seasonally by sheep and is termed "other range". It comprises 2106 acres. Total acreage of the study area is 2608 acres. �-35CANOPY-COVERAGE-PLOT DATA FORM Sheet No. Stand No. ':1.7-/ Stand Location: Aspect & Slope Veg. Type PeQXS Study Area Name Bv{(% Date Town. 7/g,77.J r I ~- 335°, Slope _ No. (from map) 27(Summer RAn~J Examiners Veins. ];tc..he /s- ~ Photo No. Range Soil: :/,0 & ~ Section~ _ Series. _ Class. _ j Physiognomy Transect: , & Structure No • [lev. ~ _ ...:...J Location J ').J 'l60 " ., & 3?S Bearing,..-::::....:.):::...:: 0 ., 11 _ e: Plot NO"_--L __ Canopy Coverage I Species Class No. PAS£. A ROB / :J. Class Hidpoint % ~.5 ! t /5.0 /5. 0 TRNA :1 ARAR I J 1.5 { ~.5 8' 40.0 PoA FEOvB Totals Plot No. '1.. Ground-surface & Vegetation Point Estimates Vascular Hoss I Rock Litter Bare Plant % Lichens % % % Ground '7, I 75 :z:; s: 2. Ground-surface & Vegetation Point Estim2tes Vascular :loss Roc Litter Class I Bare Plant % % Lichens % % % ~1idpoint % Ground Canopy Coverage Species Class No. I PASf ARa/3 I 2.S z /5.0 I TRNA ) ~.S t ORAL I ~ ..) ERst }<'OOE I POA I ~.5" :l.S 8 30.0 Total~ Fig. I i SO '-.5 :2..S 4. Canop,y-coverage data field form and sample plot data. ,"-s- �-36VEGETATION-TYPEDATARECORD Sheet Study Hza.ks 2. 7 Type Ho. Stand Buffa.lo Uame AYe:).. Aspect Transect Stand slop(/! -1-0 /181> 2. 7 - I No. 3;, 5'0 and Slope Location Cs u m mar: No. ,..a.ngcZ) -~--- 'I'r'ans ec t No. __ i. 2 D W(/!~f ELL f-fa/o _ -------- Pea.k ------------------------------------------------------------------Transect: Bearing Aerial Photo Soil & Ground crr cle s No. By Floristic Composition (S..B.ecies) S" I> Length IS- - 6 Surface o",d Recorded '33 rro e ]: Wttins Stand .<icvndy Photo a.Vld lao-WI 360 .f-l. No. Plots No. TY- '27 TR-lDate pafferYlfZcI qroUHd 60 7-16-- 73 I<J rock:: .:s1y-tra.Wlsal1a Physiognomy and Structure ]j'f-che Cover and Sociability Remarks ----- PA s e: IUp -t.3 GtZl..l"'" +urb/n(X TRNA HIp t. 3 Sh(Z(Z p sea l- Dee unrrzc/ AROB Hip 1.3 -F'yt?ou.en t lv- ARA~ !-lIp +.3 Glp « z. FEOV13 G/ p +.2 ORAL Hip 1.3 I HI,.. +.1 KOBE. /.2- PORU 2- G/p J-I /.£ PHCO .3 GETU H te H te Moss LIp SARH Hlr Gly +.1 Hlr POA ERS SP. AGSC 3 +,3 -+.3 .Q.3 f.3 f.2 PRAN 2 HI,.. +.2 f. I TR..S P GJr +,2- MEVI Hly T'/ ER.N/3 Hlr [)~AV Hlr- +./ +. I TARAXACUM HI".. ARFE ANSEG Hly Mea,A Hlr ~CL HIJ- M ~ HeNI pav I Fig. 4- HII' HIp 5. Physiognomic -fGlWl ;J..Y"a.:vza. -to I +. I T. I +. I +. '3 +.2... data field form and sample transect dataG ------- �-37TRANSECT SUMMARY Page 1 Date 7-31-73 Photo No. 15-8 Study Area Name Buffalo Peaks - Lambing Range Stand No. Transect No. 4 Veg. Type ...,:4..:,.9_-=-:-:-......- __ ----,,....,.. _ ~-----Aspect & Slope.-=1~4~0 ~ _ Soil & Ground Surface Physiognomy & Structure Ground-Surface & Vegetation Point Estimates Moss Bare % Litter% Rock% Lichen % Ground Total , ') <;.() 20.83 Ave. , Q<;;f\ f\ 1 Q')e; 17.92 30.83 0 30.42 _ _ iotal Total Times Canopy Coverar::eOccurred Species Vascular Plant % l()7e; Total No. Canopy-Coverage Entries __~3~3~8 Average No. of Species/Plot ~5..:. •..:.6~3 _ No. Plots ---=--=---60 AVArap.:e Average Fr-equency Canopy ~average ~ Co:;;pos- ;C'" ition 1> GRAMINOIDS 10 1f,e; n ?f, I. '1 Kabresia be11ardi 790.0 58 96.67 13.17 24.85 Paa spp. 152.5 46 76.67 2.54 4.79 1107.5 130 216.67 18.46 34.83 Trifolium nanum 905.0 'l2 R6 67 s .na 28.45 Oreoxis a1pina 507.5 59 98.33 8.46 15.96 Potenti11a 147.5 24 40.00 2.46 4.64 Geum turbinatum 170.0 14 23.33 2.83 5.34 Trifolium dasyphy1lum 20.0 3 5.00 .33 .62 Arenaria abtusiloba 120.0 10 16.67 2.00 3.77 Phlox caespitosa 62.5 15 25.00 1.04 1.96 Saxifraga rhomboidea 10.0 4 6.67 .17 .32 Paronychia 22.5 4 6.67 .38 .72 2.5 1 1.67 .04 .08 e10ngatum 17.5 2 3.33 .29 .55 _.HgIL1.Q.P1!P..IlliS pygmaeus 25,0 5 R 11 .42 .79._ 2010,0 101 11?1.h7 11 'l() 63.21 Moss f,? e; , <;; I. 1 Of, Total 3180.0 338 53.00 99.99 Fig. 6. Sample transect summary form and data. ~('rihnf>ri A Sub-Total ') '1 '1 7<;. e; FORBS Arenaria rubricau1is sessilif10ra fendleri Eritrichium Sub-Total ')<;; f\f\ 563.34 t , f\ �VEGET A TlON BUFFALO PEAKS AND SEASONAL BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES STUDY AREA J .:1 I W 00 I ~~~~;~fGETU·Dl:o(·C.ufX) FOlliS LEGEND CJ t£I] IIJI A,ropyron UOMU CUEX OECA FIOV FETH KOIf 'ramus ',p. Cor ••.• pp. I'OA OTHER RANGE .cribn.,; D'J(hornp.io <••• pilol. Fo.II,I(O •.••ina fulu(o Kobt..>a Ih",,",; '0•• SUMMER LAMBING Fig. 7. RANGE Nj RANGE IANGE Scale "CLio Achilln AN'''3 """11".';' CACO Arnico ,or4If,lio C. ••• min. (o,41f,lI. .••• eo CAU bell.,eli pp. BROWSE WINTER ~ ADS( CI'A2 DO", IPAN GETU HEVI MEel C.llha Ci,.jym ,.",,1, •• "rYU.tie ,." •••••• 10 ,.lIielvm 00",011,.,,, Epilobil"r. ,ulchallum .",".'I~ h"binot"", H,t.,oth,ca ••• 1110 •• 0.1,1191 "'-,I,n,h" CH'AII ChrY50lhamftU5 ORoe O.yo. oclopelola ORAL Or.oxil olpino 'IAR Pinv. o.illolo ~D12 Pol,ntillo div.r,lf,lia ,IEN Picoo .ft,elmoftfti Pol ••.• lillo lARAX rlOA TINA T.".o(lIm "'" porry; hUlico50 'OTlt liMO Ribft moftlig."um SAANA Soli. o"glorum Populul tte/nllloid •• oftliplalla SAGLG Soli. glauco glob.e5Uft5 SA,LM Soli. plofti'olio moftica 1:IS140 Vegetation-type map of Buffalo Peaks Bighorn Sheep Study Area. pony; U,.•. cilia,a .,p. "".,.I1",," hi f.B",,,, d•• Trifoli"", T,if.'iull'l ,.".,1 VACAI V.I••iono ,o,i'ol. lOCI( (h\oJd.,fi ••••1.1,", Ser ••• CIIH) �.• 39 .• ASSOCIATION SUMMARY Page 1 35 Name Association Types. 4~9~(6~t~r~a~n~s~e~c~t~s)~ ---------------- Seasonal TRNA-KOBE ------------------------------------- _ Range_'__ -=Lam~b~i~n~g~Ra~n~ge~ Ground-Surface Bare Ground % Rock % _ & Vegetation Point Estimates Moss Lichen % Litter % Vascular Plant % Total 4125 9600 15,000 275 7000 Ave. 11.46 26.67 41.67 0.76 19.44 Entries 2_O_O_6 _ 5_._5_7 _ No. P 1ots. 360 Total No. Canopy-Coverage Average No. of Species/P1ot. Species Total Total Times Canopy Coverage Occurred _ Average Frequency % Average Canopy Coverage % Composition % GRAMINOIDS Kobresia be11ardi 3652.5 287 79.72 10.14 20.86 Poa spp , 1268.0 283 78.61 3.52 7.24 440.0 101 28.06 1.22 2.51 Festuca ovina 447.5 55 15.28 1.24 2.55 Carex spp. 292.5 28 7.78 0.81 1.67 Trisetum spicatum 197.5 54 15.00 0.55 1.13 He1ictotricon 17 .5 7 1.94 0.05 0.10 6315.5 815 226.39 17.53 36.06 291 80.83 11.19 23.02 Oreoxis alpina 4027.5 2905.0 292 81.11 8.07 16.60 Geum turbinatum 2155.0 120 33.33 5.99 12.32 Saxifraga rhomboidea 72.5 29 8.06 0.20 0.41 Potentilla 377 .5 86 23.89 1.05 2.16 Agropyron scribneri mortoniana Subtotal FORBS Trifolium nanum rubricaulis Arenaria obtusi1oba 315.0 44 12.22 0.88 1.81 Trifolium dasyphy11um 132.5 28 7.78 0.37 0.76 262.5 50 13.89 0.73 1.50 Draba aurea 2.5 1 0.28 0.01 0.02 Primu1a an~ustifo1ia 12.5 4 1.11 0.03 0.06 Phlox caespitosa !rotal Fig. 8. Association summary form and sample canopy-coverage data. �-40ASSOCIATION SUMMARY Page 2 Associat1on~- _ Total Canopy Coverage Total Times Occurred C1aytonia megarrhiza Bessya a1pina 20.0 7.5 3 3 0.83 0.83 - 0.06 0.02 0.12 0.04 Hap10pappus pygmaeus 50.0 15 4.17 0.14 0.29 Ste11aria longipes 1aeta 37.5 15 4.17 0.10 0.21 Artemisia spp. 30.0 12 3.33 0.08 0.16 Swertia radiata 2.5 1 0.28 0.01 0.02 Saxifraga f1age11aris 7.5 3 0.83 0.02 0.04 Cirsium pa11idum 7.5 3 0.83 0.02 0.04 Taraxacum spp. Androsacea septentrionalis glandu10sa 32.5 2.5 8 1 2.22 0.18 0.28 0.09 0.01 0.02 Potentilla diversifo1ia- 2.5 1 0.28 0.01 0.02 Silene acaulis 1 Cerastium spp. 2.5 22.5 9 0.28 2.50 . 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.12' Senecio spp. 2.5 1 0.28 0.01 0.02 Erysimum niva1e 2.5 1 0.28 0.01 0.02 Chionophila jamesia 7.5 3 0.83 0.02 0.04 Potentilla diversifo1ia 2.5 1 0.28 0.01 0.02 Paronychia sessi1if1ora 127.5 21 182.5 43 5.83 11.94 0.35 Arenaria fend1eri 0.51 0.72 1.05 Eritrichium eLongatum 17.5 2 0.56 0.05 0.10 Eriogonum piperi 5.0 2 0.56 0.01 0.02 10835.0 1094 303.89 30.10 61.91 355.0 97 26.94 0.99 2.04 355.0 97 26.94 0.99 2.04 17505.5 2006 557.22 48.62 100.01 Species Subtotal Average Average ComposFrequency Canopy % ition % Coverage % MOSS-FERNS-LICHENS Moss Subtotal Total Fig. 8. Association SUmmary form and sample canopy-coverage data (continued). �-41- BIBLIOGRAPHY and LITERATURE CITED American Society of Photogrammetry. The manual of photogrammetry. Soc. Photogrammetry. Menasha, Wis. 876 p. Amer. Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1971. Mule deer fecal group counts related to site factors on winter range. (Unpublished manuscript). Daubenmire, R. 1959. A canopy-coverage method of vegetational analysis. Northwest Science. 33(1):43-64. 1970. Steppe vegetation of Washington. Tech. Bull. 62. 131 p. Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Drew, W. B. 1944. Studies on the point-quadrat method of botanical analysis of mixed pasture vegetation. J. Agr. Res. 69:289-297. Fayle, D. C. F. 1959. The point contact method as a three-dimensional measure of ground vegetation. The Forestry Chronicle. 35(2):135-141. Harrington, H. D., and L. W. Durrell. Sage Books. 203 p. 1957. How to identify plants. Kuchler, A. W. 1955. A comprehensive method of mapping vegetation. Annals Ass. of Amer. Geog. 65:404-415. Loveless, C. M. 1967. Ecological characteristics of a mule deer winter range. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Tech. Pub. No. 20. 124 p. Shepherd, H. R. 1973. Bighorn sheep range inventory, pp. 25-39. In Game Research Report, July, 1973. Part 1. Colo. Div. Wildlife. U. S. Forest Service. 1969. Forester's guide to aerial photo interpretation, Agr. Handbook No. 308. 40 p. U. S. Forest Service. Prepared by B.P.I. workbook. ~~£4~ ;dId R. Shepherd Wildlife Researcher ~ Washington, D.C. 47 p. ��-43July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of --------~~~~~--~-COLORADO Project No. W-101-R-16 Work Plan No. 7 Job Title Reprint Book: Game Range Investigations Job No. 1 ~~----~----------------------- Winter Guide to Native Shrubs of the Central Rocky Mountains P~riod Covered: July 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel: William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil. ABSTRACT No work was accomplished on this job during the nine months period except that in a conference with Mr. Charles Hje1te, a decision was made to reproduce illustrations by photographing pages of the first edition book wherever they are of satisfactory quality. Some illustrations will need to be done over from new specimens or from herbarium specimens. ��-45- REPRINT BOOK: WINTER GUIDE TO NATIVE SHRUBS OF THE CENTRAL ROCKY MOUNTAINS William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil P. S. OBJECTIVE To revise and reprint the book: Winter Guide to Native Shrubs of the Central Rocky Mountains. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To refurbish art work on book illustration pages. METHODS AND MATERIALS The original paste-up sheets for each page of illustrations were salvaged and stored after the first edition was printed. Labels have since then loosened and need resticking. Black and white prints need retouching or replacement. All the beaver board sheets on which materials are mounted need cleaning up or replacement. This job will be worked upon by a student assistant, under supervision, at odd times during the segment 1973-74. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The only work accomplished was a conference with Division Publications Chief, Charles Hjelte. Mr. Hjelte examined the paste-up sheets and advised that most of the art work be done by directly photographing the book pages rather than trying to refurbish the sheets. In cases where the photo prints (half-tones) are of too poor quality they should be rephotographed from new specimens. 2l?~Ie: a~i Prepared by 1Kt-!{~~~.I<_:;rc William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher ��-47July 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT Stat e 0 f . C=-o::...:L::.:o:..:R.:=:\D::::.-~O:...__'_ _ Project No. W-101-R-16 Work Plan No. 6 GaIne Range Investigations Job No. 1 ----~--~----------~~------~ Job Title Game Management Unit· Inventory Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31,1974 Personnel: Bertram D. Baker, William T. McKean, and Paul H. Neil. ABSTRACT Broad descriptive and wildlife speciesmanagemeIlt information were compiled separately for Wildlife ManageinentUnits3l ·(Roan Creek) and 32 (Parachute Creek). Subjects discussed included: Unit Description (Boundaries, Size, Physical Features and Climate); Landownership Status; Land Use Status; Human Populations (by County); Wildlife Species Checklists; Hunting Pressure, Harvests and Seasons; Narrative and Map Descriptions of Game Species Distribution and Abundance; Introductions. of Game Species;·Census Areas and Routes; Habitat Restoration Projects; Management Problems Checklist; and Pertinent Research References by Game Species and Author • •'i. •.•• ��-49- GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT INVENTORY Bertram D. Baker~ William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil For the second time, progress on this job was delayed. Bertram D. Baker was transferred to Project W-38-R-28 (wp 18, Job 1) after working a little over one month on the 1973-74 segment of this project. On July 1, Paul H. Neil joined the project as Conservation Aide. He has served continuously since that time. P. S. OBJECTIVE To compile broad descriptive and wildlife species management information by wildlife management unit. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Describe Wildlife Management Units by name, number, boundaries, size, physical features, and climate. 2. Inventory by unit the cultural and physical characteristics including landownership status, land use status, and human population. 3. Inventory by unit wildlife characteristics including species lists, distribution and abundance, harvest data, introductions and/or past species records, census areas and routes, and research and/or management studies bibliographies. 4. Inventory habitat (range) characteristics of vegetation types~ vegetation condition and trend, restoration projects, and transect records, all from existing sources. 5. Inventory present and future management problems by unit. 6. Test application of any item of information compiled or recorded in steps 1-5 above in pilot computerized map project now in operation. METHODS AND MATERIALS Five steps were necessary to produce the desired information about each Wildlife Unit. 1. The priorities of units were determined, based upon recommendations of field and administrative personnel. 2. Working with sources in Fort Collins and Denver~ as much data as possible concerning each item were assembled and condensed (See APPENDICES A and B). �-50- 3. First-draft copies of descriptive material were submitted to Northwest Regional personnel and to knowledgeable Denver office persons for review and correction. 4. Group meetings were arranged with field personnel and others to make pencilled corrections on 1/2"/mile species distribution maps and to make refinements to the narrative. 5. As of this writing the above mentioned meetings have not been held but will be within the first few weeks of the next segment. After said meetings are held, final revisions to narratives and maps will be made and all information gathered into file binder folders, except for the 1/2"/mile maps which will be reproduced by hand and bound in separate folders. Copies of all this material will be distributed to the Northwest Regional office, the Denver office (Game Management Section) and to the Federal Aid Section. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Current status of the work is stated in step 5 above. For the work done to date on Wildlife Management Units 31 and 32 see APPENDICES A and B. These narratives and maps have not yet been corrected by field personnel and others. No information was obtained concerning habitat (range) characteristics of vegetative types (objective 4). The "Land Use Status" tabulation is essentially a listing by type. It lacks figures on densities, species composition, condition and trend, etc. Data gathered under this project should be useful in the pilot computerized map project now in operation by the Division Planning Section (objective 6), but this has not been realized as yet. An extensive bibliography will be included in all final copies of this work, but in the interest of saving paper and time, is not appended to this job progress report. /' r;'?l,' e77- ,1")/]."., ~. .!./ Prepared by '?t'~.c.a-~-~,-,/I- / //c&~~/ William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher . �-51- APPENDIX HILDL IrE A ~f!-.NAGE·!E~;'Im;rT 11 (ROAN CREEK) Rio Blanco, Garfield, and Mesa Counties, Colorado Information on Unit Description, Population; Landownership, Hildlife Species Checklists; Narrative and Hap Descriptions Checklist; References. Compiled by: To: HarYests and Seasons; of Distribution Census Areas; Habitat Restoration Land Use, Human and Abundance; Projects; Hanagement March 1974. l-l.T. l-1cKeanand P. H. Neil Problems ��-53TABLE OF CONTENTS Item UNIT DESCRIPTION LANDOWNERSHIP (Boundaries, size, physical features and climate)----_ 59 LAND USE STATUS ------------ _ 60 HUMAN POPULATION _ 61 GAME SPECIES STATUS ------------- 55 (Garfield County, 1960-1970 and projections) (Big game mammals, small game mammals and game birds) OTHER MAMMALIAN SPECIES (Furbearers, statute) ---------------------- nongame mammals defined by 62 _ 64 _ 65 (Nongame birds, raptores) _ 66 DISTRIBUTION MlD ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME MAM}fALS (Black bear, elk, mountain lion, mule deer) ----------. _ 73 NO~GAME ?~ALS (Not defined by statute) -~--- .OTHER AVIAN SPECIES DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF WILD HORSE o ------ DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SHALL GAHE MM1MALS snowshoe hare, red (pine) squirrel) ----- _ (Cottontail rabbit, _ 78 79 DISTRIBUTION MlD ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME BIRDS (Grouse, chukar, ringnecked pheasant, wild turkey, band-tailed pigeon, mourning dove, Gambel's quail, ll1aterfm"l) ---------_ 82 DEER HARVEST, 93 SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS (1956-1972) (1956-1972) ELK HARVEST,SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE ARCHERY SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE ELK HARVEST, BLACK BEAR HARVEST ~~ SEASONS _ (1956-1972) _ 95 _ 98 (1956-1972) 100 (1955-1972) 102 MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST AND SEASONS 1965-1972) ----------------------__ 104 S}~L GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE ~, 1968-1972) ---------------------- (Small game management Unit ~____ 105 SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE 17 1968-1972) -------------------- (Small game management Unit ::::: -' DUCK AND GOOSE IllffiVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Garfield County, 1954-1972) ------------------------------------------- _ 106 107 �-54- TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Item Page INTRODUCTIONS OF GAME SPECIES------------------------------------------ 108 CENSUS AREAS AND ROUTES ----~------------------------------------------ 110 HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS ------------------------------------------ 112 MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CHECKLIST ----------------------------------------- 113 �-55- DESCRIPTION - \.JILDLIFENANI\GEHENT UNIT 31 (ROAN CREEK) 1/ Boundaries l./.--"That portion of Garfield and Rio Blanco counties within the Roan Creek drainage north of the Colorado River, that portion of Mesa County north and west of the Colorado River which drains into the Colorado River upstream from the town of Palisade." Size.--Unit 31 was determined to be 697.2 square miles or 446,240 acres in size. A planimeter was used to obtain the acreage from a 1/2" = 1 mile scale Bureau of Land Management base map, 1965. Physical Features.--Sedimentary rocks and alluvium within Unit 31 are primarily or Tertiary origin. These occur \"ithin the Green River and o Wasatch Formations. The Green River Formation caps the Roan Plateau which is bordered by the Roan Cliffs. That part of the Roan Cliffs occurring in Unit 31 extends from a point approximately four miles wes t of the town of Grand Valley on the east to a point approximately one and one-half miles northeast of Palisade, near Mount Lincoln. River Formation is best knmm The Green for its oil shale deposits which have great economic potential for oil production. They are thickest in the Parachute Creek Member, attaining a maximum thickness of about 3,500 feet. Creek Member likewise has extensive oil shale deposits. The Roan These rocks are relatively resistant to erosion and generally underlie broad plateaus or mesas that terminate in sheer cliffs (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 1965). 1/ - Legally termed "Big Game Management Unit" (see footnote 2/ below) but tentatively called "Wildlife Management Unit" here to incl~de broader aspects of anLma I life present. J:...! Colorado \.Jild1ifeDivision Laws and Regu.La t Lons Hdbk ., 1970 (p, 7, Chap. '2- Big Game). �-56- Beneath the Green River Formation lies the Wasatch, a relatively erodible rock containing large amounts of soluble salts. From Grand Valley to Cameo, and up Roan Creek for many miles, alluvium is from the Wasatch and Green River Formations. common also. Shale fragments, stones, and gravel and cobbles are Varying concentrations of salt and degrees of alkalinity exist in the alluvium depending upon the influence of the Wasatch Formation. Terrain varies (traversing from south to north) from the gently sloping Grand Valley bottoms to deeply eroded, rounded foothills and alluvial fans. The foothills abruptly terminate at talus slopes beneath tremendous cliffs rising 2,000,to 3,000 feet in one half to one mile horizontal distance. These cliffs constitute the border of the Roan Plateau, whf.ch in Wildlife Unit 31, extends 18 to 36 miles northward. It is a high rolling tableland, which is steeply dissected by Roan Creek and more lightly dissected by a multitude of tributaries, including Clear Creek, Brush Creek, Carr-Creek, Kimball Creek, Dry Fork Creek, and Jerry Creek. It constitutes the divide between Piceance Creek to the north and Roan Creek drainages. \.JildlifeUnit 31 elevations range from 4,}50 feet on the Colorado River between Cameo and Palisade upward to 9,035 feet at the head of Carr Creek~ In addition to the above mentioned principal drainages in Wildlife Unit 31, there are Conn Creek and Logan Wash on the east, while in the southwest section are Coon Hollow, Sulphur, Horseshoe, Jackson, Roberts, Ashbury, and Jerry creeks. These are all quite short, intermittent and steep except fo~ J~rry Cr~ek. �-57- Soils data for Unit 31 can be obtained by consulting U. S. Soil Conservation Service Work Unit personnel located at Glenwood Springs and at Grand Junction. Descriptions and a map of broad soil classification can be found also in the previously cited report of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (1965). C1imate.--The climate of Unit 31 is typical of Colorado's western slope, with wide extremes resulting from large variations in topography. Mean annual precipitation averages 11. 05 inches (41 years) at Rifle, the most nearly representative, long-term National Weather Service station. cipitation has ranged from 7.41-22.2 inches (1956-1972). Pre- Precipitation on Roan Plateau at 8,000 to 9,000 feet is approximately 25 inches annually. Cloud burst storms of high intensity and short duration occur over localized areas and result from summer convective conditions. Seasonal distribution of precipitation is fairly uniform, higher elevations receiving a greater.proportion in winter in the form of snowfall. National Weather Service records at Rifle show a mean annual temperature of 47.5 degrees, ranging from 45.5 to 47.9 over the past 40 years. free days averaged 121, ranging from 56 to 166 (1956-1972 incl). FrostGrowing season length on Roan Plateau is unrecorded but is believed to range from 30 to 60 days. Mean monthly evaporation in inches, measured from a sunken "Colorado" pan at Grand Junction 1948-1960 was: March - 5.41; April - 9.07; }1ay 12.83; June - 17.31; July - 17.43; Aug. - 14.64; Sept. - 11.59; Oct.7.32; Nov. - 3.25. Preceding climatic information was obtained, and in some cases interpreted �-58- from reports of the V. S. Department of Agriculture (1965, 1966) and V. S. Department of Commerce (continuing) - National Weather Service. Literature Cited U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study by Colo. Water Conserv. Board and V.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. 1966. Colorado. ~~y. Denver. 183 pp. (processed). Water and related land resources, White River Basin in Coop. Study by Colo. Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. November. Denver. 92 pp. V. S. Department of Commerce. Colorado. (processed). (Continuing). M~nthly and Annual Summaries. Fed. Bldg., Asheville, N. C. Climatological data, National Climatic Center, 28801. W. T. McKean January 1974 �-59- LANDOWNERSHIP STATUS - HILDLIFE !:-'Ii\NAGEMENT UNIT 31 Bureau of Land Management 265,093 Acres Private lands 187,320 Acres Municipal and County lands 60 Acres Other Federal lands including National Park Service, Forest Service, Indian and Military Reservations, and Bur. Sport Fisheries and Hi1d1ife o Acres Colorado Division of Hi1d1ife lands o State Land Board Administration Acres ----o Acres lands 452,473 Total Acres * (706.9 sq. miles) * Total land acreage differs from totalo in Unit ~~Description Section __ ~----~~ (446,240 acres or 697.2 sq. miles). Bureau of Land Management lands, private lands, and a total unit acreage were derived from p1animetering on a 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit map (1965). P. H. Neil December 1973 �-60- LAND USE AND VEGETATIVE COVER STATUS - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Irrigated cropland 8,324 Acres Grassland with half-shrub mixtures 6,115 Acres Grassland with woodland mixtures 2,391 Acres Sagebrush 20,542 Acres Brush (desert and mountain) 143,721 Acres Woodland (pinon-juniper and oakbrush) 154,853 Acres Commercial timber to include aspen 47,299 Acres Riverbottom vegetation l/ 353 Acres Urban !:../ Miscellaneous 130 Acres 1/ 63,086 Acres Total 446,814 Acres (698.1 sq. miles) Cover type categories were derived from 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S.Land Use and Cover Type Maps, 1953, 1954, 1955, for Rio Blanco, Garfield and Mesa counties. A planimeter and grid were used to derive and compute acreage. Total land acreage differs from total shown in Unit Description Section (446,240 Acres or 697.2 sq. miles). 1/ - Includes only woods or brush-woods mix along the Colorado River as planimetered from U.S.G.S. 1:24,000 topographic maps (Palisade, Cameo, DeBeque and Grand Valley quadrangles). 2/ - Urban - Those areas used for residential and municipal purposes as illustrated on the 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit base map (1965) for the t own of DeBeque. 3/ - Miscellaneous - Interpreted to consist mainly of bare ground with sparse, scattered vegetation of various types. P. H. Neil December 1973 �-61- HUMAN POPULATION - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Specific human population data for Unit 31 are impossible to obtain because U. S. Census Bureau records are on a county-wide basis only. The unit is split between Garfield and Mesa counties, with only small segments of each. This analyses differs from the Bureau of the Census source in that they consider cities and towns of less than 2,500 population as being rural in character. Here, all incorporated cities and towns are considered as being urban regardless of size, with remaining populations being rural. DeBeque, an incorporated city, had a population of 172 in 1960 which decreased to 155 by 1970. The remaining rural population is roughly estimated as ranging between 100 and 200 persons, based upon Soil Conservation Service national estimates of 3.2 persons per farm or ranch. This does not include new residents associated with oil shale mining, of whom there are known to be a few at this writing. William T. McKean January 1974 �-62GAHE SPECIES - HILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 31 Big game mammals 1:../ Black bear (Ursus americanus) Uncommon. Elk (Cervus canadens~~) Common. Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Uncommon to common. Mule deer (Odocoileus hcmionus) Common. Small game mammals !/ Cottontail rabbit (Svlvilagus audubonii; S. nuttallii) Common. Pine (red) squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Common. Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) Common. Game birds 'l:./ Migratory waterfowl and shorebirds Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffitti) Common yearlong resident. Black brant (Branta nigricans) 1/ Possible rare migrant. Hhite-fronted goose (Branta albifrans frontalis) 3/ Possible uncommon migrant. Snow goose (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) 3/, 4/, Possible rare migrant. Mallard (Anas-piatyrhynchos platyrhynchos) C~mmo~ resident. Gadwall (Anas strepera) Common spring and fall migrant. 1/ - Nomenclature according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Hild mammals of ~/Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Rist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Hildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfiel~counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapted from the foregoing references and Davis, H. A. 1969. Birds in Hestern Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. Hhere adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported verbally by anyone or more Division personnel Glenn E. Rogers, Claude E. '~ite, George E. Steele, Kenneth C. Dillinger, or qualified by additional footnotes that follow. �-63- Game birds (continued) Pintail (Anas acuta) Common spring and fall migrant. American green-winged teal (Anas crecca carolinensis) Common migrant and uncommon yearlong resident 4/. B'l.ue-wLnged teal (Anas discors di~cors) Common migrant. Cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera septentrionalium) Co~~on migrant. American wigeon (Anas americana) 4/ Common migrant and rare w Lnter resident. Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata)-~/ Common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Wood duck (Aix sponsa) 1/ Possible rare migrant. Redhead (Aythya americana) Common migrant. Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) Common migrant. Canvasback (Aythya valisineria) uncommon to rare migrant. Greater scaup (Aythya marila nearctica) 3/ Rare migrant. Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) Common migrant. Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula americana) Common migrant and winter resident. Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) 3/ Rare winter visitor. Buffelhead (Bucephala albeola) Uncommon spring and fall migrant and rare winter resident. Ruddy duck (Oxvura jamaicensis rubida) Common migrant and occasional summer resident. Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Rare winter visitor on river. Common merganser (Hergua merganser americanus) Common ",inter resident. Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator serrator) Uncommon winter resident. American coot (Fulica americana americana) Common migrant and occasional summer resident. Common Wilson's snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) Common migrant and rare winter 'resident. Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dandragapus obscurus obscurus) Common. Sage grouse (Centrocercusurophasianus urophasianus) Uncommon to common. Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Uncowmon. Chukar (Alectoris chukar) 4/ Common. Band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata fasciata) Uncommon summer migrant. Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura margine11a) 4/ Common summer resident. Gambel's quail (Lophortyx gambelii sanus) Unknown. Wild turkey (Heleagris gallopavo merriami) Uncommon. 3/ - Unverified in hunters' bag checks but possible rare migrant and legal game 1971-72. ~/Changes in nomenclature follow the thirty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists Union check-list of North American birds published in Auk 90:411-419, Apr{1, 1973. W. T. McKean and P. H. Neil December 1973 �-64OTHER MAMMALIAN SPECIES 1./ - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Furbearers ]j Beaver (Castor canadensis) Common. Mink (Mustela vison) Uncertain. Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Uncommon. Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) Uncommon. Weasels (Hustela erminea; H. frenata) H. erminea Uncertain; M. frenata Uncommon. Nongame mammals ~/ Coyote (Canis latrans) Common. Red fox (Vulpes fulva) Uncommon Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Common. Raccoon (Procvon lotor) Uncommon to common. American badger (Taxidea ta~~s) Common to uncommon. Spotted skunk (Sp LLoz a.Le putorLus) Uncommon. Striped skunk (~ephitis mephitis) Common. Bobcat (wildcat) (Lynx rufus) Common. White-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus townsendii) COID~on. Black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus californicus) Uncommon. Yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) Common. White-tailed prairie dog (~~ leucurus) Uncommon to common. Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) Common. Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Suermophilu~ tridecemlineatus) Common. Rock squirrel (Spermophilus variegatus) Common. Golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) Common. White~tailed antelope squirrel (Affimospermophilusleucurus) Uncommon. Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Common. Colorado chipmunk (Eutamias quadrivittatus) Common Uinta chipmunk (Eutamias umbrinus) Uncommon to uncertain. ]j These species, grouped separately as "furbearers" and "Nongame mammals" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970 (Art. 1, Item 3, Definitions, p. 3). 2/ - Nomenclature according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder, Colorado. 254 pp. and Armstrong, D. H. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Monograph of the Museum of Natural History, the Univ. of Kansas, Number 3, 1972. 415 pp. W. T. McKean and P. H. Neil December 1973 �-65NONGi\:-lE MAHMALS NOT DEFINED BY STATUTE - It.1ILDLIFE !l..ANAGE-1ENT [:-lIT31 1./ Water shrew (Sorex oalustri~) Common. Vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans) Common. Merriams shr-ew (Sorex mer r i amf ) 2/ Rare. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Common. Townsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus t owns end i.i.) Common. Pallid bat (Antrozous Dallidus) 2/ Rare. Spotted bat (Euderma ~aculatu~) 2/ Uncertain - rare. Silver-haired bat (Lasionvcteris-noctivagans) Common. Hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) Cncoll'.Inon - common. Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) C011'~on. Western pipistrelle (Pipistrellus hesperus) Common. Long-legged myotis Wvotis volans) Uncoramon. California myotis (Hyot Ls californicus) Conmon . Small-footed myotis (~;yotisleibii) Cornmon, Fringed myotis (~yotis thysanodes) 2/ Uncertain - rare. Long-eared myotis C-ivotis evo t i s) r;certain. Little brown myotis C1~'otis Luc Lf'uzus ) Uncertain. Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida braziliensis) 1.1 Uncertain - rare. Northern pocket gopher (Thomomvs talooides) Common. Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomvs ordii) Uncor:.non. Apache pocket mouse (P~rogn~thus aDache) t'ncommon. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontonvs megalotis) Cornmon. Canyon mouse (Peronvscus crinitus)Col'1mon. Deer mouse (Peromyscus naniculatus) Common. Pinon mouse (Peromvscus truei) Co~~on. Northern grasshopper mouse (Onvchomvs leucogaster) Uncommon - Common. Desert wood rat (Neot oma Lep Lda ) COTI'JTIon. Bushy-tailed Hood rat (~eotoma cinerea) Common. Capper's red-backed vole (Clethriono~vs gapoeri) Common. Meadmv vole C-Ucrotus penn svl.vanLcus ) Uncommon , Montane vole (:!icrotus non t anus ) Unc e.rt aLn , Long-tailed vole C'~icrotus longicaudus) Common. Sagebrush vole (Lagurus curtatus) Uncertain. House mouse (Nus musculus) Uncoll'.Inon. Western jumping mouse (Zapus princeps) Cornmon. Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Common. 1/ - Nomenclature from Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Infotmution on occurrence and status from the above reference and: Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: an environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phease One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study beinp, done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. 2/ - Occurrence listed by the Colo. Div. of \.JildlHe as extremely unusual - very few documented records within the past decade. (1972 Status Evaluation for Selected Colorado Species) appended to: 1973 Wildlife Operations Work Plan, Field Order No.4 - 1973. �-66OTHER AVIAN SPECIES 1./ - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Nongame birds ~I Common loon (Gavia immer) Possible rare migrant. Horned grebe (Podiceps auritus cornutus) Common migrant. Eared grebe (Podiceps nigricollis californicus) Possible common migrant 11. Western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) Common migrant. Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps podiceps) Common migrant and .summer resident. Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus) Possible rare migrant. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident ~/, II. Snowy egret (Egretta thula breHsteri) Possible uncommon summer resident 1/. Black-crowned night heron (Xvcticorax nycticorax hoactli) Possible common summer resident. Least bittern (Ixobrvchus exilis exilis) Possible rare summer migrant. American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Possible rare summer migrant. White-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) Possible rare migrant. Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) Possible uncommon migrant. Sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus) Possible resident 4/. Sandhill cr;ne (Grus canadensis canadensis; ~. £. tabida) Possible regular migrant. Virginia rail (Rallus limicola limicola) Uncommon summer resident. Sora (Porzana carolina) Uncommon summer resident. Semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) Possible rare migrant. Killdeer (Charadius vociferus vociferus) Common summer resident ~/, II rare winter resident. 11 - These species, grouped separately as "Nongame birds" and "Raptores" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1962 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970. (Art. 1, item 3, Definitions, p. 327). ~/Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin,Rio Blanco and Garfield-counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapted from the foregoing references and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. Where adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported verbally by anyone or more Division personnel Glenn E. Rogers, Claude E. t~ite, George E. Steele, Kenneth C. Dillinger, or qualified by additional footnotes that follow. �-67Nongame birds (continued) Mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) Possible rare migrant 1/. Black-bellied plover (Pluvialis sauatarola) Possible uncommon migrant 3/. Long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus 8rnericanus) Possible rare migrant. Spotted sandpiper (Arctitis macularia) Uncommon summer resident. Solitary sandpiper (Tringa solitaria cinnamomea) Possible common migrant and occasional summer resident. Willet (Catontrophorus seminalmatus inornatus) Unco~~on resident. Greater yelloulegs (Tringa melanoleuca) Possible cormnon migrant 1./. Lesser yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) Possible uncommon migrant 1/. Red know (Calidris canutus rufa) Possible rare migrant. Pectoral sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) Possible rare migrant 3/. Baird's sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) Possible cormnon migrant ]/. Least sandpiper (Calidris minutilla) Possible cormnon migrant 1/. Long-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) Uncommon migrant. Stil t sandpiper (?1icropalma himantoDus) Possible rare migrant. Semipalmated sandpiper (Calidrispusilla) Possible rare migrant 11. Western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) Possible uncommon migrant 1/. Marbled godwit (Limosa fedoa) Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Calidris alba) Possible rare migrant 11. American avocet (Recurvirostra americana) Rare migrant and resident~ Black-necked stilt (Himantonus mexicanus) Possible rare migrant. Wilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor)- Possible common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Northern phalarope (LobiDes lobatus) Possible unCO~1Uon migrant. Pomarine jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus) Possible rare migrant. Herring gull (Larus argentatus smithsonianus) Possible uncommon migrant. California gull (Larus californicus) Possible rare migrant. Ring-billed gull (Larus delm"arensis) Possible uncommon migrant. Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) Possible uncommon migrant. Bonaparte's gull (Larus philadelphia) Possible r~re migrant. Sabine's gull (Xema sabini sabini) Possible rare migrant. Forster's tern (St;rna forsteri) Possible rare migrant. Common tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo) Possible rare migrant. Least tern (Sterna albafrons~~ssos) Possible rare migrant. Black tern (Chlidonias niger surinamensis) Possible rare migrant. Rock dove (Columba livia) Possible cormnon resident. White~winged dove (Z~da asiatica mearnsi) Possible rare migrant. Yellow-billed cuckoo (COCCYZUS americanus americanus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Poor-will (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii nuttallii) Common surmner resident ii, 6/. 3/ - Changes in nomenclature follow the Thirty-second Supplement to the American Ornithologists Union Checklist of North American Birds published in Auk 90(2): 411-419. April, 1973. 4/ - Technically a game bird, but comparative rarity makes occurrence in Unit 31 questionable. Species is cited here to avoid its complete omission, since chances appear good enough for it to occur in the unit sometime. �-68- Nongame birds (continued) Cornman nighthawk (Chordeiles minor hesperis; f. ~. howelli) Cornmon summer resident 6/. White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxata1is sc1ateri) Common summer resident E.../, Black-chinned hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) Common summer resident 7/. Broad-tailed-hummingbird (Se1asphorus p1atycercus p1atycercus) Common summer resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Rufous hummingbird (Sel;sph~rus rufus) Common late summer migrant 7/. Calliope hummingbird (Ste11ula calliope) Possible rare migrant andsummer resident. Rivo1i's hummingbird (Eugenes fu1gens aureoviridis) Possible rare summer visitor. Belted kingfisher (Megacery1e a1cyon a1cyon) Possible common resident. Common flicker (Co1aotes auratus col1aris) Common resident 3/, 5/, E.../,I/, (C. a. 1uteus) Possible rare migrant 3/. Lewis' woodpecker (Asvndesmus Lew i s) Co~on summer resident 7/. Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nucha1iae) Comm~n summer 2/, 6/, 7/ and possible occasional winter resident. Williamson's sapsucker (Sphyraoicus thyroideus nata1iae) Possible common summer resident. Hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos vi110sus monticola) Common resident 7/. Do~~y woodpecker (DendrocoDos pubescens leucurus) Common resident 5/, 6/, I/. Northern three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridacty1us dorsalis) Possible rare migrant. Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) Uncommon summer resident II. Western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) Common summer resident 7/. Cassin's kingbird (Tvrannus vociferans vociferans) Possible uncommon surnrnerresident. Ash-throated flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident 7"/. Say's phoebe-(Savornis saya saya) Common summer II and possible rare winter resident. Wil1m" flycatcher (Empidonax traillii) Common summer resident II. Hammond's flycatcher (Empidonax hanunondii) Possible migrant and uncommon summer resident. Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberho1seri) Summer resident 7/. Gray flycatcher (Empidonax vrrLght Ld ) Possible summer resident. Western flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis hellmayri) Common summer resident I/. u. 5/ - Sight record given in unpublished checklist of birds of Naval Oil Shale Reserve, 1969-70, by L. :tof. Stevens, (Specific for Wildlife Management Unit 32). ~/Sight record taken from Cringan, A. T. 1973. Annotated list of birds known to occur in northwestern Colorado. 17 pp. In: The Colony environmental study, Parachute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. Prepared by Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. August, 1973. Chapt. VII. Part II. Vol. 2, pp. 17-33, (Specific for Wildlife H.anagement Unit 32). I/Sight record taken from Smith, A. G. 1973. Avian environmental inventory and impact study for Colony Development Operation in Garfield County, Colorado. Part I. Environmental inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute for Colony Development Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1973. (processed), (Specific for Hild1ife Management Unit 32). �-69Nongame birds (continued) Western wood peewee (Contopus ~ordidulus veliei) Common summer resident 1..1. Olive-sided flycatcher Uiutt:111ornis boren Lis) Common summer resident JJ. Ho~ned lark (Ercmophila alocstris lcucolacma) Common residcnt 1../,2...1. Violet-green swallow (Trachvcincta thalassina leoida) Common summer resident 51, 6/, 7/. Tree swallow-(Irfdoorocne bicolor) Common migrant and summer resident !!.../, 1/. Bank swallow (Riparia rioaria riparia) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-winged swallow (Stel~idootervx ruficollis serripennis) Uncommon migrant and S~Th~er resident 2/. Barn swallmv (Hirundo rustica ervthro<:>aster)Cormnon summer resident 2...1,1/. Cliff swallow (Pctrochelidon pvrrhonota oyrrhonota) Common summer resident 5/, 6/. Purple marti; (Pro£ne subis subis) Possible rare summer migrant. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis c2oitalis) Uncommon resident !!.../, 2/. Steller's jay (Cv ano c i t t a stelleri r-acr'o Looha) Common resident 'i/, 2.../,l/. Scrub jay (Ache Locoma coeruleseens woodhouse i L) Common resident :i/, 2../, 2/. Black-billed magpie (Pica pica hudsonia) Common resident 5/,6/, 7/. Common raven (C;~vus ~x~uatus) Coenon resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Common crow (Corvus brachvrhvnchos brachvrhvnchos) Possible uncommon resident. Pinon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanoce~halus) Common SUmr:1er1/,2.../,1/ and winter resident 7/. Clark's nutcracker (Nucifra£a columbiana) Common resident 5/,6/, 7/. Black-capped chickadee (Farus articaDillus garrinus) Co~on reside;t 2/, !!.../, 2/. Mountain chickadee (Parus gaI!lbeli;:;ar::beli) COr;'J!.Ol1 resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Plain titmouse (Parus inornatus ri0;;:rr Common resident 77. Bushtit (Fsaltrinarus minimus p Lumb eus ) Possible common resident 1/. White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis nelsoni) Uncor;'~onresident 1/. Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Rare r2sident ~/. Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pv~maea melanotis) Possible uncommon resident. Brown creeper (Certhia familiaris montana) Uncommon resident and common migrant 7/. Dipper (Cin~lus nexicanus unicolor) Common resident 5/,6/, 7/. House wr en (I'r oz lodv t es aedon pa r kraan i.L) Common summer resident 2/, §.../, 2/. Bewick's wren (Thrv~ma;es beV7i~kii ercnonhilus) Possible common summer resident and rare winter resident. Long-billed marsh wren (Telmatodvtes oalustris plesius) Possible rare winter resident. Canyon wren (Saloinctes mexicanus consnersus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Rock wren (Saloinctes obsoletus obsoletus) Co~~on s~er !!.../, and possible rare winter resident. Mockingbird (~!inusoolvglottos leuconterus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Gray catbird (Dume t e Ll.a carolinensis) Rare summer resident 1/, ]j. Sage thrasher (Orcoscootes T!1ontanus)Possible common su".rnerresident. American robin (Turdus mi£ratorius nropinquus) Common summer and winter resident 1/, 21, J:...I, 21. Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus audubonii) Co:nIDonsummer resident 11,1/,1/. Swaf.nson s thrush (Ca t ha rus ustulatus a Lmae ) Uncommon migrant 7/. Veery (Catharus fucescens salicicola) Co~~on migrant and summer resident 3/, 7/. Western bluebird-(Sialia mcxicana bairdi) Common migrant and uncommon summer residen t 7/. Mountain bluebird (Sf.a Lta cu rrucoides) Common mi gran t and sumner resident 5/, 6/, 7/ and pos s i blc occas i onn l w i n t er resident. Townsend' s ~oli t aIrc (Hyades tes to\V11s('ndi t ownscndL) Uncommon rcs Ldcnt; t 2/, §.../, u. �Nongame birds (continued) -70- Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptfla caerulea amoenissima) Common summer resident 7/. Golden-crown;d kinglet (Regulus satrapa amoenus) Possible uncommon migrant and rare summer resident. Ruby-c rowned kinglet (Regulus calendula cineraceus) Common migrant 6/, ]J. Bohemian waxwing (BoDbycilla garrulus pallidiceps) Possible irregul~r winter migrant 3/. Cedar waxwing (Zombvcilla cedrorum) Uncommon·resident 7/. Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor invictus) Possible common winter resident. Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides) Possible uncommon summer and co~on winter resident. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris vul£aris) Common resident 6/, 7/. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Uncommon summer resident 7/. Solitary vireo (Vireo solitarius ulumbeus) Cormnon SU!i1Iller resident 1./. ~ed-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Possible rare summ~r resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo £ilvussHainsonii) COIT'.r1on summer resident 7/. Tennessee warbler (Ver::1ivorauere2rina) Possible rare but regular migrant. Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata orestera) Uncommon migrant and summer resident 6/. Nashville warbler (Verraf.vor a ruficauilla ric.g~·,ayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia's warbler (Vermivora vir£iniae) COIT~on summer resident 7/. Yellow warbler (Dendroica uetechia aestiva) Co~mon summer reside;t 5/,6/,2/. Ye Ll.ow+rumped wa rb Ler (Dendroica coronata rnemorabLl.Ls) Common summer resident 3/, 6/, 7/; (D..c. coronata) Possible common migrant 3/. 'Black-throat;d gray ;arbler (Dencroica ni.z r esceris) Commo; s~er resident 2/. Townsend's warbler (Dendroica t ownseridi.) Uncommon fall migrant 7/. ~~cGillivray's warbler (Oporornis tolmiei monticola) Common summer resident 5/, 7/. Common yellowthroat (Geothlvuis trichas occidentalis; G. t. campicola) Uncommon summer resident 3/, 6/, 7/. - Yellow-breasted' chat (Icteri~ virens-auricollis) Possible common summer resident. Wilson's warbler (Wilsonia pusilla pileolata) COI1L.T'[)on migrant and SUIl'.mer resident. American redstart (Setouhaga ruticilla tricolora) Possible rare migrant. House sparrow (Passer do~esticus domesticus) Conmon resident 6/, 7/. Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) Possible rare summer migrant~ Western meadowlark (Sturnella ne£lecta neglecta) Common summer ~/, 2/ and possible uncommon ylinter resident. Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthoceuhalus) Common summer resident 6/, 7/. Red-wf.nged blackbird (Agelaius nhoeniceus fortis) Common resident 6/, 7/. Northern oriole (Icterus galbula bullockii) Co~~on summer resident-3/,-6/, 7/. Rusty blackbird (~uuha9:us carolinus carolinus) Possible rare winter-migrant~ Brewer's blackbird (EunnaQ:us cvanoceDhalus) Cor.unonresident 6/, 7/. Brown=he aded cowbird C'~olothrus a t er artemisiae) Common summar r;sident 6/, 7/. Western tanager (Pfranz a lucovici-;;;) Common migrant and summer resident-7/.Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) Possible rare migrant. Hepatic tanager (Piranga flava dextra) Extremely rare straggler 1./. (Record observation). Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus melanocephalus) COll1.T'[)on summer resident 5/. Blue grosbe.:lk(Cuir-;c<1c;JC'ruleainte>rfusa) Possible uncommon summer resident. Lazuli bunting ~~-ina <1::10(';1;1) Common summer rcs t derrt Jj. Evening grosbeak (!lcsperiphona vcspertina brooksi) Common winter resident ~/. Jj. �-71- Nongame birds (continued) Cassin's finch (Carnodacus cassinii) Possible common resident. House finch (CarV()ciaCliS mChicanus frontalis) Common swnmer 2/, 7/ and possible uncommon winter resident. Pine grosbeak (Finicola enucleator montana) Possible uncommon resident. Gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis tenhrocotis; L. t. littoral is) Possible connon winter resident. Black rosy finch (Leucosticte atrata) Possible common winter migrant. Broym-capped rosy finch (Leucosticte australis) Possible common winter migrant. Common redpoll (Acanthis fla~ea flammea) Possible rare winter migrant. Pine siskin (Sui~~s pinus ninus) COffi8onresident 5/. American goldfinch (S~inus tristus tristus; ~. ~.-pallidus) Possible common summer and unco~~on winter resident. Lesser goldfinch (Suinus psaltria psaltria) Possible uncommon summer and rare winter resident. Red crossbill (Lox La curvirostra) Possible rare, irregular resident. White-winged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera leucontera) Possible rare winter migrant. Green-tailed towhee (Chlorura chlorura) COillIDon summer resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Rufous-sided towhee (PiDilo ervthroDhthalnus montanus) Common s~mer and rare winter resident 6/, 7/. Lark bunting (Calamosoiz; melanocorvs) Possible uncommon summer resident. Savannah spar row (Pas sercuLus s andw i chensLs nevadensis; P. s , anthinus) Common migrant and sumner resident 6/, 7/. - Grasshopper sparrow (~odramus savann;rum-Derpallidus) Uncommon summer resident 5/, 7/. Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gr2~ineus confinis) COIT~onmigrant and summer resident 5/, il. Lark sparrow-(Ch~ndestes grammacus stri~atus) Possible common migrant and summer resident. Black-throated sparrow (Amphisniza bilineata deserticola) COITmon summer resident 7/. Sage sparrow-(A~Dhisniza belli nevadensis) Common summer resident 7/. Dark-eyed junco (Junco hvemalis a~keni) Possible rare winter migrant 3/; (.:!. h. hyemali;-; J. h. c i sraon t anus ) Rare w i.nt.e r resident 1./, 7); (J. h. oreganus) Co~~on winter resident 3/, 7/; (J. h. o. var. mearnsi) Common winter resident 1/, ]j. -Gray-headed junco (Junco caniceps caniceDs) Common suw~er ~/ and winter resident 6/, 7/. Tree sparrow-(Sryizella arborea ochracea) Possible unCOIT~on winter migrant. Clay-colored sparro\y (Soizella nallida) Common migrant 7/. Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina boreoDhila) COITmon-summer resident 6/, 7/. Bre;er';- sp arrow (Sp i zeLla bre,.;reri br ewerL) Common summe r resident 7/. Harris' spar row (Zonotrichia oue rul.a) Possible uncommon migrant and rare winter resident. ~fuite-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucronhrvs) Common resident ~/, ~/. White-throated sparrow (Zonotricbi<1 albicollis) Rare migrant 7/. Fox sparrow (Passerell;].iliac~ scnist:lcea) Kare summer resident 5/. Lincoln's s parrow (~Ielospiza lincolnii a l t i.co La) Common migrant and summer resident l/. Song sparrow C·le1 OS!)} za rneLodLa) Corrunonsummer l/ and possible uncommon winter resident .. Lapland longspurc (C<llcari~_ lapponictls a lasccnsis) Possible r are winter migrant. �-72- Raptores J:../ Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura meridionalis) Common summer 1/, ~/, 1/ and possible rare winter resident. Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis atricapillus) Uncommon resident ~/, 2/. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus velox) Rare summer and common winter resident 7/. Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Uncommon summer 1/ and common winter resident 7/. Red-tailed h;wk (Buteo jamaicensis calurus) Common resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Swainson's hawk (Buteo swaf.nsom ) Uncommon summer 1/, 1/, and possible rare winter resident. Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus ~. johannis) Rare summer and uncommon winter resident or migrant. Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) Rare summer and common winter resident 1/. Golden eagle (AGuila chrvsaetos canadensis) Common resident 6/, 7/, 8/. Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucoceohalus alascanus) Common winte-r resident 6/, ij,Y· - Marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus hudsonius) Common summer 1/, ~/, 1/, and uncommon winter resident 7/. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis) P~re migrant. Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Uncommon resident 1/. Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Rare migrant, endangered. Pigeon hawk (Falco columbarius) Rare winter migrant 7/. Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius sparverius) Common su;IDer1/, ~/, 2/ and possible uncommon winter resident. Screech ow'l (Ot us asio) Uncommon resident. Flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus flammeolus) Possible rare summer resident. Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Common resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Pygmy owl (Glaucid~gnoma californicum) Possible rare resident. Burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea) Common summer 1/ and possible rare winter resident. Long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus) Uncommon resident 1/. Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus flaIT~eus)Possible uncommon winter migrant. Saw-whet owl (Aeg~s acadicus acadicus) Uncommon resident 1/. 8/ - Golden and bald eagle specifically excluded from statutes defining "Raptore" as cited in footnote l/ but herein listed to avoid omission P. H. Neil December 1973 �-73- DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME MAMMALS WILDLIFE MANAGMENT UNIT 31 (ROAN CREEK) BLACK BEAR Black bears occupy approximately the areas between 6,000 and 9,000 feet elevation in Unit 31, although on rare occasions they may wander over almost the entire unit. Their yearlong habitat is largely within the timbered or brush-covered lands above the Roan Cliffs, where fair combinations of food are available, such as fruit-bearing shrubs, small mammals, and carrion from livestock and big game herds. This is a comparatively small area within Unit 31, but fairly well iso~ated because of the abrupt topography inherent in the Roan Cliffs (see accompanying distribution maps). Unit 31 isolation may not be as great as in Unit 32 because of its many long drainages and intervening narrow ridges. There are at least jeep type roads, or better, within or upon almost all drainages and ridges. Minnich (1973) calculated a bears per square mile figure for a large area extending from Rifle to the Utah line north of the Colorado River and south of 'the Roan Plateau summit. Applying his ratio to Unit 31 produces an estimated 25 bears at 0.36 bears per square mile. Estimated annual black bear harvest for the 18 year period 1955-1972, inclusive, was 5.0 head, based upon hunter report card surveys. Annual kills ranged from 0-21; there were only four years out of eighteen when no bears were reported taken. complaints. Bears have occasionally been removed because of damage In 1972 and 1973 no bears were recorded as being removed (Myers pers. comm. 1974). W.C.O. Finch reported in a 1972 "Bear Census", three bears known, seven estimated, four minimum, and 15 maximum. �-74- ELK Summer range for elk in Unit 31 lies approximately within the range 8,0009,000 feet, generally being the highest, most isolated areas along the north and northwest portion of the Unit. "Overall Distribution" Minnich (1973) delineated separately an (meaning post-calving and fawning) and a winter distri- bution; these were from fieldmen personal contacts. adapted from the above. Accompanying maps are Herds which summer on aforementioned ranges are also believed to interchange freely across high ground areas of Unit 22 on the north, Unit 21 on the northwest, and Unit 30 on the west. Winter range for elk in Unit 31 decreases, on the average, to only a fraction of summer range. Minnich (1973) maps (distribution maps prepared by Minnich 1973) indicate a narrow band about a mile wide and fourteen miles long across the northeast portion of the Unit. Also depicted are three small sites of about one to five square miles in size, largely on southwest exposures, as follows (see accompanying maps): junction of Willow and Clear Creeks; Brush Creek at first Standard Parallel south and below Skinner Ridge; Roan Creek inT6S, RlOOW. No aerial trend counts have been established for elk in Unit 31, however, occasional observations of elk have been made during spring deer aerial trend counts. One such count was eight head in 1973 on Brush Creek. Unit 31 yielded an estimated annual harvest of seven elk for the period 1959-1972 omitting three years that were closed (1962-1964). 26. See Harvest Data presented in this report. Harvest ranged from 2 to Minnich (1973) com- puterized maps and data indicate an "Overall" density of 0.5 elk per square mile with an estimated population of 100 head. Mean winter population, derived from the same source was 62 head(l. 0 per mile2). �-75- MOUNTAIN LIONS Numerous records of past and recent occurrences of mountain lions in Unit 31 are available. From these reports the accompanying maps were drawn. Virtually the entire unit is considered usable range with the possible exception of culti~ated lands on Roan Creek and its tributaries. DeBeque Canyon likewise is probably unsuitable any longer for mountain lions. The better yearlong habitat is the broken terrain associated with the Roan Cliffs and Book Cliffs, but the high mobility and secretiveness of the lion makes its undetected occurrence in almost any portion of the unit possible (see accompanying maps). Dixon (1967), and Armstrong (1972) make specific citations concerning lion activity within the Roan Creek drainage. Minnich (1973) calculated a lions per square mile figure for a.large area extending from Rifle to the Utah line north of the Colorado River and south of the sunnnit of the Roan Plateau, but also including all of Douglas Creek (Unit 21). Based on his ratios, and assuming that Roan Creek is typical, a lion population of 27 lions at 0.38 lions per square mile results for Unit 31. Hunter reports of lions killed during the period 1969 to 1972 by year are as follows: 1969 - 3; 1970 - 5; 1971 - 13; 1972 - 4. There could be a few unreported kills by landowners and others under damage control laws or otherwise. W.C.O. Finch reports in a 1972 "Mountain Lion Census" four lions known, 10 minimum, and 20 maximum, with the estimated 1971 population up over the past five year average. �-76- MULE DEER Mule deer summer range encompasses the entire unit, except for the Roan Cliffs proper and low-lying areas of human intrusion along the south border and in cultivated lands along Roan Creek and its tributaries (see accompany- ing maps from Minnich 1973). The upper winter range line in Unit 31 is delineated on the east side by the Roan Cliffs. On the west side a line along Cow Ridge north of Dry Fork and a line along Horse Ridge south of Dry Fork would approximately upper winter range line (see accompanying mar~ the winter range maps). An area of normal or average winter range appears to occupy approximately lower one-third of the unit, acc.ording to Minnich 1973 maps. the main Roan Creek bottoms. range are identified the It also includes Five small islands within the normal winter as "concentration" areas of 2 to 5 square miles in size. A lower winter range line coincides with U. S. 6 & 24 on the southeast and on the southwest by the Book Cliffs. Spring meadow counts by helicopter from 1965-1973 averaged 2,035 head for closely similar areas and time spent. to 2,964 (1973). Minnich's winter population of 2,550 head. Th~ counts ranged from 1,119 (1965) (1973) computerized data for 1972 indicated a Mean winter density was 24.8 deer per square mile. On the basis of total harvest from 1959-1968, Unit 31 ranked third statewide. Total kill for the ten year span was 39,061, or'an approximate harvest of 3,906 animals. mean annual As elsewhere in Colorado, deer harvest has declined in the late 1960's and early 70's. Annual harvest for recent years was: 1969 - 2,912; 1970 - 1,161; 1971 - 786; 1972 - 1,320. �-77- Literature Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Cited Distribution of mammals Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Dixon, K. R. 1967. pp. 141-164. and Parks. Minnich, D. W. of Colorado. Univ. of 415 pp. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, In Game Res. Rep., July, Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish pp. 73-310. 1973. Statewide mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from W. C.O., Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver Office, Colo. Div. of Wildlife. W. T. McKean January 1974 (Unpublished). �-78- DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDJU~CE OF WILD HORSE WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Little information is available regarding wild horses in Unit 31, how~ ever, W.C.O. Dillinger (1973 pers. comm.) reported that approximately 50-60 head are known to occur almost year-round in the southwest quarter of the unit. The range that these horses use encompasses approximately 140 square miles and consists mainly of pinon-juniper type vegetation, but includes irrigated meadows, riparian areas, and native grass areas. The northern boundary of their range, according to W.C.O. Dillinger, appears to be the.South Shale Ridge, while the east and west boundaries are the main Roan Creek area and the Book Cliffs respectively. Colorado River comprises the south boundary. The It is believed that some movement in and out of the unit may occasionally take place. See accompanying map. Feral or wild horses presently do not have legal status under Colorado laws. Division Northwest Regional Administrators have, nevertheless, expressed concern about possible effects that the increasing numbers of horses ~ight have on Unit 31 range resources. In light of controversies that wild horses have caused e1sewher~ in the West, both the BLM and Division very probably are in for future difficult decisions in wild horse management here and at other locations in western Colorado. P. H. Neil March 1974 �-79A~~ ABU~~ANCE OF SMALL GAME ~AMMALS DISTRIBUTION WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 (ROAN CREEK) COTTONTAIL RABBITS Every square mile of Unit 31 is considered capable of supporting at least some cottontail rabbits yearlong. (1969) and Armstrong According to Lechleitner (1972), both the desert cottontail and Nut taLl 's cottontail should occur, the desert cottontail being common at the lower elevations (5,000-7,000) and the Nuttall's cottontail common on the plateau (7,000-9,000). No specific studies have been conducted regarding cottontail rabbit density anywhere in western Colorado, however, Shepherd (1965a) con- cluded, after a literature survey, that a possible high-cycle density of 150-200 animals per square mile and a low-cycle density of 15-20 animals were reasonable applicable for much of Colorado. This estimate should be to Unit 31. For abundance, as reflected in harvest data, see tables on Hunter Harvest 'for Small Game Management Unit 8, following. SNOWSHOE HARES The snowshoe hare is believed to occur commonly in those areas of the Roan ,Plateau occupied by Douglas-fir and Douglas-fir-aspen mix. Stevens (1970) reported this species on the Naval Oil Shale Reserve which includes a large area of the plateau in the eastern one-half of Unit 32. It is reasonable to expect their occurrence in areas of Unit 31 having similar topography and vegetative type. Game distribution maps prepared by �-80- Minnich (1973) and Shepherd present on the plateau Minnich top portions of Unit 31. (1973) calculates estimates (1965b) indicate that snowshoe hares are a population of field personnel, of 1,000 hares, based upon with an average density of 2.7 hares per square mile in a large portion of Unit 31. Harvest data, as an indicator of abundance, year period 1968-1972, shows that for the five in Small Game Management Unit 8, an. average annual harvest of 491 snowshoes by 109 hunters occurred. probably represent This would the total kill in Wildlife Units 21, 22, 30, 31, and 32 across the Roan Plateau from the Utah line to Highway 13 north of Rifle. RED (PINE) SQUIRREL Lechleitner squirrel (1969), Armstrong should.be (1972) and Cary (1911) suggested fairly common in the coniferous that this forests, principally Douglas-fir, on the higher mesas and plateaus in Unit 31. Neil (pers. comm. 1973) reported several observations this species in small groves of Douglas-fir Roan Plateau. Stevens (1970) reported the Naval Oil Shale Reserve vegetative of along the divide road on the their OCcurrence (Unit 32) at comparable on portions of elevations and types. No data on abundance reasonably in Garfield County such as or hunter harvest data are available. stable populations exist in the Douglas-fir Presumably types. �-81- Literature Cited Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. of Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Cary, M. 1911. Univ. 415 pp. A biological survey of Colorado. In North American Fauna No. 33,U. S. Dept. Agri., Bur. of Bio1. Sur., Wash., Gov't. Printing Office. 256 pp. Lech1eitner, R. R. Boulder. 1969. Wild Mammals of Colorado. Pruett Pub. Co., 254 pp. Minnich, D. w. 1973. Statewi.de mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from W.C.O., Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver office, Colo. Div. of Wildlife. Un- published. Shepherd, H~ R. .1965a. Colorado long range management species, 1965-1975, for cottontail rabbit. Parks Dept. rep. 12 pp. 1965b. 1965-1975, rep. 11 pp. plans for game Colo. Game, Fish and (Mimeo). Colorado long range management for snowshoe hares. plans for game species, Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. (Mimeo). W. T. McKean February 1974 �-82DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF S}~L GAME BIRDS WILDLIFE ~ANAGEMENT UNIT 31 (ROAN CREEK) BLUE GROUSE The distribution maps of Rogers (1965, 1968) and Minnich (1973) in- dicated that the forested and brush covered portions of the Roan Plateau above 7,000 feet within Unit 31 are available habitat for blue grouse. Smith (1973) reported them at comparable tative types in Unit 32 adjoining Little information to the east. elevations and vege- See accompanying maps. is available regardirtg the true abundance of blue grouse in Unit 31, however, Minnich (1973) estimated. a density of 4.9 birds per square mile of blue grouse habitat in this area which results in an estimated population of 1,513 birds for Unit 31. Harvest of blue grouse in Unit 31 can be estimated from the Small Game Harvest and Hunting Pressure tables included in this report. SAGE GROUSE Rogers (1964) indicated several areas within Unit 31 where light popu- lations of sage grouse are present. He reported that during the summer months these birds range from the head of Parachute Creek on the Roan Plateau west to Douglas Pass near the.Utahline. vided by Minnich Distribution (1973) indicated that sage grouse maybe out the sagebrush areas on the plateau in most of Unit 31. accompanying maps pro- present throughSee maps. Winter range for these birds is not known within the unit, but they are believed 1964) • to drop off the plateau onto the lower sagebrush mesas (Rogers �-83- Rogers (1964) suggested that fall densities of sage grouse range from 1 to 10 birds per square mile in occupied range in Unit 31. Minnich (1973) supports this estimate with an average of 5.25 birds per square mile, which results in an estimated population of 1,650 sage grouse for the unit. Harvest of sage grouse in Unit 31 can be estimated from the Small Game Harvest and Hunting Pressure tables included in this report. Between 1952 and 1963 (inclusive), 821 chukars were released within the boundaries of unit 31 (see Game Species Introductions) Canyon, Coon Hollow, Horseshoe with DeBeque Gulch, Coal Creek (Cameo area) and Roan Creek being the main areas of release (Rogers and Jones 1963; Sandfort .1956, 1957; Sandfort and Rogers 1960; Woodw'ard and Rogers 1961; Wood,.,ard et al. 1958). Minnich (1973) estimated the present population of chukar to be. 982 with an overall density of 7.63 birds per square mile in habitable range. Based on .this estimate, the population increased within the last decade. has slightly �-84- Trend count information information lation. for Unit 31 is lacking and the only comparable is from Unit 32, which indicates a downward Unit 32 counts for the period 1964-1973 trend in popu- ranged from a peak of 60 in 1964 to 16 in 1972 with no birds being observed 1967, 1968, and 1969. A summary of Colorado chukar counts from 1958 to 1971 revealed a definite downward population. in 1965, trend in the statewide chukar Counts ranged from 2,218 in 1963 to 178 in 1971 (Tully 1974 pers. comm.). Data was not available for 1972. Harvest for chukar is available in the Small Game Harvest information table in this report. RING-NECKED PHEASANT Swope (1965) outlined pheasant range along the Colorado riverbottom and agricultural areas extending from the eastern boundary of Unit 31 to the mouth of Roan Creek and from the mouth of Ashbury Creek to the western boundary of the unit. He also classified this as poor quality habitat with a spring breeding population index of 0-15 based on spring crow counts and winter sex ratio counts. Minnich smaller distribution pattern located in the riverbottom areas at the mouth of Roan Creek (see accompanying density for this area was estimated sulting in an estimated population Recent records of ring-necked W.C.O. Dillinger been observed population (1973) showed a much maps). Population at 4.9 birds per square mile reof 50 pheasants pheasant (Minnich 1973). trend counts are lacking, however, (1973 pers. comm.) reported that very few pheasants in the area in recent years and believes is very. small. and agricultural that the local have �-85- WILD TURKEY Relatively few wild turkeys are reported to exist in Unit 31 which offers little good quality turkey habitat. occupied Ho'ffman (1965) showed turkey range on the plateau near the headwaters of Roan Creek and Minnich (1973) indicated that there is a small population of approximately 5 birds in the upper Jerry Creek area with a popu- lation density of .86 turkeys per square mile and another small population of approximately with a population density of 2.3 birds per square. (1973 pers. comm.) reported while patrolling 20 birds in upper South Dry Fork Creek W.C.O. Dillinger that only a few turkeys have been observed the unit. Trend count information for turkeys in Unit 31 is lacking. Q to Tully (1974 pers. comm), Unit 31 is generally According poor turkey country and the few turkeys that may be present do not make yearly trend counts feasible. A search of turkey harvest data for the years 1959-1969 revealed no turkeys have been taken from Unit 31 for that period. information revealed turkeys were harvested that from 1969-1973 an estimated from Small Game Management that Additional total of three Units 8 and 17, which include Unit 31, however, Tully (1974 pers. comm.) stated that these birds probably did not come from within the boundaries BAND-TAILED Braun (1974 pers. comm.) reported is mainly confined of Unit 31. PIGEONS that band-tailed pigeon distribution to the squtheast one-half of Unit 31 and that this , area is the northwest fringe of occupied pigeon range in Colorado. �-86- Being migratory by nature, these birds usually arrive in Colorado about April and depart around October (Braun 1970). The availability and crop success of Gambel's oak and various ripening berries within the unit undoubtedly influence the distribution of these birds. Little data are available regarding the abundance of band-tailed pigeons in Unit 31, however, Braun (1974 pers. corom.) suggested that the population is few and scattered during the breeding season (perhaps less than one bird per square mile or less than 100 birds on the habitable range) but may increase during migration periods, particularly in areas of oak. Unit 31 is considered marginal habitat for band-tailed pigeons largely because of the lack of ponderosa pine in association with Gambel's oak (Braun 1974 pers. corom.). Hencefortb, it is believed that band-tailed pigeons are generally uncommon to this area and that their population densities fluctuate from year to year in proportion with availability of food resources (berries, acorns, new conifer buds, and insect larvae) and during migration periods. MOURNING DOVE Minnich (1973) indicated that the overall current distribution of mourning doves included all of Unit 31. Grieb (1965) indicated that only the lower elevations of Unit 31 are included in the breeding range of mourning doves. Braun (1974 pers. comm.) also suggested that doves are more common below 8,000 feet along the major drainages and the Colorado River bottomlands, accompanying maps. particularly during migration periods. See �-87Mourning doves are common during spring, summer and fall in Colorado and, according to Bailey and Niedrach (1965), a few may rerr~in over the winter months in sheltered areas at lower elevations of Unit 31. Little is known of the actual abundance of mourning doves in Unit 31, however, Minnich (1973) estimated a density of 5.4 doves per square mile which results in a population of approximately doves for the entire unit. 3,765 mourning It is believed that the local population density varies considerably from year to year. Mourning dove harvest for Small Game Management Units 8 and 17, whf.ch include Unit 31, is illustrated in the Small Game Harvest Table in another section of this report. GAMBEL'S QUAIL Sandfort (1965b) indicated that the distribution of Gambel's quail was mainly along th~ Colorado River and the lower elevations of Unit 31. Minnich (1973) indicated that a small population of approximately 15 birds exist in upper Roan Creek near its confluence with Brush Creek and a larger population of approximately 200 birds exist in the low lands between DeBeque and the Coon Hollow area. See accompanying maps. Trend counts from 1952 and harvest data from 1955 to 1964 revealed that some birds were observed and harvested in habitable range in Unit 31. Average ,estimated harvest for Small Game Management Units 8 and 17, which include Unit 31, was 46 and 1,806 birds respectively for the years 1968-1972 (Funk and Tully 1972, also see Small Game Harvest table). �-88- WATERFOWL Breeding populations: The mallard and the green-winged teal are the most common summer resident ducks in Unit 31, particularly in those areas north of the Colorado River (Szymczak pers. comm. 1974). Mallards have been observed nesting along Parachute Creek and its tributaries in Unit 32 to the east (Neil 1972) and since Roan Creek is a similar but larger drainage offering more waterfowl habitat, breeding it can logically be assumed that mallards and other species nest here also. green-winged Grieb (1965) indicated that the breeding range of the teal extends over all of the unit and that the mallard remains the most 'common nesting species in the state. The Colorado River and adjacent canals and ponds, including irrigated farmlands with associated those in the Roan Creek drainage, provide food and cover for many migratory species of waterfowl. According to Szymczak comm.) small numbers of Canada geese are beginning (1974 pers. to pioneer up the Colorado River from the Grand Junction area to nest in the spring. Canada geese were observed along the Colorado River near DeBeque in May, 1973 by members of the Audubon Society of Western Colorado, (Dismant 1974). Other species of waterfowl Inc. observed by this club along the Colorado River and the lower portions of Roan Creek during the months of March, April and May, 1973, included the following: eye, common merganser, mallards, tail, gadwall, green-winged western cinnamon teal, blue-winged teal, wigeon, ring-necked grebes, and Canada geese (Dismant 1974). redhead, and lesser scaup. teal, pin- ducks, shovelers Other species believed to be present, but not listed by the bird club, include: common goldeneye, Golden- American coot, �-89- Little information is available regarding spring breeding population estimates for this area, however, based on somewhat comparable infor- mation from the Piceance Creek area (Jobman 1967), an estimated spring population of waterfowl Roan Creek-Colorado Wintering ranging from 1,000-1,500 may be expected in the River wetlands. populations: Wintering areas for waterfowl in Unit 31 con- sist mainly of available open waters along the Colorado River and Roan Creek and possibly some of its tributaries. mergansers, and mallards were personally Goldeneyes, common observed in December, 1971 on the Colorado River all along the southern boundary of Unit 31. mallard is the principal wintering The duck species while the majority of the geese winter in the Grand Junction area (Szymczak 1974 pers. comm.). The duck population along the Colorado River between SUt which includes approximately 35 miles of riverbottom and Palisade, in Unit 31, for the three year period 1971-1973, based upon aerial trend counts in January by regional personnel, 1,960. has averaged 1,483 birds ranging from 980 to Geese averaged 117 birds ranging from 32 to 179 (unpublished information - Colo. Div. of Wi1d1.) • . Literature Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. of .Nat. Rist. Braun, C. E. 1970. Cited 1965. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. 2 Vol., 895 pp. Band-tailed pigeon investigations, pp . 151-171. Game Res. Rep., Oct., Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 171 pp. In �-90- Dismant, S. V. 1974. Palisade, Colorado. Correspondence received containing results of spring bird counts conducted by Audubon Society of Western Colorado, Inc. Funk, H. D., and R. J. Tully. survey - 1971 and 1972. tables. 2 pp. Typewritten. Colorado small game hunter harvest Colo. Div. of Wildlife. Misc. loose (Unpublished). 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, Grieb, J. R. 1965-1975, for migratory birds. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. 1967. Waterfowl production and management recommendations Jobman, W. G. for state-owned lands near Little Hills Experiment Station, Meeker, Colorado. 38 pp. CSU term paper for FH 495 bx - Spec. Studies in Wildlife. (typewritten). Minnich, D. W. '1973. Statewide mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from W.C.O., Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Neil, P •.H. Located at Denver office, Colo. Div. of vJildlife. 1972. (unpublished). Inventory of beaver ponds, East Middle Fork, Parachute Creek, Aug. 17, 1972. In Colony environmental study, Parachute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. Prepared for Colony Development Operation by Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. Aug. 1973. Part III. Rogers, G. E., and H. Jones. 1963. Chukar planting record. March. Original release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. �-91- Rogers, G. E. 1964. Pub. No. 16. 1965. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Tech. 132 pp. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ptarmigan. 1968. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. The blue grouse in Colorado. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Sandfort, W. W. 1956. 16 pp. Tech. Pub1. No. 21. 63 pp. Chukar partridge release records - Northwest Region and adjoining areas, Dec. 9, 1951 - Jan. 9, 1956. Memo to Commf.ssLon , Fed. Aid Proj. l-l-37-R. 2 pp. 1957. Chukar partridge release records - Northwest Region, }1arch 20-26, 1957. Memo to Commission. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. 2 pp. 1965a. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for chukar partridge. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 18 pp. 1965b. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for Gambe1's quail. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 9 pp. --- , and G. Rogers. 1960. Chukar planting record. March. Original release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. �-92- Smith, A. G. 1973. Avian Environmental Features at the Colony Plant Site, Garfield County, Colorado. Part 1. Environmental by Thorne Ecological Development Institute, Boulder, Colorado, for Colony Operation, Atlantic Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1973. Swope, H. M. 1965. (Processed). Colorado long range game species management 1965-1975, for ring-necked pheasant. Parks. Inventory plans, Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and 54 pp. Woodward, W., M. Lowry, loT.Sandfort, and G. Rogers. planting record. April. 1958. Chukar Original release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. ______ :,and G. Rogers. 1961. Chukar planting record. March. Original release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Re~earch Center. P. H. Neil March 1974 �-93DEER HARVESTt SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE NANAGD1ENT UNIT 31 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) YEAR HUt-."TING PRESSURE 1/ BUCKS 1956 2112 1957 HARVEST HUNT AND SEASON DOES FAWNS TOTAL 1634 913 213 2760 2ES 10/15 - 10/31 2678 1737 1195 294 3226 2DM 2DM 2DM . 2/ 10/1 - 10/14 2/ 10/1 - 12/31 10/15 - 11/17 1958 4006 1730, 995 328 3113 1DM IDM 10/15 - 11/2 11/3 - 11/30 1959 3770 1795 1112 353 3260 1DH 1DM 10/17 - 11/3 2/ 11/21 - 12/6 - 1960 1427 1023 ·580 115 1718 1DM 10/17 - 11/13 1961 2680 2194 1764 599 4557 3ES 3ES 10/21 - 11/8 11/18 - 12/17 !/ 1962 5162 4086 4003 1215 9304 3ES 3ES 10/20 - 11/4 11/5 - 12/31 1963 2929 1422 1374 494 3290 3DA 1DM 8/17 - 9/2 10/19 - 11/7 1964 2587 1471 1020 262 2753 1DM 10/17 - 11/5 1965 2758 1376 1095 365 2836 1m! 10/16 - 11/5 1966 2699 1574 1359 396 3329 2ES 10/15 - 10/24 1967 3053 2256 1710 434 4400 2ES 10/21 - 11/9 1968 3064 1936 1346 332 3614 ES 2ES 10/19 - 10/21 10/22 - 11/7 1969 2427 1501 1130 281 2912 ES 2ES 10/18 - 10/24 10/25 - 11/6 1970 1511 725 348 88 1161 ES ES ES 10/17 - 10/21 !~ 10/17 - 11/6 ! 12/5 - 12/6!/) 12/12 _ 12/13)3?0 per12/19 _ 12/20)m~ts only 1971 1532 786 786 1DB 10/30 - 11/11 1972 1857 942 1320 1DB ES ES 10/14 - 10/23 10/14 - 10/23 2/ 12/2 - 12/10 - (Footnotes on following page). 339 39 t~ �-94- DEER HARVEST, SRASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Continued) WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 31 1/ - Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses. ' 2/ - In part of Unit 31. Note: Hunt symbols explained as follows: ES = Either sex, one deer (one license). 2ES = Either sex, two deer (one license). 3ES Either sex, three deer (two licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). IDB = One deer, buck only (one license). IDM = One deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) • 2DM = Two deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). 3DA = Three d~er, one must be antlerless coupon on 2nd license). (2 licenses plus 3rd deer Note: The term IDM evolved into 2D,HC or two deer, hunter's choice (2:licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. P.H. Neil December 1973 �-95ARCHERY DEER HARVEST A,.~DSEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGErtENT UNIT 31 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972 ) YEAR !/ BUCKS DOES FAWNS TOTAL ~/ HUNT AND SEASON 1956 1/ ES 2ES 10/1 10/15 - 10/14 10/31 1957 2DM 2DM 2DM 10/1 10/1 10/15 - - 10/14, In Part 10/31, In Part 11-17 1958 0 0 0 0 ES 1DM 1DM 9/1 10/15 11/3 - 9/30 11/2 11/30 1959 0 0 0 0 ES 1DM 1DM 9/1 10/17 11/21 - 9/30 11/3 12/6, In Part 1960 0 0 0 0 ES 1DM 1DH 9/10 10/17 12/2 - 9/30 11/13 12/18 1961 2 2 0 4 3ES 3ES 3ES 3ES 8/26 10/21 11/11 11/8 - 9/10 11/8 11/26 12/17, In Part 1962 4 12 5 21 ES 3ES 3ES 8/25 10/20 11/5 - 9/23 11/4 12/31 1963 7 6 0 13 ES 3DA 1DM 8/17 8/17 10/19 - 9/8 9/2 11/7 1964 10 8 0 18 ES 1DM 8/15 10/17 .- 9/13 11/5 1965 8 17 0 25 ES 1DM 8/21 10/16 - 9/12 11/5 1966 16 28 ·5 49 ES 2ES 8/20 10/15 - 9/18 10/24 �11 Free permits issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by application ;nly. Years 1957-1960, no issue of special permits; archery hunting allowed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1972, separate archery license regulations in effect. 11 Inconclusive kill data are omitted for ye~rs 1956 and 1957. 1/ For years 1956-1967 no hunter pressure data available. il 203 total resident and non-resident archery licenses issued for Unit. 51 631 Total hunts for 1969 archery season in Unit 31; total does not reflect number of hunters. il 130 resident and non-resident archery hunters. 71 188 hunters based on total number of hunts; 150 total resident and non-resident archery licenses issued for Unit. 81 179 total resident and non-resident archery licenses issued for Unit •. �-97Ar.chery Deer Harvest and Seasons -Wildlife Note: ES 2ES 3ES lDB lDM 2DM 3DA Managment Unit 31 (cont~nued). Hunt symbols explained as follows: = ••• = = = = = Either sex, one deer (one license). Either sex, two deer (one license). Either sex, three deer (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). One deer, buck only (one license). One deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). Two deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). Three deer, one must be antlerless (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). Note: The term lDM evolved into 2D, He or two deer, hunters choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. P. H. Neil December 1973 �-98ELK HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMEl'-li UNIT 31 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE Jj BULLS COWS CALVES TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1956 CLOSED 1957 CLOSED 1958 CLOSED 1959 2 2 0 0 2 AO 10/17 - 11/3 1960 12 3 0 0 3 AO 10/17 - 11/6 1961 14 10 0 0 10 AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 CLOSED 1963 CLOSED 1964 CLOSED 1965 9 2 0 0 2 25 B + 25 C '!:../ 10/16 - 11/5 1966 5 2 2 0 2 25 B+ 25 C 1/ 10/15 - 11/3 1967 2 2 0 0 2 30 B + 30 C i/ 10/21 - 11/9 1968 19 2 2 0 2 30 B+ 1969 14 3 0 0 3 30 B + 30 C i/ 1970 56 21 5 0 26 AO + 30 C 1971 79 16 2 0 18 AO + 20 C 1972 105 7 1 0 8 AO + 30 C 30 C i/ }../ }../ E./ 10/19 11/7 10/18 - 11/6 10/17 - 11/6 10/16 - 10/25 10/28 - 11/12 1/ - Based upon combined resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses. During the period 1956-1970, when elk season coincided with deer season, the hunting pressure statistics were very probably conservative. Despite difficulties verifying that assumption, unknown substantial numbers of deer hunters may also have carried elk licenses hoping for a bull elk under antlered only regulations. This latter happens regardless of low elk populations. Thus, because of low success and tendency (above non-reporting statewide figures used in projections) for non-successful elk license holders not to report by card, elk present in Unit 31 probably received extra pressure over that indicated by card return projection on years of antlered only seasons. Discrepancies between hunting pressure and total allowable specified permits for the years 1965-1969 are probably due to projection error tendencies that are inherent for all units having small numbers of permits. (Footnotes continued on following page). �-99- ELK HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Continued) WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 31 2/ - Units 21, 22, 30, 31, 32 combined. 3/ - Units 31, 32, 33, 42 and part of Unit 41 combined. !!./ Units 21, 22, 31, and 32 combined. 5/ - Units 22, 31, and 32 combined. ~/ Units 22, 31, 32 and part of Unit 21 combined. Note: Hunt symbols explained as follows: AO = Antlered only. B + C Bull (antlered) and cow (antlerless) permits only (specified). AO + C = Antlered .only plus specified number of cow permits. P. H. Neil December 1973 �-100ARCHERY ELK HARVEST2 SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE r-Wl'AGEMENTUNIT 31 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) HUNTING 1/ PRESSURE - YEAR BULLS COWS CALVES TOTAL 1956 HUNT AND SEASON Closed 1957 Closed 1958 Closed 1959 No Data AO 10/17 - 11/3 1960 No Data AO 10/17 - 11/6 1961 No Data AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 Closed 1963 Closed 1964 Closed 1965 No Data 25B + 25CY 10/16 - 11/5 1966 No Data 25B + 25C1./ 10/15 - 11/3 1967 No Data ES 30B + 30C!!) 9/2 10/21 - 9/17 - 11/9 1968 1969 1970 1971 No Data o 0 0 0 30B + 30C!!../ 10/19 - 11/7 No Data 0 0 0 0 30B + 3004/ 10/18 - 11/6 No Data 0 0 0 0 AO + 3005/ 10/17 - 11/6 No Data 0 0 0 0 AO + 20C~/ 10/16 - 10/25 0 0 0 0 AO 30C§.../ AO + 8/19 10/28 - 8/31 - 11/12 total resident and expressed in 1972 2 !/ Based number upon combined of licenses. 'lj Units 21, 22, 30, 31, and 1/ Units 31, 32, 33, 42, and part ~j Units 21, 22, 31, and 32 comb ined • ~j Units 22, 31, and 32 comb in ed • §.../ Units 22, 31, 32, and part and non-resident 32 combined. of 41 combined. of 21 combined. license sales �-101- Archery Elk Harvest, Seasons and Hunting Pressure, Wildlife Management Unit 31 (cont., }, Note: AO B + C AO + C Hunt symbols are explained as follows: = = = Antlered only. Bull (antlered) and cow (antlerless) permits only (specified). Antlered only plus specified number of cow permits. P. H. Neil December 1973 �-102BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE t-1A.NAGENENT UNIT 31 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1955-1972) !/ Jj, 1.1 YEAR HARVEST 1955 3R 8/15 - 10/1 and regular deer season. 1956 5R 5/15 - 8/15 and the regular deer season. 1957 6R 4/1 - 11/15 and the pre and regular deer seasons. 1958 3R+4S 4/1 - 11/15 and the regular, and post deer seasons. +959 o No data on special season; any regular and post deer and/or elk season. 1960 4R 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/6/60. 1961 o 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular and post deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/8/61. 1962 6R 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular deer season. ending 11/4/62. 1963 6S 4/1 - 9/15 and the pre and regular deer seasons ending 11/7/63. 1964 1R 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular deer season ending 11/5/64. 1965 o 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/5/65. 1966 21S 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/3/66. 1967 7 Special season probably 4/1 - 9/30 and regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/9/67. 1968 o 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk season ending 11/7/68. 1969 13 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk season ending 11/6/69. 1970 8 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk season ending 11/6/70. 1971 2 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/11/71. 1972 1 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/12/72. HUNT AND SEASON (Footnotes on following page). �-103- BLACK BEAR HARVEST AlID SEASONS (Continued). WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 31 1/ - R = Regular big game (Deer and/or Elk licenses; S = Bear license for Special Spring, Summer, or Spring-Summer seasons; Also see annual regulations for archery hunting. 1:../ From 1955-1959, 1 bear per special bear license and/or 1 bear per bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license; from 1960-1965, same as 1955-1959, except special bear license variously invalid after September 15 or 30, when bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license covered bag and possession limits; 1966, same as 1960-1965, except one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year; from 1967 to present, bear coupon removed from regular deer and elk licenses; thus, one bear, hunter's choice, per special bear or sportsman's license per person per calendar year only during special bear and regular deer and/or elk seasons. 3/ - Dogs permitted except when bear season~ concurrent with deer and/or elk seasons. P. H. Neil December 1973 �-104- MOUNTAIN LION Ilt\RVESTAND SEA.SONS WILDL IrE m·u'~AGnlENTtJNIT 31 YEAR}j HARVEST 1965 IF 2:./ (Garfield Co.) 10/16/65 - 3/31/66 West Slope; 10/23/65 - 3/31/66 East Slope, 1 either sex. 1966 5M·, 2F 2/ (Garfield Co ,) 5M 2:./ (Mesa Co.) 1/1/66 - 12/31/66 in all counties ",'estof the Continental Divide and in Jackson, .Conejos, Alamosa, Hinera1, Saguache, Rio Grande, Costilla, Archuleta, Hinsdale, and San Juan counties; 3 either sex. HUNT AND SE.'\SON 10/22/66 - 2/28/67 in all counties east of the Continental Divide except those specifically listed above; 3 either sex. 1967 No Data 9/1/67 - 3/31/68 stat ewfde ; 9/1/67 - 5/31/68 west of State Hwy. #13 and north of U.S. H"~. #6; 1 either sex. 1968 1M 9/1/68 - 3/31/69 st.at.ewfde ; 1 either sex. 1969 2M; IF 9/1/69 - 3/31/70 statewide; 1 either sex. 1970 4M; IF 9/1/70 - 12/31/70 designated areas, and regular deer and elk seasons statewide; 1 either sex. 1971 6M; 7F 3/1/71 - 4/30/71, 1 male only, designated areas; 9/1/71 - 10/12/71 and 11/12/71 - 12/31/71, 1 either sex, designated areas including Unit 31 • 1972 2M;2F .2/1/72 - 4/30/72, 1 male only, designated areas; regular deer and elk seasons, statewide, 1 either sex, 11/13/72 - 12/31/72, 1 either sex, designated areas including Unit 31. o !/Bounty of $50 per lion paid within period May 7, 1929 - Harch 12, 1965; protected by statute as of July 1, 1965 when mountain lion license was established. J:./ Credited to "1965-1966" and "1966-1967" for Garfield and Mesa counties as reported by Dixon, K. R. 1967. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, p , 147; In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. p. 73-310. No data available in reports from section of Game Management for 1965-1967. Dixon's information is probably conservative in that the damage law allows for lax reporting of kills of marauders by stockmen. For years 1968-1972 data are from Colorado Big Game Harvest Surveys. P. H. Neil December 1973 �SMALLGAMEHARVESTANDHUNTINGPRESSURE SMM.LGAMENANAGENENT UNIT 8, 1968-1972 Y 1968 1969 1970 HARVEST 1971 1972 Average 1,509 24,813 11,606 9,276 14,148 13,51l. 14,670 244 109 134 78 of!./ 1,403~/ 838 491 124 442 246 1,172 73 368 78 815 501 258 267 537 311 603 767 724 597 1,134 765 - - - 106 - - - - - 169 122 453 151 223 - 237 76 606 247 358 - 322 27 - 61 - - 44 31 - 153 - - 92 ~ 586 1,040 127 246 446 489 - 5,828 2,412 2,091 4,373 3,676 1968 1969 NUHBEROF HUNTERS 1972 1971 1970 Average 1,984 1,328 1,319 1,411 1,502 Snowshoe hare 101 30 73 95 E1ue grouse 298 154 213 Sage grouse 190 301 - ]j Chukar Gambe1's quail SPECIES Cottontail rabbit Sharp-tailed grouse Pheasant Band~tailed }louming Y 0 VI 313 621 129 250 256 314 - 276 290 242 447 314 pigeon dove 11 The area of that portion of ~.Ji1dlife Unit 31 which falls within Small Game rIanagement Unit 8 is approximately 362 ;quare miles. This is approximately 7.2 percent (7.2%) of Unit 8's total area (362 -; 4,970 sq mi) as p1animetered from Colorado topographic map 1: 500,000. The other portion of Wildlife Unit 31 falls within Small Game Unit 17. The area of this portion is approximately 335 square miles. This is approximately 15.5 percent (15.5%) of Unit 17's total area (335 f 2,286 sq mi). 2:..1 Hean for years 11 ~o season, il Possible shown. or no data. sample size error. W. T. McKean January 1974 I �SMALL CAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE SHALL GANE MANAGEMENT UNIT 17,__1968-1972 1968 1969 NUMBER OF HUNTERS 1970 1971 1972 Average'l:.l 1968 1,763 1,549 2,340 2,037 2,967 2,131 Snowshoe hare 156 158 106 55 81 Blue grouse 83 106 61 183 Sage grouse 69 55 36 79 98 -Chukar 496 Gambe1 's quail 365 SPECIES Cottontail rabbit Sharp-tailed grouse JJ 1969 1970 HARVEST 1971 1972 AveraBe 15,998 11,329 19,458 22,470 27,056 19,262 111 902 350 334 526 880 598 475 182 872 218 88 404 1,629 644 100 .286 109 144 87 58 172 577 233 - 58 211 112 178 38 - 77 253 137 A17 342 239 - 374 1,913 806 569 418 - 905 430 420 359 509 419 -1,161 2,222 2,014 1,576 2,573 1,900 I Pheasant Band-tailed Mourning 1,19l 1,242 1,163 - - - 402 pigeon dove 1,132 1,845 - 12 10 531 573 932 1,315 3,224 1,932 2,787 2,713 4,128 2,960 1J. - - - 117 12 64 606 - 3,561 7,539 5,378 9,994 6,640 for years shown. 1/ No season, 0 0\ I 1/ The area of that port ion of Wildlife Unit 31 which falls within Small Game Management Unit 17 is approximately 335 ;quare miles. This is approximately fifteen percent (15.5%) of Unit 17's total area (335 ~ 2,286 sq mi) as p1animetered from Colorado topographic map 1:500,000. The other portion of Wildlife Unit 31 falls within Small Game Management Unit 8. The area of this portion is approximately 362 square miles. This is approximately seven percent (7.2%) of Unit 8's total area (362 ~ 4,970 sq mi). Data from both Small Game Units 8 and 17 are included herein. 1/ Mean ~ or no data. W. T. McKean January 1974 �-107DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE GARFIELD COUNTYz 1954 - 1972 1/ (From Colorado Waterfowl Kill Surveys) YEAR DUCKS EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST 1954 No Data 2,284 1955 No Data 4,231 1956 No Data 1,764 1957 No Data 1,909 1958 372 1,442 1959 541 1,721 1960 112 1,194 1961 291 674 1962 260 414 1963 277 1,504 1964 291 1,404 1965 362 1966 50 11 1967 184 406 1968 265 1,348 1969 312 2,901 1970 403 1971 1972 GEESE '.!:./ EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST No Data 19 35 34 60 57 1,076 32 No Data 1,945 16 No Data 2,795 25 No Data 538 4,923 4 75 Permits 1 (2) 302 1,219 No Data 250 Permits 1 (l) !/Waterfowl kill data are available only by county. Riverbottom lands in Wildlife Unit 31 resemble those in Unit 32 (Garfield County) more closely than they do Unit 30 (~!esaCounty). Accordingly, for harvest approximation purposes Garfield County dat a are show-n. For purposes of making comparisons these figures could readily be converted to birds harvested per mile of riverbottom. ~/Accuracy of data questionable due to sampling difficulties with very small populations. geese and goose hunters alike. l'obvious associated inaccuracy. W. T. HcKean January 197/• �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Species Date Hales Females Total Release Area Chukar 12/22/52 3 3 6 Coon Hollow-l mi. so. and 1-1/2 mi. west; of DeBeque on Ed Finley ranch. Escalante - '''ild- Sandfort 's Files trapped (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 24 20 46 DeBeque Canyon-directly across river from cable car, 3.3 miles above jct. of Colo.65 and U.S. 6 & 24 on first bench above river. Escalante - wildtrapped Sandfort 's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 12/8/55 (2) Un- classified Source of Stock References 1/9/56 11 19 30 DeBeque Canyon-in small draw on Escalante - wildwest side of Colo. River about ~ trapped. mi. above cable crossing river; 4.2 mi. above jct. of Colo.65 and U.S. 6&24. Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 3/22/56 25 25 50 Same as 1/9/56. Little Hills Sandfort 's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 3/23/57 50 50 100 DeBeque Canyon-at mouth of Jackson Gulch,approximately 5.0 mi. above DePlato on w , side of Colo. River. Little Hills Sandfort's Files , (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.)t; 0) I 4/3/58 22 50 72 Near mouth of first canyon (probably Horseshoe Gulch) upstream from Akin. Little Hills Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 3/23/60 75 75 150 Coal Creek (Cameo area) about 2.8 mi. up Coak Cr. from canal; just west of Colorado River. Little Hills Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 3/17/61 75 75 150 Coal Creek (Cameo area) about 3.0 mi. west of canal road. Little Hills Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 3/30/63 65 52 117 Roan Creek-14 mi. w. of DeBeque on Little Hills Deer Pk. Rd. near s. side of large reservoir. Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) 3/30/63 50 50 100 Roan Creek - 1.2 mi. no. of DeBeque on Roan Creek Road. Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Res.Cen.) (Literature Cited on folloving page). Little Hills �-109- GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS (Continued) WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 31 Literature Cited Rogers, G., and H. Jones. 1963. Chukar planting records. March. Original release records located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. Sandfort, W. W. 1956. Chukar partridge release records - Northwest Region and adjoining areas, December 9, 1951- January 9, 1956. Hemo to Commission. Fed. Aid Proj. 'ol-37-R. 2 pp , 1957. Chukar partridge release records - Northwest Region, March 20-26, 1957. Memo to Commission. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. 2 pp. , and G. Rogers. 1960. Chukar planting record. March. Original ---release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. Woodward, W., and G. Rogers. 1961. Chukar planting record. March. Original release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center • • M. Lowry., W. Sandfort, and G. Rogers. 1958. Chukar planting ---record. April. Original release record located in Sandfort' s files at Fort Collins Research Center. P. H. Neil January 1974 �-110- CENSUS AREAS A~~ ROUTES - WILDLIFE MANAGB1ENT UNIT 31 MULE DEER An annual spring trend count by helicopter has been conducted in Roan Creek and the majority of its tributaries from 1965-1973. aircraft were used previous to 1965. Fixed-wing Procedural details are available in the Northwest Regional Office; summaries of results may be found there and in the Denver office of the Game .Manager. These summaries do not necessarily show animal numbers by Wildlife Management Unit, but more commonly by drainage. ELK Because of the relative low density of elk in Unit 31, specific winter aerial trend counts have not been established for the unit. Occasional observations of elk and their locations have been recorded during deer aerial trend counts. Any available information regarding the results of these observations are on file in the Northwest Regional Office. BLACK BEAR Incidental to deer aerial trend counts, black bear are tallied in Units 22, 31, 32 and others. In addition, an annual estimate, by WCO district, of bear populations was begun in 1972. This estimate also included har- vest by trappers and others, and management objectives for the species. CHUKAR We have no records of established chukar production counts for Unit 31, however, several summer counts and population estimates were made in De Beque Canyon and Coal Creek (Cameo area) which were both release areas �-111- for introduced chukar (see Game Species Introductions). Results of these counts may be found in Sandfort's files on chukars at the Fort Collins Research Center. WATERFOWL Wintering populations of ducks and geese in Unit 31 have been censused annually from fixed-wing aircraft at least in 1971, 1972 and 1973, possibly earlier, by Regional Management personnel. Areas covered were on the Colorado River from Silt to Palisade. Summarizing tables do not break down specific river section populations. Field notes of observers may do so -- see Northwest Regional personnel. P. H. Neil March 1974 �HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNI~ 31 1/ Date 9/11-12/59 Location Vegetative Type Treatment No. Acres Treated Purpose of Project Agency T9S R99W Sec. 10,11, 15 Sagebrush Plow and seed with Agropyron cristatum, Me1ilotus officina1is 510 Brush removal and revegetation B.L.M. 10/11/59 Ashbury Creek T9S R99W Sec. 8,9, 18 Sagebrush Plow and seed with Agropyron cristatum, Melilotus officinalis 156 Brush removal and revegetation B.L.M. 12/3-15/59 T9S R98W Se~. 11-13 Sagebrush Plow and seed with Agropyron cristatum, Melilotus officinalis 211 Brush removal and revegetation B.L.M. 10/8-11/6/61 Kimball Creek T7S R99W Sec. 17 Gambel's oak & Serviceberry Burn and seed with Agropyron cristatum, Melilotus officinalis 358 Range rehabilitation B.L.M. 1967 Pine Gulch T8S R99 W Sec.19,20,30 T8S RlOOW Sec. 25, 26, 34, 35, 36 Sagebrush Chain (double) Modify range from sage class B.L.M. 1968 Brush Mountain T5S moov Sec. 1, 2,. 3, 4, 10, II, 12 Sagebrush Brush cutting with rotary cutter Soil and watershed modification B.L.M. 1,254 531 1/ If details are desired on any of these projects, make requests directly to Mr. Ron Kufe1d, Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521. P.H. Neil and W. T. McKean January 1974 , •... •... , N �-113- MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CHECKLIST - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 31 1. Deer-auto collisions on U. S. Highway 1-70. Though not as serious as in Unit 32, this problem exists and will become more acute when Interstate 1-70 is completed to Plateau Creek as planned. For a detailed discussion of this problem, in- cluding projected numbers of collisions, see: Colo. Div. of Wildlife. 1973. Fish and wildlife analysis of the Interstate 70 highway corridor Rifle to Plateau Creek. Draft report. July. 126 pp. Persons assisting in this report were: John Torres, Jerry Craig, George Kidd, Dale Reed, Eddie Kochman, Maurice Potter, and Northwest Regional personnel. Copies of this report may be obtained in Denver and Northwest Regional offices. With growth of the oil shale in- dustry, particularly at the Logan Wash in-situ plant, deer-auto collisions will increase along lower Roan Creek from November through April each year. 2. Winter range losses. A proposed alternate route for U. S. Highway 1-70 (alternates 2-C) woul~ be constructed north of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad from a point near the mouth of Horseshoe Canyon north eastward to a point about two miles north of DeBeque,thence south eas tward to a point of juncture with old U. S. 6-24 approximately five miles east of DeBeque. This loop would be very destructive since it would bisect a major deer winter range, cutting off access to Colorado River water, and intercept migration south to Unit 42 even more than does existing U.S. 6-24. For a more detailed account of the impact of 1-70 see the �-114- report cited above. Stress to wildli.fe, especially big game, from the oil shale industry with its many ancillary developments is deemed to be a serious future management problem in Unit 31. A more detailed analysis of proposed oil shale development and possible effects on the environment can be found in: Thorne Ecological Institute (1973), Tweedy (1971) and U. S. Dept. of Interior (1973). 3. Deer damage to farm crops. In general, the problem of deer damage to farm crops in Unit 31 is relatively small in comparison to some other units. According to Myers (1973 pers. comm.), claims for 1971-72 totaled $1,770.70 for damage to alfalfa and grasses in Units 31 and 32 combined. for 1972-73 totaled only $130.00. Claims Decreased production of alfalfa and spring grasses is alleged because of early grazing by deer. Some damage to stacked alfalfa has been fairly common in winter, as well as to the few scattered orchards in this area. Literature Cited Thorne Ecological Institute. 1973. The Colony environmental study, Parachute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. Tweedy, J. B., et ale 1971. August. Boulder. 3 vol. Report on economics of environmental pro- tection for a Federal oil shale leasing program. A Special Committee of the Governor's Oil Shale Advisory Committee (for Colorado). January. 204 pp. U. S. Department of Interior. 1973. Final environmental statement for the prototype oil shale leaSing program. Washington, D. C. 6 vol. �-115- APPENDIX H \\TILDLIFEXANAGMENT UNIT 32 (PARACHUTE CREEK) Garfield County, Colorado Information on Unit Description, Landownership, Land Use, Human Population; Wildlife Species Checklists; Harvests and Seasons; Narrative and Hap Descriptions of Distribution and Abundarice ; Census Areas; Habitat Restoration Projects; Management Problems Checklist; References. Compiled by: To: October 1973. H. T. HcKean and P. H. Neil �-116- TABLE OF CONTENTS Item UNIT DESCRIPTION LANDOWNERSHIP (Boundaries, size,physica1 features and climate)----- ...• 118, STATUS----------------- ---122 LAND USESTATUS--------------.HUMAN POPULATION ---------123 (Garfield County, 1960-1970 and projections)-----------124 ?AME SPECIES (Big game mammals, small game mammals and game birds)------127 OTHER ~~Lhl~ SPECIES (Furbearers, nongame mammals defined by statute)-- .... -----------------------129 NONGAME MAMMALS (Not defined by statute)----------------- 130 OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (Nongame birds, raptores)-------------- 131 DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME MAMMALS (Black bear, elk, mountain lion, mule deer)---------------------- 138 DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME MAMMALS (Cottontail rabbit, snowshoe hare, red (pine) squirrel)--------------- 143 DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME BIRDS (Grouse, chukar, ring-necked pheasant, wild turkey, band-tailed pigeon, . mourning dove, Gambe1's quail, waterfow1)--------~-------------146 DEER HARVEST, SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE (1956-1972)----------- _ 155 ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS (1956-1972)---------- _ 157 ELK HARVEST, SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE _ 159 (1956-1972)---------- ARCHERY ELK HARVEST, SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE (1956-1972)--- 161 BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS (1955-1972)--------- 163 MOUNTAIN LION llARVEST AND SEASONS (6) 19 5-1972 . _ 165 SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Small game management Unit 8, 1968-1972)------------ _ DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE 1954-1972)---------------INTRODUCTIONS (Garfield County, OF GAME SPECIES---------------------- ~--------- 166 167 168 • �-117- ~ OF CONTENTS (Continued) Item Page CENSUS AREAS AND ROUTES------------------------------------------------ 169 HABI~T RESTORATION PROJECTS -------~---------------------------------- 171 MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CHECKLIST ----------------------------------------- 172 �-118- DESCRIPTION - WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 32 (PARACHUTE CREEK) 1/ Boundaries l:..l.--"That portion of Garfield County uithin the Parachute Creek drainage and in the Government Creek drainage west of State Highway 13, and north and west of the Colorado River." Size.--300.7 square miles or 192)416 acres. Planimetered from a Bureau of Land Management base map, 1969, 1/2" = 1 mile. Physical Features.--Sedimentary rocks and alluvium within Unit 32 are primarily of Tertiary origin. These occur within the Green River and Wasatch Formations. The Green River Formation caps the Roan Plateau which is bordered by the Roan Cliffs. That part of the Roan Cliffs occurring in Unit 32 extends from Rifle on the east to a point approximately four miles west of the town of Grand Valley. The Green River Formation is best knoml for its oil shale deposits which have great economic potential for oil production. They are thickest in the Parachute Creek Member, attaining a maximum thickness of about 3,500 feet. These rocks are relatively resistant to erosion and generally underlie broad plateaus or mesas that terminate in sheer cliffs (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture 1965). Beneath the Green River Formation lies the Wasatch, a relatively erodible rock containing large amounts of soluble salts. From Rifle to Grand Valley alluvium is from the l-lasatchand Green River Formations. are common also. Shale fragments, stones, and gravel and cobbles Varying concentrations of salt and degrees of alkalinity .. !.lLegally termed "Big Game Management Unit" (see footnote Jj below) but tentatively called "~nldlife Management Unit" here to include broader aspects of animal life present. 2/ - Colo. Div. Wildlife Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1972 (p , 7, Chap. 2 _ Bi P, Game. �-119- exist in the alluvium depending upon the influence of the \.JasatchFormation. Patches of white salt are common in the exposed Wasatch between Rifle and De Beque . .Terrain varies (traversing from south to north) from the gently sloping Grand Valley bottoms to deeply eroded, rounded foothills and alluvial fans. The foothills abruptly terminate at talus slopes beneath tremendous cliffs rising 2,000 to 3,000 feet in one half to one Nile horizontal distance. These cliffs constitute the border of the Roan Plateau, which extends six to ten miles northward. It is a high rolling tableland, which is steeply dissected by Parachute Creek and more lightly dissected by a multitude of tributaries. It constitutes the divide between Piceance Creek and Parachute Creek drainages. Unit elevations range from 4,996 feet on the Colorado River near Una upward to 9,286 feet at the head of East Parachute Creek above Anvil Points. Other than Parachute Creek, the only drainages of consequence are: Government Creek and Hubbard Creek on the east. Yellow Slide Creek, Balzac Creek, Cottonwood Creek, Hayes Creek, and Kelley Creek are all intermittent, ·steep, southwar d flowing draLnageways of short mileage. Soils data for Unit 32 can be obtained by consulting U. S. Soil Conservation Service Work Unit personnel located at Glenwood Springs. Descriptions and a map of broad soil classifications can be found in a previously cited report of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (1965). Climate.--The climate of Unit 32 is typical of Colorado's western slope, with wide extremes resulting from large variations in topography. Mean �-120- annual precipitation averages 11. 05 inches (41 years) at Rifle, the only long-term National Weather Service station. from 7.41-22.2 inches (1956-1972). Precipitation has ranged Precipitation on Roan Plateau at 8,000 to 9,000 feet is approximately 25 inches annually. Cloud burst storms of high intensity and short duration occur over localized areas and result from summer convective conditions. Seasonal distribution of precipitation is fairly uniform, higher elevations receiving a greater proportion in winter in the form of snowfall. National Weather Service records at Rifle show a mean annual temperature of 47.5 degrees, ranging from 45.5 to 47.9 over the past 40 years. Frost-free days averaged 121, ranging from 56 to 166 (1956-1972 incl.). Growing season length on Roan Plateau.is unrecorded but is believed to range from 30 to 60 days. Mean monthly evaporation in inches, measured from a sunken "Colorado" pan at Grand Junction 1948-1960 was: March - 5.41; April - 9.07; May 12.83; June - 17.31; July - 17.43; Aug. - 14.64; Sept. - 11.59; Oct.7.32; Nov. - 3.25. Preceding climatic information was obtained, and in some cases interpreted, from reports of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (1965, 1966) and U. S. Department of Commerce (continuing) - National Weather Service. Literature Cited U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study by Colo. Water Conserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Bervf'cejFo res t Service, and Soil Conserve Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (processed). �-121- U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1966. White River Basin in Colorado. Water and related land resources, Coop. Study by Colo. Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. November. U. S. Department of Commerce. Colorado. Denver. 92 pp. (processed). (Continuing). Monthly and Annual Summaries. Fed. Bldg., Asheville, N.C. Climatological data, National Climatic Center, 28801. W. T. McKean July 1973 �-122- LANDOWNERSHIP STATUS - lHLDLIFE MANAGE11ENT UNIT· 32 Acres Bureau of Land Management Outside Naval Oil Shale Reserve boundary Within Naval Oil Shale Reserve boundary 25,989 53,814 Total Private lands Outside Naval Oil Shale Reserve boundary Within Naval Oil Shale Reserve boundary 79,803 106,949 4,255 Total Municipal and County lands 111,204 36 Other Federal lands including National Park Service, Forest Service, Indian and Military Reservations and Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildlife o Colorado Division of Wildlife lands 1 State Land Board·Administration o lands Total 191,044 * *Total land acreage differs from total in Unit Descriptio~ Section (192,416 acres or 300.7 square miles). Bureau of Land Management lands and Naval Oil Shale lands and 8. total unit acreage wer e derived from p1animetering on 1" = 1 mile or 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit base maps (1965 & 1969). W. T. McKean and Paul H. Neil July 1973 �-123LAND USE AND VEGETATIVE COVER STATUS - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 32 Irrigated cropland 4,922 Acres Grassland with half-shrub mixtures 4,747 Acres Grassland with woodland mixtures 1,326 Acres Sagebrush 28,899 Acres Brush (desert and mountain) 53,015 Acres Woodland (Pinon-juniper and oakbrush) 17,621 Acres Commercial timber to include aspen 51,676 Acres River bottom vegetation!/ 678 Acres Urban];'/ 411 Acres Mineral 1/ 2,130 Acres Nisce1laneous !:) 24,164 Acres Total 189,589 Acres (296.5 sq. miles) Cover type categories were derived from 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S. Land Use and Cover Type Maps, 1953, for Garfie14 County. A planimeter and grid were used to derive and compute acreage. Total land acreage differs from total shown in Unit Description Section (192,416 or 300.7 sq. miles). 1/ - Includes only woods and brush-woods mix along the Colorado River as planimetered from USGS 1:24,000 topographic maps (Rifle, Rulison, and Grand Valley Quadrangles). 2/ - Urban - Those areas used for residential and municipal purposes as illustrated on the 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S. Cover Type and Land Use Haps for the towns of Grand Valley and Rifle. 3/ - Mineral - Those areas where mining facilities exist for the purpose of extracting oil shale or other minerals. This does not reflect total land ownership. 4/ - Miscellaneous - Interpreted to consist mainly of bare ground with sparse, scattered vegetation of various types. Paul H. Neil July 1973 �-124- HUMAN POPULATION - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 32 Specific human population data for the unit are impossible to obtain because U.S. Census Bureau records are on a County-wide basis only and because the east boundary splits the to\VDof Rifle. Instead, urban and rural lands data and trends for 1960 and 1970 are presented in total for Garfield County. All tOvms, regardless of size, are here considered urban with remaining population being rural. By comparing 1970 figures with those of 1960 in Table 1, it is apparent that rural populations gained three times that of municipalities. Grand Valley and Rifle, the only towns in Unit 32, experienced markedly smaller gains than did towns in the east and south half of the County. Garfield County contains 3,000 square miles and 4.95 people per square mile (1970) including municipalities. Applying this ratio to Unit 32 (300 sq. mi.) gives approximately 1,486 people. Since approximately one- half the population of Rifle reside west of the unit boundary (Hf.ghway a figure of 1,075 results. 13), This, p Lus 270 Grand Valley residents, gives an urban population figure of 1,345 and 141 rural residents. Additional analysis by the Soil Conservation Service of the population of a portion of Garfield County encompassing the Colorado River "sub-basin" known as Rifle-West Divide are presented on page 6 of the following report: U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1965. Water and related land resources Colorado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colorado Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. Denver. 183 pp. (processed). May. �-125- The Colorado State Planning Office (pers. comm. 1973) provided the following advance projections for Garfield County: 1970 - 14,821, 1975 - 17,018, 1980 - 19,277. w. T. McKean "July 1973 �Table 1. 32 ]:./. Populations and trends of Garfield County and municipalities County Population City POEu1ation Rural POEu1ation % Garfield involved, in part, with Unit 1960 1970 Change 12,017 14,821 + 18.9 l/ % 1960 1970 Change 2,135 2,150 + 0.6 Grd. Valley 245 270 + 9.2 Silt 384 434 + 11.5 New Castle 447 499 + 10.4 Glenwood Sp.3,637 4,106 + 11.4 726 + 15.2 8,185 + 10.2 Rifle Garbonda1e 612 1970 Change - - - - - 4,557 6,636 + 30.2 e Total 7 ,460 1/ - Sources are the U.S. Bur. of the Census; Colorado Yearbook, 1959-61; Colorado State Planning Office (pers. comm. 1973). 2/ - County rural population above (urban population). x 1960 is based upon total county population less total of towns and cities listed I •.... N 0\ I �-127- GANE SPECIES - vlILDLIFE MANAGE.':1ENT UNIT 32 Big game mammals 11 Black bear (Ursus americanus) Uncommon Elk (Cervus canadensis) Common. . Mountain lion (Felis concalor) Uncommon. Mule deer (Odocill;;s hemi-onus) Common. Small game mammals 11 Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii; S. nuttallii) Common. Pine (red) squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsoni~us) Common. Snowshoe.hare (Lepus americanus) Common. Game birds 1./ Migratory waterfowl and shorebirds Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffitti) Common yearlong resident. Black brant (Branta nigricans) 11 Possible rare migrant. White-fronted goose (Branta a1bifrons frontalis) 31 Possible rare migrant. Snow goosc(Chen caeru~~s caeru1escens) 11, ~/: Possible rare migrant. Mallard (Anas platyrhynchs>s platvrhvnchos) Common resident. Cadwa Ll, (Anas strepe.ra) Common spring and fall migrant. 11 -"Nomenclature according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Wild mammals of 1./Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapted from the foregoing references and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. Where adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported verbally by anyone or more Division personnel Glenn E. Rogers, Claude E. \~lite, George E. Steele, Furman W. Dunham, Don Crane, or qualified by additional footnotes that follow. �-128- Game birds (continued) Pintail (Anas acuta) Common spring and fall migrant. American green-winged teal (Anas crecca carolinensis) Common migrant. and uncommon yearlong resident if. Blue-winged teal (Anas discors discors) Common migrant. Cinnamon teal (Ana;-CYanoptera sententrionalium) Common migrant. American wigeon (Anas americana) il Common migrant and rare winter resident. Northern shoveler (k1as clvpeata) il Common migrant and uncommon summer resident. ~~ood duck (Aix sponsa) 1/ Possible rare migrant. Redhead (Aythya americana) Common migrant. Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) Common migrant. Canvasback (Aythya valisineria) Uncommon to rare migrant. Greater scaup (Aythya marila nearctica) 11 Rare migrant. Lesser scaup (Aythya affi.nis) Common migrant. Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula americana) Common migrant and winter resident. Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) 11 Rare winter visitor. Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) Uncommon spring and fall migrant and rare winter resident. Ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis rubida) Common migrant and occasional summer resident. Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Rare winter visitor on river. Common merganser (Mergus merganser americanus) Common winter resident. Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serratorserrator) Uncommon winter resident. American coot (Fulica americana americana) Common migrant and occasional summer resident . .COIDre0nWilson's snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) Common migrant and rare winter resident. Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus obscurus) Common. Sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus urophasianus) Uncommon to common. Ring-necked pheasant (Fhasianus colchicus) Uncommon. Chukar (Alectoris chukar) 41 Common. Band-tailed pigeon (Columb~ fasciata fasciata) Uncommon summer migrant. Mourning dove (Zenafda macroura marginella) il Common summer resident. Gambel's quail (Lophortyx gambeHi sanus) Unknown. Wild turkey (Mel~i~llopavo merriami) Uncertain. 11 Unverified in hunters' bag checks but possible rare migrant and legal game 1971-72. i!.IChangesin nomenclature follow the thirty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists Union check-list of North American birds published in Auk 90:411-419, April, 1973. W. T. McKean & P. H. Neil July 1973 �-129- OTHER MAHMALIAN SPECIES 1.1 - WILDLIFE MANAGE1ENT UNIT 32 Furbearers J:./ Beaver (Castor canadensis) Common. Mink (Hustela vison) Uncertain. Muskrat (Ondatra zihethicus) Uncommon. Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) Uncommon. Weasels (Mustela erminea; M. frenata) ~. erminea Uncertain; M. frenata Uncommon. Norigamemammals !I Coyote (Canis latrans) Common. Red fox (Vulpes fulva) Uncommon. Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Uncommon. Raccoon (Procvon lotor) Uncommon. American badger (Taxidea taxus) Common to uncommon. Spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) Uncommon. Striped skunk O'lephitis mephitis) Common. Bobcat (wildcat) (Lvnx rufus) Common. White-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus townsendii) Common. Black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus californicus) Uncommon. Yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) Common. White-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) Uncommon. Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) Common. Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) Common. Rock squirre~ (Spermophilus variegatus) Common. Golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) Common. White-tailed antelope squirrel (Ammosuermophilus leucurus) Uncommon. Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Common. Colorado chipmunk (Eutamias guadrivittatus) Common. Uinta chipmunk (Eutamias umbrinus) Uncommon to uncertain. 11 - These species, grouped separately as "Furbearers" and "Nongame mammals" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970 (Art. 1, Item 3, Definitions, p. 3). 21 - Nomenclature according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder, Colo. 254 pp. and Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Monograph of the Museum of Natural History, the Univ. of Kansas, Number 3, 1972. 415 pp. W. T. McKean July 1973 �-130- NONGAME YI.l\}1HALS NOT DEFINED BY STATUTE - WILDLIFE J"Y,NAGEMENTUNIT 32 1:./ Water shrew (Sorex .£..~.ll1stris) Common. Vagrant shrew (Sorex vaz rans ) Common. Merriams shrew (Sorex nerriami) 2/ Rare. Has ked shrew (So~-inereus) Co~on. Townsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus to,vnsendii) Common. Pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) l/ Rare. Spotted bat (Euderma maculatum) 1/ Uncertain - rare. Silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) Common. Hoary bat (Lasiurus cine~eus) Uncommon ~ common. Eig brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) Common. Western pipistrelle (Pipistrellus hesperus) Common. Long-legged ;nyotis (Hyotis volans) Uncommon. California myotis (Hvotis .californicus) Cornmon. Small-footed myo t Ls (Hyot Ls leibii) Common. Fringed myotis (Myotis thysanodes) l/ Uncertain - rare Long-eared myotis (Hyotis evotis) Uncertain. Little brown myotis (:-~votis LucLfugus ) Uncertain. Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida braziliensis) 2/ Uncertain - rare. Northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) Common~ Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) Uncommon. Apache pocket mouse (Perognathus apache) Uneommon. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) Uncommon. Canyon mouse (Peromyscus crinitus) Common. Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) Common. Pinon mouse (Peromyscus truei) Common. Bushy-tailed wood rat (Neotoma cinerea) Common. Gapper's red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Common. Meadow vole (Hicrotu~ pennsylvanicus) Uncommon. Montane vole (Hicrotus I:1ontanus)Uncertain. Long-tailed vole (Hicrotus longicaudus) Common Sagebrush vole (Lagurus curtatus) Uncertain. House mouse (Hus musculus) Uncertain. Western jumping mouse (Zanus princeps) Common. Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Cowmon. l/Nomenclature from Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett. Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Information on occurrence and status from the above reference and: Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: an environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the envirornnental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. ~/Occurrence listed by the Colo. Div. of Wildlife as extremely unusual - very few documented records within the past decade. (1972 Status Evaluation for Selected Colorado Species) appended to: 1973 Wildlife Operations Work Plan, Field Order No. 4 - 1973. �-131- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES 1./ - WILDLIFE l-1ANAGEMENTUNIT 32 Nongame birds J:...I Common loon (Gavia immer) Possible rare migrant. Horned grebe (Podlceps auritus cornutus) Possible rare migrant. Eared grebe (Podiceps nigricollis californicus) Possible cornmon migrant 11. Western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) Possible rare migrant. Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiccns podiceps) Possible uncommon migrant and rare summer resident. Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus) Possible rare migrant. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident ~/, II. Snowy egret (Egretta !hula brewsteri) Possible uncommon summer resident 11. Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli) Possible common summer resident. Least bittern (Ixobrvchus exilis exilis) Possible rare summer migrant. American bittern (Bot~urus lenti?inosus) Possible rare summer migrant. White-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) Possible rare migrant. Whistling swan (Olor columbianus) Possible uncommon migrant .. Sharp-tailed gro~(Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus) Possible resident 4/. Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis canadensis; ~. £. tabida) Possible regular migrant. 0 Vi~ginia rail (Rallus limicola limicola) Possible uncommon summer resident. Sora (Porzana carolina) Possible uncommon summer resident. Semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) Possible rare migrant. Killdeer (Charadius vociferus vociferus) Common summer resident 6/, 71 and rare winter resident. - _11These species, grouped separately as IlNongame birdsll and IlRaptores" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1970. (Art. 1, item 3, Definitions, p. 327). J:...I Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapted from the foregoing references and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. Where adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported verbally by anyone or more Division personnel Glenn E. Rogers, Claude E. White, George E. Steele, Furman W. Dunham, Don Crane, or qualified by additional footnotes that follow. �-132Nongame birds (continued) Mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) Possible rare migrant 3/. Black-bellied plover (Pluvi~alis s(Juatarola) Possible uncommon migrant 3/. Long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus americanus) Possible rare migr;nt. Spotted sandpiper (Arctitis macularia) Possible common summer resident. Solitary sandpiper (Tringa solitaria cinnamomea) Possible common migrant and occasional summer res Lden t • Willet (Catoptrophorus semiDalmatus inornatus) Possible rare migrant. Greater ye1lowlegs (Tringa r.lelanoleuca)Possible common migrant 3/. Lesser yellow1egs (Tringa flavi~es) Possible uncommon migrant 3/~ Red knot (Calidris canutus rufa) Possible rare migrant. Pectoral sandpiper (Ca1idris melanotos) Possible rare migrant 1/. Baird's sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) Possible common migrant 1/. Least sandpiper (Calidris minutilla) Possible common migrant 1/. Long-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) Possible uncommon migrant. Stilt sandpiper (f.1icroDalmahimantopus) Possible rare migrant. Semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) Possible rare migrant 1/. Western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) Possible uncommon migrant 1/. Marbled godwit (Limosa fedoa) Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Ca1idris alba) Possible rare migrant 1/. American avocet (Recurvirostra a~ericana) Possible rare migrant. Black-necked stilt (Eimantopus mexicanus) Possible rare migrant. Wilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) Possible common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Northern phalarope (Lobipes lobatus) Possible uncommon migrant. Pomarine jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus) Possible rare migrant. Herring gull (Larus argentatus smithsonianus) Possible uncommon migrant. California gull (Larus ca1ifornicus) Possible rare migrant. Ring-billed gull (Larus dela~varensis) Possible uncommon migrant. Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) Possible uncommon migrant. Bonaparte's gull (Larus philadelphia) Possible rare migrant. Sabine's gull (Xema sabini sabini) Possible rare migrant. Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) Possible rare migrant. Common tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo) Possible rare migrant • .Least tern (Sterna albafrons atha1assos) Possible rare migrant. Black tern (Ch1idonias niger surinamensis) Possible rare migrant. Rock dove (Columba livia) Possible common resident. White-winged dove (Zenaida asiatica mearnsi) Possible rare migrant. Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus americanus) Possible uncommon summer residen t , Poor-will (Phalaenoptilus nutta1lii nutta11ii) Common summer resident 2/, ~. l/Changes in nomenclature follow the Thirty-second Supplement to the American Ornithologists Union Checklist of North American Birds published in Auk 90(2): 411-419. April, 1973. 4/ - Technically a game bird, but comparative rarity makes occurrence in Unit 32 questionable. Species is cited here to avoid its complete omission, since chances appear good enough for it to Occur in the unit sometime. �-133- Nongame birds (continued) Common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor hesperis; ~. m. howelli) Common summer resident 6/. White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxata1is sclateri) Common summer resident 6/, 7/. Black-chinned hu;mingbird (Archilochus alexandri) Common summer resident 7/. Broad-tailed-h~~ingbird (Selasphorus platycercus platycercus) Common summer resident 5/,6/, 7/. Rufous hummingbird (Sel;sphorus rufus) Common late summer migrant Jj. Calliope hUTI1.'11ingbird (Stellula calliope) Possible rare migrant and summer resident. Rivoli's hummingbird (Eugenes fulgens aureoviridis) Possible rare summer visitor. Belted kingfisher (Hegaceryle alcyon alcvon) Possible connnon resident. Common flicker (Colaptes auratus collaris) Common resident 1../, ~../, §../,Il . (C. a. luteus) Possible rare migrant 3/. Le,vi;';:;oodpecker(Asyndesmus Lewi.s ) Co~on summer resident Jj. Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nuchaliae) Connnon summer 2/, 6/, 7/ and possible occasional winter resident. William;on's sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus natalia€!) Possible common summer resident. Hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos vi110sus montico1a) Common resident I/· Downy woodpecker (Dendrocopos pubescens leucurus) Common resident 5/, §../,7/. Northern three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylu8 dorsalis) Possible rare migrant. Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) Uncommon sumnler resident 7/. Western kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) Common summer resident I/· Cassin's kingbird (Tvrannus vociferans vociferans) Possible unconnnon summer resident. Ash-throated flycatcher (Hyiarchus cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident 7/. Say's phoebe-(Sayornis saya saya) Common summer I/ and possible rare winter resident. Willow flycatcher (Empidonax trail1ii) Common summer resident I/· Hammond's flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii) Possible migrant and uncommon summer resident. Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberho1seri) Summer resident 7/. Gray flycatcher (Empidonax wrightii) Possible summer resident. Western flycatcher (Empidonax difficilis hellmavri) Common summer resident I/. 51 - Sight record given in unpublished checklist of birds of Naval Oil Shale Reserve, 1969-70, by L. M. Stevens. §../Sightrecord taken from Cringan, A. T. 1973. Annotated list of birds knmm to occur in northwestern Colorado. 17 pp. In: The Colony environmental study, Parachute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. Prepared by Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. August, 1973. Chapt. VII. Part II. Vol. 2, pp. 17-33. I/Sight record taken from Smith, A. G. 1973. Avian envirorunental inventory and impact study for Colony Development Operation in Garfield County, Colorado. Part 1. Environmental inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute for Colony Development Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1973. (processed). �-134Nongame birds (continued) \-lesternwood peewee (Contopus sordidulus veliei) Common summer resident 5/. Olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealts) Cornmon summer resident 7/-: Horned lark (Eremophila alpestris leucolaema) Common resident 2/, §j. Violet-green swallow (Trachycineta thalassina lepida) Common summer resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Tree swa Ll.ow- (Irfdop"I="ocnebicolor) Common migrant and summer resident i/, Jj. Bank swallow (Riparia riparia riparia) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopter\~ ruficollis serriDennis) Uncommon migrant and s~~er resident 7/. Barn swa l.l.ow(Hirundo rustica ervthro9;aster) Common summer resident i/, Jj. Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota) Common summer resident 5/, 6/. Purple marti~ (P~ogne subis subis) Possible rare summer migrant. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis capitalis) Uncommon resident iI, il. Steller's jay (Cya~ocitta stelleri macroloDha) Common resident 5/,6/, 7/. Scrub jay (ApheLo coma coerulescens vlOodhouseii) Common resident-Sf ,-6/ Black-billed rnagpi e (Pica ~ huds on i.a) COITcDlon resident 2/, il ,-il.Common raven (Corvus corax sinuatus) Common resident 51, 6/, 7/. Common crow (Corvus brnhYrhvnchos brachyrhvnchos) Po"Ssible u~common resident. Pinon jay (Cvmno rh tnus cyanoceohalus) Common summer 1/, iI, il and winter resident 7/. Clark's nutc"I="acker(Nucifraga coltL.':lbiana) Common resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Black-capped chickadee (Parus articapillus garrinus) Comrno~ re"Side~t 2/, i/, Jj. Mountain chickadee (Parus gambeli gambeli) Common resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Plain titmouse (Paros inornatus rid~Hayi) Common resident Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus p Lumbeus ) Possible common re"Sident 3/. ~~ite-breasted nuthatch (Sitta-carolinensis nelsoni) Uncommon reSident i/. Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Rare resident 5/. Pygmy nuthatch '(Sitta pygmaea melanotis) Possible unco~on resident. Brown creeper (Certhia familiaris montana) Uncommon resident and common migrant 7/. Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus unicolor) Common resident 2/, iI, Jj. House wre n (Troglodytes aedon par kmaru.L) COTTU:lon summer resident 'i/, ii, il. Bew Lck s wren (Thryomanes EeVlickii,;. _eremoDhilus) Possible common summer resident and rare winter resident. Long-billed marsh wren (Telmatodytes Dalustris plesius) Possible rare winter-resident. Canyon wren (Salpinctes mexicanus conspersus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Rock wren (Salpinctes obsoletus .obsoletus) Common summer iI, and possible rare winter resident. Hockingbird (Nimus ~lottos leucopterus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Gray catbird (Dumetella carolil£nsis) Rare summer resident 3/, 7/. Sage thrasher (Oreoscoptes montanus) Possible common summer-resident. Americari robin (Turdus migratorius propinquus) Common summer and winter resident 3/, 51, 6/, 7/. Hermit thrush (C;tha"I="us guttatus audubonii) Common summer resident 1/, 'i..l, II. Swainson's thrush (Catharus ustu13tus almae) Uncommon migrant 7/. Veery (Catharus fucescenssalicicola) Common migrant and summer resident ]}: J]. Western bluebi.rd (Sialia mexicana bairdi) Common migrant and uncommon summer resident 7/. Mountain blu;'bird (Sialia currucoides) Common migrant and SUmmer resident 51, 6/, 71 and possible occasional winter resident. Townsend's "S"olitaire (Hyad e.st es tmmsendi townsendi) Uncommon resident ,2/. 77. - i 'i/. iI, 7/. . - �-135- Nongame birds (continued) Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila caerulea amoenissima) Common summer resident 7/. Golden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa amoenus) Possible uncommon migrant and rare SQmmer resident. Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula cineraceus) Common migrant ~/, 7/. Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceps) Possible irregular winter migrant 3/. Cedar'vaxwing (Bombvcilla cedrorum) Uncommon resident 7/. Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor invictus) Possible c;mmon winter resident. Loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides) Possible uncommon summer and common \vinter resident. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris vulgaris) Common resident 6/, 7/. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Uncommon summer resident 71. Solitary vireo (Vireo solitarius plumbeus) Common sum;er resident 2/. Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Possible rare summer resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo gih'Us swa'i.ns on i i.) Common summer resident 2/· Tennessee warbLer (Vermivora peregrina) Possible rare but reguLar'migrant. Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata orestera) Uncommon migrant and summer resident ~/. Nashville warbler (Vermivora rufic.apilla ridgHayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia's warbler (Vermivora virginiac) COI"1Ilon summer resident 7/. Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia aest Lva) Common summer reside;-t '2/' §j, JJ. Ye l.Low+rumpedwarb Ler (Dendroica coronata memorabilis) Common summer resident 3/, 6/, 7/; (D. c. coronata) Possible common migrant 3/. Black-throated gray warbler (Dendroica nigrescens) Common summer resident 1/· Townsend's warbler (Dendroica t ownsend i ) Uncommon fall migrant 7/. MacGillivray's warbler (Oporornis tolmiei monticola) Co~.mon su~er resident }.j,JJ. Common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas occidentalis; Q. ~. campicola) Uncommon summer resident 3/, 6/, 7/. Yellow-breasted chat (Icteri~ virens-auricollis) Possible common summer resident. Wilson's warbler (Wilsonia pusilla pileolata) Common migrant and summer resident. American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla tricolor a) Possible rare migrant. House sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) Common resident 6/, 7/. Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) Possible rare summer migrant~ Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta neglecta) Common summer ~/, II and possible uncommon wi n t er resident. Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Common summer resident 6/, 7/. Red-wt.nged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus. fortis) Common resident ~/, II. Northern oriole (Icterus galhula bullockii) Common summer resident 1/, ~/, 1/· Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus caroJ.inus) Possible rare winter migrant. Brewer's blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) Common resident ~/, 1/· Bro"tvn-headedcowbird (Molothrus ater artemisiae) Common summer resident 6/, 7/. Western tanager (Piranga ludovic~) Co~~on migrant and summer resident-II.Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) Possible rare migrant. Hepatic tanager (Piranga flava dextra) Extremely rare straggler II. (Record observation). Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus melanocephalus) Common summer resident 5/. Blue grosbeak (Guiraca cacrulea interfusa) Possible uncommon summer resident. Lazuli bunting (Passerina amocna) Common summer resident 1/· Evening grosbeak (llesperiphonavespertina hrooksi) Common winter resident ~/, 1/. �-136- Nongame birds (continued) Cassin's finch (Carpodacus cassinii) .Possible common resident. House finch (Carnodacus mexicanus frontalis) Common summer 5/, lj and possible uncommon winter resident. Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator montana) Possible uncommon resident. Gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis tephrocotis; L • ..!:.. littoral is) Possible common winter resident. Black rosy finch (Leucosticte atrata) Possible common winter migrant~ Brown-capped rosy finch (Leucosticte australis) Possible common winter migrant. Common redpoll (Acanthis flammea flammea) Possible rare winter migrant. Pine siskin (Spinus Dinus pinus) Common resident 2/' American goldfinch (~inus tristus tristus; ~. ~. pallidus) Possible common summer and unco~~on winter resident. Lesser goldfinch (Spinus psaltria psaltria) Possible uncommon summer and rare winter resident. Red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) Possible rare, irregular resident •. White-\vinged crossbill (Loxia leucoptera leucoptera) Possible rare winter migrant. Green-tailed towhee (Chlorura chlorura) Common smnmer resident 5/, 6/, 7/. Rufous-sided towhee (PiDilo erythrophthalmus montanus) Common s~mer and rare winter resident 6/, 7/. Lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) Possible uncommon summer resident. Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis nevadensis; P. s. anthinus) Common migrant and summer resident 6/, 7/. - Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savann-;rrmn-perpallidus)Uncommon summer resident 5/, 7/. Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus confinis) Common migrant and summer resident 5/, 7/. Lark sparrow-(Chondestes grammacus strigatus) Possible common migrant and summer resLdent , Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata deserticola) Common summer resident 7/. Sage sparrow-(Amphispiza belli nevadensis) Common summer resident 2/. Dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis aikeni) Possible rare winter migrant 1/; (~. h. hyemalis; ~. ~. cismontanus) Rare winter resident 1/, 2/; (J. h. oreganus ) Common winter resident 3/, 7/; (J. h. o. var , mearnsi) Common winter resident 3/, 7/. - - Gray-headed junco (Junco c~nic;ps caniceps) Common summer 2/ and winter resident 6/, 7/. Tree sparrow-(Spizellaarborea ochracea) Possible uncommon winter migrant. Clay-colored sparrow (Spizella pallida) Common migrant I/. Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina boreophila) Common summer resident 6/, 7/. Brewer's sparrow (Spizella bre\veri breweri) Common summer resident 7/. Harris' sparrow (Zonotrichia querula) Possible uncommon migrant and rare winter resident. White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucroDhrvs) Common resident 5/, ~/. White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) Rare migrant 7/.Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca schistacea) Rare summer resident 5/. Lincoln's sparrow C·1elospiza lincolnii alticola) Common migrant ~d summer resident 7/. Song sparrow (Helospiza melodia) Corrnnonsummer 2/ and possible uncommon winter resident. Lapland longspure (Calcarius lapponicus alascensis) Possible rare winter migrant. �-137Raptores '!:./ Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura meridionalis) Common summer 2/, 2..1, J) and possible rare winter resident. Goshawk (Accipiter p;catl lis atricapi Ll.us) Uncommon resident 2..1, J). Sharp-shinned hawk (.Accipiter striatus ve l.ox). Rare summer and common winter resident 7/. Cooper's haHk (Accipiter cooperii) Uncommon summer II and common winter resident 7/. Red-tailed h;wk (Buteo l£maicensis calurus) Common resident l/, 2../, ZI. Sw.ainson's hawk ~teo swa LnsonL) Uncommon summer l/, Z/. and possible rare winter resident. Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus ~. johannis) Possible rare summer and uncommon ,,,interresident or migrant. Ferruginous hat.... k (Buteo_regalis) Rare summer and common winter resident ZI. Golden eagle (Aquila chrvsaetos canadensis) Common resident 6/, 7/, 8/ • .Bald eagle (Haliaeetus lcucocephalus a.l ascanus ) Common winte~ re;ide;-t 2..1, Z/, §./. Marsh hawk (Circus cyaneus hudsonius) Common summer 5/,6/, 7/, and uncommon wi.nt er resident 7/. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus ~arolinensis) Possible rare migrant. Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Rare resident 7/. Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Possible rare migrant, endangered. Pigeon hawk (Falco columbarius) Rare winter migrant 7/. Sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius suarverius) Common su~er l/, 2..1, Z/ and possible uncommon winter resident. Screech owl (Otus asio) Possible uncommon resident. Flammulated owl (Otus flarr~eolus fla~meolus) Possible rare summer resident. Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Common resident 5/,6/, 7/. Pygmy owl (Glaucid~gnoma californicum) Possible r~re ~esident. Burrowf.ng owl (Speo tyt o cunicularia hvpugaea) Common summer 5/ and possible rare winter resident. Long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus) Uncommon resident l/. Short-eared 0\,,1 (Asio flammeus flammeus) Possible uncommon wi.nt er migrant. Saw-whet owl (Aeg~s acadicus acadicus) Uncorr~on resident Z/. ~I Golden and bald eagle specifically excluded from statutes defining "Raptore" as cited in footnote l/ but herein listed to avoid omission. P. H. Neil August 1973 �-138- DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDi\.r..;rCE OF BIG r,Al'1E HANMALS WILDLIFE NANAGEI-1ENT UNIT 32 (PARACHUTE CREEK) BLACK BEAR Black bears occupy approximately the area between 6,000 and 9,000 feet elevation in Unit 32, though on rare occasions they may wander over almost the entire unit. Their yearlong habitat is largely within the·timbered or brush-covered lands above the Roan Cliffs where abundant combinations of food are available, such as fruit-bearing shrubs, small mammals, and carrion from livestock and big game herds. This is a comparatively small area, but well isolated beca.use of the tremendously abrupt topography surrounding it (see accompanying distribution maps). Estimated annual black bear kill for the period 1950-1972 inclusive was 3.4 head, based upon hunter report card surveys. Annual kills ranged from 0-15; there we re eight years out of 22 when no bears were reported taken. Bears have frequently been removed because of damage complaints, principally from woolgrowers. In 1972 two bears were so removed (Myers pers. corom. 1973). ELK Su~ner range for elk in Unit 32 lies approximately within the range 7,0009,000 feet, generally being the highest most isolated areas along the north boundary of the Unit. Potentially the entire Roan Plateau at this eleva- tional range could be summer range, but actually only headwater areas as follows have been consistently occupied: Spring Gulch eastward to Trapper Creek and the north fork of West Fork Parachute Creek. Herds that summer on aforementioned ranges are also believed to interchange freely across high ground areas of Unit 22 adjoining on the north (see accompanying maps) • 't,.... .,... \ �-139- Winter range for elk in Unit 32 decreases in size on the average, to only a fraction of summer range. In 1972-73, a severe winter, ground observa- tion revealed signs of one small elk herd in East Parachute Creek between the confluences of Ben Good Creek and Bull Gulch (see accompanying map). Another group were reported (rancher) wintering in Gran1ee and Helm gulches east of main Parachute Creek (Neil pers. comrn. 1973). The principal winter ranges, on average years, are on the Roan Plateau at the aforementioned Spring Gulch-Story Gulch headwaters, and in the extreme northwest portion of West Fork Parachute drainage. While elk winter range area may decrease in size from summer range, the elk population apparently increases due to migration from Units 23 and 33. This fact has not been accurately assessed. Denney (1965) indicated that hunter harvest on the Roan Plateau was less than 100 animals annually. Unit 32 yielded an estimated harvest of 26.4 elk annually for the ten seasons between 1959 and 1971 (Harvest Data) presented elsewhere in this report. Four years were closed to elk hunting in the unit - 1958, 1962, 1963, and 1964. This is a substantial harvest considering that Units 21, 22, 31 and 32 together yielded an estimated harvest of only 49.7 elk annually for the same period. Minnich (1973) indicates an "Overall Current" 1972 population of approximately 150 head with densities ranging from 1.4 to 1.5 elk per .square mile. Comparable winter populations calculated were 170 head and densities ranging from 1.1 to 914 elk per square mile depending on the site within Unit 32. MOUNTAIN LION The literature available makes no specific mention of mountain lions occurring within the specific environs of Unit 32, however, numerous occurrences are �-140- cited from areas to the immediate east (Unit 33) and west (Unit 31) (Armstrong 1972). Neil (pers. comma 1973) reported seeing a lion feeding upon a mature doe mule deer freshly killed approximately of the confluence of West Parachute Creek and Light Gulch in April 1972. Two other separate, but undetailed, reports of lion occurrences by members of the staff of Thorne Ecological Colony Development resembles rence possible Dixon Operations. Obviously, that o~ black bear - predominantly .the high mobility 1/2 mile north and secretiveness were made Institute while working for the better yearlong lion habitat that above the Roan Cliffs, but of the lion makes its undetected in almost any portion of the unit (see accompanying (1967) mentions occur- maps). lion kill records from Garfield County in the Roan Cliffs west of Grand Valley. Hunter reports of lions killed during the period 1968-1972 by year are as follows: 1968-0; 1969-0; 1970-0; 1971-0; 1972-1. was reported taken in five years. Thus, only one animal No data are available for the 3-year period 1965-1967 because no reports were required of hunters. mountain lions were not considered game animals. Before 1965 It is highly probable that lions were being taken here by trappers, guides, livestock men, or others and were not being reported. MULE DEER Over one-half of Unit 32 is unavailable high elevation and deep snow. Roan Plateau elevations range fromapproxi- mately 7,500 upward to 9,200 feet. is clearly delineated to mule deer in winter because of The upper winter range line in Unit 32 by the Roan Cliffs (see accompanying maps from Minnich �-141- 1973). The normal or average winter range line occurs some 1/2 to four miles below the Roan Cliff base. A normal winter range zone of one to three miles width follows the borders of the Unit beginning on the northeast corner (approximately T.5S, R.93W, 8.5). This peripheral zone ends near Grand Valley; here it turns northward up Parachute Creek and extends in an increasingly narrow band between the cliff bases to the confluences of East, Middle and West Parachute Creek, thence up each of these forks approximately three miles. The average upper winter range line varies between 6,000 and 7,000 feet. A lower winter range line for the Unit coincides with State Highway 13 on the east, U. S. Highway 6 & 24 on the south and Parachute Creek bottoms on the west. Summer deer range largely coincides with the Roan Plateau in Unit 32, witll additional areas of upper Parachute Creek and its tributaries. The afore- mentioned Roan Cliffs constitute a natural boundary between upper winter range and lower sUmmer range. Logically, a scattered few deer subsist yearloilg on river and creek bottom lands and adjoining cultivated fields. Summertime interchange between Units 31 to the west and 22 to the north are unverified but believed common. Abundance of deer by year from one aerial trend count is available. This trend count (Rifle-Grand Valley) has had a seven-year (1966-1972) mean of 975 animals. Annual census figures are available in the Denver and Regional Game }1anagement offices. Minnich (1973) calculated a "normal" winter range deer density of 54.2 deer per square mile for Parachute Creek drainage and a much smaller 9.0 deer �-142- per square mile for the remaining south and east wintering areas of Unit 32. An overall density of 20.4 deer per square mile was indicated. These figures were based upon estimates supplied by fie1dmen. On the basis of total harvest for years 1959-1968 inclusive, Unit 32 ranked 6th statewide. Total kill for that 10-year span was 32,677, or an approximate average of nearly 3,268 animals. As elsewhere in Colorado, deer numbers declined in the late 60's and early 70's. Kill by year for recent years was: 1969-592; 1970-898; 1971-469; 1972-1,436. Restrictive hunting regulations are believed to have accounted for some of the drop in kill, particularly in 1971. Nonetheless, it is evident that Unit 32 has sustained at least an above average deer population for many years. Literature Cited Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Univ. of Kansas Printing Service, Lawr ence , 415.pp. Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado long range species management plans, 1965-1975, for elk. Dixon, K. R. 1967. pp. 141-164. 61 pp. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, In Game Res. Rep., July-Part II. Fish and Parks. Minnich, D. v]. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1973. Colo. Div. Game, pp. 73-310. Statewide mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from WCO, Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver office, Colo. Div. of Wildlife. (unpublished) W. T. McKean July 1973 �-143- DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAHE MAMMALS WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 32 (PAPV\CHUTECREEK) COTTONTAIL RABBIT Every square mile of Unit 32 is considered capable of supporting at least some cottontail rabbits yearlong. According to Lechleitner (1969) and Armstrong (1972), both the desert cottontail and Nuttall's cottontail should occur, the desert cottontail being common at the lower elevations (5,0007,000 feet) and the Nuttall's cottontail common on the plateau (7,000-9,000 feet). No specific studies have been conducted regarding cottontail rabbit density anywhe re in wes t ern Colorado, however , Shepherd (1965a) concluded after a literature survey, that a possible high-cycle density of 150-200 animals per square mile and a low-cycle density of 15-20 animals per square mile wez e reasonable for much of Colorado. 32. For abundance"as This estimate should be applicable to Unit reflected in kill data, see tables on Hunter Harvest for Small Game Management Unit 8, following. SNOWSHOE HA..~E The sno\olshoehare is believed to occur commonly in those areas of the Roan Plateau occupied by Douglas-fir and Douglas-fir-aspen mix. Stevens (1970) reported this species on the Naval Oil Shale Reserve which includes a large area of the plateau in the eastern one-half of Unit 32. It is reasonable to expect their occurrence in areas of similar topography and vegetative type in the western one-half of the unit. Game distribution maps prepared by Minnich (1973) and Shepherd (1965b) indicated that snowshoe hares are welI represented on the majority of the plateau top areas within Unit 32. �-144- Kill data~ as an indicator of abundance~ shows that for the five year period 1968-l972~ in Small Game }mnagement Unit 8~ an average annual harvest of 491 snowshoes by 109 hunters occurred. This would probably re- present the total kill in VIildlife Units 21, 22, 30, and 32 across the Roan Plateau from the Utah line to Highway 13 north of Rifle. Minnich (1973) calculates a population of approximately 660 hares~ based upon estimates of field personnel , with an average density of 10.2 hares per square mile, ranging from 0.8 to 27.5 for various small segments of their range. RED (PINE) SQUIR..l{EL Limited information is available regarding the distribution of this species within Unit 32. According to Lechleitner (1969) and Armstrong (1972), they should be common in the coniferous areas on the higher plateaus and mesas throughout Garfield.County. Neil (pers. comm. 1973) reported several obser- vations of this species along Trappers Creek and in small groves of Douglasfir along the divide road on the plateau. Stevens (1970) also reported their occurrence on portions of the Naval Oil Shale Reserve. No data on abundance are available, but it·is believed that a reasonably stable population exists within coniferous types. Literature Cited Armstrong, D. M. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Printing Service, Lawrence. Lechleitner, R. R. Boulder. 1969. 254 pp. Univ. of Kansas 415 pp. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Pub. Co., �-145- Minnich, D. w. 1973. Statewide mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from W.C.O., Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver office, Colo. Div. of Wildlife. Un- published. Shepherd, H. R. 1965a. Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for cottontail rabbit. Parks Dept. rep. Shepherd, H. R. 1965b. 12 pp. (Himeo)• Colorado long range management plans for game species, 1965-1975, for snowshoe hares. Dept. rep. 11 pp. Colo. Game, Fish and Colo. Game, Fish and Parks (Mimeo). P. H. Neil September 1973 �-146- DISTRIBUTION A}..TJ) ABUNDANCE OF Sr"'ALLGA11E BIRDS \HLDL IFE HPv'lAGB-fENT UNIT 32 (PARACHUTE CEEEK) BLUE GROUSE The distribution maps provided by Rogers (1965a, 1968) and Minnich (1973) indicated that the majority of the Roan Plateau area within Unit 32 is available habitat for blue grouse. Current reliable reports (Smith 1973) confirm their presence on the plateau near the headwaters of Trappers Creek, East Fork and East Middle Fork of Parachute Creek and in Douglasfir and aspen types scattered along the divide road in the northern part of the unit. The true abundance of blue grouse in Unit 32 is not known, however, data provided by Minnich (1973) estimates ~lue grouse density at 4.9 birds per square mile which results in an estimated population of 908 blue grouse in the habitable range in Unit 32. Smith (1973) reported observing numerous blue grouse in the unit during bird census wo rk for Colony Development Operation (an oil shale company). He worked on a two week schedule each month from February through September, 1973. In a study done in west slope areas comparable to Unit 32, Rogers (1968) indicated a range of 10.3-38.7 road miles per bird. SAGE GROUSE Rogers (1964) listed several areas within Unit 32 where light populations of sage grouse are present. He reported that during summer months these birds range from the head of Parachute Creek on the plateau west to Douglas Pass near the Utah line. Cringan (pers. comm. 1973) reported observing a brood on the plateau between East Middle Fork and East Fork of Parachute Creek during the early summer of 1971 which confirms their occasional presence in that portion of t.heunit. Minnich (1973) maps current distri- �-147- bution of Roan Plateau sage grouse including four areas within Unit 32. Winter range for these birds is not known, but they are believed to drop off the plateau onto the lower sagebrush mesas. Birds have been observed on Hubbard Mesa just northwest of the town of Rifle (Rogers 1964). According to Rogers (1964) fall densities of sage grouse range from 1 to 10 birds per square mile in occupied areas of Unit 32, and more recent information from l1innich (1973) estimates a density of 5.8 birds per square mile of occupied range which yields an estimated population of 280 sage grouse for the unit. Smith (1973), in work cited above, reported no sage grouse seen - probably a significant negative result. CHUKAR Distribution maps prepared by Sandfort (1965a) and Minnich (1973) indicated that chukars occur at the lower elevations of Parachute Creek and in the sage flats along Highway 6 and 24 between Rifle and Grand Valley (see accompanying maps). Neil (pers. comm. 1973) reported observing chukars in both of these locations during the early summer months of 1972 and 1973 and Stevens (1970) reported their occurrence on portions of the Naval Oil Shale Reserve, presumably in about the same locations. Between 1940 and 1965, 525 chukars ~ere released (4 releases - see Game Species Introductions) near Garden Gulch in main Parachute Creek and on the Mahaffey Ranch near Grand Valley (Carhart 1942, Jones and Rogers 1964, Sandfort 1956, 1957) and it is believed that since that time the population has declined to approximately 250 in the two above mentioned areas of Unit 32 (Hinnich 1973). Trend counts for the period of 1964 to 1972 also indicated a downward trend in population. Counts ranged from a peak of 60 in 1964 to 16 in 1972 with no birds being observed in 1965, 1967, 1968, and 1969. f.n !lenver and Nor t hwe s t Game Hanaaemerrt offices. Records may be found �-148- RING-NECK.ED PHEASANT According to Ninnich (l973) a small population of·these birds range from Rifle to the west boundary of Unit 32 along the Colorado -River and up Parachute Creek to the confluence of East Fork being mainly confined to the river bottom and agricultural areas (see accompanying maps). Swope (1~65) show~d a similar distribution and classified this as poor quality habitat with a spring breeding population index of 0-15 based on spring crow counts and ~,inter sex ratio counts. , He have no recent records of ring-necked pheasant trend counts to comment on their present abundance. WILD TlJRKEY Hoffman (1965) showed occupied turkey range southwest of Grand Valley on the south side of the Colorado River and to the east of Rifle on both sides of the Colorado River, 1971). as a result of introductions in 1961 (Burget Recent information from local residents revealed that the wild turkey used to be-moderately abundant around the lower Parachute Creek drainage (Neil pers. comm. 1973), however, we have no recent records to confirm that the ~,ild turkey is still present in the area. It is believed that if turkeys are present in the immediate adjacent ranges mentioned above, some drift into Unit 32 probably occurs but their numbers are few. A search of turkey harvest data for the years 1959-1970 revealed that in only two years were any turkeys reported taken from Unit 32 - 1969 (2 birds) and 1965 (4 birds). Adjoining Units 33 and 42 to the east and south, produced a combined turkey kill averaging 28 birds during the same period. None were reported taken from Units 31 or 22 to the west and north, respeclivf'ly. �-149- BAND-TAILED PIGEON Braun (1970) indicated that band-tailed pigeon distribution extends throughout Unit 32. Being a migratory species, they usually arrive in Colorado around April and according to Braun (1970) the timing of fall migration is apparently related to timing of cold fronts in October. The availability and crop success of Gambel's oak and various ripening berries within the unit undoubtedly influence the distribution of these birds. The cultivated croplands, livestock feeding areas, and the few scattered orchards in the lower Parachute Creek drainage provide a source of food for band-tailed pigeons, especially during the breeding season (Braun 1970). Stevens (1970) reported their occurrence on portions of the Naval Oil o Shale Reserve and recent reliable reports (Smith 1973) confirm their presence in the Parachute Creek area. Little data are available on the abundance of band-tailed pigeons in Unit 32, hmV'ever,.Braun (pers . comm, 1973) suggested that they are probably uncorr~on in the area largely because of the lack of ponderosa pine in association with the Gambel's oak. It is reasonable to expect that their densities fluctuate in proportion with availability of food resources (berries, acorns, new conifer buds, and insect larvae) and during migration periods. MOURNING DOVE Grieb (1965) indicated that only the lower elevations of Unit 32 are ineluded in the breeding range of mourning doves. Braun (pers. counn. 1973) also suggested that they are more counnon below 8,500 feet along the major drainages and the Colorado River bottom, especially during migration periods. �-150Stevens (1970) reported their occurrence on portions of the Naval Oil Shale Reserve and current reliable reports confirm their presence in the Parachute Creek area. Migratory in nature, mourning summer, and fall in Colorado. doves are common during spring, According to Bailey and Niedrach (1965) a few may remain over the winter months in sheltered areas at lower elevations in Colorado which, during mild winters, may apply to the lower elevations of Unit 32. Little is known of the actual abundance of mourning doves in Unit 32, however, according to Davis (1969) and Braun (1973 pers. comm.) they should be very common during the summer months. Minnich (1973) estimated a popu- lation density of 3.8 doves per square mile in the main Parachute Creek Canyon below the plateau, which yields an estimated population of 100 birds. Data are lacking for population estimates on the plateau in Unit 32, but as Braun (1973 pers. corom.) has suggested, fewer birds can be expected at the higher elevations. It is believed that the local population density within the unit varies considerably from year to year. GAMBEL 's QUAIL Sandfort (1965b) indicated that the distribution of Gambel's quail is similar to that of chukar in Unit 32. Trend counts from 1952 and harvest data from 1955 to 1964 revealed that some birds were observed and harvested in habitable range of Unit 32. We have no recent reports of Gambel's quail within the unit and it is believed that the population has declined to a point barely discernable. Average esti- mated harvest for Small Game Management Unit 8, which includes Big Game Unit 32, was only 61 birds for the years 1968-1970 (Funk and Tully 1971, 1972). V!ATERFOWL Breeding populations: The mallard and grecn-wfnged teal are undoubtedly the most common summer resident ducks in Unit 32, especially in those areas �-151- north of the Colorado River (Szymczak pers. corrm. 1973). Grieb (1965) indicated that the breeding range for green-winged teal extends over all of the unit and that the mallard remains the most common nesting species in the state. Mallards have been observed nesting along Parachute Creek and its major tributaries. Small numbers of ducks also nest in isolated beaver ponds scattered throughout the unit (Neil 1972). The Colorado River and adjacent irrigated farmlands \-lithassociated canals and ponds provide food and cover for many migrating species ofwaterfo"Tl to include gadwall, blue-winged teal, wigeon, redheads, lesser scaup, common mergansers, American coots, and common (Wilson's) snipe. Szymczak (pers. corom. 1973) added that small numbers of Canada geese are beginning to pioneer up the Colorado River from the Grand Junction area to nest in the spring. Jobman (1967) in a duck production study on irrigated meadows and creek bottoms of Piceance and Dry Fork Creeks, estimated a peak summer production of approximately 17 birds per lineal mile. Assuming that the Parachute Creek-Colorado River wetlands are somewhat comparable to Piceance Creek a projected population ranging between 900 and 1,000 birds results. This seems reasonable. Wintering populations: The only known areas where waterfowl, including geese, winter within Unit 32 are in open waters along the Colorado River and Parachute Creek including small ponds. The principal wintering duck species is the mallard while the majority of the geese wi.nter in the Grand Junction area (Szymczak pers. comm. 1973). The duck population along the Colorado river between Silt and Palisade, which includes approximately 20 miles of river bottom in Unit 32, for the three �-152- year period 1971-1973, based upon aerial trend counts in January by regional personnel, has averaged 1,483 birds ranging from 980 to 1,960. Geese averaged 117 birds ranging from 32 to 179 (unpublished information Colo. Div. of Wildl.). Literature Cited Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. of Nat. Hist. Braun, C. E. 1965. Birds of Colorado. 2 Vol., 895 pp. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations, pp , 151-171. Game Res. Rep., Oct., Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Burget, M. L. 1961. Wild turkey development. Rep., Oct., Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Carhart, A. H. 1942. Commission. Davis, W. A. Denver Mus. 171 pp. In Quart. Prog. . pp. 33~43. Chukar-pheasant experimental plantings. Fed. Aid Proj. W-17~R~3. 1969. p , 33. In Memo. to 5 pp. Birds of western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologist. 61 pp. Funk, H. D~, and R. J. Tully. 1971 and 1972. Grieb, J. R. Colorado small game hunter harvest survey- Colo. Div. l.Jildlife.·Misc. loose tables. 1965. (unpublished). Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for migratory birds. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. Hoffman, D. M. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for wild turkey. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 11 pp. �-153- Jobman, W. G. 1967. Haterfow1 production and management recommendations for state-owned lands near Little Hills Experiment Station, Meeker, Colorado. CSU term paper for FW 495 bx-Spec. Studies in Wildlife. 38 pp. (typewritten). Jones, H., and G. Rogers. 1964. Chukar planting record. April. Original release record located in Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. Minnich, D. W. 1973. Statewide mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from WCO, Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver Office, Colo. Div. of Wildlife. Neil, P. H. 1972. Inventory of beaver ponds, East Middle Fork, Parachute Creek, Aug. 17, 1972. In Colony environmental study, Parachute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. Prepared for Colony Development Operation by Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. Rogers, G. E. 16. 1964. August, 1973. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1965. (unpublished). Part III. Tech. Pub. No. 132 pp. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965- 1975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ptarmigan. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. --- •. 1968. 16 pp. The blue grouse in Colorado. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Sandfort, W. W. 1956. 2 pp~ Tech. Pub. No. 21. Colo. 63 pp. Chukar partridge release records-Northwest adjoining areas, Dec. 9-1951-Jan. 9, 1956. Proj. W-37-R. Colo. Region and Memo. to Commission. Fed. Aid �-154- 1957. Trapping and transplanting chukar partridges, pp. 31-38. In Quart. Prog. Rep ,, July, Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 1965a. 119 pp. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for chukar partridge. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 18 pp. 1965b. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965- 1975, for Gambel's quail. Smith, A. G. 1973. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 9 pp. Avian environmental inventory and impact study for Colony Development Operation in Garfield County, Colorado. Part I. Environmental Inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, for Colony Development Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1973. Stevens, L. M. 1970. Checklist of birds and mammals of the Naval Oil Shale Reserve, 1969-70. Swope, H. M. 1965. (processed). 4 pp. (unpublished). Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for ring-necked pheasant. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 54 pp. w. T. McKean and P. H. Neil August 1973. �-155HUNTING PRESSURE DEER HARVEST, SEASONS At-.rn WILDLIFE MANAG8-ml'o'TUNIT 32 (From Colorado YEAR lf0NTING PRESSURE 1...1 Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) BUCKS HARVEST DOES FAlmS TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1956 1983 1494 1028 248 2770 2ES 10/15 - 10/31 1957 2408 1374 1172 313 2859 2DM 2DM 2DM 10/1 - 10/14 10/1 - 12/31 10/15 - 11/17 1958 3694 1424 1001 320 2745 1DM 1DM 10/15 - 11/2 11/3 - 11/30 1959 3734 1652 1057 385 3094 1DM 1DM 10/17 - 11/3 11/21 - 12/6 2/ 1960 1443 1031 590 211 1832 1DM 10/17 - 11/13 1961 2158 1659 1270 528 3457 3ES 1DM 10/21 - 11/8 11/18 - 12/3 ]j 1962 4532 3546 3079 971 7596 3ES 3ES 10/20 - 11/4 11/5 - 12/31 1963 1985 877 838 418 2133 1DM 10/19 - 11/7 1964 2362 1161 1050 317 2528 1DM 10/17 1965 2615 1032 1107 344 2483 2ES 10/16 - 11/5 1966 2856 1364 1299 516 3179 2ES 10/15 - 10/24 1967 2793 1795 1519 414 3728 2ES 10/21 - 11/9 1968 2320 1246 1104 297 2647 ES 2ES 10/19 - 10/21 10/22 - 11/7 1969 1108 374 141 77 592 ES 10/18 - 11/6 1970 1521 626 247 25 898 ES 10/17 - 11/6 1971 864 469 469 IDB 10/30 - l1/11 1972 1918 908 1436 ES ES 10/14 - 10/23 12/2 - 12/10 445 1./ 83 Based upon combined total resident and non-resident expressed in number of licenses. 2/ - In part of Unit 32. (footnotes continued on next page) %~ 11/5 license sales and �-156- DEER HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Continued). Note: Hunt symbols explained as follows: ES 2ES 3ES lDB lDM 2DM 3DA = Either sex, one deer (one license). = Either sex, two deer (one license) = Either sex, three deer (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). = One deer, buck only (one license). = One deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). = Two deer multiple, either sex. (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). = Three deer, one must be antlerless (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). Note: The term lDM.evolved into 2D, HC or two deer, hunter's choice (2' licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. Paul H. Neil September 1973 �-157- ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS lHLDLIFE MANAGE!'1ENTUNIT 32 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) YEAR 1./ DOES BUCKS FAHNS TOTAL J:./ HUNT MTD SEASON 10/1 - 10/14 10/15 - 10/31 1956 ]./ ES 2ES 1957 2DM 10/1 - 10/14, In Part 2D}1 10/15 - 11/17 1958 0 2 0 2 9/1 - 9/30 ES 1DM 10/15 - 11/2 1D}! 11/3 - 11/30 1959 0 2 5 7 9/15 - 9/30 ES lDM 10/17- 11/3 1D}! 11/21 - 12/6, In Part 1960 3 2 0 5 9/10 - 9/30 ES lD}! 10/17 - 11/13 1961 3 0 0 3 3DA 3DA 1DM 1DM 8/26 - 9/10 10/21 - 11/8 11/11 - 11/26 11/18 - 12/3, In Part 8/25 - 9/23 10/20 - 11/4 11/5 - 12/31 '" 1962 4 2 0 6 ES 3ES 3ES 1963 1 0 0 1 8/17 - 9/8 ES 1D}! 10/19 - 11/7 1964 4 0 0 4 ES 1DH 8/15 - 9/13 10/17 - 11/5 1965 10 12 6 28 ES 2ES 8/21 - 9/12 10/16 - 11/5 1966 28 ~4 6 58 ES 2ES 8/20 - 9/18 10/15 - 10/24 1967 2~ 10 5 37 ES 2ES 8/19 - 9/17 10/21 - 11/9 1968 i/ 10 14 4 28 ES ES 2ES all.7 >' "'! 9/15 10/19 - 10/21 10/22 - 11/7 �-158ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS (Continued) • YEAR 1./ BUCKS DOES FAWNS 1969 ~/ 23 0 0 23 lDB ES 8/16 - 9/14 10/18 - 11/6 1970 fl./ 5 0 0 5 lDB lDB ES 8/15 - 8/31 9/1 - 9/20 10/17 - 11/6 1971 ]j 33 0 0 33 1DB lDB 8/21 - 9/6 10/30 - 11/11 1972 ~/ 37 0 0 37 1DB ES ES ES 8/19 - 8/31 9/1 - 9/20 10/14 ..,10/23 12/2 - 12/10 TOTAL ~/ HUNT M"D SEASON 1/ Free permits issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by application only. Years 1957-1960, no issue of special permits; archery hunting 'allow'ed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1972, separate archery license regulations in effect. ~/Inconc1usive kill data are omitted for years 1956 and 1957. 3/ - For years 1956-1967 no hunter pressure data available. i/109 total resident and non~resident archery licenses issued for unit. i/517 total hunts for 1969 archery season in Unit 32; total does not reflect number of hunters. fl./114total resident and non-resident archery licenses issued for unit. l/163 hunters based on total number of hunts; 126 total resident and non-resident archery licenses issued for unit. ~/16l total resident and non-resident Note: ES 2ES 3ES lDB lDH 2Dr1 3DA licenses issued for unit. Hunt symbols are explained as follows: = = = = = = Either sex, one deer (one license). Either sex, two deer (one license). Either sex, three deer (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). One deer, buck only (one license). One deer multiple, either sex (2 Hcenses and 2 deer per individual). Two deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). Three deer, one must be antlerless (2 licenses plus'3rd deer coupon on 2nd license. Note: The term lDr1 evolved into 2D, He or two dee r , hunter's choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. P. H. Neil October 1973 �-159ELK HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT mUT 32 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE l/BULLS COIolS CALVES TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1956 94 21 12 2 35 AO + 100 ESP 'lj 10/15 - 10/31 1957 110 6 16 0 22 AO + 100 ESP 'l:./ 10/15 10/31 CLOSED 1958 1959 49 ·14 0 0 14 AO 10/17 - 11/3 1960 44 12 0 0 12 AO 10/17 - 11/6 1961 32 17 0 0 17 AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 CLOSED 1963 CLOSED 1964 CLOSED 1965 45 12 4 0 16 25 B + 25 C ~/ 10/16 - 11/5 1966 32 '10 9 4 23 25 B + 25 C 2/ 10/15 - 11/3 1967 36 14 13 'l 30 30 B + 30 C !!./ .J 10/21 - 11/9 1968 78 15 13 2 30 30 B + 30 C !!./ 10/19 - 11/7 1969 24 11 3 0 14 30 B + 30 C !i./ 10/18 - 11/6 1970 94 40 2. 0 42 AO + 30 C }J 10/17 - 11/6 1971 172 61 5 0 66 AO + 20 C ~j 10/16 - 10/25 1972 169 31 8 1 40 AO + 30 C E./ 10/28 - 11/12 1/ - Based upon combined resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses. During the period 1956-1970, when elk season coincided with deer season, the hunting pressure statistics were very probably conservative. Despite difficulties verifying that assumption, unkno~~ substantial numbers of deer hunters may also have carried elk licenses hoping for a bull elk under antlered only regulations. This latter happens regardless of low elk populations. Thus, because of low success and tendency (above non reporting statewide figures used in projections) for non-successful elk license holders not to report by card, elk present in Unit 32 probably received extra pressure over that indicated by card return projection years of antlered only seasons. Discrepancies between (footnotes continued on next page) �-160- ELK HARVEST, SEASONS A.fID HUNTING PRESSURE (Continued). !/ continued hunting pressure and total allowable specified permits in 1968 are probably due to projection error tendencies that are inherent for all units having small numbers of permits. 2/ . - Un~ts 11, 22, and 32 combined. 1/Units 21, 22, 30, 31 and 32 combined. ~/Units 21, 22, 31, and 32 combined. ~/Units 22, 31, and 32 combined. ~/Units 22, 31, 32, and part of 21 combined. Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO . = Antlered only. AO + ESP = Antlered only, plus either sex permits. B+C = Bull (antlered) and COy7 (antlerless) permits only (specified). AO + C = Antlered only plus specified number of cow permits. P. H. Neil October 1973 �-161- ELK HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 32 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1972) ARCHERY YEAR lillNTING PRESSURE );/ BULLS COWS CALVES TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1956 ---- NO DATA - AO + 100 ESP JJ 1957 ---- NO DATA - AO + 100 ESP '1:../ 10/15 - 10/31 10/15 - 10/31 CLOSED 1958 ---------- 1959 1960 1961 NO DATA - .- - AO 10/17 - 11/3 NO DATA - AO 10/17 - 11/6 NO DATA - AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 CLOSED 1963 CLOSED 1964 CLOSED ------- NO DATA - NO DATA - 1967 ---- NO DATA - 1968 3 0 0 25 B + 25 C 1/ 10/16 - 11/5 25 B + 25 C 1/ 10/15 - 11/3 ES 30 B + 30 C i/ 9/2 - 9/17 10/21 - 11/9 30 B + 30 C 4/ 10/19 - 11/7 30 B + 30 C if 10/18 - 11/6 1970 AO + 30 C 2./ 10/17 - 11/6 1971 AO + 20 C 2./ 10/16 - 10/25 AO AO + 30 C 6/ 8/19 - 8/31 10/28 - 11/12 1965 1966 ---- 1969 7 1972 NO DATA 0 - 0 0 - - - 0 0 0 !/Based upon combined total resident and non-resident in number of licenses. '1:../Units 11, 22, and 32 combined. l/Units 21, 22, 30, 31, and 32 combined. i/Units 21, 22, 31, and 32 combined. (footnotes continued on next page) license sales and expressed �-162- ARCHERY ~LK tU"RVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Continued). 5/ - Units 22, 31, and 32 combined. 6/ - Units 22, 31, 32, and part of 21 combined. Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO AO + ESP ES B + C AO + C = Antlered only. = Antlered only plus either sex permit. One elk, either sex. = Bull (antlered) plus cow (ant1erless) permits only (specified). = Antlered only plus specified number of cow permits. P. H. Neil October 1973 �-163BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS (From Colorado - WILDL IrE Big Game Harvest !/ HANAGEl'lENT UNIT 32 1955-1972) 2:./, }j YEAR HARVEST 1955 3R 8/15 - 10/1 and the regular 1956 8R 5/15 - 8/15 and the regular deer and/or elk season. 1957 3R 4/1 - 11/15 and any pre, regular, elk season. 1958 7R + 5S 4/1 - 11/15 and the regular and post deer seasons. 1959 o 1960 3R 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular deer and/or elk season. 1961 3R 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular deer and/or 1962 3R 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular and post deer seasons. 1963 4S 4/1 - 9/15 an'a the regular deer season ending 11/7/63. 1964 2S 4/1 - 9/15 and the regular deer season ending 11/5/64. 1965 o 1966 o 1967 15 1968 o 1969 o 1970 o 1971 o 1972 2 HUNT Al\TJ) SEASON deer and/or elk season. and post deer and/or No data on special season; any regular and post deer and/or elk season. elk season. 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or ending 11/5/65. elk seasons 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or ending 1113/66. elk seasons Special season probably 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/9/67. 4/1 - 9/30 and the regular deer and/or ending 11/6/68. elk seasons 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/6/69. 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular deer and/or ending 11/6/70. elk seasons 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular ending 11/11/71. deer and/or elk seasons 4/1 - 6/30 and the regular ending 11/12/72. deer and/or elk seasons 1/ - R=Regular big game (Deer and/or Elk) licenses; S=Bear license for Special Spring, Sununer, or Spring-Summer seasons; Also see annual regulations for archery hunting. (footnotes continued on next page). �-164- BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 32 (Continued). 21 - From 1955-1959, 1 bear per special bear license and/or 1 bear per bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license; from 1960-1965, same as 1955-1959, except special bear license variously invalid after September 15 or 30, when bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license covered bag and possession limits; 1966, same as 1960-1965, except one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year; from 1967 to present, bear coupon removed from regular deer and elk licenses; thus, 1 bear, hunter's choice, per special bear or sportsman's license per person per calendar year only during special bear and regular deer and/or elk seasons. llDogs permitted except when bear seasons concurrent with deer and lor elk seasons. P. H. Neil October 1973 �-165MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST AND SEASONS - HILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 32 YEAR !/ HARVEST 1965 1 F '1:./ 1966 5 M·, 2F HUNT AND SEASON 10/16/65 - 3/31/66 West Slope; 10/23/65 3/31/66 East Slope, 1 either sex. '1:../ 1/1/66 - 12/31/66 in all counties we s t of the Continental Divide and in Jackson, Conejos, Alamosa, Mineral, Saguache, Rio Grande, Costilla, Archuleta, Hinsdale and San Juan counties, 3 either sex. 10/22/66 - 2/28/67 in all counties east of the Continental Divide except those specifically listed above; 3 either sex. 1967 No Data 9/1/67 - 3/31/68 statewide; 9/1/67 - 5/31/68 west of State Hwy. #13 and north of U. S. Hwy. 116; 1 either sex. 1968 o 9/1/68 - 3/31/69 statewide; 1 either sex. 1969 o 9/1/69 - 3/31/70 statewide; 1 either sex. 1970 o 9/1/70 12/31/70 designated areas, and regular deer and elk seasons statewide; 1 either sex. 1971 o 3/1/71 - 4/30/71, 1 male only, designated areas; 9/1/71 - 10/12/71 and 11/12/71 - 12/31/71, 1 either sex, designated areas. 1972 1 2/1/72 - 4/30/72, 1 male only, designated areas; regular deer and elk seasons, statewide, 1 either sex; 11/13/72 - 12/31/72, 1 either sex, designated areas including Unit 32. o !l Bounty of $50 per lion paid within period May 7~ 1929 - Harch 12, 1965; protected by statute as of July 1, 1965 when mountain lion license was established. to "1965-1966" and "1966-1967" for Garfield County as reported by '1:../Credited Dixon, K. R. 1967. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, p. 147; In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 73-310. No data available in reports from section of Game }1anagement for 1965-1967. Dixonts information is probably conservative in that the damage law allows for lax reporting of ki11sof marauders by stockmen. For years 1968-1972 data are from Colorado Big-Game Harvest Surveys. P. H. Neil October 1973 �SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE SMALL GAl'1E HANAGEMENT UNIT 8, 1968-1972 1/ SPECIES NUMBER OF HUNTERS 1970 1971 1972 1970 HARVEST 1971 1972 Average 24,813 11,606 9,276 14,148 -- 14,961 1968 1969 1,984 1,328 Snowshoe hare 101 30 73 95 -- 75 134 78 Blue grouse 298 154 213 124 442 246 1,172 73 368 78 815 501 Sage grouse 190 301 258 267 537 311 603 767 724 597 1,134 765 Chukar 122 453 151 223 -- 237 76 606 247 358 -- 322 Gambel 's quail 27 -- 61 -- -- -- 31 -- 153 Pheasant 313 621 129 250 256 314 586 1,040 127 246 446 489 Cottontail Band-tailed rabbit pigeon Mourning dove --- ,1,319 1,411 --1/ Average 2/ 1968 1,510 -- -- -- -- -- 2"76 290 242 447 314 --- 1969 o !!./ 1,403!:'/-- -- -- -- -- 5,828 2,412 2,091 4,373 3,676 -- 1/ - See Chap. 3 - Colo. Game,; Fish and Parks Division Laws and Regulations Handbook; Wildlife Management Unit 32 is wholly contained within Small Game Management Unit 8 and approximates six percent (6%) of Unit 8's total area (300 sq. mi. ~ 4,970 sq. mi.) as p1animetered from Colorado topographic maps 1:500,000 scale. Data from Colorado Small Game Harvest Surveys 1968-1972. 2/ - Hean for years data is shown. l/No data. !/Possib1e sa~ple size error. W. T. McKean October 1973 I I-' 0'\ 0'\ I �-167DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HtTNTI~G PRESSURE GARFIELD COUNTY, 1954 - 1972 1./ (From Colorado I-Jaterfo"loll Kill Surveys) GEESE '!:.../ EST. NO. HmiTERS EST. HARVEST No Data 19 35 34 60 57 1,076 32 No Data 1,945 16 No Data 2,795 25 No Data 538 4,923 4 75 Permits 1 (2) 302 1,219 250 Permits (1) YEAR DUCKS EST. NO. HL"1HERS EST. HlI.EVEST 1954 No Data 2,284 1955 No Data 4,231 1956 No Data 1,764 1957 No Data 1,909 1958 372 1,442 1959 541 1,721 1960 112 1,194 1961 291 674 1962 260 414 1963 277 1,504 1964 291 1,404 1965 362 1966 50 1967 184 406 1968 265 1,348 1969 312 2,901 1970 403 1971 1972 1! II - The closest comparable area to Wildlife Management Unit 32 for which data are available is Garfield County •. Excluding. National Forestlands, Garfield County contains 2,194 square miles. Unit 32 contains 300.7 square miles or 13.7 percent of the area concerned. For purposes of making comparisons these figures could readily be converted to birds harvested per mile of riverbottom. '!:.../Accuracy of data questionable due to sampling difficulties associated with very small populations, geese and goose hunters alike. 110bvious inaccuracy. ,~. T. McKean October 1973 �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 32 . Release Area Species Date Males Females Young Total Source of Stock References Chukar 9/5/41 ? ? ? 50 Upper Mahaffey Ranch, Grand Valley, Colorado. Game Farm FA Report 4-42 6/28/55 55 170 0 225 Parachute Creek near mouth of Garden Gulch on Floyd Spangler Ranch. Game Farm Sandfort's Files, (Ft. Collins Research Center) 3/22/57 50 50 0 100 Parachute Creek, 8.4 miles above jct. of U.S. 6 & 24, in Grand Valley on slope west of Benson's house. Little Hills Sandfort's Files, (Ft. Collins Research Center) 4/6/64 75 75 0 150 Mahaffey Ranch, 12.4 miles west of Rifle. Little Hills Sandfort's Files, (Ft. Collins Research Center) ------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8/27/41 Ring- ? ? ? 50 necked Hahnewald's Farm, Grand Valley, Colorado. Otto Game Farm FA Repor t 4-42 .... ~ I 00 pheasant I 9/5/41 ? ? ? 50 Mahaffey Ranch, Grand Valley, Colorado. Game Farm FA Report 4-42 Literature Cited Carhart. A. H. 1942. Chukar-pheasant experimental p Lant.Lngs , Jones, H., andG. Rogers. 1964. Chukar planting record. files at Fort Collins Research Center. Memo. to C,ommission. Fed. Aid Proj. l-l-17-R-3. 5 pp. April. Sandfort, W. W. 1956. Chukar partridge release records-Northwest 1956. l1emo. to Commission. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. 2 pp. Original release record located in Sandfort's Region and adjoining areas, Dec. 9-195l-Jan. 9, 1957. Trapping and transplanting chukar partridges, pp. 31-38. Game and Fish. 119 pp. In Quart. Prog.Rep. July, Colo. Dept. P. H. Neil September 1973 �-169CENSUS AREAS AND ROUTES - WILDLIFE MANAGfl1ENT UNIT 32 MULE DEER A spring trend count by fixed-wing airplane has been made from Rifle to Grand Valley in Unit 32 annually since 1967 at least. used in 1971, 1972 and 1973. Helicopters were Procedural details are available in the Northwest Regional office; summaries of results may be found there and in the Denver office of the Game Manager. necessarily These summaries do not show animal numbers by game management unit, but more commonly by drainage. ELK A winter aerial trend count for elk has been conducted ·by Northwest Regional personnel in adjoining portions of Unit 22. The trend area also includes upper elevations of the Roan Plateau in Unit 32 from headwaters of 'vest Parachute Creek to Davis Gulch, appx·oximate1y. No information has been supplied on dates and count results, but it is assumed that those data are on file in the Northwest Regional office. BLACK BEAR Incidental to deer and elk trend counts black bear are tallied in Units 22, 32, 31 and others. In addition, an annual estimate, by WCO district, of bear populations was begun in 1972. This estimate included also kill by trappers and others, and management objectives for the species. CHUKARS A production count along Parachute Creek was conducted annually from 19571967. and from 1968-1972, with 1970 and 1971 missing (Sandfort 1950-~952). �-170- Details of technique, map of area counted and results may be found in the Northwest Regional office, in the Denver office, and in Sandfort's files on chukars at the Fort Collins Research Center. WATERFOWL Wintering populations of ducks and geese in Unit 32 have been censused annually from fixed-wing aircraft at least in 1971, 1972 and 1973, possibly earlier, by Regional Hanagement personnel. Areas covered were on the Colorado River from Silt to Palisade. Summarizing tables do not break down specific river section populations. Field notes of observers may do so --:-see Northwest Regional personnel. Literature Cited Sandfort, W. \-1. 1950 through 1952. Game bird surveys. Rep., Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. In Fed. Aid Quart. . Pages variable by year. (processed). William T. McKean November 1973 �HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 32 1/ VEGETATIVE TYPE LOCATION DATE TREATHENT NO. ACRES TREATED PURPOSE OF TREATMENT AGENCY 4/10 - 12/44 E. Parachute Cr. T5S R94W Sec. 35 Sagebrush Seeded with Agropyron cristatum, Helilotus officinalis, Poa pratensis. 20 Revegetation BLM 8/1/58 - 6/30/59 Middle Parachute Cr. T5S R94H Sec. 7,18 T5S R95W Sec.12,13 Burned area Sagebrush Burn and reseed with Agropyron cristatum, Melilotus officinalis. 155 Res eed burned area BLM 6/18 - 22/62 E. Parachute Cr. T6S R95W Sec.4-6 Sagebrush, Oak Aerial spray with 2 lbs. 2,4-D in 2.5 gal. of diesel. 800 Brush control BLH " I 10/1 - 29/64 E. Parachute Cr. T6S R94W Sec. 6,7 Sagebrush Brush cutting with a brush beater. 80 Brush control BU1 1967 Parachute Creek T5S R94H Sec. 2.3, Sagebrush Brush cutting with rotary brush cutter 813 Soil and watershed modification BLM 11,8,9,10,19,30 T5S 24 R95W I •...• •...• Sec.14,23, 1/ If details are desired on any of these projects, make requests directly to Mr. Ron Kufeld~ Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521. P. H. Neil and W. T. McKean January 1974 �-172- MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CHECKLIST - WILDLIFE HANAGEMENT UNIT 32 A. Present. 1. Deer-auto collisions, State Highway 13 and U. S. Highway 6 and 24. The location of these Highways are such that they intercept travel routes and wintering areas of large numbers of migratory deer. This situation creates a continuing potential for high incidence of collisions between motor vehicles and animals. The results of the initial phases of studies on deer-highway crossing safety measures revealed that a 26 mile section of Highway 6 and 24 between Rifle and Grand Valley had the highest incidence of deer road-kills, based on information collected at the time from WCOI s throughout the state (Gordon 1969). This particular section of Highway 6 and 24 was selected for installation of van de Ree mirrors as an experimental safety measure to reduce the number of road-kills, however, Gordon (1969) concluded that the mirrors did not significantly reduce deer-highway mortality in this area. This study did reveal that the great majority of road- killed deer in this vicinity were killed in the months November to March when the animals were concentrated on their winter range. No information is available regarding road-kills on State Highway 13 immediately north of Rifle, however, it is believed that the problem of deer losses here and on Highway 6 and 24 will be of greater magnitude with the proposed oil shale development in Parachute Creek and on those BLM lease sites located in the Piceance Creek drainage to the north of Unit 32. �-173- 2. Deer damage to farm crops. In general, the problem of deer damage to farm crops in Unit 32 is relatively small in comparison to some other units. According to Myers (1973 pers.connn.), claims for 1971-72 totaled $1,770.70 for damage to alfalfa and hay in Units. 31 and 32 combined. for 1972-73 have only totaled $130.00 so far. Claims Decreased production of alfalfa and spring grasses is alleged because of early grazing by deer . Some damage to stacked alfalfa has b een fairly common in winter, as well as to the few scattered orchards in this area. B. Future. 1. Oil shale development. The proposed future oil shale development in Pa rachut e- Creek and perhaps the Anvil Points area will undoubtedly create a multitude of management problems, not only for all species of wildl ife but all componen t s of the environment as well. The increased human and vehicular activity, to include residential and commercial developments, associated with oil shale development will play a major role in reducing the carrying capacity of the existing mule d~erwinter range, particularly in the Parachute Creek drainage area, and result in loss of habitat for many small game and nongame species of mammals and birds. A more detailed analysis of proposed oil shale development and possible effects on the environment can be found by consulting Thorne Ecological Institute (1973), Tweedy (1971) and U. S. Dept. of Interior (1973), which are cited in greater detail in the Reference section at the end of this discussion. �-174- 2. Extension of Interstate 70 through Rifle and Grand Valley. Interstate 70 will intercept mule deer winter range and undoubtedly interrupt several migration routes, resulting in higher winter losses and still higher numbers of deer-auto accidents. A more detailed analysis of this particular problem can be found by consuIting Colo. Div. Wild!. (1973) regarding the environmental analysis and probable effects on all species of wildlife of the proposed extension of Interstate 70 from Rifle to Plateau Creek. Literature Cited . . Colorado Division of Wildlife. 1973. Fish and wildlife analysis of the Int;erstate 70 Highway corridor, Rifle to Plateau Creek. July. 126 pp , Gordon, D. F. pp. 5-23. 1969. Evaluation of deer-highway crossing safety measures. Final Report. In Quart. Res. Rep, , July-Part 1. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Thorne Ecological Institute. Tweedy, J. B., et al. 1971. Colo. 140 pp. 1973. The Colony environmental study, Para- chute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. t Lon Draft report. August. Boulder. 3 vol. Report on economics of environmental protec- for a Federal oil shale leasing program. A Special Committee of the Governor's Oil Shale Advisory Committee (for Colorado). January. 204 pp. U. S. Dept. of Interior. 1973. Final environmental statement for the pro- .totype oil shale leasing program. Washington, D. C. 6 vol. P. H. Neil and W. T. McKean November, 1973 � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/666c5968f41edcf49b5e3e0a8cffc028.pdf 3bcfee5de4711b85d2e614db82f920f9 PDF Text Text -175- July, 1974 JOR PROGRESS REPORT State of ______ (:(_)L_O!~~DO. _ Deer..:..Elk Investigations Proj ect No. __ . W-38-R.:.:.-.-.:::,2.:::,8 _ llC Wor.k Plan No. 3 Job Title Evaluation of Experimental Elk Management Procedures Period April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974 Personnel: Covered: Raymond J. Boyd and James F. Lipscomb. ABSTR\CT No work was accomplished on this job the past segment as all objectives and procedures were incorporated into a new job(WP 18, J 1, this project) with four rese<:trchersacting as a Task Force to examine the entire deer and elk management system in Colorado. This examination of the entire state was to generally follow the objectives and procedures of this job, but on a statewide scope and both for deer and elk • /") . ~/J~~Q~lL.IrOiiII://(~ ': £~.~. Prepared by ~l-l....::~~· ...•-+=..//-=.I =-' 'Ra~#~ Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��-177- July, 1974 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project ,.-:.C:.,:O:..:;L:,:O:.:.RAD=.:=..O _ No. Work Plan No. W-38-R-28 Deer-Elk Investigations 14 Job No. 1 Job Tit1e: Mi __d_d_1_e_P_a_rk_D_e_e_r_S_t_u_d:.:.y_-~P-o~p-ul_a_t_i_o_n __D_,i_s_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_on Period April 1, 1973 through March Covered: Personnel: _ 31, 1974. W. M. Brandes, G. L. Brown, L.R. Carpenter, R. D. Clippinger, M. C. Coghill, J. Cooney, J. J. Dorrance, P. F. Gilbert, R. B. Gill, D. Roart, S. Rom, J. J. Klein, Jr., D. Luce, P; K. Mason, D. Merriam, K. Moser, L. A.Roper, R. L. Schmidt, B. C. Sigler, W. Travnicek, M. Ward, J. B. Weir, J. L. Wolfe, and W. B. Woodward. ABSTRACT A draft of a manuscript entitled ''Mule Deer Movem.ents and Distribution in Middle Park Colorado" has been completed and is now in the editing stages. ManUscript will be submitted to an appropriate journal for publication. PreparedbYJ~ (/ ~ , , Laren A. Roper Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��-179July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-28 Work Plan No. 14 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. ~4~ Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Physical Characteristics and Food Habits Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1973ihroughMarch 31, 1974 L. A. Roper ABSTRACT No work was accomplished on the Physical Characteristics portion of this job during the current segment. The Physical Characteristics portion has been amended for one more year to allow time for reporting the data in a Game Information Leaflet. Originally, these data were intended for publication in the Division of Wildlife _~E~cial Report Series. But subsequent analyses of portions of the data indicated most of the data were too sparse to permit extrapolation to Middle Park deer populations. Hence, only pertinent descriptive physical measurements will be reported in the Game Information Leaflet. The food habits portion of Job 4 were presented in full in the 1972-73 Segment (W~38-R-27, WP 14, Job 4). Prepared by cGvaeC.i:r&! .Laren A. Roper. . Asst. Wildlife Researcher _ ��-181July, 1974 JOB FINAL REPORT State of C;:.O;:,;L::.;O;:,;RA=D::.;:O:.._ Project No. W-38-R-28 Work Plan No. 14 Job Title: Job No. 5 Middle Park Deer Study - Experimental Range Fertilization Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations Len H April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974. e . Carpenter, R. Bruce Gill, Donald Reichert, and 0. C. Wallmo. ABSTRACT A dissertation (Carpenter 1974) is being prepared based on info~tion and date obtained from this study and is in the final editing stages. This thesis, copies of which will be on file at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center Library and at Colorado State University Library, becomes the .final report for this job. Prepared by --=1:,;.:::. ...:.4':';1.-:::...-_11_·, _C:..;:._4._'1r1-<~_1 '_~_~_' '_, Len H. Carpenter Student Assistant IV __ ��-183July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State 0 f COLORADO --~--~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-28 Work Plan No. 14 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 5_a __~ Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Range Fertilization Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to April 1, 1974 Personnel: R. Bruce Gill, O. C. Wallmo, Don W. Reichert, Wayne L. Regelin, and Len H. Carpenter. ABSTRACf A study area on native sagebrush range in western Grand County, Colorado was selected and fenced to investigat-e the response of mule deer forage species to combined fertilizer-herbicide treatments applied at various dates during the growing season. A randomized block design with six herbicide application dates and six controls was replicated three times Pelleted ammonium nitrate fertilizer (33.5% N) at the rate of 60 pounds elemental N per acre was applied to each tr~atment plot at the start of the experiment.· Beginning with April 4, and at two week intervals until June 13, six, i~4-D herbicide applications at the rate of 2 pounds acid equivalent per acre were applied to appropriate plots. Aerial cover measurements of selected plant species were made. on each treatment plot during August by the rated microplot technique.· Covariance and graphic analyses of the data were made. April 17 appeared to be the most promising herbicide application date for maximizing beneficial responses of important mule deer food species. _ ��-185- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY EXPERIMENTAL RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter This report presents the design, methods, and treatment data gathered for the first year of this study. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of fertilizer on deer forage and deer feeding responses to fertilization of critical winter range areas. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Investigate the response of deer forage species to combined fertilizer herbicide treatments applied at different periods during the growing season. METHODS AND MATERIALS A study area on native sagebrush range near Kremmling, Colorado was chosen for this study. A study site was chosen where there were sufficient forbs to permit measurement of changes in density attributable to 2,4-D treatments. The experimental design chosen was a randomized block with six treatments (herbicide application dates) where each treatment plot was split and one-half was treated while the other half was untreated and served as a control. The location of the control plots (either east, west, north or south of the treatment plots) was randomly chosen. This design resulted in 12 plots in each replicate. This layout was re-randomized and replicated three times at the study site (Fig. 1). Each treatment unit was 50 X 100 feet with each split-plot unit being 50 X 50 feet (Fig. 2). This resulted in a block of land 300 X 300 feet wi th each replicate being 100 X 300 feet. All split-plot units that were treated with herbicide also received an application of pelleted ammonium nitrate fertilizer (33.5% N) at the rate of 60 pounds elemental nitrogen per acre. The fertilizer was applied on April 2 and 3 by a "whirlybird" hand fertilizer. Herbicide was applied on April 2, April 17, May 2, May 16, May 31, and June 13; that is, approximately 15 days apart. At each treatment date, 2,4-D herbicide was applied at a rate of 2 pounds acid equivalent per acre with a back-pack sprayer modified with a 5-foot boom containing four nozzles. The 2,4-D consisted of 72.8% propylene glycol butyl ether esters. The herbicide was applied with water as a carrier at a rate of 5 gallons per acre. A small amount of wetting agent was also used to increase effectiveness of the spray. The entire study site was enclosed with a three-strand barbed wire fence to prevent livestock use. �I I June I I 13 Control Control I 4 17 I I I I I I I I May April 16 4 I I I I May r Control 31 I I April Control 17 I I I I I I I Control I I I lY May Control Control 16 :I I I Control I I I Control I I I I Rep 2 I I I I I r I I Control I I I 13 2 I I I I, June April I I I I I April I May I I Control :I Rep 1 May May I I MIl,. Control 1------- 16 31 2 April Control Fig. 1. May --.-. --- ------- ------ April 4 May Control 13 Control Control I I 2 I June ,... 00 0- Control 31 ~E Control 17 Physical layout and randomized location of the six herbicide treatment dates and controls for the three replications. Solid lines represent treatment boundaries--dotted lines represent split-plot boundaries. Rep 3 �I T , I I I I I I 100' I I I I 1 ~ ...., I I I i : SO'~ r--Fig. 2. I ~ 0; 300' Individual replicate and treatment dimensions. -J �-188- There were approximately 12.5 inches of crusted snow covering 75 percent of the ground on the treatment plots at the time of fertilizer application. The ground remained frozen during fertilizer applications, and limited snow melt occurred during the warm period of the day. Weather, moisture and plant phenology at each herbicide application date are presented (Table 1). Nitrogen fertilizer was used along with herbicide in order to obtain information relatable to other studies being conducted on similar vegetation in the immediate area (Carpenter 1970, 1971, 1972). In this work nitrogen and 2,4-D resulted in a reduction in sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata tridentata), an increase in grasses, and a general increase in total plant biomass, but also a general decrease in forbs. The herbicide was applied early in June at the optimum state of susceptibility of big sagebrush. It was hypothesized that earlier treatments would cause some reduction of the sagebrush plants but would have minimal effects on the associated forbs. Vegetation Measurements The rated microplot method as described by Morris (1971) was employed to measure treatment effects, using a 1 X 2-inch rectangular plot. All measurements were made in August approximately two months after final herbicide treatment date. Aerial cover was recorded for selected plant species of special interest and for plant groups, in the categories "other grasses", "other forbs", and "other shrubs", for species of very low frequency or of little importance as deer forage. Cover was rated to the nearest one-tenth (1/10 = score of 1, 10/10 = score of 10) of the area occupied in the microplot. Two hundred microplots were systematically located in each of 36-50 X 50 feet treatment plots and controls. Cover ratings were then added together for the 200 separate microplots for each plant species or group to obtain a measurement value for that treatment or control plot. While this total rating may not directly relate to cover, the rated plot method will give a precise estimate of plant cover (Morris 1971) . Cover information was obtained separately on both dead and live cover for big sagebrush, green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus.viscidiflorus), snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), Vasey rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus vaseyi), other shrubs and total shrubs. Forbs recorded by species included buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum), bluebell (Mertensia lanceolata), penstemons (Penstemon caespitosus and !.. watsoni), and phlox (Phlox multiflora andP. bryoides). Grass recorded by species included western wheat grass (Agropyron smithii), bluebunch wheatgrass (A. spicatum)-, muttongrass (Poa fendleriana), bottle brush squirreltail grass (Sitanion hystrix), and pine needlegrass (Stipa pinetorum). The data obtained for big sagebrush (live cover only), buckwheat, both penstemon species, western wheatgrass, muttongrass, pine needlegrass, and total shrubs, forbs and grasses were analyzed by covariance analysis. Lack of uniform data for each treatment date prevented analysis for other species. �-189- Table 1. Weather, moisture and plant phenology at each herbicide application date. Date Environmental Conditions Selected Plant Phenology April 4 Air temperature 390 F. Wind less than 5 mph. Average snow depth 12.5 inches. 8085 percent snow ground cover. Artemisia tridentata stem elongation beginning. April 17 Air temperature 450 F. Wind 5-7 mph. Snow in patches 4-6 inches deep. Soil very wet and muddy. Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus beginning to leaf bud. May 2 Air temperature 450 F. Wind 5-20 mph. Soil moisture good. Phlox bryoides beginning bloom. Penstemon caespitosus showing vegetative growth. Stipa pinetorum starting green growth. May 16 Air temperature 600 F. Wind 5-15 mph. Top 2 inches soil dry. Phlox bryoides ending bloom. Penstemon caespitosus much vegetative growth. Koeleria cristata heads forming. Poa fendleriana green growth at base. May 31 Air temperature 60 F. Wind less than 5 mph. Soil surface dry. Mertensia lanceolata full bloom. Potentilla concinna beginning bloom. Eriogonum umbellatum near bloom. Koeleria cristata full head. Poa fendleriana full vege~ tative growth. June 13 Air temperature 700 F. Wind less than 5 mph. Soil surface dry. Mertensia lanceolata postfloral. Phlox multiflora blooming. Eriogonum umbellatum blooming. Poa fendleriana full head. o �-190:-- Each of the 18 control plots served as the independent value while each of the 18 treatment plots were the dependent values. Covariance analysis allowed for more precise measurement of true treatment effects by adjusting each treatment cover mean by its own control~ This procedure decreased the effects of heterogeneous vegetation. Resulting adjusted means were used for graphic analysis of vegetation response by treatment dates. For some species percent kill was obtained from the unadjusted live and .dead cover measurements. . DESCRIPTION OF AREA The study area, on public land administered by the Bureau.of Land Management, U.S.D.!., is located 5 miles northeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (T 2 N, R 80 W, SE 1/4 NW 1/4, Sec. 22). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The percentage kill of total forbs and total shrubs (calculcated from measurements of live and dead cover) increased from the April 4 herbicide treatment to the May 31 treatment and decreased thereafter· (June 13 treat'ment) (Fig. 3). The same trend was true for big sagebrush except that there was little difference between May 31 and June 13 treatments. The percent kill estimates were not subjected to statistical analysis, because the analysis was designed to interpret changes in aerial cover over years and in most cases, mortality of plants can be recorded only as an immediate effect. Aerial cover of live forbs, measured in August, was greatest on plots treated April 4 and least on plots treated May 31 (Fig. 4). Plots treated June 13 had more forb cover in August than those treated May 2, May 16, or May 31. Most of the increase was attributable to Pertstemoncaespitosus (Fig. 5), though the same trend was apparent irtEriogortumumbellatum. Apparently their peak of susceptibility to 2,4-D is around June 1. Peak susceptibility of !. watsoni was around May 15. Aerial cover of shrubs showed the same trend, with peak susceptibility around May 31. While there was little difference in cover reduction of big sagebrush on plots treated May 31 and June 13 (Fig. 3), there was slightly more live sagebrush cover on June 13 plots than.on May 31 plots (Fig. 5). Even with this diminished effect on June 13, the date of herbicide application did have a significant (p = .05) negative linear effect on aerial cover of big sagebrush, buckwheat, both penstemons, total shrubs, and total forbs. Adjusted means for microplot cover by treatment date for all the various plant variables are given (Table 2). In the case of grasses there was not a clear pattern of response to date of treatment (Fig. 4). However, grasses are not directly affected by 2,4-D. They would be expected to respond to reduced competition from other plants and fertilization, and this response should be measurable in future years. �100 Artr 80 Total shrubs '""""' ~ w ~ U H o ,....l 60 p,.. o Total forbs ~ U H .~ ....., ,....l ,....l H ~ •... .... I. \Q I I 40 I / H Z W / I U / ~ W p,.. I I 20 I / / ;',/ ;' ;' ,/ ;' ;' ;' / April 4 Fig. 3. April 17 May 16 2 DATE OF TREATMENT May May 31 June 13 Percent kill of big sagebrush, total shrubs, and total forbs on plots treated with 2,4-0 herbicide at six dates in spring. �280 I •, \ \ \ ..A 240 \0 L \'d \ ~ \ \ \ \ \ \ 200 L \ , , \ Ul ~ ::.: Q I'Ll r-< Ul 160 ::> ...., l \~ \ \ , \ ~ ~ .. ~ I'Ll ~ U -. , 120 \ E:-4 0 ...:I \ ~ ~ r t-l \0 N A... I \ \ o H ::.: \ \ \ 80 40 Fig. 4. August cover April April 4 17 of f orb s , grasses, May May June 2 16 DATE OF TREATMENT 31 13 May and shrubs on plots treated with 2,4-0 herbicide at six dates in spring. �200 Peca - Penstemoncaespitosus Peca 160 Artr = Artemisia tridentata Erum = Eriogonum umbe11atum ~ Pewa a Penstemon watsoni § H en ..., ::;l 120 ~ .. .\ Artr ~ ~ ~ U \ \\ 80 I \ H o ...l \ \ ~ ~ t-' \0 W ,, I \ U H \ ~ \ 40 '..••.........•• ...... ..•....._ Erum ....- -......• ... -------- . May 31 June 13 ..... ..... -.... ..•. _ April 4 April 17 May 2 I May 16 _--- DATE OF TREATMENT Fig. 5. August cover of four plant species on plots treated with 2,4-D herbicide at six dates in spring. �-194- Table 2. August cover of selected plant species and groups on plots treated with 2,4-D herbicide at various dates in spring. Values are means of micro plot -cover-estimates as adjusted by covariance-analysis.Dates .Adjusted Means Max 1 15 Species or Plan t Groups 1 A:eril 15 Big sagebrush 108 40 21 Total shrubs 169 93 Buckwheat 29 Penstemon caespitosus 1 Jl.IDe 15 30 10 14 71 55 25 46 19 7 8 4 7 181 89 27 23 11 68 Penstemon watsoni 14 24 9 0 4 7 Total forbs 270 162 58 55 24 103 Western wheatgrass 13 11 16 13 14 14 Muttongrass 68 90 95 64 77 68 Pine needlegrass 11 9 18 11 13 11 Total grass 91 123 143 96 116 94 Figure 3 suggests two reasonable alternatives for timing the application of 2,4-D if the desire is to achieve a reduction in sagebrush while preserving forbs. Application of2,4-D on April 4 achieved a 26 percent kill of sagebrush and no forb mortality. The April 17 treatment killed 63 percent of the sagebrush and only 17 percent of the forbs. The snowcover on April 4 and April 17 (Table 1) probably had some influence on the effectiveness of 2,4-D on forbs. In other years forbs might be more or less advanced phenologically and slightly different results would occur if herbicide were applied on those dates. However, managers can use phenological development as a guide for spring applications just as they now do for summer application. Finally, it is emphasized that the results reported here are from the first growing season after application. Ultimate interpretations will be contingent upon subsequent measurements. �-195- . LITERATURE CITED Carpenter, L. H. 1970. Middle Park deer study - range fe~ti1ization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and p'arks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rep ,, July, Part 3. pp , 369-393. Carpenter, L. H. 1971. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 3. pp. 225-253. Carpenter, L. H. 1972. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2~ pp. 211-251. Morris, M. J. 1971. Estimating understory plant cover with rated microp1ots. Final Report FS-RM 1702. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo. 29 p. ��-197July, 1974, JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C::.;O:,:LO=M::.;ffi:::..;:.O----- Project No. W-38-R-28 Work P1ailNo. 14 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No._~-8--_~----~--~------ Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Experimental Harvest Regulations Period Covered: April 1, 1973 rhrough Harch 31, 1974 Personnel: W. J. Adrian, G. L.Brown, L. M. Brown, L. Brevard, R. D. Clippinger, G. Demarest, F. G. Dienes, R. E. Keiss, J.F. Lipscomb, J. A. }1'.aas, D. Mueller, D. Luce, J. M. Neisus, H. Riffel, L. A. Roper, G. G. Schoonve1d, J. A. Tulloch, D. Walsworth, and J. L. Wolfe. ABSTRACT The January 1973 deer population estimate for deer in Midd1e.Park was 9,670 ± 2,566 deer. Winter losses were estimated at 6.4 percent or 647 deer. Productivity, based on pre-season deer classifications amounted to 86.9 ± 11.8 fawns per 100 adult females. There was no significant difference between October, December and January sex and age classifications even though a harvest of 775 deer was estimated after the October count ,and a 966 harvest was estimated following the December count. The mean estimate of bucks per 100 does for each count was 55.4, 58.8 and 62.7. Fawns for each classification. were estimated at 86.9, 88;1 and 89.4 per 100 does. The total harvest estimate for all hunting seasons was 1,771 deer or 41 percent below the harvest objective of 3,000 deer. Failure to distribute all post season deer permits was primarily responsible for the low harvest. Hunter success was an estimated 22.2 percent for the regular deer season and 58.1 percent for the post season. AD. estimated 83 percent of the'permitted hunters hunted in the regular deer season and 77 percent' hunted .in the post deer hunt. ' ��-199- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY - EXPERIMENTAL HARVEST REGULATIONS Laren A. Roper P. S. OBJECTIVE To adjust a mule deer population to a specified density on the winter range. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate.deer density, structure, productivity and winter mortality in Middle Park. 2. Recommend season regulations and publicize the procedures for hunters to obtain permits and participate in the experimental hunt. 3. Measure and estimate the harvest by sex and age class and the success of hunters. 4. Determine if the hunting public wilL participate on a continuing basis to achieve adequate harvests utilizing specified permits in post season hunts. 5. Determine if specified permits are capable of achieving predetermined harvest goals. METHODS AND MATERIALS Estimate Deer Density, Structure, Productivity and Winter Mortality Methods have been reported by Roper (1973, Gill (1969 and 1971). Recommending and Publicizing Season Recommendations Methods have been reported by Roper (1973). Estimate the Harvest and Success of Hunters Methods have been reported by Roper (1973). 1. Exceptions are: A 50 percent sample of permitted hunters was obtained for an estimate of the regular season harvest and 33 percent of the post season hunters were surveyed. The statewide game management survey was used for estimating the harvest for archers and high country buck hunters. A 50 percent random survey of all archers in the State was used and a 100 percent survey for high country buck hunters was attempted. �-200- 2. The self-service drop boxes were eliminated as were the report cards attached to each permit. 3. The surveys were incorporated into the regular big game survey system utilized by the Game Management Section. This system uses automatic data processing where non-responding hunters receive follow-up letters at two week intervals until the percent return approaches or exceeds 90 percent. Determine if Hunters Will Participate See Roper (1973). Determine if Specified Permits are Capable of Achieving Predetermined Harvest Goals The deer population life equation was used to assess the success of the hunting season as determined by the random surveys of 50 and 33 percent of the permitted hunters in the October and December hunts to obtain harvest estimates. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Density Estimates The 1973-74 winter population estimate of deer for Middle Park was 9,670 ± 2,566 (P<.lO) deer or 16.5 ± 4.4 (P<.10) deer per square mile of winter range. Table 1 is a summary of deer counted per quadrat and Table 2 is a list of population estimates by each deer herd sub-unit. Table 3 is the life equation data for deer in Middle Park from 1967 to present and Table 4 is a more detailed life equation for deer from January 1973 through January 1974. Structure (Sex and Age Composition) Pre-season Counts On October 10, 11 and 12, 760 deer were classified by one observer using a helicopter. A fresh snow of 3-4 inches throughout the Muddy Creek area provided excellent count conditions. The_Blue River area had considerable bare ground and occasional winds resulted in fair count conditions. In the Troublesome Creek and Williams Fork River areas the count was hampered by fog and lightly falling snows. Conditions for counting were poor. A total of 96 (12.6 percent) mature bucks, 78 (10.2 percent) young bucks, 314 (41.3 percent) does and 273 (35.9 percent) fawns were-classified. Resulting sex and age ratios (Table 5) were: 55.4 ± 8.61 bUGks:100 does:86.94 ± 11.84 fawns (P<.10) (Riney 1956). �Table 1. 1974. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata, Middle Park, Colorado, Muddi: Creek Low High Density Density £=Total y yh Blue River Low High Density Density Troublesome Cr. High Density Granbi: Low Density 0 0 14 0 12 3 15 0 0 4 0 4 0 0 41 0 0 0 36 3 60 0 0 20 0 0 65 90 17 0 54 0 0 0 128 87 15 0 30 0 0 0 0 84 0 0 13 25 125 52 54 66 32 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 7 0 12 48 50 79 65 2 0 91 0 14 41 1 16 0 370 18.5 12 1.0 499 41.6 275 30.6 296 29.6 20 2.9 = 16.4552 yst = 2.6316 N yst Williams Fk. River Low High Density Density C.L. = 16.46 ± 4.37 = 9670 estimated deer C.L. = 9670 ± 2566 104 20.8 3 .6 I N .... 0 I �Table 2. Deer population estimates by sub-units in Middle Park, 1968-1974. Year Muddy Creek Blue River Williams Fork River 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 4,101 2,994 1,429 794 1,002 2,856 2,272 4,074 3,531 3,291 3,335 2,259 4,186 4,663 843 774 271 569 742 556 622 Table 3. Troublesome Creek Granby Total 1,622 1,679 1,910 889 1,404 2,340 1,897 No Count 134 306 137 22 149 216 10,640 9,112 7,207 5,724 5,429 10,987 9,670 Wounding Loss (20% Harvest) Post-hunt POE' Ca1cu- Census 1ated Est. Lif.e equation for deer in Middle Park, winter 1967-68 through 1973-74. I Year Jan. Pop. Est. 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971·72 1972-73 1973-74 10,640 9,112 7,205 5,719 5,429 10,087 9,670 Winter Loss No. % Other Known Losses PreFawn Pop. Fawn ReEroduction % No. Pre Hunt Pop. Harvest No. % - 42.65 53.48 45.35 47.36 52.22 50.00 3,810 4,531 2,753 2,477 3,675 4,621 12,744 13,004 8,823 7,707 10,713 13,870 23 51 28 7 3 13 2,909 4,503 2,436 516 356 1,771 582 901 487 103 71 354 9,253 7,600 5,900 7,088 10,541 11,745 9,112 7,206 5,730 5,429 10,987 9,670 * * * * * * * * 16.0 7.0 15.8 8.6 .7 6.4 1,706 639 1,135 489 50 647 101 192 8,934 8,473 6,070 5,230 7,038 9,249 * * * * *Data not available this segment. N 0 N I �Table 4. Life equation for deer in Middle Park from January 1973 - January 1974. Bucks Does Buck Fawns 1973 Winter Pop. 26.0% 2,625 40.7% 4,100 18.3% 1,849 15.0% 1,513 100.0% 10,087 Winter Mortality (6.4%) 43.5% 281 8.7% 56 26.3% 170 21.5% 139 100.0% 646 Accidental Deaths 26.1% 50 40.6% 78 18.2% 35 15.1% 29 100.0% 192 Spring Pop. 24.8% 2,294 42.9% 3,966 17.8% 1,644 14.5% 1,345 9.249 Female Fawns Total Percent Yearlings Bucks Does I N Pre-fawning Pop. 42.6% 3,938 w 57.4% 5,311 Fawn Crop (.93 Fawns/Doe) Pre-hunt Pop. ·0 I 39.9 55.0% 2,542 45.0% 2,079 4,621 28.4% 3,938 38.3% 5,311 18.3% 2,542 15.0% 2,079 100.0% 13,870 Harvest (Archery, Regular 59.6% and Post-Season Totals) 1,056 34.4% 610 3.4% 61 2.6% 44 100.0% 1,771 Wounding Loss (20% of Harvest) 211 122 12 9 354 Post-season (Calculated) 22.8% 2,671 39.0% 4,579 21.0% 2,469 17.2% 2,026 100.0% 11,745 Post-season (Actual Est.) 24.9% 2,408 39.7% 3,839 20.5%* 1,985 14.9% 1,438 100.0% 9,670 * Fawn harvest = 35.4% of total kill. Buck fawns comprised 58.0% of total fawn harvest. 24.5 �-204- Table 5. Pre-season deer classification Year Bucks Does Fawns Total Bucks: 100 Does Fawns: 100 Does 1969 195 451 419 1,065 43 93 1970 152 361 258 771 42 72 1971 20 41 30 91 49 71 1972 73 102 89 264 72 88 1973 174 314 273 761 55 87 Post-OctoberDeer comparisons from 1969-1973. Season Counts , Helicopter classifications by one observer on December 10, 11 and 12, 1973, resulted in classifying 1,664 deer. Classifications were 244 (14.7 percent) mature bucks, 152 (9.1 percent) young bucks, 674 (40.5 percent) does, and 594 (35.7 percent) fawns. Count conditions were .good ·to excellent and ratios were: 58.7 ± 6.1 bucks:100 does:88.1 ± 8.2 fawns (P<.10), (Table 6). Table 6. Post-season classification of deer in Middle Park from 1968-1973 in November and December. Year Type of Count Bucks Does Fawns Total Bucks 100 Females Fawns 1968 Ground 147 396 363 906 37 100 92 1969 Ground 319 582 505 1,406 55 100 87 1970 Ground 104 231 178 513 45 100 77 1971 Ground 356 783 321 1,460 45 100 41 1972 Ground 818 1,281 1,047 3,146 64 100 82 1973 Aerial 396 674 594 1,664 59 100 88 �-205- Post-December Deer Season Counts Following the controlled quota post deer season sex and age classifications were made using a helicopter after the deer census. All classifications were made on January 13, 1974. Conditions were excellent with snow background and little wind. Of 1,266 deer classified, 160 (12.6 percent) were mature bucks, 155 (12.2 percent) young bucks, 502 (39.7 percent) does, and 449 (35.5 percent) fawns. Ratios were: 62.7 ± 7.4 bucks:lOO does:89.4 ± 9.56 fawns (P<.lO), (Table 7). Table 7. January classifications of deer in Middle Park from 1969-1974. The 1974 classification follows a post-hunting season. Year Type of Count Bucks Does Fawns Total Bucks 100 Females Fawns 1969 Aerial 316 558 501 1,375 57 100 90 1970 Aerial 261 490 418 1,169 53 100 85 1971 Aerial 211 471 363 1,045 45 100 77 1972 Aerial 1973 Aerial 362 693 540 1,595 52 100 78 1974 Aerial 315 502 449 1,266 63 100 89 Comparisons Between October, December and January Classifications Chi square tests (Snedecor and Cochran 1968) for bucks and fawns per lOO 2 does between the October and December counts were non-significant (X = .17, .006 respectively). Similar non-significance occurred betwee~ October and January classifications of bucks and fawns per 100 females (X = .69, .14 respectively) • Table 8 is a summary of the range of variation as shown by the 90 percent confidence limits for the buck and fawn ratios per 100 does. Apparently deer behavior and distribution of the sexes are masking the effect of hunting on the overall sex and age structure classifications of deer throughout Middle Park. �-206- Table 8. Confidence limits (p < .10) for buck and fawn ratios per 100 female mule deer in Middle Park observed during helicopter surveys in October, December and January, 1973 and 1974. Date Bucks : 100 Females Fawns October 1973 46.8 ~ 55.4 ~ 64.0 75.1 S. 86.9 ~98.7 December 1973 52.7 ~ 58.8 'S: 64.9 79.9 s, 88.1 ~96.3 January 1974 55.3 ~ 62.7 < 70.1 79.8 ~89.4 100 Females ~99.0 Productivity Estimates Pre-season fawn:doe estimates prior to the 1973 deer season were 86.9 ± 11.8 fawns per 100 does. Productivity estimates obtained from JanuaryMay 1973 were 162 fawns per 100 mature doe deer (Roper 1973). Mortality Estimates Over-winter mortality for the 1972-73 winter was 6.4 percent or 647 deer. Recommending and Publicizing Season Recommendations In the 1973 deer hunting seasons Wildlife Conservation Officers reported nearly complete compliance of hunters in having permits while hunting in Middle Park. To accomplish this all roads entering the Middle Park area were signed similar to 1972 (Roper 1973) and a news release in OUTDOOR LIFE, October 1973, was printed along with newspaper articles and a publication in COLORADO OUTDOORS magazine (Roper 1973). Estimate the Harvest by Sex and Age Class and Success of Hunters Harvest and Hunter Success Estimates Sampling of hunters involved four different hunts. All hunters were required to have special permits to ~unt in Middle Park in the archery, regular deer and post deer seasons. A. portion of Middle Park was open to high country buck hunting by special permit only in the Ten-Mile mountain range. Sampling was from finite populations of known permittees for each season except archery. A total estimate of 1,771 deer were harvested in all seasons (Table 9). �-207- Table 9. Harvest of mule deer in Middle Park in 1973. Type of Hunt Bucks Does Buck Fawns Doe Fawns Total Percent Archery 21 0 1 2 24 1.4 High Country Buck 6 -- 6 .3 Regular Deer 436 284 25 30 775 43.8 Post-Season Deer 593 326 35 12 966 54.5 1,056 610 61 44 1,771 100.0 34.5 3.4 2.5 Total Percent 59.6 100.0 During the archery season 545 permits were distributed. Hunters were not limited to Middle Park and 205 hunters had 11.7 percent success in harvesting 24 deer. During the regular deer season (October 13-23, 1973) hunters were limited to hunting in Middle Park. Antlered-only permits were unlimited in number while either-sex permits were limited to 2,000. A total of 4,200 permits were issued of which ~,277 were antlered-only and 1,923 were either-sex. An approximate 50 percent random sample of permit holders was used to estimate the harvest. Of these the real sample size was 1,968 or 46.8 percent of the total permits. The projected number of hunters was 3,485 (83.0 percent participation). The success of all hunters was 22.2 percent. Either-sex permit holders had a 41.3 percent success ratio and antlered-only hunters had 16.8 percent success. Nonresident antlered-only hunters reported a 37.8 percent success while 35.0 percent of the either-sex non-resident hunters harvested a deer (Table 11). The total regular season harvest was 775 ± 80 (P< .05) deer (Table 10). Three thousand either-sex post-season permits were available for 3,419 eligible hunters from December 15-23. We issued 2,157 permits and 77.1 percent (1,663) of the permit holders actually hunted in the post season. Usable returns from a 33 percent random sample amounted to 31.2 percent of the total hunters with permits. The estimated harvest was 966 ± 93 (P<.05) cent (Table 10). deer for a success of 58.1 per- �-208- Table 10. Comparison of the number of permits, hunters, success ratio and harvest estimates in the October 13-23 and December 15-23, 1973 deer seasons in Middle Park, Colorado. Season Dates October 13-23 December 15-23 Total Number Permits Issued Antlered Only Permits Either Sex Permits 4,200 2,277 1,923 2,157 Total Projected Hunters 3,485 1,663 Percent Hunters Participating 83.0 77.1 Success Ratio Antlered Only Permits Either Sex Permits All Permits 16.8 41.3 22.6 58.1 775 ± 80 966 ± 93 Harvest Estimate* o 2,157 *P < .05. Sex and Age Structure of the Harvest A comparison of the bucks, does and buck and doe fawns in the regular and post deer season is tabulated in Table 11. An incisor tooth was collected from a sample of deer from the harvest in the regular and post seasons and will be sectioned and aged this coming segment. Table 11. A comparison of the harvest of bucks, does and buck and doe fawns in the October 13-23 and December 15-23 deer seasons in Middle Park, 1973. Season Dates Kind of Permits Bucks Does Buck Fawns Doe Fawns Total October 13-23 2,277 Antlered Only 1,923 Either Sex 56.3% 436 36.6% 284 3.2% 25 3.9% 30 100.0% 775 December 15-23 2,157 Either Sex 61.5% 593 33.7% 326 3.6% 35 1.2% 12 100.0% 966 �-209- Determine if Hunters Will Participate on a Continuing Basis In 1972, 4,317 permits were issued and 3,336 (77.3 percent) hunters hunted. In 1973, 4,200 permits were issued and 3,485 (83.0 percent) hunters participated. We apparently haven't lost participation to date and some indications are that as a result of the post season success ratio and satisfied hunters that participated, the Middle Park experimental harvest season might gain in popularity in 1974. This may be especially true if other areas in northwestern Colorado provide more restrictive deer hunting opportunities than in past years. Determine if Specified Permits Help Obtain Harvest Goals Based on the life equation, the pre-hunt population was 13,870 deer. Our goal was to harvest 3,000 animals. Primarily because all of the post season permits were not distributed the harvest was only 1,771 or 41 percent below the goal. Plans are to allow any hunter to have the opportunity to apply for a post-season permit after 10 days of preference to Middle Park permit holders who were unsuccessful in the regular deer season. This should help us come closer to harvesting deer within 10 percent of next year's predetermined harvest goal. LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park Deer Study - population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Re~., July, Part 1, pp. 105-122. Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park Deer Study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 1, pp. 123-140. Gill, R. B. 1971. Middle Park Deer Study - population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2, pp. 170-188. Riney, Thane. 1956. Differences in proportion of fawns to hinds in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from several New Zealand environments. Nature. 177 :488-489 • Roper, L. A. 1973. Middle Park Deer Study - experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rept., July. (In press). Sne decor, G • W " an d W ••G Cochran ,.1968 State Univ. Press, Ames. 593 p. Statistical methods. ()..L<.J..:;(~)=--_ Prepared by ....:...-L.jJ.d::.!t'W:.£l...l.~Z Laren A. R~ Asst. Wildlife Researcher The Iowa ��-211- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLOP~O --~------~~~~~--------------- Project No. Work Plan No. W-38-R-28 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No.~ 14 9 ~ _ Job Title Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Deer Habitat Evaluation Period Covered: April 1,1973- March 31,1974 Personnel: R. B. Gill, D. L. Baker, O. C.Wallmo, D. W. Reichert, L. A. Roper, F. Deines, D. Wallsworth, G. Demerest, W. L. Regel in , L. H. Carpenter, R. M. Bartmann and S. F. Steinert. ABSTRACT During the 1973-74segment a physical plant was constructed t.o facilitate experiments designed to estimate the nutritional requirements of Middle Park mule deer in winter. An initial study was designed and conducted estimating the energy requirements of fawns in winter. Results of the study are incompletely analyzed, but initial summaries are presented. ��-213- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY DEER HABITAT EVALUATION R. B. Gill and Dan L. Baker P. S. OBJECTIVE Establish practical procedures for managers to use in evaluating the current and time-relative condition of deer ranges, including quantification of carrying capacity of "crucial ranges" in Middle Park, developing the methodology for general use on game ranges in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. Quantification of carrying capacity: a) Determine the number of deer (if any) in normal mid-winter nutritional state that can be carried through a 2-month late-winter period on low elevation sagebrush winter range so as to retain the deer in condition for satisfactory reproduction, exp'ressing the results in animal units per land-area units. b) Determine the same for previously well-nourished deer (for information on advisability of directing attention to improving early-winter deer use areas). Game range evaluation and surveillance: a) Design a first-stage sampling procedure that (a) will permit expression of quantities of deer forage of various quality and the net quality of existing deer forage for range areas of specific interest, that (b) can be integrated into the ground~ air~sate1lite sampling procedure, and that (c) is feasible for use by resource managers. b) Design the second-stage aerial photographic sample and signature reference plots to integrate with above 1st stage sample units a sample that will permit time-relative and place-relative definition of important vegetation parameters. METHODS AND MATERIALS Physical Plant The period 1973-74 was one of developing facilities to implement objectives 1a and 1b of the Habitat Evaluation Study. The Junction Butte property of the Radium Wildlife Management Area was chosen as the site for these facilities because of its proximity to Kremmling, Colorado (2 miles south �-214- of Kremmling), because some facilities already existed there, and because it is fairly typical of Middle Park's "crucial deer winter ranges". The general layout of the facilities constructed in the past segment is diagramed in Figure 1. Two pastures were constructed, one approximately 10 acres (4 hectares) and the other approximately 6 acres (2.4 hectares). The larger pasture was built for studies of the energy budgets of unrestrained, tame deer in winter. The smaller pasture was constructed to quantify aspects of cover and deer behavior that are important in minimizing energy losses. A series of 18 individual deer isolation pens were erected adjacent to an eXisting deer holding pen (Figs. 2 and 3). These pens were designed to measure the winter nutritional requirements of mule deer under conditions where diets could be controlled and activity minimized. A weighing and handling facility was constructed as a functional part of the isolation pen complex so that periodic weights and blood samples could be collected with minimal disturbance to the deer (Fig. 3). Development of a Tame Deer Herd Acquisition of Fawns Twenty-six mule deer fawns were hand-reared during the period June 1 _ September 1, 1973 for the purposes of (1) investigating the nutritional requirements and energy budgets of mule deer in winter, and (2) development of a nucleus tame deer herd for use in future research. Mule deer fawns were obtained from 3 sources. Twenty-eight were taken from captive wild does trapped the previous winter in Middle Park and held until parturition. Sixteen were obtained from semi-tame does held at the Foothills Deer Pens, Fort Collins, Colorado. Thirteen were orphans collected from various areas in Colorado by Division of Wildlife Conservation Officers. Newborn fawns initially were reared at Fraser Experimental Forest. Later, because of continued, inclement weather in June and early July and resultant high fawn mortality, fawn-rearing operations were moved to the Foothills Deer Pens in Fort Collins. Fawns remained at this location until January 3, 1974, when they were transported to the Junction Butte Deer Research Center near Kremmling. Fawn Rearing and Mortality Fawns were taken from the dam approximately 12-24 hours after birth. Fawns were bottle-fed and handled according to procedures outlined by Reichert (1972). Out of an initial total of 57 fawns, 26 were reared to 6 months of age. This represented a 54 percent mortality over the entire rearing period. The major part of this loss (70 percent) was indirectly attributed to pneumonia as a result of exposure to freezing rain, snow, wind, and sub-normal temperatures while the fawns were being held at Fraser Experimental Forest. Fawns that died during this period were 2-3 weeks old. After they were moved to Fort Collins, 6 fawns died of unknown causes associated with intestinal upsets. �-215- N Fig. 1. Gsner-a L Layout of facilities Research Center, 1973-74. constrncted at Junction Butte Deer �-216Ci> ~ cp Drift Fence ~ D I --...• ...• ...• ~'\.. I cp • Isolation - 18 17 pen'--j r-- 16 ~ 15 ~ ,.. ~ ...•14 ~ ~ Pen ~ Area ~ Isolation ~ Exercise -- !> ...• • ~ .b ~e:..Runway ( ,c Holding II Pen II) 1« 13 ID ,....12 10 9 )b ( ...•11 I( I> - I> VI '" - -..., -..., -..., ~ ~ .•... .••• 8 ~ .... D 7 ~ ~ 6 ~ ,...5 __Loading '~ Chute Lab & Storage Bldg )( • ,....... ( ,.. ~ b Work Area 4 • -3 • '2 I 1 ~eigh Building a,.. «~,% ..., ~ ~ - .~ • ~1 • ~..., '" .!> b - 'JI! ~ «b - ..., ..., ..., ..., ..., .., ,....., <~ « ( C~ Holding C Pen ( « (I) 1 b c b 1 ~ « « - ..•. '"' '"' ..., .... ...• ..., ~ ..., ,., ..., ..., - '" - - '" ..., ..., ~..., Fig. 2. Detailed diagram of isolation pen facilities desigr.ed to experimentally measure nutritional requirements of mule deero �-217- ,... - j'""1 water~~ Food~ • ,... ~------~~----~~~~~ ~~ • • ( Gate~/ / H~ • • r--1 • • 1111111I1I1I1I11I1I1I1I1I1II1l)( -0 • • / • • ~ Fig. J. Details of individual of the isolation pen complex. isolation pens and weigh b~lllding facilities �-218- Growth Rates and Training Fawn growth rates were measured by taking weights weekly from 11 males and 9 females. Up to 4 weeks old, all fawns were weighed by placing them in a wooden transporting box, then weighing on a balance beam scale to the nearest 1/10 pound (45.4 g). At 4 weeks of age fawns were trained to stand on a platform scale located beneath the floor of a wooden handling chute. They quickly accepted this procedure and would walk into the weigh chute with little or no forcing by the handler. Mean daily gain during the first 6 months was .37 pounds (.17 Kg) for males and .31 pounds (.14 Kg) for females. Daily gain for both sexes combined averaged .35 pounds (.16 Kg). This is less than the .53 pounds (.24 Kg) daily. gain reported by Murphy and Coates (1966) for Missouri white-tailed deer fawns and the .44 pounds (.20 Kg) per day reported by Cowan and Woods (1955)for Columbian black-tailed deer over a similar period. Robinette et al. (1973) reported a daily gain of .48 pounds (.22 Kg) for males and .46 pounds (.21 Kg) for female mule deer fawns in Colorado. However, these data are reported for fawns which were left with the dam. Fawns in our study were bottle-fed from 24 hours after birth until weaning (approximately 84 days) at which time they weighed an average of 30.2 pounds (13.76 Kg). Males were castrated at 3 months with an elastrator. The sex of fawns at 6 months for 26 survivors was 14 males and 12 females compared to the original 57 fawns of which 34 were males and 23 were females. Since these fawns were acquired to measure maintenance energy requirements of mule deer under winter conditions, special training was required to obtain data on energy losses in urine and feces. Attempts were made to train fawns to accept attached urine-feces collection bags. While a functional urine-feces collection bag was being developed, fawns were trained to wear a light weight harness an an elastic training bag. A bag to collect uncontaminated samples of both urine and feces was not perfected during this segment. But, a partially successful feces collection bag was designed and tested on male fawns. This bag was constructed from a small gauge nylon mesh with a drawstring at the bottom to allow for daily feces collection without removing the bag. The feces bag was attached directly to the rump of the deer with winter viscosity branding cement. Pre-trial testing indicated that male fawns would carry the bag for at least 24 hours. However, during actual trial conditions, fawns failed to carry the bags for more than 3 hours at a time. The special low-temperature branding cement held the bag in position adequately, but fawns were able to grasp the bags orally and remove them. Because fecal collection bags were not usable to estimate both urinary and fecal energy losses, complete balance trials to determine digestible and metabolizable energy of feeds will be conducted during the next segment in Fort Collins. Energy Requirements of Fawns in Winter Objectives and Experimental Design This phase of the study was conducted in conjunction with objectives and manpower availability of Work Plan 14, Job 6 and is really an unexpected �-219- bonus for Work Plan 14, Job 9 as it puts us roughly one year ahead of our programmed schedule. The primary objective of this study was to estimate metabolizable energy requirements of captive mule deer fawns for winter maintenance. Subsidiary objectives were: (1) to determine minimum dietary energy requirements (grams of metabolizable energy/kilogram of body weight .75) for winter survival of mule deer fawns; (2) to determine length of survival (days) on a given level of energy intake; (3) to determine dietary energy deficiencies by measuring blood metabolites; and (4) to measure and relate weather parameters (ambient temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed and direction) to energy balance. To accomplish these objectives, 18 hand-reared fawns (10 males and 8 females) were selected. The deer were transported from the Foothills Deer Pens in Fort Collins to the Junction Butte Deer Research Center near Kremmling on January 2, 1974. Energy experiments began January 4, and ended March 28, 1974. Fawns were acclimated to the Kremmling environment 10 days prior to initiation of actual feeding trials. Each fawn was assigned to an individual isolation pen at random in order to minimize pen effects on treatment results. Each isolation pen measured 10 x 30 feet (3.04 x 9.12 m) and consisted of woven wire sides and dirt floors denuded of vegetation. A 10 x 10-foot (3.04 x 3.04 m) wooden roof partially covered each pen. Then the 18 fawns were grouped into trios on the basis of metabolic weight so that each trio contained. fawns of approximately equal weights. Next the six sets of trios were ranked from lightest to heaviest. Thus an experimental design was framed to accommodate 3 treatments (energy levels of feeds) with 6 replicates deer per treatment, so that weight variation within treatments was similar for all 3 treatments (Fig. 4). All deer were fed a pelleted ration (Table 1) which they had been receiving ad libitum 4 months prior to the start of the experiment. Treatments were assigned to each of the 3 groups of 6 deer as follows: treatment A deer were offered more food than they could consume in a 24 hour period (food offered ad libitum), treatment B deer received 75 percent of the ad libitum removal rates of treatment A deer, and treatment C deer received 50 percent of ad libitum intake (Table 2). Treatment A deer removed an average of 2.601pounds (1.22 Kg) of food per day for a 2-week pretrial period, but were offered 4.56 pounds (2.08 Kg) per day during the experiment to guarantee sufficient food for ad libitum removal. Treatments Band C deer were offered 2.01 and 1.34 pounds per day (.915 and .610 Kg), respectively. Expressed as a function of metabolic weight, treatments A, B, and C deer received 134.93, 59.36, and 39.57 grams of dry matter/ kilogram of body weight .75, respectively. Correlations were sought between treatments and blood metabolite levels, weight changes over time, and weather variables. Snow or water was provided each deer ad libitum. �-220- 14 12 10 8 6 Treatment A 4 w ~ :~ :r.. u t C:cl 2 0 Treatment B u 0:: C:cl 0... -2_ -4_ Treatment -6_ C -8_ o 1 2 J 4 5 WEEKS 6 7 8 9 10 Fige 4. Average weekly weight changes (percent) of fawns on three different levels of dietary ener-gy, Biddle Park, Colorado, Winter 1974. �-221- Table 1. Composition of pelleted feed. Ingredient Percent Barley, pulverized 10.0 Corn, pulverized 30.0 Milo, pulverized 5.0 Oats, pulverized 7.5 Wheat Middlings (Mill Feed) 6.5 Beet Pulp, shredded 2.5 Brewers Grain 35.0 Dicalcium Phosphate 1.0 Molasses, cane 2.5 Vitamin A, D, E. Premix .002 Trace Mineral Package (Mg, Zn, I, Fe, Co, Cu, Ca) .005 100.00 Table 2. Experimental design framework for study of maintenance energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. Rep. 1 Treatment A Lightest Deer Treatment B Lightest Deer Treatment C Lightest Deer Heaviest Deer Heaviest Deer Heaviest Deer Rep. 2 Rep. 3 Rep. 4 Rep. 5 Rep. 6 �-222- Metabolizable Energy Intake Food removal and orts were weighed daily from January 4 - March 28, 1974 to estimate gross energy intake. Because fecal collection bags were not successful~ complete energy balance trials to estimate metabolizable energy intake were scheduled at the Foothills Deer Pens in Fort Collins at the conclusion of the winter trials in Middle Park. Mean percent in vivo digestibility will be determined for 4 fawns selected at random --from each treatment. Each fawn will be placed in a 10 x 10 foot (3.04 x 3.04 m) metabolism cage for a 7 day collection trial. Total urine and feces will be collected. Samples of feed and feces will be analyzed for dry matter, crude protein ether extract, gross energy, ash, cell wall constituents, acid detergent fiber, and lignin. Urine will be analyzed for gross energy and nitrogen. Energy lost in methane production will be predicted from equations in Blaxter and Clapperton (1965). Body Weight Changes All fawns were weighed at the beginning of the feeding trials and at weekly intervals thereafter. Trained fawns walked through a specially designed holding chute consisting of a platform scale situated beneath a wooden floor. Body weights were recorded to the nearest 1/4 pound (.11 Kg). Blood Metabolites Blood samples were taken from fawns at weekly intervals for additional information on energy balance. A minimum of 12 fawns (4 from each treatment) were sampled each week. Fawns walked into the weigh chute, were weighed, and then proceeded into a padded squeeze chute designed for taking blood samples without injury to deer or handlers. A 6~inch diameter (15.24 cm) hole was cut in the squeeze chute exit door to allow a deer's head and neck to protrude. The hole and exit door were padded with 4 inches (10.16 cm) of foam rubber. Both sides of the squeeze chute were horizontally hinged, one side at the top, and the other at the bottom, so that firm even pressure could be applied to immobilize the deer. Each side was padded with 6 inches (15.24 cm) of foam rubber so the sides could conform to deer body contours. Then, one handler squeezed the deer's body, another grasped its head and positioned it for blood sampling, while a third collected the blood. The entire process of weighing and blood letting took approximately 90 seconds per deer. Blood sampling alone took 20-30 seconds from the time a deer was squeezed until blood was collected. Ideally, 10 milliliters of blood were taken from the jugular vein of each deer. Samples were taken with a 12 milliliter syringe and a 1 inch, 18 gauge needle. Blood samples were placed in heparinized tubes and gently rocked to mix heparin and blood to prevent coagulation. Whole blood was kept chilled and centrifuged within 2 hours of taking the first sample. Blood plasma was pipetted and frozen immediately for later analysis. �-223- Plasma samples will be analyzed for non-esterified fatty acid levels (NEFA), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), glucose, and total protein. Factors other than nutritional stress may affect NEFA and glucose 1evels~ such as excitability of the deer at the time of sampling. Since our deer were unavoidably excited, plasma will also be analyzed for abnormal levels of lactic acid and epinephrine. Weight changes, food intake, and blood metabolite values will be correlated with ambient temperature, wind speed and direciton, and relative humidity which were recorded continuously at the Junction Butte Deer Research Center during the feeding trials. Game Range Evaluation and Surveillance Accomplishment of these objectives (2a and 2b) was contingent upon contractual support funding from the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Unfortunately neither proposal was funded and, consequently, the objectives were not meto RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical Plant Construction of the Habitat Evaluation Study facilities (the Junction Butte Deer Research Center) was only partially completed in the 1973-74 segment Five gates remain to be constructed and numerous small gaps at the bottom of pasture fences need to be sealed before these structures are "deerproof". Also poultry mesh aprons should be attached to the bottoms of the pasture and isolation pen periphery fences to preclude entry by dogs and coyotes. An observation tower overlooking the 10 acre pasture is scheduled for construction in 1974-75 segment. Within the isolation pen complex, the lab and storage building needs to be erected and the loading chute runway fence awaits completion. Most materials for construction are already stockpiled, so that only manpower and time are necessary to complete the construction of facilities. Long range goals include the installation of a water system and an electric power system. 0 Additional fawns will be reared in 1974-75 and, barring catastrophic mortality, we anticipate adding 30-40 fawns to our tame deer herd. These fawns will be used to estimate energy requirements and expenditures under both controlled pen and free-ranging conditions in the coming winter. Energy Requirements Metabolizable Energy Intake Mean daily intake for the 6 fawns in the ad libitum treatment (treatmemt A) �-224- was 1.086 ± .0~8 Kg (P<.05) for the 10 week feeding trial. Expressed in terms of metabolic size this amounted to 70.03 ± 2.45 g DM/ Kg BW .75. Treatment Band C fawns consumed .910 ± .06 and .610 ± .00 Kg per day or 59.95 ± 0.40 and 42.,75 ± 0.00 g DM/ Kg BW .75, respectively. When daily intake is expressed as a percentage of body weight then treatment A fawns constnned an equivalent of 2.85 percent of their body weight per day, treatment B deer - 2.44 percent, and treatment C deer - 1.76 percent. Samples of the pelleted ration were collected and will be analyzed for gross energy content to convert dry matter intake to gross energy intake. Digestion and energy balance trials now in progress will provide information to convert gross energy intake into digestible and metabolizable energy intake. These data will then be used to predict apparent metabolizable energy requirements for maintenance from regressions of average daily metabolizable energy intake on average daily weight gains or losses. The X axis intercept (energy intake) represents the predicted energy intake at energy equilibrium or maintenance. Body Weight Changes Fawns on all treatments lost weight during the first two weeks of trials (Fig. 4). After 2 weeks treatment A and B fawns gained weight. Treatment B fawns lost more weight during the initial 2 weeks and gained more slowly than treatment A fawns. Treatment C fawns lost weight through 8 weeks and then apparently gained over the final 2 weeks. Initial conclusions are that treatment C dietary energy levels were below maintenance levels for growing fawns subjected to the environmental extremes of the 1973-74 Middle Park winter. Blood Metabolites Blood plasma samples have not been analyzed, but will be during the coming segment (1974-75). LITERATURE CITED Blaxter, Ko L., and J. L. Clapperton. 1965. Prediction of the amount of methane produced by ruminants. Brit. J. Nutr. 19(4):511-522. Cowan, I. McT., and A. J. Wood. 1955. The growth rate of the black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus). J. Wildl. Manage. 19(3):3313360 Murphy, D. A., and J. A. Coates. 1966. Effects of dietary protein on deer. Trans. No Amer. Wildl. Conf. 31:129-138. �-225- Reichert, D. W. 1972. Rearing and training deer for food habits studies. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Rocky Mtn. For. & Range Exp. Sta. RM Note 208. 7p. Robinette, W. L., C. H. Baer, R. E. Pf.Llmo're , and C. E. Knittle 1973. Effects of nutritional change on captive mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3):312-326. 0 Prepared by R. Bruce Gill Wildlife Researcher ��-227- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-28 Work Plan No. .....;..._1;;;.4~...,....,.,~,..".-____ Job No. ~-=10::-. ,,-'o '-;" Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Job Title Junction Butte Wildlife Habitat Improvement Project Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel: Regelin, O. C. Wallmo, R. A. Schmidt W.L. _ .ABSTRACT Snowfences produced drifts averaging 28.7 inches in depth and reduced snow .depth to an average of 15 inches in protected shrub stands. Neither soil temperature nor moisture content differed significantly (P < .05) between snowdrift-covered and control quadrants. CAG of shrubs has not been influenced by altering normal snow distribution. All Purshia tridentata seedlings planted in .October 1971 were dead by the summer of 1972 •. Thirty percent of the seedlings planted:l.n May 1973 were still alive 2 months later. Seeds ofChrysothamnusviscidiflorus, t. nauseosus, and Purshia tridentata planted. in October 1971 have failed to establish any plants. Good. stands of Agropyron.desertorum and Melilotus officinalis·have been established on all seedbeds. Carbon black applied to the snow surface was effective in producingmid~inter snow melt at temperatures well below freezing. ��-229- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY JUNCTION BUTTE WILDLIFE HABITAT IMPROVEMENT PROJECT Wayne L. Regelin P. S. OBJECTIVE To increase availability of forage on critical winter ranges by relocating snowdrifts and determine if changes in vegetative composition occur due to altering snow depth. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Measure snow depth and density and configuration of snowdrifts in relation to presence or absence of snowfences and in relation to shrub stands protected and unprotected from the accumulation of snowdrifts. 2. Measure occupation by deer of shrub stands protected and unprotected from the accumulation of snowdrifts. 3. Measure the relative use of browse by deer in shrub stands protected and unprotected from snowdrifts. 4. Measure the response of native vegetation (composition and density) in relation to increased or decreased snow depth. 5. Evaluate the success of forage species planted on sites of created snowdrifts and on control areas not covered with drifts. 6. Measure soil moisture with relation to increased or decreased snow accumulation. 7. Test the effectiveness of lamp black to accelerate snow melt in shrub stands protected by snowfences or natural windbreaks, and determine if changes occur in density and/or crusting characteristics of the snow due to treatment with carbon black. METHODS AND MATERIALS Prior to the current segment, this work was supported entirely by State funds; therefore, methodology has not been reported in the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration reporting system. Procedures used to meet all segment objectives, except number 7, are explained in Study Plan No.8 of Research Work Unit FS-RM-1709, Forest Service, entitled "Improvement �-230- of Deer Winter Range by Manipulating Snow Cover in Middle Park, Colorado" (Appendix A). Segment objective number 7 was initiated in 1974. Study Plan No.8, Amendment 1, explains the procedures used to meet this objective (Appendix B). Briefly, the snowdrift manipulation study consists of nine sites on the Junction Butte property of the Radium Wildlife Management Area. Five sites have snowfence to relocate snowdrifts formerly covering dense browse stands; each of these sites is associated with a paired control site. Four sites have snowfence whose primary purpose is to test the effectiveness and economy of different fence structural designs. Appendix C includes sections of the Second Annual Progress Report dealing with the different structural designs of snowfences. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weather and Snow Measurements The anemometer and drift gauge were installed for the 1973-74 winter on December 24, 1973 at the termination of the post-season deer hunt. Biweekly measurements of snow accumulation behind the snowfences and on adjacent controls began December 23, 1973 and continued until April 20, 1974. The first major snowfall of the winter occurred on December 28 and 29 when approximately 12 inches of snow fell. This storm was accompanied by wind in excess of 40 mph and produced the only significant drifting event during the winter. During January and February, only small amounts of snow fell, none accompanied by high winds. Windspeeds did exceed 50 mph several times during this period, but only after the snow had crusted, resulting in little snow being drifted. The maximum average snow depth behind the five snowfences on the south side of Junction Butte was 28.7 inches. The deepest drift measured at any point was 56 inches. Average peak snow depth in the shrub stands protected by the snowfences reached 15 inches, which is safely below the limit of trafficabi1ity for deer (Gilbert et a1. 1970). In the unprotected control shrub stands, average peak depths were 28 inches. Relative to control areas, the snowfences reduced snow depth an average of 12.8 inches in the protected shrub stands. Total snowfall during the winter was approximately 60 inches, but only 12 inches of this total was subjected to winds strong enough to transport snow. Table 1 shows the peak average snow depth in each quadrant as measured on February 5, 1974. Deer Occupancy of Snowfence Sites Table 2 summarizes the track count data on deer occupancy of areas behind each snowfence and the adjacent controls. No track crossings were observed on shrub stands where the snowfences reduced drift accumulation until February 16, 1974, even though many deer were sited on the mountain prior to this date. The south slopes remained essentially free of snow throughout the winter except for short periods after light ~nowfa11. �-231- Incidents of track crossings were much higher in the areas where normal drifting was prevented by the snowfences than in adjacent control areas. While the sum of track counts is impressive, variability among sites and dates prohibits any inference of statistically significant differences. Soil Temperature and Moisture The average soil temperature in each quadrant of sites 2, 3, and 4, at 3-inch depth, is shown in Table 3. Soil temperature did not differ significantly (P < .05) between treatment and control quadrants at any date. On sites 1 and 5, where seedbeds were established to study revegetation methods, soil temperatures did not differ significantly (P < .05) between beds covered with snowdrifts and control beds or between cleared and furrowed seedbeds at any of the dates measured (Tables 4 and 5). Soil moisture content has been measured to a depth of 10 inches in each quadrant of sites 2, 3, and 4 for the last 3 years during spring and summer. No significant differences (P < .05) in soil moisture content between treatment and control quadrants have ever been measured, even though snow depth on these quadrants has differed greatly. To determine if the water available in the.snowdrifts is stored below 10-inch,depths, Bouyoucous soil moisture blocks were installed at depths of 16, 22, 34, and 46 inches in September 1973. Blocks were placed at three locations within each quadrant at each depth on sites 2, 3, and 4. Beginning in the spring of 1974, soil moisture content will be measured at these depths. Tables 6 and 7 show the average soil moisture content in the quadrants of sites 2, 3, and 4 and the seedbeds of site 1 during 1973. Growth of Native Plants Current annual growth (CAG) on the tagged branches of the five shrub species was measured in September 1973. Table 8 summarizes the CAG of each species by quadrant for the 3 years data have been collected. The created snowdrifts which cover the A quadrants have had no effect on CAG of any species when compared to shrub growth in the control quadrants (C). Also, reducing snow depth in B quadrants with the snowfences has not reduced the CAG of these shrub species when compared to CAG in D quadrants where normal drifting occurred. Data on species composition and density of native plants in each quadrant were collected for the third year during July 1973. Analysis of these data will not be done until the final year's data have been collected, so covariance analysis can be utilized to determine if altering the normal snow depth influences species composition and density. �-232- Establishment of Planted Species Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) seedlings were first planted in October 1971 in dry soil and each was initially watered. All seedlings were dead by the summer of 1972. A second planting was done in moist soil on May 1, 1973 and not watered. Other planting procedures were the same, but native plants which had invaded the seedbeds since clearing in 1971 were not disturbed. Survival of the seedlings was observed on July 30, 1973; results are summarized in Table 9. Average survival 2 months after planting was 30 percent on both sites 1 and 5, even though site 5 has much shallower soil. No difference in survival was observed between snowdrift-covered and control seedbeds, but seedbeds cleared of all vegetation in 1971 had 35 percent more live seedlings than furrowed seedbeds. Seedbeds fertilized in 1971 had a 15 percent lower survival rate than unfertilized seedbeds, possibly due to increased competition for moisture with native species in the fertilized seedbeds. Almost no plants were established from the plantings of green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), rubber rabbitbrush (£. nauseosus), and bitterbrush seeds. An occasional plant of these species is encountered in the seedbeds, but the plantings of these species must be termed a failure. Good stands of crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) have been established in all seedbeds. Linear ground cover per row was greater in 1973 than in 1972 on all seedbed types (Table 10). Average plant height in 1973 was 11.6 inches compared to 3.5 inches in 1972. Nearly all plants produced seed heads. The best establishment and growth occurred on cleared seedbeds. Seedbeds covered with snowdrifts produced less linear cover per row than control seedbeds, possibly due to winter kill under the snowdrifts or the delay in the start of the growing season. Yellow sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis) plants were established in all seedbeds the second year after planting, but establishment in cleared seedbeds was much greater than any other seedbed type. The number of plants per row decreased in all types of seedbeds from 1972 to 1973 (Table 11). Even though there were fewer individual clover plants per row, the linear ground cover increased due to greater plant height. Average plant height in 1973 was 12.1 inches compared to 2.6 inches in 1972. Several plants were over 36 inches in height. Nearly all the plants produced large quantities of seeds, which are a potential source of reseeding. The 1974 measurements will indicate if this occurs. Native revegetation of the seedbeds which were cleared of all plants in 1971 is occurring more rapidly in seedbeds covered by created drifts than on the control seedbeds. Two years after clearing, the seedbeds covered with snowdrifts have over twice the number of native plants reestablished per unit area as the control seedbeds (Table 12). �-233- Experimental Snow Melt Seven sites, each consisting of two paired 10-meter-square plots, were located on Junction Butte in areas protected from wind-blown snow accumulation. Three sites have a southerly aspect and four northerly aspects; all are on nearly level terrain. Carbon black was applied to one plot in each site at the rate of 336 kg/ha (330 lb/acre) using a back-pack fertilizer spreader. First application of carbon black was made January 30, 1974; two subsequent applications at the same rate were made on February 4 and 9, 1974. Snow depth in each treatment and control plot was measured daily after the first application of carbon black. Within each plot, 13 snow ablation stakes, marked in 10-em increments, were systematically located to facilitate snow depth measurements. Snow density was determined at five locations within each plot using a MOntrose snow sampler. Snow density was determined four times during the study, immediately before the initial application, before the two subsequent applications, and at the termination of the experiment. Hardness of snow crust was measured at these same four times using a Ram Penetrometer. Details of the methods employed are given in Appendix B. The snow melt rate was accelerated on all treated plots. The ef{ect of the carbon black was more pronounced on the three sites with southerly aspect where the average snow depth was reduced from 42.9 cm to 3.6 cm compared to control plots where snow depth decreased naturally from 40.6 to 37.6 cm. Average snow depth on the four treatment plots with a northerly aspect was reduced from 53.3 cm to 27.4 cm, while no decrease occurred on control plots. Figures 1 and 2 show the average melt rates on the two different aspects. A light snowfall, 2 days after the first application, covered the carbon black with 2 to 3 cm of snow. No melt occurred on the plots with northerly aspects and' only slight melt on plots with southerly aspects for th~ next 2 days. This indicates that a light snow cover greatly reduces the effectiveness of carbon black in producing snow melt. Carbon black was applied again on February 4, 1974, but 7 to 8 cm of snow fell that evening, covering the new application. The third application of carbon black was made on February 9, 1974. Clear, cold weather prevailed for several days after this application resulting in rapid melt on all sites. The quantity of carbon black on the snow surface was increased 3-fold shortly after this melt period began because the two prior applications of carbon black were again on the snow surface. By February 11, 1974, 48 hours after the last application of carbon black, the three treatment plots with southerly aspects had melted to bare ground on 30 percent of their area. On February 13, 1974 over 60 percent of the area in these plots had bare ground showing. At the termination of the study, 16 days after the first carbon black application, all snow on the treatment plots had melted to bare ground, except in small patches shaded by tall shrubs. The plots w~th northerly aspects retained more snow at the termination of the experiment, but small areas within the plots did melt to bare ground. �-234- The average temperature during daylight hours during the entire experiment was -6.7 C. The highest temperature was +5.4 C. Table 13 shows the daily temperature fluctuation and mean temperature during daylight hours. Snow did melt on the treatment plots when the air temperature was below freezing. Free standing water near edges of the plots was observed when air temperature was -16 C. Density of snow did not differ significantly (P < .05) between treatment and control plots. Covariance analysis was used to test differences between plots with means adjusted for pretreatment values. Adjusted treatment means were slightly higher than control plot means prior to both the second and third applications of carbon black, but the differences were not significant. The average density of snow on all sites was approximately 30 percent. Hardness of snow crust varied greatly within treatment and control plots. The Ram Penetrometer was not powerful enough to break the crust in places, but would fall through the snow to the ground without applying any force only a few feet away. These extremely variable crust conditions did not permit quantitative analysis of data on crusting characteristics of the snow. From general observation, the carbon black treatment did not appear to alter the hardness of snow crust until rapid melting occurred and snow depth was shallow. At this time, the snow was very wet and slushy and at night an ice crust would form on the surface of such snow. These results indicate that application of carbon black can produce mid-winter snow melt at subfreezing temperatures. A light snow cover greatly reduces the effectiveness of the carbon black. The carbon black produced significant snow melt on both southerly and northerly exposures, but the results on southerly slopes were more pronounced. There was evidence of grazing use and bedding by deer on some melted plots, but the study was not designed to obtain quantitative information on the use of melted areas. LITERATURE CITED Gilbert, P. F.,O. C. Wallmo, and R. B. Gill. 1970. Effect of snow depth on mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1):15-22. �-235- Table 1. Peak average snow depth of five snowfence sites on the south side of Junction Butte during the 1973-74 winter. Quadrant 28.7 Snow depth in inches 1/ B C D 15.0 9.7 27.8 A - New snowdrift created by snowfence. B - Shrub stand with drift removed by snowfence. C Control area, normally no drift. D Control area, shrub stand normally drifted. Table 2. Butte. Summary of track crossings at the nine study sites on Junction Snowfence Areas Location Created drift Feb. 16, 1974 S 0 Feb. 16 N Feb. 26 Reduced drift Control Areas No drift Drift 9 9 0 1 110 0 0 S 0 0 O· 0 Feb. 26 N 3 57 0 0 March 11 S 0 0 0 0 March 11 N 0 0 0 0 March 24 S 0 9 24 3 March 24 N 0 0 0 0 4 185 33 3 Date Total for Winter �-236- Table 3. Average soil temperature at 3-inch depth in each quadrant of sites 2, 3, and 4. Date Quadrant 12 April 3 May 16 May 25 June 17 August. A 30.7 37.8 69.4 61.4 71.2 B 30.6 32.2 56.3 51.6 56.6 C 31.4 35.5 59.2 57.5 65.5 D 30.5 32.2 52.9 50.2 55.6 Table 4. Average soil temperature at 3-inch depth in seedbeds on site 1. Date 12 April 3 May 16 May 25 June 17 August All beds covered by drift 30.9 34.9 70.4 57.0 73.2 All control beds 30.6 41.8 68.2 55.9 76.8 Cleared beds 30.5 38.3 71.3 56.6 75.9 Furrowed beds 31.0 38.4 67.3 56.2 74.1 �-237- Table 5. Average soil temperature at 3-inch depth in seedbeds on site 5. Date 12 April 3 May 16 May 25 June 17 August All beds covered by drift 40.1 45.8 75.4 64.2 77 .2 All control beds 40.9 42.2 74.4 60.8 70.8 Cleared beds 40.4 43.2 74.4 62.0 75.4 Furrowed beds 40.6 44.8 75.4 63.0 72.5 Table 6. Average percent soil moisture in each quadrant of sites 2, 3, and 4. The percentage is the average of three determinations at 0-2, 4-6, and 8-10 inch depths, at two sampling points within each quadrant. Date Quadrant 17 May 25 June 18 July 16 August A 15.8 8.1 22.5 9.4 B 22.4 13.3 23.1 8.4 C 18.3 10.4 24.7 8.9 D 29.6 19.7 27.0 15.8 �-238- Table 7. Average percent soil moisture in site 1 seedbeds. 17 May 25 June 18 July 16 August All beds covered by drift 17.1 9.1 23.7 8.1 All control beds 16.3 10.5 23.0 8.7 Cleared beds 17.1 10.9 23.2 9.1 Furrowed beds 16.3 8.7 23.5 7.7 �1/ Species Code: AIDa1 - Ame1anchier a1nifo1ia Syor - Symphoricarpos oreophi1us Rice - Ribes cereum Prvi - Prunus virginianus Putr - Purshia tridentata �-240- Table 9. Survival of bitterbrush seedlings in various types of seedbeds 2 months after planting. Twenty seedlings were planted in each seedbed. Percent of seedlings surviving Seedbed TyPe Site 1 Site 5 Avg. on both sites Seedbeds covered by snowdrift 37.5 20.0 28.8 Seedbe~s in control 23.7 39.0 31.4 All fertilized 28.8 16.2 22.5 32.5 42.5 37.5 All cleared seedbeds 51.0 44.0 47.5 All furrowed seedbeds 10.0 15.0 12.5 seedbeds All unfertilized seedbeds Table 10. Summary of establishment of Agropyron desertorum types of seedbeds 1 and 2 years after planting. in the various Total feet of linear ground cover per 30-foot row,l/ Seedbed Type 1971 1972 Seedbeds covered by created drift 9.91 12.92 Seedbeds in control area 9.70 15.75 All fertilized 10.66 16.67 8.95 12.00 All cleared seedbeds 14.48 18.36 All furrowed seedbeds 5.12 10.32 All unfertilized 1/ seedbeds seedbeds Figures are average of seedbed from both planting sites. �-241Table 11. Summary of establishment of Melilotus types of seedbeds 1 and 2 years after planting. officinalis Avg. number of plants/30-ft row in the various Total feet of linear ground cover/30-ft row Seedbed Type 1972 1973 1972 1973 Seedbeds covered by created drifts 40.9 15.25 6.83 6.61 Seedbeds in control area 44.6 16.85 7.60 8.62 All fertilized 33.7 10.70 5.97 6.68 50.5 21.4 8.46 8.56 All cleared seedbeds 57.6 26.5 12.04 13.55 All furrowed seedbeds 27.8 5.6 2.04 2.22 All unfertilized seedbeds seedbeds Table 12. Average number of native plants per square-foot plot on cleared seedbeds 1 and 2 years after clearing. The average is obtained from 90 1 X l-ft plots per seedbed. Average number plants per square foot 1972 1973 All drift covered seedbeds 3.42 6.95 All control seedbeds 1.58 3.30 Drift covered seedbeds, site 1 2.84 6.57 Control seedbeds, site 1 2.17 4.53 Drift covered seedbeds, site 5 4.00 7.33 Control seedbeds, site 5 1.00 2.07 �-242- Table 13. Daily temperature in C during daylight hours on Junction Butte during snow melt study. Date Mean Temperature High Temperature Low Temperature "1-31-74 - 5.5 -0.6 -12.2 2-1 - 5.2 -3.9 - 8.3 2-2 - 9.5 -5.6 -13.3 2-3 - 8.6 -1.7 -16.1 2-4 - 7.0 -1.1 -15.0 2-5 -10.6 -6.1 -12.2 2-6 - 9.9 -3.3 -17.8 2-7 -14.1 -8.9 -20.6 2-8 -15.2 -8.3 -25.0 2-9 -10.9 -3.3 -22.2 2-10 -10.4 -1.7 -19.4 2-11 - 8.6 -2.2 -19.4 2-12 - 4.6 -0.6 -11.6 2-13 - 5.4 +5.4 -15.6 2-14 - 7.1 +3.6 -19.4 2-15 - 8.1 0 -16.7 �45 42 ontro1 plots 39 36 33 30 plots 27 snow depth em. 24 , 21 N .p-. W I 18 15 12 9 6 3 0 0'\ N I .-I 0 C"') I .-I Fig. 1. .-I C"') I .-I Date .-I I N N I N C"') I N -:T I N Ifl \0 l"- I N I N N I .-I .-I N .-I .-I -:T .-I Ifl 0'\ o .-I C"') 00 I I N I I I I I I N N N Average melt rate on three sites with southerly exposure. N N N .-I N \0 .-I I N �54 51 48 45 42 39 36 snow depth em. J ~ Treatment plots 33 30 27 ~ " I N +:+:- '- I I 24 21 18 15 12 0\ N ~ o M ,...fI Fig. 2. ,...f M ,...fI ,...f I N N I N M I N ..;t I N LI"\ \0 I N I N ,.... I N 00 I N 0\ I N ~ I N ,...f ,...f N ,...f M ,...f ..;t I N I I I Average melt rate on four sites with northerly exposure. N N ,...f N LI"\ ,...f I N ~ I N �-245- APPENDIX A ��-247- Wildlife Habitat - Central Rockies FS-R.'1-l80l STUDY PLA.~ 8 Improvement by Manipulating of Deer Winter Range Snow Cover in Hiddle Park, Colorado Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Fort Collins, Colorado PREPARED BY: DATE;).!/" , ;I 7 ZDATE a Ii /72 . /' APPROVED BY: DATE -3/' /72- ��-249- The Problem Availability of winter forage is an important factor limiti~g deer population in much of Colorado and other areas in the central Rocky Mountains. On most winter ranges snow, more than any other factor, determines the availability of forages for deer CWallmo and Gill 1970). Southerly slopes and windswept ridges commonly are severely overgrazed while dense stands of shrubs remain inaccessible under adjacent snowdrifts. Relocation of such snowdrifts could make additional forage available for deer use. The necessary theory and techniques for manipulating snowdrifts 1n accordance with watershed objectives have been developed by Forest Service scientists (Tabler 1968, Schmidt 1970). The feasibility of applying these techniques to the improvement of wildlife. habitat will be tested in this project. This study is conducted under the Research Work Unit assigned Problem Number 1, Evaluation of Factors on Sagebrush Ranges that Determine Quality of Wildlife Habitat. Middle Park is a mountain valley in central Colorado, predominated by big sagebrush and enclosed by high mountains which trap all deer within the Park during the winter. The study. area is on Junction Butte, a small isolated mountain in the lowest winter range in Middle Park. The southerly slopes on Junction Butte are heavily occupied by deer in winter. In general, the heaviest stands of browse, principally Amelanchier alnifolia, Symphoricarposoreophilus; Prunus virginianus, Ribes cereum, and Purshia tridentata occur where snowdrifts prevent their use by deer. These browse stands offer areas where the relocation of snowdrifts to alleviate forage shortages can be evaluated. Literature Review Snowfences and vegetative windbreaks have been used for many years to control blowing snow on agricultural lands and along highways. Recently watershed managers and researchers concerned with water yield, both quantity and timing, have been studying the effects of snowfences upon snow accumulation and storage. Tabler (1968) discusses fence designs and other physical factors necessary to induce snow accumulation. The amount of snow caught by fences depends primarily upon the size of the contributing areas and the amount of snowfall (Berndt 1964). Other important criteria for maximizing snow accumulation are fence location, fence heights, and fence density. Schmidt (1970) reports on locating snowfences in mountainous t~rrain. He describes the effects of surrounding terrain on the type of snowdrift produced. Greb et al. (1965) studied the effects of fence densities upon the depth and length of snowdrifts. Fences, 50 feet long and 48 inches high, with 37, 58, 69, 79, and 85 percent air porosity were tested. The largest snow deposit, in terms of volume, was found leeward of the fence with 79 percent air porosity. The fence with 58 percent air porosity produced the largest deposit in terms of depth. Generally, the greater the air porosity (up to 80 percent) of the fence, the longer and more evenly �-250- distributed the drift. Standard slat snowfence (58 percent air porosity) produced a drift approximately 40 feet long with maximum depth of 3 feet (Greb et al. 1965). However, Berndt (1964) produced drifts 4.5 feet deep and 106 feet long with a standard slat snowfence. The 4.5 foot height was equal to the fence height. The drift height seldom exceeds the fence height. Swank and Booth (1970) .produced drifts 30 to 100 feet long and 5 feet deep with standard slat snowfences; drift length depended upon surrounding topography. Fences should be mounted 6 to 12 inches above the ground to clear most low growing vegetation. This minimizes upwind snow accumulation which may damage the fence structurally or reduce efficiency (Swank and Booth 1970). Properly located snowfences are efficient in catching and storing snow. Greb and Black (1971) calculated that drift producing storms deposited 63 percent of the total snow and 71 percent of the total precipitation per winter season, even though only 39 percent of the snowfall events were accompanied by sufficient wind velocity to cause drifting. Tabler (1971) increased peak snowpack-water equivalent on a Ill-acre watershed by 70 percent with a single fence 12 1/2 feet high and 1,300 feet long. Increasing snow cover can affect soil moisture, and soil temperature, which in turn affects the vegetational community beneath the snowdrift. Willis and Haas (1970) report that snow cover reduces frost depth in soil and with a snow cover of 3.5 to 4 feet, the soil will not freeze. Cronin (1971) found that soil seldom freezes when the snow cover is 18 inches or more. Soil frost is important because snowpack runoff is much greater when the soil is frozen (Willis et al. 1961). Also, soil does not freeze nearly as quickly in the fall when it is wet. Induced snowdrifts may be able to keep the soil from f rcez.Lng at all. This would increase water absorption by the soil in the spring and the warmer soil temperature may aid early spring plant growth. Cronin (1971) studied larkspur growth under snowdrifts. He states that snowdrifts may reduce the growing season, but beneath drifts, soil moisture is abundant and soil temperature remains mild throughout the year. The snow insulates both the soil and plants from harsh winter temperatures which allows larkspur buds to grow and germination to occur beneath the snow. Mathews and Conrad (1968) report that tall bluebell (Mertensia arizonica) begins stem elongation beneath snow before melt starts,.but heavy snowpack at higher elevations can delay growth for two weeks. Greb (1970) studied grass production leeward of a 25 percent air porosity snowfence near Akron, Colorado. He found the snowfence increased soil-water storage and production of Russian wildrye. Production was increased by 440 pounds per acre when compared with corresponding plots without a snowfence. Collins (1970) is studying the effects of artificially increasing snowpack upon native vegetation productivity in the Bridger Mountains in Montana. Collins (1970) found that snowpack 4 and 9 feet deep delayed peak productivity of the vegetation.· Total production of all vegetation was slightly less than control areas with only normal snow depth; however, the normal snow accumulation in this area is approximately. �-251- 1 1/2 to 2 feet. Certain species, Agropyron subsecundum, Danthonia intermedia, and Lupinus argenteus, did respond favorably to the increased snowpack by increasing production. Planting Forage Species Beneath Snowdrifts Numerous attempts have been made to improve wildlife habitat by artificial revegetation on western rangelands. Holmgren and Basile (1959) recommend several procedures necessary for successful establishment of forage plantations. Three common causes of failure are inadequate moisture during early growth, excessive grazing pressure before plants are established, and planting species not adaptable to the sites. Establishing forage plantations beneath snowdrifts created by snowfences should remedy two of these problems. The snowdrift will provide protection from grazing by deer and a source of moisture during the early growing season to help establish the plants. Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) has received more study than any other species for forage revegetation, probably because bitterbrush has long been considered a highly nutritious and preferred deer forage plant and it has a wide range of site adaptability (Hubbard 1964). Hubbard (1959, 1964) and Holmgren (1954, 1956) have done extensive studies on planting bitterbrush seeds to improve big game ranges. These publications discuss seed collection, site preparation and planting procedure, planting dates, protection of plantations, and management for sustained production. Hubbard (1964) recommends a planting depth of 1 to 1 1/2 inches. Ferguson (1962) had greater success in establishing seedlings when 15 to 20 seeds were planted in a small mound of soil than with only a single seed per mound. Competition from grasses has a great effect upon seedling survival. Ferguson and Medin (1970) reported over 90 percent survival of seedlings when all vegetation had been removed \ from the planting area before seeding, and zero percent survival where no attempt was made to remove competition. Sanderson et al. (1963) found that grass competition reduced the amount of growth even for older established bitterbrush plants. Ferguson and Medin (1970) studied transplanting nursery grown bitterbrush seedlings in Idaho. Best results were obtained by transplanting in March before winter dormancy was broken and on scalped seed beds. Exposing bare roots to air for extended periods of time also reduced survival. Highly fertile soil is not necessary for good bitterbrush survival or growth. In fact, higher survival and better growth of transplanted seedlings was found on unfe~tilized plots than on fertilized plots (Klemmedson and Ferguson 1969). Many other species of shrubs have been planted to improve big game winter ranges, but few studies have been conducted to determine proper planting procedures and adaptability to range conditions. Rabbitbrush (Chtysothamnus spp.) occurs frequently on western ranges but has received very little consideration as a deer forage species or for range rehabilitation and is often considered undesirable. However, Plummer (1968) states that many types of rabbitbrush are sought by all �-252- grazing animals and its high nutritional quality remains well balanced throughout the winter. Two species of rabbitbrush(ChrYsothamnus nauseosus and £. viscidiflorus) were chosen for planting in this study because they both occur frequently in Middle Park, both grow rapidly to considerable height, and personal observations indicate they are heavily used on deer winter ranges. Standard crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) is recommended by Holmgren and Basile (1959) for range rehabilitation because it is adaptable to the environmental conditions of many deer winter ranges in the central Rocky Mountains and is desirable for winter and spring use by deer. Crested wheatgrass exhibits one other advantage for . planting on winter game ranges; it begins growth very early in the spring, often under snow (Knipe 1969), providing deer with new growth during a critical period. Plummer (1968) rates establishment and palatability of spring growth of crestedwheatgrass as "very good" on big sagebrush ranges, but presents no date to substantitate these ratings. Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) is a biennial forb which grows well on disturbed sites and is considered palatable forage for deer (Plummer 1968). Goom (1964) successfully established yellow sweet clover on dry western ranges. He found it to be highly productive and very compatible with crested wheatgrass. Objectives Removing snowdrifts from browse stands on deer winter range may increase the amount of available deer habitat and also influence changes in the plant community present on these areas. Newly created snowdrifts have the potential of encouraging new forage supplies. The intention of this study is to manipulate snowdrifts to increase available winter forage and determine if changes occur in the plant communities or areas where the snow cover has been altered. The objectives are: 1. To determine if changes occur in species composition and density that are attributable to the elimination or creation of snowdrifts. 2. To determine if the growth of shrubs is influenced by the "elimination or creation of snowdrifts. 3. To evaluate the feasibility of establishing forage stands beneath the created drift;; and on areas not covered by a snowdrift. 4. To determine if nitrogen fertilization aids in the establishment of such forage stands. �-253- 5. To determine the response of deer to the shrub stands which'are freed of snow. 6. To determine if soil moisture and temperature are influenced by the amount of snow cover. Methods Sites and Snowfences Twelve potential snowfence sit~s were located on Junction Butte in March 1971. Aerial photographs and ground surveys were made of these 12 sites, and from these data, five sites were selected for construction of snowfences. Four of these sites offer optimum snow storage and adequate shrub stands. The fifth snowfenceis located on a steep, sparsely vegetated hillside; only the forage restoration portion of the study will be conducted on this site. Each of the fences is located so its effects can be compared with a nearby unfenced area. Required fence height for each site was calculated from: (a) topographic profiles of the site, (b) weather station precipitation records from Kremmling and Green Mountain Reservoir, and (c) estimated snow contribution zones. Three of the sites require4-foot-high and two require 8-foot-high fences in accordance with snow storage characteristics of the site. The 4-foot fences are 120, 140, and 160 feet long; both 8-foot fences are 140 feet in length. The fences were constructed of standard slat snowfence (58 percent air porosity) suspended by 5/16-inch wire rope from wooden posts spaced 20 feet apart. Alternate posts and end posts are braced both down and upwind. Three snowfence sites and controls will be used to evaluate the treatment effects (drift or no drift) on native vegetation, sites 2, 3, and 4 (see Appendix 1 for location). Each of these sites consists of four separate areas or quadrants of nearly equal size: (a) area of newly created drift, (b) area of original drift removed by fence, (c) control area for quadrant A, without drifts, and (d) control area for quadrant B with a drift (Appendix II). Dimensions of the quadrants were determined by the length of the fence and estimated width of the preexisting drift. Quadrants are 65 X 120 feet at site 2 and 70 X 140 feet at sites 3 and 4. Sites 3 and 4 are the 8-foot-high fences. Measurements of Native Vegetation Composition and Density In order to determine changes in species composition and density, 40 permanent plots, 1 X 2 feet square, will be established in each quadrant of the three sites. The plots are systematically distributed: eight transects placed 13 feet apart on site 2, and 15 feet apart on sites 3 and 4, with five plots equally spaced along each transect. Spacing between plots varies with the width of the estimated drift area: 10 feet apart in quadrants �-254- A and C, and 13 feet apart on quadrants B and D on site 1; and 12 feet apart on quadrants A and C, and 15 feet apart on quadrants B and D on sites 3 and 4 (Appendix 3). The distance from the outside transects to the edge of the quadrant (fence ends) is 14.5 feet on site 2 and 17.5 feet on sites 3 and 4. Each plot is marked with two metal stakes set in the ground. This design provides 480 total plots with 120 plots in each quadrant. . Measurements on these plots will be made each year in late August after most growth has occurred. The number of plants of each forb and shrub species rooted within the plot will be recorded. Also, the height of all shrubs rooted within a plot will be measured and crown diameter of Artemisia plants recorded. Diameter will be measured to the nearest centimeter on lines perpendicular and parallel to the plot. The density of grasses is difficult to determine due to their growth form. The numerous stems produced by bunch- and sod-forming grasses make counting of individual stems nearly impossible. Some workers have counted clumps of grass to determine density, but a clump is difficult to define. To get a measure of change in density or species composition of grasses, the 1 X2-foot plot was subdivided into 50 small plots 2.4 inches square. The number of squares in which each grass species occurs will be counted. The density of grasses cannot be determined by this method because the number of stems or separate plants was not counted. But, any increase or decrease in the number of squares containing a grass species can be determined. Analysis of Density Data Changes in plant density will be compared by means of a multivariate analysis of variance with covariance, using one year pretreatment and 3 years posttreatment data. The more common shrub and forb species will be considered ·individually. The same type of analysis will be done for all grass species combined, but a separate program will be used because of the different magnitude of numbers. This analysis will determine the average density of each forb and shrub species for each quadrant and the overall average of the three replicate quadrants for each year the measurements are taken. Comparison will be made between pretreatment and each posttreatment year and between the control and treatment quadrants to determine if changes in density are occurring and if the changes are due to treatments. Growth and Use on Native Shrubs Five of the most common species of shrubs occurring on the study sites, Amelanchier alnifolia,Symphoricatpos oreophilus,Purshiatridentata, Ribes cereum and Prurtus virginianus, will be measured each spring and fall to determine if growth and deer use of these species is influenced by the amount of snow cover. Fifteen plants of Amelanchier andSymphoricarpos will be measured in each quadrants on sites 2, 3 and 4, except in three cases, quadrant C sites 2 and 4, and quadrant A site 3 did not contain 15 �-255- Ame1anchier plants; all Ame1anchier plants on these quadrants will be measured (see Table 1 for numbers). Plants will be selected in the following manner: 15 permanent density plots were randomly chosen from the 40 in each quadrant.· For each· apecLes, the plant closest to each of these points is selected for measurement. The three other species to be measured occurred infrequently on the study area, and all plants of these species were measured wherever they were found on a quadrant. On each plant, two live branches less than 5 feet above the ground will be tagged on 2-year-01d stems which had at least two current-annua1growth leaders, except that only one branch per plant was tagged on Symphoricarpos oreophi1us plants and on very small plants of the other species. The measurement at time of establishment (sunnner1970) resulted in sample sizes of plants and branches as shown in Table 1. Plants are the first number in the table and the number of branches is in parenthesis. In September, after most growth has occurred, all current-annualgrowth on eaCh tagged branch will be measured. The length of each leader or twig will be measured from the terminal end of the newest bud scale scar to the end of the terminal bud to the nearest centimeter. Each twig or leader measured will be marked with a dab of orange paint on the bud scale scar. In April, the tagged branches will be examined to obtain a record of use. No measurements will be taken; use on each branch will be recorded as present or absent. This will show the percentage of branches upon which some degree of use occurred. Each September, the new current annual growth on the tagged branches will be measured to see if shrub growth is responding to the treatment. Analysis of Shrub Growth Data Comparisons of the average amount of current annual growth per leader will be made between pretreatment measurements and each year's posttreatment measurements for each species on each quadrant and quadrant type. The same plants of each species will be measured each year so the sample size will not change within a quadrant, but comparisons between different quadrant types will have unequal sample sizes. An analysis of variance will be used to determine the average current annual growth per leader for each species measured and compare treatment and control areas. Forage Restoration Two sites, 1 and 5, will be used for forage restoration studies. Seed beds, each 30 X 30 feet in size, have been established behind the fence and on the adjacent control area (see Appendix 1). The lower site (1), with four seed beds behind the fence and four on the control, is located on a relatively level area with deep soil. The upper site (5) has 12 seed beds, eight behind the fence and four in the control area. Site 5 is located on a steep hillside with shallow, rocky soil. In the sunnnerof 1970, alternate seed beds on each site were: (a) cleared of all vegetation to eliminate competition, and (b) furrowed every 2.4 feet to provide loose soil for a seed bed, but not cleared of competing native vegetation (see Appendix IV). �TABLE 1. Site Site 2 Site 3 Quadrant Quadrant Quadrant 4 Species A B C D A B C D A B C D Ama1 15 (23) 15 (30) 7(11) 15 (28) 14 (23) 15 (27) 15(15) 15 (26) 15(23) 15(29) 12 (22) 15 (30) Syor Prvi 15 (15) , 15(15) I 15(15) 15(15) 15(15) Rice 2 ( 4) Putr 1 ( 2) 5(10) 15(15) . 15(15) 15(15) 15(15) 15(15) 15 (15) I 2 ( 2) 2 ( 3) 5(10) 15(15) I'.J VI 0\ 1 ( 2) 6(11) 1 ( 2) 5 (10) 1 ( 2) 5 ( 9) 1 ( 2) 6(11) 4 ( 8) �-257- Five species, Purshia tridentata, Chrysothamrtus nauseosus, Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus,Agropyron desertorum, and Me1i10tus officina1e, were planted in each seed bed in rows 2.4 feet apart. The planting was done in October 1970. Two rows of each species were planted per bed except Purshia which has two rows of seedlings and two rows of seeds planted per bed. ThePurshia seedings, about 6 inches tall, were grown at the U. S. Forest Service Mt. Sopris Nursery near Carbondale, Colorado, from seeds collected near Maybell, Colorado. Each seedling was placed by hand into a hole about 6 inches deep. The soil was placed firmly around the roots and about 1 quart of water was added to the soil immediately. The seedlings were watered again 3 days later. Twenty seedlings were transplanted in each row, about 18 inches apart. Purshia seeds were obtained from the same source as the seedlings. The seeds were planted 18 inches apart in the rows. A small mound of loose soil was formed and 12 seeds placed about 3/4-inch into the mound. The Chrysothamrtus seeds were collected from mature plants near the study area. Approximately 15 seeds were planted every 6 inches along the row and covered with about 1 inch of soil. ; Agropyron desertorum and Me1i10tus officina1e seeds were obtained commercially. Planting was accomplished by spreading the seeds along the rows at a rate of about 20 seeds per inch. The seeds were covered by raking soil over the row. Half of the seed beds on each site were fertilized in November with ammonium nitrate at the rate of 120 pounds per acre of actual nitrogen. The six kinds of plants, each duplicated, resulted in 12 rows per seed bed which were planted in the order indicated in Appendix V. The success of p1antings in the various seed bed treatments will be evaluated by the following methods: 1. Number of surviving Purshia in each seed bed. 2. Height of all surviving Purshia seeding transplants will be measured to the nearest centimeter. Measurements will be from the ground at the base of the plant to the highest point of the plant in its natural growth form (the plant will not be straightened to increase height). These measurements will be made each spring and fall. 3. The number of Purshia plants which emerge from each seed mound will be counted in the spring of 1972. The number of successful mounds will be counted in the fall of 1972 and the height measured as above. A successful mound is one which has at least one surviving Purshia plant. Height measurements will be repeated each spring and fall to get an estimate of plant growth. 4. The number of Chrysothamnus· seedlings established per row of each seed bed will be counted and the height measured each fall and spring, as above. �-258- 5. Counts of the number of stems per row of Agropyron and Melilotus plants will be made each spring and fall. The average height of these plants will be determined by measuring the height of the nearest plant to every I-foot mark along the row. Germination rate of the Purshia and Chrysothamnus seeds used for planting will be determined using the procedure outlined by Association of Official Seed Analysts (1965). Two hundred seeds of each species will be tested. Dormancy of Purshia seeds will be broken by soaking the seeds in a 3 percent solution of thiourea for 5 minutes. Measurement of Deer Occupancy Use by deer of the areas behind each fence and adjacent control will be estimated on all sites except number 5. The number of deer tracks crossing three line transects in each quadrant will be counted biweekly from January to March. On each site, three transects, perpendicular to the fence, run continuously through quadrants A and B. Three other transects run continuously through quadrants C and D. The location and length of all transects is shown in Appendix 6. The sum of tracks crossing on the three transects in each quadrant at each 2-week sampling period will be the basic sampling units used to compare deer use on drift and nondrift areas. These measurements cannot be used to estimate the number of deer using these areas. Rather, they will indicate the amount of time spent on the area by one or several deer. A deer which simply moves across the area without stopping to graze would be counted only once on each transect; but a deer which stays on the area to eat will very likely move around and cross the transect lines many times, and thus represent several track crossings. A hypothetical sample of the expected data is shown below: Site 1 Fence Drift Date Control Nondrift Nondrift Drift Sum of Track Crossings on all Transects Jan. 13-27 1 3 6 0 Jan. 28 - Feb. 10 0 18 12 0 Feb. 11-24 3 24 27 3 Feb. 25 - March 9 6 17 15 8 0 32 27 6 c March 10-24 Sites 2, 3, and 4 will provide similar data. �-259- An analysis of variance will be used to determine if a significant difference in the number of track crossings occur. Major components of the analysis will be treatments (fence or\ no fence), sites (4), dates (5), and type (drift or no drift). Deer occupancy will also be recorded by a time lapse movie camera which takes a photo every 7 minutes during daylight hours. The camera will be positioned to simultaneously photograph all quadrants on sites 3 and 4. Approximately 6,000 frames will be exposed from January through March. Each frame will be considered one sampling unit. All deer in each quadrant will be counted, and the quadrants on each of the two sites summed for analysis. An analysis of variance will be done to determine if a significant number of deer spend more time in one quadrant than another. Snow depth on each quadrant will be measured in conjunction with track counts. A snow depth course has been established at the center of and perpendicular to each fence and control line. Along these lines, snow depth will be measured at various intervals depending upon the topographic profiles of the land. A steel post marked in I-foot increments is set at each measurement point. Track counts in each quadrant may be related to the snow depth in each quadrant. A simple linear regression will be run to correlate average snow depth with track counts in each quadrant at each measurement date. Measurements of Soil Moisture and Temperature Soil temperature at 3-inch depth will be measured on all sites to determine if snow cover affects soil temperature during the growing season. Sites 2, 3, and 4 each have three thermistors located in each quadrant (see Appendix 3 for location). Four seed beds in each planting site have three thermistors each (see Appendix 5 for location). Soil temperatures at these permanent locations will be measured every two weeks from April to October. The mean temperatures in each quadrant or seed bed will be compared to determine if differences occur. In the spring after maximum snow accumulation, the exact snow depth at each soil temperature measurement station will be measured. Soil temperature beneath the snowpack will be taken at this time and again as soon as all snow has melted. A simple linear regression will be run to correlate snow depth with soil temperature at these times. The thermistors will be located in relation to anticipated snow profile, so the snow depth would vary above each measurement point. Soil moisture from surface to 8-inch depth will be measured at one central point in each quadrant of sites 2, 3, and 4 monthly from May 1 to September 1. Monthly measurements will also be taken from each of the eight seed beds on the lower planting site. No soil moisture measurements will be taken on site 5 because of the extremely rocky conditions prevalent on this area. The gravimetric method of determining soil moisture will be used, so the exact measurement point will be selected to provide an area of deep soil and no rocks if possible. Soil moisture will be compared between quadrants and related to the average snow depth of each quadrant and snow depth above the measurement �-260- point. Average snow depth will be determined by extensively surveying each site in the spring after maximum snow accumulation. Plan t Phenology Observations on the phenology of the 10 most common species of plants will be made biweekly during the growing season in each quadrant on sites 2, 3, and 4 to note if differences in plant development occur due to the amount of snow cover. Twenty plants of each species will be examined in each quadrant at each observation period. Observations will be made along the three transects established previously for track count information (see Appendix 6). Along each transect line, six points will be established on the outside lines and eight points along the center line. At each of these points, one plant of each species near the point will be examined to determine its developmental stage. The same plants will not be examined at each observation period (although it may happen with some species), but by examining 20 plants each observation period, the time sequence of phasic development will be established for these 10 species in each quadrant. Weather Information A separate study conducted by Proj~ct 1601 (Snow and Avalanche Control) of the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station will evaluate the design and location of the snowfence structures in relation to snow accumulation. Information on wind speed, wind direction, and temperature will be recorded continuously from two sites on Junction Butte. A recording gauge for blowing snow (Tabler 1971) will measure the time and extent of drifting events (see Appendix for locations of weather instruments). Precipitation records will be obtained from weather stations located at Kremmling and Green Mountain Reservoir. Details of this study are reported by Schmidt (1971) • Presentation of Results Sufficient data for three major publications should be available by 1974. Two publications will be on the effects of snow cover on native vegetation and on planting forage plants beneath snowdrifts. The Journal of Wildlife Management or Journal of Range Management should be suitable outlets. Another publication, with Research Wor~ Unit 1601, will report on the effectiveness of collecting snow with snowfences on sagebrush lands. An annual progress report and preliminary data will be furnished to the Colorado Division of Wildlife each May. Personnel Assignments The following personnel will be involved with this study: o. C. Wa1lmo, Project Leader 1801. Provides supervision of all phases of work. Estimated time required, 6 weeks per year. Wayne L. Regel in , Biological Technician. . Principal investigator response for all budgeting, planning~ data collection, data analysis, and publications. Estimated time requirements, 50 weeks per year. Donald W. Reichert, Range Technician. Will help with data collection. Estimated time required, 3 weeks per year. �-261- Literature Review Association of Official Seed Analysts. 1965. Rules for testing seeds. Proc. Assoc. Off. Seed Anal. 54 (2). 112 p , Berndt, N. W. 1964. Inducing snow accumulation on mountain grassland watersheds. J. Soil and Water Conserve 19: 196-198. Collins, D. D. 1971. The Bridger Site, 1970 Progress Report. Tech. Rep. No. 84. Grassl. Biome, U. S. Int. BioI. Program, Fort Collins, Colo. 40 p. Cronin, E. H. 1971. Tall larkspur: Some reasons for its continued pre-eminence as a poisonous plant. J. Range Manage. 24(4): 258-263. Ferguson, R. B. 1962. Growth of single bitterbrush plants vs. multiple groups established by direct seeding. U. S. Forest Serv., Intermt. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note 90, 2 p. Ferguson, R. B. and D. E. Medin. 1970. Rehabilitation and management of deer winter range. Job 1. Site potential studies. Job 2. Bitterbrush seedling survival studies. Job Completion Rep.' WIIIR15, Idaho Fish and Game Dep., Boise, Idaho. Greb, B. W. 1970. Cool season grass production leeward of a 28% wood-slat snowfence. Colo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rep. No. 70-24, 3 p. Greb, B. W., R. H. Mickelson, and G. O. Hinge. 1965. Conservation research at the Central Great Plains Field Station, Northern Plains Branch, Soil and Conserve Res., Div. Agr. Res. Serv., USDA Misc. Leafl., 16 p . Greb, B. W. and A. L. Black. 1971. Vegetative barriers and artificial fences for managing snow in the central and northern plains. p. 96111. In Snow and ice in relation to wildlife and recreation symposium. Iowa State Univ., Ames, Iowa, 280 p. Goom, F. B. 1964. A comparison of two sweetclover strains and Lodak alfalfa alone and in mixtures with crested wheatgrass for range and dryland seeding. J. Range Manage. 17(1): 19-23. Holmgren, R. C. 1954. A comparison of browse species for big-game winter ranges in southwestern Idaho. Intermt. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Pap. 33, 12 p. Holmgren, R. C. 1956. Competition between annuals and young bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) in Idaho. Ecology 37: 370-377. Holmgren, R. C. and J. U. Basile. 1959. Improving southern Idaho deer winter ranges by artificial revegetation. Wi1d1. Bull. No.3, Idaho Dep. of Fish and Game, 61 p. �-262- Hubbard, R. L., E. C. Nord, and L. L. Brown. 1959. Bitterbrush reseeding ••• a tool for the game range manager. U. S. Forest Serv., Pac. Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Misc. Pap. 39, 14 p. Hubbard, R. L. 1964. A guide to bitterbrush seeding in California. U. S. Forest Serv., Pac. Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta. and Calif. Dep. Fish and Game Resour. Agency, 30 p. Klemmedson, J. o. and R. B. Ferguson. 1969. Response of bitterbrush seedlings to nitrogen and moisture on a granitic soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33 (6): 962-966. Knipe, O. D. 1969. Establishment and survival of several grasses in the sagebrush type, west-central N~w Mexico. U. S. Forest Serv., Rocky Mt. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-149, 2 p. Mathews, V. B. and P. W. Conrad. 1968. An ecological life history of tall bluebell (Mertensia arizonica var. Leonardi) in Utah. Ecology 49(6): 1113-1123. Plummer, A. P. 1968. Restoring big-game range in Utah. Fish and Game Publ. No. 68-3, 183 p , Utah Div. Sanderson, H. R., R. L. Hubbard, and D. W. Seegrist. 1963. Effects of grass competition on bitterbrush: second-year report. U. S. Forest Serv., Pac. Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note PSW-26, 7 p. Schmidt, R. A. 1970. Locating snowfencesin mountainous terrain. p. 220-225. In Snow removal and ice control research. Highw. Res. Bd. Spec-.-Rep. 115, 282 p. Dartmouth ColI., Hanov~r, N. H. Swank, G. W. and R. W. Booth. 1970. Snowfencing to redistribute snow accumulation. J. Soil and Water Conserve 25: 197-198. Tabler, R. D. 1968. Physical and economic design criteria for induced snow accumulation projects. Water Resour. Res. 4(3): 513-519. Tabler, R. D. 1971. Design of a watershed snowfence system and first year snow accumulation. Proc. 39th Annu. West. Snow Conf., Billings, Mon t• Tabler, R. D. 1971. A recording gage for blOWing snow. U. S. Forest Serv., Rocky Mt. Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-193, 7 p. Wallmo, O. C., and R. B. Gill. 1971. Snow, winter distribution, and population dynamics of mule deer in the Central Rocky Mountains. p. 1-15. In Snow and ice in relation to wildlife and recreation symposium.--Iowa State Univ., Ames, Iowa. 280 p. Willis, W.O., and H. J. Haas. 1970. Snow and snowmelt management will level benches, small grain stubble, and windbreaks. p. 86-95. In Snow and ice in relation to wildlife and recreation symposium. Iowa State Univ., Ames, Iowa, 280 p. �-263- Section 21 / (j Legend: . Contour Interval 160 feet Loca ti on: T 1 a, R 60 ~j, S 21,22,27,20 +Section corner --Sectlon lin~s ~ • Tri.angu1ation station ~Aban~ne"d mine - - - - - - - -.:,. - •••.•-: __ 'oJ __ .::; > • '~8::x 3~~~drift ceter ~ Si~es 1, 3, 4, 5 Pence a~d '\. "\'C'ite'" .. '." ,-,''''17 ~.,c,. ...J. '-..••_,..••• '-"',='--C':' -~~t~~:: c~ntrJ1 o~lJ· • "An6moma v __ '.I �-264- Fence, Control C D Fence: Oontrol o A. Quadrant A- 11e,-;sno,\'1drift created by snovrf enc e B Quadra.nt 13- Area where s:::.'.):·:i=ift rc:.:.c·.c-.:'~ -: o ~uadrant 0- Control . D Quad:=ant D- Contrel Appendix II' area without sno-;-;drift Area wi th sno~';drift snowfence �I.,'Jyuutof density • • • •15 • )G' e • 15 • • 15· • • • • I.luadrant D • • x plots for Sites 3 and 4 • •5 • •4 • • Plot No. 5 • • •3 • • 15 • • x 4 • • • • • • • 15 • Quadra.nt B 3 • • • • • • • 15 • 4 4 - .; - . • • It 2 ( • , • •.15 • • • • • x • 2 . • • • • • • • • 1 15 ._5 • • 12 • • • • • • • 12 • • • •. • Quadrant 0 x • •• 12 • • x•• • • • 3 • • • • • • • •.. 2 , ~ 12 • • 10 • • • • x • •:,·1 • • 1 5 • • • • • • • •• • • • • Quadrant A • • • 3 • 2 • • • ", 1 • • • x~ , t· • • • • • • I • 15 x • • • • 12 • • • • • • • • , • •10 • • x • • ,. • 15 ...:--- x • Location' of thermistors Appendix III I • 12 12 , 12 12 15 12 12 15 15 15 15 15 12 12 19· t17.~5 15 15 5. 15 6 4 7 8 2 5 3 4 5 0 7 8 Transe ,ts 1 2 3 1 , Fence Line 140 ft. Control line 120 ft. I I N 0\ VI • • f �Layout of density plpto on oite 2 plot No. • • • • • • D• • Quadrant • • • • • • • • • 15ft. Distance between plot3 4 • • • plot:.;Uo. 15 5 • 3 • •• • • x • • • • • • • x 13 15 4 • 2 • • • • • • 13 • • ;~~uad1'an·~B • • • 15 3 • • • • • • • • 1. • • • • • • 15__• 13 2 •. • • • • • • • 5' • 13 • • • • • 15 • 1 • • • • • • '. ---13 ._--4' • • • • 5 • • • • • • • • 15 1Q 3 • • • , • • • • • It. • • • • • Quadrant • ~U2.<1r8nt C 10 15 5 • • • x ~ x x x -f t . . t x x 4 x 2 • • • • • ~ • • • • DiG t~; nee . 15 , 1:;) 1 2 • • o J 15, 15 15, 4 ) t • iJ I x • • 1 o on :~J.'fJl 1ino 1"-5 ft. Oontro1 ;~rco. li3 n~)(r..,1-;~ ~~ooyazd o north i'10;:-d; of ~rn()lifcnco :::,1'0(-1 • 13 cont. , • • • • • x 10 •lQ • • ,. -,.. 7. L J ]'(;:;'lOU LLne x • Location of thermistors Ap,en41x III • . . . . . . . . • 2 • • • DiG t,~_l1ee be t'-;:f-0l1 "tft-ns ef.ts l,:! 15 lS.i?:G. L 15 ( 1;.> _•.._I.?__ • }~-+__ ,.2_L :'__J_._.....!__ :1:.?--L7 aTrahGt3e lis 1 2 :5 tt 5 6 7 U bo tn.e en t r.: risco ts I 3 15 x 1 I N 0'1 0'1 I l::-~O 1'-1;. -__ -. �-267- Layout of forage restoration sites (Sites 1 and 5) Site 1 (Lower site) . 30 ft C "4 F 4 P 3 Pert. It Pert. " c 3 30 f Control P 2 ~ II 7t l< 5 feet " between beds ---------- Il /I. I 140 feet C 1 F 1 It ~ Fert. Pert. 5 feet between beds C 2 Fence 140 feet . 30 ft .c F 5 Fert. C 6 30ft C 4 c 2 F 3 & / Fer't. )IF 1~ Pert. ~ II, " .I( F 6 C 5 F 4 Fert. C 1- 5 ft. 3 >< C 1 l!"'ert. iert.1l F 2 1{ 5 feet between beds 'I ---~I·============~ Control 70 feet Fence 160 feet L~gend: C- Cleared Seedbed F - Furrowed seed beds Fert.-Fert1lized ,X plot L'ocat10n of ther.n1stors Append1x IV �-268- Track count transects Site 2 Transects Transects 123 1 2 65ft. 65ft. QuadlQ..nt:a -I'- - 65ft. Quad ant C 25 J-- 30 30 - 5 55 ti5 Control line 110 feet Appendix VIcont. 3 -!--- Quad ant.Ai 25 --I • 20 40 40 20 60 100 Fence line 120 feet 20 �-269- Track count transects Sites 1, 3j and 4 Transect Transect 1 2 1 3 2 Quad ant D Quadr nt B 68ft. 68ft. -- -""- - 68ft. 68ft .. Quadra t A Quad ant C . - 20ft 40ft. 20ft. 3 40ft. 60ft. 20ft - 100ft. • N )S 40ft. 40ft. ·30ft. I 30ft. Fence Control Line 120 feet Appendix VI 30ft. 110ft. 140 feet long �-270- Row Sequence in all seedbeds 12 &", 11 ~ ' ... 10 -, 9 8 6, 7 5 4 3 2 1 ,- ...D1 na Pt t r A[ de at rvi Pt tr l,Ie bf ct fna Pt:\lr .L.. see d,line SEeds '"§ de ~' seE dling c; r;i Pu ~r He ~f se ~ds - I I I See bed Spa ~ing: .. I ize: 30 . 30 2.4 feet eet be tw en e ch r PloT " ROrl Numbers 1 & 7· Helo1i tus officinalis 2 & <3 Pursl1ia tridentata seeds 3 & 9 Chrysothamnus visciciflorus 4 & 10 Agropyron desertor~ 5 & 11 Purshia tridentata seedlings 6 & 12 Chrysothamnus nauseosus ) AppendL.;:v S 22'E �-271- APPENDIX B ��-273- Wildlife Habitat--Central Rockies rS-lU-l-lSQl .Study Plan S Amendment No. 1 The Use of Carbon Black to Produce Mid~Winter Snow Melt on Deer Winter Range in Colorado Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Fort Collins, Colorado in cooperation with ·Division of Wildlife Colorado Department of Natural Resources 4210 ��-275- STUDY PLAN 8 Amendment No. 1 The Use of Carbon Black to Produce Mid-Winter Snow Melt on Deer Winter Range in Colorado by Wayne L. Regelin The Problem Study Plan 8 addresses the problem of strategic placement of snowfences on deer winter range to substantially reduce the amount of windblown snow which accumulates in shrub stands to permit their use by deer (Regelin 1972). However, snow which falls directly upon the shrub stands can accumulate to depths which may prohibit deer occupancy of these areas. The feasibility of using carbon black to produce mid-winter snowmelt in shrub stands protected by snowfences or natural windbreaks will be tested in this amendment to Study Plan 8. Literature Review Artificial darkening of the snow surface reduces its reflective power, resulting in an increase of absorbed short-wave radiation which increases the rate of snow melt. Procedures based on this principle have been used for many years in Russia and Japan to accelerate snow melt on airport landing strips and to increase runoff from glaciers. Slaughter (1966) cites numerous examples of such practices. Numerous substances, including soil, coal dust, cinders, sand, and salt, have been used to darken the surface of snow. Arnold (1960) studied seven types of materials in Canada. The most effective material was fine cinders (0.2 to 2.0 mm particles), applied at the rate of 1,000 2 g/m , which increased total ablation by 5 times over control plots. Eight surface additives were tested near Fraser, Colorado, during the spring of 1967 (Megahan 1968). Carbon black treatments were much more effective than other black materials. Melt rates on treated snow exceeded the melt rate on untreated snow by 2.5 times. Storik (1960) studied the effect of particle size of surface additives upon melt rate. He discovered that the radiation absorptivity of the material depended upon degree of subdivision of the material as much as upon color. He concluded it is more practical to use small quantities of highly dispersible substances rather than large quantities of substances with low dispersity. Williams and Gold (1963), working in Canada, reached the same conclusion and indicate "dusts" with average particle size between 0.1 and 2.5 mm are practical. Megahan (1968) discovered that the melt rate tends to increase as mean particle size decreases and tends to approach a limit as the rate of application increases. The most effective melt rate was obtained with 3.2 g/ft2 (300 lb/acre) of an aqueous suspension of carbon black. �-276- To date, most snow melt experiments have been done in spring and early summer when temperatures are normally above freezing, but Arnold (1960) found accelerated melting still occurred at temperatures below -100 C. Taketa and Murakami (1956) report accelerated melt at temperatures below 00 C, even when surface additives were covered by 20 cm of new snow. However, new snowfall covering the surface additive does reduce its effectiveness. Azuma (1956) found a 55 percent loss in radiation absorption due to 1 cm of new snow c~ver. Arnold (1960) reports radiation can penetrate up to 15 cm of snow. Megahan (1968) reports effective accelerated melt on plots covered with 2 inches of new snow overlying the dusted surface. In Middle Park, Colorado (Gilbert 1959), 18 inches of snow was melted in 72 hours in early spring by spreading hardwood charcoal on the snow surface. Megahan (1968) found that applying carbon black at the rate of 300 1b/acre increased the melt rate by 2.8 times over untreated plots on the first day after application, but the melt rate diminished thereafter. Shu1'ts (1963) found the effectiveness of all surface darkening agents was short-1ived,lasting only 6 or 7 days. Objectives The objectives of this study are: 1. To determine the effectiveness of carbon black in causing midwinter snow melt on deer winter range. 2. To determine if changes occur in density and/or crusting characteristics of the snow due to treatment with carbon black. Methods Seven experimental snow melt sites will be selected on Junction Butte, Grand County, Colorado (see Study Plan 8). All sites will be protected from wind-blown snow accumulation either by snowfences or natural windbreaks provided by dense stands of· serviceberry and other shrubs. Each of the seven sites consists of a treatment plot paired with an adjacent control plot. Plots will be paired on the basis of similar aspect, slope, and vegetative cover. Each plot is 10 msquare with 3m separating the paired plots. All sites will be located on nearly level terrain, with four sites on a slight northerly aspect and three sites on a southerly aspect. General slope and aspect will be measured with compass and level. Carbon black {Phi1b1ackN550}!l will be applied using a "whirlybird" backpack fertilizer spreader at the rate of 336 Kg/ha (3.2 g/ft2). The first application of carbon black will be in late January, 1974. Subsequent applications will be made if new snowfall covers the carbon black. !/ Purchased from Philips Petroleum Co. Trade names and company names are used for the benefit of the reader and do not imply endorsement or preferential treatment by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. �-277- Thirteen snow ablation measurement stakes will be systematically located within each treatment and control plot. The stakes will be marked at 3-inch intervals so snow depth can be measured without walking through the plots. Appendix 1 illustrates the placement of the stakes. Snow depth at each stake will be recorded daily, during late afternoon, throughout the duration of the study. Snow density will be determined using a Montrose Snow Sampler and the hardness of snow crust by using a ram penetrometer. These measurements will be made at five locations around the periphery of each treatment and control plot (Appendix 1). Snow density and ram resistance will be measured on all plots before the first treatment is applied, before any follow-up applications, and at the termination of the study. Air temperature, wind speed, and wind direction will be recorded continuously throughout the study by an anemometer and thermometer located near the plots. Notes on cloud cover and snowfall will be made daily. Analysis and Interpretation of Results Data on snow melt rate will be analyzed by analysis of variance to determine if treatment effect (carbon black) increases snow melt and if daily variations in melt rate occur. The hypothesis will be that treat-, ment has no influence upon melt rate. The numbers used in the analysis will be the mean snow depths on plots obtained from the 13 ablation stakes. An example of the analysis of variance table is shown below. Source of Variation Degrees of Freedom Treatments (T) 1 Replications 6 (R) T X R 6 Dates (D) 15 T X D 15 DXR 90 T X D X R 90 Total 223 The error term to test treatment effect will be the T X R,interaction and the error term to test date and date X treatment effect will be the T X D X R interaction. The snow melt data will also be presented graphically to illustrate melt rate differences between treatments and controls as influenced by aspect and temperature. Data on snow density and ram resistance will be handled by a similar analysis of variance. �-278- Application of Results If the results are promising, a management-scale pilot test will be recommended to the contractor, Colorado Division of Wildlife, for further funding and extension of the study. Publication Results will be published in one technical journal article and one popular journal such as Colorado Outdoors. Scheduling Layout of plots - Fall, 1973 Application of treatments - January-February, 1974 Measurements - January-March, 1974 Completion date - June, 1975. Field work will be completed in Spring, 1974, analysis of data and preparation of final manuscripts will be completed by June, 1975. Responsibility W. L. Regelin, investigation leader D. W. Reichert, field assistance O. C. Wallmo, consultation and advice Estimated Costs Man-days Field work 20 Compiling and analyzing data 6 ~ Computer services $ 10 Equipment and supplies $120 Mileage and per diem $240 11 Costs are covered by Cooperative Agreement No. 16-216 with Colorado Division of Wildlife. �-279- Literature Cited Arnold" K. C. 1960. An investigation into methods of accelerating the melting of ice and snow by artificial dusts. In Geology of the Artie. Proc ,, 1st Int.Symp. on Artie Geol., Vol. 2. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario. Azuma, S. 1956. Micrometeorological observations on natural and artificially blackened snow surfaces. Science Report. Saikyo Univ. (Japan). Nat. Sci. and Living Sci., Vol. 2. SIP 16051. Gilbert, P. F. 1959. Experimental snow melting on key deer winter ranges. Colo. Dep. Game and Fish, P-R Proj. Rep. W-38-R-12, 4 p. Multilith. Megahan, W. F. 1968. Increasing snow melt rate by surface additives. Ph.D. Diss., Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins, Colo. 175 p. Regelin, W. L. 1972. Junction Butte wildlife habitat improvement project. 2nd Annu. Progr. Rep., Rocky Mt. For and Range Exp. Stn., 31 p , Mimeo. Shul'ts, V. L. 1963. On the question of the expediency of artificial intensification of the melting of snow in the mountains of Central Asia. Soviet Hydrology: Selected Papers, Vol. 2, No.3, p. 275-278. Slaughter, C. W. 1966. Snow albedo modification, a review of literature. CRREL. TR 217, 25 p. Storik, I. L. 1960. Utilization of certain substances for acceleration of the melting of ice. Transl. by V. N. Pavloff. Natl. Res. Counc. of Canada, Tech. Trans!. 1067, 13 p. Taketa, M., and M.Murakami. 1956. Jinko uysetsu ni tsuite (On artificial snow melting). Seppyo, Vol. 17, No.3, p. 21-27. Sip 15660. Williams, G. P., and L. W. Gold. 1963. The use of dust to advance the breakup of ice on lakes and rivers. Natl. Res. Counc. of Canada, Div. of Build. Res., Tech. Pap. 165 (NRC 7725), 60 p. �-280Treatment • o JC • • as Q) J.I ~ < ••• II-! • oM • K • 10 m J.I A • • ~ ~ s:Q fa • • X i-I 11( 0 ~ s lu m ~ ~ 3 m ~ Control f;Il I () z ~I s • • it ~ • CIl ., • as Q) !! Ie • ••• X • II-! 10 m • oM J.I A • · • • ~ J( • 10 m Wind direction . Appendix 1. Layout of snow melt site. prats (indicated and Ramresistance by dots). Location of snow ablation X indicates measurements. sample points szakes wi~hin for snow density �-281- APPENDIX C ��-283- Second Annual Progress Report for Junction Butte Wildlife Habitat Improvement Project May 1, 1972 to April 30, 1973 in conformance with Cooperative Agreement No. 16-216 between Division of Wildlife Colorado Department of Natural Resources md Rocky Mountain Forest md Rmge Experiment Station USDA Forest Service ��-285- Accomplishments Fence Designs During the summer 1972, eight snowfences of four different economical designs were constructed on the north side of Junction Butte. All four fence designs were constructed of standard slat snowfence suspended by a single strand of No. 9 wire from steel fence posts. All fences are 4 feet high and vary in length from 90 to 100 feet depending upon post spacing. Figure 1 illustrates the four fence designs. Cost of the four designs varied from $1.16 to $ .99 per linear foot including labor costs, and from $ .79 to $ .64 per linear foot excluding labor costs. This is much less than the long-life fences constructed in 1971 which cost $7.30 per linear foot for 8-ft. high fences and $4.53 per linear foot for 4-ft. high fences. The fences constructed in 1971 required a contractor with a backhoe, while the fences constructed in 1972 were built by research personnel with hand tools in a few days. Table 1 shows the cost breakdown for all fences. The new fences were placed in series of two fences (one behind the other) because a single fence would have had to be 8-ft. high to keep snow out of the shrub stands (Fig. 2). However, construction of fences higher than 4 feet is very expensive and difficult. Fences in series also provide more area protected by created drifts in which to establish new forage stands. All four designs were successful in trapping and storing snow. Drifts up to 50 inches in depth were produced behind the 4-ft. fences and snow depth in the shrub stands was reduced to an average depth of 13 inches of light fluffy snow. I would recommend design No. 2 (IO-foot post spacing, all posts braced upwind) for future fence construction. The 10-foot post spacing provides more support for keeping the slat snowfence suspended 6 to 8 inches above the ground. This is necessary for proper drift placement. Downwind bracing does not appear to be necessary unless the fences are located where wind direction is highly variable. All designs withstood winds up to 80 m.p.h. without any damage. No summer maintenance appears to be necessary. It appears to me that these fences will last for several years without any maintenance. �-286- Table 1. Summary of snowfencecost. Design 1. Fence 4 feet high, 100 feet long. Slat snowfence suspended from #9 wire attached to steel fence posts spaced 10 feet apart. All posts braced upwind, alternate posts braced doWnwind with #9 wire attached to angle iron braces. Item Cost perlOOft~ Steel post, 8 ft. long Fence $ 12.70 Wire, #9 black 19.00 Braces, angle iron 21.30 Slat snowfence 27.00 Labor (9 hrs. at $4.00/hr.) 36.00 Total $116.00 $1.16 per linear foot - 79¢ per linear ft. excluding labor Design 2. Fence 4 feet high, 100 feet long. Construction same as design 3 except no downwind braces. Alternate posts braced upwind. Item Cost per 100 ft~ Fence Steel post, 8 ft. long $ 12.70 Wire, #9 black 13.00 Braces, angle iron 14.20 Slat snowfence 27.00 Labor (9 hrs. at $4.00/hr.) 36~00 Total $102.90 $1.03 per linear foot - 67 c per linear ft. excluding labor �-287- Table 1. Summary of snowfence cost (continued). Design 3. Fence 4 feet high, 90 feet long. Slat snowfence suspended from 119 wire attached to steel posts spaced 15 feet apart. All posts braced upwind, alternate posts braced downwind. Item Cost per 90 ft. Felice Steel post, 8 ft. long $ 8.10 Wire, 119 black 18.00 Braces, angle iron 15.60 Slat snowfence 27.00 Labor (8 hrs. at $4.00/hr.) 32~00 Total $100.70 $1.11 per linear foot - 76¢ per linear ft. excluding labor Design 4. Fence 4 feet high, 90 feet long. Construction same as Design 5 except no downwind bracing. Alternate posts braced upwind. Item Cost per 90ft~ Steel post, 8 ft. long $ 8.10 Wire, 119 black 11.00 Braces, angle iron 11.40 Slat snowfence 27.00 Labor (8 hrs. at $4.00/hr.) 32.00 Total $ 89.50 99¢ per linear foot - 64¢ per linear ft. excluding labor Felice �-288- Table 1. Summary of snowfence cost (continued). Equipment required to construct Designs 1, 2, 3, and 4. 1. Post pounder 2. Fence stretcher 3. Fencing pliers Design·5. Fence 8 feet high,l40 feet long. Slat snowfence suspended from 5116-inch cable attached to wooden posts spaced 20 feet apart. Braced upwind and downwind by 5/l6-inch cable. Item Cost per Fertce (140ft) Wood poles, 6" top diameter $ 59.00 Slat snowfence 94.50 Wire, 119 black 5.50 L\Dllber,2" X 4" X 8' 8.00 Cable clamps 13.00 Cable, 5/16" diameter 72.50 Braces 20.00 Labor (contracted to Lickteig) 750.00 Total $7.30 per linear foot of' fence $1,023.00 �-289- Table 1. Summary of snowfence cost (continued) • Design 6. Fence 4 feet high, 140 feet long. Construction same as Design 1 except for fence height and no downwind braces. Item Cost Eer Fence .(140·ft) Wood poles, 6" top diameter $ 44.10 Slat snowfence 40.50 Wire, 119 black 5.40 Lumber, 2" X 4" X 4' 4.00 Cable clamps 13.00 Cable, 5/16" diameter 35.00 Labor (contracted to Lickteig) 492~00 Total $ 634.00 $4~53 per linear foot Equipment required to construct Designs 5 and 6. 1. Backhoe with post hole auger 2. Fence pliers 3. Fence stretcher 4. Post tamper 5. Wrenches 6. Sledge hammer .. --~~ �-290- ",, < ". ".'f' " ; ,".>f , I Design 1. J , I ". ". ,. -y ,~ 1 .•. ••• I I I I l J J 1 J A .•. , , 1 ". .". >"= , .... ,,?/ , ,~ I " .•. ~ ,, .•. I ," ,, f, ~' " ~ '. r I 'I' ". ". >It; " f .... ••• I. ~ ". r ,. :r<:: .... ••• • ". posts, , , ..•. , '" • • Indicates snowfence, dots indicate post spacing • - - .., Indicates braces • wind direction Figure 1. f. ", + ,~ .. - y ". Ten-foot post spacing; alternate bracing of up-wind no braces down-wind. Fence is 100 feet in length~ " • .... Ten-foot post spacing, braces on all up-wind posts and alternate down-wind posts. Fence is 100 feet in length. .•. )p ,,,,", t 'f •••.•. ~ I " I Design 2. ~ ". I ,.~ .•.... Snowfence designs. ,; ~ , / " .•...., ,.•.. t �-291- ••• " / "/>f y .,. '" , .•. >( f I I I I l ". .,. ,"'I ..•. .•. .•. I I , • J L ., ,'" '" ~ .•. , .... I L. , Fifteen-foot post spacing, alternate bracing of up-wind posts, no braces. down-wind. Fence is 90 feet in length. ~ ;' , ,.~»-~--~~------~-----?~----~~----~~----~ .•. .... ,:. .•. .•. • , , ,.---. "" ;' ., I • • ••• _ _ ...... .•. _ Cont. ...... • """,," • wind direction Figure 1. f • •• ..•. ,~ I ..•...••• Fifteen-foot post spacing, braces on all up-wind posts and alternate down-wind posts. Fence is 90 feet in length. Design 4. " I I Design 3. / '" , ;' , " .,. -t-. ......•. _ Indicates " '" ~ snowfence, Indicates braces. :;>4'••• .... I -..v" ". '" dots indicate I ~ " " post spacing • �-292- FENCE 70 feet SHRUBS 300 yards SHRUBS Figure 2. Layout of snowfences on north side of Junction Butte. �-293- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of CO=.;:U)=R=AD..;;:.O ,-. Project No. W-38-R-28 Work Plan No •. Job Title _ Job No._~la~ Monitor Potentially Critical Deer-Vehicle Period Covered: Personnel: 1_5 Deer-Elk Investigations _ Accident Areas Statewide April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974. Albert E. Byrne, Larry L. Green, William R. Heicher, David C. Hoart, Richard F. McDonald (and all Wildlife Conservation Officers in his area), J. Kris Moser, John W. Seidel, James R. Adams, Thomas M. Pojar, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard. ABSTRACT The number and location of deer-vehicle accidents were monitored in five general areas of Colorado. Recommendations for installation of devices to reduce deer-vehicle accidents were submitted to the Division of Highways when-warranted. �-294..., RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations were developed from this study and made to the Colorado Division of Highways for erection of the eight-foot fences and attendant structures referred .toin this report. �-295- MONITOR POTENTIALLY CRITICAL DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENT AREAS STATEWIDE Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish statewide, the location and number of deer-vehicle accidents in areas appropriate to the evaluation of devices. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas reported by management and as determined by Job 1. 2. As appropriate, record all deer found killed in selected highway area. 3. As appropriate, estimate deer densities in each selected highway area. 4. Measure deer activity along the roadside or in the median of each selected highway area when feasible. 5. Summarize the Highway Department's traffic volume data for each selected highway area as needed. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972). The locations and numbers of deer and elk-vehicle accidents during 1972 and 1973 in the Durango area were plotted on U.S.G.S quadrangle maps (scale 1:24,000). DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West See Pojar (1972). Preliminary planning and design of the interstate highway which will replace Highway 6-24 is completed but construction has not begun. A total of 8 underpasses and 1 overpass with associated 8-foot (2.44-m) fencing has been incorporated in the original highway design. Highway 1-70 Eagle East Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973) described this area. A 4.75 mile (7.65 km) 8-foot fence was completed along the north right-of-way during September, 1973. �-296- Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973) described this area. Durango Area Pojar (1972) described this area. Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Myers (1969) described this area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West A total of 28 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 18 miles of highway in the Rifle West study area; a reduction of 69.56 percent from the .preceeding segment. Seventy five percent of the deer were killed from October 1, 1973 to February 28, 1974. Highway (1-70) Eagle East A total of 60 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 8.5 miles of highway in the Eagle East study area. Deer kill was reduced on the portions of highway opposite the 4.8 mile barrier fence (Reed 1974). Highway 1-70Avon~Wolcott A total of 75 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 14 miles of highway in the Avon-Wolcott study area; a reduction. of 42.75 percent from the preceeding segment. Deer kill continued to be reduced on the portions of highway opposite two sections of 8-foot fence (Reed 1974). .. Deer kill decreased along the section of highway from the Eagle River Bridge, 2 miles east of Wolcott, to approximately 1.5 miles east of that point •. Thirteen deer were killed in this area. from January through March in 1973 and 1 was killed in 1974 during the same period. Woodard (1973) described a 14 x l4-foot (4.27 x 4.27-m) equipment underpass in this area which could be used with 8-foot fencing as a deer underpass. However, the decrease in kill during this segment.does not indicate the need for barrier fencing. �.• 297- Durango Area One hundred and thirty-eight deer and 41 elk were documented killed on U.S. Highway 550 from Durango to the north approximately 15 miles (24.15 km) during 1972 and 1973. Two concentration areas were delineated. Fiftyeight deer and elk were killed from the Durango city limits to the north 1.5 miles (2.41 km). Twenty-seven deer and elk were killed on a stretch of highway beginning 1 mile north of Hermosa to the north 1 mile (0.62 km). Three and one half miles (5.65 km) of 8~foot fencing on both sides of the highway have been recommended to be included in a highway construction project from Rockwood south. The fencing would tie into 2 underpass structures included in initial construction plans. One hundred deer and 7 elk were documented killed on U.S. Highway 160 between Durango and Mancos during 1972 and 1973. Concentration areas were not evident. The deer underpass with associated 8-foot fencing between Cherry Creek and Mancos was completed and evaluation begun on April 1, 1974. Two hundred and forty-five deer and 23 elk were documented killed on U.S. Highway 160 between Durango and Pagosa Springs during 1972 and 1973. Two concentration areas were delineated. Twenty-eight deer were killed from 0.4 miles (0.25 Ian) west to 0.65 miles (1.05 km) east of the intersection of U.S. Highways 160 and 550 south of Durango. Nineteen deer and elk were killed on a 1 mile stretch of highway east of the intersection of U.S. Highway 160 and Colorado Highway 151. A deer overpass could be utilized in this area since the highway bisects a hill near the center of the kill area resulting in natural approaches from both sides. Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Sixty-nine vehicle-killed deer were documented on 18 miles of highway in the Glenwood-Basalt study area; a reduction of 58.18 percent from the preceeding segment. Seventy percent were killed during February and March. March, with 27 deer, had the highest monthly kill. The highway construction project which includes 8-foot fencing in the Carbondale East area (Pojar 1972), 9 miles southeast of Glenwood, will be completed during the next segment. A 1.1 mile 8-foot fence in the Diamond-S area, 7 miles southeast of Glenwood Springs was reported by Reed (1974). �-298- LITERATURE CITED Myers, Gary T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp. 147-178. Pojar, Thomas M. 1972. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. 305-310. Reed, Dale F. 1974. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38~R-28. Game Res. Rep. In Progress. Woodard, Thomas N. 1973. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-27. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. ~ Prepared by Ab'V'~s 1/ {'JJMe?~ Thomas N. Woodard . Wildlife Researcher Candidate �-299- July, 1974 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project ....:C:..:o:.::L:..:O~R:..:A.:::.D:::..O _ W-:-38-R-28 No. Work Plan No. 15 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 6 Job Title: D_e_e_r __U_n_d_e_r~p_a_s_s __Ev_a_l_u_a __ti_o_n Period April 1, 1973 through March Covered: Personnel: Thomas N. Woodard, _ 31, 1974. Thomas M. Pojar, and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACT The first draft of a manuscript on the behavioral response of mule deer to the Vail deer underpass has been completed and is in various stages of editing. The manuscript will be submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management. ��-301- DEER UNDERPASS EVALUATION Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if deer migrating from winter range on one side of Interstate 70 to summer range on the opposite side utilize an underpass constructed in the area. METHODS AND MATERIALS See manuscript in preparation described below. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Manuscript in Preparation Reed, D. F., T. N. Woodard, and T. M. Pojar. Behavioral response of mule deer to an underpass. J. Wildlife Mgmt. C:-. Prepared by ..; . ~< -//1 / .> ~l / ~ Ai Q. t:l.A.e< i ale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher ��-303July, 1974 .JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project --.,;OO=ID=RADO::.:= No. w-~38_-_R:_-_2_8 ___.:: Deer-Elk. Investigations Work Plan No. __ Job T1.t1e ..;;;1;;:;5 ~: .rob No.__ 6a _ Eva1uation of Deer Underpasses -------------------------~------------------------------- Period Covered: Personnel: _ April ,1, 1973 through March 31, 1974. ThomasN. Woodard,..ThomasM. Pojar,.. and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRAC'r An arch deer underpass with associated 8-foot {2.44-m} fences along the highway right-of-way was completed west of Durango toward the end of this segment. De~r use of the underpass will be monitored during the next segment. ��-305.• EVALUATION OF DEER UNDERPASSES Dale F. Reed Mule deer response to an underpass 3.05 m (10 feet) by 3.05 m and 30.48 m (100 feet) long under Interstate 70 has been reported (Reed, 1971). This study purports to evaluate underpasses of different sizes and design. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the use of underpasses by deer in critical highway deer kill areas and improve the effectiveness of these structures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of underpasses. MATERIALS AND METHODS Construction of a 20-foot wide and 10-foot high structural plate pipe arch deer underPass was completed by the Colorado Division of Highways. The 8-foot (2.44-m) fence was completed to the underpass toward the end of this segment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The initial effort in monitoring deer use of the structure was coordinated with management personnel. LITERATURE CITED Reed, Dale. F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. p. 341-351. In Game Research Report, July Part 3. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Federal Aid. Prepared by _C __ "_~"_· ....• · .-.:~/~ •.•• /):./I::V...s.."' __ (_~I-/'-;"'::";~"'-o>"'...J"·!I;..;.:~"'::"l";z:.(~i_) __ /kG'L >'s' b'-JI< ""'.~ Dale F. Reed " Wildlife Researcher --,- ��-307July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------------------- Project No. Work Plan No. W-38-R--28 Deer-Elk Investigations 15 Job No. 7 --------------------~---------------------- Job Title Effects of Highway Lighting on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles Period Covered: April I, 1973 through March 31, 1974. Personnel: Claudia A. Doose, Larry L. Green, John W. Seidel, Allen F. Whittaker, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard. ABSTRACT The effect of highway lighting on the rate of deer-vehicle accidents was evaluated. Estimated deer crossings per kill increased by 86.8 percent with the lights on compared to.lights off. Th~re was no significant difference in the crossings per kill ratios (X = 0.60, P>0.25). The amount of light available at 3 known kill locations during lights on nights ranged from 0.32 to 3.85 foot-candles. There was no significant difference (P>0.50) in southbound mean speeds or in northbound mean speeds (P>0.40) with lights on or off. ��-309- EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY LIGHTING ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if highway lighting affects the rate of deer-vehicle accidents on a portion of Highway 82. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles at each end of, and within a 3/4 mile lighted portion of Colorado 82. 2. Estimate deer densities adjacent to the portion of highway affected by the lighting. 3. Compare pre-treatment kill and count data to post-~reatment kill and count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand why deer-vehicle accident rates are or are not affected by lighting. METHODS AND MATERIALS Thirteen 37,000 lumen (1 lumen=0.093 fc/sq.m), 700 watt, clear mercury vapor lamps mounted on 10-foot (3.05-m) arms at the top of 40-foot (12.2-m) metal poles were used to light the highway. Nine lamps, spaced at approximately equal intervals, illuminated a 0.3 mile (0.48 km) section of highway (Fig. 1). Two lamps installed at each end and spaced at 400foot (122-m) and 600-foot (183-m) intervals provided transition lighting. The effect of lighting was evaluated from January 1, 1974, to March 26, 1974. The lights were alternately turned on and off for one week periods. Six week periods each of lights on and off data were collected. The location of each deer vehicle accident was documented to the nearest 0.1 mile (.161 km) from 0.25 mile (0.40 km) markers established along the highway (Reed 1969). The number of deer that crossed the highway was estimated by making nightly spotlight counts (Reed 1969) and track counts in the median strip when snow conditions permitted. One crossing was arbitrarily added for every deer killed on the highway. �-310- Vehicl~ speeds were recorded between 7:00 and 11:00 PM during 35 nights with an automatic vehicle speed recorder. Eighty speeds were randomly selected from each nights sample for tabulations. The amount of light (foot-candles) available at each known kill location during lights on nights was measured with a light meter (Gassen Luma-Pro). DESCRIPTION OF AREA The study area is located 3 miles (4.83 km) south of Glenwood Springs on Colorado State Highway 82. This 0.7 mile (1.13 km) segment of highway has 4 lanes and a posted speed limit of 55 miles per hour. Adjacent deer winter range is pinyon-juniper covered slopes and sagebrush flats to the east and farmland and sagebrush flats to the west. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Estimated crossings per kill increased by 86.8 percent with the lights on compared to lights off (Table 1). There was no significant difference in the ratios (x2=0.60, P >0.25). The amount of light available at three known kill locations during lights on nights ranged from 0.32 to 3.85 foot-candles. Mean vehicle speeds with lights on were 49.54 southbound and 49.22 northbound. Mean speeds with lights off were 49.33 southbound and 49.56 northbound. There was no significant difference (P> 0.50) in southbound mean speeds or in northbound mean speeds (P >0.40) with lights on or off. Table 1. Estimated deer crossings and total kill in the Highway 82 lighting study area from January 1, 1974, to March 26, 1974. Lights Off Lights On Estimated Crossings 609 506 Total Kill 9 4 Crossings/Kill 67.7 126.5 �-311- LITERATURE CITED Reed, Dale F. 1969. Techniques fordeterinining potentially critical deer highway crossings. Game Informat;:ion Leaflet No. 73. Colo. Dept .. Natural Resources , Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. 3p. . Prepared by ,,.,....-:;.1&. ()l{j/!Af( .~ l' ct-" o-e,&(,-.,.+/ ! .. // ;,,-/, Thomas N. Woodard Wildlife Researcher Candidate �I ..-I N C"') I Fig. 1. Highway lighting on Colorado Highway 82 south of Glenwood Springs (Photo by Dale F. Reed). �-313- July, 1974 JOBPROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-28 : Deer-Elk Investigations ------------------------10 : Job No. 15 WorkPlan No. --------------~-------------------------------------An.Evaluation of 8-Foot Fence Length Re~red Job Title to Prevent Movementson or Across High Speedtlighways Period Covered: April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974. Personnel: ThomasN. Woodard,ThomasM. Pojar, William R. Beicher, David C. Boart, Larry L. Green, Claudia A. Doose, and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACf Annual or seasonal deer kill caused by vehicles was reduced by 61, 82, 63, and 73 percent along 8-foot (2.44-m) fence lengths of 1.1, 2.25, 2.25, and 4.8 mile& respectively. One hundred fourteen, 13, and 33 deer escaped the highway rights-of-way adjacent to the two 2.25 and the 4.8 mile long8-foot fences through 17 one-way deer gates respectively. Does (N=8)and bucks (N=3)movedlaterally or parallel to the 8-foot fence for mean distances of 0.37 and 0.58 miles, respectively. ���-315- AN EVALUATION OF 8-FOOT FENCE LENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT DEER MOVEMENTS ON OR ACROSS HIGH SPEED HIGHWAYS Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate length of 8-foot (2.44-m) fence in relation to deer movement on or across high speed highways. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. install 8-foot fence along appropriate sections of highway as determined by Job 1a. 2. Evaluate the effectiveness of various lengths of 8-foot fence in affecting deer movements. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972) and Reed et a1. (1974a) • DESCRIPTION OF AREA Highway 82 - Diamond S The Highway 82 study area has been described by Pojar (1972). Interstate 70 - Avon, Edwards, and Vail The Interstate 70 - Avon and Edwards study areas have been described by Woodard (1973) and the Vail study area by Reed (1971) and Reed et a1. (1974a) • Interstate 70 - Eagle The Eagle study area consists of a segment of the Interstate from near the Eagle Interchange east 4.8 miles. The Interstate highway was opened to traffic October 5, 1972. An 8-foot (2.44~) fence was completed along the north side of the highway right-of-way October" 5, 1973. Alfalfa fields are prevalent south of the highway. Pinyon-juniper and some big sagebrush occurs on the north. �-316- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 82 ~ Diamond S Deer concentrate in the crested wheatgrass fields northeast of the highway in late winter and early spring (Table 1). The mean number of deer crossings during March - May periods in 1971 before the 8-foot fence was installed was 11.7 CN=32, where N=number of 24 hour periods) per day. After the fence was installed the means were 2.1 (N=38) in 1972 and 5.5 CN=34) in 1973. This represents an 82 and 53 percent reduction in crossings in 1972 and 1973 respectively. The mean deer kill per year before the 8-foot fence was installed (1968-1971) was 7.75. Three deer were killed in 1972 and three in 1973 (after 8-foot fence was installed); a mean reduction of 61 percent. Table 1. The March-May mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts between quarter-mile section markers 25 to 30 for 1968 through 1973 on Highway 82 (n=number of counts). Month 1968 1969 Mean Count 1970 1971 1972 1973 March 134.8 Cn=4) 151.2 (n=4) 104.5 (n=4) 66.8 (n=4) 102.2 (n=4) 137.4 (n=5) April 73.0 (n=4) 34.0 (n=5) 56.0 Cn=5) 51.4 (n=5) 4.5 (n=4) 47.0 Cn=4) May 6.0 Cn=5) 0.0 (n=L) 1.5 (n=2) 0.0 (n=2) 66.2 (n=13) 77 .5 (n=10) 63.7 (n=l1) 47.6 53.4 (n=Ll.) (n=B) 97.2 (n=9) MEAN TOTAL Interstate 70 - Avon The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during the August - December periods was 15.5 Cn=17) and 13.4 Cn=2l) in 1971 and 1972 respectively, and 10.8 (n=Ll.) in 1973 for October - December. Deer crossings were not monitored in 1973. However, 114 deer made passages to the north through six one~ay deer gates lQcated in the 8-foot fence CReed et a1. 1974b) ~ Twenty eight deer were killed from October 5, 1971, to October 5, 1972, before the fence was installed. Five were killed from October 5, 1972, to October 5, 1973, after the fence was installed; a reduction of 82 percent. A deer guard in the Avon 8-foot fence was monitored for deer use. Deer use of this guard plus deer use and response to another guard was reported previously (Reed et al. 1974a). �-317- Interstate 70 - Edwards Twenty seven deer were killed on this segment of highway before the fence was installed from October 5, 1971, to October 5, 1972. Ten were killed after the fence from October 5, 1972, to October 5, 1973; a reduction of 63 percent. Three areas in the fence were in need of repair and maintenance and were not considered "deer proof". Thirteen passages occurred through four of seven one~ay deer gates located in the 8-foot fence. Interstate 70 - Vail No additional data was collected in this study area in regard to fence length. Interstate 70 - Eagle The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts.during October March 1972-73 was 80.5 (n=25). One hundred forty six deer were· killed from October 5, 1972, to March 31, 1973, before the fence was installed. Thirty nine were killed from October 5, 1973, to March 31, 1974, after the fence was installed; a reduction of 73 percent. An estimated 90-100 deer, including several collared animals (Fig. 1), came across the highway from the south and either 1.) passed through the one-way deer gates or an opening in the fence, 2.) went around the ends of the fence, 3.) went back to the south to or across the Eagle River, or 4.) were killed on the highway. Thirty three deer made passages to the north through seven of ten one-way deer gates located in the 8-foot fence. According to 39 observations of collared deer north of the 8-foot fence, does (N=8) and bucks (N=3) have moved laterally or parallel to the fence for mean distances of 0.37 and 0.58 miles, respectively. Buck No. 64 moved laterally or parallel to the fence for the greatest distances (Fig. 2). LITERATURE CITED Pojar, Thomas M. 1972. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid. Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. 305-310. Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid. Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 3. pp. 341-351. Reed, D. F., T. M. Pojar, and T. N. Woodard. 1974a. Mule deer responses to deer guards. J. Range Manage. 27(2):111-113. �-318- Reed, D. F., T. M. Pojar, and T. N. Woodard. 1974b. Use of one-way gates by mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(1):9-15. Woodard, Thomas N. 1973. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid. Proj. W-38-R-27. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. Prepared b1:~d/di;i) ale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher �-319- Fig. 1. Collared doe No. 50 came across Interstate 70 from the unfenced south side previous to January 15, 1974. The animal was identified on the north side of the 8-foot fence on three subsequent occasions, having apparently passed through one of the one~ay gates (Photo by Larry Green). �-320- -N10 DEC72 22 NOV73 .75 10DEC 73 ~w- -E- . I.~ 2 JAN 74 eJAN.74 I-- O;.,o,,;;;;.9.........-_~ <i>. 13JAN74 @ 1.30 SCALE: III • 0.5 MILE x •ORIGINAL TRAP SITE ,fig. 2. A diagram illustrating the apparent movements of buck No. 64 north of the Eagle 8-footfence'acccrding to seven dated sightings (2-8). The animal was collared at point X December 10, 1972. �-321- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------~~~~---------------Job No. 1~1~ ~---Effects of a Simulated 8-Foot Fence Angle in Diverting Deer from Their Established Direction of Movement Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations W-38-R-28 Project No. 15 April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974 Thomas M. Pojar, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard. ABSTRACT Time was measured and observations made on mule deer (Odocoi1eus hemionus) response to five simulated fence angles in 1972 and three simulated fence angles in 1973. Mean time needed for deer to successfully travel the 27.42 meter length of 900 fence angle was significantly greater (P<O.OOl) than the mean control time (00 angle). The number of deer that failed to move through the zone during the 900 .fence angle measurements was not significantly greater (X2 = 0.202, P>0.50) than the number during control. ��-323- EFFECTS OF A SIMULATED 8-FOOT FENCE ANGLE IN DIVERTING DEER FROM THEIR ESTABLISHED DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of three angles of a simulated 8-foot fence to divert deer from their established direction of movement. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Install a movable 8-foot section of 4-inch square netting adjacent to and across heavily traveled deer trails and concentration points. 2. Test the effectiveness of three angles under field conditions. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Reed (1973). Observations were made during 21 days in 1973 from June 12 to July 9. 600 angle was omitted in 1973. The DESCRIPTION OF AREA The study area has been described by Reed (1973). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Time was measured on deer in the simulated fence angle area on 55 occasions (Table 1). Twenty-nine times were recorded during control measurements. Mean time needed for deer to successfully travel the 27.42 meter length of 900 fence angle was significantly greater (P <0.001) than mean control time. The number of deer that failed to move through the zon during the 900 fence angle measurements was not significantly greater (X -0.202, P >0.50) than the number during control; thus the simulated fence angle did not preclude deer from their apparent direction of movement. z Statistical tests were not applied to the other angle variables because of insufficient sample size. �-324- Table 1. The mean times (seconds) of successes or failures of deer moving through the zone with either the simulated fence angle removed (control) or installed (variables: 45°,60°, or 90°). Successful animals moved along the permanent 8-foot (2.44-m) fence or along the simulated fence. Failure animals moved into the zone, turned around, the left in the direction that they had come. Angles Successful Failure Percent Successful 0° 1/ 75.8 (n=19) -" 85.6 (n=lO) 66 45° 168.2 (n=3) 60 60° 90° 0 173.6 (n=9) 52.0 (n=Z) 0 78.3 (n=6) 120° 0 121.3 (n=4) 135° 73.0 (n=L) 117.0 (n=L) 60 50 Number of observations (n). When deer approached the simulated fence angles of 60° and 45° from the opposite direction (east), they encountered converse angles of 120° and 135°. Prepared by --z1.;:~;yti. w1;;,da!~),'-.,;.JLv,f Wildlife Researcher Candidate �-325July, 1974 JOB r~!OGi-:ESS P.h"1'ORT State of ----------------------------- Project: No. W-38-R-28 Work Plan No. Job Title 16 : ------~~------------- Deer-Elk Investigations .!oh lh. 1 -----~=---------------------- Piceance Deer Study - Population Distribution Period Covered: April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974. Personnel: R. M. Hartmann, S. F. Steinert, and M. J. Loftsgard. J. J. Klein, Jr., H. Reiswig, Deer were trapped and marked from December18, 1973 through March 8, 1974. Five hundred forty-one deer were marked of which 496 were both eartagged and neckbanded, 44 eartagged only and .1 neckbanded only. A mean 6.7 deer per day were marked. Trapping was completed in GameManagementUnit 22 and operations were movedfarther up the White River into Unit 23 where marked deer quotas were nearly reached in two more areas. The composition of the total catch was_108male fawns, 86 female fawns, 56 mature males, 290 mature females and 1 unknownfemale. Sightings of 346 deer were reported during the year but only 74 occurred during the time deer were considered to be. on or near the sUIIIDer range. Eighty-one marked deer were recovered but at least 33 of these died during winter or spring, 1973, on the winter range. Three aerial deer dist-:ribution surveys were flown during winter. The survey flown in February was based on accumulated tracks and showed the deer to be somewhatconcentrated because of deep snow. ��-327- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To delineate deer sub-population boundaries and concentration areas on the Piceance winter range. a. Define the winter range boundaries of the Piceance deer population under mild, moderate, and severe winter conditions. b. Define deer SUb-population boundaries within the Piceance winter range. c. Delineate major deer concentration areas within the Piceance winter range. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Bartmann (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Trapping Deer trapping began December 18, 1973 and terminated March 8, 1974. Snow cover conditions were similar to the previous year. Mean snow depths averaged near 15 to 18 inches most of the winter and snowmobiles were required to set and check traps almost the entire winter. Temperatures, however, averaged slightly higher than last year and deer condition remained good through most of the winter except that some fawns began looking "rough" around late February. The number of traps used was similar to last year, 30 to 40. Trapping success was the highest thus far, averaging 6.7 deer per day compared to 5.9 and 5.7 deer per day the past two years. Trapping was completed in Game Management Unit 22 and operations were moved farther up the White River into Unit 23 where quotas were nearly reached in two more areas. This leaves about 560 deer to be banded in six areas. �-328- Five hundred forty-one deer were marked during the 1973-74 winter, of which 496 were both eartagged and neckbanded, 44 eartagged only, and 1 neckbanded only (Table 1). The sex and age composition was 108 male fawns, 86 female fawns, 56 mature males, 290 mature females, and 1 unknown female. Fawns comprised 36 percent of the total compared to 26 percent in 1972-73 and 34 percent in 1971-72. The percent males was 10 compared to 17 and 18 percent the previous two years. Mature females comprised 54 percent of the total compared to 57 and 48 percent the previous two years. It was noted that during the last 16 days of trapping, 45 deer were caught and only 2, or 4 percent, were fawns. During the preceding 20 days in February, 57 of 160 deer, or 36 percent, were fawns. The reason for this discrepancy is not known at this time. Marked Deer Sightings and Recoveries Sightings of 346 ~Erked deer were recorded from March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 (Table 2). Another four sightings made before the earlier date were also reported during this period and are included. Most sightings, 213, were recorded during spring prior to June 1, 1973. During this interval, deer were present on meadows and other areas where large numbers could be easily observed and, with several exceptions, sightings were recorded only if the number on the neckband was read. Another 74 sightings were recorded from June through October, 1973. During this period most deer were on or near summer range. The remaining 63 sightings occurred during the winter months. Previously, observations from May through September were considered summer sightings and those from October through April winter sightings. However, in 1973 most deer were still on the winter range in May. The October hunting season fell during mid-month with mild weather and deer were mostly near the higher summer range elevations at that time. Recoveries of 81 marked deer were reported from April, 1973 through February, 1974 (Table 3). At least 33 of these died during the winter and spring of 1973, many soon after they were marked. Ten of the 33 died after getting caught in fences. Deer Distribution The 1973-74 winter was similar to the 1972-73 winter with respect to snow cover. Snow began accumulating in December and depths eventually ranged from 12 to 30 inches and averaged around 15 to 18 inches most of the winter. South slopes, except in a few areas in the southwest part of the winter. range, remained snow-covered into early February. The mean temperature from December through Februarz was nearly 50 F warmer than for the same period in 1972-73 and about 4 F colder than in 1971-72. �-329- Three aerial distribution surveys were accomplished. The first was made December 19, 20, and 21, 1973. Snow depths ranged from 8 to 15 inches and averaged from 10 to 12 inches. Greatest depths occurred in the eastern and southern portions of the winter range. Deer were fairly well scattered, this being the case for the first survey the past two years (Fig. 1). Only the highest elevations in the south and southwest part of Unit 22 and the higher areas of the Piceance triangle were devoid of deer tracks. Numerous areas of little or no deer use were observed throughout the winter range but distribution was still fluid and many of these areas contained deer a few days or weeks later. The few areas of heavy use mostly appeared in the same general areas as in the past. From six to eight inches of snow fell the last week of December increasing the average depth to 18 to 20 inches. The second survey was flown on December 31, 1973 and January 2 and 3, 1974. The deer were still scattered but fewer areas of little or no use were found at the lower elevations, particularly on the more extensive slopes (Fig. 2). A few new areas of heavy use were noted but there was no large increase in the to.tal area of such use. In a few places the deer were starting to use trails and were already avoiding the larger treeless expanses. As in the past two years, little snow fell after mid-January. Therefore an effort was again made to estimate deer distribution based on accumulated tracks on February 12 and 13, 1974. For several weeks prior to the survey snow had been slowly melting and the steeper south slopes were beginning to bare. The melting process made fresh tracks impossible to distinguish. The deer were also using trails instead of moving separately as they did earlier in the winter. During the survey, snow depths over much of the occupied winter range averaged near 15 inches with greater depths, up to two feet, on north slopes. The upper limits of deer use had changed noticeably in most areas (Fig. 3). Heaviest usewas found in the eastern portion of the unit although there were still some animals present on north slopes. Deer use appeared considerably lighter in the western portion of the unit and many of the tracks were believed old. Thus, the distribution limits, at least in this area, probably exaggerate to some extent the actual distribution. The avoidance by deer of treeless areas was especially evident during this survey. LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - population distribution. p. 315-337. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 3):253-377. ..... ~~ Prepared by £A2.~1~,;Z Richart M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued) • - Date (1973) Sex Age Eartag no. Neckbnnd no. Twp. 12-23 12-23 12-23 12-24 12-24 12-24 12-25 12-25 12-25 12-25 12-26 12-26 12-26 12-26 Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L-2342 L-2343 L-2344 L-2345 L-2346 L-2347 L-2348 L-2349 L-2350 L-235l L-2352 L-2353 L-2354 L-2355 31 59 66 68 98 92 58 63 69 62 48 71 60 93 2S 2S lS lS 2S 2S lS lS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S Summary: Location Range 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W Sec. Remarks 3 3 34 36 3 3 16 9 15 36 28 12 1 3 21 Male Fawns ; ·16 Female Fawu~; .'8 :Ma.tu~~Males_;'31 Mature Females Area 4 - Green with White Stripe·Neckband· 12-21 12-21 12-22 12-23 12,...23 12-23 12-23 12-23 12-23 12-23 Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-220l L-2202 L-2203 L-2204 L-2205 L-2206 L-2207 L-2208 L-2209 L-22l1 65 86 62 81 63 70 .67' 69 66 60 lN lN lN lN lN IN lN IN lN IN 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 7 7 7 ------~------~----------------------------.-------------------~~----------------------'~---------- I w w I'.) I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued) • Date (1973) Sex Age 12-23 12-23 12-24 12-24 12~25 12-25 12-25 12-25 12-25 12':"26 12-26 12-26 12-26 12-26 12-26 12-26 12-27 12-27 12-28 12-28 12-28 12-28 12-28 12':"28 12-29 12-29 12-29 12-29 12-29 12-29 12-29 Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female FaWn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Eartag no. L-2210 L-2212 L-2213 L-2214 L-2215 L"""2261 L-2262 L-2263 L-2264 L-2265 L"""2266 L-2267 L-2268 L-2269 L-2270 L-2271 L-2272 L-2273 L-2274 L-2275 L-2276 L-2277 L-2278 L-2279 L-2280 L-228l L-2282 L-2283 L..;,,2284 L-2285 L-2286 Neckband no. Twp. 74 82 87 126 127 165 61 79 68 110 90 178 189 132 72 176 175 174 114 115 None 109 154 179 156 193 94 154 93 158 162 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N IN 1N 1N IN IN 1N IN IN 1N 1N IN 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N Location Range Sec. 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 7 7 7 18 18 17 17 26 26 7 7 18 16 16 16 26 7 17 17 17 16 16 16 22 18 7 7 7 17 17 20 Remarks I May be wrong band no. May be wrong band no. May be wrong band no. May be wrong band no. --------------------------~--,--------~~------------------------------------------------------------------------ w w w I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974) Sex 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-12 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1... 15 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Twp. Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L-2435 L-2436 L-2437 L-2438 L-2439 L-2440 L-2441 L-2442 L-2443 L-2444· L-2445 L-2446 L-2447 L-2448 L-2449 L-2450 L-2451 L-2452 L-2453 L-2454 L-2455 L-2456 L-2457 L-2458 L-2459 L-2460 L-2461 L-2462 L-2463 L-2465 L-2466 L-2467 L-2468 147 145 119 None 135 None 207 163 176 100 2];5 None 221 220 216 219 216 223 218 227 143 226 222 None None None 230 None None None 205 208 None 18 1N 18 18 1S 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1N 1N 18 18 1N 18 18 18 18 18 18 1N 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1S 18 Location Range 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 94W 94W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 95W 95W 95W 95W Sec. Remarks 34 34 2 2 2 2 2 17 1 1 6 6 34 34 2 2 34 17 17 17 2 2 2 34 17 17 17 17 17 6 2 2 3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I W W 0\ I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). ~ Date (1974) Sex Age Eartag no. Neckband no. l'wp. 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-19 Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn L-2469 ·L-2470 L-2471 L-2472 L-2473 L-2474 L-2475 L-2476 L-2477 L-2479 L-2481 L-2482 L-2485 L-2483 L-2484 L-2486 L-2487 L-2488 L-2489 L-2490 L-2491 L-2492 L-2493 L-2494 L-2495 L-2496 L-2497 L-2498 L-2499 L-2500 L-2356 233 169 229 224 202 None 228 None 234 None None None None 210 None None 225 None 199 232 None 172 211 97 204 201 200 170 168 206 128 IS IS IS IS IS 18 IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS e Location Range Sec. 94W 94W 94W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 94W 94W 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 2 2 2 2 34 34 7 7 7 7 7 17 17 6 7 7 7 7 Remarks ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w w -....I I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). (£~14) Sex 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-20 1-21 1-22 1-23 1-23 1-23 .1-24 1-25 1-25 1-25 1-26 1-26 1-26 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-28 1-28 1-28 1-29 Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Twp. Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn L-2357 L-2358 L-2359 L-2360 L-2361 L-2362 L-2363 L-2364 L-2365 L-2366 L-2367 L-2368 L-2369 L-2370 None L-2371 L-2372 L-2373 L-2374 L-2375 L-2501 L-2502 L-2503 L-2504 L-2505 L-2506 L-2507 L-2508 L-2509 L-2510 L-2511 213 214 209 101 231 96 105 212 129 144 95 186 240 244 203 241 236 None None 248 238 249 149 None 245 246 247 410 None 253 243 1S 1S 18 1S 18 1S 18 18 18 18 1S 18 18 18 1N 18 18 18 18 18 18 1N 18 18 1N 18 1S 1N 1S 18 1N Location Range Sec. 94W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 95W 7 17 29 34 7 7 7 7 17 17 17 17 7 17 34 17 17 17 17 17 17 34 17 17 34 17 17 34 17 17 34 Remarks --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w w ex> I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). - Date ·r .• Eartag no. (1974) Sex Age 1-29 1-29 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-9 2-17 2-17 Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Summary: 45 Male Fawns; L-2512 L-2513 L-2518 L...;,2519 L-2520 L-2521 L-2522 L-2614 L-2615 L-2616 L-2617 L-2672 L-2673 44 Female Fawns; Ne ckb and no. Twp. 251 None 252 255 242 None 80 237 254 None 250 239 106 IN 15 IN IN IS 15 IS IN IN IN IN IN IN 15 Mature Males; Location Range Sec. 95W 94W 95W 95W 94W 94W 94W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 34 17 34 34 17 17 17 36 36 36 36 36 36 Remarks 108 Mature Females Area 8 - White and Orange Block Neckband 1-29 1-29 1-29 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-31 Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn L-2514 L-2515 L-2517 L-2523 L-2524 L-2525 L-2528 L-2529 L-2526 L-2527 L-2531 94 '25 31 None 82 None 27 107 111 24 None IS IS 15 IS IS IS 15 IS IS IS 15 93W 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 5 14 14 5 8 14 14 14 34 34 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w w \0 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter ra~ge in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 197~-74 (continued). Date (1974) Sex 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature L-2532 L-2533 L-2534 1..-2535 L-2536 L-2537 L-2541 L-2540 L-2539 L-2530 L-2542 L-2538 L"""2543 L-2558 L-2559 L-2560 L-2561 L-2562 L:-2563 L-2564 .L-2571 L-2565 L-2566 L-2567 L-2568 L-2569 L-2570 L-2544 L-2545 L-2546 127 26 30 28 123 47 65 109 29 56 57 112 32 58 100 102 14 15 101 19 59 60 104 97 21 22 18 2 103 105 Twp. IS IS IS IS 1~ IS IS IS IS IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS Location Range Sec. 93W 93W 93W ·94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 8 8 8 35 35 36 36 34 22 32 22 14 14 14 8 8 35 35 36 34 22 14 14 14 14 8 8 35 34 14 Remarks I IN ~ 0 I Found dead 4-25-74 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~----------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974) -- 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 Sex Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Fawn Mature Mature F~wn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn L-2547 L-2548 L-2549 L-2550 L-255l L-2552 L-2553 L-2554 L-2555 L-2556 L-2557 L-2587 L-2588 L-2589 L-2590 L-259l L-2593 L-2594 L-2592 L-2595 L-2596 L-2597 L-2599 L-2598 L-2572 L-2573 L-2574 L-2575 L-2576 L-2577 1 55 13 20 10 90 None 3 92 95 8 51 106 108 96 23 None 4 5 87 16 7 None None 52 None 17 50 11 63 Twp. IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IS IS IS IS Location Range 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94W Sec. Remarks 14 35 35 36 14 14 32 32 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 35 36 36 34 22 14 14 8 8 8 31 35 35 36 34 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w .j::-o t-' I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued) • Date (1974) 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-9 Sex Age Eartag no. Ne ckband no. Twp. Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Matur:e Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L~2578 L-2579 L-2580 L-2581 L-2582 L-2583 L-2584 L-2585 L-2600 L-2601 L-2602 L-2603 L-2604 L-2605 L-2606 L-2607 L-2608 L-2609 L-2610 L-2611 L-2612 L-2613 L-2628 L-2629 L-2630 L-2631 L-2632 L-2633 L-2634 L-2635 54 None 88 85 86 36 43 53 79 93 113 None None 48 34 38 115 124 12 119 83 80 71 139 68 62 46 40 37 110 IS IS 18 IS IS 18 IS 18 IN IN 18 18 18 IS 18 IS IS IN IN 18 IS IS IS 18 IN IN 18 18 IS 18 Location Range Sec. 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 94W 22 14 5 8 8 8 8 8 31 31 35 14 35 36 22 14 14 31 31 5 5 8 14 14 31 31 8 8 8 35 Remarks --------~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w +'- N I �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974) -- 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-10 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-16 Sex Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Twp. Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature L-2636 L-2637 L-2638 L-2639 L-2640 L-2641 L-2642 L-2643 L-2644 L-2645 L-2646 L-2647 L-2648 L-2649 L-2650 L-2651 L-2652 L-2653 L-2654 L-2670 L-2671 L-2655 L-2656 L-2657 L-2658 L-2659 L-2660 L-2661 L-2662 L-2663 L-2665 33 45 49 64 67 145 148 141 42 151 39 181 6 129 128 152 72 35 135 44 117 136 140 127 126 118 41 134 116 138 133 IS IS IS IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IN IN IN IN IS IS IN IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS .Location Range Sec. 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 94w 93W 94w 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 93W 94W 36 36 36 34 34 14 31 31 35 34 36 31 31 31 14 14 31 31 36 14 14 36 26 36 36 36 26 26 36 26 36 Remarks --------------------------------------------------------------------~------~------------------------------- I w ~ w I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Location Range Sec. IS IS 15 94W 94W 93W 36 36 36 5 15 93W 36 146 74 130 154 137 147 144 143 77 122 149 153 150 69 76 121 73 132 120 66 78 70 131 15 IS IN 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 IS 15 15 15 15 IS 15 15 15 15 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 36 36 19 26 26 36 36 26 36 36 36 36 36 26 26 36 36 26 36 36 36 36 36 Date (1974) Sex Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Twp. 2-17 2-17 2-17 Female Male Male Mature Fawn Fawn L-2666 L-2667 L-2694 142 None 23 2-17 Female Unknown L-2695 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-26 2-26 2-28 2-28 3-5 3-6 3-8 Fetnale Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female M...ale Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Hature Mature Hature Hature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature L-2668 L-2669 L-2679 L-2706 L-2707 L-2709 L-2708 L-2680 L-2681 L-2682 L-2683 L-2715 L-2717 L-2726 L-2727 L-2728 L-2744 L-,z745 L-2758 L-2759 L-2773 L-2775 L-2778 5unnnary: 35 Male Fawns; 31 Female Fawns; 21 Mature Males; 81 Mature Females; Remarks Has a yellow and blue neckband. Has a yellow and blue neckband. I w .p.pI 1 UnknoWn Female ----------------~---------------------------------------------------~----------------------~---------------- �Table 1- Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974) Sex Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Twp. Location Range Sec. Remarks Area 9 - Yellow and Blue Block Neckband 2-13 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 Female Female Hale Male Female Hale Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Mature Hature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Ha tur e Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature ...;.---------------~--------.--..~ L-26l9 L-2620 L-2621 L-2622 L-2623 L-2624 L-2625 L-2626 L-2627 L-2664 L-2684 L-2685 L-2686 L-2687 L-2688 L-2689 L-2690 L-2691 L-2693 L-2674 L-2675 L-2676 L-2677 L-2678 L-2696 L-2697 L-'2698 L-2699 L-2700 14 12 18 None 6 19 4 3 1 2 10 25 11 16 24 None 8 15 26 45 7 35 42 43 13 39 46 37 40 IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN 1N IN 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1:N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 94H 94H 94H 94H 94W 94H 94W 94H 94W 94W 94W 94W 94H 94H 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94H 94H 94H 94W 94W 93W 93W 28 28 20 20 28 20 20 20 29 18 20 28 28 28 28 20 29 29 18 20 20 28 28 29 18 18 20 19 19 I w +:U1 I Found dead 3-12-74 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974 ) 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2..;.25 2-25 2-25 2-25 2.,...25 Sex Age Eartag no. Ne ckb and no. Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female }fale Female Female Hale Femal,.e Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male l1ale Female Female Male Female Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature }fature Fawn Mature Mature Nature Mature }fature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Ha t ur e Mature Mature Mature Mature .Mature L-270l L-2702 L-2703 L-2704 L-2705 L-2710 L-2711 L-2713 L-2714 L-2716 L-2718 L-2719 L-2720 L-272l L-2722 L-2723 L-2724 L-2725 L-2729 L-2730 L-273l L-2732 L-2733 L-2734 L-2735 L-2736 L-2737 L-2738 L-2739 L-2740 L-274l 41 48 None 50 29 44 38 47 49 22 78 74 34 72 73 75 85 84 83 82 81 77 71 80 76 31 28 79 105 32 90 Twp. IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN Location Range 93W 93W 94W 94W 94W 93W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 94H 94W 94W 94H 94W 93W 93W 93\oJ' 93W 93W 93W 93W 94W 94W 93ToJ' 93'(0] 93W 93W Sec. Remarks 19 19 20 29 29 19 18 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 29 28 28 28 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 19 19 19 19 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w ~ '" I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974) Sex 2-25 2-25 2..•.. 26 2-26 2-26 2-26 2-26 2-26 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-28 2-28 2-28 2-28 3-1 3-1 3-1 3-1 3-2 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-8 Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Age Hature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature M..ature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature l'1ature Mature Eartag no. L-2742 L-2743 L-2746 L-2747 L-2748 L-2749 L-2750 L-275l L-2752 L-2753 L-2754 L-2755 L-2756 L-2757 L-2760 L-276l L-2762 L-2765 L-2763 L-2764 L-2766 L-2767 L-2768 L-'-2769 L-2770 L-277l L-2772 L-2774 L-2776 L-2777 L-2779 Neckband no. Twp. 33 101 92 97 94 93 98 21 104 95 88 87 103 30 68 61 54 52 55 63 102 57 100 60 59 58 20 53 56 ,51 62 IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN iN IN IN IN IN IN Location Range 93W 94~.J 93W 93W 93W. 93W 93W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W Sec. Remarks 19 18 20 19 19 19 19 18 20 19 19 19 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 18 19 19 19 19 18 19 19 19 19 -------------~-------------------------~---~---------------------------------------------~--------------- I \,.0.) .p- -..J I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22, 23 and 11, winter 1973-74 (continued). Date (1974) Sex Age Eartag no. Neckband no. Twp. 3-8 3-8 3-8 Female Male Female Mature Fawn Mature L-2788 L-2789 L-2787 69 70 64 IN IN IN Summary: 7 Male Fawns; Grand Summary: 108 Male Fawns; 5 Female Fawns; 12 Mature Males; Location Range Sec. 93W 93W 93W Remarks 19 19 18 70 Mature Females I 86 Female FaWnS; 56 Mature Males; 290 Mature Females; 1 Unknown Female W .j::-- co I Blue and White Neckbands 2-11-73 2-11-73 Female Female Mature Mature Corrections to 1973 Trapping Records (Corrections are Underlined) L-2084 L-2085 27 28 2S 2S 97W 97W 3 3 May be neckband No. 24 May be neckband No.3 IS IS 95W 94W 6 17 Green & white neckband Blue & white neckband .Recaptures 1-14-74 1-21-74 Male Female Mature Mature L-1681 L-2110 75 25 �-349- Table 2. 8ightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28,1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973. Ne ckband Date (1973) Color Number Twp. 2-01 2-11 2-11 2-11 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-16 3-17 3-23 3-24 3-24 3-24 4-09 4-09 4-11 4-11 4-11 4-11 4-11 4-12 4-12 4-14 4-14 4~14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-14 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 White Pink Pink Pink Blue and white Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Red w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe White White White White White Blue Blue Pink Pink Pink Blue and white White Yellow wIred stripe Pink White White White Blue and white Redw/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Pink Blue and white 55 59 89 75 3 128 107 8 34 1 105 90 109 1 124 87 160 136 72 19 79 59 89 75 103 156 11 45 62 18 38 38 38 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 18 18 28 18 28 18 2N 2N 28 28 28 18 1N 1N 28 18 18 18 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 18 ? ? 34 75 107 65 57 43 94 69 55 29 34 27 Location Range 8ec. 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 96W 96W 96W 97W 96W 96W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 2 5 5 5 16 16 16 9 9 4 4 4 4 4 32 9 31 1 33 3 3 32 32 32 21 9 26 24 28 28 28 5 5 16 16 16 16 21 22 36 36 36 21 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-350- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 14, 1973 (continued). Date (1973) Color Number Twp. Location Range 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4~16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 4-17 Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white White, Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Pink White White White White White White White White White White White White Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Pink Red w/white stripe Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink 53 55 21 84 126 29 19 16 37 110 48 106 58 33 117 7 27 6 84 IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S IS 2S IN IN IN IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 2S 2S 25 25 25 25 25 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 95W 96W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 96W 96W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W Neckband ? ? 188 187 210 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 129 126 32 107 47 29 89 57 55 72 32 45 88 52 7 30 Sec. 28 28 28 28 16 16 26 29 36 4 3 3 3 3 11 9 9 13 16 36 36 36 20 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 16 16 36 16 36 36 31 36 36 21 21 19 19 24 29 29 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-351- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973 (continued). Date (1973) Color 4-17 4-18 4-21 4-21 4-21 4-22 4-22 4-22 4-22 4-22 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-25 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-26 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 White Blue Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Blue and white Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White White White White White White White White Blue Blue Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue White Blue Blue Neckb and Number Twp. 34 2S 2N IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 3S 2S IS 2S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S IN IN IN IN IN 2S IS IS 2S IS IS 2N 2N 2N 2N IS IS IS IS IS IS 2N 2N 2N 2N ? 10 36 24 23 63 36 41 26 28 44 60 90 66 94 73 64 40 ? 75 31 2 ? 181 160 115 175 115 239 29 1 107 ? 43 68 22 5 84 36 104 48 39 77 Location Range Sec. 97W 94W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96W 98W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 99W 99W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 98W 98W 20 31 10 10 10 29 32 29 1 31 31 27 27 3 3 3 3 3 3 35 36 27 16 27 10 32 29 19 29 21 11 3 9 4 11 11 11 11 21 21 6 34 6 6 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-352- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973 (continued). Neckband Date (1973) 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-27 4-28 4-28 4-28 4-28 4-28 4-28 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-01 5-02 5-02 5-02 5-02 5-02 5-02 5-02 5-02 5-02 L~ Color Blue Blue Blue and white B1\1eand white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Pink White Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white Blue Blue Blue White Pink Red w/~hite stripe (; Pink Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Pink Pink Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Blue and white Red w/white stripe White White White Blue and white Blue and white ',,~ " Number Twp. 40 42 104 132 54 131 59 16 65 8 2N 2N IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 2S 2S IS IS 2S IS 2S 2N 2N IN IS 2S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IN IN 2S 2S ? ? ? ? 6 66 41 103 96 148 3 123 18 101 125 66 39 3 4 72 15 42 130 12 24 57 128 43 3 70 160 89 ? 95 47 Location Range Sec. 98W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 97W 96W 96W 98W 98W 99W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 5 5 21 11 11 11 11 15 28 29 29 33 32 1 12 9 9 5 2 21 35 35 2 2 2 2 2 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 16 16 16 16 32 21 21 11 9 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-353- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973 (continued). Neckband Date (1973) €olor 5-02 5-02 5-03 5-03 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-04 5-05 5-05 5-05 5-07 5-09 5-09 5-09 5-11 5-11 5-12 5-13 5-13 5-15 5-17 5-23 5-30 5-30 5-? 6-05 6-21 6-26 6-26 6-30 7-03 7-09 7-? 7-? 7-? 7-? 8-07 White Blue and white Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white Pink Red w/white stripe Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Pink Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe No neckband Yellow wIred stripe Green w/white stripe Greenw/white stripe Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Blue and white Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Blue and white Blue and white Pink Green w/white stripe Pink Pink Red w/white stripe White Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Number Twp. 62 12 ? 77 60 52 37 10 54 46 11 31 44 124 22 Eartag L-1956 6 49 36 25 20 18 39 111 86 ? ? ? 85 ? ? ? ? 94 ? ? 33 92 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? lS lS 2S lS 2S 2S 2S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 1N lS lS 1N lS lS lS 2S 2S 4S 1N 1N 4S 3S 2S 3S 4S 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 9N 2S 2S IS lS 2S Location Range Sec. 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 95W 96W 96W 95W 98W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 90W 90W 94W 94W 94W 94W 89W 94W 94W 93W 93W 94W 32 15 26 15 27 36 36 8 8 8 8 8 3 26 25 25 31 14 14 26 10 10 10 32 32 6 36 32 2 11 29 36 4 5 23 23 23 26 23 3 6 11 11 17 17 23 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------. . �-3S4- Table 2. 8ightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973 (continued). Date (1973) Color Number Twp. 8-07 8-19 8-22 8-26 8-26 8-? 9-18 9-24 9-24 9-24 9-24 9-24 9-24 9-24 9-24 9-27 9-28 9-29 9-29 10-5 10-11 10-11 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-15 10-15 10-15 10-15 10-15 10-lS 10-16 10-16 10-17 10-17 Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Pink Yellow wIred stripe Pink White Blue Blue Blue White Pink Pink White Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue White Blue Blue and white White Blue White Pink Pink Pink Red w/white stripe White Blue Blue Blue White White Blue Red w/white stripe White Pink Blue White Blue White White Red w/white stripe White Pink Blue and white ? ? ? 123 ? ? 2 ? ? ? ? ? ? 36 27 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 52 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 60 ? ? ? ? ? 223 ? ? ? ? 28 S8 58 58 58 58 18 S8 48 48 48 S8 48 68 68 IN IN 18 48 2N 3N 48 58 18 18 38 38 58 S8 58 5N 5N 28 28 28 2N 48 18 38 2N 2N 2N 38 38 28 2N 38 Neckband Location Range 8ec. 94W 94W 94W 95W 95W 97W 90W 97W 99W 99W 99W 97W 99W 97W 97W 92W 92W 93W 99W 86W 93W 9SW 96W 91W 91W 94W 94W 97W 97W 97W 91W 91W 94W 99W 99W 95W 96W 99W 96W 94W 94W 94W 97W 97W 94W 99W 96W 90W 23 31 21 14 14 23 9 17 19 19 19 17 16 5 36 3 23 36 15 4 28 33 26 18 18 2S 25 1 1 1 34 34 4 3 3 16 .9 32 9 4 3 17 14 27 18 31 36 9 IS --------------------------~------------------------------------------------------- �-355- Table 2. Sightings of deer.marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973 (continued). Date (1973) Color Ne ckband 10-17 10-18 10-20 10-20 10-21 10-24 10-24 10-25 10-25 10-29 10-30 10-? 10-? 10-? 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-13 12-13 12-19 12-20 12-20 12-21 12-21 12-21 . 12-21 12-21 12-28 12-28 12-28 12-28 12-28 12-28 12-31 1-10-74 1-10-74 1-10-74 1-10-74 1-10-74 1-10-74 1-11-74 1-11-74 1-11-74 1-11-74 White Pink Blue Red w/white stripe White Red w/white stripe Blue Pink Red w/white stripe White Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Blue White White White White Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white White White White White White Blue and white Blue and white Blue Blue White White Red w/white stripe Pink White Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Red w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white Blue and white Number Twp. Location R~nge Sec. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 2S IS IS 2S 2S IS IS 4S 4S 4N 4S 3S 4S IN IS IS 2N 2N IN IN IS IS 2S IS IS 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2N 2N IN 2N 3S 3S IN IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S IS IS 2S IS 99W 96W 98W 92W 97W 90W 90W 96W 96W 89W 94W 97W 97W 93W 97W 97W 98W 98W 96W 96W 95W 95W 96W 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 96W 96W 99W 99W 98W 98W 94W 97W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 97W 97W 34 5 9 2 31 9 9 5 21 16 1 13 23 20 9 9 10 10 36 36 6 6 2 19 19 3 3 3 1 2 16 14 35 16 8 2 7 20 35 3 3 3 15 29 29 3 34 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? 157 47 14 ? 2 4 ? ? 104 ? ? ? ? ? 44 88 112 ? ? ? ? 72 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-356- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, March 16, 1973 through February 28, 1974 plus several earlier sightings reported after March 15, 1973 (continued). Date (1974) Color 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-14 1-20 1-21 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-22 1-24 1-24 1-25 1-25 1-25 2-05 2-07 2-10 2-11 2-15 Blue and white Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Redw/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Pink Pink Blue White Blue and white Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white Blue and white Yellow wired stripe Neckband Number Twp. Location Range Sec. ? ? ? IS 2S 2S IS IS IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S 3S . 3S 2S 3S 3S 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN IS IS IS 97W 97W 97W 95W 96W 94W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 95W 97W 97W 97W 98W 99W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 34 10 10 6 14 17 12 12 12 3 3 3 10 10 11 11 2 24 2 2 8 36 28 30 25 36 36 14 3 11 75 ? 25 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 57 ? ? ? ? ? ? 74 72 66 ? 26 �-357- Table 3. Recoveries of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22, April, 1973 through February, 1974. Date of Recovery (1973) 4-02 4-11 4-11 4-24 4-26 4-26 4-29 4- ? 5-02 5-04 5-09 5-09 5-11 5- ? 5- ? 5- ? 5- ? 6- ? 7- ? 8-18 8- ? 10-12 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-14 10-15 10-15 10-15 10-15 Neckband Color No. 116 Red w/white stripe 126 White 28 Pink 130 White 86 Blue and white 13 Yellow wIred stripe 40 Blue and whi te 62 Pink 40 Red w/white stripe 27 Blue and white 81 Blue 238 White 25 Red w/white stripe 110 Red w/white stripe No neckband - eartag L-2013 8 Blue and white 189 White 32 Blue and white 51 Greenw/white stripe ? White 7 Blue and white 114 Blue 130 Red w/white stripe 122 Red w/white stripe No neckband - eartag L-2046 166 White 46 Green w/white stripe 50 Green w/white stripe 7 Yellow wIred stripe 45 Red w/white stripe 106 Blue 169 White 104 Blue 180 White No neckband - eartag L-2009 106 Red w/white stripe L-2022 No neckband - ear tag 11 Red w/white stripe 99 White No neckband - eartag L-2312 31 Pink 13 Green w/white stripe 24 White Twp. Location Range Sec. 3S IS 2S 2S 2S IS IS 2S 2S IS 96W 97W 97W 98W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 3 32 30 11 4 14 11 29 25 21 ? ? ? IS 3S 3S 3S 2S 2S IS IS 5S IS 98W 95W 96W 96W 97W 99W 96W 96W 94W 97W 16 9 4 5 4 25 29 3 27 15 ? ? ? 5S 5S 5S IS IS IS IS 3S 94W 94W 94W 99W 96W 96W 92W 91W 26 18 26 16 11 11 12 22 ? ? ? 3S 2N IS 5S 3S 3S IS 3S IS 5S 2N 4S 98W 92W 98W 94W 95W 94W 94W 96W 96W 97W 92W 95W 12 Remarks Died soon after marking Died in fence Died soon after marking Died in fence Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Only head found Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Road-kill Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died in fence Died soon after marking Found dead Found dead Died soon after marking Found dead Found dead 4 2 Found dead 17 17 1 17 27 27 Died soon after marking Died soon after marking 3 16 36 Found dead ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-358- Table 3. Recoveries of deer marked on the winter range in .Game Management Unit 22, April, 1973 through February, 1974 (continued). Date of .Recovery (1973) Color 10-16 10-16 10-16 10-17 10-17 10-17 10-17 10-17 10-18 10-18 10-18 10-19 10-19 10-19 10-19 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-20 10-21 10-21 10-21 10-22 10-31 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 10- ? 11- ? 2-26-74 Pink Green w/white stripe Blue Blue Pink Blue Blue and white Pink No neckband - eartag Pink No ne ckband - eartag White Yellow wired stripe White Green w/white stripe Blue Green w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe White White White Green w/white stripe Red w/white stripe No neckband - eartag Blue and white White Pink White Blue and white Blue and white Red w/white stripe Blue Green w/white stripe Blue Blue Blue Red w/white stripe Neckband No. Twp. 77 44 114 108 10 5 23 12 L-2065 65 L-2044 28 29 81 17 132 30 112 128 226 148 7 55 85 L-2010 11 134 80 77 47 77 125 48 18 2N 1N 58 38 28 Location Range 8ec. 94W 95W 98W 99W 96W 96W 93W 31 32 12 34 36 36 28 ? ? ? 18 96W 31 ? ? ? 18 1N 28 1N 18 1N 1N 38 78 28 38 2N 18 2N 48 48 48 48 2N 18 96W 96W ·95W 97W 95W lOOW 96W 95W 97W 98W 98W 97W 96W 91W 97W 97W 97W 95W 93W 95W 31 16 28 8 32 16 18 2 35 7 26 1 13 12 3 3 3 20 24 36 ? ? ? 48 97W 23 ? ? ? ? 52 50 95 90 51 18 2N 5N 2N 28 92W 98W 91W 98W 97W 10 5 34 5 24 Remarks Found dead Found dead Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Died soon after marking Found dead Road-kill Found dead �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- ~ •.... ..••. -. r \ ---,-~":".:. '.' I W VI \0 I \ q I i, \ ~\ 'l Deer Track Density 1 " \ • I "--..r I \... r=-----] Little r:::::::::;:::::::::::l or none ::::::::::.:.:.:.:.;.; Moderate " ... ····,·0 I I Heavy i/ /' /' v. .Q I I • ::' ! :.~ .. ,./ •• t·:: / ) //',--,/j I~/? II, ,/ -- ' . '( ( _ _-\.- •••••••••• I ...• I, "Fig. 1. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range, December 19, 20 and 21, 1973. �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- ~ •.... .•.. r L I \ I W C'\ o I n ~I I \~\ "1 l "\ \ Deer Track Density ''\ [_.. •• ( •• 0_ •••••••• -] Little or none , Heavy Fig. 2. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range, December 31, 1973 and January 2 and 3. 1974. �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- ~ .. ,,, .•.. I W 0\ •... I Fig. 3. Deer distribution on the Piceance winter range, February 12 and 13, 1974. ��-363July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS PYPORT State COWRADO 0f Proj cc.tNo. ~38-R-28 Work Plan No. 16 : Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 2 -------- Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Population Density and Structure Period Covered: September 1, 1973 through January 31, 1974. Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, S. F. Steinert, J. J. Klein, Jr., and C.E. White. ABSTRACT The 1973-74 winter deer count was made January 20-25. Eight hundred eightynine deer were counted on 120 1/4-square mile (l/2-mile by 1/2~mile) quadrats for a mean 8.2 deer per quadrat or 32.8 deer per square mile. The projected total deer population on the Piceance winter range was 21,812 ± 4,256 deer at the 90 percent confidence level. Visibility of quadrat markers painted with non~reflective orange paint was poor except in bright sunlight, so all such markers will have to be repainted with fluorescent paint. Post-season classifications on the Piceance winter range extended from December 11, 1973 through January 10, 1974 because of weather delays. The 1,597 deer classified, which included 244 from Northwest Region .counts, yielded abuck:doe:fawn ratio of 22:100:63. Resulting composition of the total winter population was 2,596 adult males, 11,778 adult females and 7,438 faWns. A revised estimate for the 1972-73 winter population was calculated by working the population equation backwards using the 1973-74 winter population as a base. The revised estimate was 29,898 deer, which was 10,214 animals greater than originally figured. ��-365- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish mule deer population density and sex and age structure estimate techniques for the Piceance winter range. a. Estimate the size of the total wintering deer population in Game Management Unit 22. b. Estimate the sex and age structure of the wintering deer population in Game Management Unit 22. METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer Density A preliminary evaluation of quadrat size and sample size was presented in the previous segment report (Bartmann 1973). Based on this work, a 1/4square mile quadrat (1/2-mile by 1/2-mile) was selected and the original 60 quadrats were increased to 120, all randomly selected on the winter range (Fig. 1). The corners of all quadrats were marked with 1 x 2-foot pieces of lIB-inch tempered masonite placed in tree tops whenever possible, on tall shrubs, or on fence posts. About one-third of the markers were painted with a fluorescent red-orange paint, while a commercially available bright orange, non-reflective paint was used on the remainder. Deer were counted as soon as winter deer distribution conformed fairly close with pre-determined limits. Two observers were used; one to count and the other to count and navigate. Aerial photos of each plot were carried in the helicopter to help insure staying within plot bounds. The perimeter of a plot was flown first to locate corners and help orient the observers with the plot boundaries. Deer on or near the edge were classed as either in or out of the plot at that time. The pattern flown over the plot interior varied according to terrain and cover features, which were used to insure complete coverage and help keep track of deer already counted. �4'.:--- ;~,--- ~\«:~. a3/..I.).! . ,~7/9 !1/~~,,, ". I r L.__ ~ f. ~ 22 -PICEANCE- ~~ "... .. • ....,.~ • MMhr • '., . . "It _. Fig. 1. MANAGEMENT UNIT ! \ .-/_.-/, ~/'-'. .~ Ii...JI / I ,'''- --- \ GAME " ,. _ , ~. - Locations of !-square mile deer census quadrats on the Piceance winter range. J W 00J �-367- Population Structure The composition of the winter deer population is estimated from postseason sex and age classifications made from a helicopter. Northwest Region personnel also conduct such classifications in the southern part of Game Management Unit 22 and work is coordinated with them to avoid duplication of effort. Both sets of data are later combined to estimate the composition for the entire winter range. A minimum goal of 2,000 animals classified is set for the entire winter range with any ground counts being additional. Animals are classified as bucks) does, fawns, or unknown. Check station data are used to estimate the fawn sex ratio and percent yearling females. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Density The deer count was started on January 11, 1974 but was aborted after 20 quadrats were completed due to logistical problems. The count was resumed January 20 and completed January 25. The 20 quadrats were recounted as deer distribution had changed during the interim. Nine hundred eighty-nine deer were counted on 120 1/4-square mile quadrats for a mean 8.2 deer per quadrat with a range of 0 to 48 (Table 1). This projects to 32.8 deer per square mile or 21,812 ± 4,256 deer on the Piceance winter range at the 90 percent confidence level. The interval estimate is wider than desired but is still within ± 20 percent of the mean. It is presumed that the change in deer distribution between the time of the first count attempt and the actual count produced increased variability. Deer were forced out of the higher wintering areas and a greater than expected number of plots (43) had no deer. This is partially demonstrated by comparison of the duplicate counts on the 20 plots. During the first count, only one out of 20 plots contained no deer. During the repeat count about one and one-half weeks later, six plots contained no deer with all but one of these situated near the upper winter range limit. The pilot, Mr. Ben Morris, did an exceptionally good job, particularly in keeping himself oriented once he was shown the plot boundaries. This took a large part of the job away from the "navigator" allowing him to concentrate more on looking for deer. Notes were also made on visibility of corner markers. Some markers need to be repositioned and all markers painted with non-reflective paint will have to be repainted with fluorescent paint. The regular orange paint was satisfactory in bright sunlight but hard to see in the.shadows. �-368- Table 1. Number of deer counted on quadrats on the Piceance in Game Management Unit 22 during January, 1974. winter range Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 11 7 24 6 11 4 19 0 0 0 0 6 0 7 3 16 8 8 0 17 10 32 16 41 31 13 3 0 0 5 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 3 0 26 28 0 26 15 14 0 0 6 9 1 4 19 11 21 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 0 0 28 5 25 48 17 26 6 2 8 9 3 8 0 0 5 0 0 6 4 6 0 10 0 27 0 1 28 19 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 5 3 0 15 6 21 4 10 0 0 0 11 1 18 18 6 0 1 2 0 16 22 34 0 0 0 6 7 0 0 2 n = 120 s ix = 989 s = 10.25 s = 0.94 - x i.x2 (ix)2 = = 8.2 = 105.09 x 20,657 = 978,121 C. v. = 90% Confidence . Interval 8.2 ± (1.658)(.94) = 8.2 ± 1.6 Total POEulation Estimate 125% 21,812 ± 4,256 �-369- Population Structure Aerial post-season classifications in the southern part of the Piceance winter range were made by Mr. Claude White, Northwest Regional Biologist, on December 11, 1973. Classifications over the rest of the winter range were extended over about a one month period due to weather delays. Resultant counting dates were December 12, 13, 28 and 29; 1973 and January 10, 1974. Ground counts were attempted but not enough deer could be found to warrant continuation. The 1,597 deer classified included 244 from Northwest Region counts (Table 2). The buck:doe:fawn ratio was 22:100:63 which is 6 bucks and 11 fawns: 100 does less than in 1972. Table 2. Sununaryof post-season deer classifications on the Piceance winter range in Game Management Unit 22 during winter, 1973-74. Number of Deer Bucks Does Fawns Buck: Doe Ratio Fawn:Doe Ratio Research 166 721 466 23:100 65:100 Northwest Region 25 139 80 18:100 58:100 Combined Total 191 860 546 22:100 63:100 Count Check station data for Game Management Unit 22 show that of 70 fawns, 47 percent were males and 53 percent females. Of 194 females older than fawns, 10 percent were classed as yearlings by tooth replacement. A summary of the 1973-74 deer population density and structure data follow: Total Population Estimate 21,812 ± 4,256 Total Adult Males 2,596 Total Adult Females 11,778 Yearling Females Mature Females 1,178 10,600 Total Fawns Male Fawns Female Fawns 7,438 3,496 3,942 �-370- Revision of 1972-73 Population Estimate It was previously expressed that a greater than "normal" number of animals were probably missed during last year's census because of the experimental nature of the count (Bartmann 1973). This resulted in an underestimate of the total population. An effort to estimate the magnitude of that error is made here by working the population equation backwards. The projected 1973 harvest estimate for Game Management Unit 22 is based on check station data a-sthe Game Management Section's random survey data are not yet available. Total bucks and does during winter, 1973-74 = 14,374 Total 1973 buck and doe harvest including wounding loss + 3,634 1973 winter and highway mortality (bucks, does and fawns) + 11,890 Total revised 1972-73 winter population estimate = 29,898 The original 1972-73 winter population estimate was 19.684 deer. The revised estimate is 10,214 animals greater, indicating about one-third of the deer were missed during the count. The accuracy of the revised estimate is still unknown, but is thought to be closer to the actual population figure than the original estimate. LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1973. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wildl., Denver. July. (In press). Prepared by ~ -- ,'. / /;/ .';~/~? ~//~ _7'-'-(. ,"-..<,.~-.--.. _ L i ( ."" / / C Richard M:" Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �-371- Ju1y~ 1974 JOR PROGRESS REPORT State of _~~_CO~LO=RADO=::.::..._ Project No. WorkPlan No. Job Title ~__ 38-R_-_2_8 : Deer-Elk Investigations 16 : Job No. 3 -----------------~----------Piceance Deer Study - Productivity and Mortality Period Covered: April L, 1973 through l'f..arch3l~ 1974• . Personnel: R. M. Hartmann, S. F. Ste~ert, J. J. Kl.edn , Jr., Stone, D. Talcott, J. F. Corey, and C. E. White. L. Crooks, R. ABSTRACT Combinedpre-season ·c1assification data from the upper White River and Roan Plateau showed72 fawns:lOOdoes. Elimination of essentially non-productive .yearl:ingdoesfrom the doe population produced a fawn:mother ratio of 80:100. An estimate of the total deer kill from the GameManagementSections's random survey for the regular season is not yet available. Six regular and one temporary check stations tallied 1,264 deer from Unit 22 during the regular season. The temporary station at Douglas Pass checked onl.y 10 deer from Unit 22, so this station will not be operated in the future. The estimated archery harvest in Unit 22 was 43 deer. Searches of 40 l/8-souare mile (1/4-mile by l/2-mile) quadrats yielded 88 dead deer for·a mean 2.2 deer per plot, 17.6 dead deer per square mile, or 11,704 total dead deer on the winter range. This is nearly 40 percent of the total revised 1972-73 winter population of 29,898 deer. Compositionof the projected dead deer population was 3~724 . male fawns, 4,722 female fawns, 465 mature males and 2,793 mature females. ��-373- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate increments and losses to the Piceance deer population to allow evaluation of density estimate techniques. a. b. c. Estimate productivity rates. Estimate hunter harvest rates. Estimate winter mortality rates. METHODS AND MATERIALS Pre-Natal Productivity See Bartmann (1972). Pre-Season Classifications Fawn:doe classifications were made from a helicopter on summer range areas within the White River drainage during late September, 1973. Results of similar classifications made on the Roan Plateau by Northwest Region biologists were included with those from the upper White River. Hunter Harvest An estimate of the total deer harvest during both the archery and rifle seasons is obtained from random surveys by the Game Management Section. Information on sex and age composition of the rifle harvest is obtained from permanent Division check stations located throughout the State and, in 1973, from a temporary station at Douglas Pass. Winter Mortality An estimate of winter mortality was made from searches of 40 lIB-square mile quadrats (l/4-mile by l/2-mile). Mortality quadrats were randomly selected from the original 60 1/4-square mile census quadrats (Fig. 1). Each selected �-374- census quadrat was divided into north and south or east and west halves, depending on which division provided the greatest elevational change. One of the halves was then randomly selected for mortality searches. Forty quadrats were used as a preliminary sample to identify problems and to determine how many quadrats could be searched within the six-week period allotted to this work. Each quadrat was sub-divided lengthwise into four equal strips about 330-feet wide by ll2-mile long. Strips were searched by a five to six-man crew spaced across the width of each strip. The two outside crew members carried a photo of each plot, compass, and surveyor's flagging to help keep on course and to insure complete coverage of each quadrat. Each deer judged as having died during the current season was classed as to sex and age when possible. An incisor was collected from deer estimated as older than a yearling for later aging by dental cementum. A deer was counted only if the pelvic girdle was present (Gill 1969). The location of each carcass was marked on a photo to aid in separating current from older mortalities in later years. Road-killed animals were not included as these were tallied separately. All deer found incidental to the mortality searches were also recorded. Highway Mortalities Semi-regular checks were made of major roads in and around Game Management Unit 22 for road-killed deer during March and April. At other times, roadkills were recorded whenever they were encountered during the course of other activities. No estimate of the total highway kill is attempted. Instead, the tally is considered a minimum count. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-Natal Productivity Pre-natal productivity data are largely collected from does killed along highways during Marchand April. Because of new reporting deadlines, the spring 1974 data will necessarily be included in the Segment 29 report. Pre-Season Classifications The 1973 pre-season classifications in the upper White River area were made September 26-29. Classifications were made on the Roan Plateau by Mr. Claude White, Northwest Region biologist, September 24 and 25. The 1,785 total deer classified, which included 545 deer from the Roan Plateau, consisted of 634 fawns, 883 does and 282 bucks (Table 1). The resultant fawn:doe ratio was 72:100. Previous data are only available for the Roan Plateau and only for the procedingtwo years. Ratios for 1971 and 1972 were 78 and 79 fawns:100 does, respectively. The 1973 ratio for the same area was 70 fawns:100 does. �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- ~~ •.... ....•.., )•••, .,...,.....- ..;", ..•. I .\--'----""'~-"--.,..'•••• ~. l(~"'-.~ W •....• + •• " I~~~)h r ///'0 I t ~j I~ \'-.. I .0 ./ . 1ft. \~c. Fig. 1. Looations of l/8-square mile deer winter mortality quadrats on the Pioeanoe winter range. VI I �-376- Table 1. Results of pre-season deer classifications in the White River and Roan Plateau areas during fall, 1973. Bucks Does Fawns Total Buck:Doe Ratio Fawn:Doe Ratio Fawn:Mother Ratio!! Strawberry CreekSulphur Creek 15 84 38 137 18:100 45:100 50:100 Nine Mile-Coal Creek 56 139 97 292 40:100 70:100 78:100 Oak Ridge 33 105 47 171 31:100 45:100 49:100 Miller CreekFlag Creek 70 252 228 550 28:100 90:100 100:100 Piceance Triangle 9 41 40 90 22:100 98:100 108:100 Naval Oil Shale !! 79 208 158 445 38:100 76:100 84:100 Square S-Cathedral !! 20 54 26 100 37:100 48:100 54:100 282 883 634 1,785 32:100 72:100 80:100 Area Totals JJ Fawn:Mother Ratio = Fawn:Doe ratio recalculated after removing the estimated number of non-producing yearlings from the doe category. !! Data are from counts made by Northwest Region personnel. A second ratio estimate was calculated based on producing does only. Check station data provided the estimate of the proportion of essentially nonproducing yearling does (10 percent) which were then removed from the total doe population. The resulting fawn:mother ratio (Anderson 1965) was 80:100. Similar treatment of the 1972 Roan Plateau data, when 28 percent yearlings were estimated in the harvest, showed 110 fawns:lOO mothers. This suggests an even lower productivity in 1973 relative to the previous year than was indicated by the fawns:lOO total does r~tio. Estimated pre-natal productivity, based on data from road-killed does, was identical in 1972 and 1973 (145 fetuses:lOO does). This suggests that most of the mortality implied by the above data probably occurred during the interval from near parturition to late September when pre-season classifications were made. �-377- Hunter Harvest A statewide II-day deer season was set for October 13-23, 1973. In Game Management Units 21, 22, 23 and 24 in the White River drainage, the first six days were open to one deer, antlered only, followed by five days of one deer, either sex. In Unit 11, part of which is in the White River drainage, the entire season was open to one deer, either sex. The total estimated deer harvest from the Game Management Section's random survey will not be available until late spring, 1974. A preliminary estimate based on projection of check station data for Unit 22 is 3,094 deer. The random survey for the archery season is complete, however, and shows only 43 deer killed in Unit 22 (Table 2). Table 2. The 1973 archery deer harvest report for four upper White River Game Management Units. Unit Bucks Does Fawns 11 6 8 3 22 22 18 3 23 22 3 3 24 3 o 6 Twelve hundred sixty-four deer from Unit 22 were tallied at check stations throughout the State (Table 3). The temporary station at Douglas Pass (instead of Dinosaur as originally planned) checked only 10 deer from Unit 22 (Table 4). Therefore, this station will not be operated in 1974. Table 3. Sex and age composition of the 1973 deer harvest in four upper White River Game Management Units inspected at six regular and one research check station. Unit Fawns Bucks Yrlgs. 2+ Unk. Fawns Yrlgs. Does 2+ Unk. 11 140 68 403 276 103 49 510 332 22 33 79 598 222 37 20 174 101 23 14 28 212 124 9 4 37 49 24 1 16 73 37 9 3 15 19 �-378- Table 4. Summary of deer checked at the Douglas Pass check station during the first nine days of the 1973 deer season. Unit Bucks Does Fawns Unknown Total .10 20 0 0 5 25 11 7 2 0 4 13 21 162 20 7 14 203 22 8 0 0 2 10 23 0 1 0 0 1 30 52 36 11 9 108 31 4 1 0 0 5 44 1 0 0 0 1 61 2 0 0 0 2 Total 256 60 18 34 368 Winter Mortality Dead deer searches were made from May 2 through June 6, 1973. Eighty-eight dead deer were found that were judged losses of the current year (Table 5). The estimated mean of 2.2 deer per plot projects to 17.6 dead deer per square mile or 11,704 total dead deer on the winter range in Game Management Unit 22. The sex and age breakdown of the total estimated winter loss, with unknowns apportioned among the various classes, was 3,724 male fawns, 4,722 female fawns, 465 mature males and 2,793 mature femal~s. An additional 49 dead deer were found incidental to the mortality survey which included 13 male fawns, 14 female fawns, 2 unknown fawns, 1 mature male, 18 mature females, and 1 unknown adult. The mortality estimate includes an unknown proportion of crippling loss and illegal kill from the previous hunting season but no attempt was made to allow for these animals as the magnitude and composition of the loss is unknown. Too, further complication would arise as only part of the loss occurs on the winter range and this proportion can change yearly depending on the timing of the hunting season together with weather and other conditions. Another consideration is that some of the winter related mortality occurring later in the spring is outside the bounds of the winter range area sampled. �-379- Table 5. Results of dead deer searches on 40 1/4-mi1e by 1/2-mi1e quadrats on the Piceance winter range during spring, 1973. Quadrat Number 2 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 33 34 35 37 38 39 44 45 46 47 50 52 53 54 55 56 58 59 60 Totals Male Fawns Female Unknown Male Mature Female Unknown Unknown None 3 1 2 None 1 1 1 1 2 1 None None 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 None 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 None 1 1 1 1 None 1 None 1 2 1 None 1 1 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 None 3 2 5 1 1 2 None 23 29 10 3 19 2 2 �-380- A revised winter population estimate was calculated for 1972-73 by working the population equation backwards from the 1973-74 winter estimate (see report on Population Density and Structure elsewhere in this Game Research Report). If the revised estimate of 29,898 deer is considered more appropriate, nearly 40 percent of the total population died during or immediately following that winter. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E. 1965. Population density and structure. P. 47-74. In Game Research Report. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Denver. l(Part 1):1-246. Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. P. 345-350. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wi1d1., Denver. 3(Part 3):253-377. Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study - population productivity and mortality. P. 123-140. In Game Research Report. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div., Denver. 3{Part 1):1-140. Prepared �-381- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ......::CO:;=.=LO.::,:RAD:;:.:::.;:O:..._ Proj ect No. W_-_3.,;.8-_R_-_2_8 _ Job No. 17 Work Plan No. Deer-Elk Investigations Job Title Systems Modeling Big Game Populations Period Covered: April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974 Personnel: 1__ ~ _ James F. Lipscomb ABSTRACT Efforts during this segment were concentrated on generalizing and standardizing modeling procedures to save time and insure optimum results as .addLtdonaf big game herds are modeled. This was judged to be essential for the successful completion of Work Plan 18 of this project. The entire data analysis portion of the modeling procedure was structured as a nonlinear programming problem. Efforts are currently being directed toward testing various solution algorithms to determine which are the most dependable and most efficient. A detailed description and explanation of the analysis method chosen will be presented at the meeting of the Western Association of State Game and Fish Commissioners in July 1974, and will become a part of the published transactions. This job is currently about six months behind schedule due to my past and present assignments to the Colorado Division of Wildlife's planning project. Researcher ��-383- July, 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORA:..:;:D::..;O=---- Proj ect No. W-38-R-28 Work Pinn l~o. 18 _ Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. --- Job Title Deer and Elk Management Study Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel: 1 ~----------~--------------- Bertram D. Baker, Raymond J. Boyd, James -P, Lipscomb and Thomas M. Pojar. The State was divided into data analysis units, with separate units for deer and elk, according to predetermined criteria. Organization and evaluation of data with potential for management purposes was begun. A hunter destinationroute survey was initiated and conducted at selected deer and elk check stations during 1973 seasons. Data gathered indicated that closure of two deer check stations and opening a new station near Penrose would check over 90 percent of the deer normally checked and would eliminate double checking of hunters. Closure of one elk station and moving another to the east side of LaVeta Pass would greatly Increase efficiency and eliminate double checking. . ..... '",. -: ��-385- DEER AND ELK MANAGEMENT STUDY Bertram D. Baker Raymond J. Boyd James F. Lipscomb Thomas M. Pojar There has always been a need to quantify management objectives for wild populations. The difficulty of obtaining reliable information upon which to base these objectives has long been realized by wildlife managers. However, methods for estimating various population parameters are available and methods of analysis are currently being tested (Work Plan llC, Job 3; and Work Plan 17, Job 1) using the computer population simulation approach. If feasible, this approach will be used to incorporate any presently available or potentially available information into a data analysis system for each data analysis unit. P. S. OBJECTIVE Devise and test a statewide deer and elk management system. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Divide the state into a system of data analysis units (DAD's) that are deemed practical for gathering and analyzing population data. 2. Based upon currently available information, estimate population parameters. 3. Identify data that are most useful for improving estimates of population parameters and recommend procedures for collecting such data by DAD. METHODS AND MATERIALS The four regional biologists were asked to delineate on a state map the data analysis units for deer and elk in their respective regions. The criteria to identify a data analysis unit (DAU) are: a. The area enclosed will encompass the year-round range of the population. b. The data collected are characteristic of the population inhabiting the DAD (i.e., the animals counted in the DAD are the same animals that are hunted in the DAD). c. The DAU boundaries should follow existing game management unit boundaries wherever possible but can encompass more than one game management unit. �-386- Tagging recoveries of both deer and elk were used to help verify DAU boundaries. A list of potentially available population data was made (APPENDIX A) with possible sources of this data being: Planning Section files, Regional files, Game Management files in Denver, Game Research project files, U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management files. A filing system was set up so that existing data can be accumulated for each DAU. Att"empts will be made to identify those data that are most useful for improving population parameter estimates using sensitivity analysis from the population model developed under Work Plan 17, Job 1. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The four regional biologists drew the boundaries of DAU's for both deer and elk on 1:500,000 scale maps for their respective regions according to the criteria mentioned above. Any boundary discrepancies of DAU's that involved two or more regions was resolved by the regional biologists involved. This is to be considered a preliminary effort to divide the State into realistic data analysis units. Consequently, the boundaries will be changed in the future if evidence is discovered that indicates the initial DAU does not meet specified criteria. Deer and elk banding records were updated and summarized as in APPENDIX B on a statewide basis. Banding recovery data, although meager in most cases, was used to indicate validity of DAUboundaries. The accumulation and tabulation of available population data is nearly complete. A filing system where data are accumulated by DAU has been established. Mean 10-year harvest by DAU was calculated and the DAU's were ranked accordingly (Tables 1 and 2; Figures 1 and 2). The data accumulated by DAU will be used in a model developed under WP 17, J 1 to estimate population parameters. Segment objectives 2 and 3 have not been attained in this segment because of a delay in progress of WP 17, J 1 due to reassignment of the principal investigator. Sex and age of harvested animals is presently obtained from check stations. A review of the effectiveness and efficiency of the current check station system resulted in an effort to locate check stations to accomplish the following: (1) eliminate potential double check of hunters, (2) obtain reasonable samples from areas that historically yield significant proportions of the statewide harvest, and (3) reduce oversampling where it occurs. To accomplish these objectives some of the present check stations would need to be abandoned or relocated. The results of a hunter destination-route survey conducted during 1973 seasons at stations considered for relocation or abandonment are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Based on the survey and projections of how many animals may be checked at various sites~ it was decided that 1974 check stations would be located at Idaho Springs, Canon City, and Towaoc during deer season and at Idaho spring~narCh, and LaVeta :ass during elk season. Prepared by It-&'~-n£j}/k Raymond J. Bo'§~' Asst. Wildlife Researcher �-387- Table 1. Deer DAU's - ranked in order of mean 10-year kill. DAU Rank Mean 10-year Kill D-7 1 19,337 White River (S 1/3 of 11 (60% of Ki11)l/, 12, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34) D-12 2 6,119 Grand Mesa (41, 411, 42, 52, 521) D-6 3 4,558 Rangely (10, N 2/3 of 11 (40% of Ki11)l/, 21) D-19 4 4,133 Uncompahgre D-30 5 3,927 San Juan (75, 751 D-2 6 3,483 Bear's Ears (4, 441, 5, 14) D-24 7 3,462 Groundhog (70,71) D-9 8 3,236 Middle Park (18, 28, 27, 37) D-8 9 3,184 State Bridge (15, 35, 36) D-16 10 2,943 Cripple Creek (49, 57, 58, 581, 59) D-25 11 2,666 Powderhorn Creek (65, 66, 67) D-20 12 2,593 Crawford (53, 63, 64) D-14 13 2,556 Red Tables (44, 45) D-13 14 2,283 Maroon Bells (43, 47) D-29 15 2,201 Mesa Verde (72, 73, 74) D-18 16 2,190 Glade Park (40) D-27 17 2,154 Westcliffe (69, 82, 84, 86) D-33 18 1,793 Great Divide (3) D-4 19 1,693 Red Feather (7, 8, 9, 19) D-ll 20 1,225 Book Cliffs (30) D-1 21 1,202 Little Snake (1, 2) D-32 22 1,169 Trinidad (83, 85, 112) D-17 23 1,127 Bailey (39, 391, 46, 461, 50, 501, 51, 511) DAU Name and Units Involved (61, 62) 77, 78) -------------------------------------------------------- �-388- Table 1. Deer DAU's - ranked in order of mean 10-year kill (continued). DAU Rank Mean 10-year Kill D-3 24 1,084 North Park (6, 16, 161, 17) D-31 ·25 1,066 Rio Grande (76, 79, 80, 81) D-21 26 1,023 West Elk (54) D-lO 27 1,013 Bould er (20, 29, 38, 381) D-22 28 893 Taylor Park (55, 551) D-15 29 667 Cottonwood Creek (48, 56) D-26 30 564 Saguache (68) D-5 31 494 South Platte (87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105) D-28 32 491 Arkansas Valley (97, 98, 102, 103, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, Ill, 113, 114) D-23 33 422 LaSal (60) DAU Name and Units Involved ~/Estimate of NW Reg. Biologists, White and Blumberg. �-389- Table 2. .E1k DAU' s - ranked in order of mean 10-year kill. DAU Rank Mean 10-year Kill E-6 1 2,934 White River (units 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 34) E-31 2 1,958 San Juan (units 75, 751, 77, 78) E-32 3 1,422 Rio Grande (units 76, 79, 80, 81) E-21 4 1,047 Gunnison River (units 63, 64, 53, 54, 55, 551) E-2 5 841 Bear's Ears (units 4, 5, 441, 14) E-25 6 825 Lake Fork (units 65, 66, 67) E-14 7 741 Grand Mesa (units 41, 411, 42, 52, 521) E-30 8 597 Hermosa (unit 74) E-24 9 528 Disappointment Creek (units 70, 71) E-16 10 510 Frying Pan (units 44, 45, ~47) E-15 11 347 Avalanche Creek (units 43, %47) E-3 12 342 North Park (units 6, 7, 16, 161, 17) E-7 13 284 Gore Pass (units 15, 27) E-13 14 273 Williams Fork (units 28, 37) E-8 15 265 Troublesome (unit 18) E-26 16 260 Saguache (unit 68) E-9 17 251 St. Vrain (units 20, 29, 38, 381) E-18 18 243 Kenosha Pass (units 50, 501, 51, 511, 46, 461, 39, 391) E-29 19 186 Mesa Verde (units 72, 73) E-4 20 164 Poudre River (units 8, 19) E-33 21 148 Trinchera (units 83, 85) E-17 22 147 Collegiate Range (units 48, 56) E-5 23 126 Strawberry (unit 11) DAU Name and Units Involved ----------------------------------------------------------- �-390- Table 2. Elk DAU's - ranked in order of mean 10-year kill (continued) . Mean 10-year Kill DAU Rank E-20 24 121 Uncompahgre E-l 25 102 Cold Springs (unit 2) E-22 26 89 Buffalo Peaks (units 49, 57, 58) E-12 27 70 Piney (units 35, 36) E-28 28 42 Grape Creek (units 69, 84) E-ll 29 41 Roan Bluffs (units 31, 32) E-27 30 37 Sangre de Cristo (units 82, 86) E-19 31 35 Glade Park (unit 40) E-23 32 26 II-Mile (units 581, 59) E-lO 33 19 Yellow Creek (unit 22) DAU Name and Units Involved (units 61, 62) �I W \0 ,.... I ,_ .. 1 • ;" ••• v." "" ••••, •.••••" •••• to Fig. 1. Deer Data Analysis Units (DAU's) with the top 10 DAU's in mean harvest (1963-1972) shown as cross-hatched areas. These 10 DAU's account for 62.54 percent of the statewide deer harvest. �-397APPENDIX B BIG GAME TAGGING AND BANDING SUMMARY (Northwest Region) Trap Site Name - Big Game Management Unit 22 - Piceance Location{s): See accompanying maps Name Ear Tag Numbers Neckband Color and Numbers 1 Boise-Barcus L1697 - L1698* L1700 Ll714 - Ll717 Ll719 Ll722 - Ll723 Ll725 - L1747* L1749 - L1752 L1754 - L1757 L1760 L1764 - L1765 Blue, 58 - 59, 73, 76, 78, 85, 92 - 93, 95 - 96, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109, 112 - 115, 118 - 139 2 Barcus-Ryan Ll718 Ll720 - Ll721 Ll724 L1753 L1758 - L1759 L1761 - L1762 L1766 - Ll775 L1807 - L1808 L1814 L1818 L1823 - L1825 L1833 - L1836 White, 207, 210 - 232, 235 - 236, 238 - 240 3 Ryan-Stuart L1763 Ll776 - L1806 L1809 - L1813 L1815 - L1817 L1819 - L1822 L1826 - L1832 L1837 ...; L1883** L1888 - L1891** L1898 - L1899** L1940 - L1942** L1946** L1953** L1963** L1968** Pink, 3 - 4, 6 -11, 13 - 97, 99 - 100 (Also, 2 No. 62's) Area Number *L1699 and L1748 are missing. **See Area 7 for L1884-L1887, L1892-L1897, L1900-L1939, L1943-L1945, L1947-L1952, L1954-L1962, L1964-L1967, and L1969-Forward. �-398BIG GAME TAGGING AND BANDING SL~Y Location(s): - Northwest Region, Piceance (continued) See accompanying maps Area Number Name Ear Tag Numbers Neckband Color and Numbers 5 Dry ForkGreasewood L2182 L2184 L2186 L2188 L2301 - L2331 Yellow with Red Stripe, 1 - 8, 10 - 26, 28 - 29, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39 6 GreasewoodDudley Bluffs L2035 - L2037 L2048 L2068 - L2076* L2081 - L2099* L2101 - L2143* L2145 - L2181 L2183 L2185 L2187 L2189 - L2200 Blue and White, 1 - 2, 4 - 8, 10 - 26, 29 - 60, 62 - 80, 82 - 88, 90, 92 - 97, 100 - 107 (Also, 2 No. 23's and 24's) 7 Dudley B1uffsFourteenmi1e L1884 - L1887 L1892 - L1897 L1900 - L1939 L1943 - L1945 L1947 - L1952 L1954 - L1962 L1964 - L1967 L1969 - L2034 L2038 - L2047 L2049 - L2067 L2078 - L2080 Red with White Stripe, 1 - 60, 63 - 130 (Also, 2 No. 3's) Period of Operation: Total Deer Marked: December 13, 1972 - March 9, 1973 517 *L2077, L2100 and L2144 are missing. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/ebc6d873d970d7656f0c555c3e2a61ca.pdf 6071756a4dcd7f070cc19795ea2acb2b PDF Text Text -399July, 1974 FINAL REPORT State of Project No. COLORADO W-38-R-28 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No ._------:.1-=..4 Job Title _ Job No. 6 -------------- t4iddle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Physiology and Prevention of Deer Starvation Period Covered: Personnel: June 1969 through June 1974 Julius G. Nagy, Principal Investigator Dan L. Baker, James A. Bailey, David S. de Calesta, David E. Reeder and Gene G. Schoonveld, Investigators. ABSTRACT Various problems associated with mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) starvation and refeeding were investigated. It was found that deer and deer rumen microorganisms can digest good quality alfalfa hay without adverse effects. Poor quality alfalfa hay, even in ground and pelleted form can cause severe and occasionally fatal digestive disturbances. Domestic sheep and goats fed the same alfalfa rations as deer did not develop digestive problems. Relative to body size deer have a smaller rumen, omasum and abomasum than sheep and goats. Deer can be starved, depending on their previous physical condition, for 4-8 weeks without significantly affecting rumen microbial digestion. Starved deer can be refed successfully. Refeeding did not result in toxicity, liver malfunction or large scale mortality. After ten days of refeeding, previously starved deer showed similar blood energy metabolites as non-starved animals. Limited field studies with a pelleted concentrate ration indicate that deer, under the conditions tested, will use this concentrate as a supplement to their natural diet. �-400- RECOMr~ENDATI ONS 1. Periodically it might be necessary to feed starving deer a supplemental emergency ration. Before attempting to execute such a program each case must be examined carefully from biological viewpoints. Detailed plans for periodic emergency feeding should be established well ahead of the stress period. Haphazard feeding of starved animals often results in high ex~enses, and dead animals which result in a shattered faith on the part of the public in the knowledge of game managers. 2. Good quality alfalfa hay should be used only in conjunction with some high energy concentrate as an emergency supplemental feed. Hay when compared to concentrates is slowly digested and consequently does not give as much energy to the animal per unit time. Hay is also bulky~ difficult to distribute and much of it is wasted. 3. For emergency feeding programs, a high energy, easily digestible feed should be used. Depending on the amount of natural vegetation available at the time of feeding approximately 500-1,000 grams of concentrate should be calculated per animal per day. 4. Possibly several small feeding stations would be more effective in terms of feeding deer than a few large ones. �-401- GENERAL INTRODUCTION Research summarized in this Final Report was conducted by Colorado State University through contractual arrangement with the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Basic information was deficient concerning the digestive physiology of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) especially during periods of nutritional deprivation. With such knowledge, the role of supplemental winter feeding programs in deer management programs could be evaluated more objectively. Over the past few decades controversy has raged over whether wild deer can or cannot be fed "supplemental" diets to reserve terminal starvation process. Included in the controversy were such questions as: what should be fed?; when should feeding commence?; what happens to native forages in the vicinity of supplemental feed sites?; is supplemental feeding "practical"?; etc. This study originally attempted to address all of these questions. The approach was first to investigate the physiological aspects of supplemental feeding, through controlled experiments with penned deer. Ultimately, the knowledge gained from the controlled experiments was to be tested in field trials with wild, free-ranging mule deer. The original objectives of this study were to: 1. measure basic metabolic rate of mule deer 2. determine the critical ambient temperature where deer must increase their rate of metabolism to compensate for heat losses due to cold stress 3. determine changes in mule deer physiology during the process of starvation 4. determine the "critical" point of starvation beyond which deer can not recover. �-4025. investigate methods of aiding deer recovery during starvation before the "critical" point is passed 6. evaluate the biological and economical feasibility of preventing starvation in wild deer populations Two of these objectives, 1 and 2, were not investigated because of recent work by Silver et al. (1971). For the sake of clarity, this Final Report is divided into three parts, each containing an introduction, methods, and results and discussion section. Part I concerns itself with Deer Feeding Experiments, Part II with Physiology of Deer Starvation, and Part III with Supplemental Feeding of Wild Deer. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study (Work Plan 14 Job 6) was one job of several conducted under the auspices of the Middle Park Cooperative Deer Ecology Study. Colorado State University through the Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology assumed major responsibility for design, conduct and analysis of this phase of the overall Middle Park deer program. We wish to acknowledge and express appreciation for assistance received from the Colorado Division of Wildlife and the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA, Forest Service. Specifically, we thank O. C. Wallmo, D. W. Reichert, W. L. Regelin, R. B. Gill, H. M. Swope, W. Aldridge, T. Barber, S. Kerr, J. Olson, W. Paintner, and C. Schwartz for their guidance, criticism, and physical effort toward the success of this endeavor. P. S. OBJECTIVE To ascertain what takes place in deer physiology when starvation occurs, and investigate the economic and biologic feasibility of preventing starvation. �-403PART I DEER FEEDING EXPERIMENTS Chapter 1 General Description of Study Areas, Facilities and Animals Feeding, food restriction and refeeding trials were conducted at the Deer Research Facilities of Colorado State University Foothills Campus (Fig. 1). Field trials were conducted in Middle Park, Colorado at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Junction Butte property. Laboratory work was conducted at the Department of Animal Science, and the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Colorado State University. At the CSU Foothills Campus fifteen isolation pens (6.1 x 1.8 x 2.4 m high) connected to weighing and restraining chutes were constructed. Pens were adjacent and were separated by double strand V-mesh wire; ends were constructed of horizontal boards spaced 3-5 cm. Covered feeders providing for one feed pail and one water pail were installed in each pen. One end was roofed for 2 m and opened into a common alleyway leading to weighing and restraining chutes (Fig. 2). The alleyway was constructed of horizontal, unspaced lumber, 2.4 m high. Weighing and restraining chutes were 1.1 x 0.33 x 1.2 m high and constructed of plywood. Deer were forced from the alleyway into weighing or restraining chutes by a researcher carrying a crowding shield. Overhead doors were lowered to hold an animal in the weighing chute or to force it into the restraining chute. The weighing chute floor was the base of a platform scale where deer weights could be read to the nearest 1/4 kg. Deer were held by the neck in the restraining chute by clamping a wooden collar after the animal had passed its head through a 20 cm diameter opening cut in the chute end (Fig. 2). was 62 cm. Distance from the center of this opening to the floor This height was critical in order to pass a stomach tube down the esophagus to sample rumen contents. When the hole was higher, the tube invariably entered the animal's trachea. �v-, I SHED o Wl:iGHti\G AND HANDLING b WORKING SPACE CHUTE' ) J7~::::::==========:::=:~':rttl~5~To~~ .po a ~ I ,,,GO'~L~~~YI~OP~N/ HI " ';) I~ ,___ . 1 ILAB IFl II........! ~ I C.J I 1-' , .•... f I / HOUSE ,I I TRA!LER GROUP SOLATiON '--J o .oo C=~~==~==~==x====~----~ :;0 ::;CALE I N FeE;" Figure 1. Physical layout of deer holding facilities. -, iSOLATION DI~CfG~dcON $t1=.LI ~R STALLS �il - ----I -405- I .01 I. ';, . ~ '. ,.._;~. I ~~\"'::::' \ ~ \ \ \ , \ ~I !I. '. I \ \ '.\ ~ \ .C:~--=--=--=-=-. \\;'.' ~-=:-----=- !'/ !I/,/, .I �-406- Animals used in this study were captured from wild populations of deer at the·Colorado Division of Wildlife Little Hills Experiment Station or in Middle Park, Colorado and transported to Fort Collins. hand raised, tame animals also were used. In later trials, �-407Chapter 2 Effects of Prolonged Malnutrition and Alfalfa Hay Refeeding on Mule Deer Introduction These experiments were conducted to study the effects of prolonged submaintenance food intake followed by sudden changes from this diet to alfalfa hay. Methods and Materials Facilities Experiments were conducted at the Deer Research Facility of Colorado State University. Experimental Deer Five adult mule deer does and four fawns (1 male, 3 female) were used. Adults were trapped in the wild and held in captivity for approximately 1 year pretrial. One adult doe died during the 6th week of the trial, and another during the 12th week; both losses were attributed to handling. Fawns in the experiment were born in captivity, raised by their does and were approximately 8-9 months old when the experiment began. On January 1, 1970 the adult does and male fawn were confined to individual isolation pens and began a 6-week pretrial acclimation period. The three female fawns were confined in isolation pens on 25 February. These fawns adjusted to confinement rapidly and were allowed only a 3-week pretrial acclimation period. All experimental deer appeared to be eating normally and were judged in excellent physical condition when trials started. Trial Diets and Feeding Prior to confinement all animals had access to concentrate and alfalfa hay ad. libitum. Concentrate consisted of 50 percent barley, 20 percent corn, 20 percent milo and 10 percent bran. During pretrial confinement deer �-408continued to receive concentrate ration ad libitum. Daily food intake was measured during pretrial confinement, during the trial, and upon refeeding by offering each animal an excess quantity of ration and weighing back orts daily. Both feed and water were offered in No. 10 galvanized pails and changed or added to daily. Water consumption was not measured. A compounded, poor-quality ration (Diet III) fed during the trial consisted of 15 percent wheat straw, 75 percent cotton seed hulls and 5 percent each of wheat bran and a 32-percent protein supplement. Components were ground in a hammer mill until they passed through a 3 mm screen and after adding 1.5 percent molasses and steam, pellets measuring 7 x 12 mm were produced. Dehydrated alfalfa was fed in 4 cm square cubes ranging in length from 2-5 cm. The compounded ration and alfalfa cubes were analyzed for dry matter, crude protein, ether extract and ash (Association of Official Agricultural Chemists 1965), cell wall constituents (Van Soest and Wine 1967) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) and lignin (Van Soest 1963) (Table 1). Weight Change Food and water were removed from each deer 4 hours prior to weighing. Deer were weighed initially at the start of the trial, periodically during and at the end of the trial, and again after 2 weeks of refeeding. Weight gain or loss was recorded to the 'nearest 1/4 kg. Rumen contents were sampled by passing a 17 mm outside diameter (9 mm inside diameter) stomach tube down the esophagus into the rumen. A plastic pipe (1 x 12 inches long) served as a speculum and facilitated insertion and manipulation of the stomach tube. Negative pressure was supplied by a portable vacuum pump attached to the stomach tube through a 1 liter or larger vacuum flask. With some deer, obtaining 50 ml of rumen contents required considerable effort. With others, rumen contents would siphon and excess of 2 1iters was obtained. Initial amounts of rumen content samples were discarded to minimize �-409saliva contamination. The pH of rumen contents was immediately measured using a Fisher Accumet Model 210 pH meter calibrated against standard buffer prior to use. Rumen fluid was separated from solid material by filtering the contents through several layers of cheesecloth. A sample was prepared for protozoan counts by pipetting 1 ml of fluid into 9 ml of 10 percent formalin. Another 10 ml of fluid was acidified with 2 ml of 25 percent meta-phosphoric acid for VFA determination. Both samples were frozen at -15C for laboratory analysis. Ciliate protozoa within each sample were counted using a Spencer AO Brightline hemacytometer filling the chamber four times (Warner 1962b). A 1:10 dilution and 100X magnification using dark field illumination was most satisfactory for counting protozoa. Mean number of protozoa counted in the four chambers were used in calculating protozoa concentration per m1 of rumen fluid. Concentrations of VFA in rumen fluid were measured by gas chromatography. A Varian Aerograph, Model 1740 chromatograph with hydrogen flame detector connected to a Model 20 recorder and Model 477 disc integrator with digital printer was used. Samples were injected in duplicate. Nitrogen carrier gas flow was 60 m1lminute, hydrogen flow 25 m1lminute, attenuation 4, and column temperqture 175C. Column used was 5 feet by 1/8 inch packed with 20 percent Tween 80 plus 2 percent phosphoric acid (85 percent) on W 60-80 mesh. Concentrations of VFA in rumen fluid were determined by comparing each sample against standards using the area under the curve method. Blood samples were aspirated from the jugular vein using a 20 ml syringe and 18 ga x 1 inch needle. Blood was allowed to clot, after which the serum was withdrawn and frozen for laboratory analysis. Care was taken to avoid withdrawing any formed elements which would bias laboratory analysis. Serum was analyzed for total protein and urea by the Veterinary Hospital, Diagnostic �Table 1. cubes. Chemical composition (oven dry basis) of the compounded ration and dehydrated alfalfa hay Chemical Analysis Diet Crude Protein Ether Extract (Percent) Moisture Ash Cell Wall Constituents I ..j:::. ADFb Lignin Compounded rgtion (Diet III) 5.5 4.9 8.5 5.2 74.3 52.8 15.1 Dehydrated alfalfa cubes 15.9 4.0 7.2 7.6 53.0 38.6 6.8 aComposition -- 75 percent cotton hull seeds, 15 percent wheat straw and 5 percent each of wheat bran and 32 percent protein supplement. bAcid-detergent fiber. -' 0 I �-411Laboratory, CSU. Ureau concentrations were measured by a Urograph (Warner- Chilcott Laboratories, General Diagnostic Div.). This procedure is chemically identical to the Conway microdiffusion method (Conway 1958) but uses chromatography paper bonded with controlled amounts of reagents to measure urea nitrogen contained in the sample. Serum protein was measured using a refractometer (American Optical Co.). This procedure is a colorimetric test that compares color of the sample after adding reagents to color of standards with known protein content. Data Analysis Many of the parameters measured were not evaluated statistically because of the small numbers of observations and animals in the experiment. Where appropriate, a least-squares analysis of variance was used to evaluate sample differences. Many physiological changes monitored during the experiment and upon refeeding were sudden and of such magnitude they were subjectively considered significant. Results and Discussion General Physical Condition Experimental deer were shaggy and had not lost their winter coats by the end of the 90-day experiment. in full summer coats. In contrast, deer not on trial were sleek and Antler growth of the one buck used was limited to l-inch buttons at trial's end and little additional growth occurred therafter during the rffoaining growth period. By comparison a similar-aged buck, not used in the experiment, had branched antlers when the trial ended. Feeding alfalfa had a more diverse effect upon experimental deer, especially fawns, than did the poor-quality. compounded diet. Within two weeks after feeding alfalfa began, one fawn died and apparent physical condition of two others declined markedly, �-412- Cone.. ~ _ Diet III 2500 2000 ~ 1500 III ~ eo o "'-0(4) 500 x-x Adults 0-0 Fawns o pt 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 I 3 14 15 Weeks Fig. 3. Mean daily food intake of concentrate (pt = pretrial), Diet III and dehydrated alfalfa cubes by adult and fawn mule deer. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers of animals remaining on trial. �-413- 1--.------- Diet -> ------~Alf. III I I 3 I I 2 X~ : I ~~ :g ~ l-< '0 i Q) P. I I x~ x ~ (-) 1 ~ III ~ J ..s:::: o (-)2 j:; b.o) ....• Q) ~ o o 1 2 3 4 0 5 6 7 8 9 }(--X Addtsl \ 0--0 F'awn s] 12.6 10 11 ~4) 12 13 14 15 Week~ Fig. 4 Mean cumulative we iqht changes(percent of initial body weight) of adult and fawn mule deer. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers of animals remaining on trial. �-414Rumino-reticular Contents Protozoa concentrations within rumen fluid of deer decreased from pretrial levels during the experiment and protozoa were either completely eliminated or greatly reduced when fed dehydrated alfalfa cubes (Fig. 5). concentrations Protozoa in rumen fluid obtained from mule deer during this experiment were lower than numbers reported by Pearson (1969) in fluid of mule deer fed compounded diets (570-590 x 103/ml) but higher than protozoa numbers he found in wild mule deer collected during winter (160 x 103/ml). Factors responsible for eliminating or greatly reducing protozoa in rumen contents of deer fed dehydrated alfalfa cubes are unknown. One explanation may be that protozoa in deer rumens are intolerant of high pH. Protozoa were absent in rumen fluid having pH from 7.1-7.3 and detectable concentrations were near zero in rumen fluid having a pH of 6.9-7.0. Rumen-fluid pH readings from deer on Diet III and on alfalfa during Experiment (Table 2) were higher than values reported by other researchers with the exception of Ullrey et~. (1964). High pH levels obtained did not appear to be related to saliva contamination because pH readings in rumen fluid samples in excess of 1 liter were as hi'ghor higher as readings in samples of only 50-100 ml. Significantly lower (p < 0.05) rumen fluid pH levels were observed as feeding Diet III progressed over the 13 weeks; a trend especially apparent in fawns (Table 2). After feeding alfalfa cubes. rumen fluid pH increased (Table 2) becoming alkaline in five of seven deer. These data suggest rumen fluid pH levels in deer decline as intake and rate of food passage increase or possibly while a change occurs in the microflora and fauna due to diet change. �-415- Cone. 4--------2300 600 Diet III ~ AI£. I I I I I I I 500 X X ~x~ I (3j-x x-:--tI ;:; S J.< I I 400 C1.l p.. o I 0 •....• ~ ! ('t) ~ . 0 s:: s:: 300 o~% 0 ...• ~ '" J.< ~C1.l u s:: 200 0 U 100 x-x Adults 0--0 Fawns ( 3) L-~-L~ o pt 1 __~~~~ 2 3 4 __L-~~~~~~~~~(4) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 14 Fig. 5. Protozoa concentrations in rumino-reticular fluid of adult and fawn mule deer fed concentrate (pt=pretrial) Diet III and dehydrated alfalfa cubes. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers of animals remaining on trial. 15 �Table 2. Average rumino-reticular mule deer. fluid pH, VFA concentration (mM/l) and molar proportions of acetic:propionic f Numbers in parentheses mear'l range) Adults Week of acids (C :C ) in adult and fawn 2 3 Fawns Trial N pt pH VFA Conc. VFA C2:C 3 N pH VFA Cone, VFA C2:C3 4 6.4 (6.3-6.5) 39 (31-60) 3.4(2.7-3.8) a - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 5 6.7(6.4-6.9) 66 (44-101) 4.5 (3.7-5.1) 4 6.8 (6.5-6.9) 62 (45-74) 5.5 (5.4-5.7) 4 5 6.7(6.5-6.9) 74 (55-87) 5.1(4.0-6.2) 4 6.6 (6.6-6.7) 70 (50-79) 5.2 (5.1-5.4) 4 6.6 (6.3-6.9) 73 (52-84) 5.4 (5.0-5.8) I 6 8 4 6.6 (6.5-6.9) 69(64-74) 5.1 (4.7-5.4) 4 6.3 (6. 1-6.6) 58 (49-75) 5.4 (5.1-5.7) 10 4 6.6 (6.3-7.1) 69 (61-81) 4.9 (4.3-5.9) 4 6.2 (6.2-6.4) 67 (57-76) 5.6(5.3-6.0) 12 3 6.7(6.3-7.2) 71 (64-75) 5.2 (4.6-6.4) 3 6.2 (6.2) 71 (67-75) 5.8 (5.4-6.4) 13 3 6.7(6.1-7.2) 64 (50-76) 4.8 (4.6-5.5) 4 6.2 (6.0-6.4) 71 (53-82) 5.8 (5.5-6.4) 94 (91-103) 3.8 (3.5-4.3) . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------b 15 3 7.1 (6.8-7.3) 103 (98-111) a Pre-trial, fed concentrate diet ad libitum. b Fed dehydrated alfalfa cubes ad libitum. 3. 7 (3. 5- 3. 8) 4 7.0(6.8-7.1) ~ •.....• 0'1 I �-417Rumen-fluid VFA concentrations and molar proportions of acetic:propionic acids differed significantly (p < 0.05) among weeks uurlng the 90-day feeding of Diet III (Table 2); however no consistent trends were evident for either parameter. Total VFA concentrations in rumen fluid of deer fed Diet III were similar to values (58-88 mM/l) reported by Short (1963) in rumen fluid of white-tailed deer fed white cedar (Thuja occidental is) and big-tooth aspen (Populus grandidentata). Values measured in rumen fluid of deer fed Diet III or alfalfa cubes were considerably lower than mean VFA concentrations (125 mM/l) in rumen fluid of mule deer on natural browse (Nagy et~. Molar proportions of acetic:propionic 1967). acids in rumen fluid of deer fed Diet III were higher than values reported by other researchers and are an indication of the diet's poor quality. Proportions of acetic:propionic acids in rumen fluid of deer fed dehydrated alfalfa cubes are similar to values reported by Short for deer fed high quality diets. concentration It is interesting to note that VFA increased on alfalfa hay diet. lower in ADF and lignin than Diet III. This diet was higher in protein, One must recognize the fact that VFA levels in the rumen are not only related to the rate of microbial activity but also to the rate of VFA absorption through the rumen wall. Serum Protein and Urea No statistically significant trends in serum protein or in serum urea levels were evident during the 13 weeks deer were fed Diet III. (Table 3). Levels of both parameters were similar to values reported by other researchers. No relationship between serum protein levels and general condition of deer fed Diet III or alfalfa cubes was noted in this study (Table 3). �Table 3. Average serum urea (mg/IOO ml) and protein (observed ranges in parentheses)~ ml) in adult and fawn mule deer. Adults Week of Trial pt (g/IOO N Serum Urea Fawns Se rurn Protein N Serum 3 21.6 (15-35) Urea Serum Protein a 2 - - - .. - - - 3 6.6 (5-10) -------8.4: (8.3-8.5) 3 -------21. 6 (20..,30) 7.9 (7.2-8. 5) - - - - -- - - 6.6(6.1-7.2) 4 6 3 8 3 20 (15-25) 7.1 (6.6-8.2) I 21. 6 (20-25) +>0 •....• 7.5 (7.0-8.5) co I 10 , •• -r 21. 2 (20-:25) 6.5 (6.0-7.0) -------- 4 21. 2 (20-25) 6.4 8.1 (8.0-8.5) 4 12 13 3 ISb 21. 6 (20-25) - - - - - - - .3 aprc-trial, 30.0(25-35) fed concentrate bFcd dehydrrlted alfalfa 7.1.(6.4-7.8) diet ad libitum. cubes ad libitum. -------42.5 (30-60) (6.0-7.0) - - - - - - - 6.7 (5.3-8.3) �-419Serum urea levels however, increased upon refeeding with alfalfa (Table 3). Higher serum levels during refeeding may be related to two factors: (1) increased deamination of diet protein by microorganisms in the rumen and more ammonia absorbed into the blood, or (2) increased catabolism of body protein. Since higher blood urea levels were not associated with rapid weight loss in three adults and one fawn, the increased blood urea levels in these deer were most likely due to increased percent of crude protein in alfalfa. Three fawns that had significantly higher blood urea levels than other deer also experienced rapid weight loss. Exceptionally high blood urea levels in these fawns were most likely due to body protein catabolism but may also have been influenced by liver and/or kidney malfunction as hypothesized by Keiss (1965). ��-421Chapter 3 Digestibility and Rate 0f Passage Trials Introduction In the previous experiment (Chapter 2) we found that deer under pen conditions were able to survive and maintain their body weight, with only minor changes when fed on a diet which is low in protein, high in ADF and consequently of marginal nutritional value. Protein is nutritionally important and possibly low during winter in native forages available to deer. Protein supplements are, however, expensive to feed and one should know the required levels of protein necessary in supplemental deer feeds to help deer through starvation periods. In this trial we investigated the influence of different protein levels on dry matter digestion and rate of passage through the deer digestive system. Methods and Materials Facilities Four digestion cages 1.5 x 0.9 x 1.2 m high with 3/4-inch mesh flat expanded metal floors were constructed. Cages were built of 2.5 x 10.2 cm boards with attached covered feeders and placed out of doors. The top and two sides were covered with canvas which afforded the deer some protection from weather. Window screen was placed beneath each cage to funnel feces into collection pans beside each cage. Urine was not collected. Experimental Deer Four tame mule deer does aged 1.5-7 years began this experiment, however, one deer was injured and replaced during the second trial by a 9-10 month old semi-tame female fawn. To gradually condition deer to confinement, they were placed individually in pens for 2 weeks prior to being placed in digestion cages. All deer rapidly became accustomed to close confinement and presented only minor problems during the 10-13 day feeding trials. �-422Trial Diets and Feeding Compositions and proximate chemical analyses of the two diets are given in Table 4. Diet III was the ration fed during the previous trial (Chapter 2) and Diet I was basically the same ration with added protein. Both diets were fed in pelleted form and offered to each deer according to 2 x 2 cross-over design. Methods of producing feed, feeding and chemical analysis were described in Chapter 2. Deer were accustomed to the test diet for at least 8-12 days in isolation pens and 3-5 days in digestion cages before daily food intake and fecal production were measured. Dry Matter Digestibility Dry matter digestion of Diets I and III was determined by procedures outlined by Maynard and Loosli (1962). Feces produced by each deer were collected at least 2-3 times daily for 5 days, placed in paper bags, labeled and dried for 1-2 weeks at 60C. Apparent dry matter digestion (percent) was calculated between difference of total intake and feces produced on a dry-weight basis (Table 5). Rate of Passage Rate of passage of each diet was measured during the same 5 days in which feces collections were made for determining diet digestibility. General procedures used were those described by Balch and Campling (1965). Approximately 5 percent of one meal was stained with crystal violet. To minimize secondary staining of other food in the digestive system, the stained diet was thoroughly rinsed with tap water and dried prior to feeding. Time required for stained food to pass through the deer digestive systems was determined by visually identifying numbers of stained particles in samples of feces collected at intervals post-feeding. These data are presented as the time interval between when 5 percent and 95 percent of all identified stained particles had passed the digestive tract (Table 5). �Table 4. Compositions and proximate chemical analyses of the two compounded diets fed in digestibility and rate of passage trials. Diet Composition (percent) 32% Protein Cotton Seed Wheat SuppleHulls ment Straw Wheat Bran Crude Protein Analysis (percent, oven-dry basis) Cell Ether Wall MoisExContract ture Ash stituents ADF2 Lignin I +>0 N W I Diet III 75 5 15 5 5.5 4.9 8.5 5.2 74.3 52.8 15. 1 Diet I 70 30 -- -- 12. 1 2.5 8.8 6.1 73.1 46.7 15.0 aAcid-detergent fiber. �-424Dry Matter Digestibility Dry matter digestion of Diets I and III was determined by procedures outlined by Maynard and Loosli (1962). Feces produced by each deer were collected at least 2-3 times daily for 5 days, placed in paper bags, labeled and dried for 1-2 weeks at 60C. Apparent dry matter digestion (percent) was calculated between difference of total intake and feces produced on a dry-weight basis (Table 5). Rate of Passage Rate of passage of each diet was measured during the same 5 days in which feces collections were made for determining diet digestibility. General procedures used were those described by Balch and Campling (1965). Approximately 5 percent of one meal was stained with crystal violet. To minimize secondary staining of other food in the digestive system, the stained diet was thoroughly rinsed with tap water and dried prior to feeding. Time required for stained food to pass through the deer digestive systems was determined by visually identifying numbers of stained particles in samples of feces colleced at intervals post-feeding. These data are presented as the time interval between 'when 5 percent and 95 percent of all identified stained particles had passed the digestive tract (Table 5). Results and Discussion Data on food consumption, food digestibility and rate of passage show more variation among deer than between Diets I and III (Table 5). Comparisons between diets are best made for the three deer completing both tests. �-425Daily food intake, apparent dry matter digestion, and rate of passage were significantly greater for Diet I compared with Diet III for the three deer. These differences are attibuted to added protein in Diet I as other measured constituents of the diets were nearly equal. Mean dry matter digestion coefficients for Diets I and III were less than dry matter digestion coefficients of 46.1-53.4 reported by Short (1966) for a compounded diet containing 41 percent crude fiber and 20.2 percent crude protein. Diets containing similar levels of protein with less crude fiber had significatnly higher digestion coefficients and Short conlucded there was an inverse relationship between diet crude-fiber content and dry matter digestibi1ity. Data from this experiment suggest there was also a relationship between diet protein and dry matter digestion. The lower level of protein in Diet III may have limited the activity of microbial populations in the rumen. Diet protein is a source of nitrogen necessary for synthesis of microbila protein. By adding protein to the ration, as in Diet I, additional nitrogen was available and a greater population of microbes may have been present for food digestion. Increased food digestion enabled deer to pass food through their digestive systems at a faster rate which permitted intake of more food as observed with Diet I vs. Diet III. Results of this experiment as well as the results of the previous experiment (Chapter 2) suggest that 5.5 percent crude protein in the diet is marginal and under normal circumstances, deer need higher protein levels. However, deer, at least under pen conditions, can survive for long periods of time (90 days) on a diet containing 5.5 percent protein. �Table 5. Mean daily food consumption, apparent dry matter digestibility and rate of passage of Diets I and III fed to five mule deer. Consumption (grams) Digestibility (percent) Rate of Passage, 5-95 Percent Time (Hrs) Animal No. Diet I Diet III Diet I Diet III Diet I Diet III 201 910 632 49.6 47.1 19.0 54.0 202 1197 1042 42.6 40.1 42.5 57.5 203 1445 1134 43.8 38.4 45.5 48.0 204 1134 --* 41.8 I ~ N 0) I 243 1412 36.5 36.8 34.5 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Mean 1172 1055 44.4 *Animal injured during trial, substituted with No. 243. 40.6 35.9 51.0 �-427- Chapter 4 Alfalfa Hay Feeding Experiments Using Deer, Domestic Sheep and Goats Introduction There are numerous reports in the literature (Doman and Rasmusen, 1944; Smith, 1952; Carhart, 1943) which suggest that feeding alfalfa hay to starved deer might be detrimental to the animal. During our feeding experiments (Chapter 2), deer, especially fawns, decreased their food intake when fed good quality dehydrated alfalfa cubes and fawns lost 12-19 percent of their pretrial weight within two weeks (Fig. 4). experiments (Nagy, et ~., Previous 1967) suggest that deer rumen microorganisms are able to digest alfalfa hay in vitro as well as microorganisms from the rumen of cattle and sheep. In the following experiments we wanted to investigate the abilities of deer, domestic sheep and goats to digest poor quality alfalfa hay fed in two physical forms. 12-day trial. Alfalfa hay was fed first in pelleted form during a In a second, 14-day trial the same quality alfalfa was fed in cubed form. Methods and Materials Facilities Sheep, goats and deer were individually confined in pens and digestion cages. Goats were confined to digestion cages due to insufficient numbers of isolation pens. Experimental Animals Eight mule deer does (4 adults and 4 yearlings), four adult domestic sheep and four adult domestic goats were used for each trial. Two deer (1 adult and 1 yearling) experienced severe digestive disorders and were sacrificed when near death after eating pelleted alfalfa, These animals �428- were replaced with similar-aged deer for the second trial. Deer used during each trial were born in captivity, raised by their does but were not tame. For approximately 9 months pretrial and during 2 weeks between trials, deer were fed ad libitum concentrate and alfalfa hay. At the start of each trial deer were judged in excellent physical condition; weight of adults was 55-70 kg and yearlings 53-61 kg. Sheep and goats were crossbred adult ewes and nannies. Sheep were purchased 6 weeks prior to the trials, however goats had been used extensively in previous experiments. During 6 weeks pretrial and 2 weeks between trials, sheep and goats received ad libitum concentrate and alfalfa hay and were also judged in excellent physical condition at the start of each trial, weighing 53-66 kg and 25-48 kg respectively. Trial Diets and Feeding Alfalfa, cured in the field until mid-August, was used as the test diet. At cutting, most leaves had dried and fallen, leaving partially green stems. Stems were chopped, dehydrated and compressed into cubes 4 x 4 cm by 2-6 cm long. A quantity of these cubes was ground in a hammer mill, passed through a 3 mm screen and compressed into 6 x 12 mm pellets. The alfalfa pellets produced were offered abruptly and fed ~ libjtym during trial 1. During trial 2, unaltered alfalfa cubes were offered gradually with decreasing amounts of concentrate for 4 days and then fed gg libitym for 14 days. The method used to measure daily food intake and procedures for chemical analysis of the test diet (Table 6 ) are described and referenced in Chapter 2. was not measured. Water was offered QQ libitum and daily consumption �-429- Table 6. Chemical corriy o s it ion (oven-dry in both pelletcd and cube forms. Constituents basis) of alfalfa Analysis 1.1 Ash 6.9 Crude protein 7.9 Ether 3.2 A cid-detergent-fiber (ADF) fed (percent) .Mo i st iir e extract stems 44.2 Lignin 9.3 Cell wall constituents 56. 1 Deer Necropsy Two deer suffered severe digestive upsets after eating pelleted alfalfa, would not respond to refeeding with concentrate, sacrificed 'when near death. and were Blood samples were aspirated from the jugular, placed in sterile vacuo-tubes containing EDTA and taken within 30 minutes to the Diagnostic Laboratory, Veterinary Hospital, CSU, for analysis. Ligations were made above the cardia and at the beginning of the colon and the stomachs and small intestine with contents removed and taken to the Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, CSU, for necropsy. Four deer that evidenced similar digestive problems after eating cubed alfalfa were also ~acrificed. dimensions of the rumen-reticulum, Weight, volume and omasum; and abomasum were measured and samples of contents taken from these organs. All sheep and goats used during the experiment and two deer that did not indicate digestive problems were also sacrificed at the end of trial 2 and the same stomach measurements made and silmples of contents taken. �-430- Stomach Measurements Volumes of the rumen-reticulum, omasum and abomasum with contents were measured by water displacement. After all gas had been expelled from the rumen, it was immersed in a container partially filled with water and the displaced volume measured. Volumes of the omasum and abomasum, with contents, were measured by immersing each organ in a partially filled graduated beaker and observing displaced volume. Length, width and circumference of each omasum and abomasum were measured to the nearest 3 mm with a flexible plastic tape. Length measurements were made along the center line of each organ by bending the tape to conform with the organ's natural curvature. Width and circumference measurements reported are the greatest values obtained. Once the abomasum was opened, the pyloric sphincter was cut, laid flat and the inside diameter measured to the nearest mm. Weights of the rumen-reticulum, omasum and abomasum with contents were measured after all fat had been removed from each organ. After contents had been removed and the tissue washed and blotted dry, each organ was weighed empty. The weight of contents within each organ was calculated by difference. Histological Sections Abomasal tissue was obtained for histological examination from a sheep, a goat, a normal deer, and a deer that experienced an abomasal disorder. Samples were taken laterally through the fundus, in the pylorus region 4 cm forward of the pyloric sphincter, and through the pyloric sphincter. Tissues were immediately fixed in 10 percent formalin and 2 percent sodium acetate and prepared by the Research Laboratory, Department of Anatomy, CSU for interpretation. Tissues were processed in graded strengths of ethyl alcohol, cedarwood oil, xylene and embedded in paraplast. Blocks �-431- were sectioned at 4 microns on rotary microtome, stained with hematoxylin and eosin and mounted on microscope slides with paramount. Photographs and histological interpretations of abomasal tissues were made by Dr. G. C. Soloman, Department of Anatomy. Digestive r~easurements The pH of rumino-reticular, omasal and abomasal contents of all sacrifi ced animals was measured using a Fisher Accumet Model 210 pH meter calibrated prior to use against standard buffer. All readings were made within 30 minutes after death. Food contents within each stomach of all sacrificed animals were samples to quantify degrees of food digestion. Stomach contents were thoroughly mixed and an approximately 100g sample removed, placed in a small jar, and fixed in 10 percent formalin for laboratory analysis. Food particules in each sample were separated by size by gently washing the sample through soil sieves of 4, 2, 1 and 0.42 mm. Fractions separated by each sieve were backwashed into containers, filtered through pre-weighed Whatman FG/A glass filter paper, dried for 24 hours at 60C and weighed. Filtrate containing food particles less than 0.42 mm was collected and its volume measured. After thorough mixing, three 100 ml subsamples of filtrate were withdrawn, filtered and dried using the above methods. Dry weights for each of the four separated fractions were obtained after subtracting filter paper weights. Average dry weight of food particles less than 0.42 mm contained in the three 100 ml sub-samples of filtrate was related to the total filtrate volume and used to calculate weight of this fraction. Percent of each fraction was determined from total dry weight of all five fractions. �-432- Data Analysis Changes in food intake and among stomach measurements of deer, sheep, and goats data were not analyzed statistically. Data on food particle sizes in stomachs of sheep, goats, deer with normal digestion and deer with digestive upsets were analyzed using Duncan's New Multiple Range Test (Li 1968:270). Results and Discussion Physical Condition and Food Intake Six of eight deer fed pelleted alfalfa stems indicated varying degrees of digestive problems and five of eight deer fed alfalfa cubes evidenced similar digestive upsets, Two deer and all sheep and goats fed both physical forms of alfalfa showed no symptoms of digestive problems, remained in good physical condition and maintained or increased daily food intake (Figs. 6. 7). Digestive upsets in deer were indicated by an abrupt decline in food consumption, usually with no food being eaten following 3 days of digestive upset. (Tables 7, 8). At the onset of digestive problems, feces were sour smelling and contai~d blood; defecatio~ also ceased within 3 days. Other visual symptoms of digestive problems were a dry nose, glassy~vacant stare of the eyes, ruffled hair and a disinclination to move or get up when approached. If the condition persisted for 5 days or longer, the animal was inclined to lie with head and neck outstretched on the ground. While in this position small amounts of rumen fluid ran from the nostrils or mouth, When sacrificed. rumen fluid gushed from the mouths of these deer. �· -433- 3500 3000 - 2500 (JJ S rd H 2000 co Q) ~ rd ...., .....~ 1500 1000 500 Fig. 6. Mean daily food intakes of mule deer and domestic sheep and goats fed pelleted alfalfa stems. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers of animals remaining on trial. �-434- 3500 3000 2500 tIl S ~2000 ee Q) ~ 1500 ~ 500 - o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Days Fig. 7. Mean daily food intakes of mule deer and domestic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems. Figures in parentheses indicate numbers of animals remaining on trial. �-435- TABLE 7. Daily food intake of pelleted alfalfa stems by four adult and four yearling mule deer does. Day of Trial Inta ke (grams) Adults Fawns 1388 1759 2000 1988 1796 1168 1722 1652 2 1310 600 592 546 1346 1008 946 1016 3 1076 588 182 162 1254 914 700 72 4 1066 1350 0 0 910 1000 0 0 5 614 670 0 0 894 810 0 0 6 780 30 0 0 1280 1020 0 0 7 1200 0 0 0 846 1152 0 0 8 890 0 Oa 0 648 890 0 0 9 750 0 230 514 1086 0 0 10 206 0 280 504 1376 0 Oa 11 0 0 656 582 1310 0 12 Ob Ob 690 613 1145 Ob a Did not respond to refeeding; sacrificed when very near death. bResponded with refeeding of concentrate diet. �-436- TABLE 8. Daily food intake of cubed alfalfa stems by four adult and four yearling mule deer does. Day Intake (grams) of Trial Adults Fawns 700 1190 1506 1182 l300 1106 1108 790 2 376 856 974 510 1214 776 230 724 3 80 1018 930 178 860 1216 0 664 4· 377 922 1220 0 1200 860 0 466 5 758 1060 1161 0 1184 1276 0 688 6 772 1638 1404 0 1482 l366 0 832 7 120 1100 676 Od 800 456 0 670 8 0 1120 0 900 1120 0 390 9 1160 950 0 1076 882 0 790 10 600 588 0 1200 944 0 868 11 172 350 0 1068 1180 0 690 12 100 0 a 1146 1042 OC 974 13 14 0 0 14 Oa ad OC 1432 1344b 1362 1300b 1182 884 aResponded to refeeding of concentrate diet, however remained in poor physical condition 6 months after trial bSacrificed--normal digestion. cSacrificed--omasum impacted. dSacrificed--abomasum upset. �-437- Animal Necropsy Physical condition of two deer declined so rapidly after ingesting pelleted alfalfa they were near death within 10 days and were sacrificed. Cursory examination during necropsy revealed no external or internal injuries or malformations. body fat. Both deer were in good flesh and had considerable Pathologist reports on digestive tracts listed the following conditions for both deer: (1) no lesions or abnormalities were present in the rumen or omasum; (2) multiple ulcers, inflammation and hemorrhage were widespread in the abomasum with some necrosis, and (3) hemorrhagic ulcers were prevalent around the pyloric sphincter and hemorrhagic enteritis occurred throughout the small intestine. Bacterial cultures prepared from fluid taken from within the tissue lining of the abomasum were positive for Escherichia coli and Clostridium perfringens. Blood of one deer was analyzed; results were: packed'cell volume 71 percent, red blood cells 24.8 x 106/mm3, white blood cells 2.0 x 103/mm3 , serum protein 9.1 g/lOO ml, and serum urea 85 mg/100 ml. Four of five deer that suffered digestive problems after ingesting cubed alfalfa were also sacrificed. Necropsy of two of these deer revealed similar conditions within the abomasum and small intestine as in deer that experienced digestive problems after eating pelleted alfalfa. However, the other two deer had greatly distended omasums containing solidly impacted food particles. Such a large amount of food was impacted into these organs that blood capillaries within the organ muscle tissues ruptured. Removing irn:->acted food from these organs revealed that some primary omasal leaves had torn and were necrotic. Inflammation, ulcers and hemorrhaging were also observed within the abomasums and small intestines of these deer. Omasal impaction has been reported in domestic ruminants but is difficult to diagnose and has been observed only during necropsy. Specific cases of �-438- impacted omasums in dairy cows have been reported by Hughes and Cartwright (1962) and Blampied et~. during this~udy (1964). Symptoms of impacted omasums in deer were similar to those described for domestic ruminants (Blood & Henderson 1968: 107) . Necropsy of sheep, goats and the two deer that did not show symptons of digestive problems revealed no ulceration or inflammation had occurred within the animals digestive tracts. Digestive organs in these animals appeared to be functioning normally. Histological Sections Histological sections of abomasal tissue from a sheep, a goat, and a deer with normal digestion indicated no qualitative structural differences among the three species. Examination of abomasal tissue from a deer experiencing digestive problems revealed extensive abrasion of the mucosal lining, blood capillaries within the muscle tissue were dilated, and abnormally high concentrations of lymphocytes were present. With abrasion of the protective abomasal mucosal lining, underlying blood capillaries were closer to the lum~n of the abomasum and more susceptible to injury. It is possible that dilation of blood capillaries was caused by infection or a bacterial toxin. The abnormally high concentration of lymphocytes in the tissue indicates infection and a possible bacterial invasion. Anatomical t1easurements Measurements of the rumen-reticulums, omasums, and abomasums of sheep, goats and deer show obvious size differences among the three species. Relative to body size, weights of rumino-reticular contents account for about 10 percent of body weight in deer compared with 17-20 percent for sheep and goats (Table 9). The omasum and abomasum are also smaller in deer compared �-439- with these organs in sheep or goats (Tables 10, 11). Figure 11 shows relative sizes of omasums and abomasums from a sheep, a goat, a deer with normal digestion and a distended omasum of a deer due to food impaction. Differences in relative organ sizes can be seen readily in this figure. Degree of distension was indicated by the differences between weights, volumes, and circumferences of impacted omasums and normal omasums (Table 10). Abomasums from deer with abomasum upsets also indicated these organs were larger than normal deer abomasums (Table 11). Mean body wc i glrt s and weight, volume, percent dry matter and pH of rum.ino- reticular contents of mule deer and do~e stic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems (number of am- Table 9. mals in parentheses). Contents Rum.ino- reticular (1) Dry Matter (percent) pH 37.2 19.0 18.5 13.3 7.6 13: 3 14.6 6.4 6. 6 54.5 60.8 59.0 10.6 12.8 10.4 9.9 12.9 7. 1 14. 1 2.7 6. 1 . 6.2 7. I 7..1 to sacrifice; rumen Mean Body Wt. (kg) Weight (percent body wt.) Vol. Sheep (4) 51.7 Go at s (4) Deer no r mal d i ge stion (2) a o rri a s u i'n impa ctec1 (2) abom.asum. up s et" (2) Animal a Deer did not eat for tents very fluid. 3-8 days prior con- �-440- Table 10. Mean size 'of the omasums and weight, percent dry matter and pH of omasal contents of mule deer and dome stic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems (number s of animals in parentheses). Omasum Size (with contents) Vol. (ml) Sheep (4) Goats (4) Deer . normal digestion (2) omasum impa ct ed" (2) abomasum up s e t+ (2) Animal ci-. Omasal ( g .) Dry Matter (percent) pH 125 101 757 530 17.5 19.8 7.2 6.2 50 109 49 314 980 107 20.6 18.6 13.0 6. I 7.0 6.8 W. Wt. (mm) L. (mm) (mm) 861 546 271 297 189 155 239 1132 126 154 350 138 88 205 100 o aDeer did not eat for 3-8 days prior Contents to sacrifice. Digestive Measurements Percent dry matter of rumino-reticular, omasal and abomasal contents of deer with normal digestion, sheep and goats all fed alfalfa cubes was similar (Tables 9-11). Percent dry matter in rumino-reticular and omasal contents of deer with digestive upsets was less than levels in these organs of normal deer. Dry matter levels in abomasal contents of deer with digestive upsets were, however , higher than levels in normal deer, sheep or goats. The pH of omasal contents of deer with impacted omasums and sheep with normal digestion were neutral or alkaline; however acidic pH readings were observed in omasal contents of goats and deer with normal digestion (Table 10). Abomasal contents pH in deer with digestive upsets was higher than pH readings in animals with normal digestion (Table 11) indicating cessation of normal acidic digestion. �Table 11. Mean size of the abomasums and weight, percent dry matter, and pH of abomasal contents of mule deer and domestic sheep and goats fed cubed alfalfa stems (numbers of animals in parentheses). Abomasum Abomasal Size (w.fh contents) Inside Dia. Pyloric Sphincter (rom) Contents I Wt. (g) Dry Matter (percent) pH +>0 +>0 .....• Vol. (rol) Cir. (rnm) (rom) W. (rnm] Sheep (4) Goats (4) 1570 843 280 260 437 338 134 121 61 52 1134 759 12.7 13.3 3. 5 3.4 Deer normal digestion (2) omasum impacteda (2) aborna sum upseta (2) 448 215 661 206 174 222 .267 244 277 82 71 95 48 44 52 521 212 633 12.4 15.7 17.0 5.8 6.5 Animal aDeer did not eat for 3-8 days prior L. to sacrifice. I 3. 3 �-442- Size of food particles in rumino-reticular contents of sacrificed animals would be affected by time between ingestion and sacrifice for each animal, a variable that was not controlled in this experiment. Percent distribution of particle sizes by weight in rumino-reticular, omasal and abomasal contents did not vary significantly among normal deer, sheep or goats(Table 12). Distribution of particle sizes in the stomachs of deer with digestive problems differed significantly from distribution in stomachs of normal deer (Table 12). There were fewer large particles in rumino-reticular contents of deer with digestive problems than in contents of normal deer. This was expected since deer with digestive problems did not eat for 3-10 days prior to sacrifice. Impacted deer omasums contained a higher proportion of food particles larger than 1 mm than did normal deer omcsums; abomasums of deer with either impacted omasums or upset omasums contained more particles larger than 0.4 mm than did abomasums of normal deer (Table 12). These data suggest a failure of mechanisms regulating passage of large particles from the rumen-reticulum of some deer fed alfalfa. It is not known if this failure was the cause or the effect of the digestive disorders observed. �Table 12. Distribution of Cood particle size. mule deer lcd cubed a.l!alfa. stems (percent by weight) in rumino-reticular, omasal and abomasal cont ent s o{ domestic Rumen •.r e t ic u'Iu rru Food Particle (percent) Orn r surnr Siz.c Food Particle {pe r c e nt] Abomasum: Size <0.4 nun 0 2.5 1.4 15.0 5.80 36.7 37.8 40.0 55.-1 0 0 2.5 1.4 5.4 6.6 8.0 16.2 18.2d 31.5 38.2 35.9 59. d 40.3c 36.9° <0.4 mm >4.0 2-4 mm 1-2 0.4-1 rom mm mm <0.4 mm >4.0 mm 9.4 9.7 8. I 5.9c 24.6 18.6 30.5 32.6 27.4 33.2 0 0 2.2c 1.3c 12.9c 5. Ice 39.6 38.0 45.4 55.7d ·0 $C.cep (4) Goat s (4) " Deer normal digestion (2) omasum impacteda (2) ab or-ia s urn upset" (2) 11.4d 2.7e 9 •.2 13.5b 9.5 20.3 29.5 26.2 2? 3 37: 1 31. 4 29.8 17.229.2 0 0 0 2.0c 11.5b 4.4b 11.0e 24.0b 15.4cd 35.8 39.4 36.1 51. 3 25.0° 44.2 eMean.b Multiple Range TeBt. di{{er .ig"i!icantly 2-4 to .acrince. (p < 0.01) {rom mean.c, and mcansd di.!Cer signilicantly (p < 0.05) Si:te nun 0.42-1 mm did not eat for 3-10 .days prior Food Particle (percent) 0.4-1 1-2 mm b, c.d. and 1-2 mm 2-4 mm aDeer goat. mm >4.0 mm 3.70 .heep. and sacrificed. e {~om means according to Duncan'. Ne'f i ..,. ..,. I W I �-444Inability of deer to digest alfalfa stems fed during this experiment appears to be related to stomach size and morphology. Deer have small stomachs, especially the omasum and abomasum, that are not adapted for digestion of bulky, high-roughage diets. The structure of a deer's rumen, reticulum and omasum is similar to the same organs in other ruminants with selective food habits. Hofmann (1968) noted ruminants with selective food habits have a small rumen with weak pillars, the reticulum was comparatively large and contained shallow crests, and the omasum was "extremely small, kidney shaped," and contained few laminae. Sizes and structures of the rumens, reticulums and omasums in sheep and goats were, however, similar to these organs in ruminants with non-selective food habits that are adapted for digestion of high-roughage diets. Hofmann (1968) noted the rumens in "roughage eaters" were very large with powerful pillars, the reticulums relatively small and contained deep crests, and the omasums were large, spherical and contained numerous laminae. To compensate for their small stomachs ruminants with selective food habits require forage that is more easily digested. Rate of food passage may also be faster in animals with small stomachs than in ruminants with non-selective food habits. During this experiment deer that experienced digestive problems may have been unable to retain particles of coarse alfalfa stems in their rumens long enough to permit adequate digestion. Incomplete food digestion resulted in large, abrasive food particles being passed through deer digestive tracts that resulted in physical damage to the abomasum and small intestine mucosa (Fig. 8). �GOAT SHEEP DEER NORMAL DEER OMASUM IMPACTED 0 6 12 ~j;I('~;:;;~~ '"' I " r.: I,', 'I " 'I' .\ -. ~;tl:' \ :")".'"/."')~,J'" fl I' .' . \'\' ',' '\~\'{/ / i: 18 bi :>,::~. 24 I h~") l'j"'i'6 (J) a:: 30 w I- w 36 ~ I- 1 ' .• 'i ( ~' ~ " " ./. ; I ..j::> "I . ~ d:\ f.il~1, (I,,\..' -..:; (J"I . 42 z' w 48 u 54 60 66 72 FIGURE 8. Relative sizes of goat, sheep and deer omasums and abomasums (after a photo by Nagy) I �-446- Table 13. Chemical composition mountain hay. (oven-dry basis) Constituents of pelleted Analysis (percent) Moisture 13.4 Ash 5.8 Crude protein 12. 1 Ether . 5.8 extract Acid-detergent-fiber (ADF) 43.6 Lignin 4.8 Cell wall constituents 58.0 TABLE 14. native Daily food intake of five mule deer fed pe11eted native mountain hay. Day of Trial Intake(grams) 1 1210 1420 1100 1130 2 1194 1620 1256 . 780 3 1332 1182 792 n04 688 4 1370 730 402 88 486 5 1336 994 914 0 956 6 1436 974 750 0 976 7 1690 1214 1020 0 1258 8 1736 1190 824 82 1124 9 1428 1322 884 48 1276 10 1860 1308 936 270 1048 11 1344 1116 582 590 794 12 1460 1138 966 1286 690 13 ]4 1060 1566 1010 1280 788 768 1234 1260 1084 1050 1060 , 1240 �-447- Results and Discussion One deer evidenced digestive problems but recovered within 4 days and had a normal food intake w~en the trial ended (Table 14). The only symptoms of digestive problems evidenced in this deer were an abrupt decline in food intake and a dry nose. Daily food intakes of four deer (Table 14) not evidencing digestive problems were approximately the same as intakes of two deer that did not experience digestive problems when fed alfalfa (Tables 7,8). Deer fed native hay did not experience digestive problems to the same degree as deer fed pelleted alfalfa during Experiment 3. Reasons why deer were able to digest pel1eted native hay better than pelleted alfalfa are unknown, but may be related to structural differences due to lignification. Alfalfa contained more lignin (9.3 percent) than did native hay (4.8 percent). Higher lignification in alfalfa may be related to structural characteristics that resulted in alfalfa being less digestible and more abrasive to the digestive tract than native hay. Digestive problems observed however cannot be entirely the result of a high percent of lignin in alfalfa. Feeding trials of mule deer fed browse diets of mounta in mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) containing 22, 26 and 30 percent lignin respectively (Short and Remmenga 1965) did not result in digestive problems. ��-449Chapter 5 Alfalfa and Native Hay Feeding Experiment Introduction During the previously described feeding trials it became clear that deer can experience digestive problems when fed poor quality alfalfa hay. It has been observed that an abrupt change in dietfrom a concentrate to alfalfa hay can cause digestive problems in deer as evidenced by decreased food intake for several days (Chapter 2; Nagy et~. unpublished data). When deer were fed native hay (Chapter 5) they did not experience severe digestive problems. These results suggest that deer may be responding differently to various amounts of alfalfa or native hay in their diets. Investigations to determine what amounts of alfalfa or native hay contained in a deep ration that would result in digestive problems were therefore conducted. Methods and Materials Facil ities Deer were confined in individual pens through the trial. Experimental Animals Eleven adult mule deer (5 castrated males and 6 females) weighing 60-75 kg and judged to be in good health were used. All animals had been raised in captivity and were fed ad libitum a high quality ration including alfalfa hay for 3 months before the experiment. friaLDiets and Feeding Five rations (Table 15) including the norma lly fed deer ration(control) were ground and pelleted. hay. The control ration was concentrate without For the four test rations alfalfa and native hay were each substituted to provide 37 and 75 percent of the diet. Alfalfa hay used was a leafy. third cutting and the native hay was also of good quality. containing mostly tirnothy(~hleun:!. pratense) and sedge(Carex spp.). All five rations con- �-450- tained similar levels of protein (Table 16). Except for lignin content, the diet containing 37 percent alfalfa was similar to that containing 37 percent native hay and the,diet containing 75 percent alfalfa was similar ·to that containing 75 percent native hay (Table 16). Table 15. Compositions of five pelleted and native hay feeding trials. rations used in the alfalfa hay ComEosition (Percent Air-Dry v7eight) Corn Protein SUPP'.!..1 Native Hay Ration Barley Control 60 20 2.0 0 0 N 37 38 12.5 12.5 37 0 N 75 15 5 '5 75 O· A 37 38 12.5 12.5 0 37 A 75 15 0: 5 0 75 oJ Alfalfa 1/ - 32 percent protein supplement. Table 16. Chemical composition native hay feeding trials. of five rations used in the alfalfa hay and Hay �-451- Deer were divided into two groups with six receiving the diet containing alfalfa and five receiving the diet containing native hay. A 3 x 3 Latin Square design was used in the experiment, the-rations being randomized among 3 groups of deer in 3 consecutive 7-day periods (Tables 17 and 18). sequence, the diet was changed after each 7-day period. by each deer was measured daily. In each Food consumption Throughout the experiment water was available ad libitum and intake not measured. Data Analysis Average daily food intake of the last five days of each 7-day feeding period was analyzed for each ration using the procedure outlined by Dixon and Massey (1969:310). Comparison between the hays was made also using Dixon and Massey (1969:175). Results and Discussion None of the deer on either alfalfa or the native hay containing diets showed ~ny symptoms of digestive problems other than minor adjustments to the abrupt changes in diet. Average daily food intake of deer in both the alfalfa and native-hay series showed no significant (P> 0.10) effects due to periods(columns), animals (rows), or to percent of hay in the ration (treatments) (Table 19). However, sample sizes are small, variation among deer is large and treatment effects are confounded with the sequence in which rations were fed. Further, the short feeding period (7 days) may not have allowed sufficient adjustment to the rations. �-452- Table 17. Average daily food intake (grams) of six deer fed alfalfa-hay rations during 7-day periods !/. Rations control (0), A 37 and A 75 contained 0, 37, and 75 percent alfalfa, 'respectively. Deer Number Period I II III o A 37 A 75 5 392 ,1078 a54 6 913 442 1253 Mean 652 760 1053 37 A 75 o 1 1466 260 1078 2 1945 ,'226 1522 Mean 1706 243 1300 A 75 o A 37 3 590 1103 861 10 1102 1028 ,'962 Hean 846 1065 911 A 1/ o (control), overall mean intake = 1006 g. A 37, overall mean intake = 1126 g. A 75, overall mean intake = 714 g. �-453- Table 18. Average daily food intake (grams) of five deer fed native-hay rations during 7-day periods !/. Rations control (0), N 37 and N 75 contained 0, 37 and 75 percent native hay, respectively. Dee r NUillber Period I II III 0 N 37 N 75 972 1851 1948 N 37 N 75 o· 7 298 1182 761 8 ·1931 1526 947 Mean 1114 1354 854 N 75 0 N 37 -- 138 1542 11 4 1450 9 1371 186 1115 Mean 1410 162 1328 -. 1/ -- 0 (control), overall mean intake = 601 g. N 37, overall mean 75> intake 1347 g. overall mean intake 1495 g. , �-454Table 19. Analyses of variance of data from the alfalfa and native-hay feeding trial. Source df Mean Square Alfalfa Hay Rations Total 8 Co1unms (Periods) 2 151361.8 0.44 Rows (animals) 2 51357.4 0.15 Treatments (% Hay) 2 134469.4 0.40 Residual 2 340280.4 Native-Hay Rations Total 8 Colunms (Periods) 2 55598.1 O.lq Rows (animals) 2 321018.11 0.57 Treatments (% Hay) 2. 217153.45 0.38 Resi~ua1 2 566183.4 1/ - F ratios for coluons, rows, and treatments are to be conlpared with F.90 (2,2) = 9.00. Throughout the experiment (Tables 17 and 18) deer consumed more (P 0.10) of the rations containing native hay than of the rations containing alfalfa. This dif- ference in consumption was greater for the rations containing 75 percent hay than for the rations containing 37 percent hay. Greater consumption of native hay may be related to the higher concentrations of lignin in the alfalfa-hay rations(Table Results of this experiment are by no means clearcut. They suggest, however, that deer have difficulty with higher levels of alfalfa hay in the diet even when the hay is of good quality. This does not occur with native hay. Results also suggest that a gradual increase of hay levels is more desirable when feeding deer with diets containing hay than an abrupt change from low to high levels of hay. 16). �-455- Chapter 6 Rate of Food Passage Through the Digestive Tract of Deer and Sheep Introduction Food intake is related to the rate of passage of the ingesta and rate of passage can be expressed by the retention time, the time the ingesta remains in the digestive tract. Rentention time would depend on rate of digestion, more digestible food, e.g., low fiber diet would pass through the tract faster, and on physical form of the diet e.g., a diet which is of small particle size will pass through faster. Rentention time is also characteristic for the particular species of animals. In earlier experiments deer experienced digestive problems on diets containing high proportions of alfalfa hay fiber. We hypothesized that sheep, as the fiber (alfalfa hay) content of the diet increases will eat more, rate of passage through the digestive tract will increase and retention time will decrease. The opposite would be true in case of deer. Methods and Materials Fac ilities Deer and sheep were kept in individual pens describe9 previously (Chapter 1). During the experiment animals were placed in 3 x 4 x 6 foot metabolic cages designed to collect fecal material. Ex.~e!,_imen.!.a 1 An ima1s Six yearling mule deer raised in captivity by their dames and six y .. :d,'llng crossbred sheep were used in the study. Sheep were purchased 6 weeks prior to the beginning of the trial and received the same diet as the deer, ad libitum concentrate and alfalfa hay. �-456- Design Four pe11eted diets were formulated (Table 20) with 0, 15, 35 and 50 percent alfalfa hay mixed in the ration. Table 20. Chemical analysis of four diets fed during rate of passage trials. .. Chemical Analysis Crude Ether Fiber Extract NEF Diet Percent Alfalfaa Protein 1 0 13.8 2.4 18.6 52.9 II 15 13.8 2.3 20.1 51.0 III 35 13.4 2.1 22.8 47.7 IV 50 13.5 2.0 24.9 45.3 a The remalnlng portions of the compounded rations consisted of 40 percent barley, 30 percent cottonseed hulls, 20 percent of 32 percent protein supplement and 10 percent corn. b Nitrogen free extract. b �-457- Animals were placed in the metabolic cages and were allowed to adjust for ten days to cage conditions and to the diet (basically similar to their ad libitum diet) which contained no alfalfa (control). After ten days, when food and water intake appeared stable the animals were given a 0.5 gm portion of food containing 2 to 5 microcuries of chromium - 51 (51 Cr C13). Fecal collection began six hours post-spike and continued at two hour intervals to twenty hours when the interval was changed to four hours. Four hour collections were maintained until 64 hours post-spike. Eight hour collections were made from 64 hours until 96 hours when trials were concluded. Subsequent trials followed this scheme with dietary pro- portions of alfalfa increasing from 0 to 15, 35 and 50 percent alfalfa in the pelleted ration. alfalfa trial. Control diet was fed again after the 50 percent Prior to initiation of each trial, animals were conditioned for ten days to the diet. Food and water were given ad libitum. Urine samples collected from two animals contained no chromium -51. o After collection, fecal samples were placed in a dehydrator (163 F) for 24 to 48 hours then weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram. Samples were homogenized and slurred with 0.5 N HCl for comparison to liquid standards of similar density and configuration and assayed with 5 x 5 inch No. I crystal attached to a single channel analyzor. Duration of counts was such that the standard deviation of the difference between the sample ~nd the background did not exceed 5 percent of the net sample count rate. Net counts per minute were converted to microcuries per gram of dry sample and plotted as a net cumulative excretion curve. The mean retention time was calculated using the 5-95 percent elimination method of Castle (1956) , �Table 21 Daily feed consu~ption, dry matter digestion and ~ean retention fed 0, 15, 35, and 50 percent alfalfa diets. (n=6) DEER Daily Fe~d Consump t.ion (g) Appa ren t Dry I,ratterDigestion }fean Retention Time (hrs) (n=6) D3ily Feed Cor.sumption (g) App ar en t Dry Matter Digestion Hean Retention Time (hrs) (%) time for deer and sheep Trial III 35% Alfalfa ~'lean SE Trial IV 50% Alfalfa }~eon SE 991 2.3 944' 147 1.8 64.,4 1.3 21.3 73 1.3 1.9 1660 66.8 20.6 Trial I 0% Alfalfa SE Mean Trial II 15;~ ~lfa1fa SE Bean 698 121 70.8 0.8 1.3 23.6 ' 933 71. 7 23.5 135 0.9 2.0 67.4 2' ' _ ...• LO 1277 69.3 32.5 1453 72·.0 29.7 84' 1493 68.6 0.8 2.2 . 25.4 135 Trial V 0% Alfalfa }!ean c::'C' w •.•• 672 72 -- -2.1 23.1 SHEEP (%) 114 1.0 2.1 84 1.1 0.7 1413 30.2 83 1.4 I .+:> (J'1 00 I �-459- Derived mean retentin times and food intakes are given in Fig. 21 respectively. 9 and Table Included in these tables are results of a fifth trial during which deer and sheep were fed a diet containing no alfalfa hay. These trials indicated that, increased amounts of hay in the diets did not influence intakes and mean retention times which were characteristic for the two species at the beginning of the trials. Comparing mean retention times to percent alfalfa hay in the diet showed that sheep had a statistically significant (P<O.Ol) decrease in the mean retention time of marked particles with an increase of hay in the diet (Fig. 9). In contrast, deer showed a very slight, however sig- nificant (P<0.05) decline in mean retention times associated with increase of hay in diet. Mean retention times of deer were significantly different from those of sheep for diets with 0 percent(P<O.Ol) and 15 percent (P<0.05)alfalfa, but not for diets with 3 percent (P<0.25) or 50 percent(P<0.05) alfalfa. Sheep exhibited a significant (P<0.05)increase of food intake with increased amounts of hay in the diet. Food retention time in the digestive tract, rate of passage through the digestive tract and food intake are closely related. As the fiber content of ground and pelleted diets increases, retention time of food in the digestive tract of many ruminants may decrease with a corresponding increase in food intake. This means that per unit time there is more food passing through the digestive tract of animals receiving a poor quality diet. For this reason the animal's energy supply is somewhat compensated. this trial with sheep. This is well documented in Deer, however, were unable to increase their food intake on these diets; consequently, as fiber content of the diet went up they must have received less and less energy per unit time. In our previous ex- periments (Chapter 4) it was shown that there are important differences in the rations of rumen, omasal and abomasal size to body size between deer and sheep. It is possible that deer having relatively smaller rumen, omasum and abomasum than sheep are unable to increase rate of passage of certain high fiber foods. �-460- (/, 1- ::J o s: ~ w :::?: I- 39 ?-8 37 36 35 34 33 32 ::31 Z 30 29 I- 28 Z 26 o w I- w 0:: Z c:l: w :::?: 2"1 - 25 24. 23 DE_E_R_ -- _ 22 :~[' 19 18 o 35 15 PERCENT ALFALFA 50 HAY IBOO 1700 1600 - SHEEP 1500 1400 (/I E o 1200 1- 0> 1100- W 1000 <l: I- 900 Z BOO I"" ~ 700 DEER_--- --- __ ------- --- »> C-- 600 500 400 300 200L-------------------~--- o 15 --------------~~--------------~ 35 PERCENT ALFALFA 50 HAY Fig. 9 - Mean retention time and food intake changes of sheep and deer on diets with varying percentages of alfalfa hay_ �-461- Discussion During the previous experiments (Part I) we tried to gain some basic information on the digestive ability of mule deer on different concentrate rations, on different hay rations and we compared certain characteristics of deer with that of sheep and goats. We have shwon that deer rumen microorganisms can digest alfalfa hay and deer can utilize the end products of this fermentation without ill effects. Deer not in starved condition and given good quality (leafy) alfalfa hay may select between the leafy and stemy parts and survive on leafy alfalfa hay since it is digestible and nutritious to other ruminants. An abrupt change to a diet containing high proportion of hay might upset the digestive processes of deer. We have shown, however, that deer are much more susceptible to digestive upsets (often fatal) if the hay is of poor quality than are sheep or goats. Sheep, when increasing amounts of hay are offered in the diet, are able to increase their food intake to compensate for the poorer quality diet. Deer were unable to do so. Differences in the digestive organ sizes between deer, sheep and goats might be the prime reason for this. In the wild, deer feed on alfalfa hay when they come down to haystacks, and in some supplemental feeding programs alfalfa hay is the principle supplement. Sudden change to this type of a high-fiber diet might further excelerate an already deteriorating physiological state. Deer might then develop serious digestive upsets and complications such as impaction of the omasum and/or in;ection of the abomasum, and consequently die. ��-463- PART II PHYSIOLOGY OF DEER STARVATION General Introduction to Part II In the past most attempts to feed starving deer occurred after some deer had begun to die and often were the results of pressures applied by lay groups to save the remaining deer (Severinghaus, 1963; Keiss and Smith) 1966; Giles and McKinney 1968). Generally, such. attempts were hastily conceived and conducted with little regard to how or if supplemental feeds .met qualitative and quantitative nutritional needs of starving deer. In nearly all cases, deer died after days or weeks of continual feeding (Carhart 1943, Doman and Rasmussen, 1944, Hesselton 1964-65). These results have led most observers to conclude that starving deer cannot be fed to prevent or minimize winter losses (Carhart, 1943; Doman and Rasmussen, 1944, Cheatum, 1956, Haynes, 1967, Giles & ~1cKinney, 1968; Kelsey, 1973). In this part of the overall study we made an effort to test various hypotheses regarding the failure of deer to respond to emergency feeding. We tried through controlled experiments to imitate starvation conditions to find out what physiological changes occur in deer during starvation, and we tried to investigate ways to prevent or minimize starvation losses. �-464Chapter 1 Effects of Starvation on Deer Rumen Bacteria Introduction In this series of experiments we investigated the possibility that deer, during prolonged starvation may lose their functional rumen microbial population through various means. Chief among our hypotheses were that: 1) microorganisms may die due to starvation or 2) become inactive and unable to digest food when refed. Methods and Materials Facilities Facilities used during these experiments were described in Part I. Experimental Animals and Design of the Experiments A pilot study was initiated on September 25, 1970, investigating the hypothesis that deer rumen microorganisms die or lose digestive function when deer starve. Five adult mule deer were sacrificed one each after 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of starvation in 1.8 x 6.1 m isolation pens at the Colorado State University Foothills Campus. Counts of viable bacteria and dry matter digestion (DMD) of substrates in vitro by bacteria from rumen fluid of starved deer were compared between the deer sacrificed at ° days starvation and deer sacrificed after 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of starvation. There appeared to be differences of counts of viable bacteria and DMD between starved and non-starved deer in the pilot study. A second trial was begun on September 23, 1971, with larger sample sizes and concurrent investigation of how deer maintain large numbers of viable, functioning �-465rumen bacteria during starvation. It also was desired to measure effect of starvation upon ability by deer to digest various components of feeds. This was accomplished by estimating digestion of cell wall constituents (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) (CWCO) and cell contents (soluble carbohydrates, fats and proteins) (CCO) of substrates by rumen bacteria. Techniques associated with analysis of cell wall constituents are regarded as more accurately representing the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin fractions of feeds than those of the Weende analysis crude fiber fraction. Deer were starved to death in pens with 3 different floor types (Table 22). One non-starved deer was sacrificed at 20 days 'after initiation of starvation of experimental deer, another at 30 days and a third at 40 days. Comparisons of counts of viable bacteria and of related in vitro digestive abilities of rumen fluid from fed and starved deer were used to test the hypothesis that rumen bacteria in starved deer die or lose the ability to digest substrates. Comparing these parameters among groups I, II and III deer (Table 22) provides insight into mechanisms deer might use to preserve viable rumen bacteria during starvation. If group I deer exhibit higher counts of viable bacteria and higher in vitro digestion than deer in groups II and III, reinfection by rumen bacteria from eating infected soil or feces is suggested as a mechanism for preserving viable rumen bacteria during starvation. If these parameters for groups I and II are similar and higher than those for group III deer, eating soil and f~ces might sustain rumen bacteria during starvation. If these parameters for groups I and II are similar and higher than those for group III deer, eating soil and feces might sustain rumen bacteria during starvation by providing a nutrient source. If no discernible differences in bacteria-population parameters exist among groups J, II and III deer, other mechanisms must account for maintenance of high counts of viable, functioning rumen bacteria in starved deer. �-466- Table 22. Starvation regimes, fall 1971 trial. Group n I 4 2-31m x 8m pens, dirt floor Water, soil, feces II 2 2-6.1m x 1.6m pens, concrete floors Water, sterilized soil III 3 3-6.1m x 106m pens, concete floors Water IV1 3 1-40m x 40m pen, dirt floor Water and feed Holding Facil ity lNon-starved, control deer. Potential Sources of Exogenous Bacteria �-467Collection of Rumen Fluid The peritoneal cavity was opened immediately after death of a deer. The rumen was removed and its contents thoroughly mixed. A 300 ml sample of these contents was withdrawn and placed into a pre-warmed thermos. These contents were strained through double-layered cheesecloth and used in culturing and in vitro digestion determinations. recorded. Rumen contents' pH was Volume of the remaining rumen contents was measured. Counts of Viable Bacteria Hungate's (1966:23-29) techniques for culturing rumen bacteria generally were followed. A broad-spectrum-agar medium allowing growth of cellulolytic, proteolytic and amylotic bacteria was used. Nine ml of autoclaved culture medium were anaerobically pipetted into autoclaved 15 x 180 mm glass tubes. These tubes were stoppered and immersed in water at 55 C. Eight successive 1:10 dilutions were made of raw, strained rumen fluid with sterile, isotonic diluting fluid, progressing from pure rumen fluid to 8 1:10 parts rumen fluid:diluting fluid. Three 1 ml aliquots from each dilution were anaerobically inoculated into three of the prepared culture medium tubes. Inoculated tubes were gassed with CO2, stoppered immediately and rolled horizontally under a stream of tap water at approximately 5-10 C until the medium gelled, forming a translucent film of uniform thickness about the inner surface of the tube4 Rolled tubes were incubated in an oven at 38 C for 48 hours, after which visible bacteria colonies embedded in the medium were counted for each tube. Multiplying mean number of bacteria colonies times the dilution factor of that dilution produced an average of 30-300 visible bacteria colonies. This yielded an estimate of number of viable bacteria per ml raw rumen fluid. Multiplying this number by volume of rumen contents gave an estimate of number of viable bacteria in the rumen. �-468- Three control test tubes containing culture medium were treated similarly and incubated to serve as a check against bacterial contamination during culturing. Digestive Ability of Rumen Bacteria Percent DMD was determined using two-stage techniques of Tilley and Terry (1963) as modified by Pearson (1970). Percent DMD was estimated by the equation: - CTR x 100 Percent DMD = DM - DMDR DM DM = Dry Matter DMDR = Dry Matter Digestion Residue CTR = Control Tube Residue Percent CWCD was determined by combining techniques of Van Soest and Wine (1967) with those of Pearson (1970). Three 0.25 g oven-dried samples of each substrate were subjected to Tilley and Terry two-stage digestion. Tubes containing digested substrates were then centrifuged at 50,000 rpm for 10 minutes. Centrifugate from each tube (DMDR) was then subjected to neutral detergent digestion (Van Soest and Wine, 1967). Percent CWCD was estimated by the equation: Percent CWCD = CWC - CWCR - CTR x 100 CWC CWC = Cell Wall Constituents CWCR = Cell Wall Constituents Residue Percent CCD was estimated by combining DMD and CWCD results in the equation: Percent CCD = (OM - CWC) - (DMDR - CWCR) OM - CWC x 100 Pilot Study Counts of Viable Bacteria Counts of viable bacteria per m1 of rumen fluid from starved deer declined 1-2 orders of magnitude from those of the non-starved control �-469Table 23. Diets used in study. Chemical Analysis Crude Protein Fat CWC1 NFE2 Diet I 18.0% 3.7% 26.1% 58.4% Diet II 15.0% 2.0% 42.0% 51.0% Diet III 14.0% 4.0% 23.2% 57.1% Diet IV 3.8% 1.3% 52.0% 39.3% Alfalfa 15.0% 1.7% 33.5% 38.3% lCWC = cell wall contents 2NFE = nitrogen free extract �-470- deer (Table 24). However, starved deer had over one billion viable bacteria (estimated) in their rumens when sacrificed. Digestive Ability of Rumen Bacteria DMD of alfalfa by bacteria in rumen fluid of starved deer did not decline from that of the control deer. DMD of Diet I by bacteria in rumen fluid of starved deer appeared to decline progressively as length of starvation increased (Table 24). Rumen Contents Volume Rumen contents volume of the non-starved deer was 5535 ml, mean volume for starved deer was 2089 ml (Table 24). Fall 1971 Trial Starved deer began to die after 16 days starvation; by 47 days the last deer had died. Counts of Viable Bacteria Counts of viable bacteria per ml rumen fluid from Group I starved deer (allowed to eat soil and feces, presumably infected with rumen bacteria, during starvation) were not significantly different (P > 0.1) from those of non-starved Group IV deer. Total number (estimated) of viable bacteria in rumens of Group I deer was significantly lower (P ~ 0.001) than that of Group IV deer (Table 25). Counts of viable bacteria from rumen fluid of deer in Groups II (allowed to eat autoclaved soil and feces during starvation) and III (starved without any source of solid matter intake) were lower than those of Group I deer (Table 25). Unfortunately, counts of viable bacteria for two of three Group III deer were biased by contamination. Resulting small sample sizes of deer in Group II (2) and Group III (1) prohibited tests of �Tab 1e 24. Deer ru.oen fi u .j parameters. pil ot study 1970. Counts of Viable Bacteria Per ml Tota 1 number rumen fl uid ~er rumen In Vitro Digestion of Dry Matter {~ercentl Alfalfa Diet I Rumen Contents Volume (ml) 1.2xlOll 69 76 5535 65 71 3050 4.1xl05 1.3xl010 1.6xl09 -- -- 3840 1 -- -- 74 63 2210 1 4.9xl05 9.8xl09 66 58 2000 Days Starved Number Deer 01 1 7 1 2.1 xl 07 4.4xl06 14 1 21 28 ~ '-J ..... I lNon-starved control deer �Table 25. Group Number Deer rumen fluid counts of viable bacteria, volume and pH, fall 1971 trial. n - Days Starved Counts of Viable Bacteria Per ml rumen Total number 6 fluid (xl0 ) per rumen (108) Rumen Contents Volume (ml) ~H X SD X SD X SD X SD 4 20,22 22,29 37.4 39.6 534.81 500.9 1605' 430.6 7.' , 0.3 II 2 16,22 2.9 0.9 28.3 21. a 1251 915.0 7.2 0.3 III2 1 3 47 31,37 47 0.9 -- 36.0 1936 1534.7 7.2 O. 1 3 0 34.6 ' IV3 7.4 2066.81 I 404.1 59801 237.3 6." lDifferences between means significantly different (P<0.005). 2Culture counts of two of three deer contaminated, for all deer in this group. 3Non-starved control deer. but rumen volume and pH measurements collected O. 1 +=> .....• N I �-473differences of viable bacteria among Group I, II and III deer. All starved deer died with over one billion (estimated) viable bacteria in their rumens. Digestive Ability of Rumen Bacteria Differences in alfalfa CWCD among Groups I, II and III deer were statistically significant (P ~ 0.1). There were not other statistically significant differences (P > 0.1) in DMD, CCD or CWCD between Group I and IV deer, nor among Group I, II and III deer for any of the three diets (Table 26). Lack of significant differences (P > 0.1) between digestive abilities of rumen bacteria from starved Group I deer and non-starved deer and among groups of starved deer (excepting alfalfa CWCD) prompted examination of the relationship between length of starvation and digestive ability of rumen fluid bacteria (Fig. 10). Regression of DMD, CCD and CWCD of all diets on length of starvation produced slightly negative slopes, but 90 percent confidence intervals of these Slopes included zero (Table 27). Thus, DMD, CCD and CWCD of diets by bacteria in deer rumen fluid did not decline significantly as length of starvation increased. In Vitro Digestion of Different Diets Differences between alfalfa and Diet II DMD, CCD and CWCD were not statistically significant (P > 0.1) whether determined within Groups I, II, III and IV or for all deer. DMD, CCD and CWCD of Diet I were significantly higher (P ~ 0.01) than those of alfalfa and Diet II when determined within deer groups and for all deer. Higher digestion coefficients for Diet I probably reflect its lower concentrations of cell wall constituents (Table 23). �Table 26. ~ vitro digestion of three diets by rumen fluid from Group I-IV deer, fall 1971 trial. �-475- CELL WALL 70 / P / 60 - -- -- 50 40 L'r--= --=--~- m-- __ - !!II- - - -Eli--..g/ G-----<1 20 / ~ ~ <, Die t I Alfalfa -; '(,----- -- --" 5 10 / ~ ~DietII Control / "-,,- <, ---:----.... -IE / <, ''0- 30 / -it----II 20 15 CELL 25 30 C! 45 40 35 CONTENTS 100 -------~. 90 ------- --------81_ - -ir-'tr/rt-~----~----II!-----= -"'- ~ - -- -------~ 80 ------8---0-' \ - z; o 70 f-t >-1 ~ :: J IS-----l'l! Diet O-------('j Alfalfa !::s. Control !'J ...--Li 11 ~ \ // I I:::. Diet IT 5 10 15 20 DRY 25 30 40 35 45 MATTER l ---.--70 60 50 40 8!l-----J! Diet I 0----0 Alfalfa 6---6 Diet ,, -, !::s. , ,, /' '",/ IT L Control 5 _10 15 20 DAYS 25 30 35 40 45 STARVED Fig. 10. Effect of~tarvation on in vitro digestion of three by deer r urn e n fluid. Cont1"ol deer were fed ad Libi tu rn . diets �Table 27. Slopes and associated 90 percent conf1dence intervals for regression of in vitro DMD, CCD and CWCD of three diets on length of starvation. Slope 2 DMD -0.24 Confidence interval +0.32 Alfalfa CWCD _.- DMD Diet I CWCD -0.09 -0.13 -0.14 Diet II DMD CWCD ----0.05 -0.09 +0.38 +0.44 +0.19 +0.24 -- -0.18 CCD --0.32 +0.32 +0.54 CCD -- +0.53 CCD 0.07 +0.26 lDMD = dry matter digestion; CWCD = cell wall constituents digestion; CCD = cell contents digestion. 2Change in percent digestion per day of starvation. ..,. I '-J O'l I �-477- Rumen Contents Volume Mean volume of rumen contents for Group IV deer was significantly higher (P 20.01) than that for Group I deer. This could possibly mean that during starvation deer reduce their water intake. Differences of mean pH among Group I, II and III were not significant (P > 0.1) (Table 4). Chapter 2 Discussion-Effect of Starvation on Rumen Bacteria Counts of Viable Bacteria Deer starved in the pilot study in Chapter I retained fewer (1-2 orders of magnitude) viable bacteria per ml rumen fluid than the non-starved control deer. In the fall 1971 trial there was no significant difference in numbers of viable bacteria per ml rumen fluid between starved and non-starved deer. The 11 starved deer from 1970 and 1971 trials retained .9-37 million viable bacteria per ml rumen fluid at death. These numbers were well within ranges (2 million-23 billion) of number of viable bacteria cultured from rumen fluid of non-starved domestic ruminants (Hungate 1966: 34-35). Volumes of rumen contents for deer starved in the pilot study and fall 1971 trial were reduced from one-half to one-fifth of control deer. Resultant estimate of total number of viable rumen bacteria from starved deer was significantly lower than that for non-starved deer. These results agree with pertinent literature indicating that number of viable bacteria declines during starvation. However, there is no evidence demonstrating total loss of viable rumen bacteria during starvation. Rather, deer in this study retained over one billion viable rumen bacteria during 7-47 days of starvation. �-478Indirect evidence that viable bacteria are not eliminated from rumens of starved deer was provided by results from spring trials during 1971, 1972 and 1973. Of 41 deer starved 10-64 days, 39 were successfully refed, indicating that, at the end of starvation, deer retained numbers of viable bacteria sufficient to provide metabolites, upon refeeding, required for sustenance. Ozoga and Verme (1970) reported successful refeeding of deer starved for six weeks; this success required survival of rumen bacteria during starvation. Unfortunately, culture techniques utilized in this study did not permit specific estimates to be made of numbers of viable proteolytic, amylolytic or cellulolytic bacteria existing in rumens of starved deer. Likewise, species composition of bacteria cultured from deer rumen fluid was not determined. Change in composition of bacterial species .occurring during starvation was likely, since mean pH of rumen fluid from starved deer (7.2) was significantly higher than that from non-starved deer (6.1). Rise in pH reflects a reduction in production of volatile fatty acids, an expected result of starvation. Digestive Ability of Rumen Bacteria DMD, CWCD and CCD of diets by bacteria in rumen fluid from deer starved 16-47 days were not significantly less than those for non-starved deer. These results do not contradict results from starvation of domestic ruminants. Suppression of VFA production cited by Coop (1949) and Quinn (1943) lasted 3-10 days but was associated with voluntary restriction of food intake during the first few days of refeeding. expected to be lower with restricted intake. VFA levels would be Slow fermentation rates occurring upon resumption of feeding cited by Quinn (1951) are not comparable with data from this study, which measured absolute digestion rather than rates of digestion. Meiske et £1. (1950) reported severely restricted �-479- cellulose digestion in vitro associated with starvation but digestion trend lasted for only 24 hours. Additional 24 hours of digestion allowed in this study may have permitted cellulolytic bacteria to undergo logarithmic growth, increasing their numbers sufficiently to permit maximum digestion of cellulose. Above cited ability of deer starved 10-64 days to survive refeeding implies that starved deer maintained sufficient numbers of viable proteolytic, amylolytic and cellulolytic bacteria to provide required metabolites upon resumption of feeding. These results demonstrate: 1) that rumen bacteria retain digestive abilities during starvation of deer; and, 2) that this ability includes digestion of different feed components. This latter statement is important, for it provides evidence that starving deer retain adequate numbers of rumen bacteria capable of digesting major substrate categories (i.e., cell wall constituents and cell contents) and producing quantities of essential metabolites required for sustenance. In this study, reduced number and digestive ability of viable rumen bacteria from starved deer were not significantly lower biologically nor (in the case of digestive ability) statistically than those from non-starved deer. It is doubtful that wild deer experience total starvation (complete abstinence from food) as long as some of the deer in this study. These results suggest that during starvation wild deer retain qualities and quantities of rumen bacteria at refeeding sufficient to provide them with required metabolites to sustain life. Retention of Viable Rumen Bacteria During Starvation It is argued that counts of viable bacteria from Group II and III deer are not biologically different from those of Group I deer, based on �-480- lack of differences (excepting digestion of alfalfa cell wall) among digestive abilities of rumen bacteria from these groups to digest three diets (Table 26). Group III deer were unable to reinfect their rumens with live bacteria and had no access to organic matter other than their hair, sloughed rumen epithelium and soil, apparently retained in the rumen, during starvation. Thus, starving deer may not depend upon reinfection to maintain rumen bacterial populations. It had been assumed that bacteria were removed from rumens of starving deer, with passage of ingested water, to the lower tract. Rumen fluid volume of starved deer was less than half that of non-starved deer, probably reflecting a sharply-reduced water intake during starvation. Since starved deer maintained large numbers of viable rumen bacteria in this trial, it is postulated that most of the ingested water was absorbed through the rumen wall with little passing to the lower tract. Thus, bacteria were not lost from the rumen by passage, suspended in water. Church (1969) cited studies indi.cating that rumen motility decreases in rate and strength in fasted sheep. Perhaps rumen motility in fasted deer ceases entirely, curtailing passage of water from the rumen. Wild ruminants host species of rumen microorganisms similar to those of domestic ruminants (Pearson 1965, 1969, McBee 1969). Of microbial genera found in domestic ruminants, only one, Clostridium, sporulates under adverse conditions such as starvation. Thus, deer may contain only one genus of sporulating bacteria in their rumens. However, rumen bacteria may survive starvation without sporulating. Lamanna and Mallette (1959:617) and Ensign (1970) suggested that microorganisms resistant to starvation should have evolved. Barnes and Burton (1970) demonstrated that counts of viable cecal bacteria from thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Citellus tridecemlineatus) at 6 and 42 �-481days of hibernation were of the same magnitude as those from non-hibernating squirrels, indicating that cecal bacteria are capable of surviving cold and starvation stresses. Ensign (1970) demonstrated 65 percent viability of Arthrobacter cyrstal10poietes, a non-sporulating soil bacteria, at 60 days of starvation. Strange et~. (1961), Dawes and Ribbons (1965) and Sierra and Gibbons (1962) demonstrated that starving bacteria utilized endogenous carbohydrates and proteins. When stored nutrients are depleted, starving bacteria may remain viable by metabolizing products from lysed bacteria (Postgate 1967). Harrison (1960) postulated that this cryptic existence might provide minimal nutritional requirements for starving bacteria in the transition to a stationary, viable state devoid of exogenous nutrients. Finally,. "cells which survive for a sufficient time might be able to adjust to greater resistance through loss of the characters of logarithmic phase cells and acquisition of characteristics of maximum stationary phase cells." (Harrison 1960:427). Ensign (1970) and Burleigh and Davis (1967) demonstrated that bacteria drastically reduce endogenous respiration within 1-2 days of starvation, significantly reducing rate of autodegradation. Possibly, rumen bacteria in starving deer may use all available nutrients in the rumen and then revert to a state of minimal metabolic activity, remaining viable until deer eat again. Digestion of Different Diets by Rumen Bacteria Rumen bacteria from starved deer exhibited significantly higher ~ digestion of Diet I than of any other diets. vitro The greater the digestion of a feed, the greater the amounts of metabolites provided to the host organism. Feeding Diet I to deer starved 10-64 days produced no mortality nor digestive upsets. Diet I is thus a logical candidate for feeding starving wild deer. ��-483- Chapter 3 Physiology of Deer Starvation and Refeeding Starved Deer Introduction In this chapter attempts were made to simulate the physiological changes which take place in deer during starvation. These changes were monitored, and deer at different stages of starvation were refed. Methods and Materials Facil ities Facilities for conducting starvation and refeeding trials, including isolation and multiple-animal pens and apparatuses for weighing deer and collecting rumen and blood samples were described in Part I. Six 8 x 31 m pens and two 31 x 31 m pens, located at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Regional Research Center in Fort Collins, Colorado also housed starved and refed deer used in this study. A laboratory suitably equipped for conducting digestion trials and bacterial culturing was provided by the Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State University. A second laboratory, wherein analysis of blood parameters was performed, was provided by the Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Colorado State University. Design A pilot study, initiated March 26, 1971, investigated the feasibility of starving and refeeding deer. Preliminary information sought was: 1) definition of a point during deer starvation beyond which feeding fails to prevent deat~; 2) ability of deer to regulate intake during refeeding; and 3) survival of starved deer when refed. �-484- Twenty-one adult and yearling deer were transported from the Little Hills Research Station, Colorado Division of Wildlife, located near Meeker, Colorado and placed in two 12.3 x 18.5 m pens at the Colorado Division of Wildlife research facility, Fort Collins, Colorado. These deer were fed Diet I (Table 2) and alfalfa hay ad libitum for 2 weeks while deer acclimated to the pens. Beginning March 26, 1971 these deer were starved. At 10, 15 and 22 days of starvation respectively, three deer, selected randomly, were separated from the herd, placed in 1.8 x 6.1 m isolation pens and refed ad libitum Diet II (Table 23), which was formulated to simulate levels of crude protein, crude fiber, and nitrogen free extract (NFE) expected in native forage. All deer dying during the trial were necropsied. Feed intake of refed deer was recorded for 12-18 days. The pilot study indicated that the starving and refeeding of deer could be studied under penned conditions. Pilot study results indicated that 3 weeks of starvation might approximate a point beyond which feeding might not save starving deer. A second study was initiated in late winter 1972 to test a number of hypotheses. The first (Hl) was that fawns would succumb more quickly than does to starvation and exhibit higher refeeding mortality. comparing This was tested by mortality rates of fawns and does for the two periods. The second (H2) hypothesis was that deer fed before 20 days starvation would exhibit lower refeeding mortality than deer refed after being starved longer than 20 days. Again, comparing mortality rates for the two periods sufficed to test the hypothesis. A third hypothesis (H3), that ammonia and/or urea toxicity results from feeding diets of high protein content, to starved deer, was tested by feeding two diets differing in protein content to starved deer �-485(Diets III and IV: Table 23). Higher refeeding mortality and blood urea nitrogen levels among deer fed Diet III would support the hypothesis. A fourth hypothesis (H4) was that starvation induced liver necrosis or malfunction, resulting in fatal metabolic disruptions. Elevated blood levels of glutamic oxa1acetic transaminase (GOT) and ornithine carbamyl transferase (OCT) provide positive identification of liver necrosis; blood levels of these enzymes were monitored in starved and refed deer to determine whether or not liver malfunctions resulted from refeeding. An additional reason for feeding starving deer two diets was to compare refeeding performance (weight gain, mortality, intake) of starved deer on 2 diets of different qualities. On February 29, 1972 jugular blood samples and body weights were obtained from 13 doe and 13 fawn mule deer. m pen and starved. These deer were then placed in a 31 x 31 Water consumption was ad libitum. According the original sampling design, two does and two fawns were to be refed after la, 17, 24, 31, and 38 days of starvation, assuming that several deer would die before they could be refed. At each refeeding date, one fawn and one die were to be fed Diet III and the remaining doe and fawn were to be fed Diet IV. By the 24th day of starvation, none had died subsequent to refeeding and remaining starving deer appeared strong and in no immediate danger of dying. One of the objectives of the trial was to present deer of nutritional states ranging from good (starved only ten days) to extremely poor (starved almost to death) to refeeding. It was anticipated that under the original design, considering the apparently good condition of remaining starved deer, deer in extremely poor condition might not be produced prior to refeeding. Therefore, after the 24th day of starvation deer were not refed until they had �-486- lost approximately 30 percent of pre-starvation body weight, a figure several investigators stated to be indicative of deer near death (Davenport 1939, Doman and Rasmussen 1944). Results of the 1972 spring trial failed to substantiate hypotheses linking refeeding failure to development of toxicity or liver malfunction subsequent to refeeding. Failure of hypotheses tested in this study to clarify the issue of refeeding starving deer resulted in a final set of hypotheses, tested in winter, 1973. One possibility is that starving wild deer may not have received enough supplemental feed when fed in the wild to alleviate negative energy balance. Accordingly, final hypotheses tested revolved about investigation of deer energy metabolism during starvation and refeeding. The first hypothesis (H5) tested was that nutritional plane of deer prior to starvation influences their ability to survive starvation and to successfully adjust to refeeding. This was tested by comparing mortality during starvation and refeeding between deer fed ad libitum for 6 weeks prior to starvation and deer of severely restricted intake during the same 6 week period. The second hypothesis tested (H6) was that deer dying during 1972 and 1972 spring starvation trials depleted their energy reserves, entered negative energy balance and were unable to maintain homeostasis. This was tested by comparing blood levels of energy-metabolites between deer dying of starvation and deer surviving starvation. Intakes of 13 deer placed in isolation pens and fed Diet III ~ were recorded from January 4, 1973 to January 13, 1973. libitum Five deer were selected as control deer, remaining deer were matched to control deer on the basis of mean feed consumption and body weight. A six week conditioning period was conducted from January 16 to March 1, 1973. Experimental deer �-487- received one-fourth the previous day's ad libitum intake of their matched control deer prior to total starvation. This conditioning period was designed to produce two groups of deer: control, representing deer on a high nutritional plane; and experimental, representing deer in a semi-starved condition. All deer were starved at termination of conditioning until any three deer died, whereupon remaining deer were refed Diet III ad libitum for 10 days. Jugular blood samples and body weights were obtained at initiation of conditioning, at 3 weeks of conditioning, at initation of starvation, at initiation of refeeding and 10 days post refeeding. recorded during refeeding. Daily feed intake was Body weight and a jugular blood sample were taken from dying deer when possible. Sampling Procedures Body weight. Weighing apparatus was described in Part I. Deer were forced through an alleyway into a darkened chute narrowing to two 1.1 x 0.33 x 1.2 m plywood boxes. scale. The first box was mounted directly over a platform Closure of doors on both ends of this box forced deer to stand upon the scale, whereupon their weight was recorded. Blood samples. Deer were forced from the weighing box into the second box fitted for immobilizing the head and neck. Immobilization was accomplished by pinching a deer's neck between two wooden, fur-cushioned clamps after the animal had passed its head through a 20 cm diamater opening. The clamps were attached to the box by hinges, permitting the neck to be stretched sufficiently for easy withdrawal of blood (Fig. 2). Forty ml jugular blood samples were withdrawn with a 50 ml syringe. Approximately 0.05 ml blood was drawn from the syringe tip into a heparinized capillary tube. Remaining blood was placed immediately into a 50 ml centrifuge tube containing sodium-fluorine-heparin. The tube was capped, everted gently several times to mix blood and heparin and kept in an ice bath until taken �-438- to the laboratory. Forty ml blood samples were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3000 rpm and resulting plasma frozen. Capillary tubes containing heparinized blood were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 3000 rpm. Blood Parameters Examined Toxicity indicators. Plasma urea nitrogen levels were determined from blood samples collected during 1972 and 1973 spring trials. Techniques and reagents used are described in Sigma Technical Bulletin No. 535 (Sigma Chemical Co. 1971). Evaluation of plasma ammonia levels was desired as an index of ammonia toxicity. However, variations of time interval between drawing and freezing blood (1-4 hours) among deer resulted in unequally biased blood ammonia levels (Tietz 1970:665), rendering valid comparisons of blood ammonia levels among deer impossible. Liver malfunction. Plasma levels of two liver enzymes (OCT and GOT) were determined from 11 deer in the spring trial of 1972. Deer selected for sampling were two non-starved deer, four starved deer, four refed deer and the one deer dying during refeeding. Techniques followed and reagents used in determining plasma levels of the two enzymes were described in Sigma Technical Bulletin Nos. 108 (OCT) and 55-UV (GOT) (Sigma Chemical Co. 1971-1972). Energy metabolism. Levels of plasma glucose, urea nitrogen and free fatty acids were determined from deer in spring trials, 1972 and 1973. Duplicate plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) levels for each blood sample were determined according to procedures outlined above. Duplicate plasma free fatty acids (FFA) levels for each blood sample were determined according to techniques of Mosinger (1965) and Dole and Meinertz (1960). Duplicate plasma glucose levels for each blood sample were determined using a Beckman glucose autoanalyzer. �-489- Other parameters. Hematocrits of deer from spring trials in 1972 and 1973 were determined by placing centrifuged capillary tubes containing heparinized blood in an International Micro-capillary Reader (International Equipment Co.) and reading hematocrit from a sliding scale. Two drops of plasma from each centrifuged capillary tube were placed onto a Goldbert TIC Refractometer (American Optical Co.) and optical density recorded. Plasma total protein levels were obtained from conversion tables based on optical density. Hematocrit and total protein values were obtained in hopes of making fortuitous comparisons with other blood parameters and with deer performance during starvation and refeeding that might provide further insight into the area of investigation. Parameters from free-ranging deer. As part of the overall Middle Park Deer Study the Colorado Division of Wildlife was collecting data on a number of mule deer physiological characteristics during winter. Heparinized plasma samples were obtained from 12 wild does on winter range in Middle Park, Colorado between March 7 and April 21, 1972. Plasma glucose, FFA and PUN levels of these deer were determined according to procedures outlined above. Results Pilot Study Mortality DUring Starvation, Deer began to die after 6 days of starvation; by 28 days of starvation all deer that had been refed or had died (Table 28). All deer refed after 10 and 15 days of starvation survived refeeding as did two deer starved 22 days. One deer, starved 22 days, died the third day of refeeding. animal was extremely weak when refed. This During refeeding it lay on the ground with head and neck outstretched, arising only to eat. �-490Intake During Refeeding Daily intake during refeeding did not differ significantly (P > 0.1) among deer refed after 10, 15 and 22 days of starvation. Mean daily intake by refed deer began at approximately 525 g, remained at this level for a second day, doubled by the third day and levelled off at about tripled the first day's intake by the seventh day. Spring 1972 Trial Mortality During Starvation Deer began to die after 33 days' starvation; by 64 days all deer had been refed or had died (Table 29). Comparison of Refeeding Performances of Does and Fawns Weight changes during starvation and refeeding. Starved fawns lost weight at approximately double the rate of starved does (Fig. 11); this difference was statistically significant (P ~ 0.01). No significant differences (P > 0.1) existed between rates of weight gain by does and fawns during refeeding. Starvation mortality. Four fawns died during starvation; one before it could be refed (starved 33 days) and three (starved 33, 34, 34 days) within hours of refeeding. The latter three fawns were considered dying when refed, based upon their extremely weakened condition. None was able to walk without falling; all had to be carried to isolation pens for refeeding and struggled only feebly. Mean loss of body weight by these four fawns was 29.8 percent. One doe died after 54 days' starvation, losing 37 percent of its body weight (Table 29). Fawn mortality during starvation (30.8 percent) was significantly (P ~ 0.1) higher than that of does (7.7 percent). Refeeding mortality. refeeding. Of 12 starved and refed does, only one died during This doe had been starved 56 days and lost 31.9 percent of its �-491Table 28. Fate of starved and refed deer, spring 1971 pilot study. Days Starved Deer Final Disposition Adult female 6 Died sixth day of starvation. malnourished Appeared Adult female 10 Died tenth day of starvation. slightly malnourished. Appeared Adult females (3) 10 Refed Diet II. SSR1. Yearling male 11 Died 11th day of starvation. malnourished. Appeared Adult female 12 Died 12th day of starvation. malnourished. Appeared Yearling male 12 Malnourished. Adult females (2) 13 Died 12th day of starvation. Died 13th day of starvation. Malnourished. Year1ing ma 1e 14 Died 14th day of starvation. Malnourished. Adult female 15 Refed Diet II. SSR. Adult males (2) 15 Adult female 16 Refed Diet II. SSR. Died 16th day of starvation. malnourished. Adult females (3) 22 Yearling male 23 Adult f ema1e 27 Died 27th day of starvation. malnourished. Grossly Adult male 28 Died 28th day of starvation. malnourished. Grossly lSSR Survived starvation and refeeding. Grossly Refed Diet II. One died after two days on feed; grossly malnourished. Others SSR, and appeared grossly malnourished. Died 23rd day of starvation. Grossly malnourished. �-492Tab1 e 29. Deer 1 Fate of starved and refed deer, spring Days Starved Diet Refed 1972 trial. Bod1 Weight Changes During During Starvation Refeeding ---3 -19.3 + 3.03 Final o isposition SSR4 MF2 10 III FF5 10 IV - 9.7 + 10.1 SSR 10 III -10.4 + 0.8 SSR IV - 7.4 - 1.4 SSR Doe Doe 10 FF 17 III -19.8 + 11.4 SSR 17 IV -14.6 + 2.6 SSR III - 7.5 + 2.0 SSR 17 IV -24.6 + 17.0 SSR 24 III -24.0 + 4.0 SSR - 5.6 SSR FF Doe Doe MF 17 FF 24 IV -11.9 Doe 24 III - 7.1 0.0 SSR 24 IV -14.9 - 13.6 SSR 33 III -27.4 33 IV -19.8 33 None -29.5 III -15.3 + 2.6 SSR - 1.6 SSR Doe MF FF MF Doe 33 Died 3.5 hours after being refed + 4.1 SSR Died before could be refed Doe 33 IV -16.4 MF 34 IV -33.9 Died within three hours of refeeding III -28.1 Died within five hours of feeding 35 III -30.0 + 7.5 SSR 35 IV -28.6 + 5.3 SSR IV -29.7 + 5.4 SSR FF MF MF Doe 34 36 �-493- Tabl e 29. Continued Bod~ Weight Changes During During Starvation Refeeding Days Starved Diet Refed Doe 54 none -37.0 Doe 55 III -26.0 Doe 56 IV -36.3 Doe 64 IV -24.2 Deerl Died before could be refed + + 2MF = male fawn. 3percent body weight. 4SSR = survived starvation and refeeding. FF = female fawn. 6.0 SSR Died 5th day of refeeding lOne animal per entry. 5 Final Dis~osition 6.0 SSR �-494- 0 f:j. Does •• Does 0 Fawns e Fawns dying t r i aI during dying during trial o f:j. Do e s- . o o Fawns: Y = -0.81X .z , 0.75 f:j. o 35 ~------~------~ -L o 30 10 20 ~ ~ 40 50 60 DAYS STARVED Fig. 11. Loss of pre - starvation bodyweight during 0-64 days starvation, Spring 1972. by doe s and fa wns �-495body weight. Diet IV (high fiber, low protein) was refed. The doe ate 510 9 the first day, 216 9 the second day, 590 9 the third day and 335 9 the fourth day. Her intake did not exhibit the sharp rise exhibited by other refed deer after the second day of refeeding. survived. All nine starved and refed fawns Difference in refeeding mortality rates between does (8.3 percent) and fawns (0.0 percent) was not significant (P > 0.1). Effect of Length of Starvation Upon Refeeding Success Four fawns and four does starved less than 20 days survived refeeding. Of 5 fawns and 8 does starved over 20 days only one (a doe) died during refeeding. Difference of refeeding mortality between deer starved less than, vs greater than, 20 days was not statistically significant (P > 0.1). Of 30 de~r s~arved and refed in the pilot study and in the spring 1971 trial only 2 deer died during refeeding. These results indicate that: 1) refeeding success is unrelated to length of starvation itself; and 2) little mortality occurs due to refeeding. Causes of Refeeding Mortality Tests of hypotheses concerning refeeding mortality were negated by failure to induce significant refeeding mortality. However a brief presentation of pertinent results is merited. Urea toxicity. Mean PUN levels on the tenth day of refeeding for deer refed Diet III (high protein, low fiber) (Y = 17.6 mg percent for does; 13.9 mg percent for fawns) were significantly higher (P< 0.1) than those for deer refed Diet IV (high fiber, low protein) (Y = 10.9 mg percent for does; 13.1 percent for fawns). However, these levels were not significantly different (P ~ 0.1) from those of non-starved deer. PUN for the doe dying on the fifth day of refeeding was 26 mg percent. a value considered not toxic. �-496Mean PUN level on the tenth day of refeeding for does refed Diet III was identical to that for non-starved does. Mean PUN levels on the tenth day of refeeding for does refed Diet IV and for fawns refed both diets were Significantly lower (P ~ 0.1) than those fur non-starved deer. Liver malfunction. Plasma OCT and GOT levels for starved and refed deer were well below levels indicative of liver damage (Table 30). Plasma OCT and GOT levls for the doe dying 4 days after refeeding began were well below levels indicative of liver damage. Effects of Feed Refed Upon Refeeding Performance Weight gain. Percent pre-refeeding weight gain on the tenth day of refeeding was compared between deer refed Diet III and deer refed Diet IV. Separate comparisons of weight gain related to refeeding diet were made for fawns and does to avoid age-class bias. In six of seven such comparisons, deer refed Diet III exhibited non-significantly higher (P > 0.1) percent prerefeeding weight gain than deer refed Diet IV. Intake during feeding. Deer co~sumed a daily average of 134.1 g, or 8.7 percent, less of Diet IV than of Diet III during refeeding. This difference was highly significant (P ~ 0.001). Regardless of diet refed, doe and fawn intakes exhibited large variation. First day intake ranged from 1488 g (doe refed Diet III) to 27 g (doe refed Diet III). For some deer, subsequent intakes never matched that of first day; for others intake during refeeding remained at first day's level. The intake pattern displayed by deer in the pilot study (intake on the first day was duubled by the third day and tripled by the seventh day) was not observed in 1972. Spring 1973 Trial Conditioning Period Experimental deer experiencing negative energy balance during conditioning would mobilize stored fat and muscle protein for conversion in the liver to such primary energy sources as glucose and ketone bodies. This phenomenon �-497- Table 30. Deer plasma enzyme levels. spring 1972 trial. Deer Control 5C3 T5 25.0 5C T T :iC T 1.0 6C4 T 0.5 6C T 12.5 6C T 2.5 Fawn, 17 days T 9.0 Doe. 10 days T Doe. 64 days T 6.5 Fawn, 10 days T T Fawn, 10 days T 15.5 Fawn, 10 days T 18.5 day T 7.5 Doe, 3 days T 1.0 Doe, 4 days6 T 5.0 Doe, 10 days T 7.5 Starved Refed Doe, 10rnithine carbamyl transferase, Sigma unit levels indicative of liver damage ~ 1000 Sigma units/ml. 2Glutamine oxalacetic transaminase, Sigma unit levels indicative of liver damage ~ 28-50 Sigma units/ml. 3 4 , Non-starved control deer sampled throughout trial. 5T = Trace. 6Deer died on fourth day of refeeding. �-498- would be indicated by losses of body weight and increased blood levels of free fatty acids and urea. Weight change. Experimental deer lost an average of 12.0 percent body weight during conditioning, whereas control deer gained an average of 3.7 percent (Table 13). Weight change difference between control and experimental deer was highly significant (P ~ 0.01). Plasma energy-metabolite levels. Mean PUN level for experimental deer at the third week of conditioning was significantly lower (P ~ 0.05) than when conditioning began (Table 31). This was contrary to expectations pre- dicting an increase in PUN level as a reflection of catabolism of muscle protein. At the end of conditioning, mean PUN level for experimental deer had risen significantly (P ~ 0.1) above third week level but remained significantly (P ~ 0.05) below pre-conditioning levels. PUN level for control deer declined throughout conditioning; values at the end of conditioning were significantly (P ~ 0.05) lower than at pre-conditioning and at the third week of conditioning. Inexplicably, mean PUN levels prior to conditioning were significantly different (P ~ 0.05) between control and experimental deer. By the end of conditioning, mean PUN level for experimental deer was significantly higher (P :5_0.05) than that for control deer. During conditioning mean level of plasma FFA for experimental deer increased steadily and significantly (P ~ 0.05), whereas that for control deer did not change (Table 32). At the end of conditioning, mean level of plasma FFA for experimental deer was significantly higher (P ~ 0.1) than that for control deer. Mean level of plasma glucose for control and experimental deer exhibited large, non-significant (P > 0.1) variations during conditioning (Table 33). The significant (P < 0.1) difference between control and experimental deer �-499Table 31. Means and standard deviations of plasma urea nitrogen concentrationsa, spring 1973 trial. Control Deer SD n - X Ex~erimental Deer n SD Trial Phase X Begin b Cond ition ing 21.4h,i ,3.6 4 25.1h,i,k 3.6 8 3d Week of c Conditioning 20.4k 3.7 5 18.4i,j 1.6 8 Begin d Starvation 16.4h,i,k 3.0 5 20.5h,k,j 4.3 7 Begin Refeeding e 16.7 8.3 5 22.6 10.9 6 Ten Days Post-feeding f 17.1 9.9 4 17.2 5.9 5 aMg urea nitrogen per 100ml plasma. bBeginning of conditioning period, control deer fed ad libitum, experimental deer' fed one-quarter of control deer intake. cTwenty-third day of conditioning. dForty-fourth day of conditioning, beginning of food deprivation, all deer. eTwenty-third day of food deprivation, beginning of refeeding, all deer. fTenth day of refeeding. hDifferences between means in rows significant at P ~ 0.05. i,kOifferences between means in columns significant at P < 0.05. jOifferer,ces between means in columns significant at P < 0.1. �-500Table 32. MeaRs and standard deviations of plasma free fatty acid concentrations, spring 1973 trial. Control Deer Trial Phase Begin b Conditioning 3d Week of c Conditioning Begin Starvationd Begin e Refeeding Ten Days Post-feeding f X SD 0.29i Experimental Deer - n X SD n - 0.08 4 0.25i,j,k 0.03 8 0.26k 0.05 5 0.33i,n 0.10 8 0.30h,j 0.13 5 0.43h,j,n,1 0.20 7 0.7oiij,k 0.28 5 0.73k,1,m 0.20 6 0.271 4 0.20m 0.06 5 0.15 aMicro-equiva1ents of free fatty acids per m1 plasma. b-fSee Table 8. hDifferences between means in rows significant at P ~ 0.1 i-mDifferences between means in columns significant at P ~ 0.05. nDifferences between means in columns significant at P < 0.1. �-501- TABLE 33. Neans and standard deviations of plasma glucose concentrationsa, spring 1973 trial. Control Trial Phase Deer X Experimental Deer SD n X SD n 28.4 5 131. sj 20.0 8· Begin b Cond it ion irig 114. 3 d 3 Week of c Conditioning 129.1 17.5 5 112. 8 19.9 .8 Begin d Starvation 101. S 38.9 5 119.3 54.9 8 Begin 'e Refeeding 132.8 46.2 5 108.9 26.4 6 Ten Days f P'os t fe e dtng 138.5 40.9 4 113.4 33.9 5 significant g g j e a Mg glucose b-f per lOOml plasma. . See Table 8. gDifferences between means in rows jDifferences between means in columns at P:::. O. 1. significant at P~O. 05. �-502- Table trial. 34. Hematocrit means and standard deviations, Control Deer Trial Phase spring Experimental X SD n X 52.6 2.9 5 54.6 Begin d Starvation 51. 0 3.7 5 52.3 i Begin e Refeeding 50.2 3.0 5 50.8 0.7 2 43.8 1973 Deer SD n 2.5 7 2.5 7 5. 1 6 4.9 5 Begin b Conditioning d 3 Wee'k of c Conditioning Ten Days Post-feeding s-r i f i 45.5 i i j j See Table 8. Differences jDifferences ' between means in columns significant at P.sO. 1. between means in columns significant 'at P=:;.O. 05. �-503mean level of plasma glucose at the third week of conditioning was judged not biologically significant. Mean hematocrit did not differ significantly (P ~ 0.1) between control and experimental deer during conditioning (Table 34). Decl"ine in experimental deer hematocrit from the third to the sixth week of conditioning was significant (P < 0.1). Mean level of plasma total protein did not differ significantly (P > 0.1) between control and experimental deer at the end of conditioning (Table 35). The significant difference (P < 0.1) between control and experimental deer mean level of plasma total protein at the third week of conditioning is inexplicable and judged not biologically significant. Pre-starvation Nutritional Plane and Starvation Performance Mortality. Of eight experimental deer starved, three died; one at 11, one at 12, and one at 23 days of starvation. Difference between mortality of experimental deer (37.8 percent) and control deer (none) was significant (P 2 0.1). Weight loss. Percent weight loss during starvation for control deer was not significantly different (P > '0.1) from that for experimental deer (Table 3~. Percent weight loss during entire trial for experimental deer was significantly higher (P < 0.01) than that for control deer (Table 36). Percent weight losses exhibited during conditioning and starvation between experimental deer surviving and experimental deer succumbing to starvation were not significantly different (P > 0.1) (Table 36). Experimental deer lost weight at a significantly higher rate (P 20.01) during starvation than during conditioning (Table 36). Levels of plasma energy metabolites. A blood sample was collected, immediately prior to death, from the experimental deer dying on the 12th day of starvation. Similar blood samples were not obtained from the other two experimental deer dying during starvation. �-504- Ta.ble 35. Means and standard deviations of total protein concentrationa, spring 1973 trial. Control Deer Experimenta 1 Deer Trial Phase X SO n X SO n Begin Conditioningb 7.6 0.5 4 8.01 0.5 3d Week of ConditioningC 8 7.6g 0.4 5 8.0g,k 0.5 7 Begin d Starvation 7.6 0.6 5 7.7j 0.6 7 7.5 0.5 5 7.3j,k.l 0.4 6 8.0h 0.4 2 7.0h 0.4 5 Begin Refeedinge Ten Oaysf Post-feeding aG total protein per 100ml whole blood. b-fSee Table 8. gOifferences between means in rows significant at P ~ 0.1. hOiffercnces between means in rows significant at P ~ 0.05. jOifferences between means in columns significant at P ~ 0.01. k,lOifferences between means in columns significant at P < 0.05. �Table 36. Body weight changes, spring 1973 trial. Percent Weight Loss During Starvation SO X Percent Weight Loss, Entire Trial SO X Percent Wei ght Gain During Refeeding SO X -14.Sh 5.6 -13.4j 7.5 +5.8 6.5 5..2 +6.7 3.7 Deer n . Control 5 Percent Weight Loss During Conditioning SO X +3.7h,j 3.0 Experimental deer surviving starvation 5 -11.99,j 5.1 -16.49 3.3 -25.9j . Experimenta 1 dying durin9 starvation 3 -12.29,j 1.4 -15.8g 2.7 -26.7 90ifferences between means in rows significant (P ~ 0.1). hOifferences between means in columns significant (P ~ 0.05). jDifferences (P ~ 0.01). between means in columns significant j 2.5 0, 0 U1 I �-506Mean PUN level for experimental deer surviving starvation was not significantly different (P > 0.1) from that for control deer. PUN level for the experimental deer dying during starvation (40.0 mg percent) was outside the 95 percent confidence intervals of mean PUN levels for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation and judged significantly different (P-< 0.05) from both. Mean levels of plasma FFA for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation were not significantly different (P > 0.1) Plasma FFA level of the experimental deer dying during starvation (0.22 micro-equivalents/ml) was outside 95 percent confidence intervals of mean levels of plasma FFA for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation and judged significantly different (P < 0.05) from both. Mean levels of plasma glucose for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation were not significantly different (P > 0.1) Plasma glucose level for the experimental deer dying during starvation (24 mg percent) was outside 95 percent confidence intervals of mean levels of plasma glucose for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation and judged significantly different (~20.05) from both. Mean glucose level for experimental deer surviving starvation was significantly lower (P 2 0.05) than at beginning of conditioning. Mean hematocrit for control deer was not significantly different (P > 0.1) from that for experimental deer surviving starvation. Hematocrit for the deer dying during starvation (48) was within 90 percent confidence intervals of means for other deer and judged not significantly different (P > 0.1) from them. Mean levels of plasma total protein for control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation were not significantly different (P > 0.1). Leve1 �-507of plasma total protein for the experimental deer dying during starvation (6.1 g percent) was outside 95 percent confidence intervals of mean levels of plasma total protein for other deer and judged significantly different (P 2 0.05) from them. Pre-starvation Nutritional Plane and Refeeding Performance Mortality. Neither control or experimental deer experienced refeeding mortality. Weight gain. Percent weight gain during refeeding for control deer was not significantly different (P > 0.1) from that for experimental deer (Table 36). Levels of plasma energy-metalolites. Mean PUN levels on the tenth day of refeeding for experimental deer and control deer were not significantly different (P > 0.1) from respective levels at beginning of refeeding. Mean levels of plasma FFA on the tenth day of refeeding for experimental deer and control deer were not significantly different (P > 0.1). These levels were significantly lower (P 2 0.05) than respective levels at beginning of refeeding. Mean levels of plasma glucose for control deer and experimental deer were not significantly different (P > 0.1) from each other on the tenth day of refeeding nor from respective values at beginning of refeeding. Mean hematocrits on the tenth day of refeeding for control deer and experimental deer were not significantly different (P > 0.1). these values were significantly lower (P 20.1 However, within control deer; P 20.05 within experimental deer) than respective values at beginning of refeeding. Mean level of plasma total protein on the tenth day of refeeding for control deer was significantly higher (P 2 0.05) than that for experimental deer. These values were not significantly different (P > 0.1) from respective values at beginning of refeeding. �-508Intake During Refeeding Experimental deer ate significantly more (P < 0.005) during refeeding than controls. Intakes of experimental and control deer approximately doubled by the third day of refeeding. Experimental deer tripled initial intake during 6-8 days of refeeding; control deer intake appeared to increase at a slower rate and never tripled that of the first day. Blood Energy-Metabolites From Free-Ranging Deer Levels of blood energy metabolites for free-ranging deer are presented in Table 37 and discussed in relation to levels for penned deer in 1972 and 1973 spring trials under appropriate discussion sections. Blood Energy-Metabolites From Spring 1972 Trial Deer Starvation PUN. Mean PUN levels for does and fawns differed significantly (P < 0.025) only at 33-36 days of starvation (Table 38). Three of six fawns starved 33-36 days died; mean PUN for these deer (42.3 mg percent) was significantly higher (P ~ 0.05) than that for surviving fawns (26.5 mg percent). Mean PUN level for fawns starved 33-36 days was significantly higher (P < 0.001) than that for non-starved fawns. PUN level for the doe dying during refeeding was within the 90 percent confidence interval of mean PUN level for two does starved 55-64 days and judged not significantly different (P > 0.1) from them. FFA. Mean levels of plasma FFA for non-starved does and fawns were not significantly different (P > 0.1). During starvation, mean levels of plasma FFA for does were significantly higher (P ~ 0.05) than those for fawns (Table 39). Mean levels of plasma FFA for fawns starved 33-36 days was significantly higher (P ~_0.1) than that for non-starved fawns. Mean FFA levels for remaining does and fawns starved 10-64 days were significantly higher (P ~ 0.05) than those for non-starved deer of respective age classes. �Table 37. Comparisons of mean values of physiological parameters among adult does during winterearly spring. Michigan W_T1 Does 19682 19723 New York4 W-T Doe 1972 1973 Free Rangi ng Does 126.5 125.8 106.8 97-123 100-168 72-111 17.7 23.9 8.2 25.6 11-22 15.7 -28.4 Plasma FFA7 0.24 0.27 0.28 Hematocrit 52.1 -- -- 51-54 58.7 50-51.5 -- Spri_ni)Trial Does - Plasma 5 Glucose Blood6 Urea Nitrogen Tota ,8 Protein -- 7.6 -- 6.7-7.3 5.7-5.9 Body weight (kg) 63.9 59.4 61. 2 50.6-56.3 55.0 lW_T = white-tailed deer. 7Micro-equ ival ents/ml . 2Data from Ullrey et al. 1968. 8G percent. 30ata from Seal et al. 1972. 40ata from Maynard et al. 1935. 5 Mg percent. 6Mg percent. I <..T1 0 \0 I �-510- Table 38. Means and standard deviations of plasma urea nitrogen concentrationsa from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. Days Starved Does X SD 17 .7 . Fawns X SD n 3.0 n 13 17 .2 3.0 13 22.3 6.7 2 17 .0 0.0 2 15.0 1.4 "2 20.5 4.9 2 24 17.5 1.4 2 20.5 0.7 2 33-36 18.0b 5.2 3 34.4b 11.0 6 20.5 2.8 3 0 10 17 55-64 aMg urea nitrogen per 100ml plasma. bDifferences between means significant at P ~ 0.025. �-511- Table 39 .. Means and" standard deviationsbof plasma free fatty acid concentrat tons'' from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. Fawns Does Days Starved X SO n X SD n 0.24c 0.04 13 0.26c,d 0.04 13 0.24 2 2 0.54 " 2 0.34c 0.39c 0.08 17 0.53c 1.32c 0.01 2 24 0.65c 0.16 2 0.37c 0.16 2 0.6lc c 0.69 0.42 3 0.29d 0.06 6 0.61 3 0 10 33-36 55-64 aMicro-equivalents of free fatty acids per m1 plasma. bAccumu1ated comparisons of doe and fawn mean values during starvation significant at P 2 0.05. cMeans of non-starved deer significantly lower (P < 0.025) than those of all starved deer. dDifferences between means significant at P < 0.1. �-512Plasma FFA level for the doe dying during refeeding was outside the 95 percent confidence interval of mean plasma FFA for two does at 55-64 days of starvation and judged significantly different (p < 0.05) from them. Glucose. Mean level of plasma glucose for does starved 55-64 days was significantly lower (P ~ 0.05) than that for non-starved does. Mean levels of plasma glucose for starved fawns and other starved does were not significantly different (P > 0.1) from each other nor from those of respective age-class non-starved deer (Table 40). Mean levels of plasma glucose for three fawns starved 33-36 days and dying (32.7 mg percent) was significantly lower (P ~ 0.025) than that for fawns surviving 33-36 days of starvation (113.8 mg percent). Plasma glucose level for the doe dying during refeeding was outside the 95 percent confidence interval of mean level of plasma glucose for two does starved 55-64 days and judged significantly different (P < 0.05) from them. Hematocrit. Mean hematocrits for fawns and does were not signifi- cantly different (P > 0.1) (Table 41). Mean hematocrits for does and fawns starved ten days were significantly higher (P ~ 0.1) than those for respective age-class non starved deer. Mean hematocrit for does starved 55-64 days was significantly lower (P ~. 0.01) than that for non-starved does. Hematocrit for the doe dying during refeeding was within the 90 percent confidence interval of mean hematocrit for two does at 55-64 days of starvation and judged not significantly different (P > 0.1) from them. �-513- Table 40. Means and standard deviations of plasma glucose concentrationsa from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. Fawns SO n 145.1 35.5 13 2 183.3 22.9 2 . 30.1 2 106.0 22.9 2 118.8 36A 2 145.5 2.8 2 33-36 101.5 28.2 3 73.3 49.9 6 55-64 89.7b 41.9 3 v Does SO n X 0 126.5b 28.9 13 10 162.5 48.8 17 97.8 24 Deer Starved 1\ a Mg glucose per 100 ml plasma. bOifferences between means significant at P .:.0.01. �-514- Table 41. Hematocrit means and standard deviations from deer starved 0-64 days, spring 1972 trial. 0 52.1a,b,c Does SO 2.8 n 13 10 56.5a 0.7 17 55.0 24 33-36 54.0 53.5b 55-64 46.3c Days Starved a,bOifferences X 50.3a Fawns SO 4.2 13 2 56.0a 1.4 2 1.4 2 53.5 5.0 2 4.2 2 53.5 3.5 2 0.7 2 50.3 6.1 6 3.1 3 X between means significant at P ~ 0.1. CDifferences between means signifi~ant at P < 0.01. n �-515Refeeding Effect of diet refed on level of blood energy-metabo"'ites. Levels of blood energy-metabolites on the tenth day of refeeding were compared respectively between: 1) fawns; and 2) does refed Diet III and Diet IV for each starvation period. There were no significant differences (P > 0.1) in levels of blood energy-metabolites between deer refed Diet III and deer refed Diet IV. Effect of length of starvation on level of blood energy-metabolites for refed deer. Assuming levels of blood energy-metabo1ies were not affected by diet refed, values of each blood parameter on the tenth day of refeeding were regressed on length of starvation prior to refeeding. This was done to determine whether or not length of starvation prior to refeeding affected levels of blood energy-metabolites on the tenth day of refeeding. Hematocrit of does on the tenth day of refeeding declined significantly (P ~ 0.05) as length of starvation prior to refeeding increased (Table 42). Ninety percent confidence intervals of slopes of other blood parameters from fawns and does included zero, indicating that length of starvation prior to refeeding had no influence on levels of blood parameters on the tenth day of refeeding (excepting doe hematocrit). Comparison of levels of blood energy-metabolites between the tenth day of refeeding and at beginning of starvation. Fawn mean PUN level on the tenth day of refeeding was not significantly different (P > 0.1) from prestarvation level. All levels of blood energy-metabolites on the tenth day of refeeding for does were significantly lower than pre-starvation levels (P < 0.1 PUN; P < 0.01 plasma glucose; P ~ 0.05, plasma FFA). �Table 42. Slopes and associated 90 percent confidence intervals for regression of mean level of blood parameters (at the tenth day of refeeding) on length of starvation prior to refeeding. Slopec Confidence 1evel PUNa FFAb Does Glucose 0.05 0.00 -0.12 Ht!matocrit PUNa -0.19d 0.00 FFAb Fawns Glucose Hematocrit 0.00 0.61 -0.24 I 01 --' + 0.21 +0.00 +0.75 +0.15 apUN = plasma urea nitrogen. bFFA = free fatty acid. CChange in mean blood parameter value per day of starvation. dSlopesignificantly different from zero (P ~ 0.05). +0.42 +0.01 0'1 I +2.51 +0.32 �-517Levels of plasma energy-metabolites for the doe dying during refeeding. A blood sample was obtained from this doe immediately prior to death, on the fourth day of refeeding. was 0.2 micro-equivalentsjml; hematocrit was 43. PUN was 26 mg percent; plasma FFA plasma glucose was 36 mg percent and ��-519Chapter 4 Discussion - Deer Nutritional Physiology Metabolic Disfunction Toxicity Occurring During Refeeding Urea toxicity. None of the diets for the two starving deer in this study resulted in observable urea toxicity. PUN for the 1972 trial doe dying during refeeding (26 mg percent) was only slightly higher than before it was refed (23.5 mg percent). Neither this deer nor the doe dying during refeeding in the pilot study exhibited typical urea-ammonia toxicity symptoms (dyspnea, incoordination, tetany and tetanic spasms, slobbering and severe muscular twitches) (Church 1969:298). Acute indigestion. Dahlberg and Guettinger (1956) speculated that starving deer may have died after refeeding as a result of overeating. Overeating toxicity is caused, primarily, by ingesting "... normal amounts of readily fermentable carbohydrates.. larger than resulting in abnormal and toxic fermentation products ... " (Church 1969:293). Clinical symptoms include loss of appetite, dehydration (evidenced by increased hematocrit), high blood glucose, diarrhea and ataxia (motor incoordination) (Church 1969:294). None of the diets fed to starving deer in this study resulted in acute indigestion. During spring 1971 and 1973 trials, deer voluntarily restricted food intake the first 2 days of refeeding following starvation. The one doe dying during refeeding in the 1971 spring pilot study similarly restricted its intake the first two days of refeeding. This deer did not exhibit ataxia, diarrhea, loss of appetite, high blood glucose or dehydration (based on hematocrit, which declined rather than increased) and was judged not to have died from acute indigestion. �-520Mortality. Of 4 starved deer refed, only 2 died during refeeding. Other starving deer presumably were in condition comparable to that of the deer dying during refeeding. Development of toxicity upon refeeding of 40 deer should have included more than two deer if it were a genera11yoccurring phenomenon. Refeeding starved deer Diets II, III and IV did not result in observable toxicity nor in mortality attributable to toxicity nor in appreciable mortality. Liver Malfunction Blood levels of OCT and GOT were well below those considered indicative of liver damage/malfunction. These results, coupled with low refeeding mortality, suggest that liver malfunction, occurring during refeeding, is an important mortality agent of starved and refed deer. Nutrition Qualitative Aspect - Feeds Fed to Starving Deer Starving deer refed Diet IV exhibited blood parameter values similar to those of starved deer refed Diet III, indicating that deer were able to produce metabolites required for sustenance from both diets. The non- significantly higher weight gain exhibited by deer refed Diet III is probably a reflection of the significantly higher consumption of Diet III during refeeding. However, deer refed Diets II and IV exhibited 10.5 percent refeeding mortality (2 deer died of 19 refed), whereas deer refed Diet III exhibited no mortality. This difference was significant (P ~ 0.1). of death in these two deer is not understood. Cause Blood samples were collected from the deer dying during the 1972 spring trial but not from the deer dying during the 1971 spring trial. Of all comparisons of blood parameters between this deer dying during refeeding and deer surviving refeeding, only �-521- plasma glucose levels were different. Plasma glucose for the-deer dying during refeeding (36 mg percent) was less than half that for deer surviving refeeding but similar to that for deer (fawns and dow) dying during starvation. Apparently, gluconeogenesis was impaired in the deer dying during refeeding and may have been the cause of death. However, blood levels of liver enzymes from this deer were not indicative of liver malfunction. Quantitative Aspect - Energy Intake of Starving and Refed Deer Spring 1973 trial. Deer of the two starving nutritional strata were produced during conditioning. Control deer lost no weight and exhibited no elevations of PUN or plasma FFA. Experimental deer exhibited significant weight losses and plasma FFA-elevations during conditioning, indicating that fat stores were mobilized to offset inadequate exogenous energy intake. deer PUN did not increase during conditioning. Experimental This result may be inter- preted as indicating that catabolism of muscle protein was not occurring in experimental deer during conditioning. However, Young and Scrimshaw (1971) stated that catabolism of muscle protein occurs throughout periods of reduced food intake. It is more likely that catabolism of muscle protein was occurring duri~g conditioning and that the kidneys were clearing urea from the blood at a rate sufficient to prevent blood urea level from rising. As expected, the first three deer to die during starvation were experimental deer. Weight losses and levels of blood energy-metabolites for these deer were not significantly different from those for other ~xperimental deer at beginning of starvation. Weight losses of these deer during starvation were similar to those of experimental deer surviving starvation. However, levels of blood energy-metabolites obtained from one deer dying during starvation strongly suggest that it succumbed to inadequate �-522energy metabolism. PUN level was significantly higher and plasma FFA, glucose and total protein levels were significantly lower, than those for surviving experimental deer and control deer. Apparently this deer depleted its fat reserves (indicated by high PUN) to provide an endogenous supply of energy metabolites. Catabolism of this muscle protein did not provide the degree of gluconeogenesis required to maintain energy balance (indicated by low levels of plasma glucose and plasma total protein) and the deer died. Extremely low plasma glucose level (24 mg percent) of the deer dying during starvation suggests that hypoglycemia was the primary mortality agent. Surviving starved deer had levels of plasma glucose greater than 73 mg percent. Experimental deer lost weight at a significantly higher rate during starvation than during conditioning. This was expected, for deer were obtaining part of their energy from feed during conditioning and catabolizing fat at a slower rate (mean plasma FFA level of experimental deer during starvation was significantly higher than during conditioning than during starvation. Mean weight loss of deer dying during starvation (27 percent) was similar to the 30 percent figure considered fatal (Davenport 1939, Doman and Rasmussen 1944). Control deer and experimental deer surviving starvation exhibited similar levels of blood parameters (excepting total plasma protein which is inexplicable), weight changes and lack of mortality at 24 days of starvation and at 10 days of refeeding. Mean levels of plasma glucose, FFA, PUN and total proteins on the tenth day of refeeding for both groups of deer were similar to those at beginning of conditioning. Mean hemat- ocrits, however, were significantly lower than during conditioning, starvation and those of non-starved deer in the spring 1972 trial, indicating that an inexplicable hyper-hydration occurred in spring 1973 trial deer. �-523These results indicate that: 1) deer starved to the point of death can be refed successfully (assuming experimental deer surviving starvation were physiologically equivalent to experimental deer dying during starvation); 2) experimental deer surviving starvation were catabolizing stored fat during starvation and metabolically equivalent to control deer during starvation and refeeding; and 3) deer dying during starvation failed to maintain levels of blood energy-metabolites required for sustenance. Spring 1972 trial. As in the 1973 trial, starving does lost weight and exhibited increasing plasma FFA levels and constant PUN levels. Plasma glucose levels remained constant until 55-64 days of starvation when they declined to values significantly lower than before starvation. Weight loss was linearly related to length of starvation, whereas plasma FFA levels appeared to increase rapidly, peak at 17 days of starvation and drop to a constant level as length of starvation increased. Fawns also lost weight linearly but at a significantly higher rate than does. Fawn plasma FFA levels were significantly lower than those of does during starvation. PUN levels for starved fawns remained at pre-starvation level until 33-36 days of starvation whereupon they increased sharply and were significantly higher than those for does starved the same length of time. Plasma glucose levels of starved fawns likewise remained at pre-starvation levels until 33-36 days of starvation whereupon they dropped significantly. Differences in levels of blood energy-metabolites between fawns dying and fawns surviving 33-36 days of starvation were of particular interest. Dying fawns exhibited significantly higher PUN, lower plasma glucose and non-significantly lower FFA and higher weight loss than surviving fawsn. Mean weight loss of fawns dying during starvation was 30 percent, identical to that considered fatal to deer in winter (Davenport 1939, Doman and Rasmussen 1944). Mean level of plasma glucose for starved fawns dying (32.6 mg percent) was similar to those for the doe dying of starvation �-524during the spring 1973 trial (24 mg percent) and the doe dying during refeeding in the spring 1972 trial (36 mg percent). These results suggest that fawns and does catabolized stored fat during starvation (indicated by weight losses and increased plasma FFA). Fawns increased the rate of catabolism of muscle protein when plasma FFA levels dropped, indicating that stored fat reserves were depleted. Does and fawns surviving starvation maintained plasma glucose at or above levels required to sustain life. Dying fawns apparently exhausted fat reserves (indicated by low plasma FFA) and subsequent increased protein catabolism (indicated by high PUN levels) was not sufficient to maintain plasma glucose at levels required to sustain life. Higher rate of weight loss during starvation for fawns suggests that they catabolized stored fat and muscle protein at higher rates than does. Lower mean level of plasma FFA for fawns during starvation indicates that they extracted FFA from blood at a higher rate or mobilized FFA at a slower rate than does. Given the more rapid depletion of fat stores by fawns, it is reasonable to expect that fawns would succumb to starvation before does, as they did. Levels of blood energy-metabolites for fawns on the tenth day of refeeding were similar to non-starved levels, indicating that fawns, as did does in the 1973 spring trial, normalized their metabolism by the tenth day of refeeding. Mean levels of PUN, plasma glucose and hematocrit for does on the tenth day of refeeding were significantly lower that prestarvation levels. Depressed doe mean hematocrit (48.1) was not as low as that of spring 1973 trial does at 10 days of refeeding (44.5), indicating a lessened degree of hydration. Lower mean levels of PUN and plasma glucose for does are inexplicable and may not be biologically significant as no refeeding mortality occurred (excepting the doe, discussed above, dying during refeeding with high PUN, low plasma FFA and extremely low �-525(36 mg percent) plasma glucose. These results indicate that: 1) starving deer can be refed successfully; 2) does and fawns are not metabolically equivalent during starvation and refeeding and 3) deer dying during starvation succumbed to hypoglycemia. Non-starved deer. Levels of blood energy-metabolites and body weights for does from spring 1972 and 1973 trials were similar between years, to those for does in other winter-early spring studies and to those for free-ranging wild does sampled in spring 1972 (Table 37). The only apparent disagreement among these values is the lower PUN exhibited by free-ranging does. As a result of this general agreement, physiological parameters for does during spring 1972 and 1973 trials were regarded as being representative of does in good nutritional condition in winter-early spring. No such comparisons could be made for fawns; values of 1972 spring trial fawns were assumed to be representative of fawns in good nutritional condition in winter. Starved/malnourished deer. Levels of blood energy-metabolites and body weight losses for does from spring 1972 and 1973 trials were similar between years and to those of does in other winter-early spring studies (Table 43). Data of Teeri et al. (1958), indicating that fawns malnourished 2-3 months during winter and losing 19-23 percent body weight were hypoglycemic (43-60 mg percent blood glucose) within 2 days of death agree with findings in this study. Three of four mule deer fawns subjected to a "poor-quality" diet for 2 weeks during winter exhibited weight loss and elevated mean PUN (from 21.6 mg percent pre-trial to 42.5 mg percent post-trial) (Schoonveld 1971). These data indicate that weight losses and levels of blood energy metabolites for deer from spring 1972 and 1973 trials were valid and representative of starving and malnourished deer. �-526- Table 43. Comparison of mean values of physiological parameters among adult does during winter-early spring. Glucose 118.8 Sl2ring Trial Does 1973 Michigan W-T4 Does Contro 1<Exl2erimenta13 19689 197210 132.8 112.8-119.3 34-102 100-140 Blood urea5 nitrogen 17 .5 16.6 FFA 0.65 0.70 Hematocrit 54.0 19721 ') 18.4-20.5 6.1-16.2 50.2 50.8-52.3 55.0-57.0 43.5-51.0 7.5 7.7-8.0 7.0-7.6 5.3-5.4 14.8 11.9-16.4 8.6-20.6 24.0 16.0 Pla~ma Tota 1 7 Plasma protein Weig§t Loss 11.0 lDeer starved 24 days. 2Deer starved 23 days. 3Deer malnourished (intake restricted to 1/4 normal); first number = deer malnourished 3 weeks, second number = deer malnourished 6 weeks. 4W_T = white-tailed deer. 5Mg percent. 6Micro-eQuivalents/ml. 7G percent. 8percent body weight loss. 9Data from Ullrey et al. 1968. 100ata from Seal et al. 1972 �-527Effect of Length of Starvation on Refeeding Success The hypothesis that deer cannot be successfully refed after 20 days of starvation, empirically based on results of the spring 1971 pilot study, was refuted by results of spring 1972 and 1973 trials, wherein 23 of 24 deer starved longer than 20 days were successfully refed. Management Implications Results of three years' refeeding trials, indicating that starving deer can be refed successfully, contradict field findings. Three factors are considered responsible for this discrepancy. Type of feed. Although starved deer performed similarly when refed different diets in this study and exhibited negligible mortality, they were not challenged by diets containing alfalfa hay as were deer dying during refeeding in the field. In Part I of this final report we indicated that mule deer fed ground or cubed "poor quality" alfalfa develop fatal digestive upsets, omasa1 impactions and hemorrhagic ulcerations of the abomasum. It is possible that structural characteristics of lignin in alfalfa may have been responsible for the inability of deer to assimilate alfalfa hay. Energy. Literature concerning refeeding of deer in the field indicated that starving deer did not receive enough food to satisfy daily energy requirements. Preponderance of fawns among deer dying during field refeeding and findings of this study wherein fawns succumbed to starvation before adults suggests that deer refed in the field were dying from lack of adequate energy intake. Environment. Deer in this study were not subjected to the rigorous climatological conditions typical of winter range. Stresses imposed by colder temperatures and exertion of moving through deep snow may increase refeeding mortality to levels above that associated with qualitative and quantitatve aspects of deer refed. �-528- Probably a combination of these factors contributed to the disparity between refeeding mortality observed in the field and in this study. It is suggested that if starving deer are refed ad libitum a high quality diet, such as Diet I, without alfalfa, there will be little refeeding mortality. However, results of this study can not be applied to the problem of deer starving in the wild. Rather, additional refeeding experiments must be conducted with deer on winter range. Furthermore, it should be recognized that winter feeding should not and cannot be conducted until the philosophy and logistics of winter feeding are fully explored and delineated. �-529- Chapter 5 Conclusions 1. During malnutrition and' starvation deer retain sufficient quantities and variety of rumen bacteria to produce metabolites required for sustenance upon refeeding. 2. Starved deer refed diets of high protein (15-18 percent) and high NFE (51-58 percent) concentrations do not become toxic or experience metabolic upsets. 3. Successful refeeding of starved deer is dependent upon physiological condition of the deer rather than absolute length of time starved .. 4. During malnutrition and starvation deer catabolize stored fat and muscle protein to provide the body with required energy-metabolites. When stored fat reserves are depleted. muscle protein catabolism increases. Catabolism of muscle protein cannot provide adequate amounts of energy· precursors; deer reduced to this state soon die. probably due to hypoglycemia. Fawns succumb to starvation before does. probably due to lower fat stores and faster catabolism of these fats. resulting in earlier depletion of fat stores. increased muscle protein catabolism and hypoglycemia. 5. Mortality of refed deer in the wild probably resulted from various combinations of: a) inadequate energy intake; b) poor quality feeds used producing on1asal compactions or disruptions of digestive processes and infections of digestive organs; and c) increased severity of environmental stresses. 6. Refeeding survival of starved deer is dependent upon quantity of feed ingested as wel l as quality. Certain feeds. such as "poor-quality" alfalfa. will cause digestive upsets. however. and should be identified and excluded from feeds fed starving deer. If starving deer receive all they can eat of a high-quality diet, they will probably survive. ��-531PART III SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING OF WILD DEER Chapter 1 Feeding Experiments, Winter 1973 - 1974 Introduction Studies of penned deer under controlled experimental conditions were conducted to determine a desirable composition of pelleted feed for nutritionally stressed deer in winter (Nagy 1970,1971,1972, 1973). When this pelleted feed was offered in the field to wild deer in 1972-73 winter, feeders were visited, but wild deer did not remove significant amounts of the ration. But, at the same time, it was noted that wild deer were attracted in considerable numbers to trap sites baited with alfalfa hay. This suggested that wild deer could be attracted to feeder sites until they discovered the pelleted ration by baiting them in with alfalfa hay. In 1973-1974 winter, a study was designed to test the hypothesis that alfalfa hay would decrease discovery time and increase consumption of pelleted feed when compared with unbaited sites. But simply getting wild deer to use'feeders may not contribute significantly to the winter maintenance of a deer population in severe winters. Dean (1972) reported that domination of feed sites by aggressive adults precluded the use of feed by sub-dominant deer (especially fawns). Since fawns are presumably under greater nutritional stress in winter than adult deer they would benefit most from supplemental feeds. If Dean's contentions are true, then feeding methodology would have to be developed to circumvent this apparent behavioral "bottleneck". Unfortunately, Dean (1972) offered little quantification for his theory of feeder dominance by aggressive adults. Hence, we tried to quantify dominance interactions of deer at a feed site. �-532- Methods and Materials Object ive I Pelleted feed (Table 44) was offered in la-quart galvanized buckets to permit accurate weighing. At each feeding location, two buckets of food were placed in wooden boxes or "feeders" (Figure 12). This experiment was designed to compare two treatments: pelleted feed alone and pelleted feed with alfalfa hay distributed in a radius of about 3.0-4.5 m around the feed box. Each treatment was replicated four times for a total of eight feeder locations (Figure 13). Feeders were placed in areas known to be frequented by deer. (Elliot Creek, Grand County, Colorado, Sect. 27, 28, 33, 34, TIN, R80W, 6pm). Deer activity, vegetation and topography in Elliot Creek are similar along a 3.2 km length from section corner 29/28 to 27/26, so feeder locations 32/33 34/35 were situated at approximately 0.5 km intervals. At each location, feeders were placed at locations where deer crossed Elliot Creek as evidence from tracks. Feeder locations were numbered from 1 to 8, beginning at the west end of the line. Treatments were assigned to locations alternately after a random start at location number one. Thus, location numbers 1, 3, 5, and 7 were unbaited and numbers 2, 4, 6 and 8 were baited. The amount of pelleted feed removed at each location was measured at the end of each week. Measurements were taken once a week to minimize dis- turbance of deer at feed sites. Initially, each location was supplied with 16.4 kg of the pelleted ration. Each week, after measuring amounts of feed removed, each feeder was resupplied with pelleted deer ration so that the total feed offered at each location (exclusive of alfalfa) equaled 16.4 kg In addition to feed removal, notes were kept on relative abundance of deer tracks and sign (abundant, moderate, little or none), approximate discovery time of the feeder and numbers of deer observed at or near feeders. �-533- TABLE 44. Composition of pelleted feed, used in experimental deer experiment in Middle Park, Colorado, winter 1973-74. Ingredient Percent Barley, pulverized 10.0 Corn, pulverized 30.0 Milo, pulverized 5.0 Oats, pulverized 7.5 Wheat Middlings (Mill Feed) 6.5 Bea t Pulp, shredded 2.5 Brewers Grain 35.0 Dicalcium Phosphate 1.0 Molasses, cane 2.5 Vitamin A, 0, E Premix .002 Trace Mineral (P, K, Ca, P) .005 TOTAL 100.00 �=:':':': ,(//~~--.--~---===~ __ ----)d\!' _ c,~' " '''~, ,- ~ , ".,i" I~~.l _ '21'·· -' --~:J5-~-:-,--,,~,., ~~ i iI~=='cC>~1 ~--,~ ,~ I II ~ >-i'--II ;! <'". c: .r {I '---- J / / /'1 \ -, :', . \ •. \ ,./ I '\/ ;', / " \ <, ,. ,"\' ~,......--,; '- /: :.J I,,,, I Iii' Iii IJ\.\ ~\I11 .i . \ i ~--- flA" . 'L--. -~ -lUYl!J I .) 1\ . J ../ ....7 ,.~. l....-' , .' ."t. i i! t-''\ Figure 12. Diagram of feeders used in the Middle Park deer feeding experiments, , . \ ---' II(~( - " Vv\ 0"'/ . ~ , ; {/;(I i; .. (. .(__ .j iI· /: I I 'L/ v.. (' ~i" c- -\ ), V Jill, " / -j \ '--.... •......• " .,~/. -, ~ l I \ ( (' d winter 1973-74. ~. . \., /' I (Jl w +=I �-535- ... L r- Fig. 13. Location of feeder sites of Middle Park deer winter feeding study, 1973-74. �-S36- Time of discovery was based on the presence of deer tracks close enough to the feeder so that deer could have removed feed. coupled with removal of measurable amounts of food. Differences in feed removal from baited vs. unbaited sites were analyzed by an unpaired test (Dixon and Massey 1969). Objective II One simple feeder was placed in an area known to be frequented by deer (Fig. 16). This feeding station was used to attempt to quantify and qualify aggressive behavior of deer at feeders to determine if such behavior restricts the use of feeders by sub-domi'nant deer (Table 4S). Observations were made from a distance of approximately O.S km. using 8 x binoculars and a zoom lS-60x spotting scope. Forty-three, 60 minute observation periods were made alternating between morning and evening observations. In addition to daily observations, weekly measurements were made to determine the amount of feed removed. Measurement #1: Record the number of dominant interactions that occured at the feeder by sex, age group. Dominant Doe Doe Doe Buck Buck Buck Fawn Fawn Fawn Measurement #2: Possibilities were: Subdominant Doe Buck Fawn Buck Doe Fawn Fawn Doe Buck Record amount of feeding time (minutes) spent at the feeder by each sex and age group. Measurement #3: Record the amount of feed removed (kg) once each week. �-537Data form·to be used in recording TABLE 45. deer behavior near feeding stat1ons~ BEHAVIOR BAIT SITE (BBS) Date: Observer: Time Maximum No. of Deer at Feeder Site: }~ximum No. pf Tagged Deer at Feeder Site: Tag!\o.'s: A I:: Adult B .;Buck D ~ Doe B End: F' :: Fawn Dominance Surr:mary DL ::Large deer DS = Small deer Sub=Dorrdnan t Dominant A Begin: F D n A .. II I m. F I I I - -; : I, I I I I f I" . . I Feeding Hinutes A B D F. Total Reoarks: �-538- Measurement #4: In the past two years (1972 - 1973 and 1973 - 1974) deer have been trapped and individually marked with conspicuous collars in the vicinity of this feeder site. The number of marked deer still present will be determined from intensive reconnaissance of the general area. The ratio of marked to unmarked deer using the feeder will be used as a basis for estimating total use, as follows: (a) Total deer use (D) _ all deer recorded at feeder (d) Total marked deer(M) - marked deer recorded at feeder (m) Md (b) D -m Measurements 1, 2, and 3 were used to estimate amounts of feed removed by each sex and age class, a5suming equal removal per unit time by the three classes recognized. ObJective III The following factors were considered in estimating the cost of emergency feeding of wild deer: 1. Calculate the amount of feed required to feed a specified number of deer: a. Decide what percent of the-population is to be fed (50% 5000 deer, 25% 2,500 etc.) b. Decide how many kolograms of pelleted feed will be fed per deer per day (ad libitum to all deer or feed 50% of ad libitum consumpti on and depend on the rema inder to be supplTed by ava ilab 1e forage. 2. From experience in objectives #1 and #2 and from previous deer distribution studies decide speculatively on the number of locations needed to feed the specified number of deer. 3. Estimate numbers and kinds of feeders needed to feed the specified �-539- number of deer the specified amount. 4. Set an arbitrary length of feeding period based on expected winter nutrional stress period for Middle Park deer. 5. Estimate man-power, equipment, feed and delivery cost to achieve the objectives. Results and Discussion Objective I From the period of February 17 to March 29, 1974, a combined total of 560.22 kg. of pelleted feed was removed from both baited and unbaited feed bunkers (Table 46). A total of 259.79 kg. was removed from the unbaited sites while 300.43 kg. was taken from the baited sites. There was no signi- ficant (P<0.05) difference in the amount of feed removed from sites baited with alfalfa and those left unbaited. The time required for deer to discover and use the feed bunkers varied from two to four days with no apparent preference for baited vs. unbaited sites. However, due to the weekly visitation schedule coupled with the difficulty in determing fresh tracks, deer discovery of the feeders could only be approximated. No quantitative measurement was made to determine the number of deer using the feeders, however, ten to twenty-five deer were observed at or near the feed sites each week when the feed buckets were weighed and refilled. Summary Although there was no significant difference in feed removal or initial discovery time between baited and unbaited sites in this experiment, it is possible that the 0.5 km distance between baited and unbaited feeders may not have been of sufficient magnitude to independently test baited feed sites �-540versus unbaited sites. However, for the purpose of this study an effort was made to locate all feed bunkers in an area as similar as possible in order to minimize the effect of location on deer use. of 0.5 km between feeding sites. TABLE 46. Total amount of pelleted feed removed (kg) from baited and unbaited feed bunkers from February 17 to March 29, 1974. Date 2-17-74 2-24-74 3-1-74 3-8-74 3-15-74 3-22-74 3-29-74 TOTAL Weekly Mean This necessitated a maximum Pelleted Feed Removed (kg) Unbaited Baited 12.95 8.63 49.77 50.45 22.09 54.09 47.04 65.45 14.09 26.36 48.40 46.36 65.45 49.09 259.79 300.43 37.11 42.91 Objective II Measurement #1. A single feed bunker was filled with 16.4 kg of pelleted feed and baited with approximately 1/2 bale of alfalfa hay and 34.0 kg of apple pulp. An effort was made to attract as many deer as possible to this feed site in order to attempt to quantify and qualify aggressive behavior of deer at feeders and to determine if such behavior restricts the use of feeders by sub- �-541dominant deer. For the purpose of this experiment, as aggressive action was intrepreted as any pugnacious action displayed by one deer over another. From February 17 to March 29, 1974, a total of 38 dominant interactions were recorded for 43 hours of observation. Due to observation distance and varible weather conditions which made sex and age classification difficult, deer observed at the feed site were recorded only as adults or subadults. Table (47) shows the total number of dominance interactions observed between adults and subadults. Sixty-eight percent of the aggressive activity at the feed bunker was observed between adults, while thirty-two percent of the encounters Occurred between adults and subadults. Dominance appeared to take several forms. In some cases lowered ear tips and extended head toward another animal was sufficient to force the subordinate deer away. Other interactions were more forceful and resulted in a series of lunges or strikes with the forefeet toward the opponent. The intimidated deer usually retreated 5-10 meters while the dominant deer returned to the feed bunker. Measurement #2. Deer spent approximately 17 hours at the feed bunker. When more than four deer were at the feed bunker together it became difficult to record actual feeding minutes for each individual deer. Therefore, deer were recorded as feeding as long as they remained within 3 meters of the feeder. This included feeding on the pelleted ration placed in buckets within the feeder as well as the alfalfa and apple pulp attractants located in a 3 meter radius around the bunker. Table (48) shows the total feeding minutes recorded for adults and subadults during this study. Adults were observed at the feed bunker a total of 826 minutes which accounted for 81 percent of the time. Subadults spent 193 minutes at the feeder or 19 percent �-542- TABLE 47. Total number and percent of aggressive dominant interactions recorded between adult and subadult deer. Age Class Number of Dominant Interactions Percent Adult Adult 26 68.42 Adult Subadult 12 31.58 38 100 TOTAL TABLE 48. Total minutes and percent of time spent at the feed bunker by adult and subadult deer. Age Class Minutes observed at feed bunker Percent Adults 826.0 81.06 Subadult 193.0 18.94 TOTAL 1019.0 100 of the time. No nocturnal observations were attempted although occassionally deer were still at the feed bunker when darkness dictated termination of the observation period. Time spent at the feed bunker was recorded as long as deer were present and could be classified as adults or subadults. Measurement #3. Approximately 147.6 kg of pelleted feed was removed from the single feed bunker during this experiment (40 days). Assuming an equal removal rate for adults and subadults approximately 119.56 kg of pelleted feed was removed by adults while a total of 28.04 kg was removed by �-543- subadults. These calculations are based on the percent time spent at the feeder by adults and subadults. Measurement #4. A total of 48 deer were trapped and individually marked with conspicuous collars in the vicinity of the feed site. Eight of these marked deer were observed at the feed bunker on different occasions during the study period. By knowing the total number of marked deer as well as the total number of marked deer observed and the overall total of deer at the feeder an estimate can be made on the total number of deer using the feeder over the 40 day period. This value is calculated using the formula D=Md where M{total marked m deer)=48; m{total marked deer observed feeder)=8; d{total deer observed at the feeder)=84. Therefore, an estimated 504 deer used the feed bunker during this experiment. Weather Data at Behavior Study Site o Mean low temperature during the study period was -11.1 C while the mean o high was +1.11 C. Thelast week in February was the coldest period with a o 0 weekly low mean temperature of -25 C and mean weekly high of -11.1 C. Maximum snow accumulation during this period was approximately 38 cm. which occurred during the last week of February. From March 5 until the termination of the experiment no significant amounts of snow were recorded. Deer activity and feed removal observed at the feeder remained relatively constant throughout the study period. Snow accumulation decreased from about 38 cm. at the beginning of the study to approximately 0 cm. by the end. Through- out the study deer continued to be observed at the feeder even though natural vegetation appeared to be available. Summary Lack of adequate controls in number, sex and age of deer using the feeder, �-544- as well as weather variability, animal identification, and the subjective interpretation of animal behavior make it difficult to draw any definate conclusions from this experiment regarding the effect of aggressive behavior on subdominant deer use of feed bunkers or numbers and kinds of deer visiting a feed site. The data in this study appear to indicate that aggressive action does exist between deer in this type of feeding situation however, it is difficult to determine the extent of this dominant behavior in precluding the use of feeders by subdominant deer. The values obtained for feeding minutes, number of dominant interactions and total number of deer using the feeder were calculated based on several assumptions: 1) deer could be identified as either adult or subadult; 2) all deer within 3 meters of the feed bunkers were considered eating; 3) marked deer visited the feed site at the same rate as unmarked deer. ��-546- Chapter 2 Estimating the Cost of Emergency Winter Feeding of Mule Deer In estimating the cost of emergency winter feeding of mule deer in Middle Park a hypothetical situation was created. In this theoretical case an approx- imated value was calculated for pelleted feed, manhours, equipment, material and delivery cost required to feed a specified number of deer for a predetermined period of time. Based on these estimates a cost per deer value was calculated as well as an overall total cost for the entire feeding program (Table 49). Cost estimates will vary depending on the level of manpower used to carry out and supervise the feeding program. Manpower cost will also vary depending on if a particular emergency feeding operation is considered a special function or if it is included in the daily work schedule of the personnel involved. For the purpose of this experiment, manpower cost was considered as a special function and estimated on an hourly basis. In this example wildlife conser- vation officers supervised the emergency feeding program at an estimated hourly rate of $5.00 an hour. In this hypothetical case, it was arbitrarily decided to make an effort to feed 2500 deer or one-quarter of the estimated winter population of deer in Middle Park. Since a severe winter in Middle Park consisting of low temper- atures (-17.8° C to -1.11° C), wind and deep crusted snow ( 38 cm) may nutritionally stress deer a minimum of three weeks, it was recommended that the feeding program be calculated for a 21 day period (Gill-personal communique). The length of artificial feeding may vary from year to year depending on the severity of the winter, available manpower and the economic situation. �-547TABLE 49. Estimated cost of manpower, feed, equipment and material necessary to maintain 2500 deer for 21 days in an emergency winter feeding program. Material or Service Manhours Manhour cost @$5.00/Hr. Commercial Pelleted Feed (75 ton) Material Cost $12,612.00 144 Feed Bunkers (22.68 kg. capacity) 144 $720.00 2,160.00 Transportation cost (Ft. Co11ins to Kremmling) 80 400.00 75.00 2816 14,080.00 Feed Dispersal a) gasoline 704.00 b) food & lodging Subtotal 3,080.00 3040 15,200.00 TOTAL 18,631.00 $33,831.00 Previous data indicates that penned fawns weighing approximately 45 kg require 1.0-1.3 kg per day of a high energy-high protein ration to maintain body weight (Gill and Baker' 1974). The cost of this pelleted ration (Table 49) is approximately $168.00 per ton. Therefore, in order to maintain 2500 deer for 21 days it would require a minimum of 75 tons of feed at a cost of $12,612.60. In order to adequately distribute feed to deer and minimize spillage and waste, feed bunkers would be needed. To feed 2500 deer, it would require ap- proximtely 144 of the simple wooden feeders (22.68 kg capacity) used in Part I of this study (Fig. 15). The minimum material and labor cost for these feeders would be approximately $20.00 per feeder or a total of $2,880.00. This type of feeder would require daily refilling during the feeding period which would in- �-548- crease manpower and equipment cost. Fewer and more elaborate self-feeders could be used in order to minimize maintenance cost, however these would be more expensive to build and logistically more difficult to situate. Also in order to reduce aggressive interaction by dominant animals, several smaller feeders would seem more reasonable than fewer large feeders. Further cost would be accumulated in transporting this large quanity of feed and feeders to a central location such as Kremmling, Colorado. Here the feed and feeders would have to be stored temporarily until they could be distributed to the critical concentrations of starving deer. The minimum estimated cost for this phase of the feeding program would be approximately $475.00. The process of actually distributing the feed to the deer and daily visits to each feeder location for replenishing the feed supply would require the major emphasis in planning, organizing and implementation of manpower and equipment. The highest cost of the entire feeding program would be incurred at this level of operation due to manpower, equipment and per diem expenses. In this hypothetical situation, four locations were selected in Middle Park for deer feeding sites. Each location was to be maintained by four wild- life conservation officers. Each crew was to have access to one snow cat and two snowmobiles with which to transport feed and feeders for the 21 day feeding operation. The cost associated with this phase of the feeding program includes 1) gasoline and maintenance for pickups, snowcats and snowmobiles; 2) manhours for 16 wildlife conservation officers (WCO's) for 21 days; 3) food and lodging for 14 weo's. The total estimated cost for this phase would be a minimum of $17,864.00 (Table 49). Therefore, total expenditure for the entire feeding program from the time the feed is bought, to the time it reaches the deer would amount to approximately �-549- $33,831.00. Hence, to feed 2500 deer for 21 days would require a minimum cost of $13.53 per deer. Summary Each emergency winter deer feeding situation is different and the associated cost will fluctuate depending on the number of deer to be fed, duration of the feeding period, feed cost and level of manpower and equipment utilized in implementing the feeding program. It should be emphasized that the cost value computed in this example is based on a hypothetical case and not on a actual feeding operation. �-550LITERATURE CITED Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. 1965. Official methods of of analysis. lOth Ed. Wash., D.C. 957 pp. Balch, C. C. and R. C. Campling. 1965. Rate of passage of digesta through the ruminant digestive tract. 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Conservationist. 10(6):2-4. Church, D. C. (Ed.). 1969. Digestive physiology and nutrition of ruminants. Vol. 1. Oregon State University ,Book Stores Inc. Corvallis. 306 pp. Conway, E. J. 1958. Microdiffusion analysis and volumetric error. (Fourth Ed ition). Macmillan Co., N.Y. 465 pp. Coop, I. E. 1949. The effect of starvation and of feeding after starvation, on the metabolic activity in the rumen. New Zealand J. Sci. and Tech. 31(A):1-12. Cowan, R. L. 1962. Studies on antler growth and nutrition of white-tailed deer. In Proc. First Nat. White-tailed Deer Disease Symposium. Univ. of Georgia, Athens. pp. 54-60. Dahlberg, B. L. and R. C. Guettinger. 1956. The white-tailed deer in Wisconsin. Wisconsin Cons. Dept. Tech. Wildl. Bull. 14. 279 pp. Davenport, L. A. 1939. Results of deer feeding experiments at Cusino, Michigan. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 4:268-274. Dawes, E. A. and D. W. Ribbons. 1965. Studies on the endogenous metabolism of Escherichia coli. Biochem. 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Digestibil ity trials: In vitro techniques. pp. 85-93. In Range and wildlife habitat evaluation. A research symposium. U.S.D.A. FOrest Service Misc. Publ. 1147. 220 pp. Postgate, J. R. 1967. Viability measurements and the survival of microbes. In Rose. A. H. and J. F. Wi1sinson, (Ed.) 1967. Advances in microbial physiology. Academic Press, London. 275 pp. �-553- Quinn, J. I. 1943. Studies on the alimentary tract of merino sheep in South America. VII. Fermentation in the forestomachs of sheep. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Animal Industry. 18(1) :91-112. Quinn, J. I. 1951. Studies on the alimentary tract of merino sheep in South America. XVIII. The effect of fasting on the activity of ruminal flora .of sheep and cattle. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 25(1):51-58. Schoonveld, G. G. 1971. Feeding mule deer high fiber dieti. Colorado State University, Ft. Collins. 96 pp. Severinghaus, C. W. 1963. No title. Conservationist. M.S. thesis, 17(4):42-43. Short, H. L. 1963. Rumen fermentations and energy relationships in whitetailed deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 27(2):184-195. Short, H. L. , and E. E. Remmenga. 1965. Use of fecal cellulose to estimate plant tissue eaten by deer. J. Range r~gmt. 18{3}:139-144. Short, H. L. 1966a. Methods for evaluating forages for wild ruminants. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 31:122-128. Trans. Shol't, H. L. 1966b. Effects of cellulose levels on the apparent digestibility of feeds eaten by mule deer. J. Wi1dl. Mgmt. 30(1}:163-167. Sierra, G. and N. E. Gibbons. 1962. Role and oxidation pathway of poly-Bhydroxy-butyric acid in Mi:rococcus halodentrificans. Can. J. Micro. 8:255-269. Sigma Chemical Co. 1971. The colorimetric determination in blood plasma or serum of urea nitrogen at 515-540 mu. St. Louis. 9pp. Sigma Chemical Co. 1971. The determination of ornithine carbamyl trans rerese in serum or other fluids. St. Louis. 4 pp. Sigma Chemical Co. 1972. The determination of glutamic oxalacetic transaminase in serum or other fluids at 340 mu.St. Louis. 5pp. Silver, Ilelenette, N. F. Coloves and J. B.Holfer. 1971. Effect of falling temperature on heat producrion in fasting white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 35(1}:37-46. . Smith, A. D. 1952. Digestibility of some native forages for mule deer. Wild1. Mgmt. 16(3):309-312. J. Strange, R. E., F. A.Dark and A. G. Ness. 1961. The survival of stationary phase Aerobacter aerogenes stored in aqueous suspensions. J. Gen. Micro. 25:61-76. Teeri, A. L, W. VirchOlv, N.F. Colovos and F. Greeley. of white-tailed deer. J. Mamm. 39(2};269-274. 1968. Blood composition Tietz, N. W. {Ed.}. 1970. Fundamentals of clinical chemistry. Co. Philadel phia. 983 pp , ~1. B. Saunders �-554- Tilley, J. M. A. and R. A. Terry. 1963. A two-stage technique for in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Grassl. Soc. 18(2):104-111.-- ----Ullrey, D. E., W. G. Youatt, H. E. Johnson, P.K. Ku and L. D. Fay. 1964. Digestibility of cedar aspen browse for the white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 28(4):791-797. VanSoest, P. J. 1963. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. II. A rapid method for the determination of fiber and lignin. J. Assn. Official Agr. Chem. 46(5):829-835. VanSoest, P. J. and R. H. Wine. 1967. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. IV. Determinations of plant cell wall constituents. J.A.O. A.C. 50:50-55. Verme, L. J. 1962. Mortality of white-tailed fawns in relation to nutrition. Proc. 1st Nat. White-tailed deer disease symp. Univ. Georgia, Athens. 202 pp. Verme, L. J. and D. E. Ullrey. 1972. Feeding and nutrition of deer. In . Church, D. C. (Ed.). 1972. Digestive physiology and nutrition of ruminants. Vol. III. Oregon State University Book Stores Inc. Corvallis. 350 pp. Warner, A. C. I. 1962b. Enumeration of rumen micro-organisms. crobiol. 28:119-128. Young, V. R. and N. S. Scrimshaw. Sci. Am. 225(4):14-21. 1971. J. Ger.. Mi- The physiology of starvation. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/55df67b6414292eb2270c5a85eb927dd.pdf 7ac50a84384e573b5047fe4919788084 PDF Text Text October 1974 -1- .JOB :r'ROGRESS REPORT State of --- Project No. \'brk Pl.an No. Job Title COLORADO W-88-R-19 Migratory Bird Investigations 1 Job 1\0. 1 _ Waterfowl Production Surveys Period Covered: April 24, 1973 to June 30, 1973 Personnel: C. Bryant and Staff, MOnte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; W. Wilson, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge; F. N. Folks, C. Jensen and A. Regenthal, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; R. Blumberg, R. Clark, J. Corey, R. Desilet, W. Dolezal, R. Hopper, J. Lotentzson, R. Lowry, F. Rinella, W. Russell, K. Wagner, M. Zgainer, and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. AIlSTIJ\CT Water conditions were considered good in North Park, and the Cache La Poudre and South Platte River Valleys, but POOi[' in the San Luis Valley. The total estimated number of duck breeding pairs increased to 56,539, a level approximately 19 percent above the 1972 population and nearly equal to the long term average. Major increases in the duck breeding popu.lation were noted in North Park and the Cache la Poudreand Yampa Valleys. The number of redheads in the breeding population increased markedly. The mallard population remained numerically stable. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese in Moffat County was about 10 percent above the 1972 level, even though production was down approximately 7 percent. Gosling production in north-central Colorado was about 31 percent above the 1972 level but the overall population remained stable. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To estimate the number of duck and goose breeding pairs, by species, in each of Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pair and production surveys consist of a breeding pair inventory of only major production areas. The 1973 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 14 to June 30. Surveys in North Park and the Cache 1a Poudre and South Platte Valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from'nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 24 to June 16. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates in north-central Colorado were obtained from counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which the birds were flightless. The west-central Colorado survey was conducted, however, poor results were obtained and are therefore not presented in this report. All flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas sampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. On the basis of these studies, 'a report is submitted to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's part in the annual continental cooperative breeding ground survey. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water conditions in Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas were found to be quite variable throughout the state during the survey period. In spite of a record snowpack in mountain areas surrounding the San Luis Valley, �-4- the Valley proper was as dryas in 1972 in most areas. A late spring in southern Colorado retarded both the runoff from the surrounding mountains and irrigation activities in the Valley. Therefore, many of the ditches and ponds resulting from irrigation water were dry. Because of the expected late water, prospects were excellent for brood survival. Heavy winter snows produced excellent water condition for birds breeding in North Park. In the Cache la Poudre and South Platte River Valleys, late spring storms filled most marshes and drainage basins, but retarded the irrigation season. High water on rivers in northwestern Colorado resulted in some flooding loss of Canada goose nests, particularly on the Yampa River. The number of duck breeding pairs in 1973 increased 19 percent above the 1972 level, essentially equalling the long term average (Table 1). All areas with the exception of Brown's Park recorded increases over the 1972 level. The major increase in terms of numbers was noted in North Park. However, neither North Park nor the other major Colorado duck breeding area, the San Luis Valley, reached the long term average level in numbers of breeding pairs. Table 1. Summary of Colorado's duck breeding ground popUlation estimates in selected areas, 1973. Total Est. Breeding Pairs Long Term 1973 1972 Averagell Percent Change From From Long 1972 Term Average San Luis Valley 24,942 23,509 27,335 + 6.1 - 8.8 North Park 2:./ 14,255 8,922 16,176 +59.8 -11.9 South Platte Valley 7,917 7,019 6,062 +12.8 +30.6 Cache la Poudre Valley 5,852 4,630 3,107 +26.4 +88.3 Yampa Valley 2,571 1,857 2,814 +38.4 - 8.6 Brown's Park 632 1,339 1,045 -52.8 -39.5 56,169 47,276 56,539 +18.8 - 0.7 Area Total II San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through 1972 and 1968 through 1972 surveys, respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 19 year averages. ~I Aerial counts corrected by species from visibility ratios obtained in the San Luis Valley. �-5- Increases in numbers of three species, the redhead, gadwall and pintail, were responsible for the majority of the increase in Colorado duck breeding numbers in 1973 over the 1972 level (Table 2). The redhead, which normally comprises about 4 percent of the Colorado breeding populations made up about 11 percent of the 1973 population. The mallard continues to be the major breeding species in the state, making up about 40 percent of the 1973 population. Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1973 duck breeding population. Number of Breeding Pairs 1954-721/ 1973 1972 Average- Percent SEecies ComEosition 1954-72 1972 Average 1973 Mallard 22,608 22,504 27,825 40.2 47.6 56.2 Blue-:winged and Cinnamon Teal 6,374 6,532 4,852 11.3 13.8 9.8 Gadwall 7,400 4,666 5,129 13.2 9.9 10.4 Pintail 5,794 3,073 3,401 10.3 6.5 6.9 Green-winged Teal 1,161 2,094 2,283 2.1 4.4 4.6 Shoveler 4,556 4,152 2,183 8.1 8.8 4.4 Redhead 6,416 1,802 1,812 11.4 3.8 3.7 789 1,331 878 1.4 2.8 1.8 Other Divers 1,071 1,122 1,141 1.9 2.4 2.3 Total 56,169 47,276 49,504 Species American Widgeon 1../ Species composition computed from data from all areas for the 19 year period regardless of changes in survey methods. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese along river systems in northwest Colorado was estimated to be approximately 1,500 in 1973 (Table 3). The total number of geese increased about 10 percent above the 1972 level, but estimated gosling production was off about 7 percent (Tables 4 and 5). High water along the Yampa River created major problems in estimating production. The results of the 1973 Canada goose production census in northcentral Colorado are presented by individual area in Table 6. Gosling production Lncreased to 1,450 birds, about 31 percent above the 1972 level and 28 percent above the average (Table 7). All five trend areas showed increases °jn gosling production. The total population remained essentially stable (Table 8). �-6- .Table 3. Number of Canada geese observed and estimated production, Moffat County, Colorado, 1973. Nesting Pairs Non-nesting Birds Total Adults Estimated No. Gos1ingsl} Total Birds 7 10 5 257 88 116 271 108 126 18 37 12 299 145 138 461 505 67~/ 582~/ 40 29 206 83 286 141 151 105 437 246 Subtotal 69 289 431 256 683 Little Snake River 28 120 176 99 275 Grand Total 119 870 1,112 422 1,534 Area Yampa River Craig to Juniper Spgs. Juniper to Cross Mtn. Lily Park 222:./ Subtotal Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur Nab'l Monum.1/ 1:./ Calculated using average brood size and number of successful nests. ~/ Figures are minimal; extremely difficult to determine number of nesting pairs and gosling production because of high water during and prior to survey. 1/ Area first surveyed in 1970; data supplied by F. Neil Folks, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources. Table 4. Total Canada geese observed, Moffat County, Colorado 1973. Area Yampa River Number Geese Counted 1956-72 1973 1972 Average Percent·Change From 1956-1972 From 1972 Average 582 513 415 + 13.5 + 40.2 Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur Nat'l Monum. Jj 437 264 139 + 65.5 +214.4 246 300 363 - 18.0 - 32.2 Little Snake River~/ 275 320 246 - 14.1 +11.8 1,534 1,397 1,163 + + 31.9 Total !/ Area first surveyed in 1970 ~/ Not included in survey until 1962. 9.8 �-7- Table 5. 1972. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County~ Colorado, Number of Goslings 1956-72 1973 1972 Average Area Yampa River Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur Nat'1 Monum. 1/ Little Snake River '!:../ Total Percent Change From 1956-1972 From 1972 Average 67 117 141 - 42.7 - 52.5 151 139 54 + 8.6 +179.6 105 136 121 - 32.8 - 13.2 99 61 78 + 62.3 + 26.9 422 453 394 6.8 + 7.1 1/ Area first surveyed in 1970. '!:../ Not included in survey until 1962. Fall Flight The prospect for excellent late water conditions in the San l,uis Valley along with the good water conditions in the other Illajorbreeding areas resulted in excellent duck production and brood survival. Therefore, even though the duck breeding population is about vaver-age , the fall flight should be much better than average. The Canada goose flight from both northwest and northcentral Colorado will be very similar to 1972 • .-vYJ ._ J , I} -7fJ J} /J Prepared by__ -L. 1..:/ ~~,u.../=--\.~....:::;0=-_/.::.u'_ . ........,---<~~~. ~:t:~~..cJ:.~<"",0~,-:!...-1b.s...... __ Michael R. Szymczak.IO (; Assistant Wildlife Researcher �Table 6. Results of the north-central Colorado goose census, June 15, 1973 (continued). Production Area Number Broods Total Number Goslings Total Number Adults & Yearlings Total No. of Birds 2 0 4 0 3 12 0 13 0 7 45 33 73 5 50 50 4 16 23 24 14 0 11 47 15 29 164 150 37 38 30 2 70 105 13 54 34 32 41 2 5 59 15 42 164 157 82 71 103 7 120 155 17 70 57 56 55 2 16 380 868 1,248 1,450 2,579 4,029 Denver Total Grand Total Water Area South Colorado Blvd. & Quincy Blackmer Lake Reservoir No. 3 Denver City park. Sloans Lake Federal Center Pond C1aifie1d Reservoir Gallup Reservoir Columbine Country Club Bowles Lake Kings Pond Lower Tu1e Lake Marston Reservoir Grant B Reservoir Patrick Lake Pinehurst Country Club Kendrick Lake Mohn Estate 8 14 1 2 4 5 5 3 0 2 I ~ 0 I �-11- Table 7. Total number of Canada goose goslings produced in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1973. Area Number of Goslings 1969-72 1973 1972 Average Percent Change From 1969-72 From 1972 Average Wellington 347 219 269 +58.4 +28.9 Fort Co11ins 347 3181:/ 267 + 9.1 +30.0 Loveland 106 74 75 +43.2 +41.3 Boulder 270 199 238 +35.7 +13.4 Denver 380 294 280 +29.2 +35.7 Total 1,450 1,104 1,129 +31.3 +28.4 !/ Includes 23 birds raised at Ft. Collins Wildlife Research Station. Table 8. Total number of Canada geese observed in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1973. Area Number of Geese 1969-72 1973 1972 Average Percent Change From 1969-72 From 1972 Average Wellington 828 731 853 +13.3 - 2.9 Fort Collins 843 868 747 - 2.9 +12.8 Loveland 283 149 177 +89.9 +59.9 Boulder 827 679 717 +21.8 +15.3 Denver 1,248 1,530 1,387 -18.4 -10.0 Total 4,029 3,957 3,881 + 1.8 + 3.8 ��October, 1974 -l3- J013 PROGRESS j{EPOKT St at e of Pro j ect No. i.JorkPlan No. J~b Title Migratory Bird Investigations W-88-R-19 Job No. 1 Trapping and Banding Ducks and Geese 2 --~------------------ Period Covered; April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel~ C. Bryant and staff of Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife refuges, C. Braun, J. Carsella, J. Corey, D. Coven, H. Cox, C. Crawford, M. DePra, R. Desilet, K. Dillinger, G. Eyre, B. Goetz, J. Gray, J. Gustafson, T. Henry, J. Hicks, R. Holder, J. Jackson, D. Kevin, R. Kitzmiller, J~Lewis, J. Lorentzson, R. Mason, K. Miller,. J. Miller, W. Mink, G. Nugent, R. Oakleaf, B. Peterson, H. Schultz, B. Smith, G. Smith, S. Steinert, M. Sudheimer, M. Szymczak, K. Wagner and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT Trapping activities in Segment 19 resulted in the banding of 14,176 ducks of 11 species at eight locations in Colorado. The mallard constituted the major species in the banded sample, contributing 9,616, or about 68 percent of the total. Pre-season banding in the high country yielded 9,336 ducks, including 2,982 in North Park, 2,039 in South Park, and 4,315 in the San Luis Valley. ¥~llards and pintails provided the bulk of the sample in these three areas. Post-season banding resulted in a banded sample of 6,743 mallards, including 5,643 in eastern Colorado and 1,100 in west-central Colorado. Activities in the west-central portion of the state represent a new banding study in an area supporting a significant population of wintering mallards. Goose trapping operations yielded a banded sample of 1,392 Canada geese in Segment 19. Goslings, hand-reared or captured in the wild and transplanted in various locations during the summer, accounted for 377 of this total. The remainder were banded post-season in the Arkansas Valley (337), Cache la Poudre Valley (270) and South Platte Valley (408). ��-15- TRAPPING AND BANDING DUCKS AND GEESE Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes all waterfowl banding activities conducted under Federal Aid Project W-88-R-19 for the segment year April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974. Band recovery data are analyzed as part of another job (Work Plan 1, Job 3) and thus, will not be included in this report. This report simply presents a listing of numbers of ducks and geese banded by species and location during the segment. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To provide adequate samples of banded ducks and geese in Colorado's major breeding and harvest areas for the purpose of accumulating migration and annual mortality data. 2. To report species and numbers of mallards winter banded in the South Platte Valley, Ark?nsas Valley, and Bonny Reservoir as part of Work Plan 3, Job 6~ 3. To report transplant geese banded underWork Plan 2, Job 2. METHODS AND MATERIALS Trapping and banding operations in Segment 19 continued the same as in recent years with three major phases: (1) mid-summer banding of Canada goose transplants, (2) late summer (pre-season) duck banding, and (3) winter (post+ " season) duck and goose banding. Goslings for transplanting were hand-reared and alSo obtained from the wild by drive-trapping prior to the time the birds were capable of flight. Pre-season duck banding was conducted in August and September using baited Salt Plains traps (cage-type) to capture birds in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. Night-lighting was again employed experimentally to catch ducks in North Park during the pre-season period. This technique is best described by Cummings and Hewitt (1964) and Drewien et al. (1967). Post-season banding (January-February) utilized baited Salt Plains traps and cannon-nets for duck trapping, and baited cannon-nets for goose trapping. �-16- Ducks The banded sample in Segment 19 consisted of 14,176 ducks of 11 species (Table 1). An additional banding location (West Slope) was added to the seven locations of recent years, with rhe South Platte Valley agafn yielding the largest sample (3,350). North Park (2,982), the San Luis Valley (2,412) and South Park (2,039) were next in sample size. As normal, the mallard dominated as the species most abundant in the banded sample, contributing 9,616, or about 68 percent of the total. Pintails and teal were the only other species that added significantly to the banded sample, with 3,137 and 1,075, respectively. High Country Study Objectives of the high country study of duck populations are given by Hopper (1972). Species composition by age and sex for 9,336 ducks banded in the three high country areas during 1973 is shown in Tables 2-5. Bandings in the San Luis Valley were accomplished by both State and Federal personnel (Table 4). The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife is cooperating in this study by banding a portion of the Valley quota on the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges. Mallards and pintails continued to supply most of the banded samples in all three high country areas (Tables2-4). They contributed 3,683 and 3,728 birds, respectively, for all three areas combined (Table 5). Generally poor samples of the other species were obtained, with the possible exception of green-winged teals (748), blue-winged and cinnamon teals (618), and redheads (401). Winter Banding Post-season banding of terminal wintering populations of mallards was continued in eastern Colorado for the eleventh consecutive year under Work Plan 3, Job 6 (Investigation of Mallard Management Units of Eastern Colorado). Quotas were easily attained by age and sex class .in all areas except the the Arkansas Valley. The total banded sample amounted to 5,643 mallards for the post-season period of Segment 19 in eastern Colorado (Table 1). An additional 1,100 mallards were banded post-season on the Western Slope of Colorado during Segment 19 (Table 1). This activity was the initiation of a new banding program for Colorado. A study of at least five years duration is planned in the Colorado-Gunnison-Uncompahgre River Complex of west-central Colorado to investigate (1) population status, (2) breeding area derivation, (3) harvest distribution, and (4) mortality rates of the mallard population wintering in this area. A minimum population of 10,000 mallards winter here and until now little has been done to assess their welfare. �1/ August-September. 2/ - January-Feburary. 1/ Colorado-Gunnison-Uncompahgre River Complex. �-18Table 2. Age and sex composition of'duckS banded pre-season in North Park, 1973. Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex Species AM 1M AF IF Total Mallard 315 320 254 260 1,149 Gadwall 7 2 5 7 21 American Widgeon 5 3 1 3 12 Green-winged Teal 34 15 12 4 65 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 13 12 6 10 41 Pintail 791 202 462 206 1,661 ' Redhead 7 1 23 0 31 Canvasback 1 0 0 0 1 Ring-necked Duck 1 0 0 0 1 1,174 555 763 490 2,982 Total Table 3. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in South Park, 1973. Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex Species 1M AF IF Total Mallard 250 190 192 113 745 Gadwall 0 0 1 0 1 American Widgeon 2 2 1 1 6 Green-winged Teal 281 123 59 100 563 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 29 43 14 38 124 Pintail 186 123 147 109 565 Redhead 4 1 28 0, 33 Canvasback 1 0 0 0 1 Hooded Merganser 0 1 0 0 1 753 483 442 361 '2,039 Total �-19- Table 4. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in the San Luis Valley, 1973 l/. Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex IF IM AF Species Total Mallard 444 458 421 466 1,789 Gadwall 1 45 6 58 110 American Widgeon a 2 1 a 3 Green-winged Teal 64 26 8 22 120 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 176 108 62 107 453 Shoveler a a 0 1 1 Pintail 375 360 429 338 1,502 Redhead 105 49 129 54 337 Total 1,165 1,048 1,056 1,046 4,315 II - Includes ducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges as part of high-country duck study. Table 5. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in the three high-country areas combined, 1973 !/. Species AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex AF IF IM Total Mallard 1,009 968 867 839 3,683 Gadwall 8 47 12 65 132 American Widgeon 7 7 3 4 21 379· 218 164 163 79 82 126 155 748 618 Shoveler a a a 1 1 Pintail 1,352 685 1,038 653 3,728 Redhead 116 51 180 54 401 Canvasback 2 a 0 2 Ring-necked Duck 1 a a 0 a 1 Hooded Mergariser 0 1 0 0 1 3,092 2,086 2,261 1,897 9,336 Green-wiIlgedTeal B1ue-win~ed and Cinnamon Teal ;,~ Total !/Inc1udesducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa ~nd Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges Ln. the San Luis Valley as part of the h1gh-country duck study. ~"~. �-20- Good age and sex ratios were obtained in the sample of 1,100 maliards banded in west-central Colorado, with nearly equal total numbers for the two banding locations (Table 6). Some suitable trapping sites have now been found in the Grand Junction and Delta areas, but efforts in future segments will be to include the Montrose area in the banded sample. Table 6. Age and sex composition of mallards banded post-season in westcentral Colorado, 1973-74. AM Number Banded Age and Sex IM AF IF Grand Junction Mack - Palisade 167 113 141 82 503 Delta 140 161 134 162 597 Total 307 274 275 244 1,100 Location Total Geese Nearly 1,400 Canada geese were banded during Segment 19 (Table 7). Summer transplant geese contributed 377 birds to the banded sample. These goslings were banded and released just prior to flight stage at Walden Lake in North Park (100), Antero Reservoir in South Park (80), and Prewitt Reservoir (96) and Jumbo Reservoir Annex (101) in the South Platte Valley. The sex compos ition of transplant geese was somewhat unequal at each release site, but essentially equal numbers of males and females were the case for all areas combined (Table 8). Work Plan 2, Job 2 discusses the transplant program in more detail. Post-season trapping resulted in the banding of 1,015 Canada geese in the Arkansas Valley (337), Cache la Poudre Valley (270), and South Platte Valley (408) (Table 7). Samples were not as large as desired in any of the above three areas, but a considerable improvement was experienced over last segment in the Cache la Poudre and South Platte valleys. �~21- Table 7. 1973-74. Number of Canada geese banded by location and period of year, Number Banded Summer Post-season 1./ Transplants 1/ Location Total Arkansas Valley 0 337 337 Cache la Poudre Valley 0 270 270 North Park 100 0 100 South Park 80 0 80 South Platte Valley 197 408 605 Total 377 1,015 1,392 1/ - June - July. 2/ - January - February. Table 8. Sex composition of goslings banded for summer transplants, 1973-74. Number Banded Sex Male Female Total North Park 59 41 100 South Park 46 34 80 South Platte Valley 86 111 197 Total 191 186 377 Release Site The age composition of the banded samples of geese appeared to be distorted in favor of adults at each banding location, while sex ratios seemed nearly equal (Table 9). Additional information regarding post~season banding activities can be found in the Job Progress Report for Work Plan 2, Jobs 5 and 6. �-22- Table 9. Age and sex composition of Canada geese banded post-seasol} in eastern Colorado, 1973-74. Number of Geese Banded Age and Sex Location AM 1M AF IF UF Total Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys 270 51 7 5 345 678 Arkansas Valley 105 77 100 55 o 337 Total 375 128 107 60 345 1,015 LITERATURE CITED Cummings, G. E., and O. H. Hewitt. 1964. birds at night with light and sound. Capturing waterfowl and marsh J. Wildl. Manage. 28(1):120-126. Drewien, R. C., H. M. Reeves, P. F. Springer, and T. L. Kuck. 1967. unit for capturing waterfowl and upland game by night-lighting. Wildl. Manage. 31(4): 778-783. . . Hopper, R. M. 1972. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Wildl., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 13-21. ..;. "J Prepared by . -. " ·1:~,c14J~/'&25/">1 , Ri.chard M. Hoppe r« / Wildlife Researcher Backpack J. Colo. Div. �October 1974 -23- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State Project COLORADO ------~~~~~--------- of No. W __ -_88_-_R_-_l_9 ~ 1 _ Work Plan No. Job Title~ Period Analysis Covered: Personnel: April Migratory Bird Investigations of Waterfowl Banding Data ~------~--------------------------1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Michael Szymczak. ABSTRACT A decision was made to delay analysis of recoveries of ducks banded preseason in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley until at least four complete years of recovery data are available. The project has beenre-written to allow for an evaluation and adjustment of annual banding quotas for each area by species, sex, and age. ��-25- ANALYSIS OF WATERFOWL BANDING DATA Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution and relationships among populations of ducks banded in Colorado's high country, specifically in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS Recovery cards from bandings in high mountain areas and associated computer printouts received from the Bird Banding Laboratory were filed. No other work was accomplished under this job. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An evaluation of banding programs in general and resulting analysis led to the decision to delay of recoveries of birds banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley until at least four complete years of recovery data are available. ��October 1974 -27- JOB PROGRESS 1I.EPORT State COLORADO of Projec.t:No. W-88-R-19 Hork Plan No. 1 Job Title Job No. Bird Investigations ~1~2~ S_a_n __L_u __i_s--v_a_l_l_e~y--C_o_o~p_e_r_a __ t~i_v~e--Ma--l~l_a_r_d __I_n_v_e_s_t __i~ga __t_i_on Pe.riod Covered: Personnel: Migratory _ ~ __ April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Richard M. Hopper ABSTRACT The final report covering this job will be submitted to Wildlife Monographs in Mayor June of 1974 for possible publication. All work except typing of the final manuscript was completed prior to the end of Segment 19. ��-29- SAN LUIS VALLEY COOPERATIVE MALLARD INVESTIGATION Richard M. Hopper P. S. Objective 1. To develop a harvest formula for the San Luis Valley mallard population. 2. To determine hunter reaction to various types of hunting regulations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES Evaluate results of the experimental hunting seasons since 1963 and prepare final reports covering all phases of the investigation in cooperation with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. METHODS AND MATERIALS Compile and analyze all data in cooperation with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. Prepare final report and publish as Division Technical Bulletin or Journal of Wildlife Management Monograph. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The final report for this job is in the last stages of preparation and will be submitted to Wildlife Monographs in Mayor June of 1974 for possible publication. As of March 31, 1974 the manuscript had received final editing by Division editor Dr. Lee E. Yeager, and the four authors (R. M. Hopper, A. D. Geis, J. R. Greib, and L. Nelson, Jr.). Typing of the final copy will be completed by mid-April, 1974. The manuscript will then be sent to Washington, D. C. where it will be reviewed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife prior to submission to Wildlife Monographs. The title select~d for this publication is "Experimental Duck Hunting Seasons - San Luis Valley, Colorado, 1963-1970." Prepared by ----JI/:...,.i.:·.•..••• ",<=t;4-t.•..• ·./u.,.o::J:ol-.· -'?<-----"~y __ /~£~!~;.~, ·i;:... •.·l-I Richard M. Hopper v'/' Wildlife Researcher _ ��October -31- JOB PROGRESS St ate REPORT -'-..:C..:O.:.;L:,::O.:.;R:.=.AD.::.O---:----,-- 0f Project 1974 Migratory W-88-R-19 No. Bird Investigations 1 Job NO.-'~1~4__ ---- __ ----~~--Determination of Methods for Developing and Managing Job Tit 1e __ w~a:::...t::...e::..:r::..:f_o::...w....:l:::...·....:H=a=b:..:i:.:t=a:.:t::...-..:.Annn===o . .:.N:.:i:.:t:.:r:.:a:.:t:.:e;.....::.P-=o-=t:.:.:h:;::o=l:. _.=B=l::::a=s.;::.t=i.:::n~ge-;::.S=t.;::. __ Wark Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: April Richard 1, 1973-March 31, 1974 M. Hopper ABSTRACT· .Field work was re-initiated in Segment 19 to continue the "life expectancy" phase of.the pothole blasting study. This is the only portion of the overall investigation remaining .to be completed. The 76 potholes on the study area had an average depth of 32.0 inches in 1973, yielding a loss of lS.3 percent from 1970 to 1973 and a 26.1 percent overall reduction from 1968 to 1973. The lSO-lb potholes showed t he greatest loss of depth during five years of life (30.S percent), while 2S-lb potholes showed the least (22.2 percent). All sizes of potholes, regardless of block occupied, were invaded by emergent vegetation. The average proportion of surface area grown up to emergents was greatest for 2S-lb potholes (S4.S percent) and least for 7S-lb potholes .(36.1 percent). A notable reduction was observed in the number of 2S-, SO- and 7S-lb potholes visited by ducks in 1973 compared to the 1968-1970 period, while an increase was recorded in the number of lSQ-lb potholes used. The proportion of total duck visits received through the years by lSO-lb potholes has gradually increased (32.6-S8.9 percent), while that for the other three sizes has generally decreased. . ��-33- AMMONIUM NITRATE POTHOLE BLASTING STUDY Richard M. Hopper Field work was again initiated in Segment 19 (1973-74) on the pothole blasting study following two years. of inactivity (1971-72, 1972-73). This study was first statted in 1967, with all phases of the objective completed and results' reported except for the "life expectancy" portion (Hopper 1972). The life expectancy of the 84 potholes blasted in 1967 is an important part of the overall study and the subject of this report deals with that determination. Obviously, a given pothole may exist physically for many years, but because of loss of depth,encroachment of emergents, or for some other reason, this pothole will lose its attractiveness to waterfowl after a period of time. Its usefulness as waterfowl habitat has ended or been greatly curtailed and the waterfowl manager can conclude that the pothole has reached its life expectancy. Thus, in this study, duck use observations are playing a major role in the evaluation of life expectancy, or what might be better termed "useful life" of the potholes. It might be appropriate here to briefly revie.w the results of the waterfowl use and cost relationships among the four charge sizes of annnonium nitratefuel oil mixtures (AN-FO) as presented previously (Hopper 1972). It was concluded in this phase of the study that 75-lb charges of AN-FO yielded the most efficient potholes in terms of (1) lowest average cost per 100 square feet of surface area created and per duck visit received, and (2) highest average number of duck visits per 100 square feet of surface area. The l50-lbpotholeswere next:most efficient, and over an extended period of time may prove to have a longer useful life than those produced by the other charge sizes. P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate various size potholes blasted with ammonium nitrate in terms of (a) life expectancy, (b) plant succession, (c) soil and water characters, (d) waterfowl use and hunting potential, and (e) cost. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Obtain pothole measurements. 2. Observe and record duck use of potholes by species during the spring period. �-34- METHODS ANDMATERIALS Methods and materials employed during Segment 19 remained the same as those used in Segments 13 and 1'4 (Hopper 1968, 1969) and will not be repeated here. An additional method was used to evaluate pothole life expectancy. This involved Visiting the potholes during the March-April period and estimating the proportion of the surface area of each pothole that was grown up to emergent vegetation. Twoestimates were made for each pothole during this period, with the second estimate being made without prior reference to the first. An average figure was then obtained for each pothole and comparisons were made by pothole size and amount of duck use received. RES UL TS ANDDIseus SION Pothole Measurements Depth Tables 1-3 list pothole depths in March-April 1973 by block (Fig. 1) and charge size, as well as comparisons with measurements t aken in March 1968 and March-April 1970. Measurements in 1973 showed a continued loss of depth with age for all potholes in the three bLocks,. Potholes of the 50-lb charge size continued to maintain the greatest depth of the four charge sizes in BlocksB and C, but for the first time slipped slightly below the average depth of 25-lb potholes in Block A. Average depths of l50..,.lb pothdlesinBlock A (27.6 inches) and 75-lb potholes in Block B (28.1 inches) were considerably less than.those'for the other sizes in their respective blocks. ' The greatest loss of depth occurred for 150-lb potholes in Block A between 1970 and 1973 (28.9 percent) and between 1968 and 1973 (35.2 percent). The least loss occurred for 25-lb potholes in Block e between 1970 and 1973 (4.7' percent), while the 75-lb potholes in Block e had the lowest overall 10s80f depth for the 1968-1973 period (15.8 percent). Average depths and percent loss of depth by year and charge size are presented in Table 4 for all blocks combined. The 76 potholes on the study area yielded an average depth of 32.0 inches in 19.73, reSUlting in a loss of 15.3 percent from 1970 to 1973 and a 26.1 percent overall reduction from 1968 to 1973., After five years of life, the 50-lb potholes had the greatest average depth (34.4 inches) of the four charge sizes, with the 150-lb size being the shallowest (29.9 inches). The 150-lb potholes also showed the most loss of depth during their life (30.5 percent). The smallest potholes (25:..1b) sustained the smallest overall loss of depth at 22.2 percent. �-35- Table 1. Comparison of pothole depth measurements in March, 1968, MarchApril 1970, and March-April 1973 by charge size in Block A. Percent Loss of DeEth From From From 1968-1973 1970-1973 1968-1970 Charge Size 1/ (Lbs) Average DeEth ~Inches) 1973 1968 1970 25 45.4 40.3 33.7 11.2 16.4 25.8 50 45.7 39.3 32.8 14.0 16.5 28.2 75 43.0 37.8 31.2 12.1 17.5 27.4 150 42.6 38.8 27.6 8.9 28.9 35.2 Total .44.2 39.1 31.3 11.5 19.9 29.2 1/ Seven potholes of each charge size. Table 2. Comparison of pothole depth measurements in March 1968, MarchApril 1970, and March-April 1973 by charge size in Block B. Percent Loss of DeEth .From From From 1968-1973 1968-1970 1970-1973 Charge Size 1/ (Lbs) Average DeEth (Inches). 1973 1968 1970 25 40.3 36.8 31.7 8.7 13.8 21.3 50 47.9 40.4 34.9 15.6 13.6 27.1 75 39.9 34.1 28.1 14.5 17.6 29.6 150 43.2 36.7 31.0 15.0 15.5 28.2 Total 42.8 37.0 31.4 13.6 15.1 26.6 !/ Seven potholes of each charge size. �N o 12m Scale;> : 1 o TS" ... 0;,?S'. ···0··· ··0 ... • . '. ,fo o ... 0 0·· 0 ..2.J"B ·0/~o ~0·.o ..·0, .. . ··0.. .0.· 0 ..... (0 0' .... (0. o 0 0····0.J..o .. .. O,s···(}0 .. 0 I 0 0 C:) (0 -.'.. W .0\ .0 I S"o 0 .,. ·0· 0 0 -. 0 ~'\ ..',0 . . 0 .\:J -. 0 0·· B~n('h o®. 100 ... 0 .~ 0 o Area o(~ . o C ·02S· o o Fig. L Pothole blast:i.ng study area, showing the position and size e>fphotholes by study area , 0° o �-37- Table 3. Comparison of pothole depth measurements in March 1968, MarchApril 1970, and March-April 1973 by charge size in Block C. Percent Loss of DeEth From From From 1968-1973 1968,..1970 1970-1973 Charge Size 1:./ (Lbs) Average DeEth (Inches) 1973 1970 1968 25 39.5 33.8 32.2 14.4 4.7 18.5 50 47.3 40.0 35.5 15.4 11.2 24.9 75 39.8 ·36.2 33.5 9.0 7.4 15.8 150 43.7 36.7 32.6 16.0 11.2 25.4 Total 42.9 36.9 33.7 14.0 8.7 21.4 II A total of 20 potholes, including 6 25-1b, 7 50-1b, 4 75-1b, and 3 ISO-lb. Table 4. Comparison of pothole depth measurements in March 1968, MarchApri11970, and March-April 1973 by charge size and for a11b1ocks combined. Percent Loss of DeEth From From From 1968-1973 1970-1973 1968-1970 Charge Size 1/ (Lbs) Average Depth (Inches) 1973 1970 1968 25 41.8 37.2 32.5 11.0 12.6 22.2 50 47.0 39.9 34.4 15.1 13.8 26.8 75 41.0 36.0 30.5 12.2 15.3 25.6 150 43.0 37.6 29.9 12.6 20.5 30.5 Total 43.3 37.8 32.0 12.7 15.3 26.1 1/ A total of 76 potholes, including 20-25 1b, 21-50 1b, 18-75 1b, 17-150 lb. and �-38- Invasion by Emergent Vegetation It was thought that another indication of pothole longevity might be the degree to which the potholes were invaded by emergent vegetation, thus reflecting their usefulness and attractiveness to waterfowl as discussed earlier. Tables 5-7 present the estimated proportion of pothole surfaces grown up to emergent vegetation by block and charge size. These data show that no pothole. regardless of size or block occupied, was immune from invasion by emergents. All sizes of potholes in each block also exhibited a wide range in the amount of emergent vegetation present. Emergent vegetation consisted of cattail (Typha latifolia) and bulrush (Scirpus spp.). . The average percent of surface area grown up to emergents was least for 50-lb potholes in Block A (28.9 percent) and greatest for 25-lb potholes in Block C. Potholes in Block A, as a group, seemed to have the least affinity for emergent growth, with an average of 36.8 percent of their surfaces grown up to cattails or bulrush, followed by 43.9 percent for potholes in Block Band 50.0 percent for those in Block C. For all three blocks' combined, the average proportion of surface area occupied by emergents was greatest for 25-lb potholes (54.5 percent) and least for 75-lb potholes (36.1 percent) (Table 8). Potholes of the 50- and l50-lb charge sizes showed percentages only slightly higher than that for the 75-lb size, 40.1 and 42.0 percent, respectively. Thus, with the possible exception of 25-lb potholes, there appeared to ,be little difference among the pothole sizes in regard to percent of surface area encroached upon by emergent vegetation. However, the amount of surface area that remains open in a pothole following invasion by emergents may be more important than the proportion of the surface area grown up to emergents in terms of usefulness or attractiveness ., to waterfowl. For example, a l50-lb pothole with 75 percent of its surface area grown up to emergents would still maintain a larger surface area of open water than a 25-lb pothole with only 25 percent its surface area,grown up to emergents. Waterfowl use in relation to emergent invasion of potholes will be discussed in the next section. Waterfowl Use Duck use of the pothole study area was recorded during four observation periods totaling 67.5 hours in 1973, (1) March 26-28, (2) April 16-20, (3) May 1-4, and (4) May 16-18. Mallards accounted for over 95 percent of the total use. Only 35 of 79 potholes (44.3 percent) were .use d one or more times during these observation periods (Table 9) . This compares to an average of 58, or 70.7 percent, of 82 potholes used at least once during the three year period of 1968-1970. A considerable reduction was noted in the number of 25-, 50-, and 75-lb potholes visited by ducks in 1973, as compared to the 19681970 period, while an increase was observed in the number of l50,,:lbpotholes used. The greatest reduction occurred for the 25-lbpotholes, followed by the 50-lb potholes, 1. e., pothole size was inversely related to the amount of decrease in the number of potholes visited at least once. �-39- Table 5. Proportion of pothole vegetation, March-:-April 1973. Charge Size (Lbs) . surfaces in Block A grown up to emergent Percent of Surface Area Grown Up To Emergents Range Average 25 5.0 - 85.0 37.1 50 5.0 85.0 28.9 75 5.0 95.0 42.8 150 7.5 - 75.0 38.8 5.0 - 95.0 36.8 Total Table 6 . Proportion of vegetation, March-April pothole surfaces in. Block B grown up to emergent .Charge Size (Lbs) . Percent of Surface Area GrownUp To .Emergents Range Average 1973. ·25 5.0 - 85.0 58.2 50 S.O - 95.0 48.6 75 5.0 75.0 31.4 150 5.0 85.0 37.5 5.0 - 95.0 43.9 Total �-40- Table 7. Proportion of pothole vegetation, March-April 1973. Charge Size (Lbs) surfaces in Block C grown up to .eme rgen t Percent of Surface Area Grown Up To Emergents Range Average 25 20.0 - 100.0 68.2 50 20.0 - 80.0 42.8 75 12.5 - 90.0 33.8 150 7.5 80.0 55~0 7.5 - 100.0 50.0 Total Table 8. Proportion of pothole grown up to emergent vegetation, Charge Size (Lbs ) surfaces in all three March-April 1973. blocks combined Percent of Surface Area Grown Up To Emergents Range Average 25 5.0 50 5.0 - 95.0 40.1 . 75 5.0 - 95.0 36.1 150 5.0 .•.85.0 42.0 5.0 - 100.0 43.4 Total 100.0 54.5 �-41- Table 9. Number and percent of potholes used by ducks in 1973, compared to the 1968-1970 period. 1973 1968-l97aY Average Number Used Charge Size (Lbs) Number of PothoLes Number Used Percent 25 21 4 19.0 10.7 51.0 50 21 7 33.3 13.7 65.2 75 20 Y 11 55.0 17.3 82.4 150 17 '1:../ 13 76.5 16.3 85.8 79 35 44.3 58.0 70.7 Total Percent J:./ From Hopper (1972). '1:../ Twenty-one 75-lb potholes and 19 l50-lb potholes constituted the sample during the 1968-1970 period. The reduction in number of potholes utilized in 1973 could be a reflecti-on of decreased attractiveness to ducks since the 1968-1970 period. However, one must be cautious in comparing duck -use between years because of such variables as duck density from year to year in a locality and annual differences in dates of peak populations in relation to designated observation periods. The number of duck visits received by size of pothole and year is compared in Table 10 for all blocks combined. Total number of duck visits is not comparable among years because of annual differences in hours of observation. The main feature in Table 10 is that through the years the proportion of total duck visits received by l50~lb potholes has gradually increased (32.6-58.9 percent), while the proportion received by the other three sizes have generally decreased. Duck use of the various sizes of potholes during the four observation periods in 1973 is shown by block in Tables 11-13 and for all blocks combined in Table 14. Block A was the most frequently used of the three blocks, yielding 5.44 duck visits/hour compared to 2.75 and 1.15 duck visits/hour for Blocks Band C, respectively. The peak.of duck use occurred during the April 16-20 period, no doubt reflecting the early activities of the mallard. �Table 10~ Charge Size (Lbs) 25 50 75 150 Total Comparison of number and percent of duck visits by charge size and year for all blocks combined. 1968 Number of Duck Visits Percent 54 11.0 80 1969 Number of Duck Visits Percent 1970 Number of Duck Visits Percent 1973 Number of Duck Visits Percent 8 4.4 45 8.9 16 7.7 16.3 28 15.6 48 9.5 21 10.2 197 40.1 60 33.3 148 29.4 48 23.2 160 32.6 84 46.7 262 52.1 122 58.9 491 100.0 180 100.0 503 99.9 207 99.9 I ~ I'.) I �-43- based upon Table 11. Duck use of potholes in Block A by charge size, watching from observation points, 1973. Average Number Duck Visits/Hour Charge Size (Lbs2I7 Total 150 75 50 Number Hours Observed 25 3/26 - 3/28 4.00 O.~/ 1.00 1.50 2.92 5.4211 4/16 - 4/20 8.50 0.82 0.47 2.12 6.86 10.27 5/1 - 5/4 5.25 0.38 0.0 0.0 0.67 1.05 5/16 - 5/18 5.50 0.18 0.0 0.54 1.48 2.20 Total 23.25 0.43 0.34 1.16 3.51 5.44 Date l./ Seven potholes of each charge size except for the l50-lb s Lz e which had only six potholes. ~/ Combined duck use for all seven potholes in the row. 1/ Combined duck use for all potholes in the block. Table 12. Duck use of potholes in Block B by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1973. Average Number Duck Visits/Hour Charge Size (Lbs)17 Total 150 75 50 Number Hours Observed 25 3/26 - 3/28 4.00 0.5~/ 0.50 1.00 2.75 4.7511 4/16 - 4/20 8.00 0.50 0.25 0.50 3.50 4.75 5/1 - 5/4 10.50 0.0 0.10 0.86 0.76 1.72 5/16 - 5/18 5.50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.36 0.36 Total 28.00 0.21 0.18 0.61 1.75 2.75 Date l./ Seven potholes of each charge size. ~/ Combined duck use for all seven potholes in the row. 1/ Combined duck use for all potholes in the block. �-44Table 13. Duck use of potholes in Block C by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1973. Average Number Duck Visits/Hour Charge Size (Lbs) 17 50 75 150 Total Date Number Hours Observed 25 4/16 - 4/20 5.50 O. rJ:-/ 1.09 0.0 0.95 2.041/ 5/1 - 5/4 5.25 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5/16 - 5/18 5.50 0.0 0.36 1.02 0.0 1.38 Total 16.25 0.0 0.49 0.34 0.32 1.15 !/ Seven potholes of each charge size except for the 75-lb size which had only five potholes and the l50-lb size with only four potholes. ~/ Combined duck use for all seven potholes in the row. 1/ Combined duck use for all potholes in the block. Table 14. Duck use of potholes in Blocks A, B, and C combined by charge size, based upon watching from observation points, 1973. Average Number Duck Visits/Hour Charge Size (Lbs)17 50 75 150 Total Number Hours Observed 25 3/26 - 3/28 8.0 0.5rJ:-/ 1.50 2.50 5.67 10.173/ 4/16 - 4/20 22.0 1.32 1.81 2.62 11.31 17.06 5/1 - 5/4 21.0 0.38 0.10 0.86 1.43 2.77 16.5 0.18 0.36 1.56 1.84 3.94 67.5 0.64 1.01 2.11 5.58 9.34 Date 5/16 - 5/18 Total !/ Twenty-one potholes of each charge size except for the 75-lb size which had only 19 potholes and the l50-lb size with only 17 potholes. ~/ Combined duck use for all 21 potholes of the same charge size in the three blocks. 2/ Combined duck use for all potholes in the three blocks. �"':45- The l50-lb pothole received the most duck visits/hour in Blocks A and B (3.51 and 1. 75), but 50-lb potholes predominated in Block C (0.49). The 75-lb potholes received the next highest use in all three blocks. For all blocks combined, average riuniber of duckvisitsihour was directly proportional to charge size (Table 14). Overall duck use (duck ~isits/hour) .and that for 50;...and l50-lb charge sizes were greater in 1973' that in any of the other three years of study (1968-: 1970) (Table 15). Tnaddition,150-lb potholes far outstripped the other . charge sizes in duck visits/hour during 1970 cind1973. These data indicate '. that the pothole study area as a whole may be maintaining. its attractiveness to waterfowl, but with a possible shift of use to150-lbpotholes.However, as noted earlier, caution must be exercised in making comparisons amongyears with regard to these data. . ') .. Table 15. Duck use by charge size and year for all . '. 1/ blocks combined.- .Average' NumberDuck Visits/Hour 1970 1969 Charge Size (Lbs) 1968 25 0.62 . 0.26 0.73. 0.64 50 0.92 0.90 0.78 1.01 75 2.26 1.92 2.41 2.11 150 2.03 2.97 4.71 5.58 5.83 6.05 8.63 9.34 Total 1973 1/ Data for the years 1968-1970 from Hopper (1972). Information regarding relationships between duck use and proportion of pothole surfaces grown up to emergents are as yet inconclusive. Another year of data will be helpful. However, there was some indication that ducks avoided potholes that had 76-100 percent of their surface areas grown up to emergents. Only three of 200 total duck visits occurred on the 18 potholes that fell in this category. In contrast, 36 potholes with 0-25 percent of their surfaces grown up to emergents received 123 duck visits. �-46- LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M•. 1968. Determination of methods for developing and managing waterfowl habitat-ammonium nitrate pothole blasting study. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks. Div., Fed. Aiq.Game Res. Rpt , Oct. p. 51-64.' . . Hopper, R. M.1969. Determination of methods for developing and managing 'waterfowl habitat-ammonium nitrate pothole blasting study. Colo. Game, Fish and Pazks Div., Fed , Aid Game Res. Rpt. Oct. p , 73-85. Hopper, R.M. . J.Wildl. Prepared 1972. Waterfowl use in relation Manage. 36(2):459-468. to size and cost of potholes. by _.o.I,t;+' ~·,,",1.C'"'RA:"':i~=~·~..:lIia.r::"d-/c..r""":::"';;;"H~;,L.?!f9;..J~"-=e::;(""?~Mo:::. ~ •.. --'_ Wildlife Researcher �October -47- JOB PROGRESS State 0f Project 1974 REPORT ..::::C;:.O:.::.LO::.:l:...:~..i:...:\.D::...:O=__ _ No. Work Plan No. Migratory W-88-R-19 Job No. 2 Job Title Experimental Studies on Improving The Status of Canada Goose Populations Period April Covered: Bird Investigations 2 _ 6, 1973 to March 17, 1974. Personnel: J. Corey, M. DePra, W. Dolezal, J. Hicks, R. Hopper, T. Lines, J. Lorentzson, W. Olmstead, S. Porter, K. Wagner, J. Wagner, L. Webster, and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT There were 3 successful nesting attempts at the Jumbo Reservoir Annex in 1973. An additional 101 goslings were released on Jumbo Reservoir Annex. One nest was established near Prewitt Reservoir in 1973. A total of 96 goslings were released on Prewitt Reservoir in 1973. Approximately 60 geese were observed on Lake John Annex in North Park on April 6, 1973. A total of 105 adult and subadult geese and 16 goslings were observed on surveyed areas in North Park on June 18; 1973. Unusually late spring breakup of the ice and snow pack probably hampered nesting in North Park in 1973. Seven known nests were established in North Park in 1973, 4 hatched, producing an estimated total of 20 goslings. Six birds which had been released in North Park during previous years were recaptured during their moult at Wheatland Reservoir, near Wheatland Wyoming. One-hundred goslings were released on Walden Reservoir in North Park in July 1973. Eighty goslings were released in July on Antero Reservoir in South Park. ��-49- EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPROVING THE STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the success of attempts to establish breeding populations of Canada geese in suitable habitat where they do not currently exist in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare a technical bulletin on the techniques breeding population of Canada geese. of establishing a 2. To expand the breeding flocks of Canada geese in the South Platte Valley and North Park and continue efforts to establish a breeding flock of Canada geese in South Park. METHODS AND MATERIALS Canada goose goslings for transplant purposes were obtained from three different sources: (1) goslings from the metropolitan Denver area; (2) goslings and eggs from the Fort Collins area, and goslings from Faivre Ponds in the Boulder area. All eggs were transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for incubation and subsequent raising. All goslings were transported to the Research Station, held for variable amounts of time, then transported to the various release sites. Birds were released on Walden Reservoir, Prewitt Reservoir, Jumbo Reservoir Annex and Antero Reservoir. Because of change in reporting recoveries were analyzed. deadlines, no 1973-74 hunting season band RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of Technical Bulletin The first draft of the technical bulletin restoration proj ect is nearly complete. outlinifg the Foothills South Platte Valley-Jumbo Reservoir Annex area goose Approximately 100 Canada geese were observed in the Jumbo Reservoir area in early spring 1973 (Szymczak 1973). There were 3 reported successful nests on the Annex, with brood sizes, of 1, 3 and 5. A total of 9 nests were established on ponds located on private land in the Jumbo Reservoir area. On July 19, 1973, 42 male and 59 female goslings were released on Jumbo Reservoir Annex, bringing the total number of geese released there in 3 years to 303. Generally, the birds remained in the vicinity of the Annex throughout the summer and into the early fall. �-50- South Platte Valley-Prewitt Reservoir In July 1972, 70 Canada goose goslings were released on Prewitt Reservoir, located near the South Platte River in Washington County, in northeast Colorado. In the spring 1973, a small flock of birds were present periodically and 1 nest was reported near Prewitt. The nest was established in a marsh area located below the dam. The nest was apparently established by a pair of birds that had either pioneered into the area, or were members of the 19 birds released there in 1970. On June 25, 1973, 39 male and 41 female goslings were released at Prewitt. An additional 5 males and 11 females were released at the same location on July 19, 1973. The birds remained on the reservoir until early fall when they moved to nearby South Platte River. North Park By August 1972, a total of 831 Canada goose goslings had been released during a 4 year period at 2 locations in North Park. These birds had established the lower Colorado River bordering California and Arizona and the Imperial Valley of California as their winter area (Szymczak 1973). Some of the released birds were using Wheatland Reservoir in Albany County, Wyoming as a molting area (Szymczak 1973). Nesting attempts began in North Park in 1971 and increased in 1972, but comparatively large numbers of birds had not returned to North Park (Szymczak 1973). Spring Returns On March 28, 1973, 25 geese were observed at Lake John Annex. On April 6, 1973 approximately 60 geese were observed on the Annex. About 15 birds were grouped and feeding on grain placed in the artifical feeder .. Mbstof the other birds were in pairs and were feeding in the pasture to the south of the Annex. Some pairs were closely associated with nesting structures. At least 2 pairs were observed copulating. Snow and ice cover was nearly continuous throughout the area except for a small area of open water on the very southern part of the Annex and about a 30 acre area of the pasture located directly south and adjacent to the open water. No potential natural nest sites were free of snow. On April 27, 1973, 30 to 31 geese were observed for a period of time on Lake John Annex. Most birds were in pairs. One nest was observed on an elevated structure on the southeast corner of the pond. Also on April 27, 1973, 9 geese were observed on the extreme southeast corner of Walden Reservoir, the only part of the reservoir in which the water was open. Summer Res iden ts On May 23 and 24, 1972 a complete survey of all major water areas, with the exception of the river's systems, was conducted. The survey was duplicated June 18, 1973. The number of adult and subadult geese observed on those surveys by area are presented in Table 1. �-51- Table l. Number of full grown Canada geese observed surveys in North Park, Colorado. during late spring No. in Pairs 1972 No. in Groups Lake John. Annex 4 33 16 59 Walden Reservoir 10 10 0 15 MacFarlane 2 0 0 10 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 0 22 43 16 89 Location Reservoir Pole Mountain Boettcher Reservoir Lake Total 1973 No. in Pairs 1/ No. in Groups 11 Count taken during molt, grouping of birds tends to mask observation of pairs. One hundred five full grown birds were observed during the 1973 survey, compared to 65 in 1972 (Table 1). IIi 1971 the largest group observed during that period was 50 (Szymczak 1972). Nesting and Production Thorough nest searches have not been conducted in North Park, mainly because of the disturbance factor. Information on nesting and production has been gathered through long distance observation, chance encounters and counts of broods and nests during the late spring surveys discussed above. During 1973, nesting attempts were hampered by an unusually late spring. There is a possibility that many of the potential nesting birds either did not attempt to nest or were unsuccessful because of inclement weather. Known production information for 1973 is summarized along with previous years data in Table 2. Molting Birds released in North Park continue to be recaptured on Wheatland Reservoir in Wyoming during banding operations. In June, 1973 6 birds were captured at.Wheat1and. Only one of the 6 had not been captured there before, and one bird was·recaptured for the fourth consecutive year. �-52- Table 2. Known production data for Canada geese in North Park 1971-1973. No. of Nests Established 1971 1972 1973 Area Lake John Annex 1 3 6 1 2 4 Boettcher 0 2 0 0 2 0 Arapahoe National Wildlife Refuge 0 1 1 0 1 1 Total 1 6 7 1 5 5 l/ Actual goslings Lake number unknown, produced. New Releases,Summer Estimated No. Goslings Produced 1971 1972 1973 No. Hatched 1971 1972 1973 7 16 0 11 0 0 -1/ - 1/ 23 20 average brood size used for estimates Observations of total and Early Spring Returns. On July 9, 1973, 59 males and 41 females were released on Walden Reservoir, bringing the total number of birds released in North Park to 931. Periodic observations indicated that the birds remained on Walden Reservoir throughout the summer and into early fall. Approximately 30 birds were observed on Walden in late November. On March 17, 1974, 3 geese were observed flying over Walden Reservoir. Annual, first early spring observations for Canada geese are summarized Table 3. Table 3. First spring observations and location. Date in for Canada geese in North Park by year Number Observed Location Observed April 11, 1970 11 Lake John Annex April 10, 1971 10 Illinois River, west of Walden March 12, 1972 16 North Platte River, near Delaney Buttes March 28, 1973 25 Lake John Annex March 17, 1974 3 Walden Reservoir �-53- South Park-Antero Reservoir On July 2, 1973, 46 male and 34 female Canada goose goslings were released on Antero Reservoir in Park County. Seventy-six birds were released at that same location in July 1972. Restoration efforts in South Park are designed to supplement a small nesting population which is present on Antero (Szymczak 1973). In the spring of 1973 birds did return to Antero and successfully reproduce. It is assumed that those nesting birds were members of the remnant population. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1972. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88....:R.October. p. 39-49. 1973. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. In Press. Prepared J!i'~i by . ·~/-!····1/tJlJ:J:~'·Co·:=::·~. _.-<Jf?t:..... !..!.•.••.•.. /..:l.~ A~.f-· sx:-~ ~.~:2..Michael R. ~~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher /1 ��October 1974 -55- JOB FINAL REPORT ,State of ---.;C:.;;;O..;;;LO=ru:.;;;AD;:;.-O~ _'___ Project No. W-88-R-19 Work Plan No. Job Title Job NO._, __ ~~5~ - __ ~~_ Arkansas Valley Canada Goose Flock Management Studies Period Covered: Personnel: 2 ,Migratory Bird Investigations April 1, 1966 through March 31, 1973 Ann Leckler, D. Bogart, J. Carsel1a, V. Clark, G. Eyre, R. Forbes, B. Goetze, L. Green, J. Grieb, A. Heins, D. Hopper, L. Johnson, R. Kitzmiller, C. Leonard,D. Minnich, H. Moorhead, G. Nugent, P. Olson, D. Potts, R. Rosette, F. Roth, W. Russell, W. Rutherford, R. Velarde, B. Widhalm, and M. Szymczak. ABSTR.~CT The earliest arrival date of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in southeast Colorado during the 1966 through 1971 period was November 3, 1967 with the latest being December 10, 1962. During the last 10 years there has been a general increase in the number of birds staying at Turk's Pond during the winter, with a decline in the number of birds staying at Two Buttes Reservoir and at the Eads Lakes. The number of birds staying at Meredith and John Martin Reservoirs have remained fairly stable. In January 1974 the total short grass prairie population numbered 149,270 birds, approximately eight percent below the population size objective for that year. Special regulations designed to retard movement of geese out of southeast Colorado into the Texas Panhandle had no effect through 1968. Various one-half day hunting regulations, first initiated in 1969 definitely were effective in retaining geese in southeast Colorado Under most conditions. Feeding flight activity during various half day regulations is discussed. During the seven year period of this study the percent of young in the harvest on firing lines varied from 59 percent in 1971-72 to 7.5 percent in 1972-73. On decoy hunting areas the portion of young in 'the harvest was on the average, 19 percent higher than on firing line areas. During the 1970-71 season hunters on the Two Buttes Management Area harvested 1,733 geese in 3,170 hunter days for an average of 0.55; the latter figure a Two Buttes Management Area record. Seventy-eight percent of the geese harvested on the Two Buttes Management Area were taken on the south side of the reservoir during the 1966-67 through 1968-69 periods. During the 196970 season a record 512 geese were harvested in 1,361 hunter days, for an average bag per hunter day of 0.38. Harvest in all of southeast Colorado reached a record 30,329 during the 1970-71 season. Baca County was the major county of harvest in five of the seven seasons from 1966-67 through 1972-73. Males composed 50.3 percent of the 5,748 birds trapped during post-season banding operations from 1966-67 through 1972-73. On the basis of weight loss during the season, geese mainta'ined better body condition during the various halfday hunting regulations than during season long full day hunting regulations. Beginning in 1966, Saskatchewan replaced Alberta as the major recovery locations of Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado and taken on the migrational staging area. Harvest on the migrational staging area in Alberta and Saskatchewan of birds banded post-season in southeast Colorado has accounted for an average of 39 percent of the annual band recoveries since the 1966-67 hunting �-56- ABSTRACT (Continued) season compared to 44 percent prior to 1966-67. Harvest in Colorado has accounted for an average of 33 percent of the annual band recoveries since 1966-67 compared to 29 percent prior to that period. Mortality rates for geese banded post-season in southeast Colorado calculated by the composite dynamic method are .257, .263, and.260 for adults, juveniles and all age classes combined, respectively. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. At least two inventories of Canada geese in southeast Colorado should. be conducted each year. These surveys, one in early December and one in early January should be coordinated with other agencies in Nebraska, Texas and NewMexico so that as complete a count as possible of the short grass prairie popuLatLon will be obtained. 2. Experimentation with management practices and season regulations should be continued in attempts to obtain an acceptable distribution of geese both within southeast. Colorado and the entire short grass prairie wintering range. 3. In order to enhance the possibility of successful public hunting at Two Buttes Reservoir, ari attempt should be made to gain control of the land adjacent to the south side of the reservoir. 4. A quota of Canada geese should be banded post-season in southeaSt Colorado. Currently, the quota shoul.d iba 1,000 birds of any age or sex banded at any location, or number of locations. The age' of. each bird should be determined by the notched tail feather method, and the sex determined by cloacal examination. Bands should be placed only on birds of known age and sex. Continued banding is essential to monitor the mortality and harvest distribution of the population. Annualanalysis of recoveries should be a: cooperative effort between the management staff responsible for the banding and the migratory bird research staff. 5. A representative of the management staff of the Colorado Division o f Wildlife should function as a memberof the Short Grass Prairie Canada Goose Subcomridttee of the Central Flyway Technical Commi.t t ee , The representative should be responsible forgathering allpertinentinformation concerning the Colorado segment of the short grass prairie goose population and presenting the information to other members of the sub~ comridttee. The representative will participate in all subcommittee discussions and decisions concerning any aspect of the short grass prairie Canada goose flock. �-57- ARKANSAS VALLEY GOOSE FLOCK MANAGEMENT Michael STUDIES R. Szymczak Arkansas Valley goose flock management studies evolved from earlier investigative programs conducted and reported by Grieb (1970) and Rutherford (1970). This study was designed to carryon various management programs initiated during the two previous studies. The basic objective was to collect information which would enable an annual evaluation of the status of the Arkansas Valley segment of the short-grass prairie Canada goose population. In addition, during the course of the study, new approaches to the management of Canada geese in the Arkansas Valley were evaluated. The termination of this project in no way indicates that Colorado will discontinue the collection of vital management information. The collection of these data will continue as a function of the management staff of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect management goose population. information on the wintering short-grass prairie Canada METHODS AND MATERIALS Periodic aerial counts were conducted in the Arkansas Valley throughout the study. At least two inventories each year were coordinated with other agencies resulting in essentially simultaneous counts throughout the short-grass prairie wintering range in Nebraska, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas and New Mexico. Tail fans were collected annually at check stations at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management areas in order to obtain some information on the age composition of the flock. Occasionally tail fans were obtained through hunter bag checks at other areas throughout the Arkansas Valley. The age of each Canada goose banded was recorded. Family group counts were conducted during the first year of the study. Records concerning hunting pressure and harvest were collected at the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management areas. Estimates of harvest for all of southeast Colorado were obtained from the annual small game hunter harvest survey. During a portion of the study, Canada goose feeding flights were observed at various locations throughout southeast Colorado. Information on time and size of flights and the general behavior of the birds was recorded. Canada geese were trapped and banded in southeast Colorado-post season throughout the length of the study. The sex, age and weight of each goose banded was determined. Morphological measurements of geese captured were taken during two post-season trapping periods. �-58- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION According to Grieb (1970) the time of arrival of geese on the wintering ground in southeast Colorado is dependent on a major storm appearing on the staging area in Alberta and Saskatchewan. In response to the storm, the birds generally move south en masse to their wintering areas. From 1960 through 1971 the earliest arrival date in southeast Colorado was November 3, and the latest December 10 (Table 1). Table 1. Arrival dates of Canada geese in southeast Colorado, 1960-71. 1/ Year Date of Arrival 1960 November 8 1961 November 5 1962 December 10 1963 November 22 1964 November 20 1965 November 12 1966 November 10 1967 November 3 1968 November 17 1969 November 16 1970 November 17 1971 November 10 1/ Dates for 1960 through 1965 are from Grieb 1970. In the fall of 1970 the chronology of arrival of geese on the wintering ground in southeast Colorado was definitely atypical. Some birds began arriving as early as October 15. About October 30 a substantial movement into southeast Colorado occurred, resulting in a total of about 25,000 on November 9. About November 17 the major portion of the migrant birds moved into the area with the aerial survey on November 23 recording approximately 90,000 birds. Apparently the early season movement south by a portion of the population was the result of an early cold period on the Alberta-Saskatchewan �-59- staging areas. Normally, the first cold period on the staging area moves birds from the lakes and reservoirs to the rivers (A. Dzubin, personal communication). Distribution of the Wintering Population Rutherford (1970) discussed the combined influence of weather, water, food conditions and to some degree, hunting pressure on the distribution of the wintering population of Canada geese in southeast Colorado. From the 1966 through 1972 period, no fewer than three and no more than seven aerial flights were conducted to determine the population size and distribution of these birds. In order to obtain an index that is comparative between areas an average number of birds present throughout a particular season, using all aerial counts, was calculated for an area and presented as a percent of the total birds in southeast Colorado (Table 2). This method results in an average look at anyone season. Over the ten year period each area underwent some drastic fluctuations, probably in response to variations in conditions discussed by Rutherford (1970). On a long term basis, as partially indicated by five year average presented in Table 2, there is a general increase in the percent of birds at Turk's Pond and declines at the Eads Lake and Two Buttes. Both the Meredith area and John Martin seems to have remained fairly stable. During the seven year period of this study, various changes in regulations were instigated in attempts to alter the distribution of geese in southeast Colorado. In 1966, all areas south of the Arkansas River Valley proper had a later opening hunting date than the remainder of the Arkansas Valley. The same regulation had been in effect in 1965 (Rutherford 1966). In 1967, 1968 and 1969 the Two Buttes Reservoir area only, was subject to the delay. In addition, in 1967 and 1968, the north and south sides of the reservoir were open and closed to hunting alternately, at weekly intervals. Regulations during the 1965 and 1966 seasons were designed primarily to encourage birds to remain in southeast Colorado in general and in Baca County specifically~ for the entire hunting season. Regulations in 1967, 1968 and 1969 were designed not only to achieve the above goal but also to maintain birds at Two Buttes Reservoir because most of them had been gathering and remaining at Turk's Pond. The effects of these types of regulations on distribution in southeast Colorado can only be described as erratic. Regulations at Two Buttes seemed to achieve the objective in 1967, but not in 1968 or 1969 (Tables 2 and 3) • In 1972 a full day season was in effect in the Two Buttes-Turk's area while only half-day hunting was allowed in the Arkansas Valley proper. This regulation was designed to maintain more birds in the more northerly Meredith, John Martin, Eads Lakes areas, and hopefully, delaying mass movement to the Two Buttes-Turk's area at least until later in the year; an objective which was not met. In the final analysis it seems that no regulation applied to date, designed to influence the distribution of geese within southeast Colorado has been conSistently effective. �-60- Table 2. Percentage distribution of geese located on selected wintering areas in southeast Colorado, pooling all census results by year. 1/ Year-- Meredith John Martin Area Eads Lakes Two Buttes Turk's 1963 9.0 14.3 31.5 41.1 1.5 1964 0.7 2.7 47.4 31.5 17.6 1965 5.6 11.2 20.3 30.1 24.0 1966 11.4 19.0 32.1 7.3 18.4 1967 6.9 16.1 24.0 33.0 16.4 1968 4.5 16.2 28.5 15.7 32.4 1969 6.2 12.2 35.3 16.1 24.6 1970 10.7 18.2 16.2 32.9 20.6 1971 5.3 12.5 22.2 18.8 35.3 1972 3.3 15.7 13.2 24.6 42.5 Totals 1963-67 6.7 13.1 27.8 28.6 17.6 Totals 1968-72 6.4 14.4 23.4 21.6 30.2 1/ Years 1963 through 1965 from Rutherford 1970. �Table 3, Year Ae r Lal, Date counts Meredith Reserv. 0f Canada geese, southeast Meredith Lake Area Holbrook Reserv. Dye Reserv. 1966··67 11/15 12/1 1/2 4,150 6,700 1,475 0 400 200 0 350 175 1967-68 11/17 11/28 121'1 1/1l!il 1,850 5,275 2,550 1,400 0 0 165 0 0 50 500 450 11/20 12/5 12/17 1/2 1/16 3,810 1,075 600 600 890 0 0 IS 0 0 1969-70 11/21 12/9 12/19 1/7 1/16 7,600 3,900 1,075 2,650 845 0 100 400 600 1,200 1970-71 11n3 12/11 12/23 11M 9,700 9,350 10,7201/ 4,695- 0 0 150 0 1971-72 IDU1l3 lIf9 11/22 12/6 12/13 12/21 1 3,400 13,000 1,300 5,200 3,000 250 1,500 1968-69 't.. 1972-73 lUlllO 1l/28 Ub12 l/Z 3,500 1,100 500 200 1/ Est Lmat.eefrom ground. 0 0 30 0 200 Others Colorado, 1966-1972. John Blue Lake Area Ho r se c re ek Blue Rese rv . Lake 5,000 1,200 0 Other 1,800 900 0 John Mart in Re s er v. 8,300 5,000 3,500 ".'e rh oe f f Pond 0 25 2,000 Martin I Ead s Lakes Ar~a Area S Ot he r Sweetwater Reserv. Nee Noshe Upper Queens flamingo Swede Lake Other Two Buttes 2,200 1,500 275 3,300 75 1,0 13,300 9,000 9,125 I, lOO 25 2,000 0 0 0 150 0 900 1,800 3,200 15,500 9,000 1,800 3,000 450 950 Specific - 0 4,500 0 0, 12 n J.50 0 900 40 1,375 250 i,iS5 o 3,500 150 0 1,500 500 3,200 80 175 450 0 100 1,100 0 700 125 120 Turk IS Pond Bonny nese rv. Other Totals -- 8,000 500 130 2,500 6,800 12,500 0 150 305 49,650 37,137 31,835 13,500 15,500 15,000 11 6, 80CP 5,000, 5,000 8,8001/ l1,50CP 0 0 0 32 44,500 55,580 41,500 42,682 11,500 600 500 600 11,000 9,500 10,000 15,000 11,000 4,500 0 108 1,777 631 19 45,000 24,833 26,592 24,5::n 33,366 0 0 5 394 25 56,846 60,700 55,980 63,444 64,759 0 25 450 0 700 0 0 0 1,100 '1,790 300 0 5,500 15,675 6,000 2,500 0 0 0 0 12 450 0 0 0 0 350 400 300 0 0 100 12,300 0 4,000 0 700 0 3,500 0 4,500 185 3,700 0 0 0 6,400 4,500 5,000 7,000 9,000 0 0 20 0 0 5,000 1,700 0 0 4 2,200 4,000 0 0 0 4,000 400 16,000 12,000 6,800 1,900 0 0 55 3,500 7,54'; 19,OOO 4,600 12,000 6,500 9,000 4,000 In,OOO 11,000 0 1,900 400 0 0 201 1,200 1,000 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 12,000 9,000 4.,500 6,000 17,OnO 7,000 12,000 13,500 27,800 14,000 1,000 1,000 500 1,000 0 500 0 0 0 0 0 9 29,00011 24,60CP 20,400 32,200 12,0001, 21,20CP' 20,000 13,400 I,OOO!! 0 1,7001/ 1,00CP 89,400 90,550 80,249 62,720 600 3,800 600 0 0 100 6,000 0 7,500 7,000 300 0 2,000 5,600 8,000 15,000 22 ,SOD 2,,200 9,500 11,000 14,000 16,400 6,700 18,500 25,000 6,000 8,300 16,000 17, 300 32,000 25,000 34,000 51,000 600 0 0 600 0 0 300 40,000 80,200 65,050 85,500 85,000 87,750 76,400 400 0 0 0 3,900 13,100 900 5,000 1,300 11,500 10,000 13,000 10,900 10,000 18,000 23,000 0 300 0 0 24,200 47,500 32,650 41,300 ° 0 0 300 0 0 a 4,430 350 23,700 0 10,000 14,750 / 1,100 9,OOol0 2,/00 220 0 120 300 5,300 11,600 3,800 600 330 400 5,700 1,500 7,300 9,000 1,700 0 0 0 3,0001,400 100 0 25 0 0 0 1,400 3,000 0 0 0 0 15,000 12,000 6,000 5,000 12,000 0 10,600 2,700 50 i , ';00 4,000 14,000 8,100 0 4,100 8,000 8,000 0 0 0 3,400 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,000 11,000 3,000 0 2,200 200 700 100 - , - '", �-62- Size of the Wintering Population Total Population Grieb (1970) stated that a basic management objective for the short grass prairie Canada goose population should be an increase in numbers at the rate of 5 percent per year as long as restraints on the population are not warranted. When this study was initiated in 1966 the population was estimated to be about 110,000 birds (Table 4). According to Grieb's suggested rate of increase, the population should have numbered 155,000 by January, 1973. unfortunately, counts of short grass prairie Canada geese in January, 1973 were not reliable. The January, 1974 count, taken after the termination of data collection under this project, totaled 149,270, or about 8 percent below the projected population figure of 162,000 for January, 1974. Table 4. Post-hunting season status of Short Grass Prairie Canada goose populations, 1960-73, data generally from regular mid-winter inventories. Year Number of Birds Year Number of Birds 1960 77,709 1967 111,452 1961 103,355 1968 127,903 1962 80,133 1969 112,399 1963 93,940 1970 147,414 1964 81,221 1971 152,734 1965 103,435 1972 134,500 1966 110,485 1./ 1973 257,500 ~/ 11 Inven tory of February 15, 1966 substituted inventory. Y Unreliable for unsatisfactory January coun t. A definite problem in obtaining a good reliable count has arisen in recent years. Birds from the short grass prairie nesting popUlation are beginning to winter in the Hi-Line population wintering range in north-central Colorado and southeastern Wyoming (Szymczak In press). To date, the portion of the popUlation wintering in the Hi-Line area has not been isolated in terms of numbers, and therefore total short grass breeding population numbers have not been obtained. Numbers of short grass birds Wintering in the Hi-Line area seem to have been erratic from year to year, but have probably not exceeded 10,000 birds. �-63- Southeast Colorado Population Earlier in this report a discussion concerning the distribution of Canada geese in southeast Colorado touched on the implementation of various regulations designed to maintain a huntable population of Canada geese in southeast Colorado throughout the hunting season. For five years, beginning in 1964, delayed opening type regulations designed to allow geese to establish feeding patterns prior to the opening of the hunting season were in effect. In 1967 and 1968 the season opening date on the Two Buttes Wildlife area was delayed even further. In 1968, an evaluation of the five years of expe riment ation indicated that the regulations had not been effective in retarding the movement of geese into the Texas Panhandle, as was the original objective. Colorado was retaining a decreasing percent of an increasing short grass prairie popuiation (Fig. 1). In 1969, Colorado initiated half-day hunting regulations in order to meet the wintering grounds numbers objective of at least 40,000 birds throughout the hunting season in southeast Col.orado (Rutherford 1970). The regulations from 1969 through 1972 were as follows: 1969 - November 22, 1969 through January 15, 1970; one-half hour before sunrise to noon. 1970 - October 31, 1970 through December 11, 1970; one-half hour before sunrise to noon. December 12,1970 rise to sunset. through January 17,1971; one-half hour before sun- 1971.- November 1, 1971 through December 10, 1971; one-half hour before sunrise to noon. December 11, 1971 through January 16, 1972; one-half hour before sunrise to sunset. 1972 - For all areas except Baca County (Two Buttes-Turk's Area) October 28, 1972 through December 1, 1972; one-half hour before sunrise to noon. December 2, 1972 through January 14, 1973; one-half hour before sunrise to sunset. Baca County - October 28, 1972 through January 14, 1973; one-half hour before sunrise to sunset. The popUlation seemed to respond immediately to the regulation. In 1969 counts in southeast Colorado totaled over 55,000 in late November and remained high for the entire winter (Table 3). In 1970, inventories in southeast Colorado averaged nearly 81,000 birds for the entire season. In 1971, Colorado maintained the highest sustained percentage of the population having 80,000 birds in the state in early November, and a record 76,000 or about 57 percent of the total population duritig the January 1972 inventory (Tables 3 and 5, Fig. 2). �150,000 JANUARY INVENTORY 125,000 <, 100,000 ~ ~ ~ (.; CI.l ~ 0 p:: ~ ....., ~ 75,000 I 0\ .j::'- J I ~. 50,000 '" ... / '" "" / ..•. ..• .•.. ,Colorado Population ..•..•.- -- --- - / ---- - - - - - •...••. / , ...• ...•..'" ,- / ..•.• / '" .•..• .... .... <, <, 25,000 1961 1962 .------------------,------------------,~----------------,_----------------~~----------------_r------------------r---------- 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 YEAR Fig. 1. Comparison of the Colorado and Texas Panhandle segments of the Short Grass Prairie Canada Goose Populations, January 1961 through January 1969. �-65- JANUARY INVENTORY 150,000 125,000 ~ ~ ~ .00 100,000 C-' ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ 75,000 I / 50,000 Colorado Population ••... / I I / / 25,000 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 YEAR Fig. 2. Comparison of southeast Colorado's population with total Short Grass Prairie Population according to the coordinated January inventory. �-66- However, Colorado populations during the 1972 hunting season fell to prehalf day hunting season levels with flocks generally equally reduced in all areas. Still the large concentration of birds during the 1972 season was in the Two Buttes-Turk' s Pond area, the area which was subject to full day hunting. Table 5. 1948-74. January inventory of Canada geese, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, Year Goose Count Year Goose Count Year Goose Count 1948 4,798 1957 24,617 1966 38,635 '1:../ 1949 12,286 1958 35,894 1967 29,835 1950 13,170 1959 44,660 1968 42,682 1951 19,320 1960 37,394 1969 29,201 1952 30,463 1961 31,360 1970 63,444 1953 20,236 1962 40,250 1/ 1971 62,720 1954 20,280 1963 35,889 1972 76,400 1955 25,110 1964 33,750 1973 41,300 1956 24,212 1965 37,693 1974 27,400 1/ Inventory of February 7, 1962 substituted for January, 1962 inventory. l/ Inventory of February 15, 1966 substituted for January, 1966 inventory. Four years of experimentation with half-day hunting regulations have shown that birds can be retained in southeast Colorado under most conditions using the half-day hunting technique. Apparently under existing conditions, the Two Buttes-Turk's complex in Baca County is the critical area. Therefore, if comparatively large numbers of birds are to remain in southeast Colorado throughout the season, more than likely the majority of those birds will be in Baca County. Effects of Half-day Hunting Regulations on Flight Patterns During the 1969-70 and 1970-71 hunting seasons the feeding flight patterns of Canada geese were observed in order to document the possible influence of the regulation on flight patterns. As stated before, during the 1969-70 �-67- season hunting was allowed only from sunrise until 12:00 o'clock noon. In 1970-71, half-day hunting was in effect only through December 11, 1970, followed by sunrise to sunset hunting for the remainder of the season. Because of variations in ecological factors influencing patterns as discussed by Rutherford (1970), each season was considered separately. The following are general conclusions resulting from the observations. Season - 1969-70 1. Prior to the beginning of the hunting season geese made feeding flights twice each day, one in the morning and a second in the afternoon in spite of approaching full moon conditions. 2. In the Eads Lakes, John Martin, Meredith Lake area birds began feeding exclusively in the late afternoon and through the night on November 23, the day that the season opened and the height of the full moon period. In the Two Buttes area birds continued to fly twice each day after November 23, but afternoon flights gradually began later in the day and night feeding was common during the November 22 through November 28 period. Hunting pressure was heavy in the Eads Lakes area and light in the Two But tes area. 3. In general, the cessation of morning flights was closely correlated to light of the moon phases during the hunting season in the months of November and December. Rutherford (1970) found that geese in southeast Colorado fed exclusively at night for about 10 days each month during the full moon phase. 4. Geese subject to firing line hunting around reservoirs showed a more definite response to light-of-moon phases by discontinuing morning flights, than under non-firing line situations. 5. Inclement weather stimulated morning flights even during light of the moon periods. Cold weather retarded morning flights even during dark of the moon pe riods -. 6. There were definite indications toward the end of the season, that geese responded to morning hunting pressure by delaying feeding flights tintil afternoon. Season - 1970-71 1. Generally, two a day flights occurred from the time geese arrived in southeast Colorado throughout the entire half day hunting portion of the season, with the November full moon having very little effect on the flight patterns. 2. For about a nine day period December 11 through 19 with the height of the full moon period on December 12, essentially no morning flights occurred. �-68- 3. Morning flights resumed on December 20, but were not of significant size for the remainder of the season. 4. Afternoon flights occurred from December 12 through the remainder of the season. Full moon periods did not stimulate exclusive night feedings. However, on some days birds would leave reservoirs in late afternoon and not return until after dark. 5. Again, as during the 1969-70 season cold weather retarded morning flights. Age Composition Grieb (1970) and Rutherford (1970) both discussed the value of obtaining population age-ratio information on migration and wintering areas as an indirect indication of production. Each agreed that age ratios obtained using birds harvested by hunters tended to over estimate the percentage of young in the population because young are taken at a faster rate than adults, as pointed out by Rutherford (1968). Grieb (1970) discussed the wide variety of opinion relative to the validity of cannon-net trapping in obtaining Canada goose age ratios. He concluded that age-ratios obtained from cannon-net trapping in southeast Colorado "could well be representative of the age ratio of birds in the vicinity of the trap site", and therefore, proper sampling with the cannon-net would provide reliable estimates. Trapping techniques during this study followed no specific sampling technique. Other factors such as the mere presence and accessibility of a trap site and its physiographic features were of prime importance. Many times, catches were made at the same site throughout the trapping season. Therefore, for the population to be properly sampled, the geese had to be distributed somewhat randomly. In analysis of age data collected during the period of this study the assumptions relative to obtaining reliable estimates were not made. Age data collected were considered only as a possilbe gross indicator of production and no management decisions were made based on age-ratio data. Age ratio information for both hunter harvested birds and trapped birds for this study are presented in detail in the preceding annual progress reports for this job. For the purpose of this report, annual summaries are presented in Table 6. Rutherford (1970) found that through 1967-68 the percent of young in the sample harvested by hunters was higher than the percent in the trapped sample in nine out of eleven years. From the 1968-69 season through the 1972-73 season, only one season, 1972-73, -showed a lower percent of immatures in the harvested birds as compared to the trapped birds (Table 6). The harvested sample for 1972-73 numbered only 67 birds. �Table 6. Age composition of the short grass prairie Canada goose population in southeastern Colorado. Banding Year No. Adult Percent Young No. Percent 1950-51 1951-52 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 344 649 346 214 269 1,171 671 607 360 789 53.3 50.9 66.4 42.2 60.0 62.3 77.7 44.7 57.7 80.6 300 627 175 293 179 710 192 750 264 189 46. 7 49.1 33.6 57.8 40.0 37.7 22.3 55.3 42.3 19.4 438 700 928 379 549 703 496 59.3 70.6 83.2 61.1 64.1 67.2 87.9 300 292 187 241 307 343 68 40.7 29.4 16.8 38.9 35.9 32.8 12.1 Check Station Firing Line Decoy Adult Young Adult Young No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent 356 46.8 404 53.2 929 377 612 527 204 377 442 571 217 245 136 110 672 867 62 47.9 1,010 36.5 655 45.5 732 55.7 419 48.9 213 52.1 346 63.1 259 340 62.7" 45.3 262 59.9 164 61.8 84 55.3 89 40.9 972 62.4 522 92.5 5 52.1 63.5 54.5 44.3 51.1 47.9 36.9 37.3 54.7 40.1 38.2 44.7 59.1 37.6 7.5 t 0' \0 t 79 143 77 128 102 51.3 35.9 27.4 33.7 71.3 75 255 204 252 41 48.7 64.1 72.6 66.3 28.7 �-70- The establishment of a decoy hunting only, area in southeast Colorado in 1968 provided an opportunity to compare the age-ratio of birds harvested over decoys with those harvested on the Two Buttes firing line. For the five year period the percent of young in the decoy harvest exceeded the young in the firing line harvest by an average of 19 percent. The differences ranged t from about 11 to 29 percent. The percent of young in the banded sample from 1966-67 through 1972-73 was between 30 and 40 percent for five of the seven years (Table 6). In 1968-69 and 1972-73 the percent young was comparatively very low, 16.8 and 12.1 percent, respectively. According to post-season population counts, the low number of young in 1968-69 apparently did indicate a reduced population (Table 4). But no such direct correlation was present in 1972-73, nor had it been in 1964-65 when the percent of young in the banded sample fell below 20 percent. Hun ting Pressure and Harves t Two Buttes Management Area Estimates of hunting pressure and harvest on the Two Buttes area were collected annually through the 1972-73 hunting season. Collection of information at Two Buttes began in 1957. During the 1958-59 hunting season, a record 1,947 geese were harvested by individuals hunting a record 7,343 days, for a .27 bird per hunter day average. The most successful hunting year on record at Two Buttes was the 1970-71 season when 1,398 hunters hunted a total of 3,170 days and bagged 1,733 geese for an average bag per hunter day of 0.55 (Table 7). Regulations during the 1970-71 season permitted sunrise until noon hunting from October 31 until December 11, 1970, followed by sunrise to sunset hunting until January 17, 1971. The average bag per hunter day during half-day hunting was 0.66, compared to 0.46 during full day hunting. Counts at Two Buttes during the 1970-71 season indicated the population present varied from 20,000 to 32,000 (Table 3). During the 1971-72 season the regulations were essentially the same, the population was usually fairly substantial, but did fluctuate, but hunting success on the management area declined primarily because of the loss of the land on the south side of the reservoir to public hunting. Rutherford (1970) pointed out that maintaining optimum numbers of geese at Two Buttes Reservoir was essential in order to provide the greatest amount of public recreation at Two Buttes Management· area. During a six year period beginning in 1963, the harvest on the Two Buttes Management area was recorded by pit number, and whether it occurred on the north or south side of the reservoir. From the 1963-64 through the 1965-66 seasons, 60 percent of the geese harvested on the management area were taken on the south side (Rutherford 1964, 1965, 1966). From the 1966-67 through the 1968-69 period, 78 percent of the birds were harvested on the south side. In addition to the distribution of harvest information, observations of goose feeding flights have indicated a general increase in flights south, both leaving and returning to Two Buttes. Daily exchanges of geese between Two Buttes and Turk's Pond, which is located southeast of Two Buttes Reservoir, were mentioned by Rutherford (1970). The �-71- loss of the south side of Two Buttes Reservoir for public hunting was extremely detrimental to public goose hunting at Two Butt.es. Not only must optimmn numbers of birds be maintained at Two Buttes, but given current prevailing flight pat terns, the south side of the reservoir must be available for public use in order to provide the greatest amount of public recreation at the Two Buttes Management area. Table 7. Goose harves t, hunting pressure, and hunter success, Two Buttes Managemen tAre a. Year No. of Individual Hunters No. of Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged 1966-67 1,257 2,413 1967-68 840 1968-69 Ave. Bag per Hunter Ave. Bag per Hunter Day 493 0.36 0.20 1,554 433 0.52 0.28 792 1,309 243 0.31 0.19 1969-70 659 1,182 248 0.38 0.21 1970-71 1,398 3,170 1,733 1.24 0.55 1971-72 830 134 0.16 1972-73 1,003 90 0.09 Lamar-Eads Management Area Prior to the 1968-69 goose hunting season, the Lamar-Eads Management area was established near the Eads Lakes complex north of Lamar. Regulations on the management area permitted decoy hunting only. A record of hunting pressure and success was maintained on the management area through the 1972-73 hunting season. During that five year period, hunting success was highest during the 1969-70 season when 512 geese were harvested by 703 hunters at a rate of 0.38 geese per hunter day (Table 8). Southeast Colorado An estimate of hunting pressure and harvest for all of southeast Colorado was obtained annually from the regular state-wide small game random harvest survey. Both Grieb (1970) and Rutherford (1970) mentioned problems in obtaining harvest estimates through this type of a survey. Rutherford (1970) indicated the survey probably provided a good estimate of the numbers of hunters participating, but cited Grieb's (1970) comment that the harvest estimates were probably �-72- inflated. In final analysis, Grieb (1970) surmised that since the statewide survey was conducted in the same manner each year it was of year to year trend value. Table 8. Goose harvest, Man agemen t Are a. hunting pressure, and hunter success, Lamar-Eads Year No. of Individual Hunters No. of Hunter Days No. of Geese Bagged 1968-69 598 1,062 160 1969-70 703 1,361 512 0.73 0.38 1970-71 705 1,128 304 0.43 0.27 1971-72 1,378 439 0.32 1972-73 814 88 0.11 Ave. Bag per Hunter Ave. Bag per Hunter Day 0.15 Goose harvest in southeast Colorado fluctuated considerably during the period of this study. The lowest harvest occurred in 1969 when the fewest number of hunters recorded since the survey began in 1954 harvested an estimated 10,597 birds (Table 9). Reduced hunting pressure in 1969 was probably a result of the negative reaction of goose hunters to the morning hunting only, season. According to aerial counts between 55,000 and 65,000 geese were in southeast Colorado throughout the 1969-70 season. Harvest in the 1970 season reached a record 30,329 (Table 9). The 1971 season harvest was nearly as high, totaling 29,114. Regulations during both of these seasons were identical, with morning hunting only, during the first full week in December, followed by full day hunting for the remainder of the season. The population in southeast Colorado during both .those years varied from 65,000 to 90,000 throughout most of the hunting period. Estimated harvest during the 1972-73 season was less than one-half that recorded for the previous season. The harvest paralleled the decline in population numbers in southeast Colorado (Table 3). Baca County was the dominant harvest area for five out of the seven seasons from 1966 through 1972 (Table 10). During the 1969-70 season, the half-day hunting regulation discouraged hunter participation, particularly in remote areas such as Baca County. During the 1972-73 season, weather conditions in Baca County made hunting areas virtually inaccessible. Percent of the total Arkansas Valley goose population present in Baca County (Two Buttes-Turk's area) during those two years was 41 percent in 1969-70 and a record 67 percent in 1972-73 (Table 2). �-73- Table 9. .:» 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 2/ 1970-71 3/ 1971-72 4/ 1972-73 ""fJ Goose hunting season statistics, 1954-72. Dates of Season Estimated Goose Hunters Southeast Colorado Average Season Bag Estimated Kill 11/1 - 12/30 11/1 - 12/30 11/9 -1/7 11/2 - 11/31 11/17 - 1/15 10/26 - 1/8 10/26 - 1/8 11/10 - 1/8 10/31 - 1/13 11/2 - 1/15 11/2 - 1/15 11/2 - 1/15 11/19 - 1/15 11/18 - 1/14 11/16 - 1/15 11/22 - 1/15 10/31 - 1/17 11/1 - 1/16 10/28 - 1/14 7,071 9,054 9,833 9,113 10,082 8,888 9,838 7,577 6,021 6,668 8,016 6,313 9,357 6,975 6,668 5,327 7,875 9,468 6,573 1.04 1.54 1.05 1.39 1.51 1.61 1.39 1.68 1.58 2.17 2.30 1.52 2.59 2.23 1.66 1.99 3.85 3.07 2.08 7,372 13,904 10,276 12,656 15,205 14,309 13,629 11,724 9,495 14,444 18,474 9,613 24,269 15,558 11,046 10,597 30,329 29,114 13,680 !I Data for 1954-55 through 1965-66 from Grieb 1970. ~/ Morning hunting only throughout the season. 1/ Morning hunting only through December 11, full day hunting for the remainder of the season. i/ Morning hunting only through December 10, full day hunting for the remainder of the season. 1/ Morning hunting only through December 2, full day hunting for the remainder of the season. Since 1954 Baca County has been the major harvest area in southeast Colorado for 13 out of 19 years (Rutherford 1970). During the four seasons from 1961 through 1964, and again in 1969, Kiowa County was the major harvest area (Rutherford 1970). In 1972-73 Bent County was the major harvest area. �Table 10. Goose harvest by County, County and Reservoirs southeast 1966-67 Percent Number Colorado, 1966-1972. 1967-68 Number Percent 1968-69 Percent Number 1969-70 Percent Number 1970-71 Percent Number 1971-72 Number Percent 1972-73 Percent Number --Baca Two Buttes and Turk's 7,930 32.8 7,144 46.0 4,613 41.8 2,070 19.5 13,055 43.0 13,264 45.6 2,488 11.9 4,836 19.9 3,745 24.1 1,802 16.3 1,946 18.4 2,229 7.3 2,620 9.0 3,630 17.4 Bent John Martin, Horsecreek Blue and Crowley 751 3.1 1,017 6.5 523 4.7 973 9.2 3,025 10.0 2,305 7.9 784 3.8 30 0.1 0 0.0 0 0.0 71 0.7 0 0.0 52 0.2 75 0.4 6,758 27.8 2,427 15.6 1,318 11. 9 3,786 35.7 7,005 23.1 6,039 20.7 1,567 7.5 120 0.5 23 0.1 252 2.3 88 0.8 120 0.4 880 3.0 298 1.4 1,231 5.1 139 0.9 426 3.9 531 5.0 557 1.8 734 2.5 2,127 10.2 2,463 10.1 901 5.8 1,957 17.7 884 8.3 3,980 13.1 2.686 9.2 2,077 9.9 Pueblo 150 0.5 162 1.0 155 1.4 248 2.3 358 1.2 534 1.8 634 3.0 Total 24,269 Meredith ~fano Kiowa Eads and Blue Las Animas Otero Horsecreek, Holbrook Dyes and Two Buttes and Eads Pr~ 15,558 11,046 10,597 30,329 29,114 13,680 , ~ ", �-75- Banding Investigations Sex Composition The sex of each goose trapped and banded in southeast Colorado since the winter of 1957-58 has been determined by cloacal examination. The importance of determining the sex of a bird at time of banding has been questioned by some investigators. Imber (1968) identified some Canada goose populations in which mortality rate of males were higher than females. Grieb (1970) found that males banded at Two Buttes had a four percent higher mortality rate than females. Grieb (1970) did not consider the difference indicative of any problem in the popUlation. From the winter of 1966-67 through the 1972-73 trapping season the sex of 5,748 geese trapped in southeast Colorado was determined. Males dominated the sample in three of the seven years, including 1971-72 and 1972-73 (Table 11). Over the entire period, the sample consisted of 50.3 percent males. Assuming that the trapped sample is an indicator of the sex composition of the population, greater mortality of males has not created an unbalanced sex ratio. Table 11. Sex ratios of Canada geese trapped in southeast Colorado 1966-67 through 1972-73. Males Females Year Number Percent Number 1966-67 345 49.2 356 50.8 1967-68 403 49.4 412 50.6 1968-69 572 50.1 571 47.9 1969-70 293 47.3 327 52.7 1970-71 416 48.0 451 52.0 1971-72 569 54.8 469 45.2 1972-73 292 51.8 272 48.2 Total 2,890 50.3 2,858 49.7 Percent �-76Table 12. Comparison of weights, in pounds, of geese from trap and check station samples, southeast Colorado, 1966-67 through 1972-73. Year Source No. Adults Ave. Wt. 1966-67 Check Station Two Buttes 217 105 Immatures No. Ave. Wt. No. Total Ave. Wt. 5.67 262 5.10 479 5.36 311 5.47 6.08 68 217 4.85 5.48 173 528 5.23 5.83 Check Station Two Buttes 255 5.41 170 5.23 425 5.34 Trapping Baca County Northern Areas 595 101 5.36 5.70 220 70 5.15 5.28 815 171 5.31 5.63 Check Station Two Buttes Lamar-Eads 134 78 5.32 5.46 79 74 5.00 5.51 213 152 5.20 5.48 Trapping Baca County Northern Areas 616 315 4.90 5.41 135 55 4.89 5.39 751 370 4.90 5.41 Check Station Two Buttes Lamar-Eads 110 142 5.56 5.73 85 248 5.25 5.41 195 390 5.43 5.53 Trapping Baca County 379 6.03 241 5.74 620 5.92 Check Station Two Buttes Lamar-Eads 673 78 5.47 5.68 949 210 4.92 4.99 1,622 288 5.15 5.18 Trapping Baca County Northern Areas 332 215 5.08 6.30 192 128 4.59 5.63 524 343 4.90 6.05 Check Station Two Buttes Lamar-Eads 126 126 5.49 5.50 79 254 5.12 4.78 205 380 5.35 5.02 Trapping Baca County 695 5.49 343 5.37 1,038 5.45 Trapping Baca County 496 5.72 68 5.53 564 5.70 Trapping Baca County 11 2 Northern Areas _I 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 II - Includes all birds trapped at Two Buttes Reservoir or Turk's Pond l1Inc1udes all birds trapped at the Eads Lakes, John Martin Reservoir or Verhoeff's Pond; all located in the Arkansas Valley proper. �-77- Weights Weights of Canada geese harvested on the Two Buttes and Lamar-Eads Management areas were recorded during this study during all years except 1972-73. Weights of all birds captured during post-season banding operations were also recorded. Weight information collected throughout this study was used primarily as a possible indicator of body condition by comparing average weights of geese by periods. Assuming that annual and seasonal distribution of various subspecies remained fairly constant and percentage composition of the population by subspecies did not change drastically from year to year, these comparisons are valid. Birds trapped and/or banded in the northern areas, Eads Lakes, John Martin, Verhoeff's, were consistently heavier than those from Baca County areas, Two Buttes and Turk's (Table 12). The only exception occurred in 1971-72 when immatures taken on the Lamar-Eads Management area were, on the average, smaller than those taken on the Two Buttes Management area. Adults from the two areas in that same year averaged nearly the same weight (Table 12). Disregarding the weights of trapped birds during the 1970-71 season, it seems that the difference in weights of birds from the two areas decreased during the 1969-70 through 1971-72 period, a period in which one-half day hunting seasons were in effect throughout southeast Colorado. During the 1970-71 trapping season the birds trapped in the northern area at Verhoeff's Pond were considered on the average morphologically larger than most birds in southeast Colorado. Converging average weights for the two areas during the various one-half day season regulations indicates that birds in northern areas either lost weight or those in Baca County gained, or a combination of those two occurrences. Information from northern areas is insufficient to compare the two three-year periods, 1966-67 through 1968-69, with 1969-70 through 1971-72. But birds trapped in Baca County definitely, on the average, were heavier during the 1969-70 through 1971-72 period, whereas those harvested were not (Table 13). Assuming the harvested and trapped birds were taken from the same population, the average weight of the birds increased from the harvest period to the trap period during the various half-day season regulations. A weight decrease between the time the birds are harvested and the time they are banded was always the rule, until half-day regulations began in 1969-70. Unfortunately, no information is available for Baca County for 1972-73 when full day seasons were re-initiated. Apparently in terms of body condition the half-day regulations have definitely been of benefit to geese in southeast Colorado. Table 13. Average weights of Canada geese taken on Two Buttes Management area or trapped in Baca County during the 1966-67 through 1968-69 period, compared with those harvested or trapped in the same area during the 1969-70 through 1971-72 period. Harvested Trapped Period Adult Immature Adult Immature 1966-69 5.48 5.13 5.15 5.02 1969-72 5.48 4.96 5.54 5.21 �-78- Distribution of Harvest Rutherford (1970) summarized the distribution of band recoveries of Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado and reported taken during the 1951-52 through 1966-67 seasons. During that period, roughly 44 percent of the birds reported recovered were harvested on the staging area, as defined by Grieb (1970), of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Grieb (1970) stated that two thirds of the harvest on the staging area of birds banded in southeast Colorado occurred in Alberta. Grieb's analysis of band recoveries through the 1964-65 season resulted in splitting the short grass prairie population into two segments, (1) an eastern segment which are coastal nesters breeding along the southern coast of Victoria Island and the adjacent Arctic Coast of the District of Mackenzie, staging primarily in western Saskatchewan and wintering in the Waggoner Ranch area near Vernon, Texas; and (2) a western segment nesting predominantly in the forests along the Mackenzie drainage, staging primarily in Alberta and wintering primarily in southeast Colorado and the Buffalo Lakes area of the Texas Panhandle. On the staging area two thirds of the western segment was located in Alberta, the same distribution as indicated by the band recoveries. Beginning in 1966 a shift occurred on the short grass staging area in the recovery distribution of geese banded in southeast Colorado. In four of the recovery years from 1966-67 through the 1972-73 seasons, more banded birds were recovered in Saskatchewan than in Alberta below 53 degrees latitude (Table 14). Assuming band reporting rates are the same for the two Provinces, either a population shift has occurred or harvest rates have changed considerably. One possible explanation is the merging of the eastern and western segments on the wintering area, allowing eastern as well as western segments the opportunity to be banded in southeast Colorado. The status of the eastern group should probably be explored further. The-percent of total recoveries on the staging area has declined somewhat. Since the 1966-67 season, recoveries on the staging area have averaged about 39 percent compared to the 44 percent prior to that period. The recoveries in Colorado have increased to an average of about 33 percent during the 196667 through 1972-73 period, compared to 29 percent during the earlier period. Increased harvest in Colorado under various half day regulations in 1970-71 and 1971-72 are primarily responsible for the shift in recovery distribution (Tables 9, 14). The take in other harvest areas during the 1966-67 through 1972-73 period remained similar to that reported by Rutherford (1970), with Nebraska harvesting about 7 percent and Texas about 8 percent of southeast Colorado banded birds. Mortality Estimates Rutherford (1970) reviewed the mortality rates of Canada geese banded postseason in southeast Colorado through the 1966-67 recovery year. Using the composite dynamic analysis method he found mortality rates of adults and �-79- juveniles (birds less than one year old at time of banding) to be .259 and .271, respectively; and the rate for all age classes combined to be .264., The same analysis using recoveries through the 1971-72 season results in rates of .257, .263, and .260 for adults, juveniles and all age classes, respectively (Tables 15, 16 and 17). Average mortality rates for Canada geese banded post-season in southeast Colorado were also calculated by the relative recovery rate method. Mortality rates for adults, juvenile, and all age classes through the 1971-72 recovery year are .255, .251, and .256, respectively (Tables 18, 19 and 20). These mortality rates have allowed the population to grow somewhat consistently. LITERATURE CITED Grieb, J. R. Monogr. 1970. The shortgrass prairie Canada goose population. No. 22. 49 p. Imber, M. J. 1968. 32 (4):905-920. Sex ratios in Canada goose populations. Wildl. J. Wildl. Mgmt. Rutherford,W. H. 1964. Investigation of the Arkansas Valley wintering goose flock. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 27-46. 1965. Investigation of the Arkansas Valley wintering goose flock. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. p , 87-104. 1966. Investigation of the Arkansas Valley wintering goose flock. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. p. 53-67. 1970. The Canada geese of southeastern Colorado. Fish and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 26. Prepared by _-':">-J:/1r...-~1"",,~.&L· .~?~~. _?....::.,KI......-....·:::=;·:oq.q j~~~~~J!L'7 __ Michael R. szymcz~n.J Assistant Wildlife Researcher Colo. Div. Game, ��Table 14. Percentages of total band recoveries, Five Year Averages 1951-55 1956-60 1961-65 Area Central F1~aI Pacific Flyway F1~aI Mexico Total Number of Recoveries 1966-67 1967-68 7.5 0.7 7.5 bandings, by area and year of recovery, all bandings (continued). 1971-72 1972-73 Total Number Recoveries 2.5 3.0 2.4 1.0 5.5 3.3 7.9 0.8 3.2 11.9 127 54 21 202 3.9 1.7 0.6 6.2 1.0 1.4 1.6 57 1.8 RecoverI Year 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 Percentage of Total Recoveries (cont.) Texas Panhandle Waggoner Ranch Gulf Coast Total MississiEEi Arkansas Valley post-season 2.3 2.0 0.8 5.1 2.8 2.2 0.2 5.2 2.4 2.2 4.6 1.5 0.5 5.5 8.2 0.8 2.2 9.7 5.0 0.7 1.4 7.1 0.7 1.4 6.7 1.0 1.0 8·7 0.1 0.7 0.7 0.1 748 I 00 ..... 677 770 134 134 141 105 198 211 126 3 0.1 1 0.03 3,244 I �Table 15. Composite Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 344 650 900 0 0 0 0 347 217 250 306 334 369 335 780 0 389 646 905 358 532 694 8,356 dynamic analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1 2 3 4 5 6 Recoveries 7 8 45 71 85 23 37 55 19 24 50 10 23 31 7 21 25 12 6 20 5 11 9 3 6 12 3 9 10 2 7 6 2 7 2 0 4 4 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 33 21 27 29 26 35 24 55 27 9 16 13 18 21 12 40 17 7 6 18 12 14 15 20 8 4 12 12 5 4 10 22 5 4 8 4 13 11 4 12 8 2 4 7 3 5 4 13 2 1 6 3 2 2 11 9 2 1 3 2 2 5 3 5 2 0 2 3 4 2 1 X X X X X X X 29 35 22 21 23 23 26 17 39 21 14 10 29 42 6 9 25 15 8 10 6 604 388 289 226 132 90 61 44 36 23 15 10 6 3 2 2 0 0 0 Banded Birds Eligible 8,356 7,662 7,130 6,772 5,867 5,221 4,832 4,832 4,052 3,717 3,348 3,014 2,708 2,458 2,241 1,894 1,894 1,894 1,894 Recoveries per 1,000 Banded 72.3 \50.6 40.5 33.4 22.5 17.2 12.6 9.1 8.9 214.2 6.2 4.5 3.3 2.2 1.2 1.1 . _ Q.O 0.9 286.5 0.0/ 0.0 28.3 826.5 .259 19.4 0.0/ 0.0 Total Recoveries Alive Going into .Period Mortality Rate 286.5 \214.2 .252 163.6 123.1 89.7 67.2 X bl: Year Fo11owins Bandins 9 10 11 12 1951-1972. X X 3 1 1 2 1 0 13 14 15 16 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 0 X X X X 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 X X 17 18 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 00 ." I 50.0 37.4 1: =. 13.2 8.7 5.4 3.2 1.1 2.0 1: = 1,113.0 .257 0.0 �Table 16. Composite dynamic Number Banded Year Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964"-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, Recoveries Arkansas bI Year Following Valley, Colorado, 1951-1972. Banding 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 31 58 52 25 31 25 11 33 25 11 20 24 4 16 20 5 8 11 4 7 11 7 6 9 1 4 2 1 4 4 0 0 4 0 5 1 0 2 3 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 0 0 0 21 25 16 15 10 40 16 15 16 16 10 5 12 24 11 7 6 16 3 4 10 9 11 8 4 8 14 7 0 14 13 1 4 7 8 8 1 6 5 0 1 3 0 7 1 2 2 3 4 0 0 3 1 2 8 1 0 1 1 :1 1 5 5 1 3 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 300 628 578 0 0 0 0 176 298 167 248 123 399 251 198 0 285 270 184 241 301 337 X X X X X X 18 16 9 18 19 15 10 9 11 9 8 5 8 11 3 12 4 3 9 6 7 4,984 394 229 163 135 94 50 X X X X 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 I 00 IN I -- Total Recoveries Banded Birds Eligible Recoveries per 1,000 Banded Alive Going into Period Mortality Rate 41 38 15 15 8 7 5 3 2 0 3 1 0 4,984 4,647 4,346 4,105 3,921 3,651 3,366 3,366 3,168 2,917 2,518 2,395 2,147 1,980 1,682 1,506 1,506 1,506 1,506 79.1 \49.3 37.5 32.9 24.0 283.6 \204.5 155.2 117.7 84.8 .279 12.2· 11.3 4.7 204.5 60.8 _41._1.~A.9 23.6 795.0 .257 13.7 5.1 3.2 2.9 2.3 1.5 18.9 13.8 10.6 7.7 5.4 1.2 0.0 I:= 283.6 2.7 3.9 l:.,1,078.6 .263 2.0 0.7/ 0.0 2.7 0.7/ 0.0 �Table 17. Composite dynamic analysis of band recoveries Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-'-71 1971-72 from Canada geese banded in all age classes, Arkansas Valley, Colorado, 1951-1972. Recoveries bX Year Following Banding 11 10 7 8 9 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2 7 6 0 9 5 1 4 5 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4 3 1 4 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 644 1,278 1,478 0 0 0 0 523 515 417 554 457 ,768 586 978 0 674 922 1,089 599 836 1,032 76 129 137 48 68 80 30 57 75 21 43 55 11 37 45 17 14 31 9 18 20 10 12 21 4 13 12 3 11 10 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 54 46 43 44 36 75 40 70 43 25 26 18 30 45 23 47 23 23 9 22 22 23 26 28 12 12 26 19 5 18 23 23 9 11 16 12 14 17 9 12 9 5 4 14 4 7 6 15 6 1 6 6 3 4 19 10 2 2 4 4 3 10 8 6 5 1 2 4 5 4 1 X X X X X X X 47 51 31 39 42 38 36 26 50 30 22 15 37 53 9 21 29 18 17 16 13 13,350 998 617 452 325 226 139 102 82 51 38 23 17 11 6 4 2 3 1 0 Banded Birds Eligible 13,350 12,318 11,482 10,883 9,794 8,872 8,198 8,198 7,220 6,634 5,866 5,409 4,855 4,438 3,923 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 Recoveries per 1,000 banded 74.8 ,50.1 19.4 .~._9_ 23.1 15.7 12.5 10.0 7.1 5.7 206.8 3.9 3.1 2.3 1.2 1.0 E - 281.6 0.6 0.9 0.31 0.0 Alive Going into Period 281.6 "206.8 156.7 117.3 87.4 64.3 48.6 36.1 26.1 19.0 801.4 13.3 9.4 6.3 4.0 2.8 E = 1,083.0 .260 1.8 1.2 0.31 0.0 I 00 +I -- Total Recoveries Mortality Rate .266 .258 �-85- Table 18. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as adults, southeast Colorado, 1951-72. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 344 CD 1/ 89 1951-52 650 229 158 .3523 1952-53 900 313 CD .3478 1957-58 347 CD 78 1958-59 217 50 29 1959-60 250 86 1960-61 306 1961-62 Number of Recoveries 1-n 2-n Recovery Rates 1-n 2-n Survival Rate .2587 .734 .2431 .699 .2248 .976 .2304 .1336 .393 59 .3400 .2360 .752 96 67 .3137 .2190 .841 334 87 61 .2605 .1826 .681 1962-63 369 99 64 .2683 .1734 .692 1963-64 335 84 60 .2507 .1791 .794 1964-65 780 176 CD .2256 1966-67 389 CD 59 .1517 .845 1967-68 646 116 81 .1796 .1254 .962 1968-69 905 118 96 .1304 .1061 .787 1969-70 356 48 27 .1348 .0758 1.091 1970-71 532 37 14 .0695 .0263 .795 1971-72 694 23 Total 8,354 .0331 3.1367 Average Survival Rate .745 Average Mortality Rate .255 1/ - Cannot use 2.3356 Mortality Rate �-86- Table 19. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded as juveniles, southeast Colorado, 1951-72. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 300 CU 1/ 72 1951-52 628 196 138 .3121 1952-53 578 195 CU .3374 1957-58 176 CU 39 1958-59 298 81 1959-60 167 1960-61 Number of Recoveries 1-n 2-n Survival Rate Mortality Rate .2400 .769 .231 .2197 .651 .349 -- .2216 .815 .185 56 .2718 .1879 .592 .408 53 37 .3174 .2216 .981 .019 248 .56 41 .2258 .1653 .•550 .450 1961-62 123 37 27 .3008 .2195 .834 .166 1962-63 399 105 65 .2632 .1629 .576 .424 1963-64 251 71 55 .2829 .2191 1.205 0.000 1964-65 198 36 CU .1818 1966-67 285 CU 43 .1509 .947 .053 1967-68 270 43 27 .1593 .1000 .541 .459 1968-69 184 34 25 .1849 .1359 1.088 0.000 1969-70 241 30 12 .1249 .0498 .555 .445 1970-71 301 27 8 .0897 .0266 .598 .402 1971-72 337 15 Total 4,984 Recove!:Z Rates 1-n 2-n .0445 3.·09·65 2.3208 Average Survival Rate .749 Average Mortality Rate .251 1/ Cannot use �-87- Table 20. Relative recovery rate analysis of band recoveries from Canada geese banded in all age classes, southeast Colorado, 1951-72. Year Banded Number Banded 1950-51 644 1951-52 Number of Recoveries 1-n 2-n Recovery Rates 1-n 2-n Survival Rate Mortality Rate .2500 .752 .248 .2316 .674 .326 .2199 .858 .142 CU 1:/ 161 1,278 425 296 .3326 1952-53 1,478 508 CU .3437 1957-58 523 CU 115 1958-59 515 132 86 .2563 .1670 .501 .499 1959-60 417 139 96 .3333 .2302 .829 .171 1960-61 554 151 107 .2776 .1967 .725 .275 1961-62 457 124 88 .2713 .1967 .752·· .248 1962-63 768 201 126 .2617 .1641 .620 .380 1963-64 586 155 115 .2645 .1962 .910 .·090 1964-65 978 211 CU .2157 1966-67 674 CU 99 .1469 .857 .143 1967-68 922 158 107 .1714 .1161 .854 .146 1968-69 1,089 148 117 .1359 .1074 .825 .175 1969-70 599 78 39 .1302 .0651 .850 .150 1970-71 836 64 22 .0766 .0263 .715 .285 1971-72 1,032 38 Total 13,350 .0368 3.1109 Average Survival Rate .744 Average Mortality Rate .256 1/ . - Cannot use 2.3142 ��October 1974 -89- JOJ~ PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Proj ect No. W-88-R-19 "lork Plan No. Job Title Migratory Bird Investigations Job No.---~--=-6 2 Studies of Canada Goose Populations in Colorado Transplant Areas Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Personnel: C. Bryant and Staff, MOnte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; M. Babler, D. Benson, C. Brown, G. Claassen, R. Clark, C. Crawford, M. DePra, J. Froth iIigham , H. Funk, B. Goetze, J. Gumber, T. Henry, J. Hicks, J. Hobbs, R. Hopper, C. Leonard, J. Lorentzson, T~ Lynch, F. Marcoux, M. McLain, K. Miller, D. Owens, S. Palm, J. Pogorelz, C. Roberts, L. Rottman, W. Russell, G. Saville, L. Searle, H. Spear, E. Wagner, and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT According to tail fans, 1,200, or 12 percent of the total harvest of Canada geese in north-central Colorado was composed of "small" Canada geese. A coordina~ed count throughout the entire Hi-Line population wintering range totaled a record high 74,305 on December 13, 1973. Only 28,487 Canada geese were recorded in Hi-LiIie winter areas on January 9, 1974. The reduction in goose numbers iIithe Hi-Line area between the two counts was attributed primarily to emigration. Within Colorado, counts indicated there were 52,274 and 23,465 geese, respectively, on December 13, 1973 and January 9, 1974 iIithe Hi:-Line area. An estimated 11,048 hunters harvested 10,169 Canada geese iIinorth-central Colorado duriIig the 1973 hunting season. The season bag restriction of six geese was not iIieffect during the 1973 season, yet only 1.3 percent of the hunters reportedbaggiIig more than 6 geese, accountiIig for only six percent. of the total harvest. According to periodic inventories the San Luis Valley wintering Canada goose population size in 1973-74 was only 60 percent of the previous year's total. An estimated 233 hunters harvested 112 geese during the special season in the San Luis Valley. In west-central Colorado 254 hunters in Mesa County bagged 75 Canada geese and in Garfield County 46 hunters bagged 9 geese. A total of 965 Canada geese were recorded on January 11, 1974 during an inventory of waterfowl in west-central Colorado. ��-91- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT AREAS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of resident and migrant Canada goose flocks and their interrelationships in areas in which populations have been established through transplant programs in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES La , To determine breeding areas of Canada geese wintering in north-central Colorado. lb. To examine migration routes and/or harvest patterns and distribution of Canada geese wintering in north-central Colorado arid the San Luis Valley. 2. To estimate hunting pressure on, and hunter harvest of, Canada geese in north-Central Colorado, the San Luis Valley and west-central Colorado. 3. To estimate annual mortality of Canada geese wintering in north-central Colorado. 4. To make recommendations for continuing Canada goose hunting seasons in west-central Colorado, north-central Colorado and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS Because of a change in Federal Aid report deadlines, band recoveries were not analyzed prior to the completion of this report. Therefore, analysis of information for achieving segment objectives 1, 3 and 4 is not complete. Tail fans collected through the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey were examined. Canada geese in north-central Colorado were counted on December 13, 1973 and January 9, 1974. In the San Luis Valley geese were counted on October 24, November 27, December 19, 1973, and January 16, 1974. A mechanica~ly random $ample of hun.t~rs issued permits to hun~ geese in th~ nOJ;"th-cenc}:"al Colo}:"ado"Special P~rmit" goose hunting area we}:"~lMile.q questionnaires inquiring about thei}:"hun.ting activity and §t,lcce.!i!~. All of the hunters hcl.dtng spec Lal, permits to hunt· geese. in the.San Lt,li§ValleY and west-Ce.ntra+ Colorado were mailed similar questionna1re.s. All data recieve.dwe.re tabulated and st atLst Lca.LLyana Lyzed , �-92- RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION North-central Colorado - Breeding Range of the Hi-Line Wintering Population Tail Fans Measurements of tail fans collected through the "Parts Collection Survey" from geese ba.gged.in north-central Colorado during the 1973 season indicate that 17 percent of the birds bagged were "small" Canada geese, ..possibly members of the Arctic nesting Short Grass Prairie Population. According to .. tail fans collected, small geese have made up 11 percent, 17 percent, and in north--central Colorado in the years 1970, 1971, 8percerit of the·harvest and 1972, respectively (Table 1) • However, pooling Counties together without weighting factors is not consi.deredvalid, as the number of tail fans collected b)TCountyare generally not proportional to the ha~est. If. sampl,e sizesareadequate,the distribution of harvest classified as "large" or "small" can be compared on a county basis. Since 1970, the harvest in Weld County has consistently been composed of a higher percent of small geese than the harvest in Larimer or Boulder counties (Taple 1). . .. Tail fan sample size for the 1973 season seems to be adequate for Larimer, :Soulder,and possibly Weld count.Les, Applying the percentages presented in Table 1 to theharyest information which appears in Table 6 results in an estimatedharvestof·343 small birds in Larimer County, 187 in Boulder County, and 671 in Weld County. PopulationDis tribtition Coordinated inventories throughout the Hi-Line population's wintering area were reduced to 2 in 1973-74. A record high number of 74,305 birds was recorded during the December 13,1974coui:tt, and a record low of 28,487 was . recorded on the January 9, 1974 inventory (Table 2). About 70 percent of the·populationwasfound in Colorado in mid-December compared to 82 percent .in January • It is difficult .t o explain the drastic fluctuation in Hi-Line population. The spring· of 1973 was aipoo r production year for Hi-Line Canada geese. The most logical explanation woul.d be that a larger than usual portion of the December population was composed of Short Grass Canada geese. Muchmore information than is currently available is needed to analyze the situation. Within Colorado, approximately 60 percent of the geese were located in the Fort Collins-Loveland area during both inventories (Table 3). An unusually large number of birds (10,380) were located in the Brighton~Greeley-Fort MOrganarea during t.hevmfd-Decemharinventory. Only in late November1971 have more than 10,000 geese been counted in the Brighton-Greeley-Fort . Morgan area (Table 4). Over 8,000 of the birds counted during the 1973 midDecember inventory were located on Empire or Riverside· Reservoir (Table 3). North-central Colorado experienced a cold weather period in late December and early January, which undoubtedly had a major effect on the movementof geese out of the area. �Table 1. Classification of Canada goose t.ailfans collected through the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife's Parts Collection Survey,. from birds harvested in no rt.h=cen t ra.l, CoLorado , 1970-1973 hunt.Lng seasons. County of Harvest 1970 Percent Percent . Small Large 1971 Percent Percent Small Large Year 1972 Percent Percent SmAll Large 8(2) Larimer 92 (36)-!./ 8(3) 91(41) 9 (4) 92(22) Boulder 100(1) - 86(18) 14 (3) 100(10) - Arapahoe - - - - - . 100 (2) . Adams 100(2) - 100(4) - 100(1) Weld 82(18) 18(4) 59 (13) 41(9) 67(2) Morgan - - - - - Total 89(57) 11(7) 83(78) 17(16) 92(35) 1:./ Sample size in parentheses. . 1973 Percent Percent Small Large Total Percent Percent Small Large . 93(28) .. 7 (2) 92 (127) 8(11)· 84(42) 16(8) 87 (71) 13(11) _. - 100(2) .1 \0 ..,. - 100(7) - 33(1) 79 (11). 21(3) 72(44) 28(17) - - 100(4) - 100(4) 83(81) 17(17) 8(3) \.oJ 1 �-94- Table 2. Results of Hi-Line Canada goose population inventories, 1973-74. Location December 13 January 9 Montana 7,618 1,285 Wyoming 13,144 1,833 Colorado 52,274 23,465 New Mexico 1,269 1,904 Totals 74,305 28,487 Table 3. Results of north-central Colorado goose surveys, 1973-74. Area December 13 January 9 925 50 20 3,250 23 Fort Collins-Loveland Lindenmeier Lake Reservoir No. 8 Reservoir No. 8 Annex Reservoir No. 5 Reservoir No. 6 Bureau of Standards Douglas Reservoir Reservoir No. 15 Boxe1der Reservoir (Boxeye) Indian Creek Reservoir Terry Lake Watson Lake Claymore Lake Sterling Ponds Dean Acres College Lake Parkwood Lake Greenwalt Reservoir Fossil Creek Reservoir Boyd Lake Hollister Lake (Windsor Reservoir) New Windsor Reservoir Timnath Reservoir Woods Lake Cobb Lake Subtotal 6 108 21 30 100 1,000 153 2,430 607 2,200 448 85 8,144 4 30 5,700 1,600 175 7,600 97 25 o o 13 o 220 o o o 275 1,800 o 26 33 1,419 o o o 225 475 ll5 5,000 960 500 520 31,558 14,854 --------------------7----------------------------------------------- _ �-95Table 3. Results of north-central Location Boulder-Longmont Colorado goose surveys, December 13 1973-74. January 9 Area o o o o Terry Lake Crystal Lake Left Hand Valley Reservoir Culver Reservoir McCall Reservoir (Stamp) Baller Lake Faivre Ponds Boulder Reservoir Baseline Reservoir Ish Lake Swede Lake Valmont Reservoir 1,225 80 20 71 336 35 90 200 65 1 o o o 35 6,100 .4,640 Subtotal 8,258 4,765 105 900 187 1,500 75 125 o o o Denver Area Marston Reservoir Bowles Lake Area Sloans Lake Denver City Park Standley Lake Main Reservoir KettringLake Green Gables Country Club Norgren Reservoir Lowry Air Base In Field Along Belleview Avenue o 150 o 5 225 95 54 222 a a o o 57 80 460 a 2,078 2,037 Barr Lake Horsecreek Reservoir Milton Reservoir Latham Reservoir Seeley Reservoir Riverside Reservoir Empire Reservoir Jackson Reservoir Orchard Area-South Platte River 630 550 25 15 625 4,850 3,650 35 1 o 108 1,700 Subtotal 10,380 1,809 Grand Total 52,274 23,465 Subtotal Brighton-Greeley.,.Fort Morgan Area a a a a a a �-96- Table 4. Winter inventories of the Colorado Hi-Line Canada goose population. Fort Co11insLoveland Longmont-Bou1derDenver 9,739 2,883 991 13,613 12,217 4,029 678 16,924 1968-69 November 20 December 19 January 2 & 13 15,848 20,905 19,693 3,461 4,236 4,874 2,667 1,170 775 21,976 26,311 25,342 1969-70 November 5 November 28 December 23 January 6 8,737 31,350 18,522· 30,650 2,255 3,782 5,668 5,060 390 1,374 . 1,259 1,914 11,382 36,506 ·25,499 37,624 1970-71 November 4 November 23 December 22 January 6 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 1,690 16,710 12,664 15,566 . ·348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870. 1971-72 November 4 November 23 December 21 January 10 25,699 31,072 31,516 19,117 1,815 };./ 9,181 19,525 10,742 6,905 13,525 4,476 3,661 34,419 53,788 55,517 33,520 1972-73 November 6 November 22 December 20 January 10 15,230 21,118 13,841 13,595 1,240 };./ 5,764 19,290 18,709 1,050 4,981 1,225 1,405 17,520 31,863 34,356 33,709 1973-74 December 13 January 9 .31,558 14,854 10,336 6,802 10,380 1,809 52,274 23,465 Count Date 1967 January 9 1968 January 10 };./ Denver area not included. Brighton-Gree1eyFort Morgan Total �-97- Hunting Pressure and Harvest An estimated 11,048 hunters harvested 10,169 geese in north-central Colorado during the 1973 hunting season (Tables 5 and 6). Harvest increased consid-' erably over 1972 levels in all counties .and reached record levels in furgan County (Table 6). Comparative statistics concerning hunting pressure and harvest by County for 1972 ,and 1973 l:Iuntingseasons are presented in Table 7. Table 5. Hunter activity and success in permit area. Year Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1964-65 1,608 1,427 6.1 0.48 1965-66 2,335 1,578 6.5 0.53 1966-67 3,996 2,910 5.1 0.41 ' 1967-68 3,000 2,256 6.7 0.55 1968-69 3,000 2,379 9.2 1.11 1969-70 8,342 6,149 7.4 0.68 1970...,71 13,611 11,187 6.9 1.08 1971-72 14,847 12,920 ' 7.3 1.14 1972 12,702 9,938 6.1 0.53 1973 13,253 11,048 6.1 0.92 The six bird seasonal bag restrictions for the north-central Colorado permit area was lifted for the 1973 season. Only 1. 3 percent of the hunters reported bagging more than 6 geese during the 1973 season (Table 8). If these hunters would have been restricted to bagging only 6 birds, the estimated harvest for the north-central Colorado permit area would have been 9,587,6 percent less than the actual harvest. �-98- Table 6. Distribution of harvest, Larimer Weld 1964-65 504 181 1965-66 665 144 29 838 1966-67 764 409 11 1,184 1967-68 944 265 37 1,246 1968-69 1,584 886 161 2,631 1969-70 2,431 1,112 383 146 100 4,172 1970-71 7,486 3,544 620 93 370 12,112 1971-72 7,723 4,484 1,804 464 296 14,771 1972 2,855 1,547 413 329 126 5,270 1973 4,895 3,195 1,166 590 253 70 10,169 Hunting pressure and harvest, Year Table 7. by county, in the permit area. Boulder Morgan Adams Other Total 685 Estimated by county, north-central Number Estimated Number Colorado. County 1972 1973 Percent Change From 1972 Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 5,067 (± 265) 27,141 (+2,455) 2,855 403) 5.4 0.56 0.105 5,232 (+ 271) 29,854 (+2,556) 4,895 706) 5.7 0.94 0.164 +,3.3 + 10.0 + 71.5 + 5.6 + 67.9 + 56.2 4,332 (+ 259) 18,007 (+i,815) 1,547 (+ 290) .4.2 0.36 0.086 4,607 (+ 266) 19,741 (+1,814) 3,195 503) 4.3 0.69 0.161 + 6.3 + 9.6 +106.5 + 2.4 + 91.7 + 87.2 Larimer (±: (± Weld Count Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip (±: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-99Table 7. Hunting pressure and harvest, by county, north-central Colorado (cont.). Boulder County Estimated Number 1972 Estimated Number 1973 Percent Change From 1972 Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter .Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 1,757 (+ 187) 10,570 (±:1,885) 413 (+ 141) 6.0. 0.24 0.039 1,868 (±192) 12,430 (±1,85l) 1,166 (± 274) 6.7 0.62 0.094 + 6.3 924 (+ 143) 3,157 '703) 329 (+ 141) 3.4 0.36 0.104 1,011 (+ 147) 3,363 (+ 684) 590 (± 197) 3.3 0.58 0.175 + 462 (± 108) 2,191 (± 780) 96) 126 (± 4.7 0.27 0.058 499 (+ 111) 1,975 (+ 712) 253 (± 152) 4.0 0.41 0.128 + + 17.6 +182.3 + 11.7 +158.3 +141.0 Morgan County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip (± 9.4 + 6.5 + 79.3 2.9 + 61.1 + 68.3 Adams County Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trips 8.0 9.9 +100.8 - 14.9 + 51.9 +120.7 Arapahoe and Jefferson Counties 21 77 70 3.7 3.33 0.909 Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave. Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip Entire Permit Area Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Ave..Hunter Trips/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Ave. Bag/Hunter Trip 9,938 (+ 223) 61,066 (±3,059) 5,270 (± 516) 6.1 0.53 0.086 11,048 (+ 207) 67,440 (+3,271) 10,169 (+ 936) 6.1 0.92 0.151 + 11.2 + 10.4 + 93.0 + 73.6 + 75.6 �Table 8. Season Bag 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Estimated distribution of season bag for active hunters in the north-central Colorado permit area , Number 1969-70 Percent Number 1970-71 Percent Number 1971-72 Percent Number 1972 Percent .Number 1973 Percent 4,263 69.3 6,588 58.9 7,006 54.2 6,857 69.0 6,817 61.7 836 13.6 1,620 14.5 2,209 17.1 1,391 14.0 1,823 16.5 7.4 1,073 9.6 1,428 11.1 666 6.7., 1,061 9.6 3.9 564 5.0 768 5.9 298 3.0 552 5.0 2.5 528 4.7 633 4.9 616 6.2 287 2.6 138 2.2 342 3.1 371 2.9 50 0.5 210 1.9 69 1.1 472 4.2 505 3.9 60 0.6 155 1.4 55 0.5 22 0.2 22 0.2 44 0.4 11,048 100.0 452 238 153 8 9 10+ 6,149 100.0 11,187 100.0 12,920 ·100.0 0 0 I 7 Total I f-l 9,938 100.0 �-101- .San Luis Valley· Distribution Inventories of Canada·geese in the San L~is Valley through the fall and winter of 1973~74 indicated a r-educed popul.atiLontf'I'ab.Le 9). Undoubtedly, a number of birds .were .mtssed during the OCtober census. The number of birds recorded during the November, December and January counts were on the average, only 62 percent of the previous year's totals. Table 9•. Winterinveritories of .Canada geese in the San .Lud.s Valley of Colorado . .... 1/ Year October Numberof GeeseDecember November January 1,490 1,050 1,261 1970-71 1971-72 1,570 913 1,255 1,286 1972~73 1,006 1,196 1,079 1,621 1973-74 289 736 774 905 for the 4 years generally 11 Comparedmonthly inventories taken within 5 days . of each other. The distribution of geese within the San Luis Valley during the fall. and winter of 1973-:74wasquite simila.r to previous years with the majority of the birds located either on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge or on the Rio Grande River (Table 10). Harvest A total of 300 permits were issued authorizing the taking of one goose during the 1973 special San Luis Valley goose season. An estimated 233 active. hunters harvested 112 geese for a success ratio of 0.48, the lowest success ratio recorded since. permits were first issued in 1970 (Tables 11 and 12). Harvest during the 1973 season declined 56 percent level (Table 13). The harvest was down 68 percent 22 percent in Alamosa County. from the 1972-73 season in Rio Grande County and Forty-four percent of the geese taken in the San Luis Valley were reportedly harvested on or within 2 miles of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. About· 30 percent of the harvest occurred along the Rio Grande River between Monte Vista and Ahunosa. �-102Table 10. Results of Canada goose surveys during the 1973-74 hunting in the San Luis Valley. Area October 24 November 27 December 19 season January 16 Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge 133 112 325 890 South Fork to Del Norte 0 0 27 0 Del Norte to Monte Vista 0 38 130 15 122 172 5 0 0 173 228 0 0 104 55 0 San Luis Lakes Area 34 80 0 0 Russell 0 0 4 0 Smith Reservoir 0 40 0 0 Sanchez Reservoir 0 17 0 0 289 736 774 905 Rio Grand River Monte Vista to Alamosa Alamosa to State Line Conejos River McIntire Area and Sego Springs Lakes Total Table 11. Hunter activity Years Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1970-71 200 164 3.4 0.65 1971-72 350 296 4.2 0.60 1972-73 400 311 4.6 0.82 1973-74 300 233 4.2 0.48 and success in the San Luis Valley goose permit area." �-103- Table 12. Distribution permit area. of harvest, by county in the San Luis Valley goose Year Rio Grande Alamosa Saguache Conejos Costilla Total 1970-71 74 31 2 0 0 107 1971-72 121 50 1 5 0 177 1972-73 195 51 2 1 6 255 1973 62 40 3 1 6 112 Table 13. Hunting pressure and harvest area 1972-73 and 1973 hunting seasons. Estimated in the San Luis Valley goose permit Number 1972 Total Individual 311 (± Hunters Number Percent Change From 1972 5) 25.1 974 (± 65) - 32.4 112 (± - 56.1 Estimated 1973 6) Total Hunter Trips 1,440 (± 54) Total Geese Bagged 255 (± 8) 233 (± .Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 4.6 4.2 Average 0.82 0.48 0.18 0.11 Bag/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Trip West-Central Hunter Activity 6) Colorado and Harvest For the 1973 west-central Colorado goose season, 300 permits authorizing the taking of 1 goose were issued for Mesa County, and 66 permits with the same bag limit were issued for Garfield County. In Mesa County 254 active hunters bagged a total of 75 geese for an average seasonal bag of 0.30 birds per hunter (Tables 14 and 15). In Garfield County 46 of the 66 hunters were active, bagging nine geese for a 0.20 bird per hunter bag (Tables 14 and 15). �-104- Table area. 14 .. Hunter activity and success in west-central Colorado goose permit Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter Year Number Permits Issued 1971 150 112 1972 250 182 . Mesa Co. 300 254 3.9 .30 Garfield Co. 66 46 3.7 .20 Entire Area 366 300 3.8 .28 Est. Active Number Hunters 2~9 .29 .32 1973 Table 15. Distribtit permit area. ion of harvest. by year in west-central Year Mesa County CoLorado goose Garfield County Total 1971 33 1972 58 1973 75 9 Hunting activity and harvest information for the entire west-central rado permit area for 1971, 1972, and 1973 is presented in Table 16. The results of a Canada goose inventory in Table 17. by7/ZJ:vL.Jl7? ....~ rv Prepared in west-central .~' .. Michael R. Szymc~ ~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher " 84 Colo- Colorado is presented �-105Table 16. HUnting pressure and harvest in the west-central Colorado goose permit area, 1971, 1972 and 1973. 1971 1972 1973 Total Individual Hunters 112 (+ 4) 182 (± 5) 300 (+ 6) Total Hunter Trips 329 (+20) 579 (+30) 1,152 (+51) Total Geese Bagged 33 (± 4) 58 (+ 5) 84 (+ 7) Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 2.9 3.7 3.8 Average Bag/Hunter 0.29 0.32 0.28 Average Bag/Hunter Trip 0.10 0.100 0.073 Table 17. Canada goose inventory. west-central Colorado, January 11, 1974 Number of Geese Area Highline Lake 65 In Field North of Loma 175 Colorado River Silt to DeBeque Canyon 249 Palisade to Grand Junction 12 Grand Junction to Horsethief Canyon 6 Hor set.h Iaf .Canyon to Utah State Line 131 North Fork of Gunnison Hotchkiss to North Fork COnfluence 10 Gunnison River Black Canyon 25 Confluence with North Fork to Delta 79 Delta to Grand Junction 206 Sweitzer Lake 7 Total 965 Comparative Total January 1973 989 1972 1,183 1971 879 ��-107- JOB PROGRESS State of ~ C=.;O;;.;;LO=RAD=..;;O _ Project W-88-R-19 No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: October 1974 REPORT }ligratory Bird Investigations Job No 2 0 7 _ Non-Hunting Mortality Investigations of Canada Geese in Southeastern· Colorado October 27, 1973 to March 31, 1974 T. Spraker, Colorado State University; W. Adrain, J. Carsella, Personnel: G. Eyre, J. Gustafson, J. Jackson, D. Kenvin, R. Oakleaf, B. Petersen, R. Rosette, and M. Szymczak, Colorado. Division of Wildlife. ABS~RACT Measurement of the comparative incidence of surface lead shot in agricultural fields surrounding Turk's Pond indicated that fewer lead shot were present in fields north and northwest of the pond than in other areas. Greatest lead shot accumulations were located ina portion of an alfalfa field north of the pond which had not been plowed fora number of years. Accumulations in annual croplands were greatest to the east and southeast of the pond. Lead s1;lotpellets were found in a predictable pattern in reference to the firing line, with relative densities increasing slightly for 600 feet in front of the firing line and decreasing beyond. Densities remained fairly stable for 400 feet behind the firing line before decreasing. Post-mortem examinations of Canada geese collected at Turk's Pond indicated that 52.9 percent of the birds had an impacted proventricali, 64.5 percent had lead shot fragments in their ventriculus and 80 percent had either one of the conditions, or both. Lead concentration levels from liver, kidney, muscle and bone tissues from 90 Canada geese are presented. Sixty-three of 221 gizzards sampled from 1,522 dead geese picked up around Turk's Pond and judged to have died shortly after the hunting season had at least one lead pellet fragment in their ventriculi. Sixty-one of the 63 gizzards contained fragments from only one lead pellet. According to chemical analysis of tissues, only 76.9 percent of those birds suffering from lead poisoning had lead shot fragments in their gizzards. Therefore, 565, or 37.1 percent of the 1,522 were actual or potential lead shot victims. Ninety-three percent, or 343 of 368 geese removed from the Turk's Pond area which were Judged not to be victims of gunshot wounds' and definitely died after the hunting season were considered definite victims of lead poisoning. A total of 908 Canada geese removed from Turk's Pond area were considered victims or possible victims of lead poisoning. ��-109- NON-HUNTING MORTALITY INVESTIGATIONS OF CANADA GEESEIN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Michael R.Szymczak The possibility of some mortality factor other than actual hunting or crippling loss affecting the Canada goose population at Turk's Pond was first evident in late January and early February, 1972. Canada geese collected at Turk's Pond at that time exhibited definite signs of lead poisoning. In the fall of 1972~ th.e basin of Turk's Pond was sampled to determine the general occurrence of lead shot. The results of the basin sampling were documented by Szymczak (In Press) •. Duri~gthe winter of 1972-73 no unusual mortality was discernible at Turk's. However, a die:-off was again experienced in the winter of 1973"':74 with the bulk of this report devoted to investigational techniques utilized and results of the study during this period. P. S. OBJECTIVE To identify non-hunting southeast Colorado. mortality factors of Canada geese at Turk's Pond in 1. Determine the incidence and local vicinity. of lead shot in the environment at Turk's 2. Determine if Pond. 3. Determine if other causative agents. of disease or poisoning are responsible for mortality of Canada geese at Turk's Pond. . 4. Determine the magnitude of non:-hunting mortality 5. Analyze data and formulate r ecommendatLons for preventative me.asures designed to lessen non-hunting mortality of Canada geese at Turk's Pond." lead poisoning occurs in the waterfowl population in the Turk's Pond at Turk's Pond area . METHODS ANDMATERIALS Agricultural fields located directly adj acent to Tllrk' sPond were sampled to . determine the general incidence of lead shot on the surface of the ground in respect to the pond and the firing line. All fields were sampled with the exception of the picked cornfield located directly east of the pond and the picked cornfield that was located outside the firing line, southeast of the pond (Fig. 1). The two afore mentioned cornfields were not sampled because (1) the cornfield to the southeast was disked before the sampling could take place, and (2) sampling in f LeLds (Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8) adjacent to the cornfield located directly east of the pond indicated that the incidence of lead· shot in the field· would be minimal. �x X l\ N 'Y. , , 'f wl-\SAT ;@ WHEAT WHEAT /. l\ , ,,; ., ., /lLt=ALFA WHEAT .\.W f?\ ,~. I ALI='ALrA 'to </ '9"~ : <, <: I coRN '" "" r- - - - WHEAT· -r-=-+ .,- - )C ~ ~ COR III CORN I·.~ ______ I P,·e, I.!. I . _I No, rID .I C] BO,-\/lJo..,.y L'-" •..,.' +0 r- S'\.""f'I~ P•.•. I~s Bo"l\dC>,.('y L;",,, ~o.,.. C •..•p Cl).'l~c. \.v d-I, ,'" S"" "'pit. F='idd.s /J1A",be.v- 0+ T""o.nHc...t.:. SQ,~f/ •. (',dcts G~n •.•.. o..\ Oi•.td'e>>\ i WI-lEAT·1 I) ) I X J x X y; X X)()C I No, (W- WHEAT ~ .®.... ~ . . .\:)( X , I-' o .1-' ~ I F,(.I~ N., IIJ )I. CORN WASTELANO I - I' :F~Llr~o,m-'l,~ij 1 :f ~ - I· " MILO @I~ I WIH.AT -"- - --. x -. % , ••" WAST/; LANO I J I x " " ';( ~~~. ~ x .'" / >()( . x ~ B CORN J( x )( " K .\- CoRN CoRN k l( x.r)(XX){)/ lI' X )( li )( ')f n )( ;t. x )( >( )'. y )t o.f:. T •..•..•.• 4ec..h -- - CoRN K )( I( X --, WHGAT WHE.Ar ! I j 'C&O SAM plj) )( WASTELANQ )( y )f )( I i nc.h -:: .....•.S>Oc.-Ft lr )( Fig. 1. Turk is field indicated. Pond and vicinity Fith sample fields, general crop patterns and number of transects by �-111- Plots were located along a total of 50 transects in seven fields (Fig. 1). Transects were parallel in four of eight fields and were generally spaced at 150 foot intervals. Transect starting points in the three fields north of the porid (Field Nos. 2, 3 and 4) were equidistant apart. Transects .Ln these north fields radiated out at compass settings designed to space the transects throughout the triangular shaped fields. Transects in the field located in the southeast corner of Fig. 1 (Field No.6) had a common starting point and radiated out at pre-determined compass settings. All transects were generally perpendicular to the firing line. All transect starting points were positioned along field boundaries which were nearest to and generally paralleled the water's edge. Plots were one-half meter square (0.5 m sq) in size and located at the origin of the transect and at 100 foot intervals along the transect. Transects were variable in length, but each extended at least 700 feet beyond the firing line. A few transects in Field No. 6 were terminated at the edge of a wasteland area less than 700 feet outside the firing line (Fig. 1). Non-rooted vegetative material, such as corn leaves and stalks, located within the plots was removed carefully so that lead shot suspended in the material would fall within the plot. Loose dirt and duff-like surface material·was moved within the plots in order to expose lead. Lead shot found were placed in an envelope on which the field, transect and plot number were recorded. Notes were taken concerning the "habitat tyrpe" in which transects occurred and at what point the transects crossed the firing line. In.analysis, the numbers of lead pellets were recorded by field, transect andplot,and averaged by distances using the firing line as a reference point. .The shot size of each lead pellet found was also recorded. No attempt was made to stratify fields or plots within fields by "habitat type". All fields used for analysis had definite geographic or habitat type boundaries with the exception of thealfalfa-wheat fields (Field Nos. 3 and 4) located directly north of the pond (Fig. 1). In the latter case the field division was based on the relative number of shot found on the three transects in the east portion of the field (Field No.4), compared to what was found on the three transects in the west portion (Field No.3), thus indicating the influence of the large number of pits in Field No.4. Samples of dead and live Canada geese having no external visible signs of gunshot wounds were collected on February 5, February 11, February 21 and March 5, 1974. An attempt was made to capture at least .ten live birds on each collection date. Live birds were captured by hand or with the use of a net. Selection of live birds was based almost solely on ease of capture. No specific sampling scheme was used in the collection of dead birds. On each sampling date an attempt was made to collect only birds that had died a few days prior to that date. The "time of death" judgement was purely subjective in nature, based primarHyori the condition of the eye of the bird and/or the general dryness of the carcass. On March 5, 1974 an attempt was made to capture "normal" appearing flightless birds. �-112- Birds were transported on the day of collection to the Fort Collins Wildlife· Research Center and placed in isolation. Live birds were sacrificed and necropsied on February 6, 13, and 22, and March 6, 1974. Post mortem examinations were performed either at the C~lorado Sta:te University School of Veterinary Medicine or at the Wildlife Research Center. A sample of blood was taken from each live bird at the time of sacrifice. A subjective judgement as to the general body condition and the status of body fat was recorded. Impaction of the proventricular and esophageal areas, a sign of lead poisoning described by Jordan and Bellrose (1951) for mallards and by Cook and Trainer (1966) for Canada geese, was noted. Any gross pathological conditions or other abnormalities were recorded. A portion of the liver, a kidney, breast muscle t Lssue and the radius bone were .collected from each goose to determine lead content· of those tissues. In addition, the brain, remainder of the liver, a kidney, a section of breast muscle were taken from every live bird collected and sections of the heart, the thyroids, spleen, sciatic and vagal nerves, portions of the .intestine, sections of the ventriculus and proventriculus and lung were taken from most birds sacrificed. All the above tissues were collected for histopathological examination. In general terms, the contents of the esophagus, proventriculus and ventriculus were recorded, including lead shot. All shot found in the ventriculus was collected and labeled as to bird number. The same routine, with the exception of the collection of tissues for histopathological work was followed for birds which were dead at the time of collection or died between the time of collection and the time of necropsy. Each tissue collected for analysis of lead content, with the exception of blood, was oven dryed at 80 degrees centigrade for at least. 72 hours, weighed and digested in 2 ml HCL04 and 3 ml HN03 in a hot water bath for 6 hours. Samples were then. diluted to 50 ml and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry with the deuterium arc background correction. On January 28 and 29, 1974, 1,092 Canada goose carcasses were removed from the Turk's Pond area. A random sample of 221 ventriculi (gizzards) were obtained from the 1,092 Canada goose carcasses were removed from the Turk's Pond area. A random sample of 221 ventricula (gizzards) were obtained from the 1,092 carcasses. These gizzards were examined and the presence of lead shot reco rded , On February 20 and 21, 1974, 430 carcasses of birds judged to have died during or shortly after the goose season were removed from Turk's Pond. From February 5, 1974 through April 2, 1974 a total 371 geese that were not considered victims of gunshot wounds, including those collected for examination, were removed from Turk's Pond. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution of Lead Shot The sampling technique was designed only to document the general relative density of surface lead in respect to the firing line. The method resulted in sampling rates which were fairly uniform, by area, in fields that were �-113- rectangular in shape (Field Nos. 1, 5, 7 and 8), but in fields that were triangular in shape (Field Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 6) the rate decreased continuously as one moved out the transect from the point of origin. In analysis, samples were not weighted by surface area and are basically not comparable. However, the resulting information does provide a general picture of the lead shot distribution. On a comparative basis, very few lead pellets were found in fields numbers one and two located west and northwest of the pond (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Although no quantitative data were collected, there were indications that very few birds leaving the pond flew west or northwest. There apparently were some flights that returned to the pond from the west (J. Randall, pers. comm.) . Available surface lead in fields three and four was influenced by the presence of a perennial crop, alfalfa, between the firing line and the pond (Fig. 1). The alfalfa field had not been plowed on an annual basis and therefore, lead pellets on the surface had accumulated, for more than one hunting season. The decision to divide the field north of the pond into two separate fields for analysis was based on the comparatively heavy accumulation of lead pellets in the eastern portion of the field, compared to the western portion. These heavy accumulations were no doubt the result, in part, of the large number of goose hunting pits and potential hunters in the eastern area. A total of 25 pits from which hunters could distribute lead pellets in the area were located. Hunters from only seven pits were in a position to distribute lead pellets in the western portion of the north field. In addition, there were apparently substantially more birds which left the pond flying north-northeast than in a more westerly direction. According to observers, the major flights of geese leaving and returning to the pond throughout the hunting season were generally over fields to the east and southeast. The presence of lead in fields five and six, and to a lesser extent, seven, indicate a comparatively heavy amount of gunning pressure in that area (Table 1). ' Field ,numbers five through eight were all planted to annual crops and therefore,plowed sometime after the 1972-73 hunting season, but before the 197374 season. Therefore, most lead on the surface had accumulated during the 1973-74 season (Table 1). These fields, grouped together, provide a picture of what might be expected, in terms of lead distribution, and in part, accumulation from one hUnting season's activity around the pond under current conditions (Table 2). Some obvious changes in relative density of pellets occur as one moves away from the firing line in either direction (Table 2). Data from all fields are grouped together in Table 3 to provide an "average" look at the total area. It is obvious that many variables were disregarded in the analysis of sur face lead distribution. However, data gathering techniques and subsequent analysis, to date, have shown that lead pellets were available in varying densities on the surface' of the ground and they were distributed in a some- ~' what predictable fashion. �-114;.. Table L Average number of lead pellets found in plots at 100 foot intervals along transects in fields sampled around Turk' s Pond. Approximate Distance Relative to the Firing Line 1(10}1/ 1,500 1,400 1,300 1,200 1,100 1,000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.1 Firing '"0 s:: 0 P-< '"0 H ~ 0 E-; Line 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1/ Number Firing Line 2(2) 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3(3) 4 (3) 5(10) 6(8) 7 (7) 8(8) 0.3 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.0 0.7 0.3 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.7 1.7 1.3 2.0 2.3 3.0 3.0 1.3 3.0 4.7 2.3 2.7 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.4 0.3 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.7 2.4 2.4 2.6 1.8 2.4 1.9 0.4 0.3 1.1 0.8 1.6 1.4 2.3 2.5 2.9 3.4 1.9 1.9 1.9 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.1 1.6 1.1 . 1.9 1.1 1.4 0.9 i.6 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.6 2.3 1.4 1.9 0.9 1.1 2.6 1.3 0.9· 1.5 . ·1.3 1.6 0.6 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.4 -------0.6 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 of transects •. - - - -.- - - - - - - 1.0 . 0.0 1.3 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.0 1.7 2.0 1.3 1.3 1.7 0.0 1.7 1.3 ··0.3 0.3 2.0 1.2 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.2 �-115- Table 2. Number of lead shot found in plots at 100 ft intervals along transects in fields to the south and east of Turk's Pond. Number of Shot Observed 12 100 ft 1300 ft Averages by Interval 200 ft 300 ft 400 ft 500 ft 0.375 11 0.344 15 0.469 0.406 0.531 0.656 25 0.781 33 1.031 35 1.094 50 1.563 0.906 1.229 1.328 2.125 68 2.·172 1\ 71 1.319 1.750 500 ft 2.219 2.219 2.313 74 1.969 52 1.625 53 1.656 1.938 1.867 1.719 1.766 60 Firing Line 39 100 ft - - - - --100 ft 1.875 - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.219 1.141 34 1.063 34 1.063 34 1.063 1.115. 1.102 1.063 1.063 28 500 ft 0.903 ' 0.903 0.820 0.733 22 0.692 0.536 15 0.554 16 .16 ·900 ft �-116- �-117- MOrtality-Lead Poisoning Necropsy-Gross Observations A total of 107 Canada geese were collected at Turk's Pond for examination. Twenty-seven birds were sacrificed at the time of necropsy (Table 4). The remainder of the birds were either dead at the time of collectioIl or were collected alive but died prior to necropsy. Table 4. Schedule of bird collections at Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado. Live Numberof Birds Collected Dead Total February 5, 1974. 3 2# 26 February 11, 1974 4 26 30 February 21, 1974. l3 18 31 March 5, 1974 7 13Y' 20 Date };./ Total examination not accomplished on all birds. To date, only the number of birds with impacted proventriculi and/or lead . shot fragments in their ventriculi have been tabulated. The results indicate that 52.9 percent of the birds examined had impacted proventriculi . (Table 5), 64.5 percent had lead shot fragments in their ventriculi (Table 6), and 80 percent had either one of the conditions or both (Table 7). Table 5. The incidence of impacted proventriculi in Canada geese examined' that were collected at Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado. Date Collected NumberExamined Numl:>er Positive 18 11 February 5, 1974 Percent 'Positive 61.1 t: February 11, 1974 30 11 February 21, 1974 31 21 85 45 36.7 March 5, 1974 Total -, ,52.9 . �-118- Table 6. The incidence of lead shot fragments in the ventriculi of Canada geese examined that were collected at Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado. Date Collected Number Examined Number Positive Percent Positive February 5, 1974 26 11 42.3 February 11, 1974 30 24 80.0 February 21, 1974 31 21 67.7 March 5, 1974 6 4 66.7 Total 93 60 64.5 Table 7. The incidence of impacted proventriculi and/or lead shot fragments in the ventriculi of Canada geese examined that were collected at Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado. Date Collected Number Examined Number Positive Percent Positive February 5, 1974 18 14 77.8 February 11, 1974 30 25 83.3 February 21, 1974 31 25 80.6 March 5, 1974 6 4 66.7 Total 85 68 80.0 Lead Content of Organs and Tissues Lead levels of organs and tissues taken from 90 Canada geese collected at Turk's Pond and from ten pen reared control birds are presented in Table 8. In controlled studies Cook and Trainer (1966) found that the level of lead in the liver was related to the quantity of lead the bird received, as well as the length of time the birds retained the pellet. At the time of death, liver tissues from birds experimentally dosed with from five to 100 No. 4 lead pellets contained from five to 32 ug/g (or ppm) lead. Livers froInsuspected lead poisoned birds collected at Turk's Pond have generally greater lead concentrations. Complete analysis of these lead concentration data is in progress. �-119- Table 8. Lead levels, in ppm, in tissues·from Canada geese col.Lect ed at Turk's Po.nd,so.utheastCo.1orado., and from birds raised.artificia11y for control purposes. Goose Sample No. 1 3 5 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31A 33A 34A 35A 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Liver Kidney 40 59 <2 <2 30 148 154 5 149 44 109 148 52 53 54 8 8 28 34 63 296 373 <6 154 76 51 74 73 216 81 . 8 55. 119 84 69 125 160 69 115 43 50 51 38 39 30 99 53 69 49 7 18 3 169 101 124 129 165 160 173 123 157 118 . 73 284 151 97 .103 13 90 . 94 6 9 5 7 4 5 242 95 5 4 138 140 187 14 5 4 4 1784 231 20 83 103 12 35 51 38 36 70 36 43 41 4 1 2 137 101 Remarks 2 119 150 132 <4 93 82 88 118 52 76 77 136 90 Bone <2. 42 44 42 45 46 47 48 1:./ Tissues Muscle 115 187 3 6 96 7 62 11 Internal hemorrhage from lead shot wourid 64 48 29 -------------------------------------------------------------------.----------~ �-120Table 8. Lead levels, in ppm, in tissues from Canada geese collected at Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado, and from birds raised artificially for control purposes. (continued). Goose Sample No. Liver Kidney 55 56 .57 58 59 60 61 63 64 65 66 67 138 82 80 104 76 104 247 87 126 57 105 8 148 107 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 80 125 100 130 50 54 75 52 93 79 160 170 51 53 67 122 120 56 104 629 56 88 39 144 6 Tissues Muscle Bone 8 6 1,738 14 38 35 238 31 49 5 4 3 9 3 2 76 28 29 60 26 106 13 76 182 44 94 108 116 283 106 62 3 108 73 143 114 128 77 77 66 48 93 128 196 151 105 67 114 109 68 86 199 245 151 87 295 461 76 40 5 7 7 4 4 4 4 5 10 15 7 12 8 19 5 5 3 2,137 4 7 8 2 5 2 7 9 6 6 3 59 34 31 47 37 446 31 35 59 44 33 37 131 29 87 59 60 108 39 76 43 74 79 13 97 98 99 100 5 79 81 3 6 104 110 12 2 2 6 2 26 40 32 14 101 2 3 2 2 Remarks Collected as a normal appearing cripple 38 37 48 Collected as a normal appearing cripple Collected as a normal appearing cripple Collected as a normal appearing cripple ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-121"'- Table 8. Lea~ levels, in ppm, in tissues from Canada geese collected at .Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado, and from birds raised artificially for control purposes (continued). Goose Sample No. Liver Kidney 102 103 .Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 ClO 10 66 12 4 2 2 4 20 4 2 2 2 69 48 11 5 4 2 2 11 Tissues Muscle 6 5 1./ Less than signs «) Remarks Bone 2 6 2 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 17 23 ·6 10 8 8 9 Control Control Control Control Control Control Control Control Control Control are a function of weight of the sample. MOrtality~Other Causative Agents To date, no infectious disease or other causative agents of disease or poisoning, other than lead poisoning, have been identified in the 1973-74 samples. Magnitude of Non-hunting MOrtality-Preliminary Results Gizzards from 221 geese sampled from a population of 1,092 dead birds picked up around Turk's Pond shortly after the hunting season were examined for the presence of lead shot fragnients. The majority of these birds died during the hunting season.· A total of 63 gizzards, or 28.5 percent of the sample, containeq lead shot. Sixty-one of the gizzards contained a fragment from only one lead shot; one gizzard contained fragments from three lead shot; and .one gizzard fragments from four lead shot. All pellets from 61 of 63 gizzards exhibited considerable amount of erosive wear. These pellets, both in quantity of occurrence and wear, resembled those found in gizzards from geese that were definite victims of lead poisoning. It was concluded that regardless of the actual cause of death, 311 of the 1,092 birds, or 28.5 percent, were potential lead poisoning victims because of the presence of lead shot in their gizzards. In addition, by tabulating the incidence of lead shot in the gizzards of those birds that were definite victims of lead poisoning, according to chemical analysis, we found that only 76.9 percent of those birds suffering from lead pOisoning had lead shot fragments in their gizzard. Therefore, an additional 94 of the 1,092 birds may have died of lead poisoning, bringing the potential total deaths caused by lead poisoning to 405 or 37.1 percent of the sample. a �-122- An additional 430 carcasses of birds judged to have died during or shortly after the goose hunting season at Turk's Pond were removed in late February. These carcasses were not picked up earlier for various reasons. It was concluded that lead poisoning victims in this group occurred at the same rate, .371, as they occurred in the population of 1,092 birds removed from the. pond earlier. Therefore, 160 more birds were categorized as in-season lead pOisoning victims bringing the .total to 565. . A total of 371 live and dead. birds judged not to be victims of gunshot wounds were removed from Turk's Pond from February 5, 1974 through April 2, 1974 (Table 9). Birds for postmortem examination and tissue analysis were selected from this group. Three of the birds collected were selected as ·normal appearing wing cripples and should not be considered as part of the sample of victims of non-hunting mortality .. Analysis of lead levels in tissues indicate that approximately 93 percent, or 343 of the 368 birds removed that were categorized as non-gunshot victims, were victims of lead poisoning. Table 9. Sequence of removal of carcasses be victims of gunshot wounds. Date Total Number Birds Removed Number Retained for Examination of Canada geese judged not to Remarks February 5, 1974 26 26 Only birds for examination removed February 11, 1974 30 30 Only birds for examination removed February 21, 1974 163 18 1/ All carcasses removed March 5, 1974 104 13 2/ All carcasses removed March 13, 1974 37 0 All carcasses removed April 2, 1974 11 0 All .carcasses removed l/ Includes one bird selected as a normal appearing wing cripple. ~ two birds selected as normal appearing wing cripple. Includes Although some mortality continues to occur at Turk's Pond, the rate of death has slowed considerably. From March 13 to April 2, 1974, only 11 birds succumbed for a death rate of about .6 birds/day. During the previous period, March 5 to March 13, 1974.birds were dying at the rate of 5.4/day. Reduction in the number o f birds using the Turk's Pond area was probably the major factor in the decline in the observed mortality rate. �-123- To summarize, the death of 565 Canada geese at Turk's Pond during or shortly after the hunting season was attributed to lead poisoning. An additional 343 birds died of lead poisoning at Turk's prior to April 2, 1974 bringing total lead poisoning mortalities to 908. Conclusions Because of the magnitude of the problem at Turk's Pond and the desire to implement measures to decrease non-hunting mortality as soon as possible, some preliminary conclusions are in order. 1. Of 1,890 carcasses of Canada geese removed from Turk's Pond during the winter of 1973-74,908 or 48 percent were estimated to be victims or possible victims of lead poisoning. 2. Birds are ingesting lead pellets which are distributed on agricultural lands around Turk's Pond, primarily by hunters shooting from the firing line. 3. The ingestion of lead pellets by geese begins prior to the conclusion of the hunting season. 4. There is evidence may be sufficient Turk's Pond. to suggest that the ingestion of a single lead pellet ~o cause lead poisoning in geese associated with Sa. Normal practices associated with annual agricultural crops, such as plowing and diskingare currently effective in removing most lead pellets from the surface of the ground. However, because of the timing of these· practices lead is not eliminated during the critical period of goose habitation. b. Maintenance of perennial crops such as alfalfa allows accumulation surface lead for a number of years. 6. The number of lead pellets distributed in anyone the number and direction of shots fired. 7. Lead pellets are distributed fir:i.ngline. in a predictable LITERATURE of area is a function pattern in respect of to the CITED Cook, R. S., and D. O. Trainer. 1966. Experimental Canada geese. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(1) :1-8. lead poisoning of Jordan, J. S., and F. C. Be11rose. 1951. Lead poisoning in wild waterfowl. Ill. Nat. Hist. Survey Div. BioI. Notes No. 26. 27 p. Prepared bY?1i~ilg?.j/~ . Michael R. szym~O AssistanFWild1ife &-,7 Researcher ��-125- October 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-88-R-19 Work Plan No. 2 Job Title Job No. 8 ~ ~ Investigation of Canada Geese in the San Luis Valley Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 H. Burdick, B. Clark, R. Desi1et, H. Funk, G. Hinshaw, D. Lowry, J. Rauch, G. Saville, W. Schuett, M. Szymczak, R. Velarde, R. Weldon, B. Widhalm, M. Zgainer of Colorado Division of Wildlife; C. Bryant, J. Sarvis, S. Cornelius of Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; B. Darnell, D. Ziegler of Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge; R.Tragstaad of Bureau of Land Management. ABSTRACT This report presents the results of the first spring-summer season of a field study concerning the "size, distribution and productivity of the Canada goose population in the San Luis Valley. Habitat occupied by nesting geese was identified by aerial and ground inspection of all water areas in the valley. Riverbottoms with woody vegetation, ponds, sloughs and islands were preferred, as were permanent lakes and ponds with Lal.ands : ox emergent:;vegetatioR'" Aerial counts and ground counts on the same areas were compared to ascertain the usefulness of count Lng and estimating numbers of geese from a fixed-wing aircraft. Air/ground ratios were consistent from area to area for certain counts made in open habitat, during mid-day. Most air/ground ratios were inconsistent, in heavily vegetated riverbottom areas, and could not be used for population estimates for the entire study area. Aerial brood counts of downy goslings were not successful. Seventy-three nests were located. Forty-four nests were on natural sites averaging 18 feet-l inch (5.51 meters) from open water and 15 inches (0.38 meters) above water. Twenty-nine nestswere on artificial nesting structures either near or in open water. Peak of egg laying occurred from 29 March to 15 April, and peak of hatching occurred from 2 May to 14 May. Mean number of eggs was 5.05 for 40 nests; 4.82 for 22 successful nests and 5.33 for 18 unsuccessful nests. Hatching success and mean number of eggs hatched was 30 percent and 1.50 eggs for all nests, and 84.6 percent and 4.08 eggs for successful nests. Gosling mortality was at least 10.9 percent on nine different, isolated areas from date of hatch to flight stage. �-126- RECOMMENDATIONS It is felt that a helicopter instead of a faster moving, fixed~wing aircraft would allow more reliable aerial counts of geese, especially along the heavily vegetated riverbottom areas. Counts should be conducted at various daylight hours, depending on weather and on movements and locations of geese at different times of day during the changing season. �-127- INVESTIGATION OF CANADA GEESE IN THE SAN LUIS VALLEY Dennis G. Lowry The resident Canada goose population of the San Luis Valley developed from restoration efforts by federal and state personnel which began in 1953 and 1955, respectively. Few data have been collected on the size, distribution and productivity of this expanding population; information that is basic to satisfactory management of any wildlife population. This study was designed to provide such knowledge, and this report presents the results of the first spring-summer season of the field study. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the size, distribution and productivity of the Canada goose population in the San Luis Valley during the spring and summer period and develop a management plan. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To locate, examine, and map the distribution of occupied and potential Canada goose nesting habitat. 2. To develop a technique for estimating the annual size and distribution of the breeding population of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley. 3. To develop a technique for estimating the annual productivity of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley. 4. To compile data, analyze results and prepare a progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Delineation of Nesting Habitat Aerial inspection on 20 and 24 April, and ground inspection from early April to late August allowed the determination and recording of occupied goose nesting habitat. The Rio Grande River below 8,200 feet (2197 meters) and all other water areas below 8,100 feet (2469 meters) were searched. Aerial inspection was from a Cessna 180 aircraft, with the investigator and the pilot both scanning for geese in and near water, from elevations of 100 to 150 feet (30 to 46 meters) above the ground. Ground inspection was conducted primarily on foot and occasionally from a 4-wheel drive pickup. Seven-power binoculars and a 20-power spotting scope were used to facilitate the ground search. �-128- Aerial-Ground Counting Techniques Numbers of adults and subadults found in pairs, singles and groups, plus numbers of broods observed from a fixed-wing aircraft on selected sample areas were recorded. Aerial counts were compared with closely-timed ground counts on the same selected areas in order to evaluate the use of aerial counts. Aerial counts were made from a Cessna 180 aircraft at elevations from 100 to 150 feet (30 to 46 meters) above the ground and at speeds from 75 to 100 miles per hour (121 to 161 kilometers per hour). Two observers counted, scanning the area below both sides of the aircraft and up to .25 mile (402 meters) away. Transects were, (1) systematically counted by making two passes over each 1 mile-wide area, such that a .5 mile strip would be scanned on each pass, and making additional passes over areas where sightings were uncertain; or (2) by spotting geese and then counting, without a predetermined flight pattern. Ground counts on corresponding areas counted from the air were usually made by the investigator before or after the flight. However, comparisons of counts by different teams of ground and aerial observers were tried. Most corresponding ground and air counts were made within 4 hours of each other to minimize the chance of geese entering or leaving the area. Air and ground counts were made during mid-day, a period when geese were flying the least. Ratios of air-ground counts were tested for consistency using Chi-square tests. Breeding pair counts were attempted from the ground but were incomplete due to the investigator's unfamiliarity with the area early in the season. Aerial counts of breeding pairs were not attempted for the same reason and also because of bad weather. Nesting, Productivity and Survival Nests were located and examined, and broods were periodically counted to estimate productivity and mortality. Egg laying dates were estimated by back-dating from hatching dates, assuming 28 days to be the average incubation period and 1.5 days to be the average time required to lay one egg. Nests with at least one hatched egg were considered successful. Gosling mortality was estimated from periodic ground counts on nine different, isolated areas (Fig. 1) from late-May to late-July. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Delineation of Nesting Habitat Habitats used for nesting included river ,lake and pond areas. Riverbot toms with small ponds, sloughs and islands surrounded by willow and cottonwood were preferred river areas. Permanent lakes and ponds with islands and/or emergent vegetation were favored open water areas. Areas currently occupied by nesting Canada geese are indicated in Figure 1. Nesting is possible in and near all water areas of the San Luis Valley, but is a matter of speculation. Possibly, additional data from the 1974 nesting season will help define the most probable potential nesting·areas. �-129- N R~s.5e/l Lakes ® LEGEN 0 COh-f: •.••• eJ To Have.Nest: "'!J /=J"eqs be e.s e R"eClS Reporte.d To /tCl"e. Nest;"J Gee.s e x AreQ~ Ob.s,rv.el For Go.sl:"'!I S~\"v,'Vq' SeRLE. o . IN 5 MILES 1.0 15 • Mana!\sq Fig. 1. Areas occupied by Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, 1973. �-130- Aerial-Ground Counting Techniques Results of air-ground comparison counts of partially- and fully-feathered geese showed that all air/ground ratios were inconsistent and could not be used for population estimates for the entire study area. Chi-square tests were run on selected air-ground counts from heavily vegetated riverbottom areas and from open areas with little or no tall woody vegetation. Only the open area counts of Table 1, Lines 2, 3, 4, 5, 16, 18 were found to have consistent air/ground ratios from area to area at the 0.025 significance level. These particular counts were ones which: (1) the investigator believed no geese had left or entered the area in the time between corresponding air and ground counts, and (2) the ground count was considered complete and accurate. The number of geese seen from the air in these open areas averaged 61 percent of the ground count. Selected riverbottom counts, using some criteria, were not consistent. Error in both air and ground counts was probably high. Tall, dense vegetation and high eircraft speeds made aerial counts inaccurate. Ground counts were difficult due to the above mentioned vegetation and the secretive nature 'of geese, especially during their flightless molting and brood-rearing periods from mid-May through July. Brood counts of downy goslings from the air were not successful; the young were even less obvious than the adults. Brood counts of downy young are not included in Table 1. However, partially-to fully-feathered goslings were recognized, and are included in the June, July and August counts (Table 1). Breeding pair counts from the ground were unreliable because, as previously mentioned under Methods and Materials, the investigator was not familiar with the area early in the season. Aerial counts of pairs were not available for comparison, as explained previously. However, the investigator plans on reliable ground and aerial breeding pair counts for the 1974 season, because of last season's knowledge concerning the nesting areas. Nesting, Productivity and Survival Data were collected from various areas in the San Luis Valley that nesting Canada geese were found to inhabit (Fig. 1). The investigator's data do not include data from the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; however, those data are labeled and presented separately when comparable. Nesting Sites Seventy-three nests were found and studied, with 44 nests on natural sites and 29 nests on man-made nesting structures (Table 2). TWenty-five nests were built in bulrush or cattails on either muskrat houses or matted vegetation, located above either water or moist ground. Fourteen nests were built on islands on bare groUnd using greasewood, driftwood or willow as cover. TWenty-five nests were found on elevated artificial structures with straw or hay being the nesting base. Three nests were built on artificial �Table 1- Comparison of aerial and ground counts of total numbers of partia11y- and fully-feathered geese in the San Luis Valley, 1973. Line Aerial Counts Area 1./ Date Count Air/Ground Pass '];./ (Percent) Date Ground Counts Area !./ Count Habitat Type 11 1 30 May RL 12 1FA 17 30 May RL 70 !!./ 0 2 30 May RL 56 2FA 80 30 May RL 70 !!../ 0 3 30 May SL 27 1FA 63 31 May SL 43 0 4 30 May DL 3 1FA 60 29 May DL 5 0 5 18 Jun GP 36 1FA 35 18 Jun GP 102 '2/ 0 18 Jun 22 86 'i/ V V 6 18 Jun 22 14 1FA 7 18 Jun 23 14 1FA 18 Jun 23 8 18 Jun 26 22 1FA 18 Jun 26 o '2/ o '}../ 18 Jun 27 25 1FA 18 Jun 27 o '2./ V 9 10 18 Jun 29 31 1FA 18 Jun 29 o '2./ V 11 18 Jun 30 2 1FA 18 Jun 30 0 V 12 18 Jun 31 6 1FA 120 18 Jun 31 5 '2/ V 13 9 Ju1 22 39 1FA 33 9 Ju1 22 119 V 14 9 Ju1 AL 25 1FA 89 3 Ju1 AL 28 0 15 13 Aug 113 22 1A 110 13 Aug 113 20 0 16 13 Aug 113 20 1F 100 13 Aug 113 20 0 17 13 Aug 22 19 1FA 16 13 Aug 22 120 V V ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I I-' Vol I-' I �Table 1. Comparison of aerial and ground counts of total numbers of partially- and fully-feathered in the San Luis Valley, 1973 (continued). geese Date Aerial Counts Area·l] Count Pass '27 Air/Ground (Percent) Date Ground Counts Area 17 Count; Habitat Type 31 18 13 Aug GP 49 lFA 65 13 Aug GP 75 192/ 0 15 Aug III 26 lFA 39 15 Aug 111 66 V 202/ 15 Aug 39 lA 42 15 Aug 21 2..1 V 37 2A 40 15 Aug 112 112 93 15 Aug 112 112 93 V 22 ~/ 15 Aug 112 47 IF 51 15 Aug 23 2..1 112 93 V 15 Aug 112 31 2F 33 15 Aug 24 2./ 112 93 V 15 Aug 113 25 lFA 357 15 Aug 113 7 0 25 2..1 15 Aug GP 86 lFA 115 15 Aug GP 75 0 26 ~/ 15 Aug GP 84 2FA 112 15 Aug GP 75 0 27 &/ 22 Aug 34 118 lFA 78 22 Aug 34 151 V 28 22 Aug 22 10 lFA 63 22 Aug 22 16 V Ll.ne 11 . . - RL = Russell Lakes; SL = San Luis Lake; DL = Dry Lakes; AL = Adams Lake; GP= Goose Pen Area at Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; All Numbers = Various Rio Grande riverbottom areas between Monte Vista and Alamosa. 21 - Number indicates first or second pass with aircraft; Letter indicates count by fore or aft observer or by both. llV = heavily vegetated riverbottom; 0 = open habitat. i/Ground count of 30 May was estimated; all others were actual counts. 51 .. - Ground counts of lines 5 - 10 and 12 were not by same observer who made aerial counts; other counts were by same observer. i/For the aerial counts in lines 19 - 27, geese were spotted and then counted without a predetermined pattern; all other aerial counts were made by flying predetermined transects. flight ,... I w !-..) I �-133- Table 2. Nesting sites of rknown.. nests in the San Luis Valley, 1973. 1..! Description· of Nest Base Number of Nests Natural Vegetation Above of Near Water 25 Natural Bare Ground of Island 14 Natural Haystack 2 Natural Gravel Beach 1 Natural Duck-hunting Blind 1 Natural Bare Ground Under Log 1 Type of Nest SiteJ:...! 44 Sub-total Artificial Hay or Straw, Elevated Above Land 17 Hay or Straw, Elevated Above Water 8 Artificial Wooden Floating Structure 3 Artificial Beached, Wooden Floating Structure 1 Artificial Sub-total 29 Total 73 1/ -Data do not include sites of nests at Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, 1973. J:...! Artificial sites are considered only those structures specifically constructed for goose nesting. �-134- floating structures with straw or emergents used as nesting material. Haystacks, a gravel beach, a fallen log, a beached floating structure and a duck hunting blind provided sites for the remaining six nests. Natural nests averaged 18 feet-l inch (5.51 meters) away from open water, and ranged from 1 foot-6 inches to 55 feet-lO inches (0.46 to 17.02 meters) away. Twenty-five of these 44 nests were 14 feet (4.27 meters) or less away from open water. Eggs in natural nests averaged 15 inches (0.38 meter) above water, and ranged from 2 to 64 inches (0.05 to 1.63 meters) above water. Half of these nests held eggs 12 inches (0.31 meter) or less above water. Occupied elevated, man-made structures were located either in open water or up to 25 feet (7.62 meters) away from open water. Those on land accounted for more than two-thirds of the occupied sites and averaged 7 feet-lO inches (2.39 meters) awa~ from open water. Eggs in the 17 artificial, standing structures on land averaged 6 feet-8 inches (2.03 meters) above ground, and ranged from 10 feet to 5 feet-4 inches (3.05 to 1.63 meters) above ground. More than four-fifths of these nests held eggs between 5 and 7 feet (1.52 and 2.13 meters) above ground. Eggs in the eight artificial, standing structures in water averaged 4 feet-lO inches (1.47 meters) above water, and ranged from 4 feet-l inch to 6 feet-2 inches (1.25 to 1.88 meters) above water. Nesting Chronology Egg laying began on 24 March and continued through 22 May, with 29 March through 15 April the peak egg-laying period. Hatching began on 29 April and continued through 20 June, with 2 May through 14 May the peak hatching period. Clutch Sizes Although 73 nests were studied, the clutch sizes for only 40 nests were determined. The remaining nests were either hatched or destroyed before the clutch size could be accurately determined. Based on these 40 nests, the mean clutch size was 5.05 eggs and the mode was 5 eggs. The mean clutch size of the 22 successful nests was 4.82 eggs and the mode was 5 eggs. In the 18 unsuccessful nests, the mean clutch size was 5.33 eggs and the mode was 6 eggs. Mean clutch size in 29 nests at the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge was 4.52 eggs (J. Sarvis, unpublished data). Nesting Fate All 73 nests studied were classified as to fate since destroyed egg remains differ in appearance from hatched eggs. Of these 73 nests, 27 (36.9%) were successful and 46 (63.1%) were failures. Success rates varied from area to �-135- area (Table 3). Thirty';"nineof the nests that failed were apparently destroyed by avian or mammalian predators and the remaining seven were deserted. Of the 79 nests studied at Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge (Table 4), 52 (65.8%) were successful, 25 (31.6%) were failures and 2 (2.6%) were unknown as to fate. Seventeen of the nests that failed were destroyed, nine by mammalian predators and eight by avian predators. Of the remaining nests that failed, four were abandoned, two were flooded and two were eventually deserted due to chilled or addled eggs (J. Sarvis, unpublished data). Hatching Success Using the data from the 40 nests in which clutch sizes were determined, the percent of eggs hatching in all 73 nests studied was estimated at 30 percent, with a mean hatch of 1.50 eggs per nest. The 27 successful nests had an estimated 84.6 percent of the eggs hatch, with a mean hatch of 4.08 eggs per nest. Percent of eggs hatching in all 79 nests studied at Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge was estimated at 52 percent, with a mean hatch of 2.34 eggs per nest (J. Sarvis, unpublished data). Gosling Mortality On nine different, isolated areas (Fig. 1) at least 129 goslings were produced and 115 goslings remained when the birds reached flight stage. Gosling mortality in these areas was estimated to be at least 10.9 percent. f, Prepared by ,~, . =-:-0. __ > ' '"> ,> '- __ '}.~----:--- '~ - Dennis G. Lowry Graduate Student > �-l36Table 3. Nesting fate of known nests in the San Luis Valley, 1973. !I Area and Type of Nest Structure Y Number of Nests .Successful Nests Number Percent Rio Grande Management .Area Artificial 20 0 0.0 Natural 3 1 33.3 Total 23 1 4.3 1 50.0 Natural 2 22 14 63.6 Total 24 15 62.5 Artificial 7 2 28.6 Natural 19 9 47.4 Total 26 11 42.3 Artificial 29 3 10.3 Natural 44 24 54.5 Total 73 27 36.9 Russell Lakes Artificial Other Areas Total Area 1/ - Data do not include fate of nesting geese at the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, 1973. These data are presented in Table 4. 2/ - Artificial sites are considered only those structures specifically constructed for goose nesting. Table 4. Nesting fate of known nests at Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, 1973 (J. Sarvis, unpublished data). Type of Nest Structure!/ Number of Nests Successful Nests Number Percent ·Artificial 28 21 75.0 Natural 51 31 60.8 Total 79 52 65.8 1/ - Artificial sites are considered only those structures specifically constructed for goose nesting. �October 1974 -137- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project .::.CO::..LO=RAD=:.;O~ __ ...,..._,-No. Job Title Migratory Bird Investigations W-88-R-19 InvestigatHmof . Period Covered: . April . .. .. '" Units of Eastern Mallard . .: ... ' -,' " - .... - .,', ", :.... -' 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974 .. '. ," ," ," ,"", ":-,.', ".:-, Colorado -:. ::. Personnel: C. Braun, J.Carsella, R. Clark~J. Corey , D.Coven, C. Crawford, M. DePra, G.East,G. Eyre,R.Forbes~H.FUn.k,B.Goetze, .J. Gustafson, . A. Hemmert, T. Henry, J. Hicks, J.Jackson, D.Kenvin, jr., R. Kitzmiller, C. Leonard, J~ Lewis, G.Lorentzson, R.Mason, R. Oakleaf, P.Olson,B. Peterson, W. Russell, G. Saville, II.. Schul.tz., G. Smith, Jr., M. Szymczak, aridR.Hoppet. ABSTRACT Poat.-aeason mallard trapping efforts yielded 5, 614 banded birds in nf.ne study units during the winter of 1973;.,.74.; Banding quotas of 600:-800ma.1lards were met or exceeded in all but:, 'the three 001tsofsolltheastern Colorado. . Mallard numbers appeared tobegenerally lower ill easternC()loradoduring 1973';':'74,· as compared to the previous year •. Peak numbers occurred between mid~N6vember and mid-December., A firial analysis of all band recovery data relative to ' this study will be iriitiatedin the next Segment. ��-139- INVESTIGATION OF MALLARD MANAGEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO RichardM. Hopper Periodic aerial surveys and post-season banding of wintering populations of mallards were continued in eastern Colorado in 1972-73. Past contributions of this study as part of a cooperative venture with other Central Flyway States were reviewed in the previous progress report (Hopper 1973). The present status of this study as it relates to Colorado was also discussed in this same report. The present report for the most part, covers results of banding and survey data collected during the Segment. P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for eastern Colorado management units. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To analyze, for each of nine eastern Colorado study areas of wintering mallards, all data collected from 1962-63 through the 1972-73 hunting season on the discreteness of populations and publish results in an appropriate journal. 2. To determine the feasibility of requesting special hunting regulations for individual mallard management units within Colorado. 3. To trap,band, age, and sex samples of mallards during winter in each management unit of study, based on results of final analysis, of sufficient size to allow adequate monitoring of each population. METHODS AND MATERIAL S Cage traps of the Salt Plains type were employed to capture most mallards, although cannon,....nets were also used in the Arkansas Valley. Trapping operations began inunediately following the end of the duck hunting season on January 16, 1974 and continued through February 15, 1974. Banding was accomplished in nine units of eastern Colorado, including five in the South Platte Valley, three in the Arkansas Valley, and one at Bonny Reservoir. All birds were aged by use of the wing according to Carney (1964) and Hopper and Funk (1970). . Periodic aerial censuses were again conducted during the fall and winter to estimate movements and numbers of birds present in eastern Colorado. Sex ratio counts were not conducted during the 1973-74 period. �-140- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Banding quotas of 600-800 mallards were established for each on nine waterfowl management units (Fig. 1), and these were met or exceeded in all but three units (Table 1). Banding activities were highly successful at Bonny Reservoir and in the five units of northeastern and northcentral Colorado, despite relatively mild weather during the trapping period. Mild weather has always created problems in attaining banding quotas in southeastern Colorado, and this year was no exception. Trapping efforts resulted in the banding of 5,614 mallards in the nine study units (Table 1). Attempts to band equal numbers of birds by age and sex were mostly successful. Overall samples by age and sex were more equal than those obtained during the previous year. Females were again the most difficult sex to obtain, with success by age varying from area to area. Winter Aerial Surveys Dates and results of the periodic aerial counts are shown by management unit in Table 2. These counts were made rather inconsistently, with the midwinter survey (January) being the only one that included counts of all areas at approximately the same time. A high of 222,407 ducks were counted during the mid-December period, but the mid-November count may have been higher if all areas had been surveyed at that time. It is difficult to compare survey results between years, but it appeared that numbers of ducks were generally lower in 1973-74 than in the previous year. The January Inventory of 1974 (160,665) was considerably below that of 1973 (233,038). Variables such as weather and flying conditions make it hard to interpret results between years. Analysis of Band Recovery Data No analysis of band recovery data was conducted during Segment 19. It now appears that the cohort of birds from the first year of banding (1963-64) is nearly eliminated from the population. Thus, a final analysis will be initiated next Segment to include recovery data from the 1964-65 through the 197374 hunting seasons. Existing programs will be utilized in the analysis, along with new ones developed for more recent methods of analysis. A program for the Seber Method (Seber 1970) of estimating survival will be available from the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife by the summer of 1974. This analysis method is very promising and will play a major role in the analysis of the band recovery data in question. �WATERFOWL \\ (;r 1'- R-\j- J Y 0 ~., , !\; MANAGEMENT UNITS " F B R 1\ c, K A G Waterfowl managem~nt Units. ,\ ,< I " HUM A �'Table 1 • Numbe.rsoaaa percentages of mallards in the banded sample by location, age and sex, eastern Colorado, .1973-74. Immature Adult Male Number Percent Female Number Percent 18.6 257 27.1 262 27.7 212 26.6 205 25.8 173 21.7 24.8 146 18.4 209 26.4 241 30.4 153 25.7 112 18.8 156 26.2 174 29.2 797 200 25.1 204 25.6 228 28.6 165 20.7 869 263 30.3 235 27.0 224 25.8 147 16.9 (11) Two Butt:es~e'n'0f.r 498 154 30.9 214 43.0 47 9.4 83 16.7 (12) Rocky Ford-Lamar 38 20 52.6 6 15.8 8 21.0 4 10.5 (13) Pueb1o-RoekyFord 281 124 44.1 91 32.4 37 13.2 29 10.3 5,614 1,569 27.9 1,396 24.9 1,371 24.4 1,278 22.8 Male Percent Number Female Number Percent 947 252 26.6 176 (2) Ft_M::>rg••~Ste;r:ung :796 206 25.9 (3) Gree1 ey-Ft:,. l(o:rgan 79.3 197 (4) Ft",Co1JJlns 595 (6) Denver-Greel~y (9) Bonny Rese.nroir Number Managemen t Unil: (1) Sterling-Julesburg .Banded I I-' .pN Totals I �-143- Table 2. Aerial duck counts by date interval and study unit, eastern Colorado, 1973-74. Management Unit November 5-6 (1) Sterling-Julesburg Number of Ducks Counted November December January 16-17 10, 19-20 7, 9, 11, 13 35,000 14,450 6,175 (2) Ft. Morgan-Sterling 31,500 28,000 29,500 30,050 (3) Gree1ey-Ft. Morgan 35,950 42,000 31,000 31,150 (4) Ft. Collins 11,400 60,300 9,550 27,900 (6) Denver-Greeley 13,250 1,000 23,000 9,375 (9) Bonny Reservoir 52,000 10,000 (10-13) Arkansas Valley 56,750 17,400 6,157 28,615 222,407 160,665 (15) San Luis Valley Totals 8,68(}~J 92,100 1/ Coun t made on November 27. 174,980 �-144- LITERATURE CITED Carney, S. M. 1964. Preliminary keys to waterfowl age and sex identification by means of wing plumage. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci.Rept. :Wildl. No. 82. 47 p. Hopper, R. M. Colorado. 1973. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colo. Div , of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Oct. In Press. Hopper, R. M., and H. D. Funk. 1970. Reliability of the mallard wing agedeterminat ion technique for field use. J. Wildl. Manage. 34 (2) :333- 339. Seber, G.A.F.1970. Estimating time-specific survival and reporting rates for adult birds from band returns. Biometrika 57(2):313-318. Prepared bY_-'~4/r.?"":'::'/-::W1:h&;...jo4ol· ~.......:.o Jg.;,/,-7 .L.2: .•Z~-_0.L. 'J6",-"G~3.M?_U""-J«,-,--"-__ Richard M. Hopper {} Wildlife Researcher �-145- JOB PROGRESS Stat e 0 f __ --'-_....:C:..:O~J.:..:.O.:;R=.:A:.::D.:::O Project No. Work Plan No• W-88-R~19 4 October 1974 I~EPORT __.,.-- Migratory Bird ,Investigations Job No. .Iob Title Trapping and Banding, Doves Period Covered: April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974 3 ~ Pe:rsonne1: Jack Randall, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife; W. John Arthur, Clait E. Braun, Jack Corey, HowardD. Funk, James o. Goodyear, J. Edward Kautz, Marie Vendevil1eKautz, Charles W. Loeffler, Ronald Oakleaf, Brett Petersen, Brent Smith; Darryl J. Todd, Jack Vayhinger, and Kenneth C. Wagner, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Efforts initiated in, 1964 to trap and band samples of mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) in three geographic areas of Colorado were -continued in 1973. Cooperative Federal and State efforts resulted in 4,399 birds being newly banded. Of this total; 1,822 were innnatures, 1,341 were adult males, 1,148 were adult females, while age and sex were not determined for 88 birds. Assigned quotas were accomplished for all areas except extreme eastern Colorado ~ Wing molt data from trapped and harvested immatures suggested that nesting was later; in 1973 than in 1972, with hatching peaks in late May, late June, late July, and late August. A sample of 2,960 hunter-harvested birds, all from east of the Rocky Mountains, gave a young-to-oldratio of 1: 1. Wing molt data from harvestedimmatures in this, sample indicated that most early-hatched young had migrated from Colorado prior to September l. Ff.f ty=one iband recoveries from doves banded by Division personnel were reported to date in the 1973 recovery year. Twenty~nine (56.9 percent) had been banded in 1973. Of the recoveries, 27 (53. o percent) were recovered in CoLo rado , while 8 (15.7 percent) were from Texas, with the remainder being from scattered locations mostly south and west of Colorado. Apparent hunting mortality for doves banded in Colorado continues to be less than 3 percent. _ �-146RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommendedthat the field portion of this study be extended through 1974 in order to contribute to the overall Central Management Unit Dove banding project. 2. It is recommended that this project be held inactive in 1975 and 1976 with the final· report: to be written once most recoveries have been received, probably in 1977 or 1978. �-147- MOURNING DOVE TRAPPING AND BANDING C1ait E. Braun Intensive efforts to trap and band mourning doves in Colorado initiated in 1964 were continued in 1973 in cooperation with personnel from theU. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1973, the tenth year of this continuing investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate migration patterns and mortality rates of mourning doves banded in Colorado by age, sex, and area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band mourning doves in three selected areas of Colorado for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history, and annual mortality data. 2. To estimate harvest size and hunter success. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1973 were similar to those described in earlier reports and summarized by Braun (1970). Description of Trapping Sites Most trapping sites in Eastern Slope areas were identical or similar to those described earlier (Braun 1970). One new site was utilized in 1973 east of the Continental Divide, in addition to those also trapped in 1972. This site was near Salida where trapping was conducted along edges of fields planted to wheat (Triticum aestivum) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa). West slope trap sites were essentially those also used in 1972. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Cooperative Federal and State trapping and banding efforts resulted in 4,399 doves being newly banded in 1973. Doves were banded at five major sites on the eastern slope, two sites on the eastern plains and at two major sites �-148- west of the Continental Divide. The banding goal of 4,000 birds was essentially accomplished as 1,000 were banded in western Colorado, somewhat less than 1,000 in extreme eastern Colorado and over 2,000 ~ere banded along the eastern slope of the Rockies. Sex and age distribution of birds banded by area are presented in Table 1. Slightly fewer inunature doves than adults were banded in 1973, a change from the situation prevailing in 1972, but similar to most previous years of the study. Production in 1973 was believed to be only fair until late sUIlUller, possibly explaining the lower percentage of immatures trapped and banded. However, differences in numbers of adults and immatures trapped is undoubtedly a function of time of season of trapping effort. Trapping at Durango, Montrose, Salida and Monte Vista was accomplished primarily in June and early July, while trapping at Ft. Morgan and Denver was conducted principally in late July and early August. As in previous years of the study, a higher percentage of males were trapped than females (31.1 to 26.6 percent). This disparity is probably related to timing of incubation and brood sharing, as females would normally be exposed to only one trapping period per day. During the 1973 trapping period, 83 mourning doves were recaptured that had been banded in previous years. Eighty-one returned to the area where they were initially banded, while one moved from Ft. Garland to Montrose and one was banded out of Colorado (location still unknown). Of the eighty-two doves banded in Colorado, 2 were banded in 1968, 5 were banded in 1970, 17 were banded in 1971, while 58 were banded in 1972. Hatching Data Wing molt data were available for 1,815 of the 1,822 immature doves trapped and banded in 1973, and from 1,509 hunter harvested immatures. Estimated hatching dates (Allen 1963) are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Examination of data in Table 2 indicates that few mourning doves trapped in Colorado hatched prior to May 1, with most hatching in late May and mid- to late June. While definite hatching peaks are difficult to ascertain from data in Table 2, peaks are suggested in late May and late June. Timing of hatching based on trapped samples in 1973 was later than in 1972 (Braun 1973). Since trapping ceases in early to mid-August, progeny of late nests are not represented in Table 2. This can clearly be seen upon examining Table 3, as two peaks can be ascertained (late July and late August). When hatching dates of hunter harvested doves in 1972 and 1973 are compared, it is obvious that nesting continued later in 1973 that 1972 (Braun 1973). Data in Table 3 suggest that early hatched doves have migrated from Colorado prior to 1 September. It is apparent that neither trapping or hunting data alone accurately represent actual hatching dates as one method (trapping) fails to show late nesting, while the other (hunter harvest in Colorado) misrepresents production early in the nesting period. It should be remembered that neither trap or hunter samples may actually represent doves produced in Colorado. Harvest Efforts were again made to collect wings from hunter-harvested doves throughout Colorado during the 1973 hunting season. Through this effort 2,960 �-149- wings were classified as to age (adult or immature) and primary molt. All wings were from eastern and east slope areas of Colorado with the largest samples from Ft. Carson (2,743) and the Pritchett area (189). All wings were from September to early October with about one-third (32.3 percent) being taken after 21 September. Immature to adult ratios varied from a high of 2.5:1 at Pritchet (N = 189), and Louviers (N = 28) to 1:1 at Ft. Carson (N= 2,743). At Ft. Carson the ratio of immatures to adults in the harvest started off low (.8:1), decreased during the second and third week of the season (.6:1 and .5:1), and then increased late in the season to 2.4:1 and 2.6:1. Harvest data obtained through use of a mail survey of hunters after the 1973 hunting season are not presently available. Final results of this survey are normally not ready for distribution until 30 June of the year following the season (H. Riffel, personal communication). To date, recoveries of 51 mourning doves banded by Division personnel have been reported in the 1973 recovery year (June 1, 1973 to May 31, 1974). An additional 9 recoveries from the 1972 recovery year have been received since preparation of the 1972 progress report. All but two of these 9 late recoveries were from outside of Colorado, with 5 being from Mexico and one each from Texas and Arizona. Six were first year recoveries (banded in 1972), while two were banded in 1971 and one was initially banded in 1969. Eight of the nine were from bandings east of the Continental Divide, while only one was banded in western Colorado. Of the 51 recoveries reported in the 1973 recovery year, one was banded in 1968, two in 1969, three in 1970, 9 in 1971, 7 in 1972, while 29 were first year recoveries (banded in 1973). All but 4 were shot recoveries. Eleven of the 51 recoveries were banded west of the Continental Divide, with four being recovered in western New Mexico, three in Mexico and one each in Utah, california, western Colorado and eastern Colorado. These data are similar to those gathered in previous years and suggest that doves banded west of the Continental Divide have little affinity for areas east of the Continental Divide. Considering all recoveries, 27 (52.9 percent) were from Colorado, 8 (15.7 percent) were from Texas,S each (9.8 percent) were taken in New Mexico and Mexico, with 2 recovered in Utah and one each in Minnesota, Kansas, California and Arizona. Examining first year recoveries only, 10 of 29 were banded as immatures (34.5 percent). This is less than the proportion of immatures banded in 1973 (42.2 percent), suggesting that adults and juveniles do not have differential vulnerability to hunting pressure, but do migrate at different times. All present indications are that hunting is not a serious mortality factor of doves banded in Colorado, as recovery rates are less than 3 percent of all doves banded in a given year, or of a particular age class banded in the same year. Six doves banded in other states were reported recovered in Colorado in 1973. Three were banded in South Dakota, while one each was banded in Texas, Wyoming, and Montana. Four of the six doves were banded as immatures. �-150- Table 1. Sex and age distribution of mourning doves banded by area in Colorado, 1973. Area Adult Male No. Banded Percent Adult Female ~. Banded Percent Immature No. Banded Percent Total Eastern Colorado Ft. Morgan 60 12.0 130 26.0 310 62.0 500 Vineland 64 33.3 35 18.2 93 48.5 192 Subtotal 124 17.9 165 23.8 403 58.3 78o!-' Denver 95 10.3 87 9.5 738 80.2 920 Monte Vista 217 37.8 192 33.4 165 28.8 574 Ft. Garland 160 32.0 134 26.8 206 41.2 500 Ft. Collins Area 203 40.6 118 23.6 179 35.8 500 Salida 70 56.0 45 36.0 10 8.0 125 Subtotal 745 28.4 576 22.0 1,298 49.6 2,619 Durango 284 56.8 210 42.0 6 1.2 500 Montrose 188 37.6 197 39.4 115 23.0 500 Subtotal 472 47.2 407 40.7 121 12.1 1,000 1,341 31.1 1,148 26.6 1,822 42.2 4,399~/ Eastern Slope Western Colorado Total All Areas ~/ Including 88 unknown age and sex mourning doves banded at Vineland. . '.' �Table 2. Estimated hatching dates for wild-trapped immature mourning doves, 1973. June 5"""11 12-18 19-25 26-Ju1y 2 3-9 Ju1l 10-16 17-23 260 220 239 293 237 77 0 0 14.3 12.1 13.1 16.1 13.0 4.2 0.0 0.0 Prior to May 1 1-7 8-14 Ma 15-21 22-28 29-June 4 Number hatching 4 14 53 126 292 Percent of total 0.2 0.7 2.9 6.9 16.0 Table 3. Estimated hatching dates for hunter-harvested immature mourning doves, 1973. ...• ...• I V1 Prior to June 12 June 12-18 19-25 26-Ju1y 2 3-9 Ju1 10-16 17-23 24-30 31-Aug. 6 I August 7-13 14-20 21-27 SeEt. 28-Sept. 3 Number hatching 7 50 90 28 131 163 102 226 206 137 118 194 57 Percent of total 0.5 3.3 6.0 1.9 8.7 10.8 6.8 15.0 13.7 9.1 7.8 12.9 3.8 �-152- LITERATURE CITED Allen, J. M. 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature doves in Indiana. Ind. Dept. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No.4. Indianapo1is. 4 p. Braun, C. E. 1970. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Game, . Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 143-149. 1973. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. Prepared Colo. Div. Wi1dl., In Press. by_---:::~tIu~~/.~I~.__f_L~~~--C1ait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher �-153- October 1974 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-19 \~ork Plan No. 4 Job Title Period Covered: Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 4 ~ ~--~- Band-tailed Pigeon Investigations April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1974 Personnel: Clait Braun, Ron Desilet, Richard Fentzlaff, Howard Funk, J. Edward Kautz, Marie Vendeville Kautz; Harold Lanning, Ann Leckler, Richard McDonald, Kris Moser, Ron Oakleaf, Robert Rouse, Brent Smith, Darryl Todd, Willie Travnicek,Ron Velarde, Ken Wagner, Pat Waters, J. Allen White, Mike Zgainer, Wildlife Conservation Officers and other personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTR..I\Cr Investigations of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) initiated in Colorado in conjunction with the Four Corners States Cooperative Study were·continued in 1973. Major emphasis was placed on banding and continuation of analyses of hunting statistics. Pigeons were trapped at 21 different locations in·1973 with 3,559 birds (2,812 adults, 177 subadu.l.t s, and 570 immatures) being newly banded. Over one thousand (1,017) pigeons were retrapped, including 7 banded outside of Colorado (6 'from New Mexico and 1 from Utah). During the hunting season, 455 permits were issued, with 212 individuals actually hunting. Only 60 hunters were successful, each harvesting an average of 5.5 pigeons. Total estimated harvest (including crippling loss) projected from the questionnaire survey (92.1 percent response) was 366 birds, less than one-half of the number harvested in 1972. Crippling loss .approxfmated 10 percent of the birds shot and retrieved. Wings were received from 44 successful hunters. Immature and subadult pigeons comprised 22.9 percent of the 236 baridtailwings recieved. Field checks of 122 (95 adults, 27 innnatures) hunter-killed birds indicated that 63.2 percent of the adults were still involved with nest activities and/ or feeding of young. Recoveries were received from 92 pigeons banded in Colorado. Most (67) were recovered in Colorado, with 17 being recovered in New Mexico, 4 in Arizona, 3 in Mexico and 1 in California. At least 18.2 percent of the birds harvested during the hunting season in Colorado were banded. one pigeon banded in Arizona was harvested in Colorado during the 1973 season. Hatching dates were calculated for 623 pigeons with lIDst hatching between 12 May and 19 August. Helminth infections continue to be low (13.9 percent), with females being more frequently parasitized than males. �-154RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that this project be extended for completion of banding objectives through 1974 and for analyses of data and publication of results through 1975. 2. It is recommended be continued. that the hunting season, permits and harvest surveys �-155- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS C1ait E. Braun Intensive ecological studies of wild band-tailed pigeons which nest and reside in Colorado from late April to early November, initiated in 1969, continued in 1973. Investigations in Colorado represent a portion of ~he regionwide Four Corners Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation which was initiated in Arizona in 1967. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1973, the fifth year of this investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap, band, age, and sex as many birds as possible in selected areas of Colorado to investigate migration patterns and chronology of Colorado bandtai1s throughout their range. 2. To conduct a hunting season, gather harvest data, and evaluate results. 3. Compile and initiate analyses of all data collected in Colorado. ate in preparing final report for Four Corners States. Cooper- METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1973 were identical to those in previous years of the study (Braun 1970, 1971, 1972a, 1973a). Written reports of pigeons were not solicited from field personnel although communications were encouraged for ease in locating groups of pigeons in trappab1e locations. Trapping methodology in 1973 was that used in previous years, with most birds being captured through use of cannon nets. Evaluation of the hunting season and disposition of collected birds were the same as in previous years. Description of Trapping Areas In 1973 pigeons were trapped at 21 locations utilized in previous years. These locations were near Del Norte, LaVeta, Salida, Wetmore, Durango, Monte Vista, Avon-Minturn, Stoner, Evergreen, Estes Park, Montrose, Arboles, Longmont, Uniweep Canyon, Aspen, Sanborn Park, Ft. Garland, Woodland Park, Buford, �-156- Carbondale and Woodmen, and have been previously described (Braun 1970, 1971, 1972a, 1973a). In addition to these sites, pigeons were trapped near Molina, Gypsum, Hesperus, and Chipita Park. These sites were grain fields (Molina), livestock feeding areas (Gypsum and Hesperus), and residential areas (Chipeta Park) where residents fed a variety of birds. As in previous year, all trap sites were immediately adjacent to readily accessible trees or power lines used for perches. Trees used were primarily ponderosa pine, Gambel's oak (Quercus gambelii), Pinyon pine (Pinus edulis), cottonwoods (Populus spp.), and.Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). It was difficult to ascertain feeding preferences, as about equal numbers of pigeons were trapped in fields where they were feeding on waste barley (Hordeum vulgare), and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Whole or cracked corn (Zea mays) was frequently used as an attractant and bandtails clearly indicated a preference for this grain. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Banding Trapping and banding activities decreased from 1972 levels, but numbers of birds banded (3,559) in 1973 were still third highest of the five years of study. The reduced number of birds banded in 1973 was the result of decreased emphasis on banding large numbers of birds at all sites. Emphasis instead, was placed on banding samples of pigeons (usually less than 200 birds per site) in as many locations as feasible. As a result, more than 200 birds were banded at only four of the 25 trapping locations. Efforts were continued to maintain banding at as many of the sites used in previous years as feasible. Thus, trapping was successful at 4 of the 5 sites used in 1969, 10 of the 13 sites used in 1970, 12 of the 15 sites trapped in 1971, and 18 of the 23 locations used in 1972. In all, 3,559 pigeons were newly banded (Table 1). Of this number, 570 (16.0 percent) were immatures. Percent immatures trapped in 1973 was similar to that reported in 1970 and 1972 (16.6 and 13.6 percent, respectively), but lower than the 23.6 percent found in 1969, and over twice as high as that found in 1971 (7.2 percent). Upon examination of data in Table 1 it is appraent that percent immatures in trap samples increased throughout the summer. The initial immature trapped was on 4 July (Montrose) about 15-20 days later than in previous years. This suggets that nesting was later in 1973 than in some years, a hypothesis supported by field observational data of breeding activities. Sex of adult and subadult pigeons was determined through examination of external plumage characters. Of the 2,812 adults, 1,343 were males (47.8 percent), and 1,469 were females (52.2 percent), while only 68 of the 177 subadults were males (38.4 percent), with the remainder (109) classified as females (61.6 percent). These data are nearly identical to those collected since 1970. The disparity in sex ratios of adults is probably related to time of day trapping was conducted. The variance in percent of subadult males and females trapped compared to percent adult males and females captured (difference of 9.4 percent) is not understood. It may be related to differences in molting rates between males and females, differential mortality or observer error. �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1973. Area Date(s) Adults];..! Percent No. Banded Innnatures No. Banded Percent Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites Molina May 19 69 100.0 0 0.0 69 lS0 Gypsum May 21 86 100.0 0 0.0 86 lS0 Del Norte May 23-26 October 18 238 7 100.0 S3.8 0 6 0.0 46.2 238 13 400+ SO LaVeta May 24-27 August 21 219 3S 100.0 76.1 0 11 0.0 23.9 219 46 SOO+ 100+ Salida May 2S-26 June 19-30 July 20-21 10S 17 11 100.0 100.0 91.7 0 0 1 0.0 0.0 8.3 10S 17 12 lS0 SO 2S Wetmore June 6-7 122 100.0 0 0.0 122 2S0 Hesperus June 6 19 100.0 0 0.0 19 SO New MexicoV June 7-13 22 100.0 0 0.0 22 Durango June 8-20 446 100.0 0 0.0 446 SOO+ Monte Vista June 11 July 10-14 August 10-29 6 32 177 100.0 88.9 42.3 0 4 241 0.0 11.1 S7.7 6 36 418 2S SO SOO+ Chipita Park June 11 July 21 70 SO 100.0 6S.8 0 26 0.0 34.2 70 76 lS0 lS0 Avon June 13 123 100.0 0 0.0 123 200+ , •.... VI --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ~, �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1973 (continued). Area Date(s) Adu1ts1/ No. Banded Percent Immatures No. Banded Percent Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites Stoner June 19 88 100.0 0 0.0 88 100+ Evergreen June 20 August 10-22 September 3-28 57 18 33 100.0 52.9 75.0 0 16 11 0.0 47.1 25.0 57 343/ 44- 100 75 75 Estes Park June 21 August 10 51 16 100.0 88.9 0 2 0.0 11.1 51 18 100 50 Montrose I ~ VI June 22-28 July 4 24 64 100.0 92.8 0 5 0.0 7.2 24 69 100 100 Arboles June 23 64 100.0 0 0.0 64 100+ Longmont June 24 July 10 August 6 14 56 31 100.0 100.0 27.7 0 0 81 0;0 0.0 72.3 14 56 112 100 100 200+ Uniweep Canyon July 5 24 100.0 0 0.0 24 50 Aspen July 6-7 112 98.2 2 1.8 114 150 Sanborn Park July 12-13 127 92.0 11 8.0 138 200 Ft. Garland July 15-31 August 1 131 0 78.0 0.0 37 1 22.0 100.0 168 1 200 200 Woodland Park July 22 August 18 49 10 56.3 32.3 38 21 43.7 67.7 87 31 150 150 ---~------------------.---------------------------------------------------:-------------------------------------- 00 I �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1973 (continued). Totals Estimated No. of Birds Us:ing Trapping Sites 23.5 183 200+ 13 36.1 36 100 100.0 0 0.0 3 25 84.0 570 16.0 3,559 1/ AdultsPercent No. Banded ImmatureS Percent No. Banded Area Date(s) Buford July 23-25 140 76.5 43 Carbondale August 3-4 23 63.9- Woodmen August 26 3 2,989 Total I ~ VI \0 1/ Includes pigeons classified as subadults. ~/ All trapped at LaVeta in 1972, held in captivity over winter and released in New Mexico. 11 Includes 27 birds from aviary (24 adults, 3 immatures). I �-160- Time of day was recorded for all pigeons captured in 1973. A summary of these data is presented in Table 2. As in other years, more males than females (64.8:35.2 percent) were trapped prior to 1000 hours MDT. Between 1000 and 1600 hours, more females than males were captured (68.0:32.0 percent) while after 1600 hours, differences were not as great, as 59.0 percent of the birds trapped were males, while 41.0 were females. Most adults were trapped between 1000 and 1600 hours (48.9 percent of all captures), with lesser percentages being trapped prior to 1000 hours (33.5 percent), and after 1600 hours (17.7 percent). This probably explains the slight imbalance in sex ratios of adult pigeons newly banded. Immatures were caught more frequently before 1000 hours (53.8 percent of all immature captures) than in any other time period. Reasons for this anomaly are not understood, but are probably related to behavior. During the 1973 trapping period, 1,017 previously banded birds were recaptured with all but 7 being initially banded in Colorado. Of the 7 "foreign" bandings recaptured, 6 had been initially banded in New Mexico, while 1 had been banded in Utah. Considering the 1,010 birds initially banded in Colorado, 24 were banded in 1969, 118 were banded in 1970, 237 were banded in 1971, 505 had been banded in 1972, while 126 were newly banded in 1973. In all, 280 pigeons recaptured had moved at least one degree block from where initially banded. Less than 100 had changed flock areas, a situation previously reported (Braun 1972b). Thirty-nine birds banded in Colorado were reported recaptured in New Mexico (35), and Utah (4). All but 3 had been banded prior to 1973. It is probable that some of these pigeons were migrating to or from Colorado when trapped, but it is also likely that some flocks of pigeons occupy areas partly in two states. Some of these recaptures may represent birds that have changed flock areas. From examination of the reported recaptures, it is obvious that pigeons living in the LaVetaFt. Garland area routinely move into New Mexico. This is also true for some pigeons of the Monte Vista south flock and the Del Norte-MOnte Vista north flock. The 4 recoveries reported in Utah (all at Monticello) represent 4 different bariding locations in southern and southwestern Colorado. Of 39 birds that were recaptured out of Colorado for which sex was ascertained, 21 were females, while 18 were males. This agrees with earlier reports (Braun 1972b), that indicated no differences between sex classes in those birds moving away from flock areas where originally banded. Hunting Season Band-tailed pigeon hunting, while no longer experimental, was closely monitored in Colorado in 1973. Hunting was allowed from September 8 through October 7, with a daily bag limit of 5 birds and a possession of 10. During the season, all of the state west of Interstate Highway No. 25 was open to hunting. As in previous years all hunters had to obtain a free permit obtainable at 9 Division offices and the headquarters of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. No limit was placed on total number of permits to be issued, and 455 permits (an additional 7 permits may have been issued) were obtained by hunters. This was a decrease of 107 (19.0 percent) from 1972. �Table 2; Time MDT Time of day of band-tailed pigeon trapping, 1973. Percen t 0 f All Successful Trap Attempts Percent of All Adu1t1/ Captures Males Females Percent of:l:./ Percent ofl/ All Females All Males Captured Captured Percent of All Immatures Captured Percent ofl/ All Adults Captured 0600-0959 26.6 64.8 35.2 45.4 22.6 53.8 33.5 1000-1559 45.5 32.0 68.0 32.7 63.6 28.5 48.9 1600- 27.9 59.0 41.0 21.8 13.9 17.8 17.7 1/ Including those birds classified as subadu1ts. I t-' 0\ t-' I ~/ Adults and subadults only. �-162- Hunter Questionnaire Survey The hunting season for bandtails in 1973 closed at sunset on October 7. On October 8 and 9, letters containing a self-addressed, postage paid return card were sent to all permittees. No questionnaires were returned for lack of sufficient address. On November 6 a follow-up letter was sent to the 109 permittees who had failed to respond to the initial letter. Results of the questionnaire survey are presented in Table 3. Data for the 36 nonrespondents were calculated using mean values of the respondents to the followup survey. Table 3. Harvest statistics, 1973 band-tailed pigeon season.-1/ Category Response First Letter Number of permittees responding 346(76.0) 73(16.0) 419(92.1) Number of permittees hunting 173(50.0) 26(35.6) 199(47.5) 212(46.6) Number of permittees not hunting 173(50.0) 47(64.4) 220(52.5) 243(53.4 ) Number of successful hunters 46(26.6) 9(34.6) 55(27.6) 60(28.3) Number of hunter days 544 65 609 641 Days hunted per hunter 3.1 2.5 3.1 3.0 Number of pigeons bagged 273 36 309 329 Pigeons per successful hunter 5.9 4.0 5.6 5.5 Pigeons per hunter 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.6 Number of pigeons crippled and lost 27 6 33 37 Pigeons crippled and lost per hunter .2 .2 .2 .2 Total harvest (bagged + crippled and lost) 300 42 342 366 Percent crippling loss 9.0 14.3 9.6 10.1 Response Second Letter 1/ Values in parentheses are percentages. .Sum First and Second Letters Projected For all (455) Permittees �-163- Interest in pigeon hunting decreased in 1973 primarily because pigeons were widely scattered due to excellent food conditions, and thus were not concentrated during the hunting season. Hunter success declined significantly from 1972 (28.3 percent versus 41.6 percent) and total harvest fell from 822 in 1972 to 366 in 1973. As in previous years, a significant number of people who obtained permits did not hunt (53.4 percent). These individuals probably obtained a permit in order to hunt if they observed pigeons while engaged in some other activity. Hunters did hunt longer in 1973 (3.0 versus 2.6 days) than in 1972 and number of pigeons bagged per successful hunter did not materially change from 1972 to 1973 (5.9 to 5.5). Percent crippling loss (total number of pigeons reported lost divided by total harvest, i. e., bagged and crippled and lost) was 10.1 in 1973; similar to the 11.3 percent reported in 1972. Reported crippling loss is minimal and observations of actual crippling loss suggest that it may represent as much as 20 percent of the birds actually retrieved. The questionnaire was devised in order to ascertain the proportion of the harvest that occurred in given time periods. It was found that 45.6 percent of the total harvest occurred on the opening weekend, 10.4 percent on the second weekend, 11.1 percent occurred on the third weekend, while 6.7 percent occurred on the last weekend of the season. Not surprisingly, only 21.2 percent of the total harvest occurred during the non-weekend portion of the season (20 days). Harvest was fairly well spaced during the 1973 hunting season, as only 65.1 percent of the total harvest occurred during the first 9 days. This suggests that either hunting was poor throughout the season or that hunter interest remained somewhat constant as the season progressed. Hunting pressure in 1973 was diffuse as 193 hunters reported hunting in 49 different locations. The Durango (12.5 percent) and Monte Vista (9.1 percent) areas continue to be preferred for hunting, and these 2 areas had 21.6 percent of all hunting trips. No other area had more than 5 percent of the hunter activity. On a regional basis, 43.3 percent of the hunters hunted in southwestern Colorado, 33.7 percent hunted in southeastern Colorado, 12.5 percent hunted in northeastern Colorado, and 10.6 percent hunted in northwestern Colorado. These data are similar to that collected in all 3 of the previous seasons. Most comments received from hunters concerning the hunting season referred to their failure to locate large flocks of birds, and to the scattered distribution of those that they did see. Hunting was difficult. Wing Survey Packets containing 5 wing envelopes with instructions to place one day's bag in each envelope were issued to most pigeon permit holders in 1973. Envelopes containing 240 wings were received from 44 hunters. Additional data were received concerning hours hunted (230.8), birds crippled and lost (50), location of kill and banded birds harvested (43). Major harvest areas were near Durango (39.1 percent of the harvest), LaVeta (21.7 percent), and Cotopaxi (18.7 percent). All other areas contributed less than 6 percent each of the total harvest. These data are somewhat different than the distribution of hunters obtained from the questionnaire survey. Thus, �-164- Durango, with 12.5 percent of the hunters had 39 percent of the harvest, while Cotopaxi and LaVeta each with less than 5 percent of the total hunters each had about 20 percent of the total harvest. On a.regional basis, 53.5 percent of the harvest came from the southwestern part of the state, 41.8 percent came from the southeast, 4.3 percent was from the northwest, and only 0.4 percent occurred in the northeast. Crippling loss calculated from the wing survey was 17.8, substantially higher than the 10.1 percent reported on the questionnaire survey. Forty-three of the 236 bandtails (excluding wings from 5 feral pigeons, Columba livia) reported harvested on the wing survey were banded (18.2 percent). This is the highest percentage recorded in any of the 4 years that hunting has been allowed (6.3 percent in 1970, 9.3 percent in 1971, and 13.6 percent in 1972). Percent of the birds harvested that were banded varied from 20.7 (N = 92) at Durango, 19.6 (N = 51) in the LaVeta area to 13.6 (N = 44) at Cotopaxi. Bands were reported from 4 other locations but sample sizes of wings received were too small (less than 10) for meaningful comparisions. None of the banded birds were harvested within one mile of any trap site. While it is not believed that 18 percent of the fall population was banded percent banded birds in the population is undoubtedly greater than 10 percent. Comparable data were available from both hunter questionnaire and wing surveys concerning numbers of birds bagged and those crippled and lost by 38 individual hunters. A reporting difference of +5.8 percent (206 in wing survey versus 218 in questionnaire survey) was found in number of birds killed, and -46.3 percent (41 versus 22) in number of birds crippled and lost for those hunters who sent in wings and also responded to the questionnaire. The difference in birds reported killed could not be attributed to a few hunters killing more pigeons than for which they had wing envelopes, since no hunters reported killing more than 25 birds. It is interesting to note that this group of hunters reported crippling only half as few (22 versus 41) pigeons on the questionnaire as they reported on their wing envelopes. All wings received were measured (carpal and all 10 primaries) and classified as immature, subadult and adult in order to derive age structure of the harvest. Wings were received from 182 adults (77.1 percent), 4 subadults (1.7 percent), and 50 immatures (21.2 percent). Percent of adults was higher than in any year of the study (67.8, 68.0, 64.8 percent, respectively, for 1970 through 1972), while percent immatures and subadults decreased markedly in 1973. Age ratios in the 1973 harvest were different to that expected based on trapping results and observations in August and early September. From all appearances, 1973 was a good production year, but obviously many immatures were not available to hunters. It is possible that many immatures had migrated leaving only late nesting adults and their progeny available to hunters. Upon examination of molt data for immatures, the hypothesis that many early produced young had migrated is not supported. Of the 50 immatures, only 12 (24.0 percent) had not molted primary 1, while 30 (60.0 percent) had molted primary 2 or beyond. All birds molting primary 2 or beyond were at least 59 days past hatching, and 29-34 days past fledging (White 1973). Twenty of the 50 hunter harvested immatures (40 percent) had hatched prior to July 1. �-165- Hunter Field Checks During the 1973 season, emphasis was again placed on contacting pigeon hunters in the field in order to examine harvested birds for crop gland activity. Crops of all adult pigeons checked were classified as being active (crop gland with curds), stimualted (gland apparent, but no curds), or inactive. In addition, sex by gonadal inspection was obtained for as many birds as possible. In all, 122 pigeons were checked, with 27 being immatures (22.1 percent), with the remainder (95) being classified as adults. Of the adults, 32.6 percent were classified as having active crop glands, while 30.5 percent were classified as being stimualted. Percent of crops showing glandular activity (active + stimulated) was higher in 1973 than in 1972 (63.2 versus 50.9), and was the highest recorded in the 4 years of the study. This supports field observations that indicated that nesting and/or feeding of young continued late into August and September. Data on sex was available for 88 adults. Of this number, 61.4 percent were males, and 38.6 percent were females. Of the males, 63.0 percent exhibited some glandular development, while 61.8 percent of the females showed development of the crop gland. These data are dissimilar to that collected in previous years, which showed that more males than females were associated with nesting at time of death. When samples of adults examined by area are compared, it is apparent that nesting was still occurring in most areas of the state during the hunting season. These data indicated that 61.5 percent of the 52 adults examined at Durango were still associated with nest activities, this percentage was 66.7 in the LaVeta area (N = 18), 85.7 at South Fork (N = 7), and 60.0 (N = 15) at Cotopaxi. With the exception of Durango, samples were too small to draw meaningful conclusions concerning differences between areas. Mortality Recoveries of 92 band-tailed pigeons initially trapped and banded in Colorado have been reported to date in the 1973 recovery year. Five of these were initially banded in 1969, 9 were banded in 1970, 14 were banded in 1971, 45 were banded in 1972, while 19 were banded in 1973. All but 20 were shot recoveries. Of the 72 shot recoveries, 47 were recovered in Colorado, 17 in New Mexico, 4 in Arizona, 3 in Mexico, and 1 in California. Hunting mortality in New Mexico continues to be higher than initially expected (Braun 1972b). Migration from Colorado by some pigeons appears to be underway by September 1, as 7 banded birds were recovered in New Mexico during the week of September 1 through 7. Only 1 of these 7 pigeons had been banded in 1973. Of the 17 recoveries in New Mexico, most (16) were taken along a line southwest from LaVeta to Silver City. Interestingly, 14 of the 17 recoveries were banded in eastern slope areas of Colorado. Of the 4 pigeons recovered in Arizona, 3 were banded west of the Continental Divide, while the 1 California recovery was banded east of the Continental Divide. It would appear that birds from easternslope areas migrate south along the Rocky Mountains in ColQrado, and then southwest through New Mexico. Pigeons from western slope area~ move southwest through Colorado and then south along the eastern edge of Arizona. These patterns are similar to that reported for recoveries in 1972 (Braun 1973a). During the 1973 hunting season, one pigeon banded in Ari~ona �-166- (1971) was recovered near Durango. This is the first shot recovery from Arizona and only the second movement from Arizona to Colorado that has been documented. Breeding Phenology Few data on breeding pheonology were available as this portion of the study was completed in early 1973 (Gutierrez 1973). Data were available from examination of 41 birds killed in trapping operations (24), highway casualties (11), poaching (2), presumed electrocution (2), and found crippled or dead (2). Data from these pigeons indicated that nesting started in mid- to late May and continued into September. Observational data indicated that a few pigeons started arriving in Colorado by early April (April 3 at Evergreen), with peak spring migration in mid- to late May, with some numbers of pigeons remaining as late as October 18. Thus, observational data support those obtained from gonadal and crop examinations. Observational data for previous years of the study have been reported by Braun (1973b). During 1973, 1 active nest containing 1 egg was found by W. Stanley of Collbran on Baxter Point on 22 August. This nest and egg were examined, described and photographed. It was unfortunately abandoned, possibly due to activities of the observers. Wing Measurement and Molt Data Data concerning length of primaries, rectrices, total body length, carpal length and bill length were obtained from most dead pigeons examined in 1973. Once adequate samples are available, these data will be analyzed to examine differences between age and sex classes of pigeons. Prior to dissection of collected birds, plumage characters of each adult specimen were examined and recorded. Each bird was then classified as either male or female. Upon dissection, gonads were examined and actual sex of each bird was compared with the classification based on plumage appearance. Comparative data were available for 39 adults and subadults (18 males and 19 females), and 2 immatures. Only 1 bird was inaccurately sexed. This bird appeared to be a male by plumage, but was actually a female. This percentage of error (2.6) is similar to that found in prior years. Information concerning primary molt was available for 623 immatures (569 banded and released, 50 from the hunter wing survey and 4 from birds necropsied). Hatching dates were estimated using data from White (1973). Estimated haoching dates for all immatures for which data were available are presented in Table 4. As in earlier years, hatching was spread over a long time period (April 12 to September 11). Two major peaks (mid-June and early July) in hatching can be inferred from data in Table 4, but the interval is too short to represent two nests by the same group of pigeons. It would appear that the hatching data in Table 4 only represent the range of hatching dates and give some idea when most pigeons are nesting. These data are probably not representative of the actual nesting peaks in Colorado in 1973. Of importance in Table 4 are the data that suggest a steady decrease in numbers of pigeons hatching after mid-July. All observational and crop data collected in August and September refute the hypothesis that most (over 99 percent) nesting terminated prior to September 1. �-167- Table 4. Estimated hatching dates for wild band-tailed pigeons 1973. Number Hatching Percent Prior to April 11 0 0.0 April 12-21 2 April 22-May 1 Number Hatching Percent July 1-10 147 23.6 0.3 July 11-20 28 4.5 2 0.3 July 21-30 15 2.4 May 2-11 4 0.6 July 31-August 9 8 1.3 May 12-2 i 17 2.7 August 10~19 6 1.0 May 22-31 33 5.3 August 20-29 4 0.6 June 1-10 91 14.6 August 30-September 8 2 0.3 June 11-20 179 28.7 September 8-17 3 0.5 June 21-30 82 13.2 Time Period Time Period Parasitic Load Information on helminths was available for 36 pigeons necropsied. Five (all adults) of the 36 birds examined had helminth infections. The infection rate of 13.9 percent is similar to that found in 1969 (13.2 percent), higher than that found in 1970 and 1972 (10.4 and 9.5, respectively), but lower than the 18.3 percent observed in 1971. Three of the 5 birds infected were females, while 2 were males. Four of the pigeons had nematodes, and 2 had tapeworms, (1 female had both). No adverse effects due to the observed parasites were noted. All worms were preserved for later identification. Materials from all 5 years of the study are presently being identified by Dr. O. W. Olsen, Colorado State University. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 151-171. 1971. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88~R. October. p. 209-236. �-168- Braun, C. E. 1972a. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 123-142. 1972b. Movements and hunting mortality of Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Trans. No. Am. Wildl. and NaL Resour. Conf. 37:326-334 . 1973a. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. In Press. 1973b. Distribution and habitats of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado. Proc , Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 53:In Press. I Gutierrez, R. J. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations:breeding and nesting chronology studies. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 153-177. White, J. A. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations:plumage studies .. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 125-152. Prepared by ~jld~~~ ~_~,rv~t?t~~ __ ~~~~.~~~~~~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �October 1974 -169- JOB l:'ROGi\.E~SLETORT State of' Project CO1010\]) 0 ------~~~-~-------------- work Plan No. Migratory W-88-R-19 No. 5 Investigations Period Covered: September 1 -----of Snipe in Colorado ._--- -----.'------------ Job Title Job No. Bird Investigations 1, 1973 to March 31, 1974 Per sonne.l.: C. 'E. Braun, H. D. Funk, and B. R. Johnson, Colorado Division Wildlife; and R. A. Ryder, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University. of Investigations of connnon snipe (Capella gallinago de1icata) were initiated in September 1973. Field work conducted thus far concerned selection of study areas in the San Luis Valley, North Park, Yampa Valley, and the vicinity of Fort Collins. Areas with apparently good snipe population densities during September and October generally provided unfavorable habitats during spring because of poor moisture conditions. Selected study areas will be censused during the breeding season through territorial responses of snipe elicited by playbacks of recorded territorial calls. In addition, each area will be described using such parameters as vegetative dominance, height and density, habitat modifications such as lOOwing, burning, or grazing, water chemistry, water depth and permanence. Evaluations of habitat preferences of breeding snipe will be made based on these data. Censuses on snipe wintering in the Fort Co11irisarea from January through March indicated high (20 snipe flushed per hour) and stable population densisites on preferred habitats. Efforts to document hunting pressure and estimate harvest and hunter success were largely unsuccessful because of the dearth of respondents to Colorado small game hunter questionnaires. �-170RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that a description of the obj ect Lves of this study by sent to all field personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Help should be requested from field personnel in describing where snipe occur in their districts, when they are present arid major habitat types occupied. , ", �-171- INVESTIGATIONS OF SNIPE IN COLORADO Bruce R. Johnson Members of the genus Capella have an almost worldwide distribtuion, however, the common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) is the only snipe subspecies indigenous to North America. Although snipe are members of the family Scolopacidae, they have few characteristics usually attributable to shorebirds.· As an example, snipe do not frequent shores of lakes and coasts. Rather, they prefer bogs,low moist meadows, or wet pasturelands. They are seldom seen in large concentrations as are other shorebirds and are primarily crepuscular, remaining in cover during bright daylight. Furthermore, snipe are one of only two shorebirds hunted as a game bird, the other being the woodcock (Philohela minor). Prior to the 1940's, snipe hunting was quite popular as witnessed by Bent's observation in 1927 that "probably more snipe have been killed by. sportsmen than any other game bird." However, with closure of the snipe season from 1941 through 1952, interest in snipe hunting greatly diminished. After two decades· of open seasons and an almost tripling of U. S. hunters, interest in snipe hunting is increasing. Estimates of the annual snipe harvest have increased twofold from 263,900 in 1965, to 524,600 in 1970 (Clark 1971). In. the mid-1960's, interest in migratory webless game bird management increased, and consequently, the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife initiated an accelerated research program designed to supplement research programs on game species such as snipe. The results of such research should increase knowledge of webless game birds, thus allowing management to be refined and intens ified. P. S. OBJECTIVE To study the distl;'ibution and status of common snipe in Colorado in order that data might be made available to improve management of the species. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To identify and delimit range of common snipe in Colorado. 2. To document seasons of occurrence major areas. 3. To document hunting 4. To compile data, analyze results, findings in appropriate technical pressure and estimate and estimate relative numbers harvest prepare progress journals. and hunter in 3 success. reports and publish In addition, evaluations will be made concerning: (1) habitat preferences of common snipe breeding in various areas throughout Colorado, and (2) density and stability of wintering snipe populations on selected study areas near Fort Collins. �-172- REVIEW OF LITERATURE Description Blairet al. (1957) give the following description of the connnon snipe: "Crown sooty, with a median buff stripe; hind neck streaked black and buff; back and tertials black barred with brown, with four long buff stripes; wing coverts dark brown, spotted with whitish; tertials black, edged with white and barred with brown; remiges dusky; edge of outer primary and tips of primary coverts and secondaries white; upper rump black, narrowly barred with white; lower rump and upper tail coverts rich buff, irregularly barred with black; tail black, rufous terminally, where interrupted by a black bar; lateral pair of rectrices black-and-white-barred; next two pairs white beyond subterminal black bar; superciliary buff; lores brown; chin buffy white; throat and upper breast buff streaked or barred with brown; belly white; sides black and white barred; crissum buff with dusky squamations; axillars and wing lining barred black and white; iris brown; tip of bill dusky; base of bill and feet greenish. Wing 118-135 nnn, tail 50-63 nnn, culmen 58-73 nnn, tarsus 28-33 nnn." Origin Tuck (1972) suggests that the shorebird ancestors from which the· genus Cappella ev lved were a very primitive group. It is quite likely that these primitive shorebirds inhabited the shores of vast cretaceous salt basins as many present-day snipe species posSess vestigial characteristics such as nasal salt glands and rudimentary membranes between the toes •. However, Capella gallinago does not have nasal salt glands or rudimentary membranes which suggests it evolved as a species rather recently (Tuck 1972). Unlike most shorebirds, there is no seasonal and little sexual dimorphism in Capella, suggesting that this genus evolved in boggy areas associated with forests or in regions of low cover. In any case, taken as a group, the present snipes are more forest birds than shorebirds (Tuck 1972). Taxonomy The extensive radiation and divergence of snipe and snipe-like birds has perplexed those wishing to classify snipe into conventional taxa. Tuck (1972) has separated the snipes into three descriptive groups; semi-snipes, a seemingly primitive stock; aberrant snipes, which appear to have diverged from the main stock; and true snipe, apparently of recent radiation. Tuck (1972) considers the common snipe to be a true snipe which, according to the American Ornithologists' Union (1957), belongs to the order Charadriiformes and Family Scolopacidae. The true snipes are included in one genus, Capella, and divided into nine species which are remarkably alike. Species s~paration is ..based principally on the number of tail feathers each species possesses (Tuck 1972). Capella gallinago is further divided into eight subspecies whose members presently indigenous to every continent except Australia and Antarctica (Tuck 1972). The common snipe, Capella gallinago delicata, is the only member indigenous to North America. are �-173- Dist ribut ion Common snipe occur at one season or another, in nearly every part of North America (Bent 1927). The American Ornithologists' Union (1957) reports the breeding range extends from northwestern Alaska, northern Yukon, northern and eastern MacKenzie, northeastern Manitoba, northern Ontario, both coasts of James Bay, northern Quebec, and central Labrador south to northern and eastern California, central eastern Arizona, northern Colorado (casually south to San Luis Lakes), western Nebraska, central Iowa, northeastern Illinois, northern Indiana (formerly), southern Michigan,. northern Ohio, northern West Virginia, northwestern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey (rarely), southern New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. It has also been reported to breed in central Mexico. Snipe normally begin their fall migration from the northern portions of their breeding range during early September and the bulk of the North American population winter in the rice fields, wet cattle pastures, and coastal marshes of Louisiana (Tuck 1972). Whitehead (1965) noted that males arrive in Louisiana during October and leave in March, while females arrive in November and leave in April. The primary wintering range of common snipe extends from southern British Columbia,western Washington, Idaho, Oregon, northern Utah, northern Colorado, central Nebraska, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, western Kentucky, western and central Tennessee, northern Alabama, northern Georgia, South Carolina, central North Carolina, and Virginia south to the West Indies, Colombia, Venezuela, and southern Brazil. It has been casually or irregularly reported to winter north to southwestern Alaska, Montana, Wyoming, North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, southern Ontario, Ohio, West Virginia, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and Nova Scotia. Common snipe have also been recorded casually in Greenland, and less frequently in Hawaii, Bermuda, England, and Scotland (Stout 1967). The distribution of common snipe in Colorado has not been well documented. Sclater (1912) notes that snipe are perhaps most connnon during migration when they can be found throughout the state. They can also frequently be found wintering near unfrozen springs, both on the plains and in the mountains up to 9,500 feet. Bailey and Niedrach (1965) observed that snipe are sunnner residents in small numbers from the plains to the Lowe r Canadian zone; numerous during migration, and often seen wintering at low elevations. There are no published estimates as to the number of snipe in Colorado during a particular season. Boeker (1954) censused the Yampa Valley in northwestern Colorado during the spring and sunnner of 1953 and estimated that a breeding population of 200 snipe utilized the Valley at that time. Published reports of snipe wintering in Colorado date to, at least,. 1886 as two common snipe were observed.near Silverton in midwinter at an elevation .of 9,500 feet (Anon. 1886). The editor of this publication (Forest and Stream) reported that snipe were not uncommon in the Rocky Mountain regions in the coldest winter weather in the neighborhood of warm springs having open water and soft mud. �-174- Aiken and Warren (1914), in cataloging the birds of El Paso County, Colorado, noted that along the banks of Fountain Creek, which rarely froze over, there were many places where water seeping through sand came to the surface and formed marshy areas. These areas became winter feeding grounds for normally one or two snipe. However, during severe cold, many smaller areas froze forcing snipe to concentrate at places where a larger flow of water kept the area open. More recently, Bailey and Niedrach (1965) reported that, although many sn Ipe leave Colorado by November, there is a scattered winter population wherever marshes and borders of sloughs remain unfrozen. Ecology The common snipe is an early spring migrant, leaving its wintering grounds in the southern United States, Central America, and northern South America as early as February (Stout 1967). The principal migration period occurs from March through mid-April, with males arriving on breeding grounds approximately ten days before females (Tuck 1972). Shortly after arrival, males begin winnowing over relatively large areas. Upon arrival of females, males reduce the size of their territories and intensify their winnowing. Territories are generally located in bogs, marshes, peatlands, or other wetland types having low vegetation. Territories become well defined after females begin incubation. Theprimary requisites for territories appear to be: (1) a suitable nest site, (2) a suitable area for the males' station during incubation, normally in dense cover, (3) a suitable retreat for the female, and (4) a feeding area (Tuck 1955). Nests are usually built of fine grasses, but occaSionally of fine; dry sedges (Tuck 1955) and are so cohesive that they may be lifted intact (Stout 1967). Average clutch size is four eggs, although three are not uncommon (Tuck 1972). Eggs are ovate pyriform in shape, slightly glossy (Bent 1927), dark ochre or light ochre in color and boldly spotted or blotched in dark shades of brown, brownish black, or black (Tuck 1972). Incubation usually requires from 18 to 20 days and is done only by the female (Tuck 1972). Upon hatching, the brood is shared, although not necessarilyevenly, between the male and female (Stout 1967). To date, there is no evidence that snipe produce more than one brood annually. Development of chicks is quite rapid, and within one week after hatching chicks double their weight. By three weeks, they are as heavy (90 grams) as their moulting parents (Tuck 1972). The chicks' first flights are taken between 15 and 18 days of age (Stout 1967). When the young are about six weeks old, adults begin mOUlting and become solitary. Immatures begin aggregating by mid-August, and may occur in flocks of one hundred or more. There are indications that young migrate prior to adults (Tuck 1972). Pre-migratory restlessness first appears in common snipe in mid-August (Tuck 1972), and it is likely that migration begins with the first early frosts (Bent 1927). The main flights in southern Canada and the upper half of the �-175- conterminous United States occur from September to early October (Stout 1967). During this time, the Colorado snipe population is probably at its height (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Although most common snipe migrate to wintering grounds in southern United States, Central America, and northern South America, some overwinter regularly on wet cattle pastures of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and less frequently, on tule marshes, open creeks, and open springs of Oregon and Washington (Tuck 1972). Snipe are commonly found in the Humboldt region of northwest California (White and Harris 1966). However, they are reportedly rare in winter east of California, because of continental climatic conditions (Tuck 1972). In Colorado, Sc1ater (1912), and Bailey and Niedrach (1965) report that common snipe frequently winter in areas where open springs occur. Early naturalists assumed that food habits of common snipe were similar to those of woodcock with earthworms constituting their principle food (Bent 1927). Later findings based on stomach analyses (Whitehead 1965, White 1963, Van Owens 1967, Booth 1968) revealed that between 42.7 percent (Booth 1968) and 63.1 percent (White 1963) of the stomach contents were plant material. Investigators believe that a large proportion of this plant material is accidentally ingested and the fact that the plant fibers remain relatively unchanged by any digestive process supports this hypothesis (Tuck 1972). Composition of animal and plant material ingested by common snipe varies with season and location. Insect food, particularly larvae, often comprised more than 80 percent of the total animal material ingested. However, this may be less than 15 percent in salt marshes and rice fields (Tuck 1972). Other foods include some crustaceans, earthworms, mollusks, and even an occasional fish (Stout 1967). Common snipe obtain food primarily by probing upper levels of soft organic soils. The snipe's bill, which is one-fifth of the total body length, has a highly developed sense of touch. Furthermore, the distal portion of the upper mandible is pliable and can be elevated upward (Tuck 1972). This action enables the snipe to grasp food items and swallow without removing its bill from the. ground (Erickson 1953). Snipe are also surface feeders (Stout 1967), and have been reported during migration to run along stream borders picking up food particles (Bent 1927). Erickson (1941) examined 76 snipe and found 80 percent infected with parasites. More recent accounts of ectoparasites and endoparasites are reported by Whitehead (1965), Schmidt (1962), Booth (1968), and Tuck (1972). Census Techniques With the exception of spring winnowing, snipe are normally secretive and seldom seen unless flushed. Consequently, censusing snipe populations is difficult,..especially._dliring, ..late summer •.fall and winter. �-176- Snipe Winnowing Counts Perhaps the first technique employed on a large scale to census breeding snipe was the "winnowing" count. One adaptation of this method was employed by Burleigh (1952). After determining a starting point, he established successive stations at half-mile intervals. The half-mile intervals were decided upon after a ntimberof tests were made to determine how far away a winnowing snipe could be distinctively heard. Closer intervals would have involved possible duplication, while longer distances would have unquestionably meant an incomplete count. Solman (1953) concurred with the one-half mile distance. Burleigh also investigated factors are: factors necessary for an accurate count. These 1. The actual hour at which each was made. Morning hours proved entirely unsatisfactory and evenings appeared to be the best times for accurate censusing. .Solman (1953) also stated that part of the post-sunset winnowing period was likely to be the most useful as a popUlation index. 2. Weather conditions. whereas adverse weather Maximum counts were made on still, clear nights, reduced the count materially. 3. Activities of the individual bird. Although male snipe remain in the air for long intervals, they were noted from time to time dropping to the ground where they would remain for an indefinite period. Consequent1y,the count was reduced. Finding a bird in the air when a scheduled stop was made was apparently a matter of arriving at an established station at an opportune moment. 4. Breeding activities of individual pairs of snipe. A possible factor in an accurate count is the possibility that males cease "winnowing" flights when the young have hatched and demand the attention of both parents. The winnowing count was further evaluated by Robbins (1953). He described his censusing procedure as follows: Each transect was covered by car, with two minute stops at each half-mile interval. The number of birds winnowing and the number of winnows heard from each bird were recorded for each minute. It also proved helpful to indicate the direction and approximate distance of each winnowing bird. In this way, any significant change in position during the two-minute period could be detected and nearly all duplications with birds at the preceding and following stop could be recorded as such. Temperature, wind, and sky conditions were recorded at the beginning and end of each transect along with notations of significant weather changes during the transect census. Robbins noted that in Ontario and New Brunswick (460 N latitude) winnowing was consistent enough to serve as a population index only during a half-hour period from 75 minutes to 40 minutes before sunrise, and from 30 minutes to 60 minutes after· sunrise. �-177- Regarding weather conditions, Robbins considered wind velocity to be, by far, the most important factor. Winds of 5 mph or more invariably reduced ·winnowing activity and increases to 10mph generally stopped all winnowing. Morning temperatures ranging from·300 to 500 F. produced near or below average resu Lt s; and above 500 F. the counts were especially low. No correlation was found between evening temperatures and snipe winnowing activity. Clear skies in the early morning .were associat.ed with average occurrences of winno~ng (within 20 percent), with a tendency to be above average rather than below. Clear skies in the evening were associated with much more variable results (from 40 percent below average to 40 percent above average). On calm, overcast evenings and mornings, winnowing was very variable (from 55 percent below to 45 percent above average). Rain reduced the occurrence of winnowing, whereas morning fog was associated with near to above average results. Tuck (1972) observed that although snipe winnow any time of day or night during the breeding season and sporadically during migration, the maximum winnowing period is during the twilight hours of evening and morning. Winnowing reaches a peak soon after the females arrive and counts for the following.IO days are quite reliable. Timing of the peak period varies, and in Newfoundland, is from May 5 to May 15. In more southern latitudes, the peak period is considerably earlier •. Tuck also found that winnowing may be suppressed by wind, rain,or dense fog. An.overcast day will precipitate evening winnowing by half an hour or so, a bright; hot day will retard it by a similar length of time. Both sexes winnow, although the female apparently does not winnow. for very long. Females sometimes winnow only a half dozen times, but may remain in the air for considerable periods diving, but not winnowing. Tuck concluded that the post-sunset winnowing period was more reliable than that of the pre-daWn period. He also reported that all birds heard winnowing at one time are not necessarily paired, and that in marginal habitat, birds frequently winnow, but move elsewhere to breed. However, the above problems are taken into consideration, a comparative index of snipe found in a relatively large area can be calculated each year. Territorial if Response A second method of censusing breeding populations is the territorial response technique. This technique is relatively new and is considered by Tuck (1972) to be the only precise method of censusing snipe. Although the details are not available, Tuck describes the technique as an estimation of the breeding population through territorial responses of snipe elicited by play-backs of recorded territorial calls. ·These calls are described as "yakking" and are heard most frequently during the twilight periods before winnowing begins. These ground calls suddenly reach a peak of urgency and cease abruptly. as the snipe springs into the air. Both sexes "yak" and the techniques can be effectively used the entire day during the early part of the breeding season, but is more time consuming than other techniques. �-178- The above two techniques are restricted to censusing breeding populations. The remaining techniques can, for the most part, be used to census either a breeding or wintering population, but are better suited to the latter. Snipe Abundance Index The snipe abundance index has been used extensively to estimate wintering snipe populations in southern states. The census is accomplished by driving or walking a specified road or transect and recording the number of snipe seen per hour. Robbins (1957) criticized this method because 30 to 40 percent of the winter snipe counts cannot be used for year-to-year statistical comparison because they either are not taken in the same areas for two or more successive years, or they are taken entirely by car or boat instead of on foot and therefore cannot be used in statistical comparison which are based on number of party-hours of foot coverage. Random Ground Transects Robbins (1955) pointed out that one of the major fallacies in the snipe abundance index is that the majority of areas covered include optimum wintering habitat and there is insufficient information from large areas of low abundance. Observers asked to census a certain portion of the country usually select an area where they can record the largest number of birds with a minimum amount of effort. If all areas were selected on a purely random basis a large increase in personnel and expense would be required. The practicality of random transects was tested in wintering areas where the snipe popUlation was relatively widespread. Fifty 5-minute intersections of latitude and longitude in southern Louisiana were selected by a random drawing. Each location was then marked on a topographic map and a 20-mile census route was laid out starting at the nearest road and running as closely as possible in a northerly direction. Robbins found that average number of snipe seen per hour on the random ground transect was almost identical to the number determined by the snipe abundance index. He concluded that with more intensive coverage it should be possible to obtain rough estimates of the total population, although important biases, such as all transects·parallel roads, may always be present. More recently, Martin and Goudy (1965) investigating the feasibility of randomized breeding survey routes found that population indices obtained from counts on randomly selected routes were more representative of actual breeding popUlation sizes than indices from non-random routes. Air Transects The use of air transects is another technique for estimating wintering snipe popUlations. Robbins (1955) described the following method for conducting an aerial census of snipe. _ All flights were made at .an air speed of 85 mph and a height of 70 to 120 feet. Transects were counted during all daylight hours expect late afternoon and under a variety of temperatures, winds, and sky conditions. �-179- Transects were run primarily through rice fields in Louisiana. Nearly all the birds flushed came from a strip 300 feet wide directly under the plane and had to be flushed to be seen. Robbins listed the following conditions to be avoided as they seriously reduced the number of snipe recorded by observers: (1) overcast skies; (2) winds in excess of 15 mph; (3) freezing temperatures or frozen ground; and (4) late afternoon or pre-sunrise coverage. Robbins also notes that air transects in Louisiana should preferably be made during January and the first week in February, as there is a decided influx of other shorebirds into rice fields after this date. Perhaps the chief advantage in aerial censusing is the ability to cover large areas in relatively little time. Smail (1968) comments that to census on the ground areas normally covered in 90 minutes by air, would take about 4 days, even if access could be gained. Strip Census The strip census or King method is advantageous in open bogs or other areas of low vegetation. It is conducted by walking a predetermined route through snipe habitat and counting the number of birds and the distances at which they flushed. The average flushing distance is determined and used to calculate the effective width of the census strip. The population is the number of birds flushed divided by the area of the strip and multiplied by the total ar~a (Tuck 1972). AZ p 2YX where: P A Z Y X population total area of study number flushed average flushing distance length of strip K. A. Arnold (personal communication 1973) found that on his study areas in Texas the only reliable method of censusing wintering snipe was by flushing the birds and observing where the flushed birds alighted. Detonating Devices Tuck (1972) states that on fall migration and wintering grounds, delayed detonators fired from a shotgun into a field of known size will cause snipe to flush so they can be counted. Annual Wing Survey An annual wing survey, similar to the waterfowl wing survey conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, would provide a ratio of adults to juveniles and an index to annual production. This method is not presently used and is not possible until a system of contacting migratory game bird hunters is devised (K. A. Arnold, personal communication). �· -180- Wetland Classification Methods for classifying wetlands are numerous and oftentimes dictated by the intensity, scope, and resources of the study. Each method incorporates characteristics common to other wetland classification sy~temsand conversely, each method may contain unique characteristics or unique procedures in summarizing characteristics into a concise classification scheme. Sanderson and Bellrose (1969) define "wetlands" as lowlands covered with shallow and sometimes temporary or intermittent water - the waterlogged or shallow water areas known as wet meadows, marshes, sloughs, potholes, swamps, bogs, and river-overflow lands. Shallow lakes and ponds, often with emergent vegetation, are included in the definition, but· open-water areas of streams, reservoirs. deep lakes, and bays are not included, although such areas may contain valuable wetland areas around their margins. These open water areas, however, have been included in several broad classification schemes •. An early attempt to classify wetlands was devised by Bach in 1951 (Leitch 1966). Bach's classification divides prairie wetlands into descending classes of permanency. These classes areas follows: a. Areas with permanent water b. Areas which normally c. Areas which are normally d. Areas having only transitory hold water all year except in severe droughts dry by July or August water Another system, developed by Martin et ale in 1953 is presently used by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. This system categorizes wetlands primarily upon evaluation of water depth and permanence, water alkalinity, geographic location and dominant vegetation. Wetlands were initially divided into twenty categories ranging from seasonally flooded basins or flats to mangrove swamps. Five additional categories have been added to include streams, rivers, and artificial wetlands (Fredrickson 1967). The initial 20 wetland types were listed. under four regional categories: Inland Fresh, Inland Saline, Coastal Fresh, and Coastal Saline. The following categories include wetland types and descriptions of water levels during various times of the year. Martin .et a1.have also given further descriptive information including location of each type in the United·State,s, prominent vegetation, and each type's value to various wildlife species which have not been included here: Inland Fresh Areas 1. Seasonally Flooded Basins or Flats: Soil covered with water or waterlogged during variable seasonal periods; usually well drained during much of the growing season. Along river courses, flooding ordinarily occurs in late fall, winter, or spring; in upland areas, basins or flats may be filled with water during periods of heavy rain or melting snow. �-181- 2. Fresh Meadows: Soil without standing water, but water-logged at least a few inches of its surface during the growing season. within 3. Shallow Fresh Marshes: Soil normally water-logged during the growing season; often covered with as much as 6 inches of water. 4. Deep Fresh Marshes: growing season. 5. Open FreshWater: Soil covered with ~ to 3 feet of water during the Water of variable depth. 6. Shrub Swamps: Soil normally water-logged during the growing season; often covered with as much as 6 inches of water. 7. Wooded Swamps: Soil water-logged at least to within a few inches of its surface during the growing season, often covered with as much as 1 foot of water. 8. Bogs: Soil usually water-logged, generally blanketed covering of mosses or other plant material. with a spongy Inland Saline Areas 9. Saline Flats: Soil without standing water, but water-logged at least a few inches of its surface during the growing season. 10. Saline Marshes: Soil normally water-logged often with as much as 3 feet of water. 11. Open Saline Water: Water of variable to within during the growing season, depth. Coastal Fresh Areas 12. Shallow Fresh Marshes: Soil always water-logged during the growing season, may be covered at high tide with as much as 6 inches of water. 13. Deep Fresh Marshes: Soil covered at average feet of water during the growing season. 14. Open Fresh Water: Water of variable high tide with ~ to 3 depth. Coastal Saline Areas 15. Salt Flats: Soil almost always water-logged during the growing season, sites varying from those submerged only by occasional wind tides to others that are covered fairly regularly with a few inches of water at high tide. 16. Salt Meadows: Soil always water-logged rarely covered with tide water. during the growing season, 17. Irregularly Flooded Salt Marshes: Soil covered by wind tides at irregular intervals during the growing season. �-182- 18. Regularly Flooded Salt Marshes: Soil covered at average high tide with ~ foot or more of water during the growing season. 19. Sounds and Bays: Water of variable depth. 20. Mangrove Swamps: Soil covered at average high tide with ~ to 2 feet of water during the year round growing season. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1955) in an attempt to determine wetland types found in Colorado, surveyed North Park, the San Luis Valley, the Arkansas Valley, and the South Platte Basin. These 4 areas encompass 77 percent of the Colorado's wetlands. Each wetland was classified using the above classification. The nine types of wetlands found in Colorado with their percent occurrence as determined by the survey are listed below: Description Percentage 1 Seasonally 2 Fresh meadows: while none of this type occurred on areas covered by the inventory, it is found in other sections of the state. 3 Shallow fresh marshes 18 4 Deep fresh marshes 3 5 Open fresh water 14 6 Shrub swamps 6 9 Saline flats 14 10 Saline marshes 1 11 Open saline water (+) flooded basins or flats 44 In addition to the above types, lands regularly flooded in connection with agricultural practices, such as pastures and haylands, were included separately and deSignated as Type I-A. Hopper (1968) describes Type I-A wetlands as pastures and hayland periodically flooded with irrigation water during spring, summer, and early fall for producing livestock forage. Vegetation consists primarily of a mixture of grasses, sedges, and rushes. Martin et al.'s system is advantageous for rapidly classifying large numbers of wetlands, however, the categories are too broad for detailed habitat investigations. Quite often, the Martin et al. system serves as a basis upon which additional measurements or estimates are added. Such additions may include soil and geological maps, land capability classifications, densities and distributions of wild and domestic animals, water chemistry, and temperature and precipitation fluctuations (Mann 1955). �-183- Stewart and Kantrud (1971) developed a more dynamic and complex classification system that more precisely reflected seasonal, regional, and local variations. They stated that the classification system of Martin et al. (1953) was too general for detailed investigations of wetlands and has often been misinterpreted by placing too much emphasis on water depth and cover interspersion. Furthermore, they argue that water depth of a given wetland type varies considerably. By itself, it is generally a poor indicator of prairie wetland types and should not be equated with water permanence. The classification system devised by Stewart and Kantrud is suited to natural ponds and lakes in the glaciated prairie region. Briefly, the system involves seven major classes of wetlands, each distinguished by the vegetational zone· occurring in the central or deeper part of the wetland and occupying 5 percent or more of the total wetland area being classified. Plant species characteristic of each classes were included in the system. The classes are: Class I Ephemeral ponds Class II Temporary ponds Class III Seasonal ponds and lakes Class IV Semipermanent Class V Permanent Class VI Alkali ponds and lakes Class VII Fen (alkaline bog) .ponds ponds and Lakes ponds and lakes In addition, distinCt subclasses may be recognized within several of these major classes. Stewart and Kantrud based these subclasses on differences in species composition of plant connnunities within wet meadow, shallow marsh, or deep marsh zones that· are correlated with variations in average salinity or surface water. These subclasses are designated as: Subclass A Fresh Subclass B Sl.Lght.Ly brackish Subclass Moderately C Subclass D Brackish Subclass Subsaline E brackish The classification system also considered four cover types. These cover types represent differences in the spatial relationships of emergent cover to open water or exposed bottom soil and ranged from closed stands of emergents with less than 5 percent open water or bare soil. to 95 percent open water or bare soil. �-184- To use this system in the field, each pond or lake was classified by designating the class, subclass (if differentiated), and the cover type, in . that order. The system was found to be both expedient and realistic in classifying the ponds and lakes in Worth Dakota. Cowardin and Johnson (1973) found Stewart and Kantrud's system had disadvantages. in its restriction to the glaciated prairie and omission of many wetland types important to their area (north-central Minnesota). The classification system devised by Cowardinand Johnson used the stand as the basic unit which they defined as an area of wetland vegetation with sufficient uniformity and size so as to be recognizable both on the ground and on aerial photographs. During field surveys, each plant species within a stand was described in terms of the percent of area coverage and placed into one of the following .categories: 0 = absent; 1 = rare, a few scattered individuals; 2 = occasional, less than 1 percent; 3 = fairly common, 1-10 percent; 4 = common, 11-50 percent; 5= abundant, 51-100 percent. . Stands were assigned. to communities according to their physical and botanical characteristics. Vegetative species which were used as indicators of water permanence by Stewart and . Kantrud (1971) were .used similarly whenever possible. Communities were . divided into those haVing permanent water and those without permanent water. The communities were further separated on the basis of the amount of emergent cover present. This separation was similar to the cover types described by Stewart and Kantrud (1971). .On the basis of these collective characteristics, each wetland was classified as one of 21 community types. The communities without permanent water included: (1) ephemeral; .(2) temporary; (3) seasonal-closed; (4) seasonal-patchy; (5) seasonal-open; (6) semipermanent-closed; (7) semipermanent..,.patchy; (8) semipermanent-open; (9) shrub swamp; (10) hardwood swamp; (11) circumneutral bog-sedge bog; (12) circum.neut ra.L bog-shrub phase; (13) circumneutral bog-ericaceous phase; (14) acid bog; and (15) softwood swamp. Communities with permanent water included: (16) open water; (17) bulrush; (18) ph ragmf.t.ea ;" (19) wild rice; (20) emersed aquatics, and (21) other emergents. Wetland surveys conducted by the National Wildlife Federation (Morgan and Rose 1967) included 7 categories upon which wetland evaluations were made. These categories were as follows: . . .~. Category I was a soil texture classification containing 10 gradations ranging from sand and gravel to heavy clay. Category II was a land utilization classification of 8 classes varying from excellent agriculture soils to soils impossible to farm and des Lgnat.ed for wildlife and recreational use. Category III consisted of7 classes of natural topography and drainage ranging from undulating and poorly drained to level and well drained • Category. IV consisted of 10 divisions of the annual average precipitation from below 5 inches to 25 inches or more. Category V was an estimate of evaporation as indicated by the mean July temperature. This category is divided into 10 classes varying from 63.50 F. or lower, to 72.60 F or greater. Category VI was a measurement of the number of water areas per square mile determined from aerial photograph interpretation. The category consisted of 10 classes ranging from 4 water areas or less, to 45 or more. Category VII consisted of 5 wetland types described as follows: �-185- We tland Type I: Shallow depressions, usually holding water in the spring or after heavy rains. .Wetland Type II: Shallow fresh marshes holding surface water during spring and early summer. Often dry by midsummer. .Wetland Type III: Deep fresh marshes normally holding surface water yearround, except during extended periods of drought. Usually have cattails or bulrushes around edge and often over the entire marsh. Wetland Type IV: Open fresh water of variable depth. Often surrounded by marsh vegetation. Seldom go dry except during periods of extreme drought. Pothole Community: A group of water areas of various mile diameter circle. types within a 4 Areas were then divided into 6 categories varying from one to 20 points based upon the wetland type or combination of wetland types located within a specified wetland area •. These 7 categories represent a possible 100 points on rating system. Categories I through III considered soils, land use, and topography for a maximum of 50 points. Categories IV through VII considered climatic influences and the numbers and types of water areas for the remaining 50 points. Each wetland area was then assigned a priority rating based on its total point value. The priority system ranged from Priority I (80-100 points) to unimportant (below 40 points). In an attempt to categorize each wetland area concisely, a classification system utilizing a.chain formula has been devised (U.S.D.I. ND). This chain formula was devised to provide a mental image as well as factual data for a wetland area. In devising the chain formula, 6 basic factors were selected consideration. These included: 1. Acreage 2. Permanency (as determined a1. "s 0 r Bach's) 3. Vegetation 4. Species of vegetation 5. Occurrence 6. Percent of open water density by a classification (sparse,moderate, (abbreviated of vegetation such as Martin et or. dense) if possible) (border or throughout) for initial �-186- An example of the chain formula could be written as 4-4-II-Typha-Bo-75. This would describe a four acre deep fresh marsh (using Martin et al. 's classification) with a moderately dense cattail border and 75 percent open Wa ter. Additional factors could be added to the formula corresponding to the necessary parameters required by the investigation. A classification system not strictly limited to wetlands but which has application to a variety of vegetative types throughout the world is a physiognomic classification devised by Kuchler (1949). This classification is necessarily broad since it is applicable to all types of vegetation in all regions throughout the world. In this classification, plants were divided intowoody and herbaceous plants. Woody plants were subdivided .into evergreen broadleaf, deciduous broadleaf, evergreen needleleaf, deciduous needleleaf, and without leaves; herbaceous plants were subdivided into graminoids, forbs, and lichens and mosses. The vegetation was further subdivided according to plant height, density and special features such as epiphytes, succulents, or aquatic vegetation. Each subdivision was indicated by a letter, thus vegetation over an area is described by a formula. The system is advantageous in that it is a well known classification system and can be readily applied to any location. Furthermore, the system is adaptable to a.ny scale of investigation and can be used to classify small as well as large areas. However, because of its broadness, the system may require additional parameters to increase number of classifications for more intensive studies. The use of soil types for classifying areas is an important parameter in several classification systems and served as a basis for a rating system devised by Allan et al. (1963). In this study, eight habitat elements were selected for rating via soil conditions. These elements were (1) grain and seed crops, (2) grasses and legumes,(3) wild herbaceous upland plants, (4) hardwood woodland plants, (5) coniferous woodland plants, (6) wetland food and cover plants, (7) shallow water developments, and (8) excavated ponds. First, soil types were ra t ed in terms of suitability for these habitat elements. For example, the category wetland food and cover plants which included annual and perennial wild herbaceous plants of moist to wet sites, the rating criteria were as follows: 1. Soil cqnditions suitable for the growth cif a wide variety of climatically adapted species particularly food producing plants. 2. Soil conditions .perennials. 3. Soil conditions· that tend to produce dominant stands of a few vigorous perennial species, generally of low food production value. 4. Soil conditions under which wetland plants do not grow or are so sparse as to be of no significance to wildlife. suitable for a wide variety of species particularly �-187- Next, various combinations of habitat elements were considered for their significance to and rating for general classes of wildlife. These classes were: (1) openland wildlife, (2) woodland wildlife, and (3) wetland wildlife. The ratings of the suitability of soils for these wildlife classes were made on the basis of weighted values assigned to a selection of habitat elements appropriate to a particular class of wildlife. For example, grain and seed crops were given a greater weight than hardwood woodland plants as habitat elements for open1and wildlife. Each soil type is then classified as either well suited, suited, poorly suited, or unsuited as to these wildlife habitat elements and kinds of wildlife. Other wetland inventories (Farmes 1956, Leitch 1966, Smith 1971) have incorporated various aspects of the above classifications systems and also included other descriptive characteristics such as available nesting cover, adjacent land. use, historical data, and water basin shape depending upon the intensity of the. study and the wildlife species of interest. Since vegetation often plays an important role in wetland classification, factors influencing the vegetative composition of a wetland are also of interest. Each plant species has its own particular level of tolerance to inundation. Those with similar moisture requirements and limitations are characteristically found in locations with the same moisture regime. As a result, pothole vegetation typically occurs in zones that can be correlated with depth and duration of submergence. This relationship has frequently been used as a factor in classifying wetlands. . Millar (1969) discussed several of the important factors which affect distribution and density of plant species. Briefly, these factors are: 1. Availability of Seed: The absence of plant species in certain areas may be cause by absence of viable seed rather than to deficiencies in the environment. 2. Moisture Regime: Each plant species will tolerate different depths and durations of flooding, and these differences are reflected in the rather definite zonation of wetland vegetation. 3. Chemistry of the Basin Soil: This is examplified by the effect of extreme salinity in reducing the complexity and luxuriance of marsh vegetation. 4. Climatic Factors: Such factors include length of growing season and severity of temperature extremes but little .is known about requirements of individual species. 5. Mode of Reproduction: This is important in determining the survival and proliferation of a species. Perennials spreading by rhizones and seeds may perpetuate themselves more easily than annuals or biennials. 6. Inter-and Intra-specific Competition: This factor plays an important role in limiting the density and distribution of species but as yet knowledge of the factor is negligible. �-188- 7. Disturbance: Disturbances such as cultivation, mowing, grazing, burning, drainage, and fluctuation of water levels tend to alter the environment of a basin in such a way as to adversely affect existing vegetation. These classification systems are only a portion of many which have been devised. Each system has been described only briefly and for a complete description of each, the reader is referred to the orignial reference. METHODS AND MATERIALS Selection of Study Areas Initial investigations on Connnon snipe in Colorado began in September, with assessment of possible study areas for use in evaluating the importance of representative habitat types to breeding snipe. Major geographic areas in Colorado in which sites have been investigated include the San Luis Val~ey, North Park, Yampa Valley and neat Fort Collins. Each potential study area was grossly examined and factors such as drainage, water levels, vegetation type and densd ty, domestic animal grazing, and ownership were noted. Areas appearing favorable as snipe habitat were censused by walking circumferences of ponds or banks of streams. Numbers of .snipe flushed, :if any, were recorded. If no snipe were flushed, the location of the area was recorded so that it could be recensused at a later date, provided the area appeared to contain excellent habitat, or if the habitat appeared to be suitable for snipe following grazing or flooding. Since these . censuses were made only to determine the potential of an area to serve as a spring study area, most areas were censused only once and no attempt was made to quantify the data respective of time or area. Each area censusedwas then recorded on a map for future reference. Selected areas will be censused regularly to estimate breeding densities on each site. These and/or additional study areas will also be censused to estimate fall and winter densities. Censusing Techniques Spring censusing of all breeding snipe will be based on a technique desribed by Tuck (1972) in which population densities are estimated by territorial responses elicited by play back of recorded territorial calls. Mechanics of this technique are not known in detail, however, a letter has been sent to Dr. Tuck requesting the information needed. Fall and winter censusing will utilize either the strip census or a birds observed per hour index. Hunting Pressure Hunting pressure and harvest was estimated through questionnaires mailed to hunters Who responded on the 1972 Colorado small game questionnaire that they had harvestad snipe. A copy of the snipe questionnaire and cover letter are included in the Appendix. Wing samples from each bird harvested by the hunters were also requested. Wings were examined to provide an estimate of the juvenile:adult ratio in the hunted population. �-189- Winter Census Investigations of common snipe wintering in the Fort Collins vicinity were initiated in mid-December and continued through March. Four areas having open water and low vegetatiOn were censused to estimate numbers on each site. Two contrasting study areas were selected for biweekly censusing to evaluate density and stability of populations in each habitat. Each census was conducted as follows: The starting time was recorded and the census route paralleled the stream varying in distance from 3 feet to 1.5 feet from the shoreline, depending on topography of the stream bank. The observer walked at a moderate pace periodically clapping his hands to flush snipe. When a snipe was flushed, the time and the estimated distance from the observer to the flushed· snipe were recorded. The location in which the flushed snipe alighted was noted to avoid duplicate counts. At the route's end the time was again recorded. Data collected during each census weTe summarized as total snipe flushed during each census (Fig. 1) and snipe flushed per hour. When the length of each route has been ascertained, .the data will be quantified into a snipe flushed per kilometer index. Description of Winter Study Areas The first study area, designated as Area 1, is a southeast flowing drainage near the Fort Collins sewage plant. The area is characterized by a. narrow (4 to 6 feet), shallow, flowing stream with steep to perpendicular banks . from 4 to 8 feet in height. Vegetation is coarse and partially grazed, few exposed mud flats are present in the stream channel. The second site, Area 2 is a. portion of Spring Creek within the Fort Collins city limits which begins at Taft Hill Road and ends immediately west of South College Avenue. This route contains a variety of habitats, the majority of which are good : to excellent for wintering snipe. Portions of the route are grazed and many exposed sparsely vegetated mudflats occur. It is in these areas that snipe are most commonly found. Wetland Classification Methods to be used in this study for evaluating and classifying wetlands have not been field tested. From the wetland classification systems reviewed, parameters were chosen for consideration evaluating habitat preferences of snipe. These parameters are as follows: (1) acreage of study areas; (2) County and location of study areas; (3) ownership of study areas; (4) elevation; (5) water permanence, based on Martin et al.,"s (1953) classification; (6) water depth and fluctuations; (7) conductivity, alkalinity, and pH of water; (8) water turbidity; (9) natural drainage of study areas; (10) stream flow velocity and volume; (11) hazard of flooding; (12) stream bank or wetland shoreline topography and erosion; (13) percent open water and percent emergent vegetation; (14) coverage and distribution of dominant species of vegetation; (15) height of dominant vegetation; (16) phenology record of dominant plants; (17) tree heights within study areas; (18) frequency or �-190- 40 35 ·Area 2 30 Cf) 0 Cf) z 25 f.>Q U r::t:: r:t:l P; q ;.:! :I:: 20 Cf) 0 .-:l ~ r:t:l P; H z Cf) 15 '- ~ 0 r::t:: r:t:l ~ 0 z 10 5 Area 1 20 27 January 3 10 14 24 9 February 17 25 29 Harch CENSUSING Fig. 1. 3 DATES Number of snipe flushed per census from January through March, 1974. �-191- density of aquatic invertebrates; (19) soil types within study areas; (20) classification of land capability; (21) available moisture within 12 inches of soil surface; (22) mean annual precipitation; (23) evaporation as estimated by mean monthly temperatures; (24) composition and juxtaposition of habitat types; (25) domestic animals present; '(26) degree of freedom from human disturbance; (27) habitat modifications such as mowing, burning, grazing, cultivation, or pollution; and (28) photographs of ea.ch study site. Each of these parameters is currently being evaluated in respect to importance of the parameter to breeding snipe and simplicity with which a reliable estimation or measurement of the parameter can be made. Because several widely distributed study areas will be used, intensive evaluation of each area will not be possible. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Selection of Study Area In September and October of 1973, ten potential study areas having sizable snipe populations were located: four areas in the San Luis Valley, three near Fort Collins, and three in North Park. Each area was classified into one of the following categories: (1) flooded hayland; (2) wet grazed pastureland; (3) wet ung raz ed pastureland, and (4) grazed river oxbows. Elevations of these areas ranged from 5, 000 ft in the Fort Collins vicinity to 8,200 ft ,in North Park. The Yampa Valley was also investigated. However, all areas examined were devoid of standing water. These poor moisture conditions precluded selection of potential st udy areas. Field investigations were resumed in mid-March in an effort to locate additional study areas to serve in evaluating habitat preferences of breeding snipe. Thus far, all areas examined were near Fort Collins. Eleven potential study sites were censused, however, no snipe were flushed on any area. Several of these areas appeared to contain excellent snipe habitat and will be recensused in April. During several censuses, a recording of a snipe territorial call was played, but no snipe responded, perhaps because the areas may not have contained snipe. Also, no snipe have been heard winnowing during the censuses, but it should be noted that winnowing most often occurs during twilight periods which did not coincide with the times of the censuses. Hunter Questionnaires Thirty-eight questionnaires were distributed in September to obtain an approximation of hunter interest in snipe hunting, areas most frequently hunted, days afield, hunter success, and number of snipe seen and bagged. Results of this survey were disappointing as only 3 questionnaires were returned by hunters. Of these 3, 2 did not hunt snipe in 1973 and the third individual hunted a total of 4 days and bagged an estimated 25 snipe. Obviously, with a sample size of 3 no inferences can be made. �-194- Hopper, R. M. 1968. Wetlands of Colorado. Parks, Tech. Publ. 22. 88 p. Kuchler, A. W. 1949. A physiognomic Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 39:201-210. Leitch, W. G. inventory. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and classification of vegetation. Anns. 1966. Historical and ecological factors in wetland Trans. N. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resour. Conf. 31:88-96. Mann, G. E. 1955. Wetlands inventory of Wisconsin. Servo Office of River Basin Studies. 63 p. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Martin, A. C., N. Hotchkiss, F. M. Uhler, and W. S. Bourn. 1953. Classification of wetlands of the United States. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo .Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 20. 14 p. Martin, F. W., and M. H. Goudy. 1965. Feasibility of randomizing singingground survey routes in important woodcock breeding areas. p. 62. In Ann. Prog. Rept , Fiscal Year 1965. U. S. Bureau Sport Fish. and Wildl. Migr. Bird Pop. Sta., Laurel, Maryland. Millar, J. B. 1969. Observations on the ecology of wetland vegetation. Saskatoon wetlands seminar. Can. Wildl. Servo Sere No. 6:49-56. Morgan, H. R., and B. J. Rose. 1967. Wetland preservation rating system for Manitoba and Saskatchewan. National Wildl. Federation, Washington, D.C.2Ip. Robbins, C. S. 1953. Further investigations on winnowing methods of measuring Wilson's snipe populations. p.61-65. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1953. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 24. 68 p. 1955. Wilson snipe wintering ground studies, 1954-1955. p. 47-54. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe and rails in. 1955. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wi1d1. No. 31. 54 p. 1957. Wilson snipe wintering ground studies, 1955-56. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe and rails in 1956.U. Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wi1dl. No 34. 85 p. p. 57-65. S. Fish and Sanderson, G. C., and F. C. Be1lrose. 1969. Wildlife habitat management of wetlands. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. No. R272. Urbana. p. 154-204. Schmidt, G. D. 1962. Endoparasites of Wilson's snipe Capella gal1inago delicata Ord, in northeastern Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 65 p. Sclater, W. L. 1912. London. 576 p. A history of the birds of Colorado. Witherby and Co., �-195- Smail, J. 1968. Aerial census of shorebirds, an evaluation. Reyes Bird Observatory Newsletter No. 11:45. Point Smith, A. G. 1971. Ecological factors affecting waterfowl production in the Alberta parklands. U. S. Fish. and WildL Serv. Resour • Pub!. 98. 49 p. Solman, V.E.F. 1953. Wilson's snipe "winnowing" counts in eastern Canada, 1953. p. 57-59. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe and rails in 1953. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 24. 68 p. Stewart, R. E., and H. A. Kantrud. 1971. Classification of natural ponds and lakes in the glaciated prairie region. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Resource Publ. 92. 57 p. Stout, G. D. 1967. York. 270 p. The shorebirds of North America. Viking Press, New Tuck, L. M. 1955. Some observations on nocturnal activities of Wilson's snipe - Newfoundland (1953). p. 41-50. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe and rails in 1954. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 28. Washington, D. C. 62 p. 1972. The snipes: a study of the genus Capella. Servo Monograph Series No.5, Ottawa. 429 p. U. S. D. 1. [po Dat~ . Servo 5 p. Mimeo. Wetland classification. Canadian Wildl. U. S. Fish and Wildl. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1955. Wetlands inventory: Colorado. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Office of River Basin Studies. Albuquerque. 19 p. + 16 p. of Figs. Van Owens, J. 1967. Food habits of the common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) in the pastures of south-central Louisiana. M. S. Thesis. Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 108 p. White, M. 1963. Occurrence, habitat, ecology, food habits and sex and age studies of the Wilson's snipe in the Humboldt Bay Region. M. S. Thesis. Humboldt State College, Arcata. 90 p. White, M., and S. W. Harris. 1966. Winter occurrence, food and habitat use of snipe in northwest California. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 30(1):23-24. Whitehead, C., Jr. 1965. Foods and feeding habits of the common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) in Cameron parish, Louisiana, with ecological notes and a discussion of methods of sexing and aging. M. S. Thesis. Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 200 p. "l) _(~ ~t\.A"l.t:;,x)""". Prepared by . \\ J ~) c=t\\i\~\.:.£\c:V~ Bruce R. JohnsbnL\ Graduate Student �-196. STATE OF COLORADO APPENDIX A .John A. Love, Governor DEPAHTMENTOF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF "VILDLIFE Harry n. Woodward, Director 6060 Broadway .. Deriver, Colorado 80216 • B25~1192 August 27, 1973 Dear Sir: Because of your responses on the 1972 Colorado Division of Wildlife Small Game quest:ionnai.re~we are asking for you!' assistance in obtaining information on the common snipe. As you may know, . snipe maybe hunted f rom September 1 through November 4 east of the Continental Divide, and September 29 through October 12, 1973 'andNovember3, 1973 through January 20, 1974 'v'est of the Continental Divide. We would like you to read the en cl.osed q~estiq!'-!!.aire, .keep t he q~.!~sticn~·-in, and return qu~stiuruiai.i.·i:: w.i.Lll your response:,;cu: the se ason+s end. -~nd" We have also enclosed a large envelope and ~~uid like to ask you to return one .wing £romeach snipe you bag during the coming season. Please returntheeIivelop~ at the close of the season, This will proVide us with the' age of each bird you bagged. . Your cooperation will greatly aid usd.n understanding this relatively unknown game species and provide a basis for its 'future. management. Sincerely, Howard D.'Funk Section Chief Small Game Research CEB:al Encl. DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES,T. W. Ten Eyck, ExecutivoDirector. Wiliiam VI/. Robinson, Vic.eChairman. Ford Strong, Secretary. Harry Cum!"" Mnmber. R. Wil/)nrs Cool. Member. Criarte- WILDUFECOMMISSIOr,,; Dp.anSuttle, Chdirman . Dr. .J.K. Childre.:;,;,Mornbor « Wilton W. C09swell.Jr., Momber A.GHhauer, Mnmbor. OrcSI Gorbaz, Member .LeRoy r~oh"on, Momhor I' �-:.197,.. APPENDiX B SNIPE HUNT~R REPORT 1. Did you hunt snipe during the 1973 season? Yes No If answer was "No" you need not fill out the remainder of the questionnaire. (If you hun'ted or did not hunt,please return the questionnaire in the small stamped,. self addressed envelope). 2. Countyor are~ most frequently hunted.......;..._.--:.. .......;..._-"-- 3. Howmany days did you hunt snipe in the 1973 season? 4. Howmany hunters 5. What waS the approximate snipe season ? -- 6. How many srripe 7. How often were in your party di.d ~ during total while snipe hunting number of snipe bag during the 1973 snipe I Often (10 or more days) I I Frequently NAME: ~LING note '--- __ ADDRESS: '--- that _ the 1973 season? _ P1ease (4 - 9 days) (1 3 days) Rare ly (only if accidentally other game species) Optional-Please year?~ did you hunt only snipe? I Occasionally this yoti saw during the 1973 snipe season ------------- flushed while hunting you are not ob.l Lgat ed to give your name and address. ~~-----,..-------~----.,.-- _ � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/3f5e13dc79af9a5d6c2df74cbd2c9e43.pdf 8b96de505d32a156bf97d90deaffdc78 PDF Text Text -1- January JOB PROGRESS State of Work REPORT ----=CO:::::.;:LO;:::.::RAD=.;:O _ No. W-4l-R-24 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Plan No. 1 Job NO. 1_6 Project 1975 Goat Inyestigations ~---------------- Job Title _E:.v.:...a:.l:.u.:..a.:..t.:..l.:..· o:..:n~o:..:f=-t:..:h_e~N_u:....t_r_i_t_i_o_n .... a.... l_R:....e....:q:....u_i .... r..:.e_m_e .... n.... t..:s--:.o .... f--=-B..::i£g.;.:h.;;..o..::rn~;;:.Sh~e.;;. _ Period Covered: Personnel: June 1, 1973 - May 31, 19,/4 Gene G. Schoonveld ABSTRACT Samples of majoI' forage species used by bighorn sheep on a year-round basis were chemically analyzed to determine nutrient content. Forages analyzed were Carex spp., Kobresia beliardi, Poa spp., Fescue spp., Agropyron spp., and Salix glauca collected on the Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak sheep ranges and Carex spp., Fescue spp., Muhlenbergia spp., Bouteloua gracilis, Artemisia frigida and ~olodiscus dumosa on the Trickle Mountain sheep range. Chemical analyses were for amounts of soiuable and insoluable ash, crude protein and relative percentages of plant cell walls and cell contents. The cell wall fraction was further analyzed for amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin and the.ash fraction for amounts of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, manganese, zinc, iron and copper. Evaluation of the nutritional quality of forages used by bighorn sheep on the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges was made by comparing nutrients available in forages to minimum nutrient requirements that have been established for domestic ruminants. ��-3- EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF BIGHORN SHEEP Gene G. Schoonveld P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methods: (a) for the evaluation of nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep under natural conditions, and (b) to measure the adequacy of selected ranges to meet these requirements. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the nutritional sheep. level of forage species utilized by bighorn 2. To evaluate if the nutritional level of selected bighorn sheep ranges is adequate to meet nutrient requirements of bighorn sheep at all seasons of the year. METHODS AND MATERIALS Nutritional Quality of Forage Species Used by Bighorn Sheep Methods used to determine forage species used by bighorn sheep and means of collecting representative samples were previously described (Schoonveld 1973, Keiss and Schoonveld 1974). During this segment, samples of major forage species used by sheep were chemically analyzed to determine nutrient content using procedures detailed by Keiss and Schoonveld (~cit). Forages analyzed were Carex spp., Kobresia. bellardi, Poa spp ,, Fescu~ spp ,, Agropyron spp ,, and Salix glauca collected from the Buffalo Peaks ffildPikes Peak sheep ranges and Carex spp., Fescue spp., Muhlenbergia spp., Bouteloua gracilis, Artemisia frigida and Holodiscus dumosa from Trickle Mountain. ~hemical analyses were for soluable and insoluable ash, crude protein, ether ext~act and relative percentages of plant cell walls and cell contents. The cell wall fraction was further analyzed for amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin constituents and the ash fraction for amounts of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, manganese, zinc, iron and copper. Relative proportions of plant species comprising sheep diets would not be reliably estimated (Schoonveld 1973, Keiss and Schoonveld 1974) and actual diets simulated, therefore only mean values of the nutrients contained in major forage species used by sheep are reported. The actual nutrient intake of sheep would most likely be greater than values reported due to selectivity and ingestion of greater proportions of the more nutritious plant species. �-4- Evaluation of the nutritional quality of bighorn sheep ranges was made by comparing nutrient levels available in forages used by sheep on the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain sheep ranges. Where possible, levels of nutrients contained in forages used by bighorn sheep were compared to minimum requirements established for domestic ruminants. Hopefully, such cqmparisons will offer clues as to possible nutrient deficiencies. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Forage Analysis Crude Protein The amount of crude protein contained in a forage, together with the relative percent of cell contents may be used as an arbitrary indicator to predict nutritive value (Van Soest and Moore 1965), higher amounts of protein and cell contents indicative of better quality. Protein availability (means) in representative forage samples used by bighorn sheep and collected from the three study areas is graphed in Figure 1. Percentages of crude protein contained in all forage species were highest in the leaf and seed stage, then declined with advancing maturity. Protein content and seasonal trends observed in this study were similar to values reported by Johnston et al. (1968) in studying nutrient quality of alpine plants. Plant Cell Walls and Cell Contents Plant cell wall constituents contain partially nutritive and non-nutritive material. Nutritive material includes cell wall carbohydrates, cellulose, and hemicellulose which are partially digested by microbial firmentation within the rumen. Non-nutritive material is composed of lignin and insoluable ash (mostly silica). These substances have no known nutritive value to ruminants (Harris 1970). Cell contents of plants include readily available nutritive matter (carbohydrates,proteins, lipids and soluable ash) that are digested by rumen microbes or enzymes secreted in the digestive tract. Ruminant digestion trials have shown cell contents of all forages are almost completely digestible (Van Soest and Moore 1965). The relative amounts of cell walls and cell contents contained in forages may therefore be used to predict nutritive value. Relative proportions of cell walls and cell contents contained in forages used by bighorn sheep are shown in Figure 2. Percentages of lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose and total ash contained in the cell wall fraction are also shown. �-5- Soluable and Ihsoluable Ash The insoluable ash fraction contains minerals that are bound in complex compounds which cannot be extracted from the food and consequently have no nutrient value. The soluable ash fraction contains those minerals which can be extracted and are essential for proper nutrition. Calcium and Phosphorus (Ca,P) Adequate amounts of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are especially important for ewes during pregnancy and lactation. Both elements are required for skeletal development and production of milk. Phosphorus is also vital in vitamin and enzyme activity and therefore related to metabolism of almost all other nutrients. Levels of both Ca and P contained in forage species used by bighorn sheep are shown in Figure 3. Sodium (Na) Sodium is essential in the osmotic regulation of body fluids and maintaining the acid-base balance of the body. Some sodium required by an animal is ingested in the form of sodium chloride (Na Cl), however much Na is supplied in forages. Levels of Na found to be present in for'age.sused by sheep during this study is shown in Figure 4. Copper (Cu) Copper is known to be essential in haemoglobin formation and production of red blood corpuscles. It is also a component of many enzyme systems and is necessary for hair pigmentation (NRC 1968). Amounts of Cu contained in samples of forage specieH utilized by bighorn sheep are graphed in Figure 5. Zinc (Zn) Several enzymatic reactions within the body require zinc. Diets of ruminants normally furnish adequate amounts of zinc, however minimum requirements have not been well established. Amount of Zn available in forages used by bighorn sheep are given in Figure 6. Iron (Fe) Iron is also essential in the formation of haemoglobin and is a component of many enzymes. The bodies requirement for additional iron is normally low except as a result of hemorrhage or pregnancy. Normally iron is available for recycling within the body upon destruction of haemoglobin (McDonald et al. 1969). Amounts of iron contained in forages used by bighorn sheep are given in Figure 7. �-6- Manganese (Mn) Manganese serves as an activator of enzyme reactions involving carbohydrates, protein and lipid metabolism. Amounts of manganese determined to be in forages used by bighorn sheep on the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges were 72-160 p.p.m., 94-330 p.p.m., and 81-205 p.p.m., respectively. Nutritional Quality of Bighorn Sheep Ranges Nutrient requirements of bighorn sheep would vary throughout the year changing as the animal advances in age or as it proceeds through its annual life cycle (growth period May-October; breeding November-December; and gestation or lactation for ewes from December·-June). Minimum nutrient requirements for bighorn sheep during these periods however, have not been established. It is necessary therefore to compare data on nutrients available in forages used by bighorn sheep on the three study areas to minimum requirements established for domestic ruminants. It io unlikely bighorn sheep and domestic ruminants would have the same minimum requirements for all nutrients, however such comparisons may indicate possible deficiencies and levels of nutrients which require more in-depth investigation. Crude Protein Insufficient protein intake results in poor feed efficiency and reduced food intake that eventually limits growth, muscle development and reproduction (NRC 1968). Minimum yearly protein requirements for bighorn sheep are not known. Hebert (pers. comm.) fed yearling bighorn ewes a 4 percent protein ration during an extended period over winter and observed negligible body weight changes. Based upon this work and known protein requirements of domestic ruminants it appears protein availability in forages used by bighorn sheep on the three study areas would be sufficient in furnishing minimum body requirements (Fig. 1). Percent protein contained in forages used by bighorn sheep on all areas would also appear to be adequate for ewes during gestation and lactation when compared to requirements of about 8 percent established for domestic sheep (NRC 1968). Although data suggests Trickle Mountain sheep receive less protein in their diets compared to either Pikes Peak or Buffalo Peaks sheep, more definitive data need to be obtained relating to body condition indices before effects of less protein intake can be assessed. Plant Cell Wall Constituents and Cell Contents Amounts of cell wall constituents were higher in forages used by Trickle Mountain sheep than were constituents in forage~ used by either the Buffalo Peaks or Pikes Peak sheep (Fig. 2). These data indicate alpine forages used by Buffalo Peake, and Pikes Peak sheep would be higher in nutritional quality and more easily digestible than forages used by Trickle Mountain sheep, however data needs to be analyzed for both statistical and biological significance. Biological significance of these results would need to be further �-7- evaluated by means of digestion trials preferably using sheep to determine amounts of cell wall constituents that contribute to the nutritional level of the animal. Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P) Intake levels of 0.24-0.32 percent Ca and 0.16-0.20 percent P are considered minimum requirements for domestic ewes during gestation and lactation (NRC 1968). Defiency symptoms of inadequate Ca and P in an animal's diet are slow growth, roegh appearance and listlessness. A defiency of P results in weak lambs due to inade.quate milk production by its dam and failure of animals to fatten. Severe P deficiency is associated with increased parasitism and often diagnosed as starvation (Tillman 1961). The Ca:P ratio must also be considered when determining adequacy of these two elements in a diet. A high ratio may be as harmful as a defiency of either element. The optimum Ca:P ratio is 1:1 or 2:1 for domestic livestock. Forages used by bighorn sheep on the three study areas would supply ample Ca on a year-round basis (Fig. 2) when compared to minimum requirements established for domestic sheep. Amounts of P furnished in forages would appear to be adequate only during summer for Pikes Peak and Buffalo Peaks sheep and deficient during all other periods. Forages used by Trickle Mountain sheep would appear to be P deficient on a year-round basis (Fig. 3). Calcium to phosphorus ratios in forages are also extremely wide for all ranges which may further compound a P deficiency. It is not known to what extent free ranging animals can select forages high in P or to what degree they can accumulate P in storage depots for use when a deficiency exists. Simesen (196l) states, "bone mineral is readily mobilized to maintain the level of serum calcium, but less readily to maintain that of P." Serum inorganic phosphorus levels,should therefore be established in bighorn sheep from the three study areas and correlated with P levels in forages to better evaluate possible P deficiencies. Sodium (Na) Inadequate intake of Na by an animal reduces efficiency of food metabolism and thereby slows growth. Generally, a diet containing 0.6 percent Na is considered adequate for domestic sheep, however minimum requirements have not been established (NRC 1968). Forages used by bighorn sheep on the three study areas would furnish less than 0.6 percent Na (Fig. 4), however use of natural mineral licks by bighorn sheep and salt supplementation would increase Na intake to much higher levels. Manganese (Mn) Minimum dietary requirements of Mn for domestic sheeF are unknown. In research studies with cows, Bentley and Phillips (195l) produced deficiency symptoms with natural forages containing less th~~ 10 p.p.m. Mn. Generally, dietary intake of 15-30 p.p.m. Hn would furnish sufficient amounts for most �-8- domestic ruminants (Tillman 1961). Forages used by bighorn sheep on the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges contained 72-100 p.p.m., 94-330 p.p.m., and 81-205 p.p.m., Mn respectively, and it is therefore unlikely that sheep utilizing these ranges would suffer Mn deficiency. Copper (Cu) Underwood (1966) pointed out that minimum Cu requirements for ruminants cannot be clearly established due to various interfering factors. NRC (1968) suggests at least 5 p.p.m., Cu is essential in diets of pregnant and lactating domestic ewes, and nursing lambs. Continuous intake of Cu in excess of bodily requirements may however be toxic. Susceptibility of ruminants to Cu poisoning is partly due to excess Cu being stored in the liver where it becomes a cumulative poison (Tillman 1961). Symptoms of inadequate copper in the diet are generally seen in young animals; deficiencies are evidenced by poor growth, bone disorders, scours, lack of hair pigmentation, anaemia, gastro-intestinal disorders and lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord (NRC 1968, Tillman 1961, Church et al. 1971). Based upon requirements of domestic sheep, amounts of Cu available in forages used by bighorn sheep and collected on the three study areas are sufficient to meet bodily requirements (Fig. 5). No observable deficiency symptoms were evidenced by bighorn sheep during the field collection phases of the study or when lambs were collected for pathological investigations. Zinc (Zn) Itching, parakeratosis, retention of the placenta, loss of body wool and development of thick, wrinkled, pink skin in domestic sheep are thought to be caused by insufficient amounts of Zn in the diet (Church et al. 1971). Minimum dietary requirements of Zn by domestic livestock however has not been well defined due to many interfering factors such as the effort of Ca or Zn requirements. Generally, forages containing 30 p.p.m., are considered adequate in supplying minimum dietary requirements of Zn for domestic ruminants (Tillman 1961). Based on these requirements, data obtained from analysis of forages used by sheep would suggest animals receive ample amounts of Zn on a yearly basis (Fig. 6). Iron (Fe) With rare exceptions, Fe deficiency does not appear to be a problem in ruminants consuming solid foods (Church et al. 1971). Til:man (1961) suggests diets of grazing animals should contain 80-150 p.p.m., Fe to supply bodily requirements. Compared to these requirements, data obtained from forage analysis suggests bighorn sheep on the three study areas would be receiving insufficient Fe in theird~ets (Fig. 7), especially sheep on the Buffalo Peaks and Pikes Peak ranges. Again, use of natural mineral licks by sheep could supply additional Fe in their diets. �-9- LITERATURE CITED Bentley, O. G., and P. H. Phillips. 1951. The effect of low-manganese rations upon dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 34:396-403. Church, D. C., J. P. Fontenot, G. E. Smith, and A. T. Ralston. 1971. Digestive physiology and nutrition of ruminants, Vol. 2 - nutrition. D. C. Church, O.S.U. Book Stores, Corvallis, Ore. 80lpp. Harris, L. E. animals. 1970. Nutrition research techniques for domestic and wild L. E. Harris, Logan, Utah. Hebert, D. M. (personal comm.). Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of British Columbia, Van., B.C. Canada. Johnston, A., L. M. Bezeau, and S. Smoliak. 1968. Chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of alpine tundra plants. J. Wildl. Manage. 32(4):773-777. Keiss, Robert E., and G. G. Schoonveld. 1974. Bighorn sheep and mountain goat investigations - evaluation of the nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-4l-R-23, Game Res. Rpt. (in press). McDonald, P., R. A. Edwards and J. F. D. Greenhalgh. tion. Oliver and Boyd. Edinburgh. 407pp. 1969. Animal nutri- National Research C<:uncil. 1968. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. No.5. Nutrient requirements of sheep. Nat. Acad. of Sei., Washington, D.C. Pub. 1693. Schoonveld, Gene G. 1973. Bighorn sheep and mountain goat investigations evaluation of the nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-4l-R-22. Game Res. Rept., Jan. Part 2. pp. 75-87. - Simesen, M. G. 1961. Calcium, inorganic phosophorus, and magnesium metabolism in health and disease. In Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals. Edit. C. E. Cornelius and J. J. Kaneko. Acad. Pr.ess, New York. Tillman, A. D. 1961. Mineral nutrients for livestock. Assoc. 138(11):600-602. J. Amer. Vet. Med. Underwood, E. J. 1966. Trace elements in human and animal nutrition. Academic Press, New York, N.Y. Van Soest, P. J., and L. A. Moore. 1965. New chemical methods for analysis of forages for the purpose of predicting nutritive value. Proc. 9th Inter. Grassl. Congr., Sao Paulo, Brazil. pp. 783-789. ~/~:~lU«>;;/ Prepared by /~_ Gene G. Sc oonveld Asst. Wildlife Researcher �PROTEIN 14\ I 12 10 ~/ W u 6 a: ~ ~O ________ ----.:~-- I C~ W n. 6 C______ X 0 0-0 x-x 0'-0 JULY SEPT NOV I ---0 0 ~ X a 4 .• MAY t-' ____ C BUFFALO PKS, PIKES PI<. TRICKLE MTN. "AN MAR Fig. 1. Protein availability (means) in major forage species used by bighorn sheep and collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges May 1972-March 1973. �~~.:!.hJ ..•k S r-i SSSsss:s:J- C E LL.ULOSE L !- H~MIC ElLY! ..OS \:! WOW.\K&.l" L UUH ~ 80 TN 70 BP TM TM CD ..l ...I C • ppTM TM TM PP 60 tiP pp 8P PP BpPP BP PP 50 ..l ...I .., I (,) 40 t-£ t-£ I ••• z .., 30+ o CII: III A. 20 10 l. t;! VI _J,k==-. MAY == ~\ID ~;I ="4= JULY Jl .~ ~1._._._ SEPT :i ~~1._ NOV .. . JAN MAR Fig. 2. Percent cell walls (means) contained in major forage species used by bighorn sheep on the Buffalo Peaks (BP), Pikes Peak (PP), and Trickle Mountain (TM) sheep ranges. Relative amounts of lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, and ash contained in the cell wall fraction are also shown. �CALCIUM 0;8 I 0--- + 0.7 / X/ 0.6 0.5 e min. 0.4 I PHOSPHORUS ~ Z UJ o I N I - 0.18 <,<, 0: ~ I t-' 0.14f~ 0-0 au FFALO X-x PI KfS t::t-oTRICKlE 0.1 0 ~ <, "~ 0.06t PKS. PK. MTN. --------o~ ~ o X tJ -x: min. P r e q, e X O. I 6- O. 20 0/0 ( NAS 1968) MAY JULY SEPT NOV JAN MAR Fig. 3. Calcium and phosphorus content (means) in major forages used by bighorn sheep and collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges, May 1972-March 1973. �SODIUM 0.7 min. Na r e q, or 0.6% 0,6 (HAS 1968) 0.5 c ~o I •... 0.4 too" z t:J w u c: W I ............................ ------x .:--------- ........ w 0.3 Q" 0.2 0 BUFFALO PKS. PIKES Pt<. 0-0 TRIC Ir1..E MTN 0-0 x-x Orl MAY JULY SEPT NOV JAN hi A~ Fig. 4. Sodium availability (means) in major forage species used by bighorn sheep and collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak, and Trickle Mountain ranges, May 1972-March 1973. �-14- COPPER tu) 25 O-OBUFFALO PKS. PIKES Pt(. a-a TRICKLE NTH. ~Jt ~115.~ ~X~:. ~ 0-- 10 _ ~ 5 ".- 0 MAY a----------D---------~ J"LY X............. 0- ~ ~~o ·0 NOY SEPT JAN MAR Fi.g. 5. Amounts of copper (means) contained in major forage species used by bighorn sheep and collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak, and Trickle Mountain !anges, May 1972-March 1973. ZI NC (Zn) 100 1 min Zn re q. ;;! 30 PP'I'l 80~ ~:------x 60 -===-~7' -~ 40 0-0 BUFFALO PKS. PK. c-/:l TRI CKLE MTN. x-x PIKES 20 MAY JULY SEPT NOY JAN MAR Fig. 6. Amounts of zinc (means) contained in major forage species used by bighorn sheep and collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak, and Trickle Mountain ranges May 1972-March 1973. �-15- I RON (Fe) 80 10 MAY )f--)( BUf'FAL'() PKS. PIKES PIC_ CI-Q TRICKLE 0--0 '0 JULY SEPT NOV- JAN M TN. MAR Fig. 7. Amounts of iron (means) contained in major forage species used by bighorn sheep and c31~eeted from-the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak, and Trickle Mountain ranges May 1972-March 1973. ��-17- January 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State cf .::CO:::..;:LO:;::,RAD:::.::::.O:::------ Project No. W-41-R-24 Work Pl.an No. 1 Job TLtle Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 17 --------------------------- Ma __n_i~p_u_l_a_t_i_o_n __o_f __v_e~g~e_t_a_t_i_o_n __o_n __B __i~g_h_o_rn S_h_e_e~p __R_an~g~e_s Period Covered: _ June 1, 1973 to May 31, 1974 Personnel: George Bear, Julius Klein, Judson Brown, Dale Stahlecker, William Adrian, llobert Keiss, Thomas Poj ar, .and Steve Steinert. ABSTRACT Study plots near Cathedral, Colorado were treated with varied applications of nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers, and 2,4-D herbicide in 1971-72. Two areas were selected for study sites: (a) c~ alpine range, and (b) a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass range. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at 0, 30, 60, and 90 lbs. per acre; phosphorous fertilizer at 0 and 30 Ibs. per acre; and 2,4-D herbicide at 0 and 2 Ibs. per acre. The effects of these treatment·s are being monitored. There were few changes in plant composition que to the nitrogen and phosphorous treatments. Chenopodium sp. increased on nitrogen plots. Herbicide treatments caused decreases in forbs and shrubs. The alpine plots did not measurably respond to any of the fertilizer treatments. On the lower study area herbage production generally increased with increased nitrogen rates. Production also increased with the addition of the herbicide. Plant species were collected and analyzed for protein, phosphorous, and calcium. On the lower area protein levels were higher in plants collected from the nitrogen-treated plots. These higher protein levels were maintained throughout the winter. Plant phosphorous and calcium levels appeared to be unaffected by the various treatments. The chemical content of the alpine plants were not obviously influenced by the fertilizer and herbicide treatments. Elk on the lower area exhibited a pronounced ~reference for the nitrogentreated plots. So few observations were made of deer and bighorn use of both study areas that no inferences of treatment preferences could be drawn. ��-19- MANIPULATION OF VEGETATION ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE Improve the herbage yield, vegetative density and vegetative selected bighorn sheep ra~ges in Colorado. composition on SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Alter the quality and quantity of forage on specific study areas with varied treatments of chemical fertilizers and herbicides. 2. Determine the effect of each treatment on the composition, and chemical content of plant species. 3. Determine grazing preferences to each treatment. of wild bighorns production, on the area with respect METHODS AND MATERIALS The study areas are located about 35 miles south of Gunnison, Colorado. This bighorn herd winters in two areas: in a low (8,000 feet elevation) bunchgrass and ponderosa pine type, and in a high (11,000-14,000 feet elevation) alpine type. This is the third year of a five-year study, therefore, the procedures outlined here are being used in a continuing study. The following work is being conducted on each winter range. 1. Bighorn preference and response of the vegetation was measured on plots treated with 2,4-D (herbicide), nitrogen, and phosphorus. Two levels of 2,4-D treatment (0 and 2 lbs./acre) 'were evaluated. Four levels of nitrogen treatment (0, 30, 60, and 90 lbs./acre); and two levels of phosphorous treatment (0 and 30 lbs. /acre) were examined. These we're evaluated in all possible combinations, or a 2x4x2 factorial for a total of 16 treatments, as outlined in the following table: Treatment Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 2,4-D 0 0 0 G 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Treatment Nitrogen 0 0 30 30 60 60 90 90 0 0 30 30 60 60 90 90 Phosphorus 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 �-20- Treatment plots, measuring 50 feet by 100 feet, have been established. Each plot corner was marked with a metal fence post. These markers were numbered to assist in identifying plots when bighorns are grazing on them. Each treatment was randomly r.eplicated 3 times on each study area. Each replication consisted of the 16 treatment plots listed on the preceding page. Plots in each replication were arranged in a rectangular area eight plots long and two plots deep. Randomized selection of each plot treatment was determined by using a table of random numbers. 2. Frequency sampling. Transects were established on each plot to determine changes in vegetative frequency which may result from the various treatments. Frequency (p) is defined p=m/n, where m is the number of quadrats containing a given species and n is the total number of quadrats observed in each treatment. Four transects were established in each plot. Transects paralleled the base of the plot with approximately 10-foot spacing between transects. A total of 15 quadrats are located at 6-foot intervals along each transect, or a total of 60 quadrats for each treatment plot. Preliminary sampling work indicated a quadrat size measuring l6x!6 inches should be used on the low winter range at Cebolla Creek; and a split-sampling scheme should be used on the Alpine Area. Two quadrat sizes are used on the alpine: Lxl, inch for measuring Trifolium nanum and Carex sp., and 8x8 inches for all other species. Frequency percentages were derived for all plant 3pecies encountered on the quadrats. To be considered as occurring on a given quadrat, the center of an individual plant or one-half of its basal area must be inside the quadrat. An "individual" for bunchgrasses was a clump; for single stem species, such as Western wheatgrass, it was individual stems; for cactus it was a lobe; and for shrubs and forbs it was the basal area of all stems. Obviously, these data are acceptable for determining changes in frequencies for each individual species only, and cannot be used to compare one species to another. These transects were read in June and July, when the vegetation was growing well, but before the crowns became so large they interfered with observations. Yield plots. Quanfity of forage produced on the treatment plots was determined by using a Neal Electronics Herbage meter. The herbage meter measures an area 24x12 inches x 18 inches, which is designated as yield plot. The 60 plots established on each treatment for the frequency plots above were also used for the yield plots. Obviously the 60 plots is considerably greater than the recommended numbers given above; however, the vegetation will be changing due to treatment and larger samples will be needed as variation increases. At every twelfth meter read plot, all vegetation was clipped and weighed. All green vegetation on these plots was clipped at the root crown and placed in a labeled paper sack. These samples were oven dried and weighed to the nearest gram. The weights were used to compute regression equations for converting herbage meter readings into pounds of forage per acre. Wire cages were placed on the study areas to monitor the effect of grazing on the. area. Cages measuring 3 feet by 3 feet by 1 foot high were placed on each area. Vegetation produced inside the cages (no grazing) was �-21- visually compared with vegetation produced on areas outside the cages (grazed areas) to get a general idea concerning effects of grazing. Photo points were established on each treatment. Photos were taken at the end of the growing season to establish visual records of changes occurring:in the vegetation due to various treatments. Chemical analysis. Vegetation samples of the most common plant species were collected from the treated areas. Samples were analyzed for phosphorus, calcium, and protein content. This work was done at the Fort Collins Research Center Laboratory. Since the study area is a bighorn winter range, the vegetation was sampled at the completion of the growing season, again in mid-winter, and in late winter. 3. Bighorn preference or selection of treatment plots was measured by recording number of bighorns on each treatment plot at IS-minute intervals during observation periods. Sex and age of the sheep, time of day, general activity of the animals, weather conditions, and snow depth (if present) were also recorded. Observations were made with a spotting scope during daylight hours. Sampling periods extended throughout the time the sheep occupied the winter range. Notations were also kept on other animals (deer or elk) that use the study plots. Records were kept on the snow depth on each treatment plot to relate to bighorn preference for given plots. The fence post plot corner markers provided permanent snow depth markers. RESUL7S AND DISCUSSION Fertilizer and herbid.de treatments were applied between the 1971 and 1972 growing seasons. Data presented here represent responses during two growing seasons. Monitoring Treated Plots Frequency Sampling Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots are presented in Tables 1 and 7.. Data from the three replications (180 sampling plots) were combined to give a single percentage-figure for each plant species within each level of treatment. This information is to be used to measure changes that occur in vegetation frequency due to the various treatments. To date, no measurable changes in plant composition are attributable to nitrogen and phosphorous treatments. There was one excep td.on , Chenopodium sp. on the Cebolla Creek area showed a marked increase on all nitrogentreated plots, with a greater increase on the higher treatments (90 lb. A.). Also, Arabis crandelli increased on all plots, irrespective of treatment. �-22- As might be expected, the herbicide treatments caused some changes on both areas. Artemisia·frigida and all shrubs on the Cebolla Creek area decreased following the herbicide application. The following species showed significant decreases on the Alpine Area: Androsace ~eptentrionalis, Artemisia scopulorum, Cerastium beeringianum, Erigerortpinnatisecta, Erigeron simplex, .~eum turbinatum, Phlox caespitosa, Potent ilIa concinna, Potentilla diversifolia, Silene acaulis, and Trifolium nanun. In some instances a few individual plants of the forbs persisted on herbicidetreated plots and were tallied during frequency sampling, but these survivors were generally of poor vigor and contributed little to the overall production on the plot. Yield Plots Relationships of herbage meter readings to herbage weights on the clip-plots are presented in Table 3. Many of the correlation coefficients are disappointingly low; however, when comparing the 1973 data with 1972 data it would appear the poor correlations between meter readings and actual weights is inherent in the plots themselves. Regression lines were plotted for each of the sixteen treatments. There were sufficient differences between these lines (apparently due to treatment) that it appeared these data should not be combined. Herbage production on control plots (treatment 0-0-0) has declined steadily on both study areas during the past three summers (Table 4). Data from two U. S. Weather Bureau Stations in the area also indicates a downward trend in total precipitation (Table 5). Data in Table 5 were computed on the basis of a period from September one year through August the next year, which corresponds more closely to the vegetative growing season. Production on treated plots showed a downward trend in 1971-1972, however, nearly all plots increased in 1973. This increase. is apparently due to fertilizer and herbicide treatments. Due to differences in potential production on the various plots and annual va~iations in production, figures in Table 4 were converted to a weighted percentage (Table 6). The following formula was used to compute percentages: b a x c Where: a = production b on control plot in 1971 production on control plot in year under inspection c = production 1971 on the treated plot in x = estimate of production for the treated plot in the year under inspection Then: x - d x - y Where: d actual measurement of production on the treated plot y percent variation from predicted production due to treatment �-23- Herbage production on treated plots on Cebolla Creek showed a marked increase from 1972 to 1973. In 1973 production responded to nitrogen fertilizer and herbicide, generally increasing with increased nitrogen rates; also production increased with the addition of the herbicide. Plant production did not respond to phosphorous fertilizer treatments. Plants on nitrogen treated plots started growth approximately 4 weeks earlier in spring:1973 than plants on surrounding untreated areas; also plants on the nitrogen plots were greener in color and more vigorous looking. A more rigorous analysis of the data are needed to adequately test treatment effects. The Alpine Study Area does not appear to be undergoing any noticeable changes in production readily related to treatment levels. Nearly all treated plots showed an increase in production from 1972 to 1973, whereas, the control plots decreased in production. Visually, the highnitrogen and phosphorus-treated plots were greener this year than in 1972. Perhaps the Alpine Area will require a longer period of time than the Cebolla Creek Study Area to respond to the treatments. Chemical Analysis Samples of the following plant species were collected from the Cebolla Creek Study Area and analyzed for protein, phosphorous, and calcium: Artemisia frigida, Muhlenbergia montana, Festuca arizonica, and Bouteloua gracilis (Tables 7-10). Samples were collected at three times during the winter, but only plants collected in the fall and mid-winter have been analyzed. Protein levels were higher in plants collected f~om nitrogen-treated plots. Plants collected from the 90-pound nitrogen treatments tended to be higher in protein than those from other nitrogen treated plots. This basic pattern persisted into mid-winter even as overall protein levels decreased. The 1973 data indicated lower protein levels in these plants than in 1972; however, the plants from the control plots also e~~ibited lower protein levels. Phosphorous and calcium levels in these plant species appeared to be unrelated to the various treatments. Fall samples were reasonably close to the 2:1 ratio (Ca:P) recommended as a minimum for domestic livestock; however, winter samples had considerably wider ratios. The 1973 data indicated Ca:P ratios nearer to a 1:1 ratio than the 1972 data, again the controls were also lower. The following plant species were collected from the Alpine Study Area for chemical analysis: Kobresia bellardi, Poa sp., Trifolium nanum, Oreoxis bakeri, and Geum turbinatum (Tables 11-15). The latter three species were collected in fall samples only. Protein level~: in Poa and Kobresia showed a minor increase on nitrogen-treated plots; but protein levels in forbs were unaffected by nitrogen treatments. However, these plants appeared to be affected by phosphorous treatments, because calcium:phosphorous ratios were lowered in all plant species. As on Cebolla Creek, the Ca:P ratio for Poa and Kobresia during mid-winter were well outside that recommended for livestock, which further points out the need for additional information on the basic nutritional requirements for bighorn sheep. �-24- Grazing Preferences Observations of animal preference during this segment was limited to elk and deer. No bighorn sheep were observed on the study areas, but tracks were observed. Trend cotmts conducted last summer indicated this bighorn herd decreased du~ing the previous year, and fewer sheep were seen in the vicinity of the study plots this winter. Only two rams were observed on the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area. Eighteen sheep were in close proximity to the Alpine Study Area in January. Then, all but six dispersed to surrotmding areas for the remainder of the winter. Approximately 50 percent of the alpine range had snow accumulations of six inches or less throughout the winter. This was largely due to high winds and light snowfalls. Therefore, bighorns were able to remain dispersed and in small groups. South-facing slopes on the lower Cebolla Creek Area remained free of deep snow accumulations throughout the winter. The only observed bighorn use on the Alpine Area was recorded on January 23. There had been a new snowfall (2-3 inches) during the night. Fresh tracks indicated a band of 18 sheep had moved across many of the plots on Replication 1 but the group had concentrated on the 90-30-0 plot, apparently feeding. During the remainder of the winter sheep were observed near the area but not actually on the plots. This may indicate the plots offered no pronounced attraction to bighorns. Elk on Cebolla Creek Area showed a definite preference for nitrogen-treated plots. It was difficult to accurately record deer and elk usage on the plots since they were most active during the nights. Most of the observations in Table 16 were recorded during March when the elk started feeding later into the daylight hours. The March data suggest elk preferred the 60 N plots, but by this time the 90 N plots had already been heavily grazed. Grazing behavior of elk on the plots was definitely related to treatment. Elk would move along with their noses to the ground, taking an occasional bite of forage tmtil they reached a plot treated with the higher (60-90 lbs.) levels of nitrogen. Then they would pause and begin grazing intensively. They would graze to the edge of the plot then abruptly turn about so as to continue grazing on the plot. Visual inspection of the Cebolla Creek plots in April also indicated definite preferences for nitrogen-treated plots. Untreated Arizona fescue plants were 10-14 inches tall, whereas the fescue plants treated with nitrogen were grazed down to 3-4 inch heights by spring. The boundary-line contrast was very pronotmced. Elk apparently are able to recognize and select nitrogen treated vegetation. Similar preferential foraging by bighorn sheep and deer was not obvious. Prepared by ~~c::P,~. ceorg£. Wildlife Bear Researcher �Table 1. Percent frequency of occurrence Species for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers Treatment. Pounds Per Acre. Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-30-0 30-0-0 21 16 13 13 1 21 3 19 20 54 5 58 48 3 61 45 2 67 - - 2 1 3 31 25 0-0-0 and herbicide, Cebolla Creek, 1973. 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 G~ Agropyron smith!i Bouteloua gracilis Carex sp. Danthonia Earryi Festuca arizonica Kocleria cristata Muhlcnbcrgia montana Muhlenhergia richardsoni Muhlcnbergia torreli OryzoEsis hymenoides Poa secunda Sitanion hystrtx Stipa ~ Unid. Grasses - - - 1 - - - - 1 2 42 - - - - - 8 6 3 13 9 16 8 12 15 51 7 53 72 2 75 46 0 43 49 3 58 52 -- - -6- 1 29· 2 20 - 2 1 27 - - -- - - -- - - 1 1 2 46 -- - - 57 16 6 1 44 1 76 57 1 67 1 1 2 - - -- -- - - 37 - - 28 5 2 - - 17 - . -- - 8 3 10 17 16 15 10 22 5 47 55 46 45 67 72 57 71 70 38 1 60 -- - 6 11 6 3 20 8 59 - - 22 - - --- 29 , 1 - 1 25 -- - 2 40 -- - 1 - 1 -- 42 - 1 - .1 1 50 -- \.II I Forbs Androsace sp. Arabis crandallii Cas t i lle j a sp. Chaenactis douglasii ChenoEodium sp. Erigeron sp. Eriogonum sp. Fragaria sp. Geranium sp. Heuchera sp. Hymenoxys richardsoni Lappu1a sp. ----- I N - 7 - 1 -1 - -- - - 3 1 7 1 2 8 1 - -- --- - --- - - - - - - 1 1 6 1 6 11 1 20 1 31 3 3 1 6 1 -- 1 1 1 7 -2 3 1 - 1 - 1 -7 -- --- 3 - - --- 1 1 2 - - 3 5 7 4 2 3 1 5 10 10 28 1 1 29 --- 1 --- 1 1 ----------------------- -- --2 �Table 1. Percent frequency Species ~ 0-0-0 of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers 0-30-0 30-0-0 --- 1 and herbicide, Treatment. Pounds Per Acre. Nitrosen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide 90-0-0- 90-30-0 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 Cebolla Creek, 1973 (continued). 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 - 1 1 - T 90-0-2 90-30-2 - 1 (continued) Lepidium montanum LeEtodactxlon Eungens Mertensia lanceo1ata Penstemon teucrioides Potentilla concinna Solidago decumbens Senecio mutabi1is Senecio sEartioides Smelowskia calycina Sphaeralcea coccinea Va1eriana edulis Unid. Forb-s---·- 3 3 2 - 1 -T -1 T 1 T 2 6 1 -- - 1 6 11 -- 1 - --- - 1 T 48 - 46 56 43 50 1 6 2 5 4 - T -- -- - - - T 5 12 1 - 16 -3 - 1 1 1 2 - - - - 1 - -6 - -T - - 1 - - T 1 1 1 1 - --- --- 31 33 - 43 1 - 3 3 T 60 48 40 1 1 2 - - - --- 1 1 T - -- '1- 1 - 2 40 32 32 1 - 25 1 - 2 1 1 -- T T ~ Artemisia frigida Artpmisin tridentata Chr~sothamnus ~ Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Echinocactus sp. Jamesii americana Rhus trilobata Ribes .£!!.!!!!! T -1 - T -- - ---- T 4 2 1 - T 31 T 5 T - 4 T 1 - --- T -- - -- - - - - T --- - - T T - - I N C1\ I �Table 2. Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers and herbicides, Species 0-0-0 0-30-0 30-0-0 13 4 6 2 Treatm~~tl Pounds Per Acrel Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 Alpine, 1973. 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 6 4 T 5 28 9-30-2 --Grasses 1 Agropyron scribneri 17 ~sp. Deschampsia caespitos8 8 Festuca ovina HelictotrICh'On T mortonianum 2 ~ sEicatum 63 .f2! sp. 21 Tr1setum spicatum 51 ~egi'l bellardi - 2 Achillea lanulosa Androsace seJ2tentrionalis 7 Arenar1a fendleri Artemisia scoJ2ulorum 41 ~ leJ2toseJ2a1a Castilleja occidentalis Castilleja rhexifolia Cerastium 17 beeringianum Erigeron J2innatisecta 10 5 Erigeron simJ2lex 8 Eritrichium elongatum Gentiana J2rostr~ 21 Geum turbinatum HaploEaEpus pygmaeus 2 Hj~enoxys grandif10ra 4 Hertensia ~ - - -2 - - - 14 3 22 1 T 51 12 27 3 37 -~ 1 1 I 9 4 - ---------------------------- - 7 22 - -. - 8 35 - T 2 2 2 15 4 4 5 12 2 5 10 11 2 7 22 24 4 1 4 25 T 3 2 - -4 - 17 3 61 3 59 - 7 2 T 2 T 9 9 T 6 2 T 17 25 1 6 3 6 T 70 21 37 - .,. - 9 3 69 15 54 - 2 -T 4 3 62 11 4~ - 53 3 62 - 3 3 56 5 42 - 51 23 56 4 3 66 15 52 - 17 T 53 T 32 - 4 7 27 23 12 8 66 7 51 -3 77 T 13 6 4 66 7 47 17 2 2 18 16 10 7 'I 7 ~5 7 67 13 56 18 ~ 8 6 12 - - 3 20 - - 8 5 2 12 3 23 2 1 1 7 6 36 T 14 4 7 T 9 7 9 - T - - 14 23 1 2 2 24 2 2 6 16 15 5 -3 26 2 6 - 28 4 2 - 4 3 - - - T - T 11 - 12 1 7 T -3 -3 8 4 2 - 1 10 4 1 - - 1 4 2 12 - - T 6 T ----------------------------- - - - 17 23 8 15 .,68 21 53 4 62 27 51 T 76 16 56 2 2 -- - 6 - 'I 1 24 T - 14 2 T 12 - 2 15 'I - - -- T T 18 T 25 1 11 3 2 7 - - 7 6 t T 5 1 8 'I 2 4 2 ~ -2 -3 2 - 2 6 - 4 4 7 i 6 --- •• N -...J • T 4 �Table 2. Percent frequency of occurrence Species ~ 0-0-0 0-30-0 for plant species on the study plots treated with fertilizers and herbicides, Alpine, 1973 (continued). 30-0-0 Treatment I Pounds Per Acrel Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide 30-30-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 47 50 62 61 83 64 - T 24 26 - 31 T 17 T 23 10 11 14 13 16 -- 11 7 3 30 1 3 - - 2 T -T 4 3 2 -- T --- 1 3 2 T (continued) Oreoxis bakeri 66 PedicularrsscoEulorum Phacelia sericea Phlox caespitosa 37 Podistera eastwoodae Polemonium viscosum 2 P01ygonum bistortoides 4 Polygonum viviEarum Potentilla concinna 24 Potentilla diversifolia T Potenti11a rubricaulls 11 Ranun cu Iua tnamoenus 3 ~l_frllen cerna Saxifraga chrysantha Saxifraga flngcllarls T Saxlfraga rhomboidea 22 Sedum stenonetalum SI'le'iie acau Lfs 12 ~skia cnlycina 21 Thalictrum alpinum 30 Thlaspi alEestre 1 Trifolium dasyphy11um 3 Trifolium nanum 36 Trifolium Earryl Unid. Forbs - - - - - Shrubs ~ niva11s 68 44 57 22 2 38 22 - 10 -- - -3 57 - 25 - 14 9 14 T 39 - 1 - 25 - 1 7 T 10 3 3 T 3 1 6 30 2 - 28 T - 28 16 - T 1 22 T T 22 24 -- T 29 - - T 13 2 11 21 11 T - 24 30 - - - - - - - 31 - 8 24 11 - 32 -- 59 61 57 - 21 - 35 38 - -7 1 26 2 2 - - 2 12 1 2 19 22 -- 23 - - - 58 - 24 T 43 - 26 53 22 11 14 T - - - - 4 2 12 - - 2 T - 4 1 33 - 23 2 8 9 8 T - 28 - 28 - T - T 8 T 30 10 1 - 26 16 - -- 1 17 2 4 - 10 - 21 6 1 13 T 3 14 16 - - - - - 20 14 13 7 14 22 - - -- - 14 T 9 4 12 5 11 - - --- T T --- -1 - 2 -- 21 3 T 16 21 T 6 T 12 2 11 15 29 14 14 17 11 1 3 19 2 T - - 1 T I N 00 I �-29- Table 3. Correlation coefficients (r) of herbage meter readings to oven-dry weights of forage on meter-read plots. Treatment Nitrogen-Phosphorqs Herbicide* Cebolla Creek 1972 1973 r r AlEine 1972 r 1973 r 0-0-0 .70 .84 .87 .68 0-30-0 .78 .54 .83 .83 30-0-0 .70 .83 .80 .78 30-30-0 .57 .34 .67 .66 60-0-0 .87 .86 .75 .88 60-30-0 .68 .68 .83 .90 90-0-0 .86 .70 .88 .92 90-30-0 .81 .72 .53 .69 0-0-2 .74 .70 .56 •76 0-30-2 .57 .74 .85 .67 30-0-2 .81 .82 .75 .63 30-30-2 .85 .56 .55 .52 ·60-0-2 .71 .65 .69 .56 60-30-2 .72 .75 .78 .68 90-0-2 .80 .67 .78 .79 90-30-2 .83 .79 .88 .82 * Treatment rates are in pounds per acre. �-30- Table 4. Herbage production (pounds per acre, dry weight) on the study areas. Treatments were applied following the 1971 growing season and prior to the 1972 growing season. Treatment .'1971 Al:eine 1972 1973 1971 Cebolla Creek 1972 1973 0-0-0 2158 1145 918 826 694 598* 0-30-0 2195 1663 1662 1455 627 872 30-0-0 848 1884 1270* 715 794 1743 ** 30-30-0 2665 1234 1030 825 757 683 60-0-0 1444 1155 2293** 1241 827 1739* 60-30-0 1758 1238 1336 998 774 1200** 90-0-0 1667 1055 1251 998 801 1357* 90-30-0 1077 1456 773* 860 699 1577** Mean 1726 1354 1316 990 734 1221 0-0-2 1934 871 1005* 998 577 1989** 0-30-2 1323 689 1234 1498 731 1538** 30-0-2 1247 837 1023 908 857 1657* 30-30-2 1051 841 845 1009 999 1148 60-0-2 1308 915 949 708 770 1639* 60-30-2 1178 1024 1134 917 908 1707* 90-0-2 1678 1023 999 1235 797 1194** 90-30-2 1562 1496 2312** 998 697 1905** Mean 1410 962 1188 1034 792 1597 1973 production was significantly ** 90% level); paired - T test. different from the 1972 production (*95% level, �-31- Table 5. Climatological data reported by the U. S. Weather Bureau. Average temperatures and total annual precipitation was computed for a period from September through August each year. Year Sampling Station 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 temperature 36.4 36.7 37.4 35.4 Total precipitation 13.8 11.6 8.9 12.3 37.6 34.9 10.2 12.6 Cochetopa Creek Average Lake City Average Temperature 38.6 Total precipita.tion 20.4 14.9 �-32- Table 6. Percent change in herbage production on the study plots computed from the base-year (1971) and the control-plots each year. Treatment N - P - H Cebolla Creek 1972 1973 AlEine 1972 1973 0-30-0 .-49 -17 42 78 30-30-0 9 14 13 9 60-30-0 - 8 66 33 79 90-30-0 - 3 153 155 69 0-30-2 -42 42 - 2 120 30-30-2 18 57 51 89 60-30-2 18 159 64 126 90-30-2 -17 164 80 248 30-0-0 32 237 319 57 60-0-0 -21 94 51 273 90-0-0 - 4 88 19 77 0-0-2 -31 137 -15 24 30-0-2 12 152 26 93 60-0-2 29 220 32 71 90-0-2 -23 34 15 40 �-33- Table 7. Chemical analysis of Festuca arizonica Creek study area, 1973-7L;-. Treatment N - P - H Protein collected c:;ollection Date and Anallsis SeEtember Ca:P Phose Calcium Ratio Protein on the Cebolla (Percent2 J'anuarl Phose Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 5.9 .15 .19 1. 3:1 2.2 .05 .22 4.4:1 0-30-0 6.2 .19 .20 1.1:1 2.4 .05 .30 6.0:1 30-0--0 7.2 .17 .20 1.2:1 2.6 .04 .24 6.0:1 30-30-0 8.5 .18 .28 1. 6:1 3.0 .05 .28 5.6:1 60-0-0 10.4 .17 .20 1.2:1 3.5 .07 .20 2.9:1 60-30-0 9.4 .17 .25 1.5:1 3.9 .05 .34 6.8:1 90-0-0 8.7 .12 .18 1.5:1 4.3 .05 .35 7.0:1 90-30-0 10.8 .16 .26 1.6:1 6.2 .07 .25 3.6:1 0-0-2 6.4 .18 .24 1.3:1 1.8 .04 .19 4.8:1 0-30-2 7.4 .16 .21 1.3:1 1.8 .05 .18 3.6:1 30-0-2 8.0 .15 .30 2.0:1 2.2 .05 .29 5.8:1 30-30-2 8.6 .18 .30 1. 7:1 2.6 .06 .30 5.0:1 60-0~2 9.5 .17 .20 1.2 :1 3.2 .04 .34 8.5:1 60-30-2 8.4 .16 .25 1. 6:1 3.4 .05 .29 5.8:1 90-0-2 11.9 .18 .31 1. 7:1 4.8 .05 .31 6.2:1 90-30-2 12.3 .20 .31 1.6:1 4.4 .05 .29 5.8:1 �-34- Table 8. Chemical analysis of Boute1oua Creek study area, 1973-74. gracilis collected on the Cebolla Treatment N - P - H Protein Collection Date and Ana1l:sis (Percent) SeEtember Januarl: Ca:P Phos. Calcium Ratio Protein Phos. Calcium 0-0-0 12.3 .18 .46 2.6:1 0-30-0 9.8 .23 .50 2.2:1 30-0-0 12.0 .13 .46 30-30-0 10.1 .18 60-0-0 11.4 .17 Ca:P Ratio 3.5 .07 .41 5.9:1 3.5:1 5.4 .07 .40 5.7:1 .64 3.6:1 4.2 .06 .54 9.0:1 .54 3.2:1 5.0 .06 .35 5.8:1 4.2 .06 .58 9.7:1 60-30-0 90-0-0 12.3 .15 .58 3.9:1 7.1 .07 .41 5.9:1 90-30-0 14.9 .22 .50 2.3:1 5.8 .06 .45 7.5:1 0-0-2 9.2 .16 .58 3.6:1 3.9 .06 .40 6.7:1 0-30-2 9.3 .20 .57 2.9:1 3.8 .05 .42 8.4:1 30-0-2 12.7 .15 .64 4.3:1 5.1 .05 .45 9.0:1 30-30-2 11.5 .19 .46 2.4:1 5.1 .06 .45 7.5:1 60-0-2 15.0 .15 .64 4.3:1 6.2 .07 .41 5.9:1 60-30-2 14.7 .20 .60 3.0:1 5.4 .08 .47 5.9:1 90-0-2 14.1 .16 .55 3.4:1 6.7 .07 .51 7.3:1 90-30-2 14.0 .24 .51 2.1:1 6.4 .06 .42 7.0:1 �-35- Table 9. Chemical analysis of Mublenbergia Creek study area, 1973-74. .. Treatment N - P - H Protein montana collected on the Cebolla Collection Date and Anal~sis (Percent) SeEtember Janua!1 Ca:P Phose Calcium Ratio Protein Phose Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 4.2 .13 .37 2.8:1 2.1 .07 .31 4.4:1 0-30-0 6.8 .15 .36 2.4:1 2.3 .05 .31 6.2:1 30-0-0 8.6 .11 .31 2.8:1 3.3 .05 .29 5.8:1 30-30-0 8.2 .06 .34 5.7:1 2.5 .04 .35 8.8:1 60-0-0 9.9 .10 .35 3.5:1 3.8 .05 .28 5.6:1 60-30-0 8.9 .12 .33 2.8:1 4.8 .05 .36 7.2:1 90-0-0 9.6 .11 .31 2.8:1 5.2 .05 .38 7.6:1 90-30-0 10.6 .13 .40 3.1:1 4.5 .06 .29 4.8:1 0-0-2 7.9 .14 .29 2.1:1 3.0 .05 .30 6.0:1 0-30-2 7.3 .12 .40 3.3:1 2.7 .05 .31 6.2:1 30-0-2 9.9 .13 .33 2.5:1 2.7 .04 .34 8.5:1 30-30-2 9.0 .12 .31 2.6:1 2.4 .04 .31 7.8:1 60-0-2 10.0 .13 .46 3.5:1 3.3 .05 .40 8.0:1 60-30-2 8.4 .12 .30 2.5:1 4.2 .05 .35 7.0:1 90-0-2 10.0 .13 .43 3.3:1 6.4 .05 .42 8.4:1 90-30-2 10.9 .15 .43 2.9:1 4.2 .04 .42 10.5:1 �-36- Table 10. Chemical analysis of Artemisia Creek study area, 1973-74. frigida collected on the Cebolla Treatment N - P - H Protein Collection Date and Ana1~sis (Percent) SeEtember Januar~ Ca:P Phos. Calcium Ratio Protein Phos. Calcium 0-0-0 11. 0 .23 .54 2.3:1 6.4 .13 .58 4.5:1 0-30-0 9.8 .27 .54 2.0:1 5.8 .16 .64 4.0:1 30-0-0 11.8 .23 .64 2.8:1 7.8 .15 .55 3.7:1 30-30-0 13.6 .30 .55 1.8:1 6.8 .12 .73 12.0:1 60-0-0 14.2 .25 .58 2.3:1 8.0 .12 .54 4.5:1 60-30-0 11.8 .21 .53 2.5:1 7.8 .11 .74 6.7:1 90-0-0 15.8 .26 .45 1. 7:1 8.4 .10 .53 5.3:1 90-30-0 15.4 .30 .58 1. 9:1 9.2 .13 .68 5.2:1 Ca:P Ratio �-37- Table 11. Chemical analysis of Kobresia be11ardi collected on the Alpine study area, 1973-74. Treatment N - P - H Protein Collection Date and Analx:sis (Percent) SeEtember Januarx: Ca:P Pho s , Calcium Ratio Protein Phos. Calcium 0-0-0 14.1 .15 .53 3.5:1 5.3 .06 .65 10.8:1 0-30-0 14.4 .22 .53 2.4:1 5.3 .06 .75 12.5:1 30-0-0 15.3 .24 .58 2.4:1 6.7 .10 .70 7.0:1 30-30-0 14.2 .21 .54 2.6:1 7.4 .10 .71 7.1:1 60-0-0 14.6 .13 .53 4.1:1 9.3 .08 .71 8.9:1 60-30-0 17.2 .24 .46 1. 9:1 5.9 .07 .70 10.0:1 90-0-0 17.0 .28 .61 2.2:1 6.1 .06 .75 12.5:1 90-30-0 16.2 .28 .55 2.0:1 8.6 .10 .78 7.8:1 0-0-2 16.2 .16 .51 3.2:1 7.2 .06 .65 10.8:1 0-30-2 14.8 .23 .46 2.0:1 6.8 .06 .46 7.7:1 30-0-2 16.2 .20 .50 2.5:1 6.3 .08 .66 8.3:1 30-30-0 14.4 .24 .46 1. 9:1 5.7 .10 .63 6.3:1 60-0-2 15.8 .18 .50 2.8:1 6.4 .08 .66 8.3:1 60-30-2 12.6 .24 .46 1. 9:1 7.5 .06 ."13 12.6:1 90-0-2 15.6 .19 .58 3.1:1 6.7 .05 .75 15.0:1 90-30-2 15.2 .25 .46 1. 8:1 8.2 .10 .65 6.5:1 Ca:P Ratio �-38- Table 12. Chemical analysis of Poa sp. collected on the. Alpine Study Area, 1973-74. Collection Date and Ana1~sis ~Percent) SeEtember Januar~ Ca:P Ratio Phos. Calcium Protein Phos. Calcium Treatment N - P - H Protein 0-0-0 10.2 .15 .38 2.5:1 3.0 .03 .61 20.3:1 0-30-0 12.8 .26 .35 1. 3:1 4.4 .07 .41 5.9:1 30-0-0 10.6 .15 .30 2.0:1 4.5 .04 .47 11.8:1 30-30-0 11.6 .22 .28 1. 3:1 4.7 60-0-0 12.4 .15 .38 2.5:1 5.1 .03 .53 17.7:1 60-30-0 19.4 .29 .40 1.4:1 5.5 .06 .53 8.8:1 90-0-0 12.0 .20 .31 1.6:1 5.2 .03 .58 19.3:1 90-30-0 11.0 .25 .28 1.1:1 4.6 .04 .51 12.8:1 0-0-2 12.4 .15 .38 2.5:1 4.7 .03 .63 21.0:1 0-30-2 15.0 .25 .46 1.8:1 5.6 .05 .61 12.2:1 30-0-2 13.4 .14 .36 2.6:1 5.2 .05 .65 13.0:1 30-30-2 13.0 .23 .29 1. 3:1 5.0 .04 .58 14.5:1 60-0-2 13.4 .16 .38 2.4:1 6.3 .06 .58 9.7:1 60-30-2 17.4 .29 .38 1.3:1 6.6 .03 .53 17.7:1 90-0-2 17.6 .19 .34 1.8:1 5.8 .05 .55 11.0:1 90-30-2 14.4 .26 .26 1.0:1 Ca:P Ratio .46 �-39- Table 13. Chemical analysis of Trifolium Study Area, September, 1973. nanum collected on the Alpine Protein Ana1xsis ~Percent) Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 20.0 .23 2.20 9.6:1 0-30-0 19.8 .28 2.32 8.3:1 30-0-0 19.2 .24 2.34 9.8:1 30-30-0 19.4 .25 2.20 8.8:1 60-0-0 18.6 .23 2.25 9.8:1 60-30-0 19.2 .30 2.30 7.7:1 90-0-0 18.8 .26 2.30 8.8:1 90-30-0 19.6 .27 2.35 8.7:1 Table 14. Chemical analysis of Ore ox is bakeri collected Study Area, September, 1973. on the Alpine Treatment N - P - H Protein Ana1xsis ~Percent~ Phosphorus Calcium Ca:p Ratio 0-0-0 16.2 .24 1.05 4.4:1 0-30-0 15.8 .31 1.13 3.6:1 30-0-0 14.4 .25 1.05 4.2:1 30-30-0 15.0 .30 1.08 3.6:1 60-0-0 15.4 .26 1.38 5.3:1 60-30-0 15.4 .34 .90 2.6:1 90-0-0 16.0 .25 1.05 4.2:1 90-30-0 14.4 .27 1.00 3.7:1 Treatment N - H - H �-40- Table 15. Chemical analysis ofGeum Study Area, September~ 1973. ttirbirtatumcollected on the Alpine Protein Analxsis (Percent~ Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 13.2 .21 .80 3.8:1 0-30-0 12.8 .22 .90 4.1:1 30-0-0 11.0 .19 1.05 5.5:1 30-30-0 12.6 .23 1.05 4.6:1 60-0-0 11.6 .19 .88 4.6:1 60-30-0 17.0 .28 .83 3.0:1 90-0-0 13.4 .21 .99 4.7:1 90-30-0 12.6 .19 .88 4.6:1 Treatment N - P - H Table 16. Number of bighorn sheep, deer, and elk observed grazing on the Cebolla Creek Study Area during the period January - May, 1974. Treatment N - P - H 0-0-0 Ewes Bighorn Sheep Lambs Rams Total Elk No. Deer No. 7 1 0-30-0 30-0-0 30-30-0 60-0-0 13 60-30-0 6 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 1 2 30-0-2 30-30-2 5 60-0-2 60-30-2 17 90-0-2 3 90-30-2 3 �-41January JO~ PROGRESS Sta.te of Project REPORT CO:::.=.:LO:::::.::I<AD=:..::O~---- Job Title Job No. 1 Trapping, Covered: P.ersonnel: Bighorn Sheep & Mountain W-41-R-24 No. Work Plan No. Period 1975 Marking, and Collecting Goat Investigations ~2~1~ _ Bighorn Lambs June 1, 1973 to April 30, 1974. R. L. Schmidt, J. Rodgers, J. Morris, P. Neil, and T. Spraker. ABSTRACT Eight bighorn lambs were collected for necropsy and histopathological studies of lungworm infection. Results of the necropsy ani histopathological investigations are included under the Work Plan 1, Job CONTRACT Progress Report submitted by Colorado State University. ��-43- TRAPPING, MARKING, AND COLLECTING BIGHORN SHEEP Robert L. Schmidt P. S. OBJECTIVE To trap or collect bighorn sheep for adding to the captive flock at Little Hills Experiment Station, for obtaining nasal swabs and blood samples, for marking and treatment with therapeutic drugs, or (in the case of a dead animal collection) for necropsy examination. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Collect bighorn lambs at intervals and locations prescribed agreement. 2. Trap an indefinite number (as many as can reasonably handled) of bighorn sheep of all age classes. by contractual be caught and! or METHODS AND MATERIALS From June 1 to August 15, 1973, 7 bighorn sheep lambs were collected by shooting from Pikes Peak ewes. Attempts were made to shoot all lambs in the neck. to minimize damage to tissues and organs of interest. Lambs were collected only from ewes without collars so that data concerning parasitology and pathology were not biased by drug treatments. Trapping and marking procedures Progress Report. are described in the Work Plan 1, Job 22 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From June 3 to August 14, 1973, 8 bighorn sheep lambs were necropsied from the Pikes Peak sheep herd. Seven of these lambs were shot and 1 was found approximately 12 hours after it had died. Four of the lambs were males and 4 were females. Three were collected in June, 4 in July, and 1 in August (Table 1). All 8 lambs had numerous first stage lungworm larvae (Protostrongylus stilesi) in their lungs upon examination. A more detailed summary of lamb necropsy results are presented in Work Plan 1, Job CONTRACT report. Summaries of the trapping and tagging results are presented Job 22 Progress Report. Prepared by Robert L. Schmidt Sr. Conservation Aide in Work Plan 1, �Table 1. Dates and locales of collection, sex, ages, and weights of bighorn lambs, collected from Pikes Peak, June-August 1973. Lamb Number Collection Date Collection Locale Sex Weight (Lbs.) Estimated Age (Wks.) 3-1/2 - 4 18 73-BHL·ll 6-03-73 N. side Bison Reservoir F 73-BHL-12 6-19-73 E. face W. Beaver Creek M 4 - 5 23 73-BHL-13 6-28-73 E. side W. Beaver Creek F 6 - 7 26 73-BHL-14 7-12-73 W. face W. Beaver Creek F 8 - 9 32 73-BHL-15 7-24-73 Pikes Peak Toll Road below gravel pits M 8 - 10 34 " I 73-BHL-16 7-26-73 Pikes Peak Toll Road below Boulder Park M 8 - 10 28 73-BHL-17* 7-26-73 E. side Pikes Peak Summit M 8 - 10 21 73-BHL-19 8-14-73 Cog Rail near Pikes Peak Swmnit F 10 - 12 36 * Found dead. I .p.p- �-45- January 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ..::;CO;:..LO=RAOO=~----Bighorn Sheep W-41-R-24 Project No. Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Monitoring Period Covered: June 1, 1973 - May 31, 1974 Personnel: & Mountain Goat Investigations 22 ---------------------------- Bighorn Sheep Populations Robert L. Schmidt, Gene G. Schoonveld, Terry Spraker, and R. Bruce Gill. ABSTRACT Bighorn sheep numbers in the Four Mile area of Pikes Peak. were estimated using a simple Lincoln index. The Lincoln index estimated the population at 43 bighorn sheep (31 < 60; p>. 95). Ground counts indicated a population of about 45 animals. Age and sex composition counts during the period Nov. 15, 1973 _ April 15, 1974, indicated 11.5 percent of the Pikes Peak population were adult rams, 0.9 percent were yearling rams, 82.3 percent were adult ewes, 0.2 percent were yearling ewes and 5.1 percent were lambs. N.s.. Ratios of lambs:100 adult ewes of bighorn sheep treated witlt chemotherapeutic drugs were nearly double those of untreated sheep (49 lambs:lOO adult ewes vs· 25 lambs:lOO adult ewes). �-48- Lambs Lambs were distinguished pr:lmarily on the basis of their diminutive size. At approximately 6 months, lambs are about one-half the size of an adult female and have the characteristic facial features of a young animal (Fig. 1). Yearling Females Yearling females resemble adult females except they are not as large (approximately 27 inches at the shoulder at 1 year) and they retain a juvenile short face. They differ from yearling males in appearance in that yearling females appear thin and sleek-looking with a long thin neck and slim legs. Horns of yearling ewes are approximately 5-7 inches long and are thin and sharp pointed (Fig. 2). Yearling Rams This age class of bighorns is most easily misidentified as an adult ewe. Yearling rams differ from adult ewes by having shorter noses shaped more like that of a lamb. The nose appears triangular compared to the long nose of an adult ewe. Horn bases are slightly wider and longer and horns are more divergent than those of adult ewes. According to Geist (1971) yearling rams differ from adult ewes behaviorially by using the ram urinating posture, courting females, and lip curling ov~r female urine (Fig. 3). Adult Ewes Adult ewes measure approximately 34 inches at the shoulder. Horns are nearly 6-7 inches in length and appear smaller'and are less divergent than yearling ram horns. The nose appears long and slim. Adult ewes range in weight from 120-200 pounds. This is the most frequently observed class of mountain sheep (Fig. 2)., Adult Rams Adult rams are noticeably larger th&~ adult ewes or yearling rams. Horns appear larger and more massive than any other class of sheep. Body conformation has a blocky appearance. Horn configuration varies between 1/2 to full curl or better in exceptional rams. Testes are obvious. The body color varies with age, but generally adult rams are darker and have less white on the belly and rear margins of the front legs than adult ewes (Fig. 3). Since these sex and age criteria are entirely subjective, their reliability is unknown in the absence of objective tests on populations of known sex and age composition. Smith (1954) questioned the reliability of distinguishing yearlings (particularly yearling rams) from adult ewes, especially during the spring-summer months (March - August). Because these classification criteria are subjective the data herein sUDllitarized may just as readily reflect observer biases as real population composition. �-49- Lamb - 6 Weeks r3JY r31lI Age in 8-16 6-6 years (Geist 1971) r3I 2,5 0r.egrling (ffy.J 1,5 ~ ~ yearling ts») 1.5 Lamb. 0,5 (from Geist 1971) Fig. 1. Comparisons of body sizes, horn and face characteristics the various sex and age classes of bighorn sheep. of �-50- Adult Ewe (Moser 1962) 3 Ewes and 3 Yearling Rams (Geist 1971) Fig. 2. rams. 19 Mo. Yearling Ewe (Geist 1971) Adult Ewe and 4 Young Rams (Geist 1971) Comparisons of adult ewes, yearling ewes, yearling rams and young �-51- Adult Ram (Geist 1971) 22 Mo. Yearling Ram (Geist 1971) Ie Mo. Yearling (Smith 1954) Fig. 3. Comparisons of adult rams and yearling rams. Ram �-52- In addition to potential observer bias, there is a sampling deficiency. Data were gathered by traveling in a vehicle, on horseback, or afoot. No serious attempt was made to sample different sex and age categories by stratifying the sampling effort according to known or suspected differences in distribution of the various sex and age classes. Smith (1954) reported mature rams were --- "consistently less 'observable' than females and juveniles"---except possibly during the fall rutting season and early winter period when rams closely associated with groups of ewes and young sheep. Another potential bias exists in early to mid-summer (June and July) lamb: adult ewe ratios. During this period lambs are occasionally seen with a single ewe while actual mothers of these lambs may be as much as 1 mile distant from their lambs. This tendency for adult ewes to "baby-sit" lambs of other adult ewes could result in unrealistically high or low ratios of lambs:adult ewes depending upon the frequency with which one encountered the ewes-only groups or the "baby-sitting" groups. All of the aforementioned potential biases should be carefully considered befora conducting bighorn sheep classification surveys. Trapping ~id Drug Treatment Bighorn sheep were trapped on four areas on Pikes Peak: the Beaver site, the Tunnel site, the Cog Rail site, and the 4 Mile site (Fig. 4). These sheep were trapped with a modified version of the drop-net trap described by Erickson (1970) us.lng apple pulp mash as a bait. Captured bighorns were marked with colored neckbands lrith individually identifi.able symbols and numbers (Table 1). Each bighorn captured was also treated with a single injection of a candidate chemotherapeutic drug for lungworm control. Five drugs were used (thiabendazole, dichlorvious, cambendazole, tramisol, and diethylcarbamizine), the color of the collar denoting the particular drug tested (Table 1). Ewe:lamb ratios of, treated and untreated groups of sheep were used to compare the effectiveness of drug treatments. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bi.ghorn Sheep Numbers Estimating numbers of bighorn sheep populations is difficult under the most favorable circumstances. On Pikes Peak the availability and observability of marked bighorn sheep provided an opportunity to experiment with capture-recapture techniques for estimating population numbers. An example of the potential of this approach was afforded from data on the Four Mile bighorn sheep herd on Pikes Peak. This bighorn herd remained fairly discrete from other Pikes Peak bi.ghorn herds during the 1973-74 winter. Repeated counts placed the number of sheep m this group at approximately 45 animals. On April 4, 1973, 15 bighorn sheep were trapped and fitted with individually recognizable collars. During the period December 12, 1973 to April 11, 1974, 113 observations of bighorn sheep were recorded, of which 39 were observations of collared sheep. �•• I • I t' ", I •• I I • I •• I •• ·.W;" •• ~ 1 ~ 11-( .... 1_' _ .~~~I .. _ 1 I 0/ 1 " JJi r n .... I • • •• •• I !I I 10 \ .. !'.' /l ~:"'<X>3' I /,.<j ffit;' . 1 · ~ ;;/ , J!~ ·1":"" 1.. ' • ., /VA --- , I!~ I ) , .,.-~~r.."/ ~ I V1 1,.0.) I - •• • Fig. 4. Bighorn sheep trapping areas, Pikes Peak 1973-74, (1) Beaver site, (2) Cog Rail, (3) Tunnel site, and (4) 4-Hile. �-54- Table 1. Bighorn sheep trapped, marked and treated on Pikes Peak from February - April 1974. Date Collar and Number Age Location of Capture Treatment Bighorn Rams Captured on Pikes Peak 2-5 2-15 2-21 2-21 2-21 3-20 4-4 4-9 Lamb 5 Yrs.* 1 Yr.* 6 Yrs. 6 Yrs. 1 Yr. 1 Yr. 5 Yr. Eartag 084 White. 1 Eartag 090 White. 7 W!.lite. 8 Eartag 089 Pink BS White. 1 Beaver Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Camb 115 cc only Camb 270 cc only Triben 60 cc only Triben 120 cc only Triben 120 cc only Rec. Lost 090, New 089 Camb 70 cc Rec. - Tram 10 cc Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pikes Peak with Blue Collars 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 3-12 3-12 4-10 4-12 4-12 4-12 6 or 7* 6 or 7 5 or 6* 5 or 6*** 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 Blue. 1 Blue. 2 Blue 3 Blue. 4 Blue.ll Blue.12 Blue. 5 Blue. 6 BJ_uee 7 Blue. 8 Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Cog Rail Cog Rail 4 Mile 4 Mile 4 Mile 4 Mile Triben Triben Triben Triben Triben Trioen Triben Triben Triben Triben 120 cc - Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc - Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc _ Diethy 3. 75 mg 120 cc _ Diethy 3. 75 mg Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pikes Peak with Yellow Collars 2-5 2-5 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-15 3-1 3-1 3-1 3-20 3-20 3-20 3-20 3-20 3-20 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 2 Yrs. 6 Yrs. 6 or 7 Yrs. 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7** 6 or 7 5 or 6* 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7* 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 Yellow. 1 Yellow 2 Yellow 3 Yellow. 4 Yellow 5 Yellow. 6 Yellow. 7 Yellow. 8 Yellow. 9 YellowO 11 Ye 11owe 12 Yellow 13 Yellow 14 Yellow. 15 Yellow. 16 Yellowe17 Yellow. 18 Yellow. 19 Yellow. 20 Yellow. 21 Beaver Beaver Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail 4 Mile 4 Mile 4 Mile 4 Mile 4 Mile Task Task Task Task Task TaGk Task Task Task Task Task Task Task Task Task Task Task 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg 120 mg Task 120 mg Task 120 mg Task 120 mg �-55- Table 1. Bighorn sheep trapped, marked and treated on Pikes Peak from February - April 1974 (continued). Date Collar and Number Age Location of Capture Treatment Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pikes Peak with Red or Orange Collars 2-5 2-15 2-15 3-15 3-15 3-25 Lamb 6 or 7 Yrs. 6 or 7* 5 or 6 6 or 7 4 4-4 8 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-10 4-10 4-10 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 5 Eartag (RE) 081 Orange. 4 Orange. 5 Orange. 2 Orange. 6 Blue 6 with Yellow Patch**** Red 9 with Yellow Patch**** Red. 1 Red. 6 Red. 3 Red. 5 Red. 7 Red. 8 Blue 1 with Yellow Patch**** Beaver Tunnel Tunnel Cog Rail Cog Rail 4 Mile Camb8J cc - Diethy Camb 270 cc - Diethy Camb 270 cc - Diethy Camb 270 cc - Diethy Camb 270 cc - Diethy Camb 270 cc - Diethy Cog Rail Camb 270 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail 4 Mile 4 Mile 4 Mile Camb Camb Camb Camb Camb Camb Camb 270 cc - Diethy 270 cc - Diethy 270 cc - Diethy 270 cc - Diethy 270 cc - Diethy 270 cc - Diethy 270 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg Bighorn Ewes Captured on Pikes Peak with White Collars 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 3-25 6 or 7* 5 or 6* 6 or 7* 6 or 7* 6 or 7* 6* 3-25 6* 4-4 7 4-12 5 White. 2 White. 3 White. l+ White. 5 White. 6 White 16 with Yellow Patch**** White 17 with Yellow Patch**** White lR8 with Yellow Patch**** White 15 with Yellow Patch Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel Tunnel 4 Mile Tram Tram Tram Tram Tram Tram 4 Mile Tram 10 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg Cog Rail Tram 10 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg 4 Mile Tram 10 cc .-Diethy 3.75 mg 10 cc - Diethy 10 cc - Diethy 10 cc - Diethy 10 cc - Diethy 10 cc - Diethy 10 cc - Diethy 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg 3.75 mg Other Bighorn Sheep Captured on Pikes Peak (Ewes) 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 3-1 3-1 6 or 6 or 5 or 5 or 6 or 6 or 8 7 Yrs. 7 6 6 7 7 5 or 6 White/Red Blue. 4 7 Beaver Beaver Beaver Beaver Beaver Beaver Tunnel Tunnel To Fort Collins To Fort Co l.I ins To Fort Call ins To Fort Collins Net Loss Net Loss Net Loss Rec. - No Treatment ----------------------------_._----------------------------------------------------- �-56- Table 1. Bighorn sheep trapped, marked and treated on Pikes Peak from February - April 1974 (continued). Date Collar and Number Age Location of Capture Treatment Other Bighorn Sheep Captured on Pikes Peak (Ewes) (Continued) 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-20 3-20 3-20 4-4 4-4 4-4 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-12 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 6 or 7 6 or 7 6 or 7 5 or 6 6* 4-12 6* Blue.4 White. 6 3lue • 1 Yellow. 7 Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail Cog Rail 4 Mile Yellow.13 Yellow. 9 Blue e· 3 Wllite e 4 White.5 White. 3 White 2 Yellow. 7 Orange. 5 Blue. 4 White 16 with Yellow Patch**** White 17 with 4 Mile Yellow Patch**** e Rec. - Triben 120 cc Rec. - Tram 10 cc To Fort Collins To Fort Collins To Fort Collins Rec. - Triben 70 cc Rec. - No Treatment Net Loss Rec. - No Treatment Rec. - No Treatment Rec. - Triben 120 cc Rec. - Tram 10 cc Rec. - Tram 10 cc Rec. - Tram 10 cc Rec. - Tram 10 cc Rec. - No Treatment Rec. - Camb 270 cc Rec. - Triben 70 cc Rec. - No Treatment Rec. - No Treatment Other Bighorn Sheep Captured 45 bighorns were captured in South Dakota. 24 rams and 2 ewes were brought to Fort Col11lls. 6 yearlings were sent to University of South Dakota. 13 sheep were marked and released in South Dakota. Other Bighorn Sheep Treated Feb. 1, 1973 18 sheep were treated on Rampart Range. Mar. 1, 1973 15 sheep were treated on Rampart Range. Apr. 3, 1973 12 sheep were treated on Rampart Range. All of the Rampart Range sheep were treated with 270 cc Camb in apple pulp. *Recaptured ~ ** Recaptured in 1974. twice in 1974. *** Recaptured three times in 1974. **** Caught in 1973 and again in 1974. Triben Task Camb Tram Die thy Thiabendazole Dichlorvious Cambendazo1e Tramiso1 Diethy1carbamzine �-57- A A simple Lincoln index was constructed so that N = A nM where: N is an x estimate of the size of the bighorn sheep population; n is the total number of bighorn sheep observations during the sample period; M is the total number of collared sheep in the population; and x is the number of collared bighorn sheep observations "'" . during the sample period (Overton 1971). In this particular case: N = 113 x 15 = 43 bighorn sheep in the Four Mile population. 39 Confidence limits of this estimate are defined by the furmula: '"N A N L' U = nM (x+2) ±\J x A x+l A N ,N L U Again in this particular case: 2 113 x 15 (4l) ±'.J 40 1,695 (.0353; .0186) or 392 P = .95 that 3l~ N~60. This simple model serves only to illustrate the potential utility of a capture-recapture index for estimating bighorn sheep numbers. This potential should be explored further. Age and Sex Composition Based upon a sample of 516 observations of bighorn sheep during the period November 15, 1973 to April 15, 1974 the age and sex composition of bighorn sheep on Pikes Peak was estimated to be: 11.5 percent adult rams, 0.9 percent yearling rams, 82.3 percent adult ewes, 0.2 percent yearling ewes, and 5.1 percent lambs. The ratio of 1ambs:lOO adult ewes was only 6:100 and the ratio of yearlings:lOO adult ewes was only 1:100. Even considering the potential biases mentioned before, the lamb and yearling survival on Pikes Peak is extremely low. With ratios of this magnitude severe population declines of bighorn sheep on Pikes Peak are inevitable. The ratios of adult rams:lOO adult ewes declined on Pikes Peak from 82:100 in 1972-73 to 14:100 in 1973-74. Observations of collared rams indicated only 20 percent of those rams present in 1972-73 were accounted for in 1973-74. It was hypothesized that most of this decline was attributable to migrations of adult rams from the Pikes Peak area. Trapping and Drug Treatment During the period February 5 - April 12, 1974, 99 bighorn sheep were captured, marked, treated with drugs, and released on Pikes Peak (Table 1). Eighteen of these sheep were recaught from 1 to 3 times during this period and 8 sheep were originally trapped in 1973 and recaught in 1974. In addition, 45 bighorns were captured in South Dakota, 26 of which were transported to Fort Collins for experimental lungworm control research, 6 were shipped to the University of South Dakota, and 13 were marked and released at the capture site in South Dakota. Approximately 45 sheep were treated with cambendazole in the Rampart Range by mixing cambendazole in apple pulp mash and offering it ad libitum. Each sheep received an estimated 270 cc of the drug. �-58- The effects of drug treatment upon lamb survival of wild bighorn sheep is still in the process of being analyzed. But classific.ation data from the period November 19, 1973 to March 15, 1974 revealed a ratio of 45 lambs:lOO adult ewes (n = 32 observations) for collared ewes compared to 5 lambs:lOO adult ewes (n = 240 observations) for unco.lLarad ewes. This could indicate b~tter lamb production and/or survival from treated vs. untreated ewes. LITERATURE CITED Bell, G. 1974. Population estimates from recapture studies in which no recaptures have been made. Nature 248:616. Darroch, J. M. 1959. The mUltiple recapture census. II. Estimation where there is immigration or death. Biometrika 46:336-351. Geist, V. 1971. Mountain sheep, a study in behavior and evolution. The Univ. of Chicago Press. 383p. Hansen, C. G. 1965. Grcwth and development J. Wild1. Manage. 29(2): 387-391. of desert bighorn sheep. Jolly, G. M. 1963. Estimates of popUlation parameters from multiple recapture data with both death and dilution - deterministic model. Biometrika 50:113-128. 1965. Explicit estimates from capture-recapture data with both death and immigration - stochastic model. B'Lome trr Lka 52 :225-247. Lincoln, F. C. 1930. banding returns. Calculating waterfowl abundance on the basis of U.S.D.A. Circular No. 118. 4p. Manly, B.F. J. 1970. A simulation study of animal population estimation using the capture-recapture method. J. Appl. Eco1. 7(1):13-19. " and M. J. Parr. 1968. A new method of estimating popul.atLon size, ---survivorship, and birth rate from capture-recaptur.e data. Trans. Soc. Brit. Ent. 18:81-89. Moser, C. A. 1962. The bighorn sheep of Colorado. and Fish. Tech. Pub1. 10. 49p. Colo. Dept. Game Overton, W. S. 1971. Estimating the numbers of animals in wildlife populations. p , 403·-456. In Giles, R. H., Jr. (Ed.). Wildlife management techniques. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C. 633p. Parr, M. J., T. J. Gaskell, and B. J. George. 1968. Capture-recapture methods of estimating animal numbers. J. BioI. Educat. 2:95-117. Smith, D. R. 1954. and management. Prepared by The bighorn sheep in Idaho, its status, life history, Idaho Dep. Fish and Game, Boise. l54p. �-59- January 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State 0 f ---.:C:;:O:,:LO::::..::;RAD:::::::.:::.O _ Project No. W-4l-R-24 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Job Noo C_ONT_RA_C_T S_p_o_n_t._an __e_o_u_s __D_l_·s_e_a __s_e_s __o_f __B_i_g_h_o_rn S_h_e_e_p _ _ Period Covered: July 1, 1973 - June 30, 1974 Personnel: Colorado Division of Wildlife - Gene G. Schoonveld, Robert L. Schmidt, and Robert E. Keiss. Colorado State University - C. P. Hibler, T. R. Spraker, L. H. Lauerman, R. E. Lange, C. J. Metzger, F. ~. Latson, L. R. Clum, and J. G. Wegryzn. ABSTRACT The primary objectives of the research this past year were: (1) Treat sheep with antihelminthics in an effort to find a suitable compound; (2) Obtain more information on transplacental transmission, especially in'regards to the strong possibility that lambs were tolerant to the larva with which they were born; (3) Locate the "hot spots" for lungworm transmission on Pikes Peak and describe these areas; (4) Obtain additional information on the cause and nature of lamb mortality by postmortem examination of lambs; and (5) Establish a captive herd of sheep for experimental infection and chemotherapy studies. Cambendazole, when used on ewes in early pregnancy seemed to have little or no efficacy against the adult parasite,- but did depress fecal output of first stage larvae for periods of about 6 weeks; moreover, lambs born of ewes treated with this drug during early pregnancy died of a typical verminous pneumonia. However, when ewes in late pregnancy were treated. the. lambs were born healthy and survived the winter in good shape. Tramisol, the only other compound evaluated. during 1972-73, did not show any efficacy (all drug evaluation reports are one year after they have been evaluated), Lamb collections in 1973 revealed that there is indeed an immune tolerance to the larva with which they are born. The ewe pas-ses the infective larva she has stored to her fetus in the third trimester of pregnancy, These larvae are stored in the liver until birth, at which time they go to the lungs and begin to develop, Development from 3rd to 4th and finally to the 5th stage (adult) requires about three weeks. There is no host Tesponse to these larvae when they are developing, which means they are- tolerant and do not recognize the larva as a foreign body; rather, they recognize it as "self", On the third to fourth week of life, the worms are mature and start laying eggs. At this time there is a very severe host response to the eggs. This means the lamb is immunologic~lly competent and can recognize foreign protein, it �-60- simply does not recognize the worm as such. Once eggs are deposited however, this represents a new, definitely foreign, protein and it responds. The type of response is a "delayed-type hypersensitivity" and is so severe it almost overwhelms the lamb. By the time the eggs develop, and hatch into larvae, the lamb is thoroughly sensitized to these large amounts of antigen. As the Larvae pass up the bronchial t ree , many are accidentally aspirated into the ventral lobes of the lungs. These larvae, in the sensitized lambs, initiate a granulomatous response. This then creates an ideal environment for Pasteurella and/or Mycoplasma to become entrenched and kill the lamb. Thus, transplacental transmission of lungworm predisposed the lamb~ to a fatal pneumonia by other agents. The "hot spots" for lungworm transmission on Pikes Peak are the winter bedding grounds. Ewes spend all winter on these bed grounds, leaving for lambing grounds in the spring.. From there they go to smmner range and do not return to the winter bedding grounds until August. Lungworm larvae enter snails in the spring and are ready to infect ewes when they return in August. Most of the information regarding the postmortem examination of lambs is in tabular form immediately following the Abstract (Table 1). A captive herd of bighorn sheep obtained in South Dakota, and a herd of mouflon/bighorn hybrids obtained from Pennsylvania are currently being infected with lungworm to do immunology and chemotherapy studies. �Table 1. Summary of lamb examinations Sheep 1973. Wt. Date Examined Sex Age (II) Pneumonia Unknown Isolates Mycoplasma Virus Nasal Pasteurella Bronchi Trachea Lungs Lungworm (1st Stage Larvae) + 682.,331 + - - 1,286,900 + + + + 5,774,710 + ( + - - 3,947 & many 3rd & 4th - + - - 507,020 - - - - - 259,490 - 73BHL-5 (H) 10-2-73 M 21 Wk. 46 Yes - + + + 73BHL-7 (H) 8-25-73 F 15 Wk. 40 Yes +* + ·73BHL-8 (H) 8-1-73 M 10 Wk. 18 Yes + 73BHL-ll 6-5-73 F 3~-4 Wk. 18 No + - 73BHL-12 6-19-73 M 4-5 Wk. 23 No + 73BHL-13 6-28-73 F 6-7 Wk. 26 No. - 73BHL-14 7-12-73 F 8-9 Wk. 32 Yes + + + + - 73BHL-15 7-24-73 M 8-10 Wk. 34 Yes + + - + 73BHL-16 7-26-73 M 8-10 Wk. 28 Yes + + + + - + 470,625 898,650 2,279,800 (t) 7-26-73 M 8-10 Wk. 21 Yes +* + - - - - 73BHL-18 (H) 8-10-73 M 6 Days 5 No - + + + + + 73BHL-19 8-14-73 F 10-12 Wk. 36 Yes + - + - + + 960,412 George 5-20-72 M 1 Yr.- 110 6 Mos. Yes - + + + + + Very few H arginini. - Born in captivity from ewes captured on Pikes Peak. t - Found dead on Pikes Peak and was dead too long for thorough postmortem examination. t-' I 75,640 73BHL-17 * -~. I 0\ M:my 3rd & 4th ��-63- SPONTANEOUS DISEASES OF BIGHORN SHEEP C. P. Hibler P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine causes, nature and effects of spontaneous diseases in Colorado bighorn sheep with particular reference to mortality in lambs, and study various means of controlling these diseases. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Complete tissue examination of bighorn lambs col:ected during 1972. 2. Collect a minimum of 6, and a maximum of 9 lambs from Pikes Peak earlier in the summer for a detailed postmortem examination in order to examine specific neo-natal pathological processes suspected to play an integral part in the inception of chronic lamb pneumonias. PROCEDURES 1. Complete tissue examination of bighorn lambs collected in 1972. 2. All lamb collections tae last two years have been in late summer and early fall. Histopathology, virology, bacteriology and parasitology studies conducted on these animals strongly suggest that earlier collections would yield information which woule help delineate the initiation and progression of the pathologic process resulting in almost total loss of lamb crops. As in 1972, a field research team will conduct the postmortem examination. Blood samples will be collected for clinical pathology studies, serum for bacteriological, virological, clinical pathology, physiological baseline data, and trace mineral evaluation. Selected tissues will be taken for bacterial and viral isolation, and trace mineral evaluation. A complete postmortem for histopathology studies will be performed. The remainder of the carcass (liver, lungs, muscles and lymph nodes) will be further examined for additional evidence of parasitism by Protostrongylus. The proposed collection schedule is: Lamb Lamb Lamb Lamb Lamb Lamb 111 1st week in June, a 1 or 2 day old lamb. 112 2nd week in June, a l-l!-:! weoSk old lamb. 113 3rd week in June, a 2Yz-3 week old lamb. 114 1st week in July, a 4-5 week old lamb. 115 3rd week in July, a 6-8 week old lamb. 116 - 1st or 2nd week of August, an 8-10 week old lamb. Additional lambs may not be necessary, but in the event that a significant observation is made on lambs collected before mid-July,.an additional 1 to 3 lambs should be collected at the discretion of the rese~rch team. �-64- RESULTS The results are given in case history form for each lamb collected and examined. A tabular summary (Table 1) precedes the detailed results. In addition, a more complete written summary follows each case history. During the summer ·of 1973 seven bighorn lambs were collected by Robert Schmidt, Colorado Division of Wildlife. These lambs were collected at two week intervals starting the 1st week of June through the second week in August. The only organ which had lesions was the respiratory system. A detailed gross and histological examination was done on all lambs. Also on July 26, 1973, a small ram lamb was found dead and subjected to the same necropsy as a collected lamb. The results are presented separately for each sheep. 73BHL-ll June 5, 1973 History: The age of this lamb was estimated to be about 3 weeks. It was collected just above the cabins on the north side of Bison Reservoir. The lamb was shot in the nasal turbinates and has aspirated blood into her lungs. Postmortem: PMI - 20 minutes Sex - Female Body Temp. at Death - 104.4 degrees F Weight - 18 pounds Body Condition: The hair coat is smooth and has a dark tan color. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. Vessels are unremarkable. Lymphohemopoietic System: The mediastinal lymph nodes are slightly enlarged, especially on the posterior aspect of the chain; they are 1 cm in diameter from the posterior aspect. The retropharyngeal lymph node is normal size (~ cm diameter). The hilar lymph nodes are slightly enlarged. The prescapu Lar lymph nodes are both enlarged and slightly moist. Mandibular, popliteal, and parieta lymph nodes are unremarkable. Spleen is normal in size, shape, color (6-8 cc x 3 cc x lcc). Thymus has no gross lesions, it extends from the base of the heart to ~ way up the trachea. Bone marrow is red and active. Digestive System: The rumen is the size of the abomasum and filled with ingesta. Blood is present in the rumen because of swallowed blood. The abomasum is filled with ingesta and milk curd and some hair. The remaining digestive system is unremarkable. Formed fecal pellets are in the colon. There are six ~ to 1 mm white foci just under the capsule of the liver. Respiratory System: The lungs do not collapse well, but this is due to the blood aspirated into sma.lL bronchioles thus trapping air. The trachea and bronchi are filled with a red tinged froth (blood with bubbles). There are mUltiple bright red foci scattered diffusely over mid through the parenchyma �-65- of both lungs (aspirated blood). No gross evidence of 1ungworms are present except for 3-5 small dark spots located on the posterior dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes. Musculoskeletal System: Unremarkable. Urogenital Syst.em;. Kidneys are normal in size, shape and color. A small amount of fat is located just under the capsule. The remaining urogenital system is unremarkable. Endocrine System: Nervous System: Unremark.ab1e. Eyes and brain are unremarkable. Histological Findings of Importance: 1. Lungs - There are multiple small cellular infiltrations in the posterior dorsal aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes. These cellular infiltrations are nodules composed of mononuclear inflammatory cells and eosinophi1s; some areas are predominantly mononuclear cells while in other areas eosi~ophi1s predominate. There are several areas of thickened alveolar septa due to the infiltration of the same inflammatory cellular components. Parasites also occur in the same general areas as the inflammatory nodules. These parasites are immature 4th and 5th stage Protostrongylus sti1esi. There is only a very mild to no cellular response to these parasites. The minimal response seen is due to an infiltration of mvnonuc1ear inflammatory cells, lymphocytes, and eosinophi1s. 2. Liver - There are several areas of hepatic necrosis that has been replaced by mononuclear cells, few lymphocytes, eosinophils and fibroblasts. There are probably areas where the 3rd stage Protostrongy1u~ sti1esi larvae had been migrating during fetal life. 3. Mediastinal Lymph Nodes - The mediastinal lymph nodes are hyperplastic and very active. 4. ThymUS - There are neets of eosinophi1s in the medulla of the thymus but the significance is unknown. Summary: This 3-3~ week old lamb has developing L·-4 to L-5 Protostrongylus sti1esi larvae in the dorsal posterior aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes. 73BHL-12 June 19, 1973 This lamb was seen with seven ewes (one was an orange tag #1 with one lamb) and one other lamb. These lambs ran up and down on the rocks, played and rested. No coughing was noticed. The age was estimated to be about 4-5 weeks. This lamb had a slightly darker tan hair coat than the other lamb, and it was also a slightly rougher hair coat. The location of the collection was on the east face of West Beaver Creek, just above the old cabins and beaver dams in the Bou Lde r field. The lamb was shot at 1:45 PM. �-66- Postmortem: PMI - I hr. 35 minutes Sex - Male Body Temp. at Death - 104.2 degrees F Weight - 23 pounds, Body Condition: The hair coat is slightly rough and darker than most lambs. Very little fat is present in the subcutis. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, texture, and color. There is a normal amount of fat in the coronary bond. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is normal in size, shape, color, and consistency. There are multiple red foci located along the periphery of the organ (normal). Bone marrow normal. The thymus is normal in size and extends from the base of the heart to about ~ way up the trachea. The mediastinal lymph nodes are enlarged, wet, and have an exaggerated prominence of the cortex (size - 7 cm x l~ ern x l~ cm). Mesenteric lymph nodes are normal in size, shape and internal structure. Digestive System: The rumen and abomasum are filled with ingesta. There is a small amount of milk curd in the abomasum. Formed feces are present in the colon. There is one small (~ to I mm) white focus located just under the capsule of the liver. Respiratory System: The nasal cavity is normal, the mucosa is unremarkable. The trachea has no gross lesions, and its mucosa is moist and shiny. The lungs only partially collapse on opening the thorax. There are many irregular firm raised grey-white speckled nodules located on the posterior dorsal aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes. These reactive nodules are surrounded by a red zone (hyperemia). These are believed to be lungworm nodules caused by Protostrongylus stilesi. (See Figure 1). The bronchi are clean and moist. Musculoskeletal Sys tenu The bones and joints are normal. a sharp 'snap. Joints are clear. and normal. Bones break with Urogenital System: Both testicles are located in the scrotum. Both kidneys have a small amount of subcapsular fat. The right kidney has two small (l~ cm diameter, other 3/4 cm diameter) cystic areas in the cortex. Endocrine System: Thyroid, adrenals, pituitary glands are unremarkable. Nervous System: The brain and eyes are normal. C-4 and C-5 cervical vertebra. Histopathological 1. The lamb had been shot in Findings of Importance: Lungs - The grey-white firm nodules are characterized by mature lungworms with production of numerous eggs. The majority of eggs have not as yet matured to active 1st stage larvae. The cellular reaction is mainly mononuclear inflammatory cells, composed of lymphocytes (in nodules and in the septa), plasma cells, a few eosinophils and macrophages. There are also many hemorrhagic foci present through all lobes of-both lungs. �-67- L u.f\:\ wOt"lY\ f\O~u. \~S ." ./ ( I L e -+ -\- Lu.~~ Fig. 1. Right and left lungs showing lungworm nodules believed caused by protostilesi. �-68- 2. Thymus - The thymus has many nests of eosinophils in the medulla. 3. Liver - There is one lymphocytic nodule present in the liver parenchyma. The capsule is thickened in one area. 4. Mediastinal Lymph Nodes - The mediastinal hyperplasti~ lymphocytes. lymph nodes have Summary: The lungworms are mature in this lamb and have begun to produce eggs. The eggs must take 4 to 7 days to develop however, because no larvae are present. 73BHL-13 June 28, 1973 History: This lamb was seen with two ewes and a yearling on the east side of West Beaver. The lamb ~as collected in the southeast facing rocks on the east side of West Beaver. The lamb was estimated to be 6-7 weeks old because she would kneel to nurse and the back of the lamb was l~ to 2~ inches above the ventral aspect of the belly of the ewe. The lamb was collected about 5:45 PM. Postmortem: PMI - 1 hour 20 minutes Sex - Female Body Temp. - 104.4 degrees F Weight - 26 pounds Body Condition: The hair coat is slightly roughened and has no sheen. There is a very small amount of fat in the subcutis, especially around peripheral lymph nodes. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. No excessive pericardial fluid is present in the pericardial sac. A normal amount of fat is present in the coronary band around the heart. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is normal in size, shape, color and texture. There are many small red foci located around the periphery of the organ (normal). The mediastinal lymph nodes are enlarged. The cut surface is moist, the cortex is very prominent and granular due to many hyperplastic germinal centers (Le., the cut surface is "nobby" or roughened due to small rounded nodules, size 6~ cm x l~ cm) , The prescapuJ.ar nodes are also enlarged (4 cm x 1.5 em x 1 cm). The cortex is prominent and has a moist cut surface. The mandibular, parotid, mesenteric, popliteal and prefemoral lymph nodes are unremarkable. Digestive System: The rumen and abomasum are filled with vegetation. There is only a trace of milk curd in the abomasum. Formed fecal pellets are present in the colon. There are three small to 1 mm) white foci under the liver capsule. A small amount of fat is present in the mesenteries, and the lacteals are filled with chJllle. r~ �-69- Respiratory Syste~: The nasal cavity and turbinates are normal in color and have no exudate on their mucosal surface. The mucosa of the trachea is also normal. Ihe lungs only partially collapse. White firm, raised, irregular areas (lungworm nodules) are located on the posterior dorsal edge of both diaphragmatic lobes (Figure 2). The firm areas bulge on their cut surfaces. This cut surface is white and finely granular. No" inflammatory ring occurs around these lungworm nodules compared to 73BHL12. The remaining lung parenchyma is sprinkled with tinged red to grey foci (size 1 to 2 mm). The bronchioles and bronchi are cleml and only slightly moist. Musculoskeletal System: The bones and ribs have a normal snap. Bone marrow is red and active. No lesions were seen in the musculature. Urogenital System: A small amount of fat is present under the capsule of both kidneys. No lesions were present in the kidneys. Endocrine System: The thyroid, adrenals and pituitary glands appear to be normal in size, shape, and color. Nervous System: The brain and eyes are unremarkable. Histopathology: 1. Lungs - The ventral aspects of the apical, cardiac and intermediate lobes and the anterior ventral aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes all contain small granulomas consisting of many epithelioid cells, multinucleated giant, cells, eosinophils and a few nests of neutrophils. First stage larvae can be found in the majority of these granulomas. A few of the nodules have not yet developed into granulomas and they are characterized by edema, eosinophils, macrophages, few neutrophils,"hemorrhage, but no multinucleated giant cells. Several vessels in these areas are cuffed with lymphocytes. The lobules grossly observed to be darker than normal histologically are seen to be areas of pulmonary edema and hemorrhage with a moderate number of alveolar macrophages and a few neutrophilso The white firm lungworm nodules characteristically have many mature Protostrongylus stilesi eggs and 1st stage larvae. Many of the bronchioles leading away from these nodules are filled with mucous and 1st stage larvae. The mucosa of these bronchioles is hyperplastic. The lungworm nodules are characteristically areas of near complete consolidation of lung parenchyma and consist of adult worms, eggs and 1st stage larvae. There is a severe cellular reaction towards these parasites, composed of macrophages, lynlphocytes, eosinophils, multinucleated giant cells, and very few neutrophils. Many bronchioles and blood vessels are cuffed with lymphocytes. 2. Lymphohemopoietic System - The mediastinal lymph nodes have undergone reticuloendothelial and lymphocytic hyperplasia. Many germinal centers are present in the cortex and a moderate number of 1st stage larvae can easily be found in the node and the afferent lymphatics. Also several 1st stage larvae are present in the mesenteric lymph nodes. Most of the eosinophils are located in the medulla of the thymus. �-70- (£fP tJJ .... e, L »: """ J" ./ <; '" Fig. 2. Right ~ele~t ~ungs ~~i~g~irm, nodules) located on the posterior raised, irregularareas (lungworm dorsal edge of both diaphragmatic lobes. �-71- Summary: The primary histopathologic findings are again in the lungs. The parasites located in the posterior dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes are now fully mature and producing tremendous numbers of eggs. First stage larvae are matu~e and are leaving the lungworm nodules via horizontal bronchi and are being aspirated into the ventral aspects of the lungs. These pspirated 1st stage larvae are causing a granulomatous response. The ventral aspects of the cardiac, apical, and diaphragmatic lobes are diffusely altered by these multiple granulomas. 73BHL-14 July 12, 1973 History: This lamb was found on the west facing rock ~lope of West Beaver. The lamb was with 5 ewes and 3 lambs. All lambs appeared to have a slightly rough hair coat but no coughing was observed. The lamb was shot at 1:30 PM. The animal had not been running prior to collection. Postmortem: PMI - 2 hours 15 minutes Sex - Female Body Temp. - 106 degrees F Weight - 32 pounds Body Condition: This lamb has a slightly rough hair coat. A little fat is present in the subcutis especially around the peripheral lymph nodes. Cardiovascular System: A small amount of fat is present in the coronary'band of the heart. The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. Lymphohemopoietic System: Both retropharyngeal lymph nodes are enlarged and juicy (size 2 cm x l~ cm x 1 em). The right node is slightly more red in color than the left. The pre scapular lymph nodes are both enlarged and wet (size - ~ cm x 2 cm x l~ cm). Mediastinal lymph nodes are enlarged and wet. The cortex bulges on the cut surface and has a slightly granular appearance (9~ em x l~ cm x 1 cm). The spleen is normal in size, shape, co lor and consistency. There are mUltiple red foci located along the periphery of the organ (normal). The bone marrow is red and very active, no fat is present in the marrow. Digestive System: The rumen and abomasum are filled with ingesta and very little milk curd is present in the abomasum. A small amount of mesenteric fat is present. No parasites are noticeable in the alimentary tract. Respiratory System: There is a very small amount of white exudate in both nasal turbinates. The trachea has no exudate and the tracheal mucosa is unremarkable. The lungs did not collapse when the thorax was opened. There were no adhesions present and no excessive thoracic fluid. The ventral aspect of the cardiac and apical lobes and anterior ventral aspect of the left diaphragmatic lobes did not collapse, were red, firm and covered with a dull pleura. The cut surface was dark red and has a slightly moist granular appearance but no exud~te could be expressed from small cut bronchioles. The consolidated areas were sharply delineated from the normal; �-72- i.e., one lobule would be affected, while the adja~ent lobule would be normal. The posterior dorsal aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes were white, firm, and bulged on cut surface. The cut surface had a dull white coloration and a granular appearance (Figure 3). Musculoskeletal S~stem: The muscles, joints and bones were unremarkable. Urogenital System: There was a small amount of fat just under the peritoneal covering of b~th kidneys. The kidneys were normal in size, shape, color and consistency. Endocrine System: The adrenals, thyroids, and pituite.ry glands were normal in size, shape, color and texture. Nervous System: The lamb was shot in the mid-cervical The brain and eyes were unremarkable. Important Histopathological 1. area (C-2 to C-4). Findings: Respiratory System - The ventral red-brown consolidated area is characterized by distended alveolar capillaries. The alveoli are filled with neutrophils, alveolar macrophagcs, fibrin and edema. The alveolar epithelium is hyperplastic. Many first stage larvae occur in the depths of the consolidated area. The reaction is centered around bronchioles, t.uus the spread of the pneumonic process is via peribronchiola: and down the bronchioles. Many bronchioles are filled with cellular debris. The lungworm nodules are again filled with many adult, males and females, eggs and 1st ~tage larvae. The cellular response to the parasites are mononuclear cells, alveolar epitbelial hyperplasia, lymphocytes and lymph nodules, and'plasma cells. The mediastinal and prescapular lymph nodes are hyperplastic. The remaining systems are normal. Summary: Same as 73BHL-13 73BHL-15 July 24, 1973 History: This lamb was seen at 7:30 AM with 4 ewes and 2 yearlings. They were about 75 yards off the Pikes Peak toll road belDw the gravel pits eating salt (salt block) on the old trap site. The lamb was estimated to be 8-10 weeks of age and he had a rough hair coat but was not observed coughing. The lamb was shot at 7:45 AM. First shot hit the la~b's lower jaw. Second shot hit in the base of the skull. Temperature at collection was 104.8 degrees F. Postmortem: PMI - 40 minutes Sex - Male Body Temp. - 104.8 degrees F Weight - 34 pounds �-73- R\~ k\- L\'\'~~ f\ od~ \~.s U-eY\+ro. \ eon So ltda fed CLY'ea,.. Le t-+ Lu J 1'\ Fig. 3. Right and left lung showing ventral consolidation. �-74- Body Condition: The lamb has a dull, yellow-colored rough hair coat. There is little to no fat in the subcutis. The entire carcass is pale. About 400 cc of blood was removed from the lamb at the collection site. Cardiovascular System: There is one circular area of pericardium that is thickened (1 to l~ mm) and is loosely adhered to the medial aspect of the right apical lobe~ A small amount of fat is present in the coronary band. The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. No excessive fluid is present in the pericardial sac. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is normal in size, shape, color and consistency. The lymph nodules of the spleen are not prominent. Red foci are located along the periphery of the organ. The prescapular lymph nodes are bilobed, enlarged (l~ in. x 3/4 in.) and moist. There are several red foci visible on the cut surface of these nodes. Also, the cortex of the node is prominent. The ~etropharyngeal lymph nodes are enlarged (2 cm x l~ cm x 1 em) and moist. The cortex is also prominent. Mediastinal nodes are enlarged (4 in. x ~ in. x 3/4 in.), and moist. The cortex is also prominent. The prefemoral nodes are normal (size 2~ cm x 1 cm). The bone marrow is red and active; no fat is present. The thymus extends 4 inches up from the thoracic inlet. Mesenteric nodes are normal. Digestive System: The rumen is filled with ingesta. No milk curd is present in the abomasum. No fat is present in the mesenteries. Formed feces are present in the colon. The liver is normal in size, shape, consistency and color. However, there is one white focus (1 mm diameter), just under the capsule of the liver. The gall bladder is small and unremarkable. Respiratory System: ThP-nasal mucosa is reddened; hovever , he has been shot both in the mandible and at the base of the skull. There are several white flecks of material present in the trachea and blood (due to the shot) is present in the upper half of the trachea. The lungs do not collapse. The entire anterior-ventral aspect of the right lung is covered with a dull yellow, rough, friable material (fibrin). This entire area is adhered to the costal pleura; however, these adhesions are not tight and can be easily separated. When this fibrinous coat is peeled away the pleura has a dull sheen. ,The lung parenchyma is light grey and has a nobby or granular appearance when cut. A small amount of a slightly mucoid white material can be expressed from small cut bronchioles. The light grey consolidated areas have a very meaty texture. There is no excessive fluid in the pericardial sac. There are three areas of lungworm involvement in the right diaphragmatic lobe These nodules are white, meaty, and elevated on pleural and cut surface. Those nodules are speckled grey and white on cut surface. The left lung is similar in appearance except that there is no fibrin coating the pleura. There are four areas of lungworm involvement on the left diaphragmatic lobe. These nodules are similar to the ones just described. Musculoskeletal System: The femur has a normal thickness to its cortex and the bone appears to be of normal strength. The ribs have a normal snap. The joints and muscles are normal. Urogenital System: The ra is a very small amount of fat covering the capsule of the kidney just under the peritoneum. The kidneys are normal in size, shape, color, and texture. �-75- Endocrine System: The thyroids, size, shape, color and texture. adrenals, and pituitary are normal in Nervous System: The eyes are unremarkable. The brain is reddish in color due to hemorrhage. The cerebellum and brain stem was destroyed by the shot. Histopathology: There is depletion of thymocytes in the thymus. There are many nests of eosinophils in the medulla also. The respiratory system has the most important lesions. Grossly, the normal portion of the lung has histological alterations characterized by a thickened alveolar septa due to infilitrators of mononuclear cells, hyperplasia of alveolar epithelium, hyperemia and a few neutrophils. Thus the reason the lungs do not collapse. The ventral aspects or consolidated area is characterized by bronchioles filled with cellular debris and neutrophils, and the mucosa is hyperplastic. Nearly all of the bronchioles are surrounded by mononuclear cells, lymphocytes and a few plasma cells. These cells have also infiltrated into the lamina propria of the bronchioles. Blood vessels are cuffed with lymphocytes. The alveoli are filled with nests of neutrophils and mononuclear inflammatory cells. The alveolar capillaries are congested. The lungworm nodules are filled with adult worms, eggs, and first stage larvae. The primary cellular reaction is nodules of lymphocytes, mononuclear inflammatory cells, multinucleated giant cells and a few plasma cells. There are several areas of emphysema and hyperplasia of the smooth muscle of the terminal bronchioles. The mediastinal and retropharyngeal lymph nodes have a lymphocytic hyperplasia. Summary: The main gross and histological lesions are restricted to the respiratory and lymphohemopoietic systems. The lung has lungworms (in the dorsal posterior portion of both diaphragmatic lobes), and an interstitial reaction in the normal colored non-collapsed areas. There is an exudative pneumonia in the ventral aspect of the lungs. The lamb, considering a week. 73BHL-16 the extent of pneumonia, would not have lived much over July 26, 1973 History: This lamb was seen at 6:00 AM above the Pikes Peak toll road just below Boulder Park. He was with one other lamb and two ewes. The ewes were about 1/3 shed of their ~rlnter coat. Both lambs were small and estimated to be 8-10 weeks of age. Both lambs had a rough hair coat but no coughing was observed. The lamb was shot in the neck at 7:00 AM. Postmortem: PMI - 1 hour Sex - Male Body Temp. - 104.8 degrees F Weight - 28 pounds Body Condition: The lamb has a dull yellow roughened, fat is present in the subcutis. brittle hair coat. No �-76- Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. No excessive pericardial fluid is present. There is a small amount of fat in the coronary band. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is normal in size, shape, color and texture. The malpighian corpuscles are not prominent. The prescapular lymph nodes are s~.ightly enlarged and wet (3 em x l~ em x l~ cm). The retropharyngeal lymph nodes are enlarged, white colored and moist. The mediastinal nodes are enlarged, moist and have a slight bulge on cut surface (size 0 5~ cm x l~ cm x l~ cm). The thymus is normal in size and extends from the base of the heart to within two inches above the thoracic inlet. The bone marrow is red and active. Mesenteric nodes are normal. Digestive System: The rumen is filled with green grass. The abomasum is filled with green grass and with a moderate amount of milk curd. No fat is present in the mesenteries and formed fecal pellets pre in the colon and rectum. Respiratory System: The nasal mucosa is reddish-colored and white, mucoid exudate is present on the turbinates. The trachea is slightly red in color, but no exudate covers the mucosa. The lungs do not collapse when the thorax is opened. The anterior 2/3 of the right apical and lower ~ of the cardiac lobes are red, firm and covered with a shiny pleura. There are many small grey clover-shaped foci r~to 2/3 mm) located in the consolidated area. A white mucoid material can be expressed from small cut bronchioles. The cut surface also has these small grey nodules, giving the cut surface a nobby appearance. Many of the septa between the lobules in the consolidated part have enlarged due to an accumulation of a clear yellow gelatinous material. The altered portion of the lungs are sharply demarcated from the noncollapse pale pink lung parenchyma. Lungworm nodules are present in the posterior dorsal aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes. These nodules are white, firm and raised from the cut surface. Musculoskeletal System: The muscles and bones are unremarkable. The cortex of the femur is normal in thickness. The joints are clean and fat is present in the stifle joint. Urogenital System: There is no fat around the kidneys. Both kidneys are normal in size, shape, color and texture. Reproductive tract is unremarkable. Endocrine System: The adrenals, thyroids, adrenal glands are normal in size, shape, color and texture. Histopathology: The primary changes in this lamb are identical to 73BHL-15 and will not, therefore, be repeated. �-77- 73BHL-17 July 26, 1973 History: This lamb was found dead on 26 July 1973 under some rocks (in the shade) at 1:00 PM. He must have died that night because few postmortem changes had occurred. The reason the lamb was found was because the ewe would not leave. Also this ewe was a white/red stripe #7, (tramisol treated). The ewe was caught 14 May 1973 at the gravel pits. The lamb was found northeast of the cog rail and just southwest of Bar trail (near the summit) in the steep rocky benches. Postmortem: PMI - Estimated to be 14 to 18 hours Sex - Male Body Temp. - ? Weight - 21 pounds Body Condition: This lamb has a rough, dull yellow hair coat. A few body lice are present between the hind legs. The ears, anterior dorsal part of the muzzle and hoofs have been chewed by rodents. The eyes are slightly sunken and the animal is emaciated. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. No fluid is present in the pericardial sac. There is a very small amount of fat in the coronary band. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is slightly enlarged (11 cm x 8 xm x 3 cm) and the cut surface is mushy (due to postmorten autolysis). The retropharyngeal lymph nodes are only slightly enlarged (2 x l~ x 3/4 cm) and their cut surface is dry. The prescapular nodes are slightly enlarged. The prefemorals are unremarkable. The mediastinal lymph nodes are enlarged and wet (size 9~ em x l~ cm x 3/4 em). The thymus is extremely small. None can be found beyond the thoracic inlet and only a small piece can be found just anterior to the heart. Digestive System: The rumen is half filled with dry ingesta. No fluid is present. The abomasum is empty, indicating he has not had any water for the last day or two preceding death. Only few formed fecal pellets are present in the colon and rectum. No fat is present in the mesenteries. The liver has a distended gall bladder (indicates that the lamb has not eaten for a day or two prior to death). The liver is otherwise normal. No white foci, as with other lambs, were found. Respiratory System: The nose and anterior dorsal portion of the muzzle has been eaten by rodents. The nasal mucosa is red-colored and several white flecks of exudate are present on the surface. A small amount of exudate is covering the nasal turbinates and ethimoid bones. The trachea also has several flecks of white exudate on its mucosa. The mucosa has a slight red coloration. The lungs do not collapse when the thorax is opened. The anterior and ventral aspect of the right apical, right and left cardiac and diaphragmatic lobes are similar to other lambs. The consolidated areas are reddish-brown, firm and the pleura covering it is shiny. The cut surface �-78- is moist and dark rel and has a knobby appearance. Mucoid exudate is not easily expressed from some cut bronchio1es. Three small (1 to 3 cm) lungworm nodules are present on the posterior dorsal aspect of the right diaphragmatic lobe and two on the left. They are raised from the pleural surface, and their cut surface is speckled grey-white. These nodules are closer in appearance to 73BHL-12 than to the white firm nodules of 73BHL-13, 14, 15, 16. Musculoskeletal System: There is less muscle mass than in other lambs. Also, the muscle appears slightly dry. The joints are clean, and the bone has a normal thickness to the cortex. The ribs have a slight bend than a snap. Urogenital System: The kidneys have a normal color, texture, size and shape. There is no fat on the kidneys. About 40 cc of urine is present in the bladder. Both testicles are normal. Endocrine Nervous System: System: The thyroids, adrenals, pituitary glands are unremarkable. Unremarkable. Remarks: This lamb died from the same disease (pneumonia) that is affecting all lambs on the Peak. This lamb evidently did not eat one or two days prior to death and died during the ~ight. The histopathology is similar to 73BHL-15. 73BHL-19 August 14,1973 History: This lamb was seen with 6 ewes and one other lamb by the cog rail near the summit of Pikes Peak. It did not look ill, but the other lamb had a dull yellow, rough hair coat. The lamb was shot low in the neck and she ran over the near Bar trail and had to be shot again. The lamb was shot at 2:00 PM. Postmortem: PMI - 1 hour 35 minutes Sex - Female Body Temp. - 104.8 degrees F. Weight - 36 pounds Body Condition: This lamb has shed about half its lamb pelage showing a smooth, slick ~oat about the chest and neck. All systems grossly and histologically are similar to 73BHL-16. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #3 Continue visual surveillance of the Pikes Peak herd to further elucidate the characteristics of the lamb mortality currently underway, and intiate a visual surveillance program in the Saguache herd. These observations may help us relate histological lesions to behavioral changes of lambs. PROCEDURE Continue a visual surveillance of the Pikes Peak herd, and initiate a visual surveillance of the Saguache herd. Accurate documentation of the die-off currently underway at Pikes Peak necEssitates a close surveillance of this herd to evaluate all the factors involved. The Saguache herd should likewise be visually surveyed and contrasted with the Pikes Peak herd. In the ev~nt that any morbidity becomes evident in the Saguache herd, or mortality of lambs occurs, a course of action similar to the study on Pikes Peak should be initiated. �-79RESULTS A visual surveillance of the Saguache herd was not initiated because of time and personnel limitations. However, the Pikes Peak herd was closely monitored by observations, trapping and tagging. Robert Schmidt, Division of Wildlife was in charge of this operation and the results are incorporated in his report. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #4 Continue pathology support for experimental projects in parasitology, virology, bacteriology, immunology, trace mineral evaluati0n and physiological baseline studies. PROCEDURE Continue pathology support for experimental projects in parasitology, virology, bacteriology, immunology, trace mineral evaluation and physiological baseline studies. Details are given under Procedure #2. RESULTS This is a routine objective incorporated in the postmortem procedure used to determine the cause of illness and/or death and tt.e events leading to death. The results are given under the various headings; i.e., virology, bacteriology, parasitology and pathology. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #5 Continue clinical pathology studies, especially on blood serum, urine, and tissue fluids from experimental bighorn sheep, field collections of bighorn lambs, and all other bighorn sheep dead or dying from any cause. PROCEDURE Continue clinical pathology studies especially on blood, serum, urine and tissue fluids from experimental bighorn sheep, field collection of bighorn lambs, and all other bighorn sheep dead or dying from any cause. Most of this data will be determined by the research team in cullaboration with the Clinical Pathology Laboratory at CSU. RESULTS The majority of the postmortem examinations from Pikes Peak lambs and the ewes captured data are given in summary form below. conducted during 1972-73 were in January-February, 1973. These Acute Septicemic Pasteurellosis Nine bighorn sheep were captured at Pikes Peak and placed in the fenced area at the Division of Wildlife bird pens on Highway 25 in January and February 1973. These sheep consisted of 6 ewes, 2 yearling rams and one 3 year old ram. An additional yearling ram from the Denver zoo was also penned here. These sheep were doing quite well and had no problems until the night of 28 �-80- October when a cold rain with lots of wind began. These weather conditions continued through the next day (29 October). The next morning, 30 October Archie (Denver Sheep) and one ewe were found to be very ill and they died within 30 minutes. The next day two more sheep were found dead. Then one sheep died each day until all had died except one ewe (Tag #5). These sheep all died of ~he same disease - a typical necropsy report follows. The hair coat is smooth and slick. There is an abundance Body Condition: of subcutis fat. The animal is in excellent condition. Cardiovascular System: There is an excessive amount of pericardial fluid with fibrin present in the fluid. There are massive hemorrhages on the epicardium and endocardium. The myocardium has a slightly mottled appearance. Massive hemorrhages ar.e present on the parietal pleura of the ribs. An abundance of fat is present in the coronary band. Lymphohemopoietic System: Most of the lymph nodes are enlarged, wet, and red. A reddish fluid exudes from the cut surface of these nodes. The spleen is normal in size and shape. The bone marrow is white opaque (normal) and filled with fat. Digestive System: The liver is normal in size, shape, and color. Several of the sheep have a tapeworm present in the bile ducts (Wyominia tetoni). The digestive system has multiple hemorrhages on the serosal surface, especially on the rumen. Formed feces are present in the colon and rectum. Respiratory System: The nasal mucosa and trachea are highly inflammed with a red froth covering the s~rface. The lungs do not collapse any when the thorax is opened. A slight but excessive volume of a clear yellow fluid is present in the thorax of several sheep. This fluid clotted on exposure to air (indicates high fibrin content in fluid). The anterior ventral aspect of the lungs are usually covered with a thin layer of yellow, friable material which can be easily peeled away (fibrin). The lung under this fibrin is red and firm, and has a fine granular appearance. A few septa are widely distended by a yellow gelatinous material. A small amount of watery red fluid can be expressed from bronchioles. Lungs from some sheep are soft, but not collapse (due to pulmonary congestion and edema). All sheep have mUltiple lungworm nodules in the posterior dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes. Protostrongylus rushi is not present in any of the sheep. Musculoskeletal System: The bones are normal. There are a few hemorrhages present in muscles. Urogenital System: There is a moderate The kidneys are normal in size. shape, color and texture. amount of fat around both kidneys. Endocrine System: due to congestion. Adrenals Nervous System: are slightly larger than normal and red in color The brain is mildly congested. Eyes are unremarkable. Remarks: Pure cultures of Pasteurella hemolytica were isolated from the spleen, peripheral blood and lung tissue. Septicemia pasteurellosis is an acute, highly contagious disease of bighorn sheep. The mortality is nearly 100 percent. The cold rains of 29 October must have triggered this disease in our �-81- captive sheep. A virus was isolated from one of the sheep t.hat died but it has not been characterized to date; its role in Acute Septicemic Pasteurellosis is unknown. This disease claimed 8 of the 9 sheep present. We now have an autogenous vaccine, but do not know if the vaccine will protect the animals as of yet. Mouflon/BighornSheep Twelve mouflon/bighorn cross ewes and 4 rams are located in the pens behind the Division of Wildlife building on Prospect Street. The adult animals are doing fine. Lambing began during May and continued until midJune, 1974. The first four lambs that were born died just minutes after birth or were stillborn. Four lambs were taken from the ewes because two ewes had mastitus and two refused to accept the lambs. These four lambs are healthy to date. Four other lambs were left with their ewes. They all died at 7 to 8 weeks of age from an interstitial pneumonia. Culture and histopathology has not been completed, so more detail on etiology is not possible at this time. In summary, 12 lambs were born this year, 4 were stillborn or died within minutes of birth, 4 died at 7 to 8 weeks of age due to an interstitial pneumonia, and 4 are being hand-raised and are healthy to date. The 12 ewes and 4 rams are also in good shape now. However, when the lambs were born the ewes were in poor body condition, a result of inadequate nutrition (inadequate amount). South Dakota Bighorn Sheep Bighorn sheep were live trapped in Custer State Park, South Dakota during January of 1974. Twenty-six of these sheep were loaded ~d transported to Fort Collins. Two ewes died within 3 hours of capture, and one yearling ram died shortly after arrvTal in Fort Collins. The remaining sheep were released in the bird pens at the Research Station on Interstate 25. Following release, seven sheep ruptured their gastrocnemius muscles. All of these sheep were cast and only one (White/Red #12) is still alive and doing well; the other six died (5 ewes and a large 4 year-old ram). One of the ewes that died ha4 a Wyoming ear tag #D-1870, Wyoming Game and Fish Co~.ission. The problem that caused the death of these 6 sheep appears to be a "capture myopathy". The cause and nature of "capture myopathy" is unknown, but it has been seen in other situations (wildlife and zoo animals) allover the world. The remaining sheep include 13 ewes, 3 yearling ewes and one two-year old ram. All are healthy to date. During May and June, a total of six lambs were born, the first lamb was abandoned and died from starvation. The second lamb died during parturition from a dystocia caused by the umbilical cord wrapping around the hocks with the lamb in a breech presentation; thus the lamb never breathed. One lamb that had been refused by the ewe was hand-raised and was doing very well but died at 9 weeks of age due to enteritis caused by Salmonella typhimurium var. copenhagen. Presently, there are three lambs, all doing well at the bird pens. The adult sheep have Meullerius capillaris, a lungworm that inhabits the same area (posterior dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes) in the parenchyma of the lungs as P. stilesi. This worm as far as we know does not cross the placenta and does not predispose lambs to verminous pneumonia. Thus, lambs born of these ewes (and the ewes themselves) can be infected with P. stilesi �-82- for chemotherapy studies. This is currently underway. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #6 Evaluate the role of transplacental transmission of Protostrongylus as a predisposing factor in the etiology of "Spontaneous Lamb Mortality". PROCEDURE Evaluation of the role of transplacental transmission of Protostrongylus as a predisposing factor in the etiology of "Spontaneous Lamb Mortality". In late 1972, before the bighorn sheep ewes at Little Hills became pregnant, two ewes were given a large dose of infective Protostrongylus larvae, the purpose being to determine if they were capable of storing these larvae in their tissues and transmitting them during late pregnancy to the foetus. Two other ewes were given "trickle" doses of infective larvae from midpregnancy to parturition to determine if they passed the larvae directly to the foetus rather than store them. Four sheep are an insignificant number of animals for this purpose, but hopefully will serve the purpose as a pilot experiment. During the summer, fall and winter of 1973, the 4 tamest ewes at Little Hills will again be used for this purpose. Two will be fed massive doses of infective larvae before pregnancy, and one ewe and one ram kept as uninfected controls. Lambs born of these ewes will be closely monitored for evidence of "Verminous Pneumonia" as a result of transplacental infection. Since the factor predisposing lambs to pneumonia may be a combination of transplacental transmission, and a later "triggering response" from infection acquired after birth, an additional two lambs (possible from the captive Pikes Peak animals) will be challenged .at the age of 3-4 weeks with a dose of infective larvae. One will be given a small dose, the other a massive dose. We will do this with two lambs this summer at Little Hills. RESULTS As noted in the 1973 annual report (Segment Objective #4) the data from lambs transplacentally infected with lungworm in experiments conducted at Little Hills was incomplete. This experiment was completed in 1973 however, and is incorporated as a portion of a M.S. thesis at C.S.U. submitted by Robert E. Lange. The thesis is entitled "Epidemiology of Lungworms (Protostrongylus stilesi and rushi) in Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis." That particular experiment is given below. Two ewes (Ewe I and Ewe II) were selected at Little Hills Game Experiment Station near Meeker, Colorado, to test somatic storage of third-stage protostrongylin larvae. Lltermediate host snails were cultured and infected in the laboratory at Colorado State University. Larvae were permitted to mature in the snails, Vallonia pulchella and Vallonia cyclophorella for known periods of time. Infected snails were periodically transported to Little Hills where they were fed to the test sheep. Infected snails were placed in number one gelatin capsules and there were secreted in hollowedout alfalfa cubes. The alfalfa cubes were fed by hand to the test sheep �-83- in most cases. Administrations were made by Steve Steinert~ Research Assistant at Little Hills, and by this author. Total dOBages to the two ewes were completed before breeding season. Ewe I received 754 and Ewe II 760 mature third-stage lungworm larvae. The test was devised so that lambs of these two ewes, in order to pass first-stage larvae the following summer, could only d0 so through the mechanism of somatic storage of administered third-stage larvae and prenatal infection of the fetus during pregnancy. In the second portion of the study, two other ewes (Ewe III and Ewe IV) were selected for infection after they were bred. These ewes were administered third-stage larvae between February and late April. Ewe III received 1,643 larvae and Ewe IV received 1,489. Each of the larvae matured in snails for a specific length of time. Lambs from these two ewes were used to demonstrate direct transplacental transmission if somatic storage did not occur. However, lambs from these two ewes were unable to rule out somatic storage if they did pass first-stage larvae. Only lambs born to Ewes I and II could do that. The ram in the herd at Little Hills Eerved as a control because he never had a patent lungworm infection. Plans to test somatic storage and transplacental transmission of third-stage lungworm larvae were bolstered when all four test ewes bore lambs. Ewe I born a ewe lamb between June 19 and 24. Ewe II had a ewe lamb between June 2 and 8. Ewe III had a ram lamb between May 20 and 31 and Ewe IV had a ewe lamb between May 2C and 31. Ewe II was the only ewe that passed obviously increased levels of first-stage larvae as a result of feeding third-stage lungworm larvae. This ewe averaged no more than six larvae per g of feces during 15 months before administration of third-stage larvae began. A dramatic increase in first-stage larvae output followed administration of infective lungworm larvae. The increase in larva output followed administration of third-stage larvae by 6-8 weeks. Seven hundred sixty infective third-stage larvae were fed to this ewe. Ewe II was less than two years old during the study and her lungworm load, as measured by output of fir.st-stage larvae, was very low until treatments began. Other ewes (I, II~ and IV), to which equal or larger numbers of third-stage larvae were administered, failed to show readily detectable increases in lungw~rm loads. These ewes were administered 760, 1,643, and 1,489 thirdstage larvae respectively. Higher lungworm loads existed in these ewes than in Ewe II prior to treatments. Completion of the lungworm life cycle was accomplieshed in Ewe II. It is uncertain that artificial increase in lungworm loads was accomplished in Ewes I, III and IV. Transplacental transmission of lungworms was experimentally reproduced in the study. Lambs were born to each of the ewes administered third-stage larvae. Lambs were assigned the same experimental number as their dam. Lambs 2, 3 and 4 began passing first-stage larvae 33-54 days after birth (Table 2). Lambs 3 and 4 were from ewes who had received third-stage larvae during gestation. Both of these lambs passed larvae (Table 2). Lamb 2, which was a test of somatic storage of third-stage lungworm larvae, also passed first-stage larvae giving some indication that the mechanism does occur. Lamb 1 had passed no larvae at writing. The number of larvae passed by lambs 2, 3 and 4 were quite low considering the numbers of infective third-stage larvae their dams received. �-84- As a result of unforeseen difficulties originating in other aspects of this research, the plans to repeat the experiment at Little Hills was not possible. Therefore, these animals will be transferred to Fort Collins facilities and the experiment conducted there. Table 2. Passage of first-stage larvae in numbers per g of air-dried feces by lambs at Little Hills Experiment Station. Date Lamb 1* Lamb 2** 6-15-73 6-19 6-20 6-21 6-24 0 6-25 6-26 6-27 6-28 0 0 0 0 ,Lamb 3t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 & 0 0 0 0 0 24 7-11 7-13 7-14 7-15 8-1 0 0 0 8-5 0 0 *Lamb 1 was born between June 19-24. **Lamb 2 was born between June 2-8. tLamb 3 was born between May 20-31. tt 0 0 6 0 7-6 7-7 7-8 0 0 7-1 0 0 0 6-29 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 Lamb 4tt Lamb 4 was born between May 20-31. 0 1 2 77 7 35 6 8 3 & 9 2 1 0 16 �-85SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 117 Attempt to comvlete the biological cycle of Protostrongylus domestic sheep or in bighorn-domestic crosses. stilesi in PROCEDURE Attempt to complete the biological cycle of Protostrongylus using domestic sheep (or half-breeds). Considerable information can be obtained about lungworm by using an abnormal host, providing infection can be established. All previous attempts to infect domestic sheep have failed (but have been successful in half-breeds); thus they are considered to be refractory to infection. However, infection with parasites has been accomplished in animals normally refractory to infection by the administration of immunosuppressant compound~ such as cortisone or massive protein injection; moreover, drainage of the thoracic duct is also an effective means of establishing otherwise refractory infections. RESULTS Between the time Objective 7 was written and before domestic sheep could be bred to fulfill this objective, we fortunately obtained some mouflon/bighorn hybrids from Pennsylvania. Twelve of these animals were used for the experiment; four were infected and 8 were controls. The experiment had a two-fold purpose: (1) Establish infection in the animal, and (2) Attempt to induce transplacental infection. The 4 ewes infected with larvae of ~. stilesi (via snail-feeding) began to pass first-stage larvae of f. stilesi on schedule (30 to 40 days postinfection). Thus, the life-cycle of this parasite has been completed in hybrid sheep. Attempts to induce transplacental infection of the lambs did not appear to be successful with the initial infection, but we did not feel that transplacental would occur until the second exposure (2nd year of infection) • At present, two of the fufected ewes are being "trickle dosed" with infected snails to induce transplacental transmission; two additional (uninfected) ewes will be started shortly. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #8 Continue studies on the epizootiology of Protostrongylus in bighorn sheep at Little Hills Experiment Station, including transplacental transmission, efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents and of intermediate host population fluctuation. PROCEDURE Continue studies on the epizootiology of Protostr.ongylus in bighorn sheep at Little Hills. Lungworm larval output from these sheep has been monitored for two years. Monitoring of the adults will continue on a bi-month1y basis. The date that lambs born of these ewes begin p~oducing larvae, and the level of infection, will be monitored on a weekly basis. Lungworm larval output from animals reaches a peak in the winter months, and decreases in the summer. This may be a reflection of increased fecundity of lungworm in the winter, or a loss of resistance by the adult as a result of stress. Winter is obviously a period of considerable stress which may lower body resistance, thus transplacental transmission may occur during this period simply because the adult is incapable �-86of destroying the larvae she ingests. While information of thiS nature is merely suggestive, all supporting observations will help to piece together the puzzle. Moreover, these data are necessary support for the objectives given in number 6 above. RESULTS This study is comPlete and is the subject of a Master's Thesis by Robert Lange. The title is "Epidemiology of Lungworm (Protostrongylus stilesi and rushi) in Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep (Oviscan:adensis canadensis)". This thesis may be obtained from the library at Colorado State University. It will not be incorporated in this report, resulting in unnecessary expense. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #9 Evaluation of chemotherapeutic agents for treatment of bighorn sheep to kill adult lungworms and the third-stage infective larvae stored in somatic tissues. This work will be conducted at Little Hills and in Fort Collins through carefully selected field trials of chemotherapeutic agents. PROCEDURE Evaluation of chemotherapeutic agents to kill adult lungworm and the larval stages stored in tissues is currently underway with the 12 sheep captured on Pikes Peak. Four of these sheep were treated with Tramiso1 and four with Cambendazole. Lungworm larval output is being monitored, and the lambs born of these ewes will be followed closely for evidence of transplacental infection beginning 30-40 days after birth. Lambs from untreated ewes, and showing a heavy infection, will be treated in late summer or early fall and monitored for efficacy of the chemotherapy. Three anthelmintics will be used: Tramisol, Cambendazole and Hygromycin B. In addition to evaluating the efficacy of the drug, a vehicle suitable for administration will likewise be evaluated. The vehicle showing the most promise at present is "Apple Mash". This coming year it will be the vehicle of choice for all drug trials. RESULTS The chemotherapeutic trials have been undertaken by personnel in the University and in Division of Wildlife; consequently, there may be some overlap between this report and the ~ne submitted by Robert Schmidt. Ewes were treated on Pikes Peak during the winter of 1972-73 with Cambendazole and Tramisol. Most of these animals were treated in early pregnancy. As near as can be determined, all lambs from these ewes died. One group of 7 ewes were treated in late pregnancy with Cambendazole. Five of these ewes are known to have had lambs. All five survived the winter and the last time they were observed (Spring, 1974) all were quite healthy. This limited trial strongly suggests that Cambendazole is effective in killing the third-stage larvae of Protostrongylus stilesi. Apparently the drug does not effectively kill the larave stored in the ewe; however, this drug is known to cross the placenta. The results suggest that the larva, once in the lamb, is susceptible to treatment by this drug. �-87- Of the 12 ewes captured on Pikes Peak and retained in captivity, four were treated with Tramisol, four with Cambendazole and four were untreated controls. All of the lambs born (alive and/or stillbirths) of the treated ewes had heavy lungworm loads and all eventually died of a pneumonia identical to the disease seen on Pikes Peak. During the winter of 1973-74, the drugs evaluated were: Tramisol and Diethylcarbamazine, Thiabendazole and Diethylcarbamazine, Cambendazole and Dichlorvos. These trials are not yet complete and will be reported in 1975. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #10 Surveillance of captive bighorn sheep ewes and lambs for evidence of the disease responsible for the high rate of mortality on Pikes Peak. PROCEDURE Surveillance of captive bighorn sheep ewes and lambs for evidence of the disease responsible for lamb mortality. Initial plans for the lambs born of the ewes captured on Pikes Peak w·as to infect them with various combinations of the three agents considered to be responsible for the mortality. However, when faced with the fact that we were going to attempt infection with pathogens without first doing a surveillance of a captive herd of ewes and lambs for a year to determine what they became infected with, and when, we realized th~t any attempt at infection during the first year without this information could possibly result in difficult interpretation of data. Therefore, in 1973, the surveillance approach will be utilized. Lambs from these ewes will be given a complete clinical examination every two weeks. Not only will this furnish sound baseline data for future studies, it may possibly furnish information on the development of the pneumonia responsible for lamb mortality. These monitoring plans could be changed if increased mortality results in our holding pens in Fort Collins. In such an event some or all of the ewes and lambs might be transported to Little Hills. RESULTS The decision to pursue Objective #10 by the procedure given above was fortunate. All of the lambs died of a typical "vermir..ouspneumonia" characteristic of the die-off among the free-ranging wild sheep on Pikes Peak. The results from these lambs were reported last year (1973 Annual Report) under Segment Objective #8. At the first onset of cold weather (first winter storm) in November of last year, all except one of the captive sheep from Pikes Peak died of Pasteurellosis within a 5 day period. A summary of the postmortem results is given in this report. Had the initial plans been attempted (to infect these lambs with the various pathogenic agents) the results would have been impossible to interpret. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #11 Monitor two herds for evidence of any factors predisposing a die-off. the population to �-88- PROCEDURE Monitor two herds of bighorn sheep for evidence of the factors predisposing the population to a die-off. Trapping operations should be continued on Pikes Peak and trapping should be initiated at Saguache. The Pikes Peak herd well represeqts a dying herd, while the population at Saguache is an example of a thriving herd. A thorough job of monitoring necessitates that clinical information be obtained fr0m two such herds. From 25-50 animals in each herd should be trapped and examined: (1) Age, (2) Body condition, (3) Nasal and rectal swabs for bacteria and virus, (4) Blood for complete clinical pathology evaluation, (5) Serum for bacterial and viral titers, arid physiological baseline data, and (6) Feces to dete~ine level of lungworm and gastrointestinal parasite burden. RESULTS Monitor of two herds was found to be impossible. While trapping operations were scheduled and conducted on Pikes Peak this last year - and information was obtained - we were not notified of, nor invited to, the trapping operations underway at Saguache; therefore, we had no basis for comparing the health and disease status of a healthy and dying herd. While we know that pathogenic agents (and in what combinations) are found at Pikes Peak, we do not know what is present at Saguache. Thus, the efforts made on Pikes Peak were essentially fruitless. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #12 Determine the types of immune ~esponses that are stimulated in bighorn sheep by the three pathogens (1) PI-3, (2) Pasteurella hemolytica, and (3) Protostrongylus stilesi. PROCEDURE The h4moral response will be detected by immunoelectrophoresis using specific soluble antigen from the pathogen. Specific antibody reagents will be produced to detect the various immunoglobulin classes of bighorn sheep. These class specific anti-immunoglobulin reagents will be used to verify the immunoelectrophoresis observations and aid in direct and indirect fluorescent antibody studies of diseased tissues for the pathogens. The cell-mediated response will be detected by skin tests in vivo and macrophage migration inhibition tests in vitro. The cytophilic antibody response will be detected by passive cutaneous anaphylaxis tests and by development of a specific anti-IgE reagent. The cytophilic antibody could also be detected indirectly by specific macrophage attachment of antibodies to Protostrongylus stilesi and its inactivation. RESULTS Segment Objective #12 has not been attempted; however, serum from all of the sheep collected thus far has been stored for this purpose. �-89- SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #13 Determine the bacterial agents involved in bighorn sheep disease by continuation of serological survey and isolation attempts. PROCEDURE Serology will be performed by screening sera from bighorn sheep for precipitating, agglutinating or complement fixing antibodies to antigens from the various potential pathogens isolated previously from bighorn sheep. Attempts to isolate pathogens from nasal swabs and lesion material will be continued using standard bacteriological isolation and identification techniques. RESULTS These data are summarized below. A table, noting the location of Pasteurella spp. in these lambs is included. Note that as the summer progressed, and the observed pneumonia became more severe, Pasteurella moved into the lung proper. Bacteriological Summary 73BHL-ll Nasal: Trachea: Staphylococcus sp. Alpha Streptococcus Pasteurellamultocida sp. Escherichia coli Corynebacterium sp. Staphylococcus sp. Pasteurella multocida Nasal: Pasteurella multocida Streptococcus sp.---Mima sp. Micrococcus sp. Lungs: Staphylococcus sn.- rt. cardiac Bacillus sp. - rt. diaphragmatic Staphylococcus sp. - rt. diaphragmatic Corynebacterium - rt. diaphragmatic nodule unknown (not Pasteurella) - rt. diagphragmatic Spleen: Bacillus sp. Clostridium (suspect) Retropharyngeal lymph node: Lactobacillus sp. nodule �-90- 73BHL-13 Nasal: Bacillus sp. Spleen: Staphylococcus sp. 73BHL-14 Nasal: Staphylococcus sp. Pasteurellamultocida Alk.aligertes sp , Corynebacterium sp. Trachea: Pasteurella multocida Corynebacterium sp. Mirna sp. Herellea sp. Liver: Escherichia coli 73BHL-15 Nasal: Streptococcus Bacillus sp. Mirna suspect Trachea: sp. Neisseria sp. Bacillus suspect Alpha Streptococcus sp. Pasteurella multocida Retropharyngeal lymph node: Main stem bronchus: Escherichia coli Bacillus sp. (contaminant) 73BHL-16 Nasal: Trachea: Pasteurella hemolytica Pasteurella multocida Bacillus sp. Staphylococcus sp. Acromonas sp. Staphylococcus sp. Acromonas sp. Pasteurella hemolytica suspect Alpha Streptococcus sp. Main stem bronchus: Lungworm nodule: Corynebacterium sp. Alpha Streptococcus sp. Pasteurella hemolytica Lobe of lung (consolidated): Pasteurella multocida �-91- 73BHL-17 Found dead on Pikes Peak. Pasteurella not isolated. Many opportunists in various tissues (probably ,spread after death). 73BHL-18 Nasal: Trachea: Lungs: Staphylococcus sp. Bacillus sp. Corynebacterium p'yogenes Pasteurella multocida Pasteurella Pasteurella Pasteurella ~ultocida sp. - rt. diaphragmatic mu1::ocida - rt. ventral Main stem bronchus: Pasteurella multocida 73BHL-19 Nasal: Trachea: Pneumococcus sp. Moraxel1a sp. (suspect) Pasteurella hemolytica Corynebacterium sp. Alpha Streptococcus sp. Bacillus sp. Lobe of lung (consolidated): Lungworm nodule: PasteureLla hemo1ytica Mima po1ymorpha Main ~tem bronchus: Pasteurella hemolytica SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Determine the viral agents involved of serological survey and isolation #14 in bighorn attempts. sheep disease by continuation PROCIDURE Serological survey will be performed by screening sera from bighorn sheep for virus neutralizing antibodies in tissue culture systems. The virus to be used in the survey are: (1) Para-inf1uenza-3; (2) Bovine Virus Diarrhea; (3) Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis; (4) Blue Tongue Virus; (5) Epizootic liemorrhagic Disease of Deer; (6) Parvovirus; (7) Adenovirus and any other virus that becomes available for study that is considered a potential pathogen. Virus isolation attempts will be made in various tissue culture systems in search of the above named viruses. �-92- RESULTS As in previous years, a concentrated effort was made to recover all possible infectious agents potentially involved as pathogens in lamb mortality. In the past, bighorn sheep have had titers to a number of different viral agents (see previous reports) and so~e viral agents (PI-3) have been isolated. Year after year however, our results are inconsistent - we get different viral agents - making the situation questionable regarding viral agents as being detrimental to the host. Every year that we find a different virus, however, the question arises once again. This last year an extremely pathogenic virus was found in a considerable number of sheep from Pikes Peak (including George). Unfortunately, we have not yet identified this virus. We know that it is not PI-3, BVD (Bovine Viral Diarrhea) or IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis). It is still in culture and we hope to get an answer this year. As with PI-3, it may be insignificant. From the inception of this project we felt that we must consider Mycoplasma, because some species, e.g. M. arginini is a pathogen responsible for pneumonia. The second year an unsuccessful attempt was made. The third year, however, was successful. As indicated on the table, a species was receovered from the respiratory system in 9 of 13 sheep examined. Two (7 and 17) have been identified as~. arginini, a known pulmonary pathogen. Tnis role in lamb deaths (in the wilds) is still unclear, but we know that bighorn/mouflon hybrids and pure mouflons are extremely susceptible and that this sPecies will kill lambs if they remain on the ewes (in captivity). Parasitology The parasitology efforts this past year have been confined to (1) Recovery of lungworm larvae from transplacentally infected lambs dying spontaneously, (2) Recovery of lungworm larvae from lambs collected at Pikes Peak, and (3) Attempts to find the site of somatic storage of third-stage larvae in mature ewes. Lambs 7, 8 and 18 were born in captivity from Pikes Peak ewes at the Bird Farm. Nume~ous eggs and first-stage larvae were collected from 7 and 8, while many fourth stage were found in lamb 18, indicating in all three that heavy transplacental transmission had occurred. Data from lambs collected at Pikes Peak once again reveals an extremely heavy burden of lungworm (see below). Lamb 11 was quite young when collected and thus has few lungworm eggs and larvae, but many third and fourth stages. After that collection, the larval output per lamb increased to very high levels, indicating heavy loads of adult parasites. Lamb 15 is an exception, yet the gross and histopathology picture indicates he was as heavily infected as the other lambs; possibly a mistake was made in the count. �-93- Lamb Number *73BHL- 7 *73BHL- 8 73BHL-ll 73BHL-12 73BHL-13 73BHL-14 73BHL-15 73BHL-16 73BHL-17 *73BHL-18 73BHL-19 Larvae per Lamb 1,286,900 first-stage 5,774,710 first-stage Many 3rd, 4th and 3,947 first 507,020 first-stage 259,490 first-stag~ 2,279,800 first-stage 75,640 first-stage 470,625 first-stage 898,650 first-stage Many third and fourth stages 960,412 (partially digested) *Born of captive bighorn sheep from Pikes Peak and all (except 18) died of verminous pneumonia in captivity. Lamb 18 was not claimed by the ewe and starved. These animals (7, 8, 18) were not reported in 1972-73 report. For lambs in the series prior to BHL-7, check last year's annual report; all of these lambs were from Pikes Peak ewes and were either still-births or died from other neonatal problems. All were heavily infected with transplacentally transmitted lungworm. SOMATIC STORAGE OF PROTOSTRGNGYLUS IN BIGHORN SHEEP INTRODUCTION Lambs born on Pikes Peak are heaVily infected with lungworm as a result of transplacental transmission during the 'last trimester of pregnancy. The only method by which such a phenomenon could occur is for the ewe to become infected by eating snails containing third-stage larvae. She must then store these larvae somewhere in he r body (somatic storage) until late pregnancy. Snails are not available in the winter months; therefore, ewes must eat infectea snails in spring, sunnner and/or fall and store the larvae. There are two reasons for seeking the site of somatlc storage in the ewe. From an applied standpoint, antihelminthics can be more accurately evaluated if the site is known. From a basic standpoint, the site of storage may offer some clues regarding innnunology to the parasite. METHODS AND MATERIALS Various tissues from each ewe necropsied in late August, 1973, through March, 1974, were ground or minced and placed in 1 gallon jars containing water for 24 hours to allow any larvae present to exit. The ground tissue was removed with a strainer and then washed several times to remove any larvae remaining on tissue surfaces. This tissue was held for digestion. The washings and original soaking fluid were allowed to sit for 30 minutes to permit any larvae to settle to the bottom. Excess fluid was then decanted. Sediment and remaining fluid were examined for larvae. The tissues were then placed in 1 �-94- gallon jars and Pepsin-HCI solution added to digest tissues, allowing any larvae still trapped within to be released. After 24 hours sufficient formalin was added to create a 10 percent formalin solution and stop digestion, preserving any larvae present. Again, the decanting procedure was followed. Since the sediment remaining was very thick, anhydrous ether was added to 20 percent total voltune, to float the di.gested organic matter, leaving ltmgworm larvae in the aqueous layer below. The organic layer was removed by aspiration with a pipette and rubber bulb. The aqueous layer was examined for presence of larvae. Specific tissues examined for larvae were as follows: bone and bone marrow, muscle of the front and hind quarters, facial muscle, cervical muscle, muscle of the back, lOins, limbs and thoracic area, abdominal muscle diaphragm, soft and hard palates of the mouth, tongue, gums, salivary glands, trachea, pharynx, nasal turbinates and sinus scrapings, lungs, esophagus, rtunen, reticultun, omastun, ab omas tun, small and large intestines, pancreas, liver, gall bladc'.er,spleen, perit oneum , omen tum , thy.:-oid,thymus, kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, adr-ena.l s , ovaries, uterus, vaginal tissue, mammaries, body fat, beart, pericarditun, major arteries and veins, lymph nodes, brain, spinal cord, eyes and integtunent. RESULTS Case #1: In late August, 1973, a ewe trapped on Pikes Peak the previous winter, and held in captivity at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Station at Fort Collins, died of acute Pasteurellosis. One Protostrongylus sp. L3 was found in lung tissue and all other tissues were negative. Case #2: In October 1973, a ewe trapped in Pikes Peak the previous winter, and held in c3.ptivity at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Station at Fort Collins, died of acutePasteule1losis. One Protostrongylus sp. L3 was found in lung tissue and all other tissues examined were negative. Case #3: In early November, 1973, a ewe trapped on Pike~ Peak the previous winter and held in captivity at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Station at Fort Collins, died of acute Pasteurellosis. All tissues examined were negative Case #4: for Protostrongylus sp. L • 3 In November, 1973, a ewe trapped on Pikes Peak the previous winter and held in captivity at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Station at Fort Collins died of acute Pasteurellosis. Two Protostrongylus Bp. L3 were found in lung tissue and all other tissues examined were negative. Case #5: In November, 1973, a ewe trapped on Pikes Peak the previous winter and held in captivity at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Station at Fort Collins, died of acute Pasteurellosis. Three Protostrongylus sp. L3 were found in lung tissue and all other tissues examined were negative. �-95- Case #6: In early February, 1974, a ewe that was a trap mortality on Pikes Peak was examined. She was 2-4 weeks pregnant. Her lung tissue showed 124 Protostrongylus Spa L • All other 3 tissues including the fetus were negative. Case #7: In earlJ February, 1974, a ewe that was a trap mortality on Pikes Peak was e~~ined and showed 55 Protostrongylus Spa L3 in lung tissue. All other tissues examined were negative. This ewe was not pregnan t , Case #8: In early February, 1974, a ewe recently trapped on Pikes Peak died of ventricular fibrillation while being unloaded at the Wild Animal Disease Center Pens at Colorado State University at Fort Collins. She was 8-10 weeks pregnant. Her lung tissue ,;howed 124 Protostrongylus Spa L3' All other tissues examined, including the fetus were negative. Case #9: In early March, 1974, a ewe that was a trap mortality on Pikes Peak was examined. She was 12-16 weeks pregn~nt and showed 34 Protostrongylu~ Spa L3 in lung tissue and three Protostrongylus Spa L3 in the cotyledous. All other tissues examined including the fetus were negative. Case #10: In mid-March, 197~, a ewe at the Wild Animal Disease Center Pens at Colorado State University died as a result of injuries suffered when previously trapped on Pikes Peak. She had been treated with Tramisol at the time of her capture. Her fetus was aborted before she died and was negative for Protostrongylus Spa L3• He~ lung tissue showed 20 Protostrongylus Spa L3 and all other tissues examined were negative. Case #11: In mid-March, 1974, a ewe trapped on Pikes Peak aborted her fetus some 3-5 days after being released into penn at the Wild Animal Disease Center facility at Colorado State University. The aborted fetus was found the morning of the ewe's death. This fetus was about 12-16 weeks old and was negative for Protostrongylus Spa L3 . The ewe's lung tissue showed 26 Protostrongylus Spa L3 and the cotyledons showed 3 Protostrongylus Spa L3. All other tissues examined were negative. Case #12: In late March, 1974, a ewe trapped on Pikes Peak and released into pens at the Wild Animal Disease Center at Colorado State University began to abort her fetus. Her condition deteriorated and she died. She had been treated with Task at the time of her capture. Her lung tissue and cotyledons showed 20 and 4 Protostrongylus Spa L3 , respectively. All other tissues examined including the fetus, were negative. �-96- Case #13: In late March, 1974, a ewe trapped on ?ikes Peak bloated and died while still in the net. Her lung tissue contained 23 Protostrongylus sp. L3 and the fetal liver contained 6 Protostrongylus sp. L3 • All other tissues examined were negative. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The data observed on the ewes which died in late 1973 of acute Pasteurellosis at the Colorado Division of Wildlife's Research ftation at Fort Collins, showed lung tissue to be a storage site of ProtostrongYlus sp. L3 • Ewes examined through the middle of February, 1974, showed relatively high numbers of Protostrongylus sp. L3 within their lung tissue at a time when exposure to snails containing these larvae was greatly reduced due to winter climatic conditions on Pikes Peak. Ewes examined after early March, 1974, showed relatively low numbers of Protostrongylus sp. L3 in lung tissue but L3 larvae began to appear in their reproductive tissues and eventually the liver of the fetus. CONCLUSIONS These data to suggest that Protostrongylus sp. L3 migrate to the lungs of ewes but do not develop to mature adults; rather they remain dormant until some mechanism triggers them to move (by an unknown route) to transplacentally infect the fetus. Obviously, much more research is needed to ver:l.fythese phenomena and to show the route that L3 take from storage si~e(s) to the fetus. Hopefully, this may be accompli~hed in 1974-75. �-97- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Colorado Project No. W-124-R-2 Raptor Investigations Work Plan No. __~l~ Job Title: Job No. 1 Statewide Raptor Populations and Characteristics Studies Period Covered: Personnel: _ February 1, 1973 through January 31, 1974 Gerald R. Craig ABS~RACT One hundred and thirty-nine golden eagle nests were surveyed .for activity and productivity in 1973. An average of 1.13 young golden eagles per active site were estimated to have fledged. Productivity of four osprey nests was reduced to two young fledged from one site. Twenty-three peregrine sites were surveyed and 11 pairs were located which r~presented a 50% decline in known breeding pairs. young. Productivity was poor with the 11 sites producing only two Data for eggshell thinning and pesticide content is given. Sixty-one prairie ~alcon sites succeeded in producing an estimated 94 fledglings (an average of 2.84 young fledged per productive site). Wintering bald and golden eagle trend information was obtained through aerial cen~uses of northeastern Colorado. An experimental aerial eagle census of southeastern Colorado did not produce sufficient results to justify adoption. Statewide eagle concentra- tion counts were made in February and March by field personnel. The statewide concentration counts also yielded information about habitat preferences and activity of eagles. Mortality factors were obtained from reports of injured and dead raptors turned into the Division and its cooperators. and one technical articles were written. Two popular ��-99- STATEWIDE RAPTOR POPUlATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS STUDIES Gerald R. Craig To investigate status of current populations, including distribution, characteristics migration, patterns and chronology and trends of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in or through Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop and refine methods for determining breeding numbers of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado. 2. Develop and refine methods for determining winter trend information for Bald and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado. 3. Locate and categorize major and important habitats and associated Bald and Golden Eagle, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcon and Burrowing Owl populations 4. in Colorado. Establish and maintain annual or periodic inventories of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie 'Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado from inventory methods selected from Project Statement Procedures 1 and 2. 5. Monitor mortalities and inspect injured and dead raptors reported or brought to the Division to determine mortality factors of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls and other species that are obtained incidentally. 6. Initiate and maintain a IO-year raptor banding program to determine migration, chronology, movement, life tables and mortalities of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls and other species that are encountered accidentally. 7. Prepare a series of comprehensive information leaflets and recreational guides at intervals when the information becomes available. �-100- METHODS AND MATERIALS Breeding Inventory Bald Eagles As confirmed nesting nesting bald eagle observations investigations and little actual Golden are nonexistent have been limited to inquiries of any nesting attempts field work. Eagles The nesting gressed survey of golden eagles commenced through June 30. Two temporary in March, employees to time limitations and existence of extensive drive, trail bike or on foot. and 15 to 60x variable spotting nest sites, the attached ability mapping data sheets of the observers. investigators active and inactive populations were made using binoculars Upon discovery of active or inactive (Appendix A) were completed While and Rio Blanco Counties early in the nesting nature, in northwestern productivity, Where such observations the nest, thus many nestlings entering dense nesting sites which were determined season in order to establish feasible, the Colorado. prey remains and band nestlings. without the amount of their time to to the particularly An attempt was made to revisit more accessible to be active to the best some time was spent throughout of the effort was confined in Moffat investigations Observations to devote the greatest sites. Due several hours either As the survey was of an extensive were encouraged state, the majority scopes. the period. nesting habitat, limited to those sites that could be reached within by 4-wheel 1973, and pro- equipped with a 4-wheel drive vehicle and trail bikes were in the field throughout were in Colorado efforts were made to make were not banded. Peregrine Falcon The peregrine continued through July 31, 1973. cooperation falcons. falcon nesting survey was initiated March The primary with James H. Enderson, All known historic surveyed eyrie sites investigator 1, 1973 and (G. R. Craig), in the state for nesting peregrine (a total of 23) were visited by the investigators and each site including adjacent The procedure established in determining vantage points overlooking known or suspected suitable habitat, activity was to position was surveyed. oneself at eyrie sites and keep the area �-101- under observation with binoculars and spotting scopes for six to eight hours minimum if falcons were not seen prior to the cutoff time. The activity of the falcons, extensive and often convoluted nature of the terrain, great distance of vantage points from nest sites (often in excess of ~ mile) and observer fatigue made the presence of two observers almost mandatory. Sub- stanciation of presence of nesting falcons was often facilitated by inspecting nesting areas for excrement on potential roost sites and noting activity of other raptors and prey species. Upon confirmation of presence of peregrines, periodically the site was revisited to establish nesting activity, initiation and completion of egg laying behavior of the pair. Hatching time was estimated for those pairs apparently incubating eggs and the nest site was climbed into to collect unhatched eggs, shell fragments and prey remains. Duration of visits was limited to less than 30 minutes at the nest cliff and only several minutes at the nest site. were also visited that were occupied by unsuccessful Sites falcons to determine the extent of each nesting attempt, collect infertile eggs and shell fragments, and collect prey remains. Sites occupied by successful pairs were again revisited at time of fledging and the number of fledglings was determined from a distant vantage point. Thus, it was necessary to actually visit the nest site and disturb the falcons only one time. Prairie Falcons Nesting investigations of prairie falcons were carried out concurrently with studies of golden eagles and peregrines. Intensive field work on prairie falcons was associated with Work Plan I, Job No. 2 of W-l24-R-2 and is described in the Job Progress Report for that study. Historic prairie falcon eyr.ies along the Front Range of Colorado were visited at time of fledging to determine productivity. Nest cliffs were examined with spotting scope and binoculars to locate active nest ledges and determine presence of tLe adults. Whether or not falcons were sighted, the investigator climbed to the base of the cliff and then worked his way to the cliff top. Invariably, active sites would be disclosed when an adult would fly by to protest the investigator's presence. If time permitted, the inves- tigator would then rappel into the eyrie to establish brood Size, band the young and identify prey remains. Nest site information, surrounding habitat �-102- and disturbance Appendix A. factors were recorded on forms similar to that described in Osprey Nesting investigations through July 31, 1973. productivity, of osprey commenced early in June and continued In mid-July, known nest sites were visited to ascertain band nestlings, collect eggshell fragments and record data on the nest sites, habitat and disturbance factors. (Preliminary nest locations and determination of activity in North Park, Colorado was accomplished by Wildlife Conservation Officer Steven Porter). Due to low nesting densities and the nesting habitat utilized by Colorado osprey, nest searches designed specifically for osprey are not feasible, the most effective method appears to be solicitation of observation from field personnel who are likely to encounter the birds in the course of their work. Burrowing Owls Burrowing owl nesting investigations were restricted to recording locations of burrowing owl colonies reported by field personnel and the public. WINTER INVENTORY a) Aerial Golden Eagle Census in NE Colorado The same procedure established in 1972 was followed. Briefly, an area of 3,000 square miles was des Lgna t ad in northeastern Colorado. The area is bounded on the west by U. S. 85 from Greeley to th~ Colorado-Wyoming border; the north boundary is the eastern boundary is Highway 71 south to Colorado 14, thence south to Interstate 80-S; the southern boundary is Colorado 36 from I-80-S to Greeley. Thirteen randomly selected south transects represent a total of 600 linear miles. The tra~sects are flown with a Cessna 185 at an altitude of 100 to 200 feet with speeds averaging 100 to 120 miles per hour, and all raptors within ~ mile of either side of the aircraft are counted. for the entire 3,000 square mile area. b) The results obtained are then extrapolated Aerial Golden Eagle Census in SE Colorado A 10,000 square mile area in southeastern was delineated for an aerial census similar to that described for the northeastern Colorado cenSUG. The area is bounded on the west by Interstate 25 from the New Mexico border to Pueblo; the northern boundary approximates the Arkansas River from Pueble east to the Kansas border; the eastern border is the Coljrado-Kansas is the Colorado-Oklahoma border; and the southern border and Colorado-New Mexico borders. Twenty randomly selected �-103- north-south transects represent a total of approximately 1,000 linear miles. The transects are flown in the same manner described for the northeastern aerial census. The actual coverage of 500 square miles (~ mile on both sides of the aircraft for 1,000 miles) represents a 10% sample of the study area. c) Aerial Bald Eagle Census of South Platte River from Greeley to Fort Morgan Upon completion of the northeastern Colorado aerial census, a flight was made of the South Platte River from Fort Morgan to Greeley. identical from one year to the next. The procedure is The aircraft is flown above the river at altitudes of 150 to 300 feet and at speeds of 100 to 120 miles per hour. All eagles observed on either side of the aircraft are classified as to species and age. d) Aerial Bald Eagle Census of Arkansas River from Pueblo to Colorado-Kansas Border Upon completion of the experimental Southeastern Colorado aerial flight, the aircraft was flown along the course of the Arkansas. River and an attempt was made to count eagles present along the river. The same technique was used as described in the South Platte bald eagle census. e) Statewide W.C.O. Eagle Concentration Counts For the second year, all Wildlife Conservation Officers were requested to record all eagles observed in their districts during the periods of February 3-9 and March 3-9. The officers were instructed to survey those areas where greatest concentrations of eagles were likely to occur. LOCATION OF IMPORTANT HABITATS Data as to land use, begitative type, disturbance factors were recorded on nest report forms (Appendix A) which were completed for each raptor nest that was investigated. In addf.t Lor, , the major vegitation types in which raptors were observed were recorded on migration and winter raptor population censuses. MORTALITY Reports of dead raptors were obtained from field personnel, where possible they attempted to determine and report the cause of mort~lity. When feasible, carcasses were brought into the investigator for examination to ascertain cause of mortality. A variety of injured raptors were also brought into several veterinarians authorized to treat and rehabilitate wildlife. Species, sex, age, cause of injury �-104- location of discovery, party turning the raptor in and other pertinent data were recorded by the veterinarians poses of computation, and turned into the Division of Wildlife. such incapacitated since they were incapacitated For pur- raptors were considered as mortalities, sufficiently to permit their capture. BANDING Nestlings were banded when nest sites were visited to obtain productivity and preY,data. In regard to E:agles, sites were not visited for banding purposes if the 'eaglets were within two weeks of fledging. caus.tng them to fledge prematurely. I t Icn This precaution was to avoid Raptors were also trapped during fall migra- at several localities where trapping stations were erected. Further, inca- pacitated raptors that had beE'.ll rehabilitated were banded upon release to monitor /the success of rehabilitation. ./ / RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Inventory Bald Eagles One probable bald eagle nest was located on the Colorado River west of Rifle, Colorado. An interview with the landowner revea Led that the site had been occupied by a pair of bald eagles in 1968, 1969 and 1970. been successful in rearing several young in that pe,iod. The pair had As the region is frequented by wintering bald eagles, the stockman was acquainted with the difference between bald eagles and golden eagles, thus the chances of minidentification are remote. He has made special note that the pair had white heads and tails indicative of adult plumage. The site was vinited on several occasions in the &pring and summer of 1913, and while bald eagles were observed along the river early in the spring, no eagles were observed to be attached to the site. The nest is locat~d in a large cottonwood tree on an island in the center of the Colorado River. It is quite large and bulky and unlike the average golden eagle nest, appears to be construc.ted almost entirely of large sticks which are uniform in diameter. inspected by authorities Photographs of the nest have been experienced with bald eagle nests and most have observed that it is typical of nests constructed by bald eagles. Golden Eagles A total of 139 golden eagle nest sites were surveyed for activity in 1973. Fifty-two percent of the sites were located in northeastern Colorado {Rio Blanco �-105- and Moffat Counties). As many sites as possible WEre located early in the nesting season and an effort was made to return to the sites prior to fledging to delineate productivity. Unfortunately, this could not be accomplished in all cases and fledging success was estimated by visiting the sites after fledging and inspecting for prey remains and ~ther signs of the former presence of young. Seventy-nine percent of the sites were active (activity was defined as a site with fresh decorations or an incubating adult), A total of 86 young were estimated to have been produced by 68 sites (54 young were observed in 36 nests), which averages 1.26 young per site (an average of 1.50 young per site were observed). Brood sizes of 1 were estimated for those sites for which no early productivity data was obtained. Sixty-six young were estimated to have fledged from 59 sites (59 young were observed to have fledged from 52 sites), which averages 1.11 young fledged per site (an average of 1.13 young per site were observed to have fledged). Osprey Little is known of osprey nesting activities in Colorado. In the past, only two sites were known, one on Grand Lake in Grand County and the other on Electra Lake in LaPlata County. Both sites have been active at least from the mid-1960's and on several occasions, at least two yo~ng were fledged from both sites. The Electra Lake nest supposedly has fledged at least 2 young each year. While sightings of cspr ey are fairly common during migration, summer sightings are few. Jim Webb of the U. S. Forest Service, stationed at Steam- boat Springs provided a number of such summer observations in Routt and Jackson Counties. John Ellenberger, Wildlife Conservation Officer in North Park reported one osprey nest recently discovered by Forest Service personnel, as well as a second site he had located. Both sites were visited by a second Wildlife Conservation Officer, Steve Porter, in the spring of 1973 and were determined to be active as adults were present on the nests during incubation. Later, when young should have hatched, the trees were climbed to determine productivity. Neither site produced young, nor could eggshcll fragments be discovered. Table 3 provides productivity figures for the four known osprey nests. A pair of adults were present early in incubation at the Grand Lake site, but abandoned nesting activities. cessful in producing young in 1973. Thus, only the Electra Lake pair were suc- �-106- Peregrine Falcons In cooperation with J. H. Enderson the history of occupancy of historic peregrine eyries was compiled which is summarized in Table 4 . All historic peregrine total of 23 sites surveyed, falcon eyrie sites were visited in 1973 and a 11 were found to have pairs present with another site occupied by a lone male. This represents a 50% decline in number of known breeding pairs in Colorado frcm 1964 to 1973. In addition to investigating known eyries sites, efforts were expended to survey suitable habitats for new eyrie sites. A total of 19 such sites were visited which contained ideal nest cliffs and hunting areas, but for whi.ch no peregrine sightings had been reported. One new pair was located with a possible second nesting pair (both falcons were observed early in the nesting season, but later searches failed to reveal the pair) and a possible adult at another. The terrain did not permit confirmation of the observation and the falcon was not sighted again. Total productivity site fledging 2 young. for the 11 pairs of peregrines was meager with only one By making visits to sites and observing pairs through spotting scopes, it was determined that at least 6, and possibly 7, pairs were incubating eggs (eyries 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 and possibly 9). At least 2 pairs (eyries 2 and 6) failed during incubation of the first clutch and renested on another ledge. Nesting faflure eyrie 1 may be attributed to disturbance by rock climbers, but failure of other sites. could not be attributed disturbance.In to human fact, the single pair that succeeded in fledging young received a great deal of indirect human harrassment by rock climbers. Two infertile and one E.bandoned egg were each collected from different eyries (eyries 1, 2 and 8) a.nd eggshell fragments were found at another eyrie (No.6). The thickness index (described by Ratcliffe with a micrometer, 1967), thickness measured and eggshell weight were compared with similar data for eggshells of the subspecies available in the literature (see Table 6). Egg- shell thinning on the order of 20% of pre-1947 eggshells is evident which is about that averaged by the eastern population of peregrines as it was declining to extinction. Contents of the three intact eggs were analyzed for chloronated hydrocarbon residues by the Denver Wildlife Research Center. DDE residues accounted for 90% of the pesticide residues and the levels were found to be similar to those found in interior Alaskan and Canadian peregrine populations. �-107- Among prey taken by peregrines (Aeronautes saxatalis), at eyries were White-throated swifts, rock dove, (Columba livia), Brewer's blackbirds, (Euphagus cyanocephalus), Clark's nutcracker, jays (Gymnorhinus cyanocephala), (Nucitraga columbiana), pinon and mourning doves (Zenaidura macrura). Prairie Falcons A total of 61 prairie falcon nesting in J.973. The majority of the sites were located east of the Continental The number of sites surveyed is probably population, but time limitations known sites. locations were surveyed for activity less than one-sixth of the entire did not permit detailed investigations Primary purpose of the visits was to establish presence and secondarily Fifty-four Divide. of all of falcons to estimate productivity. of the 61 sites were determined to be active (an active site was defined as one having at least an adult male or female attached to a nest cliff). A total of 85 young were known to have been produced by 37 sites (average of 2.3 young per site). However, the actual number of young produced by 14 of the 37 sites was not established, thus actual production of 23 sites is 3.7 young per eyrie which is probably more indicative of productions of tile population. Known fledging success could be determined from 22 sites '~ich fledged 79 young (average of 3.69 young per site). success of 11 additional Fledging not available due either to lack of observation true of 6 sites), or disappearance young but for which production at time of fledging information is lacking (5 sites). lings for each of the 11 sites, thus yielding an adjusted The adjusted (this was of young from sites that obviously produced fledging success may be adjusted by assuming average production 2.84. sites was Thus, known of 3.69 nest- fledging success of fledging success of 2.84 per eyrie is 0.85 o~ a bird less than the estimated fledging success of 3.69 for all 33 sites. from 5 and possibly 6 sites between hatching and fledging. persons may be a factor in at l~ast four and possibly Broods disappeared Removal of young by six cases. Production of prairie falcons in 1973 appeared to be good with little nat- ural mortality occuring between hatching and fledging in eyries that were remote from human disturbance. �-108- Burrowing Owls As is common of the species, burrowing prairie dog (Cynomy~~) colonies. owls were commonly associated with Burrowing owl populations appear to be stable with owls being abundant in some localities and nonexistent despite apparently ideal conditions. in others Sightings were made throughout the eastern plains region of the state and were generally associated with blacktailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovic~) 8 to 10 miles north of Fort Collins Broomfield Animas towns. Concentrations (Larimer Co.), east of Timnath (Boulder Co.), and the Comanche National Grasslands counties). with white-tailed (Larimer Co.), (Otero and Las Owls were also observed along the Colorado Valley (Garfield Co.) in association leucurus). were reported River near Grand prairie dogs (Cynomys WINTER INVENTORY a) Aerial Golden Eagle Census in NE Colorado Due to difficulty peak concentration in scheduling an aircraft more than one time during the months of December, January and February, were reduced to one in mid-.January. establish As the primary purpose of the count is to trend data from year to year to determine possible the reduction the number of flights of flights to one should not alter the results. long range fluctuations, Table 10 summarizes the results of the 1972-73 winter flights and the January 1974 flight. b) Aerial Golden Eagle Cens~s in SE Colorado The flight was initiateo January 23, 1974, but due to the length of time required' to complete the census, an additional flight. Unfortunately, day was required to complete pressing ~atters required delaying completion one day until January 25, 1974. The investigators number of eagles observed despite ideal habitat. an extrapolated of the flight at the small Only 10 eagles were observed for number of 100 eagles in the entire 10,000 square mile study area. This was only one eagle per 100 square miles. decided that this flight would discontinued c) were su~rised the Due to the poor results, it was in the future. Aerial Bald Eagle Census of South Platte River from Greeley to Fort Morgan As the flight is integral with the northeastern Colorado aerial census, the number of flights were reduced from three of the previous winter to one only in January. This flight was made January 16, 1974, counting ccnditions were ideal �-109- and it was estimated that the census of the riverbottom of the total population. The irmnature population was accurate increased within 5% slightly from 42% in 1973 to 48% in 1974 (see Table 11). d) Aerial Bald Eagle, Census of Arkansas River from Pueble to the Colorado-Kansas Border The count of the Arkansas tion of the southeastern River was made on January Colorado flight. only three (2 adults and 1 immature) eagle and one unknown made to establish e) Statewide The results were disappointing bald eagle observations, eagle sighting. Consequently, W.C.O. Eagle Concentration 50% of the Wildlife Counts Conservation Officers forms, the results of which are presented (61 bald eagles and 157 golden eagles). 269 eagles were observed, gathered one adult golden no future plans have been responded in Table 12, ruary 3-9 count period, a total of 225 eagles were observed, eagles observed by returning In the Feb- of which 27% were bald In the March 3-9 count period, of which 17% were bald eagles. As compared in 1972, Table 12, the total number of eagles observed period decreased with trend data in this region. Approximately observation 25, 1974, upon comple- with data in the February 51% (466 in 1972 to 225 in 1973) and the total nUmber of eagles in the March period declined 19% (333 in 1972 to 269 in 1973). When the average number of eagles sighted per observer are compared for 1972 and 1973 (Table 12) the cause for the decline in total eagles obseyved is apparently to a decrease in the wintering The observation bald eagle population. forms also provided for information and habitats over which they were Sighted. feeding,upon carrion. Road-killed eagles were observed The activity Trees were preferred in trees), 870were perched of eagles rabbits were fed In 34% of the sharing kills with other eagles. (87 were bald eagles and 337 were 28 were unidentified to bald eagles, 34% were observed were perched. and unidentified for 27% and elk 5%. of 452 eagles were recorded golden eagles, the remaining as to activity Table 14 details of eagles observed jackrabbits upon by 47% of the eagles, deer accounted observations due as to species). With regard flying, 10% were feeding upon carrion, perch sites of bald eagles on ice and 6% were perched and 55% (79% were perched on the ground. Of golden eagles, 37% were seen flying, 9% were feeding upon carrion and 52% were perched. Thirty-five ground, percent of the golden eagles were perched on power poles, 26% on the 11% in trees, 10% were on fence posts and 8% were perched croppings. on rock out- �-110- LOCATION OF IMPORTANT HAB:::TATS a) Habitat Preferences of Wintering Data recorded by Wildlife is summarized accounted Conservation were observed in that vegetative in riverbottom that type of habitat. grassland Officers on eagle concentration in regard to habitat preferences for 37% of the sightings were observed Eagles in Table 16. counts Pure sage stands of golden eagles while Wo of the bald eagles type. Thirty-four percent of the bald eagles habitats while only 4% of the golden eagles were in Fourteen percent of the golden eagles were located in situations and p% of the bald eagles were in similar areas. MORTALITY Of 187 dead and injured raptors reported in Colorado December from January 1 through 31, 1973, 22% were caused by collision with objects, 20% were caused by gunshot and 17% were caused by vehicle strikes (Table 17). Golden eagles accounted for lWo, red-tailed hawks for 15% and great horned owls for 14% and American kes- trels for 12% of the dead and injured raptors. Figure 1 Breakdown by Month of Dead or Injured Raptors Reported to the Division Number Raptors 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. - 1973 Nov. Dec. �-111- The graph depicts seasons when injured or dead raptors were reported. The graph follows a trend similar to 1972 in that there is a general decline in mortalities from January through May when the raptors have already undergone great mortality unavailable of f~ll migration in nesting and winter. Raptors, season and are relatively November when migrating trusting, encounter humans. and man. adults, are secure from mortality. and injuries climb sharply as fled lings first encounter and quickly succumb to the environment especially Death the world on their own The next peak occurs during immature raptors from the north, which are relatively BANDING Table 19 lists the species and numbers of raptors banded in Colorado the Division of Wildlife from January through December, ARTICLES. INFORMATION the bi-monthly publication of the Division Hawks and Falcons of Colorado" the March-April peregrines 1973 issue. 1973. for Colorado Outdoors, of Wildlife, and "Colorado's entitled "The Eagles. Raptor Prog'Iam", published A technical article on the status of nesting was co=aut ho re.I with Dr. James H. Enderson and published October 1974 issue of Auk, Vol. 91, p. 727-736. Prepared by, C. IZ. e.a.:, Gerald R. Craig by GUIDES AND LEAFLETS Two popular articles about raptors were written the in the in �-112TAB1E 1 Activity and Productivity of Colorado Golden Ellg1es -- Symbols: A = active site; IA = inactive site; Site Number Activity CH-2 A CH-3 A FA-2 IA FA-4 A FA-5 A FA-8 IA EP-3 A GA.-3 A Adult incubating GA.-8 A Adult incubating GR-1 A GR-9 IA HU-3 A HU-8 A 1S-1 Number of young Number Fledged 2 2 = no ohservations Comments Adult brooding 1 0 1 wk chick dead below nest 1+ 1 chick 1 wk. of age 1+ Adult brooding A 1+ 4-5 wks. of age 1S-2 A 0 0 1S-5 A 1 1 ME-5 A 1 1 ME-6 IA ME-7 A ME-8 IA MI-l A 1+ MF-l A 2 2 MF-2 A 1+ 1 MF-5 A 0 0 MF-6 A 2 1 MF-8 A 2 1 MF-ll A 0 0 MF-13 A 1+ 1 MF-15 A 1+ 1 MF-18 A 1+ 1+ 1 spoiled egg Adult incubating Abandoned No eggs laid �Activity Table 1 and Productivity -113of Colorado Golden Eagles page 2 Site Number Number _N~u=m~b~e~r __ ~A~c~t~i~v~i~t~y o~f~y~o~u_nag __ ~F~l~ed~g~e~d~ __ ~C~omm==e~n~t~s~ MF-19 A 1 1 MF-2l A 1 1 MF-22 A 1 1 MF-23 A 2 2 MF-24 A 2 2 MF-25 A o o MF-26 A 1 1 MF-27 A MF-28 A 1+ 1 MF-29 A 2 1 MF-3l A 1 1 MF-33 A 1+ 1 MF-35 A MF-36 IA MF-37 A 1+ 1 MF-38 A o o MF-39 A 2 2 Adult incubating 5 wk. chick dead below nest Adult incubating 2 spoiled eggs MF-40 MF-4l A MF-42 IA MF-43 A 1+ 1+ MF-44 A 1+ o MF-46 A 1+ 1 MF-47 A o o MF-48 IA MF-49 A MF-SO A l-1F-Sl MF-S2 Adult incubating MF-45 Nest filled wlsand Pair shot in 1972 o o A 1+ 1+ A 1+ 1 MF-S4 A 1+ 1 MF-SS IA MF-56 A 1+ 1 MF-S3 Abandoned - human disturbance _ �-114Activity Table 1 2',ndProducti vi ty of Colorado Golden Eagles page 3 Site Number ACtiTity Number of young Number Fledged MF-57 A 0 0 MF-58 IA pu-o A RI-l A 0 0 1 spoiled egg RI-3 A 2 1 Dead chick below nest RI-6 A 1+ 1 RI-7 A 1+ 1+ RI-lO A RI-12 A 1 1 RI-13 A 1 1 1 spoiled egg RI-14 A 0 0 2 spoiled eggs RI-15 A 0 0 Abandoned RI-16 IA RI-17 A RI-l8 IA RI-19 A RI-20 IA RI-2l IA RI-22 A RI-23 IA RI-24 A RI-25 incubating 1+ 1 0 0 A 0 0 RI-28 A 2 RI-29 A 0 0 RI-30 A 1+ 1 RI-3l A 1+ 1 RI-32 A 2 2 RI-33 A 2 2 RI-34 -- 1+ 1+ RI-26 RI-27 RI-35 RI-37 A 2 spoiled eggs Adults 1+ RI-38 Comments 1 spof.Led egg �-115Activity Table 1 and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles Site Number Activity Number of young Number Fledged RI-39 A 1+ I RI-40 IA RI-41 A 1 SA-2 A 2 2 SA-3 A 2 2 SA-4 IA WE-1 A 1 1 WE-2 A 0 0 WE-3 A 0 0 WE-4 A 0 0 WE-5 A 0 0 WE-6 IA WE-7 IA WE-8 A 2 2 WE-9 A 2 1 WE-lO A 2 2 WE-ll A 0 0 WE-12 IA WE-13 IA WE-14 IA WE-15 A 1+ I WE-16 A 1 1 WE-17 A 0 0 WE-18 A 2 2 WE-19 A 2 0 WE-20 A 1 1 WE-21 A 0 0 WE-22 IA WE-23 A 1+ 1 WE-24 IA WE-25 IA Comments Fledgling dead below nest Nest gone Nest gone WE-26 A 1+ WE-27 A 0 0 WE-28 A 1+ 1 1 page 4 �-116Activity Table 1 and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles Site Number Activity Number of young Number Fledged WE-29 A 1+ 1 WE-30 IA WE-31 A WE-32 IA lVE-33 A WE-34 IA WE-35 IA WE-36 A LO-1 A 1 egg 10-2 A 2 eggs LO-3 A 1 egg LO-4 A 1 LO-5 A 0 0 LO-6 A lA-I A 1 1 Comments Nest gone 1+ 1 0 0 1 1 page 5 �-117- TABLE 2 Summary of Actual and Estimated Productivity 110 of 139 sites (79%) were determined of Colorado Golden Eagles to be active. 80 (73%) of the active sites were known to have produced eggs. 8 (7%) additional eggs as was indicated sites were suspected by incubating to have contained adults. 68 (61%) of the active sites produced young. 59 (54%) of the active sites fledged young. A total of 54 young were observed in 36 nests prior to fledging. 34 additional young were assumed to have been produced by 33 other sites. estimated productivity of Total was 86 young produced by 68 sites. A total of 59 young were observed 7 additional A minimum to have fledged from 52 sites with at least young fledged from 7 other sites. success was 66 young fledged from 59 sites. Averages. Average observed brood size: 1.50 young/site Average estimated brood size: 1.26 young/site Average observed fledging Success: 1.13 Average estimated 1.11 fledging success: Total estimated fledging �-118- TABLE Activity Symbols: and Productivity A = Active 3 of Colorado Osprey - 1973 site Activity No. of Young Number Fledged Comments GR-2 A 0 0 Adults JA-2 A 0 0 Adults incubating. JA-3 LP-l 1.1 A 0 0 Adult incubating A 2 2 Eyrie Designation 1/ Reported to investigators incubating. by reputable observer. �TABLE 4 Table 4 - Occupancy Site 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 *10 *11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 * of Colorado Peregrine Pre-1964 1964 1965 P P + + + p p P A A M Falcon Eyries 1966 1967 1964-1974 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 P P P P P P M P P P P P P P P A P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P A P p P p + V p P A F + + + + + + + + + V V + V P M P p V A V V V V V V A 1./ V V V V A These are neighboring V V V V sites and this could represent V V A a shift of one pair from site 10 to site 11 1/ An adult female w~s found dead in the vicinity of th~ eyrie. + = Known to have had pairs present prior to 1964. Blank Spaces = No data available for that year. P = Pair. M = Male . F = Female. A = Lone adult· V = Site was vacant. P V A V V V V V V V V V V I •..... •..... \0 I �-120TABLE 5 Results of Nesting Colorado 1/ Peregrines in 1973 Visits Eggs Young 1 7 3 o Adult present 4 March; copulation, incubation 7 May; 3 eggs (1 spoiled) 17 May; pair inattentive 5 June (zock climbers in eyrie). 2 lO +2 o Copulation 5 April; incubation 2 May; clutch broken 7 May; shell fragment and spoiled egg on new ledge 25 May. 3 4 ? o Pair absent early in season; not incubating in middle of incubation period; not present in early summer, etc. 4 7 o o Pair seen once, lone birds on two visits; no evidence of nesting. 5 7 +'!J o Copulation seen 1 March, 13 May; pair visited ledges in mid-May; incubated in midJune in apparent renesting attempt; pair absent 19 July. 6 13 3 2 Copulation 10 March and through early April; laying 11 April; chose new ledge 16 April; incubating 21 April; 3 eggs 19 May; two 2-wk. young 5 June; young near fledging in late June; young flying early July. 7 4 + o Probable incubation 5 May, incubation ledge empty, female passive 31 May. 8 2 1 o Female carried food to ledge 25 May; one spoiled egg only 31 May, female incubating. 9 2 ? ? Male on cliff 14 May, incubation possible; pair flying and p~rching, young unlikely 9 June. lO 2 ? o Copulation and ledge scraping 14 May; lone adult passive 18 July, no young. 11 3 ? o Pair flying and vocal 12 April; present, possibly pair 16 June; no young 17 June. Eyrie 1/ eyrie designation corresponds ~/ number of eggs undetermined. Remarks to designation in Table 4. 26 May; �-121- TABLE Eggshell Condition . 6 of Colorado Peregrine Eggs * Eyrie Year Thickness Index Thictyess (mm)- Shell Weight (g) 1 1973 1.62 0.325 3.86 2 1973 1.52 0.305 3.66 8 1973 1.33 0.254 2.92 6 1971 0.284'1-'/ 0. 294'l:./ + Meaxr-sE + 1.49-.08 Information Albta., below Saska., from other studies for comparison 3/ 3/ pre '47- Mass., N. J ., 1947-502.1 Ungava, 1967, 1970f!:.! + 1.87..:..0.03 + •005 o •359..:..0 + 4.12~.09 + 1.99..:..0.01 0.375±o.005 + 4.47..:..0.04 + 1.54..:..0.09 + 0.310..:..0.025 + 3.35..:..0.20 0.291±o.013 l/ Shell plus shell membrane ~/ Shell membranes. absent; values are for shells plus the mean membrane (O.06mm; range 0.05-0.07) for the other 5 shells. 1/ Anderson and Hickey ~/ Berger et al (1970). * Table removed + 3.4~.28 pre '47- Montana East U.S., is included + 0.292-.012 (1972). from data provided in W~rk Plan I, Job 1 of W-124-R-2 thickness �-122TABLE Chlorinated Hydrocarbon 7 Residues in Colorado Peregrine Eggs* ug/g DDE PCB DieldIio Eyrie Percent Moisture Percent LiEid 1 81 5.2 28 538 0.1 6.4 123 2 82 4.2 16 381 0.1 3.6 86 8 76 5.0 40 571 ND 5.9 84 Mea~E+ + 79.7-1.87 + 4.S-:-.3 28:;'.9 496'±58.6 + 5.r.86 + 97.6-12.7 Information below from other studies is included we,t Wt. Lipid Wt. Alaska!/ Wet Wt. for comparison 407 2/ N.W. Can.- G r. B·r~t.-3/ + 17.8-10.9 + 0.s-:-Q.7 11. 9 0.6 Alaska~/ 5/ UngavaAlaska.§.1 + 27.4-13.0 46g2:l94 12.7 253 Tundra 889 Taiga 673 Aleutian .167 1.1 Calculation ~/ Enderson and Berger 1/ Ra t c Lf f f e !!./ Lincer et al (1970), n=3. from Cade et al (1968) , n=~. (1968) , n=f, (1965), n=13. 2.1 Berger et al (1970) , n=1O. .§../Cade et al (197i), n=19, 14, 11 respectively. * Table removed from data provided in Work Plan I, Job 1 of W-124-R-2 Wet Wt. Lipid Wt. �-123TABLE 8 Activity and Productivity = Active site; ~ Activity Number of eggs of Colorado Prairie Falcons Symbols: A Site No. = Inactive site; -- = No observations. Number of young Number fledged 1+ 1+ 1 young observed 1+ o Young hatched, Comments DO 1 A DO 2 A DO 3 A 1+ 1+ 1 young observed DO 4 A 3 3 (2 females, DO 5 A 4 4 (2 females, 2 males). DO 6 A 1+ o Young hatched, DO 7 A 3 3 (1 female, 2 males). DO 8 A 3 3 (2 females, 1 male) DO 9 A 1+ o Young hatched, DO 10 A 1+ DO 11 IA DO 12 A DO 13 4 disappeared. in vicinity. 1 male). disappeared. disappeared. Young heard in eyrie. 1+ o A 1 1 DO 14 A 1+ DO 15 A 1+ DO 16 IA 4 in vicinity. Young hatched, disappeared. o Young hatched, disappeared. o Young hatched, disappeared. DO 17 EP 1 A 3 GR 1 A 1+ HU 1 IA HU 2 IA JE 1 A LS 1 A 3 Female incubating. 1+ Young heard in eyrie. LS 2 LS 3 A MF 1 ~ PA 1 IA PA 2 A 1+ PA 3 A 1+ 1+ Young apparent ly fledged. Adult carried prey to ledge. �Activity Table 8 and Productivity Site No. Activity of Colorado Number of eggs -124Prairie Falcons Number of young Number fledged page 2 Comments PA 4 A 1+ PA 5 A 1+ 1+ Young ~pparently PU 1 A Eggs failed to hatch. Young heard in eyrie. fledged. RI 1 11/ A o o WE 2 1/ A 4 4 31/ WE 41/ IA A 3 2 WE 5 1/ A 5 5 WE 6 1/ A WE 7 1/ A 3 o o Eggs failed to hatch. 81/ A 4 o o o o Eggs failed to hatch. WE 9 1/ A 5 5 WE 10 1/ A 5 o o WE 11 1/ A 5 3 3 WE 12 1/ A 4 4 WE 13 1/ A o o WE 14 1/ A 5 5 WE 15 1/ A 1 1 WE 16 1/ A 4 4 WE 17 1/ A o o WE 18 II A 4 4 WE 19 1/ A WE 20 1/ A o o Male p rcaent , WE 21 A o o o o Pair present. WE 22 1/ A 4 3 1 young dead below eyrie. WE 23 1/ A o o Female present. WE 24 1/ A 4 4 (2 females, 2 males) WE 25 1/ A o o Pair present. WE 26 1/ A 4 4 (3 females, 1 male) WE 27 1/ A 5 5 (1 female, 4 males) WE 28 1/ A 4 4 (3 females, WE 29 1/ A 4 4. (1 female, 3 males) WE 30 1/ A 4 4 WE WE WE u 1/ Site data originally (Raptor Populations 2 1 chick found dead below eyrie. Eggs failed to hatch. Eggs failed to hatch. Female present. 1 male) obtained from Work Plan 1, Job 2 of W-124-R-2, and Productivity is included for continuity Studies in Northeastern of statewide productivity data. Colorado) �-125TABLE 9 Summary of Actual and Estimated Productivity of Colorado Prairie Falcons 61 of 68 sites (89%) were determined to be active. 44 (72%) of the active sites produced eggs. 37 (60%) of the active sites hatched young. 33 (54%) of the active sites fledged young. Total number of young observed prior to fledging = 85 Average brood size of 23 sites with known production = 3.69 Adjusted young production for all active sites hatching young (37 sites) = 137 (This figure was obtained by including average brood size of 3.69 for 14 sites. which were known to have hatched young, but for which broods had not been counted). Total number known fledged from 22 sites = 79 (average fledging Success of 3.69) Adjusted fledging success of all productive sites (assuming an average brood size of 3.69 young for 4 sites known to have hatched young, but for which the number fledged was not known) = 94 94 = 2.84 Thus, the adjusted average fleding Success of all productive sites = 33 �-126- TABLE 10 Results of Aerial Flights for Golden Eagles in NE Colorado Date 1972-73 and 1974 Adults Juveniles Unknown Total Area Estimate· Dec. 19, 1972 22 6 4 320 10 .6 Jan. 24, 1973 1/ 16 8 0 240 8.0 Feb. 16, 1973 18 7 0 250 8.3 Jan. 16, 1974 19 3 0 220 7.3 Eagles per 100 s9. mi. 1.1 This flight will be the only one of the winter 1972-73 used for comparison in the future. TABLE 11 Results of Aerial Bald Eagle Census in Northeastern Date Adults Juveniles Dec. 19, 1972 23 15 Jan. 24, 1973 18 Feb. 26, 1973 Jan. 16, 1974 Unknown Colorado - 1972-1974 Total % Juveniles 0 38 39 13 0 31 42 47 19 0 66 29 16 15 0 31 48 �TABLE 12 Summary of Statewide W.C.O. Eagle Concentration Counts, 1972-1973 Count Period Number of Respondents Feb. 12-18, 72 57 150 17 64 231 153 39 Mar. 1-6, 1972 54 101 32 0 133 137 Feb. 3-9, 1973 51 46 6 9 61 Mar. 3-9, 1973 46 40 7 0 47 Bald Eagles, Ad Imm Unk Subtotal Golden Eagles Ad Imm Unk Subtotal Unknown Total 14 206 29 466 26 21 184 15 333 117 27 14 157 6 225 144 41 22 207 15 269 I •.... N -..,J I TABLE 13 Average Number of Eagles Sighted per Observer (Eagle Concentration Counts 1972-1973 Number of Respondents Bald Eagles Golden Eagles Total Feb. 12-18, 1972 57 4.05 3.61 8.17 Mar. 1-6, 1972 54 3.40 6.16 Feb. 3-9, 1973 51 2.46 1.19 3.07 4.41 Mar. 3-9, 1973 46 1.02 4.50 5.64 Count Period �-128- TABLE 14 Eagles Observed Feeding on Carrion February 3-9 and March 3-9, 1973 Species of Eagle Golden Bald 1 4 Type of Carcass* 1 Cow 2 2 Elk 1 1 Elk 1 5 Deer 1 1 Deer 1 1 Deer 1 1 Deer 1 1 Deer 1 1 Deer 1 Deer 2 2 Jackrabbit 2 2 Jackrabbit 2 2 Jackrabbit 1 Jackrabbit 4 Rabbit 2 2 Rabbit (Unk. ssp.) 2 .2 Rabbit (Unk , 1 1 Rabbit (Unk. s sp , ) 1 1 Rabbit (Unk. ssp .) 1 1 Rabbit (Unk. ssp.) 1 1 Rabbit 1 1 Pheasant 2 2 Unknown 1 1 1 3 TOTALS Total Number of Eagles per Carcass 1 1 Unknown 1 1 Unknown 1 1 Unknown 40 26 31 *Note: 9 The majority of the rabbit carcasses were apparently on the shoulders of roads. kill. (Unk. spp.) (Unk , ssp.) ssp. ) roadki11ed as they were The cow, deer and elk were probably victims of winter- �-129TABLE 15 Behavior of Eagles Observed February 3-9 and March 3-9, 1973 Activity Bald Golden Unknown Total Flying (flapping) 16 76 16 108 Soaring (circling) 14 52 8 74 30 128 24 182 Feeding 9 31 0 40 Perched Trees 38 21 1 60 Power Poles 0 63 0 63 Ground 3 47 2 52 Fence Post 0 18 1 19 Rock Outcropping 1 15 0 16 Ice 4 2 0 6 Haystack 0 2 0 2 Windmill 0 2 0 2 Pile of Wood 0 1 0 1 Bush 0 1 0 1 Snowbank 0 1 0 1 Unknown 2 5 0 7 Subtotal 48 178 4 230 87 337 28 452 Subtotal Total �-130TABLE 16 Habitat Preferences of Eagles as Observed on Statewide W.C.O. Eagle Concentration Counts (1973) Habitat Type Golden Bald Unknovm Total Agricultural Pasture Grassland Grassland Pasture Riverbottom Riverbottom-Cottonwoods Riverbottom-Coniferous Forest Riverbottom-Meadow Cottonwood-Willow-Meadow Cottonwood-Lakeside Cottonwood-Cedar Coniferous Forest Pine-Pinyon-Juniper Pine-Aspen Pine-Aspen-Sage Pine-Oakbrush Aspen-Sage Pinyon-Juniper Pinyon-Juniper-Cottonwood Pinyon-Juniper-Sage Oakbrush Oakbrush-Sage Sage Sage-Cedar Sage-Bitterbrush Sage-Greasewood Sage-Willow Sage-Serviceberry Sage-Meadow Meadow Meadow-Wi.1low 12 12 48 10 4 3 3 6 5 5 2 5 3 3 3 6 5 19 0 9 5 5 111 9 10 9 8 5 8 5 1 12 4 7 0 20 10 5 0 7 4 0 5 0 0 0 3 0 5 1 3 2 0 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 13 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 20 56 10 24 14 8 6 12 9 2 12 3 3 5 12 5 25 1 12 7 5 134 339 101 28 468 Total 11 10 9 8 5 8 5 1 �-131TABLE 17 of Dead and Injured RaEtors ReEorted Summa~ - to Division 01 ~ o,.f ~ .&..I s:: 00 $.I 0 o,.f 1Il.&..l .r-! 0 .-I 01 .-I •..., 0,.0 uO .&..I 0 ..c III § C!> 01 .-I 0 o,.f ..c: 01 :::- s:: 0 .r-! .&..I s:: 0 o,.f .-I III C1I III tlOO1 01 III .-I III .-I 0 1-1 Po. ::s ~ ] § Golden Eagle 2 10 7 Red-tailed Hawk 9 4 6 3 4 Great Horned Owl 11 2 5 2 4 Am. Kestrel 6 2 5 3 2 Swainson s Hawk 1 1 1 9 Rough-legged 3 7 I Hawk 3 0 0 $.I .&..I 0 01 .-I c:l. .&..I C1I $.I E-t C1I U "0 .-I 0 .&..I ..c I tlO 01 C1I U ~ .&..I s:: s:: 01 E! $.I 01 .-I C1I .&..I 0 0 E-t 2 ·37 1 2 29 1 1 27 4 24 1 13 1 12 tlO ~ 7 4 ::s 0 III o,.f 0 Po. 01 .-1$.1 001 s::..c: 1-1.&..1 2 1 1 1 Bald Eagle 1 Screech Owl 1 4 2 2 1973 I C1I 01 >.c ..c ...:I 1 during Jan.-Dec. 1 ..c: 1 .&..I 5 5 Prairie Falcon 1 1 Marsh Hawk 1 4 Cooper s Hawk 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 3 I Sharp-shinned Short-eared Hawk Owl Goshawk Burrowing Owl 1 5 5 2 4 1 3 1 Saw-whet Owl 1 Long-eared Owl 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 Barn Owl 2 Peregr:i,.ne Falcon Ferruginous Hawk Broad-winged Hawk F1ammulated Owl Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 42 2 39 32 18 18 10 -s 4 1 3 2 13 187 �-132TABLE 18 Seasonal Occurence Cause of Mortality of Mortality and Injury to Raptors - 1973 Jan Feb Mar Apr May 1 2 1 3 2 Gunshot 6 1 4 4 1 Vehicle Strike 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 3 Collision w/Object Illegal Possession Unknown 1 2 3 1 Electrocution 1 4 2 1 Fall from Nest Leg-hold Trap 1 2 1 1 Ju1 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total 5 3 3 6 12 4 42 1 2 3 2 9 6 40 6 3 2 1 3 2 30 6 4 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 Jun 1 18 2 1 1 11 6 9 1 Caught by Cat 1 1 6 1 1 4 Poison Inclement Weather 3 1 1 3 3/ - 4 29 16 187 ""i:./ 17 1/ Thorn in leg 2::/ Fowl pox 1/ Overgorged !if Plant burr between legs 13 14 15 14 6 26 14 11 13 3 2 2/ 11/ Other Total 18 �-133TABLE 19 Raptors Banded by the Division Species in 1973 Number Banded Prairie Falcon 51 Ferruginous Hawk 26 Red-tailed Hawk 14, Kestrel 12 s Hawk 12 American Swainson I Golden Eagle 11 Cooper s Hawk 4, Marsh Hawk 2 Barn Owl 1 I Broad-winged Hawk 1 F1ammu1ated Owl 1 Goshawk 1 Great-Horned Owl 1 Harris Hawk 1/ 1 Total 11 Harris hawk was held in zoo for several years, 138 then banded and released. �-134APPENDIX A Date NEST DATA _ Time _ Landowner Species Location: County I. ~~~----.----_ N or S; R._, T Supporting _ W; Sec , _ Additional _ _____ 1/4 DetaUs _ Structor Information CLIFF OR OUTCROPPING height _ width length, _ Overhand: width length, _ Pothole: width Ledge: depth. _ ht to overhand. _ Other: Direction of Avis Geology: TREE ~:pecies: _ height No. of trees in vicinity O~HER STRUCTURE _ _ (describe) _ Ht. above ground. Ht. to top of structure E:;{p<.)sure (direction) Nest Materials II. rBH~ _ Size: _ ~ _ Habitat Data Topography _ Dominant Vegetation, _ G~ologic Formations _ Drainages/Impoundments: Soil types Direction~ _ Distance, _ _ Land Use Ill. Behavior Adult s Acti vi ty: Young Activity: _ Ma1e. Female. _ _ �Apt;endix A - page 2 -135IV. Prey Items No. of Individuals Species Unidentified V. Age ------------------------_ Sexo _ o _ Nest Failure No. of unhatched eggs _ No. of destroyed eggs No. of dead young~ _ Age _ _ Cause of Destroyed eggs _ Cause of Dead Young _ Rerra Lns VII. item I.D. No. Eggs/Young No. Present Band No. VI. Portion Remaining and Shell 1.D. No. _ uisturbance Factors ~oad/Highway type__________ Degree Use ,Trail/Track Habitation: type.__________ Degree Use. _ Dist.& Direct. Dist. & Direct. o _ Dis t.& Direct. -----_ _ Other Human Activiti~s VII. Additional _ Comments: --_.-_. ---------_ .. - . - --------_. -- ----''-------------------------- �Appendix -136- A - page 3 Date: Property _ Owner Data: Name: Phone: _ Mailing Address: _ Location of Residence: _ Attitude toward raptors and willingness to protect raptors nesting on his property: Attitude _ toward public accesS: Description ----------------------.------------------ (sketch map) of land he holds in the vicinity of the nest site(s) • List of rapt or nests on his property Location Species Were the following left with the landowner? T;ivision Identification Violation Report Card Card Yes ,=, No P Yes '--:J No 0 �-137- JOB PROGRESS REPORT sea te of _--=C:;:o:..:l:,.:o:.,:r:.:a:.;d:.;o:.._ Project Work Raptor Investigations No. ~W:...-..:::l:::..24:::..-.....:R::.--=2=--_ Job Title: Raptor'Population eastern Period Job No •. --=2~ 1 Plan No. Covered: Personnel: Studies in North- ColoraJo February Gerald and Productivity _ 1, 1973 through January 1, 1974 R. Craig ABSTRACT Twenty-four golden eagles, falcon and 17 great horned square mile 37 ferruginous owl nests study .irea in Northeastern and fledging success Prey items for golden cons were enumerated. were determ~ned eagles, were hawks, occupied Colorado. for the above ferruginous 29 prairie on a 2,000 Productivity four species. hawk and prairie fal- ��-139RAPTOR POPULATION AND PRODUCTIVITY STUDIES IN NORTH~STERN COLORADO Gerald R. Craig To intensively document nesting and wintering ology, habitat requtrement s , productivity the Pawnee National Grasslands densitie~, migration chron- and prey pref exenc es of raptors on and adjacent prairie lands. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Document exact nesting densities and productivity the Pawnee National Grasslands of raptors present and adjacent prairie 2. Document prey items at nest sites. 3. While at nest sites, record disturbance on lands. factors, land use practices, habi- tat type and nest site features. METHODS AND MATERIALS Figure 1 depicts the study area of approximately and east of Fort Collins. National Grasslands cropping capped by volcanic The area encompasses which is predominantly 2,000 square miles north the majority of the Pawnee shortgrass prairie. Sandstone out- rock borders the area along the north and dips into the center at about Grover. The western half of the area (approximately square miles) was intensively surveyed for nesting rapto~s while the eastern half of the area was not covered as extensively due to limited manpower 1,000 availa- bility. The investigation commenced in April and proceeded through mid-July. This did not permit the effective .survey of great horned owls nor that of Swainson' s hawks which fledge young late in July. However, all known nest sites that have been occupied over the last three years were surveyed for activity. four-wheel Use of a drive vehicle, a trail bike and a spotting scope were used to make more effective use of limited time available. Nest sites were observed from a distance during incubation occupancy. Several visits were made to the nests betweell hatching to ascertain hatching Fledging to ascertain success, monitor nestling mortalities success was determined and fledging and prey items. by visiting the nests after the young had fledged and counting young in the vicinity. �-140- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Golden Eagles Twenty-four out of 36 sites were occupied. A total of 20 young were pro- duced and 18 young w~re fledged for 16 sites for an averaga brood size of 1.33 and fledging success of 1.20 young per successful site (Table 2). density of 1.60 pairs per 100 square miles, production fledging of 1.60 young and success of 1.40 young per 100 square miles were established Young eagles were observed up to five weeks after f~edging. were not very active, would not fly great distances although of sustained returned A nesting (Table 9). In all they they were capable flight, and wer~ dependent upon adults for food. Several young to the nest for short periods after they had b~en out for several weeks. One fledgling was seen to return to the nest after being out for five weeks. Prairie Falcons Ninety-seven sites produced % (29) of 30 sites were determined 67 young (average 3.94 young/site) 3.82 young/site). It was calculated to be active. Seventeen and fledged 65 young (average that there wer~ 1.70 nesting pairs per 100 square miles, 3.80 young were produced per 100 square miles and 3.70 young were fledged per 100 square miles. Post fledging behavior nests. of young prairie falcons wc:s investigated at three Upon fledging at 29 to 33 days of age, the young falcons still have one inch of feather growth to complete on their tails and wings. maries give the wings of fledglings a rounded appearance. were still in family groups 35, 39 and 40 after fledging. The shorter pri- The prairie falcons Young were still begging food from adults at that period. Ferruginous Hawks Thirty-seven 55 young Tabulation (80%) of 46 sites were occupied. (1.4~ young/nest) revealed Twenty-two nests produced and 21 sites fledged 45 young (1.22 young/nest). 2.40 pairs per 100 square miles, 3.40 young produced per 100 square miles, and 2.70 young fledged per 100 square miles. The following causes of nesting failures were noted: four nests were blown down, one nest abandoned during incubation, tion. took young from one nest ~nd two young from a second Coyotes probably nest were discovered and two nests failed due to preda- in a golden eagle eyrie. �-141- Swainson's Hawks Data on this species is incomplete to young production of most sites. due to termination Table 7 sUmmarizes of the study prior those findings available upon termination. Great Horned Owls Fifteen (88%) of 17 sites were occupied by pairs. duced 19 young and 8 sites fledged 16 young. Ten of the sites pro- Table 9 reveals 0.60 pairs of owls per 100 square miles, 0.60 young per 100 square miles and 0.60 fledglings 100 square miles. As fledging of many owl nests occurred before the investigation taken, productivity per was under- data is meager. RECOMMENIlA.TIONS 1. If present manpower limitations horned owls and Swainson's investigation 2. several species such as great hawks should be deleted to permit more intensive of golden eagles, prairie falcons and ferruginous Use of aircraft to determine productivity survey remote portions Prepared by: are continued, or activity hawks. of known sites and of the study area for new nests might be more efficient. e. 12. ~ (J ; , Gerald R. Craig Date: 2,/~ "/7!C ~ I �FIGURE INTENSIVE ~_, o,r ~ Vi6r ,/)00 r~t ' 0 ,; "\ " ... " ',,,-', -r ./ ti: II.-~~OV15 ~ ,J . ko Olk .' \'0 ,\ , \ ,I, " ). f' i ".'~ . , \ ". "-,. / 1" ". '\'-~"" \If \l o ,,/ :, \ _'::1' ~ l\ '~'\ ':' -, L" ,1. ~ T......;-/~,? ~ . ,~~ w v:J~ :.. ( , '~'" i" 'e. f:'-./ j ~"" !.'I .' '" Weill" rRoI' \ '" ,,~ov -_.rQ \ n .~ . , '. ;i ~ '~r;~~'{ i)f'\$; \.1 ) ~ " . '. "'" nn' ~ ~,,, \. l ~ ~~ ~h"!/~~ \ ~i"~~ if ~ ~ ~~(..» d&'<1)J ;\ •.•.... I~ ~ ,. o. > . ny~i Ham y_C."~~ ~l~ o- "- hL:»._I,17 /> ~- ! 1 ~:-:aracewe~) \- •. S ,~_ '\ \"'~" - '? ~ ~ " .:::r •• ·.'\T . ..."lr Iz., : " , q o: J92 ,I ) u~ . -' ~ YUill .. l> 'rF '"''Barnesville },\I ~~ I .'4 E L q., D I.~ ~ :>\. \ ~-" 0 '\j->' "~7I \.- '. - '>.,; --; -, -.-...::.~~ l '-'\ '\J " ---~:"" ~ .'. I I 0''', --..... \, ••••• N I pawnee 'f" 8 .~(<;l. >"'",\ U ",,,, '. ~- '\ ..., ... 1 " ~e-nar ", ..r. <;:.; ., --- i"-" • " ~.. ;;.;C' siMp ,,/-;;,,:' ,>: ('''.v., '.. ~ '~,.\.: c!7 I" pWf .-/ o- .... + ":'~~ --- ..-- ~ .. <, 7.; --.' '" f?iJ~ " , . •W.II.r .--' (.3.01 , .. -:/--;--'. 1)0..\...." ."", 4~\ ';i § • ) ~., I-- Ced~ c '" "\ <:::..<:> II I." I . .. ' "C) ~. .' .,~ '. .,,-.<Newbaymer f ~ ( -- '" '-..,,'is> .~.-t'7"" .. .."...--.:..~"""""'fO" Bue ~~. 'l'~'"• ~ ~'; GRA:;SLANbo c~* ~G""kv' "';;:'i;r- . '%o(l. -. "" .. 1 ~_ ~,.,/ i~L~~ -~ .'-.-~ :V' 55 'y"1J'~'" .... 'I EN~llii Ilurree.*a J. ~<L* IVt --..nl;tt-:- ?,>-Ay ., -' c:::: - .00 , ,., ." '-'~" 9.,. t ;; I i'~iQ<~ ~ ~A'rtOI)AL I-~'-'- f-- \"', rsn '-,., :-0f\, :l<eotii~ ~ , '. ,'C-.c\,zl ~ V\i<fN. • ~,c%:,Fosston 0" ,i'~ . I I"" jotlriggSJal '" W "or ~j ~... ~'- r!:...% I) ~I I~ ~ v ~ ..: ". 0 . ,.~. .r ~ ~ U (\ 1:\ F AW ~E r-'" ~ " (/ z: .... q'!JI Galeton (.•7 01 '. 1\.'. Ditch 1/ "ll~ /'-0. ( ~;? ~ """~ I~ -\" , ....i • 0,.,' I r. 1 L- : : • ....., 58-'~ .. ,5:" r-- " rrN ':J'~' ,'"'\ -, .\~"'? ."\ / s,t n ) r:;J'.';t-j. \" Farl)1~S . 'S' ~ \ ~ ",.)1" C> ~~ Auf~J, ". J-.J.! r-" I' ISle. \.~ I!\1 -Cj :y '(~~ \ <.f\~ I. .? . rp"- .-r\:-\~~] ~839) No. y' ',%~'.}'. ? e-e-, , rover ~a,~~?7J."",~~ r JWN0~O -.~''::::, ~ -... / . l ). I .~~\ %:rt - ", )' Eator Hurrich -, ,~\...:).r.. ,~,.,\' Greeley or ~ tiiJ ~ 50 '~9~9' rs.veriree L... '1,? tUKlrTlI G w 15~{' . . "-~" ~ ./ ' (~~"'7 Q. .~, I.;. \: ~:"'+ ,,\ nR,ureell'. s» ~ )~{th -, Ow C! ~ \\. \"It 1 ..,\.: Y '\..." I \ "\1 '.;v ?: )~ l~e~~\~~I~.wA>' ~4 ~ •. \ \. /1 ~/ . rs~) 'V 11\ ~'" , . 1 ~C> La", ,\.~C~rner [\ ,_ r':y l \, G' AS~ lAN D '1,,,-, ~ ~,'. -t".iSiit I '\ ,( -, ~ . ,. :&"'4_ 0J\ ••~ ~o", \ ',( . :1> ~A '": \ <t . :, ' <Q.. '! L "-1 pA, N1:E NA IONAl 11-.. 1 COLORADO I 00 ,-e,-c, ) - NORTHEASTERN Here! rd. -,,~,,' r anrA -_.... '..k.~J""'...." ~_;:~<8 . VI,,, \ )-3i'~'" ~' .\ ~ i '-,I X€j2 '~:J..., -- 161 ,', ", ., ,.....J. I "" \ ." STUDY AREAS T '"""-'l... .63 :<\... ." " .. ,.. -:-r--',r\. ~ k:~vrc.·" ~ ',."" I .\...~..,. 'J~\~ '" INn"-'N"IS I"V~" "arr,( J J <, J' jj '~ekp'14- \ I 64~" (? ~ -, ......,...;,.C:=> ,), " 65 L,' ,,- ..;, 1..-/) J AND EXTENSIVE 1 -. ~ \" 1D "~',, L" 6 I ,";;' .-...... <: ..~ .. '" ~ �-143TABLE 1 Activity and Productivity Symbols: Site Designation WE-l WE-2 WE-3 WE-4 WE-S WE-6 WE-7 WE-8 WE-9 WE-lO WE-II WE-12 WE-13 WE-14 WE-IS WE-16 WE-17 WE-18 WE-19 WE-20 WE-21 WE-22 WE-23 WE-24 WE-2S WE-26 WE-27 WE-28 WE-29 WE-30 WE-31 WE-32 WE-33 WE-34 WE-3S WE-36 A Activity active site; IA Number of Young A A A A A = inactive site; -- = no observations .Numb.er . Fledged o o o o o o o o 2 2 2 2 1 IA IA A A Comments Spoiled egg Fledgling dead below nest 2 A o o IA IA IA A 1+ 1 I A A A A A A 1 o o 2 2 1 2 1 I o o 1+ 1 IA A Nest gone Nest gone IA IA A A A A IA A IA A IA IA A Colorado I I A of Golden Eagles in Northeastern 1+ 1 o o 1+ 1+ 1 1+ I o o :I. 1 1 Nest gone Nest gone �-144TABLE 2 Summary of Actual and Estimated Productivity Colorado 24 of 36 sites (67%) were determined of Golden Eagles in Northeastern to be active. 16 (67%) of the active sites were known to have produced 15 (62~of eggs. the active sites produced young. 15 (62%) of the active sites fledged young. A total of 14 young were 'observed in 9 nests prior to fledging and a minimum of 6 additional minimum young were known to have been produced by 6 other sites. total productivity was 20 young produced by 15 sites. A total of 18 young were fledged from 15 sites. Average brood size: Average fledging 1.33 success: 1.20 Thus, �-145TABLE 3 Activity and Productivity of Prairie Falcons in Northeastern Colorado Sy.mbols: A Site Designation WE-I WE-2 WE-3 WE-4 WE-5 WE-6 WE-7 WE-S WE-9 WE-lO WE-ll WE-12 WE-13 WE-14 WE-IS WE-l6 WE-17 WE-IS WE-19 WE-20 WE-21 WE-22 WE-23 WE-24 WE-2S WE-26 WE-27 WE-28 WE-29 WE-30 active site; IA = inactive site; Activitl A A IA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Number of Eggs 3 4 5 5 2 Number of Young Number Fledged = no observations Comments 0 4 0 4 Eggs failed to hatch 3 5 0 0 0 5 0 3 4 0 5 1 4 0 4 0 0 0 4 0 4 0 4 S 4 4 4 2 5 0 0 0 5 0 3 4 0 S 1 4 0 4 0 0 0 3 I chick found dead below eyrie 0 4 0 4 S 4 4 4 Eggs failed to hatch Eggs failed to hatch Eggs failed to hatch Eggs failed to hatch Female present Male present Pair present 1 young dead below eyrie Female present (2 females, 2 males) Pair present (3 females, 1 male) (1 female, 4 males) (3 f~males, 1 male) (1 female, 3 males) �-146- ~BLE Summary of Actual 4 and Estimated Productivity 29 of 30 sites (97%) were determined of Colorado Prairie Falcons to be active 25 (86%) of the active sites were known to have produced nests eggs while 4 additional (14%) had pairs present and probably produced 17 (59%) of the active sites produced young. The same number of sites succeeded in fledging young. Total number of young produced = 67 Total number of young fledged = 65 Average clutch size known from 5 sites Average brood size Average fledging = 3.80 eggs/site = 3.94 young/site success = 3.82 young/site eggs. �-147TABLE S Activity and Productivity Symbols: Site Designation WE-I WE-2 WE-3 WE-4 WE-S WE-6 WE-7 WE-S WE-9 WE-IO WE-II WE-12 WE-13 WE-l4 WE-IS WE-16 WE-17 WE-IS WE-19 WE-20 WE-21 WE-22 WE-23 WE-24 WE-2S WE-26 WE-27 WE-28 WE-29 WE-30 WE-3I WE-32 WE-33 WE-34 WE-3S WE-36 WE-37 WE-3S WE-39 WE-40 WE-4I WE-42 WE-43 WE-44 WE-4S WE-46 of Ferruginous Hawks in Northeastern A = active site; ~ Activity A A A A A A ~ A A A A ~ A A ~ A A A IA A ~ A A A A A A A A A A A A A A ~ ~ A A A A A A ~ ~ A ~ inactive site; -- ~ no observations Number of Young Number Fledged 3 2 4 4 2 3 o o 3 Colorado 2 1 o o Connnents Nest fell, young unhurt 1 unpiped egg in nest Adult incubating Adult incubating 3 o o 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 o o 3 3 3 2 Pair present, nest gone Nest fell down 2 young were melanistic 1 young was a runt o o Adult incubating o o 2+ 3 3 3 1 1+ 2 Adults in vicinity 1 melanistic young 3 3 o 1 1 o o 3 3 o o o 3 Adult incubating 1 spoiled egg in nest Both young were melanistic o o o Nest down, chicks dead 1 egg spoiled Nest tilted, eggs on ground 3 eggs Adult incubating Adult incubating Failed during incubation 3 o o Adults present, failed o o Building nest, failed 1+ 3 1 1 1 sp~iled egg in nest 2 2 o o o o o o Adult incubating Adult incubating �-148- TABLE 6 Summary of Productivity of Ferruginous Colorado 37 of 46 (80%) of the sites were active 22 (59%) of the active sites produced young 21 (57%) of the active sites fledged young Minimum number of young produced Total number of young fledged = 55 = 45 Average brood size = 1.49 young/nest Average fledging success = 1.22 young/nest Hawks in Northeastern �-149- TABLE 7 Activity of Swainson's Symbols: A Site Designation WE-I WE-2 WE-3 WE-4 WE-5 WE-6 WE-7 WE-8 WE-9 WE-lO WE-II WE-12 WE-13 WE-14 WE-15 WE-16 WE-17 WE-18 WE-19 WE-20 WE-2l WE-22 WE-23 WE-24 WE-25 WE-26 WE-27 WE-28 WE-29 WE-30 WE-3l WE-32 WE-33 active site; IA Activity IA IA A A A A A A A A IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA A A A IA IA A A A A A A A A Hawks in Northeastern Number of Young Colorado = inactive site; -- = no observations Number Fledged Comments Constructing nest Adult incubating Pair present Pair present Adult incubating Adult incubating 2 Nest gone Nest gone Nest gone Nest gone New nest constructed Pair present Pair present Nest gone Nest gone Adding to nest Pair present Adult incubating Adult incubating Adult incubating Constructing nest Adults incubating Constructing nest �-150TABLE 8 Activity and Productivity Symbols: A of Great-Horned Owls in Northeastern = active site; IA = inactive site; Colorado = no observations Activity Number of Young Number Fledged WE-l A 1+ 1+ WE-2 A 2 2 WE-3 A 2 2 WE-4 A 2 2 WE-5 A Adult incubating WE-6 A Adult incubating WE-7 IA WE-8 IA WE-9 A 2 2 WE-lO A 2 2 WE-ll A Adults WE-12 A 2 eggs WE-13 A WE-14 A WE-15 A 1 WE-16 A 2 WE-17 A 2 Site Designation 3 Comments Adult incubating in vicinity 3 Adult incubating 2 TABLE 9 Summary of Productivity of Great Horned Owls in Northeastern 15 of 17 sites (88%) were active 10 (67%) of the active sites produced young 8 (53%) of the active sites fledged young Total number of young produced =.19 Total number of young fledged 16 Average brood size of 9 sites 2.0 young/site Average fledging success of 7 sites = 2.14 young/site Colorado �-151- TABLE 10 Raptor Nesting Densities on the 1,000 Square Mile Study Area Species Active Nests per 100 mi2 Young ~er 100 mi Fledglings per 100 mi2 Golden Eagle 1.60 1.60 1.40 Prairie Falcon 1.70 3.80 3.70 Ferruginous Hawk 2.40 3.40 2.70 Great Horned Owl 0.60 0.60 0.60 6.30 9.40 8.40 Total �-152- TABLE 11 Prey Taken by Golden Eagles, Ferruginous Prey Species Golden Eagles Manunals Cottontailed Rabbit Jackrabbit Northern Pocket Gopher Long-tailed Weasel Black-tailed Prairie Dog Fox Squirrel Muskrat Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel Ord's Kangaroo Rat Antelope (fawn) Birds Mallard Pintail Ferruginous Hawk Mountain Plover Horned Lark Western Meadowlark Lark Bunting Reptiles Gartersnake Bullsnake Total Prey Items Hawks and Prairie Falcons in 1973 Ferruginous Hawks 35 38 5 1 8 Prairie Falcons 1 2 2 1 1 2 9 13 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 6 6 3 5 31 27 1 2 94 �-153- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ Project No. W-124-R-2 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title: _ Raptor Investigations Job No. _--=3 _ Raptor Population and Productivity Studies in Southeastern Colorado Period Covered: Personnel: July 25, 1973 through January 31, 1974 Gerald R. Craig, William C. Andersen ABSTRACT Occupied nests of 8 golden eagle s, 36 ferruginous hawks, 8 redtailed hawks and 176 Swainson's hawks were located in an area of 4,421 square miles in Southeastern Colorado. established for each of the above species. Fledging success was Decline in fledging success of Swainson's hawks were related to strong wind storms of the hatching. Weekly migration and winter trend counts of raptors were also undertaken. ��-155- RAFTOR POPUlATION AND PRODUCTIVITY STUDIES IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO William C. Andersen and Gerald R. Craig To intensively document nesting and wintering densities, migration chronology, habitat requirements, productivity and prey preferences of raptors on the Comanche National Grasslands and adjacent prairie lands. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To continue documentation of nesting densities and productivity of golden eagles, prairie falcons, ferruginous hawks, Swainson's hawks, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, and burrowing owls on the Comanche National Grasslands and adjacent prairie lands. 2. To continue documentation of the timing of breeding cycles of golden eagles, prairie falcons, ferruginous hawks, Swainson's hawks, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls and burrowing owls. 3. To continue documentation of prey items at nest sites. 4. To investigate and categorize nest sites by such features as disturbance factors, habitat type, human use, dominant vegetation, relief, etc. 5. To continue documentation of migration chronology. 6. To continue to gather trend information on wintering raptor populations. 7. To categorize important wintering habitats. METHODS AND MA.TERIALS Breeding Inventory Nesting investigations commenced in March of 1973 when great horned owls initiated nesting activities and continued through July when the young of late nesting raptors, such as Swainson's hawks, fledged. area is Southeastern Colorado. Figure 1 depicts the study The primary vegetative type in this region is shortgrass prairie interspersed with cropland and deciduous riverbottom along the Arkansas River. All public roads were traveled and all structures capable of supporting nests which were within sight from the roads were scrutinized with binoculars and a spotting scope. When nests were located, they were �-156- observed from a distance to determine presence of nesting raptors. After com- pletion of hatching, the sites were then visited to ascertain actual productivity. The purpose of delaying actual visits to nests were delayed until after hatching to avoid possible disturbance that might cause abandonment of nesting attempts by incubating adults. Near fledging time, those active sites which contained young were revisited and young were banded and presence of prey items was recorded. Migration and Winter Population Trends Generally, the censuses commence early in October and continue on a weekly basis through mid-March. A roughly circular route of approximately 150 miles (Fig. 2) were driven at speeds between 30 and 35 mph with two observers. a raptor was sighted, the vehicle was stopped and identification When confirmed using binoculars and a spotting scope. Excursions were made off the road when identi- fication could not be determined. Species, age, activity and habitat were recorded for each observation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Inventory Due to reduced funding, the nesting investigations were limited in scope. Approximately 26.7% (4,421 mi.) of the study area was intensively investigated for presence of nesting raptors (see Table 1). In all, 8 active golden eagle nests were located which averaged a fledging success of .50 young. Thirty-six ferruginous hawk nests were active and fledged an average of 1.47 young per nesting attempt. Eight red-tailed hawks nested and fledged 1.88 young for each nesting attempt. Only 62 young fledged from 176 active Swainson's hawk nests, which averaged .35 young fledged per nesting attempt. Table 2 summarizes the results. The extremely poor reproductive Success of Swainson's hawks and ferruginous hawks was attributed to two storms in which wind velocities exceeded 100 mph in the region and particularly Lincoln and Kiowa Counties. Severe winds destroyed 84% of the Swainson's hawk nests and 53% of the ferruginous hawk nests. Swainson's hawks were hardest hit because they build relatively fragile nests near the tops of trees. Ferruginous hawks con- struct bulky nests which are situated near the tree bole. Low producLivity of golden eagles could not be adequately explained. Prey items were common in those nests that produced young and the young at each site were in excellent condition. Human interference was responsible for two nesting failures, one caused by campers and another caused by construction while the pair �-157were engaged in nest building activities. Migration and Winter Population Trends Table 3 summarizes censuses begun October 7, 1972 which continued on a weekly basis until March 10, 1973. January 27. Counts were not made November 25 and Peaks in migrating raptors were observed in late October which were due to increases in kestrels, ferruginous hawks and golden eagles. In early December, another peak was due to an influx in ferruginous hawks, bald eagles and rough-legged hawks. The peaks in late December and January were caused by bald eagles and rough-legged hawks. Raptor numbers gradually dropped in late January, February and March. Table 4 provides results of trend counts initiated October 5, 1973 and completed March 2, 1974. As in 1972-73,censuses except November 24 and December 22, 1973. were made on a weekly basis The highest peak of 101 raptors occurred December 8 and was due primarily to an increase in rough-legged The peak in the fall migration occurred November legged hawks and kestrels were most abundant. Prepared by: GRMO'" 12. ~al , Gerald R. Craig hawks and kestrels. 10 when prairie falcons, rough- �FIGURE 1 Colorado Counties SEDGWICK WELD MOFFAT LOGAN LARIMER PHilLIPS ROUTT MORGAN YUMA ADAMS I WASHINGTON ARAPAHOE - ELBERT I co LI"I .-! I I fl. I'll KIN I _~f I ILINCOLN I KIT CARSON IDOUGLASI MESA " I MONTROSE ~OURAY DOLORES - MONTEZUMA ,., - "" ~ I DFITA "" It.LLt.KI EL PASO ' ~ ~ I I c:,u," I •",-,y,v." " I J rr- I CHEYENNE KIOWA I PUEBLO y- 1-. / ~ I n OTE~O I BENT I PROWERS .-.;r LAS ArtlMAS I SACA Study Area Boundary �-159- FIGURE 2 RESEARCH AREAS :GRASSLAND \ - 1 Area boundaries -1 II • - COLORADO I ••••• Census route • Otero Junior College �-160- TABLE 1 Counties Covered by Breeding Inventory (1973) within Area Mi2 of County within Area % of County Studied Mi2 of County Studied 2,565 100.0 2,565 38 952 2.24 Bent 1,517 100.0 1,517 33 501 2.28 Cheyenne 1,772 90.4 1,602 11 167 1.39 Crowley 803 86.0 691 44 311 3.92 Elbert 1,865 7.0 131 2 3 2.10 Kiowa 1,795 100.0 1,795 18 323 1.14 Las Animas 4,794 46.6 2,234 26 580 1.20 Lincoln 2,593 56.8 1,473 46 659 1.86 Otero 1,267 90.0 1,140 74 844 8.71 Prowers 1,626 100.0 1,626 5 81 3.51 Total 20,597 .1/ Weighted average % of County County Total Area within 2 County(Mi ) Baca 16,546 4,421 Human Popu1ation per Mi2 3.32 1/ �-161- TABLE 2 Activity and Nesting Success, 1973 SEecies Count~ Numb ar Nest Atte!!!Ets Fledged Young/Nest AttemEts Active Nest/IOO mi2 Yo~ne Pro u e~ /l00 mi Golden Eagle Baca Bent Las Animas Otero 2 2 3 1 8 2 1 1 0 4 1.00 0.50 0.33 0.00 0.50 0.27 0.10 0.19 0.17 0.00 0.13 9 5 1 3 2 1 9 6 14 0 0 3 0 2 21 13 1.56 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 2.00 2.33 2.17 0.94 0.99 0.59 0.96 0.61 0.17 1.36 0.71 1.47 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.34 3.18 1.54 Jb TI 1:47 0":1r1" ---r.rr 2 3 3 8 5 5 5 15 2.50 1.67 1.67 0.39 0.51 0.35 0.41 0.99 0.86 0.59 57 5 26 3 28 3 46 8 176 23 3 16 4 3 5 8 0 62 5.98 0.99 8.36 100 .00 1/ 8.66 0.51 6.98 0.94 4.21 2.41 0.59 5.14 133.00 1/ 0.92 0.86 1.21 0.00 1.48 0.21 0.39 0.51 0.11 Ferruginous Hawk Baca Bent Cheyenne Crowley Kiowa Las Animas Lincoln Otero Red-tailed Hawk Bent Las Animas Otero l.8s 0.77 Swainson's Hawk Baca Bent Crowley Elbert Kiowa Las Animas Lincoln Otero 0.40 0.60 0.62 1.33 0.11 1.67 0.17 0.00 0.35 ]) Figures are inaccurate due to extremely small sample size of 3 nests located 2 on 3 mi of Elbert County. �TABLE 3 Migration and Winter Populations Trends, 1972-1973 7 Golden Eagle (adult) (imm.) (unknown) (total) - -- Bald Eagle (adult) (Lmm ,) (total) Ferruginous Hawk 7 14Y21 1 - 3 3 1 7 - 1 1 1 18'1:./25 2 3 2 4 1 2 2 5 5 28 4 11 6 5 1 3 1 5 2 2 - 11 - - g'l:./16 23 30 6 5 3 7 2 2 2 1 5 7 1 8 3 1 3 7 15 8 - 1~/ 20'l:..£.7 1 1 - 8 - 9 -1 - -- 1 3 8 1 7 3 1 1 3 1 2 - - -2 3- -1 - - 1 2 - 3 2 1 2 3 - - 1 4 - 4 2 4 19 10 7 2 9 21 4 25 - 2 1 10 3 13 - 2 2 1 3 13 17 6 9 1 13 13 5 8 2 3 7 4 2 1 - 4 1 5 18 1 10 8 1 9 - - 6 3 - - 1 10 17'1:./24'1:..1 -9 1 2 3 - March February January December November October - - 1 - I •..... 0N Rough-legged Hawk - - 1 9 4 5 11 12 8 14 10 9 14 2 6 Red-tailed Hawk 5 6 6 7 4 4 - 6 3 3 - 7 18 2 Marsh Hawk 2 5 10 9 6 10 2 7 7 2 3 6 18 Prairie Falcon 2 3 2 3 1 - 1 4 5 Merlin - 2 :2 2 - - - - - 1 - Kestrel 26 5 12 22 13 23 2 Cooper I s Hawk - - - - - 2 Great Horned Owl 2 - 1 Short-eared ~ - - - - Total Raptor/mi - 44 18 52 81 41 .29 .12 ,35 .54 .27 3 1 6 1 1 - 5 5 2 2 4 - 2 - 2 3 - - 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - - 3 - 2 - 2 - 2 - - - - - 6 20 11 6 7 5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 3 3 2 2 2 - 2 - - - - - - 2 - - - - - - - - 61 30 .41 .20 1/ Heavy cloud cover and light mist. - 1 3 2 2 - 73 51 73 41 57 121 9 ,49 .34 .49 .27 .38 .81 .06 '1) Snow, wind, 25 ,17 34 27 14 .23 .18.09 - 14 9 11 .09 .06 .07 I �11\BLE 4 Migration Golden Eagle (adult) (Lmm, ) (unknown) (total) Bald 12 19 26 3 10 - - 1 1 Eagle (adult) (Lmm, ) (Total) 3 1 7 1 4 1 Hawk 5 3 4 3 5 10 6 Rough-legged Hawk - - - 1 6 12 7 2 6 7 8 7 8 Red-tailed Marsh Hawk Hawk Prairie 24 17 Ferruginous Falcon 5 6 3 5 7 - 2 4 - - - 3 9 3 8 9 Trends, .Janua ry - 15 22 29 5 2 6 1 4 2 - 7 4 6 2 9 17 15 7 10 4 - 1 8 -2 7- -6 - 116 5 8 - 91 1 1 2 6 9 8 - 10 8 9 7 - 6 - 6 1 2 9 - 5 7 .5 6 1 - - - 2 - ---- -- - ------ - - - 34 16 30 30 47 79 56 63 101 92 Raptors/mi. .23 .11 .20 .20 .31 .53 .37 .42 .67.61 - --- - - ----- - 9 5 1 1 2 16 1 - 1 2 4 1 - - 8 3 7 6 5 6 1. 2 - 1 1 - - 3 5 5 7 3 9 17 6 3 7 6 9 3 2 2 2 9 4 - 3 2 6 -1 2 1 2 1 1 1 - 5 2 - - 3 23 - - - - 3 6 - 2 2 11 3 26 4 1 5 3 - 19 March February - - - -8 4- 6- -1 -2 -1 -3 1 7 1 8 I Total 12 8 2 10 - - - - 13 8 10 6 6 16 10 Kestrel - 15 20 17 - 9 Cooper s Hawk - - - - 1 - - - - - - - Great Horned Owl - - 1 - - 1 2 - 2 2 4 - 1 Short eared Owl - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 Merlin 1973-74 December - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 1 4 8 5 - - - - - - 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 1 Populations November October 5 and Winter 5 1 - 1 - - 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - ~. - - - - 3 2 5 9 2 4 1 3 2 1 2 2 1 75 72 64 50 46 18 23 20 15 16 .50 .48 .43 .33 .31.12.15 .13 .10 .11 I f-I 0\ (,.oJ I �-164- TABLE 5 Raptors Banded in Southeastern Species Colorado Number Banded Swainson's Hawk 70 Ferruginous Hawk 56 Great Horned Owl 29 Red-tailed 20 Hawk Golden Eagle 4 American 3 Kestrel Long-eared Owl Rough-legged Barn Owl Cooper's Hawk 2 2 1 Hawk TOTAL 1 188 �-165- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ Project No. ~W~-~1~2~4_-~R~-~2 _ Raptor Investigations Work Plan No. _ Job No. 4 Job Title: Roadside Raptor Censuses Period Covered: Personnel: ~l~ October 11, 1973 through January 31, 1974 Gerald R. Craig ABSTRACT Contracts were developed, but due to inability to locate qualified persons to undertake the censuses at such a late date, no contracts were let on this project during this segment. ��-167- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~o~l~o~r~a=d~o _ Project No. W-124-R-2 Raptor Investigations Work Plan No. 2 ------=------------- Job No. 1 Job Title: Peregrine Falcon Propagation and Reintroduction Studies Period Covered: Personnel: October 11, 1973 through January 31, 1974 Gerald R. Craig, James H. Enderson ABSTRACT Twenty-six eggs were obtained from two pairs of captive anatum peregrine falcons. Nine eggs were fertile and four young were hatched of which three were successfully reared. These were the first anatum peregrine falcons ever produced in captivity. Due to the low number of breeding stock in captivity, all young were retained for further propagation rat.her than being introduced into the wild. Three pairs of prairie falcons in the same project laid 22 eggs of which six were fertile and two young were reared. ��-169- PEREGRINE FALCON PROPAGATION AND REINTRODUCTION STUDIES Gerald R. Craig To captive1y produce eggs and/or young from peregrine falcons for reintroduction into the nes~of wild peregrine falcons that have low or no natural productivity. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish the cause for reproductive failure of wild peregrines. 2. To produce young or eggs from peregrine falcons being held in captivity at the facilities of Dr. James H. Enderson. 3. To visit wild peregrine falcon eyries where adults are present and replace spoiled eggs with captive1y produced eggs or young. 4. To keep those eyries containing captively produced eggs or young under observation to ascertain the success of the endeavor. METHODS AND MATERIALS Dr. James H. Enderson was awarded the contract to captively produce peregrine falcons for reintroduction efforts. Enderson's facility at Colorado Springs consists of a building containing five lofts 21 feet in length, 6 feet in width and 14 feet in heighth. the facility. A sixth room of slightly smaller dimensions completes Nest ledges approximately 3 feet deep and six feet in width are provided near the ceiling at the end of each 10ft. with stream sand. The nest ledges are covered One-way glass at the rear of each nest ledge permits obser- vation of the nest ledge and much of the loft. locations in each loft. Perches are placed at various Two x eight foot openings, covered with heavy gauge wire, provide light and ventilation to each loft. Pairs of falcons in each 10ft are fed five week old cockrels and coturnix quail. Bathing water is continually supplied to each room. In 1973, two pairs and a single two-year-old male anatum peregrine (Falco peregrinus anatum), one pair of Peale's peregrines (Falco peregrinus pealii), one immature female arctic peregrine (Falco peregrinus tundrus) and three pairs of prairie falcons were maintained at the facility. The prairie falcons were used to test artificial insemination techniques as well as develop artificial incubation and brooding methodology. �-170Several peregrines were artificially inseminated. to apparent Success. Three days to a week after completion of clutch of eggs, the entire clutch was removed and artificially incubated. Within a week to ten days after removal of the first clutch, the falcon laid a second clutch. Thus "recycling" is an excellent method of increasing productivfty of captive falcons. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The prairie falcons laid a total of 22 eggs of which 6 were fertile. were permitted to incubate the eggs naturally. and two chicks did not survive to hatching. reared and fledged. The parents Of the six fertile eggs, two froze Two chicks were successfully hatched, The anatum peregrines succeeded in laying 26 eggs, of which 9 were fertile. eggs, except the last clutch were artificially were successfully hatched, but died. incubated. All Four young peregrines The remaining three females were all reared and are being held for further propagation. These are the first anatum peregrines ever produced through captive propagation. Due to scarcity of captive anatum peregrines for use in breeding programs (there are less than a dozen pairs in captivity at this time) it was decided to hold those progeny produced for the first few years to increase breeding stock. Information gathered in the course of Work Plan 1, Job 1 (Statewide raptor population and characteristic in wild peregrines. studies) indicates that pesticide levels are critical Tables 1 and 2 provide details of the analysis. are also included in Job Progress Report for Work Plan I, Job 1.). (These tables �-171Decreased production relates directly to decreased eggshell thickness which is about 20% less than pre-1948 samples. reported for peregrines. DDE residues are as high as levels ever The next step will be to attempt to trace down the source of prey containing high pesticide residues and continue to monitor pesticide levels to document possible changes. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue collecting and analyzing infertile or addled peregrine eggs and shell fragments to increase sample size of data base. 2. Collect and examine representatives from the prey population in areas hunted by nesting peregrines to determine pesticide levels. 3. Maintain captively produced peregrine falcons in the breeding program for at least another year to increase the presently meager captive breeding stock. 4. Investigate methods of increasing egg fertility through artificial insemination. Prepared by, a IZ ~ Gerald R.~ Date: �-172TABLE 1 Eggshell Condition of Colorado Peregrine Eggs Eyrie Year Thickness Index * Shell Weight (g) 1 1973 2 1973 8 1973 6 1.62 1.52 1.33 1971 0.325 3.86 0.305 3.66 0.254 2.92 0.284'1:/ 0.294~/ + Mean-SE + 1.4~.08 + 0.292-.012 + 3.4S-:-.28 Information below from other studies is included for comparison 3/ Albta., Saska., pre '47Montana + 1.87~.03 East U.S., pre '472/ + 1.9~.01 Mass., N. J. , 1947-501/ + 1.54~.09 + 0.35~.OO5 + 4.l2~.09 0.3752:0.005 + 4.47~.04 + 0.31O~.025 + 3.35~.20 Ungava, 1967, 1970!!.! 0.2912:0.013 .Y Shell plus shell membrane '!:..! Shell membranes absent; values are for shells plus the mean membrane thickness (0.06mm; range 0.05-0.07) for the other 5 shells. 3/ Anderson and Hickey (1972). Berger et al (1970). Table removed from data provided in Work Plan I, Job 1 of W-124-R-2 �-173TABLE Chlorinated 2 Hydrocarbon Residues in Colorado Peregrine Eggs* uglg DDE We.t Wt. PCB DiddtiD Eyrie Percent Moisture Percent LiEid 1 81 5.2 28 538 0.1 6.4 123 2 82 4.2 16 381 0.1 3.6 86 8 76 5.0 40 571 ND 5.9 84 + Mean-SE + 87 79.7-1. + 4.S-:-.3 28~.9 496±58.6 Lipid Wt. Wet Wt. + 5.r.86 Information below from other studies is included for comparison A 1aska-II 21 N.W. Can.- 407 - G r. B'r1t.-31 A1aska-41 Ungava-51 + 17.8-10.9 + 7 o. S-:-O. 11.9 0.6 + 27.4-13.0 469±194 12.7 253 Alaska§.I Tundra 889 Taiga 673 Aleutian 167 }j Calculation 11 Enderson and Berger from Cade et a1 (1968), n=2. (1968), n=5. _~I Ratcliffe (1965), n=13. 1::.1 Lincer et a1 (1970), n=3. 'il Berger et al (1970) , n=lO. £1 Cade et al (1971), n=19, 14, 11 respectively. Wet Wt. '[able removed from data provided in Work Plan I, Job 1 of W-124-R-2 Lipid Wt. + 97.6-12.7 � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/866483887d8c698f95a22fe3b9ee59ef.pdf e2173931e4300daf231bf61341003971 PDF Text Text April 1975 -1- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~---------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W_-_3_7_-_R_-_2_8 _ 1 18 Work Plan No. --------------------- Job Title 'Pheasant Roadside Cover Evaluation Study Job No. ------------------------------- ------------------------------------~----------------- Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 Oliver B. Cope, Margaret Stumpf and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT Information derived from this study was prepared and published during this Segment as follows: Snyder, W. D. 1974. Pheasant use of roadsides for nesting in northeast Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife Special Report #36. 24 p. Snyder, W. D. 1974. Seeding roadsides for pheasant nesting cover. Division of Wildlife Game Information Leaflet #99. 3 p. Snyder, W. D. 1974. The beleaguered ringneck. Colo .do Colorado Outdoors 23(6) :5-8. ��-3- PHEASANT ROADSIDE COVER EVALUATION STUDY Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To compare pheasant production under natural roadside conditions with the following cover types to be established along roadsides: (1) grass, and (2) grass-legume mixtures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Information derived from this study was prepared and published during the work segment as follows: Snyder, W. D. 1974. Pheasant use of roadsides for nesting in northeast Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife Special Report #36. 24 p. This report covers all aspects of the study with recommendations ment use. for manage- Snyder, W. D. 1974. Seeding roadsides for pheasant nesting cover. Division of Wildlife Game Information Leaflet #99. 3 p. Colorado This publication summarizes benefits and recommended procedures for use by landowners and others in seeding roadsides to provide pheasant nesting cover. Snyder, W. D. 1974. The beleaguered ringneck. Colorado OutdOors 23(6):5-8. This article briefly summarizes the ~light of the pheasant and proposes use of roadsides as a partial answer to the problem of diminishing habitat. A presentation summarizing findings of this study was presented at the.18th annual meeting of the Midwest Pheasant Council in North Platte, Nebraska, Ap ril 9, 1975. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Oliver B. Cope, editor, and Margaret Stumpf, typist handled their respective duties with prompt and thoro~gh efficiency. Their combined efforts were invaluable in completing the above listed publications within this work segment. Prepared by ~"'-7JyJ Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher ��April 1975 -5- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. ~W~-~3~7_-~R~-=2~8 Work Plan No. _ -=l__~----------- Game Bird Survey Job No. 21 ----------~------------------ Job Title Pheasant Mortality Investigation Period Covered: April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975. Personnel: Howard Funk, David Bowden, Warren Snyder, Lucien Brevard, Larry Crooks, Stanley Haskell, Gary Rafert, Steven Steinert, Bruce Trindle, Daniel Walsworth, and Donald Hoffman. ABSTRACT Pheasant populations within the study area and within ,the prime pheasant range in northeastern Colorado reached the lowest level in over 20 years during 1974, based upon census indices and hunter success. Data gathered during this study indicated at least a 45 percent reduction in the spring 1975 breeding population, in comparison with the spring 1974 breeding population due to heavy losses from an extremely severe blizzard on March 27, 1975. A total of 534 pheasants were captured and banded within the four township study area using nightlighting techniques during the fall period of 1974. A reward band system was instigated to correct for non return of bands by hunters. Males constituted 44 percent of the total fall banded sample and females 56 percent. Thirty-six bands, including 23 reward bands, were returned by successful hunters. Upon correcting band recovery data for non-reporting of non-reward bands, it was estimated that hunting mortality on immature males was approximately 19 percent, 15 percent for mature males and 18 percent for all males. Crippling loss on males was estimated at 10 percent of the retrieved bag for both age classes, based upon hunter questionnaires. Thus, total hunting season mortality through harvest and crippling loss was estimated at about 20 percent for all males combined. This information also suggested that immature males were about 1.3 times more vulnerable to shooting than adult males. A total of 173 pheasants were captured during the winter period of 1975, again using nightlighting techniques. Of these, 149 were newly banded and 24 were recaptured from the fall, 1974 banded sample. Males constituted 19 percent of the total winter banded sample and females 81 percent. A total of 167 incidences of pheasant mortality were recorded within the study area from fall, 1974 through early spring, 1975. Banded males shot off the study area are included in this sample. Incidences of mortality from the banded segment included: hunting (36),winter killed (9), road killed (1), and probable hunting crippling loss (1). Incidences of mortality from the unbanded segment included: hunting (62), winter killed (37), trapping casualties (9), road killed (6), and unknown (6). (Abstract continued on following page) �-6ABSTRACT (Continued) Immature males banded during fall, 1974 and harvested during the open season, 1974 dispersed more widely (average movement of 5.1 miles) than mature males (average movement of 2.6 miles). Twenty-six percent of the males harvested, where movements could be determined, moved entirely off the study area. In contrast, the winter, 1975 recapture and early spring, 1975 recovery samples of both males and females showed little movement from the sites where originally banded in the fall of 1974. Based upon this movement data gathered, this population of pheasants was considered open rather than closed. RECOMMENDATIONS An important requirement for future statistical analyses is that hunter success within the study area be sampled randomly. Random sampling will allow for determination of confidence limits for popUlation estimates. Random sampling through a hunting permit system is not recommended since undue attention would be drawn to the study area. A portion of this study depends upon marking and recapturing random samples of birds for several years to estimate popUlations through changeill-ratio methods. Statistical analyses were limited with only one year's data. Preliminary data, however, indicated that sample sizes required to estimate populations even with 25 percent accuracy may be unrealistically large for this low density pheasant population. This population is, however, representative of the northeastern Tablelands, long considered Colorado's best pheasant population. It is recommended that statistical analyses be continued following the second year of data collection to determine the reliability of the data being collected. �-7- PHEASANT MORTALITY INVESTIGATION Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate mortality rates of a population of ring-necked pheasants. SEGMEh~ OBJECTIVES 1. Review relevant literature concerning pheasants and studies of mortality and survival of birds. 2. Select study area. 3. Monitor population status on selected areas. 4. Develop new and/or improve existing trapping techniques. 5. Investigate mortality factors and estimate mortality rates of marked individuals. 6. Prepare annual progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS A search of literature was made and brief abstracts of pertinent articles were filed on 5 by 8 inch "Unisort" cards. Field surveys of several areas within the prime pheasant range in the northeastern Tablelands were conducted along with preliminary population monitoring using crow counts and roadside counts. A study area was selected during the sun er of 1974 on the basis of representative pheasant populations, landowner cooperation, and habitat types (extensive wheat stubb1efields) needed for nightlighting-trapping operations. Pheasant populations within the selected study area were monitored through crow counts made along one trend route from April 25 to June 4, 1974, brood counts along one trend route from August 7 to August 28, 1974, and sex-ratio counts made in various sites within the study area from January 29 to March 20, E 75. Pheasants were captured using nightlighting techniques developed in Illinois (Labisky 1968). Two crews of two men each and two 4-wheel drive vehicles were used for a portion of this work and one crew of two men with one 4-wheel drive vehicle for the remainder. All pheasants were leg banded with aluminum colored bands and approximately one half were also leg banded with gold colored aluminum reward bands. An intensive effort was made in January, 1975 to attract pheasants to whole shelled corn baitsites for winter period bait trapping attempts with little success. Abundant waste grain in the large wheat stubblefields combined with an open winter were considered to be major �-8- factors why the birds did not readily utilize the bait stations. This method was therefore discarded in favor of winter period nightlighting trapping. Banding efforts were concentrated from mid-August to mid-October, 1974 (pre-season) and from early February to late March, 1975 (post-season). Brood counts indicated the average age of the young birds was approximately ten weeks in mid-August, 1974. Pheasants were aged by the length and shaft diameter of the first primary according to Wishart (1969). Hunting mortality data were collected through field contacts of hunters, check station operations, and hunter questionnaires. Hunters reporting banded birds were surveyed to obtain banded-unbanded ratios of birds in the bag, success and number days afield. They were also asked to supply names and addresses of their hunting companions and these, too, were surveyed to obtain additional data. The reward given a hunter for returning a gold colored reward band and the corresponding aluminum colored regular band during 1974 was a 144 page book Cooking the Sportsmen's Harvest published by the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish, and Parks. Non-hunting mortalities of both banded and unbanded birds were documented by date, age, sex, and cause of mortality whenever possible. Field searches of wheat stubblefields, draws, windrows, old homestead sites, and along roadways were made by four men, using three bird dogs and two 4-wheel drive vehicles following a severe blizzard in late March, 1975 to secure winter kill mortality information. Data were assembled and compiled. Hunting mortality rates utilizing fall banding data, including reward and non-reward band recoveries, were estimated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Selection of Study Area A study area of four townships in size and located in southwestern Phillips County (Fig. 1) was selected following preliminary population monitoring, landowner contacts, habitat inspection, and conferences with Wildlife Researcher W. Snyder and Wildlife Conservation Officer T. Lines. The western border of this study area is the Logan County line and the southern border is 'the Yuma County line. Haxtun, Colorado, located two miles north of the northern boundary, was used for a base of operations during 1974. Pheasant populations for 1974 proved to be highest in the two southern townships of the study area. Crow Counts, 1974 A tally of the highest number of crows heard per two minute period during four counts made along a 19.5 mile trend route (Haxtun-South) within the study area showed a mean of 20.6 calls compared with a mean of 26.0 calls recorded by Wildlife Conservation Officer T. Lines along the Wages-Clarkville-Haxtun Management Trend Route (Table 1). Crow count indices show a continued decline of pheasant numbers within the study area and also within the prime northeastern pheasant range of Colorado. Snyder (1974b) stated the 1973-74 pheasant population level in northeastern Colorado was the lowest in over 20 years. �1 7 N. (9 o R.t't 7 VI. F<.46W 11 YUMA Fig. 1. Location of study area, consisting County, is outlined in solid black line. COUNTy of four townships in southw stern Phillips �-10- Brood Counts, 1974 Table 2 summarizes brood counts completed within the study area for 1974. An average of 1.86 birds per mile was tallied in four counts along the Haxtun-South trend route compared with 1.89 birds per mile tallied by W. Snyder in three counts along the nearby Wages-Clarkville-Haxtun Management Trend Route. Of 31 hens tallied along the Haxtun-South route, 20 (65%) had broods and 11 (35%) apparently were unsuccessful. An average of 5.75 young per brood was tallied along this route. Pheasants Banded on Study Area, Fall, 1974 Table 3 summarizes data from 534 pheasants captured and banded on the study area using nightlighting techniques during the fall period of 1974. Males constituted 44 percent of the fall sample and females 56 percent. A young: adult ratio of 1.80:1.00 was suggested from this trapping sample with an indicated young:mature hen ratio of 2.40:1.00. A male pheasant being captured with a hand net using nightlighting equipment is shown in Figure 2. A view of a wheat stubblefield intersected by a draw which was trapped during both fall and winter night-trapping operations is shown in Figure 3. Pheasant Season, 1974 A regular open season was held extending from noon on November 16 through November 28, 1974 (12.5 days) and an extended season from November 29 through December 15, 1974 (17.0 days) with a bag limit of three males and a possession limit of six (Table 4). Numbers of hunters (Fig. 4) were tallied periodically along roadsides (Table 5). These counts indicated that most hunters hunted during the opening weekend only and hunting pressure-was minimal during the remainder of the season. Success in the general area was poor on opening day (0.25 birds per hunter at the Fleming Check Station), apparently resulting in many hunters losing interest early and many not returning. A maximum average of two hunters per square mile in the study area indicated only a fair amount of hunting pressure, even during the opening day of the 1974 season. Hunter questionnaire data suggested that the average time spent per hunter in the study area was 2.1 days. However, the sample of hunters was biased toward the successful hunter and the time spent was also probably biased on the high side. Thirty-six total bands, of which 23 were reward bands, were returned or recovered from successful hunters (Table 6). This information indicates a discrepancy in reward to non-reward band ratios according to method in which the bands were obtained. Of 13 bands secured from hunters through field contacts or at the Fleming Check Station, nine were regular bands and four were reward bands. Of 23 bands mailed or brought in voluntarily by hunters, four were regular bands and 19 were reward bands. A significant difference (10.63; P<O.Ol) was determined, using a chi-square goodness of fit test, comparing the number of reward to non-reward bands collected by field or check station contacts with those voluntarily returned by hunters. As shown in Table 3, about half of the immature and 69 percent of the adult males were reward-banded. However, there were more immatures banded than adults. Thus, the rate of encountering reward to non-reward bands would be expected to be close to 50-50 either in the field or for those reported by hunters through the mail. �Table 1. Summary of pheasant Route Haxtun-South Wages-ClarkvilleHaxtun 1/ crow coun r s , 1974. Period of Counts No. of Counts No. of Stations Tally of Highest Count Per Station Mean Cocks 4-25-74 6-4-74 4 10 206 20.6 11 4-23-74 6-5-74 3 10 260 26.0 Observed During Counts Sex-Ratio Hens .48 : 1.00 (Males : Females) 23 Data Not Recorded 1/ - Counts were made by Wildlife Conservation Officer T. Lines along this established Pheasant Management Route. I f-' f-' Table 2. Route Haxtun-South Wages-Clarkvil1eHaxtun 1/ 1/ I Summary of pheasant brood counts, 1974. Observed During Counts Sex Ratio UnYoung/ No. Brood Adults (M : F) Broods class. Total Period of Counts No. of Counts Total Miles Average Birds/ Mile Cocks Hens Young 8-7-74 8-28-74 4 98.3 1.86 10 31 115 27 183 20 5.75 .32 : 1.00 3 91.0 1.89 11 32 126 3 172 25 5.04 .34 : 1. 00 8-6-74 8-20-74 - Counts were made by Wildlife Researcher W. D. Snyder along this established Pheasant Management Route. �Table 3. Pheasants banded on study area, August 21, 1974 through October 16, 1974. Age Sex Number Banded Percentage Number Reward Banded Percentage Juvenile Male 185 34.64 93 50.27 Male 48 8.99 33 68.75 Juvenile Female 158 29.59 64 40.51 Mature Female 143 26.78 66 46.15 534 100.00 256 Mature Totals Average 47.94 I •... N Summary: I Young: 'Adult Ratio = 343 : 191 or 1.80 : 1.00 Young: Mature Hen Ratio = 343 : 143 or 2.40 : 1.00 Percent Males in Total = 43.63 Percent Females in Total = 56.37 Table 4. Summary of pheasant hunting season pertaining to study area, 1974. Length (Days) Bag Limit Possession Limit 11-16-74 - 11-28-74 (regular) 12.5 3 (males only) 6 (males only) 11-16-74 Only-Noon to Sunset All Other Days - Sunrise to Sunset 11-29-74 - 12-15-74 (extended) 17.0 3 (males only) 6 (males only) Sunrise to Sunset Dates Hours �-13- Fig. 2. A total of 683 pheasants, including 534 in the fall and 149 in the winter, were captured using night lighting techniques and banded with aluminum leg bands during the first year of the study. Approximately one half were banded with reward bands. �I I-' +:I Fig. 3. A wheat stubblefield intersected by a draw, located within the study area. This field was trapped during both fall and winter nightlighting-trapping operations. The numerous draws provide drainage to the land and cover and water for pheasants. �I •....• I.n I Fig. 4. Pheasant hunters searching a wheat stubblefield during open season, November, 1974. �Table 5. Pheasant hunter counts in study area, 1974. Date Time No. Miles No. Sq. Miles 1/ No. Hunter Vehicles Ntnnber Hunter Parties Ave. No. Hunters/ Vehicle No. Hunters in Sample No. Hunters in 144 Sq.Mi. Study Area Counted By 11-16-74 (Saturday) 12:15 PM1:15 PM 31.0 31 26 20 2.43 63 293 D. Hoffman 11-17-74 (Sunday) 8:45 AM10:30 AM 31.0 31 6 6 3.00 18 84 D. Hoffman 11-21-74 (Thursday) 8:45 AM9:45 AM 31.0 31 0 0 -- 0 0 B. Trind1e 11-23-74 (Saturday) 8:30 AM11: 30 AM 58.0 58 2 2 2.00 4 10 w. Snyder I •.... aI 11-23-74 (Saturday) 12:15 PM1:30 PM 31.0 31 0 0 -- 0 0 D. Hoffman 11-24-74 (Sunday) 8:10 AM9:45 AM 31.0 31 0 0 -- 0 0 D. Hoffman 1/ - Hunters and vehicles tallied one-half mile on each side of route. �-17- Table 6. Band recovery information, 1975 season. Recovered Bands Non-Reward Bands Field Checks and Fleming Check Station 13 4 9 Reported by Hunters 23 19 4 Totals 36 23 13 Source Even with the possibility of bias as brought out in Table 6, the band recovery information has to be the best data to utilize in estimating percent of the male population harvested. The purpose of the reward band system is to obtain a non-reporting rate for harvested, non-reward banded birds so that total banded birds harvested can be estimated. This method includes the assumption that all reward bands from harvested birds are reported by hunters. Therefore, non-reward bands were corrected for non-reporting on the basis of returned reward bands utilizing information on numbers banded with reward and non-reward bands by immature and adult age class from Table 3. The projections for correcting for non-reporting are illustrated in Table 7. For immature males, 18 reward and 12 lion-reward bands were obtained from hunters. Because immatures were banded at very close to a 50-50 ratio with reward and non-reward bands, the reporting rate of non-reward bands was indicated to be only about 67 percent. Correcting for this, the tQtal number of recovered bands for immatures was estimated at 36 rather than 30. Reward bands were placed on 69 percent of the adults so the projection for non-reward bands was estimated at 2 with a total estimated at 7 rather than 6. Thus, the estimate of total banded birds harvested and retrieved by hunters was 43 rather than 36. Table 7. Projection estimates for non-reporting age class. No. Banded Immature Reported Recovered Reward Non-Reward of banded males harvested by Projected Non-Reward Bands Total Recoveries Percent Recovered 185 18 12 18 36 19.5 Adult 48 ,? 1 2 7 14.6 Totals 233 23 13 20 43 Average 18.5 �-18- Data in Table 7 suggest that 19.5 percent of the immature segment of the male population was harvested and retrieved by hunters and 14.6 percent of the adult male population. This averages 18.5 percent for all males. Comparison of the recovery rates by age also suggests the immatures were 1.34 times as vulnerable to hunting as adults (19.5 + 14.6). Hunter questionnaire information suggested that crippling loss was about 10.3 percent of the retrieved bag. This would add 1.9 percent mortality to the average computed for all males harvested (18.5 percent) making the estimate of all mortality due to hunting total 20.4 percent. An apparent hunting season crippling loss (male) is shown in Figure 5. All successful hunters returning bands indicated they had killed only one banded male each, even though some killed as many as six males during the season. This was considered very unlikely, considering the number of banded .males in the study area. It is also of interest that no bands from female pheasants were returned by hunters even though 301 were banded and reward bands were placed on 43 percent of these. Hunters who were sent questionnaires following the close of the 1974 season, were asked to comment on the season. Of 52 hunters who returned their questionnaires, 26 (50%) made no comment. Of the 26 hunters who made comments, 22 (85%) indicated the hunting was poor, and only 4 (15%) indicated the hunting was good. Several hunters commented on the deterioration of habitat and low populations of pheasants compared with previous years. Habitat deterioration and declining pheasant populations are occurring throughout its entire range (Snyder 1974a), so this trend is not unique to Colorado. Pheasants Banded on Study Area, Winter, 1975 Table 8 summarizes data from 173 pheasants captured on the study area during the winter of 1975. Nightlighting-trapping techniques were again used during this period. Of these, 149 were newly banded birds, of which 75 were also banded with reward bands, and 24 were recaptures from the fall, 1974 period. Utilizing newly banded and recaptured birds, a sex ratio (males:females) of 0.23:1.00 was determined for the period and the young:adult ratio was determined to be 0.88:1.00. Winter Sex-Ratio Counts, 1975 Winter period sex ratio counts completed in January through March, 1975 by searching draws, windrows, old homesites, and recording birds along roadsides are listed in Table 9. A sample of 262 pheasants (36 males, 179 females, and 47 unclassified) indicated a sex ratio (M:F) of 0.20:1.00 for the study area. This compares with a sex ratio of 0.23:1.00 for the winter trapping sample (Table 6). Thus, males which appeared to be more difficult to capture than females when fully grown, were actually trapped at a slightly higher rate than observed in the wild population. Males were, however, somewhat easier to observe than hens during the nightlighting-trapping operations because of their coloration. �I I-" \0 I Fig. 5. A male pheasant carcass found following the 1974 open season. Crippling loss of males was estimated at ten percent of the retrieved bag from a questionnaire survey of hunters. �Table 8. Pheasants banded on study area, February 5, 1975 through March 20, 1975. Age Sex Number Banded Percentage Number Reward Banded Percentage Juvenile Male 18 10.40 10 55.56 Recaptures 1./ 2 1.16 1 50.00 Sub-totals- 20 11.56 11 10 5.78 9 90.00 Recaptures 1./ 2 1.16 0 0.00 Sub-totals 12 6.94 9 Mature Male I N Juvenile Female 53 30.64 23 43.40 Recaptures 1./ 8 4.62 3 37.50 Sub-totals 61 35.26 26 68 39.30 33 48.53 Recaptures 1./ 12 6.94 5 41.67 Sub-totals 80 46.24 38 173 100.00 84 Mature Female Totals Sunnnary: Young:Adult Ratio = 71 : 78 or 0.91 : 1.00; W/Recaptures = 81 : 92 or 0.88 : 1.00 Young:Adult Female Ratio = 71 : 68 or 1.04 : 1.00; W/Recaptures = 81 : 80 or 1.01 : 1.00 Sex Ratio (Males: Females) = 28 : 121 or 0.23 : 1.00; W/Recaptures = 32 : 141 or 0.23 : 1.00 Percent Males in Total = 18.79; W/Recaptures = 18.50 1/ - Included only birds recaptured from Summer, 1974 banding sample. o I �Table 9. Pheasant sex-ratio counts obtained during daytime by date and cover type, winter, 1975. Cover Type No. Males No. Females No. Unc1ass. Total 2 Draw Bottom 20 115 45 180 0 1 Roadside 10 24 0 34 2 5 8 Old Homesite and/or Windrow 6 40 2 48 2 5 0 7 2-11-75 2 12 0 14 Totals 36 179 47 262 2-12-75 0 5 0 5 2-13-75 2 0 0 2 No. Males No. Females No. Unc1ass. Total 1-29-75 1 1 0 1-30-75 0 1 1-31-75 1 2-6-75 Date I N ~ Summary: 2-18-75 5 48 20 73 2-19-75 5 18 7 30 2-20-75 5 14 8 27 3-3-75 5 33 5 43 3-6-75 2 0 0 2 3-18-75 3 25 1 29 3-19-75 0 3 0 3 3-20-75 3 12 1 16 Totals 36 179 47 262 I Male -----. : Female Ratio .20 : 1.00 = 36 : 179 or �-22- Ratios: Banded toUribartded aridYotirigto Adtilt Information gathered on banded to unbanded ratios is listed in Table 10. Hunter band returns plus hunter questionnaires indicated a banded to unbanded ratio of 1.00:3.35 for males during the open season, 1974. This estimate was, however, secured from a non-random sampling of hunters and was not used in statistical analyses. The banded to unbanded ratio for the entire winter trapping period was 1.00:6.21, with recaptures from the winter period excluded, and 1.00:2.29 for the final two weeks of winter trapping. This last ratio included recaptures from both the fall, 1974 and recaptures during the final two weeks from the winter, 1975 periods and indicated approximately 30 percent of the wintering population was banded. The banded to unbanded ratio from 46 carcasses found within the study area following the March 27, 1975 blizzard was 1.00:4.11 and indicated approximately 20 percent of the wintering population was banded. Age ratio information gathered during the first year of the study is listed in Table 11. The fall, 1974 banding sample indicated a ratio (young:adult) of 1.80:100 compared with an indicated ratio of 0.91:100 for the winter, 1975 banding sample. Losses from an Early Spring, 1975 Blizzard Freezing, driving rains with high winds, followed by drifting snow may result in high losses of pheasants through their freezing to death, according to Edminster (1954). Such was the unusual weather combination which occurred in northeastern Colorado in late March, 1975. A very severe blizzard occurred on March 27, 1975, but this was preceded by driving rain during the night of March 26, 1975. Counts of live birds made, in known concentration sites within the study area before and after the storm indicated approximately one half of the pheasants died. Forty-six carcasses, of which nine were banded, were found on the study area following the storm (Fig. 6 and Tables 12 and 13). Eleven additional pheasant carcasses (4 immature males, 3 immature females, 2 mature females, and 2 unclassified females) were found within one-half mile of the north boundary, but outside the study area. Predators such as hawks, owls, and coyotes were more efficient searchers than a crew of four men with three bird dogs and two 4-wheel drive vehicles, so the extent of the losses could not be measured on~y through numbers of carcasses found. Also, continuing inclement weather closed secondary roads and prevented field searches for almost a week , Figures 7 through 9 are included to show effects of this storm on habitat, cattle, and Hildlife. Many individuals considered this storm to be the most severe since the January, 1949 blizzard, which also caused heavy losses to pheasant populations of northeastern Colorado. �Table 10. Banded to unbanded rat '.os of pheasants by period. Banded/Unbanded Ratio Period 11-16-74 to 12-15-74 (Open Season, 1974) 26 : 87 or 1.00 : 3.35 2-5-75 to 3-20-75 (Entire Winter Trapping Period) 24 : 149 or 1.00 : 6.21- 3-10-75 to 3-20-75 (Final Two Weeks of Winter Trapping Period) Estimate Percentage 1/ 2/ 21 : 48 or 1.00 : 2.29 - of Banded How Obtained 23.01 Hunter band returns plus hunter questionnaires 13.87 Winter trapping (night1ighting) 30.43 Winter (nightlighting) trapping I N W I 4-2-75 to 4-10-75 (Following the March 27, 1975 Blizzard) 9 : 37 or 1.00 : 4.11 19.57 Tally of winter killed pheasants following March 27, 1975 blizzard (on study area). 1/ - Ratio excluded recaptures from winter period since these were tallied during final two weeks of trapping only. Twenty four recaptures from fall, 1974 period used to determine ratio. 2/ - Ratio included 8 recaptures from fall, 1974 period plus 13 recaptures from winter trapping period. �Table 11. Young to adult ratios of pheasants by period. Number Young Number Adults Total Percent Adults Fall Banded, 1974 343 191 534 35.77 1.80 : 1.00 Open Season, 1974 (Banded Sample, Cocks) 30 6 36 16.67 5.00 : 1.00 Winter Banded, 1975 71 78 149 52.35 0.91 : 1.00 Sample Young : Adult Ratio I N +:I �I N \J1 I Fig. 6. One of 46 pheasant carcasses found within the study area following a blizzard on March 27, 1975. Approximately one half of the pheasant population of the northeastern Tablelands died during this storm. �Table 12. Incidences of pheasant mortality from band returns, fall, 1974 through early spring, 1975. Date Aluminum Band No. Gold Band No. Sex Age 9-10-74 5089 0070 Male Immature Road Killed 5005 5017 5021 5030 5064 5066 5082 5083 5085 5116 5120 5134 5137 5160 5185 5191 5227 5266 5276 5289 5307 5332 5340 5344 5348 5358 5367 5390 5395 ---- Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Hunting (Open Season-1974) 11-16-74 to 3-24-75 -- -- -- -- 0067 0068 0033 0034 0040 0042 -0093 0096 0113 0158 0163 -- 0179 0253 0190 0192 0194 0129 -- 0145 0148 Cause of Mortality " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " ---------------------------------------------------------_._-------------------------------------------------- I N C1\ I �Table 12. Incidences of pheasant mortality from band returns, fall, 1974 through early spring, 1975 (continued). Date Aluminum Band No. Gold Band No. 5400 5401 5412 5415 5497 5505 5520 0150 0256 11-16-74 to 3-24-75 (cant) 1-21-75 5004 0217 0274 0002 Sex Age Cause of Mortality Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Hunting (Open Season-1974) Male Mature Crippling Loss (Open Season-1974) " " " " " " " " " " " " I 4-2-75 to 4-10-75 5055 5154 5516 5531 5591 5602 5610 5625 5655 0053 Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Mature Immature Winter Killed (3-27-75 Blizzard) " " " " " " " " " Number Percent Legal Hunting (Harvest 36 and Crippling Loss 1) Winter Killed (March 27, 1975 Blizzard) Road Killed (on Paved Highway) 37 9 1 78.72 19.15 2.13 Total 47 100.00 0230 0291 0295 0310 0304 " " " " " " " Summary: Cause of Mortality _-_.-------------------------------------------- _ .. .. ' N .•....• I �-28- Table 13. Incidences of pheasant mortality through early spring, 1975. Date (s) Sex Age No. 8-21-74 8-21-74 8-28-74 9-10-74 9-10-74 9-12-74 9-17-74 9-18-74 9-19-74 9-19-74 10-3-74 11-16-74 to 12-15-74 Male Unk. Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Unknown Immature Immature 1 Male 11-23-74 12-12-74 1-29-75 1-30-75 2:...12-75 2-12-75 2-13-75 2-20-75 3-11-75 3-18-75 3-20-75 4-2-75 to 4-10-75 from unbanded birds, fall, 1974 Cause of Mortality Remarks 1 1 1 Road Killed Trapping Casualty Road Killed Trapping Casualty Trapping Casualty Road Killed Trapping Casualty Trapping Casualty Trapping Casualty Road Killed Road Killed Found on Paved Stepped On Found on Paved Suffocated Heart Attack Found on Paved Heart Attack Suffocated Hit with Net Found on Paved Found on Paved Unknown 61 Legal Hunting Male Male Unk. Unk. Female Male Male Unk. Female Female Female Unknown Immature Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Immature Mature Mature Mature 1 Legal Hunting Road Killed Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Trapping Casualty Trapping Casualty Trapping Casualty Hunter Contacts and/or Questionnaires Probable Crippling Loss Found on Paved Highway Feathers Only Found Feathers Only Found Feathers Only Found Feathers Only Found Feathers Only Found Feathers Only Found Hit With Net Heart Attack Heart Attack Male Male Male Female Female Female Immature Mature Unc1ass. Immature Mature Unc1ass. Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter March March March March March March 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 7 1 5 4 9 Killed Killed Killed Killed Killed Killed 27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 Highway Highway Highway Highway Highway Blizzard Blizzard Blizzard Blizzard Blizzard Blizzard Summary: Cause of Mortality Legal Hunting (Harvest 61 and Crippling Loss 1) Winter Killed (March 27, 1975 Blizzard) Trapping Casualties (Various Causes) Road Killed (All on Paved Highways) Unknown (Feathers Only Found) Total Number Percent 62 37 6 51.67 30.83 7.50 5.00 5.00 120 100.00 9 6 �I N 10 I Fig. 7. Sites such as shelterbelt tree plantings, draws, and wheat stubblefields, which normally serve as winter cover for pheasants, filled with snow drifts. The birds were then forced into a variety of exposed situations, resulting in heavy losses. �I W o I Fig. 8. Secondary roads were still in the process of being opened within the study area one week after the blizzard had ended. �I W •..... I Fig. 9. County Agents estimated 19,000 cattle (mostly calves and yearlings) were killed outright in northeastern Colorado by the severe blizzard. Pheasants, cottontails, jackrabbits, hawks (marsh, rough-legged, and sparrow), crows, and meadowlarks also suffered losses from the storm. �-32- InstartcesofMotta1ity Information on pheasant mortality obtained through bands covered is listed in Table 12. Numbers tallied by cause included: hunting during open season (36), winter killed 1975 blizzard (9), road killed (1), and probable hunting loss (1). returned or reof mortality from March 27, season crippling Information on pheasant mortality obtained from unbanded birds is listed in Table 13. Numbers tallied by cause of mortality included: hunting during open season (61), winter killed from March 27, 1975 blizzard (37), trapping casualties (9), road killed (6), unknown (6), and probable hunting season crippling loss (1). Movements of Banded Pheasants Thirty-three fall, 1974 banded males (both immature and mature) moved an average of 4.7 miles (range<l to 12 miles) from the site of banding prior to the open season (Table 14). Twenty-six percent of the males (8 immature and 1 mature) moved more than one mile off the study area. By age class, 27 immature males moved an average of 5.1 miles (range<l to 12 miles) and six mature males moved an average of 2.6 miles (range <1 to 7.8 miles). Thus, immature males were found to disperse more widely than mature males from the various banding sites. Because of the movement noted, particularly with immature males, this population of pheasants was considered as open in statistical analyses. In sharp contrast, the sample of both male and female birds (a) banded during the fall, 1974 and recaptured during the following winter period or (b) banded during either the fall, 1974 or winter, 1975 periods and recovered 4uring the early spring period following the March 27, 1975 blizzard showed far less movements (Table 15). Twenty-two of the 33 birds tallied (67%) were recaptured or recovered in the same section where banded and only two (one immature female and one immature male) moved more than two miles from the section where banded. The reason for this, of course, has to be that winter banding and the search for dead birds after the storm were accomplished only on the study area and reflected the movements of only those which stayed on the study area after fall banding. Harvest and Population Estimates When this study was initiated, the plan was to trap and band pre-season and post-season to allow, not only estimates of percentages of males taken by the gun, but also to estimate survival from fall to winter through recapture data. As per Table 3, 233 males were banded pre-season which was not sufficient to give the total of 50 recoveries hoped for to allow more confidence in estimates of percent of the male population taken by hunting. However, good experience was obtained as far as trapping methods and what to expect in the way of hunting pressure and sample sizes needed. �-33- Table 14. Movements of 34 male pheasants, banded in the fall, 1974 and harvested in open season, 1974. Aluminum Band No. 5005 5017 5021 5030 5064 5066 5082 5083 5085 5116 5120 5134 5137 5160 5185 5191 5227 5266 5276 5289 5307 5332 5340 5348 5358 5367 5390 5395 1400 Gold Band No. 0067 0068 0033 0034 0040 0042 0093 0096 0113 0158 0163 0179 0253 0190 0194 0129 0145 0148 0150 .1.2 !~:~ 5415 5497 5505 5520 0217 0274 Sex Age Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Immature Immature Mature Immature Immature Moved from Section Banded Distance (mi.) Direction 1.4 NE 1.4 SW 4.4 SSW 4.0 S 1.4 SE 4.0 SE 10.3 ESE 10.3 ESE 2.0 N 10.0 liE (off study area) (Killed in Logan County)- NW (off study area) 2.0 N 6.2 ESE 10.0 SW (off study area) 7.8 WNW (off study area) 8.4 E 12.0 SSE (off study area) (Killed in same section) {Killed in same section} 1.0 N 8.3 NE 1.4 SE 1.0 W 8.2 WSW {off study area} 1.0 S 6.9 ESE {Killed in same section} 10.6 SSE (off study area) 7.9 NE (off study area) (Killed in same section) 1.8 SSE 1.0 NE 8~5 ENE (off study area) 1;4 NE Summary: 33 males of both mature and immature ages moved an average of 4.7 miles (range < 1 to 12.0 miles) 6 mature males moved an average of 2.6 miles (r'ange-C'l, to 7.8 miles) 27 immature males moved an average of 5.1 miles (range < 1 to 12.0 miles) 9 of 34 (26%) of the males (1 mature and 8 immature) moved more than 1 mile off the study area Direction of movements was not consistent but the majority moved generally southeastward from banding sites. 1/ - Location of this bird not listed other than killed in Logan County, south of Fleming. �-34- Table 15. Movements of 33 banded pheasants, recaptured 1975 or recovered during the early spring, 1975. Aluminum Band No. Gold Band No. Recaptured During Winter Trapping: 5032 5036 5055 5088 5105 5131 5132 5155 5157 5318 5347 5349 5357 5417 5422 5432 5443 5445 5469 5485 5486 5488 5506 5523 Recovered 5055 5154 5516 5531 5591 5602 5610 5625 5655 Sex during the winter, Moved from Section Banded Distance (mi.) Direction Age !/ Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Mature Immature Immature Mature Innnature Mature Mature Innnature Innnature Mature Mature Immature Innnature Immature Mature Mature Innnature Mature Innnature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Immature Immature Innnature Innnature Mature Innnature Immature Mature Immature (Recaptured in same section) 1.0 S 0053 2.0 N (Recaptured in same section) 0028 (Recaptured in same section) (Recaptured in same section) 0039 (Recaptured in same section) 0078 (Recaptured in same section) 0079 (Recaptured in same section) (Recaptured in same section) 1.0 S (Recaptured in same section) 1.0 S (Recaptured in same section) (Recaptured in same section) (Recaptured in same section) 2.5 NW (Recaptured in same section) (Recaptured in same section) 0211 (Recaptured in same section) (Recaptured in same section) 0213 (Recaptured in same section) 0275 (Recaptured in same section) 0226 1.4 SE (dead) Following March 27, 1975 Blizzard: 2:.../ 0053 0230 0291 0295 0310 0304 2.0 1.0 (Recovered 7.5 2.0 2.0 (Recovered (Recovered (Recovered S S in same section) NNE N E in same section) in same section) in same section) Summary: 22 of the 33 birds (67%) were recaptured or recovered in same section where banded. 9 of 11 birds which moved (82%), moved 2.0 miles or less from section where banded. 1 innnature female moved 2.5 miles northwest and 1 immature male moved 7.5 miles north by northeast. l/These pheasants were banded during fall, 1974 period. J:.../Aluminum band numbers 5055 through 5531 were banded during fall, 1974 and aluminum band numbers 5591 through 5655 were banded during winter, 1975. �-35- The winter banding period was not as fruitful as the fall period in several ways. Trappedmalestlumberedonly 32,. of which only 4 were retrapped from the fall period (Table 8). Thus, males were not captured in the same ratio to females as in fall, possibly reflecting differential movement by sex, and the sample sizes were considered too low to enable trap-retrap estimates to estimate survival of males from fall to winter. Since trapping was accOmplished only on the study area, there was no way to estimate how many banded males had left the area and no' way to estimate how many unbanded birds had come into the study area from fall to winter. Therefore, attempts to estimate survival will have to wait until results of the pre-season banding period in 1975 are obtained. Also, with so little data to work with, attempts to estimate the pre-season population of males produced such variable results that they were abandoned at this time. LITERATURE CITED Edminster, F. C. 1954. American game birds of field and forest:their habits, ecology and management. Chas. Scribner's Sons, N. Y. pp. 1-57. Labisky, R. F. 1968. Nightlighting: its use in capturing pheasants, prairie chickens, bobwhites, and cottontails. BioI. Notes No. 62. Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana. l2p. Snyder, W. D. 1974a. The beleaguered ringneck. Colo. Outdoors 23(6):5-8. 1974b. Pheasant use of roadsides for nesting in northeast Colorado. Spec. Report No. 36. Colo. Division of Wildlife, Denver. 24p. Wishart, W. 1969. Age determination of pheasants by measurement primaries. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):714-717. Prepared by (~?!l~a.-u Donald • Hoff~ Wildlife Researcher of proximal ��April 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~OL~O=RAD~~O Project No. _ W~-~3~7~-~R~-~2~8~ _ Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. Job Title. ~~3----~~--~Job No.~------------~8~a-------------Effects of Sagebrush Control _ ~o~n~·~D~l~·s~t~r~i~b~u~t~i~o~n~an~d~~A~b~un~d~an~c~e~·~o~f~S~a~g~e~G~r~o~u~s~e~ Period Covered: April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 Personnel: Fred Giese and Kenneth Russell, U.S.F.W.S.; Thomas Beck, Don Benson, Clait Braun, Lonnie Brown, Thomas Campbell, Jack Corey, Heather Flanagan, Howard Funk, Don Gore, John Hobbs, Jim Jackson, Bruce McCloskey, Mike McLain, Ken Miller, Sig Palm, Steve Porter, Howard Spear, John Wagner, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT In all, 172 sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) were banded in North Park during this segment, 158 on the Lake John study area strutting grounds and.14 on wintering areas. Eight active strutting grounds were located within or adjacent to the study area, one of which was a new ground. Of the 12 active strutting grounds on the study area in 1963, only 4 were still active, with one having only two attending males. The peak male count was 283. Two strutting grounds accounted for 50.0 percent (141) of the cocks observed. Total cock counts varied 28 percent during the peak week of female attendance. Over 32 percent (154.7 mi2) of sagebrush lands in North Park have been sprayed or disked since 1957. Seven hundred and thirty hunters checked 746 sage grouse through check stations on the opening weekend of a three day season. Age composition of 698 wings collected WqS 50 percent immatures, 20 percent yearlings, and 30 percent adults. Females comprised 73 percent of the subadult and adult birds harvested. Peak of hatch was the week of June 19-25. Permits were required of all sage grouse hunters with questionnaires sent to all permittees. Of 1,184 permittees, 1,061 (89.7%) responded to the questionnaire. Estimated harvest was 1,174 birds, a rate of 1.2 grouse per active hunter. Winter distribution was plotted on the basis of 70 flocks, amounting to 2,327 birds. Strong segregation by sexes was evident in sage grouse flocks. Of the 60 flocks classified, 60 percent (36) were composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex. Mean size of male flocks was 21 birds, that of female flocks 48 birds. Flock size was less than 50 birds in 81 percent of all observations. No differences could be detected in vegetal characteristics of winter sites used by male and female flocks. Sixty-nine percent (36) of the winter use sites had slopes less than 5 percent while only 4 percent of the areas had slopes greater than 15 percent. Forty-eight percent (N = 44) of the winter flock locations were on south, southwest, or west facing slopes. Sex ratio of 1,984 birds classified during the winter of 1974-75 was 61 females:39 males. ��-39- EFFECTS OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Thomas D. I. Beck An investigation of sage grouse abundance and distribution in North Park has been in effect since 1963. Various topics have been concentrated on through the years. Major emphasis was placed on winter distribution during this segment. Continued emphasis was also placed on spring strutting ground counts, brood counts, and harvest statistics with major revisions in collection of harvest data. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate seasonal numbers of sage grouse present by age and sex throughout the year. 2. To investigate the seasonal distribution of sage grouse throughout the year. 3. To investigate the current correlation between numbers and distribution of sage grouse in relation to vegetative and habitat composition, patterns and characteristics and initiate comparisons of current results with those obtained in previous segments . .4. To prepare the required annual job progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Data was collected on sage grouse distribution during spring, summer, and winter periods with major emphasis on winter. Age and sex composition of the sage grouse population were investigated during spring, late summer, and winter periods. Weather data was obtained from U. S. Weather Bureau climatological stations at Walden and Spicer. Extent of vegetative disturbance was invest igated through field work and search 0 f records of Bureau of Land Management and Soil Conservation Service. Methodology was identical to that reported in the 1974 annual report (Beck 1974), except for changes in harvest statistics methods. In 1974, four check stations were operated on opening weekend. These stations were located at the State Line, Gould, Muddy Pass and Willow Creek Pass. Each station was operated from about 1000 to 1800 MDT. Data obtained per party were: County of origin, number of hunters, hours �-40- hunted, birds observed, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds, location of where banded birds were taken, and area hunted. One wing was obtained from each bird checked. Few birds (48) were completely wingless. Free, unlimited permits were required of all North Park sage grouse hunters. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees within one week of the season end. Data collected from questionnaires were: number of hunters, area hunted, number of days hunted, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds shot, harvest location of banded birds, and county of origin. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Capturing and Banding One hundred seventy-two sage grouse were banded in this segment, 158 on strutting grounds and 14 on wintering areas. Data on sex, age and specific locations of the spring caught birds are presented in Table 1. Twenty-four birds were recaptured, of which 14 were banded in 1973. When trapping personnel could see bands on a bird no effort was made to capture the bird, thus the number of recaptured birds was appreciably lessened. Only one bird, an adult male, was killed during capture operations. Two adult females TTere dispatched due to injuries received prior to being captured. The peak week for capturing was April 18-25, when 79 birds were banded. This coincides with the peak of male attendance on the strutting grounds as determined from observation. Of the 24 males recaptured on strutting grounds and the one mortality, only two (one adult, one sub-adult at initial capture) were recaptured on strutting grounds different from the ground of initial capture. Both birds were caught five airline miles from the initial capture site. All males captured were aged by techniques described by June (1967). These techniques are based on primary feather wear. Some researchers, primarily behaviorists, have also aged males by. the relative length and shape of the rectrices (Wiley 1973). This method was also used on all captured males for comparison. Only two of the 184 males examined could not be accurately aged by the rectrices. In both cases adult males, as indicated by primary feather characteristics, had rectrices characteristic of sub-adult males. Strutting Ground Counts Known strutting grounds in the area were censused regularly from March 13 until most strutting activity had ceased in late May. Strutting activity began approximately three weeks earlier in 1974 than in 1973, presumably due to warmer temperatures and earlier melting of snow. Eight active grounds were located in or adjacent to the original study area. One new ground was located, bringing to four the number of new strutting grounds located in the last two springs. Of the 12 active strutting grounds marked by Gill (1965) only four were still active. The peak male count for the eight strutting grounds was 283, which included counts made from March 26 to May 14 (Table 2). Coun ts were made twice.on all grounds and on the largest five grounds three times during the peak week of male attendance as determined from counts and capture data, thus providing some data on the stability of numbers of males �-41- on the grounds during this week. The maximum count for the eight grounds during this week was 267, whereas a minimum count of 193 was recorded. Thus, daily variation during the peak week could result in a 28 percent reduction in the count (267-193) 267 . Table 1. Age and sex classes of birds banded in North Park, spring 1974. Area Adult Male Sub-adult Adult 3 3 Alkali Lake Strutting Ground 8 3 2 Boettcher Junction Strutting Ground 11 8 10 Walden Strutting Ground 4 6 Coalmont Strutting Ground 16 3 Cowdrey #5 Strutting Ground 2 Riley Strutting Ground 2 8 4 4 Hound Strutting Ground 12 3 Fish Hatchery Strutting Ground 18 12 Jackson County 5 1 Ridge Road Strutting Ground 2 10 20 1 7 1 1 1 5 3 2 20 1 3 34 1 3 Walden Reservoir 46 6 1 1 1 1 1 2 20 16 165 Butte Strutting Ground 83 37 2 Roth Strutting Ground -----. 13 1 Monahan Draw Strutting Ground Total 6 Wattenberg Strutting Ground Total Female Sub-adult �-42Table 2. Summary of strutting ground counts, northwest North Park 1974. Strutting Ground Alkali Lake Boettcher Lake Junction Hound Walden Wattenberg Cowdrey 115 Riley Monahan Draw Total During 4/18-4/25 Maximum Males Minimum Males Maximum Males Date 72 5-14 69 48 46 4-11 44 42 69 4-18 69 57 37 4-18 37 29 22 3-26 18 14 19 4-18 19 15 15 5-12 8 5 3 4-18 3 3 267 193 283 Strutting ground counts were initiated as a population index for management purposes. A variation of as much as 30 percent in the counts during the supposedly most stable week of male attendance, however, causes one to question the value of the strutting ground counts. Few agencies have the maripower to count all strutting grounds in an area more than once during the peak week, if that often. Analysis of past strutting. ground counts in the study area shows only two years since 1959 when the percent increase or decrease in counts between subsequent springs was greater than 30 percent (discounting 1972 when all grounds were not counted). Thus, most of the supposed population fluctuations pOSSibly, though not probably, can be attributed to daily variation in attendance and the chance of an observer being present on the peak day. Other factors that tend to cast doubt on the value of strutting ground counts as an indicator of population levels are multiple changes in personnel and little or no effort to locate new grounds since 1965 until 1973. Had not the four new grounds been located, counts would have been even lower in 1973 and 1974, 177 and 143, respectively. The Monahan Draw strutting ground, which is in the large block spray area, had only 3 cocks present this spring. This ground had maintained high numbers of birds in the years since the spraying (64 in 1966, 74 in 1967,53 in 1968, 80 in 1969, 57 in 1970, 81 in 1971), and the sudden drop in 1972 (10), and 1973 (11), is at present unexplainable. The new ground located this spring is approximately 5.5 miles southeast of the Monahan Draw ground and had a peak of 69 cocks. In addition, one of the new grounds located in 1973 (15 cocks in 1974) is only 0.5 mile east of the Monahan Draw ground. Counts for the southern �-43- portion of North Park have likewise been appreciably affected by the discovery of a new ground in 1970. In summary, the value of strutting ground counts needs to be seriously examined in light of the high degree of variation from numerous sources before using these data for management purposes. Serious consideration should be given to examining evidence for possible distributional shifts in the last decade. A minimum of 32 birds banded in 1973 were observed on strutting grounds in 1974. Of these, 27 showed fidelity to the ground of capture, whereas five cocks were observed on grounds different from the ones where banding took place, movements ranging from 2-9 miles (5, 5, 2, 9, 2). Combining observation and recapture data, a minimum of 27 males were loyal to the strutting ground where initially captured, while at least 7 males changed strutting grounds. Harvest Data Results of the 1974 check station operations are presented in Table 3, along with data from all years since the inititation of this study. The age ratio from 698 sage grouse wings collected was 50 immatures:20 yearlings:30 adults. Sex ratios were determined for each age class, with a ratio of 51 females:49 males for immatures, 65 females:35 males for yearlings, and 79 females:21 males for adults. Data from 350 wings from immature birds indicated the peak week of hatch was June 19-25 (34%), while 68 percent of the young hatched between 12 June and 2 July. Results of the 1974 hunter questionnaire are presented in Table 4. Winter Distribution Seventy sage grouse flocks were sighted, amounting to 2,327 birds. Weather conditions and calendar dates could not explain patterns of observatLon nor distribution. Distribution of sage grouse 'flocks was limited to that portion of the Park north of Owl Ridge and Peterson Ridge. All areas south of this ric./'line had sparse available sagebrush. App rc xtmat ef.y 483 mi2 of sagebrush lands are suitable summer habitat, of which approxf.m s t eLy 50 percent is available during winter. Over 154 mi2 of sagebrush has been sprayed or plowed since 1957. Some of this total has undoubtedly reverted to sagebrush stands suitable for sage grouse use. Characterization of Winter Flocks Sage grouse in North Park are gregarious, being found in flocks most of the time. Only 7 single birds (3 males, 4 females) were observed in the winter of 1974-75 out of a total of 2,327 birds observed. Strong segregation by sexes is evident, with 60 percent (36) of the 60 flocks classified being composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex. Male flocks were smaller than female flocks, averaging 21 birds, compared to 48 females per flock. Flock size was less than 50 birds in 81 percent of all observations. Sex ratio of 1,984 birds cLassi fLed during the winter of 1974-75 was 61 females: 39 males. �Table 3. Year 1963 1964 1965.Y 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 North Park sage grouse hunter checks, 1963-1974.-1/ Bag Limit Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Cocks Adult Hens Percent Adults Juvenile Cocks Juvenile Hens Percent Juvenile 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 592 217 150 306 300 546 662 564 357 452 366 730 2,460 624 626 1,227 1,177 2,604 2,936 2,617 1,802 2,377 1,599 5,912 62 25 27 31 50 80 79 58 28 50 24 94 150 81 30 116 127 135 180 89 67 69 54 254 42 59 49 56 67 42 70 55 51 67 52 50 113 28 26 45 42 156 37 53 54 40 29 171 181 45 26 71 46 141 74 66 39 18 42 179 58 41 51 44 33 58 30 45 49 33 48 50 Unclassified (Dressed) Birds - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ -1/ 199 76 76 44 48 Total Birds Birds per Hunter Hours Hunted per Bird 506 179 116 263 267 512 569 266 264 253 193 746 1.03 0.82 0.77 0.86 0.89 0.94 0.86 0.47 0.74 0.56 0.53 1.02 4.86 3.49 5.40 4.67 4.41 5.09 5.16 9.84 6.83 9.40 8.28 7.92 1/ Data from 1963 through 1973 are based on Walden and Cowdrey check stations operated during opening weekends. (These stations check harvested birds primarily in the northwest part of North Park). Data from 1974 are based on four check stations (State Line, Gould, Muddy Pass and Willow Creek) operated during the opening weekend. (These stations sampled all of North Park). 1/ A one day season, hence only a one day check. 1/ Composition of kill projected from wing samples, hence no unclassified birds. 1- t �-45- Table 4. North Park sage grouse hunter questionnaire data, 1974. Projected For 886 No. in sample Percent total of 74.9 permittees 749 No. hunters 84.5 Percent hunters 137 No. non-hunters 15.5 Percent non-hunters No. successful 398 hunters Percent hunters 53.1 successful 1,217 No. hunter days 1.62 Days/hunter No. sage grouse 859 bagged .97 Grouse/permittee 1.1 Grouse/hunter Grouse/successful 2.2 hunter 48 No. grouse los t .06 Crippling loss/hunter 907 Total kill Percent crippling 5.3 loss Percent success of 44.9 permittees 28 Banded birds Percent non12 deliverable 1,184 123 1,061 175 Projected For 1184 14.8 124 70.9 51 29.1 89.7 873 82.3 188 17.7 10.3 87 70.9 36 29.1 100 960 81.1 224 18.9 70 468 49 517 56.5 199 1.60 53.6 1,416 1.62 56.5 139 1.60 53.9 1,555 1.62 151 1,010 106 1,116 .86 1.2 .95 1.2 .86 1.2 .94 1.2 2.2 2.2 54 .06 1,064 2.2 2.2 58 .06 1,174 6 .05 157 4 .05 110 3.8 5.1 3.8 4.9 40.0 40.0 3 44.1 31 43.7 33 o 12 2 1. 01% (12) Characterization of Winter Use Sites Vegetal characteristics for 60 flock locations were not significantly different for male and female flocks. Measurement of vegetal and physical characteristics of the environment for all flock locations in the winter of 1974-75 appear to be significantly different than similar measurements in 1973-74, possibly a reflection of total snowfall. Statistical tests have not been finished on these data. Slope appears to be a significant factor in selection of a flock use site. Sixty-nine percent (36) of the winter use sites described had slopes less than five percent, while only four percent of the areas had slopes greater than 15 percen t . �-46- Aspect also appears to be a significant factor on site selection. Forty-eight percent (N = 44) of winter flock locations were on west, southwest, or south slopes. The prevailing wind is from the southwest. Further analysis of data collected during this and previous segments will be presented in two subsequent reports; a Master's Thesis by Thomas D. I. Beck, and the final comprehensive report, also to be prepared by T.D.I. Beck. Completion dates for the two reports are 31 May 1975 and 14 August 1975, respectively. LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I. 1974. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-27, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. 42 pp. Gill, R. B. 1965. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and movements of sage grouse. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Game Res. Rept., Part 3. W-37-R-17. 185 p. June, J. W. 1967. Sage, blue and ruffed grouse sexing and aging characteristics. Wyoming Game and Fish Comm. 59 p. Wiley, R. H. 1973. Territoriality and non-random mating in sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus. Animal Behaviour Monographs. Vol. 6, Part2. P. 87-169. Prepared bY~\~.~~~_~ ;~ __ '~_l_~~~~__._~~_-__~__~__~_;_-~~~~_~ __ ( Thomas D. I. Beck Graduate Research Assistant _ �-47- State 0 f C_O_L_O_RAD __ O _ Project No. W_-_3_7_-_R_-_2_8 _ Work Plan No. 3 ------------------ Job Title: Job No. 8a _ Effects of Sagebrush Control on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse: Attributes of a Wintering Population of Sage Grouse, North Park, Colorado Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1975 Thomas Beck, Don Benson, Clait Braun, Lonnie Brown, Thomas Campbell III, Jack Corey, Courtney Crawford, John Ellenberger, Heather Flanagan, Howard Funk, Fred Giese, Don Gore, Jack Gustafson, John Hobbs, Richard Hoffman, Jim Jackson, Russell Kozacek, Bruce McCloskey, Mike McLain, Ken Miller, Ron Oakleaf, Sig Palm, Steve Porter, Kenneth Russell, Wayne Russell, Howard Spear, Robert Streeter, Michael Szymczak, John Wagner, Richard Wenger. ABSTRACT Wintering habits of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) were studied in North Park, Colorado during 1973-74 and 1974-75. Distribution was plotted from sightings of 199 flocks and 17 single birds, totaling 5,080 birds. Distribution in winter was restricted to the portion of the park north of Owl and Peterson Ridges due to lack of available sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) south of the ridges; a result of greater snowfall in the south. Further restrictions of range occurred in the north area due to snow cover, steepness of a slope, and unknown factors. Thus, only 50 percent of the 1,251 sq. km. of sagebrush-dominated lands in North Park sustained winter use by sage grouse. Seven high-use areas comprising approximately 85 sq. km. were delineated. These areas accounted for 74 and 37 percent of all flocks and 79 and 51 pe r-: cent of all birds observed in the winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75, respectively. Vegetal characteristics of the high use areas were not significantly different (P>. 05) from characteristics of other areas of grouse use. Over 32 percent (401 sq. km.) of sagebrush lands in North Park have been disturbed by 2,4-D spraying, plowing and seeding, and burning since 1957, and only four of 199 flocks were observed in areas that still showed evidence of alteration. Flocks were the dominant social unit as only 17 single grouse were observed in a total of 5,080. Strong segregation by sexes was evident. Of 176 flocks classified as to sex, 70 percent (123) .were composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex, of which 81 percent (100) were unisexual. Segregation was more pronounced in male than in female flocks. Flock size was 50 or less in 88 percent of all observations. Mean size of flocks in 1973-74 was 12.2 for males and 29.2 for females, whereas mean flock sizes in 1974-75 were 21.2 for males and 48.1 for females. The increase the second winter was possibly the result of excellent production in the summer of 1974. Females had a stronger tendency to form large flocks (:> 75) than did males. In 1973-74 ��-49TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction . Description of Study Area Methods Results Delineation of Winter Distribution Flock Composition and Size . . • • Physical Characteristics of Winter Use Sites Vegetal Characteristics of Winter Use Sites Movements . . Discussion Literature Cited LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Winter precipitation and temperature, North Park, Colorado . • . • . • . • . . • . . . 2 Location and size of areas of high use by wintering sage grouse, North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75 ..•.. 3 Number, frequency of encounter, and percentage of total sage grouse observed as singles and flocks, North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75 . . . . . . . . . . 4 Sex composition of winter flocks of sage grouse, North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75 .. . .... 5 Temporal trends in flock size 'of sage grouse in North Park, 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 6 Temporal trends in flock size of sage grouse in North Park, 1975 . . • . . 7 Vegetal characteristics of winter use sites, 1974 and 1975 8 Vege te.lcharacteristics of high grouse use areas, North Park, 1974 and 1975 . 9 Minimum distances traveled from spring to winter by male and female sage grouse banded near Lake John North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75 .........•......... LIST OF FIGURES 1 North Park study area . . . 2 Cumulative precipitation at Walden, Colorado during December, January and February 1973-74 and 1974-75 ..... �-50LIST OF FIGURES (Continued) Figure 3 Location of sage grouse flocks during winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75, North Park, Colorado •• 4 Aspect and percent slope of areas utilized by flocks of male sage grouse in winter • • • • • • " • • • • 5 Aspect and percent slope of areas utilized by flocks of female sage grouse in winter. • •.• 6 Radiation indexes for various facets at Latitude 400 N ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Dr. Ronald A. Ryder, Professor, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, for serving on my committee, for providing advice when I most needed it, and for editing this thesis. Thanks are expressed to Dr. Philip N. Lehner, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, for serving on my committee and editing this thesis. Howard Funk, Project Leader, Colorado Division of Wildlife, provided valuable administrative assistance, served on my committee, and edited this thesis. I am grateful to Stephen Porter and John Wagner, wildlife conservation officers, along with Fred Giese, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for assistance in field work and friendships that made the long North Park winters easier. Special thanks go to their respective wives, Betsy, Kathy, and Marcia, for their patient understanding of my taking their husbands out at all hours of the day and night and for their warm hospitality. I am grateful to Russ Kozacek, Dick Wenger, Heather Flanagan, and Tem Campbell for their diligent assistance in field work. My appreciation is extended to the many Division of Wildlife personnel who contributed to this project. Finally, to Dr. Clait E. Braun, Wildlife Researcher, Colorado Division of Wildlife, a very special appreciation for his many helpful suggestions, his sincere interest in the project, and most importantly, his friendship. His concern for me as a scientist and an individual will always be remembered and appreciated. Though not on my committee, Dr. Braun was instrumental in development of the study, supervision, and editing of this thesis . �-51- ATTRIBUTES OF A WINTERING POPULATION OF SAGE GROUSE, NORTH PARK, COLORAOO Thomas D. 1. Beck INTRODUcrION Sage grouse, largest North American tetraonid, inhabit areas dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and subdominant grass types with interspersed native and cultivated hay meadows. Dependence on sagebrush for food and cover has been well documented in all seasons (Griner 1939, Patterson 1952, Dalke et aL 1963, Gill 1965, Autenrieth 1969, Klebenow 1969, Eng and Schladweiler 1972). As a result of agricultural demands, livestock grazing, and encroachment of man-related developments, there has been a continued destruction of sage grouse habitat. In the face of changing land use patterns, sage grouse have continued to be highly specialized in their habitat requirements. They have not adapted to utilize land not dominated by sagebrush. Climax vegetation types, such as sagebrush, are hazardous food sources due to their slow recovery after natural or man-caused catastrophies (Daubenmire 1970). Due to pressures to alter vegetative composition of sagebrush dominated rangelands, the Colorado Division of Game, Fish and Parks (now Colorado Division of Wildlife), in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, initiated a study in North Park, Colorado, to document the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on sage grouse abundance and distribution. At the time of the study's initiation in 1963, 2,4-D spraying to reduce or eliminate sagebrush was a popular tool of land management agencies. Pre-treatment studies were accomplished in 1963-65 with study patterns for spraying designated, and actual spraying accomplished in June 1965 (Gill 1965). Two years of study on the immediate effects of spraying sagebrush were completed in 1967 (Carr 1967). During the summers of 1968 and 1969, studies were conducted on distribution of females in relation to sprayed areas by use of radio telemetry (Poley 1969, May 1970). Even [hough changes in sage grouse abundance and distribution due to habitat changes are likely to occur during a time of limited habitat, i.e., winter, little scientific effort has been directed toward winter ecology of sage grouse. Numerous references have referred to winter distribution of sage grouse but few quantitative data have been presented. In areas of greatly varying elevations, winter distribution and movements of sage grouse are dependent upon snow depth, with birds moving to lower elevations as snow covers the sagebrush on higher ranges (Griner 1939, Patterson 1952, Dalke et al. 1963). Eng and Schladweiler (1972) studied five radio telemetered females and found little movement during the winter. Thei~ central Montana study area does not have elevational variation nor snow depths as great as the areas studied by Griner, Patterson, and Dalke et al. The birds primarily used areas of greater than 20 percent sagebrush canopy coverage. Eng and �-52- Schladweiler reported wintering sage grouse were "never" observed on steep slopes of dense sagebrush, with all feeding and roosting areas on level or gently sloping ground. The possibility of limited quantity of food in winter as a population regulation mechanism for sage grouse has not been reported in the published literature. Specific studies on sage grouse have not been directed at winter flock composition. However, Patterson (1952) referred to partial segregation of sexes in winter flocks in Wyoming". . • flocks composed predominately of males or females were commonly seen • • ." Quantitative data indicating the degree of segregation were not presented. Patterson further stated, "there was a pronounced tendency for adult birds to segregate themselves according to sex on their winter grounds." Patterson observed that the prevalent social unit was the flock and that flock size varied between 10-100 birds, with occasional flocks of up to 200 birds. Autenrieth (1969) and Bailey (1925) also commented on segregation by sex in winter flocks in Idaho and Colorado, respectively, but presented no data. Investigations on other grouse species indicate strong segregation by sex in winter is associated with differential habitat utilization by sexes (Koskimies 1957, Seiskari 1962, Weeden 1964, Braun and Schmidt 1971). In an effort to increase knowledge of sage grouse winter ecology, this study was initiated in 1973. The following hypotheses were developed: (1) distribution of sage grouse in winter is directly related to available sagebrush, (2) strong segregation by sex occurs, and (3) male and female sage grouse utilize areas of differing vegetative and physical characteristics during winter. In addition, winter flock size and movements of banded birds were investigated. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA North Park (Jackson County) was chosen for study due to a plan proposed in 1962 by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) that would result in over 1,192 sq. km. of BLM controlled sagebrush lands in North Park being sprayed. This area supported the highest population of sage grouse in Colorado during the early 1960's (Rogers 1964:47). North Park is northernmost of Colorado's four large inter-montane parks, and is located immediately west of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. It lies within townships 5 to 11 north, ranges 77 to 82 west, sixth principal meridian. The park is completely enclosed by mountains. The west boundary is formed by the Park Range which runs north-south parallel to the Medicine Bow Range which forms the east boundary 80 km. distant. The south end of the park is enclosed by the Rabbit Ears Range. Independence Mountain, approximately 90 km. to the north, forms the north boundary. The topography of Nor-th Park is relatively flat in contrast to the surrounding mountains. In general, it consists of low, flat to undulating benches and ridges separated by the main drainages. The main streams form a meandering pattern on low alluvial flood plains up to one-half mile wide. Elevation of �-53most of the sagebrush lands in North Park is between 2,400 and 2,585 m. above sea level. The principal exception is Owl Ridge-Peterson Ridge, two en:-toend ridges running northwest from Owl Mountain on the east to Delaney Butte on the west and rising 61.5-154 m. above the surrounding terrain (Fig. 1). Sixty-four percent of the park lies north of this ridge line. The mountains encircling the park rise steeply to elevations of 3,077 to 3,846 m. above sea level. Geology of the park has been described in numerous publications (Beekly 1915, Finch 1957, Hail 1965). Major drainage of the park is to the north via the North Platte River. Main tributaries to the North Platte include the Roaring Fork, North Fork, Canadian, Michigan, and Illinois Rivers and Grizzly Creek. The park has over 1,870 sq. km. of sage grouse habitat as all areas not timbered are considered potentially usable by sage grouse. Of this, about 1,252 sq. km. are dominated by sagebrush, while about 620 sq. km. are irrigated meadows of native sedges and grasses. With the exception of hay meadows along watercourses the vegetation of North Park is mainly composed of the shrub-bunchgrass type dominated by species of sagebrush. Five species of sagebrush dominate, with Artemisia tridentata vaseyana occupying approximately 90 percent of the sagebrush type in North Park. Artemisia longiloba, ~. cana viscidula, ~. argilosa, and ~. ~ are dominant on selected smaller areas with certain soil conditions favorable to the species (Beetle 1960, Smith 1966). Other important shrubs are greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatis), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.), willow (Salix spp.), and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Herbaceous vegetation consists primarily of low growing perennial forbs and perennial bunch grasses with few annual forbs. Climatic conditions in North Park during winter (December-February) vary considerably north and south of Owl and Peterson Ridges. Winter precipitation in the north is normally 45.2 percent of that in the south, based on 30-year averages (U. S. Weather Bureau files, Walden) (Table 1). Precipitation in winter normally accounts for 15.3 and 22.7 percent of the yearly precipitation in the north and south areas, respectively. Snowfall in the south usually is sufficient to cover most of the sagebrush not on steep slopes. Precipitation in the north (Walden) is relatively uniform throughout the winter, whereas precipitation in the south (Spicer) is greatest in December and decreases steadily through February. Harch typically has frequent snowstorms followed by warm days. Much of the ncrth area is usually snow free by March 7 except immediately following snowstorms. Ha rch was not included in the analysis of winter moisture as precipitation during the month does not normally contribute to snow accumulation due to rapid melting. Winter precipitation in the north was 26.2 percent above the 30-year norm in 1973-74, while it was 25.9 percent below the norm in 1974-75. The major difference in precipitation patterns in the north between the two winters was during late December and early January (Fig. 2). Winter precipitation in the south was within 5 percent of the norm in both 1973-74 and 1974-75. Changes in Hinter precipitation in the south between years did not affect the amount of sagebrush available during the winter months as snowfall both years was sufficient to cover nearly all sagebrush on moderate slopes (10-30 percent). Winter temperatures vary little between the north and south areas. Temperatures during the two winters were similar but the winter of 1974-75 was slightly warrae r , having had four more days with maximum dail temperatures greater than -loCo �-54- Figure 1. North Park study area. 1:250,000. U. S. Geological Survey map, scale �Table 1. Winter precipitation and temperature, North Park, Colorado. --Station Mean Daily Temperature Precipitation (cm) December January February Total December January February year (0C) Days above _1°C -- vValden, 1973-74 1. 75 2.51 0.46 4.72 - 7.2 -10. 0 -8. 9 40 ,V aid en, 1974-75 0.36 1. 14 1. 27 2.77 -10.2 - 8.6 -8. 6 44 Walden, 30-year average 1. 37 1. 30 1. 07 3.74 - 7.4 - 9.2 -7. 7 I \J1 \J1 I Spic er, 30-year average 3.20 2.69 2.39 8.28 - 7.4 - 8. 6 -6.6 �-56- 1974-75 I--~---, ~ ,- --~ ___ ___ ,.- , ,- -, _.I I .J .J" 12-112-1012-2012-30 1-9 1-19 1-29 2-8 2-18 2-28 DJU"E Figure 2. Curnu Ia t iv e precipitation during December, 1974-75. January at Walden, and February, Colorado 1973 -74 and �-57- METHODS Winter observations were conducted from 8 January to 8 March 1974, and 24 December to 1 March 1975. Distribution of wintering sage grouse in North Park was investigated by searching all sagebrush lands and all probable use areas were searched equally. An area was considered potentially usable if any sagebrush was visible above the snow. Limited searches were also made in areas not considered usable. Areas inaccessible by four-wheel drive vehicle were searched from snowmobile or snowshoes. Aerial search (with two observers) along random transects (covering 10 percent of the total area in the park) were conducted on 21-22 February and 18 March 1974. Data on grouse flocks observed from the air were used in mapping distribution but were disregarded when analyzing flock sizes because of inaccuracies involved in counting flying grouse. Once grouse were located from the ground they were first observed through 7 X 50 binoculars to obtain a total count and to determine sex composition. Attempts to observe colored leg bands were made through 15-60 variable power scopes. Written records were kept on both grouse observations and grouse sign (tracks, droppings, roosts). Observations reported by reliable observers were followed by intensive searches of reported locations within one day of the initial sighting. All locations were plotted on U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps (7.5 minute series). A flock was considered to be any group (two or more) of birds in close proximity to each other. The decision as to flock integrity was made by the observer as flocks often ranged over distances from 10-200 m., thus inhibiting use of standard distances between birds as criterion for flock integrity. Flocks comprised of greater than 50 percent of one sex were referred to as female or male flocks depending upon which sex predominated. Sage grouse are sexually dimorphic, thus allowing sex of birds to be visually determined up to 200 m. Male sage grouse in breeding plumage are characterized by contrasting color zones of black and white from the base of the lower mandible to the abdomen. The head is dark, in appearance, with a mixture of gray and black feathers. The black and white speckled area at the base of the lower mandible is separated from the black throat by a narrow white collar. This collar runs from the eye, under the head, and is visible from the front and side. Lines of demarcation are distinct on the collar. The black feathers of the throat are white tipped, but contrast sharply with the solid white breast feathers. The feathers on the lower breast are white with black tips. The black portion of these feathers become greater towards the abdomen which appears solid black. Males have long (10-15 mm.) filoplumes extending from the side 0 f the neck which are easily visible, especially on windy days. Males are larger in size, averaging twice as large and heavy as females. Adult sage grouse undergo a complete post-nuptial molt which is completed by late September. Juvenile birds acquire their first adult or winter plumage hy late October. Thus, all males were in breeding plumage during the study period (Bent 1932, Patterson 1952). Female sage grouse are smaller and more drab colored than males. The abdomen is black, but not as solid as in males, being splotched with gray and white. The breast is white, gray and tan, giving a splotched appearance \vith no discrete color patterns visible. Females do not have the white neck collar �-58- nor filoplumes as do males. The basal area of the lower mandible is more white in females than in males. The back and sides of females are lighter in color, and are less black than males. The following physical and vegetal characteristics of each site where birds were observed were recorded: aspect, slope, snow depth and condition, sagebrush density, crown breadth, and height of sagebrush above snow. Slope and aspect were measured with an Abney level and compass, respectively. Snow condition was rated as crusted, powder, or melting. Sagebrush density was measured as number of plants per circular 0.004 ha. plot. Crown breadth was calculated as the mean of 10 representative shrubs arbitrarily chosen by the observer from within the plot. Height of sagebrush above snow was calculated as the mean of three shrubs within the plot which the observer chose as being representative of shrub height within the utilized area. The following weather conditions were recorded at each site: wind direction, temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation. Movement data were obtained from observations of birds banded with colored bandettes coded to banding sites. The location of each sighting was plotted on a 7.5 minute U.S.G.S. topographic map and the airline distance from banding site measured; thus, all movements represent minimum distances traveled. Directions of movements were determined from banding sites near Lake John to wintering locations. Capturing and banding were conducted during the spring seasons of 1974 and 1975 in conjunction with long term study procedures (Gill 1965). Birds were located by spotlighting and were then netted as described by Gill (1965). All captured birds were banded with aluminum, serially numbered bands and colored plastic bandettes. Sex and age classification was based on plumage characteristics described by June (1967). Age, sex, weight, dat~, and location of capture were recorded for each bird. The maximum number of banded birds present in the winter of 1973-74 was 268 (166 males, 102 females), the result of banding in spring, 1973. The corresponding figure for the winter of 197475 was 289 (186 males, 103 females) from additional spring banding in 1974. RESULTS Delineation of Winter Distribution During 8 January to 8 March 1974, 129 sage grouse flocks and 10 single birds were sighted, amounting to 2,753 birds. Between 1 January and 1 March 1975, 70 flocks and 7 single birds were sighted, involving 2,327 birds. Plotting of flock locations (Fig. 3) indicates three major areas where no flocks were observed, seven areas of high use, and scattered observations within remaining areas of sagebrush. The largest area of no observed use was the area south of Owl and Peterson Ridges, which amounts to 36.0 percent (446 sq. km.) of the sagebrush lands in North Park. Only one of 216 sage grouse sightings was south of this ridge line. Very little sagebrush was available in this area due to extensive snow �-59- Figure 3. Location of sage grouse flocks during winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75, North Park, Colorado. U. S. Geological Survey map, scale 1:250,000. Each dot represents one flock. Numbered areas correspond to high use areas described in Table 2. �-60- cover. The area between the Canadian River and Medicine Bow Range had ample available sagebrush throughout winter but no observed grouse use. This area accounts for 9.1 percent (114 sq. km.) of the sagebrush lands in North Park. The third area of no observed grouse use was the broken ridges south of Independence Mountain and north of Jackson County Road No.6, encompassing 5.0 percent (63 sq. km.) of the sagebrush lands. Extensive stands of tall, dense sagebrush on relatively steep slopes were common in this area. Thus, 50.1 percent of the sagebrush dominated lands in North Park received no observed use by sage grouse during winter months in both years of study. Seven areas of high use were evident and comprised 6.8 percent (85 sq. km.) of sagebrush lands in North Park. These seven areas were not searched more frequently than other less productive areas, thus eliminating the bias of implied heavy use due to high frequency of search time. Searches for sage grouse were conducted during 60 days each winter. At least one or more of the seven areas was searched on 30 days each year. Areas subsequently determined to be used lightly or not at all were searched on at least 20 days during each season. Nearly 75 percent (74.4) of all flocks and 79.2 percent of all grouse observed in 1974 were within these seven areas, whereas only 37.1 percent of all flocks and 51.2 percent of all grouse observed in 1975 were in these areas (Table 2). Sage grouse flocks were mobile as birds could not always be found in high use areas. Flock size varied considerably between days in a given area. Since grouse were not individually marked it was not possible to determine if a particular flock was habitually in an area. As further evidence of mobility from these and other areas, on 14 occasions flocks, upon flushing, flew from sight beyond ridges 13 or more kilometers distant. Thirty-two percent (401 sq. km.) of the sagebrush lands in North Park have been disturbed by 2,4-n spraying, plowing and seeding, and burning since 1957 (Beck, unpub. data). Only four flocks were, observed in areas that were still noticeably altered. Three flocks were observed on 1 January 1975 in a crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum) field which was planted in 1962. Snow depth was less than 2 em. and exposed young sagebrush plants were common. One flock was observed in a crested wheat grass seeding on 9 January 1974. Snow depth was 15 cm. and the closest available sagebrush was 40 m. distant. Flock Composition and Size Sage grouse in North Park were gregarious, the flock being the prevalent social unit (Table 3). Over 85 percent (85.4) (2,350) of the 2,753 birds observed in 1974 were classified as to sex. Males numbered 889 and females 1,461 for a pooled sex ratio of 62 females:38 males. Approximately 85 percent (84.3) (1,984) of the 2,327 sage grouse observed in 1975 were classified as to sex with males numbering 773 and females 1,211. The pooled sex ratio for 1975 was 61 females: 39 males. �~-~~~. ~~~~~~~==~~~~~ T'abla 2. Location and size of areas 1973 -74 and 1974-75. of high use by wintering sage grouse, Approximate Area Location NE+ S13, Et S12, RSOW, T10N; NEi S19, SlS, TI0N sw ; 817, NWi, si S7, R79W, Park, No. of Flocks . Obs erved Total Birds Obs erved 1974 1975 1974 7. S 14 ° 114 ° 16.9 16 1 214 60 km.) (Sq. 1. North 2. SEi S 19, si S20, SWi S27, si, NWi S2S, S29, E~ S32, S33, S34, R79W, TI0N; Nt S3, Nt S4, NEi S5, R79W, 3. T9N SEisl, Eisl2, NEis13, RSIW, 1 S7, NW4"S20, S21, RSOW, T9N 4. SEis7, siss, S20, S21, S2S, 5. 6. . 7. T9N; wi, 1975 •....• NEi I ' Ni, SEis17, WiSI6, SEis19 .• NEi S29, Ni S33, RSOW, TI0N Eis7, SWiss, SWiS16, S17, Eisl8, Eis19, S20, S21, sw] S22, wt S27, S2S, S29, S30, NEi S33, R7SW, T9N; S 13, wi S24, Ei S23, R79W, T9N 7.S 19 1 223 11 14.3 S 10 179 44S 26.6 19 8 S66 521 9. 1 13 6 371 152 2.6 7 o 213 o 85. 1 96 Z6 Z, 180 I, 192 Nt si S~ S31, S32, R7SW, TSN; N} S7, Nwi S8, R7SW, T7N S2, R81W, Total TION wi, I 0\ NEi S5, S6, �-62- Table 3. Number, frequency of encounter, and percentage of total sage grouse observed as singles and flocks, North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75. Number of encounters Frequency of encounter a Percent of all birds observed a 1 2-25 Size of Unit 26-50 51-100 17 153 21 16 9 7.9 70.8 9. 7 7.4 4.2 0.3 32.5 14.5 22.0 30.7 >100 In percent of total. Strong segregation by sexes was evident in sage grouse flocks. Of 176 flocks classified in 1974 and 1975, 69.9 percent (123) were composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex, of which 81.3 percent (100) were unisexual (Table 4). Segregation was more pronounced in male than in female flocks as 71.6 percent of male and 39.5 percent of female flocks were unisexual. Only one flock (six birds) was equally composed of males and females. Flock size was 50 or less in 88.4 percent of all observations (Table 3). Mean size of flocks in 1974 was 12.2 for males and 29.2 for females, whereas, mean sizes in 1975 were 21.2 for males and 48.1 for females. Differences between male and female flock size during the two winters were significant (P < 0.05). Increase in size between years (1974 vs. 1975) was significant (P~ 0.05) for male but not for female flocks. Median size for male flocks was 10 in 1974 and 15.5 in 1975, while corresponding values for female flocks were 15 and 20.5. No obvious patterns in flock size variation and frequency of sightings were detected through the 60 days of observation each winter (Tables 5 and 6). A large increase in total numbe r of female and female flocks observed occurred during the last fortnight of each study period. Physical Characteristics of Winter Use Sites Flocks of sage grouse were typically located on south, southwest, or west faCing slopes of less than 5 percent (Figs. 4 and 5). The average percent slope for areas used by female flocks was 4.9 (N = 74) and for male flocks was 6.0 (N = 82). Sixty-six percent of the areas had slopes less than 5 percent, while only 12.8 percent had slopes greater than 10 percent. On areas with slope greater than 5 percent, 66.7 percent of female and 93.1 percent of male flocks were observed on west, southwest, south or southeast facing slopes. Wind was present during 73.7 percent of 152 observations for which physical data were collected. Wind direction was from the southwest 60.7 percent of the time, west 17.0 percent, and south 12.5 percent. No data on wind velocity were collected. �-63- Table 4. Sex composition of winter flocks Park, 1973 -74 and 1974 - 75 a. Siz e of Flock 51 -59 60-69 of sage grouse, Percent in Flock 70 -79 80-89 90-99 North 100 Total 4 2 36 24 5 42 34 11 1 2 2 6 Males 2 -9 10-19 20 -29 40-49 50-74 75 -99 Sub -total I 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 I 1 3 1 4 5 7 I I 8 68 95 16 5 1 1 3 2 1 2 15 II 1 32 24 23 8 5 5 4 3 9 81 176 Females 2 -9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-74 75 -99 >100 Sub -total 1 1 10 6 4 17 Total 4 14 11 24 23 100 Percent of all flocks 2 8 6 14 13 57 aExcluding 5 1 2 1 1 2 I 5 1 3 1 I 2 2 1 one flock of 50:50 males and females. 2 1 1 �-66- N s • 2-9 0 10-19 0 20-29 2:30 A Figure 5. Aspect and percent slope of areas utilized by flocks of female sage grouse in winter. Each concentric circle represents 5 percent slope with the center representing zero slope. Symbols representing different flock sizes are given in the legend. �-67- Vegetal Characteristics of Winter Use Sites Vegetal measurements were taken at 100 sites in 1974 and 51 sites in 1975. Mean sagebrush density, mean height of sagebrush above snow, mean crown breadth, and mean cover (ht. x density) were used in comparing sites utilized by male and female flocks. Significant differences (P ~ 0.05) were documented in sagebrush density and cover in 1974, when females used denser sagebrush stands than males. Significant differences (P ~ 0.05) between years occurred for sagebrush density on sites used by male flocks, height of sagebrush above snow and cover for sites used by both male and female flocks (Table 7). Comparisons of vegetal characteristics for flocks of similar size but different sex resulted in no differences other than those mentioned above. Vegetal characteristics of each high-use area were compared to those of the combined values for all locations not within a high use area. Only one high use area had vegetative characters significantly different (P < 0.05) from other high use areas and the scattered use locations (Table 8). -This area was located in the McCallum oil field where earlier researchers also observed wintering flocks of sage grouse (Gill 1965, Carr 1967). Sagebrush in this area was less dense than in other areas of flock sightings. Twenty-six of the 199 flock locations were used as roosting sites, the remainder being feeding-loafing sites. Vegetative differences between the two groupings were not significant (P>0.05). Roosting depressions in the snow occurred at 13 of the 26 sites. Snow at 8 of the sites was crusted and at 5 sites was powder. These values were similar to the frequency of crusted and powder conditions recorded at all sites (64.9 percent crusted, 29.8 percent powder, 5.3 percent melting). Depressions to depths of 30 cm. were observed. Movements Seventy-one banded birds were observed in the winter of 1973-74, ·of which only 5 were females. Twenty-five banded birds were observed in the winter of 197475 and again, 5 were females. More emphasis was placed on obtaining observations of banded birds during 1973-74 than in 1974-75. Analysis of observations of banded birds indicated that sage grouse were moving freely throughout North Park. Thus, all sage grouse in the park should be considered as one population rather than several localized, sedentary subpopulations. Delineation of population boundaries was the primary objective of band sightings and as the delineation was made after 1974 the time spent on obtaining band observations was greatly reduced in 1975. Average distance traveled from banding sites for males was 10.8 km. (N = 51) in 1973-74 and 5.3 km. (N = 17) in 1974-75. Corresponding values for females were 19.2 km. (N = 5) and 15.8 km. (N = 5). Not all banded birds were banded with colored bandettes coded to capture locations, thus explaining the difference in banded birds observed and banded birds used for movement analysis (66 vs. 51 and 20 vs. 17). Distribution of distances traveled is presented in Table 9. Shorter distances traveled in 1974-75 probably resulted from the milder winter. Direction of movement (N = 73) was northerly 17.8 percent of the time, northeasterly 26.0 percent, easterly 19.2 percent, and southeasterly 21.9 percent. This corresponds strongly with the directions of the main winter use areas from banding sites near Lake John. Maximum distance traveled was 35.1 km. by an adult male in 1973-74. �Table 7. Year Vegetal Sample Size a characteristics of winter Mean Sagebrush Density (Plants / O. 004 ha. ) M F use sites, 1974 and 1975. Mean Height of Sagebrush Above Snow (cm) M F Mean of Average Crown Breadth of Sagebrush (cm) M F Mean Cover (Density x Height) (cm-Plant/O. 004 ha , ) M F M F 1974 58 42 46.0 6'8.2b 19. 9 23.9 37.6 43.9 991 I, 700b 1975 22 29 63.7c 77.5 29.6c 3S.6c 40.8 44.4 2, 048c 2, 906 c aM denotes flock of >50 percent males, F denotes bSignificant difference between s~xes during a year, CSignificant difference between years within a sex, flock of >50 percent P < 0.05. P~ 0.05. females. I 0\ oe I �Table 8. Area Vegetal characteristics of high grouse North Park, Sagebrush Density (Plants /0.004 ha , ) No. of Birds No. of Flocks use areas, 1974 1975 1975 1974 and 1975. Sagebrush (em) Ht. 1975 1974 Cover (Ht. x Density) (cmPlant/O. 004 ha. ) 1975 1974 1974 1975 1974 1 14 0 118 0 47.4 2 14 1 196 60 30.3a 62.0 17. 5 10.0 494a 620 3 17 1 207 11 72. 1 78.0 22.5 13.0 1, 675 1, 014 4 8 10 181 448 52. 0 63.5 26.3 35.7 1, 484 2, 328 5 18 8 857 521 54.9 87. 1 29.6 41.7 1, 846 3, 752 6 13 5 371 152 77.9 38.0 16. 2 21.3 1, 564 1, 165 7 7 0 213 0 66.5 38 45 610 1, 129 52.4 Remaining locations aSignificantly different from other high use areas 803 17.4 804 13.5 72.8 23.2 and/or remaining 33.0 locations, 1, 309 P -< 0.05. Table 9. Minimum distances traveled from spring to winter by male and female and female sage grouse banded near Lake John, North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75. : Distance Traveled (km.) Year 0-5 5.1-10 10.1-15 15.1-20 20.1-30 > 30 1973-74 13 10 20 9 4 1 1974-75 10 6 3 1 2 o ~ -------_._,-----------_.--.----- __ .• .. --- I 0\ \0 I 2,545 �-70- DISCUSSION Distribution of sage grouse in North Park during winter was primarily a reflection of availability of sagebrush above snow, slope, and aspect. In both years of study, snowfall was sufficient to cover nearly all sagebrush on level and moderate slopes in the south portion of the park. Tall sagebrush in swales and draws was covered with snow due to drifting. Although sage grouse are capable of scratching into crusted snow to depths of 30 em., areas without protruding sagebrush offered little cover and no indication that sagebrush was present beneath the snow. The south portion of the park provided little, if any, habitat for sage grouse during winter due to snow accumulation. This was true even in a mild winter (1974-75). Distribution of sage grouse in the north area was also greatly affected by snow accumulation. During the mild winter of 1974-75 less sagebrush was completely covered. Consequently, a larger area was available for foraging. More available sagebrush accounts for the reduction in use of the high use areas delineated in 1973-74 and the increased difficulty in locating flocks. As the winter of 1973-74 was more severe than normal, some high use areas possibly were the last suitable habitat. Only 3 of the 7 1973-74 high use areas sustained high use in 1974-75, thus discounting the possibility of affinity for specific wintering grounds. Wintering areas in Idaho and Wyoming were also determined by snow accumulation rather than affinity for specific areas (Dalke et ale 1963, Patterson 1952). The high use area near California Gulch sustained high use throughout the winter of 1974-75 but only during the last 3 weeks of winter in 1973-74. During this 3-week period snow was melting in the area and cover conditions were very similar to those found throughout 1974-75. The California Gulch area was the first part of North Park to become snow free in both springs of study. Possibly the birds observed in both years were associated with the 5 strutting arenas in the area. The other 6 high use areas sustained heaviest utilization prior to any melting and likely were important wintering areas. Thus, the hypothesis that distribution was directly related to available sagebrush was accepted. Although snow cover was the major determinant in the amount of available sagebrush, slope and aspect appeared to further restrict the amount of sagebrush range suitable for wintering sage grouse. No data were available on relative abundance of varying slopes although numerous steep slopes dominated by sagebrush exist. No observed use occurred on steep slopes (> 30 percent) and most observed use was on areas with less than 10 percent slope. A tendency for utilization of southerly aspects was documented for sites with slope greater than 5 percent. Southerly exposures receive much greater solar irradiation (Fig. 6) which may affect the following site characteristics: temperature, soil characteristics, moisture, and vegetation. The prevailing southwest winds probably exert similar influences. A plausible explanation for use of south aspects involves the direct effects of wind and solar irradiation on snow depths and the indirect effects manifest through the vegetation. Based on data presented, steepness of slope, modified by aspect, eliminated many sagebrush areas from suitable habitat status. This was �RADIATION INDEXES FOR VARIOUS FACETS AT LATITUDE 400 N 60 x 50 IJJ C - 40 Z 2! 0 S o SSE-SSW o ~ ~ 30 I • SE-SW Cl ESE-WSW a:: ...J <t ~ 20 z <t 10-/ 0 -...JI I-' • E • ENE-WNW o NE-NW 0 NNE-NNW • N I 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 SLOPE INCLINATION, PERCENT Figure 6. R~diation indexes for various facets at Latitude 40oN. Radiation index i6 the ratio of the total annual potential insolation to the maximum potential insolation at the site. Adapted from Frank and Lee 1966. �-72- probably the reason why the broken ridges south of Independence Mountain received little use. Avoidance of steep slopes may be an adaptation against avian predation as golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetus) were commonly seen hunting along ridge crests, then plummeting down the slope in apparent attempts to capture prey. Adaptations by sage grouse to avoid avian predation during spring were discussed by Hartzler (1974). The area of no observed use between the Canadian River and North Sand Dunes was not an area of deep snow or steep slopes. Quantity of sagebrush above snow was apparently equal to or greater than other areas where use occurred, although no vegetal data was obtained from this area. Possibly quality of sagebrush, primarily chemical composition, was a determining factor. An interesting point is that nearly all soils within the sagebrush type of elevation below 2,743 m, are alkaline (pH>7.0) except the sandy soils in this area of no observed use where the soils were neutral (pH = 7.0) (Soil Conservation Service, unpublished soil type handbook for Jackson County). Possibly the minerals responsible for alkalinity are needed by sage grouse in quantities not available in the vegetation of this sandy soil area. Studies on red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) indicate selection for plants high in nitrogen and phosphorus (Moss 1972) while selection for calcium rich vegetation has been amply demonstrated for many species (Scott 1972). No differences in vegetation and topography were detected between the 7 high use areas except the one area where sagebrush cover was low. This area was characterized by bare ridge tops with short, sparse sagebrush and swales filled with snow. Sage grouse were observed feeding along the ridge tops but seldom loafing or roosting. In winters of heavy snowfall with great drifting such wind-blown areas may receive greater use as the ridges are quickly blown bare following storms. Several areas of occasional use had characteristics similar to the high use areas. Whether these areas would receive high use in more severe winters is purely speculative. Reasons for selection of specific high use areas from the available areas are unknown. Lack of observed use in disturbed areas was likely a reflection of lack of sagebrush for food and cover. Utilization of disturbed areas probably occurred until snow accumulation covered the young sagebrush plants as evidenced by the early winter use of a crested wheatgrass field. Dense stands of sagebrush were usually the target of vegetative control programs and possible much formerly used winter range is not presently suitable due to slow regeneration following control measures. However, quantity of sagebrush in winter did not appear to be in limited supply. With continued regeneration of disturbed areas, distribution of sage grouse within North Park may change in the future, especially locations of high use. However, areas in the south portion will continue to provide habitat only in spring, summer, and fall. Vale (1974) summarized season use patterns of sage grouse and observed that use of stands of less than 30 percent canopy coverage during all periods except winter was extreme. It is possible that well designed sagebrush control programs in the south portion of North Park may actually benefit sage grouse by reducing plant density in such stands and thus result in better nesting and brood rearing habitat. Maintenance of dense stands for wintering birds is not needed in this area because snow covers nearly all the sagebrush each winter. Use of habitat by sage grouse has been based on observations within a given area. Unfortunately, long term experimental manipulation of various sagebrushgrassland components has not been conducted to delineate necessary minimum �-73- seasonal requirements. Such experimentation is dependent upon development of accurate and sensitive population monitoring techniques. The most striking feature of sage grouse flocks in winter was the strong sexual segregation. Segregation was as great as, or greater than that reported for other grouse species (Koskimies 1957, Seiskari 1962, Weeden 1964, Braun and Schmidt 1971) and the hypothesis that strong segregation occurred was accepted. Segregation was greater in male than female flocks as evidenced by the much higher percentage of unisexual flocks (71.6 vs. 39.5). Knowledge of seasonal behavior of sage grouse provides a plausible explanation for this behavior pattern. Males form flocks upon leaving leks and since most females are involved in nesting activities at the time such flocks are characteristically unisexual. Hens unsuccessful at nesting form flocks of "bachelor" hens or join with male flocks. Successful nesters remain with their broods at least until early September, but little information has been published on sage grouse life history during autumn. Much of the segregated flock formation evidently occurs during autumn because flocks observed in late December are strongly segregated by sex. Female flocks could not be fully comprised of entire family units (broods) because juvenile sex ratios are nearly 50:50 (unpubl. check station data, files of Colorado Division of Wildlife). It is thus concluded that many immature males leave the brood structure and find male flocks prior to winter. The fact that female flocks had one or more males more often than male flocks had a female was probably due to some immature males flocking with sibling groups and successful hens. The mechanism for segregation of immatures is presently unknown while the adult segregation likely occurs during mating and nesting activities. The reason for such strong sex segregation in sage grouse winter flocks is a question of great interest. Review of the literature indicates sex segregation by grouse is accompanied by differential habitat utilization (Koskimies 1957, Seiskari 1962, Weeden 1964, Braun and Schmidt 1971). Data frQm the winter of 1973-74 indicate female flocks were utilizing denser stands of sagebrush than were males. Patterns of use were similar in both winters, although differences in density and cover in 1974-75 'were not significant (P> 0.10) . The lack of statistical differences is possibly due to smaller sample size in 197475 (99 vs. 50). Although the difference in mean values for male and female flocks was less in 1974-75, variability in data was also less. Density and cover values were much higher in 1974-75, especially for male flocks. This is probably a reflection of the low snowfall the second winter. Selection for differing densities of sagebrush may also have been tempered by the mild winter in 1974-75. Density and cover values did not increase as much for female as for male flocks in 1974-75, suggesting that female flocks may be utilizing sagebrush stands approaching the maximum density available in North Park. An unfortunate weakness in the data was that measurements of sagebrush stands were not taken at available areas of no observed use. Thus, although female flocks were using denser stands than males, there are no data to indicate where these densities align on the density continuum of available sagebrush. Such information would be of value in evaluating the differences observed between sexes and winters. It is inferred from the data that segregation occurs by habitat types as well as sex. Due to the variability and short term nature of the data, judgment is reserved on the hypothesis regarding different habitat types. �-74- Evaluation of mean and median flock sizes indicate females had a greater tendency to form very large flocks (>150) although most female flocks were within the same size range as male flocks (~50). Possibly the tendency toward larger flock size shown by females was associated with the use of denser sagebrush stands. Such an association can be attributed to either large groupings selecting dense sagebrush for cover and food or the use of dense stands allowing the congregation of large numbers. The large increase in flock size for both sexes during 1974-75 can possibly be attributed to excellent production the preceding summer and/or the mild winter of 1974-75 which resulted in more available sagebrush and thus, larger flocks. White-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) apparently form more flocks rather than increase flock size in winters following summers of excellent production (Hoffman 1974). However, the increase in sage grouse flock size observed between the winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75 was probably due to both excellent production and mild winter which resulted in more extensive stands of available sagebrush. Fewer flocks were found in 1974-75, following excellent production in 1974, possibly the result of the more extensive winter range due to less snowfall during 1974-75. The large increase in observations of females during the last two weeks of each winter was an enigma. Several possibilities exist, such as migration of females out of North Park in late fall with subsequent return in late winter, increased mobility of female flocks in late winter, thus increasing change of observation, and congregation of many female flocks in staging areas prior to the mating season. Migration is possible as movements of 80-160 km. were documented during winter in Idaho and Wyoming (Dalke et al. 1963, Patterson 1952). Several suitable winter ranges (Middle Park, Colorado; Laramie and Saratoga, Wyoming) are within this distance of North Park. However, movements in Idaho and Wyoming were apparently a direct response to snow accumulation gradually reducing the range and did not involve yearly. movements to a specific area and a return. The winter of 1974-75 was relatively mild and no obvious shortage of sagebrush was observed. However, quality of sagebrush may be important as well as quantity; The lack of affinity for wintering areas within North Park tends to discount the possibility that birds within the same population would have an affinity for an area 80-160 y~. distant. Congregation of females at staging areas, though possible, probably was not the cause for the observation pattern. Negating evidence was that locations of females observed during the two-week period were different each year and that females do not assemble in mass on strutting arenas until mid- to late April, 6 weeks after the winter observations. Flocks of females did not remain in these areas for 6 weeks. A third possibility is the increased mobility of female flocks in late February. Increased mobility could be a response to environmental or internal stimuli causing hens to seek locations of male activity. The lack of a corresponding increase in male observations suggests that males were relatively sedentary during this period. In each of the two years, male activity on strutting arenas commenced within two weeks of the cessation of winter studies. Movements by females were generally greater than males during this study, although sample sizes are not large. Unfortunately, lack of data precludes a valid, definitive explanation of the large increase in observations of females during late winter. �-75Comparison of pooled winter sex ratios during each of the two winters with harvest sex ratios was enlightening. Sage grouse researchers have long noted a disparity in harvest sex ratios favoring females and expressed great concern over the assumed over harvest of females (Pyrah 1963). Such concern assumed selectivity for smaller birds by hunters. The pooled harvest sex ratio for North Park for the years 1955-74 was 64 females:36 males, a significant deviation « 0.05) from 1:1 and quite similar to the 62:38 and 61:39 ratios observed-during the winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75, respectively. The sex ratio of immature birds in the harvest in 1974 in North Park was not significantly different (P> 0.10) from 1:1 and juvenile birds comprise approximately 50 percent of the population in fall. Thus, the disparity in adult sex ratios may result from differential natural mortality rather than differences at hatching or hunter selection. Apparently, differential natural mortality favors females and hunter selectivity is less than formerly believed. Two major points should be discussed in reference to management of sage grouse in North Park. First, distribution of sage grouse is limited to the north portion, and specifically to the northeast quarter of the park in severe winters. The northeast area is underlain by extensive low sulfur coal deposits (Beekly 1915) and thus, may be subject to extensive vegetation disturbance should strip mining operations develop. Because of the slow regeneration of disturbed sites, caution should be taken to conserve suitable sagebrush in these areas. If mining occurs, provisions to limit the acreage of total disturbance should be initiated to preserve critical winter habitat. Human activity in this area during winter should also be minimized. Second, there was no evidence that the gross quantity of sagebrush available for sage grouse was limiting. However, the quantity of sagebrush of sufficient nutritional quality is not known. Such information, from a management viewpoint, may be important. If areas of sagebrush of insufficient nutrient quality do exist, then procedures can possibly be implemented to improve the quality, thus increasing the quantity of suitable habitat. Reducing the extent of dense sagebrush stands in the south part of the park could possibly provide more nesting habitat and summer range and result in better utilization of public land. It is questionable that either improvement of sagebrush rangelands by fertilization or reduction of large blocks of dense sagebrush are feasible management procedures since hunting pressure is not presently adequate to remove the annual surplus. Prepared �-76- LITERA Autenrieth, Prog. R. E. Rep. TURE 1969. Sage grouse Idaho Fish & Game Bailey, A. M. 1925. Segregation Condor 27(4):172-173. Beekly, A. L. Colorado. 1915. U.S. CITED investigations. Dept. 25 pp. of the sexes Third Mimeo. in the sage Annu. hen. Geology and coal resources of North Geol. Surv. Bull. 596. 121 pp. Park, Beetle, A. A. 1960. A study of sagebrush. The section Tridentatae of Artemisia. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta , Bull. 368. 83 pp. Bent, A. C. birds. Braun, C. E. and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white -tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Pages 238 -250 in A. O. Haugen, ed , Proc. Snow and Ice Symp., Iowa State University, Ames. Carr, H. D. 1967. Effects of sagebrush spraying on abundance, distribution and movements of sage grous e. M. S. Thesis. Colorado StateUniv., Ft. Collins. 106pp. Dalke, P. D., 1932. Life his tories of North American gallinaceous Smithsonian Inst., U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 162. 490 pp. D. B. Pyrah, E. F. Schlatterer. ment of sage grouse Daubenmire, Agric. D. C. Stanton, J. R. 1970. Steppe vegetation Exp. ses. Tech. Bull. 62. Crawford, of Washington. 131 pp. Eng, R. L., and P. Schladweiler. 1972. Sage ments and habitat use in central Montana. 36(1}:141-146. Finch, W. C., ed. Middle Parks Denver. 1957. Basin, E. 1963. Ecology, productivity in Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. Guidebook Colorado. and and manage27(4):81! -841. Washington grouse winter moveJ. Wildt. Manage. to the geology of North and Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geol., �-77- Frank, E. C., and R. Lee. on slopes. U.S. For. 1966. Potential solar beam irradiation Servo Res. Paper RM-18. 116 pp, Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 187 pp. Griner, L. A. 1939. A study of the sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), with special reference to life history, habitat requirements, and numbers and distribution. M.S. Thesis. Utah State Univ., Logan. 83 pp, Hail, W. J. 1965. Geology of northwest Geol. Surv. Bull. 1188. 133 pp. Hartzler, J. E. 1974. Predation leks. Auk 91(3}:532-536. North Park, Colorado. U.S. and the daily timing of sage grouse Hoffman, R. W. 1974. Characteristics and migration of wintering populations of Colorado white -tailed ptarmigan. M. S. Thes is. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 58 pp. June, J. W. 1967. Sage, blue and ruffed grouse sexing and aging characteris tics. Wyoming Game & Fis h Comma Cheyenne. 59 pp. Klebenow, D. A. 1969. Sage grous e nes ting and brood habitat in Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):649-661. Koskimies, J. 1957. Flocking behavior in capercaillie, Tetrao_ urogallus (L.), and blackgame, Lyrurus tetrix (L.). Finnish Papers on Game Res. 18. 32 pp. May, T. A. 1970. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grous e. Colo. Div. Game, Fish & Parks, Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37 -R. April. pp. 115138. Moss, R. 1972. Food selection by red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) in relation to chemical composition. J. Anim. Ecol. 41(2}:411-428. Patterson, Inc. R. L. 1952. The sage grouse Denver. 341 pp , in Wyoming. Sage Books. �-78- Poley, B. E. 1969. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colo. Div. Gam e, Fish & Parks, Garne Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37 -R. April. pp. 61 -85. Pyrah, D. B. 1963. Sage grous e i nves tigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Wildlife restoration Div. Job Cornpl , Rep , , Fed. Aid Proj. W-125 -R. 71 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grous e inves tigations in Colorado. Colorado Garn e, Fish & Parks Dept. Tech. Publ. 16. 132 pp. Scott,· M. L. 1972. Nutrition in reproduction - direct effects and predictive functions. Pages 46-59 in D. S. F'ar-rner, ed. Breeding biology of birds. Natl. Ac ad , Sci. Washington, D. C. Seiskari, P. 1962. On the winter ecology of the capercaillie. Tetrao urogallus, and the black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix, in Finland. Finnish Papers on Garne Res. 22. 119 pp. Srni.th, E. L. Jr. 1966. Soil-vegetation relationships of some Arterrlisia types in North Park, Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 203 pp. Vale, T. R. 1974. Sagebrush conversion projects: An el ern enj; of c ont ernpor a r-y env i r onm enta l change in the western U. S. Biological Cons ervation 6(4) :274 -284. Weeden, R. B. 1964. Spatial separation of s exes in rock and willow pta rrn iga n in winter. Auk 81 (4}:534 -541. �April 1975 -79- JOB FINAL REPORT State of ~C~OL~O~RAD~O=_ _ Project No. ~W_-~3~7_-~R~-=2~8 _ Work Plan No. =l~O _ Game Bird Survey Job NO. -=2 _ Job Title.__~E~x~p~e~r~i~m~e~n~t~al~~B~r~e~e~d~l~·n~g~o~f_H~un~g=a=r=i=a=n~P~a~r~t~r~i~d~g~e~ _ Period Covered: Personnel: April 1964 to March 1973 Many individuals have contributed to the completion of this study. For a complete list see Hoffman, 1973a in Literature Cited of the special report listed below. ABSTRACT The objectives of this study have been completed, and manuscript written, and results were published in the Division's Special Report series as follows: Hoffman, D. M., C. L. Quarles, L. A. Webster, and L. R. Crooks. 1974. Experimental propagation of gray partridges. Special Report No. 35, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver. 26 p. /} yjl Cf70~ ~/ Prepared by __~c:::\t"-=-ti~~..::z.:.:a:::-i.:::v,_±_t--..:./~ /7~ /-,v~' /-=-~.7/9~·'+-"'::;':".y"..:.· -=.:::z:..-,=.:r_·~=' =-.'__ Donal d M. Ho ffman 2~~ Wildlife Researcher ��April 1975 -81JOB PROGRESS REPORT State 0 f Project No.__ Wo rk Plan No ., ..::CO~L~O~RA=DO~ _ ~W_-~3~7_-~R~-=2~8 _ --=1:-:.7 _ Game Bird Survey Job No. 2 -----------=~---------------- Job Title~~C~o~n~t~i~n~u~~ed~I~n~v..::e~n~t~o~ry~_o~f~S~e~l..::e~c~t~e~d~P~t~a~rm~i~g~an~~P~o~p~u _ Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1974 to October 20, 1974 W. John Arthur, Clait E. Br aun , Richard W. Hoffman, Tom Lytle and Ron Oakleaf. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) populations in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1974 with major emphasis in ascertaining population levels and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding densities in 1974 were similar to those recorded in 1973 on all areas. Thus the decline in breeding densities first observed in 1970 halted. Reasons for attainment of stability are not fully lll1derstoodbut were believed due to the hunting closure in 1973 at Mt. Evans, low hlll1terpressure at Crown Point and Independence Pass and increased survival of females in Rocky MOlll1tainNational Park. Nesting success was poor (Independence Pass), to good (Crown Point and Rocky MOlll1tainNational Park) in 1974. Failure of nests at Independence Pass was possibly related to age of females while success at Crown Point and Rocky Molll1tainNational Park was possibly related to weather conditions which were warmer throughout the summer than normal, with below average moisture in May. Apparent hunting pressure was low at Crown Point and Independence Pass. At Mt. Evans, the season was opened for 3 days and hunters harvested an estimated 32 percent of the fall population. �-82RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that for preparation of the 2. It is recommended that data from Work Plan 17, Jobs 1, 2, and 3 be incorporated into two major manuscripts. Tentative titles of these manuscripts would be: "Population Dynamics of Hunted and Non-hunted Populations of Uhite-tailed Ptarmigan in Colorado", and "Relationships of {<leather and Age of Females to Nesting Success of White-tailed Ptarmigan" . this project final report. be extended until March 31, 1977 �-83- CONTINUED INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS C1ait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. The initial 5 years of research on this grouse have been previously reported (Braun and Rogers 1971). Progress reports on work since 1969 have been prepared (Braun 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974). P. S. OBJECTI VES To test the hypotheses that (1) populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic, (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June and early July of the same year, and (3) harvest of over 50 percent of the fall population adversely affects breeding densities the following spring. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in 4 study areas (Ht. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, and Rocky Mountain National Park). 2. To estimate nesting success and production in the above areas: 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlations between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. Manipulate hunting seasons at Mt. Evans through closures, reduced length, late timing, etc., in order to affect breeding densities. 5. To compile data and prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work Plan 17, Job 1 and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971), and updated by Braun (1971). In 1974 a combination of blue and white bandettes with black numerals were used to mark all newly banded birds and those whose older bandettes had become too worn for individual recognition on all areas except Crown Point. At this area, only white bandettes were used. Weather data were obtained from the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for reasons previously explained (Braun 1971). Hunting statistics were collected through return of bands from successful hunters (Independence Pass and Crown Point) and a check station on the only access road at Mt. Evans. �-84- Description of Area Areas intensively investigated have been described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and have been presented by Braun (1971). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on 9 May at Mt. Evans, 10 May at Independence Pass, 16 May in Rocky Mountain National Park and 17 May at Crown Point. Pairing was still occurring as late as 17 May, with most pairs being formed by 20 May. Timing of breeding events was similar to that of previous years, but was somewhat earlier (about 5 days) than in 1973. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Table 1. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding denSities, all areas, 1974. Study Area No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Males Total Breeding PopUlation Birds per Square Mile 6 5 17 13.6 .19 4 5 13 68.4 .70 6 2 14 20.0 2.14 16 12 44 20.6 1.93 2 3 7 3.6 1.54 11 3 25 16.2 1.12 5 8 18 16.1 S. ~ze-1/ Rocky Mountain National Park Tombstone Ridge-Sundance Mountain Toll Memorial Fall River Pass Total - Rocky Mountain National Park Crown Point Mt. Evans Independence Pass 1.25 1/ In square miles. Changes in breeding densities between 1973 and 1974 were not significant. Densities at Mt. Evans decreased slightly, an unexpected event since the area had been closed to hunting in the fall of 1973. However, nesting Success and production in 1973 were poor on all study areas including the adjacent Guanel1a Pass area CR. Hoffman, pers. comm.). Thus, few yearling birds were available �-85- for recruitment into the spring population. Densities at Crown Point and Independence Pass were also slightly down, despite low hunting pressure and poor hunter success in 1973. Only at Rocky Mountain National Park did densities increase (only one bird increase in total numbers). Of significance, however, was the stabilization of spring to spring mortality rates in Rocky Mountain National Park. Breeding densities at all study areas from 1966 through 1974 are presented in Table 2. Nesting Success and Production In 1974, the month of May in alpine areas was dry but cool (Table 3). While snow melt was retarded, preparation for nesting by females was advanced because of early plant phenology and abundance of bare ground (due to low overwinter snowfall). Some females started laying in late May and most started incubating by 9 June when a major snowstorm occurred, depositing over one foot of snow in alpine areas. Temperatures were warmer in June 1974 than in June 1973; consequently, the snow rapidly melted and the effects of the 9 June storm were not disasterous in terms of nesting success. Some hens apparently renested following the storm, but most continued nesting during the period the ground was snow covered. If nesting events had not been advanced in 1974 the 9 June storm would have occurred when most hens were laying and the effects of the storm would have been pronounced. One nest located on 13 June (by T. A. May) when incubation was well underway, hatched on 3 July. Estimated peak of hatch in 1974 was between 5 and 10 July, almost two weeks earlier than in 1973. Nesting success was good at Rocky Mountain National Park (16 of 26 hens observed were successful), and Mt. Evans (5 of 8 hens observed were successful). Only 2 hens were observed at Independence Pass during the brood period and one was successful. At Crown Point only one of the two hens known to have been present was observed during the brood period and this hen was successful. Overall nesting success for 37 hens observed during the brood period was 62.2 percent. This is a substantial increase from the estimated 25 to 30 percent success documented in 1973. Initial brood size in 1974 is not exactly known but was believed to be between 5 and 6 chicks. Survival of chicks to 1 September was excellent (Table 4) and dispersal did not occur until about 20 September. Data from 1974 concerning brood size to 1 September are similar to most years of the study. However, average brood size and number of broods was greater in 1974 than in 1973. Fall Densities Estimates of densities of white-tailed ptarmigan on September 1, while useful in illustrating population gain through production, are difficult to accurately derive due to a number of variables. Estimated fall densities for each area studied are presented in Table 5. These densities were calculated following the three basic assumptions discussed in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Percent gain was more than adequate at all areas except Independence Pass to maintain and increase populations the following spring provided overw.Ln ter mortality was not greater than in most years. �Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding densities 1966-74. 1966 1967 1968 Birds Per Sguare Mile 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 29.0 25.2 29.4 30.8 24.8 23.4 22.4 20.1 20.6 14.5 21.2 18.1 14.5 10.4 5.7 1.0 4.7 3.6 7.8 7.1 7.1 5.8 5.2 11.0 19.5 16.2 16.2 18.7 18.7 18.7 17.9 10.7 21.4 18.7 17.0 16.1 ------Study Ar ea Rocky Mountain National Park Crown Point Mt. Evans Independence Table 3. Pass Weather data, Niwot Ridge, 12,300 ft, May-July, 1974. I 00 Month Maximum 0 Temperature Mean Daill Minimum Maximum Minimum Number Days Minimum Temperature Less Than 32° F 0'\ Precipitation/ Month (Inches) I Number Days Relative Humidity 90% or Above Wind Speed Month (mph) May 54 F 8° F 40.8° F 25.2° F 26 1. 63 13 June 2:./ 1/ 690 F 12°F 51.0° F 35.0° F 5 3.92 15 1/ 60° F 35° F 53.0° F 41.0° F 0 3.76 24 Y July 1/ - Data not available. 2/ - Data are not available for 17 June. �-87- Table 4. Number of broods and average brood size, all areas, 1974.1/ Number of Broods Observed Average Number of Chicks per Brood July 4 4.2 August 18 3.8 September 5 4.2 Month 1/ Only distinct broods are included. Hunting MOrtality In 1974 all alpine areas of the state were open to ptarmigan hunting from 14 September through 8 October, except for the area lying within 1/2 mile of the Mt. Evans highway. This area was open only from 17 through 19 September. As in recent years, no ptarmigan hunting was allowed during any of the early big game seasons. Bag and possession limits for ptarmigan were 3 and 6. No bands were received from hunters in the Crown Point area in 1974. Thus, hunting mortality at this site in 1974 appears to have been non-existent. At least nine ptarmigan were harvested at Independence Pass in 1974 of which 3 were banded. This represents 14.3 percent of the 21 banded birds known to be available to hunters at this site. This value is considered minimal as it now appears that a substantial number of hunters at this site fail. to report bands in the year the birds were shot. The best estimate of the fall hunting mortality of this population in 1974 is from 30 to 40 percent. At Mt. Evans a check station was operated from dawn to dusk all three days of the season on the only access road into the area. All hunters going into the area were recorded and accounted for each day. A check was made each evening to insure that no hunters were still in the area after closure of the check station. In all, 104 hunters were checked who hunted 289 hours, observed 53 ptarmigan, of which 22 were bagged. Eleven of the 22 ptarmigan bagged were banded, thus an estimated 32 percent (11 of 34 banded birds known to be present) of the fall population was harvested. This approximates the one-fourth to one-third of the fall population loss to hunting that an individual population of ptarmigan can sustain without detriment to the subsequent breeding population. Of the 22 ptarmigan harvested, 6 were young of the year, five were adult males and 11 were subadult and adult females. This does not adequately represent the population due to differential behavior patterns. �Table 5. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed Estimated Percent Nesting Success Average Brood Size on September 1 Rocky Mountain National Park 60 Crown Point Area Mt. Evans Independence Pass ptarmigan, 1974. Total Production Total Breeding Population Total Population on September 1 4.0 40 44 80 37.4 50.0 50 4.0 4 7 10 5.2 40.0 60 4.0 28 25 50 32.5 56.0 40 2.5 5 18 21 18.7 23.8 Birds Per Percent Square Mile Gain I co co I �-89- LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1971. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 91-106. . 1972. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 91-98. 1973. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. ~pt. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 355361. _____ 1974. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 65-72. _____ , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 p. Prepared by u_h_::J_/'_J_;-_... --1t.&~/....:..--Z4tUU-,-,Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ Colo. ��April 1975 -91- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. ~W~-~3~7_-~R~-~2~8 Work Plan No. __~1~7 Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: _ Game Bird Survey _ 3 Experimental Removal of a Breeding Population of White-tailed Ptarmigan April 1, 1971 to March 31, 1975 Clait E. Braun, Richard W. Hoffman and Terry A. May ABSTRACT All white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) located were removed by shooting from Crown Point, a 1.93 sq. mile isolated study area in northern Colorado, in early June 1971. No replacement occurred in 1971 and only two males were present in 1972. Numbers of birds present during the breeding season slowly increased to removal levels in 1973 before decreasing in 1974. The first successful nesting occurred in 1974; three years after all breeding birds were removed. Repopulation of the area was slow due to the affinity of yearling male ptarmigan to natal areas and the distance between the area studied and surrounding occupied habitats. Presence of suitable males (adults) was most critical in attracting females to the area. Male ptarmigan selected areas for breeding which were at least 40 percent snowfree by mid May in which bushes of Salix greater than 10 but not exceeding 26 inches in height were a major component of the vegetation. Wind was the most important factor affecting location of breeding territories. �-92- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that data from Work Plan 17, Job 3 be incorporated with that from Work Plan 17, Jobs 1 and 2 into a manuscript titled "Population Dynamics of Hunted and Non-hunted Populations of White-tailed Ptarmigan in Colorado". An oral presentation with abstract only to be published discussing the results of this job would also be desirable. 2. If white-tailed ptarmigan are to be released in isolated mountain ranges where they do not occur, evaluation of the release site(s) should include estimation of bare ground present by 15 May and actual measurement of the height of available bushes of Salix. These criteria should then be compared with results of this study to determine suitability. Areas smaller than 3 sq. miles of suitable habitat will probably not support huntable populations on a sustained basis. Releases should include approximately 50 percent each adults and subadults of both males and females, in both fall (August-September) and spring (May-June). Time of initial release (either fall or spring) is not important for establishment. �-93- EXPERIMENTAL REMOVAL OF A BREEDING POPULATION OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Clait E. Braun Management of wild animals is dependent upon knowledge about population levels, reproductive capacity and success, survival and mortality rates, and habitat requirements. Without adequate habitat for any given species there would be no need to investigate other aspects of the biology of a given animal. In addition to knowledge about the particular habitat requirements of a species, knowledge must also be available on the pioneering abilities of a species and age of pioneers. In recent years intensive studies of grouse (Family Tetraonidae) have focused on the apparent non-breeding segment of the male population. Non-displaying males have been documented for red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) (Watson and Jenkins 1967), black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) (Robel 1969), blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) (Bendell et al. 1972; Zwickel 1972), sharptailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasinellus) (Rippin and Boag 1974) and ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (Dorney and Kabat 1960; Boag and Sumanik 1969; Rusch and Keith 1971; Fischer and Keith 1974). Non-territorial males of white-tailed ptarmigan were observed by Braun (1969) and Schmidt (1969) but whether or not these males would become territorial upon removal of established males was not tested. Habitats seasonally occupied by white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado have been described (Braun 1971b). Analyses of ptarmigan movements in relation to vegetative communities suggest that ptarmigan seek and utilize certain areas depending upon season and that the same patterns prevail throughQut the alpine areas of Colorado (Braun 1969). Since number of suitable breeding territories may control breeding densities, potential productivity, and fall densities, an experiment was designed to investigate the exact requirements for breeding territories. Crown Point-Crown Mountain was chosen as the site for the experiment, as it is somewhat isolated from adjacent alpine areas, thus reducing the possibility of ingress between the breeding period and the early fall. This area had been studied from 1966-70 (Braun and Rogers 1971; Braun 1971a), and locations of most previously occupied territories were known. Additionally, hunters removed about 50 percent of the fall population in 1970 (Braun 1971a), and it was anticipated that the population would be low in the spring of 1971. This would reduce the number of birds to be removed. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the hypotheses that (1) ptarmigan select sites for breeding territories which contain readily available bushes of Salix spp. (> 10 inches in height) and snowfree locations, (2) immature birds initially pioneer new or empty habitats, and (3) number of occupied territories is affected by age class of male ptarmigan. �-94- METHODS AND MATERIALS Ptarmigan were located during the breeding and brood seasons through use of tape-recorded male challenge and chick distress calls as described by Braun et al. (1973). At least two censuses were conducted each year during both the breeding (May-June) and brood (August-early September) seasons. Locations of all birds observed were plotted on standard 7.5 minute U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps (scale 1:24000). In 1971, all birds located were immediately shot with a .410 shotgun. After 1971, all birds observed were pursued until caught or flushed out of view. Capture was accomplished with 22-foot telescoping fiberglass fishing poles (Zwickel and Bendell 1967). Each bird was banded with a gold aluminum, serially numbered band and individually numbered plastic bandettes. Colors used were pink in 1972, green in 1973 and white in 1974. All vegetation mapping was accomplished in 1967-68 following proced~res outlined by Kuchler (1955) as presented by Braun (1969). LOCATION OF STUDY AREA The Crown Point-Crown Mountain area (hereafter referred to as Crown Point) is on the Poudre District of the Roosevelt National Forest, approximately six miles north of the north edge of Rocky Mountain National Park (T8N, R74W, parts of Sections 27, 28, 33, 34 and 35, Larimer County). This area, at the northeast end of the Mummy Range, lies at 105°37' W long. and 40°37' N lat. The area studied, as planimetered from U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps, scale 1:24000, was 1.93 square miles (Fig. 1). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Characteristics In 1971, breeding surveys at Crown Point were delayed in order to have assurance that territory formation and pairing was complete. Since Schmidt (1969) reported that some territory establishement and pairing may occur as late as 25 May, delay was deemed essential if all birds were to be removed. On 2 June, removal of all birds located (nine) was accomplished. Subsequent surveys during June, July and August did not result in the location of any ptarmigan or recent sign (feathers or droppings). No ptarmigan were reported harvested on this site in 1971. The nine birds removed consisted of 3 pairs and 3 unmated males. Six of the nine were banded. Ages of the males were: 6+ (1), 4+ (1), 4- (1), 3- (2) and 2+ (1). Ages of the three females were 3- (1), and 1- (2). All of the males were territorful as determined by response to tape-recorded calls and all but one had been on the same breeding territory for at least two consecutive years. In 1972, the study area was systematically surveyed 3 times during the breeding season and twice during the late summer brood period. Only two males were located of which one was captured and banded. This bird was a subabult (1-). �-95- CROWN f o E+3 Fig. 1. Crown Point Study Area. POINT AREA COLORADO N - Study Area Boundary SCALe: IN MILlS I/I! ES3 F*3 E*3 �-96- The other male was repeatedly observed but could not be captured. This individual exhibited the characteristics of an unmated, non-territorial subadult. Male P3l was territorial by early June. During 1973, the Crown Point area was systematically surveyed 3 times during the breeding season and twice during the late summer brood period. A total of 13 different birds were observed of which 8 were newly banded. Six males, occupied territories in 1973 of which 1 was banded as a subadult in 1972, 1 was banded as a subadult in 1973, and 4 were unmarked. These four males were extremely wild and were thought to be subadults based on behavior and reaction to the tape-recorded male challenge call. It is possible that one of these males was the unmarked bird observed in 1972. Three of these males were unmated. Seven females were banded on the study area, and 2 additional unmarked hens were observed in early May. Only 3 hens became paired and remained on the study area. All other females disappeared in late May and were presumed to have moved west into the Mummy Range in search of suitable males and/or territories. None of the three hens that became established was successful in bringing off a brood. Observations indicated that most, if not all birds had left the area by early August. As in previous years, the study area in 1974 was systematically searched 3 times during the breeding season and twice during the late summer brood period. Eleven birds were identified of which four were young produced in 1974. During the breeding season, the presence of only 7 birds (2 pairs and 3 unmated males) could be documented. Four of these birds (3 males and 1 female) were not previously marked and could not be captured. They possibly were subadults although the males may have been those observed but not marked in 1972 and/or 1973. No marked birds from either 1972 or 1973 were observed in 1974. Of the three birds captured during the breeding season, one was a subadult (male) while two were adults (one male and one female). The adult male could have been one of thos~ that could not be captured in 1973 as it occupied a territory that had been defended in 1973 by an unmarked male. It is reasonably certain that the adult hen marked in 1974 was not present on the area in 1973. All of the birds except two adults (marked) and the four chicks (marked) produced in 1974 had left the area by early September 1974. The nesting success documented in 1974 was the first at this site since before the removal experiment began (1970). Population statistics from the four years of study are given in Table 1. Several problems arose during the study that were not initially anticipated. These were the inability to capture all pioneering birds each year and the inability of birds to become established. The limited data indicate that males are most important in re-establishment of a population. Extensive banding data (chicks) from all areas studied from 1966 through 1974 indicated that males banded as chicks initially return to their natal areas in search of territories while females move substantial distances (from 1 to over 15 miles) before becoming established (Braun unpublished data). Once subadult males are not successful in becoming established on areas close to where they were chicks, some then disperse into adjacent habitats in search of vacant territories. Those moving the farthest are the least dominant. �-97- Table 1. Population statistics of white-tailed ptarmigan, Crown Point, 1971-74. Year Number of Males Females 1- 2+ UnK 1- 2+ Unk 1971 0 6 0 2 1 0 3 3 9 4.7 1972 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 1.0 1973 1 1 4 3 0 0 3 3 9 4.7 1974 1 1 3 0 1 1 2 3 7 3.6 No. of Pairs No. of Unmated Males Total Breeding Population Birds Per Square Mile Since reproduction did not occur at Crown Point from 1971 through 1973, there were no subadult males produced on the area available to occupy vacant territories. Thus all males pioneering to Crown Point had to move at least two miles from other occupied habitats west of the study area. Further, males arrived at Crown Point late (mid Mayor later) after most females had become established on territories elsewhere. Data from other areas in Colorado and Schmidt (1969) indicate that females do not become territorial until a suitable territory occupied by a male is located. Since most males arrived at Crown Point after the peak period of hen dispersal, few pairs were formed at this site. It is possible that more pairs would have been formed if experienced (2+) males had been present. It would appear then that distance from other occupied habitats and age of males are of major importance in re-establishment of breeding populations of white-tailed ptarmigan. Therefore the hypotheses that immature birds initially pioneer new or empty habitats and number of occupied territories is affected by age class of male ptarmigan are accepted. Since production occurred at Crown Point in 1974 and was considered good to excellent elsewhere in northern Colorado in 1974 (Work Plan 17, J 2), it is expected that number of birds at this site will significantly increase in the spring of 1975. Description of Breeding Territories Vegetative type mapping of the Crown Point Study Area was accomplished in 1967-68 under a grant from the National Science Foundation (Braun 1969). These data are included for descriptive purposes in Figure 2 and Table 2. Territories occupied during the 1966-1971 period are given in Figure 3. Territories occupied during the 1972-74 period are shown in Figure 4. Every territory was not occupied each year. From 1966 through 1971, 15 different �-98- territories were occupied for at least one breeding season. During the 1972-74 period, seven different territories were occupied during at least one spring. Of the 7 territories on Crown Point itself during 1966-71, none was reoccupied in 1972-74 while 7 of the 8 former territories on Crown Mountain were occupied. None of the males during 1972-74 had prior experience in the Crown Point Area and initially could not have "learned" from other males about locations of territories. Thus it is significant that old territory sites were selected on Crown MOuntain and no territories were established on Crown Point. This strongly suggests that Crown Point is poorer habitat for breeding birds than Crown Mountain, a hypothesis developed during 1966-71 that was not tested. Also pioneering males selected sites for territories that had been previously utilized by other males. It is probable that pioneering males were selecting territories by aspect and structure of the vegetation. Territories selected for and those used previously were principally located along the upper edge of the Picea-Salix krummholz, Dryas-Picea-Salix rock krummholz and Salix-Picea-Trifolium-Poa krummholz (Units C-3, C-8 and C-15) Figure 2, Tabl~ While the vegetative composition of these units differ, the structure of each is similar and Salix is a dominant. Of importance is the observation that wind action along the upper fringe of the communities prevents snow accumulation. Thus the edges of these communities are among the first areas to become snowfree in late April and early May. Some of these areas remain essentially snowfree throughout the year except following major periods of snowfall. Systematic observations of percent of ground covered by snow and height of bushes of Salix were recorded for 10 territories used at least during two consecutive years. Bare ground approximated at least 40 percent of ~ach territory by 15 May during each year. Removal of snow cover was primarily by wind action prior to 15 May and by melting after that date. Measurements of 10 randomly selected bushes of Salix within each territory gave a range of mean heights of Salix bushes per territory from 11.05 to 13.03 inches (Table 3). Ranges in height of bushes within territories were from 4.0 to 26.0 inches. These data support the hypothesis that ptarmigan selected sites that were partially snowfree by 15 May which were dominated by bushes of Salix that were 11 to 12 inches in height. Typically these sites were near the crest of ridges where some protection from the prevailing wind (westerly) was available but where snow depths were not great enough to completely cover all bushes of Salix. It would appear that wind direction indirectly controls location of breeding territories of white-tailed ptarmigan through its effects on plant distribution and height and distribution of snow. �-99- Fig. 2. Vegetation units, Crown Point. C-l Salix-~-~ Alpine Meadow C-2 Poa-~ Alpine Meadow C-3 Picea-~ Krummholz C-4 ~-Poa C-5 Trifolium-~-~ C-6 Trifolium-~ C-7 Silene-Trifolium-Carex-PoaFellfield C-8 Dryas-Picea-~ C-9 Dryas Turf C-lO ~-~ C-ll ~ C-12 Dryas-Pinus Subalpine Meadow C-13 Sibbaldia Snow Accumulation Area C-14 ~-~-Betula C-15 Salix-Picea-Trifolium-PoaKrummholz C-16 Artemisia-Trifolium Snow Accumulation Area Alpine Meadow Alpine Meadow Alpine Meadow Rock Krummholz Krummholz Subalpine Meadow Alpine Meadow �CROWN POINT I I-' o o I �-101- fable 2. Descriptio':', of vegetation units, Crown Point. UNIT C-l DESCRIPTION Salix-Poa-Carex Alpine Meadow: Salix spp. and Poa spp. each comprise 5-25 percent of the total coverag~with Carex app. accounting for at least 20 percent of the cover. Shrubs are less than 1 m in height, with herbaceous vegetation being less than 1/2 m tall. Plant density is primarily continuous. Rocks cover at least 5-25 percent of the area, with small areas approaching 75 percent rock cover. Rocks larger than 12 inches in diameter are dominant. Lichens are about equally green and black and cover up to one-half the surface of rocks. Percent slope is variable and averages about 10 percent. tot;I C-2 Poa-Carex Alpine Meadow: Between 25 and 50 perce~t of the area is covered with Poa spp., with ~ spp. covering 5-25 percent of the total area. The vegetation is short, less than 1/2 m in height, and density is mostly continuous. Rock's cover less than 25 percent of the total area and are primarily in the 6- to 12inch diameter size class. Green and black lichens predominate, each covering 5-25 percent of thp expospd rock surface. Slopes are gentle and average about 7 percent. C-3 Picea-Salix Krummholz: Picea engelmannii cove~s 25-50 percent of the area, while Sa"lix spp. covers 5-25 percent of the total area. Appearance of this unit is ragged, as some shrubs attain a height of 4 m. Most of the vegetation is less than 2 m tall, and the der.sity is mostly continuous. The amount of rock is variable, with small areas covering 75 percent of the total area. Rocks larger than 12 inches are dominant. Lichens are primarily green and black, with each covericg up to 5 percent of the exposed,rock surface. Slopes are variable but average 16-20 percent. C-4 Salix-~ Alpine Meadow: More than 75 percent of the area is covered with ~ spp., with species of Poa amounting to about 5 percent of the total coverage. Plant density in this unit is continuous, and average height of the vegetation is 2-3 m. Few rocks are present and slope averages about 7 percent. (-5 Trifolium-Poa-Salix Alpine Meadow: Each of the three dominant genera comprises 5-25 percent of the coverage of the area. Most plants in this unit are less than 1/2 m tall; although the shrubs exceed this height, �-102- Table 2. Con t , UNIT DESCRIPTION they do not attain 1 m. Density of the vegetation is continuous. Rocks cover less than 25 percent of the area and are primarily larger than 6 inches in diameteL Green and black lichens dominate, and each covers up to 25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slope gradient averages about 10 percent. C-6 Trifolium-Poa Alpine Meadow: Trifolium spp. and ~ spp. comprise 5-25 percent each of the total coverage of the area. The dominant clover is I. dasyphyllum in contrast to Earryi in C-5. Veg~tation in this unit is less than 1/2 m in height, and the density is conti~uous. Rock~ cover 5-25 percent of the total area and are primarily in the 6- to 12-inch diameter ciass. Lichens are predominately g resn and black arid cover up to 50 percent of the surface of exposed rocks. Average perc~nt slope is about 15. I. C-7 c-S C-9 Sile!!e-Irifolium-~_Poa Fellfield: Rocks dominate this arEa and account for about 75 percent of the total coverage. Rocks are primarily larger than 6 inches in diameter. Four plant genera comprise less than 5 percent each of the covarage. Plants are short and occur singly or in small pa tches. Green and black Li che ns each covers up to 25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slopes are smooth and average about 30 percent. Dryas-~-~ Rock Krurnrnholz: Dryas octopetala comprises 25-50 percent 01 subunit C-Sa, with Picea engelmanrii and ~ spp. each covering up to 5 percent of the total area. Appearance of this u~it is irregular as some Picea bushes attain a height of 4 m. Density is variable, but is mostly continuous or in small patches. Rocks cover at least 5-25 percent of the area with no one size class dominating. Liche~3 are few but are mostly green and black. Slope gradient varies up to 60 percent but averages about 20 percent. Subunit C-Sb differs from C-Sa in haVing about equal amounts of the three dominant genera. ~ e~gelmannii dominates the overstory of the Kru~~holz, whilt Dryas octopetala dominates the interspersed windswept areas. Dryas Turf: Mats of Dry~s octopetala cover 5-25 percent of the tritalarea, with rocks covering an equal area. Vegetation of this unit is less than 1/2 m in height, although scattered Salix bushes attain a height of 1 m. De~~ity of plants is mostly continuous) �-103- Table UNIT 2. Cont. DESCRIPTION although many plants occur in small patches. Rock size is variable, but most rocks are in the 0-6 and larger than 12 inches diameter size classes. Green and black lichens each covers 5-25 percent of the exposed rock surface. Slope~ average 10-12 percent. This unit is similar to R-l ~n RMNP. G-lO Pinus-Carex Krummholz: Pinus flexilis and Carex spp. each covers 5-25 percent of the area, with rocks amounting to 25-50 percent of the total coverage. Some shrubs attain a height of 3-4 m, but much of the vegetation is less than 1/2 m tall. Plarrtgrowth is primarily interrupted, although small patches do occur. One large bOulder outcrop is included, and rocks are primarily larger than 12 inches in diameter. ~ichens are primarily greer:.and black and cover up to 50 percent of the exposed rock sur~ace. Slopes are variab~e and average i5-20 percent. C-ll Carex Subalpine Meadow: Different species of Carex cover 5-25 percent of this area. Other subdominscts are Poa spp. and Sibbaldia procClmbers, Plant density is mostly continuous~ and the majority of the plants present are less than 1/2 m tall. Scattered shrubs attain a height of 3-4 m. Rocks comprise less than 25 percent of the entire cover~ with all diameter cla3ses being about equal in cover. Lichens are u.C'common. The slope gradient averages 17-18 percent. . C-12 Dryas-Pinus Subalpine-Meadow: Dryas octopetala cover;; 25-50 percent of this area, with Pinus flexilis covering up to 5 percent. Appearance of this urrit is ragged) with most plants being shorter than 1/2 m. Density of the vegetation is pri~cipally continuous, but areas of interrup ted growth are present. Tota 1 rock coverage is 5-25 percent. with all diameter classes being equally represented. Coverage of exposed rock surfaces is Less than 25 percent~ with green and black being the domirrant colors. Slopes average 12 percent. C-13 Sibbaldia Snow Accumulation Area: This area is dominated by rocks which cover 50-75 percent of the entire area. No one rock diameter class predominates. Sibbaldia procumbe~s is the dominant plant present, covering 5-25 percent of the area. Vegetation in this unit is short, le~s than 1/4 m in height, and the der:.sity is interrupted as plants occur singly or in small groups. Lichen" are uncommon on rocks, but a gray lichen covers u~ to 5 percent of the exposed soil. The average slope gradient is about 15 percent. �-104- Table 2. Cont. UNIT DESCRIPTION C-l4 Salix-Poa-Betula Alpine Meadow: This area is similar to C-4 except Salix spp. covers 5-25 perce~t of the area and Betula glandulosa occurs only in this unit. Most shrubs in this unit are less than 1 m tall. but scattered conifers extend to a height of 2 m. Density of the vegetation is mostly continuous. Rocks larger than 12 inches in diameter cover 5-25 percent of the area. Black and green lichens are common, with each covering up to 5 percent of the exposed surface of rocks. Slopes are gentle and average 5-7 percent. C-15 Salix-Picea-Trifolium-Poa Krummholz: Salix spp. covers 25-50 percent of the area, with the other three dominant genera each amounting to 5··25 percent of the total cover. Vegetation of this unit is irregular as some groups of conifers reach a height of 3 m, but much of the vegetation is shorter than 2 m. Plant density is primarily continuous. Rocks of all size classes are common but make up less than 25 perce~t of the coverage. About 50 percent of the exposed surface of sto~es is covered with green and black lichens. Slope gradient averages 12 percent. C-l6 Artemisia-Trifolium Snow Accumulation Area: Species of Artemisia (pri~cipally A. sconulorum and A. norvegica), and Trifolium parryi each covers 5-25 perce r.t of t.he area, with Artemisia occurring singly. while !. parryi is grouped in small patches. Plants in this uru t do not exceed 1/2 m in height, and the density is frequently interrupted. Stones of all size classes are common and cover at least 25 percent of the area. Lichens are uncommon, with green and black bei~g the most prevalent colors. Slope gradient averages 10-12 percent. �-105- CROWN COLORADO N o t - E±3 Fig. 3. POINT AREA Study Area Boundary ICALI I" MIL!S 1/2 E'"""3 E?3 '==' Territory locations, Crown Point Area, 1966-71. I �-106- CROWN N o f FS3 Fig. 4. r POINT AREA COLORADO ---- Study Area Boundary SCALI! F+3 IN MILI!S 1/2 E'"±3 e+3 Territory locations, Crown Point Area, 1972-74. F+3 �-107- . h t1/ of Salix, white-tailed ptarmigan breeding territories, Table 3. H elg Crown Point Area. Territory X S.D. Sem Range Sample Size 1 11.05 1.98 .63 8.0 - 15.0 10 2 11.88 2.92 .65 8.5 - 21.0 10 3 11.72 3.03 .55 7.0 - 18.5 10 4 12.31 3.87 .61 7.0 - 26.0 10 5 12.29 3.87 .54 5.0 - 17.5 10 6 12.16 3.80 .49 4.0 - 17.0 10 7 12.24 3.73 .45 7.0 - 20.0 10 8 12.56 4.19 .47 7.5 - 24.0 10 9 12.93 4.33 .46 10.0 - 23.0 10 10 13.03 4.27 .43 8.5 - 20.0 10 1./ All measurements are in inches. �-108- LITERATURE CITED Bendell, J. F., D. G. King, and D. H. Mossop. of bluegrouse in a declining population. 1972. Removal and repopulation J. Wildl. Manage 36(4):1153-1165. Boag, D. A., and K. M. Sumanik. 1969. Characteristics of drumming sites selected by ruffed grouse in Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):621-628. Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 189 pp. 1971a. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp. 91-106. 1971b. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. Proc. _____ , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 pp. _____ , R. K. Schmidt, Jr., and G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado whitetailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded calls. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(1):90-93. Dorney, R. S., and C. Kabat. 1960. Relation of weather, parasitic disease and hunting to Wisconsin ruffed grouse populations. Wisc. Conserv. Dept. Tech. Bull. 20. 64 pp. Fischer, C. A., and L. B. Keith. 1974. Population responses of central Alberta ruffed grouse to hunting. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):585-600 . .. Kuchler, A. W. 1955. A comprehensive method of mapping vegetation. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 45~404-4l5. Ann. Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations of male sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):616-621. Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements and flock stratification within a population of blackcocks in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 38(5):755-763. Rusch, D. H., and L. B. Keith. 1971. Seasonal and annual trends in numbers of Alberta ruffed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 35(4):803-822. Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M.S. thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 174 pp. Watson, A., and D. Jenkins. 1967. Experiments in population control by territorial behavior in red grouse. J. Anim. Ecol. 36(4):595-614. �-109- LITERATURE CITED (continued) Zwicke1, F. C. 1972. Removal and repopulation of blue grouse in an increasing population. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 36(4):1141-1152. , and J. F. Bende11. 1967. A snare for capturing blue grouse. --Wildl. Manage. 31(1) :202-204. Prepared by __ ~.:......:...:::~=' _ • ....:::r~--I,.£/~~ C1ait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ J. ��-111April, 1975 JOB FINAL REPORT State 0 f --=-CO.=..L::.O.=..RAD==-O"--_ W-37-R-28 Project No. Game Bird Survey Work Plan No. 17 Job No. 4 Characteristics and Migration~-o~-a-------------------Job Title: Wintering Population of Colorado White-tailed Ptarmigan Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1972 through March 30, 1975 C. Braun, H. Funk, R. Hoffman, R. Oakleaf, and C. Wagner, Division of Wildlife; D. Hein, P. Lehner, S. Martin, and R. Ryder, Colorado State University; T. May, University of Colorado. ABSTRACT Studies of the characteristics and migration of wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) were conducted in north-central Colorado from April 1972 through April 1974 primarily at Guanella Pass. In all, 293 km2 of alpine habitat were selected for studying movements from and to the wintering area. Guanella Pass was utilized principally by females (80 percent of 799 birds identified) and primarily adults (65 percent). Numbers of subadults varied with year depending upon production success. The 172 winter flo~ks observed ranged from 2 to over 80 birds per flock, but most contained 2 to 25. Females typically congregated in larger flocks (20-30 birds) than males « 15 birds); probably the result of differences in Winter habitat preference as partial segregation of sexes occurred. Apparently, winter flocks were not composed of family units nor were the same group of individuals associated together throughout the winter. Sixty percent of the ptarmigan banded at Guanella Pass and relocated on breeding or summering sites returned in subsequent winters. Adults exhibited the greatest affinity for the wintering grounds with 73 percent returning, while only 51 percent of the subadults returned. Willow (Salix spp.) was the most important vegetation found on wintering areas. Essentially all sites on the winter range were utilized, but some preferences were noted. }fujor factors affecting distribution were availability of willow and snow quality. Eight chick movements were documented to wintering or breeding sites. Hunter recoveries indicated chicks were relatively sedentary prior to brood dispersal. Females banded as chicks traveled greater distances than males. Hales showed high fidelity to natal areas. Ninety-nine and 45 movements were documented from and to winter use sites, respectively. Subadults were more. mobile than adults, with subadult females traversing the greatest distances. Female grouse were consistently more mobile than males. Average movements of males were generally restricted to less than 2.5 km for adults and 4.0 km for subadults, while movements of females frequently exceeded these distances. The longest movement was 22.7 km for a subadult female. Seventy-four percent of the movements from Guanella Pass were in westerly directions with 28 percent to the northwest. �-112- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Any proposed project with possible adverse effects on willow dominated communities in riparian, subalpine or alpine areas should be carefully investigated. 2. Continued research should emphasize investigating dispersal of broods and identifying factors responsible for major losses of young ptarmigan prior to arrival on wintering areas. 3. Movement studies at Guanella Pass should be discontinued with the exception of collecting information on hunter recoveries of banded birds. 4. Information concerning wintering populations of ptarmigan in Colorado should be made available in form of a special repprt. �-113CHARACTERISTICS AND MIGRATION OF A WINTERING POPULATION OF COLORADO WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Richard W. Hoffman and Clait E. Braun P. S. OBJECTIVE To document movements of white-tailed ptarmigan by age and sex class to and from a major wintering area in order to evaluate importance of such areas and distances involved in annual migrations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The objectives of this study have been completed and the results have been previously reported (Hoffman 1974). An article was submitted to and accepted by the Journal of Wildlife Management; the title will be "Migration of a Wintering Population of White-tailed Ptarmigan in Colorado". A typed manuscript of the final report was prepared in thesis form and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. A second paper entitled "Characteristics of Wintering Populations of Colorado Whitetailed Ptarmigan'! is in final preparation and will be submitted to Condor for publication. PUBLICATIONS RESULTING FROM STUDY Hoffman. R. W. 1974. Characteristics and migration of wintering populations of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ. 58pp. ___ • and C. E. Braun. 1973. Migrat.ion of white-tailed ptarmigan to and from a major wintering area. Trans. Central Mountains and Plains Section of the Wildl. Soc. 18:16. (Abstract). 1974. Composition. white-tailed ptarmigan. distribution. and size of wintering flocks of J. Colo. Wyo. Acad. Sci. 7(5}:68. (Abstract). 1975. Migration of white-tailed Wyo. Acad. Sci. (In Press). ptarmigan in Colorado. 1975. Migration of a wintering population of white-tailed in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3}. (In Press). LITERATURE J. Colo. ptarmigan CITED Hoffman. R. W. 1974. Characteristics and migration of wintering populations of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 79-116. Wildlife Researcher Candidate ��-115- April 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT Stat e 0 f C;::O::;L=.:O:.:RAD=:.:O=------- Project No. W-37-R-28 Work Plan No. Job Title __ 1 Job No. -----------------Investigation of Population ~S~t=a=t=u=s~o::;f~B::;o::;b::;w~h~i_t_~e~Q~u~a~i=l~i=n~E~a~s~t~e~r~n~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey 20 April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 Donald Hoffman, Bruce Tryndle, Jim Rogers, Mike Telck, Marvin Gardner, Dan Walsworth, Steve Steinert, and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT Approximately 100 to 120 bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Wildlife Area survived the fall and winter of 1973-74 from an October, 1973 population level of about 722 quail. Harvest mortality of approximately 31 percent combined with natural fall-winter mortality of about 52 percent to reduce the fall, 1973 population by about 83 percent. Additional mortality among survivors was low over spring and summer 1974 so that the annual mortality rate approximated 87 percent. Summer whisting counts in 1974 were indicative of the low resident breeding population. Extremely dry weather, with total 1974 rainfall approximating 7 inches, did not hamper reproduction. Hatching reached a rapid and dramatic peak in mid-June. By October over 400 young had been added to the population bringing the fall level to approximat"ely 499 quail. Bands were placed on 197, or 39 percent of these. Hunters and dogs were handicapped by extremely dry fall weather so that hunting removed only about 18 percent of the fall population. Relatively mild weather persisted through the winter resulting in good survival up to late March. Ninety quail were banded or retrapped in February and early March, 1975. A late March snowstorm, which killed numerous livestock, waterfowl and pheasants in northeastern Colorado, may have also dramatically reduced the bobwhite population along the Tamarack and South Platte River. Some coveys survived, but the percentage is unknown at this time. Winter snow stress continues to appear as the major limiting factor to northeastern Colorado bobwhite. ��-117- INVESTIGATION OF POPULATION STATUS OF BOBWHITE QUAIL IN EASTERN COLORADO Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate (1) the distribution and relative density of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado, and (2) population structure and level, and rate of harvest, and identify key factors that limit bobwhite on the Tamarack Management Area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate Colorado. the distribution and density of bobwhite in eastern 2. To investigate population structure and level, and rate of harvest of bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Management Area. 3. To identify key factors limiting bobwhite Area. on the Tamarack Management METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this investigation were listed by Snyder 1973, 1974) in previous segment progress reports. (1972, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bobwhite Distribution and Density in Eastern Colorado 1974 Census Four Wildlife Conservation Officers, Clayton Wetherill, Bill Olmstead, Larry Budde and Brett Petersen, conducted bobwhite whistling counts on established routes along the South Platte River in 1974. These counts were supplemented by others on all transects along the river. Results, shown in Table 1, indicate the breeding population was approximately one-fourth below the previous three year average, excluding Tamarack data. The Stateline-Ovid route showed some increase whereas tallies on the proximal Tamarack study area were only half as high as found the previous year. Counts were not conducted in the Arkansas, Cimarron and Republican river drainages in 1974. �-118- Table 1. A four year comparison of bobwhite quail whistling counts completed along the South Platte River. Route Stateline-Ovid East Tamarack West Tamarack Sterling-Iliff Atwood-Merino Brush-Ft. Morgan Goodrich-Orchard Percent Change From 3 Year Average Year Number of Counts Number of Stops 1971 1972 1973 1974 2 2 4 3 20 20 40 33 78 65 93 115 3.90 3.25 2.33 3.48 + 18.0% 1971 1972 1973 1974 2 4 6 5 20 45 64 54 67 202 135 65 3.35 4.49 2.10 1.20 - 61.7% 1971 1972 1973 1974 6 7 5 5 75 79 57 64 219 312 109 53 2.92 3.95 1.91 0.83 - 72.6% 1972 1973 1974 2 2 4 19 20 41 63 73 133 3.33 3.65 3.24 - 1971 1972 1973 1974 2 2 3 2 20 20 30 28 108 182 246 77 5.40 9.16 8.20 2.75 - 64.1% 1971 1972 1973 1974 2 2 3 2 20 20 30 20 77 163 60 72 3.85 8.15 2.00 3.60 - 16.1% 1971 1972 1973 1974 2 2 1 1 20 23 11 12 23 32 7 19 1.15 1.39 0.64 1.58 + 37.4% 572 1,019 723 534 3.27 4.51 2.87 2.12 - 40.0% 1/ Natural Tally Mean 7.2% -------------------------------------------------------------------------------S. Platte River X 1971 1972 1973 1974 16 21 24 22 175 226 252 252 1/ - The percent change skewed disproportionatelyby extra counts on the Tamarack. Excluding the Tamarack, the 1974 index was 23.6 percent below the three year average along the South Platte River. �-119Relation of the Number of Males to Total Calls Heard Per Station Ellis and Thomas, 1972, stated that the average number of calls per stop was more accurate than the average estimated number of calling males per stop as an index of fall population. They stated that the number of whistling males per stop became difficult to use when over seven calling males were within hearing distance. Both calling males and total calls per three minute time interval per station were tallied by the author during the 1974 census. When males and calls were plotted on a scatter diagram, a direct positive relationship was evident. However, the tally exceeded seven males per stop only twice out of 141 samples where one or more quail were tallied. Tallies of ten or more males per stop were common during previous years when popUlations were higher. Therefore, recording of both total males and total calls per three minute time interval should be continued and evaluated for future use. Trend Comparisons of Census and Harvest in Northeast Colorado The bulk of the bobwhite quail harvest in northeastern Colorado occurs along the South Platte River. Whistling counts conducted there from 1971 through 1973 were compared to harvest projections taken from Small Game Hunter F~rvest Surveys. Data illustrated in Table 2 show some evidence of comparable trends between the call index and total harvest, but there is no evidence of a relationship between the call indices and birds per hunter. Hunter harvest survey data for 1974 were not available for use at the time this report was written. Table 2. A comparison of the bobwhite whistling call index and s~bsequent harvest data obtained in northeastern Colorado. 1/ Item 1971 Year 1972 1973 Call Index l/ 3.53 4.81 3.15 Total Harvest 12,512 12,658 8,967 Season Bag/Hunter 5.27 4.48 4.13 1/ - Harvest data from Management Units #1 and #2 which include all quail range in northeastern Colorado. 2/ - Trend data from along the South Platte River. Data from only the east part of the Tamarack were included to more uniformly spread sampling. Trend Comparisons on the Tamarack Management Area Figure 1 shows a close approximation of fall population level to the preceding summer call index on the Tamarack. Harvest data also conform to this trend. These data indicate that the whistling call index is a fairly reliable method for predicting fall population level and harvest potential. �-120- 600 3,000 6 ..... 500 2,500 .... 5 >< Ul 0 400 2,000 ~ 4 ...:l {/) ~ ~ ::t: ::.:: ~ ~ ~ 8 Ul ...:l 1,500 \ ~ Harvest .. ~ {/) H 3 Whistling Call Index ~ § 8 ~ Ii. 200 \ ..~ \ . \ ~ 0 0. ~ , H H ~ ~ 0. ~ ,., .. ,, \ Z '" Z 0 300 ~ U ~ , ~ .. 1,000 100 500 o o Population Ul ~ ::t: ~ ~ m 2 Leve1~\ \ \ . \.-........... e. . ,., 01...---__ "'1971 . .-..;: 1 1972 .. "'- ..&...__ 1973 1974 Fig. 1. The relationship between the bobwhite whistling index and subsequent fall population and harvest levels on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. �-121- The Tamarack data combined more intensive census (Table 1) with accurate population and harvest information. Management census previously discussed was not as intensive on several routes and Hunter-Harvest Survey data were highly questionable. A minimum of three counts per route should be obtained in the future on all management routes and census-harvest evaluation should be continued. Population Structure, Level and Rate of Harvest on the Tamarack Wildlife Area Past Segment Band Recoveries, Mortality Rates, and Population Estimates Previous Segment Band Recoveries--High fall-winter mortality levels during the 1972-73 and 1973-74 intervals left few banded quail surviving by the spring of 1974. Recoveries from preceding trapping periods are summarized in Table 3. These few recoveries do not provide enough information to warrant revisions of fall and winter population estimates previously reported (Snyder 1974). Table 3. Number of quail band recoveries and retrap information banding periods obtained during 1974 and the winter of 1975. from previous Period Obtained Period Banded Late Winter 1974 Fall 1974 Fall, 1971 No Bands Recovered Winter, 1972 No Bands Recovered Harvest 1974 Late Winter 1975 Fall, 1972 2 1 1 (off area) 0 Winter, 1973 1 0 0 0 Fall, 1973 3 1 0 4 1 2 2 Winter, 1974 Fall, 1973 to Fall, 1974 Mortality and Population Level Estimates--Our best estimate of the 1973 pre-season population level is 722 quail, based on changein-ratio data presented in Snyder, 1974. The pre-season population level one year later approximated 500 birds of which 18.18 percent or 91 were adults. This indicates an annual mortality rate of 87.4 percent which was slightly below the 93.7 percent level the preceding year. However, it was still a high mortality rate and, in spite of excellent reproduction in 1974, a declining population resulted. �-122- Our failure to find or to catch many quail during late winter trapping in 1974 provides evidence that most of this mortality of approximately 631 quail occurred prior to the end of the winter. Only eleven quail were banded and six were retrapped from previous work segments. After tenacious searches using dogs under partial to excellent snow cover, the resident population of quail on the Tamarack was estimated at approximately 100 birds. In contrast, proportional recovery ratios of fall and winter marked birds, based on inadequate samples, placed the late winter, 1974 population at only 41 birds. Only six band recoveries from fall, 1973 and six from winter, 1974 were obtained, illustrating the small, inadequate sample size and high probability of error. Therefore, this population projection will be ignored. A closer approximation to the actual late winter, 1974 population level was attained by comparing banded-unbanded ratios of adults in the subsequent fall and winter (1974-75) trapped and harvested samples. These data show that 6 adult quail, banded during late winter, 1974 were retrapped or harvested among 42 adults taken during the subsequent fall and winter. Projection would place the late winter, 1974 population level at about 119 birds using this method. Factors including immigration of unbanded birds, emigration of banded birds and trap bias toward capture of a higher proportion of unbanded quail might yield a population overestimate. However, since about 91 adult quail were present in fall, 1974 the above quoted figure seems feasible and will be used as our best estimate of the late winter, 1974 population level. If there were 119 quail alive in late winter, then the natural mortality rate up to that time approximated 52 percent and when added to 31 percent harvest mortality, brought total fall-winter mortality to 83.5 percent (Table 4). Survival of adults through the dry spring and summer of 1974 was excellent. Data in Table 4 indicate approximately 3.9 percent of the original-fall population were lost during that interval. Bobwhite sex ratios did not change significantly from the fall-winte~ (1973-74) interval through the subsequent fall-winter interval (Table 11). This provides some evidence of excellent over-summer survival, since summer mortality usually takes a much higher proportion of the hens than of the cocks. Fall Banding, 1974 Warm, dry weather, an apparent adequate food supply, older than average juvenile quail at the time of banding, and a relatively low population level combined to reduce fall trapping success in 1974. However, it was estimated that about 39 percent of the population was trapped prior to the hunting season. On the west section of the Tamarack, 91 quail were banded, and 103 quail were banded on the east section. Only three previously banded adults were retrapped bringing the fall total to 197 quail (Table 5). The number of quail banded per hunting area is illustrated in Table 6. As shown, many of the West Tamarack hunting areas were apparently void of quail, whereas quail were trapped in nearly everyone of the east areas. �-123- Table 4. Projected mortality of bobwhite quail from October, through October, 1974 on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. 1973 West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area Total Fall, 1973 Population Estimate 440 282 722 Hunting Season Removal 155 71 226 Remainder Subject to Natural Mortality 285 211 396 Late Winter, 1974 Population Estimate 1./ 60 59 119 Natural Fall-Winter Mortality 225 152 377 Total Fall-Winter 380 223 603 Percent Harvest Mortality 35.26 25.24 31.30 'l:.1 Percent Natural Mortality 51.14 53.90 52.22 Percent Combined Fall-Winter Mortality 86.40 79.14 83.52 Spring-Sunnner Mortality 14 14 28 Percent Spring Sunnner Mortality 3.18 4.96 3.88 Fall, 1974 Adult Population Estimate 46 45 91 Annual Mortality Rate 89.54 84.04 87.40 Item Mortality 11 - Samples obtained during the fall and winter (1974-75) indicate that approximately equal numbers of adult quail were present on the two sections of the Tamarack. 'l:./percentagesvary slightly based on the method that data from disproportionate populations were combined for calculation. Percentages from the east and west sections, when combined, yield a slightly different average than data calculated from the total area figures in the last column. Fall Movement There was no evidence that banded quail moved out of the study area after fall trapping in 1974. Therefore, corrections for movement were not applied to fall population estimates (Table 5). Low quail densities and a shorter time lapse between trapping and hunting may have reduced movement. �-124- Table 5. A summary of banding, harvest and population projections the Tamarack based on fall, 1974 and winter 1975 data. from West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area Number of Quail Banded 91 103 194 Number of Retrapped Adults 2 1 3 Total Marked 93 104 197 Fall, 1974 Banded 18 8 26 Previously 2 o 2 20 8 28 Crippling Loss (Projected Total) 14 6 20 Known Harvest 45 28 73 Projected Item Fall, 1974 Banding Information Harvest Band Recoveries Banded Adults Total Band Recoveries Harvest Statistics Total Harvest 59 34 93 Percent Crippling Loss 31.11 21.43 27.40 Projected 26 10 36 44.44 28.57 38.71 2}.96 9.62 18.27 16 22 38 Other Quail Banded or Retrapped 29 23 52 Total Quail Handled 45 45 90 Percent Fall Banded 35.56 48.89 42.22 Total Band Recoveries Percent Banded (Fall and Previous) Percent Harvest Mortality (Includes Cripples) Winter, 1975 Banding Retrapped Population from Fall, 1974 Projection for Fall, 1974 Using Combined Harvest and Winter Data Fall Banded Harvest and Winter Recoveries 34 30 64 Total Quail Harvested Trapped 90 73 163 253 499 ±70.92 ±97.74 Fall Population Confidence or Winter Estimate 246 Limits ±66.6l + �-125Table 6. A summary by hunting area of fall banded bobwhite, hunter use, total harvest and banded harvest recoveries on the Tamarack Wildlife Area in 1974. Hunter No. Quail No. of Total Quail Banded Quail Area Banded Harvest '];/ Harvest 11 Hunters 1} Hours 1/ West Tamarack 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 21 4 2 1 14 34 59 72 72 77 47 36 26 32 33 43 95 115 99 96 54 93 157 113 198 162 141 231 264 278 313 189 166 137 149 165 178 91 973 3,589 10 7 8 55 9 4 34 10 11 12 13 14 15 4/ 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Subtotal 112 84 13 6 40 30 31 22 38 43 20 30 33 56 44 12 4 5 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 4 3 2 1 1 45 18 East Tamara.ck Braddock Pasture 1 2 3 2 Ii..! 1 1 9 14 10 11 6 2 46 38 28 15 46 38 32 25 39 46 77 Subtotal 103 430 1,432 28 8 Total 194 1,403 5,021 73 26 9 5 25 4 5 6 7 11 5 24 8 133 147 74 103 132 123 115 111 94 156 244 1/ Includes only known hunters ruld hours reported 3 1 6 1 4 1 1 3 4 1 5 3 1 through the check station. 21 Includes only known harvest. Some hunting probably went unrecorded. 3/ Approximates the location where quail were shot. Exact area is unknown. il Braddock Pasture and areas 16 and 17 West are closed to public hunting. �-126- Fall Population Estimate The 1974 fall population estimate of 499 quail again declined from that of the preceding year (Table 7). Change-in-ratio calculations used in the derivation were based on a 39 percent marking rate and a 33 percent recovery rate (Table 5). Both harvest and winter trapping were combined for the latter. Marked and recapture samples were not sufficient to prevent errors greater than 10 percent with 95 percent accuracy as recommended by Robson and Regier (1964). However they did approach this level of accuracy. Confidence limits are provided in Table 5. Table 7. Bobwhite fall population and harvest statistics 1974 on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. Item Fall Population Season Length Estimate for 1971 through 1971 1972 1973 1974 1,745 2,319 722 499 (days) 20.5 31.5 32.5 29.5 11 Known Harvest 411 548 202 73 Projected Total Harvest Mortality 11 472 634 227 93 27.0 26.7 31.7 18.3 Percent Harvest Mortality 1/ 11 - Quail and pheasant hunting terminated at 2:00 P.M. from November December 15, 1974 on the Tamarack. ' 29 through 21 - Includes projected crippling loss. The 1974 Hunting Season The 1974 hunting season started at noon, November 16, ran for 30 days, and terminated December 15 in the northeast part of Colorado. Pheasant season coincided with quail season. Season splits during previous years of study extended the quail season up to or into early January. However, management personnel adopted recommendations for an earlier season termination based on study findings discussed in a subsequent section of this report. A special regulation applying only to the Tamarack Wildlife Area was also implemented in 1974. It closed the pheasant and quail season at 2:00 P.M. each day starting November 29 and continuing to season termination. The basis for this regulation will be covered later in this report. �-127- Hunting Pressure and Hunting Success--Average daily hunter use of the Tamarack Area in 1974 declined by 4.34 percent from the 1973 average and 13.8 percent from the combined average of the three previous years (Table 8). Bobwhite quail harvest declined by about 64 percent from the 1973 harvest and approximately 80 percent from the previous three year average (Table 9). Table 8. Hunter success ratios on bobwhite of hunting seasons from 1971 through 1974. Interval Number of Hunters y Average Hunter Use quail with the progression No. of Quail Harvested Hunters per Quail Harvested 1971 Season First 8 Days 638 79.75 258 2.47 Second 8 Days 363 45.38 100 3.63 Last 5 Days 258 51.60 53 4.87 Season Average 59.95 3.06 1972 Season First 8 Days 606 75.75 230 2.63 Second 8 Days 386 48.25 167 2.31 Third 8 Days 369 46.12 100 3.69 Fourth 8 Days 392 49.00 36 10.89 Season Average 3.25 54.78 1973 Season 102.87 142 5.80 339 42.38 36 9.42 Third 8 Days 161 .20.12 10 16.10 Fourth 9 Days 303 33.67 13 23.30 First 8 Days 823 Second 8 Days Season Average 8.09 49.27 1974 Season First 8 Days 686 86.75 43 15.95 Second 8 Days 414 51. 75 17 24.35 Third 8 Days 138 17.25 9 15.33 Last 6 Days 176 29.33 4 44.00 Season Average 47.13 19.37 1/ - Includes all hunters using the Tamarack. During 1972 and 1973, most hunters late in the season were after ducks. �-128- As illustrated in the last column of Table 8, the ratio of hunters checking into the Tamarack per each quail taken increased sharply in 1974. This was primarily due to fewer quail present but weather variables must also be considered. Pheasant harvest was nearly equal to that of the previous year (Table 9), but was well below harvest levels in 1971 and 1972. Cottontail and waterfowl harvest also declined dramatically from harvest in previous years (Table 9). Dry, relatively mild weather was the factor believed responsible for major declines in harvest of these two species. It apparently increased fox squirrel activity and subsequent harvest as noted in the table. Table 9. A comparison of small game harvest on during the 1971 through 1974 quail and pheasant the Tamarack Wildlife Area seasons. Year Season Interval Quail Pheasants Ducks Rabbits 20.5 days 411 87 196 30 9 First 20.5 days 480 130 555 126 4 31.5 days 548 143 704 156 4 First 20.5 days 184 53 283 40 3 1973 32.5 days 202 62 441 63 3 1974 First 20.5 days 64 49 69 19 11 29.5 days 73 59 141 23 15 1971 1972 1972 1973 1974 Squirrels The extreme dry conditions made it difficult for dogs to locate pheasants and quail. As a result, when compared to previous years, the percent harvest declined in greater proportion on quail than hunting pressure declined. Quail harvest, including crippling loss, approximated only 18 percent of the fall population level in 1974 compared to a 31 percent harvest rate in 1973 (Table 7). The reported 1974 crippling loss was much higher than that reported in previous years. It approximated 27 percent of the reported take (Table 5). Warm dry conditions probably were a factor in making .it difficult for dogs to locate downed birds. �-129- Hunter Use and Success by Hunting Area--A summation of hunter numbers, hunter hours, quail banded in fall, banded quail, and total quail harvest by hunting area is illustrated in Table 6. It shows that most of the harvest and band recoveries occurred in the same or proximal areas to where the quail were banded earlier in the fall. Most of the coveys were only lightly harvested, however, 7 of 13 quail originally banded on Area 4-West were harvested. This is the only location where hunters removed a fairly high proportion of the bobwhite present. Information presented in Table 6 indicates that the west section of the Tamarack received proportionately greater hunting pressure than the east section. Each of the 23 west areas received approximately 156 hours of hunter use compared to 130 hours per each east area. In contrast, 103 quail were banded on the 11 east areas, compared to only 90 on the 23 areas to the west. This indicates that the section containing the 'highest quail density received the least hunting pressure. This variable probably accounted for part of the low harvest rate. Winter Banding, 1975 High river levels, ice jams, minor flooding and low population levels made winter trapping difficult, however 90 quail were taken. Bands were placed on 46, 38 were retraps from the previous fall, and the remaining 6 were retraps from other trapping periods (Table 5). Equal numbers of trapped birds were handled on both the east and west sections of the Tamarack. Trapping, initiated in early February, was terminated in mid-March. It revealed that fall-winter survival to mid-March was proportionately much better than that occurring during the two previous years. Age Ratios - Fall to Winter, 1974-75 Table 10 summarizes age ratio information obtained during the work segment. It illustrates that the relatively low breeding population was able to reproduce quite successfully. Nine young for each pair of adults were estimated to have been present in the fall population from the ratio of adults to young in the harvest (1 Ad:4.5 Y). Only in the fall of 1972 was there a lower indicated percentage of adults in the fall population. That year there were 16.3 percent adults compared to 18.18 percent adults in 1974. However the low percentage of adults in 1972 followed a summer when 35 percent of the adults were lost between late winter and fall. In 1974, adult mortality over the same interval approximated 4 percent. Therefore, reproduction success per adult may have been higher in 1974 than in 1972 assuming most 1972 adult mortality followed reproduction instead of preceding it. There were 19.2 percent adults in the 1971 fall population and in 1973 the fall population contained approximately 20.3 percent adults. There is little evidence that significant differentially higher mortality of young occurred during any of the fall periods to affect age ratio percentages. �-130- Table 10. Bobwhite age ratio data obtained during the fall and winter of 1974-75 on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. Number Adults Number Young Total Percent Adults 14 183 197 7.11 Banded 3 24 27 11.11 Unbanded 9 30 39 23.08 Total 12 54 66 Winter Banded 19 71 90 Sample Fall Banded Adult : Young Ratio 1 13.07 18.18 1 4.50 21.11 1 3.74 Hunting Season Sex Ratios Harvest and late winter, 1973-74 samples showed roughly 54 percent of the population to be males and 46 percent to be females (Table 11). By the subsequent fall among surviving adults, about 57 percent were males and 43 percent were females. Although fall trapped juveniles occasionally can be inaccurately sexed, most of those obtained during the fall of 1974 were mature enough to en~ble . accurate sex determination. A high proportion of males were found then and again in late winter trapped samples (Table 11). The reason for this skewed sex ratio is unknown. One fall banded covey was entirely composed of males. This high proportion of males may increase whistling call indices disproportionately in relation to reproduction in 1975, since young approximate 80 percent of the 1975 breeding population, and about 57 percent of surviving adults were males. Table 11. Sex ratios of bobwhite quail from fall-winter, winter, 1974-75 intervals. Item Male 1973-74 to fall- Female Total 214 Harvest and Late W'inter, 1973-74 Percent 116 98 54.21 45.79 Surviving Adults, Fall-Winter, Percent 25 14 44 Fall, 1974 Banded Juveniles Harvest, 1974 Juveniles Winter, 1975 Juveniles 56.82 112 26 44 43.18 62 28 27 174 54 71 Combined Total of Juveniles Percent of Total Juveniles 182 60.87 117 39.13 1974-75 299 �-131- Factors Limiting Bobwhite on the Tamarack Fall and Winter Mortality Contrasts in fall-winter weather and quail survival among the years of study are summarized in Table 12. Quail survival was excellent in 197172 during the first year of study which included an essentially snow-free winter. No heavy snows (four inches or more) were recorded that fall and winter. Snows starting in November, accompanied by severe cold in December, were evident during the fall and winter of 1972-73. There were 76 days with snow cover (Table 12) and 37 days with accumulations of four inches or more. This severe weather coincided with hunting seasons to a large degree, creating a multiplication of stress. As a consequence, natural plus hunter induced mortality increased from about 16 percent in 1971-72 to approximately 60 percent in 1972-73. Table 12. A comparison of fall-winter natural mortality, and subsequent call index change from the previous year. Item 1971-72 snow conditions, Fall~WinterPeridd 1972-73 1973-74 11 52 50 Days With Snow Cover 14 76 54 Days With 4" + Snow Cover 0 37 30 16.3 60.0 52.2 +37.5 -51.3 -50.5 Total Snowfall Fall-Winter (Inches) Mortality Rate 1/ Percent Change in Subsequent Call Index From Previous Year 1/ - Does not include harvest mortality. Similar high fall-winter mortality occurred in 1973-74. The major severe weather stress period did not begin until December 18, after the major hunting stress had occurred. But snow depths to 10 inches or more persisted in December, 1973 and January, 1974 for almost a month blocking off food supplies during a period of severe cold. Approximately 119 quail remained on the Tamarack in scattered small coveys in contrast to a late winter population of nearly 1,000 two years earlier. Most survivors of the 1973-74 winter used the tall Phragmites grass as survival headquarters in accompaniment with pheasants, cottontails and deer. �-132- The fall-winter period of 1974-75 was essentially snow free up to late March when a severe storm with cold rain, heavy snow, and high winds hit. Winter covey searches and trapping, completed prior to the storm, revealed survival of an estimated 200 to 250 quail. Post storm searches did not reveal evidence of quail mortality but such mortality is difficult to detect. Numerous waterfowl, pheasants and small passerines were found dead in the storm devastated area where large numbers of cattle also were killed. Pheasants were not found dead in the riverbottom, but a high proportion were lost in adjacent tablelands. At least some of the quail coveys survived, and summer call indices will provide further evidence of the storm's impact on the quail population. Hunting As An Additive Stress--There is evidence that the relatively high hunting pressure, to which Tamarack quail were subjected during periods of snow stress, heightened mortality there. This is shown by comparison of whistling call indices up and down river with indices obtained on the Tamarack (Table 13). High mortality occurred on the Tamarack during fallwinter periods of 1972-73 and 1973-74 reSUlting in subsequent respective call index declines of 51.3 and 50.5 percent from preceding years. Combined data from upstream and downstream census routes indicate call indices declined 34.4 percent after the first severe winter and 17.3 percent after the second severe winter. Quail hunting pressure on these locations were light in comparison to that on the Tamarack. The latter received approximately 50 hunters per day during quail season. Table 13. A comparison of bobwhite whistling counts on the Tamarack Wildlife Area with counts located up and down river. Routes UE and Down River !! No. Count! No. Percent Stops Stop Change Stops X Year 1972 79 5.99 1973 120 3.93 1974 122 3.25 Routes on Tamarack X Count! Stop Percent Change 124 4.15 -34.4 121 2.02 -51.3 -17.3 118 1.00 -50.5 lIIncludes average of Brush-Ft. Morgan, Atwood-Merino, Ovid-Stateline routes. Sterling-Iliff and Review of U. S. Weather Bureau records indicates that if hunting seasons can be held earlier in the fall there is less chance of overlaying hunting stress with the impacts of snow and accompanying severe cold weather. Data from 1955-56 through 1973-74 (19 years) showed that November averaged 4.3 days with snow on the ground, December averaged 10.1 days, January averaged 13.2 �-133- days and February averaged 8.8 days in the vicinity of the Tamarack. Average minimum temperatures for November, December, January and February were 24.8 degrees, 17.2 degrees, 13.8 degrees and 18.5 degrees, respectively, based on 22 years of data. These data illustrate that hunting seasons should be started as early in November as possible and that they probably should not be extended beyond mid-December to obtain maximum hunting opportunity with minimum quail population depletion due to weather related stress factors. Current policy is for the quail and pheasant season to open on the third Saturday in November so as to not conflict with harvest of farm crops. Preferably, this opening should be moved forward. But if this opening date is to continue, the quail season should run continuous to termination. Division management personnel submitted recommendations for a continuous season in 1974. Division management personnel felt that special regulations were needed to attempt to increase survival and retain a higher breeding population on the Tamarack since the population there was so low. Rather than reduce season length, recommendations that called for an early (2:00 P.M.) closure were implemented starting on November 29 and running through the remainder of the season. This regulation applied to both pheasants and quail. However, due to low populations, hunting pressure was low and the regulation did not restrict much hunting opportunity. This early P.M. closure each day permitted hunted coveys to regroup and feed. Since there are only 8-9 hours of daylight in December in contrast to 15 to 16 hours of darkness, adequate evening feeding opportunity and time to regroup are critical to survival. This is especially true during periods of severe cold and snow. Spring and Summer Mortality and Reproduction Available information does not indicat~ that any significant adult mortality occurred during the spring and summer of 1974. Apparently a majority of the quail were able to nest successfully and hatching success was good. There were no severe thunderstorms, hail or flooding conditions during 1974. The low adult population probably survived better than a higher popUlation would have since the number surviving was far below carrying capacity and was therefore subject to less environmental and competitive stress. Projected Period and Peak of Hatch A sample of 177 young bobwhite aged in early fall provided evidence that nearly all young were hatched in June, 1974 (Fig. 2). As this figure illustrates, hatching peaked three weeks earlier than in 1972 and over a month earlier than in 1973 when floods delayed nesting. It is probable that the dry spring and summer weather (Table 14) prompted early reproduction in 1974. In 1974, 3.43 young were alive in fall per adult alive prior to the start of nesting season. This compared to 2.03 young per adult in 1973 and 1.96 young per adult in 1972. Apparently dry conditions which existed during 1974 (Table 4) were not detrimental to reproduction or survival of young to fall was better than in 1972. �-134- 34 32 30 Sample Size 28 N •• 768 in 1972 26 N = 288 in 1973 N •• 177 24 in 1974 22 20 '0 GI -6 18 ~fO :c 16 .... r-t fO ~,. '.• '\91~••. ,', 0\, +' 0 14 =: '. i, •• IH 0 I J> •••• _ .' 12 I I '. I, I +' c " ," '. I , I'\ , '\ II GI u 10 I I I ~ "" 8 . .. . 18 ,, ,, ' o " , -.... \ II ·t~. ..~ '•......•. . ,--- -~, • ,,• 4 25 May , .'. I 6 2 . " • ! ,• , ,• ••.•. ", • / ... , " I \ .~ "I I~"" 2 \ , ". \ , .. ,, , / -- \ '. . \ / " _/ 9 17 June 24 3 11 19 July 27 4 12 20 28 August 7 14 Sept. Weekly Mid-points Fig. 2. Period and peak of bobwhite quail hatch projected from primary feather growth for 1972, 1973 and 1974 on a percent of total basis. �-135Table 14. Precipitation 1971 through 1974. II received in the vicinity of the Tamarack from Year Month 1971 1972 1973 1974 January 0.46 0.25 0.68 0.25 February 1.20 0.09 0.12 0.67 March 1.98 0.08 3.09 0.91 April 2.71 1.95 2.50 0.45 May 3.71 2.20 3.05 0.70 June 2.54 3.13 2.26 2.05 July 3.40 2.88 2.54 1.15 August 1.28 3.57 0.23 0.40 September 2.10 0.64 4.75 0.15 October 1.42 0.64 1.10 Tr. November 0.36 2.40 0.54 0.25 December 0.12 0.34 0.89 0.20 Total Annual 21.28 18.17 21.75 7.18 1/ - Information up to April, 1974 taken from U. S. Weather Bureau Station located 5 miles south of Sedgwick, Colorado. Winter Site Use Preferences The values of tall Phragmites cover for winter survival during periods of snow stress was previously mentioned. However, during mild winters without deep, prolonged snow cover, bobwhite survive well elsewhere along the Tamarack. Figure 3 shows winter coveys located during the winters of 1971-72 through 1974-75. Although some locations, which contain both heavy cover and an adjacent or intermingled food supply, were used consistently, other coveys have been found throughout most of the riverbottom. There were a few exceptions. The Braddock Pasture on the west end of the East Tamarack was grazed lightly year-long and therefore lacked winter cover needed to sustain quail. It provided an excellent late-summer and early fall feeding area, but quail moved elsewhere to spend the winter. The far east portions of the Tamarack (Fig. 3) on the north side of the river generally contained abundant cover. But these locations lacked food supplies needed to hold quail through the winter and repeated trapping efforts and searches with dogs failed to locate quail there during the past four winters. �TAMA RACK MANAGEMENT AREA ~~S1 AREAS I •....• W 0\ I tv / EAST AREAS o SCALE Yo Mi. LEGEND 1 HUNTING ~UNFARMED ~ AND AREA RIVER RIVER BOTTOM CHANNELS aD = COVEY LOCATION AND NUMBER OF ~ ALFALFA L........J WINTERS f.]GRASSLAND c:=:JHAY Fig. 3. Locations of bobwhite from 1971-72 through 1974-75. ~ MEADOW FOUND THERE ROW CROPS PLANTING coveys found on the Tamarack Wildlife Area during winter trapping periods �-137- LITERATURE CITED Ellis, J. A., K. P. Thomas, and P,'Moore. 1972. Bobwhite whistling activity and population density on two public hunting areas in Illinois. National Bobwhite Quail Symposium. 1:282-289. Robson, D. S., and H. A. Regier. 1964. Sample sizes in Peterson markrecapture experiments. Trans. Amer. Fish Society. 93(3):215-226. Snyder, W. D. 1972. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. April. pp. 121-150. 1973. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wild1., Game Res. Rept. April. pp. 253-296. 1974. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. April. pp. 119-147. Prepared by 2V~/2. ~ Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher ��April 1975 -139- JOB PROGRESS REPORT S tate of __ --=C:.::O.::L:.::O.::RAD=...::O _ Project No.__ W_-_3_7_-_R__28 Work Plan No. Game Bird Survey 2_1 ~~~Job No. l Minimum Tillage Techniques for Establishing Shrubs in Clump Plantings Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: _ _ April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Donald M. Hoffman and Warren D. Snyder ABSTRACT Shrub plots were established on six sites in northeastern Colorado during the spring of 1974. Two plots were respectively placed in each of three different site situations represented by: (1) upland shortgrass vegetated loam soils, (2) sandhill with sandy loam soil vegetated by mid- and short grasses, (3) riverbottom containing clay loam soil, high water tables and high alkaline condi tions. Each site contained seven plots to be treated by different mulch, herbicide and cultivation methods for evaluation of weed competition, shrub survival and growth. Hansen rose (Rosa sp.) and wild plum (Prunus americana) were used in equal proportions in each of the forty-two plots. All chemical pLo t s were treated with a combination of Eptam and Treflan during this first year. In subsequent years additional chemical treatments will be 'used and evaluated. Slightly over seven inches of precipitation were received during 1974, which is less than half the average annual amount. As a consequence, shrub growth and survival was poor. Lowest shrub survival was observed in the plots treated with organic mulch. The Eptam-Tref1an herbicide did not reduce shrub survival. Mulch treatments were highly effective in control of annual forbs. Noxious perennials present on the riverbottom sites were not controlled effectively by any of the 1974 treatments. One additional site in each of the three soil types will be established in 1975 and evaluations will continue. ��-141- MINIMUM TILLAGE TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING SHRUBS IN CLUMP PLANTINGS Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate ground cover techniques, pre-emergent herbicide techniques, combinations of the two, and cultivation techniques for establishing shrubs in clump plantings in eastern Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To prepare six planting sites and establish clump plantings of Hansen rose and wild plum in three soil types. To apply pre-emergent herbicide, mulch, mulch-herbicide, and cultivation treatments to clump plantings within the test sites. To tally survival of shrubs within respective clumps, measure shrub growth, and measure weed competition. METHODS AND MATERIALS Two sites within each of three soil types were selected on Division owned Duck Creek and Tamarack Wildlife Areas in northeastern Logan County for initial development. Three additional sites have been added for development in 1975. The approximate locations of these is illustrated in Fig. 1. Four of the six initial sites were rototilled with a tractor mounted rototiller to a 4 to 6 inch depth in October 1973. All sites were worked again in March 1974 toobreak up sod and to prepare the sites for planting. Seven square plots each 27 ft per side (729 square ft) were ali~led adjacent to each other in a linear group within each site. Therefore, outside dimensions of each site were 27 ft by 189 ft. To facilitate application of chemicals to four plots during the first year of study, these plots were placed in consecutive order by random selection at one end of the plot series. Individual treatments to be applied in subsequent years were selected by use of a random numbers table among the chemical group and among the remaining three non-chemical plots. Placement sequences of plots within sites, within soil types are illustrated in Table 1. The bottom of this table also illustrates the plot sequences for sites to be planted in 1975. A mixture of two pre+eme rgent; herbicides was applied to the four chemical plots in late March 1974, or approximately one week before the shrubs were planted. An application equivalent to two pounds of Eptam and one-half pound of Treflan (active ingredients) per acre was applied in liquid form with a hand sprayer. T.he sprayer contained three spray nozzles to permit rapid even application over the entire area. Calibrations of water and coverage were made prior to treatment to obtain correct application and distribution rates. The chemicals were rototilled into the top soil by shallow tillage immediately after application. �-142- -t---7 i ). , k:---r~~~~=¥':~~jjQc.~.f-----+--4--~ "" i _ oj ·~f====\!f':~:~~YI--> II , ",: _.~ 0. -.' - 12 I ---1 I " I I TION. :'i1" " ~i : 2C .. ~:.-~ - - -- --~~ I 3' ~, I ~ •• ~------~-------~------~------~------~\~=====db= \~"t Fig. 1. Location of shrub clump sites on Division of Wildlife properties in northeast Logan County, Colorado. �-143- Table 1. Reference sequence of test shrub clump plots within sites for 1974 plantings and 1975 plantings. Plot Number Sandhills Red Lion Sharptail River Bottom Tamarack Smith Meadow Tableland Karg 111 Karg 112 1974 1 orgam.c-. 1/ Plastic Control Plastic Ep - Tref Sim - M 2 Plastic Organic Plastic Organic Simazine Simazine 3 Control Control Organic Control Sim - M Casoron 4 Ep - Tref Simazine Casoron Casoron Casoron Ep - Tref 5 Simazine Ep - Tref Simazine Ep - Tref Organic Plastic 6 Sim - M Casoron Sim - M Sim - M Plastic Control 7 Casoron Sim - M Ep - Tref Simazine Control Organic Sequence Direction E - W NE - SW NE - SW E - W N - S NE - SW Plot Number I - 76 Sonnenberg Karg 113 1975 1 Organic Sim - M Plastic 2 Plastic Ep - Tref Organic 3 Control Simazine Control 4 Simazine Casoron Casoron 5 Sim - M Control Ep - Tref 6 Ep - Tref Plastic Simazine 7 Casoron Organic Sim - M E - W NE - SW NE - SW Sequence Direction 1/ Organic and plastic are mulch treatments, Ep - Tref represents EptamTreflan herbicides and Sim - M represents Simazine overlaid with organic mulch. �-144- Fig. 2. Photo taken on Karg ill site while standing among wild plums recently planted on the cultivated control. Hansen rose to the left are less conspicuous. Fig. 3. A thicket of wild plum. is one of the mos t highly utilized covers that can be provided for pheasants, quail, rabbits and other wildlife. �-145- A second application of granular Eptam 10-G was applied at the rate of one pound per plot by broadcast and shallow tillage in late July, 1974. Only two of the chemical plots within each of the six sites were treated and tilled. As illustrated in Table I, additional chemical treatments will be applied in late winter or early spring approximately one year after the shrubs were planted. One randomly selected plot within each site will receive a repeat application of Eptam and Treflan at previously listed rates. One plot will be treated with the pre-emergent herbicide, Casoron, applied at the rate of approximately 150 pounds per acre. Two plots will receive treatments with the chemical Simazine applied at the rate of 2 pounds (active ingredient) per acre. One of these plots will be overlaid with a thin layer of organic mulch after the chemical is applied. Chemical application rates were obtained from the Colorado Weed Control Manual authored by E. Heikes and J. Fults and updated each year. Two shrub species, Hansen rose and wild plum were used in equal numbers on the plots. Four rows of each species were spaced at three ft intervals starting three ft from the plot boundaries (Fig. 2). A rope marked at three ft intervals was placed acrost the site in linear manner to facilitate planting one row in each plot before going to the next row. Bias among plots due to variation in the quality of different seedling bundles was reduced by this method. Bare rooted shrubs were obtained from the Colorado State Forest Service Nursery located at Fort Collins. Both shrub species were hand planted, however, two different planting techniques were used. Holes were dug using a narrow spade and post hole digger for placement of the heavily rooted plums. The narrow spade was inserted into the ground and worked fore and aft to open a narrow vee into which the poorly root.edHansen rose were inserted. The ground was firmed around all seedlings. No water was applied. Two men were able to plant 2,688 seedlings in less than five days during the first week in April, 1974. An overlay of wood chips or corn cobs were placed on the organic mulch plot within each site in ~ate April or early May 1974. Each site received two pickup loads which covered the plot to a depth of four to six inches. Plots to be overlayed with black plastic (4 millimeter thickness) were ridged before planting using a garden rototiller with furrower attachment and a hand rake. Seedlings were placed in the furrows and 30 inch wide strips of plastic were placed over the ridges to direct precipitation toward the shrub rows. An overlay of wood chips or corn cobs was placed over the plot to hold the plastic in place. Applications were completed by early May 1974. Post-planting height measurements were obtained in May and repeat height measurements were obtained in late fall 1974. A yardstick was used to obtain the measurements which were subsequently averaged per plot and species. The initial survival tally of shrubs was delayed to mid-July due to uncertain survival status of many of the plants. A second tally of survival was completed in mid-September 1974. �-146- Forms were prepared to record treatments, man-hours of effort and estimated costs per treatment along with weed competition impact. All plots were checked in mid-June, mid-July, mid-August and early September for weed growth. Weeds were tallied and removed if present during the June, July and September inspections on the loam and sandy loam sites. Perennial weeds and grasses, not destroyed in preplanting tillage, were necessarily removed more frequently in the two bottomland clay-loam sites. An automatic recording rain and snow gauge was set up in mid-April 1974 at the Tamarack headquarters, near centrally located among the sites. This recorder was serviced monthly. Precipitation received prior to recorder activation in 1974 was obtained from a U. S. Weather Bureau station located five miles south of Sedgwick, Colorado. All shurbs were treated with a rodent and deer repellent which was applied in mid-fall. Application was made with a hand sprayer. All shrubs in the loam and sandy loam sites were watered in mid-March 1975 because of the prolonged drought conditions that persisted to that time. Each shrub received approximately two gallons of water. River bottom sites were not watered because of high ground water levels at the locations. Study Area This evaluation study was established on Division of Wildlife properties along the South Platte River in northeastern Logan County. It was designed to compare treatments under three soil types. Fine sandy loams, which are abundant in eastern Colorado, were represented by test sites located in the sandhills along Interstate Highway 76 in the south part of the Tamarack Wildlife Area (Fig. 1). Loam soils sub tended by clay or clay loam were found on the Karg addition of the Duck Creek property in shortgrass sodded pastureland approximately two miles north of the town of Crook. The third series of sites lay along the valley of the South Platte (Fig. 1) and contain clay loam soils with fairly high alkaline salts due to high water tables. Inland saltgrass (Distichlis stricta) is the most ~ypical vegetation along much of the valley area. Soil characteristics are described in Table 2. Elevations in the study region approximate 3,700 to 3,800 ft. Precipitation in the region averages about 17 inches, although considerable annual and seasonal variation is common. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Shrub Establishment and Survival Drought Impact Near record drought conditions, unforeseen during study implementation, created a major stumbling block toward shrub establishment and study progress. Average annual precipitation in the study region approximates 16 to 17 inches. �-147However, only a little over 7 inches were received in the vicinity from January 1 through December 31, 1974 (Table 3). Soil conditions were near adequate at planting time, although pre-planting tillage dried the soil to a degree. Regrettably, little precipitation was received in April and May following planting when it was critically needed to moisten and firm the soil around the shrub roots. As a result, many of the Hansen rose seedling did not show evidence of life until after the June 8 rain which deposited approximately two inches of precipitation. This was both the first and last substantial precipitation received during the year. As shown in Table 4 about 93 percent of the plums and 80 percent of the roses were at least partially alive in mid-summer. By mid-September survival had dropped to about 82 to 87 percent for the plums, and 73 to 75 percent for the roses on all plots. Due to lack of any significant moisture during the last half of 1974 and early 1975 over winter survival of many of the remaining shrubs was uncertain at the end of the work segment. Many of the Hansen rose shrubs in the sandy loam (Red Lion and Sharptail) sites were killed over winter by burrowing rodents which consumed the roots of this species. Rodents only occasionally ate the roots of the wild plum shrubs in these sites. The result of these various mortality factors is relatively low survival during the first year, especially on Hansen rose. Table 2. Soil analyses completed on the six shrub clump sites.l/ Analysis Sandhi11s Red Lion Sharp tail Tableland Karg 1 Karg 2 Riverbottom Tamarack Smith Meadow pH level 6.2 6.0 7.6 6.9 7.7 7.6 Soluble salts (mmhos/ em) 1.7 1.6 1.1 1.5 3.4 3.3 Organic matter (percent) 2.3 1.7 3.2 5.4 6.3 7.6 Percent sand 76 82 48 46 22 22 Percent silt 16 11 30 35 41 39 Percent clay 8 7 22 19 37 39 Sandy loam Sandy loam Loam Loam Clay loam Clay loam Texture l/ Information from Soil Testing Laboratory, Colorado State University. �-148- Table 3. 1975. 1/ Precipitation received near the study sites in 1974 and early Month Precipitation 1974 January 0.25 February 0.67 March 0.91 April 0.45 May 0.70 June 2.05 July 1.15 August 0.40 September 0.15 October 0.00 November 0.25 December 0.20 1974 Total 7.18 1975 January 0.05 February 0.15 March 1.25 1975 - 3 month total Grand Total 1.45 8.63 Recorded �Table 4. Shrub survival on the shrub clump plots in mid-July and late September 1974. Cultivated Control Organic Mulch Plastic Mulch 1 2 Chemical 3 4 x Rose 78.6 72.4 77.1 85.9 90.1 79.2 80.7 80.6 Plum 95.3 88.0 91.7 95.8 93.7 95.3 95.8 93.7 73.4 57.8 72 .9 81.8 82.8 80.7 79.7 75.6 77.6 86.4 88.5 85.4 91. 7 85.9 86.9 Time Mid-July Late September1=! Rose Plum l/ An additional September. 92.7 1.8 percent of the roses and 4.5 percent of the plums were uncertain as to survival I •....• ~ 1.0 I in �-150- As illustrated in Table 4, wild plums showed better survival than rose shrubs during the 1974 growing season. This probably was due to better root structure on the larger plum seedlings which subsequently were planted to a greater depth and therfore had better access to available soil moisture. Many of the rose seedlings did not have well developed root structure. Treatment Impact on Survival Hansen Rose - As illustrated in Table 4, Hansen rose survival was lower than that of wild plum on the study plots. The four chemical plots, which all received the same Eptam-Treflan treatment, showed similar survival rates approximating SO percent. Cultivated control and plastic mulch survival approximated 73 percent and organic mulch plot survival dropped to 57.S percent for roses. This level was significantly lower than that of the combined control and chemical plot survival average of 79.7 percent (Chi square = 6.01, 1 d.f.). Wild Plum - Organic mulch plots again showed the lowest average survival among the four treatments, although the difference was not significant (Chi square = 1.41, l.d.f.) between organic and combined control and chemical plot comparisons. Cultivated control survival of plum was the highest recorded (Table 4). Treatment Effects - It is probable that the organic mulch, which was applied shortly after the plots were planted in April, withheld moisture vitally needed by the shrubs during the subsequent dry periods of spring and summer. Mulch applications probably should have been delayed until substantial moisture had been received and the shrubs were rooted and established. The plastic mulch, overlaid with organic mulch, did not show evidence of a significant effect in reducing shrub survival. The plastic dire~ted at least some of the moisture toward the shrubs since it was placed over ridges between rows, however, at the same time the organic mulch overlay absorbed and held some moisture. The organic overlay was considered essential to reduce soil temperatures that would otherwise build under the black plastic and it was also needed to hold the plastic in place. Survival of both species in the organic and plastic plots within the Red Lion sandy loam site was very low by the end of the year. Therefore, these two plots will be completely replanted during the spring of 1975. There was no evidence that applications of Eptam and Treflan had any significant impact on shrub survival (Table 4). Rose survival was higher in the chemical plots than in the controls and plum survival averaged only slightly lower in the chemical plots. Shrub Growth There was no appreciable shrub growth during the 1974 growing season for either shrub species. Wild plum height averaged approximately 20.85 inches in May and 21. 32 inches in September. Hansen rose height was about 20.5Sin. in May and lS.50 inches among September survivors of the prolonged drought. �-151Weed Competition Noxious Weed Problems Study sites were selected and cultivated during the fall and/or early spring prior to planting in April 1974. Preferrably, the sites should have been selected and summer fallowed during the growing season prior to planting. This became evident when field bindweed (Convolvulus arvense) and white top (Cardaria draba), both deep rooted noxious perennials showed up en masse in the Tamarack Meadow test site. In addition, saltgrass (Distichlis stricta) whorled milkweed (Asclepias subverticillata), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) and sedge (Carex sp.) among others occupied the Smith meadow site on the Duck Creek property. These perennials were not killed during pre-planting tillage and subsequently persisted as weed problems on the bottom land clay loam sites throughout most of the 1974 growing season. Repeated efforts to control them using cultivation and 2-4-D Amine contact herbicide were only partially successful. High ground water levels in the river valley provided moisture prompting successive regrowths of these deep rooted perennials. As a consequence, these two sites have been excluded in treatment evaluations presented in Table 5 and subsequent paragraphs of this section. Weed Competition in Sandy Loam and Loam Sites The sandy loam plots were vegetated with short and mid- grasses and sandsage (Artemisia filifolia) pri.or to pre-plant cultivation. Loam soils on the Karg sites were densely sodded with buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis). Most of these perennials were killed by cultivation prior to shrub planting. Some of the deep rooted sandsage attempted recovery and occasionally cactus plants (Opuntia sp.) remained, although neither presented significant problems. In the sandy loams western ragweeds (Ambrosia psilostachya) were most troublesome among the perennials. In the loam shortgrass sites, skeleton weed (Lygodesmia juncea), and wild alfalfa (Psoralea tenuiflora) were the deep-rooted perennials most commonly present. Neither significantly competed'with the shrubs, but shallow tillage and chemical pre-emergents were not effective controls. Two factors suppressed weed growth on these upland sites. The dry weather reduced weed germination throughout the growing season. In addition, annual weed growth was reduced because the sites were newly broken out of, and surrounded by grassland. Milk purslane (Euphorbia supina) was most abundant among the annuals although the individual plants remained relatively small and not highly competitive. Croton or doveweed (Croton texensis) and purslane (Portulaca oleracea) were common in the sandy loam sites. Pigweeds (Amaranthus spp.), Russian thistle (Salsoli kali) and lambsquarter (Chenopodium spp.) were few in number but obtained large competitive status rapidly in the plots. Effects of Treatments As illustrated in Table 5 the mulch plots on the sandy loam and loam soil types were essentially weed free throughout the 1974 growing season. Both mulch treatments were highly effective in suppressing weed growth, but as previously noted, the organic mulch withheld moisture reducing shrub survival during this unusually dry year. It should be noted that the bindweed on the Tamarack meadow site was not significantly retarded by mulch treatments. Saltgrass on the Smith meadow was retarded but not totally suppressed by the mulch overlays. �-152- Eptam-Treflan pre-emergent herbicides suppressed annual weed growth as is shown in both the mid-June and mid-July figures in Table 5. The average number of forbs were tallied before they were removed on each plot. The average among the four plots and four sites was compared with the number of forbs found on the four cultivated controls. Chi square values were highly significant during both periods (Chi square = 654, 1 d.f. for June, Chi square = 113, 1 d.f. for July). The chemicals significantly reduced but did not totally eliminate forbs on any of the plots. Some species such as milk purslane were apparently little affected by this chemical combination. Table 5. Weed competition on four shrub clump sites during the 1974 growing season. Shrub Group Cult. Control Organic Mulch Number of Weeds Removed Plastic Eptam-Treflan Mulch No. 1 No. 2 Mid-June Weed Competition Red Lion Sharptail Karg #1 Karg #2 Sub-total Treated Plots No. 3 No. 4 Tally 955 27 149 256 o o o o o o o o 132 44 158 104 237 10 168 86 200 30 68 64 225 72 65 76 1,387 o o 438 501 362 438 175 360 100 24 318 384 40 46 479 373 34 48 659 788 934 85 78 18 100 113 15 o o Mid-July Weed Competition Tally Red Lion Sharptail Karg #1 Karg #2 Sub-total 78 662 83 292 o O. 6 10 10 106 416 77 58 1,115 16 10 657 o o o Early September Weed Competition Red Lion Sharptail Karg 111 Karg #2 Sub-total Totals o o Tally o o o o o o o o 0 2 0 0 13 10 o 3 2 181 228 2,515 26 10 1,098 1,162 1,331 1,600 13 0 0 0 10 3 �-153- The impact of a late July application of Eptam in granular form to two of the four plots in each site could not be evaluated. Persisting hot dry weather prevented weed germination on any of the plots in late summer. Further tests and evaluations are needed under different weather conditions prior to drawing conclusions on the use of mulch and chemical treatments. Time did not permit careful site selection and summer fallow to avoid and/or eradicate deep-rooted noxious perennial weeds prior to shrub planting. However, neither mulches nor selective herbicides can be expected to control bindweed and other noxious perennials. Sites containing noxious perennials should be avoided if use of these techniques is considered. Impacts of Simazine, Simazine-mulch and Casoron are yet to be measured. Cost Analysis Preliminary cost and man-hours figures have been worked up and placed on file for all treatments. These will be supplemented during successive years of treatment for use in future evaluations. LITERATURE CITED Heikes, E., and J. Fults. 1974 (updated annually). Colorado Weed Control Manual. Colorado State University, Extension Service Publication. Mimeo. Prepared by· .7d.rMW-:IL¥ Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/92ad0381dc52e33917d1429106bb9c74.pdf fbc5b5cbe9afbeb32fe7f880513defaf PDF Text Text July, 1975 -1- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~--------W-lOl-R-17 Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title 4 J~ Inventory of Range Manipulation Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations ~. la ------------------------------- Projects in Colorado April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Roland C. Kufe1d and Regional Game Biologists. ABSTRACT An inventory was made of all range vegetation-modification projects completed during 1973 in the western half of Colorado, on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 2,410 and Bureau of Land Management - O. ��-3- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock; and to provide desired IBM listings of these data to cooperating agencies upon their request. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, codify, process and analyze inventory data. 3. To provide desired IBM listings of inventory data to cooperating agencies upon their request. METHODS AND MATERIALS An inventory was made of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1972, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25 on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (Kufeld 1968, 1970, 1971, 1973 and 1974). Kufeld (1968 and 1970) also covered projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations through 1969. Indian Reservation projects were dropped from the inventory after 1969. This report concerns vegetation modification projects completed on U. S. Forest Service and U. S. Bureau of Land Management lands west of Interstate Highway 25 during 1973. Data were collected using procedures outlined in Colorado Division of Wildlife Administrative Directive No. 204 entitled "Range Vegetation Modification Projects", and by Kufeld (1968, 1970 and 1974). Inventory data were transferred from original data sheets to Mark Page Reader Forms, and then to IBM cards. Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 204, call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project at the end of the 2nd, 5th, and 10th years following treatment. During 1973,2 year post-treatment evaluations were made on projects completed in 1971, and 5 year post-treatment evaluations were made on projects completed in 1968. Data were recorded on a form described by Kufe1d (1971). �-4- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Acreages treated during 1973, on all lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service west of Interstate Highway 25, are shown by vegetation type and kind of treatment in Table 1. These acreages are shown by individual National Forests in Table 2. No vegetation modification projects were completed on Bureau of Land Management lands in Colorado during 1973. Table 1. Acreages of range land treated during 1973 in Colorado by the U. S. Forest Service. Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Grass Seed Only Contour 2 1 225 600 225 600 3 825 825 6 1 965 600 965 0 7 1565 965 1 20 20 1 20 20 10 2410 1810 Browse }j Conifer Chain :?:../ Burn Seed Only All Vegetative Types GRAND TOTAL 1/ - All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1973 in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. :?:../ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-5- Table 2. Acreages of range land treated during 1973, within each National Forest in Colorado. National Forest Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded As Part of Treatment Rio Grange Grass Seed Only 1 25 25 1 25 25 1 600 600 1 600 600 1 200 200 1 200 200 3 1 665 600 665 0 4 1265 665 1 20 20 1 20 20 San Isabel San Juan Seed Only Grass Seed Only Grass Browse ];/ Conifer White River Total All Forests Chain Y Burn Seed Only All Veg. Types All Treatments 6 1485 885 Browse ];/ Chain ];/ 3 300 300 3 300 300 11 2410 1810 Total All Veg. Types Total All Treatments 1/ All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1973 in the "browse" vegetation type were in the "oakbrush" subtype. ~I Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-6- A total of 2,410 acres were treated on National Forest lands in 1973. To date (through Dec. 31, 1973) a total of 584,482 acres have been treated in Colorado west of 1-25 on lands administered by the U. S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Of this 244,975 acres were on Forest Service and 339,507 acres were on Bureau of Land Management lands. Since 1973 was only the fourth year for 2 year post-treatment evaluations of completed vegetation modification projects, and since no 5 year evaluations have yet been made, data from post-treatment evaluations of 1968, 1969, 1970 and 1971 projects will be kept on file and covered in a future report when enough 2 and 5 year post-treatment evaluations have been made to provide a basis for a meaningful data analysis. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1968. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-lO, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-121. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P. R. Proj. W-lOl-R12, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 59-94. 1971. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-I0l-R-13, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-15. 1973. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOI-R-15, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-8. 1974. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept. P. R. Proj. W-I0l-R-15, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-11. Prepared by ~L-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �-7- July 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Project No. W_-_l_0_l-_R_-_l_7_ Game Range Investigations 2 Work Plan No. Job Title ~4----~--~~= Job No. Experimental Improvement-~o~f~O~ak~b~r-u~s~h--------------------on Deer and Elk Winter Ranges-Beaver Creek Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld, John Klein, Judd Brown, and Larry Stewart. ABSTRACT Effects of spraying of Gambel oak vegetation on forage production and elk and deer use were evaluated 2 and 5 years after treatment. The area~ located 28 miles southwest of Hayden, Colorado, was aerially sprayed with 2,4,5-TP in 1969. With adjustments for normal vegetation production changes measured on a control area, production of grasses increased 43 percent after 2 years, and shrubs and forbs decreased 29 and 15 percent, respectively. After 5 years grass and shrub production were 17 and 7 percent above pre-treatment levels and forbs were 4 percent below. Total vegetation on the sprayed area de~reased 4 percent after 2 years, while a 5 percent increase was recorded after 5 years. Data were grouped according to elk, deer and cattle forage. Definitions of elk, deer and cattle forage are presented in the test. Spraying did not substantially increase elk, deer, or cattle forage. Increases in preferred grasses after 2 years were offset by decreases in preferred shrubs and forbs. After 5 years, the decline in preferred grasses was offset by increases in preferred shrubs and forbs. Spraying did, however, change the forage composition, creating a variety of forage choices from that found in surrounding unsprayed oakbrush types. After 2 years production of available, seasonal elk forage ranged from 70 percent of pre-treatment levels during winter to 109 percent pre-treatment levels during fall. After 5 years elk forage production in relation to pre-treatment levels ranged from 99 percent during fall to 108 percent during winter and summer. Two years after treatment available deer forage had decreased for all seasons. Seasonal deer forage production compared to pre-treatment levels ranged from 70 percent in spring to 90 percent during summer. After 5 years shrub regrowth elevated seasonal deer forage production to between 102 percent of pretreatment levels in spring and 107 percent during winter. Cattle forage production after 2 and 5 years was 109 and 104 percent pre-treatment levels, respectively. Comparison of control and spray areas indicate elk and deer use between September 1 and mid-May increased 73 and 16 percent respectively, 2 years following spraying. Five year elk and deer use evaluations have not been completed as of the date of this report. Cattle use was not measured because the area was closed to grazing. ��-9- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER AND ELK WINTER RANGES-BEAVER CREEK Roland C. Kufeld p. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk forage production and game use can be increased on overage Gambel oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2,4,5-TP to induce sprouting. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of vegetation composition and production changes, and the extent of elk and deer use changes which have resulted from spraying with 2,4,5-TP in 1969. METHODS AND MATERIALS Study area design, sampling scheme and procedures used in spraying on July 10, 1969 have been described by Kufeld (1970). Vegetation Measurements 2 and 5 Years After Spraying Two and 5 year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made on permanent point-quadrat plots established in 1968. Procedures for measuring vegetation were the same as those used in 1968, when vegetation was measured before treatment (Kufeld 1970). Two year post-tr~atment measurements began August 6, 1971 and were completed August 26. Measurements 5 years after treatment began August 12, 1974 and were completed August 26. Pre- and post-treatment vegetation production data were computerized and subjected to covariance analysis by the Colorado State University Statistics Department. Statistically significant changes in vegetation production was tested at the .05, .. 10, .15, .20, and .25 confidence levels. Tests for significance at lower levels were made because the study involved only one spray and one control area. Inclusion of more replications would have increased the study area size, workload and manpower requirements to the point the study would not have been feasible. Vegetation conditions in the spray and control areas were rephotographed between August 30, and September 1, 1971; and August 21 through 23, 1974, at 67 permanent photo points established in 1968. Elk and Deer Use Measurements 2 and 5 Years After Spraying One hundred fifteen, .001 acre, circular pellet plots were cleared of elk and deer pellet groups on September 1, 1971, and accumulated pellet groups were �-10- counted on May 8, 1972 to measure changes in deer and elk use 2 years after spraying. These plots were recleared on August 25, 1974, and accumulated pellets will be counted in May, 1975 to measure changes 5 years after treatment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Changes 2 and 5 Years After Spraying Vegetation production measurements discussed throughout this report refer to vegetation below a level of 5~ feet. All vegetation change data have been adjusted for normal year to year fluctuations in plant growth as measured on the control area. This was done by computing the level of vegetation production one would expect to find on a treated area following treatment had treatment not occurred. This expected value, hereafter referred to as~, is predicted from the regression of pre- to post-treatment vegetation data on the control, coupled with pre-treatment data from the sprayed area. The dif"ference between the expected post-treatment production (E) on the sprayed area and the actual production recorded there is presumed to be the change resulting from spraying. Production as referred to in this report refers to changes in frequency of occurrence of plants. Total vegetation production changed very little following spraying. After 2 years total vegetation on the sprayed area decreased 3.94 percent, while an increase of 5.34 percent was recorded after 5 years (Table 1). Relatively large changes in production of forbs, grasses and shrubs occurred after spraying. Grasses increased greatly, while shrub production decline d markedly during the first summer after spraying. By the second summ~r when the first post-treatment vegetation measurements were made grass production had declined somewhat and shrub regrowth was underway (Fig. 1). Despite the decline of grasses and regrowth of shrubs between the first and second years after spraying, production of grasses had increased 43.92 percent and shrubs had decresed 28.51 percent 2 years after spraying. By the end of 2 years, forbs showed a 14.72 percent decrease due to spraying (Table 1). Between 2 and 5 years after spraying grass production continued to decline toward pre-treatment levels and shrub and forb production continued to rise (Fig. 1, Table 1). Grass production after 5 years was still higher than adjusted control area values, but only by 17.05 percent. This difference was significant (P<.05) but most of the difference was attributable to the large increase in grass yields measured 2 years after treatment. Shrub production after 5 years was 6.86 percent higher than before spraying, and forbs were 3.93 percent below pre-treatment levels. The post-treatment change in shrubs was significant at the a.05 level primarily due to the large decrease in shrubs observed after 2 years. The forb decline was significant at the a.15 level, again due primarily to the decrease in forbs after 2 years. The principal grass and grasslike plants on the study area are Bromus anomalus, Elymu~El~~_, Poa pratensis and Carex ~~~. Poa sp. and Carex geyeri �-11- were lumped together in this study because it was often difficult to distinguish between them when making vegetation measurements. Bromus anomalus and Elymus glaucus accounted for most of the large increase in grass production after 2 years. These species increased 80.91 and 190.98 percent, respectively. Production of Bromus anomalus continued to rise and after 5 years it had increased 195.62 percent. Five years after treatment production of Elymus glaucus was only 28.33 percent above pre-treatment levels. Po aCarex geyeri declined by 1.02 percent after 2 years and 15.55 percent after 5 years (Table 1). Production of primary shrubs declined substantially after 2 years. Amelanchier alnifolia, Prunus virginiana, Quercus gambellii and Symphoricarpos Spa declined 67.15, 49.34, 12.68 and 18.64 percent, respectively. The decreases in these shrubs were probably even greater the first year after spraying than after the second (Fig. 1). As a result of sprouting and regrowth, production of Amelanchier alnifolia and Prunus virginiana after 5 years was only 12.34 and 20.52 percent below pre-spray levels, and Quercus gambellii and Symphoricarpos Spa were 34.26 and 11.99 percent above production levels recorded before spraying (Table 1). Two of the primary forbs on the study area Agastache urticifolia and Mertensia franciscana showed continued declines throughout the 5 year post-spraying period. These were down 15.25 and 32.64 percent, respectively after 2 years and down 31.30 and 46.84 percent after 5 years. Three others, Erigeron sp., Lathyrus leucanthus, and Lupinus argenteus showed decreases after 2 years (-26.86, -32.16, and -41.18 percent, respectively) but by 5 years after spraying Erigeron Spa and Lathyrus leucanthus were more abundant than before (+11.74 and +29.19 percent, respectively), while Lupinus argenteus was still below pre-treatment levels (-23.89), but still more abundant than it was after 2 years. Galium boreale and Thalictrum fendleri production increased 2 years after treatment (+16.16 and +59.31 percent, respectively) and these continued to become more abundant up to 5 years after spraying when their production was +39.12 and +100.42 percent above pre-treatment levels, respectively. Achillea lanulosa was 5.99 percent more abundant after 2 years, but 14.02 percent less abundant after 5 years (Table 1). Changes in Elk, Deer and Cattle Forage 2 and 5 Years After Spraying Definition of "Elk, Deer and Cattle Forage" Classification of study area plants as elk or deer forage for pusposes of determining production changes was based on the average, relative consumption of those plant species by elk and deer in 48 elk and 99 mule deer food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufeld 1973b; Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). Plants considered cattle forage are those classified as "desirable" and "intermediate" by the U. S. Forest Service in their Region 2 Range Analysis Handbook for the foothill shrub, aspen weed, and mountain meadow vegetation types. Since animal preference for individual plant species varies from location to location, the validity of applying "average" consumption data to this study �-12- area may be open to question. However, these averages do represent a great deal of food habits research, and constitutes the best information available to date on the foods these animals have been known to consume and the relative amounts consumed. For elk the following classifications are used: highly Valuable, valuable, and least valuable (Kufeld, 1973b). For deer plants they are classified as heavily eaten, moderately eaten, or lightly eaten (Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). Although the terminology used in the elk and deer references is different, the basis for classifying plants according to relative consumption is exactly the same. "Highly valuable" plants for elk, and "heavily eaten" plants for deer by definition, generally comprised a major part of a food sample (usually at least 20 percent) in food habits studies where reported. In a few cases, plants which comprised less than a major portion of the food sample were classified as "highly valuable" or "heavily eaten" if their reported contribution to the diet was far in excess of their reported vegetative composition. "Valuable" plants for elk and "moderately eaten" plants for deer usually comprised between 5 and 20 percent of the food sample. "Least valuable" plants for elk and "lightly eaten" plants for deer comprised less than 5 but more than 1 pe rcen t. Definition of "Available Forage" Data and discussions relating to available forage are based on the assumption that due to factors such as degree of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to elk and deer on the study area will consist only of shrubs during Win t er , grasses and shrubs during sp rtng and fall, and forbs, grasses and shrubs during Summer. Discussions of cattle forage relate only to Summer at which time all forage is available. These categorizations are somewhat arbitrary and probably under-represent actual forage availability. Effects of Spraying on Available Elk Forage.--Pre- to post-treatment ratios using 1.00 as a basis to represent the level of elk forage production before spraying with adjustment for normal year to year changes measured on control areas are shown in Table 1. A single value for elk forage was derived by weighting the number of hits on "highly valuable" forage by a factor of "3", valuable by "2", and least valuable forage by "1". A total.weighted value was then computed (Table 2). Two years after treatment production of available elk forage was lower on the sprayed area during winter and slightly higher during spring, summer and fall than existed before spraying. The level of available forage compared to 1.00 after 2 years was 0.70 for winter, 1.07 for spring, 1.04 for summer and 1.09 for fall. This spray project was much less effective in stimulating elk forage production after 2 years than was the spraying portion of another oak control study conducted by Colorado Division of Wildlife near Hightower Mountain, 20 miles east of Collbran, Colorado (Kufeld 1975). In that study the following pre- to post-treatment ratios were observed 2 years after spraying: winter, 1:1.01; spring, 1:2.09; summer, 1:1.72; and all, 1:1.94. Grass production after 2 years on the Hightower Mountain study increased 295 �-13- percent compared with the 44 percent increase observed on Beaver Creek. During the first summer after spraying the kill on shrubs, particularly oakbrush, appeared about the same on both projects, however, after 2 years the kill on the Hightower study area was obviously better than on Beaver Creek. Both studies involved the use of 2,4,5-TP at a rate of 2 lbs/acre. Herbicide was mixed with 4 gallons of water and one-half gallon of diesel fuel on the Hightower study while on Beaver Creek herbicide was mixed with 10 gallons of water per acre. Both areas were sprayed between July 10 and 12, but in different years. Equipment difficulties which resulted in completion of spraying later in the day on Beaver Creek than on Hightower MOuntain may have contributed to reduced effectiveness of the Beaver Creek treatment. Except for winter forage very little change occurred in production of elk forage on Beaver Creek between 2 and 5 years after spraying. After 5 years winter elk forage had increased to 1.08 times pre-treatment levels. Pre- to post-treatment ratios for spring, summer and fall were 1:0.99, 1:1.08, and 1:1.02, respectively (Table 2). The 44 percent increase in grasses after 2 years did not substantially increase the overall production of elk forage because this was offset by the reduction of several shrubs preferred by elk. The reversal of this situation occurred after 5 years when the increase in preferred shrubs was offset by the decline in several preferred grass species. Thus, during the 5 year posttreatment period spraying had little influence on the overall production of elk forage. It did, however, change the forage composition, creating a greater variety of elk forages compared to surrounding unsprayed oakbrush type areas. Effects of Spraying on Available Deer Forage.--Pre-to post-treatment ratios for deer forage derived as described under the section on elk forage are shown in Table 2. After 2 years, the sprayed area supported less available deer forage during all seasons of the year than existed before spraying due to the initial shrub kill. The level of available forage compared to 1.00 was: winter 1:0.70, spring 1:0.83, summer 1:0.90, and fall 1:0.84. Available deer forage increased as shrub resprouting and regrowth occurred between 2 and 5 years after spraying. However, after 5 years available deer forage was only slightly more abundant than before treatment. Pre- to post-treatment adjusted forage production ratios after 5 years were: winter 1:1.07, spring 1:1.02, summer 1:1.06, fall 1:1.05. Effects of Spraying on Cattle Forage.--Spraying had little effect on production of cattle forage. Pre- to post-treatment adjusted forage production ratios computed after 2 and 5 years were 1:1.09 and 1:1.04. These compare to a ratio of 1:2.17 found on the Hightower Mountain oak study area (Kufeld 1975) where spraying was much more effective after 2 years in stimulating production of cattle forage. Increased production of grasses on Beaver Creek, particularly after 2 years, was offset by initial reductions in several shrubs and forbs considered to be preferred cattle forage. Production of least desirable plants decreased 15.31 percent after 2 years, but had increased 5.74 percent after 5 years. The change in production of least desirables after 5 years was significant at the a .05 level (Table 2). �-14- Elk and Deer Use Changes 2 and 5 Years After Spraying Responses of elk and deer to the sprayed area 2 years after treatment were described by Kufeld (1973a). Comparison of control and spray areas indicated elk use from September 1 through mid-May increased 73 percent and deer use during that period increased 16 percent following spraying. Five year post-treatment elk and deer use data are not currently available as accumulated pellets in plots cleared in August 1974 will not be counted until May 1975. Although vegetation data were categorized according to cattle forage preference it was not possible to measure the response of cattle to spraying in this study as the area is closed to grazing. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1970. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer and elk winter ranges - Beaver Creek. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Proj. W-lOl-R-12, WP 4, Job 2. July 1970. Pt. I. pp. 95-112. 1973a. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer and elk winter ranges - Beaver Creek. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Proj. W-lOlR-15, WP 4, Job 2. July 1973. Pt. I. pp. 9-14. 1973b. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain 26 (2) :106-113. elk. J. Range Manage. 1975. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk, and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Proj. W-lOl-R-17. WP 4, Job 3. July 1975. (In Press). --- , o. C. Wallmo, and Charles Feddema. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Sta. Res. Paper. RM 111. 3lp. Prepared by -£ttl-~I c. %{del Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Production of summer vegetation on control and sprayed areas before and 2 and 5 years after spraying. Species r968 Percent Hits compo Control area SQra~ area 1971 i974 i968 1971 Percent Percent Percent Percent Expected Hits camp. Hits camp. Hits camp. Hits compo 71 hitsl!Hits 1974 Percent Expected camp. 74 hits Percent change Significance due to of change sEra~ing 2/ After 2 After 5 over 5 year peri od '}j years years FOrbs A cJUUea. tan.u1.0-60. 86 AgM.tache wr.:tJ..ci.6oUa 40 AgMeJ1M gtauca 0 AM:em.u.,'<'a dltacwtcu1.l1.6 2 A:Ltem.u.,'<'atudov.<.ci.an.a 1 Mtelt .6p. 10 Chenopod.<.u.m beJttan.d.<.eJt.<. 1 ClN., -tu.m can.es cen.6 26 Co.e.tom1a .e.J.neaJt1.6 9 C1lep.u., ltunci.l1a.ta 0 Vuph.<.neu.m occi.den.ta.e.e 0 V e.6c U)la1n1a Jt.<.c.hMManJ.i. 0 [JUgolOn .6p. 22 c.uogonu.m wnbe.e.ta.tu.m 2 F/tag ard.o: ovaU.6 0 GaUu.m bolteate 42 Gayophytu.m nutta.e..e.l.<. 0 GeJta.n.1wn Jt.<.ChMM 0 n.<..<. 2 Heten1wn hoope.6u 5 HeJtac.teu.m ta.n.a.tu.m 8 Hydlto phy.e.tu.m 6 endteJt.<. 0 Lac..tuca pu1.c.he.e.ta. 6 Lathnus Leucanthu: .32 Ugl1.6Uc.u.m 3 L1nM.<.a. v u1.gcrM.6 16 Linum .te.v0.,u 1 Lup.<.nl1.6Mgentel1.6 34 6.02 2.80 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.70 0.07 1.82 0.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.54 0.14 0.00 2.94 0.00 0.14 0.35 0.56 0.00 0.42 2.24 0.21 1.12 0.07 2.38 152 58 1 9 1 23 5 23 15 3 7 0 32 0 0 56 0 4 2 17 3 1 155 a a 13 69 6.36 2.43 0.04 0.38 0.04 0.96 0.21 0.96 0.63 0.13 0.29 0.00 1.34 0.00 0.00 2.34 0.00 0.17 0.08 0.71 0.13 0.04 6.49 0.00 0.00 0.54 2.89 89 80 0 18 0 4 3 13 22 10 3 0 28 0 0 22 3 6 2 10 0 0 98 a 5 1 56 4.66 4.19 0.00 0.94 0.00 0.21 0.16 0.68 1.15 0.52 0.16 0.00 1.47 0.00 0.00 1.15 0.16 0.31 0.10 0.52 0.00 0.00 5.14 0.00 0.26 0.05 2.94 77 42 0 1 0 14 2 8 5 3 0 3 43 10 5 42 0 11 1 6 0 6 71 8 0 0 21 5.55 3.03 0.00 0.07 0.00 1.01 0.14 0.58 0.36 0.22 0.00 0.22 3.10 0.72 0.36 3.03 0.00 0.79 0.07 0.43 0.00 0.43 5.12 0.58 0.00 0.00 1.51 152 49 0 0 0 38 1 13 18 1 1 0 28 5 1 64 0 4 1 11 2 1 131 1 0 a 35 6.81 2.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.70 0.04 0.58 0.81 0.04 0.04 0.00 1.25 0.22 0.04 2.87 0.00 0.18 0.04 0.49 0.09 0.04 5.87 0.04 0.00 0.00 1.57 143 57 25 74 54 0 1 0 35 0 17 14 38 55 8 5 4 3 2 35 6 5 30 3 5 2 12 15 1 0 193 149 a 0 1 59 38 3.78 2.76 0.00 0.05 0.00 1.79 0.00 0.41 0.26 0.20 0.15 0.10 1.79 0.31 0.26 1.53 0.15 0.26 0.10 0.77 0.05 0.00 7.62 0.00 0.00 0.05 1.94 86 78 + 5.99 - 14.02 - 15.25 - 31.30 .05 .15 4 11 21 .15 .20 .20 .15 31 - 26.86 + 11.74 21 + 16.16 + 39.12 .20 .15 7 115 - 32.16 + 29.19 49 - 41.18 - 23.89 .05 ----------_._------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I I-' V> I �Table 1. Production of summer vegetation on control and sprayed areas before and 2 and 5 years after spraying (contd). Species 1968 Percent Hits compo Control area Percent change S[!ra~ area 1971 due to 1974 Signifi cance 1968 1971 1974 Percent S[!ra~ingY Percent of change Percent Percent Expected. Percent Expected After 2 After 5 over Hits compo Hits compo Hits compo Hits compo 5 year 71 hitsl/ Hits compo 74 hits years years period Y Forbs (coritd2 MeJtte/'l.6.ut 6JLancUc.ana 04moJziUza oc.c1.den.taU..6 Ped.i.c.ui.aJU.6 i11taJj,t Pvu.dvu.d.i.a giWr.dnvu. Poiygonum dougla4'£'£ Potent.U.ea. pulc.heJr.JWna Ptvu.d.i.um aquil.Utum Rudbec.kla montana Senec1.o 4 VtJta. SoUdago c.anaden616 Ste.UalLi.a j amU,tana SweJl.Ua. ltad.i.a.ta Tevr.a.xJ.c.um4 p. ThctUc..tJtum 6 endtvu. T~agopogon P~en6-i4 UILUc.a gltac,Uen.ta V,tgu.L~a muUi6.tolta WyetlUa. alLi.zon-ic.a. Unknown forb lotal Forbs 49 3.43 10 0.70 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 8 0.56 0 0.00 1 0.07 1 0.07 0 0.00 0 0.00 7 0.49 1.47 21 0 0.00 3 0.21 1.26 18 0 0.00 0 0.00 --466 32.61 72 21 0 3 8 1 28 0 6 2 10 0 9 38 3 0 18 0 0 '" 3.01 63 0.88 18 0.00 2 0.13 1 0.33 2 0.04 0 1.17 45 0.00 8 0.25 2 0.08 6 0.42 11 0.00 3 0.38 0 1.59 26 0.13 1 0.00 5 0.75 42 0.00 1 0.00 0 3.30 49 0.94 5 0.10 2 0.05 0 0.10 0 0.00 0 2.36 0 .0.42 0 0.10 0 0.31 0 0.58 0 0.16 1 0.00 0 1.36 29 0.05 1 0.26 3 2.20 28 0.05 0 0.00 3 3.53 48 0.36 29 0.14 0 0.00 3 0.00 6 0.00 0 0.00 14 0.00 0 0.00 8 0.00 5 0.00 3 0.07 5 0.00 2 2.09 72 0.07 0 0.22 1 2.02 3 0.00 2 0.22 0 2.15 1.30 0.00 0.13 0.27 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.36 0.22 0.13 0.22 0.09 3.23 0.00 0.04 0.13 0.09 0.00 37.16 500 36.02 758 33.96 - ------- 868 36.33 709 , 71 16 33 12 1 0 4 45 0 21 7 19 2 20 4 0 59 0 21 2 25 9 a -- --- 888 694 1.69 0.61 0.05 0.00 0.20 0.00 1.07 0.36 0.97 0.10 1.02 0.20 0.00 3.02 0.00 0.10 1.28 0.46 0.00 35.48 62 16 - 32.64 - 46.84 .25 .... I 0\ I .20 .15 29 + 59.31 +100.42 43 722 .10 .25 .25 .05 .20 - 14.72 - 3.93 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -.15 �Table 1. Production of summer vegetation on control and sprayed areas before and 2 and 5 years after spraying (contd). Percent change Significance due to Control area SEra~ area of change sEra~ing y 1974 1971 1968 1968 1971 1974 Percent Expected After 2 After 5 over 5 year Percent Expected Percent Percent Percent Percent period 3/ years years Hits compo Hits compo Hits compo Hits conp, Hits comp, 71 hits lJ Hits compo 74 hits Species Grasses AgltopyJtOYl sp, BltomUl>anoma.lUl> CaJtex <>p. ECymUl> uYlVteUl> EI'_ymw) g.taUCUl> Ph-eeum pltctten<>e Poa-CaJtex geyeM. S~OYl hy~~ S;(;{.pa.f.e;ttVtmanl.. Unknown grass 29 15 8 11 21 2 249 0 0 2 2.03 1.05 0.56 0.77 1.47 0.14 17.42 0.00 0.00 0.14 101 31 8 3 93 7 390 0 6 0 4.23 47 1.30 33 0.33 0 0.13 1 3.89 53 0.29 13 16.32 249 0.00 0 0.25 18 0.00 0 2.46 28 1.73 41 0.00 16 0.05 2 2.78 57 0.68 3 13.05 142 0.00 0 0.94 . 2 0.00 3 2.02 101 4.53 2.95 58 2.60 1.15 31 1.39 0.14 13 0.58 4.11 313 14.02 0.22 7 0.31 10.23 323 14.47 0.00 3 0.13 0.14 23 1.03 0.22 0 0.00 337 23.58 639 26.75 414 21.70 294 21.18 872 39.07 1.03 0.00 0.22 2.78 7.75 0.36 37 0 1.94 4.81 0.00 0.51 4.96 0.05 9.10 0.00 1.89 0.00 605 455 23.26 388 + 43.92 + 17.05 .05 70 46 2.35 0.00 0.10 3.02 11.81 0.15 52 - 67.15 - 12.34 .05 .20 .20 74 172 - 49.34 - 20.52 - 12.68 + 34.26 98 32 7 38 94 107 10 97 1 178 326 0 0 45 31 + 75 +190.98 + 28.33 2.10 - 1.02 - 15.55 2.77 - 17.03 +195.62 + 80.91 .25 .15 .15 .05 .15 I .25 ---Total Grasses Shrubs Ame.taYlciUVt a1.nl6olia M-te.mu.,ia rudeYl-ta.ta. POpU£Ul> tJtemu.R.oidu PItUl1Ul> v.£ltg .£n.£ana QuVtCUl> gambeUU. iUbu sp; 33 8 1 103 136 6 2.31 0.56 0.07 7.21 9.52 0.42 45 18 0 151 247 2 1.88 33 0.75 10 0.00 1 6.32 100 10.34 216 0.08 7 1.73 0.52 0.05 5.24 11.32 0.37 64 4.61 23 0.07 0 1 0.07 1 5 65 . 4.68 62 6.99 173 97 0.07 8 1 0 122 198 2 39 231 3 I •.... -..) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .25 .20 �Table 1. Production of summer vegetation on control and sprayed areas before and 2 and 5 years after spraying (contd). 1965 Percent Hits camp. Species Control area S~ra~ area ,971 ,97il· ,~~8 ,9'1 1974 Percent Percent Percent Percent Expected Percent Expected Hits camp. Hits camp. Hits compo Hits camp. 71 hits l! Hits camp. 74 hits Percent change due to Significance sEra~ing y of change After 2 After 5 over 5 year years years period ~ Grasses· (COlitd) ROM . .6p. Sif/nphoJt.i.c.aJtpo.6 .6p. Total Shrubs TOTAL ALL PLANTS 8 0.56 328 22.95 19 0.80 394 16..49 623 43.60 876 36.67 1426 99.79 2383 99.75 15 0.79 402 21.07 34 324 2.45 14 0.63 23.34 315 14.11 35 387 442 0.97 22.60 16 394 - 18.64 + 11.99 .20 .10 587 -- -42.29 600 26.88 839 802 41.00 750 - 28.51 + .05 -2318 -- 1907 99.95 1381 -- ---99.50 2230 99.91 --99.74 1856 784 41.09 19 1951 6.86 - 3.94 + 5.34 -- lIReflects the amount of vegetation one would expect to find on the sprayed area following spraying had spraying not occurred. ~Derived through comparison of sprayed and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control area. Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. 1Irndicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to spraying during the 5 year period following spraying are significant. Data in the preceding column show whether most of the significant change occurred after 2 or 5 years. Only changes t,at are significant at the a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. . I I-' oo I �Table 2. Two and 5 year changes recorded T968-Season 11 Forage value Hits Percent camp. in available, seasonal elk, Control area 1971 1974 Percent Percent Hits compo Hits compo deer and cattle 1968 Percent Hits compo forage. 1/, £I Hits Spray area 1971 Percent Expected compo 71 hits ~Hits 1974 Percent Expected compo 74 hits Percent change due to Significance sprayi ng §J of change After 2 After 5 over 5 year years years period §j 263 329 0 11.78 14.74 0.00 17.28 23.57 0.00 - 34.06 - 24.88 0.00 Elk Forage Winter Highly valuable Valuable Least valuable Pre- Spring Summer 327 598 139 to Post-Treatment Hi9hly valuable Valuable Least valuable Pre- 250 324 16 to Post-Treatment Highly valuable Valuable Least valuable Pre- Fall to Post-Treatment Highly valuable Val~able Least valuable Pre- 273 344 0 351 439 0 to post-Treatment 19.10 24.07 0.00 Ratio 17.49 22.67 1.12 443 431 0 18.54 18.04 0.00 350 427 0 18.34 22.38 0.00 227 359 0 16.35 25.86 0.00 398 437 0 338 46i 0 312 432 0 ZI 390 650 26 16.32 27.21 1.09 250 480 10 13.10 25.16 0.52 143 316 17 10.30 22.77 1.22 328 702 31 14.70 31.45 1.39 326 633 27 180 509 0 9.20 26.02 0.00 211 467 10 Ratio 22.88 41.85 9.73 571 978 270 23.90 40.94 11.30 376 820 180 19.71 42.98 9.43 303 658 113 21.83 47.41 8.14 712 853 217 31.90 38.22 9.72 548 1000 244 364 953 152 18.61 48.72 7.77 361 839 168 Ratio 24.56 30.72 0.00 Ratio 669 563 0 28.00 23.57 0.00 429 512 0 22.48 26.83 0.00 347 25.00 390. 28.10 0 0.00 840 377 0 37.63 16.89 0.00 654 524 0 418 501 c 21.37 25.61 0.00 419 475 0 + + 8.20 6.66 0.00 1 : 0.70 1 : 1.08 + 0.52 + 10.85 + 12.54 - 14.87 + 8.82 -100.00 1 : 1.07 1 : 0.99 + 29.88 - 14.75 - 11.26 + 0.63 - 9.72 + 13.46 1 : 1.04 1 : 1.08 + 28.43 - 28.07 0.00 + 1 : 1.09 - 0.40 5.29 0.00 1 : 1.02 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .10 .05 ~ .20 .05 .05 .05 .10 'f �Table 2. Two and 5 year changes recorded in available, seasonal elk, deer and cattle forage (contd). l/,Y Season Y Forage value Percent change Control area S~ra~ area due to Significance 1968 1971 1974 1968 1971 1974 s~ra~in9 §j of change Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Expected Hits camp. Hits comp. flits comp, Hits comp, Hits compo 71 hits l.IHits Percent Expected After 2 After 5 over 5 year compo 74 hits years years period §! Deer Forage \>Jinter Heavi ly eaten t~od.eaten Ughtly eaten 8 273 342 0.56 19.10 23.93 . 18 443 415 0.75 18.54 17.37 10 0.52 1 350 18.34 227 424 22.22 359 0.07 16.35 25.86 0 0.00 263 11.78 337 15.10 2 398 423 0 0.00 338 17.28 464 23.72 3 312 431 Pre- to Post-Treatment Ratio ZI Spring Heavily eaten Mod. eaten Lightly eaten 8 889 14 0.56 62.21 0.98 18 1354 10 Heavi ly eaten Mod. eaten Lightly eaten 388 696 217 27.15 48.01 15.19 0.75 56.68 0.42 10 0.52 1 1076 56.39· 758 7 0.37 17 0.07 0 0.00 54.61 1023 45.83 1.22 42 1.88 Heavily eaten Mod. eaten Lightly eaten 415 488 6 29.04 34.15 0.42 Pre- to Post-Treatment Ratio I N 0 I 2 1255 9 0 0.00 1016 51.94 3 0.15 3 991 7 -100.00 -100.00 - 18.53 + 2.47 +337.93 - 59.61 .20 .05 .10 - : 0.83 1 : 1.02 637 1047 441 26.66 43.83 18.46 466 24.42 247 934 48.95 732 295 15.46 260 17.80 52.74 18.73 499 22.36 824 36.92 660 29.57 537 1065 476 418 21.37 969 49.54 343 17.54 381 947 310 Pre- to Post-Treatment Ratio Fall .20 .10 .10 1 : 0.70 1 : 1.07 Pre- to Post-Treatment Ratio Summer -100.00 -100.00 - 34.06 + 8.20 - 20.49 + 7.56 - 7.23 + 9.52 - 22.65 + 2.27 + 38.43 + 10.63 1 : 0.90 738 635 2 30.89 26.58 0.08 513 26.89 268 19.31 560 29.35 504 . 36.31 7 0.37 1 0.07 602 26.97 445 19.94 8 0.36 643 636 1 449 22.96 566 28.94 3 0.15 413 562 5 .05 .05 1 : 1.06 6.50 + 8.67 -- 30.14 + 0.64 +304.82 - 43.12 1 : 0.84 1 : 1. 05 --------------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .05 .20 �Table 2. Two and 5 year changes recorded in available, seasonal elk, deer and cattle forage (contd). 11, gj Season 11 Forage value Spray_ area Control area 1974 T971 T9~W6-g 1971 1968 Percent Expectea Percent rxpecteal Percent Percent Percent P-ercent compo 71 hits ~Hits comp. 74 hits Hits compo Hits compo Hits compo Hits compo Hits Percent change due to 51 Significance ~ spraying :::.J of change After 2 After 5 over 5 year years years period §! Cattle Forage Summer Desirable 108 Intermediate 456 Least desirable 860 7.56 232 31.91 773 60.18 1378 9.71 174 9.12 32.36 503 26.36 57.68 1230 64.47 134 9.65 438 31.56 803 57.85 244 10.93 871 39.02 1115·49.96 247 749 1316 178 9.10 527 26.94 1246 63.70 179 487 1178 - 1.38 + 16.24 - 15.31 1 : 1.09 - 1.04 8.21 5.74 + + .05 : 1.04 Pre- to Post-Treatment Ratio II ----------------------~~~~~~~ lIClassification of study area plants as elk and deer forage was based on the average, relative consumption of those plant species by elk and deer in 48 elk and 99 mule deer food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufe1d 1973b; Kufe1d, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). Plants considered cattle forage are . those classified as "desirable" and "intermediate" by the U. S. Forest Service, Region 2, Range Analysis Handbook for the foothill shrub, aspen weed and mountain meadow vegetation types. £!Table is based on the assumption that due to such factors as degree of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to elk and deer will consist of only shrubs during winter; grasses and shrubs during spring and fall, and forbs, grasses and shrubs during summer. Data are derived from measurements made during summer. 1!seasons: Winter = December, January, February; Spring = March, April, May; Summer = June, July, August; Fall = September, October, November. 9:JRef1ects the amount of vegetation one would expect to find on the sprayed area following spraying had spraying not occurred. ?I Derived through comparison of sprayed and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control area. (footnotes continued on following page) I �Table 2. Two and 5 year changes recorded in available, seasonal elk, deer and cattle forage (contd). (footnotes contd) 6/ - Indicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to spraying during the 5 year period following spraying are significant. Data in the preceding show shown. whether most of the significant change occurred after 2 or 5 years. Only changes that are significant at the a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25column level are 7/ - The ratio·of elk, deer and cattle forage produced before and after treatment adjusted for normal year to year changes measured on the control areas. A single value for elk and deer forage was derived by weighting hits on highly valuable elk forage, and heavily eaten deer forage by a factor of "3", valuable and moderately eaten forage by "2", and least valuable and lightly eaten forage by "1". A.total weighted value was then computed. For cattle desirables were weighted by "2" and intermediates by "1". Least desirables are not considered cattle forage. I N N I �-23- One year before spraying (August 1968) One year after spraying (August 1970) Fig. 1. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Beaver Creek oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2, and 5 years after spraying (Fig. 1 continued on next page). �-24- Two years after spraying (August 1971) Five years (August 1974) after spraying Fig. 1. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Beaver oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2, and 5 years after spraying. Creek �-25July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~----~~-----------W-lOl-R-17 Project No. Game Range Investigations 4 Job Title Job No. 3 ------~------------------Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer, Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain ~==~~~~~------~----~~----~~~~~~----- Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Roland C. Kufeld and Larry Stewart ABSTRACT Effects of burning, spraying and chaining of Gambel oak vegetation on forage production and elk, deer and cattle use were evaluated 2 years after treatment. With adjustments for normal vegetation production changes measured on control units data indicate that summer vegetation increased 50 percent on sprayed areas, 20 percent on chained areas, and decreased 17 percent on burned sites. Most of the increase following spraying occurred among grasses which increased 295 percent, and produced 658 more pounds of air dry forage per acre. Most of the increase on chainings and decrease on burns occurred among shrubs. Data were grouped according to elk, deer and cattle forage. An explanation of these terms is presented. Among the treatments tested spraying produced the largest increases in available elk forage during spring, summer and fall and particularly spring when production was 2.09 times pre-treatment levels. Chaining produced the most elk forage during winter with 1.24 times as much forage. Chaining also increased elk forage production during the other 3 seasons, but was second to spraying. Burned areas supported less available elk forage during all seasons than existed before treatment. This ranged from 64 percent of pre-treatment forage production levels during winter to 84 percent during spring. Chaining resulted in the most available fall and winter deer forage with 1.26 and 1.23 times as much respectively as occurred before treatment. Spraying yielded the most spring and summer deer forage with 1.40 and 1.13 times as much as prior to treatment. Burning decreased deer forage during all seasons. On burned areas production ranged from 54 percent of pretreatment levels during winter to 84 percent during summer. Sprayed plots produced 2.16 times as much summer cattle forage as before compared with 1.24 times as much for chainings and only 95 percent of pretreatment levels for burns. (Abstract continued on next page) �-26- Burned and chained areas when compared with control and spray areas showed increased levels of total cell contents, soluble carbohydrate, copper and zinc in most plant categories (forbs, grasses and shrubs). Compared with controls elk density per square mile during fall, winter and spring increased 45 percent on burns, decreased 48 percent on spray areas and decreased 70 percent on chainings. Deer density per square mile during fall, winter and spring decreased 25 percent, 6 percent and 53 percent on burned, sprayed and chained plots respectively. Relatively low elk and deer use in the chainings may have been partly due to exceptionally heavy hunting pressure in the study area vicinity during the fall of 1973, when game use measurements were made. Cattle showed a preference for burned areas. Cattle use on the two burns increased 18.7 cow days per acre compared with a 3.3 cow~day increase on sprayed areas. Cattle use in one chaining decreased 9.6 days per acre. However, since cattle were excluded from the other chaining by high creek flows during the summer of 1973, it is not valid to conclude that chainings were less preferred than sprayed areas. �-27- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be increased and ~intained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of vegetation composition, production and nutrient content changes, and the extent of deer and elk use changes which have resulted from burning, spraying and chaining. METHODS AND MATERIALS Study area design and sampling scheme have been described by Kufeld (1970 and 1971). Implementation of burning, spraying and chaining treatments on the study area as well as procedures and species used in reseeding have been discussed by Kufeld (1972). Vegetation Measurements 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Two year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made in 600 permanent meter square plots on the Hightower Mountain oak study area during the summer of 1973, using the same procedures employed during the 1970 pre-treatment evaluations as described by Kufeld (1971). The 2 year post-treatment measurement period was July 9, 1973, through August 16, 1973. Prior to beginning vegetation measurements observers were trained in use of the vegetation measurement technique, and in identification of all plants on the study area. Pre- and post-treatment vegetation production data were computerized and subjected to covariance analysis by the Colorado State University Statistics Department. Statistical significance of vegetation production changes was tested at the .05, .10, .15, .20 and .25 confidence levels. It was necessary to test for significance at lower levels because the study involved only 2 replications of each treatment. Inclusion of more replications would have increased the study area size, workload and manpower requirements to the point the study would not have been feasible. Determination of Nutrient Quality Changes Samples of plant species designated by Kufeld (1971) as "moisture indicator plants" and used to reflect changes in vegetation moisture content during �-28- measurement periods were collected in one unit representing each type of treatment (Units 5, 6, 7 and 8) between July 24, and July 27, 1973 inclusive and on November 12, 1974. Composite samples of each species weighing approximately 100 grams, green weight, were collected throughout each of the 4 habitat improvement units. In treated units samples were collected from those areas where it was certain burning, spraying and chaining had been severe. Samples were analyzed by the Division Research Laboratory to determine changes in content of dry matter, protein, energy and trace mineral values 2 summers and 3 winters after treatments were applied. Soil samples were also collected from each of the 4 areas from which plant nutrient samples were obtained. These were analyzed by the Colorado State University Soils Laboratory to determine any differences among areas in soil properties. Elk, Deer and Cattle Use Measurements 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Accumulated elk and deer pellet groups were removed from all pellet plots on September 3, 1973. Groups deposited during the fall, winter and spring were counted May 8, 1974. Data are compared with pre-treatment measurements made during the same period from the Fall of 1970 to the Spring of 1971. Two-year post-treatment cattle use changes were measured during the previous project segment and results reported by Kufeld (1974). Since two year evaluation data on vegetation and elk and deer use were not available last year the 2-year cattle use evaluation is rediscussed in this report. When pellet plots in units 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and a portion of 3 were cleared September 3, 1973, a record was kept of the number of current year cow chips in each plot in order to provide an index to cattle use. Cow chip counts in units 2, 4 and the remainder of 3 were delayed until October 3, because these units are in a different cattle allotment, and cattle were still grazing until the end of September. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Changes 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Vegetation production estimates discussed throughout this report refer to vegetation below a level of five feet. All production changes have been adjusted for normal year to year fluctuations in plant growth as measured on control units. This was done by computing the level of vegetation production one would expect to find on a treated area following treatment h~d treatment not occurred. This expected value, hereafter referred to as E, is derived by applying the ratio of pre- to posttreatment forage production on the control areas to pre-treatment production �-29- on the treatxd areas. The difference between the expected post-treatment production (E) on the treated areas and the actual production recorded there is the change produced as a result of treatment. Effects of Burning on Forbs, Grasses and Shrubs Summer vegetation production decreased 17 percent 2 years after burning. Most of the reduction occurred among shrubs which were down 38 percent, a decrease of 305 lbs of air dry vegetation per acre. The shrub decline was significant at the a .05 level (Table 1). Vegetation production changes which occurred within individual plant species under untreated conditions between the pre- and 2 year post-treatment period are shown in Table 2. Comparable data for burned areas including levels of production expected under untreated conditions (E) are shown in Table 3. The shrub species mainly responsible for the overall decrease in shrubs as well as in overall vegetation production were Artemisia tridentata and S)~phoricarpos albus. These produced 153 and 182 fewer pounds of air dry forage per acre respectively. Artemisia tridentata did not resprout after burning. Those plants exposed to fire were completely killed. Symphoricarpos albus sprouted profusely, especially the first summer after burning, however overall production was still significantly lower at the a .10 level 2 years after treatment. Other shrubs among which much sprouting and regrowth was noted after burning were Amelanchier alnifolia, Artemisia cana, Prunus virginiana and Quercus gambellii. Like Symphoricarpos albus most of the sprouting of these species occurred during the first summer and slowed considerably the second summer. Forage production of several had returned to or slightly exceeded pre-treatment levels by ~he end of the second growing season (Table 3). Extensive resprouting of many shrub species particularly during the first year can be seen in Figure 1, which shows photos taken at a permanent photo point 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after burning. Grasses on burned areas decreased 5 percent or 16 lbs/ac, and forbs increased 14 percent or 63 lbs/ac (air dry wt) (Table 1). Two year post-treatment changes in production of individual grass and forb species on the burned areas in terms of pounds per acre were relatively minor, even though some showed fairly large percentage changes (Table 3). Effects of Spraying on Forbs, Grasses and Shrubs Spraying resulted in the largest total vegetation increase of the 3 treatments tested. Vegetation production increased 50 percent 2 years after spraying. Most of the increase occurred among grasses which were up 295 percent and produced an additional 658 lbs/ac (air dry wt). This was significant at the a .10 level (Table 1). Stimulated grass production is evident in Figure 2, which shows photos taken at a permanent photo point 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after spraying. Individual grasses and grasslike plants most responsible for the increase were Poa sp. and Carex geyeri which together produced 212 percent or 489 �-30- lbs/ac more air dry herbage (Table 4). Poa sp. and ~ geyeri were combined in this study because it was often difficult to separate them when clipping vegetation in meter square sampling plots. Other grasses which showed proportionately large increases in air dry herbage after spraying were Agropyron sp. (+42 lbs/ac), Bromus anomalus (+28 lbs/ac), Dactylus glomerata (+8 lbs/ac), Elymus glaucus (+27 lbs/ac) and Stipa sp. (+24 lbs/ac) (Table 4). Forbs also increased after 2 years although not as dramatically as did grasses. Forbs were up 15 percent or 79 lbs/ac, air dry wt (Table 1). Those reflecting the largest increases were Achillea lanulosa (+49 lbs/ac), Galium sp. (+39 lbs/ac), and Taraxacum officinale (+30lbs/ac). Some forbs which decreased by relatively large amounts were Lathyrus~ (-53 lbs/ac), and Lupinus argenteus (-37 lbs/ac). The kill on Quercus gambellii was estimated at 80 to 90 percent during the first summer after spraying. Extensive initial kills were also observed for Amelanchier alnifolia, Artemisia tridentata, Prunus virginiana and Symphoricarpos albus. Two years after treatment total shrub production on spray areas exceeded by 4 percent or 35 lbs/ac that which would have been expected without spraying. This relatively minor change reflects a situation where many shrubs, and particularly those just mentioned, have sprouted back within 2 years to produce approximately as much herbage as before treatment (Fig. 2). Effects of Chaining on Forbs, Grasses and Shrubs Production of vegetation on chained sites increased 20 percent 2 years after chaining. Shrubs which produced 19 percent or 167 more lbs/ac of air dry vegetation accounted for most of the increase. The increase in shrubs was significant at the a .15 level (Table 1). Most of the higher shrub production was due to increases of 33 percent or 107 lbs/ac in Quercus gambellii, 65 percent or 90 lbs/ac in Prunus virginiana and 33 percent or 35 lbs/ac in Amelanchier alnifolia. These 3 species sprouted profusely after chaining (Fig. 3). Symphoricarpos albus produced 14 percent or 31 lbs/ac less forage 2 years after chaining, and-resprouting was not as noticeable on this species as it was in burned and sprayed areas (Table 5). Forbs increased 25 percent or 108 lbs/ac on chainings (Table 1). Those making up the bulk of the increase were Achillea lanulosa (+ 29 lbs/ac), Aster-Erigeron (+16 lbs/ac), Galium (+25 lbs/ac) and Lathyrus-~ (+20 lbs/ ac) (Table 5). Chainings also supported higher grass production after 2 years with an increase of 17 percent or 65 lbs/ac (Table 1). Post-treatment changes in production of individual grass species on the chainings in terms of pounds per acre were relatively minor. Contribution of Seeded Species to Vegetation Production in Burned, Sprayed and Chained Areas Plummer et al. (1970) were able to retard regrowth of Gambel oak thickets �-31- for 14 years by seeding heavily after treating by burning or mechanical means. Therefore, all areas treated as part of the Hightower Mountain oak study were seeded at a rate of 18.9 lbs per acre with the following species! Melilotus officinalis, Medicago sativa (Ladak, Rambler and Nomad strains), Agropyron cristatum, Agropyron intermedium,Bromus inermis, Dactylus glomerata, Festuca ovina, Cercocarpus montanus, and Purshia tridentata. Seeding rates for each species were described by Kufeld (1972). Seeding success after 2 years was negligible, and part of the reason is believed to be extremely dry weather conditions during the winter, spring and summer of 1972, the first year after seeding in November, 1971. U. S. Weather Bureau records from Collbran show precipitation during January through August, 1972, was only 31 percent of normal and only 53 percent of normal at Glenwood Springs. During the first summer new plants of seeded species could only be found in the fire lanes constructed around the burns, and in small patches within one burn. These consisted of only sparse stands of Agropyron intermedium and Bromus inermis. Precipitation improved somewhat the second year. Between January through August, 1973, precipitation was 84 percent of normal in Collbran and III percent of normal in Glenwood Springs. Seeded species began to appear the second summer and Agropyron intermedium, and Bromus inermis began to form fair stands in the fire lanes and part of one burn (Fig. 4). Agropyron intermedium only produced 12 Ibs/ac of air dry forage in the burns including fire lanes, and Bromus inermis produced 3 lbs/ac. The only other seeded species which produced more than 1.00 lb/ac was Dactylus glomerata which produced 1.12 lbs/ac in the chainings and 8.09 lbs/ac in spray areas. Since this grass was already present in one spray area it is felt that higher production was due to existing plants being released by spraying and not to the seeding effort (Tables 3, 4, 5). Due to the poor seeding success resprouting of existing shrubs have gotten a head start, and seeded species will probably not provide enough competition to retard sprout growth even if the seeded species later become established. In light of the observation that seeded species have only established themselves in part of one burn, in heavily disturbed spots such as fire lanes, and parts of the chainings where bulldozer tracks had dug deeply it appears that better seedbed preparation is needed than was afforded by the treatments used in this study. It may be more effective to burn, aerially seed as soon as the ashes are cool, and pipe harrow the better burned areas. This would plant seed as well as clear out burned snags. Vegetation Responses After Burning Versus Spraying Versus Chaining Statistical comparisons of vegetation production changes on burned, sprayed and chained areas are presented in Table 1. Forbs increased from 14 to 25 percent after 2 years on all three treatments. There were no significant differences among treatments in forb production. Grass production 2 years after spraying was significantly higher than burning (P <.10) or chaining (P < .15) . Air dry production of grasses on the sprayed areas increased 295 percent or 658 lbs/ac compared with a 5 �-32- percent or 16 lb/ac decrease on burns and 17 percent or 65 lb/ac increase on chainings. Shrub production in burns 2 years after treatment was significantly lower (P < .05) than in sprayed or chained areas. The difference in shrub production between sprayed and chained units was also significant, but only at the a .20 level. Changes in Elk, Deer and Cattle Forage 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Definition of "Elk, Deer and Cattle Forage"--Classification of study area plants as elk or deer forage for purposes of determining production changes was based on the average, relative consumption of those plant species by elk and deer in 48 elk and 99 mule deer food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufeld 1973; Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). Plants considered cattle forage are those classified as "desirable" and "intermediate" by the U. S. Forest Service in their Region 2, Range Analysis Handbook for the foothill shrub, aspen weed, and mountain meadow vegetation types. Since animal preference for individual plant species varies from location to location the validity of applying "average" consumption data to this study area may be open to question. However, these averages do represent a great deal of food habits research, and constitutes the best information available to date on the foods these animals have been known to consume and the relative amounts consumed. For elk the following classifications are used: highly valuable, and least valuable (Kufeld 1973). For deer plants are classified as he9vily eaten, moderately eaten, or lightly eaten (Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). Although the terminology used in the elk and deer references is different the basis for classifying plants according to relative consumption is exactly the same. "Highly valuable" plants for elk and "heavily eaten" plants for deer, by definition, generally comprised a major part of a food sample (usually at least 20 percent) in food habits studies where reported. In a few cases, plants which comprised less than a major portion of the food sample were classified as "highly valuable" or "heavily eaten" if their reported contribution to the diet was far in excess of their reported vegetative composition. "Valuable" plants for elk and "moderately eaten" plants for deer usually comprised between 5 and 20 percent of the food sample. "Least valuable" plants for elk and "lightly eaten" plants for deer comprised less than 5 but more than 1 percent. Not all plants on the Hightower Mountain oak study area were classified according to their relative preference as elk and deer forage as some had never been reported in the literature as eaten by elk or deer during some seasons or at all during the year. The absence of such plants from the literature possibly suggests that they are of minor importance as elk or deer forage. Therefore, for purposes of the Hightower Mountain oak study they will not be considered elk or deer forage. Definition of "Available Forage"--Data and discussions relating to available forage are based on the assumption that due to factors such as degree of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to elk and deer on the study area �-33- will consist of only shrubs during winter; grasses and shrubs during spring and fall, and forbs, grasses and shrubs during sunnner. Discussions of cattle forage relate only to summer at which time all forage is available. Effects of Burning on Available Elk Forage--After 2 years burned areas supported less available elk forage during all 4 seasons of the year than existed before treatment. A pre- to post-treatment ratio using 1.00 as a basis to represent the level of elk forage production before treatment with adjustment for normal year to year changes measured on control areas is shown in Table 6. A single value for elk forage was derived by weighting Ibs/ac of highly valuable forage by a factor of "3", valuable by "2", and least valuable forage by "1". A total weighted value was then computed. Two years after burning the level of available forage production compared to 1.00 was 0.64 for winter, 0.84 for spring, 0.80 for summer and 0.67 for fall (Table 6). The largest Ib/ac decreases on burns during winter, sunnner and fall occurred in the "valuable" category. The decrease in valuable fall forage was significant at the a .10 level. During spring the largest decrease occurred in the least valuable category although this was not significant even at the a 2.5 level (Table 6). Effects of Spraying on Available Elk Forage--Spraying produced the most available spring, summer and fall elk forage of the 3 methods tested after a period of 2 years. Pre- to 2 year post-treatment ratios of elk forage production were 1:2.09 for spring, 1:1.72 for summer and 1:1.94 for fall (Table 6). This was mainly due to the large increases in grasses which occurred after spraying. Most of the increased spring, summer and fall forage consisted of plants considered highly valuable elk forage. Covariance analysis indicated the increases in highly valuable .spring, summer and fall forage were significant, but only at the a .20, .15 and .25 confidence levels respectively. The increase in valuable fall forage was also significant at the a .20 level. Winter elk forage production in sprayed areas was almost unchanged 2 years after treatment with a pre- to post-treatment ratio of 1:1.01 (Table 6). Effects of Chaining on Available Elk Forage--Chained areas supported increased amounts of available winter, spring, summer and fall elk forage two years after treatment. Respective pre- to post-treatment elk forage production ratios were 1:1.24, 1:1.21, 1:1.13 and 1:1.12. Chaining produced the largest increases in available winter elk forage of the three methods tested. Among forage categories the only increase due to chaining which tested statistically significant was at the a .20 level in valuable spring elk forage (Table 6). Elk Forage Responses After Burning Versus Spraying Versus Chaining--The greatest difference between treatments in production of available elk forage was between burning and sprying, since production of elk forage for all seasons of the year decreased in burns and increased in spray areas. Production of available, air dry winter, spring, summer and fall elk forage in sprayed areas exceeded that of burns by 334, 802, 921 and 991 lbs/ac �-34- respectively. These production values represent the totals of highly valuable, valuable and least valuable forage not weighted for relative animal consumption. Covariance analysis showed spray areas significantly higher than burns in the six following classes of forage. Some of the confidence levels were rather low, however, despite large differences in terms of lbs/ac: highly valuable spring forage (P<.15), least valuable spring forage (p < .25), highly valuable summer forage (P < .25) , valuable surmner forage (P < .15), highly valuable fall forage (P < .20), and valuable fall forage (P <.05) (Table 6). Available elk forage production for all seasons in terms of lbs/ac was also much higher on chainings after 2 years than on burns. Production of available, air dry winter, spring, sunnner and fall elk forage in chainings exceeded that of burns by 515, 436, 444 and 451 lbs/ac respectively. Production on chainings was significantly higher at the a .20 level in valuable sunnner forage, and at the a .05 level in valuable fall forage (Table 6). Spray areas were higher than chainings in available spring, summer and fall elk forage by 260, 204 and 211 pounds of air dry forage per acre. Available winter elk forage in chainings exceeded that of sprayed areas by 152 lbs/ac (air dry wt) after 2 years. Sprayed areas were significantly higher at the a .20 level than chainings in production of highly valuable spring and highly valuable surmner elk forage (Table 6). Effects of Burning on Available Deer Forage--Two years after treatment burned areas supported less available deer forage during all seasons of the year than existed before treatment. Relative available deer forage in burns after 2 years compared to a pre- treatment basis of 1:00 was as follows: Winter, 1:0.54; spring, 1:0.59; sunnner, 1:0.84; £all, 1:0.66. Decreases in moderately eaten winter and spring deer forage were significant at the a .15 level, and at the a .05 level in moderately eaten fall forage (Table 7). . Effects of Spraying on Available Deer Forage--Spraying produced increased amounts of available spring, summer and fall deer forage. Pre- to posttreatment forage production ratios were 1:1.40, 1:1.20 and 1:1.13 respectively. Available winter deer forage was about unchanged 2 years after spraying with a pre- to post-treatment ratio of 1:1.02. The increases in moderately eaten and lightly eaten spring deer forage were significant at the a .15 and .10 levels respectively. The increase in lightly eaten sunnner deer forage was significant at the a .15 level (Table 7). Effects of Chaining on Available Deer Forage--Chaining increased available deer forage during all seasons after 2 years. Pre- to post-treatment forage production ratios in chainings were: Winter, 1:1.23; spring, 1:1.17; summer 1:1.18, and fall, 1:1.26. The only increase which was statistically significant was at the a .10 level in moderately eaten spring forage (Table 7). �-35- Deer Forage Responses After Burning Versus Spraying Versus Chaining-Available deer forage 2 years a.fter treatment was much more abundant in sprayed than burned areas during all seasons. Production of available, air dry deer forage in sprayed areas exceeded that of burns during winter, spring, summer and fall by 392, 988, 894 and 422 Ibs/ac respectively. The following differences in available forage production between burn and spray areas were statistically significant: Lightly eaten winter forage (P < •OS), heavily, moderately and lightly eaten spring forage (P <.25, P < .05, and P < .10 respectively), lightly eaten summer forage (p < .10) , and moderately eaten fall forage (P < .05) (Table 7). Production of available, air dry forage in chainings was also higher than burns during all seasons by the following amounts in lbs/ac: Winter, 546; spring, 562; summer, 518; and fall, 532. Production of available moderately eaten spring, summer and fall deer forage on chainings was significantly higher than burns at the a .05, .20 and .05 levels respectively (Table 7). Spraying produced 426 lbs/ac more available air dry forage than chaining during spring, and 376 lbs/ac more during summer. Production on spray areas was significantly higher than chainings in lightly eaten spring and summer deer forage (P < .10 and P < .15). Chaining produced 153 lbs/ ac more available air dry forage than spraying during winter, and 110 lbs/ac more during fall. Production on chained areas was significantly higher (P<.lO) than spraying in lightly eaten winter forage (Table 7). Effects of Burning on Cattle Forage--Slightly less summer cattle forage was found in burned areas after 2 years. The pre- to 2 year post-treatment forage production ratio for desirable and intermediate plants was 1:0.95. Burning, however, resulted in a significant decrease (P <.05) in abundance of least desirable plants after 2 years (Table 8). Effects of Spraying on Cattle Forage--Substantial increases in summer cattle forage were observed on sprayed areas after 2 years. The pre- to 2 year posttreatment forage production ratio was 1:2.17. Among intermediate plant species the increases were significant at the a .15 level (Table 8). Effects of Chaining on Cattle Forage--A pre- to post-treatment forage production ratio of 1:1.24 for desirables and intermediates was recorded for chained areas 2 years after treatment. Chaining, however, also brought about an increase in least desirable plants that was significant at the a .15 level (Table 8). Cattle Forage Responses After Burning Versus Spraying Versus Chaining--Sprayed areas contained 653 more lbs/ac of air dry, summer cattle forage 2 years after treatment than was found in burns. Most of the spray area increase occurred among intermediate species. These were significantly more abundant at the a .15 level in spray areas than in burns. Least desirable plants, however, were also more abundant in spray areas by 375 lbs/ac. This was significant at the a .05 level. �-36- Production of summer cattle forage was 193 lbs/ac higher in chainings than burns, although this was not significant even at the a .25 level. Least desirables were 405 lbs/ac more abundant in chainings than burns and this difference was significant at the a .05 level. Summer cattle forage production in sprayed areas exceeded that of chainings by 461 lbs/ac. Among intermediate plants the increase was significant at the a .15 level. Least desirables were 30 lbs/ac more abundant in spray than chained units and this difference was significant at the a .15 level (Table 8). Nutrient and Mineral Content of Forage Collected on Control, Burned, Sprayed and Chained Areas During the Second Summer and Third Winter After Treatment Results of soil tests are presented in Table 9. These tests show no major differences between areas in soil nutrients or other properties except for nitrogen. Tests showed 24 ppm of nitrogen in the control compared with 2 ppm, 1 ppm and 4 ppm in the burned, sprayed and chained areas respectively. Due to the similarity of other soil property values among areas, and the fact that this control area is located directly between the sprayed and burned units the author doubts if the 24 ppm value in the control really represents a true measurement of nitrogen in the control. Summer plant collections for nutrient analysis (July 24 through 27, 1973) consisted of the following species: Forbs - Achillea lanulosa, Agastache urticifolia, Cirsium canescens, Galium boreale, Grindelia aphanactis, Helenium hoopesii, Iris missouriensis, Lathyrus leucanthus, Ligusticum porteri, Lupinusargenteus, Rudbeckia montana, Swertia radiata, and Thalictrum fendleri. Grasses - Agropyron smithii,Agropyron trachycaulum, Bromus anomalus and Poa pratensis. Shrubs - Amelanchier alnifolia, Artemisi~ cana, Chrysathamnus viscidiflorus, Prunus virginiana, Quercus gambelIII: Rosa nutkana, and Syrnphoricarpos albus. Winter plant collections (November 12, 1974) consisted of the same shrub species collected during summer and 2 grasses (or grasslikes) Carex geyeri and Poa pratensis. Since fewer grasses including one of a different species were collected during winter, summer and winter data for grasses are not directly comparable. Forbs were not collected during winter as they were not available. Nutrient analyses for plants collected during summer are presented in Table 10, and in Ta~le 11 for plants collected during winter. All significant differences shown in these tables and discussed in ensuing paragraphs on nutrient and mineral analysis refer to the 5 percent confidence level. Except for sodium in forbs, nutrient and mineral content of plants in the spray area was not significantly different from plants in the control. Most of the significant differences between treatments in plant nutrient and mineral content occurred in forbs. Most of the significant differences in nutrient and mineral content occurred between control and burn; control and chain; burn and spray and chain and spray. Except for iron in shrubs during summer and copper in grasses during winter there were no significant differences in plant nutrient and mineral content between the burned and chained area. In general, burned and chained areas when compared with the control �-37- and spray areas showed increased levels of total cell contents, soluble carbohydrate, zinc and copper in most plant categories {forbs, grasses and shrubs (Tables 10 and 11). Specific differences in plant nutrient and mineral content are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs. Comparison of Control and Burn Areas in Plant Nutrient and Mineral Content Protein--Protein content of shrubs in the burn was significantly lower than the control during summer and slightly lower during winter. During summer forbs and grasses in the burn also had lower protein levels, but these were not statistically significant. Total Cell Content and Soluble Carbohydrate--During summer total cell content and soluble carbohydrate levels in the burn were higher in grasses and significantly higher in forbs. These values were also higher in the two grasses collected during winter. Among shrubs total cell content and soluble carbohydrate levels in the burn were lower than controls in summer, but higher in winter although neither difference was significant. Copper and Zinc--During summer copper and zinc levels in forbs and grasses were significantly higher in the burn than the control. During winter significantly higher copper levels were found in the two grasses collected in November. Zinc levels in those grasses were also higher, but the increase in zinc was not significant. Among shrubs on the burn copper and zinc was higher in summer. Zinc was also higher in shrubs in winter, ~ut copper dropped slightly below control area levels. The differences between burn and control areas in copper and zinc levels in shrubs did not show statistical significance. Comparison of Control and Spray Areas in Plant Nutrient and Mineral Content Sodium--During summer sodium levels among forbs in the spray area were significantly higher than on the control, and slightly higher in grasses. Sodium levels in shrubs were slightly lower than in controls during summer, but considerably higher in winter, although neither difference was statistically significant. Comparison of Control and Chained Areas in Plant Nutrient and Mineral Content Total Cell Content--During summer total cell content of forbs on the chaining was significantly higher than the control. Higher total cell content levels were also found in shrubs and grasses during summer and shrubs during winter, but these higher levels were not significant at the a .05 level. Protein--Forb protein levels on the chaining during summer were significantly higher than the control. Protein levels in grasses and shrubs during summer �-38- and shrubs during winter were slightly lower than the control. Ether Extract--Forbs on the chaining had significantly higher ether extract levels than the control during summer. Compared with the control ether extract in shrubs was slightly higher in chainings during summer and winter, but grasses during summer contained slightly less ether extract than on the control. Soluble Carbohydrate--Soluble carbohydrate levels in forbs and grasses were 'significantly h~gher than control area levels during summer. Shrubs also contained more soluble carbohydrate than the control during summer and winter, but the increased amount was not significant at the a .05 level. Iron--Iron content of forbs and grasses on the chaining was significantly below those of the control during summer and was the lowest of the four types of treatments. Shrubs also contained less iron than the control or other treatments but the lower iron levels for shrubs were not significant at a .05. Copper and Zinc--During summer copper and zinc levels in forbs and grasses were significantly higher in the chaining than in the control. Higher levels of copper and zinc were also found in shrubs on the chaining during summer and winter, but the increases were not statistically significant. Potassium--Less potassium was found in forbs, grasses and shrubs during summer on the chaining as compared with the control. The decreased potassium levels for forbs was significant. During winter, potassium levels in shrubs were slightly higher than in the control. Comparison of Burned and Sprayed Area in Plant Nutrient and Mineral Content Total Cell Contents and Soluble Carbohydrate--Forbs in the burn contained significantly more total cell contents and soluble carbohydrate during summer than those in the sprayed area. Total cell contents in grasses and shrubs were also higher during summer in the burn than the sprayed area, but not significantly higher. During winter total cell content and soluble carbohydrate in shrubs were slightly higher in the spray area. Copper and Zinc--During summer copper and zinc levels in forbs, grasses and shrubs were higher in the burn than the sprayed area. Levels which were significantly higher in the burn during summer were copper in forbs and grasses and zinc in forbs. During winter copper content in the two grass species collected in November was significantly higher in the burn than the spray, but winter copper as well as zinc content of shrubs in the burn was slightly lower than in the spray. �-39- Manganese--During summer manganese content of forbs, grasses and shrubs was higher in the sprayed area than the burn. This was significant for forbs. During winter, however, manganese in shrubs was slightly lower in the spray area than the burn. Sodium--During summer sodium was significantly higher in forbs on the spray area and slightly higher in grasses than on the burn. Among shrubs sodium was slightly lower on the spray area during summer but higher than the burn during winter. The sodium differences in shrubs, however, were not significant at a .05. Potassium--Forbs, grasses and shrubs in the sprayed area contained more potassium than in the burn during summer. Increased potassium in summer was significant for forbs but not for shrubs and grasses. During winter potassium in shrubs was slightly lower in the sprayed area. Comparison of Burned and Chained Area in Plant Nutrient and Mineral Content Iron--During summer iron content of forbs on the chaining was significantly lower than on the burn. Iron was also lower in shrubs and grasses on the chaining during summer and in shrubs during winter though these differences were not significant at a .05. Copper--Copper content of the two grasses collected in November was significantly higher on the burn than on the chaining. Comparison of Sprayed and Chained Area in Plant Nutrient and Mineral Content Total Cell Contents and Soluble Carbohydrate--Total cell contents and soluble carbohydrate in forbs, grasses and shrubs were higher in the chaining than the sprayed area during summer. The higher levels for forbs were significant, but not for grasses and shrubs. During winter total cell contents and soluble carbohydrate were slightly higher in the sprayed area. Protein--Protein level in forbs on the chaining was significantly higher than on the sprayed area during summer. During summer grass protein levels were slightly higher on the sprayed area. Among shrubs protein was slightly higher on the chaining during summer, but during winter it was higher on the sprayed area. Ether Extract--Ether extract content of forbs during summer was significantly higher on the chaining than the sprayed area. It was slightly higher in shrubs on the chaining during summer and winter. Among grasses collected during summer ether extract was nearly the same level on both the sprayed and chained areas. �-40- Iron--Iron levels in forbs, grasses and shrubs on the chaining were lower than sprayed areas during summer, and iron content of shrubs was also lower on the chaining in winter. Iron was significantly lower in chained area forbs. Copper--The chaining showed significantly higher copper levels in forbs and grasses during summer than did the spray area. Copper levels in shrubs were also slightly higher in the chaining during both summer and winter. Zinc--Zinc levels in forbs on the chaining were significantly higher during summer than on the sprayed area. More zinc was also found during summer in grasses on the chaining and in chained area shrubs during both summer and winter, but these levels were not significantly higher than the spray area. Elk Use Changes 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Despite declines in available, seasonal elk forage on burns 2 years after treatment compared with sizable increases on sprayed and chained areas elk exhibited a significantly greater (P<.lO) preference for burned units. Elk per square mile increased 45 percent on burns during the fall, winter and spring period, and decreased 48 percent on sprayed areas and 70 percent on chainings (Table 12). Compared with control areas, however, the changes in elk use due to burning, spraying and chaining, though relatively large percentagewise, were not statistically significant at the a .10 level. Reasons for apparent preference of elk for burned areas over those sprayed and chained cannot be pinpointed. Two factors, however, which may have influenced the attractiveness of burned areas to elk are changes in cover and plant nutrient content. Cover Changes Burning did not denude the area but varied from almost total incineration of all vegetation with just a few dead snags left standing (Fig. 5) to only partial removal of the understory with little or no damage to the larger oaks (Fig. 6). On much of the area most of the understory was removed with partial destruction of the overstory (Fig. 7). The overall result of burning was creation of openings interspersed with patches of standing oak vegetation suitable for escape cover and shade (Fig. 8). In sprayed areas most of the shrub vegetation was either totally or partially killed, but the dead material remained standing leaving a thicket only slightly more open and accessible to large animals than before treatment (Fig. 2) . After 2 years chained areas were very open with little escap~ cover and no trees large enough to provide shade (Fig. 3). Forest openings have been found to receive increased use by elk and deer (Patton 1974; Pearson 1968; Reynolds 1962a, 1962b, 1966a, 1966b; Wallmo 1969). However, during the fall of 1973, when 2 year post-treatment game use measurements were being �-41- made this study area received unusually heavy hunting pressure particularly for deer as efforts were being made to reduce the deer herd. Heavy hunting pressure coupled with the lack of cover in chainings may have caused elk to avoid them during that period, and resulted in the substantial drop in elk use recorded on chainings 2 years after treatment (Table 12). Plant Nutrient Content Changes Elk preference for burned areas may have been influenced to some extent by increased levels of certain nutrients and minerals such as total cell contents, soluble carbohydrate, copper and ZLqC. As described in detail in the section on plant nutrients increased amounts of these were found in some plant categories (forbs, grasses and shrubs) on the burned areas as compared with control and spray areas. Since relatively little difference was observed between the burn and chaining in plant content of these nutrients and minerals, however, any influence exerted by increased plant nutrient and mineral content must have been coupled by other attracting factors such as the previously mentioned cover changes. Deer Use Changes 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Deer use on the study area during the 2 year post-treatment game use measurement period (Sept. 3, 1973 to May 8, 1974) was very light due to 2 factors. Unusually heavy hunting pressure during the fall of 1973, moved deer onto adjacent private lands, and record snowfall during the winter of 1973-74 forced deer to leave the area earlier and return later than normal. Because of low deer use it was felt necessary to make measurements another year to determine if 1973-74 data provide a true picture of deer response to the various treatments. Thus, pellet plots were cleared in September, 1974, and accumulated pellets will be counted in May, 1975. Data on deer use 2 years after treatment are presented in Table 13 of this report for purposes of maintaining a record in progress reports even though the validity of these data is presently unknown. One facet of the data which also occurred in elk use data is a large drop in deer use on chainings after treatment. When tested statistically this drop was significant at the a .05 level. As discussed in the section on elk use this is attributed, at least in part, to unusually heavy hunting pressure in the study area vicinity during the fall of 1973, coupled with the lack of escape cover in chained areas. Cattle Use Changes 2 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Control Areas Data show cattle use increases for both control areas with an average increase of 4.1 cow days use per acre. Much of the increase in control unit 6 is believed due to movement of cattle around unit 7 (a burned area) and between units 5 (a sprayed area) and 7 to which cattle were attracted. Unit 6 lies directly between units 5 and 7. Thus, there was very little, if any, actual change in cattle use on the control areas. �-42- Burned Areas The most preferred treatment by cattle two years after treatment was definitely burning, even though cattle forage production decreased on burns compared to sizable increases on sprayed and chained areas. Both burns showed the largest increases in cattle use after treatment, and these were significant at the a .10 level (Table 14). Cattle use in burned units increased 15.2 and 22.1 cow days use per acre respectively, and averaged 18.7. Cattle preference for burned areas was also obvious from field observations. Preference for burns was approximately 6 times greater than for the sprayed or chained areas. The reasons for cattle preference for burns over sprayed and chained areas have not been specifically identified. Possible reasons are creation of openings interspersed with patches of cover and shade in burned areas, and increased amounts of certain nutrients and minerals in plants found on burns. These changes may also have been responsible for increased elk preference for burned areas over those sprayed and chained, and are discussed in detail in the previous section on "elk use changes 2 years after burning, spraying and chaining." Sprayed Areas One spray area (unit 5) showed a substantial increase in cattle use as a result of spraying while the other (unit 2) showed a slight decrease (Table 14). According to the data, which show an average increase of 3.3 cow days use per acre in sprayed areas, spraying would appear to be the second most preferred treatment by cattle. Since the cattle use change on the combined spray areas is not significant at the a .10 confidence level, and in light of circumstances described in the following discussion on chaining, it is not valid to conclude that cattle preferred the sprayed areas more than the chained areas at the end of the second year following treatment. Chained Areas No cattle use was recorded in chained unit 3 in 1973 (Table 14) partly due to the fact it is on the south side of Buzzard Creek, and high water during the spring and summer of 1973 kept Buzzard allotment cattle on the north side. This unit lies in two cattle allotments and is difficult for cattle from both allotments to find. The almost impenetrable oak thicket in unit 3 was opened substantially by chaining, and it is felt cattle use would have occurred in 1973, if cattle had been able to get to the area. Cattle use in the other chaining (unit 8) dropped from 18.3 cow days use per acre in 1970 to 8.7 in 1973. It appears that cattle were simply drawn off unit 8 into the more preferred burned area of adjacent unit 7. This occurred even though forage conditions in unit 8 were improved for cattle by chaining. Because the change in cattle use on chainings is not significant at the a .10 level, and due to inability of cattle to find and get into unit 3, it is not valid to conclude that chained areas were any less preferred by cattle than sprayed areas. Had it not been for existence of the highly preferred burned areas cattle may have exhibited a greater preference for areas treated by spraying and chaining. �-43- LITERATURE CITED Julander, Odell. 1955. Determining J. Range Manage. 8(4):182. grazing use by cow-chip counts. Kufeld, Roland C. 1970. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Rept. Proj. W-10l-R-12, WP 4, J3. July, 1970, Part 1. pp. 113-126. 1971. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and -----cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Rept. Proj. W-10l-R-13, WP 4, J3. July, 1971, Part 1. pp. 23-86. 1972. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Research Rept. Proj. W-10l-R-14, WP 4, J3. July, 1972, Part 2. pp. 81-97. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. 26 (2)106-113. J. Range Manage. 1974. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Research Rept. Proj. W-10l-R-16, vW4, J3. July, 1974, Part 1. pp , 17-23. Kufeld, Roland C., O. C. Wallmo and Charles Feddema. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Pap. RM-lil. 3lp. Plummer, A. Perry, Donald R. Christensen, Richard Stevens and Kent R. Jorgensen. 1970. Intermediate wheatgrass, smooth brome and other herbs open and control Gambel oak thickets. In Highlights, results and accomplishments of game range restoration studies. Utah Div. of Fish and Game. Pub. No. 70-3. pp. 26-30. Patton, David R. 1974. Patch cutting increases deer and elk use of a pine forest in Arizona. J. For. 72(12):764-766. Pearson, Henry A. 1968. Thinning, clearcutting and reseeding affect deer and elk use of ponderosa pine forests in Arizona. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-119, 4p. Reynolds, Hudson G. 1962a. Use of natural openings in a ponderosa pine forest in Arizona by deer, elk and cattle. u.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note No. 78, 4p. 1962b. Effect of logging on understory vegetation and deer use in a ponderosa pine forest in Arizona by deer; elk and cattle. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. 80. 7p. Res. Note No. �-44- Reynolds, Hudson G. 1966a. Slash cleanup in a ponderosa pine forest affects use by deer and cattle. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-64, 3p. 1966b. Use of openings in spruce-fir forests of Arizona by elk, deer and cattle. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-66, 4p. Wal1mo, O. C. 1969. Response of deer to alternate strip c1earcutting of lodgepole pine and spruce-fir timber in Colorado. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-141, 4p. Prepared by ;e~-udC,.~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Changes in air dry forage production recorded within forb, grass and shrub categories two years after burning, spraying and chaining. Plant type Change due to burnt nq J.I lbs/ac percent Change due to s[:!ra~i ng 1bs/ac percent Change due to chaining 16s7ac percent Confidence level where treatment difference is significant ~ Control Control Control Burn Burn Spray & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain & Chain Forbs Grasses Shrubs + 63.47 - 16.48 +305.36 + 78.51 +658.05 + 34.83 + 14.96 +295.33 + 4.28 +107.53 + 64.60 +166.83 .05 Totals -257.37 +780.48 + 50.27 +340.08 +14.49 - 5.24 -38.18 --16.59 +25.34 +16.70 +18.54 .10 .15 .10 .05 .05 .15 .20 -+19.89 I .pVI I lJDerived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. ~Indicates the highest confidence level at which treatment differences are Significant. the a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only treatment differences that are significant at �Table 2. Production of air spraying and chaining. Plant species dry summer vegetation Percent 1970 recorded in the control composition 1973 areas before and two years following Lbs of vegetation produced.per acre 1970 . 1973 1bslac 24.15 4.52 0.00 0.30 0.18 0.00 0.18 0.18 1.49 0.00 0.00 0.42 63.64 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.19 0.00 1.31 0.71 7.26 0.00 1.84 0.18 0.00 6.90 0.00 0.00 28.13 - 0.36 + 0.59 + 1.61 - 0.18 0.00 - 0.18 - 0.12 + 0.71 0.00 0.00 - 0.06 -18.14 0.00 0.00 + 0.06 + 0.24 0.00 - 0.30 - 0.12 + 2.32 + 0.12 + 0.95 + 0.06 0.00 + 3.75 + 0.12 0.00 burning, Change 1970 to 19.73 ]j percent ~ AcJUUeo. .tal1LLi'.oM. Ag ct6.to.cJt e f.lIl.UcJ. 6 oUa Ag 06 (21(M 9 .e.o.u.co. AUlWII o.cwnbta..tLUn Al'lC:VW.6ace .6 ep.tentJUa naLU AQ[(.Ue.9<'0. co eJtu..f.ea. Alto.D-i..6 ciltwwnoneU Alto.DM rUM u..to. AJU~l'ta.Jt<.o. co I1ge6.ta. AJt.te.Jnl..6.i.0.b.i.el1~ AJt.tcn0.,-Lo. ciJto.cuncu.£.u.6 AJt.te.Jn~.i.a fudo vo do.na. A~;(:eJt - EJt.i.geno n A6 .tl!.aga.e.u..6hay den.<.o.nu..6 Ba..f..6wno Ith.i. ZOo .6 ag.<..t:ta.:ta. BeJtb~ Itepelu, Ca.e.OcJlOJt.tu..6gu.n~onU Co.p.6 eUo. buMo.-pct6.tOItM Ca.6.t.i.l.e.eja .e..I.na.Jt<.a.e60Uo. CItcn a po eUwn b eJt.f.a.neUeJt.i. C.Uv~.i.wn cen.to.VJ1.eae Coilom<.a linea.Jt.i..6 Como.l1ciJto.wnbe..Ua:to. Cymop;(:VLU6 pUltpUlteu..6 Ve.e.pfz.i.n.i.wn I!Won.<. Vefph-i.nLum accJ.del1.;(:a.e.e Ve6 cuJt£U.lUo. .6Oph-i.o. V-i..6POltwn .tJtacJLYcCVtpwn 1.41 0.26 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.03 3.66 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.43 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.40 0.00 0.00 3.26 0.26 0.04 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.02 2.82 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.59 0.01 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.65 0.01 0.00 52.28 4.16 0.59 1.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 2.20 0.00 0.00 0.36 45.50 0.00 0.00 0.24 1.43 0.00 1.01 0.59 9.58 0.12 2.80 0.24 0.00 10.65 0.12 0.00 +116.50 7.89 - + 48.00 I ~ '" I - 28.50 + 20.00 - 22.73 + 31. 97 + 51.61 + 54.3', ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 2. Production of air dry summer vegetation recorded in the control areas before and two years following burning, spraying and chaining (contd). Plant species Percent comQosition 1970 1973 Lbs of vegetation ~oduced Qer acre o 1973 Change 1970 to 1973 JJ percent , bs/ac Forbs (contd) ~Logonum unbettatum Ep.uob.[um paMQufa.tum Fn4gak.[a amen1Qana Ga.Uwn Gentiana he;tvr.of.Jepa.la Gvw.111um Gilia a.gg.l!.£gaia GJt.[nde-Ua aphanaQ;Uf., HaQ/~e-Ua .f.ep:tophyUa. He.f.en-<-um hOOPMU HydJtophy.e.tum Qap-i:ta.tum HydJtophy.e.tl@ 6end.een1 Iw m..Wf.JOuMeMM Lac.tu.Qa .s Qak.[o.ta Lappufa .l!.edowf.Jk1i La.thy.l!.u.f.J - V.[ua Lep.[dium deM16.f.o.l!.um Ugu.f.JtiQum Unum .f.ew.u.,U Lomatium .f.ep:toQanpum Lu.p.[nu.f.JaJl.gen:teLV~ Madia g.f.omvr.a.ta MediQago f.Jativa Me.e-Uo.:tu.f.Jo6Mun~ MeA:tel1,6.[a 6JtanUf.JQana MeA:teM.[a .tan c.eo.ea.:ta Mo.edav.[Qa panv.[6.f.oJta 0.02 0.00 0.00 1.08 0.01 0.37 0.00 0.21 0.05 0.30 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.32 0.00 1.57 0.20 0.00 7.58 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.00 1.01 0.02 0.18 0.01 0.28 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.78 0.01 1.29 0.19 0.00 4.63 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.00 18.62 0.12 6.30 0.00 3.45 0.83 4.94 0.00 2.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 124.43 0.00 27.12 3.63 0.00 131.50 3.75 0.00 0.00 7.97 0.00 0.00 1.13 0.65 0.00 16.12 0.30 2.85 0.12 4.22 0.00 1.78 0.12 1.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 107.83 0.12 20.82 3.33 0.00 75.83 0.18 0.00 0.00 7.14 0.00 0.00 + 0.71 + 0.65 0.00 - 2.50 + 0.18 - 3.45 + 0.12 + 0.77 - 0.83 - 3.15 + 0.12 - 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 -16.59 - 0.12 - 6.30 - 0.30 0.00 -55.67 - 3.57 0.00 0.00 - 0.83 0.00 0.00 - 13.42 - 54.72 + 22.41 I - 63.86 - 26.47 - 13.34 - 23.25 - 8.20 - 42.33 - 95.24 - 10.45 -----------------------------------------------------.---------------------------------------------------------------------------_._--------- .p- ....• I �Table 2. Production of air dry summer vegetation recorded in the control areas before and two years following burning, spraying and chaining (contd). Plant species Lbs of' vegetation ,roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition 1970 1973 , 9 1i 1973 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.06 4.88 0.00 3.09 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 3.45 0.00 0.00 2.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.01 1.90 13.44 0.00 2.85 32.71 0.00 0.06 0.00 13.74 1.31 0.30 0.65 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.06 4.10 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.12 0.89 0.00 0.83 0.83 27.30 0.06 6.66 24.92 Change )970 to 197311 16s7ac percent £( Forbs {contd} Oenotheha cae6pLto~a Opwt-tLa OMItOC.MpU6 .eu,tew., Osmonncza Pac.rw,:t£ma mYJU>-Ln-Ue6 PecU.c.u.e.cvw, gJtay-L Pern>-temon c.Jtan cia..e..eU PeM.temon ~bUc..tU6 Phac.e.e-La he.teJtophyLea Ph.eox .eong-L6oUa Po.eemoYiA.um 6oUo.6-W.6-i.mum Po.eygonum av-Lc.u.tMe Po.eygonum dougla.6-i.-i. Po.tentiUa pu.tc.heJUWna Ranunc.u.tw., -Lnamoenw., Rumex c.Jt-i..6pw., Rudbec.k-i.a montana Senec.-i.o ambJtO.6-Lo-Ldu Senec.-i.o -Ln.tegeJUWnU6 S enec.-i.o .6 eJtJta SUene menUe6-i.-i. SmUac.-i.na .6 .teUata. SoUdago .6 paJU>-L6.eoJta S.teU.a.tl..La SWeJL.tLa Jtadia.ta TaJtaxac.um 06 6-Lc.-i.na.ee ThaUc.:tJtum 6 end.evu. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.28 0.00 0.19 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.80 0.00 0.17 1. 95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.87 0.09 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.00 0;00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.05 1.73 0.00 0.44 1.59 0.00 0.06 0.00 - 2.32 - 3.57 + 0.30 - 2.44 - 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.06 0.65 0.00 0.00 - 1.31 0.00 + 0.12 + 0.89 0.00 - 0.18 - 1.07 +13.86 + .06 + 3.81 - 7.79 - 14.44 - 73.17 - 78.85 I -I'- 00 I + 18.97 - 64.71 +103.10 +133.33 - 23.82 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 2. Production of air dry summer vegetation recorded in the control areas before and two years following burning, spraying and chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species 1970 1970 1973 . 1973 1/ Change 1970 to 1973 lbs/ac percent fI 0.30 0.00 1.25 2.44 0.06 0.00 3.39 2.02 5.65 2.14 + 0.30 0.00 0.00 + 0.12 + 0.06 0.00 - 0.48 + 1.01 + 2.74 - 0.12 Forbs (contd) T4agopogon dubium TM.gopogon pJta.ten6M UJr-uca dcocca VaJ..eJtiana ocudentctU6 VeAonica ameJticana Ve/tonica bilo ba Vig u,,{.eJtamu1ti6R.oJta V,tofu JtUg/LtOI.> a V,to.e.aI.>heUonU Wlje..tJua amp.e.eucauU'.> Total Forbs 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.06 0.18 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.08 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.14 0.37 0.1'4 0.00 0.00 3.87 1.01 2.91 2.26 -- -- 31.86 30.03 545.35 478.50 -66.85 - 12.26 84.52 0.00 0.00 36.58 0.18 0.59 0.00 0.00 16.18 0.00 0.06 35.27 0.00 ·0.00 2u.40 3.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.10 0.00 0.36 -49.25 0.00 0.00 -16.18 + 3.63 - 0.59 0.00 0.00 -12.07 - 58.27 0.00 0.00 1.25 2.32 + 5.13 - 12.31 +100.00 + 93.88 5.26 - Grasses AgJt°pYJton AgJtopYJton CJtiI.>tatum AgJtopyltOll intvunecUum BJtomUl.>anomaJ..UI.> BJtomUl.>,tneJtmi!.> Bltomu-s te.ctOltum CMex Vacty.e.U6 g.e.omeJtata Ef.ym UI.>9 fuuCUl.> FeI.>tuca oV,tna FeI.>tuca thUltbeJti 4.85 0.00 0.00 2.15 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 2; 17 0.00 0.00 1. 31 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.02 - 44.23 - 74.63 0.00 + 0.30 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,.. I .". \!) I �Table 2. Production of air dry summer vegetation recorded in the control areas before and two years following burning, spraying and chaining (contd). Plant species Percent com~osition 1970 1973 Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre 1970 1973 Change 1970 to 1973 l! 16s/ac percent ~ Grasses (contd) Ho~deum b~aehyanth~um JuneU6 ba.lUeU6 Koe..e.vu:.a eJUJ.,.taJ:.a. O~ZUOP-6-i/.,hymeno..i.du Phte.wn pJz.a.ten.oe Poa-C~ex geyvu:. SLtan..i.on hy-6bUx Supa 0.25 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 12.74 0.00 0.97 1.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 13.52 0.00 0.91 4.10 0.12 0.24 0.00 0.00 221.61 0.00 16.06 14.87 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00 218.64 0.00 14.45 +10.77 - 0.12 + 0.65 0.00 0.00 2.97 0.00 - 1.61 - +262.32 - 1.34 - 10.00 I IJ1 0 Total Grasses 22.04 I 19.49 380.24 312.79 0.00 123.95 1.07 7.20 0.95 0.00 0.30 2.08 0.00 0.00 103.91 1.78 0.00 115.39 0.48 9.16 1.67 0.00 0.12 3.75 0.00 0.00 92.67 2.91 - 67.45 - 17.74 Shrubs Ae~ g.e.ab~um AmUa.nc.h..i.~ a.tn..i.6oUa ,."-t(:J~..i.a c.ana Mte~..i.a bUden-ta.ta C~eOc.~pU6 montanU6 CMY-6othamnU6 de~U-6U6 CMY-6othamnU6 naU6W6 U6 CMY-6othamnU6 v..i.-6c...i.d[6.e.O~U6 CJz.a.taegU6 ~ytMopoda PoputU6 ~emuto..i.du P~unU6 v..i.kg..i.n..i.ana PulL6 h..i.a bUde.n:ta.ta 0.00 7.27 0.06 0.40 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.00 0.00 5.94 0.11 0.00 7.13 0.03 0.53 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.22 0.00 0.00 5.58 0.20 0.00 - 8.56 0.59 + 1.96 + 0.71 0.00 0.18 + 1.67 0.00 0.00 - 11.24 + 1.13 - - 6.91 + 27.27 + 80.00 - 10.82 + 63.33 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 2. Production of air dry surrmer vegetation recorded in the control areas before and two years folIowinq burning, spraying and chaining (contd), Plant species Percent com~osition 1970 1973 Lbs of vegetation produced per acre ,970 i973 l/ Change 1970 to 1973 iEs/ac percent ~ Shrubs (contd) QUVl.CU6 gambeUM. RA:.bIU R0.6a. Itutkana. SymrhoJUcCUtpo.6 a1.bU6 Total Shrubs TOTAL ALL PLANTS 17.92 0.43 1.35 12.44 18.75 0.40 2.01 15.51 - 6.13 308.57 6.96 23.43 213.35 302.44 6.13 32.00 248.62 - 0.83 + 8.56 + 35.27 - 1.99 - 11.97 + 36.55 + 16.53 -- -- 46.10 -- 50.48 793.55 815.32 + 21.77 + 100;00 1719.14 1606.61 -112.53 - 6.55 -- 100.00 1/ - Reflects normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. 2/ - Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. 2.74 I Vl •... I �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning. Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E" 73 11 Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre 1970 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 111.82 0.30 0.95 8.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.28 0.00 0.18 3.81 105.33 0.00 0.48 0.00 1.07 0.06 1.67 8.92 8.15 0.24 0.30 2.02 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.00 92.84 0.05 21.23 18.27 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.10 4.40 0.00 1.78 2.96 77.18 0.00 0.24 0.00 1.28 0.59 4.32 0.20 22.84 0.12 1.80 1.19 0.01 0.00 1.42 0.00 + 18.97 + 0.24 Change due to burning fj Confidence level percent 1/ where significant if Forbs AcJUllea. fanu£o.o a. Agcv~.ta.che {).)(;tiun0-Uo. Ag 0.0vrM 9 fauca. Allium a.cum-i.ncU:um And!to.oa.ce .0 e.pte.rlbUo na,.U;., Aqu-i..te.g-i.a cOe.ku.tea. Alta.bb., dJr.ummoI1fU Alta.bb., hJ.M u..ta. AltencvUa. conglUta. MtemM-i.a. b-i.e.nnM A'Lte.mM-i.a dJr.a.cunCu.tU6 Mte.mM-i.a fudov-i.uana. Mte.k - EJUgVlon M.tIta.ga..f.U6 ha.yden-LanU6 Ba.£6amoJrJUza -6agU.ta..ta. Be.kbvrM Jz.epen.o Ca..f.ocholL.tu6 gunnMonil Cap.6eUa. bwv.,a-pa..otoJz.M Ca..otiUeja unaJt.i.a.e60-Uo. Chenopod,(.um bwand,(.e.Jz.,(. C,(.Jz.;.,-i.um centauJz.ea.e Co.t.e.om-i.auneaJz.£.6 CommandJr.a.umbe.t.e.a.ta. Cymopte.kU6 puJz.puJz.e.U6 Ve.f.phbuum nwon-i. Ve.f.ph,Ln-i.um 0cc,(.den.ta..te VIUc.uJz.a.-i.n-i.a.6 0plUa. Vb.,poJz.um .tJz.achyca.Jz.pum 2.57 0.00 0.02 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.18 0.00 0.11 0.21 6.50 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.34 0.01 1.05 0.00 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 8.6~ 0.02 0.07 0.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.01 0.30 8.14 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.13 0.69 0.63 0.02 0.02 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 5.96 5.00 42.88 0.06 0.36 2.85 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.30 2.97 0.00 1.78 3.45 107.95 0.00 0.24 0.00 1.07 0.59 5.59 0.24 17.31 0.00 1..19 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 + 20.44 - 20.27 9.47 - 0.00 - 51.82 .10 0.00 - 0.03 - 0.10 0.12 - 0.00 - 1.61 + 0.85 + 28.15 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.21 - 0.54 - 2.65 + 8.72 - 14.69 + 0.12 - 1.51 + 0.83 + 0.05 0.00 1.06 - 0.00 - 2.70 - 90.00 + 28.74 + 36.48 + - - 16.67 - 61.45 - 64.33 - 83.51 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------- I Vl '" I �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 7311 1970 1973 '" . E 73 lbs/ac 16.47 11.67 0.12 9.89 0.00 0.70 0.00 10.05 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.09 18.85 0.83 0.00 31.65 0.00 1.51 8.19 0.00 77.58 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 - 14.09 9.24 0.06 + 5.16 0.00 + 1.08 0.00 7.31 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.03 - 11.42 0.83 0.00 + 4.75 0.00 0.38 5.87 0.00 + 0.93 0.00 + 0.29 0.00 + 0.59 0.00 + 0.11 Change due to burning ~ Confidence level percent Y where significant ~ Forbs (contd) EM.og0 nwn wnbeil.a..twn Epltob~wn pa~cutatum FJtO.gcvUaameJUcana Giliwn Gel1..uana he;tvLO,~epa£a GeJtwuwn GULa aggltega:ta. G~ndet£a aphana~ HacRet£a ieptophylla Hue~wn hoopruU HydltophyUwn capUa.twn HydltophyUwn 6enct.eeJU Iw mLMouJUeVl.6,u, Lactuca .6CcvUoia Lappuia ltedoLUQ W uuhipius - V~ua LepMiwn deVl.6iMOJtwn UgU6.ti..cwn Unwn ie.w.i.6U Loma.ti..wnleptocaltpwn Lup~nU6 altgenteU6 Mad.i.a glomeJta.ta Med.i.cago ~a.ti..va ~!Uilo;(:U6 o6Muna£.w MeJtteVl.6~a olta.YLWcana MeM:en6ia funceota:ta. Moldavica paltvl6lolta 0.37 0.01 0.01 0.68 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.01 1. 12 0.05 0.00 2.20 0.00 0.12 0.54 0.00 8.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.19 . 0.00 1.17 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.58 0.00 0.00 2.81 0.00 0.09 0.18 0.00 6.04 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.01 2.04 4.98 6.07 0.18 0.12 11.42 0.00 1.55 0.00 8.21 0.00 1.01 0.00 0.12 18.85 0.83 0.00 36.52 0.00 1.96 8.92 0.00 134.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.38 2.44 0.06 15.05 0.00 1.78 0.00 2.74 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.12 7.43 0.00 0.00 36.40 0.00 1.13 2.32 0.00 78.51 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.12 - - - -- - 85.55 + 52.19 +154.81 - 72.77 I '" ""I - 60.57 + 15.01 - 24.99 - 71. 68 + .25 1.20 -_._-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------"----------------- �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation eroduced eer acre Percent comeosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 7311 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 2.80 1.31 0.00 4.22 0.06 0.06 0.00 5.95 0.00 0.48 1.49 0.30 1.19 0.18 0.00 0.06 1.43 28.01 0.00 23.02 2.02 0.00 33.61 0.30 1.53 0.00 0;00 - 31.47 0.30 - 1.35 - 0.00 0.00 + 1.94 0.28 -+ 0.30 4.21 0.03 - 1.72 7.43 1.84 0.00 + 0.36 + 0.46 + 0.29 + 1.07 0.71 0.00 + 0.05 - 0.39 + 1.68 0.00 - 15.70 - 0.52 1970 Change due to burning Y .._____ Confidence level percent '§j where significant if Forbs (contd) Oeno~heka cae6pito6a Opu.n.tia Olt.-thoC.MpU6 .tu:teU6 O~mottiuza Pac.l~:t£ma myMinLte6 Pedic.ularJ~ gnay~ Pen6~emon ~nda.ttU Pen6~emon ~:tJUdU6 Phac.e£ia het~ophy£la Pheo x to ng.{·6o-f-<.a Potemol'l-<'um6oUo~~-6~um Potygonum av~c.ulafr.e Potygonum dougta-6~ Po~e~ putc.h~a Ranunc.utU6 ~namoenU6 Rumex. c.JW, pU6 Rudbec.kla mo~ana Sene~o amb~o~~o~de6 Sene~o ~~eg~U6 Sene~o -6~a SUene menz~e6~ SmUaUna -6 ~e.Ua:ta SoUdago -6PaM~MOM s~eU~ SweM:.{a ~a~ TMaxac.um o6M~Y!a.ee ThaU.cbtum 6end.e~ 0.00 0.34 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.07 0.39 0.00 0.01 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.78 0.00 0.99 0.20 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.10 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.04 0.12 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.11 2.16 0.00 1.79 0.16 0.00 5.65 0.30 1.78 0.00 0.00 4.04 2.85 0.30 0.00 0.00 1.78 1.25 6.54 0.00 0.12 2.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.16 12.97 0.00 16.59 3.33 O,OJ 0.86 1.59 0.30 0.01 0.09 1.78 7.43 7.78 0.00 0.12 1.03 0.01 0.12 0.89 0.00 0.01 1.82 26.33 0.00 38.72 2.54 - - 93.63 - +226.74 - 17.50 -- .05 I \Jl ~ I - 23.58 + 44.56 - - 21.63 + 6.38 - 40.55 - 20.30 ----------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species Tltagopogoll dub-i.um TltagOpOgOH plULteno-W Wz-Uea cU.o-i.ea VatvUana. oeudelU:aLW Vvwlu.ea amV'vteana VvwvU.ea b..Le.oba V-i.gu.i.eIta muLU6folta V-i.o.ea Itug utO.6a V-i.o.ea .6 he.Uo vU.-L Wye.th-i.a a.mp.f.ex..i.eaut-i..6 Tota 1 Forbs E 73 Jj Change due to burni ng Y . _____ .Confidence level percent l! where significant if 1970 1973 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.34 0.04 0.27 0.14 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.15 0.39 0.30 0.25 Forbs (contd) 0.30 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.30 5.59 0.71 4.46 2.32 -- -- -- -- -- 30.09 38.76 499.31 501.57 438.10 + 63.47 + 14.49 30.27 0.06 12.07 5.35 2.91 0.83 0.00 0.30 1.43 0.00 0.00 29.21 0.01 0.01 5.57 0.21 0.07 1.61 0.01 0.00 0.00 49.96 + 1.06 + 0.05 + 12.06 0.22 + 2.70 + 0.76 1.61 + 0.29 + 1.42 0.00 - 49.96 + 1970 1973 E73 lbs/ac 0.83 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.18 0.77 l. 96 5.12 3.87 :3.21 8.84 0.06 0.00 0.38 0.06 0.30 4.90 l.43 8.65 2.20 - 8.01 - + - + - + 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.48 ·2.94 3.69 4.78 1. 01 - 59.97 - 55.30 + 46.15 Grasses AgltopyltOYl AgltopyltOYl ~tatum AgltopyltOYl -i.ntvvnecU.um BltOmM anomatM B!WmM -i.Ylvvn-W BItOmM .:tee-toltum CMex Vae.:ty.e.U.6g.i:.omelta..:ta. UymM 9 .f.aUC.M Fu.:tuc.a OV-Lrla. Fu.:tuc.a .:thultbvU ------------------------------ 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.26 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 •. ------------------------- 2.34 0.00 0.93 0.41 0.22 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 l.89 70.01 0.00 0.00 9.99 0.00 4.34 1.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 _________________________ - 3.63 - 3.95 - e. ___________________________________________________________ I '"' '"' I �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species HOIJ.deum bJUJ..chyantheJWm ] unc.Ui> ba..Ui.c.UI.> Koe.lvUa vW,,-tCLta OIJ.zyoy.u,,u, hymeYto..Lde6 Pheewn pIJ.CLteiU e Poa-CMex geyvU SUaiUoil hY-6vuX Stipa Total Grasses 1970 1973 E 7311 1973 E 73 0.18 0.11 0.28 0.00 0.02 15.65 0.19 0.89 00.03 0.13 0.09 0.00 0.03 17.72 0.03 0.89 Grasses (contd~ 3.03 0.36 1.90 1.67 1.13 4.64 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.42 16.60 259.98 229.23 3.15 0.36 14.87 11.54 10.99 0.16 17.40 0.00 0.36 256.49 3.15 13.38 1970 23.01 23.03 382.20 -- -- 1bs/ac Change d ue to burnt urnolng -2/ 3/ Cot'lrfClence 1eve 1 percent - where significant iI - 1O.63 - 96.75 - 16.27 0.00 + 0.06 - 27.26 2.80 - 1.84 - 93.50 + 1.51 - .15 - 10.63 - 13.78 I VI 0\ 297.92 314.41 - 16.48 0.00 41.57 10.53 12.55 0.12 1.07 15.23 2.74 0.71 0.00 9.87 0.00 0.00 52.82 4.23 165.93 0.62 0.01 0.40 27.30 0.12 0.00 10.61 0.00 0.00 - 11.25 + 6.30 -153.38 0.51 + 1.06 + 14.82 - 24.56 + 0.59 0.00 - 0.74 0.00 - 5.24 Shrubs AceIJ. g.f.abIJ.um Ame.f.ancJUe/J. a.f.iU6oUa. A!i..tem,0.,.i.a carta A!i..tem,0.,.i.a vudeYL.ta.ta. CelJ.COCMPUl.> moYttaYtU6 ChlLY-6othamYtU6 depILe6-6 U6 ChIJ.Y-6othamYtU6 !1aU6 1'.0-6UI.> ChIJ.Y-6othamYtUl.> vcs c..i.d.i.6R..OIJ.U6 Cli.a.tae.gu6 e/J.y-thILopoda PopuiU6 .tIJ.emuio..Lde6 PIJ.u.YtU6v.i.lJ.g.i.iUa.Yta PUM h.i.a vude.YttCLta 0.00 3.45 0.58 7.90 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.92 0.01 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 3.19 0.81 0.96 0.01 0.08 1.17 0.21 0.06 0.00 0.77 0.00 3.39 0.00 56.74 9.52 130.37 0.36 0.00 1.01 .15.17 0.12 0.00 11.90 0.00 - - 21.29 +148.91 - 92.44 - 89.98 - 6.93 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre Percent comQosition 1973 g 73 lbs/ac Shrubs {contd} 174.98 190.15 14.10 40.39 2.60 29.20 17.84 23.11 308.63 177.90 171 .51 35.55 39.88 359.65 + 18.64 + 10.87 - 21.46 - 22.03 -181. 75 - 60.35 - 55.25 - 50.54 Plant species 1970 1973 ~ 73 Jj gambeUU 10.56 2.41 1.74 18.54 14;70 1.10 1.38 13.78 11.06 -- -- 46.90 38.21 QUeJtCU6 TUbe;., RO-6a ntd:hana ~!JmphoJUc.aJl.po-6 a£bU6 Total Shrubs Change due to burning Y Confidence level percent '}f where significant iI 1970 .10 -778.38 494.38 799.73 -305.36 - 38.18 .05 I Vl -..J TOTAL ALL PLANTS 100.00 100.00 1659.90 1293.87 1551.24 -257.37 - 16.59 lfReflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated area following treatment had treatment not occurred. YOerived through comparison of burned and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. '}fPercent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. illndicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to burning are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only changes that are significant at the I �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying. Lbs of vegetation 2roduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 ]j Change due to s2ra~in9 g( Confidence level percent 11 where significant ~ 1970 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 25.69 0.18 0.06 0.48 2.20 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.24 '0.00 7.61 0.65 61.44 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.61 0.00 4.40 0.12 14.99 0.00. 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.66 0.18 0.18 104.86 0.48 3.15 1.01 0.00 0.95 0.00 0.00 3.21 0.00 0.18 1.90 47.34 0.65 1.13 0.06 1.19 0.00 0.83 0.00 29.86 9.99 1.78 0.24 0.06 20.58 2.26 0.12 55.63 0.16 3.54 3.05 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.35 0.00 7.61 0.56 43.93 0.01 0.01 0.24 1.93 O.CO 3.40 0.10 19.78 0.12 0.02 0.01 0.01 27.26 2.12 0.18 + 49.23 + 0.31 + 88.50 - 2.03 - 10.89 - 66.80 ~ Ac.hde.ea .tal1u.£.0-6 a !<AgM.tacJte U/(M.uooua Ago-6eJtM g.tauc.a AWwn. ac.um.tHa..twn AvtMO-6ac.e -6ep.tentJUoi1a..U-6 Aquileg-ia co C/Llilea A'Ul.bi..-~ Mummo11cU. AM.b~ hhz.6lU:a A!z.el1cvz..{.a co I1g e6.ta AI[,t(')n~-ia b.LemU-6 Al[,tcnl~-ia dttacuncu.£.U6 A.Ucnl~-ia ludov.tc..<.avta A-6.teA-EJUgvwvt A.~t!z.aga£U6 haydel1.tMU6 BaLI, amoI!.fUz a -6 agi..-Ua..ta BC/Lbew Jr.epe!1.-6 ca£OC.hol[,tU6 gUl1wovti..-[ Cap-6e.t.e.a bUMa-pa..6.toW Ca..6.tL.t.e.eja UvtcvUae6o.e..<.a ChevtopocU.um beAlal1cU.vU c.{Jr..~.twnc.elU:auJr.eae CoUom.i.a UnecvU.6 Comandlta. umbC-Ua..ta. CUmOp.tC/Llv" puJr.puJr.e.U6 Velplul1.tum vtWOM Velph ..i.n-tW11oc.udenta£e Vc.~C.c.Ula..{.l1.{a .~0ph.ta V~pOJr.um w:.c.lU/C.CVlPW1 1.56 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.46 0,04 3.70 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.26 0.01 0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.08 O.01 0.01 4.15 0.02 0.12 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.00 O~OO 0.14 0.00 0.01 0.07 2.00 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 1.10 0.40 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.76 0.10 0.01 3.61 2.85 - 0.39 - 0.12 + 0.94 0.00 - 0.02 + 2.86 0.00 7.43 + 1.34 + 3.42 + 0.64 + 1.12 - 0.18 - 0.74 0;00 - 2.57 - 0.10 + 10.08 + 9.87 + 1.77 + 0.22 + 0.05 - 6.68 + 0.14 - 0.06 .20 00 I - + 7.78 -38.27 + 50.95 - 24.50 ----------------------------~-------------------------------------------------------------.--------------------------------------------------------.. I V1 �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 ]j 1970 1973 E 73 0.19 0.00 0.00 59.12 0.30 3.87 0.00 1.84 0.59 0.00 1.84 3.33 0.00 0.06 1.90 34.68 0.77 8.74 1.25 0.00 67.39 0.00 0.00 0.06 4.76 0.95 0.00 0.81 0.00 0.18 20.55 0.59 2.80 3.54 1. 38 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.52 0.00 0.01 0.48 87.37 0.12 13.56 2.46 0.00 104.34 0.03 0.00 0.01 6.18 0.01 0.00 (contd). y 1bs/ac Change due to sQra~ing . Confidence level percent '}j where significant i! Forbs (contd) Wogonwn wnbde.a.twn Ep~ob~wn pa~cutatum FMga/ua amvUco.na GaLLwn 'Ge.n.tiana he.:teJto.6 e.pa.ta GeJta~wn G~ aggl!.e.ga..ta. Gkinde.t£a aphanactl6 Hacketia le.ptophytea He..e.e.~wnhoopuil Hljd/tophytewn cap~wn Hyd/tophytewn 6e.ndlvU Iw mM.60wUe.n.6M Lac..tu.ca .6 ca/Uola Lappula ke.dow.6kil La.thYkU6- (!~Ua Le.p~~wn de.n.6~6lokwn UgU6Ucwn u.nwn l~il LomaUwn le.ptocakPwn LUP~f1U6akge.nte.U6 Ma~ g.i'.omeJta..ta. Me.~c.ago .6a.tiva M~O.tU6 o6Mun~ MeJt.te.n.6~a6Mnw cana MeJt.te.n.6ialance.ola..ta. Moldav~ca pakvi6l0M 0.02 0.00 0.01 1.44 0.01 0.38 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.03 6.08 0.00 1.06 0.16 0.00 10.85 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.00 0.00 0:06 0.00 0.00 2.35 0.02 0.15 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.07 1.40 0.03 0.37 0.06 0.00 3.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.04 0.00 1.35 5.63 0.88 6.64 0.30 0.00 0.18 23.73 0.24 6.19 0.30 1.13 0.12 0.06 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.48 100.81 0.00 17.66 2.68 0.00 180.93 .0.59 0.00 0.00 6.90 0.00 0.00 + 0.38 0.00 0.18 + 38.57 0.30 + 1.06 3.54 + 0.46 + 0.59 0.02 + 1.72 + 2.81 0.00 + 0.05 + 1.43 - 52.69 + 0.65 4.82 1.21 0.00 - 36.95 0.03 0.00 + 0.05 1.42 0.94 0.00 - - +187.73 .15 + 38.02 + 33.28 I V1 \0 I - - - - 60.31 .10 - 35.52 - 49.17 .15 - 35.41 - 22.99 -------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Qer acre Percent comEosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 Jj 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.58 5.29 2.32 1.49 3.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 3.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.92 1.42 68.98 4.41 1.73 - 68.98 + 0.16 1970 Change due to sQrating ~ onfidence level percent ]I where significant 11 Forbs (contd) Oen.o.theJto cae.6 pU0.6 a OPluttia. O,'t.thocaJtpw, Me.w, 0-6moJrJuza pachM.tUna myM.<.nLte.6 Pe.cUc.U£M.<.-6gJtay.<. Pe.YL6.te.mon c.Jtanda.te..U Pe.I1.-6.te.mOH -6vuc.tw, Phac.e..Ua he..tvwphyUa Phiox iong'<'6ot.<.a. Po.te.mon.<.um 6o.e..<.o-6.<.-6I.>.<.mum Poiygonum av.<.cU£aJte. Po.tygonwl1 dOug.tMU Pote.n.t.<.t.e.a pU£ch~a RMWlC.U£W, .{.vlamoe.nw, Rume.x eM..6 pw, Rudbe.clUa montana Se.ne.c.<.o ambkO-6.<.o.<.de.6 Se.ne.c.<.o .<.n.te.gVl/UmU/.) S en e.c.<.o I.> eJtJta SUe.ne. me.nue.6U Sm.<..tac.<.na-6.te.Ua..ta. SoUdago -6paM'<'6.f.olta S.te.UM.<.a SweJtUa JtacUa..ta Tal!.axacum o66.<.c.<.nale. ThaUc..tkum· 6e.ndleJt.<. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.31 0.14 0.09 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.76 0.18 0.41 1.85 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.16 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.13 0.01 O. Ol 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.30 10.11 0.06 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.03 0.14 1.65 0.16 1.70 0.86 1.51 0.00 0.48 1.75 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.01 3.21 2.68 0.36 0.18 0.01 2.68 12.03 0.00 0.00 0.06 1.67 0.36 2.91 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0,18 1.67 12.55 2.91 6.72 30.63 0.31 1.13 1.37 0.00 0.54 2.80 40.80 4.16 45.56 21.65 1.77 0.00 0.59 0.25 0.12 0.89 - 0.62 + + + +112.51 +121.96 - 35.47 I 0.00 0.35 0.54 0.35 1.59 9.35 -- 0.06 - 0.00 + 2.33 - 0.12 -+ 0.06 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.73 25.49 17.33 15.68 23.34 + 0.39 + 2.07 + 15.31 - 13.17 + 29.88 - 1.69 '" 0 I - 77.75 +395.83 +283.67 + 60.08 - 75.98 .15 +190.52 - 7.22 ----------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre Percent comQosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 ]j 1970 1973 E 73 Ibs/ac (contd). Change due to sQra~ing fI Confidence level percent '}j where significant ~ Forbs (contd) Tkagopogon dubIum Thagopogon pnateno~ Uwea cUo.iea Va.ivUana. oecJ.de~ Vruw Meet o.mvUeana. VVWMea bUoba. VJ.guJ.eha mu.Ui.6.toll.a V.io.e.a.lLugu.toJ.>a V.io.e.a J.>hUton,u Wye.-tlua o.mp.e.exJ.ea~ Total Forbs 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.25 0.77 0.04 0.00 0.33 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.22 0.11 0.95 0.00 1.43 8.27 0.00 0.00 0.06 5.53 4.04 12.67 1.07 0.00 6.54 14.27 0.00 0.00 0.06 8.86 5.29 2.85 28.30 0.00 1.43 8.69 0.00 0.00 0.05 11.06 7.84 12.00 - 27.23 0.00 + 5.12 + 5.58 0.00 0.00 + 0.01 - 2.20 2.55 9.15 - - - 19.89 - 32.49 - 76.21 36.07 24.82 598.22 603.40 524.89 + 78.51 + 14.96 47.52 0.00 0.48 32.53 0.00 5.71 0.00 9.69 28.97 0.00 0.00 5.98 0.00 0.01 4.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.61 1. 74 0.00 0.00 + 41.54 0.00 + 0.47 + 28.22 0.00 + 5.71 0.00 + 8.09 + 27.23 0.00 0.00 +694.45 +358 ..33 + 64.24 .05 I .... '" I .15 Grasses Agll.OpY'wn Agll.0pYll.on Cll..iJ.>ta.tum Agll.opYll.on .inteJr.mecUum BlZ.omUJ.> anoma..tM BlZ.omUJ.> .in~ BlZ.omUJ.> tectolZ.um CMex Vacty.e.UJ.>g.e.om~ UymUJ.>g.e.aueUJ.> Futuea ov.ina Futuca thulZ.beJz.J. 0.86 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.41 0.00 0.00 2.06 0.00 0.02 1. 33 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.36 1.39 0.00 0.00 14.33 0.00 0.00 7.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.61 6.84 0.00 0.00 +654.44 .05 +503.70 +1569.36 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--- -- .. �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years fo11owing spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 ]j 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 0.00 0.00 4.94 0.00 2.91 719.50 0.00 28.61 0.00 0.00 3.12 0.00 0.36 230.73 0.06 4.71 0.00 0.00 + 1.81 0.00 + 2.56 +488.77 0.06 + 23.90 1970 Change due to s~ral:ing Y__~ Confidence level 4/ percent 11 where significant - Grasses (contd) Hokdeum bhachyanthekUm J UYlCu,~ ba..Uicu,o Koe£vUa c.JUJ.,:taXa OJtzyop.6-u' hymevwJ.du PiLe.eum pJta:ten~ e Poa-CMex geyvU S.{;taiU.on hy.6:tJUx S:t.{pa 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.02 14.15 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.11 29.52 0.00 1.15 15.01 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.36 233.87 0.06 5.23 - +211.84 .15 +507.32 I CI\ '" I Tota 1 Grasses 16.37 36.43 270.86 880.86 222.81 +658.05 +295.33 .10 Shrubs Acvr.. g.tabJtum Ame.tanciuvr.. a.tiU.6oUa. AJt:tem.u..{a eana AJt:tem.u.J.a :tJUden:ta.:to. Cvr..COCMpu,o montanu,o Ch.Jt.Y.6o:thamnu,odepJtu.6U.6 CIvrY.6o:thamnu,o Mu,oeO.6U.6 ChILY.6o:thamnu,o v.i.6 cJ.dJ.6.t0ltU6 CJta:taegu,o vr..y:thILopoda Popui.u,o :tJtemui.oJ.du PILUl1u,o v.{Jtg.{n.{ana PWl6h.{a :tJUd en:ta,ta 0.01 8.13 0.00 2.56 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 6.10 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.24 - 0.24 5.44 7.98 136.03 115.33 126.63 - 11.30 - 8.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.34 43.12 65.13 54.88 + 10.25 + 18.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.65 0.59 0.65 0.06 0.09 1.84 0.00 '0.00 + 1.84 0.37 7.85 9.16 14.13 - 4.97 - 35.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.42 0.01 + 0.41 3.96 5.73 100.34 100.87 89.48 + 11.39 + 12.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~----------- - �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 1I 1970 1973 E 73 202.16 6.42 9.28 337.53 202.46 9.84 31.67 306.49 1bs/ac Change due to spraying fI Confidence level percent ~ where significant 11 Shrubs {contd} QueJtc.u,; gambe..UU 7U.bv., Ro.6 a. nu-tll.ana. SymphoJUc.aJtpo.6 a..tbu,; Total Shrubs 12.33 0.66 1.40 15.85 -- 47.56 9.7l0.33 0.43 15.02 -- 38.75 12.90 2.08 19.75 206.57 11.18 23.20 263.01 -- 792.18 -- 0.30 3.42 - - 22.40 + 31.04 0.15 - 34.74 - 70.71 + 10.13 + -- 848.74 -813.91 + 34.83 2333.00 1552.52 +780.48 -- .10 4.28 -TOTAL ALL PLANTS 100.00 100.00 1661.27 + 50.27 I 0\ ..., I 1/ - Reflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated area after treatment had treatment not occurred. flOerived through comparison of sprayed and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. 3/ - Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. ~Indicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to spraying are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. . Only changes that are significant at the �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two year3 following chaining. Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73]J A 1970 1973 E 73 1bs/ ac 26.82 2.50 0.18 0.65 0.30 0.00 0.36 0.24 1.13 0.00 0.00 2.14 85.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 3.87 0.18 3.75 0.00 2.62 0.00 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.00 86.78 5.77 0.06 3.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 5.06 0.00 0.18 2.91 77.86 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.71 0.18 0.65 0.54 2.26 0.12 1.07 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.59 0.00 58.08 2.30 .1O.61 4.19 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.08 1.67 0.00 0.01 1.84 61.45 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.57 0.01 2.99 0.15 4.94 0.,12 3.97 0.00 0.00 1.65 0.12 0.00 + 28.70 + 3.47 - 10.55 0.74 - 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.02 + 3.38 0.00 + 0'.17 + 1.08 + 16.41 0.00 0.00 + 0.05 + 0.14 + -0.17 2.33 + 0.39 2.68 0.00 2.90 0.00 0.00 1.53 + 0.48 0.00 Change due to chaining £I Confidence level percent Y where significant Sf 'Forbs Ac}uUe.a tal1ulo.6a AgM.tacJle. uM:.<:.ci6o.eA.a Ago.6vU.6 gtauc.a Ae.Uwn ac.wn,[l1atwn AI1M0.6 ac.e. .6e.pte.rWUOI1a.U6 Aqu.,{..te.g,[a c.oe.nule.a Mab-<..6 MWnmOl1cU AlU1b-<..6IWwu..ta A/~e.flcvUa c.o;lg e..6ta AIt.te.m,{.J.>,[a b,[e.nrU!., AIt.te.m,{.J.>,[a dJr.ac.u.nc.U£U.6 Alt.te.m,{.J.>,[a tudov,[c.,{.a/ta. M teA - EIUg e.nOfl M.tIU1g atU.6 hayde.MaYtU.6 Ba.t.6amoiliza .6ag,{..t.tata Be.nb~ lte.pe.11.6 Cato c.hoJt.tu~ 9 UftrU!.,0 n,{.,{. Cap.6e.Ua. buMa-pMtow CM UUe ja. .eA.naft,[ae.6ow Cite.l1opocUwn be.n.tancUru C,{.M,[um c.e.n.taUlte.ae. CoUom-ta. .eA.11e.aW ComaHdJr.awnbe.Uata Cymopte.nU.6 pUltpUlte.U.6 Vupluft,[wn I1WOM VUpluMwn oc.cidentate. V<Y~CUll ct-(J,"ia.~ 0 ph.i..a V.v., POltWl1 .tJtac.huc.Mpwn 1.50 0.14 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.12 4.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.21 0.01 0.20 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 4.38 0.30 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.01 0.15 3.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.11 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 3.47 3.68 + 49.42 +150.75 .25 +202.28 .15 - - - I 0\ .,.. I + 58.80 + 26.71 .20 - 54.29 - 73.02 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 !I 1973 E 73 1bs/ec 1.49 2.38 0.00 44.79 0.00 7.32 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.89 0.00 0.18 6.25 0.00 0.00 104.20 0.00 23.08 0.71 0.00 40.68 0.00 0.00 0.18 3.63 0.00 0.18 12.27 0.65 0.00 19.88 0.00 2.83 0.00 0.36 0.02 1. 05 0.00 0.74 7.26 0.06 0.00 83.86 0.00 17.35 0.87 0.00 54.09 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.53 0.00 O.01 - 10.78 + 1.72 0.00 + 24.91 0.00 + 4.49 0.00 0.36 0.40 - 0.16 0.00 0.57 1.01 0.06 0.00 + 20.34 0.00 + 5.73 0.16 0.00 - 13.41 0.00 0.00 + 0.17 + 3.10 0.00 + 0.17 1970 Change due to chaining Y ____ Confidence level percent '}j ..where significant y Forbs (contd} EJUogonwn wnbe.UtLtwn Ep-Leob-i.wlIparucu1a-twn Fltagcvda amvu.cana Ga.uwn G~nUaY'.a heteJto~ epa..f.a GVtaIUwn Gilia ((ggltegata GJt-i.nde£ia aphana~ Hack~ teptophylta Hueluw)1 hoop~U Hyd!tophyUwn capUatwn Hyd!tophyUwn 6endlvu. lw m-i.MowUel'L6M Lac.:tuca <I caJt-i.ota Lapputa ltedo~V-6 W LathyltU4 - V-i.c.-i.a Lep-i.d-i.wndeM-i.6toltwn Ug~ticwn Unwn te.w.U,U Lomatiwn teptocaltpwn Lup-i.n~ Mg ente~ Mad-i.agtomeJtata Med-i.cago <lativa "1e.Uto,t~ o66-i.c.-i.~ MeJt:teM-i.a 6Mnwcana MeJt:teYL6-i.atanceola.tct MoUav.ica paltv-i.61Ol!a 0.25 0.00 0.00 1.26 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.16 0.00 0.06 0.41 0.00 0.00 5.20 0.00 1.21 0.05 0.00 5.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.12 0.00 2.21 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.00 O.01 0.32 0.00 0.00 5.02 0.00 1.10 0.04 0.00 2.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.19 0.00 0.01 1.19 4.82 1.00 3.20 4.52 0.00 0.00 22.96 0.00 6.25 0.00 0.30 1. 37 2.91 0.00 1.01 7.26 0.06 0.00 96.77 0.00 22.60 0.95 0.00 93.80 (\00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.00 - 87.88 + 125.31 +158.69 .25 - -- - I 0\ V1 I - 13.93 + 24.25 + 33.03 .15 - 24.79 --------~.------~---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species 1970 1973 E 7311 E 73 1bs/ac 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.12 4.10 5.24 4.46 3.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.10 0.77 0.30 0.30 0.01 6.42 21.95 1.31 0.36 0.48 0.71 13.20 6.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.97 0.55 0.06 0.01 0.12 0.71 0.06 0.89 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 1.01 0.00 27.18 15.82 0.00 0.00 4.82 9.71 17.72 13.82 0;00 0.00 + 0.42 - 1.14 + 1.00 0.00 - 0.08 - 0.10 + 0.48 + 0.29 - 15.52 - 0.95 -+ 0.23 6.69 0.00 0.00 + 2.43 + 0.05 0.59 0.83 0.18 0.00 + 1.01 + 11.36 0.00 -+ 4.90 3.90 1970 1973 Change due to chaining £I .3 Confidence level percent -I where significant i! Forbs (contd} Oeno.t!teJta. caes p.Uc~4 Opuntia OlZ/thocMpuo .t'.u.:teuo 0'6moltluza. Pa.ch-iAlWna mYM.£nJ;tu Pedicuta!1M g!lay-i.. Pen6temo.11 c.~'Vlda..e..e.,u Pen6temoH ,s.tuuuo Phac.eUa heteJtophyUa. Ph.t'.ox .t'.ong-i..6oUa Po.t'.emoluwlI ~olio-6~-6hnum Po.t'.ygonum av-i..cutMe Po.t'.ygonum dOug.t'.MU Poten..tLUa putclteJ!.!t.i.ma. Ra.nw1cu.t'.uo -i..ltamoenus Rumex ~puo Rudbec~ montana Senec,£o amblto-6-i..o-i..du Senec,£o .£ntegeJ!.!t.i.muo S enec,£o -6eJtJta Sdene menz.£u« SJJl-i...t'.ac,£no. -6teUato. Solidago -6PCI.M-i..o.t'.OItCl. ·SteUwUa Swvvt.-io. ItCI.diato. Ta/to.xa.cum o66-i..c,£no.te ThaliCMum 6 end.t'.e« 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.33 0.68 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.01 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.23 0.98 .' 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.20 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.33 0.02 0.02 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 1.32 0.00 0.24 0.84 0.00 0.00 0.12 6.13 12.91 0.00 0.36 0.18 0.30 0.00 2.44 1.31 0.12 5.47 0.00 0.00 1.55 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.18 0:00 0.00 7.79 0.00 4.16 18.14 - 21.70 + 28.82 I 0\ 0\ I - 70.73 +102.84 --- + 71.77 .15 - 50.41 + 28.25 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent Plant species 1970 recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre com~osition 1973 E 73 ]J 1970 1973 " E 73 1bs/ac 2.44 0.00 3.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.49 0.59 1. 72 13.26 53.06 0.00 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.59 7.84 16.23 - 50.63 0.00 1. 19 0.00 0.00 0.00 + 0.24 0.00 6.12 2.96 (contd). Change due to chaining ~ Confidence level percent ~ where significant 1/ Fo rbs (contd} Tkagopogon dubium Tkagopogon pkaten6~ UJL.ti.ca dioica va£vUana ocuden.ta1~ VVtontca ClJllvUcana Vekol1ica bUoba V-i.gu.i.eM mu.f.tiMoka Viofu kugu1.0.6a. V-i.o.f.a .6he.UonU Wyeth-ta amp.f.exica~ Tota 1 Forbs 0.10 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.02 0.22 0.91 1. 78 0.00 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.43 0.30 4.04 17.13 0.12 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.03 0.08 0.62 -- -- -- -- 26.56 483.67 26.29 - 95.40 - + 18.79 - - 78.00 - 18.27 531.91 424.38 +107.53 + 25.34 21.00 0.18 0.00 2.74 3.63 0.36 0.00 1.13 0.12 0.00 12.85 9.13 0.01 0.00 2.22 7.61 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.54 0.00 0.06 + 11.86 + 0.17 0.00 + 0.51 3.98 + 0.35 0.00 + 1.12 0.42 0.00 + 12.79 +129.86 .10 Grasses AgMPYkon AgkOPYMIt ~.ta.tum AgkoPYMn '<'n.tekmedium BkOmU.6anoma£U.6 BMmU.6 '<'nekm~ BlLomU.6tectOkum CMex Va.cty.f.U.6 g.f.omekata. UymU.6 g.f.aucU.6 Fe.6tuca ov.<.na. Fe.6tuca. tilUkbvU 1. 22 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 1.05 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.66 0.55 21.89 0.00 0.00 3.98 0.36 0'.65 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.00 - + 23.10 - ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I '" "-I I �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre .Percent com~os;tion Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 Jj 1973 E 73 0.30 0.12 0.83 0.00 0.00 402.25 0.00 5.89 9.70 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 425.78 0.30 5.94 1970 1bs/ac Change due to chaining ~ Confidence level percent Y where significant i! Grasses (contd} Ho~deum bkachyanth~ J WlcU,~ ba£:ti..cw.. KouvUa. CJIM.ta:ta. O~ZUOpf.,.u.,hymeno,[du PiLteum pka.teY!f.J e Poa-Cakex gey~ S.uc:n,[on hY.6bU.X SUpa 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.77 0.02 0.37 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 19.74 0.00 0.30 25.92 22.21 25.22 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 431.57 0.30 6.60 - 9.40 + + 0.12 0.80 0.00 0.00 - 23.53 - 0.30 - 0.05 - 5.53 - 0.90 I 0'\ Total Grasses 470.17 ce 451.37 386.77 0.00 0.00 1ll.58 138.52 7.49 2.62 34.91 35.33 0.00 0.00 1.07 0.00 0..00 0.00 0.95 0.00 5.29 5.17 0.00 0.00 154.88 228.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 103.87 3.33 44.44 0.00 0.01 0.00 1.71 5.29 0.00 138.12 0.00 + 64.60 + 16.70 Shrubs Ac~ g.ea.b~um Amuanch,[~ a1.n,Lno.Ua. AlI-temiJ.,,La cana MtemiJ.,,[a. bU.derz;ta..ta. C~COCakPw.. morz;tanw.. C~f.,othamnw.. dep~uf.,w.. CMyf., othamnus naw.. eo.6w.. CMyf., othamnus UCU6.eO~W.. Cnataegw.. ~y~opoda. PopU£w.. ~emU£o'[du P~Wlw.. v~g'[n,Lana. PU/L.6h,[a ~en-ta..ta. v.u., 0.00 5.98 0.42 1.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.30 0.00 8.42 0.00 0.00 6.52 0.13 1.81 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 11.19 0.00 5.86 7.91 0.00 + 34.65 - 0.71 - 9.11 0.00 1.06 0.00 1.71 - 0.12 0.00 + 90.45 0.00 + 33.36 - 21.43 - 20.49 + - - 2.25 + 65.48 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �Table 5. Chunges in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre Percent comQosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 731/ Change du~ to chaining gj Confidence 1eveb percent Y where signiflcan 4/ 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 331.82 0.00 43.54 185.45 432.22 0.00 37.77 185.51 325.24 0.00 59.45 216.11 +106.99 0.00 - 21.68 - 30.60 - 36.47 - 14.16 875.93 1066.79 899.95 +166.83 + 18.54 1970 Shrubs (contd) QuVtCtM gambe.LtU lUbv., ROMl i1utkw1a SymplwIUCMP0,6 a1.btM Total Shrubs 17.81 0.00 2.40 10.18 20.54 0.00 1.89 9.11 -- -47.51 51.50 18.64 3.57 12.68 + 32.89 .20 .15 I 0- '" I Total All Plants 100.00 100. 00 1829.77 2050.07 1709.99 +340.08 + 19.89 1/ - Reflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated urea following treatment had treatment not occurred. gjoerived through comparison of chained and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. 3/ - Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants •. ~Indicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to chaining are significant. ex .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only changes that are significant at the �Table 6. J! Season Winter recorded Forage value to Post-Treatment Spring to Post-Treatment Summer Fall to Post-Treatment - 4.59 + 24.02 - 4.97 + 3.71 - 58.69 - 89.98 1 : 0.64 - 15.20 + 0.90 - 83.14 1: 0.84 - 65.13 -111.07 - 63.98 Ratio Highly val. Valuable Least val . 1: - '17.34 - 20.92 - 23.06 0.80 - 30.88 -309.59 0.00 Ratio 1: - 8.23 - 59.92 0.00 0.67 continued on following page) dry elk forage. % - 1.08 + 6.16 - 35.19 +488.81 +124.54 + 13.18 +203.44 + 30.58 + 24.50 1 : 2.09 +484.52 +177.22 + 19.46 +118.17 + 32.68 + 8.57 1 : 1.72 +588.73 + 61.93 0.00 +161.61 + 13.59 0.00. 1 : 1.94 as degree and Fan; ]J ,_ 2/ Change due to chaining lbs/ac +227.76 - 59.98 - 1.71 1 : 1.01 1/ , - Table is based on the a'ssumptjon that due to such factors only shrubs during Winter; grasses and shrubs during Spring on measurements made duri ng Summer. ' (footnotes air + 8.64 -332.55 - 24.56 - 41.58 + 2.68 -137.01 Highly val. Valuable Least val. seasonal Change due to spraying lbs/ac Ratio to Post-Treatment in available, Change due to burning jJ lbs/ac % Ratio ~ Highly val. Valuable Least val. Pre- Pre- changes Highly val. Valuable Least val. Pre- Pre- Two year % Confidence level where treatment difference is significant Control Control Control Burn Burn Spray & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain & Chain 5/ ' + 39.85 - 18.67 -100.00 1 : 1.24 - 27.76 +295.87 - 7.92 - 6.46 + 54.36 - 18.31 .20 .15 .20 .20 .25 I ? 1 : 1.21 + 10.73 +156.90 + 36.02 " + 1.83 + 29.62 + 25.42 .15 .25 .15 .20 .20 .20 .05 .05 1 : 1.13 + 70.23 + 40.52 0.00 + 13.12 + 9.80 0.00 .10 .25 .20 1 ~ 1.12 of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to elk will and forbs, grasses and shrubs during summer. Data in this table . , consist of are based �Table 6. Two yea!' changes recorded in available, seasonal air dry elk forage (contd). (footnotes contd) y Classification of study area plants as elk forage was based on the average, relative consumption of those plant species by elk in 48 elk food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufeld 1973). . 3/ - Seasons: Winter = December, January, February; Spring = March, April, May: Summer = June, July, August; Fall = September, October, November. 4/ - Derived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. ~/Indicates the highest confidence level at which treatment differences are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only greatment differences that are significant at the 6/ - The ratio of elk forage produced before and after treatment adjusted for normal year to year changes measured on the control areas. A single value for elk forage was derived by weighting pounds per acre of highly valuable forage produced by a factor of "3", valuable by "2", and least valuable forage by "1". A total weighted value was then computed. I ....• .... I �Table 7. Season ]I changes recorded Forage value Hea vi ly ea ten Mod. eaten Lightly eaten Hinter Pre- Two year to Post-Treatment Spring SUlTTIler Heavi ly eaten Mod. eaten Lightly eaten Pre- to Post-Treatment Fall Heavi ly eaten Nod. eaten Lightlyeaten Pre- to Post-Treatment Ratio dry deer forage. 1/, Y Change due to chaining lEis/ac -157 ..99 + 12.62 -235.11 + 9.11 + 3.38 - 16.84 +228.34 - 46.11 + 87.20 + 5.09 - 52.84 - 92.40 - 27.08 - 13.93 1 : 0.59 + 19.35 -186.59 - 98.53 Ratio air Change due to s~raxi n9 1bs/ac % -153.25 -179.64 - 41. 91 Ratio seasonal Change due to burni n9 ~ lbs/ac % Ratio ]/1 : 0.54 Heavily eaten Mod. eaten Lightly eaten Pre- to Post-Treatment in available, + 10.81 - 25.63 - 18.72 1 : 0.84 + 9.08 -327.18 - 21. 47 + 4.30 - 53.05 - 60.36 1 : 0.66 - 0.57 + 16.27 0.13 + 0.97 - 1 : 1.02 + 10.27 +116.17 +486.92 + 18.72 + 15.93 +202.17 1 : 1.40· - 7.88 - 1. 94 +169.82 1 : 1.20 + 59.54 + 26.29 - 3.43 - 30.74 + 39.92 - 17.12 .15 .05 .10 1 : 1.23 - - 18.70 - 16.74 +663.78 % Confidence level where treatment difference is significunt?J' Contra 1 Control Control Burn Burn Spray & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain & Chain + 31.24 + 4.25 - 34.82· 1 : 1.13 - 8.90 +218.45 - 22.11 - 20.04 + 26.32 5.21 - .15 .15 .10 .10 .25 .05 .10 .05 .10 I -.J 1 : 1. 17 +110.88 +103.02 + 38.66 + 30.31 + 13.46 + 6.82 N I .20 .15 .10 .05 .05 .15 1 : 1.18 +148.10 + 44.45 0.00 + 48.54 + 7.60 0.00 .05 1 : 1.26 1/ - Table is based on the assumption that due to such factors only shrubs during Winter; grasses and shrubs during spring on measurements made duri ng Summer. (footnotes conti nued on fa l Iowi ng page) as degree and fall; of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to deer will consist of and forbs, grasses and shrubs during summer. Data in this table are based �Table 7. Two year changes recorded in available, seasonal air dry deer forage (contd). (footnotes contd) 2/ - Classification of study area plants as deer forage was based on the average, relative consumption of those plant species by deer in 99 deer food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). 3/ - Seasons: viinter = December, January, February; Spring = March, April, May; Summer = June, July, August; Fall = September, October, November. 4/ - Derived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. 5/ - Indicates the highest confidence level at which treatment differences are significant. 0; .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only treatment differences that are significant at the 6/ - The ratio of deer forage produced before and after treatment adjusted for normal year to year changes measured on the control areas. A single value for deer forage was derived by weighting pounds per acre of heavily eaten forage by a factor of "3", moderately eaten forage by "2", and lightly eaten forage by "1". A total weighted value was then computed. I ....• ..., I �Table 8. Two year changes recorded in air dry, summer cattle forage. l! Season Summer ~ Forage value Desirable Intermediate least desirable Change due to burni ng 2/ lbs/ac % l bs/ac % + 3.66 + 6.21 - 34.56 - 7.55 -259.21 - 24.29 + 83.98 +538.57 +115.48 +254.37 +100.52 + 11.25 u Pre~ to post-treatment ratio ~ 1 : 0.95 Change due to sprayi ng_ 2.17 Change due to chaining lbs/ac % + 41.36 +120.47 +145.58 +119.59 + 15.60 + 15.56 Confidence level where treatment difference is significant Control Control Control Burn Burn Spray & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain & Chain .15 .05 .15 .15 .05 .05 11 .15 .10 1.24 1/ - Plants considered cattle forage are those classified as "desirable" and "intermediate" by the U. S. Forest Service, Region 2, Range Analysis Handbook for the foothill shrub, aspen weed, and mountain meadow vegetation types. gjDerived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. 1IIndicates the highest confidence level at which treatment differences are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only treatment differences that are significant at the 4/ - Summer = June, July and August. ~The ratio of cattle forage produced before and after treatment adjusted for normal year to year changes measured on the control areas. A single value for cattle forage was derived by weighting pounds per acre of desirable forage produced by a factor of "2", and intermediate forage by "1". A total weighted value was then computed for desirables and intermediates. Production of least desirable was excluded from the ratio since least desirables are not considered cattle forage. I ....• -I'-I �Table 9. Comparison of soil properties on control, burned, sprayed and chained areas from which plants were collected for nutrient analysis. Treatment pH Conductivity l! Percent Organic Nitrorn Matter (ppm Control (Unit 6) 7.5 .7 7.8 24 27 780 4.10 4.30 0.94 4.00 3.69 1.23 0.86 Low Silty clay loam Burn (Unit 7) 8.0 .5 8.0 2 27 730 2.40 34.2 0.76 3.75 3.14 0.91 0.75 Low Silty clay loam Spray (Unit 5) 7.5 .3 6.8 1 13 418 2.70 41. 0 0.94 4.65 1.95 0.66 0.60 Low Silty clay loam Phosphorous Potassium Zinc Iron Copper Manganese Calcium Magnesium Sodium (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (meg/L) Y (meg/L) (meg/L) Lime Texture I ....• \J1 Chain (Unit 8) 7.6 .4 lI1~i1imhos per centimeter. YMilequavalent per liter. 8.0 4 27 400 3.50 42.0 0.70 5.00 2.00 I 0.91 0.45 Low Silty clay loam �Tab 1e 10. Nutrient and mineral content of summer collected plants 2 years following treatment (collected July 24-27. 1973). Average cell content Control Burn Spray Chain Plant type Nutrient or mi nera 1 Measurement Dry or green wt basis Forb Total cell contents Protei n Ether extract Soluble cho. Soluble ash % % % % % Green Green Green Green Green 14.19 3.45 1.95 6.22 2.57 16.28 13.87 16.25 3.63 3.30 3.91 2.37 1.96 2.52 7.78 6.18 7.35 2.50 2.44 2.46 Total cell walls Insoluble ash Lignin Holocell ulose % % % % Green Green Green Green 11.49 .25 2.93 8.30 11.84 12.36 11.54 .14 .26 .13 2.69 2.88 2.68 9.02 9.27 8.71 ~loisture % Green 74".32 71.87 73.01 72.21 Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorous Cal/phos ratio Iron Zinc Copper Magnesium Manganese Sodium Potassium % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry 2.14 2.03 1.99 2.24 1.45 1.37 1.39 1.31 .16 .13 .14 .14 10.18 9.98 11.18 11.17 143.50 116.20 98.80 81.50 29.85 47.15 34.69 50.62 9.15 17.62 11.46 19.77 .26 .26 .24 .28 36.46 26.85 36.92 31.31 415.38 403.08 543.08 461.54 2.86 2.18 2.77 2.34 Total cell contents' Protein Ether extract Soluble cho. Soluble ash % % % % % Green Green Green Green Green 13.76 4.59 2.82 4.14 2.21 Significance at the a .05 confidence level 1.1 Contro 1 Contro 1 Contro 1 Burn Spray Burn & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain & Chain L-H L-H L-H L-H L-H L-H H-L H-L L-H L-H L-H L-H ...• I Grass 14.09 13.74 15.24 4.07 4.28 4.13 2.65 2.52 2.53 5.47 4.90 6.32 1.91 2.04 2.27 H-L L-H L-H 0\ I - H-L L-H L-H H-L H-L L-H l..-H H-L L-H L-H L-H H-L H-L L-H H-L L-H -----------------------------_._--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_._----------------- �Table 10. Plant type Nutrient and mineral content of summer collected plants 2 years following treatment (collected July 24-27, 1973) (contd). -- Nutrient or mineral Measurement Dry or green wt basis Average cell content Control Burn Spray Chain Significance at the a .05 confidence level l! Control Control Control Burn Burn & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain &Spray Cha in Grass (contd) Shrub Total cell walls Insoluble ash Lignin Holocellulose % % % % Green Green Green Green 24.97 1.01 4.15 19.81 ~loisture % Green 61.28 Nitrogen Calcium Phos phorous Cal/phos ratio Iron Zinc Copper Magnesium t1anganese Sodium Potassium % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry 59.78 61.05 60.70 1.83 1.62 1.79 1.65 .50 .41 .47 .42 .14 .13 .12 .13 3.55 3.10 3.88 3.30 138.80 95.00 78.80 51.30 22.50 35.75 25.00 37.00 7.00 14.00 7.75 13.50 .12 .11 .12 .12 26.00 30.25 33.50 25.25 385.00 380.00 462.50 417.50 1.87 1.69 1.84 1.43 Total cell contents Protein Ether extract Soluble cho. Soluble ash % % % % % Green Green Green Green Green 23.88 5.68 2.03 13.82 2.34 22.81 22.48 23.96 4.99 5.20 5.47 1.97 1.97 2.22 13.58 13.06 14.07 2.20 2.26 2.06 Total cell walls Insoluble ash Ligni n Ho 1ace 11ulose % % % % Green Green Green Green 16.28 .15 5.57 10.55 15.50 16.41 16.20 .15 .13 .11 5.02 5.30 5.41 10.33 10.97 10.69 Moisture % Green 59.84 61.69 61.11 59.84 25.21 25.21 24.98 1.08 .87 .73 4.44 4.30 4.34 19.70 20.06 19.91 -..JI -..J I L-H L-H H-L L-H L-H H-L H-L .,. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- L-H �Table 10. Nutrient and mineral content of summer collected plants 2 years following treatment (collected July 24-27, 1973) (contd). Plant type Nutrient or minera1 Measurement Significance at the a .05 confidence level l! Dry or green Average cell content Confr-ol .Control Control -Burn Burn Spray wt basis Control Burn Spray Chain & Burn & Spray & Chai.n & Spray & Chain & Chain Shrub (contd) Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorous Ca1/phos rati0 Iron Zinc Copper r~agnesium Manganese Sodium Potassium % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry 2.26 2.16,\2.17 2.25 1.15 1.07 1.07 1.03 .16 .17 .15 .14 7.59 6.83 7.57 7.90 77 .10 83.60 88.60 61.40 33.57 39.14 36.43 37.71 9.43 11.14 10.00 10.29 .24 .26 .26 .24 61.29 41.57 56.00 46.00 455.71 487.14 447.14 468.57 . 1.36 1.42 1.45 1.27 H-L lIWhere differences designated by "H". significant at a .05 occur the treatment with the lower value is designated by "L" and the higher value treatment is H-L I ...... 00 I �Table 11. Nutrient and mineral content of winter collected plants 3 years following treatment Plant type Nutrient or minera 1 Measurement Dry or green wt basi s Grass Total cell contents Protein Ether extract So1ub1echo. Soluble ash % % % % % Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry 34.64 6.50 6.09 19.42 2.62 37.78 7.40 7.35 19.85 3.24 34.23 6.90 7.26 17 •45 2.62 33.98 7.80 6.55 16.50 3.14 Total cell walls Insoluble ash Li gnin Holocellulose % % % % Dry Dry Dry Dry 65.37 3.42 9. 05 52.90 62.23 2.63 11 .75 47.85 65.78 4.21 7.57 54.00 66.02 2.80 10.50 52.73 Nitrogen Ca1ci urn Phosphorous Cal/phos ratio Iron Zinc Copper Magnesium Manganese Sodium Potassium % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Dry· Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry 1. 04 1. 18 1.10 1. 25 .35.36.29.35 .16 .21 .18 .17 2.30 1.80 1.70 2.10 165.00 250.00 198.00 193.00 33.00 38.00 28.00 43.00 05.00 22.00 04.00 08.00 .115 .138.130.158 45.00 50.00 20.00 40.00 225.00 135.00 225.00 225.00 .63 .76 .60 .89 Total cell contents Protein Ether extract Soluble cho. Soluble ash % % % % Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry 37.75' 6.20 6.72 21.39 3.44 (collected November 12, 1974). Significance at the a .05 confidence level Average cell content Control Control Control Burn Burn Control Burn Spray Chai n & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain l! Spray & Chai n ....• 'P I Shrub % 40.38 5.80 7.22 23.97 3.36 40.88 6.10 7.25 24.83 2.66 L-H H-L H-L 40.43 5.90 7.52 23.92 3.13 -------'---------------------------------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 11. Nutrient and mineral content of winter collected plants 3 years following treatment (collected November 12, 1974) (contd). Plant type Nutrient or mineral Measurement Dry or green wt basis Significance at the a .05 confidence level 1/ Average cell content ~ontro1 .Contra·l Control -Burn-Burn Spray Control Burn Spray Chain & Burn & Spray & Chain & Spray & Chain & Chain Shrub (contd) Total cell walls Insoluble ash Lignin Ho1oce 11u1ose Nitrogen Calcium Phosphorous Ca1/ phos rati0 Iron Zinc Copper Magnesium t~anganese Sodi urn Potassi um % % % % % % % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Dry Dry Dry Dry 62.25 .46 20.36 41:43 Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry Dry .99 .93 .98 .94 .56 .58 .53 .51 .14 .15 .13 .14 4.70 4.50 4.70 4.10 119.00 163.00 139.00 97.00 37.00 40.00 44.00 51.00 12.00 10.00 15.00 16.00 .142 .160 .159 .169 81.00 59.00 43.00 60.00 223.00 279.00 370.00 204.00 .49 .49 .41 .52 59.62 59.12 59.57 .47 .55 .37 17.40 17.19 18.80 41.74 41.37 40.42 1/Where differences designated by "H". significant at.a .05 occur the treatment with the lower value is designated by "L" and the higher value treatment is I 00 0 I �Table 12. Elk use recorded on treated areas before and 2 years after burning, spraying and chaining. Year )J Control Block 1 Block 2 Ave. Block 1 Elk ~er sguare mile Burn S~ra:t Block 2 Ave. Block 1 Block 2 Ave. .B10ck Chain Block 2 Ave. 1971 8.4 10.0 9.2 11.8 18.6 15.2 11.8 13.6 12.9 21.8 18.6 20.2 1974 6.5 18.4 12.5 24.9 35.0 30.1 6.5 11.7 9.1 6.5 9.8 8.3 1971 to 1974 change +3.3 +14.9 -3.8 -11.9 +36% +98% -29% -59% - +9.4 -8.4 -19.1 Percent change 1971 to 1974 Change due to treatment 1971 to 1974 Y I Percent change due to treatment 1971 to 1974 co .... - +45% 21 -48% I -70% )JDuring the pre-treatment evaluation phase pellet plots were cleared Sept. 3, 1970, and accumulated pellets counted May 5, 1971. During the post-treatment phase plots were cleared Sept. 3, 1973, and pellets counted May 8, 1974. . YDerived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in elk use recorded on the control areas. 2!Two years after treatment significantly more elk use (p< .10~ was recorded on burns than sprayed or chained areas. However, changes due to burning, spraying and chaining were not significant at the a .10 level when compared to control areas. �Table 13. Deer use t'ecorded on treated areas before and 2 years after burning, spraying and chaining. l! Deer per_square mi 1 e Year Y Control Block 1 Block 2 Ave. Block 1 1971 13.6 25.2 19.4 30.2 1974 21. 5 16.6 19.1 15.0 SprayChai Block 2 Ave. Block 1 n Block 2 16.8 15.2 16.0 25.2 6.5 15.9 13.5 16.6 15.0 4.9 9.8 7.4 Ave. Block 1 15.2 22.7 18.4 16.7 Ave. -- -0.3 -6.0 -1. 0 -8.5 0% -26% -6% -53% Change due to treatment 1971 to 1974 ]I -5.6 -0.8 -8.3 Percent change due to treatment 1971 to 1974 -25% -6% -53% 1971 to 1974 change Percent change 1971 to 1974 1/ - Due to very low deer use on the area when 2 year post-treatment deer use measurements were made the validity of these data in providing a true picture of deer response to the various treatments is unknown at this time. Additional data are currently being collected for verification of data presented- in this table. YDuring the pre~treatment evaluation phase pellet plots were cleared Sept. 3, 1970, and accumulated pellets counted May 5, 1971. During the post-treatment phase plots were cleared Sept. 3, 197J, and pellets counted May 8, 1974. ]lDerived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in deer use recorded on the control areas. I 00 N I �Table 14. Cattle use of control and treated areas before (1970) and 2 years after (1973) treatment. Unit Treatment 4 6 Control Control 4 &6 Control 1 7 Burn Burn &7 Burn 2 5 Spray Spray 2 &5 Spray 3 8 3 &8 Cow days use per acre during 1970 season 11 Cow days use per acre during 1973 season ?-J Change in cow days use per acre from 1970 to 1973 0.0 1.3 3.0 6.5 + 3.0 + 5.2 -- 0.7 -4.8 -+ 4.1 4.4 9.6 19.6 31.7 +15.2 +22.1 -- -- -- 25.7 +18.7 7.0 8.7 3.0 7.4 10.9 Yes - 1.3 + 7.9 5.9 -9.2 + 3.3 Chain Chain 0.0 18.3 0.0 - 9.6 Chain -- '# 0.0 8.7 -- Significance of 1970-1973 change from control areas at a .10 level No -No 1Icow defecation rate is 11.5 chips per day as determined by Ju1ander (1955). ~Post-treatment data for all units have been adjusted for differential.cattle stocking rates which existed during 1970 and 1973. Data have also been adjusted for differences in stocking rates between two cattle allotments which comprise the study area. Units 1, 5, 6, 7,8 and a portion of 3 are in Buzzard allotment, and 2, 4 and the remainder of 3 are in Porter allotment. '#Data for chained areas w~re not averaged. High creek water and difficulty for cattle in findinqhUQit 3 caused the absence of cattle in Unit 3 during 1973, even though the area had been substantially improved forcat~ e by C alning. I co W I �-84- One year before burning (July, 1970) One year after burning (July, 1972) Fig. 1. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after burning (Fig. continued on next page). �-85- Two years after burning (July, 1973) Fig. 1. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after burning. �-86- One year before spraying (July, 1970) One year after spraying (July, 1972) Fig. 2. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after spraying (Fig. continued on next page). �-87- Two years after spraying (July, 1973) Fig. 2. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after spraying. �-88- One year before chaining (July, 1970) One year after chaining (July, 1972) Fig. 3. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after chaining (Fig. continued on next page). �-89- Two years after chaining (July, 1973) Fig. 3. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1 and 2 years after chaining. �-90- Fig. 4. Section of one burn where Agropyron intermedium and Bromus inermis began to become established two years after burning (July, 1973). Fig. 5. Most effective burn obtained in burned units. Vegetation almost completely burned with just a few dead snags left standing. was �-91- Fig. 6. Least effective burn obtained in burned units. Only part of the understory was removed with little or no damage to larger oaks. Fig. 7. On much of the burned area most of the understory with partial destruction of the overstory. was removed �-92- Fig. 8. The overall result of burning was creation of openings interspersed with patches of standing oak vegetation suitable for escape cover and shade. �-93July 1975 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project C=..O::.;L=-O::.;RAD=:..:O=------ 5 Work Plan No. Job Title: Period Bighorn Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations W-lOl-R-17 No. Job No. 1 Sheep Range Inventory April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Harold R. Shepherd ABSTRACT A final draft has been completed and is now in the editing stages by Dr. O. B. Cope, and will be published in this segment as a Miscellaneous Report to Federal Aid Project W-lOl-R-17. ��-95July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~CO~LO~RAD~~O~ Projec.t No. W-lOl-R-17 _ Game Range Investigations Job No. 6 Work Plan No. Job Title Game Management Unit Inventory Period Covered: March 1, 1974 to September 30, 1974 Personnel: l _ William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil ABSTRACT Broad descriptive and wildlife species management information were compiled for Wildlife Management Unit 21 (Douglas Creek). Subjects discussed included; Unit Description (Boundaries, Size, Physical Features and Climate); Landownership Status; Land Use Status;"Human Populations (by County); Wildlife Species Checklists; Hunting Pressure, Harvests and Seasons; Narrative and Map Descriptions of Game Species Distribution and Abundance; Introductions of Game Species; Census Areas and Routes; Habitat Restoration Projects; Management Problems Checklist; and Pertinent Research References by Game Species and Author. ��-97- GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT INVENTORY William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil P. S. OBJECTIVE To compile broad descriptive and wildlife species management by wildlife management unit. information SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Describe Wildlife Management Units by name, number, boundaries, physical features, and climate. size, 2. Inventory by unit the cultural and physical characteristics including landownership status, land use status, and human population. 3. Inventory by unit the.wildlife characteristics including species lists, distribution and abundance, harvest data, introductions and/or past species records, census areas and routes, and research and/or management studies bibliographies. 4. Inventory habitat (range) characteristics of vegetation types, vegetation condition and trend, restoration projects, and transect records, .all from existing sources,if available. . 5. Inventory present and future management 6. Test application of any item of information compiled in steps 1-5 above in the computerized map project now in operation (Division Planning Services activity). problems. METHODS AND MATERIALS Five steps were necessary to produce the desired information about each Wildlife Unit. 1. The priorities of units were determined, based upon recommendations field and administrative personnel. of 2. Working with sources of information in Fort Collins and Denver, as much data as possible concerning each item were assembled and condensed. 3. First-draft copies of descriptive material were submitted to appropriate Northwest Regional personnel individually and to knowledgeable Denver office persons for review and correction. 4. After corrections were entered into the first draft, group meetings were arranged with field personnel and others to make pencilled corrections on the l/2"/mile game distribution maps. Further refinements to the narrative portions of the inventory were added. �-98- 5. Final revisions to maps and narratives were made and all information gathere~ into file binder folders, except for the 1/2"/mile distribution maps which were reproduced by hand and bound in a separate folder. Three copies of all this information were prepared and personally delivered to: 1) the Northwest Regional office, 2) the Denver office, 3) the Federal Aid section. Distribution maps at 1/4"/ mile scale were prepared on Forest Service base maps cut to 8"xlI " size. Xeroxed copies of these were inserted into the file binder folders. Addit10nal xeroxed copies of these maps and of the narrative were made. These were delivered to the local W.C.O. 's, Bureau of Land Management, and Forest Service personnel. Many additional copies have been xeroxed for general distribution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Having completed write-ups for Wildlife Management Units 31 and 32 during the 16th segment, there remained only Unit 21 (Douglas Creek) to be completed as specified under the Job Description for Segment 17. This was completed by September 1974. APPENDIX A is a copy of the narrative and distribution maps as submitted. An extensive bibliography was included with all Division copies, but is deleted from this progress report to save space and paper. Again, no information was obtained concerning habitat (range) characteristics of vegetation types (Objective 4). The "Land Use Status" tabulation is essentially a listing by type. It lacks data on densities, species composition, condition and trend, etc. There were none available. Data gathered under this project should be useful in the pilot computerized map project now in operation by the Division Planning Section [Objective 6) but this has not been realized as yet. There have been numerous requests for copies of the six Wildlife Management Unit Descriptions thus far prepared. As of this reporting time, requests have been received from the following agencies or groups: Private consultants and corporations - 40; Bureau of Land Management - 17; Soil Conservation Service - 17; Colorado Division of Wildlife (other than Unit Area personnel) _ 14; Fish and Wildlife Service - 8; c.s. U. Coop. Wildlife Unit - 6; Forest Service - 4; C.S.U. library - 1; Others - 3; Total - 110. \. Prepared by -, ~:t:21t~ William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher �-99- APPENDIX WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 21 (DOUGLAS) Rio Blanco and Garfield Information Counties, on Unit Description, Human Population; Wildlife and Seasons; Narrative and Abundance; Management A Landownership, Species Checklists; and Map Descriptions Land Use, Harvests of Distribution Census Areas; Habitat Restoration Problems Checklist; Compiled by: Colorado References. W. T. McKean and P. H. Neil To: Projects; August 1974. ��-101- Item U;UT DESCjnpT[():~ (Boundaries, Page s Lz c , physical features and 1 climate) LlJmOli')JI RSEI l' STATUS --- -.-----------------------------------_.___________ 4 LAND USE STATUS -----------------------------------___________________ 5 1m'IAN POPUL\TION GN·lE SPECIES (Rio Blanco (Big game mammals, OTHER l·fJ\H:·;ALL\I"~SPECIES mamma l.s ) County, small (Furbearers, 1960-1970 and game mammals "varmint:" projections) and game mammals, ("Varmint" nongame Ai]) ,!:>irds, nongame birds, 11 raptores) elk, DIS'l'Klhul1uN iL.'i.Ll iiliUi~.0ANCE or. Sl-1..:\1..L GANE lHIZ1:; necked phe a sanr , band-tailed pigeon, mourning HARVEST, SEASONS, MTD HlTh'TING PRESSURE ARCHEWt SEASONS, AND h1J't-tlING PRESSURE BLACK BE.l\R lLWVEST AND SEASONS (1955-1973) (1956-1973) ------------___ jj\Ti-:;ODUCTW:;S OF G./\!'iE SPECIES 34 38 40 42 44 game rnan ag cmon r Un:i,!. 1+6 B1a.'1cO County, ------------------------------------___ i ------- ---------------------____ IL\.RVEST Al:D HlHITING PRESSURE (Rio ------------------------------------------------------_____ A.:;~) COllS;: 27 36 -------------------------__ LIO;~ HARVEST AND SEASO~~S (1965-1973) 195ft -1973) 24 -----------------------___ S:-:ALL GNfE 1l,\1zVEST pliDifCNTING PRESSURE (Small §_, 19 ()8-·.l9 j:5) ----------------------------------------------_________ Dl!CK rabbit, -----------___ ARCHERY ELK HJ\RVEST, SEASONS, Al'.TDHl}NTING PRESSURE (1956-1973) Nom':TAf1': 23 (Grouse, chuk ar , ringdove. w-aterfowl) -____ (1956-1973) DEER HAi,\VEST AND SEASONS (1956-1973) ELK Hl'JWEST, 18 ABUND•. \NCE OF 1-111D HORSE ---------------------------___ DISTRIBUTION A::-';D ADUNDfu~CE OF Si:L\LL Gk'1E MAI1HALS (Cottontail snowshoe hare, red (pine) squirrc1) ----------------------------____ DZER 9 ~_._ DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAt'-'lEHAl>["fALS (Black bear, rnoun t a in lion, inu Le deer) ----------------------_____________________ DISTRIBUTION 7 birds) ---.-.---------------------------------------------- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES 6 --____ 47 48 �-102- ltUTI - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50 HAl>ITAT RESTOR\.TIO:~ :-lA:';L\GE;-IUT BIG PIWBLPiS PROJECTS - PESEiuZCII GA.,'-fE: B lRD REFERENCES HN2'!!\L FURBE!\RER - RESEARCH (;Eln::RAL AVIAS REFERENCES REFERENCES __ - REFERENCES RESEARCH REFER.ENCES - - - - - - - - - - 52 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 54 HEFEREI'l'CES S~'fALL Ci-]·rE WIl-L':AL NmGP':·Ir:.: - CHECKLIST GX-rt: l·U~{:-IAL RESEll-Rea I;.r:SEARCH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 57 - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 70 - - - - - - - - - - - - ------- 71 - - - - - - - - - - - -------- 81 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 82 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 85 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 86 ii �-103- • DESCRIPTION Boundaries JJ. - HILDLIFE H:INAGEHENT UNIT 21 (DOUGlAS) 1/ "That portion of Rio Blanco County south of the lfuite River from the Colorado-Utah State line east to Boise Creek, west of the divide /. between the Yellow-Piceance Creeks and the Douglas Creek drainages.from Boise Creel: to the Garfield County line; that portion of Garfield lying within the Evacuation County Creek and Douglas Creek drainages." o Size. -- 865.6 square miles. Physi~.al Featm:es.--I.Jildlife Unit 21 corresponds the Douglas Creek basin. to what geologists A major tributary of the \fuite River, Creek drainage is underlain by rocks with wide differences to erosion. This has resulted in the more resistant call the Douglas in resistance rock layers of the Green River Formation standing in relief while broad open valleys have been cut in the softer rocks of the Wasatch l:lHlllation. The Ncsa Verde Group of the Mesozoic occurs across broad areas of Douglas Creek basin, consisting mainly of sandstone and several coal beds. w i.t h much interbedded These rocks are usually resistant often form prominent mesas, ridges, and cliffs. shale to erosion and The thickness of Nesa Verde ranges from 2,500 feet to 5,600 feet (U.S.D.A. 1966). 1/ Lega Lly t e ru.e d "Big Game }~anagement Unit (see footnote 2/ b e Low) but 'lcntatively called "l.Jildlifc~lan;)gementUnit" here to incl~de broader aspects of animal life present. ?) Colorado Div. Hildlife Laws and Regulations Bi.g c.?:,,(~). 1 Hdbk., 1973 (p.S, Chap. 2 - �-104- Quoting. out U.S.D.A. around mainly the mar g Lns of of red, These. rocks valleys 1966 further, purple, are the Piceance and gray relatively or badland "11lC Hasatch areas shale erodible Formation, which also Creek. basin (Douglas and clay some sandstone and this be twe.en cliffs with crops Creek), fo rmat Lon generally consists layers. forms broad or ridges of the Green River valuable oil shales, is Formation and the Hesa Verde Group." The Green River the southern Roan Plateau Unit its found only around This caps the Creek Divide on the west. a site a few miles below Rangeley on the divide periphery of Douglas on the and the Evacuation-Douglas south range River from 5,224 feet upwar d to 9,090 West Fork of Douglas Other with and western elevations on. the Ifnite Formation, Creek near thr n '1'~~p D~~!!;las Creek, at feet Douglas Pass. with east~n0 its drainages i.n Wildlife Unit 21 are: Cathedral Creek - all cast of main Douglas draining into Creek arc Horse DraH; draining Big Trujillo west are vfuiskcy Soils Douglas Shavetail Park Canyon, Fletcher north into wes t branches Gulch, Creek; Lower Horse be twe en East Spring to , the Creek the 'vest Draw, Four Hile are Wash and Cottonwood Creek; draining Cr~ck, and Draw and Big River Missouri maIn and also the h'hite Texas Creek, Fork and Johnson Evacuation Draw, to Creek, the and Creek. data Sorv ice Hash, to the Creek Basin. for Unit Work Unit 21 can be obtained p er's onne L located b roo d soil c Las s Lf i c a t i on s also lkp:1rtr':ent of Agriculture, 1966. at by consulting Meeker. can be found Soil Descriptions in previously \·.'ater and related 2 U.S. land Conservation and a map of cited: resources, U.S. Whi.te �-105River Basin in Colorado, Coop. Study Rep. of Co Lo ,, 'yater Conserve Board. i!Ild H.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service. Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service, November. Denver. Climate.--The 92pp (Looseleaf). climate of Unit 21 is definitely-semi-arid. As in adjoining areas, Unit 21 experiences wide extremes of precipitation and temperature. Hean annual precipitatio~ at Rangely, the only National Weather Station in the unit, averaged 8.92 inches (1951-1972). 3.76 to 17.5 inches. PreCipitation ranged from During the period 1930-1940 inclUSive, a mean annual precipitation of 10.36 inches was r2corded. Data are lacking for the forties. Precipitation on Roan Plateau at the head of Douglas Creek is estimated at 25 inches annually. Cloudburst storms of high intensity a~d short duration occur over small areas and result from convective conditions. Seasonal distribution of precipitation is fairly uniform, higher elevations receiving a greater proportion in winter in the form of snow. Temperature records are available for fifteen years of the twenty two-year period 1951-1972. The mean annual temperature for those years was 46.33 degrees, ranging from 44.0 to 49.8. Frost free days recorded for the period 1961-1972 averaged 120, ranging from 66 to 157. Literature Cited U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1966. White River Basin in Colorado. Water and· related land resources, Coop Study by Colo. '-laterConserve Board and H.S.D.A. Econ. Res. SerVice, Forest SerVice, and Soil Conserve Service. November. Denver. 92 pp. (processed). U.S. Department of Commerce. (Continuing). HOllthly and Annual Summaries. Climatological data. Colorado. National Climatic Center, Fed. Bldg. AsheVille, N.C. 28801 J H. T. HcKeao Hardl, 197/1 �-106- LANDQl..7NERSIlTP STATUS - HILDLIFE HA.i.~GEHENT maT 21 Acres . "Bureau of Land HanagetJent 484,382 Private Lands 74,892 and Cou.nty Lands 13 Other Federal lands including National Park Service, Forest Service. Indian and Hi1itary Reservations and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife o Municipal Co lorado Division 2,710 of 'Hildlife Lands State L&nd Board Administration o Lands * Total 561,997 (878.12 sq. miles) *Total Land acreage differs from teta1 in J1E:i-t pesc~~E-tl,~!::._ .~~ct~on (S5l f, 026 or 856.6 square miles). Bureau of Land Management lands and private lands were derived from 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit base map (1965). P. H. Neil April 1974 I "T' �-107lAND USE AND VEGETATIVE \\'JLDLIFE COVER HANAGENENT UNIT Irrigated cropland ./ . 21 5,432 Acres Craas Land with half-shrub mixtures 29,193 Acres Sagehrush 73,994 Acres BrUE;h (desert and mountain) 123,280 Acres Woodland 257,181 Acres (Pinon-juniper and oakbrush) Commercial timber to include aspen River bottom vegetation 40,568 Acres 1,356 Acres Urban 446 Acres Miscellaneous 22,576 Acres . Total 554,026 AC1.eS * (865.6 sq. miles) *Cover type categories we re derived from 1/'2" = 1 mile S. c. S. Land Use and Cover Type Haps, 1953, for Rio Blanco and Garfield counties. A planimeter and grid were used to derive and compute acreages .. 1/ Urban - Those areas used for residential and municipal purposes as illustrated on the 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit base map for the town of Rongely. 2.:/ Hiscellaneous - Interpreted to consist mainly of bare ground with sparse, scattered vegetation of various types. P. H. Neil April 1974 5 �-108Hl.NAN POPITLAT10N - I.JILDLIFE HANACnmNT UNIT 21 The rural popu1ation of Rio Blanco County has decreased from .62 to .51 persons per square mile b:::twcen1960 and 19711. This trend probably tipplies to the Unit 7.1 porti.on of it, though temporary increases have been known to occur because of 011, gas, and oil shale exploration. l/ Table 1. Urban-rural population, He.eker Rnnge1y Rural TOTAL Rio Blanc~ County, 1960-70. 1960 1970 1,655 1,464 _2,031_ 5,150 1,597 1,591 1,654 4,842 5,150 3,135 2,980 ~943 1,690 1900 'Fig. 1. 1910 Population One projection 1980 - 6,375, 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 trend of Rio Blanco County. of human population J:..I for Rio Blanco County is: 1975 - 6,018; Another projection of human population 11 for the White River Basin is: 1980 _ 20,000; 2000 - 186,000; 2020 - 204,000. A third projection !!..I for the oil shale area, based upon cumulative oil production in barrels per day, is: 1974 - 6,631; 1980 - 46,738; 1985 - 100,000. II - U. S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, 1959-61. 2/ - Colorado Slate P1anning Office, advance population projections, ]/ u. S· Burcau of the Census, Colorado Hater Conservation Eoard unpublished. and USDA Field Party. !!../u. S. ])',>01:. of Interior £1972) Draft cnv Lr onrnent aI statement for the propo scd p ro t o t vne oil s h a.l e c:jsill;~ pro/.:rilf;l. ·Vol. To hTasldngton, D.C, '+65 p , 6 �-109GAJ'lE SPECIES - HILDLIFE Big game ma~~als ~L\NAGEHENT UNIT 21 II Black bear (QE.~t1S_ ~~~ricanus) Uncommon , Elk (CCT'TJS can adcnsLs) Unc or.unon , Hount:~'1-ill J_ion(l~hs --Zoncolor) Uncommon. Mule deer (Odor:ilie::;-s hC:!li~nus)Commo~. Small game mammal.s II Cottontail rabbit (SylvHag ,:!s.§.ud1.lbonii_; ~. n1.lttal~i.i) Common. Pine (nod) squirrel (TamiascJ.~!.:.~'s hudsonicus) Common. SUOv,1S11Oe hare (Lepus ame ricanu s) Common • 4 .3mall game birds ]j Migratory vat e rf'owl, and shorebirds Great Basin Canad::igoose (Brant a canadensis moffitti) Uncommon. Black brant (J!ran_~~T1.igrican-;)-ilPossibl-;-rare mig~~ant. White-fronted goose (Rranta albifrons frontalis) 31 Possible rare migrant. Snow goose (Q1en E~2ruJ.escC;n-s~ caerulescc~s) )j, !!l. Possible rare migrant. Whistlinz S\o1an(Olor coluf.lbinnl..'.s) Rare migrant. Mallard (Arias.£.~<1tYEEynchosPl?.!::'rhvnchos)Common resident. Cadwa l.L (.:6:::i~_::: E~;-ep_~~) Common spring_ and fall migrant. 1/. - Nomenclature according to Lechleitner~ R. R. 1969. Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Bould~r. 254 pp. Wild mammals of ]j Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver Hus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Cringan, A. T., and L. C'etrlson.1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance oi the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Instulite, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapt:ed from the foregoing refercnc es and Davis, loJ. A. 1969. Birds in we s t ern Colorado. Colo. Field O'rn Ltho l.ogist s , 61 pp . "There adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have heen reported verbally by anyone or more Division personnel Glenn E. Rogers, CLaude E. Hhite, George E. Steele. Louis D. Vidakovich, or qualified by additional footnotes that follo\o1. ,.., ( - �-110G<:meblrds (continued) Pintail (An~~~ ·:l~..t.::~,:3) Common spring and fall migrant. American green-Hinged teal (/~1C1~ crecca c:<::rolinensis) Common migrant and un common year Lon~ resident 4/ Blue-Hinged teal (An a s - d Ls cors di.~ors) Common migrant. Cinnamon teal (An~'-~:;--~'1D(lDtcr<;sentcntr:i.onalium) Common migrant • .American w I geon -U~~-~-;-;;~~~:lo.)4/ Common migrant and rare winter resident. No r t he rn shoveler (J-.no-;' cl~jX~~~a)~4j Common migrant and uncommon summer r es Ldent . Redhend (;\ythya a:nericana) Uncommon migrant. Ring-neck_Q'(r--cf~ck(:\vti~~~ £olb!:..is) Uncommon migrant. Canvasback (Avt hva vali.sinoyjti) Unc ommon to rare migrant. Greater scau-p~;)ya m;rila n-carctica) 3/ Rare migrant. Le s s e r scaup (~'thya affini~) Un c orrrmon migrant. Common golden-eye (Buceohala clangula americana) Common migrant winter resident. Barro"r's golden-eye (Bucc_,:?hal<l:.islandica) )../ Rare Hinter visitor. Bufflehead (~uceohala a1beola) Uncommon spring and fall migrant rare winter resident. Ruddy duck (~):-:vur..!:!:. j amaic(~nsis summer resident. rubida) Common migrant Hooded merganser (~~ophodytes., cucullatus) Rare Common merganser (;~.2~ mergcl!1ser americanus) CO~~on SWlliuer resident. and and and occasional winter visitor Common ''linter on river. resident, un- Red-breasted merg,1User (Men-;us serra tor serrator) Uncommon winter resident. American coot (Fuljca 'americana americana) Common migrant and summer resident. Common \';i1son' s snipe (Capella .8allinago de1icata) Common migrant and rare Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis canadensis) Regular migrant. Vh'ginia rail (Ralus limico1a limicola) Possible uncommon summer resident. Sora (Po rz ana c:;U:-OTina) Possible uncommon summer resident. Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dendri-lr;apus obscurus obscurus) Common. Sage grouse (~entrocercus uroohasianus urophasianus) Uncommon to Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Uncommon. Chukar (AlectoY.'is chukar) i/ Uncommon. Band-tailed and fall Mourning )'/Unverified pigeon migrant. dove (Columba (Zenaida in hunters' fasciata macroura bag checks· fasciata) legal uncommon summer if Common summer resident. margine1la) but Possible common. game 1972-73. ljf - Ckmges in nomenclature f oLl.ow the thirty-second AIDerLean Ornithologists Union check-lis t of North in Auk 90:411-419, April, 1973. supplement to the American birds published W. T. HcKc>an 1974 • June 8 �-111OTHER tfN-["1i\I,IAN SPECIES Furbec re rs II - w'ILDLIFE HANAG8-fENT UNIT 21 2-../ Short-haired Beaver (C:l~~.or ~<!E.<J.d.?!~sis)Common. Mink (Muslcla vison) Uncertain. Muskrat"- (.0~G~6a Z:LbCt:.licllS) Unc ommon, Ringtail (Bassariscus 25tutllS) Rare. 'l-lcasels O·;~~tcl~· el':;i~e'~- 2i,.-frenata) M. enninea Uncommon. Black-footed ferret (H<l~tela nigri~) Possible Uncertain; rare resident. M. frenata Endangered. Loug-ha Lred Kit fox (.Y2-:!.:..~ ve102:) Uncommon. Gray fox (.ll_~!?cyo~ci~~~~rgen_tetl~) Uncommon. American badger (Taxice.a t3XU8) Corr.mon to uncommon. Spotted skunk (~~31e ~_oriu~) Uncommon. Striped skunk Cl'lephitis mephitis) Common. "Vannint" mammals Coyote (Canis latrans) Common. Red fox (Vu Lpe s ful V2) Unc ormnon, R2'~C)C"i1 (:rT·:~'(:-~~;~~"1 :Gtor) Unc ommon . Porcupine ([r~izon dorsatum) Common. Bobcat (\vildcat) (Lynx rufus) CODInOn. W'nite-tailed jack ~it (Lenus tov.'l1sendii) Common. Ye Ll.ow-be Ll.Led mannot (Narmo t a flaviventris) Common. White-tailed prairie dog (Cvno;:IV8 Le uc uru s ) Uncommon. Richardson's ground squirrel (Spe~onhilus richardsonii) Common. Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Snermonnilus tridc.cemlineatus) Common. Rock squirrel (Sper:::nopililus varie~atus) Cornmon , Horthern. poc:ket gopher (Thomomvs talpoides) Common. !lThese species, grouped separately as "Furbearers", "Varmints" and "Nongame mammals" and out s i de of "game categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1973 (Art. 1, Items 13, 17, and 18, Defini:::ions, p , 3). '!:../ Nomenclature from Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mamma Ls of Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co , , Boulder. 254 pp. Information on occurrence and status from the abo ve r c f e r e n ce 3:1d: Cr Lngan , A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Pf.ccanc c Cr co k Basin, In_: An cnv fr cnrnen t aj, reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Inaneo i!!lll Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Ph a s e One of the env Lr onrnanr n I inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the, ne~~i0;;.11OLl Sh31e Study being d ccnc for the State of Co Lo'rad o by t he Tho r nc Ecolo;~ic.1J. Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Al so , Armstrong, D. H. 1972, Dif:ldl:uliG'l of mamrnaLs in Colorado. :'!onograph of the ~luseum of Natural History, the Univ. of Kans a s , Numbcr 3, 1972. 1,15 pp. 9. �-112- Nongame mammals Co Lderr-rnan t Lcd ground squ:Lrrcl (Sr.,err.~QPMlus latcralis) COnll'TIOn. l-;rhite-tailed antelope squirrel U-Tf:1;w..:.~cnnophilusleucurus) Uncommon. Leas t ch i praunk (}':ut:0:nias m:inimus) Corrrnon, CoLc rado ch i pn.un k (~1l:ami;'2 oU2drivj~_~atus) Common. Uinl:a ch Lpraunk (Eut arm.as u.cb r inus ) Un common to uncertain. Vagrant sh r ew (S;-re;.:--~;;;-r;;s) Uncommon: Herriams shrew (so~-;x merriani) 1/ Uncertain. Townsend! s b i.g+ea rcd bat (Plecotus t ownscnd Lf ) Common. Silver-hairerl· bat (Lasionv~~is noct'~'lg,ms) Common not abundant. Hoary bat (Lao i u ru s cinereus) Uncommon - common. Big b rown h-at (i::;~i~stcus fu~S~,§,) Cornmon, Hestcrn p Lpi s t r e L'le (~..P2:strcl1us h~sperus) Common. Long-legged mvo t i.s C'fyotis voLJ.~:~) Uncommon. Ca Ldfo rn La myotis Q'hrC2..!is~alifornicus) Common - not abundant. Small--footed myotis (Hyotis Lc LbLf.) C01JIllOn. Long+e ar cd myotis (Hyo t i.s evotj~) Uncertain. Little bro •.. '11 myotis (Hyotis lucifugus) Uncertain. Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) Unconnnon - Uncertain. \\Testern harvest mouse (Reithrodontom~ magalolis) Uncertain. Canyon mouse (Pe r omvs cus crinitus) Common - unc ommon • Deer mouse (Pero~~\:s~CllSmaniculatus) Common. Pinon mouse (Pe·.Lo;ys~-;:;:-struei) Comrnon , Bushy-t a Ll.ed c'!ood rat(Neoto.~~ine~f;:.a) Common. Gapper's red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) HeadovJ vole (Hi c:rotus pennsy]vanicus) Uncertain. Mont:;;.ne vole G:!)crotu2 montanus) Uncertain. Long-tailed vole (Hicrotus lonr~icaudus) Common. Sagebrush vole (~curtatus) Uncertain. House mouse (~~u~~usculus) Uncommon. Western jumping mouse (Zapus princeps) Uncommon. Uncommon. 3/ - Occurrence listed by the Colo. Div. of Wildlife as extremely unusual _ very f ew xlo cumen t e d records wi.th Ln the past decade. (1972 Status Evaluation for Selected Colorado Species) appended to: 1973 Wildlife Operations Work Plan, Field Order No.4 - 1973). W. T. McKean June 10 1974 �-113OTHERAiJIAN SPECIES 1./ "Varmint" - HILDLIFE Hl\.1'jAGE11Ei\T UNIT 21 birds lHack-·billed I,;:lgpie (Pic;:! l~ica hudsonii0 Common resident. Starling (StU1:-..Q~1'; .vulgar:i.s) Common resident. Nongame birds 2:../ COD"UllOn loon (I.r~v:i::tJ8i'1e]J Possible rare migrant. Horned grebe (~>()dic:.~_~ ~_~.tus cornutus) Possible rare migrant. Eared g r cbe (}~C251}c~~ .r:_:ij:2J~~ollis ~a~ifon!icus) Possible common migrant 1/. Western grebe (£,:.~:cb'!~::"C2.~)ho"£~5 .occidentaJ.is) Possible rare migrant. Pied-billed gre:)(~ (i:\?-,"hh~~?\lspodiceJ2£ ~diceps) Possible uncommon migrant and rare SFc~~:fler resident:. Double-crested cormorant (!'halacrocorax auritus auritus) Possible rare migrant. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident. Snowy egret (Lgrett~'9. thu10~teri) Uncommon surruner r es Ldcn t ;}j. B'l ack+c rown e d nLgh t; heron (Nvc t Lcor ax nycticorax hoactli) Possible common summe r resident. Least bittern (Ixobrvchus e:-:i1is exilis) Possible rare summer migrant. American bi tter';'- (.iis.~ur~j_~-le_ntiginosus) Possible rare summer migrant. Hhite-faced ibis (PJ.egadi2 c!!:.~bi) Possible rare migrant. i-lhistling swan (Olor co Lumbi.anus ) Uncommon migrant. Semipalmated plover (Cha~lclrius semi.pal.mat u s ) Possible rare migrant. Ki11deer (Ch a r ad iu s vocifcrus vociferus) Corrunonsummer resident and rare wiater resident. Mountain plover (~h,~xa4rj \1..~montanus) Possible rare migrant ;}./. Elu~k··:':2:1icJ p l ove r (Plu'li::..lis s::n:at2i:o:'.:::) Possible uncommon mi[;-;:'2::t '>./ Long-billed curlew (Nurneni.us americanus amer Lcanus ) Possible rare mf gran t , Spotted s andp i pe r (~~~m~';:-L:~) Possible common summer- resident. Solitary sandpipe.r (Tring.Q. solitClria cinnamomea) Possible common ruigrant and occasional summer resident. 1/ - The.se species, grouped separntely as "Varmint" birds, "Nongame birds" and "Rap t or cs " and outside of "g ame" categories, fol1m .• Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1962 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1973. (Art. 1, Items 13, 18, ~nd 15, Definitions, p. 327). 2/ - Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. Denver !'lus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp , Information on occurrence arid status adrip t e d from the above reference and Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Vi.ld1::fe in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the c or.ipl e t Lo n of Part 1, Phase one of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the Stat ..2 of CoLor ado by the Thorne ExoJ.ogical Institute, Boulder, CoLor ad o , 144 pp. Add i ti.UI1:J.l Luf o rma t i on on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adopted f ro.n the foregoing references and Davis, H.. A. 1969. Birds in wes t er n Colo r ado . Colo. F:i.vlJ Ornithologists. (,i pp, Hhere adjective "possible" is ab scn t , .ictun l ~;:if',htings have be en reported verbally by anyone or more Division pc r s onn cI Clenn I:. ;~Ci~Cr!j, Claude E. \{id t c , Ceo r ge E. Steele, Louis D. Vid";,(lv.ic:h or qu.i lLfio d Ly add it Lonn L [001:1:01:es that f ol l.ow, Notations concc r r.i n-. ,;(:;l';l1Jl."il ;·bul\(.i<1nc(> of r ap t o r e s a r c by Gerald R. Craig, Hi1dlife llioJ,);:,j~;t . 11 �-114Nongame b Lrd s (oont Ir.ucd) ,,~:alet Lno rno t us ) Possible rare mi.grant . common migrant 1/· Lesser ycl1m.;}.('./,;s (T1.:".:~'22 fJ a-'~:~22)Possible uncommon migrant ]j. Red knot (Ca1i0r1.:> c anur us r u ra ) Possible rare migrant 3/. Pe c t or a I. s-;·ndpiT~r.:-;: Tc:~iidris-;;::];motos) Possible rare mIgrant 3/. Baird "s sandpiper u.:8iT;-GTs·b~:-;-i-;ZCiiyrossible common migrant 37. Least ~:andpipc::r (~,-,LI0;=-j-; i~i~l~~~l:TlJQ.) Possible common migrant }/. Long-bj 11e d dowi t: cl.c r (I~jYmojEoml!s _sco 10D<lCells) Pos s ib Le uncommon nu grarrt , Stilt sandpiper C:~:~S:£()Jl<d~:l:1l~~Ii,,'ntorlUs) Possible rare migrant. Seminalmatcd sandoiucr (Calidris pus ilIa) Possible rare migrant 3/. Hest~rn sandpipe,.'· (Cc.l.:i dris-;;,wri)Possible uncommon migrant 3/.-NarbJed godwit (L~1;·Q.S;fedo2.Y-Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Cali'::~;:i-~--:~Jb,3.)Possible rare migrant 3/. American ;rvocet --(:·Gc;u;.:;:-,-j~Y-ostTa arne r i.cana ) Rare mi-grant. Black-necked stil-t (H:;~::;:nto';\~~mex i canus ) Possible rare migrant. viilson' s pLalar0~;e (~_~cr:ano;)t~;;-rr:i-;;To-;;Y' Possible C0UU11on migrant and uncommon summer resident. Northern phalarope (Lo~i1?e:=; lobatus) Possible uncommon migrant. Pomar i.ne j aeger U;tc:-.£~orar~~.2_POtlar:0,lUs) Possible rare mi gr ant . Herring gull (L2EuS ar"Jmta~'_~~ .:?Tlithsonir-il1us) Possible uncommon migrant. Ca l.Lf ornd a gull (;'a;.u~ caHfoc:nicu~) Possible rare migrant. Ring...,billec1 gull (L2121S del~'Jar:2nsis) Possible uncommon migrant. F'r ank.Li.n' s gull (L,~nls .p2:..J2i:5~2n) Possible uncommon migrant. Bonaparte's gull (La.!u,2 .£.l1i-G~~~c1nhia)Possible rare migrant. Sabine's gull (X:::'1a sab i.nL s ab i.n i.) Possible rare nigrant. Forste.:r's tern -rS'tcrna rorsteri) Possible rare migrant. Common tern (?te1=-:.12:·hlr~Ddo h:i"~undo) Possible rare migrant. Least tere (Ster~3 a:b2frons 2thn13ssos) Possible rare migrant. Black tern (Chi~"-l~~~i-i~tc;er s ur i.narnens i.s ) Pos s LbLe rare migrant. Rock dove (COl,U1j.>.-:-C:.l:ivj ..£!-) Pc s s i.bLe common resident. Unprotected. Ye.Ll.ow-b i.Ll.ed cuckoo (Coccvzus americanus amer i canus ) Possible uncommon summer rcsidc~:t. Poor-will (P}lalae:1oDtilus nuttallii nuttallii) Commonsummer resident. Commonn i.ght hawk (C;~dciles minor he spe r i.s ; ~. ~. howelli) Common SUiJI1Iler r os i.de a t , White-throated s~~£t (Aeronautes saxatalis sclateri) Common summer resident. Black-chinned hurzrai ngb Lr d (Ar ch i Lochus alexandri) Commonsummer resident. Broad-tailed hurru i.ngb Lr d (S~].<:!sj)horus p:GtY~~s platvcercus) Common summer r e s i dcn t , Rufous hummi.ngb i.r.d (Se Las pho rus rufus) Possible common late summer migrant. Calliope; hUr:1miTI[;oird-(Stellula calliOpe) Possible rare migrant and summer resident. Rivoli's humminzbird (~ugene.:? fulgcI1s aureo'liridis) Possible rare summer visitor. Belted kingfisher (l-b~acer\'lc a l.cvon alcvon) Possible common resident. Common fli~ker (COLlDt(';-;t~;-i~[~s~l~s-)ColrJnon resident 3/ (C. a. luteus)-});-;~-j~bie-r~~;e migrant s]: Lew.i s t \,roodpccker U.svnJesT'lus le\"is) Possible common summer resident. (C;ttOTltr0·.·,1~()nrs [;<.:mil);}lmalm-: Grcnt cr )'(.'J.l;;i·~~;;--(}~~~~}iS~ :i~~~~;!~~~ie~ca) -f-~~-i-ble 1/Changc s in ncrncn cl.c t.u r c follow O'rn i t.ho Lo.t ist s Un Lou Checklist 411-419. April, 1973- the Thirty-second of North American 12 Supp.l.crnen t to the American HirJs published in Auk 90(2): �-115Non~;'J'lC.birds (continued) Ye l.Low+bc l L'l c d sapauckc r (~.E.:'::Yr;:\lYi.c:lIs varills nucha lLae ) Common summer and possible occasional winter resident. WillL~s.son' s s ap s u c ke r (Sj)hvriln_~~ £!::.Y~i.~~us nataliae) Possible c ommon summer resident. Hairy woodpecker (9_c:!.l_~,X()C~ vi] ~osus mon t Lco La ) Possible common resident. Downy wo odpcck e r (D0.n~_;;,oc~ pllbcscC!ns leucur_lls) Possible common resident. Northern t hr cc+t ocd wo odpe c ke r (P icoid<:,s tridactvlus dorsalis) Possible rare m:i,gra!:lt. Eastern kinghinl (TY_:;-..0.:~'u~ ~nus) Possible uncommon summer resident. ~·jestern kingbird (1:"'0:i::.'IIl1~':. verticalis) Common summer resident. Cassin f s kin~bird (~::mnus ::'2£iferans vociferans) Possible uncommon suume r resident. Ash-throated flycatcher (Hviarchus cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident. Say's phoebe (~~i2 ~;aya _saya) Common summer and possible rare winter resident. . Hlllovl flycatcher (Emp i.d on ax traillii) Possible uncommon summer resident. Harnrnon d ' s flyC'.at:cher(L~nax' hamrnondii) Possible migrant and uncommon SUmrH'."f.' resident. . Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) Possible summer resident. Gray f Ly ca t che r (E~-;-id~nax wr i.ch t Lf.) Possible summer resident. Weste.rn flycatcher (~iclonilx difficilis hellmayri) Cornman summer resident. Hestern Hood peewee (~gllt_t?J2.ussO,rclidulus veliei) Common summer resident. Oljve-sided flycatcher (Nut t a Ll.o rn i.s borealis) Possible COI!UT10n summer resident. Horned La rk (Ere!1'1:S2.E..i:~ila l:l_~trjs Lcuco Laerna ) Common resident. Violet-green sva Ll.ow (Trachvcineta thalassina Leo i.d a ) Common summer resident. Tree swa LLow (l~_~~~~('ne bicolor) Common migr;;t and summe r resident. Bank. 8\-13110\07 (Rina'r i.a E~'.!"L~ r~E2ri~) Possible uncormnon migrant and summei 1'<=::; Ld en c , Rough-s ...• in8ed SHallow (Stelgidopteryx ruficollis serripennis) Uncommon g and sumner i.den t , Barn swa L Lov (Hi.rundo Eustica e rvt h rorras t e r ) Common summer resident. Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pvrrhonota flvrrhonota) Common summer resident. Purple martin (Prognc subis .?_ubi:~) Poss-ible rare s~rmner migrant. Gray Jay (.?_ed,sor~Jl~ c,madensis ,s:apitalis) Possible uncommon resident. Steller's jay (~vanClcitt"!: stellcri TTl3crolopha) Common resident. Scrub jay (Aphclocoma ~o,=--~lescens ,...• oodho us e i I ) Common resident. Common raven (Corvus c or ax s i.nua t us ) Cornmon . resident. Pinon jay (Gyr:l;lOr;li;-tl-;'-;;'~nOCeDhalus) COr.JIIlotJ. SUTIUller3/ and winter resident. Clark's nutcrDc kiOr C<ucifra2.3. co l.uub i.ana ) Common resident. Black-cDpped chickadee (Par~s arti.caDillus garrinus) Common resident. Mountain chickadee (Pa r us ;:a.l:'!beli z arab e Lf.) -Cor:-unon resident. PTa In titmouse (Parl!; inorn:1tus r-jd~";'3vi) Common resident. Bush t I t (Ps<11tri~;irus rr;ini:;~':~'spl~~::1[~-2us)Possible co:r:mon resident 3/. \·Ildte-brc';-,st-ed nuthatcTl(Sitt.:l-c;roTii1ensis nelsoni) Possible unc-;;-mmon r e s f.dcn t , --Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta ~anadensi.s) Possible rare resident. Pygmy nu t ha t ch (S'i.t t a fly!~r:!Cle.il mclanot:Ls) Possible unc ornmon resident. Brown creeper (~crtt~fi'-filmi] iaris raon t an a ) Possible uncommon resident and common migrant. Dipper (~:-i~~:.:1_tJs !T,ex:Lcal~ un !color) Common resident. House wr en (Ir()(,lo(~;ly.5~ <1C~::il1 p a r kmau i i ) Possible common summer resident. mf raut r-e s 13 �· ~ongame birds -116- (continued) Bewick r S wren (!!L~:Z(J_~.an.£.:2.be~':lckii resident and rare winter resident. Long-billed marsh wren winter resident. (Telrnatodvtes Canyon vr en (Scllvinctes resJoE'nt. mexicanus Rock '·,TF:n (SalDil,ctcs rare ~inter resident. obsoletus eremophilus) Possible palustris pleusius) consperus) obsoletus) Possible common summer Possi~le rare uncommon su:nmer Common summer and possible Hockingbird (~!i.21:~.'pol vglottos leucopterus) Uncommon summer resident. Gray catbird (Dc:::--:>tzLlacarolinensis) Possible rare summer resident 3/. Sage thrasher -(O;Z~;~-;:;-tes montanus) Possible common summer resident-: American robin Ti~-;Jus migratorius propinouus) Common summer and winter r e s Lde n t 3/. ----Hermit thruSh (Catharus resident 3/. ,8uttatus audubonii) SwaLns on I s "t-hrush (Catharus ustulatus Veery (Catharus fucesce~alicjcola) resid-;"~It~ -------_. ------WestcJ~ bluehird (Sialia ~~ unco,m;'on SUr.u1lsrr'e s Lden t , Mountain bluebird (Sialia and possible occ::sional Possible Cornmonsunnner nlmae) Possible uncommon migrant. Possible common migrant and summer baird i) Possible comoon migrant currucoides) Connnonmigrant winter resident. Townsend T s solitaire resident. Ofyadestes tmmsendi tm.msendi) Blue-zroy gnat catcher summer resident. (Polioptila caerulea amoenus) RUDy-crmmed klnglet migrant. cineraceus) (Regulus Bohemian vlaY.1ving(BombvcHla winter migrant 3/. calendula gar~ and summer resident Possible amoenissima) Golden-crm,rneci kinglet (!:.-egul:~ satrapa m:ig:C3rtt an d ran= SUITll!1er resident. pallidiceps) and uncommon Possible Possible uncommon Possible Possible common common irregular Cedar ,,,aX-wing (Bo;-!~cilla cedrorum) Uncommon resident. Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor invictus) Common w i.n t e r resident. Loggerhead shrike'-{L-;r!iu~~;i~mubitorides) Possible uncommon summer and common 'iVinter resident. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Possible uncommon summer resident. Solitary vireo (Vi~eo solitarius plumbeus) Possible Cow~on summer resident. Red-eyed vireo (V'ir-oo olivaceus) Possible rare summer resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus sl-lainsonii) Common summer resident. Tennessee ,"arbler (Vermivor~ peregrina) Possible rare but regular migrant. Orange-crowned war bl.e r (Ver.::i_vora ceL.lta orestera) Possible uncommon migrant and surmner resident. Nashville warhler (Vermivora ruficanilla ridgHayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia I s war bLer (Vermiv01:-a virg-i.niae) qossible common summer resident. Yellow warbler (Dcndroica oct~chia ~cstiva) Common summer resident. Yellow-rurnped wa-;:-h-~-:-~--('Dend;;i-(:~-ZorO!lClt~--l'1emorabi1 is) Common summer resident J!; (D. c. C~lta) Possible coaT.on migrant 3/. Black--tlnoatcd g~aY-".'arbler (])-cndroica nigrescens) Possible common summer resident. To'-.'11send's warb l.or (])(~ndrojca tmmsendi) Possible uncommon fall mi.grant. r-klcGi11ivray's \·;;:n-blcr (Opo;~rnis -tol~ic~ r.-:onticola) Possible Common <>umnwrresilient. �-117C0I1'JnonycLl oc t h ro a t (G(?~_U0-5..rJ.-s ~ri(Jl<1s ?cd(!~ntalis; G. t. campLcol.a) Possible uncommon sur.cnc r r cs i.dcn t 3/. Ye Ll,o•. !-br(:~Jstc;d chat (Ictc!"ia v i r en s ?uricolJ.is) Possible common summer resident. Hilson's T.Je, r bLcr (I-iilsoni a E::.:silla .Eileolata) Possible common migrant and American r eds ta r t; (Set~E ..!t0.S.~ !uticilla t r Lcol cr a) Possible rare migrant. House spar r o-» (P<1:05er (-i();":(~3ci cus dcrnes t i.cus ) Common resident. Boholink (D0Lic1~-~-;-01:-::,;~Tvort1s) Po'sslble rare summer migrant. H,~stern !:1e·~~-c-:-c-;~.'l":;'''C(''Stu~I!..~ll-; ncO'.Jecta rieg Lcc t a) Common summer and possible uncommon wi nt e r r e s i.den t . YclJ.OI:-head(;d blackbird (Xanthoceyhalus xant ho cephaLus ) common summer resident. Red-winged b.lackb i.r d (~gcla!~~ phoen:i ceus fortis) Common resident. Nor the rn oriole (Icterus. Balbul3. bu.l Lock i L) Possible common summer resident 1/. Rusty b l.ackb f.r d (Eu.Eh~~1..s.. carolinus carolinus) Possible rare winter migrant. Brewer' s b Lackb Lr d (~lJa~ cyanoc eph aLus ) Common resident. B'rcwn=headed coxrb Lr d (Nolothrus ater a r t emi.s Lae) Common summer resident. I'lestern tanager (Pira!lga ludoviciana) Possible common migrant and summer resident. Scarlet tanager (P'i.r ang a olivacea) Possible rare migrant. Black-headed' grosb2alZ(-Pheucticus melanocephalus melanocephalus) Possible common surnmer resident. Blue gro sb e alc (Guiraca cacrulea interfusa) Possible uncommon sunnner resident. Lazu.l L. bunr Lng (Pa s s e r I.na amoen a) Commonsummer resident. Evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona vesperr:inabrooksi) Possible Lr r egu l ar ,.;inter resident. Cassin's finch (Carpodaeus cassinii) Possible common resident. House finch (0~rpodacu~ i-:C-xicanus frontal::'s) Common summer and possible uncommon ,-linter resident. Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator Plontana) Possible unconnnon resident. Gray-crowned rosy finch ~Leucosticte tenhrocotis tephrocotis; L. t. littoral:is) Possible COITJllOn winter resident-.Black-rosy finch (Leucosticte atrata) Possible COTI1Il!on winter migrant. Br own+cappe d rosy ~finch-~o;-~ australis) Possible common winter migrant. Commonredpoll (Acanthis flammea flammea) Possible rare winter m.i.gr.mt , l'jne siskin (.§.I? ..::i:.nus.E,inus pinus) Commonresident. Americ&n goldfinch (Spinus tristus tristus; ~ . .!.. pallidus) Possible COIl'J'1l0n s ummer and unccramorr w.inter res iden t . Lesser i,;oJ.dfinch (~..E.~~':>_ psaltria psaltria) Possible uncommon summer and rare winter resident. Red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) Possible rare winter resident. h'hite·-\v:i.nged cr'ossbill-(LClxi~ Lei.co o t e r a leucoptera) Possible rare w i.n t er migrant. Grccn=LafLe d t owhee (Chl.orur a ell] or ur a) Possible common summer resident. Rufous-sided t owhce (P~ilo ervti';-;:m~halmus morit anus ) Cammon summer and rare winter resident. La rk bunting (C:ll.J!:~c!'·?l'i<:..~~ !::cL:Jl1o~o_r~) Possib Le uncommon summer resident. Savannah sp ar rcw (J_~..~~-,-~~~~~~~Q..ll~ .,:..'.,.:~;\;j.(Jlel:sis ncva~~nsis; P. E... an thLnus ) Pos s i.bI e COli1Ji1Ol, mi~'.raut a!Hj SU!jL1Cr resident. G[,1~sllC!pl'er Sp.:llTC'.,1 ({\r.'J:~o.'lE~ s;!'yal1l~l~~ Eerpallidus) Possible uncommon sumner' r es i den t . 1.5. �-118Nongame birds tiUiJl.Iller (continued) re s Ld cn t . Lar k s pa r row (.f;lCrlde3tc:..~.. t:!arr:-;:-:..'.l_c~~strig<1tu~) Possible common mig r ao t and s\!r":~lc!rr c s i den t , . Black-throio'led spar row (Amnh f.soLz a bilin2ata desertico1.~) Possible common sumne r res iden t . Sage SPdlTOH (AI,:.!:.hJ.:?pizD. belli nevadensis) Possible common summer resident. Dark-eyed junco (~!E~ .0yemal:is a Lkcn L) possible rare wf.nt e r resident ]./; (J. h. hverealis; J. h. cisrr:on~anus) Rare winter resident 3/; (I. h. '';;-·-:;':u:t;:,~-) C-OJ[,;on'wint;r-';;e;;-ident 3/; (J. h. o , var-:mearnsi) C'rnillr;~l:'lintr;r:-;eside:nt 3/. - - Gray-headed junco (~nco ~~niceos_ canic~s) Commonsummer and winter resident. Tree spax~ow (Soizella arborea ochracea) Possible unco~non winter migrant. Cby-colored sp;rr;;--("s);iwJ:I; pa Ll.Ld a ) Possible common migrant. Possible common summer Chipping sp ar row (§22.ze!.la pass7;rin:-boreophila) resident. Brewer t S si)arrow resi0ent. (Spizella br ewer I prev.Teri) Possible .connnon summer Harris' spar row (Zonotr_ichia Querula) Possible uncommon mdgr an t and rare winter resident. l-,rhite-cro!med spar row (Zonotrichia leucroohrys) Commonresident. White-throated s pa r row (~onotrichia albicollis) Possible. rare migrant. Fox spar rev (Pns s e r e Lla iliaca schistacea) Possible rare summer resident. Lincoln I~; spai"roH C-Tc~lospizalincolnii alticola) Possible common migrant and su.amer resident. Song sp ar row (Helospi~ melodia) Corrnnonsummer and uncorrnnon winter resident. Lapland longspur (Calcarius lapponicus alascensis) Possible rare winter migrarl.l: • Raptores 2:../ Turkey vulture (Cathartes winter resident. Coshawk (ACCipiter resident. ~ "?,entilis Sharp-shinned haHk (Accipiter w:int e r resident. meridionalis) atricapillus) striatus CommonSummer and rare Uncommon summer and common ~dnter velox) Uncommon summer and connnon 'Cooper's hawk (Accipi ter coope r Lj ) Commonsummer and winter Red-tailed hawk (13~l-teoi amai c ens t s calurus) Commonresident. SwaLnson I s hawk (Buteo ~Hainsoni) Uncommonsummer resident. Rough-legged hawk (Bute-;;--lagopus ~. j ohannis) CommonHinter migrant. resident. resident and Ferruginous hawk (But~~ regalis) Uncommonsummer and common winter resident. Golden e ag Le (.:2.quila. _ci1rys:.letos canadensi~) Commonresident Balel e ag Le (Ibliaeetus_ .!-E-ucocephalus a l.a s can us ) Commonwinter resident i/. i/. !!..I Goldell and bald eagle specifically as ciled in footnote l/ but herein excluded from statutes listed to avoid omission. 16 defining "Raptore" �-119Raptores ]j Harsh (continued) hawk (Circ_~_ li)'aneus hudsonius) Common sununer and uncommon winter r c s Lden t. Osprey (Pand ion .h"li:]ctus carolinensis) Uncommon migrant, rare summer rcs idcn t . Pr a Lr Lc falcon (Fa Leo !!1C:.:iC3D.US) Uncommon resident. Peregrine falcon--(FCl1c-;p-;;-~nus an a t urn) Rare migrant, endangered. Herlin (Fa Leo col\}~'ibarius) Uncommon wintc"r migrant. Arner Lcan kestr~T."·(Faico ;-na:-verius sparverius) Common summer and uncommon \·,i.nter resident. Screech owl (Or us as io ) Common resident. Flanu:nulated o\ll-"(5:~tus .flar::r.me_~0~ f Lammeo Lus ) Rare summer resident. Great horned owl, (Eub o v Lr c Lnianus ) Common resident. Pygmy owl, (G1:..~1~"L~~~: gno:na. _<:"01~SomicUin) Rare resident. Bu r r ovr.in g owl. (~Eeot:..~~ cunicu1ad a hypug ae a ) Conunon summer and possible rare winter resident. Long-eared 0\011 Usio otus w i.Ls on.Lanus ) Unconunon resident. Short-eared oHI -(ji.sio..- _fla~ f Lainmeus) Conunon summer resident and uncommon w int.c r migrant. Saw-whet; oHl (Aegolius_ acadicus acadicus) Common resident. W. T. McKean and P. H. Neil June ,,., _L: 1974 ��-121DISTRIBUTION AND AHmmANCE WILDLIfE OF HIe GA.11E HAHtlALS Nl\NAGENENT UNIT 21 BLACK BFAR Black bears generally occupy the areas between 6,000 tion in Unit 21, although on occasion, entire unit. and 9,000 feet eleva- they may wander over almost the Their yearlong habitat is largely within the timbered and brush covered lands, whe re fair combinat ions of food ar a available. such as fruit be ar Lng shrubs, small mamma l.s, and carrion from livestock and big game animals. At least three-fourths of the unit is considered bear habitat, but human activity has restricted bears to the higher, rougher, and most isolated s egmerrt s (see accompanying maps). trails and jeep-type Minnich There are numerous roads within, or upon almost all major drainages (1973) calculated a bears-per-square and ridges. mile figure for a large area extending from Rifle to the Utah line, north of the Colorado River, and ineluding all higher areas of the Roan Plateau. Applying available bear habitat in Unit 21 as.mapped, produces his ratio to the an estimated 13 bears w-ith a density of 0.05 bears per square mile. Estimated annual bl~ck bear harvest for the 19 year period 1955-1973 'vas 4.4 bears, based upon hunter report card surveys. inclusive Annual harvest ranged from 0-16; there were six years out of nineteen when no bears were reported taken. Bears have occC).sicnallybeen removed because of damage complaints. w.e.c. Vidakovich reported none removed during 1972 by state or federal trappers and only three estimated removed by landowners; killed by ranchers and unreported. 13 each year bears are The same report indicated a popUlation �-124MULE DEER Almost every square mile of Unit 21 is potential mule deer summer range, but greater numbers generally occur in areas above 7,000 feet elevation where they can avoid insects, high temperatures, obtain better forage. (1974 pers. corum.) delineated deer Vidakovich summer range as occurring lack of water, and can approximately across the southern one-third the unit and along a narrow band below the Cathedral side of the unit. Bluffs on the east lIe also reported that some resident deer occur along a n arrow zone adjacent and parallel to the White River maps). of "Overall Distribution" (see accompanying maps provided by Minnich (1973 and 1974) show the entire ~~it as summer range. "loC.O. Vidakovich (1974 pers. comm.) indicated deer winter range as being the central wes t ern and northern portions of the unit, including ]~iv2r bO~':cD!~lnr1.3. He. end Minnich (1973. 197/;), the White concur on this dcsc.r Ip t r.on (see accompanying maps). Vidakovich (1974 pers. co~~.) estimated a summer (post-fa1vuing) population of 6,000-7,000 deer. Data provided by Minnich (1973, 1974) indicated an "Overall Populationlt (post-fawning) of 13,112 with a density of 15.1 per square mile. Winter population estimated by Vidakovich animals. By comparison, Hinnich (1974 pers. carom.) were 3,000-4,000 (1973, 1974) indicated 9,652 animals with a density Qf 12,7 deer per square mile. Heavy w1nt~r lQsse , !loth 1n lnZ-7'J and in 1973-74, possiLly account for these differences in estimates. MeaD annual deer harvest was 2,080 for years 1963-1973, including archery. Annual harve s t ranged from 1,282 to 3,439 (see Jbrvest Data) present in this report. 2.1 �-125Literature Armstrong, D. H. 1.972. Distribution Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Cited of mammals in Colorado. Univ. of . 4l5pp. /. Dixon, K. R. 1967. 141.-16/.. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, In G3mC! Res. Rep ;, July - Part II. and Parks. pp. Colo. Div. Game, Fish pp.73-310. Le chIeLtner , R. K. 1969. iVild mammals in Colorado. Pruett Pub. Co. 23Lipp. Boulder. Hinnich, D. H. 1973 and 1974. Statewi de mammal and bird distribution maps and data compiled from H.C.O., Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver Office, Colo. Div. of Wildlife. W. "T. McKean May 1974 22· Unpublished. and P. H. Neil ��-127DISTRIRUTTO~;\:m A13mIDANCE OF "WILD HORSE" WILDLIFE (1974 pe r s . comm.) reported t-l.C.O. Vidakovich horses scattered TeX3.S Hountain on East lower Hithin area, Douglas Spring Mr. Bill counts Creek Lawhorn, Little Fourmile observed Bridge the "wild map). move to and from the Piceance firm this present. Feral or "oLLd horses" laws, but In light \~est, movement at decisions should Gulch herd the of controversies Creek, In addition in the West and and be twe en upper main Doug Las Creek be noted and Spring of February flight and 55 for the using East but lacks the Douglas sufficient "wild August Creek may data to con- do not have legal status under Colorado Federal Statutes by the Bureau of Land of horses concern about the possible effects might have on Unit 21 range resources. in the t ha t "wild horses" have caused elsewhere BLH and Division very probably are future horse" Gillam counts horses that to Total has expressed numbers 1974. aerial on both -flights. drainage, presently conducted were The Division in "wf.Ld in horses under the the the the that (Meeker) were observed between administered increasing both It 21 we r e 57 for Hr , Lavho rn believes the in and a small and August, horses" areas flight. that B.L.H. ranging Draw, for }fanagement. Bluffs, on main Douglas horses" are Cathedral Biologist, general S2IllE: Unit of wild be tween TommyI s Draw and Rocky Point the areas, accompanying LT) herds area. Draw area Dz'aw and State several One group- has been observed 21 and 22 in February above mentioned (see 21. another hTildlife the Creek Unit Creek under of Units I'lA:--lAGE~!ENTUNIT 21 management here and at in for other Colorado. 23. P. H. Neil August 1974 locations difficult in western �\ �-129- I'I~}:TJ:_:nl1TIS~~\iJ?.JJm:lTlA~E_.9~_S~1ALL WILDI.lTE ).j;\.NAGE.~·:E:;rUNIT GM1E }W'2!ALS 21 RABBIT,. COTTONTAIL Nearly every squar e mile of Unit 21 is considered capable of auppo r t f.ng a.tleast some cottontail rabbits yearlong, however, it is believed they are more abuodan t at the Lowe r elevations. that Both the desert cotton- tail and the Nuttall's cottontail should occur; the desert cottontail being common at the Imler elevations and the Nuttall's cottontail being less abundant on the plateau areas (Lechleitner 1969, Armstrong 1972). See accompanying maps. No specific studies have been conducted regarding cottontail rabbit density anywhcr e in we s t e rn Colorado, howeve r , Shepherd (1965a) concluded ~ after a }Lt.era t.ure survey, that .E..ossible high-cycle densities of 150-200 cottontails per square mile and low cycle densities of 15-20 cottontails per square mile were reasonable for much of Colorado. These estimates may be' applicable the Lowe r elevations of Unit 21 in par t Lcul.ar. According to tv.C.O. to Vidakovich (1974 pcrs. comm.) cottontail densities were extremely low in 1973-74. For abundance, as reflected in harvest data, see tables on Hunter Harvest for Small Game Hanagement Unit 8, following. SNOWSHOE Snowshoe hares are known to occupy . HARE the Douglas-fir, Douglas-fir-aspen mix areas on the Roan Plate<lu ~long the southeastern and southern border of Unit 21 (~;ce accorapany i.ug map s). snowshoe hare range occur She phe rd (1965b) s howe d occupied and potential rJng at the above mentioned a rcas , but also included some ca st ern p or t Lons of the un:Lt. �-130Minnich (1973) indicated mile of occupied reported an est~nated range in Unit 21. period 1968-1972, of abundance,'shows vest of 493. snowshoe s by 109 hunters and 32 across that for the flve year Unit 8, an average uccurred. annual har- This would probably re- Units 21, 22, 30, 31, in i-lild1ifeHanagement the Roan Plateau (1974 pers. comm ,) along the Roan Plateau. in Small Game Nanagement the total harvest of 2.7 hares per square H.C.O. Vidakovich they are f a Lr Ly abundant that Harvest data, as an indicator present density from the Utah line to Highway 13 north of Rifle. .RED (PINE) SQUIRREL Armstrong (1972), Lcchleitner squirrel should be fairly common Douglas-fir, stable populations D. H. 1911. Cited Distribution of mammals Service, Lawrence. 415pp. 1972. A biological U. S. Dept. Agr., Office. 256pp. Boulder. prinCipally R. R. 1969. Hild mammals 254pp. 25 See PresUmAbly in Colorado. survey of Colorado. Bur , of BioI. that this small types. Literature No. 33, L~ch1eitncr, forests, or hunter harvest are '1vailable. exist in the Doug~as-fir Kansas Printing Cary, H. in the coniferous on the higher mesas and plateau areas in Unit 21. No data on abundance Armstrong, (1969), and Cary (1911) suggested Univ. of In North American Fauna Sur •• Hash., D.C., Govt. Printing of Colorado. Pruett Pub. Co., �-131- Hinnich, D. H. data 1973. Statewide mammal and bird distribution comp Ll.ed f r ora H.C.O., Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input, located at Denver office, Colo. Iliv. ofoHildlife. Shepherd, H. R. 1965a. plans, 1965-1975, Parks maps and Unpublished. Colorado long range game speci.es management for cottontail rabbit. Colo. Game, Fish and Dept. rep. 1965b. Colorado long range game species management Ll.pp , 1975, for snowshoe hare. (Himeo). plans, 1965- Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. rep. llpp. CHime 0 ). P. H. Neil May 1974 2}.> ��-133- DISTRUUTHn f,~m ABmmAl';CE --------_ _.- _----... ... OF- SHALL CANE BIRDS - BLUE GROUSE The distribution maps provi.ded by Rogers (1965) and Minnich (1973) in- dicated that the forested and brush covered portions of the Roan Plateau in the southern .and eastern part of Unit 21 are occupied blue grouse habitat. "1.C.O. Vidakovich (1974 pers. comm.) reported that the head- vat er-s of Spring Creek appear to be the northern boundary of their in Unit 21. distribution Data provided by Minnich (1973) estimated blue grouse density at 4.9 birds per square mile of blue grouse habitat in the Unit which results in an estL~ated population of 1,255 birds for Unit 21. pe rs . counn , ) [c.:lti:.hat, 01.::he average, Lou Vidakovich t he re we re (1974 f ev er blue grou.:::e than this, but their numbers fluctuate greatly from year to year. Ha1~est of blue grouse Ln Unit 2lc~ be estimated from the Small Game Harvest and Hunting Pressure Tables for Unit 8 included in this report. SAGE GROUSE Rogers (1964) indicated several areas within Unit 21 where small populations of sage grouse are present. headHaters of The top of the Book Cliff Plateau near the Douglas Creek and the Cathedral Yellow Cr eek s are Bluffs between Douglas two specific areas whe re sage grouse have been observed. He also reported that a small population is present along both sides of the ~lite River about 15 miles east of Rangely. by l-ij_fiuich \;,(:.0" (19";3) Vld:Jbwich s rar t.c red 0;) and concur \6(11 those of Rogers Distribution maps provided (see accompanying maps). (1974 p ers , comm.) reported that sage grouse are well t h« 1:0<111 Plateau. 27 �-134Rogers (1964) suggested that fall densities of sage grol1se range from 1-10 birds per square mile in occupied range in Unit 21. provided by Ninnich birds per square estim~tcd (1973) suggested an approximate mile of occupied population r ang e within ..of data Analysis of 6.4 mean density the unit, resulting of 400-500 sage grouse in Unit 21. in an Vidakovich (pers. corum.) est:i.r.lwted 200-300 birds as an average. Harvest of s~~e grouse in Unit 21 can be estimated vest T~lblE!for Un i.t; 8 included from the Small Game Har- in this report. CHUKAR During the period 1960-1965, a total of 491 chukars were released Unit 21 (see Game Species co,um.) reported Introductions). W.C.O. Vidakovich that he has not observed any chukars within last three years and believes or perisheci. stantially within (1974 pers. the unit in the that they have either moved out of the area He added that the cold, damp spr ing of 1966 may have sub- reduced their numbers. The accompanying distribution map and 1/2" = 1 mile mylar overlay mainly depict where chukars we re known to occur :in the past. Chukar censuses are no longer taken in Unit 21 due to the bird's RING-NECKED 10\-1 population. PHEASANT (1973), ring-necked According to Hinnich bordering the I·lhiteRiver from Boise Creek on the east to a point approximately four miles west of Rangely, agricultuT"a13reas (see accompanying di.stribution, but indicated t e nnf nat cd bein~ mainly pheasants confined maps). SHope occupy available to the river bottom and (1965) showed a similar that the. western boundary of occupied a few miles west of R..lngely,near Big Trujillo 28 habitat range '\']ash.He classified �-135this range as poor quality habitat ~dth a spring breeding index of 0-15, based on spr l.ngcrow counts and winter sex-ratio counts veys). t-l.C.O. Vidakovich (from 1957 sur- (1974 pers , comm.) concurred with Minnich's distribution maps, adding that there have been recent transplants by local 4-U Clubs along the ~·fuiteRiver. Analysis of data provided by Hb1.nich (1973) suggested an estimated mean density of 3.!f birds per square mile of occupied range along the river vlithin the Unit boundaries, wh Lch yielded an estimated population of 200+ ring-necked pheasants for Unit 21. Harvest of ring-necked pheasants can be estimated from the Small Game Harvest Table for Unit 8 included in this report. BAND-TAILED PIGEON Br~,t.'n (1973) ':LndiC''1te.d that band-tailed pigec'm distribution mainly confined to the eastern portion of the unit. should be He also suggested that generally, they are extremely uncommon in the sagebrush; pinon-juniper areas of nor t hve s t ern Colorado. Be Ing a migratory species, they arrive in Colorado in mid to late April and according to Braun (1973) the timing of fall migration is apparently related to the timing of cold fronts in October. The availability and crop success of Gambel's oak and various ripening berries within the unit influence the distribution of these birds; thus, because of their migratory nature and the distribution of available foods, an occasional observation of band-tailed p i geons anywhe re in the unit could be expected. The cultivated croplands and livestock feeding areas along the Douglas Creek drainage and the 1-.'hite River provide a source of food for band-tailed especially during the breeding season (Braun 1973). 29 pigeons, �-136Lf t t Le data are available on the abundance of band-tailed Uait21, pigeons Ln hm,ever, Braun (1974 pers. comm.) suggested that they are un- common in this area, largely because of the lack of ponderosa association w LthGambel 's oak. It is reasonabLe to expect that their densities fluctuate in proportion "lith availability (berries, aCOTI1S, pine in of food resources new conifer buds, and insect larvae), and during migration periods. Lou Vidakovich reported he has not seen any bandtails since 1963. MOURNING DOVE Grieb (1965) indicated that the breeding range of mourning throughout Unit 21. Migratory doves extends in nature, mourning doves are common during spring, summer, and fall in Colorado. According to Bailey and Niedrach (1965) a few may remain over the Hinter months in sheltered areas at lower elevations III Cc Lcr ado v!hieh, during mild v:Lnters, may apply to the J Olver elevations of Unit 21. Mourning doves have been observed throughout tmit but are more abundant at the lower elevations. See accompanying Actual abundance of mourning doves in Unit 21 is difficult the maps. to determine, however, according to Davis (1969), Braun (1974 pers. comm.) and W.C.O. Vidakovich (1974 pers. comm.) they are very common during the spring and summer months. i1-f.nnich .9 doves per square mile (1973) estimated popu Lat Lon densities ranging from at the higher elevations in the southern three- fourths of the unit, to 15.4 doves per square mile along the Lowe r elevations of Douglas Creck, and upwards to 42.3 doves per square mile in areas along the \'mite River on the northern boundary of the.unit. Resulting population estimates ranged from 500 to 2,000 and upwa rds to 5',000 birds respectively for the areas mentioned above . Due to their migratory nature, population densities ~Jj t.h i.nthe unit var y cons] derab ly scnsona l l.y and from year to year. 30 �-137Harvest of doves for 2Jinll Came Hanagerneut 21. Unit 8, which includes Unit is Ll Iuc t r at e d in the Small Came Harvest Table in another section of this report. WATERFOHL Ereec1i~.cI sum:;~erpopu La t Lon s ; wat erf owl, brccd Lng habitat. Generally, Available Unit 21 offers little good range is mainly confined to isolated river bo t tom and irrj gated meadow areas along the ~fuite River and Douglas Cree.k and some of their tributaries. W.C.O. Vidakovich (1974 pers. corum.) reported t.hat; various species of wat er f owl, may be observed during migration and breeding periods to include such species as mallard, g reen-w ing ed teal, cinnamon and American coots. teal, pintail, gadwal.L, golden-eye, He added that sandhill cranes, whistling snowy egrets are also common migrants in this area. that the b rced irig range of the grcen-wtnged Grieb Szymczak swan s , and (1965) indicated (1974 pers. comm.) suggested species down from the Yampa Rfvar area arid nest near sheltered tv. C.O. Vidakovich Jobman teal to drift stock ponds and beaver (1974 pers. coram,) reported observing 33 goslings in 1974 in Unit 21 which indicates pairs of geese is increasing in the that it would not be'unreason- able to expect these two species and others like the cinnamon ponds in Unit 21. mergansers teal extends over all of Unit 21 and stated that the mallard remains the most common nesting state. in these areas that the number of breeding in this area. (1967). in a duck production study on irrigated meadows of Picea~ce and Dry Fork Creeks, estimated a peak summer population 8 mile segment. Assuming that Douglas Creek-White what comparable, a projected population approxim2tcly of 138 ducks on an River wetlands are some- estimate for this area would be 500-1,000 ducks, depending mainly on the amount of water that 31 �-138is ava Ll.ab Le , Wint:.crir:gpopu lat Lons : within (197!!pers. comm ,) estimated Vidakovich The only available the unit are the open open stock or beaver the mallard but a fel-lother species months. Grand .Junct Lon OJ:"gel further south. No aerial Bailey, Iiist. 2 Vol. Brailll,C. E. 1973. Distribution Colorado. Davis, W. A. wintering and green-winged teal The geese from this area winter near of the ~Thite River. Cited A. H., and R. J. NiedJ:"ach. 1965. of Nat. some to H.C.O. is the principal trend counts are condt::cted on this segment Literature for waterfowl and perhaps According such as golden-eye also remain over the winter areas of the t·lhiteRiver ponds on its tributaries. (1974 pers. comm.), Vidakovich specIes wa ters wintering 300-500 birds. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. 895 pp. Proc. Western and habits Assoc. 1969. Birds of Hestern 1965. Colorado of band-tailed Game and Fish Coroms. Colorado. pigeo~s in 53:336-344. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. Grieb, J. R. 1965-1975, for migratory long-range birds. game species management plans, Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. .Jobman , H. C. 1967. Waterfm"l for state-m-illed lands Color~do. n ea r production Little and management Hills Experiment CSU ten: paper for FW-495bx-Spcc. 38 pp. ('£YPcl-lrittcn). 32 Studies recommendations Station, Meeker, in Wildlife. �-139111nnich, D. W. 1973. da t a comp Lle d Statewide mamma I and bird distribution from HCO, Area Supervisor, and Regional Director input. Located at Denver Of f Lce , Calc. Div. of Hildlife. (Unpublished). Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. No. 16. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 132 pp. 1965. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1965. grouse, ptarmigan. Colo. 16 pp , Colorado long-range game species management 1965-1975, for ring-necked pheasant. Parks. Tech. Pub. Colorado long-range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for blue grouse, sage grouse, sharp-tailed Swope, H. M. maps and plans, Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and 54 pp. P. H. Neil Ma~_ 1974 33 and W. T. McKean ��-141- (From Colorado Big GaEl8 Harvest HARVEST ----DOES FAHNS BUC~S 1956-1973) PUNT TOTAL AND SE.:\SO:J 1956 2763 2223 1316 256 '1795 2ES 10/15-10/31 1957 7.951 2060 1333 396 3839 2DX 2DH 10/1-10/14 10/15-11/17 1958 5134 22.31 549 4119 1DM 10/15-11/2 1959 5675 2713 1713 594 5020 1D~·110/17-11/3 IDH 11/4-12/2, In part 1960 2858 2211. 1401 371 3986 IDH 10/17-11/6 1961 3506 2644 1657 389 4690 IDM 10/21-11/8 1%2 3801 3237 2293 380 5910 2ES 10/20-11/4 1963 3924 2336 2252 560 5148 1DM 10/19-11/7 2279 842 500 90 1432 ES 10/17-11/5 1965 3330 1196 1876 3~9 3401 1DMA 10/16-11/5 1966 2261 645 569 95 1309 ES 10/15-10/31 1967 2084 775 494 '115 1384 ES 10/21-11/9 1968 3343 2084 1081 274 3439 ES 2ES 10/19-10/27 10/28-11/7 1969 2978 1119 686 155 1960 ES .L0/18-11/6 1970 3217 1481 551 38 2070 ES 10/17-1.1/6 1971 2586 1528 1528 IDB 10/30-:1/11 1972 3081 1589 692 22 2303 ES 10/14-10/23 1973 2439 1025 194 22 1241 IDB ES 10/13-10/1B 10/19-10/23 Jj !;ased upon combLned t o t a.L resident in nUffiber of licenses, (Foo t not.cs continued not on including and non-resident archery hunters. following page). 34 license sales and expressed �-142- DE!-:RJ~.gl{£.S-r:L~r:/:~.O:rS _.:''''-''ro J.!..l~~:!.TJNr __ 1'REs~::!;m:: t-lILDLIFE l-!:\:;/,C;;:;;:;;T U;;IT 21 Cuntinued Note: Hunt syr:;bolsexplained as follows: ES Either sex, one deer (one license). Either sex, two deer (one license). One deer, buck only (one license). One deer multiple, eith8r sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). One deer multiple, Olle must be antlerless (2 Licenses and 2 deer per individual). 2ES lDE 11.11-1 IDHA 2DH Hote: Two deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). The term IDH evolved into 2n, He or two deer, hunters and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. P. H. Neil Harch 1974 35 choice (2 licenses �-143Ai~CHER·[ D!':ETt H/.r~VEST l\~,nJ SEJ\SO;,7S ---'--"'- ---.-----.~-_ .. --.------"-"._--_.--,- .._-- - ".'--- lHLUl.IFE ;·t\:<AGE;'lE~\:T V';IT 21 ------_._---------. (From YF'ill ~ .' \. 1:../ Hl'CKS CoJ.oY.:1do Big DOES 1956-1973) Game Harvest FAUNS TOTAt 2J ---.-- HUNT lum SEASON 1956 1/ ES 2ES 10/1-10/14 10/15-10/31 1957 2DH . 10/1-11/17 ES IDH 9/1-9/30 10/15-11/2 ES Lj}1 IDH 9/15-9/30 10/17-11/3 11/4-12/2, 1958 8 2 0 10 1959 4 0 0 4 •. 1960 2 6 0 8 1DN IDN 9/10-9/30 10/17-11/6 1961 22 5 0 27 IDH lDM IDH 8/26-9/10 10/21-11/8 11/11-11/26 1962 30 7 0 37 ES ?ES 8/25-9/23 10/20-11/4 1963 26 10 4 40 ES IDH 8/li-9/8 10/17-11/1 1%4 ">'7 12 10 59 ES ES 8/15-9/13 10/17-11/5 1965 13 10 6 29 ES 1DNA 8/2J-9/12 10/16-11/5 1966 54 36 11 101 ES ES 8/20-9/18 10/15-10/31 1967 52 28 11 91, ES ES 8/19/9/17 10/15-10/31 1968 !!.../ 27 17 7 51 ES ES 2ES 8/17-9/15 10/19-10/27 10/28-11/7 1969 -~/ 42 0 0 42 1DB ES 8/16-9/14 10/18-11/6 1970 fll 20 0 0 20 IDB IDB ES 8/15-8/31 9/1-9/20 10/17-11/6 36 In part '" �-144DEER HARVEST --_.-_._--AIm SEASONS ..ARCi:FTi.Y -.-~.-. ----_._-_._._-----------_.HILDL iT }J!,?;/J;r:';UiT UiUT 21 cou t Lnucd (From Colorado Big Game Harv£:st 1956-1973) YEAR 1./ BUCKS --- DOES FA~·ms -- TOTl\L J971 Jj 18 0 0 ... 18 !if 41 ·15 0 56 1972 JJ HUNT AND SEASON IDB IDB 8/21-9/6 10/30-11/11 lDB ES 8/19-8/31 9/1-9/20 10/14-10/23 lDB ES !DB ES 8/18-8/31 9/1-9/23 10/13-10/18 10/19-10/23 E$ 1973 2) 19 16 6 41 • --_._--- 1/ Free permits issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by applico.tion only. Years 1957-1960, no issue of special permits; archery hunting allowed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1972, separate archery license regulations in effect. I/ Inconclusive harvest data omitted for years 1956 and 1957. 1/ For years 1956 and 1957 no hunter pressure data available. !!.,/ 166 total resident and non-resident archery licenses issued for Unit. 2/ 847 total hunts for 1969 archery season in Unit 21, total does not reflect number of hunters. ~/ 106 resident and non-resident archerY hunters. 7/ 124 hunters based on number of hunts; 91 total resident and non-res i den t archery licenses issued for Unit 21. 8/ 145 resident and non-resident licenses issued for Unit. 2/ 225 resident and non-resident Note: ES 2ES lDB 1DH 1DNA 2DH Note: archery hunters.' Hunt s)~bols are explained as follows: ::: ::: Either sex, one deer (one license). Either sex, two deer (one license). One deer, buck only (rne license). One deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). One deer m~ltiple, one must be antlerless (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). Two deer mu l.tLpLe , either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per indivtdual). The term 1m! evolved into 2D, He or tHO deer, hunters choice (2 Lf.ce ns r-« and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. 37 P. H. Neil Ha r ch 197/. �-145iIU>iTING T'Iu:Ssurm !I:l~_c:·\Z0::~s2:.,__~~2~~~ q~:£~~:'~'l'}_ .---.-----.-~------ __ HlLrL; ri: ~~\;·:/\.C L=<L~:'1' .•.._-----------_. _. (Trela mIYTI!'~G YEAR }';:~LSSU1\E J/ Co Lo rr.do Big El.i1.LS CCy": Grtme ~::rr 21 Harvest 1956-1973) HAl\VI~ST CALVES ----- / TOTAL 19S6 Closed j957 Closed 1958 Closed 1959 1960 HUNT AND SEASON "---'- 1 1 0 0 1 AD 10/17-11/3 60 3 0 0 3 AD 10/17-11/6 9 6 0 0 6 AD 10/21-11/8 1961 1962 Closed 1963 Closed 1964 Closed ]:./ 1965 4 4 0 0 4 25B + 25C 1966 0 0 0 0 0 25B + 25e 0 0 0 0 0 30B + soc 1/ 10/21-11/9 0 6 0 6 30B + 30e 1/ 10/19-11/7 0 0 0 0 30B + 30e 1/ 10/18-11/6 5 2 0 7 AD i/ 10/17-11/6 In part 11 1 0 12 AD i/ 10/16-10/25 In part 0 0 0 0 AD !i/ 10/28-11/12 In part 0 3 0 3 AD + 10C 4/ 1967 1968 50 196) 0 1970 2/; 1971 1972 1973 70 9 38 " 2./ Based upon 10/16-11/5 1./ lO/i.3-H/3 10/27-11/11 In part cODbjned r e :denl and non-resident license sales and expressed i.n number of licenses; not including archery hunters. During the period 1956-1970, ~11cn elk season coinciducl with d0cr sea~on, the hunting pressure statistics were very p rob ab l.y con s c rvn rLvo . Despi.te difficultips verifying that assumption, un known [';,!bstal1tial l:t:mbcrs of deer hunters may also have carried elk licenses hoping for a bull (:.L;~ under antlered-only regulations. This latter happens rC[;i.lrdLes s of 10'., elk ?0puOia(·iol1s. Thus, because of low succcs s an d tendency (above rlOn-rc;"orling statd·:i.ci(: fi.::;t,;res used Ln l1l'ojcctj.on~~) for non+s uc ce s s f uj, elk license holdcr~, not ro r e nor t; by card, e Ll; present in Unit 21 probably received c>:tra pr cs sur o over t.h a t Lndi c a t od by ca r d proj(~ction y e a r s of antlered-only (Foo r no t cs co n t Lnucd on follmdng P'!f,c). 33 �-146- 1/ Units 1/ 21, Units 22, 30, 31, 21,22,31,32 !if Units 22, 31, 32, Note:: Hunt symbols AD = 32 combined. ./ combined. and part are of Unit explained 21 (east . of State Highway 139). permits only as follows: Ant Ler ed only. B + C Bull AO + C An~lered (antlered) only and cow (antlerless) plus specified number of cow permits. P. H. Neil April 1974 (specified). �-147J>Y.CHERY ELK JL\\:V~_:'_~~~ __ ~~:~0qJ;~ __J\~.0) llTJNTI;~G ---···----···---\7J-:r .. J :j·l.:-L]"' .: !·~/\;:~:\Gl.>i ;:,;;T lJ;'~IT? 1 -_._ _-------------(From YEt,R HUl:T11iG ]/ pT' r_, SC'V;)E. .: ..•• ..• -...J ---J.\. ~ Col.o r adc Big B1JLLS -- CO'NS Came Harvest PRESSURE 1956-1973) HUNT .AND CALVES TOTAL ----.- 1956 Closed 1957 Closed 1958 Closed 1959 ---- No Data 196(1 ---- No Data ---- --- - - No D",ta 1961 AD 10/l7-ll/3 AO 10/17-11/6 AD 10/21-11/8 1962 Closed 1963 Closed 1964 Closed 1965 - - -- - 1966 1967 1968 ---3 25B + 25C Jj No Date:. ---- 25B No Data ---- ES 30B + 30C :'1,/ 0 0 0 ---- No Data 1969 + 25C 1/ No Data 0 SEi\SOl~ 10/16-11/5 10/ lS-:L:l/ 3 . 9/2 -9/17 10/21-11/9 30B + 30e 1/ 10/19-11/7 30B + 30C 1/ 10/18-11/6 1970 ---- No Data AD !±I 10/17-11/6 In part 1971 ---- No Data AD !!J 10/16-12/25 In part 1972 0 0 0 0 0 AD AD i/ 8/19- 8/31 10/28-11/12 In part 1973 2 0 0 0 0 AD 8/18- 8/31 9/1 - 9/23 AD + laC ~/ 10/27-11/11 ES -1/ Base d on combi ne d. tota 1 r cs Lcdent in numhcr of licenses. an d non-resident (Footnotes continued on folloHing p.:1ge). license sales and expressed In p.}'; �-148- :.Y }j Units 21, 22, 30, ai , 32 combined. Units 21, 22, 31, 32 comb f.ned , ./ !.!..l Units 22, 31, 32, and part of Unit 21 (east of State Highway Note: Hunt symbols 139). f'x.plainedas [ollO'l"s: AO Antlered only. B + C Bull (antlered) and cow (antlerless) permits only (specified). AO + C Antlered only plus specified number of cow permits. ES One elk, either sex. P. H. Neil April 1971f. �-149- J}J,.A'?".:....1~J:(~'R:._!..1_t0~Yi:~~:~!:~_:.I~ __0L.2.:~0 ~,:s \:lLDLJ I'J: }~\:;N;E:i:·,:;T r.nr 21 (From C0lorad0 Bi~ Game Harvest 1955-1973) .Y HUNT !\J.~D SEASON ]j, _'l/ YE.A.R IlARVIST 1955 6R 8/15--10/1 and the regular deer season. 1956 5R 5/15-8/15 and th~ regular deer season. 1957 o 1958 98 + 3R 1959 2R No da t a on special season; any regular or post deer and/or elk season. 1960 3R 4/1-9/15 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons. 1961 3R Idl-9/15 1962 3R 4/1-9/15 and the regular deer season. + 3R 4/1-9/15 and the regular dec~ season ending 11/7/63. o 4/1-9/15 and the regular deef."season ending 11/')/64. + 2R 4/1-9/30 and (he regu 1ell. deeL'and/or ending ll/5/65. 1966 10S 4/1-9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/3/66. 1967 16 Special season probably 4/1-9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/9/67. 1968 o 4/1~9/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/7/68. 1969 o 4/1-6/30 and th~ regular deer and/or elk seasons 1963 68 19M 190j 13S 4/1-11/15 and the pre and regular deer seasons. 4/1-11/15 and the regular deer season. and the regular deer and/or elk seasons. eLk sedSOilS ending 11/6/69. 1970 o 4/1-6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/6/70. 1911 o 4/1-6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/11/71. + 2R 4/1-6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons 1972 2S ending 11/12/72. lR 1973 4/1-6/30 and the regular deer and/or elk seasons ending 11/11/73. -----------------------------------------------(Fco t no t eu 0:-[ f o l Low i ng page). �-150Bj"ACj~ I.',U,R 1I/1.1'VEST 11:1)) SEASm;S ._._-_. __ ._--_._--._-------- li-EJ2LIFE :;0.;:t~;I~~~rE:;T m:l'l' 21 (cl)ntin~~~iL • 1/ - R = Regular big same (Deer and/or Elk) licenses; S = Bear license for Special SpriEg, SUDDer, or Sp r i.ng-Bunune r Seasons; Also see annual regulations for archery hunting. . 2/ From 1955-1959, 1 bear per special bear license and/or 1 bear per hear coupon on either or both deer 3nd elk licenses; from 1960-1965, same as 1955-1959, except special bear license variously invalid after September 15 or 30, when bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license covered bag and possession limits; 1966, s arne as 1960-1965, excep t one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year; from 1967 to present, bear coupon removed from regular deer and elk licenses; thus 1 bear, hunter's choice, per SPecial be2r or sportsman's license per person per calendar year on1z during special bea~ and regular deer and/or elk seasons. 3/ . - Dogs perml.tted except when bear seasons concurrent with deer and/or elk seasons. P. H. Neil April 1974 43 �-151MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 21 YEARY HARVEST 1965 2F 1/ IF 1/ 1966 3M; 3F 1// 5M; 2F 1 HUNT AND SEASON Rio Blanco Co. Garfield Co. 10/16/65-3/31/66 West Slope; 10/23/653/31166 East Slope, 1 either sex. Rto Blanco Co. Garfield Co. - 1/1/66-11/31/66 in all counties west of the Continental Divide and in Jackson, Conejos, Alamosa, Mineral, Saguache, Rio Grande, Costilla, Archuleta, Hinsdale, and San Juan counties, 3 either sex. 10/22/66-2/28/67 in all counties east of the Continental Divide except those specifically listed above; 3 either sex. 1967 No Data 9/1/67-3/31/68 statewide; 9/1/67-5/31/68 west of State Hwy. #13 and north of U.S. Hwy. #6; 1 either sex. 1968 3M + 3F 9/1/68-3/31/69 statewide; 1 either sex. 1969 1M + 3F 9/1/69-3/31/70 statewide; 1 either sex. 1970 1M 1971 o 3/1/71-4/30/71, 1 male only, designated areps including Unit 21; 9/1/71-10/12/71· and 11/12/71-12/31/71,1 either sex, designated areas including Unit 21. 1972 5M 2/1/72-4/30/72, 1 male only designated areas including Unit 21; regular deer and elk seasons statewide, 1 either sex; 11/13/72-12/31/72, 1 male only, designated areas including Unit 21. 1973 4M 10/13/73-10/23/73 and 10/27/73-11/11/73, statewide, 1 either sex; 11/12/73-12/31/73, six male only permits issued for Unit 21. 9/1/70-12/31/70 designated areas, and' regular deer and elk seasons statewide; 1 either sex. 1/ - Bounty of $50 per lion paid within period May 7, 1929-March 12, 1965; protected by statute as of July 1, 1965, when mountain lion license was .. established. (Footnotes continued on following page). 44 �-152MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 21 (continued) ~/ Credited to "1965-1966" and "1966-1967" for Rio Blanco and Garfield Counties as reported by Dixon, K. R. 1967. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation. p. 147. In Game Res. Rep., July-- Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 73-31~ No data available in reports from Section of Game Management for 1965-1967. Dixon's information is probably conservative in that the damage law allows for lax reporting of kills of marauders by stockmen. For years 1968-1972 data are from Colorado Big Game Harvest Surveys. P. H. Neil April 1974 45 �SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 8, 1968-197311 1968 1969 NUMBER OF HUNTERS 1970 1971 1972 1973 Average- 1968 1969 1970 HARVEST 1971 1972 1973 Average 1984 1328 1319 1411 1502 1070 1435 24813 11606 9276 14148 13511 7139 13415 Snowshoe hare 101 30 73 95 244 253 133 134 78 140:0.1 838 1575 678 Blue grouse 298 154 213 124 442 140 229 1172 73 368 . 78 815 144 442 Sage grouse 190 301 258 267 537 183 289 603 767 724 597 1134 584 735 Chukar 122 453 151 223 NOS 1/ NOS 238 76 606 247 358 NOS NOS 322 27 NOS 61 NOS NOS NOS 44 31 NOS 153 NOS NOS NOS 92. 313 621 129 250 256 71 274 586 1040 127 246 446 212 443 If NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- 276 290 242 447 107 272 -- 5828 2412 2091.' 4373 920 SPECIES Cottontail Gambe1's rabbit quail b:-Pheasant Band-tailed Mourning pigeon dove --21 oil 3125 1/ - See Chap. 3 - Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Division laws and Regulations Handbook; Wildlife Management Unit 21 is wholly contained within Small Game Management Unit 8 and approximates 17.4 percent (17.4%) of Unit 8's total area (300 sq. mi. + 4,970 sq. mi.) as planimetered .from Colorado topographic maps 1:500,000 scale. Data from Colorado Small Game Harvest Surveys 1968-1973. 21 - ~!ean for years data is shown. 3/ - No data or No open seasons 4/ - Possible (NOS). sample size error. W. T. McKean June 1974 I-" U'1 �-154DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE RIO BLANCO COUNTY. 1954-1973 1/ (From Colorado Waterfowl YEAR 1954 DUCKS EST. NO. HUNTERS Kill Surveys) EST. HARVEST No Data: GEESE Y EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST 162 No Data No Data 1955 14 1,976 " " 1956 No Data 854 " " 1957 .No Data 1,757 " " 1958 135 824 " " 1959 81 627 " " 1960 38 516 " " 1961 64 432 " " 1962 98 252 " " III 531 '! " 1964 170 645 " " 1965 73 226 " " 16 587 31 " 105 267 25 " 106 1,180 13 19 571 No Data No Data 1,494 25 19 724 16 17 1.430 33 63 901 None None 1963 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1/ - Waterfowl 64 161 135 99 71 kill Jilla are available only by county. 2/ - Small populatiol\!1 of geese and hunters alike create sampling difficulties. 47 W. T. McKean May 1974 �G&~ SPECIES DATE MALES Chukar 3/30/60 45 3/24/61 3/19/62 ~ SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 21 FEMALES: TOTAL 35 80 58 .50 75 75 • RELEASE AREA • SOURCE OF STOCK REFERENCES Wardell's Ranch, 13.3 miles west of jet. of Colo. 64 and Rio Blanco 2, approx. 1.5 miles from Utah line. (TlN Rl04W S25) Little Hills Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Research Center) i08 Wardell's Ranch, near small stockyard about 0.3 mile above Wardell's buildings at foot of the north facing hillside (TIN RI04W S25) Little Hills Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Research Center) 150 13.3 miles west of the main road jct. at west end of Rangely (TIN RI04W S27) Little Hills t-4 Sandfort's Files (Ft~ Collins Research Center) Y' Sandfort's File (Ft. Cpllins,Research Center) 3/15/65 27 26 53 West side-of Colo. Hwy. 139. 5 miles south of Rangely (TIN RlOIW S29-30) Little Hills • 3/16/65 50 50 100 One-half mile from jct. of Texas and Missouri Creeks near Allen Gentry cow camp. (T3S RlO4W_S12) Lit tle Hills & . . I \J\ . Sandfort's Files (Ft. Collins Research Center) Literatur~ Cited Ev~s, R., K. Wagner, and B. Rowe. 1961. Chukar planting ~ecord. files at Fort Collins Research Center. March. Rogers, C. E., K. Wagner, and T. Wardell. 1960. Chukar planting record. ' Sandfort's files at Fort Collins Research Center. (Citations ('ontinued on fo11c'\o11ng page.) Original rel~ase records located in Sandfort's Mar,ch. Original release records located in �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 21 (continued) ~ature . , and B. Rogers. 1962. Chukar planting record. March. -----Fort Collins Research Center. Cited Original release records located in Sandfort's files at Vidakovich, L. D., and H. Eddy. 1965. Chukar planting rec0rd. March. files at Fort Collins Research Center. -----, and G. Peters. 1965. Chukar planting record. March. Fort Collins Research Center. ~ Original release records located in Sandfort's Original release records located in Sandfort's fil~s at P. H. Neil April 1974 I t-' IJl 0'1 I �-157CENSUS AREAS AND ROUTES - WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 21 • • MULE DEER Annual spring meadow counts are conducted on East and Main Douglas '. Creeks, Evacuation Creek in the western portion of the unit, and along the White River. An annual winter trend count is conducted along the White River only. These counts are made from a ground vehicle and the results can be obtained from W.C.O. Lou Vidakovich in Rangely • • Aerial pre and post season sex-ratio counts have not been es t abLd.shed in Unit 21, nor have aerial trend counts. ELK Because of the relative low density of elk in Unit 21, specific winter aerial trend counts have not been established for the unit. Ground obnerlations of elk and their locat.ions have been recorded on an annual .basis and available information regarding the results of these observations are kept on file with W.C.O. Vidakovich in Rangely. BLACK BEAR Incidental observations and reported observations are recorded and kept on file with W.C.O. Vidakovich in Rangely. In addition, an annual estinate, by W.C.O. district, of bear populations was begun in 1972. This estimate also included estimated harvest by trappers and others, and management objectives for the species. CHUKAR An annual production count was established on the Wa!de11 Ranch, up Cottonwood Creek, beginning in 1961, but because of a substantial decline in 50 �-158- population, was discontinued in 1968 or 1969 (Vidakovich 1974 pers. '. comm.). Another annual census route was established Staley Mine area and was also discontinued in 1960 in the in 1968 or 1969. Only a '. portion of this route, along Highway 64, was within the boundaries of Unit 21. Details of technique, maps of the areas counted, and the results may be found in the Northwest Regional Office, in ~he Denver Office, and in Sandfort's files on chukars in the Fort Collins Research Center. WATERFOWL Aerial counts are not conducted in this wildlife management P. H. Neil t1ay 1974 . 51 unit. �HABITAT RESTORATION DATE 11/1941 LOCATION PROJECTS - ~rrLDLIFE MANAGEHENT VEGETATIVE TYPE TREATMENT NO. ACRES TREATED PURPOSE OF TREATHENT AGENCY Douglas Cr.-West, Black Sulphur Cr.-East. Scattered in TIN R98W, TIS R97,98W, T2S R97,98,lOOW, T3S R99W, T4S R94,95,99W. Sagebrush Seeded ~.;rith Agropyron cristatum, Agropyron smithi, Br\~ inennis, Helilotus offi~ina1is, Melilotus alba. 298 total (Scattered) Increase forage BLM Texas Cr. and Missouri Cr.west fork. Scattered in T2S RI03W; T3S R9~,100W; T4S R101,102,103W; T5S RI02, Sagebrush Se2ded with Agropyron cris~, Agropyron smithi, Bro~ inermis, lfelilotus officinalis, Melilotus alba. 1387 total (Sea ttered) Increase forage BLM 11/10-'20/ Calami ty Ridge 1942 TIN R99W 57,8,9,16,17,18; TIN R100W Sl,12,13,24; T2N R99W S6,7,18,19; TIS RI00W S10,11,14,22,23,24. Sagebrush Seeded with Agropyron cristatum, Agropyron smithi, Melilotus officinalis. 500 Improve forage BLM 9/1943, 6/1944 Texas Cr. & Missouri Cr.west fork. T3S Rl01W S18; T3S RI02H S33; T4SRl02W S18; T5S R102W S14. Sagebrush Seeded with Agropyron ~~thi, Bromus inennis, MeIi10tus officina1is. 8/20 & 28/1959 Fletcher and Hammond Draws. T2N RI00w SI5,16,17,18,19, 20,21,22. Pinonjuniper Chain 11-12/ 1962 Gillam Draw TIN RIOHl SI,2,11,12. Pinonjuniper Chain and seed (aerial broadcast) with Agropyron cristatum. 11-12/ 1941 lOW. ~ UNIT 21 1/ I to-' \J1 \0 I . (I-way) .• 100 __Improve , forage 632 ' Pinon juniper control BLM 900 Improve grasses BLM ------------------------------- .._---------------------------------------------------------------- BLM �HABITAT RESTO&\TION PROJECTS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 21 1/ (Continued). DATE V\ I.>J LOCATION VEGETATIVE TYPE TREATMENT NO. ACRES TREATED PURPOSE OF TREATMENT Chain 306 Increase grasses BLM AGENCY 11/1962, 4/1963 Gillam Draw TlN R100H S18,19; TIN R101W S13,24. Pinonjuniper 10/1711/13/ 1964 T2N R100W Sl,2,11,12,13 14,15,23,24. Pinonjuniper Chain and seed (aerial broadcast) with Agropyron cristatum. 1512 Pinonjuniper eradication BLM 11/20/65 Douglas Creek T3S R100W Sl,7,18,19,30; T3S R101W S10,11,12,13, 14,15,16,21,22,23,24,25, 26,27,28,35,36. Pinon- •• juniper 1 Chain and seed (aerial broadcast) with Agropyron cristatum. 2100 Pinonjuniper control BLM Douglas Creek T3S R101W S8,9,16,17,18,19, 20,21; T3S R102W S10,12,13, 14,15,23,24,25,26. Pinonjuniper 1889 Pinonjuniper control BLM 12/4/65 I Chain 1/ - If details are desired on any of these projects, make requests directly to Mr. Ron Kufe1d, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521. P. E. Neil May 1974 I •.... 0\ 0 I �-161- MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CHECKLIST A. - lVILDLIFE MANAGEMENI' UNIT • Present 1. 21 Road development - as related to oil and gas exploitation. The East Douglas and Main Douglas Creek areas in particular,are heavily laden with numerous secondary roads leading to oil and gas drilling sites, wells, and pumping stations. The majority of these roads intercept mule deer winter range and are left open to travel even though the well or drill site has been abandoned. w.e.o. Vidakovich (1974 pers. comm.) believes that pre- sently there are too many roads in these areas which in turn provide excessive access to the area during hunting seasons. 2. Deer-auto collisions along Highway 64. At present, deer-auto collisions along Highway 64 are a minor but continuing problem. Data are lacking regarding highway mortality in this area, however, w.e.o. Vidakovich (1974 pers. comrn ,-) re- ported that the majority of the d~er-auto collisions occur when deer are on the winter range. 3. Game damage to farm crops. In general, the problem of deer and elk damage to farm crops in Unit 21 is relatively small in comparison to some other units. w.e.o. Vidakovich (1974 pers. corom.) reported that he has not had very many damage complaints in recent years because most problem areas have been re@edied with fencing. B. Fu t.u. e 1. Oil shale development. Future oil shale development in the PIceance Basin will undoubtedly 54 �-162- affect the Rangely area and Unit 21, creating a multitude of management problems, not only for all species of wildlife but all components of the environment as well. For example, a pro- posed oil pipeline which may exten~.along the Roan Plateau from Dere Cabin Ridge to Utah will certainly have adverse effects on the wide diversity of wildlife now utilizing the plateau areas. A proposal to dispose of spent oil shale from Piceance tract C-a into tributaries of Do'uglas Creek by means of a conveyor system will, if implemented, have far-reaching effects upon wildlife in Unit 21, particularly mule deer. Large acreages of canyon land in the following drainages would be affected: Left Fork Fourmile Draw, Right Fork East Fourmile Draw, State Bridge Draw, Vandamore Draw, Philadelphia Creek, and Cow Canyon. Obviously range carrying capacity wou.ld be reduced for mule deer (both summer and winter range), elk (summer), and perhaps wild horses. Other game species wh Lch would be adversely affected include chukar, sage grouse, cottontails, and mountain lion. Industrialization of central and northern Piceance Creek areas may force more game animals, particularly mule deer, to winter in eastern areas of Douglas Creek, increaSing still further the pressure on winter range there. The increased human and vehicular activity throughout Unit 21, to include residential and commercial developments, associated with oil shale development, will playa major role in reducing the carrying capacity of the existing elk and mule deer winter 55 �-163range and result in loss of habitat for many small game and non-game species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. A more detailed analysis of proposed oil shale development , and possible effects on the environment can be found by consuIting Thorne Ec.ological Institute (1973), Tweedy (1971) and U. S. Dept. of Interior (1973), which are cited in greater detail in the Reference Section at the end of this discussion. 2. Deer-auto collisons - as related to oil shale development. It is inevitable that the increased human and vehicular activity associated with oil shale development will increase deer highway mortality through deer-auto collisions in this area. tective measures such as fencing and under/overpasses Pro- may have to be developed similar to those used in the Vail area. P. H. Neil and W. T. McKean M?y 1974 ��-165- BIG GAME DISTRIBUTION MAPS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENTUNIT 21 (DOUGLAS) Black bear year-round distribution ----------------___________________ Elk summer distribution ----------------------- 1 ~_____ 2 Elk winter distribution ----------------------------__________________ J Mountain lion year-round distribution --------------------____________ 4 Mule deer summer distribution ------------------------- ~_________ 5 Hula deer winter distribution and comparative abundance 6 Wild Horse year-round distribution -------------~--------------------_ 7 ��1: 2 N. tiN.· 1: I. s.] t 2 S. T :3 S. t 4 S.· 1 ::, S Page 1 �J ./'._ , •• R.104 W :...' ..p...-;;>'---'-"-,n-:~-="-''--''"I-f7' l: t 2 It ·t .. .,t .," ~. 1'·""(...1 ,...• : ...• - I: - 1 It r I S: - 2 S. T 3 S. 1: 4 S. ~ �I _-'._ ••• R.I04 W. -f"-~--'.:..c..,.;r-:r-r-=---'---'rtY r o • o. ... I :: 2 N. ,-.. L' '-0 I ."t:~ •....• r. I '0. TIN _ 2 S. , 3 S. ,. 4 S t 55. Page 3 ��;r I ?'.:C)4·W·· ~ J -.- I . •i":... --::' _.•.~•. ·.J..-----.:... .. Ai-;··!.~~ • l. HILDLIFE I1ANA;~~' 2 N. .~" MULE DEER k- 5 S. Page 5 ��t 2 t I. s.] t 2 S. T 3 S.: T 4 S.· 1: ~ S Page 7 �• �-175- SMALL GAME MAMMALAND GAME BIRD DISTRIBUTION MAPS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENTUNIT 21 (DOUGLAS) MaR Small Game Mammals Cottontail rabbit year-round distribution; comparative abundance _ 1 Red (Pine) Squirrel year-round distribution -------- 2 Snowshoe Hare year-round distribution ------------~------------___ 3 Game Birds Blue grouse year-round distribution -------~-~-------------------- 4 Sage grouse year-round distributi~ -------------------------_____ 5 Chukar year-round distribution --------------------_______________ 6 Ring-necked pheasant year-round distribution -----------__________ 7 Band-tailed pigeon summer distribution (variable) - 8 Mourning Dove summer distribution and comparative ab1.Uldance------~9 Water£owl year-round distribution ---------------________________ 10 �·/. -0. R.I04 If( :..... -f'- Z----!..:..::...;..r:;...:;:..!:=:::....:<--.:!.,-l!-(. r ~ }IILDLIFE t: T. 2 N.' (. l-~.. !' •' J,t t~ t r x ' t 1.. s.] t 2 S. T ~ S.' T.4 S. ! ~ S. MANAGUvlENT UNIT: 21 �i .r: .v: \Iff" R.I04 W ~ . .f'.<--?~---...::.::...r:;:;...:r=:""""-\-h r.· I - .•• :: ......•. -. '. ~"-J • .i~ ~. WILDLIFE NilNAGEHENTUNIT 23. (DOUGLAS) l; 1; 2 N. ·r t I N..i t 2 s.: T 3 s.' T.4 s. l ~ 5 Page 4 �,. .' T !II I r r S." - 2 S. ~ 3 S T ~ S Page 5 �l· T. 2 N. i' I'( b__ I , I,~ ~.7 tIN: t 2 S.: T 3 S.' T. 4 S: r 5 S. Page 6· �.#/ I .-,;-;~~~~-. ~ \~ILDLlFE MJ..NAG£1t1Et'IT UNIT 21 1.2 N. . l: C· RING-NECKED !:: ,,I ' -' :~-'. . PHEASANT ,-,. ' tiN. t '.5.; L 25.· T 3 S.' T.'; 5.' t ~s. Page 7 �T. 2 1. I Ni t 2 5.1 T 3 s.] T. 4 S.i .' 1. 5 S.: Page 8 �I./.. '" R.I04 'lit ;,..' -f'-'""?"'---'--'-''7T-r-r==-....:t....-'t-f'T r': . HILDLIFE l1ANAGEMENTUNIT 21 110URNING DOVE l:' 1-: '[ 2 N. . j' k. Su}WER DISTRIBUTION r': -t22::h'lore t N. '[ 2 S. T 3 S. t 4 S. t 5 S. Abundant ~ Less Abundant �; J::: RIO 4 iI( :.... -f'---::".L---!.::,::",,;,,:rr==--"---"rJ!...,r !. -r ~; Z N. . ,: ...,' i'" llN. _ 2 S. - 3 s. t •• s. - 5 S Page 10 ��-187July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS State of Project REPORT C:::;;O:.,:LO::::,:RAD=:.;:O _ W-lOl-R-17 No. Work Plan No. Game Range Investigations Job No. 7 Job Title Period l Reprint Book: Winter Guide to Native Shrubs of the Central Mountains Covered: July 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 Personnel: William T. McKean _ Rocky and Paul H. Neil. ABSTRACT Work on refurbishing or replacing all illustrations (107) was completed during the segment and work on the narrative portions was approximately one-half done. Details of printing and distribution remain to be done. ��-189- REPRINT BOOK: WINTER GUIDE TO NATIVE SHRUBS OF THE CENTRAL ROCKY MOUNTAINS William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil P. S. OBJECTIVE To revise and reprint the book: Winter Guide to Native Shrubs of the Central Rocky Mountains. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To continue art work and make corrections to text of book. METHODS AND MATERIALS A second conference with Division Publications Chief, Charles Hjelte, in July 1974 resulted in a major procedural change: namely, to return to the original plan of remounting photos and line drawings on new illustration board rather than trying to re-photograph directly the pages in the first edition. This procedure will ensure higher quality illustrations. Many fresh specimens were collected in Colorado. Herbarium specimens were obtained from Colorado State University, and especially, from the National Herbarium of the United States Forest Service, now located in Fort Collins. Changes in descriptions of shrub species are being entered directly upon pages of the first-edition book as copy. However, this procedure may not be acceptable to the printing contractor, in which case additional time will be required to re-copy these descriptions of 107 shrub species. Knowledgeable persons throughout the region were solicited for corrections and changes in the book. Response was good, particularly from Forest Service personnel. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As of this segment ending, new or refurbished photos or line drawings of all shrub species (107) have been mounted on illustration board and labels affixed. Paste-ups for each species are of 6"x9" dimension. Two diagrammatic figures concerning leaf and twig characteristics have also been prepared. Descriptive detail concerning the species have been checked for about half the plants. Special effort was made to up-date paragraphs on distribution and palatability by means of literature review. Considerable work remains to be done on these items. �-190- Work also remains, during the next segment, on: (1) introductory portions of the book, (2) revision of the keys where possible, (3) revision of the glossary, index, and a "Useful References" page. A decision to finance printing costs with Division funds only has been made by the Director. Duties related to proof-reading, printing, and distribution also remain during the next segment. -; Prepared by ?;;:.dYcCzne 7.'P/¢~ William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/d51ee52f8031041bcfba277c05630e3a.pdf f4af949cbe8111d18412ea8d6034e83b PDF Text Text July, 1975 -191- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~.~---------- Project No. W-38-R-29 Work Plan No. llC , Job Title: Evaluation Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. of Experimental 2 Elk Harvest Regulations April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Raymond J. Boyd ABSTRACT A rough draft of the manuscript entitled "A Harvest Formula for the White River Elk Herd" has been submitted as a final report for this job. When the co-author finishes his rewrite the article will be submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management for pUblication. An article entitled "An Evaluation of Yearling Bull Elk Hunting Restrictions in Colorado" has been sent to the Wildlife Society Bulletin for. publication. The article has been accepted for publication and editing according to referee comments are currently underway. ��-193- EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL ELK HARVEST REGULATIONS Raymond J. Boyd P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if modified specified permits for elk will enable game managers to change the bull/age structure of the herd. METHODS AND MATERIALS 1. The co-author has the final report which is in the form of a major article for the Journal of Wildlife Management. When he finishes his rewrite, it will be retyped and submitted. 2. An article on the changes in the bull/age structure of the White River elk herd under three types of bull hunt regulations will be submitted to the Wildlife Society Bulletin. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The manuscript entitled "A Harvest Formula for the White River Elk Herd" is in the hands of the co-author for his rewrite. His rewrite has been delayed due to his reassignment to the Planning Section of the Colorado Division of Wildlife, but should be completed by June 1, 1975. An article entitled "An Evaluation of Yearling Bull Elk Hunting Restrictions in Colorado" was submitted to the Wildlife Society Bulletin. The article was accepted for publication and is being reworked according to the comments sent to us by the various referees. Prepared by tZV7j:t!~ Raymond J.. oyd I Wildlife Researcher . ��-195July, 1975 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~---------- Project No. W-38-R~29 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 14 Job No. 1 Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Population Distribution ----------------------~-------------------------- Period Covered: Personnel: ------------------------- April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975. W. M. Brandes, G. L. Brown, L. H. Carpenter, R. D. Clippinger, M. C. Coghill, J. Cooney, J. J. Dorrance, P. F. Gilbert, R. B. Gill, D. Hoart, S. Horn, J. J. Klein, Jr., D. Luce, P. K. Mason, D. Merriam, K. Moser, L. A. Roper, R. L. Schmidt, B. C. Sigler, W. Travnicek, M. Ward, J. B. Weir, J. L. Wolfe, and W. B. Woodward. ABSTRACT A final draft of a manuscript entitled "Mule Deer Movements and Distribution in Middle Park Colorado" has been completed and submitted for publication. ��-197July, 1975 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------W-38-R-29 Proj ect No. h'ork Plan No. Job Title 14 Job No. 4 --------------------------- Middle Park Deer Study - Physical Characteristics Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations and Food Habits April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 L. A. Roper ABSTRACT A final draft of the work on the Physical Characteristics portion of this job has been completed entitled "Kidney Fat and Bone Marrow Fat Values for Hule Deer in Middle Park, Colorado" and submitted for publication as a Special Report. The food habits portion of Job 4 were presented Segment (W-38-R-27, WP 14, Job 4). in full in the 1972-73 ��-199July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State. of COLORADO P:;:-oject No. W-38-R-29 Hark Pla!l No. 14 Job Title Job No. Middle Park Deer Study - Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations 5a Range Fertilization April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 L. H. Carpenter and o. C. Wallmo ABSTPJ.•.. CT Cover measurements were made on the second-year response of native sagebrush vegetation to combined fertilizer-herbicide treatments applied at six dates during Spring of 1973. Vegetation responses were similar to those measured during the first growing season after treatment. Forb cover was greatest on plots treated earliest (April 4) and least on plots treated May 31. Shrub cover was greatest on plots treated April 4 but least on plots treated June 13. Grass cover was least on plots treated April 4 and greatest on plots treated May 31. The April 17 treatment appeared to be most promising for producing an admixture of vegetation species composition beneficial to mule deer. ��-201- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY EXPERIMENTAL RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of fertilizer on deer forage and deer feeding responses to fertilization of critical winter range areas. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Investigate the response of deer forage species to combined fertilizer herbicide treatments applied at different periods during the growing season. METHODS AND HATERIALS Methods and materials have been presented Exceptions are: previously by Carpenter (1974). 1. During the 1974-75 segment it was determined that the control area for the May 16 treatment in replicate 3 had received nitrogen fertilizer during initial applications. As a result, it was not a valid control area so measurements for the five other control areas in replicate 3 were averaged and the resulting value used for the May 16 control. 2. The 1974-75 data analysis indicated that covariance analyses used for 1973-74 data were not reducing error terms below those of an analysis of variance. Consequently, the covariance analysis was not used and all data were analyzed by an analysis of variance. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aerial cover of forbs, measured in August of the second growing season after treatment. was greatest on plots treated April 4 and least on plots treated May 31 (Fig. 1). This was very similar to the response of forbs measured in 1973 (Carpenter 1974). Plots treated on June 13 had more forb cover than those treated on May 31 (Fig. 1). As reported by Carpenter (1974) most of this increase was attributable to mat penstemon (Penstemoncaespitosus) (Fig. 3). Sulphur flower (Eriogonum umbellatum) another important forb on the study area did not show this increase (Fig. 3). Percent change in forb cover from the mean of the three control plots for each treatment is graphed in Figure 2. Only the April 4 treatment had more aerial cover of forbs than did the mean of the controls. The May 31 treatments decreased 94.6 percent in aerial cover as compared to the mean of the three controls for those treatments. Table 1 presents the percent change from mean of controls for shrubs, forbs, and grasses at all treatment dates for both 1973 and 1974 measurements. �300 q 250 \ \ \ \ \ \ a: w 200 GRASSES > V \ u •... o -' CL \ \ 150 .•.•.....• ~ \\ ......... ,0- \ o . a: .--.--.. .....•.. ", '.'. , "" " '0... '~ " U ~ " \ 100 I N o N I \ ......... ..• ........... o, 50 " " <, ' ,, FORBS "0- . -. _.:;-. ~SSHRUBS , ',0"" APRIL 4 APRIL MAY 17 2 DATE OF MAY MAY 16 31 '" ... ~ ~ JUNE 13 TREATME NT Fig ••1'. Aerial cover mea:sured in AugWJto 1974 of gr/llSRS, forb, and shrubs Ort plots treated mth 2,4-D herbicide at si~ dates in Spring of 1197J. EaJch trea.tment value i~ a mean of thre~ replications. �-203- Table 1. Percent change from mean of controls for shrubs, forbs, and grasses for all treatment dates for years 1973 and 1974. Each value represents a mean of three replications. Treatment 1973 Shrubs 1974 1973 1974 Grasses 1973 1974 Forbs April 4 -25.1 -11.5 +18.1 +26.6 -12.8 + 1.3 April 17 -39.9 +20.2 -27.8 -32.7 +37.1 +90.2 May 2 -47.7 +12.3 -74.2 -73.1 +88.3 +118.6 May 16 -84.3 -46.9 -75.7 -74.5 -13.8 +89.0 May 31 -82.3 -62.6 -87.2 -94.6 -48.4 +214.7 June 13 -66.4 -67.4 -52.6 -78.3 - 4.6 +81.8 Aerial cover of shrubs showed a similar response to treatment dates (Fig. 1). Considering only treated plots (excluding comparisons with controls) aerial cover was greatest on plots treated April 4 and least on plots treated June 13. But comparing treatments to controls there was a decrease in shrub cover from the mean of the control plots for treatment dates April 4. May 16, May 31, and June 13 (Fig. 2, Table 1) and there was an increase in shrub cover on April 17 and May 2. The April 17 and May 2 increases were partially due to an increase of rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus vaseyi) (3.8% April 17; 178.9% May 2) (Fig. 3). Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata tridentata), the dominant shrub on the area, also increased 9.7 percent over the mean of controls on April 17 treatments but decreased 51.1 percent on May 2 treatments. Apparently, the positive response of both rabbitbrush and big sagebrush (relative to controls) at the April 17 treatments and the large increase of rabbitbrush at the May 2 treatments resulted in total aerial cover of shrubs exceeding the mean of the controls for these two dates. Aerial cover of rabbitbrush decreased rapidly after the May 2 treatment (Fig. 3). It would appear that rabbitbrush was not harmed by herbicide prior to May 2 but soon thereafter the effect became quite negative. The positive response of big sagebrush at the April 17 date as compared to the controls is suspected to result from a large growth response of remaining sagebrush plants and live crown portions of partially killed plants to the soil nitrogen that was added at the beginning of the experiment. The negative effects of herbicide at this date may not have been sufficient to overcome the positive effects of reduced competition (fewer competing plants) and the added nitrogen. At the next treatment date (May 2) the herbicide did suffiCiently reduce sagebrush cover to a point where the above mentioned positive factors could not compensate for the decrease. The relationships between aerial cover of big sagebrush and total shrubs for the years 1973 and 1974 are graphed in Figure 4. The 1974 analysis showed that date of herbicide application had a significant (P<.05) negative linear effect on aerial cover of big sagebrush, shrubs, sulphur flower, and mat penstemon. �\ ') +3 0 +200 w o + 100 GRASSES Z ~ :I: ...-'..A-._._. A... . U 0 •... t."'- ' .<, ..............• 0... Z w U DI: w CL '~'- . -'--b,-. -' -.~-0SHRUBS RBS ........... 00- - - - ---- _ -100 --C>- - __ - - F0 -200 APRIL APRIL " 17 OATE MAY 2 OF MAY MAY 16 31 JONE ,3 TREATMENT Fig. 2. Percent change from meAn of controls for gr~$, shrub, and forb cover for all treat~~nts. Measurement& mads in August. 1974 and rQpresant means of three ~eplicationso I N ~ I �200 PECA = Pens.temon caes-pitosus ARTR = Artellisia tridenta ta 160 CHVA = Chrysothamnu~ vasey1 EROM = Eriogonum umbellatum IX W > 0 U 120 ~ ·0 ...• e, o!'RTR 0 ••... IX - U I N " ••... .... 80 o V1 ~ I /~ ./' \ 40 \ CHVA ._./ .-.-.0" ERUM v-, 0-- ~--o..._ \ 0 . ...0 .......•.. _ -- ' ,.0 ... . :--' ...... ··0 APRIL APRIL MAY MAY MAY JUNE 4 17 2 16 31 13 DATE OF TREATMENT Fig. J. Aerial cover measured in August, 1974 of four plant species on plots treated with 2,4-0 herbicide at six d~t6$ in spring of l~J. Each treatment v~ue is a mean of three rep1ic~tions. �200 160 at: W , ...••...••'" > o v-- u •••• o ...J e, o at: - U ~ q 120 ,, \ \ c-,\ \ \ \ '. \ \'" 80 , \ , I N o 0'\ I ~ o, 1973 TOTAL SHRUBS \ \ 40 •.....• . "-. c·· c..~ .' - .... ~ 1974 '0-.7- --0 TOTAL SHRUBS .. - "-.'w-' _ -' ---. -... ".' ....•.. -'--- c 1974 BIG SAGEBRUSH ....... --.-. 1973 BIG SAGEBRUSH APRIL APRIL. MAY MAY MAY J,LJNE " 17 2 16 31 13 DATE OF T ~EATMENT Fig. 4. Aerial cover of big smgebrush and total shrubs for years 1973 and 1974 on plots treated with 2.4-D herbicide at six dates in spring of 19730 Each treatment value 15 a mean of three replications. �-207- Aerial cover of grasses measured in the second growing season after treatment was greatest on plots treated May 31 and least on plots treated April 4 (Fig. 1). Plots treated April 17, May 2, and May 16, all had similar aerial cover measurements for grasses. There was a decrease in grass cover on June 13 plots as compared to May 31 plots. This decrease corresponded to the diminished effect the herbicide had on forbs at this date (Fig. 1). Increases in aerial cover of grasses for all treatment dates (except April 4) as compared to the mean of the control plots are presented in Figure 2 and Table 1. Western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) and muttongrass (fQa fendleriana) were the species responding most to the treatments. It would appear from Figure 1 that the April 17 herbicide treatments most closely accomplished the objective of reducing sagebrush cover and minimizing negative effects on forbs (Carpenter 1974). After this date aerial cover of forbs decreased rapidly. The increase in grass cover on plots treated April 17 would also be considered beneficial to deer based on previous determinations of mule deer food habits made on winter ranges in Middle Park (Wallmo and Gill 1973). Since this is an interim report, ultimate interpretations and statistical comparisons of treatment dates relative to mule deer winter ranges will be made in the final report submitted next segment. , LITERATURE CITED Carpenter, L. H. 1974. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp. 183-195. Wallmo, o. C., and R. B. Gill. 1973. Middle Park deer study - Physical characteristics and food habits. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38R-27. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp. 83-103. Prepared by h0-A/ If ~tk, Len H. Carpente Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��-209- July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Proj ect No. W-38-R-29 Work Plan No. 14 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 8 ------------------------------Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Experimental Harvest Regulations ------------------~~--~----------------~------------Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: D. Freddy, L. Carpenter, L. Roper, R. Hoffman, W. Adrian, H. Riffel, D. Mueller, J. Tulloch, D. Bowden, J. Neisius, F. DeiTIes, J. Brown, D. Roberts, J. Klein, D. Clippinger, D. Luce, J. Wolfe, B. Gill, D. Bartmann, and D. Walsworth. ABSTRACT Estimated mean deer density in Middle Park in January, 1975 was 10.217 ± 1.925 (P <.10) deer per square mile of winter range yielding a projected population estimate of 6,005 ± 1,881 deer (P ~.10). Net productivity based on pre-hunting sex and age counts was 120 fawns:lOO does. Pre-natal productivity was estimated to be 157 fawns:lOO does. Winter mortality estimate was 420 deer or 4.3 percent of the January, 1974 population. Total estimated harvest during 1974, including a 20 percent wounding loss, was 2,320 deer, 57 percent below the harvest objective of 5,390 deer. Of those persons hunting during the regular deer season, 17.4 percent;were successful, while 35.5 percent- were successful during the late-season. An estimated 87.9 percent of the permitted hunters participated in the regular season, ,while 73.7 percent participated in the late-season. Weather, deer distribution, hunter participation, and hunter success appear too variable to achieve predetermined harvest objectives within desired limits. ��-211- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY EXPERIMENTAL HARVEST REGULATIONS Dave Freddy P. S. OBJECTIVE To adjust a mule deer population to a specified density on a winter range. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate deer density, in Middle Park. structure, productivity, and winter mortality 2. Recommend season regulations and publicize procedures for hunters obtain permits and participate in the experimental hunt. 3. Measure and estimate of hunters. 4. Determine if the hunting public will participate to achieve adequate harvests utilizing specified hunts. 5. Determine if specified harvest goals. to the harvest by sex and age class and the success on a continuing basis permits in post-season permits are capable of achieving predetermined METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods for estimating deer density, structure, productivity and winter mortality have been previously reported by Gill (1969a, b, 1971). One change was the use of a Hewes 500C turbine-powered helicopter to fly census quadrats in the Troublesome sub-unit and on the second flight of the Muddy Creek subunit because maintenance schedules prevented using the standard Bell B-1 helicopter which was used to fly the Blue River, Williams Fork, Granby, and Muddy Creek sub-units (first flight). . Methods for scheduling and publicizing season recommendations viously reported by Roper (1973, 1974). have been pre- Methods for estimating harvest, success of hunters, and hunter participation have been previously reported by Roper (1973, 1974). Exceptions are: permit harvest. l. A mail questionnaire was sent to all regular season either-sex holders to obtain an estimate of the regular season either-sex 2. A mail questionnaire was sent to 29 percent of regular season antleredonly permit hunters to estimate the regular season antlered-only harvest. 3. A mail questionnaire was sent to 50 percent of the late-season sex permit holders to estimate the late-season harvest. either- �-212- The following equations have been used to estimate the number of deer harvested and the number of hunters participating in a hunt based on returned survey questionnaires. 1. Estimating A. the harvest: For sampling from a finite population, that is, the population Middle Park either-sex deer permit holders; of h = number of surveys returned x number of deer killed as reported on surveys N total number of permits issued p = x/h = success ratio reciprocal = (l-p) x mean harvest = (p)(N) + 1 standard error of success ratio 2h 95 percent confidence limits for number of deer harvested; Ll and L2 B. = (p ± 1.96 (sp») N For sampling from an infinite population, number of permits; that is, an unlimited h number of surveys returned x = number of deer killed as reported on surveys N = total number of permits issued p x/h = success ratio reciprocal = (l-p) x mean harvest = (p)(N) sp =~P(lh- p) = standard error success ratio 95 percent confidence Ll and L2 = ~ 2. limits for number of deer harvested; ± 1.96(SP~ N Estimating hunter participation: Use the same formulas as above only (x) becomes the number of hunters (participating) out of (h) (hunters returning surveys) and x/h becomes a participation ratio. Methods for determining if specified permits are capable of achieving predetermined harvest goals have been previously reported by Roper (1973, 1974). Tables found to contain inaccurate data in previous reports have been corrected and updated in this report. �-213- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Density and Size The Middle Park deer population was estimated from helicopter counts of deer on square-mile sample quadrats from January 23-30, 1975 (Table 1). Estimated mean deer density for 1975 was 10.217 ± 1.925 (P<.lO) deer per square mile of winter range. Projecting this density estimate over 587.7 square miles of winter range yielded a mean population estimate of 6,005 ± 1,881 deer (P~.10), an apparent decline of nearly 38 percent compared to the 1974 estimate of 9,670 deer (Table 3; Fig. 1). All five sub-unit sample areas exhibited population decreases compared to 1974 estimates (Table 2). The population estimate indicated declines of 43, 49, 19, 8, and 45 percent in the Muddy, Blue, Williams Fork, Troublesome, and Granby sub-units, respectively. However, empirical evidence indicated an increasing or at least stable population level compared to 1974. The expected post-hunt population level, estimated from 1974 winter and harvest mortality and net productivity implied an increase in population size (Table 3). Utilizing a conservative net productivity estimate of 70 fawns:100 does, instead of the observed 120 fawns: 100 does (Tables, 4, 6), resulted in an expected 1974 post-hunt population of 10,548 deer, not indicative of a significant population change. Although one cannot preclude a population decline, the decline as indicated by the census appears too large. One possible explanation for the conservative census estimate could be attributable to deer distribution. During the census, deer appeared to be aggregated in distribution, probably due to deep or crusting snow conditions. One basic assumption of the census sampling design is that deer are randomly distributed throughout the winter range at the time of the census. The aggregated distribution negated the validity of this assumption and could have accounted for the indicated population decline because the probability of encountering quadrats with no deer would be increased and if deer aggregations were not randomly distributed then the probability of encountering sections with large numbers of deer could have declined. The Muddy sub-unit was flown twice during the census. The first flight on January 23 was considered unacceptable due to poor weather conditions and resulting poor visibility which hindered detection of deer and quadrat corner markers. Good visibility prevailed during the second flight on January 30. Only high density quadrats were flown during the second flight because the first flight revealed no deer activity on low density quadrats (Table 1). The replicate flight showed that general deer distribution in the Muddy subunit had not changed appreciably during the one week interval between flights. Only quadrats 1M and IBM varied between flights in terms of the absence or presence of deer (Table 5). However, the distribution of deer in relation to being on or off a specific quadrat varied considerably. On the first flight approximately 65 deer were seen just off quadrat 9M, whereas these deer were apparently on the quadrat during the second flight. Similar shifts in deer distribution apparently occurred on quadrats 8M and 10M (Table 5). �-214- The discrepancy between sub-unit popUlation estimates between flights (Table 5) revealed that a popUlation estimate can be inflated or deflated by a slight shift in location of deer at the time of the census. Extreme care must be taken when counting individual quadrats to include only deer that are actually within quadrat boundaries. Also, more information is needed about deer distribution in relation to sampling design and the time of day that sampling occurs. Sex and Age Composition Pre-Season Counts--The 1974 pre-hunting season deer sex and age classification counts were conducted from October 7 through 9 by two observers in a helicopter. A total of 251 deer were observed of which 225 were classified. The ratio of 76 bucks:lOO does was considerably higher than ratios in all previous years except for 1972 (Table 6). The ratio of 120 fawns:lOO does was 27 percent higher than any previous pre-season fawn:doe ratio (Table 6). Observed fawn:doe ratios and buck:doe ratios appear to have increased since 1971 (Fig. 2). Post-Season Counts--Deer sex and age classifications prior to the 1974 latehunting season were obtained from December 2 through 12 via helicopter and ground surveys. During ground surveys, four observers classified 793 deer resulting in ratios of 53 bucks:lOO does and 65 fawns:lOO does (Table 7). During helicopter surveys, one observer classified 1,417 deer resulting in ratios of 49 bucks:100 does and 75 fawns:lOO does (Table 7). Post-season buck:doe ratios apparently declined from 1972 through 1974 (Fig. 3). Fawn: doe ratios apparently increased from 1971 through 1973 but dec1ine~ in 1974 (Fig. 3). Since 1968, the trend in post-season fawn:doe ratios has tended to mimic the trend of the census population estimate (Figs. 1, 3). None of the classification trends have been tested for statistical significance, so inferences about apparent increases and decreases are only tentative. Productivity The pre-natal productivity estimate for 1974, based on 11 fetuses present in 7 mature road-killed does collected from January through May, 1974, was 157 fawns:lOO does (Table 8). Pre-natal productivity appears to have declined since 1972 (Table 8) but sample sizes have decreased also and hence the apparent declines may not be significant. The net-productivity estimate for 1974 based on the pre-hunting season fawn: doe ratio was 120 fawns:100 does (Table 6). This was the highest pre-season fawn:doe ratio observed since 1969. The high ratio was probably due to an inadequate sample rather than a large increase in productivity. Winter Mortality Estimated over-winter mortality for 1974, projected from 15 dead deer found on 93 randomly located mortality transects, was 420 deer or 4.3 percent of the January, 1974 popUlation of 9,670 deer (Table 3). This estimated overwinter mortality was slightly lower than the estimate in 1973 (Fig. 4). �-215- During 1974, there were records of 12 deer dying from deer-auto collisions, 17 from deer-train collisions, and 1 that was inextricably entangled in a fence. All of these figures were of deer that were actually found and, as such, are minimum estimates of actual numbers of deer which died from these various causes. Harvest Mortality Harvest Objective and Permit Numbers--The harvest objective for 1974 in Middle Park was 5,390 deer including an arbitrary 20 percent inflation-factor for wounding mortality. This objective was based on an estimated pre-season population of 15,390 deer (Table 3) and a desired winter population level of 10,000 deer. Archery, high-country buck, regular deer season, and late deer season hunters were all required to obtain a permit prior to hunting in Middle Park. Regular and late-season deer hunters were restricted to hunting only in Middle Park. Of the permits issued, 533 were to archery hunters, 70 were to high-country buck hunters, 3,543 were to regular season deer hunters, and 5,199 were to late-season deer hunters. Of the 3,543 regular deer season permits, 2,861 were antlered-only permits and 682 were either-sex permits (Table 9). Originally, 2,000 regular season either-sex permits were available by drawing, but applications were received for only 682 and issued. Antlered-only permits were unlimited in number. All late-season permits were for deer of either-sex (Table 9). Harvest Size and Composition--Harvest size and composition were estimated from questionnaires returned by hunters. Of the 682 regular season eithersex permit questionnaires sent, 537 or 78.7 percent were returned.· In the regular season, 831 antlered-only permit questionnaires were sent, and 537 (65 percent) were returned. Of the 2,600- late-season permit questionnaires sent, 2,085 (80.2 percent) were returned. Archery and high-country buck hunters were surveyed by a state-wide hunter questionnaire. Only regular and late-season surveys were conducted independently of the state~ide survey. Estimated harvests from these questionnaires indicated archery hunters harvested 28 deer and high-country buck hunters harvested 2 deer in Middle Park representing 1.4 and 0.1 percent, respectively of the 1974 Middle Park harvest (Table 10). The projected 1974 regular season harvest was 541 deer (Table 11) representing 28.0 percent of the total 1974 Middle Park harvest (Table 10). Either-sex permit holders harvested 184 ± 14 deer (P~.05) while antlered-only permit holders harvested 357 ± 79 deer (P~.05) (Tables 12, 13). The projected composition of the regular season harvest was 76.3 percent bucks, 18.9 percent does, 2.9 percent buck fawns, 1.7 percent doe fawns, and 0.2 percent unknown (Table 11). During the regular season, 273 deer harvested in Middle Park were checked at the Idaho Springs check station west of Denver. The composition of these deer was 75.1 percent bucks, 17.9 percent does, 5.9 percent buck fawns, and 1.1 percent doe fawns (Table 14). Ninety-six deer were checked within Middle �-216- Park and were 68.8 percent bucks, 25.0 percent does, 6.2 percent buck fawns, and 0.0 percent doe fawns (Table 15). A composite summary of all deer checked is given in Table 16. The composition of deer checked at Idaho Springs compared favorably with the composition of the harvest as reported on returned questionnaires. These data suggest the proportion of the fawns harvested may be underestimated by the questionnaire, but the differences probably are not significant (Tables II, 14). A regression estimate of the regular Middle Park deer season harvest was computed from 203 deer checked at Idaho Springs in Middle Park Game Management Units 18, 28 and 37 (Gill 1970). This estimate was 826 deer taken during the regular season (Gill 1970). The regression estimate has usually estimated a larger harvest than hunter questionnaires (Gill 1970, Roper 1973). Mail-in tooth envelopes were issued with each regular season either-sex permit. Only 41 or 22.3 percent of 184 potential tooth envelopes were returned. No fawns were reported in the tooth envelope sample (Table 19). The projected 1974 late-season harvest was 1,362 ± 80 deer (P<.05) representing 70.5 percent of the total 1974 Middle Park deer harvest (Tables 10, 17). Composition of the late-season harvest projected from questionnaire responses was 49.4 percent bucks, 42.7 percent does, 5.1 percent buck fawns, 2.6 percent doe fawns, and 0.2 percent unknown (Table 17). There were no check stations established for the late-season, so comparisons of harvest composition between questionnaire responses and check station samples were not available. Mail-in tooth envelopes were also issued with each late-season permit. Of 1,362 potential tooth envelopes, 481 or 35.3 percent were returned: Composition of the harvest based on returned tooth envelopes was 49.5 percent bucks, 46.6 percent does, 2.5 percent buck fawns~ and 1.4 percent doe fawns. Compared to questionnaire results, tooth envelopes appeared to underestimate the harvest of fawns (Tables 17, 21). Age pyramids derived from mail-in tooth envelopes and check stations indicated a young, potentially expanding popUlation, assuming the harvest accurately reflects the age distribution of the live deer population (Tables 18, 19, 20, 21, 22; Figs. 5, 6, 7). Yearlings comprised 36.3 percent, 2 year-olds 29.8 percent, and fawns 5.1 percent of the combined 1974 Middle Park regular and late-season harvest (Table 22). The low percentage of fawns in the harvest is assumed to reflect hunter preference for adult animals and therefore may not be a true reflection of the number of fawns in the population. It may also be that hunters are reluctant to report killing fawns on a mail-in questionnaire, inflating the percentages of older deer in the reported harvest. Does were the oldest animals harvested (Fig. 7). Deer older than 10 years of age were apparently more vulnerable during the late-season than during the regular season (Figs. 5, 6). The projected composition of the regular and late-season harvests combined based on returned hunter questionnaires, was 57.1 percent bucks, 35.9 percent does, 4.5 percent buck fawns, 2.3 percent doe fawns, and 0.2 percent �-217- unknown (derived from Tables 11, 17). This compares favorably with the composition of the harvest based on check station information and returned tooth envelopes (Table 22). Hunter Participation and Success--Hunter participation and success were estimated from returned hunter survey questionnaires. Of 682 potential regular season either-sex permit holders, 588 ± 10 (P~.05) or 86.2 percent participated in the regular deer season. The success of all eithersex permit holders was 27 percent while the success of only those who hunted was 31.3 percent (Table 9). Of the 2,861 regular season antlered-only permit hunters, 2,525 ± 79 (P~.05) (88.3 percent) participated in the regular deer season. Antleredonly permit holders had a 12.5 percent success rate while the success of only those who actually hunted was 14.1 percent (Table 9). Of 5,199 potential late-season hunters, 3,830 ± 81 (P~.05) or 73.7 percent participated in the late-season. Approximately 26 percent of the hunters who were issued a late season deer permit were successful, while the success of only those who hunted was 35.5 percent (Table 9). It is interesting that the success of regular season either-sex permit holders differed only slightly from the success of late-season either-sex permit holders (Table 9). Deer were more concentrated during the late-season, but not necessarily more vulnerable. The comparable success rates may indicate that hunters are not capable of achieving high success ratios in Middle Park unless deer are both concentrated and vulnerable. Also, hunters may expect to see deer concentrated along roads during a lateseason, and when this situation does not exist, are less inclined to walk in order to harvest a deer. Wounding Loss--On survey questionnaires, hunters were asked to specify the number of deer they wounded. Based on hunter responses, wounding loss during the 1974 regular Middle Park season was 7.5 percent of the reported harvest of 212 deer (Table 23). If these reports are accurate incorporating a 20 percent wounding factor into desired harvest levels appears sufficient for the regular season. Wounding loss during the 1974 late Middle Park season was 17.2 percent of the reported harvest of 546 deer (Table 23). Assuming some people did not report wounding a deer or unknowingly wounded a deer, a 20 percent wounding factor may be insufficient for computing total harvest mortality during late season hunts. Success of Controlled Harvest The 1974 harvest objective of 5,390 deer was not achieved. The harvest of 2,320 deer (including a 20 percent wounding loss), was 57 percent below the stated objective. In 1973, the harvest was 41 percent below the objective of 3,000 deer (Roper 1974). Based on the results of these two years, it is questionable whether a controlled permit-type hunt can consistently achieve a harvest of several thousand deer in Middle Park within acceptable ranges of precision. Weather, deer distribution, hunter participation, and hunter success may all be too variable to allow predetermined harvest objectives to be achieved within desired limits. �-218- LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1969a. Middle Park Deer Study - population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1, pp. 105-122. _____ 1969b. Middle Park Deer Study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1, pp. 123-140. 1970. Middle Park Deer Study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3, pp. 337-354. 1971. Middle Park Deer Study - population density and structure. -----Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, pp. 170-188. Roper, L. A. 1973. Middle Park Deer Study - experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildlife, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, pp. 147-162. 1974. Middle Park Deer Study - experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildlife, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, pp. 197-210. �Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat w i t hf.n eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Hiddle Park, Colorado, 1968-1975. Quadrat No. 1968 Huddy Creek High Density Strata 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 _ 1975 Quadrat No. 1968 Huddy Creek Low Density Strata 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 o 11M 56 6 o o o o o o 14M 20M 0 0 1 23M Ncli o o 0 30 24M NC 0 25M o 0 o o NC 0 o o o 9M 124 99 20 28 24 10M 58 39 6 68 39 97 52 77 29M o 0 o 12M 30 66 2 2 o 52 54 5 30M NC 15 11 13M 32 46 2 o 5 46 66 o 31M NC 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 15M NC 87 42 22 35 42 32 4 16M 44 31 28 6 o o o 1m NC 6 5 1 20 12 12 o o o IBM o o o o o 56 21 42 0 IH 2 2H o o o o 3M 4M 5.M o o o o o o o o o o 6M 8 9 9 7M 64 6 34 8M 32 18 9 2 o o o o 1 o 8 40 13 1 26M 11 60 25 47 27M o 0 132 125 86 28M NC 0 3 O· 3 3 o 1 o o 27 3 o o 175 136 158 480 370 220 o o o o o 22H 1 22 5 32N NC 37 442 478 23.9 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 27 26.0 o o o o 19M y o o o o 21M i o o o 12 4 8.8 o 6.8 1 7.9 24.0 18.5 o 1974 1975 o o 7 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 8 6 0.7 0.5 12 1.0 o o o 2 o o o o o o o o o 6 o o o 6 o o o o o o 4 o o o o o o o 1 o o 11.0 9.3 1.8 3.5 0.0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N •.... \D I �Table 1- Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1975 (continued). Quadrat No. 1968 Blue River High Density Strata 1973 1972 1971 1970 1969 1974 1975 Quadrat No. 1968 1969 Blue River Low Density Strata 1972 1973 1971 1970 1974 1975 1B 14 19 14 47 9 25 14 5 2B 4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 4B 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3B 10 10 17 13 0 4 4 4 7B 0 1 0 0 6 63 36 0 5B 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 8B 76 36 24 145 19 50 65 48 6B 30 0 37 0 0 0 90 78 9B 31 88 77 54 82 156 128 52 12B 32 35 34 15 30 19 87 24 lOB 4 20 18 7 41 28 0 0 16B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 llB 9 4 3 0 29 9 12 6 17B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13B 134 102 20 34 15 78 48 17 19B 31 36 26 20 2 24 91 27 14B 49 15 83 43 22 74 50 48 21B 0 29 0 0 0 3 0 0 15B 71 105 136 67 64 50 79 31 18B 124 58 49 104 52 102 65 38 20B 28 17 6 0 0 2 2 11 565 465 430 501 339 637 499 256 107 118 114 48 32 50 275 139 = 47.1 38.8 35.8 41.8 28.3 53.2 41.6 21.3 11.9 13.1 12.7 5.3 3.6 5.6 30.6 15.4 j. Y = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N N 0 I ��Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, 1968-1975 (continued). Quadrat No. 1968 Troublesome Cr. High Densit1 Strata 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Quadrat No. 1T 43 5 11 0 3 21 15 21 1G 2T 25 41 60 8 24 40 41 46 2G 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 3G 70 54 63 4G 0 0 rt (\) 3T 0 4T 35 39 51 0 70 51" 50 76 42 43 20 55 30 85 5G 65 44 90 36 40 61 84 17 6G 0 15 7 14 27 31 14 0 7G 21 6T 7T 8T 9 36 8 21 21 31 41 9T 0 0 0 10 0 21 1 0 lOT 26 6 29 7 12 33 16 17 Y 1968 z 0 1969 Granb~ Low Density Strata 1970 1971 1972 1973 1975 0 7 6 0 1 3 0 2 23 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 13 1 11 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 NC 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 13 2 14 20 11 4.1 1.9 0.3 2.0 2.9 1.6 rt § "" Z = 253 262 298 139 219 365 296 270 11 y = 25.3 26.2 29.8 13.9 21.9 36.5 29.6 27.0 1.8 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 yst = 20.75 15.52 12.29 9.75 9.24 17.14 16.455 10.217 2 S (yst ) = 11.35 4.25 2.55 3.29 1.96 5.24 6.93 3.71 sy = 3.37 2.06 1.60 1.81 1.40 2.29 2.632 1.925 NC = No count. 1974 I N N N I �Table 2. 1975. Deer population estimates by population sub-unit in Middle Park, Colorado, January 1968- POEulation Sub-unit Williams Fork Troublesome River Creek Year Muddy Creek Blue River 1968 4,101 4,074 843 1969 2,994 3,531 1970 1,429 1971 1972 Granby Total Population 1,622 No Count 10,640 774 1,679 134 9,112 3,290 271 1,910 306 7,206 794 3,335 571 891 139 5,730 1,002 2.,259 742 1,404 22 5,429 1973 2,856 4,186 556 2,340 149 10,087 1974 2,272 4,663 622 1,897 216 9,670 1975 1,281 2,370 506 1,729 119 6,005 I N N w I �Table 3. Life equation for deer in Middle Park, Colorado, winter 1967-68 through 1974-75. Year January Census Pop. Est. Winter Loss Percent No. Jan. Est. 1967-68 10,640 1,706 1968-69 9,112 1969-70 Pre-Fawn Pop. Fawn Reproduction Percent Increase No. of Spring Pop. Pre-Hunt Pop. Harvest Percent PreNo. Hunt Pop. 16.0 8,934 3,810 42.65 12,744 2,909 23 582 9,253 9,112 + 1.5 639 7.0 8,473 4,531 53.48 13,004 4,503 51 901 7,600 7,206 + 5.2 7,206 1,135 15.8 6,071 2,753 45.35 8,823 2,436 28 487 5,900 5,730 + 2.9 1970-11 5,730 489 8.5 5,241 2,482 47.36 7,723 516 7 103 7,104 5,429 +23.6 1971-72 5,429 50 0.9 5,379 2,159 40.13 7,538 356 5 71 7,111 10,087 -41.9 1972-73 10,087 647 6.4 9,440 4,715 49.95 14,155 1,771 13 354 12,030 9,670 +19.6 9,250 6,140 1973-74 9,670 1974-75 6,005 420 4.3 Wounding Loss Post-Hunt POE' Census (20% of a harvest) Expected Est. Percent b Difference 66.37 15,390 1,933 13 387 13,070 a 6,005 +54.1 Formula used to calculate expected population level was: P = PI - Mw + b - ~, where P = expected population level; PI = census population 2 n 2 estimate from previous year; Mw = winter mortality; bn = net productivity derived from October pre-hunting season doe:fawn ratios; ~ = harvest mortality. b Percent difference indicates I N N -I'- the amount that the expected population estimate differs from the quadrat census estimate. I �Table 4. Life equation for deer in Middle Park, Colorado, January, 1974 through October, 1974. Population Data 1974 Winter Population Winter Mortality (4.3%) Spring Population Pre-Fawning Population Bucks Does Buck Fawns Doe Fawns Total 24.9% 2,408 39.7% 3,839 20.5% 1,985 14.9% 1,438 100.0% 9,670 40.0% 168 20.0% 84 22.0% * 92 18.0% * 76 100.0% 420 24.2% 2,240 40.6% 3,755 20.5% 1,893 14.7% 1,362 100.0% 9,250 44.7% 4,133 Fawn Crop (1.2 Pawns /Doe) Pre-Hunt Population Note: 26.9% 4,133 100.0% 9,250 55.3% 5,117 33.2% 5,117 55.0% 3,377 45.0% 2,763 100.0% 6,140 21.9% 3,377 18.0% 2,763 100.0% 15,390 Percent Yearlings Bucks-Does I N N VI I 45.8% 26.6% All unclassified dead deer in winte~ mortality data were excluded. *Assumption which had to be made: Because the summer crew did not classify current dead fawns to sex, the 4 dead fawns found on transects contributed to 40 percent of winter mortality of which 55 percent (or 22.0%) was assumed to be buck fawns and 45 percent (18.0%) was assumed to"be doe"fawns. �-226- Table 5. Comparison of two census flights in the Muddy Creek deer population sub-unit high deer density sampling strata flown on January 23 and January 30, 1975, Middle Park, Colorado. Muddy Creek High Density Quadrat Number Deer Counted January 23 January 30 1M 0 0 2M 0 0 3M 0 0 4M 0 0 5M 0 0 6M 0 0 7M 0 1 8M 28 47 9M 10 86 10M 17 77 12M 2 5 13M 0 0 15M 20 4 16M 0 0 17M 0 0 IBM 6 0 19M 0 0 21M 0 0 22M 0 0 32M 0 0 490 1,281 Sub-unit Population Estimate �-227- Table 6. Pre-hunting season deer sex and age classification counts obtained from helicopter surveys during October 1969-1974, Middle Park, Colorado. Year Bucks Does Fawns Total Classified 1969 195 451 419 1,065 43 93 1970 152 361 258 771 42 72 1971 20 41 30 91 49 73 1972 73 101 91 265 72 90 1973 174 314 273 761 55 87 1974 58 76 91 225 76 120 Ratios Eer 100 Does Bucks Fawns Table 7. Post-hunting season deer sex and age classification counts obtained from helicopter and ground surveys during November and/or December, 1968-1974, Middle Park, Colorado. Type of Count Bucks Does Fawns Total Classified 1968 Aerial Ground 316 147 558 396 501 ~63 1,375 906 57 37 90 92 1969 Aerial Ground 261 319 490 582 418 505 1,169 1,406 53 55 85 87 1970 Aerial Ground 211 104 471 231 363 178 1,045 513 45 45 77 77 1971 Aerial Grotmd 356 783 321 No Counts 1,460 45 41 1972 Aerial Ground 362 818 693 1,281 540 1,047 1,595 3,146 52 64 78 82 1973 Aerial Ground 396 674 594 1,664 No Counts 59 Aerial Grotmd 309 194 1,417 793 49 53 Year 1974 632 363 476 236 Ratios Eer 100 Does Bucks Fawns ---- ---- 88 75 65 �-228- Table 8. Fetuses per 100 mature female deer in Middle Park, Colorado, January-May, 1969-1974. Based on deer collected by selective shooting, from highway accidents, and from trapping accidents. Year Number Collected Shooting Number Collected Highway 1969 33 8 0 41 193 1970 33 9 0 42 164 1971 33 8 10 51 161 1972 32 7 0 39 187 1973 0 26 0 26 162 1974 0 7 0 7 157 Number Collected Trapping Total Deer Fetuses:lOO Females Table 9. Hunter participation and success for the 1974 Middle Park October 26November 3, and December 14-22 deer seasons based on returns from hunter survey questionnaires. .Regular .Season ~. (October 26-Nov. 3) Late Season (Dec. 14-22) Total Number of Permits Issued Ant1ered-Qnly Permits Either-Sex Permits 3,543 2,861 682 5,199 0 5,199 Total Projected Hunters Antlered-Qn1y Permits Either-Sex Permits 3,113 2,525 ± 79* 588 ± 10* 3,830 ± 81* Percent Hunters Participating Antlered-Qn1y Permits Either-Sex Permits 87.9% 88.3% 86.2% 73.7% Success of All Permittees Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits 15.3% 12.5% 27.0% 26.2% Success of Those Hunting Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits 17.4% 14.1% 31.3% *P ~.05. 3,830 ± 81* 73.7% 26.2% 35.5% 35.5% �-229- Table 10. Summary of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado during 1974. Type of Season Bucks Does Buck Fawns Doe Fawns Unknown Total Percent Total Harvest Archery 19 6 3 0 0 28 1.4% High-country Buck 2 0 0 0 0 2 0.1% Regular Deer 413 102 16 9 1 541 28.0% Late Deer 673 582 70 35 2 1,362 70.5% 1,107 (57.3%) 690 (35.7%) 89 (4.6%) 44 (2.3%) Totals 1,933 (0.1%) (100%) 3 100% Table 11. 1974 projected regular season harvest by Game Management Unit based on reported harvest from returned regular season either-sex and antlered-only hunter survey questionnaires, Middle Park, Colorado. 18 Management Unit 28 27 37 Totals Bucks 139 (72.8%) 77 (78.6%) 116 (84.1%) 81 (71.1%) 413 (76.3%) Does 42 (22.0%) 13 (13.3%) 18 (13.0%) 29 (25.4%) 102 (18.9%) Buck Fawns 5 ( 2.6%) 6 ( 6.1%) 1 ( 0.7%) 4 ( 3.5%) 16 ( 2.9%) Doe Fawns 4 ( 2.1%) 2 ( 2.0%) 3 ( 2.2%) 0 ( 0.0%) 9 ( 1.7%) Unknown 1 ( 0.5%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 1 ( 0.2%) Totals 191 (100%) 98 (100%) 138 (100%) 114 (100%) 541 (100%) (35.3%) (18.1%) (25.5%) (21.1%) (100%) �.-230- Table 12. 1974 projected regular season either-sex harvest by Game Management Unit based on reported harvest from returned regular season either-sex hunter survey questionnaires, Middle Park, Colorado. Management 18 27 Bucks 27 (33.9%) 13 (43.5%) Does 42 (53.2%) BUCK Fawns Unit 28 37 Totals 9 (29.2%) 17 (38.9%) 66 (35.9%) 13 (43.5%) 18 (58.3%) 24 (52.8%) 96 (52.4%) 5 ( 6.5%) 1 ( 4.3%) 1 ( 4.2%) 4 ( 8.3%) 12 ( 6.2%) Doe Fawns 4 ( 4.8%) 2 ( 8.7%) 3 ( 8.3%) 0 ( 0.0%) 9 ( 4.8%) Unknown 1 ( 1. 6%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 1 ( 0.7%) Totals 79 (100%) 29 (100%) 31 (100%) 45 (100%) 184 (100%) (42.8%) (15.8%) (16.6%) (24.8%) (100%) Table 13. 1974 projected regular season antlered-only harvest by Game Management Unit based on reported harvest from returned regular season antlered-only hunter survey questionnaires, Middle Park, Colorado. Managemen t Unit 18 27 28 37 Totals Bucks 112 (100%) 64 (92.3%) 107 (100%) 64 (92.3%) 347 (97.2%) Does 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 5 ( 7.7%) 5 ( 1.4%) Buck Fawns 0 ( 0.0%) 5 ( 7.7%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 5 ( 1.4%) Doe Fawns 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 0 ( 0.0%) 112 (100%) 69 (100%) 107 (100%) 69 (100%) 357 (100%) (31. 3%) (19.4%) (29.9%) (19.4%) (100%) Totals �-231Table 14. Deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado and checked at Idaho Springs check station, 1974. 18 Management 27 Unit 28 37 Totals Bucks 60 63 26 56 205 (75.1%) Does 19 4 9 17 49 (17.9%) Fawns 10 3 2 1 16 ( 5.9%) Unknown 3 0 0 0 3 ( 1.1%) Totals 92 70 (25.6%) 37 (13.6%) (33.7%) Table 15. 1974.a Deer harvested 273 (100%) 74 (27.1%) in Middle Park, Colorado and checked in Middle Park, 18 Management 27 Unit 28 37 Totals Bucks 10 8 0 48 66 (68.8%) Does 10 4 0 10 24 (25.0%) Fawns 6 o. 0 0 6 ( 6.2%) Unknown 0 0 0 0 0 ( 0.0%) Totals 26 (27.1%) 12 (12.5%) 0 (0.0%) "96 (100%) 58 (60.4%) a Hunters checked in Middle Park were given a slip of paper indicating they had already been checked, therefore minimizing the possibility of deer being double checked at one of the main check stations. Table 16. Deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado and checked at either Idaho Springs or Middle Park check stations, 1974. 18 Management 27 Unit 28 37 Totals Bucks 70 71 26 104 271 (73.4%) Does 29 8 9 27 73 (19.8%) Fawns 16 3 2 1 22 ( 6.0%) Unknown 3 0 0 0 3 ( 0.8%) Totals 118 (32.0%) 82 (22.2%) 37 (10.0%) 132 (35.8%) 369 (100%) �Table 17. 1974 projected late-season either-sex harvest by Game Management Unit based on reported harvest from returned late-season hunter survey questionnaires, Middle Park, Colorado. 18 27 Management Unit 28 37 Unknown Totals Bucks 357 (47.8%) 72 (46.0%) 92 (52.9%) 149 (54.1%) 3 (37.5%) 673 (49.4%) Does 330 (44.2%) 72 (46.0%) 65 (37.1%) 112 (40.5%) 3 (37.5%) 582 (42.7%) Buck Fawns 37 ( 5.0%) 8 ( 4.8%) 15 ( 8.6%) 8 ( 2.7%) 2 (25.0%) 70 ( 5.1%) Doe Fawns 20 ( 2.7%) 5 ( 3.2%) 2 ( 1.4%) 8 ( 2.7%) o ( 0.0%) 35 ( 2.6%) Unknown 2 ( 0.3%) o ( 0.0%) o ( 0.0%) o ( 0.0%) o ( 0.0%) 2 ( 0.2%) I N W N Totals 746 (100%) 157 (100%) 174 (100%) 277 (100%) 8 (100%) 1,362 (100%) (54.8%) (11.5%) (12.8%) (20.3%) (0.6%) (100%) I �Table 18. Age and composition of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado and checked at Idaho Springs or Middle Park check stations during the regular deer season, October 26-November 3, 1974. Age determined by tooth replacement and wear and dental cementum. Age (Years) Bucks Percent F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+ Totals 10* 5.3 82* 43.6 43 22.9 27 14.4 16 8.5 6 3.2 2 1.1 o 1 1 o 0.5 0.5 188 100% 9* 16* 3 3 0 2 0 o o o o 33 27.3 48.5 9.1 9.1 - 6.0 19 98 46 30 16 8 8.6 44.3 20.8 (Bucks - 80.5%) Does Percent Totals Percent 13.6 7.2 3.6 (Does -10.9%) 100% 2 o 1 0.9 0.5 (Buck Fawns - 4.5%) 1 o 221 100% 0.5 (Doe Fawns - 4.1%) *Age based on tooth replacement and wear. I N W W I Table 19. Age and composition of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado during the regular deer season, October 26-November 3, 1974 based on returned either-sex permit mail-in tooth envelopes. Age determined by dental cementum. 1 F Bucks o Percent Does o Percent Totals Percent o 3 2 Age (Years) 456 7 8 9 10+ Totals o 0 1 o 16 5 6 3 0 0 1 31.3 37.5 18.8 - - 6.2 5 10 3 1 2 1 3 20.0 40.0 12.0 4.0 8.0 4.0 12.0 10- 16 6 1 2 2 3 24.5 39.0 14.6 2.4 4.9 4.9 7.3 (Bucks - 39.0%) (Does - 61.0%) 100% 6.2 0 o o 25 100% 0 (Buck Fat~s - 0.0%) 1 o 2.4 (Doe Fawns - 0.0%) 41 100% �Table 20. Age and composition of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado during the regular season, October 26-November 3, 1974. Age determined by dental cementum or tooth replacement and wear. Teeth obtained at check stations or from mail-in tooth envelopes. Age (Years) 6 7 6 3 o 2.•9 1. 5 F 1 2 3 4 5 10 4.9 87 42.7 49 24.0 30 14.7 16 7.8 9 21 13 6 1 4 1 3 Percent 15.6 36.2 22.4 10.3 1.7 6.9 1.7 5.2 Totals Percent 19* 108* 62 36 17 10 4 3 7.3 41.2 23.7 13.7 6.5 3.8 1.5 Bucks Percent Does (Bucks - 74.1%) (Does - 18.7%) 8 9 10+ Totals o 204 100% o 58 1 2 0.5 1.0 0 o 100% 1 2 o 262 1.1 0.4 0.8 - 100% (Buck Fawns - 3.8%) (Doe Fawns - 3.4%) I *A11 fawns and 91 percent of the yearlings were aged by tooth replacement and wear. N W .pI Table 21. Age and composition of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado during the late-season, December 1422, 1974. Age determined by dental cementum•. Teeth.obtained from mail-in tooth envelopes. Age (Yeat:~ 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Totals 5 2 2 o 1 o o o o 250 F 1 2 3 4 5 Bucks 12 86 83 21 14 15 Percent 4.8 34.4 33.2 8.4 5.6 6.0 3.6 2.0 0.8 0.8 7 76 76 10 6 Percent 3.0 32.9 32.9 9.5 Totals 19 162 159 Percent 4.0 33.8 33.1 8.9 Does 22 43 13 6 9 4 4 2 100% 0.4 3 2 2 2 1 1 231 4.3 5.6 ,2.7 1.7 1.7 0.9 1.3 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.4 100% 24 15 6 3 3 2 2 1 1 481 3.1 1.9 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 100% 28 5.0 5.8 (Bucks - 49.5%) 9 (Does - 46.6%) 4 (Buck Fawns - 2.5%) (Doe Fawns - 1.4%) �Table 22. Age and composition of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado in 1974. Age determined by tooth replacement and wear and dental cementum. Teeth obtained at check stations and from mail-in tooth envelopes. F 1 2 3 4 5 6 Age (Yeat:"~} 789 10 11 12 13 14 15 Totals Bucks 22 173 132 51 30 21 12 5 3 4 o 1 o o o o 454 Percent 4.9 38.1 29.1 11.2 6.6 4.6 2.6 1.1 0.7 0.9 Does 16 97 89 28 11 17 7 7 4 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 289 Percent 5.5 33.6 30.8 9.7 3.8 5.9 2.4 2.4 1.4 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.3 100% Totals 38* 5.1 270* 221 79 41 38 19 7 6 3 3 2 2 1 1 36.3 29.8 10.6 5.5 5.1 2.7 12 1.6 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 743 100% Percent (Bucks - 58.1%) (Buck Fawns - 3.0%) (Does - 36.7%) 100% 0.2 (Doe Fawns - 2.2%) I N W \J1 I *50 percent of the fawns and 36.3 percent of the yearlings were aged by tooth replacement and wear. Table 23. Wounding loss incurred during the 1974 hunting seasons in Middle Park, Colorado based on returned hunter survey questionnaires. Deer Reported Wounded perRe~onse Hunter Responses o Late Season Dec. 14-22 Either-Sex Permits Percent Total Deer Hunters Reported Responding Wounded Total Deer Reported Harvested Percent Wounded 1 2 3 4 5 12 o o 4 o o 443 441 95.7 93.0 4 145 67 8.3 6.0 868 16 o o o o o o 12 o 884 94.3 16 212 7.5 1,335 77 3 2 o 1 1,418 92.3 94 546 17.2 Regular Season Oct. 26-Nov. 3 Either-Sex Permits 431 Antlered-Only Permits 437 Total Regular Season Total Responses o �-236- 14 13 12 11 10 - 9 V) Q Z 8 -c V) :J 7 0 X t- 6 C¥ w w 5 Q 4 °\1 1\1 1\] 1 11 1 • 3 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 YEAR Fig. 1. Meanestimates of total. Kiddle Park deer population bracketed by 90 p~roent confidenoe 11m::1. ts, JanlUll"Y 196&-19'15. �CIJ Q) -237130 0 0 120 0 0 110 CIJ 100 s: 0 90 m 80 ::J CIJ c 70 ~ ro 60 u. /e / ,/ Fawns __ V 50 69 71 70 72 73 Bucks--74 Year Fig. 2. Pre-hunting season deer sex and age ratios obtained from helicopter surveys during October 1969-1974, Middle Park, Colorado. (/) ~100 0 o90 ~ 80 (/) 70 ~ ~ 60 - / al V . 50 ~.--...- - ••• (/) ~ 40 Fawns-- ro 30 u. . Buc~s--6'8 7'1 Year 7'2 Fig. 3. post-hunting season deer sex and age ratios obtained during Novemberand/or December, 1968-1974, Middle Park, Colorado. Ratios based on ground surveys except in 1973 when only aerial surveys were conducted. >- .•... ro •... L. 0 ~ c: Q) 0 L. Q) 0.. 12 10 8 6 4 2 70 7 1 Year F.ig. 4. Estimated over-winter deer mortality expressed as a percentage of January population estimates, 1968-1974, Middle Park, Colorado. Based on dead deer found on 93 randomly located mortality transects. �-238- 9 VAS BUCKS 50 40 n= 204 30 20 DOES 10 0 10 20 30 n=58 40 50 PERCENT Fig. 5.. Age distribution of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado during the regular season, October 26-November), 1974. year classes 2 through 9 were aged by dental cementum, while 100 percent of the fawns and 91 percent of the yearlings were aged b1' tooth replacement and wear. Teeth obtained froll hunter mail-in tooth envelopes and check stations. �-239- 15 YRS BUCKS n = 250 DOES n:231 I 50 30 20 10 0 10 PERCENT 20 30 40 50 ~g •. 9. Age:distribution of deer h~sted.in Middle Park; .Co19p~·dur:i:ng .the lateseason, December lq...22, 1974. Age' determ1liecf b;f dental cementum. Teeth obtained from hunter mail-in tooth envelopes. �-240- 15 VRS BUCKS 50 40 n = 454 30 20 DOES 10 0 10 20 n e 289 30 40 50 PERCENT Fig. 7•• Age distribution of deer harvested in Middle park, Colorado, 1974. Age determined by dental cementumexcept for 50 percent of the fawns and )6. J percent of the 1 year age-class which were aged by tooth replacement and wear. Teeth obtained at check stations and from hunter mail-in tooth envelopes. �-241- July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-29 Work Plan No. Job Title 14 Job No. 9 ------------------------------- Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Deer Habitat Evaluation Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1974 - March 31, 1975 L. H~ Carpenter, D. L. Baker, O. C. Wa11mo, D. W. Reichert, D. J. Freddy, D. Walsworth, D. Roberts,J. Brown, W. Rege1in, and R. B. Gill. ABSTRACT During the 1974-75 segment, work on the physical plant at the Junction Butte Research Center was essentially completed. Thirteen mule deer fawns were successfully reared, trained, and added to the tame deer herd. The second year of study on estimating energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter was completed. Digestible energy of the pe11eted ration fed the first year of study (1974) was estimated at 75.01 percent (se ± 1.03). Approximately a one-to-one ratio between apparent digestible dry matter and apparent digestible energy of the pe1leted ration was found. An initial attempt was made to estimate forage intake and energy expenditure of free ranging deer during the winter period. Four, tame mule deer were observed from an observation tower for seven 24-hour periods. Data were recorded on activities and distances traveled. Diets, bite sizes, and number of bites per second of grazing were estimated by accompanying the four deer as they grazed. Daily dry matter intake for these 4 deer averaged 765 g. Analyses of horizontal and vertical components of deer movements are not yet completed, consequently estimates of energy expenditures are not included in this report. ��-243- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY - DEER HABITAT EVALUATION L. H. Carpenter and D. L. Baker P. S. OBJECTIVE Develop procedures to support deer. for quantifying the capacity of Middle Park winter ranges SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop and test a method for estimating ranging mule deer. energy expenditures of free- 2. Estimate forage intake and energy expenditures winter months (January-March). 3. Estimate nutritional quality of ingested forage in terms of in vivo digestible and metabolizable energy. of deer during "critical" METHODS AND MATERIALS Physical Plant A complete description of the research facility used in these studies has been previously described by Gill and Baker (1974). Development Acquisition of a Tame Deer Herd - 1974 of Fawns Thirteen mule deer fawns were successfully hand-reared during the period June I-September 1, 1974 at the Foothills Deer Pens, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. The fawns were reared for the purposes of (1) investigating the nutritional requirements and energy budgets of mule deer in winter, and (2) supplementing a tame deer herd for future nutritional research programs. Mule deer fawns were obtained from two sources. Twenty-three were taken from semi-tame, captive does maintained at the Foothills Deer Pens, Fort Collins, Colorado. Twelve were obtained as orphans and collected from various areas in Colorado by Division of Wildlife Conservation Officers. �-244- Fawn Rearing and Mortality Approximately 3 hours after birth, each newborn fawn was weighed (nearest gm), vaccinated with 3 cc ofClosttidiumpetfringens antitoxin, types B, C, D, and the navel swabbed with tincture of iodine. The fawn was then returned to the dam for a period of 12-48 hours. At the end of this period the fawn was taken from the dam and bottle-reared. Birth weight, date of birth, sex and weekly growth rates were recorded for each fawn. Fawn feeding schedules and amounts fed followed procedures outlined by Reichert (1972). Milk composition fed to fawns in 1974 is shown in Table 1 (Robbins 1973). At 10 days of age, fawns were given free access to a commercially pelleted concentrate (Table 2) and third-cutting alfalfa hay. Table 1. Composition of milk formula fed to fawns in 1974 (Robbins 1974). Nutrient Content Percent* Water 75.65 Protein 10.14 Fat 5.83 Lactose 7.14 Ash 1.24 *Formulated by adding to each can of evaporated milk 29.5 g. casein, 121.6 g. tap water. In addition, 1 m1 of vitamin-mineral each day until 60 days of age. mixture was given to each fawn Mean birth weight for the 23 fawns born at the Foothills Deer Pens in 1974 was 3.33 kg (se ± 0.11). Mean birth weight for nine males was 3.50 kg (se ± 0.29) and 3.22 kg (se ± 0.32) for 14 females. Mean birth weights did not differ significantly (P<0.05) between sexes. Birth weights were not available for the 12 orphan fawns. At the end of 6 months only 13 of the 35 fawns still survived (38 percent). The sex of surviving fawns at 6 months was 7 males and 6 females. Survival for male fawns was 77 percent while survival for female fawns was 23 percent. Postmortem examinations were made on 13 of 22 fawns which died during the 1974 fawn rearing period. Seven fawns died from chronic viral diarrhea and associated hypoglycemia, two fawns succumbed to pneumonia; one fawn died as a result of necro-bacillosis (Fusibacterium mecrophotum) and three of unknown causes. Gastrointestinal upsets and diarrhea were most evident during the first 2 weeks of bottle feeding. Neomycin sulfate and Kaopectate proved successful in light to moderate cases of diarrhea. Severe cases usually resulted in death. Limited success was obtained by changing the diarrhetic animal's diet from milk formula to a fluid electrolyte solution and oral antibiotic until feces were again normal. �-245- Table 2. Composition analysis of pelleted basal ration. Ingredient Percent Barley, pulverized 10.0 Corn, pulverized 30.0 Milo, pulverized 5.0 Oats, pulverized 7.5 Wheat middlings 6.5 Beat pulp, shredded 2.5 Brewers grain 35.0 Dicalcium phosphate 1.0 Molasses, cane 2.5 Vitamin A, D, E premix Tr (0.002) Trace mineral package (Mg., Zn, I, Fe, Co, Cu, Ca) Tr (0.005) (wt •) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------Analysis (Dry Matter Basis) Percent Dry matter 90.59 Crude protein 19.34 Ether extract 2.8.3 Ash 7.86 Cell wall constituents 52.81 Acid-detergent 13.58 fiber Lignin 3.58 Apparent Dry Matter Digestibility 70.67 Gross energy kcal/g 4.60 Apparent digestible energy kcal/g 3.45 Apparent metabolizable 3.05 energy kcal/g 100.0% �-246- • Growth Rates and Training Mean daily growth rates were calculated for 10 fawns (five male; five females) during a 3 month pre-weaning and 2 month post-weaning period. Up to 2 weeks of age all fawns were weighed by placing them in a wooden box on a balance beam scale and recording weight to the nearest gram. At 2 weeks of age, fawns were gradually trained to accept weighing while standing on a platform scale located beneath the floor of a wooden handling chute. The fawns quickly accepted this procedure and would walk into the weigh chute with little or no forcing from the handler. Mean daily gain during the first 5 months was 0.19 kg (se ± 0.01) for females and 0.20 kg (se ± 0.01) for males. Mean daily gain did not differ significantly (P < O.05) between sexes. Daily gain for both sexes was 0.19 kg (se ± 0.01). Similar growth rates were recorded for captive dam-reared Columbian black-tailed fawns (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) over a similar period (Cowans and Wood 1955). The fawn growth rates for 1974 were greater than the 0.17 kg for males and 0.14 kg for females as reported by Gill and Baker (1974) for bottle-reared mule deer fawns but less than the growth rates of 0.22 kg for males and 0.21 kg for females reported for dam-reared mule deer fawns (Robinette et al. 1973). For the purpose of this experiment and future projects it was necessary to train fawns from birth to accept intensive handling. In order to accurately measure weekly weight changes, "normal" blood metabolites, and digestion parameters it was essential that all experimental animals accept varying degrees of confinement with a minimum of excitability. To accomplish this, each individual fawn was bottle-fed at least once a day inside both a digestion cage and handling chute. After weaning, each fawn was placed in a digestion cage each day for gradually extended periods beginning with a minimum of 15 minutes to a maximum of 7 days. Acceptance of the weighing and blood sampling chute was accomplished by weighing of all fawns weekly in the weighing facility. This training schedule began at 2 weeks of age and terminated at 6 months of age. Energy Requirements Objectives and Experimental of Fawns in Winter Design The primary objective of this study was to estimate metabolizable energy requirements of captive mule deer fawns for winter maintenance. Subsidiary objectives were: (1) determine minimum dietary energy requirements for survival of mule deer fawns, (2) determine length of survival (days) on a given level of energy intake; (3) relate dietary deficiencies to changes in blood metabolites, and (4) measure and relate weather parameters (ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind speed) to energy balance. Methodology followed during the winter of 1974 is presented by Gill and Baker (1974). During the winter of 1973-74, data relevant to the overall objective as well as subsidiary objectives (3) and (4) were collected and are being analyzed. Objectives (1) and (2) were only partially answered during the winter �-247- of 1973-74 because assigned treatment levels did not sufficiently restrict energy intake to ascertain minimum energy consumption for survival for a given period of time during winter. In order to adequately satisfy these objectives the entire experiment was repeated during the winter months (January-March) of 1975. Methods and materials for the 1975 winter trial were followed as described by Gill and Baker (1974), with the exception that only two treatments (ad libitum and 25 percent of ad libitum) with 6 deer in each treatment were used during the 1975 experiment. Fawns were paired primarily on the basis of similar body weights. Four sets of twins were used in the experiment and when weights of twins were similar, one fawn from each set was assigned to a different treatment. Fawns were randomly assigned to one of eighteen isolation pens. Differences in treatment means for blood metabolites, weight changes, and survival are being analyzed using a paired t-test (Dixon and Massey 1969). Regression analyses (Draper and Smith 1966) will be used in an attempt to correlate body weight changes, blood metabolites, intake, maintenance requirements, and survival to changing environmental conditions throughout the study period. Although the trials for estimating maintenance energy requirements for mule deer fawns were conducted in Middle Park in winter, digestion coefficients and digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) values of the test ration were not estimated until late spring or early summer. These values were estimated from in vivo digestion trials conducted in Fort Collins because facilities were-available there. The validity of comparing results of digestion trials conducted in warm temperatures with performance values from winter feeding studies is questionable. Young and Christopherson (1974) reported apparent dry matter digestibility of sheep and cattle diets decreased as ambient temperatures declined. Therefore, if deer digestion coefficients responded to similar changes in ambient temperature, then maintenance requirements obtained for mule deer fawns during the winter, but baseciupon DE and ME coefficients obtained in summer, would be in error. The apparent maintenance requirement would be lower than the true maintenance requirement because erroneously high digestion and metabolizable energy coefficients were used. To avoid this source of error, two digestion cages were constructed in 1975 similar in size to those described by Cowans et al. (1969) (Fig. 1). These cages were transported to the Junction Butte Deer Research Center, Kremmling, Colorado, to: (1) calculate digestion coefficients of mule deer fawns fed a pe11eted concentrate ration during winter, (2) measure the effect of level of intake on apparent dry matter digestibility (ADMD), (3) compare changes in ADMD to changes in physiological condition of fawns in winter, and (4) test the hypothesis that for deer, digestion coefficients decrease relative to a decrease in average ambient temperature by comparing digestion coefficients calculated in Fort Collins in spring to those calculated in Middle Park during winter. Fawns of similar age, weight and training as those used in the digestion trials of 1974 were used in the 1975 experiment. A pelleted ration similar to that fed in 1974 was fed in the 1975 winter trial. Two fawns, one from each treatment, were placed simultaneously each into one of two digestion cages. A 5 day fecal collection was conducted on each of 12 fawns from January 21 to March 4, 1975. �-248- Fig. 1. Research Digestion Center. cages used during 1975 winter at Junction Butte Deer �-249Estimate of Forage Intake and Energy Expenditure of Deer Estimates of forage intake and energy expenditures of free~ranging mule deer have not received much attention by wildlife researchers. This portion of the carrying capacity study was initiated in the 1974-75 segment. As a result, the greatest emphasis of the 1974-75 winter work was directed toward developing methods and sampling procedures for describing activity patterns of mule deer through 24 periods in winter. Knowledge of activity patterns will permit calculations of total energy expenditures over time once energy costs have been established for various activities. Energy intake will be calculated from total forage intake by adjusting for digestibility and metabolizability of the energy fractions of these diets. Combinations of energy expenditure and energy intake values will result in energy budgets which can be used to interpret the adequacy of winter forage toward the maintenance of mule deer. Four mule deer, all one and one-half years old, were used in this study. The deer were placed in a 2.4 hectare conditioning pasture on January 10, 1975 and left until February 3 when they were removed to a 4 hectare energy budget pasture. After being placed in the energy budget pasture deer were allowed to adjust for one week. Measurements were begun on February 11. Deer received no artificial supplement while in either pasture and were forced to subsist on native forage. Two types of measurements were made during the study and these were alternated from week to week. The first type of measurement involved recording observations of deer activity and travel from an observation tower over 24 hour time periods. These observations were conducted February 11-14. Estimates of forage intake constituted in this study. the second type of measurements taken On the week of February 18-20 deer were accompanied by observers as they grazed and bite sizes, total number of bites eqten per second, and total number of bites of each plant species were recorded. Then 24-hour activity and travel observations from the tower were repeated the week of February 24-28. To aid locating deer in the energy budget pasture, arcs and radii were marked with respect to the tower location (Fig. 2). Four equally spaced arcs were bisected by 11 radii, each 15 degrees apart. Intersections of arcs and radii were marked with posts and signs identifying arcs 1, 2, 3, or 4. This system permitted reasonably accurate determinations of deer locations over a 24-hour period. An observation tower was positioned at the intersection of all radii (Fig. 2). The tower was a portable fire observation tower on loan from the United States Forest Service. This tower consisted of a glass-enclosed, 8 foot square tower extending from the roof of a trailer house. A night viewing device (Model 221) developed by Javelin Division, Appolo Lasers in Los Angeles, California* was used to aid night observation. This device *The identification of manufacturing companies or brand names does not necessarily constitute an endorsement of such firms or products by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. They are identified here only for the reader's information and convenience. �-250- - 4SM -SCALE Fig. 2. Arc and radii pattern used to locate deer trom tbe observation tower in energy budget pasture. �-251- magnified available light 38,000 times and was equipped with a 300 mm telephoto lens. The four deer were fitted with colored neck-collars equipped with battery-powered lights arranged in varying patterns to aid in locating and distinguishing individual deer during both day and night observations. Binoculars and a variable power spotting scope were used in daylight observations. Snow depths were measured at the beginning and end of each week. Measurements were made one-meter south of each of the permanently marked radius and arc intersections. Pasture snow crust and hardness were also described concurrently with depth measurements. Continuous temperature and relative humidity measurements were recorded on a hygrothermograph located 50 meters south of the energy budget pasture. General weather conditions were described throughout each 24-hour deer observation period. Forage Intake Estimates of forage intake were derived from combinations of both ground and tower observations. Tower observations provided estimates of total grazing time in each 24 hour period whereas grour.. d observations provided quantification of amounts (grams) of food ingested during periods of grazing. A stopwatch was started as the deer began to graze and not stopped until the deer lifted its head to end a grazing sequence. Number of bites taken and the seconds elapsed were then recorded on tape. Number of bites of each plant species eaten by deer was also recorded. Percentage of total bites comprised by each plant species was also determined. Thirteen separate trials averaging 63 minutes each were conducted during the 3 day period. Trials were conducted throughout daylight hours. Observers would approach deer in the pasture and if they were grazing the trial would begin immediately. Observations continued as long as deer grazed. Size (weLgh t ) of an average bite was determined by two observers each "plucking" what they considered to be an average bite grazed by deer. Each observer plucked 20 bites of various plant species each deer consumed and placed them in a paper bag. Forty-two of these samples were collected. These 42 samples were taken to the lab and weighed to determine the average weight per bite (wet weight). The samples were then oven-dried and reweighed to ascertain percent moisture and dry weight averages per bite. Average daily intake per deer was calculated by multiplying the total time spent grazing (seconds) in a 24-hour day by the bites per second to obtain total number of bites taken per day. This value was then multiplied by the weight of average bites to obtain average daily intake. Total daily food intake will be converted to total gross energy intake from determinations of gross energy values from deer winter forage samples collected in 1973. Gross energy will be converted to digestible energy from existing published information (Robbins 1973) and from trials currently underway in Middle Park relating digestible dry matter of selected forage species to in vivo digestible energy (Milchunas, D. G. Master of Science Program, Colo. State Univ.). �-252- Energy Expenditure Energy expenditure estimates will be determined indirectly from measurements of travel distances and activity patterns of the pasture-enclosed deer. Travel and activity were recorded from the tower during 24-hour observation periods. Four observers, each worked a six hour shift, every day for one week. The four shifts were from 0 to 0600, 0600 to 1200, 1200 to 1800, and 1800 to 2400 hours. Five minute observations were made 4 times each hour. These five minute periods were fixed within each hour and were from 5 to 10, 20 to 25, 35 to 40, and 50 to 55 minutes past the hour. This resulted in actual observation time of 20 minutes each hour or 480 minutes (8 hours) each 24-hour period. Each hour one deer would be observed for the four, five minute periods. The following hour another deer would be observed, until all four deer had been observed, then the rotation of deer started again. During each observation period activities were recorded as: 1) bedding, 2) walking or running, 3) standing, and 4) grazing. Durations of each activity class were timed with a stopwatch. Incidental information on the three other deer, such as time bedded, time up, or any unusual activity was recorded whenever it occurred. This was done to provide additional information on activities over the total 24 hour period to compare with the estimates of these times generated from the sampling procedure. Detailed maps were prepared of routes traveled by deer during each observation period. These maps contained information from which average distances traveled and the elevational changes that occurred during a 24-hour day could be extrapolated. A detailed contour map of the pasture will be prepared so that vertical components of travel can be measured. Travel maps will also be used to correlate travel by deer to snow depths within the pasture. Initially, values for energy expenditure for the various activities will be approximated from values reported in the literature (Moen 1973; Clapperton 1961; Graham 1964; Hammel 1962; Stevens 1972; Mattfeld 1973). These values will .be summed and compared to the energy intake values 'to estimate net energy balance of deer under conditions measured. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Maintenance of Mule Deer Fawns, Winter 1974 To quantitatively assess the maintenance energy requirements of fawns in winter, it was necessary to determine energy balance by measuring both body weight changes (kg) and daily intake (gm). In order to express intake in terms of digestible energy (DE) or metabolizable energy OME) intake it was essential to estimate the DE and ME values from digestion trials. Apparent dry matter digestibility of the experimental ration in 1974 was 72.07 percent (se ± 1.24) while the digestible energy and metabolizable energy value was 75.01 percent (se ± 1.03) and 66.25 percent (se ± 1.22) respectively. The percent of digestible energy available for metabolism was 88.25 percent (se ± se). The digestion coefficients, DE and ME values, did not differ significantly (P>O.05) between levels of intake. Correlation (r = .94) of apparent dry matter digestibility and apparent digestible energy was significant (p<0.05) and positive (Fig. 3). �-253- 80 • oI!- >- 75 o 0:::: w Z w W ...J m 70 Y= 18.86 + .7791 X r= 0.94 ~ CJ) w .t:) n z; 12 0 ~ z 65 w 0:::: ct a. a. ct 65 APPARENT 70 DRY MATTER 75 DIGESTIBILITY 80 ( %) Fig. J. Relationship between apparent dr,y matter digestibilit7 and a-pparent digestible energy for. 1974 data. �-254- Metabolizable energy requirements for winter maintenance were calculated by combining the measured urinary energy loss and the estimated energy loss in methane production (Thompson et al. 1973) and subtracting the total from apparent digestible energy requirements. The measured urinary energy loss was 3.78 percent (se ± 1.67) of the gross energy consumed, while 5.49 percent (se ± .19) was lost to methane production. Regression equations were used to estimate feed requirements for maintenance by solving for X (average daily feed) when Y (average daily body weight gain or loss) equals zero. Mean daily feed consumption for the 10 week period and corresponding body weight (BWO·75kg) changes are presented in Table 3, along with regression equations relating feed intake to maintenance requirements. These regressions are based on 11 points representing the average daily intake and average daily body weight change of 11 mule deer fawns for the entire 10 week period. Expressed in terms of metabolic size the metabolizable energy requirement for maintenance is 135.90 kcal per kg BwD·75 per day. The regression of average daily bod, weight gain or loss on average daily metabolizable energy per kg of BwO· 5 for 10 weeks is shown in Figure 4. The correlation between these two measurements is 0.94 and is highly significant. In order to estimate maintenance requirements relative to changing environmental conditions during winter, an attempt will be made to establish a multiple regression model that will relate weekly maintenance requirements to a weekly weather severity index. A weather severity index has not been formulated at this time, but will be during the coming segment. Blood Metabolites Analysis of blood metabolites relevant to estimating the energy balance and nutritional status of mule deer fawns in the 1974 and 1975 winter t~ials will be completed during the coming segment. ME Reguirements for Maintenance - Winter 1975 Data relevant to the objectives stated for the winter of 1975 have been collected and are being analyzed. Estimate of Forage Intake and Energy Expenditures Forage Intake A total of 816 minutes (13.5 hours) was spent tallying bite counts of forage ingested by deer during 13 grazing trials. During this period 8,992 bites were recorded. These bites were consumed during 25,745 seconds of deer grazing activity. This resulted in a value of 0.35 bites/second or 1 bite every 2.9 seconds. The diet of the four deer for the period February 18-20, 1975 is presented in Table 4. Four species made up 90 percent of the total diet with vetch (Astragalus convallarius) making up over 50 percent of the diet. Bite sizes taken by the deer averaged 0.099 g (se ± 0.005) wet weight and 0.090 g (se ± 0.004) dry weight. Average noisture content of the 42 samples was 9.4 percent. The four deer lost weight steadily during the 6 week period while they were dependent on native forage. Near the end of the measurement period one deer became too weak to continue and subsequently died after being removed from the study pasture. �-255- Table 3. Mean daily energy consumption, body weight gain or loss, and estimated maintenance requirements for 11 fawns for the 10 week winter trial of 1974. Deer No. DE Intake kca1/day DE Intake kcal/BwO·75 ME Intake kcal/day ME Intake kcal/BWO.75 Body Weight Gain of Loss BwO·75 1 3329.03 185.53 2940.25 167.79 + .015 41 3219.58 190.90 2769.29 164.32 + .014 24 3326.36 220.44 2934.49 199.43 + .017 8 2863.77 172.08 2529.33 151.99 + .007 13 2863.77 186.68 2529.33 164.87 + .015 55 2863.77 169.10 2529.33 149.37 - .001 52 2863.77 208.98 2529.33 181.92 + .016 7 1906.16 125.45 1686.20 110.87 - .010 20 1906.16 133.31 1686.20 117.74 - .003 43 1906.16 115.88 1686.20 102.35 - .014 44 1906.16 162.60 1686.20 143.61 + .001 Coefficient of Determination r2 Maintenance Requirement Intake Regression Equation ME kcal/BWO.75/day Y = •00035 (X) - .04746 .89 135.90 ME/kcal/day Y = .00002(X) - .03732 .73 1866.00 DE kca1/BWO. 75/day Y = .000315(X) - .048416 .89 153.70 DE/kcal /day Y = .000016 (X) - .03675 .74 2296.87 �-256- Table 4. Diet of four tame mule deer in 4 ha energy budget pasture for period February 18-20, 1975. Total Bites Percent Total Bites Vetch (Astragalus convallarius) 4,699 52.3 Big sagebrush 1,383 15.4 1,252 13.9 Food Item (Artemisia tridentata tridentata) Bluebunch wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum) Serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) 742 8.3 Muttongrass (Poa fendleriana) 354 3.9 205 2.3 54 0.6 Snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) Unknown grass Green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) 47 0.5 Needle-and-thread grass (Stipa comata) 39 0.5 Fringed sage (Artemisia frigida) 38 0.4 Deer fecal pellets 34 0.4 Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum) 32 0.4 Phlox (Phlox bryoides) 31 0.3 Western wheatgrass 29 0.3 (Agropyron smithii) Snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae) 17 0.2 Penstemon (Penstemon spp.) 13 0.1 10 0.1 Blue grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis) 9 0.1 June grass (Koeleria cristata) 4 T 8,992 100.0 Bottlebrush Totals squirrel tail grass (Sitanion hystrix) �-257- .03 .02 .01 a:: MAINTENANC o z c e X: 135.90 E O 75 KC.I/KgBW . .OO;- ~~~--~~~-------------~ ~ to- .,~ % e -.01 ~ I 00 1&1 ~ Il"\. -4··11- "'•. •• > Q o m ~ , 1 1 1 1 -.02 I -.03 'I 1 1 I 1 -.04 1 I o 50 100 METABOLIZABLE 150 ENERGY 200 250 INTAKE Fig. 4. Regression of average daily body weight ~ain or loss on average daily metabolizable energy intake in kcal/kg BwO· 5. Estimate of maintenance requirement is 135.90 kcal/kg BwO·75/day. �-258- Grazing tower observations indicated deer spent 28.1 percent of their total time grazing. On a 24-hour basis this would total 24,278 seconds grazing. This total Eultiplied by the 0.35 bite/second value resulted in an estimated total of 8,497 bites ingested by deer each day. Average daily forage intake was 841 g wet weight and 765 g dry weight per day. These estimates of intake are similar to those Eade by Alldredge et al. (1974) using Cesium-137 concentrations in tissues and forages of deer from the Cache la Poudre Drainage, Colorado. Alldredge et al. (1974) determined a mean intake ratio of 17.3 g (dry weight) per kilogram body weight/day for adult deer in the winter period. At the end of our study, average body weight of deer was 49 kg. Multiplying 17.3 g/kg/day by 49 kg, the estimated average daily intake would be 848 g (dry weight), only 10 percent greater than the value we obtained from direct forage observations. Energy Expenditure Seven 24-hour days were spent in the observation tower during two separate weeks of observations. Using a sampling strategy of 4 five minute observation periods each hour, 3360 minutes (56 hours) of observations were possible. One five minute observation period was unavoidably omitted, so actual observation time was 3355 minutes. Summaries of the 5 minute samples indicated deer spent 41 percent of their time grazing, standing, or moving, and 59 percent of their time bedded. A summary of total activity observations for the entire 24 hour period (no sampling involved) indicated that the deer spent nearly 34 percent of their total time up and 66 percent bedded. This suggested the 5 minute sampling scheme underestimated bedding time and overestimated "up activities". These discrepancies could have been attributable to sampling error or to artifacts of the sampling procedure. In some instances the deer being observed in the 5-minute sample period was the only one of the four either active or bedded. Then when observations were shifted to another deer at the end of the hour, the new deer was the only deer active or bedded. This anomaly may have partially accounted for the discrepancies between sampled activity observations and continuous activity observations. Rotating observations among the four deer every 5 minute observation period might reduce the magnitude of this difference. Twenty-four hour activity and grazing patterns of the deer in the pasture are graphed in Figure 5. Maximum up (not bedded) activity occurred during hour 10 (10:00 a.m.) and hour 17 (5:00 p.m.). Maximum bedding activity occurred at hour 23 (11:00 p.m.) and throughout the early morning period (1:00-7:00 a.m.). The average length of time spent up by the four deer during both night (1800-0600 hours) and day (0600-1800 hours) periods was calculated from the continuous activity records. The average length of time spent up at night was 49.4 minutes (se ± 6.3 minutes) and 129.4 minutes (se ± 12.1 minutes) for the daytime periods. Grazing activity closely parallels up activity. In Figure 5 the difference between up activity and grazing activity represents time spent standing or traveling but not foraging. The IDaximum period for these activities as shown by the graph would be hour 12 (noon) and at hour 17. It is suspected that �-259- observer activities during hour 17 contributed to the low grazing total. Several times during the trials adjustments of neck collars and lights on the collars was necessitated prior to night observations and as a consequence hour 17 activities were influenced by people in the pasture. The percentage of time spent each hour in various activities is summarized in Table 5. Data on horizontal and vertical components of travel during each observation have not been summarized. As a result no computations of energy expenditure will be ~de in this report. These values will be reported in the following segment. Physical Plant Improvements Construction of the facilities at the Junction Butte Research Center as initially designed was essentially completed in the 1974-75 segment. Several gates were constructed and erected. The entire intensive study area facility was dog and coyote proofed by attaching poultry mesh aprons to the bottoms of pasture fences. The pasture complex was checked for small gaps or openings at the bottom of fences and sealed to prevent predator entry or deer escape. It was determined that the portable fire observation tower would be superior to, and less expensive than, construction of a permanent tower. Therefore, plans for constructing an observation tower were abandoned. A proposed lab and storage building was not completed but bids have been let and construction should be completed by next segment. Remaining fencing and gates adjacent to the storage building will be completed as soon as the building is constructed. Needs for certain additional facilities became apparent during the past winter. To facilitate movement of deer between pastures and the pastures and the isolation pen complex building a narrow alley is planned from the isolation pens to the gate into the energy budget pasture. This alley will be constructed of steel posts and woven wire and will be located along the west fence of the behavior-cover pasture. A small loading ramp is planned from the main alley of the isolation pen complex to each digestion cage. This ramp will facilitate the entry and exit of deer to and from the cages. A permanent roof to protect the digestion cages will also be built. Most of the materials needed for these projects are available. Only manpower and time are necessary to complete the construction of the facilities. No progress has been made on installation of an electric power or water system. �BEDDED w ~ •-... ,~ , ....• ,, ~ •... , I 0 •... \ " \ """: v \ I \ I ", _'\ \ z \ \ w U \ I •... ~ w 0.. I UP \ .'\ ,, \- __1 UP \ , o \ \ r GRAZI NG \ I \ I \ I 20 10J I 1/ .,~.' GRAZING .... 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 , N 0\ 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2324 HOUR Fig. 5.. Hourly (Mountain Standard Tiae) activity and gradong patterns tame mule deer in 4 M. energy budgeti pasture during February, 1975. of four �-261- Table 5. Percentage of time spent each hour in various activities by four tame deer in 4 ha energy budget pasture for periods February 11-14, and February 24-28, 1975 combined. All times are Mountain Standard Time. Percent Total Time Up Percent Total Time Bedded Percent Total Time Grazing Percent Up Time Grazing 1 (1 AM) 15.0 85.0 13.5 83.5 2 15.0 85.0 10.4 64.3 3 31. 7 68.3 23.2 68.0 4 17.9 82.1 14.0 72.9 5 21.4 78.6 18.6 80.6 6 18.6 81.4 13.0 65.1 7 14.3 85.7 13.1 91. 7 8 36.6 63.4 30.2 82.5 9 35.7 64.3 28.7 80.3 10 85.0 15.0 66.6 78.3 11 56.4 43.6 42.0 74.4 12 64.4 35.6 33.3 51. 7 13 60.7 39.3 37.1 61.1 14 39.9 60.1 21.6 54.2 15 32.1 67.9 21.4 66.7 16 73.4 26.6 52.7 71.9 17 78.6 21.4 47.3 60.2 18 73.5 26.5 52.8 71.9 19 57.1 42.9 34.3 60.1 20 42.9 57.1 15.3 35.8 21 32.1 67.9 19.7 61.1 22 40.0 60.0 24.7 61.8 23 7.1 92.9 6.4 89.2 24 35.7 64.3 28.1 78.7 Hour - �-262- LITERATURE CITED Alldredge, A. W., J. F. Lipscomb, and F. W. Whicker. 1974. Forage intake rates of mule deer estimated with fallout Cesium-l 37. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(3):508-515. Clapper ton , J. L. 1961. The energy expenditure of sheep in walking on the level and on gradients. Nutr. Soc. Proc. 20:31-32. Cowan, R. L., E. W. Hartsook, J. B. Whelan, T. A. Long, and R. S. Wetzel. 1969. A cage for metabolism and radioisotope studies with deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(1):204-208. Cowan, I. McT., and A. J. Wood. 1955. The growth rate of the black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus). J. Wildl. Manage. 19(3):331336. Dixon, W. J., and F. J. Massey, Jr. analysis. 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 1969. Introduction to statistical New York, N. Y. 638pp. Draper, N. R., and H. Smith. 1966. Applied regression Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. 407pp. analysis. John Gill, R. B., and D. L. Baker. 1974. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38R-28. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp.2ll-225. Graham, N. M. 1964. Energy costs of feeding activities and energy expenditure of grazing sheep. Aust. J. Agr. Res. 15(6):969-973. Hammel, H. T. 1962. Thermal and metabolic measurements of a reindeer at rest and in exercise. Arctic Aerodynamic Lab. Ft. Wainright Alaska. Tech. Rep. Mattfeld, G. F. 1973. The effect of snow on the energy expenditure of walking white-tailed deer. N.E. Sec., The Wildl. Soc., Trans. 30:327343. Moen, A. N. 1973. Wildlife and Co., San Francisco. ecology, an analytical XVIII + 458 p. approach. W. H. Freeman Reichert, D. W. 1972. Rearing and training deer for food habits studies. USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain For. and Range Exp. Sta. RM Note 208. 7p. Robbins, C. T. capacity. 1973. The biological basis for the determination PhD. Thesis, Cornell University. 239pp. of carrying Robinette, W. L., C. H. Baer, R. E. Pil1more, and C. E. Knittle. 1973. Effects of nutritional change on captive mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3):312-326. Stevens, D. S. 1972. Thermal energy exchange and the maintenance of hemeothermy in white-tailed deer. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y. 23lp. �-263- Thompson, C. B., J. B. Holter, H. H. Hayes, H. Silver, and W. E. Urban, Jr. 1973. Nutrition of white-tailed deer. 1. Energy requirements of fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3):301-311. Young, B. A., and R. J. Christopherson. 1974. Some effects of winter on cattle. Univ. of Alberta Agri. Bull. Summer, p.3-5. Prepared by --.!.l~~:::..!...:~' =,f.lw-~_~C=..;a:..:.....-1;..;~~ ~_' _' __ Len H. Carpenter Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1975 -265JOB PROGRESS REPORT State 0 f -=-CO.=..L=.O:....:RAD=:.:....:O'------- Work Plan No. Job Title Investigations 14 Job No._-=__~-1_0------------Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Junction Butte Wildlife Habitat Improvement Project Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk W-38-R-29 Project No. April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 W. L. Rege1in, 0. C. Wa1lmo, and D. R. Reichert ABSTRACT Snowdrift accumulation behind the snowfences on Junction Butte reached a peak average depth of 30.6 inches on February 16, 1975. Snow depth was reduced by approximately 12 inches in the shrub stands protected by the snowfences compared to control areas. The survival of Purshia tridentata seedlings 2 years after planting was only 15 percent. The best survival occurred in seedbeds where all competing vegetation had been removed in 1971. The stands of Agropyron desertorum are growing vigorously and firmly established. The Meli10tus officina1is stands were nearly nonexistent in 1974 after good production in 1973. ��-267- JUNCTION MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY BUTTE WILDLIFE HABITAT IMPROVEMENT PROJECT Wayne L. Rege1in P. S. OBJECTIVE To increase availability of forage on critical winter ranges by relocating snowdrifts, and determine if changes in vegetative composition occur due to altering snow depth. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Measure snow depth and density and configuration of snowdrifts in relation to presence or absence of snowfences and in relation to shrub stands protected and unprotected from the accumulation of snowdrifts. 2. Measure occupation by deer of shrub stands protected from the accumulation of snowdrifts. 3. Measure the relative use of browse by deer in shrub stands protected and unprotected from snowdrifts. 4. Measure the response of native vegetation (composition in relation to increased or decreased snow depth. 5. Evaluate the success of forage species planted on sites of created snowdrifts and on control areas not covered with drifts. 6. Measure soil moisture with relation to increased or decreased accumulation. 7. Extend the p1antings of the most successful forage species on sites where they were most productive in preliminary trials. and unprotected and density) snow METHODS AND MATERIALS The methods and materials used to meet all segment objectives, except number 7, are reported by Rege1in (1974). The study plan for segment number 7 was written during the current segment and is included in Appendix A. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Weather and Snow Measurements Snowfall on Junction Butte during the early winter of 1974-75 was extremely slight. No significant amounts of snowfall occurred during November, �-268- December or early January. On January 4, no drifts were present behind any of the snowfences. Several small snowfalls occurred between January 14 and 20, accompanied by strong winds. By January 26 the snowfences had accumulated drifts averaging 16 inches in depth, but this was only about half of the drift depth recorded on this date during the past 3 years. During February the incidence of snowfall increased and the drifts behind all snowfences reached near normal depths. The maximum snow accumulation was recorded on February 16, 1975. At this time, the average depth of created drifts was 30.6 inches. The largest drift was 51 inches deep. The average peak snow depth in the shrub stands protected by the snowfences reached 16 inches. Relative to control areas, the snowfences reduced snow depth an average of 12.5 inches in the protected shrub stands. The density of the snow in the created drifts, protected shrub stands and control areas was measured on March 2, 1975, using a Mount Rose Snow Sampler. Mean snow density in the protected shrub stands was 26.3 percent compared to 37.1 percent in the unprotected control shrub stands. The created drifts had the highest snow density, 39.4 percent. Deer Occupancy of Snowfence Sites Due to the slight snowfall during the winter the south facing slopes remained free of snow throughout the winter. The deer stayed on these slopes the entire winter and no tracks were observed on any of the snowfence areas. Soil Moisture Measurements of soil moisture were made at monthly intervals during May, June, July, and August on sites 2, 3 and 4. Bouyocous soil moisture blocks, buried at depths of 16, 22, 34 and 46 inches, were used to make these measurements. Calibration of these units has not been completed so the data will not be included in this report. Growth of Native Plants Current annual growth (CAG) on the tagged branches of five shrub species was measured in September 1974 and is summarized in Table 1. The amount of CAG was not significantly different (P~.05) between quadrants for any species. Data on species composition and density of native plants in each quadrant were collected for the fourth year during July 1974. Analysis of these data will be done after the final year of data collection in July 1975. �-269- Table 1. Average length of CAG per shoot in cm of each species by quadrant during the 1974 growing season. Amal Syor SEecies Rice A (created drift) 1.4 1.5 1.1 C (control) 2.0 1.7 1.1 !/ Prvi Putr Quadrant 3.0 4.2 B (reduced drift) 1.4 1.9 1.2 2.9 D (normal drift) 1.4 1.9 1.6 1.8 !/ Amal - Amelanchior Syor - SymEhoricaEEos alnifolia; virginianus ; Putr -Purshia Ribes cereum; Prvi - Pi'linus· Establishment oreoEhilus; tridentata. Rice - of Planted SEecies The survival of bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) seedlings planted on May 1, 1973 was recorded on July 30, 1974 and the results are summarized in Table 2. The average survival rate in all seedbeds was 15 percent. Equal survival of plants was found in seedbeds covered by the created snowdrifts and in control seedbeds. The seedbeds which were cleared of all vegetation in 1971 had a significantly (P<.05) higher survival rate in 1974 (25% versus 5%) than the furrowed seedbeds where competing vegetation was not removed. Application of nitrogen fertilizer at the rate of 120 pounds of actual N per acre had a negative effect on seedling survival, 21.9 percent survival in unfertilized seedbeds compared to only 8.1 percent survival in the fertilized seedbeds. This difference is statistically significant at the 90 percent confidence level. None of the seedlings exhibited good vigor and very little growth was noted on any surviving seedling. The stands of crested wheatgrass (AgroEyron desertorum) established in 1971 continued to exhibit good growth and persistence, but only slight spread of these plants was noted during the 1974 growing season. Table 3 summarizes the linear ground cover per 30 foot row for the 3 years in which measurements have been made. In 1974, the linear ground cover per row in the cleared seedbeds was significantly higher (P~.05) than in the furrowed seedbeds. The fertilized seedbeds had more linear ground cover per row than the unfertilized seedbeds and the control seedbeds had more cover than the snowdrift covered seedbeds, but these differences were not statistically significant at the 95 percent confidence level. �-270- in various types of seed- Table 2. Survival of bitterbrush seedlings beds 2 and 14 months after planting. Percent of Seedlings Surviving Ave. 2 Sites Site 5 Site 1 1974 1974 1973 1973 1974 1973 Seedbed Type Seedbeds covered by drift 37.5 18.8 20.0 11.2 28.8 15.0 Seedbeds in control 23.7 8.8 39.0 21.2 31.4 15.0 All fertilized 28.8 10.0 16.2 6.2 22.5 8.1 32.5 17.5 42.5 26.2 37.5 21.9 All cleared seedbeds 51.0 26.2 44.0 23.8 47.5 25.0 All furrowed seedbeds 10.0 1.25 15.0 8.8 12.5 5.0 seedbeds All unfertilized seedbeds Table 3. Establishment of Agropyron and 3 years after planting. desertorum in seedbed types 1, 2, Total Feet of Linear Ground Cover Per 30-Foot Row ·1974 1973 1972 Seedbed Type Seedbeds covered by snowdrift 9.91 12.92 12.96 Seedbeds in control 9.70 15.75 16.84 All fertilized 10.66 16.67 17 .27 8.95 12.00 12.54 All cleared seedbeds 14.48 18.36 19.28 All furrowed seedbeds 5.12 10.32 10.54 All unfertilized seedbeds seedbeds The yellow sweetc10ver (Me1i1otus officinalis) planted in the fall of 1971 produced excellent stands in 1973 and most plants produced large quantities of seed. Since yellow sweetclover is a biennial, natural reseeding must occur to perpetuate the stands. Measurements in 1974 indicated that few of the seeds produced seedlings and the stand is in danger of extinction. �-271- Measurements germinate. will be made again in 1975 to determine if more seeds Native revegetation of the seedbeds which were cleared of all plants in 1971 is continuing to occur, but not at the rapid rate exhibited during the second growing season after clearing. Table 4 summarizes the reinvasion by native species in the different type of seedbeds. The seedbeds covered by the created drifts continued to have the greatest number of native plants per unit area. Table 4. Average number of native plants per square foot plot on cleared seedbeds 1, 2, and 3 years after clearing. The average is obtained from 90 lxl foot plots per seedbed. Average number of plants Eer sguare foot 1972 1973 1974 All drift covered seedbeds 3.42 6.95 7.10 All control seedbeds 1.58 3.30 4.42 2.84 6.57 6.32 2.17 4.53 5.56 4.00 7.33 7.87 1.·00 2.07 3.28 Drift covered seedbeds, Control seedbeds, site 1 site 1 Drift covered seedbeds, site 5 Control seedbeds, site 5 Experimental Snowmelt A manuscript entitled "The use of carbon black to produce mid-winter snowmelt on deer winter ranges" by W. L. Regelin and o. C. Wallmo has been prepared and will soon be published as a U. S. Forest Service Research Note. Prepared by Iclyt"'Wa of. ~iL e L. Regelin ��-273Study No. FS-R~1-l251.21 Amendment No. 2 APPENDIX A STUDY PLAN SEEDING DEER HINTER RAl~GES IN HlDDLE PARK, COLORADO by Wayne L. Regelin Suhmitted: ~~ /1-<.,',"?,-" (/ j~{ ~I/,£j Date /;2 _;.><'7 '/'Biologice/ Technician ;/ - r·, ',,'\ ~' -. -, 7/ Da te,_~_--,,--......;I > ) " Revie\ved:' .':,. ..~'. Chief, Big Game Research Colo. Division of Wildlife Date~W Date / Principal Hildlife Biologist Approved :. __ ...:::.('.....;?::.....,_((_(_f_{.....;L_(~_, Project Leader J_~(_i_l._,~_._i _ / I ;' i"? .: ) ��-275- THE PROBLEH Most critical deer winter ranges in western Colorado occur in windswept, south~facing slopes where vegetative productivity low due to shaLl.ow soils and limited soil moisture. is often Efforts to improve deer winter ranges have relied heavily on planting of shrub species, primarily bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Successful establishment of shrubs on such ranges is difficult because the environmental conditions found on steep, south-facing not conducive to shrub growth. slopes are If shrubs are successfully estab- lished, they need to be protected from grazing for several years, a task which is often impossible or very expensive. Compared to grasses and forbs, shrubs produce only small amounts of available forage for SeVeral critical deer winter ranges with grasses and forbs has received little attention, even though they are extensively utilized by deer during ~vinter (Kufeld et a1. 1973). The purpose of this study is to determine the feasibility' of improving critical deer winter ranges by planting a mixture of grass, forbs, and shrub species. }liddle Park is a valley in central Colorado dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and enclosed by high mountains which trap all deer within the Park during the winter. The study area is on Junction Butte, a small isolated mountain in the lowest winter range in Middle Park. The southerly slopes on Junction �-276- Butte are heavily occupied by deer during winter because of minimal snow accumulation. Bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) is the most abundant species on such slopes. principally green rabbitbrush horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens). Shrubs occur only sparsely, (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) and These southerly slopes offer areas where planting of forage species to increase forage supply can be evaluated. LITERATURE REVIEW Several range seeding guides (Plummer et al. 1968, Hull and Johnson 1955, Holmgren and Basile 1959) suggest that range seeding be restricted to sites with level terrain and deep fertile soil. Such a Lt:!l:UUllll8w.laLiull cannot be adhered to when attempting improve critical deer winter ranges by seeding. to Sites accessible to deer during winter, most often south-facing slopes free of deep snow accumulation, are generally moderate to steep slopes and have gravelly or rocky soil of variable fertility. However, there is some experience with seeding less productive sites which suggest that it can be feasible. Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) has received more attention than any other shrub species in big gcme revegetation studies. It is reviewed in detail primarily to explain its limitations, which also apply to other popular browse plants such as Cercocarpus montanus �-277- and Anlelanchier alnifolia. Bitterbrush occurs naturally on many acres of western range land and has long been considered a very desirable shrub on big game winter ranges because of its palatability and high nutrient content (Hubbard 1962). Spring versus fall planting of bitterbrush has been compared by Hubbard and Sanderson (1961) in California. They concluded there is no one best time to plant and that several factors need to be considered when choosing the planting date for any site. Adequate soil moisture during germination and emergence is critical for successful seedling establishment. If soil moisture is rapidly depleted on a site in the spring, fall planting is best because the seeds are in the ground ready to germinate as soon as the soil warms up. Spring planting requires longer lasting spring soil moisture because the soil must be allowed to dry to a certain extent before planting. Spring planted seeds must have their dormancy broken artificially before planting. Artificial strati- fication can successfully break the seed dormancy, but then the seeds are too soft to be planted by mechanical means (Hubbard 1958). Soaking seeds for a short time in thiourea can also break seed dormancy, but without softening the seeds (Pearson 1957). Planting in the fall allows the seed dormancy to be broken naturally by changes in ground temperature. However, seeds planted in the fall are often subjected to severe rodent depredation. Casebeer (1954), �-278- working in Idaho, found that 98 percent of the hills in a spot-type fall planting had been dug up by rodents within six days after planting. Treatment of seeds with endrin, an insecticide which also acts as a rodenticide, has proven effective in controlling rodent depredation on bitterbrush seeds (Brown and Martinsen 1959); but such treatment is expensive. Planting depth of seeds affects seedling emergence. A planting depth of one-half to two inches is usually recommended, depending upon soil moisture conditions (Plummer 1968, Holmgren and Basile 1959). Hubbard (1956) compared seedling emergence from nine planting depths in California. He found little difference in emergence of seeds planted from one-half to two inches deep. Seeds planted over t\VO inches deep did not produce satisfactory results and broadcasting seeds on the soil surface produced no seedlings. Initial establishment of bitterbrush stands depends to so:ne extent upon the amount of plant competition in the seeding sites. Holmgren (1954) compared bitterbrush establishment under three levels of competition. Interseeding into a cheatgrass dominated range produced no seedlings. The second treatment consisted of discing and later hoeing around each seedling to remove all competition. this weed-free treatment 62 percent of the seedlings which emerged had survived for two years and averaged seven inches in height. Data were not collected after the second year. On �-279- Hubbard (1964) estimated that 200 to 600 mature bitterbrush plants in northern California are required to feed one laO-pound deer for one month if it eats only bitterbrush. of mature bitterbrush California The average height plants ranges from two to six feet in (Hormay 1943). Hubbard (1964) considers initial estab- lishment of 500 seedlings per acre as good success and a worthwhile investment to improve deer winter range. Very seldom has such plant density been achieved even when great care has been taken to remove competing vegetation. from bitterbrush Brown and Martinsen (1959) report results seeding on 2,000 acres in north-central They consider 25 percent of these p1antings as total failure. remaining acres support 10 to 60 plants per acre. one 40-acre plot as having highly successful Washington. The They classified seedling establishment three years after planting, but it supported only 270 plants per acre. Brown and ~~rtinsen (1959) concede that forage production of these plants is not great, but they do have value as a seed source. However, Hormay (1943) and Nord (1965) claim plants seldom produce seeds for 10 years after establishment. Several years are required before bitterbrush substantial forage yields. protection from grazing. Growth rate is highly dependent upon Holmgren and Basile (1959) measured three and five years after planting Three years after planting plants contribute plants in both fenced and unfenced plots. the average height of protected plants was �-280- eight inches compared to two inches for grazed plaGts. Five years after planting, protected plants averaged 20.75 inches in height and unprotected plants only 8.25 inches tall. Hubbard (1964) summarizes the results of bitterbrush seeding at 19 locations in California. He rated the survival on each site in 1962 as poor, fair or excellent. The number of surviving plants per acre was not reported. Initial establishment (first year after planting) was reported in number of seedlings per acre. Seven of these sites were planting in 1954 or 1955; survival was rated as poor on all of these sites even though initial seedling establishment 212 to 1025 seedlings per acre. ranged from Of the 19 sites evaluated only one was rated as excellent and it had been planted the previous fall. These data indicate that initial establishment of large numbers ot seedlings does not guarantee long-term establishment. Few studies have observed seedling survival for more than two or three yea~s. After reviewing the extensive literature on bitterbrush seeding experiments I have concluded that bitterbrush is not a suitable species to plant when attempting to improve big game winter ranges. Rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosous)is usually considered an undesirable species and much effort has been expended trying to eliminate it from western range lands. However, it has frequently been identified as a preferred deer food (Kufeld et al. 1973). PluIDlller et al. (1968) describe rubber rabbitbrush which grows in a great variety of soils and sites as a highly nutritious plant throughout the year. They state that initial establishment is good �-281- to fair, but growth is rapid and natural spread is abundant after establishment. planting. Plants often reach full growth four years after Only two attempts to plant rabbitbrush range have been reported (Plummer et ale 1970 and Holmgren In Utah Plummer et al. (1970) transplanted on three dry land sites. 3,500 plants per acre. on deer winter one-year-old 1954). seedlings Initial stocking rate was approximately Seven years after planting, survival on the three sites averaged 48 percent and mean height of plants was 39 inches. The average yield per plant on the three sites was 574, 700, and 2,350 grams. Initial establishment of these plants was aided by scalping 24 inch wide bands along each row, but competing vegetation was not disturbed thereafter. The plants were not protected grazing; in fact, the authors mention that rabbitbrush from yield was reduced due to heavy grazi.ng by deer. Holmgren (1954) planted rubber rabbitbrush seeds in Idaho and observed seedling survival and growth under three levels of plant competition. Best seedling survival occurred in weed-free treat- ments, but some seedlings survived for two years under heavy competition with cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). After one growing season, the seedling height varied from 2.5 to 6.5 inches. Yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) biennial that grows well on disturbed moisture requirement is a rapid-growing sites without a high soil (Plummer et ale 1968). The second growing �-282- season sweetclover produces The major disadvantage large amounts of nutritous of this species is that natural reseeding must occur to perpetuate the stand. conditions the seeds may lie dormant in the spring for several years until conditions exist. forage. Yellow sweetclover Without favorable moisture conducive to germination do is often planted in combination with other grasses or legumes. Four new strains of alfalfa (Nedicago sativa) have recently been developed which are well suited for planting on western range lands. Teton--have These four strains--Rambler, a rhizomatous from crown sprouts. Travoes, Nomad and root system which allows plants to spread Rambler appears best suited for planting on deer winter ranges in Colorado because it is drought resistant, very winter hardy and persists with other species for long periods in association (Heinrichs and Bolton 1958). Standard crested wheatgrass used extensively to rehabilitate (Agropyron desertorum) western range lands because it is easy to establish and provides nutritious 1968). has been forage (Plummer et al. It grows well on hot, dry sites where other grasses often fail to survive. A very desirable characteristic of crested wheatgrass its ability to begin growth early in the spring. is On winter ranges it can provide deer with succulent green forage before other plants have begun growth. �-283- Gorum (1964) planted yellow sweetclover, wheatgrass alone and in mixtures Lodak alfalfa and crested in Hontana on abandoned cropland. He found that mixtures of either clover or alfalfa with crested wheatgrass produced more forage than either legume or wheatgrass. Yields two years after planting were over 4,000 pounds per acre. Best establishment one inch depth. and yield occurred when seeds were planted at Broadcasting seeds on the soil surface produced only small amounts of forage. Seeds planted deeper than two inches failed to emerge in most instances. Gomm (1964) also discovered that crude protein content of grass gro,~ in mixtures with legumes was higher than when grown in pure stands. Nichols and Johnson sweetclover (1969) inter seeded a mixture of yellow and crested wheatgrass Combined grass-sweetclover on rangelands production in South Dakota. averaged 1$04 pounds per acre over a five-year period compared to only 750 pounds per acre of herbage on control areas. Again the crude protein content of grass was higher when grown in association pure stands. with sweetclover than in The crude protein content of yellow sweetclover remained high throughout the year. The lowest value was measured in February when the crude protein content was 8.5 percent. Kilcher and Heinrichs (1966) compared yields of six grass-alfalfa mixtures planted in southwestern or intermediate wheatgrass Saskatchewan. Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron intermedium) . .- with alfalfa gave ~.-.... ,--.-.", .~.... .. --,-.-~--.-.-.-- .---".-.~.. , ~.'~-'" ." . �-284- the highest yields. A mixture of 5.6 kg of crested wheatgrass seed and 1.1 kg of Lodak alfalfa seed per hectare yielded an average of 853 kg/ha of forage over a seven-year period during extreme drought. Crested wheatgrass alone produced an average of 717 kg/ha over the same period. The alfalfa comprised 12 to 25 percent of the stand. A seeding rate of one pound of alfalfa in combination with six pounds of grass seed per acre produced the highest herbage yield in Saskatchewan ~i£her and Heinrichs 1968). They tested five rates of seeding alfalfa, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 pounds per acre, all mixed with three pounds of crested wheatgrass and three pounds of Russian wildrye seeds (Elymus ;unceus). The mixture containing one pound of alfalfa per acre out yielded those seeded at 0.25 and 0.5 lb/acre; but there was no difference in yield between the three highest rates of seeding treatment. OBJECTIVES The specific objective of this study is to compare the establishment, spread and herbage yield of planted species using three methods of planting seeds (drilling, broadcasting and harrowing, and broadcasting only). These treatments will be applied to different plots for 3 consecutive years to determine if treatment response is influenced by yearly variations in weather conditions. �-285- METHODS Twelve blocks of land, each l5x90 meters, will be located on Junction Butte in May, 1975. These blocks of land will have different slopes and aspects, but similar vegetation composition and density. Each block will be randomly assigned one of three planting dates, September 1975, 1976 or 1977. be divided into four plots, each 15 m2 Each block will One of four treatments will be randonly assigned to each plot within each block. treatments will consist of: The (1) drill rows, (2) broadcast seeded and harrowed, (3) broadcast only and (4) control plots. A mixture of three species will be planted in the nine treatment plot~; control plots will not be disturbed. to be planted are yellow sweetclover The three species (Melilotus officinalis), Rambler alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and standard crested wheatgrass (Agropyron desertorum). Seeding rate in the drill row treatm~nt will be 4.5, 1.7 and 1.7 kg/ha of grass, clover and alfalfa seeds, respectively. Seeding rates in both broadcast treatments will be three times the drill row rate or 13.5, 5 and 5 kg/ha of grass, clover and alfalfa. In both broadcast treatments the seed will be applied using a small, handheld, whirlybird fertilizer spreader. Each species of seed will be applied separately to insure even distribution of �-286- seed. On the broadcast harrowed immediately and harrow treatment the plot will be after the seed has been broadcast. The harrowing will break up the soil surface crust to provide a better seedbed and cover the seeds with soil. The drill row treatment will not be planted with a drill due to the small size of the treatment plots. To simulate planting with a rangeland drill the plot will be furrowed using hand tools. The furrows will be approximately three inches wide, two inches deep and spaced 30.5 cm (12 inches) apart. dispersed The seeds will be in the furrow using an agri-planter. seeds will be planted separately. Grass and legume The seeds will be covered by raking one to two cm of soil over the furrow. Species Establishment To determine the establishment of each planted species and the response of the native vegetation to the disturbance caused by planting, aerial cover of all species will be estimated using the rated microplot technique (Morris 1973). In each treatment and control plot, the aerial cover of each plant species will be rated to the nearest one-tenth of the area occupied inch microplot. 20 microplots) Two hundred microplots (10 transects each containing will be located in a systematic cover each treatment in a representative in the lx2 fashion so they manner. In the drill row �-287- treatments, the transects will run perpendicular to the drill rows. Pretreatment measurements will be made prior to planting each series of blocks. Post-treatment measurements will be made on each series of blocks the first and second year after planting. will be made in late July. All Cover estimates The cover ratings for each species will be addec together for the 200 microplots in each plot. Cover ratings will also be compiled for all native species combined and for all planted species combined. Analysis of Cover Data The differences in aerial cover ratings between treatments within each year will be compared using a randomized block analysis of variance. The components of variation and degrees of freedom are shown below: SourcpTreatments (T) Replicates (R) TxR d.f. 3 3 9 This analysis will provide a method of comparing treatments before conclusion of the study. However, aft~r aerial cover ratings have been collected from all three year replications, the three independent yearly experiments will be pooled to provide a stronger test of treatments and determine if a treatment by year interaction occurred. The components of variation and degrees of freedom for the pooled analysis are shown below: Source Treatment (T) Year (Y) TxY Replicates (R) YxR TxR TxYxR d.f. 3 2 6 3 6 9 18 27 pooled d.f. in error term. �-288- Herbage Yield Standing crop will be measured on all treatment and control plots the July prior to planting (pretreatment) and the July two growing seasons after planting. A Neal Electronics herbage meter will be used to estimate herbage yield. This instrument measures capacitance of all vegetation within the meter's probes which is closely correlated to weight of that vegetation (Neal and Neal 1973). A double sampling system will be used in which a fraction of the meter-read plots will be clipped to provide an estimate of the relationship between meter readings and dry herbage weight. ratio will be 4:1. The meter-read to clipped plot Within each treatment plot, 100 plots will be read with the meter and 20 of these clipped. All plots will be located eaL:h treatment in .:! sYGtcmatic representative manner. treatment plot. fashion so they cover in a Ten transects will be established in each The first transect will be 0.75 meters from the plot edge and the next nine transects all 1.5 meters apart. Ten meter-read plots will be located along each transect by pacing approximately 1.5 meters and placing the herbage meter next to the right foot of the meter reader. On seeded areas placement of the meter is important in relation to drill rows. To obtain an unbiased estimate of yield, the meter will be systematically placed in each of 12 positions corresponding to the 12 numerals on a clock face. This procedure insures that the meter is not always placed between or directly over dri.ll rows. �-289- Two plots in each of the 10 transects will be clipped to obtain regression estimates of yield. The plots to be clipped in each .transect will be determined randomly. within an area l2x24x18 inches. The meter senses all vegetation All vegetation within this three- dimensional hexaedron will be clipped according to the three-dimensional clip method described by Currie (1973). The clipped vegetation will be divided into two groups, planted species in one sack and all other species in another sack. This vegetation will be dried at 1050C for 24 hours before weighing to obtain dry weight measure of herbage. For the regression analysis, only the total dry weight will be used for the Y value. Meter reading will be the X value. No regression will be done on separate sack weights, but the percentage of total herbage weight comprised of planted species will be calculated. Herbage Yield Data Analysis The herbage yield in each treatment and control plot wilY be estimated by regression analysis using the Dub Sa~1 computer program. Past experience indicates that the sample size of 20 meter-read and clipped plots and 80 meter-read only plots should estimate the herbage yield within 10 percent of the mean at the 95 percent confidence level. II Analysis of these data will be handled similar to This program, developed by Dr. J. L. Kovner, Principal Biometrician, is on file at the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. _______ •__ '00_- 0"0" __ 0'_0 ••0 �-290- the cover data analysis, the same AOV table applies. However, covariance analysis will be done on the mean yield in each treatment plot (yields will be adjusted for pretreatment values). This procedure will remove one degree of freedom from the error term. Tukey's multiple range test will be used to make comparisons between treatments. The comparison will be treatments--l vs. 2, 1 v& 3, 1 vs. 4, 2 vs. 3, 2 vs. 4, and 3 vs. 4. Scheduling Layout of blocks May 1975 Pretreatment vegetation measurements July 1975, 1976, 1977 Planting treatment plots September 1975, 1976, 1977 Post-treatment vegetation measurements: Cover estimates July 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979 Herbage yield July 1977, 1978, 1979 Analysis of data and writing manuscripts - Sept.-Dec. 1979 Completion date January 1980 Responsibility W. L. Regelin Investigation leader D. W. Reichert - Field assistance O. C. Wallmo - Consultation �-291- Estimated Cost Man weeks each year Field work 12 Compiling and analyzing data 10 Writing reports 6 Equipment and supplies 1,000 Seeds Mileage and per diem 2/ 1,500 Costs are covered by Cooperative Agreement No. 16-216 with Colorado Division of Wildlife. �-29218 LITERATURE CITED Brown, E. R. and C. F. Martinsen. 1959. Browse planting for big game in the State of Washington. Wash. State Game Dep. BioI. Bull. 12, 63 p. Casebeer, R. L. 1954. The use of tetramine in bitterbrush J. For. 52: 829-830. revegetation. Currie, P. 0., M. J. Morris, and D. L. Neal. 1973. Uses and capabilities of electronic capacitance instruments for estimating standing herbage. Part 2. Sown ranges. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 28(3): 155-160. Daubenmire, R. F. 1959. A canopy coverage method of vegetational analysis. Northwest. Sci. 33: 43-64. Gomm, F. B. 1964. A comparison of two sweetclover strains and Lodak alfalfa alone and in mixtures with crested wheatgrR~s for range and dry land seeding. J. Range Manage. 17: 19-23. Heinrichs, D. H. and J. L. Bolton. 1958. Rambler alfalfa. Can. Dep. Agric. Publ. 1030, 15 p. Holmgren, R. C. 1954. A comparison of browse species for revegetation of biggame winter ranges in southwestern Idaho. U. S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv., Intermt. For. and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Pap. 33, 12 p. Ogden, Utah. Holmgren, R. C. and J. V. Basile. 1959. Improving southern Idaho deer winter ranges by artificial revegetation. Idaho Dep. Fish and Game Wildl. Bull. 3, 61 p. Hormay, A. L. 1943. Bitterbrush in California. U.S. For. Serv., Calif. For. and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 34, 13 p. Berkeley, Calif. �-293- Hubbard, R. L. 1956. Effects of depth of planting on the emergence of bitterbrush seedlings. U.S. For. Serv., Calif. For. and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 113, 6 p. Berkeley, Calif. Hubbard, R. L. 1956. Effects of plant competition upon the growth and survival of bitterbrush seedlings. U.s. For. Serv., Calif. For. and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 109, 9 p. Berkeley, Calif. Hubbard, R. L. 1962. The place of browse seeding in game range management. North Am. Wildl.and Nat. Resour. Conf. Trans. 27: 394-401. Hubbard, R. L. 1964. A guide to bitterbrush seeding in California. U.s. For. Serv., Pac. Southwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., and Calif. Dep. Fish and Game Resour. Agency, 30 p. Hubbard, R. L. and B. O. Pearson. 1958. Germination of thiourea-treated bitterbrush seeds in the field. U.s. For. Serv., Calif. For. and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 138, 6 p. Berkeley, Calif. Hubbard, R. L. and H. R. Sanderson. 1961. When to plant bitterbrush--spring or fall? U.S. For. Servo Pac. Southwest For. and Range Exp. Stn. Tech. Pap. No. 64, 21 p. Berkeley, Calif. Hull~ A. C. and W. M. Johnson. 1955. Range seeding in the ponderosa pine zone in Colorado .. U.S. Dep. Agric. Circ. 953, 40 p. Kilcher, M. R. and D. H. Heinrichs. 1966. Performance of some grass-alfalfa mixtures in southwestern Saskatchewan during drought years. Can. J. Plant Sci. 46: 177-184. Kilcher, M. R. and D. H. Heinrichs. 1968. Rates of seeding Rambler alfalfa with dryland pasture grasses. J. Range Manage. 21: 248-249. Kufeld, R. C., O. C. Wallmo, and C. Feddema. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. USDA For. Servo Res. Pap. fu~-lll, 31 p. Rocky Mt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, Colo. �-294- Morris, M. J. 1973. Estimating understory plant cover with rated microplots. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. 1C'1-l04,12 p , Rocky Nt. For. and Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, Colo. Neal, D. L. and J. L. Neal. 1973. Uses and capabilities of electronic capacitance instruments for estimating standing herbage. Part 1. History and Development. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 28(1): 81-90. Nickols, J. T. and J. R. Johnson. 1969. Range productivity as influenced by biennial sweetclover in western South Dakota. J. Range Manage. 22: 342-347. Nord, E. C. 1965. Autecology of bitterbrush 35: 307-334. in California. Ecol. Monogr. Pearson, B. o. 1957. Bitterbrush seed dormancy broken with thiourea. J. Range Manage. 10: 41-42. Plummer, P. A., D. R. Christensen, and S. B. Monsen. 1968. Restoring big game range in Utah. Utah Div. Fish and Game Publ. No. 68-3, 183 p. Plummer, P. A., D. R. Christensen, R. Stevens, and K. R. Jorgensen. 1970. Highlights, results and accomplishments of game range restoration studies. Utah Div. Fish and Game Publ. No. 70-3. 94 p. �July, 1975 -295JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLOPJillO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-29 Work Plan No. Job Title Personnel: 15 Monitor Potentially Period Covered: Deer-Elk and 30 Job No. Investigations la ------------------------------- Critical Deer-Vehicle Accident Areas Statewide April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975. James R. Adams, Albert E. Byrne, James D. ~leming, Larry L. Green, William R. Heicher, David C. Hoart, Richard ~. McDonald (and all Wildlife Conservation Officers in his area), Sharon L. McDonnell, J. Kris Moser, John W. Seidel, Susan A. Smith, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT The number and location of deer-vehicle accidents were monitored in six general areas of Colorado. A total of 542 deer and 14 elk were killed by vehicles in these areas. Recommendations for installation of devices to reduce deer-vehicle accidents were prepared. ��-297- MONITOR POTENTIALLY CRITICAL DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENT AREAS STATEWIDE Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish statewide, the location and number of deer-vehicle in areas appropriate to the evaluation of devices. accidents SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas reported by management and as determined by Job 1. 2. As appropriate, record all deer found killed in selected highway areas. 3. As appropriate, estimate deer densities area. 4. Measure deer activity along the roadside or in the median of each selected highway area when feasible. 5. Summarize the Highway Department's selected highway area as needed. in each selected highway traffic volume data for each METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972). The locations and numbers of deer-vehicle accidents during 1973 and 1974 on U. S. Highway 6-24 from Eagle to Glenwood Canyon were plotted on general highway maps for Eagle and Garfield Counties. Results of spotlight counts conducted during winter and early spring months of 1974 and 1975 on Highway 6-24 from Gypsum west 15.6 km to the Eagle-Garfield County line were graphed. Clover traps (Clover 1956) were used to capture deer during winter months in 1973-75 from Eagle to the west approximately 8.8 km along the future alignment of Interstate Highway 70 and in 1974-75 from Gypsum to Dotsero adjacent to and north of Highway 6-24. Captured deer were neckbanded and/or eartagged. Neckbands placed on deer west of Eagle were white and west of Gypsum were green. Black numbers and/or letters were sewed on in three places. Recoveries and reliable sightings were documented. ~eadow counts were made in the springs of 1972-74 immediately west of Eagle to document neckband sightings and number of deer present. �-298- DESCRIPTION O~ AREAS Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West See Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973). Preliminarv planning and design of the interstate highway which will replace Highwav 6-24 is completed and construction is in progress from Rifle to the wes t 4.8 km, Highway 1-70 Eagle East Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973,1974) described this area. Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973) described this area. Durango Area Pojar (1972) described this area. Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Meyers (1969) described this area. Two 2.44-m fences, 0.40 and 1.77 km long, were installed adjacent to the h Lghwav in this area in lQ74. Highway 6-24 Eagle-Glenwood Canyon This area extends from Eagle to the ~est approximately 26.6 km to the Eagle-Garfield County line. The valley floor is irrigated hayland with some sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) flats. Adjacent south facing slopes to the north typically have sagebrush and pinyon-juniper (Pinus spp. _ Juniperus spp.) communities. Deer winter on the south facing slopes and utilize the irrigated hay land in spring and winter unless precluded by snow depth and condition. Highway 6-24 from Eagle to the west 9.9 km to Gypsum is south of the Eagle River. Preliminary planning and design of Interstate Highway 70 which will replace Highway 6-24 is completed and the alignment will be north of the river. Highway 6-24 from Gypsum to the west to the Eagle-Garfield County line is north of the Eagle River but the interstate highway alignment is unknown at the present time. �-299- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West A total of 31 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 29 km of highway in the Rifle West study area; an increase of 10.7 percent over the preceding segment. Seventy-one percent of the deer were killed from October 1, 1974 to February 28, 1975. Highway 1-70 Eagle East A total of 23 vehicle-killed deer were documented On 13.7 km of highway in the Eagle East study area. Deer kill was reduced on the portions of highway opposite the 7.7 km barrier fence (Reed 1975). Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott A total of 60 vehicle-killed deer were documented on 22.5 km of highway in the Avon-Wolcott study area; a reduction of 20.0 percent from the preceding segment. Deer kill continued to be reduced on the portions of highway opposite two sections of 2.44-m fence (Reed 1975). Durango Area A total of 228 deer and 14 elk were killed by vehicles on the 190 km of highway on the Durango study area during this segment. The kill was 114 deer and three elk, 58 deer and three elk, 35 deer and eight ~lk, and 21 deer, on Highways 160 east, 160 west, 550 north, and 550 south of Durango, resoectively. Evaluation of the deer underpass under Highway 160 with associated 2.44-m fenCing west of Durango began during this segment and was reported by Reed (1975). Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Ninety-seven vehicle-killed deer were documented on 29 km of highway in the Glenwood-Basalt study area; an increase of 40.6 percent from the preceding segment. Sixty-seven percent were killed during ~ebruary and March. Deer-vehicle accidents were reduced on the portions two 1.77 km lengths of 2.44-m fencing (Reed 1975). of highway opposite �-300- Highway 6-24 Eagle-Glenwood Canyon Fifteen deer in 1973 and five deer in 1974 were killed by vehicles on Highway 6-24 from Eagle to the west 9.9 km to Gypsum. Fifty-eight deer in 1973 and 25 deer in 1974 were killed by vehicles on Highway 6-24 from Gypsum to the west 15.0 km to the beginning of Glenwood Canvon. February in 1974 and March in 1975 had the greatest mean number of deer observations counted by spotlight adjacent to Highway 6-24 from the Bureau of Land Management Gypsum Recreation Area to the west 6.4 km (Fig. 1). February in 1974 and 1975 had the greatest combined number of deer and elk observations counted bv spotlight adjacent to Highway 6-24 from the Colorado River Bridge at Dotsero to the west 5.6 km to the Eagle-Garfield County line (Fig. 2). One-hundred-seven deer of both sexes and various age cLasses were neckbanded and/or eartagged during winters of 1973-75 from Eagle to the west. Seventeen recoveries or sightings have been made to date on summer or transitional range. One deer moved to the northwest approximately 11 km. Five deer moved north approximately 11 km to Castle Peak. Eleven deer moved to the east 24 to 37 km. No confirmed recoveries or sightings of these neckbanded deer have been made south of Highway 6-24 or Interstate 70. Fifteen deer were neckbanded during winters of 1974-75 from Gvpsum to Dotsero adjacent to and north of Highway 6-24. One recovery made from this banding program was south of the highway and east approximately 11 km, The greatest number of deer observed during meadow counts west of Eagle was on 22 March 1972 when 124 deer were counted. These deer w~re on pastureland which will be bisected by Interstate Highway 70. Recommendations for mitigating structures for this area will be made to the Colorado Division of Hf.ghways during the next segment. LITERATURE Clover, M.R. 1956. Single-gate CITED trap. Calif. Fish and Game. 42:199-201. Myers, GaryT. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. \.J-38-R-23. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. pp. 147-178. Pojar, Thomas. M. 1972. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. "Fed. Aid P'ro], W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Pp. 305-310. �-301- Reed, Dale F. 1975. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. "Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-29 and 30. Game Res. Rep. In Progress. Woodard, Thomas N. 1973. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highwavs. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. 1..J-38-R-27.Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. 197-202. Woodard, Thomas N. 1974. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep., July Part 2 pp. 293-298. 1 .__ ..---1Prepared by / W~ .- / I AJ ,) /~; 'J. . '/ i- (I (y-~-cJ(~ YThomas N. Woodard Assistant Wildlife Researcher �-302- 50 46 44 r- ..- 41 40 - 30 - - 44 ..- 39 r- 24 20 20 - r- 10 - . . JAN FEB 1974 MAR APR JAN FEB MAR 1975 Fig. 1. The mean number of deer counted per month from the Bureau of Land Management Gypsum Recreation Area to the west 6.4 km. �-303- 120 0 100 Deer 102 r U 90 Elk 85 r 80 - E-< S c u 63 60 - 40 - ~ ~ 37 37 37 r- , 23 20 - , 11 I I I JAN 18 I I 12 I 1 I 2 I I, 1<'EB MAR 1974 I o 0 APR DEC o .TAN I () ~ 1<'F.B MAR 1975 1<'ig.2. The mean number of deer and elk counted oer month from the Colorado River Bridge at Dotsero to the west 5.6 km to the Eagle-Garfield County line. ��-305- July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLO~~O --------~~~~----------W-38-R-29 Project No. ~rknan ~. and 30 15 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 6a -------------------------------- Job Title Evaluation Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: of Deer Underpasses Thomas N. Woodard, James D. Fleming, Arthur J. Gresh, and Dale F. Reed ABSTRACT Six underpasses were monitored for deer use and supplemental early morning observations were made at the Vail deer underpass. Eight deer passages occurred through four Interstate 79 concrete box underpasses. Passages to the south were considered disadvantageous since the 2.44-m fence was installed only on one side of the highway. Forty-six passages occurred through the arch deer underpass located west of Durango. No flight reaction was observed during 97 percent of westbound traffic when deer were present at the Vail deer underpass. The behavior modes of deer exits from the underpass were 71 (n=25), 23 (n=8), and 6 (n=2) percent, trotting, walking, aud bounding, respectively. ��-307- EVALUATION OF DEER UNDERPASSES Dale F. Reed Mule deer response to an underpass 3.05 m (10 feet) by 3.05 m and 30.48 m (100 feet) long under Interstate 70 has been reported (Reed et al. 1975). This study purports to evaluate underpasses of different sizes and design and to further evaluate deer behavioral responses when feasible. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the use of underpasses by deer in critical highway areas and improve the effectiveness of these structures. deer kill SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of underpasses associated with their use. and the extent of behavioral reluctance METHODS AND MATERIALS Six underpasses which were potentially used by deer were monitored for use by track-count methods previously described (Reed 1971). Four concrete box underpasses under 1-70 east of Eagle, an open 3-span structure at Chaffee Gulch north of Ridgway, and the arch (structural plate pipe arch) deer underpass west of Durango were evaluated. In addition, ~upplemental observations were made in the early morning hours at the Vail deer underpass. A 20X spotting scope was use4 to observe deer at the underpass from about 0.5 km away. Vegetational cover and camouflaging were utilized. The instances of vehicle caused flight reaction at the underpass entrance and the mode of movement at the exit (walk, trot, or bound) were tallied. Use of and behavioral response to this underpass during a previous 4-year study has been reported (Reed et al. 1975). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The four underpasses east of Eagle received few to no passages (Table 1). No deer tracks were detected in or at the ends of underpass No.1. Six passages occurred through underpass No.2, three to the south and three to the north, when the 2.44-m (8 foot) vehicle gate was left open by the landowner. Of special interest are the passages that occurred to the north since they took place without the effect of a 2.44-m (8 foot) fence along the south side of the interstate. Only the north side of the interstate is fenced with 2.44-m fencing in the Eagle east area. The north end of underpass No.3 (Fig.l) �-308- received deer pressure (188 deer tracks) for over a 1 1/2-month (June 14Aug 9) period. During this relatively dry period two passages occurred through the underpass to the south. Underpass No. 4 received no passages. Most of the activity at this location was deer movements north of and parallel to the 2.44-m fence whether or not the 2.44-m vehicle gate was open or closed. The Chaffee Gulch underpass was checked on1v three times. These checks yielded 14 passages, seven east and seven west, and were considered sufficient indication of deer movement by the Division of Highwavs to j us t Lfy replacing the sub-standard bridge with an equally open+snan bridge. No 2.44-m fencing was associated with this structure. The arch deer underpass located west of Durango and the Cherrv Creek campground, received 46 passages. The deer activity adjacent the underpass has been light. Considerable human and cattle use has possib1v affected deer movements in this area. Daily observations (n~22) were made at the Vail deer underpass from June 3 to June 25. Of 198 instances of vehicles traveling west when deer were near the underpass entrance and the west bound lanes, 193 did not elicit flight reaction (Hediger 1950) from 35 different individuals or groups (range 1 to 11 deer). Four vehicles elicited flight reaction from about 50 percent of the individuals from four different groups ranging in size from two to eight deer. One vehicle elicited flight reaction from 100 percent of a group of two individuals. Previous to these observations it was hypothesized that deer at proximal distances of 10 to 20 m from moving traffic were frequently caused to leave the area. Other observations indicated that when vehicles stopped at or when bicyclists traveled by the underpass, most deer elicited immediate and intense flight reaction. The behavior modes of deer exits (leaving the underpass to the south) were 71 (n~25), 23 (n~8), and 6 (n~2) percent, trotting, walking, and bounding, respectively. The predominant exit behavior of trotting sU'Dports the reported reluctance (Reed et a1. 1975) of deer to use a structure of this size and character. LITERATURE Hediger, H. 1950. CITED Wild animals in captivity. Butterworth, London. p. 19. Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. 'D. 341-351. In Game Research Report, July Part 3. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Fede raI Aid. Reed, Dale F., T.N. Woodard, and T.M. Pojar. 1975. Behavioral response of mule deer to a highway underpass. J. l-1ildl.Manage. 39 (2) : Wildlife Researcher ...... �-309- Table 1. Highway underpasses, height and width dimensions, number of deer passages, tunnel effect, and the deer activity adjacent to the underpasses. Only the last two structures were intended for regular deer use. No. deer passages Tunnel effect.!.! Adjacent activity 0 0.3 None l4X14 6 1.4 Light Eagle 1-7n No. 3 8X8 2 0.3 T-1oderate Eagle 1-70 No. 4 l4X14 0 0.9 Light-moderate movements parallel to 2.44-m fence Chaffee Gulch (N. Ridgway) 12XlO+2 6.9 Light, no fencing Arch deer (w. Durango) 10X20 46 2.1 Light Vail deer (1-70) 10XlO 345.1 ~I 1.0 Concentrated, highly motivated migration Underpass height X width Eagle 1-70 No. 1 8X8 Eagle 1-70 No. 2 ]j e oxl 0) '!:..I 14 ]/ 2 An expression of openness height X width calculated deer as follows: (or open end surface area) length '!:..I Three-span bridge with fill-slop under spans 1 and 3. 11 Deer passages were monitored from 8 Oct 73 to 6 Apr 74. nocumented deer use during this period was sufficient data for the Division of Hi~hways to justifv replacing the sub-standard bridge with an equallv open span-bridge. 41 - Seasonal mean resulting from a 4-year study. �I o ......• 1:""1 I Fig. 1. The north end of Eagle 1-70 underpass No. 3 received deer pressure for over a 1 1/2-month period. Two passages occurred through the structure to the south during this period (Photo by D.F. Reed). �-311July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-29 and 30 Work Plan No. Job Title 15 Job No. 7 --------------------------- Effects of Highway Lighting on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975. Claudia A. Doose, James D. Fleming, Larry L. Green, Sharon L. McDonnell, Allen F. Whittaker, John W. Seidel, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT The effect of highway lighting on the rate of deer-vehicle accidents was evaluated. Estimated deer crossings per kill decreased by 2.0 percent with the lights on compared to lights off. There was no significant difference in the crossings per kill ratios (X2 = 0.003, P>0.90). The amount of light available at 12 known kill locations during lights on nights ranged from less than 0.01 to 1.41 foot candles. There was a highly significant reduction in mean vehicle speeds (P<O.OOl) when a deer simulation was placed on the shoulder of the highway with lights on. ��-313- EF~ECTS O~ HIGHWAY LIGHTING ON NUMBER O~ DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Thomas N. \-Toodard p. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if highway lighting affects the rate of deer-vehicle on a portion of Highway 82. accidents SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Record the number of deer killed by vehicles at each end of, and within a 1.1 km lighted portion of Colorado 82. 2. Estimate deer densities by the lighting. 3. Compare pre-treatment and count data. 4. Gather additional information which may be needed to understand why deer-vehicle accident rates are or are not affected by lighting. adjacent to the portion of highway affected kill and count data to post-treatment kill METHODS &~D MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Woodard (1974). The effect of lighting was evaluated from January 2, 1975 to March 31, 1975, during this segment. Data collected during segment 28 and from April 1, 1975 to April 9, 1975, are also included in this report. A deer simulation (transverse section of full taxidermy mount) was placed in the emergency lane of the lighted portion of the highway with the lights on between 1900 and 2212 DST on March 17, 1975. The simulation was located 24.1 m beyond the first and 20.1 m before the second of two magnetic loops which activate and deactivate a vehicle speed recorder (Newmeyer Model NH-l). Motorist response to the simulation was measured by comnaring the vehicle speeds collected on March 17, 1975, (treatment) to vehicle speeds collected during the lights on night of March 3, 1975, (control) and by making visual observations. Only speeds recorded from 2018 to 2042 and 2118 to 2149 were utilized in tabulations because of probable bias from motorists interference during the other time periods. The amount of light (foot-candles) present at each kill location during lights on nights was measured with a light meter (General Electric Street Lamp Meter SL480A). �-314- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Estimated crossings per kill was only 2.0 percent lower with the lights on compared to lights off (Table 1). There was no significant difference in the ratios (x2 = 0.003, P>O.90). The amount of light available at 12 known kill locations during lights on nights ranged from less than 0.01 to 1.41 foot-candles. Available light at seven of these kill locations was less than 0.01 foot-candles. Mean vehicle speeds decreased by 8.61 mph when the deer simulation was present. The difference was highly significant (P<O.OOl). Brake lights were observed on 50.6 percent of the vehicles approaching the simulation (n=85) from 2118 to 2149 DST. Table 1. Estimated deer crossings and total kill in the Highwav lignting study area during 1974 and 1975. Lights o~~ Lights ON Estimated Crossings 82 1378 Total Kill 17 16 Crossings/Kill 87.9 86.1 LITERATURE CITED Woodard, Thomas N. 1974. Effects of highway lighting on number of deer killed by vehicles. Colo. Div. l.Ji1dl.Game Res. Div. ~ed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Pp. 307-312. Prepared by ~r?~.". l/ ~. / / j,~ (.~;i..~·l/ Thomas N. Woodard . Assistant ~1ildlife Researcher �-315July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~----------W-38-R-29 Project No. Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations 15 10 Job No. An Evaluation of 8-Foot (2.4'4---m')~F~e-n-c-e~L-e-n-g~tTh--------------Required to Prevent Movements on or Across High Speed Highways Period Covered: Personnel: and 30 April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975. Thomas N. Woodard, Sharon L. McDonnell, William R. Heicher, David C. Hoart, Larry L. Green, Claudia A. Doose, James D. Fleming, and Dale F. Reed. Annual or seasonal deer kill caused by vehicles was reduced by 79, 77, 84, 59, and 76 percent along 8-foot (2.44-m) fence lengths of 1.8, 1.8, 3.6, 3.6, and 7.7 kilometers, respectively. Ninety-five, 17, and 34 deer escaped the highway rights-of-way adjacent to the two 2.25 and the 4.8 mile long 8-foot fences through 17 one-way deer gates, respectively. Does (N=13) and bucks (N=5) moved laterally or parallel to the 8-foot fence for mean distances of 0.30 and 0.48 miles, respectively. ��-317- AN EVALUATION OF 8-FOOT (2.44-M) FENCE LENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT DEER MOVEMENTS ON OR ACROSS HIGH SPEED HIGHWAYS Dale F. Reed P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate length of 8-foot (2.44-m) fence in relation on or across high speed highways. to deer movement SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Install 8-foot fence along appropriate mined by Job 1a. 2. Evaluate the effectiveness affecting deer movements. sections of highway as deter- of various lengths of 8-foot fence in METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials (1974a). have been described DESCRIPTION Highway by Pojar OF AREA 82 - Diamond The Highway 82 study area has been described Interstate (1972) and Reed et al. S by Pojar (1972). 70 - Avon. Edwards. Vail and Eagle The Interstate 70 - Avon and Edwards study areas have been described by Woodard (1973). the Vail study area by Reed (1971) and Reed et a1. (1974a). and the Eagle study area by Reed (1974). Highway 82 - Carbondale The Carb-82 study area consists of a segment of Highway 82 from about 1.3 kilometers southeast of the junction with Highway 133 to about 0.2 kilometers up Crystal Springs road. An 8-foot (2.44-m) fence was completed along the north side of the highway rights-of~ay October 17, 1974. Alfalfa fields are prevalent north of the highway with big sagebrush occurring on an abbreviated south facing slope behind the fence. �-318- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 82 - Diamond S Deer concentrate in the crested wheatgrass fields northeast of the highway in late winter and early spring (Table 1). The mean number of deer crossings during March - May periods in 1971 before the 8-foot fence was installed was 11.7 (N=32, where N=number of 24 hour periods) per day. After the fence was installed the means were 2.1 (N=38) in 1972, 5.5 (N=34) in 1973, and 10.3 (N=38) in 1974. This represents an 82, 53, and 12 percent reduction in crossings in 1972, 1973, and 1974, respectively. The mean deer kill per year before the 8-foot fence was installed (October, 1968 - September, 1971) was 10.0. The mean deer kill per year after fence installation (October, 1971 - September, 1974) was 2.33; a mean reduction of 77 percent. Table 1. The March-May mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts between quarter-mile section markers 25 to 30 for 1968 through 1973 on Highway 82 (n=number of counts). Month 1968 1969 Mean Count 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 March 134.8 (n=4) 151.2 (n=4) 104.5 (n=4)= 66.8 (n=4) 102.2 (n=4) 137.4 (n=S) 143.5 (n=4) 73.0 (n=4) 34.0 (n::05) 56.0 (n=5) 51.4 (n=5) 4.5 (n=4) 47.0 (n=4) 52.3 (n=3) 6.0 (n=5) 0.0 (n=L) 1.5 (n=2) 0.0 (n=2) 66.2 (n=13) 77.5 (n=10) 63.7 47.6 53.4 (n=Ll.) (n=L'l ) (n=B) 97.2 (n=9) 104.4 (n=7) April May MEAN TOTAL Interstate 70 - Avon The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during the August December periods was 15.5 (n=17) and 13.4 (n=21) in 1971 and 1072, respectively, and 10.8 (n=ll) in lq73 for October - December and 7.3 (n=7) in 1974 for November - December. Ninety-five deer made passages to the north through six one-way gates (Reed et a1. 1974b) located in the 8-foot fence during this segment. Twenty-eight deer were killed from October 5, 1971 to October 5, 1972, before the fence was installed. Nine were killed from October 5, 1972 to October 5, 1974, after the fence was installed; a reduction of 84 percent. Two deer crossed the deer guard in the Avon 8-foot fence. Deer use and response to other prototype test guards will be analyzed and reported in future segments. �-319- Interstate 70 - Edwards Twenty-seven deer were killed on this segment of highway before the fence was installed from October 5, 1971 to October 5,1972. Twentytwo (11 per year) were killed after fence installation from October 5, 1972 to October 5, 1974; a reduction of 59 percent. Seventeen passages occurred through four of seven one-way deer gates located in the 8-foot fence. Interstate No additional length. data were collected 70 - Vail in this study area in regard to fence Interstate 70 - Eagle The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during OctoberMarch 1972-73 was 80.5 (n=25). One hundred sixty-seven deer were killed from October 5, 1972 to October 5, 1973, before the fence was installed. Forty were killed from October 5, 1973 to October 5, 1974, after the fence was installed; a reduction of 76 percent. An estimated 90-100 deer, including several collared animals, came across the highway from the south and either 1) passed through the one-way deer gates or &1 opening in the fence, 2) went around the ends of the fence, 3) went back to the south to or across the Eagle River, or 4) were killed on the highway. Thirty-four deer made passages to the north through seven of ten one-way gates located in the 8-foot fence. According to 69 observations of collared deer north of the 8-foot fence, does (N=13) and bucks (N=5) have moved laterally or parallel to the fence for mean distances of 0.30 and 0.48 miles, respectively. Highway 82 - Carbondale The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during January April periods of 1968 through 1973 was 15.7 (n=99). Seventy deer were killed from January, 1968 to April, 1973 (14 deer per year), before the fence was installed. Three were killed from October 17, 1974 to March 31, 1975, after the 8-foot fence was installed; a reduction of 79 percent. LITERATURE CITED Pojar, Thomas M. 1972. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-26, Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. 305-310. �-320- Reed, Dale '1<'. 1971. Deer tmderpass evaluation. Colo. Div. 'tU1d1. Game Res. Div. ~ed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 3. pp , 341-351. Reed, D.~., T.M. Pojar, and T.N. Woodard. 1974a. Mule deer responses to deer guards. J. Range Manage. 27(2):111-113. Reed, D.F., T.M. Pojar, and T.N. Woodard. 1974b. Use of one-way by mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(1):9-15. gates Reed, D.'I<'.,1974. An evaluation of 8-foot fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highwavs. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep., July, pp. 313-320. Woodard, Thomas N. 1973. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-27. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. pp. Prepared ~/.~ by . /f~'-';1 I Dale F. Ree Wildlife Researcher JZ(L~ . .J ) ( / �July 1975 -321- JOB FINAL REPORT State of C_o~L~O~RAD~O W-38-R-29 Project No. Deer-Elk Investigations 11 Job No. Effects of a Simulated 8-Foot Fence Angle in Diverting Deer from Their Established Direction of Movement Period Covered: Personnel: and 30 15 Work Plan No. Job Title: _ April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1975 Thomas N: Woodard, Thomas M. Pojar, and Dale F. Reed ABSTRACT Observations were made on time and nature of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) responses to five simulated fence angles in 1972 and three simulated fence angles in 1973. Mean time needed for deer to successfully travel the 27.42-m length of 900 fence angle was significantly greater (P <0. 001) than the mean control time (00 angle). The number of deer that failed to move through the zone during the 900 fence angle measurements was not significantly greater (X2 = 0.202, P>0.50) than the number during control. No additional data were collected during the last segment. ��-323- EFFECTS OF A SIMULATED 8-FOOT FENCE ANGLE IN DIVERTING DEER FROM THEIR ESTABLISHED DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effectiveness of three angles of a simulated 8-foot fence to divert deer from their established direction of movement. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Install a movable 8-foot section of 4-inch square netting adjacent to and across heavily traveled deer trails and concentration points. 2. Test the effectiveness of three angles under field conditions. METHODS AND MATERIALS An 8-foot (2.44 m) high simulated fence made of 4-inch netting (350 lb test) was easily installed for a length of 90 feet (27.42 m) at one of three angles (450, 600, and 900; plus converse angles of 1200 and 1350) in relation to a permanent 8-foot wire deer fence (Fig. 1). The permanent wire fence had been placed across a deer migration route to divert migrating deer. There was a heavily traveled deer trail along this fence. The time for a deer to travel the 90-foot length of permanent 8-foot deer fence (hereafter referred to as the "control"), and the same length of simulated fence at each angle (variables 450,600, and 900, plus converse angles of 1200 and 1350) was measured by making early morning observations and recording with a stop watch the time each deer spent between two clearly marked points. The amount of time was recorded to the nearest second for each animal. If a group approached, the first animal moving into the marked area (time zone) was chosen for timing. When two or more deer moved into the zone simultaneously either the "lead" animal or a tagged animal was used. Observations were made during early morning hours for 33 days from June 6 to July 19, 1972. The sequence of the simulated fence angles tested was: 00 (control), 450, 600, and 900• This sequence was repeated throughout the above period. The simulated fence was installed at the angle specified by the above sequence during the evening before the day's observation. Factors such as the wind, light, natural cover, and camouflage clothing However, if the observer were utilized to advantage during the observations. was detected by the animals, the day's observations were terminated. �-324- Fig. 1. A permanent 8-foot wire deer fence is shown in the foreground. The simulated fence (netting) is shown installed at the 600 angle (right center) from the permanent fence. The wires to the left and the far right are the 900 and 450 angles, respectively. (Photo by D. F. Reed) �-325- Observations were made during 21 days in 1973 from June 12 to July 9. The 600 angle was omitted in 1973. No observations were made during 1974. DESCRIPTION OF AREA The observations on deer response to the 8-foot fence angle simulation were made near Vail, Colorado, adjacent to the north 8-foot fence of the Vail underpass - fencing complex (Reed 1971). The observation site was located on the edge of a conifer community with interspersed aspen (Populus tremuloides) and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Sunrise occurred behind the observer's location and normal westerlv winds or breezes placed the location On the lee side of most deer during the observations. A dirt road paralleled the 8-foot fence, and curved awav from it near the point where the simulated fence was attached to the wire fence. There was a gradual slope located adjacent to the road opposite the observation point. The simulated fence angle of 900 was installed across the road and up this slope. The fence angle of 600 was tangent to the outer shoulder of the bend in the road. The fence angle of 450 was installed down an incline to the east and 20 to 30 feet from the road and slope at the closest point. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Time was measured on deer in the simulated fence angle area on 55 occasions (Table 1). Twenty-nine times were recorded during control measurements. 0 . Mean time needed for deer to successfullv travel the 27.42-m length of 90 fence angle was significantlv greater (P<O.OOl) than mean control time. The number of deer that failed to move through the zone during the 900 fence angle measurements was not significantlv greater (X2 = 0.202, P>O.SO) than the number during control; thus the simulated fence angle did not preclude deer from their apparent direction of movement. Statistical tests were not applied to the other angle variables because of insufficient sample size. LITERATURE CITED Reed, Dale F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Colo. niv. r.ame, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid P'roj , l-l-38-R-2S.r.ame Res. Ren ;, Julv, Part 3. p . 344. ---I Prepared by - /1"." "\ I,," -I;. I. ,( •.. Thomas N. Woodard Assistant Wildlife Researcher �-326- Table 1. The mean times (seconds) of successes or failures of deer moving through the zone with either the simulated fence angle removed (control) or installed (variables: 450,600, or 90°). Successful animals moved along the permanent 8-foot (2.44-m) fence or along the simulated fence. ~ailure animals moved into the zone, turned around, and left in the direction that they had come. Angles Successful 75.8 (n=19) }j 85.6 (n=10) 66 450 168.2 (n=3) 52.0 (n=Z) 60 0 900 0 120 0 173.6 (n=S) ]j 1350 J:../ 2/ Percent Successful 00 600 1./ ~ailure 78.3 (n=6) 0 121.3 (n=4) 73.0 (n=L) 117.0 (n=L) Number of observations 60 50 (n ) • ° When deer approached the simulated fence angles of 60 o and 45 from the opposite direction (east), they encountered converse angles of 120° and 135°. �-327JOB PROGRESS July, 1975 REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-29 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 16 Job No. 1 Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Population Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: Distribution R. M. Bartmann, J. J. Klein, Jr., M. Alan, D. Smeltzer, A. C. Koonce. and ABSTRACT Deer trapping and banding work was accomplished from December 16, 1974 through February 28, 1975. Three hundred one deer were both eartagged and neckbanded and another eight eartagged only. Banding was completed in Area 11. This leaves about 250 deer to be banded in three areas next winter. The composition of the total catch was 76 male fawns, 61 female fawns, 15 adult males, and 157 adult females. Sightings of 153 banded deer were reported along with 51 recoveries. ��-329- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To delineate deer sub-population the Piceance winter range. a. Define deer sub-population boundaries and concentration areas on boundaries. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Bartmann (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Trapping Deer trapping and banding work was started December 16, 1974 and continued through February 28, 1975. Trapping was initiated on Oak Ridge (Area 10) east of Meeker, but deep snow forced elk into the trapping areas and operations were moved, after marking 15 animals, to Strawberry Creek (Area 11). Snowmobiles were required to set and check traps into early February, after which pickups could be used. The winter was considerably milder than the previous two, particularly in terms of snow cover, and survival of banded animals should be good. Only 301 deer were both ear tagged and neckbanded and another 8 eartagged only, which is 69 deer fewer than the previous low of 378 deer marked in 1972 (Table 1). This leaves about 250 deer to be neckbanded in three areas next winter. One hundred fifty-three sightings of banded deer were recorded during Segment 29 and 51 deer were reported killed or found dead (Tables 2 and 3). The number of band recoveries was reduced by the antlered-only season, and deer movement information from both sightings and recoveries limited by the late season (October 26 - November 5) as many deer were already back on the winter range. �-330- LITEFATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - population distribution. p. 315-337. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. Denver. 3(Part 3):253-377. Prepared bY~?g;2~ Richard M. Bartman Wildlife Researcher ..<... �Table 1. 1974-75. Date (1974) Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter Age 8ex Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. Location Range Remarks Sec. Area 10 - Yellow Neckband 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-21 12-21 12-21 12-21· 12-22 12-22 12-22 12-22 12-22 12-23 12-23 Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Summary: Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn 5 Male Fawns; L-2780 L-2781 L-2783 L-2785 L-2786 L-2784 L-2790 L-279l L-2792 L-2793 L-2794 L-2795 L-2796 L-2797 L-2798 2 Female Fawns; 32 33 1 34 2 None 3 4 35 7 5 39 8 6 13 IS 1S 18 1S 18 18 18 18 18 1S 18 18 18 1S 18 o Mature Males; 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 93W 92W 92W 11 11 2 2 6 11 14 24 15 15 19 19 24 19 19 Found dead 3-75, possible road-kill. Lower part of left hind leg missing. I w w •... I 8 Mature Females Area 11 - Red and Blue Block Neckband 12-30 12-31 1-1-75 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L-2799 L-2800 L-2801 L-2802 L-2803 L-2804 L-2805 L-2806 L-2807 L-2808 L-2809 1 14 90 11, 94 None 110 102 12 13 15 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 1N 1N 2N 2N 2N 94W 95W 95W 95W 94W 94W 95W 95W 94W 95W 95W 17 1 25 25 17 17 13 13 17 1 1 Possible broken neck. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter 1974-75 (continued). Date (1975) Sex Age Eartag No. Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn L-2810 L-2811 L-2812 L-2813 L-2814 L-2815 L-2816 L-2817 L-2818 L-2819 L-2820 L-2821 L-2822 L-2823 L-2824 L-2825 L-2826 L-2827 L-2828 L-2829 L-2830 L-2831 L-2832 L-2833 L-2834 L-2835 L-2836 L-2837 L-2838 L-2839 L-2840 L-2841 L-2842 Neckband No. Location Twp. Range Sec. 2 5 3 8 104 7 6 10 17 18 19 116 4 20 95 97 None None 22 88 23 108 24 109 106 111 30 25 26 27 28 29 112 IN 2N 2N 3N 3N IN IN IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 3N 3N 3N IN IN Remarks -1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-6 1-6 . 95W 94W 94w 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 94w 95W 95W 95W 94w 94W 94W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 94W 94W 12 6 6 26 26 13 12 12 25 25 26 17 17 1 1 1 6 17 17 13 13 12 25 25 25 1 1 6 26 26 26 8 8 I \.oJ \.oJ N I Poor shape. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter 1974-75 (continued). Sex Age Eartag No. Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn L-2843 L-2844 L-2845 L-2846 L-2847 L-2848 L-2849 L-2850 L-2851 L-2852 L-2853 L-2854 L-2855 L-2857 L-2856 L-2858 L-2859 L-2860 L-2861 L-2862 L-2863 L-2864 L-2865 L-2866 L-2867 L-2875 L-2869 L-2868 L-2870 L-2871 L-2872 L-2873 L-2874 Date (1975) 1-6 1-6 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-8 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-11 1-11 1-11 1-12 1-12 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-13 1-14 1-14 1-14 Neckband No. Twp. 39 34 113 35 114 40 31 85 32 33 None 103 100 101 36 37 87 38 92 46 47 48 42 41 43 21 44 . 117 45 53 54 55 96 2N 2N 1N 1N 3N 3N 1N 3N 3N 3N 1N 1N 2N 2N IN IN IN IN 2N IN 2N 2N 2N 2N IN 2N IN 3N IN IN 2N 2N 2N Location Sec. Range 95W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 94W 95W 94W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W Remarks 26 1 8 12 26 26 17 26 26 26 8 12 25 25 17 12 17 12 17 13 25 26 26 26 12 25 16 26 29 29 26 26 26 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w w w I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter 1974-75 (continued). Date (1975) Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. 1-14 1-14 1-14 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-15 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-16 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-17 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-18 1-19 1-19 Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn L-2876 L-2877 L-2878 L-2879 L-2880 L-2881 L-2883 L-2884 L-2885 L-2886 L-2887 L-2888 L-2889 L-2890 L-2901 L-2891 L-2892 L-2893 L-2894 L-2895 L-2896 L-2897 L-2898 L-2899 L-2900 L-2902 L-2903 L-2904 L-2905 L-2906 L-2907 L-2908 L-2909 L-2910 93 56 57 49 50 58 122 52 123 51 59 105 60 62 71 16 63 64 66 65 67 68 69 70 107 115 86 . 79 120 72 121 73 74 118 2N 3N IN IN 2N 2N IN IN IN IN 1N 1N IN 2N 1N IN 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N IN 1N 1N 1N IN 1N 1N 1N IN 1N 1N 2N 2N Location Range Sec. 94w 95W 95W 94W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 94W 95W 95W 96W 96W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 96W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 95W 96W 96W 17 26 29 17 25 17 16 17 29 29 29 12 12 17 29 16 12 12 17 17 16 16 29 29 29 12 17 17 17 16 16 29 27 23 Remarks I w w .po. I May be neckband #76. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter 1974-75 (continued). Date (1975) Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. 1-19 1-19 1-19 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-25 1-25 1-25 1-26 1-27 1-30 1-30 1-31 2-1 2-1 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-9 2-10 Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature L-2911 L-2912 L-2913 L-2915 L-2916 L-2917 L-2918 L-2919 L-2921 L-2922 L-2923 L-2924 L-2925 L-2926 L-2927 L-2928 L-2929 L-2930 L-2931 L-2938 L-2946 L-2947 L-2957 L-2962 L-2963 L-2964 L-2965 L-2973 L-2985 L-2986 L-2987 119 75 124 82 77 83 76 78 126 80 84 151 125 152 133 161 168 127 159 153 155 167 158 134 157 160 ' 169 154 128 132 165 1N IN IN 2N 2N 2N 2N IN IN 2N 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN IN 1N IN 1N 1N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 1N IN Location Range Sec. 95W 95W 95W 96W 95W 95W 95W 96W 96W 96W 95W 95W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 17 16 16 21 30 19 19 4 1 27 30 19 1 6 14 12 4 4 4 9 4 4 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 9 9 Remarks May be neckband #79. I w w VI I May be neckband #190. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table l. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter 1974-75 (continued). Date (1975) Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. Location Range Sec. Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn L-2989 L-2997 L-2998 L-3005 L-3006 L-3007 L-3009 L-3012 L-3013 L-3015 L-3018 L-3019 L-3020 L-3026 L-3027 L-3028 L-3029 L-3032 L-3033 L-3034 L-3035 L-3036 L-3038 L-3037 L-3043 L-3044 L-3045 L-3046 L-3047 L-3048 L-3051 L-3052 L-3053 156 131 129 162 142 182 163 164 166 170 171 140 172 "139 175 176 177 178 179 173 174 130 180 181 183 141 184 145 185 186 187 188 136 2N 2N 2N 2N IN IN IN 2N 2N IN IN IN 2N IN IN IN IN IN IN IN 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN IN 2N IN IN IN IN 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 32 32 32 33 4 4 4 21 21 4 15 15 21 14 4 4 4 23 23 14 32 28 4 4 23 14 14 14 28 4 23 14 12 Remarks -2-11 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-13 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-21 2-21 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I Vol Vol 0\ I �Table J. 1974-75 Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management UnI ts 11 and 2:3, w Ln t c r (continued) . Date (1975) Sex Age 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-25 2-25 2-25 Hale Female Female Male Female Female Male Hale Female Female Female Female Hale Female Female Female Hale Female Female Female Male Female Female Hale Fawn Hature Hature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Hature Mature Hature Mature Hature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Hature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Summary: Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. Location Range Sec. L-3054 L-3055 L-3056 L-3057 L-3058 L-3060 L-306l L-3062 L-3063 L-3064 L-3065 L-3066 L-3067 L-3068 L-3070 L-3071 L-3073 L-3075 L-3076 137 189 138 144 135 143 198 199 146 147 148 149 195 150 192 193 197 196 200 194 201 202 None None IN IN 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN IN 2N 2N 2N IN IN 2N 2N IN IN IN IN IN 2N IN 96W 96W 96W 96W 96w 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 15 15 28 28 9 23 14 14 12 12 32 27 28 9 23 28 27 12 12 4 4 23 27 4 L-30n L-3078 L-3085 L-3087 L-3088 50 Hale Fawns; 44 Female Fawns; 11 Hature Males; Remarks 94 Mature Females Area 12 - White with Red Stripe Neckband 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 Female Hale Female Female Mature Hature Mature Hature L-2932 L-2933 L-2934 L-2935 10 1 11 12 2N 2N 2N 2N 96W 96W 96W 97W 30 19 19 4 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I \.oJ \.oJ -.J I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter 1974-75 (continued). Date (1975) Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 2-8 Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature L-2936 L-2937 L-2939 L-2940 L-2941 L-2942 L-2943 L-2944 L-2945 L-2948 L-2949 L-2950 L-2951 L-2952 L-2953 L-2954 L-2955 L-2956 L-2958 L-2959 L-296l L-2966 L-2967 L-2968 L-2969 L-2970 L-2971 L-2972 L-2974 L-2975 L-2977 L-2978 L-2979 17 18 13 14 2 15 4 19 3 8 7 47 16 105 '106 20 21 107 108 109 22 5 111 51 119 27 118 48 116 50 36 52 112 Twp. Location Range Sec. 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 98W 98W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 1 1 30 30 19 19 4 6 6 30 30 30 30 6 1 1 17 17 19 36 6 36 36 6 6 1 1 17 4 1 3 3 36 Remarks -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- • I w w 00 I �Table l. 197/;-75 Record of deer trapped and marked (continued) . Date on the winter range in Game Management (1975) Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Twp. 2-8 2-8 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-11 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-14 2-15 2-15 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-17 2-17 2-18 2-18 2-19 2-19 Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn L-3001 L-3002 L-2980 L-2981 L-2982 L-2983 L-2984 L-2988 L-2990 L-2991 L-2992 L-2993 L-2994 L-2995 L-2996 L-2999 L-3000 L-3003 L-3004 L-3008 L-3010 L-3011 L-30l6 L-3017 L-3021 L-3022 L-3023 L-3024 L-3025 L-3030 L-3031 L-3039 L-3040 113 37 114 115 117 49 124 127 126 53 54 120 23 121 123 133 134 135 136 122 6 24 55 25 26 56 125 57 128 129 28 58 59 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IN 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N Location Range Sec. 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 98W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 98W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 98W 97W 97W 96W 96W 97W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 97W 30 19 30 19 36 1 17 36 30 30 30 19 1 17 17 19 36 36 1 8 36 30 19 4 36 30 17 36 17 1 1 36 36 Units 11 and 23, \-lintcr Remarks -- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w w \0 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked 1974-75 (continued) . on the winter range in Game Management Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Location Twp. Range Sec. Female Male Female Female Male Female Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature L-3042 L-3041 L-3049 L-3050 L-3059 L-3069 l30 None 29 131 60 190 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 6 6 7 17 1 17 Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature L-3074 L-3079 1-3080 L-3081 L-3082 L-3083 L-3084 L-3089 L-3090 L-3091 L-3092 L-3093 L-3094 L-3095 L-3096 L-3097 L-3098 L-3099 L-3100 132 30 137 138 31 62 l39 140 141 142 63 32 33 34 35 143 144 38 145 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 97W 96W 96W 98W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 97W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 36 30 30 1 17 7 7 1 1 17 1 18 17 10 2 2 17 18 18 Date (1975) Sex 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-24 2-25 2-25 2-25 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-28 2-28 2-28 2-28 2-28 2-28 Units 11 and 23, \vinter Remarks Possible broken neck. Has a red & blue neckband be 160. Summary: 21 Male Fawns; 15 Female Fawns; .4 Mature Males; Grand Summary: 76 Male Fawns; 61 Female Fawns; 15 Mature Males; 157 Mature Females 55 Mature Females -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- and # may I w .j:0 I �Table 1. 197LI-75 Date Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11 and 23, winter (continued). Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. Location Twp. Range Sec. Remarks Corrections to Previous Years' TraEEing Records (Corrections are Underlined) 12-13-72 12-16-72 12-16-72 12-16-72 12-16-72 3-5-73 2-5-74 2-12-74 2-13-74 2-14-74 2-14-74 2-14-74 2-15-74 2-16-74 2-17-74 2-17-74 2-18-74 Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn L-1697 L-1744 L-1745 L-1746 L-1747 L-2316 L-2580 L-2654 L-2655 L-2657 L-2658 L-2659 L-2662 L-2665 L-2666 L-2667 L-2668 96 125 126 None 127 17 88 135 136 127 126 118 116 133 142 None 146 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 18 18 IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN 99W 99W 99W 99W 99W 96W 93W 94W 94w 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 36 14 14 14 14 8 5 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 I Vol .po. t--' I �-342- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22 and 23, March 1974 through February 1975. Neckband Date (1974) 3-3 3-6 3-16 3-19 3-19 3-19 3-19 3-19 3-19 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-25 3-27 3-27 3-27 3-27 4-1 4-1 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 Color Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe White Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Blue White Blue Blue Blue Blue Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe White Orange & white blocks Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe White White White Green wlwhite stripe Green wlwhite stripe Green wlwhite stripe Green wlwhite stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wired stripe Blue & yellow blocks Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Red wlwhite stripe Location Number Twp. Range Sec. 5 60 111 94 44 102 36 104 31 120 14 103 40 82 69 110 118 71 60 100 84 11 8 15 30 16 55 110 118 71 IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 2N 2N 2N 2N 3N 3N IN IN IN 2S IS IN IN IN 2S 2S IS IS IN IN IN IS 2S 2S IS IN IN IN IS IS IS IS IN IN IS 2S IN IN 2S 96W 96W 98W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 98W 98W 99W 99W 96W 96W 96W 97W 93W 94W 94w 94w 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 96W 97W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 94W 93W 93W 93W 97W 11 13 21 22 22 22 22 22 22 3 3 5 5 36 36 31 31 31 5 10 28 28 28 10 10 11 28 36 36 36 32 12 9 11 36 35 35 10 10 10 10 32 35 2 6 32 32 6 ? ? ? 36 63 250 254 32 36 82 20 100 74 21 68 6 124 107 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-343- Table 2. Sightings of deeI' marked on the winter range in Game Hanagement Units 22 and 23, Harch 1974 through February 1975 (continued). Neckband Date (1974) Color 4-20 4-20 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-23 4-24 4-24 4-24 5-19 6-5 6-6 6-8 6-8 6-14 7-7 8-20 8-20 8-20 8-24 8-26 8-7 8-7 8-7 9-4 9-5 10-3 10-5 10-5 10-5 10-l3 10-19 10-19 10-19 10-27 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-? 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-? Orange & white blocks Blue & yellow blocks Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Pink Pink White Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Blue and white Blue & yellow blocks Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Blue Red w/white stripe Yellow & blue blocks Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Blue & yellow blocks Red w/white stripe Pink Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Blue and white Red w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Red w/white stripe Blue and white Blue Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow blocks Pink White Orange & white blocks Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Location Number Twp. Range Sec. 19 8 101 43 5 92 59 30 52 7 68 25 14 7 57 7 7 7 7 113 85 7 7 7 18 IN IS IS IS IS IS 2S 2S 2S IN IN IN IS IN IN 2N IN IS 4S 5S 5S 5S 58 5S 28 28 IN 5S 5S 2S 2S 2S 2S 28 28 2S 48 IN 2N 4S 4S 38 2N 28 2S 4S 94W 94W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 97W 96W 96W 96W 9lW 89W 90W 96W 93W 92W 94W 94W 94W 94w 94W 94W 94W 94W 93W 94W 94W 94w 94W 94W 94W 91W 96W 96W 96W 92W 90W 98W 98W 91W 89W 95W 95W 95W 6 29 2 11 11 21 21 20 24 30 22 22 22 24 9 35 8 30 22 5 34 34 34 20 34 11 23 1 26 26 14 14 14 14 10 31 31 36 24 19 20 20 26 22 24 24 ? 139 7 100 4 7 7 21 7 7 28 7 7 96 6 16 ? 7 7 7 7 7 7 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-344- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22 and 23, March 1974 through February 1975 (continued). Neckband Date (1974) 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 11-12 11-? 11-? 11-? 11-? 12-1 12-11 12-12 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-18 12-18 12-18 12-18 12-18 12-18 12-18 12-18 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-24 1-30-75 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 1-31 Color Red w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Red w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Pink White White White White Yellow wIred stripe Green w/white stripe Pink Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe White Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Pink White Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Blue & yellow blocks Green w/white stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Blue and white Blue and white Blue and white Location Number Twp. Range Sec. ? 104 ? 67 ? ? ? 15 ? ? ? ? 10 160 55 ? ? ? ? ? 4S IS 5S IS IS IS IS 2S IS IS IS IS IN IN 3S IS 18 2S 2S 28 28 18 18 18 28 28 28 2S 28 28 28 18 IN IN IN IN 48 48 38 2N 18 18 IS IS 18 2S 2S 2S 95W 93W 96W 93W 93W 93W 96w 97W 100W 100W 100W 100W 92W 95W 97W 95W 95W 94W 94W 94W 94W 95W .95W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96w 96W 96W 96W 100W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 96W 94W 93W 94W 96W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 21 7 7 19 19 19 22 35 26 26 26 26 23 36 11 6 6 17 17 17 17 1 1 1 26 4 4 2 11 11 11 34 17 17 17 17 23 23 24 5 3 17 5 5 t ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 16 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? --------------------------------------------------------------------- 5 3 3 3 -------------- , �-345- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22 and 23, March 1974 through February 1975 (continued) . Date (1975) 1-31 1-31 1-31 2-1 2-1 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-18 2-18 Neckband Color Number Yellow wIred stripe Pink Pink White White White White White (Unit 11) Blue & red blocks B1ue & red blocks (Unit 11) Corrections 4-27-73 4-27-73 Location Blue and white Blue and white ? ? ? ? ? 229 236 239 42 18 Twp. Range Sec. 2S 3S 3S 2S 2S 2S 2S 2S IN IN 97W 96W 97W 98W 98W 99W 99W 99W 96W 96W 24 6 2 3 3 4 4 4 14 14 97W 97W 11 11 to Previous Sighting Records 132 131 IS IS Both of the above sightings should be omitted as there are no such numbers. �-346- Table 3. Recoveries of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22 and 23, March 1974 through February 1975. Date of Recovery (1974) 10-17-73 4-23-74 9-? 10-14 10-26 10-26 10-26 10-26 10-26 10-27 10-27 10-27 10-27 10-28 10-28 10-28 10-29 10-30 10-31 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? Neckband Color Number Blue 91 White 118 White 226 Green w/white stripe 200 Blue 117 Green w/white stripe 14 Red w/white stripe 39 Yellow wIred stripe 87 Blue & yellow blocks 30 Blue 69 Red w/white stripe 22 Blue & yellow blocks 31 Blue and white 36 Red w/white stripe 127 No neckband - eartag L-2065 Orange & white blocks 108 Yellow wIred stripe 104 Red w/white stripe 41 White 24 Yellow wIred stripe 8 Orange & white blocks 63 White 191 Red w/white stripe 11 Red w/white stripe 28 Pink 21 Green w/white stripe 31 Red w/white stripe 113 Green w/white stripe 149 Red w/white stripe 44 Orange & white blocks 118 No neckband - eartag L-2137 Orange & white blocks 71 Yellow wIred stripe 37 Yellow wIred stripe 60 White 6 Blue 118 No neckband - eartag L-2080 Red w/white stripe 1 White 20 Orange & white blocks 65 Blue & yellow blocks 63 Red w/white stripe 18 Yellow wIred stripe 94 Yellow wIred stripe 96 Green w/white stripe 133 Orange & white blocks 112 Blue and white 37 Location Twp. Range Sec. 5N IS IS 2S IN 2N 2S IS 2N 3N 2S IN 2S 2S 2S 3N 95W 97W 99W 93W 99W 94w 95W 96W 93W 97W 98W 92W 94W 95W 97W 90W 27 32 3 20 19 9 ? ? ? 95W 98W 89W 94W loOW 94W 94W 31 35 14 3S 2S 2S 4 19 . 11 Found dead. 11 Found dead in fence. ? ? ? IN IN IN 96W 96W 94W 96W 93W 95W 93W 96W 96W 97W 97W 97W 96W 98W 94w 92W 97W 96W 96W 33 11 17 11 7 29 19 22 22 24 1 12 17 14 25 17 24 34 34 ? ? ? ? 2S 94W ? ? 5 3S IS 4S IS 2S IS IS IS 2N IS 2S 2S 2N 2S IN 2S Found dead. Died soon after marking. Found dead. 31 31 32 28 11 24 18 24 23 Died soon after marking. 27 2S 2N 2N IS Remarks Road-kill. Died soon after marking. Found dead. Found dead. Found dead. Found dead. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-347- Table 3. Recoveries of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 22 and 23, March 1974 through February 1975 (continued). Date of Recovery (1974) Color Number 11-17 11-? 11-? 2-28-75 Pink White Red w/white stripe Blue & yellow blocks 6 138 70 1 Neckband Location Twp. Range Sec. 2S IS 3S IN 97W 100W 97W 93W 20 26 12 20 Remarks Found dead. Found dead. Road-kill. Corrections to Previous Recovery Records 10-12-73 Blue 114 t t ? Omit - neckband no. is wrong. 10-?-72 Green w/white stripe 76 2N 94W 20 Omit - duplicated in same report. ��-349- July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-29 Deer-Elk Investigations 16 Job No. 2 ~rkPlm ~. Job Title Piceance Deer, Study - Population Density and Structure Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 R. M. Bartmann and J. J. Klein, Jr. ABSTRACT The 1974-75 winter deer count yielded an average 7.1 deer per quadrat for a projected population of 18,886 ± 3,458 at the 90 percent confidence level. This is about 6,500 deer fewer than the approximately 25,500 predicted. Several possible causes are postulated for this difference. It may relate to deer distribution, sampling errors, and/or the use of a different type helicopter. Post-season classifications in mid-December resulted in a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 18:100:85 on the basis of 2,817 deer classified. _ ��-351- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish mule deer population density and sex and age structure estimate techniques for the Piceance winter range. a. Estimate the size of the total wintering deer population in Game Management Unit 22. b. Estimate the sex and age structure of the wintering deer population in Game Management Unit 22. METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer Density See Bartmann (1974). Population Structure See Bartmann (1974). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Density The 1974-75 winter count, made January 30 - February 2, 1975, yielded 848 deer for a mean 7.1 deer per quadrat (Table 1). This was 1.1 fewer deer per plot than in 1973-74. The population estimate for the Piceance Basin was 27.4 deer per square mile or 18,886 ± 3,458 deer at the 90 percent confidence level. Timing of the count was about two weeks late due to problems of scheduling a helicopter and, as in 1974, many of the plots located near the upper winter range limit contained no deer. Fifty-two plots were devoid of deer this year compared to 42 last year. The difference, however, was not with higher elevation quadrats, but with about 12 plots in the northwest part of the study area that averaged 8.8 deer in 1974 and contained no deer this winter. �-352- Table 1. Number of deer counted on 120 1/4-square-mi1e quadrats on the Piceance winter range in Game Management Unit 22, January 30 - February 2, 1975. Quadrat Deer Quadrat Deer Quadrat Deer Quadrat Deer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 21 4 11 17 4 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 11 16 12 10 7 15 9 6 3 0 11 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 12 0 0 19 16 8 0 7 0 0 0 0 35 9 24 8 37 5 0 6 14 10 17 0 3 1· 0 0 0 7 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 0 6 21 19 3 32 21 13 29 9 0 7 6 3 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 7 24 0 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 8 26 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 2 0 14 0 14 0 7 2 0 19 19 0 17 1 0 17 0 0 10 = n ~X -x ~ X 120 s 848 7.1 2 CZ X)2 15,312 719,104 2 78.31 90% Confidence Interval s 8.85 7.1 ± (1.658)(.81) = 7.1 ± 1.3 s- 0.81 Total Population Estimate C. v. 125% x 18,886 ± 3,458 �-353- The projected population is roughly 6,000 deer fewer than the predicted level of approximately 24,700 deer (Table 2). Table 2. Calculations for winter 1974-75. of projected population level of Piceance deer Item Bucks Does Fawns Total (22 bucks:lOO does:63 fawns) 1973-74 winter population estimate 1974 winter mortality estimate 2,596 11,778 7,438 21,812 159 745 4 416 5 320 1974 summer population 2,437 ~3,022 Fawns apportioned 50-50 1,511 1,511~ Adjusted 1974 summer population 3,948 12,544 16,492 1974 estimated fawn production (85 fawns: 100 does) --- 16,492 10 662 1974 pre-season population 3,948 1974 harvest estimate (archery and rifle plus 25% wounding loss) 2 401 }:./ Calculated 1974-75 winter population 1,547 12,544 10,662 27,154 12,544 10,662 24,713 1/ Harvest estimate is based on random questionnaire survey estimates by an arbitrary 20 percent to account for wounding loss. inflated Several possible causes for the large difference between the predicted and estimated 1974-75 winter population figures are postulated. Among these are the unknown effects of different deer distributions, the one in ten chance for sampling error, the chance that the 1973-74 winter population estimate was in error, that one or more of the estimates plugged into the population formula were .In error, the use of a different type helicopter, or a combination of one or more of all the above. �-354- In regard to the use of a different type helicopter, a Hughes 500C jetpowered helicopter was provided in place of the usual Bell. Deer were noticeably less disturbed by the Hughes helicopter and, on several occasions, small groups of deer stood under trees and were quite reluctant to leave even when hovered over. An observer in the rear seat on the last day noted several occasions when deer would run out from under trees after they were behind the view of observers in the front. Visibility was poor, especially for the middle man, and the tight seating allowed little movement which contributed to early observer fatigue. Also, the extra power of the Hughes enabled counting during wind conditions when animals might be more reluctant to move. Population Structure Post-season sex and age classifications were made December 15-19, 1974. The Northwest Region biologist did not make post-season classifications in the southern part of Unit 22 this year and so the entire area was covered by research personnel. Deer were widely scattered and many were found between 7,500 and 8,500 feet elevation. The 2,718 total deer classified consisted of 238 bucks, 1,343 does, and 1,137 fawns for a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 18:100:85. The deer hunting season was limited to antlered-only, so no information was obtained from which to project fawn sex ratios or the yearling doe component. Application of the post-season sex and age ratios to the 1974-75 winter population estimate, while assumed in gross error, indicated 1,700 bucks, 9,254 does, and 7,932 fawns. A 50-50 sex ratio is assumed in the fawn component. Application of the post-season data to the calculated 1974 post-hunting season population derived from the population formula will not be done until the 1974 harvest data are available. LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1974. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. P. 363-370. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wildl., Denver, July {Part 2):185-398. Prepared by ~~??~~~~ Richard M. Bart nn Wildlife Researcher �-355- July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------,. W-38-R-29 Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Deer-Elk Investigations 16 Job No. 3 --------------------------- Piceance Deer Study - Productivity and Mortality --------------------------------------------------- Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, S. F. Steinert, J. J. Klein, Jr., D. Walsworth, D. Roberts, J. Brown, F. Dieness, and L. A.Roper. ABSTRACT A fetal:doe ratio of 160:100 was calculated from a sample of five does during spring 1974. Post-natal productivity, estimated from post-season classifications of 2,480 fawns and does in Unit 22, yielded 85 fawns:lOO does. The fawn:mother ratio was 100:100. The 1974 regular season harvest estimated for Unit 22 is not yet available and only 19 deer were estimated killed during the archery season. Three Division check stations recorded 459 antlered deer from Unit 22 during the first nine days of the ll-day season. Yearling bucks comprised 30 percent of the check. The 1973-74 winter mortality estimate was 5,320 deer. A possible eight percent underestimate of the 1972-73 winter mortality was suggested by the finding of seven carcasses missed during the 1973 survey. ��-357- PICEANCE DEER STuDY - PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate increments and losses to the Piceance deer popUlation allow evaluation of density estimate techniques. a. b. c. to Estimate productivity rates. Estimate hunter harvest rates. Estimate winter mortality rates. METHODS AND MATERIALS Pre-Natal Productivity See Bartmann (1972). Post-Natal Productivity Post-natal productivity in the form of fawn:doe ratios are estimated from helicopter classifications during mid-December in Game Management Unit 22. Hunter Harvest See Bartmann (1974). Winter Mortality Procedures for estimating deer winter mortality in Game Management Unit 22 can be found in Bartmann (1974). The only change in procedures is the addition of 16 quadrats bringing the total to 56. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pre-Natal Productivity Only six adult does were examined for pregnancy during late winter and spring 1974. Four were road-kills and two were trap mortalities. Regular checks for road-killed deer could not be made and fewer road-killed deer were secured from management personnel for various reasons. �-358- All six does were pregnant (Table 1). Fetuses were too small to determine sex in three does and the uterus of another doe was damaged so that the number of fetuses could not be reliably determined. A fetal:doe ratio based on five does was 160:100. Collection of pre-natal productivity data will not be continued because of the undependable supply of animals. Table 1. Pre-natal productivity data for mule deer does dying from various causes in and around Game Management Unit 22, 1974. Collection Number Date Cause Number of Fetuses Male Female P-154 1-09-74 Trap !/ 1 (sex undetermined) P-155 1-17-74 Trap 2 (sex undetermined) P-156 2-04-74 Vehicle 2 (sex undetermined) P-157 2-14-74 Vehicle P-158 3- ?-74 Vehicle P-159 4- ?-74 Vehicle Died '1:./ 1 1 1 160 fetuses:lOO does 1/ - Killed in trap by dogs. 2/ - Uterus badly damaged - only one male fetus found but more could have been present. Post-Natal Productivity Previously, post-natal productivity data in the form of fawn:doe ratios were obtained from pre-season classifications made from a helicopter during September and October. In 1974, ratios were estimated from post-season classifications in December. Budget limitations caused management personnel to eliminate both pre- and post-season classifications on the Roan Plateau and the southern part of Unit 22, respectively. This would have required additional research time and money to cover these areas. We decided it would be better for us to expend additional effort on the post-season classification which is more crucial to the Piceance Deer Study. The 1974 post-season classifications made December 15-19, yielded 1,343 does and 1,137 fawns for a fawn:doe ratio of 85:100. The assumed reduction in the proportion of two-year old does that normally produce one fawn may tend to �-359- inflate the fawn:doe ratio and preclude valid comparisons with earlier year's estimates. Calculation of the fawn:mother ratio (the non-productive yearling component removed from the total doe population, Anderson 1965) was based on the estimated number of adult does carried into the summer of 1974 as the antlered-only hunting season precluded information on the female segment. The resulting ratio was 100 fawns:lOO mothers. Hunter Harvest The 1974 regular deer season in the White River area and nearly all adjacent Game Management Units was limited to antlered-only from October 26 through November 5. The archery season, also limited to antlered-only, occurred from August 17 through September 22. The total harvest estimate from hunter questionnaire surveys for Unit 22 in 1974 was 2,001 deer. The archery harvest estimate in Unit 22 is only 19 animals (Table 2). Table 2. Estimates of the 1974 archery deer harvest and regular deer harvest in four upper White River Game Management Units. Unit Archery Season Number of Deer Harvested (Antlered-onl~) Regular Season 11 8 1,556 1,564 22 19 1,982 2,001 23 16 672 688 24 3 47 50 Totals Four hundred fifty-nine antlered deer from Unit 22 were recorded at three permanent Division check stations during the first nine days of the II-day season (Table 3). The unknown effect of eliminating the Rifle station on the total deer check at Idaho Springs prevents projection of total kill from check station data. The percent yearling bucks in the check station tally (30%) appears lower than the average 48 percent for the four years immediately preceding the severe winters of 1972-73 and 1973-74, again possibly reflecting the high fawn loss last winter. �-360- Table 3. Estimated age composition of the 1974 regular deer harvest in four upper White River Game Management Units based on check station data. Unit Yearlings Bucks Mature Unknown 11 33 121 81 235 22 117 266 76 459 23 23 47 36 106 24 6 7 6 19 Totals 179 441 199 819 Total !/ !/ Five illegal does and fawns from Unit 22 and three from Unit 11 were also checked. Winter Mortality Dead deer searches were made from April 22 through May 23, 1974 on 56 1/8square-mile quadrats. This was an increase of 16 quadrats over the 1973 total. Fifty-eight dead deer were judged as losses of the previous winter for a mean of 1.0 deer per plot, or 5,320 total dead deer on the winter range (Table 4). The sex and age composition of the estimated loss with unknowns apportioned among the various classes was 45 percent male fawns, 38 percent female fawns, 3 percent adult males, and 14 percent adult females. The fawn proportion increased from the 72 percent found in 1973. As before, the estimated winter loss includes an unknown proportion of wounding loss and illegal kill from the previous hunting season. An additional seven carcasses were found on the original 40 quadrats that may have died during the 1972-73 winter and were missed on the 1973 mortality survey. This amounts to a possible eight percent error in finding dead deer that first year and would have increased the 1972-73 winter mortality estimate by 1,064 animals to 12,768. In the future, the crew size is being increased to a minimum of seven people for more thorough plot coverage. �Table 4. Results of dead deer searches on 56 1/8-mi1e2 quadrats on the Piceance winter range during spring, 1974. Quadrat No. }j 2 7 9 10 11 12 13 16 17 21 23 24 25 26 27 32 33 34 35 36 37 40 42 50 52 53 59 62 Hale - - - - - - Adults Female 1 1 - - - 1 - - Unk. Hale Fawns Female Unk. - 1 1 1 - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - - 2 - - - - - - 1 - - 1 1 - 1 - 1 - - 1 - - - 1 4 - - 2 2 2 1 1 1 - - - - - 1 2 1 - - 1 2 Quadrat No. 65 68 70 73 74 75 76 78 81 84 86 87 91 93 95 96 99 101 107 109 110 111 112 114 115 116 118 119 Totals Hale Adults Female Unk. Hale Fawns Female - - - 3 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - - - 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - 1 2 1 1 1 - 1 -- - - Unk. - 2 1 - - 1 - - 1 1 3 6 13 11 24 };./ Quadrats were renumbered in 1974 after the addition of 16 plots. each mortality plot is located within. Numbers correspond to the census quadrat I Vol '" I-' I �-362- LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E. 1965. Population density and structure. P. 47-74. In Game Research Report. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Denver. January {Part 1):1-246. Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. P. 345-350. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wildlife, Denver. July (Part 3):253-377. 1974. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. 380. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. Wildlife, Denver. (Part 2):185-398 • Prepared by ~~---- ... I R. M. Bartm~~ Wildlife Researcher ""-- P. 371July �July, 1975 -363- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-29 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 17 Job No. l Job Title S~y_s_t_e_m_s __M_o_d_e_l_lll_·~g~B_~_·g~G __am __e__P_o~p_u_l_a_t_i_o_n_s Period Covered: Personnel: ~ April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 James F. Lipscomb ABSTRACT Due to a change in work assignments from the Wildlife Research Center to the Division's Planning Office in Denver, work was delayed on the final report of this job. A detailed description of the analysis method will be presented in a manuscript, which is in preparation, to be submitted to an appropriate journal. _ _ ��-365- July, 1975 JOB PROG£'U::SS REPORT COLORADO State of W-38-R-29 Proj ect 1'10. Hork Plan No. Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 18 Job Title Deer and Elk Management Study Period Covered: April 1, 1974 - March 31, 1975 Personnel: l _ Raymond J. Boyd, Thomas M. Pojar, and Bertram D. Baker ABSTRACT Slight adjustments were made in Data Analysis Unit (DAU) boundaries after new data were obtained from the four Regional Biologists. Initial population models were completed on all deer and elk DAU's and a list of basic dat3 needed to initiate the model is included. Special population models were run on three separate occasions for the Wildlife Management section in Denver to assist them in solving problems arising from field recommendations. PART II. Browse utilization-composition and pellet group count data were compiled from records of 557 transects for Uncompahgre deer DAU D19 for the period of 1967-1974 and 631 transects for White River elk DAU E6 for 19631973. Linear correlation regression and t tests were done on deer and elk population parameters of mean animal days per acre use, aerial trend counts, and antlered harvests in exploratory efforts to evaluate them as population indicators. Relationships of key browse utilization and animal days use per acre were also tested to determine correlation coefficients and feasibility of use for prediction equations. In general, lack of both statistical significance and performance credibility provided justification for the recommended conditional discontinuance of the utilization portion of present interagency big game range surveys. Other recommendations are presented concerning the future of the interagency cooperative range program. ��-367- DEER AND ELK ~ANAGEMENT STUDY Raymond J. Boyd Thomas M. Poja~ Bertram D. Baker There has always been a need to quantify management objectives for wild populations. The difficulty of obtaining reliable information upon which to base these objectives has long been realized by wildlife managers. Methods for estimating various population parameters are available using the computer population simulation approach. P. S. OBJECTIVE Devise and test a statewide deer and elk management system. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Divide the state into a system of data analysis units (DAU's) that are deemed practical for gathering and analyzing population data. 2. Based upon currently available information, estimate population parameters. 3. Identify data that are most useful for improving estimates of population parameters and recommend procedures for collecting such data by DAU. 4. Project average population parameters on a long-term basis. for those alternative management plans that are feasible for each DAU. PART I MODELING DEER AND ELK POPULATIONS Initiation of Modeling Procedure Several modeling workshops, supported by the Division of Federal Aid, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, were attended by the regional biologists and the project investigators. These workshops stressed the potential uses in game management of the modeling approach. Several big game populations were modeled during the workshops which demonstrated the type of information necessary to initiate a model and to familiarize those in attendance with the format of the output. In addition, the investigators assigned to this project underwent a period of intensive training, to learn how to initiate and manipulate the model data card deck. To construct a data deck the basic information listed in Table 1 is needed. Most of the items simply involve setting up the calendar of biological events of the species being modeled. In general, this type of information is available for the State of Colorado and is not expected to vary a great deal from one area of the state to another. �-368- Table 1. Checklist of big game population data used to initially set up the model. 1. Initial year the simulation is to start ·and how long the simulation is to run (in our case, we start in 1963 and run for 16 years). 2. Determine length of mortality periods (in our case we set three mortality periods; June 1 to the day before hunting season; the hunting season period; and the day after hunting season through May 31). These three periods are broken down into the percentage of the year they each make up. 3. Choose the minimum age class to receive hunting mortality (in our case, calf or fawn). 4. Choose the minimum age class to receive sex-selective hunting mortality (in our case, yearlings). 5. Choose the minimum age class of males classed as trophies. 6. Estimate the time of breeding. 7. Estimate male·and female wounding loss. 8. Determine time of year when pre-and post-hunt mature/young ratios are counted. 9. Estimate total numbers of males and females in the initial year and set age structure for 10 age classes based upon survival rates from check station aging data. 10. Enter total antlered and antlerless kill for each year in the simulation. 11. Enter average weight of males and females, by age class. 12. Estimate the maximum percent of adult and yearling females that become pregnant. 13. Sex ratio of the young at birth. �-369- For example litter conception dates of 50 mule deer collected (1960-64) from the Cache la Poudre drainage of north-central Colorado were estimated (Anderson 1972). Ninety-six percent of the fawns in these litters were conceived between November 17 and December 22. Approximately 93 percent of 173 litters examined during 1969-72 in Middle Park were conceived from November 16 to December 15 (Gill 1972). Similar results were reported from west-central Colorado during the period 1949-1955 (Anderson and Medin 1966). Therefore, conception dates and consequently fawning dates would seem to be fairly consistent at least in the northern half of Colorado. Other information, such as wounding loss, is known to be a necessary part of the model, but even a crude estimate of the magnitude of wounding loss in Colorado is lacking. Consequently, the number used for wounding loss in the model is the result of opinion tempered with some information reported from studies in Utah (Costley 1948 and Stapley 1971). The two above samples show the extremes in availability of the information used as input data for the model. and consistency Data Analysis Unit Boundary Changes Elk After tagged elk kill returns were analyzed from the 1974 elk hunt, it was obvious that DAU boundaries between E-3 (North Park) and E-8 (Troublesome) would have to be modified. Tag returns indicated that there was considerable elk movement back and forth between units 17 and 18 that was not taken into consideration when the original boundaries were drawn up. Therefore, unit 17 was taken out of the North Park DAU and included within the Troublesome DAV. The North Park DAU now consists of units 6, 7, 16 and 161 while the Troublesome DLV includes units 17 and 18 (Fig. 1). No other changes were made in elk DAU boundaries during the past segment. Deer Three deer DAU boundary changes were made. All of unit 11 was included in D-7 rather than splitting it and putting part in D-6 and part in D-7. Approximately the west one-half of unit 65 was separated from D-25 and called a separate DAU. The northern tip of unit 59 was placed in D-17 rather than D-16. These boundary changes are represented on the DAU map, Figure 2. Initial Population Models Initial population models based on available information since 1963 were run on all deer and elk Data Analysis Units (DAU's) in the state. The 1974 pre-hunt population sizes for all deer and elk DAU's are shown in Figures 3 and 4. All of the models were reviewed at least once with appropriate Regional Game Biologists, with the exception of Northeast Region deer DAU's which have not yet been reviewed. When necessary the models were revised to conform more closely with the characteristics deemed to be most correct �-370- by the biologists. The top ten DAU's (rank based on 10-year average harvest) for both species were reviewed twice with Regional Biologists. These DAU's account for 75.9 and 62.5 percent of the average ten-year harvest of elk and deer, respectively. When reviewing the DAU population simulation with the biologists, each simulated population parameter was carefully scrutinized. In most cases there were no observed data available to compare with the simulated data. To judge how realistic the simulated data were, we relied heavily on comparisons between simulated values and comparable data reported in the literature and on data from other parts of the state. This approach resulted in what was considered the best possible characterization of the population inhabiting each DAU. Examples of simulated population data are presented in the Appendix. Near the end of Segment 29, a more versatile version of the model was made available to the project. This model has the ability to plot the tabled output (Fig. 5) and to plot simultaneously the simulated output and any observed data that is available. It also calculates the R2 value from which the correlation coefficient for the relationship between observed and simulated data points can easily be obtained (Fig. 6). These features of the model enhance the simulation alignment process. Response to Management Problems If the model has been aligned to historically mimic the real population, it can be used to estimate how the population would respond to candidate management strategies. On three occasions during the last segment the modeling approach was used to furnish Game Management with probable consequences of management strategies under consideration. The first case involved a decision of whether or not a post-season in two of the deer DAU's was merited. The second case concerned a management decision on whether or not to close the hunting season in three deer DAU's that had experienced high over-winter mortality for two consecutive years. Several options for attaining desired population goals were generated and provided to Game Management for each of the above situations. In the third case, simulated elk population data at the close of the 1974 elk hunt were used in order to judge whether proposals for post-season hunts in seven elk Game Management Units were justified. Check station data on numbers and sex of all elk taken from these areas were projected by the Wildlife Management Office in Denver to furnish minimum, maximum and mean harvest estimates for each of the seven areas. These harvest data were programmed into existing models of each population, and simulations were run with each harvest figure to estimate popUlation parameters under each situation. The three runs for each area were sent to the Denver Office to assist management personnel in their assessment of potential post-season hunts. These data were made available to Denver one day after receipt of the kill estimates, which is a marked improvement in rate of data processing. �-371- LITERATURE Anderson, A. E. 1972. Xerox. 23p. CITED Summary of results .of the Poudre Deer Study. Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1966. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dep. Game Information Leaflet No. 60. 4p. Costley, R. J. 1948. Crippling losses among mule deer in Utah. Amer. Wildl. Conf., Trans. 13:451-458. N. Gill, R. B. 1972. Middle Park Deer Study - Productivity and Mortality p. 179-198. In Game Research Report, Part II. Colorado Division of Wildlife. :federal Aid Proj. W-38-R-26. Stapley, H. D. 1971. Deer illegal kill and wounding loss. Job Final Report. W-65-R-D, Job A-8, Utah. 6p. Federal Aid ~.~~~ Wildlife Researcher Thomas M. Pojar Wildlife-Researcher �I W " N B Fig. 1. Elk Data Analysis Units. �I W " W I Fig. 2. Deer Data Analysis Units. �140 n 130 en o z 40 .-...- - .-- ct en :::> o :J: ~ a: I .-- 30 '- w w o u.. W .....• ~ .-- .-- .-- o a: w 20 I .-- - r-- CD r-- r-- JE :::> r-- - z 10 r-- .-- r-r-- - - r-- .-- .-- r-- - .-- r--.-- .-- r-- r-- - r-- o I'- Fig. 3. ~ (\J State-wide (\J to 1974 pre-hunt 0 0 If) (\J to (1) (\J deer population v (\J v I'(\J (\J (\J (1) DEER DAU NUMBER estimate - by simulation. I'- o If) 658,782 If) If) If) (\J If) CD (\J total animals. (\J If) It) to C\I It) If) (\J �25 u>20 0 Z <t , (f) ::> 0 ::I: 1 II -' I 15 w -...J Vl : I W LL 0 ex: 10 W !D ~ ::> z 5 OB I II II U) rO II V - II 10 N II II N N II!I V N N rO II rO rO II U) N II 10 - II U) - II 0 en rO N II II I'- ELK Fig. 4. II II ~ 0 AU ~ II II II ~ II II II .- II II II II -.- NUMBER State-wide 1974 pre-hunt elk population estimate - by simulation. 134,417 total animals. IDODCJCJ �'.'800. ~~=~C~S&~C~&.&~S&C.CCC=&&CC&.&C~==C&C=~&c.&.&a&cc.:c.c.C&C&&&&==~C 1 ! 1 •• CUC~.C& ••• &~~~~.~~'.7C~~'" _ ••• _. 1 ! '2~ao. 1---- • ! ! , "1:---- , '200. " " " '~40(). I!---- " " %00.0 ~ ~ • t!---- ~ " . -- B ~ ~ ~ B B , B B " -··_··a • " • B -- r. 4 ( ( ( ~ o " " " ( ( " ( " 0 ( B• a---- -----. 0 0 B '200. - ... B B 1:l~OO,() " B !!---- ~ 88()()./) ~ 0 [ D ---~~ D 0 f,4()/),() ( B t!". - - - ( ----a " 0 ( r.6()(). () • • • • 0 0 ----. , o 1 48()0.(I C~~~&&~~t~c~~C&C&c~&.&a.&.cccc.c '960.(1 1 1 , , , 1 , 1968.0 1966.d '972.0 1970.0 1916.0 '914.0 • 198~.0 1978.0 T 11>£ Fig. 5. .• ••• cc •• && •••••••••• & •• &.c=c.&.cccc=c~~=~C&C~===~&c==cuc====c==~c~=c~& '96'.'0 '962.0 " " 0 ~ " .---- " Example of a computer plot of big game population data taken from Table 2 in Appendix. I W ~ ~ I �======~~====~=~===~:===========~===================================c=====================~=======~== 2?7SP. ~ ill 1 1 :=. s 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , = 1 1 1 = = == 1'105::>. = = 1Cl341,. == =-.:--~ 1503". = . _ .._ 17F,4L•... __ .. = == s, , ::, ~ ;: = , .... ;----, }422Cl. /\ ./- = = \ ./ '9' = = \ -\ .. \ 12523 •..... \ \ \. 10817. == ,, = = = = 9111.6 == = = HOS.@. '- == <;700.0 :==================:==========================~ 1 <H, <. r lq",,,,.n 11= 11= 11; ~================================:=================== lQ7'.O 196°.(1 19,,7,<; 1'-11'4.5 1971\." 107".0 lq7~.5 lQ78.0 1976.0; TI~F POST-Y4RV~ST Table 6. -...J -...J I \ '._ I W (C~TTW"1 Example of a computer PODUlATln~ StZF plot of observed rS=sIMuLATEO.o:DEpnoTFDI and simulated population D~QR= .015 sizes with the R2 value also computed. ��-3'19- APPENDIX ��-381- ============================================================ ============================================:===========:=== = =s = RESULTS 01=" I MUJ-A1J ('IN TP I AL ~-!IJ~"RE~ __ I. ~ ============================== ========================= . = .._ .. __ .. E::UC SPF:CIES . -.0_" = ========================= ================:=========================================== ============================================================ 1 ============= AGE CLASS STZES AT START OF EACH VEAR ================:===========================~=============== ============================================================ ==== ====== 1963 2000.0 1964 2048.~ -1965 _2285: 81966 2391.7 1967 2411.9 --1968 2409-~4 1969 2~61.3 1970 2276.? -.-1971 24 37 ~5 -)972 2557.5 1973 2206.6 1974 2164.7 1975 2697.? 1976 22C)4.3 1977 2064.4 1978 2045.6 AGE CLASS YEAR ==== ====== 1963 1964 1965 291.0 313.4 4n'i.t; 19M) 487.1', 1967 1968 1969 1970 59"., 567.3 573.4 6;>1',.0 1971 63').1', 1912 }973 f-Jt;f).r) 1q74 1975 lCl76 19-,7 }q78 _1\15. ________ ~14 YEAR ====== ====== (H8.0 171}f1.0 16')1.1 1312.'i 1235.2 1218.9 1369.3 . 14qq.3 1495., 1::l89.1 1257.9 1531.8 1679.1 llQO.9 1603.1 If,14~q 2012.1 1681.7 16-28.-9-- 1801',.5 1889.4 ,9f9~r 1899.? 1 78~. 1 -180i;;-~~ 1941.1 ?,023.4 1740-. (, }753.4 2184.7 182f,.O 167?2 ~IZES AT sTAIn OF EACH ._ ----------- ----------- 614.0 412.0 7 C; '_1.? lO::l~.c; 647.4 A05.6 _____ J9? 94?1 ~ ~ n •~ .?~_~ __ .J 110".5 766.1 117A.8 A74.~ II 09 •f, A8q •c:; 1016.0 ~?6.7 IOC;1.R 859.9 12? 1 •A______ "56.4 1?96.3 955.6 IlnJ.CJ 1195.1 l476.6 __)1\ 19_.6 14R7.t; 1160.3 )~C:;~.4 1~70.3 YEAR (CONTTNlIED) t-.17 NR t-IO ====== ====== ====== , J4.0 ====== At;.o '?c;.o 13~.? ql.R 1 H\C:;.~ 111.0 21 1 • n 239., 2AI;.C:; 311., 37".9 467.1 42q.4 45C:;.1 504.1 154.0 175.4 1~3.S 20Q.4 ?44.' 2~7.'? 357.7 320. : 31?7 36'"'.7 66".1\ 619.5 i:l19.7 l022.A 879.1 5r.f,.-:) 39?~ 500.4 387.;t 432.7 1162.(1 7SA.3 41q.A 551., 7(n.c; 87,.4 475.7 6(l4.!1 749.7 '~A.7 ,lC;9.9 q, .? ??4.n ?f"~.1 '?}C:;.C:; ?4':'." '.l7A.4 ?Q?4 "'l:::»4.7 '16:::».6 1Q7.7 1:;(\".5 . 97.~ 1?4.7 143.q 16".9 195. , lR4." 1 R6.1 "'1'16.9 ?43.:I ?f,9.9 1'11.' 12Q.R .__ . _ _ _ �-382- ======================================================:===== ============================================================ T A - 8 L E ? ============= - .. -.... ------ --------.. . -_ _---.. .- .-- POPULATION NUM~EP AT BEGINNrN~. PRFHARVE~T. °O~T~APVEST AND END OF YFAR = = = = = =====~==-~:= ==: ~::==:=::= == =-====::::=:==:: == ===-== =:: == = = ==:::===== ====- -------------------------=====================================~====================== C === ( _ ~JZf AT ( I t ~ C • YEAR STAPT ==== --1963 1964 1965 6559.0 123R.6 1932.3 ----- -rqtj6- - 84jr~-7 1967 1968 ---i969 1970 1971 --j"qj2 1973 1974 1975 )976 ]977 8817.4 9342.1 9437.2 924".5 ___9L?i? 7 _ .99115.6 _10010.9 9374.2 10722.5 11384.5 11807.7 1~12t3.4 ]q18 === SIZE ~ __ PREHUNT --------- 6325.7 6990.7 765~_.;l 8136.':' 8532.9 ______ ,!O~?_~_.3 9126.7 8937.1 _ ~~_55.5 9t;67.~ 9f.9?5 9065.6 --}C14~. 6 1]027.9 11447.6 -1 "75-1 •.., D --- --- SIZE AT POSTHUNT =:= PERCENT ___~_l7E _ . OT END .~.::==.== ===== C H "N G E (BAC:;EO ON STAPT) ....========::; .. 5620.3 519~.4 /).0 l'112.8 564".~ 10.4 6.<)J ~ • n Q54:~.6 _____ 9. F, ._. _ F-971 .5 64ct;.C; F,.3 7521.A 69'3:;1.1=1 4.q 7?_~6.6 _.lJ]C:;.9 5. 1 _ -1573.5 697n., l.t} 7332.2 67315.3 -c.O 80_()5.0 __7_:34A.1 - --------------~- -~----------8490.6 7804.4 8.0 7849.4 721)9.~ 1.1 ~749.3 _.___ ~(l?5. , ______ .- 6.4 _ 9915.4 9131'1.~ 14.4 10634.Q 9741.1 6.~ 11026.0 . 3.1. _J OO}9.~ ___ 1l3{\2.~ 1(l3tl~.f 2.7 _ .. ( _ t: _ E •••••••• __ ._ 0·0 ~ .__ �-383- ==========================================:~==========:===== ==========================================~================= T .A '3 l E 3 - ============= ... OF A I\JTLERlE 5S AN IMAL <; IN EACH AGe' CONTAINED IN HARV~5T r-!11~8EQ CLASS =========================================~~========~======== ==============================~==========~=~==========:===== YEAQ N1 1'1i? ~J3 ==== ====== ======= 27.f-l .___~c; .3 ====== 1963 1964 196~ 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1914 1975 1976 1977 1978 17.7 31.6 47.2 51.8 36.~ C;4.9 47 .• 7 39.7 28.6 50.4 4q.f) .0 ... - ._ .. ... 71 .7 ,?:;>.O - 80.::? 73.4 __?7. 3A.R 70.4 c __ !i?_~3._ .0 .0 .1} .n 20.7 43.~ ~3.1 55.1 42.1 69.1 62.9 51. q 33.3 58.0 68.0 .0 .1 61 .6 .0 .n ._- . .---~I) .!l '.0 .... _"-_ ... _-_.- NIJ~BEP CLASS "J4 ----------- OF FEMALES cnNTAINE~ ----------- lS.r:; 3? .~ 11. S 24 •!L_. _ S".C; 17.5 47.6 :3? •6 44.9 .0 2 7. B __ - -42.9 43.7 37 .cL 2S.F-J 44.7 .___ 47.5 .0 .0 () .• I) . ._._ ..•0. • I} .0 .n .0 .0 •• 1'1 . c;~.3 _ 1:)4.? 4 4 •4 __ 3n.? 49.7 ~_5~. 0 .. .n I"l EACH At';F: IN HARVEST(~0NTINUED) N6 N7 N8 ---- ====== ====== ------ lq63 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 916 1977 1978 ~.~ 16.q 26.4 31.~ 24.A "34.6 ::n .n ~8.9 20.7 '3t;.8 . ---_ 6.5 .. 12.7 P~.5 2~.2 17.5 30.g 25.') 20.q 11:).8 2q.1) 3?4 .- 4.7 9.~ 13.t5 .__ .. -. 15.1 11.q 21.1 22.!J 16.1 .0 .0 .n .0 .0 .0 .0 .n ____ 2.6 "-----.----_ 4.9 7.0 ...- •..... - . ' 9- .7 •• .. -_ q.s 7.4 11.6 ---------- .. ...- --- . 11.n - ./') .0 .n .n .t) .0 . -.-... •....._-_. .0 .0 .0_ _.--_ ...-- ...• .---_._._-- -_.- ---_ .. , .. 9.7 10.1 ----_.'- ... l~.A ,. .... S.A FI.6 .0 .1) . A.l It;.O .1) .... __ ._-----. 14.4 It;.t'J 14. 1 ------_._- ----------- 1,.7 o.B 11. n _ ~!10 3.5 11 •1 21.4 25.4 .0 .0 .0 .0 40.4 .n ====== .._.. __ _-----_._---_._._--_ --_ .• P<.jq YEAR .__ ~. ----- - --". .. -- - --. - �-384- ==================================:========================= ==~=================================================== ====== TAg L E 4 =~=========== NUM8EO OF ANTL~PED ANI~AlS CLASS CONTAINED IN H~pVFqT IN EAC~ AGE ===~======================:====~==================~:======== ====================::=================~===========:===:===== YEAR 1 ==== 1963 ====~= •n N::>. :===== 231.4 1964 1965 1966 1967 19n8 1969 1q70 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 lq76 1977 1q78 .n _20?_.JL_ .1) .n 227.3 210.6 __1q5 •. _5..._ lqR.q 296.7 341 __ 4- ____ 95.8 4S.5 .n. _f>lQ .7 __ .0 '\! .0 • Q_--- .n .0 •.n .t) .,:, ._--. .0 .IL ~n -----93.4 138.q 149.::, 133.4 124.2 139.3 213.1 221.2 78.q 136.4 188.5 _ .0 .0 .0___ .0 .0 .0 .n "' .--"---- NU~RER r-Jf, ---- ====== 1963 1964 19115 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Iq74 1975 1976 1977 1978 t;.q 7.9 14.7 :?l .c; 2q.o VI.l 4q.2 ~1.5 ?1. 1 ?~.c; 34.n 1B.3 .n. .n 2?8 .0 .0 .0 .0 •n .0 .n • f) _2l.8 .n - -----. -----. (! .0 .~ .4 .q .. __ 1.1 1 .4 ~.4 '=.5 co.o l?l 7.1 10.5 14.5 4.1 5.4 ._._---. .... ._- -n 0 ====== • 0 ___ "_._-- -.0 ----------- -.--- --- .1 ._ ..... .- .- .. ~., 3.1 4.? .0 .0 ./} .1" .0 .n ---- '-----_ •.. .1 -------.---.. -______ •4_--- -------._--- .. .5 .9 ....... -._---2.3 .. --_._-_ ----.4.3 .n .n ....••.. __ ----------._.- -_._-- --._---- ------_._----- "---"'- .0 .0 .0 -. ---- .------_ . ----- .-.. "---- --- _------_.- .'.-._.'-"- R.l .0 .r} . .n ====== - .•. n .n .n ~.•-.. --- --_. .. .0 .0 NQ ]8.4- .... __ .n . 1 .1 2.? 2.8 3.Q 6.9 _._--------- . . IN EACH AGE IN HARVF5T(C~NTINU~O) ====== ____ .8 .. - .0 ====== . n;:>.? -_ .. N8 ----- --- -.-.- ___ _._------- --------_.- .40.0 P,7., 5R.7 71.8 _46.2 -- -.. _----- _._-p,R.S 50.1 14Q.3 q?.Q -158.9 ---- -- ---1- 09. n -------------_ _- -------t;1 .1. 3n.f) 6R .•l 43.::> .---1-19.3 -------.--58.:1 ....• ._-----.- ---- ._-------- .0 N7 2./0. ___ 3.2 5.3 7.9 10.6 lR.q 2q.~ 33.6 13.4 , 37.::1 SI5.6 .0 OF MALF~ CL,sS CONTAINED YEAR ====== __0 ___ . ',15 =::==== 14.'5 "14 .0 .0 .. -----_._----_ .... . _.-. . ---_ .. - -.-- �===================== ============================= ============================= -385- ===================== 5 T A 8 L E =============. ·TOTALS A~O PERCENTAGES ANn FE~AlE~ HAPVESTEO OF MAL~~ AND IN HaRVE~T ===================================================~======== ============================================================ === === NU"1gFP OF YEAR I( (:' I' f\1l.JM~EP FEM.ALES HI HAPVF~T TN HAP\jtS·T HApVEST ======= ()F TN ======= 11 o , _ .. - 3q7. 448. S660 17.4 _ _..- _ 17.3 19.3 S7~. 1 ~ .!.g. __ . 501. 563. 14.9 8A~.!,. 984. 326. ... ..• ... ,·5.6 ?~_~..EL ?A.l === PFq("Ei'JT OF . PEPCF:~!T MALES OF TOTilL POPIJLATION ------------5n7• ========== ======= 2~A ?1l. 4.q 101. "33:1. ?41. .387. 362 • ~.S "301. TnrAL TOUL FEMALE<=; NUMRF:° IN IN HARVEST HAOVFC;T 6.8 4.7 7.2 ...6.•q 5.6 3.7 6O:;Q. 867. 91l~. 74? •. 950. .J 244 e .; _ l?A;. 532. .745. 1494e n. 9.9 '0.2 ?7.4 :"06. 3f>1. 409. .0 ..• 0 .0 (). O. o, .0 fl. 0• n. • (; 0 •• .0 n. o. _.•0 O. .0 O. 38~. 1085. 19i'6 1977 1978 PEQCENT nF T"TAL MflLES ======= 1963 19(A 1965 1966 i967 1968 :969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1915 E D A 6.3 7.1! .0 .0 H' HflPVEST B.l 9.5 ]1.4 Ll.2 8.8 10.6 ._13.•7 14.5 6.1 0_·'· _ ••• • • _ 7.8 15.5 .0 ...• 0 .0 .0 .0 ...... 0_--·_·_--_··- ....----- ..-.- ..-. �================================, ================================~ T A 8 L E ============= TOTALS ANn - -AND PEPCEf\;T -386£, AG~S nF A", T L E P L E 5 S H A R V E c:; T E ('l ::=================== ~==================== ANT'-~RFD 11N f) pJ HAP V ~ S T ======================================================:::===: = �-387- ============================================================ ====~======================================================= T A 8 I E ============= 7 pEPCENT~GE OF MAL~S TN ~G~ CLASSFS AT START nF HUNTrN~ ==================================:==:====================== ============================================~=============== YEAR N1 I\I? 1\;1 ==:= 1963 1964 ====== C:;0.0 ====== ====== 3.•.• 5 ------ 19h5 19~6 S11. n 41.6 41.0 27.5 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 c:;o.n 49.7 49.7 49.7 49.7 4°.7 49.7 49.7 49.7 49.7 49.7 4q.7 49.7 49.7 ~9. 7_.. 49.7 49.7 SO.O SI).n 511 •.0 50.a SO.n. So.n SO.n 50.n 51).0 50.0 5('.0 So.n So.n _. 4-?1'. 43.1S 44.f1 45.4 41.4 3.3.? 47.4 50.0 27.6 49.2 49.2 49.? 49.? ~.!'" ;>?('I ~IS ----------- l/'\.A 1?9 16.7 2?' ?A.7 30.4 31.R 14.;> 32.3 26.'1 It...4 ;n.1 43.4 4C:;.n ;>7.;;> 30.? 111.":1 44.2 26.6 47.9 -47.9 "=IC:;.? ~.;.? ~';.7 ~A.tS 41~. , :F.? 4g.7 4A.7 4R.7 - pERCENTdGt: 0F fl.1ALESIN AGE rLllSSEC:; OF HUNT rNG (CONTI r.JIII='O) AT START YEAR \if, ------- ==::=== 1963 7.4 1964 19,,5 }'<66 1967 lC168 1969 1970 lq71 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 ]978 9.4 13 ••n 17.3 ;:>3.", :?C:;.~ ;>7.6 ?f).7 22.c; 2'3.3 23.M ?">.1 :n.l 4 j •1 ?S.~ (, f., • ,Co. "'7 N8 NO "'to -====== --~-------- ----------- ::.::===== 4.2 1.9 3." ~9 1 .4 .t:.. 4.1 ?3 1 •() 5.S -.('1 1.7 7.Cl 11. S 17." 4.? e,., ?4 ':; "- 21 • t) 1'1.;;> ] f:. • 9 1? .•5 7.f) ]4. , R. 1 19.c; 20.2 i 5 .,~ lC'l.A cS.l 17 •, 19.4 , 1 • /'\ 1 ? •1 11.S 14. 1 3A.) 4;:>.1 24.9 24.9 3S.~ 41 •<; 5., 7.2 9.9 11.A 19.1) 2?.7' 17. I 9.e, 1':'.5 1".7 .0 . 5., 9.4 1('1.4 11. ? J3.7 If,.r. ?4.f'l lB.? ,':".7 ;;> •• 4 �-388- f ==============================~======================= :===== =====================================================:====== '- T 8 L E A ===========::= OF YOUNG PPOOIJrED INDIVIDUAL AND CO~8IN~D NuMqF:P ( c _________ 8_ --____YDUNG - pFP ADIJLT ( YEAR ( ------- ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( e .f. " I * ( ( ( ( _:"". ""-- YOIINr, Y('lUNG YOUNG PER PER YEAR. PER AV!="PAGE FA\.jN I='F:~ALE ~F-~ALE AT BIPTH AT RlPTH ----------- 1963 .95 1964 •9, 1965 .9S -1966 .93 1967 .88 1C) &(~ .82 19b9 .fil 197() _____________ .83 !971 .R4 1q72 .7(-, 1973 .• 74 1974 .82 1975 .6~ 1976 .5~ FH7 .C,3 1978 ( --- Y_OUI\lt; __ fF-~ALE -----n.oo E D ( ,t ~LASSEc == = = = = = = == == = = = = == =~:; = == == = = = =.:; ~.=== = = = = = =:: = = = = = = = = == = == = = = = = = _...__._===========~================================================ ( • pc-p AG~ 0.00 .~() •~0 - - PER AvERAGE FFMALE Ftf-1t1Lf __ AT aT 6. T pD!="_ DOST- BIRTH HUNT ====== .======~. n.on o.on _(l •0 0______ .c:;q .513 .58 .~fl 0.(\0 .57 .?,A 0.00 o .0(, __ .SS .?O .10 0.00 .52 .48 .nF. 0.00 .48 •l? {I. 0 Q .14 0.00 0.00 .51 .51 .43 .43 o • {HI (l.on o.on 1).00 .t;l .40 G. 0 (\ (l.on .35 (,.(1(\ o.on .34 _ HUNT --------- ---- - ------- .61 .57 .61 .61 .137 .55 .51 .130 .53 .54 .46 .44 .52 .• 40 .36 __ .35 _ _ �-------====================== ( -- ~======================= -389- T A 8 L E 9 ============= ( ============================================================ ============================================================ A ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( -.---.. _.--_.:: = --- B --- c --- t~ALES YOUNG TOThL (u(1t. (AGE YEt,p. CLASS 2+) CU\2.~ 1) ANI) PER lon PEo 1co AOlH_T ~EMALEc; ~~AL F.s F E ~~A Lf C; (AGF:: (AGE (AGF YR CLASS 2+) CLASS 2+) CLASe; ~+) ========= -- --------44.8 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 -70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 49-:0 52.4 54.f, 57 ~l 59.6 62 •• 2 56 .• Q 49.6 56~fl 63~5 54.7 63.5 71~7 77.3 81.'5 5Q.2 54-:-8 57.5 57.2 ========= 1390.4 IAAO.2 1910.P '2')97.4 55~-(f-· 2297.~ 2'545.7 51.8 47.7 2703.A 4-]-:-8- 24A2.9 50.5 2193.6 50.9 2('10.6 2Q7q.4 43.2 2'3(\4.4 43.4 51.4 30S7.? 3739.9 39.6 3,;;;.2 41f,5.4 34.5 4433.3 D F --- --- TOTAL T(lTAL ADULT FEMALES YEAPLING F Hill l. F. C; F --- - . _. -'----0-.-_- __ ·_,___ ._ -·--0- ._P. • .0 ___ TnTAL Y()lJ!lIG (AGr (AGE (lIGF. CLASe:; ~) i.LAS~ 3 +) CLIle:;S 1 ) =======:= ======== ??t;7.0 ?A16.n ?A::I9.2 ~Q46.A ~()1=\4.8 -=!::-19.(\ ~4(16.0 '3479.7 3';;;~9.7 ":lA44.? ::l6P4.9 ":1711.7 3946.9 4136.0 44~?3 4611.9 18::1C::;.2 __ _-1879.5 2097.5 '2196.L_. ---. ------.- - ..----. -22,1.2 '22}O.9 207_SO!J!___ ....__________ ._. ___ 20BA.7 22~6.7 ?34A _.8 ..---~, _- _. --".,_.,._ .. 20~4.8 19p('.4 2475.0 _____ ~OAA.6 1894.3 1877 •• 1 ._.--_._., -- -. -- ======== 843. ) 795.0 8(17.8 R95.9 _ 937.0 Qt:;1.7 941.9 ~85.8 895.5 965.A 11)03.4 863.2 A6q.6 1()8~.4 905.5 829.3 .. _ .. .. . ---p .., . ... .. " __ . .. .. ----. �================================ ============================~=== -390io TABLE :======:=======:===== ~=====~=====:========= ============= . P('lS THlJ~ITI Nr,-SE A SON MANAGr:/~r:tlJT ST ~ T T S T r CS ================~=========================================== = = = = = = = =-~=::-~.= =- = = = == == = =~ = = = = = == = = = = = = = = ~ = = :: = = = = = = = = == ~ =:: A B C === ::== M~L~S Y0UNG === TOTAL (AGE (~GE YEAR. CLASS 2+ 1 PERfo-n FEMALES CL~<;S II -r6-n----- PER FEMALES CAGE Ct.0.S __ . YR CLASS -i+-,- CLASS 2+l AND Af)UL T ~ALES . (AGF CLASS 2+) D r F TOTAL_ TOTAL tlDtlL T FE"MALt:S T0TAL Y(')llr-.IG YFAPL H!G Fr=:~AtlL ES (AGF ( ~GE __ Cl.~<;S 2) CLt.SS 3+l _-- ::::-=::====== =======::.;= ======== ---------- -----_ .. 63 ---64 65 ,( 66 67 68 69 70 11 I( 73 '74 i( 72 75" 76 \ { 77 78 . ( 33.5 38 •. 7 40.8 44.2 48 •• 1 Sl •• 8 4~_;-_Q ____ 3~~9 45.1 53.5 __ . 44.4 55.7 64.6 72'.9 78.7 82.7 ..... 6;' 5_---- 970.] 57.1 1;;:»09.A 60.9 1~22.6 6 .T ___ J ~!1? • :=; 57.3 17A}.2 5~.2 1949.2 5 0 .~. ____ t772. L 50.5 1444.7 5~.6 1.'126.5 54.1 21R7.Q 4A.2 lR~8.1 43.7 2443.'5 5;.8 2977.} 40~O------364-2. Q 3r:;.5 41l4Q.? 34.9_:. __ 4294.f- n =:: ': == ( fI Gt: CLASS . ----------------- ==:===== Q04.7 __ 20Q2.3 7J~.~ ;:>3~3.3 734.1 ?S11.2 17,3.2 17ql.4 1975.6 H}n.A 2066 •.3 __ .__ 2098 •.9 g7?O R57." gS4.1 _ II __ ._ ?5Q2.0 ?7R9.9 ~9"3.4 _ 2993.8 '~06.9 _ ?077.0 .__19C;3•.3 ..__._.__.. _. . = r s ,» 1974.R 844.8 1204., 21?9.4 MA".9 32118.9 221 ? B _.____ ___. ~05.j:J 3211.7 19n3.6 ~5"3.'; ~S~4.7 1917.6 '159.9__ . 1749 •2_ _ 2389 •2. 11)71.4 39?3.7 1996.9 RQS.C; 42r:;2.6 18?A.7 '12(1.0_ 437C5.C; lAl2 •.1 _ _ _ __ ._ �============================== ( .:============;======== T A 8 '- ============:: SU •..• MARy ( - - PRII\JTOUT OF TRIAL ============================================================ ============================================================ C 0- === =:-= E .---:---- TOT ~I_ ( TOT !I_ --Af\jII'-11.L ( ·"7-- TRIAL --------- KILLEn ------------- TOTAl_ VALUE TOTAL >.1ALE.S '<ILLEO ==::== ====== -TROPHY 1 TRooHV TOTAL. ~tlL~S FFMflLFS KILI_F'n KILLEn =====:= ~221.6 =====-= ( ( TRIAL ===== 1 c , , TOTllL POUNns ME:ilT PROOUCED ---------------4450158.9 USr:D U~En o. ====== --------- -------- ======= -:16514.1 3n764.6 K L === TOTAL REFUGr:: BENf~TT UNTTe; ------------.'107F+OR AtJMC; 6750113.S TOTAL ANIMALS DYING PROf)UCEO 1 TOTI\L TOTI\L --------- ==::== TOTAL ---------ENI:PGY J TRIAL TRIAl. H t YOI'''II; 1 G REFUGE RENEFIT UNTTS (FRO"'1 SALfS) M === REF '-'t:; f. Bt:NEF IT UNTTS (F ROI>l IJC;F:) ------- -------------- .9G1F+OA .491F+(l8 N --REFUGf RE'JE~rT UNITS (FPOM STOrK) ======= .993F+(I4 ------- . . -_.- - . ��-393- PART II EVALUATION OF INTERAGENCY BROWSE UTILIZATION AND PELLET GROUP COUNT METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION For several years the Colorado Division of Wildlife has surveyed deer and elk ranges in Colorado cooperatively with the federal land management agencies, primarily the U. S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management. The methodology of these surveys has been detailed previously (Denney 1962). The stated intent of the system is to measure changes in carrying capacity of big game winter ranges over time. Generally, the methods employed consist of measuring or ocularly estimating utilization (expressed as percentages of current annual growth) of selected "key" shrub species on selected "key" winter range sites. The term "key" implies that both selected shrub species and selected winter range areas are of primary importance in maintaining the particular big game populations utilizing them. Several deficiencies in this approach to estimation of carrying capacity seem obvious. First the selection of key areas for sampling predestines biased information. The patterns of animal distribution throughout large expanses of so-called winter range are complex and dynamic (Gilbert et al. 1972; Lynch 1974; Bergerud 1974) making the term "key area" ambiguous if not meaningless. For instance in Middle Park, Colorado snow depths appeared to regulate duration, intensity, and patterns of winter range use by mule deer. Some areas which were used heavily and for prolonged periods during deep snow winters were practically unused in the winters of shallow snow accumulation (Gilbert et al. 1972). Those areas which were subjected to heavy, prolonged use in deep snow winters would have been classed as "key areas" according to the Interagenc.y Range Evaluation system and, thus, would have been selected for sampling while those areas that were most intensively used in light snow winters would not have been sampled at all. Conversely, in heavy snow winters deer would concentrate on key areas with resultant evidence of overutilization suggesting ranges were overstocked. In both situations the conclusions would likely be erroneous for several reasons. First, little is known of the contributions of various zones of the winter range in maintaining deer in winter. It is far from certain that "key areas" are any more important to the winter survival of deer t han areas used earlier in the winter. Consequently, sampling procedures which measure selected attributes of key areas only do not reflect the contributions of the total winter range complex. Secondly, the interagency method probably does not even reflect the contributions of the key areas. This is because both sampling methodology and intensity are deficient. Also since only selected species of browse are measured, the method ignores the contributions of unmeasured browse species and herbaceous forbs and grasses. �-394- The previous discussion suggests that interactions between big game animals and their winter ranges are complex and poorly understood. To assume that a simple, easy, quick system can be developed to predict directions and magnitude of these interactions is unwise. Any scheme for estimating carrying capacity of big game on winter ranges must be based upon: a thorough knowledge of the vegetation species that contribute to the total diet of big game animals, an understanding of the nature of their individual and collective contributions, insights into factors that effect changes in the relative contributions of each forage species (snow, temporal changes in palatability and digestibility, big game range use patterns, etc.), and nutrient requirements of each big game species. It is not surprising that tests of the efficacy of the interagency system of big game range evaluation or similar systems have been negative (Bartmann and McKean 1969; Mackie 1975). A discussion of an empirical evaluation of the system as used on the Uncompahgre Plateau and the Upper White River drainage follows, but again the results are not encouraging. METHODS Procedures for obtaining browse utilization and pellet group count information evaluated in this report are described elsewhere (USDA Forest Service 1968). Despite official acceptance and application of the techniques, individuals and factions of all three agencies have intermittently been critical of the program. Some minor changes have been effected sporadically, but methodology has remained essentially the same since about 1960. As recent as 1968 (Bartmann, Kufeld), formal proposals for research and development of range methodology have been made. Those proposals never materialized, probably because estimated time needs ranged from 4 to 10 years. Thus, notwithstanding the obviously deficient time available for more thorough study here, task force and supervisory staff felt that an attempt should be made now to reawaken interest in the problem. Within the short 1-1/2-year span remaining for operation, it was deemed infeasible to accomplish new field work. So, the next most logical alternative was to evaluate existing data. First in order was determination of how much, where, and from whom information would be solicited. Previously mentioned time limitations pegged data needs small, which also meant that, at most, only a few areas of the state could be represented. Coincidental with quantity aspects of data selection was also who might have the best quality, especially over time. Quality through time was critical because of needs for determining existence of valid trends in forage utilization and deer and elk stocking indexes from pellet group counts. Picking satisfactory data sources very obviously depended upon subjective judgment, undesirable but necessary for doing this type of study. In addition to finding usable browse transect data, perhaps next most important was the need for areas also having deer and elk population data. That meant using information based primarily on aerial counts for trend or sex and age tallies fundamental to change-in-ratio total estimations. �-395- Excepting the Middle Park Deer Management Study Area, which is under separate intensive populations investigations, foregoing population information needs immediately reduced the choice to two usable areas. Of the two, one area is the upper White River Basin. The other area is the Uncompahgre Plateau. White River Area The upper White River country in the Division Northwest Region is a locale of much past and continuing study and management effort regarding elk populations and habitat. Complicating evaluation of animal and forage use relations here, however, is the presence of substantial deer numbers in joint tenancy with elk. This dual range OCcupancy is yet more the rule than the exception in Colorado. Thus, examination of White River area data was felt to be advantageously representative of statewide conditions. And, wherever analyses demanded, compensating allowances were possible to accommodate for the dual range use happening. I began compiling range data in March 1974 by exam1n1ng records filed at the White River National Forest Supervisor's office in Glenwood Springs. Information was available there for territory corresponding with Big Game Management Units 25, 26, 33, and 34. The White River National Forest Blanco Ranger District office in Meeker was next visited for Units 23 and 24 data. Routt National Forest Bears Ears and Yampa Districts' offices, respectively, in Craig and Yampa, yielded data for Units 12, 13, and 26. Except for supplementary 1974 data for Units 23 and 24 obtained in November 1974 from Blanco District Ranger Dale Harthan and Range Conservationist Dan Sommers, the Craig and Yampa offices data compilation completed transfer of needed big game range records. The eight units mentioned in these paragraphs comprise elk Data Analysis Unit (DAU) E6. Time span of DAU E6 records study was arbitrarily chosen to be 10 years, extending from 1964 through 1973 (excepting 1974 Units' 23 and 24 data previously mentioned). As will be seen later, there was little consistency in transect sample sizes, particularly before 1969. Uncompahgre Area The Uncompahgre Plateau in the Division Southwest Region has long been a very important deer area. In spite of recent noticeable gains in elk population numbers, dual winter range use by deer and elk apparently is still comparatively limited. Uncompahgre Big Game Management Units 61 and 62 range records were essentially complete in Regional Biologist Hal Burdick's files, with data gaps easily filled by goi11g nearby to the Montrose BLM District office. Units 61 and 62 comprise deer Data Analysis Unit (DAU) D19 (or elk DAU E20). �-396- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Numbers of transects read by big game unit by year are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The tables also combine unit data into data analysis unit totals, respectively, for DAU E6 (White River elk) and DAU D19 (Uncompahgre deer). The purpose of presenting sample size information is that information was pertinent to initial discussions of approaches to data analyses with Statistician Dave Bowden and task force coworkers Ray Boyd and Tom Pojar. In addition to lacking confidence because experimental design was not evident in the big game range methodology, Dr. Bowden was critical of the extreme variability in sample numbers from year to year. Data Analysis Unit E6 samples were particularly poor in that respect. Excessive sample size variation, added to lack of experimental design, inadequately trained and supervised personnel, and inherent transecting weaknesses were very discouraging factors from the outset. Besides, I had participated in annual reading of transects with Southeast and Southwest Region field personnel (Boeker and Baker 1960; Denney 1961, 1962) for several seasons and observed methodology diversions that hindered making and applying valid management conclusions for which I understood the techniques were intended. Strong initial discouragement notwithstanding, data were subjected to statistical tests by assuming, though questionable, ordinary requirements of acceptable scientific inquiry had been met. Consequently then, specific findings from testing for the two areas follow, with White River data being treated first. White River Area A regression of White River elk DAU E6 aerial elk trend (Y) versus mean elk days per acre (X) for the ten years of 1964-1973 (Tables 3,4) was an attempt to evaluate these estimators of true elk population trend. There was no significant relationship (P>.20) between the two estimators (r = .381, 8 df). So, one of the estimators could be good while the other is poor, or neither estimator is good (Pojar pers. corom.). In a second approach, antlered elk harvest (excluding Units' 23 and 24 data) (Y) versus mean elk days per acre (X) were tested. Resulting was r = .636, which is not significant (P >.05, 7 df). Although not based upon nor involving range transect data, another regression was computed (Pojar pers. corom.) from information shown in Table 3. That test compared DAU E6 aerial elk trend (Y) versus antlered elk harvest (X) for years 1964 through 1973 (also excluding Units' 23 and 24 antlered harvest data). A resulting r = .595 was not significant (P> .05, 7 df). Units' 23 and 24 data were excluded from this and previously mentioned tests because bull licenses were issued in restricted numbers through "specified elk season" procedures. Unrestricted hunter selectivity on male elk thus was not effected, necessitating use of data only from the six adjoining management units where free-choice antlered elk hunting was allowed. Estimators of DAU E6 true elk population trend that were tested and had results presented in preceding paragraphs are of questionable value. Techniques �-397- inadequacies already discussed, plus lack of continuity of personnel and virtual nonexistence of quality control across too great an area and over several agency administrative subunits were probable factors acting to prevent any success in trying to find reliable indexes to elk population numbe rs . Not yet willing to concede to desperation from results given in previous paragraphs, I decided to attempt analysis of some selected data from a subunit of DAU E6. Aim of that effort was to determine if a smaller management entity would improve statistical reliability, holding to the 1968-74 time span. Therefore, by subjective selection involving prime factors of demonstrated interest over time by the same personnel and aerial trends applicable to a single unit, I went to Management Unit 23 for additional data. In keeping with attempts to relate elk days per acre indexes with aerial trend data (Table 3), a regression was computed for aerial 'trend (Y) versus elk days per acre (X) for period 1968-74. The correlation coefficient was not significant (P> .05; r = .578, 5 df). To this point, cursory examination of browse utilization portions of transect records indicated so much variability in species composition and utilization that statistical computations seemed inappropriate. For example, relative to browse composition variation, 602 transects read from 1965 to 1973 showed species occurrence on transects as follows: oakbrush (Quercus gambelii) 72%; serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) 69%; big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) 67%; true mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) 47%; bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) 37%; and rabbitbrushes (Chrysothamnus spp.) 19%. At least 15 other species, ranging from 0.2 to 9.1 percent frequency of occurrence, were also recorded on those DAD E6 transects. Since, from the foregoing analysis, oakbrush and serviceberry are the most abundant and also happen to be high value forage species for elk (Kufeld 1973), I arbitrarily chose them for statistical testing. So, a regression analyses was done on data hopefully selected to be most accurate, specifically 25 transects read in Unit 23 in 1971 (Table 5). A correlation coefficient for mean oakbrush utilization (Y) versus mean elk days per acre (X) was found to equal .624 which is significant (P<.Ol, 23 df). This "r" value is, however, too weak for predictive purposes (Y = 3.73 + .42 X; SE = 7.31, n = 25). A similar result came from comparison of mean serviceberry utilization (Y) versus mean elk days per acre (X). Irrespective of this species occurring on fewerA..transects (22 of 25) in 1971, significance at .05 resulted (r = .497, 20 df; Y = 5.98 + .47 X; SE = 11.65, n = 22) but not .01. Elsewhere in Colorado, Anderson et a1. (1972b) found correlation coefficients not significant (P> .05) for mean utilization of true mountain mahogany and bitterbrush (Y) when compared with mean deer nwnbers (X) based upon pellet group counts. That investigation had stringent experimental control, something very lacking in field work basic to this study. It should be noted that in statistical comparisons done so far involving elk days per acre use indexes, concurrent deer stocking was not accounted for nor was it necessary. However, in comparing utilization with elk days per acre �-398- indexes in the preceding paragraph, it was pertinent that total browsing pressure be included. Consequently, on 10 of 25 transects where deer pellet groups were present, values for mean elk days per acre were adjusted upwards by a factor of 0.286. The latter was computed from American Society of Range Management (1964) animal unit conversion factors of 0.7 for elk and 0.2 for deer (0.2 ~ 0.7 = 0.286). Additional comparisons were made in efforts to learn if mean elk days per acre values would be usable evaluators of elk trend between years. Results of those analyses are presented in Table 6 and discussed as follows: 1. In two out of three sets of year comparisons (1971 and 1972 vs. 1973), upward trends of mean elk days per acre agreed fairly closely with computer simulation and aerial trends for E6. 2. Comparisons of elk days per acre means for 1970 versus 1973 for E6 and Unit 23 yielded inconclusively contradictory results. Empirically, population simulation and aerial count changes would seem to be more reliable indicators of trend in this instance. 3. Unit 23 mean elk days per acre data comparison for 1972 versus 1973 show significant change which is not what is indicated by the corresponding aerial count. Explanation for this discrepancy could be that elk population gains for E6 occurred on portions exclusive of Unit 23, and/or Unit 23 pellet group data are out-of-line through sample error or other fault. 4. Other conclusions seem possible from Table 6 data; but, without a highly reliable population yardstick upon which to depend, and none is yet available, about anything deducted from present populations technology must be considered as pure speculation. Uncompahgre Area In 1967, Manager C. E. Till and Game Biologist Errol Ryland of the Division Southwest Region started a program of increased browse utilization and associated pellet group count transecting. District Wildlife Conservation Officers were made responsible for reading 30 transects each in their districts, the number having arbitrarily been determined to fit average needs for all Southwest Region district situations. Prior to 1967, available data were so meager and records so scattered that I began data compilation with the 1967 upsurge in activity and continued on through with 1974 spring field season information. Results presented in following paragraphs therefore pertain to the eight-year span from 1967 to 1974. Preliminary to exploring Uncompahgre data with statistical computations, I calculated and recorded (Table 7) deer pellet group statistics for Units 61 and 62 (DAU D19). Ignored were elk pellet group count statistics. As mentioned previously, Uncompahgre Plateau elk numbers were generally so few within the period of 1967-1974 that only sporadic and sparse pellet groups occurred. For example, five of 80 transects (6%) in 1967 had elk groups on them. Percent frequency of occurrence of elk pellet groups for the other seven years varied from 4% (1968) to 22% (1974), showing an overall frequency of about 12% (64 of 553 transects). Perhaps as important as frequency of occurrence was �-399- intensity of occurrence, which is exemplified by the average low stocking index of 3.5 elk days per acre (range : 1-15 ED/A) for those 64 transects having elk pellet groups present. Following the order of statistical comparison testing used previously for White River data, a regression of mean deer days per acre (Y) versus aerial trend (X) for 1967-1974 was computed for DAU D19 (data from Table 8). Again, purpose of this mathematics was to help evaluate the population numbers indexes as estimators of true deer population trend. Correlation was not significant (P >.05) of the two estimators (r = -0.206). Much the same result was found when a Unit 62 mean deer days per acre (Y) versus aerial trend (X) regression showed no significance (P>.05; r = -0.377). Perhaps of greatest interest in both of these results is not as much the weak relationship but the negative correlation of the two parameters. Inherent deficiencies in methodology could account for the weakness in cor~elation, but winter conditions causing deer to concentrate and help provide for high aerial trend values should also help yield higher mean pellet group counts. It is not easy to understand how that situation could be otherwise. Next, antlered deer harvest (Y) versus mean deer days per acre (X) regressions were done for DAU D19 and Unit 62 for the 7-year span of 1967-1973 (data from Table 8). Both resulting correlation coefficients were not significant (P>.05, 5 df), with r = .744 and r = .715, respectively, for DAU D19 and Unit 62. The "r" values show strong positive relationship, however, with harvest logically dependent upon preceding spring populations as indicated by pellet group counts. These interactions could become more important and providers of usable indexes to population yields with additional years of foundation data. Information given i~ Table 8 regarding antlered deer harvests and aerial trends, 1967-73, for DAU D19 and Unit 62 were tested to determine correlation. First, for DAU D19, antlered harvest (Y) versus aerial trend (X) was significant (P< .01, 5 df) with r -.883 and Y = 7,041.10 - .67 X; SE = 380.50, n = 7. With Unit 62 furnishing nearly two-thirds of the total DAU harvested animals, it was not too surprising that results of a regression similar to the immediately preceding one would yield close to the same results. Thus, for Unit 62, antlered harvest (Y) versus aerial trend (X) was also significant (P<.Ol, 5 df), r = -.810 and'?'= 3,531.40 -.34X; SE = 250.80, n = 7. The strongly negative correlation of antlered harvests and aerial trends presented in the previous paragraph are paradoxical inasmuch as one might expect greater harvests following higher post-hunt aerial counts of the previous winter. Tom Pojar (pers. comm.) suggested a plausible explanation by reasoning that good aerial counting conditions (and thus, high counts) happen generally in rough winters. The latter also cause greater animal losses through starvation and lowered subsequent production via stress on does. The higher winter mortality and lower production would be reflected immediately by lower harvests the following fall, everything else being equal. Again, despite high inverse correlations, "r" values are not high enough to allow data use in prediction equations. Browse utilization comparison compuations with pellet group count indexes involved only big sagebrush. This species overwhelmingly dominated as the one key species, occurring on 94% (523) of a total of 557 transects. Other shrubs �-400- such as black sagebrush (~. nova), serviceberry, true mountain mahogany, and oakbrush variously occurred on between IS to 20 percent of the transects which would largely furnish inadequate sample sizes for analyses. Percent frequency of several other shrubs that equalled < 1% to about 10% included rabbitbrushes and fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens), both about 8%. Despite a fairly high correlation coefficient (r = .617) between percent big sagebrush utilization (Y) and mean deer days per acre (X) (Table 9), it was not significant (P>.OS, 6 df). Considering difficulties involving accurate estimations of utilization on this evergreen, early starting shrub, apparent shortcut sampling procedures applied in making estimations, and overall light mean utilization values obtained (all < 27%),' this utilization phase seems to also yield irrelevant management information. DAU D19 deer populations for years 1973 and 1974 were compared by three different estimators (Table 10). The mean deer days per acre index showed a significant (P<.Ol) drop in deer stocking from 1973 to 1974, whereas the computer model and aerial trends showed nearly static conditions (Unit 61 excepted). In addition, when seven years (1966-73) of data are pooled for comparing with 1974 information (Table 11), mean deer days per acre was significantly different (P <.OS, but no t K .01; tSS2 df = 1.989>1.96 .OS). tOJ , Since, like the White River area elk population, there is no way of knowing what actually is happening as Uncompahgre deer populations change seasonally, one estimator technique appears now as good or bad as another. CONCLUSIONS 1. Sampling and technique deficiencies in the interagency methodology, as now performed, appear to preclude use of pellet group counts and browse utilization estimates as valid indicators of population or utilization trends, respectively. Mean utilization of primary (key) browse for both areas was too light to cause general concern for their continued existence and well being. 2. Lack of replication seriously detracts from aerial trend counting. This indicator was not a principal target of the present study but demanded attention because it has been and is still given much credibility in local management considerations. 3. Antlered harvest of elk for the White River correlated positively with pellet group count stocking indexes, although not significantly. Uncompahgre antlered deer harvests also showed strong, though not significant, positive relationship with mean deer pellet group counts. As these relationships now stand, however, much greater preclsl0n is needed before mean pellet group indexes might be used to predict harvest. 4. Computer simulations appear to yield population data that, though not easily refutable, nevertheless lack statistical sideboards and thus are just as suspect as other currently applied indicators. �-401- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Discontinue browse utilization estimations except where utilization on key shrub species occurs at intensities thought detrimental to continued welfare of the forage species. Those occasions when excessive utilization is believed to be evident must be verified through interagency concurrence on the ground. 2. Pending possible further review of the procedures, accept other inadequacies as they now exist and continue the pellet group count part of instructions in at least present minimum intensity or solicit advice for increased sampling from qualified personnel of anyone of the three principal cooperating agencies. 3. Reinstate a Division-BLM-U. S. Forest Service panel to implement a joint, three-agency, all-out research effort for review of big game range analysis techniques in their entirety. Further, it is strongly recommended that panel members, as well as researchers who are assigned to possible subsequent investigations projects, never have been associated with the fabrication of original methodology and/or subsequent revisions. 4. The widely accepted and applied pellet group count methodology (Hart 1958, Smith et al. 1969, Anderson et al. 1972a,b) warrants further attempts at large-scale application. That application should concern at least one Colorado big game management unit, or preferably more, either singly, or in combination equaling a data analysis unit. Anderson (pers. comm.) made similar recommendation in the past. This study proposal would logically be integrated with any research program resulting from action on preceding. item 3. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972a. Mule deer fecal group counts related to site factors on winter range. J. Range Manage. 25:66-68. 1972b. Mule deer numbers and shrub yield-utilization range. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:571-578. on winter Bartmann, R. M. 1968. Proposed research study: evaluation of big game range analysis techniques. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. April 4. lp. (resubmitted in 1969). Bartmann, R. M., and W. T. McKean. 1969. Paddock studies on effects of varying intensities of deer use. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-lOl-R, Job 4. July, Part 3. pp. 305-393. Bergerud, A. T. 1974. The role of the environment in the aggregation movement, and disturbance behavior of caribou. pp. 552-584. In V. Geist, and F. Walther (editors). The behaviour of ungulates and itS relation to management. Vol. 2. International Union for Conserv. of Nature and Nat. Res. ICUN Publ. 24. Morges, Switzerland. 512-940 p. �-402- Boeker, H. M., and B. D. Baker. 1960. Browse transect analysis and application. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Fed. Aid Quart. Rep. (October), Proj. W-lOl-R-2, WP-3, J-3, p. 35-36. Denney, R. N. 1961. Transect analysis and application. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish, Fed. Aid Quart. Rep. (April), Proj. W-lOl-R-3, WP-3, J-3, p. 37-47. 1962. and Fish. p. 51-96. Browse transect analysis and application. Colo. Dept. Game Fed. Aid Quart. Rep. (April), Proj. W-lOl-R-4, WP-3, J-3, Gilbert, P. F., O. C. Wallmo, and R. B. Gill. 1970. Effect of snow depth on mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1):15-23. Hart, R. D. 1958. South Dakota. Evaluation of deer pellet group census in the Black Hills, M.S. Thesis, Colo. State Univ. 66p. Kufeld, R. C. 1968. Proposed research study: development of improved deer and elk census and range survey techniques. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. April 1. lp. (resubmitted in 1969). 1973. Foods eaten by Rocky Mountain elk. J. Range Manage. 26:106- 113. Lynch, J. J. 1974. Merino sheep: some factors affecting their distribution in very large pastures. 697-707. In V. Geist, and F. Walther (editors). The behaviour of ungulates and its relation to management. Vol. 2. International Union for Conserv. of Nature and Nat. Res. ICUN Publ. 24. Morges, Switzerland. 512-940 p. Mackie, R. J. 1975. Evaluation of the key browse survey method. Workshop, Proc. 5:28-33. Mule Deer Range Term Glossary Committee. 1964. A glossary of terms used in range management. D. L. Huss, Comm. Chairman. Amer. Soc. of Range Manage. 32p. Smith, R. H., D. J. Neff, and C. Y. McCulloch. 1969. A model for the installation and use of a deer pellet group survey. Spec. Rep. No.1, Ariz. Game and Fish Dept. 30p. USDA Forest Service. 1968. Chapter 80 - Big game range analysis. In Range Environmental Analysis Handbook, Forest Service Handbook 2209.21, Rocky Mtn. Region (Region 2), November. pp. 00-88.12. Prepared by ---r-- !3e/lcdva'in!. jJ -'?, I Q1j f j)¥ 1<' Bertram D. Baker Asst. Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Annual big game range transecting * - Data Analysis Unit E6 (White River) - 1963-1973. Number of Transects Big Game Mgmt. Unit 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 Totals 1963-1973 12 0 7 5 9 13 23 0 10 12 4 83 13 0 3 1 0 5 13 1 3 3 0 29 23 0 3 2 5 5 22 20 27 14 18 116 24 3 9 8 14 17 9 13 9 11 6 99 25 19 10 0 0 0 30 6 36 59 24 184 26 1 2 2 0 0 1 0 8 5 3 22 I .t' 33 4 6 5 6 3 8 2 8 7 58 9 0 w I 34 2 3 0 0 0 6 0 7 11 11 40 DAU Total 29 43 23 34 43 112 42 108 122 75 631 *Includes Production-Utilization (P-U) transects where current annual growth is measured pre- and post-use on shrubs and extensive transects that give shrub species utilization estimates post-use in spring. Pellet group counts were also done in conjunction with both types of spring shrub-utilization transecting. �Table 2. Big game annual range transecting 1966-1974. - Data Analysis Unit D19 (Uncompahgre) or E20 (Uncompahgre) _ Big Game Mgmt. Unit 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 Totals 1967-1974 61 24 26 33 20 27 20 20 20 190 62 56 58 55 42 39 48 37 32 367 DAU Total 80 84 88 62 66 68 57 52 557 Number of Transects I .j:'- g I �Table 3. Elk Population indexes - White River elk DAU E6 (1964-73) and Big Game Management Elk DAU E6 Unit 23 (1968-74). Big Game Unit 23 Mean Aerial Elk Days Trend Per Acre Year Mean Elk Days Per Acre Aerial Trend Antlered Harvest Antlered Harvest Exc1. 23 & 24 1964 8.38 3863 2501 1318 1965 16.77 5253 1993 1136 1966 13.78 6297 1873 1097 1967 19.94 6055 1737 849 1968 21. 21 5700 2184 1257 21145 29.20 1156 1969 20. 70 6371 2262 1424 20722 42.23 2037 Model Pre-Calving Total I ~ 0 20733 45.70 1996 21113 31. 70 1859 1203 23634 32.71 3168 3075 2318 25261 54.72 3156 - - 24945 48.00 3270 1970 37.69 5560 2517 1971 19.52 7430 1039 1972 16.00 8339 1770 1973 31.00 10149 1974 - - *Figures not used, - spike elk protected. 1651 * 686 * VI I �-406- Table 4. White River elk DAU E6 pellet group transecting Elk Da~s Per Acre Year n X -6 - 1964-1973. Deer Da~s Per Acre -6- X X -6 -6_ X 1964 29 8.4 9.4 1. 75 36.2 30.0 5.76 1965 43 16.8 19.0 2.90 23.5 25.8 3.90 1966 23 13.8 20.9 4.36 14.5 21.0 4.37 1967 34 19.9 19.9 3.41 13.9 21.8 3.74 1968 43 21.2 18.7 2.85 8.9 14.7 2.24 1969 112 20.7 22.0 2.07 13.9 19.3 1.82 1970 42 37.7 21. 9 3.38 5.6 11.2 1. 74 1971 108 19.5 15.5 1.49 11.4 15.6 1.50 1972 122 16.0 15.1 1.37 13.9 16.0 1.45 1973 75 30.9 26.6 3.07 21.6 30.6 3.53 1974* (Unit 23) 21 48.0 20.6 4.50 3.24 5.3 1.15 1974* (Unit 24) 13 58.9 20.3 5.62 1.62 2.9 0.60 * Data compiled in 1974 only for Big Game Units 23 and 24, - included here for convenience. �-407Table 5. Elk days per acre stocking and oakbrush utilization - Spring 1971 - from 25 extensive transects in Big Game Management Unit No. 23 (Miller Creek). Deer Days Per Acre Elk Days Per Acre Adjusted Elk Days Per Acre * Ave. % Utiliza. Oakbrush 2.00 42.00 42.57 32.00 5.00 57.00 58.43 28.00 10.00 54.00 56.86 36.00 0.00 28.00 28.00 14.00 0.00 18.00 18.00 13.00 0.00 38.00 38.00 14.00 1.00 19.00 19.28 6.00 0.00 30.00 30.00 18.00 0.00 28.00 28.00 9.00 0.00 18.00 18.00 13.00 0.00 38.00 38.00 28.00 0.00 28.00 28.00 9.00 0.00 42.00 42.00 19".00 0.00 44.00 44.00 11.00 2.00 31.00 31.57 30.00 10.00 62.00 64.86 30.00 1.00 40.00 40.28 11.00 15.00 l3.00 17.28 30.00 6.00 33.00 34.71 20.00 0.00 18.00 18.00 15.00 2.00 26.00 26.57 12.00 0.00 31.00 31.00 12.00 0.00 15.00 15.00 3.00 0.00 11.00 11.00 7.00 0.00 28.00 28.00 11.00 X = 32.296 X = 17.240 *Obtained by mUltiplying deer days per acre by 0.286 (elk equivalent) and adding result to value for elk days per acre. , �Table 6. Comparison of three methods of estimating elk population trends - DAU E6 (White River) and Big Game Management Unit 23 (Miller Creek) - years 1970, 1971, and 1972 versus 1973. Mean Elk Dazs Per Acre 1970 1973 Percent Change Est. Total Elk Population ComE' Model at Preca1ving Percent 1970 1973 Change 1970 1973 Percent Change DAU E6 37.7 30.9 - 18 20733 25261 + 18 5560 10149 + 45 BGMU 23 45.7 54.7 + 16 - - - 1996 3156 + 37 1971 1973 1971 1973 Percent Change 1971 1973 Percent Change Management Entity N.S. (P> 0.10; t = 1. 36) 115 N.S. (P> 0.20; t = 1. 29) 36 Percent Change Elk Aerial Trend I .p- o (X) DAU E6 BGMU 23 DAU E6 BGMU 23 30.9 + 37 Sig. (P< 0.001; t181 = 3.87) 21113 25261 + 16 7430 10149 + 28 31. 7 54.7 + 42 Sig. (P< 0.001; t = 4.51) 43 - - - 1859 3156 + 41 Change 1972 1973 Percent Change 1972 1973 Percent Change N.S.* (p> 0.05; t 195 = 1. 82) 23634 25261 + 6 8339 10149 + 18 Sig. (P<0.05; t = 3.21) 30 - - - 3168 3156 -0.4 1972 1973 16.0 30.9 + 48 32.7 54.7 + 40 * Significant I 19.5 (P < 0.10). Percent �-409- Table 7. 1974. Uncompahgre deer DAU D19 pellet group transect data summary, 1967- Deer Pellet Groups/Acre s X Management Entity n 1967 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 24 56 80 13.71 16.41 15.60 9.32 14.09 12.85 1.90 1.88 1.44 1968 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 26 56 82 13.62 25.32 21.61 12.10 22.14 20.20 2.37 2.96 2.23 1969 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 33 54 87 16.48 26.17 22.49 8.80 22.27 18.89 1.53 3.03 2.03 1970 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 20 42 62 9.95 18.95 16.05 6.89 11.59 11.09 1.54 1. 79 1.41 1971 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU D19 27 39 66 12.81 22.28 18.41 7.16 15.37 13.44 1.38 2.46 1.65 1972 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 20 48 68 10.55 31.44 25.29 7.40 17.36 17.86 1.66 2.51 2.17 1973 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 20 37 57 10.90 47.08 34.39 10.40 32.43 31.88 2.33 5.33 4.22 1974 Unit 61 Unit 62 DAU Dl9 20 31 51 9.60 20.23 16.06 10.25 11.95 12.37 2.29 2.15 1. 73 Year sX �Table 8. Deer population indexes - Uncompahgre and Unit 62 (East Side Uncompahgre). Deer DAU D19 - Big Game Management Unit 61 (West Side Uncompahgre) Ae rial Trend Year Mean Deer Days/Acre Unit 62 DAU Dl9 1967 16.41 1968 Antlered Harvest Unit 62 DAU Dl9 Total Harvest DAU Dl9 DAU Model Pre-fawning Total Unit 61* Unit 62 DAU Dl9 (Total) 15.60 932 5,391 6,323 1,553 2,072 3,562 19,158 25.32 21.61 1,250 6,960 8,210 1,060 1,562 2,870 19,770 1969 26.17 22.49 749 6,120 6,869 1,986 2,955 5,395 21,285 1970 18.95 16.05 1,058 5,280 6,338 1,603 2,697 3,097 19,897 1971 22.28 18.41 1,411 5,168 6,579 1,615 2,661 2,661** 21,247 1972 31. 44 25.29 939 5,474 1,698 2,892 3,202 23,561 2,456 4,165 5,824 25,611 47.08 34.39 1,006 3,560 4,566 1974 20.23 16.06 447 3,833 4,280 583 4,050 4,633 1975 * For Uravan portion. ** Statewide antlered only season. t-' 6,413 1973 I +:- 26,799 0 I �-411- Table 9. Deer days per acre stocking and big sagebrush utilization, Deer DAU D19 (Uncompahgre) - 1967-74. 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Mean Deer Days/A. 15.60 21.61 22.49 16.05 18.41 25.29 34.39 16.06 Mean Percent Utilization 25.65 21.00 19.82 14.10 17.65 26.11 26.96 19.25 �Table 10. Comparison of three methods of estimating deer population trends - DAU D19 (Uncompahgre) Big Game Management Units 61 and 62 (West and East Sides Uncompahgre) 1973 versus 1974. Management Entity Mean Deer Dals Per Acre 1973 1974 Percent Change DAU D19 34.39 BGMU 62 16.06 47.08 20.23 10.90 9.60 -53 Sig. (P<O.01; t106 = 3.71) -57 t Sig. (p< 0.001; = 4.37) 66 N.S. BGMU 61 -12 t 38 Est. Total Deer Population ComE. Model at Pre-Fawnins 1973 1974 % Change and Deer Aerial Trend 1973 1974 % Change 25611 26799 + 4 4566 4280 - 6 - - - 3560 3833 + 7 - - - 1006 447 - 56 (p> 0.01; = 0.40) I +=' I-' tv I Table 11. Deer pellet group count index statistics (Uncompahgre). Year (Period) 1966-73 1974 for comparing 7-year span of 1966-73 versus 1974 _ DAU 19 n Mean Deer Days/Acre S. D. 502 21.65 19.45 51 16.06 12.37 �-4l3- July 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State 0 f __ --=CO=L:.::O=:RADO=-=-_ Project No.__ Work Plan No. ~W~-~3~8~-~R~-~2~9 _ ~1~9 _ Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 1 -------=-------------- Job Title __ ~E~v~al~u~a~t=i~o~n~o~f~R~a~d~l~·o~=T~e=l~e=m~e~t~r~yL_ Period Covered: Personnel: _ April 1, 1974 - March 31, 1975 Allen E. Anderson, R. Bruce Gill, Charles A. DeYoung, Howard L. Geduldig, Steven Steinert, George E. Stewart, Gail Vanderpool, Charles Wallmo, Joe B. Wallmo, Colorado Division of Wildlife; Louis R. Burke, Fred P. Dasch, G. L. Terrell, Colorado Department of Agriculture. ABSTRACT Twenty-three newborn mule deer fawns and 14 coyotes were captured, aged, weighed, measured, radio-collared, ear-tagged, and released. They were radiotracked with ground and air, low frequency (46.5 MHz) telemetry equipment within a 12,045 acre study area about 30 miles northwest of Fort Collins. Ten fawns died three to 127 days from their capture dates, four fawns lost their collars, and two fawns were never contacted after release. In only three fawns was the probable cause of death (starvation) established. Fawns were relocated 165 times, and 76 relocations were achieved without telemetry. The approximate mean (± SD) df.stance from capture sites to relo.cation sites -was 2,288 1,506 ft with a range of 0 ft to 7,100 ft. One coyote was caught in a steel trap and killed by a commercial trapper, one coyote lost a non-functional collar, and three coyotes were never contacted. Coyotes were relocated 39 times; three of these without telemetry and the approximate mean (± SD) distance from capture sites to relocation sites was 8,223 ± 7,034 ft with a range of 1,600 ft to 39,600 ft. Four mule deer-coyote interactions are described in which the female adult deer appeared to be the aggressor. Our results with telemetry suggest the need for additional manpower and use of both low (46.5 MHz) and high (150 MHz) equipment. From June 1974 through March 1975 the percentages of radio-collared fawns to all unmarked fawns recorded ranged from 40 during June to 2 during November based on 2,023 sightings of fawns. Fawns seen per man hr increased each consecutive month; June (.162 per man hr) through November (2.175 per man hr), even though the actual number of fawns alive must have been decreasing. ± ��-415RECOMMENDATIONS (Continued) In addition, the methodology associated with estimating the age of fawns needs investigation and improvement. Appropriate materials should be acquired for disease diagnosis of each fawn at the time of capture. A more durable plastic and numbers rather than geometric symbols should be incorporated into the design of future expandable radio collars for fawns. Ear tags for fawns should have larger numbers on both sides. ��-417- EVALUATION OF RADIO TELEMETRY Allen E. Anderson Radiotelemetry has been used successfully in studies of neonatal mortality in dense white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations occupying Texas Gulf Coast habitats (Cook et al. 1967), and to estimate coyote (Canis latrans) movements in the Intermountain West (Hibler and Knowlton 1975:15-16), Minnesota (Chesness and Bremicker 1975:3), and Arkansas (Gipson 1975:4). Knowlton (1968) and his colleagues studied white-tailed deer-coyote interactions within Texas Gulf Coast habitats by radio-telemetry of 120 fawns over a three-year period and concluded (P. 66) that over 90 percent of the fawn mortality occurred during the first three weeks of life and that: "coyotes apparently were involved in 75-80 percent of the fawn mortality". Except for the ongoing and unpublished studies of the Steen's mountain, Oregon population (Trainer and Torland 1974), however, rates of fawn mortality in free-ranging Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) have not been estimated directly with or without radiotelemetry. This is probably due to the practical difficulties of finding living or dead neonates by either visual ground search or telemetry in the mountainous terrain typical of most mule deer habitats. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test and improv~ the field and statistical methodology used to estimate selected population parameters of mule deer and coyotes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Test the feasibility of using and perhaps improve radio-telemtry to estimate fawn mortality rates and coyote activity in mountainous habitats. 2. Analyze data and submit reports for publication. METHODS AND MATERIALS Mule Deer Fawns Capture Techniques Very young fawns were usually captured by two-man teams maintaining a dawn-todusk surveillance of apparent high density deer areas from elevated sites. Three or occasionally, four persons used 7 x 35, 8 x 40, and 9 x 35 binoculars and 20X or l5X-60X variable-power spotting scopes to locate and observe fawns at distances of about one-quarter to one-half mile. Fawns were observed until �-418- they had bedded and the doe had left the immediate vicinity. We memorized the location of the fawn(s) in relation to prominent and nearby landscape features such as gulleys, logs, boulders, bushes or trees; then walked rapidly to the proximate vicinity of their bedding site(s). Because fawns would sometimes move in the interim, we verified their 'exact postion then generally positioned ourselves so that we were visible to the fawn while walking toward it. All successful captures were made by hand. Two attempts with a longhandled fish net were unsuccessful. Fawns were sexed and immediately placed in laundry bags equipped with a drawstring. Body Weights and Measurements Body Weight.--Fawns were weighed in the laundry bag to the nearest 1/4-lb with a spring scale graduated in 1/4-lb increments. The weight of the laundry bag was subtracted from the scale reading. The accuracy and precision of the scale had been checked with known weights. Length of Hind Foot.--From the calcaneum (heelbone) to the tip of the outside claw with the hoof and metatarsal aligned on the same plane (modified from Anderson 1948:66) with a fexible steel tape to the nearest 0.1 inch. Hoof Growth.--From the "hairline to the growth ring on the front edge of a front hoof" of (Robinette et al. 1973:321) who cites Haugen and Speake (1958). The above instructions of the first author's and failure to check the second author's technique resulted in a set of invalid measurements. These data, taken to the nearest mm with a steel tape, are not presented. Neck Circumference.--By inspection and measurement, the minimum and maximum circumferences were taken with a flexible steel tape to the nearest 1/8-inch. Estimation of Age The body weight and the length of hind foot of each fawn were entered in the prediction equations of Robinette et al. (1973:320) to estimate its age to the nearest day. The condition of the umbilical cord was also recorded. Ear Tagging Each fawn was tagged in both ears with identically-numbered metal tags using the procedures of tag placement described by Downing and McGinness (1969). Each set consisted of one red and one yellow tag with one or two digit numbers engraved in black, one-inch in height, and on one side of the tag. The mailing address of the Research Center was stamped on the staple portion of each tag. Characteristics of Radio Collars Each fawn was fitted with a 46.5 MHz transmitter powered by mercury batteries. As supplied by Albertronics, Inc., College Station, Texas, the transmitter and batteries were embedded as one Unit in acrylic. The unit was bolted with a nylon clamp to a self-expanding and contracting ABS white plastic collar 0.0625 inches thick and l~ inches wide. Geduldig (1975:9) modified the basic, �-419- expandable collar design from that of Fashingbauer (1962). The approximate designed range of collar expansion and contraction was 25 em (9.8 inches) to 75 cm (29. 7 inches) based on an extrapolation of the growth curves for the neck circumferences of male and female mule deer one month of age and older (Anderson et al. 1974:29, 30). Because of the expandable feature of the collar, the light wire. antenna could not be protected by securing its entire length to the collar. Therefore, about 4.5 inches of its length was embedded in caulking compound and secured to the collar with vinyl electrical tape. About 7.5 inches of the antenna arced unattached over the dorsal portion of the collar. To identify each fawn, one or two geometric symbols were painted on each side of the collar with methyl ethyl ketone, a solvent of ABS plastic, resulting in black symbols on a white background. The weight of six, complete transmitter-collar units averaged 151 g and ranged from 137 g to 158 g. Collaring and Release of Fawns Just prior to placing the collar on the fawn, the transmitter was activated by soldering the lead wires with portable-battery or truck-alternator-powered soldering irons and dOUble-wrapping the exposed portion of the soldered wire and the entire transmitter-battery unit with vinyl electric tape. After collaring, the prepared form (Appendix 1) was checked for completeness and the fawn returned to its bedding site. The mean, +SD, and range of time (minutes) elapsed between capture and release of 23 f~s were 26.9 + 42.5 and 7 to 215, respectively. An attempt was made to leave the vicinity of the capture site without disturbing the fawn. The capture site was marked with red surveyor's tape. Assessing Causes of Fawn Mortality Each dead fawn, collared or unco Llared, was examined for the probable cause of death. Particular attention was given to possible evidence of coyote predation according to the description of White (1973). Carcasses in good condition were submitted to the Diagnostic Laboratory at Colorado State University, Fort Collins for clinical examination. Coyotes Capture Technique We were not permitted to trap coyotes within the Maxwell Ranch property so permission was received to trap on five privately owned ranches south of, and adjacent to the Maxwell Ranch. All coyotes were trapped by George E. Stewart on a contract basis. Most traps were loaned by the Colorado Department of Agriculture. Coyotes were captured primarily with Montgomery No. 4 steel traps with offset jaws using drag hooks attached to eight foot lengths of chain as anchors. Trap jaws were not padded from 3 July to 20 September 1974, but were padded during November-December 1974. Both trap jaws were padded by several wraps of oneinch wide strips of chenille cloth on each jaw and securing these to the jaws �-420- with four ties of light nylon cord. The entire trap was dipped in hot paraffin to eliminate odor. A variety of attractants were used including decomposed egg, decomposed beaver, fish oil, Nelson's Lobo, Grawe's No.1 and No.2, Mast's No.2 and No.6, tonquin, and skunk urine. Coyote urine was used both alone and in combination with mOst of the other listed attractants. Traps were checked, and if necessary, reset, adjusted, removed, or moved every 24 to 48 hours. While tranquilizer tabs (Balser 1965) employing 600 mg of powdered propopromazine were used initially to reduce trap injury and to aid in handling the coyote, their use was abandoned because the high temperatures, general lack of cover for shade, and possible trampling by cattle (Hawthorn 1970) seemed likely sources of mortality for drugged and trapped coyotes. No coyotes were caught while tabs were attached to the traps. Handling the Coyote Coyotes were subdued by the use of a commercially made choker device. While one person held the coyote with this device, another slipped a loop of light nylon cord over its muzzle, thus securing the jaws. This cord was fastened to a broomstick, which, when pushed into the soil and rotated slowly, effectively immobilized the head and jaws. The trap was not released until all data had been obtained and the coyote ear-tagged and collared. Body Weights and Measurements Body Weight Coyotes were weighed to the nearest l/4-lb with the same spring scale used for fawns. A light cord looped to the hind foot was used to suspend the coyote from the scale. Body Measurements, General The measurements listed below were taken with flexible steel tapes to the nearest l/8-inch or 0.1 em and are modified from Anderson (1948:65). Length of Hind Foot.--From the end of the heel bone (calcaneum) to the tip of the longest claw. Total Length. --The coyote was laid on its back on a flat surface and is the straight line distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the last tail vertebra, exclusive of hairs. Tail Length.--Base of the tail to tip of the last vertebra, exlusive of hairs. Length of Ear.--From the notch at the lower opening of the ear conch to the tip of the ear, excluding hairs. Girth.--Chest circumference immediately posterior to the foreleg with tape held snugly but without excessive tension. Circumference of Neck.--By inspection and measurement the maximum and minimum values were measured with the steel tape held snugly without excessive tension. �-421- Estimation of Age Coyotes were segregated into two age classes, young born during 1974, and those more than one year of age by reading directly from the growth curves for body weight, total length and length of hind foot and the dental criteria of coyotes (Gier 1957:50-51, 55). In Colorado, most coyotes are born during April and May (Hamlett 1938:9). Ear Tagging Each coyote was tagged in both ears with identically numbered, red and yellow metal tags with black engraved numbers one-inch in height. These were similar to the ear tags used for fawns. Based on our earlier experience with fawns, some coyotes were tagged with the numbers facing forward or back as an aid to their identification. Unfortunately, this information was not recorded for all coyotes. Radio-Collars Coyotes were fitted with 46.5MHz transmitter powered by mercury or lithium batteries and embedded as one unit in acrylic. Two types of collar and antennae were employed with this unit. In the first type, powered by either mercury or lithium batteries, the transmitter-battery package and its light wire antenna were taped to a heavy leather collar l~ inches to 2 inches in width. The antenna followed the complete circumference of the collar , and like the transmitter-battery unit was completely covered with two wrappings of vinyl electrical tape. In the second type, the transmitter-battery package was bonded with acrylic directly to the collar to form an integral trasmitter-battery-collar unit. The collar material was food conveyor belting 2~ inches wide and 3/8 inch thick. The stainless steel'antenna was O.lOl-inch diameter and about 11 inches long and curved, so as to be about 2~ inches above the mid-dorsal portion of the collar at its midpoint. One complete collar-transmitter-battery unit of the first type weighed 296 g and the mean and range of weights for five complete units of the second type were 465 g and 424 to 513 g, respectively. Collaring and Release of Coyotes The coyote transmitters were activated by soldering and taping the lead wires. For the transmitter-battery-collarunit of the first type, the process was a duplicate of that for fawns. For the second type the process was the same for the lead wires; but, in addition, they were sealed with a fast-drying, semi-flexible type of epoxy to form an extension of the acrylic transmitterbattery package. Both types of collars were fitted snugly to the coyotes neck and fastened with two pop-rivets through pre-punched holes. For two collars, brass, screw-on type rivets were used through pre-punched holes. Once collared, the coyote was released from the trap and notes were taken of trap-incurred injuries to the foot. The record form (Appendix 2) was checked for completeness and the coyote released. �-422- Radio-Tracking Fawns and Coyotes Two Johnson receivers, 8-channel, 46.5 MHz> models 350 DF and Messenger III were used in conjunction with earphones and a truck-mounted, Hy-Gain, Model 64B, four element, six meter, beam yagi antenna, two truck-mounted whip antenna, two hand-held whip and two hand-held, directional, loop antennae to track radio-transmitter collared fawns and coyotes. In most ground work, a signal from a transmitter was first picked up with the truck mounted nondirectional whip antennae which indicated by the pulse rate per 15 seconds heard on a particular channel that the particular fawn or coyote was in the area. The hand-held non-directional whip antenna was carried about until a stronger signal was received. When the apparent maximum strength signal was received the directional loop antenna was used to locate the radio-collared fawn or coyote. These procedures involved considerable walking, some over steep terrain, and we carried the receivers in chest packs designed and fabricated by Joe B. Wallmo. In addition to ground telemetry, aerial telemetry was sporadically utilized in attempts to locate radio-collared animals that were difficult to find on the ground. The aerial antenna was a light wire 61 inches in length and fastened to the wing of the Cessna 180. Generally, aerial telemetry was performed at speeds of about 170 mph about 1,000 ft above ground surface. Once the observer obtained a strong signal he handed the earphones to the pilot who was usually able to place the animals within a given mile2 or perhaps a 1/4-mile2 on the basis of increaSing, decreasing, and static signal strength over a specific ground area. Collared coyotes were never, and collared fawns only rarely seen during aerial telemetry. Each telemetric or visual observation of fawns or coyotes was plotted on U.S. Geological Survey Quadrangles, scale 1:24000, 40 ft contour interval. A coded grid system, about 1,300 ft per side, was inked on a transparent, plastic overlay to provide a more precise location of each radio-collared animal. Field Observations Each person on the project recorded the time to the nearest minute on entering and leaving the study area. Within the study area, all living and dead deer and other vertebrates seen were recorded and identified by time, sex, and age class, habitat, and legal description to the 1/4-mile2 section on prepared forms (Appendix 3). As a possibly important food item of coyotes, all cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.) seen were recorded. Plant phenology and any phenomena conceivably related to fawn mortality rates were described in detail on this same form. Particular attention was given to the behavioral interactions between deer and between deer and coyotes. During the limited (60 permits, hunter's choice) deer season held on the Maxwell ranch property, 26 October 1974 to 5 November 1974, I interviewed hunters relative to any observations of radio-collared or ear-tagged fawns and coyotes. The approximate positions of each observation were plotted on topographic maps. �-423- Collection of Coyote Scats During April, May, June and July 1974 all coyote scats noted in the field were collected, placed in plastic bags and labeled with the date, location and habitat. In addition, six marked walking routes totaling about 20 miles were established during May 1974, to systematically collect coyote scats once each month. Our objective was to relate, through generic identification of food items in the scats, the relativ~ qualitative importance of deer in the inferred diet of coyotes prior to, during, and after the period of fawn birth. Analyses of this material has not yet been attempted. DESCRIPTION OF AREA Several areas were examined with the following criteria in mind: (1) relatively high densities of mule deer during the summer and of coyotes yearlong, (2) moderately rugged, mountainous terrain with a heterogenous, fairly open vegetative cover, (3) elevated vantage points from which large areas of fairly sparse vegetative and topographic cover could be scanned, (4) exploited mule deer and coyote populations, and (5) cattle range not adjacent to domestic sheep range. The area selected for study was a 8,205 acre portion of the Maxwell ranch property of the Colorado State University Research Foundation, plus about 3,840 acres of private lands comprising portions of five ranches adjacent to the northern, southern and eastern boundaries of the Maxwell ranch property. The total of about 12,045 acres ranges in elevation from about 6,480 ft on the south boundary to 7,400 ft on the north boundary, TllN, T12N, R70W. The study area is about 30 miles northwest of Fort Collins in Larimer County, Colorado and just east of U. S. Highway 287. Its northern boundary is about 2.5 miles south of the Colorado-Wyoming state line. The landscape of the study area is characterized by high, well-dissected, shrub covered buttes on the south, shrub and pine covered hogback formations on the east, high, pine covered hills with grassy meadows on the north, and rolling prairie interspersed with isolated, high shrub covered hills and rock outcrops on the central and eastern portions. Stonewall, Tenmile and Lonetree creeks are intermittent streams and they and their tributaries trend south on the southern portion, while the South and North Forks of Boxelder are permanent streams and trend southeast in the northern portion of the study area. Small portions of most major drainages are narrow, steep-sided canyons, up to about 70 ft in depth, and often supporting a diverse and almost impenetrable vegetation. The shallow loam and loamy foothill soils are both granitic and sedimentary in origin and highly erodible. Subjectively, the climate is characterized by hot summers, high wind velocities, and high intensity thunderstorms. Complete, prolonged snow cover is rare. According to O. Boyd, Maxwell ranch foreman, total annual precipitation has averaged about 13 inches over the past several years. There are no adequate records of yearlong ambient temperatures on or near the study area. Some conspicuous plants on the study area are ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Rocky ~fuuntain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum), aspen (Populus tremuloides~, narrowleaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia), plains cottonwood (Populus sargentii), willow (Salix spp.), snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), chokecherry �-424- (Prunus virginiana), alder (Alnus tenuifolia), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), true mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), raspberry (Rubus deliciosus), currant (Ribes spp.), rose (Rosa spp.), skunkbush (Rhus trilobata), boxelder (Acer negundo~tbush (Atripl;XCanescens), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus sp.), sunflower (Helianthus sp.); cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), pricklepoppy (Argemone spp.), clover (Trifolium sp.), beardtongue (Penstemon sp.), milkvetch (Astragalus spp.), lupine (Lupinus sp.), miner's candle (Cryptantha sp.), Russian thistle (Salsola kali), larkspur (Delphinium spp.), sweetclover (Melilotus spp.), aster (Aster spp.), fleabane (Erigeron spp.), mountain dandelion (Agoseris sp.), yarrow (Achillea lanulosa), thistle (Cirsium spp.), phlox (Phlox longifolia), cowparsnip (Heracleum lanatum), fringed sage (Artemisia frigida), locoweed (Oxytropis spp.), bistort (Polygonum spp.), eriogonum (Eriogonum spp.), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), wheatgrasses (Agropyron spp.), needle and thread (Stipa comata) , needlegrass (Stipa spp.), bluegrass (Poa spp.), sedge (Carex spp.), mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana), Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), fescue (Festuca spp.), cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), junegrass (Koeleria cristata), dropseeds (Sporobolus spp.), oatgrass (Danthonia spp.), barleys (Hordeum spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.), horsetails (Equisetum spp.), and moss (Selaginella spp.). Eight habitats were recognized on the study area: (1) prairie, (2) open ponderosa pine-true mountain mahogany, (3) dense ponderosa pine, (4) true mountain mahogany-currant, (5) true mountain mahogany, (6) dry wash, (7) riparian, and (8) irrigated pasture and hayland. The latter habitat comprises about 194 acres of the Maxwell ranch. Within the study area of about 12,045 acres, the most important plants on a ground cover basis are probably blue grama, wheatgrasses, needlegrasses, true mountain mahogany, ponderosa pine, currants and fringed sage. The latter species is found within all natural habitats and is especially abundant on many sites within the prairie habitat. The riparian and irrigated pasture and hayland habitats, while relatively small in area, seem to be an important influence on the temporal and spatial distribution of some groups of deer during the late spring and autumn. At these times, deer were often observed to bed and feed in adjacent ponderosa pine-true mountain mahogany and prairie habitats during the day, then move to the more mesic sites during early darkness, apparently remaining during the night and returning at, or shortly after, dawn. Year-long, however, deer were occasionally observed to follow a similar movement to the prairie habitat from adjacent habitats. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Capture of Fawns and Coyotes Twenty-three mule deer fawns and 14 coyotes were captured, ear-tagged, weighed, measured, examined and released within or adjacent to the study area. The capture sites of fawns and coyotes are described in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The effort expended to locate, capture, and radio-track 23 fawns during June 1974 approximated 593 man-hours. The trapping effort required to capture the 14 coyotes is documented by month in Table 3, and trap injury to coyotes in Table 4. Other vertebrates known to have been killed, released, or escaped from steel traps are listed by month in Table 5. �Table 1. Description of capture site of 12 male and 11 female mule deer fawns, ear-tagged and fitted with radio-collars during 1974. Ear Tag . No. Sex Capture Date Legal Description 1/4S S T R 1 M 6-11 SE 17 llN 70W 6920 Dry wash Rhus tri10bat a 2 M 6-11 SE 17 llN 70W 6920 Dry wash Rhus trilobata 3 F 6-13 SW 16 llN 70W 7020 Shrub-prairie ecotone Boute1oua gracilis, Opuntia sp , , Cercocarpus montanus 4 M 6-13 SE 16 llN 70W 7020 Shrub-prairie ecotone Cercocarpus montanus 5 F 6-13 NW 2B 11N 70W 6640 Shrub Cercocarpus montanus 6 F 6-13 NW 10 llN 70W 7120 Open pineprairie ecotone Pinus ponderosa Elevation (f t ) Habitat Dominant Vegetation at Bedding Site v • I ~ N V1 I 7 M 6-16 NE 4 llN 70W 7120 Dry gu11ey Pinus ponderosa, Stipa sp., Agropyron s pp . B M 6-16 NE 4 11N 70W 7100 Open pine Pinus ponderosa, Boute1oua gracilis, Bromus tecto rum 9 M 6-16 NE 4 11N 70W 7100 Open pine Pinus ponderosa, Bouteloua gracilis, Bromus tectorum 10 F 6-17 NW 4 11N 70W 7320 Open pine Cercocarpus montanus, Pinus ponderosa 11 F 6-1B SE 4 11N 70W 7160 Dry wash Bouteloua gracilis, Unident. grass <20 em ht , 12 H 6-1B NE 4 11N 70W 70BO Open pine Cercocarpus montanus, Pinus ponderosa 13 F 6-1B NE 4 llN 70W 70BO -Op en pine Agropyron spicatum, .Symphoricarpus s p , 14 F 6-19 NE 4 11N 70W 7240 Open pine Pinus ponderosa,Cercocarpus 15 H 6-19 SW 33 12N 70W 7120 Dry wash-open pine Pinus ponderosa, Cercocarpus montanus Stipa comata 16 F 6-20 SW 21 11N 70W 6B40 Shrub Cercocarpus montanus, Rhus trilobata montanus ----------._---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1 . Description of capture site of 12 male and 11 female mule deer fawns, ear-tagged and fitted with radiocollars during 1974 (continued). Ear Tag No. Sex Capt ure Date Legal DescriEtion 1/4S S T R Elevation (ft) Habitat Dominant Vegetation at Bedding Site 17 F 6-21 NW 28 llN 70W 6680 Shrub Cercoc~rpus montanus 18 F 6-21 NE 19 llN 70W 6760 Shrub Rhus trilobata, CercocarEus montanus 19 M 6-23 NW 3 llN 70W 7060 Dense pine Pinus ponderosa, Cercocarpus montanus, AgroEyron sp. 20 M 6-24 SE 17 llN 70W 6960 Prairie Bouteloua gracilis, CercocarEus montanus 21 F 6-25 SW 22 llN 70W 6960 Shrub Pinus Eonderosa, Boute1oua gracilis 22 M 6-25 SE 21 llN 70W 6920 Shrub CercocarEus montanus, Bromus tectorum 23 M 6-26 NE 28 llN 70W 6840 Shrub Rhus trilobata, Cercocarpus montanus I .j:N 0\ I �Table 2. Description of capture site of six male and eight female coyotes ear-tagged and fitted with radio-collars during 1974. Ear Tag No. Sex Capture Date 1/4S 24 M 7-31 SW 29 llN 70W 6520 Riparian 25 F 8-17 SW 27 llN 70W 6940 Dry wash Rhus trilobata, C~rcocarpus montanus, Chrysothamnus sp. JuniEerus scoEulorum, CercocarEus montanus 26 M 8-24 SW 29 llN 70W 6520 Riparian Salix sp , , Populos spp., Chrysothamnus 27 M 8-30 NW 28 llN 70W 6700 Dry washshrub ecotone JuniEerus scopulorum, Salix sp , CercocarEus montan~s, 28 F 9-2 NE 27 llN 70W 6840 Shrub CercocarEus montanus, JuniEerus scoEulorum 29 F 9-4 NW 27 llN 70W 6960 Prairie-shrub ecotone Bouteloua LeSal DescriEtion S T R Elevation (ft) Habitat Dominant Vegetation at Trap Site sp . gracilis, CercocarEus montanus I .j:N -....J I 30 F 9-4 SW 27 llN 70W 6940 Shrub Juniperus scopulorum, 31 F 9-6 NE 29 llN 70W 6580 Shrub-pr airie ecotone CercocarEus montanus, Bouteloua ~racilis 32 M 9-15 NW 27 llN 70W 6920 Prairie Bouteloua gracilis 33 F 9-19 NE 32 UN 70W 6480 Prai rie-sh rub ecotone Bouteloua gracilis, CercocarEus montanus 34 M ll-ll SW 29 llN 70W 6420 Prairie Bouteloua gracilis 35 M 12-7 SW 29 llN 70W 6720 Riparianprairie ecotone Bouteloua gracilis, Salix sp. 36 F 12-13 NW 10 UN 70W 6300 Dry washshrub ecotone Bouteloua 37 F 12-15 SW 26 llN 70W 6720 Dry washshrub ecotone Chrysothamnus sp., Cercocarpus montanus, Bouteloua gracilis Cercocarpus montanus gracilis, Chrysothamnus sp. �Table 3. The 1974 coyote trapping effort by month and individual coyote within Sections 10, 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, T11N, R70W. Cumulative Trap Days Per CaEture Coyote No. No. Days Month No. Days Traps Were Set No. Traps Set Per Day* Total Trap Days Total Coyo tes Captured July 29 6-19 310 1 24 291 August 31 19-25 611 3 25 606 September 20 10-25 465 6 26 733 November 19 11-16 234 1 27 866 December 18 117 9-18 263 3 28 915 6-25 1833 14 29 940 30 990 31 1,040 32 1,266 33 1,370 34 1,405 35 1,639 36 1,729 37 1,765** I .j:'N 00 117 . 1,833 14 * Trap numbers we re changed according to relative numbers of trap visitations by coyote, disturbance by cattle, porcupine, rabbits; discovery of additional coyote "nms", or apparent trap malfunction. ** An additional 118 trap days were spent attempting to capture one additional coyote. I �Table 4. Description of steel trap injuries Coyote No. Trap Jawsb Padded Not Padded to 14 coyotes during 1974. Foot Caught and Location of Trap Jaws Description of Damage Trap Type and Sizec 24a x Left front, just above paw Skin cut to bone on dorsal surface but no cuts on ventral surface. One or more tendons may have been severed. Severe swelling of eptire foot, moderate bleeding. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 25 x Left rear Coyote chewed off three pads and three toes. Severe circumferential tissue damage where jaws held tarsal, slight bleeding. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 26 x Left front, one inch above paw Skin cut to ligaments on left dorsal surface but no cuts on ventral surface, severe swelling of paw but no bleeding. Kangaroo, Offset jaws Montgomery I .p- N \0 I 27 X Left front, just above paw Skin not broken, moderate 28 X Left front, just above paw Skin cut only on dorsal and left side, no swelling. Bled profusely when jaws released. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 29 X Left front, below joint Skin cut deeper on dorsal inside, moderate swelling. Bled profusely when jaws released. Blake and Lamb 113, with teeth swelling. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 113 �Table 4. Description of steel trap injuries Coyote No. Trap Jawsb Padded Not Padded Foot Caught and Location of Trap Jaws Description of Damage Trap Type and Sizec 30 x Right front, two inches below joint Skin cut dorsally but not ventrally. Montgomery 31 x Right front, diagonally across phalanges One phalange broken, others exposed. Dorsal and ventral cuts similar in depth. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 32 x Not recorded Lateral cut through tendons and exposed bones. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 33 x Not recorded Two center phalanges broken and lateral laceration above middle toes, possible torn ligaments. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 113 X Right front Lateral cut across entire paw but no bones broken. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 35 X Left front, by two inside toes One-half inch cut in skin of one toe and phalanges broken. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 36 X Right fron t paw on upper portion One-half inch cut, possibly one or two phalanges broken. No bleeding. Montgomery 114, Offset jaws 37 X Right front paw on lower portion Skin cut, one inch long, and one bone in foot broken. Mont gome ry 114, Offset jaws bSee text for description trapper on January 21, 1975, the entire foot was gone below the dew claw, and the of jaw padding. In all cases, a drag hook attached to an 8 ft chain served as the trap anchor. I -!:'- w o I 34 aWhen caught by a commercial woun d well healed. c to 14 coyotes during 1974 (continued). �-431- Table 5. Vertebrates other than coyotes killed, released, or escaped from the steel traps set for coyotes, 1974. Species July August September November December Total Cottontail (Sllvilagus sp. ) 1 8 6a 4 3 22 Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) 1 2 lb 0 0 4 Bobcat (~ rufus) 1 0 lC 0 ld 3 Magpie (Pica pica hudsonia) 0 0 0 0 1 1 Total dead 3 10 8 4 5 30 a One rabbit released alive. b Porcupine ref.easud alive. c Bobcat released alive. d Bobcat escaped from trap. Physical Characteristics of Mule Deer Fawns and Coyotes Some physical characteristics and relevant temporal data are listed for 23 "newborn" fawns and 14 coyotes in Tables 6 and 7, respectively. Some of these data provide criteria for estimating their ages. Estimating Age of Mule Deer Fawns We attempted to assign age in days from birth to each captured fawn using the growth curve equations of male and female body weight and length of hind foot in Robinette (et al. 1973). Their equation for the length of hind foot for each of 12 male fawns yielded nonsensical values. Their equation for the length of the hind foot for each of 11 female fawns yielded plausible values for some individuals but not for others. For example, the umbilical cord of fawn number 3 was not dried on capture and the calculated age was one day. On the other hand, the age of fawn 16 was calculated as 904 days, clearly an impossible value. The body weight equations for each sex yielded this same mix of plausible and impossible values. Therefore, the estimated ages thus derived are omitted. �Table 6. Some physical characteristics of 12 male and 11 female newborn mule deer fawns captured within or adjacent to the Colorado State University Research Foundation Maxwell Ranch property ear-tagged and fitted with radio-transmitter collars during 1974. Ear Tag No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Sex CaEtured Date Time BodZ Weight kg 1b M M F M F F M M M F F M F F M F F F M M F M M 6-11 6-11 6-l3 6-l3 6-l3 6-13 6-16 6-16 6-16 6-17 6-18 6-18 6-18 6-19 6-19 6-20 6-21 6.21 6-23 6-24 6-25 6-25 6-26 4.0 3.6 2.9 3.3 3.5 3.9 4.5 3.4 3.2 4.3 4.1 4.0 3.9 3.4 4.4 6.7 4.9 4.0 4.8 3.7 3.5 3.5 4.9 1245 1248 0800 0800 0940 1305 1130 2052 2052 1250 0907 1848 2015 0921 1042 0915 0745 2008 1855 0801 2034 2051 0913 8. 75 8.00 6.50 7.25 7.75 8.50 10.00 7.50 7.00 9.50 9.00 8.75 8.50 7.50 9. 75 14.75 10.75 8. 75 ' 10.50 8.25 7.75 7.75 10. 75 Length Hind Foot (em) 27.3 25.1 24.5 25.4 25.6 26.0 28.0 25.0 24.8 26.8 26.2 26.5 27.5 25.5 27.0 28.5 26.5 27.0 27.3 26.8 26.0 25.5 28.5 Neck Circumference (cm) Min Max 16.5 17.8 17.3 15.2 16.5 15.5 16.8 15.2 15.0 16.8 15.7 16.5 15.2 14.0 17.8 19.0 16.5 14.7 19.0 17.3 15.2 15.0 18.3 20.3 17.8 17.5 18.8 17.8 19.0 17.8 17.3 16.5 17.8 16.5 17.8 16.5 16.5 19.0 19.8 17.8 16.5 19.8 18.8 16.5 16.8 18.3 Remarks No. 1 and 2 were twins No. 3 and 4 were twins I ~ w N I No.8 and 9 were twins Birth witnessed, 1940-2020 �7 . Some physical characteristics of 6 male and 8 female coyotes captured with steel traps immediately south Table of the Colorado State University Research Foundation Maxwell Ranch property, ear-tagged and fitted with radiotransmitter collars during 1974. EarTag No. Sex Date Captured 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 M* F M M F* F* F* F* M F M M* F F 7-31 8-17 8-24 8-30 9-2 9-4 9-4 9-6 9-15 9-19 11-11 12-7 12-13 12-15 Body Weight kg 1b 10.9 5.9 7.0 8.2 10.9 7.5 8.6 9.8 24.0 13.0 15.5 18.0 24.0 16.5 18.5 21.5 - - 6.4 8.4 12.5 10.0 10.0 14.0 18.5 27.5 22.0 22.0 Hind Foot 19.0 17.8 19.0 17.0 18.5 19.5 19.5 19.0 17.0 - 19.1 16.5 16.5 Lengths (em) TaU Ear 30.5 27.9 28.0 33.5 35.0 32.5 34.5 34.0 36.0 33.0 30.5 34.3 33.0 33.0 11.0 10.2 9.0 11.5 10.5 12.0 10.5 12.0 12.0 11.0 10.8 10.8 10.2 10.8 Total Body Chest - 47.0 38.1 38.1 37.5 44.4 43.2 45.7 41.9 48.3 34.3 47.0 55.9 50.8 53.3 91.4 - - 108.0 111.8 106.7 106.7 Circumference Min Neck ~em2 Max Neck 26.7 17.8 20.3 26.7 22.9 21.6 21.6 25.4 27.9 25.4 22.9 27.9 20.3 27.9 38.1 33.0 29.2 - 23.5 22.9 24.1 21.6 24.1 19.1 24.1 34.3 22.9 22.9 * Coyotes more than one year of age. All others were estimated to have been born during 1974 on the basis of the growth curves and dentition criteria of Gier (1957:50, 51, 55). I .j:'- w w I �-434- Estimating Age of Coyotes Based on the very approximate criteria used, two males and four females exceeded one year of age. Four males and four females were born during 1974. The body weights of the 14 coyotes resemble those of similar approximate age and season of collection from Kansas (Gier 1957:52) and California (Hawthorne 1970: 71) , Fate of Radio-Collared Fawns Of the 23 fawns captured, 10 were found dead as of 31 March 1975; 3, 3, 3, 7, 7, 16, 26, 42, 86, and 127 days following capture and release. Two fawns were never contacted following release. Four fawns were found very soon after death; two visually and two using telemetry. Three carcasses were suitable for certain clinical studies and starvation was stated to be the probable cause of death (Table 8). Because fawns 8 and 9 were captured less than an hour after birth, our disturbance may have been a factor in their deaths. Four fawns lost their expandable collars. The cause(s) of mortality could not be determined for seven fawns. Typically, these animals had been scavenged or deteriorated to such a degree that positive identification of the causal factor(s) of death was impossible (Fig. 1). This was also true of nine uncollared fawn carcasses born during 1974 and found from 8 July 1974 to 14 March 1975. In Texas white-tailed deer, White et al. (1972:897), reported that: "capture, and particularly the marking, of young fawns increased mortality." Fate of Radio-Collared Coyotes Only one radio-collared coyote (No. 24) was known to have died as of 31 March 1975. This animal was trapped and killed for profit on 21 January 1975 about l~ miles from its capture site. A minimum of 20 additional coyotes are believed to have been shot during the summer, autumn, and early winter of 1975 within or adjacent to the study area. None of these animals were reported as being ear-tagged or radio-collared. Radio-Tracking Fawns and Coyotes Some indices of signal distance and strength obtained with our telemetry equipment under ideal, line-of-sight conditions are given in Table 9. The time in minutes expended obtaining signals with various combinations of antennae are described statistically in Table 10. Relevant ear-tag, mortality, and radiocollar data for 23 fawns and 14 coyotes are given in Table 11. Capture sites, death sites, and telemetric and visual locations of 23 fawns are plotted on portions of U.S.G.S. Topographic Quadrangles,Figs. 2-18. Approximate distances of radio-collared fawns and coyotes between their capture sites and subsequent telemetric and visual locations are described statistically in Tables 12 and 13, respectively. Observations of Deer and Coyotes The total number and numbers of mule deer recorded per man hour within the study area for each of 11 months are listed by sex and age class in Table 14. �Table 8. Summary of clinical examinations of three male radio-collared mule deer fawns by the Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. * Ear Tag No. 8 Date Fo und Sex Date Tagged Dead Bacteriology Virology** M 6-16 6-19 Intestine - Bacillus and E. coli Liver - negative Lung - negative FA for BVD - negative FA-for PI3 - nega~ive FA for IBR - negative Pathology No milk in stomach and the meconium was still in the colon and rectum. No food particles in intestine. Histology - autolytic changes in intestine. Congestion of centri-lobular areas and vacuolation of hepatocyte cytoplasm of liver. No visible lesions of lung, kidney, thymus, thyroid. Summary: No signifiI cant lesions were recognized histologi+:w cally. VI Diagnosis: Starvation as the probable cause of death. 9 M 6-16 6-19 Intestine, liver, lung -~. coli Ltmg - Bacillus subtilis No tests No milk in stomach or intesttne. Some fecal material had grass and possibly some milk residue. No other lesions noted. Histology - negative Diagnosis: Starvation cause of death. as the probable -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �Table 8. Summary of clinical examinations of three male radio-collared mule deer fawns by the Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins (continued).* Ear Tag No. 4 Sex Date Tagged Date Found Dead Bacteriology Virology** M 6-13 6-20 No tests No tests Pathology No milk in stomach or intestine, but a 2 em diameter ball of dry grass was present. Most of the meconium was gone and the remainder was soft. No evidence of diarrhea. Diagnosis: Starvation as the probable cause of death. I .po. * Abstracted or paraphrased ** FA = from laboratory reports prepared by Dr. A. E. McChesney and Dr. W. W. Brown. fluorescent antibody. BVD = bovine viral diarrhea. PI3 = type of influenza virus. IBR = infectious bovine rhinotracheitis. Vol 0\ I �-437- Fig. 1. Fawn number 13, captured and released 18 June 1974; located with aerial telemetry 1, 2, 3, 4 July 1974, but never seen alive. Found dead 3:03 P.M., 14 July 1974, with ground telemetry about 1800 ft from its capture site. �Table 9. Signal with line-of-sight distance* and strength** achieved by lithium and mercury b a t t.e ry+powere d 46.5 orientation over slightly rolling prairie using three types of antennae. Johnson Receiver Date 350 df Channel Type of Battery Signal Distance Truck-Mounted Whip 1/2 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 1/4 MHz transmitters (Miles)* Hand-Held Whip 1/2 5/8 3/4 1 7-30-74 L Lithium E G W 0 E E G 0 0 1-21-75*** L Lithium 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 E G 0 0 ,./ , 7-30-74 Mercury E G E Signal W 0 Distance_Cft) * / / Directional Hand-Loop, ,.,,/ E . / I +0W OJ " I I / / / 1050 1320 /~ G 0 792 1 " 7-30-74 L Lithium E 1-21-75*** L Lithium G W W 7-30-74 E Mercury E G 0 * On the ground within ** E = excellent signal; the study area. G = good signal; W = weak s Lgnlal , 0 = no signal. *** Same transmitter used on coyote 1124;' signal on l-21-,!'75 audible at 2100 ft 1500 ft with the hand-held whiP. and 1650 ft with the directional hand loop. expiration for this transmitter was 1-23-75. , 'I, I with the truck-mounted whip, at The theoretical date of battery �-439- Table 10. The various combinations of four types of antennae uS~d and a statistical description of the time (minutes) between receivin~ a signal on the first antenna and a signal on the second antenna or visual or telemetric identification of a particular mule deer fawn. First Antennae Second or Identified Fawn N x f3n Min Max 60 60 26.;0 10 42 53 79 Yagi to truck whip 1 Yagi to loop 2 Yagi to hand whip 0 Truck whip to yagi 2 66.0 Truck whip to visual 5 80.2 66.9 25 180 4 42.2 50.4 1 110 Truck whip to hend whip 2 4.0 4 4 Hand whip to loop 16 18.5 18.9 3 75 Hand whip to visual 10 64.5 68.3 9 180 Hand whip to telemetric only 2 184.5 120 249 Loop to visual 5 25.8 27.1 6 73 28 54.8 55.4 2 180 14 61.4 64.6 6 249 Truck whip to telemetric identification -' First telemetric signal to visual identification First telemetric signal to telemetric identification �Table 11. Description Ear Tag No. Species and Sex of identically-numbered Capture Date Date Found Dead Date Collar Found metal ear tags and radio-collars Color of Ear Tags L R fitted to 23 mule deer fawns and 14 coyotes during 1974-75. Theoretical No. of 46.5 MHz Date of Battery TransmitterExpiration Battery Unit Pu.l se Rate per 15 Sec. Battery Type Color of Collar Collar Symbo I, or 'l~o. v Remarks FAWNS 1 M 6-11 2 M 6-11 3 F 6-13 6-29-74 4 M 6-13 6-20-74 5 F 6-13 6 F 6-13 7 M 8 9-6-74 Yellow Red 8-28-75 lAl5 13 Hg 'White Yellow Red 9-4-75 2B16 13 }1g White Yellow Red 9-2-75 4DlO 21 Hg White White twins White s: Collar broken, 4 pc. 20 Hg White o 5E19 14 Hg White L No.8 Hg White U twins Red 7-2-75 6F12 2~ Hg Red 9-28-75 4Dl8 13 Hg White Yellow Red 7-30-75 5Ell 21 Hg 6-16 Yellow Red 8-2-75 7G13 M 6-16 6-19-74 Red Yellow 9-26-75 6-19-74 4 9 M 6-16 Red Yellow 9-29-75 6 FZ:O 13 10 F 6-17 Red Yellow 10-7-75 :,C17 13 Hg White X 11 F 6-18 Red Yellow 9-1-75 2B8 21 Hg White X. 12 M 6-18 13 F 6-18 14 F 6-19 15 M 6-19 16 F 6-20 17 F 6-21 18 F 6-21 19 M 6-23 20 M I & 9 were Red Yellow 11-10-75 7G21 15 Hg White· Red Yellow 8-4-75 5E5 15 Hg White Red Yellow 9-29-75 17 Hg White 10-24-74 Red Yellow 8-.5-75 8L22 3C9 . '1-4 y"V ~D 22 Hg White XU Yellow Red 11-2-75 6F20 13 Hg White U Collar from fawn 9 \ Yellow Red 10-22-75 5E19 14 Hg White L Collar from fawn 8 " Yellow Red 9-15-75 8L14 13 Hg White XL Red Yellow 7-12-75 6F12 20 Hg White 7-3-74 8-1-74 2-3-75 Yellow ~ Red 9-11-75 15 3C3 ~ L Hg White • t o 7-14-74 6-24 _____________________________ collar in tact No. 3 & 4 were • Yellow Yellow 2-11-75 • • No. 1 & 2 were twins, Co Ll.ar-broken (from, fawn No.4) xy _ �Description Table 11. Ear Tag No. Species and Sex ~ (continued) Capture Date of identically-numbered Date Found Dead Date Collar Found metal ear tags and radio-collars Color of Ear Tags R L Red fitted to 23 mule deer fawns and 14 coyotes Theoretical Date of Battery Expiration No. of 46.5 MHz TransmitterBattery Unit 9-8-75 6F6 21 F 6-25 9-19-74 Yellow 22 M 6-25 6-28-74 Yellow 6-26 7-3-74 Yellow Red 4D4 M 8-23-75 23 COYOTES M 7-31 1-21-75 Yellow Red 1-23-75 8L36 24 25 26 27 F M M 8-17 28 F 8-24 8-30 9-2 29 F 9-4 . Hg 1.1. 17 Li 18 Li Li Yellow Red Yellow Red 3-1-75 lA33 Yellow Red Yellow Red 9-6 9-15 33 34 M 35 M 11-11 12-7 Yellow Red Yellow Red * Erratic pulse rate. 16 26 F M F 12-15 X. White 2B38 lA37 31 32 F * 4D40 Red 12-13 XI White 5-13-75 4-9-75 9-4 F White Hg 2-3-75 F 36 37 lA7 Red Yellow Red Yellow Red Yellow Red - 3C39 19 13 15 Hg Remarks None Black None Red & black Black & white None None Red & orange Red I •... "" "" None Li Orange & who None None None None I Trans.non-funct. when found 2-}-75 7G37 15 Hg Blue & red 3-5-75 2-22-75 5E35 6F36 4-3-75 2B34 15 14 13 Hg Hg Hg Blue &'white Black & blue White Li Li White Yellow Yellow 7-23-75 8-26-75 8L45 G44 Red 9-1·2-75 6F43 20 20 21 7-21-75 3E42 20 Yellow Collar Symbol or No. Hg Red 30 9-19 8-11-75 Color of Collar 15 Li Yellow 12-10-74 Red Pulse Rate per Battery 15 Sec. Type during 1974-75. (cont.). None Li White White 1 2 None Li White None �-442- . I . ( . ",1. .';j':' ~. \I II _ t\7110 ,; -;-.;;. - \\.. \' -' " " -,,-,---7//6 'j, ,~- Fig. 2. Fawn No. 1 captured 11 June 1974 (solid circle) with telemetric and visual observations by month. Last observation 15 September 1974, TUN, R70W. �-443- Fig. 3. Fawn No.2 captured 11 June 1974 (solid circle) with telemetric and visual observations by month. Intact radio-collar found (half solid circle), 6 September 1974, TllN, R70W. �-444- 7168 17'~/, / " . -: " ,/ II ~<; -" ',I () " . il .lo _JVItO C'6 e : ." '---- .;-7 -,~.:. Ji. ~~ .•. q.;.-~.--'--'---.-_ ~-- \ \\ ,I ..../' .p~~=f--'-,,,*o.. /- Fig. 4. Fawn No.3 captured 13 June 1974 (solid circle) with telemetric and visual observations by month. Found dead ("X" circle), 29 June 1974, TUN, R70W. �-475July 1975 JOB PROGRESS State 0f Project __ -=C.:::O=L.:::O::.:RA:.:DO=-=_ No. __ W~-~3~8-_R~-_2_9~ Work Plan No. Job Title Period REPORT ~1~9~ _ _ Deer-Elk Job No. Investigations 2 -------~~------------------ Evaluation of Herd Structure Methodology ---~~~~~~--~~~~~~--~~~~~--------------------- Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1974 - March 31, 1975 Allen E. Anderson, David C. Bowden, Eugene Medin, Elmer Remmenga, Charles Wallmo. G. Johnson, Dean E. ABSTRACT The validity of the assumptions or models for sample observations from each of two sampling plans which permit the development of measures of reliability for estimates of fawn to doe ratios of Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) sampled after the autumn hunting season are examined and the results of data analysis under an appropriate model are presented. The first plan (route counts) consisted of ten, dawn-to-dusk, circular routes designed to yield the maximum number of classified deer on representative portions of the Cache la Poudre winter range. The routes were walked by two observers twice each breeding season; (1) during the estimated peak, and (2) during the late portion, 1962-65. The second plan (quadrat counts) consisted of classifying deer within randomly-selected, l/4-mile2 quadrats, stratified by subjective estimates of low and high deer densities and proportionally allocated within each of eight topographic quadrangles on Cache la Poudre winter range and two quadrangles within, and adjacent to the Maxwell Ranch, 18 November 1974 - 9 January 1975. Because of the statistical models examined, fawn to doe ratios are stated in terms of PF = F/(F + D) where PF = the proportion of fawns, F = the number of fawns, and D = the number of does. Tests indicated significant (P <0.01) departure of the observations from the binomial distribution and simple linear regression through the origin of fawns per group on does and fawns yielded variances about one-half of those derived from binomial models. RegreSSion analysis allowed valid comparisons of routes within years and between the peak and late breeding periods on the same route. Among pooled route counts, the approximate peak period of breeding exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) larger proportions of fawns (PF) than the late period of breeding. Among the quadrat coun ts, the proportion of fawns was significantly (P < O. 01) higher .within the low deer density quadrats on Cache la Poudre winter range. The relative merits of the route and quadrat count sampling plans require testing with a random selection of routes. However, one important feature of the quadrat count sampling plan is that both minimum deer densities and fawn to doe ratios may be inferred from the same sample. The minimum estimates of the mean (+SE) numbers of mule deer per mi1e2 during November-December 1974 were 25.5-+ 2.4 (Cache la Poudre), and 26.8 + 12.2 (Maxwell). Deer on an estimated lll-quadrats would require classific~tion for the proportion of fawns (PF) to within 5 percent of the true value at the 90 percent level of confidence. �-476- RECOMMENDATIONS Because many of the field and statistical problems be fully anticipated the following recommendations involved cannot now are tentative: 1. The relative merits of the two sampling plans examined herein, route counts and quadrat counts; require further work involving random selection of routes. 2. One assumption of the regression model presented; that groups of deer are encountered at random should be tested with known numbers of deer within large enclosures of natural range. �-477- EVALUATION OF HERD STRUCTURE METHODOLOGY David C. Bowden and Allen E. Andersona Sample ratios of sex and age of Rocky Mountain mule deer are routinely obtained by many agencies concerned with its management. In some cases, the ratios alone are believed important in evaluating the effects of hunting or observed environmental stress. In other cases they form the basis for calculating population characteristics difficult to measure directly. Hanson (1963) reviewed the rationale and methods of calculating the equations presented by Rasmussen and Doman (1943), Kelker (1944), Robinette (1949), and Lauckhart (1950); which use sample ratios of sex and age to calculate one or more of the following population characteristics of mule deer (Odocileus hemionus); (1) productivity (p. 21), (2) survival rates (p. 30), and (3) absolute abundance (p. 45). This author, presumably referring primarily to sex and age ratios of vertebrates generally, states (p. 6): "Methods for obtaining valid data are not covered here because they have been treated in many other publications, ---", and that (p. 7) "Procedures for calculating confidence limits of estimates are not considered in detail "We are not aware of any published statistically adequate procedure for collecting "valid data" on sex and age ratios of mule deer. Recently, however, Paulik and Robson (1969) and Seber (1973:353) have presented the assumptions, models and methods of computing confidence intervals and sample size requirements for the change-in-ratio methods of estimating absolute abundance of many vertebrates including deer. Actually, much of the literature reporting sex and age ratios of deer has been unpublished with little or no discussion of sampling methodology or statistical attributes. Some exceptions were: Leopold et ale (1951:118) who attempted to estimate sample size requirements, Riney (1956) who presented a formula for calculating approximate confidence limits about sample ratios, and Wallmo (1964) who discussed probable sources of bias and sampling errors. Overton (1971:455) and Eberhardt (1971:494) mention sex and age ratios of deer briefly but do not discuss sampling methodology or statistical attributes. Caughley (1974) examined by simulation the assumption that age ratios reflect the dynamics of a population and concluded (p. 562) that; "age ratios cannot be interpreted without a knowledge of the rate of increase, and if we have an estimate of this rate we do not need age ratios." However, this author also states (p. 562) that a "sudden change in a ratio --- indicates that something has happened," and there is some evidence that fawn to doe ratios may reflect the dynamics of some deer populations. For example, Smith et al. (1969) documented a marked decline in a deer population subjected to controlled, any-deer hunting regulations and believed that concurrent and inexplicably poor fawn to doe ratios (11:100-49:100) partially responsible. Swank (1958:78-79) associated summer range drought as one important factor in a Dr. Bowden, Dept. Statistics, Colorado State University, wrote the METHODS AND MATERIALS and nearly all the RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS sections and with the assistance of Graduate Student Gene Johnson developed the statistical rationale described herein. A. E. Anderson wrote the ABSTRACT, INTRODUCTION, and RECOMMENDATION sections. The field work was performed by A. E. Anderson and D. E. Medin during 1962-65 and by A. E. Anderson and Charles ~-lallmoduring 1974-75. �-478- the decrease from 90:100 to 50:100 in winter fawn:doe ratios and a concurrent, calculated loss of 18,000 deer on the Kaibab North, 1953-1954. Taber and Dasman (1958:129) found large differences in fawn :doe ratios (71:100, 115: 100, 145:100) among three adjacent range types. We hypothesize that estimated fawn to doe ratios may be useful in assessing rates of fawn mortality if the data can be obtained under conditions which permit the valid estimations of the standard errors of the estimated fawn to doe ratio and the sampling intensity for small coefficients of variation of the fawn to doe ratio can be practically achieved. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test and improve the field and statistical methodology used to estimate selected population parameters of mule deer and coyotes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Study existing herd structure data to provide an improved statistical rationale for analyses of fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios. 2. Analyze data and submit reports for publication. METHODS AND MATERIALS An ecological study of the Rocky Mountain mule deer population w~thin a 1376.5 km2 portion of the Cache la Poudre River drainage in Roosevelt National Forest in Larimer County, northcentral Colorado was conducted from 1961 to 1965. In one facet of the study it was of interest to examine the fawn, doe, buck components of population at specified time periods (Anderson and Medin 1965). Since it was not feasible to estimate the actual number of deer in each category, the fawn to doe ratio of population sizes and the buck to doe ratio of population sizes were studied. Deer were classified into fawn, doe, buck categories in late November through December and again in January through early February for 3 winter seasons beginning in 1962: 11-29-62 to 12-18-62, 1-3-63 to 1-27-63, 11-21-63 to 12-14-63, 1-9-64 to 1-31-64, 12-3-64 to 12-17-64 and 1-13-65 to 1-27-65. The winter range of the deer population in the study area was sampled by selecting 10 representative sections of the winter range (Fig. 1). A route to be traversed by walking was outlined on aerial photographs of each representative section. The routes were located to classify the maximum number of deer. The length of the route was determined by the distance which could be covered in the given terrain by walking from dawn to dusk. The routes were covered by two observers working together, generally with one observer maintaining a vantage point while the other observer attempted to bring hidden deer into view. Classifications of deer were made by using 8X40 or 7X35 binoculars and 20X spotting scopes. Deer were classified as fawn, doe, buck or unidentified by groups on the basis of relative body size, presence or absence of antlers �so: !.o' 105' 30' w' ::0' -l -j-+,=*-~,,,,,,,,~jl-"~t~~~ T10N ~gl \f~Ti..Ff~t~~1 T 9 N ••'d"\ R \\I!)u:- •• _..JI l~r •• ~-""'~ I I I I .p.. -...J 1.0 ~40 I T8Ni , 7N GAME MANAGEMENT DEPT. OF SIXTH PRINCIPAL UNIT 19 GAME AND FISH MERIDIAN Ie:.;,,-t.-=_';;.=:=,~~""=,,_~~=-J~_~ Mill!s 40' 30' LEGEND ~ ~"'~..:i7~.- '. "!~ ..•;-; ' --~'--- " _ _I -'-r3-:rIct-,,:-a"hn:;:;r-- ' - --'-e~.t-" "" - , a~r---:=::"~-:'-~ Management Unit AppralllTlale Tronsihonot ~!~~ TeN Boundary ~_~_~.8~_~d_.~m~~ Zone __Rono~s _ p'.:IJt'.t'('f, ,..,rll. A",,,r'<'8r dOl,."" ;">,,,'y,.,,,""( Fig. 1. The location of 10, all-day walking routes designed to classify during the approximate (1) peak, and (2) late portion of their breeding the maximum number of mule deer season, 1962-65. �-480- and the applicable criteria listed by Dasmann and Taber (1956:80). A group was identified by observing the joint behavior and spatial distribution of the deer. Only those groups in which all deer were classified were used in this analysis. We refer to this sampling plan as the route counts. In 1974 a new sampling plan was applied to the study area. The deer winter range was divided on 1:24000 scale U. S. Geological Survey Topographic Quadranges into square sampling units (1/4 mile2 or one-half mile per side) and the sampling units placed into strata. Each sampling unit was classified subjectively into high and low deer density strata by eight Topographic Quadrangles (16 strata). Counts started 22 November and were concluded 31 December except for two sampling units covered 9 January, 1975. Sampling effort was proportionally allocated according to the total number o£ sampling units per stratum (Topographic Quadrangle) except that at least two sampling units were taken from every stratum. Two walking observers classified deer on each selected sampling unit. The sampling unit was approached and traversed to classify the maximum number of deer. Four sampling units were usually counted beginning at dawn and finishing at dusk each day. The counting sequence of the sampling units was arranged so that adjacent or nearby sampling units were counted on the same day to minimize duplicate classification of the same deer and to allow for efficient use of available time. Deer were recorded by groups as before. We refer to this sampling plan as the quadrat counts. In this report we present these data and examine the validity of assumptions or models for the sample observations from each sampling plan which permit the development of measures of reliability of estimates of ratios of the deer population size components. In addition, the results of the data analysis under a model not contradictive to the data will be presented. All analyses are limited to the fawn to doe ratio. The buck to doe ratio will be examined in subsequent reports. DESCRIPTION OF AREA That portion of the Cache la Poudre winter range sample has been described by Anderson et ale (1970:390). The Maxwell ranch area is described in the Work Plan 19, Job 1 Progress Report accompanying this report. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Statistical Models for the Observations - Route Counts Although the stated parameter of interest is the fawn to doe ratio, there are equivalent parameters which are preferable under some statistical models. The following notation permits an easy definition of the equivalent parameters. Consider the population of deer at a specified point in time and define F, D as the number of fawns, does, respectively, in the population at this time. The stated ratio of interest is RF = F/D. Consider instead PF = F/(F + D). �-481- Then clearly, ~ = PF/(l - PF). The statistical models given here will be stated in terms of PF so that the estimation problem will be to determine the proportion of fawns (relative to does and fawns). Estimates of PF can be converted into estimates of RF. Much of the difficulty in objectively sampling natural wildlife populations arises in determining a sampling frame (a list of sampling units) which can be sampled by using statistical sampling plans while at the same time providing sampling units which when measured provide data on the target population of interest. A statistical sampling plan is a scheme of sampling unit selection such that the probability of obtaining each individual sampling unit in a sample of a given size is known or can be calculated. Conceptually, the use of the animals themselves as a sampling unit is an appealing sampling frame. In its simplest form each animal is a sampling unit. A desirable property of having the animals as sampling units is that conceptually the value of PF could be determined without error if all the sampling units were measured. The practical problem with such sampling frames is that once a specified sample of animals was determined, the animals have to be located and classified. Such a sampling frame also implies that the population size is known and that the animals or groups of animals (sampling units) can be listed. As an alternative to forming sampling units from or of the animals themselves, sampling frames are constructed by considering a given area or region, perhaps volume, that the population is associated with, restricted to, or contained in. As in the 1974 sampling of the Poudre drainage, the region is subdivided into parts which are considered as the sampling units. The construction of such a sampling frame and the actually selection of the sampling units to be measured is not difficult. However because of the movement of the animals among the sampling units and because the animals behavior limits their detection by human observers, measurement errors on such sampling units can be quite important. The explicit or implicit use of these two types of sampling frames will now be examined relative to the data of the present study. First, statistical models or sets of assumptions which give rise to the use of a sampling frame dependent on the animals themselves will be examined. Thus, let n represent the number of animals identified as either does or fawns while d and f will be the numbers of does and fawns in the sample of n. Consider the following assumptions: 1. The classification category for each animal is independent of the other animals in the sample. Alternatively the probability that an individual animal is a fawn does not depend on the other animals in the sample. 2. The probability that an individual animal is a fawn is PF. It is well known that these assumptions imply that the probability distribution of f is given by the binomial distribution where n is the number of trials, PF is the probability of success on an individual trial and f is the number of successes out of n. In the sampling frame terminology this same binomial distribution is arrived at by assuming that a simple random sample without replacement is taken from a sampling frame which lists the individual animals. The sampling �-482- procedure then implies the distribution of f is given by the hypergeometric distribution. But in most situations this hypergeometric distribution can be adequately approximated by the binomial distribution given above. In general, the practicality of actually constructing and using such a sampling frame is nil, but is is common practice to assume the collected data, however gathered, satisfy assumptions 1. and 2. and in essence claim that the collection procedure operates as if a simple random sample of the individual deer was taken. It remains to establish that the data are not in strong disagreement with the implications of these assumptions. Since the alternatives to accepting assumptions 1. and 2. are complicated, the disagreement of the actual data with assumptions 1. and 2. will be explored next. The assumptions will be examined for the data collected on the route counts from 1962 to 1965. On each route the deer were observed in natural occurring groups, that is, classified into groups by their behavior and the proximity of individuals to each other. A group in the present case would be one or more does or fawns. Now if assumptions 1. and 2. are true, then the distribution of the number of fawns within groups of fixed size should be binomial. If adequate numbers of groups were observed at each given group size, then a chi square goodness of fit test could be applied at each group size and pooled. In the actual data, the limited frequency of groups of a given size prohibited the use of this'test. However, Cochran (1936) presented the index of dispersion test for such cases of small expected frequencies. The index of dispersion test can be written as: m 2 L X (m-l) i (fi - ni p)2 = 1 ni P (1 - p) where m is the number of groups observed, fi is the number of fawns in the ith group, ni is the number of fawns and does in the ith group and p = L fil L ni. The distribution of the index of dispersion is approximated by the chi square distribution with m-l degrees of freedom. Cochran (1954) suggests when m > 15 that the mean and variance of the index of dispersion test should be used to form a standard normal test statistic (~test). Rejection of a common binomial distribution for groups of all sizes can occur in the use of the statistic even if the distribution of the fawns at a given group size is binomial if the proportion of fawns change over or among the group sizes. The index of dispersion can be written in two steps to examine the alternative just raised. First calculate: X2 (m-K) - k K mk l: l: 1 i = 1 (fki - nk Pk) nk Pk (l-Pk) K L: k 1 (mk - 1)sk2 nk Pk (l-Pk) Where K is the number of different group sizes, nk is the size of the groups indexed by k, mk is the number of groups of size nk, fki is the number of �Table 1. Values for the index of dispersion on Cache la Poudre winter range, 1962-65. (X2m_l) test for does and fawns recorded on 10, all-day walking routes Seaman Reservoir Washout Gulch Sevenmile Creek Bennett Creek Kelly Flats E. Elkhorn Creek E. Hewlett Gulch W. Hewlett Gulch Youngs Gulch Livermore Mountain Index 8.36 2.22 1. 09 8.14 18.92 11.90 8.13 6.79 11. 99 12.81 df 13 2 3 26 43 27 19 14 25 25 1962 Novembe r I +:0) w 1963 November I .44 Index df 1 0 1 3.94 4.56 11.21 3.13 5.06 4.00 7.53 4.23 3 16 33 11 7 1 19 13 �-484- Z fawns in the ith group of size nk, Pk is given as Pk = i fki/mknk and sk2 is the sample variance of the number of fawns in the sample of mk groups of size nk. This criterion tests whether the distribution of the number of fawns at a fixed group size is binomial. The significance levels of the criterion can be approximated by using a chi square distribution with m-K degrees of freedom. Since the K components of this test are independent the lack of fit of the binomial distribution can be made at each group size where each individual component has a chi square distribution (approximately) with mk-1 degrees of freedom. Secondly calculate: K 2 X (K-1) Z nkmk (Pk-p)2 p (l-p) If one does not reject the binomial distribution at each groups size, then this criterion tests the equality of the proportion of fawns among groups of different size. If at each group size the number of fawns is binomially distributed, then the criterion above is approximately distributed as a chi square distribution with K-1 degrees of freedom. If in the first step the denominator of X2m_k is changed from nkPk (l-Pk) to nkP (l-p), then The values of the index of dispersion test for the does and fawns recorded on individual routes are given in Table 1. The calculations were performed only for the 1962 and 1963 counts, since the uniformity of the rejections of the binomial distribution clearly indicated an alternative model or set of assumptions was needed. The component of the index of dispersion X2m-K, was calculated for three route counts, which were selected only because they had a fair range in group sizes to check on the possibility of changing proportions of fawns with groups size (Table 2). Again the binomial distribution is clearly in disagreement with the data. The next set of assumptions will serve as a basis for the analysis of the present data set. Therefore, some practical aspects of route sampling will be examined here, which were not mentioned when the binomial distribution was discussed. These aspects would also be important if one had accepted the binomial distribution for a description of the number of fawns given the group sizes. The area of winter range covered by walking along a route for one day is obviously limited. Hence, the area sampled has various relationships to the home range of the deer being classified. A few animals may have their home range entirely within the area sampled while some animals may have most of their home range within the sampled area and some may have only a limited part of their home range inside the sampled area. The probability of classifying a particular animal may depend on the proportion of his home range within the area sampled and the proportion of time the animal occupies this (included) part of the home range. �-485- Table 2. The component of the index of dispersion, X2 m-K, for three routes selected because of their wide range of group sizes of does ~d fawns. Sampling Period Route 2 X m-K E(mk-l) Sk2/nkPk (l-Pk) d.f. Sig. Level 1962 November E. Elkhorn Creek 18.06 ~ P - .01 1964 December E. Elkhorn Creek 18.74 36 P - .01 1963 January Livermore Mountain 10.62 24 P - .01 Now the primary interest in this study is with PF. Define F(t) and D(t) to be the number of fawns and does, respectively, present in the sampled area at time (t). Also, define PF(t) = F(t)/(F(t) + D(t». It will be assumed that although individual animals move into and out of the sampled area, PF(t) will remain const~t at the value PF. In addition, given that ~ animal is present in the area when the classification is performed, its behavior may be such that the chance of classifying the ~imal is greater or less than the mean probability of classifying an animal given it is present. Actual knowledge of the individual probabilities of classification are not necessary for unbiased estimation of PF, but knowledge of the difference in the mean probability of classifying a doe versus a fawn would be necessary. The present data does not allow estimation of the difference in the mean classification probabilities. Hence, it will be tacitly assumed that the me~ probability of classifying a fawn is equal to "the mean probability of classifying a doe. It will be again assumed that during the count day m groups of deer are completely classified. It will be further assumed that fi = Sni + €i, i 1, 2, ... , m where fi is the number of fawns in the ith group with ni total does ~d fawns, S is equal to PF and €i is a random residual component. It is assumed that the expected value of €i is zero with the variance of €i = 02 and the covariance between €i and €i~, i+i~ is zero. With the ni considered as fixed, the model is that of a linear regression through the origin. If the distribution of fi given ni was binomial, then the variance of €i would be ni PF (l-PF) or proportional to ni. Examination of plots of fi versus ni, equivalently Table 3, and other calculations indicate that the variance of €i is const~t, say 02 thus providing further evidence against the binomial distribution of fi given ni. The values of S = E fini/Eni2, &2 = (Efi2 - SEfini)/(~l), and the st~dard error of S = v!&2/Eni2 were calculated for each route at each of the six sampling times. I I A test of equality of S values among routes was performed �Table 3 . Frequency of total groups of doe and fawn mule deer recorded on 10, all-day, walking routes on Cache 1a Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-65. Sample Dates: Nov. 29, 1962 to Dec. 18, 1962 Sample Dates: Jan. 3, 1963 to Jan. 27, 1963 No. Fawns 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 ~ 6 I'L< 7 + 8 <J) 9 8 10 • 11 .g 12 13 14 15 44 4 2 10 47 15 3 E 50 (/) 1 (/) 76 2 5 20 19 7 1 1 1 54 3 1 2 3 4 2 12 4 No. Fawns 5 6 7 E 1 1 54 56 37 23 9 5 7 4 1 2 1 5 2 0 1 207 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 7 4 1 2 3 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ~ I'L< 9 + 10 gj 11 o 12 ~ 13 o 14 z 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 9 8 1 2 28 33 19 6 1 E 40 1 (/) 1 2 14 12 22 6 4 1 1 1 3 2 7 6 6 3 4 6 7 8 E 1 1 23 37 55 32 30 16 11 10 5 2 6 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 233 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 5 1 4 2 1 90 63 24 9 5 1 0 I .j:'00 0I �Table Poudre 3, Frequency of total groups of doe and fawn mule deer recorded on 10, all-day, walking routes on Cache 1a range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-65 (continued). wi.n t er Sample Date~: SamE1e Dates: Nov. 21, 1963 to Dec. 14, 1963 Jan. 9, 1964 to Jan. 31, 1964 No. Fawns No. Fawns 0 1 1 2 3 CIl 4 ~ ~ 5 + 6 7 CIl 8 8 9 10 z11 12 18 2 8 27 16 3 1 1 L 21 1 Q) 2 10 16 2 1 1 3 30 5 1 2 1 3 o 56 4 7 1 1 1 1 3 1 L 26 29 26 21 5 2 1 5 0 1 1 1 118 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CIl 10 ~ ~ 11 12 + 13 CIl ~ 14 0 15 0 1 24 7 3 4 28 22 8 1 2 19 17 14 5 6 3 3 3 5 7 6 2 1 1 9 4 2 2 1 5 6 62 61 27 21 8 9 L 1 1 28 35 44 28 17 11 14 15 7 4 3 3 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 215 1 2 1 1 1 1 35 7 1 1 1 " 16 z 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 L 4 2 4 2 0 I .j::- ex> ....• I �3. Frequency of total groups of doe and fawn mule deer recorded on 10, all-day, walking routes on Cache 1a Table Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-65 (continued). ~ ample Dates: Sample Dates: Dec. 3, 1964 to Dec. 17, 1964 Jan. 13, 1965 to Jan. 27, 1965 No. Fawns No. Fawns 1 2 3 4 01 5 1 ~ 6 >x.. 7 + 8 01 9 ~ 10 °ll 12 :z 13 14 15 16 L: 0 1 43 12 6 2 5 47 29 II 3 2 1 2 19 23 13 6 2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 L: 1 1 48 59 54 36 20 13 5 8 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 252 4 4 3 5 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 01 63 98 64 17 6 3 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 01 7 8 ~ ~ 9 + 10 ~ll o 12 o 13 o 14 :z 15 16 17 18 19 20 L: 0 1 18 6 3 1 3 27 26 7 5 1 1 2 12 14 4 4 2 5 1 1 3 1 4 5 3 1 2 1 4 6 7 2 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 28 71 43 17 7 1 3 1 2 L: 21 33 41 22 10 9 8 10 3 3 3 4 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 172 I -!:' 00 00 I �-489- at each sampling time. Significant differences (P<O.Ol) were noted for the 1962 fall and 1963 winter counts, while for the other four times no significant differences (P>0.25) were found. Field experience indicates that the probabilities of classifying deer appear to depend largely on environmental conditions so that the number of groups which would be classified from day to day may not be in a constant proportion to the number of groups present. Although this is not a problem for sampling within a route, it is important when route information is combined. Since the routes were not randomly selected from the entire winter range but picked as "representative" routes and since for two count times it is indicated that the values of PF vary within the winter range, there is also the problem of what a combined sample represents. However, the data will be examined as if the pooled counts of all the groups is a random sample of all the deer in the area sampled by the 10 routes, that is, one may write fi = Bni + E:i for all classified groups combined with identical properties as before. The ~ ~2 ~ values of B,a and the S E (B) are given in Table 4. Test of equality of PF values may then be made among count periods. There is a significant difference (P<O.Ol) among early counts for each winter and among late counts for each winter. Also within each winter the PF value for the early count is significantly (P<0.05) larger than the PF value for the later count. Since routes were not randomly selected, no attempt will be made to determine adequacy of 10 routes as giving adequate precision for a PF estimate of the entire winter range. For the pooled route data at each count time, the number of randomly selected groups, from the composite area of the 10 routes needed to estimate B within 5, 10, and 20 percent at the 95, 90, and 80 percent confidence level were calculated. Since there was little variation among count time sample sizes the mean sample sizes for the six count times are listed below as the number of groups required to be within X percent of PF at the (l-a) confidence level. Confidence Level (I-a) X 80 90 95 20 10 5 5 18 69 8 29 114 11 41 162 Statistical Model for the Observations - Quadrat Counts The model for the observations obtained in 1974 on the 1/4-mile2 sampling units (Table 5) is given as i=l, ... ,m where m is the number sampling units observed, fi is the total fawns out of ni total does and fawns observed on the ith sampling unit. Again, the mean and variance of f:iare assumed to be 0 and a2, respectively, and Ei & Ei i+i ~ �-490- S, Table 4. Values of &2, SE (S), differences between early and late S values, and tests of the equality of early and late PF's(F/(F + D»of the pooled counts of all groups of does and fawns classified on 10, all-day walking routes on the Cache 1a Poudre winter range, 1962-65. Nov. -Dec. 6 n l:X l:X2 l:Y l:y2 l:XY &2 1962-63 January .4413 207 666 3,668 293 769 1,619 .2641 .4079 215 984 7,014 406 1,258 2,861 .4252 1963-64 Nov. +De c, January December .4114 118 363 1,643 154 312 676 .2894 .4046 252 841 4,051 325 747 1,639 .3342 .3446 171 757 5,359 271 717 1,847 .4731 S Difference ± 95% C. L. Year 1962-63 Nov.-Dec. January .44l3 .4079 + 1.96 .0334 + .0226 1963-64 .4114 1964-65 .4046 .3742 .0304 -+ .0233 .2641 + .4252 3668 7014 .2894 + .4731 --1643 5359 .0668 -+ .0319 .3742 233 1,008 6,302 369 969 2,358 .3738 Test of Egua1ity of Pf 's, 1962-65 + 1.96 .3446 1964-65 January + 1.96 j.3342 + .3738 4051 6302 Nov. -Dec. January 577 1,870 l:X2 9,362 l:Y 772 l:y2 1,828 l:XY 3,934 ss (within)l72 .1486 "'2 Pooled a .2999 Combined Data ss 174.8964 4.58 F2,574 619 2,749 18,675 1,046 2,944 7,066 258.1414 .4191 n l:X 270.4602 F2 ,616 = 14.70 �Table 5. Frequency q u ad r at.s subjectively 22, J.974 to January of total groups of assigned to high 9, 1975. doe and fawn mule deer counted on 106, 1/4-mi1e2 randomly-selected and low deer density strata, Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November High Deer_ Densi tl': guadrats 0 (fJ § C1:I ~ + ~ 0 Q 0 :z; 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 16 " 40 w 3 1 1 18 14 3 3 3 1 1 2 9 11 3 1 2 1 Low D~e~ pensi~y N = 50 N = 56 No. Fawns No. Fawns 3 4 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 5 6 2: 0 19 34 23 17 6 9 4 3 3 1 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 125 1 1 1 1 43 28 Quadrats 9 1 3 1 2 0 1 2 3 ~ ~ 4 + 5 6 C/) Q) 7 0 Q 8 9 0 z 10 11 11 4 2: 15 C/) 1 2 7 8 4 3 1 3 2 1 1 . 22 8 3 4 5 2: 2 1 3 11 12 11 6 4 3 2 1 .0 2 1 53 1 2 1 1 5 0 I .p. \0 t-' I �-492- S, are uncorrelated. 52 and the standard error of 8 were calculated for each strata. Since proportional allocation was used (Fig. 2), the low density strata data (Table 6, Fig. 3) was pooled and similarily for the high density strata (Table 7, Fig. 4). Again S, 52 and the standard error of 8 was calculated for each group. The proportion of fawns was significantly higher (P<O.Ol) in the low density quadrats than in the high density quadrats. The entire pooled sample gives 8 = .3132, 52 = 1.087 and S.E. (8) = 0.00973. In contrast to the route samples, is an estimate of PF for the entire winter range. The sample size or number of quadrats required to be within X percent of PF at (I-a) confidence levels is as follows: 6 Confidence Level (I-a) X 80 20 10 05 90 95 5 7 17 68 28 III 10 40 158 One of the advantages of the quadrat-sample design is that IDln~mum bound estimates of the popUlation may be made from the total deer counts on each sampling unit using the stratified sampling estimate of the population total. The estimates along with their standard errors for the Poudre and the Colorado State University Research Foundation Maxwell property and vicinity are all given in Table 8. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1965. Population density and structure. Work Plan 4, Job 1, Job Completion Report. Pp. 405-427. In Colorado Game, Fish a~d Parks Dept. Game Research Report, January, Part 3. 327-501 p. (Processed). Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Erythrocytes and leukocytes in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2): 389-406. Caughley, G. 1974. 557-562. Interpretation of age ratios. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(3): Cochran, W. G. 1936. The chi square distribution for binomial and Poisson series with small expectations. Annals Eugenics 7:207-217. 1954. Some methods for strengthening the common chi square tests. Biometrics 10:417. Dasmann, R. F., and R. D. Taber. 1956. Determining structure in Columbian black-tailed deer popUlations. J. Wild1. Manage. 29(1) :78-80. �-493- Eberhardt, L. L. 1971. Population analysis. Pp. 457-495. In R. H. Giles, Jr. (Ed.). Wildlife management techniques. The Wildl. Soc., Washington, D. C. 633 p. Hanson, W. R. 1963. Calculation of productiVity, survival and abundance of selected vertebrates from sex and age ratios. Wildl. Monogr. 9:1-60. Kelker, G. W. 1944. Sex-ratio equations and formulas for determining wildlife populations. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters 19-20:189-198. Lauckhart, J. B. 1950. Determining the big game population from the kill. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 15:644-649. Leopold, A. S., T. Riney, R. McCain, and L. Tevis, Jr. 1951. The Jawbone deer herd. California Div. Fish and Game, Game Bull. No. 4:1-139 p. Overton, W. S. 1971. Estimating the numbers of animals in wildlife populations. Pp. 403-455. In R. H. Giles, Jr. (Ed.). Wildlife management techniques. The Wildlife Soc., Washington, D. C. 633 p. Paulik, C. J., and D. S. Robson. 1969. Statistical calculations for changein-ratio estimators of population parameters. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(1): 1-27. Rasmussen, D. I., and E. R. Doman. 1943. Census methods and their application in the management of mule deer. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 8:369-379. Riney, T. 1956. Differences in proportions of fawns to hinds in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from several New Zealand environments. Nature 177: 488-489. Robinette, W. L. 1949. Winter mortality among mule deer in the Fishlake National Forest, Utah. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Report65. 15 p , Seber, G.A.F. 1973. The estimation of animal abundance and related parameters. Hafner Press, New York. 506 p. Smith, R. H., T. J. McMichael, and H. G. Shaw. 1969. Decline of a desert deer population. Arizona Game and Fish Dept. Wildl. Digest Abstr. 3:1-8. Swank, W. G. 1958. The mule deer in Arizona and chaparral and an analysis of other important deer herds. Arizona Game and Fish Department Wildl. Bull. No. 3:1-109. Taber, R. D., and R. F. Dasmann. 1958. The black-tailed deer of the chaparral: its life history and management in the north coast range of California. California Dept. Fish and Game, Game Bull. No. 8:1-163. Wallmo, o. C. 1964. Problems in the use of herd classification data. Trans. New Mexico-Arizona Section, The Wildl. Soc., Safford, Ariz. 10 p. Prepared by ~ £. ~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher �REDFEATHER R-2 Forest Service. DISTRICT Roosevelt Not'l Forest 10' --L :-~n:';;F'=·~:::E-rr "~~~""*"--ijiOII~iiiiiii"'iiiiiiii~~--"''''~iiir:''.• IIwu~~t1' r ll'lli ~ h~4 r .j. s-r» e ./'"", .. l~j['~_1~~'~ ~I-:-~ :'-L-"1'''''''~ __ +-~y,:-"':::. I -[ _ ill. ,-- --t-, LOOKour -:-rrrrT~!~2H _~~~_u. mi\l;"A~ ~ -fri \.- TTZN.00 ~ii( "F"1-):,d~~~~~~~JK L!rV[~jj-;;/.r...PlI ••• DN""i;lllljr--F\+-41 T.II N. £J'~/--'J~~.,~~\'oJ:, 1101~1c'-~-_~\flrr~f----:t--,,'-~,I',=--t+~~'-",,---:f;--<""--_"'--t?-~--"'~f'E"'PMAN~~\ -,'' ' ' r I'.~.~ ~~~~~~~q~~~~~~~*~~9~~~~m~'O I .j::\0 .j::I 40 I I 1 /1f 11~)ltJ"l '-~O~'-f~ -", Y 6'.,..,."[1 _ ~ b - - _~ ~~~fREATtAR~a~~'ng_~~ ,~~ I r J~:~~=~~~s41 ..,FL::::7~ ~",-,G',''f, PLAe, , Fig. 2. The location of 121 stratified (solid black-high deer density, half black-low deer density), proportionally allocated, and randomly-selected 1/4-mi1e2 quadrats used to sample herd structure and minimum population densities of mule deer on Cache 1a Poudre winter range and the Maxwell ranch area (upper right) by two walking observers, 18 November 1974 to 9 January 1975. 40 I �I'J 12j III B = 0.3607 (J2 = 0.4718 SE(B) = 0.1536 n = 56 I s+ G G ~61 a: La... I . 'it VI I G - 21 QQ-X III NO. / GG 0 z I .j:'\0 DOES G CSl AND lit CSl N III N CSl M III M CSl :r FAWNS Fig. 3. Simple linear regression of fawns pe~ group on does and fawns recorded on each of 56, randomly selected, low deer density, 1/4-mi1e2 quadrats on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, 22 November 1974 to 9 January 1975. No deer were classified on 30 quadrats. �A = 0.30316 2 = 1.6879 SE(S) = 0.0133 S a 12+ = n +,/+ 50 +2 18 I B + + .>". U1 Z 3& a: L.. + 2 .it Cl Z + +7 2 - I .po \0 0\ I + + + -: 2 + L. L. + + lit NO. DOES IS AND FAWNS III IS '" III '" IS J'1 III M IS :r Fig. 4. Simple linear regression of fawns per group on does and fawns recorded on each of 50, randomly selected, high deer density, 1/4-rni1e2 quadrats on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, 22 November 1974 to 9 January 1975. No deer were classified on 7 quadrats. �-497- Table 6. Raw data and regression computations of mule doe and fawn groups counted on 56, randomly-selected, 1/4-mi1e2 (one-half mile per side) low deer density quadrats on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November 22, 1974 to January 9, 1975. No. Does + Fawns (X) No. Fawns (Y) 5 10 0 0 0 0 11 12 0 3 0 0 0 22 2 0 0 8 17 3 7 5 0 0 0 0 10 3 0 0 0 0 8 0 2 15 6 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 1 4 0 0 0 0 5 3 0 1 0 0 0 8 1 0 0 3 7 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 No. Does + Fawns (X) No. Fawns (Y) 5 3 2 4 o o 1 1 8 4 o o o o o o 183 68 Computations: N 56 183 1,999 68 286 721 LX LX2 LY Ly2 LXY ~ f3 = LXY W = 0.3607 02 ;= 0.4718 With Zero Deer Quadrats: r b a = 0.9343 0.3560 0.0508 Without Zero Deer Quadrats: r b a = 0.8741 0.3409 0.2158 �-498- Table 7. Raw data and regression computations of mule deer doe and fawn groups counted on 50, randcmly-se1ected, 1/4-mi1e2 (one-half mile per side) high deer density quadrats on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November 22, 1974 to December 31, 1975. No. Does + Fawns (X) 28 37 5 11 2 8 6 5 8 0 6 2 4 19 0 3 2 0 1 8 28 5 0 8 9 1 21 21 8 11 41 19 12 9 0 2 2 6 4 5 12 32 17 5 11 2 16 No. Fawns (Y) 11 12 2 2 0 2 3 2 4 0 2 0 1 8 0 2 1 0 0 1 11 2 0 4 2 0 5 4 2 3 12 6 4 2 0 0 0 3 2 2 4 5 6 1 5 1 7 No. Does + Fawns (X) 16 No. Fawns (Y) 2 o o o o 478 148 Computations: 50 478 9,480 148 954 2,874 0.30316 r b a 0.9167 0.2972 0.1192 1.6879 �-499- Table 8. Estimated man1mum densities of mule deer on the Cache la Poudre winter range and the C.S.U.R.F. Maxwell Ranch property and vicinity based on ground counts of deer within 121, randomly-selected, proportionally allocated, and subjectively stratified, 1/4-mile2 quadrats during the winter, 1974-75. Strata Total No. Units (1/4 mi2) Population Estimate SE (Pop. Est.) Density/ Sq Mile SE Density Cache la Poudre Winter Range Nov. 22, 1974 to Jan. 9, 1975 Low deer density 230 946.4 162.0 16.46 2.82 High deer density 259 2168.7 244.6 33.49 3.78 Total 489 3115.1 293.4 25.48 2.40 Maxwell Ranch and Vicini t~ Nov. 18, 1974 to Nov. 21, 1974 Low deer density 30 171.9 94.8 22.92 12.64 High deer density 31 237.5 160.6 30.65 20.73 Total 61 409.4 186.5 26.85 12.23 ��-501- July, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-29 Work Plan No. Job Title 20 Job No. Brucellosis-Leptospirosis Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations 1 -------------------------------- Survey of Big Game Animals in Colorado April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 William J. Adrian, Eileen Vostinak, Richard Ford, Gene Grenerd. ABSTRACT During the 1974 season we checked antelope for brucellosis and five species of leptospirosis (leptospira canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomona). We also attempted a check for bluetongue and anaplasmosis, however, the antigen was not compatible with antelope serum, and we have no results for these two diseases. ��-503- BRUCELLOSIS-LEPTOSPIROSIS SURVEY OF BIG GAME ANIMALS IN COLORADO William J. Adrian P. S. OBJECTIVE To survey big game populations within the State of Colorado for the presence or absence of brucellosis and leptospirosis. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Survey Colorado's antelope populations during the annual hunting season. for brucellosis and leptospirosis METHODS AND MATERIALS Blood sample kits were mailed to antelope hunters with the request they draw a blood sample from their kill and return the kit to the Colorado Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver, Colorado for processing. A maximum of 300 sampling kits were sent to hunters in each antelope unit. If more than 300 permits were issued for one unit the names were randomly selected. The kit consists of a cardboard mailer, blood tube and stopper, plastic bag, rubber band, paper towel and instructions for obtaining the sample and mailing the kits. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Wildlife Research Laboratory in cooperation with the Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver has, in 1974, completed its sixth annual survey for brucellosis and leptospirosis in Colorado's big game populations. Brucellosis is a specific contagious disease which primarily affects cattle, swine, and goats. It can, however, affect many other animals including elk, deer, antelope and man (undulant fever, Malta fever and Bang's Disease). It is caused by bacteria of the Brucella group and is characterized by abortion in the female, and to a lesser extent, inflammation of the testes and infection of the accessory sex glands in the male and infertility in both sexes. Leptospirosis is a febrile (feverish) disease caused by certain species of leptospirae. The disease occurs with various manifestations in dogs, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and wildlife and is transmissable to man. During the 1974 season we checked antelope for brucellosis and five species of leptospirosis (leptospira canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomona). We also attempted a check for bluetongue and anaplasmosis, however, the antigen was not compatible with antelope serum, and we have no results �-504- for these two diseases. A total of 3,995 kits were sent out and we received 2,044 (51%) blood samples, of which 1,383 were unfortunately badly hemolyzed and were not usable. We also received 214 (5%) empty kits. Again in 1974, all samples tested were negative, with one sample having a marginal 1-50 titer for brucellosis. ~ ( Prepared by'_-~~~~~~~~~ __~ __~~~~ Sr. Research Assistant j , � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/16732f44f4ebf89e49fb03efe5cdbd93.pdf fe9aa198ad337b5815eed168d1049f90 PDF Text Text October 1975 -1- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W_-_8_8_-_R__20 _ Work Plan No. -=l _ Migratory Bird Investigations 1 ---------=----------------------Waterfowl Production Surveys Job Title --------------------------------------------------------------------Period Covered: J~ No. May 13, 1974 to June 30, 1974 Personnel: C. Bryant and staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; F. N. Folks, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; R. Blumberg, R. Clark, R. Desilet, W. Dolezal, H. Funk, R. Hopper, J. Lorentzson, R. Lowry, W. Russell, G. Saville, R. Velarde, K. Wagner, R. Weldon, M. Zgainer, and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Water conditions for waterfowl production are considered good in North Park, Brown's Park and the Cache la Poudre and Yampa River Valleys; below average in the South Platte Valley and very poor in the San Luis Valley. The number of estimated duck breeding pairs reached 64,484 in 1974; about 15 percent above the 1973 level and the long term average. Increases in the number of breeding pairs were recorded in all areas except the Cache la Poudre Valley. The mallard, gadwall, lesser scaup and blue-winged and cinnamon teal showed significant numerical increases in comparison to 1973 levels. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese in northwest Colorado is estimated to be 22 percent below the 1973 level, but 23 percent above the long term average. Canada goose production in north central Colorado is down nearly 40 percent from 1973 and long term levels, with total numbers of geese observed down about 32 percent. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Mi chael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES To estimate the number of duck and goose breeding pairs, by species, in each of Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pair and production surveys consist of a breeding pair inventory of only major production areas. The 1974 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 13 to June 30. Surveys in North Park and the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of May 20 to June 14. Because of mechanical difficulty goose surveys in Moffat County, Colorado were conducted only in the Lily Park section of the Yampa River and in the Brown's Park section of the Green River. Population estimates for other portions of the Yampa and the Little Snake River are based on the percent of birds in the entire Yampa-Little Snake River Complex that were located in the Lily Park portion during the 1969 through 1973 period. The calculated percentage is then applied to the 1974 Lily Park data to obtain an estimate for the entire complex. All flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas sampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. On the basis of these studies, a report is submitted to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's part in the annual continental cooperative breeding ground survey. �-4- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water conditions for duck nesting and production are considered good in North Park, Brown's Park and the Cache la Poudre and Yampa River Valleys. In the South Platte Valley many small marshes and most drainage basins are dry. Water conditions are extremely poor in the entire San Luis Valley, with the exception of the river bottoms and adjacent sloughs. High water on rivers in northwestern Colorado resulted in a considerable amount of flooding of goose nes ts. The number of estimated duck breeding pairs reached 64,484 in 1974, about 15 percent above the 1973 level and the long term average (Table 1). In comparison with 1973 totals, increases were recorded in all areas except the Cache la Poudre Valley. The mallard, gadwall, lesser scaup and blue-winged and cinnamon teal showed significant numerical increases in comparison to 1973 levels. The redhead, which had reached a record 11 percent of the breeding population in 1973, declined nearly 6,000 pairs in 1974 (Table 2). The mallard continues to be the major breeding species in the State, making up about 44 percent of the population. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese on the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers totaled an estimated 689 birds (Table 3). On the Green River in Brown's Park there are an estimated 326 birds (Table 3). The total estimated gosling production in Moffat County is down about 26 percent below the 1973 level (Table 4). The total estimated goose population is down about 22 percent below 1973, but approximately 23 percent above the long term average (Table 5). The results of the 1974 Canada goose production census in north central Colorado are presented by individual area in Table 6. Gosling production on north central Colorado trend areas is down nearly 40 percent from the 1973 and long term levels (Table 7). All five trend areas had decreases in production and in the total number of birds observed (Tables 7 and 8). Fall Flight Predictions Although the duck breeding population increased over the 1973 level, water conditions indicate a definite decline in the fall flight. SpeCifically, North Park, Brown's Park and the Yampa Valley should experience good duck production and brood survival. Extensive irrigation in the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys should insure good brood survival in those areas. But prospects in the San Luis Valley are not good, because of very poor water condi tions. The Canada goose flight from both northwest be below the 1973 level. and north central Colorado will �-5- Table 1. Summary of Colorado's selected areas, 1974. duck breeding ground population Total Estimated estimates in 1974 Breeding Pairs Long Term 1973 Average 1:./ Percent Change From From Long 1973 Term Ave. San Luis Valley 29,695 24,942 27,096 +19.1 + 9.6 North Park 1/ 16,657 14,255 15,856 +16.9 + 5.1 South Platte Valley 8,457 7,917 6,155 + 6.8 +37.4 Cache 1a Poudre Valley 5,713 5,852 3,244 - 2.4 +76.1 Yampa Valley 2,834 2,571 2,802 +10.2 + 1.1 Brown's Park 1,128 632 1,024 +78.5 +10.2 Total 64,484 56,169 56,177 +14.8 +14.8 Area 1:./ San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through 1973 and 1968 through 1973 surveys respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 20 year averages. Prepared by ·_·~~1.A~·~~~.j~~~S~~~·~_!=--~~7r_7~.~~~~~~~~ _ Michael R. Szymcza_ Assistant Wildlife Researcher �-6- Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1974 duck breeding population. Number of Breeding Pairs 1954-731/ 1974 1973 Ave rage- Species Percent SEecies ComEosition 1954-73 1974 1973 Average Mallard 28,427 22,608 27,654 44.1 40.2 55.3 Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal 11,441 6,374 4,928 17.7 11.3 9.9 Gadwall 8,465 7,400 5,243 13.1 13.2 10.5 Pintail 4,344 5,794 3,521 6.7 10.3 7.1 565 1,161 2,227 .9 2.1 4.5 Shoveler 3,918 4,556 2,302 6.1 8.1 4.6 Redhead 716 6,416 2,042 1.1 11.4 4.1 American wigeon 1,087 789 874 1.7 1.4 1.8 Other divers 5,521 1,071 1,138 8.6 1.9 2.3 Total 64,484 56,169 49,839 Green-winged teal 1/ Species composition computed from data from all areas for the 20 year period regardless of changes in survey methods. �-7Table 3. Total estimated Canada geese, Mo ffat County, Colorado 1974. Area Nesting Pairs Non-nesting Birds 8 99 Total Adults Estimatedl/ No. Goslings- Total Birds 115 27 142 5751/ 1141/ 68~/ 207 119 326 Yampa River Craig to Juniper Springs ]) Juniper to Cross Mountain '!:.../ Lily Park Little Snake River-2/ Subtotal Y ampa-Li ttle Snake Green River Brown's Park 30 147 Dinosaur National Monument l/ Calculated using average brood sizes and number of successful nests. '!:.../ Not surveyed due to mechanical difficulty. 1/ Figures for all areas other than Lily Park are based on the percent of birds on the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers located in Lily Park during the 1969 through 1973 periods; that percent is then applied to the 1974 Lily Park data to obtain an estimate for the entire complex. �-8- Table 4. 1974. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County, Colorado, Number of Goslings 1956-73 Average 1973 1974 Area Yampa and Little Snake Rivers Percent Change From 1956From 1973 1973 Average 114 166 217 - 31.3 - 47.5 119 151 59 - 21.2 +101. 7 105 128 317 276 - 26.5 - 15.6 Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur National MonumeI'lt Total 1:./ 233 1/ Includes all areas except Dinosaur National Monument. Table 5. Estimated total Canada geese, Moffat County, Colorado, 1974. Area Yampa and Little Snake Rivers Estimated No. Geese 1956-73 Average 1974 1973 Percent Change From 1956From 1973 1973 Average 689 857 672 - 19.6 + 2.5 326 437 156 - 25.4 +109.0 246 334 1,294 828 - 21.6 + 18.4 Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur National Monument Total 1.1 1,015 Jj Includes all areas except Dinosaur National Monument. �Table 6. Production Area Wellington Results of the northcentral Colorado goose census June 1974. Water Area Terry Lake Water Supply and Storage No. 4 Deines Reservoir Launer Pond Douglas Lake North Poudre No. 3 North Poudre No.5 Divide No. 8 Elder Reservoir Annex No. 8 Van Sant Pond Cobb Lake Dale Pond Watson Lake Curtis Lake Begtho1 Lake No. Broods Peterson Ponds Herring Lake College Lake Dean Acres Claymore Lake Sterling Gravel Pits Lindenmeier Lake Grey Lakes Winnick Ponds Flatiron Gravel Pits Anderson's Pond Timnath Reservoir Parkwood Lake Kitchel Lake Total No. Adults & Yrlgs. Total No. of Birds 10 2 43 6 87 10 130 16 3 1 3 0 3 0 0 12 2 16 0 11 0 0 23 4 23 9 38 0 0 11 2 23 6 8 33 79 61 14 115 5 104 75 2 23 4 39 6 22 33 79 84 18 138 14 142 75 2 187 635 825 6 0 3 39 18 40 18 40 7 0 29 4 0 16 8 13 109 29 34 53 49 26 8 5 29 101 2 7 14 13 112 68 52 93 67 66 15 5 58 105 2 23 2 6 2 0 0 Total Fort Collins Total No. Goslings 1 0 1 7 4 9 4 2 0 4 1 0 3 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------- I \0 I �Table 6. Results of the northcentral Colorado goose census, June 1974 (continued). Production Area Water Area No. Broods Fort Collins (continued) Schuelke Reservoir \.JolaverPonds 1 1 Total Loveland Boedeker Reservoir McNeil Reservoir Flatiron Gravel Pits Welch Reservoir 3 10 3 5 Total Total No. Goslings 5 Total No. Adults & Yrlgs. Total No. of Birds 7 4 2 2 6 229 477 706 15 43 77 92 134 177 12 20 7 21 19 41 90 239 329 144 350 101 21 25 10 4 206 80 21 13 29 13 3 206 365 571 9 2 45 6 54 I ~ o I Boulder Valmont Reservoir Terry Lake Crystal Lake Ish Lake Faivre Ponds Boulder Valley Farm Pond Eddy Pond 21 3 15 3 Total Denver South Colorado Blvd. & Quincy Bl ackmer Lake Reservoir No. 3 Denver City Park Sloans Lake Federal Center Pond Claifield Reservoir Gallup Reservoir Columbine Country Club Bowles Lake 12 3 2 0 0 2 11 2 7 2 o o 44 23 7 8 21 100 202 27 53 4 21 100 149 23 44 43 87 13 23 8 76 12 166 89 35 174 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 6. Resul ts of the northcen Production Area Denver (continued) Water Colorado goose census, No. Broods Area Kings Pond Marston Reservoir Grant B Reservoir Pinehurst Country Kendrick Lake Mohn Estate Standley Lake Total Grand Total tral Club 0 0 3 4 0 2 0 June 1974 Total No. Goslings (continued). Total No. Adults & Yrlgs. Total No. of Birds 0 0 10 13 0 6 0 90 110 88 41 11 19 4 90 110 98 54 11 25 4 185 1,004 1,189 897 2,720 3,620 I •.... •.... I �-12- Table 7. Number of Canada goose goslings produced in north central Colorado production trend areas, 1974. Number of Goslings 1969-73 1974 1973 Average Percent Change From 1973 From 1969-73 Wellington 187 347 285 -46.1 -34.4 Fort Collins 229 347 283 -34.0 -19.0 Loveland 90 106 85 -15.1 + 5.8 Boulder 206 270 244 -23.7 -15.5 Denver 185 380 300 -51.3 -38.3 Total 897 1,450 1,476 -38.1 -39.2 Area Table 8. Number of Canada geese observed in north central Colorado production trend areas, 1974. Area Number of Geese 1969-73 1974 1973 Average Percent Change From 1973 From 1969-73 Wellington 635 828 848 -23.3 -42.6 Fort Collins 477 843 766 -43.4 -60.7 Loveland 239 283 198 -15.5 +20. 7 Boulder 365 827 739 -55.9 -50.6 Denver 1,004 1,248 1,359 -19.6 -26.1 Total 2,720 4,029 3,9l0 -32.5 -30.4 �-13- October 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT S tate 0 f __ --=CO=L.::.O:.:RADO:..=.=-_ Project No.__ W~--.::.88~-~R~-~2~0=__ _ Work Plan No. ------------- Job Title- 1 Migratory Job No. Bird Investigations ~2=__ ~T~r~a~p~p~l~·n~g~a~n~d_B==an~d=i:.:n~g~D~u~c~k~s~an==d~G~e~e=s~e~ Period Covered: _ _ April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 Personnel: C. Bryant and Staff of Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges, S. Bissell, R. Blumberg, J. Carsella, G. Claassen, J. Corey, D. Coven, C. Crawford, M. DePra, R. Desilet, K. Dillinger, W. Dolezal, G. East, G. Eyre, H. Funk, J. Gray, A. Hemmert, J. Hicks, R. Holder, J. Lorentzson, R. Mason, J. Miller, K. Miller, W. Mink, R. Oakleaf, J. Olterman, D. Owens, B. Peterson, S. Porter, F. Rinella, Jr., R. Rouse, H. Spear, S. Steinert, M. Stone, M. Szymczak, J. Wagner, K. Wagner, C. Wetherill, and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT Trapping efforts in Segment 20 resulted in the banding of 17,806 ducks of nine species at eight locations in Colorado. The major species in the banded sample was the mallard, which contributed 11,701, or about 66 percent of the total. Pre-season banding in the high country yielded 11,185 ducks, including 3,590 in North Park, 2,666 in South Park, and 4,924 in the San Luis Valley. Mallards and pintails were the dominant species in the samples in these three areas. Post-season banding produced a banded sample of 8,416 mallards, including 6,558 in eastern Colorado (Central Flyway) and 1,858 in west central Colorado (Pacific Flyway). Goose trapping- activities resulted in a banded sample of 1,946 Canada geese in Segment 20. Included in this total were 200 goslings transplanted to new production sites in South Park and the South Platte Valley. Summer banding on established production areas in the San Luis Valley and in north central Colorado accounted for 1,077. The remainder were banded post-season in the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys (241) and the Arkansas Valley (428). ��-15- TRAPPING AND BANDING DUCKS AND GEESE Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes all waterfowl banding activities conducted under Federal Aid Project W-88-R-20 for the segment year April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975. Band recovery data are analyzed as part of other jobs (Work Plan 1, Job 3; Work Plan 2, Job 6; and Work Plan 3, Job 6) and thus, will not be included in this report. This report merely presents a listing of numbers of ducks and geese banded by species and location during the segment year. P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harves t regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To provide adequate samples of banded ducks and geese in Colorado's major breeding and harvest areas for the purpose of accumulating migration and annual mortality data. 2. To report species and numbers of mallards winter banded in the South Platte Valley, Arkansas Valley, and Bonny Reservoir as part of Work Plan 3, Job 6. 3. To report transplant geese banded under Work Plan 2, Job 2. 4. Prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Three major phases of trapping and banding operations were continued in Segment 20 as in recent years. These included: (1) mf.d+aummer banding of Canada geese, (2) late sUlIUD.er (pre-season) duck banding, and (3) winter (postseason) duck and goose banding. Goslings for transplanting were hand-reared and also obtained from the wild by drive-trapping prior to the time the birds were capable of flight. Molting adults and their flightless goslings were captured and released on north central Colorado production areas by drivetrapping. Pre-season banding of ducks was conducted in August and September using baited Salt Plains traps (cage type) to capture birds in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. Night~lighting was again employed experimentally to capture ducks in North Park during the pre-season period. Post-season banding (January-February) utilized baited Salt Plains traps and cannon-nets for duck trapping, and baited cannon-nets for goose trapping. �-16- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ducks Nearly 18,000 ducks of nine species were banded in Segment 20 (Table 1). The South Platte Valley produced the largest sample (3,750) of the eight banding locations in Colorado, followed by North Park (3,590), the San Luis Valley (3,134), South Park (2,666), and the Grand Junction-Delta area of the western slope (1,858). The mallard continued to dominate the banded sample, compr1s1ng 11,701, or about 66 percent of the total. Pintails and green-winged teals were the next most important contributors to the banded sample with 3,736 and 1,615, respectively. High Country Study Objectives of the high country study of duck populations are presented by Hopper (1972). Species composition by age and sex for 11,185 ducks banded in the three high country areas during 1974 is shown in Tables 2-5. San Luis Valley bandings were accomplished by both State and Federal personnel (Table 4). The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service continued to cooperate in this study by banding a portion of the Valley quota on the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges. Mallards and pintails were again the main species in the banded samples in all three high country areas (Tables 2-4). They contributed 3,986 and 4,084 birds, respectively, for all three areas combined (Table 5). The only other species for which significant banded samples were obtained included greenwinged teals (1,928) and blue-winged and cinnamon teals (1,010). Winter Banding Post-season banding of terminal wintering populations of mallards was continued in eastern Colorado for the twelfth consecutive year under Work Plan 3, Job 6. The total banded sample amounted to 6,558 mallards for this period in Segment 20 (Table 1). A detailed breakdown of this sample by age, sex and location, as well as a discussion of other aspects of the study, is presented in the Job Progress Report for Work Plan 3, Job 6 (Investigation of Mallard Management Units of Eastern Colorado). An additional 1,858 mallards were banded on the Western Slope of Colorado during Segment 20 (Table 1). This was the second consecutive year of banding in this area as part of a study described by Hopper (1974) in the previous Job Progress Report for Work Plan 1, Job 2. Age and sex ratios obtained in this year's banded sample are shown in Table 6 by location. �Table 1. Number of ducks banded by species, location and period of year 1974-75. Number of Ducks Banded Pos t-season 27 Cache la So. Platte Bonny Valley Poudre Valley Reservoir North Park Pre-season I7 South San Luis Park Valley Hallard 1,304 992 989 825 3,750 993 Gadwall 15 1 8 - - American Wigeon 23 - - - Green-winged 367 753 495 - Species Teal Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal West 3/ Slope- Total 990 1,858 11,701 - - - 24 - - - - 23 - - - - 1,615 I •....• - - 597 - 3,736 - - 109 - - - 1 993 990 1,858 17,806 81 334 182 - - - Pintail 1,779 580 1,377 - - Redhead 21 5 83 - - - Shoveler - 1 - - - 3,590 2,666 3,134 825 3,750 Total Arkansas Valley 1/ August-September. '1:/ January-February. 1/ Colorado-Gunnison-Uncompahgre River Complex. " I �-18Table 2. Sex and age composition of ducks banded pre-season in North Park, 1974. Species AM Number Banded Age and Sex IM AF IF Mallard 317 362 227 398 1,304 Gadwall 2 4 6 3 15 0 13 1 9 23 119 118 50 80 367 3 39 1 38 81 Pintail 441 482 389 467 1,779 Redhead 13 1 4 3 21 Total 895 1,019 678 998 3,590 pre-season in South American Wigeon Green-winged Teal Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Table 3. Sex and age composition of ducks banded Total Park, Species AM Number Banded and Sex Ase ,1M AF IF Mallard 325 260 257 150 992 Gadwall 1 0 0 0 1 Total Green-winged Teal 339 226 55 133 753 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 47 162 14 111 334 0 0 0 1 1 Pintail 156 188 87 149 580 Redhead 1 0 4 0 5 869 836 417 544 2,666 Shoveler Total 1974. �-19- Table 4. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in the San Luis Valley, 1974. !I AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Total Mallard 324 484 404 478 1,690 Gadwall 0 2 4 10 16 Green-winged Teal 360 223 69 155 807 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 57 291 24 223 595 Pintail 390 597 248 490 1,725 Redhead 36 5 42 8 91 1,167 1,602 791 1,364 4,924 Species Total !/ Includes ducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges as part of high-country and Monte Vista duck study. Table 5. Sex and age composition of ducks banded pre-season in the three high country areas combined, 1974. 1/ Number Banded Age and Sex 1M IF AF Species AM Mallard 966 1,106 888 Gadwall 3 6 American Wigeon 0 Green-winged Teal Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Unk. Total 1,026 0 3,986 10 13 0 32 14 1 12 0 27 818 567 174 368 1 1,928 107 492 39 372 0 1,010 Shoveler 0 0 0 1 0 1 Pintail 987 1,267 724 1,106 0 4,084 Redhead 50 6 50 11 0 117 2,931 3,458 1,886 2,909 1 11 ,185 Total 1/ Includes 1,795 ducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa and Monte Vista Wildlife Refuges in the San Luis Valley as part of the high country duck study. �-20- Table 6. Age and sex composition of mallards banded post-season in west central Colorado, 1974-75. AM Number Banded Age and Sex IF 1M AF Total Grand Junction-Mack 223 265 131 447 1,066 Delta 167 276 67 2~ 792 Total 390 541 198 729 1,858 Location Geese Nearly 1,950 Canada geese were banded during Segment 20 (Table 7). The Cache 1a Poudre and South Platte Valleys accounted for the largest number with 1,408, while the Arkansas Valley and South Park followed with 428 and 100, respectively. Summer Transplants Two hundred Canada goose goslings were banded and transported from Front Range production areas and released on two transplant sites having promise as future production areas (Table 8). These two sites, Antero Reservoir in South Park and Prewitt Reservoir in the South Platte Valley each received 100 goslings. The number of males and females in each group of transplants was nearly equal. The 1974 releases marked the end of the Canada goose transplant program as part of Federal Aid Project W-88-R. This program, involving annual releases of goslings since 1957, resulted in the successful establishment of breeding flocks of Canada geese in many areas of Colorado. The transplant program is discussed in detail under Work Plan 2, Job 2. Pre-season Banding on Colorado Production Areas A study was initiated in 1974 to investigate the status of breeding populations of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley and the Fort Co11ins-Bou1der-Denver area of north central Colorado. Pre-season banding is a major component of this study. Details of the overall investigation are discussed under Work Plan 2, Job 6. �-21- Table 7. 1974-75. Number of Canada geese banded by location and period of year, Number Banded Location Sunnner Transplants.V Arkansas Valley Pre-se asony Pos t-se ason]:./ Total 0 0 428 428 Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys 100 1,067 241 1,408 South Park 100 0 0 100 0 10 0 10 200 1,077 669 1,946 San Luis Valley Total Y June-July. ~/ January-February. Trapping efforts proved unsuccessful in the San Luis Valley for the first year's attempt, with only 10 geese being banded. The banding crew was late in reaching the Valley and most geese were already flying by the time trapping efforts were initiated. More time will be allocated for this endeavor next segment. Pre-season trapping operations were highly successful in north central Colorado and resulted in the banding of 1,067 adult and young geese (Table 9). Four hundred of these birds were also color-marked with black on orange neck collars for studies of goose distribution as part of the overall investigation. Pre-season Banding on Alberta Production Areas The Colorado Division of Wildlife assisted in a Central Flyway and Pacific Flyway cooperative banding study of Canada geese on Canadian production areas in southern Alberta. The major purpose of this study is to define the breeding areas of the Great Basin and Hi-line Canada Goose Populations in Alberta. This cooperative venture, irtvolving personnel from Colorado, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, Alberta, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Canadian Wildlife Service, resulted in the banding of 1,346 Canada geese in a 10 day period in June and July. �-22- Table 8. Sex composition of goslings banded for summer transplants, 1974. Release Site South Park (Antero Male Reservoir) Number Banded Sex Total Female 48 52 100 South Platte Valley (Prewitt Reservoir) 55 45 100 Total 103 97 200 Table 9. Age and sex composition of Canada geese banded pre-season in north central Colorado, 1974. Age and Sex Number Banded Adult Male 393 Local Male 158 Adult Female 358 Local Female 157 Unknown Total 1 1,067 Winter Banding Post-season activities produced 669 banded Canada geese in the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys (241) and Arkansas Valley (428) (Table 10). Overall sample sizes and age and sex ratios in the banded sample were not satisfactory for either of the two banding locations. �-23- Table 10. Age and sex composition of Canada geese banded post-season in eastern Colorado, 1974-75. Number Banded Age and Sex AF IF UF Location AM 1M Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys 97 24 28 3 89 241 Arkans as Vall ey 193 31 164 40 0 428 Total 290 55 192 43 89 669 Total LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1972. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 13-21. Colo. Div. Wildl., Hopper, R. M. 1974. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Wildl., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp.13-22. Colo. Div. Prepared by .~da~ .chard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher ~'<""L 0>' ��-25JOB PROGRESS October REPORT State of C.::;,O::.:L:::::O::.:RADO=:::::.. _ Project No.__ ~W_-~8~8_-~R~-=2~0 _ W~rk Plan No. Job Title Analysis Period Covered: Personnel: =l _ of Waterfowl 1975 Migratory Job No. Bird Investigations ~3~ _ Banding Data March 1, 1975 to March 31, 1975 J. Gustafson and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT First year recovery rates for mallards (Arras platyrhynchos) and pintails (Arras acuta) banded during August and September in the San Luis Valley and South Park from 1968 through 1973 and in North Park from 1971 through 1973 are presented. Rates are categorized by age and sex for each species. During the 1975 banding season, 300 mallards of each age and sex grouping, excluding locals, will be banded in the three areas. All pintai1s captured during the 1975 banding period will be banded. �-26RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Band 300 mallards in each of the following categories in each of the three high mountain areas during the pre-season banding period: immature males, adult males, immature females, adult females. Also band all local mallards that are captured. 2. Band every pintail, green-winged teal (Anas carolinensis), blue winged teal (Anas discors), cinnamon teal (Ana~anoPtera), gadwall (Anas strepera), widgeon (Anas americana), redhead (Aythya americana), and canvas back (Aythya valisineria) that are captured during the pre-season banding period. �-27- ANALYSIS OF WATERFOWL BANDING DATA Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJEcrIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution and relationships among populations of ducks banded in Colorado's high country, specifically North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS All recoveries of mallards and pintails banded in South Park and the San Luis Valley since 1968 and in North Park since 1971 and reported recovered through the 1973-74 hunting season were sorted by age and sex. First year recovery rates were calculated for all groupings. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Because of the small number of ducks other than mallards or pintails which have been banded in the high mountai~area, first year recoveries for only those two species were calculated. As many individuals as possible of the other target species should be banded in all three banding areas. The first year recovery rates for mallards for 1968 through 1973 in South Park and the San Luis Valley and for 1971 through 1973 for North Park are presented by age and sex in Tables 1 through 4. Because of small banded sample size, first year recoveries of locals were not tabulated. First year recovery rates in the three areas are generally quite variable from year to year in any age or sex class. When the original high mountain banding program was designed, the objective was to band in the three areas for five consecutive years. Original quotas for mallards were at least 250 of each age and sex grouping. Quotas were generally met in both North Park and the San Luis Valley. After reviewing the number of first year recoveries from 1971 bandings, the quotas were increased to 300 mallards of each age and sex grouping. The intent was to strive to obtain 50 first year recoveries for each banding cohort. After reviewing the results of three years of mallard banding in the three areas, we find that acquiring 50 first year recoveries would require an increased effort in all �-28- three areas and may be logistically impossible, particularly for females. Therefore, during the fifth year of banding, summer of 1975, the banding quotas for each age and sex grouping of mallards will remain at 300 in order to maintain a numerically consistent series of bandings. Complete analysis of these bandings and resulting recoveries after the 1975-76 hunting season using methods which will provide confidence intervals for calculated mortality rates will give us a better indication of the appropriate sample sizes for bandings in these areas. The first year recovery rates for pintail banding in the three high mountain park areas are presented by age and sex in Tables 5 through 8. With few exceptions, the recovery rates of pintails of any age or sex banded in any area are extremely low. In 1971, a general quota of 200 to 250 bandings were established for each age and sex grouping. In 1972 the quota was increased to 250. In 1973 the decision was made to eliminate quotas and band every pintail captured during the entire banding period. That policy will be continued through the 1975 banding season. Prepared by /ll~K~ Michael SzymnG R. Assistant Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. First year recovery rates for adult male mallards banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. Recovery Rate Number Banded South Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded San Luis Valley Recovery No. First Year Rate Recoveries Year Banded Number Banded North Park No. First Year Recoveries 1968 - - - 74 1 0.014 1,077 58 0.054 1969 - - - 339 13 0.038 1,250 102 0.082 1970 - - - 210 15 0.071 939 98 0.104 411 18 0.044 312 21 0.067 1971 245 9 0.037 1972 262 17 0.065 250 8 0.032 262 23 0.088 1973 315 16 0.051 250 15 0.060 444 19 0.043 Total 822 42 0.051 1,534 70 0.046 4,284 321 0.075 I N \0 I �Table 2. First year recovery Valley, 1968-73. rates for immature male mallards banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Number Banded South Park No. First Year Recoveries Re<":overy Rate Number Banded San Luis Va11eI Recovery No. First Year Rate Recoveries Year Banded Number Banded North Park No. First Year Recoveries - - - 111 3 0.027 1,087 85 0.078 1968 - - - 235 15 0.064 1,090 116 0.106 1969 - - - 235 17 0.072 877 93 0.106 1970 203 5 0.025 352 39 0.111 Recovery Rate I 1971 292 12 0.041 1972 285 12 0.042 209 12 0.057 229 19 0.083 1973 313 16 0.051 190 13 0.068 370 34 0.092 Total 890 40 0.045 1,183 65 0.055 4,005 386 0.096 w 0 I �Table 3. First year recovery rates for adult female mallards banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. North Park No. First Year Recoveries Number Banded South Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded 42 0 0.000 1,281 48 0.037 151 2 0.013 1,238 54 0.044 171 5 0.029 1,148 39 0.034 373 8 0.021 305 9 0.030 0.032 285 4 0.014 Year Banded Number Banded 1968 - - - 237 10 0.042 1969 1970 1971 - San Luis Valle:i Recovery No. First Year Rate Recoveries Recovery Rate .I w I 1972 285 5 0.018 250 8 1973 254 9 0.035 192 4 0.021 466 8 0.017 Total 776 24 0.031 1,179 27 0.023 4,723 162 0.034 �Table 4. First year recovery rates for immature female mallards banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. Year Banded Number Banded 1968 - 1969 North Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate South Park NtUllber No. First Year Recoveries Banded Recovery Rate San Luis Va11el Recovery NtUllber No. First Year Rate Recoveries Banded - 72 4 0.056 896 34 0.038 - - - 100 0 0.000 970 36 0.037 1970 - - - 151 5 0.033 881 67 0.076 1971 291 10 0.034 92 4 0.043 252 10 0.040 1972 253 16 0.063 159 7 0.044 196 18 0.092 1973 256 9 0.035 113 3 0.027 381 24 0.063 Total 800 35 0.044 687 23 0.033 3,576 189 0.053 I w N I �Table 5. First year recovery rates for adult male pintai1s banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. Number Banded South Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded San Luis Vallez: Recovery No. First Year Rate Recoveries Year Banded Number Banded North Park No. First Year Recoveries 1968 - - - 155 3 0.019 207 3 0.014 1969 - - - 82 • 1 0.012 57 0 0.000 1970 - - - 97 2 0.021 35 5 0.143 70 0 0.000 359 6 0.017 Recovery Rate I 1971 205 2 0.010 1972 280 4 0.014 150 1 0.007 280 1 0.004 1973 791 8 0.010 186 4 0.022 375 3 0.008 Total 1,276 14 0.011 740 11 0.015 1,313 18 0.014 w w I �Table 6. First year recovery rates for immature male pintai1s banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. Year Banded Number Banded North Park No. First Year Recoveries 1968 - - 1969 - 1970 - South Park No. First Year Recoveries San Luis Valley Recovery No. First Year Rate Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded 1 0.015 224 11 0.049 80 0 0.000 77 2 0.026 76 2 0.026 73 7 0.096 286 7 0.024 Recovery Rate Number Banded 67 - - - - I 1971 230 1 0.004 72 1 0.014 1972 270 7 0.026 125 1 0.008 264 11 0.042 1973 201 8 0.040 123 0 0.000 350 6 0.017 Total 701 16 0.023 543 5 0.009 1,274 44 0.035 w ~ I �Table 7. First year recovery rat~s for adult female pintails banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. ______~N~o~r~t~h Park Year Number No. First Year Banded Banded Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded _ South Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded San Luis Valley No. First Year Recovery Recoveries Rate 1968 97 1 0.010 204 2 0.010 1969 76 1 0.013 120 1 0.008 1970 25 2 0.080 106 9 0.085 I 1971 223 1 0.004 28 0 0.000 346 2 0.006 1972 273 2 0.007 125 1 0.008 273 6 0.022 1973 462 7 0.015 147 2 0.014 429 5 0.012 498 7 0.014 1,478 25 0.017 ----." Total ---" -"--~--~--""-~-~~~-~~~~--" 958 10 0.010 ~--~--~"~-,~~~~" ,~."<--~~--~~-.--~~-"~--~"--~"'"~-~---~.~ -~.--~-~--~~--.--,--- w \JI I �Table 8. First year recovery rates for immature female pintai1s banded in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley, 1968-73. Year Banded Number Banded North Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded South Park No. First Year Recoveries Recovery Rate Number Banded San Luis Va11eI Recovery No. First Year Rate Recoveries 1968 - - - 52 0 0.000 230 4 0.017 1969 - - - 75 1 0.013 133 5 0.038 1970 - - - 33 1 0.030 111 5 0.045 1971 201 2 0.010 74 0 0.000 258 5 0.019 1972 263 4 0.015 121 1 0.008 266 14 0.053 1973 202 8 0.040 109 0 0.000 329 5 0.015 Total 666 14 0.021 464 3 0.006 1,327 38 0.029 I w 0' I �October 1975 -37JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project C..:..O..:..I:.::.O..:..RA=D:.,..O:...._ W-88-R-20 No. Migratory 1 Work Plan No. Job No. Job Title: San Luis Valley Cooperative Period Covered: Personnel: Bird Investigations 12 Mallard Investigation April 1, 1964 to March 31, 1975 Richard M. Hopper ABSTRACT The final report covering all segment objectives of this job was submitted to Wildlife Monographs in November 1974. It was reviewed by an editorial staff and returned to the authors in March 1975. At this time it was considered to be acceptable for publication as a Wildlife Monograph, following some r eva.sa.ons , The title of this paper is "Exper·imental Duck Hunting Seasons -- San Luis Valley, Colorado, 1963-1970", with Richard M. Hopper, Aelred D. Geis, Jack R. Grieb, and Lewis Nelson, Jr. as authors. Additional time needed for revisions, editing, and proofing, as required of the authors by Wildlife Monographs, will be accomplished in the next year under Work Plan 6, Job 1 (W-88-R). Prepared by ·Zwl~/~% ~'" " " Richard M. Hopper'VGff t. o Wildlife Researcher ��October 1975 -39- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W~-_8~8-~R~-~2~0~ Work Plan No. _ Migratory Bird Investigations Job Title -=-=2_____________ Job No. ~2~ Experimental Studies on Improving the Status of Canada Goose Populations Period Covered: April 2, 1974 to February 17, 1975 Personnel: _ S. Bissell, M. DePra, W. Dolezal, J. Hicks, R. Holder, T. Lines, J. Lorentzson, W. Olmstead, S. Porter, S. Steinert, K. Wagner, J. Wagner, L. Webster, and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were reported to be nesting in the Jumbo Reservoir area in 1974. Reported hunting mortality of Canada geese released at Jumbo Reservoir Annex has been comparatively light through the 1973-74 hunting season, with only 16 of 303 birds recovered. Band recoveries indicate that a portion of the birds released at Jumbo in 1972 have drifted east of Colorado and are following a north-south migration pattern through the central portion of the eastern states of the Central Flyway. About 10 percent of the 166 birds released at Prewitt Reservoir through the summer of 1973 were reported recovered by hunters through the 1973-74 hunting season. An additional 100 goslings were released at Prewitt Reservoir on July 5, 1974. Canada geese began nesting at Lake John Annex in North Park as early as March 9, 1974. A total of nine known nests were established at three locations in North Park in 1974, however, only two of the nests hatched. The six nests established at Lake John Annex were all destroyed by predators. According to band recoveries, a portion of geese released on Walden Reservoir in North Park in 1973 migrated into the Texas Panhandle in the fall of 1973. Over 45 percent of the direct recoveries of all birds released in North Park were reported taken in Arizona, while extreme southern California accounted for 19 percent of the direct recoveries. Excluding Mexico, 78.7 percent of the direct recoveries of birds released in North Park came from Pacific Flyway areas. Colorado accounted for 29.4 percent of the indirect recoveries .of geese released in North Park, while 26.5 and 17.6 percent of the indirect recoveries came from California and Arizona, respectively. Excluding Mexico, 63.6 percent of the indirect recoveries of North Park geese were taken in the Pacific Flyway. Through the 1973-74 hunting season, six of the 156 Canada goose goslings released at Antero Reservoir had been reported recovered. The largest number of Canada geese observed at Antero Reservoir in the spring of 1974 was 120 birds sighted in mid-April. At least 40 goslings were produced at Antero Reservoir in 1974. ��-41- EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPROVING THE STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the success of attempts to establish breeding populations of Canada. geese in suitable habitat where they do not presently exist in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Edit and publish a technical bulletin on the technique of establishing a breeding population of Canada geese. 2. To expand the breeding flocks of Canada geese in the South Platte Valley and South Park. 3. Prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Canada goose goslings for transplant purposes were obtained from two different sources: (1) goslings from the metropolitan Denver area, and (2) goslings and some eggs from the Fort Collins area. All eggs were transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station for incubation and subsequent raising. All wild trapped goslings were held for variable periods of time before release on the restoration areas. A mixture of hand reared goslings and wild trapped goslings were released on each area. An attempt was made to release an equal number of birds of each sex at each location. Each bird was marked with a U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service leg band. Migration and mortality information was obtained from computer printouts received from the Migratory Bird Population Station which present a list of reported encounters with banded birds. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of Technical Bulletin Preparation of the bulletin is completed and is now in the final stages of review. �-42- South Platte Valley-Jumbo Reservoir By July 1973, a total of 303 Canada goose goslings had been released at Jumbo Reservoir Annex located near Sedgwick along the South Platte River in extreme northeast Colorado. In the spring of 1973 at least 12 nests were established in the Jumbo Reservoir area (Szymczak 1974). No counts were obtained of the number of nests established in the area in the spring of 1974, but sporadic reports indicated that birds were actively nesting. Surveys of nesting birds in the Jumbo area are scheduled for spring 1975. Reported recoveries of birds released at Jumbo Reservoir Annex indicate they are being subjected to comparatively light hunting mortality, at least through the 1973-74 hunting season (Table 1). The group released in 1972 has undergone the heaviest mortality with nine percent of the birds being recovered during a two year period. Only six percent of the birds released in 1971 had been recovered through three hunting seasons, while only a single recovery was reported during the 1973-74 season of the 101 goslings released in 1973. An area of about 250 square miles remains closed around the release site. The distribution of recoveries of birds released at Jumbo Reservoir Annex does not indicate any specific migration patterns (Table 1). Indirect recoveries of birds released in 1971 and 1972 indicate migration of at least a portion of the birds away from the release site. Apparently, at least a portion of the birds released in 1972 have drifted east of Colorado and are following a north-south migration pattern through the central portion of the eastern states of the Central Flyway. In addition to the indirect recoveries of 1972 released birds, another bird was recaptured in June, 1973 in Kidder County, central North Dakota. South Platte Valley-Prewitt Reservoir By late summer 1973, 166 Canada goose goslings had been released on small ponds directly below the Prewitt Reservoir dam. One nest had been established in the release area in the spring of 1973. Extensive surveys for locating nesting geese were not conducted in the release area in 1974. Surveys of nesting birds in the Prewitt Reservoir area are scheduled for spring 1975. Through the 1973-74 hunting season about 10 percent of the birds released at Prewitt have been reported recovered by hunters (Table 2). All but one of the ed ght total recoveries have reportedly occurred in Colorado (Table 2). Five of the birds have been recovered near the release site in Washington and Morgan counties. An area of approximately 100 square miles around the release site remains closed to goose hunting. On July 5, 1974, 55 male and 45 female Canada goose goslings were released on the ponds below the Prewitt Reservoir. This release brings the total number of birds released at that location in three years to 266. �-43- Table l. Hunting season recovery locations of Canada geese released at Jumbo Reservoir Annex, near Sedgwick in extreme northeastern Colorado. Year Released Number Released 1971 102 1972 100 1973 101 Area Recovered No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Indirect Direct Colorado Logan County Ot ero Coun ty Baca County 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 Nebraska Chase County Keith County 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 W;yoming Goshen County 0 1 0 0 0 Kansas Pawnee County 0 0 0 1 0 Texas Hockley County Uvalde County Zavala County 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 South Dakota Buffalo County 0 0 0 1 0 North Dakota McHen ry Coun ty 0 0 0 1 0 Minnesota Chippewa County 0 1 0 0 0 Albertaz Canada Beaverhill Lake Area 0 1 0 0 0 Total 1 5 5 4 1 �-44- Table 2. Hunting season recovery locations of Canada geese released at Prewitt Reservoir in Washington County, northeastern Colorado. Year Released Number Released 1972 70 1973 96 Area Recovered No. Recovered Direct Indirect No. Recovered Indirect Direct Colorado Washington County Mor gan Coun ty o tero Coun ty Bent County o o 1 o Texas --Randall County 1 o o Total 5 2 1 3 o 1 1 o o 1 North Park Spring Returns A total of 931 Canada goose goslings were released in North Park during the five year period, 1969 through 1973. In the spring of 1974, in response to early open water and no residual snow cover, geese had begun nesting at Lake John Annex as early as March 9. A complete clutch of five eggs was observed at the Annex on March 16, 1974. At least eight birds were observed on that same date on Pole Mountain Reservoir. By April 3, 1974, 30 geese were present at Lake John Annex and 14 at Walden Reservoir. Summer Residents An extensive survey of summer residents was not conducted in North Park in 1974. However, periodic observations during August indicated that more geese were present in North Park during at least most of the summer period than in previous years. Geese were observed on Lake John Annex, Walden Reservoir, MacFarlane Reservoir, Hebron Ponds, Pole Mountain Reservoir, and the Case Flats Ponds throughout August and early September. The largest group of birds, 127, was sighted on Hebron Ponds on August 9,1974. �-45- Nesting and Production A total of nine known nests were produced at three locations in North Park in the spring of 1974 (Table 3). Unfortunately, only two of the nine were successful. All six nests at Lake John Annex were destroyed by predators and one abandoned nest was found on Walden·Reservoir. Band Recoveries Fourteen of the 100 goslings released on Walden Reservoir in 1973 were reported taken by hunters during the 1973-74 hunting season (Table 4). Ten of the 14 birds were reported taken in counties in the Panhandle of Texas, indicating that a portion of the 1973 released birds did not follow the normal Pacific Flyway migration route apparently used by most of the birds released in North Park. It appears the birds taken in Texas were not accompanied by birds released in North Park in previous years, as no indirect recoveries for North Park birds were recorded in the Panhandle during the 1973-74 season. A portion of the 1973 releases did follow the normal migration route as indicated by the California and Mexico recoveries presented in Table 4. A summary of the distribution of recoveries through the 1973-74 hunting season for North Park released birds are presented in Figs. 1 and 2. Direct recoveries in Fig. 1 depict the Pacific Flyway migration pattern mentioned above. Over 45 percent of the direct recoveries were reported taken in Arizona with the large majority coming from the extreme southwest corner of the state (Table 5, Fig. 1). Extreme southern California accounted for an additional 19 percent of the direct recoveries (Table 5, Fig. 1). Excluding Mexico, 78.7 percent of the reported direct recoveries came from Pacific Flyway lcoations. The only major recovery areas for birds recovered directly outside the Pacific Flyway were the degree block in Wyoming just north of the release site, generally thought to be the route used by geese leaving North Park, and the Texas Panhandle, an apparent first year wintering area for a portion of the birds released in 1973 (Fig. 1). In plotting indirect recoveries, Colorado becomes the major recovery area with 29.4 percent of the recoveries (Table 5). Birds taken in California amount to 26.5 percent of the indirect total while the number of recoveries in Arizona decrease compared to the direct rate to only 17.6 percent of the total (Table 5). Excluding Mexico, 63.6 percent of the indirect recoveries were reported taken in Pacific Flyway locations. Nearly 21 percent of the indirect recoveries were reported taken in areas north of Colorado, indicating some birds are by passing the release site on spring migrations (Fig. 2). Recoveries along the foothills of eastern Colorado indicate that some of the released birds have returned to their area of origin. Three indirect hunting season recoveries have been reported taken along the foothills. In addition, in the summer of 1974, four birds released in North Park were recapt~red during extensive banding operations in the Fort Collins area, three at Watson Lake and one at Terry Lake. All four recoveries were indirect, with two birds each being released in 1971 and 1972. �-46- Table 3. Known nesting data for Canada geese in North Park 1971-1974. Number Nests Established 1971 1972 1973 1974 Area Lake John Annex 1 3 6 Boettcher Lake 0 2 0 Arapahoe National Wildlife Refuge 0 1 1 Walden Reservoir 0 0 0 6 Number Nests Hatched 1971 1972 1973 1974 1 2 4 0 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 Table 4. Hunting season recovery locations for Canada geese released on Walden Reservoir, North Park, Jackson County Colorado, 1973. Area Recovered Number Recovered 1973-74 Colorado Gunnison County 1 California Imperial County 2 Texas Randall County 4 Armstrong County 3 Deaf Smith County 3 Mexico Baja California Total 1 14 �-47- Table 5. The distribution by area of direct and indirect recoveries through the 1973-74 hunting season of Canada geese released in North Park. Area Direct Number Recoveries Percent Indirect Number Recoveries Percent Total Number Recoveries Percent Arizona 54 45.4 6 17.6 60 39.2 California 23 19.3 9 26.5 32 20.9 Colorado 9 7.6 10 29.4 19 12.4 Texas 11 9.2 0 0.0 11 7.2 Wyoming 8 6.7 2 5.9 10 6.5 Chihuahua (Mexico) 5 4.2 1 2.9 6 3.9 Sinaloa (Mexico) 4 3.4 0 0.0 4 2.6 Utah 2 1.7 1 2.9 3 2.0 Baja California (Mexico) 2 1.7 0 0.0 2 1.3 Montana 0 0.0 2 5.9 2 1.3 North Dakota 0 0.0 1 2.9 1 0.7 South Dakota 0 0.0 1 2.9 1 0.7 New Mexico 1 0.8 0 0.0 1 0.7 Saskatchewan (Canada) 0 0.0 1 2.9 1 0.7 Total 119 34 153 Spring Returns On February 17, 1975 a pair of Canada geese were observed on the Fuqua Ranch along the Illinois River near Rand, Colorado. These birds were reportedly feeding on hay being fed to cattle. By March 21, 1975, larger groups of birds began to arrive at Lake John Annex. �, , '1" ~t-,_ -'-I... I .j::o. 00 I .~" -®- - ~ ------ -----®~-" •. \ "\ Circled numbers are recoveries which occur somewhere within the Mexican State indicated. /@" .: I ~. -. Fig. 1. Distribution of direct recoveries of Canada geese released in North Park. �/. ./ I I +:\0 I '@. ,_ .'7-' , ~®j .' 1",-, ~ ,-. ~ \ Circled numbers are recoveries which occur somewhere within the Mexican state indicated. /® i ® ! 0'(; Fig. 2. Distribution in North Park. of indirect recoveries through the 1973-74 hunting season of Canada geese released �-50- South Park Antero Reservoir By mid-summer 1973, a total of 156 Canada goose goslings had been released on Antero Reservoir in Park County, Colorado (Table 6). Seventy-six birds were released in July 1972, and 80 in July 1973. Table 6. Hunting season recovery locations of Canada geese released at Antero Reservoir in Park County, Colorado. Year Released Ntnnber Released Area Recovered 1972 76 1973 80 No. Recovered Indirect Direct No. Recovered Indirect Direct Colorado Fremont County Alamosa County Pueblo County 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 5 0 1 Texas Reeves County Total Only one bird released at Antero was reported recovered during the 1973-74 hunting season. That bird was taken in Alamosa County in the San Luis Valley. Previous hunting season recoveries are presented in Table 6. Two birds released in 1972 were recaptured during the summer of 1973, one in the State of Chihuahua, Mexico and one at Wheatland Reservoir, Wyoming. The largest ntnnber of Canada geese observed at Antero· Reservoir in the spring of 1974 was 120 birds sighted in mid-April. The following nesting season at Antero resulted in at least 40 goslings being produced. Reports indicate geese were sighted below the dam at Antero Reservoir on March 21, 1975. A snowstorm the following day apparently resulted in the birds leaving the area. �-51- LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, Michael R. 1974. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rep., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. p. 47-53. Prepared ~ 0 ~ bY~In1M~:ld·4.~~oJ!:i:...k:~1;'-1..·':"" .::I:.:oCW'l~~""'4,J1a6C1:""'-'_ Michael R. Szym~lk1i'?) Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��October 1975 -53- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of .:::C.:::.O,::LO.:::.RAD=::.:O::...------ Project No. W-88-R-20 Migratory Work Plan No. 2 Job No. Job Title Studies of Canada Goose Populations Period Covered: Personnel: Bird Investigations 6 in Colorado _ Transplant Areas April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1974 C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; R. Staffon, Colorado State University; M. Babler, D. Benson, S. Bissell, S. Brock, G. Brown, G. Claassen, R. Clark, C. Crawford, G. Crawford, M. DePra, R. Desi1et, J. Frothingham, B. Goetze, V. Graham, J. Gumber, T. Henry, J. Hicks, J. Hobbs, R. Hopper, J. Jackson, C. Leonard, M. Loftsgard, J. Lorentzson, D. Lowry, T. Lynch, C. Manghan, K. Miller, R. Oakleaf, D. Owens, S. Palm, B. Peterson, F. Rinella, C. Roberts, L. Rottman, G. Saville, H. Spear, S. Steinert, E. Wagner, and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Analysis of band recoveries of 130 Canada geese (Brant a canadensis) banded outside Colorado and recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1973-74 season did not reveal any new Hi-Line population production areas. Banded geese classified as experimental transplants that had been released in the Manito Lake area east of North Batt1eford, Saskatchewan; in the Pelican Lake area east of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan; in Crook County in northeast Wy~ming; and Harding County in northwest South Dakota were represented in the northcentral Colorado harvest. Analysis of tail fans indicate that the percent of harvest composed of "small" Canada geese in northcentral Colorado has stabilized at about 15 percent. Southwestern Saskatchewan continues as a prominent northern recovery area of "large" birds banded post-season in northcentral Colorado with size 8 bands while Alberta continues as the major northern recovery area of small birds wearing size 7B bands. Colorado is the prime southern recovery area for post-season banded geese with 43 percent of the large birds taken in the northcentral part of the state and 19 percent of the small birds being taken in the southeastern portion of the state. The December 1974 coordinated inventory in the Hi-Line wintering area resulted in a total of 62,069 while the January count was 41,986. About 77 percent of the population during both counts was found in Colorado. Mortality rates based on recoveries of birds banded post-season in northcentral Colorado, calculated by the composite dynamic method resulted in a year rate of .279 and .326 rate for all years. Observations during the fall and winter of resident geese, neck-collared in June and July 1974 indicated that: (1) geese reared on ponds inside the closed goose hunting area seldom leave that area; (2) hunting mortality for geese reared inside the closed area is lower than for geese reared outside the closed area; (3) resident birds seldom flew further than 3 km from resting areas before landing to feed; (4) feeding flocks of resident birds formed a very close-knit association (Abstract continued on next page) �-54(ABSTRACT, Continued) which was maintained from early fall until the end of winter; (5) although feeding in the same fields, very seldom did resident feeding flocks intermingle with migrant flocks. Movement data for marked birds from ten banding areas are summarized. During the pre-hunting season period wintering geese showed a preference to feed in chopped corn fields; selected barley fields for feeding at the same rate in which they occurred; and avoided picked-corn fields. During the hunting season when most geese fed within the closed area, geese indicated a preference for picked corn, oats, barley, lawn and selected chopped corn at essentially the same rate at which it occurred. The bulk of the feeding activity during the hunting season occurred in well grazed pastures inside the closed hunting area, yet geese selected pastures at a lesser rate than they occurred. After the hunting season picked-corn fields, most of which had been heavily grazed, were highly preferred while chopped corn, oat, and wheat fields were used at the same rate as they occurred. Throughout the fall and winter period alfalfa, bean, prairie grass, and sugar beet fields were essentially avoided completely. During wet, muddy periods geese avoided corn fields and shifted to barley fields or pastures. Mean feeding flock size was 119 during the pre-hunting season period, 211 during the season and 193 after the season. Analyses of fecal droppings collected at College Lake indicated diets of geese roosting at College Lake during the respective periods were as follows: pre-season - 50 percent corn, 30 percent wheat, 5 percent smooth brome, 4 percent sedge, 4 percent barley, 2 percent green bristlegrass, 1.5 percent cattail and 1.5 percent oats, with eight other plants present in trace amounts; in-season - 32 percent corn, 10 percent wheat, 36 percent smooth brome, 4 percent alfalfa, 3 percent bluegrass, with seven other plants in trace amounts; post-season - 55 percent corn, 11 percent smooth brome, 11 percent wheat, 3 percent cattail, 18 percent decomposed matter, with seven plants in trace amounts. At Elder Reservoir fecal droppings indicated the diets of geese resting there during the respective periods were as follows: pre-season - 98 percent corn, with seven species in trace amounts; in-season no estimates; post-season - 61 percent co~, 9 percent wheat, 6 percent smooth brome, 5 percent tansy mustard, 2 percent alfalfa, 14 percent decomposed matter with eight species in trace amounts. Seven of the nine geese banded outside the San Luis Valley that were reported taken in the San Luis Valley during the 1973 hunting season had been banded at Wheatland Reservoir in Albany County, Wyoming. Goose counts in the San Luis Valley during the winter of 1974-75 totaled 1,013 on November 22, 934 on December 19 and 709 on January 13. A record low 69 geese were estimated harvested in the San Luis Valley during the 1974 season by 249 hunters for a seasonal bag of 0.28 birds/hunter. An estimated total of 85 geese were harvested in the westcentra1 Colorado permit area, 66 in Mesa County and 19 in Garfield County, by 370 active hunters for a seasonal bag of 0.28 birds/hunter. A record high total of 1,515 geese were counted during the January Inventory conducted on January 10 and 11, 1975. �-55- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT AREAS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of resident and migrant Canada goose flocks and their interrelationships in areas in which populations have been established through transplant programs in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. To determine Colorado. breeding areas of Canada geese wintering in northcentral lb. To examine migration routes and/or harvest patterns and distribution of Canada geese wintering in northcentral Colorado and the San Luis Valley. 2. To estimate hunting pressure on, and hunter harvest of, Canada geese in northcentral Colorado, the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado. 3. To estimate annual mortality Colorado. 4. To make recommendations for continuing Canada goose hunting seasons in westcentral Colorado, northcentral, Colorado and the San Luis Valley. 5. To document fall and winter movements and distribution population of Canada geese in the Fort Collins area. of the resident 6. To document the content of Canada goose fecal droppings Collins area during the fall and winter period. in the Fort of Canada geese wintering in northcentral METHODS AND MATERIALS 1 Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery location, sex, and age at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with the San Luis Valley and northcentral Colorado. Tail fans reported from Canada geese harvested in northcentral Colorado and collected through the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey were examined and classified as to whether the fans originated from large or small Canada geese. Canada geese in northcentral Colorado were counted on December 11, 1974 and January 8, 1975. In the San Luis Valley geese were counted on November 22, �-56- 1974, December 19, 1974, and January 13, 1975. Permits to hunt geese in northcentral Colorado were not required during the 1974-75 hunting season, therefore no special survey concerning goose hunting activity in northcentral Colorado was conducted. However, information will be forthcoming from the regular small game survey of waterfowl hunters. All hunters obtaining special permits to hunt geese in the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado were mailed questionnaires inquiring about their hunting activity and success. Recoveries of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado were sorted by age and recovery year and mortality rates calculated by the composite dynamic and relative recovery rate method. All pertinent data collected concerning the status of the northcentral, west central and San Luis Valley Canada goose populations were presented to management personnel in Colorado for use in establishing hunting seasons. In order to document the fall and winter movements a total of 400 resident Canada geese of both sexes and various age classes were trapped and marked during the 1974 summer molt period in the Fort Collins area. On each goose was placed a U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service leg band, and an individually numbered, orange plastic neck collar. Geese were marked on five reservoirs within and five reservoirs adjacent to the study area. The' locations of the banding sites and the collar numbers applied at each site are listed in Table 1. Table 1. site. Location of banding sites and list of collar numbers used at each Banding Site Location Series of Collar Numbers Used Total Number of Geese Banded College Lake Dean Acres -1/ OlA - 50A 50 5lA - 85A 35 Dixon Reservoir 86A - OOA ) OlE - l3E ) 28 Sterling Gravel Pits 1/ 14E - 53E 40 Watson Lake 54E - OOE Terry Lake -1/ 47 OlF - 50F Number 8 Annex -1/ 50 51F - 75F 25 Cobb Lake Elder Reservoir Grey Lakes 76F - OOF 76C - OOC ) ) 50 1/ OlC - 50C 50 51C - 75C 25 Total 1/ Indicates banding sites located within the study area. 400 �-57- Due to the large area involved no attempt was made to follow all marked geese at each banding site. Instead, a study area of limited size was selected in which observational effort could be concentrated. The study area was located just north of Fort Collins (Fig. 1). This area was selected because its juxtaposition with the ten banding sites should result in a large number of marked birds feeding in the study area. The study area was selected so that the lower third was located in the closed hunting area (Fig. 1). This increased the likelihood that marked geese would be present in the study area throughout the observation period including the hunting season. The study area contains a representative array of field crops and reservoirs normally used by the wintering goose population. To systematically observe the feeding flocks of geese within the study area, a designated transect of roads was driven three times per week on randomly selected days. One weekend day was always included in each week to observe the effects of increased human activity associated with weekends. The majority of field observations were conducted after the geese left the reservoirs in the morning. Thus, observations occurred when the greatest percentage of the goose population was simultaneously in the fields feeding. Evening flights tended to be irregularly scheduled, and frequently did not start until late in the afternoon or evening, thus darkness would come before the transect could be completed. For each flock of geese observed feeding along the transect route, the following data were tabulated on field sheets and later coded on Unisort cards for analysis: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Total number of geese in flock. Collar numbers of marked geese present. Crop type (corn, barley, wheat, etc.). Field type (standing, stubble, plowed, etc.). Field moisture condition (dry,"wet, frost, snow). Weather conditions. To locate roost areas of marked geese periodic early morning counts were made before the feeding flights on all ten banding sites, and at any other reservoir within the study area that was being used as a roosting place. The botanical composition of the diet of the wintering goose population was estimated from fecal pellets gathered at College Lake and Elder Reservoir. These two reservoirs were selected because the first lies within the closed area, and the latter in the open hunting zone. Collecting pellets from these two areas allows a comparison to be made between food habits of geese roosting inside and outside of the closed area. Feces were gathered at weekly intervals from circular plots located along the shoreline in areas traditionally used as resting and loafing sites by the geese. Originally, nine plots were set at College Lake and six at Elder Reservoir. The number of plots established depended on the number of likely loafing sites at each reservoir. Unfortunately, the location, size, and total number of plots had to be continuously changed in order to collect adequate quantities of fecal matter, because the geese constantly redistributed �-58- their loafing site locations in response to changing water levels, population size, and ice conditions. After collection, each weekly fecal sample was oven dried at 700 C, ground in a lmm screen Wiley mill, and stored in paper bags. The plant species in the feces were identified and quantified by Colorado State University's Composition Analysis Laboratory using a microhistological technique. Individual plant species can be identified using a 100X microscope by the unique characteristics of cutinized epidermal fragments and lignified cell walls that remain after digestion (Storr 1961, Williams 1969, Ward 1970, Free et al. 1970, Stewart and Stewart 1970). Before wild fecal samples could be analyzed a collection of reference plants was gathered from all field types normally used by the feeding geese. Both the dominant crop type and its associated weeds were collected. The reference material was ground in a Wiley mill having a screen with lmm openings. Microscope slides were made from the various plant parts (i.e. stems, leaves, seeds) and these were studied by laboratory technicians to learn each plant's characteristics. Since it was too costly to analyze each weekly fecal collection individually the samples were composited into three periods; a pre-hunting season period (25 September, 1974 to 12 November, 1974), a hunting season period (13 November, 1974 to 31 December, 1974), and a post-hunting season period (1 January, 1975 to 18 February, 1975). Each period is 49 days which is the length of Colorado's northcentral area goose hunting season for 1974. The hunting season was chosen as the base period for comparison because hunting pressure greatly influences goose movements and field availability. The feeding habits of the wintering geese are suspected to be quite uniform within each period, but to change considerably between periods. For this reason no feces were collected for one week after each period while the geese were "adjusting" their feeding habits. Each period sample was composited by extracting a 20 percent drY'weight subsample from all weekly collections made during that period. These sub samples were homogenized in a blender to randomly mix the plant fragments. Microscope slides were prepared from the fecal samples as described by Sparks and Malechek (1968), Ward (1970), and Flinders and Hansen (1972). The percent frequency of recognized fragments in each period.'s fecal s amp Le was estimated by counting the number of identifiable fragments in 20 microscope fields on each slide. Twenty different slides were analyzed yielding a total of 400 microscope fields examined per period. Next, the mean density (D) of discerned particles field is determined by the formula: F = 100 (1 - e -D) where (F) represents density of particles by: of a species per microscope the percent frequency and e = 2.71828. Finally the per field is converted to relative percent density (RD) RD = (X + Y) x 100 where X is the density of discerned fragments of a species and Y is the sum of the densities of discerned fragments for all species (Hansen 1974). �lO 28 29 ilH REED'3' li» po:·m0 "'AWELLlHGTON 0'MGMT. AREA HAGEN POND @ r' -H---+----I~i (legend . ::::::::::JCilyor Town -[""""JHighway or Co"nty Rood I~i Lake, Pond or .Reservoir· 2 l ~Riv~r _f=l Section line Scale 1:208,644 I II !)E~::£;;t::·:'t;;;;:1=:=::::::3~Wles TAKES@ , POND 0. 12 I:> @ t ~ J'G: J " ~Sl a ~~-- .. ,I " li1iE{D?iLjitE ~,",?,~~_;om~i!IlBIiW' fFortColHns '.:i ~ ••••••. \ Ij POND5@O I 4t I D!:ADMAN . \~HE~~'~G '\~ FI~ n?'<L" I HORSHOOTII ~'il~E:iI~ps.R~~~U '~ __ ""·""",,IUIIIo""JUI .••••.••....•• ~ •.••••.. .aa~~AI _ Fig. 1. Location of the intensive study area and boundary closed hunting area. line of the '~~L""A-K-E~"'" �-60- A problem encountered with fecal analysis is the likelihood of differential digestibility of various foods in the diet. A food which is more easily digested than others would be underestimated by the fecal analysis technique. Correction factors for differential digestibility were estimated by feeding a hand-compounded diet of known dry weight composition to 5 captive geese. Fecal samples were collected from the captive geese, and analyzed. The estimated dry weight composition (RD) was then compared to the known composition and the necessary correction factors determined. Three different mixtures of hand-compounded diets were fed to the geese. The important goose forages as identified by the analyses of the fecal samples were each represented at a high, medium, and low level (with respect to its average relative percent density) in one of the three hand-compounded mixtures. This was done because the digestibility of a food may differ when that food makes up a larger percentage of the diet as compared to a smaller percentage. Each hand-compounded mixture was fed to the captive geese for three days. No feces were collected during the first day. Gooche's Best poultry food was used as a maintenance diet. This material was completely voided from the digestive tract after the one day pre-trial period since the through-put-time for geese is only about 2 hours (Mattocks 1970). During the second and third days, six fecal samples were collected. After two days on the maintenance diet the procedure was repeated using the second and third diet mixtures. The relationship between the estimated percentage dry weight (X) and the actual percentage dry weight (Y) was compared for the digested hand-compounded mixtures using regression equations which fit a straight line through the origin. These equations determine the degree of under or overestimation due to'digestibi1ity. The relationship between the dry weight (Y) and the estimated (X) percentages is expressed as: Y = BX + E where, the residual E follows N (O,<r 2). 'The least squares estimate of B is b = ~ XY / 2- X2 and "b" (the slope of the line) is used as the correction factor for differential digestion. A similar procedure was used to determine over or underestimation due to problems in distinguishing differences by the technicians. The same handcompounded diets of known composition were given to the technicians to analyze before digestion by the geese. Regression equations were again used to determine correction factors. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Northcentral Colorado-The Hi-Line Population Breeding Range Foreign Recoveries During the 1973-74 hunting season 130 Canada geese that were banded outside of Colorado were reported recovered in northcentral Colorado (Table 2). �-61- An additional 29 foreign banded birds were recaptured during 1973-74 postseason banding operations (Table 3). The general banding locations of birds harvested or recaptured during the fall and winter of 1973-74 that were classified as wild-trapped locals when banded are presented in Table 4. Analysis of banding areas presented in Tables 2, 3, and 4 did not reveal any new production areas. However, small numbers of birds that were banded and released as transplants, apparently in restoration efforts, were reported harvested or recaptured directly in northcentral Colorado. Three of these transplant birds were released in the Manito Lake area, located directly east of North Battleford, Saskatchewan near the Alberta-Saskatchewan border while five of the geese were released in the Pelican Lake area, just east of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. Another group of birds released in restoration efforts in Crook County in extreme northeast Wyoming were represented by five direct and one indirect recoveries in the northcentral Colorado harvest. The birds released in Crook County were originally trapped in goose production areas in northcentral Colorado. Four of the five direct recoveries were released as goslings while the other two recoveries were released as adults. In addition, four birds banded in April 1973, in Harding County in northwest South Dakota and classified as experimental immatures were also taken in northcentral Colorado. These South Dakota birds are also believed to be geese released in restoration efforts. Canada goose nesting areas at Dowling Lake in Alberta, the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan, and Phillips County and Bighorn County. Montana, continue to contribute birds to the northcentral Colorado wintering population. Tail Fans A total of 85 of the 95 tail fans collected through the "Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey" from geese bagged in'northcentral Colorado were used to establish the comparative rate of harvest of "small" Canada geese in northcentral Colorado. The percentage of small geese in the harvest sample has been generally consistent over the 1970 through 1974 hunting period when comparing within counties by year when seemingly adequate sample sizes are available (Table 5). Of the three major harvest counties, Larimer, Boulder and Weld. only Weld seems to fluctuate dramatically between years in the percent of "small" birds in the harvest. The general trend over the five year period tends to suggest that the percent of harvest of small birds in northcentral Colorado has stabilized indicating that the percent of "small" birds in the population is remaining the same from year to year. Winter Banding - Northcentral Colorado In January 1973, 178 Canada geese were banded post-season in northcentral Colorado. Size 8 bands were placed on 170 birds that were subjectively considered large, while eight small birds were banded with size 7-B bands. These bandings brought the three year total of birds banded post-season since 1971 in northcentral Colorado to 2,205; 1,490 with size 8 bands and 715 with size 7-B bands. �-62- Table 2. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered northcentral Colorado during the 1973-74 hunting season. Area Alberta Edmonton - Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area Saskatchewan Manito Lake Area Pelican Lake Area Cypress Hills Area Eyebrow Lake in Direct Indirect 1 17 1 1 1 5 8 3 4 10 1 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Phillips County Bighorn County Garfield County McCone County Treasure County Wyoming Crook County Albany County Heridan County 9 4 30 1 3 1 1 5 1 New Mexico Socorro County San Miguel County Chaves County 1 1 1 4 1 2 South Dakota Harding County 4 Kansas Rook County 1 1 PACIFIC FLYWAY Washington Grant County Walla Walla County 1 1 Idaho ---OWYhee 1 County Montana Beaverhead County 1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-63Table 2. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1973-74 hunting season (continued). Direct Area PACIFIC FLYWAY Indirect (Continued) Wyoming Lincoln County 1 Utah Emery County 1 MISSISSIPPI FLYWAY Missouri Chariton 1 County 59 Totals 71 Table 3. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recaptured, season, in northcentral Colorado, January 1974. Area Direct Alberta Brooks Area Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Area Manito Lake Area Pelican Lake Area Indirect 1 8 2 1 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana --Phillips County Bighorn County 13 1 Nebraska Garden County 1 New Mexico Mora County 1 PACIFIC FLYWAY Oregon Harney County Totals 1 4 25 post- �-64- Table 4. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered or recaptured in northcentral Colorado during the winter of 1973-74. Year of Banding Before 1967 1967 Location Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Beaverhill Lake Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area S. of Brooks E. of Brooks Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Area Maple Creek Area Cypress Hills Park N. of Eastend Cypress Lake Area Vidora Area Masefield Area 1968 1969 1970 1 2 1971 1972 1973 1 16 3 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 3 10 2 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Phillips County Bighorn County McCone County 3 5 1 3 17 8 1 5 1 PACIFIC FLYWAY Washington Grant County 1 Oregon Harney County Wyoming Lincoln County Utah --Emery County 1 1 1 �Table 5. Classification of Canada goose tail fans collected through the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife's Parts Collection Survey, from birds harvested in north-central Colorado, 1970-1974 hunting seasons. Year 1970 1971 Percent Percent Small Large 1972 Percent Percent Small Large 1973 Percent Percent Small Large 1974 Percent Percent Small Large County of Harvest Percent Large Percent Small Larimer 92(36) 1/ 8(3) 91(41) 9(4) 92 (22) 8 (2) 93(28) 7(2) 86 (31) 14(5) Boulder 100(1) 0(0) 86(18) 14 (3) 100(10) 0(0) 84(42) 16 (8) 88(21) 12 (3) Arapahoe - - 100(2) Adams 100(2) 0(0) 100(4) 0(0) 100(1) 0(0) - - 100(1) 0(0) Weld 82(18) 18(4) 59(13) 41(9) 67(2) 33(1) 79(11) 21(3) 67(16) 33(8) Morgan - - - - - 0(0) 100(4) Totals 89 (57) 17(16) 92(35) 8 (3) 83(81) 17 (17) 81(69) 19(16) 1/ 11 (7) Sample size in parentheses. 83(78) I 0'\ V1 I �-66- In Table 6, the three year scheme of the distribution of recoveries of birds banded in January, 1971 in northcentral Colorado is presented. Recoveries during the 1973-74 hunting season show Saskatchewan continuing as a prominent recovery area for "large" geese wearing size 8 bands. A few more birds, wearing size 8 bands, percentage-wise were recovered in Alberta in 1973-74 than in 1972-73. However, the rate of recovery of birds wearing size 8 bands in Alberta in 1973 was still lower than the rate that occurred in 1971-72. Recoveries during the 1973-74 hunting season of birds banded with size 8 bands in January 1972 reflected nearly the same distribution as recoveries of birds banded in January 1971 (Tables 6 and 7). For both banding years slightly over 18.5 percent of the recoveries were reported taken'in Saskatchewan. Alberta recoveries during the 1973-74 season comprised 9.3 percent and 12.5 percent of the recoveries and 1971 and 1972 banding, respectively. Only six of the 178 birds banded in January 1973 were reported recovered during the 1973-74 hunting season. All six birds had been banded with size 8 bands. Five of the birds were taken in northcentral Colorado and one bird was taken in Saskatchewan. Recoveries in Saskatchewan continue to come from the southwest part of the Province; south of the South Saskatchewan River and west of Swift Current. Most Alberta recoveries reportedly came from the Edmonton area. The lack of recoveries of northcentral Colorado banded birds in southern Alberta along with the general absence of recoveries in northcentral Colorado of birds banded in the Brooks-Lethbridge, - Medicine Hat area of southern Alberta indicate that geese nesting in southeast Alberta may not be members of the Hi-Line population as are the geese nesting in adjacent southwest Saskatchewan. Migration Routes and Harvest Patterns During the 1973-74 season, northcentral Colorado accounted for nearly 52 percent of the recoveries of geese wearing size 8 bands that were banded post-season in northcentral Colorado since January, 1971 (Table 8). Saskatchewan was the second major harvest area accounting for 18.5 percent of the birds wearing size 8 bands. Alberta continues to be the major recovery area for small birds wearing size 7 bands. During the three year hunting period 1971 through 1973, about 37 percent of the recoveries of small birds have reportedly come from Alberta (Table 8). During that same period Saskatchewan accounted for 17 percent of the small bird recoveries. The small birds are thought to be members of the shortgrass prairie population. However, during that same 1971 through 1973 period, while Alberta was accounting for more than 68 percent of the "shortgrass" birds banded in northcentral Colorado, and taken in Alberta and Saskatchewan, only about 55 percent of the shortgrass birds banded in southeast Colorado during a comparable banding period were being taken in Alberta (Szymczak, unpublished). These differences in percentage distribution may be real, indicating the northcentral Colorado shortgrass birds are oriented more to Alberta than the southeast Colorado shortgrass birds, or they may simply be a function of a somewhat small sample size for northcentral short grass geese. �Table 6. Percentage distribution of recoveries from 745 large (8 band) and 148 small (7B band) of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado, January 1971. Location 1971-72 (First Year~ Size 7 Size 8 Hunting Season 1972-73 (Second Year) Size 7 Size 8 1973-74 ~Third Year) Size 7 Size 8 9.3 18.6 (4) 50.0 (1) (8) 50.0 (1) 2.3 (1) (0) (0) 12.5 (1) (0) (0) (0) 2.1 (1) (0) 11.6 (5) (0) 2.1 (1) (0) 2.3 (1) (0) Alberta Saskatchewan 13.8 (11) 40.0 (6) 18.8 (15) 6.7 (1) 2.1 (1) 31.3 (15) Montana South Dakota 7.5 2.5 (6) 13.3 (2) 4.2 (2) 6.7 (1) Wyoming 2.5 (2) (0) Nebraska 2.5 (2) (0) (2) 12.5 (1) 12.5 (1) I Colorado 0'1 Northcentral Southeast New Mexico 46.3 (37) (0) (0) Arizona 1.3 2'0.0 (3) 13.3 (2) (0) (0) ~I 39.6 (19) 8.3 (4) 4.2 (2) 25.0 (2) 37.5 (3) (0) 51.2 (22) 2.3 (1) 2.3 (1) (0) (0) (1) (0) 2.1 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 2.1 (1) (0) (0) (0) (2) (0) 2.1 (1) (0) (0) (0) Pennsylvania 2.5 1.3 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) Unknown 1.3 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 80 15 48 8 43 2 Nevada California Total Recoveries �Table 7. Percentage distribution of recoveries from 579 large (8 band) and 463 small (7B band) of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado, January 1972. Location Htmting Season 1972-73 ~First Year~ 1973-74 (Second Year~ Size 8 Size 7 Size 8 Size 7 Alberta 21.8 (12) 42.9 (9) 12.5 (4) 36.4 (8) Saskatchewan 21.8 (12) 33.3 (7) 18.8 (6) 9.1 (2) Manitoba 1.8 (1) (0) (0) (0) Montana 5.5 (3) (0) 3.1 (1) 4.5 (1) Wyoming 1.8 (1) (0) 3.1 (1) 4.5 (1) Idaho 1.8 (1) (0) (0) (0) South Dakota 1.8 (1) (0) (0) (0) Nebraska 1.8 (1) (0) 3.1 (1) (0) (0) (0) 3.1 (1) (0) Northcentral 27.3 (15) 4.8 (1) 46.9 (15) 18.2 (4) Southeast 10.9 (6) 14.3 (3) 3.1 (1) 22.7 (5) Other 1.8 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (1) (0) (1) (0) (0) (0) Arizona (0) 4.8 (1) (0) (0) New Mexico (0) (0) (1) (0) Texas (0) (0) (0) 4.5 (1) Total Recoveries 55 21 32 Kansas Colorado Nevada California 1.8 3.1 3.1 22 �Table 8. Percentage distribution of recoveries of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado, 1970-71, 1971-72 and 1972-73. Hunting Season Size 8 Size 7 Size 8 Size 7 Size 8 Size 7 All Years Size 7 Size 8 Alberta Saskatchewan 13.8 (11) 18.8 (15) 40.0 (6) 6.7 (1) 12.6 (13) 26.2 (27) 34.S (10) 27.6 (8) 9.9 (8) 18. S (IS) 37.S (9) 12. S (3) 12.1 (32) 21. 6 (57) Manitoba Montana 7.5 (6) (0) 13.3 (2) (0) 1.0 2.5 (0) (2) (0) 4.2 (1) 2.7 2.7 (2) (0) 4.9 1.9 (0) (1) (2) (0) 7.4 (6) 4.2 (1) 3.8 (10) (0) (0) 1.0 (1) (0) (0) (0) Area Wyoming 2.5 Idaho 1973-74 1972-73 1971-72 (1) (5) 3.4 (0) (0) 0.4 1.1 2.5 (2) (0) 2.3 (0) 1.2 (1) (0) (3) (0) (1) (2) (0) (0) (6) (0) (0) (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 51.9 (42) 2.5 (2) (0) 2.5 (2) (0) (0) 1.2 (1) (0) (0) (0) 103 29 81 South Dakota 2.5 (2) 6.7 (1) 1.0 (1) (0) Nebraska 2.S (2) (0) 1.9 (2) (0) (0) (0) (0) 46.3 (37) (0) (0) (0) 1.3 (1) (0) (0) 2.5 (2) 1.3 (1) 1.3 (1) 20.0 (3) 13.3 (2) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 33.0 (34) 9.7 (10) 1.0 (1) 1.9 (2) 1.0 (1) Kansas Colorado Northcentral Southeast Other New Mexico Arizona Texas Nevada California Pennsylvania Unknown Total Recoveries 80 15 1.0 1.9 10.3 20.7 3.4 (7) (7) 36.8 (2S) 17.6 (12) 2.9 2.9 1.S (6) (1) (0) (1) (3) (2) (2) 1.5 (1) (0) (1) (0) 16.7 (4) 20.8 (S) (0) (0) (0) 4.2 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) 42.8(113) 4.S (12) 0.4 (1) 1.S (4) 0.8 (2) (0) 0.8 (2) 1.5 (4) 0.4 (1) 0.4 (1) 14.7 (10) 19.1 (13) (0) (0) 1.S (1) l.S (1) 24 264 68 0.4 (0) (0) (0) (0) I '" \0 I �-70- Over the three year recovery period, Colorado has accounted for nearly 34 percent of the recoveries of small birds banded in northcentral Colorado (Table 8). The distribution of these Colorado recoveries indicate that small birds banded post-season in northcentral Colorado have no special affinity for northcentral Colorado. In fact the majority of the Colorado recoveries have come from the southeast portion of the state. In turn about four percent of the birds banded post-season in southeast Colorado have been recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1971 through 1973 period. There seems to be a definite interchange by short grass prairie geese from one wintering area to another on an annual basis. Plotting the distribution of recoveries of northcentral Colorado banded birds taken during the 1973-74 hunting season gave no indication of additional potential Hi-Line production areas. Population Distribution The December 1974 coordinated inventory in the Hi-Line wintering area resulted in a total of 62,069 birds being recorded (Table 9). The total was approximately 16 percent below the December 1973 record high count and very similar to the 1970 and 1971 totals (J. Sands, unpublished data). However, the count in Wyoming in December 1974 was considered incomplete. The January 1975 count of 41,986 (Table 9) was 47 percent above the January 1975 level but very close to previous January count totals for the 1970 through 1973 period. Table 9. Results of Hi-Line Canada goose population Location December 11 inventories, 1974-75. January 8 'l:./ Montana 7,231 4,146 Wyoming 5 ,800 1./ 4,100 1/ Colorado 47,671 32,611 New Mexico 1,367 1,129 Totals 62,069 41,986 Incomplete count. Yellowstone River, Bighorn River, Ft. Peck Dam. 'l:./ 3/ - Ground count of two reservoirs, Goshen County. �-71- During both December and January counts, about 77 percent of the population was in Colorado. Normally the percent of the popUlation in Colorado increases between the December and January inventories. However, both Wyoming and Montana had record high populations in their states during the January count. During the December inventory most birds in the Fort Collins-Loveland area were located on reservoirs within the hunting closure (Table 10). The January count, taken after the hunting season, indicated a wider distribution of geese in the Fort Collins-Loveland area. Between the December and January counts, the population in Colorado declined by 15,000 geese. The majority of the decline in the number of birds occurred in the Fort Collins-Loveland area (Table 11). Mortality Estimates Documenting estimates of mortality for the Hi-Line Canada goose population was not an original objective of the post-season banding operation in northcentral Colorado. However, a series of bandings and resulting recoveries have accumulated which lend themselves to some preliminary mortality analyses. Post-season banding operations have been conducted in northcentral Colorado in six out of the eight years since the winter of 1965-66. No banding was accomplished after the 1966-67 or 1968-69 seasons. Beginning in January 1970, the birds banded were subjectively classified as "small" or "large" Canada geese. Size 7 bands were placed on "small" geese while "large" geese were given size 8 ba-:J.ds.Pooling recoveries of both "large" and "small" birds and subjecting them to a composite dynamic mortality analysis resulted in essentially the same mortality estimates as was calculated for recoveries of large birds only. However, considering the differences in the geographic distribution of recoveries of birds with size 7 and size 8 bands, particularly on terminal wintering areas in Colorado, the two groups should definitely not be pooled for mortality analysis. A total of 2,322 Canada geese were banded during an eight year period beginning in 1966. Unfortunately the banding effort and success was extremely erratic during that period (Table 12). First year recovery rates varied from .041 to .115 and averaged .084. Mortality rates calculated by the composite dynamic method for first year and all years were .279 and .326, respectively. Northcentral Colorado - Local Movements of Resident Geese To document the local movements and distribution of the resident flock I made weekly visits to each reservoir on which geese had been banded during the summer. Occasional observations were also made at other reservoirs within and adjacent to the study area when they were used as roosting sites. Most observations were made at dawn before the morning feeding flight. During each observation the collar numbers that were visible were read and an estimation was made of the total number of geese on the reservoir. Figures 2-14 summarize these reservoir observations. On each map is plotted all the locations recorded for all geese banded at one reservoir. In the following discussion the general pattern of movements from each of the ten banding sites will be described. I will first discuss the six banding sites within the closed area, then the four in the open area. �-72- Table 10. Results of northcentral Colorado goose surveys, 1974-75. Area December 11 January 8 Fort Collins - Loveland 2,848 Lindenmeier Lake Longs Pond 702 178 Reservoir No. 6 1,897 Terry Lake Watson Lake 1,667 Claymore Lake 1,950 1,084 Sterling Ponds Ft. Collins City Park 340 College Lake 5,400 Fossil Creek Reservoir 7,480 820 Boyd Lake Hollister Lake (Old Windsor Reservoir) 50 New Windsor Reservoir 3,650 Timnath Reservoir 76 Woods Lake 150 Black Hollow Reservoir 7 192 Cobb Lake Elder Reservoir 0 Reservoir No. 5 0 0 Douglas Reservoir Horseshoe Lake 0 Horsetooth Reservoir 0 Sub-total 2,509 0 0 543 1,572 0 194 110 3,375 1,256 4,200 0 1,800 425 250 31 8 317 650 500 19 227 28,491 17,986 1,860 780 110 14 1 30 7,747 0 0 745 370 415 0 67 0 6,893 385 2 10,542 8,877 Boulder-Longmont Area Terry Lake McCall Reservoir (Stamp) Baller Reservoir Union Reservoir Boulder Reservoir Baseline Reservoir Valmont Reservoir Faivre Ponds Dodd Reservoir Sub-total �-73- Table 10. Results of northcentral Colorado goose surveys, 1974-75 December Area 11 (continued). January 8 Denver Area Standley Lake Sloans Lake Rocky Mountain Arsenal Thornton Water Supply Great Western Reservoir Lowry Air Base Cherry Creek Reservoir Denver City Park Public Service Cooley Sand and Gravel Bowles Lake Area Green Gables Country Club Kettring Lake Norgren Reservoir Youngs field Lake 180 197 10 73 24 255 110 320 235 105 o 42 o o 280 350 5 o 35 2,900 425 42 2,750 o o o 87 25 197 4,534 4,103 Barr Lake Horsecreek Reservoir Milton Reservoir Latham Reservoir Riverside Reservoir Empire Reservoir Jackson Reservoir Prospect Reservoir Orchard Area-South Platte River 700 1,500 150 412 300 42 1,000 0 0 75 0 0 770 0 110 380 200 110 Sub-total 4,104 1,645 47,671 32,611 Sub-total Brighton-Gree1ey-Ft. GRAND TOTAL o Morgan Area �-74- Table 11. Winter inventories of the Colorado Hi-Line Canada goose population. Count Date Fort Co11insLoveland Longmont-Boulder Denver Brighton-Gree1eyFort Morgan 1967 January 9 9,739 2,883 991 13,613 1968 January 10 12,217 4,029 678 16,924 1968-69 November 20 December 19 January 2 & 13 15,848 20,905 19,693 3,461 4,236 4,874 2,667 1,170 775 21,976 26,311 25,342 1969-70 November 5 November 28 December 23 January 6 8,737 31,350 18,522 30,650 2,255 3,782 5,668 5,060 390 1,374 1,259 1,914 11,382 36,506 25,499 37,624 1970-71 November 4 November '23 December 22 January 6 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 1,690 16,710 12,664 15,566 348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 1971-72 November 4 November 23 December 21 January 10 25,699 31,072 31,516 19,117 1,815 !/ 9,181' 19,525 10,742 6,905 13,525 4,476 3,661 34,419 53,788 55,517 33,520 1972-73 November 6 November 22 December 20 January 10 15,230 21,118 13,841 13,595 1 ,240 !/ 5,764 19,290 18,709 1,050 4,981 1,225 1,405 17,520 31,863 34,356 33,709 1973-74 December 13 January 9 31,558 14,854 10,336 6,802 10,380 1,809 52,274 23,465 1974-75 December 11 January 8 28,491 17,986 15,076 12,980 4,104 1,645 47,671 32,611 Denver area not included. Total �-75- Table 12. First year recovery rates for large Canada geese banded postseason in northcentral Colorado. First Year Recovery Year Banded Number Banded 1966 163 1967 0 1968 480 1969 0 1970 185 .043 1971 745 .115 1972 579 .104 1973 170 .041 Rate .041 .054 College Lake Most geese banded at College Lake remained strongly attached to that reservoir throughout the study (Fig. 2). They seldom, and in some cases, were never observed to roost at another reservoir. Only Dean Acres Pond and Sheldon Lake in the City Park of Fort Collins were used to any extent by College Lake geese. Furthermore, many of the observations at these two sites were made in mid-day; suggesting that they are used for daytime resting areas more often than as a night-time roost. Two adult geese banded at College Lake did wander considerably. The birds wearing collar numbers 06A and 39A were located together at Parkwood, Elder, and Divide #8 Reservoirs, and 39A also used Watson Lake. In fact, these two birds accounted for most locations of College Lake bands outside of the three roost normally used by College Lake geese. Dean Acres The birds banded at Dean Acres remained relatively close to their banding site until cold weather froze over their small 2 ha pond (Fig. 3). Moving principally as a group they alternately roosted at College and Sheldon Lakes during the winter, staying at each site for a week or two before switching back again. They returned to Dean Acres Pond in late winter as soon as the ice began melting. Dean Acres geese were never located on a reservoir outside of the closed area. �DRY CREEK ~lS. HORT 20) OUDRE NO. 12 OSIPES POND POUORE ~HO.l II ,. 2) HUTCHINSON <@~OND JJ ,)0 2Z NORTH I POUDRE NO •• O- HAGEN POND legend ~ City or Town [=-1 Highway or County Road ©I Lake, Pond or .Reservoir" " ~RiYc, I ISection line Scale !) 1:208,644 1 ~ !OJ " 2 Miles I H II COBB LAK E Me" 1 @AREA TAK ES@ PONDO II --.. FISHER ~m.'~~ , RE!.. ~ "u KITCHEL RES. . IJ DEMEREi' ~NDI •• I Fig. 2. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at College Lake. Pre-Season observation; J = In-Season; S = Post-Season. P �DRY CREEK' ~I;S. OUDRE NO. Il OSIPES POND 'I NORTH POUORE 2~ ~NO.l U H ,. HUTCHINSON @J~OND ~~~g@ ~ .JO 1·AWELLINGTON -.,.WMGMT. ~ AREA HAGEN POND Legend ~ City or To"'" [e::z::.rIHighway or County Rood [~i Lake, s Pond or .Reservoir z ~Riyer I Scale ISection Line 1:208,644 II ()E~S;;:;;:J.='~j;;lC==~::i~ Miles N TAKES@ POND 0. I' COSS LAKE MC,MT. @ AR-fA 16 ~~~tR~'~ i ~~"-+""""~~~"~"""~~"""~I~"----!-F-I t. Fig. 3. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Dean Acres Pond. P = Pre-Season observatibns; I = In-Season; S Post-Season. f' �-78- Watson Lake The Watson Lake flock was extremely cohesive and their EOvements more restricted than at any other roosting site (Fig. 4). The majority of these geese roosted only at Watson Lake. A small portion of the flock was seen at College and Sheldon lakes, and at Dean Acres Pond during preseason. This apparently was a very transitory movement since these geese were seen only once on these lakes and were all later found back at Watson Lake. During and after the hunting season Watson Lake birds confined themselves almost entirely to roosting at Watson Lake. Many times they all fed together in the same field and were never observed feeding more than 2 km from the lake. Watson Lake geese were never located on a reservoir in the open hunting area. Sterling Gravel Ponds The geese banded at Sterling Gravel Ponds typically stayed at that site (Fig. 5). Many times most of them could be found feeding together in the same field only a short distance away. Movements to other reservoirs inside the closed area were uncommon, yet most of these birds were occasionally seen at from one to three other roosting sites. These occasional wanderings seemed to occur throughout the study period. This group of birds was affected very little by disturbance from heavy traffic, gravel pit workers and human activity in general. Many times they fed within several meters of a road busy with trucks and automobiles. They were never observed on a reservoir outside of the closed area. Terry Lake The geese banded at Terry Lake dispersed widely (Fig. 6). They did not remain closely attached to their banding site as did most other geese banded inside the closed area. Two factors may account for this apparent discrepancy. The size and shape of Terry Lake hindered reading of collar numbers so that the total number of successful sightings made on the reservoir itself were limited. But most important I feel is the fact that two sides of Terry Lake are close to the border of the open hunting area. Continued hunter disturbance as Terry Lake geese flew out to feed in these directions may have caused them to move to roosting areas deeper within the closed area. Terry Lake geese frequented the Sterling Gravel Ponds the most, but also made considerable use of College Lake and were found in lesser numbers throughout the closed area. The postseason distribution is especially interesting in that the Terry Lake geese were so widely dispersed, and also, because they were the only birds banded within the closed area that moved north to roost sites in the open hunting area. The reason for such movement is not clear. Possibly, Terry Lake serves as a brood rearing area for some of the geese hatched on reservoirs to the north. �NORTH POUDRE ~NO.l DRY CREEK' ~IOS. OUORE 1'10.12 051f'E5 POND 21 u 20) W ~~~g@ ~ ZI lO ,. 2) HUTCHINSON <@~OND HAGEN POND '~WELLtNGTOt<. @> ~~~l' legend ~ City or T o"'n 1c:x:wIHig!tway or Ca!.lnty Road i('§;$j Lake, Pond or .Reservoir· 2 ~Riyt:r I ISection Scale line 1:208,644 II !)E~3'2=·~~lE: ==~1::'":::l7Miles N TAKE5@ POND 0 COBB " LAKE @ AR-EA MGMl '5 10 29 " FISHER RES. ~ DEMERE' . ~NDI It ,. !,. r , Timnath •• I ! u Fig. 4. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Watson Lake. Pre-Season observations;.I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. P �DRY CREEK ~!;~. OUORE NO. Il OSIf'ES POND NORTH POUORE 20 ~NO.I 21 2) I. HUTCHINSOtl <@~OND A HAGEN POtlO 30 Z2 NORTH ApOUORE ytlO.4 I ~g~g@ >~:~~\~NC;TON @) AREA legend E::a City or Town I==-I Highway or CO:Jnty Roc:id l~iLo!ce, Pond or.Reservoi; 2 [;.gJ River ( I Section Line Scale 1:208,6~4 !)e~::£2:.::':'i~lE=~=::i~ Miles " It N _~ .~~~'f,~ "'HINK L [Y NOVAK RES, RES.\ FISHER RES, a Fig. S. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Sterling Gravel P = Pre-Season observations; I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. Ponds. �HORTH POUDRE 20 POUORE _ NO.1l DAY CREEK 051"[5 ~~S, POND 21 ~'Q'" NO. I " U Z) HUTCHINSON OHD @Ji ,: ,. , ~ HAGEN POND Legend E::::! City or T O"'n I-==-I Hig!'woy or County Rood I~i 2 Lalce, Pond or ,Reservoi; (;;:J Rivet I I Section Scale Line 1:208,644 'II ~E~~=':'i=~1==~=3r Miles " N TAKES@ POND 0 COBS LAKE M(,MT @ AR'EA 16 ~~ -:I- ~'NORTH_+-_..m'GREY~ RES. ~ sg~~~'i~ RES. DEMEREI ~NDI )4 i Fig. 6. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Terry Lake. Pre-Season observations; , I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. , P .~~~~~ __ NOVAK RES.\, ": , HINK L E1 RE~ �-82Dixon or Herring Reservoir Like Terry Lake birds, the geese banded at Dixon Reservoir were also weakly attached to their banding site (Fig. 7). However, this is where the similarity ends. Instead of dispersing widely, Dixon geese were all closely associated with College Lake. All the geese I observed from Dixon Res ervoi r were seen at leas t once on College Lake. Half of them were never seen anywhere except at College Lake. Most Dixon geese had moved to College Lake by early September and remained close to there throughout the winter. Some remained to nest on College Lake. Seven Dixon geese were only rarely found at College Lake, and seen once at Horsetooth Reservoir. This suggests that Horsetooth may also be a wintering site for a few Dixon geese. The very close association of Dixon geese with College Lake suggests that Dixon Reservoir may serve as a brood rearing area for some of the birds hatched at College Lake. 118 Complex I will now describe the movements for those geese banded within the open area. The 118 Complex involves three different reservoirs; Annex 118, Divide 118, and Elder. We banded birds at both Annex 118 and Elder Reservoir. These three reservoirs are situated very close together. It soon became clear that geese using one of these reservoirs would also frequent the other two. A daily interchange of geese between the three reservoirs normally occurred. Sometimes all the geese would concentrate on one or two of the lakes, and other times they would be spread out on all three. Because this intermixing occurred, and since movements from these two lakes was so similar I will consider them tpgether. Most geese banded on the 118 Complex remained in that vicinity during the preseason until duck hunting season opened on 5 October (Figs. 8, 9). This was not always the case, however, as several 118 Complex geese did move south into the closed area in early and mid-September. The reason for this early movement is unknown. Movement south accelerated after the start of duck season, probably because of the disturbance factor. Some of the geese did not leave the area until goose hunting opened on 13 November. During the hunting season College Lake was by far the most frequented roost site for 118 Complex geese, but they did not restrict themselves entirely to that site and most of the birds were occasionally seen at other reservoirs throughout the closed area. As soon as open water was available after the hunting season most 118 Complex geese returned to their banding site. A few did show up at Grey Lakes about 5 km southeast of the 118 Complex. Grey Lakes Grey Lakes geese behaved similarly to 118 Complex birds except that they abandoned their reservoir quite early in the fall (Fig. 10). Most of them had moved into the closed area by mid- to late-September. They did not disperse widely throughout the closed area. Most of the birds utilized College Lake and Dean Acres Pond before and during the hunting season. They completely deserted the closed area after the hunting season and were seen during the post-season only at Grey Lakes. �DRY CREEK ~I;S. OUDRE 1010.12 OS'I'ES • 2' ~ 10 II II HAGEN POND ,. POND NORTH POUDRE ~HO.l 2., ZZ 2S HUTCH1NSOt-l <@~DND I .rr--~--~--~-"~~~g@ ~~~~~RE yNO.4 >~WELLINGTON @) '!~~l' Legend E:2 City or T O"'n I=-I Hig!.way or CO:lnty Rood l~iLake, z Pond or.Reservoi; t.;.;d River I ISection Line Scale 1:208,644 ()f~5~::'~b;lE===::::lr Miles N ., " TAKES@ POND 0 COBB LAKE @ AR-EA MC,MT. III ~ , i' l i " FISHER RES. ~ ~ I' ~ -, i ,'.\ Fig. 7. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Dixon Reservoir. P Pre-Season observations; I = In-Season; S ~ Post-Season. = �DRY HORTH POUDRE ~NO.l CREEK ~I;S. OUDRE NO. 12 OS.PES POND II 20) U H I. HUTCHINSON <@fO ~g~g@ ND 30 it il A HAGEN PONO '~WELLINGTON @J '1~~~. legelld ~City or To"'n [=IHig!,way or Counly Rood !©iLake, Pond or .Reservoir" z r;_~ RiYer ( ISection Line Scale 1:208,644 •• ()E~5-::2="~c;:,~lE=::::=:ir Miles N TAKES@ PON 0 COBB LAKE @AR-EA MC,MT. '11 SHELDON LAKE" -:O~'1I •.~ ••• ~ ,;,.Q [Fort Collins: I \BJ r II r '~-~-f 1 Fig. 8. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Annex #8 Reservoir. P = Pre-Season observation~;, I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. �OUDRE NO. 12 DRY CREEK MORT POUDRE 20 ~HO.' ~"~'I---~ 21 ~ HAGEN POND I. @JiO , ZI n HUTCHINSON ND !W )0 n I NORTH POUDRE yNO.4 rr\ ~~~g@ I >~WELLINGTO" @> . '1~~~. legend ~ City or To"'" I==-I Highway or CO,,"ty Rood ii@jLake, Pond or ,Reservoi; z ~Riyer I ISection Line Scale 1:208,644 !)E~::£~::.~~lE=~=~1 Miles " II N i' ~ Fig. 9. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Elder Reservoir. P = Pre-Season observations; I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. �"~:;~~E DRY CREEK 12 NO. NORTH POUDRE 20 ~NO.l ~ES'J- __ '" 21 Zl ,. 25 HUTCHINSON ND <@iO ~~~g/Q) ~ se " " HAGEN POND >~W @> LLINGTON ~~~~. legend ~Cily or Town [==-IHig!,way or County Road ®jLake, Pond or.Reservoir· ~River [ J Section Line Scale 1:208,644 !)E~~~::.:'tbd~l==~~? Miles II I' N TpAOK'~DS@ n COBS LAKE MGMT. @AR-EA 15 WINICK ~ @'PONDS FISHER RE~ ~ Fig. 10. Reservoir .utilization by geese banded at Grey Lakes. Pre-Season observations; I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. P �-87- Cobb Lake Cobb Lake is unique among the reservoirs in the open area in that it sometimes holds geese during most of the hunting season. Unfortunately, it was nearly impossible to approach the geese on Cobb Lake. These birds were extremely wary and nervous. Before I could ever get close enough to observe collar numbers with a spotting scope, the geese would fly out into the middle of this large lake. The resident geese on Cobb Lake that could be identified followed a similar movement pattern as the birds at #8 Complex (Fig. 11). Most Cobb Lake birds remained there until the start of duck season. Then they gradually moved into the closed area, with nearly all of them inside the closed area after the start of goose hunting. Apparently those birds that remain on Cobb Lake are mostly migrants. Once inside the closed area College Lake was the preferred roosting site. They did occasionally use several other reservoirs, especially Sheldon Lake. During the post-season the Cobb Lake birds dispersed widely. Many of them eventually congregated at the #8 Complex and Grey Lakes. Possibly they use these sites as staging areas while waiting for the ice to break on Cobb Lake. Summary In the preceding section I have described the general pattern of local movements by resident geese from their molting and rearing sites on which they were banded. I feel that the typical pattern of local movements has been described, but it should be remembered that many exceptions to the general rule are certain to exist, especially with an adaptive, flexible species like the Canada goose. Several important factors have emerged. The evidence suggests that geese hatched and raised inside the closed area may seldom or never leave that area. Most remain closely associated with their rearing site, and usually feed nearby. Although band returns are at this time incomplete, what I have received further emphasizes this point. No collars have been returned by hunters from geese that'were banded on Dixon Reservoir, College Lake, Dean Acres Pond, or the Sterling Gravel Ponds. All these sites are located well within the closed area boundary. In contrast, 16 collars were returned from the other banding site which were either on the border of or just inside the open hunting area. Another interesting difference also exists. Figure 12 shows a map of distant sightings. These are geese which moved long distances (at least 24 km (15 mi») from their banding sites. No distant sightings were made of geese from the four banding sites located well inside the closed area boundary, but 11 geese banded on the border of or outside of the closed area did make these long distance movements. Hunting mortality for geese reared inside the closed area is probably lower than for outside of or on the edge of the closed area. Seventy-three percent of the geese banded on the four interior reservoirs of the closed area and known to exist before or during the hunting season were still seen in the post-season. Only 51 percent of the geese banded at the edge of the closed area or in the open area could be found during the post-season. �HORTH POUORE 20 ~NO.l DRY CREEK ~I;S' OSIF'ES POND ,.. ~g~g@ ~ lO HAGEN POND II '~WELLINGTON @) ~~~~. l<Jl Legend ~City or To"'" [c=olHighwoy or Counfy Rood I~i [;:-~ lak e, Pond or ,Reservoir" River I ISection line Scale o ~ 1:208,644 1 *1'1 2 2 Miles 12 " N TAKES@ POND 0 COBB LAKE MC".,i @ "R'EA 16 NOVAK RES., ", FISHER RES. ~ DEMEREI ~NDI It 34 Fig. 11. Reservoir utilization by geese banded at Cobb Lake. Pre-Season observations; I In-Season; S = Post-Season. P �Fig. 12, M~p boundary. ,~ ~--. collar sJghtings of .--- I,r.l loode at dlstrutces greater than 24 km (IS mil from the Study Area 0 0:=7-:0··2:\0=;=:~I:=~,=x=,=(:;l:;~:F1' ·C~T w,-----I·;i 1"r='-i-;"-O'=;C=ooo'-Co=o~:, _l:~. HIt. _ ltIJ . _ . I"~ Observation Site Key: (1) Total Collars Seen At Site 4SF Individua1,Co11ar . 5 ~. - Numbers ·I i • - I · I I ---"" Observed I 1. Study Area ,· 2. Arapaho NlVR (2) · 3. Terry Lake (1) 18C 4. McCnl1 Lake (12) 7SF I S. Platte River (1) I I--- I 00 10 I (1) 6. Lower Latham Res. 7. McIntosh I ·I I (1) 8. Sanborn Res. (3) 92F, 50C ,, 9. Faivre Ponds (1) 10. Gapter Lake (8) 87F, 88F 11. Valmont Res. (6) (15F, 35F in field) 12. Teller Lake (1) I . I , . 14. Sloan Lake (12) l3C, 35C 15. Denver Federal Center (10) I. 13C, 35C, 9IF 16. Green Gables Country Club (1) \..._.--r.Iii1'-'-' L r-'-'-'-'....,.._ ..- ._.- 17. San Luis Valley (1) I l .t .... .-.---),---.-----------.--. ,'.;-------------..-. ' I 13. Lee Lake (1) 9IF i ~, r--- I I I .. I "1 l· I I j I I -.------_1.,; \ I •• r-----:'" , I , I Outline ,\,,,P "f r.".,." _ AM!.~~~~~.~~~~,t:?~~~~~:.~,...COLORAl)O ~'..:,:~:..;;:~) ,.".. " .: '~: 1 'H~..., M'r No.IOOS .- I SCHOOL 8Flm;S , I, I _____ -_ -- I --' --- . - :!:I------'-. ---"-"------------r,~ �-90- Finally, the heavy in-season usage of College Lake by all resident geese except those from Watson Lake should be considered. The importance of protecting this reservoir from disturbance is high for the resident goose population. Although a great deal of intermixing of this resident flock occurs during the hunting season most geese eventually return to their home reservoirs. This was found to even hold true for those geese that made long-distance movements. Northcentral Colorado-Field Feeding Behavior of Resident Geese For each collared goose a map was prepared on which all field feeding locations made of that bird were plotted. An example of one of these maps is shown in Figure 13. The direction and distance of resident feeding flights made from reservoir roost sites was determined by comparing the field locations of the geese with the location of the roost sites they were using at the same time. This information has been summarized in Figure 14 which shows all observations of marked feeding geese made during the study. On the figure the broken lines circumscribe the typical maximum extent of resident feeding flights originating from the major reservoir roost sites encompassed by the line. The feeding sites of the resident geese were normally located a short distance from their roost. The resident birds seldom flew further than 3 km before landing to feed. The majority of flights were much shorter than this with the geese usually selecting one of the nearest available fields from their roost site. The resident birds would use a certain group of fields repeatedly, often completely ignoring similar fields nearby. Usually, the majority of resident geese on a reservoir all used the same field on a given day, though seldom did they all arrive at the site simultaneously. Traditional use of fields by resident geese in the open hunting area ceased when hunting season commenced and the birds moved into the closed area. Yet, after the hunting season the resident geese frequently returned to the same fields they had used earlier, especially if the field had not been plowed in the meantime. When migrant geese arrived in large numbers, the integrity of most resident feeding flights was not destroyed. The resident birds usually did not disperse throughout the many flocks of migrants. Though migrants and residents often fed together in the same fields they would not intermingle. The resident birds would remain together in a loose group in the midst of the migrant flock. On several occasions a car passing a field of feeding geese would cause the migrant portion of the flock to flush and flyaway while the resident birds, who were accustomed to traffic, would remain on the field. When the migrants first arrived they appeared to "follow" the resident geese and feed in the same fields with them. As time progressed the migrants would pioneer into new feeding areas, but most of the residents would not move with the migrants, apparently preferring to stay in their traditional fields. �-~--1·--1 DRY CREEK ~ES. 21 legend ~City or Town !=-IHighway I~i Lake, ~ or County Road 28 Pond or Reservoir HAGEN POND ~River I ISection line Scale 1:208,644 ~::::;:; 1 o !~7:.~Nas:::igz2I Miles 33 r- ------ ,. Z9 CLAYM~LAKE ANO:IJESKI MARSH @ BAK RE .1 Fig. 13. Reservoir and field feeding locations made on goose with collar number 42C (banded at Elder Reservoir). Reservoir observations are circled and field feeding locations are underlined. P = Pre-Season; I = In-Season: S = Post-Season. �~----~----~--~~~~~-+----~ I )RY CREEK'O,IPES ES. POND «: NORTH POUDRE lJ WNO.1 ...• ~ .> :I I 1 \ ~ ; 19 )0 ·1 .1 _--- 1 l8 ft.,__ HAGEN POND ~~ . ...---~ I i i I I ___ L_~_ I I II I CURTIS LAKE " \fJJ 16 i I 5(2) ! 21 16 tlORTH -. ~~P@I ~ , . 125 51 ,P(3) \ I I • f L I L __ '-:-1 I ~-2~9 I ' -- 1'---4- __ "5 ~ ~~~-----o.l -D\r--+-----r-" ••. \-...iiiiii.i:~-_~:----'_~~-_(ja-~t-:~. ~"~'" Fig. 14. Distribution of collar marked Canada geese observed feeding in the fields. P = Pre-Season; I = In-Season; S = Post-Season. Number equals the total collard read in that Section. Parentheses indicates collars seen but not read. The broken line describes the typical feeding ranges from the band~g sites and reservoirs within its boundary. <""""",",0 \~. l: r-'-) . �-93- Many times resident birds would come from two or three different roost sites to feed together in one field. This situation may have caused much of the frequent switching of roost site locations which occurred. When the time came to return to their roost after feeding there was a tendency for the resident geese to follow those who left first. Sometimes they would follow geese who had come from a different reservoir than they had. This seemed to be most prevalent when the geese were flushed from their fields by a disturbance. It seemed that the resident geese were more closely associated with certain feeding sites than they were with a particular roosting reservoir. When resident birds which had been banded in the open area were forced into the closed area by hunting pressure, they often joined the feeding flights which had already been established by resident birds inside the closed area. This relationship would last until after the hunting season when most resident geese returned to the vicinity of their banding sites. In summary, resident feeding flocks develop a very close-knit association which is maintained from early fall until the end of the winter. Northcentral Colorado-Observations of Feeding Activities of the Wintering Goose Population Field Feeding The geese usually fed in the fields for no longer than three hours before returning to their roosting sites. Unfortunately, the entire road transect could not be traversed in this amount of time, so it was necessary to divide it into two routes; one in the north half of the study area and the other in the south half. One route was driven on alternate observation days. The intention of the field feeding observations was to obtain a population estimate of field utilization by feeding geese. It is important to remember that each sub-flock within the population has a somewhat different pattern of field utilization when compared to other sub-flocks. Most sub-flocks associated with a particular reservoir normally flew less than 3 km from that site to feed. A sum of all the field feeding observations along the study transect includes several different sub-flocks. Thus, results reflect the "average" of field utilization by several sub-flocks. This "average" hopefully represents field utilization at the popUlation level. During the pre-hunting season period (pre-season: 25 Sept. to 12 Nov.) 18,314 geese (154 separate flocks) were observed in the fields feeding (Table 13). Only four different field types were utilized to any degree. Over 78 percent of the geese were in chopped corn stubble; 17 percent in barley stubble; 4 percent in grass pasture; and 1 percent in picked corn. One flock of 40 birds fed in a harvested sugar beet field. A major shift in field utilization resulted with the start of hunting season on 13 November 1974. In just one or two days the vast majority of geese had been forced into the closed area. Since almost no geese remained along �-94- the north transect route this route was traveled only once per week and the south route twice per week. During this in-season period (13 Nov. to 31 December) 38,781 geese (184 flocks) were observed feeding (Table 13). Utilization of field types was much more diverse with 41 percent of the geese in grass pasture; 18 percent in picked corn; 17 percent in barley stubble; 7 percent in both chopped corn and lawn; 3 percent in both alfalfa and wheat stubble and about 1.5 percent in oats. After the hunting season the geese gradually dispersed from the closed area to any reservoirs with open water. During this post-season period 24,102 geese (125 flocks) were observed (Table 13). Picked corn now became the most important field type with 32.5 percent of the geese feeding in it. Grass pasture had 20 percent; barley 14 percent; and chopped corn 11 percent. Oats had 12 percent and wheat 5 percent, however, both these estimates were inflated by the presence of one very large flock and a few small ones. Alfalfa was 2 percent and sugar beets was 1 percent. Interestingly, a different field type was used predominantly during each period; chopped corn stubble (pre-season), pasture (in-season), and picked corn (post-season). Barley stubble was used consistently throughout the study, but at a moderate level. Lawn (primarily golf courses) was important only when the geese were crowded in the closed area. Alfalfa, oats, and wheat were avoided before the hunting season and thereafter only lightly used. Sugar beets and field beans were rarely used. Before discussing preference, an understanding is needed concerning the availability of field types to the geese. The acreages of croplands within the study area and within the Fort Collins closed goose hunting area were measured by drawing all fields onto a U.S.G.S. Quadrangle map and then using a dot grid. The results are shown in Table 14. However, total acreage planted is not a~ accurate indicator of food availability to the geese. Two other factors must be considered; crop harvest chronology and plowing. Harvest Chronology Food availability is closely related to harvest because geese in this area rarely utilize standing crops. Harvest chronology was estimated at monthly intervals by counting the number of miles of each harvested crop along both sides of the road transect. The results are presented in Table 15. When the study began on 25 September 1974, all fields of barley, wheat and beans had already been harvested. Seventy-five percent of the corn had been chopped for ensilage and over 60 percent of the hay fields were cut. No sugar beets, oats, or corn fields to be picked had been harvested. The sugar beet harvest began the second week of October and was complete by mid-November. Corn picking started about the same time, but the harvest was not complete until early December. About 20 percent of the hay fields and nearly all oat fields wer~ left standing to be grazed by livestock in winter. Of the total acreage of corn harvested, slightly less than 20 percent was picked and the rest chopped. �Table 13. routes. Field utilization by geese during each period of the study as observed along the transect Period Pre-Season Total Relative Flocks Percent Total Geese In-Season Total Relative Flocks Percent Total Geese Post-Season Relative Total Percent Flocks Field Type Total Geese Alfalfa None -- -- 1328 11 3.4 452 6 1.9 Wheat None -- -- 1250 2 3.2 1115 2 4.6 Barley 3099 22 16.9 6517 22 16.8 3379 24 14.0 Oats None -- -- 549 2 1.4 2912 8 12.1 Chopped Corn 14310 123 78.1 2799 5 7.2 2693 21 11.2 Picked Corn 175 1 1.0 6992 55 18.0 7831 33 32.5 Sugar Beets 40 1 0.2 None -- -- 304 5 1.3 Pasture 690 7 3.8 15817 78 40.8 4742 23 19.7 Lawn None -- -- 2795 5 7.2 None Bare Soil None -- -- 734 4 1.9 674 3 2.8 18314 154 100.0 38781 184 99.9 24102 125 100.1 Total I \D V1 I �-96- Table 14. Acreage of field types within the total study area and within the closed portion of the study area. Entire Study Area Closed Portion of Study Area (acres) (acres) Corn 5833.8 704.0 Pasture 4729.2 2234.7 Alfalfa 3898.4 855.0 Barley 3729.9 350.8 Sugar Beets 2314.2 125.4 Prairie 1940.5 0.0 Beans 373.8 0.0 Oats 245.8 35.9 Wheat 157.7 139.7 Lawn 151.0 151.0 Sorghum 37.9 0.0 Totals 23412.2 4596.5 Crop Type �-97- Table 15. Harvest chronology of agricultural crops in the study area presented as percent of annual acreage harvested by date. Field T~e 25 Sept. 1974 Corn 75 96 100 Alfalfa 62 72 !I 100 !I Barley 100 100 100 a 100 100 Beans 100 100 100 Oats a 6 85 Wheat 100 100 100 Sugar Beets Percent of Harvest 15 Nov. 1974 1 Jan. 1975 11 - Harvest includes grazing by livestock. Plowing As harvesting of standing crops made more food available, plowing of harvested fields continued to reduce food supply. Plowing was monitored in the &ame way as harvest (Table 16). The fall of 1974 was quite dry and mild. The field conditions remained excellent for plowing from September until the ground froze in December. The majority of plowing occurred in corn fields. The percentage of all croplands that had been plowed rose from 2.7 to 23.0 percent from mid-September until mid-December. Preference The actual availability of a field type for goose feeding is the acreage of that field type harvested minus the acreage that has been plowed. Preference assumes that geese select their feeding places rather than making a random sample of what is available. An index may be used to test this by comparing (a) the percentage composition of the field 't~e available with (b) the percentage composition of field utilization by the geese (Newton and Campbell 1970). The index (b)/(a) indicates the preference shown for different field t~es: an index of 1 means that the geese are selecting for that field t~e in relation to its availability; more than 1 that they prefer that field t~e over others; less than 1 that they choose that field type less than would be expected in relation to its availability; and 0 that they avoid it altogether. �-98- Table 16. Percentage of plowing complete (plowing began in late September). Harvested Field Type in each harvested field type Datie ' 15 Nov. 1974 (percent) 1 Jan. 1975 (Percent) Picked Corn 2.3 1.5 Chopped Corn 36.0 53.0 Cut Alfalfa 1.7 3.3 Barley Stubble 9.1 24.8 Pulled Sugar Beets 5.1 25.4 Picked Beans 42.6 55.3 Oat Stubble 0.0 0.0 Wheat Stubble 0.0 0.0 The preference index values for each period of the study are shown in Table 17. The pre-season period should give the best indication of preference for field types since this is when the geese are least restricted in their movements and when the widest variety and greatest quantity of foods are available. Under these conditions only two field types were selected at rates equal to or greater than would be expected in relation to their relative availability. Chopped corn stubble was highly preferred with an index value of 4.9 and barley was taken in equal respect with its availability with an index of 1. Somewhat surprisingly, picked corn had a very low index of 0.3. This was confirmed by several field observations of goose flocks which fed entirely on chopped corn even though the fields they were using contained strips of picked corn nearby. With the start of hunting season the relative availability of corn and barley fields was much restricted since the geese remained for the most part within the boundaries of the closed area (Table 14). The major differences of field composition between the open area and the closed area can be seen by comparing the "Pre-Season (a)" colunm with the "In-Season (a)" column in Table 17. Under the restrictive conditions within the closed area during season the most highly preferred foods were picked corn (5.3), oats (2.8), barley (2.5), lawn (1.9), and chopped corn (1.1). The shift from chopped corn in the pre-season to picked corn during the in-season may have been caused by the heavy pre-season goose grazing which simply removed most of the available food in the chopped corn fields. It should be remembered that the above fields, though showing high preference values, were in relatively short supply inside the closed area. The bulk of the feeding activity took place on the well grazed pastures which comprised more than 50 percent of the cropland within the closed area. Pasture had a preference index of 0.7. �Table 17. Comparison of percent availability of croplands with percent utilization for feeding by geese. Field Type Pre-Season (a) (b) Percent Percent Utili. Avail. Period In-Season (bl a) (a) (b) Preference Percent Percent Utili. Index Avail. Post-Season (bl a) (a) (b) Preference Percent Percent Preference Avail. Index Utili. Index (b/a) Com (Chopped) 15.9 78.1 4.9 6.6 7.2 1.1 11.6 11.2 1.0 Com (Picked) 3.9 1.0 0.3 3.4 18.0 5.3 5.9 32.5 5.5 Pasture 24.3 3.8 0.2 54.9 40.8 0.7 24.5 0.8 Alfalfa 14.2 - 0.0 18.4 3.4 0.2 19.9 19.7 1.9 0.1 Barley 17.4 16.9 1.0 6.6 16.8 2.5 14.8 14.0 0.9 Sugar Beets 11.3 0.2 0.0 2.3 - 0.0 9.1 1.3 0.1 Prairie 10.0 - - 0.0 10.2 Beans 1.1 - 0.0 0.0 - - 0.0 Oats 0.1 - 0.0 0.5 1.4 Wheat 0.8 - 0.0 3.5 Lawn 0.8 - 0.0 SorghtDIl 0.2 - 0.0 0.9 - 0.0 2.8 1.3 12.1 9.31/ 3.2 0.9 0.8 4.6 5.8 1./ 3.8 7.2 1.9 0.8 0.0 - - - 0.0 0.2 - 0.0 Totals II 100.0 100.0 100.0 - Index is highly inflated due to the occurrence of one abnormally large flock in this field type. 0.0 , , \0 \0 �-100- By the time the hunting season was over and the geese were free to feed without restriction, several changes had taken place to alter food availability on the fields in the open area. Many fields had been plowed and had virtually no value as feeding sites. Even more fields had been disced which covers a good measure of the spilled grain left after harvest. Most harvested fields which are not plowed are grazed by herds of cattle and some very large flocks of sheep. This is especially true in the picked corn fields. We examined a few fields after they had been heavily grazed by sheep and found almost no vegetation left on which a goose could feed. Finally, the geese are returning to the same fields on which they have already spent two months feeding before the hunting season and thus much of the food supply has already been removed from the fields even if they had not been disced or grazed. Most of the above described activities occurred in the corn fields. Thus, it seems somewhat surprising that picked corn with an index of 5.5 was the most highly preferred field type during the post-season. The reason for this is not clear. It is possible that the heavy grazing pressure by sheep and cattle which knocked down and removed many picked corn stalks had the effect of opening up the stand. This may have improved visability enough so that the geese felt secure when feeding in these same fields they had avoided before the hunting season. Chopped corn had an index value of 1.0, barley 0.9, and pasture 0.8. The only other field types with index values above 1.0 were oats and wheat. In summary, when the geese are free to select feeding sites without hunting pressure only chopped corn, picked corn, oats, and wheat are selected for at a rate greater than their availability would suggest. When hunting pressure restricts movements barley and lawn are also preferred. Pasture seems to become more preferred as the winter progresses. As other food supplies become depleted the young green shoots which develop in pastures during warm spells may increase in importance to the geese. Alfalfa, beans, prairie, and sugar beets have very low preference, and for the most part are avoided completely. Flock Size The average size of field feeding flocks varied between periods. Mean flock size in the pre-season was 119; in-season 211, and post-season 193. Mean flock size was lowest during the pre-season when the geese were widely dispersed over the study area and before large numbers of migrants had arrived and big roosting concentrations were developed. Highest mean size was during the in-season when the birds gathered in mass inside the closed area. Post-season flock size remained high. This was because cold weather had frozen over most roost sites in the open area. Only a few reservoirs remained that had enough open water for roosting. This fact kept the geese concentrated even though hunting season was over. Throughout the study most flocks ranged in size from 25 to 350 individuals. Only eight flocks larger than 1,000 birds were seen in one field during the study. The largest flock was in an oat field and contained 2,300 birds. �-101- Weather Effects Changes in temperature, wind speed, or cloud cover d~d not influence which fields the geese chose to feed in. Howeve r , moisture conditions of the surface soil d~d influence field selection. This is shown in Figure 15. When surface soil was dry or frozen the geese fed primarily in corn fields. But, when surface soil was wet and muddy from rains or melting snows many feeding flocks would shift to barley fields or pastures. Two factors may account for this. First, and most importantly I feel is the problem of "mudballing". The soil in this area has a high silicon clay content. When it gets wet it forms a sticky gumbo that clings to everything. When feeding, as the geese walk along and probe the soil with their bills large clods of mud develop on their feet and bill tips. A rather small amount of rainfall is all that is needed to create conditions in which the geese can be seen plodding along, barely able to navigate through the corn fields. Apparently this creates enough inconvenience that the geese will leave the corn and move to barley stubble or pastures which have thick ground litter where "mudballing" is not a problem. The second possible factor relates to palatability. The coarse, rough barley seeds may become easier to eat when softened by wetness. It may also be easier to pullout sprouted barley seeds and young grass shoots when the soil is soggy and friable. Northcentral Colorado-Botanical Composition of the Diet as Estimated by Fecal Analyses Twenty kinds of plants were identified in the five composite period samples of goose feces (Table 18). Trace amounts of some unknown forbs and grasses were also found. Plants showing less than 1 percent relative density (RD) in the fecal samples were considered as trace amounts. Plants that equaled or exceeded a 1 percent RD were considered to comprise a significant portion of the diet. Before discussing the importance of different plant species in the diet, correction factors must be used. The results of the feeding and technician trials indicated that correction factors need to be applied to the relative densities given in Table 18. The analyses of the three hand-compounded diet mixtures before and after digestion are shown in Tables 19-21. Differences in discernible characteristics of the plants caused most of the error by the technician rather than differential digestibility. This is evident by noting the small differences between the before and after digestion RD estimates. Much greater differences exist between the actual dry weight percentages and the estimated RD percentages before digestion. This technician error results because certain plant species have outstandingly unique cell wall characteristics which makes them very easy to identify in a microscope field. Thus, a tendency exists to overestimate these readily identifiable species and to underestimate those plants having less distinguishable cell wall characters. �100 90 n 80 70 60+ Vl "'0 r- Q} .,..... T I I I I II I I I I II o Corn Fiel ds 101 I I ~n ~ I I ~ Al fal fa and Barley Fields 50 LL.. C .,.... Q} Vl Q} Q} C,!) 4- 40 30 I I I I I I I ~I~ ~ II I ""'" 0 N I 0 oj-) c u s, Q} 20 Q} 0- 10 Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry -Soil Moisture Condition- Sep. 25Oct. 11 Oct. 12-15 Oct. 16-23 Oct. 24-25 Oct. 26-29 Oct. 30- Nov. Nov. 8 9-12 -Time Span- Fig. 15. Relationship pre-season period. of soil moisture condition with field selective by feeding geese during the �Table 18. Percent relative densities of discerned fragments of goose feces. Based on 400 microscope fields per sample. Food Type Pre-season College Lake Elder Res. Alfalfa Barley Blue Grama Bluegrass Cattail Composite Corn Green Bristlegrass Indian Ricegrass Loco Weed Moss Muhly Grass Oat Rush Sedge Smooth Brome Sugar Beets Tansy Mustard Wheat Wheatgrass Unknown Forb Unknown Grass Decomposed Matter Period and Location In-season 1/ College Lake period samples Post-season College Lake Elder Res. 10.2 0.5 2.4 1.5 2.3 0.9 7.7 3.6 1.4 7.6 5.0 1.2 0.1 1.6 2.5 91.6 25.7 45.7 46.5 4.5 0.4 3.6 0.4 31. 3 3.3 0.1 found in the five composite - 0.1 17.9 1.4 2.1 15.6 2.9 0.1 0.3 15.9 0.3 ,..aI 3.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.4 0 \..oJ 0.2 0.4 0.2 24.5 0.1 8.0 0.1 6.5 0.1 0.1 20.7 - 7.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 26.4 0.1 0.3 0.1 3.9 - 13.1 5.8 0.1 0.2 19.6 1/ - Elder Reservoir was located in the open hunting area and was not used by geese during the in-season period. I �-104- The minor effect of digestion is not surpr1s1ng even though plants in the hand-compounded diets were ground to a 2mm particle size. The through-put-time of geese is so fast that little digestion of cell walls could occur. Most nourishment must come from the contents of ruptured cells, and from the endosperm of seeds crushed in the gizzard. Apparently, the majority of cell wall material for most plant species passes through the goose's digestive system nearly intact; or if some cell wall digestion does occur its extent is about equal for different plant species. To correct the estimated densities in Table 18 regression equations were calculated for each plant species used in the hand-compounded mixtures. The after-digestion RD estimate was the (X) value, and the actual dry weight percentage was the (Y) value. The slope (b) of the regression equation is the correction factor for the combined effect of technician error and differential digestibility (Table 22). A perfect correlation between true dry weight percentage and estimated percentage exists when the sloye equals one. Slopes less than one indicate overestimation; greater than one underestimation. The magnitude of the difference of the slopes value from one is directly related to the magnitude of the error of estimation. Barley, green bristlegrass, oats, and rush were closely estimated to their actual dry weights. Alfalfa, bluegrass, cattail, sedge, and tansy mustard were moderately overestimated while moss was greatly overestimated. Corn was underestimated because its grain has a high endosperm to seed-coat ratio compared to other grass seeds. Smooth brome and wheat were also underestimated. These two plants like most other plant species were often eaten by the geese as young shoots. At this early stage of development the cell wall characteristics of these two plants were poorly defined compared to other species, and could not be identified in the microscope fields. They are represented by the large "unknown grass" category in Tables 19-2l. This resulted in a very large underestimation. Corrected Diet Composition The adjusted RO percentage values for botanical composition were calculated for each plant species by: Di bi X RDi n Z. (bi X ROi) i = 1 where Di is the corrected density of the ith species divided by the sum of corrected densities for all plant species (n) in the sample (Table 23). Pre-season Corn and wheat dominated the pre-season diet of College Lake geese. About 50 percent was corn, 30 percent wheat, 5 percent smooth brome, 4 percent sedge, 4 percent barley, 2 percent green bristlegrass, 1.5 percent cattail, and 1.5 percent oats. Eight other plants were present in trace amounts. At Elder Reservoir the pre-season diet was almost exclusively corn. 98 percent with seven other species in trace amounts. Corn was �-105- Table 19. Estimated percent relative density (RD) of discerned in Diet #1 before and after digestion. Food Type Alfalfa Barley Bluegrass Corn Green Bristlegrass Moss Oat Rush Sedge Smooth Brome Sugar Beet Tansy mustard Wheat Unknown Grass 1/Based Actual Percent in Diet 111 fragments RD Before Digestion 1/ RD After Digestion 10.1 2.0 1.6 21.6 0.4 26.6 1.2 4.S 6.2 0.4 0.0 9.6 0.0 16.0 6.1 1.7 3.6 4S.4 1.3 18.0 1.0 7.0 6.9 0.4 0.1 4.S 0.4 3.7 2.0 1.S 1.S 80.1 0.7 O.S 0.7 S.O 2.0 2.0 0.7 1.S 2.0 on 100 microscope fields per sample. 1.IBased on 400 microscope six samples. fields per sample. 1.1 Given value is an average of Table 20. Estimated percent relative density (RD) of discerned fragments in Diet #2 before and after digestion. Food Type Alfalfa Barley Bluegrass Cattail Corn Oat Rush Sedge Smooth Brome Sugar Beet Tansy mustard Wheat Unknown Grass Actual Percent in Diet #2 RD After Digestion 18.1 3.3 9.0 9.0 17.6 3.7 11.4 0.0 0.0 0.3 12.7 1.S 13.4 lS.S 3.7 12.0 lS.8 lS.9 1.3 10.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 16.0 1.9 7.4 6.0 4.0 S.O 6.0 40.0 1.S 9.S 0.0 10.0 0.0 10.0 8.0 11 - Based on 100 microscope 21 RD Before Digestion 11 - Based on 400 microscope six samples. ,.. 1.1 fields per sample. fields per sample. Given value is an aver age of �-106:'" Table 21. Estimated percent relative density in Diet #3 before and after digestion. Food Type Alfalfa Barley Bluegrass Cattail Corn Green Brist1egrass Oat Rush Sedge Smooth Brome Sugar Beet Tansy mustard Wheat Wheatgrass Unknown Grass Actual Percent in Diet #3 1/ fragments RD Before Digestion Y RD After Digestion 27.3 7.2 7.2 15.5 5.0 0.0 5.4 1.5 0.4 0.0 1.9 11.4 0.7 0.0 16.7 20.9 6.3 15.2 20.9 2.5 1.7 3.1 1.1 1.1 0.0 0.0 12.0 1.4 0.0 14.0 12.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 10.0 1.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 20.0 0.0 5.0 16.0 1.0 - Based on 100 microscope (RO) of discerned 2:/ fields per sample. 2/ - Based on 400 microscope six samples. fields per sample. Given value is an average of Table 22. Correction factors for differences in the discernible characteristics and digestibility for each plant species used in the hand-compounded diets. The correction factor equals the slope (b) of the after-digestion regression equations. Plant Type Alfalfa Barley Bluegrass Cattail Corn Green Brist1egrass Moss Oat Rush Sedge Smooth Brome Tansy mustard Wheat Correction 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.8 0.7 0.03 0.5 0.8 0.3 2.1 0.5 2.1 Factor �Table 23. The adjusted relative samples of goose feces. II Food Type Alfalfa Barley Blue Grama Bluegrass Cattail Composite Corn Green Bristlegrass Indian Ricegrass Loco Weed Moss Muhly Grass Oat Rush Sedge Smooth Brome Sugar Beet Tansy Mustard Wheat Wheatgrass Unknown Forb Unknown Grass Decomposed Matter density percentages Pre-season College Lake Elder Res. - for botanical composition Period and Location In=aeason College Lake of the five composite Post-season Elder Res. College Lake - 3.5 0.3 0.8 1.0 - - 0.7 0.3 2.7 1.3 0.5 2.5 1.8 0.9 0.1 0.6 1.0 97.9 32.1 54.7 61.1 -, - - 0.1 0.2 0.1 4.1 5.4 0.1 0.2 29.5 0.1 0.2 0.1 35.7 0.1 11.2 0.1 0.1 6.0 - 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 9.5 0.1 0.1 4.0 0.2 1.6 0.2 49.8 2.0 0.1 - 0.4 0.6 1.5 - - - - - 0.5 - - 0.1 - 14.4 - 11.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 17.5 4~8 8.9 0.1 0.1 14.3 II - Correction factors for plant species not tested in the feeding trials were estimated from the most closely related species that was tested. All plant species with an adjusted percent relative density of less than 0.1 were given a value of 0.1 in the table. I I-' 0 '-I I �-108- In-season During the in-season period at College Lake corn dropped to 32 percent of the diet and wheat to 10 percent, while smooth brome rose to 36 percent. Alfalfa was 4 percent, bluegrass 3 percent and seven other plants occurred in trace amounts. Decomposed plant material comprised 14 percent of the diet. Apparently decomposed matter was inadvertently consumed by feeding geese when hunting pressure forced them to use low quality sites, and freezing weather killed existing green vegetation. Elder Reservoir was not used by geese during the hunting season so no fecal collections could be made there during the in-season period. Post-season During the post-season period College Lake geese increased their use of corn to 55 percent, while smooth brome dropped to 11 percent of the diet. Wheat was 11 percent, cattail 3 percent and decomposed matter about 18 percent. Seven plants were present in trace amounts. At Elder Reservoir the post-season diet was about 61 percent corn, 9 percent wheat, 6 percent smooth brome, 5 percent tansy mustard, and 2 percent alfalfa. Eight plants occurred in trace amounts and 14 percent was decomposed matter. Summary Fecal analyses provided more information on food habits than did field feeding observations. Even though considerable technician error occurred, the fecal analysis was still very sensitive. The feeding trials demonstrated that fecal analysis could detect plants in the ~iet that comprised as little as 0.5 percent of the food intake. The fecal analysis revealed that many plants besides crops were consumed. Marsh plants such as cattail, moss, rush, and sedge were found in the fecal samples. Field weeds like tansy mustard, loco weed, and composites were also used. Many uncultivated grasses were eaten including blue grama, green bristlegrass, Indian ricegrass, muhly grass, and wheatgrass. The results of the fecal analyses suggest that non-cultivated plants do sometimes contribute significantly to the diet, but seldom or never make up a major portion of the diet. Sedge and green bristlegrass may be important during the pre-season at College Lake, and tansy mustard during the post-season at Elder Reservoir. Cattail comprised more than one percent of all the diets except during the pre-season at Elder Reservoir. Even though the fecal analysis provided a more complete and specific picture of the fall and winter diet, the major categories of foods used remained similar to what was indicated by the field feeding observations. The field feeding observations did miss the importance of wheat to the geese when they are feeding inside the closed area. This was primarily because most of the wheat fields used by the geese were located south of the study area. Only a few wheat fields were located inside the portion of the study area closed to hunting. �-109- Both field observations and fecal analysis techniques have shown the diet of the wintering geese to be quite diverse, but only a few plants are used extensively. Corn, smooth brome, and wheat seem to comprise the bulk of the diet of the wintering goose population. San Luis Valley Foreign Band Recoveries Nine birds banded outside the San Luis Valley were reported recovered in the Valley during the 1973 hunting season. Seven of the nine birds had been banded on the Wheatland Reservoir molting area in Albany County, Wyoming (Table 24). The other two birds were banded in northcentral Colorado in 1966. Both birds were experimental with one being neck-collared and the other transported and released. For the second consecutive year no birds banded in Canada goose production areas north of Colorado were recovered in the San Luis Valley. Population Distribution Inventories of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley during the winter of 1974-75 indicated the typical scattered distribution during counts in November and December with a steady accumulation of birds on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge (Table 25). Comparing the periodic counts with the previous years, totals indicated an increase in the number of birds in the San Luis Valley in 1974-75 compared to 1973-74 totals (Table 26). Harvest For the second consecutive year a total of 300 permits were issued in the San Luis Valley authorizing the taking of one goose. An estimated 249 active hunters harvested 69 geese for a record low success of 0.28 birds/ hunter; the lowest success ratio since permits were first issued in 1970 (Tables 27 and 28). Harvest totals in 1974 on a numerical basis were essentially the same as in 1973 in all counties except Rio Grande where harvest declined 57 percent. The total harvest declined approximately 38 percent in 1974 compared to 1973 (Table 29). In 1971, 1972, and 1973, 60 percent, 47 percent and 44 percent, respectively, of the harvest was reported taken on or near the Monte Vista Refuge. During the 1974 season, only 16 percent of the harvest was reported taken in that same area. Westcentral Hunter Activity Colorado and Harvest Permits authorizing the taking of one goose in designated counties in westcentral Colorado were again issued in 1974. In Mesa County 300 permits were �-110- issued while 100 were issued in Garfield County (Table 30). Hunting success in the entire permit area in 1974 was essentially the same as in 1973, however, the distribution of harvest by county was somewhat different (Tables 30 and 31). An estimated total of 19 of the 85 geese harvested were taken in Garfield County with 87 percent of the birds reported taken along the Colorado River between Rifle and Grand Valley. The number of hunter trips in westcentral Colorado in 1974 increased about eight percent above the 1973 level (Table 32). The season in westcentral Colorado in 1974 opened on November 2, approximately two weeks earlier than in previous years, and closed at about the same time as in previous years, December 15. The earlier opening date apparently had very little effect on the harvest as less than 10 percent of the birds in Mesa County and none of the birds in Garfield County were reported taken during the first two weeks of the season. The rr~jority of the Canada geese wintering in westcentral Colorado were located along the Colorado River from Silt to the Utah State Line during the January inventory (Table 33). A record total of 1,515 geese were counted during the January inventory (Table 34). LITERATURE CITED Flinders, J. T., and R. M. Hansen. 1972. Diets and habitats of jackrabbits in northeastern Colorado. Range Sci. Dept. Sci. Ser. No. 12. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 29pp. Free, J. C., R. M. Hansen, and P. L. Sims. 1970. Estimating the dryweights of food plants in feces of herbivores. J. Range Manage. 23:300-302. Hansen, R. M. 1974. Dietary of the chuckwalla, determined by dung analysis. Herpetologica Mattocks, J. G. 22:107-113. 1970. Sauromalus obesus, 30(2):120-123. Goose feeding and cellulose Newton, I., and C. R. G. Campbell. 1970. 1967/68. Scottish Birds 6(1):5-18. digestion. Wildfowl Goose studies at Loch Levan in Sparks, D. R., and J. C. Melechek. 1968. Estimating in diets. J. Range Manage. 21:203-208. percentage dryweight Stewart, D. R. M., and J. Stewart. 1970. Food preference data by fecal analysis for African plains ungulates. Zool. Afr. 5:115-129. Storr, G. M. 1961. Microscope analysis of faeces, a technique for ascertaining the diet of herbivorous mammals. Aust. J. BioI. Sci. 14:157-164. �-111- Ward, A. L. 1970. Stomach content and fecal analysis: Methods of forage identification. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub1. (1147:146158. Williams, O. B. 1969. An improved technique for identification fragments in herbivore feces. J. Range Mange. 22:51-52. Prepared by ~~~l1[~~d4L Asst. Wildlife Researcher of plant ~t:~.AJ.. R1Crd Staffon Graduate ~ :::::: ~~ �-112- Table 24. Banding areas outside the San Luis Valley of Ganada geese recovered within the San Luis Valley during the 1970-71, 1971-72, 1972-73, and 1973 hunting seasons. 1970-71 Area Number of Recoveries 1971-72 1972-73 1973 Alberta 2 0 0 0 Phillips County 1 0 0 0 Garfield County 0 2 0 0 1 5 6 7 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 Soccoro County 0 1 2 0 Mora County 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 Dowling Lake Montana Wyoming Albany County Wheatland Reservoir Fremont County Ocean Lake Colorado Northcentral Texas Panhandle New Mexico Wisconsin Columbia County �-113- Table 25. Results of Canada goose surveys during the 1974-75 hunting season in the San Luis Valley. November 22 Area December 19 1/ January 13- 130 377 623 468 113 0 Del Norte to Monte Vista 0 70 8 Monte Vista to Alamosa 0 340 0 Rio Grande Mgmt. Area 0 0 10 Other Areas 0 0 16 Conejos River 5 22 22 La Sauses Area 20 0 0 San Luis Lake 107 0 0 Smith Reservoir 220 10 0 Sanchez Reservoir 63 0 0 McIntire 0 2 26 0 0 4 1,013 934 709 Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge Rio Grande River Alamosa to State Line Springs Mishak Lake Total }) Poor count. Birds were not on water areas during the count. �-114- Table 26. Colorado. Year Winter inventories of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley of Number of Geese !/ November December October 1970-71 January 1,490 1,050 1,261 1971-72 1,570 913 1,255 1,286 1972-73 1,006 1,196 1,079 1,621 1973-74 289 736 774 905 1,013 934 709 '1:./ 1974-75 1/ - Compared monthly inventories five days of each other. for the five years generally 2/ - Geese not concentrated. Poor count. taken within �-1l5- Table 27. Year 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 Hunter activity and success in the San Luis Valley permit area. Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 200 350 400 300 300 164 296 311 233 249 3.4 4.2 4.6 4.2 4.3 0.65 0.60 0.82 0.48 0.28 Table 28. Distribution of harvest, by county, in the San Luis Valley permit area. Year Rio Grande Alamosa Saguache Conejos Costilla Total 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973 1974 74 121 195 62 27 31 50 51 40 37 2 1 2 3 2 0 5 1 1 3 0 0 6 6 0 107 177 255 112 69 Table 29. Hunting pressure and harvest in the San Luis Valley goose permit area 1973 and 1974. Estimated Number 1973 1974 (± 5) Total Individual Hunters 233 Total Hunter Trips 974 (±65) Total Geese Bagged 112 (± 6) Percent change from 1973 (± 5) + 6.9 1,068 (±40) + 9.7 (± 5) -38.4 249 69 Average Hunter Trips/Hunter 4.2 4.3 Average Bag/Hunter 0.48 0.28 Average Bag/Hunter Trip 0.11 0.07 �-116- Table 30. Hunter activity and success in the westcentral Colorado permit area. Year 1971-72 1972-73 1973 Mesa Co. Garfield Co. Entire Area 1974 Mesa Co. Garfield Co Entire Area Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/ Hunter 150 250 112 182 2.9 3.7 0.29 0.32 300 66 366 254 46 300 3.9 3.7 3.8 0.30 0.20 0.28 300 100 400 235 67 303 4.3 3.6 4.1 0.28 0.28 0.28 Table 3L Distribution permit area. Year 1971 1972 1973 1974 of harvest by year in the west central Colorado Mesa County Garfield County 75 66 33 58 84 85 9 19 Table 32. Hunting pressure and harvest in the westcentral goose permit area, 1973 and 1974. Colorado Estimated Number 1974 Percent Change 1973 Total Individual Hunters Total Hunter Trips Total Geese Bagged Average Hunter Trips/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Average Bag/Hunter Trip Total 300 (+ 6) 1,152 (+51) 84 7) 3.8 0.28 0.073 (± 303 (:t7) 1,242 (+51) 85 6) 4.1 0.28 0.068 (± + 1.0 + 7.8 + 1.2 �-117- Table 33. 1975. Canada goose inventory, westcentral Colorado, January 10, 11, Area Number of Geese Uncompahgre River Delta-Montrose Adjacent Warm Springs 21 o Gunnison River Black Canyon to North Fork North Fork to Hotchkiss Confluence North Fork to Gunnison River to Delta Delta to Mesa County Line Mesa County Line to Grand Junction 27 o 117 32 12 Colorado River Grand Junction-Horsethief Canyon Horsethief Canyon-State Line Silt to DeBeque DeBeque to Grand Junction 48 784 409 o 65 Mack Area Highline Lake o Total 1,515 Table 34. Winter inventories of Canada geese in westcentral Colorado. Number of Canada Geese Date 1967 January 17 71 1968 January 16 92 1969 January 2 307 1970 January 19 339 1971 January 4 879 1971-72 November 24 January 5 485 989 1972-73 November 21 January 11 329 1,183 1974 January 11 965 1975 January 10, 11 1,515 ��-119...: October 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of __ --==C:.::o~L:.::O:.:.RAD=:.::O:...._ _ Migratory Bird Investigations ~W~-:.::8:.::8~-:.::R~-~2:.::0--_------ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: 2 Job No.~-------~----------------7 Non-hunting Mortality Investigations of Canada Geese in Southeastern Colorado October 22, 1974 to March 31, 1975 D. Bowden, Colorado State University; Marilyn Stevens, W. Adrian, J. Carsella, J. Dennis, G. Eyre, J. Gustafson, G. Nugent, R. Oakleaf, S. Steinert, J. Stephenson, M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT The amount of surface lead present prior to the 1974-75 hunting season in the field adjacent to the firing line east and southeast of Turk's Pond was only 14.7 percent and 31.6 percent, respectively of what was present after the 1973-74 hunting season. During the 1974-75 season, additional accumulation of pellets increased the amount of available surface lead to 45.1 percent of 1973-74 levels in the east field and 80.4 percent in the southeast field. Comparisons indicated the extreme eastern portion of the southeast field, an area subject to very heavy shooting pressure, contained most of the additional surface lead. A total of 129 of 337 Canada goose (Branta canadensis) carcasses removed from Turk's Pond were selected for examination. Only 44 of the carcasses were completely intact and of those, 26 showed visible signs of severe wounding. Lead pellets were found in four of the wounded birds and steel pellets in three birds. Four of 48 birds having complete gastro intestinal tracts had impacted proventriculi. Of the 53 birds having gizzards, nine contained lead pellet fragments. Liver tissue was collected from 59 of the 129 birds sampled while the ulna was collected from the other 70 birds. Quantities of lead in the livers of 16 of 59 geese were considered sufficient to classify the birds as lead poisoning victims. Lead levels in the livers of poisoning victims ranged from 25 ppm to 220 ppm with a mean of 86 ppm. Bone tissue (Ulna) was found to be not a definitive indicator of lead poisoning. However, it was estimated that from 10 to 26 of the 70 birds represented in the sample by bone tissue succumbed to lead poisoning. An estimated 67 to 110 Canada geese died of lead poisoning at Turk's Pond during the fall and w Ln ter of 1974-75, only 7 to 12 percent of the poisoning that occurred in 1973-74. �-120- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continue the ban on the use of lead shot at Turk's Pond. 2. Concentrate law enforcement efforts in areas of heavy hunting pressure in which the firing line is adjacent to agricultural fields. 3. Encourage pre or during hunting season plowing of harvested fields as eas1y as possible in order to reduce the attractiveness of the areas to geese to reduce the amount of surface lead. Concentrate on fields in areas in which heavy hunting pressure occurred or is occurring. 4. Discourage the establishment of perennial crops in fields adjacent to the firing line. 5. If additional mortality of Canada geese occurs and lead poisoning is suspected as the causative factor and confirmation is desired, a forty percent random sample from the available carcasses should be obtained. A portion of the liver from each bird sampled should be removed, frozen, and sent to the Laboratory director at the Research Center in Fort Collins. �-121- INVESTIGATI0NS NON-HUNTING MORTALITY OF CANADA GEESE IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak Lead poisoning was documented as the major cause of Canada goose nonhunting mortality at Turk's Pond during and after the 1973-74 hunting season (Szymczak 1974). Examination of agricultural fields adjacent to the firing line at Turk's indicated these fields contained a definite, available source of pellets on the surface of the ground. In an effort to reduce further lead poisoning losses, a ban was placed on the use of lead pellets for the 1974-75 hunting season in a four square mile area surrounding and including Turk's Pond. This report deals with the results of the lead shot ban in regard to lead poisoning losses at Turk's. P. S. OBJECTIVE To identify non-hunting in southeast Colorado. mortality factors of Canada geese at Turk's Pond SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the incidence of lead shot in the environment and the local vicinity. 2. Determine Pond. 3. Determine if other causative agent of disease or poisoning for mortality of Canada geese at Turk's. 4. Determine 5. Analyze data and formulate recommendations for preventative measures designed to lessen non-hunting mortality of Canada geese at Turk's Pond. if lead poisoning occurs in the waterfowl the magnitude of non-hunting mortality at Turk's Pond population at Turk's are responsible in the Turk's Pond area. METHODS AND MATERIALS On October 17, 1974, prior to the Canada goose hunting season, agricultural fields to the east and southeast of Turk's Pond were sampled to determine the incidence of available lead shot by the transect-plot method described by Szymczak (1974). According to measurements after the 1973-74 season, the selected fields contained the greatest density of lead pellets in areas supporting annual crops. Thus, it seemed logical to select these fields in order to measure the amount of residual lead remaining after the fields had been subjected to an annual sequence of normal agricultural activities. Fields were to be sampled for 500 feet in front and 300 feet in back of the firing line; again the area of heaviest concentration of lead. However, by �-122- mid-October only that portion of the corn planted in the fields to the southeast of the pond had been harvested. Therefore measurements of lead were taken only in a portion of the area scheduled for sampling. The field to the east containing winter wheat and non-irrigated milo was sampled as scheduled. All pellets found were classified as to location and shot size by plot. After the 1974-75 season the essentially same portions of the same fields were again sampled in order to document the magnitude of accumulations of lead pellets during the 1974-75 season. In addition, a field directly south of the pond was also sampled. All steel and lead pellets found were classified to size and location. Data sets composed of pellets per plot at certain distances by transect were compared statistically by field in order to document significant changes in densities between the various sampling periods. All Canada goose carcasses were removed from around Turk's Pond periodically from fall through early spring. A total of 15 pick-ups were made with the first one occurring on November 18, 1974 and the final on April 8, 1975. A 40 percent random sample of the carcasses collected during each sampling period was selected for necropsy and organ collection. Each selected bird was to be examined for evidence of gunshot wounds and/or visible signs of lead poisoning. In addition the contents of the gizzard was to be examined for lead pellet fragments and a portion of the liver collected to document lead concentrations. However, many of the carcasses were composed only of the skeletal portion, in which case the ulna was collected to document lead levels. Tissues chemically analyzed for lead content were treated in the same manner as those collected during the 1973-74 period (Szymczak 1974). An accumulative total of the number of carcasses removed from Turk's Pond was maintained throughout the collection period. According to 1973-74 findings, lead poisoning was the major cause of nonhunting mortality of Canada geese at Turk's Pond. Therefore no plans were formulated to collect tissues for analysis to document other possible causes of mortality. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Although the raw data on lead pellet distribution collected post-season 197374 indicated slight changes in density over distance as measurements progressed away from the firing line, these changes were not significant in the area from 700 feet in front to 500 in back of the firing line. The same held true for all fields sampled during the 1974-75 period. The number of lead pellets found in the east field pre-season 1974-75, after an annual period of normal maintenance, was only 14.7 percent of what was present after the 1973-74 season at comparable distances (Table 1). In the field southeast of the pond, pre-season 1974-75 measurements amounted to 31.6 percent of what was present after the 1973-74 season (Table 2). The differences between the mean number of pellets for the two measurements for each field were highly significant (t = 8.38, P<.OOI for east field; t82 = 5.20, P<.OOl, southeast field). 88 �-123- Table 1. Comparative distribution of lead pellets in the field east of Turk's Pond post-season 1973-74, pre-season 1974-75 and post-season 1974-75, for up to 700 feet in front and 500 feet in back of the firing line, weighted for sample size. Distance from Firing Line in Feet Post-Season 1973-74 Number of Lead Pellets Found Pre-Season 1974-75 Post-Season 1974-75 700 7 11 3 600 10 500 14 2 4 400 14 3 5 300 16 1 4 200 11 1 6 100 14 3 2 11 0 3 100 12 1 7 200 7 2 9 300 10 3 8 400 8 11 3 500 8 - 1/ 6 0 (Firing Line) 11 4 1/ Not sampled. During the 1974-75 season, additional accumulation of pellets increased the amount of available surface lead in the east field to 45.1 percent of what was available post-season 1973-74; an increase of some 200 percent from preseason levels (Table 1). Numerical differences in surface lead as measured post-season 1974-75 in the east field were significantly greater (P<.OOl) than what was present pre-season 1974-75 (t143 = 4.48, P <.001), yet still lower than 1973-74 levels (t = 6.09, P< .001). 279 �-124- Table 2. Comparative distribution of lead pellets in the field southeast of Turk's Pond, post-season 1973-74, pre-season 1974-75 and postseason 1974 for 500 feet in front of the hunting pits, weighted for sample size. Distance In Front Firing Line in Feet Post-Season 1973-74 Number of Pellets Found Pre-Season 1974-75 Post-Season 1974-75 500 8 3 9 400 14 2 14 300 8 2 4 200 10 2 5 100 6 5 5 11 4 0 (Firing Line) 1:./ 1/ - Not sampled. In the area of the southeast field which was measured in all three periods, the amount of surface lead accumulation during the 1974-75 season brought the numerical pellet total to 80.4 percent of what was present post-season 1973-74 (Table 2). The differences in the mean number of pellets found post-season 1974-75 were not significant when compared with post-season 1973-74 data but were significant (t68 = 3.34, P < .01) when compared with pre-season 1974-75 data. However, in comparing a larger area in the same southeast field which was measured post-season only in both years, we found that available surface lead post-season 1974-75 was only 53.2 percent of what was present post-season 1973-74 with the means being significantly different (Table 3) (t = 2.54, 222 only a P<.Ol). These differences by location within an area indicate not variation in hunting pressure, but also pinpoint possible areas in which lead accumulation may be reaching the critical level. Mortality Necropsy - Gross Observations A total of 337 Canada goose carcasses were removed from Turk's Pond from November 18, 1974 through April 8, 1975. A sample of 129 carcasses was selected and examined in order to document the cause of death. Only 44 of the selected carcasses were completely intact permitting examination of most anatomical features. �-125- Twenty-six or 59 percent of the whole body carcasses examined showed some visible signs of suffering from serious wounds. Only four of the 26 carcasses were in poor body condition. Pellets were found in seven of the 26 birds, of which four had been wounded with lead shot and three with steel shot. The gastro intestinal tract was intact in 48 of the 129 carcasses, while gizzards only were present in an additional five birds. Four of 48, or about eight percent of the carcasses with complete GI tracts had impacted proventriculi. Nine of Lhe 53 or about 17 percent of the gizzards examined contailed lead pellets. One gizzard, from a bird which had definitely been wounded, contained five steel shot pellets. Three geese had both an impacted proventriculus and lead pellet fragments in the gizzard. Lead Content of Tissues Liver tissue was collected from 59 of 129 sample birds while the ulna was collected from the other 70 carcasses. Lead levels in the sampled tissues are presented in Table 4. Quantities of lead in 16 of 59 or 27.1 percent of the livers were considered sufficient to classify the birds as lead poisoning victims. Lead levels ranged from 25 ppm to 220 ppm with a mean of 86 ppm (Table 5). All other livers contained less than five ppm. Seventy-one geese diagnosed as lead poisoning victims at Turk's Pond during 1973-74 had livers containing from 33 to 283 ppm with a mean of 96 ppm. Livers of 10 hand reared birds used as controls contained from two to 20 ppm, with a mean of 5 ppm (Szymczak 1974). Unfortunately, bone is not a definitive indication of lead poisoning as is liver. In addition, during 1974-75 supporting data such as impaction of the proventriculus or lead fragments in the gizzard were not available for birds in the sample represented by bone tissue. During 1973-74 bone tissue (ulna) from 64 lead poisoned birds at Turk's contained lead concentrations which varied from 7 to 389 ppm with a mean of 30 ppm. Concentrations in bones from five hand-reared birds ranged from 6 to 10 ppm with a mean of 8 ppm. Theoretically, the rate of lead poisoning as indicated by bone tissue should be the same as indicated by liver tissue throughout the entire collection period. However, during each succeeding pick up, fewer complete carcasses were available. Therefore, as the collection period progressed and the probability of lead ingestion increased, the chance of a sampled bird possessing liver tissue generally declined (Table 6). ASSuming that scavengers select both lead poisoned or non-lead poisoned birds for consumption at an equal rate, birds represented in the sample by bone tissue should have the same rate of poisoning as those represented by liver tissue within each collection period. The collection period ending on 1-20-75 contained 63 birds represented by 31 in the sample which were analyzed. Sixteen of the birds were represented by liver tissue and 15 by bone tissue (Table 6). Five, or 31.3 percent of the birds represented by liver tissue were definite lead poisoning victims (Table 7). But only one of the 15 birds represented by bone tissue con~ained, at 30 ppm, a lead level indicative of lead poisoning. To obtain an additional four birds, lead levels as low as 8 ppm must be selected. If levels above 10 ppm, the maximum level for hand reared controls were selected as lead victims, three of 15 or 20.0 percent �-126- of the birds represented by bone in the sample would be classified as lead poisoning victims. If the same lead concentration criteria were applied to the sample selected for the period ending 1-31-75, 42.9 percent of the birds represented by bone would be considered lead victims, compared to 36.4 percent of the birds represented by liver. Table 3. Comparative distribution of lead pellets in fields south and southeast of Turk's Pond, post-season 1973-74 and post-season 1974-75, for from 100 to 700 feet in front of the hunting pits, weighted for sample size. Distance from Firing Line in Feet Number of Pellets Found Post-season 1973-74 Post-season 1974-75 700 10 11 600 13 8 500 21 6 400 21 12 300 18 8 200 16 7 100 12 7 In 1973-74 only four of 65, or 6.2 percent of the victims of lead poisoning at Turk's contained bone lead levels of < 10 ppm. Only 3 of 65, or 4.6 percent had lead levels >10 <15 ppm, while 12 of 65 had levels >15 <20 ppm. Of the non-lead poisoning vi~tims, including the controls, 11 of l2-birds had bone concentrations 2 10 ppm. The twelfth bird showed 11 ppm. Considering all the above information concerning lead levels in bones, the 1974-75 data were classified according to what is termed a minimum, medium and maximum poisoning rate (Table 7). The minimum rate includes all birds represented by bone tissue which contains > 20 ppm. The medium rate includes those birds whose bones register lead > 15 ppm, while the maximum rate includes all birds with lead levels> 10 ppm (Table 7). Magnitude of Non-Hunting Mortality The magnitude of the lead poisoning losses is calculated based on the mlnlmum, medium and maximum rates and presented by time period in Table 8. All three rates include all victims of lead poisoning as diagnosed by liver tissue in addition to victims diagnosed by bone tissue at the respective levels. �-127- Table 4. Lead levels in tissues from Canada geese sampled from birds collected at Turks Pond, southeast Colorado, 1974-75. Goose Sample No. A B C D E 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 F 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 G 1 2 3 4 5 Tissue Lead (ppm) Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Liver Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Bone Liver Liver Bone Liver Bone Bone Liver Bone Bone Bone Liver < < 1.2 1.4 2.5 1.4 < 2.1 1.8 < 1.4 20 3.4 < 7.1 < 32 63 1.9 < 3.0 52 2.5 < 3.7 < 37 < 12.6 6 4 8 9 5 5 11 6 4 65 1.6 < 4 6 12 2.8 < 3.1 < 6 26.6 11 4 6.4 < 9 5 8 1.4 < Goose Sample No. G 6 7 8 9 10 11 H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Tissue Lead (ppm) Liver Bone Bone Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Liver Bone Bone Liver Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Liver Bone Liver Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Bone Bone Liver Liver Bone Liver < 4.3 13 7 7 3.6 < 171 2.5 < 33 7.7 < 11 4 14 8 5 1.0 < 2.4 < 1.8 < 70 7 3.5 < 8 30 4.5 < 5 5 8 8 11 38 6 151 11 56 1.7 < 3.6 < 1.4 < 2.3 < 7 8 7 1.9 < 113 4 2.6 < ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-128- Table 4. Lead levels in tissues from Canada geese sampled from birds collected at Turk's Pond, southeast Colorado, 1974-75 (continued) • Goose Sample No. J K L M N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Tissue Lead (ppm) Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Bone Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Liver Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Liver Bone Bone Liver Bone Bone Liver Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone 7 29 < 3.0 < 2.8 25 8 14 < 3.4 220 < 4.2 112 3 < 3.3 < 3.7 27 9 7.3 17 12 30 7 < 3.9 47 8 96 16 45 81 6 5 8 13 33 15 9 10 70 4 13 30 Goose Sample No. P 1 2 3 4 Tissue Lead (ppm) Bone Bone Bone Bone 7 40 7.3 9 �-129- Table 5. Lead concentrations in the liver and the occurrence of other physical indicators in Canada geese considered victims of lead poisoning that were randomly selected f~om carcasses collected at Turks Pond from 11/18/74 to 4/8/75. Lead Fragments in Gizzard Body Condition Proventriculus 63 poor not impacted yes D2 52 poor impacted yes 12/17/74 E12 65 poor impacted yes 1/6/75 G11 171 poor impacted yes 1/20/75 15 70 poor impacted yes 116 38 118 151 poor not impacted no 120 56 129 113 J2 29 J5 25 J9 220 no J11 112 yes 2/24/75 L5 96 3/10/75 M3 81 Bird No. Lead Conc. (ppm) C2 32 C3 12/9/74 Last Day of Sample Period 12/3/74 1/31/75 no poor not impacted yes good, had also been wounded not impacted no poor not impacted yes not impacted yes �-130- Table 6. Representation of liver and bone tissue by collection in interval samples selected at random for analysis of lead concentration. Last Day of Sample Period Number Collected Sample Size 11/18/74 7 3 3 0 100 11/26/74 7 3 2 1 67 12/3/74 15 4 4 0 100 12/9/74 16 4 4 0 100 12/17/74 34 13 4 9 31 12/30/74 31 9 4 5 44 1/6/75 28 11 5 6 45 1/14/75 27 7 3 4 43 1/20/7 5 63 31 16 15 52 1/31/75 44 18 11 7 61 2/9/75 5 2 0 2 00 2/24/75 15 5 2 3 40 3/10/75 6 3 1 2 33 3/24/75 31 12 0 12 0 4/8/75 8 4 0 4 0 Total 337 129 59 70 46 Organ SamE1ed Liver Bone Percent Liver �Table 7. Rates of lead poisoning, by sample period, as diagnosed for birds represented by liver tissue, compared to three arbitrary lead concentration levels for birds represented by bone tissue from carcasses randomly selected from Turks Pond, 11/18/74 to 4/8/75. Liver Tissue Bone Tissue Lead Victims Med. (>15ppm) Max. (>lOppm) Sample Size Lead Victims Rate oj' Poisoning 11/18/74 3 0 .000 0 0 0 0 11/26/74 2 0 .000 1 0 1 1 12/3/74 4 2 .500 0 0 0 0 12/9/74 4 1 .250 0 0 0 0 Sample Period Sample Size Min. (>20ppm) Rate of PoisoninB Max. Med. Min. ---------.000 1.000 2 .111 .111 I •.... .222 w •.... 1.000 4 1 .250 9 1 1 12/30/74 4 0 .000 5 0 0 2 .000 .000 .400 1/6/75 5 1 .200 6 0 0 1 .000 .000 .167 1/14/75 3 0 .000 4 0 0 2 .000 .000 .500 1/20/75 16 5 .313 15 1 1 3 .067 .067 .200 1/31/75 11 4 .364 7 1 2 3 .143 .286 .429 2/9/75 0 0 - 2 1 1 2 .500 .500 1.000 2/24/75 2 1 .500 3 1 1 1 .333 .333 .333 3/10/75 1 1 1.000 2 1 2 2 .500 1.000 1.000 3/24/75 0 0 - 12 3 3 6 .250 .250 .500 4/8/75 0 0 - 4 1 1 1 .250 .250 .250 Total 59 16 .271 70 10 13 26 .143 .186 .371 12/17/74 I �-132- Depending upon the rate of lead poisoning which applies to the number of victims of lead poisoning at Turk's Pond in 1974-75 ranged from an estimated 67 to 110. During the same period in 1973-74 using a much less sophisticated method of sampling, an estimated 908 birds died of lead poisoning (Szymczak 1974). Therefore lead poisoning losses at Turk's in 1974-75 were only in the range of 7 to 12 percent of what occurred in 1973-74. It was estimated in 1973-74 that 62 percent of the birds succumbing to lead poisoning died during or shortly after the hunting season. The percentage was similar in 1974-75 with, depending on the rate of lead victims utilized, from 66 to 68 percent dying prior to the first of February. In 1974 the season ended on January 20, while it ended on January 19 in 1975. On a numerical basis in 1974-75, lead poisoning deaths reached a peak in late January, shortly after the hunting season (Table 8). Throughout the remainder of the winter the number of lead poisoning victims did not change substantially between pick up periods, indicating a fairly constant exposure of birds to lead pellets throughout the fall and winter period. Collections on 3-24-75 included a number of birds that had apparently been missed on other collections, and therefore the rate of poisoning may reflect the entire fall and winter period rather than the individual collection period. CONCLUSION The loss of Canada geese to lead pOisoning was substantially reduced at Turk's Pond during the winter of 1974-75, compared with the winter of 1973-74. ObViously, the ban on the use of lead shot at Turk's had a major effect. In addition, weather conditions in late winter enabled plowing to begin in portions 0 f some picked cornfields directly after the conclusion of the hunting season. Hunters disregarding the ban on lead shot did result in accumulation of lead pellets in portions of the fields southeast of .the reservoir which approached the 1974-75 level. However, it seems probable that plowing directly after the season eliminated most of the exposed lead in what may have been a critical area. The use of steel shot at Turk's Pond apparently also had a favorable effect on reducing the total number of birds mortally crippled. According to 197475 season estimates, between 227 and 270 geese were lost to crippling, compared to an estimated 982 during the 1973-74 season. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1974. Non-hunting mortality investigations of Canada geese in southeastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. p. 107-123. �-133- Table 8. The number of lead poisoning victims found at Turk's Pond by sample period based on three specific rates of poisoning. Last Date of Sample Period Rate of Lead Poisonin8 Min. Med. Max. Total Lead Poisonin8 Victims Max. Min. Med. Col1ected Sample Size 11/18/74 7 3 .000 .000 .000 0 0 0 11/26/74 7 3 .000 .333 .333 0 2 2 12/3/74 15 4 .500 .500 .500 8 8 8 12/9/74 16 4 .250 .250 .250 4 4 4 12/17/74 34 13 .154 .154 .231 5 5 8 12/30/74 31 9 .000 .000 .222 0 0 7 1/6/75 28 11 .091 .091 .182 3 3 5 1/14/75 27 7 .000 .000 .286 0 0 8 1/20/75 63 31 .194 .194 .258 12 12 16 1/31/75 44 18 .278 .333 .389 12 15 17 2/9/75 5 2 .500 .500 1.000 3 3 5 2/24/75 15 5 .400 .400 .400 6 6 6 3/10/75 6 3 .667 1.000 1.000 4 6 6 3/24/75 31 12 .250 .250 .500 8 8 16 4/8/75 8 4 .250 .250 .250 2 2 2 Total 337 129 67 74 110 -1_ Prepared by _'-,-"n-,-n;JL)~" .;..>::;;" OC::=,-_fl..L...:.....:... ";::;;.;;,jJ~~~ Michael R. Szym~ Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��October 1975 -135- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-20 Work Plan No. Job Title: 2 Job No. 8 Investigation of Canada Geese in the San Luis Valley Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations April 1 to August 31, 1974 H. Burdick, B. Clark, R. Desilet, N. Forbes, J.Frothingham, H. Funk, G. Hinshaw, D. Lowry, J. Rauch, G. Saville, W. Schuett, M. Szymczak, R. Velarde, R. Weldon, B. Widhalm, M. Zgainer of Colorado Division of Wildlife; C. Bryant, J. Sarvis, S. Cornelius of Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; B. Darnell, D. Ziegler of Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge; M. Strong, R. Tragstaad of Bureau of Land Management. ABSTRACT Canada geese (Branta canadensis) resident in the San Luis Valley of Colorado were studied in the spring and summer of 1973 and 1974. Main objectives were to develop methods for estimating size, distribution and productivity of the breeding population from aerial surveys. Survey data collected using fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft were compared with results of ground surveys. Preferred nesting habitats included river bottoms with adjacent ponds or sloughs, and lakes and ponds with islands or emergent vegetation. Reliable estimates of numbers of breeding pairs were obtained from surveys using fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft; estimates from helicopter surveys were most accurate. Most aerial counts of goslings and adults during the brooding seasons were unreliable. A count on river bottoms in late summer from a helicopter was higher than a count from a fixed-wing aircraft on the same transects. In 1973 and 1974, nesting began in late- and mid-March and lasted approximately 89 and 82 days, respectively. Of the 160 nests studied, 44 percent were successful. Success of 108 nests on natural sites was 56 percent, and of 52 nests on artificial structures was 21 percent. Hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus) was the most frequent plant near natural sites. Mean clutch size was 4.9 eggs in 85 completed nests found. Estimated success of egg hatching was 87 percent with a mean clutch of 4.3 eggs in 84 successful nests, and 46 percent with a mean hatch of 2.3 eggs in 175 successful and unsuccessful nests. Estimated mortality of goslings was 31 percent between hatching and flight stage. Results were discussed, and recommendations for future management and research were presented. �-136RECOMMENDATIONS 1. To estimate the breeding and non-breeding goose population, conduct annual aerial surveys of water areas known to have geese during past and present nesting seasons. Divide areas into transects similar to those in Figure 2. Count every other transect containing river bottoms, and all transects containing lakes and ponds which are isolated from river bottoms. Preferably, use a helicopter, count~mmediately prior to the expected peak hatching period, and follow aerial survey procedures as described in METHODS AND MATERIALS,under Aerial and Ground Survey Techniques, Breeding Pair Counts. 2. To predict production, approximate (1) the number of successful nests from annual breeding pair counts (68 percent success in wooded river bottoms, 78 percent success in open lake and pond areas and 93 percent success in open river areas--applicable to active nests immediately prior to peak hatching period), (2) the average number of goslings to be produced in successful nests (4.3 per nest), and (3) the number of goslings to survive to flight stage (69 percent of those produced). 3. To detect possible expansion of nesting range, conduct an annual aerial search of water areas that have not held nesting geese. Preferably, carry out search during incubation period (April) and prior to counts of breeding pairs. 4. To promote increased production, develop areas similar to those used for nesting in the past (see RESULTS AND DISCUSSION concerning Delineation of Nesting Habitat). Preferably, develop areas in open habitat which provide natural nesting sites such as islands, and emergent vegetation with muskrat houses. 5. To learn whether avian or ground predators are primarily responsible for destroying nests in artificial structures and if certain structures can have higher nest success than others, construct and compare structures with guards defending against ground predators with structures presently standing. �-137INVESTIGATION OF CANADA GEESE IN THE SAN LUIS VALLEY Dennis G. Lowry This second report for Job 8 is a summary of results from field studies conducted during the spring and summer seasons of 1973 and 1974. The previous report summarized findings of the first year's field study (Lowry 1974). P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the size, distribution and productivity of the Canada goose population in the San Luis Valley during the spring and summer period and develop a management plan. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To develop a technique for estimating the annual size and distribution of the breeding population of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley. 2. To develop a technique for estimating the annual productivity of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley. 3. To compile data, analyze results and prepare a progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Aerial and Ground Survey Techniques Aerial surveys were conducted from a Cessna 185 fixed-wing aircraft at elevations from 30 to 45 m (lOOto 150 ft) above the ground and at speeds from 120 to 160 km/hr (75 to 100 mi/hr), and from a Bell 47-G3Bl helicopter at elevations from 6 to 45 m (20 to 150 ft) above the ground and at speeds from 25 to 80 km/hr (15 to 50 mi/hr). Ground surveys were made primarily on foot and occasionally from a four-wheel drive pickup. Veeder handcounters aided in counting geese and U. S. Geological Survey 7.5 minute topographic maps were used to locate and plot nesting and brood-rearing data. Other ground survey aids included 7 x 35 binoculars, a 20-power spotting scope, hip waders, chest waders, two- to four-man boats, a 30.5 m (100 ft) and a 3.7 m (12 ft) measuring tape. Weather information was obtained from U. S. weather stations at Alamosa, Center, Monte Vista, Del Norte and Saguache in the San Luis Valley. Habitat occupied by nesting geese was identified by aerial and ground inspection of all water areas in the Valley below 2,470 m (8,100 ft), except in the case of the Rio Grande River which was examined below 2,500 m (8,200 ft) (Figure 1). Flights in fixed-wing aircraft on 20 and 24 April 1973 provided fundamental information on the distribution of occupied goose nesting habitat. Ground reconnaissance throughout the field study supplemented aerial data. Aerial counts of geese were made by systematically counting within transects, or by locating geese and then counting without a predetermined flight pattern. �-138- N ,,' COLO:>ALJO SAN LUIS VALLEY SCALE IN o KILOMETERS 8 16 HHHA! SCALE o IN I H 38° 00' MILES 5 10 H ES'""'=3 RIO GRANDE LEGEND o Town 9 us -0 37° 00' Highway State Highway Appr ox i rn cte 2469 m Contaur (BIOOfl) [JJ Refuge, Management Area 37° 00' COLORADO ih"WM'E'Xico- ---IS' Figure 1. San Luis Valley, Colorado. �-139- The latter method was tried only for late summer brood counts when the geese were in large groups. When possible, in all counts, the pilots aided the observer(s) in spotting or counting geese. Techniques used in the aerial surveys were designed to maximize counts of geese in each transect or study area. Goose counts and nest surveys from the ground were conducted by traversing wetland transects. Manner of approach varied according to different terrains, water depths, vegetative conditions and goose habits. River bottom goose habitat was divided into transects 1.6 by 4.8 km (1 by 3 mi) whose lengths were roughly perpendicular to the mainflow of water (Figure 2). These transects included most river bottom ponds and sloughs that geese preferred for nesting and brood-rearing. Boundaries of the transects were section lines, usually marked by roads and fence lines visible from the air. During goose counts, certain transects were flown lengthwise with both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft in a zigzagging pattern (Figure 3). The number of passes needed to scan surface parts of the transects varied and depended on vegetative conditions and goose habits. Lake and pond areas isolated from river bottoms which contained geese were also divided into transects. These transects were 1.6 km (1 mi) wide and of various lengths depending on the size of the wetlands (Figure 2). Counts from fixed-wing aircraft were conducted in lake and pond areas using the same pattern as in river areas (Figure 3). Counts from a helicopter were conducted over one water body at a time, but still using a zigzag pattern. During counts from fixed-wing aircraft, two observers scanned the area below both sides of the aircraft. During counts from a helicopter, a single observer scanned the area below the front and both sides of the aircraft. Additional passes were made or areas were circled where sightings of geese or counts of geese were uncertain. All aerial counts were made under clear to partlycloudy skies. Breeding Pair Counts In 1973, aerial counts of breeding pairs were not attempted due to the investigator's unfamiliarity with the study area during the nesting season. In 1974, breeding pair counts were made from both helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. During fixed-wing counts, four passes per transect were made, requiring the observers to scan out to 200 m (220 yds) from the aircraft to see all surface area. On helicopter counts 8 to 12 passes per transect were made, requiring the observer to scan out to 100 m (110 yds) and 67 m (73 yds), respectively, from the aircraft to see all the surface area. These aerial counts were made between 0730 and 1430 daylight savings time. During aerial and ground counts, geese observed were recorded as (1) geese on nests, (2) singles not on nests (usually mates of nesting geese), or (3) paired and (4) grouped geese (apparently immature, nonbreeding birds). During aerial counts, the numbers of geese on nests or of singles not on nests, whichever number was greater on each transect, were used as indicators of breeding pairs. After flushing a nesting goose during helicopter counts, eggs were occasionally counted and recorded. During ground counts, only the numbers of geese on nests were used as indicators of breeding pairs. �-140- Brood Counts In 1973, aerial counts of broods were conducted using only fixed-wing aircraft. In 1974, aerial counts were made from both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft. During fixed-wing counts of flightless geese, 2 passes per transect were made during 1973 and 4 passes per transect were made during 1974, requiring observers to scan out to 400 m (440 yds) and 200 m (220 yds), respectively, from the aircraft to see all the surface area. During helicopter counts of flightless geese, 7 to 22 passes per transect were made, requiring the observer to scan out to 115 m (126 yds) and 37 m (40 yds) , respectively, from the aircraft to see all surface area. These aerial counts were made between 0800 and 1630 daylight savings time. During aerial and ground counts, flightless geese were recorded as adults (fully-feathered geese) or goslings (downy to partially-feathered geese). Post Brood-rearing Counts On fixed-wing counts of geese capable of flight, 2 passes per transect were made during 1973 and 4 passes per transect were made during 1974, requiring observers to scan out to 400 m (440 yds) and 200 m (220 yds), respectively, from the aircraft to see all the surface area. On helicopter counts, 4 to 6 passes per transect were made, requiring the observer to scan out to 200 m (220 yds) and 134 m (147 yds), respectively, from the aircraft to see all the surface areas. These aerial counts were made between 1000 and 1330 daylight savings time. During aerial and ground counts of geese capable of flight, geese were recorded as a combined total of adults and goslings. since the difference between the two could not be recognized. Nesting and Gosling Mortality Studies With few exceptions, studies were carried out as described by Lowry, 1974. To supplement descriptions of nesting sites in 1974, live plants found within 1 m (3.28 ft) radius of, or overhanging natural nests were collected and identified to genus, and to species when possible. Gosling mortality between hatching and flight stage was estimated by two methods. One method involved comparing periodic ground counts of goslings on different isolated areas (Figure 4). The other method involved comparing estimated numbers of eggs hatched and latest ground counts of goslings on the same areas. Unhatched eggs were opened, contents examined, and eggs classified as to fertile, (Cooper and Batt, 1972) or infertile or whether the embryo had died at an early development stage. Nests were located and examined by the investigator in goose nesting habitats excluding national wildlife refuges (Figure 1). Refuge personnel collected nesting data on the Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges, and I labeled and used these data when they could be compared or included with my data. �-141- R 5 E N o r;-)5M\iShoA t I '" q I- IN KILOMETERS E3 E'3 8 SCALE o z SCALE o i E3 ~OASS A~ 16 IN E3 F'3 Z MILES e 10 I 5 H I I- o Center 45' Dol/or o Head 'if E - z - r ~ G I- t.as» H Son ca/s t.os» •....• z I- K Dry Loses ...• I- L 37· 30' @z •.. MONTE ...• VISTA I- NATIONAL WILDLIFE • Transects surveyed total breeding April 1974 Transects surveyed geese on fiver wing and August pairs for estimate from for systems hell-copter of helicopter, estimate from REFUGE R [J- of fixed- aircraft, 1974 .. z ...• Manassa R5E R4E R 9E. 10'5° 30 Figure 2. Transects used in aerial and ground surveys of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. �-142- 1.6 km ( I mile) ( \ i I I Transect I ! ~ Flight Pattern I I I I I I -~i I I I Figure 3. I~ I I I I I I I I I I t I I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I \ I I I ~ I I ~ I Scanned I I I I Area I ~ ,f. In One Pass I I I I . I ( I I I I I I I I I I ~ I ~ I I I I I I I I I I I I I t ••.... ----f Flight pattern of lengthwise passes in a transect for aerial surveys of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. �-143- 45' R 5 E N f SCALE IN o o Misho~ Lases o Wsismon LoAo KILOMETERS 9 16 1E3E3E3E3 SCALE COo ~ ~ z IN MILES o 5 e >- 10 tl:Et=1=r~E3~:jI~========31 o Center Dol/or o Heod O'~LOAO Z LoA ~ >-- L Son Luis t.os» Z RIO GRANDE WILDLIFE MONTE VISTA NATIONAL WILDLIFE ~ Areas Studied in 1973 ~ A reas Studied in 1974 ~ Areas Studied in Bo tb Years REFUGE NATIONAL WI LOLIFE REFUGE .•,.,.. z z on 15' z "•.. R ~E. R4£ 106° 30' Figure 4. Areas where Canada goose goslings were studied for estimates of mortality in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. �-144- Aerial and Ground Survey Comparisons Aerial counts were compared with ground counts on the same selected areas in order to evaluate the aerial counts. Ground counts on the same areas counted from the air were made by the aerial observer(s) or by a team of ground observers before or after the aerial count, or by teams of ground observers during the aerial count. Ratios of air-ground counts were tested using Chi-square tests with Yates correction factor for small samples or lack of continuity. Breeding Pair Counts Aerial counts were compared with ground counts taken within one week of the flights. The estimated number of breeding pairs from aerial observations on each transect were compared with the actual number of nesting geese found during the ground counts. Brood Counts Corresponding aerial and ground counts of flightless geese were conducted simultaneously or within four hours on river bottom transects and within one day on isolated lake and pond areas. Numbers of goslings and adults recorded in both aerial and ground counts were compared. Post Brood-rearing Counts Corresponding aerial and ground counts of geese capable of flight were simultaneous or within four hours. Numbers of total geese, combined adults and goslings, recorded in both aerial and ground counts were compared. Aerial Population Surveys Breeding Pair Counts The number of breeding pairs and the total goose population of the Valley, excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, were estimated from helicopter counts on 22 and 23 April 1974. Open lake and pond areas known to have nest~ng geese were counted. River areas were sampled by counting within all transect'; of sections believed to hold the majority of nesting geese (transects 2i through 34, 42 through 45, 50 through 53, and 63), and by counting within randomly drawn transects of remaining sections believed to hold few if any nesting geese (Figure 2). Helicopter-ground comparison results for all different areas (Tables 1, 2 and 3) were used in the estimation, including results in open river areas where air/ ground ratios between observations were assumed to be consistent. First, breeding pairs were estimated on each transect sampled, then estimated within the different river sections or lake and pond areas. Then, each section's or area's total estimate was adjusted according to the habitat involved (multiplied by the appropriate ground/air ratio: 1.00 in wooded areas, 1.16 in open lake and pond areas, and 1.75 in open river areas). Finally, estimates for all sections and areas were totaled. �-145- Table 1. Aerial estimates of breeding pairs of Canada geese in wooded river areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1974. Area 1 Active Breeding Pairs (No. of Active Nests) Ground Count (Within Estimate from Helicopter One Week of Flight) Count (23 April 1974) 3 6 13 22(S) 25(S) 26 27 29(N) 34(N) 1 1 1 1 6 4 2 2 2 Totals Air/Ground Ratio 20 Area 1 1 2 1 2 7 3 2 1 1 Air/ground ratios were consistent for repeated counts 1.49 X2 8 d. L 0. 0.05 20 100.0% Active Breeding Pairs (No. of Active Nests) Ground Count (Within Estimate from Fixed-Wing One Week of Flight) Count ( 1 May 1974) 3 6 13 25(S) 26 27 0 2 1 1 1 3 Totals Air/Ground Ratio 8 0 2 1 6 1 2 Air/ground ratios were consistent for repeated counts X2 4.13 a.r , 4 0. 0.05 12 66.7% lArea numbers refer to numbered transects in Figure 2, and (N) or (S) indicates the north or south side of the river where aerial-ground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transect. 1 �-146- Table 2. Aerial estimates of breeding pairs of Canada geese in open lake and pond areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1974. Area 1 Active Breeding Pairs (No. of Active Nests) Estimate from Helicopter Ground Count (Within Count (22 April 1974) One Week of Flight) A B C 1 5 9 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 2 2 1 D E F G,H I L 0 P 30(N) 39(S) Totals Air/Ground Ratio Area 1 25 Air/ground ratios were consistent for repeated counts 2.16 X2 d. f. 11 a 0.05 29 86.2% Act tve Breeding Pairs (No. of Active Nests) Estimate from Fixed-Wing Ground Count (Within Count ( 1 May 1974) One Week of Flight) B,C D P 30(N) Totals Air/Ground Ratio 1 1 5 10 1 0 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 9 1 1 2 17 1 2 1 12 21 Air/ground ratios were consistent for repeated counts 2 3.93 X d. f. 3 a 0.05 61.9% Area letters or numbers refer to lettered or numbered transects in Figure 2, and (N) or (S) indicates the north or south extreme of a river transect where an open lake or pond area was found. �-147- Table 3. Aerial estimates of breeding pairs of Canada geese in open river areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1974. Area 1 Active Breeding Pairs (No. of Active Nests) Estimate from Helicopter Ground Count (Within2 Count (23 April 1974) One Week of Flight) 42 43 44 45 Totals Air/Ground Ratio 1 1 4 2 8 14 57.1% lArea numbers refer to numbered transects in Figure 2. 2Data collected by cooperating observers was not comparable within each separate transect. �-148- Post Brood-rearing Counts The river population of adults and goslings capable of flight was sampled from a fixed-wing count on 22 August 1974 and from helicopter counts on 27 and 28 August 1974. River areas were sampled in two ways. Aerial counts of geese were made within every other transect of sections believed to hold geese (transects 20 through 36, 42 through 45, and 50 through 53), based on recent ground observations. Also, river bottom sections adjacent to the sampled sections were scanned supetficially. If geese were observed on those sections they also were flown and counts included in the survey. Then fixed-wing and helicopter counts of geese on the same river transects and areas (Figure 2) were compared. During 27 and 28 August 1974, helicopter counts of geese were also conducted on all lake and pond transects excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge (Figure 2). The total goose population of the Valley was then estimated from the helicopter counts and reported numbers of geese on the refuge. For helicopter estimates, it was assumed that all geese were seen and accurately counted in all transects and river bottom sections which were sampled. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Delineation of Nesting Habitat Habitats used for nesting included river, lake and pond areas (Figure 5). River bottoms With adjacent ponds or sloughs were preferred along river courses. Lakes and ponds with islands or emergent vegetation were favored open water areas. Although nesting geese were found in many different areas of the Valley, some nesting probably took place in additional areas and was not detected. Possible nesting areas were those where geese were observed b~t nesting was not confirmed during either or both nesting seasons (compare Figures 5 and 6). Areas where many geese were observed, along the Rio Grande River near La Sauses and between Monte Vista and Alamosa, were considered likely nesting areas. Examination from the ground of all possible nesting sites during both nesting seasons was not possible because of the vastness of the study area, and denial of access to certain lands. Potential Nesting Habitat Potential goose nesting habitat was abundant, but some areas are more likely to be used than others. It seems likely that geese would prefer potential areas similar to those in which they actually nested. Therefore, river areas with adjacent sloughs and ponds, and lake and pond areas with emergent vegetation or islands are more attractive than wetlands without those features. �-149- ,~. R 6 E R 5 E R 4E 4~' R7E 25 {o9i II z LN o '"•... " (II LokOS ~MiS/JO" LO"8S i SCALE Lose KILOMETERS a SCALE IN a ..... I E3 F3 ..... Z IV/lisman 16 iE3E3E3E'3 z R.ItE. RIOE Russoll ~Q. ~ N R9E R8E N COo ~ ~ z .. MILES ... 00 5 I I o Center 4~' 45' Dol/or 0 Lase o .. z Head 0 (o) z ~ ~ Lake ~ 2(2) ~(3J~ Son Luis c as« •.'" z RIO GRANDE •... WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA o Monte ·"t Dry Lakes I (3) .•...'" z ~ () & .•'" z 1(1) II ]0' z •.. z •... ...'" •... '" • Approximate nestrnq found on 1973 of nests found in 1974 Number of nests z area z '"'",. (3) Number •• '"•... z .., z '"•... ''"" I~' I~' ..'" ..'" Z z Monosso 0 " R5E R4E R6E R7E. RaE RilE R 9 E. 106°30' Figure 5. Areas where nesting Canada geese San Luis Valley. 1973 and 1974. were found in the �-150- N 15' COLORADO SAN LUIS vALLEY SCALE IN KILOMETERS o 8 H H SCALE IN o I 16 H HI t=1 H 38° 00' MILES ~ 10 F""""SS"'3 Center 45' RIO d)pry LEGEND o -9 -0 GRANDE ~La"{/s Town US 37° 00' Highway State Highway App r ox imote CJ Refuge, ~ Areas 2469 m Contour (8100ft) Management Where Geese Area Were Observed 15' 37° COLORADO NEWMEx'iCO--- -15' Figure 6. on' ---.5' Areas where Canada geese were observed during nesting seasons in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. �-151- Williams and Nelson (1943) described major requirements of good Canada goose-breeding areas as: •• .(1) a browsing area available to nesting birds and to paired adults prior to the season; (2) an aquatic feeding area during the breeding period; (3) a brooding environment of open water and resting banks; (4) molting cover (emergents); (5) a browsing area for broods after they are on the wing (this may be the same as 1); (6) nesting sites isolated from interference; (7) nesting sites providing firm foundations; (8) nesting sites with good to excellent visibility. All these items seem to be essential, or at least very important, in determining breeding populations. Nesting sites are also selected for their proximity to channels and to open ponds that provide avenues to the breeding areas." San Luis Lake lacked adequate nesting sites and most nesting attempts were unsuccessful. Properly maintained, wind-firm structures or man-made, wave-firm islands may increase gosling production there substantially. ~hak Lakes lacked water during the brooding period, and emergents for molting cover were lacking due to non-permanent water. Water wells with adequate flow and properly placed dikes would increase the potential for goose nesting. Dry Lakes was similar to Misrnk Lakes but also lacked nesting sites. There, the Bureau of Land Management, has been developing waterfowl production areas in recent years through manipulation of water, and construction of nesting islands and properly maintained nesting structures. As a result, geese first nested there in 1973 and produced two goslings to flight stage (Tragstaad, unpublished data), and gosling production increased to 14 in 1974 (Strong, unpublished data). The Rio Grande River Canyon from La Sauses to the Colorado-New Mexico state line may, in places, be suitable for geese willing to accept rocky ledges or cliffs as nesting sites. However, use of these sites is not common and the potential for high production within this area is uncertain. Aerial Survey Techniques During aerial surveys of geese, aircraft were flown at various speeds and heights above the ground. The lower heights and slower speeds were favored for observing and counting geese. Others have expressed the need to fly low and slow for efficient aerial surveys (Ballou 1956, Benson 1962). Transects and flight patterns in the Valley were different from those of more extensive waterfowl breeding pair surveys in the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada (Crissey 1957, Kaczynski and Chamberlain 1968). The more extensive aerial surveys were conducted along 0.4 km (0.25 mi) wide transects over which just one pass was made with aircraft, requiring the observers to scan out to 200 m (220 yds) from the aircraft. However, obtaining an index to the size of the fall population was the major objective of each of the studies. �-152- In my study, goose habits and wind conditions were primary factors in deciding the time of day that survey flights were made. During counts of breeding pairs (0730 to 1430 DST) and flightless broods (0800 to 1630 DST), the main concern was to avoid rough air conditions which occurred mostly during afternoons. Throughout the day, both breeding pairs and flightless broods were essentially confined to the wetland areas; and therefore, their movements did not influence time of count. However, post brood-rearing counts were conducted only during midday (1000 to 1330 DST). Geese flew less and spent more time on the water areas during midday than in early mornings or late afternoons. The importance of time-of-day for aerial surveys of waterfowl was also pointed out by others (Ballou 1956, Diem and Lu 1960). Aerial and Ground Survey Comparisons Diem and Lu (1960) pointed out that countability of waterfowl from aerial surveys was influenced by many interacting factors. However, comparisons of counts from air and ground make it possible to correct these influencing factors. Aerial and ground counts, on the same area have been used since 1959 in Canada and the northern U. S. to calculate the proportion of waterfowl observed by aerial crews (Martinson and Kaczynski 1967). The basic assumptions were that the same waterfowl were counted from the air and the ground, and that the ground counts were complete censuses. Results of aerial counts of Canada geese in my study were also evaluated according to comparisons with ground count. Breeding Pair Counts Estimates of breeding pairs from aerial counts best agreed with ground counts on the same areas, within each different habitat using a helicopter. However, estimates in open lake or pond areas and in wooded river areas from both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft produced air/ground ratios that were consistent (Cl. = 0.05) for repeated counts (Tables 1 and 2). The estimate of breeding pairs from the helicopter on open river areas agreed less with the ground count on the same areas than other aerial estimates on different habitats (compare Tables 1 and 2 with 3). Chi-square tests were not possible for aerial estimates in open river areas due to lack of specific ground count data in each transect of the helicopter count (Table 3). Results of aerial breeding pair estimates and ground comparison counts (Tables 1 and 2) indicated that aerial estimates without correction from helicopter counts in wooded area, and fixed-wing or helicopter estimates with correction in different habitats were similar to ground counts. Accordingly, these data could be used reliably for annual estimates of breeding pairs. My results of the helicopter estimate and ground count on open river transects indicated that the aerial count in that type of habitat was the least accurate �-153- of all aerial estimates of breeding pairs on different habitats (Tables 1, 2 and 3). The open river transects which were counted from air and ground held vast areas of preferred nesting habitat as opposed to more concentrated areas of preferred nesting habitat in other types of transects. Also, these transects occurred on the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge and I was unfamiliar with the area having personally collected no ground data. Therefore, it was possible that by not knowing where to concentrate observations in these transects, that the air/ground ratio of breeding pairs was not similar to air/ground ratios in other habitat types, when counting from a helicopter. I was confident that the ground counts of breeding pairs were accurate and complete within each area of comparison with aerial counts. This was because nesting geese were confined to a specific site until termination of nesting, and the status of most active nests did not change between aerial and ground coverages. This allowed time for thorough ground searches in several different areas. Brood Counts Aerial counts of flightless goslings and adults varied greatly from ground counts. Air/ground ratios were inconsistent (a = 0.05) for repeated counts with both aircraft types in both open and wooded areas during both years (Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7) and indicated that aerial counts could not be corrected to compare with ground counts and that these data could not be used reliably for annual productivity estimates. Post Brood-rearing Counts Counts from fixed-wing aircraft of geese capable of flight varied from ground counts (Tables 8 and 9). Air/ground ratios were consistent (a = 0.05) for repeated counts only in the 1974 counts in open areas (Table 9). No data comparing counts from helicopter with ground counts were collected since many geese counted from the air flew out of the counting area before ground counts could be made. Thus, only counts from fixed-wing airsraft in open areas could be corrected to compare with ground counts and that only these data could be used reliably for annual estimates of goslings and adults combined. The ground comparison counts of geese during the brood-rearing period and post brood-rearing period were not reliable. The flightless geese were restricted in movement but were secretive and many times not heard or seen in the dense vegetation of brood-rearing areas. This was especially true for ground observers who were unfamiliar with the study areas. Many times, if I had not known from prior observations that flightless goslings and adults were probably in a certain area, more geese would have gone unnoticed. Geese capable of flight were easier to see and count, but their mobility made comparisons of aerial-ground counts unreliable. The ground observer(s) could never be certain that individuals had not left or joined a group of geese unless ground and aerial counts were simultaneous. Unfortunately, only three comparison counts of geese capable of flight were simultaneous (Tables 8 and 9). �Table 4. Fixed-wing counts of flightless Canada geese in wooded areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. Area 1 22(S) 23(S) 29(S) 30(S) 32 (S) 33(S) 34(N) Fixed-wing Count Adults Goslings Date 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 Sub-totals 2 Ground Count Adults Goslin~s 14 14 22 25 31 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 113 03 03 03 03 03 2 753 03 03 03 03 03 3 114 0 l3 78 Air/Ground Adults Percentage Goslings Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts 2 X = 6.69 X2 = 76.09 d.E. = 1 d.E. = 1 CI. CI. = 0.01 = 0.005 876.9 0.0 I •...• .,.. '-J1 30(S) 25(S) 27(S) 22(S) 23 (S) 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June Sub-totals 74 74 74 74 74 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 12 10 6 0 14 10 10 26 0 10 15 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts X2 = 29.11 X2 = 43.48 d.f. = 3 d.f. = 3 CI. = 0.005 CI. = 0.005 5 12 40 61 12.5 19.8 lArea numbers refer to numbered transects in Figure 2, and (N) or (S) indicates the north or south side of the river where aerial-ground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transect. 2Ground counts were simultaneous with aerial counts or within 4 hours. 3Ground counts were not made by observers who made respective aerial counts. I �Table 5. Fixed-wing counts of flightless Canada geese in open areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. Area 1 B,C E,F G,H I M Fixed-wins Count Adults Goslinss Date 30 May 73 30 May 73 30 May 73 30 May 73 18 June 73 Sub-totals B,C E,F G,H 30(N) 18 June 18 June 18 June 18 June Sub-totals 74 74 74 74 2 Ground Count Goslings Adults Air/Ground Adults Percentase Goslings 56 0 27 3 36 20 0 0 0 0 70 0 43 5 3 67 53 0 0 0 3 35 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts = 53.94 X2 2 = 22.52 X d.L = 1 d.L = 3 a. = 0.005 a. = 0.005 122 20 185 88 65.9 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts = 12.22 X2 2 = 79.70 X d.L = 3 d.L = 3 a. a. = 0.01 = 0.005 19 34 10 0 28 2 0 0 46 35 81 4 34 1 63 30 166 48 5 8 37.9 22.7 62.5 1Area numbers or letters refer to lettered or numbered transects in Figure 2, and (N) indicates the north side of the river where aerial-ground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transect. 2Ground counts were simultaneous with aerial counts, or within 4 hours on river bottom transects, or within 1 day on isolated lake and pond areas. 3Ground counts were not made by observers who made respective aerial counts. I •.... VI VI I �Table 6. Helicopter counts of flightless Canada geese in wooded areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1974. 1 Area Date 6(N) 6(N) 21(S) 22(S) 22(S) 23(S) 25(S) 25(S) 30(S) 11 June 74 12 June 74 11 June 74 11 June 74 12 June 74 11 June 74 11 June 74 12 June 74 11 June 74 Sub-totals Helicopter Count Adults Goslings 2 Ground Count Adults Goslings Air/Ground Adults Percentage Goslings 03 53 2 113 103 83 03 0 6 03 133 0 103 93 113 03 0 5 5 5 2 11 11 84 6 6 12 14 14 4 10 10 134 26 26 18 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts X2 = 16.90 X2 = 75.02 d.f. = 8 d.f. = 8 a = 0.05 a = 0.005 42 48 66 135 63.6 35.6 lArea numbers refer to numbered transects in Figure 2, and (N) or (S) indicates the north or south side of the river where aerial-ground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transect. 2Ground counts were simultaneous with aerial counts, or within 4 hours on river bottom transects, or within 1 day on isolated lake and pond areas. 3Aerial counts on same areas on different dates were by different observers. 4 Ground count shown was by observer who was familiar with the habitat, and the ground count of same area by observer unfamiliar with the habitat was 0 adults and 0 goslings. I •.... Ln 0\. I �Table 7. Helicopter counts of flightless Canada geese in open areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1974. Area 1 B C E L M 0 30(N) HelicoEter Count Adults Goslings Date 10 June 10 June 10 June 10 June 10 June 10 June 10 June Sub-totals 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 2 Ground Count Goslings Adults Air/Ground Adults Percentage Goslings 5 18 12 0 15 2 0 12 21 4 0 0 3 0 10 26 8 0 27 2 3 14 44 4 0 13 3 6 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts X2 = 28.87 = 12.83 X2 d.L = 5 d.L = 5 a a = 0.005 = 0.05 52 40 76 84 68.4 47.6 .....I lArea numbers or letters refer to lettered or numbered transects in Figure 2, and (N) indicates the north side of the river where aerial-ground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transect. 2Ground counts were simultaneous with aerial counts, or within 4 hours on river bottom transects, or within 1 day on isolated lake and pond areas. \.II -...J I �-158- Table 8. Fixed-wing counts of Canada geese capable of flight in wooded areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. Area 1 22(S) 22(S) 22(S) 31(N) 32(S) 37(N) Flight Date 9 Jul 13 Aug 22 Aug 15 Aug 15 Aug 22 Aug 73 73 73 73 73 73 Sub-totals 30(S) 31(N) 34(N) M 23 Aug 23 Aug 23 Aug 23 Aug Sub-totals 74 74 74 74 Counts Fixed-wing Ground 2 Air/Ground Percentage 39 19 10 26 47 118 119 120 16 66 93 151 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts 2 192.06 X d. f. 5 a. 0.005 259 565 45.8 273 353 6 o 20 17 20 105 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts X2 74.54 d.f. 2 a. 0.005 70 160 43.8 lArea numbers or letters refer to numbered or lettered transects in Figure 2, and (N) or (S) indicates the north or south side of the river where aerialground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transects. 2 Ground counts were simultaneous with aerial counts, or within 4 hours. 3Aerial and ground counts were simultaneous. �-159- Table 9. Fixed-wing counts of Canada geese capable of flight in open areas compared with ground counts on the same areas in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. Area 1 M M Q 30(N) 30(N) Flight Date 13 Aug 15 Aug 9 Ju1 13 Aug 15 Aug 73 73 73 73 73 Sub-totals M N N 31(S) 34(N) 35(N) 23 Aug 74 23 Aug 74 23 Aug 74 23 Aug 74 23 Aug 74 23 Aug 74 Sub-totals Counts Fixed-win~ Ground 49 86 25 22 25 75 75 28 20 7 Air/ground ratios were not consistent for repeated counts 54.23 X2 d .f. 4 a. 0.005 207 205 101.0 183 923 10 30 37 28 20 1103 123 31 34 42 Air/ground ratios were consistent for repeated counts X2 7.61 d.f. 5 a. 0.05 215 249 86.3 2 Air/Ground Percenta~e 1Area numbers or letters refer to numbered or lettered transects in Figure 2, and (N) or (S) indicates the north or south side of the river where aeria1ground comparisons were made which did not include the entire transect. 2Ground counts were simultaneous with aerial counts, or within 4 hours. 3Aeria1 and ground counts were simultaneous. �-160- Aerial Population Surveys Breeding Pair Counts From helicopter counts on 22 and 23 April 1974 (Figure 2), 115 breeding pairs with active nests were estimated to be in the Valley, excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; 76 breeding pairs were estimated on the river systems and 39 on the lake and pond areas. This count included estimates on open river transects where reliability of aerial counts had not been thoroughly evaluated and, therefore, left in doubt. However, geese were only found in such transects within the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge, and the estimate from aerial counts was corrected through ground counts by refuge personnel. Therefore, the breeding pair estimate from helicopter counts was consider~d reliable, though valid statistical confidence intervals were not calculated due to sampling procedure. Excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, 730 breeding and nonbreeding geese were estimated to be in the Valley from the same helicopter counts, with 170 geese on lake and pond areas and 560 on river areas. Including refuge estimates (Bryant, unpublished data), total geese numbered approximately 1,030 in the entire San Luis Valley. Estimates of geese other than breeding pairs were not compared with ground counts and not evaluated as to reliability. It seemed that during the aerial count, most geese which were present on each sa~pled transect were seen and counted. The dormant and matted vegetation during this season allowed most of the surface area of the transects to be scanned. Also, geese seen and counted were not recounted in other transects because geese that flushed would circle and soon return to the same general area. Therefore, I believed that the estimate of total geese, from helicopter counts on 22 and 23 April 1974, was valid. Counting within every transect of certain sections of river bottom from the helicopter was tedious for both the observer and the pilot. The continual zigzagging pattern of flight and scanning for geese during long periods also hindered the observer's judgement of where different transect boundaries laid. I believe that counting within every other transect would have been easier and less confusing. Post Brood-rearing Counts Counts from fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft, on the same river transects (Figure 2), of adults and goslings capable of flight were different. Geese seen during the fixed-wing count of 22 August 1974 totaled 271. Geese seen during the helicopter counts of 27 and 28 August 1974 totaled 368. The operation of the helicopter usually caused geese to fly from its path, and geese were, therefore, seen and counted in flight. The fixed-wing aircraft did not usually flush the geese, and many were, therefore, seen and counted on the ground. Possibly this explains why more geese were seen using a helicopter. Counts from the helicopter of the same areas of river and additional lake and pond transects totaled 438, resulting in an estimate of 625 geese on all areas excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. Including �-161- refuge counts at this time (Cornelius, unpublished data), total geese numbered approximately 875 in the entire San Luis Valley. These estimates were based on the assumption that all geese within sample transects were seen and accurately counted. However, reliability of this type of survey was not evaluated, and the reliability of the estimates was, therefore, uncertain. Counts within every other transect of certain sections of river bottom from the helicopter were conducted. This method was less fatiguing for observer and pilot and seemingly more practical than the method used in the earlier breeding pair population survey on river bottoms. Nesting and Gosling Mortality Studies Nesting Chronology In 1973 and 1974, the earliest possible initiations of egg-laying were 24 and 18 March, the latest were 15 and 2 May, and the two-week peaks of initiation of egg-laying were 26 March through 8 April and 23 March through 5 April, respectively. Average temperatures during March and 0 April were approximately 10 C (340 F) in 1973 and 40 C (39 F) in 1974. In 1973 and 1974, the earliest possible hatching dates were 29 and 23 April, the latest were 20 and 7 June, and the two-week peaks of hatching were 1 May through 14 May and 27 April through 10 May, respectively. Brakhage (1965) defined the interval between the laying of the first egg and the hatching of the last successful nest as the nesting period. The nesting periods for 1973 and 1974 were, therefore, approximately 89 and 82 days, respectively. By comparing initiation dates and lengths of nesting periods of Canada geese in different areas of North America (Table 10), certain trends can be detected. Generally, nesting starts earlier and lasts longer in southern latitudes than in northern latitudes. However, there are exceptions to both trends, such as the results of my two-year study (Table 10). Nesting Sites During both years of field study, 160 nests were found, 108 on natural sites and 52 on artificial structures. Of the 108 nests on natural sites, 51 nests (47.2 percent) were located in emergent vegetation of bulrush or cattails, 38 nests (35.2 percent) were on islands of lakes, ponds or rivers, 18 nests (16.7 percent) were on mainland near water and one nest (0.9 percent) was in a duck blind built over water. Nest bases consisted of bare ground for 53 nests (49.1 percent), muskrat houses for 29 nests (26.9 percent), matted vegetation for 22 nests (20.4 percent), haystacks for two nests (1.9 percent), an abandoned magpie nest for one nest (0.9 percent), and a wooden platform for one nest (0.9 percent) (Table 11). �Table 10. Initiation North America. dates and lengths of nesting periods for Canada geese at different areas in -Location California Colorado Colorado California Montana Colorado Colorado Illinois Illinois Colorado Idaho Wyoming Utah Idaho Manitoba Area DescriEtion AEEroximate Altitude N. Latitude 1212 m (4,OCO f t ) 1545 m (5,100 ft) 1545 m (5,100 ft) 1212 m (4,000 ft) 758 m (2,500 ft) 2303 m (7,600 ft) 1606 m (5,300 ft) 242 m ( 800 ft) 242 m ( 800 ft) 2303 m (7,600 ft) 1970 m (6,500 ft) 1970 m (6,500 ft) 1273 m (4,200 ft) 1970 m (6,500 ft) 242 m ( 800 ft) Nesting Period Initiation Length (Earliest) (Da:t:s) Year (s) Reference 40° 1 March 71 1939-40 Dow (1943) 41° 7 March 100 1968 Will (1969) 41° 12 March 88 1967 Will (1969) 42° 15 March 83 1952 Miller and Collins 48° 15 March 72 1953-54 Geis (1956) (1953) I •.... 0\ N I 37° 18 March 82 1974 This study 40° 21 March 91 1966 Szymczak (1967) 42° 23 March 68 1946 Kossack (1950) 42° 24 March 61 1945 Kossack (1950) 37° 24 March 89 1973 This study 43° 1 April 70 1951 Steel, Dalke and Bizeau (1957) 43° 1 April 61 1947 Craighead and Craighead (1949) 41° 3 April 62 1937 Williams and Marshall 43° 6 April 79 1950 Steel, Dalke and Bizeau 51° 9 April 61 1955 Klopman (1958) (1937) (1957) �-163- Table 11. Natural sites and bases of Canada goose nests on San Luis Valley study areas, 1973 and 1974. 1974 % of No. of Nests Nests 1973 % of No. of Nests Nests 1973 and 1974 % of No. of Nests Nests Nest Site Emergent vegetation 25 (56.8) 26 (40.6) 51 (47.2) Islands 14 (31.8) 24 (37.5) 38 (35.2) Mainland 4 ( 9.1) 14 (21.9) 18 (16.7) Duck blind 1 ( 2.3) 0 ( 0.0) 1 ( 0.9) Totals 44 (100.0) 64 (100.0) 108 (100.0) Nest Bases Bare ground 16 (36.4) 37 (57.8) 53 (49.1) Muskrat houses 10 (22.7) 19 (29.7) 29 (26.9) Matted vegetation 15 (34.1) 7 (10.9) 22 (20.4) Hay stacks 2 ( 4.5) 0 ( 0.0) 2 ( 1.9) Magpie nests 0 ( 0.0) 1 ( 1.6) 1 ( 0.9) Wooden platform 1 ( 2.3) 0 ( 0.0) 1 ( 0.9) Totals 44 (100.0) 64 (100.0) 108 (100.1) �Table 13. Nesting success of Canada geese in different habitats areas excluding national wildlife refuges, 1973 and 1974. I 1973 Habitat ·2 Wooded Both and sites of the San Luis Valley study Open 1974 Habitat Wooded Both 1973 and 1974 Habitat Both Open Wooded Nest Site Open Artificial Structures No. of nests No. successful % successful 7 3 42.9% 22 0 0.0% 29 3 10.3% 5 4 80.0% 18 4 22.2% 23 8 34.8% 12 7 58.3% 40 4 10.0% 52 11 21.2% Natural Sites No. of nests No. successful % successful 35 19 54.3% 9 5 55.5% 44 24 54.5% 42 27 64.3% 22 9 40.9% 64 36 56.3% 77 46 59.7% 31 14 45.2% 108 60 55.6% • aa- • Total .(Both Sites) No. of nests No. successful % successful 1Open habitat 42 22 52.4% 31 5 16.1% 73 27 40.0% 47 31 66.0% 40 13 32.5% 87 44 50.6% had 10 or fewer large trees within 100 m (328 ft) radius of the nest. 2Wooded habitat had 10 or more large trees within 100 m (328 ft) radius of the nest. 89 53 59.6% 71 18 25.4% 160 71 44.4% �-167- Nesting success was evaluated on the Rio Grande Wildlife Management Area during 1973 and 1974. I found 23 nests each year, all of which were in wooded river bottom habitat. Thirty-six of the 46 nests were on artificial standing structures over water or land and 29 (80.6 percent) nests on structures were destroyed. All structures were the type with four steel posts holding three and one-half bales of hay or straw (Grieb and Crawford 1967). I suspected the cause of destruction to be probably raccoon damage or possibly magpie damage. In one case a goose was found dead beneath a destroyed nest on a structure. Raccoons were probably capable of grasping the steel posts of the structures and climbing to the nests. Magpie destruction was possible if the nesting geese had left their eggs unattended for a short while. Personnel of the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges contributed data for 160 additional nests in 1973 and 1974, 93 on natural sites and 67 on artificial structures (Bryant and Ziegler, unpublished data). Ninety-five nests (59.4 percent) of the 160 nests were successful. Forty-six (49.5 percent) of the nests on natural sites were successful while 49 (73.1 percent) of the nests on artificial structures were successful (Table 14). Nests were located predominately in open habitat. On the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge in 1973 and 1974, 13 nests were successful, 8 nests were destroyed and 3 nests were deserted (Ziegler, unpublished data). All nests were found on natural sites in 1973, and all nests were found on elevated, artificial structtures which were designed to defend nests from ground predators in 1974. The destroyed nests were on natural sites and destruction was attributed to raccoons (Ziegler, personal communications). On the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in 1973, 52 nests were successful, 17 nests were destroyed and 10 nests were deserted (Sarvis, unpublished data). Nine nests were destroyed by mammals and 8 nests by birds. Magpies were believed to be the avian predators (Bryant, personal communications). Success was calculated for nests active during the aerial-ground comparison counts of breeding pairs. Of nests active on 22 and 23 April 1974, 60.0 percent in wooded river areas, 75.9 percent in open lake and pond areas and 92.9 percent in open river areas were successful. Of nests active on 1 May 1974, 75.0 percent in wooded river areas and 80.9 percent in open lake and pond areas were successful. Peak of hatching was estimated to begin on 27 April 1974, an intermediate date between those expressed above. Therefore, I assumed the success of active nests at the beginning of peak hatch in 1974 to be approximately midway between those percentages calculated for the above different dates (68 percent in wooded river areas, 78 percent in open lake and pond areas, and at least 93 percent in open river areas). Calculations of success for nests which were active on certain dates may be useful for estimating total successful nests from aerial breeding pair counts. It is important to note that in respective areas, the relative success of nests active at the later date was higher than nests which were active earlier. Nests nearing hatching dates had decreasing chances of disaster. �Table 14. Nesting success of Canada geese in different sites of predominately open habitats 1 of the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges in the San Luis Valley, 1973 and 1974. Nest Site MVNWR2 1973 Refuge ANWR3 Artificial Structures No. of nests No. successful % successful 28 21 75.0% 0 0 0.0% 28 21 75.0% 24 15 62.5% 15 13 86.7% 39 28 71.8% 52 36 69.2% 15 13 86.7% 67 49 73.1% Natural Structures No. of nests No. successful % successful 51 31 60.8% 9 0 0.0% 60 31 51. 7% 33 15 45.5% 0 0 0.0% 33 15 45.5% 84 46 54.8% 9 0 0.0% 93 46 49.5% 15 13 86.7% 72 43 59.7% 136 82 60.3% 24 13 54.2% 160 95 59.4% Total (Both Sites) No. of nests No. successful % successful 79 52 65.8% 9 0 0.0% Both 88 52 59.1% MVNWR 1974 Refuge AmJR Both 1973 and 1974 Refuge MVNWR ANWR Both 57 30 52.6% lOpen habitat had 10 or less large trees within 100 m (328 ft) radius of the nest. 2MVNWR stands for Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. 3ANWR stands for Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge. I I-' ~ 00 I �-169- Clutch Sizes Clutch sizes in all 85 completed nests found ranged from 1 to 8 eggs with a mean of 4.9. Mean clutch size in 52 successful nests was 5.0 and in 33 unsuccessful nests was 4.9 (Table 15). Data from the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge in 1974 were included in these results (Ziegler, unpublished data). Canada geese lay an average of five eggs per clutch, but sometimes lay as few as one egg or as many as ten (Williams 1967). Hatching Success Hatching success in both years of the study was estimated to be 87 percent with a mean hatch of 4.3 eggs in 84 successful nests. Hatching success was estimated to be 46 percent with a mean hatch of 2.3 eggs in 175 successful and unsuccessful nests. Data from the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge in 1974 were included in these results (Ziegler, unpublished data). Estimated hatching success on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in 1973 was 52 percent with a mean hatch of 2.3 eggs in 79 successful and unsuccessful nests (Sarvis, unpublished data). Of 52 abandoned, unhatched eggs in otherwise successful nests, 26 (50.0 percent) were infertile or with embryos which died within the first nine days of development and 26 (50.0 percent) were fertile. Assuming only 26 of the abandoned eggs were actually fertile, infertility and embryonic death of eggs were each approximately 6 percent in successful nests and 3 percent in all nests. Of 88 abandoned, unopened eggs in deserted nests, 38 (43.2 percent) were infertile or with embryos which had died within the first nine days of development and 50 (56.8 percent) were fertile. Eggs in these deserted nests accounted for approximately 10 percent of the eggs laid in all nests. Of 8 abandoned, unopened eggs in otherwise destroyed nests, 6 (75.0 percent) were infertile or with embryos within the first nine days of development and 2 (25.0 percent) were fertile. Unbroken eggs in these nests accounted for approximately 1 percent of the eggs laid in all nests. The above estimates of abandoned eggs totaled 17 percent of all eggs in all nests. Failure of remaining eggs which did not hatch (37 percent of all eggs) was attributed to egg destruction. However, some of the failure apparently due to destruction may have resulted because eggs were first deserted and then destroyed. Gosling Mortality Two methods of estimating mortalities of goslings were compared using results (Table 16) of studies on different, isolated areas (Figure 4). Overall gosling mortality between hatching and flight stage was estimated to be 16 percent by comparing periodic ground counts of goslings, and 31 percent by comparing estimated numbers of eggs hatched and latest ground counts of goslings. �-170- Table 15. Clutch sizes of Canada goose nests in San Luis Valley study areas, 1973 and 1974.1 Year Successful Nests Unsuccessful Nests All Nests 22 4.8 5 2-7 18 5.3 6 3-8 40 5.1 5 2-8 30(18)2 5.1 15 4.3 45(33)2 4.8 1973 n mean mode range 1974 n mean mode range 6 4 6 1-7 1-7 1-7 52(40)2 5.0 5 s 6 1-7 33 4.9 85 (77) 2 4.9 6 1-8 Both Years n mean mode range 6 1-8 1 Data from the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge in 1974 were included. 2 Mean was calculated from larger number of nests; other descriptive st~tistics were based on smaller number of nests ,.in parenthesis, because data reported by cooperating observers were not usable for all calculations. �-171- Table 16. Observed and estimated gosling mortality of Canada geese between hatching and flight stage in San Luis Valley study areas, 1973 and 1974. Year No. of Eggs 2 Hatched Highest Count of Goslings Lowest Count of Goslings Estimated 3 Mortalit~ Observed 4 Mortalit~ A 1973 1974 61 99 58 72 51 44 16% 56% 12% 39% B 1973 1974 8 13 7 9 4 9 50% 31% 43% 0% C 1973 1974 4 13 3 14 2 14 50% - 7% 33% 0% D 1973 1974 11 4 4 10 4 0% 9% 0% 1973 1974 4 4 3 4 3 25% 0% 0% 1973 1974 4 5 4 5 4 0% 0% 0% Area E F 1 G 1973 24 22 8% H 1973 2 2 0% I 1973 15 15 0% J 1974 31 28 26 16% 7% K 1974 13 13 13 0% 0% L 1974 9 9 8 11% 11% 285 240 Comparable Observed Mortality Comparable Esti- 263 mated Mortality 182 16% 31% 1 Letters refer to areas in Figure 4. 2 Number of eggs hatched was estimated by multiplying number of successful nests in the area times mean number of eggs hatched in all successful nests in that year. 3Estimated mortality based on estimated number of eggs hatched and latest count of goslings. 40bserved mortality based on earliest and latest counts of goslings. �-172- Most gosling mortality is believed to take place early in life (Williams 1967). In counting goslings early in the season for the best estimate of total goslings hatched, some mortality had probably already occurred. Therefore, I believed that my mortality figures which included only periodic counts of goslings were less reliable than the mortality figures which included estimates of numbers of goslings that had hatched in certain areas (Table 15). LITERATURE CITED Ballou, R. M. 1956. Nesting, distribution and mortality studies of Canada geese. Wyoming Fish and Game Comm. P-R Proj. Completion Rep., W-50-R-5. pp. 47-77. Benson, D. A. 1962. Use of aerial surveys by the Canadian Wildlife Service. Canadian Wildl. Servo Occas. Pap. 3. 35 pp. Brakhage, G. K. 1965. Biology and behavior of tub-nesting Canada geese. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(4):751-771. Cooper, J. A., and B. D. Batt. 1972. Criteria for aging giant Canada goose embryos. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1267-1270. Craighead, F. C., Jr., and J. J. Craighead. 1949. Nesting Canada geese on the upper Snake River. J. Wildl. Manage. 13(1):51-64. Crissey, W. F. 1957. Forecasting waterfowl harvest by flyways. Am. Wildl. Conf. 22:256-268. Trans. N. Diem, K. L., and K. H. Lu. 1960. Factors influencing waterfowl censuses in the parklands, Alberta, Canada. J. Wildl. Manage. 24(2):113-133. Dow, J. S. 1943. A study of nesting Canada geese in Honey Lake Valley, California. California Fish and Game 29(1):3-18. Geis, M. B. 1956. Productivity of Canada geese in the Flathead Valley, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 20(4):409-419. Grieb, J. R., and G. I. Crawford. 1967. Nesting structures for Canada geese. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Game Information Leafl. 48. 4 pp. Kaczynski, C. F., and E. B. Chamberlain. 1968. Aerial surveys of Canada geese and black ducks in eastern Canada. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sei. Rep. Wi1dl. 118. 29 pp. Kerbes, R. J., M. A. Ogilvie, and H. Boyd. 1971. Pink-footed geese of Iceland and Greenland; a population review based on an aerial survey of Thorsarver in June, 1970. Wildfowl 22:5-17. Klopman, R. B. Manitoba. 1958. The nesting of the Canada goose at Dog Lake, Wilson Bull. 70(2):168-183. �-173- LITERATURE CITED (continued) Kossack, C. W. 1950. Breeding habits of the Canada goose under refuge conditions. Am. MidI. Nat. 43(3):627-649. Lowry, D. G. 1973. Investigation of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. pp. 125-136. Martinson, R. K., and C. F. Kaczynski. 1967. Factors influencing waterfowl counts on aerial surveys, 1961-1966. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 105. 78 pp. Miller, A. W., and B. D. Collins. 1953. A nesting study of Canada geese on Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges, Siskiyou County, California. California Fish and Game 39(3):385-396. Steel, P. E., P. D. Dalke, and E. G. Bizeau. 1957. Canada goose production at Gray's Lake, Idaho, 1949-1951. J. Wildl. Manage. 21(1):38-41. Szymczak, M. R. 1967. Breeding biology of Canada geese of the Metro-Denver area. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ. 83 pp. Will, G. C. 1969. Productivity of Canada geese in Larimer County, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ. 144 pp. Williams, C. S. 1967. N.J. 179 pp , Honker. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princeton, , and W. H. Marshall. 1937. Goose nesting studies on Bear River -----Migratory Waterfowl Refuge. J. Wildl. Manage. 1(3-4):77-86. , and M. C. Nelson. Prepared by 1943. Canada goose nests and eggs. ~~.~Dennis G. Lowry Graduate Student Auk 60(3):341-345. ��-175October, 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO -----------------------------W-88-R-ZO Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Bird Investigations 3 6 Investigation of Mallard Management Units of Eastern Colorado Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 S. Bissell, J. Carsella, G. Claassen, R. Clark, J. Corey, D. Coven, C. Crawford, M. DePra, R. Desilet, G. East, M. Elkins, G. Eyre, R. Forbes, H. Funk, A. Hemmert, J. Hicks, G. Lorentzson, R. Mason, K. Miller, R. Oakleaf, B. Peterson, F. Rinella, Jr., R. Rouse, W. Russell, G. Saville, H. Spear, S. Steinert, M. Szymczak, K. Wagner, C. Wetherill, and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT Post-season mallard trapping efforts resulted in the banding of 6,558 birds in nine management units of eastern Colorado during the winter of 1974-75. Banding quotas of 800-1,000 mallards were reached in all units except for those in the Arkansas Valley. The January inventory of mallards in eastern Colorado (28l,972) was well above that of the previous year. November and December counts were incomplete. Banding and recovery tapes were obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory for mallards banded post-season from the winter of 1963-64 through the winter of 1971-72, and for those recovered through the 1972-73 hunting season.· Over 51,000 mallards were banded during this period, resulting in nearly 4,400 recoveries. Some major conclusions regarding the geographic distribution of mallard band recoveries include: (1) eastern Colorado was the main recovery location for all four age and sex classes, (2) males were less likely to be recovered in Canada than females, and (3) adult males were more likely to be recovered in eastern Colorado and the High Plains Region as a whole than any other age and sex class. Mean survival rates were high for both sexes, being about 75 percent for males and 66 percent for females. There appeared to be no difference in recovery or survival rates between immature and adult birds. The mean life span for males was estimated at 3.43 years and at 2.28 years for females. ��-177- INVESTIGATION OF MALLARD ~~GEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes aerial survey and post-season banding activities during Segment 20 as part of the study of terminal wintering populations of mallards in eastern Colorado. Also included is progress made on the analysis of band recovery data. Past contributions of this study as part of a cooperative endeavor with other Central Flyway States, were reviewed in a previous report (Hopper 1973). P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for eastern Colorado management units. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To determine mortality rates for wintering mallards in each of nine eastern Colorado study areas from banding data collected during the 1963-64 through 1973-74 hunting seasons. 2. To determine the feasibility of requesting special hunting regulations for individual mallard management units within Colorado. 3. To trap, band, age, and sex samples of mallards during winter in each management unit of study, based on results of final analysis, of sufficient size to allow adequate monitoring of each population. METHODS AND MATERIALS Banding and recovery tapes were requested from the Bird Banding Laboratory in April 1974. Specifications for these tapes were: Banding tape - only normal, wild-caught mallards banded under permit no. 6529 in Colorado east of longitude 1050 30' during December, January and February of 1963-64 through 1971-72. Recovery tape - only recoveries from mallard bandings specified for above banding tape, recovered anywhere, and shot and/or found dead during September 1 through January 31 of the 1964-65 through 1972-73 hunting seasons. These tapes were received in May 1974 and existing computer programs were employed under contract with Colorado State University to produce desired printouts of numbers banded, recovery tables, and recovery distributions. Computer programs designed to make survival rate estimates of bird populations using methods developed by Brownie and Robson (1974), Seber (1970) �-178- and Robson and Youngs (1971) are not yet available for general use. However, we were fortunate to have Dr. David Anderson, Office of Migratory Bird Management, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, run our recovery data through these programs. Thus, we now have survival rate estimates by sex and management unit for mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado. Trapping and banding methods and banding locations remained the same as in last segment (Hopper 1974). Periodic aerial censuses were conducted using a Cessna 185 aircraft and 1-2 observers. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Banding quotas of 800-1,000 mallards were set for each waterfowl management unit of northeastern Colorado (1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 9) and for all units in the Arkansas Valley combined (10-13)(Fig. 1). These quotas were met in all cases, however, as in most years, age and sex ratios in the banded samples were not always desirable (Table 1). Trapping efforts resulted in the banding of 6,558 mallards, or about 1,000 more, than last year (Table 1). Most samples were easily obtained, despite generally mild weather conditions. Winter Aerial Surveys Dates and results of periodic aerial counts are shown by management unit in Table 2. The November and Decembe~ surveys were incomplete because of the absence of data in some units. Thus, totals for all units combined are rather meaningless except for the January inventory. The January count of 1975 (281,972) was considerably above those of the past two years, but interpretation of results between years is difficult at best. Analysis of Band Recovery Data This preliminary analysis of band recovery data for eastern Colorado wintering mallards was based on bandings from the winter of 1963-64 through the winter of 1971-72 and on recoveries from the 1964-65 through 1972-73 hunting seasons. Table 3 presents a tabulation of numbers of birds banded during this period by age, sex and management unit. Samples were quite small for units in the Arkansas Valley (10-13). As a result, this analysis combined these units and treated the Arkansas Valley as one unit in most cases. Samples of females were nearly always smaller than those for males, largely because: (1) trapping techniques were mostly selective toward males, and (2) females represented a smaller segment than males in the overall population of mallards wintering in eastern Colorado. �" « 0: z �Table 1. 1974-75. Numbers and percentages of mallards in the banded sample by location, age and sex, eastern Colorado, Management Unit Number Banded (1) Sterling-Julesburg Adults Males Females Number Percent Number Percent Immatures Males Females Number Percent Number Percent 986 292 29.6 193 19.6 286 29.0 215 21.8 (2) Ft. Morgan-Sterling 894 248 27.8 135 15.1 289 32.3 222 24.8 (3) Greeley-Ft. Morgan 848 249 29.4 155 18.2 288 34.0 156 18.4 825 245 29.7 254 30.8 178 21.6 148 17.9 1,022 251 24.6 247 24.2 266 26.0 258 25.2 (4) Ft. Collins (6) Denver-Greeley (9) Bonny Reservoir (Ll) Two Buttes Reservoir (12) Rocky Ford-Lamar (13) Pueblo-Rocky Ford Totals 993 259 26.1 216 21.7 250 25.2 268 27.0 600 120 20.0' 80 13.3 172 28.7 228 38.0 90 50 55.6 12 13.3 17 18.9 11 12.2 300 141 47.0 57 19.0 50 16.7 52 17.3 6,558 1,855 28.3 1,349 20.6 1,796 27.4 1,558 23.7 I •....• 00 0 I �-181- Table 2. Aerial duck counts by date interval and study unit, eastern Colorado, 1974-75. Management November 4 Unit Number of Ducks Counted December December January 11 23 7-8 (1) Sterling-Julesburg 17,000 54,013 44,656 (2) Ft. Morgan-Sterling 7,800 37,665 13,823 (3) Greeley-Ft. 16,800 4,104 20,485 54,880 (4) Ft. Collins 29,425 28,491 46,965 69,208 (6) Denver-Greeley 6,800 15,076 14,745 39,545 Morgan (9) Bonny Reservoir 35,000 (10-13) Arkansas Valley 9,950 (15) San Luis Valley 14,910 Totals 77,825 47,671 173,873 281,972 �-182- Table 3. Winter bandings of eastern Colorado mallards, un L t , 1963-64 through 1971-72. Number of Mallards by age, sex and Adult Banded Females Immature Total Grand Total 4,066 970 1,542 2,512 6,578 1,881 4,502 1,367 1,300 2,667 7,169 2,274 1,857 4,131 1,364 1,733 3,097 7,228 7,024 5,675 12,699 3,701 4,575 8,276 20,975 2,012 2,000 4,012 1,236 1,778 3,014 7,026 2,449 2,093 4,542 1,457 1,744 3,201 7,743 2,714 1,898 4,612 1,176 1,545 2,721 7,333 7,175 5,991 13,166 3,869 5,067 8,936 22,102 398 444 842 192 379 571 1,413 188 151 339 375 330 705 1,044 1,441 905 2,346 756 699 1,455 3,801 782 399 1,181 380 347 727 1,908 Totals (10-13) 2,809 1,899 4,708 1,685 1,755 3,458 8,166 Grand Total 17,008 13,565 30,573 9,255 11 ,397 20,670 51,243 Unit of Banding 1 2 9 Totals (1-2-9) 3 4 6 Totals (3-4-6) 10 11 12 13 Adult Males Immature Total 2,129 1,937 2,621 Over 51,000 mallards were banded during the above 9-year period. Males accotnlted for 30,573 of this total. including 17,008 adults and 13,565 immatures. The remaining 20,670 birds were composed of 9,255 adult females and 11,397 immature females. The number of usable recoveries that resulted from these bandings are listed in Tables 4 (first-year) and 5 (all years) for hunting seasons 1964-65 through 197273. First-year recoveries totaled 1,461 for the four age and sex classes combined, while nearly 4,400 recoveries were obtained for all years. �-183- Table 4. Number of recoveries resulting from eastern Colorado winter mallard bandings by age, sex, and unit, 1964-65 through 1972-73 hunting seasons (first year recoveries). Number of Band Recoveries Females Total Adult Immature Unit of Banding Adult Males Immature 1 74 85 159 19 2 84 68 152 9 42 60 Totals (1-2-9) 200 3 Total Grand Total 34 53 212 26 23 49 201 102 23 33 56 158 213 413 68 90 158 571 85 68 153 26 41 67 220 4 76 78 154 38 45 83 237 6 105 91 196 17 37 54 250 Totals (3-4-6) 266 237 503 81 123 204 707 10 7 7 14 1 2 3 17 11 3 4 7 4 9 13 20 12 38 23 61 9 17 26 87 13 29 17 46 5 8 13 59 Totals (10-13) 77 51 128 19 36 55 183 Grand Total 543 501 1,044 168 249 417 1,461 �-184- Table 5. Number of recoveries resulting from eastern Colorado winter mallard bandings by age, sex and unit, 1964-65 through 1972-73 hunting seasons (all years). Number of Band Recoveries Females Total Adult Immature Unit of Banding Adult Males Immature 1 263 233 496 31 316 226 542 174 167 753 Total Grand Total 86 117 613 59 61 120 662 341 60 77 137 478 626 1,379 150 224 374 1,753 248 233 481 65 98 163 644 281 256 537 80 86 166 739 374 251 625 46 80 126 751 Totals (3-4-6) 903 740 1,643 191 264 455 2,098 10 31 24 55 5 6 11 66 11 4 5 9 5 13 18 27 133 87 220 30 35 65 285 13 77 54 131 11 16 27 158 Totals (10-13) 245 170 415 51 70 121 536 1,901 1,536 3,437 392 558 950 4,387 2 9 Totals (1-2-9) 3 4 6 12 Grand Total �-185- A complete analysis of banding data resulting from the above bandings and recoveries was not finished during Segment 20. Thus, this report presents only some general data and does not consider the detailed information by management unit that will be a part of the final analysis. Geographic Distribution of Recoveries Tables 6 and 7 show the distribution of band recoveries from mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado for the first year after banding and for all years, respectively. The distribution of first-year recoveries did not differ greatly from that of all years for each age and sex class. One possible exception may be that about 43 percent of the first-year recoveries of immature males occurred in the High Plains portion of Colorado, whereas 52 percent of the all-year recoveries occurred here. The following other conclusions seem 3pparent upon reviewing Tables 6-7. 1. Males were less likely to be recovered in Canada than females. 2. Males were more likely to be recovered in eastern Colorado and the High Plains Region as a whole than the corresponding age class of females. 3. Adult males were more likely to be recovered in eastern Colorado and the High Plains Region as a whole than any of the other age and sex classes. 4. Immatures of both sexes were more likely than adults to be recovered in areas outside the Central Flyway, at least for firstyear recoveries. Recoveries from all years showed the same tendency, but perhaps mainly because of the influence of firstyear recoveries on the total., 5. Eastern Colorado was the major recovery age and sex classes. 6. Alberta was the most important province of recovery for all four age and sex classes. location for all four in Canada Recovery and Survival Rate Estimates Recent developments in methods for estimating recovery and survival rates of animal populations provide for the calculation of confidence limits to apply to these rates. This is a definite advantage in estimating population parameters, since for the first time we are able to see the accuracy of our estimates. Two such methods, one described by Seber (1970) and Robson and Youngs (1971) and the other by Brownie and Robson (1974), are now commonly in use. The former method requires that recovery and survival rates to be independent of age, whereas the latter assumes age-dependent recovery and survival rates. �-186- Table 6. Distribution of band recoveries from mallards banded postseason in eastern Co.l.o rado, 1963-64 through 1970-71 (first year recoveries). AM Percent of Total Recoveries Age at Banding 1M AF IF Alberta 9.4 12.6 15.4 16.5 Saskatchewan 5.5 4.8 6.0 0.8 Manitoba 0.7 0.6 0.0 6.8 Other Canada 0.2 0.2 0.0 1.2 15.8 18.2 21.4 25.3 Washington 0.2 1.4 0.0 1.2 Oregon 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.8 California 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.4 Idaho 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.8 Nevada 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Utah 0.2 0.8 0.0 1.2 Arizona 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 W. Montana 0.7 2.0 0.6 2.8 W. Wyoming 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.8 W. Colorado 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.8 W. New Mexico 0.0 .0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 7.2 3.6 10.8 E. Montana 1.3 0.4 1.2 1.2 E. Wyoming 1.8 3.2 0.6 1.6 E. Colorado 65.7 42.9 50.0 31.3 E. New Mexico 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.0 W. North Dakota 0.4 1.2 1.8 2.4 W. South Dakota 0.6 3.2 0.0 1.2 W. Nebraska 4.8 9.8 6.5 7.6 W. Kansas 0.4 1.8 1.2 1.6 W. Oklahoma 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 W. Texas O.7 0.4 0.6 0.8 75.9 63.1 63.1 47.8 Recovery Location Total Canada Total Pacific Flyway Tota1 High Plains �-187- Table 6. Distribution of band recoveries from mallards banded postseason in eastern Colorado. 1963-64 through 1970-71 (first year recoveries) (continued). Percent of Total Recoveries Age at Banding 1M AF Recovery Location AM E. North Dakota 1.8 1.4 0.6 0.8 E. South Dakota 0.6 2.0 2.4 2.4 E. Nebraska 1.1 2.6 1.8 2.4 E. Kansas 0.9 2.2 1.2 3.6 E. Oklahoma 0.4 0.0 1.2 0.8 E. Texas Total E. Central Flyway 0.0 1.2 2.4 2.0 4.8 9.4 9.5 12.0 Minnesota 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 Wisconsin 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Michigan 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 IF Iowa 0.2 0.6 1.2 Illinois 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.4 Indiana 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ohio 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Missouri 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.8 Kentucky 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tennessee 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Arkansas 0.4 1.0 0.6 0.4 Louisiana 0.2 0.4 0.6 2.0 Mississippi 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.4 Alabama 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 2.6 2.4 4.0 Atlantic Flyway 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Alaska 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mexico 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total Mississippi Flyway �-188- Table 7. Distribution of band recoveries from mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado, 1963-64 through 1970-71 (recoveries from all years). Percent of Total Recoveries Age at Banding Recovery Location AM 1M AF IF Alberta 7.7 8.8 15.3 16.8 Saskatchewan 5.7 6.1 6.4 7.5 Manitoba 0.4 0.45 0.2 0.5 Other Canada 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.5 13.9 15.6 21.9 25.4 Washington 0.2 1.0 0.2 1.1 Oregon 0.05 0.5 0.0 0.7 California 0.15 0.3 0.0 0.5 Idaho 0.7 1.7 1.0 2.3 Nevada 0.05 0.0 0.2 0.0 Utah 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.7 Arizona 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 W. Montana 0.7 1.1 0.5 1.6 W. Wyoming 0.15 0.1 0.0 0.4 W. Colorado 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.5 W. New Mexico 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 5.5 3.1 7.9 E. Montana 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.1 E. Wyoming 1.5 2.0 0.8 2.0 E. Colorado 64.6 52.1 50.8 35.1 E. New Mexico 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.0 W. North Dakota 0.6 0.45 1.3 2.0 W. South Dakota 0.5 1.6 0.8 1.4 W. Nebraska 8.4 10.5 8.4 8.1 W. Kansas 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 W. Oklahoma 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 W. Texas 0.7 0.6 1.0 0.9 78.2 69.1 66.1 51.6 Total Canada Total Pacific Flyway Total High Plains �-189- Table 7. Distribution of band recoveries from mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado, 1963-64 through 1970-71 (recoveries from all years) (continued) • Percent of Total Recoveries Age at Banding 1M AF Recovery Location AM E. North Dakota 1.5 1.2 1.0 2.0 E. South Dakota 0.5 1.4 1.0 1.4 E. Nebraska 1.2 2.0 1.8 1.8 E. Kansas 0.6 1.4 0.8 2.2 E. Oklahoma 0.15 0.3 1.3 0.9 E. Texas 0.3 1.0 1.8 1.6 4.3 7.2 7.6 9.8 Minnesota 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.4 Wisconsin 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Michigan 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Iowa 0.05 0.5 0.5 0.2 Illinois 0.15 0.2 0.0 0.4 Indiana 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Ohio 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Missouri 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.7 Kentucky 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Tennessee 0.0 0.1 0.0 Arkansas 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.0 1.8 Louisiana 0.3 0.6 0.2 1.2 Mississippi 0.05 0.1 0.0 0.2 Alabama 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 1.1 2.7 1.5 4.8 Atlantic Flyway 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 Alaska 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 Mexico 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total E. Central Flyway Total Mississippi Flyway IF �-190- The first step in the analyses of post-season banding of eastern Colorado mallards was to select the proper analysis method of the two noted previously. This allowed the determination as to whether adult and immature birds should be pooled or considered separately in the analysis. The two age groups were treated separately by sex under the method outlined by Brownie and Robson (1974), and a contingency chi-square test was applied to the resulting data to test the null hypothesis that no difference occurs in recovery and survival rates between adults and immatures (Table 8). The null hypothesis was accepted for both sexes, with chi-square values of 15.26 (P>0.50) and 19.68 (P>0.25), respectively. Thus, there was no evidence that adult and immature mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado were different in regard to recovery and survival rates. This conclusion prompte~ the decision to combine the two age classes and use a method that assumes recovery and survival rates are not age-dependent, i.e. that of, Seber (1970) and Robson and Youngs (1971). Table 8. Comparison of adult and immature recovery and survival rate estimates of mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado, 1963-64 through 1970-71. Sex and Age Mean Recovery Rate !/ (%) Mean Survival Rate !/ (%) d.f. 3.21 ± 0.1 75.41 ± 1.70 2 X P 17 15.26 > 0.50 17 19.68 > 0.25 Males Adult Immature 3.24 ± 0.2 74.05 ± 3.54 1.65 ± 0.1 69.37 ± 3.29 Females Adult Irrnnature 1.81 ± 0.1 68.88 ± 6.30 !/ ± t.05 standard error. The next procedure was to test for differences due to sex for both ages combined. This involved the analysis of the null hypothesis that recovery and survival rates of males equals recovery and survival rates of females. The resulting contingency chi-square test produced a highly significant chi-square �-191value of 561.6 with 17 degrees of freedom. Thus, it was very clear that males and females have different population parameters and that further analysis should be done separately by sex. Table 9 presents information on estimates of population parameters by sex (ages combined) for mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado, 196364 through 1971-72, according to two models under the method of banding analysis by Seber (1970) and Robson and Youngs (1971). Modell assumes time-specific recovery and survival rates, while Model 2 assumes recovery and survival rates are constant over time. Both models seem to fit the data in question, with each having certain advantages. Modell provides an estimate of mean life span in addition to mean recovery and survival rate estimates. Model 2 lacks the mean life span estimate, but estimates of mean recovery and survival rates are often better than under Model I, in that standard deviations are usually smaller and confidence intervals narrower. The mean recovery rates for females for Models 1 and 2, respectively, (1.71 and 1.75%) were considerably less than those for males (3.06 and 3.23%) (Table 9). Survival was quite high for both males and females during the 1964-72 period, with mean rates of about 75 and 66 percent, respectively. Their mean life spans as adults were estimated at 3.43 years for males and 2.28 years for females. Note the relatively large difference in mean life span between the sexes as compared to the difference between survival rates. This exemplifies the tendency for a relatively small change in survival rate to produce a sizable change in mean life span. A more detailed analysis of these data will be conducted next segment, including comparisons of management units. Geographic distributions of recoveries by 10-day intervals of the hunting season will also be prepared and compared by age, sex and management unit. LITERATURE CITED Brownie, C., and D. S. Robson. 1974. Models allOWing for age-dependent survival rates for band-return data. Cornell Univ. Biometrics Unit Mimeograph Series, Paper No. BU-5l4-M, 34pp. Hopper, R. M. 1973. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Oct. p. 83-98. 1974. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. Oct. p. 137-144. Robson, D. S., and W. D. Youngs. 1971. Statistical analysis of reported tag-recapture in the harvest from an exploited population. Cornell Univ. Biometrics Unit Mimeograph Series, Paper No. BU-369-M. �-192- Seber, G. A. F. 1970. Estimating time-specific survival and reporting rates for adult birds from band returns. Biometrika 57(2):313-318. ",..,..:~~/10/~,-' Prepared by --.Jqflh-· '.t.~t:;;4i~::M::'B.'c ~chard M. Hopper~ Wildlife Researcher .£..~~~ -~4- �-193Table 9. Population parameters 1/ of male and female mallards banded postseason in eastern Colorado, 1963-64 through 1971-72. Estimate Standard Deviation 90 Percent Confidence Interval Mean recovery rate (%) 3.06 0.08 2.92-3.20 Mean survival rate (%) 75.43 1.23 73.41-77.45 Mean life span (years) 3.43 0.19 3.11-3.75 Mean recovery rate (%) 1.71 0.09 1.57-1.86 Mean survival rate (%) 65.58 2.27 61. 86-69.30 Mean life span (years) 2.28 0.18 1. 98-2.58 Mean recovery rate (%) 3.23 0.09 3.09-3.37 Mean survival rate (%) 74.91 0.98 73.30-76.52 Mean recovery rate (%) 1. 75. 0.09 1.61-1.89 Mean survival rate (%) 65.57 1. 78 62.66-68.49 Population Parameter 2/ Model 1Males Females Model 2 ]./ Males Females 1/ Estimates after analysis method of Seber (1970) and Robson and Youngs l/ Assume time-specific recovery and survival rates. 1/ Assumes constant recovery and survival rates over time. (1971). ��-195- October 1975 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State ....:C:..:O:.:L:.:O:.:Ri:.::,:.::ill=-O=------- 0f Proj ect No. W-88-R-20 Work Plan No. 4 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. Job Title Trapping and Banding Doves Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: 3 _ W. John Arthur, Clait E. Braun, Dwayne Finch, Howard D. Funk, Richard W. Hoffman, J. Edward Kautz, Charles W. Loeffler, Ronald Oakleaf, Willie Travnicek, and Kenneth C. Wagner, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRl\CT Efforts initiated in 1964 to trap and band samples of mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) in three geographic areas of Colorado were continued and terminated in 1974. Efforts of State personnel resulted in 4,499 birds being newly banded. Of this total, 2,021 were immatures, 1,415 were adult males, 1,057 were adult females, while age and/or sex were not determined for 6 birds. Assigned quotas were accomplished for all areas except extreme eastern Colorado. Wing molt data from trapped and harvested immature doves indicated that nesting started earlier in 1974 than in 1973 and continued later. Hatching peaks occurred in mid May, mid June, mid July 'and mid August. A sample of 1,165 hunter harvested birds, all from east of the Continental Divide, gave a young-toold ratio of 2.2:1. Wing molt data from harvested immatures in this sample indicated that few (less than 12 percent of those shot hatched prior to 1 July) early hatched young were available to hunters in Colorado. Thirty-one band recoveries from doves banued by Division personnel were reported to date in the 1974 recovery year. Fourteen (45.2 percent) had been banded in 1974. Of the recoveries, 18 (58.1 percent) were recovered in Colorado, while 7 (22.6 percent) were from Texas, with the remainder being from New Mexico (3), Arizona (2) and Mexico (1). Twenty-seven (87.1 percent) of the recoveries were by hunters. Apparent hunting mortality for doves banded in Colorado continues to be less than 3'percent. �-196- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended that a final report exclusive of detailed recovery and mortality analyses be prepared in 1975-76. 2. It is recommended that this project be held inactive until 1977 or 1978 when final analyses of all bandings and recoveries will be conducted in conjunction with the analyses of all Central Management Unit bandings and recoveries. �-197- TRAPPING AND BANDING DOVES C1ait E. Braun Intensive efforts to trap and band mourning doves in Colorado as part of a Central Management Unit banding program were continued in 1974. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1974, the eleventh and final banding year for this investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate migration patterns and mortality banded in Colorado by age, sex, and area. rates of mourning doves SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap and band mourning doves in three selected areas of Colorado for the purpose of obtaining migration, life history, and annual mortality data. 2. To estimate harvest size and hunter success. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1974 were similar to those described reports and summarized by Braun (1970) .• Description of Trapping in earlier Sites Trapping sites throughout the State were essentially vious years, described by Braun (1970, 1974). those utilized in pre- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Trapping and banding efforts in 1974 resulted in 4,499 doves being newly banded. Doves were banded at five sites on the eastern slope, two sites on the eastern plains and at two sites west of the Continental Divide. The banding goal of 4,000 birds was essentially accomplished as 1,200 were banded in western Colorado (quota = 1,000), 900 were banded in extreme eastern Colorado (quota = 1,000), and 2,399 were banded on the east slope of the Continental Divide (quota = 2,000). Sex and age distribution of the banded sample by area are presented in Table 1. �-198- Table 1. Sex and age distribution Colorado, 1974. Area Adult Male No. Banded Percent of mourning doves banded by area in Adult Female No. Banded Percent Immature No. Banded Percent Total 148 24.7 316 52.6 600 67 29.7 44 7.3 300 215 23.9 360 40.0 900 162 27.0 263 43.8 600 35 5.8 466 77.7 600 35 6.5 442 81.8 540 36.6 130 26.0 187 37.4 500 Eastern Colorado Ft. Morgan Vineland Subtotal 136 189 325 22.7 63.0 36.1 Eastern Slope Monte Vista Ft. Garland Denver 175 29.2 99 16.5 63 11. 7 Ft. Collins Area 183 Salida 73 47.7 54 35.3 26 17.0 159 ~/ 593 24.8 416 17.4 1384 57.8 2399 43.8 247 41.2 90 15.0 600 39.0 179 29.8 187 Subtotal --- Western Colorado Durango Montrose Subtotal TOTAL ALL AREAS 263 234 497 1415 41.4 31.5 426 35.5 -277 1057 23.5 2021 31.2 600 23.1 1200 45.0 4499 1/ Including 1 unknown age and sex and 5 unknown sex adults. Numbers and percentages of adult males and females, and immatures banded in 1974 were similar to those banded in 1973 and in all years since 1969 when sample sizes were enlarged through intensified trapping efforts. Percentages of immatures in trap samples were highest at Denver and Ft. Garland, sites that were trapped in late July and August. Sites trapped in early June (Vineland, Durango and Salida) �-199- had the lowest percentages of immatures in the banded sample. Thus, percent immatures banded was a function of time of banding. As in other years, more adult males than adult females were banded (31.5 to 23.5 percent). This disparity is probably related to timing of incubation and brood sharing, as females would normally be exposed to only one trapping period per day. During the 1974 trapping period, 58 mourning doves were recaptured that had been banded in previous years. Of this sample, 55 returned to the area where they were initially banded. One bird banded at Denver was recaptured at Vineland while two doves banded outside of Colorado were recaptured. One of these recaptures (Montrose) had been initially banded at Eufaula, Alabama in 1972 while the other (Salida) was originally banded in 1973 near Roswell, New Mexico. Forty-three (74.l percent) of the 58 recaptures had been banded in 1973, while 10 (17.2 percent) were banded in 1972, 4 in 1971 and 1 in 1969. Hatching Data Wing molt data were available for 2,012 of the 2,021 immature doves trapped and banded in 1974 and from 797 hunter harvested immatures. Estimated hatching dates (Allen 1963) are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Examination of data in Table 2 indicates that few mourning doves trapped in Colorado hatched prior to 1 May, with most trapped immatures hatching from mid May to late June. While definite hatching peaks are difficult to ascertain from data in Table 2, peaks are suggested in mid to late May and in mid June. Since trapping ceases in early August, progeny of late nests are not represented in Table 2. This can clearly be seen upon examining data in Table 3 as two peaks can be observed (early July and early August). Data in Table 3 suggest that early hatched doves have migrated from Colorado prior to 1 September. It is apparent that neither trapping or hunting data alone accurately represent actual hatching dates as one method (trapping) fails to show late nesting, while the other (hunter harvest in Colorado) misrepresents production early in the nesting period. It should be remembered that neither trap or hunter samples may actually represent doves produced in Colorado. Harvest Efforts were again made to collect wings from hunter harvested doves throughout Colorado during the 1974 season. Through this effort, 1,165 were classified as to age (adult or immature) and primary molt. All wings were from east slope areas with 7 from North Park, 52 from near Vilas, and 1,106 from Ft. Carson. All wings were from September with over one-third (38.5 percent) being from after mid September. The overall immature to adult ratio was 2.2:1 but varied greatly by area and time. At Ft. Carson, where adequate samples were obtained, immature to adult ratios were lowest early in September (1.4:1 during 1 to 5 September and 2.3:1 during 6 to 12 September) and highest later in the month (4.7:1 during 13 to 20 September and 3.2:1 during 21 to 30 September). Sample sizes, while uneven (322, 109, 232 and 217 respectively) were adequate in each time period. Harvest data obtained through use of a mail survey of hunters after the 1974 hunting season are not presently available. Final results of this survey are normally not available for distribution until 30 June of the year following the season (H. Riffel, personal communication). Results of the 1973 survey of three percent of the small game hunter license holders {about 80 percent �Table 2. Estimated Table 3. doves, 1974. Prior to May 1 May 1-7 May 8-14 May 15-21 May 22-28 May 29June 4 June 5-11 June 12-18 June 19-25 June 26July 2 July 3-9 July 10-16 July 17-23 12 31 101 281 344 272 229 236 205 144 139 18 0 1.5 5.0 14.0 17.1 13.5 11.4 11. 7 10.2 7.2 6.9 0.9 0.0 Number Hatching Percent of Total hatching dates for wild trapped immature mourning 0.6 Estimated hatching dates for hunter harvested immature mourning doves, 1974. I tv Number Hatching 0 0 I Prior to June 12 June 12-18 June 19-25 June 26July 2 July 3-9 July 10-16 July 17-23 July 24-30 July 31August 6 4 28 41 23 89 70 75 95 131 71 3.5 5.2 3.0 11.2 8.9 9.4 11.9 16.5 8.9 Percent of Total 0.1 August· August 7-13 14-20 August 21-27 August 28Sept. 3 84 42 44 10.6 5.3 5.5 �-201- response) indicate that an estimated 484,660 mourning doves. 31,688 hunters harvested an estimated To date (30 April), recoveries of 31 mourning doves banded by Division personnel have been reported in the 1974 recovery year (1 June 1974 to 31 May 1975). Of the 31 recoveries, one each was banded in 1969 and 1970, five in 1972, 10 in 1973 while 14 were first year recoveries (banded in 1974). All but 4 were shot recoveries. Three of the 31 recoveries were banded west of the Continental Divide, with two being recovered in Arizona and one in west Texas. While data are limited, recoveries of west slope banded doves are uncommon east of the Continental Divide. Considering all recoveries, 18 (58.1 percent) were from Colorado, 7 (22.6 percent) were from Texas, with the remainder being from New Mexico (3), Arizona (2), and Mexico (1). Examining first year recoveries only, 7 of 14 were banded as immatures (50.0 percent). This is slightly higher than the percent immatures in the 1974 trap sample (45.0) suggesting that vulnerability differences between adults and immatures are not great. Ten doves banded in other states were reported recovered in Colorado Five were banded in Montana, three in New Mexico and two in Wyoming. of the recoveries (all banded as immatures) were from 1974 bandings. LITERATURE in 1974. Six CITED Allen, J. M. 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature doves in Indiana. Ind. Dept. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No.4. Indianapolis. 4p. Braun, C. E. 1970. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 143149. 1974. Mourning dove trapping and banding. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 145-152. Prepared by _~tfa.:::.::..:id~_·.=.T.;...;''-lL'~~~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ ��October 1975 -203- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-88-R-20 Work Plan No. 4 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. Job Title Band-tailed Pigeon Investigations Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 4 _ Personnel: Rick Adams, W. John Arthur, Clait E. Braun, Ron Desilet, Richard Fentzlaff, Roward Funk, Bill Reicher, Tom Henry, J. Edward Kautz, Harold Lanning, Ann Leckler, Don Masden, Sam Matthews, Ron Oakleaf, Charles Reichert, Robert Rouse, Warren Rupke, Glen Smith, Ron Velarde, Charles Wagner, Ken Wagner, Pat Waters, Al Whitaker, Mike Zgainer; Wildlife Conservation Officers and other personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata) initiated in Colorado in conjunction with the Four Corner States Cooperative Study were continued in 1974. Major emphasis was placed on banding and continuation of analyses of hunting statistics. Pigeons were trapped at 23 different locations in 1974 with 3,960 birds (2,468 adults, 580 subadults, and 912 immatures) being newly banded. Over one thousand (1,229) pigeons were retrapped, including 13 banded outside of Colorado (12 from New Mexico and 1 from Utah). During the hunting season, 518 permits were issued, with 288 individuals actually hunting. Only 132 hunters were successful, each harvesting an average of 5.6 pigeons. Total estimated harvest (including crippling loss) projected from the questionnaire survey (89.8 percent response) was 792 birds, more than twice the number harvested in 1973. Crippling loss approximated 8 percent of the birds shot and retrieved. Wings were received from 33 successful hunters. Immature and subadult pigeons comprised 42.1 percent of the 171 bandtail wings received. Field checks of 153 (101 adults, 52 immatures) hunter-killed birds indicated that 52.5 percent of the adults were still involved with nest activities and/or feeding of young. Recoveries were received from 137 pigeons banded in Colorado. Most (94) were recovered in Colorado, with 39 being recovered in New Mexico, 2 in Mexico and 1 each in California and Utah. At least 11.2 percent of the birds harvested during the hunting season in Colorado were banded. Hatching dates were calculated for 998 pigeons with most hatching between 12 May and 10 July. Helminth infections continue to be low (15.8 percent). The final report of the Four Corner States Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation was compiled, reviewed and submitted for editing and publication. Two papers on parasites (one accepted to date) and one paper on reproductive biology (accepted) were submitted ~to technical journals. �-204- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. This project should be extended through 31 March 1976 for writing of technical articles. 2. Technical papers should be prepared and submitted on the following subjects concerning band-tailed pigeons: mercury residues, parasites (2), weights, molt (2), methods of trapping and location, time of day of capture, aviary nesting, estimation of population size, mortality and survival, and general ecology. �-205- BAND-TAILED PIGEON INVESTIGATIONS Clait E. Braun Intensive ecological studies of wild band-tailed pigeons which nest and reside in Colorado from late April to early November, initiated in 1969, continued in 1974. Investigations in Colorado represent a portion of the regionwide Four Corner Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation which was initiated in Arizona in 1967. Data presented in this report are those collected in 1974, the last year of field work for this investigation. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate life history and ecological facts pertinent to band-tailed pigeons in Colorado as follows: range; relative numbers; relation between numbers of birds present by area and such physical factors as weather, food, vegetative cover, elevation, and salt; breeding and nesting chronology; migration patterns and chronology; harvest patterns; and mortality rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To trap, band, age, and sex as many birds as possible in selected areas of Colorado to investigate migration patterns and chronology of Colorado bandtails throughout their range. 2. To conduct a hunting season, gather-harvest 3. Compile and initiate analyses of all data collected in Colorado. ate in preparing fin~l report for Four Corner States. data, and evaluate results. Cooper- METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in 1974 were identical to those in previous years of the study (Braun 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974). Written reports of pigeons were not solicited from field personnel although communications were encouraged for ease in locating groups of pigeons in trappab1e locations. Trapping methodology in 1974 was that used in previous years, with most birds being captured through use of cannon nets. Evaluation of the hunting season and disposition of collected birds were the same as in previous years. Description of Trapping Areas In 1974, pigeons were trapped at 23 different locations of which only three (Trinidad, Collbran and Sedalia) had not been trapped in previous years. All �-206- other sites (Table 1) have been previously described (Braun 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974). The three sites newly trapped in 1974 are similar to other sites trapped in most years as one was a feedlot (Trinidad), one was a grain field (Collbran) and one was in a. residential area (Sedalia). As in previous years, all trap sites were immediately adjacent to readily accessible trees or power lines used for perches. Trees used were primarily ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Gambel's oak (Quercus gambelii), pinon pine {Pinus edu~ cottonwoods (Populus spp.), and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii). It was difficult to ascertain feeding preferences, as about equal numbers of pigeons were trapped in fields where they were feeding on waste barley (Hordeum vulgare), and wheat (Triticum aestivum). Whole or cracked corn (Zea mays) was frequently used as an attractant and bandtails clearly indicated a preference for this grain. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Banding Trapping and banding activities remained at the same level in 1974 as in 1973 although more pigeons were banded (3,960 versus 3,559). As in 1973, emphasis was placed on banding samples of pigeons (usually less than 200 birds per site) in as many locations as feasible. As a result, more than 200 birds were banded at only 8 of the 23 trapping locations. Reasons for more than 200 new bandings per site were related to intensive studies of color marked pigeons (two sites), efforts to mark large numbers of immatures (five sites), and the initial trapping of pigeons in a new flock area (one site). Efforts were continued to maintain banding at as many of the sites used in previous years as feasible. Thus, trapping was successful at 3 of the 5 sites used in 1969, 9 of the 13 sites used in 1970, 13 of the 15 sites trapped in 1971, 14 of the 23 locations trapped in 1972, and 18 of the 25 sites trapped in 1973. MOre importantly, only two (Minturn, Rye-Beulah-Wetmore) of the major flock areas in Colorado were not trapped in 1974. In all, 3,960 pigeons were newly banded (Table 1). Of this number, 912 (23.0 percent) were immatures, 580 (14.6 percent) were subadults and 2,468 were adults. Percent immatures in trap samples in 1974 was the highest since 1969 when immatures comprised 23.6 percent of 1,600 pigeons banded. Upon examination of data in Table 1 it is apparent that percent immatures in trap samples increased throughout the summer. The increase in immatures can clearly be observed in data at sites where pigeons were periodically trapped during the summer (Woodland Park, Chipeta Park, Del Norte, etc.). The initial immature trapped was on 25 June (Del Norte) about 10 days earlier than in 1973. This suggests that nesting was earlier in 1974 than in 1973, a hypothesis supported by field observational data of breeding activities. Sex of adult, subadult and some immature pigeons was determined through examination of external plumage characters. Of the 2,468 adults, 1,417 were males (57.4 percent) and 1,051 were females (42.6 percent), while 232 of the 580 subadults were males (40.0 percent), with the remainder (348) classified as females (60.0 percent). Of the 912 immatures banded, sex by plumage examination was ascertained for 460. Of this sample, 239 (52.0 percent) were males while 221 (48.0 percent) were females. The disparity in sex ratios of adults is probably related to time of day trapping was conducted. The variance in percent of subadult males and females trapped compared to percent adult males and females �Table 1. Number of band-tailed Area Date(s) pigeons banded by area in Colorado, AdultJ.1 Percent No. Banded Immatures Percent No. Banded Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 11 100.0 90.0 57.1 42.3 0 2 6 15 0.0 10.0 42.9 57.7 48 20 14 26 200+ 50 30 70 May 23 May 30 75 14 100.0 100.0 o o 0.0 0.0 75 14 200+ 25+ May 24 July 11 August 9 60 64 41 100.0 64.6 41.8 o 35 57 0.0 35.4 58.2 60 99 98 150+ 175+ 200+ May 13 June 29 July 30 August 15 48 18 8 Gypsum Chipita Park Woodland Park 1974. -------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------------1 Del Norte May 25 May 28 May 29 June 25 July 30 August 23 107 54 31 78 120 21 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.7 78.9 23.6 0 0 0 1 32 68 Uniweep May 28 & 29 June 17 July 22 15 15 100.0 78.9 4 Basalt May 29 & 30 124 100.0 Longmont June 4 July 29 101 16 Salida June 4 July 13 73 81 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 21.1 76.4 107 54 31 79 152 89, 350+ 150+ 65+ 200+ 350+ 200+ 0.0 21.1 15 19 100+ 25+ o 0.0 124 200+ 100.0 100.0 o o 0.0 0.0 101 16 300+ 25+ 100.0 79.4 o 21 0.0 20.6 73 102 150+ 150+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------~----------------------150+ 68 100.0 68 0.0 o o 1 N o .....• �Table 1. Number of band-tailed Area Date(s) Stoner June 15 & 16 Collbran June 18 Aspen Evergreen Meeker-Buford Montrose Trinidad Arboles Adu1tJ/ No. Banded Percent 88 100.0 Immatures No. Banded Percent o 0.0 o 0.0 Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 88 100+ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------~-----------69 100.0 69 100+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------June 20 July 24 & 25 62 51 100.0 68.0 o 24 0.0 32.0 62 75 100+ 100+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ June 21 July 2 & 3 July 25 & 26 August 29 September 5 32 90 62 9 27 100.0 84.1 62.6 40.9 50.9 o 17 37 13 26 0.0 15.9 37.4 59.1 49.1 32 107 99 22 53 100+ 200+ 150+ 40+ 75+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------June 25 July 20 & 21 57 21 100.0 95.5 o 1 0.0 4.5 57 22 80+ 40+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------June 26 to July 5 July 23 August 13 171 98 24 98.8 86.7 16.7 2 15 120 1.2 13.3 83.3 173 113 144 700+ 500+ 400+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ July 1 & 2 207 89.6 24 10.4 231 400+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------July 10 41 89.1 5 10.9 46 60+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ \.Joodmen July 10 August 7 & 8 Ft. Garland July 16-24 Monte Vista pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1974 (continued). 69 82 67.0 58.6 34 58 33.0 41.4 103 140 150+ 200+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------158 66.1 81 33.9 239 500+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------July 29 August 12 68 29 53.1 37.7 60 48 46.9 62.3 128 77 600+ 500+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N o co I �Table 1. Number of band-tailed pigeons banded by area in Colorado, 1974 (continued). AdultJ./ Percent No. Banded Immatures No. Banded Percent Area Date(s) LaVeta July 31 52 94.5 3 September 11 49 44.1 62 55.9 3 ,04~/ 77.0 912 23.0 Sedalia Bayfield Estes Park Total 5.5 Totals Estimated No. of Birds Using Trapping Sites 55 75+ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35+ 24 12.5 3 87.5 21 August 1 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------300+ 190 29.5 56 70.5 134 August 15 & 16 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------150+ 111 3,960 ~1~/--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------'~ - Includes pigeons classified as subadu1ts. _2/ Includes 17 adults released from the aviary at Evergreen (14) and Longmont (3). I N o �-210- captured (difference of over 17 percent) is not Qqderstood especially when percent juvenile males and females in trap samples was not significantly different from 1:1. It is possible that differences exist in molting rates of immature males and females and in survival to the subadult and adult age classes. Time of day was recorded for most pigeons (5,075) captured (newly banded and recaptures) in 1974. A summary of these data is presented in Table 2. As in other years, more males than females (76.4:23.6 percent) were trapped prior to 1000 hours MDT. Between 1000 and 1600 hours, more females than males were captured (70.3:29.7 percent) while after 1600 hours, differences were not as great, as 58.7 percent of the birds trapped were females while 41.3 percent were males. These data are similar to that from previous years. Most adults were trapped between 0600 and 0959 hours (50.3 percent of all captures), with lesser percentages being trapped from 1000 to 1559 hours (42.9 percent), and after 1600 hours (6.8 percent). These differences probably explain the imbalance in sex ratios of adult pigeons newly banded. Immatures were caught more frequently before 1000 hours (67.3 percent of all immature captures) than in any other time period. Reasons for this anomaly are not und'ezs t ood but this pattern has remained constant during all years for which data are available. During the 1974 trapping period, 1,229 previously banded birds were recaptured with all but 14 being initially banded by Division personnel. Of the 14 "foreign" bandings recaptured, 12 had been initially banded in New Mexico, 1 in Utah, while 1 had been banded by a private bander in Colorado. Considering the 1,215 birds initially banded by Division personnel, 23 were banded in 1969, 108 were banded in 1970, 192 were banded in 1971, 338 had been banded in 1972, 340 had been banded in 1973, while 214 were newly banded in 1974. In all, 230 pigeons recaptured had moved at least one degree block from where ' initially banded. Of this number, 128 changed flock areas. Thirty-three birds banded in Colorado were reported recaptured in New Mexico (31), and Utah (2). All of these pigeons had been banded prior to 1974. While it is probable that some of these pigeons were migrating to or from Colorado when trapped, it is also likely that some flocks of pigeons occupy areas partially in two states. This is especially true for flocks of pigeons near Monte Vista-Del Norte, Durango-Arboles, and LaVeta-Ft. Garland as 25 of the 31 recaptures in New Mexico originated from bandings of these three flocks. Of the 29 birds that were recaptured out of Colorado for which sex was ascertained at time of banding, 20 were females, while 9 were males. Only 3 of the 33 recaptures out of Colorado were banded as immatures while 1 was banded as a subadult. Hunting Season Band-tailed pigeon hunting, while no longer experimental, was again closely monitored in Colorado in 1974. Hunting was allowed from September 7 through October 6, with a daily bag limit of 5 birds and a possession of 10. During the season, all of the state west of Interstate Highway No. 25 was open to �Table 2. Time HDT Time of day of band-tailed Percent of All Successful Trap Attempts pigeon trapping, 1974. 1/ Percent of all AdultCaEtures Males Females 1/ Percent ofAll Adult Males Captured 1/ Percent ofAll Adult Females Captured Percent of All Immatures Captured 1/ Percent ofAll Adults Captured 0600-0959 41.5 76.4 23.6 71.2 25.9 67.3 50.3 1000-1559 50.4 29.7 70.3 23.6 65.5 26.5 42.9 1600- 8.1 41. 3 58.7 5.2 8.6 6.2 6.8 1/ Including those birds classified as subadults. I N ~ ~ I �-212- hunting. As in previous years all hunters had to obtain a free permit obtainable at 9 Division offices and the headquarters of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. No limit was placed on total number of permits to be issued, and 518 permits (an additional 4 permits may have been issued) were obtained by hunters. This was an increase of 63 (13.8 percent) from 1973. Hunter Questionnaire Survey The hunting season for bandtails in 1974 closed at sunset on October 6. On October 7 and 8, letters containing a self-addressed, postage paid return card were sent to all permittees. Four questionnaires (0.8 percent) were returned for lack of sufficient address. On October 28 a followup letter was sent to the 167 permittees who had failed to respond to the initial letter. Results of the questionnaire survey are presented in Table 3. Data for the 53 non-respondents were calculated using mean values of the respondents to the followup survey. Interest in pigeon hunting increased slightly in 1974 over 1973 but did not return to the previous high level reached in 1972. It would appear that the novelty of having a pigeon hunting permit has dissipated and that only hunters who believe they may see pigeons are now obtaining permits. For a large number of hunters (44.4 percent), pigeon hunting remains an opportunistic event. Less than 300 permittees can be considered serious pigeon hunters. The number of hunters in this group has remained fairly constant since hunting was initiated in 1970. Hunter success increased in 1974 from 1973 levels (45.8 versus 28.3 percent). Total harvest in 1974 increased significantly from the 366 birds reported bagged in 1973. Number of days per hun~er remained at about the same level observed in previous years. It would appear that regardless of pigeon availability, most hunters will not hunt more than 2 or 3 days per season. Number of pigeons bagged per successful hunter has also changed very little from 1970-74 regardless of pigeon availability. Percent crippling loss reported in 1974 wa3 lower than in previous years and does not adequately represent actual conditions. Observations of hunters and pigeons during 1974 and previous years suggest that actual crippling loss may be as high as 20 percent of the birds retrieved. As in other years, hunter activity and harvest rapidly decreased after the initial weekend. In 1974, 44.0 percent of the harvest occurred on the opening weekend, 11.7 percent on the second weekend, 5.7 percent occurred on the third weekend, while 4.8 percent occurred on the last weekend of the season. Not surprisingly, only 29.7 percent of the total harvest occurred during the nonweekend portion of the season (20 days). About 68 percent (68.3) of the total harvest occurred during the first 9 days of the season. Hunting pressure in 1974 was diffuse as 251 hunters reported hunting in 43 different locations. The Monte Vista (15.1 percent) and Durango (9.2 percent) �-213- Table 3. 1/ Harvest statistics, 1974 band-tailed pigeon season.- Category Response First Letter Response Second Letter Sum First and Second Letters Number of permittees responding 351(67.8) 114(22.0) 465(89.8) Number of permittees hunting 203(57.8) 58(50.9) 261(56.1) 288(55.6) Number of permittees not hunting 148 (42.2) 56(49.1) 204(43.9) 230(44.4) Number of successful hunters 98(48.3) 23 (39.7) 121(46.4) 132(45.8) Number of hunter days 564 145 709 776 Days hunted per hunter Number of pigeons bagged 2.8 594 2.5 2.7 689 95 Projected For all (518) Permittees 2.7 734 Pigeons per successful hunter 6.1 4.1 5.7 5.6 Pigeons per hunter 2.9 1.7 2.7 2.5 Number of pigeons crippled and lost 40 13 53 58 Pigeons crippled and lost per hunter .2 .2 Total harvest (bagged + crippled and lost) 634 105 Percent crippling loss 12.4 6.3 .2 .2 739 7.2 792 7.6 1/ Values in parentheses are percentages. areas continue to be preferred for hunting, and these 2 areas had 24.3 percent of all hunting trips. Areas west of Pueblo and near La Veta each received 6.4 percent of the hunter trips while Bear Creek near Salida received 5.2 percent of the reported pressure. On a regional basis, 48.6 percent of the hunters hunted in southwestern Colorado, 30.7 percent hunted in southeastern �-214- Colorado, 11.6 percent hunted in northeastern Colorado, and 9.2 percent hunted in northwestern Colorado. Reported harvest paralleled hunter pressure as 49.4 percent of the harvest occurred in the southwest, 29.8 percent in the southeast, 10.6 percent in the northeast and 10.2 percent in the northwest. These data are similar to that collected in all years since the hunting season reopened in 1970. Wing Survey Packets containing 5 wing envelopes with instructions to place one day's bag in each envelope were issued to a sample of hunters, mostly in the Monte Vista and Durango areas. In all, packets were issued to 155 permittees. Envelopes containing 138 wings were received from 33 hunters. Additional data were received concerning hours hunted (148), birds crippled and lost (15), location of kill and banded birds harvested (21). Wings from an additional 33 birds, including two that were banded, were received via non-wing survey mail. Of the 171 wings received, 23 (13.4 percent) were aecompanied by bands. Percent bands received varied from 19.4 in the San Juan Basin, 16.9 in the San Luis Valley to 11.8 near Salida. Of the 171 classified as to age, 65 (38.0 percent) were from immatures, 7 (4.1 percent) were from subadults while 99 (57.9 percent) were from adults. The 38.0 percent immatures was the highest recorded in the five years for which data are available. While juveniles may be more vulnerable to hunting, data from both trapping and field observations indicated that production in 1974 was above average. Molt data were obtained for the 65 immature wings processed. Of this sample, 22 had not molted primary 1, 13 were molting primary 1, 15 were molting primary 2, 9 were molting primary 3, 4 were molting primary 4, while 2 were molting primary 5. Thus 30 of the immatures had hatched prior to 1 July. These data do not support the hypothesis of early migration of immatures. Hunter Field Checks During the 1974 season, emphasis was again placed on contacting pigeon hunters in the field in order to examine harvested birds for crop gland activity. Crops of all adult pigeons checked were classified as being active (crop gland with curds), stimulated (gland apparent, but no curds), or inactive. In addition, sex by gonadal inspection was obtained for as many birds as possible. In all, 153 pigeons were checked, with 52 being immatures (34.0 percent), with the remainder (101) being classified as adults. Of the adults, 19.8 percent were classified as having active crop glands, while 32.7 percent were classified as being stimulated. Percent of crops showing glandular activity (active + stimulated) was lower in 1974 than in 1973 (52.5 versus 63.2) and was similar to that observed in 1970 and 1972. Data from all years except 1971 indicate that pigeons continue nesting in Colorado into September. This is apparently a normal occurrence. Data on sex of harvested pigeons were available for 91 adults. Of this number 54.9 percent were males and 45.1 percent were females. Of the males, 50.0 �-215- percent exhibited some glandular development, while 53.7 percent of the females showed development of the crop gland. These data are similar to that collected in 1973 but dissimilar to that collected in 1970-71-72 which showed that more males than females were associated with nesting at time of death. When samples of adults examined by area are compared, it is apparent that nesting activity during the hunting season varied by area. Thus only 20 percent of the 10 adults examined near Bayfield were still associated with nest activities. This percentage ~as 75.0 in the Salida area (N = 32) but only 44.4 near Monte Vista-Del Norte (N = 54). Realistically, samples were too small to draw meaningful conclusions concerning differences between areas. Mortality Recoveries of 137 band-tailed pigeons initially trapped and banded in Colorado have been reported to date in the 1974 recovery year (1 May 1974 to 30 April 1975). Six of these were initially banded in 1969, 9 were banded in 1970, 15 were banded in 1971, 38 were banded in 1972, 27 were banded in 1973 while 42 were banded in 1974. All but 12 were shot recoveries. Of the 125 shot recoveries, 82 were recovered in Colorado, 39 in New Mexico, 2 in Mexico (Chihuahua), and 1 each in California and Utah. Hunting mortality in New Mexico continues to be higher than initially expected as 31.2 percent of the mortality due to hunting in 1974 was in that State. As expected, hunting mortality was highest in Colorado (65.6 percent of all shot recoveries). In 1974, New Mexico split their pigeon hunting season north and south of U.S. Highway 60. The season in northern New Mexico started 1 September while it started on 12 October in southern New Mexico. Of the 39 reported recoveries in New Mexico 23 were from the first season while 16 were from southern New Mexico. Seventeen of the recoveries were from September 1 through 6, before the season had opened in Colorado. Thus, migration in 1974 had begun prior to the hunting season in Colorado. Distribution of recoveries in New Mexico indicates that the fall migration is characterized by slow movement in a southwest direction from Colorado. Of the 137 recoveries, 37 (27.0 percent) had been banded near Monte VistaDel Norte, 21 (15.3 percent) in the Pagosa Springs-Arboles-Bayfield-Durango area, 17 (12.4 percent) near Salida, 11 (8.0 percent) near Montrose-Sanborn Park, 10 (7.3 percent) near LaVeta-Ft. Garland, 9 (6.6 percent) near Evergreen and 8 (5.8 percent) at Woodland Park. No other area provided more than 5 band recoveries. In all, 17 different flock areas provided recoveries in 1974 with five flock areas providing 70 percent of the recoveries. Of interest was the contribution of Salida and Montrose-Sanborn Park in 1974 as these two areas normally rank below LaVeta-Ft. Garland. Slight differences were noted in vulnerability of adult males and females as males provided 57 (55.3 percent) of 103 recoveries for which sex was ascertained at time of banding. First year recoveries of birds banded as immatures totaled 16. This represented 38.1 percent of the 42 total first year recoveries of banded adults and immatures. Thus immatures are indicated to be more susceptible to hunting than adults as this age class represented only 23.0 percent of the total bandings in 1974. �-216- Breeding Phenology Few data on breeding phenology were available as this portion of the study was completed in early 1973 (Gutierrez 1973). Data were available from examination of 53 birds killed in trapping operations (36), trichomoniasis tests (13), poaching (2) and electrocution (2). Thirtythree of these birds were subadult and older. Data from these birds indicated that nesting had started by 13 May and continued throughout the summer into October. Observation data indicated that a few pigeons started arriving in Colorado in early April with peak spring migration in mid to late May. Some pigeons remained as late as early November although most had left by 10 October. Thus, observational data support those obtained from gonadal and crop examinations. Wing Measurement and Molt Data Data concerning length of primaries, rectrices, total body length, carpal length and bill length were obtained from most dead pigeons examined in 1974. These data will be compiled and analyzed with those from 196973 to examine differences between age and sex classes of pigeons. Prior to dissection of collected birds, plumage characters of each adult specimen and some juveniles were examined and recorded. Each bird was then classified as either male or female. Upon dissection, gonads were examined and actual sex of each bird was compared with the classification based on plumage appearance. Comparative data were available for 32 adults and subadults (13 males and 19 females), and 4 immatures. Only 1 bird was inaccurately sexed. This bird appeared to be an adult male by plumage, but was actually a female. This percentage of error (2.8) is similar to that found in prior years. Information concerning primary molt was available for 998 immatures (911 banded and released, 65 from the hunter wing survey and 22 from birds necropsied). Hatching dates were estimated using data from White (1973). Estimated hatching dates for all immatures for which data were available are presented in Table 4. As in earlier years, hatching was spread over a long time period (12 April to 2 October). Only one major peak can be ascertained from data in Table 4 and the data best fit a bell shaped curve. It would appear then that calculated hatching dates only represent the range of nesting in Colorado. Of importance, data in Table 4 indicate that a sharp decrease occurred in hatching after 10 July as only 10.5 percent of those examined hatched after that date. All observational and crop data collected in August and September refute the hypothesis that most nesting ceased in early July. These differences relate to trapping effort as most trapping terminated in mid August. Consequently progeny of nests after mid July are not represented in the trap sample as it takes 25-30 days from hatching to fledging. Examinations of hatching dates for the 65 immatures collected in the wing survey (7 September and later) reveals that 35 (53.8 percent) hatched after 10 July. However, only 24 (36.9 percent) of this sample hatched after 31 July. �-217- Table 4. Estimated hatching dates for wild band-tailed pigeons 1974. Number Hatching Percent July 1-10 118 11.8 0.3 July 11-20 34 3.4 11 1.1 July 21-30 24 2.4 May 2-11 26 2.6 July 3l-August 9 38 3.8 May 12-21 99 9.9 August 10-l9 5 0.5 May 22-31 120 12.0 August 20-29 3 0.3 June 1-10 234 23.5 August 30-September 8 0 0.0 June 11-20 150 15.0 September 8-17 0 0.0 June 21-30 132 13.3 After September 17 1 0.1 Number Hatching Percent Prior to April 11 0 0.0 April 12-21 3 April 22-May 1 Time Period Time Period Parasitic Load Information on helminths was available for 38 pigeons necropsied. Six (all adult or subadult) had infections of helminths. The infection rate of 15.8 percent is similar to that found in collections from 1969-73 (range 9.5 to 18.3 percent). One paper was prepared and submitted for publication on new species of nematodes from band-tailed pigeons. Another paper on trichomoniasis in band-tailed pigeons has been submitted and accepted for publication. LITERATURE CITED Colo. Div. Game, Fisb Braun, C. E. 1970. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 151-171. 1971. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 209-236. 1972. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Wild1. Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 123-142. Game �-218- Braun, C. E. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 107-123. 1974. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. Colo. Div. Wildl., p. 153-168. Gutierfez, R. J. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations:breeding and nesting chronology studies. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. w-88-R. Oct. p. 153-177. White, J. A. 1973. Band-tailed pigeon investigations:plumage studies. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. Oct. p. 125-152. Prepared by __ "",,~~/_~_. --:.f~~~l,,",!~~=~ Cla.it E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �October 1975 -219- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C=-O::..;L::..:O::.::RAD=::.::O~----- Project No. W-88-R-20 Work Plan No. ;5 Migratory Bird Investigations _ Job No. 1 ----------~------------------ Job Title.__~I~n~v~e~s~t~i~g~a~t::.::~~·o~n~s~o~f~C=_omm~=_o~n~S~n;iLP~e~i~n~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ Period Covered: April 1, 1974 to March 31, 1975 Personnel: C. E. Braun, H. D. Funk, and B. R. Johnson, Colorado Division of Wildlife; and R. A. Ryder, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) utilized open water wintering habitat in the Fort Collins area in relatively high numbers (8-12 snipe per km) from November through April. Censuses in 1974 on 12 study areas (total 244.3 ha) in the San Luis Valley, North Park, Fort Collins area, and Yampa Valley indicated overall snipe densities of 0.63 and 0.47 snipe flushed per ha in May and June, respectively. The peak fall migration period for 1974, based on censuses in September and October, apparently occurred during the third week in September. Results of the 1972 and 1973 small game questionnaires (N = 22) show a mean harvest of 3.7 snipe per hunter and 4.0 days spent afield. Results from a 1973 and 1974 special snipe survey (N 19) indicated eight had hunted snipe during this period and had a mean harvest of 10.8 snipe per hunter and spent 4.9 days afield. = ��-221- INVESTIGATIONS OF COMMON SNIPE IN COLORADO Bruce R. Johnson This second annual progress report on investigations of snipe in Colorado concerns field activities such as selection of study areas, monitoring numbers of snipe and evaluating important habitat characteristics on each area. Data have been compiled on densities of snipe occurring on these areas during spring and fall migrations and the breeding seasons. Additional data concerning numbers of snipe wintering in the Fort Collins area are also included. P. S. OBJECTIVE To study the distribution and status of common snipe in Colorado in order that data might be made available to improve management of the species. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To identify and delimit range of common snipe in Colorado. 2. To document seasons of occurrence and estimate relative numbers in four major areas. 3. To document hunting pressure and estimate harvest and hunter success. 4. To compile data, analyze results, prepare progress reports and publish findings in appropriate technical journals. METHODS Selection of Study Areas Twelve study areas were selected in the San Luis Valley, Fort Collins area, North Park, and the Yampa Valley. Selection of each area was based on (1) presence of snipe performing mating and territorial displays, (2) permanence of water, (3) similarity to general habitat types in each region, (4) contradistinction from other selected study areas, and (5) sufficient area to provide adequate numbers of snipe. Census Techniques A systematic strip census was employed to ascertain numbers of snipe on breeding ground study areas. In this method, census routes consist of straight line transects at 20 to 25 meter intervals throughout the area. �-222- Field maps of all areas were used to maintain a consistent route and record all snipe flushed and alighting, thus avoiding duplicate counts. A similar method was used on the winter area, however, the census route adjoined the stream channel. These above methods as well as those used in evaluating habitat characteristics have been described in previous reports. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wintering Area Censuses Censuses on a snipe wintering area near Fort Collins have been conducted from January 27, 1974 to the present. Snipe utilize this open water area in relatively large numbers (approximately 8 to 12 snipe per km) from November through April. In 1974 snipe had essentially departed the area by May and returned in small numbers in October. Censuses will continue on this wintering area until spring departure of snipe occurs. Spring Migration Period Because of difficulties in selecting breeding ground study areas, censuses were delayed until early May. Consequently, no data were compiled concerning the 1974 spring migration. Currently, such data are being collected and will be discussed in the final report. Breeding Ground Censuses Censuses were conducted from early May through early August to estimate numbers of snipe breeding on the 12 study areas. Data from May and June censuses by region have been summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Mean numbers of snipe flushed per hectare, Colorado 1974. Major Region Hectares SniEe Flushed Eer Hectare May June Fort Collins 25.1 1. 35 0.83 North Park 92.0 0.56 0.46 Yampa Valley 63.6 0.60 0.48 San Luis Valley 63.6 0.47 0.33 Total 244.3 0.63 0.47 Mean �-223- The progressive decline from May to June is probably a result of increased nesting and rearing activities by snipe, consequently, snipe were more difficult to flush. Data from July and August censuses were less reliable because birds of the year were able to fly at this time. Eighteen snipe nests were located during censuses with estimated onsets of incubation ranging from May 1 to July 4, the majority of which occurred from mid- to late May. Censuses in 1975 were initiated in late March and will continue through mid-June to supplement 1974 data. Fall Migration Period.--Data collected on 8 of the 12 breeding ground study areas indicated maximum numbers of snipe were observed in the San Luis Valley on September 15-16, in Fort Collins on September 17, and in North Park on September 21. From this, the peak fall migration period for 1974 apparently occurred during the third week in September. Snipe Hunter Survey.--Hunters indicating they hunted snipe through the regular annual small game harvest survey in 1972 and 1973 (N = 22) had a mean harvest of 3.7 snipe per hunter and spent 4.0 days afield. Special snipe hunting questionnaires were sent to specific hunters in 1973 and 1974. Of those who responded to this special survey (N = 19) eight indicated that they had hunted snipe. These respondents had a mean harvest of 10.8 snipe per hunter and spent 4.9 days afield. Although sample sizes in both surveys were small, the harvest of snipe by Colorado hunters appears small and hunting is an insignificant mortality factor. Habitat Characteristics Data on habitat characteristics such as vegetation composition, soil types and compaction, and water characteristics have been compiled. A summary of these data will be reported in the final report. Final Report Plans The final report of this project in form of a M. S. Thesis will be prepared after termination of field work in late June. This report will be available by September 1, 1975. Prepared by Bruce R. Johnson Graduate Research Assistant ��October 1975 -225JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~O~L~O~ru~\D~O Proj ect No. W-88-R-20 \.;'ork Plan No. 6 _ Migratory Bird Investigations Job NO. Job Title Migratory Bird Publications Period Covered: April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: ~l~ _ Howard D. Funk ABSTRACT The Colorado Division of Wildlife cooperated with the remainder of the Central Flyway States in the preparation of a waterfowl identification guide to be distributed free of charge to hunters. Printing was completed during the segment with the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks contracting with the printer and Colorado &,d the other states reimbursing South Dakota for their individual costs. The booklet is titled "Waterfowl Identification in the Central Flyway". It is 51 pages in length and printed on plastic paper. Color plates throughout the booklet include males in full winter and eclipse plumage. females in winter plumage, and wings of each sex for each species. Text and plates of birds in flight are also included to aid the hunter in identification. Prepared by Howard D. Funk Small Game Section Chief .: � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/d1ffdbf1b3494a7af521fafe890021c2.pdf 4463bb262ba9a1c840d636fb7889e603 PDF Text Text January 1976 -1- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO Project No. W-4l-R-2S Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Evaluation of the Nutritional Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT Bighorn·Shee~ & Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. ~l~ Requirements of Bighorn Sbeep June 1, 1974 - May 31, 1975 Robert E. Keiss ABSTRACT A study was designed and implemented to test for differences in major nutritive components of forages from three bighorn sheep study areas. The study was designed so that statistical comparisons could be made between the three areas (Pikes Peak, Buffalo Peaks, and Trickle Mountain) at three seasons of the year (Summer, Fall, Winter). Chemical analysis for percent composition of protein, soluble ash, etLer extract, soluble carbohydrate, lignin, acid insoluble ash and holocel1ulose were made on each sample. Mineral levels including calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper and selenium were determined in each sample. Bighorn sheep lambs collected during 1972, 1973 and 1974 were subjected to mineral level analysis on selected tissues. The mineral levels of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, zinc, iron, and copper were determined in hair, liver, spleen, kidney, skeletal muscle and heart muscle of each lamb. _ ��-3- EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF BIGHORN SHEEP Robert E. Keiss P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methods: (a) for the evaluation of nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep under natural conditions, and (b) to measure the adequacy of selected ranges to meet these requirements. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish horn sheep. the nutritional level of forage species utilized by big- 2. To evaluate if the nutritional level of selected bighorn sheep ranges is adequate to meet nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep at all seasons of the year. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods used to estimate forage species utilized by bighorn sheep were previously described (Schoonveld 1973; Keiss and Schoonveld 1974). During this segment forage samples were collected from three study areas (Pikes Peak, Buffalo Peaks, Trickle Mountain) following a sampling scheme which would allow the analytical chemical data to be subjected to statistical comparisons. Collections were made at three seasons of the year (Summer - July; Fall September; Winter - November-December) in order to evaluate the changes in nutritional quality of bighorn sheep forages as the growing season progresses from summer into fall and winter and plant species grow, mature and go into dormancy. Because of the complexity of the composition of different plant species on the three study areas this phase of the study limited the nutritional comparisons to general plant types (grass and browse) rather than attempt the complex comparisons between individual plant species. The main purpose was to compare the gross nutritive quality of bighorn sheep forage on the three study areas at three seasons of the year. For this reason samples were designated as "grass" and "browse" and no further attempt was made to differentiate plant species composition. Five transects were selected on each of the three study areas. These transects were situated to cover known winter range areas used by bighorn sheep. A wooden frame measuring one meter on each side was used to aid in plant collections. The frame was placed on the ground at one end of the transect and all grass within the square meter was clipped and placed in a paper sack. After the grass within the frame was collected we moved one hundred paces along the transect and at this point collected another one square meter grass �-4sample. A total of ten samples, over a one thousand pace transect, were obtained and returned to the laboratory for analysis. Browse samples were collected from selected browse plants along "modified" transects. Because of the sporadic distribution of browse plants on the bighorn sheep winter rauges, it was necessary to select groups of plants to sample, and a rigid sampling scheme similar to that described for grass was not possible. For the most part browse was collected from plants closest to points where grass samples were collected. Current annual growth was clipped from plants for chemical analysis. All forage samples were returned to the laboratory and allowed to air dry. They were then ground in a Wiley Mill (equipped with stainless steel screens) and placed in glass jars, oven dried at 600c for 24 hours and stored for future analysis. Because of the large ·.numberof individual samples it was not practical to do a complete chemical analysis on each one, so each transect was considered as a sample unit for comparison purposes. All samples collected along a single transect were composited into a single sample. This was accomplished by thoroughly mixing each individual forage sample and removing a ten gram subsample. These subsamples were then composited and the composite sample was thoroughly mixed and submitted for chemical analysis. The above described sampling scheme resulted in five grass samples and five browse samples representing five transects from each of the three study areas at three seasons of the year so that the study design resulted in a total of ninety samples for complete laboratory analysis. All forage samples were analyzed for their proximate constituents by procedures described previously (Keiss and Schoonveld 1974). These analytical procedures partition forages into the following constituents: Protein, Ether Extract, Soluble Ash and Soluble Carbohydrates, Lignin, Acid Insoluble Ash and Holocellulose which is composed of Cellulose and Hemicellulose. All forage samples were analyzed for their trace mineral content by methods previously described (Keiss and Schoonveld 1974). These minerals include Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Zinc, Iron, Copper and Selenium. Tissue samples from bighorn sheep lambs collected during previous segments of this study were analyzed for trace mineral levels. At the time these lambs were necropsied tissues were collected and frozen for this purpose. Seven lambs were collected during the summer of 1972, nine lambs collected during the summer of 1973 and seven lambs collected during the summer of 1974. The following tissues were analyzed from each lamb: Hair, Liver, Spleen, Kidney, Skeletal Muscle, and Heart Muscle. The tissues were removed from the freezer, allowed to thaw and placed in a drying oven at 600C until dry. Low drying temperatures were used because of the reported volatility of selenium from tissues when dried at high temperatures. A one gram sample of each tissue was weighed into a dtgestion vessel and digested by the method of Adrian 1973. This wet ashing was accomplished by placing one gram sample in a 4 oz Nalge bottle. Two milliliters of �-5perchloric acid-sulfuric acid (7+l) plus four milliliters of nitric acid was added to each bottle and allowed to pre-digest for twenty four hours at room temperature. The digestion bottles were stoppered, placed in a water bath at 700C for 3 hours. It is important that the bottles are tightly stoppered as the pressure within the bottle is essential to the procedure. After the digestion was completed each sample was diluted with distilled water until the total volume equaled 100 mI. All mineral determinations following methods: were made from the digested sample by the Phosphorus - vanadate-molybdate procedure. Selenium - fluorometrically using 3,3' Diaminobenzidine Calciumm Magnesium, Potassium, Iron, Copper, Sodium and Zinc atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer 303) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the analysis of grass and browse samples collected as a part of this study are presented in Tables 1 through 12. The statistical analyses of these data are still in progress and the results of this work and its significance will be discussed in the job completion report which will be prepared during the next segment of this study. The bighorn sheep lamb tissue analyses for trace mineral levels have been completed and the analysis of the data is in progress. Table 13 lists the animals which were examined as a part of this study and identifies them as to their origin and date of collection. Tables 14 through 20 give the data on mineral levels of selected tissues from these bighorn sheep lambs as determined by analytical procedures. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adrian, W. J. 1973. A comparison of a wet pressure digestion method with other commonly used wet and dry-ashing methods. Analyst 98:213. Keiss, R. E., and G. G. Schoonveld. requirements of bighorn sheep. W-4l-R-23. January. pp.3-78. 1974. Evaluation of the nutritional Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid Proj. Schoonveld, G. G. 1973. Evaluation horn sheep. Colo. Div. Wildl. 2. pp. 75-88. of the nutritional requirements of bigFed. Aid Proj. W-4l-R-22. January, Part Prepared by ~~~~~~ ~~~~_:>~~~==~.~ _ -'fob!rt1. KYs7" z< Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Pikes Peak grass - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents of grass samples from five transects on Pikes Peak Study Area. Season of Collection Transect No. Percent of Total I Cell Contents Ether Soluble Protein Extract Ash Soluble Carbo Cell l.,Talls Acid InHolosoluble cellulose Ash % % % % % % Percent of Total 34.72 8.80 6.73 7.70 11.49 65.28 6.53 5.85 52.90 II 35.16 8.80 8.37 6.72 11.27 64.84 6.48 5.94 52.42 III 34.12 8.50 9.62 6.91 9.09 65.88 6.92 5.63 53.33 IV 34.17 8.40 6.91 7.08 11. 78 65.83 6.38 5.73 53.72 V 35.63 8.30 7.37 7.21 12.75 64.37 6.84 4.62 52.91 Summer Lignin % I I Fall Winter 31.62 7.80 .9.94 4.56 9.32 68.38 8.37 5.87 54.14 I II 30.63 7.70 9.27 4.63 9.03 69.37 8.58 5.78 55.01 III 31.37 7.10 8.63 5.92 9.72 68.63 8.43 5.73 54.47 IV 32.51 7.70 9.81 4.81 10.19 67.49 8.62 6.59 52.28 V 33.27 7.90 9.37 5.09 10.91 66.73 8.79 6.30 51.64 I 24.62 5.00 4.37 7.37 7.88 75.38 9.48 5.78 60.12 II 24.72 5.10 4.47 6.37 8.78 75.28 10.73 6.37 58.18 23.23 5.00 5.17 7.94 5.12 76.77 8.77 6.69 61.31 IV 23.76 5.70 6.21 6.38 5.47 76.24 8.92 6.30 61.02 V 24.89 5.10 4.21 5.91 9.67 75.11 10.81 5.31 58.99 III '" �Table 2. Pikes Peak grass - mineral analysis of grass samples from five transects on Pikes Peak Study Area. -Season of Collection Sunnner Fall Winter Potassium Magnesium % % Iron ppm Copper ppm Zinc ppm Selenium % Calcium : Phosphorus Ratio .46 .17 2.7 : 1 .70 .18 25 3.7 50 .07 II .46 .16 2.9 : 1 .71 .17 26 3.2 56 .07 III .44 .17 2.6 : 1 .72 .18 28 3.3 53 .08 IV .47 .17 2.8 : 1 .75 .18 27 3.7 52 .08 V .49 .15 3.3 : 1 .77 .17 22 3.5 51 .06 I .51 .12 4.3 : 1 .63 .14 22 3.2 34 .05 Transect No. Calcium % I Phosphorus % II .51 .11 4.6 : 1 .63 .15 23 3.2 36 .06 III .53 .10 5.3 : 1 .62 .16 24 3.3 38 .07 IV .51 .10 5.1 : 1 .66 .17 26 3.5 40 .05 V .52 .11 4.7 : 1 .63 .16 22 3.6 38 .05 I .62 .05 12.4 : 1 .45 .11 16 2.2 30 .03 II .63 .04 12.6 : 1 .48 .11 17 2.7 38 .02 III .62 .05 12.4 : 1 .45 .12 16 2.1 31 .01 IV .64 .06 10.7 : 1 .49 .11 16 2.2 33 .05 X .62 .05 12.4 : 1 .44 .10 1" 2.5 34 .03 I "'-I I �Table 3. Pikes Peak browse - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents of the browse samples from five transects on Pikes Peak Study Area. Season of Collection Summer Fall Winter Cell Contents Ether Soluble Protein Extract Ash Transect No. Percent of Total I 34.62 8.80 II 34.71 III Soluble Carbo Cell Walls Acid InHolosoluble cellulose Ash % % % % Percent of Total 12.17 4.32 9.33 65.38 8.73 5.31 51.34 8.80 12.72 5.21 7.98 65.21 8.37 3.31 53.53 35.12 8.80 13.36 4.83 8.13 64.88 8.38 5.20 51.30 IV 34.31 8.10 12.79 4.92 8.50 65.69 8.92 4.11 52.66 V 33.92 8.70 13.27 5.31 6.64 66.08 8.12 4.72 53.24 I 33.19 8.00 -13.27 5.96 5.96 66.81 8.25 5.29 52.27 II 32.31 8.10 11.73 6.73 5.75 67.69 8.93 4.37 54.39 III 34.17 8.00 12.17 5.81 8.19 65.83 8.79 5.18 51.86 IV 33.19 7.80 13.29 6.33 5.77 66.81 8.27 4.47 54.07 V 32.72 7.90 11.69 5.18 7.95 67.28 8.81 5.66 52.81 I 26.31 7.60 8.97 4.93 4.81 73.69 8.39 5.78 59.52 II 25.47 7.60 8.99 5.73 3.15 74.53 8.37 5.72 60.44 III 26.37 7.50 7.63 4.99 6.25 73.63 8.63 6.23 58.77 IV 24.72 7.40 7.83 5.07 4.42 78.28 9.08 6.44 62.76 V 24.37 7.10 7.17 6.31 3.79 75.63 8.81 5.66 61.16 % % Lignin % I 00 I �Table 4. Pikes Peak browse - mineral analysis of browse samples from five transects on Pikes Peak Study Area. Season of Collection SUIIDl1er Fall Winter Potassium Magnesium % % Iron ppm Copper ppm Zinc ppm Selenium % Calcium : Phosphorus Ratio .52 .19 2.7 : 1 .76 .19 28 3.5 49 .10 II .51 .20 2.6 : 1 .78 .19 29 3.7 48 .11 III .53 .19 2.8 : 1 .75 .20 31 3.6 47 .10 IV .55 .21 2.6 : 1 .77 .19 . 31 3.9 49 .12 V .56 .18 3.1 : 1 .76 .18 29 4.0 57 .10 I .50 .15 3.3 : 1 .68 .18 27 4.1 53 .09 II .51 .14 3.6 : 1 .69 .19 28 4.1 61 .08 III .50 .15 3.1 : 1 .70 .19 26 4.3 58 .10 IV .55 .14 3.9 : 1 .72 .20· 24 3.9 60 .10 V .51 .13 3.9 : 1 .74 .18 25 4.4 53 .09 I .51 .12 4.3 : 1 .69 .15 21 3.0 56 .07 II .52 .11 4.7 : 1 .68 .14 22 3.0 50 .08 III .55 .10 5.5 : 1 .69 .15 21 3.1 55 .07 IV .51 .12 4.3 : 1 .64 .16 19 3.3 51 .08 V .52 .12 4.3 : 1 .65 .14 20 3.5 54 .09 Transect No. Calcium % I Phosphorus % I \0 I �Table 5. Buffalo Peaks grass - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constitutents of grass samples from five transects on Buffalo Peaks Study Area. Season of Collection No. I 39.15 10.40 39.16 10.40 Transect II Summer III IV V III IV V I II ~"'""=-'-"-"='~ ....•. -=-.~. 41.27 31.63 II Fall 40.37 39.31 I Winter Cell Contents Ether Soluble Protein Extract Ash Percent of Total 31.72 32.36 % 10.10 10.50 8.20 % % 7.93 9.37 60.85 7.08 5.60 48.17 9.73 7.64 11.39 60.84 7.76 4.39 48.69 10.91 7.37 11.39 59.63 7.44 5.31 46.88 8.62 7.73 14.82 58.73 7.59 4.72 46.42 9.21 6.94 12.66 60.69 7.68 5.23 47.78 10.35 6.63 6.45 68.37 7.93 5.72 54.72 11.45 % 8.36 6.72 8.44 68.28 7.82 5.33 55.13 8.30 9.37 7.37 7.32 67.64 7.92 5.73 53.99 10.47 6.54 4.80 69.69 8.18 6.54 54.97 9.36 7.38 6.81 68.35 8.25 6.85 53.25 4.63 7.44 4.40 77.53 9.27 6.34 61.92 4.73 6.37 5.17 77.63 9.16 8.39 60.08 6.30 5.91 6.92 2.16 78.26 10.37 7.85 60.04 76.69 78.28 10.28 10.35 7.76 8.27 58.65 59.66 30.31 8.50 31.65 8.10 22.47 6.00 22.37 6.10 21. 74 IV 23.31 5.80 4.97 7.17 5.37 V 21.72 5.90 3.21 6.38 6.23 "-- Lignin 8.20 III -- Cell Walls Acid InHolosoluble cellulose Ash % % Percent of Total % 10.70 Soluble Carbo .-~~ .. -~.~. --~=--' I I-' 0 I �Table 6. Area. Season of Collection Summer Fall Winter Buffalo Peaks grass - mineral analysis of grass samples from five transects on Buffalo Peaks Study Potassium Magnesium % Calcium : Phosphorus Ratio % % Iron ppm Copper ppm Zinc ppm Selenium % .61 .18 3.4 : 1 .55 .17 25 3.2 30 .11 II .67 .19 3.5 : 1 .54 .18 26 3.3 31 .11 III .63 .18 3.5 : 1 .57 .17 27 3.2 28 .13 IV .66 .19 3.5 : 1 .56 .18 23 3.5 28 .14 V .62 .18 3.4 : 1 .54 .17 22 2.9 27 .15 I .63 .10 3.6 : 1 .48 .15 21 3.0 21 .10 II .64 .11 5.8 : 1 .49 .14 21 3.0 21 .09 III .60 .10 6.0 : 1 .47 .14 22 3.0 25 .08 IV .65 .09 7.2 : 1 .44 .13 25 3.9 24 .10 V .63 .10 6.5 : 1 .46 .14 22 2.8 30 .10 I .65 .04 16.3 : 1 .36 .12 15 2.1 16 .09 II .64 .03 21. 3 : 1 .38 .11 16 2.5 18 .07 III .63 .04 15.8 : 1 .35 .12 15 2.2 21 .08 IV .66 .05 13.2 : 1 .35 .11 17 2.1 20 .07 V .69 .06 11.5 : 1 .35 .09 19 2.3 17 .06 Transect No. Calcium Phosphorus % I I f-I f-I I �Table 7. Buffalo Peaks browse - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents of browse samples from five transects on Buffalo Peaks Study Area. Season of Collection Tran3ect No. Percent of Total I 35.94 35.63 II Summer Cell Walls Acid InHo1osoluble cellulose Ash % % % % % Percent of Total 12.20 13.36 5.17 5.21 64.06 8.76 4.54 50.76 12.00 12.37 6.73 4.26 64.37 8.29 4.63 51.45 12.39 5.92 4.96 64.63 8.73 4.95 50.95 % Lignin % 35.37 IV 36.37 12.30 13.63 4.86 5.58 63.63 7.98 4.36 51.29 35.17 12.30 12.91 6.21 3.75 64.83 7.87 5.87 51.09 I 33.27 12.10 I •.... 7.60 '13.83 5.07 6.77 66.73 6.38 5.19 55.16 7.60 12.37 5.09 8.66 66.28 6.37 5.36 54.55 II 33.72 III 34.31 7.80 13.17 6.21 7.13 65.69 7.21 6.77 51.71 32.36 7.70 12.39 5.79 6.48 67.64 6.84 5.28 55.52 33.37 7.10 11.62 6.17 8.48 66.63 6.39 5.89 54.35 27.62 8.20 7.95 5.82 5.65 72.38 7.63 5.72 59.03 II 26.51 8.10 8.93 6.09 3.39 73.49 7.78 6.78 58.93 III 25.37 8.20 7.64 5.72 3.82 74.63 7.29 6.39 60.95 IV 26.37 8.70 7.37 8.21 2.09 73.63 7.84 5.80 59.99 27.36 8.10 8.77 7.35 3.14 72.64 8.05 6.61 57.98 IV V I Winter Soluble Carbo III V Fall Cell Contents Ether Soluble Protein Extract Ash V ------......... ..........--~ ..,..,...."....---.-..-.. -. -~~ ..-.--~~--=--~"""~-~-~--,_~'"--......--..-, ..."-'"~""'..... ..=z.~.,...._____ -'-. N I �Table 8. Buffalo Peaks browse - mineral analysis of browse samples from five transects Study Area. Season of Collection Summer Transect No. Calcium Phosphorus % % Calcium : Phosphorus Ratio I .48 .21 2.3 : 1 II .49 .20 III .51 IV on Buffalo Peaks Copper ppm Zinc ppm Selenium % Iron ppm .65 .19 29 3.8 36 .12 2.5 : 1 .62 .19 29 3.8 37 .13 .22 2.3 : 1 .63 .19 30 3.7 38 .14 .52 .21 2.5 : 1 .66 .18 28 3.8 40 .15 V .55 .22 2.5 : 1 .67 .18 31 3.6 33 .16 I .49 .14 3.5 : 1 .57 .18 28 3.6 30 .14 II .48 .15 3.2 : 1 .55 .18 27 3.7 33 .14 III .50 .13 3.8 : 1 .57 .18 24 3.8 38 .13 IV .44 .13 3.4 : 1 .54 .19 25 3.7 37 .12 V .46 .14 3.3 : 1 .56 .20 22 3.8 36 .l3 I .59 .10 5.9 : 1 .46 .16 23 3.5 35 .11 II .58 .10 5.8 : 1 .47 .15 22 3.5 33 .10 III .55 .11 5.0 : 1 .46 .14 23 3.6 40 .09 IV .55 .12 4.6 : 1 .48 .16 20 3.6 38 .10 V .54 .10 5.4 : 1 .44 .15 24 3.7 36 .08 Potassium Magnesium % % , ~ , w Fall Winter �Table 9. Trickle Mountain grass - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents of grass samples from five transects on Trickle Mountain Study Area. Season of Collection Transect No. I II Summer III IV V Percent of Total 28.37 27.72 26.31 28.17 27.21 Cell Contents Ether Soluble Protein Extract Ash Soluble Carbo Cell t.Jalls Acid InHolosoluble cellulose Ash % % % % % % Percent of Total 6.20 8.72 3.42 10.03 71.63 5.27 6.38 59.98 6.20 8.37 4.72 8.43 72.28 5.61 6.79 59.88 9.59 5.63 4.99 73.69 5.93 7.92 59.84 6.20 7.37 4.37 10.23 71.83 6.27 8.27 57.29 5.90 8.77 6.91 5.63 72.79 5.33 8.63 58.83 6.10 Lignin % I •..... .s>- I II Fall Winter III 30.33 8.20 .8.81 I 4.21 9.11 69.67 7.45 8.27 53.95 7.63 5.37 11.01 67.69 7.62 9.98 50.09 32.31 8.30 28.27 8.10 7.93 4.24 8.00 71.73 7.38 7.73 56.62 8.40 8.27 5.63 5.20 72.49 7.91 9.21 55.37 8.59 6.27 5.25 71.79 7.53 8.16 56.10 3.11 8.72 5.14 79.63 9.39 9.37 60.87 4.73 6.37 7.12 78.27 8.92 8.93 60.42 IV 27.51 V 28.21 8.10 I 20.37 II 21.72 3.50 III 23.71 4.10 5.17 8.81 5.63 76.29 9.37 10.21 56.71 IV 21.21 4.20 3.37 5.27 8.37 78.79 9.01 8.62 61.16 V 19.63 4.40 3.38 6.37 5.48 80.37 8.35 9.93 62.09 3.40 �Table 10. Trickle Mountain grass - mineral analysis of grass samples from five transects on Trickle Mountain Study Area. Season of Collection Sunnner Fall Winter Potassium Magnesium % % Iron ppm Copper ppm Zinc ppm Selenium % Calcium : Phosphorus Ratio .40 .14 2.9 : 1 .51 .16 26 3.8 28 .16 II .41 .15 2.7 : 1 .55 .16 27 3.8 29 .17 III .42 .16 2.6 : 1 .54 .14 26 3.7 30 .15 IV .46 .15 3.1 : 1 .51 .15 27 3.8 25 .16 V .48 .17 2.8 : 1 .53 .17 29 3.6 27 .15 I .49 .12 4.1 : 1 .48 .14 21 3.7 21 .11 II .51 .13 3.9 : 1 .49 .14 22 3.7 21 .11 III .48 .14 3.4 : 1 .51 .15 27 3.6 22 .12 IV .50 .11 4.5 : 1 .52 .16 21 3.7 18 .14 V .52 .12 4.3 : 1 .48 .14 22 3.5 26 .15 I .51 .08 6.4 : 1 .42 .10 18 2.5 16 .11 II .55 .10 5.5 : 1 .45 .11 17 2.6 17 .12 III .58 .11 5.3 : 1 .47 ~10 16 2.7 19 .10 IV .60 .10 6.0 : 1 .46 .09 19 2.B 16 .11 V .59 .12 4.9 : 1 .45 .11 20 2.2 22 .13 Transect No. Calcium % I Phosphorus % I I-' VI I �Table 11. Trickle Mountain browse - chemical partitioning of the nutritive constituents of browse samples from five transects on Buffalo Peaks Study Area. Season of Collection - Transect No. I 40.83 II 39.37 9.70 41.73 Summer III IV V I II Fall III IV V Winter Cell Contents Ether Soluble Protein Extract Ash Percent of Total 44.27 41.36 35.37 Cell Walls Acid InHolosoluble cellulose Ash % % % % % Percent of Total 14.01 4.79 12.23 59.17 7.37 7.47 44.33 13.03 5.37 11.27 60.63 6.91 7.30 46.42 9.40 12.27 6.39 13.67 58.27 7.28 8.71 42.28 9.60 12.91 5.41 16.35 55.73 7.59 8.62 39.52 12.81 5.45 14.00 58.64 7.63 5.53 45.48 % 9.80 9.10 Lignin % 8.60 12.73 5.18 8.86 64.63 7.92 8.32 48.39 8.60 11.63 5.19 9.30 65.28 8.63 8.27 48.38 35.31 8.70 12.17 6.37 8.07 64.69 8.27 8.72 47.70 34.37 8.40 12.39 4.73 8.85 65.63 8.17 7.35 50.11 34.21 8.80 11.62 5.72 8.07 65.79 8.43 8.29 49.07 6.20 9.13 5.43 2.96 76.28 7.62 5.37 63.29 9.73 5.31 3.39 75.27 7.39 6.29 61.59 10.62 6.21 4.69 72.38 7.49 8.11 56.78 6.70 8.17 5.72 5.72 73.69 8.05 7.38 58.26 6.10 8.37 6.73 4.01 74.79 7.27 6.23 61.29 34.72 I 23.72 II 24.73 6.30 27.62 6.10 III Soluble Carbo IV 26.31 V 25.21 I I-' 0\ I �Table 12. Trickle Mountain browse - mineral analysis of browse samples from five transec:tson Trickle Mountain Study Area. Season of Collection Sununer Fall Winter Potassium Magnesium % Calcium: _ Phosphorus Ratio % % .47 .19 2.5 : 1 .63 .17 II .49 .22 2.2 : 1 .64 III .48 .23 2.1 : 1 IV .44 .24 V .48 I Iron Copper ppm ppm Zinc ppm Selenium 31 4.7 36 .15 .18 33 4.3 35 .14 .62 .17 31 4.5 33 .15 1.8 : 1 .62 .15 28 4.7 38 .14 .22 2.2 : 1 .63 .16 27 4.8 37 .15 .55 .15 3.3 : 1 .60 .16 23 4.2 35 .14 II .57 .16 3.6 : 1 .62 .14 23 4.2 35 .13 III .56 .16 3.5 : 1 .59 .15 24 4.1 36 .14 IV .55 .15 3.7 : 1 .58 .16 26 4.2 39 .12 V .57 .17 3.4 : 1 .62 .15 25 4.4 41 .16 I .58 .11 5.3 : 1 .51 .15 21 3.9 29 .13 II. .59 .12 4.9 : 1 .49 .14 22 3.8 28 .13 III .61 .11 5.5 : 1 .52 .13 27 3.5 27 .12 IV .65 .10 6.5 : 1 .54 .14 24 3.4 29 .13 V .67 .11 6.1 : 1 .55 .15 25 3.3 31 .12 Transect No. Calcium % I Phosphorus ,- % I I-' -..J I �-18Table 13. Bighorn sheep lambs necropsied during the course of the bighorn sheep study and used for mineral level analysis in selected tissues. Animal No. Study Area 72BHL-2 Pikes Peak 8-15-72 72BHL-3 Pikes Peak 8-17-72 72BHL-4 Pikes Peak 8-18-72 72BHL-5 Pikes Peak 8-22-72 72BHL-6 Trickle Mountain 8-29-72 72BHL-7 Trickle Mountain 8-30-72 72BHL-8 Buffalo Peaks 9-13-72 Date Collected 73BHL-7 Remarks Born in captivity 73BHL-11 Pikes Peak 6-05-73 73BHL-12 Pikes Peak 6-19-73 73BHL-13 Pikes Peak 6-28-73 73BHL-14 Pikes Peak 7-12-73 73BHL-15 Pikes Peak 7-24-73 73BHL-16 Pikes Peak 7-26-74 73BHL-17 Pikes Peak 8-14-74 73BHL-19 Pikes Peak 8-14-74 74BHL-10 Pikes Peak 6-25-74 74BHL-5 Pikes Peak 6-12-74 74BHL-13 Pikes Peak 7-10-74 74BHL-14 Pikes Peak 7-17-74 74BHL-4 Pikes Peak 6-11-74 74BHL-12 Pikes Peak 7-09-74 74BHL-9 Pikes Peak 6-19-74 Found dead - partially decomposed Found dead �-19- Table 14. Phosphorus content of selected tissues from bighorn sheep lambs (% dry weight). Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 72-2 .11 .12 .13 .42 .19 .22 72-3 .10 .14 .16 .30 .17 .29 72-4 .14 .18 .20 .18 .16 .21 72-5 .08 .24 .18 .11 .19 .24 72-6 .09 .11 .27 .29 .26 .26 72-7 .18 .12 .16 .14 .10 .15 72-8 .12 .11 .36 .22 .12 .17 73-7 .08 .35 .37 .38 .35 .28 73-11 .08 .19 .41 .33 .18 .25 73-12 .08 .12 .39 .35 .19 .32 73-13 .08 .19 .24 .30 .19 .25 73-14 .08 .15 .28 .37 .20 .26 73-15 .12 .10 .29 .31 .24 .31 73-16 .13 .25 .30 .24 .20 .36 73-17 .11 .29 .40 .19 .26 .28 73-19 .11 .14 .30 .40 .28 .29 74-10 .10 .15 .20 .41 .29 .32 74-5 .09 .10 .28 .30 .21 .23 74-13 .11 .16 .21 .35 .28 .30 74-14 .08 .24 .34 .30 .25 .24 74-4 .15 .11 .32 .42 .30 .28 74-12 .15 .30 .26 .26 .30 .26 74-9 .10 .24 .35 .22 .25 .30 �-20Table 15. Calcium content of selected tissues from bighorn shee1 lambs (% dry weight). Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 72-2 .15 .08 .09 .11 .08 .10 72-3 .17 .08 .09 .11 .08 .08 72-4 .17 .07 .09 .09 .06 .09 72-5 .15 .09 .09 .08 .07 .09 72-6 .16 .08 .17 .10 .09 .08 72-7 .16 .07 .10 .08 .06 .08 72-8 .22 .08 .11 .10 .07 .09 73-7 .18 .12 .10 .12 .14 .11 73-11 .16 .10 .10 .10 .07 .11 73-12 .17 .10 .19 .11 .08 .11 73-13 .18 .08 .09 .10 .09 .11 73-14 .26 .08 .09 .10 .09 .12 73-15 .17 .08 .07 .10 .10 .09 73-16 .17 .09 .10 .12 .10 .10 73-17 .18 .09 .10 .13 .09 .08 73-19 .29 .09 .08 .10 .12 .09 74-10 .17 .09 .08 .09 .09 .12 74-5 .16 .08 .13 .09 .09 .09 74-13 .17 .07 .09 .10 .13 .09 74-14 .39 .10 .15 .15 .17 .11 74-4 .22 .09 .14 .11 .11 .09 74-12 .16 .10 .14 .11 .09 .10 74-9 .21 .10 .09 .09 .09 .09 �-21- Table 16. Sodium content of selected tissue s from bighorn sheep lambs (% dry weight). Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 72-2 .03 .28 .32 .78 .17 .36 72-3 .03 .19 .28 .64 .18 .44 72-4 .05 .19 .29 .56 .19 .30 72-5 .05 .29 .31 .30 .22 .38 72-6 .04 .19 .36 .56 .21 .28 72-7 .07 .20 .29 .59 .19 .37 72-8 .15 .38 .69 .50 .20 .31 73-7 .05 .42 .33 .80 .19 .31 73-11 .05 .32 .24 .65 .22 .36 73-12 .03 .35 .35 .59 .19 .36 73-13 .03 .25 .33 .63 .20 .39 73-14 .06 .28 .37 .73 .23 .39 73-15 .05 .28 .37 .84 .18 .44 73-16 .05 .36 .37 .99 .46 .43 73-17 .05 .47 .38 .60 .56 .37 73-19 .10 .20 .26 .60 .35 .34 74-10 .02 .28 .32 .70 .19 .42 74-5 .03 .28 .32 .61 .29 .32 74-13 .04 .39 .35 .67 .21 .44 74-14 .04 .25 .30 .66 .19 .30 74-4 .04 .20 .23 .41 .17 .26 74-12 .02 .24 .35 .49 .16 .31 74-9 .03 .22 .19 .59 .24 .33 �-22Table 17. Magnesium content of selected tissues from bighorn sheep lambs (mg/Kg dry weight ppm). Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 72-2 470 458 504 633 716 717 72-3 380 490 591 511 775 860 72-4 373 461 592 534 760 692 72-5 299 488 495 583 771 717 72-6 332 422 593 498 786 761 72-7 284 475 510 510 788 667 72-8 342 455 577 613 770 657 73-7 327 501 562 520 1027 674 73-11 338 551 649 591 ·655 635 73-12 254 . 337 634 589 632 675 73-13 325 376 624 571 794 958 73-14 356 356 683 581 820 955 73-15 299 525 702 643 844 758 73-16 299 600 675 673 689 720 73-17 307 554 670 725 643 643 73-19 390 421 578 596 638 706 74-10 365 561 549 519 883 1023 74-5 322 529 946 581 807 838 74-13 291 531 629 533 792 684 74-14 1600 511 1127 866 1419 965 74-4 348 590 784 629 901 653 74-12 383 445 786 676 721 604 74-9 436 482 606 562 704 685 �-23Table 18. Iron content of selected tissues from bighorn sheep lambs (mg/Kg dry tissue ppm). Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 72-2 174.7 312.4 638.4 372.5 240.9 385.3 72-3 186.3 302.8 336.5 396.1 241.9 256.6 72-4 615.4 339.6 366.2 302.4 222.6 331.5 72-5 172.4 378.4 332.5 354.9 224.9 321.0 72-6 259.0 268.9 577 .2 498.0 261.9 305.6 72-7 171.6 261.6 381.2 480.4 208.2 312.7 72-8 230.6 276.5 346.1 383.2 281.3 313.9 73-7 180.0 423.8 496.6 449.6 289.9 418.6 73-11 190.5 426.3 463.2 399.8 222.7 321.3 73-12 253.7 381.6 689.4 344.7 221.3 355.2 73-13 201.2 425.5 383.7 402.7 234.0 299.4 73-14 322.5 362.3 336.2 403.2 236.3 281.6 73-15 238.8 249.5 275.0 297.6 248.6 325.9 73-16 208.1 324.1 401.5 345.1 264.3 360.2 73-17 312.3 636.7 427.3 379.2 299.1 448.3 73-19 470.9 307.5 426.6 322.2 288.6 323.8 74-10 207.0 548.6 548.6 399.6 242.1 379.4 74-5 195.5 455.7 362.8 283.7 246.6 325.8 74-13 247.3 343.3 378.7 383.9 311.2 319.0 74-14 453.6 426.0 476.9 332.6 283.8 345.7 74-4 307.3 721. 7 392.2 449.4 270.2 356.9 74-12 173.4 899.3 655.2 655.2 301.8 402.4 74-9 224.6 332.2 317.5 287.4 273.9 327.1 �-24Table 19. Copper content of selected tissues from bighorn sheep lambs (mg/Kg dry tissue ppm). Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 23.6 5.5 13.9 9.5 17.9 72-3 85.6 81.2 9.4 5.5 8.8 9.2 20.8 72-4 92.6 13.9 5.5 14.1 6.5 19.9 72-5 63.2 16.8 4.9 14.6 6.4 19.4 72-6 82.9 69.1 10.9 13.3 7.9 20.4 72-7 76.9 42.6 6.7 15.4 7.3 20.8 72-8 75.6 48.3 8.2 15.3 6.3 21.9 73-7 60.9 9.6 6.6 15.9 5.8 14.6 73-11 69.3 66.3 7.4 13.9 10.5 15.3 73-12 82.1 62.5 13.0 13.5 8.2 23.1 73-13 69.2 63.6 5.6 16.8 9.2 22.6 73-14 122.3 13.3 6.3 16.5 8.2 21.2 73-15 90.9 17.1 5.9 16.1 7.5 22.7 73-16 84.5 16.2 6.4 13.8 10.4 20.2 73-17 89.3 36.9 6.5 21.9 9.7 22.4 73-19 105.6 8.1 4.8 12.9 12.2 19.1 74-10 79.2 31.3 4.9 10.7 9.3 21.5 74-5 74.7 64.7 5.5 13.5 7.3 23.3 74-13 80.0, 6.5 5.6 12.5 6.6 19.8 74-14 106.7 24.6 8.5 15.5 8.4 20.9 74-4 148.5 95.1 6.1 14.4 15.0 19.7 74-12 66.2 6.5 6.2 17.6 8.4 18.3 74-9 93.1 82.6 7.4 15.0 10.2 22.8 72-2 �-25- Table 20. Zinc content of selected (mg/Kg dry weight ppm). tissues from bighorn sheep lambs Lamb No. Hair Liver Spleen Kidney Skeletal Muscle Heart Muscle 72-2 98.1 190.9 74.9 110.0 105.9 71. 7 72-3 91. 7 156.8 88.0 88.0 107.3 79.8 72-4 102.2 166.8 113.0 112.5 128.2 71.8 72-5 158.0 134.5 120.3 112.5 131.8 72.8 72-6 108.8 92.7 132.6 80.9 121.0 81.5 72-7 105.0 103.4 107.3 80.1 118.2 67.7 72-8 107.4 102.5 204.5 88.1 119.5 78.5 73-7 111.8 303.4 112.4 100.6 169.8 72.8 73-11 121.3 203.7 89.5 76.1 91. 7 77 .6 73-12 113.8 281.3 102.5 82.0 137.5 77.7 73-13 103.8 119.3 107.9 107.0 117.0 76.5 73-14 97.3 136.2 110.2 116.2 181.2 79.3 73-15 108.2 338.0 115.6 168.9 186.4 90.9 73-16 94.3 376.8 91.2 116.5 136.2 76.9 73-17 105.6 475.2 176.2 193.8 123.4 80.3 73-19 97.4 153.8 110.1 149.0 193.7 84.6 74-10 103.5 198.5 98.5 89.9 99.7 72.2 74-5 120.7 99.2 106.5 98.0 167.2 75.6 74-13 120.0 252.6 102.7 105.8 193.3 129.1 74-14 93.4 234.3 115.3 131.5 112.7 80.4 74-4 94.8 111.5 100.2 222.5 117.3 73.2 74-12 101.5 81.1 108.3 98.0 106.9 91.5 74-9 97.9 81.0 107.1 91.4 58.7 81.8 ��January 1976 -27JOB PROGRESS State 0f REPORT C.::.O:::.;L::;O:..:RAD=:...:O~ _ Project No. w-41-R-25 Work Plan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. 17 ------------------------- Job Title __~Man~=i~p~u=l=a=t~i=o~n~o~f~V~e~g~e~t~a~t~i~on--~on=-B~ig~h~o~rn~_S~h~e~e~p~Ran==~g~e~s~ ~ _ Period Covered: Personnel: June 1, 1974 to May 31, 1975 George D. Bear, Dave Roberts, Lynn Stevens Thomas McClure, William Adrian, and ABSTRACT Study plots near Cathedral, Colorado were treated with varied applications of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, and 2,4-D herbicide in 1971-72. Two areas were selected for study sites: (a) an alpine range, and (b) a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass range. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at 0, 30, 60, and 90 lbs per acre; phosphorus fertilizer at 0 and 30 1bs per acre; and 2,4-D herbicide at 0 and 2 lbs per acre. The effects of these treatments ·are being monitored. There were no major changes in the plant composition from the previous year. There was a significant increase in forage production on the ponderosa pinebunchgrass area due to the nitrogen-phosphorus-herbicide treatment. Alpine plots treated with phosphorus and nitrogen-herbicide showed significant changes in vegetative production. Soil samples collected last summer indicated phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers were still prevalent on the ponderosa pinebunchgrass study area, while only minimal amounts of fertilizer still persist in the alpine area. Protein content of the plants collected from the ponderosa pine~bunchgrass winter range increased with increased nitrogen application rates. The increased protein levels persisted into the mid-winter sampling period. Vegetation calcium:phosphorus ratios were lowered by the phosphorus fertilizer treatments. Differences in the protein content and ca1cium:phosphorus ratios of alpine vegetation due to the various treatments were erratic and not as pronounced as in vegetation on the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass area. Deer and elk were very selective for the nitrogen treated plots. ��-29- MANIPULATION OF VEGETATION ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE Improve the herbage yield, vegetative density and vegetative on selected bighorn sheep ranges in Colorado. composition SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the effect of each treatment on the composition, and chemical content of plant species. 2. Determine grazing preferences to each treatment. of wild bighorns production, on the area with respect METHODS· AND MATERIALS The study areas are located about 35 miles south of Gunnison, Colorado. This bighorn herd winters in two areas: in a low (8,000 feet elevation) bunchgrass and ponderosa pine type, and in a high (11,000-14,000 feet elevation) alpine type. This is the fourth year of a five-year study, therefore, the procedures outlined here are being used in a continuing study. The following work is being conducted on each winter range. Bighorn preference and response of the vegetation was measured on plots treated with 2,4-D (herbicide), nitrogen, and phosphorus. Treatments were made in 1971 and 1972., Two levels of 2,4-D treatment ( 0 and 2 1bs/acre) were evaluated. Four levels of nitrogen treatment (0, 30, 60, and 90 1bs/acre), and two levels of phosphorous treatment (0 and 30 1bs/acre) were examined. These were evaluated in all possible combinations, or a 2x4x2 factorial for a total of 16 treatments, as outlined in the following table: Treatment Ntunber 2,4-D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Treatment Nitrogen 0 0 30 30 60 60 90 90 0 0 30 30 60 60 90 90 Phosphorus 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 �-30- Treatment plots, measuring 50 feet by 100 feet, have been established. Each plot corner was marked with a metal fence post. These markers were numbered to assist in identifying plots when bighorns are grazing on them. Each treatment was randomly replicated 3 times on each study area. Each replication consisted of the 16 treatment plots listed on the preceding page. Plots in each replication were arranged in a rectangular area eight plots long and two plots deep. Randomized selection of each plot treatment was determined by using a table of random numbers. 1. Frequency sampling. Transects were established on each plot to determine changes in vegetative frequency which may result from the various treatments. Frequency (p) is defined p=m/n, where m is the number of quadrats containing a given species and n is the total number of quadrats observed in each treatment. Four transects were established in each plot. Transects paralleled the base of the plot with approximately lO-foot spacing between transects. A total of 15 quadrats are located at 6-foot intervals along each transect, or a total of 60 quadrats for each treatment plot. Preliminary sampling work indicated a quadrat size measuring l6x16 inches sh~uld be used on the lower winter range at Cebolla Creek; and a split-sampling scheme should be used on the Alpine Area. Two quadrat sizes are used on the alpine: lx1 inch for measuring Trifolium ~ and Carex sp., and 8x8 inches for all other species. Frequency percentages were derived for all plant species encountered on the quadrats. To be considered as occurring on a given quadrat, the center of an individual plant or one-half of its basal area must be inside the quadrat. An "individual" for bunchgrasses was a clump; for a single stem species, such as Western wheatgrass, it was individual stems; for cactus it was a lobe; and for shrubs and forbs it was the basal area of all stems. Obviously, these data are acceptable for determining changes in frequencies for each individual species only, and cannot be used to compare one species to another. These transects were read in June and July, when the vegetation was growing well, but before the crowns became so large they interfered with observations. Yield plots. Quantity of forage produced on the treatment plots was determined by using a Neal Electronics Herbage meter. The herbage meter measures an area 24x12 inches x 18 inches, which is designated as yield plot. The 60 plots established on each treatment for the frequency plots above were also used for the yield plots. At every twelfth meter read plot, all vegetation was clipped and weighed. All green vegetation on these plots was clipped at the root crown and placed in a labeled paper sack. These samples were oven dried and weighed to the nearest gram. The weights were used to compute regression equations for converting herbage meter readings into pounds of forage per acre. Wire cages were placed on the study areas to monitor the effect of grazing on the area. Cages measuring 3 feet by 3 feet by 1 foot high were placed on each area. Vegetation produced inside the cages (no grazing) was visually compared with vegetation produced on areas outside the cages (grazed) areas) to get a general idea concerning effects of grazing. Photo points were established on each treatment. Photos were taken at the end of the growing season to establish visual records of changes occurring in the vegetation due to various treatments. �-31- Chemical analysis. Vegetation samples of the most common plant species were collected from the treated areas. Samples were analyzed for phosphorus, calcium, and protein content. This work was done at the Fort Collins Research Center Laboratory. Since the study area is a bighorn winter range, the vegetation was sampled at the completion of the growing season, agaiu in mid-winter, and in late winter. 2. Bighorn preference or selection of treatment plots was measured by recording number of bighorns on each treatment plot at l5-minute intervals during observation periods. Sex and age of the sheep, time of day, general activity of the animals, weather conditions, and snow depth (if present) were also recorded. Observations were made with a spotting scope during daylight hours. Sampling periods extended throughout the time the sheep occupied the winter range. Notations were also kept on other animals (deer or elk) that use the study plots. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Monitoring Treated Plots Frequency Sampling Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots are presented in Tables 1 and 2. Data from the three replications (180 sampling plots) were combined to give a single percentage figure for each plant species within each level of treatment; however, in the final analysis data from each replication will be regarded as an individual sampling unit. Visual inspection of the mean percentages did Ilot reveal any gross changes in plant frequency from the previous year. Data ~~ll be analyzed (analysis of variance) in greater detail at the completion of this study to determine the effects of treatment over a period of several years. Yield Plots Correlation coefficients (r) and regression equations were computed for determining the relationship of the herbage meter readings to herbage weights on the clip-plots and converting meter readings to herbage production (Table 3). Last summer was very dry as compared to the previous summer and herbage production on the control plots (0-0-0) showed a marked decrease. Also, there were only minor differences in herbage production on the Cebolla Creek Area due to the various treatments; however, statistical tests indicated a significant (P<.lO) increase due to the nitrogen-phosphorus-herbicide treatment. It was interesting to note the apparent relationship of herbage production on the plots treated with 60 lbs and 90 lbs of nitrogen to general precipitation patterns. Precipitation in summers 1974 and 1972 was low, and herbage production on the plots treated with 60 lbs of nitrogen was greater than production on plots treated with 90 lbs of nitrogen. However, in 1973, a year with greater precipitation, production was greater on the Cebolla Creek plots treated with 90 lbs of nitrogen. Apparently the higher level of nitrogen has a detrimental effect on herbage production in the drier years. �Table l. Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with nitrogen fertilizer, phosphorus fertilizer, and herbicide, Cebolla Creek Area, 1974. Plant Species 0-0-0 Treatment ~Nitrosen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide) 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 0-30-0 30-0-0 30-30-0 - - 20 1 14 - 21 - - 3 1 48 3 63 1 7 39 1 64 14 2 54 6 52 -4 64 4 72 53 1 47 - 2 2 1 - - - 1 3 2 2 1 1 15 1 7 1 13 3 36 24 - 1 1 - 1 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 2 15 - 8 17 17 22 Grasses 1 AsroEyron smithii 23 Boute1oua sraci1is Bromus sp. 13 Carex sp. Danthonia Earryi Festuca arizonica 50 11 Koe1eria cristata Muh1enbergia montana 65 Muh1enbersia richardsoni Muh1enbersia torr~~i OryzoEsis hymenoides 2 Poa secunda 24 Sitanion hystrix Stipa~ Unid. Grasses - - 26 - - 1 32 - - 22 - - 9 - - 3 13 - - 19 - 16 - 15 2 4 1 1 1 10 17 1 3 1 5 1 41 1 53 -2 1 2 1 9 - 41 1 2 1 5 7 6 16 12 1 - - 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 2 - 1 1 1 1 3 - 1 - - -- - 2 - 1 1 1 1 2 44 12 66 -1 2 1 2 50 3 73 -1 13 - 42 - 13 21 1 58 3 74 49 5 53 - 9 1 65 1 66 1 49 10 60 - 5 11 10 16 -2 7 5 -6 - - - 83 1 30 - -3 - 58 1 68 3 1 - 1 15 20 - -3 54 - 56 2 2 21 - - 27 - 18 4 - Forbs Achillea 1anu1osa Androsace sp. Arabis cranda11ii 2 Aster rubrotinctus Castilleja sp. Chaenactis cious1asii ChenoEodium sp. ChrysoEsid vi110sa Draba sp. Erigeron sp, 1 1 Eriosonum sp. Frasaria sp. Geranium sp. 1 Gilia Heuchera sp. - -2 - - - - - - 1 1 - - 3 1 1 -- 1 1 - - 2 3 - - - - - 2 - 4 - - - - - - - 1 1 - - 2 1 - 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w N I �Table l. Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with nitrogen fertilizer, phosphorus fertilizer, and herbicide, Cebolla Creek Area, 1975 (continued)• Plant Species 0-0-0 0-30-0 30-0-0 30-30-0 1 1 1 - Treatment (Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide~ 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 - - 1 1 - 1 Forbs (continued) Hymenoxys richardsoni LaPEula sp. LeEidium montanum LeEtodactylon Euugens 2 Hertensia 1anceo1ata 4 Penstemon teucrioides Potentil1a concinnea 2 Solidago decumbens 3 1 Senecio mutabi1is 1 Senecio sEartioides Sme10wskia ca1ycina SEhaeralcea coccinea Valeriana edulis Unid. Forb-s----- - - - 4 -3 1 7 - - 1 2 - z -I 1 3 - 1 1 -7 - 1 3 1 1 1 5 - - 1 1 - 43 1 7 40 18 40 34 3 11 3 5 1 1 1 1 - 1 -2 1 -1 18 - - 13 1 15 -4 2 1 1 1 - - - - - - 39 45 5 2 - --1 - 2 -1 - - - 1 1 1 - -1 - 1 - 1 1 - - 1 3 I 1 - 1 1 1 - - - 1 - -2 2 - 1 1 1 - - 1 1 - - - - - 31 20 22 24 - 1 - Shrv\"os Artemisia frigida 42 Artemisia tridentata Chrysothamnus parrvi 2 ChtJ::sothamnus viscidif10rus 1 Echinocactus sp. Jamesii americana 1 1 Rhus trilobata 1 Ribes ~ 1 - - 1 -3 - .- -5 - 2 - - - 35 -2 1 1 - 33 1 - 26 -7 -- 32 -3 1 - - -l - - - 4 -1 1 -6 -3 I w W I �Table 2. Percent frequency of occurrence for plant species on the study plots treated with nitrogen fertilizer, phosphorus fertilizer, and herbicide, Alpine Area, 1974. Plant Species 0-0-0 0-30-0 30-0-0 30-30-0 4 17 2 12 4 8 4 4 4 13 8 2 44 3 54 18 1 35 2 66 Treatment {Nitrogen - PhosEhorus - Herbicide~ 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 0-0-2 0-30-2 30-0-2 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 8 12 2 21 7 7 1 9 1 26 12 13 38 5 3 62 30 39 2 3 71 28 38 ~ 4 AgroEyron scribneri 8 Carex sp. De~chamEsia caesEitosa 6 Festuca ovina He1ictotrichon 4 mortonianum 1 Luzu1a sEicatum 44 Poa sp. 6 Trisetum sEicatum 46 Kobresia be11ardi - -3 3 12 - - 12 7 -8 11 2 49 5 43 2 6 54 4 47 16 4 48 15 40 1 3 10 21 8 11 10 6 9 2 12 6 8 36 29 15 26 24 6 41 7 51 20 1 42 2 49 16 7 57 17 48 9 3 58 19 48 25 1 67 15 37 8 3 7 1 - - - - 76 21 32 29 3 61 4 44 - 39 13 58 28 42 I Forbs Achillea 1anu1osa Androsace seEtentriona1is Arenaria fend1eri Artemisia scoEulorum Caltha 1eEtoseEa1a Castilleja occidenta1is Castilleja rhexifo1ia Cerastium beeringianum Erigeron Einnatisecta Erigeron simE1ex Eritrichium e10ngatum Gentiana Erostrata Geum turbinatum HaE10EaEEus Elgmaeus H~eno~s grandif10ra Mertensia bakeri I w .... 2 2 - - 6 35 - 1 9 5 6 - 18 2 2 4 9 15 1 1 3 16 1 4 - 28 - 1 12 - 1 1 - - - 2 3 14 1 1 66 1 6 33 1 1 16 22 2 8 - - 1 2 12 7 26 3 1 39 1 10 16 - - 6 25 1 5 1 13 1 1 34 1 1 17 1 1 - - - 7 - 7 2 - 2 - 3 1 1 - 4 1 12 2 2 6 1 11 11 -7 - - 1 1 11 - 20 1 1 15 2 1 28 1 1 3 1 6 1 1 7 6 1 3 3 11 -4 - 22 2 8 4 4 7 17 1 3 -8 -3 5 1 - 2 8 1 3 6 1 8 1 3 - 14 12 5 4 9 3 2 3 22 1 3 1 25 1 3 19 2 6 23 1 1 2 25 3 1 26 3 7 1 9 1 2 11 - - - - - - 7 -5 1 2 1 1 2 10 -3 - - -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 2. Percent frequency of occurrence Alpine Area, 1974 (continued). Plant Species Forbs for plant species on the study plots treated Treatment ~Nitrogen - PhosEhorus 90-0-0 60-0-0 60-30-0 90-30-0 0-0-0 o 30-0 30-0-0 30-30-0 47 15 40 51 54 52 45 18 29 - - - - - 25 1 19 - - 24 21 2 3 2 18 13 17 9 14 9 27 3 4 22 38 1 5 10 18 - - 20 13 22 - 3 28 25 15 with nitrogen - Herbicide) 0-0-2 0-30-2 fertilizer, phosphorus fertilizer, and herbicide, 30-0-2 30-30-2 60-0-2 60-30-2 90 ... 0-2 90-30-2 49 42 61 74 49 - - 14 6 17 20 5 11 2 21 4 (continued) Oreoxis bakeri Pedicu1a~ scoEu10rum Phace1ia sericea Phlox caespitosa Podistera eastwoodae Po1emonium viscosum Po1~gonum bistortoides Po1ygonum viviEarum Potent ilIa concinna Potent LLl.a diversifo1ia Potenti11a rubricau1is Ranunculus inamoenus Saxifraga ~ Saxifruga chrysantha Saxifraga flage11aris Saxifraga rhomboidea Sedum stenoEetalum Silene acaulis Sme10wskia calycina Thalictrum alEinum Thlaspi alEestre Trifolium das~ph~11um Trifolium nanum Trifolium Earryi Unid. Forbs - - 11 1 11 14 - - - - 1 - - 1 5 1 2 4 7 2 5 4 4 1 2 3 10 1 - 1 3 - 11 17 18 5 1 2 14 15 - - - - 1 16 21 - 25 12 30 - - - - 3 25 - 4 1 8 18 11 - - 2 14 - 12 13 9 - 24 - 14 - 29 - 1 18 1 1 13 27 22 - Shrubs Salix niva1is - 2 14 1 8 8 15 25 - - - 14 1 1 16 14 - 26 17 54 42 53 - - 2 - 27 3 - 10 10 21 44 - 1 22 - 4 -1 26 14 - - - - - - 5 1 5 3 1 - 1 - 6 3 15 - - 3 17 2 22 9 2 3 1 19 - - 27 - 22 21 1 - 1 26 2 1 - 12 - - 1 - - 2 - - - - 12 10 8 3 1 9 3 5 4 1 2 11 1 3 9 1 7 1 12 6 9 22 11 11 28 1 34 6 15 21 1 17 17 13 1 - - - - I w V> I �Table 3. Mean herbage production (pounds per acre) and relationship (correlation coefficient) of meter readings to oven-dry weights of forage on the treated plots. Cebolla Creek Herbage Production (lb/A) A1Eine Correlation Coefficient Herbage Production (lb/A) Correlation Coefficient 459 .71 1733 .62 30-0-0 456 .66 1594 .70 60-0-0 581 .55 1565 .74 90-0-0 518 .75 1577 .84 0-30-0 475 .80 2489 .42 30-30-0 576 .83 2065 .50 60-30-0 547 .67 1683 .75 90-30-0 499 .89 1767 .78 0-0-2 485 .76 1112 .90 532 .83 1303 .63 60-0-2 504 .85 1784 .73 90-0-2 494 .81 1896 .68 0-30-2 480 .82 1340 .65 30-30-2 547 .84 1173 .90 60-30-2 667 .77 1620 .71 90-30-2 475 .83 1950 .75 Treatment (N-P-H) 0-0-0 30-0-2 I w 0\ I �-37There were significant differences (P<.lO) in vegetative production on alpine plots treated with phosphorus and nitrogen-herbicide. It appeared that increase due to phosphorous treatment was less pronounced on the plots when the herbicide was introduced to the treatment than when phosphorus was used as a single agent or phosphorus-nitrogen was applied. Phosphorous fertilizer appeared to have potential for increasing vegetative production on alpine ranges and should be investigated in greater detail. The herbicide treatments influenced vegetative production on the alpine plots in two ways; first they reduced forb cover and secondly potentiated the effects of nitrogen treatments. Nitrogen applications alone had no significant effect on production, however, when combined with herbicide, production generally increased with increased nitrogen levels. Apparently the competitive effect of the forbs or presence of plants with nitrogenfixing characteristics (legumes) minimize the effects of nitrogen fertilizer when applied at the rates tested here. Use of herbicide in the alpine as a management tool is somewhat questionable, since it reduces ground cover and removes plants that may be important to wildlife. Soil samples were collected last summer and sent to the Colorado State University Soil Testing Laboratory for analysis. Results of these analysis indicated phosphorous and nitrogen fertilizers were still prevelant on the Cebolla Creek plots, while only minimal amounts of fertilizer still persist in the Alpine area (Table 4). Chemical Analysis Chemical analysis (protein, phosphorus, and calcium) for the plant species collected are presented in Tables 5-14. Data for the fall and mid-winter sampling periods are presented here. However, chemical analysis of the late-winter samples (April, 1975) have not been completed and detailed statistical analysis will be undertakeri when data collection is completed. Protein content of the plants collected from the Cebolla Creek study plots increased with increased rates of nitrogen. However, in many cases there were only minor differences in protein content between plants collected from plots treated with 60 lbs/acre of nitrogen and plots treated with 90 lbs/acre of nitrogen. The increased protein levels persisted into the mid-winter sampling period. Vegetation-calcium:phosphorus ratios were lowered by the phosphorus treatment on the Cebolla Creek area. This was very evident in the mid-winter samples for each plant species. Ratios appeared to be affected to a lesser degree in the fall-samples when the ratios were low anyway. Differences in the protein content and calcium:phosphorus ratios of alpine vegetation due to the various treatments were erratic and not as pronounced as on Cebolla Creek. This is likely due to the minimal amounts of fertilizers persisting in soils on alpine plots, as indicated by the soil samples. Each of the species collected on the alpine area in fall showed a general increase in protein with the addition of nitrogen onto th.e plots; but this trend was not duplicated in the mid-winter collection of Kobresia bellardi. Again, these data will be analyzed (analysis of variance) in greater detail for the final report while comparing data from several years. �Table 4. Treatment (N-P-H) Cebolla 0-0-0 Analysis of soil samples collected in July, 1974. NH4-AC N03-N ppm NaHOO3 P ppm ppm Zn ppm Fe ppm CU Mn 2.5 1 9 295 0.58 10.4 0.7 1.0 16.0 15.0 0.8 18.0 O.M. pH Condo mn hos/cm % 6.5 0.5 K 0-30-0 30-0-0 6.7 0.6 2.3 1 20 430 0.45 6.4 0.5 2.4 2 9 278 0.63 9.7 11.1 30-30-0 6.4 0.4 2.3 3 25 308 0.84 60-0-0 13.2 6.6 0.8 0.5 16.0 2.7 8 9 225 60-30-0 10.7 6.6 0.8 0.6 22.0 2.6 4 18 350 0.60 1.35 90-0-0 10.6 6.6 0.9 0.6 17.0 3.0 7 10 380 0.63 90-30-0 13.6 6.6 0.7 0.5 2.6 8 18 380 0.61 15.8 0.8 22.0 21.0 0-0-0 5.9 0.4 5.7 1 11 188 1.01 0-30-0 76.5 4.9 0.7 0.8 6.5 1 14 120 140.0 30-0-0 6.0 0.5 6.1 1 13 198 30-30-0 65.0 5.7 0.3 1.4 0.85 1.29 0.6 6.5 1 27 135 0.53 60-0-0 70.0 5.4 0.7 6.5 1.6 0.3 5.7 <1 10 120 0.70 60-30-0 73.5 5.8 0.8 0.4 9.8 13.0 1 11 195 0.91 90-0-0 56.0 5.7 0.6 0.3 8.6 9.9 8 8 125 0.32 90-30-0 5.4 3.5 7.0 5 8 133 0.78 37.0 41.0 0.4 0.3 0.5 5.2 AlEine 8.6 11.0 I Vol 00 I �Table 5. Chemical analysis of Festuca arizonica collected on the Cebolla Collection Treatment (N-P-H) 0-0-0 0-30-0 Protein 2.6 2.6 30-0-0 2.9 30-30-0 2.6 60-0-0 3.6 April 1974 Phosphorus Calcium .03 .17 Ca:P Ratio Protein 5.7 : 1 9.7 Creek Study Area. Date and Analysis (%) September 1974 Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio .18 .38 Protein January 1975 Phosphorus Calcium 2.1 : 1 2.7 .03 .27 9.0 .27 1. 8 : 1 .30 5.0 .05 .16 3.2 : 1 9.1 .20 .22 1.1 : 1 3.1 .15 .03 .20 6.7 : 1 13.2 .18 .22 1.2 5.3 .06 .06 .02 .22 .18 Ca:P Ratio : 1 : 1 : 1 3.7 : 1 14.1 .20 .28 1.4 : 1 4.7 .12 .22 1.8 : 1 9.0 : 1 12.2 .16 .25 1.6 1 4.9 .06 .27 4.5 1.6 : 1 2.7 .18 .20 1.1 : 1 : 1 60-30-0 3.4 .03 .19 6.3 : 1 14.3 .18 .28 3.4 .02 .12 6.0 : 1 14.5 .16 .25 1.6 : 1 3.7 .03 .18 6.0 : 1 90-0-0 1.4 : 1 5.9 .05 .27 5.4 : 1 90-30-0 3.2 .04 .16 4.0 : 1 14.1 .18 .25 0-0-2 2.7 .05 .19 3.8 : 1 10.1 .22 .28 1.3 : 1 3.3 .07 .25 3.6 : 1 2.7 .04 .18 4.5 1 8. 7 .20 .25 1. 3 : 1 3.3 .06 .27 4.5 1 0-30-2 .20 2.2 1 I W 30-0-2 2.7 .04 .18 4.5 1 13.2 .18 .22 1.2 : 1 2.5 .09 3.1 .04 .18 4.5 1 13.6 .18 .25 1.4 : 1 4.9 .07 .27 3.9 1 30-30-2 16.1 .18 .28 1.6 : 1 5.1 .07 .20 2.9 1 .28 1.8 : 1 4.1 .05 .23 4.6 1 .28 1.6 : 1 6.9 .07 .27 3.9 1 8.8 .08 .32 4.0 1 60-0-2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 3.2 4.6 3~6 4.6 .03 .06 .04 .06 .12 .17 .17 .18 4.0 2.8 4.3 3.0 1 1 1 , .L 14.1 14.3 15.5 .16 .18 .18 .28 1.6 : 1 '" I �Table 6. Chemical analysis of Muhlenbergia montana collected on the Cebolla Creek Study Area. Collection Date and Ana~i~(%) Treatment (N-P-H) April 1974 Protein September 1974 Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio Protein Phosphorus January 1975 Calcium Ca:P Ratio Protein Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 2.7 .02 .30 15.0 : 1 8.5 .16 .25 1.6 : 1 3.5 .07 0-30-0 .32 2.6 4.6 : 1 .03 .24 8.0 : 1 7.4 .16 .34 3.5 .10 .35 3.6 .03 3.5 : 1 .30 10.0 : 1 9.3 .16 .22 2.1 : 1 1.4 : 1 4.9 .09 .30 2.9 3.3 : 1 .03 .30 10.0 : 1 11.4 .16 .22 1.4 : 1 5.1 60-0-0 .18 .27 1. 5 : 1 4.3 .03 .25 8.3 : 1 9.9 .16 .22 1.4 : 1 4.9 60-30-0 .16 .27 3.9 1. 7 : 1 .03 .26 8.7 : 1 9.9 .18 .25 1.4 : 1 4.9 .10 4.3 .27 .03 2.7 : 1 .37 12.3 : 1 10.1 .14 .25 1.8 : 1 5.3 .06 .35 5.8 : 1 .25 8.3 : 1 9.5 .14 .22 1.6 : 1 6.2 .07 .39 5.6 : 1 3.2 : 1 30-0-0 30-30-0 90-0-0 90-30-0 3.6 .03 0-0-2 2.7 .05 .31 6.2 : 1 8.3 .16 .25 1.6 : 1 0-30-2 3.7 .10 2.7 .32 .04 .33 8.3 : 1 7.9 .16 .25 1.6 : 1 3.3 .06 .30 .04 .25 5.0 : 1 6.3 : 1 9.3 .16 .28 1.8 : 1 4.3 .08 .39 4.9 : 1 30-0-2 3.4 30-30-2 3.6 .03 .24 8.0 : 1 10.5 .18 .20 1.1 : 1 60-0-2 5.7 .09 3.9 .04 .35 .25 3.9 : 1 6.3 : 1 8.1 .16 .28 1.8 : 1 5.5 .15 .39 60-30-2 3.8 .05 .24 4.8 : 1 9.5 .16 .22 1.4 : 1 90-0-2 6.4 .14 5.0 .05 .27 2.6 : 1 1.9 : 1 .30 6.0 : 1 12.2 .16 .31 1.9 : 1 5.5 .05 .32 .26 6.4 : 1 4.3 : 1 10.8 .16 .28 1.8 : 1 6.8 .07 .35 5.0 : 1 90-30-2 5.3 .06 I .I>- o I �Table 7. Treatment (N-P-H) 0-0-0 0-30-0 Chemical analysis of Boute10ua gracilis collected on the Cebolla Creek Study Area. Protein A2ril 1974 Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio Collection Date and Ana1~sis (%~ Se2tember 1974 Protein Phosphoru3 Calcium Ca:P Ratio Protein Januar~ 1975 Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 6.3 : 1 6.8 .08 .43 5.4 : 1 10.5 .18 .53 2.9 : 1 5.9 .07 .44 3.9 .09 .41 4.6 : 1 8.3 .18 .47 2.1 : 1 6.9 .17 .37 2.2 : 1 .53 2.9 : 1 7.4 .08 .39 4.9 : 1 .63 2.9 : 1 9.3 .18 .48 2.7 : 1 2.4 : 1 30-0-0 4.0 .07 .48 6.9 : 1 14.7 .18 30-30-0 7.7 .08 .53 6.6 : 1 15.3 .22 60-0-0 6.3 .06 .46 7.7 : 1 13.4 .18 .50 2.8 : 1 10.1 .18 .44 60-30-0 6.0 .07 .44 6.3 : 1 14.9 .20 .50 2.5 : 1 10.1 .13 .60 4.6 : 1 90-0-0 7.3 .09 .50 5.6 : 1 13.9 .18 .53 2.9 : 1 11.5 .09 .48 5.3 : 1 90-30-0 7.2 .08 .51 6.4 : 1 14.9 .20 .63 3.2 : 1 14.7 .11 .46 4.2 : 1 6.6 .09 .37 4.1 : 1 4.3 .08 .39 4.9 : 1 4.0 : 1 .•.. •... I I 0-0-2 3.9 .09 .43 4.8 : 1 10.3 .20 .47 2.4 : 1 0-30-2 30-0-2 3.6 .07 .47 6.7 : 1 9.9 .18 .56 3.1 : 1 4.6 30-30-2 60-0-2 5.6 6.8 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 15.1 .20 .53 2.7 : 1 0.6 .08 .32 6.7 : 1 13.2 .18 .50 .15 .44 2.9 : 1 13.4 .18 .53 ?8 : 1 2.9 : 1 8.6 7.1 : 1 7.8 .10 .39 .46 5.1 : 1 15.5 .18 .63 3.5 : 1 9.7 .35 .46 3.9 : 1 1.3 : 1 .47 5.9 : 1 14.1 .18 .47 2.6 : 1 .41 1.2 : 1 .59 10.3 11.7 .33 3.0 : 1 .19 .46 2.4 : 1 .46 5.1 : 1 .07 .47 .07 .50 3.9 .09 7.3 .08 8.5 .09 .09 .51 5.7 : 1 16.1 .20 �Table 8. Treatment (N-P-H) Chemical analysis of Artemisia frigida collected on the Cebolla Creek study area. Collection Date and AnalYSis (%) April 1974 Protein Phosphorus Calcium September 1974 Ca:P Ratio Protein Phosphorus Calcium January 1975 Ca:P Ratio Protein Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 9.6 .14 .67 4.8 : 1 11.0 .20 .75 3.8 : 1 0-30-0 11.4 8.2 .21 .13 .66 .81 3.1 : 1 6.2 : 1 12.8 .26 .72 2.8 : 1 7.8 .31 .62 .81 3.6 : 1 2.6 : 1 14.3 .24 .69 2.9 : 1 7.8 .13 .61 .93 4.1 : 1 7.2 : 1 14.9 .26 .78 3.0 : 1 8.6 .23 1.00 4.3 : 1 .22 .75 3.4 : 1 11.0 .22 .79 3.6 : 1 30-0-0 30-30-0 60-0-0 12.3 8.7 10.8 .17 .15 .14 .62 4.4 : 1 14.5 N I 60-30-0 12.0 .18 .63 3.5 : 1 15.3 .24 .75 3.1 : 1 90-0-0 11.3 10.1 .14 .13 .61 .79 4.7 : 1 5.6 : 1 15.5 .20 .59 3.0 : 1 9.5 .11 .81 7.4 : 1 16.3 .22 .72 3.3 : 1 9.9 .18 .87 4.8 : 1 90-30-0 14.2 .18 .61 3.4 : 1 ..,..I �-43- collected on the Cebolla Table 9. Chemical analysis of Chen01!2diumsp. Creek Study Area in September, 1974. Ana1Isis (Percent) Calcium Phosphorus Treatment (N-P-H) Protein 0-0-0 21.1 .48 1.00 2.1 1 0-30-0 18.8 .26 1.24 4.8 1 30-0-0 21.5 .22 .91 4.1 1 30-30-0 22.1 .42 .97 2.3 1 60-0-0 19.2 .20 1.27 6.4 1 60-30-0 21.1 .26 1.13 4.3 1 90-0-0 21.1 .20 1.27 6.4 1 90-30-0 24.6 .26 1.03 4.0 1 Ca:P Ratio �Table 10. Treatment (N-P-H) Chemical analysis of Kobresia be11ardi collected on the Alpine Study Area. Protein ~ril 1974 Phosphorus Calcium Collection Date and Anal~sis ~%~ SeEtember 1974 Ca:P Ratio Protein Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio Januan: 1975 Protein Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 5.6 .03 .67 22.3 : 1 13.4 0-30-0 .16 .53 6.0 3.3 : 1 .07 7.2 .74 .07 10.6 : 1 .81 13.6 .24 11.6 : 1 .53 2.2 : 1 9.2 .06 .93 15.5 : 1 14.0 : 1 30-0-0 7.3 .06 .64 10.7 : 1 30-30-0 13.4 .20 .59 7.7 3.0 : 1 .07 7.4 .68 .05 9.7 : 1 21. 7 : 1 .84 11.4 .16 .53 3.3 : 1 8.0 .08 .60 14.3 .18 7.5 : 1 .41 2.3 : 1 6.2 .08 .72 9.0 : 1 60-0-0 6.0 .03 .65 60-30-0 7.0 .07 .68 9.7 : 1 15.3 90-0-0 .18 .47 7.0 2.6 : 1 .09 .72 7.2 8.0 : 1 .15 .77 15.3 .16 5.1 : 1 .53 3.3 : 1 5.7 .06 .77 12.8 : 1 .47 2.4 : 1 7.6 .18 .72 4.0 : 1 90-30-0 7.2 0-0-2 6.8 0-30-2 6.8 .09 .68 7.6 : 1 .08 .71 8.9 : 1 14.9 .20 .41 2.1 : 1 .06 7.4 .70 .08 11.7 : 1 .79 16.5 .24 9.9 : 1 .47 2.0 : 1 6.6 .10 .84 8.4 : 1 16.3 .20 ..,. ..,. I I 30-0-2 7.7 .06 .66 11.0 : 1 14.5 30-30-2 .18 .53 6.5 2.9 : 1 .05 .70 7.2 .07 14.0 : 1 .68 12.6 .18 9.7 : 1 .50 2.8 : 1 5.3 .06 .65 10.8 : 1 60-0-2 7.7 .09 .72 8.0 : 1 14.5 60-30-2 .16 .5G 7.9 3.1 : 1 .06 .70 9.5 11.7 : 1 .12 12.6 .79 .18 6.6 : 1 .50 2.8 : 1 6.9 .07 .75 10.7 : 1 90-0-2 7.7 .07 .73 10.4 : 1 14.7 90-30-2 .20 6.2 .41 2.1 : 1 .09 .71 6.8 7.9 : 1 .05 14.9 .89 .20 17.8 : 1 .41 2.1 : 1 5.5 .13 .79 6.1 : 1 �Table 11. Treatment (N-P-H) Chemical analysis of Poa sp , collected on the Alpine Study Area. Protein Collection Date and Anallsis ~%~ Se2tember 1974 AEril 1974 Calcium Phosphorus Protein Ca:P Ratio Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 10.8 11.2 .20 .22 1.1 : 1 .24 .25 1.0 : 1 13.4 .16 .31 1.9 : 1 8.5 : 1 13.6 .18 .25 1.4 : 1 .39 13.0 : 1 12.4 .20 .20 1.0 : 1 .06 .57 9.5 : 1 16.3 .24 .28 1.2 : 1 5.5 .04 .43 10.8 : 1 19.4 .26 .38 1.5 : 1 5.8 .06 .45 7.5 : 1 15.5 .18 .28 1.6 : 1 0-0-0 4.6 .04 .50 12.5 : 1 0-30-0 4.7 .07 .52 30-0-0 5.8 .04 .45 7.4 : 1 11.3 : 1 30-30-0 6.1 .06 .51 60-0-0 6.4 .03 60-30-0 7.2 90-0-0 90-30-0 I 01:"V1 I .18 .20 1.1 : 1 7.0 : 1 10.3 11.2 .18 .22 1.2 : 1 .45 9.0 : 1 14.1 .14 .25 1.8 : 1 .07 .34 12.6 .20 .22 1.1 : 1 5.1 .05 .55 4.9 : 1 11.0 : 1 17.2 .18 .34 1.9 : 1 60-30-2 8.5 .07 .45 6.4 : 1 10.3 .22 .18 90-0-2 7.2 .06 .42 7.0 : 1 14.5 .24 .25 0.8 : 1 1.0 : 1 90-30-2 5.6 .07 .43 6.1 : 1 11.0 .24 .22 0.9 : 1 0-0-2 4.8 .03 .50 16.7 : 1 0-30-2 7.5 .07 .49 30-0-2 30-30-2 8.4 .05 5.8 60-0-2 �-46Table 12. Chemical analysis of Oreoxis ~ September, 1974. Treatment (N-P-H) collected on Alpine Study Area, Analysis (Percent) Protein Phosphorus Calcium Ca:P Ratio 0-0-0 11.4 .22 1.13 5.1 1 0-30-0 13.4 .32 1.40 4.4 1 1 30-0-0 15.1 .22 1.34 6.1 30-30-0 17.0 .28 1.37 4.9 1 60-0-0 12.0 .22 1.27 5.8 1 60-30-0 14.5 .24 1.37 5.7 1 15.7 .24 1.34 5.6 : 1 90-0-0 90-30-0 Table 13. Chemical analysis of Trifolium ~ Area, September, 1974. collected on the Alpine Study Analysis (Percent) Treatment (N-P-H) Protein Phosphorus 0-0-0 20.3 .24 2.80 11.7 1 0-30-0 19.2 .22 3.40 15.5 1 1 Calcium Ca:P RatIo 30-0-0 22.1 .24 2.20 9.2 30-30-0 21.5 .26 1.90 7.3 1 60-0-0 20.5 .24 10.4 1 60-30-0 24.0 .26 2.50 1.70 6.5 1 90-0-0 20.3 .24 11.7 1 90-30-0 23.8 .26 2.80 1.90 7.3 1 Table 14. Chemical analysis of Geum turbinatum collected on the Alpine Study Area, September, 1974. Analysis (Percent) Treatment (N-P-H) Protein Phosphorus Calcium 0-0-0 10.8 .26 .87 3.3 1 0-30-0 .20 1 .20 .87 1.20 4.4 30-0-0 10.5 11.4 6.0 1 30-30-0 11.8 .26 .97 3.7 1 .97 1.24 3.7 1 6.9 1 Ca:P Ratio 60-0-0 10.3 .18 60-30-0 10.1 .18 90-0-0 12.4 .18 1.67 9.3 1 .20 1.37 6.9 1 90-30-0 14.5 �-47AnimalPreferertce Few observations were made of animals grazing on the plots (Table 15). Bighorn use was limited to three treatments in the alpine; however, this was likely influenced by the location of the plots rather than sheep selectivity. These plots were most closely located to a preferred bedding ground. Sheep were frequently observed grazing in the area adjacent to the plots and exhibited no pronounced effort to move onto the plots. Visual reconnaissance did indicate the sheep had grazed on the nitrogen treated plots and apparently were seeking out the more vigorous stands of Po a sp. Table 15. Number of bighorn sheep, deer, and elk observed study plots during the period January - May, 1975. Treatment (N-P-H) Alpine Bighorns grazing on the Cebolla Creek Bighorns Deer Elk 2 0-0-0 3 0-30-0 30-0-0 4 30-30-0 60-0-0 1 9 11 60-30-0 1 90-0-0 90-30-0 4 0-0-2 2 6 9 1 30-30-2 4 3 60-0-2 6 0-30-2 30-0-2 2 60-30-2 90-0-2 90-30-2 10 4 2 1 �-48- Observations on the Cebolla Creek study area were limited to deer and elk. Five rams wintered on the area~ but were not observed on the plots. They were seen near the plots and tracks indicated they had frequented the plots, however, a definite pattern of use could not be detected. As in other years~ deer and elk were very selective for the nitrogen treated plots. This was determined by the degree of grazing or utilization of Arizona fescue~ fringed sage~ and goosefoot~ rather than directly observing animals on the plots. General inspection of the plots during January and February found the plants on the plots treated with 90 and 60 lbs/acre of nitrogen were receiving heavy use. The animals were still feeding primarily at night and seeking shelter in the timbered areas soon after daylight. By March and April the vegetation on the plots treated with 90 and 60 lbs/acre of nitrogen had been reduced to a stubble and use was increasing on the plots treated with 30 Ibs/acre of nitrogen. At this time the animals were becoming more active during daylight hours~ increasing the number of observations on the plots. Therefore~ the data in Table 15 does not reflect the degree of use occurring on these plots. During the observation period from January through April the plots without nitrogen received very light use. Prepared by ~6.~~ George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher �-49JOB PROGRESS State of January 1976 REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-4l-R-25 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Trapping, Marking, Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Job No. and Collecting Goat Investigations 21 ----------------------- Bighorn Sheep June 1, 1974 - April 15, 1975 G. D. Bear, R. Davies, J. Ellenberger, M. P. Elkins, J. Goodyear, C. P. Hibler, R. Imler, D. Imler, E. Latson, J. Morris, P. Neil, W. J. Olmstead, R. L. Schmidt, J. Wegryzn. ABSTRACT Six lambs were collected during the period covered by this report and were examined for lungworm infections. Fifty-four bighorn sheep were captured, marked, and released. Thirty-eight were captured, marked, and released in the Cache la Poudre Canyon and 16 were captured, marked and released at the Rampart Range Gravel Pit. ��-51- TRAPPING, MARKING, AND COLLECTING BIGHORN SHEEP Robert L. Schmidt P.S. OBJECTIVE To trap or collect bighorn sheep for adding to the captive flock at Little Hills Experiment Station, for obtaining nasal swabs and blood samples, for marking and treatment with therapeutic drugs, or (in the case of dead animal collection) for necropsy examination. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Collect bighorn lambs at intervals and locations prescribed tractual agreement. 2. Trap an indefinite number (as many as can reasonably handled) of bighorn sheep of all age classes. by con- be caught and/or METHODS AND MATERIALS The 1974 bighorn lamb collections were made in the same manner as reported previously by Rutherford (1974). Briefly, this involved locating a group of ewes and lambs in an area from which collected specimens were desired. Then a lamb was selected for collection by observing them unnoticed from a distance. Lambs were selected for collection on the basis of outward physical appearance. Attempts were made to select lambs of contrasting physical condition, ranging from healthy, robust appearing lambs to "scruffy" looking, smaller lambs in apparent poor condition. Next the shooter approached the ewe lamb group on foot taking advantage of terrain to avoid detection. Lambs were shot with a 22 magnum caliber rifle usually from distances of 100 yards or less. In all cases lambs were shot in the neck to minimize bullet damage to tissues of interest. Trapping techniques have been reported previously (Erickson 1970, Schmidt 1975) and involved baiting a trap site with apple mash, then capturing bighorn sheep with a remotely triggered drop net. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Lamb Collections Bighorn lambs were collected from the Pikes Peak area from June 12 to July 17, 1974. Collection dates for the six collected lambs were: 6-11-74 ram lamb, 6-12-74 ram lamb, 6-19-74 ewe lamb, 6-25-74 ewe lamb, 7-10-74 ewe lamb, and 7-17-74 ram lamb. In addition a ram lamb was found dead on 7-9-74 and was estimated to have died approximately 3 to 7 hours before discovery. Detailed necropsy reports of post-mortem examinations of these lambs are reported by Hibler (1976). �-52- Trapping and Marking Bighorn sheep were trapped at two locations during the period covered by this report. The first capture occurred in the Cache la Poudre River drainage. Twenty-one bighorn sheep were captured, and marked at a bait site near the Poudre Ponds Fish Hatchery and 17 were captured at a bait site in the Big Meadows area near Kinikinik (Table 1). Twenty-five of these bighorns (15 from Poudre Ponds site and 10 from Big Meadows site) were transplanted to a release-site near Big Narrows (Bear and Schoonveld 1976). The remaining sheep were released at their respective capture sites. The second capture occurred at the Rampart Range Gravel Pit near Colorado Springs on April 4, 1975. Sixteen sheep ~ere captured at this location and were collared and released (Table 2). These sheep previously had been treated with chemotherapeutic drugs delivered in apple mash bait. They were collared to assess the effects of drug treatment. LITERATURE CITED Bear, G. D., and G. G. Schoonveld. 1976. Extending bighorn sheep ranges. Colo. Div.Wildl. Game Res. Rep. January. (In press). Erickson, J. A. 1970. Use of drop net and collars in a study of Dall sheep. North Wild Sheep Council, Trans. pp. 20-21. Hibler, C. P. 1976. Investigation of spontaneous diseases of bighorn sheep. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. January. (In press). Rutherford, W. H. 1974. Collection of bighorn lambs. Game Res. Rept. January. p. 108-110. Schmidt, R. L. (Ms. in prep.). in Colorado. Sr. Conservation Procedures Aide Colo. Div. Wildl. for trapping bighorn sheep �-53Table l. Sex, age and tagging information of bighorn sheep captured Cache la Poudre River drainage, January 21, 1975. Estimated Age Sex ~/ Ewe 4-1/2 yrs. Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe 5 5 6 5 3 6 2 6 4 2-1/2 1-1/2 Lamb Lamb Lamb 4 3 2-1/2 8 4 5 4 Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ram Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe Ewe 5 2-1/2 3 2 3 7 1 1-1/2 Lamb Lamb Lamb 6 3-4 3 3 3 ~/ in the -Capture Location Neck Collar Color Neck Collar No. Ear Tags Remarks Poudre Ponds Blue 1 None Transplanted Big Narrows " " 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 18 " " " " " " " " II " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Rig Meadows " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " II " " " " " " " " " " " " " No collar No collar No collar Red " " " " " Blue ,," " " " " " " No collar No collar No collar Yellow 1 3 4 5 7 8 14 15 16 17 19 20 No /I No /I No /I i " 2 " II " " 3 4 5 " " " " " to " " " " " " " " " " " Blue 111 Blue 112 Blue 113 None " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Orange 113 None " Blue /14 Orange III Orange 112 None Transplanted Big Narrows " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " Three previously collared sheep were recaptured: 1 - red/black stripe and 1 red/white 112 at Poudre Ponds and 1 white/red 112 at Big Meadows. to �-54- Table 2. Sex, age, and tagging information Rampart Range Gravel Pit, April 4, 1975. Sex Estimated Age Ram 1-1/2 White/green Ewe 4-1/2 Ewe Neck Collar Color of bighorn sheep captured at Neck Collar No. Weight Body Temperature 4 118 lbs. 102.0 Yellow 6 149 102.2 6-1/2 Yellow 7 149 103.6 Ewe 6-1/2 Yellow 8 136 103.2 Ewe 4-1/2 Yellow 9 Not taken Not taken Ewe 4-1/2 Yellow 11 127 101.8 Ewe 4-1/2 Yellow 13 110 104.6 Ewe 3-1/2 Yellow 14 147 103.0 Ewe 7-1/2 Red 1 127 103.0 Ewe 1-1/2 Red 2 110 104.4 Ram Lamb No collar Orange 114 70 104.0 Ram Lamb No collar Orange 115 68 105.6 Ewe Lamb No collar Orange #6 62 104.4 Ram Lamb No collar Orange 117 48 104.8 Ram Lamb No collar Orange 118 64 104.0 Ewe Lamb No collar Orange #9 69 105.5 stripe Eartags �January 1976 -55JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-4l-R-25 Work Plan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep Job No. Job Title Monitoring Period Covered: June 1, 1974 - May 31, 1975 Personnel: & Mountain Goat Investigations 22 --------------------------- Bighorn Sheep Populations M. P. Elkins, C. P. Hibler, J. Morris, P. Neil, R. L. Schmidt, J. Teeter. ABSTRACT Bighorn ewes on Pikes Peak which were treated with chemotherapeutic drugs had nearly 14 times greater lamb survival than ewes which were not treated. Treatment with cambendazole in combination with diethylcarbamazine apparently was most beneficial for lamb survival of the drugs tested. Tramisol with diethylcarbamazine was least beneficial. The Pikes Peak bighorn sheep population was estimated at 163 animals of which 27 were adult rams, 83 were adult ewes, 10 were yearlings and 43 were lambs, as of April 15, 1975. ��-57- MONITORING BIGHORN SHEEP POPULATIONS Robert L. Schmidt P. S. OBJECTIVE To monitor bighorn sheep herds by visual surveillance the characteristics of lamb mortality. to further elucidate SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor bighorn sheep numbers, age and sex composition, appearance, behavior and activity. general body 2. Monitor numbers, distribution, association with other sheep, and lamb births and survival, of bighorn sheep which have been trapped, treated with therapeutic drugs, neck collared, and released at the trap site. METHODS AND MATERIALS All of the information collected concerning numbers, age and sex composition, and lamb survival of bighorn sheep populations in general was gathered on populations which were being monitored for evaluation of drug treatment effects. These results will be presented along with results of drug treatment evaluations. In addition a simple Lincoln Index was used to estimate size of the current Pikes Peak bighorn sheep population. Drug Treatment Evaluation Pikes Peak, 1975 Treatments The objective of drug treatments during the 1974-75 segment was to treat Pikes Peak bighorns with drugs administered in apple mash bait without capturing the animals. The goal was to deliver 8.1 cc of cambendazole and 3200 mg of diethylcarbamazine to each adult utilizing bait stations. Drugs were mixed with apple mash bait on five dates, March 14, April 10, April 12, April 16, and April 17. Seven drug delivery stations were selected within winter habitats frequented by various segments of the Pikes Peak bighorn population (Fig. 1). Baiting with apple mash without drugs was begun the first week in January. Bait was put out twice daily and observations were kept on the amount of bait put out, the number of sheep using each bait site after each bait placement, and the amount of bait consumed. These data were used to compute the average daily consumption per individual bighorn per day. From these data it was estimated that each adult sheep consumed about 5 pounds of apple mash per day for those days they visited the bait station. Consequently, on days when drugs were delivered to sheep in the apple mash sufficient cambendazole and diethylcarbamazine were added so that each 5 pounds of apple mash contained 8.1 cc of cambendazole and 3200 mg of diethylcarbamazine. �Manitou Springs & Dome Rock .0. Sentinel '0 Point I VI 00 I o • = Bait Site Fig. 1. Location of drug trea~ment bait stations. ,1975 �-59- Evaluation of the effects of drug treatment will be made in two ways. First, ratios of lambs per 100 ewes will be calculated from population classification data gathered from June, 1975 to mid-February, 1976. These ratios will be compared to ratios of lambs per 100 ewes in years before drug treatment was begun. Secondly, 71 percent of the known collared ewes were treated and 29 percent were not treated so r&tios of lambs per 100 ewes will also be compared this way. Fecal pellets will be collected from collared sheep which were known to have ingested drug treated apple mash. These will be analyzed for numbers of lungworm larvae per gram of fecal material and compared to similar samples from collared bighorn sheep which did not ingest drug treated apple mash bait. Pikes Peak, 1974 Treatments In 1974 during the period February-April, 52 bighorn ewes were treated with various drug combinations (Gill 1975). These drug treatments were evaluated during the 1974-75 segment by observing and recording lamb natality and survival of collared treated ewes vs lamb natality and survival of collared and uncollared untreated ewes. Natality and survival of lambs was estimated by pairing each lamb with its dam every time population composition classifications were conducted. These pairings were done by observing from a distance groups of bighorn sheep containing ewes and lambs until every lamb in the group had nursed a ewe. It was assumed that each ewe produced only one lamb and that a ewe would nurse only her own lamb. This pairing process worked well through December. After that time it was necessary at times to pair on the basis of maternal-filial behavioral characteristics such as clos~ association during flight, periods of alarm, or periods of foraging. Rampart Range, 1975 Treatments One bait station was established at the Rampart Range Gravel Pit during the first week in January, 1975 (Fig. 1). Untreated ba.it was placed at the bait site 5 days each week up to one week prior to drug delivery. At this time bait was delivered for all seven days prior to treatment. On February 11 the drug dichlorvos was placed in the bait according to procedures outlined for the 1975 Pikes Peak treatments. The Rampart treatment was designed to deliver 25 mg/lb. of body wt. to each sheep using the bait site on drug delivery day. Untreated bait was then placed at the site 5 days a week until February 24 and then daily up to March 5 when the bait was again treated with dichlorvos. This process was repeated up to April 3 when dichlorvos was again added to the bait. The intent was to treat all Rampart bighorn sheep on all 3 drug treatment periods. On April 4 all sheep visiting the bait station were trapped and all adults were marked with numbered colored neck collars and lambs with numbered colored ear tags (Schmidt 1976). Evaluation of drug treatment efficacy was to be based upon lamb natality and survival and fecal larval loads. Rampart Range, 1974 Treatment~ The 1974 Rampart Range drug treatment experiments were the first attempts at delivering drugs to unrestrained bighorn sheep via apple mash bait. �-60- Procedures were the same as those employed in the Pikes Peak, 1975 and Rampart Range, 1975 treatments except that 8.1 cc of cambendazole was the intended dosage for each ~dult sheep (lamb dosages were two-third adult rates). Treatment dates were January 31, February 28, and April 1, 1974. None of the sheep receiving drugs were marked so the evaluation of drug treatment was based upon natality and survival of young. In all of the drug treatment trials where drugs were delivered in apple mash bait, the intent was to treat ewes in early-, mid-, and late·-gestation. Pikes Peak Bighorn Sheep Population Estimates, 1974-75 Composited observational data on the proportion of collared vs uncollared bighorn sheep observed over the period May 20, 1974 to March 6, 1975 were used to estimate the size of the Pikes Peak bighorn sheep population. A simple Lincoln Index was used to project these data to population estimates. Since all sheep which were collared were adults population projections were pertinent only to adults. Proportions of yearlings and lambs in classification data were used to project to final estimates of total populations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Drug Treatment Evaluation Pikes Peak, 1975 Treatments Data to evaluate the 1975 drug treatments will be gathered during the 197576 segment. Forty-five sheep were treated at all 7 bait stations during the March 14 treatment date, 25 on April 10, 2 on April 12, 23 on April 16, and 23 on April 17. . Pikes Peak, 1974 Treatments When lamb natality and survival data of all treated ewes are combined, regardless of drug type, and compared to natality and survival of lambs from untreated ewes it appears that both natality and survival of lambs from treated ewes is superior (Table I). Though it is not obvious from the summaries in Table 1, the major period of lamb mortality occurred sometime between July and August, 1974, and probably was well underway by the first week in July. Ratios of lambs:lOO ewes remained high (Ca 70:l00) throughout the September, 1974 - April, 1975 period for those ewes receiving drug treatments. Ewes not receiving drugs experienced extremely low lamb survival for the same period (5 lambs:lOO ewes). It has been suggested that the high survival rates experienced by lambs from drug treatment could have resulted from the high quality nutrient supplement provided by the apple mash bait and not necessarily from drug treatment. This is not likely since all ewes had access to bait sites prior to treatment. Drugs were delivered either by injection or were force-fed orally to sheep treated in 1974. So differences are likely due to the effects of drug treatment. �-61Table 1. Comparisons of 1974-75 Pikes Peak bighorn sheep lamb survival from ewes treated with drugs in 1974 and ewes not treated (treated ewes include all drug treatments). No. No. Untreated Ewes 1:../ Lambs Period Lambs: 100 Ewes No. Treated Ewes No. Lambs Lambs: 100 Ewes June-Aug. 1974 53 38 72 :100 41 40 98:100 Sept.-Dec. 1974 80 4 5:100 67 46 69:100 Jan.-April 15, 1975 122 6 5:100 93 62 67:100 1:../ Some of the ewes listed as untreated were treated in 1973 but did not receive treatment in 1974. Treatment with cambendazole and diethylcarbamazine appeared to result in the highest lamb survival rates though sample sizes were small (Table 2). Thiabendazole and diethylcarbamazine and dichlorvos treatments appeared to be nearly as beneficial. Treatment with tramisol + diethylcarbamazine was least efficacious. Since diethylcarbamazine was not administered singly it is possible that much of the beneficial results of the tramisol, cambendazole and thiabendazole treatments could have been potentiated by the diethylcarbamazine. Table 2. Summary of 1974-75 Pikes Peak bighorn sheep lamb survival comparing various drug treatments. No. Ewes Treated Drug Tramisol 1:../ No. of Ewes Individually Identified At Least Once After Sept. 1974 Lambs Positively Identified With a Treated Ewe From Oct.1974-Mar.1975 Percent Lamb Survival 9 8 4 50 Cambendazole 1:../ 13 7 7 100 Thiabendazole 11 10 6 5 83 20 14 12 86 Dichlorvos Treatment contained diethylcarbamazine. �-62- Rampart Range, 1975 Treatments These treatments will be evaluated in the 1975-76 segment. Rampart Range, 1974 Treatments Since none of the Rampart Range sheep were marked prior to or after the 1974 drug treatment, there was some question whether subsequent pairings of lambs and ewes were made on treated sheep. Because of this, no good evaluation can be made of the results of the 1974 drug treatments. Pikes Peak Bighorn Sheep Population Estimates, 1974-75 During the period of May 1974 to April 1975, 332 observations of collared bighorn ewes and 10 observations of collared bighorn rams were recorded. During the same period 282 observations of uncollared ewes and 35 observations of uncollared rams were recorded. Forty-five collared ewes and 6 collared rams were known to be alive during the same period. Using a simple Lincoln Index, the adult ewe population was estimated by the formula: 45 X = 83 adult ewes. 332 332 + 282 The formula for estimating the adult ram population was: 6 X X = 27 adult rams. 10 10 + 35 Thus the adult bigho.rn sheep population was estimated at 100 animals. By using population classification data projections can be made for total numbers of lambs and yearlings in the population as ·well. The overall lamb: ewe ratio for the period Sept. 15, 1974 to April 15, 1975 was 33 lambs per ewe. MUltiplying this figure by 124 ewes, as that was the 1974 ewe population, the estimate of 41 lambs was derived. The yearling population estimate was based on the April 15, 1974 population of 11 lambs assuming that mortality in this age class was small from April 15 on, the yearling population estimate was 10 animals. Therefore, the Pikes Peak bighorn sheep popUlation was estimated to contain 27 adult rams, 83 adult ewes, 10 yearlings and 41 lambs for a total of 163 bighorn sheep. LITERATURE CITED Gill, R. B. 1975. Monitoring bighorn sheep popul.at Lons , Wildl., Game Res. Rep. January. (In Press). Prepared by Colo. Div. �-63January, 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~--------- Project No. Bighorn Sheep W-4l-R-25 1 Work Plan No. & Mountain Goat Investigations 23 ------~--~----------Job Title Control of Snails and/or Lungworm Larvae on Bighorn Sheep Ranges Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. June 1, 1974 through May 31,- 1975 Gene G. Schoonveld ABSTRACT No work was accomplished in this segment due to a re-assignment of the Principal Investigator Gene Schoonveld from the Research Section to Management Section. Study has now been assigned to Harold Shepherd and a detailed plan is being developed to initiate the study in the present segment, and will be reported on, at the end of the 1975-76 segment. ��.-65- January 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations W-41-R-25 Project No. Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Extending Bighorn Sheep Ranges Period Covered: June 1, 1974 to May 31, 1975 Personnel: 24 --------------------------- Gene Schoonveld, Paul Neil, Robert Keiss, Robert Schmidt, R. Bruce Gill, and George D. Bear ABSTRACT Twenty-five bighorn sheep (17 ewes, 4 rams, and 4 lambs) were trapped in the upper portion of Cache la Poudre Canyon in northcentral Colorado and transplanted to a presumably suitable area lower in the canyon which was void of sheep. This work is being done to evaluate the feasibility of using such transplants to reduce concentrations of bighorns and extend their distribution. All sheep were marked with numbered collars and eartags to assist in identifying individuals. The reactions of displaced sheep were extremely variable. Sixteen were remaining at the release-site. Four of them had traveled back up the canyon, mingled with other sheep, then later returned to the release-site. Others immediately returned to areas where they had been trapped. ��-67- EXTENDING BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear Gene G. Schoonveld P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if the distribution be increased by transplantulg present concentrations. and population of bighorn sheep herds can sheep into suitable areas adjacent to the SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and transplant sheep in Cache la Poudre Canyon. 2. Monitor survival, movements, planted sheep. distribution, and reproduction of trans- METHODS· AND MATERIALS In December, 1946, 16 bighorn sheep were removed from the Tarryall Mountains and introduced into Cache la Poudre Canyon in northcentral Colorado. This herd has increased and now exceeds 100 animals. However, this herd occupies only a limited portion of the suitable bighorn range in the canyon. This study is exploring the feasibility of extending sheep distribution by transplanting animals into the lower portion of the canyon. The transplant-site was located in Big Narrows, which is approximately seven airline miles below the normal range of the Poudre herd. Bighorn sheep were trapped on bait-stations established near Poudre Ponds Fish Hatchery and Kinikinik. The bait-stations were established approximately six weeks prior to trapping and regularly supplied with apple-mash, alfalfa, and salt blocks. By mid January bighorn sheep were making daily visitations to these stations; then drop-net traps were setup. Forty-one bighorns were trapped on January 21; twenty-five (17 ewes, 4 rams, and 4 lambs) were marked with collars or eartags and transported to the Big Narrows area. Adult and yearling animals were fitted with collars made from 4-inch wide canvas webbing with an outer layer of blue vinyl sewn on the webbing. A black numeral was painted on each collar so individual animals could be identified (Table 1). Lambs were marked with blue 2-inch Richie eartags with black numerals painted on them. The bighorns were transported from trap-site to release-site in a 2~-ton truck with a box enclosed to accommodate the entire group of sheep. At the releasesite the truck was backed into the hillside and the tailgate opened, permitting the sheep to run out; , They left the truck in two major groups with several stragglers. The single animals started rejoining larger groups within a few hours after release. �Table 1. Sex and age of bighorns marked with blue collars or eartags, then transplanted to the lower Cache la Poudre River area. Collar No. Sex Age (Years) Collar No. Sex Age (Years) Eartag No. Sex Age 1 Ewe 4 14 Ewe 4 1 Ewe Lamb 2 Ewe 5 15 Ewe 5 2 Ewe Lamb 4 Ewe 5 16 Ewe 2 3 Ram Lamb 5 Ewe 6 17 Ewe 3 4 Ewe Lamb 6 Ewe 5 18 Ram 1 7 Ewe 3 19 Ewe 2 9 Ewe 6 20 Ewe 3 10 Ewe 2 None Ram 7 11 Ewe 6 None Ram 1 12 Ewe 4 None Ram 1 13 Ewe 2 I 0\ ex> I �-69- The sheep were allowed a one week adjustment period before attempts were made to relocate them. Observers traveled the main road in Cache la Poudre Canyon and hiked up side canyons looking for collared sheep. Whenever an individual was seen tne following information was recorded: date, location, and collar number; the location was a!so plotted on a map. To simplify data analysis, the location of the sheep was expressed in "miles from the release-site"; section lines on the topography maps were used for this determination. Since all observations were made within 1/2 mile of the Cache la Poudre River north-south variations were disregarded, thus data were recorded only as miles east or west of the release-site. The release-site was designated as 0 miles, while mil~s west (upstream) were positive numbers and miles east (downstream) were negative numbers. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The sheep moved around a great deal during the first thirty days after their release. Some individuals remained together, while others moved between groups. Eighty days after the transplant it appeared that sixteen sheep had settled in the vicinity of the Big Narrows release-site (Table 2). Two of the transplanted ewes had traveled up the canyon, mingled with other bighorns; then after 20 days (following release) started back down the canyon and joined with the Big Narrows group. Also, the two yearling rams followed a similar movement pattern in a 10-15 day period. Two other ewes remained at the release-site for more than 60 days then traveled upstream 13 miles and joined with another band of sheep. Three ewes moved upstream 22 miles within 37 days after the release. This put them above the upper trap-site, where two of these ewes had been captured. The urge to migrate back upstream must have been quite prominent, since they had to pass by many other bands of sheep during the migration and did not stay with any of these groups. There were no lambs transplanted with the group taken from the up~er trap-site, thus, we speculate the ewes were trying to return to their lambs. However, there were four other adult ewes transplanted from the same trap-site and they remained at Big Narrows. Two of these traveled half-way back up the canyon, then returned to the Big Narrows release-site. Twenty-three of the twenty-five bighorns have been reobserved since their release. A lamb and large ram have not been seen since the transplant. The reactions of these displaced bighorns were extremely variable. Observations will be continued during the next work segment to further evaluate the effects of this transplant. Prepared by __ ~__ "~~_-_b_' _'~_~ __ ' --=:=c.-_ GeorgEP'D.'"" Bear Wildlife Researcher �Numbers in Table 2. Location of transplanted bighorns on days following release at Sheep Mountain. table represent miles from release site; positive numbers being miles upstream and negative numbers being miles downstream. Day of Observation 9 10 1 2 4 1 - - - - 5 6 Collar Number 7 9 10 11 12 13 1 1 - - - 1 - 1 1 - 2 - 2 2 2 2 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - 1 1 1 1 1 2 - - 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - 1 - - -1 -1 -1 - -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 - -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 - -1 -1 -1 11 11 12 - 1 1 12 13 - - - - 13 15 - 2 17 1 1 20 1 1 21 1 2 - 23 - - 3 30 1 1 31 1 1 - 37 - - 22 43 - 1 - 44 - 22 50 - 53 - - 56 -1 -1 - 57 -1 60 -1 -1 -1 78 - - - 22 - - 79 1 1 22 1 80 - - - - - 24 42 51 22 22 22 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I ....• 0 I �Table 2. Location of transplanted bighorns on days following release at Sheep Mountain. Numbers in table represent miles from release site; positive numbers being miles upstream and negative numbers being miles downs t ream (continued). Collar Number 18 19 20 Rams Lambs** - - 7 7 1 - 7 7 - - - 9 7 1 1 1* 2 1 - 5 - - Day of Observation 14 15 16 17 9 6 6 10 - - 6 8 6 9 5 - - - - - 7 7 15 17 20 21 23 24 30 31 37 42 43 44 50 51 53 56 57 60 78 79 80 -- - 5 - - - 1 1 - - - - 1 - - - - - - 9 - - - 5 - 1 - 0 1 0 .. - - - 1 22 22 - - - 11 - - - - 12 21 - 13 - - 22 22 1 - - 11 - - *Both unnumbered yearling rams were observed at the same location. ** Maximum number of lambs seen at the same time was three. 1 1 - - 22 - - - 1 1 - 0* 0* 0* -1 -1 -1 22 22 1* 2 - - - - 1 I " •..... I 22 22 22 - 1 ��January, 1976 -73JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Proj ect No. w-4l-R-25 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Controlled Job No. & Mountain Goat Investigations 25 --------------------------- Burning of Bighorn Sheep Ranges -------------------------------------------------- Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep June 1, 1974 through May 31, 1975 Gene G. Schoonveld ABSTRACT No work was accomplished in this segment due to a re-assignment of the Principal Investigator Gene Schoonveld from the Research Section to Management Section. Study has now been assigned to Harold Shepherd and a detailed plan is being developed to initiate the study in the present segment, and will be reported on at the end of the 1975-76 segment. ��January, -75JOB PROGRESS State of 1976 REPORT COLORADO ------~~~~--------- Project No. W-4l-R-25 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Investigation Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Job No. of Spontaneous CONTRACT Goat Investigations (26) ------------~~------- Diseases of Bighorn Sheep June I, 1974 - May 31, 1975 Robert Schmidt and Paul Neil, Colorado Division. of Wildlife; C. P. Hibler, T. Spraker, R. Davies, J. DeMartini, Ed Latson, J. Ellenberger, J. Wegryzn, L. Clum and J. Hurlock, Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Seven bighorn sheep lambs were collected on Pikes Peak in June and early July, 1974 to examine for early evidence of predisposition to verminous pneumonia by·Protostrongylus. Details are given in the text. Eighteen bighorn sheep trapped in South Dakota durtllg January 1974 died during a lO-day period in August as a result of stress induced Muellerius - Pasteurella pneumonia. Transplacental transmission was experimentally reproduced using mouflon/bighorn hybrid sheep. The site of somatic storage of third-stage Protostrongylus was determined to be in the lungs. Molluscacides and larvicides experimentally evaluated failed to show any efficacy against snails and/or larvae of Protostrongylus. Bacterial isolations from various sheep, including those trapped in Poudre Canyon and on Rampart Range are detailed in the text. ��-77SPONTANEOUS DISEASES OF BIGHORN SHEEP C. P. Hibler P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine causes, nature and effects of spontaneous diseases in Colorado bighorn sheep with particular reference to mortality in lambs, and to evaluate various means of promoting lamb crop survival (controlling these diseases). SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Obtain 4 to 6 lambs from the Pikes Peak herd during June for a detailed post-mortem examination to evaluate specific neo-natal pathologic processes suspected to play an integral part in the inception of chronic lamb pneumonia (lambs will be collected under Work Plan 1, Job 21). METHODS AND MATERIALS Lamb collections the last three years indicate the major pathologic processes leading to pneumonia are initiated shortly after birth of the lamb. Histopathology, virology, bacteriology and parasitology studies conducted on these animals strongly suggest that earlier collections would yield information which would help delineate the initiation and progression of the pathologic process resulting in almost total loss of lamb crops. Therefore, all collections are 3chedu~ed for the month of June. As in 1973, a field research team will conduct the post~ortem examinations. Blood samples will be collected for clinical pathology studies, serum for bacteriological, virological, clinical pathology, physiological baseline data, and trace mineral evaluation. Selected tissues will be taken for bacterial and viral isolation, and trace mineral evaluation. A complete post-mortem for histopathology studies will be performed. The remainder of the carcass (liver, lungs, muscles and lymph nodes) will be further examined for additional evidence of parasitism by Protostrongylus. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results are presented in case·history form for each lamb collected and examined. A tabular summary (Table 1) precedes the detailed results. �Table 1. Summary of lamb examinations, 1974. ---_. - - - --- First Stage Lungworm Larvae in Feces Pasteurella Nasal Trachea Lung Sheep Date Examined Sex Age Wt II Pneumonia 74BHL-4* 6-11-74 Male 3 weeks 20 None - - - Very few 74BHL-5* 6-12-74 Hale 4 weeks 2.8 Yes - - - Very few 74BHL-9", 6-19-74 Female 5 wee ks 21 Yes - + + Very few 74BHL-10* 6-25-74 Female 5 weeks 28 Yes + + + Very few 74BHL-12>'<* 7-9-74 Male 6 weeks 23 Yes + + + 74BHL-13** 7-10-74 Female 6 weeks 36 Yes + + - 74BHL-14 7-17-74 }!a1e 7 weeks' 34 Yes - + + ,,< ** Too young for patent infections. Pneumonia primarily bronchopneumonia. , Not examined ? > 1,000/g I --..J 00 I �-79- 74BHL-4 6-11-74 History: This male lamb was found 6-11-74 about 7:30 AM west of Bottomless Pits, in the lambing ground east of the toll road. The lamb appeared healthy and was in a group with 6 other lambs that were being "baby-sit" by two ewes. There were nine additional ewes nearby. The lamb was killed at 8:15 AM. Postmortem: ' Began postmortem at 9:30 AM. Body temperature - 102.8oF. Body weight - 20 pounds. Age estimated to be 3-4 weeks. Integument and Subcutis: The hair coat is smooth. There is a small amount of fat in the subcutis and around the peripheral lymph nodes. Cardiovascular System: A small amount of fat around the coronary bond. The heart is normal in size, shape and color. Lymphohemopoietic System: Spleen--Normal in size, shape, color and consistency. Lymph nodules are not enlarged. The typical red foci located around the peripheral of the spleen are present. The parenchyma contracts from the capsule when the organ is cut. Bone marrow--Red, dull and granular, very active. Retropharyngeal lymph nodes--Small, architecture on cut surface. 1.5 x 1 cm, moist with normal Prescapular lymph nodes--Non-reactive, bilobed, left 3.5 x 1.5 cm, right, 2 x 1 cm; moderate fat around their cut surfaces; moist with normal architecture. Mediastinal lymph nodes--Small, normal architecture. 6 x 2.5 cm; cut surface, moist with Thymus--Normal in size and measured 15 x 2 cm. third up the neck to the base of the heart. It extended from one- Digestive System: Rumen filled with grasses; small amount of milk curd in abomasum; formed feces; liver normal - there are several white foci on and through the liver, about 10 to 15 in number. Respiratory System: Both lungs collapse but not completely; thus they may contain slightly more fluid than a normal lung. Many bright red to dark red foci (0.5 to 2 ~) are diffusely scattered under the pleura of both lobes; some are deep in the lung parenchyma. There are also several small pale foci that have a pale, white caseated core surrounded by a clear halo. The bronchi, bronchioles and nasal turbinates are unremarkable. �-80- Musculoskeletal System: Bones--Thick, Unremarkable. difficult to break; snap when broken .• Urogenital System: Kidneys normal, small amount of fat over the capsule of the kidney. Both testes have descended. Endocrine CNS: System: Thyroids - unremarkable; adrenals - normal, 1 x 0.75 cm. Unremarkable. Remarks: Hemorrhage 74BHL-5 in the lungs probably due to migrating lungworms. 6-12-74 History: This male lamb was killed at 12:45 AM on 6-12-74 just above the cabin on the beaver ponds in East Beaver Creek. This lamb was in with a herd of 12 ewes, 8 lambs, 1 yearling ram and 1 yearling ewe. The lamb was estimated to be 3.5-4.5 weeks of age. The body temperature at death was 103.20F. Postmortem: PMI - 1:15 hours. Weight - 28 lbs. Integument and Subcutis: The hair coat is smooth. amount of fat in the subcutis. There is a moderate Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape and color. small amount of fat is present in the coronary groove. Lymphohemopoietic A Syst em, Spleen--Normal in size, shape, color, texture - the parenchyma contracts (on cut surface) from the capsule. Lymph nodules are not prominent. Lymph Nodes: Retropharyngeal lymph nodes--Destroyed Pre scapular lymph nodes--Bilobed; architecture; 3 x I em in size. normal in size, shape, texture and Mediastinal lymph nodes--Unremarkable; normal architecture. Mesenteric by shot (but small) 1 x .75 mm. small; cut surface moist with lymph nodes--Normal. Thymus--Normal; extended from base of heart to one-third up trachea. �-81- Respiratory System: The lungs do not collapse well, especially the diaphragmatic lobes. The lung is "speckled" with red to brown foci 0.5 to 1 mm in diameter. These focal hemorrhages are more numerous in the posterior dorsal aspect of the lungs. They resemble very early lungworm nodules. The bronchi are clean and the trachea is normal. Digestive System: There is a small amount of curd in the abomasum; abomasum about half the size of the rumen; rumen is filled with ingestion; formed feces in the colon. Liver--Normal in size, shape, color and texture. There are 2 white foci (1 mm in size) just under the liver capsule. Musculoskeletal System: Normal. Urogenital System: Unremarkable; Both testes descended. Endocrine System: small amount of fat around both kidneys. Adrenals normal: 1 x 0.75 em. Thyroid - unremarkable. eNS: Shot in the brain; eyes unremarkable and the spinal cord is unremarkable. Summary: Numerous brown and red foci in lungs that appear to be early lungworm nodules. �-82- /~ Hemorrhage (red-brown foci) q Area of atelectesis J~ e..~ ---- 74EHL-5 Areas from which tissue samples were collected. ~ �-8374BHL-9 6-19-]4, History: Thi~ ew~ lamb was found east of the Bottomless Pit and east of the toll ruad, The lamb was with 7 ewes. The lamb was shot but was not found for 30 minutes. Body temperature was 102.4°F and weight was 21 pounds; the lamb was estimated to be 5 to 6 weeks old. Postmortem: Killed about 9;00 AM. about 2:00 PM. Postmortem started about 11:30 AM and finished Integument and Subcutis: Hair coat normal, but not slick. amount of fat was present in the subcutis. A moderate Cardiovascular System: Heart normal in size, shape and color; blood vessels - unremarkable. Lymphohemopoietic System: Spleen normal in size, shape, and color and texture; the pulp contracts from the capsule when cut. Retropharyngeal lymph nodes--Small and size; moist surface. (1.75 x I em); normal structure Prescapular lymph nodes--Small (unremarkable); 2 x 1 cm in size, bilobed. Mediastinal (unremarkable); 3.5 x 1 em in size. lyu,ph nodes--Small Mesenteric lymph nodes--Small (unremarkable). Prefemoral and Popliteal lymph nodes--Normal Thymus--Extended (unremarkable). from heart base to one-thi.rd up the trachea. Bone marrow--Red and active. Digestive System: Rumen twice the size of the abomasum; only several small flecks of milk curd present; formed feces in colon. Liver--Normal in size, shape, color and texture; there are 3 small (lmm) white foci just under the capsule of the liver. Respiratory System: Nasal tract normal; trachea clear, normal. The lungs do not collapse. Red to brown foci are scattered diffusely over the lungs. Lungworm nodules are present in the posterior aspect of the diaphragmatic lobe. The area is soft, and white-grey speckled; the cut surface bulges and is encircled with reddened peripheral area. Bronchi are unremarkable. Musculoskeletal System: Massive hemorrhage in muscles due to falling and rolling about 100 yards from where it was shot. Femur 16 cm long, normal. Urogenital System: tract normal. Small amount of fat around both kidneys, reproduction �-84Endocrine eNS: System: Adrenal glands normal, thyroi.d gland normal. Eyes normal; cerebellum with massive hemorrhage from gunshot. Summary: Red-~rown foci in the lungs and lungworm nodules in the dorsal diaphragmatic lobes. �-85- ~~----------------~~~~ c~--------~ 74BHL-9 Areas from which tissue samples were collected. �-86- 74BHL-IO 6-25-74 History: This ewe lamb was killed at 7:30 PM 6-25-74 in the Bottomless Pit. The lamb was with about 20 lambs and 20 ewes. All lambs appeared to be in good condition and were large and growing well. The lamb was shot in the base of the brain and fell 50 to 60 feet and rolled 100 yards. Postmortem: The lamb weighed 28 pounds and body temperature was 102.4°F (the body laid in a snow bank about 30 minutes before temperature was taken). Lamb was shot at 7:30 PM; necropsy started at 10:45 PM and ended at 12:30 AM. Integument and Subcutis: The hair coat is normal and smooth. A moderate amount of fat is present around the prescapular and prefemoral lymph nodes. Cardiovascular Systen: The heart is normal in size, shape and color. A moderate amount of hemorrhage is present on the epicardium (due to fall). Blood vessels unremarkable. Lymphohemopoietic System: Retropharyngeal lymph nodes--Small, x 1 cm in size. moist and normal in structure, 1.75 Right prescapular lymph node--Normal, small, moist; size 2.5 x 1.25 cm. Left prescapular lymph nJde--Normal, small, moist; ~ize 3.5 x 1.5 cm. Thymus--Normal, heart. extended about 1/2 up the trachea and to the base of the Mediastinal lymph node--Small, normal size, and structure with slightly moist cut surface. Size - 6.5 x 1.5 cm. Mesenteric lymph nodes--Normal size and texture. Digestive System: The liver is ruptured and totally macerated from the fall; part (25%) of the liver is located in the thoracic cavity because the diaphragm ruptured. Stomach and Intestines: Milk curd (small amount) is present in the abomasum; formed feces in the colon. Respiratory System: The lungs partially collapse. They are filled with blood, probably due to the fall. Lungworm nodules are present in the posterior dorsal aspect of both diaphragmatic lobes. They are encircled with a zone of colored tissue and the centers of the nodules are grey-white speckled, elevated on the pleural surface, and bulge on cut surface. The bronchi are clean and have no mucus. A slight amount of white froth is present in the nasal cavity and trachea, but not in the bronchi. �-87- Musculoskeletal System: There are massive hemorrhages in the muscle mass due to the fall. Ribs on this lamb seemed to bend and not snap as well as the other lambs; joints and tendons are normal. Urogenital System: Both kidneys are normal in size, shape, color and texture. A moderate amount of fat occurs around both kidneys. Endocrine System: Thyroid g1and normal Adrenal glands small, normal. (mostly destroyed CNS: Eyes - badly bruised; completely destroyed. brain - hemorrhage Summary: lobes. are prominent Lungworm nodules by the shot). under dura; cerebellum in both dorsal diaphragmatic �-- -88- 74BHL-IO Areas from which tissue samples were collected. �-89- 74BHL-12 7-9-74 History: This male lamb was found dead at 8:00 AM on 7-9-74 north of the gravel pit in Bottomless Pit on Pikes Peak. The lamb was lying on his left side and his mother was still with him. Postmortem: PMI - 8-10 hours, lamb died early that morning. started at 11:45 AM; sex - male; weight - 23 pounds. Necropsy Body Condition: The lamb has a slightly roughened, light-colored hair coat. No fat is present in the subcutis except around the peripheral lymph nodes. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. There is a slightly excessive volume of pericardial fluid, and several very small, white flecks (fibrin) floating in the fluid. There is a normal amount of fat in the coronary band. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is normal in size, shape, color and texture. The retropharyngeal lymph nodes are moderately enlarged and moist (2 x 1 cm). Prescapular lymph nodes--About Mediastinal lymphnodes--Enlarged normal size and moist (size: 3 x 1 cm). and wet (size: 0.5 x 1.5 cm). Remaining nodes are unremarkable. The bone marrow is red and active. The thymus is normal in size, shape and color, it extends 8 cm up from the thoracic inlet. Digestive System: The rumen is filled with ingesta and a moderate amount of milk curd is present in the abomasum. Formed feces are present in the colon. The liver is normal in color, size, shape and texture. There are several (.25 to .5 mm) white foci just under the capsule. There are several flecks of yellowish friable material in the peritoneal cavity; they look like small flecks of fibrin. Respiratory System: The lungs do not collapse when the thorax is opened. About 33 percent of the lungs (involving all lobes) are slightly depressed, red and firm. There is only a very slight excess of serosanguinous fluid in the thoracic cavity. No fibrin is present on the pleura and no adhesions are present. The cut surface of the red firm areas are moist and have a fine nodular appearance (thought to be distended lobules). A watery, white mucoid material can be expressed from cut bronchioles. There is no noticeable lungworm nodules in the posterior dorsal aspect of the diaphragmatic lobes. A white exudate is present in the nasal turbinates, trachea and etymoid turbinates. The mucosa in the nasal turbinates, trachea, and bronchi and bronchioles is reddish colored. Musculoskeletal System: The muscles and bones are unremarkable. The bones have their normal thickness; the ribs may be somewhat soft, but have a slight snap when broken. Joints have several very small flecks of fibrin floating in the synovial fluid. �-90- Urogenital System: There is a very small amount of fat between the peritoneum and the capsule of both kidneys. Both testicles have descended. Endocrine System: Nervous System: also normal. The thyroid, adrenals and pituitary are unremarkable. The eyes are slightly dried but normal. The brain is Diagnosis: 1) Suppurative bronchopneumonia, 2) mild acute fibrinous peritonitis, 3) mild acute fibrinous arthritis. �-91- Black (medial side) s Medial Red, firm, Underside, no lesions but emphysematous Septa of the cardiac lobes are red and slightly distended. ---------...:~ No indication of lungworms 74BHL-12 Areas from which tissue samples were collected. �-92- 74BHL-13 7-10-74 History: This lamb was found at 7:30 AM, July 10, 1974, on Bar Trail. She was with 14 other lambs and about 22 ewes. Two lambs were noted to experience severe coughing, had dull hair coats and lagged slightly behind the band. This lamb was thought to be a large healthy lamb prior to collection. The lamb was shot while lying down so no running or excitement was incurred before death. Postmortem: Killed 9:45, necropsy started 11:20. temperature was 1030F and weight was 36 pounds. Sex - female, body Body Condition: The lamb has a dull hair coat but it is not roughened. The lamb is large, especially for a female. There is a small amount of fat in the subcutis around the peripheral lymph ~odes. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. No excessive fluid is present in the pericardial sac. There is a small amount of fat in the coronary band around the heart. Vessels are unremarkable. Lymphohemopoietic System: The spleen is slightly larger than most spleens. There appears to be a prominence of the germinal centers of the spleen, causing a slightly "cobble-stoned" appearance of the cut surface. The red foci, which are normally present along the periphery of the organ are present. The retropharyngeal lymph nodes are slightly enlarged and wet, (size: right, 1.75 x 1.5 cm; left, 2 x 1.75 cm). The prescapular lymph nodes also are slightly enlarged and wet (size: right, 3 x 1.75 cm; left, 3.25 xl.75 cm). Both are bilobed. The mediastinal lymph nodes are enlarged and wet. They have an exaggerated appearance to the cortex; size 10 x 2 cm. The mesenteric lymph nodes are moist but have normal structure and size. Prefemoral, popliteal and ileal lymph nodes are normal. The thymus is large in this lamb, extending from the base of the heart of the posterior aspect of the thyroid glands. Diameter is about 2 cm at the thoracic inlet. Bone marrow is red and active. Digestive System: The rumen is filled with green grass and the abomasum also is filled with grass. A moderate amount of milk curd is also present. The mesenterics have no fat. Formed feces are present in the colon. The entire digestive tract is normal. Respiratory System: The nasal mucosa is reddened and there is a small amount of white tenacious exudate covering the surface. The ethmoid turbinates are filled with a white mucoid exudate. Frontal sinuses are normal. The trachea is reddened and has a small amount of white mucoid exudate on the surface. The lungs do not collapse when the thorax is opened (even after 20 minutes). The lower 75 percent of the right apical lobe, the entire cardiac lobe, and lower 50 percent of the right diaphragmatic lobe have contracted from the non-collapsed, dull pink lung. These areas are red (dark reddish-brown) and firm. The pleura covering this area is not covered with fibrin but is moist and shiny. The cut surface has a "knobby" or "cobble-stone" appearance due to many small nodules (size: .5 to .75 mm in diameter). There is a small amount of pearly white, thick mucoid exudate that �-93- can be expressed from small cut bronchioles. The mucosa of the bronchi is reddened and also has a moderate amount of this white, mucoid exudate. Musculoskeletal System: The bones are normal in size and shape. There is a normal thickness of cortex to the femur. The femus is 16-1/2 em in length. The ribs bend, then have a sharp snap when they break. The joints are clean and contain no fibrin. The muscles are unremarkable. The lamb was shot just below the right ear. Urogenital System: Both kidneys are normal in size, shape, color and texture. There is a very small amount of fat under the peritoneal covering of the kidneys. The ovaries are large on this lamb (1 em in diameter) and have many small (1-2 mm diameter) cysts through both ovaries. Endocrine System: The thyroid, adrenal and pituitary are normal in size, shape, color and texture. Nervous System: The brain and eyes are normal. There is considerable blood just under the leptomeninges of the cord and cerebellum. Diagnosis: Suppurative acute pneumonia (broncho pneumonia). �· . 8 1 inside \ L90l_..---J Several grey foci with white center and translucent ring. ~reamy 02~ ~~ -- _ Medial consolidated 74BHL-13 Areas from which tissue samples were collected. �-95- 74BHL-14 7-17-74 History: This lamb was found in the Bottomless Pits, just below the stone wall. He was with several ewes and lambs. The lamb had not run, nor was he excited in any way before death. The lamb was killed at 9:45 AM and shot in the cerebellum and C-l. Body temperature was 104.4°F and weight was 34 pounds. Postmortem: PMI was 1 hour. Integument and Subcutis: The lamb has a slightly dull and rough hair coat. There is a small amount of fat in the subcutis around the peripheral lymph nodes, and eyes and sternum. Cardiovascular System: The heart is normal in size, shape, color and texture. No excessive amount of pericardial fluid is present in the pericardial sac. A small amount of fat is present around the coronary band. Lymphohemopoietic System: The retropharyngeal lymph nodes are moist and slightly enlarged (2 x 1.5 cm). The prescapular nodes are similar in size. The right is 3.5 x 1.5 cm and is bilobed; the left is 3.25 x 1.5 cm and is monolobed. The mesenteric lymph nodes are slightly enlarged and moist, and the cortex bulges on cut surface (size: 10.5 x 1.75 x 1.5 cm). The spleen is normal in size, shape, color and texture. The thymus is of acceptable size, shape, color and texture. The thymus extends from the base of the heart 7.5 cm beyond the thoracic inlet. Digestive System: The rumen is filled with ingesta. The abomasum is also filled with ingesta and milk curd. A large volume of milk curd is present in the abomasum - about 100 g. The alimentary tract has no gross lesions; no excessive fluid or fibrin is present in the peritoneal cavity. Formed feces are present in the colon and rectum. No lesions were present on the liver. Respiratory System: The nasal mucosa is reddened and has a small amount of white exudate covering the mucosa. The trachea is normal in coloration but has a small amount of blood (due to shot) and white exudate covering the ventral aspect of the trachea. The lungs do not collapse when the thorax is opened. There is no excess fluid in the thoracic cavity. The lower 80 percent of the right apical lobe, the entire cardiac lobe, the lower 20 percent of the right diaphragmatic lobe and 50 percent of the intermediate lobes of the lung are dull grey, firm and have a knobby cut surface. A small amount of pearly white, mucoid exudate can be expressed from the cut bronchioles. The bronchi and main stem bronchi have a white mucosa and a small amount of white mucoid material in the lumen. The left lung is similarly involved. The right diaphragmatic lobe has a white, firm triangular area located in the distal dorsal posterior aspect. This area is white, firm, bulges 011 cut surface and a thick whitish mucoid exudate can be expressed from bronchioles in this nodule. The left side is similar except it has two of those nodules, on the medial side of the left cardiac lobe. A 4 mm wh Lt.e , firm nodule (abscess) is present. Also, the most anterior aspect of the right apical lobe has a small, early adhesion to the costal pleura. The most remarkable total lung changes are: 1) ventral consolidation, �-962) non-collapse of all normal-colored lung, 3) lungworm nodules. Musculoskeletal System: The muscles and joints are unremarkable. ribs have a slight bend, then a normal snap. The Urogenital System: Both kidneys have a small amount of fat under the peritoneal covering. The size, shape, color and texture of both kidneys are normal. The bladder is empty and its mucosa is unremarkable. Both testicles have descended and are normal. Endocrine eNS: System: Thyroids and adrenals are unremarkable. Eyes and brain are unremarkable. Summary: Severe verminous pneumonia. �-97- :- .;2L/. c...nA- ----------_~ Many fresh hemorrhages are scattered throughout the collapsed pale parenchyma There are many small foci that appear to the alveoli filled with air-scattered diffusely in the consolidated areas, of both lungs~ 02..\ ~ ~ G A - white circular 4 mm nodule (abcess) 74BHL-14 Areas from which tissue samples were collected. �-98- In addition to the lamb collections on Pikes Peak in June, 1974, an epizootic among the South Dakota captive bighorn sheep herd occurred during August, 1974. The circumstances leading to mortality, and a brief resume of the cause is given. History and Clinical Signs Utilizing a drop net, personnel from the Colorado Division of Wildlife, in cooperation with the South Dakota Game and Fish Department, captured 24 bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) from Custer State Park, South Dakota, January, 1974. Th~ animals were transported to Fort Collins, Colorado via an enclosed flat bed truck and released into three pens surrounded by a 2.5 m (8 foot) chain link fence. Six of the animals died shortly after arrival in Fort Collins due to a degenerative muscle syndrome (capture myopathy). Most of these animals suffered ruptured gastrocnemious muscles and died in spite of treatment. The remaining sheep appeared healthy and were fed free choice alfalfa hay and dairy ration in addition to the grasses and forbs growing in the pens. Salt and mineral blocks were also provided and the animals were observed at least once a day. This herd was to provide lambs to become the nucleus of a "tame" herd of bighorn sheep which would be utilized for lungworm (Protostrongylus spp.) experiments, bacterial and viral diseases and nutritional studies. Several lambs were born during the spring of 1974, of which three survived. One ewe was found dead on 26 August 1974, and, at that time others were noticed sick, with signs of dyspnea and open-mouth breathing, rapid, shallow respiration and weakness. Two more ewes died the next day. On the following day, the remaining sheep were trapped under a drop net, clinically examined, and injected with -5 ml of Oxytetracycline and 2 m1 of polyvalent past~urella bacterin. Body temperatures were recorded and blood samples were collected at that time. One lamb died the following day and only one ewe died during the following week. The remaining animals, including a ram, 2 lambs, and 12 ewes died during the next 10 days. Summary An epizootic of Muellerius capillaris-associated bacterial pneumonia in 20 captive Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) was the cause of the mortality. In all adult sheep there were heavy infections with ~. capillaris. First stage larvae were widely disseminated throughout the lungs, including a granulomatous pneumonia. Bacteria of several species (Tables 2, 3, 3a, 3b) usually localized in bronchioles in area of larval infection and were considered secondary invaders, although this important role in death of the animals cannot be disputed. Relative neutrophlia lymphopenia, and elevation of serum fibrinogen levels were found in blood samples taken from several sheep 7-14 days prior to death. �Table 2. Bacteriological summary of Pikes Peak bighorn lamb collections, 1974. § 'M H 0) ~ U Cd .c 0) ~ H 0 'Cl ~ ~I~ ...-I 0 04-1 U'M ...-I • 0 u ~ ~IU 1. Nasal 1,2,4 5,6,7 1,2,3 4,5,6 7 2. Trachea 2 3. Tracheal bifurcation 4. Lung parenchyma (normal) 5. Lung parenchyma (pneumonic) 3 PfJl Cd fJl I'~I Cd ...-I ...-I 0) H 0) ::r= Cd ...-I ...-I 0) 'M fJl Cd 'M H 0) fJl fJl .c 0) ...-I ~ P- ~ . PfJl . ...-I U 0) 'M H ~ ::l 0)...-1 ~ 0 ~~ ~I ~ m ~Or-! p..,,.c:: Cd ::l p.., H :I p.., > fJl 2,5,6 1,2,3 1,3,4 3,4,5 4,5,6 - .~ ::l H 0) Cd ~~ fJl...-l O) PZ fJl 3 1,4,5 6 3,5,6 2 3,4,5 4,6,7 1,2,4 5 4,5,7 5 5 3,4,5 4,5,6 5 4,5 5 Cd ...-I ...-I Cd 0)'Cl H'M ::l U 0) 0 a ~ o fJl 0 fJl ::l U U 0 U 0 ::l H O)! ctI ~ ~Cd ~ tf.) a 'M ~ .g~~ ::l 0) fJl p.., Peripheral 7. Spleen blood u 0 ~0) H ~ tf.) 1,2,3 4,5,6 7 1,2,3 4,5,7 4,5,6 1,2,3 4,5,6 7 1,2,3 4,5,7 4,5,6 1,2,3 1,2,3 4,5,6-, 4,5,6 7 7 1,6 4,5 4,5 4,5,6 3,4,5 6 4,5 4,5,7 4,5,6 1,2,3 4,5,6 7 1,2,3 4,5,6 7 1,5 1,3,5 3,4,5 6 3,4,5 7 2,4,5 7 2,4,5 6,7 1,2,3 4,5,6 7 1,2,3 ~,5,6 ~,5,7 2,3,4 5,6,7 5,7 ~,5 2,3,6 5,7 - 6. fJl ::l U U 0 I \0 \0 I i I �Table 2. Bacteriological summary of Pikes Peak bighorn lamb collections, 1974 (continued). S ::I 'r-l ~ <1.1 +J () t\l (/) .0 <1.1 <1.1 C C QJ »00 ~ 0 o » Uo.. 8. Mediastinal lymph node 9. Retropharyngeal lymph node 10. Main stem bronchus . '"c 0.. t\l (/) e 'r-ll 0 ..-! 04-< () 'r-l ..-! • 0 ~Iu (/) I'~I t\l ..-! ..-! QJ ~ QJ ::c: ::I t\l ..-! ..-! QJ 'r-l (/) ..0 QJ ..-! 0.. ~ Ul ~ <1.1 (/) (/) 'r-l QJ 0.. Ul . 0.. Z (/) 4 4,6 t\l ..-! ..-! <1.1 !I , . t\l 'r'i ~ ::I QJ +J Ul t\l Po< 5 3,4,6 ~ ..c: t\l ..-! ..-! t\l <1.1", ~ 'r-l ::I () QJ 0 +J+J (/)..-! t\l ::I Po< S o () (/) t\l t\l I:l (/) o 0 ::I ~ QJ t\l s O..-! ~ ::I Po< ::I QJ ~ Ul QJ Po< t\l .~'" .j..J > C 'r-l ~ Ul ::I o 0 () () 0 0 () 0 ~ ~t\l ? +J .j..J UJ UJ QJ ~ 5,6 5,6 3,4,5 6,7 2,4,5 6,7 3,6 7 3 4,5,6 7 2,3,4 5,6,7 3,4,5 6,7 2,3,4 5,6,7 I I-' o o Key: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. (/) I 74BHL-4 74BHL-5 74BHL-9 74BHL-lO 74BHL-l2 75BHL-13 75BB.L-l4 Bacillus sp. was found in nasal swabs of all lambs. �-101Table 3. Bacteriological summary of cultures from captive South Dakota bighorn epizootic. I jI !II '"CI ..-l p. (IJ 0 ~ ..-l ,.. Q) +J o !II ,.a '8 . (IJ. '~l~ !II u ~ r-I 0 O~ tJ .~ r-I • 0 [%:II c.J 2,4 2,6 Q) F. ,.. 0 Iii p. .rJl !II r-I r-I ,.. Q) Q) ::I:: . P. . P. (IJ (IJ !II r-I r-I Q) ..-l (IJ ,.a Q) r-I :><: .~ ,.. !II Q) rJl rJl .~ z Q) I!I ~ ~ r-I .t:: ~ !II !II r-I r-I Q) ,.. rJl ;j Q) ;j Q) ;j Q) +J +J +J (IJ !II rJl III 2,3 7 2,7 3 2 2 7. Spleen 2 2,7 8. Med iastina1 lymph node 2 9. Peritoneum 10. Pericardium 11. Mammary tissue Code: 1. 2. 3. 74BHS-28 74BHS-29 74BHS-30 Po< Po< 3 2 2 4. 5. 6. 74BHS-31 74BHS-32 74BHS-34 2? 7. Q) 7 Peripheral blood 3 ,.. 2,3, 3,7 7 6. 2 3 +J 1 Left lung parenchyma 2 ~ +J 1,6 5. 2 ;j Q) (IJ U) U) 1,6 1,6 3 o 0 ~ ~III 0 '"CI 1,6 Left lung bronchus 1,6 0 5,6 4. 6 ;j o 2,4, 5,6, 7 Right lung parenchyma 1,6 (IJ tJ 5,7 2,5, 6 3. 1 o 2,4 Right lung bronchus 6 ;j tJ 0 tJ 0 rJl Po< 2. 1 ,..0 0 S (IJ . c, Po< Upper resp. tract 5 s:: Q) l. 5 (IJ !II r-I r-I ,.. . o +J 2 2 2? 2 74BHS-40 3,7 �-102Table 3a. Bacteriological Dakota bighorn epizootic. summary of cultures from captive South I I'd "0 o,.,j § o,.,j . J.I "0 Q) .j..I fii CIl J.I 0 0 U .-l 0 O~ Uo,.,j .-l • 0 r>::l U 2 Iii 1,11 5 ,0 Q) ~~~ ~ 1- 74BHS-28 3 2. 74BHS-29 5,1 3. 74BHS-30 4. 5. 6. 7. 74BHS-3l e P- o,.,j I'd .-l .-l Q) ,... Q) ::t: PCIl I'd .-l .-l I'd o,.,j J.I CIl CIl Q) Q) o,.,j .-l Q) ~ Z 3 11 1 I'd .-l .-l Q) Q) J.I J.I CIl =' .j..I Q) =' Q) .j..I .j..I CIl I'd CIl I'd 0 J.I Q) p.. CIl I'd r:: =' p.. 1 4 1 3 2,3 Nasal cavity/upper respiratory Right lung bronchus Right lung parenchyma 4. Left lung bronchus 5. Left lung parenchyma 6. Peripheral blood 7. Spleen 8. Mediastinal lymph node 9. Peritoneum 10. Pericardium 11. Mannnary tissue EI "0 0 =' CIl Q) p.. 1 4,5 . PCIl CIl =' U U 0 U 0 ~ '¥ I'd . PCIl CIl =' U U 0 U 0 e Q) J.I .j..I .j..I tI) tI) 3 3 1,6, 7 9 5 5 1 1 2,3 2,3, 2,3, 1 1,2 tract 0 3,2 5,4, 5,6, 1,6, 11 7,8, 5 ji I'd .-l .-l p.. 2 ~ 1 1 3 I~l ~ 5 4 --.--1. 2. 3. CIl CIl ,0 74BHS-40 Code: . P- Q) o,.,j 5 74BHS-32 74BHS-34 CIl . U 0 .j..I .-l 1 1 1 1 1,3 1 2,1 3 �-103- Table 3b. Bacterial isolates from the langs of bighorn sheep with pneumonia. r'requency Organis~ Pasteurella hemolytica 5/7 (71%) Pasteurella multocida 5/7 (71%) 3/7 (43%) Corynebacterium pyogenes Neisseria sp. 4/7 (57%) Hemophilus ovis 2/7 (29%) Staphyloccus sp. 4/7 (57%) Streptococcus sp. 3/7 (43%) Mima polymorpha 2/7 (29%) E. coli 1/7 (14%) Herella sp. 1/7 (14%) �-104SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #2 Determine the bacterial, mycoplasma and viral agents involved in the pneumonia responsible for excessive lamb mortality in the Pikes Peak herd. PROCEDURES Serology will be performed by screening sera froD bighorn sheep for precipitating, agglutinating or complement fixing antibodies to antigens from the various potential pathogens isolated previously from bighorn sheep. Attempts to isolate pathogens from nasal swabs and lesion material will be continued using standard bacteriological isolation and identification techniques. Seriological survey for viruses will be performed by screening sera from bighorn sheep for virus neutralizing antibodies in tissue culture systems. The virus to be used in the survey are (1) Para-influenza-3, (2) Bovine Virus Diarrhea, (3) Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, (4) Blue Tongue Virus, (5) Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease of Deer, (6) Parvo-virus, (7) Adenovirus and any other virus that becomes av,~ilable for study that is considered a potential pathogen. Virus isolation attempts will be made in various tissue culture systems in search of the above named viruses. RESULTS In addition to the examination of lambs collected on Pikes Peak during June, 1974, a comple~e examination was conducted on all other sheep handled during the 1974-75 year. The South Dakota epizootic (captive sheep) results are given in Table 3. The trapping-banding-transplanting in the Poudre River herd results are given in Table 4. The trappingbanding results for the Rampart Herd are given in Table 5. SEGMF~ OBJECTIVE #3 Initiate an epizootiological study of bedding and lambing grounds to characterize the foci of infection with Protostrongylus. PROCEDURES Preliminary studies conducted at Meeker, Colorado, and on Pikes Peak indicate that sheep are becoming infected with~. stilesi on certain preferred bedding areas. In view of the strong possibility that control of spontaneous lamb mortality can be achieved by eliminating the source of environmental infection, these bedding areas found to be foci of infection must be characterized. This includes location, vegetation, size, usage, snails present and percentage infected and lungworm larvae present. �-105Table 4. results. Poudre trapping operation - January 21, 1975, nasal bacteriological - . to ~ ~ to I'd ~ ..-I E ..-l I'd 0 J.I Number to ::I ..-I ..-I -e+ 0 ~ ..-I (I) 0 I'd ~ < < 75PR-5 + + + + 75PY-l 75PY-2 75PY-4 75PY-5 + + + + 75PR-l 75PR-3 75PR-4 + ---- 7SPB-14 75PB-lS 7SPB-l7 75PB-l9 75PB-Ram B Y R Blue collar Yellow collar Red collar to I'd Q) tl C'il ,0 to (I) Q I'd ..-I J.I - (I) J.I (I) :x:: F. ~ (I) to to ..-l ~ ..-l J.I 0 a ~ (I) z ~ ~ to to..-l ::I J.I 0 a0 "0 ~ 0..-1~ ::I to p., (I) ~ ~ I~ I'd ..-I ..-I 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 :x:: a ..-I a I'd tI) to ::I "0 0 0 0 0 \1-1 Q) ..-I ..-I ~ -e g I'd J.I +J +J tI) tI) + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + I + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + e +J Q 0 Q)\I-I "0..-1 ..-1..-1 Q 0 PU 0 +J (I) + + 75PB-l 75PB-2 75PB-3 75PB-l, 75PB-5 75:?B-7 75PB-·8 75FB-9 75PB-I0 75PB-ll 75PB-12 75PB-13 ..-I ..-I +J (I) to ::I Q) �-106- Discussion: Bacteriological Results -- nasal swabs of sheep trapped in Poudre Canyon, Jan. 21, 1975. Most all bacteria isolated were normal flora for the nasal cavity and upper respiratory tract. Though opportunists exists, there is no evidence of primary etiological significance which can be attached to any of these isolated organisms. Though no Pasteurella species were confirmed the existence of Mima/Herella species points out the possibility of a morphologically similar organism's (such as Pasteurella sp.) ability to step in and create secondary opportunistic bacterial complications. To this time I have not cultured any organism in diseased sheep (particularly associated with lungworm-pneumonia complex) as often as Pasteurella species even though this genus was not a common isolate from routine nasal swabs. I am at a loss at this time to explain satisfactorily the isolation of Salmonella species from the nasal cavities of these sheep. �-107Table 5. Rampa!'t Range trapping operation. April 4, 1975. Nasal bacteriological results, . :; W/GS=White with green stripe collar Y=Yellow collar R=Red collar OT=Orange tag . • 0. (/) (/) ~ '" Ir.l C 0 6 ~ 0 H Z Q) < (/) Q) 0. Q) (/) c !l .-4'" 0. ~ () < ::s ~ . i-4 (/) I:Q 75RW/GS-4 75RY-6 . (/) + o.-l 6 H 0 4-< o.-l () .-4 '" 0 U + + + + 75RY-7 ++ 75RY-8 + + ++ + 75RY-9 No 75RY-ll + ~~ Q) Q) Q) (/) '" C H •.-l •.-l +J o () ::E: < .~ ::s H Q) Ul +J '" Q) H p., ::s :> Z o~ '" C 0 6 0 -0 ::s Q) (/) p., () i~, () () 0 ~'" ~ +J 0 H Q) +J 0 0 0 ~ ~ Q» ::t: 0 '" () 0. H +J +J CI) CI) + + Q) ::s Q) (/) c, '" ~ + + + + + + ++ + + + ++ ++ + + 75RR-2 + + 75ROT-4 + 75ROT-5 + 75ROT-6 ++ + 75ROT-7 + +- + + + + + 75ROT-9 a! •.-l. H (/) ::s 0 (/) + + + ~'" .D'" ~ 0 >< 75RR-l 75ROT-8 ..•..... () + + + 0. (/) + ++ + + + + + + ++ + Sample~ 75RY-13 75RY-14 H Q) +J + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ ++ + + + + + + ++ ++ + + �-108- Table Sa. 4, 1975. Rampart Range trapping operation. Animal Number Dry Wt (g.) Feces Ana1ysed Lungworm fecal results, April Total L1 L1/g. Dry Feces 75RW/GS-4 3.0 2 0.7 75RY-7 3.0 3 1.0 75RY-8 3.7 38 10.3 75RY-ll 4.0 7 1.7 75RY-13 4.0 1 0.3 75RY-14 2.7 0 0 75ROT-4 4.0 49 12.5 75ROT-6 2.2 205 93.2 75ROT-8 2.7 86 31.7 75ROT-9 3.0 52 17.3 �-109- RESULTS During July, August and September, 5 trips were made to Pikes Peak to collect snails. Snails were found in 14 locations. Many areas were examined where snails were not found. A total of 885 shells were found, 361 snails were alive. Snails of the genus Pupilla were the most numerous. Twenty-nine snails were infected, including 24Ptipilla, 3 Vertigo and 2 Euconulus. These contained 62 infective larvae and 18 immature larvae. Observations indicated that Pupilla reproduces during wet periods of the summer and that these moist times also allowed infection of the snails. Several genera of snails were experimentally infected in the laboratory including many Vallonia, several Pupilla and Vertigo, a single Gastrocopta, and 3 Discus. The infection of Q. cronkhitei had not been previously reported. Several Vallonia were infected with 40 larvae. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1t4 Evaluate chemotherapeutic compounds for efficacy against adult Protostrongylus and third stage larvae in adult sheep and third stage larvae in the fetus. PROCEDURES Evaluation of chemotherapeutic agents in 1972 and 1973 for efficacy against adult lungworm 'proved fruitless; however, preliminary results with cambendazole indicate that when this compound is administered in the third trimester of pregnancy the active ingredient crosses the placenta and kills third-stage larvae stored in the fetal liver. Therefore, cambendazole will be further evaluated, against captive sheep as well as against remnant herds, for efficacy against this larval stage. RESULTS The bulk of these results have been included in the report by Schmidt SEGMENT OBJECTIVE (1976). ItS Experimentally infect captive bighorns and b~ghorn/mouflon hybrids with P. stilesi to: (1) furnish experimental proof of transplacental transmissi~n, (2) induce pneumonia, and (3) provide infected sheep for chemotherapeutic studies. PROCEDURES A herd of bighorn/mouflon hybrids was obtained late in 1973 and a herd of bighorn sheep was obtained from South Dakota in early 1974. Some of these �-110- sheep are currently being experimentally infected with Protostrongylus stilesi, the remainder will serve as uninfected controls. Once infected, some of the infected sheep will continue to receive infective larvae in an effort to induce somatic storage followed by transplacental transmission. Once transplacental transmission has been accomplished, these sheep will then be used in chemotherapy experiments. RESULTS The bighorn sheep brought in from South Dakota died. unfortunately, any significant results could be obtained. before Severe mortality among captive snails hampered experimental infection work. Mites, poor moisture control, nematodes and spoiled food were all considered as possible causes of the mortality. Severa.l insecticide preparations were tested to find one which would kill mites without killing snails. None were satisfactory. Collection of wild snails was required to meet our needs. Several trips were made to Glen Eyrie, northwest of Colorado Springs, to collect snails. A closer site near Lyons was found in the spring of 1975. Several thousand snails were collected at this location. The difficulties in producing infected snails hampered further work on transplacental transmission and infection of sheep, but a concerted effort by many people allowed us to produce several thousand larvae. These snails were used to infect sheep. Date Dec. Jan. Apr. Apr. Apr. May. 1974 19-1975 8-1975 13-1975 17-1975 1975 /I Snails Infective Larvae 80 401 300 1559 1095 279 60 150 248 95 Innnature Larvae Sheep II lamb Given to Dr. Lauerman 35 R-76 82 1987 24 1988 Used in antigen prep. Three lambs born in the spring of 1974 to bighorn-mouflon hybrid sheep were found to have been transplacentally infected. Data on these lambs is: Experimental Ewe II Date F-11 Infection II of Larvae Date Lamb Born 2-22-74 3-1-74 4-3-74 513 748 569 5-10 74MX-lO (Rebecca) F-12 5-3-74 574 5-27 74MX-6 1987 4-30-74 729 6-7 Sugar Results On 7-29-74 she was producing 210 larvae per gram of feces; died 7-29. Died on 7-11. Found to be infected by histologic examination of lungs. On 8-10 she was producing 300 Ll/gram. �-111Larvae from Sugar's feces were collected and used in experimental infections of snails. Gretchen, the other surviving lamb, was infected on 12-3-74 by the administration of 401 infective larvae. Larvae from her feces were also used in experimental infections. These larvae served as our main source of larvae for infections performed in the spring of 1975. Both of these lambs suffered the after effects of hypervitaminosis D which led to the death of several other lambs. Their condition progressively became worse and they were euthanized. Significant observations were made on the difference in the infection in a pre-natally and post-natally infected animal. Further information was gained in the 1975 lambs, this is summarized below: Ewe II of Larvae Lamb Born R-76 4-8-75 1559L 5-11 Difficult birth resulted in death of lamb. Digestion of tissues yielded 45L3 in the liver, 1 in diaphragmatic lobe of right lung and 4 from placental tissues. 5-1-75 Xenobia Patent at 45 days 150 larvae/g on 6-24. By late August her fecal output dropped to much lower levels. 5-8-75 Not patent. 1 1988 60L3--9-19-74 279 L --4-17-75 3 1987 729 L --4-30-74 3 Results 1095 L3--4-13-75 F-ll See previous table Not patent. F-12 See previous table Not patent. Red 60 L3--9-19-74 No lamb At about 2 weeks of age Xenobia became anorectic. She became emaciated and had subnormal temperatures. After a week she was given baby vitamins and later that day she began to increase her intake of milk. None of the other lambs showed any similar signs. Raising of Lambs All the lambs from the mouflon-bighorn hybrid and the 4 captive bighorn ewes were hand raised. The lambs were left with the ewe for about 24 hours and then captured and taken to a backyard. They were fed whole cow's milk with 1 teaspoon corn syrup, 1 tablespoon codliver oil, and a beaten egg added to each 24 oz. of milk. Early in life the lambs were fed every 3 hours. Lambs were weaned at about 2 months of age. All lambs born alive are still alive and appear very healthy. Nearly 50 percent of the l~mbs were stillborn. Three mouflon/bighorn cross ewes and one bighorn ewe did not produce lambs. Eight live lambs were obtained. �-112- SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #6 Evaluate molluscacides and larvicides for evidence of efficacy against snails and lungworm larvae (will be closely coordinated with Work Plan 1, Job 23). PROCEDURES Molluscacides cmd larvicides are currently being evaluated in the laboratory. Known numbers of snails are exposed to small amounts of a molluscacide by spraying them in their natural environment. A constant amount of spray, using varying dilutions of active ingredient is used. Larvicides are applied in the same manner, but the number of la~~ae/gram feces is first calculated. RESULTS The following molluscacides and larvicides were evaluated for their efficacy against snails and for first-stage larvae of Protostrongylus: 1) Formalin at 0.25 to 2% solution; 2) Sodium Bonate; 3) Zectran 2E; 4) Dursban; 5) Balcite (5% para formaldehyde); 6) Vapotox (Parathion); and 7) Mesurol (Methyl-dimethyl carbanate). Formalin at all of the dilutions given above was effective in killing snails and larvae; however, the solution also effectively killed herbage. Sodium Bonate was not effective against snails and/or larvae, but effectively killed herbage even at weak solutions. Zectran 2E and Dursban are Dow Chemical products and both are insecticides. Neither was mixable with water (although advertised to be). While both are insecticides, both (supposedly) have molluscacide properties. Neither comp~und killed snails and/or larvae at the recommended application. Balcite and Vapotoxare both designed to be applied as a dry-mix and to be effective necessitates snail and/or larval contact. Both, when applied at the recommended level, were ineffective; primarily because the organisms had to "crawl-over" this material. At this level the chances of a snail or larva coming into contact with the material was negligible. The latter compound (Vapotox) is a power insecticide (parathion) that is {environmentally) too dangerous to be applied wholesale at a higher level - if, indeed, at all. SE&"MENT OBJECTIVE #7 Attempt to locate the site of somatic storage for third stage adult sheep dying from any cause. K. stilesi in PROCEDURES Large amounts of tissue from adult female bighorn sheep and fetal tissues are macerated and soaked in physiological saline for 24 hours; following this procedure, the tissues are digested with pepsin-hydrochloric acid. Using these two procedures, eventually the site of somatic storage for third stage larvae will be discovered; moreover, the number of larvae infecting the fetus �-113can be determined. RESULTS Since July 1, 1974, 18 sheep have been examined for Protostrongylus sp. third stage larvae (L3) somatically stored in body tissues. Of these animals three sheep yielded L3 in tissue digestion fluids. Case #1: In late January, 1975 a yearling ewe suffered a broken femur in a trapping operation in Poudre Canyon. She died a week later of pneumonia. Four Protostrongylus sp. L3 were found in lung digestion fluids. Case #2: In late January, 1975 a ewe was brought in by Russ Mason, WCO at Grant, Colorado, from the Indian Creek area near Mt. Evans. She had been dead for several hours of a bronchopneumonia. Lung digestion fluids yielded 19 Protostrongylus sp. L • 3 Case #3: In mid May a lamb was born dead to an experimental bighorn/ mouflon ewe. Digestion fluids of fetal liver and lung yielded 45 and one Protostrongylus sp. L3, respectively. Digestion of the ewe's passed placental membranes yielded 4 Protostrongylus sp. L3. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE #8 Study the epiz(lotiology of verminous pneumonia herd. in the Poudre bighorn sheep PROCEDURES Analysis of the epizootiology of Protostrongylus stilesi in the Poudre River bighorn sheep herd is being measured by three parameters: analysis of lungworm in fecal pellets; snail density and degree of infection of snails by lungworm larvae; and lamb production and survival. RESULTS Larval output by the bighorn sheep herd has fluctuated throughout the year as reported by other investigators. Mean larval output for the time period January 1, to March 31, 1975 fluctuated from a low of 1.2 larvae/gm to a high of 1418.4 larvae/gm for individuals, with a mean of 208.8 larvae/ gm for all samples collected in that time period. Snail densities and infections computed for 2 of 6 areas samples is currently standing at 2.4 percent of the live snails collected being infected, and a density of 91 live snails per square meter in the areas sampled. �-114Observed 13mb per 100 ewes for the summer has averaged 26.9 lambs per 100 ewes, the period including June, July, and August. June lamb/ewe ratio - 23.2 lambs/IOO ewes. July lamb/ewe ratio - 47.2 lambs/IOO ewes. August lamb/ewe ratio - 15.0 lambs/IOO ewes. These figures represent incomplete work conducted on this portion of the study, and recent observations have shown that lamb/ewe ratios may be considerably higher than the three months of data indicates. LITERATURE CITED Schmidt, R. L. 1976. Monitoring Bighorn Sheep Populations. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., January. (In press). Prepared by Colo. ~~==~~,.~~~~~~.~~~~-__ C. P. Hibler �-115- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Colorado --~--~~~~--------------------- Project No. W-124-R-3 Work Plan No. Raptor Investigations 1 Job No. 1 Job Title Statewide Raptor Populations and Period Covered: Personnel: Characteristics Studies March 1, 1974 through February 28, 1975 Gerald R. Craig ABSTRACT Two hundred and forty three golden eagle ~ests were investigated, of which 65 were occupied and 21 produced young with an average brood size of 1.25. The number of active peregrine falcon eyries declined from 11 to nine, but production increased from 2 young in 1973 to 12 young in 1974 (average brood size of 2.40). Prairie falcon productivity remained at 3.70 young/site for 34 of 60 active sites. A density of 9 eagles/IOO square miles was determined for the trend area in Northeastern Colorado. Wintering bald eagles increased slightly along the trend area of 'the South Platte River. Mortality figures are also provided. ��-117STATEWIDE RAPTOR POPULATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS Gerald STUDIES R. Craig To investigate status of current populations, characteristics and trends including distribution, migration, patterns and chronology of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in or through Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop and refine methods for determing breeding numbers of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado. 2. Develop and refine methods for determining winter trend information for Bald and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado. 3. Locate and categorize major and important habitats and associated Bald and Golden Eagle, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcon and Burrowing Owl populations in Colorado. 4. Establish and maintain annual or periodic inventories of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado from inventory methods selected from Project Statement Procedures 1 and 2 5. Monitor mortalities and inspect injured and dead raptors reported or brought to the Division to determine mortality factors of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls and other species that are obtained incidentally. 6. Initiate and maintain a lO-year raptor banding program to determine migration, chronology, movement, life tables and mortali~ies of Bald and Golden Eagles, Osprey, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls and other species that are encountered accidentally. 7. Prepare a series of comprehensive information leaflets and recreational guides at intervals when the information becomes available. �-118- RESULTS Only 65 of 243 golden eagle nests were determined to be occupied in 1974. Only 32% (21) of the eyries produced young. site with a total of 25 young produced. Average brood size was 1.25 young/ Fledging success was 1.21 young/site. The steep decline in active sites (79% were active in 1973) and subsequent meager production may be blamed upon a steep decline in jackrabbits, which are the predominant prey of golden eagles. An active bald eagle nest was located at Electra Lake, in La Plata County. Two adult bald eagles were observed occupying an old osprey nest at the lake's edge. The female was incubating 1 egg which subsequently failed to hatch. Cause for desertion of the nest was not determined. The decline in nesting peregrines continued with a reduction from 11 active sites in 1973 to 9 in 1974. Production, however, was significantly improved with a total of 12 young having been hatched and fledged from 5 sites (2.40 young/site). Prairie falcon production continued at the same level as 1973 with 60 (83%) of 72 sites being active. The average brood size was 3.70 young/site with an average fledging success of 3.00 young/site. Despite the decline in nesting success, the wintering golden eagle population in northeastern Colorado maintained levels similar to 1973, and 1974. In fact the density was slightly greater (9.0 eagles/lOO; sq. miles) in 1975. The number of wintering bald eagles along the South Platte River trend count also increased slightly in 1975. Data about mortality factors are presented in Tables 10 and 11. �-119- TABLE 1 ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY Site No. Activity CH 1 IA CH 2 IA OF COLORADO GOLDEN No. of Young EAGLES No. Fledged CH 3 Comments Active in 1973 CN 1 A CS 1 A CU 1 IA CU 2 A DO 1 IA DO 2 A EA 1 A Adult incubating EA 2 A Adult incubating EA 3 IA EA 4 A EA S IA EA 6 A EA 7 IA Adult incubating 1 1 Adult incubating Adult incubating EA 8 EA 9 IA EA 10 IA EA 11 A EA 12 IA EA 13 IA EA 14 Young 7-8 weeks of age 1+ 1+ A 1 0 EB 1 A 1 0 EP 1 IA EP 2 IA EP 3 IA FR 1 IA GA 1 IA GA 2 IA GA 3 IA �-120Table 1 (Continued) Activity Site No. Activity GA 4 IA GA 5 IA GA 6 A GA 7 IA and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles No. of Young No. Fledged 1 1 GA 8 COIllII1ents Active in 1973 GR 1 IA GR 2 A GR 3 IA GR 4 IA GR 5 IA GR 6 IA GR 7 A GR 8 A GR 9 IA GR 10 IA GR 11 IA GR 12 IA HI 1 IA HI 2 IA HU 1 A HU 2 IA HU 3 A HU 4 IA HU 5 A HU 6 A HU 7 IA 2 2 Adult incubating Adult incubating Adult incubating Adult incubating HU 8 JE 1 IA JE 2 IA JE 3 A JE 4 A JE 5 IA La 1 A Adult incubating 2 2 0 0 �-121- Table 1 (Continued) Activity and Productivity Site No. of Colorado Golden Eagles Activity No. of Young No. Fledged LO 2 A 0 0 LO 3 A 2 2 LP 1 IA LP 2 IA LP 3 IA LP 4 IA LP 5 IA Connnents LP 6 LS 1 IA LS 2 IA LS 3 IA LS 4 IA LS 5 ME 1 IA ME 2 IA ME 3 A ME4 IA ME 5 Active in 1973 ME 6 ME 7 Active in 1973 ME 8 MI 1 A MI 2 IA MI 3 IA MI 4 IA MF 1 IA Active in 1973 MF 2 IA Active in 1973 MF 3 IA MF4 IA MF 5 IA Active in 1973 MF 6 IA Active in 1973 MF 7 IA MF 8 IA MF 9 IA MF 10 A 1 1 Active in 1973 1 1 �-122and Productivity Table 1 (Continued) Activity Site No. of Colorado Golden Eagles Activity No. of Young No. Fledged MFU A 0 0 MF 12 IA MF 13 IA MF 14 A MF 15 IA MF 16 A 1 1 MF 17 A 0 0 MF 18 IA MF 19 A MF 20 IA MF 21 IA Active in 1973 MF 22 IA Active in 1973 MF 23 IA Active in 1973 MF 24 IA Active in 1973 MF 25 IA Active in 1973 MF 26 IA Active in 1973 MF 27 IA Active in 1973 MF 28 IA Active in 1973 MF 29 IA Active in 1973 MF 30 IA Comments 2 spoiled eggs Active in 1973 1 1 Active in 1973 Active in 1973 2 eggs, Success unknown MF 31 Nest not located in 1974 MF 32 Nest not located in 1974 MF 33 Nest not located in 1974 MF 34 IA MF 35 IA MN 1 A MN 2 MN 3 IA MN 4 A MN 5 MN 6 IA MN 7 A 11N 8 A PA 1 IA PI 1 IA PI 2 A PU 1 IA PU 2 A PU 3 IA Active in 1973 1 1 �-123Table 1 (Continued) Activity Site No. Activity PU 4 IA PU 5 A PU 6 IA PU 7 A and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles No. of Young No. Fledged 1 1 Connnents RI 1 RI 2 IA RI 3 IA RI 4 IA RI 5 A RI 6 IA Active in 1973 RI 7 IA Active in 1973 RI 8 IA RI 9 IA RI 10 IA RI 11 IA RI 12 IA Active in 1973 RI 13 IA Active in 1973 RI 14 IA Active in 1973 RI 15 IA Active in 1973 RI 16 IA RI 17 IA RI 18 IA RI 19 IA RI 20 IA RI 21 IA RI 22 IA RI 23 IA RI 24 IA Active in 1973 RI 25 IA Active in 1973 RI 26 IA RI 27 IA RI 28 IA Active in 1973 RI 29 IA Active in 1973 RI 30 IA Active in 1973 Active in 1973 1 1 Active in 1973 Active in 1973 Active in 1973 Active in 1973 �-124Table 1 (Continued) Activity and Productivity Site No. Activity No. of Young of Colorado Golden Eagles No. Fledged Connnents RI 31 IA RI 32 IA RI 33 IA RI 34 IA RI 35 IA RI 36 IA RI 37 IA RI 38 IA Active in 1973 RI 39 IA Active in 1973 RI 40 IA RI 41 IA RO 1 IA RO 2 IA RO 3 IA SA 1 A SA 2 IA Active in 1973 Active in 1973 Active in 1973 Active in 1973 1 1 Active in 1973 SA 3 SA 4 Active in 1973 IA SN 1 SU 1 IA SU 2 IA SU 3 IA WE 1 IA WE 2 IA WE 3 IA WE 4 A WE 5 IA WE 6 IA WE 7 IA WE 8 A WE 9 A WE 10 A WE 11 A 0 0 WE 12 A 1 1 WE 13 A 0 0 0 Nest blown down 0 2 2 0 �-125Table 1 (Continued) Activity and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles Site No. Activity No. of Young No. Fledfed WE 14 IA WE 15 IA WE 16 A 0 0 WE 17 A 0 0 WE 18 A 1 1 WE 19 A 0 0 WE 20 A 0 0 WE 21 A 0 0 WE 22 IA WE 23 IA WE 24 IA WE 25 A 1 1 WE 26 A 0 0 WE 27 IA WE 28 A 0 0 WE 29 A 0 0 WE 30 A 0 0 WE 31 IA WE 32 A 0 0 WE 33 A 0 0 WE 34 IA WE 35 A 0 0 WE 36 IA WE 37 IA WE 38 IA WE 39 IA WE 40 A 0 0 WE 41 A 0 0 Connnents �-126- TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO GOLDEN EAGLES 65 of 243 sites (26%) were determined to be active. 21 (32%) of the active sites were known to have produced young. 19 (29%) of the active sites were known to have fledged young. A total of 25 young were observed in 20 nests ;Jrior to fledging (brood size of 1.25 per productive site) A total of 23 young were observed fledged froD 19 sites (fledging Success of 1.21 young per productive site). �TABLE 3 OCCUPANCY Site 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 *10 *11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 * OF COLORADO PEREGRINE FALCON EYRIES Pre-1964 1964 1965 P P P P A A M + + + P 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 P P P P P P P P M P P P P P P P P P A P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P V V V V V M P M V P P P V P V P V V V P V V V V V V V V V P P A P V + P + + + + + + + + 1966 1964-1974 A F P V P M P A 1/ V V V V + V V + V A These are neighboring V V A sites and this could represent a shift of one pair from site 10 to site 11. 1/ An adult female was found dead in the vicinity of the eyrie. + = Known to have had pairs present prior to 1964. Blank Spaces = No data available for that year. P = Pair. M = Male. F = Female. A = Lone adult. V = Site was vacant. V V V V V A P V A V V V V V V V V V V I t--' N .....• I �-128TABLE 4 RESULTS OF NESTING ATTEMPTS OF COLORADO PEREGRINES IN 1974 Eyrie Visits Eggs Young 1 4 o o Lone male observed in March 2 3 3 o 3 eggs, two broken, other infertile May 5. 5 3 3 2 Pair incubating AprilS; 2 one week old young June 3; 2 large young June 26. 6 5 3 3 Pair incubating April 12; 3 eggs May 2; 3 large downy young May 29; 3 flying young June 22. 7 5 2 9 2 t o Adults still courting in early June. 11 4 4 3 Pair copulation April 7; 4 eggs May 23; 3 young June 4; 3 young fledged June 27. 15 3 3 2 Pair copulating; possibly laying April 29; 2 small young and viable egg June 4; 2 large young June 26; young fledged and observed in July. Remarks Pair copulating AprilS; 1 small young and 1 spoiled egg June 3; 1 young fledged June 25. �-129TABLE 5 PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO PRAIRIE FALCONS Site No. Activity AR 1 A AR 2 A CU 1 A CU 3 A CU 5 No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged Comments 5 5 5 A 4 2 2 DO 2 A 3+ 3+ 3+ 3 yng. observed after fledging 00 3 A 3+ 3+ 3+ 3 yng. obs. after fledging 004 A 2+ 2+ 2+ 2 yng. ob s , after fledging 005 A D06 A DO 7 A 1+ 1+ 1+ 1 yng. obs. after fledging DO 8 lA 1+ 1+ 0 DO 9 A 00 10 A 00 11 A 00 12 A EA 1 A EA 2 A EA 3 A EB 1 A EB 2 lA EP 1 A FR 1 A GR 1 A HU 3 A HU 5 A JE 1 A LR 1 A LR 2 LR 3 CU 6 DO 1 Apparently had produced young since adults were defensive 3+ 3 3 1+ 1+ 1+ 1 young obs. after fledging 3 2 2 (1 male, 1 female) A 4 4 4 (1 males, 2 females) A 5 5 4 1 yng. dead (3 males, 1 female) 4 2+ �-130Table 5 (Continued) Productivity Site No. of Colorado Prairie Falcons Activity No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged LR 4 A 2+ 2 2 Adult female with jesses LS 2 A LS 3 A MF 1 A PA 1 A 8 A 2+ 2+ 2+ At least 2 yng. heard in nest PU 9 A 2+ 2+ 2+ At least 2 yng. heard in nest WE 1 A 5 5 5 WE 2 A 3+ 3 3 WE 3 IA WE 4 A 3+ 3 2 WE 5 A 4+ 4+ 4 WE 6 IA WE 7 A 5 5 3 WE 8 A 5 5 4 WE 9 A 4+ 4 1 WE 10 A 1+ 1+ 1 WE 11 A WE 12 IA WE 13 A 5 5 4 WE 14 IA WE 15 A WE 16 IA WE 17 A 4+ 4 3 WE 18 A 4+ 4+ 4 WE 19 A 4+ 4 2 WE 20 A 1+ 1+ 0 WE 21 A 0 0 WE 22 A 4+ 4 1 WE 23 IA WE 24 IA WE 25 IA WE 26 IA 4+ 4 4 WE 27 A 2+ 2 2 PU Connnents Young taken by falconers �-131Table 5 (Continued) Productivity Site No. Activity of Colorado Prairie Falc.ons No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged WE 28 A 0 0 WE 29 A 0 0 WE 30 A 3+ 3 WE 31 A WE 32 IA WE 33 A 4+ 4 4 WE 34 A 3+ 3 3 3+ 0 Connnents �-l32- TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO PRAIRIE FALCONS 60 of 72 (83%) sites were determined to be active. 36 (60%) of the active sites produced eggs. 34 (56%) of the a.ctive sites hatched young. 32 (53%) of the active sites fledged young. = 106 Average brood size of 20 sites with known production = 3.70 Total number of young observed prior to fledging Adjusted young production for all active sites hatching young (34 sites) = 125 Total number known to have fledged from 25 sites = 75 (average fledging success of 3.00) Adjusted fledging success of all productive sites = 96 �-1331974 OSPREY ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY Site No. Activity No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged Comments GR 1 A GR 2 A 2 0 0 1 rotten egg in nest 1 broken egg on ground GR 3 A 2 0 0 2 rotten GR 4 A LA 1 A LP 1 lA JA 1 A JA A 2 JA 3 IA eggs in nest Adult incubating 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 Adults present early in season �-134- SUMMARY OF ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO 6 of 9 (67%) sites were determined to be act Lva; 4 (67%) of the active sites produced eggs. 3 (50%) of the acti've sites hatched young. 3 (50%) of the active sites fledged young. Total number of young observed prior to fledging Average brood size = 2.67 young/site Average fledging success = 2.67 young/site 8 OSPREYS �-135- TABLE 7 NORTHEASTERN DATE: January 22, 1975 FLIGHT TIME: CREW: COLORADO AERIAL EAGLE CENSUS 5 hours and 9 minutes (8:14-11:30 and 1:22-3:15) W. Russell, E. Boeker and G. Craig Weather Conditions The temperature rose gradually from 300F in the morning, 36°F at midday and 400F at the end of the flight. Wind was light and variable. Visibility was excellent with cloud cover increasing from 0% in the morning to 5% at noon to 50% in the afternoon. Counting Conditions Counting conditions were excellent with bare ground over all but the northwestern portion of the census area. Results For details, see attached data sheet: Golden Eagle Bald Eag1e* Adult Immature Unknown 22 5 0 Adult Immature Unknown 3 1 0 Total 27 Total 4 * All bald eagle sightings were along riparian habitat of the South Platte River. Extrapo1 ation This 10% sample of a 3,000 square mile study area yields an estimated 270 golden eagles for the area. �-136TABLE 8 BALD EAGLE CENSUS OF SOUTH PLATTE RIVER FROM FORT MORGAN TO GREELEY DATE: January 22, 1975 FLIGHT TIME: CREW: 35 min. (3:20 - 3:55) W. Russell, E. Boeker & G. Craig Weather Conditions The temperature was approximately 40° F; wind was calm; visability was fair to good since the inversion along the river was not as great and the sun was sufficiently above the horizon so as not to blind the observer. Counting Conditions Good to fair with little backlighting. Results Golden Eagle Bald Eagle Adult Immature Unknown 0 0 0 Adult Immature Unknown 28 14 Total 0 Total 42 0 Since this is an exact count, no extrapolation is necessary. This year, there was little ice on the river to concentrate waterfowl and thus the eagles were scattered along the length of the river. Further, fewer waterfowl were present along the river this year because there was no late waterfowl season to concentrate the waterfowl on more remote stretches of river. �-137- TABLE 9 RESULTS OF AERIAL FLIGHTS FOR GOLDEN EAGLES IN NE COLORADO 1972 - 1975 Total Area .Estimate Eagles per 100 s9. mi. Adults Juveniles Unknown Jan. 24, 1973 16 8 0 240 8.0 Jan. 16, 1974 19 3 0 220 7.3 Jan. 22, 1975 22 5 0 270 9.0 Date RESULTS OF AERIAL FLIGHTS BALD EAGLE CENSUS IN NE COLORADO 1972 - 1975 Date % Juveniles Adults Juveniles Unknown Total Jan. 24, 1973 18 13 0 31 42 Jan. 16, 1974 16 15 0 31 48 Jan. 22, 1975 28 14 0 42 33 �-l38TABLE 10 SUMMARY OF DEAD AND INJURED RAPTORS REPORTED TO THE DIVISION JAN. - DEC. 1974 Q <, ~ Q Q 0 .~ rn -IJ .~ u ........, ••..• <ll 0..0 Great Horned Owl Golden Eagle Red-tailed Hawk American Kestrel Rough-legged Hawk Long-eared Owl Barn Owl Marsh Hawk Prairie Falcon Swainson's Hawk Goshawk Short-eared Owl Bald Eagle Burrowing Owl Cooper's Hawk Ferruginous Hawk Flammu1ated Owl Peregrine Falcon Screech Owl Turkey Vulture TOTAL -IJ 0 .c rn Q ;:l UO c.!> 8 5 5 8 9 4 3 5 7 4 5 6 6 0 .~ -IJ 0 .~ •••.•rn C1l rn bO<ll <ll rn •••.•rn •...• 0 ::l S 0 ,... 0 ,... <ll ••..• <ll 0 -IJ u~ .~ .~ .c,... ~ 4-l ••..• -IJ •••.•rn C1l <ll Q -E Hp.. r.:.z 2- 1 3 4 1 3 2 1 (, 3 1 o Q u <ll ....• ~ 2 8 ~ ....• 0 .c Q rn 0 ,... <ll .c ~ E-< :>00 ..d....t!.. .~ 0 --E:!...- -IJ ~ 0 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <ll-IJ , o, bOC1l <ll ,... E-< 2 1 3 1 13 6 4 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 66 25 14 11 12 10 10 29 23 20 18 4 2 4 10 8 8 8 7 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 158 �-139TABLE 11 SEASONAL OCCURENCE OF MORTALITY AND INJURY TO RAPTORS - 1974 Cause of Mortality Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun JuJ. Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Collision w/Object 9 7 6 1 3 7 5 11 11 2 2 3 67 Gunshot 4 3 5 1 3 3 3 3 1 26 3 10 1 Illegal Possession 3 Unknown 1 Electrocution 3 1 Vehicle Strike 3 1 11 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 11 1 10 1 1 9 1 11/ Other 20 1/ Tumor in throat Starving 1/ Bumb1efoot infection 14 4 2 2 Poison ]J 3 1 Leg-hold Trap TOTAL 5 3 Fall from Nest 14 16 9 8 I]) l'~/ 27 9 I]) 20 18 4 8 4 5 158 �-140- TABLE 12 RAPTORS BANDED BY THE DIVISION IN 1974 No. Banded Species Swainson's Hawk 34 Ferruginous 22 Hawk Prairie Falcon 14 Golden Eagle 6 Peregrine Falcon 6 Cooper's Hawk 5 American Kestrel 2 Great Horned Owl 2 Red-tailed 1 Hawk TOTAL 99 �-141- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of __~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ Project No. ~W~-~1~2~4_-~R_-~3 _ Raptor Investigations Work Plan No. _ Job No. 2 Job Title: ~l Raptor Population and Productivity Studies in Northeastern Colorado Period Covered: Personnel: March 1, 1974 through February 28, 1975 Gerald R. Craig ABSTRACT Twenty-two golden eagle, 24 prairie falcon and six ferruginous hawk nests were occupied on the 2,000 square mile study area in Northeastern Colorado. Productivity of golden eagles and ferruginous hawks greatly declined from 1973 and there was a minor decrease in productive prairie falcon eyries. ��RAPTOR POPULATION AND PRODUCTIVITY STUDIES IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO Gerald R. Craig To intensively document nesting and wintering densities, migration chron- ology, habitat requirements, productivity and prey preferences of raptors on the Pawnee National Grasslands and adjacent prairie lands. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Document exact nesting densities and productivity of raptors present on the Pawnee National Grasslands and adjacent prairie lands. 2. Document prey items at nest sites. 3. While at nest sites, record disturbance factors, land use practices, habi- tat type and nest site features. RESULTS While approximately one half of the golden eagle eyries (22 of 41 sites) were occupied by adults, only four sites succeeded in producing and fledging 5 young. This rather drastic decline may be attributed to a crash in the jackrabbit population which accounts for the major prey of golden eagles in good years. Little data was gathered on prey at eagle nests because so few of the nests contained young. Ferruginous hawk nesting numbers declined steeply from 37 occupied sites in 1973 to six sites in 1974. Not all sites were visited in 1974 (only 18 were checked in 1974 when 47 were investigated in 1973) ~rhich biases the results. However, the extremely poor productivity of the six active sites may be cause for concern. Activity of nesting prairie falcons declined slightly (29 sites active in 1973 and 24 active in 1974), but the average brood size of 3.92 young/site compares favorably with 3.94 young/Site of 1973. Fledging success declined from 3.82 young/Site in 1973 to 2.94 young/site in 1974. Slightly more pressure may have been placed on the productivity by falconer& in 1974. �-144TABLE 1 ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY Site No. Activity OF GOLDEN EAGLE IN NORTHEASTERN No. of Young No. Fledged WE 1 IA WE 2 IA WE 3 IA WE 4 A WE 5 IA WE 6 IA WE 7 IA WE 8 A WE 9 A WE 10 A WE 11 A 0 0 WE 12 A 1 1 WE 13 A 0 0 WE 14 IA WE 15 IA WE 16 A 0 0 WE 17 A 0 0 WE 18 A 1 1 WE 19 A I) 0 WE 20 A 0 0 WE 21 A 0 0 WE 22 IA WE 23 IA WE 24 IA HE 25 A 1 1 WE 26 A 0 0 WE 27 IA WE 28 A 0 0 WE 29 A 0 0 WE 30 A 0 0 WE 31 IA COLORADO Comments 0 Nest blown down 0 2 2 0 �-145- Table 1 (Continued) - Activity and Productivity of Golden Eagles in NE Colorado Activity No. of Young No. Fledged WE 32 A 0 0 WE 33 A 0 0 WE 34 IA WE 35 A C 0 WE 36 IA WE 37 IA WE 38 IA WE 39 IA WE 40 A 0 0 WE 41 A 0 0 Site No. Comments �-146- TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF ACTUAL PRODUCTIVITY OF GOLDEN EAGLES IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO 22 of 41 sites (53%) were determined to be active. 4 (18%) of the active sites produced and fledged 5 young (1.25 brood size and fledging Success per site). �-147TABLE 3 ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF PRAIRIE FALCONS IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO Site No. Activity No. of Eggs No. of young No. Fledged WE 1 A 5 5 5 WE 2 A 3+ 3 3 WE 3 IA WE 4 A 3+ 3 2 WE 5 A 4+ 4+ 4 WE 6 IA WE 7 A 5 5 3 WE 8 A 5 5 4 WE 9 A 4+ 4 1 WE 10 A 1+ 1+ 1 WE 11 A WE 12 IA WE 13 A 5 5 4 WE 14 IA WE 15 A WE 16 IA WE 17 A 4+ 4 3 WE 18 A 4+ 4+ 4 WE 19 A 4+ 4 2 WE 20 A 1+ 1+ 0 WE 21 A 0 0 WE 22 A 4+ 4 1 WE 23 IA WE 24 IA WE 25 IA WE 26 IA 4+ 4 4 WE 27 A 2+ 2 2 WE 28 A 0 0 WE 29 A 0 0 WE 30 A 3+ 3 WE 31 A WE 32 IA WE 33 A 4+ 4 4 WE 34 A 3+ 3 3 3+ 0 Connnents Young taken by falconers �-148TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY PRAIRIE FALCONS IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO 24 of 34 sites (70%) were determined to be active. 19 (79%) of the active sites were known to have produced young. Total number of young produced by Total adjusted productivity 14 sites = 55 (3.92 young/site) of 19 sites = 74 Total number of young fledged from 18 sites = 53 (2.94 per site). �-149- TABLE 5 ACTIVITY Site No. AND PRODUCTIVITY OF FERRUGINOUS Activity HAWKS IN NORTHEASTERN No. of Young No. Fledged 0 0 3 3 LO 1 WE 1 IA WE 2 IA WE 3 A WE 4 IA WE 5 IA WE 6 IA WE 7 A WE 8 IA WE 9 IA WE 10 IA WE 11 A 0 0 WE 12 A 0 0 WE 13 A 0 0 WE 14 IA WE 15 IA WE 16 IA WE 17 A 0 0 COLORADO Connnents �-150- TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF PRODUCTIVITY OF FERRUGINOUS HAWKS IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO 6 of 18 (33%) of the sites were active. 1 (16%) of the active sites produced young (3.0 young/site). 1 (16%) of the active sites fledged young (3.0 young/site). �-151- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of __~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ Project No. W-124-R-3 Work Plan No. Job Title: _ Raptor Investigations 1 Job No. 3 Raptor Population and Productivity Studies in Southeastern Colorado Period Covered: Personnel: March 1, 1974 through February 28, 1975 Gerald R. Craig, William C. Andersen ABSTRACT Occupied nests of nine golden eagles, 38 ferruginous hawks, nine red-tailed hawks and 176 Swainson's hawks were located in a 4,421 square mile area in Southeas t ern Colorado. Data are provided about fledging success and nest density for each of the four raptor species. trend counts were continued. Weekly migration and winter ��-153RAPT OR POPULATION AND PRODUCTIVITY STUDIES IN SOU7HEASTERN COLORADO William C. Andersen and Gerald R. Craig To intensively document nesting and wintering denSities, migration chronology, habitat requirements, productivity and prey preferences of raptors on the Comanche National Grasslands and adjacent prairie landH. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To continue documentation of nesting densities and productivity of golden eagles, prairie falcons, ferruginous hawks, Swainson's hawks, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, and burrowing owls on the Comanche National Grasslands and adjacent prairie lands. 2. To continue documentation of the timing of breeding cycles of golden eagles, prairie falcons, ferruginous hawks, Swainson's hawks, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls and burrowing owls. 3. To continue documentation of prey items at nest sites. 4. To investigate and categorize nest sites by such features as disturbance factors, habitat type, human use, dominant vegetation, relief, etc. 5. To continue documentation of migration chronology. 6. To continue to gather trend information on wintering raptor populations. 7. To categorize important wintering habitats. RESULTS Nine golden eagle nests were located of which two succeeded in fledging 3 young which provided an average of .33 young per nesting attempt. Thirty- eight nesting attempts by ferruginous hawks produced 72 fledglings for an average of 1.89 young per nesting attempt. This was a slight increase in pro- ductivity from 1973 (1.47 young per nesting attempt). Nine red-tailed hawk nests succeeded in fledging 18 young (2.00 young/nesting attempt). Swainson hawk productivity increased dramatically with 176 nests producing 191 young �-154(1.08 young/nesting attempt). This was due to the lack of severe wind and thundersqualls which were prevalent in 1973. In all, 328 raptors (including 191 Swainson's hawks, 72 ferruginous hawks, 22 red-tailed hawks, 19 great horned owls and 13 kestrels) were banded. The migration and winter trend counts were again run in 1974-75, although vehicle difficulties and weather conditions did not permit the trends to be run in February and March. �-155TABLE 1 ACTIVITY MlD NESTING SUCCESS - 1974 Nest Number Attem:Qts Fledged S:Qecies County Golden Eagle Baca Bent Las Animas Otero Lincoln 2 2 3 1 1 9 Ferruginous Hawk Baca Bent Cheyenne Crowley Kiowa Las Animas Lincoln Otero 9 5 1 3 2 3 9 6 38 Yng/Nest Active NestL10Omi2 AttemEt Yng/pr~duc. /lOOmi 0 2 1 0 0 3 0.00 1.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.21 0.39 0.51 0.12 0.15 0.25 0.00 0.39 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.08 13 1 2 2 5 4 26 72 1.44 0.20 2.00 0.66 2.50 1.33 2.88 2.17 1.89 0.94 0.99 0.59 0.96 0.61 0.51 1.37 0.71 0.78 1.36 0.19 1.19 0.64 1.55 0.69 3.94 1.54 1.66 -1L Red-tailed Hawk Bent Las Animas Otero 2 4 _3_ 9 3 9 6 18 1.50 2.25 2.00 2.00 0.21 0.69 0.36 0.45 0.59 1.55 0.71 0.93 Swainson's Hawk Baca Bent Crowley Elbert Kiowa Las Animas Lincoln Otero 57 5 26 3 28 3 46 8 176 90 3 24 4 31 1 28 10 191 1.59 0.60 0.92 1.33 1.11 0.33 0.61 1.25 1.08 5.98 0.99 8.36 9.45 0.59 7.72 8.66 0.51 6.98 0.94 4.21 9.59 0.17 4.25 1.18 4.58 �-156- TABLE 2 RAPTORS BANDED IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Species Number Banded Swainson's Hawk 191 Ferruginous Hawk 72 Red-tailed Hawk 22 Great Horned Owl 19 American Kestrel 13 Barn Owl 4 Golden Eagle 3 Cooper's Hawk 3 Mississippi Kite 1 TOTAL 328 �TABLE 3 MIGRATION AND WINTER POPULATION TRENDS, 1974-1975 9 November 16 30 7 December 14 23 January 4 (Adult) (-) ( 4) ( 7) ( 5) ( E) ( 7) ( 4) (Immature) (-) ( 1) ( 1) ( -) ( 1) ( 1) ( 4) (Unknown) (1) ( -) ( -) (-) ( -) (-) ( -) Total 1 5 8 5 7 8 8 (Adu1 t) (2) ( 4) ( 6) (11) (12) (28) ( -) (Immature) (-) ( -) ( 1) ( 2) ( 2) ( 3) (12) Species Golden Eagles Bald Eagle I I-' VI 2 Total 4 7 14 13 31 12 Ferruginous Hawk 13 10 6 10 12 5 12 Rough-legged Hawk 9 7 8 13 14 8 8 8 7 7 6 11 2 6 Marsh Hawk 4 5 4 2 7 5 Prairie Falcon 2 2 4 9 7 2 5 Merlin - - - - - - 2 Kestrel 12 9 12 16 16 8 13 Great Horned Owl - 1 1 2 1 - 1 TOTAL 51 50 57 76 89 69 67 RAPTOR/MI. .34 .33 .38 .51 .59 .46 Red-tailed Hawk - I .45 " I ��-159- JOB PROGRESS Sta te of __ REPORT -...;C:.,:o;,,:l:..:o:...,:ra:.=..:d::.:o=---_ Pro j e ct No. _W.:.:-=.1 =.24.:...-...,:R:.:,.-...,:3::_ Raptor Work Plan No. Job Title Period Roadside Covered: Personnel: ~l _ Raptor March Gerald Investigations Job No, 4 Censuses 1, 1974 through February 28, 1975 R. Craig ABSTRACT Two migration Weld County concerning and winter and the other densities, censuses werE in El Paso County. behavior, and habitat conducted; one in Data are presented preferences of raptors. ��-161ROADSIDE RAPTOR CENSUSES Gerald R. Craig, Babette Cranson and Patricia Kennedy To continue roadside censuses currently in existence in Northeastern Colorado to obtain information on population fluctuation and chronology of raptor movements. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Each route is established along lightly traveled dirt roads. 2. Each route is driven in a vehicle traveling between 20 and 35 m.p.h. 3. All raptors observed with 1/4 mile cf either side of the route are counted. This will provide an area as well as a linear census. 4. All pertinent information, such as sex, age and behavior of the raptors, and the habitat over which it was observed is recorded. 5. Each route is traveled on a bimonthly basis throughout the year. 6. One census route runs in a northeasterly direction from Riverside Reservoir to Sterling, Colorado, and the other route travels north from just east of Greeley to Herford, Colorado. 7. Prepare monthly summary of results and furnish copies of the rough data gathered. EXPLANATION In the winter of 1974-75, two census routes were established, one in Weld County and the other in El Paso County. Due to difficulty in locating a person capable of running the second census in northeastern Colorado, it was necessary to take over an old route southeast of Colorado Springs in east-central Colorado. The results for each of the censuses are presented separately as follows: �RAPTOR MIGRATION AND WINTER POPULATION TRENDS IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO 1974-75 by Babette Cranson METHODS AND MATERIALS Ten censuses were made on a route of approximately County. 135 miles located in Weld This route was established and censused in the winter of 1969-70 by G. R. Craig. The route was traveled at speeds of 20 to 35 miles per hour. Binoculars and a spotting scope were used to identify those raptors that were sighted from the vehicle. Species, age, sex, activity, location and habitat were recorded for each observation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 273 raptors were observed on the censuses which began November 30 and ended March 7. The counts were started on a bi-monthly basis with the December 29th count missed. weekly basis. Beginning January 10, counts were made on a Table 1 summarizes these censuses. Fifty-two percent of the 273 raptors sighted were rough-legged hawks, 14% were golden eagles, 10% were marsh hawks, 7% were American kestrels, 6% were prairie falcons, 4% were ferruginous hawks, 2% were bald eagles and 1% were merlins. Peaks in migrating raptors are hard to assess from the data since low counts often result from high winds. How- ever a slight increase of raptors can be noted on the January 31 count. Table 2 summarizes the behavior of raptors observed on the census routes. Of the raptors Sighted, 67% were perched and 61% of those perched were on power poles. Trees were the next most preferred perch site with 20% of the raptors perched there. Seven percent of the rap tors were perched on fence posts, 4% were perched on phone wires, 4% were perched on the ground, 3% were perched on windmills and 1% were perched on low vegetation. Power poles and trees had the most varieties of raptors perche~ on them with 9 and 7 of the 10 species perched on each respectively. Only four of the 10 species were perched on fence posts, 3 of the 10 species were pe:rched on the ground and on windmills, 2 of the 10 species �-163- were perched on phone wires and only 1 of the 10 species was perched on low vegetation. Habitat preferences are summarized in Table 3. Of the approximately 230 square miles covered by the censuses, approximately 47% of the habitat was agricultural, 46% was grassland and 5% was cottonwood-riverbottom. habitat areas accounted for the remaining 7%. The other Sixty percent of the raptors were observed in the agricultural areas while 30% were observed in the grassland habitat and only 7% were observed in the riverbottom-cottonwood habitat. The agricultural and grassland areas supported the most species with 9 and 7 of the 10 species recorded for each respectively. �-164TABLE 1 MIGRATION AND WINTER POPULATION TRENDS 1974-75 Golden Eagle (Adu1 t) Nov. December 30 8 1511 22 6 (Innnature) 1 - (Unknown) 1 (Total) Bald Eagle (Adult) January 29 3 lOll 25 31 7 - 1 2 4 - - - 1 - 2 + - - - - - - 8 - 2 + - - - - - - - - - - (Total) - - - (Innnature) - - - - - - - Ferruginous Hawk 2 - 1 Rough-legged Hawk 18 5 Red-tailed Hawk 1 Marsh Hawk 6 Prairie Falcon 4 Merlin 1 Kestrel 5 - Great Horned Owl - - 1 - 1 - - - February - - - - - 14 7 2 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 1 2 2 - 1 1 - - 2 8 2 8 2 4 2 1 2 - 1 - - 1 - 3 - - - - - 3 - 1 1 9 19 22 21 - - - 1 1 - 5 - 3 - 2 19 2 11 17 - - 3 2 - 1 4 8 - 1 4 - 2 2 - 1 - - - - 1 1 4 2 3 2 - - 3 1 - 2 - 1 - - - 2 45 Raptors/mi. .33 II High Winds - 10 .07 - - - 2 - Unknown TOTAL March 2411 28 2 1 13 32 41 35 36 5 21 40 .10 .24 .30 .26 .27 .04 .16 .30 �-165TABLE 2 RAPTOR BEHAVIOR, 1974-1975 Activity BE GE FH RT RL MH PF AK M UNK TOTAL Flying (flapping) 1 4 2 0 27 24 2 4 0 0 64 Soaring (circling) 1 8 0 0 10 3 0 1 0 2 25 Hovering 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 12 2 0 38 27 2 5 0 2 90 Trees 4 2 2 5 19 0 1 2 1 0 36 Power Poles 0 10 4 0 78 0 12 6 1 1 112 Ground 0 5 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 7 Fence Post 0 6 1 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 12 Windmill 0 4 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 Bush 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 Phone Wire 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7 0 0 8 4 27 8 5 105 1 14 15 3 1 183 6 39 10 5 143 28 16 20 3 3 273 Subtotal Perched Subtotal TOTAL �-166- TABLE 3 HABITAT PREFERENCES Habitat type BE GE FH RT RL MH PF AK M UNK TOTAL Agriculture 2 19 2 0 82 25 12 16 2 3 163 Elm - Agricul ture 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 Elm - Meadow 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 74 Grassland - Pasture 4 16 4 0 42 3 ::; Grassland-sage-pasture 0 3 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 7 Grassland-tall grass 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Grassland-deciduousconiferous 0 0 0 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 Riverbottom-cottonwood 0 1 2 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 18 Cottonwood-lakeside 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 Cottonwood-agriculture 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sage-willow 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 39 10 5 143 28 16 20 3 3 273 TOTAL �-167RAPTOR MIGRATION AND WINTER POPULATION TRENDS IN EAST-CENTRAL COLORADO 1974-1975 by Patricia Kennedy METHODS AND MATERIALS Areas southeast of Colorado Springs were invem':oried during the fall of 1974 and an 85 mile route that mainly parallels telephone transmission lines, was established (Figure 1). Eight censuses were conducted along this route between late September and mid-February. The route was censused by car in the mornings and, with the exception of one census (January 9), censuses were conducted only when the winds did not exceed 15 mph. The route was driven at speeds between 30 and 40 mph, and all raptors within a quarter mile of the road were identified, aided by binoculars and a spotting scope. each observation. Age Species and habitat were recorded for class and sex were recorded when feasible. was reported for the last 5 censuses. Activity A horned lark count was also made along a ten mile section of the route (Figure 1) and all larks observed were recorded on a hand tally. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 181 raptors w~re observed, and of these 17% were rough-legged hawks, 16% were American kestrels, 12% were prairie falcons, 12% were golden eagles, 11% were ferruginous hawks, 10% were marsh hawks, 8% were red-tailed hawks, 5% were unidentified raptors, 2% were me:r1ins and 1% were Swainson's hawks (Table 1). The highest raptor densities occurred in late October through early November indicating a possible peak period in the fall migration. in the area after October 12. Swainson's hawks were not observed Red-tailed hawks had left the area after November 1. This indicates that Swainson's and red-tailed hawks are not found in the eastern Colorado short-grass prairie during the winter months. However, if the census had traversed a riparean habitat, red-tailed hawks probably would have been observed. Rough-legged hawks were not observed until November 1 and were present throughout the winter in large numbers. Merlins were not observed until January 9, but due to the small number observed and lack of a December census, a migration trend for for this species is difficult to assess. year-round residents. All other raptor species appear to be �TABLE 2 RAPTOR BEHAVIOR S ecies Activit Marsh Hawk G.Horned Owl Merlin 9 0 0 0 0 57 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 4 1 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 6 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 1 13 3 1 101 Ro.Legged Hawk Ferrug. Hawk 10 21 10 2 0 0 Tree 3 0 Windmill 1 Fence Post 1 American Kestrel Golden ~le Tel. Pole 7 Phone Wire Prairie Falcon Unknown Total Perched Ground 3 Soaring Flying (flapping) TOTAL :1.4 1 0 2 0 4 5 0 14 27 12 13 7 10 I I-" .....• 0 I �-171- TABLE 3 PREY SPECIES TREND Larks/mile No. Mer1ins & Prairie Falcons Observed Date No. Horned Larks Observed 9/26 145 14.5 1 10/12 202 20.2 2 11/1 271 27.1 5 11/29 97 9.7 5 1/9 60 6.0 1 1/11 84 8.4 3 2/2 77 7.7 5 2/16 348 34.8 3 �-172FIGURE 1 Larks/mile = - No. of Falcons = Numbers Observed 35~-----------------------------------------------,,• 301~--------------------------------------------~---,,, 25------------~--~,------------~--------------~,~---~~ , / ,, 20~-----,~~--------~,----------------------------~,------.: I , , l5,~~----------------~----------------------~------, , 10~----------------------~\~--------------------~-------\ " \ I \ I \ •••••• ..., ...•.• 1''' ..•.•.... " 5 Dates "'•••.-..-. •••• I •• �-173JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of__ .--:C::.:o::.::l:..;o::.:r:..;a::.;d::.;o~ ~ _ Raptor Investigations Pro j ect No. _W~-.:.1=-24~-~R::..--,,3,-- _ Job No. 1 Work Plan No. ~2~ _ Job Title: Peregrine Period Covered: Personnel: Falcon Propagation March and Reintroduction 1, 1974 through February Studies 28, 1975 Gerald R. Craig, James H. Enderson ABSTRACT Thirty-eight eggs were laid by four female anatum peregrines of which 14 eggs were fertile, five hatched and five young were reared. Improper incubator and excessive humidity temperature the cause for poor hatching potential for increasing needs improvement. augment success. Artificial insemination shows egg fertility although the technique still All five young produced captive breeding may have been stock. in 1974 were retained to ��-175PEREGRINE FALCON PROPAGATION AND REINTRODUCTION James H. Enderson and Gerald R. Craig To captively produce eggs and/or young from peregrine into STUDIES falcons for reintroduction the nests of wild peregrine falcons that have low or no natural productivity. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish the cause for reproductive failure of wild peregrines. 2. To produce young or eggs from peregrine falcons being held in captivity at the facilities of Dr. James H. Enderson. 3. To visit wild peregrine falcon eyries where adults are present and replace spoiled eggs with captively produced eggs or young. 4. To keep those eyries containing captively produced eggs or young under observation to ascertain the success of the endeavor. SUMMARY OF RESULTS Falcons in the project in 1974 included the following, Peregrines: 3 pairs adult anatum peregrines 1 adult pair, anatum female and tundrius male peregrines 1 pair adult peale~ peregrines 1 adult anatum male 1 adult tundrius female 3 yearling Fl anatum females 1 adult anatum male (on loan to R. Berry) Prairie Falcons: 1 pair adults (inclJding an Fl male) 1 pair Fl adults (on loan to E. Freienmuth ) 1 adult female (on loan to E. Freienmuth) 1 pair Fl yearlings (on loan to U. S. Air Force Academy) The four anatum females laid a total of 38 eggs and three which were broken by the birds. eggs, including two malformed Of the 38 eggs, 14 were known �-176- fertile, and five hatched and developed normally. The Peale's falcon pair laid seven eggs in two clutches, two of which were fertile by artificial insemination and a third probably so. None of these eggs hatched although one developed to the point of hatching. The technique of placing captively produced young in nests of wild falcons was experimentally tested with prairie falcons. Twenty-one captively produced prairie falcons, ranging in age from ten days to three weeks of age were flown to Colorado from propagating facilities at Cornell University. Unfortunately four of the young succumbed to overheating in the baggage compartment of a commercial airliner. One of the young falcons was held for release at a later date, and fifteen were placed in eyries of wild prairie falcons. One of the chicks at a particular site died during the night when it fell from the nest ledge. that site, the wild adult pair of falcons had At experienced nesting failure during incubation when all their eggs were apparently removed by unknown persons. The adults still occupied the nest cliff and frequently perched on the ledge of the eyrie. The thought was to place the young prairie falcon chick on the nest ledge in hopes that the adults would care for it. The single chick apparently became lonesome and wandered about the ledge, then fell before the adults were aware of its presence. This technique should be tested again since it may be useful if wild peregrines are unsuccessful in rearing young but are still occupying the site. Captively reared young prairie falcons were placed in wild prairie falcon eyries containing young. In one case, the natural brood size of four young was increased to seven and all fledged successfully. At another site, an age disparity of two weeks existed between the young, but the adults continued to rear the younger chicks after the older young had fledged. It was concluded that �-177- wild prairie falcons appear to be quite adaptable to manipulation of brood sizes and will accept captively produced young with little hesitation. Of the total of 16 peregrine eggs known fertile, only five hatched. Of the remainder, three were incubated by the Peales falcons and apparently received inadequate incubation, five died at hatching after artificial incubation at excessive humidity or temperature, or both. The remaining three failing to hatch died in the incubator midway in development. The five hatched young were reared artificially by means of a hand-puppet simulating an adult peregrine. sight of people. All The puppet was used to feed the young out of five young were fledged together in a loft and remain there. DISCUSSION The disappointing results of the 1974 season are related to two unresolved difficulties. Only one pair of the anatum falcons copulate; nine fertile eggs, in three clutches, resulted which also included three broken eggs. fertile eggs were by artificial insemination. The remaining The success ratio of that tech- nique was poor, only seven, probably eight out of a possible 21. Discouraged by this poor success, and similar difficulties in his project, R. Fyfe dissected a pair of breeding prairie falcons and discovered that we had been placing the semen in the cloacal bursa of the female, not in the oviduct. More dissections will be done before the 1975 season to correct the imsemination procedure. Problems were encountered with artificial incubation when eggs were run at 99.50 F. and 50-55% relative humidity. Four chicks dying at pipping of the shell had large unabsorbed yolk sacs, indicative of excessive temperature or humidity, or both. Both R. Fyfe, and T. Cade at Cornell, hatched peregrines readily when conditions were about 98.50 F. and 45% relative humidity, values which are planned for use in this project in 1975. In summary, results i.n1974 were only fair, but were an improvement over 1973. Four pairs of anatum peregrines have been produced thus far. I intend �~178that two Fl pairs will remain here, and that two pairs will be lent to other projects. Assuming that this year's problems can be resolved, a substantial improvement in production is expected in 1975, and the intent is to place some eggs or young in the eyries of wild peregrines. Soon after the work with prairie falcons was completed, there was an opportunity to test the technique on wild peregrines. One wild peregrine eyrie was surveyed and found to contain two infertile eggs and the remains of a third egg. The infertile peregrine eggs were replaced with two fertile eggs which had been removed from a prairie falcon nest. one of the prairie falcon eggs. of age, it was removed The wild peregrines succeeded in hatching When the prairie falcon chick was three weeks and replaced with two captively produced peregrines which were ten days of age and had been flown to Colorado from Cornell University. The wild peregrines proceeded to rear and fledge both peregrine chicks without complication. RECOMMENDATIONS Due to difficulty encountered in obtaining and hatching fertile peregrine eggs in captivity, several more years will be required before sufficient numbers of young peregrines are produced to permit an extensive reintroduction program. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/4e2dab96372816a9c36544704f1949b3.pdf f578f9c076610815e1f01e7706cb7bfd PDF Text Text -1- April 1976 JOB PROGRESSREPORT State of Project COLORADO ----------~~~~----------- Work Plan Job Pheasant Covered: Personnel: 1 No. Title Period Game Bird W-37-R-29 No. April Job No. Hortality 1, Survey 21 --------------------~-- Investigation 1975 to Harch 31, 1976 Donald 11. Hoffman, Jack Corey, Lucien Daniel Walsworth and Warren Snyder. Brevard, Larry Crooks, ABSTRACT Phe as ant; populations dropped to reco r d Lows in the study area and surrounding :Legion in 1975. Crowing indices were 68 percent Lower than those obtained in 1974 and 84 percent below 1963-68 levels. Triangulation methods indicated most of the study contained less than a roos ter per square mile, whereas the southeast corner contained up to four roosters per square mile. Limited sex ratio data obtained in April and again in fall showed approximately 3.4 hens per adult rooster. The birds-per-mile index of 0.38 derived from August production counts was only about a fifth of the level obtained in the preceding year. Trapping efforts, which extended from mid-August to late October reflected the low population density. Only 109 roosters were banded along with four retraps. In addition, 150 hens were banded and 7 retraps were taken. Young per adult ratios were higher in both production counts and fall trapping indicated some improvenent in reproductive success over the preceding year. The·1975 pheasant season opened on Wednesday November 19 in conjunction with a heavy snow wh.ich closed most roads reduced hunter effort and bunched pheasants so that they were highly vulnerable to road hunting. Heavy snow cover persisted throughout the short twelve day season. Thirteen reward bands wer e obtained from fall banded birds, projecting an approximate 23 percent harvest. Four regular bands were obtained by field contact of hunters and one hunt.e r returned a regular band by Hail several months after season closure, bringing the number of 1975 fall trapped regular band recoveries to five. High movement of birds from banding to harvest was evident in repetition of 1974 results. Some natural mortality was reported as a result of the November snows t orm, but its impact could not be accurately assessed. Late winter sex ratio counts showed an excess of three hens per cock surviving the winter, w i th very low over-win tering populations present. ��-3- PHEASANT MORTALITY INVESTIGATION Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate mortality rates of a population of ring-necked pheasants. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To review relevant literature ity and survival of birds. concerning 2. Monitor population 3. Develop new and improve on existing 4. Investigate mortality individuals. 5. Prepare pheasants and studies of mortal- status on study area. trapping techniques. factors and estimate mortality annual progress rates of marked report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Reference is made to Hoffman (197.5) concerning methods used in this study. Deviations or additions to these are summarized as follows. Spring sex ratio counts were attempted, but study area pheasant populations were too sparse to permit attaining an adequate sample so efforts were discontinued. Limited data were obtained in early April under snow cover conditions. Two 10-station crowing routes were established to distribute sampling throughout the four township study area (Fig. 1). The starting and ending locations on these routes were varied to partially correct for call variance relative to time within counts. Efforts were made to tally total calling males on forty square miles within the study area. Four square miles surrounding crowing stations numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 on each of the two routes were checked using triangulation methods (Fig. 2). Two men in separate vehicles with radio communication pinpointed each male during early A.M. calling periods. Repeat counts were made on different mornings to increase accuracy. Four production routes were censused with two rep1i cates on each being comp1eted during August 1975 (Fig. 3). Pheasant sightings were segmented at 2 mile intervals along the routes to pinpoint potential trapping areas. Because of low populations, pheasant trapping was extended to locations outside the study area during the fall. Winter trapping was not attempted because of lack of birds. Late winter sex ratio counts were also extended to locations south and east of the study area to increase sample size. �-'t- t 7 N. (.9 o .J f-\.46\V~YUMA Fig. 1. Pheasant crowing count routes with listening the pheasant mortality study area in 1975. stations COUNTY established in �-5- -r---'. . 6 >IZ - ::> '7 0 U :=:~- . to' . . ":J . . . . 5 ~ ;:: • . 9 : I~~-/-Y;Lr< L--.~ T. 7 N 19 20 Z <X: C) o , -1 ·T. 6 N R.47VJ. HA6 W II YUMA COUNTY blocks censused within the study are·a- during---th-e-s-p-Hn--g-------· Fig. 2. Triangulation Numbers represent the total roosters recorded per four square mile of 1975. 1_ 1 __ ,_ �-6- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pheasant Pheasant .10 Crowing Population Monitoring Counts The impact of the snow storm of March 27, 1975 whichkilled many of the pheasants, was verified by crowing counts in late April and May. Results from crowing count routes (Fig. 1), illustrated in Table 1, show an overall station 'average of 6.12 calling males per two minutes for the east route, and 2.04 calling males per station on the west route. High count per station averages were 10.8 on the east route, and 3.8 on the west route. These are somewhat comparable to high count per station indices obtained in previous years (Table 2), but are biased upward for two reasons. First, starting points per route were rotated in 1975 so the peak calling rate was potentially distributed to all stations not just the middle stations as happens when each replicate is started at station number one. Second, conducting more replicates, as made in 1975, tends to increase the high count per station mean. Even with these biases the 1975 spring crowing count was 68.3 percent below 1974 data and 83.9 percent below 1963-68 data in the study area (Table 2). This decline of 68 percent from 1974 to 1975 for the most part is attributable to decimation of the population by the March blizzard, but poor reproduction due to drought conditions in 1974 also may be a contributing factor. Triangulation Inventory Crowing counts yield an index of rooster density, and when combined with sex ratio data give a clue to relative breeding hen density among years or areas. Triangulation methods were employed in 1975 to relate crowing indices to actual pheasant abundance (Fig. 2). Results were believed to be closely proximal to the actual population since rooster densities were very low. Pheasant roosters do not crow consistently, so there is always the chance of misSing a bird. Counts were repeated on subsequent mornings to correct for this. In a few instances this may have resulted in a higher than actual tally due to a shift in territory by a rooster so that he was tallied more than once. The triangulation methods indicated that roosters can be heard for over a mile in distance under certain conditions, but may not be detected at even a half mile in other circumstances. The primary variables are wind and the direction the birds are facing. Data illustrated in Fig. 2 show there were almost no roosters present in the northwest part of the study area, with two sample blocks (8 square miles) containing no roosters. Blocks in the southeast township were much higher. This differentialin density was primarily due to the greater severity of the March blizzard in the northern part of the study area. Projections based on data in Fig. 2 indicate that if 63 pheasant roosters were present in 40 square miles (27.8 percent of the total area), then approximately 227 pheasant roosters were present in the total 144 square miles or there were 1.58 roosters per square mile. In general, the northwest half of the study area averaged less than a rooster per square mile. The eight square miles sampled in the southeast township contained 34 roosters in comparison to only 29 roosters in the remaining 32 square miles sampled. �-7- >- '. I- z -:J o 10 9 (J : T. 7 N, 19: ~l/~v~ <, 20 ,,:. ...•.. <,... 21 ;,- . ~ :" For,', _ F(ett~~. ~-"23. v--,)' : 24 ••• : • YUMA Fig. 3. a. \. • 20 21 '\ II 2' II • II c OU I'J T y Pheasant production routes established and censused during August 1975. �-8- Table 1. routes. 1975 pheasant Date 1 2 crowing indices 3 Station 5 4 obtained Number 6 7 on the east and west study 8 9 10 Mean 24 4 11 8 6.7 14 27 6 10 9 8.3 4 8 11 4.2 Y 4 4 7 2.5 East Stud;::Route 4-22 1 3 1 1 :J-/ 11 4-22 5 4 1 3 41./ 5-1 11:./ 1 3 0 0 5 9 5-8 1 0 1 3 1 1 3 5-18 31/ 4 4 2 3 11 14 8 15 12 7.6 6-1 1 0 5 8 6 17 13 9 11 41/ 7.4 High/stat. 5 4 5 8 6 17 27 9 15 12 Overall Average 10.8 6.12 West Stud;::Route 4-24 0 4-30 01:./ 5-1 oy 01-/ 1.5 0 0 1.5 2 4 1 2.3 1 2 4 1 2.2 41/ 0 2 5 2 0 2.6 0 4 0 2 2l/ 1 1 2.2 4 2 2 1 4 4 0 1 2.0 6 3 5 2 4 5 4 1 3.8 1 6 0 3 1 1 3 0 1 2 1 5 2 1 3 8 3 2 1 1 1 5-1 01/ 5 4 3 1 1 5-8 0 7 6 0 5-14 0 7 5 5-30 al/ 2 High/stat. 0 8 Overall Average 1/ Location on route where 2.04 count was started. �-9Table 2. Pheasant pheasant mortality crowing counts as indices of population study region. Interval Route Name 1963-68 Cent ral con trol 1974 Wages-Haxtun and study route change in the High Count/Station 45.3 } Percent Change -49.2% -83.9% -68.3% 1975 East and West study routes 1/ Starting points were rotated around the routes in 1975 so high count per station data are skewed slightly upward in relation to counts made in previous years. The mean in 1975 was 6.12 on the east route and 2.04 on the west route. Pheasant Production Counts A combined total of 15 replicates were completed on four census routes (Fig. 3) in August, 1975. Only 0.38 pheasants per mile were observed as shown in Table 3. Comparisons with census in previous years indicates a very low pheasant population present in 1975 (Table 4). Results were only a fifth of the index level obtained in 1974 and only a seventh of that obtained in the late sixties. In general, results showed the 1975 hatch was later than average with a fairly high proportion of unsuccessful hens. Pheasant Sex Ratios Late Winter to Summer Breeding Population in 1975--Pheasant sex ratio observations, reported by Hoffman (1975), indicated approximately 4.44 to 4.97 hens per cock were present in late winter 1975. This proportion of hens was greater than that found during subsequent samples in spring and late summer (Table 5). Although all samples were small, post-blizzard ratios obtained in April and during fall trapping were similar, indicating between 3 and 3.5 hens per cock were present during the breeding season. Using 3.44 hens per rooster as the spring sex ratio, triangulation data project 5.4 hens per square mile or 781 hens present in the 144 square mile study area. Fall 1975 to Late Winter 1976--Data presented in Table 5 show there were approximately 1.38 to 1.46 hens per cock present in the prehunting season population. The mid-November sample was obtained with heavy snow conditions present prior to onset of significant harvest removal. Late winter sex ratios were primarily obtained after a 3-4 inch snow in late February. Efforts to observe birds under bare ground conditions were futile due to extremely low densities. A large portion of the late winter sample was obtained up to ten miles or more south of the study area in Yuma County and in other areas to the east and southeast to increase sample size. �-10Table 3. A summation of pheasant production data on the four census routes within the mortality study area. Route Replicate Miles Cocks Hens Young Unclass. Total Broods East open 3 78 0 6 30 3 39 6 East closed 4 104 1 8 34 0 43 6 West open 4 104 3 6 19 0 28 3 West closed 4 104 0 6 33 0 39 5 Total 15 390 4 26 116 3 149 20 Young/mile 0.30 Young/hen Birds/mile 0.38 Broods/mile = 0.051 = 4.46 Table 4. A comparison of pheasants observed per mile during production counts in the mortality study area. Interval Miles Birds Observed Birds per Mile 1966-68 515 1,383 2.69 1974 189 355 1. 88 1975 390 149 0.38 Within the study area, 45 cocks and 153 hens were tallied, projecting a ratio of 3.40 hens per rooster. There were 74 roosters and 220 hens recorded outside the area yielding a ratio of 2.97 hens per rooster. Combination of the two samples projects a ratio of 3.13 hens per rooster in a total sample of 492 pheasants (Table 5). Assuming 1.38 hens per cock as representative of the fall 1975 sex ratio, and 3.13 hens per cocks as the late winter 1976 sex ratio level then the number of cocks per 100 hens would change from 72.4 in fall to 31.9 in late winter. This would mean that 40.5 roosters, 55.9 percent, were lost from fall trapping �-11- to late winter in excess of the hen loss for the same interval. Band return information indicates that at least 24.7 percent of the original population was removed by hunters, assuming that all reward bands were reported. A greater proportion, 31.2 percent, of the differential rooster loss was attributed to other causes. No consideration is given in the above projections to hen loss due to hunting. While some is known to occur, the percentage of the total population is believed small, based on the low percentage rooster kill. Table 5. Pheasant sex ratios obtained from late winter, winter, 1976 on, and proximal to, the pheasant mortality Sample .- Roosters 1975 through study area. late Hens Total Percent Males Percent Females Ratio Late winter 1975, observed 1/ 36 179 215 16.7 83.3 1:4.97 Late winter trapped 32 141 173 18.5 81.5 1:4.44 April 1975, observed 34 117 151 22.5 77 .5 1:3.44 Fall 1975, trapped, adults 19 63 82 23.2 76.5 1:3.32 Fall 1975, trapped, total 114 157 271 42.1 57.9 1: 1. 38 November 1975 observed 71 104 175 40.6 59.4 1 :1.46 Combined fall total 185 261 446 41.5 58.5 1:1.41 Late winter, 1976, observed '1:.../ 119 373 492 24.2 75.8 1:3.13 1975, !/ Late winter 1975 observed 2:./ Late winter 1976 data from both within and trapped ratios taken from Hoffman and proximal (1975). to the study area. Hoffman (1975) observed 1.28 hens per cock in the fall 1974 banded sample, in contrast to 1.38 in fall 1975. His late winter trapping and sex ratio counts placed the number of hens per cock in the heighborhood of 4.44 to 4.97 (Table 5). Compared to 1975 results he found slightly more roosters present in fall, but a much greater deficiency of roosters in late winter. Yet total hunting mortality of roosters,including crippling loss, in 1974 was projected at 20.4 percent, or slightly below the 24.7 percent level recorded a year later. This fall to winter differential loss of roosters approximated 70 percent in 1974-75 compared to a 55.9 percent loss over the same interval in 1975-76. �-12- Explanation of the reasons for the differential fall to winter loss of roosters is beyond the scope of this study. The accuracy of the samples, upon which previous data are based, is not beyond question. In addition, losses of roosters may have resulted from fall movement of roosters out of the study area without replacement, to increased mortality, or to a combination of movement and mortality factors. As discussed in a following section of this report, fall 1974, and fall 1975 movements of roosters averaged several miles generally in a southeast direction. Since hens were not hunted, it is not known whether they also moved in what might be called a fall shuffle. Without this information we can only speculate. The gaudy male pheasant may also be more vulnerable to predation, especially that by avian predators than his female counterpart. Numerous rough-legged hawks, prairie falcons and some golden eagles migrate and reside in the study region through the fall and winter. Their harrassment and taking of pheasants has been observed on occasion. Pheasant Fall 1975 Efforts Trapping and Banding and Results Pheasant trapping efforts commenced August 18 and terminated October 23, 1975. Results of the eight weeks of effort by two 2-man crews were poor, with only 109 males and 150 females banded. Four roosters, banded during the preceding fall and winter, were retrapped, as were seven hens, bringing the totals to 113 roosters and 157 hens handled. Six birds were lost to injuries inflicted during netting and holding operations. Results of the fall trapping effort are summarized in Table 6. Since reward bands from hens banded in 1974 were not obtained except when retrapped by Division personnel, reward bands were not placed on hens in fall 1975. Table 6 shows that 10 old roosters were reward banded of the 15 banded. One-half of the 94 young roosters were reward bmlded, yielding a 52.3 overall percentage with reward bands in the fall 1975 sample. Roosters comprised 41.9 percent of the fall banded sample and hens totaled 58.1 percent. Table 7 summarizes retrap information. Six of the eleven retraps were initially banded as adults. Only one banded juvenile male was recaptured. Only one of the eleven moved a considerable distance between retrap and recovery. Since trapping was largely confined to the study area, those birds moving considerable distances elsewhere were less vulnerable to retrap. Trapping Success per Unit Area Trapping crews searched approximately 10,340 acres, including numerous second searches of fields where higher numbers of birds were initially found. Approximately 8,910 acres of wheat stubble were searched within the study area with most efforts concentrated in the southeast township. An additional 1,430 acres outside the study area, primarily to the east, were searched. The total acreage was equivalent to about 123 stubble fields. Based on 35 percent stubble per section, search efforts covered the equivalent of 46 square miles with 2.46 roosters and 3.41 hens trapped per section. Trapping success outside the study areas was little better than that obtained in the area. An average of less than one rooster was obtained per field searched. �-13Table 6. Pheasants banded and retrapped in and adjacent study area, August 18 to October 23, 1975. 1/ Total Percent Total by Sex Number Reward Banded Percent Reward Banded 19 16.8 10 66.7 94 83.2 47 50.0 57 52.3 Age Sex Ntnnber Banded Adult Male 15 Juvenile Male 94 Subtotal 109 4 113 100.0 7 63 40.1 94 59.9 157 100.0 Adult Female 56 Juvenile Female 94 Retrapped 4 Subtotal 150 7 Ratio: Adult Males:Juvenile Males Adult Females:Juvenile Adult Females:Total Males: Females to the mortality Females Young Hens not reward banded 1.00:4.95 1.00 :1.49 1.00:2.98 1.00: 1.39 1/ Retraps from both fall 1974 and winter 1975 as stnnmarized in Table 7. Comparison of Fall 1974 and Fall 1975 Age Data Young to adult ratios obtained during production counts and fall trapping show a higher young-per-adult ratio in 1975 than in the preceding year (Table 8). The extremely poor production in 1974 was believed primarily a result of severe drought conditions persisting through most of the spring and summer of that year. More young per adult were tallied during production counts than during subsequent trapping operations as shown in Table 8 for both years. This was to be expected, as broodless hens and moulting roosters were difficult to locate and observe in comparison to young broods. Recovery of Banding The 1975 Hunting Information Season Hunting Conditions--Efforts were made by the Division to divert hunting pressure away from the storm decimated northeast corner of the state. Whereas, the season opened at noon Saturday November 15 throughout the rest of the state, a delayed opening to sunrise Wednesday November 19 was implemented in the study region. The season was terminated at the end of twelve days on November 30. A bag limit of three roosters, with six in possession duplicated that of previous years. �-14Table 7. A sunnnary of Fall 1975 retrap information Fall 1974 and Winter 1975. Band Number Adult Male 5003 x Adult Female Banded As Juvenile Male Juvenile Female from pheasants Period Banded Fall Winter 1974 1975 banded Distance Moved to Retrap x 0 5051 x x 0 5219 x x 7+ 5346 x x 1 5347 x x 1 x 1 5488 x 5543 5554 x x 5555 x 5611 x 5650 x Total 3 3 1 4 6 x 1 x 2 x 0 x 2 x 2 5 in X = 1. 54 miles A major snow storm hit the study region the night before the season was to open and persisted throughout the opening day. Approximately ten inches of snow were deposited, filling all wheat stubble fields and other cover, and closing access to most of the area. County roads were opened slowly and with difficulty, so that no significant hunting occurred until the first Saturday, November 22 (Table 9). By the first weekend most roads were open so that considerable road hunting occurred. Pushed out of their normal wheat stubble habitat by the deep snow, the pheasants concentrated along roads, old building sites and other meager cover. As a result, they were highly vulnerable to hunting, and when pushed out of available cover, most had no other place to go. One party of three hunters was checked the second day of season with twelve birds. All had been shot along the highway south of Haxtun or adj acent access roads. A majority of those hunters afield on Saturday the 22 had good to excellent success. Many simply drove the roads and removed exposed roosters as they found them. A few attempted walking, but the deep snow made hunting afoot difficult. It is estimated that at least 90 percent of the harvest was taken adjacent to roadways. Although hunting success was good among the hunters present, the quality of the sport would have to be rated poor. �-15Table 8. Comparisons of age ratios obtained during production fall trapping in 1974 and 1975 on the mortality study area. Year Total Adults Adult Hens Production Total Young counts and Ratio Data 1974 84 241 1.00:2.87 1975 30 116 1.00 :3.87 1974 63 241 1.00 :3.83 1975 26 116 1.00:4.46 Banding Data 1974 19l 343 1.00:1. 80 1975 82 188 1.00 :2.29 1974 143 343 1.00:2.40 1975 63 188 1. 00:2.98 Hunting pressure dropped off markedly by Sunday November 23, the 5th day of season (Table 9). No significant hunting occurred thereafter. Efforts to contact hunters during the second weekend were stymied by cold winds and light snow which once more closed many of the county roads. Over half the band return kills were taken on Saturday November 22, and only one banded bird was reported taken after the first weekend of season. Hoffman (1975) reported a maximum average of two hunters per square mile during the opening Saturday of pheasant season in 1974 within the study area. Information presented in Table 9 would indicate there were less than a tenth as many hunters present during the first Saturday in 1975. Road closures and other impact of the 1975 snowstorm make it difficult to compare 1974 and 1975 hunting pressure data. In addition, access difficulties, low hunting pressure, road hunting characteristics of the majority of the hunters, and their movements in and out of the study area made it unfeasible to attempt to measure man-days of hunting within the study area. Hunter Success--Field contacted hunters, numbering 57 reported hunting roughly 201 hours and bagging 47 roosters in and near the study area. This approximated 0.82 pheasants per hunter. Hunter questionnaire data showed that 34 hunters in and near the study area made 51 hunting trips totaling 65 days and 335 hours to obtain 85 roosters. This equals 2.50 roosters per hunter for the season, and approximately one rooster bagged per four hours of hunter effort. Seven roosters were reported crippled and not retrieved approximating eight percent of the reported harvest. �-16- Table 9. Hunting pressure surveys during the 1975 pheasant season in the mortality study area. !/ Date Miles Hours Parties Hunters 11-20 55 3 2 5 11-21 76 6.5 1 2 11-22 127 7.5 7 22 11-23 131 6 3 8 11-24 30 2 o o 11-26 56 2 o o 11-27 59 3 1 1 11-29 90 4 2 6 11-30 45 3 o o Total 669 37 16 44 Miles per Hunter 1st Saturday 5.8 1st Weekend 8.6 Remainder of Season 29.4 15.2 1/ Most of the sample was obtained in the east and southeast parts of the study area and in bordering regions to the east and south. was lighter to the west and north. Hunting pressure Hunter success was better in 1975 than during the 1974 season based on Hoffman1s questionnaire summary. He found that 52 hunters killed 87 pheasants, or 1.67 roosters per hunter during the 1974 season. Approximately 4.68 hours per hunter were expended per bird bagged in 1974. Percent Banded in Harvest--Several factors make it impossible to obtain a reliable banded-unbanded ratio from which to project fall population estimates. These include: (1) high movement of birds between banding and hunting season; (2) movements of hunters into and out of the study area while road hunting; and (3) fall banding in locations outside the study area in 1975 in efforts to increase sample size. Hunter Band Return and Harvest Projection Proportional Band Recovery--Contacts of hunters in the study area and in proximal locations to the east and south were conducted during the 1975 season. These contacts yielded four regular band and four reward band recoveries from �-17fall 1975 banded roosters. This ratio of reward to regular recoveries was expected since 57 of 109 (52.3 percent) of the males contained reward bands (Table 6). In addition, one reward band from fall 1974 was collected during field contacts. Among bands subsequently mailed in by hunters from the fall 1975 trapping period, nine were reward bands and only one was a regular band. The latter was not received until several months after termination of the hunting season. One regular band from fall 1974 was received by mail in addition to the above. Twenty-eight roosters were banded in winter 1975, but no bands, reward or regular, were recovered from hunting. The above information clearly shows reporting rate bias between reward bands and regular bands mailed in by hunters. Originally, 57 reward bands were placed on roosters in fall -1975 , of which 13 (22.8 percent) were recovered. Fifty-two regular bands were placed on roosters in fall, of which only 5 (9.62 percent) were recovered. By direct proportional probability we would have expected to receive 12 regular bands rather than the 5 obtained. This represents a 41.67 percent reporting rate on regular bands. Hoffman (1975) showed a first year bias wherein only 66. 7 percent of the expected number of regular bands were obtained from hunters. The voluntary hunter reporting rate of regular bands was actually much lower than the above figures indicate for both 1974 and 1975. Many of the bands were obtained during field contacts and in 1974 some were obtained at the Fleming Check Station. Looking only at mail in results for the 1975 fall trapped birds, nine reward bands were recovered, compared to only one regular band. By direct proportional projection, eight regular bands should have been received by mail, or the mail in reporting rate was about 12.5 percent of the expected on regular bands. Hoffman (1975) reported that 19 reward bands were received by mail in 1974 in comparison to only 4 regular bands. Direct proportional projection would place the expected mail in recovery at 16 bands. In other words, the mail in recovery of regular bands in 1974 was only 25 percent of the expected. Sample sizes in both 1974 and 1975 were rather small, but they clearly point out the failure of hunters to return bands to the Division by mail unless a reward is offered. There is no reliable way of knowing whether 100 percent of the reward bands were returned, but the preceding and following projections assume that near 100 percent were recovered. If reward bands had not been placed on a portion of the roosters and field contacts had not been made, then very little information would have been recovered and there would have been no basis for projecting percent harvest or annual mortality rates. It seems certain that use of reward bands must be continued in subsequent years of study. Potentially, all roosters could receive a reward band, and if a 100 percent recovery rate is to be sustained over several years, then a monetary value of five or ten dollars should be stamped on the reward band. Continued issuance of the present reward, a wild game cookbook, or similar reward over a period of years potentially would reduce hunter incentive to submit reward bands. �-18Differential Harvest by Age--Hoffman (1975) observed a difference in harvest mortality in 1974 between adult and juvenile roosters. Juvenile males sustained a 19 percent harvest mortality, whereas adults sustained about 15 percent harvest. In 1975, harvest mortality of adults was 20.0 percent, and that of juvenile males was 23.4 percent. These 1975 data are based on reward band return sample sizes of only 2 for adults and 11 for juveniles. Inadequate sample size prevents drawing the definite conclusion that juvenile males were more vulnerable to hunting than adults, but similar trend in recovery rates by age suggest this is the case. 1975 Harvest Estimate--Thirteen reward bands were returned from the original 57 placed on roosters during the fall of 1975. Assuming all recovered reward bands were reported, this represents an estimate of 22.8 percent harvest of the original fall population. Hunters reported an 8.2 percent crippling loss in addition to the retrieved harvest. Combined crippling loss and retrieved harvest would bring the total hunting season mortality to 24.7 percent among roosters. Hoffman (1975) placed the 1974 rooster harvest at 18.5 percent of the original banded popUlation. He added a crippling loss equal to 10.3 percent of the retrieved bag, bringing the total estimate of mortality due to hunting to 20.4 percent. The 1974 season was longer than in 1975 (29.5 days versus 12 days), pheasant populations were much greater in 1974 and many more hunters were afield. The slightly higher percentage kill in 1975, if accurate, was believed due to snow stress conditions which exposed and concentrated the pheasants where they were accessible to hunters early in the season. It is doubtful that half the projected number of roosters would have been taken in 1975 if the snow condition had not accompanied the season. The higher season bag per hunter in 1975 than in 1974 (2.50 compared to 1.67) reflects the greater hunting success in 1975, even though pheasant popUlations were much lower. Natural Mortalities The storm, which deposited about 10 inches of snow on the area at the start of the 1975 pheasant season, also caused undetermined mortality. One party of hunters reported finding several dead pheasants a few miles south of the study area. Two farmers reported observing several dead pheasants while checking cattle in corn stubble fields. At another location, a farm dog reportedly brought in a couple pheasants killed by the storm. Several pheasants were reported to have been buried in a shelterbelt near Holyoke and were discovered during late winter snow melt. No bands were recovered or reported in these instances. A lone bobwhite quail was observed in late February within a study area tree planting site where November drifted snow had entombed it. Efforts to assess the impact of storm caused mortality were hampered by reoccurring light snows which drifted over otherwise exposed birds. Prior to the March blizzard, roosters had dispersed to their territories along roadways where they were readily observed as mortalities after the storm. In fall, however, they were not dispersed in this manner, so mortalities if present, �-19were more difficult to find. Birds that survived the fall snow did concentrate in weedy cover, old building sites, and other locations where they were highly visible. Searches on foot in late November and early December were not effective. Therefore, an accurate assessment of mortality could not be made, but overall mortality was not considered to exceed twenty-five percent of the existing fall population. Annual Mortality Rate Funk (1966) illustrated a method for calculating annual mortality based on only two years data. This procedure is illustrated in Table 10 and shows a 94.8 percent overall mortality rate for the 1974 fall banded rooster cohort. Both reward and regular band recoveries were used in Table 10 to increase sample size. If only reward band data were used, as in computation of percent harvest, then the annual mortality rate in Table 10 would equal 96.5 percent. However, this projection would be based on only one second year recovery. Obviously, band recovery sample sizes were too small to permit accurate prediction of annual mortality. Winter 1974-75 sex ratio counts, March blizzard mortality evaluation, crowing counts, and triangulation results all indicate that high mortality of the pheasant population did occur within the projection interval. Movement A high degree of movement was observed with average movement approximating 4.6 miles from fall trapping to harvest. The range in movement was from zero to about 19.5 miles with only a few roosters moving great distances and the majority moving less than three miles. Hoffman (1975) reported an average movement during the fall of 1974 of 4.7 miles, with a range from less than one up to twelve miles. Such movements make it impossible to project fall population levels based on banded-unbanded ratios within a four township study area. Table 10. Relative recovery method of estimating mortality roosters from the fall of 1974 to the fall of 1975. Fall Banded Number Marked 1974 233 36 1975 109 18 Harvest Recoveries First Year Second Year Annual Survival Rate Annual Mortality Rate 0.0086 0.1651 0.0086 0.1651 94. 79 percent of Recovery Rate First Year Second Year 2 5.21 percent and survival �-20LITERATURE CITED Funk, H. D. 1966. Review of duck literature relating to population dynamics, and banding analysis techniques and findings. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. Oct. p. 77-108. Hoffman, D. M. 1975. Pheasant mortality investigation. Wildl. Game Research Rept. April. p. 5-35. Prepared by Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher J Colo. Div. of �April 1976 -21JOB FINAL REPORT State of Colorado ~----~~~~~----------- Project No.__~W~-~3~7_-~R~-~2~9 Work Plan No. _ Game Bird Survey 3 Job No. Sa --------~~~~----~--------==----------------------Effects of Sagebrush Control Job Title on Distribution and Abundance of Sage Grouse Period Covered: April 1, 1963 to March 31, 1975 Personnel: Thomas Beck, Don Benson, George Bock, Clait Braun, Gary Brown, Lonnie Brown, Thomas Campbell III, Harold Carr, Don Clamp, Don Clamp, Jr., Steve Cook, Jack Corey, Courtney Crawford, David Croonquist, Mike Dorrance, Earl Downer, Marcus Elkins, John Ellenberger, Dwayne Finch, Heather Flanagan, Howard Funk, Fred Giese, Bruce Gill, Fred Glover, Don Gore, Jack Gustafson, John Hobbs, Donald Hoffman, Richard Hoffman, Norm Hughes, Richard Imler, Jim Jackson, Scott King, Edward Kochman, Russell Kozacek, Russell Mason, Terry May, Bruce McCloskey, Mike McLain, Chet McCord, Ken Miller, John Monarch, Ken Morrison, Thomas Morrow, Ron Oakleaf, Perry Olson, Sig Palm, Bruce Poley, Steve Porter, Dale Reed, Mike Robertson, Glenn Rogers, Larry Roper, Kenneth Russell, Wayne Russell, Ronald Ryder, Wayne Sandfort, Ray Schmidt, Jr., Bruce Sigler, Warren Snyder, Howard Spear, Robert Streeter, Harold Swope, Michael Szymczak, Melvin Taylor, John Wagner, Francis Waugh, Clayton Wetherill, Richard Wenger, Jerry Whitaker, and Lee Yeager. ABSTRACT Distribution and abundance of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in North Park, Colorado were studied prior to and following experimental spraying of 4,000 acres of sagebrush (Artemisia spp ,) with 2,4-D. Spraying resulted in decreases in cover and relative frequencies of sagebrush and forbs. Active strutting grounds within the original study area declined from seven to six from 1963 to 1974. Three strutting grounds were abandoned in the study period while two apparently new grounds were located. Maximum numbers of male sage grouse counted on strutting grounds in the original study area decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from when counts were initiated (1959) to 1974. Apparent value of strutting ground counts of males in unknown due to seasonal variations from 24 to 60 percent in maximum daily counts. Adult male sage grouse exhibited great fidelity to grounds where originally banded, while those banded as subadults frequently were observed in years following banding on grounds other than where initially marked. Use of long handled nets with a backpack power source was the most successful method of trapping male sage grouse. Weights of male sage grouse increased prior to the strutting period and then decreased until late May. Females gained weight until time of nes t.Lng, Block spraying of sagebrush effectively eliminated nesting by sage grouse and greatly reduced sage grouse use of treated areas. While centers of sprayed strips were avoided by sage grouse, nesting and other use of edges of sprayed strips did occur, apparently the result of low percent sagebrush kill. Roadside censuses of broods were not effective at assessing production or distribution probably because of the abundance of brood habitat in the park. Harvest was variable and was not correlated with �=22ABSTRACT (Continued) strutting ground counts or production estimates. Observed sex ratios in the harvest favored females in the older age classes and was not the result of hunter selection. Instead, sex ratios in the harvest approximated those obtained during counts conducted in winter. Harvest statistics were variable and hunter success apparently decreased over the study period. Hunter harvests of grouse had little demonstrable effect on population levels as recoveries of banded birds approximated 10 percent of those available. Distribution of grouse in winter was restricted due to snow depth, aspect, and slope. Seven important winter use areas were identified comprising less than 7 percent of the sagebrush lands in North Park. Sage grouse flocks were frequently segregated by sex with females forming larger flocks which used denser stands of sagebrush than did males. Movements of sage grouse were more extensive than expected. Consequently, sage grouse in North Park should be considered as one population. Effects of sagebrush treatment on sage grouse in the original study area and in North Park were difficult to assess as one third of the area was in hay meadows and half of the sagebrush in the remaining area had been treated. Block treatment of sagebrush was especially detrimental to sage grouse use while effects of treatment in narrow strips could not be ascertained. Treatment of sagebrush in North Park has resulted in shifts in sage grouse distribution and in apparent decreases in sage grouse numbers. If sage grouse popUlations are to stabilize in North Park no additional treatment of sagebrush must occur. " �-23RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Systematic searches for new or relocated strutting grounds should be made annually throughout North Park. Searches should be conducted from the ground in April and May. 2. All strutting grounds should be counted one-half hour before sunrise four times each spring. Two counts should be made between April 10 and 20, at least 3 days apart, with the other two counts being made between April 20 and 30 (one), and May 1 and 10 (one). Birds counted should be classified as male and female. 3. Seasonal patterns and lengths of male and female attendance on grounds should be investigated in order to develop a reliable index to spring population levels. 4. Two hundred individuals of each sex should be banded annually throughout North Park through 1977 during the March through May period to assess survival and turnover rates and population size. 5. Techniques for capturing hens and chicks need to be investigated and developed to further assess survival and turnover rates and population size. 6. Current brood routes should be discontinued. Methods should be investigated and developed for obtaining 50 or more brood sightings by August 10. Emphasis on counting broods should be placed from 11 to 13 weeks after peak hen attendance on strutting grounds. All suitable areas in North Park, especially native hay meadows, should be sampled for brood utilization. 7. Check stations should be operated annually both days of the opening weekend of the hunting season at Gould, State Line, and Willow Creek Pass to obtain estimates of juvenile, yearling and adult" age classes, sex structure of the kill and distribution of the harvest. A minimum of 500 birds should be checked annually. 8. Manipulation of season length and bag effect, if any, of changes in harvest levels. Monitoring of harvest levels permits and 100 percent questionnaire a maximum of 2,000. 9. Land management agencies should be provided with maps of sage grouse winter use areas, strutting ground locations and important brood use areas once the latter is available. The Division of Wildlife should vigorously oppose disturbance of the seven major winter use areas and all strutting grounds through habitat alteration. 10. If sagebrush is to be sprayed, only those areas where sagebrush is completely snow covered in winter should be sprayed, and then only in strips following these specifications: (1) sprayed strips should not exceed 50 yards in width or longer than two miles in length, (2) unsprayed strips should be at least 150 yards wide, (3) sprayed strips should be on slopes greater than 15 percent, and (4) percent kill of sagebrush should not exceed 60 percent. limit is desirable to learn the regulations on spring population should be through use of free sampling of all permittees up to �-24RECOMMENDATIONS (Cont.) 11. A management plan for sage grouse in North Park must consider Park as one unit. the entire 12. Emphasis should be placed on investigating the biology and behavior of female sage grouse. Since wings are easily collected at check stations, the relationship of primary feather molt and nesting success should have highest priority. 13. Investigations should be initiated into habitat improvement for sage grouse with fertilization of sagebrush communities having highest priori ty. �-25- EFFECTS ON DISTRIBUTION OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL AND ABUNDANCE OF SAGE GROUSE Clait E. Braun and Thomas D. I. Beck Sage grouse inhabit areas dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and subdominant grass types with interspersed native and cultivated hay meadows. Dependence on sagebrush for food and cover has been well documented in all seasons (Griner 1939, Patterson 1952, Dalke et ale 1963, Autenrieth 1969, Klebenow 1969, Eng and Schladweiler 1972). As ;-result of agricultural demands, livestock grazing, and encroachment of man-related developments, there has been continual alteration of sage grouse habitat. In the face of changing land use patterns, sage grouse have continued to be highly specialized in their habitat requirements and have not adapted to utilize land dominated by plants other than sagebrush. Plant species characteristics of climax communities recover slowly after natural or man-caused catastrophies (Daubenmire 1970). Therefore, these plant species are unreliable food resources where communities are frequently or massively disturbed. Intensive studies of sage grouse throughout the west have provided extensive data on many phases of their life history. Much research has been devoted to studying the requirements for successful population maintenance or to their behavior. In the early 1950's when spraying of sagebrush with 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) to kill the shrub overstory became an integral part of western range management, there was little documentation of the effects of shrub reduction on wildlife. In 1963 the Colorado Game and Fish Department (now Colorado Division of Wildlife), in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management, initiated a study in North Park, Colorado to evaluate the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on abundance and distribution of sage grouse. North Park (Jackson County) was chosen for study following a proposal in 1962 by the Bureau of Land Management to spray all BLM controlled sagebrush lands in the park. This area included one of the larger strutting ground complexes in Colorado (Rogers 1964). The study was initially confined to the northwest quarter (Lake John area) of North Park as it was believed this area contained a large number of grouse throughout the year. The area initially studied (Fig. 1) was bordered on the north by Independence Mountain, on the east by the North Platte River, on the south by the North Fork of the North Platte, and on the west by Sheep Mountain and Boettcher Ridge. This encompasses approximately 50 mi2 of sagebrush lands and 21 mi2 of associated meadows. After review of results through 1973 the decision was made in January 1974 to expand the area studied to all of North Park. P. S. OBJECTIVES To determine the effects of 2,4-D spraying of sagebrush on (1) sage grouse abundance, (2) sage grouse distribution, and (3) vegetative composition and density. �-26- N i Fig. 1. Original Lake John study area, North Park. Colorado. Areas Geli~eated by heavy black lines are those experimentally treated by spraying. �-27DESCRIPTION OF AREA North Park is the northernmost of Colorado's four large montane parks and is located immediately west of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. It lies within townships 5 to 11 north and ranges 77 to 82 west of the sixth principal meridian. North Park is completely enclosed by mountains, on the west by the Park Range, on the east by the Medicine Bow Range, on the south by the Rabbit Ears Range and on the north by Independence Mountain. The area is approximately 50 miles wide and 56 miles long (Fig. 2). North Park is relatively flat and is characterized by low undulating benches and ridges separated by the main drainages. The main streams form a meandering pattern on low alluvial flood plains up to one-half mile wide. Elevations of most sagebrush lands are between 7,870 and 8,500 ft above sea level. The principal exception is Owl Ridge-Peterson Ridge, two end-to-end ridges running northwest from Owl Mountain on the east to Delaney Butte on the west and rising 200-500 ft above the surrounding terrain. Mountains encircling the park rise steeply to elevations from 10,100 to 12,600 ft above sea level. Geology of the area has been described in numerous publications (Beekly 1915, Finch 1957, Hail 1965). Major drainage is to the north via the North Platte River. Main tributaries to the North Platte include the Roaring Fork, North Fork, Canadian, Michigan, and Illinois Rivers and Grizzly Creek. Over 721 mi2 of sage grouse habitat occur in this area as all sites not timbered are considered potentially usable by sage grouse. Of this, about 483 mi2 are dominated by sagebrush, while about 239 mi2 are irrigated meadows of native sedges and grasses. With the exception of hay meadows along watercourses, the vegetation is composed mainly of the shurb-bunchgrass type dominated by five species of sagebrush. Artemisia tridentata vaseyana occupies approximately 90 percent of the sagebrush type. Artemisia longiloba, !. cana viscidula, !. argilosa, and A. -nova are dominant on limited areas where soil conditions are favorable to these species (Beetle 1960, Smith 1966). Other important shrubs in North Park are greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatis), rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.), snakeweed (Gutierrezia spp.), willows (Salix spp.), and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Herbaceous vegetation consists primarily of low growing perennial forbs and perennial bunch grasses with few annual forbs (Appendix A). The climate of North Park is best described as cold and dry. U. S. Weather Bureau precipitation and temperature data are available from Walden (elevation 8,099 ft) in the center of the park and near Spicer (elevation 8,379 ft) at the southwest corner, where sagebrush merges with aspen (Populus tremuloides). The 30-year mean precipitation and temperature by month from 1941-1970 are shown in Table 1. No wind measurements are available but prevailing winds are from the southwest with frequent high velocities, particularly in winter and spring. Amount and distribution of precipitation are variable from year to year. Much of the snow sublimates, thus providing little moisture to the soil. Drifting is common throughout the park because of constant winds and rolling terrain. The average frost-free season in Walden is 46 days, from mid-June to early August. Growth patterns of native vegetation are highly variable due to uncertain and often extreme environmental conditions. �-28- .- 'c .~ Fig. 2. North Park, Colorado with original Lake John study area delineated by h~avy black line. �-29- Table 1. Temperature and precipitation, North Park, 1941-1970.!I Walden Mean Monthly Precipitation Temperature (In) (oF) Spicer Mean Monthly Precipitation Temperature (In) (OF) January 0.51 15.4 1.06 16.6 February 0.42 lS.l 0.94 20.2 March 0.50 23.7 1.10 25.2 April 0.72 35.3 1.25 35.3 May 1.02 44.S 1. 36 43.9 June 1.11 52.9 1.37 52.6 July 1.24 5S.7 1.22 59.0 August 1.29 56.3 1.69 57.0 September 1.01 4S.7 1.17 4S.3 October 0.71 39.1 0.91 39.4 November 0.54 26.7 1.01 27.3 December 0.54 lS.6 1.26 lS.7 Mean Annual Precipitation 9.61 Temperature Y 14.34 36.5 37.0 1/ - Data from U. S. Department of Commerce (1973). 30-year weather summary for Colorado. 2/ - Temperature data not available from Spicer for 1941-1970, data presented cover 1930-1965. �-30- METHODS AND MATERIALS Design of Sagebrush Treatment Following preliminary studies Gill (1965) recommended two patterns of sagebrush treatment, strip and block sprayin~ with treatment to be conducted in four areas. Strips to be sprayed were to be from 50 to 250 yds wid~, with 200 yd wide untreated strips between those treated. Total acreage to be sprayed in strips was 484 acres. Two areas were recommended for block spraying totaling 2,316 acres. These areas were 515 and 1,801 acres in size and were to be separated by 1,600 acres of un treated sagebrush. The remainder of the original study area was to serv~ as a control with no sagebrush treatement. Vegetation Analysis Twenty-one permanent macroplots (each 100 ft2) were established in the Lake John intensive study area with seven in each of the three height classes of sagebrush. Height classes were: less than 5 in, 5-10 in, and greater than 10 in. In 1964 all plots were in areas of no noticeable disturbance to the sagebrush. Plots were located so that four of the seven plots within each height class would be in a sprayed area following spraying in June 1965. Post-spray sampling was conducted in 1966 and 1973. Sampling techniques were patterned after Hyder et al. (1963) and a detailed description is presented by Gill (1965). Each macroplot consisted of a 100 ft baseline at right angles to the contour of the site. Four transect lines, one randomly placed to the contour of the site. Four transect lines, one randomly placed in each 25 ft segment of the baseline, were placed at right angles to the baseline. Beginning at the 2 ft marker on each transect line, sample points were located at 4 ft intervals so that there were 25 sample points per transect. A one-foot square quadrat was placed at each sample point and each plant species within the quadrat was recorded. In addition to frequency data, measurements of sagebrush crown intercept along the transect line were recorded. Density of sagebrush was determined by counting all sagebrush plants within 6 inches of the transect line, thus obtaining plants per 100 ft2. Location of Strutting Grounds In April and May, 1963, strutting grounds were located by driving roads bisecting the study area and stopping every mile to listen and look for displaying males during the period one hour before and one hour after sunrise. Surrounding terrain was scanned with 7 X 35 and 7 X 50 binoculars. In 1964 searches for strutting grounds were conducted from an airplane similar to that described by Eng (1954). Aerial transects were flown along north-south and east-west lines one-half mile apart and 100-200 it above the ground during the two hours following sunrise. Ground searches were not conducted in 1964. �-31- Searches for new or relocated grounds were not conducted in the 1965-1972 period. Aerial and ground searches were utilized again in 1973, while extensive ground searches were conducted in 1974. Searches in 1973 and 1974 were conducted throughout North Park in contrast to the 1960's when searching was limited to the Lake John area. Strutting ground locations were plotted on U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps (7.5 minute series). Strutting Ground Counts Observations of sage grouse on strutting grounds were conducted from vehicles as described by Patterson (1952) for use as an index to the number of breeding birds. Observations were made during the period 1/2 hour before sunrise to 1/2 hour after sunrise. Each strutting ground was counted at least three times during the strutting season, which usually lasted from late March to late May. Data collected were: (1) maximum number of males and females, (2) age ratio of males, and (3) observation of marked birds. The highest of the three counts was considered to be the maximum number of males attending a strutting ground. The method is based on the assumption that all males in the population regularly attend a strutting ground (Patterson 1952). In 1974 counts were made with greater frequency on the larger grounds with at least four counts conducted during the peak period of female attendance. At least eight counts were made of each selected ground during the strutting season. Counts were normally made from distances of 10-100 yds, depending on terrain, height of sagebrush, and observer preference. Occasionally, due to weather conditions (deep snow), counts were made from distances up to 1 1/2 miles (B. Poley, personal communication). This may have influenced counts on some grounds in every year and particularly at Alkali Lake in 1968. Trapping and Banding Five different trapping techniques were used during the study: (1) spotlight trapping from a vehicle, (2) spotlight trapping with a backpack power source, (3) ground-mounted cannon nets, (4) bumper-mounted cannon nets, and (5) dri ve traps. Spotlight trapping involved locating areas where sage grouse roosted at night, primarily on strutting grounds in spring. Grouse were located by scanning possible roosting areas with a hand-held spotlight. Individual sage grouse selected for capture were blinded by holding the light beam on the bird's head while a second person walked along the beam until close enough to net the bird. Initially, nets used consisted of a 39 in. diameter hoop covered with 1.5 in. mesh cotton netting on a 10 ft metal pipe. In 1974, 0.5 in. mesh nylon netting was used in an effort to reduce damage to primary feathers. In addition. hoop diameter was reduced to 28 in., with aluminum tubing being used in net construction to reduce weight, thus providing greater maneuverability. Sealed beam spotlights wired to a vehicle's 12 volt electrical system were initially used for the light source. However, best results were obtained when using an aircraft landing light (250 watt bulb) which was much brighter than sealed beam lights. Captured birds were �-32- placed in burlap bags for holding until they could be banded. A modification of this procedure was developed during the spring of 1973. Instead of using a motor vehicle electrical system for the power source, an automobile battery (12 v) fastened to a pack frame was used. This allowed greater mobility and enabled workers to search areas inaccessible to motor vehicles. When using the battery pack, tape recorded snowmobile noise was played to cover the sounds of approach. Cannon net trapping was first attempted in 1963 and subsequently used in Nylon nets of 30 x 60 ft and 35 x 75 ft were used on strutting grounds. Nets were placed near primary mating centers set to fire with the prevailing wind. Nets were projected by three cannons and detonated electrically. Use of ground-mounted cannon nets was limited to the period of peak female attendance when bird concentrations were greatest. A bumper mounted cannon net (30 x 50 ft nylon net projected by two cannons) similar to that described by Lacher and Lacher (1964) was used in 1965, 1968, and 1969. This method was used in spring on strutting grounds and in summer on brood areas. 1965 and 1974. Drive traps were used during the summers of 1963 and 1965 in attempts to capture sage grouse chicks. Traps consisted of a 3.5 x 8 ft catch pen of variable depth covered with 0.25 in. nylon mesh and two 150 ft wings of 3 ft tall wire deployed from the catch pen in a wide V. Drive traps were placed to intersect travel routes to and from meadows. All birds captured were banded with aluminum serially numbered size 16 (males) and 14 (females) leg bands. In addition, unnumbered colored aluminum leg bands coded to capture location were placed on birds in 1963 and 1964. Colored, numbered plastic bandettes were placed on all birds captured in 1965-1969 while colored~ unnumbered plastic bandettes were used in 1973 and 1974. The following marking methods were also used in some years: back-tag harness (Labinski and Mann 1962) 1963; jesse-knot neck collar (Craighead and Stocks tad 1956), 1963; poncho tags (Pyrah 1970), 1964-66 and 1974; dyeing with picric acid solution, 1963; plastic patagial streamers, 1966-67; and metal patagium tags for chicks, 1968-69. Very high frequency (mIF) radio transmitters (Markus en brand) were placed on three hens and one cock in 1965, four cocks and one hen in 1966. 10 hens in 1968, and 24 hens in 1969. The transmitter harness was patterned after that described by Marshall (1963) in 1965 and 1966 and after Brander (1968) in 1968 and 1969. Age and Sex Determination Ages of males observed on strutting grounds were estimated using two methods. Patterson's (1952) method, based on the width of the white band on the breast, was utilized in 1964. 1965 and 1966. The accuracy of this method was questioned by Dalke et ala (1963) on the basis that plumage differences between adults and yearlings were not significant in years when the preceding nesting season was relatively early. Use of this method was discontinued after 1966. In 1974 aging of males was based on the shape and length of �-33- rectrices as adults characteristically have longer and more pointed rectrices than yearlings (Lumsden 1968, Wiley 1973). Since Dalke et ale (1963) also questioned the accuracy of this technique, all males captured in 1974 were examined to test if aging by rectrices corresponded to the accepted technique based on appearance of the outer primaries (Eng 1955). All sage grouse captured in spring were classed as adults or yearlings based on primary wear (Eng 1955). This method is based on the retention of the outer two primaries by juvenile birds until 15-16 months of age. Those juvenile feathers are more pointed and frequently more frayed than adult feathers. Sage grouse wings collected during fall hunting seasons of 1963-73 were used to estimate age and sex of harvested birds using the key developed by Crunden (1963). This method differentiates two age classes, juvenile and adult. In 1974 Eng's (1955) method was utilized allowing differentiation of three age classes; juvenile, yearling, and adult. Sex classification was based on primary lengths. Age (in weeks) and sex of juvenile birds were determined by primary length (Pyrah 1963). Suitable methodology for age and sex classification of sage grouse wings to obtain maximum information have been summarized by Beck et ala (1975). Nest Searches Forty-one la-acre nest search plots were established in 1964 (Gill 1965). These plots were located at section and quarter-section corners, with one plot established in each section of brushland in the Lake John intensive study area. Two persons systematically searched each plot in 1964 in a grid fashion, maintaining a l4-ft distance between themselves. In 1965, 60, 5-acre plots were established; 27 in sprayed areas and 33 in unsprayed areas (Carr 1967). All plots selected in 1965 were within 1.25 mi of a strutting ground, with 12 within 0.25 mi. Systematic searches of these plots were conducted in 1965, 1966, and 1973. In 1968 and 1969 some hens fitted with VHF radio transmitters were followed to their nests. A few nests were found incidental to other activities. Upon locating nests, the following data were recorded: (I} age of nest (nest of year or previous years), (2) clutch size, (3) fate of eggs, and (4) vegetative cover in nest area. Brood Census Post-breeding season distribution and production estimates were investigated in 1963 by classifying all birds by sex and age that were observed while systematically traversing all major roads in the Lake John area. Upon sighting a hen with chicks~ observers attempted to flush the brood to obtain complete counts. Based on the 1963 sampling, five trend routes (21.3, 22.8, l5~7, 26.6, and 19.6 mi long) were established to provide a systematic method for deriving production estimates. Four routes sampled native hay meadows and adjoining brushland, while the fifth sampled upland sagebrush areas. Each route was sampled once each week during July and August of 1964, 1965, and 1966. Data �-34obtained were: broods per mile, mean brood size, and percent of hens with broods. All sage grouse observed were classified to age and sex when possible. In 1968 and 1969 broods observed while following radio equipped hens were recorded but established transects were not counted. In 1973 and 1974 observers searched widely scattered meadows throughout North Park in an attempt to observe greater numbers of broods. Three of the five established routes were inaccessible in 1973 because of problems with landowners. Summer distribution was inferred from sightings of sage grouse along established routes as well as all sightings made during other field work. Hunter Check Stations During the period studied, the sage grouse hunting season opened on the second Saturday of September, season length varied from one to three days, with daily bag and possession limits of two and four. From 1963 through 1973 check stations designed to sample hunters from the Lake John area were operated on the first two days of the season at Cowdrey and Walden. In 1974, four stations were operated on the opening weekend to sample hunters from throughout North Park. Stations were located at the state line on Colorado 125, Gould, Muddy Pass, and Willow Creek Pass. Data obtained each year were: county of hunter origin, number of hunters, hours hunted, birds bagged, number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained. One wing was obtained from each bird that was checked except from birds which were completely dressed. Hunter Questionnaire Survey All North Park sage grouse hunters in 1974 were required to obtain and have in their possession while hunting a free special permit. Purpose of the permit was to provide a method for sampling hunters through questionnaires to obtain accurate estimates of hunter numbers and total harvest. Permits unlimited in number were available at all license agents in North Park, the Fort Collins and Denver offices of the Division of Wildlife, and all Wildlife Conservation Officers and research personnel working in North Park. All permit holders were mailed a questionnaire within five days after the season closed. Follow-up questionnaires were sent to non-respondents four weeks after the initial mailing. Winter Distribution Aerial flights of the Lake John study area were conducted in February and March, 1965, and January, February, and March, 1966; with one flight each month (Carr 1967). Reports from Wildlife Conservation Officers were used to summarize the distribution of sage grouse in the remainder of North Park during the 1963-66 period. Extensive studies of sage grouse winter ecology were conducted from 8 January to 8 March 1974 and 24 December 1974 to 1 March 1975 (Beck 1975). Distribution of wintering sage grouse in North Park was �-35investigated by searching all sagebrush lands with all probable use areas searched equally. An area was considered potentially usable if any sagebrush was visible above the snow. Limited searches were also made in areas not considered usable. Areas inaccessible by four-wheel drive vehicle were searched from snowmobile or snowshoes. Aerial search (with two observers) along random transects (covering 10 percent of the total area in the park) were conducted on 21-22 February and 18 March 1974. Data on grouse flocks observed from the air were used in mapping distribution but were disregarded when analyzing flock sizes because of inaccuracies involved in counting flying grouse. Once grouse were located from the ground they were first observed through 7 X 50 binoculars to obtain a total count and to determine sex composition. Attempts to observe colored leg bands were made through 15-60 variable power scopes. Written records were kept on both grouse observations and grouse sign (tracks, droppings, roosts). Observations reported by reliable observers were followed by intensive searches of reported locations within one day of the initial sighting. All locations were plotted on U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps (7.5 minute series). A flock was considered to be any group (two or more) of birds proximity to each other. Sage grouse are sexually dimorphic, sex of birds to be visually determined up to 200 yds. Flocks greater than 50 percent of one sex were referred to as female depending upon which sex predominated. in close thus allowing comprised of or male flocks, The following physical and vegetal characteristics of each site where birds were observed were recorded: aspect, slope, snow depth and condition, sagebrush density, crown breadth, and height of sagebrush above snow. Slope and aspect were measured with an Abney level and compass, respectively. Snow condition was rated as crusted, powder, or melting. Sagebrush density was measured as number of plants per circular 0.01 ac. plot. Crown breadth was calculated as the mean of 10 representative shrubs arbitrarily chosen by the observer from within the plot •. Height of sagebrush above snow was calculated as the mean of three shrubs within the plot which the observer chose as being representative of shrub height within the utilized area. The following weather conditions were recorded at each site: wind direction, temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation. Movements Data on movements of sage grouse from banding sites, primarily strutting grounds, were available from observations of color marked birds, band recoveries, recaptures, and radio tracking. Movements of radio equipped birds were monitored using a Markusen l2-channel VHF receiver with hand-held and truck-mounted antennas. Recoveries and reobservations of banded birds were plotted on U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps (7.5 minute series). Airline distances were then calculated for all recoveries and reobservations, thus all movements represent minimum distances travelled. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sagebrush Treatment The ELM contracted to have 4,000 acres of sagebrush lands in the Lake John area aerially sprayed with 2,4-D. Rate of application was two pounds of �-36iso-octyl ester of 2,4-D in 4.67 gallons of water per acre. Spraying was accomplished during 2-5 June 1965 and followed the recommendations of Gill (1965). Two basic patterns of spraying were conducted, block and strip, with two modifications of each. The two block spray areas were about 515 .and 1,801 acres in size, with an intervening block of approximately 1,600 acres of undisturbed sagebrush. The largest strip spray area bordered the block sprays on the west and encompassed about 1,180 acres. The sprayed strips were 50 yds wide and aligned in an east-west direction with intervening 200 yd wide strips of undisturbed sagebrush. The smaller strip sprayed area, 484 acres, was sprayed so that strips of varying width with intervening 200 yd wide control strips occurred. Seventeen strips were sprayed: four 50 yards wide, four 100 yards wide, four 150 yards wide, three 200 yards wide, and two 250 yards wide. Vegetation Analysis Vegetation of the 21 permanent macroplots established in 1964 was described in 1965, 1966 and 1973 (Tables 2 and 3). During pre-spray plot selection and description of vegetation, none of the areas sampled appeared to be altered. It is apparent from Table 2 that sagebrush and forb frequencies were reduced following spraying with reductions continuing to 1973. As expected, frequencies of grasses increased in all three sagebrush types treated. Sagebrush crown intercept (Table 3) decreased in all height classes following spraying and was still low in 1973. However, there was a marked increase in crown intercept of seedling and young sagebrush in 1973 over 1965 and 1966. This indicates that the sagebrush in sprayed areas is in a recuperative stage. It would appear that percentages of sagebrush killed in strip sprayed areas were poor, while kill was excellent in the block spray areas. However, this could not be adequately tested as 100 ft2 plots in sprayed strips frequently were at the edge of the strip where spray application was not uniform. Sagebrush kill did appear to be highest and similar to that in block sprayed areas in the center of the strips. Thus, kill of sagebrush within strips was a continuum with gradual but definite changes from the outer edges to the center. Observed decreases in sagebrush and forb frequency and crown intercept of sagebrush are important in terms of sage grouse use of sprayed areas. Due to sampling and plant identification problems, data were not available on forb frequency by species for all years. It has been well documented that total forb cover is not as important to sage grouse as cover of highly preferred forb species (Klebenow and Gray 1968, Autenrieth 1970, Martin 1970, Peterson 1970). Decreases in preferred forbs along with decreases in sagebrush frequency and cover are undoubtedly involved in the marked reduction in sage grouse use of the treated areas. It is important to note that statistical analyses of the vegetation data could not be conducted. This was the result of inadequate sampling, failure to meet treatment guidelines which caused some plots to be useless (one plot had to be moved as 65-9 became 66-A), improper placement of plots into height classes (four plots were discarded due to improper height class placement in 1965 and 1966), and lack of consistency in classifying some forbs, shrubs �-37- Table 2. Relative frequencies of vegetation in sprayed and control plots, North Park. Relative Freguency (%) Growth Form <5 in. 5-10 in. > 10 in. Year and Treatment Forbs Grasses Sagebrush Other Shrubs 1965 Control 48.8 33.7 8.9 8.6 1966 Control 49.8 33.4 7.1 9.6 1966 Sprayed 43.2 43.3 2.6 6.2 1973 Control 42.4 32.3 12.9 12.0 1973 Sprayed 35.3 43.0 9.6 12.0 1965 Control 41.8 35.9 10.2 12.1 1966 Control 46.9 33.2 9.6 9.9 1966 Sprayed 36.8 49.0 4.5 9.8 1973 Control 36.1 33.9 14.7 15.1 1973 Sprayed 31.0 46.8 9.3 12.8 1965 Control 39.9 48.3 11.4 1.3 1966 Control 28.8 51.6 16.4 3.2 1966 Sprayed 26.9 59.9 10.1 3.1 1973 Control 23.4 51.6 18.2 6.7 1973 Sprayed 19.2 53.3 14.5 12.9 �-38Table 3. Sagebrush Growth Form <5 in. 5-10 in. >10 in. 11 ND No data. intercept in sprayed and control plots, North Park. Year and Treatment Length (ft.) InterceEted/lOO sg. ft. Seedling-Young Mature-Decadent Dead 1965 Control 0 10.9 0.3 1966 Control 0 10.3 0.8 1966 Spray 0 3.9 6.4 1973 Control 0 8.0 ND .!.I 1973 Spray 0.3 3.8 ND .!./ 1965 Control 0 14.0 0.5 1966 Control 0.1 15.1 1.2 1966 Spray 0 6.5 10.9 1973 Control 0.3 7.4 ND .!.I 1973 Spray 0.6 4.2 ND 1:/ 1965 Control 0.9 34.8 3.9 1966 Control 0 40.5 5.1 1966 Spray 0.1 13.8 23.9 1973 Control 0.3 13.7 ND1/ 1973 Spray 1.6 7.7 ND1/ �-39- (Guterrezia spp.) and treatment type. Most of these problems resulted from changes in personnel as no single individual was responsible for the project throughout its duration. While these problems prevent detailed statistical analyses of the vegetation data, it is quite clear that spraying of sagebrush communities resulted in changes in species composition and cover. These obvious changes in vegetative composition caused marked changes in sage grouse distribution and use within the treated areas. Distribution of Strutting Grounds Eighteen known strutting grounds were active in North Park in 1963 of which seven were located in the Lake John area. Rogers (1964) reported 12 active strutting grounds in the Lake John area in 1957-59. None of the five inactive grounds had been active during the 4 to 6 years prior to 1963 and it is possible that these grounds were only temporarily used. It is possible that location of these grounds shifted and were not detected. Gill (1965) reported that the location of strutting ground No. 11 (Boettcher Flats) moved from 1963 to 1964. Counts in 1963 were made at the original location, while those in 1964 were from the new location. No birds were counted on either of these sites in 1965 or after 1970 (Table 4). It is probable that this ground moved and has not been relocated by observers. Nineteen strutting grounds (Appendix B) were known to be active in North Park in 1974, six of which were in the original study area (Fig. 3). However, only four of the seven grounds used in 1963 in this area were still in use. The two previously unknown grounds within the original study area were located in 1973. One additional ground was located in the northwest quarter of North Park in 1973, about 4 miles east of the southeast corner of the original study area. In 1974 searches in the north half of North Park resulted in two grounds being located. One was 4 miles east of the Lake John study area and less than 2 miles north of the new ground located in 1973. The second ground was approximately 3 miles southeast of Cowdrey, roughly 7 miles east of the original study area. While number of known active strutting grounds in North Park remained constant from 1963 to 1974, location of grounds used changed. It is unfortunate that total numbers of grounds used in a given year within North Park are not definitely known. It would be ideal if, as locations of grounds change or new grounds are established, these grounds would be immediately located, However, this does not appear to be possible. Because of the problems with location of all active strutting grounds, it is difficult to relate numbers of strutting grounds in an area to vegetation disturbance. Considering only the original Lake John study area, number of known active strutting grounds decreased from seven to six from 1963 to 1974, with three being abandoned, while two new grounds were located. It is probable that abandonment of the three grounds was related to sagebrush treatment in the area. It is also probable that new grounds formed due to changes in sage grouse distribution caused by spraying. �-40- Fig. 3. Location of strutting grounds in North Park active in 1975. Includes one grolli~dlocated in May 1975, and one which was active all years from 1960-75 except 1974. �-41- The existence of strutting grounds, formerly unknown, in surrounding areas underlines a weakness of the original study area designation. Even though strutting grounds ceased to be active or decreased in number of birds attending during the study, interpretation of changes is hampered by not knowing when adjacent, new grounds first supported birds or if there are other grounds currently in existence. Quite possibly the new grounds represent relocations of old grounds or distributional shifts in response to changing land use. Considering all of North Park, the number of known active strutting grounds was greater (by one ground) in 1974 than in any previous year of the study. However, searching intensity in areas other than Lake John was greater in 1974 than in other years. The shift in strutting ground locations documented in North Park indicates that although some strutting grounds are used for long periods (Patterson 1952), a strutting ground site cannot be considered to be permanent. Thus, sampling procedures for spring breeding population numbers must acknowledge that strutting ground complexes are dynamic and should incorporate procedures to search for unknown grounds every year. Existence of strutting grounds of any size and thus one or more mating sites per ground may be more important in population maintenance than number of males on a given ground. Breeding Activities Strutting Ground Attendance Counts of the number of males on all known strutting grounds were made from 1963 through 1974 and were available for a few grounds from 1959-1963. The highest count on a ground was considered the maximum number of males attending the ground and thus, an index to the breeding population. Trends in numbers of males counted in North Park are presented in Fig. 4, while actual counts for each strutting ground are presented in Table 4. It is readily apparent that maximum counts of male sage grouse on strutting grounds fluctuated from 1963 (and earlier) to 1974. Considering only counts of males on strutting grounds on the original study area, sage grouse numbers decreased from 372 in 1959 to 177 in 1973. This decrease is significant (P < 0.05). Counts were high in the 1959-1964 period (range 337 to 446), low in 1965 (166), moderately high in 1967-1971 (range 261 to 326) and low in 1974(177). The low number in 1965 occurred prior to any spraying in the study area. Initial inspection of all available data suggest that the decrease in 1965 was real and not due to observer inefficiency (R. B. Gill personal comm.). Check station data for 1964 indicate that 41 percent of the fall harvest was comprised of juveniles. Thus production in 1964 was lower than in 1963, assuming juvenile vulnerability did not change. However, production was not low enough to be responsible alone for the observed decrease in spring counts in 1965. It is doubtful then, that the apparent decrease in 1965 was real. The Monahan Draw strutting ground was located within the large block spray area. Numbers of males counted on this ground remained stable from 1965 to 1971 (range 52 to 81 in 1965 and 1971, respectively), significantly (P < 0.05) decreased in 1972 (from 81 in 1971 to 10 in 1972) and remained low in 1973 and 1974 (11 and 3, respectively). This area was sprayed in 1965 and a �Table 4. Maximum number of males on strutting grounds, North Park, 1959-1974. Strutting Ground 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Alkali Lake 1./ 214 130 96 219 216 120 53 48 63 57 82 66 88 96 81 72 Boettcher Lake Jct. 1/ 146 167 109 71 85 99 52 85 68 71 107 97 96 62 59 46 0 12 50 5 11 7 0 9 24 12 5 4 0 0 0 0 Boettcher Flats 1/ Canuck 29 Coalmont 10 6 17 9 23 17 6 10 11 15 17 62 46 57 47 27 Cowdrey In 1./ 1 43 4 0 19 25 9 14 10 11 8 8 10 0 0 0 Cowdrey 112 1/ 0 10 5 7 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cowdrey #3 1./ 6 5 0 0 1 0 0 3 9 2 6 7 5 0 0 0 Cowdrey 114 ]) - 14 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 19 I I Cowdrey #5 1./ Deer Creek 23 35 0 71 65 58 12 83 - 84 63 53 44 39 37 11 Delaney Butte 7 13 25 23 12 14 3 5 11 0 0 9 22 9 4 13 75 52 52 69 - - - 66 57 53 67 62 Fish Hatchery +' I-.) Hound ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69 �Table 4. Maximum number of males on strutting grounds, North Park, 1959-1974 (continued). Strutting Ground 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Lost Cr. ill 57 39 58 98 137 53 60 58 71 75 68 25 33 13 0 Los t Cr. tI2 54 54 56 51 63 44 24 37 48 24 31 15 19 10 1 14 12 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lake John 112 1./ 17 77 28 15 13 4 8 2 2 15 16 21 0 0 0 Monahan Draw 1./ 19 2 52 22 58 52 64 74 53 80 57 81 10 11 3 184 52 129 120 108 71 45 36 44 71 127 76 64 36 33 1/ Lake John III - Ridge Road 7 162 10 Roth I 12 Riley 1./ 15 i 19 30 36 31 39 26 21 - 27 53 49 35 24 46 33 Spring Cr. 112 25 38 55 60 61 24 46 - 74 163 69 39 34 39 15 Spring Cr. #3 18 0 0 1 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Spring Cr. #4 14 38 12 16 13 5 15 - 16 0 23 15 21 9 10 Spring Cr. III 47 1/ Wat tenberg III - 0 0 7 5 3 5 0 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1/ Wattenberg 112 - 0 5 1 8 7 22 0 3 7 52 36 19 25 4 24 22 38 37 Walden 1/ t; Located in original Lake John study area. �0 0 0 , en 0 0 Fig. 4. Maximum 1959-1975. eo 0 0 0 0 ~ 0::0 WW z m~ :::J::> z8 ::>w ~oo :2!=' -ct )(~ <(LL 0 I 10 , 0 0 .q 10 I'~ rt) f"- I'- (.\J I'f"- 0 en W s 1'-0::: (0)- <.O<t <.OW <.0 U) ""CD r6 (\f W <D 0 <.0 m grounds in North Park, 0 0 0 0 <D numbers of males on strutting �-45- decrease was anticipated in 1966 or 1967. The decrease did not occur until 1972, long after most of the sagebrush in the area had been killed. Reasons for the delay are not clear, nor is it known if the decrease was related to spraying of sagebrush. However, it would appear that a cause and effect relationship does exist between sagebrush spraying and the overall decrease in numbers of males counted in the original study area. Strutting Ground Count Analyses Although counts of strutting males have long been used as an estimate of yearly populations, scientific effort has not been directed toward evaluating the precision and accuracy of each count. Analyses of the methods used in this study may explain some of the fluctuations evident in Table 4 and Fig. 4. Personnel changes were frequent throughout the study, and little uniformity in observation methodology was maintained. Observations were at times made from distances of 0.25 to 1.0 mi distant. Counts made from farther than 100 yds are highly questionable because of inability to see all birds well enough to distinguish between sexes. This would inflate male counts if large numbers of females were present. Another problem was the lack of uniformity in spacing counts throughout the strutting season. Frequently, all three required counts would be made on an easily accessible ground during early April, whereas, the earliest count on a ground which was temporarily inaccessible or snowbound would not be accomplished until midMay. If the pattern of male attendance was constant, this would pose no problem. However, male attendance patterns, though highly variable from day to day, follow a general trend (Stanton 1958, Patterson 1952, Eng 1963). During late March and early April adult males predominate on strutting grounds. Hens come to grounds from 1 April to 21 May, but peak numbers usually occur in a 7 to 10 day period sometime during 7-25 April. High numbers of adult males coincide with peak numbers of females. Shortly after hen numbers are highest, yearling males appear in large numbers and maximum male counts are obtained at this time (Eng 1963). Adult male numbers steadily decline following peak hen attendance (Fig. 5). Thus, it is conceivable that a series of early or late counts would miss the peak of male attendance. Further complications result from methods of reporting counts, primarily during the 1959-62 period. During these years, accurate distinction was not made between counts of males and total birds, the latter which included females. Most counts of females prior to 1974 were incidental to male counts and thus are incomplete for analysis as a population index. In 1974 greater effort was expended during the peak of hen attendance to obtain accurate male counts as adult male attendance is supposedly most stable during this period (Patterson 1952). Five grounds in the northern half of the park were counted from four to seven times during the 9-day period of peak hen attendance (Table 5). Had males on each ground been counted on the peak day during the week of maximum hen attendance. the difference from the seasonal maximum of males would only have been 3.4 percent (246 vs 238). However, had counts coincided with minimum male counts during the peak of hen attendance, the difference from the seasonal maximum would have been 26.9 percent. Variation during the 9-day period when numbers are considered most stable was 24.3 percent. These are minimum values as lower and/or higher numbers of birds could have been present on days not counted. In reality, observers seldom obtain one count on each ground during the period of peak hen attendance as one person often has responsibility for counting 7 to 10 �-46- ADULT MALES SUBADULT MALES FEMALES 240 .......... ----- 220 200 180 160 o NUMBERS .. .. \ \ . \ : \~O OF BIRDS o. t :\ :q . \ \ \ ~ MAR. MAY JUNE Fig. 5. Sage grouse attendance on all Lake John area strutting grounds combined, 1963. Strutting ground attendance patterns in 1963 were typical, but chronologically 2 weeks earlier than in most years (from Gill 1965). �Table 5. Variation in male numbers attending selected strutting grounds during April and May, 1974. Strutting Ground Max. Male Count Third Lowest l/Max. Male Count in Hen Peak Week Count Possible Seasonal Variation Percent - (2) (1) Min. Male Count (1) in Hen Peak Week Possible Peak Week Variation Percent (3) - (4) (3) Alkali Lake 72 33 69 48 54.2 36.4 Boettcher Lake Jct. 46 19 44 42 58.7 4.5 Hound l:..l 69 59 69 57 14.5 17.4 Walden 37 19 37 19 48.6 48.6 I .j::'- Wattenberg /12 22 14 19 14 36.4 26.3 Totals 246 144 238 180 41. 5 24.3 1/ Theoretically this count could represent the maximum male count for the year if only three counts were made. ]) Ground first located during peak week of hen attendance, thus no counts during first 4 weeks of activity. '-I I �-48- grounds. Also, hen attendance is surprisingly synchronous throughout North Park. Considering the spread in counting dates during the two month mating season, variation in numbers of males from 35 to 60 percent (Table 5) can be attributable to daily male attendance patterns. The low variation documented for the Hound strutting ground is likely due to all counts being made during or shortly after « 8 days) the week of peak female attendance. Since 1959 fluctuations between years in total male counts have exceeded 35 percent 6 of the 16 years possible and exceeded 60 percent twice. It is questionable if counts of strutting males can indicate changes in sage grouse populations due to the high degree of variation in daily attendance. Therefore, while numbers of males counted in North Park have decreased, and by association, the entire population has decreased, the reliability of using strutting male counts to document increases or decreases in population size is unknown. It is not known whether or not the apparent decrease was real. Although male sage grouse have been intensively studied during the breeding season throughout their range, little is known of attendance patterns of individual males. Hartzler (1972) documented 50+ days of consecutive attendance on a strutting ground by three individually marked male sage grouse. All of these males were on central territories and two occupied primary mating spots. No data on the regularity of attendance of surrounding males were presented although this segment of the male population contributes most to total counts of males. In recent years intensive studies of other grouse species have concentrated on the apparent non-breeding segment of the male population. Non-displaying males have been documented for other lek grouse; black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) (Robel 1969) and sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus) (Rippin and Boag 1974). It is possible that variation between years in counts of male sage grouse on strutting grounds in North Park could have reflected real population fluctuations (Fig. 4). However, considering all variables involved, it is also probable that all changes in male counts were not caused by population fluctuation alone. Patterson (1952) suggested that all males in a population regularly visit strutting grounds. Until data are available to support or reject this hypothesis, counts of strutting males should be closely examined to ascertain when counts were made in relation to period of peak hen attendance on grounds. It is presently doubtful that two or three counts of males per ground per breeding season have any management implications. Movements Between Strutting Grounds Recaptures and observations of 228 marked male sage grouse indicated that most (193 of 228, 84.6 percent) exhibited high fidelity to the ground where originally trapped (Table 6). Thirty-five males were known to have changed grounds between or within years with most (77.1 percent) inter-ground movements occurring between years. If observations and recaptures of marked birds within initial year of banding are excluded, then 27 of 101 (26.7 percent) marked birds changed strutting grounds in years after their initial capture. The remainder (73.3 percent) did not change grounds between years. While sample sizes are small, adults exhibited greater fidelity to initial banding location than did subadults. �-49- Table 6. Pooled grounds. 1../ observations and recaptures of marked males on strutting Number Observed on Different Ground on Which Banded in Year x+4 x+3 x+l x+2 x Age Number Observed on Same Ground on Which Banded in Year x+4 x+l x+2 x+3 x Adult 18 19 2 0 2 5 2 0 0 0 Subadu1t 5 6 1 0 1 3 7 3 1 0 Unknown 96 43 0 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 1/ Undoubtedly not individually some individuals were observed color marked, identification more than once. Since birds were of individuals was not possible. Inter-ground movements documented in North Park emphasize the importance of locating and counting all strutting grounds in an area. Decrease in attendance on one ground may be a result of inter-ground movements between years. Such a decrease may be compensated by increases on neighboring grounds. Interground movements within North Park could not be related to sagebrush treatment within the original study area. Unfortunately, few, if any, of the males on the Monahan Draw strutting ground were marked prior to the decrease in 1972. Whether the males from this ground were absorbed into existing grounds or established a new ground is unknown. Trapping Numbers Captured and Banding and Banded Trapping efforts were not uniform in all years of the study. Numbers of birds banded by year, age and sex are presented in Table 7. About 73 percent (72.7) of the birds banded for which sex was ascertained were males even though Beck (1975) estimated that males comprised only 40 percent of the spring population. This disparity was the result of greater vulnerability of males to capture because of their tendency to roost at night on strutting grounds throughout the 7 to 9 week strutting period. Relatively few females roosted on strutting grounds at night during the brief 7 to 10 day period that large numbers of hens were present in early morning hours. In addition, males were more noticeable at night because of larger size and consipicuousness of their white breast feathers. Most females caught in 1969 and 1974 were captured with cannon nets placed near primary mating spots on strutting grounds. Over half of the females caught in 1973 were spotlighted at night in areas where birds were concentrated by late spring snows prior to strutting grounds becoming snow-free. Weather conditions as experienced in 1973 appear to be unusual and methods need to be developed to capture females which are not dependent upon unusual weather conditions. �Table 7. Numbers of sage grouse banded in North Park, 1963-1974.!1 Year Adult Males 1963 44 1964 Subadult Males Adult Females Subadu1t Females Chicks Total 11 5 3 0 63 47 22 4 9 0 82 1965 41 15 9 3 0 68 1966 6 10 6 3 8 33 1967 50 27 7 5 0 89 1968 40 21 11 6 7 85 1969 22 19 13 20 1 75 1970-72 0 0 0 0 0 0 1973 89 80 54 41 0 2871.1 1974 89 54 29 20 0 192 Totals 428 259 138 110 16 974 I VI 0 I II - Grouse banded but removed from the population by project personnel prior to the hunting season in year of banding are not included. 21 Includes 9 males and 14 females of unknown age. �-51- Age ratios of males captured were undoubtedly not representative of the male segment of the population because of differences in behavior and seasonal attendance on strutting grounds. Adult males appeared to be more wary than yearling males, but this was a subjective evaluation. The preponderance of adults early in the strutting season and of subadults during the last three weeks can noticeably affect the age composition of captured birds, depending on when samples were obtained. Capture efforts were not continuous throughout the strutting season during 1963-69. In most years there was more effort early in the strutting season, probably resulting in more adult than yearling males being captured. Also, if adult males attend grounds more regularly than yearlings, the result might be a disproportionate percentage of adults being captured. Analysis of Capture Techniques Over 90 percent of all sage grouse were captured by spotlighting and netting. The use of the battery pack with hand-held nets in 1973 and 1974 greatly increased efficiency of trapping crews and was the most successful method employed. Drive nets for trapping broods were unsuccessful in North Park, probably due to few known summer concentrations of hens with broods. Since there is one acre of irrigated hay meadow for every two acres of sagebrush in North Park, and since hay meadows are well distributed, the probability of concentrations of grouse in one area is not high. Use of cannon nets on strutting grounds was partially successful. However, activity sites frequently changed once nets were in place. This problem may be reduced by placing nets near primary mating spots prior to any strutting activities. Primary mating spots occasionally shifted, but the apparent high degree of permanence of these sites may allow early placement of nets to habituate birds to their presence. The major deficiency in trapping techniques was the inability to capture hens and chicks in representative numbers. Analysis of Techniques for Age and Sex Determination Analysis of the rectrix shape method of aging indicated a high degree of accuracy. Using primary shape and wear as the standard, only 3 of 143 males (2.1 percent) captured in 1974 were placed in the wrong age class based on shape of rectrices. Each of the three birds erroneously aged (classified as juveniles) by rectrix shape were adults, based on primary appearance. Although highly accurate with birds in hand, accuracy probably declined when aging free ranging males at distances of 10 to 40 yds. Attempts to age all males on strutting grounds by retrix shape were unsuccessful, because of the great amount of movement and change of position. However, the method was useful for aging specific males at distances less than 40 yds. Use of width of white band on the breast of males as an age criterion was discontinued after 1966. This technique appeared to be accurate only when the preceding year's hatch was early, but accuracy between years was not consistent. Use of Crunden's (1963) method for age and sex classification of wings collected during the hunting season was discontinued in 1974 because it did not distinguish between yearlings and adults, thus available data were �-52- not fully utilized. Eng's (1955) method based on primary wear was used in 1974. For comparative purposes, wings from 40 juveniles sexed by gonadal inspection were collected from hunters in 1974 and lengths of primaries were recorded. Measurements of these 23 males and 17 females fit within Eng's (1955) limits. Wings of yearling and adult birds can be accurately classified to sex by size (subjective) and use of primary measurements (objective). Aging and sexing techniques resulting from the 1974 analysis and review of literature were summarized by Beck et al. (1975). Analysis of Sage Grouse Weights Weights of sage grouse captured were taken in most years (Table 8). While sample sizes were variable between years, differences were slight and data from all years were pooled. In general, weights of males increased immediately prior to initiation of strutting followed by gradual decline through April and May. Yearling males weighed less than adults, but gained weight until early May with weights declining in late May. This pattern closely follows attendance of yearling males on strutting grounds (Fig. 5). Females typically gained weight until early May with weights of yearling females lagging behind those of adults. Weight gains by females in spring were related to preparation of the reproductive organs for egg laying and deposition. While differences in changes of weights were not significant (P> 0.05) for the pooled samples, declines in weight for both age classes of males in 1974 were significant (p < 0.05) for each two-week period. The importance of weight declines through spring may be manifest in higher mortality for males showing the greatest weight loss. Stress of strutting, coupled with weight loss, may result in the lower survival of males as indicated by the unhalanced sex ratio in the harvest reported in this study and in winter (Beck 1975). Due to inadequate samples, weight differences between birds trapped in the original study area and elsewhere in North Park could not be tested. Effects of sagebrush treatment on weights of sage grouse are unknown. Reproduction Nest Densities Nest densities were estimated from searches of 10 (1964) or 5-acre (1965, 1966, 1973) plots. Results are presented in Table 9. Due to inconsistencies in sampling and reporting, analyses are limited. Data from 1965, 1966 and 1973 are not comparable to those collected in 1964 as no attempt was made in the 1965-1973 period to sample all potential nesting habitat. Densities of nests found in 1964 and 1965 (Table 9) were high and probably were not representative of all sagebrush areas in North Park. It is unclear why more nests were found in sprayed than unsprayed areas in 1966. Much of the sagebrush was dead in the sprayed areas, but cover was considered good as little deterioration of the brush was noted. While this may have influenced nest site selection, due to small samples) apparent differences could �Table Mean weights 8. of captured sage grouse by time period, North Park, all years Females Males 1- 2+ combined (grams). Chicks Unclassified Sex Time Period 1- 2+ January 15-31 2554 ( 2) February 1-14 - 2724 ( 1) - 1419 ( 1) February 15-28 2298 ( 4) 2724 ( 3) 1291 ( 4) 1419 ( 5) March 1-14 2610 ( 1) 3008 ( 1) 1816 ( 1) March 15-31 2426 ( 4) 3284 ( 8) - 1532 ( 1) April 1-14 2936 (25) 3231 ( 81) 1507 (38) 1723 (45) April 15-30 2812 (71) 3139 (103) 1603 (41) 1778 (40) May 1-14 2834 (60) 3146 ( 71) 1682 ( 9) 1874 (10) May 15-31 2796 (47) 3110 ( 57) 1725 ( 5) 1803 ( 7) June 1-14 - 2546 ( - 1243 ( 1) 2399 ( 1466 ( 3) 1358 ( 9) 321 (12) - 1423 ( 7) 438 ( 2) - 577 ( 2) 1178 ( 1) 878 ( 5) June 15-30 July 1-14 2283 ( 3) July 15-31 - August 1-14 August 15-31 September 15-30 1) - 3) I V1 w I 1617 ( 4) 1244 ( 2) �-54have been due to chance alone. It would appear that block spraying effectively curtailed nesting while strip spraying did not. However, as mentioned previously, kill of sagebrush in strip sprayed areas was highest in the center and lowest along the edges. Established nest plots in strip sprayed areas frequently encompassed a continuum of sagebrush ranging from almost total kill to almost no kill. In contrast, sagebrush within the nest plots in the block sprayed areas was mostly dead. It is concluded that block spraying resulting in a high percentage of the sagebrush being killed is detrimental to sage grouse nesting through loss of cover. This is especially true once the dead sagebrush has deteriorated. Strip spraying with partial kill of sagebrush appears to have little effect on nesting. Table 9. Results of nest searches in the Lake John area, North Park. Area Year Acres Searched Nests Found- Nest Densl y (Nests/Mi Z ) Control 1964 410 21 32.0 Control 1965 300 23 49.1 SprayeCF 1966 135 8 37.9 Control 1966 165 2 7.8 Block sprayed 1973 70 0 0.0 Strip sprayed 1973 45 2 28.4 Unsprayed 1973 45 2 28.4 1973 120 5 26.7 2/ strip Control 1/ 1/ Only includes nests of the year. 2/ Includes block sprayed Nest Placement area and sprayed strips. and Success Sage grouse nests were found under sagebrush at 91.9 percent of the 198 nest sites located (including both nests of the year and nests of earlier years). The 16 nests not under sagebrush were under greasewood or rabbitbrush. Nesting success from examination of nests located was estimated to range from 20 to 30 percent in 1964, 1965 and 1966. No estimate is available for 1973 due to lateness of nest search and conditions of egg fragments found. Nest �-55- predation was attributed primarily to badgers (Taxidea taxus) and ground squirrels (Spermophilus richardsoni). Nest searches in 1965 and 1966 were conducted from 1 to 3 months after peak of hatching and thus, any nest disturbed by a predator in the interim may have been recorded as unsuccessful. Since some nests reported as being predated may have been successful, nesting success estimated from discovery of nests must be interpreted with caution, especially in view of small samples and higher visibility of egg remains in disturbed nests. Census of Broods Broods were censused in the Lake John study area from 1963 through 1966 and in 1968 and 1973 following routes described by Gill (1965). Mean brood sizes for complete broods were 3.7 (N = 52) in 1963, 2.9 (N = 40) in 1964, 3.4 (N = 28) in 1965, 4.0 (N = 45) in 1966, 4.7 (N = 17) in 1968, 3.7 (N = 29) in 1969, and 4.1 (N = 19) in 1973. Basic problems with brood counts during the study period related to recording of dates and how many different broods were observed. Interpretation is difficult as easily sampled areas such as the accessible meadows in the Lake John area were sampled from four to twelve times per summer from 1963 through 1966. Thus, a relatively few number of broods observed each trip could account for all of the sightings. For example, the 52 broods observed in 1963 could possibly have been only seven different broods, as seven was the maximum number of broods seen on anyone complete set of the five routes. Sampling of limited areas thus inflates the importance of a few broods and creates artificial concentration areas which may be artifacts of methods used rather than bird selection. The period of maximum brood observations was relatively constant each year. Of 215 broods observed in all years, at least 86 (40 percent) were seen in the 11th and 12th weeks after the estimated peak of female attendance on strutting grounds. Therefore, brood counts should be concentrated in the period from 11 to 13 weeks after the peak of hen attendance on strutting grounds. Percentages of females accompanied by chicks varied from 18.2 to 34.4 from 1963 through 1973 (34.4 in 1963, 18.2 in 1964, 30.1 in 1965, 22.3 in 1966, 20.0 in 1969, 32.4 in 1973). These percentages appear to be low and are probably more a reflection of sage grouse behavior than actual production success. Since unsuccessful hens form flocks in mid to late summer and remain in sagebrush uplands, such groups are probably more conspicuous than hens with broods which utilize heavy vegetation along meadows. Primary feather molt patterns of harvested yearling and adult hens were recorded in 1974. Since successful hens initiate molt of primaries later than unsuccessful hens, estimates of nesting success of females can be obtained from examination of primary feather molt patterns. Females unsuccessful in hatching their clutch normally have primary feather molt patterns similar to those of males harvested in the same time period. Hens which are successful in hatching their clutches but lose all of their chicks within several �-56weeks of hatching are intermediate in primary feather molt and thus complicate use of this technique. In 1974, 91 of 92 yearling and adult males had molted through primary 8, while 160 of 254 (63 percent) yearling and adult females had molted through primary 8. Thus, the minimum estimate of nesting success in 1974 based on primary molt was 37 percent. Patterson (1952) suggested that roadside trend counts were accurate indices of production but presented little supportive data. Yet brood routes do not appear to be a practical way to obtain adequate estimates of production in North Park, principally because of the widespread abundance of excellent brood habitat. Obtaining maximum number of observations of broods throughout the park rather than on specified routes appears to be more suitable and should be tested. Brood routes conducted by Wildlife Conservation Officers in North Park are only censused three times each summer and none of the 20-mile routes sample more than 2 miles of good meadow-type brood habitat. These three routes (one per officer) seldom produce more than 1 to 3 broods per year, and thus are of little quantitative value in estimating production. Harvest Analysis Check Stations Hunter check stations designed to obtain data on hunting pressure and success, harvest trends, age and sex composition of the harvest and band recoveries were operated during all years of the study (Table 10). From 1963 through 1973 stations were operated only at Walden and Cowdrey to sample hunters from the northwest quarter (original study area) of North Park. In 1974, stations were operated at the four major exits from North Park to sample all hunters from throughout the park. During the l2-year period, hunting pressure was extremely variable. While reasons are not known, it is possible that hunter distribution changed. In 1963 most of the hunting pressure and harvest in North Park was estimated to have occurred in the Lake John area. Data collected from more extensive check stations in 1974 indicated that hunting pressure was relatively evenly dispersed throughout the park and the Lake John area was hunted by only 18 percent of the hunters who accounted for 16.4 percent of the checked harvest. If in fact, hunter pressure and kill decreased in the original study area, this would suggest that numbers of sage grouse available to hunters also decreased. Unfortunately, data to support this suggestion are not available. It is apparent from data in Table 10 that both birds per hunter and time required to kill one bird were variable. In general, the trend in hunter success was down (except in 1974) while it progressively took more time to harvest one bird. These data support a hypothesis that sage grouse numbers in North Park decreased from 1963 to 1974. This apparent decrease is undoubtedly the result of increased habitat alteration. �Table 10. North Park sage grouse hunter checks, 1963-1974. 1/ Juvenile Percent Juvenile Hens Unclassified (Dressed) Total Birds Birds Birds per Hunter Hours Hunted per Bird Year Bag Limit Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Cocks Adult Percent Juvenile Hens Adults Cocks 1963 2 592 2,460 62 150 42 113 181 58 - 3/ 506 1.03 4.86 1964 2 217 624 25 81 59 28 45 41 - ]j 179 0.82 3.49 1965 ]j 2 150 626 27 30 49 26 26 51 - 1/ 116 0.77 5.40 1966 2 306 1,227 31 116 56 45 71 44 - ]j 263 0.86 4.67 1967 2 300 1,177 50 127 67 42 46 33 - 1/ 267 0.89 4.41 1968 2 546 2,604 80 135 42 156 141 58 - 3/ 512 0.94 5.09 1969 2 662 2,936 79 180 70 37 74 30 199 569 0.86 5.16 1970 2 564 2,617 58 89 55 53 66 45 - 266 0.47 9.84 1971 2 357 1,802 28 67 51 54 39 49 76 264 0.74 6.83 1972 2 452 2,377 50 69 67 40 18 33 76 253 0.56 9.40 1973 2 366 1,599 24 54 52 29 42 48 44 193 0.53 8.28 1974 2 730 5,912 94 254 50 171 179 50 87 785 1.08 7.53 }j Data from 1963 through 1973 are based on Walden and Cowdrey check stations operated during opening weekends. (These stations checked harvested birds primarily from the northwest part of North Park) . Data from 1974 are based on four check stations (State line, Gould, Muddy Pass and Willow Creek) operated during the opening weekend. (These stations sampled all of North Park). ]) A one day season; hence only a one day check. 1/ Composition of kill projected from wing samples; hence no unclassified birds. I V1 -...j I �-58Hunter Questionnaires Prior to 1974 total harvest and hunter numbers in North Park were ascertained through the annual state wide survey of small game hunters. Data from prior to 1968 are not available as surveys were not designed to estimate harvest and hunter numbers in discrete units or areas. Available data on numbers of hunters and harvest of sage grouse in North Park are presented in Table 11. Table 11. Hunter pressure and sage grouse harvest wide small game survey. 1/ Year in North Park from state- Number Number of Hunters of Sage Grouse Harvested 1968 1,029 1,861 1969 1,926 3,398 1970 1,606 2,172 1971 1,003 1,962 1972 1,566 2,846 1973 1,171 2,007 1974 1,759 2,509 1/ Not available for years prior to 1968. In 1974, all sage grouse hunters in North Park were required to obtain and have in possession a free permit. A total of 1,184 permits were issued. Most hunters (43.3%) were from the metro-Denver area (Adams County 5.1%, Arapahoe County 5.6%, Denver County 16.9%, Jefferson County 15.7%). Only 11.1 percent of the hunters originated from North Park, with 21.7 percent from Larimer County, 9.5 percent from Boulder County, and 5.0 percent from Weld County. All other counties each contributed less than 2 percent of the total hunters, and only 9.5 percent of all hunters. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the 1974 sage grouse season in North Park. Responses were received from 886 hunters. In mid-October a followup letter was sent to all non-respondents and 175 additional responses were received. In all, 1,061 permittees (89.7%) responded (Table 12). Only 12 questionnaires were returned for insufficient address. Mean values calculated for hunters responding to the followup letter were used to project for the 123 non-respondents. �-59- Table 12. North Park sage grouse hunter questionnaire data, 1974. Projected For Non-Respondents 1,184 123 1,061 All Permittees No. in sample 886 175 Percent total of permittees 74.9 14.8 89.7 10.3 100 No. hunters 749 124 873 87 960 Percent hunters 84.5 70.9 82.3 70.9 81.1 No. non-hunters 137 51 188 36 224 Percent non-hunters 15.5 29.1 17.7 29.1 18.9 No. successful hunters 398 70 468 49 517 Percent hunters successful 53.1 56.5 53.6 56.5 53.9 No. hunter days 199 1,217 Days/hunter No. sage grouse bagged 1.62 1.60 151 859 1,555 139 1,416 1.62 1.60 1,116 106 1,010 1.62 Grouse/permittee .97 .86 .95 .86 .94 Grouse/hunter 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 Grouse/successful hunter 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 No. grouse lost 48 6 54 4 58 Crippling loss/hunter Total kill .05 .06 906 157 1,064 .06 .05 .06 110 1,174 Percent crippling loss 5.3 3.8 5.1 3.8 4.9 Percent success of permittees 44.9 40.0 44.1 40.0 43.7 Banded birds 28 3 31 2 33 Percent nondeliverable 12.0 0.0 12.0 1.01% (12) �-60- Eighty-one percent of all permittees went hunting and 53.9 percent of those actually hunting were successful. These hunters harvested 1,116 sage grouse and reported crippling and losing an additional 58 birds. The total calculated harvest in North Park in 1974 was 1,174. This is substantially less than the number estimated from the small game hunter survey (2,509) (Table 11). Strong evidence exists that because of sampling problems, the harvest in North Park, as projected from the Small Game Questionnaire Survey has been overestimated. Also, the Small Game Survey appears to over-estimate the number of hunters by a factor of two. If the relationships evident in 1974 existed in previous years and if they exist statewide it is apparent that the annual harvest is also over-estimated by 100 percent. Age and Sex Composition of Harvest Prior to 1974 wings collected from hunters at check stations were classified to sex and as juveniles or adults. In 1974, wings were separated by sex and age (juveniles, yearlings and adults). Depending upon vulnerability, behavior and hunter selection, percentage of juveniles in the harvest can serve as an index to annual production. During the 1963-1974 period, juveniles comprised from 30 to 58 percent of the havest (Table 10). Apparent production of young was average or better in 9 of the 12 years for which data are available. These data would suggest that treatment of sagebrush in the Lake John area had little effect on hatching success or survival of young to the hunting season. Production estimates from brood counts, counts of successful and unsuccessful hens, nest searches, and climatic factors such as spring temperature and precipitation could not be related to percentages of juveniles in the harvest. Hunters had good success in 1969, but percentage of juveniles in the harvest was low (30 percent). In 1965, 1971 and 1973, hunters had poor success but percentages of juveniles in the harvest were relatively high (48 to 51 percent). Thus total harvest was apparently not a function of production of that year. Little is known about vulnerability of juvenile sage grouse. All available data (questionnaire survey, observations) indicate that hunters shoot the first birds for which they have an opportunity. While it is possible that juveniles in a group of grouse flush first, or that they are more vulnerable because of their affinity for edges of meadows, data to support these hypotheses are not available. Molt data from juvenile sage grouse harvested in 1973 and 1974 indicated that hatching peaked the third week of June. However, observations of radioequipped hens (based on 12 nests) indicated peak hatching in 1968 and 1969 occurred during the first week of June. An early June peak of hatch is supported by scattered observations throughout the period of study and by timing of peak hen attendance (Patterson 1952) on strutting grounds. Thus, the reliability of the aging method (Pyrah 1963) must be questioned. Data collected, though limited, suggest the technique of back dating wings from juveniles in the harvest may underestimate age by 10 to 14 days. The consistently greater number of adult (yearling and older) hens than males in the harvest has long caused concern among biologists and game managers. It is commonly thought that hunter selection toward smaller birds �-61- (females and immatures) was occurring, possibly having an adverse effect on sage grouse populations. However, data from the winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75 indicated the sex ratio in winter was 62 females:38males, and 61 females:39 males, respectively (Beck 1975). If hunter selectivity was having a noticeable impact by harvesting smaller birds it should have skewed the ratios in favor of males. In 1974 three age classes were distinguished in the harvest. Classification of 698 wings by age and sex gave the following results: Immatures Yearlings Adults (50.1%) (19.8%) (30.1%) Males Males Males = 171 (48.9%) 49 (35.5%) 45 (21.4%) Females 179 (51.1%) Females = 89 (64.5%) Females = 165 (78.6%) The sex ratio obtained from pooling these data is 63 females:38 males, similar to the observed winter sex ratio (61:39). It is obvious from the 1974 harvest data that for each progressive age class, males constitute a smaller percentage of the kill. More females than males are harvested, but it now appears this is reflective of the actual sex composition of the population. Once they are flying, yearling and adult birds cannot be aged and no selection is possible. Thus, the lower percentage of males in the adult class than in the yearling class is indicative of higher mortality rates for males than females. The opposite should be true if hunter selection for females was a reality and was of significant magnitude to affect the population. Interviews with hunters support the contention that hunter selectivity is negligible. Hunters indicated they did not normally get a lot of shots so they shot at all grouse flushed. Because of segregation by habitat and sexes and the fact that immatures and females are similar in size, flocks of birds of like size are typically observed, making it difficult to select birds by relative size. It would appear that a predominance of females in the harvest is a reflection of the actual sex ratio of the population. The natural sex ratio of a sage grouse population appears to be skewed in favor of females by natural forces and not by hunter selectivity. Band Recoveries Recoveries of banded birds were small throughout the study. Direct recoveries rarely exceeded 10 percent of those banded in a given year, while all recoveries of a given age and sex class did not exceed 15 percent. Reasons for the low recovery rate could involve movements of birds out of the area, nonreporting of harvested banded birds, high turnover rate, and annual harvests of less than 10 percent of the fall population. However, no bands have been reported from any location other than Jackson County. And, although nonreporting does undoubtedly occur, it is not thought to be of sufficient extent to appreciably alter the low rate of return. Thus, high turnover and low annual harvests of fall populations are the likely causes of low band return. More extensive banding could supply answers to both questions. Band recoveries by age and sex class are presented in Tables 13 through 16. Only three indirect recoveries were obtained from 16 birds banded as chicks, one in year x+4 and two in year x+l. Data from 1974 include the largest �-62Table 13. Recoveries of males banded as adults. Year No. Banded X 1963 44 4 4 1964 47 1 1 1965 41 3 1966 6 1967 50 5 1 1968 40 6 4 1969 22 1 1973 89 6 1974 89 8 Totals 428 34 Year of Recovery X + 1 X + 2 X+ 3 X + 4 2 Total 5 0 6 1 11 1 2 4 10 8 o 2 Year of Recovery X + 1 X + 2 X + 3 9 2 Table 14. Recoveries of males banded as yearlings. Year No. Banded 1963 11 1964 22 1965 15 1966 10 1967 27 4 1 1968 21 2 1 1969 19 1973 80 7 1974 54 6 Totals 259 21 X 47 Total 0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 5 1 1 4 3 4 11 6 8 1 3 33 �.\ I -63Table 15. Recoveries of females banded as adults. Year No. Banded 1963 5 1964 4 1965 9 1 1966 6 1 1 1967 7 1 1 2 1968 11 1 1969 13 4 1973 54 5 1974 29 2 Totals 138 14 Table 16. Recoveries of females banded as yearlings. Year No. Banded 1963 3 0 1964 9 0 1965 3 0 1966 3 1 1967 5 1 1968 6 1 1 1969 20 5 5 1973 41 2 1974 20 2 Totals 110 12 X X + 1 Year of Recovery X + 3 X + 2 X + 4 Total 0 1 1 X 1 2 3 2 4 6 1 2 3 3 1 X+ 0 Year of Recovery X + 3 X + 2 1 21 X + 4 Total 2 1 2 1 4 2 2 2 1 1 o 16 �-64- samples, 30 recoveries (22 males, 7 females, 1 unknown) from an estimated 317 (217 males, 100 females) banded birds in the population. These limited data indicate that hunters harvested 10.1 percent of the banded adult and yearling male segment of the population, and 7 percent of the banded adult and yearling female segment. Thus, overall hunting mortality was approximately 9.5 percent of the fall population of banded sage grouse. Best present estimates suggest that up to 30 percent of the fall population may be harvested on a sustained annual basis. Winter Activities Distribution During 8 January to 8 March 1974, 129 sage grouse flocks and 10 individual birds were sighted, amounting to 2,753 birds. Between 1 January and 1 March 1975, 70 flocks and 7 single birds were sighted, involving 2,327 birds. Plotting of flock locations (Fig. 6) indicates three areas where no flocks were observed, seven areas of high use, and scattered observations within remaining areas of sagebrush. The largest area of no observed use was the area south of Owl and Peterson Ridges, which amounts to 36.0 percent (172 mi2) of the sagebrush lands in North Park. Only 1 of 216 sage grouse sightings was south of this ridge line. Little sagebrush was available in this area due to higher snowfall and more extensive snow cover even in the mild winter of 1974-75. The area between the Canadian River and Medicine Bow Range had ample available sagebrush throughout winter but no observed grouse use. This area accounts for 9.1 percent (44 mi2) of the sagebrush lands in North Park. The third area of no observed grouse use was the broken ridges south of Independence Mountain and north of Jackson County Road No.6, encompassing 5.0 percent (28 mi2) of the sagebrush lands. Steep slopes probably limited grouse use of this area as extensive stands of tall, dense sagebrush on relatively steep slopes were common. Thus, 50.1 percent of the sagebrush-dominated lands in North Park received no observed use by sage grouse during winter months in 1974 and 1975. Seven areas of high use were evident and comprised 6.8 percent (32.8 mi2) of sagebrush lands in North Park. These seven areas were not searched more frequently than other less productive areas, thus eliminating the bias of implied heavy use due to high frequency of search time. Searches for sage grouse were conducted during 60 days each winter. At least one or more of the seven areas was searched on 30 days each year. Areas subsequently determined to be used lightly or not at all were searched on at least 20 days during each season. Nearly 75 percent (74.4) of all flocks and 79.2 percent of all grouse observed in 1974 were within these seven areas whereas only 37.1 percent of all flocks and 51.2 percent of all grouse observed in 1975 were in these areas (Table 17). During the mild winter of 1974-75 less sagebrush was �-65- , COl(JHAt,)() r.· .,')~ . .. - , 1/ r : --&..:. - • ""- . , (., J 'IJOf'¥.~Ar..'~")V.·"'lIrr' ~D '.,~ ( •. ~' ••••• ~,,- -: ... -~.;.~..;." , . .f Fig. 6. Location of sage grouse flocks during winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75, North Park, Colorado. Each dot represents one flock. Numbered areas correspond to high use areas described in Table 17. �Table 17. 1974-75. Location and size of areas of high use by wintering sage grouse, North Park, 1973-74 and Approximate Area (mi2) 1974 1975 1974 1975 NE!!.; S13, E~ S12, RSOW, T10N; NE!!.; S19, SlS, SW~ S17, NW~, S~S7, R79W, T10N 3.0 14 0 114 0 sE!!.; S19, S~ S20, SW~ S27, S~, NW~ S2S, S29, E~ S32, S33, S34, R79W, T10N; N~ S3, N~ S4, NE!!.; S5, R79W, T9N 6.5 16 1 214 60 SE~ Sl, E~ S12, NE~ Sl3, RS1W, T9N; W~, NE~ S7, NW~ S20, S21, RSOW, T9N 3.0 19 1 223 11 Location 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. No. of Flocks Observed Total Birds Observed sE!!.; S7, S~ SS, N~, SE~ S17, W~ S16, sE!!.; S19, S20, S21, S2S, NE~ S29, N~ S33, RSOW, T10N 5.5 S 10 179 44S E~ S7, SW~ SS, SW~ S16, S17, E~ SlS, E~ S19, S20, S21, SW~ S22 W~ S27, S2S, S29, N~ S30, NE~ S33, R7SW, T9N; S13, W~ S24, E~ S23, R79W, T9N 10.3 19 S S66 521 S~ S31, S~ S32, R7SW, TSN; W~, NE~ S5, S6, N~ S7, NW~ SS, R78W, T7N 3.5 13 6 371 152 S2, RS1W, T10N 1.0 7 0 213 0 32.S 96 26 2,lS0 1,192 Totals I 0"1 0"1 I �-67completely covered, and consequently, a larger area was available for foraging. More available sagebrush also accounts for the reduction in occupany of the high-use areas delineated in 1973-74 and the increased difficulty in locating flocks. As the winter of 1973-74 was more severe than normal, these high-use areas possibly were the last suitable habitat available. Only three of the seven 1973-74 high-use areas sustained high use in 1974-75, thus discounting the possibility of affinity for specific wintering grounds. Wintering areas in Idaho and Wyoming are also determined by snow accumulation rather than affinity for specific areas (Dalke et ale 1963, Patterson 1952). The high-use area near California Gulch sustained high use throughout the winter of 1974-75, but only during the last three weeks of winter in 1973-74. During this three week period, snow was melting and cover conditions were similar to those found throughout 1974-75. The California Gulch area was the first part of North Park to become snow free in the springs of 1974 and 1975. Possibly the birds observed in this area in both years were associated with the five nearby strutting grounds. The other six high-use areas sustained heaviest utilization prior to any melting and likely were important wintering areas. Thirty-two percent (155 mi2) of the sagebrush lands in North Park have been disturbed by 2,4-D spraying, plowing and seeding, and burning since 1957. Only four flocks· were observed in areas that were still noticeably altered. Flock Composition and Size In winter, sage grouse in North Park were gregarious, the flock being the prevalent social unit (Table 18). Over 85 percent (85.4) (2,350) of the 2,753 birds observed in 1974 were classified as to sex. Males numbered 889 and females 1,461 for a pooled sex ratio of 62 females:38 males. Approxi~ mately 85 percent (84.3) (1,984) of the 2,327 sage grouse observed in 1975 were classified as to sex with males numbering 773 and females 1,211. The pooled sex ratio for 1975 was 61 females:39 males. Table 18. Number, frequency of encounter, and percentage of total sage grouse observed as singles and flocks, North Park, winters of 1973-74 and 1974-75. Number of encounters Frequency of encounter- 1/ Percent of all birds observed 1/ In percent of total. Size of Unit 26-50 51-100 1 2-25 17 153 21 16 9 7.9 70.8 9.7 7.4 4.2 0.3 32.5 14.5 22.0 30. 7 >100 �-68Strong segregation by sexes was evident in sage grouse flocks in winter. Of 176 flocks classified in 1974 and 1975, 69.9 percent (123) were composed of at least 90 percent birds of like sex. Of the 123 groups, 81.3 percent (100) were composed of birds of the same sex. Segregation was more pronounced in male than female flocks as 71.6 percent of the predominantly male and 39.5 percent of the predominantly female flocks were unisexual. Only one flock (six birds) was composed equally of males and females. Segregation in sage grouse flocks in winter was as great or greater th~n that reported for other species of grouse (Koskimies 1957, Seiskari 1962, Weeden 1964, Braun and Schmidt 1971). Reasons for strong sex segregation in sage grouse are unknown but are of interest. Review of literature indicates sex segregation by grouse is accompanied by differential habitat utilization (Koskimies 1957, Seiskari 1962, Weeden 1964, Braun and Schmidt 1971). Data from the winter of 1973-74 indicated female flocks utilized denser stands of sagebrush than males. However, possibly due to s~ple size, differences in vegetal characteristics between sites used by male and female flocks in both winters were not significant (P>O.lO) (Table 20). Flock size was 50 or less in 88.4 percent of all observations (Table 19). Mean size of flocks in 1974 was 12.2 for males, and 29.2 for females, whereas mean sizes in 1975 were 21.2 for males and 48.1 for females. Differences between male and female flock size during the two winters were significant (P < 0.05). Increase in size between years (1974 vs 1975) w~s significant (P ~ 0.05) for male but not for female flocks. Median size for male flocks was 10 in 1974 and 15.5 in 1975, while corresponding values for female flocks were 15 and 20.5. Evaluation of mean and median flock sizes indicate females had a greater tendency to form large flocks (>150), although most female flocks were within the same size range as male flocks « 50). Possibly the tendency toward larger flock size shown by females was associated with the use of denser sagebrush stands. Such an association can be attributed to either large groupings selecting dense sagebrush for cover and food or the use of dense stands allowing the congregation of large numbers. The large increase in flock size for both sexes during 1974-75 can possibly be attributed to good production the preceding summer and/or the mild winter of 1974-75 which resulted in more available sagebrush and thus larger flocks. In the relatively severe winter of 1973-74 flock size was small, probably because of limited availability of sagebrush. Areas suitable for use were small, consequently such sites were suitable only for small groups of grouse. It would appear that sage grouse control their flock size depending upon availability of food and cover. Habitat Physical Characteristics.--Flocks of sage grouse were typically located on south, southwest, or west facing slopes of less than 5 percent (Figs. 7 and 8). The average percent slope for areas used by female flocks was 4.9 (N=74) and for male flocks was 6.0 (N = 82). Sixty-six percent of the areas had slopes less than 5 percent, while only 12.8 percent had slopes greater than 10 percent, �-69- Table 19. Sex composition of winter flocks of sage grouse, North Park, 1973-74 and 1974-75. 1-/ Size of Flock 51-59 Percent in Flock 80-89 70-79 60-69 90-99 100 Total 36 42 Males 2-9 10-19 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 4 24 34 2 2 2 5 11 20-29 40-49 1 50-74 1 1 2 1 75-99 Sub-total 3 4 5 7 8 2 6 1 1 68 95 16 24 Females 2-9 5 1 2 10-19 1 1 5 5 11 23 20-29 2 3 1 2 8 30-39 1 1 1 1 5 40-49 1 3 1 5 1 2 50-74 2 75-99 >100 1 2 4 1 3 1 4 2 1 9 Sub-total 1 10 6 17 15 32 81 Total 4 14 11 24 23 100 176 Percent of All Flocks 2 8 6 14 13 57 1/ Excluding one flock of 50:50 males and females. �Table 20. Vegetal characteristics of winter Mean Sagebrush Density (Plants/O.Ol acre) Sample Size use sites, 1974 and 1975. Mean Height of Sagebrush Above Snow (inches) Mean Average Crown Bread th of Sagebrush (inches) F M F M F M F 641];) Mean Cover (Density x Height) (in.-plant/0.01 acre) Year M F ]) M 1974 58 42 46.0 68.22:./ 7.8 9.4 14.8 17.3 359 1975 22 29 63.7].1 77 .5 11.61/ 14.0 1/ 16.1 17.5 7391/ flock of > 50 percent 1,0851/ ]) M denotes males, F denotes flock of> 50 percent J.j females. I Significant ].1 Significant difference between sexes during a year, P ~0.05. o " I difference between years within a sex, P < 0.05. �-71- N E FLOCK SIZE • 2-9 o 10-19 o 20-29 A ~30 Fig. 7. Aspect and percent slope of areas utilized by flocks of male sage grouse in winter. Each concentric circle represents 5 percent slope with the center representing zero slope. Symbols representing different flock sizes are given in the legend. �-72- N 0 • W t 4 c9 • ~: o .o~. {:) S E ~ FLOCK SIZE 2-9 • 10-19 0 c .6- 20-29 >30 Fig. 8. Aspect and percent slope of areas utilized by flocks of female sage grouse in winter. Each concentric circle represents 5 percent slope with the center representing zero slope. Symbols representing different flock sizes are given in the legend. �-73- On areas with slope greater than 5 percent, 66.7 percent of female and 93.1 percent of male flocks were observed on west, southwest, south or southeast facing slopes. Wind was present during 73.7 percent of 152 observations for which data were collected. Wind direction was from the southwest 60.7 percent of the time, west 17.0 percent, and south 12.5 percent. No data on wind velocity were collected. Although snow cover was a major determinant in amount of available sagebrush, slope and aspect appeared to further restrict the amount of sagebrush range suitable for wintering sage grouse. No data were available on relative abundance of varying slopes although numerous steep slopes dominated by sagebrush exist. No observed use occurred on steep slopes (>30 percent) and most observed use was on areas with less than 10 percent slope. Steepness of slope modified by aspect thus eliminated many sagebrush areas from suitable habitat status. Vegetal Characteristics.--Vegetal measurements were taken at 100 use sites in 1974 and 51 sites in 1975. Mean sagebrush density, mean height of sagebrush above snow, mean crown breadth, and mean cover (ht x density) were used in comparing sites utilized by male and female flocks. Significant differences (P<0.05) were documented in sagebrush density and cover in 1974, when females used denser sagebrush stands than males. Significant differences (P ~ 0.05) between years occurred for sagebrush density on sites used by male flocks, height of sagebrush above snow and cover for sites used by both male and female flocks (Table 20). Although the difference in mean values for male and female flocks was less in 1974-75, variability in data was also less. Density and cover values were much higher in 1974-75, especially for male flocks. This was probably a reflection of the low snowfall the second winter. Selection for differing densities of sagebrush may also have been tempered by the mild winter in 1974-75. Density and cover values did not increase as much for female as for male flocks in 1974-75, suggesting that female flocks used sagebrush stands approaching the maximum density available in North Park. An unfortunate weakness in the data was that measurements of sagebrush stands were not taken in areas of no observed use. Thus, although female flocks used denser stands than males, there are no data to indicate where densities used align on the density continuum of available sagebrush. Vegetal characteristics of each high-use area were compared to those of the combined values for all locations not within a high-use area. Only one highuse area had vegetative characters significantly different (P < 0.05) from other high-use areas and the scattered-use locations. This area was located in the McCallum oil field where earlier researchers also observed wintering flocks of sage grouse. Sagebrush in this area was less dense than in other areas of flock sightings. �t Twenty*six of the 199 flock locatlons were used as roosting sites, the remainder being feeding-loafing sites. Vegetative differences between the two groupings were not significant (P> 0.05). Roosting depressions in the Snow at eight sites was crusted and snovr occurred at 13 of the 26 sites. at five sites was powder. These values were similar to the frequency of crusted and por,rder condltions recorded at all sltes (64.9i1 crusted, 29.8''l powder, 5.32 melting). Depressions to depths of. L2 in. were observed. Seasonal Movements l:{ost movement data were available for birds banded in the Lake John area of Nort}r Fark. Movements deternr-ined from band recoveries represent the spring ro fa11 period (Tab1e 2i). Since no significant (P> 0.05) differences l,lere found between movements resulting from direct and indirect recoveries, all data rnere pooled. Significant (P 1 0.05) differences were found, only betr^:een movements of adult males and yearling females as yearling females noved greater distances. However, in general, females of both age classes mor,,ed greater distances than males" It is not knornrn if these differences relate to sagebrush treatmenE. Nineteen of the 100 recoveries we::e from outside of the or:iginal T,ake John srudy area. l4ovements could not be attributed sole1y to attraciion to wet sites as such areas occurred in abundance r^rithin four miles of any banding site. Only 22 cf the 100 recoveries r,rere rvithin two miles of the banding site. Movements from banding sites, usually strutting grounds' were significantly (P< 0'05) grearer tharL two mi1es. Thus, attention should be focused on seasonal requirements of sage grouse instead of maintaining protected zones within a two mile radius of strutti-ng grounds. Based on data cotrlected in this study (Table 21) and assuming that all. sagebrush disturbance is harmful to sage grouse, a six mile radius of undisturbed sagebrrrsh around strutting grounds rrrould b+: most sriitable. Movements of birds from spring banding sites to stmmer use areas were considerably shorter than spring to fa11 movements. Dlstances traveled by males (N = 18) were no greater than those of females (N = 4)r 3.7 to 3-4 miles, respectively. Sma1l samples and the fact that only 3 of the 22 sightings were after 30 July pose restrictions on inferred conclusions. However, the shorter mid-sununer movements probabLy indicate that considerable movement occurs in late summer just prior to the hunting season. Whether this is associated with juvenile dispersal or changes in food supply is not known. Nine females in 1968 and 24 femaLes in 1969 were fitted with VHF transmitters after being trapped on strutting grounds. In 1968 four hens were followed to nests, while 8 of the 24 hens in 1969 were followed to nest sites. These 12 females traveled a mean distance of 3.12 mil-es from the strutting ground where captured (range of 0.4-8.2 mi). No pattern ln direction of movement was evident. Early nesters moved greater distances to nest sites than late nesters though differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Relatively leve1 areas (< l0% slope) were utilLzed by the 12 telemetered females and no preference for aspect was noted. ,€ �-7 5- Table 21. Spring to fa11 movements of sage grouse calculated from band recoveries. Dis tance (ltiles ) 0- Adult Males Yearling Males Adult Females Yearling Females 1.9 L2 4 3 3 2,0 3.9 9 t2 6 0 4.0 5.9 11 4 J 3 6.0 7.9 2 1 4 B.0 9.9 5 3 0 I I 10.0 11 .9 2 1 0 1 L2.0 13.9 I 1 0 0 14.0 15. 9 0 I 1 0 16.0 L7.9 1 0 1 1 18.0 - 19.9 0 1 0 0 20.0 - 21.9 0 0 1 0 l,tean (i-) 4 9 5 3 6 0 6.25 Sample size 4J 2B 19 10 Movements of hens equipped with WIF radio transmiEters, based on sma11 sample sizes, indicaEe the general trend of brood movement. Movements from nesting sites to wet meadorus were highly variabl-e. Movements to meadows began on days l, 4 and 30 after hatching for the three hens monitored. In addition, three hens with young were located after reaching meadows. Data from these six hens indicate that movements after reaching meadows were minimal, This supports the hypothesis that frequent brood counts in a limited area prowide data on only a few frequently reobserved broods. Movements of sage grouse from spring to winter were calculated from 57 observations of banded birds ln the winter of L973-74 and 22 in 7974-75 (Tab7e 22). Average distance traveled from banding sites for males was 6.5 mi. (N = 50) in L973-V4, and 3.2 ml.. (N = 17) in 1974-75" Corresponding values for females were 11.5 mi. (N = 5) and 9.5 mi. (N = 5). �-76- Table 22. Minimum distances traveled from spring to winter by male and female sage grouse banded near: Lake John, Norrh park, t9l3-7h and t9l4-75. Year 0-3 3. r-6 197 3-7 4 13 797 4-7 5 10 Distance Traveled (ltiles) 6. 1-9 9.L-tz 12.1-18 >18 10 20 9 4 1 6 J I 2 0 Sirorter distances traveled in 1974-75 probably resulted from the milder tvinter when more sagebrush was available throughout the north half of the park. Longer distances for females may have resulted from their apparent preference for dense stands of sagebrush which are not evenly distributed throughout the Park. A11 large concentrations of females were located in the northeast quarter of the park rvhere most dense stands of sagebrush were avai-lab1e. This is approximately 10 mlles fronn the center of the Lake John study area. DisEances traveled indicated saEIe grouse were moving freely throughout North Park. Thus, all sage grouse in the park should be considered as one population rather than several localized, sedentary subpopulations. The long movements and concentrations of birds in the northeast quarter of North park during winter indicate definite seasonal use patterns for different areas wlthin North Park. Consequently, the park must be consj-dered as a single management unlt. Conclusions Effects of sagebrush spraying upon distribution and abundance of sage grouse in North Park were difficult to assess. L,Ieile problems arose wiEh size of area studied and frequent changes in project personnel, a major problem also occurred as more sagebrush within the original study area was treated Lhan planned. Prior to the experimental spraying for study purposes, 3,610 acres ^ (5,0+ rr:i4 of sagebrush in the study area had been plowed and seeded to grasses. Area sprayed during the study involved about 41000 acres (6.25 mi2). Within 5 years of the origlnal spraying, an additional 1,250 acres (1.9S mi2) ln the study area were sprayed wi-th 2,4-D. Thus, immediately prior to and during the course of the study a minimum of 8,860 acres (13.84 mi2) or 27,1 percent of, tire sagebrush lands in the Lake John study area had been treated by plowing or spraying with 2,4-D. These activitles could have easily masked any effects of the 4,000 acres treated for ti-le study. Block spraying r:f an area slrrround.ing a Large strutting ground resulted in al.most compiete a}:andonment of the ground within 7 years of spraying. Block spraying with nearly 100 percent sagebr-ush ki11 had an adverse effect on r:se of the area for nesting, primarily due to removal of cover. Spraying of ? �-77- sagebrush reduced availability of forbs and sagebrush and reduced sage grouse use of sprayed areas, especially those areas where sagebrush kill was nearly complete. Distribution and use of strutting grounds adjacent to treated areas changed, probably as a result of spraying. While problems exist with interpretation of counts of grouse on strutting grounds, numbers of male sage grouse on strutting grounds in the original study area decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from 1963 to 1974. This decrease can only be related to sagebrush treatment. Effects of sagebrush spraying on movements are unclear. Movements of adult and yearling grouse were greater than expected, possibly indicating lack of suitable habitats within the original study area. These larger than expected movements could be the result of sagebrush alteration. Nesting success and production did not appear to be affected by sagebrush treatment except through reducing grouse use of large areas. Reliable harvest data for North Park were not available until the last year of the study. Hunter success declined throughout the study, possibly as a result of fewer grouse being available. Treatment of sagebrush by spraying undoubtedly reduced availability of sagebrush in winter, further reducing the capacity of the area to sustain numbers of sage grouse. Strip spraying as described in the report had almost no measurable effect on sage grouse. LITERATURE Autenrieth, Rept. CITED R. E. 1969. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept. 25 p. Mimeo. 1970. Sage grouse investigations. Fish and Game Dept. 21 p. Mimeo. Third Annual Prog. Fourth Annual Prog. Rept. Idaho Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. sage grouse from wing characteristics. (revised). Colorado Div. of Wildlife. Sex and age determination of Game Inf. Leaflet No. 49 4 pp. Beekly, A. L. 1915. Geology and coal resources of North Park, Colorado. U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 596. 121 pp. The section Tridentate Beetle, A. A. 1960. A study of sagebrush. Wyoming Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 368. 83 pp. Artemisia. Brander, R. B. 1968. A radio-package Manage. 32(3):630-632. harness for game birds. of J. Wildl. Braun, C. E., and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado pp. 238250. In A. O. Haugen (ed). Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium, Ames, Iowa. 280 pp , �-78- Carr, H. D. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis, Craighead, J. J., and D. S. Stockstad. marking birds. J. Wildl. Manage. neckband 1956. A colored 20(3):331-332. Crunden, C. W. 1963. Age and sex of sage grouse Manage. 27(4):846-849. for J. Wildl. from wings. Dalke, P. D., D. B. Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, J. E. Crawford, and E. F. Schlatterer. 1963. Ecology, productivity and management of sage grouse in Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):811-841. Daub enmire, R. Sta. Tech. 1970. Bull. Steppe vegetation 62. 131 pp. Eng, R. L. 1954. Use of aerial counts. Proc. West. Assoc. of Washington. Agr. Exp. coverage in sage grouse strutting ground State Game and Fish Comms. 34:231-233. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19(2):267-272. 1963. Washington Observations on the breeding 27(4):841-846. age and sex ratios biology of male from sage grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. _____ , and P. Schladweiler. habitat USe in central 1972. Sage grouse winter movements and Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 36 (1) :141-146. Finch, W. C., ed. 1957. Guidebook to the geology of North and Middle Parks Basin, Colorado. Rocky Mtn. Assoc. Geol., Denver. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 187 pp. Griner, L. A. 1939. A study of the sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), with special reference to life history, habitat requirements, and numbers and distribution. M. S. Thesis. Utah State Univ., Logan. 83 pp. Hail, W. J. 1965. Geology of northwest Surv. Bull. 1188. 133 pp. North Park, Colorado. U. S. Geol. Hartzler, J. E. 1972. An ana~ysis of sage grouse lek behavior. Dissertation. Univ. Montana, Missoula. 200 pp. Ph. D. Hyder, D. N., C. G. Conrad, P. T. Tueller, L. D. Calvin, Co E. Poulton, and F. A. Sneva. 1963. Frequency sampling in sagebrush-bunchgrass vegetation. Ecol. 44(4):740-746. Klebenow, D. A. 1969. J. Wildl. Manage. Sage grouse nesting 33(3):649-661. and brood habitat in Idaho. �-79- _____ , and G. M. Gray. 1968. Food habits Range Manage. 21(2):80-83. of juvenile sage grouse. J. Koskimies, J. 1957. Flocking behavior in capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus (L.), and blackgame, Lyrurus tetrix (L.). Finnish Papers Game Res. 18. 32 pp. Labinski, R. F., and S. H. Mann. 1962. J. ur rai . Manage. 26(4) :393-399. Backtag markers Lacher, J. R., and D. D. Lacher. Manage. 28(3):595-597. A mobile 1964. for pheasants. cannon net trap. Lumsden, H. G. 1968. The displays of the sage grouse. and Forests, Res. Rept. 83. 94 pp. Ontario J. Wildl. Dept. Lands Marshall, W. H. 1963. Studies of movements, behavior and activities of ruffed grouse using radio' telemetry techniques. Univ. Minn., Minneapolis. Prog. Rept. 30 pp. (Multilithed). Martin, N. S. 1970. Sagebrush control related to habitat occurrence. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2):313-320. Patterson, R. L. 1952. Denver. 341 pp. The sage grouse in Wyoming. and sage grouse Sage Books, Inc., Peterson, J. G. 1970. The food habits and summer distribution of juvenile sage grouse in central Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1) :147-155. Pyrah, D. G. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Wildlife Restoration Div., Job Compl. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-125-R. 71 pp. ___ 1970. 466-467. Poncho markers for game birds. J. Wildl. Manage. Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):616-621. 34(2): of male Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements and flock stratification within a population of blackcocks in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 38(5) :755-763. Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse invetigations in Colorado. Fish and Parks Dept. Tech. Bull. 16. 132 pp. Colorado Game, Seiskari, P. 1962. On the winter ecology of the capercail1ie, Tetrao urogallus, and the black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix, in Finland. Finnish Papers Game Res. 22. 119 pp. Smith, E. L., Jr. 1966. Soil-vegetation relationships of some Ar t emf.s La types in North Park, Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 203 pp. �-80Stanton, D. C. 1958. grouse population Moscow. 87 pp. A study of the breeding and reproduction in a sage in southeastern Idaho. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho, U. S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Monthly normals of temperature, precipitation, and heating and cooling degree days, 1941-70. Climatography of the U. S. No. 81 (Colorado). 12 pp. Weeden, R. B. ptarmigan 1964. Spatial separation of sexes in rock and willow in winter. Auk 81(4):534-541. Wiley, R. H. 1973. Territoriality and non-random mating in sage grouse Centrocercus urophasianus. Anim. Behav. Mono. 6(2):87-169. Prepared by: L_:!_~_/-'--~-_~->_.~2~~4T~L~~_~_t_~_) Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher Thomas D. 1. Beck C.B Graduate Research Assistant _ �... 81- APPENDIX �-82APPENDIX A Common species in sagebrush uplands of North Park, Colorado.-II Scientific Name Common Name FORBS Antennaria microphylla Arenaria fendleri Artemisia frigida Aster leucanthemifolius Astragalus purshii 1':... spatulatus Chrysopsis villosa Erigeron spp , Eriogonum umbellatum Eurotia lanata Mertensia bakeri Penstemon spp. Phlox bryoides Sedum stenopetalum Senecio amplectens Trifolium sp. Vicia americana Pussy toes Sandwort Fringed sage Aster Vetch Vetch Hairy golden aster Daisy Sulphur flower Winterfat Bluebells Beard tongue Phlox Stonecrop Senecio Goats beard American vetch GRASSES Agropyron dasystachyum A. riparium A. smithii 1':... spicatum Bouteloua gracilis Bromus anomalus B. tectorum Calamagrostis montanensis Distichlis stricta Festuca idahoensis F. ovina Hordeum jubatum Koeleria cristata Poa canbyi P. fendleriana P. nevadensis P. secunda Sit anion hystrix Stipa comata Stipa lettermani !/Adapted from Smith (1966) and Gill (1965). Thickspike wheat grass Streambank wheatgrass Western wheatgrass Bluebunch wheatgrass Blue grama Nodding brome Cheatgrass Plains reedgrass Inland saltgrass Idaho fescue Sheep fescue Foxtail barley Junegrass Canby bluegrass Mutton bluegrass Nevada bluegrass Sandberg bluegrass Squirrel tail Needle and thread grass Needlegrass �-83APPENDIX B Legal description of active strutting grounds, North Park, 1975. Section Quarter Section Range Township Alkali Lake 31 NW 80 10 Boettcher Lake Junction 13 SW 81 10 Canuck 16 NW 79 10 Coalmont 24 SW 81 7 Cowdrey 115 9 NE 80 10 Deer Creek 31 NE 78 7 Delaney Butte (Recently inactive) 35 SE 81 9 Fish Hatchery 9 SW 80 8 Hound 13 NW 80 9 Lost Creek ill 9 SE 79 6 Lost Creek ffi2 (Recently inactive) 36 NE 80 7 Monahan Draw 29 NW 80 10 Railroad 1/ 2 SW 80 7 Ridge Road 22 SW 81 8 Riley 28 NW 80 10 Roth 33 SW 78 9 Spring Creek III 35 SE 79 8 Spring Creek 112 1 SW 79 7 Spring Creek #4 3 NE 79 7 Walden 23 SE 80 9 Wattenberg if2 8 NW 80 9 Strutting Ground _V Located in 1975, all others located during study period 1963-1974. �-84APPENDIX C List of Publications and Theses Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. 1975. 7(6):43. Winter ecology of sage grouse. _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. sage grouse from wing characteristics. Colorado Div. of Wildl. 4 pp. Froc. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. Sex and age determination of Game Inf. Leaflet 49 (Revised). Carr, H. D. 1966. Preliminary findings of effects of sagebrush control on sage grouse. Colorado Coop. Wild1. Res. Unit Tech. Paper 5. 11 pp. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis. Colorado 1968. A literature review on effects of herbicides on sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus). Colorado Dept. Game, Fish and Parks Spec. Rept. 13. 16 pp. , and F. A. Glover. 1970. Effects of sagebrush control on sage grouse. -----Trans. No. Am. Wi1d1. and Nat. Res. Conf. 35:205-215. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Gniv., Ft. Collins. 187 pp. 1966. A literature review on the sage grouse. Game, Fish and Parks Spec. Rept. 6. 39 pp. Colorado Dept. , and F. A. Glover. 1965. Daily and seasonal movements of sage grouse. ~--Colorado Coop. Wi1dl. Res. Unit Tech. Paper 3. 6 pp. May, T. A., and B. E. Poley. 1969. Spring and summer movements of female sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. Proc. Biennial West. States Sage Grouse Workshop 6:173-179. Poley, B. E. 1969. Seasonal movements of sage grouse in Colorado. Field Ornith. 5:1-4. Colo. �April 1976 -85- State of Project No. Hork Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: COLORADO Game Bird Survey ItJ-37-R-29 3 Job No. 9 Part I Evaluation of the Effects of Changes in Hunting Regulations on Sage Grouse Populations April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: Fred Giese, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ron Ryder, Colorado State Dniversity; Heather Flanagan Alexander, Tom Beck, Don Benson, Clait Braun, Tom Campbell, Courtney Crawford, Daryl Crawford, Howard Funk, Ken Giesen, Don Gore, John Hobbs, Richard Hoffman, Jim Jackson, J. Edward Kautz, Fran Marcoux, Sue McElderry., Ken Miller, Sig Palm, Brett Petersen, Steve Porter, Sue Quinlan, Wayne Russell, Howard Spear, and John \.;ragner, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning the relationships of hunting to breeding population levels, and mortality and survival rates of sage grouse (Centro cercus urophasianus) in North Park, Colorado were initiated in 1975. Numbers of strutting grounds remained stable, although two grounds active in 1974 were inactive in 1975. One ground inactive in 1974 was active in 1975, while one new ground was located. Average number of cocks per ground increased from 28 in 1974 to 31 in 1975. Peak period of female attend~~ce in 1975 was between April 15-23. Total estimated spring population size was about 4,4004,500 birds. In 1975, 422 (291 males, 130 females, 1 unknown sex) sage grouse were banded. A 9 day permit only hunting season was allowed in North Park in 1975 with bag and possession limits of 2 and 4. Data from wings (N = 505) collected at check stations and field checks revealed that the harvest was comprised of 42 percent young of the year, 22 percent yearlings and 36 percent adults. Total permits issued numbered 1,541, of which· only 77 percent of the permittees went hunting. Estimated total harvest including crippling loss was 1,053 grouse. The increase in total harvest resulting from the 6 day longer season in 1975 was 158 birds. Sixty-two bands were recovered and reported by hunters, of which 40 were from 1975 bandings ,'>lith 11 each from 1974 and 1973. Approximately 10 percent of the adult and yearling birds banded in 1975 were harvested. Harvest of banded birds was not uniform by area of banding with two strutting grounds having harvests of more than 20 percent of the cocks counted in 1975. Estimated fall population size was about 10,000 birds, a value considered to be higher than the actual population due to possible differential vulnerability of chicks. �-86RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Trapping efforts should be intensified with more effort being made to capture females in the spring and females and chicks in July and August. 2. Changes in hunting regulations should be promulgated and bag and possession limits of 3 and 6 in 1976. with a 9 day season �-87- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN HUNTING REGULATIONS ON SAGE GROUSE POPULATIONS Clait E. Braun Little is known concerning effects of hunting, if any, on populations of sage grouse in Colorado or anywhere within their principal range. It is connnonly believed by field personnel and managers in Colorado and elsewhere that sage grouse are easily hunted and harvested, and thus are exceedingly vulnerable to hunting. Evidence supporting these ideas is not available. Most state management agencies base sage grouse hunting seasons lengths and bag limits on changes in numbers of males counted on strutting grounds and on ~hanges in brood size and number. Unfortunately, data documenting relationships between hunting and counts of breeding males made the following spring are lacking. Basically, problems exist in relating strutting ground counts to size of populations and to hunting pressure and harvest during the preceding hunting season. Most work relating to sage grouse numbers has been concerned with counts of males on strutting grounds as cocks are highly visible on these breeding areas in April and early May. Despite previous efforts, it is not know whether all males in a population appear on strutting grounds. Patterson (1952) suggested that all males visited these communal breeding areas, but presented no data to support this hypothesis. Even less is known about females, although they may outnumber males in the population by 2 to 1 (Beck 1975, Braun and Beck 1976). Since the social structure of the sage grouse breeding system allows only a few males to breed, many males are excess. Thus, emphasis should be placed on understanding the dynamics of the female segment of the population and the relationship between harvest and population size. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are to increase hunter tional use of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. been developed are: opportunity and recreaHypotheses which have a. Hunter harvest does not affect spring counts of strutting peak spring counts of females under any regulations. b. Counts of females during the peak of attendance on strutting grounds a reliable index to overall numbers of sage grouse in spring. c. Hunter d. Nesting success and brood size to 15 August, while important in determining age composition of the harvest, have no relationship to hunter success and total harvest. success and total harvest are a function males or are of August precipitation. �-88- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES La, Males will be trapped and marked with color-coded bands at night while roosting on or near strutting grounds. A sample of 200 will be marked. Trapping will be conducted from mid-March to late May by spotlighting and netting. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. lb. Females will be trapped during the early A.M. on strutting grounds during April through use of drop, mist and cannon nets. A sample of 300 will be marked with color-coded leg bands and colored numbered patagium tags. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. 2a. Hunting will be by free permit only and all hunters will be mailed a questionnaire within one week of the end of the hunting season. One followup letter will be sent two weeks later. A goal of 90 percent response is desired. 2b. Check stations will be operated at three locations during the first two weekends of the hunting season. These stations will be at Gould, State Line and Willow Creek Pass. A goal of 500 wings is desired. 2c. Number and location of marked birds shot will be obtained through use of check stations, field hunter checks and voluntary mail reporting. A goal of 50 first year recoveries is desired. 2d. stations Hunter success will be determined through and from the mail questionnaire survey. data collected 2e. Age composition of the harvest will be determined tion of wings collected at check stations. Classification yearling, juvenile, and male and female. 2f. Total harvest will be estimated (90 percent the mail questionnaire survey of all hunters. 3. Promote 4. Compile data, analyze METHODS results through examinawill be as adult, confidence a 9 day season with a bag and possession at check level) from limit of 2 and 4. and prepare progress report. AND MATERIALS Counts of male and female sage grouse present on strutting grounds were periodically made by project personnel and Wildlife Conservation Officers following proscribed procedures (Braun and Beck 1976). Counts were made from 19 April through 17 May at times within one-half hour of sunrise. Searches for new or relocated grounds were made through ground and aerial reconnaissance. Male and female sage grouse were trapped at night along roads and on strutting grounds where they roosted. Some birds, primarily �-89- hens, were captured at dawn on strutting grounds through use of cannon nets. Most birds were captured through use of a spotlight with a backpack power source and long handled nets (Braun and Beck 1976). Sage grouse banded and released were marked with serially numbered aluminum bands (size 16 for males, 14 for females) and colored plastic and aluminum bands coded to capture locations. Age and sex classification of birds captured followed Eng (1955). Sage grouse hunters in North Park in 1975 were required to have in their possession a free numbered permit. Permits unlimited in number were available from Division of Wildlife offices in Fort Collins, Denver, and Colorado Springs, all license agents in North Park, and all project and management personnel assigned to work in North Park during the hunting season. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the sage grouse season in North Park, with one followup letter being mailed in midOctober to all non-respondents. Check stations were operated at three locations (State Line, Gould, Willow Creek Pass) on the opening weekend (13 and 14 September) and the second Sunday (21 September) of the season. Each station was operated from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Data obtained per party were: county of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters), birds observed, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained, and area hunted. One wing was obtained from each bird checked with ovaries being taken from a sample of hens. Efforts were made to ascertain sex by gonadal inspection for a sample of birds. These data were recorded on tags with wings being individually marked with corresponding information concerning actual sex of that bird. Wings were frozen and stored for later analysis. Collected wings were thawed and classified to age (chicks, yearlings, adults) and sex following procedures outlined by Eng (1955), and Beck et al. (1975). Hatching dates ""ere calculated for chicks of the year using data from Pyrah (1963). Description ~J Are~ North Park lies completely in Jackson County, Colorado. This relatively high altitude (7,800 to 8,500 ft) area is essentially a closed basin, as it is encircled by mountain ranges. Drainage is to the north, with lowest elevations occurring north of Cowdrey. Vegetation is principally a sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-grassland type with stream courses being dominated by native grasses, sedges and deciduous shrubs. Detailed geographic, geologic, vegetational and climatic features of the area have been described by Gill (1965), Carr (1967), Beck (1975). Braun and Beck (1976) and will be treated in the final report. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Strutting Ground Counts Counts of male and female sage grouse present on strutting grounds were initiated on 19 March (Alkali Lake) and continued until 20 May (Fish �-90- Hatchery) and 24 May (Railroad). During this interval 129 counts were made of 19 active grounds. Maximum male and female counts per ground are presented in Table 1. The total of 588 cocks counted was somewhat higher than the 527 counted in 1974. Average number of cocks per active ground was 31 in 1975, versus 28 in 1974. Two grounds, Delaney Butte and Lost Creek #2, which were active in 1974 were inactive in 1975, while one ground, Lost Creek #1, inactive in 1974 was active in 1975. In addition, one new ground was located in 1975. This ground, Railroad, was located on 14 May, late in the strutting period. The importance of the total count of 573 females in 1975 is unknown, as comparable data are not available for earlier years. It should also be observed that the count of hens is low, as several grounds, Deer Creek, Lost Creek #1, Railroad, Spring Creek #2, were not counted until late April or early May after the peak period of female attendance. The peak period of hen attendance in 1975 was diffuse, but most grounds experienced highest hen counts during the 15-23 April interval. Estimation of Spring Population Size Reliable estimates of total numbers of sage grouse in North Park during the breeding period are difficult to derive. Major problems involved are those relating to how many males and females of the total population are present on strutting grounds when peak counts are attained and how many of the actual number of strutting grounds in North Park are known. Studies of black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) (Robel 1969) and sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus) (Rippin and Boag 1974), two other species of lek grouse, suggest that no more than 50 percent of the male segment of the population is present on a lek at a given time. If it is assumed that peak. counts of male sage grouse represent 50 percent of the male population in an area, then at least 1,176 (588 x 2) cocks occur in North Park. It is quite obvious that not all strutting ground locations are known, as new grounds have been found every year during which searches have been made. If it is assumed that 75 percent of the active grounds have been located, then a minimum of 5 (.25 x 19) unknown grounds should occur somewhere in North Park. Assuming that these 5 grounds each have an average of 31 cocks during the peak period of male attendance, they represent a minimum of 310 additional cocks (31 x 5 = 155 x 2 = 310). Thus, the total estimated number of cocks in North Park in the spring of 1975 was 1,486. Beck (1975) found a late winter sex ratio of 69 hens to 31 cocks, a value remarkably similar to the sex ratio of adult and yearling birds in the fall harvest (Braun and Beck 1976). If it is assumed that the spring sex ratio of the North Park sage grouse popUlation is similar to that observed in late winter and early fall, then 2 hens occur for every cock. Thus, the total spring hen population can be estimated, based on the estimated number of cocks in the spring population. Therefore, there should have been a minimum of 2,972 hens in the spring population (1,486 x 2 = 2,972). The estimated total spring population of sage grouse in North Park in 1975 was 4,458 birds. �-91Table 1. Sage grouse ground counts, Maximum No. of Males Ground Alkali strutting Lake Date 68 April 50 Canuck 1975. Maximum No. of Females Date 64 April 16 and 21 May 5 84 April 19 22 April 14 and May 7 22 April 11 Coalmont 29 April 8 35 April 22 Cowdrey 115 9 May 2 and 9 2 April 11 and 21 Deer Creek 27 May 17 1 May 13 Delaney Butte 0 Fish Hatchery 69 May 5 Hound 33 April Lost Creek III 18 May 1 Creek 112 0 0 Monahan Draw 6 April Railroad!/ 86 Ridge Road Boettcher Junction 5 North Park, 0 47 April 29 66 April 13 14 April 24 1 April 21 May 14 3 May 24 27 April 33 April 25 Riley 12 May 9 11 April 21 Roth 14 April 22 April 11 Lost 14 21 29 11 Spring Creek III 49 May 9 62 April 22 Spring Creek tI2 14 May 2 and 9 1 April 26 Spring Creek 114 3 April 23 2 April 23 Walden Reservoir 34 April 27 36 April 21 Wattenberg 18 April 26 67 April 5 Total 588 1/ Located in 1975. 573 �-92- Capture and Banding Intensive efforts to capture and band sage grouse in 1975 were initiated on 1 April. Prior to this date, 11 birds (5 males and 6 females) were trapped incidental to other activities in the 1975 calendar year. During the 1 April-26 May interval, 410 sage grouse were banded. One chick of the year was banded in July for a total of 422 sage grouse banded in North Park in 1975 (Table 2). Table 2. Sex and age composition of sage grouse banded in North Park 1975. Males Females Adult 153 67 Subadult 138 63 Chick 0 0 1 Totals 291 130 1 Unknown Distribution of bandings within North Park in 1975 was not equal as only 24 grouse were banded in the northeast portion of the park, while 87 were banded in the southeast part of the park. In contrast, 168 birds were banded in the southwest quadrant, while 143 were banded in the northwest quadrant. Most trapping was accomplished on strutting grounds, consequently, few birds were trapped in the northeast part of the park, as only one known ground occurs in this area. The same is true for the southeast portion of the park, as only 5 active grounds are known in this area. Thus, distribution of the banded sample reflected known distribution of strutting grounds. Sex and age composition of the trap sample does not reflect the actual compo-sition of the population. Based on the 1975 fall harvest sample, actual composition of the spring population was 37 percent males and 63 percent females, somewhat higher than the 31:69 male to female ratio found by ~eck (1975) in late winter. Age composition in the spring of 1975 should have approximated about 31 percent immatures (males and females) to 69 percent adults. Trap samples portray a more even age ratio, primarily because yearlings habituate strutting grounds longer than adults in spring and are probably less wary than experienced, older birds. Trap samples also indicate that males outnumber females by more than 2:1 in the spring population. This is not the actual situation, but rather reflects behavior patterns as males roost at night on strutting grounds where they are vulnerable to trapping. Females cannot be found at night on strutting grounds except during a short period and are not as vulnerable to night lighting and trapping as males. �-93- Females were poorly represented in the trap sa~ple9 as only 130 were banded. While females outnumber males in the population they are difficult to locate at night as they do not commonly roost on strutting grounds. Of the sample of 130 females, 25 were trapped along roads at Qight. while the remainder were trapped on strutting grounds, in early morning with cannon nets (53) or at night (52). In the course of trapping operations, 17 grouse banded in prior years were recaptured. All had been banded as sub adults in either 1973 (!~males, 2 females), or 1974- (9 males. 2 females). The oldest birds in this sample were 3 years of age. Trapping and banding were not accomplished in North Park in the 1970-1972 period. Little use can be made of the recapture data other than longevity, as efforts were made not to recapture birds that were obviously banded. This selection could be made while trapping at night9 as sage grouse frequently stand just prior to being netted. Hunting Season Data Collection The sage grouse season in North Park (Unit 12) in 1975 opened at sunrise on 13 September and closed at sunset on 21 September. This was the longest season for sage grouse held in North Park in modern times. The daily bag limit was two and the possession limit was four. All hunters hunting sage grouse in North Park were required to have in their possession a free special permit. Permits unlimited in number were available at all license agents in North Park, the Fort Collins. Colorado Springs and Denver offices of the Division of Wildlife, and all Wildlife Conservation Officers and research personnel working in North Park. Purpose of the permit was to obtain reliable estimates concerning hunter activities in North Park. Check Stations Three check stations were operated in 1975. These stations were located at the State Line, Gould and Willow Creek Pass. The station at Muddy Pass was not operated, as only 40 hunters who harvested 39 birds were checked at this site in two days in 1974. As in 1974, each station was operated from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Check stations were operated on the 13th. 14th, and 21st. At least one research person and two Wildlife Conservation Officers were assigned to each check station. Data obtained per party were: County of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters). birds observed. birds bagged, birds lost. number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained, and area hunted. Most importantly. one wing was obtained from each bird that was checked. Few birds (67) were completely wingless. Ovaries were collected from over 100 females, and sex by gonadal inspection was ascertained for about 210 birds. During the three days of check station operation. 738 hunters ~","ith 551 sage grouse were checked (Table 3). These hunters reported observing 5,735 sage grouse. Some duplications are undoubtedly present in the 5,735 observations. Hunter efficiency was low (9.6 percent) (551 birds harvested 7 5,735 birds observed), but only 39 birds (7.1 percent of those retrieved) were reported crippled and Los t , Hunter efficiency and crippling loss were slightly higher in 1975 than in 1974 (7.7 and 5.1 percent, respectively). �Table 3. Year North Park sage grouse hunter checks, 1963-1975. -1/ Bag Limit 1963 2 1964 2 1965 'l:.../ 2 1966 2 1967 2 1968 2 1969 2 1970 2 1971 2 1972 2 1973 2 1974 2 1975 2 Hunters Checked Hours Hunted Adult Cocks Adult Hens Percent Adult Juvenile Cocks Juvenile Hens Percent Juvenile 592 217 150 306 300 546 662 564 357 452 366 730 738 2,460 624 626 1,227 1,177 2,604 2,936 2,617 1,802 2,377 1,599 5,912 5,596 62 25 27 31 50 80 79 58 28 50 24 94 98 150 81 30 116 127 135 180 89 67 69 54 254 179 42 59 49 56 67 42 70 55 51 67 52 50 57 113 28 26 45 42 156 37 53 54 40 29 171 96 181 45 26 71 46 141 74 66 39 18 42 179 111 58 41 51 44 33 58 30 45 49 33 48 50 43 Unclassified (Dressed) Birds - 3/ --J/ - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ - 3/ 199 76 76 44 87 67 Total Birds Birds per Hunter Hours Hunted per Bird 506 179 116 263 267 512 569 266 264 253 193 785 551 1.03 0.82 0.77 0.86 0.89 0.94. 0.86 0.47 0.74 0.56 0.53 1.08 0.75 4.86 3.49 5.40 4.67 4.41 5.09 5.16 9.84 6.83 9.40 8.28 7.53 9.85 1/ Data from 1963 through 1973 are based on Walden and Cowdrey check stations operated during opening weekends. (These stations checked ha~lested birds primarily from the northwest part of North Park). Data from 1974 are based on four check stations (State Line, Gould. Muddy Pass and Wi1lmv Creek) operated during the opening weekend, (These stations sampled all of North Park). Data from 1975 are based on three check stations (State Line, Gould, and Willow Creek) operated for three days (Saturday, Sunday, Sunday) of a 9 day season. ~/ A one day season; hence only a one day check. 1/ Composition of kill projected from w.i.ng samples; hence no unclassified birds. I \0 .j:-o I �-95- Distribution of the harvest and hunting pressure within North Park was uneven in 1975. Leading harvest zones were the Lake John area (24.7 percent), Walden Reservoir (16.7 percent), Ridge Road (15.6 percent), Peterson RidgeMcFarlane Reservoir (14.3 percent), and Eagle Hill (9.8 percent). All other zones (Pole Mountain, Independence Mountain, Owl Ridge-Spring Creek, and Michigan River Southeast) contributed only 15.8 percent of the total harvest. Point of harvest could not be ascertained for 3.1 percent of the birds checked. In 1975 percent of total harvest checked increased 8.3 percent from the Lake John area and decreased 7.2 percent in the Owl Ridge-Spring Creek area from levels determined in 1974. With minor exceptions, distribution of hunters closely coincided with distribution of the harvest. Most hunters contacted at check stations were asked whether or not they normally hunted in North Park. Of the 666 hunters responding, 432 (64.9 percent) reported that they normally hunted in North Park, 187 (28.1 percent) were first time sage grouse hunters, while 47 (7.0 percent) reported that they normally hunted elsewhere. Percentage response to this question was almost identical in 1974 (68.3, 24.3, and 7.4 percent, respectively) and 1975. Two important points are apparent from these data. First, there is substantial annual turnover in sage grouse hunters and second, more retrictive seasons west (1974 and 1975) and south (1975) of North Park did not result in major shifts of hunters into North Park. Wing Analyses In 1975 wings were received from 505 sage grouse (484 from check stations and 21 from field checks). Classification of these wings by age and sex gave the following results: Immatures 212 (42.0%) Yearlings = 111 (22.0%) Adults 182 (36.0%) Males = 101 (47.6%) Males = 52 (46.8%) Males = 55 (30.2%) Females = 111 (52.4%) Females 59 (53.2%) Females = 127 (69.8%) These data are somewhat dissimilar from those collected in 1974 in that chicks comprised 42.0 percent of the harvest in 1975 (50.1 percent in 1974) and the sex ratio of yearlings in the harvest in 1975 was nearly even (46.8 percent males:53.2 percent females); whereas in 1974 it was distorted (35.5 percent males:64.5 percent females). This reduction in sex ratio distortion between 1974 and 1975 was also evident in adults (30.2 percent males:69.8 percent females in 1975 to 21.4 percent males:78.6 percent females in 1974). Thus, production was less than excellent in 1975, overwinter survival of chicks hatched in 1974 was slightly better than in 1973 to 1974, and overwinter survival (1974 and 1975) of birds hatched prior to or in 1973 was good. All of these factors contributed to an older and smaller fall population in 1975 than in 1974. Evidence from the 1975 hunting season continues to support the hypotheses of even sex ratios at hatching, and disproportionate survival in older age classes favoring females. �-96- Examination of the molt of primary wing feathers of immature sage grouse harvested in 1975 indicate that hatching started the week of June 1-7, peaked about June 25 to July 5 with some broods still hatching as late as July 27. This is about 7 to 10 days later than in 1974. Wings of 185 females (adult = 126, yearling = 59) were classified as to wing molt. An estimated 48.6 percent (adults = 53.2 percent, yearlings = 39.0 percent) of this sample were successful in nesting. This is only average nesting success. The young to adult hen (including yearling hens) ratio in the harvest was 1.1:1, slightly less than the 1.4:1 ratio in 1974. Hunter Questionnaire A total of 1,541 permits were issued for hunting sage grouse in North Park in 1975, an increase of 357 (30.2 percent) over 1974. As in 1974, most hunters (47.4 percent) were from the metro Denver area (Adams 6.4 percent, Arapahoe 8.5 percent, Denver 16.8 percent Jefferson 15.6 percent). Only 8.4 percent of the hunters originated from Jackson County, with 20.9 percent from Larimer County, 8.1 percent from Boulder County, and 5.2 percent from Weld County. All other counties each contributed less than 2 percent of the total hunters and only 9.1 percent of all hunters. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately follOWing the sage grouse season in North Park. Responses were received from 905 permittees. In mid-October a followup letter was sent to all non-respondents and 204 additional responses were received. In all, 1,356 permittees (88.0 percent) responded (Table 4). Only 19 questionnaires were undeliverable. Mean values calculated for permittees responding to the followup letter were used to project for the 12.0 percent (185) non-respondents. From data in Table 4 it is apparent that 77.0 percent of all permittees went .hunting, and only 38.3 percent of those actually hunting were successful. These hunters harvested 979 sage grouse and reported crippling and losing an additional 74 birds. The total calculated harvest in North Park in 1975 was 1,053 birds, down slightly (10.3 percent) from the 1,174 birds harvested in 1974. Time period of harvest was received for 862 birds. Of this sample, 83.3 percent (718) was harvested on the opening weekend (13 and 14 September), 8.2 percent (71) during the week (15-19 September), while 8.5 percent (73) was harvested during the last weekend (20 and 21 September). It is not known how many birds are harvested on the last day of a three day season, consequently, direct comparisons cannot be made. However, if it is assumed that 85 percent of the harvest in 1975 occurred during the initial three days of the season, then the longer season in 1975 resulted in an additional 158 sage grouse being harvested, for a 15 percent increase in total harvest. Contrary to impressions from field observations, more hunters were afield during the opening weekend in 1975 than in 1974. In 1974, hunters had few choices when they could hunt. Thus, all hunters (960 actual hunters) hunted sometime during the three day season. In 1975, hunters had a choice of when they wanted to hunt. Examination of questionnaire data reveal that 88.6 percent of all hunters (1,052) hunted during the opening weekend. Only 5.2 percent (62) hunted during the week, while 6.9 percent (82) hunted during the second weekend. (The total of 1,196 hunters is more than the 1,187 calculated in Table 4 because a few hunters participated in more than one time period). �-97Table 4. North Park sage grouse hunter questionnaire data, 1975. No. in sample 1,356 204 1,152 88.0 Projected for Projected for 1,541 185 1,541 12.0 100.0 Percent of total permittees 74.8 13.2 No. of hunters 905 148 Percent hunters 78.5 72 .5 77.7 72.5 77.0 No. of non-hunters 247 56 303 51 354 Percent non-hunters 21.5 27.5 22.3 27.5 23.0 No. of successful hunters 373 43 416 39 455 Percent successful hunters 41.2 29.1 39.5 29.1 38.3 No. of hunter days Days/hunter No. of sage grouse bagged 1,594 257 1.76 806 91 2,084 233 1,851 1.74 1,187 134 1,053 1.76 1. 74 979 82 897 1. 76 Grouse/permittee .70 .45 .66 .45 .64 Grouse/hunter .89 .61 .85 .61 .82 Grouse/successful hunter 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.2 No. of grouse lost 66 4 70 4 74 .073 Crippling loss/ hunter Total kill 872 .027 95 967 .062 .027 .066 86 1,053 Percent crippling loss 7.57 4.21 7.23 4.65 7.03 Percent success of permittees 32.4 21.1 30.7 21.1 29.5 Banded birds 60 1 61 1 62 Non-deliverab1e surveys 19 0 19 o 19 Percent nondeliverable 1.23 �-100percent of the cocks banded in 1975 harvested (Fish Hatchery,S of 36 = 13.9; Alkali Lake, 2 of 14 = 14.3; Walden Reservoir, 2 of 14 = 14.3; Lost Creek No. 1, 2 of 13 = 15.4; Railroad,S of 27 = 18.5). Considering all recoveries in 1975 of males banded from 1973 to 1975, a mlnlmum of 7 of a high count of 33 males were harvested from Hound Strutting Ground, 6 of 68 were harvested from Alkali Lake, 7 of 69 from Fish Hatchery, 3 of 34 from Walden Reservoir, 3 of 12 from Riley,S of 86 from Railroad, with all other grounds having 2 or less banded cocks harvested. It is not presently known at what level of harvest decreases will occur in peak numbers of cocks counted on grounds the following spring. However, the 21 and 25 percent removal of the total cocks counted at Hound and Riley strutting grounds may result in decreases in peak cock counts in 1976 at these grounds. Estimation of Fall Population Size Estimates of fall population size are difficult to derive, primarily because of unknown vulnerability of chicks and inexact mortality rates for all age classes. Provided that birds of all age and sex classes are equally vulnerable to hunters and that the annual mortality rate of all banded sage grouse approxiamtes 50 percent, the 1975 fall population size can be estimated as follows: No. of Birds Banded 1973 = 288 1974 = 191 1975 Alive in 1974 Alive in 1975 Assumptions 144 72 95 50 percent dying each year 50 percent dying from 1974 to 1975 10 percent dying by 1 September 422 380 Total banded birds alive on 1 Sept. 547 Thus, there were 547 banded birds possible in the fall population, of which 62 were harvested. If 58 percent of the 1,053 birds harvested (Table 4) were adults and yearlings (from wing analysis) then 611 of the birds harvested were older than one year. Of this number, 62 (10.1 percent) were banded. Thus, there should have been about 6,100 adult and yearling birds alive in North Park in the fall of 1975 (if 10.1 percent = 611 birds, then 100 percent = 6,100 birds). Immature birds comprised 42 percent (from wing analysis) of the harvest, thus there should have been about 4,000 chicks in the 1975 ;i.on· tpe fa ~ fall population. The total rgr1JJ.~ u ot I nou ,~~~! J + ,00. Of the 293 adult and yearling birds for which wings were available, 186 (63.5 percent) were from females. Thus, of the approximately 6,110 adult and yearling birds in the preseason population, 3,880 (6,110 x 63.5 = 3,874) were hens. Thus, total chicks in the fall population in 1975 based on 1.1 chicks per hen in the harvest (1.1 x 3,874 = 4,261) approximated 4,261. This estimate is remarkably similar to the 4,000 chicks in the fall population estimated from overall age ratios and band recoveries win the 1975 harvest. These data do not suggest that chicks are more vulnerable to hunting than are adul ts. �-101It is interesting to compare estimates of adults and yearling alive in the spring and fall. Spring estimates based on strutting ground counts indicate that only about 4,500 birds (4,458) were present, while fall estimates based on age and sex ratios in the harvest and band recovery data indicate that about 6,100 adult and yearling birds were present. This is a difference of about 1,600 birds. It is probable that spring estimates are low because either (1) more strutting grounds occur than are known or suspected, or (2) peak strutting ground counts represent less than 50 percent of the cocks present in an area. It is also possible that fall estimates based on harvest age and sex ratios and band recoveries are somewhat high because (1) hunters are not adequately sampling the actual sex and age composition of the population, (2) banded birds are unevenly distributed in the population, (3) banded birds are more vulnerable than unbanded birds, or (4) large numbers of bands recovered are not reported. LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis, Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 49 (revised). Colo. Div. Wildlife. 4 pp. Braun, C. E., and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Final Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. In Press. Carr, H. D. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. rado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis, Colo- Eng. R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19(2):267-272. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 187 pp. Patterson, R. L. 1952. Denver. 341 pp. The sage grouse in Wyoming. Sage Books, Inc., Pyrah, D. G. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Wildlife Restoration Div., Job Compl. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-125-R. 71 pp, Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations of male sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4) :616-621. �-102- Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements and flock stratification within a population of blackcocks in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 38(5):755-763. P repa re d b Y / ?f:-;/ 1:/ t:::"7~' /-=-_/_'-"-_"1 -, ...;c;;;.. __--::- -:,::_-.;;...r..:::Vi..;.,.l..;.- - / -:::-i__ fr j /i Z _'_-C-:--_/L.:-- L_- _h.-_-- Clait E. Braun •. ,.c Wildlife Researcher / _ �April, 1976 -103JOB PROGRESS COLORADO State of Project REPORT W-37-R-2,.::...9 No. _ Game Bird Survey Job No. 9 - Part 2 Hork Plan No. -----=3 Evaluation of the Effects of Changes in Hunting Regulations Job Title __ •..• --- ~-~ n'rOO ~ Invest; S-"'8C1';g€.-Grouse· Nes..t.i.n.g-S.ucC=---..c1J.1..LL-U gat; ons on Q Period Covered: Personnel: 1 July 1975 to 31 March 1976 Carrol Donner and Fred Giese, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Heather Alexander, Tom Beck, Clait Braun, Howard Funk, Don Gore, Ed Kautz, Sue McElderry, Steve Porter, Sue Quinlan, Steve Steinert, John Wagner of Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Studies were initiated in 1975 to develop techniques to determine production of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) (nesting success and brood size) prior to September 1. In all, 184 sage grouse were observed during July and August. Twelve single broods and 6 groups of multiple broods were counted. Young to mature hen ratio for all broods was 1.7:1. Comparing systematic searches on foot to roadside searches from a vehicie, broods were more readily located and observed from the road. Responses to tape recorded chick distress calls were immediate from hens with young broods but varied as broods matured. Early in July broods occupied medium to dense sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) bordering areas of succulent vegetation. In August broods moved to the more open areas frequented by broodless hens and adult males. P'recf.pLt a t Lon over the summer months was less than normal. Although the Weather Bureau in North Park reported a marked difference in the amount of rainfall north and south of Owl and Peterson Ridges in August, measurements from rain gauges at selected sites over the park indicated a relatively uniform precipitation distribution. Estimated nesting success from wings of 185 females was 49 percent (adult = 53 percent, yearling = 39 percent). Only 75 percent of sexually mature hens appeared to have ovulated (adult = 77 percent, yearling = 67 percent). The sex ratio of juveniles in the harvest was nearly even, however, evidence to conclude that vulnerability of chicks to hunting is the same as for yearlings and adults is lacking. �-104- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Efforts should be increased to locate broods systematic searches early in summer. 2. Methods 3. Ovarian material should continue colorless fixitive is advised. should be devised through the use of to capture chicks and hens in August. to be collected and the use of a �-105- NESTING SUCCESS AND BROOD INVESTIGATIONS Heather F. Alexander In 1975 an intensive la-year study to determine the effects of sagebrush spraying on sage grouse in North Park, Colorado was completed. During the 1963-74 period, some population data were obtained through strutting ground counts, trapping and banding operations and hunter check stations. In 1975, intensive studies of the population dynamics and effects of hunting on sage grouse in North Park were initiated. As one part of the overall study, investigations were made of techniques suitable for locating broods, capturing chicks and estimating production levels. Production is the key factor influencing population size prior to the hunting season. In order to accurately estimate production, improved techniques to census broods and greater understanding of brood ecology are necessary. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are to increase hunter opportunity and recrea~ tional use of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. Hypotheses which have been developed are: (1) hens with broods readily respond to recorded chick distress calls, (2) distribution of hens with broods is related to moisture and vegetation patterns within 2 air miles of strutting grounds, (3) differences exist between yearling and adult hens in percent ovulating, and nesting success and (4) vulnerability to hunting of both sexes of chicks is the same as for adults and yearlings. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Chicks will be located and trapped in brood areas during late July and August through use of tape recorded calls and noosing. Some chicks may be caught through use of mist nets and drive traps. A sample of 200 chicks (100 males and 100 females) will be marked each year with colorcoded leg bands or wing tags. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. 2. Nesting success will be estimated through counts of successful and unsuccessful hens in July and August. Successful females will be located through use of tape-recorded calls, while unsuccessful hens will be located and counted in known summer use sites. A sample of 200 hens will be classified each year. 3. Brood size will be determined by counts of chicks accompanied by hens in July and August. A sample of 100 broods will be counted each year. �-106- 4. August precipitation will be determined from 12 rain gauges placed at selected sites throughout sage grouse habitat. Sites will be selected that typify particular areas within North Park. Each rain gauge will be sampled once a week. Data collected will be compared to that collected by -t.he U. S. Weather Bureau in Walden. 5. Check stations will be operated at three locations each year during the first two weekends of the hunting season. These stations will be at Gould, State Line and Willow Creek Pass. A goal of 500 wings is desired each year. 6. Age composition of the harvest will be determined through examination of wings collected at check stations. Classification will be as adult, yearling, juvenile, and male and female. 7. Compile data, analyze results and prepare progress report. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Much of the published literature on sage grouse mentions various aspects of brood ecology as one segment of a brooder research topic. Relatively few research projects have been devoted to broods exclusively. Notable among these are studies by Walles tad (1970) on dispersal and habitat use and Peterson (1970) on distribution and food habits. Patterson (1952) contributed much to the overall knowledge of sage grouse life history. Census techniques for sage grouse broods have been discussed by Rogers (1964), Eng (1952), Klebenow (1969) and Martin (1970). Eng (1955), Pyrah (1963), and more recently Beck et al. (1975) described sex and age determination from wing characteristics. Food habits were intensively studied by Griner (1939) and Klebenow and Gray (1967); while Gill (1965), Eng (1952), and Wallestad and pyrah (1974) discussed dispersal. Three. sources (Stanton 1958, Pyrah 1958 and Dalke et ale 1963) described collection and examination of sage grouse ovaries. By far the majority of publications on sage grouse during the past 10 to 15 years have dealt with habitat requirements of all sex and age classes. Important studies are those of Carr (1967), Klebenow (1972), Eng and Schladweiler (1972) and Martin (1970). METHODS AND MATERIALS Brood Observations Hens with broods were located during July and August by two general methods; systematic searches of selected areas and observations along roadsides. Systematically searching for broods involved walking moist areas and drainages within 2 air miles of known strutting grounds with a tape recorded chick distress call (Braun 1969 and Walles tad 1970). Other areas within North Park which appeared to be suitable brood habitat were selected to census in the same manne r• �-107Searches for broods were also made from a vehicle traveling previously established brood census routes (Gill 1965) and other suitable appearing areas. These routes were traveled shortly after sunrise at a speed of approximately 15 to 20 miles per hour. For routes traveled successive mornings, direction of travel was alternated. Tests for response to tape recorded chick distress calls were conducted of all grouse encountered. Standardized observation cards were used to record date, time, number of each sex and age of grouse observed, and to describe data on location, weather, vegetation and brood behavior. Vegetative characteristics of brood sites were described qualitatively. Gills' (1965) classification of Artemisia tridentata was used to describe sagebrush growth forms; dense, vigorous sage (A-3) , sagebrush in open stands of medium height (A-2), and sparse sagebrush characteristic of ridge tops and poor site conditions (A-I). Trapping and Banding Once broods were located, attempts were made to capture chicks. As all birds were quite capable of flight, two methods of capture were used. A 5 m telescoping noose pole described by Braun (1969) equipped with 40.5 Kg (90 lb) plastic coated steel wire and a short handled hoop net were tested. The handle of the hoop net was approximately 1.5 m in length with a 0.6 m diameter hoop. Upon capture, chicks were banded with numbered aluminum patagium tags if age was less than 6-8 weeks or numbered aluminum leg bands if over 8 weeks of age. All birds captured were weighed with primary length and molt, and possible age and sex being recorded. Precipitation Measurement Twelve standard sunken or pit rain gauges were randomly established in sagebrush types over North Park to measure precipitation and describe precipitation patterns prior to the hunting season. Each gauge was constructed for temporary use from two 3.8 liter (1 gal) tin cans soldered together. Inside diameter was 15.2 em (6 in). Splash shields were made from burlap approximately 1 m square. Rodent screens of 0.1 em (1/4 in) wire mesh were installed about 20 em below ground level. Diesel fuel was used to retard water evaporation. All rain gauges were checked and weighed weekly Wing and Ovarian through August. Examination During the 1975 sage grouse hunting season, three check stations were operated in North Park. These stations were located at the State Line, Gould and Willow Creek Pass on September 13, 14 and 21. �-108One wing from most birds checked and ovaries from most mature females retaining them were collected. Each ovary was placed in a numbered vial containing Bouin's fixitive. The vial number was recorded on a tag attached to the wing taken from the same bird. All wings were examined and assigned to age and sex classes. Nesting success was estimated for yearling and adult females from primary wing molt (Beck et ale 1975). Ovaries were examined and classified as having or not having ovulated following techniques described by Meyer et ale (1947). STUDY AREA North Park, Colorado was chosen for field study due to past sage grouse research and management efforts in this area. North Park (Jackson County) borders Wyoming in north-central Colorado, immediately west of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The park is essentially a semi-arid basin enclosed by mountains. The topography is generally flat to rolling varying in elevation from 2,400 to 2,585 m above sea level. Noted exceptions are two prominent ridges extending northwest seemingly splitting the park into north and south segments. About 64 percent of the land area lies to the north of Owl and Peterson Ridges. The geography of North Park has been completely described by Beck (1975). Two main vegetative types are evident. Big sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata) dominates the sagebrush type which occupies approximately 1,252 sq km, almost one fifth of the area of North Park. Irrigated native hay meadows make up the second prominent vegetative type, nearly 620 sq km or about one third of the suitable sage grouse habitat (Beck 1975). Climatically, North Park can be described as part of the Upper Sonoran life zone receiving less than 65 em of precipitation annually, about half falling as snow in autumn, winter and spring. During the summer months (June-August), average preCipitation is normally 9.25 em north of Owl and Peterson Ridges (U. S. Weather Bureau, Walden) and 10.87 em to the south (U. S. Weather Bureau, Spicer). Fairly uniform seasonal temperatures and extreme temperature fluctuations between night and day are characteristic of montane regions (Trewartha 1968). Constant winds are also a factor in North Park. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Brood Observations Systematic Searches Five of 12 single sage grouse broods were observed by systematic searching during July and August in North Park. Complete counts of 2 of these broods of young chicks were not obtained due to concealment of the young (Table 1). Two multiple broods were encountered with a young to female ratio of 1:2. �Table 1. Brood observations, July and August 1975, North Park. Single Broods Method Systematic Search Sub-total Roadside Search Sub-total Females youngll 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 5 5 4 1 3 1 7 22 y/F Rati~1 2.3:1 3.1:1 Mu1tiE1e Broods young·!.! y/F Rati~1 Females 6 3 1.0:2 2 1 1.0:2 8 4 1.0:2 3 6 3 7 12 7 2.3:1 2.0:1 2.3:1 12 26 2.2:1 I I-' 0 \D Total 11 21 11 l(}~j 29 2.9:1 20 Counts of chicks are considered to be minimal. Ratio = Young to Female. Of 12 broods observed, counts of chicks were made on only 10. y/F 30 1.5 :1 I �-110Only 2 hens with broods responded verbally to the tape recorded chick distress call. No hens with mUltiple broods responded. Most broods were encountered in early morning between 0730 and 0930. Although some broods were sighted in mid-day, none were observed in the evening. Seventeen unsuccessful hens and 3 adult males were also observed. Roadside Searches Seven of 12 single broods with a young to hen ratio of 3.1:1 were first observed from a vehicle. Although the established Lake John brood census route was traveled to a lesser extent than generally traveled throughout North Park, broods were observed on only the Lake John route. This route was traveled six times in July and August. Three broods were counted on two mornings. Multiple broods were observed late in August. The young to female ratio for all single broods observed was 2.2:1 (Table 1). As with systematic searches, most broods were observed in early morning between 0730 and 0900. Only one brood was sighted in the evening. Of the broods observed, only one hen with young responded verbally to the chick distress call. Fourteen broodless females and 68 males were observed. Considering all broods counted, the young to hen ratio was approximately 2.0:1, somewhat higher than the 1.1:1 ratio calculated from wings taken during the 1975 sage grouse hunting season. It would appear from these data that broods are more readily located and counted from the road. Response to Tape-recorded Chick Distress Calls A variety of both verbal and behavioral responses to the tape recorded chick distress call were encountered. Although some overlap exists, response patterns associated with particular groups are apparent. Hens with broods of young chicks (less than 5 weeks) reacted to the call in much the same way as ptarmigan females (Braun et ale 1973). Depending on the visibility and proximity of the observer, the hen either moved slowly toward or away from the source of the call. In one instance, a female flew about the head of the observer. Verbal responses were given immediately. Hens continued to make low guttoral noises as the call was repeated. They were reluctant to fly and did so only if approached too quickly. Flights were short and the hens appeared reluctant to leave the area where their broods were assumed to be. Hens with older broods usually did not respond verbally to the call of a young chick. In all instances the hen remained still, either alert or squatting depending on the visibility of the observer. These hens took flight readily, usually flying over 300 m. �-111When the call was played to chicks, they would freeze or hide beneath sagebrush where they were extremely difficult to locate. Birds five weeks and older would fly readily from sudden movement or noise. Some vocalized as they flushed. Broodless females were highly variable in their responses. Early in July, unsuccessful hens became alert at the sound of the call but no other response could be detected. When the call was played to broodless females observed late in July, the call produced a similar alert response. With continued calling, two of the hens approached the vehicle within 15 m. Both appeared agitated and clucked while moving about in one spot and looking at the vehicle. Neither noticed a badger (Taxidea taxus) which emerged from a hole immediately behind the hens and then disappeared. These two broodless hens may have lost their broods just prior to being observed and tested. Groups of males in general showed no apparent reaction to the call. From these observations it would appear that chick distress calls were effective in eliciting responses from hens with young broods. However, responses decreased as broods matured. It should be noted that the call used was that of a young chick. If recordings were available from older juveniles, it is possible that most hens with broods may respond. Trapping and Banding Only two chicks were captured and marked. Both were caught in the southern portion of North Park within two days of each other on July 25 and 27. One was captured by hoop net in sagebrush of medium height and density (A-2). The other was caught with the noose pole in sparse A-I sagebrush type. Chicks hidden under sagebrush plants were well concealed. They could not be observed from the distance required for use of the noose pole. The short handled hoop net proved to be useful in this instance. When chicks were quite visible, capture was attempted with the noose pole. Trapping by these means was difficult. As brood organization broke down in August and large groups of birds moved to more open areas (pastures and hay meadows), capture using these methods was not possible. Characterization of Summer Use Sites In July, hens with broods were generally found in medium A-2 sagebrush adjacent to areas of succulent vegetation. In many situations, free water from irrigation ditches was available. The importance of free water for grouse broods in North Park is not known. It is possible all water requirements are met by eating succulent vegetation. In August, more broods were observed in open pastures and hay meadows near willow (Salix spp.). Frequently free water was available from nearby creeks and irrigation ditches. By mid-August most ditches were dry. �-112Broodless females and adult males, although segregated from hens with chicks, were often found in similar sites throughout the summer. These groups of grouse appeared to prefer open areas of sparse sagebrush cover in July while mowed hay meadows and pastures near willow were used in August. It was not uncommon to find large segregated groups of males, and females and young utilizing the same areas prior to the hunting season. Precipitation Measurement From climatological data obtained from the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Commerce, summer precipitation north of Owl and Peterson Ridges was 17.1 percent below the 30 year average while precipitation in the south over the three summer months was 13.2 percent below normal (Table 2). August precipitation data obtained from the Weather Bureau Station at Walden indicated that the northern portion of the park received 62.0 percent more rainfall than the southern portion, 13.1 percent above the 30-year average. During this period, precipitation in the southern portion of the park was 46.6 percent below normal as derived from the Spicer Station. Table 2. Summer precipitation, North Park, Colorado (1975)!~ Station June PreciEitation (cm) July August Total Walden 1.47 2.49 3.71 7.67 Walden, 30-year average 2.82 3.15 3.28 9.25 Spicer 2.82 4.32 2.29 9.43 Spicer, 30-year average 3.48 3.10 4.29 10.87 !/ Climatological Data, U. s. Department of Commerce (1975). Due to heat and wind, the diesel fuel used to prevent moisture loss in the 12 rain gauges began to evaporate within the first week in the field. Since the apparent rate of evaporation was low, untreated measurement data obtained from the gauges were used to examine distribution of rainfall over the park. Average August precipitation from the rain gauges was obtained from both the northern and southern portions of North Park (Table 3). From these data, rainfall appeared to have been evenly distributed over the park. Although rainfall south of Owl and Peterson Ridges was still below normal, the difference was less than 20 percent. Rainfall north of Owl and Peterson Ridges was slightly above average (1.8 percent). It appeared that rainfall in August paralleled Owl and Peterson Ridges and tracked NNW of Peterson Ridge. �-113- Table 3. Rain gauge data, August 1975. 1/ Gauge- Precipitation (em) X Precipitation (em) 3.48 South Manville Draw 5.85 McFarlane Reservoir 2.57 Deer Creek 2.02 Peterson Ridge 3.67 Lerand 3.28 3.34 North ViIs Ranch 4.03 Roth 2.53 McCallum 2.56 Canadian River 4.14 California Gulch 2.39 Lake John 2.53 Walden Reservoir 5.19 1/ General location of rain gauges south and north of Owl and Peterson Ridges. Wing and Ovarian Analysis Nesting success was estimated from examination of primary molt of wings from 185 females (adults = 126, yearlings = 59) collected at check stations. Since molt is delayed in females during the nesting and brooding cycle, those females with primary wing molt resembling that of males (completed molt or retaining old primaries 10 and 9) were probably unsuccessful in nesting or lost their broods shortly after hatching. Those females retaining old primaries 10, 9, and 8 or more were most likely successful nesters. Of all females, 48.6 percent (adults = 53.2 percent, yearlings = 39.0 percent) were estimated to be successful in nesting (Table 4). Independent estimates of nesting success were made from counts of brooded and unbrooded hens observed throughout July and August. Seventeen unbrooded hens were observed while only 12 females known to be successful were sighted. Nesting success from this method was estimated to be 41.4 percent. However, successful and unsuccessful hens could not be distinguished in groups of multiple broods. Thus, these data may be unrealistic. �-114- Table 4. Analysis of primary molt of hunter harvested female sage grouse, 1975. Age Class Primary Molt < 7 Primary Molt > 7 Total Yearling 23 (39.0%) 36 (61.0%) 59 Adult 67 (53.2%) 59 (46.8%) 126 Adult & Yearling 90 (48.6%) 95 (51.4%) 185 Percent ovulation was determined from examination of 135 ovaries (adults = 69, yearlings = 39, juveniles = 13) collected at check stations. The appearance of ovulated follicles on the surface of the ovary signified normal ovulation. An estimated 24.6 percent of sexually mature hens (adults = 23.2 percent, yearlings = 30.8 percent) did not appear to have ovulated though many showed signs of stimulation (Table 5). Table 5. Ovarian analYSis of hunter harvested sage grouse, 1975.1/ Age Unclassified Non-ovulating Ovulating Total Juvenile 0 (0.0) 13 (100.0) 0 (0.0) 13 Yearling 1 (2.5) 12 ( 30.8) 26 (66.7) 39 Adult 0 (0.0) 16 ( 23.2) 53 (76.8) 69 Unknown (>1 Yr.) 0 (0.0) 2 ( 14.3) 12 (85.7) 14 Adult & Yearling 1 (0.8) 30 ( 24.6) 91 (74.6) 121 1/ Percentages are given in parentheses. These data do not agree with previous findings. In a study in Wyoming, Pyrah (1958) presented no data but reported positive ovulation of mature hens greater than 95 percent. Stanton (1958) reported all adult females (32) from a sample in Idaho had ovulated while one fourth (5/20) of the yearlings had not. A number of factors might have introduced error into the results. The use of the yellow Bouin's solution appeared to mask the reddish pigment indicative of ovulated follicles as involution progresses (Kabat et a1. 1948). When ovulated follicles regress in size, some may become indistinguishable from neighboring follicles. Thus an ovary from an early laying hen may not appear to have ovulated. �-115Kabat (1947) studied the resorption rate of ovulated follicles from hen pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and concluded that few, if any, had disappeared by mid-September. It would seem unlikely that birds with lower ovulation rates, such as sage grouse, would resorb follicles at a faster rate. Another source of error may lie in the condition of the ovaries. Although complete ovaries were believed obtained in most cases, some ovaries may have been only portions of the total organ. Since only a relatively small area of the ovary may become active, should this portion be lost, the ovary would appear non-ovulatory. Data from both ovarian analysis and examination of wing molt indicate that adult hens were more successful in laying and brooding than yearlings. Chick Vulnerability to Hunting To determine if chick vulnerability to hunting is the same as for adults and yearlings, a spring population of 5,000 birds was estimated. Winter observations (Beck 1975), indicate that sex ratios of males to females in early spring approach 30:70. Thus, 3,500 females would occur in North Park out of a total population of 5,000 (.70 x 5000). For 3,500 females, if we assume 53.2 percent nesting success from wing molt data in the harvest and a production estimate of 2.0 chicks per clutch (from brood observation data), the resulting fall population of juveniles would have been 3,724 individuals at the minimum. Not allowing for spring to fall mortality of adults and yearlings, the fall population would have consisted of 1,500 cocks (.30 x 5000), 3,500 hens and 3,724 chicks for a total of 8,724 birds. Of this total, 17.2 percent would be adult and yearling males, 40.1 percent would be adult and yearling females, while 42.7 percent would be juveniles. Of 505 sage grouse wings collected during the hunting season, 21.2 percent (107/505) were adult and yearling males, 36.8 percent (186/505) were adult and yearling females and 42.0 percent (212/505) were juveniles. Thus, it would appear that chicks are harvested in the same proportion as they appear in the population. No differential mortality in the harvest was evident for juveniles as 47.6 percent were males and 52.4 percent were females. However, there was some disparity between adult and yearling male and female ratios in the harvest as all females comprised 63.5 percent of the adult and yearlings harvested. This may be due to hunter selection for smaller birds. Interviews of hunters at check stations suggest that most do not have the opportunity to select birds when hunting since most hunters do not attain the bag limit. Consequently, all birds flushed within shooting distance are fired upon. LITERATURE CITED Beck, T. D. I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins 49 pp. _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Information Leaflet 49 (revised) 4 pp. �-116Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 189 pp. _____ , R. K. Schmidt, and G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado whitetailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded calls. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(1):90-93. Carr, H. D. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis. Colo. Dalke, P. D., D. B. Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, J. E. Crawford, and E. F. Schlatterer. 1963. Ecology, productivity and management of sage grouse in Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):811-841. Eng, R. L. 1952. Detailed studies of population trends and breeding potential. Montana Fish and Game Corom.,Wildl. Restoration Div. Quarterly Progress Rept. 3(4):56-62. _____ . 1955. A method of obtaining sage grouse age and sex from wings. Wildl. Manage. 19(2):267-272. ----- , and P. Schladweiler. use in central Montana. J. 1972. Sage grouse winter movements and habitat J. Wildl. Manage. 36(1):141-146. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 187 pp. Griner, L. A. 1939. A study of the sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) with special reference to life history, habitat requirements, and numbers and distribution. M. S. Thesis. Utah State Agr. ColI., Logan. 83 pp. Kabat, C. 1947. Reading breeding history from pheasant ovaries. Univ. Wisconsin, Madison. 38 pp. M. S. Thesis. ----- , I. O. Buss, and oR. K. Meyer. 1948. The use of ovulated follicles in determining eggs laid by the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 12(4):399-416. Klebenow, D. A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting and brood habitat in Idaho. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):649-662. J. 1972. The habitat requirements of sage grouse and the role of fire in management. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conf. 12:305-315. ----- , and G. M. Gray. 1967. Manage. 21(2):80-83. Food habits of juvenile sage grouse. J. Range Martin, N. S. 1970. Sagebrush control related to habitat and sage grouse occurrence. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2):313-320. Meyer, R. K., C. Kabat, and I. O. Buss. 1947. Early involutionary changes in the post-ovulatory follicles of the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 11(1):43-49. �-117Patterson, R. L. 1952. The sage grouse in Wyoming. Wyo. Game and Fish Comm., and Sage Books Inc., Denver, Colorado. 341 pp. Peterson, J. C. 1970. The food habits and summer distribution of juvenile sage g~ouse in central Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1):147-155. Pyrah, D. B. 1958. Wyoming's sage grouse management program. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm. 38:184-186. Proc. West. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept. Compl. Rept., Proj. W-12l-R-2. 71 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. Fish and Parks Dept. Tech. Publ. 16. 132 pp. Job Colo. Game, Stanton, D. C. 1958. A study of breeding and reproduction in a sage grouse population in southeastern Idaho. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 87 pp. Trewartha, G. T. 1968. An intruduction to climate, 4 ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 408 pp. U. S. Department of Commerce. 1975. Climatological data, Colorado. 80(6-8). Wallestad, R. 1970. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse broods in central Montana. M.S. Thesis. Mont. State Univ., Bozeman. 51 pp. 1975. Montana. Life history and habitat requirements of sage grouse in central Mont. Fish and Game Dept., Game Manage. Div. 65 pp. _____ , and D. B. Pyrah. 1974. Movements and nesting requirements of sage grouse hens in central Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):630-633. Prepared by ;iJj~A/(, a~t.~" Y-d ..z(h4.· Heather F. Alexander " .;:.' Graduate Research Assistant .,1.. Approved by / J ~~~~~.~~~.~~~. __~,c~~~.~/~~~~~~~~d~_~<~~(~/~PL/~· Clait E. Braun ,""," Wildlife Researcher ��April 1976 -119JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. 10 3 Investigations of the Distribution and Status of Sagebrush and Sage Grouse in the Moffat County Area Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-29 January 1, 1976 to March 31, 1976 Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A study was designed and implemented to ascertain the distribution and status of sagebrush and the distribution, status and trends of sage grouse populations in the Moffat County area. Field work was started on January 5, 1976 and continued through March 26, 1976. An inspection of past sage grouse strutting ground census data for the Moffat County area gathered by Division of Wildlife's Research and Management Personnel indicates populations apparently peaked in 1969 and have apparently been declining since then. Numbers of active grounds counted each spring have also declined steadily since 1969, so caution is advised in using these trends until more information is gathered. At least eight sage grouse wintering flock locations were identified through field surveys in the Moffat County area during January, February, and March 1976. Two isolated instances of sage grouse mortalities were found during this period while checking for sage grouse and field signs. �-120- INVESTIGATIONS OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF SAGEBRUSH AND SAGE GROUSE IN THE MOFFAT COUNTY AREA Donald M. Hoffman P. S. OBJECTIVES Major objectives of this study are to (1) ascertain the distribution of sagebrush in the Moffat County area, (2) determine the status (i. e. principally alterations) of sagebrush in this area, (3) delineate the distribution of sage grouse in the Moffat County area, and (4) identify the past and present trend of sage grouse population status in this area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review Moffat literature concerning County area. vegetative descriptions for studies in the 2. Ascertain the distribution of sagebrush through examination of vegetative maps and aerial photographs obtained from public land management agencies. 3. Examine records of public land management agencies to determine information is available concerning alterations of sagebrush. 4. Delineate sage grouse distribution through examination and Federal Agencies, interviews of selected personnel field reconnaissance. 5. Record locations of sage grouse observed vegetative type. 6. Ascertain 7. Compile data into maps and/or overlays 8. Prepare progress what of records of State and landowners, and by date and time, location, trends in sage grouse populations from management and surveys. and tables. report. METHODS AND MATERIALS A preliminary review of literature concerning vegetative descriptions from studies in the Moffat County area was made in the Division of Wildlife's (DOW) Research Center, and Colorado State University (CSU) libraries. Major areas of sagebrush range were outlined on Colorado Division of Highway's road maps for Moffat County, scale one-half inch per mile, using types outlined on U. S. Soil Conservation Service's (SCS) range resource maps, combined �-121with field reconnaissances. Progress was also made in determining the distribution of sage grouse through these field reconnaissances. Unfortunately, many sage grouse areas in Moffat County could not be checked during the period January 1 to March 31, 1976 because of impassable roads and trails. Records of locations, amounts, and types of sagebrush range alterations by Federal agencies in Moffat and western Routt counties were secured from Wildlife Researcher Ron Kufeld (DOW). A search for wintering concentrations of sage grouse was made as weather and road conditions permitted during the months of January, February and March 1976. Locations of sage grouse observed or reported were recorded by date and time, location and vegetative type. Statistics on sage grouse populations using strutting ground counts from Rogers (1964) the Wildlife Management Section, and the northwest Region for Moffat and western Routt counties were compiled. Statistics concerning agricultural activities, human populations, and vehicular license sales in Moffat County were gathered and compiled since these have a direct bearing on this study. Data were compiled into maps and tables and a Job Progress RESULTS Vegetative Descriptions Report was prepared. AND DISCUSSION from Studies in the Moffat County Area A preliminary search of the literature has revealed few vegetative studies completed in the Moffat County area. Two studies list techniques of measuring vegetation which may prove useful in this study in future years. Powell (1968) secured vegetative measurements of sagebrush species in Moffat County utilizing crown cover, height, and density. He used a line intercept method of sampling range vegetation described by Canfield (1941) to determine crown cover and maximum plant height and procedures described in Weaver and Clements (1938) to determine density using belt transects. Vories (1974) inventoried vegetation in the Piceance Basin and adjacent drainages as part of an extensive Oil Shale Study for the Thorne Ecological Institute. He used six transect lines with plots at 400 meter intervals and a nested quadrat system for studying vegetation communities. The nested quadrat system is described by Phillips (1959). During the early 1950's the SCS Office in Denver maintained a file of county map sheets, scale one-half inch per mile, showing sagebrush ranges. A request was made to use these, but they have apparently been misplaced or lost in recent years. Personnel of the SCS in Denver are in the process of compiling a statewide range resource map using work maps prepared by their personnel stationed in the various counties. The County work maps were prepared using a series of range site descriptions which include physiographic, climatic, vegetative, and soil features. Copies of the work maps for Moffat and Routt counties were secured from the Denver office of the SCS. The expected date of publication of the Statewide map is not known. Unfortunately, for Project �-122p~rposes, two or three range site types are often combined within the big sagebrush and complimentary types. These, however, have been quite useful in mapping sage grouse ranges through the delineation of big sagebrush types. Mapping of Sagebrush Ranges Approximately one-half the potential sage grouse range of Moffat County west of Highway 13 was cover type mapped, using one-half inch per mile scale work maps. A copy of the SCS's range resource map for Moffat County, SCS's range site descriptions, and extensive field surveys were used in this work. Major vegetative cover types delineated include: (1) dense (high quality) big sagebrush-grassland, (2) sparse (low quality) big sagebrush-grassland, (3) grassland, (4) cultivated dryland farmland, (5) irrigated farmland, (6) pinonjuniper, (7) mountain shrub, (8) greasewood, and (9) steep and rocky. This survey of major cover types is needed as a basis for measuring alterations of sagebrush communities in future comparisons. A number of areas yet to be cover type mapped are inaccessible during the winter period, so plans are to survey these during the summer of 1976. Sagebrush Alterations Requests for information on alterations of sagebrush ranges in the Moffat County area were made at the SCS and U. S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Offices in Denver, DOW Office in Fort Collins, CSU Extension Service, and U. S. Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASC) Offices in Craig. The best and only complete compilation of sagebrush range conversions on Federal lands containing sage grouse populations (BLM lands) is maintained by Ron Kufeld, DOW, Fort Collins. Copies of all individual project forms and map locations on all completed range conversions on BLM lands were obtained. All of these range conversion projects were completed prior to 1970. The ASC and CSU Extension Service in Craig recommended use of Colorado Agricultural Statistics, published annually by the Colorado Department of Agriculture to obtain estimates of amounts of cropland and numbers of cattle and sheep in Moffat County, since they do not maintain these records. The SCS Office in Craig maintains a complete file of aerial photographs taken approximately four years ago which may be of use in future comparisons of past and present vegetative cover types on specific areas. Sage Grouse Populations Strutting ground census data obtained from counts made by Wildlife Conservation Officers on individual grounds from 1969 through 1975 in Moffat County are listed in Table 1. Similar information for western Routt County is shown in Table 2. These data were compiled from Wildlife Management Section and Northwest Region records. These will be used as a basis for future strutting ground counts to be made by Project as well as Management personnel. �11 Table L Sage grouse strutting ground count data for individual grounds. Moffat County. 1969-1975. Counter(s) L. Vidakovich Name of Ground Karrl.!nRanch Bear Creek Escalante S t a teline (Stuntz) Stock Pond Haslim Cow Camp P. Mason. F. Rinella or C. Brown High Cock Count Total Birds 109 58 79 94 114 58 83 94 75 23 28 35 161 24 28 35 27 28 - 1972 1971 High Total Cock Count Birds High Cock Count Total Birds 87 13 54 63 18 0 2 64 18 0 2 67 87 13 54 63 1973 High Total Cock Count Birds 45 12 33 36 45 12 33 36 1974 High Cock. Total Count Birds 78 14 31 75 1975 High Total Cock Count Birds 78 14 31 76 37 12 22 0 37 12 22 0 57 57 53 124 59 130 367 377 161 248 217 217 84 87 126 126 255 256 43 130 132 142 49 137 154 160 33 92 78 0 36 98 86 0 42 52 94 0 42 55 97 0 8 48 45 75 34 20 6 10 56 62 110 46 30 8 0 57 0 0 30 0 16 0 73 0 0 38 0 16 14 18 58 0 19 0 16 14 21 62 0 27 0 16 0 8 110 0 0 0 0 13 0 8 141 0 0 0 0 14 447 500 203 220 188 194 236 322 103 127 125 140 131 163 Subtotals Spring Creek /11 Cross Hountain III Cross Hountain 112 Big Gulch 111 Big Gulch 112 Big Gulch 113 Big Gulch 114 Grassie Clarida Ranch Lay Creek III Bord Gulch 30 12 26 35 57 72 30 12 28 39 60 83 18 33 27 0 9 9 12 0 0 0 80 37 35 32 0 10 16 15 0 0 0 93 39 0 0 0 0 20 6 8 0 0 65 0 0 0 0 0 27 9 12 0 0 76 0 0 27 0 0 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 71 2 167 10 70 18 32 35 74 20 50 19 0 54 4 18 65 1 167 10 70 17 29 29 50 20 50 19 0 51 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 44 10 31 0 51 10 Subtotals H. Overmeyer or R. Lowry 1970 1969 High Total Cock Birds Count Sand Wash Ridge Road Hay Shed Gee Flats Beaver Basin Sand Wash Rim Goodman Draw Snake River West Powder Wash Hill - - 21 -3 24 54 36 34 67 44 26 - 3 27 57 41 46 71 44 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I ~ N W I �Table 1. Sage grouse strutting 1969 High Cock Total Count Birds Name of Ground Counter(s) P. Mason, F. Rinella or C. Brown (contd.) H. Dobbs, D. Morgan or C. Woodward Timberlake Timberlake Timberlake Fan Rock III 112 #3 Subtotals 26 1970 High Cock Count 3 131 County, 1971 Total Birds High Cock Count Total Birds 4 152 0 72 0 72 1969-1975 1/ - (continued). 1972 High Cock Total Count Birds 1973 High Cock Total Count Birds 1974 High Cock Total Count Birds 0 0 37 0 42 0 0 42 0 - 25 25 0 0 42 1975 High Cock Total Count Birds 83 0 117 0 - 40 25 0 44 37 0 43 45 15 27 473 532 373 405 244 282 166 191 153 195 153 200 158 190 158 208 66 32 0 142 89 37 0 78 93 37 0 162 169 0 73 130 196 0 79 130 70 12 8 158 70 12 8 281 0 0 96 57 29 0 129 0 96 52 27 155 212 0 - 46 24 131131 137 444 462 338 446 215 240 204 292 372 405 248 371 87 66 57 67 0 70 93 68 59 67 0 70 77 76 54 61 0 38 79 79 57 63 0 40 72 60 ' 50 27 1 59 78 65 52 29 1 60 63 60 28 27 0 42 21 76 65 29 29 0 50 25 37 37 13 28 347 357 306 318 269 285 241 274 1,522 1,803 1,299 1,374 1,037 1,268 1,008 1,123 Region data. - Subtotals 405 2,164 Management Moffat 528 78 141 50 31 38 67 Wildlife 26 grounds, 501 Juniper Axial Basin High Mesa Round Bottom Dry Lake III Dry Lake 112 Deception Creek TOTALS l/Source: - Greasewood 111 Upper 19 Road Fortification #1 Lay Creek (new ground) N. Fork Big Gulch Sub totals W. Roland ground count data for individual Section 81 144 50 36 38 67 416 2,283 " and Northwest 0 0 0 0 •.... 0 0 +' I 37 37 17 31 39 51 0 0 49 78 0 0 0 14 0 14 40 1 42 1 129 136 131 170 910 1,098 539 663 '" �Table 2. Sage grouse strutting ground count data for individual 1969 H. Wixson, A. Greer, J. Ce rrans , or C. Hector Total Birds 26 26 116 142 Twenty Mile Upper 18 Road Name of Ground Counter(s) TOTALS 1970 High Cock Count High Cock Count Routt County, Total Birds High Cock Count 21 23 129 100 142 121 Total Birds 13 13 116 114 142 127 1969-1975. 1972 1971 High Cock Count 1) Source: grounds, Western 1973 1/ 1974 High Total Cock Birds Count 1975 High Cock Count Total Birds 9 0 0 27 32 0 0 36 41 0 C Total Birds High Cock Count Total Birds 20 20 21 23 9 102 68 74 63 73 125 88 94 84 96 •.. I Wildlife Management Section and Northwest Region data. N VI I �-126- Populations of sage grouse in Moffat County apparently peaked in 1969 and have apparently been declining since 1969, based upon strutting ground counts made by Wildlife Conservation Officers. During the period of record highest numbers of cocks (2,164) and highest numbers of total birds (2,283) were recorded for the year of 1969. Less than 600 cocks were counted on strutting grounds during 1958, 1960, 1964 to 1966, and 1975. The number of active strutting grounds counted by Wildlife Conservation Officers has also declined steadily since 1969, so these data may not give a true picture of sage grouse populations for Moffat County. It is planned to secure counts on as many active known strutting grounds as possible, check for populations at or near apparently abandoned grounds, and locate additional new grounds during future years as an important part of this investigation. An overlay, classified as sensitive (not available for public viewing) showing strutting ground locations in the Moffat County area is maintained by the BLM Office in Craig. Information for these locations and numbers of sage grouse is supplied entirely by the DOW, since the BLM does not make independent surveys on sage grouse. Several variables. including weather factors, elevations, and changes in counters, strutting ground locations, dates of counts and time of day of counts are considered to be factors which bias sage grouse strutting ground counts. These are discussed separately. Weather Factors - Access to most of the strutting grounds at lower elevations in Moffat County is normally possible by mid-April, following normal or below normal winters, as measured by amounts of snowfall. Highest counts of sage grouse on strutting grounds are often secured during early April. Following extreme winters, such as occurred during the first quarter of 1975, access to even lower elevation strutting grounds may be delayed up to a month. Strutting activity and numbers of birds normally declines after May 1 so late counts may not give a true picture of spring populations. Elevations - Access to strutting grounds at higher elevations such as those in the Blue Mountain and Cold Springs Mountain areas is normally delayed from three to four weeks, compared with access to strutting grounds at lower elevations in Moffat County, due to delays of melting snow. Peak numbers of sage grouse visiting strutting grounds may be missed when access to these higher elevational grounds is not possible. Changes in Counters - There has been numerous personnel changes in Wildlife Conservation Officer ranks in Moffat County during the period 1969-1975, except for the Rangely and Craig-South Districts (Table 1). With this variation in personnel, and differences in interest and counting ability, considerable bias in strutting ground counts may have occurred. Changes in Ground Locations - Through the years a numer of active strutting grounds have either moved or been abandoned for various reasons. While efforts have been made by Wildlife Conservation Officers to keep the number of active strutting grounds counted fairly consistent, records show that numbers of active grounds counted in Moffat County have steadily declined from 29 in 1969 to only 17 in 1975. When a strutting ground becomes inactive, an intensive effort to locate and count relocated or satellite grounds would undoubtedly improve the population data collected. �-127Changes in Dates of Counts - The date that a strutting ground is counted in relation to the time of peak attendance by sage grouse is known to have a definite effect on numbers of birds which may be counted. Following a peak period of attendance, numbers of birds visiting a strutting ground declines so that counts made late in the spring may indicate lower populations than is actually the case. Changes in Time of Day of Counts - The time that a count is conducted relation to daylight is known to have a definite effect on the number (both sexes) which may be counted on a particular strutting ground. Sage Grouse Observations and Reported in of birds Sightings Observations of sage grouse, field signs, and reports secured during January, February, and March 1976 are listed in Table 3. Locations of at least eight wintering flocks were identified from these observations and reports. Three additional locations are classified as possible wintering flock locations. Sage Grouse Mortalities Only two isolated instances of sage grouse mortalities were found during the period January through March 1976. These are listed in Table 3 and summarized below. Scattered feathers from one unclassified sage grouse were found on January 30, 1976 along Moffat County Road 9 at the Thornburgh Gulch Crossing. These were from a mortality from the current winter period and were found in tall, dense, big sagebrush cover near the draw bottom. This bird had been eaten by unknown predators. From field signs observed in the vicinity it appeared that a group of sage grouse had spent at least part of the winter period in this locality, but no live birds or recent field signs were found. A freshly killed mature male sage grouse, hit by a vehicle, was found on March 23, 1976 along Moffat County Road 7 northwest of Craig, approximately 1.4 miles southeast of the road junction with Moffat County Road 17. This location is approximately 2 airline miles southeast of Grassie's Reservoir strutting ground and 1.6 miles northwest of a site where 13 male sage grouse were observed on January 30, 1976. Trends in Sage Grouse Populations Progress was made in compiling sage grouse strutting ground census data for Moffat County from Rogers (1964), Wildlife Management Section, and Northwest Region for the period 1958 through 1975 to determine possible trends in populations. Data is missing on the number of active strutting grounds counted for the years 1962-1968 and on the number of strutting ground counts made for the years 1973-1975 so completed summaries will be included in the Job Progress Report for next segment. �Table 3. Sage grouse Date Time 1-7-76 2:00 PM 1-21-76 observations and reported sightings. Moffat County, January-March, No. of Sage Grouse Males Females Unclass. Location Moffat Co. Road 19 at Red Wash Crossing (1~ mi NW of Road 19 strutting ground) 4 11:00 AM Sand Wash Ridge Road, vicinity of Sand Wash Ridge Road strutting ground 1-22-76 1:45 PM Sand Wash Ridge Road, 10 mi N. of Sand Wash Ridge Road strutting ground 1-22-76 2:15 PM Sand Wash Ridge Road, 12 mi N. of Sand Wash Ridge Road strutting ground 1 Vegetative Cover Type Observed By Remarks Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Flushed this group of 4 but tracks of many more in area 3 flocks Dense big sagebrush(smallest 30)grassland R. Haskins Reported wintering flocks 3 Sparse big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Tracks only 55 to 60 Dense big sagebrushgrassland with a few scattered junipers D. Hoffman Flushed Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Tracks only 13 Disturbed big sage~ brush-grassland (probably disked) D. Hoffman Flock flushed from cover to road 40 Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Flushed Several tracks Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Field sign and feathers of mortality found 5 Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Flushed flocks of 7, 5, and 34 Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Flushed Deception Creek Road from Red Barn to Price Creek Hill 1-22-76 1976. 24 flock I •.... '" co 1-30-76 8:30 AM Moffat Co. 7, 3 mi E. of RJ Moffat with 17 1- 30-76 11:20 AM Moffat Co. Road 9, 3.2 mi S. of RJ with Moffat Co. 4 1-30-76 2:00 PM Moffat Co. Road 9 at Thornburgh Crossing 1:45 PM Moffat Co. Road 55, 4 mi. SW of RJ with Moffat Co. 17 2:30 PM Moffat Co. Road 55, 2.5 mi. SW of RJ with Moffat Co. 17 2-19-76 2-19-76 Co. Gulch 41 13 I flock flock ------------------------------------------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 3. Date Sage grouse observations Time and reported sightings, Moffat County, January-March, No. of Sage Grouse Males Females Unclass. Location 1976 (continued). Vegetative Cover Type Observed By Remarks 3-20-76 10: 30 AM Lookout Mountain Road, 5~ mi. SW of RJ with Moffat Co. 4 - - 80 to 100 Dense big ssgebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Mostly males, flushed birds from strutting ground 3-23-76 9:15 AM Moffat Co. Road 7, 1.4 mi SE of RJ with Moffat Co. 17 1 - - Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Roadkilled male 3-23-76 10: 30 AM Vicinity of Grassie's strutting ground Reservoir - - Tracks and droppings Dense big sagebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Indicates recent use of ground 3-23-76 11: 30 AM Vicinity ground of Bard Gulch strutting - - 4 Dense big ssgebrushgrassland D. Hoffman Flushed birds and field signs show recent use of ground mature •... I N 3-24-76 u.S. Highway Crossing 3-30-76 Yellowjacket Road, approximately 6 to 8 mi N. Thornburgh Mtn. Monument 40 at Skull Creek 25 to 50 Several birds Greasewood wash Sheepherder and Highway Maint. man Flock observed January, 1976 W. flcKean Recent sightings of birds. in , so �-130Agricultural Statistics Annual estimates of winter wheat acreages planted, hay acreages harvested, numbers of cattle and calves on farms, and nwnbers of stock sheep as of January 1 each year for Moffat County, adapted from Colorado Agricultural Statistics are listed in Table 4. These statistics are published annually by the Colorado Crop and Livestock Reporting Service and were examined for indicated trends as follows: Winter Wheat Acreages Planted - The number of acres of winter wheat planted in Moffat County has fluctuated considerably from 1960 through 1973 (range 25,500 in 1970 to 35,500 acres in 1967) but no clearcut trends are evident from these data. The estimated number of acres planted to winter wheat in 1973 (30,400) was only slightly higher than that planted in 1960 (31,570). Preliminary estimates for 1974 were considerably higher (38,400) but final estimates may be lower, based upon a comparison of final estimates with preliminary estimates for previous years. Hay Acreages Harvested - Estimates of acreages of hay harvested in Moffat County increased from 20,320 in 1960 to 29,300 in 1962, held relatively stable from 1962 through 1965, dropped considerably during the period 1966 through 1970 (range 17,200 to 20,000), and again increased approximately to 1962 levels during the period 1971 through 1973 (range 27,500 to 31,000). Number of Cattle and Calves on Farms - Trends shown by numbers of cattle and calves on farms in Moffat County indicated a steady increase from 1961 (24,170) to 1974 (37,000), consistent with general trends shown for the entire state of Colorado. Estimates indicated there were approximately one and one-half times as many cattle and calves on farms in Moffat County in 1973 and 1974 (37,000 both years), as in 1961 and 1962 (24,170 both years). Number of Stock Sheep as of January 1 Each Year - Trends shown by numbers of stock sheep in Moffat County indicated a steady decrease from 1961 (160,400) to 1974 (93,000). Moffat County has ranked first in numbers of sheep by County for many years and has shown the same decline in numbers as reported for the entire state of Colorado. The estimate of 93,000 stock sheep on hand as of January 1, 1974 was considerably lower than the estimate of 160,400 on hand as of January 1, 1961. Human Populations Past, present, and future human population estimates for Moffat County and for its county seat of Craig, Colorado are listed in Table 5. U. S. Bureau of Census data from the World Almanac (World Telegram and Sun 1965-1976) and information contained in the Craig Area Comprehensive Plan (Moffat County Planning Department 1975) were used for these estimates. Human populations had stabilized at approxiamtely 7,000 for Moffat County, and 4,000 for Craig during the 1960's. Following the beginning of an energy boom it was estimated the population of Moffat County had increased to 9,540 by 1975, with 7,227 living in the town of Craig. Moffat County has long been known to contain vast areas of energy producing minerals including oil shale, coal, oil and gas, and uranium. With these �-131- resources and an increasing demand for energy, future population projections indicate 16,715 people will be living in Moffat County by 1985, with 13,174 living in the town of Craig. It is anticipated population growth will continue through 1995 but at a reduced rate. By 1995, 17,320 people are expected to be living in Moffat County, with 14,275 in Craig. Vehicular Licenses Numbers of vehicles licensed and amounts of vehicular traffic on the streets, roads, and highways of Craig and Moffat County has and will undoubtedly continue to keep pace with human population growth. Information on numbers of passenger vehicle and state truck licenses sold in Moffat County from records maintained in the Moffat County Clerk's office are presented in Table 6 for the years 1973, 1974, and 1975. Numbers of passenger vehicle licenses sold in Moffat County increased from 3,593 in 1973 to 4,123 in 1975, and numbers of state truck licenses increased from 799 in 1973 to 2,079 in 1975. LITERATURE CITED Canfield, R. H. 1941. Application of the line intercept method in sampling range vegetation. J. Forestry 39:388-394. Colorado Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Yearly 1960-1975. agricultural statistics. Colo. Dept. of Agric. Denver. Colorado Moffat County Planning Department. 1975. Craig area comprehensive plan. Craig Planning Commission Members. Sept. 58 p. Phillips, E. A. 1959. Methods of vegetation study. Winston, Inc. New York. 107 p. Powell, J. brush. Holt, Rinehart, and 1968. Site factor relationships with volatile oils in big sagePh. D. Thesis, Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 82 p. Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. 16. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Denver. 132 p. Tech. Pub. No. Vories, Kimery C. 1974. A vegetation inventory and analysis of the Piceance Basin and adjacent ranges. M. A. Thesis. Western State College of Colo., Gunnison. 243 p. Weaver, J. E., and F. E. Clements. Co. New York. 601 p. 1938. Plant ecology. McGraw-Hill Book World Telegram and Sun and Newspaper Enterprises Assoc., Inc. 1965-1976. World Almanac. New York and Cleveland. m Wildlife Researcher Yearly, �~132- Table 4. Agricultural statistics for Moffat County, Colorado, 1960-1974. !/ Year Winter Wheat Acreage Planted Hay Acreage Harvested No. of Cattle and Calves on Farms No. of Stock Sheep (Jan. 1) 1960 31,570 20,320 24,660 157,000 1961 30,100 22,200 24,170 160,400 1962 27,500 29,300 24,170 150,000 1963 28,000 28,500 24,600 146,000 1964 30,200 28,500 25,200 141,000 1965 33,000 24,770 27,000 123,000 1966 28,300 17;400 28,000 134,000 1967 35,500 17,700 29,000 127,500 1968 32,450 18,200 30,200 108,000 1969 32,000 20,100 34,000 106,000 1970 25,500 17,200 32,000 104,000 1971 34,500 31,000 34,000 104,000 1972 31,000 28,000 36,000 109,000 1973 30,400 27,500 37,000 97,000 1974 J) 38,400 37,000 93,000 1:/ Source: Colorado Agricultural Statistics, published yearly by Colorado Crop and Livestock Reporting Service, Denver, Colorado. Preliminary statistics only. �Table 5. Human population statistics for Moffat County and Craig, Co1orado~ 1950-1995. 11 Past Years 1960 1950 Item 1970 Present an dE.Future Years 1985 1980 1975 stlmates- 21 1995 1990 Number of people, Moffat County, Colo. 5,946 7,061 6,521 9,540 11,820 16,715 16,011 17,320 Number of people, Craig, Colorado 3,080 3,984 4,205 7,227 9,175 13,174 12,892 14,275 l/source: World Almanac, using U.S. Bureau of Census information. 1/Source: Craig Area Comprehensive Plan. Table 6. Numbers of vehicular licenses sold, Moffat County, Colorado, 1973-1975. !I Item Number of passenger vehicle licenses sold Number of state truck licenses sold Totals I I-' VJ VJ 1973 Year 1974 1975 3,593 3,835 4,123 799 1,874 2,079 4,392 5,709 6,202 l/source: Records in County Clerk's Office, Craig, Colorado. licenses excluded). I Includes only new licenses issued (transfer ��April, -135- 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----....::.::.:::: 9 \'iorkPlan No. Job Title Period Game Bird Survey W-37-R-29 Proj e c t No. Population Covered: Job No. Dynamics and Habitat 5 Relationships of Blue Grouse April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 Personnel: H. Alexander, A. Anderson, D. Benson, C. Braun, G. Brown, L. Carpenter, R. Clippinger, M. Coghill, J. Corey, C. Crawford, D. Freddy, H. Funk, D. Gore, L: Green, J. Gumber, D. Hoart, J. Hobbs, R. Hoffman, J. Jackson, J. E. Kautz, R. Lowry, F. Marcoux, B. McCloskey, S. McElderry, S. McEllin, K. Miller, R. Oakleaf, S. Palm, S. Porter, S. Quinlan, G. Smith, M. Smith, H. Spear, S. Steinert, D. Todd, and J. Wagner. ABSTRACT Investigations of the population dynamics and habitat relationships of blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) were initiated in Colorado in 1975. Work during the first year was primarily devoted to (1) reviewing literature, (2) selecting study locations, (3) developing and testing new and existing methods for censusing, capturing, and marking blue grouse, and (4) collecting harvest data. The Green Mountain-Blue Ridge area in Middle Park was selected for intensive study, while three other areas (Vail Pass, Eby Creek, and Deep Creek) are tentative selections pending further investigation. Only one of the three areas will be selected. Acoustical census was used to locate territorial males and some females during the breeding season. Systematic search with the aid of a pointing dog was the most successful method for finding breeding hens, females with chicks, and non-territorial males. Limited success was obtained in using chick distress calls to locate females with chicks. Most attempts to capture blue grouse with a noose pole or mist net were unsuccessful because of their wildness. Captured grouse were individually identified with color combinations of anodized, aluminum, butt-end leg bands. Check stations were operated at various locations throughout the state in order to collect information on hunter pressure, success, and efficiency, and to collect wings from hunter harvested birds. Volunteer wing collection stations were devised and utilized to increase samples of wings collected .. Analysis of the wings provided data on age and sex composition of the harvest, nesting success, hatching dates, and production and survival rates. Collected wings were also used for evaluating and testing new and existing methods of aging and sexing blue grouse. �-136- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continued efforts should be made in 1976 to develop successful methods for capturing blue grouse. 2. Further 3. An experimental season for blue grouse should be held during the big game season in selected management units. Legal weapons should be .22 caliber rimfire rifles and hand guns, and standard shotguns. Check stations should be operated on weekends with field checks being conducted throughout the season in order to evaluate the experimental season. testing of census techniques should be conducted in 1976. �-137- HABITAT POPULATION DYNAMICS AND RELATIONSHIPS OF BLUE GROUSE Richard W. Hoffman Sound management of game birds requires considerable knowledge concerning the biology of each species and factors affecting their populations. Blue grouse, a relatively unexplored species in Colorado. have been hunted in modern times in the state since the early 1950's. yet data upon which to base management recommendations have been and still are inadequate. Lacking data, season lengths and possibly bag limits have been conservative and based on impressions of field workers and administrators. Blue grous.e occur in varying densities over more than 51,800 sq km (20, 000 sq mi) of diverse habitat and terrain in Colorado (Rogers 1968) and, in terms of hunter harvest (18,000 average annual harvest), are second only to the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) among resident upland game birds. Effects, if aDy, of present hunting seasons on blue grouse populations are not known, but it is doubtful if hunters take 5 percent of the fall grouse population. Data from other western states suggest that 25 to 30 percent of the fall population could be harvested with no adverse effects on subsequent breeding populations (Zwickel 1958). It appears this level has not been attained anywhere with present hunting methods regardless of bag limit and season length. Before increased hunter opportunity and recreation on this species can be justified in Colorado, basic data on population levels, habitat relationships, and effects of present hunting seasons must be obtained. P. S. OBJECTIVE Major objectives of this study are to (1) increase the harvest of blue grouse in Colorado (double present harvest estimates) without harm to breeding populations in subsequent years, (2) to identify differences in breeding densities due to differing habitats, and (3) to document the stability of breeding densities over time. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning (a) techniques for marking, capturing, and censusing grouse, (b) methods of aging and sexing blue grouse, (c) population dynamics, behavior, and habitat requirements of blue grouse, and (d) effects of hunting on grouse populations. 2. Evaluate and test established marking, capturing and census procedures used in other states and provinces and develop suitable methods for breeding and production surveys in Colorado. 3. Select study areas in two different habitat types. Candidate under consideration include the mixed conifer-aspen-sagebrush the aspen-oakbrush-spruce-fir type. 4. Trap and individually mark 50 birds (including adults, juveniles) on each of the selected study areas. habitats type and subadults and �-1385. Compile data, analyze results, LITERATURE and prepare progress report. REVIEW Although the literature abounds with information on blue grouse, primarily resulting from studies conducted in Montana, Washington, British Columbia, and Alberta, only limited research has been conducted on the particular subspecies (~. ~. obscurus) inhabiting Colorado. At present, the best account of the ecology of this subspecies is from investigations in Wyoming (Harju 1974). Except for work by Steinhoff (1956) and Rogers (1968), published information on blue grouse in Colorado is confined to short accounts relative to occurrence, an observation or kill, a single crop.content, or a nest seen and described. Some additional data have been presented by Braun (1971) on age and sex determination of blue grouse and by King and Braun (1970) on fall food habits of blue grouse in subalpine areas of Colorado. A more comprehensive literature review relevant to the topics discussed is incorporated into the text of this report. METHODS AND MATERIALS The initial year of investigation was primarily devoted to selecting study areas and developing and testing new or existing techniques for censusing, capturing, and marking blue grouse. Methods and materials pertaining to these objectives are discussed in detail under Results and are only briefly mentioned under Methods and Materials. Grouse were located by systematic search with the aid of a pointing dog and by acoustical census. During acoustical census, a portable, lightweight, battery powered Norelco Model 150 Carry Corder utilizing cassettes was used to play back tape recorded calls of blue grouse. Once birds were located they were first observed through 7X50 binoculars to count numbers present and ascertain sex. Attempts were made to capture grouse through use of noose poles or mist nets whenever possible. All grouse captured were weighed, aged, sexed, and banded. Scales accurate to within ± 5 grams were used to weigh grouse less than 1000 grams; grouse exceeding 1000 grams were weighed with a scale accurate to within ± 10 grams. Color combinations of anodized, aluminum, butt-end, leg bands (size 14) were used to individually mark grouse. Methods of determining sex and age of blue grouse have been described (Caswell 1954; Bendell 1955; Smith and Buss 1963; Mussehl and Leik 1963; Boag 1965; Zwickel and Lance 1966; Schladweiler et ale 1970; and Braun 1971) with most studies, except Braun (1971), being described for and tested on other races of blue grouse. The limited data collected in Colorado by Braun (1971) on age and sex determination of blue grouse based on examination of wing plumage characteristics and primary replacement parallel that reported by Mussehl and Leik (1963) and Schladweiler et ale (1970). Check stations were operated in Middle Park, North Park (in conjunction with sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) check stations), Crown Point, and Coffee Pot Springs during the 1975 blue grouse season. Stations in Middle Park and Coffee Pot Springs were operated the first two weekends of the 23 day season (September 13 to October 5). The Crown Point station was operated �-139- opening weekend and stations in North Park were operated opening weekend and the second Sunday. Ten volunteer wing collection stations were constructed and tested for use in Middle Park during the blue grouse season (Hoffman and Braun 1975). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Selection of Study Areas Potential study areas were located by searching for concentrations of grouse. To assist in this endeavor, a blue grouse observation form was mailed to all Division of Wildlife employees working in mountainous districts (Appendix). Useful information was also obtained by personal communication with Division personnel and landowners. Areas where breeding grouse and females accompanied by chicks were consistently observed were investigated to ascertain (1) density of grouse utilizing the area, (2) variations in slope, aspect, cover density, and vegetative composition within the area, (3) accessibility, (4) availability to hunters, and (5) hunter use. In all, 14 areas were investigated as potential study locations. One area was selected for intensive study in 1975 while three others were tentatively identified pending further investigation in 1976. Only one of the three tentative areas will be selected. All areas are west of the Continental Divide and include: Green Mountain-Blue Ridge area in Middle Park, Eby Creek north of Eagle, Deep Creek northwest of Dotsero, and the east side of Vail Pass north of 1-70. Green Mountain-Blue Ridge represents the initial area selected for intensive study. The Green Mountain-Blue Ridge area is approximately 19 kilometers (12 mi) south of Kremmling in Grand and Summit counties. Area investigated is in T2S, R79W, parts of sections 4,5,6,7,8,9,17, and 18; and T2S, R80W, parts of sections 3,10,11,15, and 14. While small portions of the area are under private ownership or are natural resource lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management, U. S. Department of Interior, the majority of the area is national forest lands administered by the Kremmling District, Arapaho National Forest, U. S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture. Initially, only Green Mountain (2.6 sq km or 1 sq mi) was selected for intensive study. However, due to (1) the limited size of the area, (2) low hunting pressure, and (3) early departure of grouse from Green Mountain, the study area was expanded to include about 5 square kilometers (2 sq mi) of the adjacent Blue Ridge area. Exact study boundaries have not been established, but breeding season investigations will be confined to Green Mountain with production surveys including both Green Mountain and Blue Ridge. Approximately 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) of an open, sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) dominated flat separates Green Mountain from Blue Ridge. The study area lies in the southwestern part of Middle Park, a large topographic depression that is bounded on the south and east by the Front Range, on the north by the Rabbit Ears Range, and on the west by the Park Range. Unlike other intermountain basins or parks (South and North Parks) that mainly have broad rolling grass �-140covered gentle floors, Middle Park is mount:ainous and locally heavily forested. At the study location, coniferous forest predominates above 2700 meters (8800 ft) and extends downward to 2600 meters (8500 ft) on Green Mountain. Unforested areas below this elevation are vegetated predominantly with big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Intermediate areas are best described as a mixed conifer, aspen (Populus tremuloides), sagebrush, serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) type. The coniferous coverage includes Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and a few scattered limber pines (Pinus flexilis), alpine firs (Abies lasiocarpa), and Rocky Mountain junipers (Juniperus scopulorum). Thick stands of willows (Salix spp.) predominate along water courses. Topography of the Green Mountain-Blue Ridge area is irregular varying from steep slopes and ridges to gently rolling expanses hundreds of hectares in size. Cliffs and ledges are common in the area as are small isolated knolls. Maximum relief is about 900 meters (3000 ft); elevations range from 2400 meters (7850 f t ) to 3300 meters (10800 f t ) above sea level. Geology of the lower Blue River area which includes portions of the study area has been described by Holt (1961). Taggart (1962) presents a detailed discussion of the geology of the entire Mt. Powell quadrangle. Blue Ridge is drained by many small tributaries that flow west into the north:-flowing Blue River. Approximately 19 kilometers (12 mi) north of the study area, the Blue River empties into the Colorado River. No well delineated streams occur on Green Mountain where most of the runoff drains directly into the Blue River. While the majority of streams on Blue Ridge maintain a year-round water flow, a similar situation does not exist on Green Mountain where most streams are essentially dry by late June or early July. Climate of the area is typically continental, with frequent extremes in wind velocity and temperature. Prevailing winds are westerly. Weather data compiled at Frazer, Colorado, in the southeast portion of Middle Park, show that the annual precipitation averages about 53 centimeters (21 in) and occurs mainly in April and July. Precipitation from late October to early April is usually in the form of snow or sleet, turning to rain in late April. 0 Average winter temperature is around l3 F and average summer temperature o about 51 F. Once a second study area is selected, a thorough literature review will be conducted and incorporated into a detailed description of the geology, soils, vegetation, climate, topography and drainage patterns of the study areas. This information will be supplemented with data collected during field investigations which will include intensive analysis of the vegetation at both study locations. Census Breeding Season The most common breeding census method for blue grouse presently in use is the acoustical census. Acoustical census makes use of blue grouse behavior and �-141- involves the play back of a tape recorded hen whinney (precopulatory call) which stimulates territorial males to respond by hooting (Stirling and Bendell1966). Hooting counts are used in California, Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia where races of the sooty grouse occur (Rogers 1968). Behaviorial differences between the sooty and dusky races, primarily relating to hooting volume, precludes the use of hooting counts in Colorado or Wyoming (Rogers 1968; Harju 1974). Hooting is the main long-range advertising display of sooty grouse, whereas, dusky grouse perform elaborate flutter-flight displays to attract females and proclaim territories. Female dusky grouse in turn utter a loud cackling call to advertise their presence to males. By using tape recorded hen cackle calls, Harju (1974) was able to elicit flutter-flights from territorial males. Additionally, some females responded to the call by cackling, indicating perhaps the cackling of one hen stimulates nearby hens to respond or else the cackling has some communicative function between hens. Flutterflights of one male frequently initiate a chain reaction response from surrounding males. Ninety two males were located during the 1975 breeding season. Seventy seven percent (71) of the males located initially responded to the tape recorded hen cackle. Wing-flutters were the dominant response accounting for 56 of the 71 (79%) responses. Only 15 males (21%) responded by hooting; however, the 21 males failing to respond may have been hooting but were not heard. Seldom was the initial response in the form of hooting unless the call was played within 50 meters (164 ft) of the territorial male. Males that initially wing-fluttered could also be induced to hoot by approaching close and playing the tape recorded precopulatory call. Systematic search of the habitat with the aid of a pointing dog was the most successful method for finding hens during the breeding season, but use of the hen cackle call greatly increased numbers of females found. Thirty six percent of the 33 hens located initially responded to the call. Due to their more secretive habits and lower response rate, fewer hens (33) than males (92) were observed. These two factors are probably responsible for the distorted sex ratio (2.8 males per female) indicated by breeding season observations. Use of the hen cackle call was most effective in the early morning and late evening hours, but some males and females could be stimulated to respond throughout the mid-day hours. Distance at which the wing-flutter or cackling could be heard varied from less than 100 meters (328 ft) to over 500 meters (1640 ft) depending upon wind velocity. Males responded to the call from early April to mid-June with the frequency and intensity of responses reaching a peak in mid-May. Responses by both males and females declined rapidly in June when most hens should have initiated nesting. Brood Season Both systematic search and acoustical census were employed to locate females accompanied by chicks. Acoustical census involved the play back of tape recorded chick distress calls. Of 16 hens found that were accompanied by chicks, 4 (25%) responded to the chick distress call by uttering loud alarm calls (3 females) or moving towards the call in an aggressive posture (1 female), 9 (56%) were located by systematic search using the dog, and 3 (19%) were �-142found by systematic search without the dog. The 4 .hens obviously responding all had chicks less than 4 weeks of age. Apparently, hens with older broods are less protective of their young and less likely to alarm call in response to recorded sounds (Harju 1974). No unsuccessful females were known to respond to the call. Capture Noose Pole Successful methods for capturing blue grouse have been described including noose poles (Zwickel and Bendell 1967), mist nets (Schladweiler and Mussehl 1969), drive traps (Tomlinson 1963), and funnel traps (Henderson 1960). The most effective and practical method is the noose pole. The noosing apparatus is a 7 meter (22 ft), telescoping, fiberlgass, fishing pole. Nylon covered, stainless steel, leader wire is used to make the nooses. Different strengths of wire are used depending upon the size of the grouse to be captured. Harju (1974) reported using a noose pole to successfully capture dusky grouse in Wyoming. Most attempts to capture blue grouse in Colorado with a noose pole were futile. Lack of experience on part of the person trying to capture the birds may have been partially responsible for the poor success, but many of the capture attempts failed because the birds were too wild to approach within noosing distance. Less than 2 percent of the 212 birds observed were captured. Usually the grouse would flush when approached within 12 meters (40 ft) and would subsequently land in a tree out of reach of the noose pole. Others would fly several hundred meters downhill and could not be relocated. Mist Net Some attempts were made to capture birds with a 4 ply, 10 cm, black, nylon mist net measuring approximately 3 meters (10 ft) x 18 meters (60 ft). The net was positioned 10 (33 ft) to 30 meters (98 ft) below the grouse. Birds were then approached from the uphill side and maneuvered towards the net. Just before reaching the net, grouse were flushed. Since only one man was involved in this operation, considerable time was required to set up the net. Oftentimes the bird would move away or flush while the net was being positioned or else one man was not sufficient for moving the bird towards the net. Consequently, all attempts to capture blue grouse with the mist net failed. Territorial Trap A modified version of the trap developed by Bray et ale (1975) for capturing territorial male red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) was constructed for similar use on territorial male blue grouse. Unfortunately, the trap was not completed until after the cessation of breeding activities in 1975 so its usefulness will not be tested until the 1976 breeding season. The principle of this trap takes advantage of the behavior territorial males exhibit towards females that enter their territories. When the trap, with a mounted female (precopulatory position) in the center compartment, is placed in a territory, the male should enter the trap in an effort to display to and copulate with the female. Tape recorded precopulatory calls will be used to further 'entice the male into the trap. �-143Marking Captured grouse older than 6 weeks were individually marked following the banding scheme described by Gullion (1965). Eight colors of anodized, aluminum bands are used allowing for more than 4000 birds to be individually marked without repeating a combination by placing two colored bands on each leg. The eight colors include green, red, copper, blue, orange, yellow, lavender, and silver. In this system, each of the 4 bands placed on a particular bird carries the same number which identifies that bird for record keeping purposes. Thus, any band which might be found among scattered bird remains, or turned in by a hunter, can be referred to the proper bird; the bird can also be identified in the field by "reading" the color combination. The band on the lower right leg is called the base band. All birds banded in the same year have the same color base band. The band opposite the base band (upper left leg) is called the alternate band and is used to identify the general locality where the bird was initially banded. Anodized colors show little tendency to fade and the eight colors chosen are the easiest to distinguish (personal communication, G. Gullion). Similar anodized bands placed on ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) were still brightly colored 60 months after banding (Gullion 1965). Since it is unlikely that a blue grouse will be recaptured, the lasting nature of anodized bands is particularly useful for marking this species. Harvest Although harvest data may not exactly reflect the structure of the population from which they came (Hickey 1955), nor does hunter success provide criterion for determining grouse population levels (Zwickel 1958), this information is useful for comparisons among areas and years when collected over an extended period of time and in conjunction with intensive population studies. During the 1975 blue grouse season, check stations were operated in the Middle Park, North Park, Crown Point, and Eagle areas. Ten volunteer wing collection stations were also available to hunters at various locations throughout Middle Park. The primary objectives of check stations were to estimate hunter pressure, success and efficiency, and to collect wings from hunter-harvested birds. From analyses of these wings, information was acquired on age and sex composition of the harvest, nesting success of breeding females, hatching dates of juveniles, and production and survival rates. Age and sex composition of the harvest sample from each area are shown in Table 1. Small samples from North Park, Crown Point, and the Eagle area prevent comparisons among areas. Conclusions could not be formulated because of the limited amount of data collected. However, due to use of wing collection stations, adequate samples of hunter-harvested birds were checked in Middle Park to allow analysis. It was concluded that because of low hunting pressure, scattered distribution of hunters, and extensive occupied range of blue grouse, use of manned check stations was not economically feasible and was inefficient for collecting sufficient samples of wings to satisfy management requirements. Conversely, the volunteer wing collection stations were instrumental in inexpensively increasing the collection of harvest data (Hoffman and Braun 1975). Volunteer wing collection stations accounted for 66 percent (120) of the 183 wings collected in Middle Park and 45 percent of the total wings (270) obtained from all areas. �-144Table 1. Age and sex composition checked during the 1975 season. Adults Males Females Area Middle of hunter harvested II Subadults Males Females blue grouse Juveniles Males Females Unk. Totals Park 30 41 5 15 36 43 13 183 North Park 11 18 5 3 5 9 6 57 Eagle Area 6 8 0 0 4 3 2 23 Crown Point 0 1 1 3 0 2 0 7 Totals 47 68 11 21 45 57 21 270 llBecause some subadults had probably completed their primary molt and thus could not be distinguished from adults, number of birds assigned to the subadult category was minimal. Assuming subadults molt similarly to adults, approximately 40 percent of the sub adult males and only 6 percent of the subadult females should have completed their primary molt by the end of the hunting season and thus could not be distinguished from adults. Consequently, number of birds assigned to the subadult category was minimal. Males initiate their primary molt earlier than most females so more subadult males than females are indistinguishable from adults in the fall. This is reflected in the harvest data from Middle Park which shows males comprised 42 and only 25 percent of the adult and subadult harvest, respectively. Since some subadults were assigned to the adult category, both age classes are grouped together as adults for discussion purposes. Adults (9V [includes subadults] and juveniles (92) made up equal portions of the harvest sample from Middle Park, but a major difference occurred in the proportion of males harvested from each age class. Based on 91 adult and 79 juvenile wings for which sex was determined, males comprised 46 percent (36) of the juvenile harvest and only 38 percent (35) of the adult harvest. Thus, the sex ratio of juveniles did not deviate significantly from 1:1, whereas, the adult segment of the harvest showed a deficiency of males. The unbalanced sex ratio indicated for adults was not considered indicative of the population but was probably caused by differences in habitat selection between sexes at the time of the mid-September to early October season. The lack of adult cocks in the harvest is due to their early departure from the more accessible lowlands to higher, more inaccessible areas. As a result, the bulk of the harvest (81% for Middle Park) in 1975 was taken from the hen and young segment of the population. If this situation occurs normally, and sex ratios of adults are evenly balanced as indicated for other blue grouse populations where sufficient data are available (Bendell et al. 1972 and Swickel 1972), then sex ratios of adults as indicated from hunter harvests warrant extreme caution in their interpretation. �-145Blue grouse hunting is mainly limited to range adjacent to roads or other easily accessible locations with many areas receiving virtually no hunting pressure. After opening weekend, hunting pressure decreased markedly. In Middle Park, 99 hunters were contacted opening weekend compared to only 13 hunters located the following weekend. Of 158 blue grouse observed by the 112 hunters, 45 were harvested for a hunter success (birds bagged per hunter) and hunter efficiency (birds bagged per birds observed X 100) of .4 blue grouse/hunter and 28.4 percent, respectively. Two factors tending to lower hunter success and efficiency were (1) many hunters were unfamiliar with the regulations, and (2) they could not distinguish blue grouse from sage grouse. Consequently, they tended to harvest birds in accordance with the more conservative 2-bird bag and possession limit for sage grouse instead of the 3 bird bag and 6 bird possession limit for blue grouse. Using knowledge gained from intensive blue grouse investigations conducted in Montana (Mussehl 1960), Washington (Zwickel 1958), British Columbia (Bendell and Elliott 1967), Wyoming (Harju 1974), and the preliminary studies in Colorado (Rogers 1968), the general consensus is that blue grouse are not being adequately harvested for maximum utilization and seasons could be liberalized until some effect of hunting can be demonstrated on the population. In order to gather data on the potential impact of hunting blue grouse during the big game season and to provide support for an extended season, a question concerning blue grouse was included on the Middle Park deer hunter questionnaire. The question simply stated "How many blue grouse did you see while hunting deer in Middle Park". Eighteen hundred and eight questionnaires were returned of which 1459 (81%) hunters indicated they had participated in the Middle Park deer season. Of the 1459 hunters, only 356 (24%) reported seeing blue grouse for a total of 1904 observations. Projecting the estimates to the total deer hunter population (4991), approximately 970 hunters should have seen a total of about 5200 blue grouse. Based on the 28.4 percent hunter efficiency calculated from grouse hunter check stations operated in Middle Park in 1975, of the 5200 blue grouse observed potentially about 1500 would have been harvested. However, many hunters probably would not take grouse during the big game season for fear of spoiling their chances of taking a deer or elk. Even so, a harvest of 1500 birds spread over an area the size of Middle Park (5180 sq km [2000 sq mil) would have negligible effects on the grouse population (.29 grouse harvested per sq km, or .75 per sq mi). Obviously there are drawbacks inherently associated with making such estimates, but their effect on the overall estimate were probably minimal. While reliability of the data are questionable, a rough idea was obtained from a management and biological standpoint on the feasibility of extending the blue grouse season. Age and Sex Determination Accurate methods of sex and age classification are requisite to intensive popUlation studies and analysis of harvest data. Sex and age criterion have been described for Colorado blue grouse (Braun 1971). Most birds can be sexed by wing coloration pattern alone, but this technique is more reliable for adults than juveniles and a supplemental means of determining sex of juveniles has been needed. Major age classes (adults, subadults, and juveniles) can be distinguished by the shape and wear of primaries 9 and 10 (primaries consecutively numbered from proximal to distal) (Petrides 1942). More refined techniques for aging juveniles have been described (See Methods) and applied �-146to other races of blue grouse. Two of these techniques (Zwickel and Lance 1966 and Schladweiler et al. 1970) were tested for use in Colorado along with developing an additional method of accurately ascertaining sex of juveniles. Supplemental data for evaluating existing age and sex determination methods were obtained in this study by collecting wings from hunter-harvested birds. To substantiate plumage data, sex was determined by gonadal inspection whenever possible. Plumage characteristics of each wing were examined and measurements were taken of all primaries present. Differences in the length of fully grown-in primaries were tested for use in sexing juveniles. The length of actively growing primaries was the basis for estimating age (in weeks) of juveniles (Zwickel and Lance 1966; Schladweiler et al. 1970). One hundred and three wings of hunter-harvested juveniles (46 males and 57 females) w·ere aged using the tables presented by Zwickel and Lance (1966) and Schladweiler et al. (1970). Peak of hatch was then determined by backdating. Since portions of the aging key presented by Schladweiler et al. (1970) employs actual primary measurements, it was easier to apply than Zwickel and Lance's system which required estimates of the proportion of growth of post juvenile primaries. Zwickel and Lance's method almost invariably resulted in a higher estimate of age than indicated by Schladweiler et al. (1970) for the same bird. The difference did not vary more than 2 to 5 days and was attributed to the greater precision incorporated into the aging key presented by Zwickel and Lance (1966). One interesting factor which arose was the difference in peak of hatch calculated separately for males and females; thus, creating doubt concerning the reliability of the aging keys. The peak of hatch calculated according to Zwickel and Lance (1966) showed 95 percent of the females and only 67 percent of the males hatching between July 1 to 14. Proportionally more males (28%) than females (5%) were indicated to have hatched after July 14. Similar calculations using Schladweiler et al. (1970) gave the following almost identical results: (1) 93 percent of the females and 63 percent of the males hatched between July 1 to 14, and (2) 7 and 33 percent of the females and males, respectively, hatched after July 14. Perhaps the molt sequence and rate of growth of primary feathers is slower for males than females as is the case with sage grouse (Pyrah 1963). If so, using the same key for both sexes would tend to underestimate the age of males as suggested by the data. Furthermore, definite differences in the length of primaries exists between males and females (Hoffman, unpubl. data) which should further necessitate a distinction between the sexes before estimating their age. Neither Zwickel and Lance (1966) nor Schladweiler et al. (1970) mentioned any substantial differences in the aging criterion for juvenile males and females. From the limited data currently available, the two techniques are very similar in the results produced, but until more data can be collected from juveniles of known age and sex, their applicability to Colorado blue grouse remains questionable. Differences in the length of individual primaries between males and females were used as the basis for developing an additional sex criterion for juveniles. Sexes were separated according to wing coloration pattern (Braun 1971) and measurements were taken of all full-in primaries (no blood quill). Although samples are small, the data presented in Table 2 show a marked �-147difference in length of corresponding primaries for males and females, especially P4 through 10 (excluding P7). Due to the fact that all birds included in the sample were either in the process of molting P7 or else P7 was not completely developed, no measurements were obtained for P7. It should also be noted that PI through 6 are post juvenile feathers while P8, 9 and 10 are juvenile feathers. Table 2. Primary1/ Number - Primary measurement data for juvenile blue grouse. No. Primaries Measured Ave. Length of Completed Primary (mm) Range in Length of Completed Primary (mm) Males 1 45 117 109-124 2 45 130 121-137 3 46 139 131-146 4 42 152 146-162 5 26 170 165-177 6 9 174 170-180 7 0 8 26 149 140-164 9 22 159 154-166 10 21 126 120-133 Females 1 54 109 100-116 2 53 120 111-127 3 54 126 117-134 4 52 138 128-148 5 38 154 149-163 6 13 159 154-165 8 24 137 129-141 9 42 144 135-152 10 40 114 106-120 7 1/ PI through 7 are post juvenile feathers and P8 through 10 are juvenile feathers. �-148When the entire sample of measurements for P4 through 10 are compared, only 11 of 209 measurements (5%) for females fall within the range of measurements for males. No overlap was recorded for P5, 6, and 9, and only 2 (1%), 5(2%), and 4 (2%) overlapping measurements occurred for P4, 8, and 10, respectively. Also, just one juvenile female out of 57 had more than one primary (P4 and 8) falling within the range of measurements for juvenile males. More data should be collected and the technique must be tested using known sex birds (gonadal inspection). Refinement of the technique and its subsequent use with other indicators of sex (wing coloration) should greatly increase the accuracy in determining sex of juveniles. Nesting Success and Production Successful hens have a delayed primary molt, usually retaining 2 or 3 old primaries into late September, and can be distinguished from unsuccessful hens which retain none or only one old primary into September (Braun 1971). Examination of wing molts of 56 hens harvested in Middle Park revealed that 36 (64%) were successful nesters in 1975. Field observations indicated somewhat dissimilar results as 78 percent of the females observed in Middle Park were successful. However, hens with broods are easier to locate than those without, and this factor results in overestimation of nesting success. There were approximately 1.6 chicks per female and 2.6 chicks per successful female in the harvest sample. These data and the high percentage (50%) of immatures in the harvest suggest that nesting success and production were good in Middle Park in 1975. Adult and subadult females differed greatly in their ability to bring off a brood. Nesting success as determined for 41 adult and 15 subadult hens was 76 and 27 percent, respectively. From data collected in another study (Bendell and Elliott 1967), the poor success of subadults can be attributed to their lack of experience rather than their failure to mate. The potential implication of this behavorial difference is that in a population which sustains a heavy harvest of adult females,their subsequent replacement in the breeding population by juveniles and subadults should result in lower production. LITERATURE CITED Bendell, J. F. 1955. Age, molt and weight characteristics of blue grouse. Condor 57(6):354-361. Bendell, J. F., D. G. King, and D. H. Mossop. 1972. Removal and repopulation of blue grouse in a declining population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):11531165. Bendell, J. F., and P. W. Elliott. 1967. Behavior and the regulation of numbers in blue grouse. Can. Wildl. Servo Rep. Ser. 4. 76 p. Boag, D. A. 1965. Indicators of sex, age, and breeding phenology in blue grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(1):103-108. �-149Braun, C. E. 1971. Determination of blue grouse sex and age from wing characteristics. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Information Leaflet No. 86. 4 p. Bray, O. E., J. L. Guarino, and W. C. Royall, Jr. 1975. A trap for capturing territorial male red-winged blackbirds. Western Bird Bander 50(1):4-7. Caswell, E. B. 1954. A preliminary study on the life history and ecology of the blue grouse in west-central Idaho. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho, Moscow. 105 p. Gullion, G. W. 1965. Improvements in methods for trapping ruffed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(1) :109-116. Harju, H. J. grouse. and marking 1974. An analysis of some aspects of the ecology Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Wyoming, Laramie. 142 p. Henderson, V. B. 1960. central Washington. 96 p. of dusky A study of the blue grouse on summer range, northM.S. Thesis. Washington State Univ., Pullman. Hickey, J. J. 1955. Some American population research on gallinaceous birds. Pp. 326-396 in A. Wolfson, ed. Recent studies in avian biology. Univ. Illinois Press, Urbana. Hoffman,R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer wing collection Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Information Leaflet No. 101. 3 p. station. Holt, H. E. 1961. Geology of the lower Blue River area, Summit and Grand counties, Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colorado Univ., Boulder. 107 p. King, J. S., and C. E. Braun. 1970. Fall foods of subalpine populations of blue grouse in Colorado. J. Colo. Wyo. Acad. Sci. 6(2):52. Mussehl, T. W. 1960. Blue grouse production, movements, and populations the Bridger Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 24(1):60-68. Mussehl, T. W., and T. H. Leik. 1963. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(1):102-106. Petrides, G. A. 1942. Age determination Trans. N. A. Wildl. Conf. 7:308-328. Sexing wings in of adult blue grouse. in American gallinaceous birds. Pyrah, D. B. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept. Wildl. Restoration Div. Job Compl. Rept. Proj. W-125-R. 71 p. Rogers, G. E. 1968. The blue grouse in Colorado. Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 21. 63 p. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Schladweiler, P., and T. W. Mussehl. 1969. Use of mist nets for recapturing radio-equipped blue grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(2):443-444. �-150Schladweiler, P., T. W. Musseh1, and R. J. Greene. 1970. Age determination of juvenile blue grouse by primary development. J. Wild1. Manage. 37(3) :649-652. Smith, N. D., and 1. O. Buss. 1963. tions of blue grouse. J. Wild1. Age determination and plumage Manage. 27(4):566-578. observa- Steinhoff, H. W. 1956. The dusky grouse and its ecology in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, New York. 173 p. Stirling, I., and J. F. Bendell. 1966. Census of blue grouse with recorded calls of a female. J. Wild1. Manage. 30(1):184-187. Taggart, J. N. 1962. Geology of the Mount Powell quadrangle, Ph.D. Thesis. Harvard Univ., Boston, Mass. 239 p. Tomlinson, R. E. 1963. A method Manage. 27(4):563-566. Zwickel, F. C. Game Bull. for drive-trapping 1958. North-central 10(4):3-4. Washington dusky grouse. grouse studies. Zwickel, F. C. 1972. Removal and repopulation of blue grouse population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1141-1152. Zwickel, F. C., and J. F. Bendell. 1967. J. Wildl. Manage. 31(1):202-204. A snare Zwickel, F. C., and A. N. Lance. 1966. Determining grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 30(4):712-717. Prepared by ~bb~~~~--~~~~~ Richard W. Hoffma iii Asst. Wildlife Researcher _ Colorado. for capturing J. Wildl. Wash. State in an increasing blue grouse. the age of young blue �-151- A P PEN D I X �BLUE GROUSE OBSERVATIONS ~~~J).~':~l~i-~;C-(-~ --'I--'N~~o-~~-lC-J ~. :!0_~;2~~1\) _j_~l.?sel~.£(_·l_ Vegetative Locntion 1/ (List Type One 2/) I Approximate r---.---------------- .. I Elevation l- __ ---.:.~l2.:.Lc.~:....l..I _ I I-' V1 N I 1/ Locat::i.on: De s c r Lb e as completely as possible TO\1uship, Section, forest, dr ai.n agc , creek, etc. Observers by County, Nome: Address: Z..! VcJ]~_~..:..'-t_~:'!C'. .l~"(1~0..: Nixed conifers, pine, pdrryo n+jun Lpe r , river bottoD, oak, pine-oak, aspen-pine, aspen-sagebrush, etc. }/ .1~:(~1T' 0.rk~;: displaying, etc. Lf.s t added LnEormat Lon such aa birds fceding, resting - female with chicks, activity nesting, - NOTE: Please return this form to: Ri cha rd W. lIo ££111a11 Wildlife Research Center P. O. Box 2287 fort Collins, Colorado 80522 �April 1976 -153JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~.~~----------- Project No. 17 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Continued Job No. Inventory 2 --------------------------------- of Selected Ptarmigan Populations ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-29 April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 W. John Arthur, Clait E. Braun, Ken Giesen, Richard W. Hoffman, Tom Lytle, and Ron Oakleaf. ABSTRACT Investigations of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) populations at four sites in Colorado initiated in 1965 were continued in 1975 with major emphasis in ascertaining population levels and relationships of nesting success and production to climatic conditions. Breeding densities in 1975 increased in Rocky Mountain National Park and at Crown Point, remained stable at Mt. Evans and decreased at Independence Pass. Observed increases at Rocky Mountain National Park and Crown Point were the result of good production at these sites in 1974 and slightly better than average survival of chicks to 1975. Stability was reached at Mt. Evans because of harvest stabilization in 1974, while the population decreased at Independence Pass due to poor production and excessive harvest in 1974. Nesting success was good at Rocky Mountain National Park, and Crown Point, average at Independence Pass, and poor at Mt. Evans. Nesting was delayed by cool wet weather in May and June, but relationships between production and climate were unclear. Hunting pressure was apparently low at Crown Point, the season was closed at Mt. Evans, while about 63 percent of the fall population was harvested at Independence Pass. Initial analysis of population data from Mt. Evans and Crown Point indicate that males of both age classes (yearling and adult) have higher survival rates than females. Survival of chicks is poor each year, averaging from 14 to 21 percent at the two areas. No real differences were found in nesting success between yearling and adult females at either area. �-154- RECOMMENDATIONS Data from this project should be prepared for publication as a Wildlife Monograph, with sho~ter technical papers being submitted to appropriate Journals. �-155- CONTINUED INVENTORY OF SELECTED PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS Clait E. Braun Knowledge concerning population levels of white-tailed ptarmigan and factors influencing observed densities is essential for proper management. This project was undertaken to examine long term population trends and effects of climatic conditions on white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. The initial 5 years of research on this grouse were previously reported (Braun and Rogers 1971). Progress reports on work since 1969 have been prepared (Braun 1971a, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975). P. S. OBJECTIVES To test the hypotheses that (1) populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado are not cyclic, (2) production and fall population densities of this species in Colorado are related to temperature and moisture conditions during June and early July of the same year, and (3) harvest of over 50 percent of the fall population adversely affects breeding densities the following spring. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan in 4 study areas (Mt. Evans, Crown Point, Independence Pass, and Rocky Mountain National Park). 2. To estimate 3. To obtain weather data from a representative alpine area for use in determining correlations between spring weather conditions and fall ptarmigan populations. 4. To initiate data compilation final report. and analyses METHODS AND MATERIALS nesting success and production in the above areas. in preparation for writing the Techniques used were essentially those developed under Work Plan 17, Job 1 and reported in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971), and updated by Braun (197la). In 1975, green (Rocky Mountain National Park), pink and white (Mt. Evans), and yellow (Crown Point, Independence Pass, and Mt. Evans) bandettes with black numerals were used to mark all newly banded birds and those whose older bandettes had become too worn for individual recognition. Weather data were obtained from the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for reasons previously explained (Braun 1971a). Hunting statistics were collected through return of bands from successful hunters (Independence Pass and Crown Point). A check station was operated opening weekend on the only access road at Crown Point. �-156DESCRIPTION OF AREA Areas intensively investigated have been described in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971) and have been presented by Braun (1971a). Braun (1971b) further described vegetation and habitat usage of the study areas. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on 9 May at Rocky Mountain National Park, 15 May at Mt. Evans, 26 May at Independence Pass, and 4 June at Crown Point. Formation of pairs occurred throughout May, with most pairing being completed by 30 May. Timing of breeding activities was delayed in 1975, apparently' the result of adverse weather conditions. Densities observed are presented in Table 1. Table 1. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding densities, all areas, 1975. No. of Breeding Pairs Unmated Males Total Breeding Population Birds per Square Mile 1.25 9 5 23 18.4 Toll Memorial .19 5 5 15 78.9 Fall River Pass .70 9 5 23 32.9 Total - Rocky Mountain National Park 2.14 23 15 61 28.5 Crown Point 1. 93 3 2 8 4.2 Mt. Evans 1.54 11 3 25 16.2 1.12 4 6 14 12.5 Study Area Rocky Mountain S.l.ze1/ National Park Tombstone Ridge-Sundance Mountain Independence Pass 1) In square miles. Breeding densities between 1974 and 1975 remained stable at Mt. Evans (no change), decreased at Independence Pass (3.6/birds sq mi), and increased at Crown Point (.6 bird/sq mi), and Rocky Mountain National Park (7.9 birds/sq mi). Nesting success in 1974 was good (about 60 percent of all hens were successful) �-157on all study areas (Braun 1975); consequently, increases in breeding densities were expected in 1975. The expected increases did not materialize at Mt. Evans, possibly the result of hunter harvest in 1974. However, only about 32 percent of the fall population at this area was harvested in 1974 (Braun 1975). Possibly this is the approximate harvest level that can be attained without adverse effects on the spring population the following year. Previous data collected on this study indicated that optimum harvest of white-tailed ptarmigan approached one-fourth (25 percent) to one third (33 percent) of the fall population. As in most years since 1969, the fall population at Independence Pass was again over harvested in 1974, as at least 40 percent of the population was removed. Pairs did not re-establish on this area in usual numbers in 1975 and the population declined further. This area is presently a sink for ptarmigan recruited from surrounding areas. The population at Crown Point was expected to increase more than was documented. Reasons for this are not known, but are undoubtedly related to poor recruitment of the few males produced on the area in 1974 (only one brood was present) and low immigration to Crown Point from the alpine areas one to two miles west. Recruitment of yearling birds to the spring population in Rocky Mountain National Park in 1975 was excellent, as 30 different individuals were identified. The population at this area increased as the result of continued good survival of adults and increased survival of young when compared to other years (20 yearlings in 1974, 14 in 1973). Breeding densities at all study areas from 1966 through 1975 are presented in Table 2. Data presented in this table would indicate that unhunted populations oscillate about every 7 to 10 years. Data from the hunted areas show no clear pattern, but clearly demonstrate that hunting is a major mortality factor for white-tailed ptarmigan, as most if not all, major changes in breeding densities are related to level of harvest. Obviously, white-tailed ptarmigan do not compensate for hunting mortality by having larger clutches, better chick survival or increased survival of adults. Nesting Success and Production In 1975, the month of May was cool and wet (Table 3). Snow melt was retarded and plant phenology was delayed. June was also cooler and wetter than in 1974; consequently nesting activities were retarded on all areas. Most laying occurred in July and the estimated peak of hatching was 20-25 July. Giesen (1976) located 11 nests of ptarmigan in Rocky Mountain National Park, of which 6 were successful. Of the six nests hatching, four hatched between 2025 July, while two hatched between 1-7 August. Nesting success was good at Rocky Mountain National Park (22 of 36 hens observed were successful) (Giesen 1976), Crown Point (2 of 2 hens observed were successful), average at Independence Pass (1 of 2 hens observed were successful), and poor at Mt. Evans (3 of 10 hens observed were successful). Seven hens were observed during the brood periods off major study areas, of which 4 were accompanied by chicks. Considering all areas, 32 of 57 hens (56.1 percent) were successful in 1975. This is slightly down from the estimated 62 percent success in 1974. �-158Table 2. White-tailed ptarmigan breeding densities 1966-1975. Year Rocky Mountain National Park 1966 29.0 1967 Study Area Crown Point Mt. Evans Independence Pass 14.5 7.8 18.7 25.2 21.2 7.1 18.7 1968 29.4 18.1 7.1 18.7 1969 30.8 14.5 5.8 17.9 1970 24.8 10.4 5.2 10.7 1971 23.4 5.7 11.0 21.4 1972 22.4 1.0 19.5 18.7 1973 20.1 4.7 16.2 17.0 1974 20.6 3.6 16.2 16.1 1975 28.5 4.2 16.2 12.5 Table 3. Weather data, Niwot Ridge, 12,300 ft, May-July 1975. May Month June July Temperature Maximum 53 F 60 F 62 F Minimum 6 F 35.6 F 12 F 33 F Mean daily maximum Mean daily minimum Days temperature <320 F 23.3 F 42.3 F 28.4 F 39.6 F 25 21 F 0 F 53.3 F Precipi tation (inches) 4.58 2.42 Y 1.74 Days relative humidity > 90% 18 91/ 15 Wind speed (mph) 'l:./ 'l:./ 'l:./ 1/ Only 17 days of data. 2/ Data not available. �-159Initial brood size in 1975 was approximately 5.6 (Table 4) (Giesen 1976) and steadily decreased to 15 September, after that time average brood size increased slightly due to brood breakup and formation of gang broods. These data are similar to those collected in most years of the study. Table 4. Nmnber of broods and average brood size, all areas, 1975. 1/ Y Number of Broods Observed Average Number of Chicks per Brood July 16-31 5 5.6 August 1-15. 12 3.9 August 16-31 12 3.7 Month September 1-15 15 3.5 September 16-30 8 4.2 1/ Only distinct broods are included. ~/ Data in part from Giesen (1976). Fall Densities Estimates of densities of white-tailed ptarmigan on September 1, while useful in illustrating population gain through production, are difficult to accurately derive due to a number of variables. Estimated fall densities for each area studied are presented in Table 5. These densities were calculated following the three basic assumptions discussed in detail by Braun and Rogers (1971). Percent gain was adequate only at Rocky Mountain National Park and Crown Point to maintain and increase populations the. following spring. If survival is stable, populations at these two areas should increase in 1976. The population at Mt. Evans is not expected to decrease, but no real increase is expected. The population at Independence Pass should decrease in 1976, but may not due to immigration from surrounding areas onto the study site. Hunting Mortality In 1975 all alpine areas of the state were open to ptarmigan hunting from 13 September through 5 October, except for Unit 70 (Pikes Peak) and the area in Unit 52 within one-half mile on each side of State Highway 5 (Mt. Evans Road) from the Echo Lake turnoff to the smnmit of Mt. Evans. These areas were closed to ptarmigan hunting. As in recent years, no ptarmigan hunting was allowed during any of the early big game seasons. Bag and possession limits for ptarmigan alone were 3 and 6. �-160Table 5. Estimated fall densities of white-tailed ptarmigan 1975. Rocky Mountain National Park Crown Point Mt. Evans 60 65 30.0 50.0 Average brood size on September 1 3.9 4.0 3.5 2.0 Total production 55 8 12 4 Total bree?-ing population 61 8 25 14 Total population September 1 110 15 35 17 Birds per square mile 51.4 7.8 22.7 15.2 Percent 50.0 53.3 34.3 23.5 Estimated nesting percent success gain Independence Pass on Since no bands have been reported from Crown Point since 1970 a check station was operated on the only road into the area on both 13 and 14 September. Purpose of the check station was to ascertain if ptarmigan were being harvested on the study area as non-reporting of bands was suspected due to the low increase in this population since 1972. During the two days of dawn to dusk station operation, no ptarmigan were checked. As in every year since 1970, no bands were reported from the Crown Point area. Thus hunting is ruled out as the cause for the continued low population at this site. The hunting season at Mt. Evans in 1975 was effectively curtailed by the management closure of the area within one-half mile of the paved highway. Despite the closure, 4 banded ptarmigan were harvested on the study area by two hunters, along with one unbanded bird (apparently a young of the year). Thus at least 4 of at least 39 banded birds known to be alive (10.3 percent) were harvested in 1975 with a closed season on the study area. Of the five birds known to have been harvested, three were adult males (3±, 3+, 3+), one was an adult female (3+) and the other was a presumed chick, unknown sex. Band recoveries reported by hunters from ptarmigan harvested at Independence Pass are suspected to have decreased in recent years. This trend may not have continued in 1975, as bands from 12 of at least 19 banded birds known to be alive (63.2 percent) were received. Obviously, the population at this site was over harvested in 1975, a situation that has occurred almost every year since 1968. This population should decrease further in 1976 unless maintained by immigration from birds produced in adjacent areas. �-161Analysis of Long Term Population Data Analysis of all data collected from 1966 through 1975 was initiated for preparation of the final report. Population and movement data were summarized for Crown Point and Mt. Evans but not for the other two study areas. The average annual survival rate based on reobservation and harvest data combined within the same year for all birds banded was 31.4 percent (N = 74 7 236) at Crown Point, and 36.5 percent (N = 127 7 348) at Mt. Evans. Males had a higher survival rate than females (41.7 to 29.3 percent for yearlings, and 57.1 to 29.3 percent for adults at Crown Point; 47.1 to 35.2 percent for yearlings and 38.2 to 32.8 percent for adults at Mt. Evans). Chicks survived poorly at both areas, with average annual survival being 14.3 percent at Crown Point and 21.4 percent at Mt. Evans. Hunting decreased survival rates at both areas. Only three"movements (one female to Rocky Mountain National Park and back, and two (one female and one male) shot near Comanche Peak) were documented from Crown Point to other areas, while one movement of a banded bird to Crown Point was identified (female banded as a chick from Rocky Mountain National Park). Four birds banded at Mt. Evans (2+ male, 1+ female, chick female, chick male) moved to Guanella Pass, while two birds (2+ female, yearling female) moved to the Sugarloaf area northwest of Mt. Evans. Nine movements of birds banded at Guanella Pass (8) and Sugarloaf (1) were documented to Mt. Evans. Of these birds, 5 were females (four yearlings and one chick), while 4 were males (three yearlings and one adult). Average success of hens in rearing young was compared at both sites. At Mt. Evans 18 of 47 yearling hens (38.3 percent) and 20 of 56 adult hens (35.7 percent) were successful in bringing off broods. In contrast, 22 of 26 yearling hens (84.6 percent) and 17 of 18 adult hens (94.4 percent) were known to be successful at Crown Point. These data may be misleading, as unsuccessful females apparently departed the Crown Point area and summered elsewhere. One known occurrence of this phenomena was documented at Mt. Evans, unsuccessful hens from adjacent sites moved onto the study area in late summer, thus the percentage of nesting success was lower than actual. Of most importance though is the fact that within areas, age of females had no apparent relationship to probability of being successful or unsuccessful. This is contrary to hypotheses developed from preliminary review of available data. �-162LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1971a. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 91-106. 1971b. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. 1972. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 91-98. 1973. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 355361. 1974. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 65-72. 1975. Continued inventory of selected ptarmigan populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. p. 81-89. _____ , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 p. Colo. Giesen, K. M. 1976. Organization, mortality and dispersal of grouse broods. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. In press. Prepared by __~i~ /<:l ~:~ t- /_/ /C:" !<)~~;~,. ~ ~L2~-/~--~--~--~-~~~---_-_-~/~ ~~_-~!~~~~~'~~_~-~'~~-~ __ __ ' __ Clait E. Braun "/ Wildlife Researcher _ �April 1976 -163JOB l'ROG.R.ESS State of Project . ~COlORA=D~O No. Game Bird Survey 17 Organization, Period Covered: Personnel: _ W-37-R-29 ivork Plan No. Job Title }~EPORl' 5 Job No. Mortality and Dispersal April 1, 1975 through March of Grouse Broods 31, 1976 Kenneth M. Giesen, William W. Mautz and Kenneth R. Russell, Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit; Clait E. Braun and Richard W. Hoffman, Colorado Division of Wildlife; Ed Blekicki, Colorado Mountain College. ABSTRL'>.CT Investigations of the nesting ecology, organization, mortality and dispersal of broods of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Colorado were initiated in 1975 on approximately 16.9 km2 of alpine habitat in Rocky Mountain National Park. Average clutch size determined from 11 nests was 5.7 eggs. The peak of hatch occurred between 20 and 25 July, with a smaller peak due to renesting occurring between 5 and 10 August. Nesting success was approximately 60 percent, with observed egg hatchability being 100 percent. Twenty-two broods were located and observed a total of 134 times prior to 31 October. Brood size decreased over 31 percent by 15 August with the only documented mortality due to predation. Movements of 15 broods to summer areas averaged less than 600 m, while movement within the summer ranges averaged 212 m between observations. Size of brood home range varied from 14 to 32 ha. Movements to fall concentration areas averaged 1,405 m and were precipitated by a major snowstorm on 13 October. Movement to wintering areas was gradual and documented movements for 12 chicks from fall to winter sites averaged 3,310 m. Brood breakup occurred gradually after chicks reached 8 weeks of age and most dispersal occurred after the 13 October snowstorm. At least 3 broods remained intact until mid-November. �-164RECOMMENDATIONS 1. A minimum of 2 hens should be fitted with radio-transmitters at time of hatch in order to facilitate daily observation and monitoring of movements and chick mortality. 2. In order to facilitate individual chick identification, all chicks should be marked with numbered bandettes in addition to aluminum state bands. 3. A minimum of 6 chicks should be fitted with radio transmitters prior to dispersal in order to monitor dispersal movements and mortality. 4. A minimum of 20 chicks from adjacent alpine areas should be marked in order to document dispersal movements of chicks onto the study area. 5. Intensive effort should be made in December to locate all wintering areas surrounding the study area in order to locate wintering juveniles previously banded on the study area. �-165- ORGANIZATION, MORTALITY AND DISPERSAL OF GROUSE BROODS Kenneth M. Giesen Grouse are important game birds in Colorado and four species [blue grouse (Dendragopus obscurus), sage grouse (Centro cercus urophasianus), sharptailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus), and white-tailed ptarmigan] presently provide considerable hunting opportunity. Little is known concerning broods of three of these species in Colorado (blue grouse, sharptailed grouse, and sage grouse) due to habitats occupied and lack of detailed study. Production of young and survival to the hunting season and following breeding season are important biological parameters as these factors affect fall hunting populations and breeding populations the following year. It is thus important to understand organization and dispersal of broods as they directly affect hunting success and overwinter survival. It is also important to identify major mortality factors of juvenile grouse and to understand their relationship to fall and resulting spring population levels. Intensive studies of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado (Schmidt 1969, Braun and Rogers 1971, Hoffman and Braun 1975) support the conclusion that their biology is similar to that of other grouse, especially in respect to brood ecology and dispersal. Preliminary observations of white-tailed ptarmigan broods suggested they would be ideal study organisms as (1) they can be easily and readily located, (2) they can be easily marked, (3) they occupy small home ranges until time of dispersal, (4) they can be observed without vegetative interference, and (5) requirements for wintering are known. P. S. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to increase the knowledge of factors affecting numbers of young grouse in fall and recruitment to the breeding population the following spring. Hypotheses which have been developed are: (1) mortality of chicks is predator-dependent to 1 October and weather-dependent from 1 October to 1 November; (2) brood breakup and dispersal are functions of chick aggression to brood mates; (3) timing of dispersal is age-dependent with dispersal not occurring until chicks are older than eight weeks; and (4) dispersal is non-random. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Locate a minimum of three nests for documentation 2. Locate and individually 3. Document timing and causes of mortality from hatching to dispersal of young. mark a minimum of hatching. of three hens with broods. for members of three broods �-168- METHODS AND MATERIALS Territorial pairs in spring and females with broods in summer were located with the use of tape-recorded calls (Braun et al. 1973). Intensive search on foot and frequent viewing with binoculars were necessary to locate nonterritorial males and unsuccessful females. Once ptarmigan were located they were observed using 7 X 50 or 8 X 32 binoculars. If the bird had been banded previously, its band color and number were recorded along with the time and location, on standardized observation cards. Unbanded birds were pursued until captured or flushed out of sight. Captures were made with a 60 pound test nylon covered wire snare (40 pound test for chicks) attached to the end of a 5 or 7 m telescoping fiberglass fishing pole as described by Zwickel and Bendell (1967b) for blue grouse and adapted for ptarmigan by Braun and Rogers (1971). Each adult ptarmigan newly captured was banded on the right leg with a gold aluminum serially numbered leg band (Size 8, National Band and Tag Co., Newport, Kentucky) and on both legs with colored, numbered (1-100) plastic leg bandettes (Size 6, National Band and Tag Co., Newport, Kentucky). Chicks captured after 2 weeks of age were banded on the left leg with a gold aluminum serially numbered leg band. Forty-five selected chicks were additionally leg banded with various combinations of colored plastic coil bandettes (Size 3, National Band and Tag Co., Newport, Kentucky). All captured ptarmigan were weighed with a spring scale accurate to within 5 gros. Measurements of carpal length, individual primary lengths and length of the outer rectrix were recorded using a transparent, flexible plastic millimeter ruler. Adults were sexed and classified as either adult or yearling according to plumage characteristics described by Braun and Rogers (1971). Chicks were aged by examination of various plumage characteristics including lengths of carpal and primary feathers and by progression of primary molt. Ages were assigned by comparing specific measurements with those of known age chicks. Sex of chicks was based on behavior, primary feather and carpal lengths, pigmentation of the eye stripe and by the amount of pigmentation on post-juvenile P8, juvenile P9, PlO, and PClO (Braun, pers. comm.) . Nests were located by (1) observation of laying hens, (2) following incubating hens back to nests after feeding, and (3) intensive search of known territories. Additional nests were located incidental to other field activities. After incubation began, eggs were measured using a vernier caliper. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nesting Description of Nest Sites Characteristics of rock and vegetative cover, slope and aspect were determined for each nest site (Table 1). Six of 12 nest sites examined were in a spruce (Picea engelmanni) or willow (Salix spp.) krummholz situation, while 5 were in rock or boulder fields and 1 was in an open alpine meadow site. �-169Table 1. in 1975. Nest site characteristics Rockl/ Cover- for nests located within the study area Height of 2/ Vegetative Cover- Nest Aspect 1/ Slope- BW 7 South 23 10 Salix-Picea krummholz 15 BW14 North 12 50 Geum-Carex rock field 8 BW16 North 26 50 Geum-Trifolium BW17 North 43 5 Salix-Picea krummholz 26 BW27 East 21 35 Picea-Salix krummholz 150 BW36 East 11 5 Salix krummholz G34 North 23 50 Geum-Trifolium G37 South 38 30 Geum-Carex rock field 14 G74 West 10 5 Salix-Picea krummholz 30 G76 West 38 75 Geum-Trifolium G84 South 35 10 Geum-Carex meadow Unk1/ West 21 5 Picea-Salix krummholz Vegetative Cover Type rock field 6 40 rock field boulder field 5 5 9 150 1.1 In percent. ]j Measured in centimeters. 1/ Nest site 1974. Slopes of the nest sites ranged from 10 to 43 percent and averaged 25 percent. With the possible selection against steep slopes, no selection for slope was apparent. The slopes recorded appeared to be typical of those within the study area. Aspect did not appear to be important, as every direction was represented. Since nests are generally found within the male's territory (Schmidt 1969, Braun and Rogers 1971), hens are generally limited on selection of aspect. Height of vegetation surrounding the nests varied with site. Two nests found under dwarf spruce were surrounded by spruce 100-150 em in height, while the 4 nests found in willow clumps were surrounded by vegetation 15-40 cm in height. Vegetation heights at nest sites in the open alpine or in rock or boulder fields averaged less than 10 cm. �-170Five nests were located in areas having rock or boulder cover comprising an average of 50 percent of the ground cover. Three of these nests were adjacent to rocks while 2 were within 20 cm of rocks. Height of the rocks ranged from 8-24 cm and may have served to protect the nests from wind, as the nests were east or north of rocks, while the prevailing wind was from the west. Choate (1960) and Braun and Rogers (1971) mentioned that nests are characteristically located in snowfree sites. Choate (1960) also observed that nests were generally close to running water. This characteristic may not indicate selection as much of the alpine has an abundance of water in the spring due to rapidly melting snow. These same areas may be extremely dry in mid-July. Two char act er t.st r cs were common to the 12 nest sites examined. Nests were generally protected from the wind by either rock or vegetative cover, and all nests were in or immediately adjacent to open areas. These open areas may have facilitated access for the hens and escape from nest predators. Clutch Size and Egg Characteristics Clutch size was determined from 10 complete clutches observed during incubation. Average clutch size was 5.7 eggs, with clutches of 4 eggs (1),5 eggs (3), 6 eggs (4), and 7 eggs (2) recorded. The clutch of 4 eggs was thought to be the result of renesting. Braun and Rogers (1971) reported an average clutch size of 5.7 eggs determined from 20 complete nests located from 1966 to 1969. Choate (1963) reported an average clutch size of 5.2 eggs for 10 nests located in Glacier National Park, Montana. Measurements recorded for 56 eggs from 10 clutches averaged 44.1 X 29.8 mm (range 39.2-47.8 mm and 28.5-30.9 mm) in size. Braun and Rogers (1971) reported an average of 43.2 X 29.6 mm for 67 eggs examined. Egg fertility was 100 percent as all eggs (32) in the 6 successful nests hatched. Braun and Rogers (1971) reported 81.1 percent of 37 eggs in 7 successful nests hatched, while in Montana Choate (1963) reported 86 percent of the eggs in successful nests hatched. Known dates of hatching for 6 successful nests were: 21 July (1), 22 July (2), 23 July (1), 1 August (1) and 7 August (1). The clutch hatching on 7 August was thought to be a renest. Behavior of Females During Egg Laying Activities associated with egg laying were observed for 7 females (Table 2). All hens observed visited their nests for deposition of eggs between 0945 and 1430. Three females spent an average of 94 minutes at the nest while depositing the second egg of their clutches. Another female spent over 280 minutes at the nest when laying the fifth egg of a 6 egg clutch. It was assumed that incubation began at this time, as the hen remained on the nest. �-171Table 2. Time spent on nest during egg laying. Hen Time approached nest Time spent on nest Time left nest site G84 BW36 BW17 BW27 G37 BW7 G76 1120 1340 0945 < 1430 1141 1231 1220 84.1/ > 140 44 ND~j ND 153 >280 1029 ND >1400 1244 >1600 1504 > 1710 No. eggs in nest 2 2 or 3 2 1 ND 2 Time spent covering eggs 64 ND 40 ND ND 34 5 ND ]) Time in minutes ]j No data. A generalized description of the daily activities of a white-tailed ptarmigan pair during egg laying is presented. This description is based on 38 hours of observation of 7 different pairs on the day of egg deposition. Prior to approaching the nest the pair alternately feeds and rests within their territory. The female generally rests at the base of a rock or shrub while the male selects a rock or hummock overlooking the female. During periods of activity the female feeds more intensively than does the male. When the time for egg deposition nears, the female rapidly approaches the nest site (Normally 100-200 m distant) with the male following 5-10 m behind. During nest occupation by the female the male will select a site overlooking the nest, approximately 10-20 m away_ During the first 10-20 minutes on the nest the female moves around and often pokes her head underneath her breast as if moving the eggs. Apprently the egg is dropped at this time as continued observation reveals little further activity by the hen until she prepares to leave the nest. Before leaving the nest the female becomes restless and begins pecking at nearby vegetation and dropping the vegetation near her, thus building up the rim of the nest bowl. As the hen begins reaching further and further for vegetation, she is forced to stand up. From the standing position near the nest she begins covering the eggs by dropping bits of vegetation on them at the rate of approximately 20 pieces of vegetation per minute. Once the eggs are no longer visible the stimulus for covering them diminishes and the female suddenly leaves the nest and joins the male. Once the female is away from the nest she begins feedings. The average interval between deposition of successive eggs was estimated to be between 30 and 36 hours. Three females (BW7, BW17, G84) deposited 3 eggs within a 4 day period, and another female (BW27) deposited 4 eggs within a 6 day period. Approximately 9 days were required for a complete clutch, with incubation beginning 1 or 2 eggs prior to clutch completion. Behavior of Incubating Females Females remain on the nest during the entire 22-23 day incubation period, except for short feeding excursions at dawn and dusk. At these times, the �-172- female normally flies from the nest to the feeding area where she actively feeds for 10-20 minutes. The same feeding areas are used consistently. Upon completion of feeding the hen walks or flies back to the nest. During these feeding periods the eggs are not covered. Observations indicate that some hens feed during the day. Female BW14 was observed feeding during the day on 3 occasions, always during foggy weather. Another hen (G34) was twice observed feeding between 0800 and 0815 during clear or partly cloudy weather. Of 68 daytime observations made of nests during incubation, females were absent on only 5 occasions (7.4 percent). Disturbance of incubating females early in incubation often caused the hen to flee the nest and perform distraction displays (Schmidt 1969). During later stages of incubation hens became reluctant to leave the nest, even when .t.o uched , and had to be physically forced off in order to examine the eggs. Hens immediately returned to the nest after disturbance by the observer. Nesting Success Nesting success was estimated from (1) success of known nests, (2) numbers of successful and unsuccessful hens (those hens with and without broods, respectively) seen during the brood season and which had previously been identified during the breeding census, and (3) total numbers of successful and unsuccessful hens observed during the brood season. Close agreement among the 3 methods suggest that actual nesting success was approximately 60 percent. Six of 11 active nests hatched successfully (55 percent) but this estimate of nesting success may be high since only 2 of 7 nests located prior to onset of incubation were successful. Renesting compensated for this loss as 2 of 5 hens whose nests were predated renested successfully. Thus 57 percent (4 of 7) of the hens whose nests were located during egg laying succeeded, either initially or through renesting, in bringing off broods. All 4 nests found during various stages of incubation hatched successfully. During the breeding census, 31 females were observed. All females were seen with a male and were thought to be paired. Of these 31 females, 22 were later seen during the brood season (13 successful, 9 unsuccessful) giving an estimated nesting success of 59 percent. This estimate may be biased as success of the 9 females observed during the breeding census but not during the brood season was not determined. Braun and Rogers (1971) suggest that all females attempt to nest. Since the brood survey was thorough, it is doubtful that many successful females escaped observation. POSSibly some of the 9 females died or nested elsewhere. Another possibility is that most of these hens were unsuccessful and were not observed during the brood season because they summered off the study area (Braun pers. comm.). Another method for estimating nesting success is to examine the total number of successful and unsuccessful hens observed during the brood season. From mid-July until dispersal in mid-October 36 hens were observed (22 successful, 14 unsuccessful) for a calculated nesting success of 61 percent. There are 2 �-173shortcomings of this method. Unsuccessful hens are less likely to be observed than successful hens (Braun and Rogers 1971) and there is possible movement of hens onto or off the study area during the brood season. These factors may compensate for each other as the study area is on a ridge almost completely surrounded by subalpine vegetation. This would inhibit the movement of hens with young broods but not broodless hens. Most of the successful hens on the study area were thought to have been observed. It is probable that movement of unsuccessful females onto the study area equalled movement of unsuccessful hens away. Brood Relationships Changes in Brood Sizes Initial brood size was estimated from average clutch size (5.7) and observed egg hatchability (100 percent). From time of hatch until 31 October, 134 observations of brood sizes were recorded. From these data, changes in brood size were calculated for biweekly intervals during the summer (Table 3). It is apparent that a large decrease in brood size occurred between 1 August and 15 August. Part of this decrease was caused by the appearance of broods resulting from renests which are normally composed of 4 or fewer chicks (Braun and Rogers 1971). The decrease in brood size was real, however, as 7 of the broods which hatched in July averaged 4.0 chicks by 15 August, a decrease of 32.1 percent from the original 5.9 chicks per brood at time of hatching (first nesting only). By 15 September, brood size had decreased over 37 percent from time of hatch. This early mortality is similar to that reported by Zwickel and Bendell (1967a) who estimated a 40 percent loss of blue grouse chicks in the first two weeks of life. Table 3. Changes in average brood size between 16 July and 31 October, Number Broods Observed Average Brood Size Change From Previous Period Change From .Hatch Y Date 1975. 16 July-3l July 5 5.6 - 1. 8 - 1.8 1 August-IS August 10 3.9 -30.4 -31.6 16 August-3l August 11 3.9 0.0 -31.4 1 September-IS September 9 3.6 - 7.7 -37.5 16 September-30 September 8 4.1 +13.9 -27.7 1 October-IS October 10 4.2 + 2.4 -26.3 1 October-3l October 11 3.2 -22.0 -31.4 1/ Change from hatch. �-174After mid-September, average brood size began to increase. At this time, chicks were over 8 weeks of age and brood breakup had begun. Chicks were temporarily attracted to certain hens and large "gang" broods resulted. One hen, G84, was seen with as many as 10-12 chicks during this period. In October many chicks were seen apart from broods, most often in large mixed flocks of adults. Such observations were not included in brood counts since marked chicks from several broods were often represented. Mortality Causes and Timing Causes of mortality in free living animals if often difficult to document. Remains of birds disappear rapidly and the predators, which are common on the alpine, are capable of completely consuming ptarmigan chicks. Any remains may be buried or otherwise hidden from sight. Mortality was documented in 2 instances involving a total of 7 chicks. In the first instance, a raptor, probably a prairie falcon. (Falco mexicanus), killed a hen less than 24 hours after she hatched her clutch of 6 eggs. The entire brood was assumed to have died, although only 1 chick was found. The other case involved 1 chick approximately 4 weeks old. The remains were found approximately a month later and death was attributed to a weasel (Mus tela spp.). Brood-Female Interactions Selected broods were intensively observed at irregular intervals between time of hatch and brood breakup. Observations were made using 8 x 32 binoculars from semi-concealed positions. Occasionally, suitable concealment was lacking and broods were observed from an open position but this did not appear to noticeably affect their behavior. Distance between brood and observer varied from less than 10 m to over 100 m but was generally less than 50 m. Schmidt (1969) observed broods under similar conditions without noticeably influencing their activities or behavior. Lengths of observations ranged from less than 30 minutes to over 10 consecutive hours. Emphasis was placed on recording brooding, feeding and maintenance activities. Reactions of the hen and brood were also recorded when the chicks were captured for banding and measurement of growth parameters. Brooding was observed most often in chicks less than a week old. Observations of 3 broods on the day of nest abandonment indicated that an average of 69 percent of the day time (328 out of 470 minutes of observation) was devoted to brooding. Schmidt (1969) reported that day old chicks were brooded over 50 percent of the time. Theberge and West (1973) observed that Alaskan rock ptarmigan chicks were no longer brooded after 6 days of age. May (1975) presented data suggesting that white-tailed ptarmigan chicks are able to maintain body temperatures at 15-20 days of age after which time the need for brooding decreases. Brooding of older chicks sometimes occurs under certain conditions. On several occasions, female G84 was observed brooding her 4 chicks when she was approached by the other 4 chicks which she had adopted, in most instances all 8 chicks were successfully brooded. Thes~ latter 4 chicks were over 2 weeks older than her own chicks and at the tlmes �-175- of observation were approximately 4 weeks old. Braun (pers. comm.) observed a female attempting to brood 6-7 chicks during a snowstorm in September 1967. Brooding was rarely observed in the day time after chicks reached 2 weeks of age except during inclement weather. Observations were recorded of routine or maintenance activities. Most periods of chick activity were devoted to feeding. Brood hens appear to feed only occasionally, but appeared to be more proficient and thus, probably required less feeding time. Young chicks appear to be inefficient feeders and close observation revealed that several pecks were often required to obtain insect or vegetative food particles. Although feeding behavior of chicks may be learned by imitating their mother, May (1975) showed that juveniles ingest a wider variety of food materials than do adults. After chicks were 3-4 weeks of age, they became more independent and foraged greater distances from the female. It often appeared that foraging chicks determined the direction of daily movement. At certain times when the brood hen appeared to have a certain goal, she rapidly led the brood while giving the chick attraction call. These goal-orientated hen movements were generally observed when the female led her brood to dusting locations and when the female moved to a night roosting site. At times these movements were 200-300 m and were traversed in 10-20 minutes. Brood-Brood Interactions Successful hens usually abandoned their breeding territories and moved to more favorable brood rearing habitat within several days of hatching. Since only a small portion of the alpine tundra is preferred brood habitat, successful hens often concentrated in relatively small areas. Schmidt (1969) reported 8 broods in 1967 and 10 broods in 1968 utilized an area of approximately 130 ha surrounding an old quarry at Toll Memorial. Such concentrations increase chances of contact between broods and thus provide opportunities for brood mixing. Chambers and Sharp (1958) reported that brood mixing in ruffed grouse occurred more frequently during population highs when broods tend to come into contact more often. From hatching until 13 October when summer areas were abandoned, 116 observations were recorded of 21 b"roods. Over 84 percent of the observations (97) were of single broods while combined broods were observed on 14 occasions. In addition, there were 5 observations of unsuccessful hens associating with successful hens and their broods. Occasionally apparent bonds were temporary and the recorded observation was likely a chance encounter between the broods involved. In most situations the association was of long duration. Successful hens BW16 and G85 were observed together on 9 occasions (of 9 total observations) between 22 September and 7 October (16 days). Successful hens BW5 and G86 were observed together on 3 occasions (of 4 total observations) between 11 August and 3 October (54 days). On at least one occasion (3 October), all 4 of the above hens with their broods were observed foraging together. �-176- In both instances of combined broods, the chicks and hens foraged together with no observed distinction between broods.. Neither of the hens showed aggression towards each other or towards any of the chicks. Aggression or avoidance behavior was not noti.ced among any of the chicks in the combined broods. In both situations,. the chicks were the same approximate age and it was impossible for the observer to distinguish the chicks from each brood unless the chicks were captured and their bands read. Unsuccessful hens or rarely males were sometimes associated with successful hens and their broods. Female G96 with her brood was observed on 5 occasions between 20 August and 21 September (33 days) with G70, an unsuccessful female, always in attendance. Some hens seemed to adopt chicks from other hens during the summer and fall, especially during brood breakup and dispersal. One instance was documented of the adoption of orphan chicks when female G84 adopted the 4 chicks of female BW14 when the latter disappeared and was assumed de ad , In this instance, female G84 had 4 chicks from a renesting attempt and the 4 chicks she adopted were approximately 16 days older. Even though there was an age and size difference between the 2 "broods" of chicks, there was little aggression observed. Movements Movements to Summer Areas Braun (1969) described summer brood areas as being high, rocky and frequently windswept ridges. Rocks over 30 cm diameter often comprised over 50 percent of the ground cover while late lying snowfields were present in protected areas. The vegetation was dominated by sedges (Carex spp.) with Geum rossii, Polygonum spp. and Trifolium spp. present in varying amounts. These 4 groups of plants provide the majority of the food utilized by both chicks and hens (May and Braun 1972, May 1975). During the first few days after hatching broods often remain within a few hundred meters of the nest site. Within a few weeks, successful hens with their broods begin showing up at traditional summering areas where they remain until brood dispersal or inclement fall weather (Braun 1969). Observations of 4 broods whose nest sites were known revealed that they moved an average distance of 510 m to summer areas. No movements greater than 600 m were recorded between breeding territories and summer areas for 11 other successful hens. Braun (1969) also observed an average movement of less than 600 m for successful hens, while Schmidt (1969) documented one movement of 1400 m in 4 days for one successful hen. Movements Within the Summer Area Successful hens with their broods move to specific brood rearing habitat within 3 weeks after hatching (Schmidt 1969). Once on the brood area, �-177- movements of the brood became localized until fall dispersal or snowstorms forced the broods to move downslope into more sheltered areas. Four brood concentration areas were located within the study area. The concentration area at Toll Memorial was studied most intensively with the Medicine Bow Curve, Iceberg Lake, and Sundance Mountain concentration areas being studied less intensively. Movements within a summer concentration area were recorded using extensive daytime observations (up to 10 consecutive hours) and by plotting day-today observations on a map. Of 22 broods observed during the 1975 summer, 16 were observed more than once between 1 August when broods began appearing at the concentration areas and 13 October when the first severe snowstorm caused abandonment of these areas. Three broods were observed only once each, while the remaining 3 broods were observed only before 1 August or after 13 October. The 16 broods were observed a total of 115 times on the summer areas. Each observation was plotted on a 7.5 minute (scale 1:24,000) map, and distances between consecutive observations measured to the nearest 25 m. Average distance moved between observations was 212 m for all broods combined, and ranged from 67 to 726 m for individual broods (Table 4). Only 3 of 99 movements were greater than 600 m. Only 3 broods (G84, G85 and BW16) were observed more than 10 times during the 74 day observation period and these broods averaged 117 m between observations. Home ranges were calculated for the 3 broods which were observed at least 10 times during the summer period. Observations were plotted on a 7.5 minute (scale 1:24,000) map and outside points were connected. Odum and Kuenzler (1955) noted that estimated size of a home range tended to increase with the number of observations until a maximum was reached. With the small number of observations recorded for each brood, size of brood ranges are minimum estimates. Brood G84, which was observed 28 times, had a calculated summer range of 32 ha. Broods G85 and BW16 (observed 11 and 12 times, respectively) were often observed together and had calculated summer ranges of approximately 14 ha. Daily movements recorded during intensive observations indicated that young broods move little, while broods over 4 weeks of age move longer distances. Daily movements often tend to be circular routes and these routes are usually similar from one day to the next. Individual broods varied in their daily movements according to abundance and availability of resources, especially food. Brood G84 often moved 800-1600 m per day, while broods G85, G86, BW5 and BW16 seldom traveled over 400 m in a day. Movements to Fall Areas After the first snowstorm on 13 October, ptarmigan were observed in widely scattered flocks throughout the study area. Fall use areas are generally lower than summering areas and often at the edges of krummholz areas (elevation 3440-3480 m). These areas are characterized by an abundance of willow shrubs and numerous small snowfields. Braun (1969) suggested that ptarmigan utilized the last remaining green vegetation in these areas, which are �-178the last areas to become snowfree in summer. At this time the ptarmigan are also actively molting into the white winter plumage and are seldom observed in windswept snowfree areas. Table 4. Brood movements within a summer area. Average Distance Movedll Between Observations Brood No. of Observations G76 5 726 G34 7 260 G85 11 98 G86 5 186 G51 2 288 G56 5 402 G49 5 300 G84 28 176 G96 5 366 G99 7 132 BW5 6 67 BW14 2 192 BW16 12 78 BW25 3 108 BW27 5 318 BW39 7 300 Total 99 Average II Distance in meters. 212 �-179- Although brood breakup was recorded prior to the snowstorm on 13 October, incidence of intact broods decreased rapidly after movement to fall areas. Brood breakup was most apparent in late October as observed flocks of ptarmigan contained mixtures of adults (males and females) and chicks. Flock composition varied from day to day and little interaction was observed between hens and chicks. The incidence of brood breakup is reflected in the banding records. Prior to 1 October, 59 juvenile ptarmigan had been banded. At time of banding, these juveniles were with hens known or assumed to be their parent. Between 1 October and 1 November, 24 juvenile ptarmigan were banded, of which only 6 were associated with hens throught to be their parent. During November an additional 12 chicks were banded and none was associated with hens assumed to be its parent. Not all broods broke up, as at least 3 broods (G34, G76. BW27) remained intact until early November. Most of the chicks newly banded after 1 October were assumed to have dispersed onto the study area from adjacent alpine areas. This assumption is supported by calculations of chicks produced on the ~tudy area and surviving until 1 October. Observations of 12 broods in September showed an average brood size of less than 3.2 chicks (eliminating observations of known gang broods). With 20 successful hens remaining on the study area (1 hen was killed, another hen lost all of her chicks shortly after hatch), the estimated production was 64 chicks as of 1 October. Since a total of 95 juveniles were banded on the study area with 30 being of unknown origin, the most likely explanation is that they were dispersing onto the study area. Braun (pers. corom.) suggests that juvenile females disperse the greatest distances in fall. Banding records from 1 October to 30 November support this hypothesis, as 61 percent (22) of the chicks banded during this period were classified as females. Movements of 42 chicks to fall use areas from summer brood areas were documented. Although some broods remained intact, most chicks were associated with mixed age and sex flocks. Movements to fall use areas were abrupt and coincided with the first major fall snowstorm on 13 October. Prior to the snowstorm, most ptarmigan were closely associated with the few remaining snowfields. These old snowfields provide water and green vegetation and serve as a protective background for the ptarmigan during their molt into white winter plumage (Braun 1969). Average movement documented for 42 chicks was 1405 m (range 50-3900 m). Prior to 13 October, 33 chicks had been observed at Toll Memorial. Of these, 26 were later located on fall use areas with 73 percent (19) moving to Tundra Curves approximately 1000 m west. One chick was documented moving to Medicine Bow Curve (3900 m nothwest), while 4 chicks moved to Sundance Mountain Basin (2900 m southeast). Apparent dispersal of juveniles onto the study area occurred during October. Although all portions of the study area were not searched equally, 2 fall use areas, Tundra Curves and Fall River-Gore Turnout attracted dispersing chicks. Of 21 chicks banded after 12 October, 16 were captured at one of these two locations. �-180Movements to Wintering Areas The vegetative and environmental factors characteristic of white-tailed ptarmigan wintering areas have been described by Braun (1969), Braun (1971), Braun and Schmidt (1971), and Hoffman and Braun (1975). Segregation of sexes usually occurs in winter flocks of ptarmigan, with males utilizing higher, more windswept areas, while females prefer lower areas at or below timberline. The abundance and availability of willow is a prime consideration, as the buds and twig tips of willow comprise over 90 percent of the winter diet of ptarmigan in Colorado (May and Braun 1972). This study was not designed to monitor wintering populations of ptarmigan in Rocky Mountain National Park. Due to lack of intensive effort and inaccessibility of the study area, relatively few observations of ptarmigan were made "in winter. Sixteen subadult ptarmigan were observed on wintering areas, with 12 having been previously marked. Eight of the 12 had been banded as chicks on summer areas, while 4 were banded during dispersal in the fall. Hoffman (1974) designed a study with one objective being to document chick movements to wintering areas. In two consecutive summers he banded a total of 126 chicks. Excluding 16 chicks which were harvested by hunters, only 2 of a possible 110 banded chicks were observed on wintering areas. Average distance moved to Wintering sites from summering areas was 1.37 km. Movements of 12 chicks from fall concentration areas to wintering sites averaged 3.31 km. Few conclusions can be based on these data since all but 2 observations were made at the one wintering site (Sundance Mountain Basin) most accessible in winter. Also, 4 of the observations came from a single brood (G76) which remained intact until late November. It is likely that most ptarmigan winter off the study area and these areas were not searched. It is also possible that juvenile ptarmigan are more mobile in winter than previously thought and may move among several Wintering sites, especially early in the wintering season. LITERATURE CITED Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Thesis. Ft. Collins. 189 pp. and movements of whiteColorado State Univ., 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed West. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. ___ ptarmigan. Proc. , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. 27. 80 pp. --- , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Pages 238-250 in A. O. Haugen, ed. Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium. Iowa Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 280 pp. �-181Braun, C. E., R. K. Schmidt, and G. E. Rogers. white-tailed ptarmigan with tape recorded 1973. calls. Census of Colorado J. Wildl. Manage. 37(1):90-93. Bump, G., R. W. Darrow, F. C. Edminster, and W. P. Crissey. 1947. The ruffed grouse:life history, propagation, management. New York Conserve Dept., Hilling Press, Inc., Buffalo. 915 pp. Chambers, R. E., and W. M. Sharp. population of ruffed grouse. 1958. Movement and dispersal within J. Wildl. Manage. 22(3):231-239. a Choate, T. S. 1960. Observations on the reproductive activities of whitetailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Glacier Park, Montana. M. S. Thesis, Univ. Montana, Missoula. 113 pp. 1963. Ecology and population dynamics of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Glacier Park, Montana. Ph. D. Thesis. Univ. Montana, Missoula. 205 pp. Eddleman, L. E. 1967. A study of the phyto-edaphic relationships alpine tundra of northern Colorado. Ph. D. Thesis. Colorado Univ., Ft. Collins. 148 pp. in State Ellison, L. N. 1973. Seasonal social organization grouse. Condor 75(4):375-385. of spruce and movements Godfrey, G. A. 1975. Home range characteristics of ruffed grouse broods in Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):287-298. _____ , and W. H. Marshall. 1969. Brood-breakup grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):609-620. and dispersal Gullion, G. W., and W. H. Marshall. 1968. Survival boreal forest. Living Bird 7:117-167. of ruffed of ruffed grouse in a Hale, J. B., and R. S. Dorney. 1963. Seasonal movements in Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):648-656. of ruffed grouse Haskins, A. G. 1969. Endoparasites of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) from Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 147 pp. Hoffman, R. W. 1974. Charactersitics and migration of wintering of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. M. S. Thesis. Colorado Univ., Ft. Collins.. 58 pp~ _____ , and C. E. Braun. 1975. Migration white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. populations State of a wintering population of J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3):485-490. Jenkins, D., A. Watson, and G. R. Miller. 1963. Population studies grouse in northeast Scotland. J. Animal Ecol. 32(2):317-376. of red �-182Judson, A. 1965. The weather and climate of a high mountain pass in the Colorado Rockies. U. S. Forest Servo Res. Paper RM-16. 28 pp. Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the east slope of the Front Range in Colorado. Univ. Colorado Studies, Sere BioI. 8. 134 pp. 1967. Data on mountain environments. I. Front Range, Colorado, sixteen sites, 1952-53. Univ. Colorado Studies, Sere BioI. 27. 110 pp. May, T. E. 1975. Physiological ecology of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. Colorado, Boulder. 311 pp. _____ , and C. E. Braun. migan in Colorado. 1972. Seasonal foods of adult white-tailed ptarJ. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1180-1186. Odum, E. P., and E. J. Kuenzler. 1955. Measurement of teritory and home range size in birds. Auk 72(1) :128-137. Quam, L. O. 1938. The morphology of landscape of the Estes Park area, Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation, Clark Univ., Worcester, Mass. 165 pp. Robel, R. J., J. N. Briggs, J. J. Cebula, N. J. Silvy, C. E. Viers, and P. G. Watt. 1970. Greater prairie chicken ranges, movements, and habitat usage in Kansas. J. Wildl. Manage. 34 (2):286-306. Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 174 pp. Stiven , A. E. 1961. Food energy available for and required by the blue grouse chick. Ecology 42(3):547-553. Theberge, J. B., and G. C. West. 1973. Significance of brooding to the energy demands of Alaskan rock ptarmigan chicks. Arctic 26(2) :138-148. Walles tad, R. O. 1971. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse in central Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 35(1):129-136. Weimer, R. J., and J. D. Haun (eds.). 1960. Guide to the geology of Colorado. Geol. Soc. Am., Rocky Mountain Assoc. Geol., Colorado Sci. Soc., Denver. 310 pp. Willard, B. E. 1963. Phytosociology of the alpine tundra of Trail Ridge, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Univ. Colorado, Boulder. 245 pp. Wing, L., J. Beer, and W. Tidyman. grouse. Auk 61(3):426-444. 1944. Brood habits and growth of blue Zwickel, F. C. 1967. Some observations of weather and brood behavior in blue grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 31(3) :563-568. �-183Zwickel, F. C., and J. F. Bendell. 1967a. Early mortality and the regulation of numbers in blue grouse. Can. J. Zool. 45(4) :817-851. _____ , and 1967b. A snare for capturing blue grouse. Manage. 31(1):202-204. J. Wildl. _____ , I. O. Buss, and J. H. Brigham. 1968. Autumn movements of blue grouse and their relevance to populations and management. J. Wildl. Manage. 32(3):456-468. Prepared by ~1(----' .' ..r-<-·'· -'-"-j:\...;:' ",-0 '_"_" r.. _~',--; 1, i ) "", / ,'}'lJ/' I.t.-=c;.,!:,'":_'i._, ...• " ,_/_''/',_,~. __ ,_:_·o,_:.._'t.._''''-_'-''<."..'~--:'/-:-'i_';''''_/ __ Kenneth M. Giesen "...:' Graduate Research Assistant <: Approved bY ~(_~'_1~~/~~'_,~{·~~'_':_·-_i_·~_/'_,~~'_,~~_~_-~'_)~~Z'-,{_<_:_/_1l_/_' _ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher '"L ��April 1976 -185JOB I'ROG!!.ESS REPO]\T State of COLORADO-'-----W-37-R-29 Proj ect No. \~ork Plan No. Job Title Period Job No. 1 Investigation of Popui~a-t-l~'o-n-------------------Status of Bobwhite Quail in Eastern Colorado 20 --------.----------------~-------.------------------------- Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey -----.--------~------------- April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Lucien Brevard, William and Warren D. Snyder. T. Howard, Steve Steinert, Larry Crooks, ABSTRACT Bobwhite quail whistling counts obtained on the Tamarack Wildlife Area in June and July, 1975 were again found to accurately indicate forthcoming fall population level and harvest. Based on five years data a correlation coefficient of r = 0.97 was obtained between census and fall population level. A similar coefficient of r = 0.99 was obtained between census and harvest data on the Tamarack. A Tamarack breeding population, believed to. contain approximately 137 birds, survived the March 27, 1975 snowstorm. This population was able, with excellent reproduction, to provide a fall population approximating 650 quail by early fall. Of these, 239 were banded or retrapped. A short quail season, November 19. to December 7, was accompanied by the only major snow stress period of the winter. Hunter success was generally poor and the 15 percent harvest was the lowest recorded in any year of study. Winter trapping and covey search efforts indicated the combined hunting-snow stress situation had reduced the population to an estimated 250 quail which survived the remainder of the winter in good shape. Again as in previous years, winter weather and snow stress conditions were the primary limitations to bobwhite survival. Management census information is included for trend comparison. Assistance was provided to Southeast Region personnel in conducting the 1975 bobwhite census along the Arkansas River. ' �-186RECOMMENDATIONS 1. That a final publication in technical bulletin form be prepared for dissemination of the findings of this study. Game Information Leaflets should be prepared covering census procedures and basic habitat needs with manipulation recommendations. An article for the Colorado Outdoors magazine should be prepared covering the species, environmental limitations and hunting. Consideration should be given to a Journal of Wildlife Management article covering population dynamics and census results on the Tamarack. Specific recommendations should be prepared in writing for use in managing the Tamarack and other Division properties for increased survival and harvest of bobwhite. 2. Census should be continued through the smnmer of 1976 on the Tamarack by research personnel to supplement study findings to date. 3. Assistance should be provided to management personnel in mid-October monitor banding of at least 100 bobwhite on the Tamarack. for �-187- INVESTIGATION OF POPULATION STATUS OF BOBWHITE QUAIL IN EASTERN COLORADO Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate (1) the distribution and relative density of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado, and (2) population structure and level, and rate of harvest, and identify key factors that limit bobwhite on the Tamarack Management Area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate Colorado. the distribution 2. To investigate population structure and level, and rate of harvest bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Management Area. 3. To identify Area. key factors limiting METHODS and density bobwhite of bobwhite in eastern on the Tamarack of Management AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this investigation were listed by Snyder 1973,1974, and 1975) in previous segment progress reports. (1972, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Bobwhite Distribution and Density in Eastern Colorado 1975 Census Whistling counts were again illustrated to be an effective method of bobwhite census and prediction of fall population level in 1975. Counts completed on the East Tamarack indicated some population increase over the previous year, whereas the Hest Tamarack population appeared stable (Table 1). Wildlife Conservation Officers, Warren Rupke, Clayton Wetherill, Rodd Richardson, Larry Budde and Brett Peterson completed counts elsewhere along the South Platte (Table 1). In general, population declines were evident, although upriver from Sterling two routes showed increases over the previous year. The impact of a major March snowstorm will be covered in a later section of this report. �-188Table 1. A five year comparison of bobwhite quail whistling counts completed along the South Platte River. Percent Change From Previous 4 Year Year Average Route Year Counts Stops Calling Males Stateline-Ovid (Warren Rupke) 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 2 4 3 3 20 20 40 33 33 78 65 93 115 14 3.90 3.25 2.33 3.48 0.42 -87.9% -87.0% 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 4 6 5 6 20 45 64 54 55 67 202 135 65 94 3.35 4.49 2.10 1.20 1.71 +42.5 -38.7 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 6 7 5 5 6 75 79 57 64 82 219 312 109 53 64 2.92 3.95 1.91 0.83 0.78 - 6.0 -67.5 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 2 4 3 19 20 41 30 63 73 133 61 3.33 3.65 3.24 2.03 -37.3 -40.4 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 2 3 2 3 20 20 30 28 27 108 182 246 77 150 5.40 9.16 8.20 2.75 5.55 +101.8 -l3.0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 2 3 2 3 20 20 30 20 45 77 163 60 72 l33 3.85 8.15 2.00 3.60 2.96 -17.8 -32.7 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 2 1 1 4 20 23 11 12 36 23 32 7 19 91 '1.15 1.39 0.64 1.58 2.53 +58.2 +110.0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 16 21 24 22 28 175 226 252 252 308 572 1019 723 534 607 3.27 4.51 2.87 2.12 1.97 - 7.1 -38.2 East Tamarack West Tamarack Sterling-Iliff (C. Wetherill) Atwood-Merino CR. Richardson) Brush-Ft. Morgan (Larry Budde) Goodrich-Orchard (B. Petersen) South Platte Average Average �-189- Census had not been conducted in the Arkansas Valley in 1974. At the request of management personnel there assistance was provided in affirming and adjusting routes and stations as needed in 1975. Censuses conducted by Wildlife Conservation Officers Gordon East, Dale Coven, Dan Potts, Jim Dennis and Glen Eyre are summarized in Table 2, along with comparable data from 1972 and 1973. Data presented in Table 2 show that bobwhite have declined in number on the lower Arkansas east of LaJunta, but routes from LaJunta upriver to Fowler contained good populations of quail. The rangeland route in southeast Baca County declined. Whistling Counts as Indicators of Fall Population Level and Harvest Whistling counts on the Tamarack showed close correlation with subsequent fall densities (r = 0.97) (Fig. 1) and also with harvest (r = 0.99) (Fig. 2) based on five years data. Although management personnel do not usually complete as many replicates as conducted on the study area, the available information illustrates that the whistling count can be a reliable method for predicting fall population level and harvest potential. It should therefore be consldered as an essential tool to use in the management of bobwhite in Colorado. The fall densities in Fig. 1 are presented in quail-per-square-mile form since the approximate acreage of quail habitat on the Tamarack was known. This would facilitate projecting approximate popUlation levels along river bottoms elsewhere in Colorado on a birds-per-square-mile basis. This method should not be used in rangelands where quail are heard from greater distances, often in all directions, rather than from a semicircle of river bottom habitat. Population Rate of Harvest Past Segment Band Recoveries, Structure, Level and on the Tamarack Wildlife Mortality Area Rates and Population Estimates Previous Segment Band Recoveries.--Band recoveries from quail banded in preceding trapping periods are illustrated in Table 3. These few recoveries do not provide enough information to merit revision of fall and winter population estimates previously presented (Snyder 1975). Recoveries over a longer time span are also subject to more bias to quail movement. The high mortality and relatively short life span of bobwhite is indicated in Table 3 by the rapid depletion of recovery information. Fall, 1974 to Fall 1975 Mortality and Population Level.--The early fall population level on the Tamarack in 1974 was placed at 499 bobwhite. One year later, 17.86 percent of 650 bobwhite were observed to be adults, or there were approxiamtely 118 survivors from the original 499 birds (Table 4). The loss of 381 quail from fall to fall represents an annual mortality rate of 76.35 percent. This projected rate assumes there was no significant migration into or out of the study area during the interval. Band return data, presented later, do not give any clue that significant movement did occur. �-190Table 2. A summary of bobwhite whistling counts completed in southeast Colorado from 1971 through 1975. Year Number of Counts Number of Stops Natural Tally Mean No. Calls E. Prowers County (Dan Potts) 1971 1972 1973 1975 1 3 2 3 10 30 26 33 8 33 45 11 0.8 1.1 1.7 0.3 Purgatqire (Dale Coven) 1971 1972 1973 1975 1 2 3 4 10 24 40 56 52 194 158 57 5.2 8.1 3.9 2.5 Las Animas-La Junta (Dale Coven) 1972 1973 1975 2 4 4 27 47 40 152 128 57 5.6 2.7 1.4 La JuntaRocky Ford (Gordon East) 1972 1973 1975 2 3 3 23 37 35 76 87 124 3.3 2.3 3.5 Rocky FordManzanola 1972 1973 2 2 18 17 8 12 0.4 0.7 Manzanola-Fowler (Gordon Eas t ) 1975 3 31 133 4.3 Fowler-Boone 1972 1973 3 1 34 :1,.4 9 4 0.3 0.3 1971 1972 1973 1975 1 2 2 2 10 28 25 24 38 145 49 37 3.8 5.2 2.0 1.5 Location and Route Arkansas River Valley Cimarron River Valley Southeast Baca County (Glen Eyre and Jim Dennis) �-191- 400 350 300 250 200 Y' 150 = 97.28 y = -23.88 + 94.22x 100 50 o 1 2 3 BOBWHITE WHISTLING C\LL 4 INDEX Fig. 1. Relationship of the bobwh i.t e whistling call index to subsequent fall density per square mile on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. 5 �-192700 600 .:::: ~ 0:: -c 500 t.J C::.. H 0-4 0 --l H 3 ~ 400 u -< ~ s; < 8 ,. ., ::r:: .LJ 8 300 z 0 8 Y' (;1 W > x y = -< ::r:: w = 99.43 105.1 + 180.4 x 200 E-t H ::r: ~s rn 0 en 100 o 1 2 BOBVJHITE \A/HISTLING 3 C,\LL 4 INDEX Fig. 2. Relationship of the bobwhite whistling call index to subsequent fall harvest on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. 5 �-193Table 3. Number previous banding of quail band recoveries and retrap information from periods obtained during 1975 and the winter of 1976. Period Obtained Period Banded Number Banded Late Winter 1975 Fall 1971 through Win ter 1973 Fall 1975 Harvest 1975 Late Winter 1976 No Bands .Recovered Fall 1973 300 4 1 0 1 Winter 12 2 1 0 0 Fall 1974 194 38 5 7 4 Winter 46 6 2 5 1974 1975 The 76 percent annual mortality is a marked drop from an observed 87 percent rate the preceding year and an approximate 94 percent rate in 1972-73. Reduced 1974-75 mortality permitted an upswing of the fall population to occur. Unfortunately, two factors make it difficult to precisely differentiate the mortality into fall-winter and spring-summer segments. First, band recovery samples were relatively small, and therefore, are subject to substantial error when used in projection. Second, a major snow storm occurred in late March 1975 after winter banding had terminated. Some quail mortality apparently occurred, but no accurate assessment of the storms impact could be obtained at the time. Two methods were used to project fall-winter mortality. The first utilized proportional band recoveries from fall 1974, and winter 1975 that were obtained during fall, harvest, and winter 1975-76. Only 13 bands were recovered from the original 197 placed on quail in fall 1974, and 17 were recovered from winter 1975, when 90 quail were trapped. Proportional projections place the fall-winter (1974-75) natural mortality rate at 46.7 percent. Addition of 18.27 percent harvest mortality brings the total fallwinter mortality to 65 percent of the original 499 quail. This method projects 175 quail alive at the end of winter trapping. The second method is based on the proportion of winter banded quail among the total adults in subsequent 1975-76 fall-winter samples. Forty-nine adults were handled, of which 17 had been marked during the previous winter. Projection based on this ratio placed the surviving late winter population at 259 quail for a natural fall-winter mortality rate of 29.46 percent. Combined natural and harvest mortality would approximate 48.10 percent. �-194- Table 4. Projected mortality of bobwhite quail on the Tamarack Wildlife Area from October 1974 through October 1975. West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area Total Fall 1974 population estimate 246 253 499 Hunting season removal 59 34 93 Remainder subject to natural mortality 187 219 406 Winter 1975 popUlation estimate (To midpoint of trapping) 119 140 259 Fall-early Winter natural mortality 68 79 147 Percent natural mortality 27.64 31.23 29.46 Total Fall-early Winter mortality 127 113 240 Percent total mortality 51.63 44.66 48.10 March 27 storm mortality 64 39 103 Total natural mortality to early Spring 53.66 46.64 50.10 Percent natural + harvest mortality 74.39 70.75 72.54 Early Spring population estimate 63 74 137 Percent Spring-Summer mortality 3.65 3.95 Fall 1975 popUlation estimate (adults) 54 64 118 Annual mortality rate (percent) 78.05 74.70 76.35 Item 3.81 The two methods of projection yield rather widely differing estimates of fall-winter mortality and late winter population level. These discrepancies were either the result of (1) inadequate sample size, or (2) egress of banded quail and ingress of unbanded quail. The latter factor would cause the 259 quail projection to be in excess of the actual, but if only a few more fall banded quail had been recovered the lower estimate of 175 quail would have been revised upward dramatically. Comparison of percentage banded among fall-winter (1974-75) quail with survivors one year later shows about 48.1 percent of the original 499 quail were banded by the end of winter. The ratio of banded to unbanded was 23 to 49, or 46.9 percent in the following year. This indicates little movement �-195- into or out of the study area occurred through the spring and summer of 1975 and gives credence to the projection method based on the proportion winter banded among surviving adults. Emperical observations, based on past trapping experience, placed the winter 1975 population at around 200 to 250 quail (Snyder 1975). The fact that ninety were handled indicates in excess of 200 were present since it is difficult to trap in excess of 50 percent of a previously trapped winter population. In addition, weather through the fall and winter was relatively dry and mild, permitting good survival as indicated by large covey sizes observed during the trapping period. Based on information presented in preceding paragraphs, 259 quail will be used as the projection of late winter 1975 population level (Table 4). Unfortunately, the March 27 snowstorm came after trapping had terminated. Accurate assessment of its impact on the resident quail could not be made. A few surviving quail were observed but it was extremely difficult to find mortalities of present. Hundreds of passerines were observed lost to the storm along the riverbottom, and pheasants, crows, hawks, waterfowl and other wildlife and livestock were lost in surrounding localities. June-July whistling counts showed the quail population had taken a considerable drop in number by that time. Most of that decline can be realistically attributed to the March 27 storm, so that overall winter mortality was conSiderably higher than that observed up to termination of winter trapping. The whistling counts were previously illustrated to be fairly accurate indicators of population level. In 1974 a call index of 1.00 was based on an early spring population of approximately 119 quail. In direct proportion a call index of 1.15 in 1975 would be based on a spring population of about 137 quail. Respective surviving numbers of adults for fall 1974 and fall 1975 were 91 and 118. Assuming these projections were approximately accurate, then our best estimates of March storm mortality was 100 to 120 quail or about 20 to 24 percent of the original fall population. Only about four percent of the original population was lost during the late spring through late summer interval. It should be understood that the above information and that presented in Table 4 are based on considerable conjecture and should be considered only as our best estimates of mortality trend. Fall Banding 1975 Warm, dry weather and inexperienced trapping personnel combined to slow early fall trapping success. Success picked up with the onset of colder weather in mid-October so that 226 quail were banded and 13 previously banded adults were retrapped to bring the total marked sample to 239 birds (Table 5). Better access and trapping weather skewed banding success disproportionately to the East Tamarack where harvest recoveries projected that 45.6 percent of the population was marked. In contrast, only 26.8 percent of those on the West Tamarack were banded for an overall average of 36.8 percent. �-196- Table 5. A summary of banding, harvest and population projections from the Tamarack based on fall 1975 and winter 1976 data. West Tamarack East Tamarack Total Area 100 126 226 1 12 13 101 138 239 Fall 1975 banded 11 19 30 PreViously banded adults o 2 2 11 21 32 Crippling loss (projected total) 3 6 9 Known harvest 41 46 87 Projected total harvest mortality 44 52 96 Percent crippling loss (of harvest) 7.32% 13.04% 10.34% Projected total band recoveries 12 24 36 Percent banded (Fall and previous) 26.83% 45.65% 36.78% Percent harvest mortality (includes cripples) Winter 1976 Banded 11.88% 17.39% 15.06% Retrapped from Fall 1975 5 30 35 Other quail banded or retrapped 13 23 36 Total quail handled 18 53 71 Percent Fall banded 27 78% Fall population estimate 376 (360) 302 (290) 650.!! Finite confidence limits +110.5 + 89.4 +169.9 Item Fall 1975 Banding Information Number of quail banded Number of retrapped adults Total marked Harvest Band Recoveries Total band recoveries Harvest Statistics 56.60% Population Projection for Fall 1975 Based on Harvest Recovery Data 0 49.30% 1/ Separate computation of the East and West Tamarack data yields a combined total of 678 quail in contrast to a total area calculation of 650 quail. The latter figure is considered most accurate. �-197- Fall Movement As in 1974, there was no evidence of bobwhite movement off the Tamarack, either upstream or downstream. Relatively low quail densities and a shortened time lapse between trapping and quail season were believed responsible. As a consequence, corrections to population estimates based on movement were not applied in Table 5. Fall Population Estimate Increased trapping success in fall, 1975 was indicative of an increase in quail abundance over the previous fall. The fall population estimate derived from the banded-unbanded ratio in harvest confirms this increase. This was also the first time the annual mortality rate had dropped below 80 percent since the 1971-72 interval. Win ter 1976 trapping data were excluded in calculating the fall population estimate of 650 quail (Table 5) because a large proportion of that sample was obtained along the East Tamarack meadow where fall trapping also had been concentrated. Although sample size would have been increased, bias due to poorly distributed sampling was believed an overrriding factor. Mark and recapture samples were not sufficient to prevent errors greater than 10 percent with 95 percent accuracy as recommended by Robson and Regier (1964). Confidence limits for the populat ion estimate are provided in Table 5. The 1975 Hunting Season Drought conditions in 1974 followed by the devastating snowstorm of March 27, 1975 reduced pheasant populations in the Tablelands of extreme northeastern Colorado to near zero. As a result~ Division management personnel delayed the opening of pheasant and quail season to sunrise on Wednesday, November 19 in Small Game Management Unit 2, which includes the Tamarack and lower South Platte River. The season opened at noon on Saturday, November 15 elsewhere in the state. In Unit 2 the pheasant season terminated Sunday, November 30, whereas quail season continued through December 7, 1975. This season provided 19 days for quail hunting (Table 6). A snowstorm enveloped the region during the season opening, depositing 8 to 10 inches of snow. Despite the snow, a few hunters went after quail on the opening day of season, but most hunting occurred during the first weekend, November 22 and 23. The heavy snow conditions persisted through the first two weeks of season. Warming temperatures during the last week of quail season reduced snow cover on the ground to partial coverage by season end. Runting Pressure and Hunting Success.--During the first eight days of the 1975 season, an average of 55 hunters per day checked into the Tamarack. This compares to 86 hunters per day in 1974 and 103 hunters per day in 1973 (Table 7). Hunter use of the area held at a fairly high level so that the average use per day for the season was not too far below hunter use rates in previous years. �-198- Table 6. Bobwhite fall population and harvest Area. statistics for 1971 through 1975 on the Tamarack Wildlife 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1,745 2,319 722 499 650 Item Fall population estimate 20.5 31.5 32.5 29. sl/ 19 Known harvest 411 548 202 73 87 Projected total harvest mortality '1:../ 472 634 227 93 96 Percen t h arvest morta I"lty-2/ 27 .0 26.7 31. 7 18.3 15.1 Season length (days) 1/ Quail and pheasant hunting terminated at 2:00 P.M. from November through December 15, 1974 on the Tamarack. 29 2/ Figures include projected crippling loss based on hunter questioning. Hunter success generally reflected quail abundance with 10.03 hunters using the area per quail bagged (Table 7). It must be remembered not all were quail hunters, and since most hunters were opportunists, there was no accurate way to segregate quail hunters from waterfowl and pheasant hunters. The heavy snow conditions made it difficult to walk long distances in pursuit of quail, but it also drastically reduced the amount of survival and escape cover available to the birds. Harvest of 87 quail, plus reported crippling loss projected an approximate total harvest mortality of 96 bobwhite. This was only slightly above the harvest level of 1974 where 73 quail were taken, with projected mortality totaling 93 birds (Table 6). Harvest mortality, including projected crippling loss, represented only about 15 percent of the original fall popUlation and represents the lowest harvest rate of any year of study (Table 6). A high crippling loss (27 percent of reported harvest) was indicated by hunters in 1974 when warm, dry conditions made it difficult for dogs and men to locate downed birds. The much reduced 1975 crippling loss was possibly due to ease of locating quail in the snow. Total species harvest is summarized in Table 8, and compared there with the take of previous years. Whereas, quail harvest was slightly higher, pheasant take was approximately twice that of the preceding year. Factors causing this include better reproduction in 1975 and snow conditions during the season which made it easier to find birds. Pheasant survival was probably much better in the heavy cover along the river bottom during the March storm, in contrast to high storm mortality in the adjacent tablelands where cover is sparse. �-199Table 7. Hunter success ratios on bobwhite quail with the progression of hunting seasons from 1971 through 1975. Interval Number of!/ Hunters Average Hunter Use No. of Quail Harvested Hunters per Quail Harvested 1971 Season First 8 days 638 79.75 258 2.47 Second 8 days 363 45.38 100 3.63 Last 5 days 258 51.60 53 4.87 Season,Average 59.95 3.06 1972 Season First 8 days 606 75.75 230 2.63 Second 8 days 386 48.25 167 2.31 Third 8 days 369 46.12 100 3.69 Fourth 8 days 392 49.00 36 10.89 Season Average 54.78 3.25 1973 Season First 8 days 823 102.87 142 5.80 Second 8 days 339 42.38 36 9.42 Third 8 days 161 20.12 10 16.10 Fourth 9 days 303 33.67 l3 23.30 Season Average 49.27 8.09 1974 Season First 8 days 686 85.75 43 15.95 Second 8 days 414 51. 75 17 24.35 Third 8 days 138 17.25 9 15.33 Last 6 days 176 29.33 4 44.00 Season Average 47.13 19.37 1975 Season First 8 days 440 55.00 52 8.46 Second 8 days 310 38.75 17 18.23 Last 3 days 123 41.00 18 6.83 Season Average 45.95 11 Includes all hunters using the Tamarack. hunters late in the season were after ducks. 10.03 During 1972 and 1973 most �-200The snow conditions during the 1975 season also increased waterfowl and cottontail hunting success, whereas the colder weather put fox squirrels into their dens early. These variables are reflected in the harvest figures in Table 8. Table 8. A comparison of small game harvest on the Tamarack Wildlife Area during the 1971 through 1975 quail and pheasant seasons. Year Season Interval Quail Pheasants Ducks Rabbits Squirrels 1971 20.5 days 411 87 196 30 9 1st 20.5 days 480 l30 555 126 4 1972 31.5 days 548 143 704 156 4 1973 1st 20.5 days 184 53 283 40 3 1973 32.5 days 202 62 441 63 3 1974 1st 20.5 days 64 49 69 19 11 1974 29.5 days 73 141 23 15 1975 19 days 86 340 38 6 1972 1/ Pheasant season in 1975 was shortened to 12 days. Hunter Use and Success by Hunting Area.--Table 9 summarizes hunter numbers, hunter hours, quail banded in fall, and banded and total quail harvest by hunting area. Banding effort was well distributed along the Tamarack, but banded quail per area on the East Tamarack exceeded that on the west by almost a 3 to 1 ratio. Harvest too, was well distributed among the hunting areas with about 17 percent harvest mortality on the east section and about 12 percent harvest on the west. The east areas sustained 134 hours of hunting pressure per area, compared to 102 hours per area on the West Tamarack. It should be remembered that although quail harvest was usually reported by hunters as the area to which they were assigned, actual harvest may have occurred in some proximal area. However, check station personnel frequently were able to assign harvest to the proper location by questioning hunters. Win ter Banding 1976 Bobwhite banding commenced in early February 1976, and during a brief interval of cold weather, was quite successful. Trapping success slowed drastically through the remainder of February under relatively warm dry weather conditions. Thirty bobwhite were banded on the Tamarack and 41 were retrapped, bringing the total to 71 quail handled (Table 5). Most, 53 of the total, were taken on the East Tamarack where several coveys were found along the meadow. Only 18 birds were taken on the larger West Tamarack. �-201Table 9. A summary by hunting area of fall banded bobwhite, hunter use, total harvest and banded harvest recoveries on the Tamarack Wildlife Area in 1974. Area No. Quail Banded No. of!/ Hunters Hunte~1 Hours Total Quai1~1 Harvest Banded Quai121 Harvest West Tamarack 1 27 89 6 1 2 3 4 22 32 75 75 6 1 10 42 80 1 10 18 16 21 12 6 5 7 11 4 42 11 25 34 49 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 18 41 19 20 21 22 23 17 27 1 42 27 1 12 34 25 32 20 23 16 604 5 24 13 25 Subtotal 5 101 77 2 4 2 42 70 30 26 33 149 86 158 191 110 160 119 205 144 134 85 58 62 2,258 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 5 2 1 5 2 3 1 41 11 3 4 2 East Tamarack Braddock Pasture 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 9 14 10 13 5 8 22 16 23 41 28 22 21 31 98 122 90 29 97 38 58 43 78 14 19 18 28 28 31 57 66 75 10 1 11 Subtotal 15 138 269 Total 239 873 5 9 1 2 2 11 3 2 1 5 1 2 1 4 3 1 1 822 4 46 21 3,080 87 32 11 Includes only known hunters and hours reported through the check station. II Includes only known harvest. Some hunting probably went unrecorded. 1/ Approximates the location where quail were taken. Exact area is unknown. !!../ Braddock Pasture and areas 16 and 17 west were closed to public hunting. �-202- Considerable effort was directed toward covey searches since trapping efforts produced marginal results. Only a few coveys were found on the West Tararack (Fig. 3), although harvest recoveries projected a population exceeding that found on the east section in fall. Lack of tracking snow made covey searching results uncertain. It is also possible that quail on the west part of the study area suffered higher combined hunter-snow stress mortality during the fall hun~ing season. Food plots were not available to the West Tamarack quail, whereas, a majority of the East Tamarack quail were found proximal to and using available food plots. Summer whistling counts should provide some evidence as to whether differential mortality occurred between the two segments of the study area. Age Ratios - Fall to Winter 1975-76 Age ratio information obtained during the work segment is summarized in Table 10. Based on the harvest sample, in excess of nine young per pair of adults were present in the fall. The percentage adults, 17.86, was the second lowest percentage recorded during the five year study, however, the proportion adults has not deviated significantly anyone year. From age ratio information obtained for the past several years, reproduction capability does not appear to be a limiting factor to bobwhite on the Tamarack. Fall population numbers have been in direct proportion to the number of breeding quail present in spring. Sex Ratios According to information summarized in Table 11 males dominated the population during the fall and winter of 1974-75 and this sex ratio continued relatively stable through the summer. Dominance of males in past years showed up after the reproduction season (Snyder 1972), however, a dominance of males among young in 1974 was observed. Males and females were near equal in number among young {n the fall 1975 popUlation (Table 11). Factors Fall and Winter Limiting Bobwhite on the Tamarack Mortality Weather Related Mortality.--Winter continued to appear as the primary limitation to bobwhite survival and increase in northeastern Colorado. The snow stress relationship to winter mortality for the first four years of study is summarized in Table 12. A direct relationship between snow cover and winter mortality was indicated. But, all the variables of snow stress cannot be condensed into tabular form for correlation. To illustrate, above average survival was evident through the winter of 1974-75 up to the end of quail trapping, and the potential for a much improved breeding popUlation was present. The snowstorm of March 27, 1975 which followed, caused death to numerous quail by exposure due to accompanying high winds, rather than by prolonged snow cover occurrence on the ground. Snow depths were not excessive and most of the snow was melted within a few days. �'rJ •.... . . ()Q TAMA RACK MANAGEMENT w AREA t;:I a 0- ~ •.... n- (1) o a <: (1) "<: ~ lSl Ul AREAS f-' a o OJ r+ (1) 0.. 0.. I::! Ii •.... tv ::J ()Q / f-' OJ r+ (1) :;:: •.... ::J r+ (1) EAST Ii AREAS n- o Ii ~ '1:j •.... ::J ()Q (1) LEGEND 1 HUNTING AREA 0 COVEY LOCATION t-n t-n ~UNFARMED RIVER BOTTOM ~ALFALFA ~ AND RIVER CHANNELS ~ Ii ~GRASSLAND a r+ EL~lROW CROPS Ul •.... ::J f-' \0 '-I 0'\ I!HAY MEADOW ~ PLANTING SC ALE y. Mi. I N o W I �-204Table 10. Bobwhite age ratio data obtained during the fall and winter of 1975-76 on the Tamarack Wildlife Area. Sample Number Adults Number Young Total Percent Adults Adult:Young Ratio Fall Banded 26 213 239 10.88 1:8.19 Banded 2 30 32 6.25 Unbanded l3 39 52 25.00 Total 15 69 84 17.86 1:4.60 Winter Banded 14 57 71 19.71 1:4.07 Hunting Season Table 11. Sex ratios of bobwhite quail from fall-winter 1974-75 to fallwinter 1975-76 intervals. Item Male Female Total Harvest and late winter 1974-75 88 68 156 Percent 56.41 43.59 Surviving adults, fall-winter 1975-76 28 21 Percent 57.14 42.86 Fall 1975 banded juveniles 106 106 212 Harvest 1975 juveniles 34 35 69 Winter 1976 juveniles 32 25 57 Combined total of juveniles 172 166 338 Percent of total juveniles 50.88 49.12 49 �-205- Table 12. A comparison of fall-winter natural mortality, and subsequent call index change from the previous year. snow conditions, Fall-Winter 1972-73 Interval 1973-74 1974-75 11 52 50 25 Days with snow cover 14 76 Days with 4" or more of snow o 37 30 9 16.3 60.0 52.2 50.1!:,,/ +37.5 -51. 3 -50.5 Item 1971-72 Total snowfall Fall-Wint~r (inches) mortality ratell Percent change in subsequent call index from previous year II Does not include harvest 29 +15.0 mortality. 11 Includes mortality resulting from late March blizzard. up to that time was projected at 29 percent. Natural mortality Hunting as an Additive Stress.--A deep snow in November 1975 coincided with the start of quail season so that resident populations were simultaneously subject to prolonged deep snow, severe cold weather, and hunting stress. The impact of the combined stresses is as yet unknown, but is believed to be greater than if the limitations had occurred at separate intervals. Survival of remaining quail appeared satisfactory with at least 250 quail coming through the winter. Forthcoming censuses will provide additional evidence of population survival through the fall and winter of 1975-76. Table 13 compares bobwhite census on the Tamarack with that in adjacent areas through 1975. Greater population decline on the Tamarack was observed to follow years when hunting and snow stress were in unison. With no combined snow-hunting stress in fall 1974, the subsequent census index was proportionately higher on the Tamarack than in adjacent areas (Table 13). Spring and Summer Mortality and Reproduction Lack of change in adult sex ratios (Table 11) is one index of excellent survival of the breeding population through summer in 1975. During both 1972 and 1973, sex ratios changed from spring to fall in favor of males, and these were also the years when summer mortality of adults was highest. Several factors probably combined to reduce summer stress on the breeding population. The population was low so competition for nesting and other cover was not significant. Severe thunderstorms, hail and flooding did not occur on the study area. It is also possible that extensive removal of raccoons by trapping and hunting with dogs during the previous fall and winter reduced predator stress on bobwhite through the summer months. �-206- Table 13. A comparison of bobwhite whistling counts on the Tamarack Wildlife Area with counts located up and down river. Year Routes UE and Down River-1/ Number X Count/ Percent Stops Stop Change 1972 79 5.99 1973 120 3.93 1974 122 1975 135 Number Stops Routes on Tamarack X Count/ Percent Stop Change 124 4.15 -34.4 121 2.02 -51.3 3.25 -17.3 118 1.00 -50.5 2.65 -18.5 137 1.15 +15.0 !/ Includes average of Brush-Ft. Morgan, Atwood-Merino, Sterling-Iliff and Ovid-Stateline routes. Projected Period and Peak of Hatch A sample of 210 quail trapped in fall provided evidence that the primary quail hatch occurred from mid-June to early July (Fig. 4). This was approximately two weeks later than in 1974, but ahead of the main hatching periods of 1972 and 1973. Unlike the 1974 hatch, which declined rapidly after an early peak, the 1975 hatch was sustained at a higher level from mid-July to early September. Precipitation approximated 14 inches in 1975 compared to only 7.18 in 1974 in the study area. Quail Utilization of Cover Vegetative cover on a large proportion of the Tamarack was rated by ocular inspection during the winter of 1975-76. Shrub, grass and forb abundance was sytematically sampled and rated on a scale of one to five. Comparison of site results with covey occurrence in winter has not been completed. Results of this evaluation, along with more detailed presentation of the overall limiting factors to bobwhite on the Tamarack will be forthcoming in the final publication during the next work segment. �-207- 34 32 io 30 Sample Size 28 N = 26 = 288 in 1973 N = 177 in 1974 N = 210 in 1975 N r:t 0\ r-i 24 22 '0 768 in 1972 20 aJ u +l co 18 •• .c :r: ....• co .j.J 16 , o E-t lH o 14 +l § 12 u ~ 0. 10 8 6 ,,...-- 4 2 I- o If' 18 / ,, l / (XX: 0\, 25 May 2 9 17 June 24 3 Weekly 11 19 July 27 4 12 20 August 28 Mid-Points ~ig. 4. Period and peak of bobwhite quail hatch projected from primary feather growth for 1972 through 1975 on a percent of total basis. 7 14 Sept. �-208- LITERATURE CITED Robson, D. S., and H. A. Regier. 1964. Sample sizes in Peterson markrecapture experiments. Trans. Amer. Fish Society 93(3) :215-226. Snyder, W. D. 1972. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. April. pp. 121-150. 1973. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. April. pp. 253-296. 1974. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. ofWildl., Game Res. Rept. April. pp.119-l47. 1975. Population status of bobwhite quail in eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept. April. pp. 115-137. Prepared by _~7d-=~=---::~~~'7---"~~~--~-~-)1<---Warren D. SnYder~ Wildlife Researcher �-209JOB PROGRESS State of Project No. April 1976 nEPORT COLORJ,DO W-37-R-29 --------- 110rk Plan No. .--------- Game Bird Survey Job Title Job No. 1 Minimum Tillage Techniques For Establishing Shrubs in Clump Plantings Period Covered: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: 21 David C. Bowden, Lucien Brevard, Daniel Walsworth, William T. Howard, and Warren D. Snyder. Larry Crooks, ABSTRACT Shrub plots were established on three additional sites during April, 1975 bringing the total sites to nine within three soil types. Precipitation approximated 14 inches in 1975, or about double the 7.14 inches recorded in 1974. This additional moisture greatly increased shrub survival and growth. Within the six sites planted in April 1974, 73.4 percent of the Hansen rose and 85.0 percent of the wild plum remained alive in Spring 1975. Almost no mortality occurred among these shrubs through the 1975 growing season. Oversummer survival within the three sites planted in April 1975 exceeded 98 percent for both species, although some increased mortality was observed following the fall-winter period. None of the herbicides or mulch treatments showed evidence of h av ing significant impact on survival through the 1975 growing season. Some rabbit and deer damage to wild plums occurred on loam and clay loam sites during a fall 1975 snow stress period. Among sites established in 1974, spring and summer 1975 growth approximated 20 inches of height increase on the Karg 1, Karg 2, and Tamarack Meadow sites. Less growth was recorded on the two sandhill sites. A severe iron sclerosis condition reduced growth and survival on the Smith Meadow site, and this and other biases resulted in the exclusion of this site from growth analysis. Greatest growth increase occurred on the plastic mulch and organic mulch plots. Herbicide treatments did not show evidence of decreasing shrub growth. The plastic mulch treatment significantly increased growth of both shrub species over the other three treatments within the three sites planted in April 1975. Late May-early June sampling of annual weeds showed rather high weed densities on the cultivated control plots within both the 1974 and 1975 established sites. All herbicide and mulch treatments significantly reduced weed competition in comparison to the cultivated controls, however, there was no significant difference in weed control effect among these treatments. ��-211- MINIMUM TILLAGE TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING SHRUBS IN CLUMP PLANTINGS Warren D. Snyder P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate ground cover techniques, pre-emergent herbicide techniques, a combination of the two, and cultivation techniques for establishing shrubs in clumpplantings in eastern Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To prepare and establish one additional site within each of the three site types to supplement 1974 plantings that were adversely affected by drought and other mortality factors. 2. To apply pre-emergent herbicide treatments, mulch tre-atments, and a combination of the two, to six of the seven plots within each planting site. The remaining plot within each site will be retained as a cultivated control. 3. To measure and evaluate shrub survival, competition among treatments and sites. METHODS shrub growth and weed AND MATERIALS Initial methods and materials concerning planting, site location and other procedures were summarized by Snyder (1975). Three additional sites were planted in April 1975. Site location and treatment sequence were illustrated by Snyder (1975) and are listed in Table 1. In summary, three sites have been selected in each of three soil types. Within each site, seven treatment plots were established, each of which initially contained 32 wild plums and 32 Hansen roses spaced at three foot intervals. Chemical include: applications applied in 1975 to the six sites established in 1974 1. Simazine (Princep) was applied at the rate of 1.2 pounds per acre on loamy sand soils and 2.0 pounds per acre on other soils. Date of application was April 5, 1975 to two plots within each site (Table 1). Less than one inch of organic mulch in the form of wood chips and/or corn cobs was applied on the Simazine mulch plots on May 15 and 16, 1975. No soil incorporation was attempted. Application was made using a hand sprayer modified to contain two nozzles for even distribution of the chemical between shrub rows. 2. Granular G-4 Casoron was applied with a hand spreader to one plot within each of the six sites (Table 1) on April 14, 1975. Application rate approximated 150 pounds per acre. No soil incorporation was conducted. �-212Table 1. Reference sequence of test shrub clump plots within 1974 p1antings, and (2) 1975 plantings. Plot Number Sandhills Red Lion Sharptail River Bottom Tamarack Smith Meadow sites for (1) Tableland Karg #1 Karg #2 1974 1 organlc-. 1/ Plastic Control Plastic Ep-Tref Sim-M 2 Plastic Organic Plastic Organic Simazine Simazine 3 Control Control Organic Control Sim-M Casoron 4 Ep-Tref Simazine Casoron Casoron Casoron Ep-Tref 5 Simazine Ep-Tref Simazine Ep-Tref Organic Plastic 6 Sim-M Casoron Sim-M Sim-M Plastic Control 7 Casoron Sim-M Ep-Tref Simazine Control Organic E-W NE-SW NE-SW E-W N-S NE-SW Sequence Direction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------I-76 Sonnenburg Karg #3 1975 1 Organic Sim-M Plastic 2 Plastic Ep-Tref Organic 3 Control Simazine Control 4 Simazine Casoron Casoron 5 Sim-M Control Ep-Tref 6 Ep-Tref Plastic Simazine 7 Casoron Organic Sim-M E-W NE-SW NE-SW Sequence Direction 1/ Organic herbicides and Plastic are mulch treatments, Ep-Tref represents Eptam-Treflan and Sim-M represents Simazine overlaid with Organic mulch. �-2133. Eptam and Treflan pre-emergent herbicides were applied as a mixture using the modified two nozzle hand sprayer on April 23 and 24, 1975. Shallow soil incorporation with a garden rototiller was conducted immediately to each site. Eptam was applied at the rate of two pounds per acre (active ingredient) and Treflan was applied at the rate of four pounds per acre. 4. Iron sulfate was applied to all plots within the Smith Meadow site at the rate of about 140 pounds per acre in efforts to alleviate a severe iron sclerosis condition. Application was made using granular iron sulfate on June 25, 1975. A second treatment was made in March 1976. 5. Repeat applications of Casoron and Eptam-Treflan were completed in late March 1976. Application rates were the same as those shown in numbers 2 and 3 above. Organic mulch and plastic mulch, with its organic overlay were applied in late May 1975 to the 1-76 site. The Sonnenburg and Karg 3 sites received early June mulch treatments. Competing vegetation was tallied as annual or perennial. A sample scheme, illustrated in Fig. 1, utilized a square foot sampling hoop placed systematically on the nine open strips adjacent to the eight shrub rows within each plot. Four samples were obtained within each strip to yield a 36 square foot, or approximate 5 percent sample within each plot. Annual and perennial forbs and grasses were tallied by species within each sample. After sampling competing vegetation was removed by shallow hoeing as needed on the chemical plots, by hand pulling on the mulch plots, and by use of a garden type rototiller and hoe on cultivated plots. Mid- to late summer vegetative sampling was done by tally of individual plants per plot rather than by use of a sampling method since forb densities were sparse and most competing vegetation was perennial in growth form. Height and survival measurements of shrubs were obtained in mid-May with a second survival check in early July. Measurements were again obtained in late summer after termination of growth. Spot applic~tions of 2-4,D Amine based contact herbicide were used to control bindweed, Canadian thistle, and whitetop on the Tamarack and Smith Meadow sites. A hand sprayer and paint brush were used in December 1975 to apply rodent and deer repellent to wild plums receiving damage from rabbits on the riverbottom and tableland soil sites. Efforts to trap pocket gophers on the sandy soil sites were generally unsuccessful but no damage to Hansen rose shrubs was noted during the winter of 1975-76. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Environmental Measurements Soil Characteristics Soil characteris tics of the nine si tes containing shrub plots are summarized in Table 2. Characteristics of the six sites established in 1974 were repeated here for comparison with data on the three new sites. �-214- 0+ + + o 0 + +- 0+ 0 ... + 0+ 0 + + + + D t- D + +- + 0+ o *" + 0 + +- 0+ + + 1- 0 ... 0+ 0+ ...0 ... 0 + -t- t- 0 + ...0 ... + + + 0 + 0 ... 0+ +- .,.0 0 .•. +0 T -t- 0+ + + D -+ T 0 + 0+ +- 0+ + Dt-. +0 0 + Fig. 1 Method used in systematic sampling of forb and grass vegetation the the shrub clump plots. c=J Square Foot Sample + Planted Shrub -- Plot Boundary �-215Table 2. Soil analyses Location Site Year Es tablished Level Red Lion 1974 6.2 1.7 2.3 76 Sharptail 1974 6.0 1.6 1.7 1-76 1975 6.4 0.5 Karg 1 1974 7.6 Karg 2 1974 Karg 3 completed pH on the nine shrub clump sites. Analzsis Sol Salts Cnunhos/cm) Org. Mat. 1/ Percent Sand Silt Clay Texture 16 8 Sandy loam 82 11 7 Loamy sand 0.9 80 13 7 Loamy sand 1.1 3.2 48 30 22 Loam 6.9 1.5 5.4 46 35 19 Loam 1975 7.4 0.4 1.7 56 27 17 Sandy loam Tamarack 1974 7.7 3.4 6.3 22 41 37 Clay loam Sm. Meadow 1974 7.6 3.3 7.6 22 39 39 Clay loam Sonnenburg 1975 7.7 2.6 2.3 43 27 30 Clay loam Sandhills Tableland Riverbottom 1/ Soil analyses University, were completed by the Soils Laboratory Fort Collins. at Colorado State The three main locational groupings - sandhills, tableland and riverbottom show distinctive soil differences. Riverbottom soils all contained high Ph, high soluble salts, and high clay levels. The Sonnenburg site apparently contained a higher sand level with less silt than the other sites and is believed to be closely underlaid by sand. In contrast, the Smith Meadow site is underlaid by clay which is believed a primary factor in the iron sclerosis condition among shrubs there. Seepage from neighboring irrigation �-216ditches apparently affects the west end of this site more than the east end. This is shown by better summer growth among plants in the west part of the site. Although Red Lion and Karg 3 sites were both classed as having a sandy loam texture (Table 2), the latter contained 20 percent less sand. All Karg sites lie within a quarter mile radius and all have similarshortgrass origin and characteristics. In future study reference, the sandhill sites will be called loamy sand soils, the Karg sites will be considered predominately loam in texture, and the riverbottoms sites will be referred to as clay loarns. Precipitation The severe drought year of 1974, which severely hampered shrub establishment, was followed by a more normal year for precipitation in 1975 (Table 3). A precipitation recorder, located at the Tamarack headquarters, showed about 14.10 inches of moisture for 1975, compared to only 7.18 inches in 1974. U. S. Weather stations near Sedgwick and Sterling, respectively recorded 16.91 and 13.64 inches of moisture in 1975. Amounts received on the shrub sites also varied to some degree, but recording devices could not be located at all sites. The increased precipitation in 1975 significantly increased survival and growth of original and newly established plots alike as shown in the following section. Shrub Establishment Survival Within Sites Established and Survival in 1974 First Year Survival 1974-75--An approximate 10 to 15 percent mortality of the wild plum seedlings and about 20 to 25 percent mortality of Hansen rose shrubs was sustained during the 1974 growing season, as reported by Snyder (1975). In addition, burrowing rodents destroyed about 31 percent of the Hansen rose shrubs in the Red Lion site, and 14 percent of the roses in the Sharptail site over winter in 1974-75. Plums were not seriously damaged. Rodent damage to shrubs was serious only in the two sandhill sites. Efforts to determine survival of remaining shrubs were hampered during the spring of 1975 because some plants resprouted from roots, so that a final assessment of annual survival was not completed until early July. It showed that overall, 73.4 percent of the Hansen rose and 85.0 percent of the wild plum remained alive (Table 4). This was higher than expected, considering the severe drought conditions which persisted throughout 1974 and early 1975 (Snyder 1975). The two mulch plots within the Red Lion site were excluded in the annual survival figures since nearly all plants had died. These two plots were replanted in April 1975. Shrub Survival during the 1975 Growing Season--The brief period from early July to mid-September 1975 does not give a complete picture of mortality during the growing season, but it does provide a general index of summer stress. Losses of only one to two percent were evident during this brief interval. Moisture conditions were much improved over those in the 1974 growing season. �-217Table 3. Precipitation during 1974 and 1975. received at the Tamarack Management Area headquarters Month 1974 1975 January 0.25 0.05 February 0.67 0.15 March 0.91 1.25 April 0.45 0.65 May 0.70 5.55 June 2.05 2.00 July 1.15 0.55 August 0.40 1. 60 September 0.15 0.55 October 0.00 0.00 November 0.25 1.20 December 0.20 0.55 Annual Total 7.18 14.10 Treatment Impact on Survival of Plots Established in 1974--None of the treatments, including the spring, 1975 applications of Simazine, Simazine mulch, Casoron and Eptam-Treflan (2nd year) appeared to have a significant impact on survival during the 1975 growing season. All four chemical plots per site had received a pre-planting treatment with Eptam-Treflan in 1974 without evidence of increased shrub mortality. However, both the Simazine and Casoron appear to present a greater threat since both are much more persistent chemicals. Neither is recommended on light sandy soils where rapid penetration to the root zone of the shrubs is a threat. One wild plum was believed killed by Simazine on the Karg 1 site, however, all other shrubs in the plot showed no discernable treatment effect. Whether this mortality was due to a spot chemical overdose or to other factors remains unknown. Some leaf burning of plums within the Simazine and Simazine-mulch plots on the Sharptail site was observed, but no actual mortality was noted. Additional chemical treatment effects, especially on the sandy sites, may show up in the future. �-218Table 4. Shrub survival among shrub clump treatments from Fall 1974 through September 1975. Treatment Fall 1974 Rose Spring 1975 Fall 1975 Fall 1974 Plum Spring 1975 Fall 1975 CuItivated 73.4 65.1 65.6 92.7 88.0 88.5 Organic mulch 68.1 68.7 66.9 83.1 80.0 80.0 Plastic mulch 87.5 87.5 82.5 93.8 91.9 92.5 S.lTIlaz . 1/ lne--. 79.7 73.4 74.0 87.0 84.4 83.9 Simazine mulch 79.7 74.0 75.5 91.7 89.6 86.4 Ep tam-Tre flan 81.2 73.4 73.9 85.4 82.8 82.8 Casoron 84.4 72.9 71.7 87.5 79.2 78.6 Overall Mean 79.2 73.4 72.7 88.8 85.0 84.6 l/ All chemical plots were treated alike with an Eptam-Treflan mixture in 1974. Both the organic mulch and plastic-organic mulch plots retained excellent shrub survival in 1975. This was in direct contrast to the previous year when increased mortality was expecially evident on the organic mulch sites due to treatment over dry soil. Shrub Survival of 1975 Established Plantings Site Effect--Shrubs planted in April 1975 on the Karg 3, Sonnenburg and I-76 sites overcame planting shock and showed excellent survival during their first growing season (Table 5). The only shrubs showing stress at the end of summer were Hansen rose on unmulched plots within the sandy soil of the I-76 site. High mortality was not evident, but some top growth die-back occurred in late summer. An overall 98+ percent survival rate on the three sites can only be considered as excellent. Treatment Effect--There was no evidence of treatment effect during the first growing season on survival. First year treatments included cultivation, organic mulch, plastic mulch overlaid with organic mulch, and Eptam-Treflan pre-emergent herbicide treatment of all four chemical plots per site. This lack of treatment effect is in direct contrast to 1974 when organic mulch plots contained higher shrub mortality than other treatments. The difference �-219apparently lies in root establishment due to moisture condition. In 1974 only light rains were received for nearly two months after planting (Table 3). The organic mulch tended to absorb much of this, preventing the new root systems from becoming established. Increased mortality resulted. In 1975 mulching was delayed until root systems could become established. In addition, near normal precipitation prevailed in 1975. Table 5. Shrub survival established sites. 1/ Treatment- from planting Karg 3 Hansen Wild Rose Plum in April to Fall 1975 on three newly Percent Survival Sonnenburg Hansen Wild Rose Plum 1-76 2} Hansen Wild Rose Plum Cultivated 100 100 96.9 100 100 93.8 Organic mulch 100 100 100 100 96.9 100 Plastic mulch 100 100 100 100 100 100 Simazine 100 100 100 93.8 96.9 96.9 Simazine mulch 100 100 93.8 100 100 93.8 Eptam-Treflan 100 100 93.8 100 100 100 Casoron 100 100 100 93.8 96.9 96.9 Mean 100 100 97.8 98.2 98.7 97.3 98.8 98.5 Overall Mean 1/ - All four chemical plots received April 1975. ~/ Survival of several of the Hansen the time of fall observation. Shrub Survival the same Eptam-Treflan treatment in rose on the 1-76 site was uncertain at - All Sites During the Fall and Winter of 1975-76 All plots in all sites were believed to have retained good to excellent survival through the fall and winter of 1975-76, although actual mortality remains unknown at this time. A heavy snow deposited moisture on November 19 which melted in early December. Several additional light snows deposited small amounts of moisture through the winter. �-220Rabbit damage occurred Karg 3 sites, although degree. Repellent was snows or rabbit damage primarily on the newly established Sonnenburg and Karg 1 and 2 sites also were damaged to a lesser applied in mid- to late December. No other deep was observed through the remainder of the winter. Hansen rose shrubs sustained little damage overwinter. Those in the sandhills sites were closely observed following the rodent destruction of root systems during the previous winter. No evidence of damage reoccurrence was noted. Sh rub Growth Growth on Sites Established in 1974 The shrub plots established in April 1974 attained no significant growth during th~ir first year of existence because of transplant shock and drought conditions. In addition, only four treatments, cultivation, organic mulch, plastic mulch and Eptam-Treflan were used during the first growing season. The latter was applied equally to all four chemical plots. Much improved moisture conditions in 1975 resulted in significant recovery and growth. Overall growth probably would have been even better if the shrubs had not come into the 1975 growing season in such poor condition. Many had to resprout from surviving roots or basal areas of the plants. Exclusion of the Smith Meadow Site From Analysis Soil tests showed the Smith Meadow site to be very similar to the Tamarack Meadow in pH, salts level, and texture (Table 2). However, some basic differences led to the exclusion of Smith Meadow shrub growth data from analysis. Iron sclerosis, which was evident there in 1974, reached a critical level in Spring 1975. Little new growth was attained and some mortality occurred on the site in spite of adequate spring and summer moisture conditions. Granular iron sulfate was applied in late June 1975 to all plots within the site, but treatment was too late to have much impact in 1975. The heavy clay soils underlying the site may be a factor responsible for the iron deficiency condition persisting there. There was also evidence of a graduated increase in shrub growth on the Smith Meadow site from east to west. This bias was believed due to subsurface seepage moisture which supplied the west end of the site with more soil moisture than the east end received. The latter is at a slightly higher level and therefore seepage water does not approach the surface as readily. Interpretation of Shrub Growth Data--Preceding analysis showed that treatment effects were very similar for both shrub species. Using the cultivated treatment as the standard or control, both plastic and organic treatments increased shrub growth. Use of Simazine, Casoron, and the Eptam-Treflan mixture had no discernable impact on growth. Weeds were not permitted to become highly competitive for moisture within the cultivated plots. This would not always be the situation where large scale shrub establishment was conducted or if private landowners were responsible for weed control. If weeds were permitted to become more competitive, treatment of these sites with herbicides might achieve greater growth in comparison to straight cultivation maintenance. �-221Growth Analyses per Treatment Within Site Within Soil--Wild plums averaged approximately 20 inches of growth during the spring and summer of 1975 on the Karg sites and on the Tamarack Meadow site (Table 6). Hansen rose, which sent out more basal stems, did not average as great a height increase, but may have put out equal growth. The Red Lion and Sharptail sites in the sandhills averaged less growth (Table 6). This was potentially attributable to poorer soil quality. The same factor, soil quality, may also account for the suppressed growth on the Sharptail site in relation to that on the Red Lion site. According to soil analyses (Table 2) the soil in the Sharptail site contained about 82 percent sand, whereas, that in the Red Lion site was composed of 76 percent sand. Dr. David C. Bowden conducted statistical analyses of 1975 growth per observation data among shrubs established in 1974. As previously mentioned, the Smith Meadow site was excluded from this analysis. As a consequence, the Tamarack Meadow data, within the same soil type, were also excluded in initial tests for interaction. This reduced the number of soils to two, loam and loamy sand, with two sites per soil and seven treatments per site. Wild Plum--Preliminary analysis indicated treatments did not significantly alter wild plum growth among the four sites (F6 10 = 3.06) at the 95 percent confidence level. A second test, ignoring soiis effect and including the Tamarack Meadow data, showed a significant difference among treatments did exist (F6,22 = 3.44) at the 95 percent confidence level. Fig. 2 indicates the only significant differences among treatment growth rate means was between plastic mulch and Simazine treatments. The latter was significantly lower. Fig. 2 also shows that average growth per shrub was near equal between the plastic and organic mulch sites, whereas, the chemical treated plot means and the cultivated control mean was at a lower level. Hansen Rose--Dr. Bowden found that Hansen rose growth per observation data differed significantly depending on soil type (F6 ,10 = 4.88), however, treatments averaged over differential soil effects were still found to be significant (F6 ,10 = 23.90). As illustrated in Fig. 3, both plastic and organic mulch treatments yielded significantly greater Hansen rose growth. Again, as with the plums, the chemical plots and the cultivated plot mean growth .rates were closely grouped with no significant differences among means. Within loamy sand soils, the plastic mulch treatment yielded significantly greater rose growth than other treatments with the exception of organic mulch (F6,4 = 14.95) (Fig. 4). Organic and plastic mulch plots within the Red Lion site had sustained very high mortality during the preceding year, and as a consequence, had been replanted in April 1975. Prorated means based on results in the Sharptail site were substituted in the analysis. Therefore, the data in Fig. 4 are considered weak and high confidence cannot be placed in the results. Hansen's rose, recelvlng the straight organic treatment, achieved significantly greater growth than all other treatments, except plastic mulch within the loam soil site (F6,6 = 11.01) (Fig. 5). Means of the chemical plots and the cultivated plot were again closely grouped with no significant differences evident. �Table 6. Average Treatment shrub growth per plot and treatment Loam Karg 1 Karg 2 during the 1975 growing Sites Within Soils Clay Loam Tamarack Smith Neadow.!.i Nanagement season on the six original Loamy Sand Red Lion Sharptail sites. Treatment He an Wild Plum Cultivated 22.55 17.55 17.80 4.00 15.94 3.58 14.37 Organic mulch 21.84 22.10 24.22 6.61 17.58 mulch 19.47 18.59 26.42 6.56 - 10.14 Plastic 14.43 16.66 17.93 16.42 20.21 9.35 12.10 4.85 13.28 mulch 19.58 25.20 19.04 6.24 15.13 3.79 14.75 Ept am-Trefl an 19.27 20.85 20.50 4.04 13.07 5.00 13.34 Casoron 17.35 15.04 23.28 4.00 12.75 5.86 13.86 Site He an 19.73 19.38 21.58 5.96 13.84 6.79 14.74 Simazine Simazine Hansen Rose I Cultivated 12.48 13.35 12.75 5.20 10.18 2.20 9.71 Organic mulch 20.04 17.50 17.13 0.27 - 8.21 14.57 Plastic 16.13 16.57 18.30 2.52 - 13.22 13.79 11.55 12.20 10.48 9.30 8.50 3.75 9.29 mulch 13.27 13.21 11.14 14.91 11.41 1.57 11. 72 Ep tam-Tref Ian 13.67 13.31 14.88 9.11 10.54 3.90 10.92 Casoron 12.74 9.55 12.61 3.50 11.92 6.00 9.86 Site He an 14.16 13.71 14.06 6.94 13.27 5.63 11.30 mulch Simazine Simazine 1./ Smith Neadow biases. data excluded from statistical analysis I N N N due to persisting iron sclerosis condition and other �-223- WILD PLUM--GROWTH PER OBSERVATION p o I'\.) o IV IV n c I-' IT • 0 1"1 .o · I :s: c: I-' () zr -o I-' OJ (Jl •I 3: c: I-' () rr 1-3 ::::l (T] » 1-3 :s: t'l Z 1-3 ~. 3 Ul OJ N ~. ::s (1) ~. 3 Ul · OJ I 3: c I-' () zr M 'd IT •I 1-3 1"1 (1) '"h • o OJ (Jl 0 1"1 0 ::s Fig. 2. Average wild plum growth in 1975 per treatment (center mark) with a standard deviation of 5.83 (vertical line) based on data from five shrub sites established in 1974. �-224- HANSENS U1 ROSE--GROWfH PER OBSERVATION •... U1 n c •..... rf" • 0 '"1 <0 •I :s: c •..... o :J '1J •..... OJ III •I :s: C •..... n :J 1-3 ::0 Ul ~~ M :s: M Z 1-3 OJ N /-'- :J <D Ul •.... 3 OJ •I :s: C •..... o :J M '0 rf" •I 1-3 '"1 <D 'il n OJ III 0 '"1 0 :J Fig. 3. Average Hansen rose growth in 1975 per treatment (center mark) with a standard deviation of 3.76 (vertical line) based on data from five shrub sites established in 1974. �-225- HANSENS ROSE-LOAMY I w I ~ SAND--GROWTH PER OBSERVATION N W n c ~ IT • 0 ~ ~ •I 3 C ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ · I 8 ~ M ~ 8 3 ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ ~ 3 ~ N ~ ~. Z ~ ~ ro ~ ~. 3 ~ •I 3 C ~ ~ 0 M ~IT •I 8 ~ ro ~ • n ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ Fig. 4. Average Hansen rose growth in 1975 per treatment (center mark) with a standard deviation of 7.64 (vertical line) based on data from loamy sand sites established in 1974. �-226- HANSENS ROSE-LOAM--GROWTH ~ w PER OBSERVATION ~ w () c •..... IT • 0 11 \Q •I 3: C •..... o :r 'U •..... OJ V'l •I 3: c •..... o :r t-'3 ::<:J t'1 Ul ,..,- 3 ~ OJ N Z ~ 3: t'1 t-'3 ,..,rD L,) f-'. 3 OJ •I 3: C •..... () zr t'1 "0 r+ •I t-'3 t; (l) H'\ • () OJ V'l 0 11 0 ~ Fig. 5. Average Hansen rose growth in 1975 per treatment (center mark) with a standard deviation of 4.8 (vertical line) based on data from loam sites established in 1974. �-227Growth on Sites Established in 1975 Shrubs in the Karg 3, Sonnenburg and 1-76 sites, all established in April 1975, made excellent recovery from planting shock and most attained fair growth in 1975. Average growth per plot and site for both species is illustrated in Table 7. All four chemical plots received the same treatment, an Eptam-Treflan mixture, prior to planting. Growth data for 1975 from the three sites was combined, ignoring potential site or soil effect, and tested by analysis of variance. Four treatments, cultivation, organic mulch, plastic mulch and Eptam-Treflan were compared as to their impact on growth. For wild plum shrubs a significantly different growth rate among treatments was obtained (F6,665 = 20.3). A similar result (F6,658 = 12.24) was observed for growth of Hansen rose. Using Student-Newman-Keuls' test (Steel and Torrie 1960) the plastic mulch treatment was observed to significantly increase growth over all other treatments. There were no significant differences in growth means among the remaining treatments. As noted in Table 7, organic mulch growth rate of both shrubs was second to plastic mulch and not too much greater than growth on the chemical and cultivated plots. Late summer observations indicated plastic mulch treated shrubs were still growing throughout the summer, whereas the other shrubs had stopped growth much earlier. Shrubs within the mulched plots on the 1-76 site were greener and healthier in appearance than those on the bare soil treatments. There was also evidence on the 1-76 site that over winter 1975-76 survival was much better within the organic and plastic treated sites. Weed Competition Sites Established in 1974 Annual Weed Occurrence--Analysis of variance tests were completed by David C. Bowden on treatment effect on annual weeds. Results indicated that all chemical and mulch treatments significantly reduced annual weed competition in comparison to the cultivated control (F6,18 = 6.62). There was no significant difference, however, among any of the chemical and mulch treatments (F5,15 = 1.44). The average occurrence of annual weeds per square foot sample per treatment is illustrated in Table 8. Ocular estimates of spring weed density on the plots was obtained and are presented in Table 9. These show, as the previously presented analysis did, that cultivated plots contained much higher annual weed occurrence than any of the other treatments. Initial May-early June sampling of weed competition, summarized in Tables 8 and 9, provided the most reliable data covering treatment effect on annual weed occurrence. A July 28, 1975 sample of total weed reoccurrence is presented in Table 10. These mid-summer data are biased because rototilling, used on the cultivated plots, was more effective in weed removal than hoeing or hand pulling used on the other plots. Shallow hoeing often removed only part of the plant so that it resprouted and continued to grow. The data in Table 10 reflect this bias, but information is presented to illustrate the low weed density on the plots in mid-summer. No significant annual weed germination was observed after the July 28 removal on any site. �-228Table 7. Average first year shrub growth per site and treatment on the three sites established in April 1975. Treatment Karg 3 Sonnenburg I-76 Treatment Mean Wild Plum Cultivated 6.34 1.66 4.53 4.17 Organic mulch 8.97 0.50 5.90 5.12 Plastic Mulch 13.25 8.06 10.13 10.47 S.a.mazi..n e+1/ 5.44 4.33 5.26 Simazine mul ch 3.31 2.16 2.10 Ept am-Tref Ian 4.56 3.00 5.03 Casoron 6.38 4.80 2.06 Site Mean 6.89 3.48 5.04 5.15 4.04 Hansen Rose Cultivated 10.00 0.00 2.09 4.75 Organic mulch 10.19 0.75 4.38 5.61 Plastic mulch 12.81 4.31 9.26 9.18 S.amazi.ne+ . 1/ 7.06 2.94 0.94 Simazine mul ch 6.50 2.13 2.03 Eptam-Treflan 7.16 2.43 1.63 Casoron 8.38 3.84 2.00 Site Mean 8.87 2.35 3.18 3.95 4.82 1/ Simazine, Simazine mulch and Casoron plots all received the EptamTreflan pre-emergent herbicide treatment prior to their first growing season. Listed treatments were applied prior to the second growing season. �Table 8. Average occurrence of annual weeds per square foot sample in 1975 within the six sites and three soil types established in 1974. Treatment Sandhills Red Lion Sharptail Riverbot tom Tamarack Smith Management Meadow Tableland Karg 1 Karg 2 Overall Mean Cultivated control 30.20 29.81 119.00 27.78 12.11 24.28 29.29 Organic mulch 1.28 0.64 2.69 0.17 0.06 0.39 0.87 Plastic mulch 0.03 0.72 1.00 0.33 0.08 0.11 0.38 Simazine 0.72 1. 31 8.58 0.00 0.52 1.47 2.10 mulch 2.36 1.55 22.80 0.00 0.61 5.39 5.45 Eptam-Treflan 0.33 0.58 0.42 1.08 2.58 2.78 1.15 Casoron 6.28 1.72 21.69 2.69 0.72 0.28 5.56 Site Mean 3.09 5.19 14.38 4.29 2.27 4.96 5.59 Sd.rnaz Ln-a I N N '-I'> �-233- Perennial Weed Occurrence in the Shrub Plots--The chemical and mulch treatrM:.ntsacted primarily to prevent weed seed f rom gerruinating and were not highly e f f ec t Lvs. against perennials whose root systems were already present. Preferably, all sites should have been summer fallowed for one or two years to destroy existing root systems, and sites should have been placed where noxious perennials were not abundant. Fall and winter site selection made this impossible to determine. Noxious perennials were confined to the riverbottom clay-loam sites where Canadian thistle, white top, field bindweed, saltgrass, and Nebraska sedge were the dominate species. Salmon mallow and skeleton daisy were most prevalent on the loam sites. Sandsage, perennial ragweed and several grasses were most common on the loamy sand sites. P~rennials were not a significant problem in either the loam or loamy sand sites in 1975, but did require some control. ~umbers per square foot obtained during late spring 1975 sampling are illustrated in Table 12. Data are from the six sites established in 1974. Table 12. Average perennial weed occurrence per square foot sample within the three soil type on sites established in 1974. Treatment Loamy Sand Loam Clay Loam Overall Cultivated 1.28 0.33 6.83 2.42 Organic mulch 0.19 0.00 1.11 0.44 Plastic mulch 0.00 0.00 0.25 o. 08 Simazine 0.46 0.22 1. 76 0.81 Simazine mulch 0.54 0.26 2.76 1.19 Eptam-Treflan 0.32 0.24 2.99 1.13 Casoron 0.60 0.06 1.50 0.72 Sites Established in 1975 Results of mid-June sampling of annual weed occurrence in plots established in 1975 are summarized in Table 13. All three sites showed similar results with no annual weeds on the recently treated organic and plastic mulch plots, moderate weed densities on the Eptam-Treflan treated plots and much higher densities on the cultivated control plots. Use of the Eptam-Treflan herbicide mixture significantly reduced weed abundance as shown by simple Chi square analysis of overall mean densities in Table 13 (Chi square = 5.70 with 1 d.f.). A meaningful comparison could not be made with the two mulch plots but they did remain weed free through the remainder of the summer. X �-234- Table 13. Annual weed occurrence clump sites. in mid-June 1975 on the three new shrub Annual Weed Occurrence Eer Sguare 1-76 Sonnenb ur g Treatment Cultivation 12.33 10.92 Organic mulch No weeds present Plastic No weeds present mulch 1. 87 Eptam-Treflan (Four plot mean) 4.53 Foot Sample Karg 3 Overall Mean lO.44 11.23 3.33 3.24 Percent ground cover by annual weeds was obtained using ocular estimate and is shown in Part 2 of Table 9. Although densities were not much greater on the Sonnenburg site than on the Karg 3 and 1-76 sites (Table 13), more rapid weed growth produced much higher percentage ground cover as shown in Table 9. Due to biased efforts at weed control, further mid- and late summer sampling of weed depsities were not attempted. LITERATURE Snyder, W. D. 1975. clump plantings. CITED Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in Colorado Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept. April:141-153. Steel, R.G.D., and J. H. Torrie. 1960. Principles statistics. McGraw-Hill, New York. 481 pp. and procedures of ... -:1.. Prepared by . ) i" /} : __' _ ·J_!·~~~f~~~~V~~=;_/~ ~(~(~-.~~~/~(~.(~'~:~i/~2~.t~;~1~:-;~~~.~.~.,~ Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher I / � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/6b57f574b302e529347a4122cc20b446.pdf a82a3f9f30aae22f997d39fd3951e271 PDF Text Text July, 1976 -1- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~-------- Project No. W-lOl-R-lB Work Plan No. 4 Job Title Game Range Investigations Job No. Inventory of Range Manipulation la ----------------------- Projects in Colorado Period Covered: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: Roland C. Kufeld and Regional Game Biologists. ABSTRACT An inventory was made of all range vegetation-modification projects completed during 1974 in the western half of Colorado, on lands administered by the u.s. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 0 and Bureau of Land Management - 3,277. ��-3- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock; and to provide desired IBM listings of these data to cooperating agencies upon their request. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, codify, process and analyze inventory data. 3. To provide desired IBM listings of inventory data to cooperating agencies upon their request. METHODS AND MATERIALS An inventory was made of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1972, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25 on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (Kufeld 1968, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974 and 1975). Kufeld (1968 and 1970) also covered projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations through 1969. Indian Reservation projects were dropped from the inventory after 1969. This report concerns vegetation modification projects completed on U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Bureau of Land Management lands west of Interstate Highway 25 during 1974. Data were collected llsing procedures outlined in Colorado Division of Wildlife Administrative Directive No. 204 entitled "Range Vegetation Modification Projects", and by Kufeld (1968, 1970 and 1974). Inventory data were transferred from original data sheets to Mark Page Reader Forms, and then to IBM cards. Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 204, call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project at the end of the 2nd, 5th, and 10th years following treatment. During 1974, 2 year post-treatment evaluations were made on projects completed in 1972, and 5 year post-treatment evaluations were made on projects completed in 1969. Data were recorded on a form described by Kufeld (1971). �-4- Table 1. Acreages of range land treated during 1974 in Colorado by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management 1/. Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Plow 2 780 780 Pinyon-juniper Chain 2 2,497 2,497 4 3,277 3,277 All Vegetative Types l/All projects were located on the Montrose BLM District. Prepared by ;e-h.t~cclc))d~~It:/' ; Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher c- �-5- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Acreages treated during 1974, on all lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management west of Interstate Highway 25, are shown by vegetation type and kind of treatment in Table 1. All of the BLM projects completed in Colorado during 1974 were located on the Montrose BLM District. No vegetation modification projects were completed on U.S. Forest Service lands in Colorado during 1974. A total of 3,277 acres were treated on BLM lands in 1974. To date (through Dec. 31, 1974) a total of 587,759 acres have been treated in Colorado west of 1-25 on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Of this 244,975 acres were on Forest Service and 342,784 acres were on Bureau of Land Management lands. Two and 5 year post-treatment evaluations have been made on some vegetation modification projects since 1970. Data from these evaluations will be kept on file and covered in a future report when enough 2 and 5 year post-treatment evaluations have been made to provide a basis for a meaningful data analysis. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1968. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-lO, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-121. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-12, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 59-94. 1971. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-13, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-15. 1973. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-15, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-8. 1974. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-16, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-11. 1975. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-17, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-6. ��-7- July, 1976 JOB FINAL REPORT State of __ Project C_O_L_O_RA_D_O _ Game Range Investigations No. W-lOl-R-18 Job No •. 4 Hork Plan No. 2 ---------------------------------- Experimental.Impro~ement ofnOakbrush k Job Title __0_n D e_e_r __a_n __d__~_1 __ k_W_1_n_t_e_r __K_a_n~g~e_s __- e_a_v_e_r cr__e_e Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk forage production and game use can be increased on overage Gambel oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2,4,5-TP to induce sprouting. CURRENT STATUS A manuscript containing the final results of the study was prepared during the 18th project segment, and has been accepted tor publication in the Journal of Range Management. Prepared by ;e~«tI C %'-el~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher _ ��July, 19.76 -9JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~---------W-lOl-R-18 Project No. Game Range Investigations 4 3 Job No. Experimental Improvement of Oa-~k~b~r-u~s~h-------------------------on Deer, Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Roland C. Kufeld P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be" increased and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. METHODS AND MATERIALS The study plan for this job calls for post-treatment evaluations to be made after 2, 5 and 8 years following treatment. The2-year evaluation was made during the summer of 1973. The 5-year evaluation will be made during the summer of 1976. There was no activity on the study during the 18th project segment. Prepared by ~,tud C AfJb/ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher ��-11- July, 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of .:::.C.:::,O=LORAD::::.=:::..;O=-_ Project No. W-lOl-R-18 Work Plan No. 6 Job Title Game Management Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations Job No. l Unit Inventory April 1, 1975 - March 31, 1976 William T. McKean and Bruce D. Trindle ABSTRACT Broad descriptive and wildlife species management information were compiled for Wildlife Management Units 11 (Strawberry Creek) and 12 (Williams Fork). Subjects discussed included: Unit Description (Boundaries, Size, Physical Features and Climate); Landownership Status; Land Use Status; Human Populations (by County); Wildlife Species Checklists; Hunting Pressure, Harvests and Seasons; Narrative and Map Descriptions of Game Species Distribution and Abundance; Introductions of Game Species; Census Areas and Results; Habitat Restoration Projects; Management Problems Checklist; and Pertinent Research References by Species and Author. _ �• �-13- GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT INVENTORY William T. McKean Bruce D. Trindle P. S. OBJECTIVE To compile broad descriptive and wildlife species management tion by wildlife management unit. informa- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Describe boundaries, areal extent, physical features, and climate of Wildlife Management Units 11 and 12. 2. Inventory by unit the landownership human population. 3. Inventory by unit the wildlife characteristics including species lists, distribution and abundance, harvest data, introduction records, census areas and routes, and prepare appropriate research and management bibliographies. 4. Inventory habitat restoration projects from existing records. 5. Inventory present and future management problems. status, land use status, and METHODS AND MATERIALS To produce the desired information were taken: for Units 11 and 12 the following steps 1. Working with sources of information now available in the Fort Collins and Denver offices, as much data as possible concerning each item listed under objectives above were assembled and condensed into the standard format used for units previously completed. This included seasonal distribution maps of game species. 2. At a meeting in Meeker, W.C.O.'s Glen Smith and Ron Krager reviewed the preliminary copy and made revisions to game species distribution maps. W.C.O. Bill Roland reviewed the same data at a separate meeting in Craig. 3. After the above corrections were entered, copies were circulated among management personnel in the Denver and Grand Junction offices for review. 4. Final revisions to maps and narratives were made and all information gathered into file binder folders, except for the 1/2" per mile distri-· bution maps which were reproduced by hand and bound in a separate folder. Three copies of all this information were prepared and personally delivered to: (a) the Northwest Regional Office, (b) the Denver �-14- Office, (c) the Federal Aid Section. Distribution maps at 1/4" per mile scale were prepared on Forest Service base maps cut to 8" x 11" size. Xeroxed copies of these were inserted into the file binder folders. Additional xeroxed copies of these maps and of the narrative were made. These were delivered to the local W.C.O.'s, Bureau of Land Management, and Forest Service personnel. A few additional copies have been xeroxed for general distribution as requested. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wildlife Management Units 11 (Strawberry) and 12 (Williams Fork) were completed during the project year in spite of interruptions in the work plans necessitated by my reassignment to part-time work on the proposed reclamation project, Yellow Jacket, of the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. Much of the information compiled for Units 11 and 12 is directly applicable to needs of the Yellow Jacket Project. Also, they should be useful to persons currently writing impact statements concerning coal developments in these areas. During the work segment there have been 25 requests for copies of these unit reports. These have come from: U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Bureau of Land Management, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, Atlantic-Richfield eompany, Ecological Consultants Inc., and private individuals. , Prepared by 'ir~Tl-;f. }/1'C/CeCl~'l./- William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher �-15- APPENDIX A WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 11 (STRAWBERRY) Moffat and Rio Blanco Counties, Colorado Information on Unit Description, Landownersh~p Land Use, Human Population, Wildlife Species Checklists, Harvests, Seasons, Narrative and Hap Descriptions of Distribution and Abundance, and other Allied Data. To: December 1975. Compiled by: W.T. McKean and B.D. Trindle �-16- �-17TABLE OF CONTENTS, ITEM UNIT DESCRIPTION LANDOW~~RSHIP (boundaries, size, physical features, HUMAN POPULATION _ ~ (Rio Blanco County, (Big game mammals, OTHER AVIAN SPECIES 1960-1970, ("Varmint" "varmint" birds, nongame _ and projections) small game mammals OTHER MANHALIAN SPECIES (Furbearers, mammals) ------------- nongame (Antelope, AND ABUNDANCE OF S~MLL GAME ~lliLS hare, red (pine) squirrel) -- HARVEST, DEER HARVEST, SEASONS, AND HUNTING SEASONS AND HUNTING LINEAR REGRESSION _ black bear, (cottontail PRI~rrTIVE DEER HARVEST TOTAL DEER HARVEST, ARCHERY MOUNTAIN DATA ANALYSIS ELK HARVEST, rabbits, BY SEX (1967-1974) (1956-1974) AND SEASONS dove, _ _ _ _ (1956-1974) PRESSURE _ _ UNIT 7 (1963-1974) PRESSURE _ _ (1970-1974) SEASONS AND HUNTING AND SEASONS LION HARVEST SMALL GAME (Small (Small (Small (1956-1974) (1956-1973) AND SEASONS SEASONS AND HUNTING BLACK BEAR HARVEST (1956-1974) OF EITHER SEX DEER SEASONS -- 'ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS ELK HARVEST, PRESSURE PRESSURE _ birds, raptors) DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME BIRDS (Grouse, mourning chukar, pheasant, turkey, waterfowl) ANTELOPE _ and game birds) mammals, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME MAMMALS elk, mountain lion, mule deer) ------DISTRIBUTION snowshoe _ STATUS -------------- LAND USE STATUS ----------- GAME SPECIES climate) (1965-1974) _ _ _ _ _ HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE (1968-1973) Game Management Unit 8) -------Game Management Unit 6) ----------Game Management Units 16 and 20 - 1974) ----- _ _ _ DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Rio Blanco and Moffat counties, 1955-1973) (Small Game Management Units 16 and 20, 1974) ------ _ _ �-18'- TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) ITEM SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT UNITS MAP, 1974---------------------------------SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT UNITS MAP, 19M-1973 - --------------------------_ BIG GAME POPULATION DYNAMICS --------------------------------- _ GA}IE SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS ---------------------------------------- _ HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS --------------------------------- . MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS CHECKLIST -------------------BIG GAME MAMMAL RESEARCH REFERENCES ------------------SMALL GAME MAMMAL RESEARCH REFERENCES -----------------------------GAME BIRD RESEARCH REFERENCES --------------------NONGAME MAMMAL RESEARCH REFERENCES ------------------- ---FURBEARER RESEARCH REFERENCES --------------------- ----GENERAL MAMMALIAN REFERENCES -----------------------.-.------GENERAL AVIAN REFERENCES ------------------------- _ �-l~- DESCRIPTION - WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 11 (STRAl.JBERRY)2/ Boundaries ~/.--"That portion of Hoffat and Rio Blanco counties east of the Coal Creek-Crooked Wash Creek divide, south of U. S. Highway 40 from the Crooked Wash-Coal Creek divide, east to the Yampa River, south of the Yampa River to the Williams Fork River, south and west of the Williams Fork River from the Yampa River to State Highway 13, west of State Highway 13 from the Williams Fork River to the White River, and north of the White River from its junction with State Highway 13 to the Crooked Wash-Coal Creek divide." Size.--866 square miles (planimetered from 1/2" BLH, 1974 map). Physical Features.--Host of Wildlife Hanagement Unit 11 lies within the Uintah Basin section of the Colorado Plateau physiographic 1966). province (U.S.D.A. It is comprised of diverse topography including lesser plateaus, sharp ridges, abrupt cliffs, and rugged badlands interspersed with open parks and basins. Those portions of Unit 11 draining into the Yampa River lie within the extreme southern portion of the Wyoming Basin physiographic province, a huge area of plateaus underlain by deposits of relatively soft sedimentary mountain rocks, bordered in part by abrupt mountain slopes and containing ridges. In the northeast portion of Unit 11 is a prominent topographic feature, quoting U.S.D.A. 1969, - - - "the Axial Basin, formed by an uplift whose axis has been deeply eroded exposing underlying soft rocks and forming a !/Legally termed "Big Game Management Unit" (see footnote 2/ below) but tentatively called "Wildlife Management Unit here to incl~de broader aspects of animal life present. !/Co1orado Division Wildlife Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1975 (p. 8, Chap. 2-Big Game). �-20- sharply outlined trough. Two isolated mountains rise abruptly from the floor of this trough, Juniper Mountain and Cross Mountain. through both of these mountains in deep canyons. The Yampa River cuts Along the south side of the Axial Basin is a low range of hills, the Danforth Hills, lying about 2,000 feet above the adjacent valleys." Elevations within Unit 11 range from 5,588 feet on the White River near the mouth of Smizer Gulch, upward to 8,720 feet in the Danforth Hills. Rock underlying the eastern third of Wildlife Unit 11 are of the Mesa Verde Formation (U.S.D.A. 1966). Moving westward across the unit, a band of relatively soft sedimentary rock of the Wasatch Formation (tertiary) occur. These are replaced by extrusions of less erodible oil shale bearing rocks of the Green River Formation on the west. The Green River Formation extends in an irregular band northward from the White River to the divide separating the White and Yampa Rivers. It is replaced again in the southwest thirds of the unit by more Wasatch Formation. occurs in the northwest Formation, two- One other notable rock exposure portion of Unit 11, which is of the Brown's Park being largely soft sandstone material. Among numerous intermittent River on the south boundary Gulch, Black's drainages flowing from Unit 11 into the White are: Sulphur Creek, Strawberry Creek, Smith's Gulch, Colorow Gulch, and Crooked Wash Creek. creeks draining ncrthward Principal into the Yampa River include: Milk Creek, Morgan Gulch, Temple Gulch, Deception Creek, and Cedar Springs Draw. Most of these are intermittent. Soils data for Unit 11 can be obtained by consulting U.S. Soil Conservation Service Work Unit personnel located at Meeker. Descriptions and a map of �-21- broad soil classifications also can be found in U.S.D.A. 1966 and 1969 cited below. Climate.--National Weather Station data concerning climatic conditions within Wildlife Unit 11 are available from three stations--Maybell, Meeker. All of these stations lie on unit boundaries south sides. Table 1 indicates that precipitation Hamilton, and on the north, east, and is less in the open northern portion than L~ the eastern or southern river bottom sites. sections are probably driest of all. annual mean precipitation Long-time all stations is 16.5 inches .•ranging from 11. 69 at Maybell Hamilton. When broken down by periods, even more pronounced (7.43-24.06). the variation Cloudburst lllliform, bi:gbeTo~.ations for to 19.23 at between stations was storms of high intensity short duration occur over small areas and result from convective ./is ilLadjDjDjngmrtts~seas.ona1 Western di.stribution of precipitation ze.cei:ving a greater proportion and conditions • is fairly in winter in the form of snow • .lfean-8llD.Ual1:empErat:ures:were qui1:e similar between stations, varying only from 42.8 to 44.4, with a long-time mean for all stations of 43.5 degrees. Pe:r:i.odicmmna] .raOges we:re::"SD1IIeWhat wider (41.6 to 44.7) during the 15 year ..per.;iD~~9.59~..I9.14.~ ....Exos.t-£r.ee.da.ysaveraged88.7 for all years and all !It:::ati.mm .•:.::the''mea:u:&"-:rar.gfn:g~.:f:rom88.2 to' 89.6. stations and all years was 56 to 139. Range by years for all �-2:2- Table 1. Precipitation, temperature and frost-free days, Wildlife Management Unit 11, by period, from National Weather Station records, 1891-1974. Precl.Eitation Mean Range TemEerature Mean Range Frost-Free Dals Mean Range 43.8 88.4 Station Period Years Meeker 1961-1974 (13) 15.71 1951-1960 ( 9) 17.68 44.4 1931-1952 (21) 16.85 43.9 1891-1927 (36) J.5.81 42.8 1961-1974 (13) 18.05 1951-1960 ( 9) 17.22 1947-1952 C 5) 19.23 "..J.959~97.l.~ (5) ll.69 Hamilton Maybell 9.90-21.18 42.5-44.7 70-121 88.2 11.71-24.06 7.43-18.92 42.8 41.6-44.2 89.6 56-139 li:i:teratureCited U. S. Department o£ Agriculture. 1966. Water and related land resources, 1lhiteJtiver Rasin h,L'nlorado. Coop. Study by Colo. Water Conserv. Board .. ~an.dD S 11•.A.Econ •.. ~ Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Serv. liIovembE.:l:. Denver. u. S. ~partment •.Service, ">2 pp, of Agriculture. (Processed). 1969. Water and related land resources, Yampa River Basin Colorado and Wyoming. Conserve Board and D.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Conserve Service. April 1969. Denver. Coop. Study by Colo. Water 164 pp. Forest Service, and Soil (Processed). �-23- U. S. Department Monthly of Commerce. (Continuing). and Annual Summaries. Asheville, Climatological data. Colorado. National Climatic Center, Fed. Bldg. N. C. 28801. William T. McKean August 1975 �-24LANDOWNERSHIP STATUS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 Bureau of Land Management 271,745 Acres Private lands Municipal 259,265 Acres and County lands 50 Acres Other Federal lands including National Park Service, Forest Service, Indian and Military Reservations, and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Colorado Division of Wildlife State Land Board Administration o Acres lands (north of river) Lands (Moffat County) Total 360 Acres 21,970 Acres 553,390 Acres* (864.7 sq. miles) * Total land acreage di~fers from total in Unit Description Section (554,240 acres or 866 sq. miles). Bureau of Land Management lands, private lands, and a total unit acreage were derived from a 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit map (1974). A planimeter and grid were used to compute acreages. Municipal and County lands were derived from an estimate by the City Manager of Meeker, Colorado (8-75). B. D. Trindle August 1975 �-25- LAND USE AND VEGETATIVE Irrigated COVER STATUS - ~~LDLIFE MANAGEME1~ cropland Non-irrigated Grassland UNIT 11 9,434 Acres cropland 19,620 Acres with half-shrub mixtures 21,662 Acres Sagebrush 222,727 Acres Brush 147,036 Acres (desert and mountain) Woodland (pinon-juniper and oakbrush) 106,991 Acres Aspen 14,152 Acres Commercial timber Riverbottom vegetation 0 Acres !/ 454 Acres Urban Jj 500 Acres Miscellaneous 1/ 10,764 Acres 553,390 Acres Total (864.7 sq. miles) Cover type categories ,were derived from 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S. Land Use and Cover Type }1aps, 1953; 195.5, for Moffat and Rio Blanco counties. A plani- meter and grid were used to derive and compute acreage. !/ Includes only woods or brush-woods mix along the White River. Urban - Those areas used for residential and municipal purposes as illustrated on the 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.M. planning unit base map (1974) for the 't own of Meeker. l/Miscellaneous - Interpreted to consist mainly of bare ground with sparse, scattered vegetation of various types. B. D. Trindle August 1975 �-26- HUMAN POPULATION Specific human population - WILDLIFE MAJ~AGEMENT UNIT 11 data for the unit are impossible cause U. S. Census Bureau records are on a county-wide cause the unit encompasses counties. only small portions to obtain be- basis only and be- of Moffat and Rio Blanco Tables 1 ane 2 indicate county totals, incorporated rural populations for Rio Blanco and Moffat counties, the only unincorporateq unofficial estimate Table 1. Urban-rural cities and respectively. city within Unit 11 had 50 residents in 1970, by (tabulated here as rural). population, Rio Blanco County, 1960-70. 11 1960 1970 Meeker 1,655 1,597 Rangely 1,464 1,591 Rural 2,031 1,654 Total 5,150 4,842 Human density per square mile in Rio Blanco County decreased 1960 and 1970 from 1.6 to 1.5. One Projection Maybell, slightly between ~I of human population ~/ for Rio Blanco County is: 1975 - 5,270; 1980 - 5,267; 1990 - 6,119; 2000 - 7,088. For Moffat County: 1975 - 7,206; 1980 - 7,485; 1990 - 8,589; 2000 - 10,226. Another projection 20,000; 2000 - 186,000; A third projection duction of h-wman population 3/ for the White River Basin is: 1980 _ 2020 - 204,000. if for the oil shale area, based upon cumulative oil pro- in barrels per day, is: 1974 - 6,631; 1980 - 46,738; 1985 - 100,000. �-2Z- );/ U. S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, 1962-64. u Colorado State Plrulning Office, advance population personal communication 1975. projections, unpublished 3/ - U. S. Bureau of the Census, Colorado Water Conservation Field Party. In U.S.D.A. 1965 ~ cit. Board and USDA U. S. Dept. of Interior (1972). Draft environmental statement for the proposed prototype oil shale leasing program. Vol. I. Washington, D. C. 465p. Table 2. Urban-rural Craig Dinosaur Moffat County 1960-1970. 1/ 1960 1970 3,984 4,205 318 247 2,759 2,073 7,061 6,525 population, (Artesia) Total 1/ - U. S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, lbe trend of human population 1962-64. in Moffat County closely resembles that in R;.) Blanco County. purposes. Human density per square mile in Moffat County decreased between COtmty-wide statistics are included here for comparative slightly 1960 and 1970 from 1.5 to 1.4. -2/ 2:./ Colorado State Planning Office, advance population personal communication 1975. projections, unpublished �-28- CIl '0 5 p cO 5,150 tIl :l 0 ..c:: 4 ~ Q "ri 3,135 3 Q 0 4,842 2,980 OM ~ cO 2 ;:l c, 0 P-t 1 2,943 ~32 r-i 1,690 1900 1910 Fig. 1. Population 1920 1920 1940 1950 1960 trend of Rio Blanco County. 7,061 7 .~ 5,129 . . 5,086 1920 1940 1 Fig. 2. 1930 Population 1950 trend of Moffat County. 1960 1970 1970 �-29- GAME SPECIES - WILDLIFE MANAGEME:t-.'T UNIT 11 Big game mammals !/ Black bear (Ursus americanus) Uncommon. Elk (Cervus canadensis) Uncommon. Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Common. Nule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) Cormnon. Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) Uncommon; Small game mammals !/ Cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus auduboni; ~. nuttallii) Uncommon. Pine (red) squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) Common. Snowshoe hare (Lepu~ americanus) Common. Small game birds Migratory II waterfowl and shorebirds Great Basin Canada goose (Branta canadensis moffitti) Common. Black brant (Branta nigricans) Possible rare migrant. ~~ite-fronted goose (Anser albifrons frontalis) Possible rare migrant. Snow goose (Chen .caerulescens caerulescens) 11 Possible rare migrant. ~fuistling swan (Olor columbianus) Uncommon migrant. }Iallard (Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos) Common resident. l/Nomenclature according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Wild mammals of 21 - Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Coloracl.oBirds. Denver Mus. Nat. Rist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and from Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco &~d Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapted from the foregoing references and also from, Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. 31 - Unverified in hunters' bag checks but legal game 1972 through 1975. Definitions: Common:-should be noted regularly in the normal habitat at the proper season of the year. Uncommon:-recorded regularly but unlikely to be seen on most field trips. Rare:-recorded a few times only, and very unlikely to be seen. Resident:-any species living in the unit. Migrant:-any species moving through the unit. Where the adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported by Division personnel or qualified observers. �-30- GAME SPECIES - W1LDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 (continued) Small game birds Gadwall (Anas strepera) Common spring and fall migrant. Pintail (Anas acuta) Common spring and fall migrant. American green-winged teal (~as crecca carolinensis) !!.../ Common migrant and uncommon yearlong resident. Blue-winged teal (Anas discors discors) Common migrant. Cinnamon teal (~I2..ascYanoptera septent,rionalium) Common migrant. -American wigeon (Anas americana) 4/ Common migrant and rare winter resident. Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata)-!!.../ Common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Redhead (Aythy~ americana) Uncommon migrant. Ring-necked duck (!>ythya collaris) Uncommon migrant. Canvasback (~?:. valisineria) Uncorrnnonto rare migrant. Greater scaup (Aythya marila nearctica) Possible rare resident. Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) Uncommon migrant. Common golden-eye (Eucephala clangula americana) Common migrant and uncommon winter resident. Barrow's golden-eye (Bucephala islandica) 1/ Rare winter visitor. Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) Uncommon spring and fall migrant and rare winter resident. Ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis rubida) Common migrant and occasional summer resident. Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Rare winter visitor on river. Common merganser (Hergus merganser ame rLcanus ) Common winter resident, uncommon summer resident. Red-breasted merganser (~ergus serrator serrator) 1/ Possible rare migrant. American coot (Fulica americana arnericana) Common migrant and summer resident. Common Wilson's snip~ (Capella gallinago delicata) Common migrant and rare winter resident. Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis tabida) Regular migrant. Virginia rail (Ralus limicola limicola) Possible uncommon summer resident. Sora (Porzana carolina) Possible uncommon summer resident. Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus obscurus) Common. Sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasia~us urophasianus) Uncommon to common. Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Uncommon. Chukar (Alectoris chukar) 4/ Uncommon to rare. Band-tailed pigeon (Columb~ fasciata fasciata) Possible uncommon summer and fall migrant. Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura marginella) !!.../ Common summer resident. Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) Rare. Sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus) Rare. 4/ - Changes in the nomenclature follow the thirty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists Union check-list of North American birds published in Auk 90:411-419, April, 1973. W. T. McKean September 1975 �-31- OTHER MAMMAl,IAN SPECIES Furbearers 1,/ - l.JILDLIFEHANAGEMENT UNIT 11 ~I Short-haired Beaver (Castor canadensis) Uncommon. Nink (Hustela vison) Uncertain. Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Uncommon. Ringtail ~~~i~'~Ut~s) Rare. Weasels (Hus t ela ern·ll·nea,· frenata) ,', n. Uncorrnnon. M. H ermfnea Unc er-t adn ,; M • frenata Long-haired Kit fox (Vulpes velox) Uncommon. Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Uncommon. American badger (Taxidea taxus) Common to uncommon. Spotted skunk (Spil~~ius) Uncommon. Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) Common. "VaDn:int" mannnals Coyote (Canis latrans) Common. Red .. fox JV.ulpes fulva) Uncommon. Raccoon (PTC'..c:yon lotor) Common , Porcup.lne.g.:etbi2 ~D. darsatum) Common. Btibcat{w".J.ldcat)(Lynx rufus) Common , Black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus californicus) Rare to uncommon. White-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus townsendii) Common. 11 - These species, grouped separately as "Furbearers", "Varmints" and "Nongame mannnals" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1963.l,,,, Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations .Hdhk.~ 1'975 (Art. 1, Items 14, 20, 31, and 42, Definitions, p. 2). -, ~. : Nomem:.1:a:t:nr.':',0U1. Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publi.shing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Information on occurrence and status from the above reference and: Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, 144 pp. Also, Armstrong, D. M., 1972, Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Monograph of the Museum of Natural History, the Univ. of Kansas, Number 3, 1972. 415 pp. Definitions: C{)r~p],,-:-should be noted regularly i.n the normal habitat at the proper season of th-, · year. Uncommon:-recorded regularly but unlikely to be seen on most field trips. Rare:-recorded a few times only, and very unlikely to be seen. Resident:-any species living in the unit. Migrant:-any species moving through the unit. Where the adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported by Division personnel or qualified observers. �OTHER HAMMALIAN -32SPECIES (continued) "Varmint" mammals (continued) Yellow-bellied marmot (Hal~ota flaviventris) Common. White-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) Common. Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) Common. Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spenuophilus tridecem1.ineatus) Common. Rock squirrel (§permophilus variegatus) Common to uncommon. Northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) Common. Nongame mammals Golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lat~alis) Common. White-tailed antelope squirrel (Ammospennophilus leucurus) Uncommon. Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Common. Colorado chipmunk (Eutamias ,guadrivittatus) Common. Uinta chipmunk (Eutamias umbrinus) Uncommon to uncertain. Vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans) Uncommon. Merriams shrew (Sorex merriami) 3/ Uncertain. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Uncommon. Townsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii) Common. Silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) Uncommon. Hoary bat (Lasiurus cine reus) Uncommon - common. Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) Common. \~estern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus hesperus) Common. Long-legged myotis (Mvotis volans) Uncommon. California myotis (Myotis californicus) Uncommon. Small-footed myotis (Myotis leibii) Common. Long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) Uncommon. Little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) Uncommon. Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) Uncommon - uncertain. Apache pocket mouse (Perognathus apache) Uncommon. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys nagalolis) Uncertain. Canyon mouse (Peromyscus crinitus) Common - uncommon. Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) Common. Pinon mouse (Peromyscus truei) Common. Bushy-tailed wood rat (Neotoma c.inerea) Common. Desert woodrat (Neotoma lepida) Uncommon. Gapper's red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) Uncommon. Montana vole (Microtus montanus) Uncommon. Long-tailed vole (Microtus longicaudus) Common. Sagebrush vole (Lagurus curtatus) Common. House mouse (Mus musculus) Uncommon. Western jumping mouse (Zapus princeps) Uncommon. 110ccurrence listed by the Colo. Div. of Wildlife as extremely unusual very few documented records within the past decade. (1972 Status Evaluation for Selected Colorado Species) appended to: 1973 Wildlife Operations Work Plan, Field Order No. 4- 1973). W. T. McKean September 1975 �-33OTHER AVIAN SPECIES 1../ - \HLDLlFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 "Vannin t" birds English sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) Common resident. Black billed magpie (Pica .EJ:~ hudsonia) Common resident. Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) Common resident. Rock dove (Columbia livia) Uncommon resident. Nongame birdJ.I Common loon (Gavia immer) Possible rare migrant. Horned grebe (Podic~ps auritus cornutus) Possible rare migrant. Eared grebe (Podiceps migricollis californicus) Corrunonmigrant 1/. Western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) Rare migrant. Pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps podiceps) Possible uncommon migrant and uncommon summer resident. Double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus auritus) Possible rare migrant. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident. Snowy egret (Egretta thula brewsteri) Uncommon summer resident 1/. Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli) Possible common summer resident. Least bittern (Ixobrychus exilis exilis) Possible rare summer migrant. American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus) Possible rare summer migrant. ~lite-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) Possible uncorrunonmigrant. Semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) Possible rare migrant. Killdeer (Charadius vociferus vociferus) Corrunonsurrunerresident and rare winter resident. Mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) Possible rare migrant 1/ . .!/These species, grouped separate~y as "Varmint" birds, "Nongame birds" and "Raptors" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1962 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1975. (Art. 1, Items 20, 28, 31 and 42, Definitions, p. 2). 21Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado Birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colorado Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. l.1Changes in nomenclature follow the Thirty-second Supplement to the American Ornithologists Union Checklist of North American Birds published in Auk 90(2):411-419. April, 1973. Definitions: Common:-should be noted regularly in the normal habitat at the proper season of the year. Uncommon:-recorded regularly but unlikely to be seen on most field trips. Rare:-recorded a few times only, and very unlikely to be seen. Resident:-any species living in the unit. Migrant:-any species moving through the unit. Where the adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported by Division personnel or qualified observers. Notations concerning seasonal abundance of raptors are by Gerald R. Craig, Wildlife Biologist. �-34OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Black-bellied plover (Pluvial is sguatarola) Possible uncommon migrant 1/. Long-billed curlew (Numenius americanus americanus) Possible rare migrant. Spotted sandpiper (Arc t Lt Ls ~llac_ulari<l) Possible cornmon summer resident. Solitary sandpiper (Tringa ~9l:i:.~ariacinnamomea) Possible common migrant. and occasional summer resident. Greater sandhill .:rane (Grus canadensis tabida) Regular migrant and possible summer resident endangered. \-1illet(CataptrophoTus semipalmatus inornatus) Rare migrant. Greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca) Possible cornmon migrant /. Lesser yellowlegs (Tringa flavipes) Possible uncommon migrant l/~ Red knot (Calidris canutus rufa) Possible rare migrant 1/. Pectoral sandpiper (Calidris melanotos) Possible rare migrant 3/. Baird's sandpiper (Calidris bairdii) Possible common migrant 3/. Least sandpiper (Calidris millutilla) Possible common migrant 3/. Long-billed dowitcher (Limnodromus scolopaceus) Possible unco;mon migrant. Stilt sandpiper (Micropalma himantopus) Possible rare migrant. Semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) Possible rare migrant 1/. Western sandpiper (Calidris mauri) Possible uncommon migrant 3/. Marbled godwit (Limosa fedoa) Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Calidris alba) Possible rare migrant 3/. American avocet (Recu~ostra americana) Rare migrant. Black-necked stilt (Hamantopus mexicanus) Rare migrant. Wilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) Possible common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Northern phalarope (Lobipes lobatus) Possible uncommon migrant. Herring gull (La~usargentatus smithsonianus) Possible uncommon migrant. California gull (Larus californicus) Possible rare migrant. Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis) Possible uncommon migrant. Franklin's gull (Larus pipixcan) Possible uncommon migrant. Bonaparte's gull (Larus philadelphia) Possible rare migrant. Sabine's gull (Xema sabini sabini) Possible rare migrant. Forster's tern ~rna forsteri) Possible rare migrant. Common tern (Sterna'hirundo hirundo) Possible rare migrant. Least tern (Sterna albafrons athalassos) Possible rare migrant. Black tern (Chlidonfas niger surinamensis) Possible uncommon migrant. Rock dove (Columba livia) Possible common resident. Unprotected. Yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus americanus) Possible rare summer resident. Poor-will (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii nuttallii) Uncommon summer resident. Common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor hesperis; ~. ~. howeli) Common summer resident. White-throated swift (Aeronautes saxatalis sclateri) Common summer resident. Black-chinned hummingbird (Archilochus alexandri) Uncommon summer resident. Broad-tailed hummingbird (Selasphorus platycercus platycercus) Common summer resident. Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) Possible common late summer migrant. Calliope hummingbird (Stellula calliope) Possible common late summer migrant. Belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon alcyon) Possible common resident. Common flicker (Colaptes auratus cafer) Common resident 1/. Lewis' woodpecker (Asyndesmus lewis) Possible uncommon summer resident. Red-headed woodpecker (Melaner~rythrocephalus) Possible rare resident. �, -3~- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus picinus) Possible rare summer resident. Yellow-bellied sapsucker (SphY~icus varius nuchaliae) Common summer and possible occasional winter resident. Williamson's sapsucker (~rapicus thyroideus nataliae) Possible uncommon SUIDrrler resident. Hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos villosus monticola) Common year-a-round resident. Downy woodpecker (Dendrocopos pubescens leucurus) Common year-a-round resident. Eastern kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) Uncommon summer resident. Western kingbird (fyrannus verticalis) Common summer resident. Ash-throated flycatcher (Hyiarchus cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident. Say's phoebe (Sayornis saya saya) Common summer and possible rare winter resident. Willow flycatcher (Empidonas traillii) Possible uncommon summer resident 1/. Hammond's flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii) Possible migrant and uncommon summer resident. Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) Summer resident. Gray flycatcher (Empidonax wrightii) Common summer resident. Western flycatcher (Empidonax diffic:ilis hellmavri) Common summer resident. Western wood peewee (Contopus sordidulus v~liei) Common summer resident. Olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealis) Possible common summer resident. Horned lark (Eremophila alpestris leucolaema) Common year-a-round resident and migrant. Violet-green swallow (Trachycineta thalassina lepida) Common summer resident. Tree swallow (Iridoprocne bicolor) Common migrant and summer resident. Bank swallow (Riparia.riparia riparia) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx ruficoll:i.sserripennis) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica erythrogaster) Common summer resident. Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pyrrhonota) Common summer resident. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis cap,italis) Possible uncommon resident. Steller's jay (~citta stelleri macrolopha) Common resident. Scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens woodhouseii) Common resident. Common raven (Corvus corax sinuatus) Common resident. Common crow (Corvus b~rhvnchos brachyrhynchos) Uncommon resident. Pinon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) Common summer 1/ and winter resident. Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) Common resident. Black-capped chickadee (Parus articapillus garrinus) Common resident. Mountain chickadee (Parus gambeli gambeli) Common resident. Plain titmouse (Parus inornatus ridgwayi) Uncommon resident. Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus plumbeus) Possible common resident 1/. White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis nelson i) Possible uncommon resident. Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Possible rare year-a-round resident. Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea melanotis) Possible uncommon resident. �-36- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Brown creeper (Certhia famili8ris~an~) Possible uncommon year-around resident. Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus unicolor) Common resident. House wren (T;:-i8l;;dYJ-:.es ;;ec1on'p_arbnan~i)Common summer resident. b ew i ck Lf _eremophilu~) Possible summer resident Bewick's wren (ThrY012.ane~2. and rare winter resident. Canyon wr en (Salpinctes mexicanus consper~) Possible uncommon summer resident. Rock wren (Salpinctes obsoletus obsoletus) Common summer and possible rare winter resident. Mockingbird (Himus polyglottos leucopterus) Uncommon summer resident. Gray catbird (Dumetel1a carolinensis) Possible rare summer resident 3/. Sage thrasher (O~;Ptes ruontanus) Possible common sumnler resident~ American robin (Turdus migratorius propinguus) Common summer and winter resident 3/. Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus audubonii) Common summer resident 1/. Swainson's thrush (Catharus ustulatus almae) Uncommon migrant. Veery (Catharus fucescens saliCi~ Uncommon migrant and summer resident 1/. Western bluebird (8ialia mexicana bairdi) Common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Mountain bluebird (8ialia currucoides) Cownon migrant and summer resident and possible occasional winter resident. Townsend's solitaire (Nyadeste~ to,",7J.1sendi townsendi) Uncommon resident. Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Poliptila caerulea amoenissima) Common summer resident. ~olden-crowned kinglet (Regulus satrapa amoenus) Possible uncommon migrant and rare summer resident. Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula cineraceus) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceos) Possible irregular winter migrant 1/. Cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) Uncommon resident. Northern shrike (Lanius excubitor invictus) COIDlllon winter resident. Loggerhead shrike-C~us ludovicianus excubitorides) Possible uncommon summer and uncommon winter resident. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) Possible common summer resident. Solitary vireo (Vireo solitarius plumbeus) Common summer resident. Red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) Possible rare summer resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo gilvus swainsonii) Common summer resident. Tennessee warbler (Vermivora Eeregrina) Possible rare but regular migrant. Orange-crowned warbler (Vermivora celata orestera) Common migrant and summer resident. Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla ridgwayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia's warbler (Vermivora virginiae) Common summer resident. Yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia aestiva) Common summer resident. Yellow-rumped warbler (Dendroica coronata memorabilis) Cownon summer resident 3/; (D. c. coronata) Possible common migrant 3/. Black-throat;d gr~y ;arbler (Dendroica nigrescens) Possible common summer resident. Townsend's warbler (Dendroica townsendi) Uncommon fall migrant. MacGillivray's warb l.er (Oporornis tolmiei monticola) Common summer resident. �-37OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Common yellowthroat (Geothylpi~ trichas occidentalis: £. !.. campicola) Possible uncommon summer resident 3/. Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virer~ ;-uricollis) Possible common summer resident. Wilson's warbler (Wi!.~6ni~ l?usilla .£i}.eol ata) Possible common migrant and summer resident. American redstart (Setopha?~ rutic~l]:~ tricolora) Possible rare migrant. House spar row (Passer domesticus domestic.us) Common resident. Bobolink (Dolicli~ny~oryzivorus) Possfble UnCOllh'TIOn summer migrant. WesteTIl meadowl ark (.§tun~ella_neglecta neglecta) Common summer and possible uncommon winter resident. Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Common summer resident. Red-w.Lnged blackbird (Agelaius phoenJceus. fortis) Common resident. Northern oriole (~rus galbula bullockii) Possible common summer resident 1/. Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus carolinus) Possible rare winter migrant. Brewer's blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) Common resident. Common grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) Possible rare summer resident. Brovm-headed cowbird (Nolothrus ater artemisiae) Common summer resident. WesteTIl tanager (Piranga ludovici;~) Common migrant and summer resident. Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) Possible rare migrant. Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus melanocephalus) Uncommon summer resident. Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena) Common summer resident. Evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona vespertina brooksi) Uncommon summer resident and irregular winter resident. Cassin's finch (Carpodacus. cassinii) Common resident. House finch (Carpodacus mexi~anus frontalis) Common summer and possible uncommon winter resident. Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator montana) Possible uncommon resident. Gray-crowned rosy finch (Leucosticte tephrocotis tephrocotis; L. t. littoralis) Possible common winter resident. Black rosy finch (Leucosticte atrata) Possible common winter migrant. Brown-capped rosy finch (Leucosticte australis) Possible common winter migrant. Common redpoll (Acanthis flammea flammea) Possible rare winter migrant. Pine siskin (Spinus pinus pinus) Common resident. American goldfinch (Spinus tristus tristus; ~. !.. pallidus) Possible common summer and uncommon winter resident. Lesser goldfinch (Spinus psaltria psaltria) Possible uncommon summer and rare winter resident. . Green-tailed towhee (Chlorura chlorura) Common summer resident. Rufous-sided towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus montanus) Common summer and rare winter resident. Lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) Possible uncommon summer resident. Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sandwichensis nevadensis; l. ~. anthinus) Common migrant and summer resident. Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum perpallidus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus confinis) Common migrant and summer resident. �-38OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Lark sparrow (Chondestes·grammacus·strigatus) Common migrant and summer resident. Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza ?ilineata deserticola) Possible common Sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli nevadensis) Common summer resident. Dark-eyed junco (Junco .ki:emalisaikeni) Possible rare winter resident 1/; (L· ~. hyemalis; L· ~. cismontanu~) Rare winter resident 1/; (!. ~. oreganus) Common winter resident 1/; (L. ~. ~. var. mearnsi) Common winter resident 3/. Gray-headed junco (Junco c;niceps caniceps) Common summer and winter resident. Tree sparrow (Spizella arborea ochracea) Possible uncommon winter migrant. Clay-colored sparrow (Spizella pallida) Possible common migrant. Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina boreophila) Common summer resident. Brewer's sparrow (Spizella breweri breweri) Common summer resident. Harris' sparrow (Zonotrichia querula) Possible uncommon migrant and rare winter resident. White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucrophrys) Common resident. ~~ite-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) Possible rare migrant. Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca schistacea) Rare summer resident. Lincoln's sparrow (Helospiza lincolnii alticola) Possible common migrant and summer resident. Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) Common summer and uncommon winter resident. Rapt or s ~/ Turkey vulture (Cathartes ~ meridionalis) Common summer and rare winter resident. Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis atricapillus) Uncommon summer and common winter resident. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus velox) Uncommon summer and common winter resident. Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Common summer and winter resident. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis calurus) Common resident. Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni) Uncommon summer resident. Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus ~. johannis) Common winter resident and migrant. Ferruginous hawk (~uteo regalis) Common summer and common winter resident. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos canadenSis) Common resident. Bald eagle (Hal Laae t u's leucocephalus alascanus) Common winter resident. �-39- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Raptors <s!-.~ Marsh hawk syaneus hudsonius) Common summer and common winter resident. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus carolinen:=;}_s) Uncommon migrant, rare summer resident. Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Uncommon resident. Peregrine falcon (Falc~~1us anatum) Rare migrant, endangered. Merlin (Falco columbarius) Uncommon winter migrant 3/. American kestrel (Falc~~arverius sparverius) Con®;n summer and unconunon winter resident. Screech owl (Otus asio) Common resident. Flammulated owl (Otus flamrneolus flammeolus) Rare summer resident. Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Connnon resident. Pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma californicum) Rare resident. Burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea) Common summer and possible rare winter resident. Long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus) Uncommon resident. Short-eared owl. (Asi£.pamrneus flammeus) Common summer resident and unc~mmon winter migrant. Saw-whet 0107) (Aegolius acadicus acadicus) Uncommon resident. ADDITIONAL LITERATURE REFERENCES .Cringan, .A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance £reek.:Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio B1arco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase one of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Inst::it:ut.f', Boulder, Colorado. 144 pp • •---~:,>:f: '='., P. H. Baldwin, and E. B. Reed. -nf 1riri!~from the Yampa Valley, northwestern 7f) (l) :ll3-116. 1974. Recent records Colorado. Condor Smith, A. G. 1973 •. Avian environmental features at the Colony plant site, Garfield Co'unty, Colorado. Environmental inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute for Colony Development Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1974. W. T. McKean and B. D. Trind1e September 1975 �-40- DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME HAHMALS WILDLIFE HANAGEHEl\l1' UNIT 11 ANTELOPE Antelope Roland utilize approximately (1975 pers. comm.) reported into two areas. of Duffy Mountain, approximately 1,000 antelope on it. approximately W.C.O. that the 70 square miles are divided One area south of Haybell, miles, has approximately on it. 70 square miles of Unit 11. 51 square The other area southwest 19 square miles, has about 70 antelope W.C.O. Roland feels that there is some interchange two areas, but that the populations remain relatively between the stable yearlong. BLACK BEAR &lack bears .gene.ra.l.Ly occupy the southeast quarter of Unit 11. incJ.~!deBtht'.J)<;!'L; i.,rtb Hills and CoLo row Mountain provide suitable .~ E,70D habitat £eet ,with The Colorado jj) ..a.ezrs EstImated '?'! The elevation ranges between 6,200 of Wildlife, Wildlife Inventory Systems (1974), figure of .035 for the above range, which yields a total "eveza.l L" population -we.r£ regions both of which the lands being timbered and brush covered. Division ,~ts,a:.dJ!'nS:1ty for bears. This area of 10 bears on Unit 11. W.C.O. estimates for 1975 also Unit 11. annual black bear harvest for the 19 year period 1956-1974 in- clusive was 2.3 bears, based upon hunter report card surveys 1956-1971, the random sample 1971-1974. and Annual harvest ranged from 0-11; there were eight years out of the nineteen when no bears were reported taken. ELK W.C.O. 's Krager, Ko1and, and Smith (1975 pers. comm.) estimate a total of �-41- 515 elk are on Unit 11 year-round. found in the Colorow Mountain The majority of these elk (450) are and Danforth Hills regions. During the summer 90 percent of these elk are found east of Strawberry Creek in the Danforth Hills, with 10 percent summering on Color ow Mountain. winter approximately 325 elk occur east of Strawberry occur west of Strawberry winters Creek on Colorow Mountain. on both areas and of their range. Three other smaller herds are located within Unit 11. 30 head yearlong Mountain on Duffy Mountain, according cluding archery. presented There are about 20 on Isle Mountain, to W.C.O. Roland }lean annual elk harvest Creek and 125 elk During severe the elk will move off the higher elevations occupy the lower elevations In the and 15 on Cross (1975 pers. cOlmn.). (1956-1974) was 96 with 6 closed seasons, in- Annual harvest ranged from 6 to 258 (see harvest data) in this report. MULE DEER Unit 11 is almost entirely mule deer winter range except for the highest elevations occurring range migrate in the Danforth Hills. The deer that occupy this into the Unit from outlying areas. estimated by the Colorado Division of Wildlife, Winter population, Wildlife Inventory Systems (1974), was 10,253 animals with a density of 12.7 deer per square mile. Relatively able. few deer summer on Unit 11, with no data on abundance avail- Those deer that do remain during the summer can be found along the White and Yampa rivers and in the highest elevations Mean annual deer harvest of Unit 11. (1956-1974) was 2,674, including archery. Annual �-42- harvest ranged from 892 to 5,674 (see harvest data) present in this report. MOUNTAIN LION Mountain lions may be found in the southern half of Unit 11 and two distinct areas bordering highest concentration Colorado Armstrong (1972), Dixon (1969) make specific citations concerning of Wildlife, bution and abundance W.C.O. data estimated estimates Inventory a total population Hunter's are as follows: (1967), and lions with Unit 11. Systems for 1975 were a maximum mum of 8 lions on Unit 11. period 1965-1974 Wildlife (1974) distri- of 14 lions within of l5'lions and a mini- reports of lions killed during the 1965 - 2; 1966 - 9; 1967 - ND; 1968 - 0; 1969 - 2; 1970 - 0; 1971 - 0; 1972 - 3; 1973 - 1; 1974 - O. harvest The with the high, rough terrain region. Division Unit 11. (see mylar map overlay). of lions is associated of the Colorow Mountain Lechleitner the Yampa River Mean annual for this period was 1.9 lions (no data for 1967; see accompanying Harvest Data). Armstrong, D. M; 1972. Kansas Printing Colorado Division wide mammal LITERATURE CITED Distribution of mammals Service, Lawrence. of Wildlife, Wildlife and bird distribution area supervi.sor, and regional office, Colo. Div.Wi1dl. in Colorado. Univ. of 4l5pp. Inventory Systems. 1974. maps and data compiled biologist Unpublished. input. Located State- from W.C.O., at Denver �-43- Dixon, K. R. 1967. pp. 141-164. Evaluation In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Game, Fish and Parks. Lechleitner, Boulder. R. R. of effects of mountain 1969. lion predation, Colo. Div. pp. 73-310. Wild mamnlals in Colorado. Pruett Publ. Co., 234pp. B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean November 1975 �DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME MAMMALS WILDLIFE HANAGEMEi\TTUNIT 11 COTTONTAIL RABBIT Nearly every square mile of Unit 11 is considered at least some cottontail rabbits yearlong, however, they are more abundant at the lower elevations. tail and the Nuttall's cottontail being common at lower elevations tail being less abundant (5,000-7,000) 1969, Armstrong No specific data is ,available on cottontail for Small Game Management that Both the desert cotton- and the Nuttall's in the higher elevations as reflected it is believed should occur; the desert cottontail (Lechleitner For abundance, capable of supporting cotton- (6,000-8,000) 1972). rabbit densities for Colorado. in harvest data, see tables on Hunter Harvest Units 6 and 8, following. SNOWSHOE HARE Snowshoe hares may exist in Unit 11 above 8,000 ft. in elevation Douglas-fir, Douglas-fir-aspen mix. Shepherd 8,000 ft. in elevation would be potential No specific data is available (1965) suggested in the that above range for much of Colorado. for dis~ribution or abundance of snowshoe hares in Unit 11. RED (PINE) SQUIRREL Armstrong (1972) and Lechleitner (1969) suggested should be fairly common in the coniferous fir, in the higher el~vations No data on abundance forests, principally of Unit 11. or harvest that this squirrel are available. Douglas- �-45- LITERATURE Armstrong, D. M. 1972. CITED Distribution of mammals of Kansas Printing Service, Lawrence. Lechleitner, R. R. Boulder. Shepherd, H. R. 1969. in Colorado. Univ. 4l5pp. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publ. Co., 254pp. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for snowshoe hare. Parks Dept. rept. 11pp. Colorado Game, Fish and VIimeo). B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean November 1975 �-46- DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE WILDLIFE OF SMALL GAME BIRDS NANAGEMENT UNIT 11 BLUE GROUSE Blue grouse distribution includes the Danforth Hills and Colorow regions of Unit 11 starting at about 7,000 feet in elevation Mountain and co~tinuing upwards. This includes most of the timbered areas of the unit which provides suitable habitat for the grouse. W.C.O. 's Krager and Smith (1975 pers. comm.) suggest that both the Danforth Hills and Colorow Nountain They estimated mile J £01:' regions have low populations of grouse. that an average density woul.d be about 2 birds per square the occupied range. SAGE GROUSE Sage-gr(;1lSe inhabit all of Unit 11 except for a small area surrounding t:beCi.ty of Heeker, according to w.e.o.'s Krager, Smith, and Roland (1975 They also suggest a density of less than one bird per square mile for all the potential habitat in Unit 11, except for the Axial .Basin:where the suggested density is 15 birds per square mile. figur.es-axein with Rogers' accordance SHARP-TAILED w.e.D. Smith has received eastern edge of Unit 11. reported These (1964 ) estimates. GROUSE sightings of sharp-tailed No specific data on distribution grouse on the or abundance are available. MOURNING Acco.rdLng to Grieb mourning doves. DOVE (1"965) the entire unit is potential Mourning doves are common throughout breeding range for' the unit during the �-47- spring and summer months, Mourning promptly migrating with the first frosts. doves have been observed throughout the unit but are more abundant .at lower elevations Abundance of mourning Wildlife, Hildlife and in association with agricultural land. doves varies seasonally. Colorado Division of Inventory Systems (197/+) gives a range of densities from 0.86 birds per square mile to 689.8 birds per square mile, the latter being a migratory density. CHUKAR According Systems 11. to the Colorado Division of Wildlife, t.,rildlifeInventory (1974) there are two small groups of chukar remaining on Unit The first group of 12 birds is located on a 1.6 square mile area at the head of Morgan Gulch, the other group of 12 birds is located on a 1 square mile area on Maudlin Gulch near Deer Canyon. Both populations are marginal. PHEASANT Pheasants are found in close association in Unit 11. Swope to very poor. the pheasant (1965) describes with the agricultural the pheasant range in Unit 11 as poor W.C.C.'~ Krager, Smith and Roland occurring'in lands with- two locations; (1975 pers. comm.) show along the White kiver from Crooked Wash Creek to 3 miles south of Smith Gulch, and a small area surrounding Axial. These two areas contain only marginal popUlations of pheasants. TURKEY Wild turkeys are found just south of Juniper Mountain mately 4 square miles, according total population to W.C.C. Roland in an area approxi- (1975 pers. comm.). of turkeys in this area is marginal, The and very low at best. �-48- WATERFOtvr.. Waterfowl can be found on Unit 11 where suitable habitat exists, mostly on stock ponds. Populations and lVhite rivers. cinnamon are concentrated around the bordering Yampa The major breeding birds on these rivers are mallards, teal, blue •. Tinged teal, green winged teal, American mergansers, and Canadian geese (Boeker 1953). The minor breeding species are pintails, gadwalls, goldeneyes, and shovelers (Boeker 1953). W.C.G. 's Krager. Smith, and Roland (1975 pers. conun.) concurred with the species presented by Boelre r , Winter populations can be found wherever open water exists on the unit. These winter populations (Colorado DhYision are very small compared to the sununer populations of Wildlife, Wildlife LITERATURE Beekez., -,;li. 1~. 1953. Waterfowl ~ste~s thesis. Inventory Systems 1974). CITED production in the Yampa River Valley, Colorado State University. Colorado Division of ~i1dlife, Wildlife Inventory Systems. ·i.Ioi.ide-wfli1!M.;.>J and bird distribution Grieb, J. R. 1965. 1974. Located at Denver Division of Wildl. Unpublished. Colorado long-range game species management 1965-1975, for migratory birds. State- maps and data compiled from W.C.G., -%Ce.al!m~~-\ljsor, and regional director input. .> off"t~e;Colorado 117pp. plans, Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 36pp. Roger s , .J~. E, No. 16. 1964. Sage grouse investigations Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. in Colorado. l32pp. Tech. Pub. �-49- Swope, H. M. 1965. 1965-1975, Parks. Colorado long-range for ring-necked pheasant. game species management plans, Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and 54pp. B. D. Trind1e and W. T. McKean November 1975 �-50- ANTELOPE HARVEST , SEASONS ~ AND HUNTING P_RESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE BUCKS HARVEST DOES FAWNS TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON l./ 1956 ---------- 1957 250 167 62 7 236 250ES, 9/21 - 9/23 1958 300 157 103 21 281 300ES, 9/20 - 9/22 1959 300 173 88 23 284 300ES, 9/26 - 9/28 1960 400 243 121 26 390 400ES, 9/17 - 9/19 1961 100 64 24 7 95 100ES, 9/23 - 9/25 1962 300 121 136 24 281 150BO, 150DFO, 9/22 - 9/24 1963 50 21 16 7 44 25BO, 25DO, 9/21 - 9/23 1964 100 25 49 18 92 25BO, 75DO, 9/19 - 9/21 1965 100 43 37 0 80 50LH, 50SH, 9/25 - 9/27 1966 150 74 58 4 136 75LH, 75SH, 9/17 - 9/19 1967 70 35 16 8 59 70ES, 9/16 - 9/18 1968 100 59 33 3 95 100ES, 9/28 - 9/30 1969 80 52 21 4 77 80ES, 9/27 - 9/29 1970 49 38 8 2 48 50ES, 9/26 - 9/28 1971 98 86 8 2 96 100ES, 9/25 - 9/27 1972 189 153 31 2 186 200ES, 9/23 - 9/25 1973 240 195 19 3 217 250ES, 9/22 - 9/24 1974 229 159 47 14 220 250ES, 9/28 - 9/30 NO DATA --------------- 250ES, 9/22 - 9/24 !/ Antelope management areas differ from Wildlife Management Units. The following is a list of area descriptions for the above data which are applicable to Wildlife Management Unit 11: 1956-1957 Area 2: That portion of Moffat County lying south of U. S. Highway 40 from Deception Creek to Maybell; and south and west of State Highway 318 from Maybell to �-51- the Little Snake River; and all lands south and east of the Little Snake River from State Highway River; 318 to its confluence and all lands north and east of Cross Mountain Hills; and all lands north and west of Deception 1968 with the Yampa and the Danforth Creek. Area 2: That portion of Unit 3 south of State 11 west of Deception Hf.ghway 318; that portion of Unit Creek and east of the divides between Crooked Wash and Coal Creek-\-lolf Creek. 1970 Area 2: That portion of Unit 3 south of State west of the Strawberry Creek-Deception Hf.ghway 318; that portion of Unit 11 Creek road, and north of the Moffat- Rio Blanco County line. 1971 Area 2: That portion of Unit 3 south of State Highway north of U. S. Highway 40, east of Middle Wolf Creek and Disappointment Creek and south of Dinosaur of Strawberry 318; that portion of Unit 10 Creek-Deception National Park; that portion of Unit 11 west Creek road and south of the Moffat-Rio Blanco County line. 1972-1974 Area AS: That portion of Moffat County bounded on the north by State Highway on the east by the Strawberry Creek-Deception 318, Creek road, on the south by the Moffat-Rio Blanco County line and on the west by Middle Wolf Creek and Disappointment Creek to the Yampa River, the Yampa River to the Little Snake River and the Little Snake River to State Highway 318. �-52Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: ES Either sex. BO Bucks only. DO Does only DFO Does and fawns only. LH = Horns longer thml ears. SH = Horns shorter than ears. B. D. Trindle November 1975 �-53DEER HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) YEAR l HUNTING PRESSURE 1/ BUCKS DOES HARVEST FAWNS TOTAL -- HUNT AND SEASON 1956 4684 3733 2287 586 6606 2ES 10/15 - 10/31 1957 3870 2485 2059 723 5267 2DM 9/14 - 9/30, In Part 2DM 10/15 - 11/17 1958 1827 733 458 168 1359 ES 10/15 - 11/2 1959 1880 957 397 100 1454 ES 10/17 - 11/3 1960 2723 2107 982 338 3427 1DM 10/17 - 11/6 1DM 12/1 - 12/15, In Part 1961 3320 2886 2720 879 6485 3DA 10/21 - 11/8 1DM 12/2 - 12/15, In Part 1962 1715 855 332 59 1246 1DM 8/18 - 9/3, In Part ES 10/20 - 11/4 1963 4074 2815 2230 546 5591 1DM 10/19 - 11/7 1DMA 11/23 - 12/1, In Part 1964 4367 2871 2329 466 5666 1DM 10/17 - 11/5, In Part ES 10/17 - 11/5, In Part 1DM 11/26 - 12/13, In Part 1965 1690 446 320 126 892 ES 10/16 - 11/5 1DM 11/25 - 12/5, In Part 1966 1600 505 333 63 901 ES 10/15 - 10/31 1967 1791 751 320 53 1124 ES 10/21 - 11/9 1968 2010 1369 503 135 2007 ES 10/19 - 11/7, In Part ES 10/19 - 10/27, In Part 1DM 10/28 - 11/7, In Part ES 11/27 - 12/8 1969 3123 1226 669 210 2105 ES 10/18 - 11/6 1970 3615 2018 385 39 2442 1DB 10/17 - 11/6, In Part ES 10/17 - 11/6, In Part 1971 3428 2101 2101 1DB 10/30 - 11/11 1972 4951 2702 1348 174 4224 ES 10/14 - 10/23 IDA 11/18 - 11/26, In Part 1973 5313 2039 1340 248 3627 ES 10/13 - 10/23 IDA 11/17 - 12/2, In Part 1974 2997 1556 1556 !DB 10/26 - 11/5 (Footnotes on following page) �-54- DEER HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Continued) WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 1/ - Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses, not including archery hunters. Note: Hunt symbols explained as follows: ES Either sex, one deer (one license). 2ES Either sex, two deer (one license). IDA One deer, antlerless only (one license). IDB One deer, buck only (one license). lDMA One deer multiple, one must be antlerless per individual). lDM One deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). 2DM Two deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). (2 licenses and 2 deer 3DA = Note: The term IDM evolved into 2D, HC or two deer, hunters choice (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. Three deer, one must be antlerless on 2nd license). (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon B. D. Trindle August 1975 I �-55LINEAR REGRESSION OF EITHER SEX DEER SEASONS 1:..1 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 3000 2500 2000 HARVEST 1500 • 1000 500 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 HUNTING PRESSURE Correlation r = Coefficient Intercept 0.9453 -45.8463 Slope 0.7017 .• 1/ - Either sex season data obtained Pressure Section. from Deer Harvest, Seasons and Hunting �-56ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS lolILDLIFEHANAGEHENT UNIT 11 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1973) YEAR 1:./ BUCKS DOES FAWNS TOTAL 1/ HUNT AND SEASON 1/ 1956 i/ ES .10/1 - 10/111 1957 Regular Season Only 1958 ES 9/1 - 9/30 1959 4 2 o 6 ES 9il5 - 9/30 1960 o 1 o 1 ES 9/10 - 9/30 1961 2 2 o 4 3DA 8/26 - 9/10 3DA II/II - 11/26 1962 ES 8/25 - 9/23 1963 1 1 o 2 ES 8/17 - 9/8 1964 4 4 o 8 ES 8/15 - 9/13 1965 o 5 o 5 ES 8/21 - 9/12 1966 ES 8/20 - 9/18 1967 3 2 o 5 ES 8/19 - 9/17 1968 3 1 o 4 ES 8/17 - 9/15 1969 9 o o 9 1DB 8/16 - 9/14 1970 ~/ 8 5 o 13 1DB 8/15 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1971 7 o o 7 1DB 8/21 - 9/12 1972 15 3 o 18 1DB 8/19 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1973 6 8 3 17 1DB 8/18 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/23 1974 8 o o 8 IDB 8/17 - 8/31 1DB 9/1 - 9/22 (Footnotes on following page) �-5],- ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MA..1\lAGEHENT UNIT 11 (Continued) 1:./ Year 1956 free p~rmits issued to hoIders of regular big game hunting licenses by application only. Years 1957-1960. no issue of special permits; archery hunting allowed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1974, separate archery license regulations in effect. JJ Inconclusive harvest data omitted for years 1956-1958, Does not include harvest by archers during gun seasons. 1962, and 1966. 3/ - Bow hunting permitted Colorado deer license. during all regular rifle seasons with regular !i/ For years 1956-1969 no hunter pressure data available for Unit 11. ~/ Resident and non-resident archery hunters 1970-1974, 33; 1971 - 80; 1972 - 98; 1973 - 112; 1974 - 45. Note: ES lDB 3DA Hunt symbols are explained = = by year were: 1970 _ as fo l l.ows : Either sex, one deer (one license). One deer, buck only (one license). Three deer, one must be ant1erless (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon on 2nd license). B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-58- PRIMITIVE DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1970-1974) YEAR 1:./ HARVEST FAWNS BUCKS DOES 1970 7 2 0 9 ES 9/12 - 9/20 1971 12 0 0 12 IDB 8/21 - 9/12 TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1972 ?::../ 38 0 0 38 1DB 8/26 - 9/10 1973 1/ 11 27 0 38 ES 9/8 - 9/16 1974 Not Open 1-' Free permits issued to holders app.l Lcat-fo.. only from 1970-1973. of regular big ga~e hunting 2/ Eighty~'!f:f)H;resident and non-resident muzzle loaders. and non-resident muzzle loaders. 1./ N.inet:y~:i)';:: resident Note! Hunt symbols Either .._DE' are explained as follows: sex, one deer (one license) • .One deer, buck only (one license). B. D. Trind1e September 1975 licenses by �-59TOTAL DEER HARVEST, DATA ANALYSIS UNIT 7, 1963-1974, BY SEX 1/ YEAR BUCKS DOES FAl\1NS TOTAL 1963 16117 14999 5018 36134 1964 14736 12170 2946 29850 1965 8161 10127 2739 21027 1966 835'4 7558 2361 18313 1967 10582 8143 2150 20875 1968 11076 8468 2407 21951 1969 8108 5493 1676 15277 1970 10335 3577 400 14312 1971 8945 0 0 8945 1972 12655 4870 554 18079 1973 9323 3978 642 13943 1974 7380 220 33 7633 1.1 Deer DAU Unit 7 incorporates Wildlife Management Units 11, 12, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, and 34. B. D. Trind1e August 1975 �-60ELK H}u~VEST, SEASONS, AND IDJNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 11 (DAU 11) (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE 1956 188 20 8 1957 '!:./ 94 12 4 1:./ BULLS HARVEST CO\V-S CALVES TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 2 30 AO + 100 ESP'!:./ 10/15 - 10/31 o 16 AO + 100 ESP 10/15 - 10/31 1958 CLOSED 1959 23 6 o o 6 AO 10/17 - 11/3 1960 62 10 o o 10 AO 10/17 - 11/6 1961 18 17 o o 17 AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 CLOSED 1963 CLOSED 1964 CLOSED 1965 CLOSED 1966 CLOSED + 70 C 10/21 - 11/9, In 1967 120 10 32 7 49 50 B Part 1968 157 47 31 5 83 50 B + 70 C 10/19 - 11/7, In Part 1969 496 118 67 7 192 AO + 50 C 10/18 - 11/6 1970 494 141 34 4 179 AO + 50 C 10/17 - 11/6 1971 398 68 16 4 88 AO + 40 C 10/16 - 10/25 1972 427 127 33 5 165 AO + 50 C 10/28 - 11/12 1973 567 110 20 1 131 AO + 50 C 10/27 - 11/11 1974 900 211 41 6 258 AO + 75 C 10/12 - 10/22 1--/ Based upon combined resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses; not including archery hunters. During the period 1956-l970~ when elk season coincided with deer season, the hunting pressure statistics were very probably conservative. Despite difficulties verifying that assumption, unknown substantial numbers of deer hunters may also have carried elk licenses hoping for a bull elk under antlered-only regulations. This latter happened regardless of low elk popu1ati~ns. Thus, because of low success and tendency (above non(footnotes continued on following page) �-61- ELK HARVEST, SEASONS, AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 11 (Continued) 1:..1 continued. reporting statewide figures used in projections) for non-successful elk license holders not to report by card, elk present in Unit 11 probably received extra pressure over that indicated by card projection years of antle~ed-only seasons. JJ Units 11, 22, and 32 combined. Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO Antlered only. AO + ESP Antlered only, plus either sex permits. B .;- C - Bul:: (antlered) and cow (antlerless) permits only (specified). = ..lmtlexed only plus specified number of cow permits. B. D. Trfudle September 1975 �-62ARCHERY ELK HARVEST, SL\SONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1967-1974) YRAR HUNTING PRESSURE 1967 ]j -------------------- 1968 6 1969 BULLS HARVEST 1/ COYJS CALVES HUNT AND SEASON ]j TOTAL NO DATA -------- ES 9/2 - 9/17 0 0 0 0 ES 8/17 - 9/15 3 0 0 3 AO 8/16 - 9/14 1970 33 5 3 0 8 AO 8/15 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1971 12 3 0 0 3 AO 8/21 - 9/12 1972 23 0 2 0 2 AD 8/19 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1973 78 3 3 0 6 AO 8/18 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/23 1974 26 0 0 0 0 AO 8/17 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/22 1/ Includes harvest only during specified archery seasons. ~/ Elk bow hunting permitted during all regular seasons with regular Colorado elk license. 3/ - First statewide elk archery season with archery elk license. Notes: Wildlife Management Unit 11 (Strawberry) and elk "Data Analysis Unit" 11 are identical. Hunt symbols explained as follows: ES AO Either sex, one elk (one license). = Antlered only, one elk (one license). B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-63BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE HANp.GEMENT UNIT 11 1/ HUNT AJ'IDSEASONS 2;/, 1/, i/ YEAR HARVEST 1956 11R 5/15 - 8/15; pre, post and regular deer and elk seasons. 1957 3R 4/1 - 11/15; pre, post, and regular deer and elk seasons. 1958 2S 4/1 - 11/15; pre, post, and regular deer and elk seasons. .' 1959 0 4/1 - 11/1; pre and regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/1. 1960 5S 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer, elk, and archery seasons ending 11/6. 1961 5R 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/8. 1962 0 4/1 - 9/15; Ere and regular deer seasons ending 11/4. 1963 I.R 4/1 - 9/15; Ere and regular deer seasons ending 11/7 . 1964 0 4/1 - 9/15; Ere and regular d.eer seasons ending 11/5. 1965 0 4/1 - 9/30; Ere and regular deer seasons ending 11/5. 1966 6S 4/1 - 9/3°2 Ere and regular deer seasons ending 10/31. 1967 0 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/9. 1968 3S 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/7. 1969 0 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6. 1970 IS 4/1 - 6/3°2 regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6. 1971 0 4/1 - 6/3°2 regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/11. 1972 3R 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/12. 1973 1R 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending l1/ll. 1974 0 ·4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/5. 1/ R = Regular big game (deer and/or elk) licenses; S = Bear license for special spring, summer, or spring-summer seasons; also see annual regulations for archery hunting. (Footnotes continued on following page) �-64- BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS (Continued) WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 From 1956-1959,.1 bear per special bear license and/or 1 bear per bear coupon on either or both deer and elk licenses; - from 1960-1965, same as 1956-1959, except special bear license variously invalid after September 15 or 30, when bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license covered bag and possession limits; - 1966, same as 1960-1965, except one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year; - from 1967 to 1975, bear coupon removed from regular deer and elk licenses; thus 1 bear, hunter's choice, per special bear license, or sportsman's license, per person per calendar year on!z during special bear and regular deer and/or elk seasons. 11 Up to eight dogs permitted except when bear seasons concurrent with deer and/or elk seasons. Beginning in 1970 to date adult bears with one or more cubs were protected. ~/ Data taken from Colorado Big Game Harvest and Commission Meeting Minutes. B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-65MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST ~~ SF~~SONS WILDLIFE K<U\,AGEMENTUNIT 11 YEAR 1=-' HARVEST HUNT AI'm SEASON 1965 2F 2:/ (Rio Blanco Co.) 10/16/65 - 3/31/66 ~Jest Slope; 10/23/25 3/31/66 East Slope, 1 either sex. 1966 3M (Moffat Co.) 3M', 3F 2:/ (Rio Blanco Co.) _ 1/1/66 - 12/31/66 in all counties west of the Continental Divide and in Jackson, Conejos, Alamosa, Mineral, Saguache, Rio Grande, Costilla, Archuleta, Hinsdale, and San Juan counties; 3 either sex. 10/22/66 - 2/28/67 in all counties east of the Continental Divide except those specifically listed above; 3 either sex. 1967 No Data 1968 o 1/ 9/1/68 - 3/31/69 stateWide; 1 either sex. 1969 1M; IF 1/ 9/1/69 - 3/31/70 statewide; 1 either sex. 9/1/67 - 3/31/68 statewide; 9/1/67 - 5/21/68 west of State Hwy. #13 and north of U. S. Hwy. #6' 1 either sex. 1970 0 No season. 1971 0 9/1/71 - 10/12/71; 11/12/71 - 12/31/71 signated areas; 1 either sex. 1972 2M; IF 2/1/72 - 4/30/72 designated areas; 1 male only; 10/14/72 - 10/23/72 and 10/28/72 11/12/72 statewide; 1 either sex; 11/13/72 12/31/72 designated areas including Unit 11, S either sex permits. 1973 IF 2/1/73 - 4/30/73, 5 either sex permits for Unit 11; 10/13/7310/23/73 and 10/27/73 _ 11/11/73 statewide; 1 either sex; 11/12/73 12/31/73 designated areas including Unit 11, 5 either sex permits. 1974 o de- 2/1/74 - 4/30/74 designated areas including Unit 11, 5 either sex permits; 10/12/74 _ 10/22/74 and 10/26/74 - 11/5/74 statewide; 1 either sex; 11/9/74 - 4/30/75 designated areas including Unit 11, 4 either sex permits. !/ Bounty of $50 per lion paid during period May 7, 1929 - March 12, 1965, hence no protection. Protected by statute as of July 1, 1965 when mountain lion license was established. (Footnotes continued on following page) �-66- MOUNTAIN WILDLIFE LION HARVEST AND SEASONS MANAGEMENT UNIT 11 (Continued) :?:./ Credited to "1965-1966" and "1966-1967" for Rio Blanco and Hoffat -----counties as reported by Dixon, K. R. 1967. Evaluation of effects of mountain lion predation, p. 147; In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. G&~e, Fish and Parks, ~- 73-310. No data available in reports from se~tion of Game Management for 1965-1967. Dixon's information is probably conservative in that the damage law al Lows for lax reporting of kills of marauders by stockmen. For the years 1968-1974 data are from Colorado Big Game Harvest Surveys. ]/ Three lions taken and reported each year by BSF&W from Rio Blanco County in 1968 and 1969. B. D. Trind1e September 1975 �SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HU1~ING PRESSURE SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 8, 1968-1973 1/ SPECIES 2:./ 1968 NUMBER OF HUNTERS 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Average 2/ Cottontail rabbit 1984 1328 1319 1411 1502 1070 1435 Snowshoe hare 101 30 73 95 244 253 133 134 78 Blue grouse 298 154 213 124 442 140 229 1172 73 368 Sage grouse 190 301 258 267 537 183 289 603 767 Chukar 122 453 151 223 NOS NOS 238 76 Gambe1' s quail 27 NOS i/ 61 NOS NOS NOS 44 Pheasant 313 621 250 256 71 274 129 1968 1969 HARVEST 1971 1972 1970 1973 Average 7139 13415 838 1575 678 78 -815 144 Lf42 724 597 1134 584 735 606 247 358 NOS NOS 332 31 NOS 153 NOS NOS NOS 92 586 1040 127 246 446 212 443 24813 11606 9276 14148 5/ 13511 5/ cr 1403 - I aN I Band-tailed pigeon Nosi/ NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS Mourning dove NOS 276 290 242 447 107 272 NOS 5828 2412 2091 4373 920 3125 1/ - During years 1968-1973 Small Game Management Unit 8 contained the White River drainage of Wildlife Management Unit 11. Small Game Units were changed in 1974. Thereafter, S.G.M.U. 20 contained White River drainage portion of W.M.U. 11. . 2/ . - Game Management Section questions the ability of hunters to distinguish between spec~es of rabbits and hares, and the grouse family, thus adding inconsistency to the above data. 3/ - Mean for years data shown. 4/ - NOS means no data or no open seasons. 5/ - Possible sample size error. B. D. Trind1e September 1975 �SMALL GAME HARVEST iL\~ HUNTING PRESSURE SMALL GAME ~~AGEME~~ UNIT 6, 1968-1973 11 NUMBER OF HUNTERS 1970 1971 1972 ];/ 1968 1969 Cottontail rabbit 1763 1417 1532 2233 3869 Snowshoe hare NOS !!.j NOS NOS NOS Blue grouse 119 106 61 Sage grouse 612 1351 Chukar 49 Gambel's quail Pheasant SPECIES HARVEST 1971 1972 Average 1/ 1968 1969 1970 678 1915 16977 18514 20589 35786 NOS 36 36 NOS NOS NOS 59 110 NOS 91 164 200 1635 1131 2470 988 1364 1967 69 NOS NOS NOS NOS 59 NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS 815 483 388 518 103 NOS 1973 1973 Average 43533 3904 23217 NOS NOS 716 716 177 182 35 NOS 151 5656 3896 3857 6528 2153 4010 313 27 NOS NOS NOS .NOS 170 -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS 461 1026 1337 380 480 781 NOS 801 I 0\ co I Band-tailed .pigeon NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS Mourning dove NOS 628 290 948 485 107 491 . NOS 9065 2412 10158 8268 601 6100 l/During years 1968-1973 Small Game Management Unit 6 contained the Yampa River drainage of Wildlife Management Unit 11. Small Game Units were changed in 1974. Thereafter, S.G.M.U. 16 contained the Yampa River drainage of W.M.U.ll. l/Game Management Section questions the ability of hunters to distinguish between species of rabbits and hares, and the grouse family, thus adding inconsistency to the above data. l/Mean for years data shown. 4/ - NOS means no data or no open season. B. D. Trindle September 1975 �-V;.1.- SMALL GAHE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE Y SMALL GAHE NANAGEHEl'."'T UNITS 16 AND 20 1974 NO. OF HUNTERS ]/ UNIT 16 UNIT 20 SPECIES Jj Cottontail rabbit HARVEST UNIT 16 UNIT 20 814 98 4704 492 Snowshoe hare 30 0 30 0 Pine squirrel 0 0 0 0 Blue grouse 66 31 130 0 Sage grouse 955 125 1807 341 Chukar NOS il NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS 30 0 91 0 NOS NOS NOS NOS 441 44 3697 720 64 0 158 0 Marmot 66 33 392 328 Badger 64 33 64 0 Red fox 142 0 426 0 Bobcat 33 0 64 0 Raccoon 33 0 33 0 Coyote 307 98 186 492 Prairie dog 75 178 8205 5166 Jackrabbit 370 30 2308 122 Crow 0 0 0 0 Magpie 130 0 1255 0 Gambe1's quail Pheasant Band-tailed Mourning pigeon dove Sharp-tailed grouse 11 - Preliminary analysis by Game Management Section. 21 - Game Management Section questions the ability of hunters to distinguish between species of rabbits and hares, and the grouse family, thus adding inconsistency to the above data. (Footnotes continued on following page) �-70- SHALL GAHE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE SHALL GAHE MANAGEl1ENT UNITS 16 and 20 (Continued) 1/ Three percent sample size; 33 projected hunters and 33 harvested one actual hunter reporting a harvest of one animal. 4/ - NOS means no data or no open season. B. D. Trindle September 1975 equals �-71DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE RIO BLA!~COAND NOFFAT COUNTIES l 1955-1973 1:../ (From Colorado Waterfowl Kill Surveys) YEAR DUCKS EST. NO HUNTERS EST. HARVEST GEESE EST. NO HUNTERS EST. HARVEST 1955 420 3158 361 154 1956 NO DATA 1281 NO DATA 57 1957 NO DATA 2750 NO DATA NO DATA 1958 236 1236 NO DATA NO DATA 1959 322 1610 NO DATA NO DATA 1960 112 575 39 NO DATA 1961 96 553 34 34 1962 293 1313 99 132 1963 185 666 119 57 1964 256 760 105 78 1965 162 464 130 210 1966 271/ 1027 173 150 1967 181 609 125 234 1968 239 2023 296 155 1969 145 951 157 203 1970 294 1937 200 198 1971 262 1332 172 131 1972 232 2649 -170 293 1973 142 1405 121 36 !/ Waterfowl kill data are available only by county, 1955-1973. 2/ - Obvious inaccuracy. About 127 hunters would be more correct. �-72DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST A1~ HUNTING PRESSURE SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT UNITS 16 & 20 YEAR DUCKS EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST 1974 204 1497 1974 II GEESE EST. NO. HUNTEJ~S 22 II EST. HARVEST o - Prior to 1974 waterfowl kill data were available only by county. 1974 is the first year hunting pressure and harvest are available by Small Game Hanagement Unit. B. D. Trindle September 1975 ��z I- ::> z 2: 0"> I"- ro W 1 W <C o �-7~- BIG GAME POPULATION DYNAMICS WILDLIFE MlU~AGEMENT UNIT 11 Computer population simulations of elk and deer herds have become a basic management tool. Population data, including the trend of the herd, are input parameters of the computer model. The simulated popula- tion parameters represents the manager's hypothesis of the dynamics of the herd. The follo,ving graphs (1 and 2) in which the elk and deer herds of wildlife management Unit 11 are contained are based on data analysis units (see Harvest Data). The four graphs of each herd are explained as follows: A Birth of young June 1 B Count one September 20 C Count two December 11 D Population at end - May 31 B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean November 1975 �GRAPH 1 ............ __ E:q\_lp1l.T~ ANALYSIS UNIT E-5) WILDLIFE -------- ..3000~C - _ .. _.' _._--- MA."JAGENENT UNIT 11 ••••••=s•••••amaa.aa=.mD~.e••n=.m=mncm.D=Q~=;mc~DZ.naz~~aa~m~zaD=nm~$=~~a~~m$c~~mr.~~m~M~re~.~msnnG.m~s l' ...---1·-··--1----1--l. 1 1 • 1 1 1 1 ---~- ......•~..... =---.. 2700.0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 "1 1 1 1 ------ - __ ao_: -------------------.;; - "--'-----_.-'. A S C - - ------------~.o~~~=---------·------------~,.---------------------------------------~----------------__~ -0 ------------------;. 2100~O C :-_.. B ---------------------~----.= -~ 1\.------------ ------------;.:---________________1800.0 _ _: -------...,SllO;-a-- -, E-or •• - A :: . i A -~---- ~- = :::: ~~ A -- A 0 - 300.00 :=1 ~ 0 -'--- :;;~ ~ ~'j :: I ...• ...., C .----=- 0 ~ t.1 -~ ~ H 0 Z t::1 0 I) ~ - tr3 - o 0"d ---!.-.--.J ~ B ~ 0 0 -- :::::~ = H ~ ::= 0" --: ----; - ;-------- :------_ .. - - _._--- -~-----------------------9. S E 9 ~ueu,~O~---E---- ------------------------: A 610. C' H - A A •• ·13-----------:-=- A tIl ----: ca o ,. --------------------1200.0 =------------_._._'-900.00 ___________________________ ._---::- 1 1 1 1 ! 1 ·1------·1----:---1- 111 111 -1- '1 1---' 1 1 t 1 1----1- 1 1 ----- _ :----- a.a ••••••• s~.ec.~~me~fi~~mmID~~aamneo~~me~==~~M20~~.nm=~D~mn~e~~~~~~m~=U~~~Ecm~mm=~~=nm~m~~R~~m~eoocsmn ------------'t9bOo~·-- .-1962.0 968. 196~o 1966.0 1970.0 972.o---- ..-----!976·o·0980. 1974.0 19?i3.0 •.•• 0---- T"IMe::---------------------------------(A~ POP AT STA~T. &~ POP AT CNTONE. c- POP AT C~TT~~~ D. POP ~T [NO) �GRAPH DEER (DATA,ANALY~~LtrNIT ~ ~ ,.,.ar.,..:tamK~~H~=r~!~q.~~~! •.w.IJ-]J3="1.t",.l~~ .•j~.?i2~t,,,,~J:f"?:!!*~~~,,~2~>!2:~,,;z'J.~~,"~J:!::~"1,,,citJ.4a " •• u:mo •• 2.00COOE+OS : 1 = ; All 1 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 --;------ 1 1 1 : .1' ~ ------ 1.aOOOOE+OS :---- --- -------- - - B I-;60000E·OS ___ .....;:....- A :---- -- ... = A ~- C :: A A B 8 A A B :---- B A A B 1.40000E+OS a B A A:= e B 1.20000E·OS _ .. =:---. ~ :: .--~= _ := - , o _ c e ----: --- . 'oz" ~ % •• --r- ~ '-J aocao. ~= :---= . ~ = :---~ = = 60000. • ;0 I ~ e t) ~ ----: ~ ~ :____ - _ It " ~--f. 3: n ~ ~ ~ ~ • ;;: H •• Vl --- 2 -~= .. o co~" ;; -= -; -- - _ --;---- 20000. - : = := = o. =2=Cs.DaaaB.ca.a.==.== -----------..."",=0. 1962.0 1 1 1 1 ----2 ~ : :; = = = := ••~•••• ~==.a.aa.DaC.C"ne.c==~eEa~aft~sa=~~m=~~=======2:~s=~ae~:mM£mnD=.~Da=~as== 1 Q 61+;'0 0 1 1 197z-;1) 66. 0 1966.0 1970.0 r97()";o 1974.0 f980.0 19ie.o -----------------------'---~HfE------------------_ ,."..•_ • 0 ~ ~~ ~ _..•.._ J.~;; ..EQP A~~§TA.el!J.!..,!g.P~-~.,,~~.!q_~~~.~9~i\L£.::H~¥lQ.L...Q!.....e.9~L.~.t!.9)'__ _ x ~ ~' �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE MANAGEME~~ UNIT 11 Species Date Males Females Total Release Area Source of Stock Elk x-x-64 -- NO DATA -- 15 T4N, R95W, Section No Data Estes Park Chukar 3-17-67 49 51 100 T4N, R93W, Sections 9 and 10 Little Hills Hungarian partridge 4-30-68 94 94 188 T6N, R92W, Section 29 F.C.W.R.S. Hungarian partridge 5-01-68 24 24 48 T6N, R92W, Section 29 F.C.W.R.S. Hungarian partridge 4-19-69 -- NO DATA -- 389 T5N, R92W, Sections 24 and 25 F.C.W.R.S. (374) C.S .U. ( 15) Hungarian partridge 4-19-69 Hungarian partridge 4-24-70 117 4-24-70 135 Hungarian partridge -- NO DATA -- 240 T5N, R92W, Section 16 F.C.W.R.S. 117 234 T5N, R93W, Section 35 F.C.W.R.S. and Little Hills 135 270 T4N, R95W, Sections 30 and 31 F.C.W.R.S. and Little Hills Literature References Colorado Division of Wildlife. Denver office, Game Management Section, game specLe s introduction file. Hoffman, D. M. 1973. Study of Hungarian partridge adaptability. Federal Aid Project W-37-R, April, Part II. pp. 191-215. Colo. Div. of Wildlife, Game Research Report, I '-I 00 I �1 HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS - WILDLIFE MJu~AGEMENT1~IT 11 VEGETATIVE TYPE NO. ACRES TREATED PURPOSE OF TREATMENT DATE LOCATION 1941 Strawberry Cr. Scattered in TIN R94W, T2N R95W, T3N R93, 94W Sagebrush Seeded with Agropy~on cristatum, Agropyron smithii, Bromus inermis, Melilotus officinalis, Melilot~s alba. 360 Increase forage BLM 1942 Strawberry Cr. T3N R93W, 94W Sagebrush Seeded ~"ithAgropyron cristatum, Agropyron smithii, Melilotus offieinalis. 500 Increase forage BLM 1942 Morgan Gulch - Yampa River T4N R94W, TSN R91, 92, 93, 95W Sage brush Seeded with Agropyron cristatum, Agropyron smithii, Bromus inermis, Melilotus offieinalis. 333 Increase forage BLM 1944 Dry Fork - Piceance Cr. Sagebrush Seeded with Agropyron eristatum, Agropyron smithii, Bromus inermis, Melilotus offieinalis, Melilotus alba. 233 Improve forage BLM TREA~~NT AGENCY I "-J \0 I 1944 Morgan Cr. - Yampa River Sagebrush Seeded with Agropyron cristatum, Agropyron smithii, Bromus inermis, Poa bulbosa, Melilotus offieinalis, Meli10tus alba. 450 Increase forage BLM 1959 Coal Cr. - Crooked Wash Cr., White River T4N R98W, T5N R98W PinonJuniper Chain one way. 607 PinonJuniper control BLM 1965 Yampa River T6N R96, 97W Sagebrush Chain and seed (aerial broadcast) with Agropyron cristatum. 52 BLM Sagebrush eradication 1/ If details are desired on any of these projects, make requests directly to Mr. Ron Kufeld, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado 80522. �-80MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS A. CHECKLIST - WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 11 Present 1. Winter grazing by domestic livestock. A large portion of Unit the western half). 11 has winter grazing permits (primarily Both c8ttle and sheep utilize the range during the winter, thus reducing critical browse necessary for wildlife. 2. Deer-auto collisions along Hf.ghway s 13 and 64. Deer from the Unit 22 herd cross both highways enroute to the Williams Fork summering area. The Unit 11 wintering cross Hf.ghway 13, coming from the Williams Fork. result in collisions between deer and automobiles. number of collisions occurs along Hf.ghway 64. herd must Both migrations The greater In the fall and spring many deer utilize the hay fields along the ~~ite River. This results in a significant number of Unit 11 deer getting killed while crossing the highway to get to these fields. 3. Lack of water at lower elevations. There is very little running water, few stock ponds, or bodies of still water on Unit 11 at lower elevations. Available water becomes critical during the hot, dry months of the summer. additional water developed in Unit 11 would be beneficial Any for wildlife. B. Future 1. Coal development. Coal development will create many new problems for the wildlife within Unit The associated 11. development will increase human �-81- and vehicular activity in the unit. as building, fencing, and mining will also follow coal development. All these activities will restrict the natural movement Other activities of wildlife and alter their migration such patterns and life styles. Many of the problems are still unknown. affect wildlife? industry? How will strip mining What are the water requirements of the coal What time table is involved in revegetation All these unanswered considerations of spoils? questions, and more will become management in the future. �• -82-- ... • BIG GN1E MAMXAL RESE/IRCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MANAGDrEtIT UNIT t 1 • • BLACK BEAR Denney, R •.N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Gilbert. D. L. 1951. Fur resources study and bear investigati.ons. pp. 1-8. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. • 1951. Fur resources study and bear investigations. pp. 1-9. In ---Quart. Prog. Rep •• Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. _____ • 1953. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 59-60. Rep, , Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. I-HI. 1953. Deer-elk investigations. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Gilbert, P. F. 19q6. Bear studies. Dept. Game and Fish. 4 pp. In Quart. Prog. p. 60. In Quart. Prog. Rep., pp. 1-99-. In Quart. Prog. Rep., June. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 30-34. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1952. Checking station survey. pp. 39-43. Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Colo. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog •.Rep., Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Deer-elk investigations. p. 127. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-183. Hammit, H. C. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Proj. W~38-R, Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-14. 21 pp. Fed. Aid lIay, K. G., C. N. Hunter, and L: Robbins. 1961. Big game manage~ent in Colorado, 1949-1958. pp. 71-73. In Tech. Bull. No.8. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 112 pp. Hunter, G. N. 1954. Deer-elk-bear seasons in Colo. 1948-1953. Colo. Dept. Game and. Fish. 64 pp. 1966 •. Colo. big game harvest, 1959-1965. pp. 30-32. Game, Fish and Parks. Spec. Hgmt. Rep. No. 1. 41 pp. pp. 60-61. Colo. Dept. HcKean, W. T. 1965. Colorado long range game species management pbns, 1965-1975, for black bear. Colo. Dept. game, Fish and Parks. 6 pp. Remington, J., et al. 1955. Fur resources and bear studies. Fed. Aid Proj. W-61-R. Final Rep. April. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 85 pp. �8 T!tncr, J. R., and D. L. Cilbcrt.A co~t;ibution toward a bIbliography on the black bear. Tech. Pub1. No.6. Colo. Dcp t , Game and Fd sh , 43 pp. 1960. U. S. Dept. of Ar,r. 1965. Water and related land resources, CoLo rado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserve Board and U$S.1J.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) • ,11oycls R. Se 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp.133-213. In Game Res. Re p ,, July - Part IL Colo. Div. Carae, Fish and Parks. pp. 127-286. ___ ~,_. 1970. :Elk of the Hhite River Plateau, Colorado. Colo. Divo Cane" Fish and Parks. 126 pp. ---,- Tech. Publ. No. 25. 1972. Elk, hlftite River experimental management study. pp. In Game Res. Rep. , July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 251 pp. Res. 1973. Rep., Experi.me;)tal elk harvest regulations. July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. pp. 45-67. 230 pp. '. l35-16l. ' In Game Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado long range ga~e species ~anage~ent plans, 1965-1975, for elk., Colo. Dpet. Gane, Fish and Parks. 61 pp. Gilbert, P. F.o 1953. RCp~t 4 Apri1~ 1954. -July. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 59-61. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. pp. 1-99. In Quart. Prog. 0 Deer-elk investigations. Co Lo , Dept. G<:iDCand Fish. pp. 125-128. pp. 1-182 • In Quart. Prog. Rep., • Hammit, H. C. 1951. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. C~e and Fish. 33 pp. pp. 16-22. 1!!. Quart. Prog. llay', K. G., G. N. Hunter, and L. Robbins. 1961. Big game man2ge~ent in ~ Colorado, 1949-1958. pp. 57-70. In Tech~ Pub1. No.8. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. l12 pp. lrunter, G. N. 19S~. Deer-elk-bear Came and Fish. 64 pp. ·.0 seasons in ~olorado, 1948-1953. ---.,.. • 1966. Colo. big ga~e harvest, 1959-1965. pp. 9-30. Game, Fishoand Parks. Spe,c. !-!gnt.Rep. No. 1. 41 pp. Riord~n, L. E. ' 19~8. Prog. Rep., Jan. ~ Colo. Dept. Deer-e1k-bear investigations. pp. 29-33. Colo. Dept. Gaae and Fish. pp. 1-49. ,1948. Deer-clk-bear investisations. pp. 7-8. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Gaoe and Fish. pp. 1-54. ' Colo. Dept. In Quart. In Quart. p!og. . • 1949. Dcer-elk-bcar investi~ations. pp. 39-46. ----~Roep., July. Colo. Dcpt. Came and fish. pp. 1-98. ~ Quart. Pro~. Rogers, G. E•. 1951. Checkinr, station survey. pp. 32-33. )~ep•• Jan. Colo. Dcpt. Camc. and Fish. ~3 pp. ~ Quart. ProC. tl1eston, J. v. 1962. 1957. pp. '70-78. 81 pp. A resume of Color:tdo bir, ~:lmc research project!;, 1939In Tech. .I'ub l., No.9. Colo. Dcp t , G;lmc and Fi!ih. .. �-84- V. S. Dept. of Ar,r. 1965. Water ~nd related land resource~. Color~eo River Basin 1n Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Hater Con~erv. lloard and V.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, fore5t Servicc, and.Soil Conscrv. Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) Uil1i~ms•.J.t et al. 1952. Location~d extent of winter ranges. pp. 57-62 • .!!lQuart. Prog , Rcp , ; April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp.1-62. HODNT/,IN t.rox ~.----,--.-- Boyd , R. J .. 19(,5. 1965--1975, for . •. .oJ. Colorado long l:ange g ame species manag encn t plans, predators. Colo. Dc p t , Garnc , Fish and Parks. 21 pp • Dixon, K. R., and R. J. Boyd. 1967. Evaluation of the effects of mountain lion predation. pp. 141-165. In G~~e Res. Rep., July-II. Colo. Dept. Games Ff.sb and Parks. pp. 73--309. u. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Hate:::Co nserv , Board and U. S. D.A. Econ •.R2S. Service, Fo res t Service, and Soil Ccns erv . Service . . Hay. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) HUJ,E DEER e Baker, B. D. 1955. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 149-157. In Quart. Prog. Rep_, July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 117-175. 1956. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 43-64. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - .Par t 1. Colo. Dept. Cane and }'ish~ pp. 1-102. 1957. A directory of Coloraco big ga'":!ce~closures concerning th~ir locations, studies and other gen~ral infor~ation. SFCC. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj , U-38-?', Ja.n. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 60 pp. 1959. D2er-elk investigations. pp. 189-249. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 249 pp. In Quart. Prog. 19EO. A detailed stuey of range forage by use of fenced exclosures. pp. 1-10, 111-42. .!.!:. Quart. Rcp . , April. Co~o. Dept. Carae and Fish. 47 pp. 1961. A directory of Colo. big game exclosures concerning progra~ history, stuey techni~tles, locations, and other g2neral infor:::3tion. Spec. Rep. Fed. Aid Proj. W-IOI-R, Work Plan I, Job No.2. J.:lnuary. Colo. Dept. Gauc and Fish. 51 pp. 1961. Carne range Lnvcs t Iga t Lons • pp , 71-72, 76-112. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 149 pp. 1962. G41me r'anr;c Lnvc s t Lga t Ions , ·Co10. Dcpt. Came and Fish. 96 pp. pp. 1-39. In Quart. Rcp ,, lE. Qua r t , Rcp ., AprIl. �-85- . ____ ' 1962. Deer-elk investigations •. pp , 129-iJ8. Colao Dept. Came and fish. pp. 129-249. G IE. Quart. Rcp ,, July • • Came range investigations. pp. 3-6. .------Colo.1964. Dept. Camc~ FiGh and Pa~ks.· 121 pp. o· In Game Res. Rep., Jan • 1965. Came range investigations. pp. 129-133. Julyv Colo. Dept. Ga~e~ Fish and Parks. 249 pp. e -=-. =~~__ 1965.. The history In Game Res. Rep_, t function, and es t ab Lf shmerit of exclosures in Colorado big game nanagemen t , Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Outdoor Fact.s No. 18. J pp. pp • 53-67. • 1966. Game r<lnge investigations. July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Gaoe, Fish and Parks. In Came Res. Rep. , 93 pp. 1970. Game range investigations. pp. 15-58. In Carae Res. Rep. , Jul:r - Part I. ·Colo. Div. Garile,Fish and Parks. 126 pp. ~~."",-- Bart-mann, R. H. 1967~ Deer trapping and tagging results at the Little Hills £xperi racnt; Statir,n. Colo. Dept. Caae , Fish and Parks. Outdoor Facts Uo& ...5.~l.: ~~ .F'··' 1968 •. P'Lay Lng tag with the \,'hiteRiver deer herd. -"·,.17(1):2D-22 e Colo. Outdoors. • ,,"_.,.1:965. ,. Results . Colo. o Comin. from an 18 year deer tagging program in nor t hwe s t ern pp. 161-166. 48th Ann. ConL t~est.Assoc. State Game and Fish 724 pp. ----.;<ll~'~. Mule deer migration at the Little Hills Game Exper-Iment Station, Colo. p. 9. 13th Trans. Ann. SU~"':ler Conf. C.X.P.S., The llililli,£e ..$oc_:e'LY. . \ '. 1972. 'Evaluation of the effects of spring-stl.;"':'ner grazing by deer on alfalfa. pp. 113-133. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 71-251. ,'., ___ 1972. Pi'ceance deer study-population distribution. pp. 317-337. In Came Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Hi!dlife. 252-377. e We 1972. Piceance deer study-population densit~. pp. 339-344. Came tes. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of ~ildlifc • .l>p. 252-377. • .In �-86- 1972. Piceance deer .study-productivity In Came Res. Rep •• July - Part III. Colo. and ~ort31ity. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 345-350. pp. 252-377. • 1972. Piceance July - Part -.fept., 1973. -'243-254. deer III. study-food habits. pp. 351-355. Tn Game Res. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377 ~ Piceance deer study - p~1-;ulation density and structure, pp . In Game Res. Rep , , July _.Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 230 pp , Piceance deer study - population distribution. . 1973. ---242. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl • 230 pp. pp. 211- . ______ • '1973. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. 261. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. ~ pp. 255230 pp. 1974. Piceance deer study - population distribution. pp. 325-362. Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 223 pp. 1974. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. pp. 371-380. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 223 pp. 1974. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. pp. 363-370. In Game Res. Rep , , July - Part II. Co Lo , Div. Wildl. 223 pp. 1975. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. pp. 349-354. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 314 pp. 1975. Piceance deer study - population distribution. pp. 327-349. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 314 pp. 1975. 362. »:lrto.lann, 179. Piceance deer study - produc~ivity and mortality. In Game Res. Rep ;, July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. pp. 355314 pp. R. M., and W. T. McKean. 1968.' Game r anr;c invc!;tigations. l!!. Game Res. Rep •• July -. Colo. Div. Game, Fd sh and Parks. __----I nnd 1969. Res. Rcp , , July. Bockcr , U. M. 1959. Summer ConL, Game ran~e invcstigation5. pp. 305-393. Colo •. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 393 pp. C,olorado deer trapping. pp , 52-55. C.M.P.S -., TIle Wildlife Society. ~th Trans. pp. 167208 pp. In Came Ann. �-87- Boyd, R. J. ·1961. Study of deer losses OR .Co+orado highways. pp. 75-82. In Fed Aid Quart. Rep., April (Part 1). Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. % pp. (processed) • -.....---::- • 1962. Study of deer losses on Colorado highways. pp. 93-100. Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., October. Colo. Dept Game and Fish. 137 pp. In (proc es sed) • 1964. ~ec1. Study of deer losses on Colorado highways. pp. 36-41. In Aid Qua r c , Rep., April (Part 1). Colo. Dcp t , Game, Fish and Parks. 69 Pl'. (processed). 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 133-213. July" Part II. Colo. Div. Game) Fish and Parks. Burdick, H. 1963. Deer tags tell a tale. In Game Res. Rep., pp. 127-286. ·Colo. Outdoors 12(5):52-53. Campbell, R. L. 1950. Little Hills Game Exper:i!:lent Station. pp , 38--/f 3. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., July •. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1951. Experimental projects at Little Hills Experiment Station . .-pp. 58-65. Spec. Rep. The Glenwood Springs Wildl. Conf. 85 pp. ______ a Jan. 1951. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 5-11. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 33 pp.- 1951. Deer-elk investigations. April. Colo. Dept. Ga~e ana Fish. ___ In Quart. ~rog. Rep., pp. 50-53. 64 pp. a . 1951.· Deer-elk investigations. pp . 71-77. July. ~olo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. 1952. Deer vs. livestock. In Quart. Prog. Rep., ~ Quart. Prog. Rep ,, Colorado Outdoors 1(2):20-22. 1954. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 149-154. Ju~y. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. 1956. Deer-elk investigations. pp . 65-71. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. _ ~ ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., Quart. Pr og , Rcp ,, . Campbell, R. L., and C. E. Rogers. 1950. Deer-elk surveys. pp. 20-21. -- .!.!l Quart. Prog , Rcp ,, October. Colo. Dept. G~me and Fish. 21 pp. Carh~rt. A. 11. 1940. Dcer-elk survey. Vol.~. Colo. CW:1C and 'Fish Commission. 19 pp. Fed. Aid Pro}, H-4-R. �-88- ----:-Commission. e.,1940. Deer-elk aurvey, Colorado. .. Vol. 5. 'Colo. Came anu Fish 50 pp. ____ ~. 1940. Deer-elk survey, Colorado. Game and Fish Corrm Lss Lcn, 8 PP> .. Vol. 6. • Colo. Tables XIV, XV. . .' ______ • 1941. Deer-elk survey, Colorado. Vol. 5, Part I~ Deer food requirements in Colorado. Colo. Came and Fish Comm. 28 pp. ______ • 1943. The Piceance-White River deer ,herd. Deer-elk survey Supplemental Rep. Colo. Came and Fish Coraa i.ss Lon , 20 pp. Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado big game species as possible vectors of sooc li.vestock.diseases. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Outdoor Facts No. 20. 3 pp. • Denney, R. N., et a1. 1965. Came range surveys. pp , 17-23. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Review, 1964. 35 pp. Gilbert, P. F. 1948. Prog , Rep, , April. 1948. Rep., Juiy. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Colo. Dept. Game and Fdsh , Deer-elk-bear investigations. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. pp , pp. 14-18. 54 pp. 31-34. In Quart. In Quart. Prog. 83 pp. • 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 30-34. In Quart. Prog. ---Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 80 pp. , • 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 42-45. Colo. Dept. Ga:ne and Fish. 67 pp. , In Quart. Prog. -Rep., January. pp. 47-51. 98 pp • ~ pp. 33-36. 84 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 41-~4. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. 66 pp. In Quart. Prog. Deer-elk-bear investigations. ---,-.Rep.,1949. April. Colo. Dept. Game and· Fish. e Quart. Prog. .' 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations. ,Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. ______ 0· 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigati?ns. pp. 60-64. Colo. Dept. G~ue and Fish. 101 pp. Rep. '. ______ • In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. ·1950. July. Colo. Dept. GaQC and Fish. Three year Sum. Rep., '194721 pp. 1952~ Deer-elk investig~tions. January. Colo. D~pt. Game andflsh. 39-43. 1952. Quart. pp. .!..!!. Quart. Prog. Rep , , 60 pp. Deer-elk investir.~tions. pp. 41-64, 66-67, 69-82, 83-84. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fish. 171 pp. Pr og , Rcp , , July. In �-89- __ --:-. 1953. Deer-elk Lnvcs t f ga t Lons, pp -.59-61. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. ____ ~. .!.!l Quart. Prog , .Rcp, , 1953. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 51-63 • .!.!l Q~art. Prog. Rep., Colo. Dept. Cace and Fish. 129 pp. July. ____~.. 1954. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 129-143. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. , Deer-elk investigations. pp. 1-26. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 111 pp • .!.!l Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep., ....-, .._. _" 1957. De er+e Lk investigations. pp. 121-126~ 141, 145-1116. In • Quart. Rep.» July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 213 pp. --_. 1958. The deer's biggest problem. . •... ,_. '1960. Where, to hunt-1960. Colorado Outdoors 7(3):22-24. Colorado Outdoors 9 (5): 5. Gilbert~ P. F. et ale 1951. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 109-110. In Quart. Prog. Rep.~ October. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. 117 pp. ,Gilbert, P. 'F., 128. ~ and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Checking station survey. Quart. Prog. ~ep., July. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. Gilbert, P. F., et al. 1955. Quart. Prog. Rep., July. pp. 125182 pp. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 158-161. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 225 pp. In Gilbert, P. F., and R. L. Campbell. 1955. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 163170. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. G~~e and Fish. 225 pp. Gilbert, P. F., and J. Harris. 1958. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 131-138. ~ Quart. Rep.,. October. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 166 pp. .• and --'-=-8 (2): 18-20. 1959. How far do deer travel? Colorado Outdoors Gordon, D. F., nnd R. }!. Bart~ann. 1971. Evaluation of the effects of spring-su:::ncr\:razing by deer on alfalfa. pp. 99-112. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks.-pp. 87-224. , lIammit, H. C. 1C)~,O. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp , 10-14. Proj. U-38-R. October. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 21 pp. 1951. n~~r-cl~-bcar investigations. pp. 16-22. W-38-R, Janll;\l"Y.Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. Fed. Aid Fed. Aid Proj. 1950. Dccr+clk-bca r investigations. pp. 35-37 • ..!.!l Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Came and Fi5h. Hammf t , H. C., and 1'. F. Gilbert. Robbins. 1961. Dig gamc manng crncnt I n Colorado, 19~~-1958. pp. 71-73. In Tech. ruble No.8. Colo. Dept. G:llllC and·rJ::h. 112 pp , Ilay , K. C. t C. N. Uunter,and ", L. �-90Dcer-clk-benr ~cosons 1n Coldrodo, 1948-1953. Colo~ Dept. Came and Fish. 64 pp. Uuntcr, C. N. 1954. 60. pp. 22- • 1966. Colorado big g~e harvest, 1959-1965. pp. 9-30. Colo. Dept. ---Came~Fish and P~rks. Spec. Memt. Rep. No.1. 41 pp., Jeep, F. T., and L. E. Riordan. 1947. Deer-elk studies. Rep., January - Part IV. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Kufeld, R. C. 1968. Game range jnvestigations. 1. 'Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. ~art In Quart. Prog. 7 pp. In Ga~e Res. Rep., July pp. 1-121. 1969. Game ran8c investigations. pp. 299-304. Tn Carne Res. Rep Colo. Div. Garne, Fish and Parks. pp. 249-393. c , -:--:ruly - Part III. • 1970. ---~--Suly -Part _,_" Game range investigations. pp.. 59-94. In Game Res. Rep., I. Colo. Div. G~e, Fish and Parks.p~ 1-126. 1971. Inventory of raanf.pul.a t f.on projects in Colorado. pp. 7-15. In Game Res. Rep ,, July - Part 1. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 1·-86. . . Wo Laur Ldson, D. G. 1948. Game and forage expe rImcnr station. Conment s 10(6):9,-10, 22. Lind, C. 1957. Deer-elk investigations. Colo. Dcpt. Game and Fish. 213 pp , pp -.147-151. Colo. Cons erv , In Quart. Rep., July. pp. 1~23. In Quart. Rep, , W. 1'. 1958. Deer-elk investigations. . , July - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. pp. 1-103. 'lScKcan, , 1959. Game range inv.estigations. pp. 193-212. ~July. Colo. Dept. Gace and Fish. 237 pp. • 1960. -October. Ga~e range investigations. Colo. Dept. Gaoe ana Fish. pp. 3-23. 103 pp. In Quart. Rep., In Quart. Rep. J 1965. Pellet group deposition rates for captive deer. Game, F~sh and Parks. Outdoor Facts ~!o. 24. 3 pp. • 1967. Game range f.nv es t Lgat i.ons pp , 155-165. ----~uly. Colo. Dept. Gane, Fish and Parks. 208 pp. c Colo. Dept. In Game Res. Rep., 1970. Game range investigations. pp. 7-9. In G~~e Rcs. Rcp.) Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 126 pp. July. McKean. U. T., and 11. E. Burdick. 1963. Game range invcstigations. pp. 89115 • .!E. Game Res. Rep •• January. Colo. Dcpt. Game and Fish. 115 pp. _, nnd Rcs , }~CP'I • 1964. Cat:1Crange invcsti.gations. pp. 27-67. In Game January. Colo. Dcpt. Game, Fish and Par ks , 121 pp. ______ ' nnd Res. Rcp , , July. 1965. Came range invcstig~tion~. pp. 147-139. Colo. Dcpt , Camc, Fbh and Parks. 249 pp. In G.:lmc �-91and R. N. McKcan~ \.1. T., transplant!; County, Co Lo rado lb. 1,2. 3 pp~ -~~- ~ snd RCBo 1~:lI ... t.mann , 1906. Su rv Lva I of moun t a In mohor-nny s i.t c s , Littlc Hill!; Expc r Lncn t St.n t i on , J~10 Blanco 1965. Colo. Dcpt. Carnc , F'Ls h and Pa r ks , Outdoor- Facts on tt.lO 1969. Game rangc invcstigations. Rep.~ July. Colo. Div. G~ruc. Fish and Parks. pp. 7.53-260. 1n Ci.1L:le J93 pp. ____ ~__ , and 1971. Dc er+Ldv cstock r eLa t Lo ns on a p Lnon+jun Iper range :.tn no r t hvc s t crr-Colorado. Final Rcpo r t , Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks . ..132 pp. lkl(!;2.n) T~~ arid D. Go Smith. lI. 4710 . .• and t -Rep., (processed). .../. 1965. In Gace Res. Rep.s July. pp. 1123Colo. Dept. Ga~e) Fish and Parks. 546 pp. Came range Lnves t Lga t Ions , • 1966. Came range investigations, pp. 5-1,9. July-.- Co Lo , Dcp t, Carae , Fish 2Gd Parks. 93 pp. In Carne Res. He Kcan , W. T., et 21. 1968. Game range investigations. pp , 155-165. Came Res. Rcp ,, ~TUly. Colo. Div. GaI>1e, Fish and Parks. 208 pp • In .. llediu 10 D. E. 1958. Deer-E;lk investigations. pp. 63-68. January •..Colo. Dept. Carae and Fish. 131 pp. In Job Co~p. Rep., 1960. Physical site factors influencing annual production of true mountain Eahoga~y~ C~rcocarJus 2cntan~s. Ecology 41(1):454-460. 1960. References on t:!ethodsof neasuring production and uti1izatioa ---of. range and pasture f or age , Colo. Dept. Game and Fd sh Tech. ·Publ. 1:0. •..... 6" 43 pp. Colorado long range garae species raanagccerrt Colo. uepto Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 15 pp. plans, 1965-1975 > l!ustard, E. n., Jr. 1958. Deer-elk investigations, pp. 9-34. April. Colo. Dep.t, Carne and Fish. 113 pp. In Quart. Rep., .. 1958. Bro~se differences in ex?~ricent2l ~astures under controlled ptocking with cattle, sheep, and ~ule deer in northwestern Colorado. H. S. Thesis. Colo. State Dniv., Ft. Collins. 105 pp. . 1959. Stucy of browse reproduction in relation to controlled grazing in cxpe rI•... ental pastures. 1A Quart. Prog. Rep, , January. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 41 pp • .·}~ers, C. T. 1969~ An investigation of deer-auto accidents. pp. 147-178. 1n Fed. Aid Cane Res. Rep., July Part 2 •. Colo. Div •.Game. Fish and Parks. (processed). pp. ".03-1,37. ---Fed. 1970. . An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Aid Ga~e Res. Rep., July - Part 3. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Neil, In (processed). P. H. 1973. Winter nortality of cule deer in Par~c}lute Crcek Valley, Garfield County, Color-ado. ..!.E: The Colony cnviron::lcntalstudy, P.1racilute Creek. Ca r f Lc ld County, Co Lo rado , Prcpared for Colony Dcv cloprnon t; Operation by ).973. Part Ill. Tho r n c Eco Log ic n I Iuc t i t ut o , Boulder, Co l o r ado , Aug us t �-93- Nielson, J. L. 1966. Soil survey of experimental pas t ur cs , Little ·1!il1sCame Experiment Station. Report by U. S. Soil Con~crv. Service to Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Unpublished communication. 42 pp. Faure L. F. 1972. ~fovcrnents of mule deer in the Parachute Creek basin, u!nter 1971-72. In The Colony environmental study, Parachute Creek, Garfield County, Colorado. Prepared for Colony Development Operation • by Thorne Ecological Institutc Boulder, Colorado. August, 1973. p Pnrt XII. . .e , Pojar,· T. H. 197J... Dee r+aut.o accident investigations. pp. 227-318. In Game Res. Rep, , July - Part IlL Colo. Div Game, Fish and Parks.pp. 227-366. < • 1971. Evaluatioc of devices to prevent deer-auto accidents. pp. 333-340. In Ga~e Res. Rep.) July - Part III. Colo. Div. Games Fish and Parks-.- pp. 227-366 • . • 1971. Research - 1971 dee r+h.i.ghway11z!1ting proj eet report. pp. 355-366." In Gawe Res. Rep .• July - Part III. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks-.- pp. 227-366. ____ - • 1972. Honitor potentially critical, deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. pp. 269-275. I~ G~e Res. Rep., July - P~rt III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. ____ ~. 1972. Effect of lighted deer crossing signs on number of deer killed by vehicles. pp. 300-304. In Gace Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of {-j'ildlife. pp. 252-377": " .. 1972. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed h i ghvavs , pp. 305-310. In Carne "'Res. Rep , , July.- Part III. Colo. Div. or i~ild1ife. pp. 252-377. Reed, D. r .. 1971~ Investigation of one-way de~r structures. pp. 321-330. In Game Res. Rep , , July - Part III. Colo. Div. Carae , Fish and Parks. 227-366. pp. 197~: Deer underpass evaluation. pp. 343~353" In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. Gane, Fish and Parks. pp. 227-366. ________ • 1972. Investigation of one-way deer structures. pp. 278-282. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. ______ ___ ___ 1972." Deer underpass evaluation. pp. 285-290. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. 0" 1972. Effects of h Lghvay lighting on number of deer killed by vehicles.· pp. 292-298. In Ga~e Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Divo of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. 0 1972. Effects of 8-foot fence angle in d Ivor t Lng deer from their es t ab lfshcd direction of movcncn t • pp. 312-3)./1. In Came Res. Rcp •• July - l'ar t lII. Colo. Df v , of WlldJ He. pp. 252-377. 0 �-93lUonl.:Jnt,t. E. 19/,7. A proposed cxperiment ~t Little St.at Lon , CoJ.~. Cons. Cornrne n t s 10(1); 20-21. __ ._ 1948. lIills Dcc r+c Lk+b ea r Lnv c s t i.ga t fon s , pp. JJI-30. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 49 pp. Rep •• January. ~ . • 1948. Decr-elk-bear investis~tiG:':;. pp. 41-4G. R(~p.~ October. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fish. ,SO pp • In Quar t , Pr og , ....• ."'"' ..•. •.._~~__ • 19f;9., Hcpc~ De.er+c Lk+b ea r :Lnvcstigations .. pp . 36--40. Janum:y. CoI o , Dept. Came and Fish. 67 pp. •,~______ 1949. 1)eE:t'-el1:-be.a r invcs Lisa t Jo ns . ~cp •• April. Colo. Dept. Cawe and Fish. _____ 19tj9. o" Dr.er--elk-·bear Rep.~ October. •. ___ -... investigations. Came Expc r Iracnt; In Ouar t , Pr og , pp. 7/:-82. 97 pp. In. C;'u2T.L pp. In Quart.' Pr og , Colo. Dept. Game aDd Fish. 86-90. hog . 141 pp . " 1:}56. SE'lf~ctj_v~_ty and u t il.f za t+on of three k ey species of ranGe: forage by cattle, sheep and deer in ~estcrn Colorado. M.S. TIlesis. Colo. State Vniv., Ft. Collins. 196 pp. 1956. prog ra:a, 0, ' The results of the Little Hills expe r iznent a I r angc r e s ca r ch Ls t; Trans. Arm. SU:-:-.8er Conf. C,:·f.P.S., The Hildl. Soc. 13 pp. -- 1957, decr, Differences in range veg e t a t fon r esu l t fng f r orn ~~ra;.ir.g by c ar t l e , and sheep. Pz oc . Soc. Arne r , For c s t er s , 19.:;/:1/)7-J.51. )957.-(. Some results of a lO-ye3r study of deer-livestock compctition for range forage. Proc. 10th Ann. Neeting Araer , Soc.. Range Hg::-:L ·14 pp. (m iraco , ) -Riordan, L. E., and R. L. Canpb elL, Outdoors 5(1):1-6. Robinette, Rocky 1956. Harmony on the rang e , W. L., et al. 1957. Notes on tooth deve1op~ent and wear for Hountain tau le deer. J. Hildl. !-fgr.1t. 21(2):134-153. Rogers, G. E. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Frog. Rep •• April. Colo. Dept. Caoe and Fish. 1948. Deer-elk-bear Rep., July. Colo. Dept. •_--. Rep., . investigations. Came and Fish • pp. 8-9. 54 pp .. pp. 1948: Deer-clk-o.:!ar in'lC'stigatior.s. pp , 27--30 • .!E. QU<1rt. Pr og , October. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 80 pp. Deer-elk-bear investir,<ltions. pp , 110-42. Janu~ry. Colo. Dept •. Cane and Fish. 67 pp. ,_~._, __• 1949. Rep., I~ Quart. pp. 24-29. In Quart. Pr og , 83 19~9. Rep., Colorado April. 1949. Rcp , , July. Decr-c1i~·-bc<lr invcs tif..1 t Jo ns . Colo. Dept. Came <lnd fish. Dccr-elk~bcar inv~sti~~tinns. Co Lo , Dcp t , C,II:1C LInd Fbh. In Quart. Pr og , p p • ~1-47. 97 pp. pp. 26-29. 8ft pp. ~ Qua r t , Pr og , �1.951. Chcck:i.n~ statton survey. Colo. Dept. Gaoe and Fish. January. ______ .. 1952. Gane-livetock c 235$ . 32nd Ann. 1953. 11ildl. --~j~. Conf. 33 pp. forage conpetition study in Colorado. P? 228West. Assoc. State Game and Fish c~. 252 pp. Func t Lon and operation HgL"lt. ?p. 32-33. of [.ig £ame check stati.ons -' _,_, :in Col.orcdo . 17 (3): 256-267. 0 1965. Sex and a ge ratios of deer harvested under a hun t cr s+cho Lce , lQl'lt:tpJ.eo-liccnse hunting s ecs on , Colo. Dept. Game, fish and Parks. Outdoor Facts No. 34. 2 pp. 4 l::O~crs, G., O. Ju1ander, and W. J..•• Robinette. 1958. Pe l Let+g roup counts and range-use index. J. Wild1. Mg~t. 22(2):193-199. for deer census Sed~lcy. E. f., and TI. M. Boeker. Conscrv. 26(8):177-178. 1961. If500 cattle deer. and 100,000 Soil 'Shepherd, R. OR., et a1. 1966. G~e range investigations. pp. 91-92. In Game Res. Rep." July - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Garae , Fish and Parks. pp. 1-93. , .et a.l, 1966. and iPa rks , -Fish Ga:.1erange surveys. pp. 14-18. Colo. Review 1965. 48 pp. Dept. Game, Ga~e Research . . _____ ,.~' 1967. G;: range surveys. pp.26-31. Parks. Gat:,C ",...:searcn Rev c iw 1966. 46 pp. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and ______ 196B. Gawe range surveys. pp. 25-28. Par~. Game Research Review 1967. 44 pp. Colo. Game, Fish and L:n:itn, G. ,J. l!!. Quart. 1958. Deer-elk Rcp , , October. ~,964.. Factors 2~3-D. M.S. ~hesis. investigations. Colo. Dept. affecting Colo. Dept. "pp , 139-140, 157-159, Came and Fish. 166 pp. the response of rubber rabbitbrush State Univ., Ft. Collins. 87 pp. 4!'-:J.:::6~, Controlling rubber r abb t tbrush '-lith 2,4-D. -----:-Fish ana i'ar;.;.s, Outdoor Fac zs No. 19; 2 pp. Stephens, L. N. Colo. State 1971. Vniv., S\>ope, H. H., ct a1. Fish and Parks. ___ • 1970. Parks. Browse use by raul,e deer Ft. Collins. 37 pp. 0 and livestock. surveys. pp. Review 1969. to Dept. Gane , H. S. Thesis. ' 1969. Ga~e range surveys. Ga~e Research Review 1968. Game range Game Research Colo. 162. Colo. pp. 18-23. 36 pp. 27-29. 35 pp. Colo. Div. Div. Game, Game, Fish and • 0 J. ~~. 1962. A r csume of Colorado big game research projects, pp. 1.6-65. In Tech. Publ. No.9. Colo. Dept. Game and l-'ish. 81 pp • 'fHeston, ·1939-1957. •• ~o •• .. .~. • " ...•. �-9~- Ut. 5e Dept. of Agr. 1965. \l.:lter and related land resources. Color~do River in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. ~atcr Con~erv. Board and U.S.1>.A. Econ. Res. Sc rv I c e , Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Se rv Lcc , Basin .. MaYA 183 pp. Williams 5 J. E. Rep_, July. -- •. 19.56. . c. (looseleaf) Deer-elk investigations. pp. 68-71. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 102 pp. 1951. Deer-elk investigations. TC::lluary. Colo. l1J11i.<1lUS, .J., et a1. .In Quart. Prog. Dept. pp. l~lO. 119 pp , G.1.1!e and Fish. In Quart. • IE. Quart. Prog. Rep., ., 1952. Loca t Jon and extent of -..;inter ranges. pr.57-62 Rep. ~ April. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 62 pp • • • • -. • • • .', ' ... .. Pr og , . .. • • �-96- SMALL GAME HAl-t·tAL RESEARCH REFERENCES WILDLIFE MAl~AGEHENT UNIT 11 • COTTONTAIL RABBIT De.nncy , R. N. t and D. L. Gilbert. ppe 1-31. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Sandfort, W. \-1. 1951. Game hird surveys. pp.45-47. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Pr og , Rep , , Shepherd, H. R. 19653. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-197.)t for cottontail raLbits. Colo. Dept. Galle, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin of Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) SNOWSHOE HArtE Dolbeer, R. A. 1972. Population dynamics of the snowshoe hare in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 193 pp. --: Porter, K. 1959. Effects of subalpine timber cutting on wildlife :LnColorado. " In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 151-185. Shepherd, H. R. 1965b. Colorado long range game species manage8cnt plans, 1965-1975, for snowshoe hare. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and P~rks. 11 pp. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin, Colorado. COC'lp.Study Rep. of Colo. t~ater Conserve Board and .U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Serv-ice, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv.. Service. }Iay·. Denve r , 183 PP ° (looseleaf) ." 0- • 0 .. • • • . ~.... �-97- ... CAME BIRD RESEARCH REFERENCES trrLDLIFE lW:AG81ENT UNIT 11 • BAUD-TAILED PIGEON Braun, C. E. ---~ Colorado Outdoors 19(5):26-29. 1970. Ki.gratory bird investigations, Rep., __ 1970. The band-tailed pieeon. October. pp. 151-171. In Game Res. Colo. Di.v. Gat.le,Fish and P<i:cks. 171 pp. 1971. Band-taiJ.ed pigeon investigations. pp. 209-236. In Game Res. Rep., Oc tober. Colo. Di v , Game , Fish.and Parks. 236 pp. c 1972. Dap.d-tailed pigeon investigations. Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. of Wil-life. pp. 123-141. 168 pp. In Game Braun, C. E., and D. E. Benson. 1972. Band-tailed pigeon investigationsbreeding and nesting chronology studies. pp. 159-168. In Game Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. of Wi~dlife. 168 pp. Grieb, J. R. 1965. Colorado long range gane species management plans, 1965-1975, for migratory birds. pp. 33-36. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. Neff, J. A·s and J. C. Culbreath. 1946. Colorado band-tailed pigeon. pp. 1-24. Fed. Aid Proj. 4-R. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 24 pp • . U. S. D~pt. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin, Colorado. Coop. Study of Colo. Water Conserv. Board and U.S.D.A. Rcon. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. }~y. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) White, J. A. 1972. Plumage studies of band-tailed pigeons. pp. 143-158 • .!!!. Game Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. 168 pp. BLt.;EGROUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duval. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous game birds. U. S. Fish and Hildl. Circ. 34. 30 pp. Anderson, A. E. 1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 118-128. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 128 pp. In Quart. -----. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job CompI. Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. I: -----.. 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biOla in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 130 pp. �-98___ • _19(;6. An Lnv c s t f rta t Lon of 2t~-D npp l Icn t Lon to !i~r.cbrush v Lt h In a mount aI n shrub-con if c r' comp l cx , Unc ompnhgr c U.lt Lonn I Fo r cs t. In Carne }?Cl>. Rcp , , July - I'a r t; HI. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks'--IJP' 345- ~20. • 1969. 2.4-D, sagebrush and mule deer-cattle use in upper ~intcr ..._--_.--range. Spec. Rcp. lio. 21. July. Colo. J?iv. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Hyers» c. T. 1965. Eva l ua t fon of a corab in ed b l uc g r ou s e+o lLd turkey hunt ing . 'Out doo r Facts No. 27. Colo.' Dcp t , Carne , Fish and Parks. 1 p. eeason , l-:.oger.sJ C. E. 1962. Part 1. Colo. Canc bird survey. Dept. Ga.':1C and Fish. pp. 121-J.31. pp. 1--160. In Quar t , Rcp , , July - 1963. Game bird survey. pp. 157-168, 191. In CaI:1e Res. Rep . , - Part 110 Colo. Dept. Cane, Fish. and Parks. pp. 109-241. .-.,-~. -October ", ~. 1963. Bluc'grouse census and harvest ---Canada. J. i-li1dl. ~·rg::lt. 27(4);579-585. in the United States and • 1965. Coloraco long range g2we species uanagenent plans, 1965---1975, for blue grouse. pp. 1-3. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 16 pp. 1968. The blue grouse in Co10!·a~o. Par'ks , Tech. Pub l., ~;o. 21. 63 pp. .. 'Sandfort, ll. "October. sEd.nhoff, 1950. W. Colo. H. H. Game bird surveys. Dept. Came and Fish. 1956. The dusky Syracuse univ. Ph.D. Thesis. Colo. Dept. p. 37. 44 pp. Fed. grouse and its 173 pp. Came , .Fd s h and Aid Proj. W-37·-R, '- in Colorado. ecology • 1958. A rating scale for blue grouse ih Colorado. ---I~er. For., Wildlife So~. pp. 133-138. Froc. Soc. u. S. Dept. of Ag r , 1965. ~]ater and related land resources. Colorado . River Easin in Colorado. Coop. St udy Rep. of Colo. ~'7ater Conserve Board and U.S.D.~. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) - CnUl~R Aldrich, J. U., and A. ,1. Duvall. 1955. Distribution game birds. U.S.D.!. Fish and \·!ildl. Ser., Circ. nartnann, R. M. 1963. Rep ,', October 1 ---..--I'ar• t 196 II. l. Canc bird surveys. - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Carne bird Colo. Dept. pp. of Aracr i c an gc l Li nac cous xe , 34. 23 pp. 33-40, 45-69. Tn Ga~e Res. Cane, Fish and Parks .-pp. 1-108. 5urvey. pp. 151-178. Game, Fi.:;h and Pa r ks , Tn Carne Res. Rep., pp. • 71-2':33. April - �-92Evansf R. L. , and W. '-1. Sand Io r t , Quart. Rep. , October. 1957. Came bird survey. pp. 55-67. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 116 pp. Ilurd, C. L. t and W. w. Sandfort. Quart. Prog, Rcp ,, October. e ' and Rep.) April. In 1955. Came bird survey. pp. 85-88. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 10~ pp. 1956. Carne bird survey. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. pp. 75-81. ~ ~Ol pp. In - Quart. Prog. lkrming, D. D. 1962. Came bird survey. pp. 9-16, 25-31. In Quart. Rep., J.uly - Part I. Colo. Dept. Cazae and Fish. pp. 1-160. lH.ller, J. 1959., Carae bird survey. pp. 99-107,115-124. October. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 124 pp. In Quart. Rep., Miller, J., and t-1. W. Sandfort. 1959. Gane bird survey. pp. 67-73. ~Jart. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. G@ae and Fish •. 128 pp. Sandf'o r t , \07. 1I. 1950~ Game bird survey. pp , 51-52. April.. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 101 pp. In In Quart. Prog. Rep. s 1950. Ga~e bird survey. pp. 37-39. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, October. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 44 pp. 1951. Uildl. Chukar census. pp. 22-31. Spec. Rep., Glenwood Springs Conf., January 16-19. Colo. Dept •.Game and Fish. 85 pp. • 1951. Game bird survey. pp • 37-41. , Colo. Dept. Ga<::eand Fish. 102 pp. E Quart. Prog. Rep. , July .. -:;::. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. 80-82. " Colo. Dept. Gawe and Fish. 117 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , October. Ga!!lebird survey. pp. 40-56. " 1952. Colo. Dept. Gace and :Fish. 62 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , April. • 1952. Game bird survey. pp • 93-95. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 105 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , October. • 1953. Game bird surVEy. pp . 81-;-89.In Quart. Prog. Rep. , April. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 99 pp. 1953. Game bird survey. p. 107. .Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 129 pp. ~ 1954. Game bird survey. pp. 13-33. Colo. Dept. Gaoe and Fish. 79 pp. ___ Quart. Prog. Rep., July • In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. a 1954. Game bird survey. pp. 67-72• .!2l Quart. Prog , Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 182 pp. 1955. G.1mc bird survey. pp. U-18 • .!2l QU.1rt. Proc. Rep., January. Colorado Dept. Came and fish. 94 t' p , G:.me b Lrd nurvcy , pp. 82-M • .!.!! QU:lrt. Prog , Rcp , , July _ ---'Par t 1955. 1.. Colo. Dcpt , and Ffsh , 1'1'. 1-115. C:UIlC �-100.: 1957. Came b i rd pp , 29-38, 1,5-51. In Quart. Prog , Rcp , , ---July - P~rt I. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. pp. 1-119. SU1-VC)·. 1958. C3me bird su~cy. Colo~ Dept. Game and Fish. ______ • • 1959. GaClC bird survey. pp , 53--65• Dept. Gacc and Fish. 128 pp. ~-Colo. --~ • 1959. G~e bird survey. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 19GO. c "~~j)~epto Ga:lE: Came arid bird Fish. Cane bird • .1.960. -Dept. Game and. Fish. survey. 74 pp. I~ Quart. Rep., July 1962. for II. • .!E.. Quart. Rcp ,, January. pp. 1:9--5/1 • 91-94. .!E.. Quart. Rep , , •. TanU31.-Y. In Quart. \.]ith the chukar , Colorado Outdoors G~~e bird survey. pp. 17-23, 33-44. Colo. Dept. Gc~e and Fish. pp. 1-160. Colo. Colo. Rep , , April. 9(5):26-29. " 1961. Carae bird surveys. pp. 119-126. 139-155. I~ quart. April - Part lIe Colo. Dept. Carae and Fish. pp. 97-208. Part 1. Part pp. 33-36. ' In Quart. Rep., April - Part I. pp. 1-116. survey .. pp. 161 pp. Your chances 1960. ___ pp. 129-13~. 105-181~ pp. Rep , , In Quart. Rep ,, July - 1965. Colorado 1cng range g~e species nanage~ent plans, 1965-1975, chukar pa r t.r Ldg c , Colo. Dept. Came , Fish and Parks. 18 pp . ---• 1967. A decade of chukar hunting. Coloraco Outdoors 16(6):20-23. Sandfort, l~. l-l., and D. Nolting. Quart. Prog. R~p., October. Sandfort, July. 1952. Game bird survey. pp. 89-91. Colo. Dept. 9affie and Fish. 105 pp. \~. t-l., et ala 1962. Game bird surveys. Colo. Dept. Ga3e and Fish. 159 pp. pp. 9-44. In Quart. Rep ,, 1963. bird pp. 33-44, 63-70. In -~-. October. Colo. Dept. Gaffie, Fish and Parks. pp. Quart. Tull~, R. 14(6):16. G2~e surveys. In ~ep., 107 1965. Gawe birds for 1965. Colorado Outdoors "u•.S. Dept. of ·Agr. 1966. !.;rater and related land resources) i~l1ite River Basin in Co Lor c do , Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. ~,1ater Conserve Board and V.S.D.A. Econ . Res. Service, For c s t Service and Soil Cons e rv , Service. }~ovc;nber. Denver. 92 pp. (looseleaf) and J. E. llillians. 1960. Escalante. pp. 21-23. Color.:ldo Outdoors, No.5, Sept.-Oct •. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 32 pp • \1hitc, C., • .' . .. . �.. -101- CAW~EL' S OITML l==. QU0.rt.- Prog , Rcp ,, w. W. Snndfort, July. 1950. Game bird surveys. pp. 17-21. Colo ..Dept. G<lme <lnd Fish. 80 pp. • 1950. Game bird survey. -----COlo. Dept. G0.QC and Fish. pp. 37-39. Fed. Aid P~~j. W-37-R. October. 44 pp. • 1951.0 Came bird survey. pp , 8082. ~ Quart. P~~g. Rep., Octobcr. ---Colo. Dept. GP.me and Fish. 117 pp. ' .. o '··"'~Col0. ___ - 1952. Game b Lrd survey. Dept. GfiOe aud Fish. pp , 93--95. 105 pp. }-n Quart. " 1953. Came bird survey. pp.8l-89. Colo. Dept. Gace and Fish. 99 pp. • for ~'::og. Rep. J October. In Quart. ?:::-og. Rcp , , April. 1965. Colorado Ions range g ane species manage:::e:::-::plans, 1965--1975. Gat.bcl's quail. Colo. Dept. Cane ;: Fish and Par ks, 8 pp , Sandfo r t , W. W. t and D. !iolting. Quart. Prog. Rep., October. 1952. Came bird su rvevs , pp . 89-91. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and r~~~. 105 pp. In Sandfort. W. Y., and H. ~. S~ope. 1954. Game bird surve+ , pp. 19-29. -Quart. Prog. Rep.s 3anuary. Colo. Dept. Ga:::.e and F~~_':. ·113 pp. In • 150URNH,G DOVE c _ Braun, C. E. 1971. Trapping and band i.ngdov es , pp . 201-'::07. IT!. Quart. '.. Res. Rcp ,, October. Colo. Div. Came , Fish and Par ks , 236 pp. 1972. Hourning dove trapping and banding. pp , ::5-121. Quart. Res. Rep.; October. Colo. Div. of ·Hild1ife. ':~8 pp. erieb, J •.R. 1964. Dove hunting deluxe. In Colorado Outc~.:"~-$ 13(4):32-39. 1965. Colorado long range gane species nanage~e~~ ?1ans, 1965-1975, for migratory birds. pp. 33-36. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, :~$~ and Parks. 36 pp. Nolting, D., et a1. Rep., October. 1952. Cane bird survey. pp. 99-101. Colo. Dept. Ca~e and Fish. 105 pp. Sandfort, W ..W. 1950. Cane bird survey. October. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. pp. 41-42. • 1951. Cnmc bird survey. pp. 83-8~. Dep~. Canc and Fish. 117 pp. 195". G~mc bird survey. pp. 23-24. Colo. Dept. C~mc and Fi::;h.111 pp. Fec: .. Aid Proj. H-37-R, In.' Quart. ~ Qua r t , Tn Ouart. • .~ Quart. Prog . ~4 pp. 1951. Game bird survey. pp. ~2-~3. Colo. Dept. Ca~e and Fish. 102 pp. ---~olo. ~ Rep., July. ;>"',.~..,., -. - .•.. '0· Rep., October. Rep., October. -, �-102- . ______ " .1955. Citmc bird survey. pp , 91-92. In Quart. Fnrt I. Colo ••Dept. Came and Fish. 115 pp. Prog. Rcp ,, July - Snndfort, H. W., and D. Nolting. 1952. Came bird survey. pp. 103-105. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. v. Se Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land' resources. Colorado River Basin 1n Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. \-later Conserve Board and . U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service and Soil Conserve Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) , Rn~G-NECKED ?l!~AS.~:T . JJdrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of ~erican gam~ birds. U.S.D.I.~ Fish and Wildl. Circ. Ko. 34. 23 pp. Figge, H. 1952. Gane bird survey. pp. 45-60. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. 60 pp. gallinaceous In Quart. Prog. Rep., January. --.. ' Figge, H., et a1. 1953. G~e bird survey. pp. 75-86. January. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 141 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Hoffman, D. M. 1971. Pheasant nest site selection study.' pp. 1-26. In Quart. Res. Rep ,, April. Colo. Div. Cane , Fish and Parks • 125 pp. _. . 1972. Pheasant nest site selection st'l!dy. pp. 1..:19. In Quart. Res. Rep ,, April. Colo. Div. Came , Fish and Parks. 150 pp. Sandfort, 1950. Game bird survey, pp , 17-21. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 80 pp. W. W. ..July. In Quart. Prog. Rep., • 1950. Carre bird survey. pp'.1-12. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 44 pp. Fed. Aid Proj. 1-l-37-R, October. 1951. Game bird sur/eve pp. 1-7. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 35 pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, January. I ______ • 1951." Ga~e bird survey. pp. 9-20. Colo. ~ept. G~~e and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. 1952. G~~e bird survey. pp. 115-119. Colo. Dcpt~ Game and Fish. 171 pp •. 1952. Game bird investigations. October. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. .,.... __ • 1955.· Game bird survey. pp. 1-9. Colo. Dept. Gat:1Cand Fish. 94 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. -.- pp , 37-41. 105 pp • ~ In-Quart. Prog. Rep., January. 1955. G~~c bird survey. pp. 49-63, 65-69. In July - Pa r t 1. Co Lo Dcp t , Game and Fish. 115 pp • ---- 1956. . Upland &amc birds. Quart. Prog. Rep., Quart. Prog. Rep., Colorado Outdoors 5(6):2. • -:'. �. -103- - • 1957. Upl~nd &~mc birds • Colorado Outdoors '6(6):2. -= . 1960. G.:l.OC bird survey. pp. 37-55, 59-65. Colo. Dept. Gaoe and fish. 161 pp. ______ ___ . . 1961. Game bird survey. pp. 97-102. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and fish. pp. 97-208. e l!!. Quart. Rep •• April.. • In Quart. Rep., July - P~rt II. • 1963. Came bird survey. pr. 213-223. In Came Res. Rep., October Par t 110 Colo~ Dept. Ga~eJ Fish and Park~. 109-241. :pp. Sandfort, . , 1£ w. ~l.s and H. M. Svo pe , J.95!,. Cane b Lrd survey, pp. 19..:.29 • Quart. Pr og., Re p ,, January. Colo. Dcp t •.Carne and Fish. 113 pp. Stie~~, H. A. 1950. Ca~e bird survey. pp. 1-4. J~ly<; Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. Svope~ H. H. 1965. In Quart; Prog. Rep., • Colorado long range ga!:lespecies manage~ent plans) Colo. Dept. G2!ile, Fish and Parks. 54 pp. 1965-1975, for pheasants. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1966. Water and related la~d resources) ~iliiteRiver Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Re? of Colo. Water Conserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, ?orest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. Hovember. Denver. 92 pp. (looseleaf) Aldrich, J. i-T., and A. J.• Duvall. 1955. Distribution of A'-:lerican gallinaceous game birds. U. S Fish and \-lildl.Circ. 34. 30 pp -. co Boeker, H. H. 1955. Game bird surveys. pp. 70-71. ,July. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. pp. 1-115.' In Quart. Prog. Rep., Funk, H. D. 1971. Effects of sagebrush control on distrib~tion and abundance of sage grouse. pp. 41-47. ~ Quart. Res. Rep., April. Colo. Div. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 125 pp. 1972.' Effects of sagebrush control en distribution and abundance of sage grouse. pp. 3l-3i. .IE. Quart. Res. Rcp ,, April. Colo. Div. Carne , Fish and Parks. 149 pp. Rogers, G. E. 1958. July - Part II. Ga~e bird surveys.' pp. 123~125. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. pp. 105-181. 1959. Cane bird surveys. pp. 13-32. Colo. Dept. Gaille and Fish. 116 pp. --~. • 1963. Th~ sage grouse of Colorado • In Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colorado Outdoors 12(3):22-24. 1963. Game bird survey •. pp , 13-32 •. Tn Came Res. Rcp ,, October Par t 1. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-108 • •• .. \ , �-104- "1964. Sa~e g rous c Invcs t Laa t Lons, 1n Colorado. Fish und Park~. Tech. Publ. No. 16. 132 pp. ___ 0 Colo. Dept." Game, Colorado long range game species management p Lans , 1965-1975. ----:-for• '1965. sage grouse. pp. 4-7. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 18 pp • . U. S. Dept. of Agr , 1965. Water and related land resources, CoLo rad o River Basin in Co Lo rado , Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserve Bo ar d and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, For cs t Service, and Soil Con se rv , Serv Lcc , lhy. Denver. 183 ppo (looseleaf) ", ", tIA'fERFOt.-TL Funk, H. D. 1971. Waterfm.rl kill survey. pp , 51-73. In Quart. Res. Rep. , " October. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 236 pp. Crieb~ J R. 1965. Colorado long range game species manageznent; plans, 19651975, for migratory birds. pp. 1-32. Colo. Dept. Carne, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. e Hopper, R. M. 1963. Wetlands of Colorado. Tech. Pub!. No. 22, }!arch. 89 pp • Colo. Dept. G~e, Fish and Parks. • IJ.urich, J. tol., and A. J. Duvall." 1955. Distribution of Anerican gallj:naceous game birds. U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildi. Ser., Circ. No. 34. 23 pp. Burget, M. L. 1946. Fish. 21 pp • Colorado wild turkey. Vol. II. Colo. Dept. Game and ..• • 1.948. 'Hild turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 47~62. In Quart. Frog. Rcp , , October. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. surveys and investigations. pp. 91-106. In ---••Quart.1949.Prog.WildRep.turkey Colo. Dept. Gaue and Fish. 141 pp. 1949. April. Wild turkey develop~ent. Colo. Dept. G~c an~ Fish. pp. 3-18. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 9.8 pp. 1951. Wild turkey rehabilitation in Colorado. pp. 7-17. Spec. Rep. Glen~ood Springs ~~ildl. Coni., Jan. 16-19. Colo. Dept. Game and .Fish. 85 pp. " 1957. January. The wild turkey in Colorado. 1960. Wild turkey development. Colo. Dept. Game and: Fish. 110 pp. --_. 1961. October. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 68 pp. pp. 5-42. In Quart. Rep., July. Yild turkey deve~opmcnt. pp. 23-43. 51-55. Colo. Dept. Gane and FJsh. 103 pp. -, .!.!:!. QU.:lrt.Rcp , , �-10~1963. Ylld turkey investic~tlons. Colo. Dept. Came and fish. . April. Burcet, M. L. t and C. Ford. 1951. Pr og , Rcp , , Ap r t l , Quarto pp. 71-85. 109 pp. Wild turkey Colo. Dept. In Game Res. Rep_, pp. 1-7. development. Fish. 64 pp. Gat;1C and In •. . . Durget, H. L., and D. M. Ho f fman, 1950. Uild turkey surveys and investi.gations. Three Year Sura Re p , , 1947-1950. July. Colo. Dept. Carne and fish. - 4 pp. -r . t and 1950. -"-~~-Ocl:ober-=--C-;;10. Dept. ----;::- , aud • l.!:. Quart. _, " Prog. 1.951. Rep., Hild t ur key investi{;ations. Cane and Fish. 18 pp . , and 1952~ H-39-Rt m.ld turkey surveys and Lnve s t Lg a t f ons , pp • 11--29. October. Colo. Dept. Carae and Fish. 117 pp. and 1952. llild t.ur key investigations; Pzog , Rep. ~ "-priL Colo. Dept. Carie dud Fish. ,. Fed. Aid Proj. pp , 1-5. In Quart. 62.pp. 'Hild turkey investigations. pp. 1-9, 11-14, 21-24. Colo. Dept. GCi:L:e and Fish. 105 pp. --.~ iE. Quart. Prog. Rep , , October. ----;::- ,and Frog. __ Rep., 1953. Wild turkey investigations. April. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. --::-., and 1953. .Prog •. Rep , , July. __ pp. 19-33. In Quart. 99 pp. 'l-7ild turkey investigations. pp. Game and Fish. 129 pp. 1-6. ~ Quart • Co.Lo , lJept. ~~ ·nn:~. -,·.:-·~.·,·;~·:::t~:5<·: lhJd. turkey investigations. pp , 12-2l,. Pzog.-·':Rep_ ~ J"uly .•·-<...:.L:t.~J..o.~,.lJ.~pt.GaI!1C and Fish. 182 pp. ~ Quart. _ , and 1955~. l-lild turkey investigations. pp. 1-8, 13-19. --·Quart. Prog. Rep ",, Oc::::ober. Colo. Dep Gane and Fish. 108 pp. In t •. . . and 1957.~· 'Rild turkey investigations. pp. 69-86. --' Rep , , October •. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 116 pp. In Quart. , and 1955.,11D.d turkey inv~stig.:!tions. pp. 147-169. In ---Quart .• 13ep., July - 'Part II. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. pp. 105-181. -l:vcins,R. ~1... ··1963~ l-lild c:m:-k;:::y investi£2..tions. Colo. Dcp t; , G(.l.t1eand fish. Rep , , :April. Hofrean, D. X. .1965-J.975, 1965. Colorado for v i.Ld turkey. pp. 71-85. 109 pp. G. T. 1963. October - Part Came bird II. Colo. • Res. long range game species canagenent plans, Colo. Dcp t , Cx:1C, Fish and Po r ks , 11 pp. Ilunt er , G. N. 1965. Colorado big garnc harvest, 1959-1965.' Rep. No.1. Colo. Dept. Carne, Fish and P~rks. 41 pp • lIyers, In Cane Spec. H~mt. survey. pp , 173-178. In Carne Res. Rcp , , Dcpt. G.1r.IC,Fish and Par ks , pp . 109-2/,1. r. .. �. -106- Came bird survey. pp. 2~3-280. ~ Game Res. Rep., April Colo. Dept. Game, fish and Parks. pp. 235-397. • '1964. ~art III. --_. 1965. Evaluation of a combincd blue grouse-wild turkey hunting tlcason. Outdoor Facts No. 27. Colo. Dept. Gamc, Fish and Parks. 1 p. • -- 1965. Reliability of turkey sex and age ratio data based on hunter rcport card returns. Outdoor Facts No. 29. Colo. Dept. Ganc, Fish and 6 Parks. c 2 pp. 1965. I. "-~~~"-Part _____ e pp. 91-17/,. In Cane Res. Rcp , , April Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 1-17/•• Carse b f.rd survey. Colo ...Dept. '1966. Cane bird survey. Colo. Dept. 1967. - .:«. April Garae , pp. 69-84. In Gaoe Res. Rep., April. Fish and Parks. 192 pp.- .. Cane bird survey. pp. 167-182, 205-211. Colo. Dept. Cace , Fish and Parks. .4 Part II. • 1968. ,Came bird survey. pp . 71, 99-110. ---,:-Colo. Dept. Cane, Fish and Parks. 131 pp., • 1969. Came bird survey. pp. 107, 153. Colo. Div. Cazie , Fish and Parks. 181 pp. e> 1969. The topic is turkey. Game bird survey. pp. 161, 165. Colo. Div. Caine , Fish and Parks. 198 pp. C. C. 1970. .19 (3): 30-31 • In Game Re s, Rep., April. In Gaoe Res. Rep. , April. Colorado Outdoors 18 (5): 30-34. 1970. Sheats) In Gar-e Res. Rep •• pp. 107-2l11. In Game Res. Re p , , April. Hy experience \vit~ the turkey. Colorado Outdoors • • " .... ' .. • " .. . �• .. :. • -107- iWNGAME MA1-r-tAL RESEARCH REFERENCES o WILDLIFE MA.~AG21ENT UNIT Jl • Boyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Came, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Remington, J. D •. ,1959. Furbearers of Colorado. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 16 pp. Rutherford, w. H. 1965. Educational Pamphlet No.4. Colorado long range game species management plans, Coloo Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. 1965-1975, for furDearers. COYOTE Boyd, R. J. 1975, 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965for predators. Colo. Dep t-, Carae , Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Craighead, F. C. 1951. A biological and economic evaluation of coyote predation. New Yo rk Zoological Society and The Conservation Foundation. 23 pp. .. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resour~es and bear studies. pp~ 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp . Sperry, C. C. 1941. Food habits of the coyote. Serv. Wildl. Res. Bull. 4. 70 pp ;: U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildl. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 19651975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. .Boyd, R. J. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and ~ear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Remington, J. D. 1959. Furbearers of Colorado. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 16 pp. Educational Pamphlet No.4. Rutherford, t-l. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for furb~arers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp • . ' RODENTS .. Turner. G. T., R. H. Hansen, V. U. Reid, H. P. Tietjen, and A. L. Ward. 1973. Pocket gophers and Colorado mountain rangeland. Colo. State Univ. Exper. Sta. Bull. No. 55~S. 90 pp. • .S·' ~2'0 .. ::.! �-108- Remfng ton, J. D •. 1953. Fur resources and bco r s t ud Ics , pp , 17-23 • .!!!. Quart. Pr og , Rcp., Oct. Colo. Dcpt.' Game and Fl!ih. 60 pp. _______ • 1959. Furbcarcrs of Colorado. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 16 pp • Educational Pamphlet No.4. .Rutherford. U. H. 1965. Colorado long r~ngc game species management plans, 1965-1975, for f urbea rcrs , Colo. Dept. Came , Fish and Pa rks , 12 pp • . -'. troSKRAT Denney) R. N. 195.0. Fur resource survey. pp , 57-66. • Jan. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 66 pp. In Quart. Frog. Rcp , , 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 93-l0l. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 75-80. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog , Rep. , July. • 1951. Fur resource survey • Dept. Game and Fish. 8 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , Jan. Colo. Denney, R. No, and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. np. 1-31. - In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. ¥' 0 . lteman5.c, 1-1. H. 1942. . t·:i..~h COQD1issian. Fur resource survey. 6 pp. Vol. 2, Jan. Remington, J. D. 1953. Fur resources and bear studies. .. Quart. Prog. Rep ,, Oct. Colo. Dept. Cane 'and Fish. _______ • 1959. Furbearers of Colorado. Dept •.Game and Fish. 16 pp. Colo. Game and pp. 17-23. 60 pp. Educational Pamphlet No. 4. In Colo. Rutherford, w. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species ~anagenent plans, 1965-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. ".'EASEL Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 93-101. .April. Colo. Dept. Ga~c and Fish. 101 pp. July. 1950. Fur resource sur/eye pp. 75-80. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. ~ In Quart. Prog. Rep., Quart. Prog. Rep., Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bC3r studies. pp. 1-31. ..!.!l Quart. Pr og . Rcp ,, Jan. Colo. Dcpt. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Ncmanlc, W. M. 1942. l'1sh Commission. Fur resource survey. 6 pp. Vol. 2, Jan. Colo. Game and �-, -109:- Rcmlncto~, J. D •..1953. Fur resources and bear -~tudl~s. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Came and fl~h • • • 1959. ~~lo. Furbearers of Colorado. Dept. Came and Fish. 16 pp. pr. 17-23. In ~O pp. Educational Pamphlet No.4. • Rutherford. W. U. 1965. Colorado long range game species-m<lnagcment plans, lS65-1975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. C~~et Fish and Parks. 12 pp • -. • ..J. .. • • •• . • ' .. • .' '0 • • 0 ••• •• • • .. .- ' "' , �• • -110- .- . • ' FURBEARER RESEARCH REFERENCES • WILDLIFE HANAGNEh'T UNIT 11 • .!tRAVER ..Anonymous. 1937. 1(32):5, 7. Beavers ~ flood control experts. Natl. Nature News. l?:tuley~ W. L. 1937. The beaver··.·.conserver of soil and 'later. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf.'Trans. 2:295-297. • Leighton, R. S., and J. A. Lee. 1952. A rpogress report on a technique to control water levels in beaver impoundments. N. Ame r , 1-lild!.Con£. Proc. 8:4 pp. • .. Rm.llngton, J. D. 1955. Fur resources and bear studies. \-l-61-R. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 85 pp. • 1959. Furbearers of Colorado. ---.Dept. Game and Fish. 16 pp. Fed. Aid. Proj. Educational Pamphlet No.4. Colo. Retzer, J. L. 1955. Physical environnental effects on beavers in the Colorado Rockies. Western Assoc. Came and Fish Coma , ·.Proc.35. Retzer, J. L., H. M. Swope, J. D. Remington, and W. H. Rutherford. 1956. Beaver managecent in the Rocky Hountains of Colorado. Fed. Aid Proj. W-83-R. Tech. Bull. ~o. 2. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 33 pp. Rutherford, W. H. 1953. Effects of a sumner flash flood upon a beaver popUlation. J. HaUl. 34(2):261-262. 1964. The beaver in Colorado; its biology, ecology, nanagenent 'and economics. Colo. Came, Fish and Parks Tech. Pub. No. 17. 49 pp. ---:• 1965. Colora~o long range game species canagement plans, 19651975, for furbearers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. Scheffer, P. }1. 1938. The beav~r as an upstream engineer. Soil Cons. 3(7) :178-.181. HINK Denney, R. N: 1950. Fur resource surveys, pp. 75-80. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. ~ Nemanic, W. M·. 1942. .Flsh Commission. Jan. Fur resource surveys. 6.pp • Vol. 2. • .. ~.....•..., Quart. Prog. Colo. Game and �• • • CENERfJ. MA!-fY::\LIA.'t REFERENCES • • Ant.flOl1Y, H. E. 1928. Son s , N'e'Y! York. Field book of North 674 pp. 1.:n/!8tron~;:D. l-L 1972. , PrLn t f ug Servt_ce, D:Lstrlhut:t0:'j, of :;;:\I;:;;TJ;.;,ls in. Co Lo r adc , Lavr en ce , 415 pp. Bur t , W. H., and R. P. Grossenheider. Houghton }liff1in Co., Boston. American ./ 196(1. 284 pp. mammals. f. f ield guide G. P. Putn am+s Un Iv , Kan s as to the rcanraa.Ls , • Cringan, A. T. 1973. Warn blood vertebrate inventory an a Ly s f.s and :tr~?act s t udy of the Parachute Creek area, Garfield County, Colorado. In TIH~ Colony cnv Lroricen tal s t.udy-e-Pa rachut e Cr eek , Garfield County, Colorado. Pxcpa re d for Colony Dcve Lo pnen r Operation by Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. August, 1973. Part II. Vol. 2, Cahp t , VII. pp. 1-137. Balli E. R., and K. R. Kelson. 1959. The mamrna Ls of North Press Co., New York. 2 Vols. 1162 pp. Lechleitner, Boulder, R. R. 1969. 254 pp. Wild mamua.Ls of Colorado. Pruett Arae rd ca , Pub. Co., Hiller, G, S., and R. Kellogg. 1955. List of North American recent Smdt.hs cnd.an In s t , , t{ashington, D. C. BulL No. 205. 954 pp. Hurie, O. J. Boston. Palmer, 1954. A field 374 pp. R. s. 1954. City, N. Y. Warren, gu Lde to animal R. R. The manma L guide. 384 pp. Doubleday 1942. The mamma l,s of Colorado. 330 pp~ .. .. '-- tracks. mammal.s . Houghton }lifflb and Co., Univ. Okla. Ronald Co., Inc. , Garden Press, Norman , �-112- GENERAL AVIAN REFERENCES WILDLIFE }Lt,NAGEHENT UNIT n.. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Mus. of Nat. Hist •• Denver, 2 Vols. 895 pp. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. of Nat. Hi~t., Denver. 168 pp. Davis, W. A. 61 pp. 1969. Birds of western Colorado. Denver Denver Hus. Colo. Field Ornithologists. Kortright, F. A. 191.3. The ducks, geese,·and swans of North America. The Amer. l-lildl.Institute, loJashington,C. D. 476 pp. Linduska, J. P. 1964. Waterfowl tomorrow. U.S.D.I. Bur. Sport Fish. and Wildl., Washington, D. C. 770 ~p. Martin; G. S., P. H. Baldwin, and E. B. Reed. 1974. Recent records of birds from the Yampa Valley, Northwestern Colorado. Condor. 76(1): 113-116. Pearson, T. G. 1940. N. Y. 289 pp. Birds of America. Garden City Publ. Co., Inc., Peterson, R. T. lS41. A field guide to western birds. Co., Boston. 240 pp. Robbins, C. D.,B. Brunn, and H. S. Zim. Golden Press, N. Y. 340 pp. 1966. Houghton Miffllll Birds of North ,America. Smith, A. G. 1973. Avian environmental inventory and impact study for Colony Development Operation in Garfield County, Colorado. Part I. Environmental inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute for Colony Development Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1973. Sprunt, A., IV., and H. S. Zim. 1961. Gamebirds--a guide to North American spec~es and their habits. Golden Press, N. Y. 160 pp. \.zooding,J. 1973. A census of the breeding birds of the Roaring Fork watershed. Colorado Field Ornithologist. 9 pp. �-113- APPENDIX B WILDLIFE 11A1~AGENENTUNIT 12 (WILLIAMS FORK) Garfield, Moffat, Rio Blanco, and Routt Counties, Colorado Information on Unit Description, Landovner-shi.p, Land Use, HumanPopul.at i.on; ~Jildlife Species Checklists, Harvests, Seasons, Narrative and Hap Descriptions of Distribution and Abundance; and other Allied Data. To: December 1975. Comp~~edby: W.T. McKea.'1 and B.D. Trindle �-114TABLE OF CONTENTS ITEM DESCRIPTION LANDOWNERSHIP (Boundaries, size, physical features, climate) . STATUS ---------------- LAND USE AND VEGETATIVE Hu}~N POPULATION _ COVER STATUS -- _ --------------- _ ~ LAND USE STATUS RELATING TO ELK SUMMER AND WINTER RANGE, WHITE RIVER ELK HERD --------------GAME SPECIES (Big game mammals, small game mammals OTHER MAMMALIAN SPECIES (Furbearers, game mammals) ---------------OTHER AVIAN SPECIES ("Varmint" "varmint" and game birds) mammals, and non- birds, non-game birds and rap tors) DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GA}ffi~t~~~S mule deer, mountain lion) --------- (Black bear,· elk, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMLL GANE ~IHALS snowshoe hare, red (pine) squirrel) --DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF S~~LL Gt~lli BIRDS pigeon, mourning dove, waterfowl, turkey) DEER HARVEST, PRIMITIVE ARCHERY SEASONS AND HUNTING DEER HARVEST LINFAR REGRESSION ELK HARVEST, ARCHERY AND SEASONS DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS TOTAL DEER HARVEST, ELK HARVEST, DATA ANALYSIS (1956-1974) _ _ _ BY SEX _ _ (1956-1974) _ PRESSURE (1967-1974) _ BY SEX _ UNIT 6, 1963-1972, (1956-1974) _ LION HARVEST AND SEASONS ---- _ SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE, Management Unit 1Q) ---------------- 1968-1973 S~~LL GAME HARVEST AND 'HUNTING PRESSURE Unit 26, 1974) ---------------- (Small Game ~~nagement i rabbit, _ UNIT 7, 1964-1964, SEASONS AND HUNTING _ (Grouse, band-tailed (1973-1974) PRESSURE _ _ OF EITHER SEX DEER SEASONS - BLACK BEAR Hl\RVEST AND SEASONS MOUNTAIN (Cottontail (1956-1974) DATA ANALYSIS SEASONS AND HUNTING TOTAL ELK HARVEST PRESSURE _ (Small Game _ _ �-115TABLE OF CONTE~fS (Continued) ITEM DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE (Small Game Management Unit 26, 1974) ------------------------------------------------S~~LL GAME MANAGEMENT UNITS MAP, 1968-1973 S~~L UNITS MAP, 1974 ------------------------------- GAME MANAGEMENT -------------------------- BIG GAME POPULATION DYNAMICS ---------------------------------------_ HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS GAME SPECIES MANAGEME~~ ItTRODUCTIONS PROBLEMS BIG GAME ~~~L ------------------------------------- CHECKLIST RESEARCH NONGAME ~~ RESEARCH --------------------------------- REFERENCES REFERENCES ------------------------------- ----------.-----------------------.---- REFERENCES __ ---------------------------------_ FURBE.ARER RESEfu~CH REFERENCES -----------------------_--------------- G'ENERAL t-Wfr~LIAN REFERENCES --------------------------------------_ GENERAL AVIAN REFERENCES _ --------------------------------------- REFERENCES SMALL Gru~E MAMMAL RESEARCH GAME BIRD RESEARCH ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ii _ �-116- DESCRIPTION - WILDLIFE HANAGEHENT d . 2/ " B oun ar a.e s - .-- Those portions counties bounded UNIT 12 (WILLIAHS FORK) of Hoffat, Routt, Rio Blanco and Garfield on the north by Colorado Highway Road 29 from its junction 1.../ with Colorado Highway 317 and Routt County 317 to the Williams Fork- Yampa River divide, on the east by the Williams Fork River-Yampa divide, on the south by the Yellow Jacket-Sleepy Cat divide including Williams Fork drainage Size.--491.l Physical and on the west by Colorado square miles (planimetered Features.--Wildlife Management province. is a southeastward It also constitutes Rocky Hountains physiographic from 1/2" BLH, 1974 base map). Unit 12 is drained by the Williams extension of Craig. of the Wyoming Basin physiographic part of the northern province the Highway 13." Fork River which drains into the Yampa River a few miles southwest This drainage River boundary of the Southern of which the White River Plateau is a part. In the west portion of Unit 12 is a prominent U.S.D.A. 1969, soft rocks and forming a sharply out- •••Along the south side of the Axial Basin is a low range of hills, the Danforth Northeast feature, quoting ••• " ••• the Axial Basin, formed by an uplift whose axis has been deeply eroded exposing underlying lined trough. topographic Hills, lying about 2,000 feet above the adjacent valleys. of the Axial Basin, the Williams back ridge formed by resistant sandstone Fork Mountains layers." are a high hog- Elevations within Unit 12 1/ - Legally termed "Big Game Hanagement Unit" (see footnote ~./ below) but tentatively called "Wildlife Hanagement Unit" here to include broader aspects of animal life present ;: 2/ - Colorado Div. Wildlife Big Game). Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1975 (p. 8, Chap. 2 __ �-117- range from 6,200 feet on Milk Creek in Axial Basin upward to 12,110 feet at Mount Orno on the, southeast boundary of the unit. By far the most abundarrt rocks within Unit 12 are of the Mesa Verde Formation (Mesozoic). They occur throughout sist mainly of sandstone with interbedded These rocks are usually resistant ridges, and cliffs almost the entire unit, and conshale and several coal beds. to erosion and often form prominent (U.S.D.A. 1969). Small intrusions of Tertiary volcanics, consisting of basaltic several hundred feet deep, can be found along the south border of the unit. They are rocks of the north flank of the White River uplift Immediately Formation adjoining them are small rock exposures of late Tertiary age. tuffaceous greenish (U.S.D.A. 1969). Among numerous Williams near-permanent Fork River are: (late Mesozoic). of the Browns Park These rocks consist of: " ••• chalky white to light gray soft crossbedded gray sandy mudstone" lava flows sandstone with. thin layers of or permanent drainages tributary to the Milk Creek, ¥~rapos Creek, Waddel Creek, South Fork and East Fork of l-lilliamsFork. Climate.--National Weather Station data concerning climatic conditions in Unit 12 are available only from Craig and Hamilton. on the northwest that precipitation thousand corner and the west boundary feet higher. These stations are of Unit 12. is less at Craig than at Hamilton, Table 1 indicates which is at least one The eastern portions of Williams Fork, being still higher, probably receive around ten inches more precipitation Steamboat with- Springs 23.47). Long-time mean precipitation is 15.8 inches, ranging from 13.09 to 19.23. the range was 8.91-24.06. Cloudburst (Marvine 20.1, for the two stations During the period 1961-1974 storms of high intensity and short �-118- duration occur over small areas and result from convective As in adjoining uniform, units, seasonal distribution higher elevations receiving conditions. of precipitation a greater proportion is fairly in winter in the form of snow. Mean annual temperature 40.2 to 44.4. (Craig only) is 42.5, with a range (1961-1974) of Craig has the only pertinent data concerning frost-free days, where it averaged 103.5 days and ranged from 69-125 days (1961-1974). Table 1. Precipitation, temperature and frost-free days, Wildlife Management Unit 12, by period from National Weather Station records, 1936-1974. PreciEitation Mean Range TemEerature Mean Range Frost Free-Da~s Mean Range 42.2 103.5 Station Period Years Craig 1961-1974 (13) 13.18 1951-1960 ( 9) 13.09 42.6 1936-1952 (16) 13.94 42.3 1961-1974 (13) 18.05 11.71-24.06 1951-1960 ( 9) 17.22 1947-1952 ( 5) 19.23 Hamilton 8.91-16.63 Literature U. S. Department of Agriculture. Water and related land resources, Yampa River Basin Colorado and Wyoming. Board and U.S.D.A. Soil Conserv. Service. U. S. Department Monthly ofConnnerce. Asheville, Coop. Study by Colo. Water Econ. Res. Service, Forest Servf ce, and April 1969. Denver. (Continuing). and Annual Summaries. 69-125 Cited 1969. Conservation 40.2-44.4 164p. (processed). Climatological data. Colorado National Climatic Center, Fed. Bldg., N.C. 28801. William T. HcKean September 1975 �-119LANDOW1'ERSHIP STATUS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Bureau of Land Management Private Municipal UNIT 12 21,965 Acres lands 152,230 Acres and County lands 15 Acres Other Federal lands including National Park Service, Forest Service, Indian and Military Reservations, and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlif e Colorado Division of Wildlife State Land Board administration 133,515 Acres lands 2,039 Acres lands (Moffat Co.) Total 4,540 Acres 314,304 Acres* (491.1 sq. miles) * Bureau of Land Nanagement lands, priVate lands, Colorado Division of Wildlife lands, State Land Board Administration lands, and a total unit acreage were derived from a 1/2" = 1 mile B.L.N. planning unit map (1974). A planimeter and grid were used to compute acreages. Nunicipal and County lands were derived from an estimate by the Moffat County Assessors office. Forest Service lands were derived by subtracting the above lands from the total unit acreage. B. D. Trindle August 1975 �-120- LAND USE AND VEGETATIVE Irrigated cropland Non-irrigated Grassland COVER STATUS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 12,642 Acres cropland 2,785 Acres with half-shrub mixture 23,805 Acres Sagebrush Brush 47,048 Acres (desert and mountain) Woodland (pinon-juniper 97,175 Acres and oakbrush) 1,375 Acres Aspen Commercial UNIT 12 86,137 Acres timber Miscellaneous 39,356 Acres 11 3,661 Acres Total 313,984 Acres* (490.6 sq. miles) *Total land acreage differs from total in Unit Description Section (314,304 acres or 491.1 sq. miles). Cover type categories were derived from 1/2" = 1 mile S.C.S. Land Use and Cover Type Maps, 1953, 1955, for Moffat, Rio Blanco, Routt, and Garfield counties. A planimeter and grid were used to derive and compute acreage. !I Miscellaneous - Interpreted to consist mainly of bare ground with sparse, scattered vegetation of various types. B. D. Trind1e August 1975 �-121HUMAN POPULATION - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 This unit includes small portions of four counties: Moffat, Rio Blanco, Routt and Garfield. There are no incorporated towns within its boundaries. The hamlet of Hamilton contains an estimated 30 persons. Rural population estimates made by the Moffat County Assessors office for the unit were: Moffat County portion - 60; Rio Blanco County portion - 10; Routt County portion - 50; Garfield lation, County portion - O. including H~i1ton, Human population A total estimated rural popu- is 150. iensities per square mile for all of Moffat, Rio Blanco and Routt counties from 1960 and 1970 were: 1960 1970 II Moffat County 1.5 1.4 Rio Blanco County 1.6 1.5 Routt County 2.5 2.8 The small portions of Routt County included would probably have a population density similar to Moffat County. Table 1. Urban-rural population, Moffat County, 1960-1970. II 1960 1970 3,984 4,270 318 247 Rural 2,759 2,073 Total 7,061 6,525 Craig Dinosaur (Artesia) 11 U. S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, 1962-64. �-122- Table 2. Urban-rural population, Rio Blanco County, 1960-1970. 1960 1970 Meeker II 1,597 Rangely 1,464 1,591 Rural 2,031 1,654 Total 5,150 4,842 One projection of human populations II for Rio Blanco County is: 1975 _ 5,270; 1980 - 5,267; 1990 - 6,119; 2000 - 7,088. For Moffat County: 1975 _ 7,206; 1980 - 7,485; 1990 - 8,589; 2000 - 10,226. Another projection of human population 11 for the White River Basin is: 1980 - 20,000; 2000 - 186,000; 2020 - 204,000. A third projection production ~ for the oil shale area, based upon cumulative in barrels per day, is: 1974 - 6,631;1980 oil - 46,738; 1985 - 100,000. II u. S. Bureau of the Census and Colorado Yearbook, 1962-64. 21 - Colorado State Planning Office, advance population personal communication 1975. projections, unpublished 31 - U. S. Bureau of the Census, Colorado Water Conservation Field Party. In U.S.D.A. 1965 £R cit. Board and USDA U. S. Dept. of Interior (1972). Draft environmental statement for the proposed prototype oil shale leasing program. Vol. I. Washington, D.C. 465p. �-123III -c p 5 5,150 III III ;:l 0 ..c:: 4 ~ ~ 4,842 3,135 3 p 0 "ri ~ 2,980 2 2,943 III r-I ;:l p.. 0 p., 1 1,690 1900 1910 Fig. 1. Population 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 trend of Rio Blanco County. 11 10 9 ~----------- III -c a 7 6,525 6,050 III ;:l 0 ..c:: Routt County 6 ~ ~ p Moffat County 5 0 "ri ~III r-I ;:l e, 4 0 p., 3,661 2 1 1900 Fig. 2. 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Population trends for Routt and Moffat counties. �-124- LAND USE STATUS RELATING TO ELK SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES WHITE RIVER ELK HERD !/ During the summer seasons of 1961, 1962 and 1963 the White River elk winter range was surveyed by the Colorado Division of Wildlife using the Big Game Analysis technique The following and tables (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) are taken from information that survey (U. S. Forest Service 1958). (Boyd 1970). Summer Range i Summer range of the Rocky Mountain consists of all the land above 8,500 feet elevation. characterized spruce-fir elk (Cervus canadensis by large open parks surrounded forest, and scattered nelsoni Bailey) This land is by dense stands of dead to extensive aspen stands. Winter Range Four basic vegetative types occur on the area surveyed. . consist of aspen, mountain browse, pinon-juniper the four major claSSifications, These types and sagebrush. 18 sub-types occurred, Within as listed in Table 1. !/ The White River elk herd study area consists of Wildlife Management Units 12,13, 23,·24, 25, 26, 33, 34. �-125LAND USE STATUS RELATING TO ELK SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES Table 1. Vegetative types and associated (continued) acreages on elk winter range. Type Acres 1. Sagebrush type (4-Artr) 2. Mountain browse consisting of oakbrush (5-QUE) 71,620 3. Mountain browse consisting of snowberry (5-SYM) 2,296 4. Mountain browse consisting of serviceberry 5. Mountain browse consisting of mountain mahogany 6. Mountain browse consisting of chokecherry (5-Prvi) 349 7. Mountain browse consisting of rabbitbrush (5-Chvd) 738 8. Pi~on-juniper with sagebrush understory (9-PJ-Artr) 3,709 9. piDon-juniper with mountain mahogany understory 10. pillon-juniper with oakbrush understory (9-PJ-QUE) 1,763 11. Pinon-juniper (9-PJ-SYM) 621 12. Aspen with snowberry understory 13. Aspen with serviceberry understory (lO-A-AME) 12,411 14. Aspen with chokecherry understory (10-A-Prvi) 2,824 15. Aspen with Oregon grape understory (lO-A-Mare) 163 16. Aspen with oakbrush understory 17. Aspen with rose understory 18. Aspen with buffaloberry understory In order to more completely understand analysis findings 46,583 with snowberry understory (5-AME) (5-CEMO) shown in Tables 2 and 3. 1,852 (9-PJ-Cemo) (lO-A-SYM) 2,906 27,213 (lO-A-QUE) 40 (lO-A-ROS) 424 (10-A-Shca) 194 terms included in winter range in Tables 4 and 5 for the above vegetative summary of the browse condition 6,197 and soil stability condition types, a brief scorecards are �-126LAND USE STATUS RELATING TO ELK SUHMER AND WL~TER RANGES (ccn t Inued) Table 2. Browse condition class scorecard. Rating Item Composition High: Desirable and intermediate species (must be two or more) making up at least 75% or more of the composition, with desirables at least 45% of the composition. Medium: Desirable and intermediate composition, Low: Desirable species making up 50% or more of the with desirables at least 15% of the composition. and intermediate making up at least 50% of the composition. Density Very dense: 66% plus High 36% to 65% Medium 16% to 35% Low 15% minus High: Hedging of key species mostly light or moderate with less than 16% of the plants heavily hedges, and decadent minus young less than 15% of the total number of plants. Medium: Hedging of key species mostly mod.erate, not more than 35% heavily hedged and decadent minus young not more than 35% of the total number of plants. Low: More than 35% of the plants of key species heavily hedged or decadent minus young more than 35% of the total number of plants. �-127- LAND USE STATUS RELATING TO ELK SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES (continued) Table 3. Soil stability condition class scorecard. Rating Item High: Soil movement slight or none, usually 65 or more hits on ground cover and rocks. Medium: Soil movement moderate, usually 35-65 hits on ground cover and rocks. Low: Soil movement advanced, usually less than 35 hits on ground cover and rocks. Table 4. Summary of browse composition, density and vigor on elk winter range as determined by 640 transects in the White River elk study area. Vegetative Type Low 4-Artr 92 35 2 20 93 5-QUE 19 144 19 3 5-SYM 64 73 3 5-AME 0 10 5-Cemo o 5-Prvi Density Hed. High Low Vigor Med. High 13 47 25 57 60 119 29 62 91 5 48 87 20 36 84 12 0 9 13 4 8 10 5 18 2 14 7 14 6 3 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 5-Chvd 6 1 1 2 5 0 2 2 4 9-pJ 2 7 8 14 3 0 12 1 4 10-A 57 49 11 51 54 12 3 8 106 Total 240 326 74 98 290 252 131 148 361 Percent 37.5 50.9 11.6 15.3 45.3 39.4 20.5 23.1 56.4 I • ComEosition Med. High Low �-128- LAND USE STATUS RELATING TO ELK SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES (continued) . Table 5. Summary of soil conditions on elk winter range as determined by 640 transects in Wildlife Management Units 23 and 24. Vegetative Type Low Soil Condition Medium High 33 64 32 41 84 57 23 55 62 9 9 4 14 8 1 0 1 1 2 2 0 16 1 0 1 8 108 Total 139 232 269 Percent 21.7 36.3 42.0 4-Artr 5-QUE 5-SYM 5-AME 5-Cemo 5-Prvi 5-Chvd 9-PJ 10-A LITERATURE CITED Boyd, R. J. 1970. Elk of the White River Plateau, Colorado. of Wildl. Tech. Publ. No. 25. l26p. U. S. Forest Service. 1962. Big game range analysis. Rocky Mtn. Reg. USDA Publ. 49p. B. D. Trindle September 1975 Colo. Div. U. S. For. Ser., �-129GAME SPECIES - WILDLIFE ~~AGEMENT Big game mammals UNIT 12 1:./ Black bear CUrsus american~s) Uncommon. Elk (Cervus canadensis) Common. Mountain lion (Felis concolor) Uncommon. Mule deer (Odoc~s hei:lionus)COImilon. Small game mammals !! Cottontail rabbit CSylvila2us auduboni; S. nuttallii) Pine (red) squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonfcus) Common. Snowshoe hare (Lepus ane rLcanus ) Common. Small game birds Migratory Common. ~! waterfowl and shorebirds Great Basin Canada goose CBranta canadensis moffitti) Uncommon. Black brant (Branta nigricans) Possible rare migrant. White-fronted goose (Anser albifrons frontalis) Possible rare migrant. Snow goose (Chencaer~ens caerulescens) 1/ Possible rare migrant. hThistling swan (Olor colu12bianus) Possible rare migrant . •mllard CAnas pl~h\~chos DlatYrh\~chos) Common resident. !/Nomenclature Colorado. according to Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Hild maTJlll1als of 2/ - Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado Birds. Denver Nus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp , Information on occurrence IDld status aciapted from the above reference and from Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. h'ildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the ~iceance Basin, Rio Bla~co and Garfield counties, Colorado •. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, anclysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. 144 pp. Additional information on occurrence, in employing the term "possible", is adapted froo the foregoing references and also from, Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithologists. 61 pp. 3/ - Unverified in hunters' bag checks but legal game 1972 through 1975. Definitions: Common:-should be noted regularly in the normal habitat at the proper season of the year. Uncor.~on:-recorded regularly but unlikely to be seen on most field trips. Rare:-recorded a few times only, and very unlikely to be seen. Resident:-any species living in the unit. Migrant:-any species moving through th~it. Where the adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported by Division personnel or qualified observers. �-130- GAME SPECIES - WILDLIFE HANAGEHENr UNIT 12 (continued) Small game birds Gadwall (Anas strepera) Common spring and fall migrant. Pintail (Anas acuta) Common spring and fall migrant. American green-winged teal (Anas crecca carolinensfs) 41 Common migrant and uncommon yearlong resident. Blue-winged teal CAnas discors discors) Common migrant. Cinnamon teal CAnascyanoptera septentrionalium) Common migrant. American wigeon (Anas ~~ericana) 4/ Common migrant and rare winter resident. Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata)-i/ Common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Redhead (Aythya americana) Uncommon migrant. Ring-necked duck (Aythva collaris) Uncommon migrant. Canvasback (Aythya valisineria) Unccmmon to rare migrant. Greater scaup (Avthya ~arila n~arctica) Possible rare resident. Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) Uncommon migrant. Common golden-eye (Eucephala c1angula americana) Common migrant and uncommon winter resident. Barrow's golden-eye (Bucephala ~slandica) 11 Rare winter visitor. Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) Uncommon spring and fall migrant and rare winter resident. Ruddy duck (O:0{ura jamaicensis rubida) Common migrant and occasional summer resident. Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) Rare winter visitor on river. Common merganser (~!ergu~ merganser ame r i canu s) Common winter resident, uncommon summer resident. Red-breasted merganser e·lergus serra tor serrator) 11 Possible rare migrant. American coot (Fulica americana americana) Common migrant and summer resident. Common Wilson's snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) Common migrant and rare winter resident. . Sandhill crane (Grus canadensis tabida) Regular migrant. Virginia rail (Ralus limicola limicola) Possible uncommon summer resident. Sora (Porzana carolina) Possible uncommon summer resident. Upland game birds Blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus obscurus) Common. Sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus uroohasianus) Un common to common. Ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) Uncommon. Chukar (Alectoris chukar) 4/ Uncommon to rare. Band-tailed pige;n (Columb; fasciata fasciata) Possible uncommon summer and fall migrant. Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura marginel1a) il Common summer resident. 4/ Sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus) Wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) Rare. Uncommon. - Changes in the nomenclature follow the thirty-second supplement to the American Ornithologists Union check-list of North American birds published in Auk 90:411-419, April, 1973. W. T. McKean September 1975 �-131OTHER MAMMALIAN SPECIES 1/_ WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 Furbearers ];/ Short-haired Beaver (Castor canadensis) Uncommon. Mink (Mustela vision) Uncertain. Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Uncommon. Ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) Rare. Weasels (Hustela e.rminea, M. frenata) M. erminea Uncertain; M. frenata Uncommon. Long-haired Kit fox (Vulpes velox) Uncommon. Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) Uncommon. American badger (Taxidea taxus) Common to uncommon. Spotted skunk (Spilogale ~ius) Uncommon. Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) Common. "Varmint" mammals Coyote (Canis latrans) Common. Red fox (Vulpe~. !ulva) Uncommon. Raccoon (Procvc1"'lotor) Uncommon. Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Common. Bob.cat.(v., i ~-;-1'··)(Lynxrufus) Common. Black-tailed ,;ck -;.iLbit(Lepus californicus) Rare to uncommon. White-tailed j.:~ckrabbit (Lepus townsendii) Common. Yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) Common. lmite-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys leucurus) Uncommon. Richardson's ground squirrel (Spermophilus richardsonii) Common. Thirteen-lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) Common. Rock squirrel (Spermophilus variegatus) Common to uncommon. Northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) Common 1/ - These spe cfes , gr.ouped separately as "Furbearers", "Varmints" and "Nongame mammals" and c.uts i.«- of "g ame" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutues 1963 As hfiel:.led,inColo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1975 (Art. 1, Items 14, 20, 31, and 42, Definitions, p. 2). IINomenclature from Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Wild mammals of Colorado. Pruett Publishing Co., Boulder. 254 pp. Information on occurrence and status from the above reference and: Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife. in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase One of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado, l44pp. Also, Arms t roig , D. N. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Monograph of the Ml!seum of Natural History, the Univ. of Kansas, Numb er 3, 1972. 4l5pp. �-l32Definitions: Connnon:-shouid be noted regularly in the normal habitat at the proper season of the year. Uncommon:-recorded regularly but unlikely to be seen on most field trips. Rare:-recorded a few times only, and very unlikely to be seen. Resident:-any species living in the unit. Migrant:-any species moving through the unit. Where the adjective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported by Division personnel or qualified observers. Nongame mammals Golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) Common; White-tailed antelope squirrel (Ammosoermophilus leucurus) Uncommon. Least chipmunk (Eutamias minimus) Common. Colorado Chipmun~ (Eutamias quadrivittatus) Connnon. Unita ch f.pmun k (Eutamias umbrinus) Un conmori to uncertain. Vagrant shrew (Sorex vagrans) Uncommon. Merriams shrew (Sorex merriami) 3/ Uncertain. Masked shrew (Sorex cinereus) Un~ommon. Ta.vnsend's big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendii) Common. Silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) Uncommon. Hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) Uncommon - common. Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) Common. Western pipistrelle (Pipistrellus hesperus) Common. Long-legged myotis(Myotis volans) Uncommon. California myotis (Myotis californicus) Uncommon. Small-footed myotis (Myotis leibii) Common. Long-eared myotis (Myotis evotis) Uncommon. Little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) Uncommon. Ord's kangaroo rat (Dipodomys ordii) Un common - uncertain. Apache pocket mouse (Perognathus apache) Uncommon. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys magalolis) Uncertain. Canyon mouse (Peromyscus crinitus) Common - uncommon. Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) Common. Pinon mouse (Peromyscus truei) Common. Bushy-tailed wood rat (Neotoma cinerea) Common. Desert wood rat (Neotoma lepida) Rare. Gapper's red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapoeri) Uncommon. Montane vole (Mi:rotus montanus) Uncommon. Long-tailed vole (Microtus longicaudus) Common. Sagebrush vole (Lagurus curtatus) Common. House mouse (Hus musculus) Uncommon. ~estern jumping mouse (Z~pus princeps) Uncommon. ~/Occurrence listed by the Colo. Div. of Wildlife as extremely unusual - very few documented records within the past decade. (1972 Status Evaluation for Selected Colorado Species) appended to: 1973 Wildlife Operations Work Plan, Field Order No. 4 - 1973. W. T. McKean November 1975 �-133OTHER AVIAN SPECIES II - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 "Varmint" birds English sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) Common resident. Black-billed magp~Pica pica 11Udsonla) Common resident. Starling (Sturnus vu1~s) Co~on ~esident. Rock dove (Columbia livia) Uncommon resident. Nongame birds 11 Common loon (Gavia immer) Possible rare migrant. Horned grebe (Podiceps auritus cornutus) Possible rare migrant. Pied-billed grebe (Podi1ymbus podiceps podiceps) Possible uncommon migrant and unco~on summer resident. Great blue heron (Ardea herodias treganzai) Common summer resident. Snowy egret (Egretta thula brewsteri) Uncommon summer resident 11. Black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax hoact1i) Common swnmer resident. White-faced ibis ~legadis chihi) Uncommon migrant. Semipalmated plover (Charaarius semipa1matus) Possible rare migrant. Killdeer (Charadiu~ vociferus vociferus) Common summer resident and rare winter resident. Mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) Possible rare migrant 11. !I These species, grouped separately as "Varmint" birds, "Nongame birds" and "Raptores" and outside of "game" categories, follow Chapter 62, Colo. Rev. Statutes 1962 As Amended, in Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Laws and Regulations Hdbk., 1975. (Art. 1, Items 20, 28, 31, and 42, Definitions, p , 2). 1/ Nomenclature from Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado Birds. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist. 168 pp. Information on occurrence and status adapted from the above reference and Davis, W. A. 1969. Birds in western Colorado. Colorado Field Orrif.t hoLog Lst.s, 61 pp , 3/ - Changes in nomenclature follow the Thirty-second Supplement to the American Ornithologists Union Checklist of North American Birds published in Auk 90(2):411-419. April, 1973. Definitions: Common:-should be noted regularly in the normal habitat at the proper season of the year. Uncommon:-recorded regularly but unlikely to be seen on most field trips. Rare:-recorded a few times only, and very unlikely to be seen. Resident:-any species living in the unit. Higran~:-any species moving through the' unit. 'iVherethe adj ective "possible" is absent, actual sightings have been reported by Division personnel or qualified observers. Notations concerning seasonal abundance of raptors are by Gerald R. Craig, Wildlife Biologist. �-134OTHERAVIAl'i SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Black-bellied plover (Pluvialis squatarola) Possible uncornmon migrant 3/. .Long-billed cur-lew (Numenius americanllS americanus) Possible rare migr;nt. Spotted sandpiper (Arctitis Placularia) Possible common summer resident. Solitary sandpiper (Trin>'a solitaria cinnamomea) Possible COIrJl1on migrant. and occasional summer resident. Greater sandhill crane (Crus c:madensis possible surr~er resident endangered. ta~Jida) Regular migrant and Willet (CataptroDhorus semipalmatus inornatus) Possible rare migrant. Greater yellm-llegs (Tringa rr:elanoleuca) Possible common migrant 3/. Lesser yelloH'legs (Tl~Lng~ f1avipes) Possible uncommon migrant 1/:E'.~dknot (Calidris C2~.ltus r uf a ) Possible rare migrant ]). Pectoral sandpi.per (C<,l.lidris med.anotos) Possible rare migrant 3/. Baird's sandpiper (Caliclris bairdii) Possible common migrant Least sandpiper (C81~~i~tili-;-) Possible common migrant 3/. J.ong-billed dowi t che r (Lii":moclromus scolopaceus) Possible unco;'Jl1on migrant. Stilt sandpiper (Nicropalmn }!i:nantopus) Possible rare migrant. Semipalmated sandpiper (Caliclris ~~ill~) Possible rare migrant ]./. l-lestern sandpiper (Calidris maur i) Possible UnCOITUllOn migrant 3/. Harbled godwi t (Limosa fedoa) Possible rare spring migrant. Sanderling (Calidris alba) Possible rare migrant 3/. American avocet (Recu"i--V:;:-~ostraaii1erjc •. ma) Rare migrant. Black-necked stilt (!!;:n:lantopus me}:ic<lnu~) Possible rare migrant. llilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor) Possible common migrant and uncommon summer- resident. 37. Northern phalarope (Lob~ lobatus) Possible uncommon migrant. Herring gull (Larus argentatus S!"'1ithsonian~~) Possible unCOIl1ffion migrant. California gull (Larus cali.fornicus) Possible rare migrant. Ring-billed gull (Larus deLmarensis) Possible uncommon migrant. Franklin's gull (La ru s p-ipixcan) Possible unCOTllITlon migrant. Bonaparte's gull (~~~il~~elphia) Possible rare migrant • .Sabine's gull (Xem3 sabini s2bini) Possible rare migrant. Forster's tern (St;rna fors~~possible rare migrant. Common tern (Sterna hirundo hirundo) Possible rare migrant. Least tern (Sterna'albafrons 2tba12sso~) Possible rare migrant. Black tern (Chlidonias niger sur~namensis) Possible uncommon migrant. Rock dove (CoLunb a Ltv I a ) Possible common resident. Unprotected. YelloH-billed cuckoo (CoccyZUS amer'iC;1llUS americanus) Possible rare summer resident. Poor-,vill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii Common n Lgh t hawk (Chorde i.Les minor surrmer resident. nuttallii) besperis; Uncommon summer resident. C. m, howeI L) Common - White-throated swt.f t (Acronautes saxatalis sc.Lat cr L) Common summer resident. Black-chinned hummingbird (Archi.lochus aLexand r I ) Uuconrnon summer resident. Broad-tailed hurruningblrcl (Selasphorus platycercus platycercus) Common summer resident. Rufous hummingbird (Sela~;phorus .£ufus) Possible common late summer migrant. Calliope hUllliningbJrd (Stel1ula cal1iore) Possible common late summer migrant. Leltt.,J kingfisher (Hegaceryle nlcyon nlcyon) Possible common resident. Common flicker (Col~tcs au r a t us carer) Commonresident Lewf.s" woodpecker (Asvndo smun le\vis) Possible uncommon summer resJdent. Red-headed woodpecker (!'!cl-;;l~rPc~rythrocephaltls) Possible rare resident. 1/. �-135- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Pileated woodpecker resident. (Dryocopus pileatus oicinus) Possible rare summer Yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nuchaliae) Common summer and possible occasional vlinter resident. Williamson's sapsucker (Sphyrapicus thyroideus nataliae) Possible uncommon summer resident. Hairy woodpecker (Dendrocopos villosus monticola) Common year-a-round resident. Downy \'loodpecker (Dendroc~")os l'ubescens leucurus) Common year-a-round resident. Eastern kingbjrd (Tyrannus tyrannus) Uncommon summer resident. Western kingbird (Tyrili~nusverticalis) Common Su~mer resident. Ash-throated flycatcher (?!riarchus_cinerascens cinerascens) Common summer resident. Say's phoebe resident. (Sayornis ~ saya) Common summer and possible rare winter Willow flycatcher (Empidonas traillii) Possible uncommon summer resident )./. Hammond's flycatcher (Emoidonax hammondii) Possible migrant and uncommon summer resident. Dusky flycatcher (Empidonax oberholseri) Summer resident. Gray flycatcher (EmDidonax wrightii) Common summer resident. Western flycatcher (Emoidonax dHficilis hellmavri) Common summer resident. Western wood :)ee~"ee(Contopus ;-~~ ~iei) Common summer resident. Olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealis) Possible common summer resident. Horned lark (Erernophila alpestris leucolaerna) Common year-a-round resident and migran t , Violet-green swallow '(Trachvcineta thalassina lepida) Common summer resident. Tree swallow (Iridoorocne bicolor) Cornman migrant and sununer resident. Bank swallow (~aria riparia riparia) Possible uncommon migrant and summer resident. Rough-wf.nged swa l Loo (Stelgidooteryx ruficollis serripennis) Uncommon migrant and summer resident. Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica erythrogaster) Cocrrnonsummer resident. Cliff swallow (Petrochelidon ovrrhonota pvrrhonota) Conunon summer resident. Gray jay (Perisoreus canadensis caDitalis) Possible uncommon resident. Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stelleri macrolopha) Common resident. Scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens woodhouseii) Common resident. Common raven (Corvus corax sinuatus) Common resident. Common crow (Corvus b~rhynchos brachyrhvnchos) Uncommon resident. Pinon jay (Gymnorhjnus cvanoceohalus) Common SUllli"fier )./ and winter resident. Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana) Common resident. Black-capped chickadee (Paru~ articapillus garrinus) Common resident. Hountain chickadee (Parus gambeli g<1moeli) Common resident. Plain titmouse (Parus_ inornatus ridg~"ayi) Uncommon resident. Bushtit (Psaltriparus minimus olumbeus) Possible cornman resident 1/. White-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis nelsoni) Possible' uncommon resident. Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis) Possible rare year-a-round resident. Pygmy nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea rnelanotis) Possible uncommon resident. �-136- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Brown creeper (Certhia famlliarismorttana) Possible uncommon year-around resident. Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus unico10r) Common resident. House wren (Trog~~edon parkmanii) Common summer resident. Bewick's wren (Thrvooanes pe,.;ickiieremoohilus) Possible summe r resident and rare winter resident. Canyon wren (Sa1pinctes mexicanus consperus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Rock wr en (~.?lpinctes obso1etus obsoletu~) Common summer and possible rare winter resident • .Hock Ingb Lrd (!-fiouspol vz Lo t t os leucooterus) Uncommon summer resident. Gray catbird (Dumete11a caroli~ensis) Possible rare summer resident 3/. Sage thrasher (Oreoscops_es ::lontanus)Possible common summer resident-:American rob In (Turdus !2igratorius propinquus) Common summer and winter resident 3/. Hermit thrush (Catharus guttatus audubonii) Common summer resident 1/. Swainson's thrush (Catharus ustulatus almae) Uncommon migrant. Veery (Catharus fucescens salicico1a) Uncommon migrant and summer resident 1/. Western bluebird (5i211a oex1cana baird i) Common migrant and uncommon summer resident. Mountain bluebird (S1a1ia currucoides) Common migrant and summer resident and possible occasional winter resident. Townsend's solitaire C.fvadestes townsendi tovnsend L) Uncommon r-esLden t , Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Poliptila-C;~ru1ea amoenissima) Common summer resident. Golden-cro'-'11edkinglet (Regulus satrapa amoenus) Possible uncommon migrant and rare sunner resident. Ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula cineraceus) Possible uncommon migrant and sumwer resident. Bohemian waxwing (Bor::bvcillagarrulus pallidiceps) Possible irregular winter migrant 1/. Cedar waxwf.ng (Bornbvc i Ll.a cedrorum) Uncommon resident. Northern shrike (Lanius excub1tor invictus) Common winter resident. Loggerhead shrike (L2.:1iusluiovic1anus excubitorides) Possible uncommon summer and unco~on winter resident. Gray vireo (Vireo vicinioc) Possibl~ COlll..'!lon summer resident. Solitary vireo (Vireo soli-tarius pLumb eu s) Common summer resident. Red-eyed vireo (Vireo oliv2c2us) Possible rare summer resident. Warbling vireo (Vireo gi~ '/11S 5"ainsonii) Common summer resident. Tennessee warbler (VelTIivora oere£rina) Possible rare but regular migrant. Orange-crow'I1ed warbler (Vermivora celata orestera) Common migrant and summer resident. Nashville warbler (Vernivora ruficapilla ridgwayi) Possible rare migrant. Virginia's warbler (Vermivora viYS!iniae) Common surnmer resident. Yellow warbler (Dendroica petecnia aestiva) Common su~uer resident. Ye.I Low-rrurupcd warbler (Dcndroica coronata memorabilis) Common summer resident 3/; (D. c. co ronn t a) Possible common migrant 3/. Black-throat;d gr-;;-y ~-;arble.r(DE:ndroica nigrescens) Possible common summer resident. Townsend's warbler (Dendroica towu·sendi) Uncommon fall migrant. MacGillivray's warbler (Oporornis tolmiei monticola) Common summer resident. �-137- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Common yellowthroat (Ceothylpis trichas occidentalis: Q. ~. campicola) Possible uncommon summer- resident 3/. Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens auricollis) Possible common summer resident. .. Wilsonis warbler (Wilsonia pusilla pileolata) Possible common migrant and summer resident. American redstart (Setophaga ruticilla tricolora) Possible rare migrant. House sparrow (Passerdomesticus domesticus) Common resident. Bobolink (Dolichonyx orvzivorus) Possible uncommon summer migrant. Western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta neglecta) Common summer and possible uncommon winter resident. Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) Common summer resident. Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus fortis) Common resident. Northern oriole (Icterus galbula bullockii) Possible common summer resident 3/. . . Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus carolinus) Possible rare winter migrant. Bre'ver's blackbird (Euphagus cvanoceDhalus) Common resident. Common grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) Possible rare su~er resident. Brown-headed cowbird (}lolothrus ater artemisiae) Common summer resident. Western tanager (Piranga ludovic~) Common migrant and summer resident. Scarlet tanager (Piran~ olivacea) Possible rare migrant. Black-headed grosbeak (Pheucticus melanocephalus melanoceuhalus) Uncommon summer resident. Lazuli bunting (Passerina amoena) Common summer resident. Evening grosbeak (Hesperiphona vespertina brooksi) Uncommon summer resident and irregular winter resident. Cassin's finch (Carpodacus cassinii) Common resident. House finch (Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis) Commonsummerand_possiple uncommon winter resident. Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator montana) Possible uncommon resident. Gray-cro,med rosy finch (Leucosticte teuhrocotis tephrocotis; L. t. littoralis) Possible common winter resident. Black rosy finch (Leucosticte atrata) Possible common winter migrant. Brotvn-capped rosy finch (Leucosticte australis) Possible common winter migrant. Common redpoll (Acanthis flammea flammea) Possible rare winter migrant. Pine siskin (Spinus pinus pinus) Common resident. American goldfinch (Spinus tristus tristus; ~ •.~. pallidus) Possible Common summer and uncommon winter resident. Lesser goldfinch (Suinus usaltri.a psaltria) Possible uncommon summer and rare winter resident. Green-tailed towhee (Chiorura chlorura) Common summer resident. Rufous-sided towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus montanus) Common summer and rare winter resident. Lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) Possible uncommon summer resident. Savannah sparrow (Passerculus sand\vichensis nevadensis; anthinus) Common migrant and Slli~er resident. Grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus ~avannarum perpallidus) Possible uncommon summer resident. Vesper sparrow (Pooecetes gramineus confinis) Common migrant and summer resident. .!:. ~. �-138- OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Nongame birds Lark sparrow (Chondestes grammacus strigatus) Common migrant and summer resident. Black-throated sparrow (Amphispiza bilineata deserticola) Possible common resident. Sage sparrow (Amphispiza belli nevadensis) Common summer resident. Dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis aikeni) Possible rare winter resident 1/; (~. ~. hyemalis; ~. ~. cismontanus) Rare winter resident 1/; (J. h. oreganus) Common winter resident 3/; (J. h. o. var. mearnsi) C~mm~n winter resident 3/. - - Gray-headed junco (Junco c;niceps caniceps) Common summer and winter resident. Tree sparrow (Spizella arborea ochracea) Possible unco~~on winter migrant. Clay-colored sparrow (Spizella pallida) Possible courrnonmigrant. Chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina boreophila) Common summer resident. Brewer's sparrow (Spizella breweri breweri) Common summer resident. Harris' sparrow (Zonotrichia guerula) Possible uncourrnonmigrant and rare winter resident. White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucrophrys) Common resident. White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis) Possible rare migrant. Fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca schistace~) Rare summer resident. Lincoln's sparrow (~lelospiza lincolnii alticola) Possible common migrant and summer resident. Song sparrow: (Melospiza melodia) Common summer and uncommon winter resident. Raptors 1/ ;/ Turkey vulture (Cathartes ~ meridional is) Courrnonsummer and rare winter resident. Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis atricapillus) Common resident. Sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus velox) Common resident. Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) Comm~sident. Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis calurus) Common resident. Swainson's hawk (Buteo swainsoni) Uncommon summer resident. Rough-legged hawk (Buteo lagopus ~. johannis) Common winter resident and migrant. Ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis) Uncommon resident. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos canadensis) Common resident 4/. Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus) Common. winter resident 4/. �-139OTHER AVIAN SPECIES (continued) Raptors Marsh hawk (Circus syaneus hudsonius) Cornmon summer and uncommon winter resident. ~ Osprey (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis) Uncommon migrant, rare summer resident. Prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) Uncommon resident. Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum) Rare migrant, endangered. Merlin (Falco colurnbarius) Uncommon winter migrant 3/. American kestrel (Falco sparverius sparverius) Common summer and uncommon winter resident. Screech owl (Otus asio) Cornmon resident. Flammulated owl (Otus flarnmeolus flarnrneolus)Rare summer resident. Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Common resident. Pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma californicum) Rare resident. Burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia .bY.Eugaea)Rare resident. Long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus) Uncommon resident. Short-eared owl (Asio~mmeus flammeus) Common summer resident and uncommon winter migrant. Saw-whet owl (Aegolius acadicus acadicus) Uncommon resident. ADDITIONAL LITERATURE REFERENCES Cringan, A. T., and L. Carlson. 1973. Wildlife in the Piceance Creek Basin, In: An environmental reconnaissance of the Piceance Basin, Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado. A report on the completion of Part 1, Phase one of the environmental inventory, analysis and impact study portion of the Regional Oil Shale Study being done for the State of Colorado by the Thorne Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. 144 pp. Martin, G. S., P. H. Baldwin, and E. B. Reed. 1974. Recent records of birds from the Yampa Valley, northwestern Colorado. Condor 76(1):113-116. Smith, A. G. 1973. Avian environmental features at the Colony plant site, Garfield County, Colorado. Environmental inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute for Colony Development Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1974. W. T. McKean and B. D. Trindle September 1975 �-140DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF BIG GAME MAMHALS WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 12 BLACK BEAR Almost the entire unit is occupied by black bears. section in the extreme northwest Only a small part bordering Axial is excluded from their range. The Colorado suggests Division a density total occupied of Wildlife, figure ranging between range~ (1974), .056 and .035 mile2 for the W.C.O. estimates for 1975 yielded a of 15 bears and a minimum Estimated Inventory Systems These density estimates yield an "overall" popu- lation of 23 bears on Unit 12. maximum Wildlife of 9 bears on Unit 12. average annual black bear harvest for the 19 year period 1956- 1974, inclusive, was 1.4 bears. This is based upon hunter report card surveys for years 1956-1971 and a random sample for 1971-1974. Annual harvest ranged from 0 to 6; there were ten years out of the nineteen when no bears were reported taken. ELK The summer range of elk on Unit 12 is almost entirely restricted two national elevations forests (Routt and White). of the unit, generally distribution w.e.o. Roland the higher above 8,000 feet in elevation. the arrival of winter and increased higher elevations This area represents to the With snow depths the el~ pull off of the and move onto their winter range (see accompanying map). (1975 pers. comm.) estimates about 2,500 elk summer and , winter on Unit 12. He feels that there is some interchange between Units �-14111, 23, and 24 but that the population Mean annual elk harvest Annual harvest remains fairly constant. (1956-1974) was 375, including archery. ranged from 151 to 814 (see Harvest Data presented in this report). MULE DEER Wildlife Management Unit 12 is basically divided to mule deer winter and summer ranges. contains higher elevations tions in the northern accompanying The southern half of the unit and is the summer range. distribution map). Dividing elevation between the two 7,500 feet. Data provided by Colorado Division of Wildlife, (1974) indicated a winter population density of 12.7 deer per square mile. the same population The lower eleva- half of the unit make up the winter range (see rIDlges is approximately Systems in half with respect Wildlife Inventory of 2,416 animals with a This source also assumed that summers on the unit. W.C.O. Roland (1975 pers. comm.) concurs with this estimate. Mean annual deer harvest (1956-1974) was 724, including archery. harvest ranged from 303 to 1,764 (see Harvest Data presented Annual in this report). MOUNTAIN LION No mountain lions are found on Unit 12, according of Wildlife, Wildlife Inventory Systems to Colorado Division (1974), and W.C.O. 's connected with the unit. Since establishment of the mountain lion as a game species on July 1, 1965, no recorded kill exists for Wildlife Management Unit 12. �-142LITERATURE Colorado Division Statewide Wildlife Inventory Systems. mammal and bird distribution from W.C.O., Located of Wildlife, CITED area supervisor, 1974. maps and data compiled and regional biologist at Denver office, Colorado Div. Wildlife. input. Unpublished. B. D. Trind1e December 1975 �-143DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF SMALL GAME HAMMALS WILDLIFE HANAGEHENT UNIT 12 COTTONTAIL RABBIT Nearly every square mile of Unit 12 below 8,000 feet elevation sidered capable of supporting Both the desert cottontail the desert cottontail and the Nuttall's at least some cottontail and the Nuttall's cottontail being common at lower elevations cottontail being less abundant rabbits yearlong. should occur; (5,000-7,000 ft) (Lech1eitner 1969, Armstrong 1972). No specific data are available on cottontail rabbit densities it should be kept in mind that the populations are cyclic, presenting the appearance ft) in the higher elevations (6,000-8,000 However is con- for Colorado. of these rabbits of high and low densities from year to year. SNOWSHOE HARE Snowshoe hares are distributed throughout (see accompanying map). distribution the eastern half of Unit 12 This range includes most of the timbered land above 8,000 feet in elevation. Colorado Division of Wildlife, a density of L4 hares per square mile for the occupied density Wildlife figure yields a year-round Inventory population Systems (1974) gives range. This of 296 snowshoe hares in Unit 12. RED (PINE) SQUIRREL Armstrong (1972) and Lech1eitner be fairly common in the coniferous (1969) suggest that this squirrel forests of the higher elevations 12. No data on abundance or harvest are available. should in Unit �/ -144LITERATURE Armstrong, D. M. 1972. of Kansas Printing Colorado Division CITED Distribution of mammals Service, Lawrence. of Wildlife, Wildlife 415 pp. Inventory Systems. Statewide mammal and bird distribution from W.C.D., area supervisor, in Colorado, Univ. 1974. maps and data compiled and regional biologist Located at Denver office, Colo. Div. Wildlife. input. Unpublished. B. D. Trindle December 1975 �-145DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF S~~L GAME BIRDS WILDLIFE MANAGE~lliNTUNIT 12 BLUE GROUSE Blue grouse are distributed southern two-thirds throughout of Unit 12. the upper elevations of the This includes most of the brush and timbered areas of the unit which provide suitable habitat for the grouse. Colorado Division (1974) estimated the occupied of Wildlife, Wildlife Inventory Systems blue grouse density at 4.7 birds per square mile for range. This estimate resulted in a year-round population of 1,493 birds. SAGE GROUSE The distribution the northwest of sage grouse in Unit 12 consists of three areas in corner according to W.C.O. Roland Two of the areas have relatively high densities (1975 pers. comm.). of birds. along Milk Creek and the other is at the base of Monument Stinking Gulch. The low density area surrounds (see accompanying distribution map). Colorado of Wildlife, Wildlife Division One is located Butte along the aforementioned Inventory Systems areas (1974) estimate the high density areas to be between 13 and 21 birds p~r square mile, and the low density area at about 1 bird per square mile. W.C.O. Roland (1975 pers. corom.) agrees with these estimates. SHARP-TAILED Sharp-tailed GROUSE grouse are found in two areas within Unit 12. area (82 square miles) surrounds Thornburgh round popUlation Wildlife of 74 birds according Inventory Systems (1974). Mountain The largest and contains a year- to Colorado Division of Wildlife, The other area (12 square miles) �-146- extends along the Williams Fork of the Williams Fork River from Waddle Creek to the East Fork. This area supports a total population of 53 birds. BAND-TAILED The summer distribution of Unit 12, generally accompanying of band-tailed pigeons is in the southern half being within the White River National distribution 300 band-tai1e1 PIGEON map). Forest (see This area is thought to contain up to pigeons during the summer months (C1ait Braun, pers. comm.). MOURNING According to Colorado Division (1974) mourning of Wildlife, doves are distributed edge of the unit. agricultural DOVE Wildlife Inventory Systems in the northwest and northcentral This area takes up most of the lower elevations lands of Unit 12. Mourning and doves are fairly common in the unit during the spring and summer months, promptly migrating with the first frosts. Abundance of mourning doves on Unit 12 is estimated at approximately 1,254 birds with a density of 8.1 birds per square mile of occupied range. WATERFOWL Waterfowl can be found everywhere Suitable habitat 'includes lakes, rivers, streams, stockponds, No data on abundance in Unit 12 where suitable habitat exists. and marshes. are available. PHEASANT Pheasant distribution Unit 12, according includes the suitable habitat in Axial Basin within to W.C.O. Roland (1975 pers. comm.). The popUlation is �-147doing poorly in this area and is thought to be marginal at best. TURKEY W.C.O. Roland established mately (1975 pers. comm.) says that wild turkeys were well in Unit 12 during the 1960's, with a population 200 birds. population When this report was compiled had either migrated of approxi- (Dec. 1975) the turkey out of the area or had dropped to such low levels that they had become unobservable. The turkey's original distribution of Sand Creek with the is centered around the convergence East Fork of the Williams Fork. LITERATURE Colorado Division Statewide Wildlife Inventory mammal and bird distribution from W.C.O., Located of Wildlife, CITED area supervisor, Systems. 1974. maps and data compiled and regional biologist at Denver office, Colorado Division input. of Wildlife. Unpublished. B. D. Trindle December 1975 �-148DEER HARVEST, SEASONS ~~ HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HANAGEMEh"'TUNIT 12 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE l/ ~ HARVEST DOES FAIVNS TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 1956 469 200 89 14 303 ·IDH 10/15 - 10/30 1957 972 525 365 103 993 2DH 9/14 - 9/30, In Part 2DH 10/15 - 11/17 1958 750 307 138 54 499 ES 10/15 - 11/2 1959 605 290 114 48 452 ES 10/17 - 11/3 1960 771 376 235 70 693 ES 10/17 - 11/6 1DM 12/1 - 12/15, In Part 1961 924 543 260 100 903 IDM 10/21 - 11/8, In Part 3DA 10/28 - 11/3, In Part 1DM 12/2 - 12/152 In Part 1962 1312 519 340 65 924 IDM 8/18 - 9/3, In Part ES 10/20 - 11/4 1963 1588 941 593 230 1764 2DM 10/19 - 11/7, In Part 2DMA 10/19 - 11/7, In Part. 1964 1451 485 261 67 813 ES 10/17 - 11/5 1965 1730 478 320 111 909 ES 10/16 - 11/5 1DM 11/25 - 12/52 In Part °1966 1325 381 179 55 615 ES 10/15 - 10/31 1967 1191 422 214 33 669 ES 10/21 - 11/9 1968 1556 544 261 42 847 ES 10/19 - 11/7 ES 11/27 - 12/82 In Part 1969 1080 307 267 61 635 ES 10/18 - 11/6 1970 1265 502 5 0 507 1DB 10/17 - 11/6 1971 631 384 0 0 384 1DB 10/30 - II/II 1972 942 484 204 20 708 1DB 10/14 - 10/23, In Part IDA 11/18 - 11/262 In Part 1973 1181 445 212 67 724 1DB 10/13 - 10/23, In Part IDA 10/11 - 10/23. In Part IDA 11/17 - 12/2, In Part 1974 616 290 0 0 290 1DB 10/26 - 11/5 (Footnotes on fo11oW1ng page) �-149- DEER HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 (Continued) 1/ - Based upon combined total resident and non-resident license sales and expressed in number of licenses, not including archery hunters. Note: ES Hunt symbols explained as follows: = Either sex, one deer (one license). 2ES Either sex, two deer (one license). lDA One deer, antlerless lDB One deer, buck only (one license). IDM One deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). lDMA = One deer multiple, per individual) • one must be antlerless 2DM Two deer multiple, either sex (2 licenses and 4 deer per individual). 2DMA Two deer mUltiple, per individual). one must be antlerless 3DA Three deer, one must be antlerless on 2nd license). Note: The term lDM evolved into 2D, HC or two deer, hunters choice licenses and 2 deer per individual) and is synonymous. only (one license). (2 licenses and 2 deer (2 licenses and 4 deer (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon B. D. Trindle August 1975 (2 �-150PRIMITIVE DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 12 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1973-1974) HARVEST YEAR 1973 JJ BUCKS --- DOES FAWNS --- TOTAL HUNT AND SEASON 4 9 4 17 ES 9/8 - 9/16, In Part 4 0 0 4 lDB 9/14 - 9/22, In Part 1./ 1974 !/ Free permits issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by application only. Forty resident and non-resident muzzle-loaders. 1/ Thirty Note: ES lDB two resident and non-resident muzzle-loaders. Hunt symbols as follows: = Either sex, one deer (one license). One deer, buck only (one license). B. D. Trindle Septe.mbe:r1975 �-151ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEHEt;T~IT 12 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) YEAR 1/ BUCKS DOES FAWNS 1956 !±/ ES 10/1 - 10/14 1957 1958 Regular Season Only 0 4 0 4 1959 1960 ES 9/1 - 9/30 ES 9/15 - 9/30 2 0 0 2 1961 1962 3/ HUNT AND SEASON - TOTAL 2:./ ES 9/10 - 9/30 1DM 8/26 - 9/10, In Part 3DA 8/26 - 9/10, In Part 1DM 11/11 - 11/26, In Part 3DA 11/11 - 11/26, In Part 0 2 0 2 1963 ES 8/25 - 9/23 ES 8/17 - 9/8 1964 4 5 0 9 ES 8/15 - 9/13 1965 0 5 0 5 ES 8/21 - 9/12 1966 0 2 0 2 ES 8/20 - 9/18 1967 0 3 0 3 ES 8/19 - 9/17 1968 2 6 0 8 ES8/17 1969 2 0 0 2 lDB 8/16 - 9/14 1970 ~/ 6 5 0 11 lOB 8/15 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1971 1 0 0 1 lOB 8/21 - 9/12 1972 11 7 0 18 lOB 8/19 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1973 13 13 0 26 lDB 8/18 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/23 1974 0 0 0 0 lOB 8/17 - 8/31 1DB 9/1 - 9/22 (Footnotes on following page) - 9/15 �-152ARCHERY DEER HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 (Continued) 1/ Year 1956 Free pe~its issued to holders of regular big game hunting licenses by application only. Years 1957-1960, no issue of special permits; archery hunting allowed to holders of valid deer licenses. Years 1961-1974, separate archery license regulations in effect. 2/ - Does not include harvest by archers during gun seasons. Inconclusive harvest data omitted for years 1956, 1957, 1959, 1961, and 1963. 3/ - Bow hunting permitted during all regular rifle seasons with regular Colorado deer license. For years 1956--1969 no hunter pressure data available for Unit 12. and non-resident archery hunters, 1970-74 by year were: 1970 _ 65; 1971 - 92; 1972 - 88; 1973 - 105; 1974 - 55. ~/Resident Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: ES = Either sex, one deer (one license). IDB = One deer, buck only. IDM 3DA One deer multiple, = either sex (2 licenses and 2 deer per individual). Three deer, one must be antlerless on 2nd license. (2 licenses plus 3rd deer coupon B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-153TOTAL DEER HARVEST,DATA "ANALYSIS UNIT 7, 1963-1974, BY SEX !I HARVEST YEAR "BUCKS -- DOES FAWNS -- TOTAL -- 1963 16117 14999 5018 36134 1964 14734 12170 2946 29850 1965 8161 10127 2739 21027 1966 8394 7558 2361 18313 1967 10582 8143 2150 20875 1968 11076 8468 2407 21951 1969 8108 5493 1676 15277 1970 10335 3577 400 14312 1971 8945 0 0 8945 1972 12655 4870 554 18079 1973 9323 3978 642 13943 1974 7380 220 33 7633 1/ DAU Unit 7 incorporates Wildlife Management Units 11, 12, 13, 22, 23, . 24, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, and 34. B. D. Trind1e August 1975 �-154LINEAR REGRESSION OF EITHER SEX DEER SEASONS 1/ WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 3000 2500 2000 HARVEST 1500 1000 . 500 . L- ~ 500 1000 1500 ~ ~___~ 2000 2500 3000 HUNTING PRESSURE Correlation Coefficient r = 0.9209 Intercept Slope 230.8780 0.3589 1.1 Either sex season data obtained Pressure Section. from Deer Harvest, Seasons and Hunting �-155ELK HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE HA.c\lAGEMENTUNIT 12 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE 1956 HARVEST CALVES TOTAL 1/ HUNT A1TD SEASON - 10 151 AO + 150 ESP 10/15 - 10/31 26 2 137 AO + 100 ESP 10/15 - 10/31 179 20 2 201 AO + 50 ESP 10/15 - 11/2 669 179 25 2 206 AO + 100 ESP 10/17 - 11/3 1960 660 238 23 1 262 AO + 1961 874 226 226 AO 10/21 - 11/8 1962 885 202 202 AO 10/20 - 11/4 1963 954 210 210 AO 10/19 - 11/7 1964 1390 341 28 8 377 AO + 50 ESP 10/17 - 11/5 1965 1238 355 24 3 382 AO + 50 C 10/16 - 11/5 1966 1325 365 33 8 399 AO + 75 C 10/15 - 11/3 1967 1525 358 4.0 11 409 AO + 150 C 10/21 - 11/9 1968 1756 446 94 18 558 AO + 180 C 10/19 - 11/7 1969 1569 429 109 15 553 AO + 200 C 10/18 - 11/6 1970 2170 141 34 4 619 AO + 250 C 10/17 - 11/6 1971 1064 286 34 4 324 AO + 200 C 10/16 - 10/25 1972 1006 157 40 2 199 AO £/ + 200 C 10/28 - 11/12 1973 1981 645 160 31 836 AO + 400 C 10/27 - 11/11 1974 2687 616 164 19 799 AO ;- 600 C 10/12 - 10/22 BULLS -- COWS 519 103 38 1957 554 109 1958 668 1959 50 ESP 10/17 - 11/6 1:../ Antlered only, four points or better on one side. ~/ The hunt and season column reflects permits issued for Area B. In 1956 Area B consisted of Wildlife Management Units 12, 13 and 26. During the years 1957-1974 Area B consisted of Units 12 and 13. (Footnotes continued on following page). �-156ELK HARVEST, SEASONS AND HUNTING PRESSURE (continued) WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 Note: Hunt symbols are explained as follows: AO AO + ESP = Antlered only, plus either sex permits. AO + C = Antlered only, plus specified number of cow permits. B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-157ARCHERY ELK HARVEST, SEASONS A1~ HUNTING PRESSURE WILDLIFE MANAGEHENT UNIT 12 (From Colorado Big Game Harvest 1967-1974) YEAR HUNTING PRESSURE BULLS No Data 58 1969 TOTAL ---- 3/ 1967 1968 HARVEST 1/ cous CALVES 2/ ·HUNT AND SEASON - ---- ES 9/2 - 9/17 8 8 0 16 ES 8/17 - 9/15 7 0 0 7 AD 8/16 - 9/14 1970 65 8 3 0 11 AD 8/15 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1971 109 11 0 0 11 AD 8/21 1972 104 0 4 2 6 AD 8/19 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/20 1973 91 9 0 2 11 AD 8/18 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/23 1974 109 0 15 0 15 AD 8/17 - 8/31 ES 9/1 - 9/22 9/12 1/ Includes harvest only during specified archery seasons. !/Elk bow hunting permitted during all regular seasons with regular Colorado elk license. 3/ - First statewide elk archery season with archery elk license. Note: Hunt symbols explained as follows: ES = Either sex, one elk (one license). AD = Antlered only, one elk (one license). B. D. Trind1e and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-158- TOTAL ELK HARVEST DATA ANALYSIS UNIT 6 (WHITE RIVER PLATEAU) 1963-1972, BY SEX 1/ YEAR BULLS - COWS CALVES -- 1783 TOTAL -- 377 45 2205 2501 881 120 3502 1993 673 92 2758 1873 942 200 3015 1737 907 188 2827 2184 1418 292 3894 1969 2262 1035 234 3531 1970 2517 801 91 3409 1971 1039 528 57 1624 1972 1800 743 107 2650 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 Elk DAU 6 includes Wildlife Management Units 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33 and 34. W. T. McKean September 1975 �-159BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE HAt'lAGE-1ENT UNIT 12 (From Colorado 1/ Big Game Harvest 1956-1974) 2/ , -3/ , -4/ YEAR HARVEST - 1956 3R 1957 o 1958 o 1959 o 1960 6R 1961 o 1962 o 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer, elk seasons ending 11/4 1963 5R 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer, elk seasons ending 11/7 1964 2R 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer, elk seasons ending 11/5 1965 o 4/1 - 9/30; pre and regular deer, elk seasons ending 11/5 1966 o 4/1 - 9/30; pre and regular deer, elk seasons ending 11/3 1967 o 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/9 1968 4S 4/1 - 9/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/7 1969 o 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and" elk seasons ending 11/6 1970 IS 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/6 1971 o lID1'T AND SEASON - 5/15 - 8/15; pre, post, and regular deer and elk seasons 4/1 - 11/15; pre, post, and regular deer and elk seasons 4/1 - 11/15; pre, post, and regular deer and elk seasons 4/1 - 11/1; pre and regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/1 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer, elk and archery seasons ending 11/6 4/1 - 9/15; pre and regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/8 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/11 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-160BLACK BEAR HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 HARVEST (Continued) 1../ 5:./, ~./,i/ YEAR ---- 1972 2R 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/12 1973 2R 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/11 1974 2 4/1 - 6/30; regular deer and elk seasons ending 11/5 HUNT AND SEASON :!./ R = Regular big game (deer and/or elk) licenses; S = Bear license for special spring, summer, or spring-summer seasons; also see annual regulations for archery hunting. 2/ - From 1956-1959, 1 bear per special bear license and/or 1 bear per bear coupon on either or both deer and elk licenses; - from 1960-1965, same as 1956-1959, except special bear license variously invalid after September 15 or 30, when bear coupon on either or both deer and elk license covered bag and possession limits; - 1966, same as 1960-1965, except one bear, hunter's choice, per person per calendar year; - from 1967 to 1975, bear coupon removed from regular deer and elk licenses; thus 1 bear, hunter's choice, per special bear license or sportsman's license per person per calendar year only during special bear and regular deer and/or elk seasons. 3/ . . . - Up to eight dogs permitted except when bear seasons concurrent with deer and/or elk seasons. Beginning in 1970 to date adult bears with one or more cubs were protected. 4/ - Data taken from Colorado Big Game Harvest and Commission Meeting Minutes. B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean September 1975 �-161- MOUNTAIN LION HARVEST AND SEASONS WILDLIFE HANAGE-IEm DiUT 12 YEAR !I HARVEST Since the establishment 1, 1965 NO RECORDED of the mountain HUNT AND SE..£\'SON lion as a game species on July KILL EXISTS for Wildlife Hanagement Unit 12. 11 Bounty of $50 per lion paid within period Hay 7, 1929 - Harch 12, 1965; protected by statute as of July 1, 1965 when mountain lion license was established. B. D. Trind1e September 1975 �SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HU~7ING PRESSURE SMALL GAME M}u~AGEMENT UNIT 10, 1968-1973 !/ 1969 1970 1971 HARVEST 1972 1973 Aver age 2285 553 452 1387 1318 1231 1204 227 1190 428 2280 877 336 107 869 596 634 1172 930 1885 716 1381 2161 1374 411 402 372 733 899 594 769 1453 1095 924 98 158 NOS 209 444 515 0 129 295 NOS 345 NOS NOS NOS -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- SPECIES ];/ 1968 1969 NUMBER OF HUNTERS 1970 1971 1972 1973 Cottontail rabbit 397 133 213 196 263 285 248 Snowshoe hare 126 158 473 299 163 144 Blue grouse 393 497 1380 353 585 Sage grouse 274 520 294 334 Sharp-tailed grouse 293 352 148 Chukar NOS i/ NOS NOS Average 1/ 1968 I f-' o- N I Gambe1's quail NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS Pheasant 313 207 194 46 102 NOS 172 586 148 507 89 335 NOS Band-tailed pigeon NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS -- NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS NOS Mourning dove NOS 276 193 132 149 107 171 NOS 3238 2111 1494 2242 1097 333 2036 1.../ Wildlife Management Unit 12 was wholly contained within former Small Game Management Unit 10, 1968-1973; Small Game Units were changed in 1974. W.M.U. 12 is now wholly contained in S.G.M.U. 26. 2/ - Game Management Section questions the ability of some hunters to distinguish between species of jackrabbits and snowshoe hares, and the grouse family, thus adding inconsistency to these data. 3/ - Mean for years data shown. 4/ - NOS means no data or no open seasons. B. D. Trind1e September 1975 �-163SMALL GAME HARVEST AND HUNTING PRESSURE };/ SMALL GAME HANAGEMENTUNIT SPECIES!:../ Cottontail . NO. ·OF HUNTERS rabbit 1/ HARVEST 129 156 hare 292 257 Pine squirrel 33 66 Blue grouse 549 1170 Sage grouse 417 1001 162 294 Chukar NOS !!.../ NOS Gambe1' s quail NOS NOS Pheasant NOS NOS NOS NOS 67 262 Marmot 98 262 Badger 31 o Red fox 128 93 Bobcat 64 30 Raccoon 0 o Coyote 66 o Prairie dog 0 o Jackrabbit 128 923 Crow 33 328 Magpie 97 743 Snowshoe Sharp-tailed Band-tailed Mourning , 26, 1974 grouse pigeon dove l./ !/ Preliminary ana.l.ys i,s by Game Hanagement Sec tion as of September 1975. 2/ - Game Hanagement Section questions the ability of hunters to distinguish between species of jackrabbits and snowshoe hares, and the grouse family, thus adding inconsistency to the above data. l/Three percent sample size; 33 projected hunters and 33 harvested one actual hunter reporting a harvest of one. ~/ NOS means no data or no open season. B. D. Trind1e September 1975 equals �-164- -DUCK AND GOOSE HARVEST A1~ HUNTING PRESSURE SMALL GAl-iEMA....~AGENENT mIlT 26 1974 1:/, 2:../ YEAR DUCKS EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST GEESE EST. NO. HUNTERS EST. HARVEST 1974 189 1701 54 22 1/ - 1974 is the first year hunting pressure and harvest data available by Small G<UIleManagement Unit. Wildlife l-ianagement Unit 12 is contained wholly within S.G.M.U. 26. 2/ - Prior to 1974 waterfowl kill data available only by county. There are no identifiable harvest or hunting pressure data for Wildlife Management Unit 12, 1955-1973. B. D. Trindle September 1975 1 I t �r :::> z z f- W :2! w (.!) <l: Z <l: :2: W ~ c::( (!) .J .J ro r--. (j) co 0'> <D �SMALL GAME MANAGEMENT 1974 UNITS �-167- BIG GAME POPULATION DYNAHICS WILDLIFE Computer population basic management MANAGENEh"'Till'llT simulations tool. 12 of elk and deer herds have become a Population data, including the trend of the herd, are input parameters of the computer model. The simulated popula- tion parameters the manager's of the dynamics of represents hypothesis the herd. The following graphs (1 and 2) in which the elk and deer herds of wild- life management Unit 12 are contained are based on data analysis units (see Harvest Data). The four graphs of each herd are explained as follows: A = Birth of young June 1 B = Count one September 20 C = Count two December 11 Depopulation at end - May 31 B. D. Trindle and W. T. McKean November 1975 I . �-----------.--.-----.---EuC"(bid'A 32000. ANiiLYsisUlH'Y -E':':bY---·-· - -- --.- .. .. --. . -- .. ======;;=======~~If~=~~~~~Q~~1=PJtr~=1~~]J~~\1~~$S~~~~j~~J~==:=====~:;===============; 1 1 1 1·1 1 1 1:-----1-·· .-.-.--~----111 111 1 111 111 111 1 A B 30000. c ------ ZnOQ. o ._----A 25000. A .-----------------------~~-------------------------------------------------------------..-----2ItOOQ. B - C -----: - t\ g e A "220OJ.:--u ~ 20000. A A laooo. AB _ _B " A--r-- : - C 8 .-_-_B-_ 8 H - \ 0 Z -0.- - t:1 I 7 -- -- - --- 0 I -- ~---.. -- - - B c:: ~ ..- ~~ f; ~ --: B - B " A 8 Q H :--Q~ -----: ~ -o g A to :.~--·0 A B A _ ----- - :---- ; .. ----: f-' co ~ ~ H (") -.- CJ) l~ODO. ~c~ -- o__ 11t000. 1 1 1-- ·12000. ----:----------- C 0 0 1 1 1 1 . 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - ..~ 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 ----------------------------------------------~---------. 1 -+----..--.--~. -...-1 ; ===;~==:==:==:==:===~==:~=====::======::==:=:======:=======~====.==~======z=================.z~ca~=== 19&2.0 1972.0 lY&3.0 19&4.0 1960.0 19&&.0 ---1974.0 197-&;0--1978.0 --·--198ii-.;·o~--- 197Q.0 TIHE _____ -'-( 4~£>_O~ __AL_ST.A8TJ _B~ _PQP ~T .. C.NT.9NELC"POp .A:L.~NJllo(9.L.Q.¥ POP~L£_NgL_._._ . �..... ::::~~M DEER (DAl'A.AN,tlLYSIS_WlIL7) '1 . ••YlILDLIFE lIu\,NAG;<:V;?::T m;ITS 11 12 1". ::2:'.' ~3 'J.I 215 26 'l1 '':\2 "'3. and 'V ,= :.I= ' '" ="'= :=,,:::: == ;::.::: ="'=".,::;.;::,. _"'&:::: "ts::=:>":.":.:::" =c= I).,-,h.::'-::,:i:.h" = ::'::~"= ..:J!" .-(s:",';rf'" ",~s:~tll!~~~':::~S_,=-ft z.000OOE. os =",e"':!=:<'lllla"'''''lrft:!u, .1 All 1 111 1 1 1 ----------------------~~-----~-~,----~--------~----------.. B 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ,- 1 _ :: :: :--------- :: ..---= 1.aooooE·OS :---A B 1;~~~CJE·055---- A o v A A A B 1.40000E.OS ...--= A ~ A 8 :.. A B 5---- ~ A A B 80 A B ~ _ _ A A -----------------------------------~~---------------------------,'1.20000E·OS ~---- -----~~:' ------------ B B A - ._--: to H Q C ---r-.-. - o 0" \0 --.l..- ) 901)00. -- :---- ,0 D - 60000. .•...-: -0--- = -.-. \ =:---- = ._--: :;, I-' C"'l t!) ~ 4-00C;O. ~ ~. ~ ~ ...•-.. ... ---- = 20000. o. :---- :: - 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 • 1 I. .:0 1 1 :: _ _ ===a=s:=cnn=C=Ba~=======~~:=s~=:==sc=&~:==e==a~c=~=~===.C=~~~e~==~~:=====c=~cs~=~=7.~~:es~~~~=~X:==K== 1964.0 T"'51).O 1962.0 1958.0 1972.0 1970.0 1966.0 1'976--;0 1974.0 r9S0.0 lQ7S·0 r rsr ____________________________________ (_A,,_!~P AT S~_~E!. 8" P_OP AT CNT(~~~. C~~Qr::.._AI~r-\i!~Q.:..._Q!I POP A! __[~J_Q.!..) _ �• 1/ HABITAT RESTORATION PROJECTS - WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT UNIT 12 - DATE LOCATION VEGETATIVE TYPE 1946 East Fork Williams Fork T2N, R87, 8SW. 1947 TREATMENT NO. ACRES TREATED Gr2ss Seeded with Bromus sp., Poa sp., Ph1eum pratense. 160 Increase forage BLM East Fork Williams Fork T2N, R87W. Grass Seeded with Bromus carinatus, Poa pratensis, Ph1eum sp. 160 Increase forage BLM 1954 Williams Fork T2N, R88W. Grass Spray with 2,4-D 5 Increase forage BLM 1965 Beaver Cr. T3N, R88, 89W. Sagebrush Aerial spray with 2,4-D 520 Control sagebrush GF&P 1969 Beaver Cr. T3N, R89W. Oakbrush Aerial spray with 2,4,5-TP 67 Control oakbrush GF&P USFS Grass Spray with 2,4-D 1971 Morapos Cr. T2N, R9lW. 60 PURPOSE OF TREATMENT AGENCY Livestock GF&P improvement USFS 1/ If details are desired on any of these projects, make requests directly to Mr. Ron Kufe1d, Colorado Division of Wildlife, Research Center, Fort Collins, Colorado 80522. I I-' "-J 0 I �GAME SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS - WILDLIFE ~~AGEMENT UNIT 12 SPECIES DATE MALES FEMALES TOTAL RELEASE AREA Wild Turkey 2-27-68 3 o 3 T5N, R90W, Section 26 Mesa, Colorado Literature References Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver Office,Game Management Section. Game species introduction file. I I-' ...•.• I-' I �-172- MANAGEMENT A. PROBLEMS CHECKLIST - WILDLIFE 11ANAGEMENT UNIT 12 Present 1. Logging roads and associated The primary management velopment secondary roads. problem of Unit 12 to date is the de- of logging and secondary roads. The problem is there are just too many roads for the area that are unacceptable for wildlife. They create unneeded access and disrupt the animals daily activities. B. Future 1. Coal development. Coal development will create many new problems for the wildlife within Unit 12. The associated and vehicular building, activity in the unit. Other activities such as will restrict the natural movement and alter their migration affect wildlife? How will strip mining What are the water requirements of the coal Wnat time table is involved in revegetation All these unanswered considerations questions, in the future. of patterns and life styles. Many of the problems are still unknown. industry? will increase ht~an fencing, and mining will also follow coal development. All these activities wildlife development of spoils? and more will become management �.. • -173- . , ' . • BIG GAME HAM!1AL RESF..ARCHREFERENCES • • WILDLIFE MANAGF.HENT m1IT 12 BLACK BEAR Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Gilbert, D. L. 1951. Fur resources study and bear investigations. pp. 1-8. lA Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. 1951. Fur resources study and bear investigations. pp. 1-9. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 117 pp. .. . 1953. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 59-60. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-141. 1953. Deer-elk investigations. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. Gilbert, P. F. 1946. Bear studies. Dept. Game and Fish. 4 pp. In In Quart. Prog. p. 60. In Quart. Prog. Rep., pp. 1-99. In Quart. Prog. Rep., June. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 30-34. Rep., Cct. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1952. Checking station survey. pp. 39-43. Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Colo. In Quart. Prog. In Quart. Prog.,Rep., Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Deer-elk investigations. p. 127. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-183. liammit, H. C. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Proj. W-38-R, Oct. Colo. Dept. Gareeand Fish. pp. 1-14. 21 pp. Fed. Aid Hay, K. G., G. N. Hunter, and L. Robbins. 1961. Big game management in Colo. Dept. Colorado 1949-1958. pp. 71-73. In Tech. Bull. No.8. Game and Fish. 112 pp. J Hunter, G. N. 1954. Deer-elk-bear seasons in Colo. 1948-1953. Colo. Dept. Game and,Fish. 64 pp. 1966., Colo. big game harvest. 1959-1965. pp. 30-32. 41 pp. Game, Fish and Parks. Spec. Hgtat , Rep. No.!. pp. 60-61. Colo. Dept. HcKean, ll.T. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for black bear. Colo. Dept. game, Fish and Parks. 6 pp. Remington, J .• ~~. Proj. W-6l-R. .. 1955. Fur resources and bear s t ud Lc s , Fed. Aid Final Rep. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 85 pp • .. �-\?94 R., and D. r.. Gilbcr"t. 6"O. A co~t;lbutlon toward a bIbliography on the black bear. Tech. Publ. No.6. Colo. Dept. Game and fish. 4J pp. Titner,J. U. S. Dept. of Agr. ~atcr and related land resources, Colorado River Hoard and V.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service~ Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. I1ny. Denver. 18J pp. (looseleaf) ;...: 1965. Bas Ln in Colorado. Coo p, Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserve '-. .Boyd, R. J. 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 133-213. In Game Res. Rep., pp. 127-286. July - Part II. Colo. Div. Gawe~ Fish and Parks. • 1970. Elk of the Hhite River Plateau, Colorado. ---Colo. Div. G~e, Fish and Parks. 126 pp. Tech. Publ. No. 25. •. 1972. Elk, White River experimental management study. pp. 135-161. In Game Res. Re:p.,July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 251 pp. ______ 1973. Experimental elk harvest regulations. pp. 45-67. Res. Rep.) July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wi1dl. 230 pp. In Game a Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado long range g2J!lespecies canage~ent plans) 1965-1975, for" elk.- Colo. Dpet. Carae , Fish and Parks. 61 pp. Cllbert, P. F •. 1953. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 59-61. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. pp. 1-99. ~ Quart. Pr og , • 1954. Deer-elk investigations. 125-128. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , _--July. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. pp. 1-182. •.•.. PPd ;: • UammitJ H. C. 1951.; Deer-e1k-bear investigations. Rep •• Jan. Colo. Dept. Cane ~nd Fish. 33 pp • pp. 16-22. ~ Quart. Prog. . K. G., G. N. Hunter, and L. Robbins. 1961. Big game oan2g~~ent in Colorado, 1949-2958. pp. 57-70. In Tech~ Publ. No.8. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 112 pp. Dunter, G. N. 1954. Deer-elk-bear Came and Fish. 64 pp. .. seasons in ~olorado, 1948-1953. --'-- • 1966. Colo. big ga~e harvest, 1959-1965. pp. 9-30. Game, Fish arid Parks. Spe.c. !-!got.Rep. No. 1. 41 pp. Riordan, L. E •. 1948. ProE. Rep., Jan. ~_A Colo. Dept. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 29-"33. Colo~ Dept. C~~e and Fish. pp. 1-49. ----~ 1948. Deer-e1k-bear investi~ations. pp. 7-8. Rep •• April. Cblo. Dept. Gaoe and Fish. pp. 1-54. • ~ Colo. Dept. In Ouar -' t• Quart. p!og. • 1949. Deer:"elk-bear investig:ltio:1s. 'pp. 39-46. ---Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-98. I~ Quart. Prog. Rogers, G. E •. 1951. Checking station survey. pp. 32-33. Rcp •• Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. E!. Quart. Frog. T:i1eston, J. ll. 1962. 1957. pp. 70-78. VI pp. A resume of Color.:tdobig g:lme rese3rch project!;, 1939In Te ch ..l'ub L, ~~o."9. Colo. Dept. Caruc and Fish. �-175- V. S. Dept. of Ar,r. 1965. Water ~nd related l~nd resourcc~. Color~co River Basin in ·Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Conserve Uoaruand V.S.D.A. [con. Res. Service, Forest Service, and ,Soil Conserve Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) Uil1iams, J., et a1. 1952. LocaticnjOd extent of winter ranges. pp. 57-62 • .!!!. Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-62. MOUNTAIN ../, tIOl{ Boyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long range gane species managenent plans, 1965-1975, for predators. Colo. Dept. G~e, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Dixon, K. R., and R. J. Boyd. 1967. Evaluation of the effects of mountain lion predation. pp , ll;1-165. In Came Res. Rep., July-II. Colo. Dept. Came, Fish and Parks. pp. 73-309. u. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. \-Jate~Conserve Board and U. S.D.A. Econ •.Res. Serv Lc e , rarest Service, and Soil Coris erv , Service • .Hay. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) HUJ.E DEER o ·Baker, B. D. 1955. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 149-157. In Quart. Pr og . Rep., July - Par~ II. Colo. De?t. Game and Fish. pp. 117-175. 1956. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 43-64. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish~ pp. 1-102. 1957. A directory of Colorado big game exclosures concerning their locations, studies and other gen~ral infor~ation. SFec. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-~,Jan. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. 60 pp. 1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 189-249. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 249 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1960. A detailed study of r2n~e forage by use of fenced exclosures. pp. 1-10, 41-42. In Quart. Rep., April. Co~o. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 47 pp. 1961. A directory of Colo. big g~~e exclosures cbncerning program history, study techniques, 1oc.:1tions,and other general infor::;ation. Spec. Rep. Fed. Aid Proj. W-IOl-~, Work Plan I, Job No.2. January. Colo. Dcp't, GaL:lC and Fish. 51 pp. 1961. Ga~c range investig~tions. pp. 71-72, 76-112. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. lq9 pp. 1962. Game rang c investig<1tions. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 96 pp. pp. 1-39. ~ Tn Quart. Rep., Qua r t , Rep., AprIl. �-176- e 1962. Deer-elk inve5tig~tions •. pp. 129-i38. Colo. Dept. Came and fish. pp. 129-249. ______ ~ ------e·· 1964. Came range investig~tions. pp. 3-6. Colo. Dept. Game, Fizh and Parks.. 121 pp. ~ Quart. Rep., July. • In Came Res. Rep., Jan. • 1965. Game range investigations. pp. 129-133. In Game Res. Rep., --. July. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 249 pp. 1965 •. The history, function. and cstablish~ent of exclosures in Colorado big ba~e oanagement. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. Outdoor Facts No. 18. 3 pp. 1966. Car:Ierange investigations. pp. 53-67. July - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Gane, Fish and Parks. . In Game Res. Rep., 93 pp. 1970. Came range investigations. pp. 15-58. In Gane Res. Rep. , July - Part I. ·Colo. Div. Cane , Fish and Parks. 126 pp. Bartmann, R. }!. 1967. Deer trapping ar.d tagging results at the Little Hills ExperL~ent Station. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. Outdoor Facts No. 57. 3 pp. 1968. Playing tag with the l,1f1ite River deer hcr d , Colo. Outdoors • . 17 (1) : 20- 22. • 1968. Results from an 18 year deer tagging progran in northt,estern Colo. pp. 161-166. 48th Ann. Conf. West. Assoc. State Game and Fish , Comm , 724 pp. 1968. }fule deer migration at the Little Hills Game Experinent Station, Colo. p. 9. 13th Trans. Ann. Su~~er Conf. C.~.P.S., The Wildlife Society. ~. 1972. Evaluation of the effects of spring-s~~er grazing by deer on alfalfa. pp. 113-133. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 71-251. 1972. Pi'ceance deer studY-population distribution. pp. 317-337. Res. Rep .• July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Hildlife. pp. 252-377. ~ Came 1972. Piceance de~r study-population densit~. pp. 339-344. Game tes. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of ~ildlife. pp. 252-377. • In • �-177- 1972. Piceance deer.study-productivity and nortality. pp. 345-350. Colo. Div. of Hildlife. pp. 252-377. lE. Game Res. Rcp , , July - Part III. 1972. Piceacce deer study-food h~bits. pp. 351-355. In Came Res. ~ept •• July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. ~52-377. 1973. Piceance deer study -population density and structure. pp. 243-254. In Game Res. R~p., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 230 pp. 1973. Pf.ce.ance deer study - population distribution. pp , 211242. ~ Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 230 pp • . 1973. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. pp.255261. ~ Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 230 pp. -, 1974. Piceance deer study - population distribution. pp. 325-362. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 223 pp. ~ 1974. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. pp. 371-380. Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 223 pp. 1974. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. pp. 363-370. In G~e Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 223 pp. 1975. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. pp. 349-354. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 314 pp. 1975. Piceance deer study - population distribution. pp. 327-349. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl. 314 pp. 1975. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. pp. 355362. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Wildl • 314 pp. •0 Bar traann , R. M., and Y. T. Md~can. 1968. Came r'ang e inve5tiRations. pp. 167179. ~Came Res. Rep •• July -. Colo. Div. Came, Fd sh and Parks. 208 pp. 0 ______ , and 1969. Came range investigations. pp. 305-393. Res. Rcp ,, July. Colo •. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 393 pp. Boeker, H. M. 1959. Colorado deer trapping. pp. 52-55. Sutmner Conf., C.M.P.S.ot The Wildlife Society. In Game 4th Trans. Ann. �-178- £oyd, R. J. ·1961. Study of deer losses OR .Co~orado highways. pp. 75-82. In Fed Aid Quart. Rep., April (Part l).Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 96 pp. (processed). 1962. Study of deer losses on Colorado highways. pp. 93-100. Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., October. Colo. Dept Game and Fish. 137 pp. (processed). In 1964. Study of deer losses on Colorado high•.. 'ays. pp , 36-41. In Fed. Aid Quart. Rep., April (Part 1). Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks~' 69 pp. (processed). 1970. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 133-213. July - Part II. Colo. Div. Gace, Fish and Parks. Burdick, H. 1963. Deer tags tell a tale. In Gam~ Res. Rep., pp. 127-286. Colo. Outdoors 12(5):52-53. Campbell, R. L. 1950.· Little Hills G~e Exper~ent Station. pp. 38-43. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., July. ·Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. 1951 • Experimental projects at Little Hills Expe r Irnen t Station. ..pp. 58-65. Spec. Rep. The Glenwood Springs Wildl. Conf. 85 pp. 1951. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 5-11. Jan. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 33 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1951. Deer-elk investigations. pp , 50-53. April. Colo. Dept. Came ana Fish. 64 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1951.' Deer-elk investigations. pp. 71-77. July. ~olo. Dept. Game and Fish. 101 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1952. Deer vs. livestock. Colorado Outdoors 1(2):20-22. 1954. Dcer-elk investigations. pp. 149-154. July. Colo. Dept. Game and rish~ 182 pp. 1956. Deer-elk inves tiga t ions. pp , 65-71. July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. - In Quart. Prog. Rep., Tn Quart. Pr og , Rcp , , Campbell, R. L. ~nd G. E. Rogers. 1950. Deer-elk surveys. pp. 20-21. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., October. Colo. Dcp t. Came and Fish. 21 pp. t Carhart, A. lie 19/,0. Deer-elk survey, Vol.~. Colo. GaHC and Fish Commission. 19 pp. Fcd. Aid Proj. \-I-/I-R. I 4 �. -179"- --- • .1940. Deer-elk survey, Colorado. Commission. 50 pp. Vol. 5. ·Colo. C~~C and Fish 1940. Deer-elk ~urvey, Colorado. Game and Fish Corza Lss Lon , 8 pp. Tables XIV, Vol. 6. "XV. Colo. • 1941. Deer-elk survey, Colorado. Vol. 5, Part I~ Dcer food requirefllcntsin Colorado. Colo. Gar.lCand Fish Com...-n. 28 pp. 1943. The Piceance-~mite River deer ,herd. Deer-elk survey Supplemental Rep. Colo. G~e and Fish Co~ission. 20 pp. Denney, R. N. 1965. Colorado big gane species as possible vectors of some livestock diseases. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Outdoor Facts No. 20. 3 pp~ Denney, R. N., et a1. 1965. Game range surveys. pp. 17-23. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Gawe Research Review, 1964. 35 pp. Cilbert, P. F. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Ga.~e and Fish. pp. 14-18. In Quart. 54 pp. pp. 31-34. 83 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1948. Deer-e1k-bear investigations. pp. 30-34. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Gallieand Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1948. Deer-elk-~ear investigations. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 42'-45. In Quart. Prog. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 67 pp. , pp , 47-51. • 1949. Deer-e1k-bear investigations. ---Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Ga.':le and' Fish. 98 pp. In Quart. Prog. 1949. Deer-elk-bear ir.vestigatior.s. pp. 33-36. .Rep., July. Colo. Dept. GaQc and Fish. 84 pp • In Quart. Prog. 1950. Deer-elk-bear investigations. pp. 41-44. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. 66 pp. In Quart. Prog. _____ e· Rep. '. 1950. Deer-clk-bear investigations. pp. 60-64. Colo. Dept. G~ae and Fish. 101 pp. 1950. Dcer-elk-bcar investigations. 1950. July. Colo. Dept. GaQc nnd Fish. ~ Quart. Prog. Three ycar Sun. Rep.,·194721 pp. 1952'. De er+c Lk Lnve s t Lga t Lons , pp , 39-43. January. Colo. D~pt. Gamc and fIsh. 60 pp. In Quart. Prog, Rep., 1952! Decr-elk inve~tications. pp. 41-64, 66-67, 69-82, 83-84. Quart. Prog , Rcp ,, July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 171 pp • • .. '•... • In �-180- • 1953. Decr-elk 1nvc5tif,atlons. pp., 59-61. April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 99 pp. In Quart. Pr o g , Rcp •• 1953. Deer-elk investigations. pp , 51-63. July. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 129 pp. In QU::lrt.Prog. Rep., ____ ~. 1954. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 129-143. July. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 182 pp. . 1956. Oct obe r, Deer-elk investigations. pp. 1-26. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. III pp. In Quart. Prog. Rcp.~ In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1957. Dee r+e Lk investigations. pp. 121-126, 141, 145-146. Quart. Rep.~ July. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fish. 213 pp. 1958. The deer's biggest problen. --_. 1960. ~~erc to hunt-1960. In Colorado Outdoors 7(3):22-24. Colorado Outdoors 9(5):5. Gi1bert~ P. F. et a1. 1951. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 109-110. In .......... Quart. Pr og , Rcp , , October. Colo. Dept. Gazie and Fish. 117 pp • .Gilbert, P. F., and G. E. Rogers. 1954. Checking station survey. 128. Quart. Prog. aep., July. Colo. Dept. Ca~e and Fish. In Gilbert, P. F., et al. 1955. Quart. Frog. Rep.~ July. pp. 125182 pp. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 158-161. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 225 pp. In Gilbert, P. F., and R. I•• Campbe lL, 1955. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 163170. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , July. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fish. 225 pp. e' pp. 131-138. Gilbert, P. F., and J. Harris ~ 1958. Deer-elk investigations. In Quart. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Gzoe and Fish. 166 pp. --·~8(2): , and 18-20. 1959. How far d~ deer travel? Colorado Outdoors Gordon, D. F., nnd R. }!. Bartnann. 1971. Evaluation of the ef:ects of sprine-su::::TIcr ~:razing by deer on alfalfa. pp. 99-112. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part II. Colo. Div. Came, Fish and Parks.-pp. 87-224. llammit, H. C. l<)~,O. Dccr+e Lk-be ar investigations. pp , 10-14. Proj. W-38-R. October. Colo. Dept. Ca~e and Fish. 21 pp. 1951. n~~r-c1k-bc3r investigations. pp. 16-22. W··38-R, .Janu.u-v , Colo. Dept. Gazae and Fish. 33 pp. Fed. Aid Fed. Aid Proj. Ilammf t , H, C •• and P.. F. pp. 35-37. Hay, ~ Gilbert. 1950. Dce r+c l.k -bca r investigations. Quart. Pr og . Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Came and Ff.sh , K. C., C. N.' Ilun rcr , and L. Robb Ln s , 1961. nig g anc ma nng crncn t I n Colorado, 19,'.')·d<J58. pp. 71-73. In Tech. Publ. No.8. Colo. Dept. Game and 1'1:;h. 112 pr. �-181\ l!untcr, G. N. 1954. 60. pp. 22- Deer-elk-bear ~easong in Colorado, 1948-1953. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 64 pp. 1966. Colorado big ~~le harvest, 1959-1965. pp. 9-30. Game, Fish and Parks. Spec. Hent. Rep. No.1. 41 pp •. Jeep, Y. T., anu L. E. Riordan. 1947. Deer-elk studies. Rep., January - Part IV. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. In Colo. Dept. 7 pp. Kuf'e ld , R. C. 1968. Carne r cng c Lnvc s t Lg a t Lon s , In Came Res. Rep , , Par t 1. "CoLo, Div. Came , Fish and Parks. pp. 1-121. 1969. G<11:1C range investigations. pp.299-304. July - Part III. Colo. Div. Came , Fish and Parks. Frog. Quart. July - Tn Carne Res. Rep , , p-p.-249--393. 1970. Ga.~e range investigations. pp. 59-94. In Gane Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Div. Ga2e, Fish and Parks.pp. 1-126. 1971. Inventory of nanipulation projects in Colorado. pp. 7-15. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Div. Came, Fish and Parks. 1-86 •. pp. Lauridson, D. C. 194$. Gace and forage experkcnt Co~ents 10(6):9-10, 22. Lind, C. 1957. Deer-elk investigations. Colo. Dept. Ca:ne and Fish. 213 pp. station. pp ..147-l5l. Colo. Conserve In Quart. Rep., July. pp. 1-23. In Quart. Rep., )kKean, W. T. 1958. Deer-elk investig2tions. \. . , July - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Gace and Fish. pp. 1-103. 1959. G<l1.!lC range investigations. pp. 193-212. "July. Colo. Dept. GaQc and Fish. 237 ppo ___ 1960. Ga~e rangc investigations. pp , 3-23. October. Colo. Dept. Carie ana ,"ish. 103 pp. 0. In Quart. Re p ,, In Quart. Rcp , , 1965 •. Pellet group deposition rates for captive deer. Carae, F~sh and Parks. Outdoor Facts ~!o. 24. 3 pp. . -July. 1967. Game range investigations ...pp. 155-165. Colo. Dept. Caric , Fish and Parks. 203 pp. Colo. Dept. In Came Res. Rep., Res. Rep.) 1970. Gili~erange investigations. pp. 7-9. In Cc:lr:c July. Colo. Div. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 126 pp. HcKean, P. 1'., and H. E. Burdick. 1963. Carne range investiGations. pp. 89115 • .!E. C3C1C Res. Rcp ,, January. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 115 pp. ___ ___ , and 196/1• Itcs , Rcp , , January. , nnd Res. Rcp , , July. Gar:1Cr ang e Lnvo s t Iga t i ons . pp. 27-67. In Came Colo. Dcpt. Camc , Fish and Park". 121 pp. 1965. Came r an gc Lnvc s t Lga t Lcn s , pr.1/,7-189. Co10. Dept. Camc , Fbh and Parks. 2/,9 ppo In Game .\ �-182- McKean, \-1. T., and R. M. Ba r tmann , 19fi6 •. Su rv Iva I or mountain maho aany t ransp l an t s on t~o s J.t cs , Little Hill!; Expc r Imcn t Station, Rio IHal1co County, Colorado 1965. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Outdoor Facts no. 42.. 3 pp. -Res. _ ~ llnd 1969. Gar.1C range invcstigattons. pp. 253-260 •. In Game Rep •• .Ju l.y , Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 393 pp • 1971. Deer-livestock relations on a pinon-juniper range in northwestern Colorado. Final Report. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks • . 132 pp. (processed) • -'. .••...--:-'• and McKean, \-1.T., and D. G. Smith. 1965. Game range investigations. pp. 423471. In Game Res. Rep.~ July. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 546pp. • • and 1966. Game range investigations, p~. 5-49. --"i~ep., J-u-l-y-. - Colo. Dept.Game, Fish and Parks. 93 pp. In Game Res. Hcl;ean, \-1. T., et a1. 1968. Game range investigations. pp , 155-165. Game Res. Rep., July. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. 208 pp. Medin, D. E. 1958. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 63-68. January •. Colo. Dept. GaQe a~d Fish. 131 pp. In In Job Compo Rep., ______ " 1960. Physical site factors influencing annual production of true mountain mahogany, Cercocar~us Lonta~us. Ecology 41(1):454-460. 1960. References on ~ethods of measuring production and utilization range and pasture forage. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish Tech. Publ. No. 6. 43 pp. of . , . . 1965. Colorado long range gane species ~nage~ent for deer • Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 15 pp. Hustard, E. U., Jr. 1958. Deer-elk investigations, April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 113 pp. pp , plans, 1965-1975, 9-34. l!!. Quart. Rep., • 1958. Browse differences in ex?erioental pastures under controlled ---stocking yith cattle, sheep, and cule deer in northwestern Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 105 pp. 1959. Study of browse reproduction in r~lation to controlled grazing experimental pastures. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , January. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 41 pp. in .·Myers, G. T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. pp. 147-178• In Fed. Aid Ga~c Res. Rep., July - Part 2•. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and (processed) • Parks. 1970 .. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. pp. 403-437. In Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., July - Part 3. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. (processed). Neil, P. H. 1973. Winter mortality of mule deer in Par~chute Creek Valley, Garfield County, Co lo rndo . Tn The Co l.o ny cnv Lr onmcn t a l s t ud y , Par achu t c Creek, Garfield County, Color~do. Prepared for Colony Development Opcr:ltion by Thorne EcoloCic:l1 In:.;titute,Boulder, Co!orndo. '\ucust 1973. Part III. �-183- • Niclt>on, J. L. 1966. So11 su rvcv of cxpc r Irncrrt a I pas t ur e s , Little l!ills Expcr Imcn t St .•c Io n , Report by U. S. Soil Con c c rv , Service to Colo. (;a~:jc, Fish and Pa r ks , Unpublished c o.amunLca t Lon , 1,2 pp. Came Dept. Paur , t. F. 1972. }rOVe:;Jcnts of mule deer in the Parachute Creek ba s Ln, uintcr 1971-72. In The Colony cnvt r ormcnt al ts cudy , Parachute Creek, Garfield County, (;olor.:1co. Pr epa r cd for Colony Dcve Lopocn t Opcr a t Lon • by Thorne Ecological Institutc, Boulder, Colorado. August, 1973. Part III. " .'. Pojar,- T. }~. 1971. Came Res. " Deer-auto accident invcstigations. pp , 227-318. In Rcp , , July - Part III. Colo. Div. Came , Fish and Parks. pp. 227-366. . ____ 1971. Eva Lua t Lon of devices pp. 333-340. In Ga~e Res. Rc?, fish and Parks-.- pp. 227-366. to prevent deer-auto accidents. July - Part III. Colo. Div. Game, 1971. Research - 1971 deer-high~ay lighting project pp. 355-366" In Cane Res. Rep , , July - Part III. Colo. 1'1.5h and Parks-.- pp. 227··366. - 1972. report. Div. Came , Z-ronitor potentially c r Lt i ca L, deer-vehicle accident s t a t cv..•. ide. p p , 2G9-275. I:1 Cane Res. Rcp , , July - Part III. Div. of hilcilife. pp. 252-377. __ 0 1972. areas Colo. Effect of lighted deer crossing signs on nu:nber of deer pp. 300-304. In Gace Res. Rep., July - Part III. Co10. Div. of ~";ildlife. pp. 252-377: killed by vehicles. An eV31uation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent novencnt s on or across high speed h i ghvavs , pp. 305-310. In Carae Rep., July.Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. 1972. deer \Res. Reed, D. r. 1971~ Investigation of orre-way deer structures. pp. 321-330 . .!.!! Came Res. Rep , , July - Part III. Colo. Div. Carae , Fish and Parks. pp. 227-366. 19n~ July - Part Deer underpass evaluation. pp. 343'-353." In Ga8e Res. Rep., III. Colo. Div. Game, Fis,h and Pa r ks , pp. 227-366. 1972. Investigation of one-way deer structures. pp. Game Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. ___ 278-282. In pp. 252-377. " i972. Deer underpass evaluation. pp , 285-290. In Game Res. Rcp , , July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. 1972. Ef f cc t s of h I ghwa y light ing on nurnbc r of deer killed by vehicles. pp. 292-298. In Ga~c Res. Rep., July - Part III. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. pp. 252-377. 1972. Effects of 8-foot fence <lngle in diverting deer from their csl"bUshcd direction of movcmcnt , pr. 312-31,/ r , ~ G:lme Res , Rcp , , July - Part III. Colo. Div. of WIldlife. pp. 252-377. �-184- •• E. n1ord~n"I Station. A pro poscd cxpc rtrncnt at Little Hills Carne Expcr Iracrrt Col~. Cons. Comments 10(1):20-21. 191.7. 1948. Deer-elk-bear invcstigations. pp. 1~-30. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. CaQc and Fish. 49 pp • .••• _.~_ 19ti3. Decr-elk--be::ll" Rep., October. pp. Lnve s t Lg a t i on s , Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. ~ 111-!}6. In Quar t , 1':(08· 'ao pp. Deer-elk-bear investi~ati,ons. 'pp. 36-40. Rep., January. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 67 pp. 1949. _______ 1949. Deer-elk-bear investibations. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 0_____ Rep., Quart. Prog , In Quart. Prog. In Quart. 1'1" 74-82. 97 pp. 1949. Deer-elk-bear investiz:tt Ions , pp. 86-90. October. Colo. Dept.Game and Ffsh • lLd. pp. Prog. In Quart.' PrC?g. 1956. Sel~ctivity and utilization of tllree key species of range cattle, sheep and declo in '.,'estern CoLorado , }1.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 196 pp. f orag e by 1956. The results of the Little Eills expcrbcntal range research ----_., protran. 1st Trans. Ann. Sirtmer Conf. C.:-r.P.S., The \-lildl. Soc. 13 pp. --- 1957. Differences in ran~e vegetation reSUlting fro~ grazine by deer, cattle, and sheep. Proe. Soc. A~er. Foresters. 1957:147--151. 1957a. So~e results of a 10-ye2r study of deer-livestock con:petition for range f orag e , Proc. 10th Ann. Heeting Arae r , Soc. Range r!g!:lt. ,Ill pp. (m.iraco , ) ,Riordan, L. E., and R. L. Caopbell. Outdoors 5(1):1-6. 1956. Harmony on the range. Colorado Robinette, W. L., et al. 1957. Notes cn tooth develop~ent and wear for Rocky Hountain t;lule deer. J. vn,n , !-!g:;lt. 21(2);134-153. Rogers, G. E. 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. Frog. Rcip., April. . 1948. Deer-elk-bear investigations. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 19/,8. pp. 8-9. 54 pp • pp. 24-29. 83 pp. In Quart. Prog. invest i!j3 tions. pp. 27-30. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog , ~ Quart. Prog. P-rog. Deer-elk-bear Rep., October. In Quart. 1949. Deer-e1k-bear investir,ations. pp. 40-42. Rep •• January. Colo. Dcp t Cane and Fish. 67 PP> v R~p't 1949. Deer-elk-bear invc~tir3tions. April. Colo. Dept. Game and fish. pp. 41-47. 97 pp. Tn Quart. 1949. Decr-clk~bear inv~~ti~~tinns. JUly. Colo. Dcp t , Cnrnc ;1I1U Fbh. pp. 26-29. 8f, pp. ~ Rcp , J Quart. Pr og , �-185- 1951. Checking station survey. pp. 32-33. January. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. 235. .. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., 1952. Ca~e-livetock forage competition study in Colorado. P? 22832nd Ann. Conf. West. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm. 252 pp. 1953. Function and operation of big game check stations in Colorado. .r, Wi1dl. Hgtat; , 17(3):256-267. -'0 1965. Sex and age ratios of deer harvested under a hunters-choice, multiple-license hunting season. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Outdoor Facts Xo. 34. 2 pp. Rogers, G., O. Julander, and W. L. Robinette. 1958. Pellet-group counts for deer census and range-use index. J. Wildl. Hgrnt. 22(2):193-199. Sedgley, E. F., and H. M. Boeker. C9nserv. 26(8):177-178. 1961. 1,500 cattle and 100,000 deer. Soil Shepherd, R. OR., et ale 1966. Game range investigations. pp. 91-92. In Game Res. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks.-pp. 1-93~ . ______ , et ale 1966. Game range surveys. pp. 14-18. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. GaQe Research Review 1965. 48 pp. I • 1967. Game range surveys. pp. 26-31. PaI;ks. GaQe Research Reveiw 1966. 46 pp. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and. • 1968. Game range surveys. pp • 25-28. Parks. Game ReSearch Review 1967. 44 yp. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and. : Smith, D. G. 1958. Deer-elk investigations. 'pp. 139-140, 157-159, 162. ~ Quart. Rep., October •. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 166 pp. • 1964. Factors affecting the response of rubber rabbitbrush to ---2,3-D. H.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 87 pp. 1965. Controlling r~bber rabbitbrush with 2,4-D. Fish and Parks, Outdoor Fa~ts No. 19. 2 pp. Colo. Dept. Gane, 0 Stephens, L. H. 1971. Bro •... se use by oule deer and livestock. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 37 pp , o 0 S\O;ope,II. H., et al. Fish and Parks. 1969. Gane range surveys. Game Research Review 1968. 1970. Game range surveys. pp. 27-29. Parks. Game Research Rev Lew 1969. 35 pp. H.S. Thesis. 0 pp. 18-23. 36 pp. Colo. Div. Game, Colo. Div. Game, Fish and • Tilcston, J. ~-1. 1962. A r csume of Colorado big game research projects, '1939-1957. pp. 116-65. In Tech. Publ. No.9. Colo. Dept. Game and J.'ish. 81 pp • • 00 0 �-186- . V. S. Dept. of ACr• 1965. Uatcr and related land resources, Color~do River Basin in Color~do. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. Water Con:.crv. Bo~rd and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Sc~'icc. Forest Service) and Soil Conserve Service. i-L3Y., 183 pp. (looseleaf) ~l " t!illi<lm~, J. r. Deer-elk Investi~3tlons. pp. 68-71. Rep., July. 1951. ~ Colo. Dept. Ga~c and Fish. 102 pp. 1956. ----" .January. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 1-10. Colo. Dept. G~~e and Fish. 119 pp • ~ • Quart. Prog. Quart. Prog. Rep~, Yillia~s, J., et a1. 1952. Location and extent of vintcr ranges. .: pp. 57-62. ]A Quart. Prog. Rep., April. Colo. Dept. G2nC and Fish. 62 pp • • • • -. • • , -. .. , . ", �-187- SMALL GAHE H;\..M:-L\L RESf~\RCH REFERENCES • r WILDL IFE HANAGP.-1EN! UNIT 12 • COTTmITAIL RABBIT Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Sand for t , W. W. July. 1951. Carae bird surveys. pp. 45-47. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 102 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep , , Shepherd, H. R. 1965a. Colorado long range gzme species ~nagement plans, 1965-1975, for cottontail rabbits. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin of Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. t,'aterConserv. Board and V.S.D.A. Econ. Res, Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv. Service. May. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) .: SNmiSHOE HARE Dolbeer, R. A. 1972. Populatio~ dynamics of th~ snowshoe hare in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colo. State Un:i.v.,Ft. Collins. 193 pp. ,..Porter, K. 1959. Effects of subalpine ti~ber cutting on ~~ld1ife in Colorado • . In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 151-185. Shepherd, H. R. 1965b. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for snovshoe hare. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 11 pp. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related land resources, Colorado River Basin, Colorado, C00p. Study Rep. of Colo. t~ater Conserv. Boa~d and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserv.. Service. Hay. J?enver. 183 pp. (lcoseleaf) '- .. .' .. �... '-188~ C/.HE BIRD RESE.AJ.~CHREFERENCES • . BAh1>-TAILED Braun, C. E. ___ PIGEON 1970. The band-tailed pigeon. Colorado Outdoors 19(5):26-29. • 1970. Higratory bird Lnve s t Lgc t Lons . pp , 151-171. In Game Res. Rcp., October. Colo. Div. GaI:.e,Fish and Parks. 171 pp. 1971. Band-tailed piEcon investigations. pp. 209-236. In Game Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. Ga=e, Fish and Parks. 236 pp. 1972. Band-tailed pigeon investigations. Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. of Wil-life. pp. 123-14l. 168 pp. In Game Braun, C. E., and D. E. Benson. 1972. Band-tailed pigeon investigationsbreeding and nesting chronology studies. pp. 159-168. In Game Res •. Rep., October. Colo. Div. of hi1dlife. 168 pp. Grieb, J. R. 1965. Colorado long range ga::lespecies management plans, 1965-1975, for migratory birds. pp. 33-36. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. lIeff, J. A., and J. C. Culbreath. 1946.. Co1oracio band-tailed pigeon •. pp. 1-24. Fed. Aid Proj. '.-R. Colo. Dep t s Carae and Fish. 24 pp • U. S. Dap t , of Agr. 1965. '~ater and related land resources, Colorado River Basin, Colorado. Coop. Study of Colo. \o!aterConserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. }~y. Denver. 183 pp. (loosel~af) ~~ite, J. A. 1972. Plumage studies of band-tailed pigeons. pp. 143-158. In Game Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. 168 pp. BLUE C:::'OUSE Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duval. 1955. Distribution of American gallinaceous . game birds. V. S. Fish and Hildl. Circ. 34. 30 pp , Anderson, A. E. ·1959. Deer-elk investigations. pp. 118-128. Rep ; , January. Colo. Dept. Caraeand Fish. 128 pp. In Quart. 1960. Effects of sagebrush eradication by chemical means on deer and related wildlife. Job Coopl. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 72 pp. ~: 1960. Distribution and abundance indices of selected biota in western Colorado before and two months after 2,4-D application. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 130 pp. �-189- --- • )9G6. . An 1nve~tf~3tion of 2,4-D ~ppli~~tion' to ~~~ebrush within a mount aIn shrub-conifer complex, Unco(;",p;1I1r,rc.: Na t Lo na L Forest. In Came Res. Rcp , , July - Pa r t; III. Colo. Dcp t , Camc, Fish and Parks .-pp. 345- 420. • 1969. 2,4-D, sagcbrJsh and mule deer-cattle use in upper winter ---range. Spec. Rep. No. 21. July. Colo. Div. Game, Fi~h and Parks. 21 pp. Myers, G. T. 1965. Evalu3tion of a combined qlue grouse-wild turkey hunting. aeason , 'Outdoor Facts No. 27. Colo. Dept. Ga:ne, Fish and Parks. 1 p. Rogers, G.E. Part I. 1962. Gane bird survey. pp. 121-l3l. Colo. Dept. GaLle and Fish. pp. 1-160. In Quart. Rep., July - • 1963. Gane bird survey. pp. 157-168, 191. In Gane Res. Rep., -----c)ctober - Part II. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-241. 1963. Blue "grouse census and harvest in the United States and Canada. J. ~ildl. l·rg::lt. 27 (4); 579-585. 1965. Colorado long ra~ge gawe species managecent plans, 19651975, for blue grouse. pp. 1-3. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 16 pp. 1968. The blue grouse in Co1oraQo. Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 21. 63 pp. ~ Colo. Dept. qame, .Fish and 'S311dfort,\1. H. 1950. Game bird surveys. p. 37. " ~ October. Colo. Dept. Cazie and Fdsh , 4/. pp. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, '- Steinhoff, H. w. 1956. The dusky grouse and its ecology in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Syracuse Vnivo 173 pp. 1958. A rating scale for blue grouse ih Colorado. Amer. For., Wildlife So~. pp. 133-133. Proc. Soc. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. ~ater and related land resources. Colorado River Easin in Co Lo rado , Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. ~':ater Conserv. Board and U.S.D .• \. Econ , Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. }~ay Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) 0 CHUY-AR Aldrich, J. H., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of Anc r i can ga l l Lnac eous garce birds. U.S.D.1. .Fish and \!ildl. Sc r ,, Circ. No , 34. 23 pp. Bartnann, R. M. 1963. Came bird surveys. pp. 33-40, 45-69. In Carne Res. Rep., October ~ Part I. Colo. Dept. Cane~ Fish and Parks. pp. 1-103. 1964. Cane bird ~urvcy. Pa r t II. pp. 151-178. In C.Jme Rcs. Rep., April Colo. Dcp t , Camc , Fi~h and Parks. pp. 71-233. �-190- . Evans, R. L., and Y. U. S~ndrort. 1957. Came bird survey. pp. 55-67. Quart. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 116 pp. In - Hurd, C. L., and W. Y. Sandfort. Quart. Prog. Rcp.~ October. In 1955. Carne bird survey. pp. 85-88. Colo. Dept. Game and fish. lO~ pp. , and 1956. Ca~e bird survey. pp. 75-81. ---Rep., April •. Colo. Dept. GaQc and Fish. 101 pp. In Quart. Prog. l~nning, D. D. 1962. Game bird survey. pp. 9-16, 25-31. In Quart. Rep.,. J.uly - Part 1. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. pp. 1-160. Hiller, J. 1959. Came bird survey. pp . 99-107, 115-124. October. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 124 pp. ~ Rep., Quart. l111lcr, ~T., and H. Y. Sandf'o r t , 1959. Carre bird survey. pp. 67-73. Quart. R2p., January. Colo. Dept. G~~e and Fish •. 128 pp. Sandfort, H. U. 1950. G2l:JCbird survey. pp , 51-52. A~ril. Colo. Dept. Ga~e arid Fish. 101 pp. 1950. Ga~e bird survey. pp. 37-39. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 44 pp. In In Quart. Prog. Rep, , Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, October. 1951. Chukar census. pp. 22-31. Spec. Rep., Glenwood Springs Wildl. Coni., January 16-19. Colo. Dept •.Gane and Fish. 85 pp. 1951. Gane bird survey. pp • 37- a. , Colo. Dept. Ga;::eand Fish. 102 pp. In.Quart. Prog. Rep. , July. 1951. Carne bird survey. pp. 80-82. Colo. Dept. Ga-we and Fish. 117 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , October. 1952. Gat::ebird survey. pp. 40-56. Colo. Dept. Ga;::eand Fish. 62 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep. , April. 1952~ Cane bird su~vey. pp. 93-95. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 105 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., October. 1953. Came bird survey. pp. 81-89. Colo. Dept. Gaoe and Fish. 99 pp. In Quart. Prcg. Rep., April. l 1953. Carne bird survey. p , 107. Colo. Dept. Gaoc and Fish. 129 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rcp , , July. 195~. GaQC bird survey. pp. 13-33. Colo. Dcpt. Gane and Fish. 79 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rcp , , April. 1954. Came bird survey. pp. 67-72. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 182 pp. 12::. Quart. Prog. Rep. , July •. 1955. Came bird survey. pp. :1.7-18. Colorado Dept. Game and Fish. 94 l' p , ~ Quart. ProC. Rep., January. 1955. Cnmc- b Lr d !;urvcy. pp. 82-811. ~ QU3rt. Par t 1. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fir-h. PP> 1-115. Pr og , Rcp , , July- �-191- . --- • 1957. Came bird survey. pp. 29-38, ~5-51. In Quart. Prog. Rep., July - Part I. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. pp. 1-119. b Quart. Rep , , July - Part II. Carie bird survey. pp. 129-131,. Dept. Carae and Fish. pp. 105-18L • '1953. -----Colo. • 1959. C~~e bird survey. pp. 53-65. -----C~10. Dept. Gc1~C and Fish. 128 pp. 1n Quart. Rep., Janu~ry. • 1959. Ca::;e bird survey. pp • 33-36. • In Quart. Rep. , April - Part I. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. pp. 1-116. 1960. Cane bird survey. Dept. Gnrae and Fish. 74 pp. e ___ Colo. Colo. Game and Fish.' 161 pp. 1960. ---" l!!. Quart. Rep.', January. .1960. Carie bird survey .. pp. 91-9!,. l!!. Quart. Rep., April. ---Pept. I • pp. 49-54. Your chances with the chukar. Colorado Outdoors 9(5):26-29. 1961. Cane bird surveys. pp. 119-126, 139-155. In Quart. Rep., April - Part II. Colo. Dept. C~e and Fish. pp. 97-203. 0 1962. Part I. Cane bird survey. pp. 17-23, 33-44. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp. 1-160. In Quart. Rep., July -~- • 1965. Colorado lcng range gane species manag ccent; plans, 1965-1975) for chukar part.ricige. Colo. Dept. CaGle, Fish and Parks. 18 pp. --- .19670 A decade of chukar hunting. Colorado Outdoors 16(6):20-23. Sandfort, l-7.l-l.,and D. l\olt:ing. 1952. Ga~e bird survey. pp. 89-91. Quart. Prog. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. 9ame and Fish. 105 pp. Sandf or t , 1-7. W., et ale 1962. Game bird surveys. July. Colo. Dept. Case and Fish. 159 pp. 1963. October. Tully, R. pp. 9-44. In In Quart. Rep ,, GaBe bird surveys. pp. 33-44, 63-70. In Quart. ~ep., Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 107 pp. 1965. Colorado Outdoors 14(6):16. Cane birds for 1965. U e , S. Dept. of ·Agr. 1966. IJater and related land resources, l~'hiteRiver Basin in Col.orado , Co op . Study Rc p of Colo. !-!aterConserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res, Service, Forest Service and Soil Conserve Service. November. Denver. 92 pp. (looseleaf) '~'hite,C., and J. E. l-lillians. 1960. Escalante. pp. 21-23.' Colorado • Outdoors, 1~0. 5. Sept.-Oct •. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 32 pp • - .. �C,..ttI~ELI S Oil" It ~192- t~ndfort, W. w. 1950. July. Colo. Dept. •... ·~olo. .. . C~mc bird surveys. pp. 17-21. Came and Fish. 80 pp. 1950. Came bird survey. pp. 37-39 •. Fed. Dept. G.1taCand Fish. 44 pp. Aid - r~ Quart.·Prog. Rep., P-=-::>j. W-37-R, October • 1951. Came bird survey. pp. 8082. Colo. Dept. G(~c and Fish. 117 pp. In Quart. P~~g. Rep., October. .' 1952. Gane bird survey. pp. 93-95. Colo. Dept. G~c ar.d Fish. 105 pp. In Quart. 27og. Rep., October. 1953. Cane bird survey. pp. 31-89. Colo. Dept. Gazie and Fish. 99 pp. In Quart. ?:-og. Rep, , April. 1965. Colorado long range gane species manage=e~~ plans, 1965-1975, for G~bel's quail. Colo. Dept. Gane, Fish and Par:~~. 8 pp. Sandfort, U. W., and D. !iolting. 1952. Carae bird surveys , pp. 89-91. Quart. Prog. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. GaQe and F~~~. 105 pp. In Sandfort, !{. ~.J., and H. ~I. S~"ope. 1954. Game bird SUn"2::-. pp. 19-29. ·Quart. Proge Rep., January. Colo. Dept. Caae and 1::':::'.::. 113 pp • In • HOUR.,'UXG DOVE Braun, C. E. 1971. Trapping and banding dov~s. pp. 201-~07. In Quart. Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. Ga~e, Fish and Park~. 236:pp. 1972. Mourning dove trapping and banding. pp. ::5-121. Quart. Res. Rep , , October. Colo. Div. of ·Hild1ife. :'~8 pp. Grieb, J. R. 1964. Dove hunting deluxe. • t' In -- Colorado Out~~~=s 13(4):32-39. 1965. Colorado long range gane s?ecies nanage~e~~ ~lans, 1965-1975, for migratory birds. pp. 33-36. Colo. Dept. Cazie, : ':..$n and Parks. 36 pp. Nolting, D., et a1. Rep., October. 1952. Cane bird survcy. pp. 99-101~ Colo. Dept. Ca~e and Fish. 105 pp. Sandfort, W ..W. 1950. Gane bird survey. October. Colo. Dcpt. Gaoc and Fish. pp. 41-42. pp. Aid Proj. W-37-R, 411 1951. G;U:1Cbird survey. pp. "2-43. Colo. Dept. Ga~c and Fish. 102 pp. 1951. Came bird survey. pp.83-8ft Colo. Dept. Ca~c and Fish. 117 pp. Fe~, In Quart. Prog. In'Quart. ?-;:'-,:,g .• Rep ,, July. • .!!!.Qu.nt.?,,;::~Z. Rcp ,, October. 195ft. Carne bird survey. pp , 23-24. Colo. Dcpt. G:lOlCand FLsh , 111 pp • Tn Oua r t , P";::,"IC. Rep., Oc t obcr , .... ... -- .. . " �-193- c Tn Q'J.:Irt. Prog , Rcp ,, July .19550 Came bird survey. pp , 91-92. Colo •.Dept. Came and Fish. 115 pp. Sand Eor t , ~l. \I., and D. Nolting. 1952. Came bird sur-vey , pp.103-105. 1A Quart. Prog. Rep., October. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 105 pp. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Water and related lando resources. Colorado River Basin in Coloraco. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. t-latcr Conserve Eoard and - UoS.D.A. Econ , Res. Service, Forest Service and Soil Conserve Senricc. Hay. Denver. 183 ppo (looseleaf) . Aldrich, J. i-:., and A. J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of Aner Lc an gallinaceous gcU3~ birds. u.S.D.L~ Fish and Hile!. Cire. !:o. 34. 23 pp. - I . 1 0 In Qu~:~. Prog. Rep.» January. Figge, H. 1952. Ca2e bird survey. pp. 45-60. Colo. Dept. C.<',;::C and Fish. 60 pp. II Figges H.~ et a1. 1953. Ca~e bird survey. pp. 75-86. January. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 141 pp. In Quart. Prog. Repos Uoffman, D. ~!. 1971. Pheasant nest site selection study. pp. 1-26. In __ QU3rt. Res. Rep. ~ April. Colo. Div. Ca~:·o, Fish and Parks • 125 pp. 0 ~___ 1972. Res. Rep., . Pheasant nest site selection study. pp. 1~19. In Quart. April. Colo. Div. Gane, Fish and Parks. 150 pp. Sandf c r t , 't}'~ u. 1950. Ca::!C! bird survey. pp , 17--21. . _"July. Colo. Dept. G.:u::!C and Fish. 80 pp. Cane bird survey. pp , 1 -12. Dept. Ca.aeand Fish. 44 PI" 1950. -Colo. In Quarto Pr og , Rep. 1) Fed. Aid Proj. H-37-Rg Fed. Aid Proj. '-:-37-R, 0 October. I 1951. Ca~e bir~ survey. ~--Colo. Dept. Carae and Fish. pp. 1-7. 35 pp. ______ o ~_ 1951: Ca~e bird survey. pp. 9-20. Colo. Dept. C~~e and Fish. 102 pp. ~ __ • 1955. C2.;:tC bird survey. pp.I-9. Colo. Dept. Canc and Fish. 94 pp. ~ In Quart. Prog. Rep., July. 1952. C3.r71C bird survey. pp , 115-119. Colo. Dcpt~ Ca~e and Fish. 171 pp.o 1952. Gane bird investigations. October. Colo. Dc?t_ Ga~e and Fish. • 1955. C.:L":lC July - Part 1. ----. 1956. bird s ur vcy, pp. In Quart. Prog. . Rep., July. 37-41. 105 pp. In-Quart', Prog. /19-63,65-69. In Colo. Dcp t , Came .:1Od Fish. J.l5 pp • Upland g~nc birds. January. pro Color~do Outdoors Rcp ,, January; Qua r t , Pr og , Rcp , , . 5(6):2 • -.:- •• �-194- ___ • . 1957. Upland game birds. Colorado Outdoors "6(G):2. 1960. Garac bird survey. 59-65. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. pp. 37-55, 161 pp. • In Quart. Rep., July - Part II. G2.~e bird survey. pp. 97-102. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. pp. 97-208. • .!.!!. Quart. Rep. , April.. 1961. Gz~e bird survey. pp. 213-223. In Game Res. Rep.~ October ---Par• 1963. II. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Park~. -PP. 109-241. . t Sandfort, W. W., and E. M. Swope. 1954. Gane bird survey. pp. 19~29. " l!!. Quart. Prog. Rep ,, January. Colo. Dept. .Game and Fish. 113 pp. Stie1-L'";l) H. A. July. 1950. Cane bird survey. pp. 1-4. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart; Prog. Rep., Swope, H. ?-f. 1965. Colorado long z ange game species manag emen t plans, J.965-1975, fo::pheasants. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and PzrKs. 54 pp. U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1966. Water and related la~d resources, wnite River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Re? of Colo. Hater Conserve Board and U.S.D.A. Econ. Res. Service, ?orest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. HovelI!ber. Denver. 92 pp. (looseleaf) SAGE G!\OVSE Aldrich, J . H., and A.J. Duvall. 1955. Distribution of Ame rLcan gallinaceous game birds. U. s.· Fish and HildI. Circ. 34. 30 pp -, Boeker, H. }of. 1955. Cane bird surveys. pp , 70-71. ..Ju1y. Colo. Dept. Ga::leand Fish. pp. 1-115. Funk, .!E. Quart. Pr'og . Rep , , H. D. 1971. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. pp. 41-47. ~ Quart. Res. Rep., April. Colo. Div. G&~e, Fish and Parks. 125 pp. 1972." Effects of sagebrush cont::ol en distribution and abundance of sage grouse. pp. 31-37. ~ Quart. Res. Rep , , April. Colo. Div. Carae , Fish and Parks. 149 pp. Rogers 1958. J art II. Ga~e bird surveys." pp. 123~125. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Colo. Dept. Gene and Fish. pp. 105-181. 1959. Cane hire! surveys. pp. 13-32. Colo. Dept. Came and Fish. 116 pp. ---• ,1963. l'art The s ag e grouse of Colorado. In Quart. Prog. Rcp , , April. Colorado Outdoors 12 (3): 22-24. 1963. Came bird survey •. pp. 13-32.· Tn Carne Res. Rcp , , October1. Colo. De p t , C.:lC1C, Fish and Parks. pp. J.-I08. .. �-~6 -1964. -195- S~~e crouse invcsti~~tions Tech. Publ. No. 16. in Colorado. 132 pp • Fish and Parks. Colo. Dept. Come, • ·1965. Colorado lonf, range g<lr:lC species ruanagc:ncntplans. 1965-1975. -----f-or sage grouse. pp. 4-7. Colo. Dept. Gacc, Fish and Parks. 18 pp • .Ue S. Dept. of Agr. 1965. Yater and related land resources, Colorado River Basin in Colorado. Coop. Study Rep. of Colo. ~later Conserve Board and U.S.D.A. Eeon. Res. Service, Forest Service, and Soil Conserve Service. l~y. Denver. 183 pp. (looseleaf) HATERFOWL Funk, H. D. 1971. Haterf~·",lkill survey. pp , 51-73. In Quart. Res. Rep., October. Colo. Div. Cane , Fish and Parks. 236 pp. Grieb, J. R. 1965. Colorado long range ga~e species ~anag~ent plans. 1965-. 1975, for migratory birds. pp. 1-32. Colo. Dept. G~ue, Fish and Parks. 36 pp. Uopper, R. M. 1963. ~7etl~m(lsof Colorado. Tecll. Publ. !~o. 22, ~f.3.rch.89 pp. hTILD TU~1.(EY Colo. Dept. G~c, Fish and Parks. .. .Aldrich, J. ~-l., and A. J. Duva l.L,.' 1955. Distribution of Aner Lcan gallinaceous gaoe birds. U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildl. Ser., Cire. No. 34. 23 pp. Burget, }L L. 1946. Fish. 21 pp. Colorado wild turkey. Vol. II. Colo. Dept. Game and 19!,8. HUd turkey surveys and investigations. pp. 47-62. In Quart. Prog. Rcp;, October. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 80 pp. _____ " 19!t9. Uildturkey surveys and investigations .. pp , 91--106. In Quart. Prog. Rep. Colo. Dept. Gac,e and Fish. 141 pp. 1949. Uild turkey develop~ent. April. Colo. Dept. G~e an~ Fish. pp. 3-18. 9.3 pp. In Quart. Prog. Rep., 1951. Ui1d turkey rehabilitation in Colorado. pp. 7-17. Spec. Rep. Glcn~ood Springs Wildl. Coni., Jan. 16-19. Colo. Dept. Game and ·Fisll." 85 pp. . .. 1957. The ~~ild turkey in Colorado. January. 68 pp. 1960. Uild turkey dcvc lo pcicn t , Colo. Dept. Camc and Fish. 110 pp. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. pp , 5-42. ..!E.. Quart. Rcp ,, July. 1961. Yild turkey devc~opmcnt. pp. 23-43, 51-55 • October. Colo. Dept. Carne and Ffsh , 103 pp. .!Eo Quart. Rep., �-196• 1963. Ulld turkey investiG~tion9. pp. 71-85. ---I.pril. Colo. Dept. and Fish. 109 pp. In Came Rc~. Rep., Carac Burget, M. L •• and C. Ford. 1951. Hlld turkey dcvc l o pmcnt , pp. 1-7. '.!.!l Quar t , Pr og , Rcp, , April. Colo. Dept.' Came and Fish. M pp. .0 o Burget, • H. L., and D. H. Ilo f fraan , 1950. Uild turkey su rvcys and investigations. Three Year SL.'7.1 Rcp , , 1947-1950, July. Colo. Dcpt. Carne and Fish. ~ pp. .."". ,2nd ~---October:-Colo. .' ~ and ~~·-In Quart. Prog. 1950. Dept. tUld Carae turkey investigations. and Fish. 18 pp. ___ , and 1952. .!E. Quart. ,---' Prog. and ---' Rep , , pp , 1-5. In. Quart. 62.pp. Wild turkey investigations. pp. 1-9, 11-14, 21-24. October. Colo. Dept. Gwue and Fish. 105 pp • pp. 99 pp. 19-33. ~ and 1953. Hild turkey investigations. pp. 1-6. Pr og , Re p , , July. Colo. Dept. Carae arid Fish. 129 Pl'. , and ---Prog , Rep. ---.' > ___ , and 1955. llild tur:~ey i:lvestigations. P? Rep:, October. Colo. bept. GaGe and Fish. _ Rep , , October. ---' and Quart. 1957. t~ild Colo. Dept. turkey investiga G2.we and Fish. In Quart. _ 1-8, 13-19. 108 pp. pp . 69-86. In .!E. Quart. 1953. Hild turkey i~'lcsti22.tions. pp. 147-169. In ~e~.) July - Part II. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. pp. 105-181. Evans, R. L. 1963~ t-lild turkey invcstir;2..tions. Rcp , , April. Colo. Dept. G<.W.eand Fish. Roff~3n, D. X. .1965~1975, llunter, G. N. Rep. 1\0. Hyers, tions. 116 pp. Quart •. In Quart. 1954. Wild turkey investigations. pp. 12-24. July. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fish. 182 pp. and ·Quart. Prog. H-39-R~ surveys and investigations. pp • 11-29. Colo. Dept. GaCle and Fish. 117 pp. October. 1953. l-lild turkey investigations. April. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. Prog. Rep., Aid Proj. 1951. "Jl1d turkey Rep., and 1952. llild turkey investigations; Prog , Rep , , Ap:::-iJ.. Colo. Dept. Carne and Fish. -~.-' Fed. 1965. Colorado for ui1d turkey. 1965. pp. 71-85. 109 pp. long range game species nanagenent plans, Colo. Dc?t. G2~e) Fish 2nd Parks. 11 pp. Colorado big g~~e harvest, 1959-1965. Gane, Fish and Parks. 41 pp • 1. Colo. Dept. C. T. 1963. G'.Jmc bird October - Part II. Colo. • In Ga~e Res. survey. Dept. Spec. Hgmt. pp. 173-178. In G.1::1C Res. Rcp ,, Camc, Fish and Parks. pp. 109-2/,1. .. �-197- • ·-19M,. ---rm.-t III. - Came bird survey. pp. 243-280. In G.:lL1C Res. Rep. t April Colo. Dcpt. Carnc, Fish and Parks .-pp. 235-397. 1965. Evaluation of a co~bincd blue crouse-wild tu~key hunting '---_.scason. Outdoor Facts No. 27. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 1 v. • 1965. Reliability of turkey sex and a~c ratio data based on hunter report card returns. Outdoor racts No. 29. Colo. Dept. Gili~e,Fish and Parks. 2 pp. .J. 1965. Ga~ce bird sU~ley. pp. 91-174. In Cane Res. Rep. 9 April Part I • Cole. Dept. Gaue, Fish and Parks. pp. r-iz«. • '1966. C~e bird survey. P? 69-84. In Ga~e Res. Rep.) ---C-·olo. Dept. Gazie, rish and Parks. 192 pp.-1967. Ga=e bird survey. pp. 167-182, 205-211. April - Part II. Colo. Dept. Ga=e, Fish and Parks • I' • 1968. G.?::lC bird survey. pp , 71, 99-110. ---Colo. Dep t. Caae , Fish and Parks. 131 pp. 1969. Game bird survey. pp. 107, 153. Colo. Div. G2::le, Fish auJ Parks. IS1 pp. 1969. The topic is turkey. April. .. In Ga~e Res. Rep., pp. l07-2l.1. In Carne Res. Rep ., April. In Gace Res. Rep., April. Colorado Outdoors 18(5): 30-34. 1970. Carre bird survey. pp , 161, 165. Colo. Div. G2.L~C, Fish and Parks. 193 pp. Sheats, C. C. 1970. .19 (3): 30-31. . - In Game Res. Rep. J April. By experience \lith the turkey. Colorado Outdoors . ... '. " �• -198- • • • • BOBCAT Boyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long r ange garcc species tcanagement; plans, 19651975, for predators. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 21 pp. :tellinf,tol1, J. D. 1959. Fuxbc arers of Colorado. Colo. Dept. Ga:.:eand Fish. 16 pp. Educational Pamphlet No. '•• Rutherford, H. H. 1965. Co1ori1do long ri1nge game species nanagp.ment plans, 1965-19jS~ for f urbea rers , Colo. Dept. Game, Fdsh and Parks. 12 pp. COYOTE noyd, R. J. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 196519/5, for p reda t o rs , Colo. Dept. Cane , Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Craighead, F. C. 1951. A biological and econo~ic evaluation of coyote pred<ltion. Sew York Zoological Society and The Conservation Foundation. 23 pp. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. In Quart. Pr og , Rcp .• .Ian , Colo. Dept. G<1i::e and Fish. 60 pp. Sperry, C. C. 19~1. Foed habits of the coyote. Servo Hi1dl. Re's , Bull. 4. 70 pp." U.S.D.I. Fish and Wild1. SKU:-''"K Boyd, R. J. 1965. Co lorado long range game species management plans, 196519/5, for p redc t ors, Colo. Dept. Cane , Fish and Parks. 21 pp. Denney. R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31. l_~~Quart. Proe. Rep , , Jan. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 60 pp. Remington, J. D. 1959. Furbearers of Colorado. Colo. De p t , Game and Fish. 16 pp. Educational P3I:lphletNo.4. Rutherford, W. II. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975J; for furb~arers. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp • . ' RODENTS Turncr, G. T., R. H. Hansen, V. H. Reid, 11. P. Tietjen, and A. L. Hard. 1973. Pocket gophcrs ~nd Colorado mountain rangeland. Colo. State Unlv. Expcr. Sta. Bull. No. 55~S. 90 pp. • �FURJ3EARER RESEARCH REFERENCES • .BEAVER AnODYDOUS. 1937. 1(32):5, 7. Beavers, flood control experts. Natl. Nature News. Finley) t.•••L. 1937. The beavnr-v-conse rve r of soil and water ~ildl. Conf. Tr~ns. 2:295-2~7. • 0 N. Amer. J.•eighton, R. S., and J. A. Lee. 1952. A rpogress report on a technique to control water levels in beaver impoundments. N. A:ree.r. v!ild1. Conf. Proc. 8:4 pp. • .. Remington, J. D. 1955. Fur resources and bear studies. W-6l-R. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 85 pp. 1959. Furbc3rers of Colorado. Dept. Game aud Fish. 16 pp. Fed. Aid. Proj. Educational Pamphlet No.4. Colo. Retzer, J. L. 1955. Physical environ~ental effects on beavers in the Colorado Rockies. Western Assoc. Game and Fish COm@ •.Proc. 35. ." Retzer, J. L., H. ~I. Swope, J. D. Remington, and W. H. Rutherford. 1956. Beaver manageI::entin the Rocky Hountains of Colorado. Fed. Aid Proj • W-S3-R. Tech. B~ll~ ~o. 2. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 33 pp. Rutherford, W. H. 1953. Effects of a sumner flash flood upon a beaver population. J. Har::m.3[. (2) : 261-262. 1964. The beaver in Colorado; its biology, ecology, canageoent -and econoQics. Colo. Ga~e, Fish and Parks Tech. Pub. No. 17. 49 pp. 1965. Colorado long range game species canagement plans) 19651975, for furbe3rers. Colo. Dept. Ga~e, Fish and Parks. 12 pp. Scheffer, P. M. 1938. 3(7) :178-.131. The beav2r as an upstream engineer. Soil Cons. }fINK Denney, R. N: 1950. Fur resource surveys, pp. 75-80. Rep., July. Colo. Dept. Game and Fish. 80 pp. In Quart. Prog. Nemanic, W.}~ Jan. Fish 1942~ Commfs s Lon, Fur resource surveys. 6 pp. Vol. 2. Colo. Game and �-200- Rcminr,ton, J. D. 1953. Fur resources and be3r ~tudics.· pp. 17-23. 1E. Quart. Pr og , Rcp , , Oct. Colo. Dept.' Carne and Ff sh , 60 pp. • 1959. ---Colo. Educ a t Lo naL Pamphlet No.4. Fur-bearers of Colorado. and Fish. 16 pp. 'Dcp t , Carne, Rutherford, Y. H. 1965. Colorado long range game species management plans, 1965-1975, for fu=bearcrs. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. 12 pp • .-" . MUSKRAT Denne)', R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 57-66. Jan. Colo. Dept. Cane and Fish. 66 pp. 1950. Fur resource survey.pp. 93-101. April. Colo. Dept. G3~e and Fish. 101 pp. 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 75-80. Colo. Dept. G~e and Fish. 80 pp. 1951. Fur reso~rce survey. Dept. Ca~e aud Fish. 8 pp. ~ Quart. Prog. Rep., In Quart. Prog. Rep , , ..!E. Quart. Prog. Rep ,, July: In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resources and bear studies. pp. 1-31 •. In Quart. Prog. Rep., Jan. Colo. Dept. Gane and Fish. 60 pp. 0 - Nenanic, H. H. 1942. }:'ishCorcu ss Lon.• Fur resource survey. 6 pp. Vol. 2, Jan. Remington, J. D. 1953. fur resources and bear studies. Quart. Prog. Rep., Oct. Colo. Dept. Gane·and Fish. Colo. Ga:ne and pp. 17-23. 60 pp. In . , j ; 1959. Furb ear ers of Colorado. Dept •.C~e an~ Fish. 16 pp. Educational Panphl.et No. II. Colo. Rutherford, ~. H. 1965. Colorado long range ga~e species ~anagencnt plans, 1965-1975, for furbe~rers. Colo. Dept. Ga~cJ Fish and Parks. 12 pp. \:EASEL Denney, R. N. 1950. Fur resource survey. pp. 93-10l. April. Colo. Dept. Ga~e and Fish. 101 pp. July. 1950. Fur resource sur/cy. pp. 75-80. Colo. De~t. Game and Fish. SO pp. ~ ..!E. Quart. Prog , Rep., Quart. Prog. Rep., Denney, R. N., and D. L. Gilbert. 1952. Fur resourccs and bC3r studies. pp. 1-31. .!E. Quart. -Pr og , Rcp ,, .Jnn, Colo. Dcpt. Carne and Fi~h. 60 pp. Ncrnanic, W. M. 19~2. Fur rcsource survey. }':ish Cor.-:nlssion.6 pp. Vol. 2, Jan. Colo. C:lmc and I �-201RC::1in;:;to!,), J. D•. 195J. Fur Quart. Frog. Rep_v Oct. resources and bca r 's tud l c s . Colo. Dept. Came and fl~h • • 1959. ~10. Furbeare~s of Colorado. Dept. Gtinc and Fish. 16 pp. ~utllcrford, W. H. 1965-1975, for In pp. 17-23. ~O pp. Pa.mphlet No. ~. Educational • 1965. Colorado long ran~e g~~e spccics-nanagcmcnt plans, f ur b ca r er s , Colo. Dept. Cara e , Fish and Parks. 12 pp • .-' . .. • • • • .: • . -.. . .. ... , �• -202GEHERP~ EA~r1ALIA:rREFERENCES " IDl.DLUE ~{A.NAGE1E{TUNIT 12; • Antnony, H. E. 1928. Field book of North American mammals. Sons, New York. 674 pp , .' G. P. Putnam's Armstrong, D. M. 1972. Distribution of mammals in Colorado. Priating Service; Law~ence. 415 pp. Univ. r~sas Bur t , W. H., and R. P. Grossenheider. 1964. Houghton ~li£flin Co., Boston. 284 pp. A field guide to the mammals. • Cringan, A. T. 1973. \.,Tarm blood vaz t ebra t a inventory analysis and impact study of the ParaG~ute Creek area, Garfield County, Colorado. In The Colo:1Y enviror.=ental study--Para~hute Creek, Garfield Co~~ty, Colorado. Prepared for Colony Develop=e~t Operation by Tno~e Ecological Institute, Boulder, Colorado. August, 1973. Part II. Vol. 2, Cahpt. VII. pp. 1-137. Hall, E. R., and K. R. Kelson. 1959. The m~~~ls Press Co., New York. 2 Vols. 1162 pp. Lechleitner, R. R. 1969. Boulder, 254 pp. of North America. Wild mamoals of Colorado. Ronald Pruett Pub. Co., lliller, G. S., and R. Kellogg. 1955. List of North ft~erican recent mammals. Sm.Lt hson i an Inst., ~.[ashi11gton, D. C. Bull. No. 205. 954 pp. Huric, O. J. Boston. 1954. A field guide to anjmal tracks. pp. 374 Palmer, R. S. 1954. r.~e ma~a1 'City, N. Y. 384 pp. Harren, R. R. 330 pp. 1942. guide. Houghton !-lifflinCo., Doubleday and Co., Inc., Garden The mamaa Ls of Colorado. Univ. Okla. Press, No rman , .. ...•. �-203GENERAL AVIAN REFERENCES WILDLIFE }W~AGEHENT UNIT 12 Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Mus. of Nat. Hist., Denver, 2 Vols. 895 pp. 1967. Pictorial checklist of Colorado birds. ---of Nat. Hist., Denver. 168 pp. Davis, W. A. 61 pp , 1969. Birds of western Colorado. Denver Denver Hus. Colo. Field Ornithologists. Kortright, F. A. 1943. The ducks, geese, and swans of North America. The AIDer. Wi1dl. Institute, Washington, C. D. 476 pp. Linduska, J. P. 1964. Waterfmv1 tomorrow. Wildl., Washington, D. C. 770 pp. U.S.D.I. Bur. Sport Fish. and Martin~ G. S., P. H. Baldwin, and E. B. Reed. birds from the Yampa Valley, Northwestern 113-116. Pearson, T. G. 1940. N. Y. 289 pp. Birds of America. 1974. Recent records of Colorado. Condor. 76(1): Garden City Publ. Co., Inc., Peterson, R. T. 1941. A field guide to western birds. Co., Boston. 240 pp. Robbins, G. D., B. Brunn, and H. S. Zim. Golden Press, N. Y. 340 pp. 1966. Houghton Mifflin Birds of North America. Smith, A •.G. 1973. Avian environmental inventory and impact study for Colony Development Operation in Garfield County, Colorado. Part I. Environmental inventory by Thorne Ecological Institute for Colony D~velopment Operation, Atlantic-Richfield Company, Operator, October, 1973. Sprunt, A., IV., and H. S. Zim. 1961. Gamebirds--a speci~s 'and their habits. Golden Press, N. Y. guide to North American 160 pp. Wooding, J. 1973. A census of the breeding birds of the Roaring Fork watershed. Colorado Field Ornithologist. 9 pp. ��July, 1976 -205JOB FINAL REPORT State of cO_L_O_RAD __ O Project No. W-lOl-R-lB Work Plan No. _ Game Range Investigations 7 Job No. -------Reprint Book: Winter Guide 1 Job Title _~t_o_N~a~t_i_v._e~S_h_r~ub~s~o~f~t~h~e~C_e_n~t_r_a~l~R~o~c~k~y~MO~u~n~t~a~i~n~s~ _ Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 William T. McKean and Paul H. Neil ABSTRACT Concluding work for this segment on the manuscript included minor reVl.Sl.ons Final printing to keys and text. Details of proof reading were completed. and distribution duties will be finished in the early months of the next segment. Printing cost per copy was approximately $1.70 for 10,000 copies. ��-207REPRINT BOOK: WINTER GUIDE TO NATIVE SHRUBS OF THE CENTRAL ROCKY MOUNTAINS William T. McKean Paul H. Neil P. S. OBJECTIVE To revise and reprint the book: Winter Guide to Native Shrubs of the Central Rocky Mountains. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Continue work on key to genera and descriptions and usability. to improve accuracy 2. Continue revision of all introductory printed page matter. 3. Arrange printing details with publications printer. chief and contract METHODS AND MATERIALS 1. Suggestions for improvements in the key and descriptions have been solicited and received from several cooperators. These were incorporated. In a few cases verification of characters were necessary, using herbarium specimens largely, but freshly collected material where necessary. 2. A simple matter of updating and correcting all pages of the preface, introduction, glossary, index and cover sheets was needed. 3. Cooperation with Charles Hjelte, publications chief, in the Denver office was obtained. Printing bids were solicited; a close liaison with the printer was maintained; and care will be taken to retrieve and store all original copy when the job is completed. Distribution of the new book to Division personnel and cooperators will be supervised. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As of this segment ending, final proofs of all printed material and illustrations have been checked and returned to the printer. Most of the detail of printing has been supervised by Charles Hjelte, publications chief. There remain only the chores of: (1) Retrieving copy from the printer (especially the illustrations), (2) Storing it, (3) Distributing the new book to Division personnel and cooperators, (4) Arranging safe storage for remaining copies of the book. �-208- The printing contract was awarded to Eastwood Printing Company, 2854 Larimer, Denver, Colorado for 10,000 copies (hard bound) costing $16,879.00 or approximately $1.70 apiece. A sale price of $3.50 each was established for the general public. Prepared by 11' ~~~7-1- %~1c::;t;-CL4t···/ -----------------------------------William T. McKean Wildlife Researcher �July, 1976 -209JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~--------. Game Range Investigations W-101-R-18 Project No. 1 8 Job No. Determination of Digestible Nutrients of Important Deer and Elk Forage Plants - A Feasibility Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Study April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976. Roland C. Kufe1d, Marilyn Stevens ABSTRACT Five 70 to 125 gram, green weight composite samples of big sage (Artemisia tridentata) and Gambe1 oak (Quercus gambe11ii) were collected from each of 9 widely separated areas throughout western Colorado during January, 1976, to determine the average digestible nutrient and degree of variation in digestible nutrient content of those species during winter. To date no results are available as samples are currently being prepared for chemical analysis. ��-211- DETERMINATION OF DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS OF IMPORTANT DEER AND ELK FORAGE PLANTS - A FEASIBILITY STUDY Roland C. Kufeld INTRODUCTION Availability of winter range is one of the main factors limiting the size of big game herds on most western ranges. During summer deer and elk are usually distributed over vast high mountain areas where the forage supply is adequate. During winter, however, deep snow forces animals to migrate to the lower valleys where they are concentrated on limited winter range areas. Gilbert, Wallmo and Gill (1970) found in Middle Park, Colorado that snow over 18 inches deep essentially precludes deer use. In two of the three winters of their study over 90 percent of the winter range was excluded from use because of snow. This type of situation causes heavy concentrations of deer on critical winter ranges where forage is in extremely short supply, and where vegetation frequently becomes so heavily used it has little opportunity for recovery. Robinette et al. (1952) observed winter deer herd losses of 9, 26, and 42 percent respectively, for three winter range areas in Utah due to concentration of deer with resulting food shortages. They concluded that moderate stocking of deer is necessary to maintain the forage yielding capacity of the ranges, soil and watershed values, and in addition, the health and well-being of the herds. Elk die-offs also occur due to excessive concentrations of large numbers of animals on limited winter range. Jackson Hole, Wyoming is one of the better known areas where limited winter range has resulted in extensive elk wint8r losses (Anderson 1958). Most estimates of carrying capacity or ability of range to support wintering big game animals are based on observations of animal condition and population trend records, in belief that carrying capacity has been reached or exceeded when animal condition begins to decline and dieoffs begin. Unfortunately, by the time this occurs the range has often suffered serious damage from which it may take years to recover. Because of a lack of information and complexity of carrying capacity determination, wildlife managers have little 'idea of carrying capacity from the range standpoint. Some of the primary questions which need to be answered through research before carry~ng capacity can be determined are listed below: 1. What plant species do deer and elk eat and what are their relative preference ratings? 2. What is the digestible nutrient content of preferred deer and elk forage species? �-212- 3. What are the nutritional requirements of deer and elk? a. How much protein, carbohydrate, fats and minerals do deer and elk require during each season of the year? b. How much total volume of plant material do deer and elk eat per day? 4. How much forage and digestible energy is produced on the range and how do you measure this on large areas? 5. How much of the forage produced on the range can be consumed without damaging the range? 6. How many deer and elk are on the range, and how can the number of deer and elk be determined in terms of animal unit months? 7. Why are there large areas with apparently good forage which are not used to any appreciable extent by deer and elk? It will be the objective of this study to answer question number 2, "what is the digestible nutrient content of preferred deer and elk forage species"? Deer and elk food habits studies reported in the literature have been summarized by Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema (1973) and Kufeld (1973). These summaries will be used to provide a basis for selection of the preferred deer and elk forage species to be evaluated. Prior to widespread collection of plants for nutrient analysis it will be necessary to determine the extent of variation in digestible nutrient content among plants of the same species during winter due to various environmental factors. It is well known that such variation does occur, but it mhst be determined if the variation is relatively small, or so great as to preclude the use of average nutrient values for plant species in computation of carrying capacity estimates without some sort of data stratification. Laycock and Price (1970) have published an excellent review of literature on environmental influences on nutritional value of forage plants. Their review summarizes 85 references on the subject. These influences include season of the year, precipitation, temperature, amount of light, and soil properties including moisture content, depth, nutrient content, parent material and texture. Their discussion of factors affecting plant nutrient content can best be summarized by the statement by Cook and Harris (1950) who concluded that "the nutrient content of forage is influenced by many interdependent factors and the result is the additive or mass effect of all factors operating Simultaneously". If plant nutrient content data are to be used by wildlife managers in carrying capacity estimates, it is therefore apparent that these will have to be based on average digestible nutrient content values for each plant species during each season of the year. Use of average digestible nutrient content data will be feasible only if variation due to all affecting factors is reasonably small. Many �-213- of the studies have shown the influence of certain factors resulted in nutrient content differences that were statistically significant. Even though statistical significance was shown many of the differences were not particularly large numerically. Thus, the first phase of this study will be directed toward determining whether the degree of nutrient variation will permit use of average nutrient values in carrying capacity estimates. If the variation in digestible nutrient content among plants of the same species is found ~o be quite large, and it is ascertained that digestible nutrient content cannot be sampled adequately for management purposes even through stratification the project may be terminated at this point. P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine the average digestible nutrient content values and the degree of variation in digestible nutrient content of selected range forage plants during winter. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determin2 the average digestible nutrient content values and the degree of variation in digestible nutrient content of Artemisia tridentata and Quercus gambellii during winter. METHODS AND MATERIALS Five 70 to 125 gram, green weight, composite samples of big sage (Artemisia tridentata) and Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii) were collected from each of 9 geographically widely separated areas within the normal winter range of deer and elk. The 5 samples were taken from widely distributed sites within each major area with all 5 samples collected from the same vegetation type. For sagebrush collections 3 of the major collection areas represented the sagebrush type, 3 represented the pinyon-juniper type and 3 represented the Gambel oak type. Major collection areas for Gambel oak represented the oak, pinyon-juniper and ponderosa pine-oak types and 3 major areas were selected representing each type. Ten composite big sagebrush samples of at least 200 grams each were collected from 10 widely separated areas within the normal winter range of deer and elk. These samples will be used to determine the percentage of volatile oils lost due to freeze drying and grinding sagebrush samples, -which is a necessary step in preparing samples for chemical analysis. Each 200+ gtam sample was divided in half resulting in 10 paired samples. A reconnaissance trip was made throughout the western half of Colorado during the summer of 1975 to establish locations where the desired species could be collected. Plant collections were made during January, 1976. Oak collections consisted of current annual growth stems with leaves and acorns excluded. For big sage current annual growth stems with leaves �-214- attached wer e collected. Sage seed stalks were not collected. Information recorded on each composite plant sample included the following: 1) date, 2) exact location, 3) vegetation type, 4) elevation, and 5) green weight of plant samples to the nearest gram when collected. Samples of big sage were placed in sealed plastic bags, packed in a snow filled ice chest immediately upon collection and frozen as soon thereafter as possible to prevent vaporization of volatile oils which might result in unrealistically high digestion coefficients. RESULTS To date no results are available. for chemical analysis. Samples are currently being prepared LITERATURE CITED Anderson, Chester C. 1958. The elk of Jackson Hole. A review of Jackson Hole elk studies. Wyo. Game and Fish Corom. Bull. No. 10. 184 pp. Cook, C. Wayne, and Lorin E. Harris. 1950. The nutritive value of range forage as affected by vegetation type, site and state of maturity. Utah State Agric. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 344. 45 pp. Gilbert, Paul F., Olof C. Wallmo, and R. Bruce Gill. 1970. Effect of snow depth on mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(1):15-23. Kufeld, Roland C. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. Manage. 26(2):106-113. J. Range , O. C. Wallmo, and Charles Feddema. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Pap. RM-lil. 31 pp. Laycock, William A., and Donald A. Price. 1970. Factors influencing forage quality. In: Range and wildlife habitat evaluation - a research symposium. U.S.D-:-A.For Servo Misc. Pub. No. 1147. pp. 37-47. Robinette, W. Leslie, Odell Julander, Jay S. Gashwiler, and Justin G. Smith. 1952. Winte~ mortality of mule deer in Utah in relation to range condition. J. Wildl. Manage. 16(3):289-299. Prepared by ~«LdC,~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �July 1976 -215JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COIDRADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-125-R-2 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title Monitor Potentially Deer-Auto Accident Job No. Investigations l_a Critical Deer-Vehicle Accident Areas _ Statewide Period Covered: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: All Area Supervisors and Wildlife Conservation Officers in Colorado, James D. Fleming, Edward E. Kochman, Sharon L. McDonnell, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodward. ABSTRACT A total of 1,527 big game-vehicle accidents were documented in Colorado in 1975. Two hundred thirty-five deer were killed by vehicles in seven specific areas in western Colorado. Recommendations for installation of devices to reduce deer-vehicle accidents were submitted during this segment for three of cheae areas. �-216- RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations were developed from this study and made to the Colorado Division of Highways for installation of the eight-foot fences and associated structures referred to in this report. �-217- MONITOR POTENTIALLY CRITICAL DEF,R-VEHICLE ACCIDENT AREAS STATEWIDE Thomas N. ~..]oodard P. S. OBJECTIVE Locate an~ examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas in Colorado and recommend methods or devices which may reduce the problem for these critical accident areas. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Locate and examine potentially in Colorado. critical deer-vehicle accident areas 2. Recommend methods or devices which may reduce the problem for these critical accident areas. 3. Select recommended underpasses, overpasses, 2.44-m fence lengths, or other devices or methods for evaluation when sample size considerations can be met. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle T..]est Pojar (1972) and T..]oodard (1973a, 1975) described this area. Highwav 1-70 Eagle East Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973a, lq74) described this area. Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1973b) described this area. Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Myers (1969) and Woodard (1975) described this area. Highway 6-24 (1-70) Eagle-Glenwood Woo~ard (1975) described this area. Canyon �-218- Highway 550 Colona-Ridgwav . This area extends from the Uncompahgre River bridge 7.0 km south of Colona to Owl Creek Road 18.6 km south of Colona, a distance of 11.6 km. The present h Lghwav alignment is ad[acen t to and east of the Uncompahgre River. Pinvon-;uriiper (Pinus spp.-Juniperus sPP.) connnunities predominate on adjacent west faCing slopes. Approximatelv 8.0 km of the present alignment is scheduled for realignment to the east to bypass Ridgway Reservoir, part of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Dallas Creek water development nroject. The realigned section of highwav will be Q.6 km long. The present alignment will remain for approximate Iv 2.3 and 1.3 km at the north and south ends of this section of highway, respectively. Highway 50 Salida East This area extends from Howard, Colorado, to the east approximatelv 8.4 km. The highway is adjacent to and southwest of the Arkansas River. Pinyonjuniper connnunities predominate on adjacent northeast facing slopes. This segment of highway is scheduled for improvement construction. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972). Highway 550 Colona-Ridgway The numbers and locations of deer-vehicle accidents during 1974 and 1975 were plotted on U.S.G.S. quadrangle maps (scale 1:24,000). One evening ground inventorv was made on 17 April 1975 along the present alignment and proposed realignment. Cost:benefit analvsis for 2.44-m fencing was completed for the 3.6 km of remaining highwav and 9.6 km of realignment using the technique described by Woodard and Reed (lQ74). Deer-vehicle,accidents on the realignment were projected bv extrapolating from the present alignment. The assumption was made that deer near the present alignment will be diSPlaced to the east along the proposed realignment. Accidents on the proposed realignment without fencing were projected by multiplying the number occurring on the present alignment by the percent increase of deer reSUlting from displacement, using data collected on the 17 April 1975 ground inventory. Accidents on the realignment with fencing were calculated by multiplving the projected accidents without fenCing by 0.22, the converse of the effectiveness of five 2.44-m fences installed to date in Colorado (Woodard 1976). Highway 50 Salida East The number and locations of deer-vehicle accidents during 1975 were plotted on a U.S.G.S. quadrangle map (scale 1:62,500). �-219- Statewide All Area Supervisors and Wildlife Conservation Officers in Colorado were requested to document big game-vehicle accidents and send records to "Records, Big Game-Vehicle Accidents" in Glenwood Springs for filing and review. Implementation of this request was I Julv 1975. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 6-24 (1-70) Rifle West Twenty-five vehicle-killed deer were documented on 29 km of highway in the Rifle West study area; a decrease of 19.4 percent from the preceding segment. ~iftv-two percent of the deer were killed during April. Highwav 1-70 Eagle East Twenty-four vehicle-killed deer were documented on 13.7 km of highway in the Eagle East study area; an increase of 4.3 percent over the preceding segment. Deer kill continued to be reduced on the portions of highway opposite the 7.7-km barrier fence (Woodard 1976). Highway 1-70 Avon-Wolcott Fifty-three vehicle-killed deer were documented on 22.5 km of highwav in the Avon-Wolcott studv area; a decrease of 11.7 percent from the preceding segment. Deer kill continued to be reduced on the portions of highwav opposite two sections of 2.44-m fence O-Joodard 1(76). Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Seventy vehicle-killed deer were documented on 29 km of highwav in the Glenwood-Basalt study ,area; a decrease of 27.8 percent from the preceding segment. Twenty-nine percent were killed during February and March. Thirty-nine percent were killed during April. Deer-vehicle accidents continued to be reduced on the portions of highway opposite two 1.77-km lengths of 2. 44-m fencing (Woodard 1n6) . Highway 6-24 (1-70) Eagle-Glenwood Canyon Eight vehicle-killed deer were documented on Highway 6-24 from Eagle to the west 9.9 km to Gypsum. Sixteen vehicle-killed deer were documented on Highway 6-24 f roia Gypsum to the west 15.0 km to the beginning of Glenwood Canyon. Recommendations for structures to reduce deer-vehicle accidents when Interstate 70 is constructed between Eagle and Gypsum were submitted to the Colorado Division of Highways. Recommendations included two open bridge structures and 8.6 and 6.8 km of 2.44-m fencing adjacent the north and south sides of Interstate 70, respectively. �-220- Highway 550 Colona-Ridgway An annual mean of 31.0 deer-vehicle accidents were recorded on the present Highway 550 alignment during 1974 and 1975. There were 26.0 accidents along the 8.0 km scheduled for relocation. Two hundred twenty-seven deer were observed during the evening of 17 April 1975 adjacent the segment of Highway 550 scheduled for realignment. The same evening 95 deer were observed along the proposed realignment. Based on these data, 42 percent more deer would be located along the realignment if deer are displaced to the east of the reservoir. A corresponding 42 percent increase in deer-vehicle accidents would result in an annual mean of 36.9 accidents on the 9.6 km of realignment. There would be 41.9 projected accidents annually for the entire 13.2 km of highway. Recommendations for 2.44-m fenCing on this segment of highway have been submitted to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Recommendations were for 13.2 and 14.5 km of fence on the east and west side, respectively, and 20 one-way gates. The cost:benefit ratio for this fencing after 20 years will be 1:0.8 Estimates of projected deer-vehicle accidents on the realignment are conservative because "documented deer-vehicle accidents on the present alignment are'considered minimal. If this is the case, then the cost: benefit ratio for the 2.44-m fencing would be improved. The cost:benefit ratio would also be improved if a monetary value was placed on the loss of deer. Using a value of $709 (Norman et al. 1975) for each deer the 20-year cost:benefit ratio for the fencing plan would be 1:2.0. Highway 50 Salida East Fourteen deer-vehicle accidents were documented on this section of highway during 1975. Some 2.44-m fencing has been recommended for both sides of the highway and will tie into two existing open bridge underpasses. Both of these underpasses were monitored for deer use in 1975. Results were reported by Reed (1976). Statewide A total of 1,527 big game-vehicle accidents were documented in Colorado in 1975. The number of accidents documented in the northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest regions were 206, 256, 656, and 409, respectively. LITERATURE CITED Myers, G. T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Pp. 147-178 in Game Research Report, W-38-R, July, Part 2. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Fed. Aid. �-221- Norman, R.L., L.A. Roper, ~.D. Olson, and R.L. Evans. 1975. Using wildlife values in benefit/cost analysis and mitigation of wildlife losses. Colorado Div. Wildl. DOW-M-D-3. l8pp. Pojar, T.M. 1972. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 267-275 in Game Research Report, July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. ~ed.-Xid. Reed, D. F. 1976. Responses of deer to highway underpasses. Report. Colorado Div. Wildl. ~ed. Aid. In Progress. In (;ame Research Woodard, T.N. 1973a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 163-170 in Game Research Report. July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1973b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 197202 in Game Research Report, July, Part 3. Colorado Div. lVildI. Fed . Aid. . 1974: Monitor potentiallv critical deer-vehicle accident ------areas statewide. Pages 293-298 in Game Research Report, July, Part 2. Colorado Div. loJildI.Fed. Aid. , and D.P. Reed. 1974. Economic considerations in reduction of deer-vehicle accidents. Central Mtn. and Plains Sect. TVildI. Soc. Conf. Bpn . Typescript. -------- ________ . 1975. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 295-303 in Game Research Report, Julv, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high sneed highways. In r.ame Research Report. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. In Progress. Prepared by :--()j~~-&J--+--- -::::f-fl---Lh--=.L6fn-,---o. 0_· ~A/--:. Thomas N. Woodard Assistant Wildlife Researcher ��July 1976 -223JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~------------ Project No. W-125-R-2 Deer-Auto Accident Investigations Work Plan No. 15 Job No • Job Title 6a ------------------------------- Evaluation of Deer Underpasses Period Covered: Personnel: ~------------------ . April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976. James D. Fleming, Arthur J. Gresh, Willie Travnicek, Don Masden, Thomas N. Woodard, and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACT Nine underpasses were monitored for deer use. Moderate to high numbers of deer passages (n=139 and n=124) occurred through two of the underpasses, one located east of Avon and the other southeast of Salida. Extremes of openness or tunnel effect (0.03 and 5.17) were represented by these two structures in the study sample. Early morning observations were made of deer behavior at the Vail underpass exit. No flight 'reaction was observed during 92.9 percent of westbound traffic (n=449) when deer were present at the Vail deer underpass. The behavior modes of 108 deer exits from the underpass were 47, 41, and 12 percent, trotting, walking, and bounding, respectively. ��-225- EVALUATION OF DEER UNDERPASSES Dale F. Reed Mule deer response to an underpass 3.05 m bv 3.05 m and 30.48 m long under Interstate 70 has been reported (Reed et al. 1971)). This studv purports to evaluate underpasses of different sizes and design and to further evaluate deer behavioral responses. P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine the use of underpasses by deer in critical highway deer kill areas and improve the effectiveness of these structures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE Measure deer use of underpasses associated with their use. and the extent of behavioral reluctance METHODS ~~D MATERIALS Nine underpasses which were potentially used bv deer were monitored for use by track-count methods previously described (Reed 1971). A small structure under 1-70 east of Avon, three concrete box underpasses under 1-70 east of Eagle, a single-span structure at Chaffee r,ulch north of Ridgwav, the arch (structural plate pipe arch) deer undernass west of Durango, and three underpasses, two of which were large onen structures southeast of Salida, were evaluated. Observations were made in the early morning hours at the Vail deer underpass. A 2flX spotting scone was used to observe deer at the underpass from about 0.5 km away. Vegetational cover and camouflaging were utilized. The observations were made during morning periods for approximate Iv two hours from about 053() to ()73()DST for 30-35 days during the June-July migration period. Flight reaction or escape behavior (Hediger 195fl, Scott 1958) was recorded for every animal or group of animals exhibiting such behavior in a confined area north of the underpass entrance when vehicles passed to the west. Only westbound vehicles were considered since they are closer (within 15-33 m of the animals) and generate greater auditory and visual stimuli to the animals than eastbound vehicles. The number of animals of each groun that exhibited flight reaction by leaving the area during vehicular passage or immediately thereafter were noted in three categories (zero, I-SO, or 51-100 percent). Exit behavior (walk, trot, or bound) and additional notes relating to the animals apparent wariness was recorded for each animal observed exiting the underpass. Use of and behavioral response to this underpass during a previous 4-year studv has been reported (Reed et al. 1975). �-226- RESULTS ~~D DISCUSSI0N The underoass east of Avon received 139 passages (Table 1) between 24 October and 17 December 1975. ~iftv passages occurred to the north and 89 to the south. Use on this small structure, 1.06- X lOB.7-m (radius X length), was discovered during a spotlight count (Reed 1969) when a doe and two fawns moved to the south highwav right-of-wav and "disappeared." A doe and two fruYilswere subsequently (within 10-15 min.) counted on the north side of the interstate and 2.44-m fence. It was hvpothesized that the animals had crossed the highway and passed through one of several one-way gates. An immediate check of these structures indicated this did not occur. A check of the underpass approach, inside-floor-surface, and exit, yielded deer tracks directed to the north. Regular checks of the underpass were initiated promptly. Two of three underpasses east of Eagle received passages. Six nassages have occurred through underpass No.1 (previous No. 7.), three to the south and three to the north, and three have occurred through undernass ~o. 2 (previous No.3), all to the south. The passages that occurred to the north are of special interest since they took nlace ,vithout the effect of a 2.44-m fence along the south side of the interstate. Only the north side of the interstate is fenced with 2.44-m fencing in the Eagle East area. The Chaffee Gulch underpass was checked (n=16) mostly by southwest Region personnel. These checks yielded 35 passages, 15 east and 20 west. The sub-standard bridge had been replaced with an equal Iv open single-snan bridge. The arch deer underpass located west of Durango and the Cherrv Creek campground, has received an average of 66.5 passages ner year. The deer activity adjacent the underpass has been light. Considerable human and cattle use has possibly affected deer movements in this area. A cost:benefit ratio, calculated bv methods previously described (Woodard and Reed 1974), for the area involving the underpass was unfavorable (1:<0.0). The two large open underpasses southeast of Salida received most of the passages in this area (Table 1). It was hypothesized that deer use of these structures was related to the availability of water in the Arkansas River, located within 200 m north of the structures. Track counts yielded 79 and 45 passages to the north and south respectivelv for underpass No.1, and 20 and 15 to the north and south respectively for underpass No.2. Both of these structures have the highest openness or tunnel effects (5.17 and 5.39) so far encountered in this study. Plans call for evaluating the behavioral response of deer to the Salida East No. 1 underpass in the next segment. Daily observations (n=3l) were made at the Vail deer underoass from 4 June to 4 July 1975. Of 449 instances of vehicles traveling west when deer were near the underpass entrance and the west bound lanes, 417 did not elicit �-227- flight reaction from 104 different individuals or groups (ran~e 1-11 deer). Seven vehicles elicited flight reaction from 1-50 percent of the individuals from eight different groups ranging in size from one to eight deer (Table 2). Twenty-five vehicles elicited flight reaction from 5l-l0~ percent of the individuals from seven different groups ranging in size from one to six. Previous to thes'e observations it was hypothesized that deer at proximal distances of 10 to 20 m from moving traffic were frequently caused to leave the area. Other observations indicated that when vehicles stopped at or when bicyclists traveled by the underpass, most deer elicited immediate and intense flight reaction. The behavior modes of 108 deer exits (leaving the underpass to the south) were 47, 41, and 12 percent, trotting, walking, and bounding, respec tively. These combined data from 1974 and 1975 yielded (n=108 deer exits) a walk:trot:bound ratio of 3.4:3.9:l.~. Wariness appeared to be exhibited irrespective of the mode of exit (walk, trot, or bound) in many instances. The predominant exit behavior of trotting supports the renorted reluctance (Reed et al. lQ75) of deer to use a structure of this size and character. LITERATURE CITED Hediger, H. 1950. Wild animals in cantivity. Butterworth, London. P. 19. Reed, D.F. 1969. Techniques for determining notential1v critical deer highway crossings. Game Infor. Leaf1. 73. Colorado Div. r.ame, ~ish and Parks. 3pp. ________ ~. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Pages 341-351 in r.ame Research Report, July, Part 3. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Div. ~ed. Aid. _________ ., T.N. Woodard, and T.M. Pojar. 1975. Behavioral resnonse of mule deer to a highway underpass. J. Wild1. Manage. 39(2):361-367. Scott, J.P. 1958. Animal behavior. Chicago. 349pp. 2nd ed. University of Chicago Press, Woodard, T.N., and D.F. Reed. 1974. Economic considerations in reduction of deer-vehicle accidents. Central Mtn. Plains Sect. Wild1. Soc. Conf. 8pp. Typescript. "Prepared by ~Ai<i&:~k Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher �-228- Table 1. Highway underpasses, height and width dimensions or open-end surface area, number of deer passages, openness or tunnel effect, and deer activity adjacent to the underpasses. Only the first and last structures were intended for regular deer use. Height X width or open-end surface area Underpass (Location) }j (m) Arch deer (W. Durango) 3/ 3.05 X 6.10 4/ n(1.06)2 - Avon 1-70 No. 1 Chaffee Gulch (N. Ridgway) 20.46 '2/ Deer passages per year Openness or tunnel effect 2/ (m) - Adjacent deer activity/barrier fencing adjacent structure 66.5 0.61 Light/both sides 139.0 0.03 Light/one side 35.'l 1.51 Light/none Eagle 1-70 No. 1 4.27 X 4.27 3.0 0.42 Moderate/one side Eagle 1-70 No. 2 2.44 X 2.44 1.5 n.lO ~oderate pressure close to entrance/ one side Salida East No. 1 6/ 5.49 X 14.63 - 124.0 5.17 Concentrated during April-May/none Salida East No. 2 6/ 7.32 X 14.63 - 35.0 5.39 Moderate/none Salida East No. 3 2.44 X 3.05 1.0 0.23 Moderate/none Vail deer 1-70 3.05 X 3.05 345.11) 0.31 Concentrated, highly motivated migration/ both sides l/ Width measured parallel to direction of traffic flow. 2/ An expression of openness is ca1cuted as follows: height X width (or open-end surface area) = length 1/ Arch-type structure. ~/ Circular structure. 'if Single-span i/ Adjusted bridge with fill-slope on each side. for uneven inside topography. 2/ Seasonal mean resulting from a 4-year study (Reed et ala 1975), presented for comparison. �-229- Table 2. The number of westbound vehicles which elicited flight reaction or escaue behavior (Hediger 1950, Scott 1958) at the Vail deer Underpass entrance for 1974 and 1975. Flight Reaction (percent of group) Year 1974 1975 Total 193 224 417 1-50 4 3 7 51-1()() 1 24 25 ~ () I • I �I 4 I �, -231- July, 1976 JOB PROr.RESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------ Project No. ~W_-~1~2~5_-~R~-~2 Work Plan No. Job Title 15 Deer-Auto Accident Investigations Job No. 7 Effects of Highway Lighting on Number of Deer Killed by Vehicles Period Covered: Personnel: _ April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976. Dennis Donnelly (Division of Highways), Claudia A. Doose, James D. Fleming, Larrv L. r.reen, Rich Griffin (Division of Highways), Sharon L. McDonnell, John W. Seidel, Dale 1<'. Reed, and Thomas N. 1..Joodard. ABSTRACT The effect of highway lighting on the rate of deer-vehicle accidents was evaluated for the third year. Estimated deer crossings per kill was q.7 percent higher with the lights on compared to lights off. There was no significant difference in the crossings per kill ratios (X2 = 0.073, P>0.75). Calculated mean horizontal illumination and the horizontal uniformity ratio for the l.l-km lighting system were 1.02 foot candle and 18.55:1, respectively. ��I -233- EFFECTS OF HIGHWAY LIGHTING ON NUMBER OF DEER KILLED BY VEHICLES Thomas N. Woodard P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if deer-vehicle accidents are affected by the fixed highway illumination on a l.l-km segment of Colorado Highway 82, and investigate and compare responses of motorists to deer on the highway and deer responses to the motorists, with and without fixed illumination. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Measure and describe the light availability segment of Colorado Highway 82. on an illuminated 2. Determine if deer-vehicle accidents are affected by the fixed illumination on the l.l-km segment of Colorado Highway 82. 3. Investigate and compare responses of motorists with and without fixed illumination. 4. Investigate and compare deer responses fixed illumination. l.l-km to deer on the highway, to motorists, with and without METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Woodard (1974). The effect of lighting was evaluated from 1 April to 23 April 1975 and 2 January to 25 March 1976 during this segment. Data collected during 1974 and from 2 January to 31 March 1975 are also included in this report. An anemometer, hygrothermograph, recording rain gauge, snow stake, and maximum and minimum thermometers located approximately 10 m from the edge of the highway were used to collect weather data. Horizontal illumination levels for the Highway 82 lighting system were measured in footcandles (fc) with a General Electric SL480A light meter on 10 April 1975. The photo-sensitive cell was placed parallel to the roadway surface on the hood of a vehicle traveling approximately 16 kmph in the driving and passing lanes and along the shoulder of the highway in both directions. Mean horizontal levels for the 1.1- and O.4-km segments of illuminated highway (Woodard 1974) were calculated by averaging the illumination levels estimated from a continuous trace at each 7.6-m distance. Horizontal uniformity levels were calculated bv dividing the mean horizontal levels (X) with the mean minimum illumination levels (minX). �-234- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Estimated deer crossings per kill was 9.7 percent higher with the lights on compared to lights off (Table 1). There was no significant difference in the ratios (X2 = 0.073, P>0.75). Table 1. Estimated deer crossings and total kill in the Highwav 82 lighting studv area during 1974 and 1975. Lights OFF Lights ON 1581 1637 Total Kill 18 17 Crossings/Kill 87.8 96.3 Estimated Crossings There were no estimated crossings or kill during the 1976 portion of this segment. Few deer were observed adjacent the study area (Table 2). The probable reason for the low deer numbers in 1976 was the relative mild weather conditions (Table 3). Table 2. Mean deer observations during spotlight counts and total kill in the Highway 82 lighting studv area from 1974 to 1976. 1 Year Mean count 1974 27.1 (n=71) 13 1975 40.3 (n=98) 22 1976 0.3 (n=65) 0 Total kill �-235- Table 3. Mean daily ambient temperatures and snow depth in the Highway 82 lighting study area during January-March periods from 1974 to 1976. 1/ Year Mean temperatures (OC) 1974 -3.5 20.8 1975 -2.8 22.8 1976 -1. 7 4.7 1/ The January-March Mean snow depth (em) mean of the daily means of maximum ambient temperatures. and minimum The Roadway Lighting Committee (1972) recommends lighting standards based on mean horizontal illumination and illumination uniformity ratios for different roadway and area cLass LfLcat.Lons.. Recommendations for the Highway 82 roadway and area classification are 1.0 fc mean horizontal illumination and an illumination uniformity ratio of 3:1. Calculated mean horizontal illumination and illumination uniformity ratios for the 0.4and l.l-km segments of Highway 82 lighting were 1.47 fc and 15.47:1 and 1.02 fc and 18.55:1, respectively. These uniformity ratios support visual observations that dark areas were present in the study area during lights on nights. Since the lighting system is not uniform and because contrast ratios are the most important elements for motorist visibility (Gallagher and Meguire 1974), a spotmeter (Spectra Model UBA, Photo Research, 3000 N. Hollywood Way, Burbank, California) was purchased during this segment. This instrument will be used during future segments to make target (deer) and background luminance measurements from which contrast ratio calculations can be made at each kill location. Deer-vehicle accidents which do not occur under sufficient visibility can then be deleted from the sample. An observation tower which will be used to investigate motorist and deer responses was constructed during this segment. Specific methodology which will be used was described by Woodard (1975). LITERATURE CITED Gallagher, V.P., and P.G. Meguire. 1974. Contrast requirements of urban drivers. Fed. Highway Admin. Rep. Number PHWA-RD-74-76. 72pp. �-236- Roadwav Lighting Committe. 1977.. American national standard practice for roadway lighting. J. Illuminating Eng. Soc. 1(4):334-371. Woodard, Thomas N. 1Q74. Effects of highway lighting on number of deer killed bv vehicles. Pages 307-312 in Game Research Report, Ju1v, Part 2. Colorado Df.v , I.Jildl.Fe d , Aid. ----~----~-----. 1975. Effects of highway lighting on number of deer killed by vehicles. Colorado Div. Wi1d1. Fed. Aid. Program Narrative Outline. 7pp. Prepared by /k.a s J/ 0-f)~ Thomas N. Woodard Assistant Wildlife Researcher �July, 1976 -237JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------------------- Project No. W-125-R-2 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title Job No. . 8 ----------------------------------- Crossing Signs ~~fNS~~e~fotifl~~fdK~II~d by Vehicles Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Auto Accident Investigations April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 D. F. Reed and T. N. Woodard ABSTRACT No work was accomplished on this job during the past segment because a suitable study area for an independent test of the effects of lighted deer crossing signs could not be located. This job will not be reactivated in the next segment because of severe time limitations of project personnel. ��-239- July, 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. W-125-R-2 Work Plan No. 15 Deer-Auto Accident Investigations Job No. 10 An Evaluation of Deer-Proof Fence Length Job Title Required to Prevent Deer Movement on or Across High Speed Highways --------------------------------- Period Covered: Personnel: , April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976. Claudia A. Doose, James D. Fleming, William R. Heicher, David C. Hoart •.Kenneth R. Kincaid, Sharon L. McDonnell, Dale F. Reed, and Thomas N. Woodard. I ABSTRACT Annual or seasonal deer kill caused by vehicles was reduced by 57, 78, 85, 62, and 81 percent along 2.44-m fence lengths of 1.8, 1.8, 3.6, 3.6, and 7.7 km, respectively. Sixty-four, five, and 14 deer escaped the highway rights-of-way adjacent to the two 3.6- and the 7.7-km long 2.44-m fences, respectively, through 16 one-way gates. Collared does (N=20) and bucks (N=7) moved laterally or parallel to the 2.44-m fence for mean distances of 0.66 and 0.76 km, respectively. The mean daily linear movements on winter range for five radio-telemetered deer behind the Eagle 2.44-m fence was 0.65 km (N=95, where N=the number of radio-locations and sightings). �f �-241- AN EVALUATION OF DEER-PROOF FENCE LENGTH REQUIRED TO PREVENT DEER MOVEMENT ON OR ACROSS HIGH SPEED HIGHWAYS Thomas N. Woodard D P. S. OBJECTIVE Measure effects of various lengths of 2.44-m fences on numbers of deer-vehicle accidents on highwavs and deer movements in relation to fence length. Effectiveness of fences will be evaluated on the basis of benefit:cost ratios. s.Er;MENTOBJECTIVES , 1. Determine the reductions in deer-vehicle accidents on highwavs, the installation of various lengths of ?.44-m fence. t 2. Measure deer movements after in relation to 2.44-m fences. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS Highway 82 - Diamond S The Highway 82 study area has been described by Poi ar (1972). Highway 82 - Carbondale I ~ l This studv area has been described by Reed (lQ75). Interstate 70 - Avon, Edwards, Vail, and Eagle The Interstate 70 Avon and Edwards studv areas have been described bv Woodard (lQ73), the Vail study area by Reed (lQ7l), and the Eagle studv area by Reed (1974). METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Poiar (1972). Radio-tracking transmitter collars (Model MK 3, Telonics, 1048 E. Norwood, Mesa, Arizona) were placed on five yearling or mature does trapped in clover traps (Clover 1956) behind the Interstate 70 Eagle 7.7-km fence. Attempts were made daily to locate these animals by establishing bearings from three to nine permanent observation points. These bearings were plotted on copies of a U.S. Geological Survey quadrangle map (scale 1:24,000). Telemetered animal locations were estimated by determining the area where three or more bearings converged. �-242- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Highway 82 - Diamond S Deer concentrate in the crested wheatgrass fields northeast of the highway in late winter and early spring (Table 1). The mean number of deer crossings during March-May periods in 1971 before the 2.44-m fence was installed was 11.7 (N=32, where N-number of 24 hour periods) per day. After the fence was installed the means were 2.1 (N=38) in 1972, 5.5 (N=34) in 1973, 10.3 (N=38) in 1974, and 17.8 (N=73) in 1975. This represents an 82, 53, and 12 percent decrease in crossings in 1972, 1973, and 1974, respectively, and a 52 percent increase in 1975. The mean deer kill per year before the 2.44-m fence was installed (October, 1968 - September, 1971) was 10.0. The mean deer kill per year after fence installation (October, 1971 _ September, 1975) was 2.25; a reduction of 78 percent. Table 1. The March-May mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts between quarter-mile section markers 25 to 30 for 1968 through 1975 on Highway 82 (n=number of counts). Mean count 1971 1972 Month 1968 1969 1970 March 134.8 (n=4) 151.2 (n=4) 104.5 (n=4) 66.8 (n=4) April 73.0 (n=4) 34.0 (n=5) 56.0 (n=S) 51.4 (n=5) 6.0 (n=5_ 0.0 1.5 (n=L) (n=Z) 0.0 (n=2) 66.2 (n=13) 77 .5 (n=10) 63.7 (n=ll) 47.6 (n=Ll ) May MEAN TOTAL 1973 1974 102.2 (n=4) 137.4 (n=5) 143.5 (n=4) 126.8 (n=4) 4.5 (n=4) 47 J) (n=4) 52.3 (n=3) 93.0 (n=4) 53.4 97.2 (n=9) 104.4 (n=7) 109.9 (n=B) (n=B) Highwav 82 - Carbondale The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during January - April periods of 1968 through 1973 was 15.7 (n=99). Seventy deer were killed from January, 1968 to April, 1973 (14 deer per year), before the fence was installed. Six were killed from 17 October 1974 to 17 October 1975 after the 2.44-m fence was installed: a reduction of 57 percent. �-243- Interstate 70 - Avon The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during the August-December periods was 15.5 (n=17) and 13.4 (n=2l) in 1971 and 1972, respective Iv , 10.8 (n=ll) in 1973 for October-December, and 7.3 (n=7) and 4.2 (n=R) for November-December in 1974 and 1975, respectivelv. Sixty-four deer made passages to the north through six one-wav gates (Reed et al. 1974) located in the 2.44-m fence during this segment. Twentv-eight deer were killed from 5 October 1971 to 5 October 1972 before the fence was installed. Thirteen (4.33 per year) were killed from 5 October 1972 to 5 October 1975 after the fence was installed: a reduction of 85 percent. Interstate 70 - Edwards Twenty-seven deer were killed on this segment of highwav from 5 October 1971 to 5 October 1972 before the fence was installed. Thirty-one (10.37 per vear) were killed after fence installation from 5 October 1972 to 5 October 1975; a reduction of 62 percent. ~ive passages occurred through four of six one-way gates located in the 2.44-m fence during this segment Interstate No additional length. 70 - Vail data were collected in this study area in regard to fence Interstate 70 - Eagle One hundred sixty-seven deer were killed from 5 October 1972 to 5 October 1973 before the fence was installed. Sixty-three (31.5 per year) were killed from 5 October 1973 to 5 October 1975 after the fence was installed; a reduction of 81 percent. An estimated 70-80 deer, including several collared animals, came across the highwav from the south and either 1) passed through the one-way gates or an openi~g in the fence, 2) went around the ends of the fence, 3) went back to the south to or across the Eagle River, or 4) were killed on the highway. ~ourteen deer made passages to the north through six of ten one-way gates located in the 2.44-m fence during this segment. According to 92 observations of collared deer north of the 2.44-m fence, does (N=20) and bucks (N=7) have moved laterally or parallel to the fence for mean distances of 0.66 and 0.76 km, respectively. ~ive does (RT-l, RT-3, RT-4, RT-5, and RT-6) , banded with radio-transmitter (RT) collars, were radio-tracked for 63, 56, 8, 35, and 5 days, respectively. Plotted bearings indicated mean daily linear movements on the l.,interrange of 0.70 (n=44), 0.75 (n=2l), 1.03 (n=3), 0.46 (n=24), and 0.40 km (n=3) for RT-l, RT-3, RT-4, RT-5, and RT-6, respectively. Doe RT-5 has been within 60-70 m of the 2.44-m fence on at least four occasions. �-244- LITERATURE Clover, M.R. 1956. Single-gate CITED trap. California ~ish and r,ame. 4~:lqq-~0l. Pojar, T.M. 1972. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high sneed highways. Pages 305-310 in Game Research Report, July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Reed, D.F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Pages 341-351 in r,ame Research Report, July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. ~ed. Aid. ----:,.---- . 1974. An evaluation of 8-foot fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high sneed highwavs. Pages 3l3-3~0 in Game Research Report, Julv, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. ~ed. Aid. _____ , T.M. Poiar, and T.N. Woodard. lQ74. Use of one-wav gates bv mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(1):9-15. _____ . 1975. An evaluation of 8-foot (2.44-m) fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed high~.:ravs.Pages 315-320 in Game Research Report, Julv, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. ~ed. Aid. Woodard, T.N. 1973. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high sneed highwavs. Pages 197-202 in Game Research Report, July, Part 2. Colorado Dfv , TATildl.Fed, Aid. /1 prepared by ~~a~ .1/ tlJJa£ Thomas N. Woodard Assistant Wildlife Researcher I • �-245- July, 1976 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~--------- Project No. W-125-R-2 Work Plan No. 15 Period Covered: April 1975 - March 1976 Deer-Auto Accident Investigations 11 Job No. Effects of a Simulated 8-Foot Fence Job Title Angle in Diverting Deer from Their Direction of Movement Personnel: D. F. Reed and T. N. Woodard ABSTRACT This job was terminated one year earlier than anticipated, and therefore, the 1974-75 Job Progress Report was written as a Job Final Report and summarized all activities for all years this job was active. �J �-247- July, 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~----------- Project No. lJ-125-R-2 Work Plan No. 15 Job Title Job No. ~1~4 Evaluation of Deer Overpasses Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Auto Accident Inyestigations April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Claudia A. Doose, James D. Fleming, Thomas N. Woodard, and Dale F. Reed. ABSTRACT Ninety-nine, 93, and 77 deer crossings over a sub-standard 3.2- X 4.9- X l3.4-m, height (under-bridge clearance) X width X length (direction of traffic), bridge overpass were recorded by a video system during the fall of 1974 and spring-summer and fall of 1975, respectively. Video replay of 84, 67, and 61 crossing modes yielded walk:trot:bound ratios of 7.8:1.8:1.0, 7.6:4.8:1.0, and 4.6:2.0:1.0 for the fall of 1974 and springsummer and fall of 1975 migration periods, respectively. No look-up or tailup responses were detected. _ ��-249- EVALUATION OF DEER OVERPASSES Dale F. Reed There are areas in Colorado where migratory deer cross highways. When these highways carry high-speed, high-volume traffic, the potential danger to deer and motorists becomes especiallv great. Therefore, it is essential to keep the animals off the highway. Overpasses with specified dimensions and characteristics located at strategic points within migration routes may provide adequate means for these necessary deer movements. This study purports to evaluate overpasses of different sizes and design and to further evaluate deer behavioral responses. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test the effectiveness of deer overpasses in reducing deer-vehicle collisions on high-speed high-traffic volume highwav systems. SEr.ID.:NT OBJECTIVE 1. Determine areas. the use of overpasses bv deer in critical highwav deer kill 2. Compare detailed deer behavioral responses to overpasses after moderate to high use of the structures or immediate areas has been documented. DESCRIPTION O~ AREA The Dowd deer overpass is located in Eagle County 7.5 km west of Vail, Colorado, adjacent Interstate 70. The structure spans Gore Creek and was used by vehicles before the completion of Interstate 70 (1-70) .. It is just north of the 1-70 right-of-way on the Dale Mikkelson property. Approximately 3.0 miles of associated 2.44-m fenCing generally parallels the highway in both directions east of the overpass. Deer apparentlv move around the west ends of this fenCing and cross the bridge overpass rather than Gore Creek. METHODS AND MATERIALS The study utilized a sub-standard bridge 3.2- X 4.9- X l3.4-m, height (under-bridge clearance) X width X length (direction of traffic), over Gore Creek. Approaches to the overpass were checked for deer tracks during spring-summer (Jun-Jul) and fall (Oct-Nov) migration periods. A video time-lapse surveillance system (Reed et al. 1973) was used to record imagery of crossings and overt behavioral responses. It was activated for 30 to 35 davs from approximatelv 2ln0 to 0730 and 1900 to 0730 for the Jun-Jul and Oct-Nov periods, respectively. The number of video-recorded �-250- 1/ 2/ 3/ deer approaches~ entrances~ exits~ and behavioral responses including muzzle-to-ground (Reed et al. 1975:366), hesitation (cessation of forward movement for 1.0 second or more), and crossing mode (walk, trot, or bound) were tallied during video tane reu Lav , R~SULTS AND DISCUSSION Ninety-nine, 93, and 77 deer crossings Over the deer overpass were recorded by video system for the fall of 1974 and spring-summer and fall of 1975, respectively. Replay of 84, 67, and 61 crossing modes vie1ded wa1k:trot:bound ratios of 7.8:1.8:1.0, 7.6:4.8:1.0, and 4.6:2.0:1.0 for the fall of 1974 and spring-summer and fall of 1975 migration periods, respectively (Table 1). An additional 27 animals changed their behavior (i.e. walk to trot, walk to bound, trot to bound, trot to walk, and trot to walk to trot) during the process of crossing during the spring-summer period. One deer wal.kad half-way across (entered) the structure, turned around and bounded (exited) out the entrance. No look-up or tail-up responses were detected for the ~69 crossings. This is of importance when compared to the response frequencies observed at the Vail deer underpass (Reed et al. 1975). Although preliminary, these results indicate deer exhibit only slight reluctance in crossing an overpass of this size and design. LITERATURE CITED Reed, D.F., T.M. Pojar, and T.N. Woodard. 1973. A video time-lapse system for wildlife surveillance. Colorado Div. Wild1., r,ame Inf. Leafl. 94. 3pp. ----,--- , T.N. Hoodard, and T.11. l'o;ar. 1975. Behavioral response of mule deer to a highway underpass. J. Wildl. 11anage. 39(7.):361-376. ~(24-l~~~\-_""'_ Prepared bv _~-L.J,.:::L.J.<L.::lo.r.I!.-<-::o-_- =L-4-~ Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher 1/ Approach denotes a deer coming into the overnass entrance area covered by the surveillance camera and either going onto or turning and leaving the structure. ~/ Entrance denotes a deer coming onto the overpass at the entrance. 1/ Exit denotes a deer leaving the overpass entrance, having either turned around on the structure after having made an entrance, or made a passage in the opposite direction of the migration. • �-251- Table 1. The number of muzzles-to-ground, hesitations, and crossings at the Dowd deer overpass for the fall migration of 1974 and spring-summer and fall migrations of 1975. 1974 Fall Spring-Summer ",all 25 38 26 38 64 38 No. deer 19 26 47 Frequency 26 38 90 Time (sec ,) 24.2 11. 2 12.0 walk 62 38 37 trot 14 24 16 bound 8 5 8 14.8 18.7 93 77 ~uzzle-to-ground 1975 ~I No. deer Frequency 'E...I Hesitations Crossing Mode Time Total crossings 99 ~I ~uzz1e-to-ground denotes a deer lowering its muzzle to the ground. It has been surmised this response was an olfactory examination of the surface environment including a possible scent left by the interdigital glands of other deer (Reed et a1. 1975:365). '£.1 Cessation of forward movement for 1.0 second or more. �· ~ � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/2f3e304d23f0c07efaa8191a9eb03b6f.pdf 1ae9a4887096cc646364f8867b5c4260 PDF Text Text -253- July, 1976 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Colorado ----------------- Project No. Deer-Elk Investigations W-38-R-3l vlork Plan No. __1_4 _ 5 Job No. Job Title Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study-Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: Range Fertilization April 1. 1969 through March 31, 1976 L. H. Carpenter, O. C. Wallmo, D. W. Reichert, W. L. Regelin, R. B. Gill, D. L. Baker, P. F. Gilbert, L. A. Roper, D. Benson, W. Paintner,R. Davies, C. Grand Pre, R. Glaze, L. Brown, R. Hoffman, and J. Wassink. ABSTRACT Three areas located on big sagebrush range in Middle Park, Colorado were studied to evaluate the effect of ammonium nitrate fertilizer applied with and without 2,4-D herbicide on herbage yields and botanical composition. Nitrogen was applied at five levels: 0, 33.6, 67.2, 100.8, 134.4 kg/ha (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 lb/ac) and 2,4-D herbicide at two levels: 0, 2.2 kg/ha (0, 2lb/ac). Estimates of botanical composition were made in July and herbage yield in August each year for three consecutive years following treatment. Measurements of grazing use by tame, trained deer were made each winter on the various treatments. A fourth study area was added to evaluate deer preferences for fertilizer treated plants and to test the effects of ammonium nitrate fertilizer 134.4 kg N/ha (120 lb/ac) and magnesium sulfate at a rate of 56 kg Mg/ha (50 lb/ac) on total volatile oil content of big sagebrush. Yields of total herbage and shrub herbage increased significantly with increasing levels of nitrogen fertilizer each year. Nitrogen fertilizer did not consistently increase forb and grass yields. The highest nitrogen level, 134.4 kg N/ha (120 lb/ac) was most efficient in terms of increasing the kg yield of herbage per kg N applied. Nitrogen did not affect the numbers of forb, shrub, or grass plants. The herbicide reduced shrub herbage, total herbage, and forb yields in all years. Grass yields increased in all years on the herbicide treated plots.. Herbicide treatments also significantly reduced numbers of big sagebrush plants, total shrubs, phlox, bluebell, and total forb plants. Nitrogen-herbicide treatments increased yields of total herbage each successive year, even though shrub herbage remained about the same each year. Ammonium nitrate and magnesium sulfate, each increased volatile oil content of big sagebrush plants; Big sagebrush plants that were heavily grazed by tame mule deer had a significantly lower total oil content than other big sagebrush plants sampled. The deer did not show a significant preference for plants in anyone individual treatment, Contrary to general belife, grasses consistently made up over 60 percent of deer diets during winter grazing trials. A disseration entitled "Nitrogen Herbicide Effects on Sagebrush Deer Range" was written and published for the purpos~ of acquiring a Ph.D and will serve as the final report for this job. Copies of thesis are on file at Colorado State University Library and the Library of the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins. Appropriate portions are being printed in part for publication. Sufficient copies of published materials will be forwarded to the Fish and Wildlife Service when available. \ . �-254- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. On areas critical to mule deer in winter, where it is desirable to increase forage yields, a single application of nitrogen fertilizer should be applied. To increase longevity of the yield response, nitrogen should be applied at the rate of 120 pounds actual nitrogen per acre (133.4 kg N/ha). 2. On areas dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia sp.) nitrogen fertilizer should be applied with a treatment of 2,4-D herbicide to increase nitrogen availability to plants other than sagebrush. Based on the estimations of food preferences of mule deer made in this study increased grass production resulting from the fertilizer-herbicide combination treatment will be beneficial to mule deer. 3. The possibility that nitrogen fertilizer may concentrate grazing animals requires consideration of alternative application procedures. If large areas (over 20 acres; 8.1 ha) are treated the fertilizer should be applied in strips or in a "checkerboard" pattern. 4. Nitrogen should be applied in the fall (late October). Winter snows will cover the fertilizer and insure proper soil infiltration. 5. Nitrogen should be applied with a fixed-wing aircraft where possible, to minimize application costs. Prepared by __ ,{..:..~--=-.;::..-:../t_·_C~'a~,./fl,_ .. cf;:--· Len H. Carp~ Asst. Wildlife Researcher _ �July •.1976 -255JOB FINAL REPORT State of --------- COLORP~O -------------- Project No. W-38-R-31 Deer-Elk 14 Work Plan No. Job No. Job Title Middle Park Cooperative Period Covered: 5a --------------------------- Deer Study - Experimental Range Fertilization April 1, 1973 through March 31, 1976 Len H. Carpenter Personnel: Investigations and D. L. Baker ABSTRACT A draft of a manus crLp't entitled "Effects of Varying Applicate Dates of 2,4-D on Mule Deer Winter Range" is in preparation and will be submitted to the Journal of Range Management for publication. Prepared by L//cov-~ ---L-e-n--H-.~C~a~r-p-e~n-t-~~r----------Asst. Wildlife Researcher ��July, .1976 -257JOB FINAL REPORT State of Colorado Project No. W-38-R-3l Work Plan No. 14 --------.--------- Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 8 Job Title Middle Park Deer Study - Experimental Harvest Regulations Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 - March 31, 1976 D. Freddy, L. Carpenter, D. Bowden, K. Karrow, S. Koster, P. Powell, W. Adrian, H. Riffel, D. Clippinger, B. McCloskey, D. Luce, J. Wolfe, D. Bartmann, and D. Mueller. ABSTRACT Estimated deer density in Middle Park in January, 1976 was 7.958 + 1.207 per square mile of winter range yielding a projected population estimate of 4677 ± 1181 (P~.lO). Pre-natal productivity was 156 fawns:lOO does. Net productivity based on post-hunting season classification counts was 70 fawns: 100 does. Winter mortality was 149 deer or 2.5 percent of the January, 1975 population estimate. Total harvest during 1975, including a 20 percent wounding loss was 1114 deer, 30 percent below the harvest objective of 1600 deer. Success of all hunters in 1975 was 15.1 percent. An estimated 82.7 percent of the permitted hunters participated in the 1975 regular season. Restricting antlered-only permittees to Middle Park appeared to increase success ratios. Percent of antlered-only permittees participating during regular seasons averaged 80.6 while percent of either-sex permittees participating averaged 86.6. Participation by late-season either-sex permittees averaged 75.4 percent. Either-sex permittees harvested 63.4 and 75.4 percent antlerless animals during regular seasons and 38.6 and 50.6 percent antlerless during late-seasons. There was no significant difference between composition of deer passing through check station and composition of deer reported harvested on returned hunter surveys (X2.05,3). Failure to adjust the Middle Park deer population to a desired density on the winter range can be attributed to the inability to consistently estimate and predict population size and inconsistent policies governing issuance of permits and restrictions on permits. �-258- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Prerequisite to evaluating whether 'a specific number of deer can be harvested is the ability to consistently estimate and predict population size. The objective of harvesting deer to maintain a herd at a specific density is futile if the population size cannot be estimated. 2. Research involved with evaluating sport-hunting must remain insulated from the political arena of wildlife management. Once procedures are established, political whims must not be allowed to alter the research process, because to do so obviates meaningful between year comparisons. Research must maintain total control over permit allocation, distribution, and issuance to insure consistency between years of a study. 3. Research must maintain total control over hunter survey procedures, especially sample sizes, permit listings, timing, data summary, and analysis. To be comparable, methods for estimating yearly harvests must be consistent for all years. 4. Both antlered-only and either-sex permits should be utilized in harvest studies to induce sufficient hunter participation and to improve precision limits of harvest estimates. 5. Permits for late-season hunts should restrict hunters to one Game Management Unit to control distribution of the harvest. 6. An average of approximately 1000 deer were harvested in Middle Park during regular seasons with an either-sex hunting season. If more than 1000 deer need to be harvested to attain a desired population density, then a late-season will probably be needed. Probably not more than 2-3000 deer can be harvested in Middle Park without the use of multiple-deer licenses. Population size should not be allowed to increase above the level of potential harvest. �-259- MIDDLE PARK DEER STUDY EXPERIMENTAL HARVEST REGULATIONS Dave Freddy P. S. OBJECTIVE To adjust a mule deer population to a specified density on a winter range. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods for estimating deer density, composition, productivity mortality have been ~eported by Gill (1969a, b, 1971). and winter Methods for estimating harvest, success of hunters, and hunter participation have been reporten by Roper (1973,1974) and Freddy (1975). Exceptions are: 1. A mail questionnaire was sent to 60 percent of the regular season antlered-only permit holders to estimate the antlered-only harvest in 1975. 2. A mail questionnaire was sent to all regular season either-sex permit holders to estimate the either-sex harvest during 1975. This survey was part of the state-wide survey of either-sex hunters conducted by the Denver Office, Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW). Research personnel did not conduct this survey because of difficulties in determining the total listing of Middle Park either-sex permittees arising from issuing part of the either-sex permits on a first-come basis to persons having antlered-only licenses. Methods for determining if specified permits are capable of achieving predetermined harvest goals have been reported by Roper (1973,1974). Methods for scheduling and publicizing season recommendations ported by Roper (1973,1974). have been re- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Population Characteristics 1975 Population Density and Size The size of the Middle Park deer population was estimated from helicopter counts of deer on square-mile sample quadrats from January 7-9,1976 (Table 1). The estimated deer density of 7,958 + 1.207 per square mile yielded a projected population estimate of 4677 ± 1181 (P<.lO). The 1976 population estimate was not significantly different than the January, 1975 estimate of 6005 + 1714 (P < .10) (Table 2) when they were tested with a paired t-test. - �Table 1. Deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, January 1972-1976. Quadrat No. 1972 MuddI Creek High DensitI Strata 1973 1974 1975 1976 Quadrat No. 1972 Muddl Creek Low DensitI Strata 1973 1974 1975 1976 1M 0 0 0 0 0 11M 0 0 0 0 2M 0 0 0 0 0 14M 2 0 4 0 0 3M 0 2 0 0 0 20M 0 0 0 0 0 4M 0 0 0 0 0 23M 0 6 0 0 0 5M 0 0 0 0 0 24M 0 0 0 0 0 6M 1 0 0 0 10 25M 0 0 0 0 0 7M 8 40 13 1 7 26M 0 0 0 0 0 8M 11 60 25 47 9 27M 0 0 0 0 0 9M 24 132 125 86 23 28M 0 0 0 0 1 I IV 10M 39 97 52 77 14 29M 0 0 1 0 3 0 I 12M 0 52 54 5 0 30M 0 0 7 0 2 13M 5 46 66 0 0 31M 6 0 0 0 5 15M 35 42 32 4 0 16M 6 0 0 0 16 19 8 6 12 0 18 0.7 0.5 1.0 0.0 1.5 17M 1 0 0 0 IBM 1 0 0 0 0 19M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21M 0 3 22M 0 3 3 0 17 32M 27 3 0 0 9 158 480 370 220 124 24.0 18.5 11.0 I:yi y c = 7.9 6.2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ '" �Table 1. 1972-1976 Deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, January (continued). Blue River High Density Strata 1975 1974 1973 1972 Quaurat No. 1976 Quadrat No. 1972 Blue River Low Densit~ Strata 1975 1974 1973 1976 44 2B 0 0 0 14 5 0 9 25 0 1B 0 3B 0 9 0 0 4 0 4 0 4 4B 0 0 5B 0 0 1 63 36 6 6 3 7B 48 19 6B 0 0 10 65 78 19 50 90 8B 47 12B 30 66 128 52 24 156 87 82 19 9B 0 16B 0 0 0 0 0 28 0 41 0 lOB 0 0 0 0 0 29 11B 9 I 12 6 0 17B 47 19B 2 24 91 27 13 21B 0 3 0 0 1 13B 15 78 48 14B 22 74 50 48 0 15B 64 50 79 31 13 18B 52 102 65 38 21 20B 0 2 2 11 12 256 203 32 50 275 100 637 499 139 339 21.3 16.9 3.6 5.6 30.6 11.1 53.2 41.6 15.4 28.3 y = a•... I 17 l:yi = N ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Deer counter per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, January 1972-1976 (continued). Wms. Fork River High Densitl Strata 1975 1974 1972 1973 Quadrat No. Quadrat No. 1972 6W 0 0 3 0 0 7W 0 0 0 5 0 8W 0 0 0 0 3 9W 0 0 0 0 0 lOW 0 0 0 0 0 1W 9 0 12 0 0 2W 0 0 0 0 0 3W 52 45 60 35 45 4W 71 54 17 43 12 0 5W 0 15 1 Wms. ~ork River Low Densitl Strata 1975 1974 1973 1976 1976 8 I N aN I l:yi = y = 132 99 104 79 65 0 0 3 5 3 26.4 19..8 20.8 15.8 13.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.0 0.6 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 1. Deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, January 1972-1976 (continued). Granb~ Low Densit~ Strata 1975 1974 1973 1976 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 11 20 0 0 4G 0 0 0 0 10 8 5G 0 0 0 0 0 17 51 6G 0 0 0 11 0 14 0 50 7G 0 0 0 0 0 31 41 21 50 0 21 1 0 0 12 33 16 17 5 1:yi = 219 365 296 270 227 2 14 20 11 10 -y 21.9 36.5 29.6 27.0 22.7 0.3 2.0 2.9 1.6 1.4 Troublesome Cr. High Densit~ Strata 1975 1973 1974 1976 Quadrat No. 1972 15 21 0 1G 1 3 40 41 46 6 2G 0 2 2 0 0 0 3G 4T 70 70 54 63 57 5T 20 55 30 85 6T 40 61 84 7T 27 31 8T 21 9T lOT Quadrat No. 1972 IT 3 21 2T 24 3T I N a- w = I 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 = 9.24 17.14 16.455 10.217 7.958 2S (yst) = 1.96 5.24 6.93 3.086 1.456 sy 1.40 2.29 2.632 1. 757 1.207 yst = �-264- Table 2. Deer population January 1972-1976. estimates by sub-unit POEulation Sub-Unit Wms. Fork Troub les ome River Creek Year Muddy Creek Blue River 1972 1,002 2,259 742 1973 2,856 4,186 1974 2,272 1975 1976 in Middle Park, Colorado, Granby Total Population 1,404 22 5,429 ± 1,913 l/ 556 2,340 149 10,087 4,663 622 1,897 216 9,670 ± 2,566 1,281 2,370 506 1,729 119 6,005 ± 1,714 893 1,824 402 1,455 103 4,677 ± 2,239 ± 1,181 1./ (P~ .10) Sex and Age ComEosition No pre-season sex and age classification counts were conducted. The 1969-74 average of .83 fawns/doe for pre-season counts was utilized for life-table purposes (Table 3). Post-season classification counts were conducted by helicopter from December 5-7, 1975. Two observers classified 1415 deer resulting in a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 44:100:70. Post-season classification counts were also conducted from the ground, yielding a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 55:100:47 based on 723 deer (Table 4). The helicopter estimate was considered more reliable because subjective evidence indicated deer may have been incorrectly classified during the latter portion of ground surveys. Table 3. Pre-hunting season deer sex and age clas,ification counts obtained from helicopter surveys during October 1969-1974 1, Middle Park, Colorado. Year Bucks Does Fawns Total Classified 1969 195 451 419 1,065 43 93 1970 152 361 258 771 42 72 1971 20 41 30 91 49 73 1972 73 101 91 265 72 90 1973 174 314 273 761 55 87 1974 58 76 91 225 76 120 l/No counts in 1975. Ratios Eer 100 Does Bucks Fawns �-265Table 4. Post-hunting season deer sex and age classification counts obtained from helicopter and ground surveys during November and/or December, 1967-1975, Middle Park, Colorado. Year Type of Count Bucks Does Fawns Total Classified 1967 Aerial 316 558 501 1,375 57 90 Ground 147 396 363 906 37 92 Aerial 261 490 418 1,169 53 85 Ground 319 582 505 1,406 55 87 Aerial 211 471 363 1,045 45 77 Ground 104 231 178 513 45 77 Aerial ------------------- Ground 356 783 321 1,460 45 41 Aerial 218 398 244 860 55 61 Ground 276 390 261 927 71 67 Aerial 362 693 540 1,595 52 78 Ground 818 1,281 1,047 3,146 64 82 Aerial 396 674 594 1,664 59 88 Ground ------------------- Aerial 309 632 476 1,417 49 75 Ground 194 363 236 793 53 65 Aerial 291 663 461 1,415 44 70 Ground 197 357 169 723 55 47 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Ratios Eer 100 Does Bucks Fawns No Counts ----------------------- No Counts ----------------------- Productivity Pre-natal productivity was estimated as 156 fawns:100 does during 1975. This estimate was based on 14 fetuses present in 9 mature road-killed does collected from January-May, 1975 (Table 5). Net productivity was estimated to be 70 fawns: 100 does as of December, 1975. Winter Mortality Estimated over-winter mortality deer (Table 6). This projected mortality transects. for 1975 was 149 deer or 2.5 percent of 6,005 estimate was based on 6 dead deer found on 93 �-266There was also record of 44 deer dying from deer-auto collisons and 28 deer dying from deer-train collisons from January-May, 1975. These are minimal estimates of deer dying from these causes. Table 5. Fetuses per 100 mature female deer in Middle Park, Colorado, January-May 1969-1975. Deer collected by selective shooting, from highway accidents, and from trapping accidents. Number Collected Highway Trapping Total Deer Fetuses Per 100 Females 8 0 41 193 33 9 0 42 164 1971 33 8 10 51 161 1972 32 7 0 39 187 1973 0 26 0 26 162 1974 0 7 0 7 157 1975 0 9 0 9 156 Year Shooting 1969 33 1970 Table 6. Projected winter mortality for deer in Middle Park, Colorado 19721975 based on dead deer found on 93 randomly located 1 x .10 mile mortality transects. Year Number Dead Deer Found Projected Number Dead Deer Percent of Population Estimate 1972 2 50 0.9 1973 23 647 6.4 1974 15 420 4.3 1975 6 149 2.5 �-267Harvest Mortality Harvest Objective and Permit Numbers--The harvest objective for 1975 was 1600 deer, inclusive of an arbitrary 20 percent inflation factor for wounding loss (Table 7). This objective was based on the January, 1975 estimate of 6005 deer, a calculated life-table pre-season population estimate of 8539 deer and the desire to increase the population by 1000 to approach the objective of 10,000 deer post-season. Archery, high-country bucks, and regular deer season hunters were required to obtain a permit prior to hunting in Middle Park. Only regular season either-sex permittees were restricted to hunting exclusively in Middle Park. Either-sex permits were allocated by Game Management Unit (GMU) and either-sex hunters were restricted to one unit. DOW management personnel initiated a state-wide policy in 1975 requiring all either-sex permits to be allocated by GMU. Prior to this decision, either-sex permits issued for Middle Park in previous years were valid in any of 4 GMU's. Table 7. Deer pre-season population sizes and harvest objectives, Middle Park, Colorado, 1972-1975. Harvest includes regular, late, archery and high-country buck seasons. Year October PreJanuary Season Pop. Census Est. (Life-table) Harvest Harvest Objective 1/ Estimate w/20% W.L.- w/20% W.L. Percent Harvest Objective Attained 1972 5,429 8,057 Small Harvest 427 1973 10,087 l4,l3l 4,000 2,376 59.4 1974 9,670 13,497 3,400 2,319 68.2 1975 6,005 8,539 1,600 1,114 69.6 JJ W.L. Wounding loss. Of the permits issued, 586 were for archery, 10 for high-country buck, and 7076 for the regular season. Of the regular season permits, 4991 were antlered-only and 2085 were for either-sex. A total of 2750 either-sex permits were allocated for Middle Park: 1000 for Unit 18, 886 issued; 500 for Unit 27, 260 issued; 500 for Unit 28, 351 issued; and 750 for Unit 37, 588 issued. A total of 1260 either-sex permits were issued by a random drawing held in June at the Denver Office, DOW, while 825 were issued on a first-come basis at the Grand Junction Regional Office, DOW, from August 1 - October 24, 1975. �-268Harvest Size and Composition--Harvest size and composition were estimated from survey questionnaires returned by hunters. A total of 1732, or 83 percent, of 2085 season either-sex questionnaires sent were returned. A total of 1799, or 60 percent, of 2992 antlered-only questionnaires sent were returned. Archery and high-country buck hunters were surveyed by state-wide hunter surveys and harvest estimates 'were 44 and 0 deer, respectively. Archery hunters accounted for 4.7 percent of the total harvest (Table 8). Table 8. Summary of deer harvested Type of Season Bucks Does Buck Fawns fue Fawns Total Percent Total Harvest Archery 29 15 0 0 44 4.7 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 485 228 80 91 884 95.3 High-country Regular Deer Totals Buck 514 243 (55.4%) (26.2%) in Middle Park, Colorado, 1975. 80 (8.6%) 91 928 (9.8%) (100.0%) 100.0 The projected 1975 regular season harvest based on returned questionnaires was 884 deer, or 95.3 percent of the total harvest (Table 8). Either-sex permit holders harvested 509 + 18 while antlered-only hunters harvested 375 + 60 deer (P< .05) (Tables 9, 10). The projected composition of the total harvest was-54.9 pe,~cent bucks, 25.8 percent does, 9.0 percent buck fawns and 10.3 percent doe fawns (Table 11). During the regular season, 478 deer harvested in Middle Park were checked at Idaho Springs check station west of Denver. The composition of these deer was 49.8 percent bucks, 32.0 percent does, 6.7 percent buck fawns, 8.6 percent doe fawns, and 2.9 percent unknown (Table 12). An age pyramid derived from check station returns and mail-in tooth envelopes (sent with either-sex permits) indicated a young, productive population (Odum 1959:173, Kormondy 1969:81), assuming the harvest reflects the age distribution of the live deer population. Yearlings comprised 35.9 percent, 2 yearolds 18.9 percent, and fawns 19.3 percent of the harvest (Fig. 1). The lower percentage of fawns as compared to 1 year-olds is assumed to reflect hunter selection against fawns. The fawn harvest was considerably higher than in 1974 when fawns comprised 7.3 percent of the harvest. This increase may have been due to the increased number of either-sex permits, high fawn production or vulnerability, lack of adult animals, or lack of hunter discretion. �-269Table 9. Composition of the projected regular season either-sex permit deer harvest, Middle Park, Colorado, 1974-1975, based on returned hunter survey questionnaires. Unit 28 37 13 9 17 66 42 13 18 24 96 ( 53.4%) B. Fawns 5 1 1 4 12 ( 6.2%) D. Fawns 4 2 3 0 9 ( 4.8%) Unknown 1 0 0 0 1 ( 0.7%) Totals 79 (42.8%) 29 (15.8%) 31 (16.6%) 45 (24.8%) 1975 18 Management Unit 28 27 37 Totals Bucks 37 24 12 52 125 ( 24.6%) Does 96 34 32 60 222 B. Fawns 21 17 8 25 71 ( 14.0%) D. Fawns 34 17 8 32 91 ( 17.8%) Totals 188 (37.0%) 92 (18.0%) 60 (11.8%) 169 (33.2%) 509 (100.0%) (100%) 1974 18 Management 27 Bucks 27 Does Totals ( 35.9%) 184 (100.0%) (100%) ( 43.6%) Table 10. Composition of the projected regular season antlered-only permit deer harvest, Middle Park, Colorado, 1975, based on returned hunter survey questionnaires. 1975 18 Management 27 Unit 28 37 Totals Bucks 94 102 47 117 361 ( 96.3%) Does 3 3 0 0 6 ( 1.5%) B. Fawns 3 3 3 0 8 ( 2.2%) Totals 100 (26.7%) 50 (13.3%) 117 (31.1%) 108 (28.9%) 375 (100.0%) (100%) �-270Table' 11. Composition of the total projected regular season deer harvest, Middle Park, Colorado, 1972-1975 based on returned hunter survey questionnaires. Management 1972 18 27 Unit 28 37 Totals Bucks 127 84 86 59 356 (100.0%) Totals 127 (35.6%) 84 (23.6%) 86 (24.2%) 59 (16.6%) 356 (100.0%) (100%) Management 1973 Unit 18 27 28 37 Bucks 159 155 36 204 555 ( 56.3%) Does 91 71 50 149 360 ( 36.6%) B. Fawns 8 12 6 6 32 ( 3.2%) D. Fawns 18 6 0 14 38 ( 3.9%) 276 (28.0%) 244 (24.8%) 92 (9.3%) 373 (37.9%) Totals Totals 985 (100.0%) (100%) 18 Management 27 Uriit 1974 28 37 Totals Bucks 139 77 116 81 413 ( 76.3%) Does 42 '13 18 29 102 ( 18.9%) B. Fawns 5 6 1 4 16 ( 2.9%) D. Fawns 4 2 3 0 9 ( 1.7%) Unknown 1 0 0 0 1 ( 0.2%) 191 (35.3%) 98 (18.1%) 138 (25.5%) ll4 (21.1%) Totals Management 541 (100.0%) (100%) Unit 1975 18 27 28 37 Totals Bucks 131 126 59 169 485 ( 54.9%) Does 99 37 32 60 228 ( 25.8%) B. Fawns 24 20 II 25 80 ( D. Fawns 34 17 8 32 91 ( 10.3%) Totals 288 (32.6%) 200 (22.6%) llO (12.4%) 286 (32.4%) 884 (100.0%) (100%) 9.0%) �-271- Table 12. Composition of deer harvested in Middle Park, Colorado, and checked at Idaho Springs check station, 1973-1975. 1973 18 27 Bucks 53 36 Does 24 B. Fawns Management Unit 28 37 Totals 20 50 159 ( 51.8%) 35 15 35 109 ( 35.5%) 4 3 2 10 19 ( 6.2%) D. Fawns 5 5 4 4 18 ( 5.9%) Unknown 0 0 0 2 2 ( 0.6%) Totals 86 (28.0%) 79 (25.7%) 41 (13 .4%) 1974 18 27 Bucks 60 63 26 56 205 ( 75.1%) Does 19 4 9 17 49 ( 18.0%) B. Fawns 6 1 0 1 8 ( 2.9%) D. Fawns 4 2 2 0 8 ( 2.9%) Unknown 3 0 0 0 3 ( 1.1%) Totals 92 (33.7%) 70 (25.6%) 37 (13.6%) 74 (27.1%) Management Unit 28 101 (32.9%) 307 (100.0%) (100%) 37 Totals 273 (l00 .0%) (100%) Management Unit 1975 18 27 28 37 Totals Bucks 57 61 34 86 238 ( 49.8%) Does 56 38 20 39 153 ( 32.0%) B. Fawns 13 6 2 11 32 ( 6.7%) D. Fawns 18 8 2 13 41 ( 8.6%) Unknown 7 4 1 2 14 ( 2.9%) Totals 151 (31.6%) 117 (24.5%) 59 (12.3%) 151 (31.6%) 478 (100.0%) (100%) �-272BUCKS n = 271 DOES n = 189 o.~ 0•• 41> 0.4% 0.41> o.~ 2.4% 1------------------- 18.9% ------------ 35.9% 1------------ 190)% percent 50 40 30 20 10 o 10 20 )0 40 50 percent Fig. 1. Age distribution of deer harvested in Middle park, Colorado during the regular season, October 25-November4, 1975. year classes 2 through 1) were aged by dental cementum,while 82 percent of the fawns and 88 percent of the yearlings were aged by tooth replacement and wear. Teeth obtained from hunter mail-in tooth envelopes and check stations. �-273Hunter Participation and Success--Hunter participation and success were estimated from ~eturned hunter survey questionnaires. Of 2085 potential either-sex hunters, 1791 ± 27 (P~ .05), or 85.9 percent, hunted during the regular season. The success rate for all either-sex permittees was 24.4 percent and for those that hunted, 28.4 percent (Table 13). Of the 4991 potential antlered-only hunters, 4058 ± 90 (P~ .05), or 81.3 percent, hunted during the regular season in Middle Park. All ant1eredonly permit holders had a success rate of 7.5 percent while the success of those that hunted was 9.2 percent (Table 13). Fou~ding Loss--Hunters having antlered-only permits were asked to specify on survey questionnaires the number of deer they wounded. Based on hunter responses, wounding loss was 27.4 percent of the reported harvest of 135 deer. This estimate is considerably higher than the 6.0 percent reported by antlered-only hunter.s in 1974. No estimate of wounding loss was available for either-sex permit holders because the state-wide questionnaire used for this survey did not request wounding loss information. Evaluation of the Study 1972-1975 The objective of adjusting the Middle Park deer population to a specified density on the winter range was prompted by severe winter die-offs during the 1950's and more recently in 1964-65. Hunting was considered a potential tool to maintain the Middle Park herd at a density that would minimize large die-offs. In 1971 a population level of 10,000 deer post-season was established as a herd-size objective. This study, begun in 1972, was aimed at evaluating whether the population could be held at this level by sporthunting. Prerequisite to the study was the ability to measure population parameters of herd size, composition, mortality, and reproduction in order to predict pre-hunting season population levels (life-table calculations) so that harvest objectives and permit numbers could be established. Secondly, a post-hunting season deer population at or above 10,000 was needed to evaluate the ability of sport-hunting to adjust the population size. Once the yearly harvest objective was defined, permits and multiple seasons would be used to harvest the required number of deer. Life-tables were calculated each year on a January-December time frame. Each January a new life table was started, utilizing the most recent census estimate as a base population. Adjusting the life-table each year to the census lessened the chance of perpetuating incorrect estimates of herd size, reproduction and mortality from year to year. Population Parameters Estimating the size of the Middle Park deer population was fundamental to establishing harvest quotas. A stratified random quadrat census technique has provided quantifiable estimates of population size within known precision limits since 1968 (Freddy 1975). The census did however, underestimate the post-season life-table population estimate in January, 1972 by 1700 deer, in January, 1975 by 5000 deer and in January, 1976 by 1800 deer while overestimating in January, 1973 by 2400 deer (Table 14). �Table 13. Harvest and hunter Colorado, 1972-1975. participation and success during regular and late deer seasons in Middle Park, Year and Season 1972 Reg. 1.1 Total Permits Issued Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits 4,317 4,317 Total Projected Hunters Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits 3,336 3,336 - - % Success All Permittees Antlered-Only Permittees Either-Sex Permittees % Success Those Hunting Antlered-Only Permittees Either-Sex Permittees Permits Required-Restricted Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits Projected Harvest Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits Late 2:..1 Reg. - - % Hunters Participating Antlered-Only Permits Either-Sex Permits 1973 77 .3 77 .3 4,200 2,277 1,923 - 28.9 16.8 41.3 - - Yes-Yes Yes-Yes 356 356 - 985 289 + 53 696 "+ 65 - ~I Yes-No - - l/Regular season held in October 2/ - Late season held in December. and November. l/All at (P < .05) confidence ~/Restricted limits expressed to hunting only in Middle Reg. 2,157 3,543 2,861 682 5,199 7,076 4,991 2,085 - 2,157 81.1 75.6 87.6 - 10.7 10.7 Late - 23.5 12.7 36.2 - Reg. 3,406 1,664 1,722 ± 52 1,684 ± 47 1,664 - 1975 Late - - 8.2 8.2 1974 - 5,199 ± 6811 3,113 2,525 ± 79 ± 68 588 + 10 77 .1 - 77 .1 44.7 - 44.7 58.0 58.0 Yes-Yes 965 + 87 - 965 + 87 87.9 88.3 86.2 Late 3,830 ± 81 5,849 4,058 ± 90 3,830 ± 81 1,791 ± 27 73.7 73.7 15.3 12.5 27.0 26.2 - 17.4 14.1 31.3 - 26.2 35.5 35.5 - Yes-Yes Yes-Yes Yes-Yes 541 357 + 79 184 + 14 ± 80 1,362 ± 80 1,362 - 82.7 81.3 85.9 12.5 7.5 24.4 - 15.1 9.2 28.4 Yes-No 51 Yes-Yes 884 375 + 60 509 + 18 P:rk. l/Either-sex permittees were restricted to one Game Management Unit within all other years they could hunt in anyone of four management units within Middle Park only during 1975, in Middle Park. I N -....I ~ I �Table If•. Life equation for deer 'in Middle Park, Colorado, January 1?68-January 1976. Wounding Loss (20% of Post-Hunt POE' Census Percent 2/ Est. DifferenceExpe c t ed Ij' Pre-Hunt Pop. Harvest Percent PreHunt. Pop. No. 43.35 12,807 2,909 23 582 9,316 9,112 + 2.2 4,550 53.70 13,023 4,503 35 901 7,619 7,206 + 5.4 6,071 2,636 43.42 8,707 2,436 28 487 5,784 5,730 + 0.9 8.5 5,241 2,497 47.64 7,738 516 7 103 7,119 5,429 +23.7 50 0.9 5,379 2,678 49.78 8,057 356 4 71 7,630 10,087 -32.2 10,087 647 6.4 9,440 4,691 49.69 14,131 1,980 14 396 11,755 9,670 +17.7 1974 9,670 420 4.3 9,250 4,247 45.91 13 ,497 1,933 14 386 11,178 6,005 +46.3 N 1975 6,005 149 2.5 5,856 2,683 45.82 8,539 928 +37.0 " '"I 1976 4,677 Year January Census Pop. Est. Winter Loss Percent No. Jan. Est. Pre-Fawn Pop. Fawn ReEroduction Percent Increase No. of Spring Pop. 1968 10,640 1,706 16.0 8,934 3,873 1969 9,112 639 7.0 3,473 1970 7,206 1,135 15.8 1971 5,730 489 1972 5,429 1973 }j Formula used to calculate expected population 11 Ha rves t ) 186 indicates 4,677 level was: P2 = PI - ~ + bn - ~, where P2 = expected population level; PI = census populab = net productivity derived from October pre-hunting season doe:fawn ratios; ~ = n tion estimate from previous year; M = winter mortality; w harvest mortality. 2/ - Percent difference 7,425 the amount the expected population estimate differs from the quadrat census estimate. I �-276Unfortunately, these years of discrepant censuses-life-table estimates occurred during this study. Because harvest quotas were based on predicted pre-season population levels calculated from life tables, and census estimates strongly disagreed with post-season life-table estimates, the decision to adjust the population size was not judicious considering the apparent inability to consistently estimate and predict population size. Using a paired t-test (P~ .10), the 1972 census estimate was significantly different than 1973. 1973 was not different than 1974, 1974 differed significantly from 1975, and 1975 did not differ from 1976 (Table 2). Insufficient snowfall in December 1974 and 1975 could have reduced census estimates in January 1975 and 1976 (Fig. 2, Table 2). If deer were not forced onto the winter range (census sample area) by snowfall, then the primary assumption of the census, that all deer were present on the sampled area, was not valid. Measurements of other population parameters, although not subject to statistical evaluation, did not suggest similar fluctuations in population size. Estimated pre-natal productivity varied from 156-187 fawns:lOO does between 1972 and 1975 (Table 5). Post-natal productivity for the 4 years as measured in October ranged from 87:120 fawns:lOO does while December ratios varied from 70-88 fawns:lOO does (Tables 3,4). Also, the relatively stable percent yearling male, yearling female and total yearling in the harvest from 1972 through 1975 suggests a yearly recruitment of 30 percent (Table 15). Winter mortality was less than 7 percent during all 4 years (Table 6). Precision limits about the estimated harvest were acceptable, being + 10 percent of the mean for either-sex harvests and + 22 percent for antler;d-only harvests (Table 13). Unless a large number of persons hunted in Middle Park without a permit or a large number of deer were harvested illegally, information suggests no large unknown loss of deer through harvest. Although these measurements of population characteristics may be in error, they do not suggest large fluctuations in population size. Table 15. Percent yearling in the regular season harvest, Middle Park, Colorado 1972-1975. Percent Male Yearl. of Total Male in Harvest Percent Female Yearl. Percent of Total Female Yearl. of Harvest Total Harvest Year Season Type 1972 Antlered-Only 50.3 1973 Either-Sex 39.7 23.1 32.6 1974 Either-Sex 42.7 36.2 41.2 1975 Either-Sex 42.8 25.9 35.9 50.3 �-277- )0 ,..... U) ~ 0 ~ '-' ~ ffi 20 0 1704. inches ~ ~ 0 ~ r:LI 0 ~ 10 ~ z U) ~ g 2 YEAR Fig. 2. Total inches of snow received in Decemberat Hot Sulphur Springs weather station, Middle park, Colorado, 1967 through 1975. Kremmling weather station measurements substituted in 1974 for missing data. �-278Harvest Objectives Fluctuations in deer numbers indicated by the census resulted in attempts to increase the herd during 1972 and 1975 and reduce the herd to 10,000 in 1973 and 1974 (Table 7). The harvest objective in 1972 was a minimum harvest to increase the herd to 10,000 post-season. This objective was accomplished based on the January, 1973 census of 10,087. The 1973 harvest objective was 4000 deer. Only 59.4 percent of the desired harvest was attained. In 1974 the harvest objective was 3400 deer but only 68.2 percent was harvested. Late-seasons were held in both 1973 and 1974 to help attain desired harvests. In 1975, 1114 deer or 69.6 percent of the desired harvest was attained. Failure to achieve harvest objectives may be traced to: 1) inadequate numbers of permits issued, 2) inadequate measures of harvest, or 3) inadequate measures of the number of deer available for harvest. Also, at high hunter densities associated with large numbers of permits issued to harvest several thousand deer, problems of hunter interactions may alter the ability of hunters to harvest deer. If the Middle Park deer population is to be held in-check by sport-hunting, small harvest objectives are needed. The population should not be allowed to expand more than 2-3000 deer above the desired post-season level. Permit Numbers, Distribution, and Restrictions Persons hunting in Middle Park from 1972-1975 were required to obtain a Middle Park permit so a list of hunters for Middle Park could be developed for hunter surveys to improve the precision of harvest estimates (Table 13). Antlered-only permits were unlimited in number and available from license agents within Middle Park and at offices of the DOW. Either-sex permits were limited in number and available by drawing. The primary problem with antlered-only permits was maintaining control and records of numbers issued. Permits were lost or issued without record. An unknown number of permits at-large negated efforts to obtain a list of hunters for surveys and reduced the accuracy of survey results. This was a problem primarily during the first 2 years of the study. Problems with regular-season either-sex permits involved restrictions on drawings for permits. In 1973, three drawings were held for permits and only 25 percent of the allotted 2000 permits were issued. Remaining permits were issued on a first-come basis at DOW offices in Kremmling and Denver. In 1974, only one drawing was conducted and few permits were issued. Eithersex permits in 1975 were available by drawing in June and then unsolicited permits were again issued on a first-come basis at the Regional Office, DOW prior to the season. This latter decision hindered efforts to maintain an accurate listing of the number of permits issued and to whom. The result of these decisions was an inconsistent number of either-sex permits issued even though the number allotted for issue was fairly consistent. The inconsistent either-sex hunting pressure influenced harvest size and composition and hunter success. A further problem with regular-season permits involved decisions regarding whether hunters were restricted to Middle Park. In 1972 and 1975 antleredonly permittees were not restricted to Middle Park while in 1973 and 1974 they �-279were. During 1973 and 1974 either-sex permittees were restricted to Middle Park (any of 4 GMU's) while in 1975 they were restricted to one GMU within Middle Park. These inconsistent decisions (made in contradiction to Research recommendations) affected hunter distribution, hunting intensity, harvest size and possibly harvest composition, but the magnitude of this effect could not be measured. Late-season permits restricted hunters to Middle Park. Hunters were allowed to hunt in any of 4 GMU's. In 1974, 54.8 percent of the late-season harvest was in GMU 18 (Table 16). Subjective evidence indicated much of this harvest occurred in a restricted locale called "Gunsight Pass". To prevent a massive shift of hunters and possible over-harvest in a specific area, late-season permits should restrict hunters to one GMU. Table 16. Composition of projected late-season either-sex permit deer harvest, Middle Park, Colorado, 1973-1974, based on returned hunter survey questionnaires. 1973 18 Management Unit 27 28 37 Totals Bucks 227 75 66 224 592 ( 61.4%) Does 124 35 44 123 326 ( 33.7%) B. Fawns 17 5 8 5 35 ( 3.6%) D. Fawns 0 4 0 8 12 ( 1.3%) Totals 368 (38.2%) 119 (12.3%) 118 (12.2%) 360 (37.3%) 1974 18 27 Bucks 357 72 92 149 3 673 ( 49.4%) Does 330 72 65 112 3 582 ( 42.7%) B. Fawns 37 8 15 8 2 70 ( 5.1%) D. Fawns 20 5 2 8 0 35 ( 2.6%) Unknown 2 0 0 0 0 2 ( 0.2%) Totals Management Unit 28 37 746 157 174 277 (54.8%) (11.5%) (12.8%) (20.3%) 965 (100.0%) (100%) Unknown 8 (0.6%) Totals 1,362 (100.0%) (100%) �-280Hunter Success and Participation Restricting antlered-only permittees to Middle Park appeared to increase success ratios. Success ratios of antlered-only permittees were 10.7 and 9.2 percent in 1972 and 1975 when permit holders were not restricted to Middle Park. In 1973 and 1974 when antlered-only hunters were restricted to Middle Park, success ratios were 16.8 and 14.1 percent (Table 13). Restrictions may cause hunters to become more familiar with an area or to hunt more intensively. The percentage of antlered-only permittees who hunted in Middle Park was no greater when permits were restrictive (Table 13). However, during nonrestrictive seasons hunters may have hunted a short time and if immediately unsuccessful proceeded to another hunting area. Thus, on surveys these hunters would report hunting in Middle Park but their actual effort in Middle Park was probably negligible. Percent participation would be inflated and success ratios lowered. Success of either-sex permittees during regular seasons varied from 41.3 to 28.4 percent from 1973 through 1975 (Table 13). The decreasing success could indicate a declining availability of deer (Holsworth 1973). Opening day of 1975 was immediately preceded by 9-12 inches of snow. This should have aided hunters in finding deer and improved success but also could have prevented hunters from getting to areas where deer were located. Percent of either-sex permittees participating during regular seasons varied from 87.6 to 85.9 percent from 1973 through 1975 (Table 13). This higher participation rate as compared to antlered-only permittees suggests that persons who draw for a permit for the regular season are more inclined to hunt. Hunter participation was 77.1 and 73.7 percent during late-seasons in 1973 and 1974 (Table 13). Late-season permits were for either-sex and available only by drawing. Hunter participation would be expected to increase as compared to the regular season because deer are more vulnerable in December. However, weather may have decreased hunter participation because late-seasons were subject to cold temperatures and deep snow. Success ratios during late-seasons were 58.0 and 35.5 percent in 1973 and 1974 (Table 13). These ratios were higher than the regular season. Success ratios would be expected to increase during late-seasons when deer are on winter ranges and more concentrated. Composition of the Harvest Composition of the total harvest during the regular seasons appeared related to the number of either-sex permits issued. In 1973 and 1975 when about 2000 either-sex permits were issued, percent antlerless in the harvest was 43.7 and 45.1 percent. In 1974 when only 682 permits were issued, 23.7 percent of the total harvest was antlerless (Table 11). Composition of the total harvest resulting from a combined antlered-only - either-sex season may reflect little about composition of the herd, being more influenced by the number of either-sex permits issued. �-281- Either-sex permittees harvested 63.4 and 75.4 percent antlerless animals during regular seasons in 1974 and 1975 (Table 9). This suggests that during regular seasons either-sex hunters are inclined to harvest any deer regardless of sex. Also, as the number of either-sex permits increased from 1974 to 1975 the percent antler1ess in the harvest increased (Table 11) . However, during late-seasons the percent antlerless in the harvest was only 38.6 and 50.6 percent (Table 16). There is an apparent consensus among hunters that late-seasons offer the opportunity to harvest "big bucks". This apparent selectivity towards bucks raises the possibility of altering sex ratios of deer by repeated antlered-only late seasons. Composition of deer checked at check stations is often assumed to accurately reflect the composition of the harvest. Middle Park serves as a hunting area for the Denver metropolitan region. Both access routes from Middle Park to Denver merge west of Denver. The Idaho Springs check station located east of this merger affords a comparison of check station results with returned hunter survey questionnaires. From 1973-1975 estimates of the composition of the harvest from check station and returned surveys compared favorably (Tables 11, 12). A chi-square test was used to test differences between check station and surveys; all deer classified as unknowns were eliminated from calculations. Expected composition frequencies were survey values because surveys were a random sample of all Middle Park hunters. Composition did not differ significantly between check station and surveys (X2.05,3) from 1973 through 1975. The percentage of bucks sampled at check station as compared to the survey, was consistently lower. People living within Middle Park, and not passing through check station, may primarily harvest bucks which would inflate the survey buck percentages. There were no significant differences in the sex and age composition of the harvest samples from check station and the survey in 1973 and 1975 between GMU's (X2.05,3) but there was a significant difference in 1974 (X2.05,3). The problem in 1974 pertained to GMU 28 which may have been hunted primarily by local persons who did not check through check station. Political Influence and Maintaining Control of the Study The primary deterrent to conducting this type of study is the inevitable conflicts which arise from the need for research personnel to establish hunting season regulations which is normally a management function. Hunting seasons also are profoundly influenced by political considerations. Political decisions can influence the research process such that there is no longer control necessary to achieve consistency in permit numbers, permit restrictions, and harvest objectives. Secondly, research places itself in a delicate position by establishing numerical objectives based on numerical input. If measurements fail to agree with predictions then a credibility gap develops. Few persons outside the research establishment are cognizant of the difficulty of measuring highly variable biological parameters, and the discrepancies reflect negatively on research in general rather than on temporary design inadequacies of a particular research project. The ideal situation for an experimental harvest study would exist when research had complete control �-282over an area containing a discrete deer herd. Then rigid controls could be imposed or experimental design so factors such as hunter numbers, hunter distribution, hunter effort, season length and timing, and bag limits could be varied as the design required. Such a situation is not readily available in Colorado at this time. LITERATURE CITED Freddy, D. J. 1975. Middle Park Deer Study - experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, p. 209-240. Gill, R. B. 1969a. Middle Park Deer Study - population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1, p. 105-122. 1969b. Middle Park Deer Study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1, p. 123-140. 1971. Middle Park Deer Study - population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks, Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, p. 170-188. Holsworth, W. N. 1973. Hunting efficiency and white-tailed J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3) :336-342. deer density. Kormondy, E. J. 1969. Concepts of ecology. Cliffs, N.J. 209 p. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Odum, E. P. 546 p. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 1959. Fundamentals of ecology. Roper, L. A. 1973. Middle Park Deer Study - experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, p. 147-162. 1974. Middle Park Deer Study - experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Sec., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, p. 197-210. Prepared by C21v..e-/ ~d,J, / Q Dave Freddy Asst. Wildlife Researcner �-283July, 1976 JOB rI~OGRESS REPORT State of ___ COLORAD_O Project No. W-38-R-31 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 14 Job No. Job Title Middle Park Cooperative Period Covered: Personnel: _ Investigations 9 --------------------- Deer Study - Deer Habitat Evaluation April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 L. H. Carpenter, D. L. Baker, M. A. Kautz, D. J. Freddy, D. W. Reichert, W. L. Regelin, P. F. Gilbert, and R. B. Gill. ABSTRACT ---Work during the 1975-76 segment centered on estimating energy expenditure and forage intake of free-ranging mule deer during the winter period. Four deer were observed in a 4 ha pasture from an observation tower for fifteen 24-hour periods during January and February. Deer were active 42.7 'and bedded 57.3 percent of total time during this period. Deer were more active during day than night. Diets, bite sizes, and number of bites per second of grazing were estimated by accompanying the deer as they grazed. Estimated daily dry matter intake for these four deer averaged 787 g. The four deer lost an average of 12.2 percent of initial body weight during 47 days they were at pasture. Nutritional quality of ingested forage was evaluated by an in vivo digestion trial. Summaries of horizontal and vertical components of deer-mQvements, and laboratory analyses of diets of deer in the in vivo digestion trial' are not yet completed, consequently no comparison of-energy intake to energy expenditure of the deer is made in this report. ��-285- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY - DEER HABITAT EVALUATION L. H. Carpenter P. S. OBJECTIVE Develop procedures for quantifying the capacity of Middle Park winter ranges to support deer. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop and test a method for estimating energy expenditures of freeranging mule deer. 2. Estimate forage intake and energy expenditures of deer during "critical" winter months (January-March). 3. Estimate nutritional quality of ingested forage in terms of in vivo digestible and metabolizable energy. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in this study have been previously described (Gill and Baker 1974; Carpenter and Baker 1975). Certain changes in methodology have occurred; these are described below. Method for Estimating Energy Expenditures of Free-Ranging Mule Deer This portion of the study is being conducted by M. A. Kautz, Colorado State University. Detailed methodology is in her study plan (Appendix A). Estimate of Forage Intake and Energy Expenditure A thesis entitled "Energy Requirements of Mule Deer Fawns in Winter" has been prepared by Dan L. Baker. This thesis covers certain objectives of the study and is presented in Appendix B. Four mule deer, two, 18 months and two, 30 months old, were used during the 1975-76 segment. The deer were placed in a 2.4 ha conditioning pasture on January 1, 1976, and left until January 7 when they were moved to a 4 ha energy budget pasture and remained there until February 15. Deer received no artificial supplement during this period except for the first four days when each deer received 0.45 kg concentrate daily. Two types of measurements were made during the study and these were alternated from week to week. One measurement estimated forage intake. Deer were accompanied by two observers as they grazed and bite sizes, total number of �-286- bites eaten per second, and total number of bites of each plant species were recorded. The other measurement recorded observations from an observation tower of deer activity and travel over 24-hour time periods. Forage Intake Estimates of forage intake were .made during the week of January 19-22 following procedures previously outlined (Carpenter and Baker 1975). Fourteen separate trials averaging 63 minutes each were conducted during the 4-day period. Size (weight) of an average bite was determined by two observers each "plucking" what they considered to be an average bite grazed by deer. Each observer plucked 20 "bites" of various plant species consumed by each deer and placed them in a paper bag. Fifty of these 20 ''bite'' samples were collected by each observer. Nutritional Quality of Ingested Forage To determine nutritional quality of forage ingested by deer in the pasture a unique in vivo digestion trial was conducted. At the conclusion of the studies in the energy budget pasture on February 15, two deer (numbers 9 and 18) were maintained on native forage in the conditioning pasture with minimal daily supplements of alfalfa hay and concentrate. At 6 P.M. February 27, each deer was placed into a digestion cage (Carpenter and Baker 1975) for two days of adjustment. The deer remained in the cages until 8 A.M. March 1 without any feed. Snow was the only source of free-water and was provided ad libitum throughout the trial. Beginning at 8 A.M. March 1, and continuing daily for 5 days, the two deer were taken out of the cages during daylight hours and placed in the energy budget pasture to graze. The deer were returned to the cages for about 2 hours (11 A.M. to 1 P.M.) each day to permit summarization of A.M. trial data. During trials each deer was accompanied by an observer and information on number of bites of each species and plant parts eaten was recorded. Each time a deer defecated or urinated the total excretions were collected with special long-handled containers. A third observer was available to quickly label and place the excreted materials in separate containers. At night deer were returned to the digestion cages and received no supplemental food. Feces and urine were collected from the cages daily at 8 A.M. At the conclusion of the grazing trials at 5 P.M. on March 5, the deer were returned to the cages and remained until 8 A.M. March 7, when they were removed. The deer received no feed during these two days and urine and feces were collected both days. Daily intake was estimated by multiplying total number of bites for each deer times the average bite size. Daily fecal and urinary output was determined from total collections while deer were at pasture and from the cages for the 7-day period March 1 to March 7. Aliquots of feces and urine were saved for determinations of moisture, gross energy and protein as described by Baker (1976). A diet for each deer for the total grazing period was determined, and the top 10 species were identified and ranked. These 10 species made up 94 percent of the diet for deer number 9, and 97 percent of the diet for deer number 18. Each of the 10 species was then collected in amounts proportional to its occurrence in the diet. Plant parts similar to those grazed by deer �-287were collected. Collected samples were taken to the laboratory, ground in a Wiley mill and precise percentages of each species (by weight) composited to simulate a diet. Analyses of gross energy, protein, and in vitro digestibility will be made on these diets to compare with in vivo determinations. Energy Expenditure Observations of 24-hour activity patterns of deer in the pasture were made during 3 five-day periods. The dates for these periods were January 11 to 16, January 25 to 30, and February 8 to 13, 1976. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Method for Estimating Energy Expenditures of Free-Ranging Mule Deer This portion of the study is in planning stages (Appendix A). be presented next segment. Results will Estimate of Forage Intake and Energy Expenditure Forage Intake A total of 878 minutes (14.6 hours) was spent tallying bites of forage ingested by deer during 14 grazing trials. During this period 4,396 bites were recorded (including bites of snow). These bites were consumed during 12,179 seconds of deer grazing activity. This resulted in a value of 0.36 bites! second or 1 bite each 2.8 seconds. This is similar to the 0.35 value determined last segment (Carpenter and Baker 1975). The combined diet of the four deer for the period January 19-22 is presented in Table 1. The total number of bites differs from the 4,396 previously given as a result of deletion of bites of snow, hair and feces. Muttongrass (Poa fendleriana) was the major plant species in ~he diet. This contrasted with 1975 when vetch (Astragalus convallarius) was the major food item, making up over 50 percent of the diet of the deer in the pasture (Carpenter and Baker 1975). In 1976 vetch comprised only 9.8 percent of the diet. The reasons for this difference are not known. It is suspected that differences in snow depths (less snow in 1976) was a major factor in this discrepancy. Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) made up a similar portion of the diet each year. Bite sizes taken by the deer averaged 0.148 g (se + 0.004) wet weight and 0.109 g (se 0.004) dry weight. These bite sizes-are 33.1 and 17.4 percent larger respectively than those determined last segment (Carpenter and Baker 1975). Average moisture content of the 100 samples was 26.2 percent, considerably greater than the 9.2 percent moisture content of bite samples in 1975. This moisture difference may account for the difference in bite sizes between the two years. ± �-288- Table 1. Diet of four mule deer in a 4 ha energy budget pasture for period January 19-23, 1976. Plant Species Total Bites % Total Bites Muttongrass (Poa fendleriana) 1,167 28.7 Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus vaseyi) 711 17.5 Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata tridentata) 653 16.0 Vetch (Astragalus convallarius) 400 9.8 Phlox (Phlox bryoides) 286 7.0 Pine needlegrass (Stipa pinetorum) 236 5.8 Serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) 181 4.4 Mat penstemon (Penstemon caespitosus) 155 3.8 Buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum) 76 1.9 Snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) 51 1.2 Bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) 41 1.0 Penstemon (Penstemon cyath6ph6:tus) 23 0.6 Western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) 19 0.5 Fringed sage (Artemisia frigida) 15 0.4 Needle-and-thread grass (Stipa comata) 10 0.2 Blue grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis) 9 0.2 Parry's rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus parry i) 7 0.2 Bottlebrush squirreltail grass (Sitanion hystrix) 7 0.2 Ryegrass (Elymus spp.) 6 0.2 0.2 Unknown grasses 5 0.1 Bluebell (Mertensia la~ceolata) 3 0.1 Lichens (species unknown) 2 T 4,069 100.0 Totals �-289Tower observations indicated deer spent 23.2 percent (se ± 2.14) of their time grazing. On a 24-hour basis this would total 20,045 seconds grazing. This total multiplied by the 0.36 bite/second value results in an estimated total of 7,216 bites ingested by deer each day. Multiplying this total by the average bite sizes of 0.148 g (wet weight) and 0.109 g (dry weight), daily forage intake was estimated to be 1,068 and 787 g respectively. On a dry-weight basis this compared closely to the 765 g value determined last segment (Carpenter and Baker 1975). All deer lost weight during the 47-day period they were in the pastures (Table 2). The average weight loss was 12.2 percent of initial body weight. This represents a weight loss of 169 g/day. At this rate of weight loss and at an average initial weight of 65.6 kg, the deer would experience an average body loss of 25 percent at the end of 97 days. Weight loss greater than 25 percent has been shown to cause mortality in mule deer fawns (Baker 1976). Table 2. Weights (kg) of four mule deer at pasture during period December 30, 1975 to February 15, 1976. 9 Deer Number 18 20 39 Average 30 64.1 70.0 72.7 55.5 65.6 January 11 62.3 60.0 73.6 54.1 62.5 January 16 60.9 64.5 71.4 53.2 62.5 January 25 56.8 60.0 69.5 51.4 59.4 January 30 57.3 60.9 69.5 51.4 59.8 February 9 55.9 60.0 65.9 51.4 58.3 February 15 54.1 60.5 65.9 50.0 57.6 Total Loss 10.0 9.5 6.8 5.5 8.0 Percent Loss 15.6 13.6 9.4 9.9 12.2 Grams Per Day Loss 213 202 145 117 169 Dates December Nutritional Quality of Ingested Forage A total of 1277 minutes (21.3 hours) and 1322 minutes (22.0 hours) were spent during the 5-day trial tallying bite counts of forage for deer numbers 9 and 18 respectively. A total of 14,867 bites were recorded for deer number 9 while �-2909,638 were recorded for deer number 18. Total bites taken daily by each deer is presented in Table 3. Diet for the two deer during this period was similar with respect to the top 10 plant species but varied considerably in ranking of these 10 species (Table 4). The largest difference between diets of the two deer was in amount of big sagebrush. Big sagebrush made up only 5.1 percent of the diet of deer number 9 but comprised 30.6 percent of the diet of deer number 18 (Table 4). Table 3. Number of bites taken daily by deer numbers 9 and 18 for 5-day in vivo digestion trial conducted in a 4 ha energy budget pasture March 1-5, 1976. Deer Number Date 9 18 March 1 2,331 1,467 March 2 2,187 854 March 3 3,747 2,662 March 4 2,252 1,381 March 5 4,350 3,274 Totals 14,867 9,638 Laboratory work has not been completed, therefore no results are available on digestibility, gross energy, or protein content of the diets. Results of this work will be presented next segment and will be used to determine energy intake for deer in the pasture. Energy Expenditure Fifteen 24-hour days were spent in the observation tower during 3 separate weeks of observations. Using a sampling strategy of four 5 minute observation periods each hour (Carpenter and Baker 1975), 7200 minutes (120 hours) of observations were made. Summaries of 5 minute samples for all trials indicated deer spent 42.7 percent (se + 3.6) of their time grazing, standing, or moving, and 57.3 percent (se + 3.6)-of their time bedded. A summary of total activity observations for theentire 24-hour period (no sampling involved) indicated that deer were active 43.0 percent (se ± 1.1) and bedded 57.0 percent (se ± 1.1). In contrast to last segment where the sampling strategy overestimated active periods, sampling estimates this segment were very close to the actual activities. It would appear that the longer sampling periods employed this segment obviated the discrepancies previously noted. �Table 4. Diets of two mule deer in energy budget pasture during in vivo digestion trial March 1 to March 5, 1976. Food Item Total Bites Deer No. 9 Deer No. 18 Muttongrass (Poa fend1eriana) Phlox (Phlox b!Yoides) Vetch (Astragalus conva11arius) B1uebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) Serviceberry (Ame1anchier a1nifo1ia) Bott1ebrush squirre1tai1 grass (Sitanion hystrix) Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata tridentata) Rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus vaseyi) Snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophi1us) Buckwheat (Eriogonum umbe11atum) Blue grama grass (Boute1oua gracilis) Fringed sage (Artemisia frigida) Currant (Ribes cereum) June grass (Koe1eria cristata) Unknown grasses Unknown forbs Penstemon (Penstemon cyathophorus) Pusseytoes (Antennaria parvif1ora) Pine need1egrass (Stipa pinetorum) Lichen (species unknown) Dry bark Need1e-and-thread grass (Stipa comata) Mat penstemon (Penstemon caespitosus) Green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) Astragalus (Astragalus shortianus) Bluebell (Mertensia 1anceo1ata) Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) Western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) Moss (species unknown) Parry's rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus parryi) 5,643 1,984 1,649 1,342 930 810 765 358 321 166 140 137 131 120 90 44 43 39 36 25 22 16 13 12 10 7 6 4 3 Totals 14,867 1 o 2,130 3,006 224 117 476 41 2,944 231 22 87 3 63 3 15 64 17 29 o 10 1 47 o 67 6 o o 12 5 15 Percent Total Bites Deer No.9 Deer No. 18 38.0 13.3 11.1 9.0 6.3 5.4 5.1 2.4 2.2 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 22.1 31.2 2.3 1.2 5.0 0.5 30.6 2.4 0.2 0.9 T 0.7 T 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 T 0.5 0.0 0.7 T 0.0 0.0 0.1 T T T o T 0.2 0.0 3 0.0 T 9,638 100.0 100.0 I N \D I-' I �-292- Deer were less active at night than during day. A summary of observations for shifts 1 and 4 (night) indicated that deer were bedded 65.3 percent (se + 3.73) of the time, while during shifts 2 and 3 (day) deer were bedded on1y-49.5 percent (se ± 5.21) of the time. Activity was consistent between trials and between individual deer (Table 5). These values were taken from total activity observations and represent actual activity of each deer. A malfunction in the collar of deer number 20 in trial 1 required that certain observations be made on deer number 4 for only a portion of thjs trial. This combination may explain the larger difference between trials for deer number 20 than for the other three deer. Table 5. Comparison of percent total time up for four mule deer during 3 separate periods during January and February, 1976. Deer Number Trial Number 9 18 20 1 44.9 44.3 47.8 !/ 42.2 2 44.1 42.1 37.2 46.3 3 44.6 41.6 33.6 47.0 44.5 42.7 39.5 45.2 Average 39 1/ Portion of observations as deer number 20. in this trial were made on deer number 4 as well Twenty-four hour activity patterns of deer are graphed in Figure 1. Maximum activity (not bedded) occurred during hour 18 (6:00 P.M. MST). Maximum bedding activity occurred during hour 15 (3:00 P.M.). A summary of continuous activity records involving 523 individual active periods for all deer and all trials indicated the average activity period of deer was 71 minutes (se ± 2.67) [range 1-273] and for 519 bed periods the average was 95 minutes (se ± 2.92) [range 1-350]. Average number of bedding periods per day was 8.7 (se ± 0.48). A frequency distribution of 519 bed periods showed that the greatest number were from 1-20 minutes long (Fig. 2). Total number, average length, and number per day of both active and bedding periods reveal certain differences between deer and between trials (Tables 6 and 7). Average time per active period for deer numbers 18, 20, and 39 were similar. Deer number 9 consistently was active for shorter periods of time (Table 6). Deer were not as consistent in lengths of bedding periods as with active periods, but the same pattern was apparent. Deer number 9 consistently bedded for shorter periods than other deer (Table 5). �-293- MIDNIGHT 24 80% "" ,. " p----,O 12 • • • PERCENT ACTIVE NOON 0- - 0--0 PERCENT GRAZING Fig. 1. Hourly (Mountain Standard Time) activity and grazing patterns of four mule deer in 4 ha energy budget pasture during January and February 1976. �-294- 1 N :519 20 60 100 . MINUTES 140 180 220 260 300+ BEDDED Fig. 2. Frequency distribution of lengths of 519 bedding periods for 4 mule deer at pasture during January and February 1976, expressed in 20-minute units. �Table 6. Number of active periods, average length in minutes of each, and average number per day for each deer, for 3 trials during January and February, 1976. 9 Trial 1 Deer Number 18 20 1/ 39 9 Trial 2 Deer Number 18 20 39 9 Trial 3 Deer Number 18 20 39 Total All Trials Deer Number 18 20 9 39 Number 53.0 3~.0 34.0 50.0 46.0 32.0 39.0 35.0 57.0 52.0 42.0 44.0 156.0 123.0 115.0 129.0 Average length 60.9 81. 7 101. 3 60.8 69.0 94.8 68.7 95.2 56.3 57.6 57.6 77 .0 61.6 74.9 74.3 75.6 Standard error (length) 7.9 10.2 12.5 8.9 8.4 12.8 8.3 12.4 6.5 7.3 6.3 9.3 4.4 5.7 5.5 5.9 Number per day I 10.6 1/Observations 7.8 6.8 10.0 9.2 6.4 include both deer numbers 4 and 20. 8.0 7.0 11.4 10.4 8.4 8.8 10.4 8.2 7.7 8.6 N \0 V'I I �Table 7. Number of bedding periods, average length in minutes of each, and average number per day for each deer, for 3 trials during January and February, 1976. Total All Trials Trial 3 Trial 2 Trial 1 9 Deer Number 18 20 1/ 39 9 Deer Number 18 20 39 9 Deer Number 20 18 39 9 Deer Number 20 18 Number 52.0 38.0 33.0 49.0 45.0 31.0 34.0 58.0 53.0 43.0 44.0 155.0 122.0 115.0 127.0 Average length 76.3 105.6 113.8 84.9 89.4 134.4 115.9 113.7 68.8 79.3 111.1 86.7 77 .3 101.5 113.5 93.2 Standard error (length) 7.9 12.5 8.6 10.6 11. 7 6.6 6.8 9.4 8.9 4.8 6.2 6.4 5.7 Number per day 1/ 12.5 39.0 13.1 12.4 39 I N 10.4 Observations 7.6 6.6 9.8 9.0 6.2 include both deer numbers 4 and 20. 7.8 6.8 11.6 10.6 8.6 8.8 10.3 8.1 7.7 8.5 1.0 0\ I �-297- These activity values differ somewhat from those reported for mule deer and white-tailed deer. Linsdale and Tomich (1953:355) reported that the average length for 300 completed rest periods for mule deer was 47 minutes. Moulton (1967), working with three radio-tagged white-tailed deer during winter, found the average duration of 348 bedding periods to be 110 minutes and average duration of 346 active periods to be 124 minutes. Montgomery (1963) reported a mean bedding period throughout the year of 106 minutes for white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. Twenty-four hour grazing pattern of the deer is also graphed in Figure 1. Grazing activity parallels general activity. Grazing activity was maximum during hour 18 (6:00 P.M.) with smaller peaks at hours 8 (8:00 A.M.), hour 17 (5:00 P.M.), and 24 (12:00 P.M.). Percentage of time spent each hour in various activities is summarized in Table 8. Table 8. Percentage of time spent each hour in various activities by four mule deer in 4 ha energy budget pasture during January and February 11976. Hour Percent Total Time Up Percent Total Time Bedded Percent Total Time Grazing Percent Active Time Grazing 1 (1 AM) 2 3 39.9 60.1 22.1 55.4 37.6 18.4 62.4 81.6 18.8 8.4 50.1 45.5 4 36.5 63.5 29.3 80.4 5 30.4 69.6 13.1 43.2 6 30.2 69.8 8.8 29.2 7 55.3 44.7 16.1 29.1 8 60.2 39.8 32.7 54.3 9 56.7 43.3 21.6 38.1 10 43.3 38.3 56.7 61.7 24.4 11 23.5 56.3 61.4 12 59.5 40.5 30.2 50.7 13 49.3 50.7 19.1 38.7 14 34.4 65.6 17.0 49.3 15 13.1 86.9 9.5 72.5 16 38.9 61.1 22.0 56.7 17 74.0 26.0 38.8 52.4 18 16.0 51.1 60.8 19 84.0 61. 7 38.3 33.2 53.9 20 16.3 83.7 13.0 79.6 21 80.7 14.9 77.1 22 19.3 31.3 68.7 19.5 62.1 23 46.0 54.0 30.2 65.6 24 49.3 50.7 39.6 80.3 �-298- Data on horizontal and vertical components of travel during each observation have not been sunnnarized. These values will be incorporated with estimates of energy expenditure by activity to provide estimates of total energy expenditure of deer in the pasture. Energy expenditure estimates will then be compared to estimates of energy intake to develop energy budgets for deer in the pasture. Energy budget comparisons will be reported next segment. LITERATURE CITED Baker, D. L. 1976. M.S. Thesis. Energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 76 p. Carpenter, L. H., and D. L. Baker. 1975. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-29. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 241-263. Gill, R. B., and D. L. Baker. 1974: Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep ,, July, Part 2. p. 211-225. Linsdale, J. M., and P. Q. Tomich. 1953. A herd of mule deer. California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. 567 p. Univ. Montgomery, G. G. 1963. Nocturnal movements and activity rhythms of whitetailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(3) :422-427. Moulton, J. C. 1967. Movement and activity of three white-tailed deer during the winter of 1964-65 in East-Central Minnesota determined by telemetry. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Minnesota. 82 p. Prepared by --:.c-<",-/~~,,---,,~!I.!....-'..o.U"'-'~-"-'#I-jJ;_"'t._-t; Len H. Carpenter Asst. Wildlife Researcher _ �-299- A P PEN D I X A �-300- STUDY PLAN STUDY PLAN NO. THE USE 3 OF HEART RATE TO ESTll1ATE THE ENERGY EXPENDITURE DECEMBER, Marie OF UNRESTRAINED 1975 A. Kautz DEER �-301- Study Plan The Use of Heart Rate to Estimate the Energy Expenditure of Unrestrained Deer A. Need To estimate the number of deer a range can support, it is necessary to evaluate the capacity of the range to meet the requirements of individual animals, one of wh i.chis energy (noon 1973). An inadequate supply of energy on deer wi.nt er ranges may result in Hinter mortal ity and limit deer populations. A certain amount of a deer's energy requirement must be obtained from nutrients supplied by the range. The energy expenditure of an animal can be determined by either direct or indirect calorimetry (Brody 19:15). Direct calorime t ry i nvo lve s measur-ev ment of the actual heat :~pr6dnc~d ," by the subject. The direct measur-ement of heat production requires elaborate equipment and is not a technique presently v i ewed as feasible wi th unrestrained animals. Indirect calorimetry involves the estimation of heat production (energy expenditure) through the mcasur emen t of rates of related body functions. Traditionally oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production have been measured and related to an equivalent heat production in order to calculate energy expenditure (Brody 1945). Such experiments are often con ... ducted in respiration chamber s . While such chambers are Lmpor t ant in the study of haseline conditions, they do not permit consideration of the physiological and behavioral responses evoked by a normal range of env i ron-.. mental conditions. The energy expenditure of animals in the field might be estimated by measurement of gas exchange, by relation of energy cxpenditurc to heart rate, respiration ~ate) or pulmonary ventilation rate, by the use of radioisotope techniClues,or by the use of energy balance studies. �-302- !'I(!asurin~ oxygen antIcarhon dioxicl~~xc]:angc in the field Gas collection from animals in the field is a prohlem. Matt£eld (1974) trained white-tailed deer to the use of face masks and restraint by leashes from a very young age. Of 13 fawns, two Here suitable for res- piratory collections, and two others could be used with tranquilization. Other workers have used face masks with reindeer (White and Yousef 1974), burros (Yousef and Dill 1969 ~,~), and gazelles (Dan l3aharov,pel's. corom.), anc.lnone reportec.lsuch serious problems. Expired air can be ciollected without ~le use of face masks from animals wh i ch have been prepared w i th tracheotomies. COl'PI.) Fair and Naut z (Mautz, pel'S. used this method on wh i.t e=tu i led deer and reported no problems related to the surgical procedures. However tracheotomy may disrupt heat exchange in the nasopharynx and can affect respiration and met aboli sm (!31axterand .Ioyce 1963). Other components of the system for measuring gas exchange in the field include either 1) an apparatus for st ori.ngexp i red air for later volume determi.nat i.onand gas :',alys i s , or 2) a portable f lovneter for measuring volume of the expired air in the field/\'litha device capable of taking a sample to be stored for later analysis. In either case the apparatus is too cumbersome to be car r i ed by a deer; One small portable f lowme t er, the I'lrightrespiro- meter, could be carried by a deer, but it is not rugged enough to meet specifications (~Iautz,pel's. comm.). A small amount of expired air could be collected in bags carried by the animal, but there are obvious limitations to this method. Thus measuring the gas exchange of deer in the .f i.eld wou'ld necessitate control of activity by a leash or similar means, and the presence of a person to carry apparatus. The technique would require \'lell-trainedanimals, as nervousness could result in spurious estimates of energy expenditure. �-303- Heart rate Oxygen consumption by the tissues is a function of three parameters: heart rate, stroke volume, and the difference in the oxygen saturation of arterial and venous blood (lvyndham,et ale 1959). While stroke volume and oxygen saturation cannot by determined readily in the field (Mike Wells, pel's. comm.), heart rate can he monitored by currently available telemetry systems. The relation between heart rate and energy expenditure requires careful determination before this parameter can be used as a predictive tool. A nwnber of studies have investigated the heart rates of humans engaged in different activities, and some have related heart rate to energy expenditure. Ma Iho t ra et al. (1963) found linear correlations between heart rates and energy expenditures of humans exercising ~m bicycle ergometers ,d th pulse rates ranging from 95 to 150 beats per minute. The relation could be used to predict the energy cos t s of other activities performed by the same individual with less than 10 percent error. Webster (1967) found a close relationship between heart rate and energy expenditure in three of four sheep tested under cold stress ancI at ditferent levels of feeding in thermoneutral conditions, standing and IJ ing, and w i t h heart rates up to 90 beats per minute. lieconcluded that two of these sheep ,::ere: sui t able for prediction of energy exnend i ture from heart rate with errors of less than 10 percent. Brockway and McEwan (1969) found no relation between heart rate and energy expenditure in four of five sheep tested. They attributed this to a poor relationship between heart rate and stroke volume, possibly clue to i.nadequate training and nervousness of the animals. Silver (1973) found a linear relation with a correlation coefficient of .805 be tween the heart rate and energy expenditure of fasted and fed wh i t.e-ct a i Led deer in respiration chambers. However , t he effects of different activities and psychological conJitions on the relation have not heen demon- �-304- strated. Boforo heart rate can he used to predict tIle energy expenditure of unrestrained animals it is necessary to test the correlation over a range of conditions more closely approximating those encountered by free roaming deer. BOiVcver such tests are not easily made. Fair and t·lautz(Maut z, per s . comm.) investigated this relation recently using a deer which had been tracheotomized and carried a small beg permitting ga~ collections for short periods \~lile the animal was unrestrained. They obtained ruloverall correlation coefficient of about .5 for a wide range of activities and stimuli. This low observed corrnlation coefficient could be due to one or more different factors, including nervousness due to the experimental apparatus. Indeed any apparatus currently available for cstimat i ng energy expenditure of unrestrained animals by gas collection (for use as a standard) would he likely to produce nervousness in deer, with possible effects on the relationship being investigated. To summar i ze , in humans there appears to be a strong relation between heart rate and energy expend i ture wh i ch ho Ids for individuals over different types of activit ..!s. Studies with sheep have shown a similar relation for some subjects but md i.cs.t e that other individuals are unsuitable for use as experimental subjects, possibly due to nervousness associatcd with the experimental conditions. Pooled data from white-tailed deer in respiration cham- bers show a high correlation between the two variables. A similar relation has not yet been demonstrated for unrestrained decr and efforts to do so may be complicated by the bul ky apparatus available for determination of energy expenditure. Denons t rati on of a high correlation between the heart rate and energy expenditure of unrestrained deer \vould provide a strong empirical basis for prcMcting energy expenditure from heart rate. �-305- Other techniques Other work er s have suggested from respiration rate can be estimated (Ramanathan 1964) or pulmonary ventilation (Datta and 1974). In addition, techniques, including to entry (Yo,ung et al. radioisotope carbon dioxide have been suggested. fo r study rate the use of carbon-14 1969, White and Long et a l . 1971) and the use of doub l y-Tabe l ed water carborid i ox i de production (Lifson et al. Each of these than the relation mined by gas collection 1955, Lifson alternatives be tween heart through and }IcClintock was judged rate to estimate less 1966) appropriate and energy expenditure deter- a face mask. Objectives The objectives face mask apparatus investigate of this the relation Expected 1) evaluate collections activities, and, associated and time factors, energ), expenditure are to: to heart if the usefulness f'rom mule deer between the hcar t rate 3) examine the variability conditions study for respirator), fmYns engaged in several and energy a relation is of a fawns , 2) expend i t.ur e of demonstrated, to w i.th a wi der range of environmental and 4) provide predictive equations relating rate. Results: Completion of the proposed study wi l l provide information use of a face mask apparatus and heart rate ture equations for predicting of deer, from heart D. expenditure et a l , 1966, t-ial}lOtra et a l , 1962, }.lattfeld 1968, Corbett C. energy Ramanathan 1969, Sharkey determine B. that and may provide on the to measure the energy energy expendi- expenditure rate. Approach for Animals: Two mule deer Fawns and one whi.t c=t a i Lcd deer earl)' of equipment and procedures. tests fawn w i l l be us cd These fm~lS Nere bottle-fed �-306- and accus t.oned experinental h[:.rness, to the experimenter procedures. leash, from an ear l y age, hut Here not trained In 1976, fawns will and face mask and to enter with the goal of having four well-trained be trained to to the use of a crates or a vehicle for transport, animals accustomed to experimental personnel. !tespirationc:::pyaratus: equipped w i t h valves Gas collection for inspiration or a qu i ck hook-up device SODe time after or -for Lnt errni t t errt sampling lead the mask is put. on. backpack air bag, further analysis. of the expired as; air rubber "ill to carr)' pass w i l l be directed to Douglas bag) for storage; into the atmosphere. It may the Douglas bag and flowneter on a freedom for controlling the subject and manipulat- necessary. of a trial samples may On completion from the Douzl as baa to a sample pump (;:) valves, b .• Fl owmeter s , and collection however no company known to t iie use on an animal. (1974) gives }~ttfeld designed and used successfully for this study will on design, Accuracy: probably estimates using wr i t cr manufactures be similar. will to construct of cattle particular of the apparatus of a face mask he be conSUlted for face masks have been used routinely 0 fl· t 11S for The mask constructed be hired of the energy expenditure the effect description deer. Hattfeld commercially; a face mask suitable an explicit person will iowever , tl !C accuracy system, J,.. bags are available on \'Ihite-tailed and a suitable Syste~s (Brody I S.tS) .}T collection The aliquot pr obab Ly a neoprene-coated for the experimenter be transferred satisfactory a1101. for a calming period volume of expired in the mask and valves advice to to a ~Iax Planck f Iowmeter for measuring to a l l ow greater Hoses, This_will collection open- whil e the remainder be p0ssihle hose ",HI permit valve to the expiration fer periods. A three-way of a face mask 1\ hose attached and tak i ng an aliquot a collection and expiration. for the expiration hegin ing will appar atus wi l I consist the mask. to obtain and otller animals face mask design on tIle energy expenditure andof a wild �-307- species, and the) c f f cc t of t.h« appcr a tus on the r c l a Lion of hcar t ra t e to expcn.l i t ur e uer it cons ide r a t i on fo r t h i s study. criD' be evaluated using and heart of t h: r e sp i r ati on chanhe r s at the llet abo l i c Lab. rate bench tests of equipment, anina l s in response to considerations These observatiollS the apparatus, enwi 11 of the behavior and po s s i b l y by using Spcc i.f i c que s t i ons and pr occdur cs to he used arc as FoLl ows: 1) Accur-acy of the apparatus tested for air The valves mat cd a ir arise may provide et a l , (1969) varied consider~tion. cqu i p.nent t6 tcst the respiration that lLa.sk ~!ilX Planck and suggested and calibration f Lovmetcr- that from an upr i ght, position. unuoresti- fur rhcr errors I:light These prob l crns r equ i r e of the meter against on the components of the sys t emd operation of the who}e system by conducting chamher. Further thougLt and discussion and feasibility of the face ma~k and other some ~ffect dead air other ·f CO2 in the dead air , I CO-,'_LG. 1 'L.SO t may be trials in arc reqUired to deter- of such trials. apparatus on energy expenditure on the suhject)s space or resistance space may result compoundi np the .i mpor t anc e of these face the tests of increased Buildup stated Testing The face mask may exert result Immersing the to these mine the importance 2) Effect for Fade r.ay be necessary. In addition possible arc specifically a means of chec k i ng this. volumes at Low flow rates if the meters further (l"larren E. Collins) and can be assumed to perform satisfactorily. apparatus Corbett w i l l he ti?,:lt.ne~s underwat.er .i n a tank as cons t ruc t ion procedcs. and DOuglas bags gas collection entire - The face mask and hose connections factors ' . ) prOG1}Ce e. ps:rc I,D..1 O[:J.cc:.. _ energy expenditure as a of the valves and f l owraetcr . in an increase in rcspiration) C',bttfcld 1974). These factors r-~r ....;) in "!:.h~sub.iect, wiri cn ,-",,) or:•...,-,. _ �-308- overall effect of the face mask on energy expenditure (the sum of the .The three above-mentioned factors and possibly others) n~y be evaluated in the respiration chamber using trials with and without the face mask. Characteristics of the experimental situation other than the face mask might also cause nervousness reflected in increased energy expenditure by the sub j ec t s, Amoung these are the presence of the experimenter \·:i th the additional B?parattls,and restraint by a leash. The effects of these factors are not appropriate for study in the respiration chamber ; however some indication of their heart of subjects. to rates these Lmpor t ance can be gained If from exami.uat Lon of t.e.Lerne t e r a d significant changes at factors are observed. they changes in energy expenditure; however such information into effects of specific the Another of the this rate point expe r Lment a.I procedures physiological-psychological 3) Effect cannot in heart in response be re Lat.ed to can provide insight on the subject's state. apparatus on the heart rate-energy expenditure relation - r at i . 1y mentl.one . d· 1S tht" consi de eratl.O!l prevl.ous a nervousness ". aSSOCl- ated \-liththe apparatus or situation may result in irregularities in the The above-ment i oned relation between heart rate and energy expenditure. procedures (estimating energy expenditure Hith and Hithout the face mask in the chamber, and examination of heart rate will provide s orne information on this top Le. is relation. it correlation If in response to the the apparatus does af f e ct; the expected that the effect \ViII be a non-significant or be tween heart rate and energy expenditure a cys t emat i.c error would be ccrse changes ('ivebster rather 1967, Br-ockway and }!cE\van 1969). app a re n t in field trials to be described further than 2pparatus) 10'.0] Such a result on. �-309These sections have described the equipment for field gas collection, possible sources of error related to the equipment and the responses of deer to it, and some means for evaluating the effects of the equipment on subject per formance , Further information and examples of f'ace mask systems for field gas collection are described by Nattfeld (1974), Mlite and Yousef (1974), and Yousef and Dill (1969a). Gas analysis: Aliquots of expired air collected in Douglas bags will be analyzed to determine percent composition of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and possibly nitrogen, by one of the following: a) using a paramagnetic oxygen analyzer and infrared CO2 analyzer available at the Hetabolic Lab. Since this equipment is not calibrated in the appropriate range for expired air obtained by these means, the oxygen analyzer will have to be recalibrated using an appropriate gas standard and another CO2 analyzer us ed , or air samples w i ll have to be diluted in some known proportion \.;i t11atmospheric air. b) similar equipment adjusted to the appropriate range may be located elsewhere on campus, c) it may be possible ,to gain access to suitable gas chromatogtaphy equipment, or d) another fairly inexpensive ($1000 - 2000) instrument of suitable accur~cy could be purchased if necessary.. Calibration and maintenance of such an instrument ",ould involve some time and effort, hm,ever; and this alternative does not seem appropriate for a study to be conducted close to the CSU campus where other equipment is available. �-310- lleart rate: transmitters External heart rate transmitters were chosen over implanted for use in this study because no surgery is required. Thus a single transmitter can be used on different deer and equipment repairs can be done without surgery. Problems associated with external transmitters include the necessity for a well-designed harness to hold equipment in place and protect it from being chewed or otherw i se damaged, and the possibility of interference of cardiac signals by electrical potentials from muscle movements (.Jacobsen, 1973). Other affixed equipment to the physiograph for monitoring animal's body, heart rate an PM receiver, "lith at least means of marking off time. (Narco Biosystems). Respiratory rate: a channel for includes a coupling recording surface electrodes device, and a the EKGtrace and a Respiratory rate may be deternine~ during trials. Equip- mffiltfor monitoring respiratory rate concurrently with other measurements will be investigated if time permits. Trials: It is expected that the problems related to equipment outlined in the previous section can be solved. If this is true, the face mask and associated apparatus w i Ll be used to investigate t:1erelation between the heart rate and energy expenditure of fawns engaged in activities as fo1101-1s: 1) bedded 2) limited actiyity - standing and ",alking 3) increased activity - wa lk i.ng more and trotting Four or more trials with each subject at each activity level Idll be conducted during an intensive study period of three of four wceks , A set of observations will be taken for all deer at all activity levels and then another complete set taken and so on. to minimize confounding of the effects of different activity levels or other variables w i th any training effect (E.E. Remmenga. pel's. comm.). �-311- Length of trials ~lll tolerate the apparatus, EKGtrace will also: be determined by the anount of time deer will bct .• vcen 20 and 60 minutes if possible. b~ recorded continuously be rccor~ed using telemetry~ specified larly t;me period throughout at suitable to heart trials. These variables rate include or auditory Feed intake not be restricted 'l11ese and other state factors Subjects or by an observer. converted stimuli, level ,,;hich might affect the 51lbject 1 s physiological- by the experimenter barometric deficit whet.her these stimuli elicit a response in the subject stimuli subject. The next trial Douglas bag. Expired air pressure, apparent variable the face mask apparatus wi l I use a different tempe.rature, relative subject deer nrnlber, to the observer, or not, the observer uill a buildino-D to avoid introducincr . D an additional completion of a trial using a tape recore (Hoen 1973), cloud cover, and auditory If possible exposure to or during trials. Date, time of day, length of trial, to vapor pressure its during these of feeding, at any timeprevious near the subject, w.LLl, be recorded. or affect and time (age of animal and season). visual On be weighed regu- as much as possible beh.av.io r of subject, behavior will energy expenditure thermal factors, \~ill be recorded wind speed and direction humidity intervals. will be controlled to unusual visual recorder may or by counting valve movements for a which may increase relation psychological and respiration the study pericd. Other variables "ill during a trial, The subject's and experimenter be stationed inside into the experiment. w i I l be r-emovedfrom the and a different may be removed from the Douglas bags to sample pumps �-312- for temporary storage or transport, pcrmittinc reuse of the Douglas bags. A third person may be required to transport expired samples to a technician for analysis. Analysis: Energy expenditure (heat production) in kilocalories \·;ill be calculated from oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production as outlined by Brody(l94S) or by another method. These values \\'i11be converted to a -'' . mctalo 1 I'1C bO(y 1 wei~th rate 0f energy cxp~n~1ture per unIt (keal / kg 0.75 -hr) The EKG trace Hill be divided into one-minute intervals; the numb er of 'QRS peaks (heats) will be counted for a random samp le of these interval and variances will'be calculated. Rates of energy expenditure \Yillbe plotted as dependent variable against mean heart rates for each deer over all activity levels, and correlation coefficients will be calculated. A similar plot obtained by Silver (1973) for pooled data from deer in respiration chambers is shown on page 313. At this point a decision w i Ll he made about pooling the dat a from different suhjects. The usefulness of hear-t rate to predict energy expenditure w i H be tested in appropriate models using standard regression techniques (Draper and Smith 19(6). Step\Yise regression procedures will be used to evaluate the effects of other variables entering the model in.addition to heart rate, and interactions of these variables with hear t rate wi Ll be tested for significance. Variables to be considered include subject, activity level, temperature, nervousness (using numbered levels or dummy variables), and any other of the factors measured "hich appear to be meaningful. If time permits, pulmonary ventilation rate (data obtained 2.S par t of th.e gas collection procedures) and respiration rate (if data \Vere collected) \dl1 be used in separate analyses similar to those made for heart rate, and �...', -. , ( .' t "", " • ...•. •••• _. •..... '.! -.__ .•••• ~._ •••••. _ .•..•..••.•••.•••. _.••.••.• __•• _ .•.• ~ _0., •....•.•...• _ •. ".<. .'." .," ... -, _- .•...~- .'_. :.:'.:' , . .:'" -, ~... .... ,. •.•••. __._ _.'" •.. '. .. . ..••• ::;; ," ' . .-,_ -313- •..•• '_ :. ' •. , ••.• ., .:.: ~. •.. :.-.;---.:. ;- • i- ~I v " .;"'1... ~- . ',- ...... .- \_ ....- •••• ..: ••••• ; • , , .... " ',. . ,.- '.'" ,- .... \~ \ .- .,,:: - I I I I i \ I i j i, ,j I j I ,! I i i I ! 1 i 1 I I ; , i I i oj ,. \.. s; r- !'in ; , vi I i .t~ <t I ....,.~ II j \ .'\ �-314- in a multiple regression with heart rate. The usefulness of these relations for predictive purposes will be evaluated and confidence intervals will be calculated where appropriate. Additional experiments: heart rate ~ight be If the expcr iments outlined above su~gest that a useful estimator of energy expenditure in un- restrained deer f'awns , and if time allOlvs}add i t i.onal experiments relevant to the use of the technique may be conducted to assess the importanc.e of f actors other than acti vity as fo l.Lows: l) Conduct several trials using one or more subjects in very cold thermal environments, \Vith other conditions as in previous trials and at a single activity level. Determine \Vhether these data points fall into the appro- priate confidence intervals for an individual energy expenJiture at a given heart rate. Introduce v i.sual and auditory stimuli .wh i ch elicit a behavioral or 2) heart rat e response in the subj ec t , w i th other cond i tions as ou t lined before and at a single level of activit~ 3) Conduct sevcrn l trials at nighttime wi th other conditions as before and at a single activity level. 4) Webster (1967) suggested that the relation between heart ratc and energy expenditure of iridividual sheep could he used for predictive purposes over a period of at least three wceks . However, Silver (1973) pooled data obtained from a number of deer year round, to obtain a relation between energy expenditure and heart rate with a fairly high correlation coefficient of .805. Significant differences attrihuted to season have been demonstrated in fasting metabolic rate (Silver et al. 1%9), activities deer. in heart rates over different (Jacobsen 1973), and in the heart size (Anderson et aJ.. 1974) of It scems reasonable that such changes, as we lI as growth, might alter the relations amon~ rates of hody functions. Thus there is reason to doubt �-315- that the relation between heart rate and energy expenditure remains constant over long periods even in one animal. To investigate the usefulness of a heart rate - energy expenditure relation over time, weckly trials will be run on one or more subjects over a period of three months including the intensive study period, with other conditions as outlined before and at a single activity level., If time permits) trials will also be conducted twf.ce a month throughout the fawns ' first year. Target dates: 30 November 1975 - Study plan submitted 31 December 1975 - Study plan evaluated and modified if necessary 31 Barch 1976 - Equipment and procedures tested 31 Octoher 1976 - Fawns weaned and trained 31 January 1977·- Inteilsive study period completed 31 Nar ch 1977 - Data analysis comp let ed 31 .Iu Iy 1977 --Thesis completed Responsibility: person-days Investigator 180 w.w. Mautz - Consultation 30 H.A. L.Il. Kaut z - Ca rperrter - Consultation 10 Cost estinates: Total segr.:entcost (1 January 1976 - 31 Harch 1976) - $4845 Pe r s on a I se rv l ce s H.A. Kautz - GrE-duate Res. Asst. Face nask design and construction Fl owme t er calibration Eguil)ill("r; t_ Face mask materials, hoses Valves Dougl.2.sbags (4) Backpack apparatus' Fl owme t.o r Sample pU8pS (4) 12 months $325 ~ 975 800 200 $1975 $ 360 250 720 1;0 900 600 ---~$2870 �Total segment cost -3161976 - 31 Harch 1977) - (1 April Personal services N.A. Kautz - Graduate Res. Asst. Student Assistant - l"'aising and training St udcn t As s i.s t an t s (2) - trials His cellaneous technical help $1'5 >9,15" 12 months 3 months 1 month/ f awns $325 560 560 $3900 1650 l120 ~OO $7270 Qperating supplies.and services Respiration charnbe r trials Gas analysis Veterinary supplies Milk Feed, hay, bedding Computer time Vehicle (Co-op Unit vehicle - gasoline Photographic supplies Shipping expenses $ 200 600 50 150 200 200 250 100 200 $1950 only) E ~1.~:~!J"!m2n ~ Heart rate transmitters (5) Receiver Physiograph Time and event channel Recording channel DC-ACcoupler Surface electrode kits (5) Ha rnes se,s.• Le ashes Valve replacements Respiration rate apparatus Total Personal segment cost $1625 780 895 195 680 2/10 90 50 500 1600 --$6655 .(1 April i977 - 31 July services - G:::aduate Ras , Asst. ~1.A. Kautz 1977) - $1500 4 months $325 Operating supplies ;lnd services Thesis typing, graphics and duplication E. $ 200 Location All work \'1ill be conducted at the Foothills or at ano therjappropr i.at e Division F. $1300 Rel a t cd federal of Wildlife projects intlude wi nt er activities of deer confined which ,,'ill to use heart attempt will facility near Ft. Collins. a study directed toward quantifying proj ects: R.elated federal studies Deer Pens, CSUFoothills in large pens, rate and a proposed study of deer to indicate be conducted in Middlo Park, Colorado. stress. Both Campus �-317Literature Cited Anderson, A.E., D.E. Ned i n , and D.C. Bowden, 1974. Growth and morpho- metry of the carcass, selected bones, organs, and glands of mule deer. Wild!. Nono g , 39. The Wildlife Society, \'iashington,D.C. Blaxter, K.L., and J.P. Joyce. 1963. l22pp. The accuracy and ease with which measur ements of respiratory metabolism can be made w i t.htracheosto- mized sheep. Brockway, J .~I., and E.H. Mcfiwan , in the sheep. fornance Brody, S. Brit. J. Nutr. 17:523-537. 1945. New York. 1969. Oxygen uptake and cardiac per- J. Physiol. 202:661-669. Bioenergetics and growth . Reinhold Publishing Co., l023pp. Corbett, .J.L., D.J. Farrell, R.A. Leng, G.L. HcClymont, and B.A. Young. 1971. Determination of the energy expenditure of penned and grazing sheop from estimates of carbon dioxide entry rato. Br. J. Nutr. 26:277- 291. Corbett, J.L., R.A. Leng, and B.A. Young. 1969. Measurement of energy expenditure by grazing sheep and the amount of energy supplied by volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen. Blaxter, J. Ki.elanowsk i , and G. Tho rbek , eds , farm animals. Datta, S.R., Pages 177-186 in K.L. Energy expenditure in Oriel Press, Ncwcas t Le -upon-Tyne , and N.L. Ramanathan. 1969. Energy expenditure in wor-k pre- dicted f rom heart rate and pulmonary ventilation. J. Appl. Physiol. 26(3):297-302. Draper, ~.n.J and H. Smith. Wiley & Sons, New York. Jacobsen, N.K. 1973. white-tailed deer. 1966. Applied regression analysis. John 407pp. Physiology, behavior, and thermal transactions of Ph.D. Dissert. Cornell Univ. 346pp. �-318- Lifson, H., G.B. Gordon, and R. ~!CClintock. . carbon dioxide 19S5. ~1easurement of total °18 J. Appl. Phys ol , 7 (6) : by means of O2 production i 704-710. Lifson, !L, and R. ~1c.Clintock. 1966. of body wat er for measuring BioI. Theory of use of the turnover energy and material balance. J. rates Theoret. 12:46-74. Halhotra, }l.S., S.S. S.N. Ray, and T.N. Shrivastav. Ramaswamy, Minute ventilation as a measure of energy expenditure J. 17(S):77S-777. App l • Physiol. Ma Ihot ra , H. S. ,J. of energy Sen.Gupta, and R.M. Rai. expenditure. Mat t fe Id , G.r. 1974. J. 1963. Appl. Physiol. The energetics Pulse 1962. during count as a measure 18(5):994-996. of wmt.or foraging by whi t e-f.a.i.Led deer - A perspective on wi nt er concentration. Hniv. of !J.Y., ColI. of Environm. Sci , and 1'01'., Syracuse. 1973. Wildlife N. L. 1964. Mocn , A.!L Ecology. exercise. Ph.D. Thesis. St. 306 pp. W.I1. Freeman and Co , , San Francisco. 458pp. Ramanathan, from respiratory Sharkey, B.J., pulmonary J.F. Reliability frequency. of estimation J. of metabolic Appl. Phys i.ol , 19(3):497-S02. HcDonald, and L.G. Corbridge. ventilation levels as predictors 1966. Pulse rate of human energy cost. and Ergonomics 9(3):223-227. Silver, II. Prog. 1973. Laboratory Rep, , Proj. H., Webster, eator A.J.F. of whi to-tailed 1967.. of the energy P-R •. lob New Hampshire Fish and 18pp. N.F. Col ovos , J.B. metabolism of game and game foods. W-S1-R-6, Jobs 7 and 8. Game Dept , , Concord. Silver, analyses Holter, and H.H. Hayes. deer. J. Continuous expenditure Wildl. Fasting Manage, 33 (3).190-493. measurement of heart of sheep. 1969. Br. rate as an indi- J. Nutr. 21:769-78S. �-319- White, R.G., ano. R.A. Leng. 1968. of ener-gy expenditure in lambs. R.G., ano. M.K. Yousef. \fuite, Carbon dioxide Proc. of reinc1eer-caribou in nutritional and environmental AT(45-J)-2229, Un i v . Alaska, \'Iync1ham, C.lI., during strenuous B.A., Voting, in Studies adaptation. AEC Prog. Haximum oxygen intake wor k , J. App1. Phys i o l. rate. Pages 435-436 eels. Energy expenditure J. interest Rep., Contr: Peter, and and maximum heart rate l4(6):927-9:~6. G.L. };cClYJi1ont, and J.L. expenditure entry 7:335-341. on the nutrition in Alaska w i t.h special 1959. of energy as an index Anim. Prod. Mari t z , .1.F. \Iorrison, R.A. Leng , R.G. \'lhite, Estimation rate Fairbanks. t~.B. St rydom , J.S. Potgicter. Z.ll. Aus t , Soc. 1974.Page38-42 and metabolism entry from measurements Corbett. of carbon 1969. dioxide in )~.L. Bl axt.cr , "J. Ki e l anowsk i., and G.Thorbek, in farm animals. Oriel Press, Newca s t I e- upon-Tync. Yousef, ~I.K., and D.H. Dill. respiratory activity 1969a. in the hurro Resting energy metabolism Eqnus asim;~. J. Appl. and cardioPhys i ol , 27 (2): 229-232. Yousef, M.K., and D.n. Dill. 1969b. man and bur ro !:quus asinus. J. Energy expenditure Appl. in desert Phys i ol . 27(5):681-633. walks: �-320- A P PEN D I X B �-321- THESIS ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF MULE DEER FAWNS IN WINTER Submitted by Dan L. Baker In partial fulfillment, of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Spring, 1976 �-322- COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY Spring, WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER OUR SUPER VISION BY DAN L. BAKER REQUIREMENTS OF MASTER ENTITLED OF MULE DEER FAWNS IN WINTER TED AS FULFILLING IN PART REQUIREMENTS OF SCIENCE. Committee Advisor Head of Department 1976 on Graduate Work ENERGY BE ACCEP- FOR THE DEGREE �-323- ABSTRACT OF THESIS ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF MCLE DEER FAWNS IN WINTER Two winter feeding trials were conducted in Middle Park, Colo- rado in an attempt to quantify the energy demands of mule deer fawns (Odocoileus hemionus prevailing tum, hand-reared of ad libitum, pelleted 'concentrate trials mately 72 percent timating of ad libi- of ad libitum) and fed a digestible Twenty-four and metabolizable Apparent dry matter digestibility and not affected by level of intake, or phys iological in vivo condition .. A linear Colo- nutrient was approxiambient temp- reg res s ion of feed intake daily body we ight gain or loss provided the bas is for es- maintenance weight measurements these trials 25 percent 75 percent ration (3.0 ME kcal/gm). the apparent content of the diet. and average (ad libitum, were conducted in Fort Collins and Kremmling, rado to estimate e rature pens exposed to the mule deer fawns were randomly to one of four treatments 50 percent digestion held in isolation winte r environment. Twenty-five assigned hemionus) require energy requirements. Feed intake and body from two winter trials suggest that the fawns m a metabolizable WOo75/day to maintain energy intake of 157 kcal/kg body weight homeostasis. �-324- Body weight change was linearly ly energy) intake. cody weight. All ad libitum deer either starvation pr ior to death (1- 3 days), (blood urea nitrogen, to energy Weather ments. non-esterified Mean (P the blood energy metabolites free fatty acid) showed no r e la- status. were similar for both winter experi- Ambient temperature ranged from -30 from 0.05) Except for BUN concentrations measurements speed varied exceeded body weight. for these fawns was significantly than those of ad libitum deer. tionship gained or maintained after los ing 32 percent level of blood urea nitrogen collected to feed (and consequent- Four of six fawns on the lowest level of energy intake died of apparent higher related 0 to 13.5 meters to +11 C. Wind per second (oops) but seldom 4.5 mps. Dan L. Baker Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 Spring, 1976 �-325- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding, search pen facilities were provided Colorado Federal equipment, by the Colorado Aid Project computer service the Rocky Mountain Forest Forest animals for this re- Division of Wildlife through W-38-R. The laboratories, and office facilities and Range Experiments vehicles, were provided Station, by USDA, Service. Appreciation tee: and experimental Dr. is expressed to members of my graduate J. G. Nagy, major pr ofe s s o.r; Dr. O.C. D. E. Johnson for their guidance, commit- Wallmo and Dr. advice and critical review of this manuscript. In addition, persons appreciation for the ir contribution L. H. Carpenter, P. sincere is extended to the following to this study: Mr. D. W. Reichert, Mr. Mr. R. B. Gill, Dr. W. L. Regelin and Mr. F. Gilbert. Last but foremost express wife, my gratitude, Julie. and without the words available I acknowledge to adequately the many contributions of my �-326- TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT OF THESIS 323 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 325 LIST OF TABLES 328 . LIST OF FIGURES 330 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 331 II LITERATURE 3% Energy REVIEW. metabolism. Maintenance e ne rgy 338 Thermoregulation 341 Blood metabolites 343 Weather-severity III 334 index. . • . . 346 METHODS AND MATERIALS 349 Study location 349 . • . Phys i ca l facilities 350 Acquisition of fawns 350 Re ar ing and training 353 Experimental design - 1974 356 Experimental design - 1975 360 Body weight changes Blood metabolites Weather 362 . 363 measurements. . 364 �-327- Chapter IV Page RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. Growth rates 365 Intake and food utilization. Body weight changes V . . 368 . 376 Maintenance require ments 377 Blood energy metabolites 389 Environmental conditions 391 SUMMARY LITERATURE APPENDIX 365 CITED ..... AND CONCLUSIONS 395 398 403 �-328- l.JST OF TABLES Table Page Compos ition of milk formula fed to fawns in 1974. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 2 Composition 355 3 Results of 12 digestion trials conducted in Fort Collins, Colorado to evaluate the basal ration in the 1974-1975 winter trials . 359 Age, sex and initial body weights of the fawns for each treatment in 1974 . . .. . . . . . 369 Linear regression equations and correlation statistics relating mean daily energy intake (x) and average daily body weight gain or loss (y) for the 1O-week experiment of 1974 . . . . . 371 Age, sex and initial body weights of the fawns for each treatment in 1975 . . . . . . • . . 373 Linear regression equations and correlation statistics relating mean daily energy intake (x) and average daily body weight gain or loss (y) for the 7 -week experiment of 1975. . . . . . . 375 Linear regressions, correlations, ME maintenance requirements and mean wind-chi.ll for the first six weeks of the 1975 winter trial .... 383 Maximum, minimum and mean daily temperature, humidity, wind speed and associated wind-chill index for the period of January 14 to March I, 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Means and standard er ror of blood urea nitrogen concentrations for fawns on three different levels of dietary energy for each week of the 1974 ex pe r iment. . . . . . . . . . . . 390 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 analysis of pelleted basal ration �-329- Table 11 12 13 14 Page Means and standard error of blood urea nitrogen concentrations for fawns on two different levels of dietary e ne rgy for each week of the 1975 experiment . . . . . . .. 390 Means and standard error of plasma free fatty acid concentrations from fawns on three different levels of dietary ene rgy, for each week of the 1974 winter trial . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Means and standard error of plasma free fatty acid concentrations from fawns on two different levels of dietary energy, for each week of the 1975 winter trial . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Maximum, minimum and mean daily temperature, humidity, wind s pe ed and as s oc Iate d wind-chill index for the per iods of January 8 to March 28, 1974. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 393 �-330- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Page Pen facilities, Center Junction Butte Deer Research . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 351 ofLso lat ion pens and handling facilities 352 2 Details 3 Mean weekly weight changes (percent) compared to pre-trial weights of fawns on three different levels of dietary energy, 1974 experiment. 4 5 6 7 8 . . . . 378 Mean weekly weight changes [per cent] compared to .pre-trial weights of fawns on two different levels of dietary energy, 1975 experiment. . . . . 379 Regression of average daily body weight gain or loss on average daily metabolizable energy intake, 1974 experiment . 381 Regress ion of average daily body weight gain or loss on average daily metabolizable energy intake, 1975 experiment ..... 382 Effect of wind-chill energy maintenance experiment. 386 index on metabolizable requirements, 1975 . . . . . ... Regression of average daily body weight gain or loss on average daily metabolizable energy intake, 1974 and 1975 experiments combined. 388 �-331- CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Energy is required by all living organis ms to maintain input of ene rgy tcran animal is through the metabolic ingested food. The plant constituents life. The transformation of consumed by an animal are broken down, releas ing energy which is used by the animal for bas ic body functions (growth, fetal development, under adverse climatic conditions). energy is therefore value. of great in determining the caloric is of equal ecological requirement under different standing the demands importance. natural and heat its nutritive contribution co mrnun ity , knowledge of the energy requirements mers activity The ability of a plant to supply importance In addition to understanding lactation, of the plant consu- The determination conditions of the plant is a first of this step in under- an animal makes upon its environment and vice- versa. Little is known regarding the energy requirements nants or how well the environment Quantitative dependent on understanding deer nutrient forage. determination requirements supplies of wild rumi- those requirements. of range "carrying capacity" the complex interaction and the fluctuating for deer is of the ever-changing nutrient supply of range �-332- A major problem confronting hemionus) dur ing winter adjustment of caloric meet total energy 1S mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus heat conse rvation and the compens atory intake in relation requirements to cold stress. continues mortality If failure to must ultimately occur. Mule deer fawns are probably the age class under-nutrition and mortality during winter. most vulnerable During this period the fawn can no longe r depend on the doe s milk as a major source I energy. It must meet its physiological primarily mulated from the available body tissue stores, knowledge of the postweaning to and homeothermic of demands energy supply' of range forage and a ccuwhich are meager maintenance at this age. Therefore, energy requirements of fawns during winter would provide a portion of the basic biological information requisite for an assessment of range carrying capacity for mule deer. There is little quantified, getic relationship their information of mule deer fawns to the climatic winter ranges. the digestible phys iological The purpose and metab olizable conditions of this study was to: energy requirements of mule deer fawns during the winter months (January on the enerof (1) estimate for maintenance 1 to March) by 1For the purpose of this experiment, maintenance is defined as the amount of energy intake necessary for body weight equilibrium and includes energy cost for basal metabolism, activity, and thermo-' regulation. �-333- us ing bo/dy weight changes as an index of energy status, (2) determine the minimum dietary energy of mule deer fawns during winter, (3) estimate requirements time to moribundity given levels of deficit energy intake, bolites (non-esterified if they reveal physiological and (5) measure humidity, balance. free-fatty weather states for survival (4) measure for fawns on certain blood meta- acids and blood urea nitrogen) to see resulting parameters from energy intake levels, (ambient temperature, relative wind s peed and chill index) to see if they influence ene rgy �-334- CHAPTER II UTERATURE Energy REVIEW Metabolis m The minimal absorptive energy demand by an animal at rest condition with complete bient climate has been described The basal metabolic rate inactivity gradients circulation, osmotic the energy spent as basal metabolism (Crampton basal metabolism and Harris, activity) and production gether these animal (Gasaway and Coady, The measurement activity and i s therefore with domestic energy species. expended requirements gestation, of basal metabolic a difficult metabolic in standing body above (thermoregulalactation). the total energy requirements rate requires parameter Therefore, used as the base-line, Fasting muscle tone Toof an 1974). and wild animals. (FMR) is normally these Energy (body growth, constitute excretion, being spent on normal include energy cost for maintenance tion, 1945). The major portion of goes to maintaining 1969). am- of the ca lo - respiration, and muscle tone. with the remainder processes (Brody, (BMR) of an animal is a measure secretion, functions in a "comfortable" as basal metabolism ric r equ ir e me nt needed to maintain and body temperature in a post- to measure minimal energy postural in- when dealing fasting metabolic rate exceeds and small complete rate cost for BMR by the amount of movements during �-335- measurement ferred (Silver et al., 1969). over BMR by Kleiber provided a more accurate quirements Fasting (1961) because measurement that the difference small among domestic to stress fasting metabolic voluntarily but greater imposed by confinement. Kleiber BMR of adult homeotherms equation 70 WOo 75 where rate inactive. reB'Iaxte r' between BMR and FMR may be ruminants the average rate was pre- of the mini murn energy of an animal unable to remain (1962) postulated metabolic among wild species (1961) demonstrated could be calculated BMR = kcal/day due that from the and W = body weight in kilograms. Several studies have shown that wild ruminants FMRs above this suggested inters pecies FMRs of eland (Taurotragus oryx) and wildebeest to be 104.3 and 111. 2 kcal/kg mean. generally Rogerson (1968) fcund (Connochaetes WO. 75/ day, respectively. have sp.) Silver et al. (1969) found fasting heat production (a measure tailed to be cyclic with the average FMR WO.75/day and deer (Odocoileus of adults in summer virginianus) coat to be 143 (se ± 5.43) kcal/kg in winter coat to be 96 (se ± 3.66) kcal/kg variation was attributed to the insulative winter and pos sible evolutionary scarcity. of FMR) of adult white- WO. 75/ day. quality of the hair coat in metabolic The FMR of red deer (Cervus This seasonal adaptation to winter food elaphus) was measured every two months for one year by Brockway and MaIo iy (1967) and was calcu1ated to be 90 kcal/kg in heat loss. 0.75 W /day with no evidence Hammel (1962) calculated of an annual rhythm the fasting heat production �-336- (FHP) of resting day. (Rangifer McEwen (1970) reported caribou day, reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) the metabolic rates WO.751 of fasted female to be 91and 1)2 kcal/kg wO·751 groenlandicus) which was 20 to 30 percent at 132.8 kcal/kg higher than the quoted inters pecific mean of 70 kcal 1 kg W0.751 day. In general, measure these observations ments of wild ruminants and within animals tend to be higher of the same species, than those reported 80 kc al (Blaxter, . of 70 kcal/kg 0.75 W Iday (Kleiber, is not entirely buted to psychological state, insulation, confinement reported effects metabolic (2) FMR of wild ungulates for sheep, 1961). 55-60 k ca l , steers, for these dif- Some of the differences may be attri- stres s, activity, reproductive and age of the animal be ing measured. The on an animal are difficult to quantify, but the higher rates of domestic between these two groups of wild ruminants an inherent over the rates difference (Whitt ow , 1971; Moen, in cell metabolism 1973). The age of an animal has been shown to increase Ritzman tion of subadult mean value The reason and phys iological ones should not be considered production. metabolic between species 1962), or the inters pecific known. nutrition that (1) fasting vary cons iderably approximately ferences suggest and Benedict (1930) measured sheep and found FMR to decrease from birth until the animals cattle appeared to reach were six months old. relatively eight months of age (Ritzman stable and Colovos, the heat produclinearly with age Young, growing FMR after 1943). its fasting heat approximately A similar response �-337- was reported for barren-ground caribou that the FMR of a 9-month"'old . / 0.75/ 102 .5 kcal kg W day. by McEwan (1970) who found female after six days of fasting was Fasting heat production antelope (Antilocapra averaged 9 2 and ranged from 6 1 to 110 kcal / kg W0.75/ day (Wesley et al., 1970). (Odocoileus americana) of young, pronghorn The resting hemionus heat production columbianus) ment but not in a post-absorptive (1970). ranging in age from 108 to 182 days, The mean resting of eight black-tailed fawns in a thermoneutral state was measured heat production / heat production was increased and nutrient metabolism. Silver et al. (1969) reported white-tailed deer fawns in winter coat to be 90 (se WOo75 /day. Thompson et al. due to heat of fermentation the FHP of ± 4.49) kcal/kg (1973) showed the FHP of white-tailed deer fawns to vary with season. The values for October, January, May and August were 112, 77, 104, 145 and 166 kcal/kg 0.75 W /day, respectively. 'The higher FMR reported could be a significant maintenance factor requirements energy is a composite activity and heat increment, ments would therefore animal by Nordon et al. . Smce t h ese fawns were not fasted, March, environ- of these fawns was calcu- lated at 147.00 (se ~ 1.52) k cal kg W0.75/ day. ..l deer for young animals contributing r e lat i.ve to adults to the relatively for this age class. higher total Since maintenance of basal metabolis m plus thermoregulation, any increase increase such as a deer fawn. in basal metabolic the total energy demands This higher maintenance require- of the young requirement in �-338- combination contribute with low environmental to high fawn mortality ity of winter forage Maintenance Ene rgy Forage temperatures in areas could theoretically where the quantity and qual- is low. consumed must be converted to a metabolically useful form before it can be of value to the animal for various body functions . Knowledge of the subsequent would provide an understanding of the chemical and its range (Moen, The First neither fore, conversion of food material communication 1973). Law of Thermodynamics be created between the animal nor destroyed, when a plant substance states that "energy but only changed in form." is burned completely chemical There- to CO , H 0 and 2 2 other gases, the stored heat energy, and the amount of heat given off is cons ide red the gross energy content of t hat substance. stance is usually kilocalories measured per gram. mon food substance be available The gross apparent in the plant is converted The gross the gross does. not, in itself, content of a sub- and is expressed energy because the efficiency ener gy consumed the food minus the heat of combustion in content of a com- of its use by an ani- (Church, 1971). by an animal can be partitioned and metabolizable to indicate the energy that would and less than 100 percent digestible energy in a bomb calorimeter However, to the animal mal is variable energy can energy. The gross into energy of of the feces is called apparent �-339- digestible energy (DE). It represents efficiency of food digestion. a first approximation of the A portion of the gross energy consumed is also lost in the urine and in gaseous products the heat of combustion is accounted for and subtracted from gross energy intake, lizable energy available of these losses (ME). the calculation Metabolizable of digestion. is called apparent energy is a measure to or needed by an animal at a particular tabolic requirements tissue and its use for the above body functions requires The conversion of a portion of this ME called the heat of nutrient Metabolizable and various of ME to body an expenditure energy les s heat increment forms of production syn- metabolis m or heat true net e ne r gy (NE) and is that portion available maintenance of the energy and may be used for work, heat and tissue (Maynard and Loos l i , 1969). (HI). metabo- time for all me- thesis increment When is termed to an animal for and activity (Moen, 1973; Maynard and Loos l i , 1969). The concept of heat increment therms subjected is important to low environmental to ruminant homeo- temperatures. The heat ex- pended for nutr ient metabolis m comes from two sources ruminant: (l) heat produced in the digestive tract as a result of mi- (2) heat produced via intermediary metabolism as a crobial action, result of absorbed energy is dissipated hypothermal in the nutrients (Crampton and Harris, 1969). This without use unless the animal is in a critical environment. Under these conditions, the heat increment �-340 ....- is used to maintain energy body temperature for maintenance Maintenance and becomes part of the net (Moen, 1968). requirements for wild and domestic species have been estimated. Short and Golley (1968) concluded that maintenance energy demands fo r cattle and perhaps percent (Bos taurus )in for wild herbivores above FMR. quirements Blaxter of ruminants Brody (1945) suggested mated metabolizable reindeer under "usual" 36 percent that maintenance the maintenance 0.75/d Way, Ullrey et ale (1970) calculated first year of life. estimated requirement kg WO.75/day. respiration ion analysis Maintenance deer to be 146 Thompson et ale calorimetry of white-tailed The mean apparent by regress wh ite-taile d does. d 15 2 kcal / kg W0.75/ day did not differ significantly. from indirect energy to be 131 and 158 kcal/kg , of six adult white-tailed . . h t wmd . sm k ca l / kg W0.75/ day with a shg Clan maintenance of a 70 kg below 10 C, Holter et al. (1975) found ME requirements These values The esti- per day or about 200 1y. f or wi.,nte r ing , pregnant At ambient temperatures (1973) determined energy require- for maintenance ME and DE requirements . respective maintenance 1970). re- than FMR. twice BMR. in winter amounted to 5.5 megacalories kcal / kg W0.75/ day (McEwan, without. greater was approximately is 15 that maintenance digestible energy requirement range activities, range conditions (1962) generalized averaged ments for large herbivores "normal" the deer fawns during the maintenance ME requirement over all time periods requirements trials were highest was 154 k ca l j". during periods �-341- of growth (173 kcal/kg WO.75 / day) and lowest during the winter WO.75 /day). months (125 kcal/kg ture of the maintenance It was theorized requirements that the cyclic na- and voluntary decrease matter intake during winter was part of a complex adaptation winter survival. in dry for The rmoregulation The living mammal constant is cons idered to be capable of maintaining body temperature by adjusting (Scholander et al., 1950). production (HP) or reduce These are regulated mental conditions determine insulation An animal can either and metabolism increase its heat loss (H-L)to maintain homeothermy. both behaviorally and physiologically. and the amount of heat being produced the extent to which heat must be conserved (Irving and Krog, 1955). in which metabolic rate remains All homeotherms relatively and an upper limit which, in body temperature, unless The range of environmental limit has been referred conditions constsnt. There controlled conditions, temperatures is a lower results in a rise response. between this upper and lower to as the "zone of thermal Physiologists range a drop in body for by a metabolic nard and Loosli (1969), or the "thermoneutral Ta r ne r (1961). by the animal have a thermoneutral if exceeded, compensated Environ- or dissipated limit to this range below which the animal experiences temperature its heat comfort" by May- zone" by King and working with laboratory animals under define "the r mone ut r al zone" as the range of which does not cause a metabolic res ponse to maintain �-342- homeothermy during basal metabolic considered unrealistic this term in its natural for ecologists habitat and suggested gical metabolic rate" measurements. Moen (1973) dealing with an animal that an animal lives at an "ecolo- and may spend varying amounts of time outs ide the physiologically defined thermoneutral range. Moen (1968) sugges- ted that a "critical thermal exists when the animal must environment" make a response in order duction is greater than heat loss, thermic environment." the animal to maintain homeothermy. hypothermic The changing environmental homeothermy ments. is in a "critical If heat loss is greater is in a "critical s itate an increase the animal When heat prohyper- than heat production environment." conditions during winter may neces- in HP of mule deer -Iawris in order to maintain and as a result Quantitative increase information hypothermal environment white-tailed deer in Western maintenance is sparse of mule deer. Minnesota energy require- relative to the critical Moen (1967) working with suggested that smaller deer (30 kg) would reach a negative energy balance at air temperatures approaching starvation 0 C and wind velocities, of diet. A full-fed, ± to 1 mph if they were on a 30 kg deer would reach a negative ther- mal balance at winds le s s than 4 mph and 0 C. diet could theoretically wind velocities of 8 mph. tage to a homeotherm ratio, withstand exposure which decreases Larger A 70 kg dee r on full to -40 C temperatures body size appears to be an advan- in cold weather due to the surface as the animal increases and area to weight in weight. Total heat �-343- _ production increases as the animal's weight increases, duction per unit of weight decreases (Moen, 1968). (1959) hypothesized temperature white-tailed that the critical adult white-tailed wa s at 12 C. northern tion, of fas te d , adult deer in a temperature controlled deer in winter metabolic chamber is between 5 and 20 C. times BMR in summer and two times in fall was only 9 pe r ce nt higher (middle of "t.her morie ut r al z one ") whereas, perature of penned, These data suggest that the "the r moneut r a l z one " for white-tailed expenditure Holter et al. that the minimum energy expenditure the deer in this study were able to increase to three Silver et a1. deer in winter coat may be below 0 C. (1975) demonstrated but heat pro- by only 10 degrees metabolic In addirates BMR in winter. up Energy at -20 C than at 8 C in spring a drop in tem- (10 C-O C) increased energy expenditure by 8 percent. These data suggest that fawns could be most vulnerable thermia and mortality relatively higher in late winter and early spring metabolic weight ratio and presumably rate, less favorable depleted to hypo- due to their surface area to body fat reserves. Blood Metabolites During conditions of submaintenance catabolize body tissues functions. Depending upon the tissue result for maintenance in cat abo Iis m of adipose tissue intake, the.animal must of body temperature reserves available, and body proteins and vital this may with minimal �• -344- catabolis m from the limited long term calorimetric demonstrated increased studies that metabolism heat production pose tissues supply of carbohydrates. of body fat accounted proteins more of the energy needed. serve available during periods Energy animal for catabolism by gluconeogensis tissue processes involve transport possibility of relating balance For wild ruminants of inadequate fatty acids from adipose for most of the energy could be an important of these re- intake. from protein (Annison, more and in winter the amount in the severely unde'r nour ls he d and by mobilization 1960). metabolites levels of certain has been suggested As adi- were found to provide balance can be maintained largely Graham et a l . (1959) of sheep exposed to cold stress. were depleted, of adipose tissue with sheep, In relatively of These physiological by the blood. blood constituents The to energy by work with sheep and cattle as discussed by Bowden (1971). Levels variation of nutrient intake have been shown to be associated in the metabolism of fat in the body, especially zation of depot fat during low energy acids (NEFA) are released to supply the metabolic Winkler, 1970). ewes, wethers Reid and Hinks, and cattle, concentrations Non-esterified needs of the animal has been shown to increase and cows (Karihaloo 1962). the mobilifatty in blood plasma when adipose tissue mobilized Fasting intakes. with Patterson et al., (Jackson is and NEFA levels 1970; Patterson, in 1963; (1963) concluded that in both sheep of .1000 iJ.eq/ml or more of plasma NEFA �-345- indicated increased mobilization of depot fat. reported that mild cold (3-8 C) caused little Slee and Halliday (1968) change in NEFA in sheep that were well fed or in those that were fasted for short periods. However, exposure a marked rise to acute cold for 2-10 hours in blood NEFA (up to .2000 u e q Zrn l}, with prolonged fasting, levels of plasma produced Russel et al. (1967) found NEFA wouldincreareto a maxi- mum of .1500- .2500 f.leq/ml. Little information tional status of baseline animals. is available of wild herbivores. "normal" excitement dealing with wild species. Excitement (Holmes NEFA levels to the nutri- This may be due in part to the lack values which complicate In addition, mental animals relating blood studies could be more pronounced Blood sampling and handling of the experi- NEFA levels and Lambourne, in blood of both sheep and cattle 1970; Slee and Halliday, 1968). Reid and Hinks (1962) found that plasma NEFA decreased peated handling and sampling, as a result de Calesta found that NEFA levels apparently for non-starved starvation does (.240 However, with re- of reduced (1973) working with semi-tame (.260 u e q Zm l) were not significantly of when have been shown to affect levels of NEFA in the blood. increased of excitement. of these level mule deer, f.leq/ml) and fawns (P> 0.1) different. After 36 days mean levels of NEFA for does (.610 f.leq/ml) were Significantly (P< 0.05) higher Presumably, adults were able to maintain acids longer due to their than those for fawns (.290f.leq/ml). proportionately high blood levels greater of fatty quantity of adipose �-346- tissue. Mean levels of NEFA for fawns starved iJ.eq/ml) was significantly higher (P 33-36 days (.290 < 0 .1) than that for non-starved fawns (.260 iJ.eq/m.l). As carbohydrate and adipose tis sue are depleted, proteins gluconeogensis provide ric homeostasis (LeResche more and more of the energy needed for caloet al., 1974). amino acids were rapidly deaminated pose tissues were depleted appearance of protein to perform normal In tests (Coulson and Hernandez, from the cells decreased cellular functions levels in sheep (Leibholz, tailed deer that BUN levels we re relatively and excitement. 1968). (26.5 mg percent). stable and unaffected (1973) reported BUN levels were relatively (20.5 mg percent), percent) and we re significantly non-starved values Weathe r-Severity (42.3 mg percent) fawns stable up to 24 days of after- which they increased (34.4 mg (P < 0.05) highe r than the initial, (17.2 mg percent). Index Single weather representing by BUN levels of higher than those for surviving starvation (BUN) Seal et al , (1972) found with white- deCalesta (P<0.05) The dis- Restricted blood urea nitrogen mule deer fawns dying after 33 -36 days of starvation were significantly rats, the ability of the cells and death followed. intake has been shown to increase 1970). with starved and oxidized for energy as adi- energy handling through thermal measurements conditions are crude estimates of environments. at best for Heat exchange �-347- . between an animal and its environment dients rather is dependent on several than on a single environmental tempe rature 1968). Complex models have been formulated exchange between an animal and its environment ster, 1971). Siple and Passel based on research a ir temperature to describe This index combines is defined as the cooling power of the atmosphere from the surface Their formula combinations where H is thec;ooling energy removed of a human or animal. power of the atmosphere per square the value 330 centigrade wind conditions. meter This for- cylinder of and wind speed. in kilocalories of per hour; V is wind velocity in = ~ (330 - H/22 in degrees is skin temperature The value calculated The value 22.066 reflects minimum (91.4°F) still air wind-chill of heat + 10.45 - V) (330 - ta) per second; ta is air temperature equivalent, Wind-chill and indicates of air temperature of is: H = ( vt100 V meters index the effects mula is based on the rate of cooling of a small plastic water in different the heat (Moen, 1968; Web- and air movement during cold weather. loss by convection value (Moen, (1945) developed a wind-chill in Antartica. gra- centigrade; under calm for H can be converted temperature and to an by the formula: .066) + 32 wind s peed of 4.0295 miles per hour. wind speed is a measure This of the amount of heat lost from the skin while walking at a rate of 4.0295 mph on a cold, calm day. Petritz (1972) suggested that the chill- index developed by Siple and �•• -348- . Passel (1945) provided a better the wind-chill 1971). production of infant caribou creased of chill stress on cattle than index which was developed solely for use with cattle (Webster, values measure Data from Hart et al. (1961) suggested of Siple and Passel. linearly could be predicted that heat from the wind chill It was found that heat production ,with wind chill. Results values reach or exceed approximately calves would perish from prolonged, in- showed that when wind chill 1100 kcal/m 2 /hour, continued exposure. caribou �-349- CHAPTER III METHODS AND MATERIALS Study Location The study was conducted Research Center, two miles principally at the Junction south of Kremmling, portion of the Radium Wildlife Management Division of Wildlife. measurements where wild deer periodically The climate, the general topography, area, Colorado. to winter experience vegetation, Middle Park, It is a Area of the Colorado This location was chosen in order Iro m deer subjected Butte Deer climate to obtain typical of that severe nutritional stress. and winter mortality of deer are discussed by Gilbert in et al. (1970) and Wallmo and Gill (1971). The first facility digestibility maintained on the Foothills Colorado. were conducted at the deer by the Department Also all fawns were raised mitted adjusting of Fishery at this facility. chutes similar the deer to the necessary during the feeding experiments. pen and Wildlife Biology Campus of Colorado State Univers ity , Fort weighing and restraining Training') trials Collins, Alleyways to those at Junction and Butte per- handling (see 'Rearing and �-350- Physical Facilities The general of isolation pens and associated shown in Figure and consisted tion. layout of the Iac ility is shown in Figure 2. 1. weighing and restraining Each isolation Details facilities are pen measured 3.04 x 9.12 meters of woven wire sides and dirt floors denuded of vegeta- A 3.04 x 3.04 meter Weighing and restraining wooden roof partially chutes and alleyways covered each pen. from the isolation permitted the taking of weights and blood samples with minimal turbance to the deer (Figure chute, deer while drawing by Mautz et al. 2). The restraining blood, was constructed similar pens dis- used to hold to that described (1974). Acquis ition of Fawns In order hand-reared to accomplish and trained the objectives of this study, during the summers fawns were of 1973 and 1974. The fawns used in this study we re obtained from three sources: 28 were taken from captive. winter in Middle Park wild does trapped the previous and held until pa rt u r it ion ; 39 :vere obtained from semi-tame does held at the Foothills Collins, Colorado; various areas Office rs . Deer Pens, 25 we re acquired in Colorado Colorado State University, as orphans and collected by Division of Wildlife Conservation Fort from �-351- Drift fence ~~--e- eil--e~ -Runway ;. Isolation pen---i r- ~--~ lsolction pen exercise area ( Bp Holding pen ;--e---I ~~ ~ - ~ ~ ( B-,Metabolism tJ cages Loading chute \ ./ ~-6--f7~. .••..... [- ~ ~ Work area . j ~-~ I ~ ~ P I I I __ Weigh :l building ~' (,...0 0 ooooo~ Lob Qnd storage bldg " Holding pen o 10 20 Scale - meters Fi gu r e 1. Pen facilities, Junction Butte Deer Research (Diagram by R. B. Gill) Center. �-352- ::0 c: ~:3 ~ - - 0 IT~ I Wate~-fI e @ - FOO/~ • IX I 0 7- I rl -: 0 • ~~V ;-1 • • ~!> • • "/ «" , " ,......... I '" C.- Work areas /~ L- Walkway I II b \ 02345 Scali - meters Figure 2. Details of isolation pens and handling (Diagram by R. B. Gill) A. - Weigh chute B. - Restraining chute facilities. �-353Rearing and Training Fawns were removed Birth weight, corded from the dam 12-24 hours date of birth, sex and weekly growth rates cedures Fawn feeding schedules outlined by Reichert fawns during the summer Reichert (1972). (1972). were re- of 1973 was formulated third-cutting according to that of has not fed to the fawns in 1974 to a pelleted alfalfa hay. fed to the of this formula from Robbins (1973). fawns were given free access of the fed followed pro- The milk formula The milk composition 1) was obtained 90 days. and amounts The .ch e m ic a l composition been determined. leafy, birth. for each fawn from day of birth until the termination experiment. (Table after At 10 days of age, concentrate all (Table 2) and Fawns were weaned at approximately Male fawns to be used in the study were castrated at 5-8 weeks of age. In order to accurately lites, and digestion accept varying a day inside this, After weaning, maintained each individual that all animals with a minimum periods of excitement. fawn was bottle ied at least once cage similar to that of Cowan et a l , (1969) sampling each fawn was placed in a digestion Acceptance after it was essential and the weighing-blood extended seven days. weekly weigitchanges,blocdmetabo- of confinement both a digestion with modifications, gradually parameters, degrees To accomplish measure from 15 minutes at first, chute (Figure 2). cage each day for to a max imum of of the weighing and blood sampling chute was weaning by weighing all fawns weekly in the weighing �-354- Table 1. Composition of milk formula fed to fawns in 1974. Nutrient Content Percent Water 75.65 Protein 10.14 Fat 5.83 Lactose 7.14 Ash 1.24 1 1Formulated by adding to each can of evaporated milk 29.5 g cas e in , 121.6 g tap water and 2.0 g of Agway Legumin mineral and vitamin mixture. �-355- Table 2. Compos ition a na ly s is of pelleted Ingredient Barley, basal ration. Percent Weight 10.0 pulverized Corn, pulverized 30.0 Milo, pulverized 5.0 Oats, pulverized 7.5 Wheat middlings 6.5 Beet pulp, 2.5 Brewers shredded 35.0 grain Di c a l c iurn phosphat.e 1.0 Molas s e s , cane 2.5 Vitamin A, D, E premix 0.002 (Tr) Trace mineral package (Mg, Zn, I, Fe, Co, Cu , Ca) 0.005 (Tr) Percent Analys is (Dry Matte r Bas is) Dry matter 90.59 Crude protein 19.34 Ether extract 2.84 Ash 7.86 Cell wall constituents 52.82 Acid-detergent 13.58 fiber 3.58 Lignin Apparent Gross lE.. vivo dry matter digestibility 72.07 4.60 energy kcal/g Apparent digestible Apparent metabolizable kcal/ g 3.45 ene rgy kcal/ g 3.05 energy = 100.0% �-356- apparatus. continued This training schedule began at two weeks of age and to the end of the experiment. were transported Junction from the Foothills Butte Deer Research At six months of age the fawns Deer Pens in Fort Collins to the Center to be used in the feeding experi- ment. Experimental Design--l974 Eighteen fawns were acclimated ment 13 days prior to the Junction to the initiation which time they received, of actual feeding trials ad libitum, the pelleted they had been r e ce iving for five months prior During this period Butte environ- mean dry matter during diet (Table 2) which to this experiment. intake was determined for the ensuing experiment. The 18 fawns were ranked from lightest heaviest and allotted in six successive deer within a trio were as similar trio was random.ly selected (treatment A), a second B), the and to receive random These measurements groups (dry matter 1105.18 (se basis): so that the weights of the as possible. to receive C) percent resulted treatment One member ad libitum amounts member thir_d 50 (Treatment intake. trios to of each of this feed 75 (Treatment of the mean pre-trial in the following treatment A deer removed an average of ± 29.55) g/day but were offered 2000 g/day which was more than they could consume C were offered in a 24-hour period. 829 and 552 g/day respectively. followed for ten weeks (January 18-March Treatments Band This feeding plan was 28, 1974). By setting a �-357- constant restricted intake for treatments body weight gain or loss, of weather in blood metabolites data could be compared to a known energ; design accommodated intake levels) with four replicate of and influence int ake level. three treatments deer per treatment. (energy Differences in means for intake and body weight change for each week of the 1974 trial energy C, relationships changes This experimental treatment Band were analyzed intake associated by multivariate with the three treatments of digestible and metabolizable Regression analysis maintenance maintenance by solving for X (average was used to estimate y./J·75;day)w}en Y (average analysis. The spread in allowed an estimate energy requirements. feed requirements for daily DE and ME intake/kg daily body weight gain or loss, kg) equals zero. Daily intake for each deer was calculated nearest gram. As a water source, each deer. Because metabolism cages were unavailable complete balance trials energy snow was provided fecal collection of the digestion matter digestibility feed consumed. chemical and the first year at Junction Butte, were conducted at the Foothills of the 1974 experiment. was to determine and digestible quantitatively and metabolizable of the experimental assess the maintenance Deer The the dry energy value of These values along with the ingredients constituents To quantitatively trial ad libitum to bags were not successful, Pens in Fort Collins at the conclusion purpose by weighing orts to the and certain feed are shown in Table 2. ME and DE energy �-358- requirements matter of fawns in winter, intake to digestible (DE) and metabolizable The DE and ME coefficients digestion trials Colorado (Table 3). it was necessary were determined used in the energy meter dry energy (ME) intake. from 1:: conventional conducted May through June 1974 in Fort Collins, Four fawns from each treatment x 3.04 to convert balance trials. metabolism were randomly selected to be Each fawn was placed in a 3.04 cage for a 10-day collection trial. The deer were allowed to adjust to the cage for three days, after which their Total feces intakes were measured ove r a seven-day period. and urine were collected and weighed once daily for seven days and a l iquot s were preserved for analysis. moisture-proof bags and frozen. The feces were stored After the collection period, in the feces were dried at 60 C in a forced air oven for 48 hours and then allowed to equilibrate at room temperature equilibration, the fecal pellets I-mm and sampled screen for 24 hours. were ground in a Wiley mill through a for analysis. Duplicate and feces were dried at 100 C for the correction to 100 percent collection. dry matter. Total predetermined day's collection of feed of all determinations The urine was acidified we ight in grams Aliquots samples with H S0 during 2 4 daily urine output for each deer was diluted to a was then mixed', filtered sampled. After by the addition of water. through two layers measuring 10 percent were composited of cheesecloth, The urine and of the total volume of each in a screw-cap jar. �Table 3. Deer Number 41 Results of 12 digestion trials conducted in the 1974-1975 winter trials. A A 4 1 24 A 13 55 8 52 B B 43 C C C B B 44 7 20 C Mean se Gross energy: Mean apparent Mean apparent DE3 kcaVkg 4 Colorado 5 to evaluate 6 the basal 7 r at ion used ME8 9 kcaVkg ME/DE WO.: 7 / day % 131.36 88.50 155.16 88.90 156.01 89.83 157.0089.31 DE/GE % % % u%. % % 74.86 75.90 77.46 75.60 76.31 77.58 78.90 77.37 148.42 174.47 173.67 175.78 3.25 3.09 2.53 2.81 23.68 22.41 21.09 22.26 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.49 67.54 68.99 70.88 69.43 69.32 65.44 77.82 71.33 71.23 68.16 79.52 73.84 152.41 136.58 158.30 230.01 2.93 4.81 2.86 2.17 28.76 31.83 20.47 26.15 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.49 62.81 57.86 71.17 66.18 134.39 115.93 141.66 156.27 88.17 84.87 89.49 89.62 68.83 64.18. 71.25 72.88 73.64 69.70 75.64 78.33 114.82 138.90 124.21 133.87 2.92 3.05 6.67 2.50 26.35 30 ..29 24.35 21.66 5.49 5.49 5.49 5.49 65.23 61.16 63.48 70.33 101.70 121. 87 104.24 120.20 88.57 87.74 83.92 89.78 72.07 1.30 75.01 1.07 155.12 8.90 3.29 .35 24.94 1.08 5.49 .00 66.25 1.22 132.98 5.91 88.22 .55 as a percent of gross WO .7 UE/GE / day FE/GE CH4/GE ME/GE 4.60 kcal/g. digestible energy: 3.45 kcal/ g. metabolizable energy: 3.05 kcal/g. 6Metnane 1Digestible dry matter. 2Digestible energy 3Dige stible e ne rgy intake per metabolic 4Urinary Collins, DDM1 Treatment .h. 2 in Fort energy 5 Fe ca l energy as a percent as a percent as a percent of gross of gross of gross energy. body size. energy. energy. energy 7Metabolizable energy as a percent 8Metabolizable size. energy intake 9Metabolizable energy. energy as a percent energy. of gros s energy. per metabolic body of diges tible I W VI \C I �-360- Feed and feces were analyzed ether extract and ash. Cell wall constituents, and lignin were determined rized by Goering and Van Soest (1970). The gross energy a manifold style freeze measured acid detergent Gross with a Parr energy Adiabatic of the urine was determined lost in methane crude protein, fiber, for the feed using the pr oce du re s summa- feces and ur ine were determined Energy for dry matter, dryer (Vitrus production for white-tailed of the feed. Calorimeter. after freeze-drying Co. Inc .• Gardiner, was estimated in N. Y .). based on values deer fawns on a similar diet (Thompson et a l , , 1973). Exeerimental Des ign- -1975 The primary as those stated partially objectives for 1974. answered of the winter trial However, restrict energy consumption for survival winter. In order of 1975. 1974. treatment energy to adequately was repeated Treatment intake to ascertain levels minimum for a given period of time during satisfy these objectives. during the winter only two treatments twins were used in the experiment was similar were tested A (seven deer) were fed ad libitum, ment B (six deer) were fed 25 percent the entire months (January-March) Methodology for the 1975 winter trial However, (2) and (3) were only during the winter of 1973-1974. did not sufficiently experiment objectives of 1975 were the same in 1975. to that of Deer in while those in treat- of this amount. Four sets of and when weights of twins were �-361- similar, one fawn from each set was as signed to a different ment. Fawns were randomly In 1974, the trials ments and digestible ration at Junction and metabolizable were determined The validity is questionable. apparent dry matter winter. energy values results responded summer of digestion trials, values digestibility to similar requirements Therefore, changes obtained at Fort conducted from winter of sheep and cattle declined. coefficients of the experimental Young and Christopherson temperatures maintenance but the digestion to early pens. Cl-:.,::~gy r~quire- Butte, with performance studies efficients maintenance in late spring of comparing warm temperatures as ambient ass igned to one of 18 isolation for estimating were conducted treat- Collins. in feeding (1974) reported diets decreased if deer digestion co- in arribie nt temperature, then for mule deer fawns during the but based upon DE and ME coeffic ients obtained in summer, would be in error. To avoid this possible constructed source in 1975 similar These cages were transported Center to (l) calculate metabolizable intake and physiological to the Junction coefficients are influenced cages were Butte Deer Research and the digestible and of the feed, (2) measure the effect of level of condition on apparent dry matter (ADMD), and (3) test the hypothesis cients two digestion in size to those of Cowan et al. (1969). digestion energy of error, by ambient that for deer, temperature digestibility digestion by comparing coeffidigestion �-362- coeffic ient s calculated in Fort Collins in late spring to those calcu- lated in Middle Park during winter. Fawns of similar digestion ment. trials age, The same pelleted used in the of the 1975 experi- ration was fed in 1974 and 1975. were taken from the isolation into one of two digestion five-day fecal collection January 21 to March 4, 1975. lyzed according to those of 1974 were used in this segment one from each treatment, placed weight and training cages. pens and A two-day adjustment was conducted to procedures Two fawns, and on each of 12 fawns from Feed and feces were handled and anadescribed previously. Body Weight Changes For both the 1974 and 1975 experiments, used as a criterion of energy tion of maintenance energy status Average in the body, and for the calcula- requirements. the beginning of the feeding trials All fawns were weighed at and at weekly intervals dai.ly change in body weight over the entire calculated for each deer by subtracting of a platform weights were recorded kilograms. In order scale situated to the nearest to minimize was The des igned holding chute beneath a wooden floor. Body t pound and then converted to possible fawns were weighed at approximately expe riment of days on the trial. fawns were walked through a specially consisting thereafter. the final weight from pre-trial weight and dividing by the total number trained body weight change was· error due to gut fill, the the same time of day each week. �-363 Blood Metabolites In 1974 and 1975, blood samples intervals for additional information cedures of handling and collecting across all treatment groups. into the weighing chute, were taken from fawns at weekly regarding energy were kept as constant Previously we re weighed, trained as pos sible then were moved into a padded chute des igned for taking blood samples Ideally, 10 ml of blood were taken from the jugular Samples were collected with a I-inch, Pro- fawns were walked squeeze vac ut a ine r tube containing s t at us . (Mautz et al., 1974). vein of each deer. 20-gauge needle and 12-ml Na EDTA or hepar in. 2 Whole blood was kept chilled and centr ifuged within two hours after taking the first sample. Blood plasma ately for later was separated, analysis. pi petted and frozen An effort was made to keep the fawns as calm as pos sible prior to blood sampling. each individual immedi- was classified In the 1975 winter trial each week into one of three excitability (not excited, moderately to sampling so that the influence excited classes and highly excited) of excitability on blood values of prior might be dete cted if it occur red. Blood samples taken from the fawns during the winters and 1975 were analyzed nitrogen. Duplicate for urea nitrogen mg/lOO ml plasma (u e q) of FFA/ml for non-esterified samples of plasma (Sigma Chemical of 1974 fatty acids and blood urea from trial deer were analyzed Company 1974) to the nearest and for FFA to the nearest 0.1 0.01 microequivalent (Mosinger, 1965; Dole and Meinertz, 1960). �-364-' Weather Measurements Weather conditions of 1974 and 1975. recorded were monitored Daily temperature, continuously with seven-day throughout the study periods humidity and wind speed were recording hygrothermograph and anemometer. Daily and weekly means were calculated sampling conditions weather over a 24~hour period. ments relative from these instruments In order to estimate to changing environmental require- conditions during winter, was made to establish a multiple would relate weekly maintenance requirements severity. every two hours maintenance an attempt weather by regression model that to a weekly index of The chill index developed by Siple and Passel was used in 1974 and 1975. Wind-chill values were determined mean weekly measurements of wind and temperature. (1945) from �-365- CHAPTER RESULTS IV AND DISCUSSION Gr owth Rate s 1973-1974 Experiment Daily growth rates female) during an approximate month post-weaning period were calculated period. for 18 fawns (9 male; 9 three-month pre-weaning Mean gain during the pre-weaning was 155.08 (se ± 11.87) g/day for males. and 135.34 (se 11.06) g/day for females. Mean daily gain did not differ (P> 0.05) between sexes. Daily gain for both sexes was 145.20 (se sexes ± 11. 63) g/ day. was 14.12 (se pe riod. fawns during this period. Post-weaning accelerated during the three- month 183.41 (se ± 9.24) g/day. (P < 0 .05) greater greater (P< 0.05) for both sexes than pre-weaning increase Male rate than female Daily gain for both sexes growth rates 26 percent showed a significant during this pe riod Male fawns showed a mean daily growth of fawns gained at a significantly proximately significantly ± 0.48) kg. 213 .15 (se ~ 8.65) g/day and females 7.14). ± Mean body weight at weaning for both Body growth for both sexes post-weaning and three- was 197.78 (se ~ combined rates. in growth after were ap- Both sexes weaning. �-366- The mean daily growth rates were 27 percent mule deer, of the pre-weaned lower than those reported Columbian black-tailed over a similar period. 1973; Robinette et al., for captive for captive dam-reared to be approximately 1973). dam- reared deer and wh ite= t a i Ied deer fawns Growth rates deer fawns were reported fawns in 1973 mule 213 g/day (Halford, Cowan and Wood (1955) showed a 200 g/day growth rate for Columbian black-tailed deer fawns. Robbins and Moen (1975) found a mean daily gain of 243.7 (se ~ 19.2) g/day by three captive maternal-nursed 100 days of life. By duplicating white-tailed doe's milk in energy closely as poss ible, (249.7 ± 5.2 g/day) for nine bottle-reared they were able to approximate Gastrointestinal one factor strated diarrhea. upsets contributing in phys iological condition norm of the species. been inadequate in 1973 was not chemically as this rate of growth diarrhea may have been growth rates All fawns showed varying as suggested that when growth rate is likely to retard A second factor nutritional meet the pre-weaning and associated from other species and Hammond (1940) indicates and protein fawns. to the lower pre-weaning by the fawns in 1973. Evidence deer fawns for the first of by McMeeka n is high a setback to the growth rate may have intake. The milk formula analyzed. It is possible growth requirements degrees growth compared reducing demon- fed to the fawns that it did not for mule deer fawns. �-361-- 1974-1975 Experiment The mean birth weight of 23 fawns born between May 30 and July 21,1974, was 3.33 (se ~ 0.11) kg. Average bi r Lh weight of male fawns was 3.50 (se ~ 0.15) kg while female fawns average (se ~ 0.16) kg. Birth weight did not differ significantly 3.22 (P>0.05) between sexes. During the 1974 fawn-rearing to more closely simulate fawns by adding casein (Table 1). operation, the growth rates as a protein of dam-reared, mule deer pre-weaning of 168.93 (se ± 11.65) g/day while female ± 10.90) g/day. between sexes. for 12 fawns (6 and three-month Mean daily gain during the pre-weaning was 159.25 (se ~ 8.13) g/day for both sexes. (se to the milk formula were calculated male; 6 female) during a three-month p-eriod. was made supplement Mean daily growth rates post-weaning an attempt period Males gained at a rate fawns averaged Rate of gain did not differ significantly 149·58 (P> 0.05) Mean body weight at weaning for both sexes was 17 . 10 (s e ± .83) kg . In the pos t-weaning rate of 184.26 (se 11.76) g/day. (se period of 1974, male fawns gained at a daily ± 10.46) g/day while females gained 187.68 (se ± The average weight gain for both sexes was 185.97 ± 7.50) g/day and was similar all post-weaning to that of 1973 (197.78). growth rate for both sexes The over- combined was significantly (P < 0.05) greater than pre-weaning growth. to the significant (P< 0.05) increase in the mean growth rates This was primarily of due �-368- female fawns relative to male fawns during this period. of male fawns was not significantly pre- and post-weaning Pre-weaning were greater so better growth rates calculated supplement milk formulations for the fawns born in 1974 (P> 0.05) greater sex or for both sexes The casein between the period. but not significantly 1973 for either (P> 0.05) different Growth rates combined apparently probably than those in (159.25 vs 145.20). did not improve growth rate, are needed. Food Intake and Utilization 1974 Experiment During the 13-day acclimatization by predators, three so the experimental treatments period four fawns were killed design was modified to accomodate with four deer per treatment. age and sex of the fawns for each treatment The 1974 experiment began January Initial body weights, are shown in Table 4. 5 and terminated March 28. Mean weight and age of the 12 fawns at the beginning of the experiment was 39.37 (se Apparent ± 1.63) kg and 210.91 (se ~ 2.54 days, in vivo dry matter of the basal ration 72.07 (se ~ 1.30) percent, digestibility for metabolism DE and ME coefficients levels was while the percent DE and ME was 75.01 (se ~ 1.07) and 66.25 (se ~ 1.22) percent, of DE available respectively. respectively. was 88.22 (se ~ 0.55) percent. did not differ significantly of intake .. Correlation The percent The (P< 0.05) between (r = .94) of dry matter digestibility �Table Deer 4. No. 1 4 41 24 Age, sex Mean se of the fawns for each treatment Metabolic Treatment Age {days ~ Sex A A A A 220 220 211 212 Male Male Male Female 46.36 35.68 42.95 34.77 17.76 14.59 L6.77 14.31 39.94 2.81 15.85 .83 39.31 44.77 43.40 34.54 15.69 17.30 16.90 14.24 40.50 2.09 16.03 .62 40.45 36.13 46.13 27.95 16.03 14.73 17.70 12.15 37.~6 3.83 15.15 1. 17 215 2.46 B B B B 215 200 218 191 Female Male Male Male 206 6.36 Mean se 7 20 43 44 body weights Init ial Body Weight (kg) Mean se 13 55 8 52 and initial C c C C 219 212 207 206 211 2.97 Female Male Male Female Initial in 1974. Weight {kg WO. 75) Average for Trial1 se 17.35 14.52 16.95 14.71 .06 . 11 .21 .18 15.37 16.93 16.66 13.93 .10 .07 .08 .09 15.28 14.36 16.59 11. 78 .09 .07 .09 .07 IThe average metabolic weight for each deer was calculated ir o m 10 weekly during the trial and was used to calculate e ne r g y intake per rne t ab ol ic body size. measurements taken I w 0\ 1.0 I �-370- and apparent digestible energy was significant (P< 0.05) and pos It ive . During the winter trial, fawns in treatment mean daily dry matter was 998 (se ± 22.02) A, for 10 weeks, Intake for this group did not differ significantly deer or between weeks during the tr ial. and C consumed all feed provided day of the trial. Daily gross plying daily dry matter energy Since the mean dietary 1.07) percent digestible were 3443.56 (se digested mean metabolizable energy dige s t e d kilocalories was available fawn over the entire trial 88.22 kcal/day each in kcal/ (se ± per day for treatment B (se ± 0.55) pe r- for metabolism (se ± 44.38) intake of 3037.91 kcal/ day for group C. content, A, 2860.43 B by multi- gross. energy was 75.01 Approximately for the fawns in group A, 2523.47 1610.27 the caloric ± 51.67) for treatment cent of the energy between intake was calculated the apparently C. (P> 0.05) The fawns in treatments intake by 4.60, for treatment g/day. (829 and 529 g, respectively) gm of feed. and 1825.29 int ake for the yielding a kcal/day for those in group Band Mean daily DE and ME intake for each is shown in Table 5. body weight (Table 4) was used to express Average energy metabol ic intake per metabolic body size. 1975 Experiment Thirteen to the Junction fawns were transported from Fort Collins, Colorado, Butte Deer Research Center and acclimatized to the �Table S. Linear i equations and correlation (or the 10-week experimcnt of 1974. r eg r e e s on statistics relatlnll mea.n daily energy-intake (x) and average daily body we lg ht gain or loss (y) Deer Number DE DE Treatment A A A A B B B B C C C C 4 I 41 24 8 13 55 52 7 20 43 44 sc 3303.54 3329.03 3219.57 3326.36 2860.05 2860.05 2860.05 2860.05 1906.68 1906.68 19U6.68 l?C~. 68 158.81 180.45 213.37 124.90 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .OU .00 Intake DE kcal/day DE kcal/kg ME kcal/day ME kcal/kg equals lMaintenance zero. kcal/kg kcal/day WO. 75/day wO.75/day requirements were WO. 75 /day 227.51 191.87 lR~ .94 226.12 171 .67 lR6.0B 1(,8.93 20, .31 124.78 132.77 114.92 io;. .8:> kcal!day .e 2'Jl4.38 2936.87 2R40.30 2934.51 2523.13 25l3.13 2523.13 2523.13 1682.07 1682.07 1682.07 200.70 159.56 125.~7 110.18 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 16H2.vl Body Weight Gain or Los Si k!(/day ME ME kcal/kg WO.75/day ZOO.;! 169.27 167.56 10.9.49 151.44 164.15 149.03 181.12 110.ns 117. i3 10l.3? ! tz , 79 1'.0210 +. 022~ ~.0390 ~.0569 .0000 +.0066 -.0081 - .0033 -.0406 -.0179 - .0Ri I -.ooal RegresBion Eguation ~ = .000049(x)- .133392 Correlation (r) .82 Ma inte n an c e Requi rementl 2742.28 I W 9 = .000R48(x)-.149659 .87 176.48 I y: .000056(x)- .133392 . rl2 2382.00 9" .87 153.73 calculated .000Q6I(xl- by solving .1496~1 for x (average da.ily feed intake) when y (average daily body weight gain or loss) '-I I-' �-372- winter range environment On the following 10 days, measured. Pre-trial deer was 962.98 percent January December 21 to January 3 to 12, ad libitum intake (dry matter intake was basis) of the seven ad libitum period the seven deer in group A were fed and the six deer in group B were offered 240 g/day (25 of pre-trial seven weeks, ad libitum intake). J'anua ry 3 to March 4. sex of the fawns for each treatment They received this ration age and are shown in Table 6. Mean ± 1.71) kg and 200.5 (se ± 5.49) days, Digestion search trials were conducted at the Junction digestibility 1.50) percent Butte Deer Re- The apparent of the experimental and not significantly was 38.00 respectively. Cente r during the feeding experiment. dry matter in vivo ration was 69.28 (se ~ (P > 0.05) different from the appa- rent in vivo DMD of the same ration calculated Fort Collins. did not differ significantly Di ge s t ion coefficients 0.05) between levels of intake. tions did not appear to impair basal r at ion.. Dete riorating from similar phys iological of its pre-trial weight before entering the digestion matter Another fawn died of apparent day after cent. leaving the digestion trials in (P > condi- the ability of the fawns to digest the One fawn had lost 25 percent digestibility. for Initial body weights, weight and age of the 12 fawns at the beginning of the trial (se 2. i" 22.38) g/day. (se During the treatment 2000 g/day, for 13 days, body cage but showed a 73 percent cage but its apparent Body we ight loss of this fawn was 28 percent. starvation dry one DMD was 71 per- �6. Age, sex and initial Table Deer No. 34 2 18 39 38 6 17 Treatment Age {days) A A A A A A A 186 214 221 193 168 208 205 B B B B B B Mean se during Sex Female Female Male Male Female Male Male 200 6.82 Mean se 9 19 15 29 202 33 body weights 210 210 187 221 215 168 201 8.27 Female Male Male Male Female Female of the fawns for each treatment Initial Body Weight {kg~ .. 0.75 Me t a bo l ic Welght (kg W Average Initial for Triall 37.27 44.77 42.27 33.18 29.77 42.27 40.45 15.08 17.30 16.57 13.82 12.74 16.57 16.04 38.56 2.05 15.44 .62 33.86 47.04 35.68 42.95 38.18 28.86 14.03 17.96 14.59 16.77 15.35 12.45 37.76 15.19 .80 2.6b in 1975. 15,35 17.41 16.96 14.46 13.25 17.31 16.87 ~ se .05 .07 .13 .13 .09 .16 .17 I w ....• w I t2.81 16.36 13.07 15.46 14.28 10.99 1The average m:etabolic we ight for each deer was calculated from eight weekly the trial and was used to calculate ene rgy intake pe r metabolic bod r s ize . .45 .38 .69 .47 .26 .70 meas ur e me nt s t a.ke n �-374- Mean daily dry matter intake for the deer in treatment the entire trial was 987.35 (se ~ 15.46) g/day. all of their 240 g each day of the trial. Treatment A for B deer ate Intake did not di ffe r signifi- cantly (P > 0 .05) between deer or between weeks during the trial, one exception. In the digestion group A was significantly The confinement effects cage, the daily intake of all fawns in (P < 0.05) lower than in the isolation of the digestion in this study, reduction in daily intake and an increased pens. Most fawns in the digestion In order pens. cage could not be adequately evaluated to the isolation with cage exhibited a rate of weight loss relative to reduce this possible cage effect, the daily intake and body weight change for each deer while in the digestion cage was not included in the weekly or total calculation of main- te na nce requirements. Since the gross energy (4.60 kcal/gm) percent dige st ib le , the apparently treatment A and B were 3251.48 respectively. Urinary from the previous calculated energy spring. by Thompson et al. ment B. trial Mean ± 1.39) per day for (se ± 83.08) and 790.35 kcal/day, loss was based on values (1973). The percent was estimated The mean metabolizable (se ~ 72.26) kcal/day kilocalories Methane loss was estimated energy that was metabolizable percent. digested was 71.59 (se for treatment energy calculated from values of digestible to be 86.98 (se :t 0.28) intake became A and 687.45 kcal/day 2828.14 for treat- daily DE and ME intake for each fawn over the entire is given in Table 7. used to expres s energy Average metabolic intake per metabolic weight (Table 6) was body size. �Table 7. Llne a r regression (y) for the 7-week Deer Number Treatment 34 2 18 39 38 6 17 9 19 15 29 202 33 A A A A A A A B B· B B B B equations and correlation experiment of 1974. relating mean daily energy DE DE kcal/day se 3052.84 3065.33 3037.82 3350.88 3218.31 3703.90 3305.00 790.35 790.35 790.35 790.35 790.35 790.35 44.92 110.95 118.57 68.50 67.27 43.49 60.50 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Intake statistics kcal/kg WO. 75 Iday 198.88 176.06 179.11 231 .73 242.89 213.97 195.90 61.69 48.30 50.47 51.12 55.34 71·91 Regres s ion Eguation intake (x) and ave r age daily body weight gain or loss Body Weight Gain or Loss kg/day ME ME keall day se 2655.36 2666.ll 26·12.29 2914.59 2799.28 3221.65 2874.1,8 687.44 687.44 687.44 687.44 687.44 687.44 39.07 96 .50 103.13 59.58 58.51 37.82 52.62 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Correlation ( r) kcal/kg wO.75/day 172 .98 153.14 155.79 201.56 211. 26 186.11 170.40 53.66 42.01 52.59 44.40 48.14 62.55 +.0277 +.0230 +.0740 +.0695 + .0649 +.1020 +.1067 - .2435 - .1993 - .4303 -.2759 - . 1391 - .3896 Maintenance Reguirement DE kcal/day ~ = .000140(x)- .389455 .92 DE kcal/kg WO. 75 Iday 9 = .002195(xl- .3948~0 .89 179.89 ME ~ = .000160(x)- .389450 .92 2434.06 ME kcal/day . 0.75 keal/kg W /day ~ = .002523(x)- .394870 .89 1Sf .. ;0 equals IMaintenancc ze r o . requirements were calculated by solving {or x (average daily feed intake) when y (average 2781.78 daily body weight gain or loss) 1 1 W '-I VI .1 �-376- Body Weight Change Weight records of individual deer for the 1974 and 1975 experi- ments are shown in Appendix A and B, respectively. culations, daily rates number of weight change were derived For later cal- by dividing by the of days on trial. 1974 Experiment All fawns lost weight during the first (Figure 3). a mean rate From two to ten weeks, two weeks of the trial groups A and B gained weight at of 70 (se ~ .004) and 28 (se ± :006) g/day, though one deer (#52) in group B lost slightly respectively. from week four to six. Group C fawns continued to lose weight at a mean rate of 10 (se ~ .015) g/day. with minor weekly fluctuations. At the end of the tenth week mean change in body weight compared to initial weight was sig- (P < 0.01) different nificantly between treatments. change for treatments A. Band 0.58) (6.30 percent), -0.08 kg (se ± 0.21) (-0.66 kg (se ± 1.13) (-6.20 gain by anyone 12 percent. percent), C after ten weeks was +2.43 kg (se ~ respectively. fawn was 11 percent The warmer in preventing C deer. resulted percent) and -2.58 The maximum weight while maximum weight loss was daily temperatures may have been a' factor No mortality Mean weight further near the end of the trial weight loss in treatment from starvation in 1974. �-377- 1975 Experiment All fawns in treatment trial. A gained weight during the seven-week Mean gain was 3.25 kg (se ~ 0.60) (8.36 gain was 68 (se ± 0.01) g/day. Tre atment B fawns exhibited over time. (Figure Greatest a linear weight loss occurred 4) when wind chill was greatest est estimated pe r ce nt}, and daily maintenance of any week of the trial. during the fourth week (-23 C) resulting in the high- (192.65 kcal/kg O W .75 /day) requirements By the end of the seven-week the six fawns had died of apparent 28 days and two after decre ase in body weight starvation. trial four of Two fawns died after 42 days on the experimental level of feeding. The mean weight loss of the fawns that died was 11.19 (se ~ 0.48) kg (32.19 percent), and the average g/day. The two surviving weight, respectively. weight for treatment daily weight loss was 334 (se fawns lost 16.03 and 13.73 percent Figure 4 depicts an apparent increase ± 0.04) body in body B during the fourth and sixth week of the trial. This is due to a reduction in s ample size as a re sult of the death of two fawns during each of these weeks and not an actual weight gain. The means for the fifth and seventh week are based on the mean weight loss of the three and one surviving fawns. Maintenance Requirements Feed requirements for x (average for maintenance respectively. were calculated by solving daily feed intake) when y (ave rage daily body weight �-378- 8 6 - 4 .s:::. 0\ Q) 2 ~ >. "'0 0 .0 0 C Q) 0\ c .s:::. 0 -2 <.) -4 -6 -8 2 Figure 3. 3 456 Weeks 7 9 8 Mean weekly weight change (percent) compared initial weight of fawns on three different levels dietary energy, 1974 experiment. to of 10 �-379- 10 5 - s: 0\ Ad Libitum -5 Q) ~ >. '"'0 0 ..c c -10 (1) 0\ c 0 s: (,) -15 -20 I) B. .25xAd Libitum -25 (3) 2 3 4 5 6 Weeks F'i gu re 4. Mean weekly weight change 'pel'cent) compared to initial weight of fawns on two different levels of dietary energy. 1975 expr- r irn ent, 7 �-380gain or loss) equals zero. The regress maintenance (Table 5. Table 7) were based on average requirements daily DE and ME intake (kcal/day ion equations for estimating O W .75 /uay) and the and kcal/kg corres ponding daily weight change of the fawns over the entire ment. The DE and ME intake at which the resulting zero (energy equilibrium) is the apparent experi- curve crosses maintenance requirement. 1974 Experiment The DE intake required timated to maintain 75 to be 176.48 kcal/kg requirement WO. was 155.73 kcal/kg energy equilibrium /day while the ME maintenance 75 WO. /day (Figure tions of daily DE and ME intake with average highly significant (r was es- 5). The correla- daily weight change were = .87; P < 0.01). 1975 Expe riment The DE and ME requirements seven-week experiment kg WO.75 /day. were estimated respectively. cant (r = .89; P< 0.01). gain or loss on average Figure for maintenance to be 179.88 and 156.50 kcal/ T he correlations Regression for the entire of average daily metabolizable were highly signifidaily body weight energy intake is shown in 6. Regression equations and ME maintenance estimated for each of the first adequate sample calculation requirements six weeks of the trial (Table 8). size due to the death of four fawns prevented of maintenance requirements were Inthe for the seventh week of the �-381- .OS .06 - .04 0' ~ Cf) Cf) 0 .02 1\ Y=.000961(x}-.I49661 r=.S7 se ± .005 Maintenance: 75 155.73 keal/kg WO. • • ~ 0 c: .- - 0 0' 0 • s: 0' (1) • -.02 ~ ~ "0 0 (D -.04 -06 -os 100 50 150 200 250 ME intake (kcal/ kg W 0.75 ) Figure 5. Regre ssion of average daily body weight gain or 108.8 on average daily metabolizable energy intake, 1974 experiment. �-382- .30 A .20 - .10 0' ~ U> U> Y=.002523 (X) -.394870 r=.89 se±.02 Maintenance: 75 156.50 kcall kg WO. 0 '0 c: .- • • 0 0 0' - -'=0' -.10 • • Q) 3: ~-.20 0 (I) -.30 -.40 • 50 100 150 200 250 ME intake (kcal/kg W 0.75) Figure 6. Regression on average experiment. of average daily body weight gain or loss daily metabolizable energy intake, 1975 �Table 8. Linear r e gr e s s ions, c o r r e lations, first six weeks of the 1975 winter ME maintenance trial.l requirements arid mean wind- chill for the Equation C o r r e 1a t LOn (r) n se Maintenance Requirement 0 75 kcal/kg W . .002134(x)- .240609 ·91 6 .005 112.75 -12 2 .002307(x)- .360668 .90 5 .004 156.33 -18 3 .002611(x)- .409340 .74 5 .016 156.77 -19 4 .002176(x)-.419214 .61 5 .049 192.65 -23 5 . 002494(x)-. 428089 .83 3 .016 171. 64 -17 6 .002745(x)- .460853 .76 3 .030 167.88 -19 ' Week Number Regression 1 1The regression equation and maintenance requirement the trial due to an inadequate sample size in treatment B. died of apparent starvation I:.y the end of the seventh week. Mean Wind-Chill °c were not calculated for the seventh week of Four of the six fawns in this treatment had I W 00 W I �-384- trial. The s lopes did not differ quirements of the equations relatively When weekly wind-chill values wind speeds (y) increased 35.9875 size constant maintenance calculated (Table with wind-chill (r z; suggests were = 5.57) requirements Y = to the equation (Figure 7). is calculated The small precludes the extra- of this experiment. coefficient and small hypothesis However, standard for investigating conditions and energy Maintenance Requirements sample equilibrium error of the reof mule in winter. Expe riments: The overall equilibrium DE and ME intake (maintenance) The DE maintenance 179.89 were 155.73 the same used ration and 156.50. (P> 0.05) similar required for body weight for both winter experiments. for 1974 and 1975 were respectively, for both winter under levels similar requirements not significantly were were 75 WO. /day, kcal/kg requirements weight and a workable of environmental Combined were trial. from the mean daily temperatures data beyond the scope this function re- with ·93; se high correlation lationship six weeks compared (x) according the relatively deer requirements (n = 6) on which this equation of these for the entire 9) it was found that maintenance - 6.871(x) polation for the first (P> 0. 05) ind ic at ing that maintenance significantly were calculated and while the ME maintenance The slopes of these equations Fawns of similar age and different. experiments conditions. 176.48 and fed approximately The refore, a regress ion �Table 9. Date Maximum, mlnionum and mean dally te mpe r at u re , humidity, were derived from readings at Z-hour intervals. wind speed and a •• oclated Tem~erature Humidit~ !%) Week Number (oC) wind-chill index {or the period Wind Spc e d (meters [?:er so!l()nd~ of January 14 to March Mean 1,1975. Wind-Chilli Still Air Equivalent Maximum Minimum Daily Mean 0 -20 - 9 100 2S 62 15 0 2.7 1015 -12 1/14-1/20 Maximum Daily Mean Minimum Max i rnu rn Mi ni mu m Dally Mean kcal/mZ/hr 1/20-1/27 2 +1 -30 -10 100 30 68 20 2.5 4.5 1167 -18 1/27-2/3 3 -5 -26 -14 100 50 76 30 2.5 3.2 I In -19 2/3-2/9 4 -4 -28 -17 96 :'l 75 30 2.5 3.2 1249 - 23 -1 -23 -10 98 26 60 30 2 3.6 1110 -17 2/9-2/16 Means °c I W ex> VI 2/16-2/23 6 -8 ·-30 -18 100 42 78 30 0 2.2 1177 - 1q 2/23-3/1 7 +2 -27 -10 100 40 75 30 1 3.6 1110 -17 7 Week Ave rage ~ -'!.L Temperat ure -13 .588 Relative Humidity 73 .883 3.6 .369 Wind Velocity (oC) (%) (mps) Wind-Chill: 2 kcal/m /hr Still lSiple and Passel, 1945. At r Equivalent 1187 0c -20 I �-386- - 200 >. 0 "0 10'- ,.... 0 3: i75 Ol ~ <, 0 o ~ - 150 en c: C1> E •... 125 C1> ;:, 0C1> /\ •... C1> u c: y= 35.9875- 6.871{x) r=.93 100 se± 5.57 0 c: C1> c: 0 75 E w ~ -30 Figure -25 7. -20 -15 -10 -5 Mean weekly wind -chill index (Oc) Effect of wind -chill index on metabolizable ene rgy maintenance r c qui r e rne nts , 1975 experiment. o �-387- equation based on mean corresponding .was used body weight to estimate maintenance k ca l / kg W these 0.75/ (Silver 68 percent These higher for animals both winters The e s t i rnat e d experiments was 157.69 of maintenance for metabolism value deer in a the r mo nc ut r a l fawns that for s he e p and cattle of 90 kcal/ a roughage eating diet (2. a concentrate ales ° ration that ME maintenance of energy in a the rmo- of us ing ME for maintenance consuming consuming loss and 1969). the efficiency data suggest due to the greater ME kcal/ g m) (3.0 ME kcal/ requirements could s m et a bo l i z a ble ration, as heat during was be presumably the digestion of a high diet. The estimated maintenance exper irrie nt was 157.69 metabolizable kcal/kg concentrate ration efficiency values suggested consuming native forage mately the fasting for white-tailed for animals gm). fiber The estimate reported for animals and 75 percent 8). et al., Blaxte r (1962) requirements. combined times reported environment for the 25 fawns from from day (Figure 0.75 W /day) (ME kcal/kg ME maintenance fawns was 1.75 environment intake change requirements 0.75 kg W /day neutral daily (2. maintenance wO. 75 /day. ° requirement for the fawns WO..75 / day and was based (3. ° by Blaxter ME kcal/ gm). (1962) with a metabolizable are value ME kcal/ gm) (Gill and Wallmo, 1973), requirement to 173.92 would be increased on a highly Assuming applicable energy in this the to deer of approxi- the equivalent kcal/kg ME �-388- .40 .30 _ .20 •.. 0\ ~ '-' (f) (f) 0 .10 to... 0 c .0 0'1 - 1\ Y =.OO2292(x)-.361527 r=.87 se± .015 Maintenance; 75 157.69 kcal/kg WO. Q 0 Et .0 .c:. • 0'1 .~ -.10 >. 0 0 • "0 LD -.20 -.30 -.40 50 100 150 ME intake (kcal/kg Figure 8. 200 250 WO. 75 ) Regression of average daily body weight gain or loss on average daily metabolizable energy intake, 1974 and 1975 experiments combined. �-389- However, low their tation part for animals critical exposed temperature present situation energy balance body temperature (NE) for maintenance. ME equals fermen- Accordingly, in the needed to maintain does not increase. The blood energy Metabolites metabolites or no measurable for the fawns in this relationship Mean weekly blood urea nitrogen to energy study exhi- status. (BUN) concentrations from each treatment for each week of the 1974 and 1975 experiment shown in Table 10 and Table of BUN varied greatly response to energy the mean pre-trial 1.93) mg percent treatments. In 1974, weekly In 1975 for all fawns was 32.83 a mean BUN concentration they were levels and showed no apparent and was not significantly (P> 0.05) of 75.48 different starvation (se ! between in treat- (se ~ 4.10) mg sampled (1-3 days before death), (P< 0.01) higher than the means for the fawns A and the survivors Non-esterified are or body weight change over time. BUN concentration which was significantly treatment within f:reatments intake the last time in treatment 11, res pe ct ive ly . The four fawns that died of apparent ment B showed percent be- ar.d thus become NE and the ME intake Blood Energy bited little conditions the heat loss due to microbial would be used to maintain of the net energy to environmental free in treatment B. fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations for each week of the 1974 and 1975 experiment for each are given in �-39010. Means Table trations energy Week Number Mean 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 46.00 55.00 25.25 38.16 39.33 30.40 23.00 37.10 32.66 44·90 22.37 1 mg urea Table and standard error of blood urea nitrogen concen1 for fawns on three different levels of dietary for each week of the 1974 experiment. A (high) se 2.79 3.75 1.75 7.67 6.30 3.27 2.01 4.97 4.67 1.65 2.37 nitrogen n Treatment B (medium~ Mean se n Mean 4 4 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 50.25 40.83 24.83 32.83 44.58 26.20 34.75 41.12 36.66 37.25 22.90 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 30.25 34.50 22.00 38.50 45.00 25.60 27.50 32.62 41.83 35.87 30.25 5.26 9.68 2.91 2.66 7.10 2.47 1.25 4.26 1.91 2.49 1.75 C (low) se n 12.28 1.32 1.04 9.00 3.50 2.08 2.65 2.96 11.16 5.24 4.75 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 2 per 100 .ml plas ma . 11. Means and standard error of blood urea nitrogen concentrations I for fawns on two different levels of dietary energy for each week of the 1975 experiment. Treatment Week Number Mean 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33.62 34.73 34.73 29.84 39.82 37.08 35.77 34.36 1 mg urea per A {high~ se 2.99 2.75 3.03 2.35 3.05 2.88 1.86 4.41 100 ml plasma. n Mean 7 3 7 5 5 7 6 3 31.90 29.12 32.70 37.58 56.30 39.52 53.66 20.66 B (low) se 2.57 3.45 3.58 11.09 7.69 2.97 10.93 n 6 5 6 5 6 4 4 1 �-391- Table 12 and Table centration 13, respectively. (P > 0.05) was little variation from this The mean pre-trial (se i" 0 .03) different f.l. eq/ml for between of apparent the fawns in treatment addition, bility lower different between treatments. NEF A concentration for 1975 was .448 all fawns and was not significantly The NEFA levels A or the surviving fawns in treatment B. into three of excita- of individuals excited strained mule deer. sistently sample Because all animals an adequate in 1975 compared these sample Environmental wind-chill minimum variability these treatment 9 and Table humidity and wind speed and mean daily temperature, 14, respectively. were in from re- to condata cannot responses. Conditions humidity for each week of the 1974 and 1975 experiments in Table The to 1974 are size and the inability of the potential In pr ior to blood metabolites each week of the trial, test classes from blood parameters. but may be due to the inherent colle cting and analyzing different and highly excited) to the sampled NEFA concentration Maximum, of the fawns that died (P> 0.05) handling, be considered (P> 0 .05) were not significantly mode rately to interpret There pe riod. showed no relationship pre-trial difficult ± 0.004) f.l. eq/ 1 and the sampling the classification (not excited, handling .978 (se mean throughout treatments. starvation NEFA con- was for the 1974 experiment was not significantly The mean pre-trial derived Means from are given for temperature, readings and at two-hour �-392- Table 12. Week Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 micro-equivalents Table Treatment B (medium} Mean se .978 .007 .915 .083 .935 .006 .003 .989 .450 .034 .973 .003 .001 .991 .021 .898 .955 .007 .001 .978 .011 .973 A (high} Mean . 978 .861 .954 .987 .522 .980 .997 ·937 .969 .976 .986 0 1 Means and standard error of plasma free fatty acid concentrations 1 from fawns on three different levels of dietary energy, for each week of the 1974 winter trial. 13. SE: .005 .007 .006 .003 .047 .003 .001 .012 .001 .004 .002 n 4 3 2 4 4 3 4 4 2 3 4 of free fatty acids per n 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 Mean .978 .828 ·947 ·990 .436 .970 .996 .881 .971 ·927 .993 C (low) se .008 .025 .003 .001 .020 .004 .001 .027 .009 .022 .003 n. 2 2 3 3 4 2 3 4 2 4 2 ml plas ma . Means and standard error of plasma free fatty acid concenfawns on two different levels of dietary energy. for each week of the 1975 winter trial. t r at lons+ from Treatment Week Number Mean A (high} se n Mean 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 .400 .455 .470 .610 .623 .52;4 .579 .651 .02 .04 .02 .03 .02 .03 .03 .04 7 3 6 5 5 7 6 3 .503 .451 .611 .598 .557 .516 .551 .562 1 micro-equivalents of free fatty acid B (low) se pe r ml pIa s ma . .05 .09 .10 .05 .02 .05 .05 n 6 5 6 5 6 4 3 1 �Table 14. Maximum, minimum Means were derived and mean daily temperature, humidity, from readings at Z...hour intervals. Temperatu~c Date Week Number 1/24-1/31 2 1/31-2/7 2/7 -2/14 4 2/14-2/21 (DC) Humidity and a •• ociated wind-chill (~,) {me index tc for the period Wind Speed r a per s e c orid) of January 8 to March Mean 18, Wind-Chilli Still Air Equ iva le nt °c Minimum Maximum Minimum Mean Max i rnu m + 2 -29 - 9 100 39 77 is 3.2 IOS6 - 15 + I -25 -12 88 24 62 20 1.8 992 -12 + 1 -20 - 9 94 24 65 30 4.0 1110 -17 - 7 -27 -18 96 48 76 IU 1.3 1056 -IS - 7 -24 - IS 80 SO 63 ·9 892 - 7 2.2 846 - 5 Daily Mrrn mu m z Daily Mean 2 kcal/m /hr 2/21-2/28 6 + 5 -12 - 2 92 20 35 IS 2/28-3/7 0' + 6 -11 - 3 100 40 70 40 3 S.4 1009 -12 3/7 8 +11 - 7 + I 100 40 67 20 2 302 798 - 3 3/14-3/21 9 + 9 - II - I 100 36 59 20 4. S 848 - S 3/21-3/28 10 + 7 - 4 + I 78 36 56 20 4.9 885 - 7 -3/14 10 Week Average Temperature Relative Wind Humidity Velocity ~ (DC) (%) (mps) kcal/ m2 /hr Still Air Equivalent and Passel, 19°45. =c 3 __ s~ -s .G28 70 1. 46 3.6 1. 40 Wind-Chill: ISiplc 1974. Daily Mean Maximum 1/18-1/24 wind speed 1058 -i5 I W 1.0 W I �-394- intervals. Wind-chill measurements winters. but seldom determined for the 1974 experiment in 1975 from was - 8 C compared tive humidity were from mean weekly ranged from of wind and temperature. Temperatures C while those values -30 to +2 C. to a mean temperature Mean temperature for 1974 of -13 C for 1975. ranged between 24 and 100 percent Wind speed varied from exceeded 4.5 mps. -15 and -20 C, res pectively. -29 to +11 and was similar 0 to 13.5 meters Mean wind-chill Rela- per second both {mps} for 1974 and 1975 was �-395- CHAPTER V SUMMAR Y AND CONCLUSIONS Two winter Colorado feeding in an attempt trials to quantify fawns held in pens exposed Feed fawns intake in these value average an energy fawn in these maintaining mined from ambient gained level change intake 32 percent 1-2 days before measurements of mule deer environment. indicated that the 157 ME kcal/kg during winter. of energy WOo 75 / Assuming requirements, this the 2423 kcal/day for balance. of the experimental trials was linearly All deer body we ight. ration was apparently related as deter- not affected Four by de ath was significantly B. intake levels conseeither of the six fawns on the lowest starvation Mean level in treatment to feed (and, on ad libitum died of apparent body weight. and the survivors Park. level of intake or phys i.olo gic a l condition. ene rgy) intake. of energy mately digestibility or maintained winter (39 kg) would require 24 in vivo digestion Body weight quently, estimate in Middle demands approximately energy tempe rature, the energy equilibrium trials a constant The apparent deer required to be an acceptable conducted to the prevailing and body weight trials day to maintain were after losing of BUN for these highe r than those Except approxifawns of control for BUN concentrations �-396- collected in this prior to death, study exhibited However, tently because the blood energy no measurable of small sample metabolites relationship size all animals each week of the trial, be considered an adequate test measurements ments. In 1974, no relationship energy requirements quirements creased were linearly the small sample working hypothesis of the potential were similar between was established. to energy and the inability sample Weather for the fawns status. to consis- these data cannot treatment responses. for both winterexperiweather conditions and In 1975, ME maintenance correlated with (r = 0.93) wind-chill as wind-chill temperature became colder. this function suggests more controlled size used to establish to be tested under re- index and inHowever, only a experimental conditions. When comparing with those tors calculated the maintenance from mus t be cons ide red. calorimetry minimize contribute significantly requirements. the present indirect First. animal trial respiration values activity to the overall The relatively large allow considerable have been a significant portion Blaxter that activity (1962) reported and in a thermoneutral total expenditure from these calorimetry calculated from measurement size of maintenance maintenance environment by 11 to 15 percent. pens used of movement by sheep two fac- it does not of the isolation freedom trials ind ir e ct to the point where of the total aric e intake energy requirement and cattle in and may require ment . at ma int eri- would increase their �-397- A second neutrality. based factor affecting The energy on controlled in metabolic requirements ambient rate. with cold tolerance Holter et al.. jected to a "critical As a result. a significant factor are usually that do not cause an increase measurements environment" the increased in increas deer to which the results of these rate can be extrapo- are probably range animals and digestion variables such as the effects tween an animal logical of forage the energy to adverse investigation requirements weather in maintenance exchange suggest to adequately in winter. to with Unmeasured and poss ible adaptive conditions derived associated on the energy is required of mule deer Values when applied of low digestibility. and its environment, mechanisms deal of additional underestimates of "cover" could also be trials penned activity sub- ments . from of the increase were require mule deer fawns is speculative. because 1959; for much of the winter lated to free-ranging animals (Silver. trials metabolic ing total energy 1974 to 1975 to- from that the fawns in these hypothermal is thermo- indoors data from white-tailed 1975) suggest experiment. requirements of animals conditions The weather gether The extent maintenance be- phys iothat a great determine �-398- LITERATURE CITED Annison, E. 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G. Armstrong. 1959. Environmental temperature, ene rgy metabolism and heat regulation in sheep. J. Ag r i . Sc i , 52:13 Halford, D. K. 1974. A method for artificially raising fawns. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University. Colorado. 50 pp. mule deer Ft. Collins, Hammell, H. T. 1962. Thermal and metabolic measurements on a reindeer at rest and in exercise. Tech. Doc. Rept. AAL-TOR 61-54 Artic Aeromedical Lab . , USAF, Seattle, 34 pp. Hart, J. S., O. Heroux, W. H. Cottle, and J. A. Mills. 1961. The influence of climate on metabolic and thermal responses of infant caribou. Can. J. Zool. 39:845-856. Holmes, J. G. and L. J. Larnbou r ne , 1970. The relation plas ma free fatty acid concentration and the digestible intake of cattle. Res. Vet. Sc i . 11:27-36. between energy Holter, J. B., W. E. Vob a n Jr., H. H. Hayes, H. Silver and H. R. Skutt. 1975. Ambient temperature effects on phys iological traits of white-tailed deer. Can. J. Zool. 53: 679 -685. Irving, L. and J. Krogg. 1955. as a regulator of heat. J. Te mperature of skin in the Arctic Applied Physiol. 7 :355-364. Jacks on, H. D. and V. W. Winkler. 1970. Effects of starvation on the fatty acid compos it ion of adipose tis sue and pl as ma lipids of sheep. J. Nutr. 100:201-207. Karihaloo, A. K., A. J. Webster and W. Combs. 1970. Effects of cold, acute starvation and pregnancy on some indices of energy metabolis m in Lincoln and Southdown shee p. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 50:191-198. �-400- King, J. R. and D. S. Tarner. 1961. Energy metabolis m, thermoregulation and body temperature. ~ Biology and comparative physiology of birds. A. J. Marshall (ed.) Academic Press, Inc . , N. Y. 450 pp. Kleiber, M. 1961. York, 454 pp. The fire of life. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Leibholz, J. 1970. The effect of starvation and low nitrogen intakes on the concentration of free amino acids in the blood p la s ma and on the nitrogen metabolism in sheep. Australian J. Agr. Res. 23 :723. LeResche, R. E., U. S. Seal, P. D. Karns and A. W. Franzmann. 1974. A review of blood chemistry of moose and othe r cervidae with e rriphas i s on nutritional assessment. Naturaliste Ca.n , , 101 :263-290. Mautz, W. W., R. P. Davison, C. E. Boardman and H. Silver. 1974. Restraining apparatus for obtaining blood samples from whitetailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):845-847. Maynard, L. A. and J. K. Loos l i . 1969. Animal Hill Book Co , , Inc . , New York. 613 pp. nutrition. McEwan, E. H. 1970. Energy metabolis m of barren (Rangifer tarandus). Can. J. Zool. 48:391-392. ground McGraw caribou Mc Me e kan , C. P. and J. Hammond. 1940. The relation of environmental conditions to breeding and selection for commercial types in pigs. Empire Jour. of Exp. Ag r i c . 8:6-10. Moen, A. N. 1967. Energy exchange Minnesota. Ecol.49:676-682. Moen, A. N. 1968. an old concept. Moen, A. N. 1973. Wildlife Francisco, California. Mosinger, F. mination of white-tailed The critical thermal environment: Bio Science. 18(11):1041-1043. ecology. 458 pp. 1965. Photometric of free fatty acids. W. H. Freeman deer, Western a new look at and Co., San adaptation of Dole's microdeterJ. Lipid Res. 6(1):157-159. Nordon, H. C.,!. Mc T. Cowan and A. J. Wood. 1970. The feed intake and heat production of the young black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus). Can. J. Zool. 48(2):275-282. �-401- Patterson, D. S. 1963. Some observations on the estimation of nonesterified fatty ac id concentrations in cow and shee p p Ia s ma. Res. Vet. Sci. 4:230-237. Petritz, D. C. 1972. Economic implications of the e ffe cts of climatic stress on shelter alternatives for finishing cattle. PhD Thesis. Uni v . of Illinois at Urbana, Champaign. 367 pp. Reichert, D. W. 1972. Rearing and training deer for food habits studies. USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain For. and Range Exp. Sta. RM note 208. 7 pp. Reid, R. L. and N. T. Hinks. 1962. Studies on the c ar bohyd r at e metabolis m of sheep. Feed requirements and voluntary feed intake in late p r e grian ce with particular reference to prevention of hypoglycemia and hyperketonemia. Aust. J. Agr. Res. 13: 1092-1111 . Ritzman, E. G. and F. G. Benedict. of sheep. New Hampshire Exp. 1930. The energy metabolism Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 43.23 pp. Ritzman, E. G. and N. F. Colovos. ments and utilization of protein cattle. Univ. New Hampshire 1943. Phys iological requireand energy by growing dairy Tech. Bull. No. 80. 59 pp. Robbins, C. T. 1973. carrying capacity. The biological bas is for the dete r mi nat ion of Ph. D. Thesis, Cornell University. 239 pp. Robbins, C. T. andA. N. Moen. 1975. Milk consumption and weight gain of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):355-360. Robinette, W. L., C. H. Bae r , R. E. Pillmore and C. E. Knittle. 1973. Effects of nutritional change on captive mule deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3):312-326. Rogers on, A. 1968. Energy utilization by the eland and wilde bees t . ..!E. Comparative nutrition of wild animals. M. A. Crawford (ed.) Academic Press, Inc., N.Y. 427 pp. Russel, A. J., J. M. Doney and R. L. Reid. 1967. The use of biochemical parameters in controlling nutritional state in pregnant ewes, and the effect of undernourishment during pregnancy on lamb-birth-weight. J. Agr. Sc i . Ca rnb . 68:351-358. Scholande r, P. F., V. Waite r s , R. Hock and L. Irving. 1950. insulation of some artic and tropical mammals and birds. BulL 99:225-236. Body Bi o . �-402- Seal, U. S., Effects deer. J. J. Ozoga, A. W. Erickson and L. J. Verme. 1972. of immobilization on blood analysis of white-tailed J. Wildl.Manage., 36(4):1034-1040. Short, H. L. and F. B. Golley. 1968. Metabolism. In A practical guide to the study of the productivity of large herbivores. F. B. Golley and H. K. Beuchner (eds.) IBP Handb. No.7. Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford. 308 pp. Sigma Chemical Company. 1974. The colorimetric determination blood plasma or serum of urea nitrogen at 515-540 rriu . St. Louis, Mo. 9 pp. Silver, H., N. R. Co Iovos and H. H. Hayes. Lis rn of white-tailed deer--a pilot study. 23(4):434-438. Silver, H., N. F. Colvos, J. B. Holter Fasting metabolis m of white-tailed 33(3):490-498. Siple, P.A. and C. F. Passel. 1945. Measurements of dry atmospheric cooling in subfreezing ternpe r at ur e s . Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 89 :177. Slee, J. and R. Halliday. 1968. Some effects of cold exposure, nutrition and experimental handling on serum free fatty acid levels in sheep. Anim. Prod. 10:67-76. m 1959. Basal metaboJ. Wildl. Manage. and H. H. Hayes. deer. J. Wildl. 1969. Manage. Thompson, C. B., J. B. Holter, H. H. Hayes, H. Siber and W. E. Urban, Jr. 1973. Nutrition of white-tailed deer. 1. Energy requirements of fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 37 (3):301-311. Ullrey, D. E., H. E. Johnson, W. G. Youatt, L. D. Fay. B. L. Schoepke and W. T. Magee. "1970. Digestible energy requirements for winter maintenance of Michigan white-tailed does. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):482-490. Wallmo, O. C. and R. B. Gill. 1971. Snow, winter distribution and population dynamics of mule deer in the Central Rocky Moun·· t a in s , Snow and Ice in Relation to Wildlife and Recreation. Symp. Proc. 1-15. Wallmo, O. C. and R. B. Gill. 1973. Middle Park Deer Study-physical characteristics and food habits. Colo. Di v . Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R- 27. Game Res. Rept. July. Part 2. pp. 81-103. �-403- APPENDIX �Appendix Weight r e c o r d s (kg) of individual 1974 experiment. A. Treatment Deer deer and mean 55 5l 43.40 39.31 44.54 34.54 .48 41.59 36.13 44.31 33.86 -1.47 - I. 51 .42 42.27 37.04 42.Q; 32. rz -1. 28 .65 41.59 47.50 42.95 .80 .40 41. 81 37.84 .74 .75 42.27 .26 1.05 36.93 .50 45.45 38.06 44.65 47.04 45.68 Change [or e a ch -- _. _______ i along ..vit h their e r r o r te r m s v - TE':~{!'1e~ In,d 40.45 3 h. 13 -16.13 .65 40.00 35.66 43.86 27.04 - 1.02 .43 - I .70 .23 37.95 35. !S ·13.18 25.yO 2.04 .49 33.40 -I. 58 .15 j7.95 35.Zl 42.72 26.36 -2.10 .54 43.86 33.75 - I . 13 .23 37.50 35.56 42.15 27.84 -I. 90 .Q:' 38.86 42.04 33. II! - I. 36 .42 37.72 34. ~3 41. 81 27.38 - 2.33 . i9 41. 81 38.75 44.31 31.59 - I. 33 .61 36. IJ 34.54 41.36 25.9C - 3. 18 .79 .64 ~2.B.j 37.~5 oil. s s 33'.52 -,t.13 .22 3i .84 34. oj 011.5" 26.3b - 2. ~, .70 .96 .93 43 '.29 38.29 43.52 33.40 .82 .23 36.81 34.06 41.13 26.13 - 3.13 .i4 38.06 1.61 .62 44.31 39.43 43.06 34.88 .02 .51 37.61 33.52 41 .25 26.81 -2.86 .76 48.29 38.75 2.43 .58 43.40 39.77 43.97 34.31 .08 .21 37.61 34.88 40.45 27.38 - 2. 58 1.13 in Body Weight. 46.72 34.77 35.22 42.95 44.54 33.40 -1.00 2 33.63 42.04 44.31 34.09 3 33.86 42.50 43.86 34.77 4 34.65 42.27 45.00 35.00 35.56 41.81 44.09 35.68 6 35.45 41.93 44.31 37.38 7 35.79 43.63 45.79 8 36.36 44.09 9 36.81 10 37.15 sc sc treatment ~3 42.95 Number we-i g ht 20 35.68 Week BWI 13 24 Weight: r e d to initial i; 1 Initial c o mpa Tr c at rnc nt B BWI 41 r : cha nge s in body wc l g ht A 4 Numbe weekly 4~ -- sc 27.95 I .j::ooo lBW ~ Mean Weekly - 0 .j::ooo I - �Appe nd ix B. Weight record. 1975 experiment. (kg) of individual dcer and mean Treat mem A 38 weekly changes in body weight compared to i n it i a l we ight for each treatment along with their error terms-I 'Deer Nurnbe r : Initial Weight: Week Nu~ 34 37.27 2 6 33.18 29.77 6 42.27 BWI 17 40.45 19 15 29 mo nt B 202 33 33.86 47.04 35.68 42.95 38.18 28.86 33.86 45.45 33.86 42.04 37.27 40.90 Treat ----- BW ~(' 27.95 -I .02 .26 34.09 31.36 43.18 41.59 1.41 38.40 44.54a 43.18 34.54 31. ,q 41. O~ 42.50 1.52 .18 31.81 4J.40 32.50a 35.90 26.13 -Z.55 .30 45.00 43.40 l.HI .45 30.90 42.04 28.86 39.5-1 35.00 Zl.81a - 4.27 .73 .6, 29.31 41.36 23.63 3 a.: Sa 34.5·! 17.95 -7.36 1.72 3!1. 86 b 35.22 32.95 b -7.04 .91 J ., ..• 'J •.• I._I h -' ...• .5.~ . Z t b -9.24 l. , 1 37.27 b 31.36 a b -9.77 44.77 44.09 3l.13a 35.45 .29 38.IS 44.54 42.27a. 35.68 31.36 38.ISa 44.77 43.86 36.13 30 90 45.~0 44.09 Z .15 .6'0 27.04a 44.54 36.59 3 I . 5~ 45.00a 41. 31 2.08 .0;7 23.63 3.25 .71 b Weekly 45.45 45·90 Change 45.90 in Body a 36.59 32.95 45·90 n.27 44.31 45.68 2.04 We ig ht , a Confined 9 se 42.72 38.63 I BW = Mean 42.27 39 46.59 37.72 7 44.77 18 38.63 38.40 4 2 to d i g e s t io n cage ..-weight bDied of apo a r e nt starvation. change not included in calculation of mean. a b 't..' I ~ 0 VI I ��-407July, 1976 JOB PROGRESS COLOR..\!)O State of Project REPORT "------- No. Deer-Elk W-38-R-31 ---- Investigations 14 Job No. --- 10._-------------Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study Junction Butte Wildlife Habitat Improvement Project Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: July 1, 1975 - June 30, 1976 Wayne 1. Regelin, O. C. Wa1lmo, L. H. Carpenter, and D. L. Baker. ABSTRACT Results of snow n~nipu1ation studies regarding their effects on deer use and vegetation responses are being summarized in a dissertation which will become the final report for most of the objectives of this job. This dissertation will be on file at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center Library and copies will be forWarded to appropriate Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Aid personnel. The experimental design was completed for the winter range seeding experiment and the various treatments and replications were planted. Three methods of planting seed are being tested on each of 5 different species of vegetation. Planting methods are drilling, broadcasting, broadcasting and harrowing. Plant species tested are crested wheatgrass, yellow sweetclover, Ladak alfalfa, arrow1eaf ba1samroot, and Palmer's beardtongue. ��-409MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY JUNCTION BUTTE WILDLIFE HABITAT IMPROVEMENT PROJECT Wayne L. Regelin P. S. OBJECTIVE In Middle Park. Colorado and other similar mule deer winter ranges in mountainous sagebrush habitat native forage does not produce sufficient supplies of chemical protein and energy to maintain deer in the demanding winter months. The objective of this study is to develop revegetation procedures to establish stands of species with high contents of digestible protein and chemical energy to supplement native vegetation in meeting the nutritional requirements of mule deer in winter. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Measure snow depth and density and configuration of snowdrifts in relation to presence or absence of snowfences and in relation to shrub stands protected and unprotected from the accumulation of snowdrifts. 2. Measure occupation by deer of shrub stands protected and unprotected from the accumulation of snowdrifts. 3. Measure the relative use of browse by deer in shrub stands protected and unprotected from snowdrifts. 4. Measure the response of native vegetation (composition and density) in relation to increased or decreased snow depth. 5. Evaluate the success of forage species planted on sites of created snowdrifts and on control areas not covered with drifts. 6. Measure soil mo Iature with relation to increased or decreased snow accumulation. 7. Extend the plantings of the most successful forage species on sites where they were most productive in preliminary trials. METHODS AND MATERIALS The methods used to meet all segment objectives are reported by Regelin (1974, 1975) . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Snow Drift Manipulation A dissertation (Regelin 1976) is being prepared based on information obtained from this study and is near completion. It will be on file at the Colorado �-410- Division of Wildlife Research Center Library and will become the final report for Segment Objectives 1 through 6. Seeding Deer Winter Ranges Four blocks of land on Junction Butte with different slopes and aspects but similar vegetation composition and density were selected as study sites during 2 June, 1975. Each block was divided into 4 plots, each 15 m. Three treatments and a control were randomly assigned to plots within each block. The layout of each study site is shown in Figure 1. Pre-treatment data on plant cover and herbage yield were collected during July. The herbage yield in each plot was estimated using the Neal Electronics herbage meter. However, correlation coefficients between herbage weight and meter readings were very low due to rocky conditions and steep slopes. In future years herbage yield will be estimated from clipped quadrants only. The variance obtained from the clipped quadrants used to calculate the sample size necessary to estimate biomass within 10 percent of the mean with a 95 percent confidence level. An n of 38 clipped quadrants per treatment plot was calculated, so 50 quadrants per plot will be clipped in future years. Plots were seede~ during September, 1975 with a seed mixture containing 5 species. These species and percent mixture by weight were: Agropyron desertorum 60 percent, Melilotus officinalis 15 percent, Medicago sativa 15 percent, Balsamorhiza sagittata 5 percent, and Penstemon palmeri 5 percent. The broadcast and broadcast plus harrow treatments were seeded at a rate of 33 kg/ha and the drill treatment at a rate of 11.2 kg/ha. In the drill treatment rows were planted 30 cm apart with a cone seeder. Rows containing the grass and balsamroot were alternated with rows containing alfalfa, yellow sweetclover and penstemon. LITERATURE CITED Regelin, W. L. 1974. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Junction Butte Habitat Improvement Project. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-28, Work Plan 14, Job 10, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2. p. 227-292. (proc.) Regelin, W. P. 1975. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study.- Junction Butte Habitat Improvement Project. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-29, Work Plan 14, Job 10, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2. p , 265-294. (proc.) �-411- 15 m Drill } 3 m Oontro1 Broadcast Broadcast and Harrow Fig. 1. Layout of site 1 �-412- Control Broadcast Broadcast and Harrow Drill Fig. 1 cont. Layout of site 2 �-413- Broadcast Control Drill Broadcast and Harrow Fig. 1 cont. Layout of site 3 �-414- Broadcast and Harrow Control Broadcast Drill Fig. 1. cont. Layout of site 4 �-415JOB PROGRESS State of . July, 1976 REPORT ..::C.::.O=L..:..ORAJ-=:)..:::.O __ Project No. W-38-R-31 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 16 Job No. Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Population Investigations 1 --------------------------- Distribution Period Covered: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, J. J. Klein, Jr., and R. Hancock ABSTRACT One hundred sixty-seven deer were neckbanded and/or eartagged from December 3, 1975 through February 13, 1976. Eleven other deer were eartagged incidental to other trapping activities in Area 4 from February 15-25, 1976. Poor trapping success and a late winter thaw caused an early ending to the year's trapping even though about 70 deer remained to be banded in Area 13. The composition of the total catch was 42 male fawns , 39 female fawns, 17 mature males and 80 mature females. This brings the total deer marked in the White River drainage the past five winters to 1,923. Two hundred thirteen sightings and 55 recoveries of banded deer were received during the past year. The 1975-76 winter marks the end of trapping and banding for this study, although two more years of data collection are scheduled. ��-417- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DISTRIBUTION Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To delineate deer sub-population boundaries and concentration areas on the Piceance winter range. a. Define deer sub-population boundaries. METHODS AND MATERIALS See Bartmann (1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Trapping Deer trapping and banding began December 3, 1975 and terminated February 13, 1976. The winter was miL~and open...__ and a 4-wheel-drive pickup was used the ---------..._._'.... ::~-:.,-:-.-----~--·--~-_~_w~_~ entire winter. -Trapping success was extremely poor all winter and banded deer quotas were reached in only two of the three areas trapped. Work in '~r_ea_}3 __(lIammon~Draw - Gillam Draw) was curtailed after only 28 deer had been marked over a 36-day period. Melting snow and muddy roads ruled out the possibility of catchLng another 70 deer in this area to reach the original quota. Eleven deer were eartagged in Area 4 incidental to other deer trapping activities. The 178 deer neckbanded and/or eartagged included 42 male fawns, 39 female fawns, 17 mature males and 80 mature females (Table 1). This brings the total number of deer marked during the past five winters in the White River drainage to 1,923. Two hundred thirteen sightings and 55 recoveries of banded deer were received during the past year (Tables 2 and 3). A considerable number of sightings were unusable this year because observers confused neckband colors. Unfortunately, this will probably be an even greater problem in the future because of the different neckband colors used in new areas. The 1975-76 winter marks the end of deer trapping and banding for this study. Banded deer sightings and recoveries will be recorded through the winter of 1977-78. This will allow two years of data collection for deer banded this past winter. �-418- LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - population distribution. P. 315-337. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildlife, Denver. 3(Part 3):253-377. ).~ . '\-.~, / I /" ~~) . I Prepa red by _-'-_---,·,L/-'·IC-·-'-·--'..::~/~· -4'\'~:'.i...~'-L·~V"':':"~V'-·:"'" ~'r',-,' .::cc'r':....~/ R. M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher _ �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the w Lnt er range in Game }fanagement Units 11, 22, and 23, winter 1975-1976. Date (1976) Sex Age Eartag No. Area 4 - Green W/White 2-15 2-15 2-18 2-19 2-21 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-25 2-25 Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Neckband No. Stripe Neckband L-3275 L-3270 L-3272 L-3273 L-3276 L-3277 L-3278 L-3279 L-3280 L-3282 L-3283 Location Twp. Range (All Deer Eartagged IN IS IS IN IN IS IN IS IS IN IS 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W Remarks Sec. Only) 21 3 11 28 34 3 21 3 11 21 3 I ~ I-' \0 I Summary: Date (1975) 12-6 12-6 12-7 12-7 12-7 .12-7 12-7 12-8 12-8 12-8 12-8 12-8 12-8 12-8 12-8 5 Male Fawns; 4 Female Fawns; 2 Mature Males Area 10 - Yellow Neckband Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature L-3l02 L-3l03 L-3l04 L-3l05 L-3l06 L-3l07 L-3l08 L-3l09 L-3ll0 L-311l L-3112 L-3113 L-3114 L-3115 L-3116 67 25 24 22 69 10 23 16 15 17 66 19 20 68 28 IS 1S IS 1S 1S IS IS 1S 1S IS IS IS IS IS IS 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 93W 21 21 14 15 15 21 21 14 14 14 15 21 21 23 2 Only one eartag. 3" antler in velvet, left. �Table 1. Record winter 1975-1976 0 f deer trapped and marked on the winter (continued). Date (1975) Sex Age Area 10 - Yellow Neckband 12-8 " 12-8 12-9 12-9 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-11 12-11 12-11 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-12 12-13 12-13 12-15 12-15 12-16 12-16 12-17 12-17 12-17 12-18 Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Eartag No. range in Game Management Ne ckb and No. Twp. 18 65 14 11 21 12 59 64 27 30 29 73 36 26 31 71 40 74 44 75 43 76 77 38 78 79 80 37 82 83 86 41 1N 1N 1S 1S 1S 1S 1S 1S 1N 1N 1N 1N 1S 1N 1N 1S 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1N 1S 1S 1N 1S 1N 1S 1S 1S Location Range Sec. Units 11, 22, and 23, Remarks (Continued) Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L-3117 L-3118 L-3119 L-3120 L-3121 L-3122 L-3123 L-3124 L-3125 L-3126 L-3127 L-3128 L-3129 L-3130 L-3131 L-3132 L-3133 L-3134 L-3135 L-3136 L-3137 L-3138 L-3139 L-3140 L-3141 L-3142 L-3143 L-3144 L-3145 L-3146 L-3147 L-3148 92W 92~v 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 93W 92W 93W 92W 93W 93W 93W 26 26 23 2 14 21 23 2 26 26 26 26 2 34 26 21 34 34 34 33 26 26 34 33 23 2 34 2 33 2 2 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I .po. N 0 I �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter (continued). winter 1975-1976 Date (1975) Sex Area 10 - Yellow Neckband 12-18 • 12-18 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-19 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-20 12-21 12-21 12-21 12-21 12-21 12-21 12-22 12-22 12-22 12-22 .12-22 12-22 12-23 12-23 12-23 12-23 12-29 12-29 12-29 12-30 12-30 Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Eartag No. Age range in Game Management Neckband No. Twp. 93 84 85 46 92 88 87 90 94 42 45 52 53 51 103 104 49 47 95 96 97 50 106 100 102 101 105 70 48 107 56 55 1S 1S 1N 1S 1S 1S 1S 1N IN 1S 1S 1N 1N 1S 1S 1S 1N 1N 1N 1N IS 1S 1S 1N IN 1S 1S 1S 1S IS 1N 1N Location Range Sec. Units 11, 22, and 23, Remarks (Continued) Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature L-3149 L-3150 L-3151 L-3152 L-3153 L-3154 L-3155 L-3156 L-3157 L-3158 L-3159 L-3160 L-3161 L-3162 L-3163 L-3164 L-3165 L-3166 L-3167 L-3168 L-3169 L-3170 L-3171 L-3172 L-3173 L-3174 L-3175 L-3176 L-3177 L-3178 L-3179 L-3180 93W 92W 93W 93W 93W 92W 92W 92W 93W 93W 92W 93W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 93W 92W 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 2 23 34 2 2 23 23 33 34 2 23 34 34 14 22 23 34 34 33 34 23 14 15 34 34 22 22 2 21 23 33 33 One eartag. May have injured neck. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I "'" N •..... I �Table 1. Record 0 f deer trapped and marked on the winter winter 1975-1976. (continued). Date (1975) Sex Area 10 - Yellow Neckband 12-30 " 12-30 12-30 12-30 12-31 12-31 Female Female Female Fema1e_ Female Male Summary: Eartag No. Age Neckband No. range in Game Management Location Twp. Range Sec. 92W 93W 92W 92W 92W 92W 33 34 22 22 15 22 Units 11, 22, and 23, Remarks (ContinuedL Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn L-3181 L-3182 L-3183 L-3184 L-3185 L-3186 54 57 72 58 63 62 IN IN IS IS IS IS 21 Male Fawns; 20 Female Fawns; 5 Mature Males; 39 Mature Females I Date (1976) 1-4 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-6 1-6 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-8 1-8 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-11 1-11 1-20 1-20 ~ Area 12 - White with Red StriEe Neckband N N I Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Fawn L-3187 L-3188 L-3189 L-3190 L-3191 L-3192 L-3193 L-3194 L-3195 L-3196 L-3197 L-3198 L-3199 L-3200 L-3201 L-3202 L-3206 L-3207 L-3209 L-3210 39 69 40 41 42 43 71 146 147 46 148 65 149 150 70 151 64 87 152 77 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 34 34 27 27 34 14 35 35 35 35 34 35 27 27 35 27 35 35 35 27 Only one eartag. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record 0 f deer trapped and marked on the w Lnt e r range in Game Management winter 1975-1976 (continued). Date (1976) Sex Age Eartag No. Area 12 - White with Red StriEe Neckband 1-21 1-21 1-21 1-21 1-22 1-22 1-23 1-23 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-24 1-25 1-25 1-26 1-26 1-26 .1-26 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-29 1-30 1-30 1-30 1-31 2-1 Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn L-3211 L-3212 L-3213 L-3214 L-3215 L-3216 L-3218 L-3219 L-3221 L-3222 L-3224 L-3223 L-3225 L-3226 L-3227 L-3230 L-3231 L-3233 L-3234 L-3135 L-3236 L-3139 L-3240 L-3241 L-3242 L-3246 L-3248 L-3249 L-3250 L-3253 L-3256 Neckband No. Location Twp. Range Sec. 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 3N 35 34 34 27 36 27 36 35 35 35 35 35 27 27 27 35 34 35 35 27 27 35 34 27 35 35 35 34 34 35 27 Units 11, 22, and 23, Remarks (Continued) 153 154 99 68 156 155 45 67 83 74 79 103 101 76 102 95 73 85 84 72 75 98 78 92 88 44 80 96 82 97 104 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98\.[ 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W I .p.. N l.V May have hurt neck. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �fable 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter (continued). winter 1975-1976 Date (1976) Sex Age Eartag No. Area 12 - White with Red Stripe Neckband 2-1 ~ 2-2 2-4 Male Female Female Summary: Fawn Mature Mature L-3257 L-3258 L-3260 Neckband No. range in Game Management Location 1';.:p.Range Sec. 3N 3N 3N 27 35 35 Units 11, 22, and 23, Remarks (Continued) 100 90 93 98W 98W 98W 10 Male Fawns; 9 Female Fawns; 6 Mature Males; 29 Mature Females Area 13 - Green and Yellow Block Neckband 1-9 1-10 1-10 1-11 1-22 1-23 1-24 1-24 1-25 1-26 1-26 1-28 ·1-28 1-28 1-30 1-30 1-31 1-31 2-2 2-5 2-5 2-7 2-7 Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Mature Mature Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Mature Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Fawn Mature Mature Fawn Mature L-3203 L-3204 L-3205 L-3208 L-3217 L-3220 L-3229 L-3228 L-3232 L-3237 L-3238 L-3243 L-3244 L-3245 L-3251 L-3252 L-3254 L-3255 L-3259 L-3261 L-3262 L-3263 L-3264 1 7 9 3 2 55 53 11 None 51 10 57 69 5 59 12 14 65 8 15 17 16 13 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N lOOW lOOW lOOW lOOW lOOW 100W lOOW lOOW 100W lOOW lOOW 100W lOOW lOOW lOOW lOOW lOOW lOOW lOOW 100W lOOW lOOW lOOW 22 15 23 17 15 15 17 17 22 17 22 17 22 22 17 17 15 23 22 18 18 31 31 I .pN .pI One eartag. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 1. Record of deer trapped and marked on the winter winter 1975-1976 (continued). Date (1976) Sex Age Eartag No. Neckband No. range in Game Management Twp. Range Sec. 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N lOOW 100W lOOW lOOW 100W 17 17 30 30 30 Units 11, 22, and 23, Remarks Area 13 - Green and Yellow Block Neckband 2-8 2-8 2:-9 2-9 2-9 Female Female Male Female Female Summary: GRAND SUMMARY: Fawn Mature Fawn Fawn Mature L-3265 L-3266 L-3267 L-3268 L-3269 (Continued) 24 25 67 27 28 6 Male Fawns; 6 Female Fawns; 4 Mature Males; 12 Mature Females 42 Male Fawns; 39 Female Fawns; 17 Mature Males; 80 Mature Females I .&:'N VI I Corrections to Previous Years' TraEEing (Corrections are Underlined) Records 12-31-72 Male 1-8-73 Female Mature Mature L-18l7 L-1863 46 32 3S 3S 97W 96W 9 16 1-8-73 Female Mature L-1777 15 3S 97W 2 3-5-73 Female Mature L-2313 25 IS 96W 15 Yellow wired stripe neckband add - neckband mal be no. 27 12-19-73 Male Mature L-2232 25 IS 96W 16 Yellow wired stripe neckband add - neckband mal be no. 27 Male Mature L-1787 59 1-9-74 3S 96W 16 Pink neckband. Pink neckband - removed note about guestionable eartag no. Pink neckband - removed note about guestionable eartag no. Pink neckband. - �-426Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 22, and 23, received from March 1975 through February 1976. Date Neckband (1974 & 1975) Color 5-20-74 5-27-74 5-27-74 7-15-74 10-20-74 11-17-74 12-3-74 12-3-74 12-3-74 2-16-75 2-16 2-16 2-16 2-24 2-24 3-29 4-6 4-9 4-9 4-9 4-12 4-12 4-13 4-13 4-13 4-13 4-13 4-14 4-14 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-15 4-16 4-16 .4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 4-16 Blue Red wlwhite stripe Red wlwhite stripe Blue Red wlwhite stripe Red wlwhite stripe Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow blocks Yellow Blue & ye Ll.ow blocks Yellow Yellow Yellow wired stripe Pink Pink Pink Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks White White White White Blue White White Red & blue blocks White Blue & white Yellow wired. stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellm,T wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Green w/white stripe Green w Iwh ite stripe White Green w/whit.e stripe Green wlwhite stripe Green wlwhite stripe Number t ? 92 t 55 55 150 t ? 69 92 74 39 1 3 5 82 66 73 37 51 59 t ? 2 14 120 ? t 48 ? 26 70 82 38 23 52 62 100 71 74 118 237 250 ? 33 93 9 Twp. Location Range Sec. IN 2S 2S 2N 2S 2S IS IS IS IN IN IN IS IN IS IS IS 3S 3S 3S IN IN 2S 2N 2N 2N 2N IS IS 2N 2S IS IS IS IS IS IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN 2N IN IN IN 92W 94W 94W 88W 94W 94W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 93W 92W 92W 96W 96W 96W 96W 95W 95W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 98W 96W 98W 97W 97W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 96W 97W. 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 94W 93W 93W 17 23 23 29 14 14 36 36 36 19 20 20 24 29 22 19 10 5 5 1 32 32 6 4 4 4 4 15 15 28 19 28 21 10 13 13 32 32 32 36 36 36 36 36 34 24 17 11 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-427- Tabie 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 22, and 23, received from March 1975 through February 1976.(continued). Date (1975) 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-18 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-20 _ 4-21 4-22 4-23 4-23 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 4-24 "4-27 4-27 4-27 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 4-29 5-1 5-1 Neckband Color Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Yellow wired stripe Blue & white Yellow wired stripe Blue & white Blue & white Blue & white Blue & white Blue & white White wired stripe White wired stripe Blue & red blocks White wired stripe White wired stripe White wired stripe White wired stripe White Blue & yellow blocks Blue & red blocks Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Blue & white Green wlwhite stripe Blue & yellow blocks Red & blue' blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Yeliow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Green wlwhite stripe Blue & white Blue & white White White Green w/white stripe Green wlwhite stripe Blue & white Blue & white Blue & white Blue & white Yellow wired stripe White White Number Twp. 45 47 25 78 IN IN 2N IN IS IS IS IS IS IS IS IS 3N 3N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N IN IN IS IS 2S IS IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IN IS IS 2S 2S IN IN IS IS IS IS IS ? ? 2S ? 1 ? 109 131 22 3 42 68 143 35 190 123 3 38 145 ? ? 68 39 32 ? 107 72 10 38 23 88 35 2 37 2 4 194 22 131 223 ? 63 254 90 31 ? ? 2S Location Range Sec. 94W 94W 95W 95W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 93W 96W 96W 96W 96W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 94W 97W 97W 97W 98W 98W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 97W 98W 99W 30 30 1 23 5 11 2 11 11 11 11 11 36 36 2 2 2 18 18 20 18 15 10 10 5 5 3 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1 11 11 10 10 31 36 21 21 . 28 28 21 19 24 ----------------------~----------------------------------------------------------- �-428- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units ll~ 22, and 23~ received from March 1975 through February 1976 (continued). Date (1975) 5-2 5-12 5-12 6-26 7-? 7-? 7-2 7-9 7-18 8-? 8-? 8-? 8-1 8-4 8-21 8-21 8-26 8-29 8-30 9-? 9-2 9-21 9-22 9-23 9-26 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? "10-? 10-9 10-12 10-13 10-13 10-13 10-14 10-16 10-17 10-25 10-25 10-25 10-25 10-25 Neckband Color Blue & yellow blocks Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Orange & white blocks Blue & red blocks Blue & red blocks White Blue & yellow blocks Blue & red blocks White Blue &,red blocks Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Blue & red blocks Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks White wIred stripe Red & blue blocks Yellow Yellow White Blue Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Red & blue blocks Blue White wIred stripe White wIred stripe Orange & white blocks Green wlwhite stripe Blue White White Red & blue blocks Green wlwhite stripe Green wlwhite stripe Orange & white blocks Blue Green wlwhite stripe White Blue & white White wIred stripe Green wlwhite stripe Red wlwhite stripe White wIred stripe Blue & white Red & blue blocks Blue & yellow blocks Red wlwhite stripe White Number Twp. Location Range Sec. 10 ? 27 ? 200 ? ? ? ? ? ? 57 14 8 123 "50 119 32 4 ? "? ? 15 50 ? ? ? ? 12 ? ? ? ? ? ? 162 8 ? ? ? ? ? ? 71 ? ? ? 83 ? ? IN 2S IS IS IN IN 3N 2N 2N IS IS IN IS IN IS IS 4N 3N IS IS IN IN IS IS 3N 4S 3N 3N IN 2S IS IS 2N IN IS IN IS IN 2N IS IN IN IN 2S 2N IS IN IN 3S 2S 93W 96W 96W 89W 92W 92W 93W 94W 92W 91W 93W 90W 94W 94W 94W 94w 95W 95W 93W 92W 89W 93W 94W 94W 95W 96W 93W 93W 93W 9lW 92W 92W 96W 95W 95W 96W 94W 90W 90W 99W 97W 97W 9lW 93W 92W 93W 9lW 92W 93W 94W 18 2 4 17 26 26 3 17 16 13 24 14 35 29 35 35 18 16 14 30 20 25 35 35 16 36 26 26 32 5 9 19 31 29 5 15 34 21 23 30 36 1 20 22 9 14 1 26 28 13 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-429- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11_ 22_ and 23_ received from March 1975 through February 1976 (continued). Date (1975-76) 10-26 10-26 10-27 10-28 10-30 11-? 11-? 11-? 11-? 11-? 11-9 11-12 11-22 11-22 11-22 11-26 11-26 12-10 12-8 12-12 12-13 12-13 12-13 12-13 12-13 12-13 12-13 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-15 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 12-16 1-3-76 1-4 1-6 1-15 1-15 Neckband Color Blue Blue & yellow blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Blue Green w/white stripe Yellow wired stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White Blue & 'yellow blocks White wired stripe Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Orange & white blocks Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Blue & yellow blocks Yellow Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White White White wired ·stripe White wired stripe Blue Green w/white stripe Blue Yellow wired stripe Blue & white Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Pink Green w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Blue & yellcw blocks Blue & yellow blocks Yellow Yellow Number Twp. Location Range Sec. ? ? 200 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 12 62 50 42 12 ? ? 11 3 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 68 ? 44 77 3N IN IN 3N IN IS IN IS IS IS IN IN IS IS IS IN IN IN IS 3S IS IN IN IN IN 2N 2N IN IN 2N IS IS IS 2S IS IS IS 2S IS 2S 2S 2S 2S IS 2N IN IS IS 95W 92W 92W 92W 92W 95W 94W 95W 95W 95W 94W 96W 94W 94W 94W 95W 95W 93W 92W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 96w 98W 98W 99W 99W 98W 95W 95W 96W 95W 96W 96W 96W 97W 94W 94W 94W 95W 94W 94W 93W 93W 96W 96W 27 26 25 24 25 19 7 1 1 1 '22 20 1 35 35 36 36 29 15 36 6 16 16 7 7 24 14 31 31 6 23 35 34 14 15 15 28 32 6 31 31 31 6 15 32 . 17 12 12 ----------------------------------------~----------------------------------------- �-430- Table 2. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 22, and 23, received from }1arch 1975 through February 1976. (continued). Date (1976) Color 1-20 1-26 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-27 1-29 1-31 2-? 2-? 2-14 2-17 2-17 2-19 2-23 Pink Blue Blue & yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Blue & yellow Yellow Green w/white Yellow Yellow Blue & yellow Pink White Green wiwhite Green w/white Neckband blocks blocks stripe blocks stripe stripe Number Twp. Location Range Sec. 66 2 103 37 53 71 8 ? 83 ? 76 84 ? 15 155 33 9 3S 2N IN IS IS IS IS IN IS IN IN IS IN 3S IN IS IN 96W lOOW 93W 93W 93W 93W 92W 93W 93W 95W 94W 92W 94W 97W 97W 96W 96W 5 23 18 3 2 2 23 35 3 31 5 23 29 2 29 3 21 �-431- Table 3. Recoveries of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 22 and 23, March 1975 through February 1976. Date of Recovery (1975) 3-? 3-20 4-? 4-4 4-21 4-23 5-? 5-? 5-13 6-17 6-18 9-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-? 10-4 10-22 10-24 10-25 10-25 10-25 10-26 10-26 10-27 10-28 10-28 10-31 11-? ll-? ll-? 11-? ll-? 11-2 ll-2 11-4 Neckband Color Yellow Red w/white stripe Blue & yellow blocks Blue & red blocks White wired stripe Blue & white Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Green w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Red and blue blocks Blue & yellow blocks Orange & white blocks Red & blue blocks Pink White Pink Green w/white stripe Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White wired stripe Blue Red & blue blocks White Yellow wired stripe Orange & white blocks Blue Orange & white blocks Red & blue blocks Blue & white Orange & white blocks Red & blue blocks Green w/white stripe Blue Red w/white stripe Blue Green w/white stripe Orange & white blocks Blue & yellow blocks Red & b Lue blocks Red & blue blocks Red & blue blocks Red w/white stripe Blue Yellow Number 32 63 48 106 48 69 100 109 126 97 90 140 22 117 122 35 Worn 32 142 146 107 90 93 92 60 62 123 33 113 94 103 14 42 45 105 142 202 110 115 30 81 148 23 130 117 139 49 150 34 Location Twp. Range Sec. IS 2S IN IN 2N 2S 2N 2N 2N 2S IN 4N IN IS 2S 3S 5S IS IN IN IN lS 6N 4N 2N 2N 3N IN 2N IS IS lS 2N lS 2N 2S 2S 4S lS lS 3N 3N 2N IS IS 93W 11 97W 21 93W 20 93W 25 97W 18 98W 10 95W 25 95W 25 95W 19 97W 36 93W 11 88W 17 92W 34 93W 13 Unit ll? 97W 20 98W 15 96W 1 95W 5 95W 2 95W 29 94W 4 ? 92W 9 96W 36 95W 21 95W 9 98W 4 88W 32 93W 16 93W 14 94W 36 ? 91W 31 9lW 7 95W 6 93W 28 99W 26 95W 33 98W 8 95W 19 93W 24 93W 36 92W 30 94W 13 95W 26 ? 95W 5 92W 5 Remarks Found dead along road. Road kill. Road kill. Road kill. Leg in neckband. Found dead. Found dead. Archery. Probable road kill. Eartags missing. Found shot. Found dead. Died after tagging. Wounding loss. Found dead. Found dead. Found dead. Caught in fence. Dead a long time. Hunter kill. Only collar found. Found dead. Found dead. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-432- Table 3. Recoveries of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 22 and 23, March 1975 through February 1976. Date of Recovery (1975) Color 11-12 12-24 l2-? 1-4-76 1-5-76 1-19-76 Orange & white blocks Blue & yellow blocks Yellow Blue & yellow blocks Red & blue blocks Blue Neckband Location Number Twp. Range Sec. 115 12 39 97 182 11 IS IN IS IN IN 92W 94W 93W 93W 96W 100W 34 27 23 2N Remarks Found dead. Died in stackyard. 9 9 29 Recatch later killed by coyotes. Corrections to Previous Recovery Records 10-14-73 Red w/white stripe 11 10-15-73 White 24 10-18-73 No neckband-eartag L-2065 10-21-73 White 226 IS 4S IS 2S 94W 95W 96W 98W 17 36 31 7 Eliminate these four, recoveries from the recovery list. Died soon after marking. Found dead. Died soon after marking. Died soon after marking. �July, 1976 -433JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-3l Work Plan: No. 16 j Deer~Elk Investigations I Job Title Job No. I ------- ------- 2 ---- Piceance Deer Study - Population (Density and Structure ) Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 through March' 31, 1976 R. M. Bartmann and J. J. Klein, Jr. ABSTPACT The 1975-76 winter deer quadrat count yielded 9.1 deer per quadrat or 36.4 deer per mile2. The population estimate for the Piceance Basin is 24,206 3,724 deer at the 90 percent confidence level. The estimated population is 4,430 deer fewer than the predicted level of 28,636. The 2,113 deer classified during the post-season survey in Game Management Unit 22 gave a buck:doe: fawn ratio of 16:100:80. This is two bucks and five fawns per 100 does fewer than in 1974. ± ��-435- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To establish mule deer population density and sex and age structure estimate techniques for the Piceance winter range. a. Estimate the size of the total wintering deer population in Game Management Unit 22. b. Estimate the sex and age structure of the wintering deer population in Game Management Unit 22. METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer Density See Bartmann (1974). Population Structure See Bartmann (1974). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Density The 1975-76 winter quadrat deer count in the Piceance Basin was made January 11-14. The winter was quite mild and open and deer distribution was scattered. Snow depths ranged from 6-10 inches at lower elevations to 12-15 inches on the higher winter range areas. In a few locations, particularly the far western and eastern ends of the basin, deer could still be found above the winter range bounds designated for the count. The effect of this on the total deer population estimate is unknown but is believed minor. The total area involved is relatively small and the western portion of the basin is considered a low deer density area. After the count snow c.over conditions deteriorated steadily through the rest of the winter. Counting conditions were considered good although high wind caused a departure from the normal quadrat counting sequence one day. A Bell 47G3B2 helicopter was used and the pilot did an exceptional job. �-436- The 1,089 total deer counted convert to 9.1 deer per quadrat or 36.4 deer per mile2. The population estimate for the basin is 24,206 + 3,724 deer at the 90 percent confidence level (Table 1). Support for the observation that deer were well scattered is that the number of plots with no deer declined from 42 and 53 in 1973-74 and 197475, respectively, to only 27 this year. The precision of the mean density estimator also improved from± 20 and ± 18 percent of the mean the previous two years to ± 15 percent this year which was the desired level set at the start of the study. Comparison of the estimated winter deer population to the predicted population is complicated by' the lack of an estimated 1974-75 starting base. The 1974-75 population estimate was considered low for reasons previously indicated (Bartmann 1975), so the predicted winter deer population figure was used instead. The 1975-76 winter deer population estimate is 4,430 deer lower than the predicted population of 28,636 (Table 2). Several reasons can be offered concerning the difference between the two values, but there is currently no means of verifying any of them. Population Structure Post-season deer sex and age classifications were made from a Hughes 500C helicopter December 12-16, 1975 in Game Management Unit 22. A fresh snowfall after the first day improved counting conditions from fair to good. The 2,113 total deer classified included 177 adult males, 1,074 adult females and 862 fawns for 3 buck:doe:fawn ratio of 16:100:80. This is two bucks and five fawns per 100 does fewer than in 1974. If groups containing unknowns are eliminated, the result is 141 adult males, 819 adult females and 634 fawns for a 17:100:79 buck:doe:fawn ratio. When applied to the total estimated deer population, these figures project to 2,028 bucks, 12,203 does and 9,875 fawns (Table 3). The present method of collecting classification data (Le. no true sampling strategy) does not justify statistical evaluation of the results. Efforts will be made to remedy this situation by next winter. LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1974. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-28, Work Plan 16, Job 2, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July. pp. 363-370. (proc.). Bartmann, R. M. 1975. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-28, Work Plan 16, Job 2, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep., July. pp.349-354. (proc.). Wildlife Researcher �-437- Table 1. Number of deer counted on 120 ~-mi1e2 quadrats on the Piceance winter range in Game Management Unit 22, January 11-14, 1976. Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 18 14 0 8 16 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 II 13 4 15 10 22 9 5 0 36 32 12 0 9 7 3 8 9 0 11 20 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 8 37 22 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 llO 15 4 0 0 9 5 10 0 0 5 1 4 0 13 2 6 0 0 9 0 15 8 25 8 4 14 29 24 0 14 80.66 90% Confidence Interval 8.98 9.1 ± (1.658) (.82) = 9.1 + 1.4 s- 0.82 Total Population Estimate C. V. 99% II II 9 12 l3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 5 20 7 3 16 10 19 11 19 4 l3 5 14 17 2 6 0 0 24 n X x = II 5 0 1 15 9 16 5 5 16 21 6 10 3 5 0 15 5 5 15 26 0 1 0 0 1120 s 1,089 s 9.1 EX2 19,481 (EX)2 1,185,92l 2 x 0 39 31 5 II III ll2 ll3 ll4 ll5 116 ll7 118 ll9 120 24,206 ± 3,724 �-438- Table 2. Calculations Management Unit 22. to predict the 1975-76 deer population in Game Item Bucks Does Fawns Total Predicted 1974-75 winter pop. 1,340 12,437 10,571 24,348 Corrected for 1974 post-season buck:doe:fawn ratio (18:100:85) 2,167 11,979 10,202 24,348 843 983 2,856 4,682 1975 winter mortality est. 1975 Summer population 1,324 Fawns apportioned 3,673 3,673~-- 4,997 14,669 50:50 Adjusted 1975 summer pop. 1975 fawn productivity (80 fawns:100 does) 19,666 19,666 est. 11,735 1975 pre-season pop. 1975 harvest estimate ~7,346 4,997 !/ 14,669 11,735 31,401 2,765 Predicted 1975-76 winter pop. 2,232 14,669 11,735 28,636 Estimated 1975-76 winter pop. 1,985 12,345 9,876 24,206 1/ - Harvest estimate is based on archery and rifle season random survey estimates inflated by 25 percent to acknowledge wounding loss and illegal kill. Table 3. Estimated deer population of the Piceance Basin (GMU 22) by sex and age classes, 1972-73 to 1975-76. Sex and Age Classes 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 Bucks 2,756 2,596 1,700 2,028 Does 9,743 11,778 9,254 12,303 Fawns 7,185 7,438 7,932 9,875 19,684 ± 3,990 21,812 ± 4,256 18,886 + 3,458 24,206 + 3,724 Total Deer �-439- July,· 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-3l Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Job No. Piceance Deer Study - Productivity Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations 3 _ and Mortality April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 R. M. Bartmann, J. J. Klein, Jr., J. Shepherdson, K. Karrow, S. Koster, P. Powell, P. Neil, D. Freddy and B. Gill. ABSTRACT A fawn:doe ratio of 80:100 resulted from classification of 862 fawns and 1,074 does during the post-season survey. This is five fawns per 100 does fewer than in 1974. However, the calculated fawn:mother ratio is higher in 1975 due to the greater proportion of non-productive yearling does believed present. The total pre-season fawn production was estimated at 11,735. The 1975 deer seasons, both archery and rifle, were antlered-only in all the White River ,area units. The estimated harvests were 21 and 2,191 deer during archery and rifle seasons, respectively. The 1975 deer winter mortality survey showed a mean 0.88 dead deer per plot for a total loss of 4,682 ± 1,224 deer at the 90 percent confidence level. Composition of the loss was 1,428 male fawns, 1,428 female fawns, 983 adult females and 843 adult males. ��-441- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - PRODUCTIVITY AND MORTALITY Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To establish methodology for the systematic collection of mule deer population density and structure data on pinyon-juniper winter range for use in making annual harvest recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate increments and losses to the Piceance deer population to allow evaluation of density estimate techniques. a. b. c. Estimate productivity rates. Estimate hunter harvest rates. Estimate winter mortality rates. METHODS AND MATERIALS Post-Season Classifications See Bartmann (1975). Hunter Harvest See Bartmann (1974). Winter Mortality See Bartmann (1974 and 1975). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Post-Season Classifications Post-season classifications were made from a Hughes 500C helicopter December 12-16, 1975 in Game Management Unit 22. The 862 fawns and 1,074 does classified yielded 80 fawns:lOO does. Elimination of groups containing unknowns left 634 fawns and 819 does, or 79 fawns:lOO does. The 1975 ratio was five fawns less than in 1974. This may be misleading in terms of over-all production as there was a presumably greater proportion of non-productive yearling does in the 1975 population. While there are no harvest data to confirm this hypothesis, some insight is gained from available population �-442- data. In 1974, the adult female segment contained an estimated 11 percent yearlings. The fawn:mother ratio (Anderson 1965) calculated after removal of the yearling component was 96:100. In 1975, yearlings comprised an estimated 25 percent of the adult female population and a fawn:mother ratio of 107:100 resulted, thus suggesting higher production despite a lower fawn:doe ratio. However, in both cases the differences are small enough to easily be attributable to chance. As the hunting season was again bucks only, wherein no significant antlerless loss is assumed, the post-season fawn:doe ratio was used without adjustment to give a pre-season production of 11,735 fawns. Hunter Harvest The 1975 regular deer season in the White River area units was antlered only and extended from October 25 through November 4. The archery season, also antlered only, ran from August 16 through September 21. The total harvest estimate for Unit 22 ,from the Game Management Section's random surveys was 2,191 deer during the regular season and only 21 during the archery season. These figures are in~lated by 25 percent to acknowledge wounding loss and illegal kill. Six hundred fifty-nine antlered deer from Unit 22 were recorded through three Division check stations during the first nine days of the season. Of these, 365, or 55 percent, were field aged as yearlings. This compares to 30 percent yearlings in the 1974 check; another indication of better fawn survival during the 1974-75 winter. Winter Mortality The 1975 deer winter mortality survey was made April 21 through June 4. The desired crew size of seven people was achieved the majority of the time with the minimum never being below six. Forty-nine deer carcasses judged to have died in the 1975-76 winter were found for a mean 0.88 deer per plot, or 4,682 ± 1,224 total dead deer (90% c.l.) on the winter range (Table 1). This is a 19 percent loss based on the 1974-75 predicted population (the estimated population based on the quadrat census was considered low and was not used). The loss was only six percent lower than in the preceding year despite an apparently much milder winter. Composition of the estimated loss with unknowns apportioned among the various classes was 1,428 male fawns, 1,428 female fawns, 983 adult females and 843 adult males. Fawn losses are apportioned between the sexes on a 50:50 basis. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E. 1965. Population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept: Fed. Aid W-I05-R-4, Work Plan 4, Job 1, Job Compl, Rep., Game Res. Rep. Jan. pp. 47-74. (proc.). �-443- Bartmann, R. M. 1976.. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-28, Work Plan 16, Job 3, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep., July. pp. 371-380. (proc.). Bartmann, R. M. 1975. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-29, Work Plan 16, Job 3, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep., July. pp. 355-362. (proc.). A / '-);' /1/' /--; )'1 / /c.<,J z: -r:» Prepared by __-+(/_I~_-~~'~,_· ~·_"~~~~~-~~.~.~~'~.~'~"~L1~/?~.~_/'~,~,~~,,~.~~ Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Results of dead deer searches on 56 1/8-mi1e2 quadrats on the Piceance winter range in Game Management Unit 22 during spring, 1975. Quad. Male 2 7 9 10 11 12 13 16 17 21 23 24 25 26 27 32 33 34 35 36 37 40 42 50 52 53 59 62 1 - - 1 - - - Adults Female 2 - - Unk. Male Fawns Female Unk. Quad. Male Adults Female Unk. Male Fawns Female - - - - - - 1 1 1 1 65 68 70 73 74 75 76 78 81 84 86 87 91 93 95 96 99 101 107 109 110 111 112 114 115 116 118 119 - 2 - - - - - 1 - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 1 2 8 13 - - - 1 1 1 1 - - - - - 1 2 1 - - - - 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 - - - 2 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - 1 5 5 9 9 1 1 Unk. - 1 Totals I ~ ~ ~ I �July, 1976 -445JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----- Project No. W-38-R-3l Work Plan No. 16 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 5 --------~----------.----------- Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Food Habits Technique Development Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 R. M. Bartmann, W. R. Regelin, P. H. Neil, D. R. Reichert and J. J. Klein, Jr. ABSTRACT Predator problems caused cancellation of all deer grazing comparison trials except for those scheduled in early October. A U.S. Forest Service Research Note entitled "The influence of Supplemental Feed on Tame Deer Food Habits" is being prepared with Forest Service cooperators covering the results of that work. Token grazing trials were conducted in December, January and February to observe tame deer performance on pinyon-juniper winter range. The 44 trials averaged 66 minutes each. The mean number of bites per trial. declined from 301 to 123 to 49 from December through February. General observation of the deer fawns indicate a general disinterest in grazing, curiosity about their surroundings and a desire to play, and a reluctance to move about in deep snow. ��-447- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - FOOD HABITS TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT Richard M. Bartmann P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine if forage selections by "artificially" maintained tame deer are similar to those of "naturally" maintained tame deer. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Construct pen facilities for raising and handling tame deer. 2. Raise and maintain two groups of eight tame deer each for technique evaluation. 3. Measure forage selections of "artifically" and "naturally" maintained tame deer. 4. Evaluate forage selection data to determine similarities between "artificially" and "naturally" maintained tame deer. 5. Make recommendations concerning the use of "artificially" maintained tame deer for use in forage use investigations. METHODS AND MATERIALS A series of three 125 x l50-foot pens was constructed immediately west of the Little Hills headquarters. A 10 x 20-foot shelter was built in each pen and the entire outsid.e perimeter was dog and coyote-proofed with a poultry netting apron. Fawn raising was done cooperatively by now and Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station personnel at facilities in Fort Collins. Disease problems reduced the number of available fawns to nine by time the grazing field work was to begin. The fawns were all brought to Little Hills September 11, 1975. Five of them were in~ediately placed in a 98-acre pasture and the other four in a pen at the Station headquarters. Three days later two of the pasture fawns were killed by predator(s) and the remaining three were brought back to the holding pen. After discussion with cooperators, it was decided to go ahead and conduct the first trials as planned, but in another area with fewer observers. All later trials were cancelled. Accordingly, on September 23, three fawns were taken to a four-acre pen in the paddock complex on the ridge about two miles north of the Station. Hay and concentrate feed were withdrawn over a five-day period until fawns in the paddock were totally dependent upon native paddock forage. Grazing trials were started September 30 and ran for 10 consecutive days. �-448- Because considerable amounts of several peoples' time were scheduled for the four cancelled grazing periods, it was decided that several token trials throughout the winter might provide insight to tame deer performance on pinyon-juniper winter range. Therefore, three grazing periods were scheduled; one each in December, January and February. The December and January trials lasted four days, with two days each spent on pinyonjuniper-mixed browse and pinyon-juniper-sagebrush winter range types. The February trials lasted only three days and all were conducted on a pinyon-juniper-mixed browse area. Grazing areas were shifted from higher to lower winter ranges as the winter progressed. Two observers and four deer were used during all periods except the last when a third observer was present one of the three days. Two trials were usually run in the morning and two in the afternoon each day. A trial consisted of an observer following one deer for 1 to 1-1/2 hours and recording the number of bites by species. Portable tape recorders were used in the field and the data later transcribed onto forms. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A U.S. Forest Service Research Note entitled "The Influence of Supplemental Feed on Tame Deer Food Habits" is being prepared together with Forest Service cooperators covering the methodology and results of the one planned series of grazing comparison trials that was conducted. Continuation of the comparisons is planned for Segment 32 during winter and spring stress periods. The same 98-acre pasture will be used after efforts to block predator entry points are completed. This, together with the use of adult deer, will hopefully eliminate most problems. Results of the preliminary winter grazing trials showed a steady decrease in the mean number of bites per trial during December, January and February from 301 to 123 to 49. This occurred even though hay and concentrate feed in the holding pen were restricted the last two periods. Total natural forage availability was probably lowest in January when 12 to 16 inches of snow were present on the grazing area and highest in February when snow cover was spotty and bare ground prevalent. Only 4 to 6 inches of snow were present in Decemb er . The 44 total trials occupied 2,925 minutes with a mean of 66 minutes per trial and a range of 45 to 100 minutes (Table 1). Ingestion of 48 species were recorded including 16 shrubs, 24 forbs and 8 grasses. However, only 17 species had 10 or more bites recorded for them during anyone trial and only these are listed in Table 1. Generalizations of deer feeding performance included: (1) A general disinterest in grazing, particularly as the winter progressed; (2) A display of curiosity about their surroundings often accompanied by playfulness; and (3) A reluctance to move about in deeper snow (all deer were fawns). More frequent exposure to the natural environment may help overcome the first two situations and, in the third instance, older and larger deer may be better able to cope with deep snow. �-449- Based on the above observations, it is cautioned that the data not be construed to represent wild deer diets. While most of the species taken by tame deer were probably eaten by wild deer, the relative proportions may be misleading. Also, the small areas grazed are not representative of the entire winter range as not all species were present in each area. Prepared by Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. Summary of total bites by species taken by tame deer during three monthly grazing periods on two winter range types. 11 Species Pinyon-Juniper-Mixed Browse Dec. Jan. Feb. All Pinyon-Juniper-Sagebrush Dec. Jan. All 881 798 377 86 92 2 2 1,846 561 Shrubs Purshia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Ame1anchier utahensis Symphoricarpos oreophi1us Quercus gambelli Artemisia tridentata Gutierrezia sarothrae Atrip1ex confertifo1ia 95 93 327 206 19 29 13 9 68 13 12 12 989 900 772 305 111 31 14 12 499 385 2,345 946 3 "3 18 18 2 2 32 32 Forbs I ~ \Jl Lupinus caudatus Cryptantha sericea Hap10pappus nutta11ii Aster 1eucanthemifo1ius Eriogonum 10nchophy11um Cirsium sp. Hap10pappus acau1is 6 10 13 7 26 35 130 5 184 63 32 45 143 12 184 63 o I 28 127 28 127 10 25 25 10 Grass Sitanion hystrix Poa sp. Total Bi tes Jj Number of Trials Total Minutes 1/Species 11 4 1 16 6 28 6 28 2,327 821 583 3,731 2,485 1,140 3,625 8 8 12 28 8 8 16 610 510 715 1,835 580 510 1,090 listed are those for which 10 or more bites were recorded during at least one grazing trial. liTota1s include bites on all species recorded during grazing trials. �., -451- July, 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT St are of COLORJ...DO --------~~~~~---- Pr oj ect No. H-38-R-31 Deer-Elk Investigations 18 Wo:r:k.Flan No. Job No. 1 Deer and Elk Management Study Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1975 - March 31, 1976 Raymond J. Boyd and Thomas M. Pojar ABSTRACT Workshops designed to familiarize field management personnel with the population simulation approach to game management were conducted. Of 120 WCO's and Area Supervisors in the State, 110 of them attended at least one all-day workshop. The workshop program stressed extensive review of the mechanics of the ONEPOP population model, input data and output interpretation. Data collection and investigations are recommended based on my evaluation of their potential for accomplishing the most toward enhancing the realism of the population simulations. ��-453- DEER AND ELK MANAGEMENT STDDY Thomas M. Pojar In addition to the stated segment objectives it became obvious during this segment that understanding and acceptance of population modeling by all levels of management was needed before the full benefits of this management tool could be realized. Therefore, all-day modeling workshops designed to familiarize management personnel with the ONEPOP program and its output were conducted. Nearly half of this segment was spent in preparation, conducting, and fo11ow--up work associated with the workshops. Consequently, work towards the segment objectives was not fully completed. P. S. OBJECTIVE Devise and test a statewide deer and elk management system. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Identify data that are most useful for improving estimates of population parameters and recommend procedures for collecting such data by DAD. 2. Project average population parameters on a long-term basis for those alternative management plans that are feasible for each DAD. 3. Make final recommendations for data gathering and analysis procedures for each DAD in a manual for the appropriate operations section. METHODS AND MATERIALS The following discussion on data evaluation partially fulfills the first segment objective. The data analysis and utility is common to all deer and elk Data Analysis Dnits (DAD's) in the State except when specifically excluded. The data collection and investigations that are recommended are based on my evaluation of their potential for accomplishing the most toward enhancing the realism of the population simulations. Harvest Estimates of harvest were available for all deer and elk data analysis units (DAD's) in the State. The precision of these estimates become a point of interest because the outcome of a simulation for a particular DAD is greatly affected by the number of animals harvested from the population. The 95 percent confidence intervals for the 1974 deer and elk harvest by DAD are listed in Tables 1, 2. 3, and 4. The variances for resident (S~) and nonresident (S~) harvest was calculated by: �-454- n) N (N - where N n y Total hunters Total usable returns No. of hunters reporting success, by DAU The confidence interval is then calculated: Estimated harves.t by DAU + 2.V/~~ There are only two ways of improving the preclslon of the deer (both sexes) and elk (bull) harvest estimates. One is to increase the number of hunters surveyed. This would result in more usable returns per DAU, however, the improvement in the estimate would be in proportion to the number of hunters in each DAU. Only slight narrowing of the confidence limits would result for DAU's with low harvest. The relation between the estimated deer harvest (X) andc!.~s~ + S~R (y) is: y = 85.29 + .0438X. Under the present hunt Lng system of bucks only or either sex seasons, DAU's with a harvest of 1000 deer will result in a confidence interval of about 13 percent of the estimated harvest. ± The relation between t he estimated bull elk harvest (X) and 2. J + S~ S~R (y) is: y = 50.56 + .1049X. With no control over where the purchaser of a Regular Bull license will hunt, the confidence interval is related to the number of bulls harvested by DAU. A harvest of 500 bulls from a DAU will result in a confidence interval of about + 20 percent. The second method of improving the harvest estimate is to issue only specified deer and elk licenses statewide. This would permit sampling each DAU at the level necessary to obtain the desired precision in the harvest estimates. This is possible now for estimating the harvest of cow elk (Table 2). Age Structure of the Harvest Of the 4,307 elk aged from the top ten ranking DAU's, 2119 (49.2%) of the ages were obtained from teeth collected by hunters. The Division provided tooth envelopes to persons with Specified or Cow licenses. A total of 10,113 tooth envelopes were sent and 21 percent (2,119) were returned with usable teeth. The success rate of hunters with Specified and Cow permits is around 50 percent. Therefore, of the estimat~d 5,056 successful hunters 41.9 percent returned the tooth envelope. This occurred without any public information effort to encourage hunters to comply with the tooth envelope request. �-455- Table 1. Confidence intervals (95%) for 1974 deer harvest by DAU. + Percent Lower C.L. Upper C.L. DAU Harvest + No. 7 7370 364 4.9 7006 7734 12 6745 357 5.3 6388 7102 6 1366 160 11.7 1206 1527 19 4745 300 6.3 4446 5045 30 1822 187 10.3 1635 2010 2 958 137 14.3 821 1095 24 2890 233 8.1 2657 3124 8 2912· 238 8.2 2673 3150 16 1833 190 10.4 1643 2024 25 1934 194 10.0 1740 2128 20 2784 231 8.3 2553 3015 14 1684 182 10.8 1502 1867 13 516 101 19.6 415 618 29 1404 166 11.8 1239 1570 18 2042 199 9.7 1843 2241 27 915 135 14.7 781 1050 33 1014 140 13.8 874 1154 4 992 140 14.2 852 1132 11 241 69 28.4 173 310 1 766 121 15.8 646 887 32 924 135 14.6 789 1060 17 560 106 18.9 454 666 3 96 44 45.6 52 140 31 328 81 24.6 248 409 21 389 87 22.4 302 476 10 709 119 16.8 590 828 22 348 83 23.7 266 431 15 318 80 25.1 238 398 26 359 84 23.5 274 444 23 129 50 38.8 79 179 �-456- Table 2. Confidence intervals (95%) for 1974 cow elk harvest by DAU. DAU Harvest + No. + Percent Lower C.L. Upper C.L. E 2 866 57 6.6 808 923 E 4 56 16 28.7 40 72 E 5 72 17 24.0 55 89 E 6 1,046 61 5.8 985 1,107 E 7 100 21 21.2 79 122 E 8 136 24 17.8 112 161 E10 7 6 86.1 1 l3 El3 80 19 23.5 61 99 E 9 9 7 74.6 2 16 Ell 4' 4 78.4 1 8 E12 35 13 36.2 22 48 E14 544 46 8.4 498 590 E15 101 21 20.3 81 122 E16 147 23 15.8 124 171 E21 432 42 9.7 390 474 E20 63 16 25.2 47 79 E25 408 40 9.8 368 448 E26 120 24 19.8 96 143 E24 215 29 13.5 186 244 E29 10 6 58.9 4 16 E30 56 16 27.6 41 72 E31 465 40 8.5 425 505 E32 153 26 16.9 127 179 E33 20 10 49.7 10 30 E27 74 19 25.5 55 93 �-457- Table 3. by DAU. Confidence intervals (95%) for 1974 regular bull elk harvest + No. + Percent Lower C.L. Upper C.L. DAU Harvest 1 Specified 2 1,164 171 14.69 993 1,335 3 528 117 22.23 411 645 4 211 74 35.20 137 285 5 207 72 34.49 135 279 6 Specified and Regular 7 368 98 26.59 270 466 8 464 109 23.42 355 573 10 203 72 35.15 131 275 11 44 34 76.04 10 78 12 114 55 48.12 59 169 13 322 91 28.39 231 413 14 1,456 192 13.19 1,264 1,648 17 Specified 19 Specified 20 285 84 29.34 201 369 21 1,363 184 13.48 1,179 1,547 24 700 130 18.58 570 830 25 846 145 17.13 701 991 26 280 86 30.61 194 366 27 128 58 45.19 70 186 28 Specified 29 64 40 61.96 24 104 30 285 84 29.34 201 369 31 967 151 15.59 816 1,118 32 756 138 18.19 618 894 33 320 90 28.03 230 410 �-458- Table 4. by DAU. Confidence intervals (95%) for 1974 specified elk hunt areas, Harvest 1/ + No. + Percent Lower C.L. Upper C.L. Bull 114 12 10.53 102 126 Cow 185 22 12.00 163 207 Bull 25 2 9.14 23 27 Cow 20 2 12.50 18 22 Bull 32 11 35.07 21 43 Cow 12 2 17.80 10 14 DAU No. 17 19 28 1/ - These harvest figures are not in exact agreement with those found in the 1974 Harvest Book. This is because these figures are not adjusted for "unknowns" (Page 16 in 1974 Harvest Book). To hunt in deer units 20 and 29 each hunter was required to first obtain a permit in addition to a valid license. This permit was free of charge and could be obtained at the Division's Northeast Regional Office. Upon obtaining a permit, the hunter was given a tooth envelope and encouraged to return it if he harvested a deer. A total of 504 deer were harvested from units 20 and 29, and 287 usable teeth were returned. Of the successful hunters, 57 percent complied with the tooth collection request. The difference between deer and elk hunters' rate of compliance to the tooth collection request may be due to the personal contact with the deer hunters. It is obvious that large numbers of teeth can be collected using the hunter tooth envelope approach. Probably a much larger proportion of hunters would comply with the tooth collection request with an extensive public information campaign. There is a serious discrepancy in the percent of young in the harvest when comparing the tooth envelope method and check station method of collecting aging data (Figs. 1 and 2). This discrepancy appears to be linked in some way to hunters' response to the tooth envelope request and/or to check stations. The possibility of misidentifying teeth from young animals that are mailed to the laboratory is minimal (Adrian, pers. comm.). �50 •\ \ \ \ 40 Mail-in from Units 20 and 29 _______ n = 287 Check Station Ages from Units 58 and 581 n = 185 30 I E-< Z ~ U <o ~ \J1 I po:: ~ p.. 20 10 01 I I I I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 k =1 9 10+ AGE Fig. 1. Age distribution of antlered deer harvested in 1974 from two front range areas. �30 25 Mail-in n = 849 t / 20 \ '" \ ------- / V Collected at Check Station n = 247 15 I .p.. 0\ o I ~ ~ J;;:l \ \ p.., ~ \ 10 \ \. \ \ 5 •... ... ..... t- " Q ''-, " o ~ to 8 9 - C - - - ---~ 0 •••••• _...... .// ........._ • I C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12 13 in 1974 from the White River elk 10 11 14 15+ AGE Fig. 2. Age distribution of antlerless elk harvested data analysis unit. �-461- An investigation to determine which of the two methods is biased and the extent of the bias is needed so that the aging data can be interpreted properly. Sex and Age Ratios, and Trend Counts Fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios are still collected in a designated manner in only a few DAU's. The general opinion of most Division personnel seems to be that the only feasible means of collecting these data is by helicopter. This opinion is not supported by the helicopter and ground classification comparisons conducted by Gill (1972). The amount of time needed to classify a certain prescribed number of animals from the ground compared with classifying from a helicopter has been used to justify the use of helicopters. In the past this may have been true, however, recently Bowden and Anderson (1975) have developed a sampling method which, in my opinion, makes ground classification a feasible method of obtaining herd structure data. These authors suggest that further refinement of this method is possible. The fact remains however, that this method provides an estimate of the fawn:doe ratio based on statistically sou~d design and analysis procedures. In very general terms, it would take approximately 20 to 40 person days to estimate the fawn:doe ratio in a DAU within 10 percent at the 90 percent confidence level. Application of this method to estimate elk cow:calf ratios has not been tri.ed. Confidence intervals should be calculated for the age ratio data that are currently collected by helicopter. This can be done if the data are summarized in terms of "groups" of animals classified. The validity of sex ratio classification has not been established. It is suspected that sex ratio data collected either from the ground or air is biased and may not accurately depict the sex ratio in the population (Gill 1976). It is common for the variance of sex ratio data to be quite large. Even with these shortcomings, sex ratio data should be collected since it can be done in conjunction with age ratio data collection, and if the biases in these data can eventually be quantified then historic sex ratio data could be corrected for bias. Population trend counts are made in several of the deer and elk DAU's. Trend counts, especially on deer, are plagued with problems. Not the least of which are fluctuating deer distribution with varying weather conditions and unstable counting conditions. At least in one case, there was actually a significant (P<.05) inverse relationship between the winter trend count and the following season's antlered harvp-st (Baker 1975). Meaningful interpretation of trend count data that is severely affected by either unstable animal distribution or counting conditions would seem to be impossible. Trend counts that could detect a 20 percent change in the population would be useful. However, until census methods are adequate to detect this amount of change in a population there will be no way of testing the precision or accuracy of a trend count. At this point in time it seems most feasible to concentrate on applying existing census methods and continue efforts to improve them rather than continue trend counts. �-462- Currently, there are three Federal Aid projects (Bowden & Anderson 1975, Bartmann 1975, Freddy 1975) to census mule deer populations in various habitat types. To apply any of these methods, approximate winter distribution needs to be defined for each population. Knowledge of relative animal density on the winter range allows for sampling stratification which can result in considerably increased precision in estimates of population size. The status of our knowledge of relative animal density and winter distribution needs to be evaluated and census efforts initiated. Tested, designed elk census methods are lacking. This is probably because elk tend to form large groups in winter and managers may feel that an intensive effort to count all conspicuous groups approaches a total count of the herd. However, the number of groups missed and the proportion of the total animals counted remains unknown. A statistically designed sampling scheme would minimize these problems and provide a means to calculate the variance associated with the population estimate. Population Simulation Workshops Population modeling workshops were conducted for field management personnel. Attendance at each all-day workshop varied from two to seven persons. A total of 110 wca's and Area Supervisors attended at least one workshop. The workshop program included extensive review of the mechanics of the model, input data and interpretations of output. LITERATURE CITED Baker, B. D. 1975. Evaluation of interagency browse utilization and pellet group count methodology. In Boyd, R. J., T. M. Pojar, B. D. Baker. 1975, Deer and Elk Management Study. Part II. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 365-412. Bartmann, R. M. 1975. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2, p. 349-354. Bowden, D. C., and A. E. Anderson. 1975. Evaluation of herd structure methodology. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 475-499. Freddy, D. J. 1975. Middle Park deer study - experimental harvest regulations. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., Part 2. p. 209-240. Gill, R. B. 1972. Middle Park deer study population density and structure. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 169-177. Gill, R. B. 1976. Mule deer management myths and the mule deer population decline. Mule Deer Decline in the West Symp., Proc. l:(In Press). Prepared ':;t;L;:;;;~/.UJ;ft'2 Thomas M. Pojar . Wildlife Researcher �July 1976 -463- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-3l Work Plan No. Job Ti.tle Period Covered: 19 Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. l _ Evaluation of Radio Telemetry April 1, 1975 - March 31, 1976 Personnel: Mark Alan, James Albert, Allen E. Anderson, Allison Broida, Charles DeYoung, Howard Geduldig, Jennie Goldberg, Wendy Haas, Dan Kimes, Beth MacConnell, Arnold Olson, Chris Ribic, Dick Rubin, James Shepherds on , Carol Smith, Laverne Stelter, George Stewart, Colorado Division of Wildlife; G. L. Terrell, Colo., Dept. of Agriculture; J. C. DeMartini, C. P. Hibler, S. Henry, J. G. Wegrzyn, Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Thirty newborn mule deer fawns and nine coyotes were captured, aged, weighed, measured, radio-collared, ear-tagged, and released. Twenty-four fawns and nine coyotes were radio-tracked with ground and air high frequency (157 MHz) telemetry equipment and six fawns with low frequency (46.5 MHz) telemetry equipment within and adjacent to a 12,045 acre study area about 30 miles northwest of Fort Collins. Based on 24 fawns the mean SD number of days from capture day to day found dead was 76.2 104.1. Five fawns died from unknown causes, 12 from probable predation, four from probable abandonment by doe, two from disease, and one from an accidental injury. One fawn disappeared, three lost their collars and two were presumed alive. Fawns were relocated 1,600 times and there was great individual variation in the daily distances moved from their capture site even among twins. All nine coyotes were presumably still alive. Coyotes were relocated 385 times and the mean distance moved from their capture sites to relocation sites was about one mile, with a range of 0.2 to 4.4 miles from October through March. A summary of data from 53 fawns radio collared since June 1974 shows that the fate of 25 fawns is not known and includes those that disappeared, lost collars, and those found dead from unknown causes. A similar summary for coyotes showed that 7 of 23 have died mainly by shooting. ± ± �-464- EVALUATION OF RADIO TELEMETRY Allen E. Anderson The use of radio telemetry to assess neonatal mortality in deer (Odocoileus spp.) has been briefly reviewed (Anderson 1975). It was pointed out that relatively little has been published on deer-coyote (Canis latrans) interactions in Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemio~emionus) and that the use of radio telemetry on such studies has been quite limited, probably because of the mountainous terrain typical of most mule deer habitats. To our knowledge, the present study is the first to radio collar free-ranging Rocky Mountain mule deer fawns and coyotes and conduct a near-daily telemetric surveillance of both species on a limited area. This report presents results of the second year of field work mainly in tabular form. A more complete analysis and interpretation of results will be presented in a subsequent report. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test and improve the field and statistical methodology used to estimate selected population parameters of mule deer and coyotes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Test the feasibility of using and perhaps improving radio telemetry to estimate fawn mortality rates and coyote activity in mountainous habitats. 2. Analyze data and submit reports for publications. METHODS AND MATERIALS In general, procedures and equipment used during 1975-76 were similar to those described previously (Anderson 1975) and are not described herein. In that report, recommendations were made for certain equipment and procedural changes. Those incorporated are described as follows. Radio Telemetry Eguipment We used both high (157.0 MHz) and low (46.5 MHz) frequency equipment for radio tracking fawns and high (157.0 MHz) frequency equipment for radio tracking coyotes. The high frequency equipment was made by Davtron, Minneapolis, Minnesota and the low frequency equipment by Albertronics, Inc., College Station, Texas. The Davtron, 24 channel receivers were used in conjunction with four element, portable Yagi antennae. Both aerial and ground tracking were done �-465- with the same equipment. Aerial tracking was conducted with one antenna mounted on each wing. A relay switch permitted more effective searches from either side of the plane. Unfortunately, Albertronics, Inc. could not provide new receivers so all low frequency work was done with very well used Johnson 350 DF and Johnson Messenger III receivers. See Anderson (1975) for a description of radio tracking with the Albertronic equipment. For both high and low frequencies the transmitter-battery package used on fawns was sealed in acrylic and secured to collars fabricated by us with several wrappings of heavy plastic tape. For fawns, the Geduldig .(1975:9) modification of the molded plastic, expandable collar of Fashingbauer (1962) was used again. In order to accommodate the larger, heavier, high frequency, transmitter-battery package however, collar width was increased from l~ inches to 2 inches and collar thickness from 0.0625 to 0.09375 inches. In addition, the fawn transmitters were of three types: (1) mercury switch, wherein fawn movement increased the signal pulse rate; (2) temperature, wherein changes in pelage-skin interface temperatures change the signal pulse rate; and (3) stable, wherein the signal pulse rate remained at a relatively constant rate. In type (2) the sensor was attached to a flexible plastic extension of the collar and impinged on the dorsal portion of the neck. For coyotes, the transmitter-battery package was molded and bonded with acrylic to a one-half inch width collar of heavy two-layered, nylon webbing. The transmitter antenna was sewn between the two layers of nylon webbing . The radio collar was secured to the neck of the coyote by two bolts through pre-punched holes. The entire unit was designed and fabricated by Davtron. Capturing and Radio Tracking Fawns The 1974-75 work with t~ree persons had indicated that the flight response of individual fawns to humans tended to be predictable on specific sites. Since some sites also attenuated radio signals in a predictable manner, it seemed likely that familiarity with individual fawns and their habitats should increase the efficiency of radio tracking. Since the 1975 goal was 40 captured fawns, four people were assigned to the north, three to the southwest, and four on the southeast portions of the 12,045 acre study area. Those persons involved in capturing a particular fawn were primarily responsible for radio tracking that fawn on a daily basis. An attempt was made to visually examine each fawn located telemetrically. In addition to daily diurnal telemetric locations, the movements of up to three selected fawns were monitored telemetrically for about 16, 24, 48, and 72 consecutive hours during August 1975. All telemetric and visual observations of collared fawns were plotted on a topographic map and pertinent information recorded for each observation (Appendix I). Assessing Fawn Mortality On locating a fawn carcass, the observer(s) made a detailed written record of carcass appearance and damage, if any, and searched the immediate area for tracks and scat. Photographs or sketches were usually made of each fawn �-466- carcass. Fawn carcasses in good condition were taken immediately to the Wild Animal Disease Research Center at Colorado State University for diagnosis. As an aid in possible future diagnosis of disease in collared fawns, nasal swabs were taken from 19 fawns at capture. In addition, eleven collared fawns were recaptured and about 25 cc of blood was aspirated from the juglar veins of each fawn by Dr. J. C. De Martini and S. Henry. Analyses of some disease dia~lostic components of these blood samples was done at the Veterinary Clinic at Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Ear-Tagging Fawns In an effort to more readily identify individual collared fawns, it was decided to increase the size of the ear tag. Black and white plastic ear tags with numbers almost two inches in height seemed to meet identification requirements. RESULTS Mule Deer Fawns Thirty mule deer fawns were captured, weighed, measured, examined (Table 1) and released adjacent to the study area (Fig. 1). Only four fawns (43, 52, 6lA, 62A) were ear+t agged because the plastic ear tags used seemed so large as to possibly handicap the fawn or attract predators. Some temporal and behavioral aspects of fawn capture are detailed in Table 2. The Davtron transmitters were not delivered as requested and at the peak of fawning none were available. Thus, when finally delivered, about one week later, the fawning season was essentially over and we were 10 fawns short of our goal of 40. Details on all transmitter-collar units used during 1975 are given in Table 3. Blood values for 10 mule deer fawns are listed in Table 4 and results of the nasal swabs from 20 mule deer fawns in Table 5. As compared to the blood cellular values from 8 captive Rocky Mountain mule deer fawns 23 to 68 days of age given by C0wan and Bandy (1969), the values in Table 4 are much lower for hemoglobin and packed cell volume, but similar for leukocyte values. The etiological significance of both the blood or nasal swab values is not clear. Unfortunately, these data are not available for the one fawn (no. 75) with a definite diagnosis of disease or the other (no. 62C) with a probable diagnosis of disease (Table 6). Another fawn (no. 56) with a very high total leukocyte count of 12.4 x 103 could have been a disease victim, but was last seen on August 23, 1975. How long did the radio collared fawns survive? Using the "day of capture to day found dead" column (Table 7) as one approximation it seems that 24 fawns survived (X + SD) 76.2+ 104.1 days with a range from 2 to 333 days. Significantly, there were very large differences among the north, southwest, and southeast areas of fawn captu~e. There are obvious differences in habitat with the longest survival period being in the north area, which also has the steepest and most forested (shaded) habitat (Fig. 1). None of these presumed differences have been tested for statistical significance. �Table 1. Some morphological attributes of 14 male and 16 female mule deer fawns radio-collared Lengths Time Body Wt (kg) Hind Foot 0835 1320 1010 1544 1835 1800 2010 2034 1327 1155 1155 1201 1030 1028 1343 0940 1005 1043 1145 0935 0906 1035 0954 1839 1036 1953 1957 1937 1555 1055 3.9 2.6 3.5 3.1 3.9 4.0 4.8 5.7 3.6 4.4 3.5 5.2 3.3 2.3 3.7 4.7 3.4 4.1 3.0 4.8 4.6 3.9 5.4 3.5 3.8 5.3 4.0 3.0 4.3 4.9 29.0 23.5 25.0 24.5 26.0 26.7 27.0 29.0 25.5 26.5 25.0 27.2 24.5 23.0 27.0 27.0 24.5 27.5 24.0 26.9 27.3 26.0 27.8 25.8 26.0 28.0 24.0 25.0 26.5 27.0 CaEtured Collar No.a Sex Date 61A 4362A 52 61B 38A 62B 63 53 39 64 40 55 67 44 65 62C 56 57 45 48 47 54 41 42 51 58 75 38B 49 M F F F M M F M M F F M M M F F F F F M F M M F M M F M F F 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-12 6-13 6-14 6-14 6-14 6-15 6-15 6-16 6-16 6-16 6-16 6-17 6-17 6-17 6-17 6-19 6-19 6-20 6-21 6-21 6-25 6-27 6-27 6-28 6-28 6-29 aFawns 43-52, 62B-63, 55-67, 44-56, 42-38B and 45-48 were twins. (em) Hoof Growth - 0.37 0.39 0.43 - - during 1975 and listed chronologically. Ear ~ - - - - - 0.34 0.53 - 0.49 - - - - - - 0.59 11.5 - - - - - - 0.55 0.50 12.0 11.0 0.44 0.48 0.41 0.49 0.37 0.31 0.36 0.39 11.0 10.8 10.8 - - - 11.3 10.3 10.3 11.1 Neck Circumference (cm) Max Min b Fawns probably 1-2 days of age at capture based on the criteria of ~~ite et al. 1972:904. more days. 16.8 16.5 16.8 15.0 14.7 18.0 15.3 16.0 19.0 16.9 15.5 15.0 17.6 16.0 13.5 15.0 15.2 15.5 16.5 14.5 18.5 17.5 17.0 20.5 15.0 17.0 15.2 17.5 11.4 16.5 18.0 Fawn 47 may have been a twin of an unco11ared Remarks - 16.0 16.8 20.0 17.6 17.0 20.0 18.5 17.0 16.0 19.5 18.0 14.5 17.0 16.5 16.5 17.0 15.0 19.0 19.0 18.0 21.0 16.5 18.0 16.5 18.0 12.7 17.5 19.0 b b b b b I .l>- o...., I b b fawn. The ages of other fawns were likely three or �; C) ,.c s p:j M M ..~~I ;'///t' i I, I '.~ j 1 i I 1 1 Q) ;:l I-) (1) i (1) (1) ~ I \0 ::;:: +-I ,.c s:: o 00 ~ s:: I-< 4-; (1) (1) (1) '0 M H o C) co I-) oj § § 000'\ o 4-; C) §"s:: +-I ;:IN 1-<0'\ (1) 4-;M 1-< •.•...• 00'\ o ~ .. C") !/ J I' 1:J i I ! b\ �Table 2. Some temporal and behavorial aspects of capturing 30 mule deer fawns. Nursing Periods (min) Time (hr) Fawn Behavior During and After Release Other Deer Nearby Docile, cried when eartagged. Struggled, bleated. Laid quietly. None seen. Not recorded. With twin 1143 Not recorded. Not recorded. Laid quietly. None. Doe returned 1438, bedded or wa l.kedaround until 1600 when observers left. Attempting to nurse. Struggled, bleated. Laid quietly Doe disappeared on for about 5 min, approach. then jumped up bleating,tripped, then laid quietly 10 ft from release. Released Last Sighting N X Min Max When First Observed When Handled 1320 1420 1420 7 6.6 1 32 Attempting to nurse. 1543 1544 1626 1626 None 6-14 0954 1327 1352 6-17 0800 0940 1024 Area Collar No. Capture Date First Observed Captured North 43a 6-10 1028 52 6-12 53 65 1024 Not recorded. 3 1 1 2 1 1 I .pO' ""I 45 6-19 0750 0906 0953 0953 1 1 Nursing. Lay quietly. Lay quietly. 2 does, 1 fawn (twin) 48 6-19 0750 0906 0932 0932 1 1 Nursing. Struggled, bleated. Lay still a few seconds then ran off. 2 does, 1 fawn (1145) 54 6-21 0748 0954 1052 Nursing. Struggled a lot, bleated loudly. Jumped from sack 1 Doe. and took off 60 m to top of ridge to E. Kicked. 51 6-27 1813 1953 2014 Doe feeding in vicinity for an hr. wa lke d to fawn. Extremely active and strong, cried constantly. Legs collapsed. 2 does. 1 fawn. 2 Ran down slope LInk. 100', fell down, trotted up steep slope, fell down , trotting H. on trail. 2 2016 2.5 1 2 3 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 2. Some temporal and behavorial aspects of capturing 30 mule deer fawns (continued). Nursing Periods (min) Time (hr) Area North (cont) Released Last Sighting N X Min Max 1957 2010 2010 3 1 <1 1 1937 1954 1954 Collar No. Capture Date First Observed Captured 58 6-27 1853 75 6-28- 1755 1,"1 maybe more. 49 Southwest Central 6-29 0900 1055 1120 1120 Not observed. Fawn Behavior During and After Release Other Deer Nearby When First Observed When Handled Not recorded. Struggled Ran over hard, bleated ridgetop to loudly, panted. N. Fawn walking about near doe, followed doe. Bleated once, did not struggle. Curled up when found. Did not move, ears up. 2 does Not recorded. Doe kept approaching to within 30 yds. Struggled, bleated loudly 1 buck, 2 does. Doe ran off, fawn silent. Fawn moved off and could not be found while we were removing equipment from capture site. 1 doe. 1 doe. 38A 6-13 1531 1800 1818 1818 5 4.6 1 12 Nursing. 39 6-15 0800 1155 1226 1231 2 2 2 2 Nursing. Doe ran off, fawn struggled hard near completion of processing. Fawn wobbly, walked up and over W-facing slope immediately. 1 doe. 40 6-16 1135 1201 1210 1213 Followed doe and bedded. Calm and quiet. Lay down and got up and walked quickly uphill and out of sight in rain. None seen. 41 6-21 1125 1839 1857 1859 Nursing. Doe ran off, fawn made a few attempts to get out of bag. 1 doe - what Lay calm, but not visible due to slope appeared to exposure, 2 min after be blood in ano-genital release. region. 2 2 1 3 I .,. ....• o I ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 2. Some temporal and behavorial aspects of capturing 30 mule deer fawns. Nursing Periods (min) Time (hr) Collar No. Capture .Date First Observed Captured Released Last Sighting 42 6-25 0707 1036 1052 1052 38B (No collar available) 38B 6-25 0707 1056 1106 1106 6-28 1553 1555 1613 1620 6-9 0653 0835 0921 0925 Area Central (contd) South 61A N 1 X Min Max 8 Fawn Behavior When Handled Following doe. Struggled, Remained where then lay still. placed. No reaction. Remained where placed. Nursing. Bedded. 1 Not timed. Doe alert; fawn walking around. 62A 6-11 0730 1010 1035 1039 Fawn following doe; doe was walking. 6lB 6-12 1530 1835 1845 1846 Both walking. 62B 6-14 1845 2010 2017 2017 63 6-14 2008 2034 2040 2040 64 6-15 Not recorded 1155 1205 1205 55 6-16 0729 1030 1045 1055 5 Nursing at 1835. 2 3 1 2 Fawn lying under Cemo; doe running away. Doe grooming fawn; fawn bedded. Walking with doe. 1 3 3 DlIr.ingand After Release When First Observed Other Deer Nearby Some struggle. Bedded for 2 min and ran uphill in direction of departing doe. Doe ran when Remained bedded fawn approached, at least few still when min. handled. Fawn bleated frequently, struggled, doe appeared, then ran away after capture. Calm; some bleating. Doe ran off to East. Quiet, some kicking. Doe ran off S, fawn placid. Bleated several times. Fawn walked away on release; last seen going over hill 60 yds away. 2 does. 2 does. 1 doe, 1 fawn (#42) At 1530 a doe was observed apparently searching for fawn near capture sight. None seen. Fawn stayed in previous bed. Very quiet, few days old? At release, ran off downhill quickly. 6 unk. Remained in bed. None seen. Remained in bed. None seen. 2 unk. 2 unk. I -I'- "I I-' �Table 2. Some temporal and behavorial aspects of capturing 30 mule deer fawns (continued). Nursing Periods ~min2 Time (hr~ Area South (contd) Collar No. Capture Date 67 First Observed Captured 6-16 1028 44 6-16 62C Released N X hln Max When First Observed When Handled 1028 1039 1055 - - - - Fawn bedded, no doe. Very quiet and still. Remained in bed. None seen 0739 1343 1348 1350 - - - - Fawn walking by itself. Very quiet. Stayed in bed. None seen. 6-17 0713 1005 1010 1011 - - - - Walking with doe; covered about 1/4 mi walking. Very quiet, no bleating. Ran off upslope rapidly. None seen. 56 6-17 1043 1043 1103 1104 - - - - Bedded. Very quiet. Very still - remained in bed. None seen. 57 6-17 0800 1145 1203 1204 - - - Bedded with doe; doe licked fawn frequently. Very quiet. Remained None seen. Nursing. Bedded 'vith doe 40 yds away. 47 ~ursing Fawn Behavior Last Sighting 6-20 0930 1035 1040 1041 2 1.5 1 3 could not be detected with certainty but fawns were in a nursing position. During and After Release in bed. Other Deer Nearby I '"" N I Docile - didn't run or bleat. None seen. �Table 3. Summary of transmitter-collar Transmitter Collar No.a Receiver Channel 43 52 53 65 45 48 54 51 58 75 49 38A 39 40 41 42 38B 61A 62A 61B 62B 63 64 55 67 44 9 19 4 1 7 16 11 3 14 22 18 C B G E D C 5 6 5 6 18 3 13 15 12 Type M C M T C T C T M b unit data and function as used on 30 mule deer fawns, 1975-76. Data AEErox. Pulse/Minute On Fawn Off Fawn - Ambient Temperature - 240 2/10 256 188 360 176 336 88 63 66 52 72 52 - 260 - - - C - T T T T T T T M M M M C C C C M 260 74 75 61 108 56 98 - - 196 165 160 240 92 98 - - - - - - - - - - - 64 75 66 60 77 70 - - - (F) SummaEY Transmitter Function Transmitter-Collar Unit No. Days Percent of Body Last Date Total Functional Functional Wt. at Capture Wt (g) 260 10.0 266 290 259 290 280 275 266 253 273 178 172 178 175 166 178 269 262 269 262 262 255 7.4 6.2 5.4 7.2 5.2 5.2 6.6 8.4 5.6 4.4 3.9 3.4 5.0 4.4 4.1 6.9 7.5 6.9 5.5 4.6 7.3 - - - 286 - - - 7.7 10-18-75 9-27-75 7-11-75 6-18-75 8-24-75 6-20-75 1-30-76 7-01-75 4-26-76 8-07-75 7-05-75 6-27-75 7-22-75 7-12-75 7-23-75 7-10-75 8-06-75 6-11-75 6-13-75 8-06-75 6-16-75 10-02-75 7-01-75 9-04-75 9-04-75 10-07-75 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 130 107 27 1 66 1 223 I, 303 40 6 14 37 26 32 15 44 2 2 55 2 110 16 80 80 113 ..,..I -.J w I �Table 3. Summary of transmitter-collar Transmitter Collar No. 62C 56 57 47 Receiver Channel Type 6 M 17 T T T 6 14 b unit data and function as used on 30 mule deer fawns, 1975-76 Data AEprox. Pulse/Minute Off Fawn On Fawn - - 120 156 80 96 - - Ambient Temperature (F) - (continued). Summa~ Transmitter Function Transmitter-Collar Unit No. Days Last Date Percent of Body Total Functional Functional Wt. at Capture Wt (g) 7.62 292 276 255 7.7 7.1 9.2 6.5 7-29-75 8-15-75 6-25-75 7-24-75 42 65 8 34 a Because transmitter-collar units were not delivered on schedule, units permanently lettered 38, 61, and 62 were removed from dead fawns and placed on newly-captured fawns , These f awns are recorded on project forms as 38A, 38B, 6lA, 61B, and 62A, 62B and 62C in chronological sequence of capture. Fawns 38A, 39, 40, 41, 42 and 38B we re fitted 'vith low frequency transmitters. b M T T C Hg switch, movement increases pulse rate. Temperature; collars 38 to 42, low to high temperature decreases pulse rate. Temperature; all other T collars, low to high temperature increases pulse rate. Pulse rate is relatively stable. I .p. '" +I �Table 4. Blood values from 10 radio-collared aspirated from the juglar. Variables Date of Capture Date of Blood Aspiration Body Wt (kg) at First Capture Erythrocytic mule deer fawns. Fawns were recaptured two to thirteen days after collaring. Blood 47 M 6-20 6-22 3.9 52 F 6-12 6-25 3.1 53 M 6-14 6-25 3.6 Fawn No. and Sex 55 M 56 F 57 F 6-16 6-17 6-17 6-22 6-22 6-22 3.3 4.1 3.0 61B M 6-12 6-22 3.9 63 M 6-14 6-22 5.7 64 F 6-15 6-22 3.5 67 M 6-16 6-22 2.3 3.52 23 7.2 37 12.2 4.97 29 9.6 4.98 29 9.2 39 13.4 41 14.0 31 10.2 4.84 24 7.6 Moderate Moderate Slight Slight Marked Marked Series Erythrocyte (106/mm3) Packed cell vol (%) Hemoglobin (g/lOO m1) Nucleated erythrocyte (106/mm3) Polychromasia Anisocytosis Poikilocytosis 4 2 Slight Marked 30 10.2 4.88 23 7.8 2 2 Marked Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Marked Marked Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Marked Moderate I ..., "'" \.n Leukocytic Series (Per mm3) I Leukocyte (103) Segmented neutrophil (%) Band neutrophil (%) Lymphocyte (%) Monocyte (%) Eosinophil (%) Basophil (%) Platelets 2.2 88 27 5.6 88 1 10 4 1 6 2 1 o o o Possibly low Normal Normal High 104 88 6.75 142 240 88 210 o 12 o o o 5.3 62 3 27 3 4.5 64 o 12.4 71 3.7 81 5.5 73 6.8 58 7.4 58 3.2 80 1 1 o o o 1 22 16 27 29 42 18 2 4 1 1 1 12 o o o o o o o o o o Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal 100 108 104 90 104 101 95 285 178 250 270 240 305 135 1 1 Chemistry Chloride Potassium Sodium Alkaline phosphotase 105 �Table 4. aspirated Blood values from 10 radio-collared from the juglar (continued). Variables Date of Capture Date of Blood Aspiration Body Wt (kg) at First. Capture Chemist~ 52 F 6-12 6-25 3.1 Fawns were recaptured M 53 6-14 6-25 3.6 two to thirteen days after collaring. Fawn No. and Sex F 51 M 56 F 55 6-17 6-17 6-16 6-22 6-22 6-22 4.1 3.0 3.3 F 64 6-15 6-22 3.5 M 6lB 6-12 6-22 3.9 M 63 6-14 6-22 5.7 64 12.0 92 11.0 9.5 - - - - - - 5.1 200 6.4 "- 6.3 200 5.5 Blood -67 M 6-16 6-22 2.3 (continued) CPK Phosphorus LDH Calcium Total serum protein Fibrinogen Remarks 47 M 6-20 6-22 3.9 mule deer fawns. 35 - 5.5 EDTA slide read one day after aspiration. 89 12.0 300 40 15.0 42 11.0 390 48 - - 5.2 300 5.7 400 6.7 500 Small reactive lymphs, some with densely clumped chromatin. Probably One born on giant 6-17. platelet, large amount of basophilic stippling. - - 5.6 200 Marked basophilic stippling in RBC. - ? 164 9.5 300 - 109 9.5 370 - 5.1 400 I ..., "" aI �-477- Table 5. The presence of bacteria in the nasal swabs of 20 mule deer fawns at the time of capture June, 1975. . I r . (J) £:1 . ~i' ,,-1 . Co. (:": :-. - o, . P, c: E (1. . . ~; o, <lJ [f; .•.. ' U . CC 0 U ~ . m 38 + + + + 39 + 40 + + + + 42 + + + + + + + 44 + + + + + + + 45 + + + + + + 47 + + .+ + a + + l~8 + u: () .D ~. E 4-1 U 0:-1 .-l c;j (J) h 0 r-' .,-1 ;J Z (J) + c;j ,D cJ co 0 r" r-! ~ H C; h 0 U Q) ;.t"" o. (J) 0. (J) 01 ~I u: + + 4- + + + + + + + + + 54 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ....... 58 --_. 1--' E,l I + --;1- I + + + EI c;j ~I ~I I .:- + + - 1,,_- __, a Not radio-collared, .. 0 E 0 H Q) ~~ p., <iJ «: + + .I + + + ++ I + + -l- + I± _;I_L_-1 -_.+ + + + + + I + I --I':-=- ---,--- --~-j r--·-r~~r---·· + > + I Co'!.. ~ E 0 -o ::J + ,'-;:-:-.(--r-----·.--,,-------------I 61R ") co 0 + + 57 ('"0 + 52 -- . o, (J) Co ~I f-. 55 . o. -i I+ I I'r + I captured when transmitters were not available. I �Table 6. Collar No. The history of 30 mule deer fawns equipped with radio-collars Dates and Times (hr) Last Captured Seen Alive and located with telemetry on a near-daily- basis, 1975-76. Circumstances Found Dead Field Exam. Pathologists of Death Diagnosis Probable Cause of Death Remarks Habitat 43 6-10-75, 1320 2-.06-76, 1240 52 6-12-75, 1544 12-27-75, 1012 5-11-76, 1010 Scavanged carcass None Unknown Riparian Portion hide lower jaw, dried stomach contents. 53 6-14-75, l327 7-10-75, 1027 7-11-75, 0830 Recent predation Multiple lacerations Predation, predator not identified Open pine Orbital bones crushed, puncture wounds. 65 6-17-75, 0940 5-03-76, 0920 Open pine With 13 does, 9 fawns. 45 6-19-75, 0906 8-19-75, 1015 Transmitter 8-24-75, l334 Unknown cause(s) Massive subcutaneous hemorrhage - bite wounds non functional. Predation, presume Irrigation Only the head, neck and front coyote meadowlegs remained. dense pine ecotone 48 6-19-75, 0906 8-18-75, 0924 4-12-76, 1140 Scavanged None Unknown - 54 6-21-75, 0954 1-26-75, 1045 1-30-75, 1030 Scavanged carcass Not examined Unknown Shrub 51 6-27-75, 1953 6-30-75, 1410 7-01-75, 1334 Intact carcass Starvation, dehydration 58 6-27-75, 1957 5-18-76, 1410 5-11-76, 1055 Scavanged carcass None Predation - unknown agent Riparian Head, spine, portion of rib cage, hide still intact. 75 6-28-75, 1937 8-06-75, 0834 8-07-75, 0845 Unknown cause(s) Acute viral and parasitic enteritis and necrotizing cecitis and colitis. Acute enteritis, cecitis, and colitis disease complex Irrigated meadow Weighed 8.4 kg at death. Thus, gained min of 0.12 kg per day. Starvation, perhaps Open pine abandoned by doe Last transmitter 1439, 6-20-75. signal heard Noted limping on 12-28-75. GI tract devoid of ingesta. I ::- " Cf' �Table 6. The history of 30 mule deer fawns equipped with radio~collars Collar No. Dates and Times (hr) Last Seen Alive Captured 1.9 6-29-75, 1055 18A 39 and located with telemetry on a near-daily basis, 1975-76 (continued). Circumstances of Death Found Dead Field Exam. Pathologists 7-02-75, 09·50 7-05-75, 0830 Starvation Probable starvation, dehydration 6-13-75, 1800 6-13-75, 1818 Collar 1635 only found 6-27-75 . 6-15-75, 1155 7-14-75, 0905 2-22-75, 1812 Scavanged carcass in advanced autolysis Diagnosis Unknown Probable Cause of Death Starvation, perhaps abandoned by doe Predation, predator not identified Habitat Remarks Open pine No milk in rumen or abomasum. Open pine No evidence of fawn in vicinity of collar. Open pine Intact skull with deep bites, ribs and forelegs remaining. J,.. 40 6-16-75, 1201 7-11-75, 1300 7-12-75, 0800 Predation Multiple traumatic lesions about head and neck Predation, presume coyote Riparian Buried under debris and tree limbs. 41 6-21-75, 1839 7-22-75, 1709 7-23-75, 0854 Recent predation Multiple traumatic lacerations Predation (tentative) Shrub An acute disease, process cannot be excluded. 42 6-25-75, 1036 7-08-75, 0944 7-10-75, 1413 Recent predation Recent presumed predation Predation, presume Felis spp . Shrub Unidentified carcass. 38B 6-28-75, 1555 8-09-75, 0722 8-11-75, 0636 Recent predation Multiple trauma (predator) Predation, presume coyote Dry wash Doe protected carcass from 5 coyotes. 61A 6-09-75, 0835 6-10-75, 1132 6-11-75, 1136 Not predation Starvation, dehydration Starvation, dehydration, perhaps abandoned by doe Shrub No food material in any portion of GI tract. 62A 6-11-75, 1010 6-12-75, 1130 6-13-75, 1140 Presumed abandoned Starvation, dehydration Starvation, dehydration, perhaps abandoned by doe Shrub-dry wash ecotone No food material in any portion of GI tract. cat seen near --------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~---- ...• \0 I �Table 6. The history of 30 mule deer fawns equipped with radio-collars Collar No. Dates and Times (hr) Last Captured Seen Alive 61B 6-12-75, 1845 62B and located with telemetry on a near-daily basis, 1975-76 (continued). Circumstances of Death Found Dead Field Exam. Pathologists 8-05-75, 0757 8-06-75, 0815 Intact carcass with wounds Multiple trauma, predator kill 6-14-75, 2010 6-15-75, 1030 6-16-75, 1500 Recent predation by eagle Not examined 63 6-14-75, 2034 1-20-76, 0935 Collar 1645 only found 5-10-75 64 6-15-75, 1155 6-30-75, 1040 7-01-75, 1045 55 6-16-75, 1030 9-04-75, 0822 9-09-75, 1250 67 6-16-75, 1028 9-04-75, 1055 44 6-16-75, 1343 10-07-75, 0744 No further contact 10-30-75, - Diagnosis Probable Cause of Death Habitat Remarks Pred~tion, coyote or lion Shrub Approached within one meter on 8-5. Possibly sick. Predation, presume golden eagle Shrub All viscera, except one kidney and left shoulder eaten. Shrub Transmitter non functional. Recent predation Multiple trauma, predation Predation, presume Felis spp. Dry wash Carcass under rock covered with debris. I ~ ce Well scavanged, predation unlikely . Not examined Unknown, dead about 48 hr Shrub Located with aerial telemetry. I Extreme decay Not seen Unknown Shrub Found by hunter "Presumed to be an" undiscovered disease process Undiagnosed disease process Shrub Abomasum contained much ingesta, including milk curd. 62C 6-17-75, 1005 7-28-75, 0951 7-29-75, 1025 Unknown cause(s) 56 6-17-75, 1043 8-23-75, 0822 Collar only found 5-7-76 57 6-17-75, 1145 6-24-75, 0910 6-25-75, 1350 Recent injury Traumatic injury to vital organs 47 6-20-75, 1035 7-23-75, 0806 7-24-75, 0829 Recent predation Not examined Shrub Injured by either Shrub a falling rock or caught under a rock Predation, presume Open pine coyote(s) Transmitter non functional. Released from rock on 6-23; seemed weak. Only head, neck, and front leg remaining. o �-481- Table 7. The history of survival of 30 mule deer fawns captured, radiocollared and tracked on a near-daily basis during 1975 and 1976. Area North Southwest Southeast Fawn No. Day of Capture to Last Day Seen Alive 43 52 53 65 45 48 54 51 58 75 49 241 199 26 320 61 60 219 3 315 39 3 X = 135.1 SD = 124.9 38A 39 40 41 42 38B X = 23.3 0 29 25 31 13 42 SD = 14.8 X = 53.5 1 1 54 1 200 15 80 80 114 41 68 7 33 SD = 57.2 61A 62A 61B 62B 63 64 55 67 44 62C 56 57 47 Number of Days Day of Capture to Day Found Dead Day to Last Seen Alive to Day Found Dead 333 27 X= 134 1 66 297 223 4 318 40 6 146.0 SD = 143.5 X = 30.8 X = 36.1 37 26 32 15 44 Sf) 11.0 5 237 4 1 3 1 3 X = 43.2 X = 2.8 SD 8 1 1 2 2 SD = 3.0 2 2 55 2 1 1 1 1 16 85 1 5 115 42 23 1 8 34 SD = 39.0 1 1 SD = 6.9 X = 3.6 X = 77.4 X = 76.2 X = 18.3 SD = 94.3 SD = 104.1 SD = 170.4 84.7 �-482- The circumstances of death of those fawns radio collared in 1975 are detailed, as noted.previously, in Table 6. A general summary through May 28,1976 of the history of fawns radio collared during 1974 and 1975 is given in Table 8. Insofar as assessing mortality rates are concerned, these data are ambiguous because of lost radiocollars and fawns which simply disappeared. If the number of fawns presumed alive are divided by the total documented deaths the minimum percentage of fawns surviving would approximate 8 percent over 11 months during 1975-76 and 16 percent for 19 months (last sighting of 1974 fawn, January 1976) during 1974-75. I hypothesized that survival of fawns might be link~d to activity level; i. e., high levels of activity would increase the probability of predation or accidental death. The index employed was the distance of each relocation site for each fawn from its capture site. The 1,600 relocations are described statistically by month in Table 9, and from capture to March 31, 1976 in Table 10. Analyses to test this hypothesis will be presented in subsequent reports. Of interest, however, are the grossly different mean distances traveled by twins during one month. For example, during September 1975 fawn number 43 had a mean distance of 2,158 ft, while fawn number 52 had a mean distance of 865 ft (Table 9). Also of interest are the apparent distances traveled by some very young fawns. Thus, although fawn number 39 was relocated only 8 times during its one approximate month of life, these distances averaged 13,662.5 ft (Table 10) and inspection of the raw data showed that she was about 15,550 ft from her capture site on both July 9 and July 22. The percentages and ratios of radio collared fawns to unmarked fawns are related to the search effort expended by month from June 1975 through March 1976 in Table 11. Both marked and unmarked fawns recorded per person hour increased from June through September, then decreased through November and fluctuated from December through March. As noted previously (Anderson 1975), fawns recorded per person hour increased from June through September when an actual decrease in absolute numbers of fawns must have been taking place. This illustrates the very cryptic nature of mule deer fawns and the difficulty of assessing the status of fawns during the first three to four months of life. In Table 12, monthly tabulations of 14,430 deer observed in 7,666 person hours show that more deer per person hour can be seen during September than any other month, fawns were more readily seen than bucks and does were more readily seen than fawns, and bucks were seldom seen except during October and November. A comparison of the 1974-75 and 1975-76 indices of mule deer recorded per person hour (Table 13) shows that even though several times more person hours were expended during each month except September during 1975-76 more deer per person hour were seen during each month of 1974-75 except July. These differences are believed to reflect the restricted area traveled by most people during 1975-76. The much greater number of bucks seen per person hour during 1974-75 may reflect an actual difference in the buck population since the 1974-75 and 1975-76 indexes differ by a factor of 3 to 8. Coyotes Nine coyotes were caught by contract trapper George E. Stewart from October 1975 to January 1976 (Table 14). Some of their physical characteristics are �-483- given in Table 15. Trap injuries and the effects of drug immobilization on each coyote are described in Table 16. Apparently only one coyote (no. 39) was released without broken skin, bones, or tendons. The beneficial effects of the tranquilizer in preventing injury appears to be minimal at best. Vertebrates other than coyotes captured, killed, escaped or released are listed in Table 17. A two year comparison of abundance indices of cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.), a presumably important food of coyotes, is made on a monthly basis in Table l7A. Relevant details o.n capture sites, ear tags, and transmitters fitted to 9 coyotes are listed in Table 18. A comparison with the channels employed for coyotes with those for fawns in Table 3 shows inadvertent duplicaton by Davtron of the following channels: channel 11, fawn 54, coyote 40; channel 4, fawn 53, coyote 41; channel 14, fawn 58, coyote 42; channel 18, fawn 49, fawn 63, coyote 43; channelS, fawn 6lA, coyote 44; channel 9, fawn 43, coyote 45; channel 16, fawn 48, coyote 47. Some confusion may have resulted from the duplications of channel 14 and channel 9 during the winter. However, by the time the coyotes were radio collared most of the fawns with duplicate channels had died. Statistical descriptions of the distances coyotes traveled from their capture to relocation sites are shown on a monthly basis for individual coyotes in Table 19, and for all coyotes in Table 20. These values, based on 385 relocations may reflect either actual coyote activity or a stereotyped pattern of radio tracking a widely ranging animal on a limited, familiar area. For the four months involved, coyote travel seems quite limited, with little change over time. This impression of limited travel by the coyotes under study belies the data for three coyotes in Table 21. The information therein also suggests a high rate of mortality among radio collared coyotes since it is likely that others had died and were not found and reported. Only two of the seven dead coyotes were found by project personnel. DISCUSSION One aspect of telemetry that we wished to evaluate was the relative efficiency of high and low frequency equipment in radio tracking fawns in mountainous habitat. Because the low frequency receivers were well used, often malfunctioned, and the high and low frequency transmitters differed in voltage, this evaluation could not be made. The Davtron equipment was generally satisfactory, however, and once a signal was received the fawn could usually be located in less than one-half hour. The distances of signal reception ranged from less than 100 yards to over three miles under ideal line-of-sight conditions from elevated sites. In most topography, signals were commonly received at distances of about onequarter to three quarters of a mile. A high ridge or even small ridgetops usually eliminated an effective signal regardless of range. The transmitters indicating fawn movement were often helpful in tracking fawns in dense cover, but those indicating a change in external body temperature were seldom helpful. This was probably due to the sensor not in contact with the animal. Fabricating a device to constantly hold the sensor against the fawn neck from an expandable collar proved to be a most intractable problem. �-484- Table 8. The history of 53 radio-collared mule deer fawns captured during June, 1974 and 1975. Based on field work through May 28, 1976. 1975 1974 Total 4 Presumed alive 2 Disappe ared 1 5 6 Radio collar only found on ground 3 4 7 5 7 12 Documented deaths Cause unknown Probable predation d 4 4 Presume golden eagle 1 1 Presume Felis spp.d 2 2 Predator unknownd 5 1 6 4 4 8 Presume coyote b Probable abandonment by doe ' c Probable diseasec 2 2 Accidental injuryC 1 1 Total 30 23 53 a A male and female seen infrequently but always within one-half mile of their capture sites. Not seen since February 1976. b Starvation and dehydration were the ultimate causes of death. c Based on laboratory autopsies of 19 fawns. d Based on field observations and laboratory autopsies. �Table 9. The approximate distances (ft)a traveled by 29 radio-collared mule deer fawns from their capture sites to relocation sites, 10 June 1975 to 31 March 1976. An additional fawn (No. 38A) was never relocated. Fawnb 43 Statistic N X SD Min Max 52 N X SD Min Max 45 N X SD Min Max 48 49 N June July August September October November December January 10 1,485 833 600 2,800 31 1,782 791 400 3,400 30 1,960 818 300 3,200 30 2,158 635 600 3,200 15 2,030 776 700 3,900 - 6 1,408 592 600 2,100 5 1,510 976 800 3,100 15 2,653 1,047 950 4,200 30 1,683 1,098 200 3,300 30 1,055 902 100 3,350 30 865 748 0 2,600 14 1,346 1,226 250 4,800 31 894 800 4,600 23 2,133 1,246 800 4,700 5 3,240 1,026 1,800 4,500 11 2,636 1,246 1,600 5,450 1,947 X 2 3,750 SD Min Max 2,500 5,000 11 2,091 971 800 4,200 2 1,100 141 1,000 1,200 5 1,860 860 1,000 2,950 N X SD Min Max 1,768 - 1 - - 450 450 February March 1 1,700 1,700 5 2,150 1,598 400 3,400 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I "'" cc VI I �Table 9. The approximate distances (ft)a traveled by 29 radio-collared mule deer fawns from their capture sites to relocation 10 June 1975 to 31 March 1976. An additional fawn (No. 38A) was never relocated (continued). Fawnb 51 53 December January 30 1,915 933 400 3,700 29 1,445 914 200 3,750 29 1,326 740 400 3,850 23 1,065 463 350 2,000 25 1,632 974 200 4,300 25 1,658 490 300 3,050 25 2,034 770 600 3,400 2 1,000 778 450 1,550 30 1,782 1,139 200 4,400 26 1,165 562 200 200 27 1,322 761 250 2,500 23 1,374 706 350 2,750 24 1,562 905 400 4,100 26 1,833 682 600 3,200 29 2,505 898 1,000 4,350 27 2,237 1,449 450 5,300 27 2,561 1,605 350 5,300 2 2,400 1,131 1,600 3,200 - 2 1,250 919 600 1,900 3 1,633 153 1,500 1,800 6 1,542 856 600 2,700 12 1,004 343 650 1,700 21 1,350 549 400 2,500 24 1,519 835 0 3,200 20 1,250 677 0 2,400 15 2,183 1,247 650 4,050 3 700 173 5'00 800 1 ·800 800 14 1,514 1,053 150 3,400 11 1,514 460 550 2,200 10 2,645 1,045 700 3,500 N N X SD Min Max N X SD Min Max 65 November N SD Min Max 58 October July X 54 September June SD Min Max N j{ SD Min Max March February August Statistic X sites, ."..I 00 '" I --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 9. The approximate distances (ft)a traveled by 29 radio-collared mule deer fawns from their capture sites to relocation 10 June 1975 to 31 March 1976. An additional fawn (No. 38A) was never relocated (continued). Fawnb 38B Statistic June N X SD Min Max ~ 39 40 N X SD Min Max o 1,400 August 23 6,015 1,862 200 7,200 7,325 402 6,700 7,800 N 1 7 11,700 SD Min Max 11,700 11,700 13,943 136 11,550 15,550 o N 4 X 1,438 25 1,400 1,450 N 3 X 900 557 300 1,400 SD Min Max September October November December January February March 6 6 4,892 2,648 1,400 7,600 X SD Min Max 41 2 700 1,990 July sites, 8 2,4l3 1,191 500 4,000 12 1,783 1,148 700 4,150 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I ~ 00 -..J I �Table 9. The approximate distances (ft)a traveled by 29 radio-collared mule deer fawns from their capture sites to relocation sites, 10 June 1975 to 31 March 1976. An additional fawn (No. 38A) was never relocated (continued). Fawnb 44 July August SD Min Hax 13 1,954 869 0 3,150 30 2,138 718 600 4,100 17 3,350 2,019 400 3,60d N if SD Min Hax 13 1,942 906 0 3,200 30 2,253 707 600 4,200 22 2,307 682 450 3,050 N 10 3,505 3,519 0 11,500 24 8,623 1,196 6,300 12,150 13 2,261 1,419 600 4,850 31 1,543 902 500 4,400 31 1,497 633 300 2,550 5 2,710 1,370 1,000 4,500 13 2,485 1,334 1,000 5,000 31 1,589 898 500 4,450 31 1,393 684 100 2,550 4 2,762 1,617 1,000 4,600 N ir 2Q. 47 if SD Min Max 55 N if SD Min Hax E September June Statistic N if SD Min Hax October November December January February March ..,..I 00 00 I --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 9. The approximate distances (ft)a traveled by 29 radio-collared mule deer fawns from their capture sites to relocation 10 June 1975 to 31 March 1976. An additional fawn (No. 38A) was never relocated (continued). Fawnb 57 Statistic N X SD Min Max 61A N X SD Min Max 61B N X" SD Min Max 62A N X SD Min Max .ill N X SD Min Max June July August September October November December January February sites, March 8 1,212 752 o 2,600 3 133 231 o 400 16 1,456 867 o 3,050 30 2,543 2,588 300 10,400 6 1,700 708 700 2,650 3 100 132 o 250 2 900 990 200 1,600 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .,.I ex> '" I �Table 9. The approximate distances (ft)a traveled by 29 radio-collared mule deer fawns from their capture sites to relocation sites, 10 June 1975 to 31 March 1976. An additional fawn (No. 38A) was never relocated (continued). Fawnb Statistic June July August September October November December January February March ------ &l N x SD Min Hax 62C N X SD Hin Hax 64 N X SD Min Max a Based on measurements each day. 16 2,769 1,312 100 4,400 31 3,198 1,092 1,200 5,650 13 1,319 1,029 0 3,800 29 1,912 1,167 300 4,200 13 6,762 4,538 0 17,500 31 2,935 1,468 800 5,550 27 3,170 1,231 600 5,000 1 I .0- - '"'0 - I 9,400 9,400 made on U.S. G.S. Quadrangles b Underlined adjacent fawn numbers indicate twins. (scale 1:24,000), contour interval -40 ft. An attempt was made to re1oc.ate each fawn �-491- Table 10. The distances (ft) mule deer fawns moved from their capture sites 9 June 1975 to 31 March 1976 based on relocations with radio telemetry. Eawn No. and Dates of Relocations No. Relocations Mean SD Min 43 6/15/75-2/6/76 124 1914.9 774.0 300 3900 45 6/20/75-8/23/75 65 2129.2 1l00.7 800 5450 48 6/20/75-8/18/75 18 2594.4 1195.9 800 5000 49 6/29/75-7/5/75 7 1642.9 796.0 1000 2950 51 6/27/75-7/1/75 4 725.0 150.0 500 800 52 6/15/75-12/27/75 125 1423.6 1142.0 100 4800 53 6/17/75-7/11/75 25 1514.0 830.2 150 3400 54 6/21/75-1/ 30/76 196 1642.4 874.1 200 4300 58 6/28/75-3/31/76 241 1827.6 1127.8 200 530 65 6/18/75-3/3/76 102 1495.1 848.1 0 4300 75 6/30/75-8/7 /75 35 4861. 4 1465.7 1000 6650 38B 7/1/75-8/9/75 29 6286.2 1744.9 200 8900 39 6/27/75-7/22/75 8 13662.5 1492.3 11550 15550 40 6/18/75-7/12/75 12 2087.5 1064.5 500 4000 Max North Area Southwest Area ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-492- Table 10. The distances (ft) mule deer fawns moved from their capture sites 9 June 1975 to 31 March 1976 based on relocations with radio telemetry (continued) . --_._------------------Fawn No. Date of Relocations No. Relocations Mean SD Min 41 6/23/75-7/23/75 IS 1606.7 1101. 8 300 4150 42 6/25/75-7/10/75 8 3843.8 2985.5 o 7600 44 6/17/75-10/7/75 94 2402.1 1368.15 o 9400 47 34 7117.6 3158.82 o 12150 80 1715.0 1001. 97 300 4850 65 2193.8 746.53 o 4200 57 6/ 17 /75-6/25/75 8 1212.5 752.50 o 2600 6LA 2 200.0 282.89 o 400 52 2111.5 2084.01 o 10400 3 100.0 l32.29 o 250 62B 6/14/75-6/15/75 2 900.0 989.95 200 1600 62e 42 1728.5 ll47.75 o 4200 111 3183.3 1499.47 100 9900 64 6/15/75-7/1/75 14 6950.0 4417.40 o 17500 67 6/17/75 --9/4/75 79 1719.0 1032.93 100 5000 Max Southwest Area (cont.) Southeast Area 6/20/75-7/24/75 5S 6/17/75-9/9/75 56 6;17175-8/23/75 6/9: 75-6/11/75 61.3 6':'0/7'5-8,6/15 62A 6/11/75-6/13/75 6/17/75-7/29/75 63 6/14/75- ------_._---------- �Table 11. Percentages and ratios of marked (radio-collared) expended by month within the study area, 1975-76. Year 1975 Marked No. Percent Unmarked No. Percent June 107 32.4 223 July 352 46.3 August 286 September October Month to unmarked mule deer fawns recorded and the person hours of search effort Ratio-Marked Fawns Recorded Marked Per Unmarked Per Person Hour Person Hour l: to 11nmarked Total Person Hours 67.6 330 .480 2,756 .039 .081 466 53.7 813 .755 1,406 .250 .331 39.8 433 60.2 719 .661 858 .333 .505 167 30.8 376 69.2 543 .444 315 .530 1.194 90 23.6 292 76.4 382 .308 361 .249 .809 273 .230 445 .115 .499 400 .246 469 .168 .684 November 51 18.7 222 81. 3 December 79 19.8 321 80.2 I .J>- -o w I 1976 January 78 20.1 310 79.9 388 .252 429 .182 .722 February 47 14.9 269 85.1 316 .175 336 .140 .801 March 42 13.3 274 86.7 316 .153 291 .144 .941 �Table 12. Year 1975a Total numbers and indices of mule deer recorded per person hour by sex and age category within the study area, 1975-76. Month M Total No. Mule Deer Recorded Fawn UncI. F l: Total Person Hours M F Deer Per Person Hour Uncl. Fawn l: June 109' 1,277 330 1,543 3 ,259 2,756 .040 .463 .052 .569 1.188 July 68 810 818 161 1-.857 _ 1,406 .048 .576 .331 .115 1.321 August 19 656 719 147 1,541 858 .022 .765 .505 .171 1. 796 September 24 627 543 62 1.256 315 .076 1.990 1.194 .197 3.987 October 40 485 382 68 975 361 .111 1.343 1.058 .188 2.700 November 38 478 273 447 1,236 445 .086 1.074 .613 1.004 2.777 December 25 414 400 373 1,212 469 .053 .883 .853 .795 2.584 - - - .967 2.655 - 1.155 2.821 - 1.351 3.460 .044 .732 .585 .521 1.882 I .I>\0 1976b l: January 8 328 388 415 1,139 429 February 3 241 316 388 948 336 March 0 298 316 393 1,007 291 334 5,614 4,485 3,997 14,430 7,666 a Deer recorded on the randomly-selected, X 1/4-mi1e2 quadrats (see 1976 Progress Rept., Work Plan 19, Job 2) are excluded. b Antler loss and fffivngrowth precluded accurate identification of bucks, does, and fawns during January, February and March. ratios, however, include the deer tentatively assigned to the three categories during those months. The mean .I>I �Table l3. A comparison of the 1974-75 and 1975-76 indices of mule deer recorded per person hour within the study area. Male Female Total Deer Fawn Total Person Hours Month 1974-75 1975-76 1974-75 1975-76 1974-75 1975-76 1974-75 1975-76 1974-75 1975-76 June .l32 .040' 1.019 .463 .162 .052 2;027 1.188 593 2,756 July .101 .048 .642 .576 .236 .331 1.114 1.321 288 1,406 August .195 .022 1.234 .765 .532 .505 2.216 1.796 231 858 September .485 .076 2.576 1.190 1.809 1.194 5.700 3.987 340 315 October .354 .111 2.836 1.343 2.175 1.058 6.429 2.700 189 361 November .333 .086 2.942 1.074 1.667 .613 5.717 2.777 120 445 .348 .053 3.485 .883 2.182 .853 6.212 2.584 66 469 .,. I December '"I IJ> �Table 14. The coyote trapping effort by month and individual coyotes caught within Sections 3, 4, 17, 22, 28, T11N, R70W and Section 34, T12N, R70W, 9 October 1975 to 25 January 1976. No. Days Traps Were Set No. TrapsaSet Per Day Total Trap Days Total Coyotes Captured October November December January .. 22 31 31 25 8-18 5-17 15-20 12-26 348 379 748 452 2 4 3 0 39 40 41 42 - 114 257 477 520 E 109 5-26 1,927 9 43 44 45 46 47 587 650 996 1,050 1,217 Month Cumulative TraE Days Per CaEture No. Days Coyote No. aTrap numbers were changed according to relative numbers of trap visitations by coyotes, disturbance by other animals, discovery of more desirable trap sites or apparent trap malfunction. I -I>- '"a-I Table 15. Some physical characteristics of four male and five female coyotes captured with steel traps, radio-collared, and released on the study area, 9 October to 27 December, 1975. Ear Tag No. Sex Date Captured Body Wt. (kg) Hind Foot 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 M M F F* F F* M* F* M* 10-9 11-17 11-14 11-17 11-21 11-25 12-14 12-17 12-27 9.7 9.3 9.3 10.4 9.5 10.2 13.4 8.6 11.3 19.4 19.0 19.0 19.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 18.5 20.5 *Coyotes more than one year of age. criteria of Gier (1957:50, 51, 55). Lengths (cm) Tail Ear 33.9 40.0 31.5 39.0 29.0 38.0 39.0 35.0 32.0 11.4 11.5 10.0 13.5 11.5 11.5 11.0 11.0 11.0 ear-tagged Total Body Chest Circumference (cm) Min Neck Max Neck 112.0 123.0 114.5 114.0 107.0 114.0 124.0 115.0 114.0 47.1 45.0 44.0 45.0 45.0 49.0 53.0 52.0 54.0 27.0 24.0 24.5 26.0 24.5 28.0 33.0 31.5 31.0 28.0 27.0 28.0 28.5 27.0 30.0 35.0 33.0 33.0 All others estimated to have been born during 1975 according to the growth curves and dentition �Table 16. Description of steel trap injuries and drug immobilization to 9 coyotes, 9 October to 27 December 1975. Montgomery No.4 w Ith padded, offset jaws and anchored by drag hooks attached to an 8 ft chain. Coyote No. Tranquilizer Taba Usage and Effects Foot Caught and Location of Trap Jaws Traps were Description of Damage 0 Left front, 1/2 way through pad, 45 angle. No bleeding, no swelling, nc broken skin, no broken bones. Definitely tranquilized but ran 15 meters on approach. Left front, above pad - upper side. Lots of swelling, broken skin. 41 Chewed up but did not ingest tab, docile. Left front, above first joint. Broken skin, tendon cut, swo l.l.en , 42 Could not find tab, no apparent tranquilizing effect. Left front, above pad. Swelling, cut skin on top, no broken bones. 43 Ch ewed , but did not inges t drug, Left front, by three toes on the outside. Very little swelling, minimal bleeding which stopped during handling. 39 Tab chewed but not completely eaten, no apparent effect. 40 docile on handling. 44 Could not find tab, no tranquilizing effect. Right front, above pad. Feet frozen, skin broken and bones visible. Bleeding evident, no broken bones. 45 Did not chew or ingest tab. Right hind, by 3 toes. Some bleeding, no broken bones. 46 Could not find tab, docile on handling. Left front, inside 2 toes. Small 1/2" cut on top, no broken bones. 47 Tab apparently ingested but pulled drag about 1/2 mile; docile on handling. Left front, 2 center toes. Some swelling, both toes broken at first joint and cut. a 600 mg of propomazine hydrochloride per tab. Tab construction modified from Balser 1965. J,. '" -..J I �Table 17. Vertebrates which were killed, released, or escaped but not radio-collared 1975 to 25 January 1976. Species Cottontail (Sylvilagus sp.) Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) Bobcat (Lynx rufus) Coyote (Canis latrans) caught but escaped 1: a October November la 3b la during the coyote trapping effort, 9 October December January Total 0 0 0 5 2 1 1 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 la 1 4 3 1 Released alive. b One rabbit released alive. J,. Table l7A. Cottontail rabbits recorded per person hour within the study area for each of 11 months 1975-76 compared to similar values obtained during 1974-75. Month May June July August September October November December January February March Total Number Person Hours Total Number Rabbits 105 2,756 1,406 858 315 361 445 469 429 336 291 16 399 440 388 143 124 119 75 62 33 29 Rabbits Per Person Hour 1975-76 1974-75 .152 .145 .313 .452 .454 .343 .267 .160 .145 .098 .100 .413 .104 .601 .454 .374 .312 .467 .364 .107 .126 .213 '" 00 I �Table 18. Details on capture sites, ear tags and transmitters fitted to nine coyotes 9 October 1975 to 27 December 1975. CaEture Site Elevation Legal DescriEtion Twp. R 1/4 S (ft) Ear Tags Left Color Posi. a Ear Tag No. Date of Capture Sex Age (Year) 39 10-9 M < 1 7,040 SE 34 12N 70W Y F R 40 10-17 M < 1 6,700 NE 28 UN 70W Y F 41 11-14 F < 1 7,100 SE 4 11N 70W R 42 11-17 F > 1 6,800 SE 3 UN 70W 43 11-21 F < 1 6,960 SE 22 11N 44 11-25 F > 1 6,720 NW 22 UN Right Color Posi. No. Transmitter Channel Wt (g) R 4540 20 149 R R 4539 11 150 R Y F 4496 4 R F Y R 4538 14 70W R F Y R 4501 18 70W R R Y F 4497 5 148 157 ~I co co 45 12-14 M > 1 7,000 SE 22 11N 70W Y R R F 4541 9 46 12-17 F > 1 6,920 SE 3 UN 70W R F Y R 4494 2 47 12-27 M > 1 7,000 NE 17 UN 70W Y R R F 4507 16 146 a Identically numbered metal ear tags. Black numbers one inch in height on yellow (Y) or red (R) backgrounds. of tags on ear; indicating visibility of numbers from front (F) or rear (R) of coyote. Posi. denotes (position) I �Table 19. Approximate mean distances (miles) traveled by individual radio-collared coyotes from their capture sites to their relocation sites, 10 October 1975 to 31 March 1976. C0:i0te Number Month Statistic 39 40 October N 12 .89 .33 .40 1. 70 6 1.17 .72 .32 2.20 18 1.08 .10 .86 2.08 13 1.62 .10 1.20 2.08 22 .89 .07 .46 1.25 - X SD Min Max November N X SD Min Max December N X SD Min Max January N X SD Hin Max February !'! X SD Min Max March N X SD Min Max 18 .81 .40 .20 1. 75 10 .78 .57 .06 1.81 9 1.45 .47 .52 2.03 41 42 43 44 7 .89 .87 .46 2.86 4 .52 .06 .48 .60 45 46 47 - 29 .68 .34 .30 1.90 9 .89 .52 .32 1.90 17 2.82 1.00 .75 4.40 9 .64 .27 .30 1. 20 6 1.50 .84 .90 2.80 5 .98 .62 .30 1.50 3 .13 .06 1.10 1.60 13 .61 .24 .40 1.30 4 2.18 0.63 1.60 2.90 5 3.18 .54 2.50 3.20 4 .78 .50 .60 1.20 5 .85 .29 .50 1.30 9 1.25 .46 .50 1.60 2 1.65 .78 1.10 2.20 1 7 .81 .53 .31 1.87 17 1.63 .80 1.25 1.84 - 16 1.01 .68 .31 2.06 22 .64 .17 .31 1.06 20 .54 .87 .16 1.06 1 1.00 5 .44 .07 .40 .56 16 1.63 .45 .59 1.84 13 1.00 .61 .53 2.12 14 .54 .09 .46 .84 10 .29 .25 .16 .98 3 .90 .97 .53 1.23 - - - - .81 .81 1 - - .25 .25 - - - - I lJ1 0 0 I 1.00 1.00 �Table 20. Approximate mean distances (miles) traveled by all radio-collared month, 10 October 1975 to 31 March 1976. No. Coyotes Month i as 42 97 63 94 71 9 8 8 Details on 7 of 23 radio-collared Ear Tag No. Sex Dates Death Capture 24 M* 7-31-74 1-21-75 26 28 M F* 8-24-74 9-2-74 3-7-75 1-7-76 31 32 34 37 F* M M F 9-6-74 9-15-74 11-11-74 12-15-74 3-7-75 10-7-75 10-7-75 4-12-75 * No. Relocations 2 4 7' October November 'December January February March Table 21. 1976. ,. coyotes from capture sites to relocation sites by Mean SD. Min Max .98 1.16 1.18 1.16 .49 .52 .95 .81 .54 .64 .32 .46 .30 .20 .06 .16 2.20 2.86 4.40 3.20, 2.06 2.03 0.89 0.95 coyotes known to have died following capture with steel traps, 31 July 1974 to 31 March Cause of Death Trapped and choked Shot (ground) Shot (helicopter) Shot (ground) Shot (ground7) Shot (ground) Trapped & shot Legal DescriEtion of Sites Death CaEture 1/4 S T R 1/4 S T R Approx. Distance (miles) Between Capture and Kill Sites SW 29 llN 70W SE 32 llN 70W 1.2 SW NE 29 27 UN 70W llN 70W NE 20 llN 70W 32 ION 68W 1.4 9.5 NE NW SW SW 29 27 29 26 llN UN llN llN NW SE SE 22 llN 70W 15 llN 70W 10 9N 72W 32 13N 7lW 1.3 1.3 16.8 13.0 70W 70W 70W 70W - - Coyotes more than one year of age as estimated by the criteria of Gier (1957:50-51, 55). I IJ1 o f-' Remarks Most of left front forepaw gone. Reportedly "molesting" cattle. No foot injury, no collar, one ear tag missing. Reportedly "molesting" cattle. Dead perhaps a week or more. Found by landowner. Some toes missing on one foot. Upper Dale Creek, Wyoming. I �-502- While radio telemetry is the only possible way to directly assess mortality in free ranging fawns, radio tracking as described herein may in itself constitute a source of mortality. I speculate that the presence of the radio collar and the daily tracking as employed in this study may attract predators and that the daily disturbance and flight may place critical stress on the fawn or cause the doe and fawn to separate, perhaps increasing the vulnerability of the fawn to predation or accident. Capture, handling, and collaring almost certainly caused some does to abandon their fawns in this study. White et al. (1972:897) reported that in Texas, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), "capture, and particularly the marking of young fawns increased mortality." The disappearance of collared fawns and lost collars accounted for 13 of the 53 fawns captured and equals the documented loss to predators (Table 8). An additional 12 fawns were found dead, but the cause of death was not determined (Table 8). Therefore, the history of 25 of 53 fawns is essentially unknown. It is clear that any statistic of fawn mortality presented herein must be regarded as a gross est.imate. I hypothesize that appreciably more precise estimates of fawn mortality may be very difficult and certainly more expensive to obtain. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E. 1975. Evaluation of radio telemetry. Pp. 415-474. In Colorado Div. Wildl. Game Research Report, July. Part 2. 191-504 p. Balser, D. S. 1965. Tranquilizer tabs for capturing wild carnivores. Wildl. Manage. 29(3):438-442. J. Cowan, I. McT., and P. J. Bandy. 1969. Observations on the haematology of several races of black-·tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Canadian J. Zool. 47(5):1021-1024. Fashingbauer, B. A. 1962. Expanding plastic collar and aluminum collar for deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 26(2):211-213. Geduldig, H. L. 1975. Self-expanding plastic collar for radio-tagging deer. Coyote Research Newsletter 3(1):9. (Abstr.). Gier, H. T. 1957. Coyotes in Kansas. Kansas State Univ. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 393. (Revised 1968). 118 p. White, M., F. F. Knowlton, and W. C. Glazener. 1972. Effects of dam-newborn fawn behavior on capture and mortality. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(3) :897-906. Prepared by __ ~_--:--:-----:£ __ ~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher _ �APPENDIX I -503COLLARED FAWN LOCATION RECORD, W-38-R, WP 19, J 1, Southern Portfon Date(s) ,'Observer(s) and Hours of Search ~----------------. , Total Man-Hr Searched ------''---='-- TIME Fawn No. Comments: Began Search First Signal Location Telemetric Visual Observer(s) Comments ------------------------------------------------,------- ��July 1976 -505- JOB PROGRESS State of Project REPORT COLORADO W-38-R-31 No. Deer~Elk Work Plan No. 19 Job Title Evaluation Period April 1, 1975 to March Covered: Personnel: Investigations Job No. of Herd Structure 2 _ Methodology 31, 1976 Allen E. Anderson, Dan Baker, David C. Bowden, Allison Broida, Eugene G. Johnson, Beth MacConnell, Dean E. Medin, David L. Otis, Tom H. Pojar, Elmer Remmenga, Laverne Stelter, Charles Wallmo. ABSTRACT The validity of three models for sample observations from'each of two sampling plans for estimating fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios of Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) are examined and the results of data analysis under the most appropriate model are presented. During 1962-65, the first sampling plan (route counts) consisted of dawn-to.,.dusk circular routes designed to classify the maximum number of deer on representative portions of the Cache la Poudre winter range. The second sampling plan (~uadrat counts) consisted of classifying deer within randomly-selected, l/4-mile quadrats stratified by subjective estimates of low and high deer densities and proportionally allocated wi-thin each of eight topographic quadrangles on Cache la Poudre winter range and two quadrangles within and adjacent to the Maxwell ranch during 1974-75. In 1975-76, the two sampling plans were compared by running each of 12. routes through as many randomly located quadrats as could be traversed in one day. Thus randomized, the route and quadrat counts obtained on consecutive days could be used to compare their respective fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios and estimate sample sizes. Time limitations, however, reduced the number of quadrats on Cache la Poudre range from 106 to 58. Because of the statistical models examined, fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios are stated in terms of PF = F/(F + D) where PF = the proportion of fawns, F = the number of fawns, and D = the number of does and PB = B/(B + D) where PB = the proportion of bucks, B = the number of bucks, and D = the number of does. Tests indicated a significant (P<O.Ol) departure of the observations from the binomial distribution, a biased SE in the linear regression through the origin model, and no serious flaws in the standard ratio model. The following findings are based on the latter model .• Route counts indicated a significant decrease (P<O.Ol) in PF from 1962-65 during both fall and winter. PF also decreased significantly (P < 0.01) from fall to winter during 1962-63, 1963-64, and 1964-65. PB increased significantly �-506- ABSTRACT (Continued) (P<O.Ol) in successive winters 1962-65, but decreased significantly (P<0.025) from fall to winter when proportions were pooled over years. In general, the 1975-76 fall and winter PF and PB were significantly (P<0.05) less than their counterparts, 1962-65. The significant annual changes in PF and PB during 1962-65 were concurrent with documented environmental changes and certain physiological changes in Cache la Poudre mule deer. Quadrat counts during 1974-75 revealed that significantly higher PF (P<O.lO) and PB (P<O.Ol) were found in the low density strata. During 1975-76, the same pattern occurred but the differences were not significant. The route and quadrat sampling plans yielded nearly identical PF and PB values during 1975-76. Based on the 1975-76 deer classifications, it was found that to be within 10 percent of the true ratio at the 95 percent confidence level, route counts would require 6 routes for PF and 127 routes for PB while quadrat counts would require 103 quadrats for PF and 635 quadrats for PB. Minimum mean densities (±SE) of mule deer estimated on Cache la Poudre winter range were l6.40±3.42 deer/mile2 based on quadrat counts and 43.l7±11.93 deer/mile2 based on route counts. Possible errors in the measurement of the route length and width may be factors in this discrepancy. �-507EVALUATION OF HERD STRUCTURE METHODOLOGY David C. Bowden and Allen E. Andersona In a previous report (Bowden and Anderson 1975), we briefly reviewed the literature on obtaining sample ratios of sex and age and their various uses in North Anlerican deer. It was noted that there was little information on either the statistical attributes or sampling plans needed to obtain the necessary data. We pointed out that although Caughley (1974:562) had concluded that; "age ratios cannot be interpreted without a knowledge of the rate of increase and if we have an estimate of this we do not need age ratios," there was some evidence (Smith ~ al. 1969, Swank 1958:78-79, Taber and Dasmann 1958:129) that fawn:doe ratios may reflect the dynamics of some deer populations. The present report covers much of the same material as the 1975 report but with corrections and a major change in conclusions. The Cache la Poudre data were used to develop models and compare sampling plans since it represents the only available long-term source of fawn:doe and buck:doe information obtained by ground counts according to a definite sampling plan. A new model is presented which permits valid estimations of the standard errors of both fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios but at a practicable level of sampling intensity for fawn:doe ratios only. P. S. OBJECTIVE To test and impr~ve the field and statistical methodology used to estimate selected population parameters of mule deer and coyotes. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Study existing herd structure data to provide an improved statistical rationale for analyses of fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios. 2. Analyze data and submit reports for publication. METHODS AND MATERIALS An ecological study of the Rocky Mountain mule deer population within a 1376.5 km2 portion of the Cache la Poudre River drainage in Roosevelt National Forest in Larimer County, northcentral Colorado was conducted from 1961 to aDr. Bowden, Dept. Statistics, Colorado State University, wrote most of the METHODS AND MATERIALS and the RESULTS sections and with the assistance of Graduate Students Gene G. Johnson and David L. Otis developed the statistical rationale described herein. A. E. Anderson wrote the ABSTRACT, INTRODUCTION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION sections. Field work was performed by A. E. Anderson and D. E. Medin during 1962-65, by A. E. Anderson and C. Wallmo during 1974-75, and by A. E. Anderson, D. Baker, A. Broida, B. MacConnell, T. H. Pojar, L. Stelter during 1975-76. �-508- 1965. In one facet of the study it was of interest to examine the fawn, doe, buck components of population at specified time periods (Anderson and Medin 1965). Since it was not feasible to estimate the actual number of deer in each category, the fawn to doe ratio of population sizes and the buck to doe ratio of population sizes were studied. Deer were classified into fawn, doe, buck categories in late November through December and again in January through early February for 3 winter seasons beginning in 1962: 11-29-62 to 12-18-62, 1-3-63 to 1-27-63, 11-21-63 to 12-14-63, 1-9-64 to 1-31-64, 12-3-64 to 12-17-64 and 1-13-65 to 1-27-65. The winter range of the deer population in the study area was sampled by selecting 10 representative sections of the winter range (Fig. 1). A route to be traversed by walking was outlined on aerial photographs of each representative section. The routes were located to classify the maximum number of deer. The length of the route was determined by the distance which could be covered in the given terrain by walking from dawn to dusk. The routes were covered by two observers working together, often with one observer maintaining a vantage point while the other observer attempted to bring hidden deer into view. Classifications of deer were made by using 8X40 or 9X35 binoculars and 20X spotting scopes. Deer were classified as fawn, doe, buck or unidentified by groups on the basis of relative body size, presence or absence of antlers and the applicable criteria listed by Dasmann and Taber (1956:80). The time to the nearest minute was recorded for each observation to avoid duplication between observers. A group was identified by observing the joint behavior and spatial distribution of the deer. Only those groups in which all deer were classified (1962-65) were used in this analysis. We refer to this sampling plan as the route counts. In 1974 a new sampling plan was applied to the study area. The deer winter range was divided on 1:24000 scale U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Quadrangles into sampling units (1/4 mile2 or one-half mile per side) and the sampling units placed into strata. Each sampling unit was classified subjectively into high and low deer density strata by eight Topographic Quadrangles (16 strata). Counts started 22 November and were concluded 31 December except for two sampling units covered 9 January, 1975. Sampling effort was proportionally allocated according to the total number of sampling units per stratum (Topographic Quadrangle) except that at least two sampling units wer taken from every stratum. Two walking observers classified deer on each selected sampling unit. The sampling unit was approached and traversed to classify the maximum number of deer. Four sampling units were usually counted beginning at dawn and finishing at dusk each day. The counting sequence of the sampling units was arranged so that adjacent or nearby sampling units were counted on the same day to minimize duplicate classification on the same deer and to allow for efficient use of available time. Deer were recorded by groups as before. We refer to this sampling plan as the quadrat counts. In 1975 the two previous sampling plans were applied to the study area from 28 November 1975 to 6 January 1976. The locations of 12 routes were randomized to permit valid; (1) comparison of the fawn:doe ratios and buck:doe ratios obtained by the two procedures, and (2) estimation of sample sizes for the route counts. The route locations were randomized on the Topographic Quadrangles �-509- by running each route through as many randomly located quadrats as could be traversed by walking from dawn to dusk (Figs. 1-12). To allow sufficient time for counting deer under both sampling plans, the 106 quadrats covered under the 1974 quadrat count was reduced to 58. The deer on each route were counted the day prior to the corresponding quadrat count. During the route counts an attempt to estimate the density of deer was made by separately recording each group of deer observed within a 500 ft wide strip centered on the route location as drawn on the topographic quadrangle. The 500 ft strip was measured initially by pacing and by noting prominent topographic features on the topographic quadrangle. Strip width was not checked once the count was underway. Strip length was measured on the topographic quadrangle to the nearest 0.01 miles with a cyclometer. In addition, if all deer with a group were identified by buck, doe, fawn categories the group will be called completely classified and if at least one deer was not identified by buck, doe, fawn category the group will be said to be incompletely classified. In this report we present these data and examine the validity of assumptions or models for the sample observations from each sampling plan which permit the development of measures of reliability of estimates of ratios of the deer population size components. In addition, the results of the data analysis under a model not contradictive to the data will be presented. DESCRIPTION OF AREA That portion of the Cache la Poudre winter ~ange sample has been described by Anderson ~ al. (1970:390). The Maxwell ranch area is described in the Work Plan 19, Job 1 Progress Report accompanying this report. RESULTS Statistical Models for the Observations - 'Route 'Counts In the following presentation, the discussion will be on the fawn:doe ratio. The assumptions and analyses developed also apply to the buck:doe ratio. The results of analyses for both the fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios are presented. The following notation permits an easy definition of the equivalent parameters. Consider the population of deer at a specified point in time and define F, D as the number of fawns, does, respectively, in the population at this time. The stated ratio of interest is RF = F/D. Consider instead PF = F/(F + D) Then clearly, RF = PF/(l - PF). The statistical models given here will be stated in terms of PF so that the estimation problem will be to determine the proportion of fawris (relative to does and fawns). Estimates of PF can be converted into estimates of RF' Much of the difficulty in objectively sampling natural wildlife populations arises in determining a sampling frame (a list of sampling units) which can be sampled by using statistical sampling plans while at the same time providing sampling units which when measured provide data on the target population �-510- j / ." '''"', \ ( \ c , ~ \ \ /------ -~-~ \ -...-,..-----;-~..., .r) ll.. I ,-'-'T-'" , .. " \\ . Fig. 1. All-day walking route (about 7.4 miles in length) and randomly selected, 1/4-mile2 quadrats, used to classify deer in the Horne area, Cache la Pcudre drainage. �-511- fig. 2. All-day walking route (about 6.0 miles in length) and randomly selected, 1/4-mi1e2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Sevenmi1e Creek area, Cache 1a Poudre drainage. �-512- Fig. 3. All-day walking route (about 9.2 miles in length) and randomly selected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Indian Meadows area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-513- Fig. 4. All-day walking route (about 6.2 miles in length) and randomly selected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Bennett Creek area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-514- e l~/ .:':(j ~V~.- ;. (T) o ./ Fig. 5. All-day walking :route (about 9.4 miles in length) and randomly selected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Eggers area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-515- ~ig. 6. All-day walking route (about 6.6 miles in length) and randomly selected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Sheep Mountain area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-516- ./" :;'")(~o .. ' r· ) Fig. 7. All-day walking route (about 5.0 miles in length) and randomly selected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Red Mountain area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-517- Fig. 8. All-day walking route (about 5.8 miles in length) and randomly selected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer west of Seaman Reservoir, Cache la Poudre drainage. �Fig. 9. All-day walking route (about 7.6 miles in length) and randomlyselected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Livermore Mountain area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-519- Fig. 10. All-day walking route (about 5.6 miles in length) and randomlyselected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the Greyrock Mountain area, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-520- Fig. 11. All-day walking route (about 6.4 miles in length) and randomlyselected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer in the west portion of Hewlett Gulch, Cache la Poudre drainage. �v .~: I \ I J I I I ! Fig. 12. All-day walking route (about 9.2 miles in length) and randomlyselected 1/4-mile2 quadrats used to classify deer east of Seaman Reservoir, Cache la Poudre drainage. �-522- of interest. A statistical sampling plan is a scheme of sampling unit selection such that the probability of obtaining each individual sampling unit in a sample of a given size is known or can be calculated. Conceptually, the use of the animals themselves as a sampling unit is an appealing sampling frame. In its simplest form each animal is a sampling unit. A desirable property of having the animals as sampling units is that conceptually the value of PF could be determined without error if all the sampling units were measured. The practical problem with such sampling frames is that once a specified sample of animals was determined, the animals have to be located and classified. Such a sampling frame also implies that the population size is known and that the animals or groups of animals (sampling units) can be listed. As an alternative to forming sampling units from or of the animals themselves, sampling frames are constructed by considering a given area or region, perhaps volume, that the population is associated with, restricted to, or contained in. As in the·1974 sampling of the Poudre drainage, the region is subdivided into parts which are considered as the sampling units. The construction of such a sampling frame and the actually selection of the sampling units to be measured is not difficult. However because of the movement of the animals among the sampling units and because the animals'behavior limits their detection by human observers, measurement errors on such sampling units can be quite important. The explicit or implicit use of these two types of sampling frames will now be examined relative to the data of the present study. First, statistical models or sets of assumptions which give rise to the use of a sampling frame dependent on the animals themselves will be examined. Thus, let n represent the number of animals identified as either does or fawns while d and f will be the numbers of does and fawns in the sample of n. Consider the following assumptions: 1. The classifi~ation category for each animal is independent of the other animals in the sample. Alternatively the probability that an individual animal is a fawn does not depend on the other animals in the sample. 2. is PF' The probablility that an individual animal in the sample is a fawn It is well known that these assumptions imply that the probability distribution of f is given by the binomial distribution where n is the number of trials, PF is the probability of success on an individual trial and f is the number of successes out of n. In the sampling frame terminology this same binomial distribution is arrived at by assuming that a simple random sample with replacement is taken from a sampling frame which lists the individual animals. The sampling procedure without replacement implies the distribution of f is given by the hypergeometric distribution. But in most situations this hypergeometric distribution can be adequately approximated by the binomial distribution given above. In general, the practicality of actually constructing and using such a sampling frame is nil, but it is common practice to assume the collected data, however gathered, satisfy assumptions 1. and 2. and in essence claim that the �-523- collection procedure operates as if a simple random sample of the individual deer was taken. It remains to establish that the data are not in strong disagreement with the implications of these assumptions. Since the alternatives to accepting assumptions 1. and 2. are complicated, the disagreement of the actual data with assumptions 1. and 2. will be explored next. The assumptions will be examined for the data collected on the route counts from 1962 to 1965 and also for the 1975 route counts. On each route the deer were observed in natural occurring groups, that is, classified into groups by their behavior and the proximity of individuals to each others. A group in the present case would be one or more does or fawns. Now if assumptions 1. and 2. are true, then the distribution of the number of fawns within groups of fixed size should be binomial. If adequate numbers of groups were observed at each given group size, then a chi square goodness of fit test could be applied at each group size and pooled. In the actual data, the limited frequency of groups of a given size prohibited the use of this test. However, Cochr&n (1936) presented the index of dispersion test for such cases of small expected frequencies. The index of dispersion test can be written as: x2 m ~ (m-l) i = 1 (fi - ni p)2 ni P (1 - p) where m is the number of groups observed, fi is the number of fawns in the ith group, ni is the number of fawns and does in the ith group and p = L fil ~ ni' The distribution of the index of dispersion is approximated by the chi square distribution with m-l degrees of freedom, if assumptions 1. and 2. are 2 true. Note that this is a two tailed test, that is, small values of the X statistic indicate more regularity than expected from a binomial distribution and hence should lead to rejection of the binomial hypothesis as well as large values of the X2 statistic. Cochran (1954) suggests when m > 15 that the mean and variance of the index of dispersion test should be used to form a standard normal test statistic (~test). Rejection of a common binomial distribution for groups of all sizes can occur in the use of the statistic even if the distribution of the fawns at a given group size is binomial if the proportion of fawns changes over or among the group sizes. The index of dispersion can be written in two steps to examine the alternative just raised. First calculate: K ~ 2 X (m-K) k mk ~ 1 i = 1 K k = 1 ~ Where K is the number of different group sizes, nk is the size of the groups indexed by k, mk is the number of groups of size nk' fki is the number of �-524- fawns in the ith group of size nk, Pk is given as Pk = ~ fk·/mknk and Sk2 is the sample variance of the number of fawns in the sampl~ oflmk groups of size nk. This criterion, tests whether the distribution of the number of fawns at a fixed group size is binomial. The significance levels of the criterion can be approximated by using a chi square distribution with m-K degrees of freedom. Since the K components of this test are independent the lack of fit of the binomial distribution can be made at each group size where each individual component has a chi square distribution (approximately) with mk-l degrees of freedom. Secondly calculate: K x2 (K-l) L nkmk (Pk-p)2 p (l-p) If one does not reje~t the binomial distribution at each group size, then this criterion tests the equality of the proportion of fawns among groups of different size. If at each group size the number of fawns is binomially distributed, then the criterion above is approximately distributed as a chi square distribution with K-l degrees of freedom. In this test only the upper tail of the X2 distribution should be used for rejection. If in the first step the denominator of x2m-K is changed from nkPk (l-Pk) to nkP(l-p), then The values of the index of dispersion test for the does and fawns recorded on individual routes are given in Table 1. The calculations were performed only for the 1962 and 1963 counts, since the uniformity of the rejections of the binomial distribution clearly indicated an alternative model or set of assumptions was needed. All significant X2 values were smaller than the lower tail percentage point indicating less variation in the number of fawns than expected from a binomial distribution. The component of the index of dispersion x2m-K, was calculated for three route counts, which were selected only because they had a fair range in group sizes. Thus, we examined only the binomial distribution assumption by eliminating the possible influence of changing proportions of fawns with group size (Table 2). Again the binomial distribution is clearly in disagreement with the data. The next set of assumptions will serve as a basis for the analysis of the present data set. Therefore, some practical aspects of route sampling will be examined here, which were not mentioned when the binomial distribution was discussed. These aspects would also be important if one had accepted the binomial distribution for a description of the number of fawns given the group sizes. The areaof winter range covered by walking along a route for one day is obviously limited. Hence, the area sampled has various relationships to the home range of the deer being classified. A few animals may have their home range entirely within the area sampled while some animals may have most of their ho~e range within the sampled area and some may have only a limited part of their home range inside the sampled area. The probablility of classifying a particular animal may depend on the proportion of his home range within the area sampled and the proportion of time the animal occupies this (included) part of the home range. �Table 1. Values for the index of dispersion on Cache la Poudre winter range, 1962-65. CX2m_l) test for does and fruvns recorded on 10, all-day walking routes Ivashout Gulch Sevenmile Creek Bennett Creek Kelly .Flats E. Elkhorn Creek E. Hewlett Gulch W. Hewlett Gulch Youngs Gulch Livermore Mountain Index 8.36 2.22 1. 09 8.14 18.92 11.90 8.13 6.79 11.99 12.81 df 13 2 3 26 43 27 19 14 25 25 3.94 4.56 11.21 3.13 5.06 4.00 7.53 4.23 3 16 33 11 7 1 19 13 Seaman Reservoir 1962 November 1963 November Index df .44 1 0 1 I IJ1 N IJ1 I �-526Table 2. The component of the index of dispersion, X2 m-K, for three routes selected because of their wide range of group sizes of does and fawns. Sampling Period Route X 2 Sig. Level d.£. m-K 1962 November E. Elkhorn Creek 18.06 34 P = .01 1964 December E. Elkhorn Creek 18.74 36 P = .01 1963 January Livermore Mountain 10.62 24 P - .01 Now the primary interest in this study is with PF' Define F(t) and D(t) to be the number of fawns and does, respectively, present in the sampled area at time (t). Also, define PF(t) = F(t)!(F(t) + D(t)). It will be assumed that although individual animals move into and out of the sampled area, PF(t) will remain constant at the value PF. In addition, given that an animal is present in the area when the classification is performed, its behavior may be such that the chance of classifying the animals is greater or less than the mean probability of classifying an animal given it is present. Actual knowledge of the individual probabilities of classification are not necessary for unbiased estimation of PF, but knowledge of the difference in the mean probability of classifying a doe versus a fawn would be necessary. The present data does not allow estimation of the difference in the mean classification probabilities. Hence, it will be tacitly assumed that the mean probability of classifying a fawn is equal to the mean probability of classifying a doe. It may be reasonable to assume that f. r, Sn. + E:i ~ i 1, 2, ... , m where fi is the number of fawns in the ith group with ni total does and fawns, 13 is equal to PF and E:iis a random residual component and m is the number of groups completely classified. Further, assume that the expected value of E:i is zero with the variance of E:i = 02 and the covariance between E:iand Ei~' ifi~ is zero. With the ni considered as fixed, the model is that of a linear regression through the origin. If the distribution of fi given ni was binomial, then the variance of Ei would be ni PF (l-PF) or proportional to ni' Examination of plots of fi versus hi' indicate that the variance of E:iis constant, say 02 thus providing alternative evidence against the binomial distribution of fi given ni. An earlier examination of the data was performed with the linear regression through the origin approach (Anderson and Bowden 1975). The least squares estimators of the parameters of interest are ~ = ~ fi ni!~~n~2, ~ __ d_fi2 ~ ~ finD! (ra+L) and an estimator of the standard error of S a.s v 02!~ni 2 �-527- However, in a theoretical evaluation of the ratio estimation in finite populations Otis and Bowden (to be published) found that the.above standard error formula underestimates the true standard error of S if expected value of € is not zero. It was found that when the proportion of fawns at each group sizes varies slightly from S then a considerable bias may exist in the standard error formula. Since the sampled deer population is finite it would be unreasonable to expect the proportion of fawns at each group size to be exactly the same. Thus, the standard ratio estimator A m f /~ R = L i "ni will be used in this report to estimate PF and PB. In the study by Otis and Bowden it was found that could be considered as an unbiased estimator of PF or PB in sample sizes as small as 10. It was also found that the estimator A 2 of the variance of AR, 1\ ,,1:. L (fj - Rnj) variance (R) = n2 n(n-l) is essentially an unbiased estimator of the variance of R whether the expected value of ei was zero or not. It follows that the critical assumption required by the regression estimator of equal proportions of fawns and bucks for the population irregardless of group size if avoided by using R. In using the ratio estimator instead of the regression estimator, there is a loss of preC1Slon only if that assumption holds exactly which seems unreasonable, again, in a finite population. R A A Now the parameter of interest is PF for the entire winter range from which the routes were selected. The problem of determining how to combine the 1962-1965 individual route estimates of PF into an estimate of PF for the winter range is considered next. It was noted that routes were not randomly selected from the winter range. Essentially, the winter range was stratified into 10 areas and a route was located within each strata. In combining the estimates of PF by route or by strata it would be desirable to weight each route estimate by the proportion of the deer population in the corresponding strata. Since this weighting factor is unknown, this weighting is not possible. If the route estimates (R = PF) are not significantly different, the weighting problem is not important. A test for significant differences among routes was performed for each of the six sampling times. Significant differences (P< .025) were noted for the 1962 fall and 1963 fall counts, while for th~ other four times no significant differences (p> .10) were found. Thus, for at least the two fall counts the weights given to each route would affect the value of combined estimate. The sampling procedure using routes as the sampling unit is a two stage sampling procedure. First stage selection is made to determine a route location. Counting a route on a particular day is a second stage selection of m groups of deer classified from the M groups which have a nonzero probability of being classified on that route. We developed the assumption above that the m groups give an unbiased estimate of PF for that route. The variability of counting conditions from route to route indicate that the proportion of groups classified (m/M) varies considerably and is also greatly influenced by the weather conditions associated with the count time. Thus, an unweighted ratio of total counts over routes of fawns to total does and fawns over routes may have considerable bias as an estimator of PF for the winter range. However, since appropriate weighting factors are not known, the unweighted ratio estimator willAbe used. In addition, since route locations were stratified the formula SE(R) as previously given should over estimate the true �-528- A standard error of R. The 1975-76 study, using a randomly located route within a stratum, indicate that it is not unreasonable to consider the general location of the 1962-1965 routes as randomly located within their corresponding stratum. However, search techniques within the route locations in 1962-65 tended to emphasize area coverage to find bucks. The frequencies of the total groups of doe and fawn and buck and doe mule deer are shown for each of six count periods, 1962-65, in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. A similar tabulation for the 1975-76 total group frequencies is shown in Table 5 (doe and fawn) and Table 6 (buck and doe). The raw data, variances and covariances, fall versus winter differences, and sample size requirements are shown for the doe and fawn, and buck and doe data by individual route for six count periods, 1962-65 in Tables 7 and 8, respectively. A test for differences among fall fawn proportions indicated a significant decrease (P<0.05), 1962-65. Similarly, a significant decrease (P<O.Ol) was found among the winter fawn proportions. A test of equality of the Fall PF with the following Winter PF pooled over the three pairs was also significant (P< 0.025). Similar tests were performed for the buck proportions. No significant differences were found among the fall proportions (P>.05). However, significant differences (P < .01) were found among the winter proportions and among fall versus winter proportions pooled over years (P < .025). It should be noted that the main contributor to these differences if the low proportion observed in Winter 1963. In general, a comparison of the proportion of fawns (PF) recorded on the route counts of 1975-76, to the route counts of 1962-65 shows that the 1975-76 ratio is significantly less (P< 0.05) than the earlier ratios. Exceptions are the winter 1964 and winter 1965 proportions where no significant difference (P> 0.05) is noted. Based on the 1975-76 counts, sample sizes (number of randomly determined routes) for PF and PB on Cache la Poudre winter range are listed in Table 11. It appears that adequate sampling of PB requires impractically large numbers of routes. Statistical Models for the Observations-Quadrat Counts For the quadrat sampling plan the proportion of fawns PF and the proportion of bucks PB will be estimated by the use of the ratio estimator. As noted under the route sampling plan this procedure is conservative if the true model could be writ ten as fi = Sni + Ei i = 1, 2, ... , m where m is number of sampling united observed, fi the total fawns out of ni total does and fawns observed on the ith sampling unit and Ei has mean of 0 and variance 02. The ratio estimator is robust to departures of population from the assumptions of mean Ei equal zero and variance of E equal 02 while the regression estimator is not. �Table 3 . Frequency of total groups of doe and f awn mule deer recorded Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-65. Sample Dates: Nov. 29, 1962 to Dec. 18, 1962 on 10, all-day, Sample Dates: Jan. 1 2 3 4 CI) 5 ~ 6 ~ 7 + 8 (fJ Q) 9 10 " 11 ~112 13 14 1 44 4 2 10 47 15 3 1 2 5 20 19 7 1 1 1 3 1 2 3 4 2 8/ 4 5 6 2 1 1 2 7 4 1 2 15 L 50 76 54 12 7 E 5 1 on Cache La 27, 1963 No. Fawns 54 56 37 23 9 1 3 routes 3, 1963 to Jan. No. Fawns 0 walking 3 1 1 7 4 1 2 1 5 2 0 1 207 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 CI) 7 8 ~ ~ 9 + 10 a'l 11 o 12 ~ 13 o 14 z 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 9 .8 1 2 28 33 19 6 1 E 40 1 1 2 14 12 22 6 4 1 1 1 3 2 7 6 6 3 4 6 7 8 E 23 37 55 32 30 16 11 10 5 2 6 4 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 5 1 4 2 0 1 90 63 24 9 5 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 233 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------ I \JI N 1.0 I �Frequency of total groups of doe and f awn mule deer recorded on 10, all-day, 3, Table Poudre ~vinter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-65 (continued). Sam121eDates: Sam}21eDates: Nov. 21, 1963 to Dec. 14, 1963 Jan. 1 1 2 3 rJl 4 ~ 5 •.... + 6 7 rJl 8 0 p 9 10 z11 12 18 2 8 27 16 3 1 1 E 21 1 2 10 16 2 1 1 (!) 3 No. Fawns 56 30 4 5 1 2 1 3 o 7 on Cache 1a 31, 1964 9, 1964 to Jan. No. Fawns 0 wa.l.kf.n g routes 1 1 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ~ 11 •.... 12 + 13 ~ 14 p 15 16 z 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 7 3 4 28 22 8 E 35 E 26 29 26 21 5 2 1 5 0 1 1 1 118 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L 28 35 19 17 14 5 6 [J) 4L. 3 3 5 7 6 2 1 1 9 4 2 2 1 28 17 11 14 15 7 4 3 3 1 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 [J) 1 1 o 1 1 0 62 61 27 21 2 4 2 0 1 1 --------------------------------------------------_._------------------------------------------------------------------ 1 215 I IJ1 w 0 I �3. Frequency of total groups of doe and fawn mule deer recorded on 10, all-day, Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-65 (continued). TLlhlc Sample Dates: Dec. 3, 1964 to Dec. 17, 1964 Sample Dates: Jan. 1 1 2 3 4 rJl 5 ~ cu 6 I-"< 7 + 8 rJl 9 g 10 °11 12 z13 14 15 16 43 12 6 2 5 47 29 11 3 2 L 63 1 2 19 23 13 6 2 1 3 4 4 3 5 1 4 5 6 7 8 I; 1 1 48 59 54 36 20 13 5 8 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 252 2 1 01 98 64 17 6 3 0 on Cache La 27, 1965 No. Fawns 1 1 1 3 routes 13, 1965 to Jan. No. Fawns 0 walking 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 en 7 ~ 8 •••• 9 + 10 ~11 12 °13 ci 14 z 15 16 17 18 19 20 I; 0 1 18 6 3 1 3 27 26 7 5 1 1 2 12 14 4 4 2 5 1 1 ° 3 1 4 5 3 1 2 1 1 4 5 6 7 . 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 28 71 43 17 7 1 3 1 2 L 21 33 41 22 10 9 8 10 3 3 3 4 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 172 I \J1 w •....• I �Table 4. Frequency of total groups of buck and doe mule deer recorded on 10 all-day, walking Cache 1a Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-1965. November 21, 1963 to December 14, 1963 Sample Dates: Sample Dates: November 29, 1962 to December 18, 1962 No. Bucks No. Bucks CIl ~ () ::I I'CI + CIl QJ 0 . 0 0 Z 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 86 26 9 2 2 1 2 2 38 20 9 6 2 1 2 z 130 2 3 6 6 5 2 2 2 2 1 4 z 1 124 52 25 13 6 4 6 4 1 1 1 1 237 1 1 Sample Dates: 26 78 December routes on 2 CIl ~ ::I I'CI + CIl QJ 0 0 0 z 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 40 24 4 2 1 29 10 10 1 1 1 ~ 71 52 2 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 13 3 4 5 z 1 69 35 19 7 3 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 141 1 2 1 3 1 3, 1964 to Dec. 17, 1964 No. Bucks CIl ~ () ::I I'CI + CIl QJ 0 0 . 0 z 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 58 45 21 4 2 46 38 16 8 5 4 z l30 117 2 10 7 6 4 6 3 2 3 1 1 4 2 k 1 2 3 1 39 15 4 2 1 3 ~ 104 93 45 22 15 11 4 5 3 2 304 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I VI w N I �Table 4. Frequency of total groups of buck and doe mule deer recorded on 10 all-day, walking routes on Cache 1a Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-1965 (continued). Sample Dates: January 3, 1963 to January 27, 1963 Sample Dates: January 9, 1964 to January 31, 1964 No. Bucks 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 CIl Ql 8 0 Q 9 10 + CIl 11 ~u 12 =' 13 p::j • 14 ~ 15 16 17 18 19 20 64 34 25 17 12 4 2 9 5 10 4 2 5 2 1 L 1 0 0 2 .3 5 2 2 1 5 6 7 8 9 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 No. Bucks 2 1 3 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 158 39 13 8 7 1 0 1 0 1 L 73 44 39 25 16 11 7 4 4 3 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 CIl 9 CIl Ql 0 Q ~ 10 p::j =' 11 12 0 z 13 14 15 16 17 0 1 2 41 30 10 10 2 3 1 3 31 8 10 5 4 1 3 2 1 14 4 2 2 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 5 6 7 8 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . L 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 101 65 30 8 4 6 1 2 228 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_.-------------------------- 1 L 72 52 25 22 10 9 8 8 2 4 2 0 1 0 1 1 1 218 I VI w w I �-534- Table 4. Frequency of total groups of buck and doe mule deer recorded on 10 all-day, walking routes on Cache 1a Poudre winter range during each of six sampling periods, 1962-1965 (continued). Sample Dates: January 13, 1965 to January 27, 1965 No. Bucks rJl Q) 0 Q + rJl .!G () ;:l I'Q . 0 z 0 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 51 47 44 10 8 6 3 1 22 7 7 7 8 2 2 2 1 23 5 2 2 1 1 1 L 170 3 4 5 6 7 7 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 58' 38 10 7 2 3 1 L 73 77 63 24 18 12 8 6 3 2 0 0 1 2 289 Table 5. Frequency of total groups of doe and fawn mule deer recorded on 12 all-day walking routes on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1976. No. Fawns rJl r..~ + rJl Q) 0 Q 0 z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 1 31 7 1 1 5 21 15 17 1 1 1 2 1 10 8 11 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 4 5 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 2 2 3 166 1 1 41 61 37 15 5 2 L 36 29 27 29 12 6 5 4 2 4 4 1 1 1 27 L 6 �-535- Table 6. Frequency of total groups of buck and doe mule deer recorded on 12, all-day walking routes on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1976. No. Bucks 0 1 2 1 54 14 2 23 8 2 3 26 6 2 4 8 4 1 13 5 4 1 2 7 6 3 1 7 2 2 8 1 1 9 1 1 3 4 E 68 33 1 35 4 1 5 3 Ul Q) 0 t=I + Ul 10 1 3 1 1 ~ ::J r::Q 11 . 12 1 1 0 0 :z; 13 1 14 1 1 2 1 0 23 1 1 24 1 1 123 42 8 4 1 178 �Table 7. The fawn and doe data by individual 1a Poudre winter range, 1962-65. Fall 1962 fi a nia route and sex count periods and their relevant statistics Winter 1963 fi ni fi ni Winter 1964 fi ni 1 0 3 19 47 6 9 13 35 21 ·4 2 7 45 88 12 27 33 87 58 43 7 11 55 48 10 18 22 44 13 Fall 1963 on Cache fi ni Winter 1965 ni fi 44 18 6 50 61 14 18 15 56 42 119 52 25 130 151 37 52 44 128 97 41 49 11 72 52 15 27 26 50 26 Fall 1964 Routes: Washout Sevenmi1e Bennett Kelly Elkhorn West Hewlett Eas t Hew1et t Young's Livermore Seaman 24 5 19 83 168 63 100 47 83 74 9 2 7 40 76 25 44 17 33 40 110 55 16 153 156 62 136 39 161 96 41 22 5 66 66 29 52 17 67 41 136 23 30 148 117 25 51 67 120 40 113 147 33 t88 134 48 82 75 121 67 I VI w '" I 1\ R 1\ 1\ SE R Variance 666 293 Total 984 406 363 154 757 271 841 324 1,008 369 .2729 .1927 .311+8 .3165 .3277 .2621 .0206 .0199 .0213 .0291 .0244 .0303 Fall 1963 Winter 1964 Fall 1964 Winter 1965 10 79 1,005 43 64 284 162 55 43 54 35 150 39 32 69 54 92 105 and Covariance Matrix for ~ = Count Period Fall 1962 Fall 1962 Winter 1963 Fall 1963 Winter 1964 Fall 1964 Winter 1965 274 PF (X 10-6) b Winter 31 74 1963 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 7. The fawn and doe data by individual la Poudre winter range, 1962-65 (continued). Intervals route and sex count periods and their relevant statistics on Cache 95% Confidence for Differences in PE Fall Versus Winter Year Sample Sizes (No. Routes) Averaged for 6 Count Periods if Difference Percent 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 a b c d + - .0273 .0662 .0192 fi = number of f awn s , Procedures .0333 .0480 .0165 + + c 05 10 20 95 Confidence Level (I-X) 90 80 29 8 2 21 6 2 13 4 1 ni = total does + fawns. according to Cochran (1963:182). I Deviation from true ratio. \J1 Add and subtract to difference for confidence interval. Table 8. The buck and doe data by individual 1a Poudre winter range, 1962-65. Routes ~oJashout Sevenmi1e Bennett Kelly Elkhorn \-JestHewlett Eas t 1-lew1et t W -..J I route and six count periods and their relevant statistics on Cache Fall 1962 bi a ni a bi ni bi ni bi ni bi ni bi ni 10 1 1 20 32 14 12 25 4 13 63 124 52 68 16 16 0 30 21 13 0 85 49 11 117 111 97 22 3 6 4 6 32 62 25 26 25 2 2 6 21 7 6 118 24 34 128 96 59 24 43 33 14 36 33 14 9 ll8 67 33 116 129 43 32 12 46 14 34 35 9 84 144 36 150 117 58 44 Winter 1963 Fall 1963 Winter 1964 8 15 35 27 14 9 Fall 1964 Winter 1965 II �Table 8. The buck and doe data by individual 1a Poudre winter range, 1962-65 (continued). route and six count periods and their relevant statistics Winter 1965 Fall 1964 Winter 1964 Fall 1963 Winter 1963 on Cache Routes Fall 1962 bi a ni a bi ni bi ni bi ni bi ni bi ni Young's Livermore Seaman 10 20 20 40 70 54 2 24 16 35 118 71 3 24 22 9 76 59 26 40 26 59 116 53 16 23 31 50 95 86 3 30 33 58 101 74 R .2729 .1927 .3148 .3165 .3277 .2621 SE R .0206 .0199 .021~ .0291 .0244 .0303 Fall 1963 Winter 1964 Fall 1964 Winter 1965 A Variance A and covariance matrix for R = RB (X 10-6) Fall 1962 Winter 1963 b I V1 w Fall 1962 Winter 1963 Fall 1963 Winter 1964 Fall 1964 Winter 1965 Intervals 95% Confidence for Differences in PB Fall Versus Winter Year 1962-1963 1963-1964 1964-1965 il Difference .0802 -.0017 .0656 + + + Percent c 95 Confidence Level (%) 90 80 05 10 118 30 8 84 21 6 51 13 4 20 bi = number of bucks, ni = total bucks + fawns. b Procedures according c Deviation from true ratio. d Add and subtract to obtain confidence to Cochran Sample Sizes (No. Routes) Averaged for 6_Count Periods .039 .059 .072 a (1963:182). interval. 59 248 316 428 81 921 95 116 95 4 596 -69 -65 198 848 152 -27 453 217 397 423 00 I �Table 9. Total deer classified into buck, fawn and doe categories and related statistics (1975-76) route counts. All Deer in GrouE Classified Outside Inside 500' 500' Combined Width Width At Least One Unclassified Deer Within GrouE Outside Inside 500' 500' Combined Width Width Inside 500' Width All GrouEs Combined Outside 500' Combined Width Bucks 28 28 50 10 14 24 32 42 74 Fawn 69 122 191 18 37 55 87 159 246 Doe 138 216 354 36 80 116 174 296 470 .333 .361 .351 .333 .316 .322 .333 .349 .3436 .0181 .0136 .0115 .1023 .0247 .0400 - - .0120 A PF 1\ /\ SE RF I 1..11 .537 .523 .500 .565 .540 .500 .463 .484 .500 PB .1375 .1148 .1238 .2174 .1489 .1714 - - .1360 A " SE PB .0307 .0235 .0218 .1115 .0270 .0406 - - .0225 Buck/doe .159 .130 .141 .278 .175 .207 .184 .142 .157 Fawn/doe A w \0 I �-540- Table 10. Comparisons of the proportion of fawns (PF) and bucks (PB) among groups of mule deer completely or incompletely classified and located inside or outside the 500 ft strip on the route counts, 1975-1976. Difference (Category 1Category 2) SE (Difference) Groups - all deer classified (inside 500' versus outside 500') -.0276 .0208 -1.33 Groups - at least one deer unclassified (inside 500' versus outside 500') .0171 .0989 .17 Groups - all deer classified versus groups - at leas t one deer unclassified .0286 .0435 .66 Groups - all deer classified (inside 500' versus outside 500') .0227 .0304 .75 Groups - at least one deer unclassified (inside 500' versus outside 500') .0685 .1163 .59 Groups - all deer classified versus groups - at least one deer unc1assfied) -.0122 .0156 .78 Comparison �-541- Table 11. Number of randomly determined routes to be within X percent of the proportion of fawns (PF) or proportion of bucks (PB) at (I - y) confidence level, Cache la Poudre drainage winter range. PF 1975-76 PB 1975-76 Confidence Level Confidence Level x 95 90 80 x 95 90 80 05 23 16 10 05 505 356 217 10 6 4 3 10 127 89 55 20 2 1 1 20 32 23 14 The individual group counts are summarized in Table 12 for both the 1974-75 and 1975-76 quadrat counts. The raw data and ratio computations of PF mule deer doe and fawn and buck and doe groups are tabulated as follows: doe and fawn groups within low density quadrats, 1974-75 (Table 13); doe and fawn groups with high density quadrats 1974-75 (Table 14); buck and doe groups, 1974-75 (Table 15); doe and fawn groups, 1975-76 (Table 16); and buck and doe groups, 1975-76 (Table 17). In a previous analysis (Anderson and Bowden 1975) using the regression approach on the 1974-1975 data a significant difference was found in the PF values between the high and low deer density strata (P < 0.01). The larger standard errors associated with the ratio estimates indicate a significant difference in the PF values for 1974-75 only at the 10 percent significance level. In the 1975-76 data the PF value was again higher in the low density quadrats than the high density quadrats but with the sample size reduced nearly in half over 1974 no significant difference is indicated. For the PB values, a significantly higher (P< 0.01) proportion of bucks was found on the low density strata in 1974-75 using the ratio estimators. Again although in 1975-76 the proportion of bucks on the low density quadrats was higher than the proportion obtained on the high density quadrats (nearly twice the high density PF), the difference was not significant. Since the quadrat sampling was proportional to the number of quadrats a pooled data estimate is still reasonable even with the observed significant differences. Comparisons of Estimates Obtained by the Route and Quadrat Sampling Plans Comparisons of the 1975-76 estimates of PF and PB between the route and quadrat sampling plans do not indicate any significant differences. The route estimates (±SE) for PF and PB were respectively, .3436 (+ .012) and .1360 (+ .023), while the quadrat estimates were respectively, -.3607 (± .027) and .1818 (± .035). �Table 12. Frequency of total groups counted on 1/4-mi1e2 randomly-selected quadrats subjectively assigned to high and low deer density strata, Cache 1a Poudre winter range. Sample Dates: November 22, 1974 to January 9, 1975 Low Deer Density Quadrats High Deer Densit~ Quadrats 0 1 2 3 4 19 16 3 5 6 7 1 8 9 + 10 ~ 11 8 12 . 13 0 z 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 L 40 (I) rz..~ 1 2 18 14 3 3 3 9 11 3 1 1 2 1 N = 50 N = 56 No: Fawns No. Fawns 4 2 3 3 4 5 I: 19 34 23 17 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 (I) + 4 3 3 1 2 1 C1J 1 11 4 7 8 3 4 5 rz..~ 6 9 0 4 3 7 0 A I: 2 1 3 11 12 11 6 4 3 2 1 0 2 1 53 1 3 2 1 1 1 6 (I) 5 . 98 2 1 1 0 z 10 11 L 15 22 8 5 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 43 28 9 3 1 2 1 125 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I V1 ~ N I �Table 12. Frequency of total groups counted on 1/4-mi1e2 randomly-selected quadrats subjectively to high and low deer density strata, Cache la Poudre winter range (continued). Sample Dates: Hi~e~r November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1976 p~nsity Quadrats Low Deer D8nsity Quadrats No. Bucks CIl .-'" o ::l P=l + CIl Q) 0 Q . 0 z 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 9 2 1 3 2 1 1 L: 31 2 No. Bucks 3 L: 121 tJ P=l 1 1 18 11 4 3 0 2 2 1 2 2 43 1 1 2 2 1 8 2 assigned ::l + CIl Q) 0 Q 01 z 0 1 1 2 3 12 2 1 1 3 1 1 E 4 5 2 0 3 L: 1 5 2 2 1 1 10 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I .j::Ln w I �Table 12. Frequency of total groups counted on 1/4-mi1e2 randomly-selected quadrats subjectively to high and low deer density strata, Cache 1a Poudre winter range (continued). assigned Sample Dates: November 22, 1974 to January 9, 1975 Low Deer Density Quadrats High Deer Density Quadrats tIl ~(J ;:l ~ + tIl Q) 0 A . 0 z N = 56 N = 50 No. Bucks No. Bucks 0 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 40 36 9 3 6 2 1 2 1 9 5 5 2 E 103 1 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 26 6 1 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 12 3 3 2 10 4 2 3 E 103 E 49 43 14 5 10 3 4 3 2 0 2 0 0 1 ] (J ;:l ~ + tIl Q) 8 . 2 3 E 1 11 1 1 1 27 17 5 6 3 2 3 26 6 1 136 1 1 0 Z 136 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I V1 .po. .po. I �Table 12. Frequency of total groups counted on 1/4-mi1e2 randomly-selected quadrats subjectively to high and low deer density strata, Cache la Poudre winter range (continued). Sample Dates: 00 ~ ::l J:J:I + 00 Q) 0 Q . 0 Z November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1976 High Deer Density Quadrats Low Deer Density Quadrats No. Bucks No. Bucks 0 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 15 9 2 1 3 2 1 1 ~ 31 2 3 2 2 1 8 2 ~ 0 1 1 2 3 12 2 1 1 3 1 1 ~ 4 001 ~ ::l J:J:I 18 11 4 3 0 2 2 1 1 + 00 Q) 0 Q ~I 5 1 2 3 00 4 ~ ~ 5 + 6 7 00 Q) 8 Q 9 10 z 11 12 1 9 2 4 8 6 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 43 4 5 1 1 5 10 I I ~ 2 0 1 1 1 5 1 \J1 13 10 8 4 3 1 1 22 1 55 2 2 1. No. Fawns 1 12 ~ .j:'- 1 1 0 3 1 1 1 1 ° 01 ~ --. 3 2 \J1 No. Fawns 0 assigned 0 1 1 1 1 45 0 00' ~ ~ + 00 Q) 0 Q . ~I 1 2 3 4 14 1 ~ 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 5 ~ 1 3 3 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 1 8 �-546Table 13. Raw data and ratio computations of PF for mule deer doe and fawn groups counted on 56 randomly-selected, 1/4 mi1e2 (one-half mile per side) low deer density quadrats on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November 22, 1974 to January 9, 1975. No. Does + Fawns D + F No. Fawns F No. Does + Fawns D + F No. Fawns F 5 10 0 0 0 0 11 12 0 3 0 0 0 22 2 0 0 8 17 3 7 5 0 0 0 0 10 3 0 0 0 0 8 0 2 15 6 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 1 4 0 0 0 0 5 3 0 1 0 0 0 8 1 0 0 3 7 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 4 1 1 8 0 0 0 183 3 2 0 0 4 0 0 0 68 Computat ions N 56 E«D + F) 183 E (D + F)2 1,999 E (F) 68 E (F)2 = 286 E Fi(D + F) = 721 EF E(D + F) .0282 .3716 �-547Table 14. Raw data and ratio computations of PF for mule deer doe and fawn groups counted on 50 randomly-selected, 1/4-mile2 (one-half mile per side) high deer density quadrats on Cache la Poudre winter range, November 22, 1974 to December 31, 1975. No. Does + Fawns D + F No. Fawns F No. Does + Fawns D + F No. Fawns F 28 37 5 11 2 8 6 5 8 0 6 2 4 19 0 3 2 0 1 8 28 5 0 8 9 1 21 21 8 11 41 19 12 9 0 2 2 6 4 5 12 32 17 5 11 11 12 2 2 0 2 3 2 4 0 2 0 1 8 0 2 1 0 0 16 0 0 478 2 0 0 148 2 16 1 11 2 0 4 2 0 5 4 2 3 12 6 4 2 0 0 0 3 2 2 4 5 6 1 5 1 7 Computat ions N 50 478 9,480 148 954 2,874 (D + F) (D + F)2 (F) (F)2 H(D + F) L: L: L: L: 1\ PF 1\ .3096 1\ SE (PF) .0193 Pooled Low and High Density Quadrats 1\ PF = .3268 .0164 �-548Table 15. Raw data and ratio computations of PB (the proportions of bucks to buck and does) on randomly-selected, 1/4 mile2 (one-half mile per side) quadrats on Cache la Poudre winter range, November 22, 1974 to January 9, 1975. B + D 7 12 0 0 0 0 7 12 0 3 0 0 0 17 1 0 0 8 12 0 2 4 3 0 0 0 0 7 2 0 0 Low Densit~ B B + D 3 6 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 8 3 15 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 2 2 1 1 5 0 0 0 2 High Densit~ B B + D B B + D 0 0 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 17 29 3 10 2 7 6 3 4 0 4 3 7 11 0 1 1 0 1 7 20 3 0 4 8 0 4 0 1 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 16 17 7 10 31 0 0 1 2 2 16 10 7 0 2 2 3 0 0 3 4 9 29 13 5 7 2 10 15 B Computat ions 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 Low Density N L: (B + D) L: (B + D)2 L: B L: B2 L: B(B + D) 1 56 148 1,386 33 95 319 /\ .2230 PB /\ /\ SE (PB) .0317 High Density N L: (B + D) L: (B + D)2 L: B L: B2 L: B(B + D) /\ PB 50 371 5,689 41 93 548 .1105 /\ SE (~B) .0175 Pooled Data A PB SE (PB) .1426 .0178 �-549- Table 16. Raw data and ratio computations of PF (the proportion of fawn to fawns + does) on 58 randomly selected, 1/4-mi1e2 (one half mile per side) quadrats on Cache 1a Poudre winter range, November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1976. Low Densit:l F + D F High Densit:l F + D F 1 0 4 2 21 7 5 3 2 2 Plus 20 Quadrats with 0 0 1 0 5 1 4 2 1 0 1 1 4 1 7 0 10 5 3 1 5 2 21 6 10 3 3 2 2 1 4 2 5 1 2 1 14 5 6 2 5 2 19 6 12 4 3 3 3 1 Plus 9 Quadrats with 0 0 Computations Low Densit:l N L: (F + D) L: (F + D)2 2: F L: F2 L: FD 25 33 487 14 66 174 1\ .4242 PF 1\ 1\ SE (PF) .0759 High Density N L: (F + D) L: (F ± D)2 L: F L: F2 L: F (F + D) 33 150 1,622 52 188 526 /I. .3467 PF 1\ " SE (PF) .0289 Pooled Data A .3607 PF /\ /\ SE (PF) .0267 �-550- Table 17. Raw data and ratio computations of PB (the population of bucks to bucks and does) on 58 randomly-selected 1/4-mi1e2 Cone-half mile per side) quadrats on Cache la Poudre winter range, November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1916. Low Density B + D High Density B 1 1 2 1 3 1 17 3 2 0 1 1 1 1 Plus 18 Quadrats with 0 0 B +D B 2 6 2 1 2 0 0 0 1 3 7 0 6 1 2 0 4 1 21 6 7 0 3 2 1 0 2 0 4 0 1 0 9 0 5 0 3 0 14 1 8 0 4 2 1 1 Plus 10 Quadrats with 0 0 Computations Low Density N 25 (B + D) (B + D) (B) (B)2 B (B + D)= L L L L L 8 14 27 309 59 1\ .2963 PB tE (PB) " .0939 High Density N L L L L L (B + D) (B + D)2 (B) (B)2 B (B + D)= P "B .1552 1\ 33 18 54 116 1,072 184 1\ SE (PB) .0417 Pooled Data A PB .1818 1\ " SE (PB) .0355 �-551- Sample size calculations can be made from each of the corresponding sets of data. The sample sizes or number of quadrats required to be within X percent of PF or PB at (l-y) confidence level is given in Table 18. Only the 1974-75 calculations are reported due to the larger sample sizes involved in estimating the variance needed in the sample size calculation. Table 18. Number of randomly determined quadrats to be within X percent of the proportion of fawns (PF) or proportion of bucks (PB) at (l-y) confidence level, Cache la Poudre drainage winter range. (Finite population correction factor was not applied). PF 1974-75 PB 1974-75 Confidence Level Confidence Level X 95 90 80 X 95 90 80 05 410 289 175 05 2,538 1,787 1,083 10 103 73 44 10 635 447 271 20 26 18 11 20 159 112 68 One of the advantages of the quadrat sample design is that ffilnlmumbound estimates of the population total may be made from the total deer on each sampling unit using the stratified sampling estimate of a population total. The estimates along with their standard errors for the Poudre and the Colorado State University Research Foundation Maxwell property and vicinity are given in Table 19. In order to incorporate this advantage of the quadrat sample plan into the route plan, the estimate of density is obtained from the counts of total deer within the 500 foot width centered on the route transect. A ratio estimator is used to obtain the density since the areas sampled by routes varied. The density obtained in the 1975-76 route census is 43.17 deer/sq. mi., with a standard error of 11.93 for the Cache la Poudre winter range. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Of the three models applicable to fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios (binomial, regression estimator, and ratio estimator) the latter model was most satisfactory. The ratio estimator is an unbiased estimator of PF and PBAwith an estimab*e if larger. standard error than for regression estimator S. Moreover, unlike S, ~ does not require the critical assumption that fawns and bucks occ~r in equal proportions regardless of group size. The utility of the estimator R R �-552- Table 19. Estimated a~n1mum densities of mule deer on the Cache la Poudre winter range and the C.S.U.R.F. Maxwell Ranch property and vicinity based on ground counts of deer on randomly-selected, proportionally allocated, and subjectively stratified, 1/4-mile2 quadrats during the winter. Strata Total No. Units (1/4 mi2) Population Estimate SE (Pop. Est.) Density/ Sq Mile SE Density Cache La Poudre Winter Range November 22, 1974 to January 9, 1975a Low deer density 229 958.66 161.66 16.75 2.82 High deer density 199 2,168.7 244.6 43.59 4.92 Total 428 312.36 293.2 29.23 2.74 ... b Maxwell Ranch and V 1c1n1ty November 18, 1974 to November 21, 1974 Low deer density 30 171.9 94.8 22.92 12.64 High deer density 31 237.5 160.6 30.65 20.73 Total 61 409.4 186.5 26.85 12.23 Cache la Poudre Winter Range November 28, 1975 to January 6, 1976c Low deer density 229 476.3 267.9 8.32 4.68 High deer density 199 1,278.6 249.7 25.70 5.02 Total 428 1,754.9 366.3 16.40 3.42 Maxwell Ranch and Vieinitx d November 21, 1975 to November 26, 1975 Low deer density 30' 94.3 59.0 12.57 7.86 High deer density 31 276.4 125.8 35.66 16.23 Total 61 370.7 138.9 24.31 9.11 a b c Estimates based on 106 quadrats. Estimates based on 15 quadrats. Estimates based on 58 quadrats. d Estimates based on 14 quadrats. �-553- is shown by: (1) the significant (P < 0.01) decrease in PF from 1962 to 1965 detected by R was not detected (P < 0.05) when analyzed by chi square (Anderson 1965); (2) sampling intensities can be practically achieved at adequate levels of precision by the use of R. The 293 deer recorded within the 500 ft strip width of the 12 routes compared to 258 deer within the quadrats during 1975-76 was projected to 43.17 deer/ mile2 on the routes and 16.40 deer/mile2 on the quadrats. This discrepancy suggests that the dimensions of the strip were inaccurate. By relying primarily on visual estimation, there is a good possibility of gross error in estimating the 500 ft wide strip, particularly under conditions of bright sun and snow. It may be possible to improve the accuracy of the strip width by using a range finder. Further tests of the route and quadrat sampling plans relative to the discrepancy in estimated densities are recommended. Even though the route counts and quadrat counts yielded 780 and 258 deer, respectively, their PF and FE were nearly identical, but the standard errors of the quadrat estimates were somewhat larger than the route estimates. Of the two sampling plans, randomly determined route counts appears superior because PF can be estimated at fairly high levels of precision in far less time. In addition, it has been shown that neither distance from the strip center or the inclusion of groups containing one or more unclassified deer had Significant effects on either the PB or PF obtained on the route counts. The significant (P < O.01) trend in decreasLng PF, 1962-65, occurred concurrently with approximately a 40 percent reduction in annual precipitation and mean yields of major browse species and significant (P <0.01) changes in such indices of stress as leaner deer, reduced mean erythrocyte counts (anemia), and increasing mean neutrophil:lymphocyte ratios (Anderson et al. 1972:590). While PF decreased there was a significantly increasing trend in PB during the winter, but the contributor to these differences was the extremely low PB value in 1963. Annual blood cellular values changed most drastically during 1963 (Anderson et al. 1970:400). We speculate that there is the possibility that drouth reduced food supply, hence nutritional levels and fawn production or survival. No similar speculative pathway can be suggested for the low PB during 1963. Route counts revealed that, in general, the 1975-76 PF was significantly less than during 1962-65. Because of the lack of information from 1965 to 1974, possible causal factors for this decrease will not be dealt with here. Both PF and PB were higher on low density quadrats during 1974-75 and 1975-76. Relative to PF, this finding seems to conform to the hypothesis that in deer the "highest net numbe r of young per unit of breeding stock" are produced at low population densities (Gross 1969:385). However, it seems unlikely that, in a largely migratory population on winter range, such a phenomenon could occur on only 1/4 mile2, particularly since low and high density quadrats were frequently adjacent. Relative to PB, we speculate that during breeding season observations such as ours, bucks might be more readily perceived on low density areas because of the presumably greater activity bucks must expend to locate does within areas of relatively low densities. �-554- LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. 1965. Population density and structure. Work Plan 4, Job 1, Job Completion Report. Pp. 405-427. In Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Game Research Report, January. Part 3. 327-501 p , (Processed). Anderson, A. E., D. E. Medin, and D. C. Bowden. 1970. Erythrocytes and leukocytes in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2): 389-406. Anderson, A. E, D. E. Hedin, and D. C. Bowden. 1972. Indices of carcass fat in a Colorado mule deer population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(2):569-574. Anderson, A. E., and D. C. Bowden. 1975. Evaluation of herd structure methodology. Pp. 475-499. In Colorado Div. Wildl. Game Research Report, July. Part 2. 191-504 p. Caughley, G. 1974. 557-562. Interpretation of age ratios. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(3): Cochran, W. G. 1936. 'The chi square distribution for binomial and Poisson series with small expectations. Annals Eugenics 7:207-217. 1954. Some methods for strengthening Biometrics 10:417. the common chi square tests. Dasmann, R. F., and R. D. Taber. 1956. Determining structure in Columbian black-tailed deer populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(1):78-80. Gross, J. 1969. Optimum yield in deer and elk populations. Wildl. Nat. Resou. Conf. 34:372-387. Trans. N. Amer. Smith, R. H., T. J. McMichael, and H. G. Shaw. 1969. Decline of a desert deer population. Arizona Game and Fish Dept. Wildl. Digest Abstr. 3:1-8. Swank, W. G. 1958. The mule deer in Arizona and chaparral and an analysis of other important deer herds. Arizona Game and Fish Department Wildl. Bull. No. 3:1-109. Taber, R. D., and R. F. Dasmann. 1958. The black-tailed deer of the chaparral:its life history and management in the north coast range of California. California Dept. Fish and Game, Game Bull. No. 8:1-163. Prepa red by _--4,.cZLeb...a::;:.:=::.oa../,-:-~e_. ~t2twt=....:::w."""'M4~:caL,",""""," Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher _ �July, 1976 -555JOB PI:OGl{ESSREPORT State of Project No. ~CO~LO=RADO _ w-ss-a-ai Work Plan No. Deer-Elk Investigations ------------ ------ 20 Job No. Job Title Brucellosis-Leptospirosis 1 ------------------------------- Survey of Big Game Animals in Colorado Period Covered: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: William J. Adrian, Marilyn Stevens, Sandra Pool, Carol Ann Weinland, Richard Ford and Gene Grenerd. ABSTRACT During the 1975 season we checked deer for brucellosis and five species of leptospirosis (leptospira canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomona). A total of 7,501 blood kits were mailed to deer hunters. Returns with blood were received at the Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver from 17 percent of the hunters who were mailed kits. Of those kits received, 61 percent were not usable. Thus the total sample of blood kits analyzed was 508. All samples analyzed were negative for brucellosis and leptospirosis (all species). The Center for Disease Control (Dept. HEW) is analyzing the samples for exposure to Colorado tick fever and Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology is checking for bluetongue. The results of Colorado tick fever and bluetongue are forthcoming. ��-557- BRUCELLOSIS-LEPTOSPIROSIS SURVEY OF BIG GAME ANIMALS IN COLORADO William J. Adrian P. S. OBJECTIVE To survey big game populations within the State of Colorado for the presence or absence of brucellosis and leptospirosis. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Survey Colorado's deer populations for brucellosis and leptospirosis during the annual hunting season. METHODS AND MATERIALS Blood sample kits were mailed to deer hunters with the request they draw a blood sample from their kill and return the kit to the Colorado Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver, Colorado for processing. A maximum of 300 sampling kits were sent to hunters in each deer unit. If more than 300 permits were issued for one unit the names were randomly selected. The kit consists of a cardboard mailer, blood tube and stopper, plastic bag, rubber band, paper towel and instructions for obtaining the sample and mailing the kits. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Wildlife Research Laboratory in cooperation with the Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver has, in 1975, completed its seventh annual survey for brucellosis and leptospirosis in Colorado's big game populations. Brucellosis is a specific contagious disease which primarily affects cattle, swine, and goats. It can, however, affect many other animals including elk, deer, antelope and man (undulant fever, Malta fever and Bang's Disease). It is caused by bacteria of the Brucella group and is characterized by abortion in the female, and to a lesser extent, inflammation of the testes and infection of the accessory sex glands in the male and infertility in both sexes. Leptospirosis is a febrile (feverish) disease caused by certain species of leptospirae. The disease occurs with various manifestions in dogs, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and wildlife and is transmissable to man. During the 1975 season we checked deer for brucellosis and five species of leptospirosis (leptospira canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomona). A total of 7,501 blood kits were sent to deer hunters and we received 1,301 blood samples (17%) of which 793 (61%) were badly hemolyzed and were not �-558- usable. We also received 592 (8%) empty kits. tested were negative. Again in 1975, all samples A summary of hunter response to this survey since 1968 is presented in Table 1. The number of returned kits with blood is excellent when the percent return is adjusted for hunter success - thus showing a successful hunter is a cooperative hunter. Table 1. Summary of hunter response to the brucellosis-leptospirosis from 1968-1975. survey Year Species Kit Mailed Blood SamEles Number Percent 1968 Antelope 3019 1463 1969 --------_ ... _---------- 1970 Elk 9930 2338 23.5 2021 20.4 4359 43.9 1971 Antelope 4590 2721 59.3 763 16.6 3484 75.9 1972 Deer 2500 774 30.9 201 8.0 975 39.9 1973 Elk 7502 1231 16.4 Deer 804 153 18.2 Antelope 630 273 43.3 1974 Antelope 3995 2044 51.0 214 5.4 2258 56.5 1975 Deer 7501 1301 17.3 592 7.9 1893 25.2 40507 12298 30.36 4043 9.98 16341 40.3 Totals 48.5 Returned EmEty Number Percent 252 8.3 Totals Number Percent 1715 56.8 NO MAIL SURVEY --------------------------- The sera titer data are summarized in Table 2. All results, including the 1/50 titer for brucellosis and 1/40 titer for leptospirosis, are considered negative due to the large sample size and its corresponding low incidence of the suspected titers. The antigen for the leptospirosis wise indicated. test was LeEtospira Eomona unless other- The discrepancy between blood samples received and those tested for either brucellosis or leptospirosis is due to the condition of the samples when received at the laboratory; this is a highly variable factor from year to �-559- year dependin8 on weather and the lag time from kill to laboratory. Generally, however, approximately one-third of all samples received are very good to excellent quality and approximately one-fifth are completely hemolyzed and unusable. In 1975 we also began cooperative studies with the Center for Disease Control (Dept. HEW) analyzing the remaining serum for exposure to Colorado tick fever and with Colorado State University, Department of Microbiology for exposure to bluetongue. We have attempted to check for bluetongue in the past, but there was some difficulty with the antisera. Dr. Lloyd Lauerman (Colorado State University), however, believes he has developed a new antisera which is more effective for detecting the bluetongue virus. These data along with the Center for Disease Control data will be reported in the 1977 Progress Report for Work Plan 20, Job 1. �-560- Table 2. Sununary of sera titer data from 1967-1975. Brucellosis .Negative 1/25 LeEtosEirosis Negative 1/10 1/ Species Year Deer 1967 17 0 0 17 0 0 1967 107 0 0 0 0 0 1970 128 0 0 110 0 0 1971 774 0 0 53 3 1 1973 116 0 0 115 1 0 1975 508 0 0 508 JJ 0 0 . 1650 0 0 803 4 1 1967 28 0 0 28 0 0 1967 42 0 0 0 0 0 1968 125 0 0 125 0 0 1970 2338 5 1 1087 4 0 1973 693 5 0 692 6 0 3226 10 1 1932 10 0 1967 126 0 0 0 0 0 1967 264 0 0 0 0 0 1969 1463 0 0 229 51 2 1971 2486 0 0 263 8 0 1973 272 0 0 267 4 1974 660 0 1 646 ~/ 12 1/ 0 3 !!/ Totals 5271 0 1 1405 75 5 GRAND TOTALS 10147 10 2 4140 89 6 Totals Elk Totals Antelope 1/50 1/ Antigen unless otherwise specified was Leptospira 2/ Antigen Leptospira icterohemorrhagiae. canico1a, grippotyphosa, 1/ Six icterohemorrhagiae,; 5 hardjo, 1 pomona. 4/ Two hardjo, 1 pomona. pomona. hardjo, pomona, and 1/40 �-561- July, 19'76 JOB FINAL REPORT State of ~C~o~l~o.r=~a~d~o _ Project No. W-38-R-3l Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. Job No. Job Title 21 --------- Effects of Coal Strip Mining on Deer - Preparation Period Covered: Personnel: 1 of Study Plan April 1, 1975-1976 Bertram D. Baker ABSTRACT No work was accomplished on this job in the past segment because the Project Leader was reassigned to non-Federal Aid duties for most of the segment. This job is being discontinued if or until the vacated position is returned to the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Section. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/1b5c222428e82c72aabe65d7cab5a168.pdf d0fd92919c31c1d360ecf0d8cf7f7190 PDF Text Text October; -1- 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ---------COLO~\DO ~~----------- Project No. W-88-R-2l Migratory Work Plan No. 1 Job No. Job Title Production Waterfowl Period Covered: Bird Investigations ---- 1 Surveys April 14, 1975 to June 30, 1975 Personnel: C. Bryant and staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; F. N. Folks, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; R. Blumberg, R. Clark, W. Dolezal, H. Funk, B. Goforth, R. Hopper, J. Lorentzson, R. Lowry, J. Rauch, W ..Russell, G. Saville, R. Velarde, R. Weldon, S. Steinert, and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Water conditions for waterfowl production were considered good in North Park, Brown's Park and the Cache 1a Poudre and Yampa River Valleys, average in the South Platte Valley and poor in the San Luis Valley. The number of duck breeding pairs reached a record number 78,345 in 1975; about 22 percent above the 1974 level and 38 percent above the long term average. Increases in the number of breeding pairs were recorded in all the areas except the San Luis Valley and Yampa River Valley. Blue-winged teal, cinnamon teal, green-winged teal, shoveler, wigeon and redhead all showed significant increases in comparison to 1974 levels. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese in northwest Colorado is estimated to be 33 percent above the long term average. Canada goose production in north-central Colorado is up nearly 17 percent from 1974, but down 8 percent from the 1969-74 period, with the total number of adult geese observed up about 23 percent from 1974 but down 10 percent from the 1969-74 period. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To estimate the number of duck and goose breeding pairs, by species, in each of Colorado's major waterfowl breeding areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pair and production surveys consist of a breeding pair inventory of only major production areas. The 1975 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 19 to June 30. Surveys in North Park and the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. No duck breeding pair counts were made in Brown's Park, therefore, figures presented are based on averages for the 1971-74 period. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 14 to June 13. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates of north-central Colorado. were obtained from counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which the birds were flightless. All flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Areas sampled by section or block were flown with one observer, while two observers were used in sampling by transect. On the basis of these studies, a report is submitted to the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, which constitutes Colorado's part in the annual continental cooperative breeding ground survey. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water conditions were considered good for duck production in all areas except the San Luis Valley. Spring rains filled most small marshes and drainage basins in the South Platte and Cache la Poudre Valleys. A heavy �-4snowpack in addition to a considerable amount of spring moisture will insure good production and brood survival in North Park, although the hatch will be later than normal. Although there is very heavy snowpack in the mountains to the west, the San Luis Valley will be very dry during the waterfowl production period for the second consecutive year. The retarded runoff in northwest Colorado will insure that flooding will have a negative effect on goose production in that area. A heavy freeze coupled with a snowfall during the peak of egg laying in north-central Colorado resulted in a ccnsiderable amount of nest abandonment. The number of estimated duck breeding pairs in Colorado's production trend areas reached a record high 78,345, nearly 6,000 pairs higher than the previous record set in 1968. The 1975 total is 22 percent above the 1974 level and 38 percent above the long term average (Table 1). Major increases above 1974 levels were recorded in North Park and the South Platte Valley. Numbers in the Cache la Poudre Valley continued at a high level, nearly double the long-term average (Table 1). The majority of the increase in North Park was composed of green-winged teal, a phenomenon that also occurred in 1969 and may be related to retarded dissipation of the snowpack in the mountains surrounding North Park. The South Platte increase was mainly composed of shovelers and redheads. Table 1. Summary of Colorado's duck breeding ground population estimates in selected areas, 1975. Area Total Est. Breeding Pairs Long Term 1975 1974 Average 1/ San Luis Valley 26,801 29,694 27,332 - 9.7 1.9 North Park 1/ 27,134 16,657 15,970 +62.9 + 69.9 South Platte Valley 14,152 8,457 6,264 +67.3 +125.9 Cache la Poudre Valley 6,732 5,713 3,361 +17.8 +100.3 Yampa Valley 2,354 2,834 2,803 -16.9 - 16.0 Brown's Park 1,1721/ 1,128 1,029 Totals 78,345 56,759 +21.5 + 38.0 64,483 Percent Change From From Long1974 Term Average 1/ -San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through 1974 and 1968 through 1974 surveys, respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 21 year averages. 2/ -Aerial counts corrected by species from visibility ratios obtained in the San Luis Valley. ]/ No count made in 1975. Figure presented is average of 1971-1974 period. �-5- It is interesting to note that in a year in which total estimated breeding populations reached a record high in Colorado, the mallard population dropped in the San Luis Valley. This resulted in a state wide reduction in the mallard population of 30 percent from the longterm average (Table 2). Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1975 duck breeding pair population. No. of Breeding Pairs 1954-74 1975 1974 Average Percent Species Composition 1954-74 1975 1974 Average Mallard 19,090 28,427 27,690 '24.4 44.1 54.7 Bl ue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 15,078 11,441 5,238 19.2 17.7 10.4 Gadwall 3,984 8,464 5,396 5.1 13.1 10.7 Pintail 5,213 4,344 3,560 6.7 6.7 7.0 Green-winged Teal 8,859 565 2,147 11.3 .9 4.2 Shoveler 8,005 3,918 2,378 10.2 6.1 4.7 American Wigeon 4,868 1,087 884 6.2 1.7 1.7 Redhead 8,048 716 1,978 10.3 1.1 3.9 Other Divers 5,200 1,076 1,346 6.6 8.6 2.7 Totals 78,345 64,484 50,536 l/ Species 1/ Species composition computed from data from all areas for the 20 year period regardless of changes in survey method. The total number of geese observed in Moffat County, in northwest Colorado, 1,549 (Table 3) was essentially the same as in 1973. All areas were not surveyed in 1974. In 1975, estimates for the Green River were up about 200 birds from 1973, while the Yampa estimate declined by about the same number. The total number of geese observed in Moffat County was 33 percent above the long term average while estimated gosling production was up 25 percent (Tables 4 and 5). �-6- Table 3. Number of Canada geese, observed and estimated production, Moffat County, Colorado, 1975. Nesting Pairs Non -Nes ting Birds Total Adults Est. No. Goslings }) Total Birds 16 16 10 89 54 27 121 86 47 53 86 8 174 172 55 42 170 254 147 401 53 26 166 248 272 300 176 106 448 406 Sub-total 79 414 572 282 854 Little Snake River 19 188 226 68 294 Grand Total 140 772 1,052 497 1,549 Area Yampa Craig-Juniper Juniper-Cross Lily Park Spgs. Mtn. Sub-total G reen R"l.ver-21 Brown's Park Dinosaur Nat1. Monum. II - Calculated using average brood size observed and number of successful nests. 1lData supplied by F. Neil Folks, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources. Table 4. Total Canada geese observed, Moffat County, Colorado, 1975. Area No. Geese Counted 1956-1974 1975 1974 Average Yampa River II 401 Percent Change From 1956-1974 From 1974 Average 424 5.4 Green River Brown's Park 448 Dinosaur Nat1. Monum. 1./, 11 406 334 + 21.6 Little Snake River 1/ , ]./ 294 247 + 19.0 1,549 1,161 + 33.4 Totals 326 II 156 - Surveys not conducted in these areas during 1974. 1lNot included in survey until 1970. llNot included in survey until 1962. +37.4 +187.2 �-7- Table 5. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County, Colorado, 1975. Area No. of Goslings 1956-1974 Average 1975 1974 Yampa R'1ver -II 147 Percent Change From 1956-1974 Average From 1974 + 136 8.1 Green River 119 +47.9 62 +183.9 Brown's Park 176 Dinosaur Natl. Monum. 1), 2:..1 106 120 - 11. 7 Little Snake River 68 79 - 13.9 Totals 497 397 + 25.2 u. 11 l/Surveys not conducted in these areas during 1974. l/Not included in survey. until 1970. 1/Not included in survey until 1962. The results of the 1975 Canada goose production census in north-central Colorado are presented by individual areas in Table 6. In north-central Colorado, gosling production was up 17 percent from 1974, but down 8 percent from the long term average (Table 7). A major increase in production occurred in the Denver area with minor increases over the 1974 level occurring in the other trend areas (Table 7). The number of adult geese observed on north-central trend areas was 23 percent-above the 1974 level but 10 percent below the long term average (Table 8). Fall Flight Prediction Duck nesting in all trend areas in Colorado with the exception of the San Luis Valley should result in excellent production and above average brood survival. However, production in the San Luis Valley will be extremely poor and the resulting fall flight from that area will be far below normal. The Canada goose flight from northwest Colorado will be about average while the north-central flight will be larger than 1974 but still below average. -ffl&Jl I) --1.4 Prepared Prepared by .. ~hl'<',4l Michael R. Szymce;k:) Wildlife Researcher I Research Tech. IB ~i �Table 6. Results of the north-central Production Area Water Area Fort Collins (continued) Fossil Creek Reservoir Schuelke Reservoir Wolaver Ponds Colorado No. Broods 5 2 2 Total Denver Ketring Pond Centennial Pond Columbine Country Club Chatfield Country Club Bowles Lake Kings Lake Blackmer Mohn Estates Grant Lake Colo. Bldv. & Quincy Marston Reservoir Pinehurst Country Club Bit-a-Sea Reservoir If3 Ward Reservoir Kendrick Lake Federal Center Sloan's Lake Standley Denver City Park Total GRAND TOTAL !/Two geese still nesting. ° -2/0 ne goose st~on nest~ng. goose census, June, 1975 (continued). 10 4 2 3 6 10 1 4 2 5 2 9 1 1 1 4 13 2 1 Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yearlings Total Birds 16 9 7 11 6 4 27 15 11 234 667 901 37 11 8 13 17 36 3 15 8 12 10 45 2 5 2 14 44 4 2 - 111 32 18 22 147 124 8 36 145 52 54 56 107 16 7 23 36 187 8 139 148 43 26 35 164 160 11 51 153 64 54 66 152 18 12 25 50 231 12 141 288 1,328 1,616 1,049 3,349 4,398 I •..... 0 I �-11- Table 7. Number of Canada goose goslings produced in north-central Colorado production trend areas, 1975. Area Number of Goslings 1969-1974 1975 1974 Average Wellington 207 187 268 +10.7 -22.8 Fort Collins 234 229 274 + 2.2 -14.6 Loveland 103 90 83 +14.4 +24.1 Boulder 217 206 237 + 5.3 - 8.4 Denver 288 185 280 +55.7 + 2.9 Totals 1,049 897 1,142 +16.9 - 8.1 Percent Change From From 1974 1969-1974 Table 8. Number )f adult Canada geese observed in north-central production trend areas, 1975. Colorado Area Number of Geese 1969-1974 1975 1974 Average Wellington 570 635 812 -10.2 - 29.8 Fort Collins 667 477 717 +39.8 - 6.9 Loveland 318 239 204 +33.0 +55.9 Boulder 466 365 676 +27.7 -31.1 Denver 1,328 1,004 1,299 +32.3 + 2.2 Totals 3,349 2,720 3,708 +23.1 - 9.7 Percent Change From From 1974 1969-1974 ��October 1976 -13- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~------------ Project No. W-88-R-2l Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Job No. 2 T~r~a~p~p_i~n~g~a~n~d~B_a~n~d~in~g __D~u~c_k~s~a~n~d_.~G~e~e~s_e~ Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations _ April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 C. Bryant and Staff of Alamosa and M~nte Vista National Wildlife Refuges, S. Bissell, L. Budde, J. Carsella, G. Claassen, J. Corey, D. Coven, M. Conner, C. Crawford, M. DePra, K. Dillinger, W. Dolzal, G. East, G. Eyre, H. Funk, J. Gray, J. Gumber, A. Hemmert, R. Holder, R. Leasure, J. Lorentzson, R. Mason, J. Miller, K. Miller, W. Mink, K. Moser, R. Oakleaf, B. Peterson, J. Pierce, S. Porter, R. Richardson, F. Rinella, Jr., W. Rupke, H. Spear, S. Steinert, M. Stone, M. Szymczak, C. Wagner, J. Wagner, K. Wagner, C. Wetherill, R. Velarde and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT Trapping efforts in Segment 21 resulted in the banding of 18,349 ducks of ten species at eight locations in Colorado. The major species in the banded sample was the mallard which contributed 11,209 or about 61 percent of the total. Pre-season banding in the high country yielded 10,149, including 3,599 in North Park, 3,472 in South Park and 3,078 in the San Luis Valley. Mallards and pintails were the dominant species in the sample in these three areas. Post-season banding produced a sample of 8,200 mallards including 6,700 in eastern Colorado (Central Flyway) and 1,500 in west central Colorado (Pacific Flyway). Goose trapping activities resulted in a banded sample of 1,605 geese in Segment 21. Included in this sample were 65 goslings transplanted to a production site in the South Platte River Valley. Summer banding on established production areas in the San Luis Valley and in north central Colorado accounted for 620. The remaining 920 were banded postseason in the Arkansas Valley. �-16- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ducks Over 18,300 ducks of 10 species were banded in Segment 21 (Table 1). The South Platte Valley produced the largest sample (3,824) of the eight general banding locations in Colorado, followed by North Park (3,599), South Park (3,472), the San Luis Valley (3,078) and the Grand Junction-Delta area of the west slope (1,500). The mallard continued to dominate the banded sample, comprlslng 11,209, or about 61 percent of the total. Pintails and green-winged teals were the next most important contributors to the banded sample with 3,712 and 1,947, respectively. High Country Study Objectives of the high country study of duck populations are presented by Hopper (1972). Species compositon by age and sex for 11,881 ducks banded in the three high country areas during 1975 is shown in Tables 2-5. San Luis Valley bandings were accomplished by both State and Federal personnel (Table 4). The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service continued to cooperate in this study by banding a portion of the Valley quota on the Monte Vista and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuges. Mallards and pintails were again the main species in the banded samples (Tables 2-4). They contributed 4,129 and 4,048 birds, respectively, for all three areas combined (Table 5). The only other species for which significant banded samples were obtained included green-winged teals (2,084) and blue-winged and cinnamon teals (984). Practically all gadwalls banded in North Park were a result of night-lighting efforts. All phases of the High Country Duck Study will be continued in future segments under Work Plan 3, Job 9. Winter Banding Post-season banding of terminal wintering populations of mallards was continued in eastern Colorado for the thirteenth consecutive year under Work Plan 3, Job 6. The total banded sample amounted to 6,700 mallards for this period in Segment 21 (Table 1). A detailed breakdown of this sample by age and sex is shown in Table 6. Future banding work related to these wintering populations will be reported as part of a new management oriented job (Work Plan 3, Job 9). An additional 1,500 mallards were banded on the Western Slope of Colorado during Segment 21 (Table 1). This was the third consecutive year of banding in this area as part of a study described by Hopper (1974) in a previous Job Progress Report for Work Plan 1, Job 2. Age and sex ratios obtained in ·this year's banded sample are shown in Table 7 by location. This study will continue as a new and separate job of its own (Work Plan 3, Job 7) in the ensuing segments. �Table l. Number of ducks banded by species, location and period of year 1975-76. Number of Ducks Banded Pre-season- 1/ Post-season- 2/ Species North Park South Park San Luis Valley Cache 1a Poudre Valley South Platte Valley Bonny Res. Arkansas Valley West3/ Slope- Total Mallard 1,171 657 1,181 1,059 3,824 845 97'1. 1,500 11,209 Gadwall 484 -- 2 -- -- -- -- -- 486 -- -- -- -- 63 -- -- -- -- 1,947 -- -- -- 897 American Wigeon Green-winged Teal Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 55 4 4 372 1,274 301 --- 16 567 314 -- -- I I Pintail 1,495 962 1,255 -- -- -- -- -- 3,712 Shoveler -- 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 7 19 -- -- -- -- -- 31 Redhead 5 Canvasback 1 -- 2 -- -- -- -- -- 3 3,599 3,472 3,078 1,059 3,824 845 972 1,500 18,349 Total 1/ - August-September. 2/ - January-February. 1/Co1orado-Gunnison-Uncompahgre River Complex. I-' --.J �-18Table 2. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in North Park, 1975. Species AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Mallard 318 332 291 230 1,171 Gadwall 395 0 85 4 484 American Wigeon 28 12 6 9 55 Green-winged 176 99 35 62 372 3 3 1 9 16 Pintail 423 363 346 363 1,495 Redhead 2 0 3 0 5 Canvasback 0 0 1 0 1 1,345 809 768 677 3,599 Teal Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Total Table 3. Total Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in South Park, 1975. Species AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Mallard 229 131 205 92 657 2 0 2 0 4 399 484 105 286 1,274 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 77 252 36 202 567 Shoveler 0 1 0 0 1 Pintail 306 296 147 213 962 Redhead 2 0 5 0 7 1,015 1,164 500 793 3,472 American Wigeon Green-winged Total Teal Total �19 Table 4. Age and sex composition of ducks banded pre-season in the San Luis Valley, 1975.Y. Species AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Mallard 494 744 411 652 2,301 Gadwall o 12 1 21 34 American Wigeon o 2 2 1 5 186 115 50 87 438 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 30 213 20 138 401 Pintail 289 557 205 540 1,591 Redhead 3 12 8 9 381:./ Canvasback 1 o 1 o 2 1,003 1,655 698 1,448 Green-winged Total Teal Total 4 ,8l0Y !/Includes 1,732 ducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges as part of the High Country Duck Study. 1:./Includessix "HY" birds unidentified as to sex. �-20- Table 5. Age and sex composition qf ducks banded pre-season in the three high-country areas combined, 197sl/. Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Species AM Mallard 1,041 1,207 907 974 4,129 Gadwall 395 12 86 25 518 American Wigeon 30 14 10 10 64 Green-winged 761 698 190 435 2,084 110 468 57 349 984 Shoveler 0 1 0 0 1 Pintail 1,018 1,216 698 1,116 4,048 Redhead 7 12 16 9 50 Canvasback 1 0 2 0 3 3,363 3,628 1,966 2,918 Teal Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Total Total Y ll,881Y !/Includes 1,732 ducks banded by Federal personnel on Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges as part of the High-Country Duck Study. ]j Includes six "HY" birds unidentified as to sex. �-21- Table 6. Mallards banded post-season by age and sex in the seven east slope banding locations. Location AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Bonny Reservoir 250 250 148 197 845 Sterling-Julesburg 250 236 145 l32 763 Fort Morgan-Sterling 250 242 216 234 942 Greeley-Fort Morgan 354 290 197 205 1,046 Denver-Greeley 298 262 244 269 1,073 Fort Collins-LovelandWindsor 292 304 227 236 1,059 Arkansas Valley 367 234 146 225 972 2,061 1,818 1,323 1,498 6,700 Total Table 7. Age and sex composition of mallards banded post-season Colorado, 1975-76. Total in west central Location AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex 1M AF IF Grand Junction-Mack 156 91 98 90 435 Delta 241 274 265 285 1,065 Total 397 365 363 375 1,500 Total �-22- Geese Over 1,600 Canada geese were banded during Segment 21 (Table 8). The Arkansas Valley accounted for the largest number (920), while the Cache la PoudreSouth Platte Valleys, and the San Luis Valley followed with 666 and 19, respectively. Summer Transplants Sixty-five Canada goose goslings (28 males, 37 females) were banded and transported from the Front Range production areas and released on Prewitt Reservoir in the South Platte River Valley (Table 8). The Canada goose transplant program is no longer a part of Federal Aid Project W-88-R. Table 8. 1974-75. Number of Canada geese banded by location and period of year, Number Banded Summer 1/ Transplants- 1/ Pre-season- 2/ Post-season- Total Arkansas Valley 0 0 920 920 Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valleys 65 601 0 666 San Luis Valley 0 19 0 19 Total 65 620 920 1,605 Location !/June-July. 2/ - January-February. Pre-season Bandiag on Colorado Production Areas A study was initiated in 1974 to investigate the status of breeding populations of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley and the Fort Collins-Boulder-Denver area of north central Colorado. Pre-season banding is a major component of this study. Details of the overall investigation are discussed under Work Plan 2, Job 6, and future bandings will be reported under that job. �-23- Trapping efforts proved unsuccessful in the San Luis Valley, with only 19 geese being banded (Table 8). The banding crew was too small and attempts to drive the birds proved futile. More time and man power will be allocated for this endeavor next segment. Pre-season trapping operations were highly successful in north central Colorado and resulted in the banding of 601 adult and young geese (Table 9). The sample consisted of approximately equal numbers of each sex by age class. Pre-season Banding on Alberta Production Areas The Colorado Division of Wildlife assisted in a Central Flyway and Pacific Flyway cooperative banding study of Canada geese·on Canadian production areas in southern Alberta for the second consecutive year. The major purpose of this study is to define the breeding areas of the Great Basin and Hi-line Canada Goose Populations in Alberta. This cooperative venture, involving personnel from Colorado, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, Alberta, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Canadian Wildlife Service resulted in the banding of 1,442 Canada geese in a 10-day period in June and July. These bandings are not included in any totals or tables in this report, since the study is the primary responsibility of the Province of Alberta. Table 9. Age and sex composition of Canada geese banded pre-season in north central Colorado, 1975. Age and Sex Number Banded Adult Male 213 Local Male 95 Adult Female 193 Local Female 100 Total 601 Winter Banding Post-season activities produced 920 banded Canada geese in the Arkansas Valley (Table 10). This banded sample of Shortgrass Prairie Canada geese produced good numbers of birds by age and sex. Future post-season bandings of this population of geese in Colorado will be reported under the newly developed Work Plan 2, Job 9. �-24- Table 10. Age and sex composition of Canada geese banded post-season in eastern Colorado, 1975-76. Location AM Number Banded Age and Sex 1M AF Arkansas Valley 223 213 182 IF Total 300 920 LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1972. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept. , Oct. pp. l3-2l. Colo. Div. Wildl. , Hopper, R. M. 1974. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. l3-22. Colo. Div. Wildl. , Prepared by D -/ ~ "'~ if ,Ae/W:Z~~' , J '~ >' Richard M. HopperT Wildlife Researcher ' Ll . �-25- October 1976 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------- Project No. W-88-R-21 1 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No •. 3 --------------------------- Analysis of Waterfowl Banding Data Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations 1955-56 through 1975-76 Michael R. Szymczak ABSTRACT Work under this job has entailed a number of independent analyses of data resulting from banding of various populations. Each analyses has been essentially a final report evolving from a certain set or sets of segment objectives and procedures. Many times the report was in the form of a publication. Although each set of objectives was independent, they all were formulated to help meet the P. S. Objective "To formulate waterfowl harvest regulations for Colorado". In the future, each specific set of objectives will be attached to a PROGRAM NARRATIVE OUTLINE with a certain job number. Therefore, there is no longer a need for Work Plan 1, Job 3. The most recent objectives, analysis of migration, mortality, recovery distribution and relationships among populations of ducks banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley was scheduled for completion March 1976. However, the analysis was postponed to allow the compilation of at least five concurrent consecutive years of recovery data from bandings in the three areas. This specific study has been expanded and as of April 1, 1976 is Work Plan 3, Job 9 entitled "Migration and Mortality Characteristics of Duck Populations in the Inter-mountain Valleys of Colorado". Wildlife Researcher ��October, 1976 -27JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------- Project No. W-88-R-2l Work Plan No. 1 Migratory Bird Inyestigations Job No. 14 Determination of Methods for Developing and Job Title Managing Waterfowl Habitat - Ammonium Nitrate Pothole Blasting Study Period Covered: Personnel: --------------------------- April 1, 1967 - March 31, 1976 Richard M. Hopper ABSTRACT Field work was cOm?leted for this Job during Segment 21. The final report, covering all phases not previously reported upon, is in the process of preparation. Further work on this report will continue under \vork Plan 6, Job 1. The resulting report will be submitted to The Wildlife Society for possible publication in the Journal or Bulletin, or will be presented as a Division Special Report. Two previous publications helped fulfill reporting responsibility for this Job. ��-29- AMMONIUM NITRATE POTHOLE BLASTING STUDY Richard M. Hopper P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate various size potholes blasted with ammonium nitrate in terms of (a) life expectancy, (b) plant succession, (c) soil and water characters, (d) waterfowl use and hunting potential, and (e) cost. METHODS AND MATERIALS Compile and analyze all data collected as part of this Job that hasn't been reported upon earlier. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Field work for this job was terminated on May 15, 1975. Since that time office work has involved the tabulation and analysis of data collected in Segment 21. These data are currently being incorporated with data from all previous segments in preparation of the final report. All remaining reporting responsibility for this Job will be completed under Work Plan 6, Job 1. This final report will be prepared for publication in The Journal of Wildlife Management or the Wildlife Society Bulletin, or as a Division Special Report. The papers listed below were published previously in partial fulfillment of reporting responsibilities for Work Plan 1, Job 14: Hopper, R. M. 1971. Use of ammonium nitrate-fuel oil mixtures in blasting potholes for wildlife. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Inf. Leaflet No. 85, 4pp. Hopper, R. M. 1972. Waterfowl use in relation to size and cost of . potholes. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(2):459-468. Prepared by £~~~~ ;:;~ /, /4t..-L.. .' Richard M. Hbpp~r ~ Wildlife Researcher ��October 1976 -31JOB PIWGRESS RE?ORT State of COLORADO W-88-R-21 Project No. Work Plan No. Migratory Bird Investigations 2 Job Title Job No. ~ 2----__ -- __ ---------Experimental Studies on Improving The Status of Canada Goose Populations Period Covered: April 29, 1975 through July 23, 1975 Personnel: J. Lorentzson, S. Porter, W. Russell, S. Steinert, K. Wagner, J. Wagner and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT A total of 127 Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were observed during an aerial flight in the South Platte River Valley on April 29, 1975. An estimated forty-six indicated nesting pairs were sighted. Seventy-five of the 127 geese and 34 of the indicated nesting pairs were located in the Sterling to Julesburg area. Seventeen nesting pairs were associated with the Jumbo Reservoir Annex release site. Ground observations indicated that most nests were located in nesting structures. A total of 71 Canada geese were observed during an aerial flight in North Park on May 4, 1975. An estimated 17 indicated nesting pairs were sighted. Twenty-four of the 71 geese and ten of the 16 indicated ne:stingpairs were located at Walden Reservoir. Occasional observation on some production areas resulted in observation of two goslings (one brood) at MacFarlane Reservoir, three goslings (one brood) at Pole Mountain Reservoir, three goslings (two broods) at Lake John Annex, and 56 goslings at Walden Reservoir. A total of four known nests were established at Antero Reservoir (two successful and two destroyed). The high count of geese at Antero occurred on July 23, 1975 when 115 birds were observed. ��-33- EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON IMPROVING THE STATUS OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the success of attempts to establish breeding populations of Canada geese in,suitable habitat where they do not presently exist in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To examine the breeding population status of Crulada geese in the Prewitt Reservoir and Jumbo Reservoir area in the South Platte Valley, Antero Reservoir in South Park, and in North Park. METHODS AND MATERIALS An aerial survey of the South Platte River was conducted on April 29, 1975 from the confluence of the Poudre and South Platte Rivers, located about five miles east of Greeley, to the Colorado-Nebraska state line. All irrigation reservoirs, including Riverside, Empire, Jackson, Bijou, Prewitt, and Jumbo were surveyed, as well as smaller ponds near the river such as Johnson's Pond. All geese observed were recorded as birds on nest, singles, pairs or groups. During the first week in May, ground observations were conducted in most of the areas in which geese were sighted. Where applicable, all observations were recorded by township, range and section to facilitate locating the area on the ground. On May 4, 1975 an aerial survey of all lakes, reservoirs, ponds and major streams, including Grizzly Creek, the Michigan, Illinois and North Platte rivers, was conducted in North Park. Geese were classified in the same manner as described above. Production counts were conducted on the larger water areas through ~ay and early June. A nest search was conducted on Walden Reservoir in early August. Periodic obse~ations of Antero Reservoir were conducted from the ground. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION South Platte Valley Aerial Survey A total of 127 geese were observed and classified during the aerial flight in the South Platte Valley (Table 1). Forty-one birds were observed as being actually sitting on nests. An additional five birds observed as singles were thought to be members of nesting pairs, bringing the number of estimated nesting pairs to 46. Twenty-three pairs considered to be sub-adults were also observed. �Table 1. Location and classification of Canada geese observed from the air in the South Platte Valley from the confluence of the South Platte River and the Cache la Poudre River to the Colorado-Nebraska state line on April 29, 1975. Location Nesting Number of Geese Observed Singles Pairs Groups Total Greeley to Fort Morgan South Platte River 2 mi west of Kersey (5N, 64W, SB) Bijou Inlet Ditch (4N, 63W, S12) 2 mi west of K-4 Ranch (4N, 62W, S17) 1 mi west of K-4 Ranch (4N, 62W, S16) K-4 Ranch (4N, 62W, S23) o o o o 2 o o o Gallagers 5 1 4 (4N, 6lW, SIB) 2 o o 1 o 2 2 o o o o o 2 2 2 1 2 10 I W .p.. Empire Reservoir Fort Morgan (3N, BlW, Sl) o 1 4 o 5 1 o o 3 4 o 2 o o o o 2 o o 2 o 2 2 2 o o o 4 4 o o o o o o o o o 4 4 2 4 4 4 to Sterling Fort Morgan Gravel Pits (4N, 57W, S32) South Platte River North of Brush (4N, 56W, S15) ~ md east of Snyder Bridge (4N, 56W, S12) ~ mi east of Bridge SW of Merino (6N, 54W, S26) Sterling (BN, 52W, S33) o Prewitt Reservoir 5N, 53W, 5N, 53W, 5N, 54W, 5N, 54W, S5 S6 S12 S14 o 4 o o ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 I �Table 1. Location and classification of Canada geese observed from the air in the South Platte Valley from the confluence of the South Platte River and the Cache la Poudre River to the Colorado-Nebraska state line on April 29, 1975 (continued). Location Sterling Nesting Number of Geese Observed Groups Singles Pairs Total to Julesburg South Platte River 9N, 51W, S21 Tamarack Ranch (lON, 48W, S9) Tamarack Ranch (lON, 49W, S14) Tamarack Ranch (lON, SOW, S26) 2 mi east of Sedgwick Bar (llN, 48W, S7) North of Johnson's Pond (llN, 45W, SlO) 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 I W \J1 I Jumbo Annex llN, 48W, S24, S25 llN, 47W, S19 Ponds West (llN, 48W, S22) Pond north of Jumbo Reservoir Johnson's Total Pond (llN, 48W, Sl) 14 1 1 6 6 0 1 0 0 0 6 4 26 1 12 1 0 4 0 5 14 3 0 4 21 41 17 46 23 127 �-36- Most birds were sighted in the Sterling to Julesburg area, primarily around Johnson's Pond and Jumbo Annex (Table 2). From Greeley to Fort Morgan a total of 24 birds were observed including 11 indicated nesting pairs. Only one-half of the birds observed were sighted on the K-4 Ranch-Gallager release site, but 7 of the 11 indicated nesting pairs were on those areas. Twentyeight birds were observed in the Fort Morgan to Sterling area, with only one indicated nesting pair. One-half the geese in the Fort Morgan to Sterling area were observed near the Prewitt Reservoir release site. Thirty-four of the 46 total South Platte River area indicated nesting pairs were observed in the Sterling to .Ju Lesburg area. Fourteen of these indicated pairs were observed on Johnson's Pond, a Canada goose nesting area prior to restoration activities at Jumbo Annex (Table 2). Seventeen of the remaining 19 indicated nesting pairs were located in the Jumbo Reservoir vicinity. Ground Survey Nest searches were conducted from the ground on certain areas. Searches in river bottom areas in which indicated nesting pairs were observed from the air were generally fruitless, when the birds were not associated with structures. At the K-4 Ranch three nests were found, one which had been destroyed and two which were successful. Six nests were found at Gallagers, two on floating structures, three on standing structures and one on the ground. The one nest on a structure at the Fort Morgan Gravel Pit was located. One nest, not observed from the air, was located on the south side of Prewitt Reservoir. Two of the three probable nest sites observed from the air along the South Platte between Sterling and Julesburg were located but no nests were found. At Jumbo Reservoir Annex, thirteen nests were observed, one of which had hatched. Six of the nests were located on standing structures and seven on small man-made islands. A comparison of the results of aerial counts of indicated breeding pairs with ground counts of nests on selected areas is presented in Table 3. Fifteen of the 24 nests located during the ground survey were positioned on artificial nesting structures. An additional seven nests were located on man-made islands constructed specifically as goose nesting sites. North Park Aerial Survey A total of 71 Canada geese were observed during the aerial goose breeding pair survey on May 4, 1975 in North Park (Table 4). Four geese were observed on nests. An additional 13 single birds were observed bringing the indicated nesting pair total to 17. Twenty non-nesting pairs were also sighted. About one-third of the total birds observed and ten of the 17 indicated nesting pairs were located on Walden Reservoir, the secondary release site in North Park (Szymczak 1973, 1974). Two indicated nesting pairs and 3 nonnesting pairs were sighted at Lake John Annex, the primary release site (Szymczak 1973). Other indicated nesting pairs were observed on Grizzly Creek west of Hebron Ponds, at Boettcher Lakes, at Case Flats, and on the North Platte River, southwest of Walden and west of Cowdrey. �-37- Table 2. Sunnnarization of goose observations along the South Platte River area on April 29, 1975 from Greeley to Julesburg. Area On Nests Number of Geese Observed Pairs Singles Groups Total Greele~ to Fort Morgan South Platte River (including K-4Ranch) 2 3 4 0 9 Gallagers 5 1 1./ 4 0 10 Empire Reservoir 0 1 4 0 5 Subtotal 7 5 12 0 24 South Platte River 0 0 6 4 10 Fort Morgan Gravel Pits 1 0 0 3 4 Prewitt Reservoir 0 0 6 8 14 Subtotal 1 0 12 15 28 6 0 10 6 0 27 10 4 17 0 4 21 Fort Morgan to Sterling Sterling to Julesburg 2 ];./ South Platte River 2 Jumbo Annex 15 Jumbo Annex Area 2 Johnson's Pond 14 Subtotal 33 12 22 8 75 Grand Total 41 17 46 23 127 1./ Associated with goose observed on nest. Jj One associated with goose observed on nest. Y 6 1 1./ 3 1./ �-38- Table 3. Comparison of the number of indicated nesting pairs observed from the air with ground count information on selected sites. Number Indicated Nesting Pairs (Aerial) Nests Observed (Ground) South Platte River (K-4 Ranch) 5 3 Gallagers 5 6 Subtotal 10 9 South Platte River 0 0 Fort Morgan Gravel Pits 1 1 PreWitt 0 1 1 2 South Platte River 2 0 Jumbo Annex Area 16 13 Subtotal 18 13 Grand Total 29 24 Area Greeley to Fort Morgan Fort Morgan to Sterling Reservoir Subtotal Sterling to Julesburg �Table 4. Locations and classifications of Canada geese observed from the air in North Park on May 4, 1975. Location Nesting Number of Geese Observed Singles Pairs Groups o o o o o o Total 2 o 2 o 4 4 o 2 6 o 7 10 6 1 11/ o 1 o 4 2 1 2 o 2 2 6 Case Flats (8N, 80W, S13) 1 o 2 Walden Reservoir 2 10'1:/ 12 o o o o o o o o 2 5 Lake John Annex (9N, 8lW, S2) o o o o o 24 4 16 40 11 71 MacFarlane Reservoir Pole Mountain (7N, 79W, S29) Reservoir (7N, 8lW, S22) ",. Grizzly Creek West of Hebron Ponds (7N, 80W, S33) Fox Ranch (8N, 8lW, S24) 1 North Platte River Southwest of Walden West of Cowdrey (ION, 8W, SlO) Southeast of Lake John BoettcherLakes (ION, 8lW, S20) Furnow Pond (ION, 8lW, S6) (9N, 79W, S19, S20) Total ];./Associated with goose observed on nest. ~/ Two associated with goose observed on nest. 2 3 2 8 3 I \..oJ 1.0 I �-40- Ground Surveys No nest site checks were conducted in North Park immediately after the survey. Occasional observations were made on some of the potential production areas during the brood rearing period. Broods were observed at MacFarlane Reservoir (2 goslings), Pole Mountain Reservoir (3 goslings), Lake John Annex (2 goslings, 1 gosling) and Walden Reservoir (56 goslings total). Indicated breeding pairs were observed at Walden and Lake John Annex during the aerial survey but not at MacFarlane or Pole Mountain. The size of goslings observed at MacFarlane in August indicated the adult pair that produced the goslings weren't nesting at the time of the aerial flight. The birds that produced the goslings at Pole Mountain nested along heavily willowed Little Grizzly Creek adjacent to the Reservoir. A nest search of the islands and structures at Walden Reservoir located a total of 10 nests, 6 of which were judged to have been successful, one that had been destroyed, one that was abandoned, and two that the fate was unknown. All of the nests were located on islands. The advanced stage of the vegetation on the island made locating nests difficult. Antero Reservoir-South Park Nesting pair surveys were not conducted at Antero Reservoir. Periodic counts through late spring and early summer resulted in two broods being found. Two destroyed nests were also located. The high count of geese at Antero occurred on July 23, 1975 when 115 birds were observed. One pair of geese, whose actions indicated they were accompanied by a brood, were observed in late spring on Eleven Mile Reservoir, located about 20 miles east of Antero Reservoir. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1973. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. p. 33-42. 1974. Experimental studies on improving status of Canada goose populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. p. 47-53. Prepared J.~~ bY_'-J.I,-n~A<:L.:-M=· =--_.~~:>.....:=-.. ~~~l Michael R. szymcza~~ Wildlife Researcher �October 1976 -41- JOB PROGRESS r~PORT State of ____ -'-'-~c..;;...:;;_' COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-2..=1 Work Plan No. Job Title _ 2 Migratory Bird Investigations 6 ------------------------- Job No. Studies of Canada Goose Populations in Colorado Transplant Areas Period Covered: April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 Personnel: C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; M. Babler, D. Benson, S. Bissell, G. Brown, L. Budde, J. Corey, G. Claassen, R. Clark, C. Crawford, M. DePra, R. Desilet, J~ Ellenberger, J. Frothingham, B. Goetze, V. Graham, J. Gumber, S. Heath, T. Henry, J. Hobbs, R. Hopper, J. Jackson, R. Leasure, C. Leonard, J. Lorentzson, T. Lynch, K. Miller, K. Moser, D. Owens, C. Pabst, S. Palm, J. Pierce, B. Peterson, F. Rinella, C. Roberts, L. Rottman, G. Saville, H. Spear, S. Steinert, E. Wagner, and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Banded Canada geese (Branta canadensis) from Dowling Lake Alberta, the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan, Phillips County, Montana and the Big Horn-Treasure County areas of Montana, all documented Hi-Line nesting areas were well representei in the goose harvest in northcentral Colorado during the 1974-1975 hunting season. First year or direct recoveries from Schuler, Many Islands, Seven Persons, and Murray Lakes, all areas east of 111 longitude in southern Alberta were also reported taken in northcentral Colorado. Southern Alberta bandings west of 111 longitude were not represented in the northcentral Colorado harvest. Various methods of estimating the number of "small" geese harvested in northcentral Colorado based on tail fan collections are discussed. Since the inception of post-season banding in northcentral Colorado in 1971-1972, Alberta has been the major recovery area for birds considered "small" Canada geese when banded. Analysis of band recovery distribution and weight data indicate that geese classified as "small" birds banded post-season in northcentral Colorado may not be a simple cross-section of "small" geese from the short grass prairie Canada geese population. A record 68.8 percent of the large geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado and harvested during the 1974-1975 hunting were reported taken in northcentral Colorado. 0 0 The January 1976 goose census in the Hi-Line population wintering range resulted in a record 58,436 birds being counted. Ninty-three percent of the population was located in Colorado during the count. . Canada goose counts in the San Luis Valley totaled 1,230 on November 20, 1975, 959 on December 18, 1975, and 827 on January 8, 1976. An estimated total of 256 active permit holders hunted an average of 4.5 days and harvested 86 geese for a success rate of 0.34. An estimated 61 of the geese were harvested in Rio Grande County. (Abstract continued on next page) �-42- ABSTRACT (Continued) In Mesa County an estimated 256 active permit holders hunted an average of 4.1 days, taking an estimated 93 geese. In Garfield County, an estimated 80 active permit holders hunted an average of 3.6 days harvesting 20 geese. In the first year of goose hunting in Delta County an estimated 254 permit holders hunted an average of 4.2 days and harvested 68 geese. �• -43- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT AREAS Michael R. Szymczak P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the status of resident and migrant Canada goose flocks and their interrelationships in areas in which populations have been established through transplant programs in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. To determine breeding areas of Canada geese wintering in northcentral Colorado. lb. To examine migration routes and/or harvest patterns and distribution of Canada g~ese wintering in northcentral Colorado. 2. To estimate hunting pressure on, and hunter harvest of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado. 3. To estimate annual mortality of Canada geese wintering in northcentral Colorado. 4. To make recommendations for continuing Canada goose hunting seasons in westcentral Colorado, northcentral Colorado and the San Luis Valley. METHODS AND MATERIALS Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery location, sex, and age at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with northcentral Colorado. Tail fans reported from Canada geese harvested in northcentral Colorado and collected through the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey were examined and classified as to whether the fans originated from large or small Canada geese. Canada geese in northcentral Colorado were counted on December 18, 1975 and January 9, 1976. In the San Luis Valley geese were counted on November 20, 1975, December 18, 1975, and January 8, 1976. All hunters obtaining special permits to hunt geese in the San Luis Valley and westcentral Colorado were mailed questionnaires inquiring about their hunting activity and success. �-44Recoveries of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado were sorted by age and recovery year and mortality rates calculated by the composite dynamic. Adequate banding and recovery data for Hi-Line population breeding areas were not obtained. Therefore comparisons of distribution of harvest and of mortality estimates for the same population from two different banding operations, pre-season and post-season, could not be made. All pertinent data collected concerning the status of the northcentral, westcentral and San Luis Valley Canada goose populations were presented to management personnel in Colorado for use in establishing hunting seasons. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hi-Line Population Foreign Recoveries During the 1974-75 hunting season 155 Canada geese that were banded outside of Colorado were reported recovered in northcentral Colorado (Table 1). Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1974-75 hunting season. Area Direct Indirect Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area Schuler Lake Many Islands Lake Seven Persons Lake Murray Lake 1 1 7 5 3 2 2 5 3 Saskatchewan Manito Lake Area Cypress Hills Area Crane Lake Val Marie-Frenchman River (Masefield) Ponteix-Notukeu Creek Area 3 8 5 3 1 1 1 o 3 Mackenzie-N.W. Terr~tory Thelon River Area 1 --------------------------------------- �-45Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in northcentral Colorado during the 1974-75 hunting season. (continued) Area Direct Indirect 1 25 1 31 5 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Bighorn County Phillips County Treasure County Garfield County Roosevelt County Valley County North Dakota Ward County Wzoming Albany County Goshen County Crook County Nebraska Brown County 1 6 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 2 Kansas Phillips County 1 Texas Randall County 4 New Mexico Socorro County Chaves County San Miguel County 5 2 1 2 PACIFIC FLYWAY Utah Sanpete Boxelder County 1 1 Idaho Fremont County 1 Totals 73 82 �-46An additional three foreign banded birds (Table 2) were recaptured during an essentially unsu~cessful post-season trapping and banding operation. Eighty-seven of the foreign recoveries or recaptures were classified as wildtrapped locals when banded (Table 3). The 1974-75 hunting season was the first recovery year for birds banded during the post-nesting season by the cooperative Canada goose banding crew operating in southern Alberta. The direct recoveries listed in Tables 1 and 3 from Schuler, Many Islands, Seven Persons and Murray Lakes are from these bandings. All of the mentioned areas are located east of 111 longitude in southern Alberta. A total of 22 direct recoveries were reported from 262 bandings on those four areas (Weaver, unpublished data). Twelve of those banded birds were reported taken in northcentral Colorado while the remaining ten were taken either in Alberta or in other areas within the Hi-Line Canada goose range. The only other banding area east of 111 longitude, Cavan' Lake, was represented only by recoveries from Alberta. West of 111 longitude, a total of 1,084 birds were banded on 11 areas. These bandings resulted in 98 recoveries of which none were reported from Hi-Line wintering areas. 0 0 0 Geese released in the restoration program at Manito Lake east of North Battleford, Saskatchewan were represented in the northcentral Colorado harvest by both direct and indirect recoveries. These birds were also represented during the 1973-74 season (Szymczak and Staffon 1975). No new areas were represented by substantial numbers of recoveries in northcentral Colorado. Recoveries from populations nesting at Dowling Lake, Alberta, the Cypress Hills areas of Saskatchewan, Phillip County, Montana and the Big Horn-Treasure County areas in Montana, all documented Hi-Line nesting areas, were well represented in the harvest. Table 2. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recaptured postseason 1974-75 in northcentral Colorado. Area Saskatchewan Val Marie-Frenchman River Area Cypress Hills Area Direct Indirect 1 1 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Phillips County Totals 1 1 2 �-47Tail Fans A total of 129 of the 167 tail fans collected through the "Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey" from geese bagged in northcentral Colorado were used to establish the comparative rate of harvest of "small" Canada geese in northcentral Colorado during the 1975-76 hunting season. An estimated seven, eight and 22 percent of the geese harvested in the counties of Larimer, Boulder, and Weld, respectively, were considered to be "small" Canada geese, (Table 4) most likely members of the short grass prairie Canada goose population. Sample size in the other three counties listed were too small to yield valid results. Over the six year collection period the percent of "small" birds in the harvest has been extremely consistent in Larimer County, varying from 7 to 14 percent with a year to year average of 9 percent. Larimer is the only county that has had seemingly adequate samples for each year throughout the six year period. In Boulder County, in the 4 years represented by more than 20 tail fans, the percent of "small" birds in the harvest varied from eight to 16, averaging 13 percent. In Weld County also, only four of the six years are represented by more than 20 tail fans. The number of "small" birds in the harvest in those years has varied from 18 to 41 percent with a year to year average of 29 percent. Since the rate of tail fans collected is not proportional to the.rate of harvest by county, the tail fan data can't be pooled to obtain an estimate for all birds harvested in northcentral Colorado. However, to obtain an estimate, by county, a simple proportion involving the tail fans and harvest can be constructed: No. Tail Fans for County No. of "small" Tail Fans County Harvest X (No. small fans in harvest) Solving the equation will give the estimated total number of "small" birds harvested by the County. The numerical values are valid only to the degree that harvest estimates are valid and sample tail fans are representative of the harvest. If harvest estimates aren't reliable, the percent of harvest composed of "small" geese can be obtained by dividing the total estimated number of "small" geese harvested in the total area as obtained from County calculations, by the total estimated harvest. If harvest estimates errors are equally proportional by county, the estimate of the percent of harvest composed of "small" geese should be valid. In 1974, the harvest for geese in northcentral Colorado was estimated through the use of a state-wide waterfowl harvest survey for the first time since 1963. The estimated harvest from that survey was a record 17,000 plus during a season that was generally considered poor for goose hunting, indicating the harvest figures might be in error. Therefore, valid numerical estimates of the harvest of "small" birds can't be obtained. But a reliable estimate of the percent of harvest composed of "small" birds can be obtained by calculating numerical estimates by county using the formula, then dividing the pooled county estimates by the pooled county harvest. Calculating the estimate as described above resUlting in an estimate that 22.2 percent of the harvest was composed of "small" birds in 1974. The percents calculated in the same manner for 1970, 1971 and 1973 using the results of the special harvest survey were 10.4 percent, 19.8 percent, and 12.9 percent. Data for 1972 was not used because of poor sample sizes in two of the three major harvest counties. • �-48- Table 3. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered or recaptured in northcentral Colorado during the winter of 1974-75. Year of Banding Before 1967 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Area - Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area Schuler Lake Seven Persons Lake Murray Lake Saskatchewan Val Marie-Frencnman (Masefield) Cypress Hills Area Pontiex-Notukeu R. Crane Lake 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 R. Area 3 1 1 2 1 2 8 1 3 5 18 1 CENTRAL FLYWAY Montana Bighorn County Phillips County Treasure County Garfield County 1 3 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 PACIFIC FLYWAY Utah Sanpete County Boxelder County Idaho Fremont County 1 1 1 In summary, nearly one-quarter of the harvest in northcentral Colorado was compc sed of "small" birds in 1974, indicating that a record number of "small" geese w0re in northcentral Colorado during the 1974-75 season. �Table 4. Classification of Canada goose tail fans collected through the Bureau of Sport Fisheries Collection Survey, from birds harvested in northcentral Colorado, 1970-1975 hunting seasons. 1970 1971 Year 1972 Percent Percent Large Small County of Harvest Percent Large Percent Small Percent Large Percent Small Larimer 92 (36).!/ 8 (3) 91(41) 9(4) 92 (22) Boulder 100(1) 0(0) 86(18) 14 (3) Arapahoe - - 100(2) Adams 100(2) 0(0) Weld 82(18) 18(4) Morgan - - 1973 Parts 1974 Percent Large Percent Small 8(2) 93 (28) 7 (2) 100(10) 0(0) 84(42) 0(0) - - 100(4) 0(0) 100(1) 59(13) 41(9) - - and Wildlife's Percent Large 1975 Percent Small Percent Large Percent Small 86 (31) 14(5) 93 (27) 7(2) 16(8) 88(21) 12 (3) 92(36) 8 (3) - - - - 100(1) 0(0) 0(0) - - 100(1) 0(0) 100(3) 0(0) 67(2) 33 (1) 79(11) 21(3) 67 (16) 33(8) 78(43) 22(12) - - 0(0) 100(4) - - 100(2) 0(0) 1/ Sample size in parentheses. I .j:>\C I �-50- Winter Banding - Northcentral Colorado A total of 2,446 Canada geese were banded post-season in January and February in northcentral Colorado from 1971 through 1975. Two hundred forty-one of those birds, 187 "large" geese wearing size 8 bands and 54 "small" geese with size 7 bands, were banded in January 1975. Percentages of "small" geese in the annual banded samples varied considerably over the 1971-75 period. However, of the total banded, 769 or 31.4 percent were considered "small" Canada geese. Through each successive recovery year for each banding cohort, Alberta has generally been the major recovery location in Canada for birds classified when banded as "small" Canada geese. Alberta is also the major recovery area in Canada for short grass prairie birds banded in southeastern Colorado (Szymczak 1974). Unfortunately the majority of the "small" birds, 148 and 463, were banded during two banding periods in 1971 and 1972, respectively, in northcentral Colorado. In order to test the hypothesis that "small" geese in the wintering population in northcentral Colorado are not composed of a simple cross-section of geese of the short grass prairie population, the recovery distribution of two banding cohorts, 1971 and 1972, was composed by banding location, northcentral and southeastern Colorado. The results as presented in Table 5 indicate some obvious variations in the two populations as reflected by recovery distribution. The distribution of direct recoveries between the two Provinces from the two banding areas was quite different in 1971 with Alberta accounting for 36 percent of the recoveries from southeast Colorado bands, but 86 percent of the northcentral bandings. A closer percentage distribution was found in comparing indirect recoveries with Alberta taking 70 percent of the southeast bandings and 50 percent of the northcentral bandings. Unfortunately 1971 comparisons are hampered by a small number of recoveries in the Provinces from northcentral Colorado bandings. In 1971, with better sample sizes from the northcentral area, the data indicates a similar distribution from both banding areas when considering direct recoveries with Alberta accounting for 52 percent and 57 percent of the southeast and northcentral Colorado bandings, respectively. The difference is greater in 1972 when comparing indirect recoveries. According to goose weights recorded during the post-season banding period, geese judged to be "small" in the banded population in northcentral Colorado are physically larger than birds banded in southeastern Colorado (Table 6). However the differences by age class, although generally consistent, are small. Unfortunately complete taxonomic measurements were not taken to further comparisons. The weight differences cJuld simply be an indication of variation in body condition between banded birds of the two sample areas. The annual interchange 0etween the two wintering areas, southeast and northcentral Colorado, by "small" birds continued during the 1974-75 hunting season. Two "small" birds (size 7), 12.5 percent of the total recoveries, in northcentral Colorado since 1971-72 were taken in southeast Colorado during the 1974-75 season (Table 7). A record 7.3 percent of the recoveries during the 1974-75 season of southeast Colorado banded birds was reported taken in northcentral Colorado (Szymczak, unpublished data). �-51- Table 5. Percentage comparison of the recovery distribution between Alberta and Saskatchewan of "small" Canada geese banded post-season in 1971 and 1972 in southeast Colorado with those banded in the same years in northcentral Colorado and recovered through the 1974 hunting season. Banding Location Year of Banding and Recovery Location Southeast Co1orado(1032)11 Direct Indirect Total Northcentral Co1orado(463)Direct Indirect Total II 1971 Alberta Saskatchewan 36(9)]) 64(13) 70(19) 30(8) 57(28) 43(21) 86(6) 14(1) 50(3) 50(3) 69(9) 31(4) Total 100(22) 100(27) 100(49) 100 (7) 100(6) 100(13) Alberta Saskatchewan 52 (11) 48 (10) 55 (17) 45(14) 54(28) 46(14) 57(8) 43(6) 76(13) 24(4) 68(21) 32(10) Total 100(21) 100(31) 100(52) 100(14) 100 (17) 100(31) 1972 I 1./ J./ . Banded sample size. Number of recoveries in parentheses. Table 6. Comparison of weights in pounds of "small" Canada geese banded postseason in 1971 and 1972 in southeast Colorado with those banded in the same years in northcentral Colorado, by age and sex class. Year and Location of Banding Adult Male Weights bl Age and Sex (lbs) Adult Female Immature Male Immature Female Southeast Northcentral 5.75(265) 6.49(43) 5.20(282) 6.05(59) 5.35(151) 6.28(19) 4.70(169) 5.76(24) Southeast Northcentral 5.75(390) 6.13(151) 5.16(305) 5.77(164) 5.68(179) 5.67(79) 5.03(164) 5.24(61) 1971 1972 �Table 7. Percent distribution of recoveries through the 1974-75 hunting season of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado during the four year period 1971 through 1974. 1971-72 Area 1972-73 Hunting Season 1973-74 Size 8 Size 7 1974-75 SOize 8 All Years Size 8 Size 7 Size 8 Size 7 Size 8 Alberta 13.8 (11) 40.0 (6) 12.6 (13) 34.5 (10) 10.2 (9) 37.5 (9) 11.3 (9) 25.0 (4) 12.0 (42) 35.8 (29) Saskatchewan 18.8 (15) 6.7 (1) 27.6 17.0 (15) 12.5 (3) 10.0 (8) 12.5 (2) 18.5 (65) 17.3 (14) Manitoba 7.5 (6) 13.3 (2) 26.2 (27) 1.0 (1) (0) (0) 2.0 (7) 2.5 (2) (0) (0) 3.4 (2) 4.2 (1) 6.3 (5) (0) 3.4 (12) 2.5 (2) (6) 4.2 Montana Wyoming (2) (0) (0) 1.0 (1) (0) (0) . (0) (2) 6.7 (1) 1.0 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (2) (0) (2) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 2.3 1.1 46.3 (37) (0) (0) 20.0 (3) 13.3 (2) (0) 10.3 20.7 (3) (6) (0) 52.3 (46) 2.3 (2) 1.1 (1) (0) (0) 2.3 3.4 2.5 2.5 1.9 (1) 2.3 6.8 (0) 2.8 (10) (0) (1) (0) 0.6 (2) (0) \Jl (0) (0) (0) 0.9 (3) 1.2 (1) '" (0) (0) (0) 6.3 (1) (0) 1.2 (1) (2) (0) (1) 12.5 (2) 2.0 (7) 2.5 ~2) (1) (0) (0) (0) 0.3 (1) (0) (4) (5) (0) 68.8 (55) (0) (0) 12.5 (2) 12.5 (2) (0) (2) (0) (0) 6.3 (1) 49.0 (172) 3.4 (12) (2) 0.6 1.1 (4) 14.8 (12) 16.0 (13) (0) 1.2 (1) (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) 0.6 (2) 1.2 (0) (0) (1) (0) 0.3 (1) (1) (0) 12.5 (2) (0) (0) (0) 0.3 (1) (0) (1) (0) 1.0 (0) (0) (0) (0) Texas (0) (0) (0) (0) Oklahoma (0) (0) (0) (0) New Mexico Utah 1.3 (1) (0) 1.1 (1) 16.7 20.8 4.2 (1) Size 7 (0) 33.0 (34) 9.7 (10) 1.0 (1) 1.9 (2) Arizona (0) (0) Kansas Colorado Northcentral Southeast Other (0) (2) North Dakota Nebraska (0) (0) 2.5 (5) (8) 4.9 1.9 Idaho South Dakota Size 7 1.3 1.3 1.3 (0) (1) (0) 3.7 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3) (0) I I �Table 7. Percent distribution of recoveries through the 1974-75 hunting season of Canada geese banded post-season the four year period 1971 through 1974 (continued). 1971-72 Area Size 8 Size 7 1972-73 . Size 8 Size 7 Hunting Season 1973-74 Size 8 Size 7 1.1 (0) (0) 1.0 (1) (0) (2) (0) 1.9 (2) (0) Pennsylvania 2.5 1.3 (1) (0) (0) Unknown 1.3 (1) (0) (0) Nevada California in northcentral Colorado during Size 7 All Years Size 8 Size 7 1974-75 Size 8 (1) (0) (0) (0) 0.6 (2) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 1.1 (4) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 0.3 (1) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) 0.3 (1) (0) I V1 IN I Total 80 15 103 29 88 24 80 16 351 81 �-54Harvest Patterns The distribution of harvest through the 1974-75 hunting season of Canada geese banded post-season in northcentral Colorado during the four year period 1971 through 1974 is presented in Table 7. A record 68.8 percent of the 80 reported recoveries of large geese (size 8) were harvested in Colorado all in the northcentral area. Alberta and Saskatchewan combined for an additional 21.3 percent of the large geese recovered with the distribution of recoveries by Province essentially equal. Twenty-five percent of the 16 small (size 7) geese reported recovered were taken in Alberta while 12.5 percent or two recoveries each came from Saskatchewan, Nebraska, northcentral Colorado, southeast Colorado and Texas. Population Distribution The December 1975 coordinated inventory in the Hi-Line wintering area resulted in a total of 59,638 geese being recorded, about 4 percent below the 1973 level (Table 8, Szymczak 1975). The January count resulted in the highest total recorded during January since coordinated counts began in 1970-71, or 58,436 birds. In four of the previous five years, the reduction in population size between the two inventories has variei from 23 percent in 1970-71 to 62 percent in 1973. The reduction was always directly related to declining numbers in Colorado, and could not be attributed to harvest alone. These reductions indicate a movement out of Colorado, normally during the mid-to-late December period. Analysis of weather data indicates that these movements are not directly related to specific weather conditions. The impetus for these movements and the area(s) to which the birds moved are still unknown. Eighty-seven percent of the population was in Colorado during the December inventory and 93 percent during the January count. Nearly 55 percent of the birds were located on four reservoirs inside closed areas during the December count: College Lake, New Windsor Reservoir, Valmont Reservoir and Terry Lake (Longmont) (Table 9). In January, those same areas held nearly 47 percent of the geese. A record number of geese for a January count were observed in the BrightonGreeley-Fort Morgan area (Table 10). Mortality Estimates Population mortality estimates for "large" Canada geese, as calculated from hunting season recoveries of post-season banded birds in northcentral Colorado, did not change significantly with an additional year of banding and subsequent recoveries. Through the 1973-74 hunting season estimated mortality rates ~alculated by the composite dynamic method were .279 and .326 for first year and all year recoveries, respectively. For recoveries through the 1974-75 season, those same estimates were .287 and .316. Table 8. Location Results of Hi-Line Canada goose population inventories, 1975-76. December 18 January 9 Montana 891 131 Wyoming 4,668 2,227 Colorado 51,891 54,444 New Mexico 2,188 1,634 Totals 59,638 58,436 �-55Table 9. Results of northcentral Colorado goose surveys, 1975-76. Area December 18 January 9 1,880 265 604 225 1,360 1,207 420 657 750 10,636 1,864 450 400 7,850 275 3,000 60 420 175 300 180 61 2,671 o 215 34,039 29,118 5,600 188 25 900 2 4,900 347 Fort Collins - Loveland Lindenmeier Lake Longs Pond Richards Lake Reservoir 116 Terry Lake Watson Lake Claymore Lake Sterling Ponds Ft. Collins City Park College Lake Fossil Creek Reservoir Boyd Lake Hollister Lake (Old Windsor Res.) New Windsor Reservoir Tinmath Reservoir Woods Lake Cobb Lake Douglas Reservoir Reservoir 1115 Millers Pond Horsetooth Reservoir Reservoir #8 Annex Reservoir #5 Sub-total o o o 454 395 132 1,500 675 5,732 1,722 300 o 5,427 750 8,900 o 15 o o 230 o Boulder - Longmont Area Terry Lake McCall Reservoir (Stamp) Baller Reservoir Union Reservoir Gaynor Lake Baseline Reservoir Valmont Reservoir Faivre Ponds Sub-total o o o 4 o 4,285 o 8,793 40 11,004 14,080 �-56Table 9. Results of northcentral Colorado goose surveys, 1975-76 (continued). Area December 18 January 9 Denver Area Bowles Lake Area Cherry Creek Reservoir Cooley Sand & Gravel Denver City Park Green Gables Country Club Kettring Park Sloans Lake Standley Lake Washington Park Youngfield Lake (Maple Grove) Lowry AFB Rocky Mtn. Arsenal S. Colo. Blvd./Quincy Gravel Pit (60th Rnd Lowell) Quincey Lake Sub-total 975 1,000+ 225 llO 250 250 98 170 180 5 o o 1,850 550 325 250 350 215 37 360 161 156 450 32 30 238 12 3,263 5,016 o o o Brighton-Greeley·-Ft. Morgan Area Barr Lake Horse Creek Reservoir Milton Reservoir Latham Reservoir Riverside Reservoir Empire Reservoir Jackson Reservoir S. Platte e/Orchard Seeley Lake Prospect Reservoir 400 60 300 800 22 1,610 275 33 50 35 3,80o-!/ Sub-total 3,585 6,230 51,891 54,444 GRAND TOTAL 1/ Aerial count. 225 45 200 5001/ 607- o 1,4001/ o o �-57Table 10. Winter inventories of the Colorado Hi-Line Canada goose population. Count Date Fort Co1linsLoveland Longmont-Boulder Denver Brighton-GreeleyFort Morgan Total 1967 January 9 9,739 2,883 991 l3 ,613 1968 January 10 12,217 4,029 678 16,924 1968-69 November 20 December 19 January 2 & l3 15,848 20,905 19,693 3,461 4,236 4,874 2,667 1,170 775 21,976 26,3ll 25,342 1969-70 November 5 November 28 December 23 January 6 8,737 31,350 18,522 30,650 2,255 3,782 5,668 5,060 390 1,374 1,259 1,914 ll,382 36,506 25,499 37,624 1970-71 November 4 November 23 December 22 January 6 12,612 29,970 36,034 19,879 1,690 16,710 12,664 15,566 348 1,370 3,055 2,425 14,650 48,050 51,753 37,870 1971-72 November 4 November 23 December 21 January 10 25,699 31,072 31.516 19,1l7 1,815 1./ 9,181 19,525 10,742 6,905 l3,525 4,476 3,661 34,419 53,788 55,517 33,520 1972-73 November 6 November 22 December 20 January 10 15,230 21, us l3,841 l3,595 1,240 1/ 5,764 19,290 18,709 1,050 4,981 1,225 1,405 17,520 31,863 34,356 33,709 1973-74 December 13 January 9 31,558 14,854 10,336 6,802 10,380 1,809 52,274 23,465 1974-75 December 11 January 8 28,491 17,986 15,076 12,980 4,104 1,645 47,671 32,6ll 1975-76 December 18 January 9 34,039 29,118 14,267 19,096 3,585 6,230 51,891 54,444 }j Denver area not included. �-58San Luis Valley Population Distribution Inventories of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley during 1975-76 indicated a wide spread distribution of birds during late November, a concentration of birds on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in mid-December and a dispersion of geese from the refuge area in early January directly after the huntins season (Ta01e 11). The total numbers of birds by period were similar to what was recorded during 1974-75 (Table 12). Harvest Three hundred permits were issued authorizing the harvest of one goose each in the San Luis Valley during the 1975 hunting season. An estimated total of 256 active permit holders hunted an average of 4.5 days and harvested 86 geese for a success rate of 0.34 (Tables 13 and 14). Rio Grande County was the major harvest area followed by Alamosa County, a return to the normal harvest distribution which was reversed in 1974 (Table 14). In the entire permit area, the number of hunters and hunter activity in 1975 was three percent and eight percent, respectively, above the 1974 level, while harvest increased an estimated 25 percent (Table 15). Westcentral Colorado Harvest A total of 700 permits were issued authorizing the harvest of one goose each during the 1975 season in westcentral Colorado, 100 for Garfield County and 300 each in Mesa and Delta Counties. In Mesa County, an estimated 256 active permit holders hunted an average of 4.1 days taking an estimated 93 geese for a success rate of 0.36 (Tables 16 and 17). In Garfield County, an estimated 80 permit holders hunted an average of 3.6 days harvesting an estimated 20 geese. In Delta County, which was opened to goose hunting for the first time since 1966, an estimated 254 permit holders hunted an average of 4.2 days and harvested an estimated 68 geese. About 42 percent of the birds taken in Mesa County was reported harvested along the Colorado River below Grand Junction and 36 percent within five miles of Highline Lake. In Garfield County, 44 percent of the birds were reported harvested along the Colorado River between Rifle and Rulison and 31 percent along the Colorado River within three miles downstream from Grand Valley. In Delta County 63 percent of the harvest was reported taken along the Gunnison River between Current Creek and Escalante Canyon. The January, 1976 aerial inventory of Canada geese in westcentral Colorado indicated that 44 percent of the 1,356 geese were located in Mesa County, with the remaining birds similarly divided between Garfield and Delta Counties (Table 18). The total of 1,356 geese was about 10 percent below the January 1975 total (Table 19). �-59Table 11. Results of Canada goose surveys during the 1975-76 hunting season in the San Luis Valley. l/ Area November 20 Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge Rio Grande River Conejos River to State Line Del Norte to Monte Vista Monte Vista to Alamosa Alamosa to Conejos River Alamosa to State Line Conejos River San Luis Lake Sanchez Reservoir McIntire Springs Russell Lakes Sego Springs Area 2/ 84 December 18 January 8 868 550 301 75 309 52 8 1 8 375 10 91 50 10 208 16 Total 1,230 959 827 l/ Survey conducted by C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; R. Clark and G. Saville, Colorado Division of Wildlife, and compiled by M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. 2/ Warm spring or well due north of Sego Springs Ponds on north side of river. Table 12. Winter inventories of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley of Colorado. Year 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 October 1,570 1,006 289 l/ Compared monthly inventories Number of Geese ..l/ November December January 1,490 913 1,196 736 1,0l3 1,230 1,261 1,286 1,621 905 709 2/ 827 for the five years generally taken within five days of each other. 2/ Geese not concentrated. 1,050 1,255 1,079 774 934 959 Poor count. �-60- Table 13. Hunter actiyit¥ and success in the San Luis Valley goose permit area. Year Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1970-71 200 164 3.4 0.65 1971-72 350 296 4.2 0.60 1972-73 400 311 4.6 0.82 1973-74 300 233 4.2 0.!+8 1974-75 300 249 4.3 0.28 1975-76 300 256 4.5 0.34 Table 14. Distribution of harvest, by county, in the San Luis Valley goose permit area. Year Rio Grande Alamosa Saguache Conejos Costilla Total 1970-71 74 31 2 0 0 107 1971-72 121 50 1 5 0 177 1972-73 195 51 2 1 6 255 1973 62 40 3 1 6 112 1974 27 37 2 3 0 69 1975 61 19 1 3 2 86 �-61- Table 15. Hunting pressure and harvest in the San Luis Valley goose permit area 1974 and 1975. Estimated Number 1974 1975 Total individual hunters Percent Change from 1974 249 (± 5) 256(±. 5) + 2.8 Total hunter trips 1,068(±40) 1,156(±42) + 8.2 Total geese bagged 69(± 5) 86(± 6) +24.6 Average hunter trips/hunter 4.3 4.5 Average bag/hunter 0.28 0.34 Average bag/hun t er trip 0.07 0.08 Table 16. Hunter activity and success in the west central Colorado special goose hunting permit area. Year Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted Average Seasonal Bag/Hunter 1971-72 150 112 2.9 0.29 1972-73 250 182 3.7 0.32 1973 Mesa Co. 300 Garfield Co. 66 Entire Area 366 254 46 300 3.9 3.7 3.8 0.30 0.20 0.28 1974 Mesa Co. 300 Garfield Co. 100 Entire Area 400 235 67 303 4.3 3.6 4.1 0.28 0.28 0.28 1975 Mesa Co. 300 Garfield Co. 100 Delta Co. 300 Entire Area 700 256 80 254 590 4.4 3.6 4.2 4.1 0.36 0.25 0.26 0.30 �-62- Table 17. Distribution of harvest by year in the west central Colorado special goose hunting permit area; Year Delta County Mesa County Garfield County Total 1971 33 1972 58 1973 75 9 84 1974 66 19 85 93 20 181 1975 68 Table 18. Canada goose inventory, west central Colorado, January 7 and 8, 1976. Area Number of Geese Delta County 385 Mesa County 601 Garfield County 370 Total 1,356 �-63- Table 19. Winter inventories of Canada geese in west central Colorado. Date Number of Canada Geese 1967 January 17 71 1968 January 16 92 1969 January 2 307 1970 January 19 339 1971 January 4 879 1971-72 November 24 January 5 485 989 1972-73 November 21 January 11 329 1,183 1974 January 11 965 1975 January 10, 11 1,515 1976 January 7, 8 1,356 LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1974. Arkansas Valley Canada goose flock management studies. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. p. 55-87. Szymczak, M. R., and R. Staffon. 1975. Studies of Canada goose populations in Colorado transplant areas. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Project W-88-R. October. p. 53-117. Prepared by '/ /i(<:'-A~t!-L, IC! ~f:;;1-)J)CJd .Michael R. SzymczaiP Wildlife Researcher Z> __k~ <1.~ ��October 1976 -65JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --------------------- Project No. W-88-R-21 Migratory ---..:;.:: Bird Investigations 2 Job Title 7 Job No. Non-hunting Mortality Investigations of Canada Geese in Southeastern Colorado Period Covered: October 3, 1972 through March 31, 1975 Work Plan No. Personnel: Michael R. Szymczak ABSTRACT All data has been collected and essentially analyzed. Portions of a draft of a publication entitled "Lead Poisoning of Canada Geese in Southeast Colorado" have been completed. A second publication concerning the implementation of a ban on the use of lead shot as a means of reducing or eliminating lead poisoning of Canada geese at Turk's Pond has not yet been initiated. Formulation and publication of these manuscripts have been written as segment objectives under Work ,Plan 6, Job 1, Migratory Bird Publications for the period April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977. ��October 1976 -67JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-21 Work Plan No. Job Title 2 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 8 Investigations of Canada Geese in the San Luis Valley Period Covered: April 1, 1973 to March 31, 1976 Personnel: C. Bryant and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; M. Strong and R. Tragstaad, Bureau of Land Management; D. Lowry, Colo. State University; R. Clark, R. Desilet, N. Forbes, J. Frothingham, H. Funk, B. Goforth, J. Grieb, J. Gustafson, R. Holder, J. Rauch, W. Rutherford, G. Saville, W. Schuett, S. Steinert, R. Velarde, R. Weldon, B.Widhalm, M. Zgainer and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT In 1974 an estimated 76 and 39 breeding pairs of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were located on river habitat and lake and pond habitat, respectively, in the San Luis Valley, excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. In 1975 using a different method of sampling and calculation than in 1974, only 40 breeding pairs were estimated for river bottom areas and 19 pairs for lake and pond areas. About 89 percent of the encounters with geese transported and released on, or wild trapped and banded at the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge occurred in the San Luis Valley. Only 39 percent of the reported encounters with geese released in conjunction with restoration progr'ams at San Luis Lakes or on the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge have occurred in the San Luis Valley. Most of the encounters outside the San Luis Valley with geese released either at San Luis Lakes or on the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge have occurred in the Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge area near Roswell, New Mexico. From 1969 through 1974 there were 19 encounters in the San Luis Valley with birds banded at Wheatland Reservoir, a moulting area for Canada geese located north of Laramie, Wyoming, indicating birds of the San Luis Valley nesting population are using Wheatland Reservoir for moulting. Encounters with Canada geese banded on Hi-Line population production areas were first recorded in the San Luis Valley in 1960 and were reported sporadically from 1960 until 1972. No encounters with geese banded on Hi-Line production areas have been reported for the 1972 through 1974 period, indicating reduced presence of Hi-Line geese in the San Luis Valley. Encounters in the San Luis Valley with geese banded as moulting adults in the Denver area indicate ponds in the Denver area may have been used as moulting locations for non-nesting geese of the San Luis Valley population at least during the late 1960's. January inventories in the San Luis Valley indicated a progressive buildup in the number of wintering geese from 45 in 1955 to 1,621 in 1973. During the period from 1962 through 1970, 86 percent of the geese counted on the January inventory in the San Luis Valley were on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in �-68- ABSTRACT (continued) Rio Grande County. However, during that same 1962 through 1970 period essentially all the harvest occurred in Conejos and Costilla counties, indicating most of the harvest was being extracted from the migrant population. The decline in the size of the goose harvest in the San Luis Valley from an estimated 794 in 1962 to 194 in 1969 generally paralleled the decline in the number of Hi--Line Canada geese wintering in New Mexico. Annual periodic counts beginning with the initiation of the special Valley-wide goose season in 1970 indicated population fluctuations throughout the fall and winter period. Beginning in 1974, counts of geese began to show a definite decline in the population through the fall and winter, indicating the movement of geese out of the San Luis Valley. The goose hunting success rate since special seasons were initiated in 1970 seem to be directly related to the average number of geese present in the San Luis Valley during the hunting season. Since 1970 Rio Grande and Alamosa counties have been the major harvest areas, while very few geese are taken in Conejos or Costilla counties. In 1970 and 1971, 35 to 40 percent of the goose harvest in the San Luis Valley occurred in November during a season beginning November 1 and ending in mid-January. In 1972, with the season during the same time period, 20 percent of the harvest was taken in November. In 1973, 1974 and 1975 only 21 percent, 20 percent and 29 percent, respectively, of the harvest was taken in the month of November, with a November-December season. Aerial counts indicate geese are present in Conejos and Costilla counties in November; but according to harvest surveys they are subject to very little hunting pressure. A direct relationship exists between the distribution of geese late in the hunting season and the distribution of harvest during the entire hunting season. �-69RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Assuming that the size of the current nesting Canada goose population in the San Luis Valley is not adequate to meet the recreational demand, the following steps should be employed to increase the population. a. Erect and maintain nesting structures on open lake and pond areas on both public and private lands where adequate natural nest sites are not available. San Luis and Head Lakes are excellent examples of areas lacking natural nest sites. b. Erect and maintain nesting structures on sloughs and oxbows adjacent to the Rio Grande River where adequate natural nest sites are not available. c. Encourage the development through any means available of permanent water areas at Mishak Lakes. 2. Continue experimental Canada goose breeding population surveys under the Waterfowl Production Surveys job. 3. Continue post-nesting season Canada goose banding concentrating on capturing groups of adults with goslings throughout the Valley, banding at least 200 birds a year for three years. 4. Encourage the preservation of the Wheatland Reservoir mOUlting area by expressing to the Wyoming Game and Fish Commission the importance of that reservoir to the San Luis Valley Canada goose population. 5. Conduct annual counts of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley in mid- to late October, mid-November and mid-December. Schedule the counts so they occur on approximately the same day each year. 6. Until more information is obtained concerning emigration of the local population and possihle differential harvest, maintain basically the same hunting season regulations; 300 permits authorizing harvest of one goose each throughout the San Luis Valley, November 1 to December 31 season framework. 7. Continue the special San Luis Valley goose season harvest survey. ��-71- INVESTIGATION OF CANADA GEESE IN THE SAN LUIS VALLEY Michael R. Szymczak This investigation was initiated primarily to document the size, distribution, and productivity of the Canada goose flock in the San Luis Valley. The flock developed through restoration efforts by federal and state personnel which began in 1953. The general development of the nesting population was not monitored except on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. Wintering population numbers, which were thought to be directly related to the size and productivity of the nesting population were determined through counts conducted throughout the winter period. In 1970, in response to increasing numbers of wintering geese, a limited goose hunting season was initiated in the San Luis Valley (Szymczak 1971). Winter population distribution, hunter activity, and harvest were monitored under another job. In 1973 this study was initiated with a three phase approach: (1) develop a reliable technique to measure the breeding population annually, (2) document the distribution and productivity of the population and (3) attempt to establish the relationship, if any, between the size and productivity of the breeding popUlation and the size of the fall and winter population, and if possible, develop a harvest formula based on the relationship. A sampling method for estimating the breeding population utilizing aerial surveys was designed and tested in 1974 (Lowry 1974, 1975). Testing of the aerial methods, helicopter vs fixed wing counts, were continued in 1975, and are planned again in 1976. Investigations to document the distribution and productivity of the population were conducted in spring and summer of 1973 and 1974, and reported on in final form by Lowry (1974, 1975). Lowry's findings will be referred to, but not duplicated in this report. The final phase of this study, which will be the subject of this report, was to tie all available information together from all sources and develope an initial management plan. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate the size, distribution, and productivity of the Canada goose population in the San Luis Valley during the spring and summer period and develop a management. plan. METHODS AND MATERIALS Aerial Breeding Pair Counts Lowry(1975) divided the occupied and potential Canada goose nesting habitat, with the exceptior. of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, into sample sections. River sections were 1 x 3 miles with their lengths approximately �-72- perpendicular to the flow of the stream. Sections covering pond and marsh areas were 1 mile wide and varied in length depending on the size of the wetland. In 1974 Lowry conducted breeding pair counts on selected sample sections using both fixed wing and helicopter aircraft in order to test ,the observability rate of breeding pairs from both types of aircraft. In the fixed wing aircraft four passes were flown perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the sample area at 100 to 150 feet above the ground with two observers scanning 1/8 of a mile on each side of the aircraft. In the helicoptor Lowry made 8 to 12 passes across the sample area in the same direction as in the fixed-wing at from 20 to 150 feet in altitude with only one observer. In 1974 in order to obtain an estimate of breeding pairs, sections 3, 6, 13, 20 through 36, 42 through 45, 48, 50 through 53, 57, 61, 65, and 66 were counted on the river (Lowry 1974). In addition, all pond and marsh area sections were counted with the exception of T. All counts were made from a helicopter. Comparative fixed wing counts were flown over areas 3, 6, 13, 25 through 27, 30, 42 through 45 B, C, D, and P. In 1975 two additional sampling areas were added along the Rio Grand River downstream from La Sauses, creating the sampling grid as it appears in Fig. 1. Also, for economy reasons, only four helicopter passes were flown across each sample area in the same manner as with the fixed wing. Sample areas 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22 through 32, 34, 36, 38, 40 through 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64 through 69 and all lettered sections were flown with the helicopter. Comparative fixed wing counts were conducted on all the above numbered river sections except 31, 32, 58, 60, 62, and 64 through 69. Only lettered sections Q and T were flown with the fixed wing. As in 1974, sample sections on the rivers were grouped by area in analysis (Table 1). On all flights geese observed were recorded in one of the following categories: singles on nests, pairs w/nests, singles not on nests, pairs or groups. In analysis, the total number of singles and pairs with nests and singles not on nests in excess of the number of singles with nests were recorded as indicated breeding pairs. Totals were recorded by sample unit. As recommended by Lowry (1974) flights were conducted just prior to the estimated peak of hatch (April 23 and 24, 1975) in order to record the greatest number of expected productive breeding pairs. All reported band encounters of Canada geese banded in the San Luis Valley and encountered anywhere, or those banded elsewhere and encountered in the San Luis Valley were examined. Inferences concerning migrational behavior were drawn as a result of analysis of the age, status and time period of banding and location and means of recovery. Because of a lack of breeding population data breeding populations were not considered in any population relationships. Winter inventories, harvest estimates, harvest success and harvest distribution were compared both within and between years in an attempt to establish relationships between winter population and harvest. However, because of the lack of sufficient data, a harvest formula for the San Luis Valley Canada goose population was not developed. �-73- N D~SlloA '--"'---Co A 8S f SCALf IN W8l~':6on KILOMETERS o J1 iE3E?"'"1E3E3 SCALf IN Y E3 H r COo \. Ie ~ ~ MILES 10 I o Center Dol/or o °1 046 Head Loire E z I" (;. lot Son Luis Lolr8 "ONTE VISTA NATIONAL WILDLIFE .. " '"... REFUGE ".• .. •... R.4E. Fig. 1. Geographic location of sample sections utilized in San Luis Valley Canada goose breeding pair counts. �Table 1. Comparative results of fixed-wing and helicopter estimated breeding pair counts of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, 1975. Sample Sections SamEle Size Helicopter Fixed-Wing Indicated Breeding Pair Helicopter Fixed-Wing Non-Nesting Pair Helicopter Fixed Wing GrouEs Helicopter Fixed-Wing Total Geese Helicopter Fixed-Wing River 1-10 11-21 22-32 33-39 ~O-4849-55 56-64 65-69 5 5 11 3 9 3 5 5 5 5 9 3 9 3 - 2 7 20 2 8 0 0 1 4"0 Sub-total 2 4 12 .5 9 2 - - Incomplete 2 9 23 2 9 0 4 0 2 6 34 0 23 0 - 6 33 23 0 13 7 13 0 l;9 Incomplete 95 - 0 13 0 0 3 0 - Incomplete 14 65 109 8 47 7 21 2 8 33 92 10 67 4 273 Incomplete Lake and Pond A B-C I ....• Entire Areas II D II E-H I-K L II II II II 0 II P Q R S T II II II II Sub-total - - - - - - Entire Area - - Entire Area 0 11 1 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 -19 - - - - - 0 - 0 Incomplete 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 -14 - - - - - 1 0 Incomplete 0 5 0 3 0 4 0 0 0 0 3 0 -15 - - - - 0 - 0 Incomplete J:I 0 45 2 13 0 6 0 0 8 0 7 0 0 81 Incomplete -- 2 �-75- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aerial Breeding Pair Counts 1974 Lowry (1974) compared the results of helicopter and fixed wing counts. He found generally, that helicopter counts of breeding pairs with himself as the observer were in closer agreement with ground counts than were fixed wing counts with two observers. However, fixed wing counts were consistent and thus could be corrected using a visibility ratio. Because of sampling problems, Lowry (1974) used only helicopter counts as a basis for estimating the expected productive 1974 Canada goose breeding pair population in the San Luis Valley, excluding the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. He estimated 76 breeding pairs in the river habitat (numbered sections) and 39 pairs in lake and pond habitat (lettered sections) for a total of 105 expected productive breeding pairs. These estimates resulted from a projection based not only on areas sampled, but also on a visibility ratio developed by Lowry for his aerial observations. The correction factors were 1.00 in areas designated as wooded river bottom, 1.75 in open river bottom areas, and 1.16 in open lake and pond areas. Because of Lowry's familiarty with the nesting population from ground observations these correction factors are considered to be valid only for his observations. 1975 Comparative results of fixed wing and helicopter estimated breeding pair counts for 1975 are presented in Table 1. These counts have been subjected to area correction only. Unfortunately, weather conditions did not allow fixed wing counts on all sample sections. Non-nesting pairs and groups were recorded but the results should not be considered indicative of the size of the non-nesting segment of the population. Using Lowry's 1974 data, a correction factor of 1.70 for wooded river bottom areas and 1.45 for lake and pond areas had to be applied to fixed winged data to obtain the same number of breeding pairs as with helicopter. Because of sampling problems, a correction factor for open river bottom areas (Section 40-48) could not be calculated. For 1975, the correction factor was 1.56 for wooded river bottom and 0.89 for open river bottom areas. This time a correction factor could not be calculated for lake and pond areas. The total estimated breeding pairs via helicopter counts for 1975 was 40 for river bottom areas and 19 for lake and pond areas (Table 1). These estimates are not comparable to Lowry's 1974 figures of 76 and 39, respectively, because of his personal correction factor and his generally more intense coverage of each sample section. Experimental goose breeding population surveys in the San Luis Valley will be continued by Migratory Bird Project, at least through 1976 as a portion of the Waterfowl Production Surveys job, and therefore no specific recommendations concerning documenting the size of the nesting population will be offered at this time. �-76- Migrational Behavior Nesting Population-Winter Migration Nearly all Canada geese banded in the San Luis Valley have been marked in conjunction with the goose restoration program in that area. Banding of wild trapped geese, mostly locally raised goslings, has taken place periodically since 1960 on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. In the summer of 1974 six wild trapped goslings were banded at Russell Lakes in the northern portion of the Valley, but these bandings didn't result in any recoveries through the 1974-75 hunting season. All other bandings and subsequent recoveries have resulted from restoration releases. Unfortunately, the recovery distribution of Canada geese, flightless goslings or adults, which are transported into any area and released cannot be considered indicative of the migrational behavior of the developing nesting population. However, after analyzing the distribution of all recoveries of both restoration and wild trapped geese along with recoveries in the San Luis Valley of geese banded outside the Valley, some life history factors seem evident. First, the population of Canada geese associated with the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge during the spring and summer period seem to be year round residents of the Valley except for possible moult migrations by nonnesting birds. Of 106 encounters (observations of previously banded birds) of all Canada geese transported, banded, released, or wild trapped and banded on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge during the summer period, only 12, or 11.3 percent occurred outside the San Luis Valley. Fifty-two of the above encounters were of wild trapped birds banded during the 1969 through 1973 period on the Monte Vista Refuge. Only 6 of those encounters, or 11.5 percent occurred outside the San Luis Valley. Four encounters, two released birds and two wild trapped birds occurred at Wheatland Reservoir, north of Laramie in Albany County, Wyoming, a suspected moulting area for sub adults of the San Luis Valley nesting population. One of the released birds and two of the wild trapped birds were reported encountered through recapture in north central Colorado. In conjunction with the restoration program in the San Luis Valley, flightless goslings were banded and released at Russell Lakes in 1955, on the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge in 1967 and 1968, and at San Luis Lakes in 1969, 1970, and 1971. The only recoveries (7) reported of the geese released at Russell Lakes were taken in west central Saskatchewan. Twentyeight recoveries have resulted from the birds released on the Alamosa Refuge of which 11, or 39 percent, were reported taken in the San Luis Valley. Forty-four reported recoveries have resulted from birds released at San Luis Lakes, of which 17 or 39 percent were taken in the San Luis Valley. Some of the birds released on the Alamosa Refuge and San Luis Lake since 1968 have been reported either harvested or recaptured during the winter in the Roswell, New Mexico area at Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge. However, through July of 1975 only one bird reported recaptured at Bitter Lakes has subsequently been encountered in the San Luis Valley. Another goose recaptured at Bitter Lake was again encountered at Wheatland Reservoir the following summer. Many of the birds recaptured at Bitter Lake have been caught in more than one winter indicating an annual return to Bitter Lake. �-77- In short summary, it is obvious that the birds released in areas outside the Monte Vista Refuge did not have the same affinity to the San Luis Valley in terms of year round residency as did both the wild trapped and released birds on the Refuge. Analysis of encounters in the San Luis Valley of geese banded outside the Valley provides very little data for substantiating the migratory behavior of the local nesting population. The recovery data includes scattered reports of geese banded in the winter in the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico being taken in following years in the San Luis Valley. Some of the reports are of first year recoveries, definitely indicating the birds may have been members of the San Luis Valley breeding population. However, in reviewing the banding areas outside the Valley of geese taken in the Valley, it is obvious that at least a portion of the Hi-Line Canada goose population (Rutherford 1965) either migrated through the San Luis Valley on their way to the lower Rio Grande River wintering area in New Mexico and/or terminated migration in the San Luis Valley. Therefore, birds banded along the lower Rio Grande may have simply been members of the Hi-Line population. Nesting Population-Moult Migration The possibility of Wheatland Reservoir serving as a moulting area for subadults of the San Luis Valley nesting population was mentioned in discussing recoveries of San Luis Valley banded birds. Analyzing recoveries of foreign banded birds definitely confirms Wheatland as a moulting area for the San Luis Valley population. From 1969 through 1974 there were 19 encounters in the San Luis Valley with birds banded at Wheatland. Seven of these recoveries have been direct. Since 1969 Wheatland banded birds have accounted for nearly 50 percent of all foreign banded birds encountered in the San Luis Valley. Winter Population-Ingress of Migrants Analysis of reports of Canada geese that were encountered in the San Luis Valley but banded elsewhere confirm that at least a portion of the Hi-Line Canada goose population migrated through the San Luis Valley enroute to wintering areas along the Rio Grande River in New Mexico. Encounters of Hi-Line geese were first recorded in the fall of 1960 when two birds banded in north central Montana were encountered in the San Luis Valley. Another 3 north central Montana banded birds were encountered in the fall of 1961, and six in 1962. During that three year period, the Hi-Line population increased from about 7,500 to 9,000 and about 65 percent of the population was wintering in New Mexico, while the San Luis Valley terminal wintering population numbered less than 250 geese (Table 2). In 1963 the southwestern portion of the San Luis Valley was closed to goose hunting, thereby reducing the opportunity for encount'ers with migrant Hi-Line geese. No geese from Hi-Line production areas were reported encountered in 1963 or 1964. In 1965 and 1966 two and one birds, respectively, that were banded in north central Montana were reported encountered in the San Luis Valley. In 1967 only one bird from a northern Hi-Line production area, Southern Alberta, was encountered, but five birds, including four adults, released in restoration efforts in north central Colorado were encountered in the San Luis Valley. Four of the five birds from north central Colorado reported encountered were victims of a fowl cholera (Pasturella multocida) outbreak on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. �-78- Table 2. The results of winter Canada goose inventories Valley, January 1955-January 1976. 1/ Year October Number of Geese November December in the San Luis January 1955 45 1956 102 1957 o 1958 1959 97 1960 114 1961 164 1962 50 1963 250 1964 465 1965 304 1966 260 1967 388 1968 400 1969 830 1970 1,225 1970-71 1,490 1,050 1,261 1971-72 1,570 913 1,255 1,286 1972-73 1,006 1,196 1,079 1,621 736 774 905 1974-75 1,013 934 709 ~/ 1975-76 1,230 959 827 1973-74 289 ~/ l/Compared monthly inventories for 1970-71 through 1975-76 generally within five days of each other. 2/ . - Geese not concentrated. Poor count. censused �-79- In 1968 three birds from north central Montana and four transplanted adults from north central Colorado were encountered, with some of the birds being cholera victims. In 1969 the entire western portion of the Valley was closed to goose hunting, the size of the migrant Hi-Line population wintering in New Mexico had declined to about 3,500 birds and no Hi-Line encounters were reported in the San Luis Valley. In 1970 a special limited goose season was initiated, which permitted the harvest of geese throughout the San Luis Valley. Three birds from northern Hi-Line production areas and two adult transplants from north central Colorado were encountered in 1970. In 1971 two north central Montana birds were encountered followed by no Hi-Line recoveries in 1972, 1973, or 1974. By 1974 the number of Hi-Line geese wintering in New Mexico had declined to approximately 1,100 birds. Analyzing further the presence of the north central Colorado adult transplants in the San Luis Valley results in some interesting findings. The adult transplants, with the assumption they were members of the local population, were removed primarily from the Denver City Zoo and Park during their moult in an attempt to alleviate an over crowded situation (Szymczak 1975). Most of the birds were released at New Windsor and Reservoir No.8 east of Fort Collins, but a few were placed at Valmont Reservoir near Boulder. According to the encounters a number of these birds migrated into the San Luis Valley. One explanation for the movement of these birds to the Valley would be that they simply joined the migrant Hi-Line birds and moved down to the San Luis Valley. This explanation, although possible, is not realistic when considering all the data. First, birds from all three release sites were reported encountered in the San Luis Valley and were present there for at least three consecutive years. Second, if the birds had been members of the non-migratory Denver area nesting population, or even of the north central Colorado restoration population, which according to Szymczak (1975) is non-migratory, they probably would have returned to their natal areas and would not have been present in the San Luis Valley at least for three consecutive years. Third, representatives of geese released both on and off the Monte Vista Refuge for restoration purposes and those banded as wild trapped goslings on the Monte Vista Refuge have been reported recaptured during their moult in the Denver area. Szymczak (1967) mentioned the possibility of immigration of Canadas to Denver for the purpose of moulting. Considering all these factors, it seems logical to conclude th-at at least a portion of the non-nesting adults and subadults of the San Luis Valley population were using Denver area ponds for moulting during the late 1960's. The first Wheatland Reservoir banded bird was encountered in the San Luis Valley in 1969, and according to subsequent encounters, Wheatland has been increasing in importance as a moulting area since that time. Currently the importance of the Denver area as a moulting area for San Luis Valley geese is unknown. So apparently the Denver area was used for moulting by nonnesting geese of the San Luis Valley population. But now the moulting migrants may be using Wheatland predominantly. SUMMARY According to analysis of all available encounters of banded birds associated with the San Luis Valley, the following statements can be made. �-80- 1. Some members of the San Luis Valley nesting population migrate out of the Valley into New Mexico in late fall and winter. However, the geese associated with the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge stay in the Valley. 2. Some subadults and non-nesting adults of the San Luis Valley nesting population utilize Wheatland Reservoir, north of Laramie, in Albany County, Wyoming, and possibly reservoirs and ponds in the Denver area for moulting. 3. Portions of members of the Hi-Line Canada goose population have been documented as migrating through the San Luis Valley enroute to wintering areas along the lower Rio Grande River in New Mexico. However, with the decline in the numbers of Hi-Line geese migrating into New Mexico, the number of Hi-Line geese no longer have a significant influence on the size of the Canada goose population in the San Luis Valley throughout the fall and winter period. 4. Presently, the size of the fall and winter population in the San Luis Valley in anyone year is almost completely dependent upon the size and production of the local nesting population and the number of birds of that population which migrate south to other wintering areas. Relationship Between Breeding Population-Wintering Population and Harvest Breeding Population Unfortunately, any past relationships involving the breeding population of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley are hampered by the lack of breeding population estimates. Estimates are available only for 1974 and 1975, but they were not determined by the same method. Additional years of breeding population estimates are needed before any meaningful relationships, if one exists, can be established. As mentioned before, breeding population surveys will be continued in future years. Wintering Populations and Harvest The size of the wintering population of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley has generally been monitored since 1955. Until special limited Candada goose season was initiated in 1970, counts were conducted only in early January (Table 2). The January counts showed a progressive build up in the number of Canada geese wintering in the San Luis Valley. During the period from January 1962 through January 1970, 86 percent of the birds counted were found on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge located in Rio Grande County. Harvest estimates indicate that no harvest occurred in Rio Grande County until the special season was initiated in 1970, even though the County was open to goose hunting until 1963 (Table 3). Essentially, all of the reported harvest occurred in Conejos and Costilla counties southeast of Rio Grande County. Harvest estimates, although probably inflated because of sampling procedures, generally exceeded the size of the terminal wintering population (Tables 2 and 3). Both the size and distribution of the harvest indicated the majority of the harvest was being extracted from migrant geese, most likely of the Hi-Line population. The decline in the goose harvest �-81- Table 3. Harvest estimates of Canada geese, by county, in the San Luis Valley, 1955-1975. l/ Hunting Season Rio Grande Alamosa Number Harvested Conejos Costilla Saguache Total 1955 o 1956 o 1957 o 1958 o 541 1959 101 1960 61 1961 34 66 100 440 61 1962 26 199 569 794 1963 20 411 176 607 335 24 359 543 106 675 1966 120 240 1967 231 162 1964 1965 26 1968 39 58 1969 35 88 74 (80) 31 (80) 1971 121 50 5 1972 195 (248) 51 (63) 1 1973 62 40 1 1974 27 37 3 1975 61 19 3 390 393 97 71 (80) 2:) 1970 30 194 2 (39) 107 (279) 1 177 6 2 255 (311) 6 3 112 2 69 1 86 2 Estimates through 1969 and those in parentheses in 1970 and 1972 obtained from statewide small game harvest survey. Other estimates from 1970 through 1975 from special survey. uCostilla County not included in Special Goose season area in 1970. �-~- from its peak in 1962, which also was the year the largest number Hi-Line production area banded birds were encountered in the San Luis Valley, until the special Valley wide season was initiated in 1970 generally followed the decline in the number of Hi-Line Canada geese wintering in New Mexico (Table 3) (Szymczak 1975). Periodic counts throughout the fall and winter period were initiated in conjunction with the special season in 1970. These surveys revealed population fluctuations throughout the fall period indicating movement into or through the Valley by the remnant migrant population and emigration by the local nesting population. Still the terminal wintering population continued to increase until January 1973 (Table 2). Beginning in 1973 the fall and winter population began to show a definite decline. Census results in 1974-75 and 1975-76 indicated movement out of the San Luis Valley as the season progressed. According to January inventories, wintering numbers of ducks have shown a similar annual population fluctuation reaching a peak of 64,000 in January 1971 and declining to 20,000 by January 1976 (Szymczak et al. 1971; Funk 1976). Fall plowing of barley fields in the San Luis Valley, which reduces the waterfowl food supply, is suspected as being instrumental in the decline of the winter duck population and may be affecting the geese as well. The number of wintering ducks have declined in spite of a fairly stable breeding population in the San Luis Valley. The harvest of Canada geese has been closely monitored in the San Luis Valley since the special season was initiated in 1970. The regulations specified the issuance of a number of permits, one to a hunter, authorizing the harvest of one goose. The number of permits issued and hunter activity throughout the six year period are shown in Table 4. The harvest survey has indicated that the success rate seems to be related to the average number of geese present in the San Luis Valley during the hunting season in the November to January period (Table 5). Since initiation of the special season, a dramatic shift in the distribution of goose harvest in the San Luis Valley has occurred. Harvest in Conejos and Costilla counties, which begau declining in the late 1960's, has been essentially non-existent since 1970 (Table 3). Rio Grande and Alamosa counties are now the major harvest areas. The special season shifted hunting pressure and harvest to the previously closed areas of the Monte Vista Refuge vicinity and the Rio Grande River between the towns of Monte Vista and Alamosa. In the first two years of the special season with a November 1 opening date, the harvest was well distributed by time period, with 35 to 40 percent of the harvest occurring in November, 30 to 40 percent in December, and the remainder in the first half of January. In 1972, with the season during the same time period, only about 20 percent of the harvest was taken in November. In 1973, 1974, and 1975 only 21 percent, 20 percent, and 29 percent, respectively, of the harvest was taken in the month of November with only a two month November-December season. So hunting pressure and harvest has evolved from a wider distribution by time period in the first two years of the special season, to a concentrated late season hunt primarily in the Monte Vista Refuge area in the 1972 through 1975 period. At the same time, when hunting pressure and harvest �-83- Table 4. Hunter activity during the San Luis Valley Special Canada goose seasons, 1970-71 through 1975-76. Number Permits Issued Est. Number Active Hunters Average Days Hunted 1970-71 200 164 3.4 1971-72 350 296 4.2 1972-73 400 311 4.6 1973-74 300 233 4.2 1974-75 300 249 4.3 1975-76 300 256 4.5 Year Table 5. Comparison of the average number of Canada geese present in the San Luis Valley, by year, during the November to January hunting period with the harvest success rate during the Special Canada goose seasons 1970-71 through 1975-76. Average Number of Geese November-January Seasonal Success Rate 1970-71 1,267 0.65 1971-72 1,151 0.60 1972-73 1,299 0.82 1973-74 805 0.48 1974-75 974 1/ 0.28 Year 1975-76 1,005 v Does not include incomplete count conducted in January. 0.34 �-84- were well distributed by time period in 1970 and 1971, very few geese, according to aerial counts, were located in Costilla or Conejos counties (Table 6). Then beginning in 1972 as the special season evolved into primarily, a late season hunt, the percent of birds recorded in Costilla and Conejos counties on November surveys increased (Table 6). So even though birds are available in Costilla and Conejos counties sometime during the special season, they are not hunted, and most pressure is applied to and harvest extracted from, those birds associated with the Monte Vista Refuge late in the hunting season. According to counts, many of the geese in the Costilla-Conejos area in November must move onto the Refuge in December and January, but a portion of the birds probably move out of the Valley and therefore are not subject to much hunting pressure during the special season. Table 6. The comparative percents of Canada geese recorded in Costilla or Conejos counties during counts in the San Luis Valley 1970-71 through 1975-76. Geese in Costilla or Conejos Counties by Month of Count November December January No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent Year 1970-71 80(1,490) 5 3(1,050) <1 195(1,241) 16 1971-72 30( 9l3) 3 10(1,255) 1 55(1,286) 4 1972-73 240(1,196) 20 309(1,079) 29 40(1,621) 2 1973-74 334( 736) 45 283( 774) 37 O( 905) 0 1974-75 776(1,0l3) 76 l47( 934) 16 48( 709) 7 1975-76 371 (1,230) 30 9l( 959) 9 259( 827) 31 Summary The lack of annual consistent estimates of the breeding population prohibits the development of examining the relationship between the breeding population and the wintering population of geese in the San Luis Valley. In addition, data indicating emigration by at least a portion of the nesting population of geese during the fall and winter period hampers the development of valid relationships. There seems to be a somewhat direct relationship between the size of the goose population during the season and harvest. Also, a direct relationship �-85- exists between the distribution of geese late in the hunting season and the distribution of harvest during the entire hunting season. Since the harvest is concentrated in certain areas, it may very well be affecting only certain groups of birds, while others remain essentially unharvested. Harvest Formula Unfortunately, not enough information is available at this time to develop a harvest formula for geese in the San Luis Valley. Most information indicates that migrants of the Hi-Line population no longer influence significantly the number of Canada geese in the Valley during the fall and winter period. Apparently, most harvest will be extracted from birds of the local nesting population. But emigration of portions of the local population resulting in possible harvest outside the Valley must also be considered, as must possible differential harvest of the local population resulting from movement of a segment(s) of the nesting population out of the Valley. In order to document and/or measure both emigration and differential harvest, the banding of the local population was initiated in the summer of 1974. Unfortunately, banding efforts have been essentially unsuccessful, with 10 and 19 birds marked in 1974 and 1975, respectively. Publication A draft of a short publication concerning the use of a helicopter to census breeding pairs of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley was prepared. After reviewing the draft the decision was made to incorporate additional years of data. Future work on the publication will be funded through another federal aid job. LITERATURE CITED Funk, H. D. 1976. The 1976 January Waterfowl Inventory, Colorado. Div. of Wildl. 5 p. proc. Colo. Lowry, D. G. 1974. Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, Colorado. Thesis, Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 76 p. M. S. 1975. Investigations of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley. Div. of Wildl. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep. Oct. pp. 135-173. Colo. Rutherford, W. H. (ed.). 1965. Description of Canada goose populations common to the Central Flyway. Central Flyway Waterfowl Council Tech. Comm. 20 p. Szymczak, M. R. 1967. Breeding biology of Canada geese of the MetroDenver area. M. S. Thesis, Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 83 p. �-86- Szymczak, M. R., C. R. Hayes, and H. D. Funk. 1971. The 1971 January WatErfowl Inventory, Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. 7 p , Proc. 1971. Studies of Canada goose populations in Colorado transplant areas. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rep. Oct. pp. 165-189. 1975. Canada goose restoration along the foothills of Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Tech. Pub 1. No. 31. 64 p . Prepared by .t7JiL~X. i~hael R. szymcz~ Wildlife Researcher J , �October, -87- 1976 JOB FINAL REPORT State of CO_L_O_RAD __ O Project No. W-88-R-2l Work Plan No. Job Title Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 3 Investigation Period Covered: _ of Mallard Management 6 Units of Eastern Colorado April 1, 1965 - March 31, 1976 Richard M. Hopper ABSTRACT Eleven papers have already been prepared that partially fulfill the reporting responsibility of this job. Additional papers are currently being prepared for final fulfillment of this obligation. At least one paper will be submitted to The Journal of Wildlife Management, while others will become a part of a Division Special Report or Technical Report. Completion of these papers will be accomplished under Work Plan 6, Job 1. ��-89INVESTIGATION OF MALLARD MANAGEMENT UNITS OF EASTERN COLORADO Richard M. Hopper P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop a harvest formula for eastern Colorado management units. METHODS AND MATERIALS Compile and analyze all data collected as part of this Job that hasn't previously been reported upon. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Field work for this Job was completed as of March 31, 1976. Following Segment 17 (1971-72), field work for this job involved only trapping and banding of mallards on a monitoring basis while in the process of turning over the operation to the Northeast and Southeast Regions. Numbers banded in Segment 21 are reported by Hopper (1976) under Work Plan 1, Job 2, as was the case in all previous years. Therefore, the final report for Work Plan 3, Job 6 is limited to data collected prior to Segment 17. Office work since then has been largely that of tabulating and analyzing data for the final report. A periodic update of banding data for all years of banding will be conducted under a new W-88-R Job (Work Plan 3, Job 8). Many of the findings of this investigation have already been reported upon in one fashion or another; some as special reports or publications, and others as direct contributions to reports of another agency. Thus, the following reports represent partial fulfillment of reporting responsibilities for Work Plan 3, Job 6: 1. Funk, H. D., J. R. Grieb, G. F. Wrakestraw, D. Witt, and G. W. Merrill. 1967. The Central Flyway High Plains Mallard Management Unit. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Corom. Rept. (Suppl. Rept.), 20pp. 2. Funk, H. D., J. R. Grieb, G. F. Wrakestraw, and D. Witt. 1968. A proposed mallard drake season in Central Flyway Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Corom. Rept., l2pp. 3. Funk, H. D., J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. Schildman, G. W. Merrill, and G. F. Wrakestraw. 1969. A proposed experimental pointsystem duck season for the western portion of the High Plains Mallard Management Unit. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Corom. Rept., llpp. �-904. Funk, D. H., R. M. Hopper, J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, T. Kuck, D. E. Timm, and G. W. Merrill. 1970. Preliminary evaluation of the 1969-70 experimental point-system duck season within the High Plains Mallard Management Unit of the Central Flyway. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Comm. Rept., 36pp. 5. Funk, H. D., J. R. Grieb, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, G. W. Merrill, J. Sands, T. Kuck, D. Timm, T. Logan, and C. D. Stutzenbaker. 1971. Justification of the Central Flyway High Plains Mallard Management Unit. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Comm. Rept., 48pp. 6. Grieb, J., H. Funk, D. Witt, G. Wrakestraw, and L. Serdiuk. 1966. A proposed mallard management unit for the Central Flyway. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Comm. Rept., 32pp. 7. Grieb, J. R., H. D. Funk, R. M. Hopper, G. F. Wrakestraw, and D. Witt. 1969. Preliminary evaluation of the 1968-69 experimental mallard drake season in the Central Flyway portions of Montana, Wyoming and Colorado. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Comm. Rept., 26pp. 8. Grieb, J. R .. H. D. Funk, R. M. Hopper, G. F. Wrakestraw, and D. Witt. 1971. Evaluation of the 1968-1969 experimental mallard drake season in Montana, Wyoming and Colorado. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 35:336-348. 9. Hopper, R. M., and H. D. Funk. 1970. Reliability of the mallard wing age-determination technique for field use. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2):333-339. 10. Kimball, C. F., R. A. Bishop, C. D. Crider, J. H. Dunks, R. M. Hopper, and D. D. ~ennedy. 1971. Analysis of the l2-state point regulation test, 1970, based on the hunter performance survey. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Migratory Bird Pop. Sta. Admin. Rept. No. 206, 22pp. 11. Kimball, C. F. 1972. Results in the hunter performance survey in the point regulation test states, 1971. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Migratory Bird Pop. Sta. Admin. Rept. No. 215, 2lpp. Other papers are in the process of being prepared under Work Plan 6, Job 1. These will serve to finalize the reporting responsibility for Work Plan 3,. Job 6. At least one paper will be submitted to The Journal of Wildlife Management for publication, hopefully by mid-summer of 1976. The bulk of the final report will be published as a Division Special Report or Technical Bulletin. �-91- LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1976. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Wi1d1., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. (in press). Prepared by ~~/ 71'. ~.<-c.=Chard M. Hopper ~. Wildlife Resea~cher Colo. Div. ��October, 1976 -93JOB FINAL REPORT State of Colorado --------------------- Project No. W-88-R-2l \-lorkPlan No. 4 Job Title Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 3 Trapping and Banding Doves Period Covered: April 1, 1964 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: Ken Baer, Jack Frost, Charles Hayes, Dale Horne and Jack Randall of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Personnel of Ft. Carson, U.S. Dept. of Army; W. John Arthur, Scott Bessire, William Borden, William Brandes, Clait Braun, William Carpenter, Jack Corey, Dwayne Finch, Howard Funk, James Goodyear, Larry Green, Jack Grieb, Al Heins, Al Hemmert, Gl~n Hinshaw, Richard Hoffman, Richard Hopper, J. Edward Kautz, Marie Vendeville Kautz, Thomas Kitzmiller, Wilbur Ladd, Charles Loeffler, Chet McCord, Ron Oakleaf, Brett Petersen, Gary Robinson, Michael Robinson, Brent Smith, Marvin Smith, Norwin Smith, Steve Steinert, Mark Stromberg, Darryl Todd, Willie Travnicek, Jack Vayhinger, Ken Wagner, Mike Watkins, Bert Widhalm, J. Allen White, and Gary Will of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) were trapped and banded in Colorado through a cooperative state and federal program from 1964 through 1974. Primary objectives were to investigate migration patterns and mortality rates. A total of 31,523 doves, mostly free flying, were trapped and banded in the study interval whereas only 2,702 had been banded prior to 1964 (1913-1963). Distribution of bandings in the 1964-1974 interval was about 6,800 on the eastern prairies, 6,000 west of the Continental Divide and about 18,700 along the foothills and intermountain valleys east of the Continental Divide. Adult males outnumbered females (57 to 43 percent) in trap samples while age ratios of adults and immatures were similar (51 to 49 percent respectively). Recaptures of previously banded birds were few and contributed little to overall understanding of migration paths and mortality rates. Chronology of hatching was compared between those immatures trapped and banded (14,560) and those for which wings were collected from hunters (4,792). These data support the hypothesis that most early hatched young were not available to hunters during the hunting season in Colorado. Early migration of early hatched young was definitely documented. Age ratios in the harvest approximated 1.4 immatures per adult or 2.8 young per adult female. Hunter pressure and harvest greatly increased during the 1964-1974 period although probably not as much as indicated by the annual survey of small game license purchasers. Analysis of 683 recoveries of doves banded in Colorado (53 from bandings in the 1913-1963 interval, 630 from bandings in the 1964-1974 period) revealed that most (449) were from within the Central Management Unit with smaller numbers (146) from other countries, and other management units (W.M.U. = 33, E.M.U. = 2). Mexico, �-94ABSTRACT (Continued) primarily the states of Ja1isco and Michoacan, was the major recovery area for non United States recoveries (141 of 146). Within the United States, Colorado was the leading recovery state (351) followed by Texas (48), New Mexico (43), Arizona (19), and California (10). No more than three recoveries were reported from any other state or country. Thus migration of Colorado banded doves was primarily south-southwest. Doves banded outside of Colorado comprised about 20 percent of the annual number of recoveries reported from within Colorado. Most of these doves originated north and northeast of Colorado with Montana being a major state of origin. Survival rates for all doves banded in Colorado in the 1964-1974 period averaged .523 annually. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Reanalyze recovery data and calculate survival and mortality by age, sex and geographic area of banding. 2. Prepare manuscript Report Series. for the Colorado Division of Wildlife rates Special �-95- TRAPPING AND BANDING DOVES Clait E. Braun MOurning doves are important game birds throughout much of North America as they are widely distributed and occur in huntable numbers throughout most of their range (Peters 1961, Keeler 1976). In Colorado, this migratory species nests throughout the state, primarily below 8,500 ft elevation (Bailey and Niedrach 1965) and can be found from above timberline (Braun, unpublished data) to river bottoms, prairies, and sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) semi-deserts during spring and fall migration. Prior to advent of this study in 1964, little was known of the timing of nesting, migration paths, wintering areas, harvest patterns, and survival and mortality rates of doves seasonally resident in Colorado. Previous studies in Colorado (Funk 1965) emphasized timing of late summer and fall migration of doves through the state. Due to the obvious need to more fully understand the biology of this migratory species, this study was initiated in 1964. Cooperative banding studies throughout the Central Management Unit as delineated by Kiel (1959) did not get underway until after 1967. This report summarizes all banding and recovery data in two periods, 1913-1963 and 1964-1975, trapping and banding data from 1964-1974, and derived hatching dates from bandings and harvest collections from 1964-1975. Detailed survival and mortality studies of doves banded in three geographic areas of Colorado will be presented in a cooperative report which will assimilate banding and recovery data from the entire Central Management Unit. P. S. OBJECTIVE To investigate migration patterns and mortality rates of mourning doves banded in Colorado by age, sex and area. METHODS AND MATERIALS Mourning doves were trapped in suitable locations such as feedlots, fallow fields, edges of little used roads, harvested grain fields, near watering sites and adjacent to roosting areas. Most success was experienced at livestock feeding sites, fallow fields and near roosts. Most doves were captured through use of 3 ft square cage type, wire funnel traps similar to the modified Kniffin dove trap described by Reeves et al. (1968). A few doves were captured through use of cannon nets (Braun 1976) incidental to capture of band-tailed pigeons (Columba fasciata). Prior to 1967, some doves were captured in mist net~ following procedures described by Reeves et al. (1968) Most doves captured were free flying but prior to 1967, a few nestlings were banded. Bait used to attract doves varied with site but wheat (Triticum aestivum), millet (Panicum spp.) and milo (Sorghum vulgare) were most frequently used. Wheat appeared to attract doves more readily in most areas of the state. All doves trapped were banded with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands, size 3A, except in 1974 when some size 3 were used. Rewards bands (N=122) were �-96- placed on a sample of immature (RY) doves banded in 1971 in conjunction with a Central Management Unit-wide study of reporting rates. Doves banded were classified to age (HY=immature, AHY=adult) and sex (adult male and female and a few immatures molting past primary 3) (Reeves et al. 1968). A few adults were classified as unknown sex each year. The primary molt of most immature doves banded was recorded for estimation of hatching dates (Allen 1963). Each year doves were trapped only in the June through mid August period with goals of 1,000 birds in the eastern prairies, 2,000 along the foothills and intermountain valleys east of the Continental Divide and 1,000 west of the Continental Divide (Ruos 1968). Prior to 1969, Colorado had a suggested quota of 2,000 birds per year (Wight 1963). Collections of wings of hunter harvested doves were made in some years to ascertain age ratios in the harvest and hatching dates of immature birds. Distribution of recoveries and recaptures from all Colorado bandings for the 1913-1963 and 1964-1975 periods was ascertained from a recovery deck obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Similarly, recoveries and recaptures from doves banded outside of Colorado but recovered within the state were obtained from the Bird Banding Laboratory. Distribution of recoveries and recaptures was grouped by Dove Management Unit and State. Preliminary analysis of survival and mortality rates for all doves banded in Colorado was by the relative recovery rate method (Geis 1972). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping Trapping and banding of mourning doves in Colorado apparently was initiated in 1913 when one bird was reported banded. Through 1974, 34,225 individual doves had been banded with 2,702 being banded from 1913 through 1963 and 31,523 in the 1964-1974 period (Table 1). Table 1. Interval Numbers of mourning doves banded in Colorado, 1913-1974. Prior to 1964 No. Banded Year 1964-1974 No Banded 1913-1920 1921-1930 1 156 1964 1965 295 808 1931-1940 17 1966 220 1941-1950 75 1967 2,232 1951-1960 1961 1962 2,096 1968 2,501 308 31 1969 1970 3,390 3,159 18 1971 1972 1973 1974 5,356 4,633 4,409 4,520 1963 Totals 2,702 31,523 �• -97- Most trapping and banding was accomplished by personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife (24,408) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (8,723) with more than 100 birds being banded by only two other permittees, R. A. Ryder (236) and D. Hein (212) both of Colorado State University. The remaining 646 doves were banded by 42 different permittees over a 63 yr period. Geographic Area of Banding Trapping and banding efforts for mourning doves were not uniform by geographic area or by time intervals. With suggested quotas after 1968 of 1,000 doves west of the Continental Divide, 2,000 along the foothills and valleys east of the Continental Divide, and 1,000 on the eastern prairies, it is obvious from Table 2 that quotas were not met prior to 1971. Table 2. Number of mourning doves banded by geographic area and year, 1964-1974. 1/ Foothills and Valleys 1/ West of East of Continental Divide Continental Divid~/ No. Banded No. Banded Year Eastern Prairie~/ No. Banded 1964 226 48 0 1965 105 679 0 1966 o 199 0 1967 761 1,373 0 1968 1,217 1,119 0 1969 477 2,114 703 1970 480 1,876 527 1971 1,000 2,756 1,477 1972 944 2,465 1,146 1973 780 2,619 1,000 1974 900 2,399 1,200 Totals 6,890 17,647 6,053 1/ - D.O.W. and U.S.F. & W.S. bandings only. 2/ - Includes sites at Vineland, Fort Morgan, Rocky Ford, Springfield, Fort Lyons, and Bonny Reservoir. Pritchett, 3/ - Includes sites at Denver, Fort Collins, Monte Vista, Fort Garland, Longmont, Salida, Fort Carson, LaVeta, Evergreen, Aspen Park, Woodland Park, Estes Park and Rye. ~/Includes sites at Durango, Arboles, Montrose, Sanborn Park, Craig, Lay, Hayden, Meeker, Buford, Unaweep Canyon, Carbondale, and Stoner. �-98- While doves were banded at many sites in the 1964-1974 interval, a relatively small number of sites produced the majority of doves banded. Major sites trapped, number of doves banded, and number of years of banding are presented in Table 3 by geographic area. Table 3. Major mourning dove trapping areas, Colorado, 1964-1974.1/,11 Eastern Prairies No. Location Banded Years Foothills and Valleys E. of Continental Divide No. Location Banded Years West of Continental Divide No. Location Banded Years Vineland 3,481 8 Denver 5,984 10 Durango - Ft. Morgan 2,810 7 Fort Collins 5,052 8 Springfield Area 11 354 3 Fort Garland 2,787 5 Rocky Ford 171 4 Monte Vista 2,680 Fort Carson 41 2,435 Montrose2-1 1,632 4 Craig 61 Area - 871 4 6 Meeker I! 733 4 468 2 Unaweep Canyon 358 2 Longmont 318 4 Salida 303 5 6 11 - D.O.W. and U.S.F.& W.S. bandings only. 21 - Areas with less than 100 total bandings are not included. 31 - Includes bandings near Pritchett and Fort Lyons ~/Includes 3 birds banded at Arboles. i/Includes 1 bird banded at Sanborn Park. ~/Includes bandings at Lay (522) and Hayden (101). l/Includes 2 birds banded at Buford. Age and Sex of Doves Banded Once trapping and banding efforts were intensified, some attention was given to attaining even age (AHY and HY) and sex (AHY only) ratios in the samples banded. However, due to time and personnel constraints, banded samples were frequently biased towards adults at some sites (trapped in June) and immatures at others (trapped in late July and August). Age and sex composition of banded samples combined for all years at each site and geographic area are presented in Table 4. �-99- Table 4. Age and sex composition of banded samples by geographic and location, 1964-1974. 1/ , AHY Geographic Area and Location area HY Males No. % Females No. % Vineland 804 50.4 792 49.6 1,596 Fort Morgan 335 43.0 444 57.0 37 67.3 18 Rocky Ford 7 87.5 Bonny Reservoir 8 88.9 Total No. % % Grand Total 21 47.0 1,797 53.0 3,393 779 27.7 2,031 72.3 2,810 32.7 55 15.5 299 84.5 354 1 12.5 8 4.7 163 95.3 171 1 11.1 9 12.2 65 87.8 74 1,191 48.7 1,256 51.3 2,447 36.0 4,355 64.0 6,802 Denver 1,102 55.9 869 44.1 1,971 32.9 4,Ol3 67.1 5,984 Fort Collins 2,239 60.3 1,476 39.7 3,715 73.5 1,337 26.5 5,052 Fort Garland 671 63.3 389 36.7 1,060 38.0 1,726 62.0 2,786 Monte Vista 801 54.9 658 45.1 1,459 54.4 1,221 45.6 2,680 Fort Carson 182 56.9 138 43.1 320 69.4 141 30.6 461 Longmont l38 60.0 92 40.0 230 72.3 88 27.7 318 Salida 152 58.7 107 41.3 259 87.2 38 12.8 297 Other 1/ 37 74.0 13 26.0 50 90.9 5 9.1 55 5,322 58.7 3,742 41.3 9,064 51.4 8,569 48.6 17,633 Durango 1,118 56.3 867 43.7 1,985 81.6 449 18.4 2,434 Montrose 473 52.7 424 47.3 897 55.0 735 45.0 1,632 Craig Area 263 58.4 187 41.6 450 51.7 421 48.3 871 Meeker 334 59.3 229 40.7 563 76.8 170 23.2 733 Unaweep Canyon 41 Other - 151 66.2 77 33.8 228 63.7 l30 36.3 358 12 52.2 11 47.8 23 95.8 1 4.2 24 Subtotals 2,351 56.7 1,795 43.3 4,146 68.5 1,906 31.5 6,052 Totals 8,864 56.6 6,793 43.4 15,657 51.4 14,830 48.6 30,487 No. Eastern Prairies Springfield Area Subtotals Eastern Foothills Subtotals West Sl°Ee II - D.O.W. and U.S.F. & W.S. bandings only. 21 - Totals by area may not correspond to those in Table 3 as birds unclassified as to sex (adults only) and age are not included. l1Inc1udes birds banded at Evergreen-Aspen Park (8), Estes Park (9) and Rye (1). ~/Inc1udes birds banded at Carbondale Park (24), LaVeta (13), Woodland (9) and Stoner (15). �-100- Differences between locations within geographic areas were occasionally significant (P < 0.05). It is doubtful that differences in sex composition between locations within geographic areas were real. It is more probable that observed differences in percentages of males and females trapped were related to time of day of trapping effort and bird behavior patterns. Percentages of adults versus immatures in trap samples were most probably related to timing of the trapping effort in relation to the breeding and nesting period. Higher percentages of immatures were banded at sites trapped in August (Denver, Fort Garland) than at sites trapped in June (Fort Collins, Durango). In a study in Missouri, Henry et al. (1976) demonstrated that placement of traps could clearly bias age and sex composition of doves captured while Lewis and Morrison (1973) presented data documenting biases in trap results resulting from use of different types of traps and time of day. All of these factors, except time of day and type of trap, were undoubtedly involved in affecting the age and sex composition shown in Table 4. Trapping in Colorado during the 1964-1974 interval was usually consistent with traps being checked three times per day at approximately the same times. Type of trap used did not change throughout the study Recaptures All previously banded mourning doves recaptured were recorded each year with few exceptions. Known exceptions primarily involved returns of birds at particular sites within a few days of original banding. Surprisingly few banded doves were recaptured more than 90 days after initial capture (less than 300 from 1964 through 1974) with only 79 individuals being recaptured out of original degree block of banding since inception of banding in Colorado in 1913. Origin of mourning doves recaptured in Colorado that had moved at least one degree block is shown in Table 5. Table 5. Origin of mourning doves recaptured in Colorado, 19l3-1974.!1 Eastern Management Unit State No. Alabama 1 Central Management Unit State Colorado New Mexico Texas Western Management Unit No. State No. 72 3 1 Arizona Utah 1 1 llNo out of degree block of banding recaptures were reported prior to 1961. Due to the limited recapture data available, detailed analyses outside of orlgln could not be made. The longest intervals between banding and recapture were six (one) and five years (two) with most being of a duration of 1 to 3 years. �-101- Hatching Chronology During the 1964-1974 interval, wing molt data were recorded for 14,560 immature mourning doves newly banded and 4,792 hunter harvested immatures. Hatching dates were calculated following procedures and data published by Allen (1963) even though limited data from free-flying immature doves banded and recaptured in Colorado suggest that Allen's molt schedules may be 3 to 4 days slower than that actually occurring in the wild (Petersen and Braun 1974). Hatching chronologies calculated by year for wild trapped and harvested mourning doves in Colorado are presented in Tables 6 and 7. Upon close inspection of data presented in Table 7, it is apparent that doves produced prior to 12 June are poorly represented « 1.0 percent of the total) in the harvest whereas doves produced in this early period comprise about 54 percent of those trapped and banded (Table 6). Also, few doves produced after 30 July are represented in trap samples as trapping normally ceased by 15-20 August. However, doves produced after 30 July comprised about 38 percent of the immature doves shot each year. These differences are significant (P<0.05) and suggest that real differences occur in availability of early and late produced immature doves to hunters in Colorado. In an earlier study, Funk (1965) clearly documented that the peak of dove migration through Colorado occurred prior to 1 September. Data from wings of immature doves examined in the present study support Funk's earlier work and it can reasonably be concluded that most early produced young have migrated from Colorado prior to the hunting season. Harvest Age Ratios Wings from hunter harvested mourning doves were not routinely collected in most years. Consequently, sample sizes ranged from few in 1968 to over 2,900 in 1973 when efforts to collect wings were made. Intensive efforts to collect wings were made from 1972 through 1974. Data available are presented in Table 8. Data in Table 8 should be viewed with caution because of small sample sizes in most years and uneven geographic distribution of the sample from within Colorado. Most samples were from eastern Colorado, either primarily southeast (i.e. Springfield) in 1964-1971 or southcentral (i.e. Fort Carson) in 1972-1974. Neither of these areas may be representative of the total harvest in the state. Assuming that larger sample sizes most nearly approximate actual age composition of the harvest, it is interesting to note that age ratios in the four ye ars (1967, 1972-1974) when over 1,000 wings were available each year, ranged from 1.0:1 (two years) to 1.5:1 to 2.2:1. These ratios would appear to be lower than those expected. In reviewing chronology of age ratios within a hunting season, data collected at Fort Carson from 1972-1974 reveals a low immature to adult ratio during the opening week of the hunting season (usually from 0.5 to 0.8:1) with immatures predominating as the season progressed. Reasons for this phenomenon are unclear but may relate to the early migration of immatures previously documented. If one assumes that the average of 1.4:1 immatures to adult age ratio in the harvest (Table 8) is realistic and 50 percent of the adult harvest is comprised of females, then 2.8 young per female were produced. Thus it would appear that production is sufficient to maintain the population. �Table 6. Estimated hatching dates for wild trapped immature Prior to May 1 May 1-7 May 8-14 May 1521 May 2228 1964 3(1.4) 1(.5) 7(3.3) 19(9.0) 1965 3(.4) 2 (.3) 3(.4) 1966 6(4.0) mourning doves, Colorado, 1964-1974. May 29June 4 June 511 June 1218 June 1925 33(15.7) 30 (14.3) 55(26.2) 59(28.1) 3(1. 4) 26(13.1) 92(13.1) 102(14.6) 150 (21. 4) 177(25.3) 92 (13.1) 12(7.9) 26(17.2) 47(31.1) 25(16.6) 16(10.6) 8(5.3) 11(7.3) 55(4.7) 113(9.7) 153(13.2) 158(13.6) 211(18.2) 156 (13.4) 57(4.9) June 26July 2 July 39 July 1016 July 1723 July 2430 Total No. 210 14(2.0) 18(2.6) 21(3.0) 700 151 1967 9 (.8) 20(1. 7) 1968 2 (.1) 12 (.8) 64(4.5) 93(6.5) 143 (10 .1) 177 (12. 5) 165 (11. 6) 213(15.0) 153(10.8) 170(12.0) 1969 13(1.2) 12(1.1) 69(6.6) 166 (15.9) 106(10.1) 127 (12 .1) 87(8.3) 126(12.0) 92(8.8) 91(8.7) 1970 3(.2) 5(.4) 14(1.1) 77(6.1) 124(9.9) 178(14.2) 86(6.9) 98(7.8) 137(10.9) 1971 ' 3 (.1) 20 (.8) 57(2.3) 155(6.3) 337(13.7) 281(11.4) 313(12.7) 292 (11.6) 286 (ll. 125(5.4) 283(12.2) 340(14.6) 344(14.8) 288(12.4) 326(14.0) 51(4.4) 76(6.5) 66(4.6) 24 (1. 7) 1421 67(6.4) 66(6.3) 25(2.4) 1047 187(14.9) 191 (15.2) 93(7.4) 59(4.7) 308(12.5) 202(8.2) 193(7.8) 20 (.8) 2467 196(8.4) 139(6.0) 135(5.8) 78(3.4) 22 (1.0) 2323 40(3.4) 49(4.2) 139(9.8) 13(1.1) 1161 ,...I 0 N I 6) 1972 3(.1) 44(1.9) 1973 4 (. 2) 14(.7) 53(2.9) 126(6.9) 292 (16.0) 260(14.3) 220(12.1) 239 (13.1) 293(16.1) 237(13.0) 77(4.2) 1974 12 (.6) 31(1. 5) 101(5.0) 281(14.0) 344(17.1) 272(13.5) 229(11.4) 236(11.7) 205 (10. 2) 144(7.2) 139(6.9) 18(.9) Totals 55(0.4) 167(1.1) 560(3.8) 1365(9.4) 2011(13.8) 1954(13.4) 1820(12.5) 1930 (13.3) 1525(10.5) 1330 (9 .1) 1017(7.0) 586(4.0) 1 (.1) 1253 1815 2012 226(1.6) 14(0.1) 14560 �Table 7. Estimated hatching Prior to June 12 dates June 1218 for hunter harvested June 1925 June July immature mourning 262 July 39 1964 doves, Colorado, 1964-1974. July 1016 July 1723 July 2430 July 31August 6 2(10.5) 5(26.3) 5(26.3) 1(5.3) 6 (31. 6) August 7-13 1965 6(2.4) 17(6.7) 50(19.7) 7(2.8) 38(15.0) 38(15.0) 33(13.0) 29(11.4) 26(10.2) 9(3.5) 1966 6(2.2) 27(10.0) 31(11.5) 3 (1.1) 28(10.4) 40(14.8) 24(8.9) 37(13.7) 67(24.8) 7(2.6) 1967 1(.2) 2(.4) 11(2.0) 4(.7) 30(5.5) 52(9.5) 102(18.6) 123(22.4) 176 (32 .1) 39(7.1) 6(4.2) 15(10.6) 18(12.7) 25(17.6) 20(14.1) 24(16.9) 34(23.9) 9(7.4) 19(15.7) 18(14.9) 18(14.9) 15(12.4) 17(14.0) 23(19 .0) 1968 1969 1970 2(1. 7) 3 (1. 5) 15(7.8) 18(9.3) 7 (3. 6) 27(14.0) 34(17.6) 24(12.4) 26(13.5) August 14-20 August 21-27 August 28Sept. 3 Sept. 410 Total No. 19 254 1(.4) 270 4 (.7) 2(.4) 2 (. 4) 548 142 121 I I-' 193 1(.5) 38(19.7) 286 1971 2 (. 7) 24(8.4) 18(6.3) 26(9.1) 48(16.8) 38(13.3) 31(10.8) 49(17.1) 36(12.6) 14(4.9) 1972 9 (1. 4) 4(.6) 102 (15 .6) 15(2.3) 48(7.3) 109(16.7) 79(12.1) 46(7.0) 111(17.0) 90(13.8) 20(3.1) 20(3.1) 1973 7 (. 5) 50(3.3) 90(6.0) 28(1.9) 131(8.7) 163(10.8) 102(6.8) 226(15.0) 206 (13. 7) 137(9.1) 118(7.8) 194 (12.9) 1~74 4 (.1) 28(3.5) 41(5.2) 23(3.0) 89(11.2) 70(8.9) 75(9.4) 95(11.9) 131(16.5) 71(8.9) 84(10.6) Totals 40(0.8) 182 (3. 8) 395(8.2) 113(2.4) 475(9.9) 589U2.3) 510(10.6) 677(14.1) 849(17.7) 373(7.8) 225(4.7) 653 57(3.8) 1509 42(5.3) 44(5.5) 797 256(5.3) 106(2.2) 2(0.04) 4792 0 w I �-104- Table 8. Age ratios of hunter harvested mourning doves, Colorado, 1964-1974. Year AHY HY Total Wings Immature:Adult 1964 62 19 81 0.3:1 1965 128 254 382 2.0: 1 1966 148 344 492 2.3:1 1967 569 582 1,151 1.0:1 1968 ND 1/ ND·U ND 1/ ND )j 1969 51 121 172 2.4:1 1970 37 192 229 5.2:1 1971 24 286 310 11.9:1 1972 ]j 446 654 1,100 1.5 :1 1973 1,451 1,509 2,960 1.0:1 1974 368 797 1,165 2.2:1 Totals 3,284 4,758 8,042 Average Ratio 1.4:1 1/ ND = No data. 2/ - Efforts to collect wings from hunter harvested doves were intensified. Hunter Pressure and Harvest Harvest surveys were not included as part of the study reported here. Through courtesy of the surveys group, Wildlife Management Section, they are included here for completeness. Estimated number of hunters and total harvest from 1964 through 1974 as derived from the annual survey of small game hunters are presented in Table 9. During this interval, length of season was 60 days (1 September through 30 October), daily bag and possession limits were either 12 and 24 (1964-1968) or 10 and 20 (1969-1974) with shooting hours of one half hour before sunrise to sunset (1964-1969) or sunrise to sunset (1970-1974). �-105- Table 9. Mourning dove harvest statistics, Colorado, 1964-1974. II Year Estimated Number of Hunters Estimated Total Harvest 1964 22,477 130,367 1965 19,545 137,401 1966 25,227 174,066 1967 24,593 140,180 1968 25,186 308,881 1969 25,119 323,773 1970 24,149 301,562 1971 22,033 298,767 1972 33,299 513,898 ]J 1973 31,688 484,660 1974 41,518 688,312 ~I 21 -liE·s t tmate d from annual survey of small game license holders. . -2/R eportlng bias correction for multiples of the bag and multiples of 5 deleted. llprocedural change in survey to go to multiple followup surveys instead of original survey letter and one followup as in earlier years. 41 - Procedural change in survey due to stratification of hunters by license type and splitting of waterfowl and small game surveys. Due to several procedural changes in annual small game hunter surveys from 1964 to 1974, it is difficult to accurately discuss changes in hunter numbers and annual harvests. Obviously hunter numbers and annual harvests have increased during the 11 year period, hunters by possibly 85 percent and harvest by possibly 428 percent. While these increases may be feasible, they are not overly plausible. Independent surveys of all hunters of certain minor game species suggest that the annual survey of small game hunters may overestimate hunter numbers by as much as 30 percent and harvest by 100 percent. It is possible and quite probable that numbers of mourning dove hunters are slightly overestimated (about 10 percent) with actual numbers of doves harvested being moderately overestimated (as much as 50 percent). Thus, best estimates of numbers of dove hunters and annual harvest in 1974 are about 35,000 + 3,000 and 500,000 + 50,000, respectively. - �-106- Mourning Dove Recoveries Mourning doves banded in Colorado from 1913 through 1974 totaled 34,225 (Table 1). Only one major period of intensive banding occurred as 31,523 primarily free flying doves were banded from 1964-1974. Some intensive banding of primarily nestlings was done between 1951-1952 and 1956-1961 but numbers exceeded 400 only in 1960 when 557 were banded. During the 1951-1961 period, 2,404 of the 2,702 doves banded prior to 1965 were captured and marked. Through 4 March 1976, 683 recoveries of doves banded in Colorado had been reported. Of this number, only 53 were from the 2,702 bandings prior to 1964 (2.0 percent of the banded population). All but 8 were hunting season recoveries. Interestingly enough, recovery rates did not change between the 1913-1963 and 1964-1975 periods as 630 recoveries were reported from 31,523 bandings (2.0 percent of the banded sample). Of the 630 total, 59 were no~ hunting season recoveries. This is a substantial decrease from the non hunting mortalities reported in the 1913-1963 period (9.4 percent of all recoveries in 1964-1975 versus 15.1 percent in 1913-1963). This decrease could be the result of larger samples, less nestling banding or lower reporting rates. Origin of Banded Mourning Doves Harvested in Colorado In the 1913-1963 interval, 9 mourning doves banded outside of Colorado and 26 doves banded in Colorado were reported recovered within the state. Thus of 35 banded doves reported, 25.7 percent originated elsewhere. Point of origin (banding location) for these 9 birds was two each from New Mexico and North Dakota and one each from Arizona, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota and Texas. Only one bird was banded outside of the Central Management Unit (Arizona). Recoveries of birds banded elsewhere in the 1913-1963 period were too small to make firm statements about origin of doves banded elsewhere and recovered in Colorado. During the 1964-1975 interval, 87 doves banded outside of Colorado and 351 doves banded in Colorado were reported recovered in the state. Thus, of 438 banded doves reported, 19.9 percent originated elsewhere. This would suggest that about 20 percent of the doves harvested each year in Colorado originated in other areas. Points of origin for the 87 out-of-state of banding recoveries are presented in Table 10. Only 12 recoveries from bandings out of the Central Management Unit were reported in the 1964-1975 period. Two originated in the Eastern Management Unit, while 10 originated in the Western Management Unit. Patterns of recoveries from bandings in these two management units could not be ascertained. Over 86 percent (86.2) of the "foreign" recoveries in Colorado were from other states in the Central Management Unit. Over one-half (52.0 percent) originated in areas directly north of Colorado (Montana and Wyoming), with lesser numbers (14.7 percent) originating in areas directly south of Colorado (New Mexico and Texas). �-107- • Table 10. Origin of banded mourning doves recovered in Colorado from outof-state bandings, 1964-1975. Eastern Management Unit State Central Management Unit Number State Number Louisiana 1 Iowa 3 Wisconsin 1 Kansas 1 Total 2 Minnesota 1 Montana 32 Nebraska 7 Western Management Unit State Number New Mexico 6 Arizona 3 North Dakota 2 California 1 Oklahoma 1 Nevada 2 South Dakota 10 Utah 1 Texas 5 Washington 3 Wyoming 7 Total 10 Total 75 Distribution of Harvest Through 4 March 1976, 683 recoveries of doves banded in Colorado had been reported, of which 53 were from bandings in the 1913-1963 period and 630 were from bandings from 1 June 1964 through 30 August 1974. Considering only the 53 recoveries from the 19l3~1963 bandings, 27 (50.9 percent) were from Colorado, 18 (34.0 percent) were from Mexico, 4 (7.5 percent) were from Texas, 2 (3.8 percent) were from Arizona, while 1 each were from New Mexico and Louisiana. Only one recovery was reported from the Eastern Management Unit, while two were reported from the Western Management Unit. Distribution of recoveries from doves banded from 1964 through 1974 is shown in Table 11. Recoveries were clumped in the Central Management Unit (449 of 630, 71.3 percent) and Mexico (141 or 22.4 percent) with lesser numbers from the Western Management Unit (33 or 5.2 percent) and Eastern Management Unit (2 or 0.3 percent). Central American countries (4) and Canada (1) contributed little to the overall reported harvest. Colorado was the leading harvest area (55.7 percent of all recoveries) followed by Mexico (22.4 percent), Texas (7.6 percent) and New Mexico (6.8 percent). No other state or country provided more than 3 percent of the total reported recoveries. �-108- Table 11. Distribution rado, 1964-1974. 1/ of mourning dove recoveries from bandings in Colo- Canada Quebec , 1 Central America E1 Salvador 2 Guatama1a 1 Nicaragua 1 Mexico 141 Total 146 1/ Through 4 March 1976. �-109- Considering only those recoveries in Mexico for which report to bander cards were available (primarily after 1968), recovery locations of 84 doves were approximated. This sample was reported from 11 states, with a majority (49) being reported from Jalisco (28) and Michoacan (21) in west central Mexico. More than five recoveries were reported in only two other States, Guanajuato (10) and Sinaloa (9). Thus, mourning doves banded in Colorado are not exceptionally vulnerable to hunters in Mexico until they reach presumed wintering areas. These data are similar to those reported from an earlier analysis of all mourning dove recoveries in Mexico (Blankenship and Reeves 1970). Particular attention was given to recoveries reSUlting from bandings west of the Continental Divide since 1960. Only 51 recoveries from bandings in this geographic area have been reported to date, with 16 (31.4 percent) from Mexico, 10 (19.6 percent) from New Mexico, 9 (17.6 percent) from Arizona, 6 (11.8 percent) from both California and Colorado, 3 (5.9 percent) from Texas, and 1 (2.0 percent) from Utah. This pattern is markedly different from that of all recoveries of doves banded in Colorado in that recoveries in Colorado and Texas are minimal. It would appear that doves banded west of the Continental Divide move southwest from Colorado and have some affinity with Western Management Unit states (16 versus 19 recoveries in New Mexico, Colorado and Texas). When exact locations of recoveries are examined, most of the 19 Central Management Unit recoveries are from west of the Continental Divide in the three states involved. Mortality and Survival Rates It is not the purpose of this report to present detailed analyses of mortality and survival rates by age and sex class and geographic area of banding. These analyses will be presented in a final cooperative report of all bandings in the Central Management Unit in the 1967-1974 period. This report will be completed in 1977, which allows most recoveries from doves banded in 1974 to be included. Presented herein are analyses of all pooled recoveries from 1964 to 1974 with no separation of sex or age. Methodology is that of the relative recovery rate method described by Geis (1972). Actual data are given,in Tables 12 and 13. Calculated annual survival rates varied from .0033 to 1.728 and averaged .523 with an average annual mortality rate of .477. The average survival rate calculated for all doves banded in Colorado is substantially higher than those calculated for various age and sex classes of doves banded in the Eastern Management Unit (Hayne 1975) but similar to those calculated for doves banded in South Dakota (Rice and Lovrien 1974). �-110- Table 12. Banding and recovery data from all mourning doves banded in Colorado, 1964-1975. Year No. Banded 1 Hunting Season of Recoverl 2 3 4 5 6 1964 295 5 2 1 1 1965 808 15 12 5 1 1966 220 2 1 1967 2,232 45 19 7 4 2 1968 2,501 35 30 9 6 1 4 1969 3,390 57 23 9 6 3 1 1970 3,159 56 9 10 7 1 83 1971 5,356 27 27 16 3 5 78 1972 4,633 36 21 7 4 1973 4,409 44 11 5 1974 4,520 18 15 Totals 31,523 340 170 7 Total 9 0 1 34 3 77 85 1 100 68 60 33 69 32 J.2 6 1 630 �-111- Table 13. Relative recovery rate estimates, all mourning doves banded in Colorado, 1964-1974. NU!1J.ber of Recoveries 1-n 2-n Year Number Banded 1964 295 Can't Use 4 1965 808 34 19 .0421 .0235 1 .0136 .0045 Recovery Rates 1-n 2-n .0136 1966 220 1967 2,232 77 1968 2,501 85 50 .0340 1969 3,390 100 43 .0295 3 32 .0345 .0143 .0200 .0127 Survival Rate Mortality Rate 0.323 0.677 1.728 0.130 0.987 0.421 0.579 0.678 0.322 0.483 0.517 0.582 0.418 0.646 0.354 0.507 0.493 0.493 0.507 1970 3,159 1971 5,356 78 51 1972 4,633 68 32 .0147 .0069 16 .0136 .0036 .0073 .0033 .2302 .1204 5.991 4.854 Average survival rate: .523 .599 .401 Average mortality .477 1973 4,409 1974 4,520 Total 31,523 83 60 33 27 15 .0263 .0146 rate .0085 .0095 LITERATURE CITED Allen, J. M. 1963. Primary feather molt rate of wild immature doves in Indiana. Ind. Dept. Conserv., Game Res. Sect. Circ. No.4. 4 p. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. Nat. Rist., Vol. 1. 895 p. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Denver Museum Blakenship, L. R., and R. M. Reeves. 1970. Mourning dove recoveries from Mexico. U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Wi1d1. No. 135. 25 p. Braun, C. E. 1976. Methods for locating, trapping and banding band-tailed pigeons in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Spec. Rept. No. 39. In Press. �-112LITERATURE CITED (Continued) Funk, H. D. 1965. Mourning dove migration in Colorado. Fish and Parks, Game Info. Leaflet No. 26. 2 p. Colo. Div. Game, Geis, A. D. 1972. Use of banding data in migratory game bird research and management. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 154. 47 p , Hayne, D. W. 1975. Experimental increase of mourning dove bag limit in Eastern Management Unit, 1965-1972. Southeastern Assn. Game and Fish Comms., Bull. No.2. 56 p. Henry, D. L., T. S. Baskett, K. C. Sadler, and W. R. Goforth. 1976. Age and sex selectively of trapping procedures for mourning doves. J. Wildl. Manage. 40(1):122-125. Keeler, J. (Chairman). 1976. The mourning dove. In Sanderson, G. C. (Ed.). Management of migratory webless game birds in North America. Intnl. Assn. Game and Fish Comms. and U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo In Press. Kiel, W. H., Jr. 1959. Mourning dove management units, a progress report. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 42. 24 p. Lewis, J. C., a~d J. A. Morrison. 1973. Efficiency of traps and baits for capturing mourning doves. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 1(3):131-138. Peters, H. S. 1961. The past status and management of the mourning dove. Trans. No. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resources Conf. 26:371-374. Petersen, B. E., and C. E. Braun. 1974. Observations on the primary feather molt of imnature mourning doves in Colorado. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 7(5):58. Reeves, H. M., A. D. Geis, and F. C. Kniffin. 1968. Mourning dove capture and banding. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 117. 63 p. Rice, L. A., and H. Lovrien. 1974. Analysis of mourning dove banding in South Dakota. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):743-750. Ruos, J. L. 1968. Mourning dove banding needs, 1969-1971. Wildl. Serv., Unpubl. Rept. 13 p. U. S. Fish and Wight, H. M. 1963. The role of pre- and post-season banding in mourning dove research. Bur. of Sport Fisheries and Wildl., Migratory Bird Pop. Sta. Admin. Rept. No. 19. Feb. 28. 8 pp. + 6 Tables. Prepared by Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher �October 1976 -113JOB FINAL REPORT State of Colorado --------------------- Project No. W-88-R-21 i-lorkPlan No. 4 Job Title Migratory Bird Investigations 4 Job No •. --------------------.---------------- Band-tailed Pigeon Investigations Period Covered: --~-------------------------- April 1, 1969 through March 31, 1975 Personnel: S. Amend, K. Baer and J. Randall, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; J. Cruse, W. Paintner, C. E. Williamson and other personnel of the U.S. Forest Service; R. Stabler and N. Kitzmiller, Colorado College; O. W. Olsen, Colorado State Univ.; W. J. Arthur, D. Benson, C. E. Braun, W. Carpenter, A. Cowan, H. D. Funk, J. E. Kautz, M. V. Kautz, W. Ladd, Jr., S. Mathews, C. McCord, R. Oakleaf, B. Petersen, M. Robinson, L. Seger, B. Smith, N. Smith, M. Stromberg, M. Watkins, J. A. White, Wildlife Conservation Officers, Area Supervisors, Conservation Aides, ane other personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT The objectives of this study have been fully achieved. Reports covering the various objectives have been published, prepared and submitted, and in some instances are in progress. Those in progress will be published under Work Plan 6, Job 1 and are listed in the project documents for W-88-R-22. Those published and submitted are listed below: Braun, C. E. 1972. Movements and hunting mortality of Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Trans. No. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resour. Conf. 37:326-334. 1973. Distribution and habitats of band-tailed pigeons in Colorado. Proc. West. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 53:336-344. 1973. Studies of band-tailed pigeons in wintering areas of Mexico, December 1972 tv April 1973. Mimeo Rept., Contract No. 14-16-0008-626. Colorado Div. Wildl. 11 pp. 1974. Investigations of band-tailed Proc. Wilson Ornithol. Soc. 55:19. pigeons in Mexico. Abstract. 1976. Methods for locating, trapping and banding band-tailed in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Special Rept. No. 39:In Press. pigeons _____ , W. J. Adrian, and R. E. Keiss. 1977. Mercury residues in Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Submitted to J. Wildl. Manage. _____ , D. E. Brown, J. C. Pederson, and T. P. Zapatka. 1975. Results of the Four Corners Cooperative Band-tailed Pigeon Investigation. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Resource Publ. 126. 20 pp. �-114ABSTRACT (Cont.) Gutierrez, R. J. 1973. Reproductive biology of the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata). M. S. Thesis, Univ. New Mexico, Albuquerque. 28 pp. , C. E. Braun, and T. P. Zapatka. Reproductive biology of the band-----tailed pigeon in Colorado and New Mexico. Auk 92(4):665-677. Olson, o. W., and C. E. Braun. 1977. Three new species of Splendidofilariinae (Filarioidea:Nematoda) from the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata fasciata [Say]) in Colorado. Submitted to Proc. Helminth Soc. Washington. Stabler, R. M., and C. E. Braun. 1975. Effect of virulent Trichomonas gallinae on the band-tailed pigeon. J. Wildl. Diseases 11:482-483. , N. J. Kitzmiller, and C. E. Braun. Blood parasites from band-tailed pigeons. Submitted to J. Wildl. Manage. White, J. A. 1973. Molt of Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 34 pp. M. S. Thesis, _____ , and C. E. Braun. 1972. Plumage investigations of Colorado bandtailed pigeons. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 7(3):70. Prepared by __ -,~~~~:-=-L,::-,:-+~~:;=.::.;,-,-Clait E. Brauh Wildlife Researcher _ �October 1976 -115JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~------------- Project No. ~W_-~8~8-~R~-~2~1~ Work Plan No. _ Migratory Job No. 5 Bird Investigations ~l~ Job Title Investigations Period Covered: September I, 1973 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: _ of Snipe in Colorado C. Bryant and C. Donner, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; R. Ryder, D. Hein, and R. Walter, Colorado State University, C. Braun, H. Funk, and B. R. Johnson, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Abundance, times of occurrence, and harvest of common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) in Colorado were investigated from September 1973 through June 1975. Areas studied were near Fort Collins, and in North Park in north central Colorado; the Yampa Valley in northwestern Colorado; and the San Luis Valley in south central Colorado. Estimated densities of breeding snipe based on censuses conducted during May 1974 and 1975 were, by region: 1.5 snipe/ha near Fort Collins; 0.6 snipe/ha in North Park; 0.6 snipe/ha in the Yampa Valley; and 0.5 snipe/ha in the San Luis Valley. Mean density for all regions was 0.6 snipe/ha on a total area of 245~'1 ha. On individual study areas densities of snipe ranged from 0.3 to 1.9 snipe/ha. Areas with shallow, stable water levels, sparse, short vegetation, and soft organic soils had the highest densities of snipe. Twenty-eight nests were located having a mean clutch size of 3.9 eggs. Estimated onset of incubation ranged from 2 May through 4 July, with most occurring in May. Spring migration extended from late March through early May. Maximum densities were recorded in all regions during 10-23 April. Fall migration was underway by early September and was completed by mid-October, with maximum snipe densities occurring the third week in September. High numbers of snipe, noted in early August, may have been early migrants or juveniles concentrating on favorable feeding areas. Snipe wintering near Fort Collins preferred sparsely vegetated shorelines, with soft, water-saturated soils. Snipe utilized such areas from October through April in densities up to 16.5 snipe/km. Results of the 1972 and 1973 survey of small game license holders indicated that successful respondents (n = 22) harvested a mean of 3.7 snipe per hunter and spent 4.0 days afield. Results of questionnaires to snipe hunters in 1973 and 1974 indicated that successful respondents (n = 8) harvested a mean of 10.8 snipe per hunter during 4.9 days af~eld. The lrnN number of responses indicate the harvest of snipe in Colorado is small. �116 RECOMMENDATIONS 1. On areas managed for snipe, shallow, discontinuous water coverage should be maintained through water manipulation practices. Depths should not .exceed approximately 50 to 60 mm and short vegetative cover should be encouraged. 2. Vegetation on areas managed for snipe should be manipulated through grazing by livestock, burning and/or mowing to maintain low cover (less than 200 mm) suitable for snipe. 3. Use of suitable habitats by snipe may be increased through application of animal waste products that increase number and availability of larval insects. 4. Further research on the relationship of snipe numbers and use to soils of varying productivity may be beneficial in future management of habitats specifically for snipe. �-117TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Review of Literature Taxonomy Distribution Ecology Harvest Methods .•• Selection of Study Areas Census Techniques • . Physical Dimensions • • Soil Characteristics Vegetation Descriptions Water Analysis • • • • Harves t Survey s • • • . • • • • • • Location and Description of Study Areas Location Climate .. Topography Soils . • • • Vegetation • • • • Water Characteristics Results and Discussion Estimates of Breeding Densities • Nesting Activities Spring Migration Fall Migration Estimates of Winter Densities • Harvest Assessment Literature Cited Appendix LIST OF TABLES Table 1 2 Descriptive and quantitative data for major soil types on snipe breeding areas 3-14 in Colorado • • • • . Results of water analyses on snipe study areas 3-14 in Colorado, June 1975 •••••••••••••••.•.• ••. • �-118LIST OF TABLES (Cont.) Table Page 3 Estimated densities of snipe breeding on study areas 3-14 in Colorado, 1974 and 1975 . . • . 4 Snipe nesting data in Colorado, 1974 and 1975 . 5 Maximum densities of snipe with date of occurrence for areas 3-14 during spring (1975) and fall (1974) migration in Colorado • . • • . . . • . . • . . 6 Results of the 1972 and 1973 small game surveys and the 1973 and 1974 snipe hunter questionnaires for Colorado ........................... LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Location of snipe study areas in Colorado • . • • 2 Densities of snipe on areas 3, 4, and 5 near Fort Collins, Colorado (May 1974-June 1975) • . • • • 3 Densities of snipe on areas 6, 7, and 8, North Park, Colorado (May 1974-June 1975) . • • •.... 4 Densities of snipe on areas 9, 10, and 11, Yampa Valley, Colorado (May 1974-June 1975) • 5 Densities of snipe on areas 12, 13, and 14, San Luis Valley, Colorado (May 1974-June 1975) • 6 Densities of snipe on area 1 (January 1974-July 1975) and area 2 (January 1974-May 1975) near Fort Collins Colorado . • • • . • • • • . . . . • • • • . • • • . �-119- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The financial support of this investigation was provided by the Accelerated Research Program of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service funded through the Colorado Division of Wildlife and through Colorado Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-88-R. I gratefully acknowledge the substantial assistance of these agencies. Dr. Ronald A. Ryder, Professor, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, was paramount in the initiation of this project and served as my major advisor. For his advice, counseling, and exemplary professionalism, I am most grateful. I also express my thanks to the following individuals who served on my graduate committee. Dr. Clait Braun, Wildlife Researcher, Colorado Division of Wildlife, served both as research advisor and coordinator. His astute observations and pointed recommendations helped eliminate much ambiguity from this investigation. Dr. Dale Hein, Associate Professor, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, offered valuable suggestions and insights which contributed greatly to the project. Richard G. Walter, Assistant Professor, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Colorado State University, provided considerable assistance in the botanical portion of this investigation. My thanks are also extended to Richard M. Hopper and Michael R. Szymczak, Wildlife Researchers, Colorado Division of Wildlife, for their sound recommendations and assistance in locating suitable study sites. Likewise, I wish to thank Charles Bryant and Carroll Donner, refuge managers of the Monte Vista and Arapahoe National Wildlife Refuges, respectively, and their staff for their hel~ful consultation and permission to conduct investigations on the refuges. To the Wildlife Conservation Officers I contacted, I am most grateful for their assistance, observations, and recommendations. The many landowners, who without exception, allowed me access to their property deserve my special thanks. Without their generosity, this investigation would not have been possible. I am also g:rateful for the help and information provided by the Soil Conservation Service and Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service. These acknowledgements would be incomplete i.f I did not thank my wife, Peggy. I will always value her understanding and perseverance throughout this investigation. ��-121- INVESTIGATIONS OF COMMON SNIPE IN COLORADO Bruce R. Johnson The 12 species of the genus Capella have a cosmopolitan distribution (Blair et al. 1968), but the common snipe (Capella gallirtago delicata) is the only representative indigenous to North America and occurs seasonally over most of the continent (Bent 1927). Unlike most members of Family Scolopacidae, common snipe frequent bogs, wet meadows and pastures, and marsh and stream habitats. Furthermore, snipe are generally solitary and crepuscular. Comprehensive life histories of common snipe include Bent (1927) and Tuck (1972); less inclusive studies include Erickson (1945, 1953) and Stout (1967). Snipe in Colorado were mentioned by Cook (1897, 1898, 1900, 1909), Sclater (1912), Aiken and Warren (19l4~ Niedrach and Rockwell (1939), Packard (1945), Boeker (1954), Beidleman (1955), Bailey and Niedrach (1965), and Martin et al. (1974). This 2-year investigation mary objectives to: of common snipe was initiated in 1973 with pri- 1. Estimate densities of breeding and migrating common snipe on representative habitat types throughout Colorado. 2. Document 3. Evaluate the importance of open water areas to common snipe wintering in Colorado. 4. Ascertain hunting pressure, harvest size, and hunter success through hunter questionnaires. spring and fall migration periods. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Taxonomy Common snipe belong to the genus Capella (Family Scolopacidae, Order Charadriiformes, Class Aves) which is divided into 12 species. The species f. gallinago is further separated into eight subspecies of which f. ~. delicata is the only subspecies indigenous to North America (Tuck 1972). Each species and subspecies were described by Tuck (1972). Distribution Common snipe (hereafter referred to as snipe) normally breed from northwestern Alaska, northern Yukon, and east across Canada to central Labrador �-122- and Newfoundland south through the northern United States from West Virginia to California and eastern Arizona. Their winter range extends from Alaska, western Canada, and the western and southern United States south to Central and northern South America (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). More detailed winter and breeding ranges are given by Bent (1927), American Ornithologists' Union (1957), Stout (1967), and Tuck (1972). In Colorado, snipe are common summer residents from the upper Sonoran through Canadian zone (Niedrach and Rockwell 1939). Scattered populations spend winter months from low elevations (Bailey and Niedrach 1965) to, at least, 2900 m (Anon. 1886). Snipe are most numerous throughout the state during spring and fall migrations. Ecology The principal spring migration period for snipe is from March through midApril, with males preceding females by approximately 10 days (Tuck 1972). Arrival dates for snipe in Colorado include 10 March for Denver, 19 March for Boulder, 26 March for Sweetwater Lake (Bent 1927), 17 April for Rocky Mountain National Park (Packard 1945), and mid-April for the Yampa Valley (Boeker 1954). Numbers of snipe arriving in Colorado are relatively large by late April (Niedrach and Rockwell 1939). Breeding is restricted largely to areas of organic soils, primarily peatlands, mostly within northern forest regions. On the southern limits of the breeding range, snipe occupy areas along ponds, meandering streams and rivers, and similar marshy localities having organic soil and sparse vegetation (Tuck 1972). Stewart and Kantrud (1968) described breeding habitat for snipe in North Dakota as calcareous bogs or fens that were frequently grazed, with soils normally saturated by groundwater, and often with hummocks or quagmires of floating surface mats of emergent vegetation. Characteristic plants were aquatic mosses, scattered shrubs, grasses, sedges, and forbs. Nesting follows mating activities and selection of nest sites and has been described by Bent (1927), Tuck (1955, 1972), and Stout (1967). Clutch size is normally 4 eggs, occaSionally only 3 (Wolfe 1931) and rarely 5 eggs are laid (Bent 1927). Only females incubate the clutch (Tuck 1972). Length of incubation varies from 18 to 21 days (Bent 1927, Erickson 1953) and is usually 19 days (Stout 1967). Nest records for Colorado are limited, ranging from 1 May to 1 July with most nests located in May and early June (Niedrach and Rockwell 1939, Bailey and Niedrach 1965). In.Utah, nesting dates range from 29 April to 24 July (Johnson 1899, Bent 1927) while, in California, a late nest was located on 1 September (Bryant 1915). Young snipe are precocial (Bent 1927) and double their weight within 1 week after hatching (Tuck 1972). Flight is attained between 15 and 18 days of age (Stout 1967) and occasionally earlier (Tuck 1972). By 3 weeks of age, young have fledged and are as heavy (90 g) as their molting parents (Tuck 1972). �-123- Fall migration in southern Canada and the northern half of the conterminous United States occurs primarily from September to early October (Stout 1967) during which time numbers of snipe in Colorado are probably maximal (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Late dates of departure for snipe in Colorado are 3 November for Greeley and 24 December for Boulder (Bent 1927) . Principal winter habitats utilized include coastal marshes, rice fields, and wet cattle pastures which contain less decomposed organic soil than characteristic breeding habitats (Tuck 1972). In regions with continental climates such as Colorado, scattered populations of snipe winter wherever marshes and borders of sloughs remain unfrozen (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Food habits of snipe have been investigated by Whitehead (1965), White and Harris (1966), Van Owens (1967), and Booth (1968) and have been summarized by Tuck (1972). Erickson (1941) examined 76 snipe and found 80 percent infected with parasites. Other accounts of ectoparasites and endoparasites of snipe include Schmidt (1962), Whitehead (1965), Booth (1968), Tuck (1972), and Naney (1973). Harvest The harvest of snipe in the United States in recent years has been estimated at 500,000 to 750,000 (Arnold 1975) and in Canada, at 80,000 (Tuck 1972). Estimates by Clark (1971) indicated that snipe harvested by waterfowl hunters increased from 263,900 in 1965-66 to 524,600 in 1970-71. Recovery rates of banded snipe of 2.4 percent in the United States (Arnold 1975) and 1.1 percent in Canada (Tuck 1972) indicate a relatively small harvest. In Colorado, harvest of snipe appears to be incidental to hunting more popular game species. Consequently, numbers of snipe hunters and snipe harvest are small. Based on annual surveys of small game license holders in Colorado from 1955 through 1971, the Colorado Division of Wildlife (1973 unpublished report) estimated 455 hunters harvested 1,177 snipe annually during that period. METHODS Selection of Study Areas Potential study areas for breeding surveys were examined in Fort Collins, North Park, the Yampa Valley, and the San Luis Valley from September through November 1973 and mid-March through early May 1974. Criteria for selecting breeding areas were: (1) presence of snipe performing mating and territorial displays; (2) water depths and permanence; (3) similarity of the area to general habitat types in each region; (4) diverseness of the area compared to other selected areas; and (5) sufficient �-124- area to provide adequate numbers of snipe. areas were selected, 3 in each region. A total of 12 breeding Wintering areas were investigated near Fort Collins during December 1973 and January 1974. Two contrasting sites were selected in midJanuary 1974 on which densities of wintering snipe were estimated. Census Techniques A systematic strip census was employed to estimate numbers of snipe occurring on each area. This technique provided reliable estimates regardless of time of year and proved more dependable than either a winnowing index (Burleigh 1952, Robbins 1954, Solman 1954, Tuck 1972) or the territorial response method (Tuck 1972). Strip censuses consisted of walking linear transects at 20 to 25 m intervals. Transects corresponded to cardinal directions and paralleled the width rather than length of the areas whenever possible. Field maps incorporating cenSU3 routes and their relation to conspicuous landmarks were used to achieve comparative censuses. Approximate locations of all snipe flushed, alighting, or displaying within the area were recorded. Biweekly censuses were conducted in North Park, Yampa Valley, and San Luis Valley with two censuses per area per trip. Single, weekly censuses were conducted on areas near Fort Collins. Nests encountered during censuses were inconspicuously marked for subsequent relocation to record nesting progress. Dates of the onset of incubation were estimated using a water flotation technique (Westerskov 1950) based on a 19-day incubation period. Widths and lengths of eggs were measured with a vernier caliper. Censuses on winter study areas paralleled the streams from 1 to 5 m from the shoreline. Censuses were conducted biweekly except for monthly censuses in July and August. Physical Dimensions Physical dimensions of each area were obtained directly from U. S. Geological Survey 7.5-minute series topographic maps (scale 1:24000). The size of each breeding area was calculated using a Dietzgen planimeter. Lenghts of winter study areas were calculated with a Keuffel and Esser cyclometer. Elevations, latitudes, and longitudes were determined from topographic maps. Soil Characteristics Soil descriptions were limited to breeding areas 3 through 14 and were obtained from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service. Information obtained included location and range of soil types, descriptions of soil profiles, and physical and chemical properties including texture, slope, water table depth, permeability, available water capacity, and soil reaction. Texture �-125- is based on relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay in a soil. Permeability is the rate of downward movement of water in major soil layers when saturated but allowed to drain freely. Available water capacity, measured as the amount of water in a specific volume of soil, is related to particle size and arrangement and size of soil pores. Fine textured soils have high water retention because of small pores. Soil reaction is the intensity of soil acidity or alkalinity expressed in pH units (Soil Conservation Service 1970). Measurements of ground compaction were made on each area with a Soiltest penetrometer. The unconfined strength of the soil was measured by forcing a 16 mm diameter shaft into the soil to a prescribed depth of 2 15 mm and reading the resultant pressure on a scale from 0 to 4.5 kg/cm Vegetation Descriptions Dominant plant species based on frequency of occurrence were described for breeding areas 3 through 14. Initially, each area was divided into major communities from aerial photographs and checked through on-site observations. Percent coverage for each species was then estimated by an ocular survey of each major community. Mean height and range for each dominant species were determined from measurements of representative plants. Specimens vf dominant species were collected for subsequent identification. Mounted specimens of these species were filed in the Colorado State University herbarium as the voucher collection for this investigation. Water Analysis Free acidity, phenolphthalein alkalinity, total alkalinity, hardness, and pH were measured on breeding areas 3 through 14 using a Hach Model Al-36-B Test Kit. Free acidity measures the concentration of strong mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acids in water. Alkalinity, defined as the capability to neutralize acids, is expressed as phenolphthalein alkalinity which registers total hydroxide and one half the carbonate or total alkalinity which includes all carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide alkalinity. Total hardness primarily measures concentrations of calcium and magnesium present. The pH of water is an index of the hydrogen ion activity ranging from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic) with pure water as 7 (neutral). The pH value represents the instantaneous hydrogen ion activity rather than the buffering capacity or total reserve as in acidity or alkalinity tests (Hach Chemical Company 1973). Three to four water samples were collected from each area. Sampling sites varied from flowing water if present to stagnant water. All analyses of water samples were completed at the sampling site. Harvest Surveys Data consisting of total snipe bagged, total days hunted, and area most frequently hunted were obtained from the 1972 and 1973 small game surveys �-126- conducted by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. In 1973 and 1974, questionnaires were sent to those respondents to the small game survey who reported hunting snipe and to Colorado Division of Wildlife personnel for distribution to additional snipe hunters. The special snipe hunter survey requested information concerning area most frequently hunted, total days hunted, number of hunters in party, total snipe seen, total snipe bagged, and number of days when only snipe were hunted. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Location Four regions in Colorado were selected for investigations of snipe. These regions were Fort Collins and North Park, both in north central Colorado; the Yampa Valley in northwestern Colorado; and the San Luis Valley in south central Colorado (Fig. 1). Three study areas were selected in each region on which densities of breeding snipe were estimated and habitat conditions influencing these densities were evaluated. In Fort Collins, the three areas (No.3, 4, and S) varied from 10SoOO' to 10So04' W long. and 40°23' to 40°44' N lat. with a total area studies of 2S.2 ha. Two additional areas (No. 1 and 2) were selected near Fort Collins on which numbers of wintering snipe were estimated. These areas ranged from 10SoOO' to 10So07' W long. and 40°32' to 40°34' N. lat. and had a combined length of 6.4 km. In North Park, locations of the three areas (No.6, 7, and 8) varied from 106°16' to 106024' W long. and 40°36' to 40°44' N lat. with a total area of 92.8 ha. Locations of areas 9, 10, and 11 in the Yampa Valley ranged from 1060S7' to 107020' W long. and 40029' to 40048' N lat. with a total area of 63.S ha. In the San Luis Valley, areas 12, 13, and 14 varied in location from 10S043' to 106006'W long. and 37°18' to 37034' N lat. and had a total area of 63.6 ha. Total area for all regions was 24S.l ha and varied in location from 10SoOO' to 107°20' W long. and 37°18' to 40048' N. lat. Climate Climatic conditions in Colorado are influenced mainly by its inland, continental location and high elevation (mean altitude of 207S m above sea level). The inland location results in wide daily and seasonal temperature variations and low precipitation. The high elevation affects all climatic phases including increased precipitation in the mountains and temperature modifications throughout the state (Colorado State Planning Division 1964, Berry 1974). Climates in local regions are greatly influenced by differences in elevations and the orientation of mountain ranges. The climate of the Fort Collins area is comparatively mild with long, warm summers (139-day frost-free season) and open winters. Precipitation is low (2S to SO cm) �M~'Ar wup Ir()U" SLD6WICI( L06AN """,n II 10 MOil""" "'ASltIW;TDN rUMA /f10 #LAN(O GAII"ILD Iflr CAlf SOli ""COUt MISA J0N -...J J ,,,trl,,111 1_ H ~I"'CA.O"W;-;LI:;,::-_"",, __ IJ KIOWA '110 WIllS UIIT SAIIMI6UlL DOLOlflS MOlfrlZUIIAA MCA AIfClfIlUTA Fig. 1. Location of snipe study areas in Colorado. �-128- and infrequent of which about 75 percent falls during the growing season (Robbins 1917). At Fort Collins, the mean annual temperature and precipitation rate are 8.9 C and 35.8 cm (Colorado State Planning Division 1964). In North Park, the climate is typically continental and freezing temperatures may occur every month (56-day frost-free season). Summer mean temperatures are normally between 13 and 16 C and March and April usually have the greatest precipitation (Robbins 1917). Walden, centrally located in North Park, has a mean annual temperature and precipitation rate of 2.3 C and 33.3 cm (Colorado State Planning Division 1964). Climatic conditions in the Yampa Valley vary with elevation. At lower elevations, near Craig, the climate is mild (81-day frost-free season) with comparatively long winters. At higher elevations, near Steamboat Springs, the climate is more severe with short, cool summers (75-day frost-free season) and long winters with heavy snowfall (Colorado State Planning Division 1964). July and August often have the greatest precipitation although wide variations are common (Robbins 1917). Mean annual temperatures and precipitation rates are 6.1 C and 31.8 em for Craig and 4.1 C and 58.7 cm for Steamboat Springs (Colorado State Planning Division 1964). In the San Luis Valley, the climate is arid with less than 18 cm of precipitation in central portions of the Valley and 25 to 30 cm along the foothills (Bean 1962) with most precipitation normally occurring from June through August. Mean annual temperatures vary from 2 to 6 C with mean summer temperatures near 16 C (Colorado State Planning Division 1964). The frost-free season is approximately 103 days (Robbins 1917). Topography Topography is diverse among the four regions but similar within each study area investigated. The Fort Collins region, at an elevation of about 1525 m, is part of the Colorado Piedmont. This region is typified by level or rolling prairie broken by streams, valleys, and occasional sandhills (Colorado State Planning Division 1964). The five wintering and breeding areas studies varied in elevation from 1480 to 1615 m. Breeding areas were generally level with slopes of less than 3 percent. Wintering area 1 was characterized by a narrow (1.5 to 3 m wide) shallow, flowing stream with steep to perpendicular banks from 1.5 to 3 m high. Area 2 also contained a shallow, flowing stream approximately 2 to 5 m wide bordered by gentle to steep-sloping banks. North Park has an area of about 1500 km2 and a mean elevation of 2475 m. The Park floor is predominately rolling ane encompassed by mountains (Fenneman 1931). Areas 6, 7, and 8 ranged in elevation from 2455 to 2510 m. Slopes were usually less than 3 percent or less but increased to 6 percent near ridges. �-129- The Yampa Valley is a long narrow floodplain varying in width from 0.4 to 16 km (Boek~r 1954). The Valley floor between Steamboat Springs and Craig is gently sloping, declining in elevation from 1980 to 1890 m. Breeding areas 10 and 11 are located in this region at elevations of 1975 m and 1915 m, respectively. Area 9 is located at 2450 m near Steamboat Lake. All areas in the Yampa Valley have slopes of 3 percent or less. The San Luis Valley is approximately 21,000 km2 in area (Colorado State Planning Division 1964) and is bounded by mountains on all but the south side. The basin floor is relatively flat with elevations ranging from about 2300 to 2450 m (Fenneman 1931). Elevations for areas 12, 13, and 14 ranged from 2285 to 2320 m with slopes of less than 3 percent. Soils Data obtained from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service showed similarities in major soil types on breeding areas 3 through 14. Major soil types which characterized breeding areas near Fort Collins, in North Park, and the San Luis Valley were deep, poorly drained, often alluvial with excellent moisture holding capacity and slow to fair air, water, and root penetration. Surface layers ranged from clay loam to fine, sandy loam often covered with a shallow, organic mat. Subsoils were generally clay loam or sand, gravel, or shale. In the Yampa Valley, soil types were more variable, ranging from deep, well-drained loam or clay loam characteristic of mountain meadows (areas 9 and 10) to saline-alkali soils with a silty, clay loam surface and subsoil normally found in swales and valleys (area 11). All areas in the Yampa Valley and area 8 in North Park contained a second major soil type. This type is described as wet, alluvial land consisting of a variety of continually wet soils of various depths and textures often bordering streams and rivers. The surface of this soil is moderately high in organic matter and mostly salt and alkali free. Descriptive and quantitative data for major soil types on areas 3 through 14 are listed in Table 1. Snipe normally probe for food and prefer to feed in soft, organic soils. To evaluate this preference quantitatively, measurements of ground compaction were taken on breeding areas 3 through 14 in late May and early June 1974. The ground compaction was variable, influenced prinCipally by soil texture, soil moisture, and vegetation densities. Locations with the highest densities of snipe generally had ground compaction of less than 0.1 to 0.75 kg/cm2, occasionally to 1.5 kg/cm2 in areas of dense vegetation. Areas with ground compactions of 2.5 kg/cm2 and greater were slightly moist or dry and seldom provided feeding sites for snipe. No soil descriptions or compaction measurements were collected for wintering areas 1 and 2. The stream channel in area 1 was primarily gravel with few protruding mud flats whereas area 2 contained many exposed, sparsely vegetated mud flats which attracted snipe and were used as feeding areas. �-130- Table 1. Area Descriptive and quantitative data for m.ajor soil types on snipe breeding areas 3 - 14 in Colorado. Soil texture % Water table depth (cm) Permeability (cm/hr) 2.0 - 3.8 o. 16 -0. 21 7.5 -8.4 0.13-0.5 0.18 -0.21 8.4-9.0 Slope Available water capacity (cml cm) Soil reaction (pH) 3 loam 0-3 50-130 4 clay 0-3 < 30 5 clay loam 0-1 30 -100 0.5 - 2.0 0.18-0.20 7.7-8.4 6 clay loam 0-6 0- 30 0.5 - 1. 5 0.19 -0.21 7.9-8.4 7 coarse, loamy -mixed 0-5 0- 15 1.5 - 5. 1 O. 13 -0. 18 7.9-8.4 8Y loam; fine sandy loam 0-2 15 5.1 -15.3 O. 13 -0. 18 6.6-7.3 91J loam 0-3 60 1.5 - 5. 1 0.12-0.20 6.6-7.3 101) loam 0-3 120 1.5 - 5. 1 O. 12 -0.20 6.6-7.3 111) very fine sandy loam 0-3 > 180 1.5 - 5. 1 O. 12 -0.20 8.5-9.0 12 loam and clay loam 0-3 50 - 90 0.5-5.1 0.16 -0.21 7.9 -8. 4 13 loam 0-1 30-100 1. 5 - 5. 1 0.16-2.0 7.9 -8.6 142) In addition to soil data listed in Table 1, these areas contained extensive areas of wet, alluvial land with continually wet soils of various depths and textures for which no quantitative data are available. No soil survey completed on this unit. �-131- Vegetation Regional variations in vegetation reflect differences in such factors as geographic location, elevation, and climate. The dominant natural vegetation in the Fort Collins area is grass-steppe or short grass formation (Robbins 1917). Currently, most land is used as pasture or cropland. In North Park, sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) dominates, occurring over approximately 65 percent of the Park. The remaining 35 percent consists mostly of wetlands such as sloughs, oxbows, streams. lakes, and flooded meadows and pastures (Beck 1976). Between Steamboat Springs and Craig in the Yampa Valley, high meadows and farmland dominate. The high water table has resulted in extensive sedge (Carex spp.) and cattail (Typha spp.) marshes (Boeker 1954). In the San Luis Valley, a high water table and alkaline soils have resulted in extensive black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) and rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) associations with sagebrush occurring on well drained areas. The region also retains extensive coverage of hardy grasses such as gramma grass (Bouteloua spp.) (Bean 1962). Descriptions of vegetation on breeding areas were completed in late July and early August 1974. Of the 12 areas, 7 (3-7, 11 and 12) were primarily wet pasture partially flooded from early spring through at least late summer often containing associations of Typha and Scirpus. Water sources included irrigation, irrigation runoff from nearby croplands, springs, and seepage. Species of Carex were the dominant plants on all seven areas. Other plant species which occurred on a majority of the areas were ~ spp., Scirpus americanus, Hordeum jubatum, Trifolium spp., Scirpus lacustris, Lemna spp., and Taraxacum spp. Major plant species for these and subsequent areas are listed in decreasing frequency of occurrence. Most areas were grazed by livestock beginning usually from late March through early June and ending from early September into late October. The remaining five areas had distinctly different habitats. Area 8 was an irrigated riverbottom interspersed with wet depressions and oxbows. Major plant species were Carex spp., Phleum pratense, Taraxacum spp., Trifolium spp., and Bromus inermis. Grazing was limited, occurring from early July to early October. Area 9 was ungrazed highland meadow with corridors of Salix spp. along stream channels. Major plants were Carex spp ., Taraxacum spp ,, Salix spp., Trifolium spp., and Poa pratensis. Area 10 consisted of irrigated hayland and a flooded oxbow with Typha marsh. Major plant species were Carex spp., Trifolium spp., Bromus intermis, Typha spp., Salix spp., Phalaris ~inacea, and Sporobolus airoides. The area was ungrazed but the vegetation was mowed for hay in late summer. Area 13 was marshland dominated by Eleocharis spp., Juncus arcticus, Carex spp., Typha spp., and Scirpus lacustris. The area was bordered by Sarcobatus vermiculatus in alkali soil. Area 14 contained two large ponds (5 ha total area) and associated wet meadows bordered by Sarcobatus vermiculatus. Major plant species were Eleocharis spp., Juncus arcticus, Hordeum jubatum, Scirpus americanus, �-132- Carex spp., and ~.pallidus. Limited grazing occurred on both areas 13 and 14 from early July through at least September. Major plant species for each breeding area are listed in the Appendix. Vegetation on wintering areas 1 and 2 was primarily grasses (Graminae) but no plant collections were made. On area 1, vegetation varied from ungrazed near the stream channel to well grazed on the crests of the banks. Vegetation on area 2 was more diverse and generally grazed or mowed. Water Characteristics Water samples on all breeding areas were analyzed in June 1975. Results of the analyses are summarized in Table 2. Variations between areas were generally small. No free acidity was measured on any area. Acidity of any natural water is normally low unless strongly acidic industrial waters are introduced (Hach Chemical Company 1973). Phenolphthalien alkalinity was detected on only one unit and total alkalinity varied from 50 to 510 mg/l (as CaC03). The presence of carbonates, bicarbonates, mid hydroxides of ~alcium, magnesium, and sodium are the most common causes of alkalinity in natural waters (Hach Chemical Company 1973). Alkalinity in natural waters may have a wide range but rarely exceeds 400 to 500 mg/l (as CaC03)' Generally, waters with reasonably high bicarbonate alkalinity result in increased aquatic plant growth (National Academy of Sciences 1973). Hardness was the most variable characteristic ranging from 30 to 2100 mg/l (as CaC03). Generally, the biological productivity of water is directly related to its hardness. However, while calcium and magnesium contribute to hardness, other contributing elements in high concentration may be toxic thereby reducing productivity (National Academy of Science 1973).' It should be noted that acidity, alkalinity, and hardness are normally reported as equivalents of specific values of CaC03 solutions, although actual constiLuents measured in each test may be entirely different (Hach Chemical Company personal communication). Values for pH ranged from 7.2 to 9.5, thus all areas were slightly to moderately basic. Most natural waters range from pH 4 to pH 9 and are often somewhat basic because of the presence of carbonates and bicarbonates (Hach Chemical Company 1973). �-133- Table 2. Area Results of water analyses on snipe study areas Colorado, June 1975. Free Phenolphthatln acidity V alkalinity 1 3 - 14 in Total -alkalini ty V HardnessV pH 3 0 0 340-410 500-550 8.0 -8.2 4 0 0 140-310 1680-2100 7.6 -9.0 5 0 0 310 -360 550-800 7.8-8.8 6 0 0 240-510 270-740 7.8 -8.8 7 0 0 120-190 120-190 7.8-8.2 8 0 0 90-120 100-150 7.5-7.6 9 0 0 50 -90 30-90 7.2 -8.3 10 0 0 150-310 170-410 7.7 -8.9 11 0 0 290-460 260-460 8.5 -8.8 12 0 0 70 -170 70 -140 7.2-7.7 13 0 0 190 -290 120-170 7.7-8.8 14 0 0-30 150 -260 50-70 8.8 -9.5 1) Expressed .a s rng/l as CaC0 . 3 �-134- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Estimates of Breedjng Densities The relation between numbers of snipe recorded during spring and summer censuses and actual numbers of snipe breeding on each area proved difficult to evaluate. Results of censuses prior to and during early May could possibly overestimate densities of breeding snipe by including spring migrants. Conversely, census data after early May could underestimate these densities by excluding nesting snipe which were difficult to flush. Consequently, estimated breeding densities for each area were based on censuses conducted throughout May of 1974 and 1975 for Fort Collins, North Park, and the Yampa Valley. In the San Luis Valley, breeding densities were based on censuses during May 1974 and late April through early June 1975 because only two May censuses were conducted in 1975. This procedure minimized overestimating densities because of migration and underestimating densities because of nesting snipe. Densities of snipe utilizing areas 3 through 14 for breeding are tabulated in Table 3 and depicted in Figs. 2 - 5. These data show an overall variation in breeding densities from 0.2 to 2.1 snipe/haG Of the four regions, Fort Collins had the highest mean density of 1.5 snipe/ha for 1974-75. This high density was a reflection of the small size and uniformly suitable habitat for snipe on each of the three Fort Collins breeding areas. Study areas in the other three regions were larger and contained more diverse habitats of various suitability for snipe. Consequently, regional variations in snipe densities are less pronounced than indicated in Table 3. The lower densities in 1974 probably resulted from late censuses in May. Numbers of snipe varied with habitat factors, primarily water depths and coverage, vegetation heights and densities, and soil conditions. Those areas providing the most suitable habitat for snipe contained shallow, stable, discontinuous water levels. Vegetation was low (10 - 30 cm in late May), often grazed or mowed, and sparse. Soils were moist to water saturated and frequently characterized by hummocks. Areas 3 through 7, 11, and 12 were partially flooded pastures. These areas had densities for 1974-75 ranging from 0.4 to 1.9 snipe/ha with a mean of 0.8 snipe/ha on a combined area of 138 haG Of the seven areas, those having characteristics described above had typically high densities whereas areas with tracts of dry soil or extensively overgrazed or ungrazed vegetation had low snipe densities. Of the remaining five areas, areas 9 and 10 had relatively high densities of 1.2 and 1.0 snipe/ha, respectively. Water levels on both units were stable at least through May and were maintained by beaver dams on area 9 and irrigation water on area 10. Both areas were ungrazed; however, vegetation heights on area 9 were normally low and area 10 was mowed in late summer. Vegetation heights on both areas in late May ranged from 5 to 30 cm. �-135- Table 3. Estimated densities of snipe breeding 14 in Colorado, 1974 and 1975. on study areas Region Size and Area (ha) 1974 1975 3 4.5 1.7 2.1 4 7.7 0.8 1.2 5 13.0 1.5 1.8 Subtotal 25.2 1.3 1.7 6 17.4 0.9 1.2 7 38.9 0.4 0.6 8 36.5 0.6 0.3 Subtotal 92.8 0.6 0.6 9 10. 1 1.1 1.2 10 19.0 0.8 1.1 11 34.4 0.4 0.5 Subtotal 63.5 0.5 0.7 12 21. 9 0.7 0.8 13 17.4 0.5 0.5 14 24.3 0.2 0.3 Subtotal 63.6 0.5 0.5 245. 1 0.6 0.7 Estimated Number of Breeding Fort Collins North Park Yampa Valley San Luis Valley Total, All Areas 3 _ SnipejHa �P (1) ;:l ~ ,.... 'i -.J (JI 0 0 III Q.. 0 'i I-' JUNEI9-20 JUNEI3-14 JUNE6-7 MAY 30-31 0 0 MAY 22-23 MAY 15 MAYS-9 MAY 1-3 ~ Ul P ,.... I-' I-' -.j (0 0 e-t- 'i 0 f-rJ APR25-26 APR17-19 'i III ;:l (1) APR5-6 MAR29-30 OCT 10-17 OCTI-3 APR10-13 C/) ITI C/) SEPT 17 SEPT7-S SEPT 24-26 -I _;...It • . - ~ ~ t- , I •.- II .. ,. ~. " ...•. -~ , ,.- -..~-.• -9£1- ." --~ .----•....... - - -- - - - - - - - •.....................• l '''-l:~:..:....... AUG6-7 JULY 9-10 JUNE30-JULY 2 JUNEI6-IS JUNE 9-10 JUNE 1-3 MAY 19-20 MAY 12-14 U1 P Q.. z C C/) III ITI () "T1 0 C/) ITI ~ ~ *" w ~ Ul 7 III U1(1) III I-' -.0 (1) 0 ;:l ~ (1) P '"d Lt 0 ~ Ul (0 *" 0t-+, (1) •..... ~Ul I-' '< ~ Ul1-'. e-t- III ~ -tj N " (JQ f-rJ •..... 0 NUMBER OF SNIPE PER HECTARE I\) (JI 01 m ~ - :::0 l> 0 o ';T 01 (JI l> 01 l> ~ :--J 01 ';T 0 -.j ';T 0 ~ --- l> :::0 ITI ITI ITI :::0 . Q) I iI ••• l> l> I I • It -.j �•.... fzj ;::l (U 00 t-+, 0 rn en -.J '"i -LO- ::0 l> ..., rn l> JUNE 10-11 ::0 l> rn I l> (J) (J) 0 0 (J) 01 0 ;3" :-..J ~ en ----- l> rn ::0 I I I It • '" l> • ..., ;3" en ;3" OJ (0 ~ 01 JUNE 9-10 0 01 !J) UI I\) MAY 27-28 '1.1 - NUMBER OF SNIPE PER HECTARE MAY 26-27 MAY 6-7 MAY 5 APR22-23 APR21 0 '"i III 0.. UI CD ..., rn APR8 OCT 18 OCT5 SEPT 21 SEPT 13 JULY24-25 JULY 3-4 JULY 2-3 JUNEI2-13 JUNE I 1-12 MAY 24-25 MAY 23-24 0 •....• o ?;-' III '"i "'d 0-' e-t- 0 '"i z 00 - (U ;::l p.. - m en c en z -.J - "T1 0 00 0' :-Ill l11(1) 0 !:; -o (U 0 0 (I) ~ CD -•.••.• ;::l (I) <-t ;::l C •..•. ;::l"d ,.p. ::::;00 e-t•.••.• (1) •.... - •.... -..:::00 (I) ~ ~t:1 w . (JQ MAY 9-10 0 �"'1 ,.,. roO •.... • ~CD -..J en III Ii ;:::l o o 0.. Pl Ii o .... o o '< CD III .... .... <: III S '"d III 0-< .... .... (JI ~ ij5 en C en ITI en rn Z PJ ;:::l 0.. o o .." en rrJ ~ , ~ (() ~ o .... -.D -.DPJ •... ;:::l'"d CD CD .:: L;;:::l en ,j::.8., -..Jen ::; e-t- '< en . •.... PJ ;:::l ~CD -tJ ,j::. OQ JUNEI2-13 JUNE 11-12 MAY 29-30 MAY2S-29 MAY 7 MAY 6 APR23 APR22 APRS APR7 SEPT 14 JULY 22-23 JULY 5-6 JULY 4-5 JUNE 14-15 JUNE 13-14 MAY2S-30 MAY 27-29 -8(1- l> rrJ l> ::0 ~ ;;;r o . ~ 01 ;;;r 0 _ 0 ~ - o o zr o (() -- - - rrJ rrJ l> l> l> ::0 ::0 l> •• I • tI o 01 N ~ MAY S -+-_~_----J'--_-'--_--' NUMBER OF SNIPE PER HECTARE �;::l 00 H, CD • O P- III Ii o o •.... o '< (1) •..... •..... III 00 ;::l III 01 CD .-..J JUNEIS-17 JUNEI5-IS JUNE3-4 JUNE 2-3 MAY13-14 MAY 12-13 APR29-30 1> rrI 1> 1> 1> rrI c zr c =r I\) :<D - ~ --c zr ~ I\) -0. -~ - ~ 01 I\) fTI 1> » I I • . It . I APR28-29 I -< I • :::0 :::0 :::0 -6£1- I ~ APRI5-IS APRI-2 MAR31-APR I SEPT 27-28 SEPTI5-IS SEPT 9-10 AUG 9-10 JULY 12-13 JULY 10-11 I . .• 01 APR 14-15 CJ> rrI CJ> C CJ> Z rrI o ." o ~ rrI CJ> o ~ ~ JUNE 21-22 JUNE 19-20 JUNE 7-8 JUNE 5-6 MAY 17-18 I\) l' ~ ,.... en. *'" •.... P- ;::l III W •..... N •..... \)1(1) -Ill 00 -...Iii ~Ill •..... P ~ 0 (1) (1) ;::l'"d ~ ,.... Lj;::l 00 *,"0 '::3 rt••••••(1) ,... . '< 00 ~ ,.... III ~(1) ~t:J \)1 OQ ..... t-rj o NUMBER OF SNIPE PER HECTARE �-140- Areas 8, 13, and 14 provided few suitable habitats for snipe and had mean breeding densities of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.3 snipe/ha, respectively. All three areas were lightly grazed from early July through September. Consequently, vegetation was ungrazed during May and June and vegetation heights in early June were generally from 20 to 70 cm. Water levels were relatively stable on areas 8 and 13. Both received irrigation water although irrigation was delayed by 3 weeks on area 8 in 1975. This may have been partially responsible for the decrease in snipe densities at this site in 1975. Water levels on area 14 declined through May and June in 1974 and 1975 making the area increasingly unfavorable as snipe habitat. Breeding densities for snipe reported in the literature are limited. Tuck (1972) tabulated breeding densities on three habitat types in the peatlands of Canada. Densities ranged from 5.5 to 13.2 pair/lOO ha (0.11 to 0.26 snipe/ha) in sedge bogs; from 3.5 to 7.7 pair/lOO ha (0.07 to 0.15 snipe/ha) in fens; and from 9.5 to 12.7 pairs/lOO ha (0.19 to 0.34 snipe/ha) in willow and alder swamps. In addition to the 12 breeding study areas, 44 areas in the San Luis Valley, North Park, Yampa Valley, Fort Collins region, South Park, and along Tomichi Creek near Gunnison were investigated from late April through early June 1975. The areas consisted of pastures and haylands that were irrigated after late April and early May. Brief censuses were conducted on each area and measurements of water depths, vegetation heights, and ground compaction and estimates of water coverage were made. No snipe were found on 82 percent of the 44 areas. On the remaining 18 percent, about three snipe were heard or seen per census. Water depths and vegetation heights on these areas were usually 5 cm or less, rarely exceeding 10 cm. Areas were typically level and water coverage was extensive. Ground compaction generally exceeded 1.5/kg2 and seldom was below 1.0 kg/cm2• By contrast, on habitats with substantially more snipe, vegetation heights ranged from 10 to 30 cm and ground compaction from less than 0.1 to 0.5 kg/cm2• Although snipe utilized pastures and hayland, these areas have limited suitability as breeding habitat for snipe for several possible reasons. Irrigation begins in late April and May, probably after most snipe have selected nest sites in other locations. Furthermore, vegetation heights of 5 cm or less provide poor cover, particularly for nesting. Soils, unless flooded for a considerable time, may remain too firm for easy probing. Finally, because of the generally level terrain, water coverage was often continuous, ?roviding few unflooded sites for nesting. Nesting Activities All nest searches were done in conjunction with preliminary reconnaissance and censuses of breeding study areas. These were conducted from late March through mid-October 1974 and late March through mid-June 1975. During these periods, 28 snipe nests were located. �-141- Nest sites were typically in grasses or sedges 20 to 40 cm high and on moist but unflooded ground near water. An atypical nest site was found in the base of a 3-m high willow (Salix spp.) which was part of an elongated willow stand about 30 m wide. Estimated onsets of incubation for all nests ranged from 2 May through 4 July (Table 4) with the bulk of nesting activity occurring in May. Based on 1974 nest data, over 60 percent of the nesting snipe located had begun incubatiun during May. Nesting may have extended into August as indicated by a snipe flushed on 7 August 1974. The snipe displayed a distress posture associated with distraction and brood or nest protection, but neither a brood nor a nest was located. Clutches of four eggs were found in 26 nests (93 percent) and clutches of three eggs in two nests (7 percent). Forty-nine eggs were measured having a mean length of 38.5 mm and a mean width of 28.4 mm with standard deviations of 1.3 mm and 0.7 mm, respectively. Measurements ranged from 36.6 to 41.6 mm in length and 27.2 to 29.7 mm in width. Spring Migration From data collected on 12 breeding areas, the extent and peak of the spring migration appeared indistinct. During censuses initiated in late March and early April 1975, low numbers of snipe, probably migrants, were observed on most breeding areas which were snow- and ice-free. By mid-April, maximum numbers of snipe were recorded in all regions with Fort Collins having a peak of 5.6 snipe/ha on 10 - 13 April, North Park with 1.2 snipe/ha on 21 - 23 April, Yampa Valley with 1.1 snipe/ha on 22 - 23 April (omitting area 9 which was snow-covered until late May), and San Luis Valley with 1.0 snipe/ha on 14 - 16 April (Table 5). Numbers of snipe declined slightly but generally remained high through early May, particularly in the San Luis and Yampa Valleys. This limited decline was probably the result of continued northward migration. A second decline occurred in all regions from early May to late May which may have been caused, in part, by a continuing northward migration. Although migrating snipe begin arriving in Canada during April and early May (Tuck 1972), breeding populations in Canada may not peak until late May (Arnold 1975). Local movements to areas such as irrigated haylands and pastures which had been previously dry and the onset of nesting and incubation which made snipe more difficult to flush probably added to the apparent decrease of snipe. After late May, numbers of snipe stabilized on nlost study areas until the termination of censuses in midJune (Figs. 2 - 5). From these data, spring migration in 1974 apparently began by late March or early April. Peak numbers of snipe occurred in all regions and on all open study areas except one from April 10 to 23. Migration continued thereafter through at least early May and possibly into late May. Fall Migration Numbers of snipe were monitored during September and October 1974 on 8 of the 12 breeding areas in order to document timing of the fall migration. �-142- Table 4. Snipe nesting data in Colorado, Date 1974 and 1975. Estimated Onset Year Area Located of IncubationU Clutch Size 1974 Yampa Valley 3 5 San Luis Valley 8 8 8 7 10 9 9 9 5 12 9 10 10 5 May 1 May 12 May 14 May 15 May 23 May 23 May 23 May 25 May 28 May 29 May 30 June 13 June 16 June 20 July 4 July 5 July 5 July 9 May 4 Not Estimated Not Estimated Not Estimated May 19 May 21 May 16 May 23 May 21 May 15 May 12 June 12 May 28 June 19 July 2 June 27 July 3 July 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1975 3 5 9 10 5 8 9 10 9 12 May 8 May 9 May 28 May 29 May 31 June 10 June 11 June 12 June 12 June 15 May 7 May 2 May 23 May 20 May 17 June 1 May 28 May 31 June 7 June 5 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 lj Based on a 19 -day incubation period technique described by Westerskov (1950). using the water flotation �Table 5, Maximum densities of snipe with date of occurrence and fall (1974) migration in Colorado. Region and area Spring Migration, 1975 Maximum Density (snipe/ha) Date for areas 3 - 14 during spring Fall Migration, 1974U Maximum Density (snipe/ha) (1975) Date Fort Collins 5.6 April 10-13 2.9 Sept, 17 3 7.3 April 10 6.0 Sept, 7 4 5.8 April 10 6.0 Sept. 17 5 5.8 April 19 2.9 Sept. 17 North Park 1.2 April 22 -23 3.4 Sept. 21 6 1.9 April 22 7.9 Sept. 21 7 1.6 April 22 2.3 Sept. 13 8 0.4 April 23 1.1 April 22 Yampa Valley 9 Y 10 1.5 April 22, May 6 11 0.9 April 22 I •... +:w I �Table 5 Cont ' d. Region and area Spring Migration, 1975 Maximum Density (snipe/ha) Date Sept. 15-16 Aprll 16 0.6 Sept. 16 0.9 April 16 0.04) 0.7 April 14 0.4 Sept. 27 April 12 1.4 13 14 1) Censuses Date 0.33) 1.0 San Luis Valley Fall Migr ation, 19741) Maximum Density (snipe/ha) not conducted on areas 15-16 ~ ~ ~ 8 - 11. I 2j Snow-covered 3j Censuses densities. through mid-May, 1975. during early August showed densities ~/ No snipe recorded through September, 1974. (0.9 snipe/ha) which exceeded September �-145- Three areas in the Yampa Valley and one area in North Park were eliminated because of unfavorable water conditions and/or dense, ungrazed vegetation. Areas near Fort Collins and in North Park offered a suitable habitat for snipe through the conclusion of censuses in midOctober. Censuses in the San Luis Valley were terminated in late September because of declining numbers of snipe. Data from September and October censuses indicated fall migration was in progress by early September. During these censuses, maximum numbers of snipe were observed in the San Luis Valley with 0.3 snipe/ha on 15 - 16 September, in Fort Collins with 2.9 snipe/ha on 17 September, and in North Park with 2.1 snipe/ha on 21 September (Table 5). These data indicated that the peak fall migration period for 1974 apparently occurred during the third week in September. This conclusion is based on total numbers of snipe by region. This period coincided with peak numbers on four of the eight study areas. Two areas had peak numbers the second week of September, one area the fourth week, and one area had no snipe through September (Table 5). Numbers of snipe declined considerably after late September and by mid-October the fall migration was near completion and numbers were too low to warrant continued censuses (Figs. 2, 3, and 5). Although the majority of fall migrants evidently passed through Colorado during September, substantial increases in numbers of snipe were observed in August. Censuses conducted in early August on Fort Collins and San Luis Valley study areas indicated such increases on four areas (Figs. 2 and 5) whereas censuses in late July in North Park and the Yampa Valley revealed no similar increases (Figs. 3 and 4). Densities of snipe in the San Luis Valley reached 0.9 snipe/ha on August 9 - 10, exceeding the September maximum of 0.3 snipe/ha. This increase may indicate that the fall migration was underway by early August, or juvenile snipe had concentrated on favorable feeding grounds. Tuck (1972) reported th~t in Newfoundland, juveniles aggregated in groups of a few birds in late July to flocks of a hundred or more in mid-August and were likely to migrate together ahead of adults. Estimates of Winter Densities Twelve censuses were conducted on area 1 from late January 1974 through June 1974. Thereafter, censuses were discontinued because of low numbers of snipe utilizing the area during winter months. On area 2, 30 censuses were conducted from late January 1974 through early May 1975. Because census routes followed streams with limited widths, densities of snipe were translated into snipe/km rather than snipe/ha. Densities on area 1 were low with a mean of 0.8 snipe/km from January through April 1974 and a maximum density of 1.7 snipe/km recorded in mid-April. From mid-May to the termination of censuses in July, no snipe were flushed from the route (Fig. 6). �E E ..:II: ..:II: -(\IV ~~ -146- • N 6A~W 9a~d~ Ol~d~ -.D . I-< ~ 0 O'U .....• t-- I ~ .....• ",;::l f-:l CIl ::J ~u ~ 0 .....• .....• 0 0' t--. I'd "<!''"(j I'd _0 "8 I'd I-< Q) I'd u, ~ o f3 o en w en :J en z w o 8a~~W 8~~W aa83.:1 683.:1 9aN~r alN~r 17a:>30 £ :>30 17aI\ON OII\ON Oa.1:>o £1.1:>0 619n~ aa.1d3S J...1d3S c:tc:t -(\I -0::0:: ww za-oaser 01-£ 83.:1 6-£~~W 17a-J..183.:1 oa-91~d~ 01~d~-6a~~w ga-J..I~~w 17A~W-8a A~W 61-£IA~W 01-173Nnr 171-1Alnr J..a-~13Nnr c:tc:t II omOO~~~V~N-omOO~~~V~(\I-O (\1---------- ~3.13W011)l ~3d 3dlNS .:10 ~38WnN �-147- Densities on area 2 were considerably higher than those on area 1 with a mean density of 7.5 snipe/km from January through mid-April 1974. Thereafter, numbers of snipe declined precipitously and snipe were absent from the area from May through September with the exception of one snipe flushed in August. Snipe returned in early October in low numbers (1.8 snipe/km) and reached a maximum density of 16.5 snipe/km in late December. Densities from January through mid-April 1975 declined to an average of 11.2 snipe/km and were more variable than the previous spring. As in 1974, a substantial decrease was noted in late April and all snipe had departed by early May (Fig. 6). It is apparent th.~t snipe near Fort Collins occupy winter habitat from October through April; however, factors responsible for the arrival and departure of snipe to and from these areas are unknown. Presumably, stream habitat of this type does not provide suitable sites for breeding unless associated with sloughs, marshes, or other flooded areas. Large increases in numbers of snipe during November did not appear to be correlated with any weather phenomena. Weather conditions were mild during this time and surface water in many breeding areas remained unfrozen. Consequently, increased utilization of winter habitat was apparently not a result of decreased suitability of some breeding habitats. Snow and ice accumulations on winter areas influenced the distribution rather than total number of snipe. During such periods, snipe concentrated in ice- and snow-free sites. Overall, the suitability of winter habitat appeared to be primarily influenced by topography, vegetation densities and heights, and water levels relative to the shoreline. Snipe were flushed most frequently in areas bordering stream channels which had gently sloping banks or exposed mud flats with organic soil and low, sparse vegetation. Area 1 had few of these areas whereas area 2 had many such sites resulting in relatively high numbers of wintering snipe. Harvest Assessment The harvest of snipe in Colorado has been estimated from a survey of small game license holders conducted annually by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. In 1972 and 1973, a total of 22 respondents to this survey reported hunting snipe. Results indicated these hunters harvested a mean of 3.7 snipe per hunter and spent 4.0 days afield during the 1972 and 1973 hunting season. In order to obtain more detailed information concerning snipe harvest, attempts were made to identify and contact snipe hunters. Questionnaires (38 in 1973 and 35 in 1974) were sent to the 22 respondents to the small game survey and to Colorado Division of Wildlife personnel for further distribution to snipe hunters. Of these 73 questionnaires, 19 (26 percent) were returned. Of those hunters responding, eight (42 percent) reported that they had hunted snipe in 1973 or 1974. These hunters harvested a �-148- a mean of 10.8 snipe per hunter and spent 4.9 days afield (Table 6). Additional information from the questionnaires indicated that the size of the hunting party varied from 1 to 3 persons and the respondents encountered from 1 to 350 snipe during the season with an average sighting of 110 snipe. Table 6. Results of the 1972 and 1973 small game surveys and the 1973 and 1974 snipe hunter questionnaires for Colorado. 1972 and 1973 Small Game Surveys 1../ 1973 and 1974 Snipe Hunter Questionnaires !/ Number of respondents hunting snipe 22 8 Snipe harvested 3.7 10.8 Days afield per hunter 4.0 4.9 Snipe harvested per day 0.9 2.2 per hunter Data from both years are combined. The harvest of snipe based on the results of the special snipe hunter questionnaires was considerably higher than the harvest indicated by the small game surveys (Table 6). Possibly, respondents to the special snipe hunter questionnaires represented persons who hunted snipe specifically whereas respondents to small game surveys represented those who hunted snipe incidentally to other game species. Of the respondents to the small game survey who reported hunting snipe in 1972 and 1973, only 33 percent hunted snipe the following one or two years. It is obvious that snipe are a minor game species in Colorado and that the annual harvest is small. Prepared by �-149- LITEEATUEE Aiken, C. E., County, and E. R. Colorado. CITED Warren. 1914. Colorado Co l l , Publ. The birds of E1 Paso Sc i, Ser. 12:455 -603. American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Checklist of North birds. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc. Baltimore, Md. Anonymous. 26(1):5. 1886. Winter snipe in Colorado. Forest American 691pp. and Stream Arnold, K., (Chairman). 1975. Snipe (Capella gallinago) in G. C. Sanderson, e d , Management of migratory shore and upland game birds in North America. Int. Assoc. Game, Fish, and Conserve Corrirn, , Washington, D. C. In press. Bailey, A. M., and E. J. Ni e d r a ch , 2 Vol. Denver Mus. Nat. Bist. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Denver, Colo. 893pp. Bean, L. J., sky people. Beck, T. D. 1. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Final Report. Colo rado Di v, Wildl. Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W -37 -R, April. In press. Beidleman, Univ. E. 1962. Land of the blue Monte Vista, Colo. 119pp. R. G. 1955. Guide to the winter Colorado Mus. LeaH. 12. 6lpp. birds The Monte Vista of Colorado. Bent, A. C. 1927. Life histories U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 142. D. C. 420pp. Berry, J. W. 1974. The climate of Colorado. Pages 595-613 in Offices of the National. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U. S. Department of Commerce. Clim.ate of the States. Vol. 2 -- We s t e r n States. Water Information Center, Inc., Port Washington, N. Y. 975pp. Blair, F. W., A. P. Blair, P. Bradkorb, F. R. Cagle, and G. A. Moore. 1968. Vertebrates of the United States. McGrawHill Book Co. , Inc , , New York. 616pp. of North American shorebirds. Smithson. In s t ; , Washington, �-150- Boeker, H. 1\1. 1954. A census and sora rail in the Yarrrpa 56(2):105-106. of populations River Valley, of the Wilson snipe Colorado. Condor Booth, T. W., Jr. 1968. The availability and utilization of the food s of the common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) in the rice growing regions of southwestern Louisana. M. S. Thesis. Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 160pp. Bryant, H. snipe C. 1915. Two records of the nesting of the Wilson in California. Calif. Fish and Game 1(2):76-77. Burleigh, T. D. 1952. Wilson's snipe population at Gray's Lake, Idaho. Pages 53-55 in Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1951. U-:-S. Fish Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 14. Washington, D~C. 58pp. Clark, E. R. 1971. Measurements of hunter kill of woodcock, snipe, and rails. Page 31 in U. S. Bur. Sport Fish and Wildl., Migratory Bird Populations Stat. Ann. prog. rep., fiscal year--1971. Laurel, Md. 71pp. Colorado State Planning Division. 1962-1964. Denver. 1064pp. Cooke, W. W. 1897. The birds Agric. ceu.. Fort Collins. 1898. 44:148-176. No.4. Agric. 1964. Colorado of Colorado. 239pp. Bull. year book: 37. State Further notes on the birds of Colorado. State Agric. Co Ll ; , Fort Collins, Tech. 1900. The birds of Colorado. Agric. Exp. ColI., Fort Collins, Bull. 56:179-239. 1909. The bird s of Colorado 26( 4): 400 -422. Erickson, A. B. 53(1):62. 1941. A study - -third of Wilson's 1945. The Wilson's snipe. 1953. The j a ck s n ip e , Stn. supplement. snipe. Conserv. Nat. State Auk Wilson Bull. Volunteer 8(44): 39 -43. Minnesota Bull. Series 3:39-41. �-151- F'o rria M. McGraw-Hill rme n Hach , N. 1931. Physiography of the Book Co., In c ; , New York. Chemical Company. 1973. e d , Ames, Iowa. n.p. Johnson, H. C. 1(1):26. 1899. Nesting Water We Analysis of Wilson's snipe r 534pp. st e n United Handbook. in Utah. States. First Condor B. Reed. 1974. Recent Valley, northwestern Martin, S. G., P. H. Baldwin, and E. records of birds from the Yampa Colorado. Condor 76(1):113-116. Nancy, R. H. 1973. Development of external sexing and aging techniques and trapping method s for the common snipe in Louisiana with notes on habitat and behavior. M. S. Thesis. Louisiana State Urriv , , Baton Rouge. 55pp. National Academy of Sciences. Environmental Studies Board. Committee on Water Quality Criteria. 1973. Water Quality Criteria 1972. U. S. Environ. Protection Agency. Ecol. Res. Sere E;PA-R3-73-033. Washington, D.C. 594pp. Ni ed r a ch, R. J. and R. B. Rockwell. and mountain parks. Colorado S e r , No.5. 19 6pp. Packard, F. M. Colorado. 1939. The birds of Denver Mus. Nat. Hi st , Denver, Pop. 1945. The birds of Rocky Auk 62( 3): 371 -394. Mountain National Park, Robbins, C. S. 1954. Further investigations on winnowing method of measuring Wilson's snipe populations. Pages 61-65 in Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1953. U. S. Fish Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. - Wildl. 24. Washington, D. C. 68pp. Robbins, F. W. 1917. Native vegetation and climate of Colorado in their relation to agriculture. Agric. Exp. St.n; , Colorado Agric. CoIl., Fort Collins. 56pp. Schmidt, G. D. 1962. Endoparasites of Wilson's snipe, gallinago d e l ic a ta ) Or d , in northeastern Colorado. Thesis. Colorado State Un iv ; , Fort Collins. 65pp. Sclater, W. L. 1912. A history and Co. Middle Row Place, of the birds of Colorado. London. 576pp. (Capella M.S. Witherby �-152- Soil Conservation Service. 1970. Use and explanation pretation sheets. Denver. 7pp. of soil inter- Solman, V. E. F. 1954. Wilson's snipe "winnowing" counts in eastern Canada, 1953. Page s 57 -59 in Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1953. U. S. Fish Wild l. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. -Wildl. 24. Washington, D. C. 68pp. Stewart, R. E. and H. A. Ka nt r ud , snipe in North Dakota. Prairie 1968. Nesting Na t, 1(1):3-5. Stout, G. D. (ed.). Viking Press, Tuck, L. M. 1955. Some observations on nocturnal activities of Wilson's snipe -- Newfoundland (1953). Pages 41-50 in Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1954. U:s. Fish Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. -Wildl. 28. Washington, D. C. 62pp. Wildl. 1967. The shorebirds N. Y. 270pp. of North of the common America. 1972. The snipes: a study of the genus Capella. Se r v , Monogr. Ser. No.5. Ottawa. 429pp. Can. Van Owens, J. ·1967. Food habits of the common snipe (Capella gallinago delicata) in the pastures of south central Louisiana. M. S. Thesis. Louisiana State Urri v; , Baton Rouge. 108pp. Westerskov, K. bird eggs. White, 1950. Methods of determining J. Wildl. Manage. 14(1):56-67. M. and S. W. Harris. and habitat use of snipe Manage. 30( 1): 23 -24. Whitehead, C., Jr. snipe (Capella with ecological and aging. 200pp. Wolfe, 1966. Winter occurrence, in northwest California. J. food, Wildl. 1965. Foods and feeding habitats of the common gallinago delicata) in Cameron Parish, Louisiana, notes and a discussion of methods of sexing M. S. Thesis. L. R. 1931. 33( 2):49 -59. the age of game The breeding Louisiana State Limicolae Univ., Baton of Utah. Condor Rouge, �-153- APPENDIX �APPENDIX Vegetative species and presence Vegetative Agrostis Species pa1ustris 1 = less than 10 cm 2 = 10 - 30 ern 3 = 30 - 60 ern 4 = 60 - 100 cm 5 = more than 100 cm (30% or more) (10 - 30%) ( 5 - 10%) ( 1 - 5%) (1% or less) 3 4 5 03 02 02 c=:» Study Areas 10 8 9 -- Asce1epias in ca r na ta Aster 13 14 S4 04 13 spp. Beckmannia 12 13 A rtemi s ia ca na tridentata 11 02 spp. Artemisia I I-' VI .j:'I 05 Al ope cu r u s spp. Artemisia 3 - 14. Height, measured in late July and early August Frequency of occurrence with approximate percent coverage A = abundant C = COmlTIOn S = scattered o = occasional I = infrequent on area syzigachnc 03 14 �Vegetative Bromus Species inermis --- 3 4 5 6 7 02 Study Areas 8 10 9 03,4 14 11 C2 Carex festivella Ce r a s t iu rn spp. 11 Chenopodium 13,4 spp. Chrysothamnus nauseosus r s iurn -- a r Deschampsia ve n A3 A3 s A3,4 A3 A4 03 03 13 C4 03 14 14,5 14 C2 Di s t i chl i s stricta spp. Equisetum spp. \J1 \J1 03 caespitosa Eleocharis I I-' I e angustifolia S3 02 14 E1eagnus A2,3 03 Cicuta doug1asii C'i A3 S3 spp. C4 03 A2 Chrysothamnus 14 04 Caltha 1epto s epa1a spp. 13 C5 Ca l.arriag r o s t i s inexpansa Carex 12 02 15 02 12 A3,4 A3 15 S2 13 13 �Vegetative Species 3 Evo1vu1us nuttallianus 11 4 5 6 7 Study Areas 10 8 9 11 12 13 14 04 Festuca rubra Fragaria spp. Gaillardia spp. Glyceria maxima Hordeum spp. Hordeum brachyantherum. Hordeum ju ba tu rn 11 12 IS IS 14 04 I I-' C2 C2.3 C3 52 I3 VI 53 I3 14 C3 A4 C3 13 I3 Iris rn i s s ou r i c n s i s I3 -- C3 Juncus a rct i cu s Juncus nodosus 03 Juncus tenuis C3 I3 01 Kochia spp. 51 Le rrma spp. Melilotus officinalis Muhlenbergia rni nut i s s irna 01 13 11 11 01 04 I3 '" I �Vegetative Species Pedicillaris 3 4 5 6 Stud y Areas 10 8 9 groenlandica Pha1aris arundinacea Phleum spp. 14,5 04 13 Poa pratens is 02 I I-' In spp. 12, 3 Po Iyg onurn pennsylvanica 03 Polygonum 01 rurivagum Polygopon monspeliensis spp. anserina Potentilla gracilis Puccinellia spp. 13 '-l I 12 15 Potentilla 14 02,3 Poa neva den s i s Populus 13 C4 -- Polanisia 12 05 13 criopoda 11 13 Phleum pratense Plantago 7 02 13 03 13 �Vegetative Puccinellia Species 4 5 6 7 Study Areas 10 8 9 11 13 Sagittaria 01 Il 01 13 I5 Sarcobatus 05 I5 ve r rn i cu Ia tu s 14,5 I4 13 Scirpus americanus C3 C4 C4 03 Scirpus lacustris 05 05 C5 05 Scirpus pallidus Taraxacum spp. Trifolium spp. Trifolium hybridum Triglochin maritima Typha spp. S5 05 14,5 04,5 13 03 04 S3 05 05 14 03,4 C4 13 ne orn ex i ca na airoides S5 13,4 Sc ir pu s palludosus Sporobolus I2 I2 spp. Salix spp. 14 14 nasturtium-aquaticum Sidalcea 12 airoides Ra nu ncu Iu s spp. Rorippa 3 S4,5 01,2 Il 01 11, 2 Sl C2 S2 S2 02 01 03 02 S5 15 C2,3 04 01 Il S2 01 C1 C5 S5 S5 13,4 04 C5 C5 S4.5 C5 I5 I I-' VI 00 I �October 1976 -159JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-88-R-21 5 Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 2 Investigations of Rails in Colorado Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory Bird Investigations April 1, 1975 to March 31, 1976 Herman J. Griese and Ronald A. Ryder, Colorado State University; Clait E. Braun, Howard D. Funk, and Wildlife Conservation Officers, Colorado Division of Wildlife; Charles R. Bryant, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning distribution, breeding densities, habitat utilization, and timing of migration of rails (Rallinae) in Colorado were initiated in May, 1975. Study areas were selected in north central, southeastern, south central, and northwestern Colorado. Methods for ascertaining rail presence included responses to playbacks of tape recorded calls of rails, observations, and trapping. Sora (Porzana carolina) were more widely distributed in western Colorado than Virginia rails (Rallus 1. limicola). A black rail (Laterallus i. jamaicensis) was recorded in southeastern Colorado. Virginia rails were found in winter in sm~ll numbers in the South Platte and Arkansas River Valleys. Soras were found in winter in the Arkansas River Valley in lower numbers than Virginia rails. Breeding densities of rails were highest in southeastern and south central Colorado, moderate in north central Colorado and lowest in northwestern Colorado. Mean breeding densities for Virginia rails and soras were 2.47 and 0.9 rails/ha respectively. Highest sora and Virginia rail breeding densities were located in south central and southeastern Colorado, respectively. Rails were most frequently recorded in cattail (Typha spp.) marshes with shallow water. Virginia rails appeared to be restricted by distribution of cattail marshes in western Colorado. Spring migration apparently peaked in mid-May with peak fall concentrations of rails occurring in early to mid-September. In 1975, 54 sora and 42 Virginia rails were newly banded. �-160- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Study areas should continue to be censused with emphasis on migrational periods. 2. Intensive nest searches need to be conducted at regional study areas. 3. State wide reconnaissance for rail occurrence should be continued with emphasis on drainages not yet investigated. 4. Microc1imatic data should be obtained from marshes with contrasting densities of Virginia rails and soras. 5. Methodology needs to be developed to ascertain sex of Virginia rails. �-161- INVESTIGATIONS OF RAILS IN COLORADO Herman J. Griese The family Rallidae is the largest and most diverse family in the order Gruiformes. Members cf this family may be found throughout the world except in polar regions. Several flightless members of the family occurring on oceanic islands have become extinct in recent times due to the introduction of non-native predators (Austin 1961). North American rails of the subfamily Rallinae reported in Colorado are the Virginia rail, sora, yellow rail (Coturnicops ~. noveboracensis) and black rail. The Virginia rail commonly nests and occasionally remains throughout winter, soras are also common nesting birds in suitable habitats, while black and yellow rails are rare summer residents (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Current regulations (1975-1976) allow an aggregate bag limit of 25 Virginia rails and soras daily in the Central Flyway portion of Colorado, while in the Pacific Flyway portion of the state, hunting of rails is not permitted. Thus hunting regulations in Colorado differ markedly on either side of the Continental Divide. Holliman (1976) indicated the harvest: of rails in Colorado was insignificant. Previous investigations of Virginia and king rails and soras have been conducted primarily in the upper Mississippi River Valley and in the New England states. To improve knowledge of rails seasonally resident in Colorado and to provide a basis for sound management, this study was initiated in 1975. In this report, unless otherwise specified, "rails" refers to soras and Virginia rails. P. S. OBJECTIVES To obtain data necessary for development of a management plan for rails breeding in and migrating through Colorado, including: distribution and breeding densities in four different regions, botanical and physical characteristics of habitats utilized, and documentation of timing of spring and fall migration. Further, hypotheses have been developed that: a. Distribution of rails in Colorado is determined by the distribution of cattail (11Eb~spp.) marshes. b. Densities of breeding rails differ significantly by species between occupied habitats in the eastern plains and the high mountain valleys. c. Timing of spring and fall migration differs significantly between areas east of the mountains and intermountain valleys. �_162- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning records of rail occurrence in Colorado and procedures for censusing rails. lb. Circulate observation questionnaires to field personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife, selected University and privately employed wildlife scientists and amateur ornithologists. lc. Investigate selected habitats for rail occurrence in Colorado. 2. Select study areas approximating at least 20 hectares in size that represent habitats typical of those on the eastern plains and in high mountain valleys. 3. Periodically census each study area through use of flush counts and tape recorded ~alls from early May through mid-October. 4. Describe vegetatively (through cover mapping) and measure site characteristics (such as water depth, pH, nature of substrate, etc.) each area studied. 5. Compile data, analyze results and prepare progress report. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Numerous accounts of observations of rails or occasional nests occur in the literature. Observations and known distribution of rails prior to the mid1950's have been summarized and reported by the American Ornithologists Union (1957). Observations and known distribution of rails in Colorado prior to the mid-1960's have been summarized and reported by Bailey and Niedrach (1965). Audubon sponsored Christmas bird counts in Colorado (1961-1975) listed in American Birds contain several sightings of wintering rails. Life history and behavior of all North American rails have been described by Bent (1926). Walkinshaw (1937, 1940). Pospichal (1952), Tanner (1953), and Kaufmann (1971) have described sora and Virginia rail ecology. King rails (Rallus~. elegans) have been studied by Meanley (1969). Batemann (1965) and Roth et al. (1972) have described the ecology of clapper rails (Rallus longirostrus saturatus). Habitat utilized by rails has been described by Billard (1947), Tanner (1953), Horak (1964), Meanley (1969), Kaufmann (1971), and Andrews (1973). Descriptions of foods utilized have been presented by Horak (1964) and Meanley (1965, 1969). Hunting mortality of rails has been summarized by MacDonald and Martin (1971), while Artmann and Martin (1975) and Van Velzen and Kreitzer (1975) documented sources of non-hunting mortality. Boeker (1954), Smith (1955), and Post and Enders (1970) used responses of rails to est~mate densities. Tomlinson and Todd (1973) and Glahn (1974) described census techniques using tape recorded calls. Pospichal (1952), Tanner (1953), Batemann (1965), and Andrews (1973) compared trapping techniques for rails. Literature of rails has been compiled by Reeves (1975) and partially reviewed by Smyth (1933), Glahn (1968), Wilbur (1974), and Wilbur and Tomlinson (1976). �-163- METHODS AND MATERIALS Four primary study areas, one in each of four regions of Colorado, were selected for their similarity to regional wetland types, size, presence of rails, and accessibility. Study areas were censused by playback of tape recorded calls of rails at 25 to 28 listening sites per area. Listening sites were 100 to 130 m apart. Locations of responding rails were approximated and recorded on field maps (Appendix A). All observations of rails and nest sites located were also recorded on the field maps. Presence of rails was determined primarily by playing tape recorded advertising calls of sora and Virginia rails on a portable Nore1co cassette recorder. Playbacks per listening site numbered 6 to 25 calls in aggregate, equally distributed among sora and Virginia rail calls. Calls were played at intervals of ~pproximate1y one minute. Calls of black and yellow rail were played on occasion. Flushing, track searches and trapping were also used in ascertaining rail presence with most wetlands ecnountered in traveling within the state being examined. A questionnaire relating to distribution, habitat, and hunting was developed and distributed to all Colorado Division of Wildlife field personnel (Appendix B). Dominant vegetative cover was sketched on field maps of each area (scientific plant names follow Harrington 1964). Water depths and fluctuations were documented. Water was chemically analyzed for acidity, alkalinity, hardness, and pH using a Hach Chemical Company Water Ecology Kit, Model AL-36B. To document timing of migration, relative densities of rails were estimated for each visit to a study area between May and October. Study areas were visited until presence of rails was no longer documented. Several marshes were visited throughout the winter to ascertain presence or absence of wintering rails. Trapping was conducted to aid in ascertaining composition of rail populations. Four to six funnel box traps, 25 x 31 x 61 em of 1.4 em welded wire mesh with a 25 x 2 em funnel opening at one end, were used in trapping. Drift fences 3 to 15 m long of 2.5 em chicken wire, 30 cm in height were used in conjunction with the traps. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Rails were censused at marshes in four regions of the state. Areas studied were: (1) Lower Latham Reservoir, South Platte River drainage, Weld County, north central Colorado; (2) John Martin Reservoir, Arkansas River drainage, Bent County, southeastern Colorado; (3) Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, Rio Grande River drainage, Rio Grande County, south central Colorado; and (4) the Cary Ranch, Yampa River drainage, Routt County, northwestern Colorado. The Lower Latham Reservoir study area (15.6 ha in size) occurs at an elevation of 1,422 m on the south shore of a "Type 5" wetland as described by Hopper (1968). Narrow-leafed cattail (Typha fuLgustifolia) covers about 63 �-164- percent of the study area. Cover types also include mixtures of spike rush (Eleocharis spp.), rushes (Juncus spp.), and common three-square (Scirpus americanus) (12 percent), bullrush (Scirpus validus) (6 percent), and seasonally flooded grasses (Gramineae) (2 percent). Duckweed (Lemna minor) was locally abundant in the remaining open water, 16 percent of~study area. Average water depth was 10 cm with seasonal fluctuations greater than 60 em. The study area at John Martin Reservoir is a "Type 3" wetland at 1,171 m elevation. Narrow-leaved cattail (89 percent), spike rush-rush-common three-square mixture (4 percent), and open water (6 percent) are the major components of this 15.1 ha study are.a. Duckweed and watercress (Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum) cover much of the water surface. Average water depth is 7 cm, with seasonal fluctuations of 10 cm. The Monte Vista study area is a "Type I-A" wetland at 2,326 m elevation. A mixture of rush-spike rush-alkali bullrush (Scirpus paludosus) (46 percent), broad-leafed cattail (Typha latifolia) (31 percent) and open water (21 percent) dominate the 14.3 ha area. Water depths average 5 cm with 13 em fluctuations during the field season. The Cary Ranch study area is composed of wetland "Types I-A, 3, and 4" at an elevation of 1,914 m. The dominant cover types of this 12.3 ha area are sedges (Carex spp ,) and grasses in periodically flooded fields (37 percent), broad-leafed cattail (28 percent), open water much of which is covered by pondweed (Potamageton spp.) and duckweed (15 percent), rush-spikerush (11 percent), and bullrush (9 percent). Average water depth is 31 cm with greater than 150 cm seasonal fluctuations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution Observations of rails reported by Bailey and Niedrach (1965) are concentrated along the foothills between Denver and Fort Collins, probably because of access and behavior patterns of observers. Elsewhere in the state, records are scarce. Prior to the investigation reported here, only general information on rails was available. Bailey and Niedrach summarized the available information and reported that Virginia rails were common breeding birds in the "upper sonoran zone" (1,070-1,680 m), while soras were common breeding birds on the plains and in the mountains as high as 3,050 m. Their summary indicates that yellow and black rails have been recorded from the state only one and two times, respectively. Data obtained from the initial field season of state wide investigations, responses to the questionnaires, and previous published records were compiled to prepare a composite map of the summer distribution of soras and Virginia rails in Colorado (Fig. 1). Presence of rails anywhere in a river drainage system was assumed to indicate that other favorable habitats in the drainage support rails. Discontinuous patterns of favorable habitat probably restrict distribution more than is indicated in Fig. 1. �COLORADO MOFFAT ItOUTT I I-' 0\ \JI cHtreNNI! I DOLORES MONTEZUMA ~ I VZJ Virginia Rail Fig. 1. Preliminary breeding distribution ~ of rails in Colorado, 1975. Sora �-166- Factors limiting distribution of rails appear to be presence of water between April and July, sufficient emergent plant cover, and elevation. Soras have been recorded nesting at elevations up to 3,231 m (Bailey and Niedrach 1965), and Virginias to 2,325 m (this study). Frequency of occurrence of Virginias and soras in investigated marshes in eastern Colorado in 1975 was 82 and 47 percent, respectively. Investigations in western Colorado show respective frequencies of 26 and 50 percent. Soras appear to be more tolerant of higher elevations, or wetlands associated with high altitudinal climates than Virginia rails. Distribution of the remalnlng reported species of rails in Colorado is not indicated in Fig. 1. Yellow and black rails have been recorded near Denver (Bailey and Niedrach 1965), while black rails were recorded during this study at John Martin Reservoir. Although king rails have not been recorded officially in Colorado, a possible sighting of this species was made during field investigations at Bonny Reservoir in Yuma County on 24 May. King rails breed commonly at Cheyenne Bottoms in central Kansas, approximately 350 km east of Bonny and John Martin Reservoirs (M. Schwilling, pers. comm.). Distribution of wintering rails (time interval of 1 November-31 March) was restricted primarily to the South Platte and Arkansas River drainages in eastern Colorado. Virginia rails were the most abundant rail wintering in Colorado. Soras have been reported near Denver on Audubon sponsored Christmas counts in American Birds 1961-1975. During this investigation, soras were found wintering with Virginia rails in the Arkansas River Valley. In western Colorado rails have been reported in winter on Christmas counts at Grand Junction and the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. Wildlife Conservation Officer responses indicate wintering rails near Hotchkiss and in North Park. Rails reported from these areas in winter were only found in ice-free marshes. Breeding Densities Glahn (1974) has shown that responses to playbacks of tape-recorded rail calls produce an index to breeding densities of rails during April and May (1.6 sora responses/territory, 1.2 Virginia rail responses/territory). Kaufmann (1971) indicated the breeding period of rails is characterized by advertising calls with such calls being given before, during, and after nesting. By analyzing responses of rails to playbacks of tape recorded calls between May and July, indices of breeding densities of rails in Colorado were obtained (Table 1). Results presented in Table 1 indicate that densities of rails decrease from south to north in Colorado. Densities of Virginia rails were highest in the eastern plains, while densities of soras were highest in the inter-mountain valleys and west of the Continental Divide. Statewide densities for Virginia rails (2.47 + 0.76 rails/ha, a = 0.05) were higher than soras (0.91 + 0.35 rails/ ha, a ~ 0.05). These findings would indicate that soras prefer~ed higher elevations than did Virginia rails with selection against marshes in the eaStern plains. These data coincide with those utilized in the map of rail distribution in Colorado. �· ". Table 1. Breeding densities of rails on four study areas in Colorado, 1975. Areas Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge John Martin Reservoir Lower Latham Reservoir Cary Ranch Dates 20 June - 3 July 31 May - 25 June 1 June - 23 June 21 June-4July x 1.89 4.06 3.10 0.09 S.D. ]j 0.83 1.06 0.25 0.16 x 2.14 0.13 0.75 0.94 S.D. 0.36 0.08 0.32 0.41 3 4 4 3 x 4.04 4.19 3.85 1.03 S.D. 1.18 1.14 0.57 0.57 Virginia Rail/ha 1/ I t-' 0\ Sora/ha To tal Rails /ha 3/ n- 1/0ne rail/ha l/S.D. = 0.4 rails/acre. = Standard deviation. 3/ - n = Number of censuses taken. .....• I �-168- Study areas in northern Colorado, having lowest densities of rails, also had the largest fluctuations in water levels. The Cary Ranch was subject to seasonal flooding of the Yampa River, while Lower Latham Reservoir received a great influx of water during periods of heavy rainfall in May. In both study areas, water depths increased during the period of nest initiation. Billard (1947) found highest densities of rail nests in marshes with slowly decreasing water levels. Therefore, in areas of fluctuating water levels, breeding densities may appear unstable due to movements to areas with shallow water. Differences in vegetative composition between northern and southern study areas did not appear to be correlated with differences in total densities. Differences in vegetative composition between plains and mountain study areas may indicate a species preference for certain vegetative cover. Cattails covered from 63 to 91 percent of the plains study areas where Virginia rails had highest densities. Inter-mountain study areas with high sora densities were 29 to 34 percent covered with cattails. It is possible that vegetation composition of marshes may influence breeding densities of rails in eastern and western Colorado. Total area suitable for rails in different regions of Colorado is dependent upon quantity and quality of wetlands. Hectares of suitable wetlands for breeding rails (Table 2) were estimated from data presented by Hopper (1968). Wetlands Types I-A, 3, and 4 were assumed to be highly suitable. Portions of Type 5 wetlands and small portions of ditch and canal mileage were also considered. Estimates for the Yampa Valley were obtained during the course of this investigation. Table 2. Estimated potential rail breeding habitat in four regions of Colorado (approximated from Hopper 1968). Hectares Arkansas River Valley San Luis Valley Region South Platte River Valley 400 4,300 2,000 Yampa River 1./ Valley 500 l/ Hectares estimated during this study. Considering recorded breeding densities and available habitat, the highest breeding potential for rails in Colorado occurs in the San Luis Valley (Rio Grande River drainage). The South Platte, Arkansas and Yampa River Valleys follow in order of potential. Vegetative composition was not considered and may influence the final analysis. �-169- Habitat Utilization Periods of importance when considering habitat utilization are breeding, nesting, brood development, and fall migration. In all periods, quality of cover is of most importance. During brood development and fall migration, food quantity is probably also important. Breeding Responses during the breeding period, May through June, at the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge study area, indicated a preference for cattail cover types by both species of rails. Dominant vegetation at this site was 34 percent cattail, 45 percent spikerush-rush, 6 percent alkali bullrush, and <1 percent bullrush. Soras responding in cattails comprised 76 percent of total soras recorded, while 87 percent of the Virginia rail responses were in cattails.. The remaining calls came from fine (grass like) vegetation. At the Cary Ranch, 20 percent of all rail responses during the breeding season were from areas dominated by flooded grasses and sedges. Almost all remaining rail responses in the state during this period were recorded in cattail or cattail-bullrush cover. Water depths in areas of responses were not documented. appeared to prefer deeper water. However, soras Nesting Intensive nest searches were not conducted during 1975, and only 17 nests were located. Of this total, one nest was of a sora, while four were of Virginia rails, with the remainder being unidentified. All nests were located in cattails, except one Virginia rail nest found in rushes at Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. This nest was apparently destroyed by avian predators. Nesting habitat of sora and Virginia rails has been studied in the midwest and northeast United States. Kaufmann (1971) summarized these data and Andrews (1973) presented additional data. These studies found that 71 percent of all Virginia rail nests (162) and 60 percent of all sora nests (220) were in cover of robust vegetation. Thirty-eight percent of all Virginia rail nests and 36 percent of all sora nests were in robust vegetation of cattails. Fine vegetation produced 18 percent of the Virginia rail nests, and 32 percent of the sora nests. Twenty-one percent of all sora nests were in blue-joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) in these studies. Eight percent of all nests were round in mixed robust and fine vegetation. Kaufmann (1971) suggested that mixed vegetative types may be under estimated in preference to dominant vegetation. In Colorado, Glahn (1974) found 9 Virginia rail nests and 5 sora nests in cattail dominated vegetation. Bailey and Niedrach (1965) indicated that rails nest in robust and fine vegetation with nests of soras being frequently located in fine vegetation. Glahn also indicated that the edge vegetation of territory borders may be important in determining rail nest placement. �-170- Nests found in Colorado were in mean water depths of 12.8 and 7.8 em for soras and Virginia rails, respectively. Water depths at nests in studies prior to 1963 are summarized by Horak (1964). He reported that sora and Virginia rails chose vaciable water depths in which to construct nests. Soras appeared to prefer water deeper than Virginia rails; however, ranges overlap. Nests of soras were found in < 15 to 48 em of water. Virginia rail nests were in <15 to 38 em of water. Brood Period Responses of chicks during the brood development period appeared to be totally from cattail vegetation. Andrews (1973) trapped most rails during July in cattail dominated vegetation. In this study immature rails about one month of age or less were trapped in cattail (7 Virginia rails and 10 soras). Cattails apparently afford necessary cover and food for chicks. Migration Bent (1926) reported that in late summer rails moved to more stable wet marshes prior to migration. On all study areas, movement of rails corresponding to receding shore lines was noted. On the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge rails moved into alkali bullrush, while on other areas studied, cattails were present on all stable marshes. During fall migration, rails, primarily sora, were flushed and trapped in alkali bullrush when sufficient water depths were present. At this time, numbers of responding rails in cattails also increased. Water depths preferred during migration varied from none (muddy) to 60 em in areas of responses and sightings. Soras were most often flushed in shallow water. Andrews (1973) indicated soras pref erred reflooded areas of nodding smartweed (Polygonum lapthifolium), Walter millet (Echinichola walteri), and redroot cyperus (Cyperus erythrorhizos) during fall concentrations, probably because of the abundance of available food. Water Chemistry Chemical characteristics of water on the four study areas differed only slightly in degree of alkalinity. Correlations of chemical characteristics and rail presence have not been completed. It is believed that vegetation is affected by soil and water characteristics which in turn, may affect rail densities. Timing of Migration Investigations to date indicate that migration of Virginia rails into Colorado begins in mid-April. During this study soras were recorded in large numbers on 2 May at Jonn Martin Reservoir. In western Colorado, migration �-171- is suspected to begin in late April. Bailey and Niedrach (1965) indicated that spring arrival of Virginia rails in Colorado was in late April or early May. They also found soras reached north central Colorado as early as 3 May and that soras nested in northwestern Colorado at a time indicating a mid-to late April arrival. In previous extensive rail studies, spring migration was documented to occur from mid-April to early May. Pospichal (1952) found rail migration in spring to be controlled by the progression of spring. Peak concentrations of Virginia rails during spring migration occurred in mid-May at Lower Latham Reservoir and late May at John Martin Reservoir. However, poor weather during the mid-May census at John Martin may have biased results. Peaks in spring concentrations were not recorded for areas in western Colorado as the first censuses occurred in June. It is of interest that Virginia rails were not recorded at Cary Ranch until 4 July. Peak spring concentrations of soras in southeastern Colorado occurred in early May, while in north central Colorado peak concentrations occurred in mid-May. In northwestern Colorado, soras apparently peaked in late May. Lack of census data prior to 1 May prevents a clear understanding of spring migration in 1975. At Lower Latham Reservoir highest numbers of Virginia rails (4.17 rails/ha) and soras (2.50 rails/ha) occurred in mid-August and mid-September, respectively. At John Martin Reservoir, both species peaked in mid-September (4.04 Virginia rails and 3.25 soras/ha, respectively). At Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge highest numbers occurred prior to mid-August, probably the result of drying of the study area. A similar situation occurred at Cary Ranch in mid-August. In North Park, Jackson County, in north central Colorado, soras appeared to peak in mid-August (Wagner pers. comm.) Trapping Trapping was conducted to aid in ascertaining composition of rail populations. Trapping results during the 1975 field season are presented in Table 3. Ninety-six rails were newly banded, of which 23 were adults (14 Virginias and 9 soras), while 73 were immatures (28 Virginias and 45 soras). Trapping success was .064 rails trapped per trap hour for 1,617 trap hours. Success was highest when traps were checked at 3 to 6 hour intervals, and moved every third day. Predation by raccoons (Procyon lotor) occurred at three traps causing a loss of at least three rails. Table 3 indicates that immature rails were 82, 73, and 64 percent of banded rails during August, September and November, respectively. Of soras banded, immatures accounted for 86, 82, and 50 percent respectively. Immature Virginia rails accounted for 73, 60, and 66 percent respectively. Trapping time and methods may introduce biases causing production estimates to be inappropriate. �-172- Table 3. Distribution of bandings of rails, by species, Colorado, 1975. Number Banded Aug. Soras Sept. Nov. Totals Aug. Virginia Rails Sept. Nov. Totals Milk Creek Adult 0 0 1 1 Immature 16 16 1 1 Adult 4 4 0 0 Immature 4 4 0 0 Adult 0 0 1 1 Immature 6 6 10 10 Walden Reservoir Monte Vista NWR Wellington Mgmt. Area Adult 0 0 1 1 Immature 2 2 0 0 Adult 2 2 2 2 Immature 10 10 3 3 Adult 2 2 3 3 Immature 6 6 6 6 Fossil Creek Reservoir Lower Latham Reservoir John Martin Reservoir Adult 0 1 1 3 3 6 Immature 0 1 1 2 6 8 Totals Adult 4 4 1 9 5 6 3 14 Immature 26 18 1 45 13 9 6 28 �-173- In an effort to determine the relation between induced rail responses and drive trapping success, two .5 ha marshes at Wellington Wildlife Management area in north central Colorado were censused and immediately drive trapped in September. Orgffilizeddrives with drivers one meter apart resulted in 3 rails being trapped or flushed. Eight rails had previously responded to tape-recorded rail calls. Thus, 37 percent of the rails present were accounted for by drive trapping under the marsh and seasonal conditions in effect. This value could be lower if more than 8 rails, as determined by calls, were present. LITERATURE CITED American Ornithologist's Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th Ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore. 691 pp. Andrews, D. A. 1973. Habitat utilization by soras, Virginia rails, and king rails near southwestern Lake Erie. M. S. Thesis, Ohio State Univ., Columbus. 112 pp. Artmann, J. W., and E. M. Martin. 1975. Incidence of ingested lead shot in sora rails. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3):514-519. Austin, O. L. 1961. Birds of the world. Golden Press, New York. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Nat. Hist., Denver. Vol. I. 454 pp. 316 pp. Denver Mus. Batemann , H. A. 1965. Clapper rail (Rallu~ longirostrus) studies on Grand Terre Island, Jefferson Parish, Louisiana. M. S. Thesis, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 145 pp. Bent, A. C. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. Natl. Mus. Bull. 135. 490 pp. U. S. Billard, R. S. 1947. An ecological study of the Virginia rail (Rallus limicola) and sora (Porzana carolina) in some Connecticut swamps. M. S. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 84 pp. Boeker, H. M. 1954. A census of populations of the Wilson's snipe ffild sora rail in the Yampa River Valley, Colorado. Condor 56(2):105-106. Glahn, J. F. 1968. Literature related to the Virginia and sora rails. Unpubl. Manuscript, Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 30 pp. 1974. Study of breeding rails with recorded calls in north central Colorado. Wilson Bull. 86(3):206-214. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the p1&ltS of Colorado. Swallow Press, Inc., Chicago. 666 pp. 2nd Ed. The �-174- Holliman, D. C. (Chairman). 1976. Rails (Rallidae) in Glen C. Sanderson, ed. Management of migratory shore and upland ga;e birds in North America. Int. Assoc. Game, Fish and Cons. Comms., Washington, D. C. (In press). Hopper, R. M. 1968. Wetlands of Colorado. Dept. Tech. Publ. No. 22. 88 pp. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Horak, G. J. 1964. A comparative study of Virginia and sora rails with emphasis on foods. M. S. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 73 pp. Kaufmann, G. W. 1971. Behavior and ecology of the sora, (Porzana carolina) and Virginia rail (Rallus limicola). Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. Minn., Minneapolis. 114 pp. MacDonald, D., and E. Martin. 1971. Trends in harvest of migratory game birds other than waterfowl, 1964-65 to 1968-69. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. 142. 29 pp. Meanley, B. 1965. Early fall food and habitat of the sora in the Patuxent River Marsh, Maryland. Chesapeake Sci. 6(4):226-227. 1969. 108 pp , Natural history of the king rail. N. Amer. Fauna No. 67. Pospichal, L. B. 1952. A field study of sora rail (Porzana carolina) and Virginia raiJ. (Rallus .limicola) populations in central Minnesota. M. S. Thesis, Univ. Minn., Minneapolis. 80 pp. Post, W., and F. Enders. 1970. Notes on a salt marsh Virginia rail population. Kfn gbLrd 29(2) :61-67. Reeves, H. M. (Compiler). 1975. A contribution to an annotated bibliography of North American cranes, rails, woodcock, snipe, doves, and pigeons. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Publ. 240999. 527 pp. Roth, R. R., J. D. Newsom, T. Joanen, and L. L. McNease. 1972. The daily and seasonal behavior patterns of the clapper rail (Rallus longirostris) in Louisiana coastal marshes. Proc. S. E. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 26:136-159. Smith, A. B. 1955. Sora rail populations in Alberta, 1953-54. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1954. u. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Sci. P£pt. Wildl. 28. pp. 59-62. Smyth, J. A. 1933. The literature of the Virginia rail. Cornell Univ., Ithaca. 122 pp. M. S. Thesis, Tanner, W. D. 1953. Ecology of the Virginia and king rails and sora in Clay County, Iowa. Ph. D. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 154 pp. �-175- Tomlinson, R. E., and R. L. Todd. 1973. Distribution of two western clapper rail races as determined by responses to taped calls. Condor 75 (2) :177-183. Van Velzen, A., and J. F. Kreitzer. 1975. The toxicity of p,p'-DDT the clapper rail. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):305-309. Walkinshaw, L. H. 1940. 1937. The Virginia rail in Michigan. Summer life of the sora rail. to Auk 54(4):464-475. Auk 57(2):153-168. Wilbur, S. R. 1974. The literature of the California black rail. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wildl. No. 179. 17 pp. __ , and R. E. Tomlinson. 1976. The literature of the Western clapper rails. U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Servo Spec. Sci. Rept. Wi1d1. No. 194. 31 pp. Prepared BY_--,L=..:==.:.."I-4J~/--"t0~::~~_ ..t:-:..;,i~=-"_/_' _ Herman J. iG'riese Ill' ' '> ./-) Approved BY_-"u:.~V'a::l:·~~_· -="-:;:..>-_'--Io:(.:::;5_-t..,~~ __ ) C1ait E. Braun _ �-176APPENDIX MONTE VISTA NATIONAL A WILDLIFE REFUGE STUDY AREA r» "/~-' --'-----() COMMENTS: DATE: END: TIME BEGIN: TEMP. : WIND: SKY: % l. 6. 11. 16. 21. 2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 3. 8. 13. 18. 23. 4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 5. 10. 15. 20. 25. �-177APPENDIX B STUDIES OF RAILS IN COLORADO 1. District _ 2. Do rails occur to your knowledge in your present district? If no, answer question No. 5 only. 3. If rails are known or suspected to occur in your district, please list all locations. Yes No Generalizations can be made: _ 4. What vegetation types occur where you hear or see rails? _ S. Please list major cattail marshes in your district not mentioned above 6. What time(s) of the year do you most commonly hear or see rails? 7. Have you encountered rails during the 1 November through 31 March period? Yes 8. No If yes, where? Have you ever encountered any rail hunters in your district? Yes , If yes, where? _ _ No _ ��-179- October 1976 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------------W-88-R-21 Project No. Migratory 6 Work Plan No. Job No. Job Title Migratory Bird Publications Period Covered: April 1, 1975 through March 31, 1976 Personnel: Bird Investigations 1 _ Richard M. Ropper, Michael R. Szymczak, John F. Corey, and Jack R. Grieb. ABSTRACT Publications follows: planned for and completed under this job for Segment 21 are as 1. Szymczak, M. R. 1975. Canada goose restoration along the foothills of Colorado. State of Colorado, Division of Wildlife Technical Bulletin Number 31. 'September. 64 pp. 2. Hopper, R. M., A. D. Geis, J. R. Grieb, and L. Nelson, Jr. 1975. Experimental duck hunting seasons, San Luis Valley, Colorado, 19631970. Wildlife Monographs No. 46. November. 68 pp. Also completed but not yet published is a special report as follows: 1. Szymczak, M. R., and J. F. Corey. 1976. Construction and use of the Salt Plains duck trap in Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Division Report No.6. In Press. Prepared by__ --=_··_/_~J_I ,-=,h::::/f:",'i.::;;.J.4":,I,_, __ L_,_.~_·~_~--,:;,:::,,?_:~-=-. -.,. Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research [,-:-"'-::'U:",' � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/84831d2091306d2491301e761a0434cd.pdf 1ac48e0172caa5f46540e3d14fac662f PDF Text Text -1JOB FINAl, State of W-4l-R-26 \-lorkPlan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Job No. Evaluation of the Nutritional Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT Colorado Project No. Job Title January, 1977 16 .---------------------------Requirements of Bighorn Sheep June 1, 1971 through May 31, 1976 Robert E. Keiss and Gene G. Schoonveld ABSTRACT An evaluation of the nutritional status of bighorn sheep on existing ranges was undertaken to measure the adequacy or inadequacy of these ranges to meet the nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep at all seasons of the year. The general study outline consisted of selecting study areas, developing analytical procedures for the chemical partitioning of forage and fecal samples, evaluating micro techniques for plant fragment composition of fecal material, comparative digestibility trials, comparative forage quality analysis at all seasons of the year, and finally bighorn sheep tissue analysis for trace mineral levels. ��-3- EVALUATION OF THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF BIGHORN SHEEP Robert E. Keiss P. S. OBJECTIVE To develop methods: (a) for the evaluation of nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep under natural conditions, and (b) to measure the adequacy of selected ranges to meet these requirements. METHODS AND MATERIALS Range forage, unlike most cultivated crop feeds is harvested by the grazing animal in an assortment of different plant species and plant parts as determined by the selectivity of the animal. In order to evaluate the nutritive intake by these grazing animals it is necessary to determine the digestibility of the ingested plant parts and thereby develop a useful index to the nutritional quality of range herbage available to game animals in any given area. There have been a number of studies devoted to the digestibility of the nutrients in range forage by grazing animals. These free ranging animals need protein for growth and repair of tissues, fats and carbohydrates for production of heat and energy, vitamins for important physiological processes, and minerals for general body function and bone building. It is not feasible to make recommendations on supplementing animals until the specific nutrient requirement of the animal, as well as the nutrient content of the range forage is known. If any nutritive discrepancy exists between what is required by the animal and what is present in the forage, then it would be necessary to investigate methods to supplement the nutrient in order to give the animal a balanced ration. With the above general considerations in mind a study was designed to examine the nutritive quality of range forage available to bighorn sheep. In order to make comparisons between different bighorn sheep ranges and ass.eas differences between animal vitality, three study areas were selected and all comparisons made to include the yearly cycle of forage growth and maturity. The general study outline then consisted of selecting study areas, developing analytical procedures for the chemical partitioning of forage and fecal samples, using and testing microelement techniques for plant fragment comr position of fecal material, comparative forage digestibility trials, comr parative forage quality analysis on the study areas at various seasons of the year and finally bighorn sheep tissue analysis for trace minerals. These different categories will be discussed separately in this report by first outlining the methods and materials, followed by an assessment of the results of these comparisons. �-4DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Three bighorn sheep ranges were selected for nutritional investigations. The study areas were selected on the basis of their differing quality of bighorn sheep herd success based upon past history of population trends and estimated bighorn sheep numbers. Differing types of vegetative cover as well as year-around accessibility were also considered (Fig. 1). Pikes Peak study area, located in El Paso and Teller counties, Colorado is both alpine and sub-alpine (10,200-14,100 ft) bighorn sheep range. This area experienced a major die-off during 1953-54 and the population has experienced a steady increase which is somewhat associated with mineral supplementation which was carried out by Frank Colley of the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Buffalo Peaks study area, located in Park and Chaffee counties, Colorado is primarily alpine (11,600-12,900 ft) bighorn sheep range. Quality of this range is considered marginal as the bighorn sheep population had been declining for several years. This area is not too accessible during winter months as the snow is deep and over-snow vehicles are required. Trickle Mountain study area, located in Saguache County, Colorado is a low altitude (8,400-12,000 ft) sheep range primarily of a pinyon-juniper type. Quality of this range is considered good as the bighorn sheep populations in this area have steadily increased over the past years and many animals are trapped from the area for transplant purposes. Forage and Fecal Analytical Procedures In the early years chemists attempted to define the nutritive quality of feeds (Thaer 1809; Boussingault 1843; Henneberg and Stohmann 1860) and their chemical methods were ultimately adopted and developed into the total digestible nutrient (TDN) system of feed analysis as proposed by Henry and Morrison (1910). The Weende method of partitioning forages is based upon the TDN system (crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and nitrogen free extract) but has several major flaws and assumptions which are very questionable by today's standards of feed analysis. Other modifications and improvements have been made by a number of workers in recent years (Crampton and Maynard 1938; Van Soest 1964; Colburn and Evans 1967; Van Soest and Wine 1967). Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) and Harris (1970) have developed a procedure for examining the cell wall constituents of all types of feeds which have been adopted by our laboratory and were used throughout this experiment. The plant cell is baSically separated into two main components, the cell walls and the cell contents. The cell contents include the majority of the nutritive matter that is digested by enzymatic action within the digestive system and subsequently absorbed and utilized by the animal (protein, ether extract, soluble ash, and soluble carbohydrate). Cell walls include both partially nutritive matter and non-nutritive matter (lignin, acid insoluble ash, cellulose and hemicellulose). Partially nutritive matter include cell wall carbohydrates, cellulose and hemicellulose. These chemically complex compounds are partially broken down by the action of bacterial enzymes �COLORADO IrlOI'l'AT I ROIITr LARIMeR wao iSl,CG""';:X LOGAN FHiU/PJ 1rl0RGAN I Y"MA WASHINGTON 1110 BlANCO (''''RFIt:LO ELSERT Irl:SA IfIT CAIISON LINCOLN PITKIN EL PASO CHUe!!,.;! I V1 I Pikes Peak Study Area MONTROSE CROWUY Ifi0WA PIIE8LO .sA GilA CHE SAN MIGUeL o '/!INS:JALE. Trickle Mountain Study Area I)OLOIl£S RIO GHAN[J~ MOIiTtZIIMA 1"/",O'i'e.~3 BENT r I ALAMOSA I.AS ANIt.1AS I 8ACA u " I Fig. 1. Location of three study areas (Pikes Peak, Buffalo Peaks, evaluation of nutritive quality of forage for bighorn sheep. and Trickle Mountain) selected for �-6- within the gastro-intestinal tract and the total digestibility of the cellulose and hemicellulose can be combined and reported as holocellulose as the differences for most animals is not significantly different to report separately. The non-nutritive matter within the cell walls includes the lignin and acid insoluble ash. These constituents have no known nutritive value. The system used for analysis of the nutritive value of feeds used in this experiment requires the determinations of protein, ether extract, ash, cell walls, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, acid insoluble ash, soluble ash, and soluble carbohydrate. Mineral analysis for calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, iron, potassium were made on selected forages as a part of this study. Protein The micro-Kjeldahl method for the determination of crude protein (total nitrogen x 6.25) was used. Two hundred fifty milligrams of plant material was placed in a 100 ml Kjeldahl flask with 1 gm of catalytic mixture and 3 ml of concentrated H S0 . The material was predigested overnight then 2 4 placed upon a micro-Kjeldahl digester and heated until the sample was completely clear. After cooling, the digested sample was transferred to a micro-Kjeldahl distillation chamber. Ten ml of 12 N.N OH is added and the sample distilled with steam into a boric acid solutio~ containing 2 drops each of bromocresol green and 2,4, dinitro-phenol indicator solutions. The boric acid solution was titrated with 0.05715 N. H S0 . 2 4 Calculation: Percent Protein ml titrant x 2 Reagents: l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Catalytic Mixture 100 gm CUS04 Boric Acid Bromocresol Green Indicator 2,4 Dinitro-phenol Indicator l2N. NaOH 0.05715 N. H2S04 Ether Extract A one gram (oven dry) sample is weighed into a previously tared, fat-free extraction thimble. The thimble was placed in a Saxhlet fat extraction apparatus and extracted for eight hours with anhydrous petroleum ether. After the extraction period the thimbles were removed, allowed to dry overnight, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The loss in weight of the sample was calculated as percent ether extract on a dry weight basis. Ash A one gram (oven dry) sample was weighed into a previously tared crucible and placed in a cold muffle furnace. The heat was allowed to build up �-7- slowly to 5500C and held overnight. The following day the heat was shnt off, allowing the crucibles to cool. After the crucibles were cooled to approximately 2000C they were transferred to a desiccator where they were allowed to cool to room temperature and weighed. Percent ash was calculated on a dry weight basis. The ash was then dissolved in 2 ml of concentrated NH03 over a steam bath and quantitatively transferred to a 50 ml volumetric flask, made to volume, and the solution kept for mineral analysis. Cell Walls A one gram (oven dry) sample was added to a 600 m1 Berzelius beaker and 75 m1 of citrate buffer and 1 ml decalin added. The beakers were placed on a refluxing apparatus consisting of six individually controlled hot plates and 500 m1 round bottom water cooled flasks on top of the beakers. The samples were brought to a boil and allowed to reflux for 30 minutes from the onset of boiling. The beakers were removed, cooled and 25 m1 of pepsin solution added. The beakers were placed in a water bath at 450C. Since we had no means to keep the flasks in constant motion as recommended, we allowed the digestion to proceed for approximately 48 hours with occasional stirring. After the pepsin digestion the liquids were removed from the beakers and the residue rinsed with hot water, followed by a thorough acetone washing. After the acetone washing, 100 m1 of detergent solution was added and the beakers refluxed for 60 minutes on the refluxing apparatus. The detergent samples are then poured into a previously tared filter crucible while drawing off the liquid with suction. The cell walls were then thoroughly washed with large volumes of hot water, followed by thorough rinsing with acetone. The filter crucibles were dried at 1050C overnight, placed in a desiccator to cool, and weighed. Calculation: Weight of Cells Walls Percent Cells Walls Weight of Sample X 100 Reagents: 1. Citrate Buffer Citric Acid 42 gm Tween 40 10 gm Water 1,000 ml (Adjust pH to 3.0 with NH40H) 2. Pepsin Solution Pepsin 40 gm Citric Acid 40 gm Water 1,000 ml (Make fresh as needed - 1 gm pepsin and 1 gm citric acid per 25 m1 - which is required for each sample) 3. Detergent Solution 42 gm Citric Acid Dodecyl Sodium 20 gm Sulfate 1,000 ml Water (Adjust to pH 3.0 with NH40H) 4. Decalin (Decahydronaphthalene) 5. Acetone �-8- Hemicellulose The residue from the cell wall determination was removed from the filter crucible and placed in the Berzelius beaker, taking great care to remove all the material. Seventy-five m1 of 8 percent H2S04 was added to the beaker and they were refluxed on the refluxing apparatus for 1 hour. After refluxing, each sample was washed back into the same filter crucible from which it was removed, the residue washed in large volumes of hot water followed by a thorough acetone rinse. The filter crucibles were placed in the drying oven overnight, removed to a desiccator until cool and weighed. Hemicellulose was computed as the loss of weight from the cell wall residue. Calculation: % Hemicellulose Wt. Cell Wall Residue Wt. Extracted Cell Wall Residue X 100 Sample Weight 1. 8% Sulfuric Acid (Specific gravity of 1.052 at 200C) Lignin and Acid Insoluble Ash The residue from the hemicellulose determination is digested with 72 percent H2S04 by placing the filter crucible into a beaker containing the acid. The acid is allowed to soak into the residue from the bottom through the ft!°itteddisc so that the residue is wetted from the bottom up. The residue was left in the acid for 3 hours after which the acid was filtered off, followed by a thorough washing with large volumes of hot water. It is important to remove all traces of acid from the residue and filter crucible. The residue was then dried overnight, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The filter crucibles were then placed in the muffle furnace at SOOoC overnight, removed, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Calculation: Wt. Residue Before Ashing - Wt. Residue After Ashing % Lignin = ---------------------------------------------X 100 Sample Weigh t % Acid Insoluble Ash Wt. Residue After Ashing - Wt. Tared Crucible ---------------------------------------X 100 Sample Weight Reagents: 1. 72% Sulfuric Acid (Specific gravity of 1.63 at 200C) Cellulose, by Calculation Calculation: % Cellulose = % Cell Walls - (% Hemicellulose + % Acid Insoluble Ash) �-9- Soluble Ash, by Calculation Calculation: % Ash - % Acid Insoluble Ash % Soluble Ash Cell Contents, by Calculation Calculation: % Cell Contents 100 - % Cell Walls Soluble Carbohydrate, by Calculation Calculation: % Soluble Carbohydrate Ash + % Ether Extract) % Cell Contents - (% Protein + % Soluble Summary of Procedures: The cellular components are chemically separated and evaluated by these methods as described by Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) and Harris (1970) with a few modifications to better adapt the procedures to our particular laboratory and needs. The basic data produced by these procedures are as follows: % Cell Content % Protein % Lipid - Ether Extract % Soluble Ash % Soluble Carbohydrate % Cell Walls % Hemicellulose ) % HIll % Cellulose ) 0 oce % Acid Insoluble Ash % Lignin 0 1 u ose Sample preparations for mineral determinations were done by two different methods during the course of this investigation. Dry ashing was initially used but some minerals are lost by volatilization by this process, so a method of wet ashing as described by Adrian (1973) was adopted. After dry ashing a one gram sample for percent ash determination, the ash was dissolved in 2 ml concentrated HN03 and transferred to a 50 m1 volumetric flash. This solution was the stock solution for running mineral analysis. Phosphorus was determined by the molybdophosphoric acid spectrophotometrically using a B & L Spectronic 20. All other minerals were determined using a �-10- Perkin-Elmer 303 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer using standard procedures. The following minerals were analyzed for, in selected samples: Phosphorus Calcium Magnesium Manganese Zinc Copper Iron Potassium Wet ashing was accomplished by placing one gram of the sample in a 4 oz Nalge bottle. Two milliliters of perchloric acid-sulfuric acid (7+1) plus four milliliters of nitric acid were added to each bottle and allowed to pre-digest for twenty-four hours at room temperature. The digestion bottles were stoppered, placed in a water bath at 700c for 3 hours. It is important that the bottles are tightly stoppered as the pressure within the bottle is essential to the procedure. After the digestion was completed each sample was made up to 100 ml volumetrically with distilled water. Food Habits Analysis Bighorn sheep feca.lsamples were collected from the three study areas beginning in June 1971. Collections were made monthly June - September and thereafter during November, January and March. Estimates of forage species used by bighorn sheep were made using microanalysis techniques to identify residues of plant tissues in fecal samples. These samples were collected from areas where bighorn sheep were observed grazing so to be reasonably sure that feces were from bighorn sheep and were fresh and to reflected the current season of the year. A minimum of ten pellet groups were collected from each study area during each collection period. Individual groups were placed in envelopes and labeled. Efforts were made to collect the entire pellet groups, however, this was not always possible due to snow conditions or defecation while the animal was moving. Prior to microanalysis the pellets were placed in a Tyler screen (4mm) and agitated to remove foreign matter such as dirt, plant parts, etc. If soil or dust remained on the pellets they were rinsed with small amounts of water and then allowed to air dry. Sub-samples of 6-8 pellets from each pellet group were selected at random and ground in a Wiley mill using a 2mm screen. Estimations of food habits were subsequently made by the Composition Analysis Laboratory, Department of Range Science, Colorado State University, using1microanalysis techniques. Procedures used for preparing microscope slides, identifying tissue residues and estimating percent relative density of forage species comprising sheep diets were those of Sparks and Malechek (1968). Twenty systematically located microscopic fields (lOOX) were observed on each of ten prepared slides. Residues of plant species were identified and the percent relative density of different forages estimated. A plant collection from the three study areas was made by the laboratory and sets of ne fezience slides were prepared. These reference slides were employed as comparative aids to laboratory technicians during microanalysis of samples. �-11- Representative forage samples were also collected from the same areas where sheep were observed grazing and the pellet groups collected. Initially, all forage plants in a given area were collected, however, as food habits became known only those forages used by the sheep were collected. Grasses and grasslike plants were collected by clipping the entire plant as close to the ground as possible. Browse plants were collected by clipping current annual growth. Clipped materials were placed in paper bags, labeled and returned to the laboratory where they were allowed to air dry. The collected forages were identified as to species using Bighorn Sheep Herbarium Reference Manuals (Shepherd 1971) or Manual of Plants of Colorado (Harrington 1954). After the forage samples were dry they were ground in a Wiley mill using a lmm screen. Samples were stored in 4 oz sample jars until chemically analyzed. After the first year of this study it became evident that the microanalysis technique for fecal analysis was not accurately reflecting the food habits of the bighorn sheep on their ranges. As a result an experiment was designed to test the accuracy of the method as follows: Two consecutive l2-day feeding trials using a fistulated domestic goat were conducted. The animal was put into an isolation pen (6.1 X 1.8 m, with cement floor) 2 weeks prior to the first trial to accustom it to confinement and measure·its normal daily food intake. Daily intake of its regular feed was used as a basis for the amount of test diet fed during the trials. Ad libitum intake was measured by offering a weighed amount of feed and weighing back uneaten amounts each following day. Prior to feeding a test diet, the animal was fasted 48 hours to aid in voiding its digestive tract of previously ingested food. During the l2-day trials, test diets were force-fed twice daily by introducing 250g of the diet through the fistula directly into the rumen. No other food was available to the animal. After each feeding the most recent fecal group was collected, placed in a paper sack and labeled as to date and time of collection. The pen was then swept clean of all remaining fecal pellets. Test diets fed were formulated with true mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus), bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata),fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida), rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus), snow willow (Salix nivalis) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Plant species, except Salix and Medicago, were collected during late winter by hand-clipping the previous year's growth from plants along the front range near Fort Collins. Salix was collected from the Pikes Peak range during June when the species was in full leaf with mature catkins present. Alfalfa used was an exceptionally leafy, baled, third-cutting from the previous season. Each plant species was ground individually in a hammer mill with a 3mm screen resulting in particles varying from extremely small to 3cm in length. After grinding, material was stored in plastic sacks at -lOoC. Two test diets were formulated with varying percentages of individual plant species (Table 1). Species used were sampled to determine moisture content, compounded, thoroughly mixed and stored in plastic bags at OoC until fed. �-12- Table 1. Composition (percent dry weight basis) of two formulated diets fed during feeding trials. Composition (Percent) Diet I Diet II Plant Species Artemisia tridentata 9.3 5.0 Artemisia frigida 14.1 10.0 Cercocarpus montanus 9.7 25.0 0 9.9 Medicago sativa 35.5 10.7 Purshia tridentata 9.3 24.9 Salix nivalis 22.1 14.5 Chrysothamnus nauseosus Microanalysis of Fecal Samples Fecal samples were analyzed by the Composition Analysis Laboratory, Department of Range Science, Colorado State University, using micro-techniques as previously described. The laboratory technician who prepared and read the slides had extensive training and experience in micro-techniques. She did not have prior knowledge of the diet-compositions but was furnished a complete list of all browse species that could be expected but were not necessarily included in the diets. Digestibility Experiments The digestibility of a particular type of feed or combination of feeds by specific animals can be determined by feeding trials. These feeding trials are carried out under very carefully controlled conditions where all feed consumed by the animal is precisely measured and all feces from the animal is collected. Chemical partitioning of both the feed being tested and the feces being eliminated are made and the difference between those values being consumed and those values being eliminated is the digestibility of that forage. The "classical" methods employed in the conduct of digestion trials are not applicable to the free ranging big game animals so several modifications and innovations have been employed in this experiment. These methods allow digestion trials to be analyzed on bighorn sheep under natural conditions on their natural ranges. It should be emphasized that these digestion �-l3- trials are experimental and are not to be interpreted as being without problems and shortcomings. This segment of the project was devoted to trial runs on these digestion evaluation methods and the results are reported here. The methods employed depend upon two main factors - one being the use of an indigestible indicator occurring naturally in the forage and the other is the accuracy of the identification of plant fragments in the bighorn sheep feces by the Food Habits Laboratory at Colorado State University. The "indicator" used in these studies was lignin. The plant constituent is relatively undigestible and is easily assayed for by the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a, 1970b, 1971) as discussed previously. The theory of this procedure then involves the analysis of lignin as indicator and using the fecal analysis as inference on the food intake of the animal. By chemically partitioning the forages making up the diet of the animal and the chemical partitioning of the feces we can then estimate digestibility by using the following formula: % Indicator in Feed Digestibility = 100 - (100 % lndlcator ln Feces X % Nutrient in Feces) % Nutrient ln Feed In order to compute the total digestible nutrients (TDN) value of a feed, the digestion coefficient of each nutritive constituent is computed by multiplying the amount of that nutrient in 100 pounds of total feed by the digestibility for that constituent. (The digestibility of fat is multiplied by 2.25 because it has more energy value than the other nutrients) • The nutritive ratio is that ratio between the digestible protein, expressed as unity, to the sum of digestible ether extract, digestible carbohydrate, and digestible holocellulose (cellulose + hemicellulose) . Two separate experiments were designed to test the feasibility of the procedure to estimate digestibility. Each experiment consisted of collecting feeds and feces from three study areas (Trickle Mountain, Buffalo Peaks, and Pikes Peak) at three seasons of the year (summer, fall, winter). In the first experiment forages were grouped into two categories (grass and browse) where a composite sample from each grass and each browse species collected were "pooled", thoroughly mixed and analyzed for the nutrient constituents. Fecal samples from each area at each season of the year were "pooled" by taking equal quantities of at least ten separate pellet groups. These "pooled" fecal samples were thoroughly mixed and one portion sent to the Food Habits Laboratory at Colorado State University where they were examined for plant composition by microanalysis of plant fragments, and the other portion was analyzed chemically to partition the nutritive constituents. The second experiment was conducted using specially compounded diets based upon the percent food composition found in the feces. The compounded diet was based upon those genera of plants which were found to be greater than five percent in the feces. These compounded diets were made to represent each of the three study areas at three seasons of the year (summer, fall and winter). For specific details of these diets see Federal Aid Report w-4l-R23 "Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations", Work Plan 1, Job 16, January 1974. �-14- Fecal samples were divided into two parts, one part was sent to the Food Habits Laboratory for analysis and the other part was kept for chemical analysis. After the laboratory analyses were completed, the total digestible nutrient (TDN) and the nutritive ratio (NR) were computed for each combination of grass-browse and feces from each study area at each time of the year. Composite diet values for protein, ether extract, soluble carbohydrate, holocellulose, and lignin were derived by mUltiplying each value of the nutrient as determined by laboratory analysis by the percent of that feed component in the total diet and then adding these together. For example, if grass was analyzed as having 6.20 percent protein and grass made up 84.58 percent of the diet then grass contributed 5.24 percent protein (6.20 X .8458) and if browse was analyzed as having 9.80 percent protein and made up 15.42 percent of the diet, then browse contributed 1.51 percent of the total protein (9.80 X .1542). Adding 5.24 percent and 1.51 percent protein gives an adjusted value of 6.75 percent protein in the composite diet. Forage Quality Analysis Between Study Areas An experiment was designed to test for differences in forage quality between the three study areas at three seasons of the year. This was necessary in order to evaluate the changes in nutritional quality of bighorn sheep forages as the growing season progresses from summer into fall and winter and the plant species grow, mature, and go into dormancy. Because of the complexity of the composition of different plant species on the three study areas this study was designed to limit the nutritional comparisons to general plant types (grass and browse) rather than attempt the complex comparisons based upon individual plant species. The main purpose of this phase of the study was to compare the nutritive quality of bighorn sheep forages on the three study areas at three seasons of the year. For this reason samples were designated as "grass" and ''browse'' and no further attempt was made to differentiate plant species composition. Five transects were selected on each of the three study areas. These transects were laid out to cover the known winter range areas of each study area. A wooden frame measuring one meter on each side was used to aid in plant collections. The frame was placed on the ground at one end of the transect and all the grass within the one square meter was clipped and placed in a paper sack. After the grass within the frame was collected we moved one hundred paces along the transect and at this point collected another one square meter grass sample. A total of ten samples over a one thousand pace transect were obtained and returned to the laboratory for analysis. Browse samples were collected more or less at random along "modified" transects. Because of the distribution of browse plants on the bighorn sheep winter ranges it was necessary to select groups of plants to sample �-15- and a rigid sampling scheme similar to that described for grass was not possible. For the most part browse was collected from plants closest to points where grass samples were collected. Current annual growth was clipped from the plants for chemical analysis. All forage samples were returned to the laboratory and allowed to air dry. They were then ground in a Wiley mill (equipped with stainless 0 steel screens) and placed in glass jars after being oven dried at 60 C for 24 hours. Because of the large number of individual samples it was not practical to do chemical analysis on each one so each transect was considered as a separate entity for comparison purposes so that all samples collected along one transect were composited into a single sample. This was accomplished by thoroughly mixing each individual forage sample and removing a ten gram subsamp1e. These subsamp1es were then composited and the composite sample was then thoroughly mixed and submitted for chemical analysis. The above described sampling scheme then resulted in five grass samples and five browse samples representing five transects from each of the three study areas at three seasons of the year, so that the entire study design resulted in a total of ninety samples for complete laboratory analysis. Bighorn Sheep Tissue Analysis Tissue samples from bighorn sheep lambs collected during the course of this study were analyzed for trace mineral levels. At the time these lambs were necropsied tissues were collected and frozen for this purpose. Seven lambs were collected during the summer of 1972, nine lambs collected during the summer of 1973, and seven lambs collected during the summer of 1974. The following tissues were analyzed from each lamb: hair, liver, spleen, kidney, skeletal muscle, and heart muscle. The tissues were removed from the freezer, allowed to thaw and placed in a drying oven at 600C until dry. Low drying temperatures were used because of the reported volatility of selenium from tissues when dried at high temperatures. A one gram sample of dried tissue was weighed into a digestion vessel and digested by the wet pressure method previously described (Adrian 1973) and mineral levels were determined by procedures previously described. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nutrition involves various chemical and physiological activities which transform food elements into body elements, therefore a brief consideration of the chemical composition of the animal body in relation to the composition to its food is useful to give a general picture of the nutrition process. Food must supply nutrients which can be used to build and renew the comr ponents of the body and to produce growth, hair, milk, etc. and it must �-16- furnish energy for all these processes as well. While there are certain animal species which are entirely carnivorous, the plant kingdom is the original and essential source of all animal life because plants are able to utilize the energy of the sun and build substances which will nourish the animal. Plants make use of carbon dioxide, water, nitrates and other mineral salts to form carbohydrates, fats and proteins which the animal must have to build and maintain their bodies. Thus plants store and animals dissipate energy. Plants contain the same substances found in animal bodies, but the relative amounts are very different. Plants generally show larger variations in composition from one species to another than do animals. The principal constituent of both plants and animals is water. This water content in plants decreases as the plants mature and in animals the water content will vary somewhat with age. The newborn animal has a much higher percentage of water than does the mature fat animal. It is vital to the life of the organism that the moisture level be maintained. Water functions as a solvent in which nutrients are transported and in which waste products are excreted. The main difference in the composition of plants and animals lies in the fact that dry matter of plants consists principally of carbohydrate. This constituent in plants serves as both structural and reserve material while in animals protein comprises the structure of the soft tissues and fat is the reserve. Although carbohydrate is a minor constituent of the animal body it is the principal food of most animals, especially ruminants. Research workers conducting experiments on the nutritive requirements of animals normally base their conclusions on the average gain in weight or feed efficiency for groups of animals. Where deficiency symptoms are the criteria for determining nutrient adequacy or inadequacy, freedom from the deficiency syndrome in all animals in experimental groups is usually the basis for conclusions. When dealing with wild-free ranging ungulates the problems of studying the nutritional requirements presents many problems not experienced by those workers dealing with domestic livestock. The approach to any given problem must by necessity be different than what might be used in more conventional circumstances. For these reasons the experimental designs and procedures outlined in this study do not necessarily follow well developed and generally accepted procedures of nutritionists and the results and interpretations are in most cases compared to what is known about domestic livestock. Study Areas Since the start of this project several years ago the bighorn sheep herd on Pikes Peak has experienced a number of changes. During the summer of 1971 it was noted that several lambs were not doing well and this was the start of a rather severe lamb mortality. Since that time extensive effort has been expended on this bighorn sheep herd by the College of Veterinary Medicine at Colorado State University and the results of these efforts are reported under Federal Aid Reports W-41-R, Work Plan I Contract - "Spontaneous Diseases of Bighorn Sheep". �-17The Buffalo Peaks and Trickle Mountain study areas are unchanged from the original concepts at the outset of the study. Forage and Feces Analytical Procedures The methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris (1970a) have developed a method for cell wall analysis which more accurately partitions the cell wall constituents and may be used to analyze all types of feeds. The plant cell wall constituents include the partially nutritive matter and the nonnutritive matter. The partially nutritive matter includes the cell wall carbohydrates, cellulose and hemicellulose, and is digested only by enzymes produced by microorganisms within the digestive tract. The nutritive value and digestibility of cellulose and hemicellulose may not vary enough to warrant their separation. This supposition was followed for most parts of this study as the analytical procedure to separate the two are time consuming and not warranted so all results are reported as "holocellulose". The non-nutritive matter includes lignin and acid insoluble ash. The nutritive matter is found in the cell contents which is digested by enzymatic action in the digestive system or is otherwise soluble enough for absorption. This includes soluble carbohydrates, proteins, ether extract and soluble ash. The chemical methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris were developed from Van Soest's acid detergent lignin (Van Soest 1963), and cell wall constituents (Van Soest and Wine 1967) analysis. According to Harris (1970) the main deviations from Van Soest's methods are: 1. Cell walls are determined at pH of 3.0 in a citrate buffered detergent solution. At this pH, there is a recovery of cell wall constituents, particularly acid insoluble ash. 2. A pepsin digestion of the cell wall sample followed by detergent extraction removes 90 to 98 percent of the protein. Less than 1.0 percent protein of a sample containing 10 percent protein would be retained in the cell wall residue. This is less than the amount remaining in the acid detergent fiber in preparation for the acid detergent lignin analysis. Therefore, 72 percent sulfuric acid lignin can be determined directly on the cell wall residue. 3. In Van Soest's analysis, cellulose is determined as the difference between acid detergent fiber and acid detergent lignin or as the organic residue from the determination of permanganate lignin. Hemicellulose is calculated as the difference between cell wall constituents and acid detergent fiber. Fonnesbeck and Harris separate the cellulose and hemicellulose of the cell wall with a hemicellulose and lignin analysis. �-18- 4. Lignin values determined on the cell wall residue or on a hemicellulose extracted cell wall residue are considerably higher than acid detergent lignin values. Subsequent investigations showed that the acid detergent solution was dissolving part of the lignin. s. The techniques of the 72 percent H2S04 lignin method of Fonnesbeck and Harris make it unnecessary to add asbestos to the crucible to aid in filtering. Therefore, the ash remaining after the lignin determination is entirely from the original sample and can be reported as acid insoluble ash, or the acid insoluble ash can be extracted with 48 percent hydrobromic acid for a presumptive analysis for silica. Food Habits Analysis A knowledge of food habits by bighorn sheep in any given area is a necessary prerequisite for studying forage competition with other ungulates or studying the nutritional adequacy of these ranges to meet the requirements of the bighorn sheep. Past food habit studies in Colorado were primarily made on rumen samples collected from hunter harvested bighorn sheep during late summer or early fall seasons. These studies have been supplemented by a few observations and rumen samples collected at opportune times (Moser 1962) • The food habits of bighorn sheep on a year-around basLs is not well documented. Collecting animals from already declining sheep herds was not practical, therefore the microscopic technique of examining plant fragments in feces was used. These methods have been used extensively by other workers for studying food habits of small rodents, rabbits, and grasshoppers (Baumgartner and Martin 1939; Dusi 1949; Myers 1962; Bear and Hansen 1966; Sparks 1968; Sparks and Malechek 1968). More recently the technique has been used to examine the feces of large herbivores (Storr 1961). Cooperrider (1969) used the microscopic technique in studying the food habits of bighorn sheep in Montana. An extensive study was conducted by Todd (1972) which was conducted on the Trickle Mountain study area. Primary forage species identified in bighorn sheep feces from the three study areas are summarized in Table 2. Comparisons of data among the three areas indicate sheep using the Trickle Mountain range utilize a wider range of plant species than the sheep on either Pikes Peak or Buffalo Peaks. Grasses and grass-like forage comprise the major portion of bighorn sheep diets with increasing utilization of browse during early fall and into winter (Fig. lA). Use of forbs by sheep on all three study areas was found to be relatively small being less than four percent of any diet examined. The key to the digestibility trials as originally designed into this study relied heavily upon the accuracy of the micro element fecal analysis to differentiate plant components to species of origin. It became evident that the technique was not accurately breaking the fecal material into precise components so an experimental feeding trial was designed to test the procedure. �-19- Table 2. Primary forage species identified in fecal samples of bighorn sheep collected from the Buffalo Peaks, Pikes Peak and Trickle Mountain ranges, June 1971 - September 1972. Plant Species Buffalo Peaks Agropyron spp. 0.6 - 7.4 Percent (Range) Trickle Mountain Pikes Peak 0.8 - 10.3 1.1- Bouteloua gracilis 2.7 - 53.6 Carex spp. 4.2 - 19.2 7.8-91.8 0.1 - 6.7 Danthonia parryi 6.8 Deschampsia caespitosa 6.0 - Festuca spp. l3.0 - 66.8 Muhlenbergia spp. 29.9 0.1 - 0.5 - 57.6 0.7 - 52.9 0.1 - 56.6 5.6 0.2 - 11.0 Oryzopsis hymenoides 0.5 - 14.7 3.5 - 15.2 Stipa spp. 2.5 - 10.7 0.1 - Artemisia frigida 0.1 - 7.7 0.2 - 75.4 0.2 - 7.4 0.1 - 14.1 Poa spp. 2.4 - 10.5 12.3 Cercocarpus .montanus 0.7 - 42.0 Holodiscus dumosus Pinus spp. Salix spp. 0.4 - 6.8 0.1 - 28.8 27.6 35.1 0.5 - 9.9 0.3 - 15.7 Yucca spp. Shrubs (not identified) 5.4 8.4 - 53.4 0.2 - 68.3 0.7 - 40.4 Force feeding test diets directly into the rumen through a fistula proved to be an effective means of feeding a diet of known composition to an animal. This method eliminated any selectivity of food intake by the animal which might have occurred if the diets were offered free-choice or in a cafeteria type feeding trial. During the trials rumination appeared normal, the animal remained in tood flesh and quite often was observed contentedly chewing cud. Feces eliminated were a normal size and consistency. �-20- Sununer Fall Winter 100 PIKES PEAK 50 a 100 BUFFALO PEAKS 50 a 100 TRICKLE MOUNTAIN 50 a GRASS BROWSE Fig. lA. Percent relative density of grass and browse use by bighorn sheep on Pikes Peak, Buffalo Peaks and Trickle Mountain at three seasons of the year - sununer, fall and winter. �-21- Fecal samples collected after the animal had been fed the test diet for 10 and 12 days during each trial, contained little identifiable plantresidues - a few Artemisia trichomes and a few unattached trichomes which may have been from Salix, Cercocarpus or Purshia. The bulk of material was unidentifiable woody-stem material (Hanson, letter of 20 Sept. 1972). Similar results were reported by Zyznar and Urness (1969), who fed 17 tree, shrub and herbaceous plant species separately to captive mule and white-tailed deer. They found only low percentages of recognizable plant residues in fecal samples using microanalysis techniques. Unfed samples of the test diets were also analyzed by microanalysis techniques as an additional test of the method's accuracy in identifying plant species in the diets and estimating percent composition. All species in the diets were identified. However, microanalysis results include 2.1 percent Chrysothamnus sp. and 0.2 percent Pinus sp. in Diets I and II, respectively. These species were not formulated in the respective diets. Estimates of the relative percentages of some plant species in the diets were also highly over or underestimated (Table 3). Stewart (1967) questions validity of the microanalysis technique for estimating relative percent of plant species in an animal's diet due to some forage plants fragmenting more easily than others. We found, after feeding a number of perennial grasses to African ungulates, that some plants easily fragmented and consequently appeared more important in their diets although intake was the same or less than that of other species. Table 3. Composition (percent dry weight basis) of two test diets compared to the estimated relative composition determined by microanalysis. (y/x is ratio of known percent (y) to estimated percent (x); values> 1 are overestimates and CL underestimates. Plant Species Compo Diet I Estimated y/x Artemisia tridentata 9.3 6.4 0.7 5.0 10.7 2.1 Artemisia frigida 14.1 42.1 3.0 10.0 41.6 4.2 Cercocarpus montanus 9.7 1.3 0.1 25.0 5.8 0.2 0 2.1 9.9 8.6 0.9 Medicago sativa 35.6 25.6 0.7 10.7 11. 7 1.1 Purshia tridentata 9.3 2.1 0.2 24.9 10.0 0.4 Salix nivalis 22.1 20.4 0.9 14.5 11.4 0.8 0 0 0 0.2 Chrysothamnus nauseosus Pinus sp. Diet II Compo Estimated y/x �-22- These results question usefulness and accuracy of fecal microanalysis techniques for determining food-habits of ruminants. Reasons why no identifiable plant residues were found in fecal samples from these trials are unknown. Other investigators (Hegg 1961; Kiley 1966; Lay 1965; Stewart 1967; Zyznar and Urness 1969) have used the method, with varying success, to identify plant residues in feces from other ruminants. Differences in digestive capabilities among various species of ruminants studied during these investigations and the domestic goat used during these trials may account for differences of results obtained. Digestion may be more complete in ruminants possessing relatively large capacity digestive organs such as the goat, compared to ruminants with small organs. Easily digestible plants or plant parts may have been completely digested by the goats digestive system leaving only undigestible wood-stem material to be eliminated in feces. Accurate food-habits data are essential for nutritional studies involving any species of animal. Based on results of these trials, application of fecal microanalysis techniques for determining food-habits of bighorn sheep in our current studies cannot be reliably used. However, determining food habits of free-ranging wild animals is extremely difficult and to date fecal microanalysis offers the best approach to the problem. It is recommended therefore, that use of the technique be continued and further investigations be made to clearly define its application and limitations. Most of the digestibility work therefore has been limited to two broad classes of plants - "browse" and "grass" with no attempt to break the diets into more precise elements. Digestibility Trials During the initial segment of this study attempts were made to estimate digestibility of range forages by free ranging animals, but as described previously the technique relied heavily on the accuracy of the microelement fecal analysis to identify plant parts as to species of origin. Because of the problems associated with the microelement analysis technique this phase of the study was not persued after the initial trials. Two separate experiments were designed to test the feasibility of estimating digestibility. Each experiment consisted of collecting forages and feces from the three study areas as previously described and subjecting them to the following experimental procedures. The first experiment consisted of grouping forages into the two categories of "grass" and ''browse'',where a portion of each grass and each browse was pooled, thoroughly mixed and analyzed for their nutrient contents. Fecal samples from each area at each season of the year were pooled by taking equal quantities of at least ten separate pellet groups. These pooled fecal samples were thoroughly mixed and one portion was sent to the Food Habits Laboratory for microanalysis and the other was analyzed chemically to partition the nutritive constituents. After the laboratory analyses were complete, the total digestible nutrients (TDN) and the nutrient ratio (NR) were computed for each combination of grass-browse and feces from each study area at each time of the year (detailed data on this experiment was presented in Federal Aid Progress Report W-4l-R-23 �-23- June 1, 1972). Composite diet values for protein, ether extract, soluble carbohydrate, ho1oce11u1ose and lignin were derived by multiplying each value of the nutrient by the percent of that feed component in the total diet and then adding these together. For example, if grass was analyzed as having 6.20 percent protein, and grass made up 84.58 percent of the diet then grass contributed 5.24 percent of the protein (6.20 x .8458) and if browse was analyzed as having 9.80 percent protein and browse made up 15.42 percent of the diet, then browse contributed 1.51 percent of the total protein (9.80 x .1542). Adding 5.24 percent and 1.51 percent protein gives an adjusted value of 6.75 percent protein in the composite diet. The second experiment was conducted using specially compounded diets based upon the percent food composition found in the feces. The compounded diet was based upon those genera of plants which were found to be greater than 5 percent in the feces. These plants were then added to the compounded diet in these same percentages, thoroughly mixed and then analyzed chemically along with the feces from which the plant composition analysis was made. These comparisons again were made on samples from the three study areas at three seasons of the year. Tables 4 and 5 show the results of the two experiments previously described. The total digestible nutrients and the nutritive ratio resulting from the two methods are comparable, but a great deal of additional work must be done before either technique can be used to evaluate range quality for bighorn sheep. As stated previously the whole technique is based upon the accuracy of the microanalysis techniques for fecal composition of plant fragments. For these reasons the data obtained in this phase of the study is presented here, but any conclusions must be carefully considered in light of the results of the feeding trial experiments previously described. Table 4. Results of nutritive quality of bighorn sheep ranges by the technique of compounding forage samples by percent grass and percent browse. Buffalo Peaks NR TDN Pikes Peak Season Trickle Mountain NR TDN Summer 51.34 1:10.80 63.30 1:11.08 65.77 1:12.05 Fall 64.12 1:16.33 73.03 1:19.40 67.88 1:19.08 Winter 68.27 1:16.73 52.54 1:22.88 62.10 1:20.27 TDN NR �-24Table 5. Results of nutritive quality of bighorn sheep ranges by the technique of compounding forage samples by percent plant composition. Season Trickle Mountain TDN NR Buffalo Peaks TDN NR Summer 72.85 1:11.22 69.89 1:14.06 68.54 1: 6.84 Fall 59.94 1:11.78 56.02 1:15.14 72.13 1:20.60 Winter 50.52 1:19.50 69.49 1:29.88 62.00 1:29.24 Pikes Peak TDN NR With domestic livestock the most common problem in nutrition is the deficiency of energy. This may result from a lack of sufficient feed or from too little net energy available to the animal from the feed consumed. Poor quality roughages are not only poorly digested but are usually consumed in smaller amounts. Snow cover, drought or low dry-matter content of lush feeds may also contribute to a shortage of total nutrients consumed by an animal. Digestibility decreases in a plant as it matures due to increase in lignification. Total intake decreases with decreased digestibility, slower passage through the digestive tract and with reduction of the palatability of the feeds. These energy shortages may be complicated by other deficiencies such as protein, minerals and vitamins with the reSUlting effect of slowing growth, loss of weight, reproductive failure and increased mortality. Internal parasite infestations are more severe in animals suffering from malnutrition because of their lowered resistance. The requirements for any given animal will vary according to its sex and stage of maturity. Those requirements for a mature ram will be different from a ewe for example and the requirements for the ewe will vary from time to time depending on the period of gestation, lactation, etc. In the case of wild ungulates it would appear that as the animal requirements for nutritional factors goes up it corresponds to the season of the year when forage quality decreases. Forage Quality Analysis Between Study Areas In range investigations the worker is interested in the nutritive value of the herbage available to the animal and the nutritive value of the forage actually consumed. The most reliable measurement of the nutritive value of range herbage is obtained by conducting a well-designed grazing trial, but because of the difficulties in carrying out these studies with wild ungulates, the relative nutritive value of forage may be estimated from chemical analysis provided the data is properly interpreted. Chemical determinations are used to measure specific nutrients and are of value in revealing deficiencies or lack of deficiencies. The presence or absence of toxic materials can also be determined by chemical analysis. �-25- Factors such as stage of growth, botanical composition, soil type and topography have been found to influence the chemical composition of forage, and it is essential that these variables be considered (Cook and Harris 1950a, 1950b; Crampton and Jackson 1944; Garrigus and Rusk 1939; Martin 1952; Reid and Kennedy 1959b; Reid et al. 1950, 1959a). Under open range conditions it is difficult to determine the diet of animals because there are many species of plants. Topography influences animal distribution and forage is harvested by grazing animals in a highly selective manner (Cook et al. 1948, Harris et al. 1959). As has already been discussed the material selected by the animal should be sampled and the diet must be known so that individual analysis may be properly used to calculate the composition of ingested forage. In cases where free ranging wild ungulates are under investigation it is not feasible to use the more sophisticated methods employed with domestic livestock so the investigator is forced to rely on indicator methods or chemical analyses of the herbage available for grazing to characterize the nutritive value o,f the forage. Sampling methods as described for this phase of the study was designed somewhat after that used in studies at Cornell University where they used an iron circle with an area of two square feet for harvesting forage for botanical and chemical composition. This ring was tossed at random on the range under investigation and the forage within the ring was harvested by clipping to a uniform height. In using chemical analysis to predict quality, the investigator must consider two serious limitations: (1) the forage samples used in chemical analysis may not be strictly representative of the forage consumed by the grazing animal, and (2) the feeding value and chemical composition are not necessarily closely related. The investigator should understand the limitations of interpretation of chemical determinations, but if done carefully it is possible to characterize differences in forage quality. With these considerations in mind the following data is presented and discussed to compare the nutritive differences between the three study areas at three seasons of the year and will be treated on an individual component basis. In an attempt to correlate total diet values of both grass and browse used by sheep at any given period of time and on a specific study area the total nutrient value of any single component was computed and totaled. For example if Pikes Peak summer range forage contained 8.56 percent protein in the grass and 8.64 percent protein in the browse and the fecal composition was found to be 65 percent grass and 35 percent browse then the total protein would be (8.65 x .65) + (8.64 x .35) = (5.56 + 3.02) = 8.58 percent protein. Values used for these computations are found in Figure 1. Cell Contents The cell contents are the total of the protein, ether extract, soluble carbohydrate and soluble ash and make up the majority of the digestible portion of the edible plant. The total cell walls are the reciprocal of cell contents therefore the two divisions of plant parts can be considered together. �-26Grasses exhibited the greatest differences between areas during the summer season (sig. 99%). This can be attributed to a large part of the differences in plant growth and maturity due to a large part by the differences in altitude between the three study areas and the differences in growth and maturity of the plants. The Trickle Mountain area is lower in altitude and the growing season is at least three to four weeks earlier than the other two. Browse plants also show significant differences (99%) during the summer season. This again could be attributed to differences in the growing season between the different study areas. Figure 2 shows the values of total cell contents from the three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet. Protein Figure 3 shows the results of crude protein analysis on grass and browse samples from the three study areas at three seasons of the year and a comr posite diet protein level based upon the percent use of grass and browse by bighorn sheep. Protein is the principle constituent of the organs and soft tissues of the animal body and a liberal, continuous supply is needed in the food throughout life for growth, and repair. The term protein is a collective one which embraces an enormous group of closely related but physiologically distinct members. From the standpoint of nutrition the important aspect is the amino acid make-up of proteins. The quality of protein which is influenced by the amino acid make up or balance is not a critical factor for ruminants because of the activity of the microorganisms within the rumen. The quantity of protein becomes more important than the source, and in general the quantity of digestible protein will vary widely with different feeds, particularly between coarse, mature, weathered, or poor quality roughages. Insufficient protein intake results in reduced appetite, lowered feed intake and poor feed efficiency. This lowered feed intake results in poor growth and muscular development, reduced reproductive efficiency, as well as anemia and problems with gestation and lactation in ewes. Significant differences (99%) were found between the three study areas at all seasons of the year but more importantly is the level of protein in the diet when compared to the animal needs. During the summer months it appears that there would be adequate levels of crude protein, but this supply falls off sharply during the fall and winter in all areas. As grass matures and leaves fall from the browse plants the protein levels change considerably and bighorn sheep are obligated to subsist on these levels throughout the balance of the year. Protein levels in excess of 12 percent are considered excellent, 10 percent to 12 percent levels are considered good, 7 percent to 10 percent are considered fair and below 7 percent protein is considered poor for ruminants. It would appear that crude protein levels could be a problem for bighorn sheep on these study areas during the winter months. �-27- CELL CONTENTS A 40 ••• ~ e a e en Eo-< z m e E) ~ Eo-< z 30 - 0 ... u A ~ A m rj G> e u Eo-< ~ 20 _ u ~ ~ p.., a A A H Z A 9 A ~ ~ e ... A 10 _ i- , • S ~ I I I , I , I I W S F W GRASS BROWSE • • I S I • F I ~ W COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak L:::.. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 2. Total cell contents of forage from three study areas at three seasons of the year for gr~ss, browse and a composite diet based upon percentage of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-28- PROTEIN El 15 -/- EXCELLENT m GOOD E> A a ® ~ a S G) .4\ 5 A m e A 0 A I!I e a -- F AIR - a t ea fA I r I I t 1 I I t , I I I I I I I S F W S F W S F W GRASS BROWSE P OOR • COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak D.. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 3. Percent crude protein in forage from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon percentage of browse and grass used by bighorn sheep. �-29- Ether Extract Figure 4 illustrates the amounts of ether extract in forage from the three study areas at three seasons· of the year as well as a composite diet based upon percentages of grass and browse in the feces of bighorn sheep. The ether extract contains a complex of materials including the fats, oils and some waxes as well as fat soluble vitamins, phospholipids, and chlorophyll. The fats in food serves as a source of energy the same as for carbohydrates. Fat is much concentrated than carbohydrate and furnishes 2.25 times as much energy· per pound of feed. For this reason a diet high in fat will have a higher percentage of total digestible nutrients than a diet low in fat. This could have some effect· on bighorn sheep diets as the winter food values drop considerably and this is the season of the year when energy requirements for maintaining body heat will be higher. There was a significant difference (95%) in the amount of ether extract found in grass during the summer and fall. This difference could be attributed to differences in stages of plant maturity between the study areas. Carbohydrates The broad group of foodstuffs classed as carbohydrates includes the sugars, starches, celluloses, hemicelluloses, gums and related substances such as lignin. The soluble carbohydrate (Fig. 5), holocellulose (Fig. 6) and lignin (Fig. 7) will be discussed together under the general heading of "carbohydrate". Carbohydrates form the largest part of the animals diet as carbohydrates form about seventy-five percent of the dry weight of the plant on which all animals ultimately depend for sustaining life. The soluble carbohydrates which include the sugars and starches are easily digested by the animal and have a high feeding value. The more complex carbohydrates such as cellulose and hemicellulose form the ''woody''fiber of the plant and are less completely digested. The highly complex lignin is not utilized by the animal and passes through the digestive system unaltered. As plant material grows and matures the relative percentage of carbohydrates change from the more desirable soluble sugars to the more complex celluloses and hemicellulose (holocellulose) and lignin and this again contributes to the fact that the total digestible nutrients in any given forage decreases as the growing season progresses. One of the more drastic changes occur in browse plants as the leaves falloff the stems after the killing frosts. The digestion of carbohydrates in the rumen is dependent upon microorganisms which break down the more complex forms to products which can be assimilated by the body. This process by microorganisms requires the expenditure of energy and the more complex the carbohydrate the more energy required to break them down and the less net energy available to the animal. This fact in part accounts for the differences in digestibility of forages between the summer and winter forages. The total energy available to the animals on poor winter forages therefore is considerably less than that for summer forages. The significance of these differences in bighorn sheep is not known but warrants further investigation. �-30- I I I I I I I J I I I S F W I S F W GRASS o BROWSE t I S , I 'r• F W COMPOSITE DIET Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak D.. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 4. Percent ether extract in forage from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-31- 15 -IA r>.:I a ~ A A G> ~ ~ ~ 10 _ l- e e < u 6> r>.:I H ~ :::> e S A 00 @ 8 A t!r A 13 E-< z r>.:I E) u ~ r>.:I P-! G> G) A A 5 -I- a 6> A- S I , I I I I --. S F W S GRASS I , , , I I I , F W S F BROWSE I , I S COMPOSITE DIET 0 Pikes Peak 0 Buffalo Peak 6. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 5. Percent soluble carbohydrate in forage from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass. browse and a composite diet based upon percentage of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-32- 90 80 70 ~ U) 0 s:j 60, 4 u 0 ....:l 0 ~ 0 ::r:: ~ ~ ~ ~ Po. 50 1 40 A G1 0 a 0 fB G s i h- &. CI i <;R S F I - 30 S F W GRASS S F BROWSE W W COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak [] Buffalo Peaks D. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 6. Percent holocellulose in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-33- El 10 • m e 0 A 9 _I- eB E) I!J 8 "" CJ ~ A E> a 13 ~ r!J I- z ~ H ~ E) 8 LA 0 H €) l!I 7 .16 0 5 •I- H ~ Iil 4 I- ~ Iil P-I 3 _I- 2 •••• 1 "l- I ~ I ~ GRASS , ~ I I S I ~ BROWSE , ~ I I ~ ~ COMPOSITE DIET I ~ o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak 6. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 7. Percent lignin in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-34- Ash One of the advantages of the methods of Fonnesbeck and Harris in the partitioning of nutritional constituents is that the procedure allows for the separation of the ash fraction into a soluble ash and an acid insoluble ash. Figure 8 shows the percentages of soluble ash and Figure 9 shows the percentages of acid insoluble ash in the forages from the three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. Total ash is present in all plant material and consists of the mineral matters of the plant tissue. Mineral nutrients are essential for growth of both the plant and animal and consist of phosphorous, potassium, sulfur, calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, and many other minerals. The acid insoluble ash fraction is primarily the silicates and have no nutritional value as far as the animal is concerned. Each of the essential minerals will be considered separately and their importance to the animal can not be underestimated. Calcium and Phosphorus Forages which are deficient in either calcium or phosphorus or both result in abnormal bone development causing rickets or osteomalacia. Calcium is not generally a problem in the western United States where soils are derived from calcium carbonate or dolomite. The forage may be too high in calcium and actually interfere with phosphorus metabolism. The calcium levels found in the forages on the three study areas do not appear to be causing any real problem except in association with phosphorus. Phosphorus is utilized in the metabolism of almost all nutrients through its role in vitamin and enzyme activity. Aphosphorosis causes osteomalacia, production of weak lambs and decreased milk production. Low phosphorus intake affects energy utilization resulting in slow growth, depraved appetite,unthrifty appearance and general lack of body fat. Phosphorus deficiency in ranges is rather widespread throughout the west with forage becoming deficient after it reaches maturity. Figures 10, 11 and 12 show the levels of calcium, phosphorus and the calcium phosphorus ratio in forages from the three study areas at various seasons of the year. In any discussion of calcium and phosphorus it is important to consider the ratio of calcium to phosphorus. If there is an excess of calcium or of phosphorus, detrimental effects may be produced. In examining the levels of calcium and phosphorus in forage from the three study areas the amounts of calcium seem adequate while phosphorus is in short supply especially during the winter months. This results in a Ca:P ratio which is not desirable and can be a significant factor in the management of bighorn sheep. �-35- 9.;- 8_ ~ I!l 7. p::: U) < 8 e 5 ~ el ® . 6-1- e ~ ...:I !§ ...:I IA A (!) & &. A e 0 iii Ib a ~ G> a G> A .& G') A (;) ® 0 U) ~ w 4 l- ~ w p.. 3- l2_ I1_ ro- --,• I I I •I S F W S I GRASS , I I I I I I I I I F W S F BROWSE W COMPOSITE DIET 0 Pikes Peak 0 Buffalo Peak 6. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 8. Percent soluble ash in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-36- 10 9- 8-1- EJ fl 7 I- ~ 6p:: o U) < rx:l H 5 •• ~ [t 19 e @ G eGJ 0 0 H 0 Z lEi (9 E§ U) c:J <:) 4- H E--< Z rx:l ~ rx:l 3 I- p.., 2 -- 1 -~ I r , I I , I I I I I I I I T 1 I S F W S F W S F S GRASS BROWSE COMPOSITE DIET 0 Pikes Peak 0 Buffalo Peak b. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 9. Percent acid insoluble ash in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-37- 1.00 90 -I- .80 -r GOOD .70 ts .60 G1 (!l e l- & ~ H ~ .50 u u E-< $ (SJ A 19 ~ III I.!\ ~ 0 m GI 0 \:I <:> e. ! El c!\ .40 z r<:l l- &. U p::; r<:l p... E XCELLENT .30 -l.20 .10 -lI I I I I S F W GRASS I S I , I I I I I F W S BROWSE ,I • F S I COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak 6. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 10. Percent calcium in forage from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-38- .25 [; I!J FA IR ~ .20 0 " G 0 0 Vl ~ .15 o ~ ~ 1:\ 6\ G re o re f!1 Vl t3 0 ~ E-t z t5p::; .10 ~ ~ ~ 8- & PO OR ~ p... o .05 .~ e e EJ o I I I T S F GRASS • I W o Pikes Peak o I • I I S F BROWSE I I W I I I I I I W F S COMPOSITE DIET Buf f a.Lo Peak 6. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 11. Percent phosphorus in forage from three study areas at three seasons of the year for grass, browse and a composite diet based upon the percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-39- 20:1 18:1 16:1 0 H 14:1 ~ o (/) ~ 0 ::c P-i 12:1 o (/) 0 ::c P-i 10:1 0 H ;:;:: POOR 8:1 :::> H u ~ u 6:1 ~----------------.---- ------.----~-G o I.A 4:1 2:1 ~--------------------+---~r----------------r_--~~--------------~r__ S F W GRASS S F W BROWSE o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak 6Trickle Mtn. Fig. 12. The calcium to phosphorus ratio of forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-40- Potassium The levels of potassium in forages from the three study areas are shown in Figure 13. The amount of potassium necessary in the diet is about 0.30 percent and all values in forage analyzed show levels higher than this level. From the results of these data a potassium deficiency in bighorn sheep on these study areas is not likely. Magnesium The minimum requirement for magnesium in the diet has been set at approximately 0.08 percent and all values in forages on the three study areas exceed this amount (Fig. 14). It is unlikely that deficiency problems for magnesium could exist on the study areas for bighorn sheep. Iron Figure 15 shows the levels of iron in forages consumed by bighorn sheep. These levels are somewhat low in all three study areas at all seasons of the year. Additional work should be done on iron levels in these forages to further evaluate the effects, if any, of these forage levels on the efficiency of bighorn sheep production. Iron plays an important function in the body as a major constituent of hemoglobin so iron is vital to every tissue in the body. It occurs as an iron-porphyrin nucleus, known as heme, and is found not only in hemogloblin but also in proteins that are components of cytochrome c, peroxidase, catalase and other enzymes. The most notable effect of an iron deficiency is anemia. The effects of anemia are severe on both the adult animal and any offspring which suffer from the lack of iron in the diet. The animal has the ability to conserve or recycle its iron reserves and there would be some question of how severe a borderline deficiency of iron in forage would be. Iron in the soil is not always available to the plants. The iron can exist in complex forms which are not easily broken out in the soils and the soil pH will influence the availability of iron to the plants. Zinc Figure 16 shows the levels of zinc in forages from the three study areas. Investigations by Smith (1962) showed that zinc is essential to domestic sheep. Sheep on a zinc deficient diet for a period of ten weeks showed slipping wool, swelling and lesions around the hooves and eyes, excessive salivation, anorexia, eating wool, general listlessness, and reduction in growth. Due to the low levels of zinc found in the fall and winter diets and especially in the Buffalo Peaks and Trickle Mountain areas it would indicate possible problems with this essential mineral. Additional work should be done in this area to further investigate these potential problems. �-41- 1.0 -- .90 -.80 -- 0 G) .70 S <:> - (;) Go> a H CI'l ~ E-I .60 -r 0 p.., ~ ~ ~ ~ p.., .50 .40 ~ 8 8 ~ - A m ~ ~ 6\ Gl e 4- I'!i ~ -~ 0 8 C!I REQUIRED .30 .20 -1.10 -1'I I I S F I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I W S F W S F W GRASS BROWSE COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak f::.. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 13. Percent potassium in forages from three study areas at three sepsons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-42- ~ H CJ:i I'Ll ~ ~ E-< :z; .25 - I'Ll U ~ I'Ll Po< .20 -fo- .15 r- § E> S m &\ &. tJ ~ 19 fi a I .10 -l- ~ REQUIRED .05 '!'II I I I I I I r S F W S GRASS I I I , I I I I I F W S F W I BROWSE COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak D Buffalo Peak b. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 14. Percent magnesium in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon the percent grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-43- .IJi.. 30 1!l 6\ REQUIRED e. G> @. 25 .~ 0 ~ e. 13 ,-... 20 i fA I e G) ~ a ;:;:: Po< Po< '-' Z ~ H e E> fj 1!l 15 -I- z 0 H H H H ;:;:: 10 -i-o ~ j:r.1 Po< tI) ~ Po< 5 -l- I I I I I S F I W GRASS , , I , I I I I I S F W S F W I I BROWSE I COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak b. Trickle Mtn. Fig. 15. Parts per million iron in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon percentage of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-44- 80 .. 2' p.., - 70 .~ p.., '-' u z 60 .~ H N Z 0 H (i) e 50 0 CO) G) REQUIRED H H H ~ ~ f;l::I 40 .1- 0 U) ~ ~ p.., 14 G) p.., 30 .1- ~ e e EJ ~ &. i e Iii s. 20 -l- E> I> 8 m i 10 .1I J S •• I F I I I I I I -1 I I W S F W S GRASS BROWSE I ; I T W COMPOSITE DIET o Pikes Peak D Buffalo Peak ~ Trickle Mtn. Fig. 16. Parts per million zinc in forage samples from three study areas at three seasons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon percentage of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-45Copper Copper as a micronutrient is very complex and can be associated with other mineral problems. Figure 17 shows the copper levels found in the forages from the three study areas and was found to be well below recommended levels. Copper deficiency may manifest itself as a primary deficiency or in combination with cobalt and possibly iron. Animals suffering copper deficiency suffer from anemia as the animal appears to have trouble absorbing iron at a normal rate. Symptoms of copper deficiency are seen in young lambs (domestic) with muscular incoordination accompanied by partial paralysis of the hindquarters and degeneration of the myelin sheath of the nerve fibers. Copper deficiency also affects the wool or hair coat causing a rough-lackluster appearance. To further complicate the copper metabolism picture it has been found that a copper-molybdenum sulfur complex exists where excess molybdenum in the presence of sulfur can tie up the copper causing deficiency problems. In view of the fact that many areas of Colorado alpine are high in molybdenum this complex should be investigated further to see if this could cause problems with bighorn sheep. Selenium The relationship of selenium with vitamin E metabolism and the importance in preventing muscular dystrophy in lambs has been established by Muth et al. (1958). Muscular dystrophy has been diagnosed in bighorn sheep from Pikes Peak and the levels of selenium, as shown in Figure 18, indicate that selenium levels are below recommended levels of 0.10 ppm in forage from Pikes Peak. Those forage levels from Trickle Mountain would indicate adequate levels with Buffalo Peaks offering an intermediate position. These preliminary results justify further work in this area especially in view of recent work showing correlations of selenium with immune response by the body to disease organisms. Bighorn Sheep Tissue Analysis The mean concentration and standard deviation of seven elements (calcium, phosphorus, sodium, iron, zinc, magnesium and copper) on six tissues (hair, liver, spleen, kidney, skeletal muscle and heart muscle) from bighorn sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak over a three year period are shown in Tables 6 to 11. These comparisons were made to test the tissue levels of these lambs in an attempt to see if a supplemental feeding program associated with baiting animals to drop net traps had any noticeable effect on the lambs. Due to a small sample size during each year (1972 - 4 lambs; 1973 - 7 lambs; 1974 - 6 lambs) it is difficult to draw any conclusions from the data obtained. Additional problems in analyzing this dat.aare due to the fact that during the time between collections supplemental feeding was carried out on the Pikes Peak herd and it is very difficult to determine if the lambs were from ewes on supplemental feed or not. �-46- .1- 2' Po. Po. •I- '-' p:; ~ Po. Po. 0 6.0 u Z 0 1-1 H H 5.0 ..• RR QUI RED 8 1-1 ;:.:: p:; ~ Po. 4.0 . ~ -c Po. C3 3.0 2.0 - 1.0 ~ A 0 A G> Ul 8 8 ~ ~ eJ 8 G a ~ &. ~ £ A (j) • S .-l ~ •F ~ GRASS ~ , I 1 I --'- _1 S F ~ J S' F 'w BROWSE COMPOSITE DIET· o Pikes Peak o Buffalo Peak 6 Trickle Mtn. Fig. 17. Parts per million copper in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon percentage of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �-47- .16 .15 - A •.140~ 2' §:: .1301- ~ A ~ & m Gl e. ~ e 8 .12"'1- 6\ 8 .11'1- 8 e "!F.,QUI RED .10 CD- EI .09·" .08° r0.07°r- e e e .06·l- m e a e G> .05- 1- .04• I"'" .03·~ e c:) .02-r.0I-I- , S I i • I I I F GRASS W S o Pikes Peak I F BROWSE -.l I I I I I I I W S F W COMPOSITE DIET o Buffalo Peak ~ Trickle Mtn. Fig. 18. Parts per million selenium in forages from three study areas at three seasons of the year for browse, grass and a composite diet based upon percentages of grass and browse used by bighorn sheep. �Table 6. Mean concentration and standard sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak. 1972 (4) 1973 (7) of trace mineral levels in hair samples from bighorn Percent Calcium Percent Phosphorus Percent Sodium Ppm Iron Ppm Zinc Ppm Magnesium Ppm Copper x .16 .11 .04 287.2 112.5 381 80.7 Range .15-17 .08-.14 .03-.05 172.4-615.4 91. 7-158.0 299-470 63.2-92.6 SD .012 .025 .012 218.88 30.64 70.02 12.54 .20 .10 .05 269.4 105.2 323 89.1 .16-.29 .08- .13 .03-.10 190.5-470.9 94.3-121.3 254-390 69.3-122.~ SD .052 .022 .024 99.36 9.88 44.20 19.30 x .22 .11 .03 272.6 105.1 675 97.0 .16-.39 .08-.15 .02-.04 195.5-453.6 93.4-120.7 291-1600 74.7-148.5 .087 .024 .008 97.12 12.35 360.30 27.80 x Range 197L1 (6) deviation Range SD I .I:00 I �Table 7. Mean concentration and standard deviation of trace mineral levels in liver samples from bighorn sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak. 1972 (4) Percent Calcium Percent Phosphorus Percent Sodium Ppm Iron Ppm Zinc Ppm Magnesium Pp1!1 Copper .08 .17 .24 333.3 162.3 474 15.9 .07-.09 .12-.24 .19-.29 302.8-378.4 134.5-190.9 458-490 9.4-23.6 SD .008 .053 .055 33.88 23.39 17.1 5.95 x .09 .16 .29 353.8 229.8 452 35.3 .08-.10 .10-.25 .20-.35 249.5-426.3 119.3-376.8 337-600 8.1-66.3 .009 .051 .057 64.74 102.79 105.0 27.15 .09 .17 .27 471.3 162.85 534 50.8 .07-.10 .10-.24 .20-.39 332.2-548.6 81.0-252.6 482-590 6.5-95.1 .012 .061 .067 74.59 73.8 35.20 x Range 1973 (7) Range SD 1974 ( 6) x Range SD 146.08 I ~ '" I �Table 8. Mean concentration and standard sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak. 1972 (4) deviation of trace mineral levels in spleen samples from bighorn Percent Calcium Percent Phosphorus Percent Sodium Ppm Iron Ppm Zinc Ppm Magnesium Ppm Copper .09 .17 .24 333.3 99.1 546 5.4 .09-.09 .13-.20 .19-.29 302.8-378.4 74.9-120.3 495-592 4.9-5.5 SD 0.0 .030 .055 33.87 21.22 53.24 .300 x .10 .32 .29 353.8 103.9 649.3 7.1 x Range 1973 (7) I \J1 Range 1974 (6) .08- .19 .24-.41 .20-.35 249.5-426.3 89.5-115.6 578-702 4.8-13.0 : SD .039 .061 .057 64.74 10.01 41.90 2.74 x .11 .28 .27 471. 3 105.1 773.5 6.3 .08-.15 .20-.35 .20-.39 332.2-548.6 98.5-107.1 549-1127 4.9-8.5 .030 .065 .067 146.08 6.05 225.46 1.35 Range SD 0 I �Table 9. Mean concentration and standard deviation sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak. of trace mineral levels in kidney samples from bighorn Percent Calcium Percent Phosphorus Percent Sodium Ppm Iron l'pm Zinc Ppm Magnesium Ppm Copper .10 .25 .57 356.5 105.8 565 19.5 .08-.11 .11-.42 .30-.78 302.4-396.1 88.0-112.5 511-633 17.9-20.8 SD .015 .l36 .202 39.81 . 11.89 54.2 1.21 x .11 .32 .72 359.3 116.5 606 20.6 1972 (4) x Range 1973 (7) Range 1974 (6) .10-.12 .24-.40 .59-.99 297.6-403.2 76.1-168.9 571-673 15.3-22.7 SD .008 .053 .148 42.91 33.45 37.2 2.75 x .11 .33 .61 356.1 123.2 615 21.3 .09- .15 .22-.42 .41-.70 283.7-449.4 89.9-222.5 519-866 19.7-23.3 .023 .076 .104 66.16 50.97 128.9 1.50 Range SD I \Jl f-' I �Table 10. Mean concentration and standard deviation from bighorn sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak. 1972 (4) Percent Calcium Percent Phosphorus Percent Sodium Ppm Iron Ppm Zinc Ppm Magnesium Ppm Copper .07 .18 .38 232.6 118.3 756 7.9 .06-.08 .16-.19 .17-.22 226.6- 241. 9 105.9-131. 8 716-775 6.4-9.5 SD .010 .015 .243 10.24 13.60 27.09 1.68 x .09 .21 .26 245.1 149.8 724.6 9.5 x Range 1973 (7) Range 1974 (6) of trace mineral levels in skeletal muscle samples .07- .12 .18-.28 .18-.46 221.3-288.6 SD .016 .036 .104 x .11 .26 .09-.17 .032 Range SD 91.7-193.7 632-844 24.30 38.81 91.61 1.66 .22 271.3 124.8 9l7.7 9.5 .21-.30 .17-.29 242.1-311. 2 58.7-193.3 704-1419 .033 .044 25.37 48.36 255.54 7.5-12.2 7.3-15.0 3.01 I \J1 N I �Table 11. Mean concentration and standard deviation from bighorn sheep lambs collected on Pikes Peak. 1972 (4) of trace mineral levels in heart muscle samples Percent Calcium Percent Phosphorus Percent Sodium Ppm Iron Ppm Zinc Ppm Magnesium Ppm Copper .09 .24 .37 323.6 74.0 747 19.5 .08- .10 .21-.29 .30- .44 256.6-385.3 71.7-79.8 692 -860 17.9-20.8 SD .008 .036 .058 52.80 3.88 76.58 1.21 x .10 .29 .39 323.9 80.5 772 20.6 .09-.12 .25-.36 .36-.44 281.6-360.2 76.9-90.9 635-958 15.3-22.7 SD .011 .041 .037 27.98 5.35 131.38 2.75 x .10 .28 .35 342.3 85.38 862.8 21.3 .09-.12 .23-.32 .26-.44 319.0-379.4 72.2-129.1 653-1023 19.7-23.3 .013 .036 .070 23.01 21. 76 210.82 x Range 1973 (7) Range 1974 (6) Range SD 1.50 I VI LV I �-54- LITERATURE CITED Adrian, W. J. 1973. A comparison of a wet pressure digestion method with other commonly used wet and dry-ashing methods. Analyst 98:213. Baker, E. W., and B. W. Wharten. 1952. MacMillan Co., New York. 465 p. An introduction to acarology. Baumgartner, L. L., and A. C. Martin. 1939. Plant histology as an aid in squirrel food habit studies. J. Wildl. Manage. 3:266-268. Bear, G. D., and R. M. Hansen. 1966. Food habits, growth and reproduction of white-tailed jackrabbits in southern Colorado. Colo. Agri. Exp. StaG Tech. Bull. No. 90. 59 p. Boussingault, Jean-Baptiste. 1843. Economic rurale considderee dans ses rapports avec la chimie, la physique et la meteorologie. Bechet Jeunne. Paris. (In 2 volumes). Translated by Sir George Laws. 1845. Rural economic in its relation with chemistry, physics and meterology. D. Appleton and Company, New York. Colburn, M. W., and J. L. Evans. 1967. Chemical composition of the cell wall constituents and acid detergent fiber fraction of forages. J. Dairy Science 50:1130. Cook, C. W., and L. E. Harris, 1950a. The nutritive content of the grazing sheep's diet on summer and winter ranges of Utah. Utah Exp. StaG Bull. 340. Cook, C. W., and L. E. Harris. 1950b. The nutritive value of range forage as affected by vegetation type, site, and stage of maturity. Utah Tech~ Bull. 344. Cook, C. W., L. E. Harris, and L. A. Stoddart. 1948. Measuring the nutritive content of a foraging sheep's diet under range conditions. J. Anim. Sci. 7:170. Cooperrider, A. Y. 1969. The biology and management of the bighorn sheep of Rock Creek, Montana. Montana Game and Fish Dept. Fed. Aid Rept. 92 p. Crampton, E. W., and I.R.C. Jackson. 1944. Seasonal variation in chemical composition of pasture herbage and the relation to its digestibility by steers and sheep. J. Animal Sci. 3:333. Crampton, E. W., and L. A. Maynard. 1938. The relation of cellulose and lignin content to the nutritive value of animal feeds. J. Nutrition 15:383. Dusi, J. L. 1949. Methods for the determination of food habits by plant microtechniques and histology and their application to cottontail rabbit food habits. J. Wildl. Manage. 13:295-298. Fonnesbeck, P. V., and L. E. Harris. 1971. Determining hemicellulose in plant cell walls. Proc. Western Sec., Amer. Soc. Animal Sci. 22:77. �-55- Fonnesbeck, P. V., and L. E. Harris. 1970a. Determination of plant cell walls in feeds. Proc. Western Sec., Amer. Soc. Animal Sci. 21:153. Fonnesbeck, P. V., and L. E. Harris. 1970b. Determination of holocellulose, lignin and silica of plant cell walls. Proc. Western Sec., Amer. Soc. Animal Sci. 21:162. Garrigus, W. P., and H. P. Rusk. 1939. Some effects of the species and stage of maturity of plants on the forage consumption of grazing steers of various weights. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 454. Harrington, H. D. 1954. Denver. 666 p. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Sage Books, Harris, L. E. 1970. Nutrition techniques for domestic and wild animals. Vol. 1. An international record system and procedures for analyzing samples. L. E. Harris, Logan, Utah. Harris, L. E., C. W. Cook, and J. E. Butcher. 1959. Symposium on forage evaluation. V. Intake and digestibility techniques and supplemental feeding in range forage evaluation. Agron. J. 51:226. Hegg, o. 1961. Analyses of big-game droppings to determine their dietary composition in Swiss National Park. Revue suisse de 800logie 68(12): 156-165. (Translated by J. J. Stansky, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station. 9 p.). Henneberg, W., and F. Stohmann. fritterung der weiderkur. 1860. Henry, W. A., and F. B. Morrison. 1910. W. A. Henry, Madison, Wisconsin. Berundung einer rationellen Feeds and Feeding. 10th ed. Kiley, M. 1966. A preliminary investigation into the feeding habits of the waterbuck by faecal analysis. Journ. E. Africa Wildl. 4:153-157. Lay, D. W. 1965. Fruit utilization by deer in southern forests. Wildl. Manage. 29(2):370-375. J. Martin, C. M. 1952. Seasonal changes in the physical and chemical composition of pasture herbage and their effects upon the responses of grazing and hand-fed steers. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University. Moser, C. A. 1962. The bighorn sheep of Colorado. Dept. Tech. Bull. No. 10. 49 p. Colo. Game and Fish Muth, O. H., J. E. Oldfield, L. F. Remmert, and J. R. Schubert. Effects of selenium and vitamin E on white muscle disease. 128:1090. 1958. Science Myers, G. T. 1962. Food habits of the plains pocket gopher in the sandhills of eastern Colorado. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 73 p. Reid, J. T., W. K. Kennedy, K. L. Turk, S. T. Slack, G. W. Trimberger, and R. P. Murphy. 1959a. Effect of growth stage, chemical composition, and physical properties upon the nutritive value of forages. J. Dairy Sci. 42:567. �-56Reid, J. T., and W. K. Kennedy. 1959b. Symposium on forage evaluation. I. What is forage quality from the animal standpoint? Agron. J. 51:213. Reid, J. T., P. G. Woolfolk, C. R. Richards, R. W. Kaufman, J. K. Loosli, K. L. Turk, J. I. Miller, and R. E. Blaser. 1950. A new indicator method for the determination of digestibility and consumption by ruminants. J. Dairy Sci. 33:60. Shepherd, H. R. 1961. Colorado Div. of Wildlife, Smith, E. L. 1962. In Mineral Metabolism, Press. pp. 349-369. personal communication. Vol. 2, Part B. Academic Sparks, D. R., and J. C. Malechek. 1968. Estimating percentage dry weight in diets using a microscope technique. J. Range Manage. 21(4):261-265. Sparks, D. R. 1968. Diet of black-tailed jackrabbits land. J. Range Manage. 21(4):203-208. on sandhill range- Stewart, D. R. M. 1967. Analysis of plant epidermis in faeces: a technique for studying the food preference of grazing herbivores. J. Appl. Exol. 4(1):83-111. Storr, G. M. 1961. Microscopic analysis of faeces, a technique for ascertaining the diet of herbivorous mammals. Austral. J. BioI. Sci. 14:157-164. Thaer, A. 1809. Grundsatze der rationelle landwirtschaft. 275, Die Realschulbuchhandlung. Berlin. Vol. I, Sec. Todd, J. W. 1972. Food habits of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. Van Soest, P. J., and R. H. Wine. 1967. Use of the detergents in the analysis of feeds. IV. Determination of plant cell-wall constituents. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 50:50. Van Soest, P. J. 1964. Symposium on nutrition and forage and pastures: New chemical procedures for evaluating forages. J. Animal Sci. 28:838. Van Soest, P. J. 1963. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. II. A rapid method for the determination of fiber and lignin. J. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. 46:829. Zyznar, E., and P. J. Urness. 1969. forage ruminants in deer feces. Prepared by: Robert E. Keiss Wildlife Researcher Qualitative identification of J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):506-510. �-57- JOB PROGRESS State 0f WOLk Plan No. Period REPORT W-41"":R-26 Bighorn 1 Job No. ---------------- Manipulation Coyered: Personnel: 1977 C.:...O.:...I.:....O:c;:RAD=:...:O'-_ .Proj ect No. Job Title January of Vegetation Sheep & Mourita·in Goat Investigations 17 ------------------------------- on Bighorn Sheep Ranges June 1, 1975 to May 31, 1976 George D. Bear, Lynn Stevens, Stan Koster. Karl Karrow, Patrick Powell, and ABSTRACT Study plots near Cathedral, Colorado were treated with varied applications of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, and2,4-D herbicide in 1971-72. Two areas were selected for study sites: (a) an alpine range, and (b) a ponderosa pinebunchgrass range. The effects of these treatments were monitored during the period 1972-1976. Data are being analyzed and a final report prepared. ��-59- MANIPULATION OF VEGETATION ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE Improve the herbage yield, vegetative density and vegetative composition on selected bighorn sheep ranges in Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Determine the effect of each treatment on the composition, production and chemical content of plant species. 2. Determine the grazing preferences of wild bighorns on the area in respect to each treatment. PROCEDURES The study area is located about 35 miles south of Gunnison, Colorado. This bighorn herd winters in two areas; in a low (8,000 feet elevation) bunchgrass and ponderosa pine type, and in a high (11,000-14,000 feet elevation) alpine vegetative type. Study plots were established on these two winter ranges; and the plots were treated with phosphorus fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, and 2,4-D herbicide (16 treatment-levels) in 1971-72. Effects of these treatments we~e monitored from June, 1972 to June, 1976. Data are being analyzed (multiple analysis of variance) at Colorado State University Statistical Center, and a final report is being prepared. Permanent transects were established on each of the plots to determine change in vegetative composition and production which may result from the various treatments. A frequency sampling technique was used to monitor vegetative composition on the plots. Quantity of vegetation produced on the treatment plots was determined by using a Neal Electronics Herbage Meter. Vegetative samples were collected from each treated area and analyzed for their chemical content. Only samples of the most common plant species were collected. Since the study areas are bighorn winter ranges, the vegetation was sampled at the completion of the growing season, in mid-winter, and late winter. Animal reaction to the treatments or selectivity was determined by direct observation of grazing animals and visual reconnaissance of utilization on the vegetation. Prepared by ~..ft#;. cfI ~-L~. Ceor s D. Bear Wildlife Researcher ��January, 1977 -61JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~----~-----W-41-R-26 Proj'ect No. Work Plan No • .Joh Title Job No.~.__ ~_2_1 ~ _ Trapping, Marking and Collecting Bighorn Sheep Period Covered: Personnel: 1 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations June 1, 1975 - May 31, 1976 G. D. Bear, F. CoLl.ey , M. P. Elkins, C. P. Hfb Ler , R. E. Keiss, E.Latson, J. Morris, P. H. Neil, R. L. Schmidt, T. Spraker, and J. Wegryzn. ABSTRACT .. Fifty-two bighorn sheep were trapped during the winter of 1976 by the use of a drop net trap. Most of· these captured animals were treated for Protostrongylus Several bighorn sheep were transported sp. infestation, marked rand released. to holding facilities for more intensive research investigations, ��-63- TRAPPING, MARKING AND COLLECTING BIGHORN SHEEP Robert L. Schmidt P. S. OBJECTIVE To trap or collect bighorn sheep for adding to the captive flocks at Little Hills Experiment Station; for obtaining nasal swabs and blood samples; for marking and treatment with therapeutic drugs, or (in case of dead animal collection) for necropsy examination. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Collect bighorn lambs at intervals and locations prescribed tractual agreement. by con- 2. Trap an indefinite number (as many as can reasonably be caught and/or handled) of bighorn sheep of all age classes. METHODS AND MATERIALS Trapping techniques used during this segment are the same as those previously described (Erickson 1970, Schmidt 1976). A drop net, triggered by remote control, is utilized to capture the bighorn sheep which are attracted under the net by apple pulp and alfalfa. The bighorn sheep were treated with chemotherapeutic drugs showing efficacy for Protostrongylus sp. After treatment they were marked with either eartags on lambs or neck bands on adults and released. Drugs used in this treatment scheme were Cambendazole (8.4 gms/dose) and Diethylcarbamazine (3.2 gms/ dose) • Bighorn sheep were trapped at two locations - the Cache la Poudre Canyon west of Fort Collins, and the Pikes Peak area west of Colorado Springs, Colorado. Tables 1 and 2 list the animals trapped, treated and released from the two areas. LITERATURE CITED Erickson, ~. A. 1970. Use of drop net and collars in a study of Dall sheep. North Wild Sheep Council, Trans. pp. 20-21. Schmidt, R. L. 1976. Trapping, marking and collecting bighorn sheep. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. 1, Job 21, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Re Wildlife Tech II �-64- �-65- Table Study 2. Bighorn Area. sheep trapped, Age No. Date Sex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/11/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 3/22/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 4/1/76 F F F F F F F F F M F F F F F F F M F F M F M M M F F F F F F F M M F treated New Neck Band and released Old Neck Band from the Pikes Eartag Blue R 1 7 Blue R 2 4 Blue R 3 8 White. 3 Blue R 4 8 Blue R 7 5 Blue R 8 8 Yellow. 11 10 Blue R 10 Lamb Yellow 1 Lamb Yellow 2 Lamb Yellow 3 8 (Lost in Trapping) 7 Blue Rll 9 Blue R 12 Yellow. 9 8 Blue Rl3 Blue. 3 9 Blue R 14 Yellow. l3 8 Blue R 15 7 Blue R- 1 Lamb Yellow 4 Lamb Yellow 5 Lamb Yellow 6 Lamb Yellow 7 Lamb Yellow 8 Lamb Yellow 9 Lamb Yellow 10 1 Yellow 12 Lamb Yellow 1 (E. T.) 9 Blue R 17 8 Blue R 18 9 Blue R 20 8 Blue R 21 Blue. 1 8 Blue R 22 7 Blue R 23 Lamb Yellow 11 Lamb Yellow 12 (Lost in Trapping) 7 Peak Weight 1751/ 1651/ 1601/ 107fl 1751/ ��January 1977 -67JOB PROGRESS State of Project REPORT _ COLORADO W-4l-R-26 No. 1 Work Plan No. Job Title Monitoring Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Job t;ro. Goat Investigations 22 -~-------------------------- Bighorn Sheep Populations .-------------------------- June 1, 1975 - May 31, 1976 F. Colley, M. P. Elkins, C. P. Hibler, J. Morris, P. Neil, and R. 1. Schmidt. ABSTRACT Bighorn sheep in the Pikes Peak Study Area, the Cache la Poudre Canyon Study Area, and the Rampart Range Study area were treated with chemotherapeutic drugs showing efficacy for Protostrongylus sp. during the study year. Evaluations of the effects of these treatments have been made and indicate that lamb survival has been enhanced by drug treatments as indicated by improved ewe-lamb ratios on Pikes Peak. ��-69- MONITORING BIGHORN SHEEP POPULATIONS Robert L. Schmidt P. S. OBJECTIVE To monitor bighorn sheep by visual surveillance characteristics of lamb mortality. to further elucidate the SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor bighorn sheep numbers, age and sex composition, appearance, behavior and activity. general body 2. Monitor numbers, distribution, association with other sheep, and lamb births and survival, of bighorn sheep which have been trapped, treated with therapeutic drugs, neck collared, and released at the trap site. METHODS AND MATERIALS All of the information collected concerning numbers, age and sex composition, and lamb survival of bighorn sheep populations in general was gathered on populations which were being monitored for evaluation of drug treatment effects. These results will be presented along with the results of drug treatment evaluations. In addition a simple Lincoln Index was used to estimate size of the current Pikes Peak bighorn sheep population. Chemotherapeutic Drug Treatments (1976) Pikes Peak Bait treatment stations established and used in drug treatments on Pikes Peak are shown in Figure 1. This figure shows the locations of several different bait-treatment stations where bighorn sheep were treated with chemotherapeutic drugs during the winter of 1976. Chemotherapeutic drugs were incorporated into apple mash as previously reported (Schmidt 1976) except that the amount of drug for a single sheep dose was mixed with three pounds of mash instead of the five pounds utilized in the past. Table 1 lists the bait-treatment stations, the dates chemotherapeutic drugs were administered, the number and identity of bighorn sheep consuming drug impregnated apple mash. Chemotherapeutic drugs used during this segment included Cambendazole (8.4 gm/dose) and Diethylcarbamazine (3.2 gm/dose). �Manitou Springs Dome Rock 7.~ # Sentinel Point '4 • 5.~ Knob ,.,.Sheep Mtn. I -....J o I Bait Site Fig. 1. Locations of drug treatment bait stations, Pikes Peak Area, 1976. #1 - Saddle; #2 - Gravel Pit; #3 Peak; #4 Tunnel; #5 East Beaver; #6 Four Mile Road; #7 Four Mile Bait. �I -71- Table 1. Bait treatment stations on the Pikes Peak Study Area; treatment and bighorn sheep receiving drug treatment. Bait Treatment Station Date Treated Ifl "Saddle" 2/19/76 3/9/76 112 "Gravel Pit" 2/19/76 3/9/76 113 "Peak" 2/19/76 3/9/76 114 "Tunnel" 3/13/76 Bighorn Sheep Treated No. dates, Identification Lambs 4 Yearlings 2 Uncollared 4 Collared 5 Lambs 3 Yearlings 1 Uncollared 12 Collared 10 Lambs 3 Yearlings 1 Uncollared 6 Collared 2 Lambs 11 Yearlings 3 Uncollared 9 Collared 4 Lambs 11 Yearlings 1 Un collared 1 Collared 9 Lambs 4 Yearlings 0 Uncollared 1 Collared 2 (Bd12; 09) Lambs 3 (et Y4; et Y8; et Y11) Yearlings 0 Uncollared 2 Collared 8 (Y-3; Yd5; Yd6; Wd3; Bdl) (Wd2; Wd3; Wd6; Yd5; Yd15; Ydll; Bdl; Bd4; Rdl; 0-10) (Bd2; Wd2) (Ydl4; Yd9; Bd3; Od6) (Yd11; Yd13; Yd9; Yd14; Od6; 09; Rdl; Wd6; Bd3) (0 10; 09; Wd4; Yd15; Yd16; Bd12; BRl2*; BRl3**) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-72- Table 1. Bait treatment stations on the Pkes Peak Study Area; treatment dates, and bighorn sheep receiving drug treatment (Cont.). Bait Treat men t Station Date Treated Bighorn Sheep Treated 115 "East Beaver" 3/13/76 Lambs No. Twelve treatments were placed on the bait station. no observations were made due to a snowstorm Yearlings Uncollared Collared 116 "Four Mile Road" 4/7 /76 4/15/76 4/16/76 117 "Four Mile Bait" 4/6/76 4/15/76 Identification Lambs 0 Yearlings 4 Uncollared 0 Collared 4 Lambs 2 Yearlings 4 Uncollared 1 Collared 3 Lambs 2 Yearlings 2 Un collared 1 Collared 4 Lambs 2 Yearlings 3 Uncollared 3 Collared 6 Lambs 0 Yearlings 2 Uncollared 1 Collared 4 (Yd17; Yd20; Yd21; B4) (Yd17; Yd20; M) (Yd17; Yd21; Rd8; B-?) (Rd7; Rd8; B5; W16; W17; Yd19) (B5 ; B2; B d5; W15) B - Blue; Y - Yellow; W - White; R - Red; d - Dot; et - Ear Tag; 0 - Orange * BR12 was previously Yd9. **BRl3 was previously Bd3. �-73- Poudre Canyon Bait-treatment stations established and used in drug treatments in the Cache la Poudre Canyon are shown in Figure 2. This figure shows the location of four different bait-treatment stations where bighorn sheep were treated with chemotherapeutic drugs. All treatments are the same as described for Pikes Peak Study Area. Table 2 lists the bait-treatment stations, the dates chemotherapeutic drugs were administered, the number and identity of bighorn sheep consuming drug impregnated apple mash. Rampart Range One bait-treatment station was established at the Rampart Range gravel pit located west of Colorado Springs, Colorado. Baiting techniques were the same as described for Pikes Peak and Poudre Canyon Study Areas except that a different drug was used. Fenbendazole was administered in apple mash at several dosage rates. Table 3 lists the treatment schedule followed on the Rampart Range during the winter of 1976. Pikes Peak Bighorn Sheep Population Estimates 1975-1976 Population estimates made from data in this segment reflect the drug treatment results from the winter of 1974-1975 as reported in the previous segment of this project (Schmidt 1976). Composited observational data on the proportion of collared vs uncollared bighorn sheep observed over the period June 6, 1975 to April 6, 1976 were used to estimate the size of the Pikes Peak bighorn sheep population. A simple Lincoln Index was used to project these data to population estimates. Since all sheep which were collared were adults, population projections were pertinent only to adults. Proportions of yearlings and lambs in classification data were used to project to final estimates of total populations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Chemotherapeutic Drug Treatments (1975) Pikes Peak There are two parameters which can be measured in a wild bighorn sheep population to evaluate the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs on bighorn sheep lamb survival. One is to measure total herd recruitment and hope for an increase in total numbers of animals on a sustained year to year basis, and second to measure the number of first stage Protostrongylus larvae deposited in the fecal pellet groups. If chemotherapeutic drugs are to be effective in controlling adult lungworms in the air passages of the animal, then it should be reflected in the number of larvae these adults worms will produce. During the present segment, pellet groups are being collected and Baermannized to count first stage larvae and these data will be presented during the next segment of the project. �~ ~ N. BALD MTN. MIDDLE BALP MTN. i) BALD MTN. f1'if 3. LONETREE MTN. -...JI -'I" § ~ e 'g •••• ,,0 •...... -- •..•. CROWN POINT • = Bait Site Fig. 2. Location of bait-treatment stations in the Poudre River Canyon, Colorado. #1 - Meadows; #2 - Poudre Ponds; #3 - New Arrow Head; #4 - Indian Meadows. �-75- Table 2. Bait treatment stations in the Poudre River Canyon study area, treatment dates, and bighorn sheep receiving drug treatment. Bait Treatment Station Date Treated Bighorn Sheep Treated No. III "Meadows" 3/1/76 Lambs 3 Yearlings 3 Uncollared 3 Collared 11 (Yl; Y2; Y3; Y4; Rl; R3; B4; B16; B20; WR2) Lambs 3 (et Rl; et Bl) Yearlings 3 Uncollared 2 Collared 8 Lambs Uncollared o o o Collared 3 (WG; OB; R5) Lambs 4 (et Y2; et Y3; et Y9) Yearlings 1 (et Y12) Uncollared o Collared 3 Lambs 1 Yearlings o Uncollared 6 Collared 2 (Bl3; Bll) Lambs 5 (et Y5) Yearlings o Uncollared 13 Collared 3 Rams 9 3/14/76 112 "Poudre Ponds" 3/3/76 Yearlings 3/29/76 113 "New Arrow Head" 3/18/76 3/29/76 114 "Indian Meadows" 3/3/76 Identification (et Rl) (Y2; Y3; Y4; R3; R8; B20; WR2; RW2) (WG; OB; RS) (Bl; B10; Bl3) �-76- Table 3. Bait treatment station on Rampart Range study area, treatment and dosage rates of Fenbendazole for bighorn sheep. Treatment Date Fenbendazole Dosage 3/31/76 5 mg. 4/6/76 5 mg. 4/15/76 Note: 20 mg. Bighorn Sheep Treated No. Lambs 1 Yearlings 2 Unco Ll.a re d 2 Collared 7 Lambs 1 Yearlings 2 Un collared 2 Collared 7 Lambs 1 Yearlings 2 Uncollared 2 Collared 7 On 4/14/76 eight rams and one uncollared Cambendazole. dates, Identification (et R7; et R9) (Y6; Y7; YB; Y9; Yll; Yl4; R2) (et R7; et R9) (Y6; Y7; YB; Y9; Yll; Yl4; R2) (et R7; et R9) (Y6; Y7; YB; Y9; Yl1; Y14; R2) ewe were treated with 8.1 gm. �-77- Bighorn sheep population estimates for the Pikes Peak Study Area are based upon the following observation counts made between May 1975 and April 1976 : Collared Ewes Uncollared Ewes Collared Rams Uncollared Rams 329 231 23 31 By direct observations it was determined that a total of 46 collared ewes and 8 collared rams were known to be on Pikes Peak, therefore it is possible to use a simple Lincoln Index to estimate the adult bighorn population. Ewes (X) 46 x 560 329 78 8 x 54 Rams (Y) = --'-";;';;2-'3:""";""19 By using population classification data derived by observations made between September 1975 and April 15, 1976, it was estimated that the ewe-lamb ratio was 61 lambs per 100 ewes. Thus if we estimate the ewe population to be 78 then it is reasonable to estimate the lamb population at 48. Two different estimates of the number of yearlings in the Pikes Peak population can be calculated. First, yearling numbers can be calculated by assuming that the ratio yearling observations to total adult ewe observations reflect the true population ratio of yearlings to adult ewes (i.e. there are no cumulative observability or identifiability biases which favor the detectability of one group over the other). Then yearling numbers can be estimated by multiplying the yearling to adult ewe ratio (130) by the 3W estimated number of adult ewes (78), thus, number of yearlings 78 x = ~~g= 18. Secondly, yearling numbers can be calculated by assuming that the ratio of yearling observations to adult ram observations (130/54) reflect the true population ratio of yearlings to adult rams. An estimate of yearling numbers is then obtained by multiplying the estimate of adult rams (19) by the yearling to adult ratio. Thus, number of yearlings = 19 x 130 = 46. 54 Another comparison made on lamb survival is the ewe-lamb ratio between treated and untreated ewes within' the Pikes Peak Study Area population. Table 4 shows the data comparison between the ratios of ewes to lambs during three periods in the study area. �Table 4. Comparison three time intervals of ewe-lamb ratios between collared-treated during the 1975-1976 study year. Time Period June-August 1975 September-December January-March 1976 1975 ewes and collared-untreated ewes during Untreated Ewes Lambs Ewe/Lamb Ratio Treated Ewes Lambs Ewe/Lamb Ratio 30 16 53:100 73 59 81:100 30 15 50:100 88 64 73:100 9 2 22:100 38 28 74:100 I --.J 00 I �-79- LITERATURE CITED schmidt, R. L. 1976. Trapping, marking and collecting bighorn sheep. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-4l-R-25, Work Plan 1, Job 21, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. January. pp. 49-54. Prepared by ~LijP Rob rt L. chmidt Wildlife Tech II ��-81- JOB PROGRESS State of Project 1977 REPORT ---.,;C::.;O:.:LO:;.::..;::RAD=..;;.O _ W-4l-R-26 No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period January, 1 Sheep Job No. Bighorn Sheep Lungworm Control By Biological Control of Snail Intermediate Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Harold & Mountain Goat Investigations ~23~ Hosts june 1, 1975 - May 31, 1976 R. Shepherd ABSTRACT Preliminary plans were made with the United States Forest Service and Colorado State University to conduct and monitor prescribed burning of aspen patches in a portion of the Poudre River bighorn sheep range. Subsequent to tentative Forest Service approval of the proposed study, a detailed plan, the Program Narrative Outline; was prepared to conduct a study to learn th~ effects of prescribed burning of aspen on landsnail abundance. _ ��BIGHORN SHEEP LUNGWORM CONTROL BY BIOLOGICAL ,CONTROL OF SNAIL INTERMEDIATE HOSTS Harold R. Shepherd P. S. OBJECTIVE To evaluate and develop methods for field application of pesticides and/or biological control mechanisms that have been laboratory tested and found to be effective in controlling snails and/or lungworm larvae. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Prepare a literature review of land snails, including information about their predators, parasites, diseases, life cycles and natural or imposed biological controls. 2. Conduct suitable reconnaissance field and/or laboratory surveys preliminary to the search for means of biologically controlling land snails. 3. Plan a study of the life cycles and the predators, parasites, diseases, and habitat relationships of the species of snails which are intermediate hosts of lungworms in bighorn sheep. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Arrangements were made with Biological Information Service Company of Los Angeles for computerized retrospective literature searches under the main subjects of Bighorn Sheep, Lungworms, and Snails. Upon receipt of titles and some abstracts generated by the literature searches, pertinent literature was selected, obtained, read and abstracted. Abstracts were placed on Unisort Analysis cards and filed according to appropriate subject headings. A review of the literature suggests that land-snail control using natural snail enemies or molluscicides is presently impractical. However, snail and prescribed burning literature and exploratory snail habitat sampling of Poudre River bighorn sheep range provides reasons to believe that concentrations of snails occurring in aspen patches on sheep range may be effectively reduced by prescribed burning of aspen patches. Such habitat manipulation, if done periodically, might reduce the incidence of lungworm infection in sheep. Because the prescribed burning study envisaged would be on U.S. Forest Service lands, the permission of the Forest Service was desirable before further effort and expense was expended in planning. Consequently, several conferences and field trips were arranged with appropriate Forest Service personnel to acquaint them with the general objectives of the proposed �-84study and the sites where it would be undertaken. As a result of the meetings, the Forest Service gave tentative approval of the study contingent upon approval of the final plans. Personnel of the Colorado State University Fire Ecology Department have agreed to cooperate in the study to the extent of preparing prescriptions for the bu-rning procedures and pre- and post-burn monitoring of burn parameters. A Program Narrative Outline was prepared and submitted to my immediate supervisor for approval. It constitutes a review of literature pertinent to the study discussed above, together with detailed procedures, work schedules and budget estimates sufficient to permit others, if necessary, to successfully conduct the study. Prepared by t?~kM -: i,~ Harold R. Shepher .Wildlife Researcher �-85- January, 1977 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~--------------- Project No. W-4l-R-26 Work. Plan No. 1 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain .Goat Investigations Job No. ~2~4~ __ ~ ~---------- Job Title __~E=x~t~e=n=d=i=n~g~B=i~gh~o~rn=-~Sh=e~e~· p~R~a=n~g~e~s~ Period Covered: Personnel: _ June 1, 1975 to May 31, 1976 George D. Bear, George Jones, Cliff Coghill, Robert E. Keiss. ABSTRACT Twenty-five bighorn sheep were transplanted to the lower portion of the Cache la Poudre River drainage during the last work segment. It appeared that sixteen sheep had settled on .the Sheep Mt. release site. They remained in the area until November, when deer hunters apparently caused them to disperse. Seven.reappeared on the area. only to leave again ::tnlate December. These bighorns are very nomadic now, wandering around in the lower portion of the canyon. Nine bighorns (6 ewes, 1 lamb, and 2 rams) were transplanted to the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area last winter. These b Lghorns remained at the release-site until the snow melted, then they started exploring the surrounding area. This band of sheep is also very noniadic,but are still within six miles of the release-site. ��-87- EXTENDING BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P. S. OBJECTIVE Determine if the distribution and population of bighorn sheep herds can be increased by transplanting sheep into suitable areas adjacent to the present concentrations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and transplant sheep onto the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area. 2. Monitor survival, movements, distribution and reproduction of transplanted sheep in Cache la Poudre Canyon and Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area. METHODS AND MATERIALS Cache la Poudre Canyon During the previous segment (1974-75) twenty-five bighorn sheep were trapped in the upper Cache la Poudre River drainage and transplanted to the lower portion of the canyon (Sheep Mt.). The sheep moved around a great deal during the first thirty days after their release. Some individuals remained together, while others moved between groups. By spring (April-May, 1975) it appeared that sixteen sheep had settled on the Sheep Mt. release-site. Continuing efforts were made during this segment to record movements of the transplanted bighorns. This primarily consists of walking through the areas occupied by the sheep and recording the location of the individuals observed. Cebolla Creek A similar transplant was made in the LaGarita Mountains. The LaGarita bighorn herd winters in two distinct areas; in the alpine range above 12,000 feet elevation, and on the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area at approximately 8,000-9,000 feet elevation. Information gathered from local residents indicates that in the early 1900's it was common for these sheep to migrate from the alpine range down to Cebolla Creek for the winter. However, since the die-off in the 1950's, only a few rams have migrated to the lower range during the winter months, while the lambs and ewes have remained in the high country. During the past two winters this migratory segment of the ram population has been reduced to a few animals. �-88- The alpine zone in the LaGarita Mountains is very extensive and offers an abundance of summer range; however, suitable wintering areas are limited to the windswept ridges. Cebolla Creek area offers an abundance of winter range. Since this herd has been increasing during the past ten years, increased demands have been placed upon the limited alpine wintering areas. Further population increases in this herd will be precluded by limited alpine winter range unless historic migration to winter ranges at lower elevations can be reestablished through transplanting operations. A small group of bighorns were trapped on Saguache Creek in southcentral Colorado during January and February, 1976, then transplanted onto the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area to encourage bighorn use in the lower country. The sheep were fitted with collars made from 4-inch wide canvas webbing with an outer layer of red vinyl sewn on the webbing. A white numeral was painted on each collar so individual animals could be identified. Nine sheep (6 ewes, 1 lamb, and 2 rams) were trapped, marked with collars, and transported to the release-site in a large livestock trailer (Table 1). Table 1. Bighorn sheep released at the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area during January-February, 1976. Sex Age Collar Number Ram 3 3 Ram 3 4 Ewe Adult Telemetry collar 112 black Ewe Adult Telemetry collar 113 amber Ewe Adult 5 Ewe Adult 6 Ewe Adult 7 Ewe Adult 9 Ram Lamb Red eartags -- /14 Two of the ewes were fitted with telemetry collars obtained from Te10nics, Mesa, Arizona. The transmitters are powered by a "D" size lithium battery (40-month life expectancy) and transmit at 148 MHz. Transmitter components were attached to a two-inch wide leather collar with nylon thread and encapsulated in ure.thane. The entire unit weighed appoximate1y 450 grams; however, newer units preassembled at Te10nics will only 270 grams. �-89- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Cache la Poudre Canyon The transplanted bighorns exhibited very erratic movement patterns after their release. Only 11 sheep (8 ewes, 2 lambs, and 1 ram) were left in the release area at the beginning of this work segment. Three lambs were born in June. This group of bighorns remained in the Sheep Mountain area throughout the summer until deer hunting season in early November (Table 2). Then the heavy concentration of hunters apparently caused them to disperse out of the area. Four of these sheep were later found in the upper portion of the canyon, from which they had been transplanted. The remaining seven sheep reappeared on Sheep Mountain. In late December some unknown factor again caused the bighorns to leave the Sheep Mountain area. There were a few reports of motorists seeing blue-collared sheep 5-10 miles downstream from the release-site. In late January three of these sheep were observed 3 miles above the relase-site; two were seen on Sheep Mountain in March. Then on June 2, 1976 five of the transplanted sheep were seen approximately five miles below Sheep Mountain; however, they were not relocated during the next few days. An aerial survey, using a super-charged Bell helicopter, was attempted in December. The flight was unsuccessful. The sheep hid under the trees when they heard the helicopter approaching, therefore, we observed only a few bighorns even in areas normally frequented by them. Due to the rough and extensive terrain observation data on these transplanted sheep has been too meager to make decisive conclusions. Apparently the normal behavior patterns of these sheep were disrupted when they were transplanted from their established territories. Normally bighorn ewebands tend to remain in established areas; however, this group is very nomadic. They readily abandoned the Sheep Mountain area after they had been there for several months. Factors and intensity of the disruption necessary to cause bighorns to abandon an area is relatively unknown. People-use on the Sheep Mountain area occurs throughout the year, with peak usage in the summer and fall periods. Tracks of predators (coyote, bear, bobcat, and mountain lion) were observed on the area at all times of the year. More information will have to be gathered to evaluate the overall results of this . transplant. Cebolla Creek Seven bighorns (6 ewes and 1 ram) remained in the general vicinity of the release-site. These sheep were released in February, when there was 1-2 feet of snow on the ground. They remained on the snow-free slopes in the immediate area until late April. Then as the snow melted, the sheep started exploring the surrounding area. They were observed crossing the river, barbed-wire fences, and the roadway with little hesitation. These explorations were limited to a three-mile radius of the release-site. The sheep seemed to be constantly moving, but returned to the release-site every two to three days. In late May this group moved to Rock Creek, approximately six miles from the release-site. This is a small canyon with rough cliffs along it. This area is away from the main road and not readily accessible to the general public. �Table 2. Location of bighorn sheep following release at Sheep Mountain. Numbers in table represent miles from release-site; positive numbers being mile:s (airline distance) upstream and negative numbers being miles downstream. Date 1 9 10 11 June 3 - - - - 11 - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - 1 1 - - - - - - - 1 - - 14 - - - - - - - - June 5 June 10 Aug. 9 Sept. 17 Sept. 18 Nov. 14 Nov. 15 Nov. 26 Nov. 28 2 4 5 6 7 - - - 15 - - 1 1 - 16 - - Feb. 27 - 13 - 1 - - - 18 18 - - - - 16 - 3 - - - - 18 - 16 - - 16 17 - - 16 16 Mar. 10 - Dec. 6 Dec. 15 Jan. 19 Jan. 23 Feb. 25 l/These - - Collar Number 12 13 14 15 16 20 18 19 R-1 R-2 Lambs - - - - - - - 1 - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 1 1 1 - - - 16 - - 1 - - - - - - - - 1 1 1 1 'l:/ - - 17 - - 11 - 11 - 13 1 1 - - - 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 14 - - - - - 14 - 15 1 - 1 - - 1 9 1 - - 1 - 1 1 12 12 - - - - - - - - - - - 12 - - 23 - - 3 16 - - 16 - 9 - 1 - - - - 1 11 17 1 - - - - - - sheep were lambs when they were transplanted, l/Two ear tagged sheep were seen at the same time. - - 14 - 3 - - - 17 - - - - 18 17 - but are yearlings now. - - - - 16 1 I \D 0 i �The other two bighorns (adult ram and a ram lamb) are unaccounted for. They were released on the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area in January, and immediately joined-up with a ram native to the area. These animals left the area before the next release was made in February. It was speculated that the native ram moved back toward the alpine range, taking the two transplanted sheep with him. However, this has not been confirmed. The original plans specified twenty-five animals were to be transplanted for this study. Due to prior commitments only nine were available. Another 12-15 animals will be transplanted to the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area during the next work segment. The telemetry equipment has worked very well and been extremely beneficial in locating and tracking these sheep. Contacts are limited to "line-ofsight"; therefore, due to the rough terrain initial contacts from the ground are generally less than two miles. The receiving range is extended considerably by using a fixed-wing aircraft, thus sheep are easily located by griddingthe area. Radio-telemetry equipment would have been a great asset in the Cache la Poudre study. Prepared by ~.~/_~ __.__.~~~~ __~_.~_~ __~_~_~ George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher ~ .__ ��January -93,.. JOB PROGRESS State of .Project 1977 REPORT :::..CO=-I:=40::..;RAD=:...:O:..__ W~4l-R-26 No. Work Plan No. .Joh Ti tle Personnel: 1 Controlled ¥.eriod Covered: . Burning Bighorn Sheep. & MOuntain Job No. 2_5 of Bighorn Goat Investigations ~ . Sheep Ranges June 1, 1975 - May 31, 1976 H. R. Shepherd. ABSTRACT No work was accomplished ori this job during the past segment except to begin a review of the literature. Work on this project was purposefully delayed because Harold R. Shepherd, the scientist currently in charge of this program, will retire before the program gets underway. It was decided that it was more appropriate to let his successor plan and conduct this experiment rather than have to undergo a lengthy orientation and training program for the new researcher in order to familiarize him with a program which was incompletely initiated. Mr. Shepherd's replacement will begin his tenure on this program August 1, 1976 and progress on this job will commence at that time. ��January, 1977 -95JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Project No. W-41-R-26 Work Plan No. 1 Job Tjtle Job No. 26 (CONTRACT) Investigation of Spontaneous Diseases of Bighorn Sheep._---- Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Invest~gations June 1, 1975 - May 31, 1976 Robert Schmidt and Paul Neil, Colorado Division of Wildlife; C. P. Hibler, T.Spraker, R. Davies, J. DeMartini, Ed Latson, J. Wegryzn, L. C1um andJ. Hurlock, Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Experimental treatment of bighorn sheep to control lungworm (Protostrongylus sp.) was continued during this segment. Treatments included field trials of administering drugs through feed supplements, as well as trapping, treating and releasing. Attempts to monitor treatment effects were made by direct observation of treated vs unt:reated sheep and measuring larvae output in feces collected from treated bighorn sheep. Controlled pen studies on captive bighorn sheep and mouflon/bighorn cross sheep were also made. ��-97- . INVESTIGATION OF SPONTANEOUS DISEASES OF BIGHORN SHEEP C. P. Hibler P. S. OBJECTIVE To determine causes, nature and effects of spontaneous diseases in Colorado's bighorn sheep with particular reference to mortality in lambs, and to evaluate various means of promoting lamb survival .. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NO.1 Experimentally induce transplacental transmission of Protostrongylus stilesi in bighorn sheep and determine the immune response of lambs to infection by this route. METHODS AND MATERIALS The study of immunodepression (= immune tolerance or immune unresponsiveness) for parasitic forms of life is in its infancy; immunologists are still experimenting with extremely simple, single antigens, and the parasite has a multitude of complex antigens. Moreover, most investigators in the field cannot agree on the most acceptable procedure to unequivocally answer the question about unresponsiveness. The procedure decided upon for this pilot study is "Lymphocyte Stimulation", one of the procedures considered acceptable. Eight bighorn or bighorn hybrid ewes will be experimentally infected orally with third stage larvae of Protostrongylus stilesi during gestation. Lambs from these ewes and from four non-infected ewes will be collected at birth and reared on an artificial diet. Heparinized blood will be collected from each lamb at weekly intervals until death of the infected lambs (expected to occur within three months of birth). Lymphocytes are separated from the blood by Ficolhypaque centrifugation and oultured at 2,000,000 cells/ml in RPMI 1640 media in 5 m1 tubes. Phytohemaglutinin (PHA) will be. used as a T lymphocyte stimulant and the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of !. coli will be used as a B lymphocyte stimulant. DNA synthesis (blastogenesis) will be determined by uptake of tritium-labelled thymidine by the cells and subsequent quantitation of Beta emissions in a liquid scintillation counter. Results can be compared between infected and non-infected lambs by means of computing a "stimulation index" for each lamb at each time interval. Stimulation Index CMP in cultures with stimulant-CPM in control cultures CPH in control cultures Depression of the stimulation index of T or B lymphocyte responses to the appropriate chemical in lungworm infected lambs compared to control lambs would suggest that immunodepression by the parasite is an important factor predisposing the lambs to infection by other disease agents. �-98- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This objective was to be done by Dr. J. DeMartini, Department of Pathology. While he made a concerted effort to accomplish this objective, problems with support, personnel and equipment made accomplishment of this objective impossible. These (equipment) problems currently have not been corrected. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NO.2 Treat bighorn sheep in the Pikes Peak study area with antihelmintics and evaluate the results. METHODS AND MATERIALS Sheep in the Pikes Peak study area currently are being treated with antihelmintics which appear to act against the infective larvae stored in the ewe's lungs. Sheep on Pikes Peak and at 4-Mile are being treated with a combination of Cambendazole and Diethylcarbamazine. Sheep on the Rampart Range are being treated with Dichlorvos. Since all sheep (or most) will be treated, the only means by which efficacy can be evaluated is: (1) Lamb survival, and (2) Lungworm larval output per gram of feces. Lamb mortality has been essentially 100 percent in these areas for five to six years. Lambs produced by ewes generally die in mid- to late summer. Lungworm larval output is generally very high (2,000 to 10,000 L/g). Evaluation of efficacy will necessitate collection of lamb feces from July, 1975, through February, 1976, and counting the larvae/gram. For this data to be meaningful or valid, it must be compared with data obtained for the last several years in these herds. It must also be compared with similar data from known healthy herds. If lambs survive, and the larval output/gram of feces is low, the treatment can be considered effective. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Much of the results of this effort are included in the report by Robert Schmidt; therefore, the actual counts will not be duplicated in this report. Numerous trips were made to evaluate lamb survival by visual means, and to collect feces from lambs born of treated ewes. The results of this segment will include only the fecal evaluations. Forty-six lamb samples collected from Pikes Peak in August, 1975, ranged from 0-50 larvae per gram of feces; the mean larval output was 13 larvae per gram of feces. Five lamb samples collected from ewes on Sheep Mountain ranged from 212-1427 larvae per gram of feces. Four lamb samples collected from Oil Creek ranged from 365-835 larvae per gram. Twenty samples obtained from the summer range of the Rampart herd in August, 1975, ranged from 0-382 larvae per gram, average 45 larvae per gram. This sample includes lambs, yearlings and adult samples. Very few lambs were available because, as indicated in Robert Schmidt's report, most of the ewes treated with Dichlorvos aborted and few lambs were available to evaluate. �-99A total of 48 lamb, yearling and adult samples were collected at 4-Mile. Larval output in lambs (8 lambs) ranged from 4-933 larvae per gram, average 126 larvae per gram; however, only one lamb was high. Excluding this lamb, the range was 4-185, average 46 larvae per gram. Adult and yearling samples (40 samples) ranged from 3-922, average 214 larvae per gram. Samples were collected from Pikes Peak (main herd) in February and March, 1976, for evaluation. Forty lamb samples collected ranged from 0-1342 larvae per gram, average 160 larvae per gram, a significant increase from the previous (August) collection. Adult and yearling samples collected during this period (34 samples) ranged from 16-687, average 260 larvae per gram. The great majority were passing 150-600 per gram. Fenbendazole was evaluated on the Rampart Range herd this year and the results are given in Table 1. Fenbendazole, as is indicated by the results, requires longer to eliminate the parasites than other compounds attempted. Very few fecal samples were obtained from the Poudre herd this year. Ten adult samples collected in January ranged from 65-928, average 182 larvae per gram. Only one lamb sample was obtained and it had 48 larvae per gram. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NO.3 Evaluate antihelmintics for efficacy against Protostrongylus captive bighorn sheep and bighorn/mouflon hybrids. stilesi using METHODS AND MATERIALS A total of four adult bighorn sheep ewes and 16 bighorn/mouflon hybrids are maintained in captivity. All four of the bighorn sheep are infected with Protostrongylus stilesi and five of the hybrids are infected. Snails currently are being infected to expose an additional three ewes to infection with this parasite, bringing the total number of infected hybrid ewes to eight. Presently, there are four rams in the herd and all of these will also be infected. Four ewes will be kept as uninfected controls. Lambs from the infected ewes, and the uninfected ewes and their lambs will be used for immunity experiments through mid-August, 1975; thereafter, they will be used in chemotherapy.trials. A total of 16 infected adult sheep will be available for chemotherapy trials and (hopefully) 16 lambs (eight infected transplacentally and eight uninfected). Both age groups can be used in chemotherapy trials, but adult ewes with stored third-stage larvae will be the most important animals. Two drugs are presently scheduled for evaluation: Diethylcarbamazine Hygromycin B. A third drug (HOE-88l) may be included. and �-100- The type of experiments planned for evaluation of these drugs are referred to as "Modified Critical Evaluations" in that the worm burden in individuals is measured before and after treatment using larval counts/ gram of feces as the basis for efficacy. Control animals which have not been treated are also examined. The 12 infected sheep will be examined daily for two weeks to determine the level of lungworm larval output/gram of feces. Four will be treated with Diethylcarbamazine, four with Hygromycin B and four kept as untreated controls. Fecal exams will be performed three times per week on each animal for at least three weeks post-treatment. If either (both) compound(s) show promise (reduction in larvel output). then the (both) compound(s) will be evaluated in ewes supporting stored third-stage larvae. Evaluation must then await evaluation of the lambs in July and August, 1976. In the event that neither drug shows promise, an experimental Imidazole derivative, HOE-88l, will be evaluated. Possibly some additional promising drugs will be marketed during the trials. Should a drug show efficacy, it will then be offered to sheep in apple pulp; a drug can be effective, but to be useful it must be palatable. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Plans to evaluate specific anthelmintics for efficacy against Protostrongylus stilesi did not materialize as expected. Sheep were experimentally infected, and sheep that were naturally infected were organized for drug trials. However, Division personnel (R. Schmidt) requested a trial to evaluate palatability of Camvet (liquid Cambendazole formulated for horses) and the 100 percent powdered Cambendazole. There also was a suggestion that treatment with Cambendazole on a five day high dose level regimen would remove all adult lungworm; therefore, much of the planned work was postponed for these two important experiments. Before any five day high level dose regimen could be planned, a toxicity experiment had to be initiated. In the first experiment (palatability), all adult sheep, both mouflon/bighorn and bighorn, were offered Camvet in apple pulp, powdered Cambendazole in apple pulp and straight apple pulp, in three piles. Sheep ate straight apple pulp and the powdered Cambendazole in apple pulp, but would not touch the Camvet mixture; it was finally removed two days later. In the toxicity trials for Cambendazole on a five day regimen, infected sheep had to be used because, in addition to evaluation for toxicity, the efficacy of the regimen also had to be evaluated. Four infected sheep were administered Cambendazole orally at dose levels of 25 mg/lb, 50 mg/lb, 75 mg/ lb and 100 mg/lb. Each sheep was treated daily. The three highest dose levels caused toxicity in the sheep and each died, despite treatment. Toxicity was observed on the first· day of trial. The only surviving sheep was given the dose level currently in use in field situations (see Table lA; also Tables 2 and 3. �-101- Use of these sheep practically eliminated all previous plans; however, HOE-88l (Fenbendazole) was evaluated on one infected sheep (the only sheep remaining). This drug, at a dose level of 20 mg/lb of body weight, effectively eliminated all lungworm. As is indicated in Table 1, it also has been used in a field trial. More research is currently underway with this drug. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE NO.4 Determine the health status of the Poudre River bighorn sheep herd. METHODS AND MATERIALS The status of the bighorn sheep herd in the Poudre Canyon will be evaluated by: 1. Determining the level of lungworm infection. Fecal samples will be collected and examined to determine the level of lungworm larvae/gram of feces throughout the year. This will furnish information relative to the level of infection in the population. This can be used as a basis for evaluation at present (by comparison with other herds; e.g. Pikes Peak)or for a future evaluation of the Poudre herd. 2. Determining relative abundance, distribution and prev~lence of infection with lungworm as is directly related to the prevalence of infected snails. Areas of concentrated sheep use will be sampled by an acceptable and repeatable method to evaluate the snails. 3. Information from 1 and 2 above will be combined with lamb production and survival as a basis for evaluating the health status of the herd. Lamb survival will be evaluated by observation of the herd, especially the marked animals. Lambs in the herd will be judged healthy (admittedly subjective) if they do not show signs of pneumonia. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Due to the press of other work, the maximum efforts on the Poudre herd was treatment. However, considerable physiological baseline data was obtained (Tables 4 and 5) along with some pretreatment fecal examinations (Table 6) and bacteriological results (Table 7). �-102Table l. Pre- and post-treatment Fenbendazole. data on Rampart Range herd using Rampart Range Pretreatment April 12, 1976 Sample Feces Weight(g) Total L1 11.L.s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 .23 3.0 2.6 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 89 48 260 366 412 48 292 96 1184 300 243 175 255 138 498 186 90 234 252 120 654 54 414 29.7 18.5 86.7 122.0 137.3 16.0 97.3 32.0 394.7 100.0 81.0 58.3 85.0 46.0 166.0 62.0 30.0 78.0 84.0 40.0 218.0 18.0 138.0 Rampart Range Post-Treatment April 19, 1976 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 109 71 3 54 378 108 126 168 132 96 1170 36.3 23.7 1.0 18.0 126.0 36.0 42.0 56.0 44.0 32.0 390.0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-103Table 1. Pre- and post-treatment data on Rampart Range herd using Fenbendazo1e (continued). Rampart Range Post-Treatment April 28 & 30, 1976 Sample Date Feces Weight(g) Total L1 11L.& 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4/30 4/30 4/30 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/30 4/30 4/30 4/30 4/30 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/30 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/30 4/30 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/28 4/30 4/28 4/30 4/28 4/28 4/28 2.8 2.1 3.9 4.5 5.0 3.1 4.9 5.0 4.1 5.0 3.1 2.5 3.7 3.3 5.1 5.0 4.4 3.9 2.5 4.9 3.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.6 2.5 4.5 3.6 3.8 3.4 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.7 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 257 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.0 0 0 0 0 0 75.6* 0 0 10.0* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 *An untreated ewe was observed on the range on these dates. �-104Table lA. Fenbendazole treatment of ram lamb from Trickle Mountain. * Baermann Results Date Treated Treated 17 March 19 March 20 March 22 March 24 March 25 March 26 March 27 March 28 March 30 March 31 March 2 April 6 April 8 April 9 April 10 April 11 April 14 April 16 April 17 April 18 April 19 April 20 April 29 April Feces Weight(g) Total L1 11Lz 5.5 3.0 2.3 7.3 6.7 5.1 4.0 4.0 1.8 2.6 7.3 7.8 4.3 6.7 8.3 142 51 126 90 61 42 76 83 27 51 25 21 1 2 4 28.00 17 00 54.78 12.33 9.10 8.20 12.96 20.75 15.00 19.62 3.40 2.60 0 23 0.30 0.48 5.1 4.6 1.8 7.5 5.4 6.6 5.6 2 2 21 3 0 0 0 0.39 0.43 11.67 0.40 0 0 0 0 0.5 gr. Fenbendazo1e 0 20 mg./1b. *This ram died in late summer and did not have lungworm. (Old feces) Neg. on 2 floats �Table 2. Results of fecal sample evaluations prior to drugadmiriis tratTon.* Animal 1 2 3 4 5 made on experimental sheep 13 days Day (Larvae/ gram) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 M - 21 - 7 2 3 1 2 + 1. "Grandma" - 23 168 - 32 2. "Brandy" 254 373 668 78 44 347 205 541 64 28 216 60 117 + 3. "Minnie" 1 19 42 54 58 25 23 7 49 1 12 3 28 + 4. "Willy" 16 63 68 43 45 3 17 10 11 0 4 7 12 + 1. 2. 3. 4. x = 20 x = 232 x = 25 x = 23 *Cambendazo1e: 3% Suspension, Merch-Sharpe-Dome. I b Ut I Table 3. Toxicity trials. 'X-Profostrong~Tus Larvae/gram Animal sp. 'IC MuellerIus sp , Larvae Dosage Days 1. "Grandma" 20 (range: 0-168) + 25 mg/1b 7 2. "Brandy" 232 (range: 44-668) 25 (range: 1-58) 23 (range: 0-68) + 100 mg/lb 6 + 75 mg/1b 3 + 50 mg/1b 5 3. "Minnie" 4. "Willy" *Resu1ts listed on Table 2: 13 days consecutive pre-experimental Duration Negative Histologic Changes Noted in Lungs Still alive; L1/g = 12 ProtostrongIlus, 2 Muellerius. Until death: Larvae and ova are 11/14 dead. Until death: Larvae and ova are 11/11 dead. Until death: Larvae and ova are 11/17 dead. 14 weeks (11/17-3/2) fecals. �Table 4. Co 11a r Co lor end Number Blue 1 - Blue 2 - Blue 4 Blue 5 Blue b--Blue 7 - Blue 9 Blue 10 Bl ue 11 -Blue 12 Blue 13 Blue 14 Blue 17 Blue 18 --B 1ue 19 Blue no # Red 1 - Red 3 Red 4 5 - Red Yell ow 1 Yell ow 2 -Yellow 4 - Yell ow 5 - t'lean Ranqe -Standard Deviation Sex Blood values of Poudre Canyon bighorn Age in Years PCV % Hemoglobin gr/l00ml Ewe 4.5 62 22.2 Ewe 5.5 55.5 19.4 Ewe 5.5 54 18.6 Ewe 6.5 50 17.6 Ewe 5.5 51 18.1 Ewe 3.5 59 20.0 Ewe 6.5 57 19.8 Ewe 2.5 50 17.8 E\oJe 6.5 53 18.6 Ewe 4.5 50 18.0 Ewe 2.5 48 16.8 21.1 Ewe 4.5 49 Ewe 3.5 54 19.1 1.5 Ram 45 15.8 Ewe 2.5 57 26.4 1.5 Ram 53 18.4 Ewe 4.5 53 19.3 Ewe 3.5 50 17.6 Ewe 2.5 54 20.0 Ewe 8.5 50 17.8 Ewe 6.5 57 20.2 Ewe ~.5 or 4.5>i 49 17.6 Ewe 3.5 56 19.4 Ewe 5.5 56 19.7 4.5 53.02 19.14 1.5-8.5 145-59 15.8-26.4 3.97 2.09 I :~')tal Protein gr/l00ml sheep. Fibrinogen mg/l00ml White Blood Cell s per ml Neutrophils Differel t ia l (%) Lympho. Mono. 8.1 7.1 7.1 6.5 . 7.5 6.6 7.4 5,9 6,5 6.0 5.7 7.3 6.6 5.7 6.6 7.0 6.1 7.2 6.0 6.5 6.6 5.3 6.7 6.9 6.66 5.7-8.1 300 200 100 300 300 300 100 100 300 200 200 200 300 200 600 300 300 500 200 200 100 100 200 200 241.67 100-600 4700 2600 3400 3700 4600 5100 3200 5000 1600 4200 4400 7700 5200 3900 5300 9900 3700 9100 4700 4700 4300 7600 6100 4200 4954.17 1600-9900 54 55 43 73 58 43 72 75 71 87 86 69 29 76 21 63 85 81 78 76 61 53 56 63 63.67 21-87 30 39 39 21 33 40 24 21 24 10 11 27 54 20 71 33 13 10 18 21 35 40 41 29 29.33 10-71 0.6 121.285 1938.619 17.362 14.435 5 3 8 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 Eosin. 10 3 10 3 7 13 2 2 2 - Baso. 1 - - 1 - 1 - -- 2.46 0-8 1 2 12 1 5 1 1 5 2 1 3 7 1 8 4.25 0-12 .33 0-1 1.61 3.87 .48 - 2 - 1 1 1 1 - 1 - - * 4.5 Years used in calculations I I-' o 0\ I �Table 5. Serum chemistry values. See key on attached page for numbers 1-17. ------- ·Collar Color and Number = Blue 1 Blue 2 Blue 4 Blue 5 Blue 6 -Blue 7 B1ue 9 81ue 10 81ue 11 Blue 12 81ue 13 B1ue 14 Blue 17 Blue 18 1 176 85 75 95 125 109 78 202 80 176 182 65 117 142 Blue 19 -Blue Ram Red 1 Red 3 Red 4 . Red 5 Ye11ow 1 Yellow 2 Yellow 4 Yellow 5 118 130 182 186 208 240 160 137 157 127 t~ean Range 139.67 13.98 2.89 6.45 1.62 09.67 4.94 143.17 .54 1.1-: 2.15 13.65 - 141 - 2.45 ;65-240 c...-0-19 3.8 51-85 i 6.65 148 .4-.8 S-ianClard k\~yjQ t i on 2 14 10.5 11.5 10 15 12 11 11 19 14 15 17 12 13 18 16 11.5 11 13 17 15 19 18 12 -I-~ 47.65 2.9 3 3 3.5 3.1 3 3.8 2.45 3.7 2.25 3.45 2.6 2.15 3.25 2.4 2.3 4 6.1 7.1 7 6.3 7.2 6.4 7.1 5.8 7.7 6.0 5.7 7.2 6.3 5.6 2.8 3.3 2.5 3.4 2.4 3.2 2.6 2.55 2.8 2.75 6.3 6.7 5.8 6.5 5.7 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.7 6.7 5 1.4 1.4 1.6 1;75 1.75 1.45 2.45 1.50 1.65 1.6 1.75 1.8 1.1 1.49 1.6 2.0 1.4 1.8 1.55 1.5 1.45 1.6 1.45 1.75 6 73 85 80 80 65 75 65 70 82 62 59 79 68 58 7 4.95 5.35 .4.45 4.95 4.1 5.4 5.4 6.65 6.4 3.65 4.12 5.98 5.32 4.25 8 142 143 144 142 142 144 143 142 147 142 142 148 144 142 9 .5 .5 .6 .6 .8 .7 .5 .5 .6 .5 .5 .7 .4 .5 10 95 45.5 50 37 43 95 61.5 122.5 68 85 115 59 95 185 11 330 300 235 167 195 142 175 212 145 165 208 115 195 150 12 105 75 118 125 130 89 80 99 '95 130 118 105 105 95 13 172 133 120 115 149 127 49 121 130 54 95 121 130 93 14 5.3 7.4 6.8 6.6 7.1 6.9 6.2 4.7 8.4 2.9 3.2 7.9 6.7 4.9 15 350 345 300 250 375 275 375 425 275 300 340 250 200 360 16 10.6 11 11.6 11.9 11.6 55 61 ~5 51 70 ~9 ~O 72 p8 ~O 4.9 5.2 3.75 5.5 4.5 4.32 4.58 5.42 4.8 4.65 145 142 142 141 142 142 142 144 142 142 .5 .7 .5 .5 .5 .5 .4 .5 .5 135 115 51 117 105 35.5 335 82.5 95 32.5 178 128 195 525 325 325 160 195 195 128 135 89 100 112 135 115 112 95 145 105 190 89 119 385 234 229 8.1 6.1 3.6 4.9 4.5 5.4 4.8 6.2 6 5.9 335 325 360 555 475 530 275 275 345 370 11 3 11.7 2.7 10.7 2.3 12 2.6 11.1 3 11 /3 10.2 3 10.9 2.3 16 2.4 11.6 2.7 . r- ;) ,:~ .48 .56 1.02 9.2 2.40 3.13 .308 88 96 120 85 10.6 10.7 11.6 11.9 10.9 11.1 14 10.7 11.4 17 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.7 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.9 2.8 I 3.1 ~ 2.5 2.4 81.60 212.00'110.21 135.17 5.85 344.38 11 .49 2.61 200- 10.2- 3.:..L..... 2.1 14 fss5 - iH - 75-145 4j85 ~:4-' 555 38 82 91.69 50 34 70.10 I 1.48 85.41 3.55 2.23 �-108- ~or l. Attached Table 15. 16. 17. Glucose mg/100 ml Blood Urea Nitrogen mg/100 m1 Globulin gr./100 ml Total Serum Protein gr/100 ml Uric Acid mg/100 ml Cholesterol mg/100 m1 Potassium mg/l Sodium mg/l Total Bilirubin mg/100 ml Alkaline Phosphatase IU/la .. b S.G.O. T. IU/l c S.G.P.T. IU/l d C.P.K. IU/l Inorganic Phosphorus mg/100 m1 lDHe IU/l Calcium mg/100 m1 Creatinine mg/100 m1 a. b. c. d. e. International Units/liter Serum Glutanic Oxaloacetic Transaminase Serum. Glutanic Pyruvic Transaminase Creatine Phosphokinase lactic Dehydroginase 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 1l. 12. 13. 14. �-109- Table 6. Pretreatment January 7, 1976. fecal Baermanns - Poudre Canyon, Location Age Weight (g) Total L1 11.Ls A 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 2.8 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 114 858 624 871 767 792 2104 1416 688 448 16 39 286 208 290 255 264 751 472 229 150 5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 32 704 272 408 679 24 64 192 336 240 1445 196 247 230 688 315 119 406 546 2786 11 235 91 136 226 8 21 64 l12 80 482 65 82 77 230 105 40 135 182 930 Meadows A A A A A A A A A Y Ponds A A A A A A A A L A L A A A A L/Y A A A Y/A �-110- Table 7. results. Poudre trapping operation - January 21, 1975, nasal bacteriological en ~ ~ ~ ..-l E r-l <Il 0 ~ <: 75PR-3 75PR-4 75PR-S j:!l + + + + 75PY-l 75PY-2 75PY-lf + -- 75PB- 6 75PB-4 75PB-5 7SPB-7 -i.J.l. ~pp. '.0 .u-..L --_. 75PB-9 75PB-IO 7SPB-ll 75PB-12 iSPB-13 75PB-14 .75PB-15 75PB-17 75PB-19 75PB-Ram o ('j ,.0 0 + - 0 '.-1 :r:: ~ ~ ~ 14 ('j ~ ::<! + + + + + + + + + + 14 ::s ~Or-l61 '"::s (I) 14 p., Ul (I) ::s ::- p., (I) ~ -e aJ ..-l 0 (.J 0 4-1 ? ~ 0 '.-1 +J ~ (1)4-1 co g •... aJ 14 '.-1 CJ) +J CJ) CJ) ou E r-l ~~ :r::J5 ::s (.J () E 0 + '" '.-1 r-l ~ 0 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + (I) en (.J 0 (.J 0 r-l <Il r-l r-l ~ 0 ~ 0 tI) Ul Z + + 14 Ul tI) '.-1 ..-l ..-l ~ <Il <Il (I) aJ ::s (.J en 14 OJ Ul (I) + ++ + 75PB-l 75PB-2 B co + + + + 75PR-l Y R ::s r-l r-l ''-; (.J r-l <: 75PY-5 en co 0 14 aJ Number CJ r-l r-l +J aJ tI) en . + + + + + + + + I + I + + + + + + + ! --1------ + + +---1 + + + + + + + + + + Blue collar Yellow collar Red collar Pasteurella species, though seldom isolated from routine nasal swabs taken during winter months, are apparently still avabilable to cause disease complications, e.g. a ewe lamb picked up in Poudre Canyon January 24, 1975 by Game and Fish personnel contained a septicemic Pasteurellosis, apparently induced by heavy burdens of Protostrongylus 3?.. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/91bbfa108983e83af8cc1c357698ceee.pdf 9f51b1bbc8390feb437908f3f55335b9 PDF Text Text -1- April 1977 JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --~~~~~------ Pr.oject No. W-37-R-30 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Job No. 21 Pheasant Mortality Investigation Covered: Personnel: 1 Game Bird Survey April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1977 Donald M. Hoffman, John Corey, Howard D. Funk, Steven Steinert, Lucien Brevard, Larry Crooks, Bruce Trindle, Daniel Walsworth, W. Thomas Howard, Michael Fedorko and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT This study was initiated to investigate mortality rates of ring-necked pheasants on the Tablelands of northeastern Colorado. Poor reproduction in 1974 followed by high mortality from a March, 1975 snowstorm drastically reduced populations on the study area. Additional mortalities were recorded during a November, 1975 snow and a devastating March, 1977 snowstorm, so that only a remnant population of pheasants remained within the region at termination of the study. Crowing indices had dropped by nearly 50 percent from the mid-1960's to commencement of this study in 1974. An additional 68 percent decline was noted from 1974 to 1975. The crowing index showed little change from 1975 to 1976. Production census showed similar trends averaging 2.69 birds observed per mile from 1966-1968, 1.88 in 1974, 0.38 in 1975 and only 0.29 in 1976. Nightlighting techniques were used to trap and band 233 roosters in the late summer-early fall interval of 1974, 109 in 1975, and 142 in 1976. Hens trapped and marked included 301 in 1974, 150 in 1975, and 187 in 1976. Reward bands, used to correct for failure of some hunters to return bands, showed that a majority of hunters failed to mail in regular bands obtained during hunting seasons. ~eward band information was used to project harvest rates of 18.5 percent in 1974, 22.4 percent in 1975, and 16.0 percent in 1976. Even when crippling loss was included, total harvest mortality never exceeded 25 percent of the available roosters. Projections of fall-winter rooster mortality based on sex ratio changes were much higher than those derived from band return information for unknown reasons. Based on very limited band return data, average annual mortality rates approximated 97 percent for roosters and 75 percent for hens during the period of study. Environmental observations indicate dry weather apparently reduced reproduction and potentially decreased wheat stubble height. Wheat stubble height was considered of potential importance to pheasant survival during winter snowstorms. Windbreaks and shelterbelts, although few in number, were of little value to pheasants during these winter storms and high pheasant mortality would still have occurred if many more such cover areas had been present. �-2- RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations this report. have been incorporated with conclusions at the end of �-3- PHEASANT MORTALITY INVESTIGATION Warren D. Snyder This mortality study was initiated to gain better insight into the dynamics of pheasant survival and mortality. Efforts were designed to determine what proportion of annual mortality was attributed to natural causes and what proportion of the roosters were taken each year by hunters. It attempted to also ascertain annual turnover rates of both sexes within the povulation. Regrettably, our efforts in attaining these objectives were severely hampered by a series of unforeseen environmental limitations which, by drastically reducing populations, have resulted in early termination of this study. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To investigate mortality rates of a population of ring-necked pheasants. METHODS AND MATERIALS Field surveys and surveys of census information were used in selection of a study area in the primary pheasant range in the Tablelands of northeastern Colorado. A study area, encompassing the four southwest townships of Phillips County (Townships 6 and 7 north and Ranges 46 and 47 west) was selected during the summer of 1974 on the basis of population densities. landowner cooperation, and habitat types. Some extension of study area boundaries was made during fall trapping operations of the second and third years of study. Pheasant populations within the selected study area were monitored throughout the study. One crowing route was established and censused in 1974 and two routes (Fig. 1) were censused in subsequent years using the standardized Colorado method (Sandfort, 1960a). In 1975 the starting and ending locations of these routes were varied to partially correct for call variance relative to time within counts. Efforts were made to tally total calling males on 40 square miles within the study area in conjunction with crowing census in 1975. Four square miles surrounding crowing stations numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 on each of the two routes were checked using triangulation methods. This sample of 40 square miles represented 27.8 percent of the study area (Fig. 2). Two men in separate vehicles with radio communication pin-pointed each male during early A.M. calling periods. Repeat counts were made on different mornings to increase accuracy. One trend production route was censused in 1974 and four routes were established and censused in subsequent years of study by standard brood census methods used in Colorado (Sandfort, 1960b). Two of these utilized previously mentioned crowing routes (Fig. 1). Pheasant sightings were segmented at two-mile intervals along the routes to pinpoint potential trapping sites in 1975 and 1976. Spring sex ratio counts were attempted, but study area pheasant populations were too sparse to permit attaining adequate samples so efforts were �>.... 2: :::> o u 17 YUMA COUNTY Fig. 1. Pheasant crowing count routes with listening stations (cross checked lines). which were also utilized for production censuses. and additional census routes (dotted lines) within the mortality study area. �-5- L 7N 25 30 i621 • ~~~O "II c II o lG " II Z <2: c :3. C) o 5 \ c \ J b. .I ;\ ) ). .J R.47W 11 COUNTY YUMA Fig. 2. Triangulation blocks censused within the study area during the spring of 1975. Numbers represent the total roosters recorded per four square mile block. o ! i �-6- discontinued. Late winter sex ratio tallies were obtained within the study area and in adjoining areas in February and March of 1975 and 1976. Pheasants were captured using nightlighting techniques developed in Illinois (Labisky 1968). Two crews of two men each and two 4-wheel drive vehicles were used through most of the study. Trapping operations were confined to wheat stubble fields after obtaining access permission from landowners. Because of low populations, pheasant trapping was extended to locations outside the study area during the falls of 1975 and 1976. Late winter trapping, conducted in February, 1975, was not resumed in subsequent winters due to depleted populations, evidence of egress from the study area and low numbers of roosters present. Bait trapping efforts were abandoned in winter, 1975 after preliminary efforts failed to attract birds to the traps. All trapped pheasants were banded with consecutively numbered aluminum leg bands. Bands were placed on all birds in the six to seven week age class and older. Approximately one half were also banded with gold colored aluminum reward bands during fall, 1974 and winter, 1975. Reward bands were not placed on hens in subsequent years and reward bands were placed on about one half of the roosters in fall, 1975 and on all of the roosters trapped in fall, 1976. Trapping efforts in fall were concentrated from mid-August to mid-October. Pheasants were aged in the field when possible and the first (proximal) primary was taken for later shaft measurement and age verification (Wishart 1969). Hunting mortality data were collected during field contacts of hunters, by hunter questionnaires, and in 1974, by contacts of hunters at the Fleming check station. Hunters reporting banded birds were surveyed to obtain hunter success, crippling loss, location of kill and other pertinent information. Their hunting companions, too, were queried to obtain additional information. Those hunters reporting a gold "reward" band were given a 144 page book, Cooking the Sportsmen's Harvest, published by the South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, as a reward. DESCRIPTION OF AREA This study was initiated in the northeast corner of Colorado and was contained for the most part in southwest Phillips County (Fig. 1). This location over previous years and at the time the study was initiated contained some of the higher pheasant densities within the region and state. Some study efforts were extended into adjoining areas of Yuma and Logan counties and also to the east in Phillips County as the study progressed. This area is essentially high plains tableland, predominately flat and containing loam and sandy loam soils. A few intermittent drainages flow from west to east across the study area and provide occasional small areas of unfarmed native grass and weed cover. Some willow patches also are distributed along these drainages (Fig. 3). Elevations approximate 3,700 to around 4,000 feet. Few farmers live in the study area, although some who farm there reside in the town of Haxtun to the north. Reference �-7- Fig. 3. Pheasants surviving the snowstorms of March 1975 and 1977 congregated in sparse willow and cottonwood cover along small intermittent drainages like this. (Photo by Warren D. Snyder) �-8- is made to Snyder (1970) for a breakdown of cover and crop types present in the mid-1960's. Winter wheat, which is summer fallowed on a biennial basis, is still the predominate crop, however, deep well irrigation has increased in recent years increasing the quantity of corn within the region. The primary irrigated areas lie to the south and east of the main study area. Precipitation approximates 17 inches per year on the average with most of this falling during the 147 day growing season. Average annual snowfall approximates 34 inches. Winter wheat stubble provides the predominant cover for pheasants in the area through fall, winter, and early spring periods. Green wheat replaces stubble as cover in late spring and early suwmer. Only a few windbreaks and shelterbelts are present within the study area and most are marginal in value during snow stress periods. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pheasant Population Monitoring Pheasant Crowing Counts Crowing counts, when compared from year to year and also with years previous to the study, probably most accurately depict breeding population level and trend. Results summarized in Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 4 show the marked downward trend in crowing indices. No significant difference was noted between count totals in 1975 and 1976. Based on observations of pheasants present in late March, 1977, the subsequent call index, if conducted, would have been even lower than in the two previous years. Four replicates were conducted on one route in the western part of the study area in 1974, and this information was combined with that from a management census route also conducted in the region of study. Thirteen counts were completed on two routes in 1975 and eight replicates were completed on the two routes in 1976. Starting points of counts were rotated among stations probably resulting in some bias upward in high count per station indices in 1975 compared with other years. This is due to the fact that roosters usually peak in crowing activity about 20 to 30 minutes before sunrise. Distribution of this activity peak among more stations would increase the overall average. The high number of replicates probably also increased census in 1975 since chances of hitting peak counts would be increased when more counts were used. Table 1. Pheasant pheasant mortality Interval 1963-68 1974 crowing counts as indices of population study region. Census Route Central control Wages-Haxtun 1975 East 1976 East & & study rte. west study routes s west study routes change in the. High Count/Station Percent Change 45.3} _490Z} -83.9 23.0} -68.3 7.3} +8.2 7.9 �-9- .5 3.0. 1 .5 o n 1963-68 1974 1975 1976 Fig. '4. Comparative trends of crowing count; indices .and pheasants obae.rved per mile during production counts in the mortality study area region. �-10- Triangulation Inventory Triangulation methods were used in conjunction with crowing census in 1975 to relate crowing indices to actual pheasant densities. Rooster densities were very low which facilitated pinpointing of individual roosters. As a consequence, results were believed to be fairly accurate. Projections based on data in Figure 2 indicate that if 63 roosters were present in the 40 square miles sampled, then approximately 227 roosters were resident in the total 144 square mile study area. This represented 1.58 roosters per square mile. Very few birds were located in the northwest part of the study area in spring 1975 as shown in Figure 2. Much higher densities were located to the southeast. This differential was primarily due to greater severity of the preceding March storm which caused higher mortality in the north and west parts of the study area. Pheasant Production Counts Table 2 summarizes August production counts completed within the study area from 1974 through 1976 and compares indices with those obtained in the late 1960's (Fig. 1). The average birds-per-mile observed in the late 1960's was 2.69. This index dropped to 1.88 in 1974, to 0.38 in 1975 and to 0.29 in 1976. The latter index was only slightly more than one-tenth of that obtained in the late 1960's. Data were based on seven replicates in 1974, 15 in 1975, and 18 in 1976. Pheasant Sex Ratios Sex ratios derived from trapping efforts and flushing observations were obtained in early fall, 1974 through early fall, 1976 and are assumed to be fairly accurate (Table 3). Biases undoubtedly existed in both trapped and some observed samples, but samples observed in April and November of 1975 and in late winter 1976 were obtained during snow cover periods which was believed to increase accuracy. Low densities were the primary variables reducing sample size and accuracy throughout the study. Sparse densities prevented collection of spring sex ratio counts befo~e and during crowing count census except for limited samples obtained under snow conditions in April 1975. Trapped samples were predominantly juveniles. Adult hens were slightly easier to trap than roosters in fall, however roosters were more readily spotted during night lighting so ratios are considered near actual. Changes in sex ratios from fall trapping to late winter favored hens and only part of that change could be attributed to hunter harvest as will be discussed later in the text. Sex ratio changes from late winter to fall favored rooster survival over that of hens (Table 3). Based on 3.44 hens per rooster surviving the March 1975 snowstorm and triangulation projections of 1.58 roosters per square mile, there were 5.4 hens per square mile present in spring, 1975. Crowing indices averaged about 8 percent higher in 1976 than in 1975 (Table 1) and the proportion of hens per rooster was slightly lower, so it is doubtful that hen density changed much from one year to the next. �-11Table 2. A comparison of pheasants observed counts in the mortality study area. per mile during production Interval Miles Birds Observed Birds-per-Mi1e 1966-68 515 1,383 2.69 1974 189 355 1.88 1975 390 149 0.38 1976 457 l34 0.29 Table 3. Pheasant sex ratios obtained from early fall, 1974 through early fall, 1976 on the mortality study area. Roosters Hens Total Percent Males Percent Females Ratio Adults 48 143 191 25.1 74.9 1:2.98 Young 185 158 343 53.9 46.1 1:0.85 Total sample 233 301 534 43.6 56.4 1: 1.29 Observed 36 179 215 16.7 83.3 1:4.97 Trapped 32 141 173 18.5 81.5 1:4.41 34 117 151 22.5 77 .5 1:3.44 Adults 19 63 82 23.2 76.5 1:3.16 Young 94 94 188 50.0 50.0 1:1.00 Total sample 113 157 270 41.9 58.1 1: 1. 39 71 104 175 40.6 59.4 1:1. 46 185 261 446 41.5 58.5 1 :1.41 119 373 492 24.2 75.8 1:3.l3 Adults 30 74 104 28.8 71.2 1:2.47 Young 115 120 235 48.9 51.1 1:1.04 Total 145 194 339 42.8 57.2 1: 1. 34 Sample Trapped sample, fall, 1974 Late winter, AEril 1975 '75 observed Trapped sample, fall, 1975 Nov. '75 observed Combined fall total Late winter observed '76 Trapped sample, fall, 1976 �-12- Pheasant Trapping and Banding Trapping success peaked in fall 1974, in spite of lack of experience and equipment problems. That fall, 534 birds were captured, banded and released in wheat stubble fields using night-lighting methods (Fig. 5). The sample dropped to 259 pheasants marked in fall 1975 plus 11 recaptures of previously marked birds. Fall samples in 1976 included 329 banded plus 10 retrapped recoveries. These figures actually encompass two distinct populations since roosters were hunted and females were not, and mortality data must be computed separately. Samples for the three years are displayed by age and sex in Table 4. Hoffman (1975) also trapped 173 pheasants during the late winter of 1975 of which 149 were banded and 24 were retrapped from fall. Gold leg bands stamped "Reward" were placed on slightly more than half of all pheasants banded during fall 1974 and winter 1975 intervals. Approximately half the roosters were again reward banded in fall 1975 but regular bands alone were used on all hens in fall peri9ds of 1975 and 1976. All roosters trapped in fall 1976 were marked with reward bands to increase sample size of recoveries. A summation of those banded with regular and reward bands is presented in Table 5. Age Ratios of Trapped Samples The number of young per adult and per hen are presented in Table 6 for the three years of study. Ratios obtained during production counts and fall trapping are provided for comparison. These figures suggest the probability that estimates of proportion of young present during production counts were higher than were actually present in the population, mainly because unsuccessful hens and moulting roosters were more difficult to observe. Young were as readily observed as adults during fall trapping but were more easily captured, which has some effect on fall trapping ratios as well. Production census immediately preceded the primary period of trapping, but some differentially greater mortality of young than adults probably occurred through the late summer-early fall interval. These factors probably acted in combination to account for age ratio differences between production count and trapping data. Both sets of data in Table 6 suggest that reproductive success in 1974 was exceptionally poor. Young per adult ratios increased in 1975 and were still higher in 1976 as indicated by both indices. In comparison, young per hen ranged from 2.45 to 5.75 during production counts in the same general area from 1963 through 1968 (Snyder 1970). The average young per hen index during that interval was 4.38. Thus, production comparisons between the 60's and 70's data indicate 1974 was below average and 1975 and 1976 were above average. �-13- Fig. 5. Pheasants were netted by hand in wheat stubble fields by two 2-man crews working with spotlights. (Photo by Donald M. Hoffman) �-14- Table 4. Age ratios by sex in fall and winter banded and retrapped samples from fall 1974 through fall 1976. Adult Male Juv. Total Adult Female Juv. Total Combined Adult Juv. Total Number 48 185 143 158 191 343 Percent 20.6 79.4 47.5 52.5 35.8 64.2 Number 12 20 80 61 92 81 Percent 37.5 62.5 56.7 43.3 53.2 46.8 Number 19 94 63 94 82 188 Percent 16.8 83.2 40.1 59.9 30.4 69.6 Number 30 115 74 120 104 235 Percent 20.7 79.3 38.1 61.9 30.7 69.3 Interval Fall 1974 Winter 233 301 534 1974-75 32 141 173 Fall 1975 113 157 270 Fall 1976 145 194 Table 5. Pheasants banded within and adjacent area from fall 1974 through fall 1976. Sample to the mortality 339 study Fall 1974 Winter 1975 Fall 1975 Fall 1976 Reg. Reward.!! Reg. Reward.!! Reg. Reward!! Reg. Reward.!! Male Adult 15 33 1 9 5 10 0 27 Juvenile 92 93 8 10 47 -47 0 115 Total 107 126 9 19 52 57 0 142 Combined 233 28 109 142 Female Adult 77 66 35 33 56 0 67 0 Juvenile 94 64 30 23 94 0 120 0 Total 171 130 65 56 150 0 187 0 Combined 301 121 150 187 0 24 11 10 Retrap recoveries 1/ Both regular aluminum on reward-banded bands and gold bands marked pheasants. "reward" were placed �-15- Table 6. Number of young per adult and young per hen found during late summer production counts and fall trapping intervals. Sample 1974 1975 1976 Number of young per adult 2.87 3.87 4.15 Number of young per hen 3.83 4.46 6.00 Number of young per adult 1.80 2.29 2.26 Number of young per hen 2.40 2.98 3.18 Production data Fall trapped sample Trapping Success per Unit Area Despite indicated poor production in 1974, higher pheasant densities permitted concentration of trapping efforts in a smaller quantity of land while obtaining more birds than in subsequent years of study. Ninety-one pheasants were trapped in three fields within one section in the southwest part of the study area in 1974 while sixty-three birds were captured in three fields in another section in the southeast portion of the study area. Trapping efforts seldom yielded over 20 pheasants per section in subsequent years of study. The two 2-man trapping crews, working in unison, searched approximately 10,340 acres of wheat stubble during the mid-August to mid-October interval of 1975. Approximately 8,910 acres of this was in the study area proper with much effort concentrated in the southeast portion. An additional 1,430 acres in locations adjacent to the primary study area were searched. This total acreage represented about 123 fields and search efforts covered the equivalent of all stubble fields in about 46 square miles. Only about 2.46 roosters and 3.41 hens were banded per section in 1975, and an average of less than one rooster was obtained per field searched. Data for 1976 were comparable, however, more effort was concentrated adjacent to irrigated cornfields to the east and south of the main study area. Most landowners granted trapping access permission although denial increased as the study progressed and pheasant populations deteriorated. A few farmers believed trapping caused movements away from their farms, most voiced resentment of hunting seasons; and a few were afraid of fire danger. Fortunately, all three fall periods were abnormally dry, permitting routine trapping to progress from late summer to early fall. Heavy fall rains would have halted operations and increased landowner objections to trapping because of the effect of vehicles on fields. Trapping success per bird observed was high in late summer and tended to begin deterioriating rapidly in early October. This decrease in success was partly due to weed growth �-16- in the fields which dried and became noisy underfoot and under vehicles. Pheasants also became more wary and difficult to catch as they matured in early fall, a factor which remained or increased in late winter. Age Determinations Nearly all old hens could be distinguished from juveniles during August and early September trapping because the adults had not yet lost all of their old primaries. Likewise, adult roosters could readily be distinguished from juveniles, 15 weeks or less in age, by moult and spur characteristics. However, late in fall trapping intervals, ages could not always be accurately determined in the field. Therefore, the first (proximal) primary was collected from all trapped pheasants in 1974 and 1976 and from a majority of those banded in fall, 1975. Subsequent measurements provided confirmation or occasional correction of uncertain field aging based on measurement data explained in Wishart (1969) and previously plotted by Snyder (unpublished data) based on feather-spur comparisons for roosters in the early 1970's. Feather shaft diameter and length data were plotted on scatter diagrams as illustrated in Figures 6 and 7. Further statistical analyses of these data will be completed providing confidence limits for aging pheasants in eastern Colorado in future years. Hunting Seasons Seasons and Weather Variables Hunting began at noon on Saturday, November 16, 1974 and continued through December 15 in the region of study. In the following year, efforts were made by the Division to divert hunting pressure away from the March, 1975 storm impacted area in the northeastern corner of Colorado. Whereas, seasons elsewhere in the state opened at noon, Saturday, November 15, 1975, the opening was delayed to sunrise on Wednesday, November 19 in the region of this study. The 1975 season continued for 12 days and terminated at the end of the month. Hunting of pheasants began at noon on Saturday, November 20, 1976 and continued for 11 days to the end of the month. Bag and possession limits were, respectively, three and six roosters throughout the period of study. Weather conditions were dry in 1974 and 1976, however, cold winds severely hampered opening weekend hunting efforts in the latter season. A major snowstorm with considerable wind hit the northeast part of the state on November 18, 1975 during the night before hunting was to commence. It persisted through the first day of season and deposited approximately 10 inches of snow. Nearly all roads in and surrounding the study area were closed by snow drifts. County roads were opened slowly and with difficulty so that no significant hunting occurred until the first Saturday of season on November 22, 1975. �.•.' tl ~:~jFi:'w . ~ ,·1 l8S f-."i'- .,, . ~~ il: c ~ ~.~ . r • ·· ;.;++:;+1-\.. . h d·r·, lmiV r~.:J' " I~:~t Gb'Nmr+.th~'J;"':'i ,," ) "'tc I> .'!.~. J .J. ,~,f.·r:,; t ! ,l- ~....-~ .,-"" :1J o L\ :JI if, i11 n --I ~t*~ , '-~Il''- .' t ~t+~ -, ,~ 8frr;'.~;!::~·~·:..t;- :~._:itf' '1: ~ ._:~~.:.~ .- .. ~ tI-~-~ :~~ : ~i4 ~ , , . ·fri-· ..... f-tB+' .. .. 1..." tt+'-f," ' : t;.r .• 1.1 ! ",!~L t' t$ ,., • .tft-~±f9;~! rrt. Ul o .~-!-!.!t l> ". r:-1--" Z n I .'!l~ '.·r. )'"0-, " .Lu.·tl·:, t "'--i-I •• ,." " i >~s.. j : 1 ::!, 'r "1' ~ ,..;., •• - ' !.l-~, >! '.' i' • f ,J :1I9.r . ,:,.jrtiif' I "j I." !.. 'iT'.[:;,· .. '::r!' ," ; ,.'". d ,.Y 1'-' :::.;~~L.i ~-.;J: ..'. ..'.: +.. •.. :.!...•.. +t-t -.,.., #l~l:r:.Wt.H:tl':'·'4' . j .0 .:t,. .. 4 ... I, r;tIUt·,r;•. ;~:-';'" ~~ . rrlfftJfflli,+::.f;t.t ,., ..~. ••...i .. ,"r. .-:~ .:. J: •·ij,i. ~•.. : .,,: .!; ~it: :., '.it-,.• ~.... , ;. ••• ..,. ~ • t ••, , ,.,.. .1.. ti j:! n;HlL' v, I •• .~ .If • • . .:t: .. 1 t·.. ,l..)4;.,;~~S 2.,':6; t I "I" ..;\;~ •.. - .' "-.J .~ ' i ,f I •.... ~~ !ii. . .. -.!t .:".1'-' ~ ~-:.}••• ~~, ••. U:f ~.,..•.... , .... r. '. xttl- ••... i .,. , 'j! !::-'-j,~-lilt-:u~-UJ~ :-+:"r, "].:. :_!~' '1. ;';Tl:_~_~ t"1 +,~s :~.,.,.""':~ ,':rl-j, ;". .. ! ~- I" '.'" ., , .,. ,. ·.~.f' .. • • .J,~l. ..t,. .. t· ~r •• ,."... .'•. ~ .f. ".+' e.;W . .. .. .• ., .f. J. • .. .... --. . '.-1'''''-' ·t· .'''--..-~.. ". +: ;~;' ,;f ,t' :~*; .f 'L.~ tf.. ~+ . - ~! , '1 ~ ~ .••. ,.+-. 1.·1 1 q I, .'It:n, !~!4' ';""['H"i i.. _ "T , r:!~'ftii!'~t_ ~i , " •• f f-. :..... ~. t: ! : ••••• - '"~~; - F~-';r'-~ : ' ,. , ~-' ~t+itr. •...•f"1 •.• -_ ,,. ~i~~. .1. , ,.' t·~- .. ~'+. ~. i.: . ~i 4+..t: .. r ""r ~"'i"; rr 312;1:.' ...'. ~ ,:H, ·t~ 0- o ' . :;.;.' "'+s..: ~;;::HI: : }'ii1! . +. : .'.+0.' C :JI -I . h :T' -,... "10- N 'J .~_,.i . -. .iLlite.~ Age ~R~4~~ at Y!~u~l ~#tim,~~~OJi~J ·:.r ...:~ r ,. :1 ci :d +.;,.J ,t~~>~-f t·· ". i!J.~·2:ej8.. '1'1' --t-. .. •.•.•. ,..... t. ·t ·~-t-·'-p~t..... t:tI··•..• li'TH'1 .. . H-4-+1r.... I. .... ' t~,x! .!_l L,' ~i9 lrt¥i~;tt~~;1~'; :;~[~! ..'~;:~I'-:~L-~ ~~-;t ;.i.,:; ,+""'('], , ...•... . .;.....;- o •.•.• t·, .l .. ~~1;'-~-;'~~'::i . Fig, 6. A scatter diagram showing wing primary number one measurements juvenile roosters on the mortality study area, 1974-1976. used in distinguishing adult from �(. ., ~o 1~ ,'Z o a, " w o r' ~. ::-;,-." ... I· , .. -~. _.j.\". ;-'. r • ,.' r7h,;-j'~1tiriT .. ;-::rtr. '-;-iij±-i' ·;·"'f· ,.,~p'J~~":'. i+if·. •...•. ..;.~ ' •.• L,r~ i-"··'~ 1J; •. --t-t-t.._ 4- "'P: h;: '~h-!-lL . -·::!-::~r;:d: .: 170 • , kt+~'r~t~:i.,. 1-.,_ -"'4 -rT',Ad! I . ' I{t~::tt+_~~'tT'. ~ ~..• , ,.- t" , . '.J . o-I "' o .' ;:1'.Jrt: ' :~l. ~'._.,. C l> ;JJ o 2: o :r: ..f ,.. ~,.'., " .. ." ," 1. ' •••. •• ~,' .. .t'.', _,... J.i. . , ,," _ .• , . .' ,L_ •• ;-",---!r ' •. " ••••• ~ ••• ~ ~".,~ .".' Ii ' t'1''1'","q : ~":f'.. '."".;' :-"'7" ..•.. JoJE' ", -',. """'[f,,""""" , nJ'·, ," .',__ ,,"t,' ." .. ,."-,..' .,!-. -- + , ". ",., , .. .", _" .' i#f' . .•' . • .' ,~: ' ' " 1",V'-+ ~ .. : • • ,. .'.. 1l~' .,,"' _ ,1': "f ....". ,.. ,. , " ,,--,. ,.' ': ," I: . / '. ... Nl • •." • ., '. .': r.:.'.; 1 ,:Jjfjj1L,!1.,I IU: *-'+' ." , ' . ..•.•. :': •.. :;) ....• " •." "IT!:,!~.tl' ' I .; • "~ e \,O,:r'-'r r1 • e·" r!'" .,! ~1 ~':' .,.. .. ,":' ",.,.' -t ,'",~' '. " i.i: .,' . '.f: .";-1 • ':: . -''. , ' •. j-r-. " , '.' .,'" " . I. "" IH; . ." " .' . , '.. U" 1'" " ,.:r , . :: 2,5 ~ 1(.. .: '. ' ".., ~ . '" • ~, • ," r,c' -~. i' . . .., • l' , •..._,''''. I ,.~.;.. J' - ,- I " . .1: ",2,;' +!" ., ,. •,: 1':'" .• ", Fig. 7. A scatter diagram showing wing primary number one measurements juvenile hen pheasants on the mortality study area, 1974-1976. ' .1 • ~·i! ,'t' ' :..' ,.' ..,,' ~'f::.. 'ffiffl"'r "F , ):' ,\:.:. j" I ,,!-+,~"" '1'--" d "Ii ".' 'I"! ".'•• ,• " ,•. I ::." "'u . .,t', " 1,f.~~>#i;'J:~'··'j . .I~ . . -+---- --H,~m"" 'l";;;fl~i ! f· '" 'H#l't.w'"'.1~'T ...+- " . " " .'',I, ":,EM1": ~- . "'I""-'.' !.,f,.";-'lrtT . Iii,: --', 'H,,--'ti- ,.'c-''''" :. i ... : "ltH 'L~:. .. , .: ~: .• _: ,,-j",,' • . :. ii . -', •... '~ -1-- 1 :;,,11-' - ' ,," ~ '.:1 . ,'1I;'" :.;.: ;", .. :,.,;.r.::' '"i- " I,. f·-li!i~ I •• :', . : ,ti', .' .". 1"7l ,L'. I,., ~ ' . .t':; ,-- i r ", .. 11.~;J.t-;. ,I ,. > .""" . I .:. Itf 1 " w' " "t·"-~.•±U' 1-" ,jJl 'I:' .' 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"'~ ;v o(Jl If) 1~''''~ff'''C:~' +. i '! used in distinguishing adult from �-19- Table 7. Hunting pressure and hunter success on first and second weekends of hunting seasons through the period of this mortality study in comparison with indices from 1965 through 1968 in the same study region. Year Miles per Hunter 1st Weekend 2nd Weekend Hours! Pheasants Pheasants Bagged/Hunter Bagged 1) Field Checks Season x!/ 1974 0.77 30.00 0.42 1.67 4.68 1975 8.60 22.50 0.82 2.50 3.94 1976 1.25 5.95 0.53 2.19 5.69 1965 0.65 3.29 1966 0.35 2.62 1968 0.56 2.72 0.58 1/ Some potential bias above expected averages possibly existed because the majority of hunters in questionnaire surveys were those who were successful or within successful hunting parties. Hunting Pressure and Success Table 7 compares first and second weekend hunting pressure among the three seasons of this study and contrasts these indices of pressure with those obtained in the region of study in 1965, 1966, and 1968 (Snyder 1970). First weekend hunter density in 1974 (Hoffman 1975) approached that of the 1960' s. Hunter density dropped drastically in 1975 because of the delayed opening and snow conditions. Increased pressure was again noted in 1976. Second weekend hunting pressure during this study was much below that which occurred in the mid- to late 1960's when seasons were longer and more pheasants were present. Second weekend pressure dropped to very low levels in 1974 and 1975, but was much higher in 1976, possibly because the shortness of the season induced hunters to increased "early" effort. Pheasants, while low in number in 1975, had been pushed out of their normal wheat stubble habitat by deep snow and were concentrated and exposed along roadways at old building sites and in similar meager cover. As a result, they were highly vulnerable to hunting by vehicle. One party of three hunters was checked on the second day of season with 12 birds. All had been shot along roads south of the town of Haxtun. A majority of hunters checked on Saturday, November 22, 1975 had good success. Most simply drove the roads and removed exposed roosters as they found them. A few attempted walking, but deep snow drifts made �-20- hunting afoot difficult. An estimate would place at least 90 percent of the harvest in 1975 adjacent to roadways in the study area. Cold winds raked the region of study during the opening of the 1976 pheasant season and cut sharply into field pursuit of pheasants. Lack of snow, cold winds and low pheasant densities made even road hunting, which many hunters attempted, difficult. This points out one significant problem with opening hunting of pheasants in late November. Cold winds and blustery winter weather often severely curtail hunting effort, hunter opportunity and hunter enjoyment of the sport. Milder weather, earlier in the month usually provides much better pheasant hunting conditions. Hunter Band Return and Harvest Mortality Projections Proportional Band Recovery -- Band return information was obtained by field contacts, follow-up questionnaires, and by mail-in reports. Hoffman (1975) obtained a considerable amount of information at the Fleming check station, however, this management station was closed during subsequent years of study. Band return information is summarized in Table 8. In 1974, 36 bands were obtained from hunters of which 23 were reward bands and 13 were regular bands. In 1975, 13 of 17 returned bands were marked reward and four were regular bands from immediate fall trapping. In addition, one regular band was obtained from the 1974 fall trapping effort. All roosters were reward banded in 1976 and 22 reward bands were recovered. In addition, one reward banded rooster was reported from 1974 banding efforts. This bird also had been retrapped in fall, 1976. Hunters did not report or return regular bands at even half the rate which they returned reward bands unless contacted in the field. Hoffman (1975) noted that nine of 13 bands obtained in field or check station contacts were regular bands and four were reward bands. In contrast, of 23 bands voluntarily reported by hunters in 1974, 19 were reward bands and only four were regular bands. He found a significant difference (X2 = 10.63; P < 0.01) between return rates of reward and regular bands from contacts and voluntary mail-ins. Only 66.7 percent of the expected number of regular bands were obtained in 1974 when field check and mail-in returns were combined. The same situation existed in fall 1975. Originally 57 reward bands were placed on roosters that fall of which 13 (22.8 percent) were recovered. Fifty-two regular bands were placed on roosters of which only four (7.7 percent) were recovered. Twelve regular bands rather than four should have been reported when ratios were compared. This represented a 33.3 percent reporting rate on regular bands. Had field contacts not been used, mail in reporting rates of regular bands would have been much lower in both 1974 and 1975. Sample sizes in both 1974 and 1975 were small, but they clearly illustrated that hunters failed to return most pheasant bands by mail unless a reward was offered. Therefore, all roosters trapped in fall 1976 were reward banded to increase recovery sample size. There is no reliable way of knowing whether all reward bands were reported, however, that assumption �-21- was made in projecting harvest estimates. If reward bands had not been used all three years and field contacts had not been made, then very little information would have been recovered and there would have been serious biases in projecting percent harvest or annual mortality rates. Table 8. Numbers of banded roosters and hens recovered or retrapped from 1974 through 1976 within the mortality study region. 1974 Reward Reg. Total 1975 Reward Reg. Total 1976 Reward Reg. Total ROOSTERS 126 107 233 57 52 109 142 o 142 Immed. harvest 23 13 36 13 4 17 22 o 22 2nd fall retrap. 1 1 2 1 o 1 2nd fall harvest o 1 1 • 3rd fall retrap. 1 1 2 3rd fall harvest 1 o 1 o 187 187 Number marked Recoveries HENS 171 130 301 o 150 150 2nd fall retrap. 3 2 5 o 4 4 3rd fall retrap. 1 1 2 ~umber marked Recoveries Harvest Estimates -- Correcting for non-return of regular bands, Hoffman (1975) placed the estimate of total banded birds harvested and retrieved by hunters in 1974 at 43 rather than the 36 reported. Thus, 1974 fall harv.est was placed at 18.45 percent of the original fall population (Table 9). In 1975, 13 reward bands were recovered from the 57 placed on roosters earlier in the fall and 1 reward banded rooster from 1974 recaptured in fall of 1975. This represented 22.41 percent harvest of the original early fall population. Projections would place the total banded harvest in 1975 at 13 reward bands and 12 regular bands. Twenty-three reward bands were recovered by field check and mail-in in 1976 from 144 roosters previously reward marked (including two 1976 retrapped reward banded roosters) in �-22- fall. This represented 15.97 percent bagged harvest. These harvest percentages are based on the number of roosters originally fall banded and those retrapped in a specific fall banding period. The actual number of banded or retrapped roosters remaining alive at the beginning of subsequent hunting seasons remained unknown. Table 9. Comparative harvest and crippling loss indices for the three years of study on the mortality study areas. Sample 1974 1975 1976 Retrieved harvest based on reward band recoveries 18.5% 22.4% 16.0% Crippling loss as a percent of retrieved harvest 10.3% 8.2% 28.7% Projected 20.4% 24.2% 20.6% 1.67 2.50 2.16 total mortality Average season bag per hunter-1/ l/ The majority of hunters queried as to success in post-season surveys were those who were successful or were in successful parties so the average season bag per hunter was biased upward. Crippling Loss and Total Harvest Mortality -- Table 9 summarizes estimates of bagged harvest, crippling loss and total harvest mortality through the three years of study. Crippling loss was based on information from hunter questionnaires which totaled 52 in 1974, 34 in 1975, and 43 in 1976. Loss was reported as 10.3 percent of the retrieved bag in 1974, 8.2 percent in 1975, and 28.7 percent in 1976 .. These figures contained considerable potential for error. The much higher rate of loss reported in 1976 was partially due to information from one hunter. He reported 10 cripples for 12 birds bagged. Even without his data, the loss rate approximated 21 percent, well above that for previous years. Crippling loss, as a function of fall density, approximated 1.9 percent in 1974, 1.8 percent in 1975 and 4.6 percent in 1976. Snow conditions, prevailing during the 1975 season, were believed responsible for the reduced crippling loss that year in spite of slightly increased harvest. Dry, cold, windy conditions potentially increased crippling loss in 1976. Similar conditions were reported for bobwhite on the Tamarack Wildlife Area by Snyder (1977). The rate of harvest, including crippling loss, never exceeded 25 percent of the original early fall population during any of the three years of study based on reward band return projections. This was in part due to low hunting pressure, but was more a function of low pheasant �-23- densities. Studies in other locations show that harvest estimates ln areas of high pheasant density and high hunter use can approach 70 to 90 percent or more of available roosters. These references and projected rates of harvest are summarized in Table 10. There was no evidence in any study listed in Table 10 that high rooster mortality in any way impeded reproductive success the following year. The low rate of harvest achieved in eastern Colorado undoubtedly is of no significance to subsequent reproduction. Vast fields, low pheasant densities, the abilities of roosters to learn to avoid hunters with season progression, and the rapid decline of hunter effort with season progression preclude achieving a much greater percent harvest than is currently obtained. Increased pheasant density, however, is the one factor which could increase percent harvest, but then only to a limited degree. Table 10. Percentage harvest of the rooster segment of pheasant populations as reported in the literature from several states.ll Reference State Percent Rooster Harvest This study Colorado 15-25 Allen (1947) Michigan 49-76 Bizeau (1964) Idaho 50 Edwards (1963) Ohio 76 Farris (1973) Iowa 71 Harper (1960) California 49-56 California 53 Hart (1954) California 48 Hartman and Sheffer (1971) Pennsylvania 88-93 Robertson Illinois 60 Stokes (1954) Ontario 78-93 __ Utah 76-88 Wisconsin 59-84 , Hart & Shaffer (1951) (1958) (1968) Wagner, Besadney and Kabat (1965) II - Most researchers used change-in-sex-ratio harvest. data to calculate percent �-24- Braun (1975) stated that most estimates of harvest in past studies (Table 10) were based on change-in-ratio methods between the sexes rather than on banding information. Results from this study provide evidence leading one to question this basis of derivation of harvest estimates. To illustrate, trapped ratios projected 77.5 roosters per 100 hens in the fall 1974 population. Hunting, including crippling loss, removed 20.4 percent of the roosters, which would change the post harvest ratio to 61.7 roosters per 100 hens (assuming no hens were shot). Late winter trapping showed 22.7 roosters per 100 hens indicating 39 additional roosters per 100 hens were unaccounted for due to unknown causes. Observed winter sex ratios showed even fewer roosters present in late winter than trapped samples did (Table 3). Loss per 100 hens totaled 54.8 roosters or 70.7 percent of the original fall rooster population. Projections of rooster harvest based on reward banded data approximated less than a third of that which would have been indicated by change-inratio methods alone. Findings for the second segment of the study followed a pattern similar to that of the first year. There were 71.8 roosters per 100 hens in the fall 1975 trapped sample but only 31.9 roosters per 100 hens in the observed late winter sample. Total harvest mortality based on return of reward bands was placed at 24.7 percent of the trapped population which would reduce the number of roosters in post season populations to 54.1 per 100 hens. Twenty-two additional roosters per 100 hens were unaccounted for in relation to hen loss for the fall winter period of 1975-76. Again, as in the previous year, banding data indicated a much lower harvest than change-in-ratio data showed. The reason or reasons for these apparent greater unaccounted for losses of roosters based on banded data remain unknown. Illegal poaching, nonreporting of reward bands, potential for movement (at least in 1974-75), inaccurate sex ratio data, or differentially greater predation of males than females are all possibilities, singularly or in combination. Whatever the case, change-in-ratio methods used alone, would probably have assigned this additional rooster mortality or unaccounted for loss to harvest. More intensive study using telemetry methods, controlled access hunting units or other modifications would be needed to derive answers to this unknown variable. Differential Harvest of Adults and Juveniles -- Hoffman (1975) showed evidence that adults were less susceptible to hunter harvest than juveniles. In 1974, it was suggested that 19.5 percent of the immature roosters were bagged and only 14.6 percent of the adults were retrieved. Figures in 1975 projected a 20.0 percent harvest of adults and a 23.4 percent harvest of juveniles. In contrast, in 1976, 16.7 percent of the adult roosters were taken compared to a 15.7 percent harvest of juveniles. Sample sizes were not large anyone year, especially for adults, and definite conclusions cannot be drawn on this limited amount of data. �-25- Hunter and Landowner Comments Regarding Hunting Seasons Questionnaires were sent to hunters contacted in the field and those who mailed in bands. A number responded with unsolicited comments during the three years and the general results are summarized in Table 11. Very few comments were made in 1975 when snow conditions exposed available birds. A majority of those returning questionnaires in 1976 made comments. Lack of pheasants and lack of cover were the most frequently mentioned items shown in Table 11. Several commented on increased hunting pressure and lack of birds, however, hunting pressure actually was declining. Several requested that the hunting season be closed or shortened to let the population build up, and several felt the Division had "taken'! them for a license when no birds were present. Other less frequently mentioned items included predator control, hunter access difficulties, and stocking. Farmers in the study region, contacted prior to and during fall trapping, usually also expressed unsolicited opinions. They were nearly unanimous in requesting hunting season closure. A few wanted the season shortened and a curtailment of hunting pressure. Table 11. Unsolicited comments provided by hunters on questionnaires following the 1974 through 1976 hunting seasons. General Commen t Number of hunters making statement Lack of pheasants and poor hunting 35 Saw lot of birds or hunting was good 4 Lack of cover noted 18 Wanted hunting season closed 12 Hunting season was too long 2 Had difficulty 4 finding place to hunt Wanted pheasant stocking 4 Wanted predator control (bounty on coyotes) 4 Wanted license increase to develop cover 2 Wanted Division to do something to increase birds 2 Other comments included develop roadside cover, acquire more public land, and reduce poaching by local farmers. �-26- Movements Average movements from the location of fall trapping to location of harvest among recovered roosters was 4.7 miles in 1974, 4.6 miles in 1975 and 1.3 miles in 1976. The midpoint of fall trapping came in mid-September, approximately two months prior to the beginning of hunting seasons. Some errors could have resulted from incorrect reporting by hunters, but some high movements were evident. Three movements in 1975 ranged from 15 to 20 miles, however, all other movements from banding to harvest were less than four miles in distance that fall and most were less than two miles. Similar results were evident in 1974. Movements tended to be directed toward the east and south in 1974 and 1975. Potentially, these were from areas containing mostly wheat fields to areas containing some irrigated corn. This is supported by lack of excessive movement in 1976 where most of the trapping effort was concentrated adjacent to cornfields because pheasants were lacking in locations containing only wheat. In addition, there was no evidence of a distinct south and east direction of movements in 1976. Some movements might have resulted from trapping disturbance, however, it is more probable that such movements were a natural occurrence. Directional movements in 1974 and 1975 tend to support this hypothesis. Environmental Environmental Variables Impacts and Mortalities of Production The four-township area originally established for this study was nearly all flat to gently-rolling wheatland. Pheasant densities in the region appeared, by census, to be higher than in most other parts of northeast Colorado. First year (1974) late summer-fall trapping efforts revealed that most birds were concentrated, if not produced, in association with the dry to intermittent drainages traversing the region. Sections lacking drainages and associated unfarmed waste land usually contained few if any pheasants. Areas containing draws, especially if corn and wheat fields were adjacent, usually contained higher concentrations of birds. Potentially, these unfarmed drainages were an important variable for nesting in a region almost entirely devoted to dryland wheat. Rainfall in 1974 was deficient in quantity with approximately 11 inches received through the year. Nearly four inches of this was received during one day, June 8, and most of the remainder of that summer was dry. Quantity of precipitation is not the only variable to be considered when nesting and brood survival is involved. Distribution through the growing season and whether moisture comes as gentle rain or violent thunderstorms are additional variables to be considered. Information is lacking on the impact of these and other variables as to how they affect reproduction. However, both production census and fall trapping indicated 1974 was a poor summer for pheasant production because large numbers of hens without broods were evident in late summer. Data from �-27- Snyder (1970) show that the number of young in fall was primarily a function of the percentage of successfully nesting hens, and this seemed to be the situation in 1974. Much additional research along these lines of study is needed before we can gain insight into pheasant nesting and brood survival as affected directly by precipitation and indirectly through precipitation impact on vegetation and insect abundance. Fewer hens without broods were found in late summers of 1975 and 1976 than in 1974 so reduced numbers of young in the latter years was attributed directly to inadequate breeding populations. Age ratios indicate nesting success was better in both 1975 and 1976 than in 1974 (Table 6). Below average rainfall persisted through the summer and fall and nearly all pheasants found during fall 1976 trapping were proximal to irrigated cornfields. Whether these birds were produced in wheatfields adjacent to cornfields or migrated to these adjacent fields after hatching is unknown. One can speculate that free water there permitted better nesting success and/or brood survival, but this is uncertain. Hens may have also concentrated there after movements to wintering sites during the previous fall. Environmental Variables of Survival Three major storms, on March 1975, November 1975, and March 1977, hit the region during the period of study. The two March storms were especially devastating to pheasants. The first, in March 1975, began with an evening rain which soaked and chilled exposed birds. The rain quickly changed to snow and severe high winds and snow persisted through the next day accompanied by lowering temperatures. Thousands of livestock were lost in the storm impacted area along with a majority of the pheasants and other wildlife in the region. The storm of March 1977 began in a manner somewhat similar to that of the storm two years earlier. Winds were even higher and much more snow was received, however temperatures did not drop much below freezing. This difference in temperature was the primary factor reducing mortality impact on livestock and wildlife during the second storm. Post storm searches revealed few dead pheasants, but failure to find many live birds was probably more indicative that the storm had caused considerable mortality to pheasants. Dead birds were both difficult to find and quickly consumed by predators while access into ~he study region was delayed and difficult during both storms. The snow storm of November 1975 reportedly caused some pheasant mortalities as indicated by both farmers and hunters, however dead birds were not observed during field searches. Persistent drifting snows made field searches difficult. The percentage mortality from that storm was believed much lower than the mortality resulting from the two March storms in the study region. Under normal winter conditions and following winter storms, pheasants concentrate and use windbreaks and shelterbelts for protective cover. �-28- These tree and shrub plantings are considered a vital element in wintering pheasant habitat and Lyon (1958) noted heavy winter use by pheasants. Storms such as those of March 1975 and 1977 apparently caught the pheasants in wheat stubble fields, where they died of exposure or suffocation (Fig. 8). However, had the birds been concentrated in shelterbelts during either storm, nearly all would have been buried under huge drifts. Lyon (1958) noted that pheasants apparently abandoned shelterbelts during the blizzard of 1949 when such cover was needed most. Severe winter storms did not reoccur during subsequent years of his evaluations so he was not able to make further assessments of the value of windbreaks during blizzards. Observations following the March storms of 1975 and 1977 indicate additional windbreaks probably would not have increased pheasant survival. Much taller wheat stubble, especially in 1975, probably would have had greater impact on survival by providing increased protection from wind and snow. Figure 8 illustrates the way many of the pheasants were found after the March storms. They apparently climbed onto the snow to prevent being buried and died of exposure and/or suffocation. Some walked or attempted to fly into. the wind and ended up in bare fallow fields along the north edge of stubble fields. Annual Mortality Rates The relative recovery method was used in assessing annual mortality rates based on band recoveries obtained during harvests (Funk 1966). The calculated average annual mortality rate was 97.23 percent for the interval sampled. Unfortunately, sample sizes were small and little confidence could be placed in results. However, whether or not the projected mortality rate approximated the real situation, rooster mortality was high during the period of study. Most of this mortality was due to natural causes. As hens were not legal game, only retrap information during second and third fall intervals (Table 8) was available for assessing annual mortality. A procedure substituting retraps for shot recoveries (Table 13) was used in estimating the annual mortality rate of 75.28 percent for hens. As with roosters, samples were inadequate and little confidence can be placed in proj ections. High annual mortality rates obtained during this study do not typify those of a stable pheasant population. Annual mortality and increment of young must be near identical over a period of years if population stability is maintained. For example, if the annual mortality rate averaged 70 percent from one September to the next, then 70 percent of the September popUlation would have to be young. Assuming fall trapped samples were accurate indicators of adult to young ratios, then the percent young ranged from 64.3 to 69.6 percent during the three year period. To maintain a stable population, the annual mortality from fall to fall should have been within this general range. Since hens were not hunted and roosters were, differences in survival and recruitment between sexes would be expected and were evident. Young roosters comprised from 79 to 83 percent of the male segment in fall trapped samples while young hens comprised from 44 to 62 percent of the female segment. Neither �-29- Fig. 8. A mortality from the March 1975 blizzard. Numerous pheasants were found throughout the study region like this in wheat stubble fields. (Photo by Warren D. Snyder) �-30group of samples approached mortality levels derived in Tables 12 and 13. Mortality at the 70 percent level from fall to fall would have established near stable populations in 1975 and 1976 on this study area. Thus, since indicated mortality rates were much higher than recruitment rates, the population declined over the 1974-76 period. Past studies have placed annual mortality of stable pheasant populations from 70 to 80 percent (Mallette and Harper 1964; Leopold et al. 1943; Buzz 1946; Dumke and Pils 1973; Harper 1960; and others). Table 12. Relative recovery rate method for estimating annual mortality and survival of roosters within the mortality study area. Fall Banded Number Marked Recoveriesl/ l-n 2-n Recovery Rate l-n 2-n 1974 233 2 .0086 1975 109 17 1976 142 22 0 .1560 survival rate Average mortality rate Mortality Rate .0051 .9449 .0000 1.0000 .0000 .1549 .3109 Average Survival Rate .0086 = 2.77 percent = 97.23 percent 1/ l-n = all recoveries r~coveries from the segment banded in that year; 2-n = all from the segment banded that year except 1st year recoveries. Table 13. An estimation of annual mortality and survival of hens substituting retraps for recovered mortalities based on two years of retrap. Fall Banded Number Marked 1974 301 5 1975 150 4 1976 187 Retraps 1st yr. 2nd yr. Retrap Rate 1st yr. 2nd yr. 2 rate = 24.72 percent Mortality rate = 75.28 percent Mortality Rate .2472 .7528 .0066 .0267 Survival Survival Rate �-31- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Until an improved technique is developed, nightlighting appears to be the only feasible and practical method of capturing significant numbers of pheasants in the Tablelands of eastern Colorado. Use of an auxilIary flood light system is essential in applying this technique. Trained crews can capture most observed pheasants in late summer and a majority of observed birds in fall and winter. Deficient population levels were the primary deterents to trapping success during this study. 2. Reward bands placed on a portion of the roosters clearly indicated that hunters failed to report a majority of regular bands on pheasants. The same situation would undoubtedly occur with quail and other upland game bird species. Therefore, reward bands are an essential part of any study where mail-in reporting of bands is used as a basis for deriving harvest, annual mortality, or other information. 3. Poor reproduction and subsequent devastating storms curtailed obtaining both adequate banding and recovery samples during this period of study. A study using telemetry methods is about the only way additional mortality information can be obtained under existing very low pheasant density levels. Such a study should be directed toward determining when, how and to what degree hen mortality occurs and its impact on reproductive success. 4. Study findings show that less than a fourth of the roosters initially fall banded were taken by hunters during any of the three years of study. The Division should utilize this information, contrast it with harvest data from other states, and attempt to (1) educate the farming, hunting, and general publics that hunting of roosters has no impact on subsequent reproduction and populations; and, (2) point out the real elements, weather, farming practices and other environmental variables which have reduced populations to near zero in much of the State. This education effort must be long term and repetitious. However, it is doubtful that percentage harvest can be increased significantly while pheasant populations remain at current very low levels. The reason why change~in-ratio methods projected much higher unaccounted for rooster loss than harvest band return information is uncertain. Additional research is needed, again by use of telemetry. 5. Results from this study clearly indicate that both the hen and rooster segments of northeastern Colorado pheasant populations sustain high annual mortality turnover rates. High productivity and high mortality go hand in hand. Weather variables in accompaniment with short wheat stubble and generally deficient cover were the primary factors in the drastic population declines which occurred during the period of study. Additional windbreak and shelterbelt plantings would have done little to increase survival during this period because of the severe storms which occurred. However, they would be valuable cover in more normal winter periods. 6. Many hunters, faced with lack of birds to hunt and resentment of their presence by local farmers, voiced opinions that the Division should have closed the hunting season. Nearly all farmers in the region voiced the �-32- same opinion. It is the Division's duty to inform these publics as to what pheasant population levels can be expected and that they should not anticipate quality hunting conditions. At the same time the Division must stress to both the hunting and farming publics that removal of roosters has no impact what-so-ever on subsequent populations and reproduction. Basic simple explanation and understanding is needed. At the same time, marginal pheasant populations can provide limited recreational opportunity for those persevering enough to try. LITERATURE CITED Allen, D. L. 1947. Hunting as a limitation to Michigan pheasant populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 11(3):232-243. Bizeau, E. G. 1964. Results of hen pheasant seasons in Idaho. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 44:211-215. Proc. Braun, C. E. 1975. Mortality, survival and effects of hunting on grouse, partridge, pheasants and quail - An annotated bibliography. Colorado Division of Wildlife Rept. No.3. 39 p. Buzz, I. o. 1946. Wisconsin Publ. 326. 184 p. pheasant populations. Wisc. Cons. Dept. Dumke, R. T., and C. M. Pils. 1973. Mortality of radio-tagged pheasants on the Waterloo Wildlife Area. Wisc. Dept. Nat. Resources, Tech. Bull. No. 72. 52 p. Edwards, W. R. 1963. Proportionate harvest of ring-necked cocks and hens. Game Res. in Ohio 2:11-22. pheasant Farris, A. L. 1973. The ring-necked pheasant in Iowa - 1972. Iowa Conservation Commission. Wildl. Research Bull. #7. 38 p. Funk, H. D. 1966. Review of duck literature relating to population dynamics and banding analysis techniques and findings. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. Oct. p. 77-108. Harper, H. T. 1960. The effects of a three year limited hen season on pheasant populations in California, 1955-1957. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 40:168-176. , C. M. Hart, and D. E. Shaffer. 1951. Effects of hunting pressure -----and game farm stocking on pheasant populations in the Sacramento Valley, California, 1946-1949. Calif. Fish and Game 37(2):141-176. Hart, C. M. 1954. Pheasant hunting pressures in California. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 34:219-226. Proc. Hartman, F. E., and D. E. Sheffer. 1971. Population dynamics and hunter harvest of ring-necked pheasant populations in Pennsylvania's primary range. Trans. N. E. Section of the Wildl. .Soc . 28:179-205. Hoffman, D. M. 1975. Pheasant mortality investigation. Wildl. Game Research Rept. April p. 5-35. Colo. Div. of �-33- Labisky, R. F. 1968. Nightlighting: its use in capturing pheasants, prairie chickens, bobwhites, and cottontails. BioI. Notes No. 62. Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana. 12 p. Lyon, L. J. 1958. Evaluation of effects of habitat impr6vement on wildlife. Colorado Dept. of Game and Fish. Pittman-Robertson Qtly. Progress. Rept., April. pp. 75-113. Mallette, R. D., and H. T. Harper. 1964. Population studies of ringnecked pheasants in California. Calif. Fish and Game. 50(4):292-304. Robertson, W. B., Jr. 1958. Investigations of ring-necked pheasants in Illinois. Ill. Dept. Cons., Div. Game Manage. Tech. Bull. No.1. 137 p. Sandfort, W. W. 1960a. Pre-nesting studies. Colorado Game and Fish Dept. Quart. Res. Prog. Rept., April. p. 37-47. --- , 1,960b. Pheasant brood survey. Res. Prog. Rept., April. Colorado Game and Fish Dept. pp. 49-55. Quart. Snyder, W. D. 1970. Pheasant hen harvest investigation. Colorado Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., April. pp. 3-81. Stokes, A. W. 1954. Population studies of the ring-necked pheasants on Pelee Island, Ontario. Ontario Dept. Lands and Forests Tech. Bull. Wildl. Ser. No.4. 154 p. ___ 1968. An eight-year study of a northern Utah pheasant population. J. Wildl. Manage. 32(4):867-874. Wagner, F. H., C. D. Besadny, and C. Kabat. and management of Wisconsin pheasants. No. 34. 168 p. 1965. Population ecology Wisc. Cons. Dept. Tech. Bull. Wishart, W. 1969. Age determination of pheasants by measurement proximal primaries. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):714-717. Prepared by ~'~_/.~'_~_~~~~~~~ Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher _ C of ��April 1977 -35- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --~----~~~~~---------- Project No. Work Plan No. W-37-R-30 Game Bird Survey 3 Job Title Job NOo 9 _ Evaluation of the Effects of Changes ~l~·n~H~u~n~t=i~n~g~R~e~g~u~l~a~t~l~·o~n~s~o~n~S~a~g~e~G~r~o~u~s~e~P~o~p~u~l~ _ Period Covered: April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Personnel: Fred Giese, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Heather F.· Alexander, Don Benson, Clait Braun, Deborah Covic, Courtney Crawford, Sue Erickson, Howard Funk, Ken Giesen, Don Gore, Paul Gorenzel, John Hobbs, Richard Hoffman, Jim Jackson, Fran Marcoux, Sig Palm, Brett Petersen, Steve Porter, Brent Renfrow,Wayne Russell, Howard Spear, Robert Stark, and John Wagner, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACf Investigations concerning the relationships of hunting to breeding population levels, and mortality and survival rates of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in North Park, Colorado initiated in 1975 continued in 1976. Numbers of known strutting grounds increased as two new grounds were located. Average number of cocks per ground increased from 31 in 19.75 to 32 in 1976. Peak period of female attendance in 1976 was between April 5-15, about 10 days earlier than in 1975. Total estimated spring population size was about 3,600-4,200 birds. In 1976, 384 (239 males, 145 females) sage grouse, including 5 chicks, were banded. Ninety-two broods were observed with a composite average of 2.0 chicks per successful hen. Estimated nesting success based on 184 females seen during the brood period was 50.0%. A 9 day permit only hunting season was allowed in North Park in 1976 with bag and possession limits of 3 and 6. Data from wings (N = 504) collected at check stations, wing barrels and field checks revealed that the harvest was comprised of 42 percent young of the year, 24 percent yearlings and 34 percent adults. Calculated hatching dates for 211 hunter harvested juveniles ranged from late May to 19 July with a peak between 8-21 June: Estimated nesting success from examination of wings of adult and yearling females was 43 percent with more adults (53%) than yearlings (27%) being successful. Ovarian analysis (N = 118) indicated that 75% of the yearling and 88% of the adult females had ovulated. Total permits issued numbered 1,258, and only 77 percent of the permittees actually hunted. Estimated total harvest including crippling loss was 829 grouse. This was a decrease of approximately 21 percent from 1975 harvest levels. Fifty-eight bands were recovered and reported by hunters of which 37 were from 1976 bandings, 14 were from 1975, 4 were from 1974, while 3 were from 1973 bandings. Females (11) were poorly represented in the harvested sample of banded birds. Direct recovery rates were 13.3% for yearling males, 14.0% for adult males, 1.7% for yearling females and 1.8% for adult females. Harvest of banded males was not uniform by area of banding with percentage of cocks harvested vs total cocks counted varying from 0 to 16% per strutting ground. Survival and mortality rates for each age and sex class were calculated with males having lower survival rates than females. Estimated fall population size was about 7,000 birds and the harvest rate was about 12%. �-36- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Trapping efforts should be intensified with more effort being made to capture females in spring and females and chicks in August and early September. 2. Changes in hunting regulations should be promulgated with a 16 day season and bag and possession limits of 3 and 6 in 1977. �-37- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN HUNTING REGULATIONS ON SAGE GROUSE POPULATIONS C1ait E. Braun Sage grouse are widely distributed in the western United Stat~s, occupying sagebrush dominated rangelands. Throughout most of their occupied range, state wildlife agencies routinely collect different types of population data for the species and regulate hunter opportunity and harvest. Management of sage grouse has primarily been based on counts of cocks on strutting grounds in April and estimates of nesting success and brood size obtained in July and August. Unfortunately, evaluation of existing data gathering procedures and knowledge of the impacts of hunting have been and are limited. Data presented in this report concern these problems and represent the period of mid-March 1975 through mid-March 1977. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are to increase hunter opportunity and recreational use of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. Hypotheses which are being tested are: a. Hunter harvest does not affect spring counts of strutting males or peak spring counts of females under any regulations. b. Counts of females during the peak of attendance on strutting grounds are a reliable index to overall numbers of sage grouse in spring. c. Hunter success and total harvest are a function of August precipitation. d. Nesting success and brood size to 15 August, while important in determining age composition of the harvest, have no relationship to hunter success and total harvest. e. Differences exist between yearling and nesting success. and adult heps in percent ovulating, SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1a. Counts of males will be made on 10 selected strutting grounds three times each week between 5:00 to 7:30 A.M. during the month of April. lb. Counts of females will be made on 10 selected strutting day for 10 days in April (period of peak attendance). 2a. Males will be trapped and marked with color-coded bands at night while roosting on or near strutting grounds. A sample of 200 will be marked. Trapping will be conducted from mid-March to late May by spotlighting and netting. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. grounds every �-38- 2b. Females will be trapped during the early A.M. on strutting grounds during April through use of drop, mist and cannon nets. A sample of 300 will be marked with color coded leg bands. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. 2c. Chicks will be located and trapped in brood areas during late July and August through use of tape recorded calls and noosing. Some chicks may be caught through use of mist nets and drive traps. A sample of 200 chicks (100 males and 100 females) will be marked with color coded leg bands or wing tags. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. 3a. Nesting success will be estimated through counts of successful and unsuccessful hens in July and August. Successful females will be located through use of tape recorded calls, while unsuccessful hens will be located and counted in known summer use sites. A sample of 200 hens will be classified. 3b. Brood size will be determined by counts of chicks accompanied in July and August. A sample of 100 broods will be counted. 4. August precipitation will be determined from 12 rain gauges placed at selected sites throughout sage grouse habitat. Sites will be selected that typify particular areas within North Park. Each rain gauge will be sampled once a week. Data collected will be compared to that collected by the U. S. Weather Bureau at Walden and at Spicer. 5. Population size will be estimated in spring and fall. Spring population size will be estimated through use of ratios of males to females on strutting grounds, observation and recaptures of marked birds and ratios of males to females and juvenile to yearling to adult age classes in the harvest the preceding fall. Fall (pre-hunting) population size will be estimated through examination of data on nesting success, brood size to 1 September and spring population data. Independent fall population estimates will be made through use of data collected at check stations on age composition of the harvest and number of marked birds shot. 6a. Hunting will be by free permit only, and all hunters will be mailed a questionnaire within one week of end of hunting season. One follow up letter will be sent two weeks later. A goal of 90 percent response is desired. 6b. Check stations will be operated at three locations each year during the first two weekends of the hunting season. These stations will be at Gould, State Line, and Willow Creek Pass. A goal of 500 wings is desired. 6c. Number and location of marked birds shot will be obtained through use of check stations, field hunter checks and voluntary mail reporting. A goal of 50 first year recoveries is desired. 6d. Hunter success will be determined through data collected stations and from the mail questionnaire survey. by hens at check �-39- 6e. Age composition of the harvest will be determined through examination of wings collected at check stations. Classification will be as adult, yearling, juvenile, and male and female. 6f. Total harvest will be estimated (90 percent confidence mail questionnaire survey of all hunters. 7. Different regulations will be promoted each year, with 9 days and a bag and possession limit of 3 and 6 in 1976. 8. Compile data, analyze results, and prepare progress level) from the report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Counts of male and female sage grouse present on strutting grounds were periodically made by project personnel and Wildlife Conservation Officers following proscribed procedures (Braun and Beck 1976). Counts were made from 23 March through 19 May at times within one-half hour of sunrise. Searches for new or relocated grounds were made through ground and aerial reconnaissance. Male and female sage grouse were trapped at night along roads and on strutting grounds where they roosted. Some birds, primarily hens, were captured at dawn on strutting grounds through use of cannon nets. Most birds were captured through use of a spotlight with a back-pack power source and long handled nets (Brau~ and Beck 1976). Sage grouse banded and released were marked with serially numbered aluminum bands (size 16 for males, 14 for females) and colored plastic and aluminum bands coded to capture locations. Age and sex classification of birds captured followed Eng (1955). Some chicks were captured in August through use of a truck mounted cannon net (Lacher and Lacher 1964). Hens with broods were located during July and August through systematic searches of selected areas and observations along roads and trails. Systematic searches for broods involved walking moist areas and playback of tape recorded chick distress calls (Braun et al. 1973, Wallestad 1970). Searches for broods along roads and trails were made from a vehicle following established routes (Gill 1965) and other suitable appearing areas. Routes were traversed shortly after sunrise at a speed of 15 to 20 miles per hour. Twelve sunken or pit rain gauges which were checked weekly through early September were randomly established throughout the sagebrush range in North Park. Each gauge was constructed from two one gallon (3.8 liter) cans soldered together. Splash shields were made from 1 yard square (approx. 1 m2) burlap. Rodent -and insect screens of 0.1 cm (1/4 in) wire mesh were installed about 20 cm below the surface of the ground in each 15.2 cm (6 in) diameter can. Cetyl alcohol was used instead of diesel fuel to retard water evaporation. Sage grouse hunters: in North Park in 1976 were required to have in their possession a free numbered permit. Permits unlimited in number were available from Division of Wildlife offices in Fort Collins and Denver, all license agents in North Park, and all project and management personnel assigned to work in North Park during the hunting season. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the sage grouse season in North Park, with one followup letter being mailed in mid-October to all non-respondents. �-40- Check stations were operated at three locations (State Line, Gould, Willow Creek Pass) on the opening weekend (II and 12 September) and the second Sunday (19 September) at Willow Creek Pass. Each station was operated from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Data obtained per party were: county of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters), birds observed, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained, and area hunted. One wing was obtained from each bird checked with ovaries being taken from a sample of hens. Efforts were made to ascertain sex by gonadal inspection for a sample of birds. These data were recorded on tags with wings being individually marked with corresponding information concerning actual sex of that bird. Wings were frozen and stored for later analysis. In addition to the three check stations, a wing barrel and sign (Hoffman and Braun 1975) were placed along Colorado 14 near Muddy Pass on 11 and 12 September, and near Walden Reservoir on Jackson County Road 12 from 13 through 19 September. Collected wings were thawed and classified to age (chicks, yearlings, adults) and sex following procedures outlined by Eng (1955), and Beck et al. (1975). Hatching dates were calculated for chicks of the year using data from Pyrah (1963). Ovaries collected were stored in an alcohol, formalin and acetic acid solution and later examined for presence of ovulated follicles as described by Kabat et al. (1948). Description of Area North Park lies completely in Jackson County, Colorado. This relatively high altitude (7,800 to 8,500 ft) area is essentially a closed basin, as it is encircled by mountain ranges. Drainage is to the north, with lowest elevations occurring north of Cowdrey. Vegetation is principally a sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-grassland type with stream courses being dominated by native grasses, sedges and deciduous shrubs. Detailed geographic, geologic, vegetational and climatic features of the area have been described by Gill (1965), Carr (1967), Beck (1975), Braun and Beck (1976) and will be treated in the final report. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Strutting Ground Counts Counts of male and female sage grouse present on strutting grounds were initiated on 23 March (Alkali Lake, Boettcher Lake Junction, Railroad, Walden, and Wattenburg #2) and continued until 19 May (Owl Creek). During this interval, 252 counts were made of 22 active grounds. Maximum counts of males and females and dates obtained are presented in Table 1. The total of 712 males counted is higher than the 588 counted in 1975 but represents two new grounds (Bighorn and Owl Creek) and one ground (Delaney Butte) which �-41- was active for a short time in 1976. Average number of cocks per ground in 1976 was 32.4 while this average was 30.9 in 1975 and 27.7 in 1974. These data suggest a slight increase in breeding population from 1974 through 1976. One ground inactive in 1975, Delaney Butte, was active briefly in 1976, while two new grounds (Bighorn and Owl Creek) were located in 1976. It is probable that other grounds exist, especially near Delaney Butte. Two small grounds were located near Baker Draw and Case Flats in 1976. Due to the small size «10 cocks each) and sporadic use of these grounds, they have not been listed as strutting grounds. The importance of the high counts of females (total = 599) in 1976 is unknown. This number is slightly above the total of high counts of hens (573) in 1975. Due to logistic problems in counting all strutting grounds on the same days during the peak of mating, it is probable that counts of hens will not be useful for other than estimating onset of nesting and expected appearance of broods. The peak period of female attendance in 1976 was between 5 and 15 April. Three or more counts of males in a seven day period were made at 15 different grounds in 1976. Number of different seven day periods represented per ground varied from 1 to 4. Counts of males at four grounds did not change in a seven day period while counts at the remaining 11 grounds varied from -66 to +100 percent within a seven day interval. Time of counts in relation to peak of female attendance and size of ground in terms of numbers of cocks did not appear to be of major importance in controlling numbers of cocks present on individual grounds. It is suspected that predator activity prior to sunrise near the grounds and intrinsic factors affected by weather may be most important in controlling numbers of cocks on a given ground on any given day. Estimation of Spring Population Size Reliable estimates of total numbers of sage grouse in North Park during the breeding period are difficult to derive. Major problems involved are those relating to how many males and females of the total population are present on strutting grounds when peak counts are attained and how many of the actual number of active strutting grounds are known and counted. There is some evidence to suggest that only 50 percent of the male segment of the population of lekking species is present on a ground when peak counts of males are attained (Robel 1969, Rippin and Bogg 1974). If it is assumed that peak counts of male sage grouse represent 50 percent of the male population in an area, then at least 1,424 (712 x 2) cocks occurred in North Park in the spring of 1976. It is quite obvious that not all strutting ground locations are known in a given year. If it is assumed that 80 percent of the active grounds have been located, then a minimum of 4 (.20 x 22) unknown grounds should occur somewhere in North Park. Assuming that these 4 grounds have an average of 32 cocks during the peak period of male attendance, they represent a minimum of 256 additional cocks (32 x 4 = 128 x 2 = 256). Thus, the total estimated number of cocks in North Park in the spring of 1976 was 1,682. This is higher than the 1,486 males estimated to have been in North Park in the spring of 1975. Realistically, these figures may be higher than actual numbers of birds present. A better estimate for both 1975 and 1976 might be 1,200 ~ 200 males in the spring population. �-42- Table 1. Sage grouse strutting ground counts, North Park, 1976. Maximum No. of Males Ground Date(s) Maximum No. of Females Date(s) Alkali Lake 39 23 March 7 3 April Bighorn 46 24 April 14 15 April 62 20 April 96 10 April Canuck 30 11 April 20 11 April Coalmont 28 28 April 34 16 April Cowdrey 115 5 5 and 13 April 6 5 April Deer Creek 36 25 and 30 April 18 14 April Delaney Butte 43 29 March 0 24 March through 4 May Fish Hatchery 81 24 April 44 14 April Hound 27 10 April 60 9 April Lost Creek 111 33 22 April 6 21 April Monahan 1 5 April 0 1 through 28 April Owl Creek 14 11 May 1 11 May Railroad 87 31 March 69 14 April Ridge Road 32 29 April 46 12 April Riley 18 8 April 39 8 April Roth 9 4 April and 4 May 7 12 and 16 April Spring Creek 111 49 28 April 78 8 April Spring Creek 112 11 10 April 14 15 April Spring Creek 114 8 10 April 6 11 April Walden Reservoir 37 5 April 20 5 April 16 23 March 14 5 April Boettcher Draw Wattenberg Totals Lake Jct. 112 712 599 �-43Beck (1977) found a late winter sex ratio of 69 hens to 31 cocks, a value remarkably similar to the sex ratio of adult and yearling birds in the fall harvest (Braun and Beck 1976). If it is assumed that the spring sex ratio of the North Park sage grouse population is similar to that observed in late winter and early fall, then 2 hens occur for every cock in the population. Thus, the total spring female population can be estimated based on the estimated number of cocks in the spring population. Therefore, there should have been a minimum of 3,364 hens in the 1976 spring population (1,682 x 2 = 3,364). If the figure of 1,200 200 cocks is used, then the spring female population should have been 2,400 ± 400 birds. The estimated total spring population of sage grouse in North Park in 1976 was 5,046 birds if actual projections are used. If the figure of 1,200 + 200 cocks is used, the estimated 1976 spring population is 3,600 + 600 birds. It is reasonably safe to assume that the 1976 spring population of sage grouse in North Park was between 3,000 and 5,000 birds. ± Capture and Banding Intensive efforts to capture and band sage grouse in the 1976 field period were initiated on 22 March. During the 22 March through 19 May interval, 376 birds were newly banded. An additional 8 birds were newly banded in the 12 through 26 August period. Age and sex data for the banded sample are given in Table 2. Table 2. Sex and age composition North Park, Colorado 1976. of newly banded sage grouse by month, 1+ Males 2+ March 4 2 6 1 1 2 April 80 91 171 54 59 113 May 35 21 56 15 13 28 Month Chick Total Chick Females 1+ 2+ Total August 5 1 0 6 0 1 1 2 Totals 5 120 114 239 0 71 74 145 The total of 384 birds banded in 1976 was less than the 422 birds banded in 1975. As in 1975, the goal of 200 males (100 of both age classes) was achieved while the goal of 300 females was not. The 145 females banded in 1976 was the largest number ever banded in one year in North Park. Distribution of bandings within North Park in 1976 was not equal as only 25 grouse were banded in the northeast portion of the park, 50 were banded in the southeast, while 116 were banded in the northwest and 193 were banded in the southwest quadrant. Most trapping was associated with strutting grounds, �-44- consequently, few birds were trapped in the northeast part of the park, as only two known strutting grounds occur in this area. The same is true for the southeast portion of the park, as only 5 active grounds are known in this area. Distribution of the banded sample in 1976 as in 1975 reflected known distribution of strutting grounds. Distribution of strutting grounds may reflect quality of available habitat but may also be a reflection of access. Sex and age composition of the trap sample does not reflect the actual compostion of the population. Males are more easily trapped than females as they are associated with strutting grounds at night for up to two months. Of the sample of 145 females banded, 56 were trapped along roads at night with the remainder (91) being trapped on or near strutting grounds (28 with cannon nets). The even age ratios of males and females apparent~n the 1976 trapping results are more a reflection of grouse behavior patterns than the actual age compositon of the population. In the course of trapping operations, 58 different birds (50 males, 8 females)'banded in previous years were recaptured. Six (5 males, 1 females) had been banded in 1973, 9 (8 males, 1 female) had been banded in 1974, while 43 (37 males, 6 females) had been banded in 1975. The oldest males recaptured were at least 5 years of age (2) as was the oldest female (1). It was not possible for birds to be known to be older than 5+ years as no banding of sage grouse was accomplished in North Park in the 1970-1972 interval. Little use can be made of recapture data.outside of longevity and movements as efforts were made not to recapture banded birds. This was done to reduce possible mortalities of banded birds. Summer Observations Systematic examination for brood patches (area of bare skin at the posterior end of the abdomen) on females captured was conducted from 23 April through 19 May. The first indication of a brood patch was observed on 27 April on 1 of 3 females checked. After 1 May, only 1 female of 32 examined did not have a partial or full brood patch. These data suggest that some hens initiated incubation the last week of April, while all nesting hens had initiated laying and incubation prior to 19 May 1976. 'Consequently, the earliest nest could have hatched (assuming a 25 day incubation period) on about 20-25 May. Searches for hens with chicks were made by walking selected transects and using playbacks of tape recorded chick distress calls and by slowly driving roads in preselected areas. The first brood was observed on 25 June and consisted of 4 (3-4 weeks of age) chicks. Groups containing progeny from more than one brood were first observed on 22 July. During the 1 June-30 August period, 551 sage grouse were observed including 177 young of the year. Classification of birds observed by time period is presented in Table 3. �-45- Table 3. 1976. Composition of observed sage grouse, North Park, 1 June-3l August, Category 1-15 June 16-30 June l-l~ July 16-31 July 1-15 August 16-31 August Total Adult males 8 29 37 24 3 89 190 Adult females 5 12 12 55 38 62 184 Chicks 0 16 26 36 17 82 177 3.2(5) 3.7(7) 2.6(14) 4.2(4) 1.3(62) 1.9(92) Chicks/successful female 1/ 1/ Hens accompanied parenthesis by chicks were assumed to be successful. represent number of assumed successful hens. Numbers in Sage grouse younger than 3 to 4 weeks of age are difficult to locate because of dense cover used and behaviours which cause them to freeze if danger is apparent. Several (3) females which appeared to be broody were observed in early June. These hens responded to the tape recorded chick distress call but no chicks could be located. All were assumed to have had broods. Apparent brood sizes throughout the summer appeared to be lower than expected if sage grouse lay from 7 to 9 egg clutches. It is probable that broods observed before mid-July are under counted because of dense cover and associated behavior patterns. Brood breakup after mid-July and size similar to females may result in inaccurate counts of young later in the summer. It presently appears that brood counts of sage grouse give unreliable estimates of production because of problems associated with visibility, behavior patterns and size. Because of the above problems it is difficult to accurately assess nesting success and production from counts of hens with and without broods. Data presented in Table 3 suggest that 92 of 184 females (50%) were successful, with each successful hen rearing two chicks to age of independence (8 weeks+). It is exceedingly doubtful that counts of sage grouse after mid-August and possibly after 31 July have any merit. It appears that moisture patterns and dryness of vegetation after these dates, expecially mid-August, have more effect on numbers of birds observed than does production success. Precipitation Twelve standard pit rain gauges as described by Alexander (1976) were again placed at randomly located sites in North Park in 1976. Gauges were checked weekly from 6 August to 13 September. Unfortunately, few useful data were obtained because of changes in observers (some gauges were not properly located), animal disturbance, and evaporation of the medium used to supposedly �-46- prevent evaporation. All 12 gauges gained and lost moisture and were disturbed at least once in the study period. Consequently, data from this source were not used. Data from the Walden and Spicer stations maintained by the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Commerce are presented in Table 4. Table 4. Weather data, North Park, Colorado, 1976. SEicer Walden June July August 20 31 80 No. days 32 F or below 1-10 Sept. June July August 25 22 34 25 84 63 80 86 81 11 1 12 7 1 7 Days of ppt. 8 8 17 5 7 15 Total ppt. (in) 1.15 1.20 1.23 30 year average ppt. (in) 1.37 1.22 1.69 0 Min. temp. F 0 Max. temp. F 1-10 1/ Sept.- 0 2 .33 .67 .95 1.37 1.11 1.24 1.29 1/ Observer died, no data. From data in Table 4 it is readily apparent that the June through August 1976 period in North Park was somewhat drier than the 30 year average. Total precipitation was down about 16 percent (16.4) in the southwestern part of North Park (Spicer) and about 18 percent (17.9) in the central area of the park (Walden). However, these decreases were offset by frequent showers (15 and 17 days out of 31 possible) in August 1976. As a consequence, desiccation of vegetation was not noticeable in late summer and large concentrations of birds around moist sites did not occur. When the 200 square miles of hay meadows in North Park are considered (Braun and Beck 1976) the edges of which are all potential grouse use areas, it would appear that summer precipitation patterns may have little impact on grouse distribution in fall. Since most hay meadows are on private land and much of the private area is closed to hunting, it is logical reasoning that a sizeable portion of the sage grouse population in North Park is not available to hunters in the fall. Thus amount of private land, and behavior patterns of grouse may be more important than summer precipitation in affecting harvest of grouse in North Park. �-47- Hunting Season Data Collection The sage grouse season in North Park (Unit 12) in 1976 opened at sunrise on 11 September and closed at sunset on 19 September. Season length was identical to that in 1975 (9 days) but longer than those seasons prior to 1975 (normally 3 days). The daily bag limit was three with a possession limit of six. This was more liberal than the two and four daily bag and possession limits allowed through 1975. As in 1974 and 1975 all hunters hunting sage grouse in North Park were required to have in their possession a free special permit. Permits unlimited in number were available at all license agents in North Park; the Fort Collins and Denver offices of the Division of Wildlife, and all Wildlife Conservation Officers and research personnel working in North Park. Purpose of the permit was to obtain reliable estimates concerning hunter activities in North Park. Check Stations Three check stations were operated in 1976. These stations were located at the State Line, Gould, and Willow Creek Pass. As in previous years of operation, each station was open from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. All check stations were operated on the 11th and 12th, with Willow Creek also being operated on the 19th. At least one research person and two Wildlife Conservation Officers were assigned to each check station. Data obtained per party were: county of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total all hunters), birds observed, birds bagged,. birds lost, number of banded birds and location where each was obtained, and area hunted within North Park. Most importantly, one wing was obtained from each bird that was checked. Few birds (9) were completely wingless. Ovaries were collected from 121 females, and sex by gonadal inspection was ascertained for 304 birds. In addition to the three check stations, a wing barrel and sign were placed along Colorado 14 near Muddy Pass on September 11 and 12, and near Walden Reservoir on Jackson County Road 12 from September 13 through 19. Twentytwo wings were received in the wing barrel on September 11 (10), and 12 (12) while 2 were received from September 13 through 19. During the three days of check station operation, 595 hunters with 459 sage grouse were checked. These hunters reported observing 3,393 sage grouse. Some duplications are undoubtedly present in the 3,393 observations. Hunter efficiency was low (13.5 percent) (459 birds harvested 7 3,393 birds observed) but only 26 birds (5.7 percent of those retrieved) were reported crippled and lost. Hunter efficiency was higher than in 1974 (7.7%) and 1975 (9.6%) while crippling loss was less than in 1975 (7.1%) but similar to that calculated in 1974 (5.1%). Distribution of the harvest and hunting pressure within North Park was uneven in 1976. Leading harvest zones were Lake John, Ridge Road, and Peterson RidgeMacFarlane Reservoir areas each with about 21 percent of the total harvest. Next in importance were Walden Reservoir (12.0%), Owl Ridge-Spring Creek (6.3%), Michigan River Southeast (5.9%), Eagle Hill (5.0%), Pole Mountain (4.5%), and Independence Mountain (3.0%). Point of harvest could not be ascertained for 3.9 percent of the birds checked. Considering the three years for which �-48- location of harvest within North Park has been determined, harvest trends 'are downward at Walden Reservoir, Eagle Hill, Owl Ridge-Spring Creek and essentially stable in the other zones. With the exception of the Ridge Road area (13.0% of the hunters harvested 21.1% of the birds checked), distribution of hunters in 1976 coincided with distribution of the harvest. Most hunters contacted at check stations were asked whether or not they normally hunted in North Park. Of the 565 hunters responding, 366 (63.8%) reported that they normally hunted in North Par~ 159 (28.1%) were first time sage grouse hunters, while 40 (7.1%) reported they normally hunted elsewhere. Percentage response to this question has not varied significantly since inception of the intensive study in 1974 (Table 5). Table 5. Previous sage grouse hunting experience North Park, Colorado 1974-1976. of sage grouse hunters, Year Normally Hunt In North Park Number Percent 1974 183 68.3 20 7.4 65 24.3 1975 432 64.9 47 7.0 187 28.1 1976 366 64.8 40 7.1 159 28.1 Normally Hunt Elsewhere Number Percent First Time Sage Grouse Hunters Number Percent Two important points are apparent from these data. First, there is a substantial annual turnover in sage grouse hunters and second, more liberal seasons in North Park (1975 and 1976) have not resulted in major shifts of hunters into North Park from other areas. Wing Analyses In 1976 wings were received from 504 sage grouse (450 from check stations, 24 from wing barrels, 20 from field checks and 10 from the wing envelope survey). Age and sex structure of the harvest as estimated from wings from 1974 through 1976 is presented in Table 6. As can be readily ascertained from data in Table 6, sex and age compostion of the harvest in 1976 was almost identical to that in 1975 and was not greatly different from that determined in 1974. Contrary to expectations derived from observations of broods in July and August, production of young did not increase in 1976. It is obvious that no selection by hunters for smaller birds (females) occurs in the young-of-the-year age class even though immature males are larger by 400-500 grams (1 pound) by time of the hunting season. Selection for smaller birds (hens) in the older age classes is possible, but is highly unlikely considering hunter opportunity, hunter efficiency and the late winter sex ratio of 62 females:38 males. The sex �" Table 6. Age and sex composition of the sage grouse harvest, North Park, Colorado 1974-1976. Year Males No. % Immatures Females No. % Total No. % Males No. % Yearlings Females No. % Total No. % Males No. % Adults Females No. % Total No. % 1974 171 48.9 179 51.1 350 50.1 49 35.5 89 64.5 138 19.8 45 21.4 165 78.6 210 30.1 1975 101 47.6 111 52.4 212 42.0 52 46.8 59 53.2 111 22.0 55 30.2 127 69.8 182 36.0 1976 104 49.5 108 50.9 212 42.1 46 38.7 73 61.3 119 23.6 49 28.3 124 71.7 173 34.3 I .po \0 I �-50- ratio in the harvest for all three age classes combined was 62 fema1es:38 males, 59 fema1es:41 males, and 60 fema1es:40 males for 1974-1976, respectively. From examination of data in Table 6 it is evident that overwinter survival of immatures to yearling and yearling to adult classes has not changed markedly in the three year period, nor has the overwinter survival of males or females. What small changes occurred were probably the result of numbers of chicks produced the preceding year. It is also evident that survival is disproportionate favoring females. Consequently, turnover is fastest in the male segment of the population, with complete turnover probably occurring every 5 years for males and 7 years for females. Examination of the molt of primary wing feathers of immature sage grouse (N = 211) harvested in 1976 indicated hatching started in late May, peaked between 8-21 June and continued as late as the week of 13-19 July. This is a .somewhat earlier schedule (7-10 days) than that of 1975, but similar to the schedule observed in 1974. Of interest is the fact that a major storm occurred in North Park in the 13-18 June period, with up to 5 inches of snow. This storm undoubtedly affected nesting success. Wings of 192 females (adult = 121, yearling = 71) were classified as to wing molt. An estimated 43.2 percent (adults = 52.9%, yearling = 26.8%) of the hens in this sample were successful in nesting. These data are similar to those obtained in 1975 but lower than in 1974. The young to adult hen (including yearling hens) ratio in the harvest was 1.1:1, identical to that in 1975, but lower than the 1.4:1 ratio in 1974. The young per successful hen ratio in 1976 was 2.5:1. Ovarian Analysis Ovaries were collected from 118 hunter harvested sage grouse in 1976 and were analyzed following procedures described by Meyer et ale (1947), Kabat et a1. (1948), and Buss et ale (1951). Data for 1976 and for the 99 ovaries from 1975 that were reanalyzed are shown in Table 7. Table 7. Analysis of sage grouse ovaries, North Park, Colorado 1975 and 1976. Age Class Percent Ovulating 1975 !/ 1976 Number Ovulating/Examined 1975 !/ 1976 Yearling 96.9 75.0 32/33 33/44 Adult 96.8 87.8 61/63 65/74 !/ A series of ovaries classified as not ovulating or questionable was sent to I. o. Buss for examination. The information for these ovaries is not available causing the 1975 data to be biased upward. �-51- Considering only the data from 1976, it is apparent that differences exist between yearlings and adult sage grouse in percent ovulating. Adults are more likely to ovulate than yearlings suggesting that some sage grouse females are not sexually mature before one year of age. Considering some of the difficulties in evaluating ovaries two or more months after egg laying, the accuracy of the ovulated follicle technique may be minimal. Hunter Questionnaire A total of 1,258 permits was issued for hunting sage grouse in North Park in 1976, a decrease of 283 (18.4%) from 1975. As in previous years, most hunters (46.7%) were from the metro Denver area (Adams 6.7%, Arapahoe 7.6%, Denver 17.1%, Jefferson 16.3%). Only 8.4 percent of the hunters originated from Jackson County, with 21.5 percent from Larimer County, 7.6 percent from Boulder County, and 3.8 percent from Weld County. All other counties each contributed less than 2 percent of the total hunters and only 12 percent of all hunters. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the sage grouse season in North Park (24 September). Responses were received from 861 permittees. On 15 October a fo1lowup letter was sent to all nonrespondents and 222 additional responses were received. In all, 1,083 permittees (86.1%) responded (Table 8). Fourteen questionnaires were undeliverable, the lowest number since 1974 (12). Mean values calculated for permittees responding to the followup letter were used to project for the 13.9 percent (175) non-respondents. From data in Table 8 it is apparent that 77.5 percent of all permittees went hunting, similar to the 77 percent who hunted in 1975, but lower than the 81 percent that hunted in 1974. Actual numbers of hunters were similar in 1974 (960) and 1976 (975) but lower than in 1975 (1,187). Only 33.4 percent of the actual hunters were successful in 1976. This is somewhat lower than in 1975 (38.3%) but substantially less than in 1974 (53.9%). Total harvest in 1976 was 829 birds (783 bagged, plus 46 crippled and lost). This is a substantial decline from the 1,053 birds harvested in 1975, and 1,174 birds bagged in 1974. Time period of hunting was received for 961 hunters ~ho harvested 677 birds. Based on this sample, 83.9 percent of harvest occurred during the opening weekend, 5.0 percent occurred during the week, while 11.1 percent occurred during the second weekend. These data are similar to those obtained in 1975, the only other year with a 9 day season. Since total harvest decreased approximately twenty percent (21.3) in 1976 it is not possible to calculate how many more birds were harvested under a 3 and 6 season than a 2 and 4 season. However, in 1976 only 47 hunters (28 = 1 day, 19 = 2 days) achieved the bag limit. This is in contrast to 1975 when 106 hunters (62 = 1 day, 39 = 2 days, 1 = 3 days, 4 = 4 days) achieved the bag limit. Obviously, it was more difficult to get 3 birds than it was 2. Also, birds per successful hunter did not change markedly in 1976 (2.4) from levels calculated in 1974 and 1975 (2.2 each year). These data do not suggest that a more liberal bag limit coupled with a 9 day season increases the harvest. �-52Table 8~ North Park sage grouse hunter questionnaire data, 1976. Projected For Projected For 1,258 175 1,258 No. in sample 861 222 Percent of total permittees 68.4 17.6 86.1 13.9 100.0 No. of hunters 701 153 854 121 975 Percent hunters 81.4 68.9 78.9 68.9 77.5 No. of non-hunters 160 69 229 54 283 Percent non-hunters 18.6 31.1 21.1 31.1 22.5 No. of successful hunters 238 49 287 39 326 Percent successful hunters 34.0 32.0 33.6 32.0 33.4 No. of hunter days Days/hunter No. of sage grouse bagged 1,192 1,083 269 1.70 564 1,461 1.76 123 213 1.71 687 1,674 1.76 96 1.72 783 Grouse/permittee .66 .55 .63 .55 .62 Grouse/hunter .80 .80 .80 .80 .80 Grouse/successful hunter 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.4 No. of grouse lost 40 4 44 2 46 Crippling loss/ hunter Total kill .06 604 .03 127 .05 731 .03 98 .05 829 Percent crippling loss 6.62 3.15 6.02 3.15 5.5 Percent success of permittees 27.6 22.1 26.5 22.1 25.9 Banded birds 43 9 52 7 59 Non-deliverable surveys 14 o o o 14 Percent nondeliverable 1.11 �-53- Hunter pressure and sage grouse harvest in North Park as derived from the Small Game Questionnaire Survey are not presently available for 1976. Results of this survey in 1974-75 are presented in Table 9. This survey over-estimated hunter numbers by 83 percent and total kill by 114 percent in 1974 and hunters by 35 percent and kill by 87 percent in 1975. Table 9. Comparative data, number of sage grouse hunters and total harvest, North Park, 1974-1976. Year Number of Hunters Statewide Survey This Study Number of Sage Grouse Harvested Statewide Survey This Study 1974 960 1,759 1,174 2,509 1975 1,187 1,600 1,053 1,973 1976 975 829 Band Recoveries Fifty-eight bands were reported from birds harvested or found freshly dead during the 1976 hunting season. Of this number, 11 were from females (1973 = 2, 1974 = 1, 1975 = 4, 1976 = 4), while 47 were males (1973 = 1, 1974 = 3, 1975 = 10, 1976 = 33). Banding and recovery data are presented in Table 10, while survival and mortality rates are shown in Table 11. Data presented in Tables 10 and 11 indicate that survival rates are different between age class and sex. These differences are most pronounced for males. The direct or first year recovery rate in 1976 was 13.3 percent for yearling males, and 14.0 percent for adult males. Direct recovery rates for yearling males were similar in 1975 and 1976 but higher than those calculated in 1973 (7.5%) and 1974 (11.0%). Direct recovery rate~ for adult males have varied from 6.5 percent (1975) to 14.0 percent (1976). Direct recovery rates for adult (1.8%) and yearling females (1.7%) were similar in 1976. Direct recovery rates for females are lower than males each year, possibly a result of small sample sizes. However, it is quite obvious that males are more readily harvested than females. This supports the hypothesis that hunters do not select for smaller birds. In fact, some selection may occur for larger birds. Harvest of males banded on various strutting grounds in 1976 varied from 0 (Canuck, Cowdrey #5, Owl Creek, Roth. Spring Creek #1, and Spring Creek #4) to over 20 percent (Alkali Lake, 5 of 11 = 45.5; Hound, 1 of 4 = 25.0; Riley, 1 of 3 = 33.3; Wattenburg #2, 2 of 5 = 40.0; Bighorn, 5 of 19 = 26.3; Spring Creek #2, 1 of 1 = 100.0). Five other grounds had from 11 to 17 percent of the cocks banded in 1976 harvested (Boettcher Jet., 1 of 9 = 11.1; Fish Hatchery, 3 of 25 = 12.0; Coalmont, 1 of 7 = 14.3; Railroad, 7 of 45 = 15.6; Lost Creek #1, 2 of 12 = 16.7). Six known grounds (Canuck, Cowdrey #5, Owl Creek, Roth, Spring Creek #1, and Spring Creek #4) had no banded birds reported shot in 1976. With the exception of Canuck (30 males) and Spring Creek #1 (49 males), these six grounds had peak male counts of less than 15 birds. �-54- Table 10. Sage grouse banding and recovery data, North Park, 1973-1976. Year Age No. Banded 1973 1+ 80 6 4 6 1 41 2 2 0 1 2+ 91 7 3 0 0 54 5 1 3 1 179!/ 13 82:./ 72:./ 1 10~/ 7 3 3 2 Total 1974 Total ]j ]j Females Number Recovered 1973 1974 1975 1976 54 6 5 2 22 2 1 1 2+ 88 8 5 1 27 2 0 0 142 1r}:/ 10 3 49 4 1 1 1+ 138 18 5 62 6 2 2+ 153 10 5 68 6 2 291 28 10 l30 13!!./ 4 Total 1976 No. Banded 1+ Total 1975 Males Number Recovered 1973 1974 1975 1976 1+ 120 16 71 2 2+ 114 16 74 2 234 32 145 4 Includes 8 unknown age males. Includes 1 unknown age male at time of banding. 1/ Includes 14 unknown age females. !!) Includes one unknown age female (aluminum band not present when recovered). �-55- Table 11. Survival and mortality rate estimates North Park by age and sex, 1973-1976. Average Survival Rates for sage grouse banded Average Mortality Yearling males .561 .439 Adult males .337 .663 All males .463 .567 .579 .421 Adult females .558 .442 All females .5l~/ .484 Yearling females in Rates !/ The calculated survival rate for all females was lower than for either yearling or adult females because of inadequate banded samples in 1974 and small numbers of recoveries from those samples. Considering all recoveries in 1976 of males banded from 1973 to 1976, a minimum of 6 (15.4%) of a high count of 39 males was harvested from Alkali Lake strutting ground, 8 (9.9%) of a high count of 81 from Fish Hatchery, 3 (11.1%) of a high count of 27 from Hound, 4 (12.1%) of a high count of 33 from Lost Creek #1, 8 (9.2%) of a high count of 87 from Railroad, and 5 (10.9%) of a high count of 46 at Bighorn. All other grounds had two (3 grounds) or one (5 grounds) banded cocks reported shot. It is not presently known at what level of harvest decreases will occur in peak numbers of cocks counted on grounds the following spring. Percentages of harvest from 3 to 15 would not appear to be excessive. If only recoveries from 1976 bandings are examined, it is possible that the 45.5% harvest of cocks from Alkali Lake strutting ground may affect counts in the spring of 1977 at that ground. The high recovery of cocks banded on smaller strutting rounds, i. e. Hound (25.0%), Riley (33.3%), and Wattenburg 112 (40.0%) may depress counts at those grounds in 1977. In 1975 an estimated 21 and 25 percent of the cocks counted at Hound and Riley strutting grounds were harvested (Braun 1976). The high count of cocks at Hound in 1976 decreased by 18.2% from 1975 levels (27 vs 33) while at Riley the high count increased by 50% (18 vs 12). These data are inconclusive. The percentage of banded birds in the adult and yearling male and female segments of the fall population was calculated from check station data (sex and age compostion), harvest questionnaires (total harvest), and band recoveries. The calculated percentage of adult and yearling males banded in the fall population was 29.5 (95 7 504 = 18.8% x 829 156, 46 7 156 = 29.5%) while for adult and yearling females it was 3.4 (197 7 504 = 39.1 x 829 = 324, 11 7 324 = 3.4). �-56- Estimation of Fall Population Size Estimates of fall population size are difficult to derive, primarily because of unknown vulnerability of chicks and inexact survival estimates for all age classes, especially females. Provided that all birds of each age and sex class are equally available and vulnerable to hunters and using the average mortality rates for all males and all females listed in Table 11 the 1976 fall population size in North Park was calculated as follows: Number of Birds Banded in 1973 1974 1975 1976 Total Banded Birds Alive: Alive in 1976 Males Males Males Males 18 30 135 234 Females Females Females Females .15 .13 67 145 Males = 417 Females = 240 Of the 417 banded males alive in 1976, 46 were harvested, while 11 of the 240 banded hens were harvested. If 58 percent (check station data) of the 829 birds harvested were adults and yearlings, then 481 of the birds harvested were older than one year. Of this number, 57 (11.9%) were banded, thus there should have been about 4,040 adult and yearling birds alive in North Park in the fall of 1976 (if 11.9% = 481 birds, then 100% = 4,040 birds). Immature birds comprised 42 percent (check station data) of the harvest, thus there should have been about 2,927 chicks in the 1976 fall population. The total population in the fall of 1976 should have been about 6,967 or 7,000 birds. This estimate is realistic but may be low. The overall harvest rate was about 12% (829 7 7,000) with adult and yearling males having a higher harvest rate (11.0% estimated, 13.7% direct recovery rate) than adult and yearling females (4.6% estimated, 2.8% direct recovery rate). Of the 292 adult and yearling birds for which wings were available, 197 (67.5%) were from females. Thus, of the approximately-4,040 adult and yearling birds in the preseason population, 2,727 (4,040 x 67.5 = 2,727) were hens. Thus, total chicks in the fall population in 1976 based on 1.1 chicks per hen in the harvest (1.1 x 2,727 = 3,000) approximated 3,000. This number is only slightly higher than the 2,927 chicks estimated from overall age ratios and band recoveries in the 1976 harvest to have been in the fall population in 1976. These data do not suggest that chicks are more vulnerable to hunting than are adults and yearlings. It is interesting to compare estimates of adults and yearlings alive in the spring and fall. Spring estimates based on strutting ground counts indicate that about 5,000 (5,046) birds were present, while fall estimates based on age and sex ratios in the harvest and band recovery data indicate that about 4,000 (4,040) adult and yearling birds were present. This is a difference of about 1,000 birds. It is possible that spring estimates are incorrect as either (1) more or fewer strutting grounds are unknown than estimated, or (2) peak strutting ground counts represent more than 50 percent of the cocks �-57- present in an area. It is also possible that fall estimates based on harvest age and sex ratios and band recoveries are low. It does appear that spring populations levels were somewhere between 3,000 and 5,000 birds in North Park in the spring of 1976. LITERATURE CITED Alexander, H. F. 1976. Evaluation of the effects of changes in hunting regulations on sage grouse:nesting success and brood investigations. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 9, Part 2. pp. 103-117. Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. 1977. Sage grouse flock characteristics winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 41(1):18-26. and habitat selection in _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 49 (revised). Colo. Div. Wildlife. 4 pp. Braun, C. E. 1976. Evaluation of the effects of changes in hunting regulations on sage grouse populations. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 9, Part 1. pp. 85-102. _____ , and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Final Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 21-84. _____ , R. K. Schmidt, and G. E. Rogers. tailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded 90-93. 1973. Census of Colorado whitecalls. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(1): Buss, I. 0., R. K. Meyer, and C. Kabat. 1951. Wisconsin pheasant reproduction studies based on ovulated follicle technique. J. Wildl. Manage. 15(1):32-46. Carr, H. D. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. rado State Univ., Fort Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis. Colo- Eng, R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19(2):267-272. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 187 pp. �-58- 1975. A volunteer wing collection Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 3 pp. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 101. Colo. Div. Wildlife. station. Kabat, C., I. O. Buss, and R. K. Meyer. 1948. The use of ovulated follicles in determining eggs laid by the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 12(4):399-416. Lacher, J. R., and D. D. Lacher. Manage. 28(3):595-597. cannon net trap. J. Wildl. Meyer, R. K., C. Kabat, and I. O. Buss. 1947. Early involutionary in the post-ovulatory follicles in the ring-necked pheasant. Manage. 11(1):43-49. changes J. Wildl. pyrah, D. G. Wildlife 71 pp. 1964. A mobile 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Restoration Div., Job Compl. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-125-R. Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):616-621. Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements of blackcocks in Scotland. and flock stratification within J. Anim. Ecol. 38(5):755-763. of male a population Wallestad, R. O. 1970. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse broods in central Montana. M. S. Thesis. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 51 pp. Prepared by__ .L..<a",,-,~~_·~_. -"~=:::::.::..- Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �April 1977 -59- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------~~~~----------- Project No. W-37-R-30 Game Bird Survey Job Title Job NO.__~~~~l~O~~ Investigations of the Distribution and Status of Sagebrush and Sage Grouse in the Moffat County Area Period Covered: April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 Work Plan No. Personnel: 3 _ Clait E. Braun, Charles E. Brown, .Iohn F. Corey, Howard D. Funk, Richard W. Hoffman, William T. Howard, Roland C. Kufeld, Annabell Leckler,- Robert L. Mangus, Deirdre W. Plummer, William I. Roland, Louis D. Vidakovich, Claude E. White, Charles W. Woodward, and Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT Approximately three percent of the Federally administered lands in Moffat County has been altered by intentional habitat manipulations. This has been done almost exclusively on BLM lands. Most range conversions -have been through spraying (39.2%), compared with plowing and seeding (25.0%), chaining (19.5%), reseeding (14.6%), burning and r~seeding (1.2%), and rotobeating (0.5%). A sample of 20 landowners within prime sage grouse ranges, owning 10.3 percent of the total deeded land in Moffat County indicated they have altered approximately 25.2 percent of their deeded lands in order to bring land under cultivation or to improve pastures for grazing purposes. These individuals plan to alter an additional 1.7 percent of their land within the next ten year period, if economic conditions are favorable. A total of 965 sage grouse were counted on 27 active strutting grounds in Moffat County during the spring of 1976. An average of 31.92 cocks per ground was counted on 24 grounds where sexes were determined. Three new grounds were located and counted and six old grounds, which no longer were counted by Division of Wildlife personnel, were relocated. A total- of 564 sage grouse were counted along ten trial brood routes in Moffat and western Routt counties in August 1976. A total of 412.6 miles (663.9 km) were driven on these routes for an average of 1.37 birds per mile (.85/km). Seventeen broods counted along these routes averaged 5.29 young per brood. A young-to-adult ratio of 2.37:1 indicated that sage -grouse experienced good reproductive success in 1976 in the Moffat County area. A total of 748 sage grouse wings were collected from successful hunters through the use of 16 wing barrel collection stations during September 11-13, 1976. Wing molt patterns of breeding-age females revealed that 97 of 132 (73.5%) adults and 49 of 74 (66.2%) subadult hens were probably successful nesters in 1976. Thus, nesting success and production were also determined to be good in the Moffat County area in 1976 through use of the wing collection data. A minimum of 1,223 sage grouse were counted on 18 different wintering areas during the period December, 1976 through March, 1977. At least ten of these wintering areas are considered to be major wintering areas within the study area. An average of 67.9 sage grouse were counted per wintering area. ��-61- INVESTIGATIONS OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF SAGEBRUSH AND SAGE GROUSE IN THE MOFFAT COUNTY AREA Donald M. Hoffman P.N.O. OBJECTIVES Major objectives of this study are to: (1) ascertain the distribution of sagebrush in the Moffat County area, (2) determine the status (i.e. principally alterations) of sagebrush in this area, (3) delineate the distribution of sage grouse in the Moffat County area, and (4) identify-~the past and present trend of sage grouse population status in this area. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning the Moffat County area. vegetative descriptions from studies in 2. Ascertain the distribution of sagebrush through examination of vegetative maps and aerial photographs from public_ land management agencies. Check delineations through field reconnaissance and assemble composite vegetative maps. 3. Ascertain agencies, 4. Interview selected landowners to determine extent of past, present, and planned alterations of sagebrush ranges. 5. Delineate distribution of sage grouse through examination of records of various agencies, interviews of landowners, and field reconnaissance. 6. Maintain records of sage grouse observed by date and time, locations, and vegetative types. 7. Collect and store materials from road killed sage grouse and others found dead for detailed laboratory analyses. 8. Ascertain trends in sage grouse populations through examination of data from management surveys. Give areas where populations have seemingly disappeared particular attention. 9. Systematically count sage grouse on known strutting rearing areas, and winter concentration areas. 10. Locate new strutting aerial searches. alterations in sagebrush communities from records of various aerial photographs, and field reconnaissance. grounds and wintering grounds, brood areas through ground and �-62- 11. Obtain harvest data through use of wing collection cally located throughout the area. stations, strategi- 12. Compile data into maps and/or overlays report. Prepare progress and tables. METHODS AND MATERIALS Searches to locate literature concerning in the Moffat County area were continued Fort Collins. vegetative descriptions from studies in the DOW and CSU libraries in Major areas of sagebrush range within the Moffat County area were mapped on 0.5-in-per-mi county highway maps utilizing Soil Conservation Servic~ Range Resource Maps, traverse and sketches of range vegetative types in the field, and sketches of range vegetative types from aerial photographs and mosaics. Records of locations, amounts, and types of past range alterations by federal agencies were secured from Division of Wildlife personnel. Locations were plotted on a map of Moffat County and data were summarized in table form by type of manipulation, date(s) treated and number of acres treated. A sample of 20 landowners in Moffat County were interviewed to estimate percentages of native habitat altered to bring land under cultivation or to improve pastures for grazing purposes. Unsuccessful inquiries were made at BLM and DOW offices to Ipcate and summarize information on the distribution of sage grouse within the study area. Available information on strutting grounds and brood count routes censused and check stations manned by DOW personnel were gathered and summarized. Records of all summer and winter period sage grouse observations made by Project personnel were tabulated and work maps were prepared showing locations and numbers of birds. Records of all road killed sage grouse and other mortalities were tabulated by date, time, location, and cause of death if known. Wings from all mortalities were dried and saved for future reference. Sage grouse were counted on all known active strutting grounds in Moffat County during the spring of 1976. Attempts were made to locate and count as many old and new grounds as possible rather than attempting replicate counts on fewer grounds. A crew of three men, using three 4-wheel drive vehicles, searched various areas of Moffat and Western Routt counties from mid-April through May 1976. Sage grouse broods were counted along ten trial routes in Moffat and western Routt counties during August 1976. Sage grouse wings were collected through the use of 16 wing barrel collection stations placed in Moffat and western Routt counties. Age and sex composition of the wing samples were determined by Clait E. Braun and data were summarized. Ground searches for wintering concentrations of sage grouse were made from December 1976 through March 1977. Locations of sage grouse observed or reported were .recorded by date and time, location, and vegetative type. Locations of wintering concentrations were used to locate new strutting grounds during the spring of 1977. �-63Sage grouse population data gathered in management surveys were analyzed in order to attempt to ascertain any trends in sage grouse populations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetative Descriptions Additional references concerning specific vegetative studies within the Moffat County area have not been located. General references to descriptions of vegetative types and methods of vegetative analyses which may be useful in future studies are summarized as follows. Harrington (1954) described the semi-desert vegetative zone in no~thwestern Colorado of which the sagebrush plant community is an integral part. This plant community supports dense stands of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) with varying mixtures of herbaceous plants in the understory. He states the type is best developed below 7,000 feet in middle western Colorado, but may extend to more than 10,000 feet in a few localities. At its lower border, the type merges with the saltbush (Atriplex spp.) and greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) communities, while at its upper border, the boundary between sagebrush and mountain shrub is usually clear cut. Its contact with pinon-juniper (Pinus edulis-Juniperus spp.) is frequently diffusive. Extensive methods of mapping range types including traverse and sketch and random sketch from aerial photographs are described by Stoddart and Smith (1943). Costello and Schwan (1946) discussed methods of judging conditions and trends on ponderosa pine ranges in Colorado using the criteria of vegetative composition, vigor, and density, soils, and erosion. Principles outlined have been adapted and applied to other ranges. Kuchler (1967) describes tation studies including niques. in detail various methods used in intensive vegeuse of transects, quadrats, and step-point tech- Personnel of the BSF & W in Fort Collins are mapping vegetative types within five test areas of the western United States as part of the Western Energy and Land Use Team. Remote sensing, including infra~ed photography and satellite photography (ERT) combined with computer mapping are being utilized in this mapping. While purchasing satellite photographs and computer print outs for an area as large as Moffat County is prohibitive in cost, copies of their vegetative maps covering a portion of the study area may be possi~le to secure through purchase or loan. Distribution of Big Sagebrush Major areas of big sagebrush plant communities within Moffat County have been delineated on work maps (scale 0.5-in-per-mi). Extensive field surveys involving traverse and sketch, random sketch from SCS aerial photographs taken in 1973, and interpretation of types shown on SCS range resource work maps for Moffat County were utilized to map areas of big sagebrush and complementary range types. Areas of big sagebrush are in the process of being transferred to a county map (scale 0.25-in-per-mi). The final map should be completed during the next segment. �-64Alteration of Big Sagebrush Table 1 lists amounts of land in Moffat County by ownership as determined from information secured from various Federal and State Agencies. More than one-half of the total land area of 3,035,530 acres (1,228,479 hectares) in Moffat County is administered by Federal Agencies (51.3%), compared with 42.1 percent in private ownership, and 6.6 in State ownership. Table 1. Land ownership Ownership in Moffat County, Colorado 1976. Acres Percent of Total u. S. Government BLM 1,354,552 44.62 N.P.S. 149,444 4.92 U.S.F.S. 41,763 1.38 BSF&W 12,380 0.41 Subtotal 1,558,139 51.33 State of Colorado State Land Board (as of 5/1/76) DOW 191,525 6.31 9,120 0.30 Subtotal Private Land 200,645 1,276,746 6.61 42.06 Subtotal 1,276,746 42.06 Total for Moffat County 3,035,530 100.0 Locations of all known range conversions on Federal lands in Moffat County were secured from Division of Wildlife Researcher Roland C. Kufeld and recorded on a map (Fig. 1). Table 2 summarizes range conversions on Federal lands by type of habitat manipulation and acreages. The largest amount of range conversions on Federal lands in Moffat County has been through spraying (39.2%), followed by plowing and seeding (25.0%), chaining (19.5%), reseeding (14.6%), burning and reseeding (1.2%), and rotobeating (0.5%). Acreages and percentages by major vegetative type have not as yet been determined. �I ~...: .... :.: ... f~· \ I .J~ , ~m'ff'%h~t} t-ui '\ II iv- 1 '?r:' 7t -.;cp - ~-~~./ '~ E _ ~ 1C ._ ~ I GENERAl. ROAD 1'.1A P MOFFAT COUNTY COLORADO M~ttnt Count,.. (V.l.p b7 ~1rGro I:i, Pl~<)r) to,.: ~ Location 12-01 Oder (1) --_ .. seea OnlJ' (L) Ch4in or WI (8) Spmy (M) Plou (C) Chun (11) Burn (, Seed (Ii) Rot-oheat ,~<h;;'1' \'08 .:. ot Project ot Project & Soed 6: So4:I. 0"I.JI I �-66- Table 2. Summary of habitat manipulation Moffat County. 1/ projects on Federal lands in Percent of Total Number Acres Map Symbol Type of Manipulation (A) Seed (not fire reseedings) 4,597 9.5 Fire reseedings 2,455 5.1 (A) Subtotal 7,052 14.6 (B) Spray 18,919 39.2 (C) Chain 2,607 5.4 (C-M) Chain, plow and seed 1,500 3.1 (L) Chain or rail and seed 5,302 11.0 Subtotals 9,409 19.5 (H) Rotobeat 240 0.5 (M) Plow and seed 12,056 25.0 (N) Burn and seed 570 1.2 48,246 100.0 Totals 1/ Includes only projects on BLM and F.S. lands. It was determined that approximately 3.1 percent of the Federal lands in Moffat County has been altered intentionally through various habitat manipulations. Except for one small area of 60 acres (24.3 hectares) on the Routt National Forest; all intentional habitat manipulations on Federal lands in Moffat County have been on BLM lands. Numerous wild fires have resulted in range conversions over undetermined additional areas of Federal, State, and private lands. Landowner Interviews Twenty private landowners within prime sage grouse ranges in Moffat County were interviewed to determine the past and future extent of habitat alterations on native sage grouse ranges on private lands. Table 3 summarizes information gathered in this survey. �Tllbt.. ,. L.ulbwner SUJruIary of habitat Type of manipulations- c::_ OpeJ:Kion cr•• aect 1_76 Sheep & Cattle Ranching 1,969 Sheep 16,.000 .-76 & within prime sage grouse Number Acres Controlled S--tat. L•••• Sch •. Landa-. Pvt. 920 - 3,OOa - C!attlw Ranchln9 n,ooo 4-76 Cattl. Ranching 980 5-76 Sheep & Cattle Ranching 340 6-'1. Landowner Only 520 7_76' Ca.t.tle a SlI_p Ranching 37,000 8-76 cattle Ranching 1,.500 - 9-16 Cattle Ranching 1:7,,500 150 Sheep, CattIe & Dry land Farmlng No.' Ac..r.es .lpprox. Total 640 - 3,529 AJ.'tered 3,.O-cro 2'4,000 800 4,200 - 1,920 29,080 1,365 - - % Burn, & IS Approx. Acres plow, No. 325 Rail, (Deeded) seed 0.0 or -- 0 - 0.0 Disk or brush_ cutter & seed 9.0 100 Brushcutter 2.8 Brushcutter seed 88.2 20 Plow seed 5.9 - -- 0 - 0.0 Brushcutter, cUltivate & seed 1.3 - 0.0 Unknown Plow & seed spray 320 ,Oeedec1 & Pvt. Lease) 300 - - - 520 2,000 2,500 12,,000 - 53,500 8t-000 (Deeded & Pvt. Lease) Brushcutter, cUltivate &. seed 20.5 500 1,280 - 2,940 90 (Deeded) Disk or plow (horses) & seed 6.0 0 59,.840'" 10,.160 90,.150 4,000 (Deeded) 3,400 (Deeded) Aerial 22.9 Unknown Aerial 33.7 160 Disc, seed" 0 240 320 160 2,500 - 800 - 960 (Deeded) - 1,.840 - 5,480 11.2 - & - 340 & 0 harrow, seed - 3",.540 plow, 0.1 Plow, (Deeded") - 2',560 ~ Method Planned 47.2 & seed Lease) 46 rOOO 42,000 Method (ht.) (Deeded Pvt. 3•• 76 11-76 County.ill BLM Clitti. Cattle Ranching & Dryland" Far.ing Moffat NPS- Ranching 10-76 range, Unknown & sprayed Plow & seed & spray 19.4 350 (Deeded") & 4,520 (Deeded & Pvt. Lease) Spec. tiller, seed or aerial spray or burn 100.0 240 (Deeded) Hand & team& 75.0 0 - 0.0 - O.~ Disc, burn, seed plow plow & 15.4 0.0 -...J I 12-76 Cattle Ranching & DryIand Fuming 320 - - - - 320 r3-76 lJt'yland" Farming 720 3,040- - - - 3,760 3,"560 (Oeoded & Pvt. Lease) Brushcutter t plow, & seed 94.7 0 Cattle Ranching Dryland "arming 1,980 - - - - 1,980 900 (Deeded) Hand & teams 45.5 200 Sheep & Cattle Ranching 1,280 - - 138,240 - 139,520 Z60 (Deeded) Brushcutter t burn,. plow,. & seed 20.3 0 Cattle Ranching ory1and Farming 1,.531 It 780 - 1,920 - 5,231 I,880 (Oaeded a. Pvt. r.eeae) Brushcutter or disk & burn,. plow & seed" 56.8 80 17-76 Cattle Ranching Ie lJt'yland Farming 320 3217 - - - 640 160 (Deeded) Plow or brushcutter 25.0 0 - 0.0 18-76 Sheep Ranching 12,.000 - 12,800 80,640 - 105,.440 21)0 (Deeded) TeaJrl & burn 1.7 0 - 0.0 19-76 Cattl. Ranching 5,000 2,000 1,.280 9,000 - 17,.280 8.6 600 Brushcuttu seed Cattle Ranching 160 5,120 9,410 23.8 70 DiSk Total. 115,.120 14-76 Brushcutter ,. plow, & seed 10.1 & tS-76 r~76 & 20-76 50 1:6,.380 !J Inforllation from landowner intarviwa aecured Brushcutter seed 50 (Deeded) Team} burn plow 600 - 4,080 24,.160 362,.480 15,280 533,420 30,210 out of 119,980 (Unk.-out) I2.6" 26.8JI 10.2" 17.6% 25.2% 131.500 Percentage., 10.31' of Total. sampled (peeded) 1n 1976-1977. - & & ~ -- 2,055 out of 119.980 (Unk c-ou t ) s - I 0\ -- 1.7% - 0.0 Brushcutter ,. plow & seed" & seed & 2..4 8.6 33.3 �-68- Landowners interviewed owned and/or controlled grazing rights on lands averaging 26,671 acres (10,794 hectares) (range 320 to 139,520 acres or 130 to 56,464 hectares). Private lands in these 20 holdings amounted to 10.3 percent of the total deeded land within Moffat County. It was determined that approximately 25.2 percent of the deeded land has been altered in the past in order to bring land under cultivation or to improve pastures for grazing purposes. These individuals plan to alter an additional 1.7 percent of their land within the next ten year period, if economic conditions are favorable to do so. Table 4 lists amounts and percentages of croplands on 16,535 acres (6,692 hectares) owned or leased by the twenty landowners interviewed within Moffat County during 1976. By use, 79.4 percent of the croplands were used-to grow dryland small grains (wheat or barley), 13.8 percent to grow drylandhay, and 6.8 percent to grow irrigated hay. Plans are to continue this survey of landowners within prime sage grouse ranges and also compare the extent of habitat manipulation on lands of selected landowners within former prime sage grouse ranges where habitat and population are only remnants of former levels. Included in the category of former prime sage grouse ranges are the areas of extensive dryland farming northeast of the town of Craig, in Moffat County, and northwest, southeast, and southwest of the town of Hayden in western Routt County. Distribution of Sage Grouse Complete records of all field observations of sage grouse secured during both summer and winter periods are being maintained by date and time, specific locations, numbers of birds, and vegetative cover types. Separate maps, (scale 0.25-in~per-mi) showing summer and winter distribution of sage grouse were prepared but plans are to reproduce final maps following one more year's observations. Collections Wings from nine sage grouse collected from road kills and other mortalities since January 1, 1976 have been dried and stored for future reference. Cold storage facilities for long term storage of whole or other parts of sage grouse are not available in Moffat County. A collection of sample wings of different sexes and ages from hunter collections were mounted on a large board for comparisons with collected materials. Sage Grouse Populations Strutting Ground Counts A minimum of 965 sage grouse of both sexes were counted on 27 active strutting grounds in Moffat County during the spring of 1976 (Table 5). Seven-hundred sixty-six males were observed on 24 of these grounds where sexes were determined for an average of 31.92 cocks per ground. During this first spring, attempts were made to locate as many old and new grounds as possible, rather �-69Table 4. Landowner Code Summary of cropland use within Moffat County 1976.1/ Dryland Hay Acres of Croplands by Type Dryland Wheat or Barley Irrigated Hay 1-76 0 300 65 2-76 0 0 0 3-76 400 0 100 4-76 80 60 0 5-76 0 0 100 6-76 0 0 0 7-76 1,000 5,000 0 8-76 0 0 90 9-76 0 0 200 10-76 80 270 0 11-76 0 1,560 0 12-76 40 200 0 13-76 15 3,545 0 14-76 400 500 0 15-76 0 0 260 16-76 200 1,600 80 17-76 70 90 0 18-76 0 0 200 19-76 0 0 0 20-76 0 0 30 Totals 2,285 l3,125 1,125 Percentages 13.8 79.4 6.8 1/ Basis - a sample of 20 landowners (same individuals listed in Table 3). �Table 5. Summary of sage grouse strutting ground counts, Moffat County, spring 1976. W.C.O. District Date Counter(s) Name of Ground Time of High Count 5/14/76 5/13/76 5/13/76 5/13/76 D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman and J. Corey Karren Ranch Escalante Stateline Haslim Cow Camp Subtotals of high counts 6:15 AM 6:50 AM 5:40 AM 6:30 AM R. Lowry 4/23/76 D. Hoffman Powder Wash Hill Subtotals of high counts 7:00 AM C. Brown 4/15/76 4/22/76 4/16/76 4/21/76 4/20/76 5/9/76 5/9/76 4/13/76 4/13/76 4/20/76 4/22/76 4/14/76 4/24/76 4/15/76 4/24/76 4/15/76 5/6/76 D. Hoffman D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman T. Howard D. Hoffman and T. Howard T. Howard T. Howard D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman and T. Howard D. Hoffman and J. Corey D. Hoffman D. Hoffman and'T. Howard J. Corey T. Howard J. Corey D. Hoffman Spring Creek 111 Spring Creek 111 Cross Mountain #1 Big Gulch #1 (Beckett's) N. Fork Big Gulch #2 N. Fork Big Gulch #2 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bord Gulch Bord Gulch Greasewood #1 Upper 19 Road Upper 19 Road Bighole Gulch #1 Bighole Gulch #1 Lester Cox Ranch Bighole Butte (new grounds) Subtotals of high counts 6:05 AM 5:15 AM 5:30 AM 5:26 AM 5:25 AM 6:10 AM 6:53 AM 5:30 AM 6:50 AM 6:25 AM 6:10 AM 5:45 AM 8:00 AM 6:00 AM 5:27 AM 6:50 AM 7:45 AM L. Vidakovich Number of Cocks Total Birds 26 30 45 45 to 50 65 to 70 185 to 195 --26 26 26 26 26 25 23 18 3 31 13 21 32 32 30 30 32 23 17 19 20 17 280 28 23 19 4 32 13 21 32 32 33 30 42 23 22 19 21 17 301 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I "-.J 0 I �Table 5. Summary of sage grouse strutting ground counts, Moffat County, spring 1976 (cont.) W.C.O. District Date Counter(s) Name of Ground Time of High Count Number of Cocks Total Birds C. Woodward 5/5/76 5/7/76 5/5/76 5/7/76 5/4/76 4/22/76 D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman and J. Corey T. Howard Timberlake 111 Timberlake 111 Timberlake 112 Timberlake 112 Fan Rock Dressler Gulch (new ground) Subtotals of high counts 7:05 AM 6:50 AM 6:02 AM 6:40 AM 6:10 AM 6:28 AM 29 12 59 60 113 36 238 31 12 62 62 117 38 248 W. Roland 4/16/76 4/16/76 4/20/76 4/25/76 4/21/76 5/11/76 4/21/76 4/20/76 J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey T. Howard J. Corey J. Corey Juniper Axial Basin Axial Basin Round Bottom Drylake 112 Drylake 112 Deception Creek Yellow Jacket (new ground) Subtotals of high counts 6:40 AM 6:00 AM 6:00 AM 6:05 AM 6:00 AM 5:55 AM 7:00 AM 5:10 AM 24 25 28 55 57 19 14 18 196 24 28 31 57 58 19 14 21 205 Totals of High Counts 766 Summary: 965 to 975 total birds counted on 27 grounds (average 35.74 to 36.11 birds per ground) 766 cocks counted on 24 grounds (average 31.92 cocks per ground) I ......• t-' I 965 to 975 �-72- than make replicate counts on fewer grounds. The 3 new grounds were located and counted and six old grounds, which no longer were counted by Division of Wildlife Regional personnel were relocated. Table 6 lists the status of all known sage grouse strutting grounds in Moffat County, and Fig. 2 shows locations of these strutting grounds. No effort was made to count strutting grounds in western Routt County during 1976, but plans are to expand searches to this area during 1977. Brood Counts Sage grouse were counted along ten routes (Fig. 2) in Moffat and western Routt counties in August 1976 (Table 7). A total of 412.6 mi (663.9 km) were driven on these routes and 564 birds were counted, for an avera~e of 1.37 birds per mi (.85/km). All routes were run in the early morning, commencing as soon as it became light enough to see well. Seventeen separate broods were counted along these routes before the juveniles became too large to distinguish from the adults. These 17 broods averaged 5.29 young per brood. A young-to-adult ratio of 2.37:1 indicated that sage grouse in Moffat and western Routt counties experienced good reproductive success in 1976. Seven additional sage grouse broods not counted on established routes averaged 3.86 young per brood, bringing the total number of broods tallied in 1976 to 24. Harvest Data from Wing Collections Sage grouse wings were obtained from the Moffat County area during 1976 through use of 16 wing barrel collection stations (Fig. 2) placed in this area, wing envelopes returned to the Wildlife Management Section, and miscellaneous hunter contacts; number of wings collected were: Great Divide, 129; Cedar Mountain, 127; Dinosaur Headquarters, 105; Timberlake, 90; Cold Springs Mountain, 52; Deception Creek, 35; Moffat County Road 4, 31; Maybell City Park, 24; Axial Basin, 19; California Park Road, 16; Juniper Springs, 13; Wolf Creek, 7; Sand Wash, 7; Slater Creek, 6; Powder Wash, 0; Sand Wash Ridge, 0, wing envelope collections, 44; and miscellaneous hunter contacts, 43. In all, 748 wings of sage grouse were collected during September 11-13, 1976. Age and sex composition of the wing samples are listed in Table 8. Females comprised 84.1 percent of the adult segment of the harvest, 64.3 percent of the subadult or yearling segment of the harVest, and 57.4 percent of the immature or juvenile segment of the population, suggesting differential mortality is occurring in the Moffat County area. These data further suggest that segregation of sexes had started in the Moffat County area prior to the hunting season. Analyses of wing molt patterns of breeding age females revealed that 97 of 132 (73.5%) adults, and 49 of 74 (66.2%) sub adult hens were probably successful nesters in 1976. These data and the high percentage of immatures in the harvest sample (63.7%) indicate that nesting success and production were good in the Moffat County area in 1976. The percentage of subadults or yearlings in the harvest (15.4%) indicates reproduction during 1975 was at least fair. In 1976, 2.3 chicks per hen (3.3 per successful hen) were present in the harvest. No comparable data are available for the Moffat County area for previous years. �Table 6. Status of sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat County 1976. Status C. Brown Active N. Fork Big Gulch #2 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bord Gulch Greasewood #1 Upper 19 Road Relocated Spring Creek If1 Cross Mountain #1 Bigho1e Gulch #1 Lester Cox Ranch Big Gulch #1 (Beckett's) Wildlife Conservation Officer District W. Roland C. Woodward R. Lowry Juniper Axial Basin Dry Lake 112 Deception Creek Round Bottom Timberlake 112 Fan Rock Powder Wash Hill Gee Flats 11 L. Vidakovich Karren Ranch Escalante Stateline Has1im Cow Camp Bear Creek ]) Timberlake If1 I '-l W I New Bigho1e Butte Yellow Jacket Dressler Gulch Old Grounds Cross Mountain #2 Clarida Ranch Fortification Big Gulch 112 Big Gulch 113 Big Gulch #4 Dry Lake If1 High Mesa il Timberlake #3 -11 Counted by R. Lowry. 11 Counted by L. Vidakovich. -3/ Not as yet relocated. il Report of 5 to 7 cocks received by W. Roland from Power Plant personnel. 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" : ~~B"I":.,',"',' ,.;.. li4r.~,' ·,,~~;r-;1r, rrr', ~u ,I o ~f--;'-- - --; -.. ~-..iF,' ::-j~c,:::,-"-::~-,;,"-," ":j-tfs,,,,,",, Strott,.. • ~ 0 '''h. ,1'OW>d Rolocated .ow Brood count , ' * W1n&ba route ••••• ,"ll •• •• "m.t&"m • 1 , ', I '--- _ ~ ....,I .j::I �Table 7. Summary of sage grouse brood counts, Moffat and Routt counties 1976. Sage Grouse Counted Adults Young Unc1ass. Cocks Hens Total Number Broods Young/ Brood Number Brood1ess Hens Birds/ Mile Birds/ Minute 31 3 5.33 2 1.10 0.30 0.49 0.14 1 8.00 1 0.46 0.12 1 0.24 0.06 County Date Name of Route Moffat 8/3 Juniper-Axial A.M. 28.1 105 5 o 16 10 8/27 Juniper-Axial A.M. 28.3 100 o 8 o 6 14 8/4 Co. Road 7 to 4 A.M. 28.4 110 2 3 8 13 o o o 4 o o o 12 12 9 17 Routt Time Miles Minutes 1 4.00 0.39 0.10 28 2 4.50 1.04 0.23 1 16 1 9.00 0.59 0.15 30 52 3· 6.33 2.43 0.50 0.83 0.18 1.37 0.32 6 8/5 Timberlake A.M. 24.7 100 2 8/24 Timberlake (Revised) A.M. 31.1 120 o 8/6 Spring Creek A.M. 26.8 120 2 8/25 Spring Creek A.M. 26.9 110 1 5 9 8/10 Blue Mountain A.M. 21.4 105 3 19 8/11 Powder Wash A.M. 24.0 110 1 o o 19 20 41 41 11 236 250 o o 76 8/19 Great Divide A.M. 23.6 110 8/26 Great Divide (Revised) A.M. 22.7 130 o o o o o o o o Subtotals 331.2 1,510 19 16 Average (Moffat County) 25.48 116.15 30.1 115 1 28.8 110 o 22.5 110 2 Subtotals 81.4 3 Average (Routt County) 27.13 335 111.67 8/31 Powder Wash (Revised) A.M. 30.0 130 o 8/14 A.M. 15.2 160 3 8/18 Cold Springs Mtn. E1khead A.M. 8/30 E1khead (Revised) A.M. 8/20 Slater Park A.M. Totals , .Average (Moffat and Routt Counties) 412.6 25.79 1,845 115.31 22 o o o o 16 4 1 16.45 1.56 8 8 0.34 0.07 28 28 1. 23 0.22 408 519 5.43 1. 57 0.34 4.00 0.37 0.10 0.35 0.09 5.00 1. 07 0.22 4.67 0.55 0.13 1. 37 0.31 6 11 3 14 1 o 10 10 12 24 2 14 28 45 3 90 436 3.66 5 10 564 17 5 5.29 ....,I ~I �-76- Table 8. Numbers and percentages of sage grouse in the harvest sample (N = 748) by age class and sex, 1976. Sex Number Adult Percent Subadult Number Percent Immature Percent Number Males 25 3.3 41 5.5 203 27.1 Females l32 17.6 74 9.9 273 36.6 Totals 157 20.9 115 15.4 476 .63.7 Approximate dates of hatching, determined by backdating, using stages of primary molt, were estimated for all but one chick in the harvest sample collected within the Moffat County area (N = 439). Wings collected by the Wildlife Management Section, using wing envelopes, were not included in these age data. Estimated hatching dates ranged from May 20 to July 15, with the overall average peak of the hatch occurring from June 10 to 14. This overall peak of hatch was similar to that determined for sage grouse ranges at intermediate elevations, approximately 6,500-7,500 ft (1,981-2,286 m), 'such as the Great Divide-Timberlake area. Peak of hatch was estimated to be approximately 10 days later than intermediate-elevation ranges for Cold Springs Mountain at elevations from 8,400 to 8,600 ft (2,560-2,621 m) and approximately 7-9 days earlier than intermediate-elevation ranges for the Axial Basin-Juniper-Deception Creek area at elevations varying from 6,200 to 6,600 ft (1,890-2,012 m). Peak numbers of hens on strutting grounds located at intermediate elevations, such as in the Great Divide area, probably occurred during the week of April 11-17, 1976. Winter Concentration Counts A minimum of 1,223 sage grouse were counted on 18 different wintering areas during the period December 1976 through March 1977 (Table 9). An average of 67.9 sage grouse were counted per wintering area during this period. At least ten of these areas are considered to be major wintering areas within the Moffat County area. Sixty separate flock locations were recorded for these 18 wintering ranges, for an average of 3.3 wintering locations per wintering range. An average of 20.4 birds were counted per wintering flock location. At least one strutting ground has been located for each of the known 18 wintering ranges, indicating the wintering areas are important for reproduction as well as winter survival. Many of the wintering areas are also known to be important as sage grouse brood rearing ranges. Although Mountain small wintering flocks of sage grouse were located on Cold Springs and Blue Mountain during the exceptionally mild, open winter of �Table 9. Sage grouse wintering areas, Moffat County, December 1976 to March 1977. Minimum Number Birds Minimum Number Flock Locations Wintering Birds Previous Winter? Birds Stayed Entire Winter? Strutting Ground(s) In Area? 50 50 230 122 131 48 3 2 8 5 7 4 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 141 48 71 15 18 29 73 12 13 27 3 7 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 39 2 Unknown Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Probably Unknown Unknown Probably (2 flocks) Yes (1 flock) 106 6 Unknown 1,223 60 Name of Area Red Wash 1/ Deception-Creek 1/ Sand Wash Rim-Lo~kout Mountain North Fork Big Gulch 1/ Thornburgh Gulch-Dry Gulch 1/ Jesse Gulch-Morgan Gulch l/Greasewood Draw-Moffat Count Road 6 1/ Bigho1e Gulch 1/ Spring Creek II Round Bottom Fan Rock Axial Basin Four Mile Creek 1/ Moffat County Roads 18 and 29 Lay Creek Cold Springs Mountain Duffy Mountain Blue Mountain-Moffat Road 16 Total Summary: l! Location 1/ County Number of known wintering areas = 18 Number of wintering areas considered to be major wintering Average = 20.4 birds per wintering flock location Average = 67.9 birds per wintering area Average = 3.3 flock locations per wintering area considered to be major wintering area. Yes (1 flock) areas 10 Yes Yes I " " I �-78- 1976-77 flocks may not normally be able to overwinter in these higher elevational ranges. Flocks, however, probably spend most winter periods within the other 16 areas listed in Table 9. Trends in Sage Grouse Populations Brood counts of sage grouse within the Moffat County area have been conducted sporadically for management purposes with very few exceptions during recent years because their reliability has been questioned. The one checking station used to collect management harvest data on sage grouse in the Moffat County area (Cedar Mountain) has not been manned for the past three hunting seasons (1974-1976). Any possible indicated trends in sage grouse populations during recent years from management information must, therefore, be based upon strutting ground count information, for the most part. Numbers of male and total sage grouse counted within Moffat County by Wildlife Conservation Officers (Fig. 3) indicate populations declined steadily during the period 1969 through 1975 increased markedly during 1976. Numbers of strutting grounds counted by Wildlife Conservation Officers (Fig. 4) also decreased steadily from 1969 through 1975 (except for 1972) and also increased markedly during 1976. Trends in average numbers of male sage grouse and total birds counted on strutting grounds by Wildlife Conservation Officers in Moffat County from 1969 through 1976 (Fig. 5) tended to substantiate claims that populations had indeed experienced gradual but steady declines from 1969 through 1975, and improved during 1976. It is known that reproductive success of sage grouse within Moffat County was good during the summer of 1976, based upon brood counts completed and hunter harvested wing samples collected. The strutting ground counts for 1976, completed during the spring period, would not be influenced by any increase in populations through good reproductive success in 1976. Also, most Wildlife Conservation Officers in the Moffat County area considered 1975 to be a year of relatively poor reproduction for sage grouse, while hunter harvested wing samples collected during 1976 indicated 1975 was a year of fair reproduction. This investigation was started during January 1976 resulting in renewed interest in counting sage grouse on known strutting grounds by WCO's within the Moffat County area. This fact probably best accounts for increased numbers of strutting grounds counted during 1976 in comparison with 1975 and at least partially accounts for the increased numbers of males and total sage grouse counted. Any real decline in sage grouse populations within the Moffat County area, if this has been the case, has been accented because fewer and fewer strutting grounds were counted annually. The number of new and relocated strutting grounds found in this study indicates the overall number of grounds censused annually could have been maintained with additional effort. �2,500 o III E-t ~ o u 2-,000 III -, . U1 g t:t:: ~ r..l ~ -..JI \0 I b., 1,500 U1 r... <, o Ul t:t:: r..l III :t ::> 1,000 Z 'o-----o- ~ig. 3 • Trends in'numbers of male and total sage grouse counted on sage grouse strutting grounds by W.C.O •.'s in Moffat County, 1969-1976. Key::;-. - Ma:tes, <, p v / , '-·if Total Birds lH;;"" o "0.>t ~ ::3 "'+I QlU1 ~ 500 +I Cf) ~ ~ ,r... ~ 1969 1970 1971 1972 YEAR 1973 1974 1975 1976 �30 Q tr.1 E-4 8u 25 tIl Q § o 0:: t!) t!) 20 Z H E-4 E-4 I 00 ~ tIl rz.. o o I rs tIl .•....• C3 .>t m ~ ::s +' tI) ~ 10 4-l o 5 '"' Fig. 4.Trends in numbers ot active sage grouse strutting grounds counted by W.C.O.'s in Mottat County, 1969-1976. Itl Q) ~ +' III ;H '"' .rz.. 9 1970 1971 1972 YEAR 1973 1974 1975 1976 �80 • •\ . 70 \ ~ § \\.~. 60 8 rz:I ~ rz:I ~ .'-- .~.\ ~ 50 CI) \ Ii<. o &1 i i . »>: 40 Fig. 5. Trends in average numbers of \ sage grouse counted on strutting ground~ / by W.C.O. 's in Moffat County,I969-1976. \ ./' / ........•.• • , -, -, ""'/ -, ./ • Key: 30 Average No. Birds Average No. Males , / / • -g~ ~ CI) ~ 0 ~ ~ Q) ~ ~U) ..-I~ Ii<. '-' 1969 1970 1971 1972 YEAR 1973 I 00 •..... "<, • ~ < /' . -. ., 1974 1975 1976 I �-82- LITERATURE CITED Costello, D. F., and H. E. Schwan. 1946. Conditions and trends on ponderosa pine ranges. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exper. Sta. 33 p. Harrington, H. D. 1954. Denver. 666 p. Kuchler, A. W. 1967. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Vegetation mapping. Stoddart, L. A., and A. D. Smith. Book Company. N. Y. 547 p. Prepared by 1943. The Ronald Press. N. Y. Range management. j)~'JYl)r:/?If"~ Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher C Sage Books. 475 p. McGraw-Hill �April -83- 1977 JOB PRCG~lESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~==~~~-------- Project No. '\.J-37-R-30 Plan No. 9 Work Job Title Period Job No. 5 -------------------------------Population Dynamics and Habitat Relationships of Blue Grouse ----~~==~==~~~~~~~~~--------------- Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 D. Benson, C. Braun, J. Claassen, R. C'Li.ppLnge r , J. Corey, D. Covic, C. Crawford, S. Erickson, H. Funk, J. Gerrans, K. Giesen, D. Gore, P. Gorenzel, J. Hobbs, D. Hoart, D. Hoffman, R. Hoffman, J. Jackson, J. Kitzmiller, W. Larrick, D. Luce, F. Marcoux, T. Marinelli, B. McCloskey, S. McEllin, R. Oakleaf, S. Palm, S. Porter, B. Sigler, M. Smith, R. Stark, S. Steinert, J. Wagner and W. Woodard. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning the effects of hunting on blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) populations, stability of breeding population levels, and habitat relationships of blue grouse were initiated in 1975. Studies were conducted in northwestern Colorado at two locations,Green Mountain-Blue Ridge and Eby Creek. Acoustical census and systematic search were used to locate birds. Playing of the hen cackle call greatly enhanced the observers efficiency in locating territorial males, but only limited success was obtained in using chick distress calls. Most attempts to capture grouse, regardless of the method employed, were unsuccessful. Capture success (birds captured/birds observed) amounted to slightly less than 5 percent. Based on ecological densities, Eby Creek (20 birds/km2) sup~orted higher 'densities of blue grouse than Green Mountain (14 birds/km). The population on Green Mountain remained stable between 1975 and 1976. Overall nesting success (62%) was good and was similar to nesting success in 1975. However, differences were noted in the percent of subadult females that were successful nesters in 1975 (27%) and 1976 (61%). Peak of hatch occurred about two weeks earlier in 1976 (16 to 30 June) than in 1975 (26 June to 10 July). Even though a 40 to 50 percent reduction in brood size occurred production still contributed to nearly a doubling of the spring breeding population by late September. Data from wings (N = 341) collected in Middle Park revealed that the harvest was comprised of 39 percent adults, 12 percent subadults, 49 percent juveniles. Volunteer wing collection stations accounted for 86 percent of the wings obtained in }1iddle Park. About 14 percent of the fall population on Green Mountain was harvested. The total harvest during the experimental season in Middle Park was 270 grouse, or about 1 percent of the estimated total population. �-84- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Trapping efforts should be decreased with more effort being made to collect population and harvest data. 2. Another experimental season should be held in 1977, at least in Middle Park. The blue grouse season should extend through the big game season with a bag and possession limit of 3 and 6 birds. �-85- POPULATION DYNAMICS AND HABITAT RELATIONSHIPS OF BLUE GROUSE Richard W. Hoffman Sound management of game birds requires considerable knowledge concerning the biology of each species and factors affecting their populations. Blue grouse are the most widespread member of the upland game birds in Colorado. They occur in varying densities over more than 51,800 km2 (20,000 mi2) of diverse habitat and terrain in Colorado (Rogers 1968). Breeding populations have been found in essentially every habitat type from 1,830 m (6,000 ft) to over 3,050 m (10,000 ft) in elevation. Furthermore, blue grouse are second and possibly first among the resident upland game birds in terms of numbers harvested (18,000 average annual harvest). Yet, little is known about the population dynamics, habitat requirements, or the effects of hunting on populations of blue grouse in Colorado. Colorado has had a long history of conservative seasons on blue grouse. This conservatism has mainly resulted from lack of sufficient data upon which to base management recommendations and the misconception that hunting can be a major mortality factor on blue grouse. Based on intensive studies conducted in other western states and provinces (Mussehl 1960, Zwickel 1958, Harju 1974, Bendell and Elliott 1967, and Boag 1966) the blue grouse season in Colorado could be liberalized without harm to breeding populations in subsequent years. Thus, through intensive population studies, emphasis should be placed on collecting basic data on population dynamics and habitat requirements of blue grouse in Colorado in order to understand the relationship between harvest and population size. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE Major objectives of this study are to (1) increase the harvest of blue grouse in Colorado (double present harvest estimates) without harm to breeding populations in subsequent years, (2) to identify differences in breeding densities due to differing habitats, and (3) to document the stability of breeding densities over time. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning (a) techniques for marking, capturing, and censusing grouse, (b) methods of aging and sexing blue grouse, (c) population dynamics, behavior, and habitat requirements of blue grouse, and (d) effects of hunting on grouse populations. 2. Trap and individually mark 50 birds (including adults, subadults, juveniles) on each of the two selected study areas. 3. Estimate breeding densities on the study areas through the use of acoustical census and systematic search. and �-86- 4. Estimate nesting success and production 5. Vegetatively describe areas studied and correlate blue grouse densities with features of the environment. 6. Manipulate 7. Compile data, analyze results, and prepare progress hunting on the study areas. season and obtain harvest data. reports. METHODS AND MATERIALS Reference materials discussed is made of Hoffman (1976) for a detailed discussion of methods and used in this study. Any deviations or additions to these are in the Results and Discussion section. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Intensive studies were conducted on the Green Mountain-Blue Ridge (GM-BR) area in 1975 and 1976 (Fig. 1). The geographic, geologic, vegetational and climatic features of the area have been described in a previous report (Hoffman 1976). Detailed studies on the Eby Creek area were not initiated until the spring of 1976. The following discussion relates to this area. The Eby Creek area is approximately 10 km (6 mi) north of Eagle, Colorado in Eagle County (Fig. 2). Area investigated is in T35, R84W, parts of Sections 31 and 32; and T4S, R84W, parts of Sections 4, 5, and 6 (Fig. 2). The study area encompasses about 5 km2 (2 mi2). While a small portion of the area is under jurisdiction of the Bureau of Land Management, U. S. Department of the Interior, over 95 percent of the area is under private ownership. The study area lies at the head of a small U-shaped valley that is bounded on the southwest by Greenhorn Mountain and on the northeast by Castle Peak. Vegetation of the study area can best be described as a patchwork of aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands varying in size from less than 2 ha (5 A) to over 100 ha (250 A) and separated by open sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) dominated meadows. Portions of the sagebrush meadows have been treated with herbicide. Such areas have been invaded by bunchgrasses and a variety of perennial forbs. Dense stands of serviceberry (Amelanchior alnifolia), snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and currant (Ribes spp.) commonly occur along the edges of the aspen or bordering streams. Mixed conifer-aspen stands predominate at the higher elevations, whil~ the lower elevations support principally a sagebrushjuniper (Juniperus spp.) type. Coniferous types are almost totally absent on the study area. Topography of the Eby Creek area is characterized by a relatively flat valley floor that rises abruptly on the southwest and northwest sides. Cliffs and ledges are common along the valley rim. Above the rims the terrain quickly changes into a gently rolling upland. When viewed from the air, the area appears to be a large plateau that has been bisected by a U-shaped valley. Maximum relief is about 400 m (1,300 ft); elevations range from 2,500 m (8,200 ft) to 2,900 m (9,500 ft) above sea level. Geology of the Wolcott �\ ~, ~, " "I I ,;/\ + b-' :72%, :. ,':;1 ,\' .f\.tl"'" r"~/ = JJtLZl /"1' ~::.::"... (,',6,?+ )~ (:~.;.~ J' ," '.,,' <' \, _____ ~ "'_ \ \ IfiHer",,,t Sch ''C<'"' ~ '\/ r/ -' _/' .. 9705 \, '-" o ' ••. -J 26 ' ; , rY--' l:\' ' -, ~" H3i. '<., "---- i -,t! 44 ,1- I .~. --_ , '--'~ ..... l_.~~··::'J,'~ _____ ~j _ + 78.'_ ''''-=-~\/''///~ ~ 32 flu-,ll.;'; ..j F .o , R ·'vJ' . ~ :p=="" t '.,' + 27 \-II' .11' ..••..+8L,40. 11 '} "e( ?'J~·b wm.«, Yil'\\' Sc'h ~""... ~ o ",';,'r; I t'l'll . JlI.t i!'. NATIONAL '" f ,;<I"""''''''~ ,.,~,.",.." . :-~3~ t•••••. ~ Suritb ,.o_t')'~e 9,1 )/,1'11 1 i Ran oh ~•..• ~ ~ 5 ,,6, , Q"-~~ . • ."\.. -, 4,' . ""+ 7682 .., " l ..",,~,;.~ \ / 821/J - ~ ' ;251 -', ' ~/ 0' ,e) -t,. \ r 9 ,!,.'?; >v~~~~.i? ,,<"'\A~' 8S3{3 ..' 0/ 18"~\71~>~~ / . :"') L.·--,J 18 I \ / ( -+;;~,:>\:" I " + "''lI.902 \ \' GREEN MOUNTAINBLUE RIDGE AREA COLORADO ~~.- ,,v ,:' 19 '" "~ -.\ , 20 -'- ... 976' _0./ I. )-' 2, : :,:~~ ;--- -' ", - \ <, I ., fl ;"{O,-t1 ., , :2::<,_ f) r->: ~ ' : ", ~ I" "i-i 'l/ rr-~' ,,--.----, 'I- 1\)/ +v ;/ Ii , 0 I \ 28, / ,/ ( -STUDY AREA BOUNDARY SCALE IN KILOMETERS 27 \ ,1 -----' \ \ \ ~...•.. ... ~ "" " + 16 _,-- ._" .e: .~&.- I / , ~~§-, .~ )2 ): ') ... A A ""~ \ -t"- , 191 {, p Fig. 1 A \ -, 'r',/f '';. ~ ~ <, ~ ~S '{, .~- ' 1 r.,k--=i ' -v. I I + 9523 ' .:~ \\ \ ':~ ( - ~',- --, -----, • ~~~ - I c; 1,/ . \i-= ~~ :., 35 . t--.:::.-.------ I , '\ '1/ 6g~5~: .: .,--- '(:f' I:-----. -~ - .--,-~ "l' r!\,',' ,-'~, ~ r:'~' ,'\ '-' '-) 1\, \ -- ~ \-., .:-c(.11 , " 'i\ -~-.,,<,,,I'll> \'\\, ,/r<,.., " 8(,,- .. /;. �", :,i2 , ; 1 "',,, E, ) '- r- '~Of'" --- --1 I \VH 1'1'1': I w I <J.' 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'<: ,: cc .I \ ) II ) c/ , .! ) ) , /' ,/J.- .-~' . _,. -', ,', ---;) / , '~~~R> EBY CREEK AREA COLORADO ',\. ,.-..... ~- '-') -, \ \! \ '" I ) .' ~ ' -, I}>.,- --, / . /') ) I, / f -r- i \ -; ': <., rlr I ,II' ~ (, :/ ,'-, "" N , q•• , fI I / / :;1 /i j '~ i!/!:I r ~~jo7.! ./ / , '/) ) SCALE IN KILOMETERS I 0 I j 1'/' . : . ,1,\ "(" (, .JI: r), II/ I i , STUDY AREA BOUNDARY L* - I; " I / ;. ~ ." Ill" . ,.-V I +, -, I . 'I -",\ ),: l,A i>- Fig. 2 • I /1 �-89- region which includes most of the study area has been described by Stauffer (1953). Major drainage is to the south via Eby Creek •. Numerous smaller streams occur throughout the study area and empty into Eby Creek, which flows into the Eagle River about 10 km (6 mi) south of the study area. Most of the streams maintain a year round water flow. U. S. Weather Bureau precipitation and temperature data were available from Green Mountain Dam (elevation 2,360 m) approximately 1 km southwest of the GM study area. Weather records for the Eby Creek area were from the Eagle County Airport (elevation 1,980 m) about 12 km southwest of the study area. These data are summarized in Table 1. No wind measurements were available, but prevailing winds are primarily westerly with frequent high velocities in winter and spring. The Eby Creek area supports slightly higher temperatures but lower annual precipitation than the Green Mountain area. Climate of both areas is typically continental with seasonal and sometimes daily variations in temperature, precipitation, and wind velocities. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analysis of Capture Techniques Various methods for capturing blue grouse have been developed and tested for use in Colorado (Hoffman 1976). As in 1975, efforts were continued in 1976 to capture blue grouse. Unfortunately, most attempts to capture grouse, regardless of method employed, were unsuccessful. The major problem in trapping grouse was the inability to approach birds close enough to catch before they flushed. In over 80 percent of the encounters with grouse, the birds flushed or else the situation did not permit any capture attempts to be made. Of 451 birds observed in 1976, only 76 (17%) capture attempts were possible; 22 (29%) were successful and 54 (71%) were unsuccessful. Based on the total birds observed (451), capture success amounted to 5 percent. Capture success was slightly higher in 1976 (5%) than in 1975 (2%). All birds were captured with either a noose pole (17 birds) or a hoop net (5 birds). Nine chicks « 2 wks old) were caught by hand, but these birds were too small to carry a band. Older chicks were captured with the hoop net. However, the chicks were very difficult to find after the brood was flushed. No mortalities occurred as a result of trapping operations. It is believed that with present manpower (2 people) and time available for trapping, an adequate sample (50+ birds/study area) of blue grouse cannot be captured using the existing techniques. Analysis Breeding of Census Techniques Season Blue grouse were censused during the breeding and brood periods through the use of acoustical census and by systematic search (Hoffman 1976). Of 109 males located during the 1976 breeding season, only 37 (34%) initially responded to the tape recorded hen cackle call. Wing flutters were the dominant response accounting for 28 of the 37 (77%) responses. In most cases, when a male responded by wing fluttering this induced a chain reaction of responses �-90- from nearby territorial males. Thus, 65 males (60%) were located either by initially responding to the call (37 males) or as the result of a chain reaction response (28). The remaining 44 males were found by systematic search with the aid of a dog. Table 1. Temperature and precipitation, Eagle and Green Mountain, 10 year averages from 1966 to 1976. 1/ Temperature Eagle Precipitation (cm) Green Mountain Precipitation Temperature (OC) (cm) Month (OC) January 7.2 2.4 7.1 2.9 February - 4.0 1.2 - 6.7 2.2 March - 1.5 1.9 - 1.9 3.8 April 5.2 2.1 3.3 3.6 May 10.9 1.1 9.3 3.2 June 15.2 2.7 l3.3 4.4 July 19.2 3.6 16.8 3.8 August l3.9 1.8 16.2 3.3 September 12.9 2.6 11.7 3.2 October 3.7 3.2 2.6 3.8 November - 1.0 1.2 - 1.3 2.9 December - 8.0 2.7 - 7.0 3.0 4.9 26.5 4.1 40.1 Mean Annual 1/ - Data from: u.. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. Data, Colorado Annual Summaries. Climatological �-91- Systematic search of the habitat with the aid of a dog was the most successful method for finding hens during the breeding season, but some hens did respond to the cackle call. Due to their more secretive habits and lower response rate, only 43 hens were located; 4 (9%) responded to the call and 39 (91%) were found by systematic search. As indicated by the distorted sex ratio (2.5 males per female), males were considerably easier to find during the breeding season than females. A higher percentage of males (77%) and females (36%) initially responded to the call in 1975 compared to 1976. The difference was attributed more so to the observer's increased ability to find birds in 1976 without the call rather than an actual change in response rates between years. Tests of the reliability of the hen cackle call in censusing breeding blue grouse could not be effectively conducted since the exact number of females and territorial males was not completely determined for either study area. However, playing of the call greatly enhanced the observer's efficiency in locating blue grouse, especially territorial males. All known territorial males responded to the call at least once during the breeding season. Limited success was obtained in using chick distress calls as only 8 percent (4) of the 50 successful hens observed in 1976 responded to the call. This compares to a 25 percent response rate in 1975. All documented responses were by hens with chicks less than 4 weeks old. Most broods were found by systematic search with the dog. Playing the call after the brood was disturbed elicited a response from 74 percent of the hens. Thus, the call was useful in relocating successful hens after the brood was flushed. Occasionally, males would respond, but those that did so appeared to be attracted by the calling of the hen to her chicks. Breeding Densities Censuses of breeding birds were initiated on both study areas during the first week of April in 1975 and 1976. Early arrivals were primarily males with numbers of females increasing towards mid- to late April. Activities associated with breeding and density of breeding grouse peaked in early to mid-May. The total number of territorial males recorded during the peak of breeding events was used as an index to the population size. An accurate estimate of the number of breeding hens and non-territorial yearling birds was not obtained because of their secretive habits, extensive movements, and poor response rate to the recorded calls. Since data collected in other studies suggest there is a 1:1 sex ratio among breeding birds (Zwickel 1972, Bendell et al. 1972), the breeding population was estimated by doubling the count of territorial males. Breeding densities in 1976 were slightly higher on Green Mountain (6 males/ km2, 16 males/mi2) than at Eby Creek (5 males/km2, 13 males/mi2). However, based on ecological densities, Eby Creek (50% suitable habitat) supported a density of 10 males/km2 (26 males/mi2), whereas the ecological density �-92- of territorial males on Green Mountain (90% suitable habitat) was 7 males/ The population on Green Mountain remained stable km2 (18 males/mi2). between 1975 and 1976 (no change). A similar comparison for Eby Creek was not possible because only one year of intensive work has been conducted on this area. It was impossible to traverse the Eby Creek area to a sufficiently intensive degree in one day in order to estimate the total number of females on the breeding area. Two such attempts were conducted on the Green Mountain area in May 1975 and 1976. The resulting ecological densities as determined from the direct counts were 6 females/km2 (16 females/mi2) in 1975 and 8 females/km2 (19 females/mi2) in 1976. While the accuracy of these counts are not absolute, they do reflect an essentially 1:1 sex ratio in the breeding population at Green Mountain. Assuming there is a 1:1 sex ratio, the estimated ecological densities of the spring breeding population at Green Mountain and Eby Creek were 14 and 20 blue grouse per km2, respectively (36 and 52 birds/mi2). Nesting Success and Hatching Dates Since successful and unsuccessful hens do not have the same probability of being observed, it was difficult to estimate nesting success from field observations. Such estimates were considered over-inflated, but to what extent is uncertain. Analyses of wing molts from hunter harvested birds was used as the best estimate of nesting success; however, an inadequate sample of hunter harvested birds were examined from the Eby Creek area to reliably estimate nesting success. Due to the lack of information for the Eby Creek area, the following discussion relates primarily to data collected in Middle Park. Estimated nesting success for both areas is presented in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2. Estimated nesting success based on field observations.!/ Study Area Green Mountain Eby Creek !/ Estimates of nesting be over-inflated. '.!:.../ No data. Nesting Success 1975 (Percent) 1976 78 78 m/;-/ 83 success based on field observations are believed to �-93- Table 3. Estimated nesting hunter harvested birds. success based on analyses Nesting Success of wing molts (Percent) 1975 1976 Green Mountain 64 62 Eby Creek ~/ 3~/ Study Area from 1/ No data. 2/ An inadequate sample (15 total birds) of hunter harvested examined to reliably estimate nesting success. birds was Examination of wing molt patterns of 41 adult and 15 subadult hens harvested in Middle Park revealed that 78 percent of the adults and only 27 percent of the subadults were successful nesters in 1975. Comparative figures for 1976 show 63 and 61 percent nesting success for adult (N = 60) and subadult (N = 28) hens, respectively. Overall nesting success was good in both years averaging 64 percent in 1975 and 62 percent in 1976. From data collected in another study (Bendell and Elliott 1967), the poor nesting success of subadults can be attributed to their lack of experience rather than their failure to mate. Reasons for the large variation in nesting success of subadults between years is uncertain, but may be related to the earlier onset of nesting events and longer nesting season in 1976, conditions that might have been favorable for better nesting success of subadults. Hatching dates for 1975 ranged from 21 June to 24 July with 79 percent of the hatch occurring between 26 June and 10 July. Similar estimates for 1976 show a wider range of hatching dates (1 June to 22 July) and earlier peak as 68 percent of the hatched occurred during the period 16 to 30 June. Climatic conditions at Green Mountain were slightly warmer and wetter in 1976 than in 1975. However, a heavy snowfall of 56 cm (22 in) in late April of 1975 delayed the onset of nesting events. As a result of the warmer spring temperatures in 1976 accompanied by less snowfall (16 cm, 6 in), most of the snow had melted approximately 2 weeks earlier in 1976 than in 1975. This apparently allowed the birds to start nesting earlier in 1976. Warm, dry conditions prevailed throughout June of both years, thus, the weather was favorable for good nesting success in 1975 and 1976. It was anticipated that because of the warmer, drier conditions and earlier snow melt at Eby Creek, the hatch would be earlier than in Middle Park. However, this was not the case. Hatching dates in 1976 as determined from 32 chicks harvested in the Eby Creek area ranged from 1 June to 24 July. The peak of hatch occurred during the same period as estimated for Middle Park (16 to 30 June). �-94- Production From late June until late August 1976, observations were made on 32 distinct broods, including 19 at Eby Creek and 13 at GM-BR. During the same period in 1975, 11 broods were observed, all in the GM-BR area. The increase in broods observed from 1975 to 1976 was related to improved observer efficiency and larger area searched. Average brood size, range of brood sizes, and number of broods observed are given by months in Table 4. Table 4. Average brood size, range, and number of broods observed intervals, 1975 and 1976. 1../ Month Green Mountain 1975 1976 by monthly 2/ Eby Creek:=1976 June Mean ~/ 5.3 5.0 Range ND 3-7 4-6 Sample Size ND 3 2 Mean 5.2 4.1 3.7 Range 2-7 2-6 1-7 Sample Size 4 7 9 Mean 3.0 3.0 2.2 Range 1-5 Sample Size 6 July August 1-4 1 5 1../ Only distinct broods with full counts of brood size are included. 2/ Studies at Eby Creek were not initiated until 1976. 1/ No data, most nests did not hatch until the last week of June through the first week of July. �-95- Average brood sizes recorded for the GM-BR area were 3.9 and 4.4 chicks per brood in 1975 and 1976, respectively. Brood size at Eby Creek averaged 3.4 chicks in 1976. The apparently lower average brood size at Eby Creek may be attributed to a larger sample of broods counted in late July-early August, whereas, primarily early to mid-July counts were made at GM-BR. Rogers (1968) found average brood sizes of 4.1, 2.6, and 3.9 in 3 years of study in western Colorado. A 4-year average of 4.2 chicks per brood was reported for blue grouse in southeastern Wyoming (Harju 1974). The sex ratio of chicks was determined from hunter harvested birds for which sex was ascertained. Based on the examination of 245 juvenile wings in 1975 (79) and 1976 (166) the sex ratio did not deviate significantly from 1:1. However, in both years, the sex ratio showed a slight imbalance in favor of females, averaging 1 male: 1. 2 females. Average brood size in late August or early September may be misleading as field observations indicated some brood breakup and shuffling had begun by this time. Broods observed after the second week in August are not included in Table 4. While harvest may not accurately reflect popUlation composition due to hunter and bird behavior patterns, it is believed that the young to successful female ratio in the harvest did give a good measure of brood size and survival of chicks through September. The sample of hunter harvested birds from Eby Creek was too small to estimate brood size. However, adequate samples were obtained from Middle Park to permit analysis. Average brood size for September was calculated to be 2.6 chicks in 1975 and 3.0 chicks in 1976. These estimates are based on the exmination of 128 hunter harvested birds (36 successful females, 92 juveniles) in 1975 and 221 hunter harvested birds (55 successful females, 166 juveniles) in 1976. Thus, average brood size from the time of hatch until late September-early October decreased by 2.6 chicks (50% reduction) in 1975 and 2.0 chicks (40 %) in 1976. Fall Densities Estimated fall densities for the Green Mountain area, 1975 and 1976, are presented in Table 5. The calculations are based on the following assumptions: (1) the estimated percent nesting success was correct, (2) immigration equalled emigation, (3) a 1:1 sex ratio existed in the breeding population, and (4) the estimated average brood size by September 30 was accurate. Mortality of the breeding population from April 1 to September is not figured into the calculations, but is probably minimal «10%) (Bendell and Elliott 1967). Obviously none of the assumptions, nor the accuracy of the data, are absolutely correct, but it is believed that Table 5 does reflect the general situation on the Green Mountain study area. Even though nearly a 50 percent reduction in brood size occurred over a 3 month span, production still contributed to nearly a doubling of the spring breeding population at the time of the fall hunting season. For the two year period, production was remarkably uniform between years, indicating that regardless of size or age of the breeding population, nesting success or clutch size, survival of chicks to late September is stable. Considering there is only a 25 to 30 percent turnover in the breeding population, production was more than adequate to replace natural losses. �-96- Table 5. Fall densities of blue grouse on the Green Mountain-Blue study area, 1975 and 1976. Ridge Year Total Breeding Population Nesting Success (Percent) Average Brood Size by Sept. 30 Total Production by Sept. 30 Total Population by Sept. 30 Birds per km2 Percent Gain 1975 32 64 2.6 27 59 23 46 1976 32 62 3.0 30 62 24 48 Harvest Hunting Season The 1975 blue grouse season opened statewide at sunrise on September 13 and closed at sunset on October 5. In 1976 the regular season opened on September 11 and closed on October 10, except in Unit 28 (Middle Park) where the season was extended to October 26 in conjunction with the regular elk season (October 16 to 26). Daily bag limit in both years was 3 and the possession limit was 6. Volunteer Wing Collection Stations Ten volunteer wing collection stations were constructed and tested for use in Middle Park in 1975. The volunteer stations were instrumental in inexpensively increasing samples of wings collected (Hoffman and Braun 1975, Hoffman 1976); thus, their use was expanded in 1976. Thirteen stations were set up in Middle Park, 2 in the Poudre Canyon, 2 in the Eby Creek area, 1 in North Park, and 16 in Moffat and Routt counties. Stations in North Park, Moffat, and Routt counties were primarily for obtaini~g wings of hunter harvested sage grouse, but some blue grouse wings were collected. The stations remained available to hunters throughout the blue grouse season in Middle Park. Due to low hunter pressure, stations were not operated the entire season in the Poudre Canyon and Eby Creek areas. Stations in North Park and Moffat and Routt counties were operated during the 9 and 3 day sage grouse seasons, respectively. Each station was checked at least twice a week, the wings were removed and tagged according to the date and location of the station. A summary of the use of volunteer wing collection stations is presented in Table 6. Check Stations In 1976, check stations were operated in the Middle Park, North Park, Poudre Canyon and Eagle areas. During the opening weekend and second Saturday, stations in Middle Park, North Park, and Eagle were open from about 1000 to �-971800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Due to low hunter pressure, the Poudre Canyon station was only operated opening day. After the opening weekend, hunters were contacted opportunistically in conjunction with the checking of the volunteer stations. Data obtained per hunting party included: county of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total all hunters), location, birds observed, birds bagged, and birds lost. Whenever possible, the crop, gizzard, ovary (if a female), and one wing were obtained from each bird checked. Sex by gonadal inspection was ascertained when possible. Table 6. Volunteer wing collection station summary, 1975 and 1976. 1/ No. of Stations No. Days Available No. Wings Collected Percent ofTotal Wings Collected Middle Park 10 23 120 65.6 Middle Park 13 14 292 85.6 Eagle 2 16 19 28.4 North Park 1 9 0 0 2 16 29 80.6 16 3 33 41.8 44 81 493 68.6 Year Area 1975 1976 2/ Poudre Canyon- 3/ Moffat and Routt- Total 1/ Percent of total wings collected l/ Only one station was available 1/ Of the 16 stations, from manned stations and volunteer stations. to hunters after 9pening weekend. only 3 were set up near potential blue grouse hunting areas. Harvest data obtained from check station operations are summarized in Table 7. It is concluded from these data that hunting pressure is low and has no adverse effects on the population. Only 8 birds were reported killed on the Green Mountain area. Based on the estimated fall population of 59 birds, less than 14 percent of the fall population on Green Mountain was harvested in 1976. Data from other western states suggest that 25 to 30 percent of the fall population can be safely harvested with no adverse effects on subsequent spring breeding population (Zwickel 1958, Bendell and Elliott 1967). �Table 7. Blue grouse hunter checks, 1975 and 1976. Hours Hunted Birds Observed Birds Bagged Birds Lost 1/ HunterSuccess 2/ HunterEfficiency (Percent) Hours Hunted per Bird Crippling Loss (Percent) Year Area Hunters Checked 1975 Middle Park 112 578 158 45 2 .40 28.4 12.8 4.4 Eagle 57 227 83 22 1 .38 26.5 10.3 4.5 North Park 28 219 55 21 0 .75 38.2 10.4 0.0 Poudre Canyon 33 113.5 15 10 0 .30 66.7 11.3 0.0 Middle Park 138 610.5 141 61 5 .44 43.3 10.0 8.2 1976 I \0 Eagle 73 494.5 159 76 3 1.0 47.8 6.5 3.9 North Park 49 422 171 54 0 1.1 31.6 7.8 0.0 Poudre Canyon 11 39 10 3 0 .27 30.0 13.0 0.0 1/ Birds harvested per hunter. ~/ Birds bagged/birds observed x 100. ex> I �-99- Blue grouse hunting was mainly limited to range adjacent to roads or other easily accessible locations, with many areas receiving virtually no hunting pressure. After opening weekend, hunting pressure decreased markedly. Opening weekend accounted for over 60 percent of the wings collected and 75 percent of the hunters checked. Of all the hunters checked in 1976 (271), 59 percent were unsuccessful, 21 percent harvested 1 bird, 10 percent harvested 2 birds, and 10 percent harvested the daily bag limit of 3 birds. Wing Analyses In 1976 wings were received from 542 blue grouse (373 from volunteer stations, 113 from check stations, 52 from the mail wing survey, and 4 from field checks). Five hundred and thirty six wings were classified to age and sex. Age and sex composition of the harvest sample in 1975 and 1976 are presented in Table 8. Small samples from all areas except Middle Park prevent comparisons among areas. The following discussion relates primarily to data collected in Middle Park, but the general situation is believed to be applicable to the other areas. Assuming subadults molt similarly to adults, approximately 73 percent of the adult and subadult males and 22 percent of the adult and subadult females had completed their molt by the end of the 1976 hunting season. Thus, a large portion of the subadults, especially males, could not be distinguished from adults. Males begin their primary molt before females so more subadult males than females are indistinguishable from adults in the fall. Similar percentages estimated in 1975 for adult and subadult males and females were 40 and 6 percent, respectively. The higher percentage of birds completing their molt by late September in 1976 reflects the earlier nesting and peak of hatch; consequently, the birds initiated their primary molt earlier in 1976 than in 1975. Since some subadults were assigned to the adult category both age classes are grouped together as adults. The 1976 data for Middle Park are slightly dissimilar from data collected in 1975 in that chicks comprised 49 percent of the harvest in 1976 (46 percent in 1975), and the sex ratio of adults (includes subadults) in the harvest was nearly even in 1976 (1 male:1.l females); whereas, in 1975 it was distorted (1 ma1e:l.6 females). Adults and juveniles made up almost equal portions of the harvest in 1975 and 1976, indicating production was good in both years and possibly slightly better in 1976 than in 1975. The deficiency of cocks in the adult harvest in 1975 was because their migration to higher, inaccessible areas, less frequented by hunters, occurred prior to the hunting season. The females and chicks still remained on the lower areas where the bulk of the hunting pressure occurred. Conversely, with the earlier hatch in 1976, the females and chicks had also initiated their upward migration by the opening of the fall hunting season so all the birds were using essentially the same habitat. Hunters therefore had a better chance of encountering and harvesting males. �Table 8. Year 1975 Age and sex composition of harvest sample, 1975 and 1976. Adult Female Total Adults Subadu1t Male Subadu1t Female Tota11/ Juvenile Subadu1ts Male Juvenile Female Total Juveniles Total Birds Middle Park 30 (42)l/ 41 (58) 71 (42) 5 (25) 15 (75) 20 .(12) 36 (46) 43 (54) 79 (46) 170 Eagle 6 (43) 8 (57) 14 (67) 0 (0) 0 ( 0) o ( 0) 4 (57) 3 (43) 7 (33) 21 North Park 11 (38) 18 (62) 29 (57) 5 (62) 3 (38) 8 (16) 5 (36) 9 (64) 14 (27) 51 Poudre Canyon 0 (0) 1(100) 1 (14) 1 (25) 3 (75) 4 (57) o ( 0) 2 (100) 2 (29) 7 47 (41) 68 (59) 115 (46) 11 (34) 21 (66) 32 (13) 45 (44) 57 (56) 102 (41) 249 68 (51) 64 (49) 15 (35) 28 (65) 43 (12) 74 (45) 92 (55) 166 (49) 341 Area Totals 1976 Middle Park Adult Male 132 (39) I t-' o Totals Eagle 7 (50) 7 (50) 14 (21) 0 ( 0) 8(100) 8 (12) 15 (33) 30 (67) 45 (67) 67 l' North Park~/ 6 (67) 3 (33) 9 (69) 0 ( 0) 0 ( 0) o ( 0) 1 (25) 3 (75) 4 (31) 13 Poudre Canyon 5 (42) 7 (58) 12 (33) 1 (25) 3 (75) 4 (11) 6 (30) 14 (70) 20 (56) 36 Routt 20 (62) 12 (38) 32 (51) 4 (67) 2 (33) 6 ( 9) 11 (44) 14 (56) 25 (40) 63 Moffat 1 (33) 2 (67) 3 (19) 0 ( 0) 2(100) 2 (12) 7 (64) 4 (36) 11 (69) 16 107 (53) 95 (47) 202 (38) 20 (32) 43 (68) 63 (12) 114 (42) 157 (58) 271 (50) 536 1/ Because some subadu1ts had completed their primary molt and thus could not be distinguished from adults, number of birds assigned to the subadult category was minimal. 1/ Number in parentheses represents percent. 1/ Most birds checked in North Park in 1976 were harvested in Routt County. �-101- Exp_erimental Season Based on information collected in this study, along with knowledge gained from intensive studies in other western states and provinces (Bendell and Elliott 1967, Mussehl 1960, Harju 1974, Zwickel 1958, among others) the blue grouse season in Colorado could be liberalized without harm to breeding populations in subsequent years. Length of seasons in Utah (69 days), Nevada (44 days), Montana (80-90 days) and Oregon (32 days) have had no measurable effect on their grouse populations. Bendell and Elliott (1967) reported that after replacements for mortality in the breeding population are set aside, approximately 30 percent of the autumn population may be harvested. In view of the strong justification for longer seasons, an experimental blue grouse season was held in Middle Park (Small Game Unit 28) in 1976. The regular season opened statewide on September 11 and closed October 10 except in Unit 28 where the season was extended to October 26 in conjunction with the regular elk season (October 16 to 26). In order to evaluate the season, a questionnaire was sent to all holders of cow elk validations (1,450) for Big Game Units in Middle Park. The total population of elk hunters (regular bull elk and cow elk) (6,719) was obtained from estimates based on the statewide survey of big game hunters (pers. comm. Harlan Riffle, Division of Wildlife). These estimates tend to be over inflated, but are the best available. About 22 percent of the elk hunters in Middle Park received a questionnaire. Questionnaires (1,450) were sent immediately following the elk season. Responses were received from 1,017 hunters (70%). In late November a follow up letter was sent to all non-respondents (433) and 246 additional responses were received for a total return of 1,263 surveys (87% return) (Table 9). Only 8 questionnaires were non-deliverable. Mean values calculated for hunters responding to the follow up survey were used to project for the 13 percent (187) non-respondents. It is apparent from data in Table 9 that few elk hunters (23.0%) were even aware of the experimental season, and only 18.6 percent (4.8% of total sample) of those aware of the season actually participated. Nearly half (48.4%) of the elk hunters that hunted grouse were successful in harvesting 54 blue grouse, for a hunter success of 1.8 birds per successful hunter (.87 birds/ elk hunter hunting grouse). Applying these estimates to the total elk hunter population gives the following estimate of the total harvest of blue grouse in Middle Park during the experimental season: Total elk hunter population 23 percent aware of season 18.6 percent participation 48.4 percent successful 1.8 grouse per successful hunter Plus 8.2 percent crippling loss 6,719 1,545 287 139 250 270 Total Blue Grouse Harvested Crippling loss is based on the regular season estimate of 8.2 percent as determined from data collected on hunter check stations (Table 7). The calculations do not take into account those individuals that hunted blue grouse, but were not elk hunters. However, during field checks no such individuals were contacted and it is believed their numbers were minimal. �-102- Table 9. Middle Park experimental data, 1976. blue grouse season, hunter questionnaire 1,017 No. in sample 70.1 Percent return Number elk hunters aware 215 of season Percent elk hunters aware 21.1 of season No. inactive elk huntersl/ 81 Percent inactive elk 8.0 hunters No. elk hunters hunting 55 grouse Percent elk hunters 5.9 hunting grouse l/ No. elk hunters not 881 hunting grouse Percent elk hunters not 94.1 hunting grouse No. of successful grouse 23 hunters Percent successful grouse 41.8 hunters 1/ Percent of elk hunters 2.5 harvesting grouse l/ 42 No. of grouse bagged .04 Grouse/elk hunter Grouse/elk hunter .76 hunting grouse Grouse/successful grouse 1.8 hunter No. elk hunters observing 366 grouse Percent elk hunters 39.1 observing grouse l/ Total blue grouse observed 2,216 8 Non-deliverable surveys Percent non-deliverable l/ Inactive elk hunters Projected For Projected For 1,450 246 17.0 1,263 87.1 187 12.9 1,450 100.0 67 282 51 333 27.2 45 22.3 126 27.2 34 23.0 160 18.3 10.0 18.2 11.0 4 59 3 62 2.0 5.2 2.0 4.8 197 150 1,078 1,228 98.0 94.8 98.0 95.2 4 27 3 30 100.0 45.8 100.0 48.4 2.0 7 .03 2.4 49 .04 2.0 5 .03 2.3 54 .04 1.7 .83 1.7 .87 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.8 74 440 56 496 36.8 465 38.7 2,681 8 36.8 352 38.4 3,033 8 .5 o are those individuals o that had a license but did not hunt. l/ Percentage calculations exclude in the field to participate. inactive 3/ Based on number elk hunters hunting elk hunters grouse. since they were not �-103- Middle Park encompasses about 5,960 km2 (2,000 mi2) of which about 3,370 km2 (1,300 mi2) is estimated to be forest (potential blue grouse breeding habitat) (Wallmo et ale 1977; pers. comm. R. B. Gill, Division of Wildlife). Assuming an average minimum fall density of about 8 birds per km2 (20 birds per mi2), the total estimated blue grouse population in Middle Park is 26,960 birds. From this population, only 270 birds or approximately 1 percent were harvested during the experimental season. Examination of Table 10 reveals that: (1) elk hunters hunting grouse observed more birds per hunter (3.3) than grouse hunters during the regular season (1.0); (2) hunter success (birds bagged/hunter) was higher in the experimental season (.9) than in the regular season (.4); and (3) more hunters were successful in the experimental season (48.4%) than in the regular season (41.0%). Thus, the potential for increasing the harvest of blue grouse by extending the season into the big game season exists provided more hunters would participate. Few hunters (23%) were aware of the experimental season, consequently, participation was low. However, based on information collected in Washington, many hunters will not harvest grouse during the big game season for fear of spoiling their chances of taking a big game animal. Therefore, even if more elk hunters had been aware of the season, only a small percentage would have participated with the increase in harvest having negligible effects on the grouse population. Table 10. Comparison of regular season and experimental for blue grouse in Middle Park 1976. Regular-~j Season Harvest Data season harvest data Experlmenta . 12/ Season Number of hunters l38 62 Number birds observed 141 205 Birds observed/hunter 1.0 3.3 Number birds bagged 61 54 Birds bagged/hunter .4 .9 Percent successful hunters 41.0 48.4 Hunter efficiency (percent) 43.3 26.3 l/ Based on information ]j presented in Table 7. Based only on those elk hunters surveyed. �LITERATURE CITED Bendell, J. F, D. G. King, and D. H. Mossop. 1972. Removal and repopulation of blue grouse in a declining population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4): 1153-1165. _____ , and P. W. Elliott. 1967. Behavior and the regulation blue grouse. Can. Wildl. Servo Rep. Ser. 4. 76 p. of numbers Boag, D. A. 1965. Indicators of sex, age, and breeding phenology grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(1):103-108. Harju, H. J. grouse. in in blue 1974. An analysis of some aspects of the ecology of dusky Ph. D. Thesis. Univ. Wyoming, Laramie. 142 p. Hoffman, R. W. 1976. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of blue grouse. Colorado Div. Wildl. Job Prog. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April 1976. p. 135-152. , and C. E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer wing collection 3 p. -----Div. Wildl. Game Information Leaflet No. 101. station. Colo. Mussehl, T. W. 1960. Blue grouse production, movements, and populations in the Bridger Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 24(1):60-68. Rogers, G. E. 1968. The blue grouse in Colorado. and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 21. 63 p. Colo. Div. Game, Fish Stauffer, J. E. 1953. Geology of an area west of Wolcott, M. S. Thesis. Univ. of Colorado, Boulder. Colorado. Eagle County, 62 p. U. S. Department Commerce, Weather Bureau. 1966-1976. Climatological data. Annual summaries, Colorado. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Wallmo, o. C., L. H. Carpenter, W. L. Regelin, R. B. Gill, and D. L. Baker. 1977. Nutritional basis for evaluating deer habitat. J. Range Manage. 30(2):In Press. Zwickel, F. C. 1958. North-central State Game Bull. 10(4):3-4. Washington grouse studies. Wash. 1972. Removal and repopulation of blue grouse in an increasing population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1141-1152. �-105- April 1977 JOB FINAL REPORT State of _-..:::C~O:=L:.::::O~RAD=:!··~' '~O _ Project No. W-37-R-30 i7 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Game Bird Survey job No.. 2 ------------------------------- Cont.Lnued Irivent.or y of Se.Lec t ed Pi:armigan Popul.at Lons --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~==~~~---------- Covered: April l, 197d to 31 March i977 w. Per sonne'l i t~rry A~.Mciy ~ University of coio:bido; .Johri Ai-thur, Clait E. Braun, iIot.r.i:rdD. Furik; Kenneth M.Gieseri, .RichardW. Hoffman, T?iil;.i.:i1:+~,. Rart Ociideaf, and charles w<igri~r, Colorado Division of Wildlife. The objecHvesof tliis EltudY ii~ve been ftiliy achieved. Reports covering the various objectives ha\tebeen p~blished, prepared,arid submitted, and in some Lns tarices , are in .i):hjgtess~ .THo~eiriprogr~sswili be published under Work Plan 22, Job iand are listed ih the project documents for W-37~R-3l. Those pUblished are iisted beiow. c. E.~~rid May. Brauri, T.A. 1972. co16radoaipine tundra avifaunal gations,i§g677l .. ~~~i~3-i~g in Proc , 1972 n. s. Turidra Biome uriiv. wash:l.ngtori. investi- SyInpo~{Jin; ___ , R. K. tailed 90-93. Schmidt; JL j arid G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado whitewith tape-recorded cails. J. Wildi. Manage. 37(1): ptarmigan ____ , andi. G~Biun.ib~rg. Condor 75(3):345-346. 1975. Seasonal Wilson brnii:hoi. (Abstract). ___ 197:3. Hahitat An albinistic selection blue grouse by white-taiied Sac. and Cooper Orriithol. Soc .. Joint from Colorado. ptarmigan. Proc. Mtg. 2: 14. , R. w. Hoffman, and G. E. Rogers. 1976. Wintering areas and winter ecology of whii:~-taii~d ptarmigan in Colorado. Coiorado Div. Wildlife Spec. Rept. pp. No. 38. 38 :. I . ':,,' -~. .....,. t -'. . Hoffman, R. W., arid C. E. Braun. 1973. Migration of white-tailed to and froina majot iviritering area .. Proc. Aim. Conf , Central and Plains Sec. ~ The Wildl. Soc., 18:i6-l7. (Abstract). ___ , and flocks 68-69. 1974. Composition, of whih~-tailed ptarmigan. (Abstract). ptarmigan Mtns. d i s t r Lbut Lon, and siz~ of winter J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad , ScL 7(5): �-106- Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. Migration of white-tailed in Colorado. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad Sci. 7(6):45. (Abstract). ptarmigan _____ , and 1975. Migration of a wintering population of whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3):485-490. _____ , and 1977. Characteristics of a wintering population of whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Wilson Bull. 89 (1):107-115. Marti, C. D., and C. E. Braun. 1975. Use of tundra habitats by prairie falcons in Colorado. Condor. 77(2):213-214. May, T. A. 1975. Physiological ecology of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Thesis. Univ. of Colorado. Boulder. 311 pp. 1975. A population bioenergetics model for Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. U. S. Tundra Biome Rept. 75-1. 89 pp. _____ , and C. E. Braun. 1972. Weight dynamics of free-living white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 7(3):70-71. (Abstract). _____ , and _ in Colorado. 1972. Seasonal foods of adult white-tailed J. Wild1. Manage. 36(4):1180-1186. _____ , and _ in Colorado. 1973. Gizzard stones from adult white-tailed Arctic and Alpine Res. 5(1):49-57. ptarmigan ptarmigan Stabler, R. M., N. J. Kitzmiller, and C. E. Braun. 1974. Hematozoa from Colorado birds. IV. Galliformes. J. Parasitol. 60(3):536-537. Prepared by .!.<ttaI~=-::....___2~. -.:~~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �-107- April 1977 INTERIM JOB PINAL REPORT State of COLORADO --~~~~~---------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period 17 Organization, Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-30 Job No. Mortality, 5 and Dispersal of Grouse Broods 1 April 1976 to 31 March 1977 William W. Mautz, Colorado State University; Clait Braun, Deborah Covic, Ken Giesen, Richard Hoffman, and Jim Kitzmiller, Coloradq Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations of mortality and movement.s of juvenile ~hite-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus le~curus) were c01-ld~ctedon 16.9 km of alpine habitat along Trail Ridge Road in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado from May 1975 through Japuary ~977. Emphasis was placed on q.etermination of causes and tirp.ingof juvenile mortality and fall dispersal movements. Nesting success varieq frotp.60 percent (1975) to 54 percent (1976) ~ith all nest loss attribqteq. to predation. Two instance~ of renesting were documented in 1975. Clutch size averaged 5.6 eggs with 89 percent of the eggs in s~ccessful 1-lestshatchi1-lg. Infertility and embryonic mortality were responsible for failut-e of eggs in successful nests to hatch. Movements to pj..lJWller habitat i3.veraged350 m for seven broods with known nest sites .. Repeateq observations of nine broods indicated summer movements were restt-icteq.withi1-la1-laverage home range of 15.4 hectares. ObservatiQ1-ls of 49 marked broods indicated chick mortality approached 34 percent wiJ:hi1-l two weeks posthatch with predation being a primary cause. Once chicks reached two weeks of age, additional mortality was less tha1-l10 Percent until brood breakup. Brood breakup preceded dispersal anq. began gradually once ch~cks reached eight weeks of age. Brood break~p and dispersal were facilitated by early fall snowstorms which causeq. broods to abandon sqmmer habitat and move downhill into protected areas ~here willow (Salix spp.) was abundant. Fall movements were docurp.ented for 42 j~venile females and 32 juvenile males. Fall dispersal movementS (> 1.0 km) were significantly greater (P < 0.05) in juvenile females tha1-lj~venile male~ with movements up to 8.4 km being recorded. DiSPersing individ~als moved along continuous alpine habitat rather than f1-lrandom directions. Movements between brood range and wintering sites were documented for nine juvenile females and six juvenile males. J~venile females tended. to migrate greater distances than juvenile males with one movement of 9.2 km being recorded. �-108- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION .••••.••••••••.•••.....•••.•.••••..••.••••.....•••••• REVIEW OF LITERATURE •..•...••.....••••...•••••••.•...•..••..••••. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION METHODS AND MATERIALS OF ~HE STUDY AREA .•••••.•••••.•..••••••. ••••••.••.••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••.•••. III 112 112 114 RESULTS •••..••..••.•..•....••....••.••..•.•.•..••.•••.•••.•.••.•• Nesting •..•••.•.••.••••.•••••.•••••..•••••..•.••••.•••.•..•••. Clutch Size .•.•••.••••..••..•.•••••..•••••.••••.•.•..•.•... Ha:tchability •...••..•.•...••••.••••••...•••.•••.••••.••.••. Nes ting Success •..•••••...••.••••••.....••••.••••••......•. Mortality •.•.•.••..••..•.•..•.•.•.••.••••.•..••.•••••.•.••.•.• Timing ••..•.••••.••••.••..•.......•••••.•.•••••.•••••..•••• Causes .••••.•.•••••.••••..•.••.•••••..•.•••..•.••••..•••••• Dispersal •.•••••••.••...•••.•..•..•...•••.....•.•...•••••...•. Movements to Summer Habitat .•••••.••.•••••..•....••...•.•.• Movements Within Brood Home Range •••.•••••....•••..•..••••.. Brood Breakup •.•••••••••••••.•••••••....••.••...••.••.•.••• Fall Dispersal •••...••••.••••.•.•••.•••..•...•••..••....•.• Summer to Winter Movements •••..••••••...•.••..••••••..•.•.. " 115 DISCUSSION Mortality Dispersal 132 132 135 •...•.•••.••••••••••.•••••.•••••••..•••..•••••..•••..•• ••.•••••.••••••••••••.•••••••••••.•••••••••••..••..•. •••••.••..•.••.•.••••.•.•••••...•..•..•••••.•.•.••••• SUMMARY .•.••••..•••.••••.•••••.•••••••••••.•••••••.•••••••••..•.. LITERATURE CITED ................................................. 115 115 116 116 117 117 119 121 121 122 122 123 129 136 137 �-109- LIST OF TABLES Table 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of white-tailed ptarmigan broods and average size, 1975 and 1976 ••...•....•..•.....................•.•.• ll8 Radio tracking data for nine juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan in 1976 .•..•... ,.......•••.........•.•..••....•.• 124 Fall movements Rocky Mountain 125 of juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan in National Park, 1976 .••.....•......•...••.... Hypothetical production of white-tailed ptarmigan chicks per 100 females .•......••.......•..•....................... 133 Nesting success of white-tailed ptarmigan hens observed both years (1975 and 1976) .••.•..•...•......•.....•....••.• 134 Comparative brood size of white-tailed ptarmigan hens observed both years (1975 and 1976) •.•...•..•••.•..... 135 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Trail Ridge Study Area, Rocky Mountain 2 Individual average fall movements of juvenile whitetailed ptarmigan .••..••••..............•..••.•....•••.... 126 Individual average dispersal movements of juvenile white-:-tailed ptarmigan .........•.•...•.•..........••..•.• 127 Dispersal movements of male and female juvenile whitetailed ptarmigan •..•••...•..........•....•........•..•••• 128 Distance juvenile and direction of dispersal movements of white-tailed ptarmigan •.•..•..•••.••............ 130 Movements summering of juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan from areas to wintering sites .......•...•••...••..•• 131 3 4 5 6 National Park 113 �-110- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Financial support was provided with a graduate research assistantship through the Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit and the Colorado Division of Wildlife, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-37-R. The support of these agencies is gratefully acknowledged. The U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain National Park allowed access to the study area and provided necessary permits. The cooperation of Dave Stevens, Park Biologist, is sincerely appreciated. Dr. William W. Mautz, former Assistant Leader of the Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, served as my advisor and critically reviewed this thesis. His encouragement and interest are appreciated. Other members of my graduate committee, Dr. Ronald A. Ryder, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, and Dr. Philip N. Lehner, Department of Zoology and Entomology reviewed this thesis and were available for consultation throughout the study. Dr. Clait E. Braun, Wildlife Researcher, Colorado Division of Wildlife, served on my graduate committee and was responsible for initiating the study. In addition to expert assistance in the field he provided administrative support which made my work easier. His knowledge, patience and enthusiasm for research constantly stimulated my research efforts. His interest in my progress as a student and development as a biologist is sincerely appreciated. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Denver Research Center, provided radio transmitters which facilitated my work and provided data not otherwise easily obtainable. The expertise and generous help of Gene Bourassa and Larry Kolz is greatly appreciated. Others instrumental in assisting in various aspects of this study included Howard Funk, Colorado Division of Wildlife, for administrative support and review of the thesis; Ed Blekicke, Nik~ Goodson, and Jim Kitzmiller provided assistance in the field at critical times. The assistance of these people is sincerely appreciated. �-111- ORGANIZATION, MORTALITY, AND DISPERSAL OF GROUSE BROODS INTRODUCTION Grouse are important game birds in Colorado and four species, blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus), sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), sharptailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus), and white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) presently provide considerable hunting opportunity. Little is known concerning broods of three of these species (blue grouse, sage grouse, and sharp-tailed grouse) due to habitats occupied and lack of detailed study. Production of young and survival to the hunting season and following breeding season are important biological parameters as these factors affect fall hunting populations and subsequent spring breeding populations. It is thus important to understand behavior and dispersal of broods as they may directly affect hunting success and overwinter survival. It is also important to identify major mortality factors of juvenile grouse and to understand their relationship to fall and subsequent spring population levels. Intensive studies of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado (Schmidt 1969, Braun and Rogers 1971), Hoffman and Braun 1975) support the conclusion that the biology of this grouse is similar to that of other tetraonids, especially in respect to brood ecology and dispersal. Preliminary observations of white-tailed ptarmigan broods suggested they would be ideal study subjects as (1) they can be easily and readily located, (2) they can be easily marked, (3) they occupy small home ranges until time of dispersal, (4) they can be observed without vegetative interference, and (5) seasonal habitat requirements are known. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to increase the knowledge of factors affecting numbers of young grouse in fall and recruitment to the breeding population the following spring. It was expected that data concerning time of and factors affecting dispersal and mortality of young grouse could markedly affect timing and duration of fall hunting seasons. Hunting seasons could be established to coincide with periods of dispersal and high natural mortality in order to more fully utilize birds that are being lost due to natural factors. Hypotheses which were tested were: (1) mortality of chicks is predator-dependent to 1 October and weatherdependent from 1 October to 1 November; (2) brood breakup and dispersal are functions of chick aggression to brood mates; (3) timing of dispersal is age-dependent with dispersal not occuring until chicks are older than eight weeks; and (4) direction of dispersal is non-random. �-112- REVIEW OF LITERATURE Little detailed information on the ecology of white-tailed ptarmigan had been published prior to 1960. Most early studies concerned distribution or notes on life history; these have been summarized by Braun (1969). Recently, intensive studies have occurred in Montana and Colorado. Choate (1960) investigated breeding biology of ptarmigan in Glacier National Park, Montana and later (1963) studied population dynamics and ecology of the same unhunted population. Since 1966 intensive research efforts have been directed at various aspects of white-tailed ptarmigan ecology in Colorado. Braun (1969) and Braun and Rogers (1971) investigated population dynamics on hunted and unhunted areas, life history and distribution in Colorado. Other studies have investigated parasites of ptarmigan (Haskins 1969, Stabler et al. 1974), food habits, physiology and energetics (May and Braun 1972, May 1975), breeding behavior (Schmidt 1969), habitat requirements (Braun 1971, Braun and Schmidt 1971, Braun et al. 1976), and winter ecology (Hoffman 1974, Hoffman and Braun 1975). Except for limited work by Schmidt (1969) little data concerning brood ecology, especially mortality and dispersal, has been published. Various aspects of brood mortality, movements and behavior have been investigated in several grouse species in areas other than Colorado. Studies of ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (Bump et al. 1947, Gullion and Marshall 1968), blue grouse (Stiven 1961, Zwickel 1967, Zwickel and Bendell 1967a), red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) (Jenkins et al. 1963), and rock ptarmigan (L. mutus) (Theberge 1971, Theberge and West 1973) have discussed causes-and timing of mortality in juvenile grouse. Brood movements including dispersal have been investigated for ruffed grouse (Chambers and Sharp 1958, Hale and Dorney 1963, Godfrey and Marshall 1969, Godfrey 1975), blue grouse (Wing et al. 1944, Zwickel et al. 1968), spruce grouse (Canachites canadensis) (Ellison 1973), greater prairie chickens (Typanuchus cupido) (Robel et al. 1970, Bowman and Robel 1977), and sage grouse (Wallestad 1971). Zwickel (1965) reviewed much of the literature concerning mortality in grouse and other animals and Keppie (1975) reviewed some of the literature on grouse movements, including dispersal, and also discussed the relation of dispersal to animal populations. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA Field investigations were conducted in Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) along Trail Ridge Road (Fig. 1) between 1 May 1975 and 31 January 1977. Previous studies by Schmidt (1969) and Braun and Rogers (1971) indicated a relatively high population of white-tailed ptarmigan utilized this area from April to October. Also, previous investigations indicated that in late summer, female ptarmigan with broods were attracted to a few concentration areas (Braun pers. comm.) which facilitated location and observation of broods. The study area was in Larimer County, Colorado, at approximately 105°44' W. longitude, and 40°25' N. latitude. Included were T5N, R74W, parts of �-113- �-114- Sections 6, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, and 27; T6N, R74W, parts of Sections 30 and 31; T5N, R75W, parts of Sections 1, 2, and 3; T6N, R75W, parts of Sections 35 and 36. Total area was approximately 16.9 km2 (6.5 mi2). Elevation ranged from 3,414 m to over 3,799 m. In 1976 some chicks were marked on Mt. Chiquita, Specimen Mtn. and the Continental Divide between Mt. Ida and Sheep Rock. These areas lie east, northwest and west of Trail Ridge, respectively, with all less than six km distant. The climate of the Front Range has been described by Judson (1965) and Marr (1961, 1967). Weimer and Haun (1960) and Quam (1938) described the geology and physiography of the Front Range, while Willard (1963) and Eddleman (1967) characterized the vegetation. A more detailed physical description of the Trail Ridge area is provided by Braun (1969) and Braun and Rogers (1971). METHODS AND MATERIALS Territorial pairs in spring and females in summer were located with tape-recorded calls (Braun et ale 1973). Intensive search on foot and frequent viewing with binoculars were necessary to locate nonterritorial males and unsuccessful females. Once ptarmigan were lcoated they were observed using 7 x 50 or 8 x 36 binoculars. If the bird had been banded previously its band color and number were recorded, along with the time and location, on standardized observation cards. Unbanded birds were pursued until captured or flushed out of sight. Captures were made with a 27.3 kg (60 pound) test nylon covered wire snare (9.1 kg for chicks) attached to the end of a five or seven meter telescoping fiberglass fishing pole as described by Zwickel and Bendell (1967b) for blue grouse, and adapted for ptarmigan by Braun and Rogers (1971). All locations were later plotted on 7.5 minute (scale 1:24,000) U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps. Each adult ptarmigan newly captured was banded on the right leg with a gold aluminum serially numbered band (size 8, National Band and Tag Co., Newport, Kentucky) and on both legs with colored, numbered (1-100) plastic bandettes (size 6, National Band and Tag Co., Newport, Kentucky). Green bandettes were used in 1975 and yellow bandettes in 1976. Chicks captured after two weeks of age were banded on the left leg with a gold aluminum serially numbered band. Selected chicks (45 in 1975, 46 in 1976) were additionally banded with various combinations of colored plastic coil bandettes (size 3, National Band and Tag Co., Newport, Kentucky). In 1976 all chicks captured or recaptured after 1 September were banded with colored (pink) numbered plastic bandettes similar to those used on adults. Captured ptarmigan were weighed with a spring scale accurate to within five grams for adults and two grams for chicks. Measurements of carpal length, individual primary lengths and length of the outer rectrix were �-115- recorded using a transparent, flexible plastic millimeter ruler. Adults were sexed and classified as either adult or yearling according to plumage characteristics described by Braun and Rogers (1971). Chicks were aged by examination of various plumage characteristics including lengths of carpal and primary feathers and by progression of primary molt. Ages were assigned by comparing specific measurements with those of known-age chicks. Sex of chicks was based on behavior (vocalizations and aggression), primary feather and carpal lengths, pigmentation of the eye-stripe and by the amount of pigmentation on post-juvenile primary (P) 8, juvenile P9, PIO and primary covert 10 (Braun, pers. comm.). Nests were located by (1) observation of laying hens, (2) following incubating hens back to nests after feeding, and (3) intensive search of known territories. Additional nests were located incidental to other field activities. In 1976, 174 MHz radio transmitters (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Denver Research Center) were placed on three females with broods and on nine chicks at 12 to 16 weeks of age. Transmitter packages weighed 12-13 gms and were attached to the central rectrices of the birds with a bolt and clamp device similar to the tail clip described by Bray and Corner (1972). A model LA 12 receiver (AVM Company, Champaign, Illinois) and a hand-held three element yagi antenna (Model 23 Hy-Gain, Wildlife Materials, Inc., Carbondale, Illinois) were utilized in radio location of transmitter-marked birds. Differences in clutch sizes, brood sizes and dispersal movements were statistically tested using the Students t-test unless otherwise noted. RESULTS Nesting Clutch Size Clutch size was determined from 18 complete clutches examined in 1975 and 1976. Three additional nests were located but the clutches were destroyed by predators before completion or before examination. Average clutch size was 5.6 and ranged from four to seven. Clutches of five or six were most common and comprised 83 percent (15 of 18) of the complete clutches examined. Clutches larger than seven are thought to be uncommon, while clutches of four or less are thought to represent renesting efforts (Braun and Rogers 1971). Renesting was documented in 1975 when two marked hens were observed on summer range with broods after their initial nests were known to have been destroyed. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in clutch size between years or between age classes (yearlings versus adults). Braun and Rogers (1971) examined 21 complete clutches and computed an average clutch size of 5.7 eggs. Choate (1963) calculated an average clutch size of 5.2 eggs based on ten complete clutches in Montana. �-116- Hatchability Hatchability was based on the percentage of eggs hatching in successful nests (those nests incubated to completion). In 1975 hatchability and egg fertility were 100 percent as all eggs (n = 32) in six successful nests hatched. Hatchability declined in 1976 to 74 percent (17 of 23 eggs) in four successful nests. This decrease was due to one nest (Y58) in which only four of seven eggs hatched. One fertile egg cracked and was removed by the observer. Two other fertile eggs chilled after the hen apparently dislodged them when flushing from the nest. Another two eggs, possibly infertile, were buried under the nest cup and were not incubated. The remaining egg was found to be infertile. Thus the minimum egg fertility in 1976 decreased to 87 percent. Braun (1969) reported that 81.1 percent of the eggs (n = 37) in successful nests hatched while Choate (1963) reported 81.2 percent (26 of 32 eggs) in seven successful nests hatched. Neither Braun nor Choate calculated egg fertility. Nesting Success Nesting success was estimated from (1) success of known nests, (2) numbers of successful and unsuccessful hens (those hens observed with and without broods, respectively) seen during the brood season and which had been identified during the breeding season, and (3) total numbers of successful and unsuccessful hens observed during the brood season. Six of 11 active nests (55 percent) located in 1975 hatched successfully, but this estimate of nesting success may be inflated since only two of seven nests (29 percent) located prior to onset of incubation were successful. In 1976 only four of ten active nests located hatched successfully (40 percent), with only one of four nests located prior to incubation hatching successfully (25 percent). Renesting compensated for some nest loss in 1975 as two of five hens who lost their initial nests renested successfully. None of the five hens (excluding one which was killed on the nest) who lost their initial nests in 1976 was known to renest successfully. During the 1975 breeding census 31 females were identified. All females were observed with territorial males and were assumed to be paired. Of the 31 females, 22 were later observed during the brood season (13 successful, 9 unsuccessful), resulting in an estimated nesting success of 59 percent. This estimate may be biased as success of nine females identified on breeding territories was not ascertained. Braun (unpublished data) examined the ovaries of females collected during the breeding season and determined that all females ovulated. Field observations of mated pairs also indicated that all females attempted to nest. Since the brood survey was thorough, it is unlikely that many successful females escaped detection. Possibly some females died prior to or during nesting or nested elsewhere. Another possibility is that the majority of these hens were unsuccessful and were not observed during the brood �-117- season because they summered off the study area (Braun pers. comm.). During the 1976 breeding season, 42 females were identified of which 30 were observed during the brood season (16 successful, 14 unsuccessful) for an estimated nesting success of 53 percent. Again a large number of hens (11) disappeared between the breeding and brood seasons (one hen was killed on the nest). It is not known what proportion of these 11 hens was successful. Another method of estimating nesting success was employed which eliminated the need for using the number of hens observed during the breeding season. This method was not biased by any hens missed during the breeding census. The technique is to estimate nesting success using the proportion of successful hens to unsuccessful hens observed during the brood season, regardless of any identification during the breeding season. The assumption is that successful hens remain on the area while immigration and emigration of unsuccessful hens is equal. Since the study area is large (16.9 km2) and somewhat isolated from other alpine areas this assumption may be true. During the 1975 brood season (20 Ju1y-13 October) 36 hens were identified on the Trail Ridge area (22 successful, 14 unsuccessful). This estimate of nesting success (61 percent) appears realistic since the complete study area was searched weekly, even though successful hens are more likely to be located than unsuccessful hens (Braun and Rogers 1971). In 1976, 50 hens (27 successful, 23 unsuccessful) were observed during the brood season (10 Ju1y-30 September) for an estimated nesting success of 54 percent. The last two techniques arrive at similar estimates (±2 percent) for each year. Nesting success in 1975 was slightly higher than in 1976 (60 percent versus 54 percent). Mortality Timing Timing of mortality was based on observed decreases in average brood size and calculated for bi-week1y intervals (Table 1). From 20 July to 15 October 1975, 128 observations of broods were recorded compared to 157 brood observations between 10 July and 30 September 1976. The different interval sampled between years reflected the earlier peak of hatch in 1976 and corresponding earlier brood breakup. The difference in number of observations was due to a higher number of broods on the study area in 1976 (27 versus 22), radio location of three hens in 1976 and observer experience. It is apparent that a large decrease in brood size occurred within two weeks of hatch (Table 1). The peak of hatch in 1975 was between 20 and 25 July and broods located between 1 and 15 August (n = 10) had decreased in average size by 30.4 percent. In 1976 the peak of �-118- hatch occurred between 10 and 20 July and average brood size on 31 July was 3.7, a decrease of 33.9 percent from hatch. Some of the observed decrease in brood size was attributed to renesting which usually resulted in smaller initial brood size (four or fewer chicks). Table 1. Numbers of white-tailed 1975 and 1976. No. of Broods Time Interval ptarmigan broods and average size, Brood Observations Avg. No. of Chicks/Brood 1975 1976 1975 1976 1975 1976 1-31 July 5 15 13 42 5.6 3.71,2/ 1-15 August 10 12 23 41 3.9]) 4.1 16-31 August 11 9 27 24 3.9 3.8 1-15 September 9 9 18 26 3.6 3.2 16-30 September 8 11 23 24 4.1 3.6 1-15 October 10 !/Significant difference ~/Significant decrease 24 4.2 between years (P < 0.05). from hatch or previous time interval (P < 0.05). After the initial mortality in the first two weeks post-hatch, there was little additional mortality (as reflected in average brood size) to September. After chicks reached eight weeks of age, broods began to break up. At this time some hens lost all their chicks, while other hens were observed with as many as 12 chicks from several broods. "Gang" broods were responsible for the September increase in average brood size shown in Table 1. Timing of mortality was closely monitored for members of three broods in 1976 in which the hens were fitted with radio transmitters. The first hen (Y90) was radio marked on 12 July when her clutch of six eggs had pipped. She left the nest on 13 July and was located on 14 July with all six chicks. The transmitter then failed, but I relocated the hen on 17 July at which time only one chick remained in her brood. No sign was found of the other chicks which had been banded at hatch. The remaining chick was observed periodically until 11 November. �-119- A second female (G72) was radio marked on 22 July when her brood of four chicks was approximately 15 days old. It can be assumed that if her clutch size was average she had lost approximately 30 percent of her brood. Later observations show that one chick was last observed on 11 August, while the remaining three chicks were observed periodically until brood breakup in late September and early October. A third female, G97, was radio marked on 3 August while she brooded five downy chicks which had just hatched. On 4 August the female was located 50 meters from the nest with four chicks. A 30-minute search failed to locate the fifth chick. The brood was located once or twice daily until 13 August with the remaining four marked chicks identified at each observation. I was absent from the study area on 14 and 15 August and when I located the brood on 16 August only two chicks remained. These two chicks survived until 21 September at which time one chick appeared to have sustained a leg injury. When the brood was located the following day the injured chick was missing. It was later observed on a wintering site 4.7 km away on 4 December. Choate (1963) estimated chick mortality between 35 and 44 percent during the brood period and suggested the largest losses of chicks occurred in the first two weeks after hatch. Braun and Rogers (1971) presented data showing decreases in average brood size during the two weeks following hatch of 20 to 30 percent which is less than the 32 percent in this study. Their data represented broods observed throughout Colorado between 1966 and 1969. For blue grouse Zwickel and Bendell (1967a) reported a 40 percent loss of chicks during the two weeks following hatch, while Keppie (1975) reported a 36 percent loss of spruce grouse chicks in the first 40 days following hatch. It would appear that early mortality of chicks is similar in all species of grouse studied. Causes Specific causes of mortality in most free-living animals, especially birds, are difficult to document. Most predators which inhabit the alpine are capable of consuming an entire ptarmigan' chick and any remains disappear rapidly. Ptarmigan chicks less than two weeks of age (when most mortality occurred) are small (less than 50 grams) and possess a downy plumage which blends into the surroundings. Mortality was documented for seven chicks in 1975. A raptor, most likely a prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) killed hen G74 within 24 hours after she hatched a clutch of six eggs. The entire brood was assumed to have died, although only one dead chick was located. The hen apparently had been dusting on a pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) mound when the raptor attacked. The other instance of chick mortality in 1975 involved an unbanded chick approximately three weeks of age. The remains were found nearly a month after death and examination indicated mortality was likely caused by weasel (Mustela spp.) predation. In 1976 five mortalities were killed by vehicular of juvenile ptarmigan were located. Two chicks traffic on Trail Ridge Road which traverses the �-120- length of the study area. They were located together on 29 August and were approximately six weeks old. One chick was found dead in the nest of female Y73 after she led her brood from the nest on 18 July. At least four chicks had hatched prior to 19:30 p.m. the previous evening, but it was not known if the dead chick was one of these. Examination of the chick indicated its weight and carpal measurement were comparable to other chicks examined on day of hatch. It is possible that death occurred by suffocation when the chick was brooded. In nine other nests examined after hatch no mortality was observed. One juvenile ptarmigan (P64) was found dead less than four days after a radio transmitter package had been attached. Although death was due to raptor predation it may have been influenced by the observer. P64 was captured at dusk on 8 October approximately one kilometer east of Tundra Curves. It was carried, along with two other juvenile ptarmigan, to a vehicle at Tundra Curves where transmitters were attached. The birds were released singly from the vehicle. Two birds flew towards the point of capture while P64 flew in the opposite direction. On 9 October P64 was located 300 m west from the point of release. He was alone, but was observed feeding and seemed to be in good condition. I next searched the area on 12 October and found the remains of P64. Apparently P64 had attempted to rejoin flock as he had moved east to within 500 m of where he had been captured. It is conceivable that if he hadn't been separated from his original flock he would have survived. None of the other eight juveniles fitted with transmitters died while I tracked them in October and November. The remains of another juvenile (unbanded) was found during a search of alpine habitat three kilometers west of the study area. Death was attributed to raptor predation and may have occurred several days prior to its discovery on 8 November. Examination of primary feathers indicated that it was probably a female. Excluding the chick which failed to leave the nest and .the two road kills, all mortalities (both years) of juveniles were attributed to predation. All but one were due to raptor predation. Although raptors, especially the prairie falcon, are common on the alpine during the summer and fall (Braun and Rogers 1971, Marti and Braun 1975) the proportion of predation attributed to them may be biased. Fresh raptor kills are often easy to locate as feathers are widely scattered at the kill site. Mammalian predation is more difficult to detect, thus its occurrence may be under represented. Possible causes of mortality were documented in two other chicks. On 14 July 1976 I located female G84 with a brood of six chicks approximately six days old. All chicks were captured, banded, weighed and measured (carpal length). Five chicks had weights between 26 and 28 grams with the remaining chick weighing 18 grams. The carpal measurements of the five larger chicks ranged from 45 to 47 millimeters; the carpal measurement of the smaller chick was 39 mm. It is possible that the chick was adopted from another hen and was younger, but this was not likely based on the age �-121- of the brood. No adoption was observed in broods less than two weeks of age. After release the smaller chick was observed and it appeared to have difficulty in keeping up with the remainder of the brood. Even though female G84 was never sighted again (presumably depredated) the five larger chicks were later observed as parts of two other broods. The smaller chick was never seen again. Although the smaller chick did not appear to be injured, it appeared to be physically defective. It may have had internal injuries or genetic deformities which were not detected. As previously mentioned, one chick of brood G97 appeared to have a leg injury when seen on 21 September. Both chicks in the brood had been captured on 18 September and were in good condition. The injured chick was captured on 21 September and examined. No injuries were noted, even though the legs were carefully examined. When released the chick continued to limp but was able to follow the hen. I relocated the brood the next day (22 September) but the injured chick was not seen. However, it was later observed on a wintering area. Weather may be a possible mortality factor, especially immediately after hatch and again in fall and winter. Observations of ptarmigan chicks immediately after hatch indicated that inclement weather did not appear to bother them. Although they were brooded a large proportion of the time, they did feed periodically. Theberge and West (1973) did not feel that inclement weather decreased survival of young rock ptarmigan chicks. Zwickel (1967) observed blue grouse chicks after hatch and also concluded that weather did not seem to increase mortality. Dispersal Movements to Summer Habitat During the first few days following hatch broods often remained within a few hundred meters of their nest site. Within a few weeks successful hens with their broods began arriving at traditional summering areas where they remained until brood dispersal or fall snowstorms. Braun (1969) described summer brood areas as being high, rocky and frequently windswept ridges. Rocks over 30 cm diameter often comprised over 50 percent of the ground cover, while late lying snowfields were present in protected areas. The vegetation was dominated by sedges (farex spp.) with Geum rossii, Polygonum spp. and Trifolium spp. present in varying amounts. These four groups of plants provided the majority of food utilized by both hens and chicks (May and Braun 1972, May 1975). Movements between nest site and center of brood ranges for seven hens whose nest sites were located (4 in 1975, 3 in 1976) averaged 350 m. Movements between breeding territories and brood ranges for 22 other successful hens (11 in 1975, 11 in 1976) ranged from zero to 3,300 m. No movements greater than 600 m were observed in 1975 while the average movement to brood range in 1976 was 1,052 m. Possibly the drier conditions in 1976 were responsible for longer movements to suitable summer habitat. Braun (1969) observed an average movement of less than 600 m for successful hens, while Schmidt (1969) documented one movement of 1,400 m in four days for one ~uccessfu1 hen. �-122- Movements Within Brood Home Range Once broods became established on suitable summer habitat their movements became localized until fall dispersal or early snowstorms caused downslope movements into more protected areas. Occasionally brood habitat became unsuitable due to drying which then caused broods to seek areas where moisture was present. Four major brood concentration areas were located within the study area. The concentration area at Toll Memorial was studied most intensively while brood concentration areas at Medicine Bow Curve, Iceberg Lake and Sundance Mountain were studied less. Movements within a brood concentration area were recorded using extensive daytime observations (up to 10 consecutive hours) and by plotting consecutive observations on a topographic map for later measurement. Radio telemetry locations were not used unless the brood was sighted, since topography of the area prevented exact location by triangulation of radio signals. Individual broods were located an average of 7.2 times during the summer in 1975 and 5.5 times in 1976 (6.1 overall). Some broods were only observed once (many of these hens lost their broods early) while others were observed up to 34 times. Brood home ranges were calculated for broods observed a minimum of ten days since home range size tends to increase with the number of observations (Odum and Kuenzler 1955). Brood home range was calculated for 9 broods (3 in 1975, 6 in 1976) and averaged 15.4 hectares (range 3-32 ha). It is interesting to note that both extremes in home range size occurred at the same area (Toll Memorial) and that both hens involved adopted chicks from other hens by early August. Movements within summering areas were estimated by measuring distances between consecutive observations of marked broods. In 1975 broods were located an average of 252 m from the previous observation while in 1976 this distance was 211 m. For all broods observed more than ten times during the summer (3 broods in 1975, 6 broods in 1976) the average distance between consecutive locations averaged 144 m in 1975 and 161 m in 1976. In order to obtain information on daily movements, selected broods were intensively observed periodically throughout the summer. These observations indicated that young broods moved little, while broods over four weeks of age moved longer distances. Daily movements were often circular or elliptical routes which were similar from one day to the next. These routes were traveled several times each day. Individual broods varied in their daily movements, most likely in response to weather and the distribution and availability of resources, especially food. Brood G84 often moved 800 to 1,600 m per day while broods BW5, BW16, G85 and G86 seldom traveled over 400 m per day. Brood Breakup Brood breakup began gradually after chicks reached eight weeks of age. Brood m~x~ng or brood shuffling occurred earlier due to death of brood hens or because of close association of two hens on brood areas. Brood �-123- breakup was gradual until the first severe fall snowstorm which appeared to increase its incidence. Not all broods broke up in fall as at least three hens (G34, G76 and BW27) maintained intact broods until late November 1975. The incidence of brood breakup was reflected in banding records. Prior to 1 October 1975, 59 juvenile ptarmigan had been banded and at time of banding were associated with hens known or assumed to be their parent. Between 1 October and 1 November 1975, 24 juveniles were banded of which 6 (25 percent) were with hens assumed to be their parent. During November an additional 12 chicks were banded and none was associated with a hen assumed to be its parent. Banding data for 1976 were similar. Prior to 1 October, 88 chicks were banded and only three were with a hen not assumed to be its parent. Between 1 October and 18 December 1976, 33 chicks were banded and only one was with a hen assumed to be its parent. Braun (pers. comm.) suggested that juvenile females dispersed greatest distances in fall. This was supported by banding data from this study. Combined data from both years show that 51.3 percent (60 of 117) of juveniles banded were females. Sixty-one percent (22) of the chicks banded between 1 October and 30 November 1975 were females and 67 percent (22) of the chicks banded between 1 October and 18 December 1976 were females. Since most chicks which hatched on the study area were banded prior to 1 October, chicks banded after that date were assumed. to have dispersed onto the study area. No specific causes of brood breakup were discovered. Individual broods were observed up to ten consecutive hours in September and early October 1975 in an attempt to understand factors responsible for breakup. Aggressive behaviors between hen and brood were not observed, nor was aggression shown between chicks of the same brood or among chicks of different broods. Many hens continued to respond to chick distress calls until early October, long after brood breakup began. Since timing of brood breakup was variable among broods there may be other behavioral or genetic factors responsible. These factors may be associated with weather (snowstorms) or other stimuli in the environment. Fall Dispersal Movements of juvenile ptarmigan between brood breakup and establishment on a wintering area may be one of three types: (1) daily movements associated with feeding and other maintenance activities, (2) dispersal movements, and (3) migration to a wintering site. The latter two types of movement are difficult to distinguish and it is likely that a series of dispersal movements result in migration to the wintering area. Hoffman and Braun (1975) recorded movements between breeding or summering areas and wintering sites but did not examine movements within the fall period. Also, their data were on adults and yearlings, mainly females, and represented migration rather than true dispersal. In this study dispersal movements were defined as any movement of at least one kilometer occurring during or after brood breakup. The distance �-124- (1 km) is arbitrary but was selected since most fall use areas were separated by a minimum of one kilometer. Movements of less than one kilometer were common and occurred during daily maintenance activities. Also, movements greater than one kilometer usually resulted in the individual abandoning one flock and associating with another. Few data concerning dispersal movements were obtained in 1975. Although most chicks which hatched on the study area were banded it was difficult to identify individuals without recapturing them. Recapture was difficult since fall flocks often flushed before a capture attempt could be made. Other birds, especially those which had been captured several times previously, were wary of the noose and were difficult to capture. Limited data indicated juveniles dispersed up to 3,900 m but all observations were on the study area and no attempt was made to locate juveniles moving off the study area. Fall dispersal data were less biased in 1976 as most juveniles were identifiable without capture and alpine areas adjacent to Trail Ridge were searched. Also, in mid-August 31 chicks outside the study area were banded. Some of these individuals later passed through the study area and provided important data on timing, direction and distance of dispersal. Nine juveniles were marked with miniature radio transmitters in October 1976 (Table 2) which facilitated location of individuals dispersing off the study area. Table 2. in 1976. Radio tracking data for nine juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan Band Number Sex Capture Date Days Transmitting P98 Male 8 October 21 days transmitter failure P88 Female 8 October 31 days transmitter failure P64 Male 8 October 4 days killed by raptor P67 Female 8 October 1/ 31 days- moved out of range P82 Male 8 October 4 days lost transmitter P65 Female 9 October 42 days transmitter failure P56 Female 9 October 30 days transmitter failure P58 Female 22 October 1/ 18 days- moved out of range P73 Male 23 October 15 days transmitter Cause of Transmission Termination . -l/M"1n1mum number of days before bird moved out of range. failure �-125- Fall movements were recorded for 74 juvenile ptarmigan (32 males, 42 females) in 1976 (Table 3). There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between males and females in average distance moved between consecutive observations although females tended to move greater distances (Figure 2). Fall dispersal movements (~1.0 km) were recorded for 60 juvenile ptarmigan (25 males, 35 females) in 1976 with 53.3 percent having more than one dispersal movement. Dispersal movements (n = 68) of juvenile females were significantly (P < 0.05) longer than dispersal movements (n = 53) of juvenile males. The mean dispersal movement of juvenile females was 3,025 m while it was 2,306 m for juvenile males (Figure 3). When an average dispersal distance was calculated for each individual with more than one dispersal movement, juvenile females had significantly (P < 0.05) longer average dispersal movements than males (3,067 m and 2,354 m, respectively) (Figure 4). Distance of dispersal movements did not appear to be normally distributed; this may reflect a genetic variability for dispersal or it may be due to biased search efforts and uneven distribution of suitable habitats. Females comprised 56.8 percent (42 of 74) of all juveniles identified in the fall and accounted for 56.2 percent (68 of 121) of all dispersal movements. Thus the average number of dispersal movements between sexes was approximately equal with juvenile females dispersing greater distances than males. Table 3. Fall movements of juvenile white-tailed Mountain National Park, 1976. ptarmigan in Rocky S.D.17 Number Female Mean!? S.D 1519 1147 42 1792 1571 53 2306 1349 68 3025 1948 Individual average dispersal 25 2354 1125 35 3067 1377 Summer to winter 6 3467 2039 9 5089 1999 Number Male Meanl} 32 Total dispersal Movement Individual -lID'lstance fall average !} e • . .me ters. ln Most dispersal movements were along the southeast-northwest axis of the Trail Ridge study area (Figure 5) indicating that ptarmigan preferred to move along areas of continuous alpine habitat. Several exceptions were noted. Most movements to the southwest were by individuals moving from Fall River to the Divide Range between Mt. Ida and Sheep Rock. This route is characterized by short Krummholz or alpine. Several juveniles �-126- -1--1--1- (42 ) (32) Males Figure 2. Females Individual average fall movements of juvenile white -tailed ptarmigan. Vertical line,· range; horizontal line, mean; vertical bar, standard deviation. Sample sizes are in parenthesis. �-127- 10 9 4(68) (53) 2 o~----------------------------------------Males Figure 3. Females Dispersal movements of male and female juvenile white. tailed ptarmigan. Vertical line, range; horizontal line, mean; vertical bar, standard deviation. Sample sizes are in parenthesis. �-128- 10 98 7 6 5 4 ( 35) 3 2 1 o~--------------------------------------Males Figure 4. Females Individual average dispersal movements tailed ptarmigan. Vertical line, range; mean; vertical bar, standard deviation. in parenthesis. of juvenile whitehorizontal line, Sample sizes are �-129- apparently flew north-northeast between Toll Memorial and Mt. Chapin and three radio-marked ptarmigan flew southwest from Tombstone Ridge to Sprague Pass. These latter birds had to fly three to four kilometers across Forest Canyon to reach the nearest alpine. Although search efforts may be biased it appeared that ptarmigan usually dispersed along areas of continuous alpine habitat although they were capable of flying across several kilometers of subalpine forest to reach other suitable alpine areas. Summer to Winter Movements The vegetative and environmental factors characteristic of white-tailed ptarmigan wintering areas in Colorado have been described by Braun (1969, 1971), Braun and Schmidt (1971), Hoffman and Braun (1975), and Braun et al. (1976). Segregation of sexes usually occurs in winter flocks of ptarmigan, with males utilizing higher, more windswept areas, while females prefer lower areas at or below treeline. Abundance and availability of willow is a prime consideration, as the buds and twig tips of willow comprise over 90 percent of the winter diet of ptarmigan in Colorado (May and Braun 1972). This study was not designed to monitor winter populations of ptarmigan. Due to lack of intensive effort and inaccessibility of the study area, relatively few observations of ptarmigan were made in winter. In 1975, 16 juvenile ptarmigan were identified on wintering areas with 12 having been previously marked (8 in summer, 4 in fall). Average distance moved between summer habitat and winter sites for these 8 ptarmigan was 1.37 km. Few conclusions can be based on these data since all but two observations were made at the one wintering site (Sundance Mountain Basin) most accessible in winter. Also, four of the individuals observed belonged to the same brood (G76) which remained intact until late November. In 1976 movements between summer areas and wintering sites were documented for 15 marked juveniles (6 males, 9 females). There was no significant difference between sexes (Mann-Whitney U-test, T ~ 0.05) in distances moved, but this may reflect the small sample and uneven search effort. Juvenile males migrated an average of 3,467 m to wintering areas, while juvenile females averaged 5,089 m (Figure 6). The combined mean movement was 4,440 m (median 4,700 m). Only one male (P87) migrated over 5,000 m, whereas six of nine females exceeded that distance. One possible source of error lies in the accuracy in sexing juveniles. No field technique has been devised to sex juvenile ptarmigan externally with 100 percent accuracy. The best technique relies on measurement of carpal and primary feather length along with pigmentation of the eyestripe. Once primaries are completely grown (18 weeks) this technique is approximately 95 percent reliable. Most chicks were sexed at initial capture and with every recapture, however, few marked chicks were captured in winter after primaries were fully grown. It is suspected that migration distances of juveniles, especially juvenile females, were grossly underestimated. Alpine areas greater than 10 km from the study area were not searched although fall movements exceeding 10 km have been documented for juvenile females (Hoffman 1974). Little is �-l30- N s Figure 5. Distance and direction of dispersal rnovernents of juvenile white-tailed pta rrnigan, Open circles represent rrra Ies; closed circles. Ierna le s , Each concentric circle represents 1.0 KIn. �-131- o~------~-----------------------------Females Males Figure 6. Movements of juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan from summering areas to wintering sites. Vertical line, range; horizontal line, mean; vertical bar, standard deviation. Sample sizes are in parenthesis. �-132- known concerning movements of juveniles in winter and it is possible that they may move between several winter sites. This was indicated by one juvenile female, P8S, which was observed below Gore Turnout on 4 December 1976, and reobserved on 31 January 1977 in the Sundance Mountain Basin, 7.7 km east-southeast. The winter of 1976-77 was extremely dry and lack of adequate snow may have been a factor in this movement. DISCUSSION Mortality Mortality is often described as loss to a population. Mortality is defined here to include prehatch mortality (nest predation) as well as posthatch mortality, since both are important as potential factors influencing recruitment to a population. Since all female ptarmigan (yearlings and adults) are assumed to nest, the initial loss of potential recruitment occurs when a female fails to incubate a clutch to completion. The major factor is predation, as 52.4 percent of all nests located during this study were destroyed by predators. Renesting compensates for some of this loss as up to 30 percent of hens unsuccessful in their initial nesting attempt will renest. Adverse weather may affect nesting success by causing desertion, but it is more likely that late snowstorms increase nest predation. Another loss to production occurs when some eggs in successful nests fail to hatch. Fertility was found to be quite high (94.5 percent) as expected since white-tailed ptarmigan are monogamous and the male remains on the territory with the female until late in incubation. Not all fertile eggs hatch but observer interference may have caused some eggs to chill or become cracked. Overall, 80 to 90 percent of the eggs in successful nests hatch. Hypothetical production is summarized in Table 4. Specific causes of mortality in chicks during their initial two weeks of life were difficult to document. Either extrinsic or intrinsic factors may be responsible. Some possible extrinsic factors are weather, predation, food shortage or diseases (including parasites). Observation of young broods indicate they are not directly affected by inclement weather, nor did excessive brooding times appear to cause starvation. It does not appear that food shortage is a problem due to low densities of ptarmigan and the fact that broods are dispersed after hatching. There are few data concerning food habits of young (less than two weeks of age) grouse, but possible food items on the alpine (insects and plant material) do not appear to be lacking. Ptarmigan generally appear to be free of deleterious diseases or parasites (Haskins 1969, Stabler et al. 1974) although young chicks have not been sufficiently tested. Predators, both mammalian (weasels and coyotes, Canis latrans) and avian (prairie falcon), are common on the alpine but there is an array of prey items. Zwickel (1965) hatched blue grouse eggs and raised the chicks in captivity and found that mortality of aviary chicks was equal to that of wild chicks which indicated that extrinsic mortality factors may be unimportant. Theberge (1971) noted high mortality (> 40 percent) in rock ptarmigan chicks in �-133- both wild and various aviary situations. Since successful hens move their broods to suitable summer habitat within two weeks of hatch it is possible that mortality occurs during this movement as young chicks may have difficulty in traveling long distances. However, when proportion of chicks lost was compared to distance moved no correlation was detected. If intrinsic factors are responsible they should be passed on through the hen. These factors are likely behavioral rather than physical attributes as only one chick of over 50 handled soon after hatch was physically inferior (using weight and size as criteria). If mortality is due to behavioral differences (responses to the hen) it seems likely that most mortality would be clumped within the first two weeks rather than being distributed over the entire summer. Table 4. Hypothetical 100 females. production of white-tailed ptarmigan chicks per Calculations Change Net Result Initial laying 100 hens x 5.6 eggs +560 560 Nest predation 100 hens x -60%·!/ x 5.6 eggs -336 224 Renesting 60 hens x 30%~1 x 4.0 eggs +72 296 Egg infertility 296 x -2% -6 290 Embryonic mortality 290 x -6% -17 273 Chick mortality 1 September 273 x -32% -87 186 Situation to I ... 1 nests. -lIE· stlmate d pre dat atl0n rate on lnltla 21 - Percent of unsuccessful females renesting successfully. Individual hens occasionally lost their entire brood but the usual occurrence was for each hen to lose approximately one-third of her brood. If intrinsic factors are responsible it would be expected that unfit chicks would quickly be lost from the population and each hen would possess a characteristic brood survival rate. Twenty-four hens identified in 1975 were reobserved in 1976 with 75 percent (18) being observed during the brood season each year. Five were successful both years, five were unsuccessful each year and eight were successful only one year (Table 5). Data for the five hens which were successful both years show that brood size for each hen differed between years (Table 6), although differences �-134- Table 5. Nesting success of white-tailed both years (1975 and 1976). Hen 1975 ptarmigan hens observed 1976 BWl Successful Successful BW5 Successful Successful BW26 Unknown Unsuccessful BW27 Successful Unsuccessful BW36 Unsuccessful Unsuccessful BW46 Unknown Unknown BW53 Successful Unsuccessful BW54 Unsuccessful Successful G3 Successful Unsuccessful G16 Unsuccessful Unsuccessful G30 Unsuccessful Successful G37 Unsuccessful Unsuccessful G39 Unsuccessful Unsuccessful G49 Successful Successful G56 Successful Unkown G72 Unknown Successful G76 Successful Unsuccessful G84 Successful Successful G86 Successful Unknown G96 Successful Unsuccessful G97 Unsuccessful Successful G99 Successful Successful Yll Unknown Unknown Y25 Unsuccessful Unsuccessful �-135- Table 6. Comparative brood size of white-tailed observed both years (1975 and 1976). ptarmigan hens Brood Siz~/ Hen 1975 1976 BWI 6 1 BW5 2 3 G49 4 2 G84 4 5 G99 2 5 1/ - Brood size in late August. were great in only two hens (BWl, G99). Intrinsic factors affecting juvenile mortality may be caused by annual variations in quality of vegetation consumed by females prior to laying. Quality of vegetation depends on several factors including weather. Thus it is possible that annual variations in winter and spring weather may ultimately determine chick survival (Jenkins et al. 1963). Mortality in older chicks was uncommon until dispersal. During dispersal at least two juveniles died due to predation. No other juvenile mortality was documented so it is difficult to estimate rate or causes of mortality during fall dispersal. However, my first hypothesis, that mortality of juveniles is predator-dependent to 1 October and weather-dependent from 1 October to 1 November, is not supported by data cQllected during this study. Dispersal Although animal movements are relatively easy to document, little is known about the effects of movement, especially dispersal, on populations, and less is known about mechanisms responsible for dispersal movements. Dispersal is important for understanding population regulation since it is a major factor, along with recruitment and mortality, in determining population size. Keppie (1975) studied a non-migratory population of spruce grouse and determined that dispersal occurred both in fall and in spring, and that spring dispersal was a proximate factor regulating breeding densities. Dispersal also functions as a mechanism of gene flow in a population and dispersal of juvenile females may be responsible for retaining genetic variability within a population. �-136- No specific factors causing brood breakup or dispersal were identified in this study. Brood breakup occurred gradually once chicks reached eight weeks of age and preceded dispersal. This same sequence of fall behavior has been observed in juvenile ruffed grouse (Godfrey and Marshall 1969). Intensive observations of broods during brood breakup and dispersal failed to support my second hypothesis that agression among chicks or between hen and brood was responsible for brood breakup. Weather may facilitate brood breakup and dispersal since fall snowstorms cause flocking in protected areas. Snow cover also affords protection to dispersing individuals. Other behavioral factors may be involved in brood breakup since all chicks within a brood usually abandon the hen (or vice versa) wihtin a few days. However, there was great variation in timing of brood breakup among different hens on the same area. Although age of chick was one factor in brood breakup, other factors, thought to be intrinsic, may have been involved and are not understood. The incidence of dispersal as reflected in banding records and observations of juvenile ptarmigan indicates that all dispersing individuals (n = 89) were a minimum of eight weeks of age with most being 10 to 16 weeks of age. Thus I accept my third hypothesis that timing of dispersal is age dependent and does not occur until chicks are at least eight weeks of age. I also fail to reject my fourth hypothesis, that direction of dispersal is non-random. Data presented indicate that dispersing juveniles moved along continuous alpine habitat regardless of compass direction. Data presented in Figure 5 indicate dispersal movements exceeding 3.0 km were more random with respect to direction. Dispersal movements were limited in the northeast quadrat but this may reflect uneven search effort. SUMMARY Intensive studies of timing and causes of mortality and fall dispersal in juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan were carried out along Trail Ridge Road and adjacent alpine areas in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Data were collected from May 1975 to January 1977. Observations of 49 individual broods showed a 32 percent loss of chicks during the initial two weeks following hatch with little additional mortality observed until brood breakup. Observed mortalities were primarily due to predation, most often raptors. Road kills and injuries accounted for additional known mortalities. Two hundred eighty-five brood observations made between hatch and brood breakup indicated broods were relatively sedentary on summer range. Daily movements of broods ranged from 400 to 1,600 m within a three to 32 hectare home range. Drying of alpine vegetation in late summer resulted in increased brood movements. Intensive observations of individual broods during brood breakup in September and October indicated that brood breakup was gradual once chicks reached �-137- eight weeks of age. There was no evidence that aggression between hen and chicks or among chicks caused breakup of broods. Dispersal followed brood breakup and was documented for 35 juvenile females and 25 juvenile males. Juvenile females dispersed significantly (P < 0.05) greater distances than juvenile males. Dispersing individuals moved along continuous alpine habitat rather than dispersing in random directions. Mortality of dispersing juveniles was light with two instances of raptor mortality being documented. Movements between brood range and wintering areas were documented for nine juvenile females and six juvenile males in 1976. Juvenile females averaged longer movements to wintering sites than juvenile males (3,467 versus 5,089 m). One juvenile female moved 7.7 km between December 1976 and January 1977 indicating that some juvenile ptarmigan are mobile throughout winter. LITERATURE CITED Bowman, T. J., and R. J. Robel. 1977. Brood break-up, dispersal, mobility, and mortality of juvenile prairie chickens. J. Wildl. Manage. 41(1): 27-34. Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Fort Collins. 189 pp. and movements of whiteColorado State University, 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed West. Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. ptarmigan. Proc. _____ , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. 27. 80 pp. _____ , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Pages 238-250 in A. O. Haugen, ed. Proc. Snow and Ice Symposium. Iowa Coop. Wildl-.Res. Unit, Iowa State University, Ames. 280 pp. _____ , R. W. Hoffman, and G. E. Rogers. 1976. Wintering areas and winter ecology of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colorado Div. Wildl. Spec. Rept. No. 38. 38 pp. _____ , R. K. Schmidt, and G. E. Rogers. tailed ptarmigan with tape recorded 1973. Census of Colorado J. Wildl. Manage. calls. Bray, O. E., and G. W. Corner. 1972. A tail clip for attaching to birds. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(2):640-642. Bump, G., R. W. Darrow, F. C. Edminster, and W. P. Crissey. ruffed grouse; life history, propagation, management. Dept., Hilling Press, Inc., Buffalo. 915 pp. Chambers, R. E., and W. M. Sharp. population of ruffed grouse. white37(1):90-93. transmitters 1947. The New York Conserve 1958. Movement and dispersal within J. Wildl. Manage. 22(3):231-239. a �-138- Choate, T. S. 1960. Observations on the reproductive activities of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Glacier Park, Montana. M.S. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula. 113 pp. 1963. Ecology and population dynamics of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) in Glacier Park, Montana. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 205 pp. Eddleman, L. E. 1967. A study of the phyto-edaphic relationships in alpine tundra of northern Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 148 pp. Ellison, L. N. 1973. Seasonal social organization spruce grouse. Condor 75(4):375-385. and movements of Godfrey, G. A. 1975. Home range characteristics of ruffed grouse broods in Minnesota. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):287-298. ----- , and W. H. Marshall. grouse. 1969. Brood-breakup J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):609-620. and dispersal of ruffed Gullion, G. W., and W. H. Marshall. 1968. Survival of ruffed grouse in a boreal forest. Living Bird 7:117-167. Hale, J. B., and R. S. Dorney. 1963. Seasonal movements of ruffed grouse in Wisconsin. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):648-656. Haskins, A. G. 1969. Endoparasites of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) from Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 147 pp. Hoffman, R. W. 1974. Characteristics and migration of wintering populations of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 58 pp. ----- , and C. E. Braun. white-tailed 1975. Migration ptarmigan in Colorado. of a wintering population of J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3):485-490. Jenkins, D., A. Watson, and G. R. Miller. 1963. Population studies of red grouse in northeast Scotland. J. Animal Ecol. 32(2):317-376. Judson, A. 1965. The weather and climate of a high mountain pass in the Colorado Rockies. U.S. Forest Servo Res. Paper RM-16. 28 pp. Keppie, D. M. 1975. Dispersal, overwinter mortality, and population size of spruce grouse (Canachites canadensis franklinii). Ph.D. Thesis. University of Alberta, Edmonton. 121 pp. Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the east slope of the Front Range in Colorado. University of Colorado Studies, Ser. BioI. 8. 134 pp. 1967. Data on mountain environments. I. Front Range, Colorado, sixteen sites, 1952-53. University of Colorado Studies, Ser. BioI. 27. 110 pp. �-139- Marti, C. D., and C. E. Braun. 1975. Use of tundra habitats by prairie falcons in Colorado. Condor 77(2):213-214. May, T. A. 1975. Physiological ecology of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder. 311 pp. _____ , and C. E. Braun. 1972. Seasonal foods of adult white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1180-1186. Odum, E. P., and E. J. Kuenzler. 1955. Measurement home range size in birds. Auk 72(1):128-137. of territory and Quam, L. O. 1938. The morphology of landscape of the Estes Park area, Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts. Robel, R. J., J. N. Briggs, J. J. Cebula, N. J. Silvy, C. E. Viers, and P. G. Watt. 1970. Greater prairie chicken ranges, movements, and habitat usage in Kansas. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2):286-306. Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 174 pp. Stabler, R. M., N. J. Kitzmiller, and C. E. Braun. 1974. Hematozoa Colorado birds. IV. Galliformes. J. Parasitol. 60(3):536-537. Stiven, A. E. 1969. Food energy available grouse chick. Ecology 42(3):547-553. from for and required by the blue Theberge, J. B. 1971. Population fluctuations and changes in the quality of rock ptarmigan in Alaska. Ph.D. Thesis. University of British Columbia, Vancouver. 186 pp. _____ , and G. C. West. 1973. Significance of brooding to the energy demands of Alaskan rock ptarmigan chicks. Arctic 26(2}:138-l48. Wallestad, R. O. 1971. in central Montana. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse J. Wildl. Manage. 35(1) :129-136. Weimer, R. J., and J. D. Haun (eds). 1960. Guide to the geology of Colorado. Geol. Soc. Am., Rocky Mountain Assoc. Geol., Colorado Sci. Soc., Denver. 310 pp. Willard, B. E. 1963. Phytosociology of the alpine tundra of Trail Ph.D. Thesis. Ridge, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. University of Colorado, Boulder. 245 pp. W'1ng, L ., J • B eer, an d W . T'd 1 yman. 1944 . of blue grouse. Auk 61(3):426-444. Brood habits and growth Zwickel, F. C. 1965. Early mortality and the numbers of blue grouse. Ph.D. Thesis. University of British Columbia, Vancouver. 153 pp. 165 pp. �-140- 1967. Some observations of weather and brood behavior grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 31(3):563-568. in blue --- , and J. F. Bendell. of numbers 1967a. Early mortality and the regulation in blue grouse. Can. J. Zool. 45(4):817-851. ____ , and Manage. 1967b. A snare for capturing 31(1):202-204. blue grouse. J. Wildl. ___ , I. O. Buss, and J. H. Brigham. 1968. Autumn movements grouse and their relevance to populations and management. Manage. 32(3):456-468. of blue J. Wildl. Prepared by _~~_~~~~~~.~~~~~.~~~~~ _ Kenneth M. Giesen Graduate Research Assistant Approved by _:---!:a:::::..::...:::~~·_J._.---,-g=~= Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �April, -141- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-30 Work Plan No. 17 Job Title Evaluation of White-tailed Period Covered: Personnel: 1977 Job No. Ptarmigan 6 ---------------------------Introductions to Pikes Peak April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 George Bock, Clait Braun, Frank Colley, Marcus Elkins, Howard Funk, Kenneth Giesen, Richard Hoffman, James Kitzmiller, Thomas Lytle, James Morris, and Walter Larrick. ABSTRACT Division of Wildlife personnel concluded after 3 days of intensive searching in May 1974 that no breeding population of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) ,was present on Pikes Peak, but preliminary habitat investigations suggested the area could potentially support a small population. The initial work of trapping and transplanting was completed in 1975~ Six pairs were released in June followed by another release of 9 males, 7 females, and 12 chicks in September. Both a spring breeding census (May) and summer brood survey (August) were conducted in 1976. The breeding population consisted of 7 pairs and 4 unmated males. One bird (I-female) was unbanded indicating this bird either moved to the area from elsewhere or represents production from one of the spring released hens. Spring released birds exhibited a high fidelity to their release sites (maximum movement = 1.0 km) while fall released birds dispersed the greatest distances (maximum movement = 3.4 km). Overall survival was 50 percent. As expected, chicks had the lowest survival rate (25%) and males the highest (80%), but fewer ~emales survived (38%) than expected. Because of the greater mobility of females and chicks and the limited size of the Pikes Peak area, most losses of females and chicks were contributed to dispersal off the area rather than mortality resulting on the area. Only 3 of 7 hens (2 unsuc~essful and 1 successful hen with 3 chicks) observed on territories were accounted for during the brood census. The other 4 hens were probably unsuccessful and went undetected. Based on the hens found, nesting success was 33 percent. However, if the latter assumption is true, then nesting success was only 14 percent. The poor production was attributed to a lack of suitable brood habitat. Unless some successful hens escaped detection, it is anticipated that recruitment into the population will be inadequate to replace natural losses. �-142- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Continued efforts should be made in 1977 to conduct breeding production surveys on Pikes Peak. and 2. It is recommended that no further transplants to the Pikes Peak area. 3. It is recommended that the data obtained in this study be turned over to management after the 1977 field season for future monitoring of the population. 4. Information concerning the introduction of ptarmigan to Pikes Peak should be made available in form of a popular article and special report. of ptarmigan be made �-143- EVALUATION OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN INTRODUCTIONS TO PIKES PEAK Richard W. Hoffman Guidelines for introdu~ing ptarmigan into unoccupied habitats have been developed, but virtually nothing is known concerning what happens following introduction or whether the guidelines are adequate. Removal studies have provided information on the natural repopulation of previously occupied areas (Braun 1975). However, because prior transplants were made to other states (Oregon, California, and Utah), circumstances have not permitted evaluation of introductions into new habitat. The Pikes Peak introduction represents the first opportunity within Colorado to conduct followup studies. Whether or not white-tailed ptarmigan ever occurred on Pikes Peak is uncertain. Aiken and Warren (1914) and Knorr (1959), in studying the avifauna of El Paso County, noted the absence of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak and reported there is no authentic record of this alpine grouse occurring in the county. No reference is made to ptarmigan on Pikes Peak in early distributional records summarized by Sclater (1912) and more recently by Bailey and Niedrach (1965). Occasional sightings of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak have been reported, but most observations were by tourist types or novice bird watchers and the validity of such sightings are questionable and/or unconfirmed. Many of the sightings that were followed-up turned out to be blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus). Although the total absence of this species on Pikes Peak cannot be completely ruled out, there is strong evidence suggesting the absence of a breeding population and only circumstantial evidence that ptarmigan might be a rare visitor to the region. This is not difficult to understand, as the Pikes Peak area is a geographically and ecologically isolated alpine range approximately 60 to 80 km (40 to 50 mi) from the nearest occupied range. Even during periods of glaciation, access routes to the Pikes Peak region probably never existed. P.N.O. OBJECTIVES Major objectives of this study are to: (1) evaluate the success or ,failure of transplanted ptarmigan to establish a breeding population on Pikes Peak, (2) ascertain if the distance of Pikes Peak from other occupied habitats prevented males (but not females) from reaching the area and consequently establishing a breeding population, (3) identify critical deficiencies in the habitat (including minimum size) whigh might contribute to a failure of ptarmigan to establish a breeding population, (4) evaluate the adequacy of existing guidelines for ptarmigan introductions, possibly improve upon them and/or develop additional guidelines, and (5) increase knowledge available on the pioneering abilities of ptarmigan. �-144- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. Review pertinent literature and interview selected individuals order to learn the past status of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak. lb. Ascertain present status of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak by field reconnaissance using developed techniques for locating and/or determining the presence of ptarmigan during the peak period of breeding activity. 2. Review and compare weather data and vegetative descriptions of the Pikes Peak area with other selected alpine areas in Colorado inhabited by ptarmigan. 3. Search all suitable breeding, brood rearing, and summering habitat, and keep records by date, location and vegetative type where ptarmigan are observed. Trap and band all unmarked birds. 4. Estimate breeding population levels of ptarmigan established census techniques. 5. Estimate nesting 6. Compile data, analyze success and production results, METHODS in on Pikes Peak through of ptarmigan and prepare progress on Pikes Peak. report. AND MATERIALS Status of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak prior to the introduction was ascertained by (1) field reconnaissance, (2) review of avifauna records, and (3) personal communications with Division of Wildlife personnel and other persons acquainted with the area. Evaluation of the habitat in terms of the suitability for ptarmigan was based on the habitat requirements of the species as presented by Braun (1971). Using data from earlier studies (Whitfield 1933; Buechner, unpubl.) along with information collected in this study, vegetative types were described according to procedures outlined by Braun (1969). Plant nomenclature follows Weber (1972). Transplant procedures follow established guidelines set forth by Braun (1975). Cl·imatological data were obtained from Whitfield (1933), U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (1920-1934), Marr (1961), and Marr et ale (1968a and b). Both a spring breeding census (May-June) and summer brood survey (AugustSeptember) were conducted in 1976. The techniques employed for locating ptarmigan have already been described (Braun et ale 1973), along with efficient trapping and identification procedures (Braun and Rogers 1971). Attempts were made to identify all marked birds and to capture and band any unmarked individuals. Each sighting was recorded at the time on standardized observation cards, and locations were plotted on 7.5 minute U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps. Most of the Pikes Peak region was traversed in order to determine the distribution of the introduced birds and to delineate potential seasonal use sites. All areas appearing suitable for use by ptarmigan were outlined on U.S.G.S. topographic maps and subsequently planimetered to estimate the amount of habitat available. �-145- DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA The Pikes Peak region lies in the east-central part of Colorado along the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains at approximately 38030" north 0 latitude and 106 west longitude. It is included within the Pike National Forest in portions of El Paso and Teller counties (T14S, R68 and 69W, and T15S, R69W) and represents the eastern most extension of alpine range in the ~tate. 2Total area that can be classified as alpine includes about 392km (l~ mi ); however, the area under investigation encompasses 23 km (9 mi ) (Fig. 1). Location of the Pikes Peak area in relation to ptarmigan distribution and alpine range in Colorado is shown in Figure 2. Geologically, Pikes Peak is similar to much of the alpine area in Colorado. The core of the front range in this area consists mainly of the Pikes Peak granite, a natural, intrusive, igneous rock that was forced through the overlying sedimentary rock during the Laramide Revolution. Most of the sedimentary rock has since been eroded away, leaving the granite exposed (Koschmann 1956). Although the major rock type is granite, metamorphic rock such as schist, quartzite, and gneiss are present. With the exception of quartzite, soils developing from these rocks are productive and can be classified as coarse, loamy, and deep. However, some are occasionally shallow to bedrock. Soils termed by Nimlos and McConnell (1965) as alpine meadow and alpine bog types occur frequently in wet, poorly drained sites. Topography of the area is irregular, with elevations ranging from 3500 m (11,500 ft) at treeline to 4300 m (14,109 ft) on the summit of Pikes Peak. The study area lies on the southwest side of a ridge about 10 km (6 mi) long. The southwest side of the ridge has a moderate slope, and merges into a gently rolling upland. This is in striking contrast to the northeast side where glacial action has created a rugged precipice with steep walled cirques, rock heaps, and U-shaped valleys (Pearl 1964). Vegetation For descriptive purposes, the alpine region was divided into the low and high alpine. The low alpine contains many of the woody plants of the alpine zone, and lies approximately between timberline and 3811 m (12,500 ft). The conspicuous dominant of the low alpine is Salix spp., but krummholz communities alternately dominated by clumps of Picea engelmannii or bushes of Salix spp. are major vegetative components of the low alpine. Many of the drainage systems originating in the alpine have been blocked by glacial action resulting in extensive wet areas dominated by dense stands of Salix spp. These areas frequently extend from above treeline into the subalpine. Other plants locally abundant in the low alpine include: Pinus flexilis, Pinus aristata, Dryas octapetala, Pentaphylloides floribunda, Kobresia bellardii, and Carex spp. Further upslope, between the upper limits of the low alpine and the higher talus slopes and ridges, are the alpine meadows which are transitory sites between the low and high alpine. Salix spp. extend into the lower portions of the meadows, while rocky areas predominate along the upper portions. �I CO,_! -~ '"I"':~f' ,_., ~~__ J. NI,I"h. • I' / KEY o Foil Release Site t:: Spring Release Area . x TI rritory ~Spring Released Male, Mated Territory - Spring Released Male, Unmated • Territory - Fall Released Mole, Mated •••Territory~ Fall Released Mole, Unmated c Summer Flock ' Brood * iON i .~ I· ! j, '1 i i i~ '1' r A L """f~' , , \ , " " ' '-:.".", .'.~'. , ~ " ~ '.,' Sechett Mountai(\ ,: " -t N '\ .::.:.. -~ - --:-{:;,",'~~~ ,?g PIKES PEAK AREA Study Area Boundary Scale in Kilometers o 112 1 ~'~'~~/~····~~~~~-,.~j ./ ~/ j' ~; 32 .••• to' /l1".'7T(rIir ./ -\ Nu.s :\. Fig. 1. Pikes Peak study area showing release sites and locations of breeding territories, broods, and summer flocks. /1"",1U:/:c: '33,' �-FORT COLLINS ~ -CRAIG Ji -DENVER I -GRAND JUNCTION I-' +:""-l I ~ o - COLORADO SPRINGS .PIKES PEAK N GUNNISON - 1) SCALE IN KILOMETERS o, b -DURANGO fie? TRINIDAD Fig. 2. Location of the Pikes Peak area in relation to alpine range and ptarmigan distribution in Colorado. 50 100 I J �-148Most of the area is characterized by low growing vegetation classified as Kobresia-Carex-Geum and Kobresia-Carex alpine meadows. Deschampsia, Polygonum, Potentilla, Pedicularis and Hymenoxys are some of the other plants found throughout the meadows. The high alpine includes the steep slopes and ridge tops above 3,963 m (13,000 ft). The most obvious features of the high alpine are the abundance of rocky areas and the exceedingly low growing vegetation. Vegetative communities consist primarily of ~arex rock, Carex poa rock, and CarexGeum rock meadows, but Trifolium, Senecio, Kobresia, and Sedum are also present in certain areas. Large boulder fields are common throughout the area, especially at the higher elevations. Some have little or no vegetative cover. Similarly, many of the precipitous slopes in the northeast portion of the area are devoid of vegetation. Climate Recent weather data were lacking for the study area. Some recent data were available for subalpine sites near the study area, but the information was incomplete. Consequently, reference is made to data collected from 1920 to 1934 by the U. S. Forest Service, Fremont Experiment Station, at a treeline site approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) east of the study area (Table 1). Wind velocities are excluded from Table 1 because the data were recorded in mph of wind per day with no maximum, minimum or mean figures. Comparative data were obtained from long term climate investigations conducted by Marr et al. (1968a, 1968b) at Niwot Ridge (40003' N lat. and 105037'W long.) (Table 2). This site lies 120 km (75 mi) north of the study area along the Front Range. Although climatic data for the alpine are available from the studies by Marr et al. 1968a, 1968b) these data are not directly comparable with the treeline data collected near the study area. Therefore, the data presented in Table 2 also represent climatic conditions at treeline. It should be noted that alpine air temperatures are usually 2 to 70C (4 to l30F) lower than temperatures in the adjacent subalpine (Marr 1961). The amount of variation is dependent upon elevational extremes, with minimum temperatures showing the least difference (Marr 1961). Conversely, precipitation increases from the subalpine to the alpine, but the precise increment is unknown (Marr 1961). A detailed review of climatic studies in Colorado alpine areas and general descriptive information is presented by Braun and Rogers (1971). Climatic conditions in the alpine of Pikes Peak are similar to other alpine regions in the state, and can best be described as continental. Frequent extremes in wind velocities and temperature are common. Prevailing winds are westerly. The alpine spring is short, cool, and wet. Upslope easterly winds typically occur in the spring, and when accompanied by moisture, result in heavy, wet snowfalls (Marr 1961). Summers are short and cool to warm, with most precipitation occurring in the form of thunderstorms. Autumn is short, clear, dry, and mostly cold; however, extended periods of warm weather are not unusual. The winter is long, very cold, dry, and windy. Blizzards are frequent, but much of the moisture occurring in winter is ineffective because constant winds blow most of what fall as snow from exposed sites. �Table 1. Climatological data, Weather Bureau. Climatological Pikes Peak, 15-year average from 1920 to 1934 (U.S. Dept. Commerce, data, Colorado annual summaries). Month Temperature, Maximum Air °c (oF) Minimum January 15 (58) -24 (-11) - 4 (24) 3.22 (1.27) .05 ( .02) 1.01 ( .40) February 16 (60) -34 (-29) - 4 (25) 5.28 (2.08) .28 ( .11) 1.85 ( .73) March 16 (61) -26 (-14) - 3 (27) 11.81 (4.65) .99 ( .39) 4.19 (1.65) April 18 (65) -20 (- 3) 1 (34) 18.34 (7.22) 2.06 ( .81) 5.69 (2.24) May 23 (73) - 8 ( 17) 6 (43) 14 . 88 (5. 86) 2.26 ( .89) 7.14 (2.81) June 27 (80) - 2 ( 29) 12 (53) 20.75 (8.17) .96 ( .38) 6.35 (2.50) July 29 (83) o ( 32) 15 (58) 19.63 (7.73) 4.29 (1.69) 10.18 (4.01) Mean Precipitati~~ cm Water (in) Maximum Minimum Mean I I-' ~ ~ I August 27 (81) - 1 ( 31) 13 (56) 18.77 (7.39) 2.82 (1.11) 9.96 (3.92) September 26 (78) -12 ( 11) 11 (51) 6.45 (2.54) 1.17 ( .46) 3.17 (1. 25) October 23 (73) -15 ( 5) 5 (41) 12.70 (5.00) .05 ( .02) 3.02 (1.19) November 17 (62) -26 (-14) o (32) 8.69 (3.42) .33 ( .13) 2.46 ( .97) December 15 (58) -30 (-22) - 4 (25) 3.94 (1.55) .10 ( .04) 1. 55 ( ~61) Average 21 (69) -16 ( 4 (39) 12.04 (4.74) 1.28 (.50) 56.57 (22.28) 3) �Table 2. and b). Climatological data, Niwot Ridge, 11-year average from 1953 to 1964 (Marr et a1. 1968a Month TemEerature, Maximum o 0 Air C ( Minimum Mean PreciEitation, cm Water Maximum Minimum January 12 (54) -37 (-34) - 7 (19) 8.38 (3.30) 1.27 ( .50) 4.39 ( 1. 73) February 12 (53) -32 (-25) - 7 (19) 6.86 (2.70) 1.02 ( .40) 4.42 ( 1. 74) March 12 (54) -29 (-19) - 6 (21) 9.02 (3.55) 1.27 ( .50) 5.69 ( 2.24) April 17 (62) -18 (- 1) - 3 (27) 22.48 (8.85) 1.40 ( .55) 7.77 ( 3.06) May 21 (69) -16 ( 4) 4 (39) 18.54 (7.30) 3.68 (1.45) 8.43 ( 3.32) June 25 (77) - 7 ( 19) 9 (48) 9.40 (3.70) .25 ( .10) 5.46 ( 2.15) July 25 (77) - 2 ( 28) 12 (53) 9.75 (3.84) 3.61 (1.42) 6.70 ( 2.64) 6.83 ( 2.69 F2 (in) Mean I •..... V1 0 August 25 (77) - 3 ( 27) 11 (52) 18.11 (7.13) September 25 (76) -14 ( 7) 8 (46) 13.16 (5.18) .35 ( .14) 5.03 ( 1.98) October 18 (65) -16 ( 4) 4 (39) 6.35 (2.50) .51 ( .20) 2.79 ( 1.10) November 13 (55) -27 (-17) - 3 (27) 7.75 (3.05) 2.41 ( .95) 3.96 ( 1. 56) December 13 (55) -26 (-15) - 6 (22) 9.14 (3.60) .38 ( .15) 4.19 ( 1.65) Average 18 (64) -19 (- 1 (34) 11.58 (4.56) 1.48 ( .58) 65.66 (25.86) 2) 1. 65 ( .65) I �-151- Upon examination of Tables 1 and 2, it is apparent that warmer, drier conditions prevailed in the alpine regions of Pikes Peak as compared to Niwot Ridge. Monthly maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures near the study area averaged 30C (50F) warmer, while the average annual precipitation was 9.1 cm (3.6 in) less than the same estimate for Niwot Ridge. Forty seven percent of the annual precipitation (56.57 cm, 22.28 in) in the Pikes Peak area occurred from June to August (26.49 cm, 10.43 in) with fall through late winter (Sept. to Feb.) being the driest period (13.08 cm, 5.15 in). Only 29 percent of the annual precipitation (65.66 cm, 25.86 in) at Niwot Ridge fell from June to August (19.00 cm, 7.48 in) whereas over 10 cm (4 in) more precipitation accumulated from September through February (24.79 cm, 9.76 in). Spring was the wettest season at Niwot Ridge. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The initial work of trapping and transplanting ptarmigan to Pikes Peak was completed in 1975. Ptarmigan were trapped from 5 different areas in Colorado (Guanella Pass, Hagerman Pass, Weston Pass, Loveland Pass, and MOsquito Pass) to insure genetic diversity in the stock of transplanted birds. Two transplants (spring and fall) involving a total of 40 birds were made. Six mated pairs were released in June followed by another release of 9 males, 7 females, and 12 chicks in September. All birds were turned loose within 1-1/2 days of when they were trapped. No mortalities occurred as a result of transplant operations. Release sites were selected based on (1) the spring and fall habitat requirements of the species (Braun 1971), (2) the proximity of other seasonal use areas (fall and winter habitat) in relation to the release sites, and (3) the accessibility to the release sites. Both the spring and fall release sites were in the same general locality, but the fall release site was at a slightly higher elevation. During the spring transplant, birds were released as mated pairs at approximately 180 m (200 yd) intervals apart. The female was released first, immediately followed by the male. No special precautions were taken in the fall release except for releasing chicks in close proximity to a hen. The remaining birds were turned loose in groups of 4 to 5 birds. All birds were marked prior to release and pertinent information about each bird was recorded. Breeding Survey Density of ptarmigan during the breeding season (late April to early July) was ascertained by acoustical census (Braun et al. 1973). It is believed that none of the breeding pairs and less than 5 percent of the unmated birds escaped detection. All potential breeding habitat was searched, but efforts were primarily concentrated around the release sites. Results of the 1976 breeding survey are summarized in Table 3. The breeding population consisted of 18 birds including 7 pairs and 4 unmated �-152- males. Three additional males were located during the summer census that went undetected in the spring. These males were probably unmated and possibly non~territorial. No unmated hens were located, but one unbanded juvenile hen was captured in the spring of 1976. This female was not an introduced bird and either moved to the area from elsewhere or represents production in 1975 from one of the spring released hens. Spring released birds set up territories during the first year of introduction (1975). There were no extensive movements away from the release site to other potential breeding areas. Soon after release, the birds spaced themselves out, established territories, and resumed breeding activities. No further attempt was made to monitor the population until 1976. Since ptarmigan are monogamous, mate for life, and return to the same territory year after year (Schmidt 1969), it was not unusual that the spring released birds were breeding in the same area (release site) in 1976 where they had established territories in 1975. Of the 6 spring released males, 5 were situated on territories within 1 km (.6 mi) of their release site. The other male was non-territorial and his exact location during the breeding season was uncertain. However, he was located later in the summer .3 km (.2 mi) from where he was released. Two spring released hens survived until 1976 and both paired with their original mates. One of the spring released males paired with a fall released female. Even though spring and fall releases were made in the same general locality, fall released birds did not exhibit the fidelity to the release site as demonstrated by the spring released birds. The nearest territory of a fall released male in relation to its release site was 2.1 km (1.3 mi) away. The outermost territorial males were over 3 km (2 mi) from the fall release site. These birds were released after the breeding season, therefore, they did not establish territories until 1976. Because the spring released birds had already occupied territories immediately surrounding the release area, the fall released birds were forced to search elsewhere for breeding habitat. Figure 1 shows the location of breeding territories. It is evident that most territories (and release sites) were in the southern portion of the study area, and that males established territories in close proximity to another male. There was just one territorial male isolated from any other males. As a result of this attraction between males, and because the spring released males had the first opportunity to establish territories, the location of their territories appeared to at least partially influence where the fall released males set up territories. This is suggested by the fact that some fall released males occupied territories in marginal habitat near another male; whereas, seemingly better quality habitat, absent of other males, went unoccupied. �-153- Table 3. Breeding season survey, Pikes Peak area, 1976.~/ Movement No. Age Sex Breeding Status Time of Release 2321 2+ M Unmated, non-territorial Spring 2322 2+ F Paired w/original mate Spring .62 2323 2+ M Territorial, paired w/ original mate Spring .62 2324 1+ M Territorial, paired w/ original mate Spring .72 2325 1+ F Paired w/original Spring .72 2028 2+ M Unmated, territorial Spring .99 2327 1+ M Unmated, territorial Spring .91 2330 1+ M Territorial, paired w/fall released female Spring .41 2476 2+ M Territorial, paired w/fall released female Fall 2.09 2478 1+ F Paired w/fall Fall 2.09 2479 2+ M Unmated, territorial Fall 2.55 2480 2+ F Paired w/fall released male Fall 2.14 2484 2+ M Territorial, paired w/fall released female Fall 2.14 2489 1- F Paired w/fall released male Fall 3.36 2490 1- M Unmated, non-territorial Fall 2492 2+ M Unmated, non-territorial Fall 2493 1+ M Territorial, paired w/fall released female Fall 3.36 2496 1- M Unmated, Fall 3.20 2497 1+ F Paired w/spring Fall .41 2499 1+ M Territorial, female l:../ paired w/new Fall 3.20 2701 1- F Paired w/fall released male 1/ Band mate released male territorial released male Y (km) 1/ - Excludes birds that were not located and believed 2/ - Movement from release site to territory, lost from the population. excludes non-territorial males. 3/ - This female was not introduced to the area and either represents production in 1975 from one of the hens released in the spring, or else moved to the area from elsewhere. �-154- As expected, juveniles and subadults moved the greatest distances. Adult males are the most sedentary portion of the population (Hoffman and Braun 1975). The location of their territories in relation to the release site indicated they traversed the minimum distance necessary to find a vacant slot where they could become established. The habitat they selected was not always the best available, but it was the closest, unoccupied, suitable area where two or more males could establish territories. All potential breeding habitat was delineated on 7.5 minute U.S.G.S. topo2 2 graphic maps. Whereas th~ entire area encompassed 23.4 km (9.1 mi ), only 27.6 percent (6.52km ) consisted of suitable breeding habitat. Eighty percent (5.2 km ) of the habitat and consequently, 95 percent (20) of the birds were in the sout~ern portion o~ the study area. At an average density of 8 birds/km (20 birds/mi ) (Braun 1969), this area could presumably support a breeding population of about 25 pairs. Survival Survival data are based on the reobservation of banded birds following one year of introduction. All the introduced birds were banded prior to release. It was assumed in the calculations that any birds not reobserved were dead. Nevertheless, some fraction of the population undoubtedly escaped detection, but the portion was believed to be small «5%). Survival rates for the spring and fall released birds are presented in Tables 4 and 5. Comparative survival rates of the introduced population and an unhunted population of white-tailed ptarmigan in Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) are shown in Table 6. The RMNP data are from Braun (1969). Data for the introduced population are based on combined survival rates of the spring and fall released birds. Except for adult females, survival rates of the transplanted birds were similar to survival in a natural population. Table 4. Survival to Pikes Peak. Release Period Spring Fall 1/1- birds rates by age class of white-tailed ptarmigan introduced Age 1/ No. Released 1- 7 57.1 2+ 5 80.0 1- 12 25.0 2+ 16 56.2 Survival (%) in the spring represent chicks hatched the previous summer (10+ months), whereas 1- birds in the fall are chicks of that year (7-8 weeks). Adults (2+) and subadu1ts (1+) are grouped as adults (2+). �-155- Table 5. Survival to Pikes Peak. rates by sex of white-tailed ptarmigan introduced Release Period Sex 1./ Spring M 6 100.0 F 6 33.3 M 9 66.6 F 7 43.0 Fall (%) Survival No. Released -1/ Sex of fall released birds represent adults (1+, 2+) only because chicks (1-) could not be accurately sexed. the Table 6. Comparative survival rates of the introduced population and a natural population of white-tailed ptarmigan in Rocky Mountain National Park. Survival Rates (%) 1/ Pikes Peak Age and Sex RMNP Adults 67 62 Males 75 80 Females 65 38 65 57 Males 75 100 Females 55 25 Ch'1Ck s -3/ 23 25 Annual Survival - All Birds 56 50 Subadults ~/ l/Survival rates for adults in the introduced population survival of the spring and fall released birds. represent l/Spring released juveniles years of age). as subadults 3/ - Fall released juveniles of age). (10+ months) are classified (7-8 weeks) are classified combined (1-2 as chicks (0-1 year �-156Males typically have the highest survival rate and juveniles the lowest (Braun 1969). However, survival of adult females (38%) appeared to be abnormally low compared to their survival in the natural population (65). Since the survival rates of the other age and sex classes COEr pared favorably with the natural population (Table 6), the excessive loss of females could not be entirely contributed to mortality on the area. It is believed that due to the high mobility of females (Hoffman and Braun 1975) and the limited size of the area, more females were lost from the introduced population as a result of dispersal off the area than would normally occur in a natural population. Females frequently move long distances to seek out suitable wintering habitat and return to breeding areas the following spring (Hoffman and Braun 1975). In natural situations where the habitat is mostly continuous, only a minimum amount of unsuitable habitat needs to be traversed to reach wintering grounds. Any movement away from the Pikes Peak area almost certainly resulted in death as there was no other habitat within 60+ km (40+ mi). Juvenile birds were divided into two categories based on their age: (1) birds released in the spring were chicks hatched in 1974 (10+ months old when released), and (2) those released in the fall were chicks hatched in 1975 (7-8 weeks old when released). Mortality of ptarmigan varies with age class and is highest in the first year of life (0-1 years) and diminishes substantially during the second year (1-2 years) to a constant level that is maintained in the older age classes (Braun 1969). These differences are reflected in the survival rates of spring and fall released juveniles which represent survival from 1 to 2 years of age (57%) and from o to 1 year of age (25%), respectively. Braun (1969) reported similar estimates on survival of subadults to adults (60%) and chicks to subadults (23%) in RMNP. Further examination of the data showed that juvenile hens (10+ months old) released in the spring suffered exceedingly high mortality as previously described for adult females. Survival of 3 juvenile males released in the spring was 100 percent; whereas, only 1 of 4 (25%) juvenile hens released in the spring of 1975 was reobserved in 1976. The same factor responsible for the unnaturally high mortality of adult females was also believed to affect survival of juvenile hens released in the spring. Summer Survey Summer brood investigations resulted in the location of 17 ptarmigan (11 males, 2 unsuccessful females, and 1 successful female with 3 chicks). Only 3 of 7 hens observed on territories were accounted for during the brood census. Status of the other 4 hens is uncertain, but it is doubtful if they succumbed to mortality and more likely they were unsuccessful and went undetected. Hens with broods are easy to locate using tape recorded calls and tend to remain sedentary on brooding areas, while unsuccessful hens are more difficult to find because they wander widely and seldom respond to recorded calls (Braun and Rogers 1971). Just 2 males observed on territories could not be located during the summer census. �-157- Based on the actual number of hens observed (3), nesting success was 33 percent, but may be as low as 14 percent assuming those hens not located were present but unsuccessful. There was obviously a substantial decline in the introduced population the first year. Mortality and emigration contributed to a 50 percent reduction in the population; whereas, production amounted to only a 12 percent increase by late August. There was essentially no immigration (possibly 1 bird) into the population to offset emigration. Unless some successful hens escaped detection, it is anticipated that recruitment into the population will be essentially zero. The poor production was attributed to a lack of suitable brood habitat rather than the failure of hens to successfully hatch a clutch of eggs. Brood areas are characterized by an abundance of rock and low growing vegetation, and generally are near late lying snowfields or wet areas (Braun 1971). Such areas were limited in size and far between on the study area with most areas searched in late summer being in a state of desiccation. Snow patches were absent on areas suitable for use by ptarmigan. Moist sites were mainly limited to areas adjacent to streams, especially along the willow bottoms. These areas are seldom used by ptarmigan in summer. Summering flocks of ptarmigan were found at two sites, but 88 percent (15 birds) of the birds were occupying the rocky areas near the fall re- 2 lease zite (Fig. 1). The total area used by the birds was less than .3 km (.1 mi). Wet areas at this site were limited to a few small swales scattered among the rocks. The swales were the only rem~ining source of green vegetation, except for lower areas bordering streams. The main summer flock was composed of 10 males and 1 unsuccessful female. Although the brood was using the same area, the hen and her chicks remained separate from the main flock. Two additional birds (male and unsuccessful female) were found on Sheep Mountain, about 2.8 km (1.7 mi) south of the fall release site. Changes in seasonal use patterns by ptarmigan as effected by grazing (Braun 1971), human encroachment (Hoffman 1974), and weather (Braun 1969, Braun and Schmidt 1971) have been documented. If for some reason summer use sites at higher elevations are not adequate, the birds may move downhill to rocky wet places within the krummholz. Summering sites at Pikes Peak were situated along the upper fringe of breeding areas. Thus, summer flocks were formed primarily by the lateral movement of birds from their territories to the summer concentration areas. Movements in excess of 3 km (1.9 mi) were made by both males and females to reach the main concentration area, but most birds (including the brood) traveled less than 1 km (.62 mi). There were no signs of ptarmigan use in the rocky krummholz areas or the higher rock fields, however, the krummho1z areas could possibly be used as brood habitat. Conclusions Even though many of the environmental and physical features of the Pikes Peak area are similar to other occupied ranges, it is questionable if the �-158- area can support a population of ptarmigan on a sustained basis. Possible causes for the eventual failure of the introduction are (1) the limited amount of available habitat, and (2) the isolation of the area from other ptarmigan populations. The cause-effect relationship is threefold. First, due to the isolated nature of the area, little if any immigration occurred into the population to replace losses occurring from emigration. This was especially noted for females and chicks. Secondly, as a result of the limited amount of breeding habitat (6.5 km2) the area can onlysuppotta small population. Braun (1975) reported that areas with less that 8 km2 of breeding habitat probably cannot support a population on a sustained basis. Preliminary results of this study indicated production in a small population without immigration of females was inadequate to replace natural losses. Finally, the lack of suitable brood areas in combination with the excessive loss of females further contributed to poor production and subsequently, low recruitment into the population. If white-tailed ptarmigan are to be released in isolated mountain ranges where they do not occur, it is imperative these areas be large enough to maintain a self-sustaining population. The minimum size of an area necessary to support a population is difficult to determine. Braun (1975) reported a minimum area of 8 km2 (3 mi2), but unless the habitat is ideal, it is believed that such a small area cannot support a population when emigration is occurring without immigration. Prior introductions of ptarmigan to the Sierra Nevada's (Calif.) and the Cascade Mountains (Oregon) have apparently been successful, while a recent introduction has been made to the Uinta Mountains (Utah). These mountain ranges are extensive, being in excess of 260 km2 (100 mi2); consequently, emigration can occur to other portions of the same range. Eventually, several, sUb-populations may become established with immigration and emigration occurring between these smaller populations. Individuals unable to find vacant territories in the established areas then disperse to adjacent unoccupied areas, thus allowing for expansion of the population. To further insure a successful introduction, results of this study indicate a spring release of mated pairs is better than a fall release. If the spring release is made early in the breeding season (early to mid-May) there is a chance the introduced birds will successfully breed and produce young the first year. This would eliminate having to introduce chicks in the fall. Fall releases should include primarily females (1+, 2+) and a few males (1+, 2+). It may be necessary to release additional females the following year to insure adequate production. �-159- LITERATURE CITED Aiken, C. E. H., and E. R. Warren. 1914. The birds of E1 Paso County, Colorado I. Colorado College Pub1. General Sere No. 74. 12(13): 455-496. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Museum Natural History, Vol. 1. 895 p , Denver Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 189 p. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Coroms. 51:284-292. 1975. Experimental removal of a breeding population of whitetailed ptarmigan. Colo. Div. Wi1d1., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp. 91-109. ______ , and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Pub1. No. 27. 80 p. ____ --,-,and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Pp. 238-250. In A. O. Haugen, ed. Proceedings snow and ice symposium. Iowa Cooperative Wi1d1. Res. Unit, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 280 p. ~ , and G. E. Rogers. 1973. Census of Colorado whitetailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded calls. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 37(1) :90-93. Hoffman, R. W. 1974. Characteristics and migration of wintering populations of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 58 p. ______ , and C. E. Braun. 1975. Migration of a wintering population of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. J. Wild1. Manage. 39(3) :485-490. Knorr, o. A. 1959. The birds of E1 Paso County, Colorado. Studies, Sere BioI. 5. 48 p. Univ. Colo. Koschmann, A. H. 1956. Topographic map of Pikes Peak and vicinity, Colorado. U.S. Geo1. Survey map. U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash., D.C. Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the east slope of the Front Range in Colorado. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere Bio1. 8. 134 p. �-160- Marr, J. W., J. M. Clark, W. S. Osborn, and M. W. Paddock. 1968a. Data on mountain environments III. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 1959-1964. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. 29. 179 p. ______ , A. W. Johnson, W. S. Osborn, and O. A. Knorr. 1968b. Data on mountain environments. II. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 1953-1958. Univ. Colo. Studies, Sere BioI. 28. 169 p. u.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. 1920-1934. Climatological data. Annual Summaries, Colorado. U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash., D.C. Nimlos, T. J., and R. C. McConnell. Soil Sci. 99(5):310-321. Pearl, R. M. 1964. Colo. 36 p. 1965. America's mountain. Alpine soils in Montana. Alan Swallow Publ. Co., Denver, Sclater, W. L. 1912. A history of the birds of Colorado. and Co., London. 576 p. Witherby Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. Weber, W. A. Boulder. 1972. Rocky mountain 438 p. flora. Whitfield, C. J. 1933. The vegetation Monographs 3(1):76-105. Colorado Assoc. 174 p. Univ. Press, of the Pikes Peak region. Ecol. �April 1977 -161JOB FINAL REPORT COLORADO State of Project ---------------------No. W-37-R-30 20 Work Plan No. 1 Job No •. Investigation of Population S_t_a_t_u_s __o_f __B_o_b_w_h_l_·t_e __Q~u_a_l_·l __ l_·n __ E_a __s_t_e_r_n __C_o_l_o_r_a_d_o Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey ~~~--~--------------------- April 1, 1976 through March Larry Crooks, William Warren Snyder T. Howard, 31, 1977 Michael Fedorko and ABSTRACT Field data were collected as·in previous years, analyses were completed on the information obtained during this and the five previous segments of study, and reports were written as follows: Snyder, W. D. 1976. Bobwhite. Colorado Outdoors 25(6):11-15. (A semi-popular article covering the species, its habitat, distribution, limiting factors, hunting and management in Colorado.) Snyder, W. D. 1977. The bobwhite quail in Colorado. A detailed summation of study findings to be published as a technical bulletin under W-37-R-3l, Work Plan 22, Job 1. The first draft has been completed and editing and revisions are in progress. Snyder, W. D. 1977. Census of bobwhite in Colorado. A summation of census findings and recommendations for management to be published as a Game Information leaflet under W-37-R-31, Work Plan 22, Job 1. The first draft has been completed and editing and revisions are in progress. Prepared by __~~ ~ ~~~~~-,~I~ __ ~~ Warren D.· sn~ Wildlife Researcher _ _ ��-163- April 1977 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------~-------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title 21 Job No. 1 Minimum Tillage Techniques for Establishing Shrubs in Clump Plantings Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-30 April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977. David C. Bowden, William T. Howard, Larry Crooks, John Corey, and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT Lack of adequate precipitation during the growing season on 1976 and throughout the year severely curtailed shrub growth but had no significant impact on survival to fall. However, considerable die-back and winter kill was noted during the winter of 1976-77 on the loam-soil Karg sites where moisture conditions were especially deficient in 1976. Treatments had no significant impact on shrub growth in 1976, but early spring 1977 observations indicated winter survival was better and die-back was less severe on mulch treated sites. Some rabbit damage was inflicted to plums on the Sonnenburg site and the three Karg sites in late fall 1976 before repellents could be applied. All treatments, again, as in 1975, significantly reduced annual weed occurrence in comparison to that on the cultivated controls. Simazine, in the second year after application of this chemical herbicide, lost some of its weed control effectiveness. Some accumulative effect of a second spring application of the chemical, casoron, was noted. This herbicide and plastic mulch treatments were most effective in weed control in 1976. Plant spacing, as a factor in survival and competition for moisture was discussed. ��-165- MINIMUM TILLAGE TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING SHRUBS IN CLUMP PLANTINGS Warren D. Snyder P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To evaluate ground cover techniques, pre-emergent herbicide techniques, a combination of the two, and cultivation techniques for establishing shrubs in clump plantings in eastern Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To apply pre-emergent herbicide treatments, mulch treatments, and a combination of the two, to six of the seven plots within each planting site. The remaining plot within each site will be retained as a cultivated control. 2. To measure and evaluate shrub survival, shrub growth and weed competition among treatments and soils in relation to weather variables. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this study were summarized by Snyder (1975) and Snyder (1976). Procedures listed there were followed very closely during this work segment. Rabbit repellent was placed only on wild plum on the loam and clay loam sites in November 1976 to reduce further rabbit damage. The Smith Meadow site, within the clay loam riverbottom remained excluded from evaluations and analyses because of biases which were discussed in Snyder (1976). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Environmental Measurements Precipitation A recording precipitation measuring gauge located at the Tamarack headquarters indicated 10.23 inches of precipitation was received during 1976 at that location. A rain gauge was not located at the Karg site to the northwest, however, observations indicated rainfall through the primary growing season was up to several inches below the amount received at the site of the rain gauge. Very little growth was observed at the Karg sites as a consequence. As shown in Table 1, 1976 precipitation was above that received in 1974, below that recorded in 1975, and amounts received all three years were below the average annual amount received in the study region. This lack of moisture was a primary factor affecting study evaluation to date. �-166- Table 1. Precipitation received at the Tamarack Management quarters during 1974, 1975 and 1976. Area head- Month 1974 1975 1976 January 0.25 0.05 0.83 February 0.67 0.15 0.20 March 0.91 1.25 0.40 April 0.45 0.65 1.60 May 0.70 5.55 1.90 June 2.05 2.00 1.10 July 1.15 0.55 1.10 August 0.40 1.60 1.10 September 0.15 0.55 1.60 October 0.00 0.00 0.25 November 0.25 1.20 0.15 December 0.20 0.55 0.00 Annual Total 7.18 14.10 10.23 Average annual precipitation in the study region approximates 15 to 16 inches. Rabbit Damage A mid-November 1975 snow induced considerable rabbit pruning and girdling of wild plum on the Sonnenburg site and the three Karg sites. Follow up December treatments with rabbit repellent prevented further damage. Injuries inflicted in accompaniment with subsequent lack of rainfall had significant impact on shrub survival and growth in 1976. Considerable pruning of plums was also noted in early fallon the Sonnenburg site in 1976 with minor damage on the Karg locations. Treatment with repellents curtailed damage through the remainder of the winter. Shrub Survival Shrub Survival Within Sites Established in 1974 Wild plums sustained approximately 14 percent mortality during their first year after planting. Hansen rose sustained about 25 percent mortality during this interval, most of which was attributed to rodent damage in �-167- winter on the loamy sand sites. Little mortality was apparent from fall 1975 through fall 1976 as shown in Table 2. However, precipitation deficiencies since late 1975 have greatly reduced plant vigor on most locations. Spring 1977 inspections, prior to writing this report, indicated considerable winter mortality due to desiccation on several sites, but final late spring survival assessment will be forthcoming. Root sprouting was also occurring on numerous shrubs. Table 2. Percentage shrub survival from fall 1975 through the five sites established in April 1974. Treatment Fall 1975 fall 1976 on Percentage Alive In Spring 1976 ~I Fall 1976 Wild Plum Cultivated 91.88 91.88 90.63 Organic mulch 82.03 82.81 82.03 Plastic mulch 90.67 90.63 90.63 Simazine 84.38 83.75 83.13 Simazine-mulch 85.63 87.50 87.50 Eptam-Treflan 83.13 86.25 85.63 Casoron 83.13 84.37 81.88 Overall Average 85.80 86.74 85.89 Hansen Rose Cultivated 66.25 71.88 71.88 Organic mulch 75.00 82.03 81.25 Plastic mulch 85.16 86.72 85.94 Simazine 74.38 79.38 77 .50 Simazine-Mulch 76.25 76.25 76.25 Eptam-Treflan 76.88 81.25 81.25 Casoron 73.13 75.63 74.63 Overall Average 75.00 78.69 78.03 II - New root sprouts replaced previous mortalities to slightly percentage survival on some plots during the spring of 1976. increase the �-168- Root sprouts from adjoining plants have replaced some of the original mortalities, especially among Hansen rose, by early fall 1976. The slight increase in plant survival in Table 2 from fall 1975 to fall 1976 reflects this replacement by root sprouting. Moisture deficiencies were most obvious in 1976 on the Karg sites which had sustained the best growth in 1975. This, in combination with winter rabbit damage and drought desiccation, severely impacted survival at the time of this report. Some leaf burning during the summer of 1976 was observed on the loam and sandy loam sites. This was believed to have resulted from a combination of moisture deficiency and pre-emergent herbicides, however, as yet the impact of the herbicides could not be measured in reduced plant survival. Shrub Survival Within Sites Established in 1975 Survival among shrubs planted in April 1975 was better than that for shrubs planted during 1974. One exception occurred on the loamy sand of the 1-76 site where Hansen rose sustained about 32 percent mortality by spring 1976 (Table 3). This primarily occurred in late summer and fall in 1975 due to excessive drying of the light sandy soil. Dramatic treatment effect was noted on that site as the plastic and organic mulch plots sustained much higher survival than the other bare plots did. Survival was good to excellent during the 1976 growing season on all sites in spite of lack of moisture. The Karg 3 site, where precipitation was especially deficient through 1976, suffered considerable die-back and some winter mortality through the fall and winter of 1976-77. Wild plums appeared to suffer the most. Herbicide treatments had no discernible impact on survival through the 1976 growing season. Shrub Growth Shrub Growth on Sites Established in 1974 Treatment effect among sites and oils did not significantly influence growth of either plum or Hansen rose in 1976 (Table 4) based on analyses by David C. Bowden, Statistician. Lack of discernible treatment effect was believed to result primarily because little growth was sustained due to lack of moisture. Table 5 contrasts growth of shrubs in 1975 with that in 1976 showing the much greater growth in 1975. Most significant was the reduction in growth on the Karg 1 and Karg 2 sites in the loam soil type. Shrubs on the Tamarack Meadow site attained much better growth in 1976 than those on the other sites (Table 4). Appearance would indicate that Tamarack Meadow shrubs had attained enough growth by 1976 to tap the relatively high water table underlying this site. This additional moisture sustained them through the dry summer and fall and little winter die-back or mortality was evident. �-169- Table 3. Percentage shrub survival from fall 1975 through fall 1976 on the three sites established in April 1975. Treatment Fall 1975 Percentage Alive In Spring 1976 1./ Fall 1976 Wild Plum Cultivated 97.92 95.83 93.38 Organic mulch 100.00 95.83 93.38 Plastic mulch 100.00 98.96 98.96 Simazine 96.88 94.79 93.38 Simazine mulch 97.92 95.83 93.38 Eptam-Treflan 100.00 93.38 92.71 Casoron 96.88 86.46 86.46 Overall Average 98.51 94.49 93.30 Hansen Rose Cultivated 98.96 86.46 85.42 Organic mulch 100.00 92.71 91.67 Plastic mulch 98.96 98.96 98.96 Simazine 98.96 95.42 85.42 Simazine mulch 97.92 96.46 86.46 Eptam-Treflan 97.92 87.50 84.38 Casoron 98.96 81.25 80.21 Overall Average 98.81 88.39 87.50 1/ - New root sprouts replaced previous mortalities to slightly percentage survival on some plots during the spring of 1976. increase the �Table 4. Average shrub growth in inches per site and treatment during the 1976 growing season on the five sites established in 1974 and the three sites eastab1ished in 1975. 1/ -Soil Type Site Cultivated Organic Mulch Plastic Mulch Treatment Simazine Mulch Simazine EptamTref1an Casoron Site Mean Wild Plum Loam Soil Karg 1 Karg 2 Karg 3 3.27 9.57 8.91 4.48 5.24 13.66 3.63 4.06 17.39 6.29 7.13 15.31 7.48 9.65 17.38 10.93 6.46 15.09 8.58 11.92 16.28 6.35 7.62 14.85 Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow Sonnenburg 22.37 12.53 14.08 12.59 20.67 19.72 7.28 21.07 11.21 16.17 12.81 20.27 7.44 20.86 14.14 17.60 I f-' -..J Loamy Sand Red Lion Sharp tail I-76 7.16 7.21 10.62 13.88 2.32 12.61 12.12 11.21 16.25 11.21 5.67 10.10 9.35 4.50 10.96 8.07 7.03 9.77 Treatment Mean 10.27 11.00 12.90 10.76 11.01 11.39 9.48 6.9l 8.96 11.57 9.01 7.63 11.53 11.28 Hansen Rose Loam Karg 1 Karg 2 Karg 3 3.35 4.21 3.34 1.48 3.23 5.69 2.39 3.41 7.44 2.10 5.93 3.22 3.84 5.80 7.09 4.41 4.43 4.25 2.00 5.07 3.47 2.81 4.60 4.93 Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow Sonnenburg 9.92 3.50 7.32 4.66 7.18 4.84 5.52 4.06 6.25 7.29 4.86 5.73 7.32 5.06 6.89 4.99 4.46 5.53 8.77 5.40 3;53 8.79 0.83 6.14 9.50 4.68 4.52 7.57 6.08 4.98 4.55 5.06 Loamy Sand 7.69 4.97 5.91 7.67 Red Lion 1.92 6.08 5.62 4.48 Sharp tail 5.67 6.68 7.08 7.40 1-76 4.24 5.37 5.09 5.10 Treatment Mean l/ The Karg 3, Sonnenburg and I-76 sites were established in 1975. 0 I �-171- Table 5. Comparisons of shrub growth in inches during the growing seasons of 1975 and 1976 on the shrub clump sites. Mean Growth-Plum Mean Growth-Rose 1975 1976 1975 1976 Karg 1 19.73 6.35 14.16 2.81 Karg 2 19.38 7.62 13.71 4.60 Karg 3 1:./ 6.89 14.85 8.87 4.93 21.58 14.14 14.06 6.89 3.48 17.60 2.35 4.99 Red Lion 13.84 9.01 13.27 4.68 Sharptail 6.79 7.63 5.-63 4.52 1-7J:./ 5.04 11.53 3.18 7.57 Soil Type Site Loam Soil Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow II SonnenburgLoamy Sand !I Sites established in April 1975 contrasted Shrub Growth on Sites Established to those established in 1974. in 1975 Shrubs on these three sites, after recovering from planting shock in 1975, made fair growth in 1976 (Table 4). They averaged much better growth than sites established a year earlier. This was probably because they were younger, smaller, and therefore, in less competition for deficient moisture through the 1976 growing season. Treatments on these sites did not produce significantly different growth effects in 1976 on either plum or rose species. As shown in Table 4 considerable growth variance occurred among treatments and sites within soils. Dr. David Bowden, Statistician, by analysis, found that these sites had growth patterns differing from those of the 1974 established sites so the two groups could not be incorporated for a more thorough analysis of treatment effect. Winter Die-back Winter die-back and mortality of shrubs has been previously mentioned. During the winter of 1975-76 this loss amounted to approximately half the growth achieved during the preceding summer as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Data from sites established in both 1974 and 1975 were combined here for these comparisons. As shown in Fig. 2 Hansen rose growth in 1976 hardly compensated for previous winter attrition on most treatments. �46 44 42 40 38 36 ~ 34 Height, Fall, 1976 32 30 Fjall, 1975 Ul q) 28 ~ 26 ,s 24 +l ..c: 22 01 '@ 20 : ',:.'::.': ::~'::.~ I'.:.~::'~:' ,'::: .' :'00::':, :::':: :I: 18 .\\:\ ~::::.~ ..... ',0- ••, Die-back .;~:\; Spring, ::::: ':: :0,: ::::':'.: //!,~ Height, Spring" 1975 :':.: .... 16 14 12 o Cultivated Organic Mulch 1976 Plastic Mulch Simazine Sim.Mulch EptamTreflan Casoron Fig. 1. Average shrub clump height and growth of wild plum per treatment eight sites from spring, 1975 through fall, 1976. on the l I I-' -...J N I �34 32 l 30 m 28 26 24 ~ ~."l' l $::~ .,,~.(. VJ (lJ :. ,0, g 16 .j.J rw {U( ~ H .~ :.::: ..... .:.::', '''',' ...... :-: ":. ...... ...... 18 14 / Height, Fall, 1975 ~ Winter Die-Back rt""l .':.:. 22 20 .-"Height, Fall, 1976 ~~~, .:.::: . . . . )( .... Spring, 1976 ::-:.:.::' , .... ..... :'::':':';, ~: ': ~::: Height, Spring, 1975 12' J. -& 10', I •..... -...J •.-j l.;.> I (lJ ::x: I1~ 8 6 4 2 0 Cultivated Organic Mulch Plastic Simazine Mulch Simazine Eptam Mulch Treflan Casoron Fig. 2. Average shrub clump height and growth of Hansen rose per treatment on the eight sites from Spring, 1975 through Fall, 1976. �-174- Shrub Spacing Shrubs were planted at three foot intervals in this study design in efforts to achieve a closed canopy of thicket type cover within as short a time as possible. The more rapid the canopy closure the sooner maintenance and weed competition could be eliminated. This canopy closure could potentially have been achieved by the end of the third or fourth growing season if rainfall had been average or above during the first three years of study. Severe drought impact, as it affected the Karg sites through 1976 points out the fact that such close spacing increases competition among the shrubs themselves when rainfall is deficient. Severe dessication and die-back over winter may occur as they grow larger. However, in naturally occurring old thickets of plum in eastern Colorado the plants and their root sprouts become closely spaced and competitive for moisture in much the same manner. Spacing of shrubs greater distances apart in initial planting so that they may reach greater maturity before becoming highly competitive for moisture is the primary alternative for use on dryland sites where supplemental moisture is not available. This, of course, increases maintenance time and costs of establishment. Wider spacing may not be warranted where mulch treatments are used because available moisture is better conserved and utilized by the shrubs and growth and survival are better. Costs in mulching wider spaced shrubs would also be increased tremendously. Where chemicals are applied or cultivation maintenance alone is used, wider spacing at four to six foot distances may be the most practical compromise between growth-survival variables and years needed in maintenance. Weed Competition All chemical and mulch treatments significantly reduced numbers of annual weeds present in spring, 1976 when compared with cultivated controls (F6,36 = 5.67 P <0.001) (Table 6). Samples analyzed here by Dr. Bowden included those from the five original sites and the three sites established in 1975. Analyses within treatments, omitting the control, showed that weeds were reduced to a significantly greater degree on plastic mulch and Casoron treated plots than on Simazine treated plots (F5 ,30 = 2.83, P <0.05). Increased weed density apparently occurred on the Simazine plots over that of 1975 because this chemical was less effective in its second year after application (on the five original sites). Table 7 shows that average weed densities per square foot sample increased from 2.10 in 1975 to 2.66 in 1976, whereas weed densities declined on most other treatments, including the controls because of dry weather conditions in 1976. A second application of Simazine at a much reduced rate should be applied prior to the third growing season after application to supplement the original application. Reduced weed density was indicated in 1976 over 1975 on the Simazine mulch plots (Table 7) where weed control appeared to be slightly more effective than where Simazine was the only treatment applied. Casoron, a pre-emergent herbicide applied each early spring interval after shrub establishment, was highly effective in controlling annual forbs in 1976 (Table 6). As Table 7 illustrates control in 1976 was much more effective than in 1975 indicating the probability of chemical retention from the previous year and build up with the second year application. Because this residual carryover from year to year was indicated, subsequent annual applications should be at reduced rates to prevent excessive shrub mortality. �-175Table 6. Average occurrence of annual weeds per square foot sample in May, 1976 within nine sites within three soil types. Soil Type Site Treatment Plast. Mulch Sim. Cult. Organic Mulch Karg 1 20.28 0.36 0.11 Karg 2 3.00 0.19 Karg 3 }./ 14.33 Tamarack Meadow '1:./ Sim. Mulch Eptam Treflan Casoron Site Mean 7.31 2.50 2.81 0.11 4.78 0.17 6.03 12.75 0.64 0.08 3.27 0.03 0.08 1.28 0.25 1.83 0.25 2.58 9.80 0.19 0.33 0.19 0.06 0.81 0.14 1.65 62.30 0.75 1.25 1.67 0.14 5.50 0.08 10.24 16.28 2.14 0.00 1.14 0.44 2.22 0.28 3.21 Red Lion 0.19 0.03 0.00 0.50 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.12 Sharp tail 3.05 0.03 0.00 3.63 0.08 0.28 0.08 1.02 1-76 6.11 0.11 0.00 2.22 0.47 0.47 0.06 1.35 Overall Mean 15.04 0.43 0.22 2.66 1.86 1.62 0.12 3.14 Loam Clay Loam Smith Meadow Sonnenburg Loamy Sand 1/ The Karg 3, Sonnenburg and 1-76 sites were establ~shed The other six sites were planted in April 1974. in April 1975. l/ The Smith Meadow site was excluded from survival and growth analyses because of unforeseen biases inherent within the site. Application of the Eptam-Treflan pre-emergent herbicide chemical mixture were moderately effective in weed control in both 1975 and 1976 as indicated in Table 7. These chemicals break down during the growing season and no evidence of a chemical build up was indicated. Plastic mulch, with its organic mulch overlay, was highly effective in weed control during both 1975 and 1976 and plots so treated remained virtually weed free except where the plastic became exposed and torn (Table 7). Exposure and tearing of the plastic was minimized by retaining an adequate coverage of organic mulch or the ridges between rows. Plots treated singularly �-176- with organic mulch usually contained few weeds in either year (Table 7). however, some progressive settling and deterioration of the mulch overlay was noted. Some increase in weed occurrence might have occurred if the 1976 growing season had not been excessively dry. Table 7. A comparison of average annual weed densities sample within treatments in 1975 and 1976. per square foot 1975 1976 29.29 15.04 Organic mulch 0.87 0.43 Plastic mulch with organic overlay 0.38 0.22 Simazine 2.10 2.66 Simazine with organic mulch overlay 5.45 1.86 mixture 1.15 1.62 5.56 0.12 Treatment Cultivated control Eptam-Tref1an Casoron Annual weed densities were sampled in mid- to late May 1976, and removed from all sites by mid-June. Lack of rain to stimulate new sprouting retained the sites in a near maintenance free, weed free situation throughout the remainder of the summer. A thundershower stimuated some late summer weed germination and growth in the loamy sand (Sandhi11s) sites. These weeds were removed in August and none had attained significant growth to be competitive with the shrubs. As with earlier spring samples, simazine and cultivated control plots possessed the higher weed densities and Casoron and plastic mulch plots retained the lowest weed occurrence. Perennials, including noxious perennials, were less a problem in 1976 than in previous years. LITERATURE Snyder, W. D. 1975. clump p1antings. CITED Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in Colo. Div. of Wi1d1. Game Res. Rept. Apri1:141-153. 1976. Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in clump p1antings. Colo. Div. of Wi1d1. Game Res. Rept. April: 209-234. Prepared by 9JJ'~ ~ Warren D. Sny er Wildlife "'.L Researcher C �-177- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Colorado Project No. W-124-R-4 1 Work Plan No. Job Title Raptor Investigations Job No. 1 Statewide Raptor Populations Period Covered: and Characteristics March 27, 1975 through February Studies 28, 1976 ABSTRACT One hundred and thirty-four golden eagle nests were surveyed, of which 51 were occupied and 35 produced and fledged an average of 1.3 young per nest. The number of occupied peregrine falcon eyries continued 1974 to 8 in 1975 which represents 27%. Only 5 young peregrine was 0.8 young/successful young Jledged a drop in percent. occupancy falcons were fledged pair). to decline from 9 in Prairie from 29% to (average fledging success falcon productivity per site for 99 of 105 active nest sites. averaged 3.37 Osprey productivity continued to remain minimal with 6 of 14 being active and only one egg being produced and no young fledged. The aerial trend count in northeastern yielded an average of 6.7 golden eagles/lOO golden eagles/lOO square miles was calculated count in northwestern Luis Valley Wintering viduals square miles. Colorado. An additional resulted in an average Colorado A density of 14.6 for a newly added aerial trend aerial trend count in the San of 11.2 golden eagles/lOO square miles. bald eagles along the South Platte count area declined from 42 indiin 1975 to 29 in 1976, but the percent of juveniles The San Luis Valley aerial trend count yielded with juveniles accounting remained at 35%. 16.0 bald eagles/lOO for 30% of the population. square miles ��-179- S~TEWIDE RAPTOR POPULATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS STUDIES Gerald R. Craig To investigate including status of current populations, distribution, Eagles, Osprey, migration, Peregrine patterns characteristics and chronology and Prairie Falcons and trends of Bald and Golden and Burrowing Owls in or through Colorado. SEGMENT 1. Develop and refine methods Golden Eagles, Osprey, OBJECTIVES for determining Peregrine breeding numbers and Prairie Falcons of Bald and and Burrowing Owls winter trend information for in Colorado. 2. Develop and refine methods for determining Bald and Golden Eagles, Peregrine and Prairie Falcons and Burrowing Owls in Colorado. 3. 4. Locate and categorize major and important and Golden Eagle, Osprey, populations in Colorado. Establish and maintain Eagles, Osprey, Colorado Peregrine from inventory inventories and Prairie Falcons methods and associated Bald and Prairie Falcon and Burrowing annual or periodic Peregrine habitats selected Owl of Bald and Golden and Burrowing Owls in from Project Statement Procedures 1 and 2. 5. Monitor mortalities brought to the Division Eagles, Osprey, 6. and inspect to determine Peregrine species that are obtained Initiate and maintain tion, chronology, Eagles, Osprey, a lO-year raptor banding Peregrine reported or factors of Bald and Golden and Burrowing Owls and other incidentally. movement, program life tables and mortalities and Prairie Falcons to determine migra- of Bald and Golden and Burrowing Owls and other accidentally. Prepare a series of comprehensive guides at intervals mortality and Prairie Falcons species that are encountered 7. injured and dead raptors information when the information leaflets and recreational becomes available. �-180RESULTS Only 38 percent occupied (51 sites) of 134 golden eagle nests were determined in 1975 which is a continued decline at that time). (35 sites) producing young for an average brood size of 1034 young per productive site and an average fledging lagomorph productivity from 1974 (65 sites were occupied tinued decline However, in site occupancy to be increased with 69% success of 1.30 young per productive in the number of active nest sites continues populations which are the predominant site. The con- to reflect the low prey of golden eagles throughout the region. The bald eagle nest that was discovered in 1974 was not occupied in 1975. at Electra Lake in La Plata County The osprey that had traditionally the nest failed to return to the site in 1975. discovered nesting occupied falcon production nest site was discovered, 1974 to 8 in 1975. to the land owner, they occupied remained poor. Despite the fact that one previously the number of occupied sites declined between in any given breeding 80 and 90 percent of the eyrie sites were season. Young production also continued to decline and only five young were known to have fledged successfully in 1975. This represents to occur with shell thickness averaging shells considered to be "normal" (prior to the DDT era). Ninety-nine of 105 prairie falcon eyrie sites were determined The number of active sites which produced 60% in 1974 to 71% in 1975) as did fledging success 1975). into the wild an average of 0.8 young fledged per adult pair. thinning continues in 1975. from 9 in At this time only 31 percent of the known eyries are occupied. Prior to the DDT era (mid-1940's) normally According The pair suc- the nest in 1973 and reared at least one young, but failed to nest in 1974. Peregrine unknown A second pair of bald eagles were along the Little Snake River in Moffat County. ceeded in raising a single young in 1975. occupied The average brood size increased somewhat to 4.22 young per brood in 1975), and average the same (from 3.00 young per successful 20 percent eggs increased Eggshell less than to be occupied slightly (from (from 53% in 1974 to 56% in (3.70 young per brood in 1974 fledging success remained nearly site in 1974 to 3.37 young per success- ful site in 1975). The osprey nesting success continued nest sites were occupied to be disastrous. in 1975 and only 1 of those sites produced young were known to have been hatched or fledged. artificial nest platforms Only 6 of 14 known were constructed As an experiment at two locations eggs. No in 1974, on Grandby Lake (Grand �-181- County) and two were placed on Shadow Mountain of the artificial structures Reservoir (Grand County). One was occupied by a pair in 1975 and an adult was observed near a second structure. The number of wintering golden eagles observed northwestern Colorado declined from previous years is consistent and cottontail rabbit populations. during the aerial flights to 6.7 eagles per 100 square miles. with the region-wide Preliminary reduction information to adults is also increasing, nesting The aerial transects which were traditionally success. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service of jackrabbit that the which may be indicative of poor flown by the since 1972 were taken over by the Division 1976 and the data for all past flights is provided. Consistent northeastern decline Colorado, This reduction indicated ratio of juveniles there has been a significant in in with trends in in wintering eagles. In 1972 an average of 91.6 eagles per 100 square miles was observed. The average has declined until only 14.6 eagles per 100 square miles was counted in 1976. third aerial census route was delineated flight yielded an estimated area. in the San Luis Valley being juveniles. The 11.2 golden eagles per 100 square miles of the study Unlike the golden eagles, the wintering Platte River has remained in 1976. A bald eagle population fairly stable with approximately along the South 35% of the population The aerial flight in the San Luis Valley yielded an estimated 16.0 bald eagles per 100 square miles. �-182- TABLE 1 ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO GOLDEN EAGLES Site No. Activit~ No. of Young No. Fledged CH 4 A 2 2 CH 6 A 1+ 1+ CN 1 IA CN 2 IA CN 3 IA CN 4 IA CO 1 IA CU 2 A 2 2 CU 3 IA DO 4 A EA 1 IA EA 2 A 2 2 EA 4 IA EA 5 A FA 7 IA FA8 Adults observed courting 2 2 A 1 1 FA 9 A 1 1 FA 10 A 1 1 FA 12 A FA 13 IA EB 4 A 1 1 EP 1 IA EP 2 IA EP 3 IA EP 4 IA EP 5 IA EP 6 IA FR 1 IA GA 4 IA GA5 IA 1 1 2 2 GA 6 A GR 1 IA GR 2 A GR 4 IA GR 6 IA Comments 2 eggs ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-183Table 1 Site No. (continued) Activity and Productivity of Colorado Activity No. of Young GR 7 A 1 GR 8 A 2 GR 9 IA GR 11 A 1 1 GR 12 A 1 1 GR 13 IA HU 1 IA HU 2 IA HU 3 A 2 2 HU4 IA HU 6 A o o HU 7 IA JE 2 IA JE 3 IA JE 4 A 2 2 JE 6 IA JE 7 IA JE 8 A JE 9 A o o o o JE 10 A 2 2 IA 1 IA LP 1 IA LP 2 IA LP 3 IA LP 4 IA LPS IA LS 1 IA LS 2 IA 4 IA LS 6 A 2 2 LS 7 IA LS 8 IA LS 9 IA ME 6 IA LS No. Fledged Golden Eagles Comments 2 One adult observed 2 addled eggs Both adults present Adult on nest -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- on nest �-184Table 1 Site No. (continued) Activity Activity and No. of Productivity Young of No. ME 9 A ME 10 IA ME 11 IA MI 1 IA MI 2 IA MI 4 IA MI 5 IA MF 2 A MF 3 IA MF 4 IA MF 5 IA MF 6 IA MF 10 A 0 0 MF 11 A 1 1 MF 13 IA MF 14 A 1 1 MF 15 IA MF 16 IA MF 17 IA MF 18 IA MF 19 A 1 1 MF 21 IA MF 22 IA MF 23 IA MF 24 IA MF 25 IA MF 29 IA MF 31 IA MF 35 IA MF 37 A 1 1 MF 38 IA MF 43 IA MF 44 IA MF 46 IA MF 48 IA 2 Colorado Fledged Golden Eagles Comments 2 2 adults present 1 adult present ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-185Table 1 Site No. (continued) Activity and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles Activit:l ME' 49 A ME' 52 IA ME' 54 IA MF 55 IA MF 57 A ME' 58 IA ME' 61 IA MF 62 No. of Young No. Fledged Comments 1 egg in nest 1 adult present 0 0 A 0 0 MF 63 A 1 1 ME' 64 IA OU 1 A 1 1 OU 2 A 1 1 OU 3 A 2 2 OU 4 A 0 0 OU 5 A 1+ PA 2 A PA 3 A PI 1 A PU 2 A PU 3 IA 2 adults present PU 5 A 2 eggs in nest PU 6 A 1 whole addled egg & fragments PU 7 IA RO 1 A RO 2 IA RO 3 IA RO 4 0 2 2 1 1 A 1 1 RO 5 A 1 1 RO 6 A 1 1 RO 7 A 1 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-186- Table 1 (continued) Site No. Activity Activity WE 1 IA WE 2 A WE 3 IA WE 4 and Productivity of Colorado Golden Eagles No. of Young No. Fledged Comments 1 1 A 0 0 WE 5 A 2 2 WE 6 A 1+ 1 WE 7 A 1+ 1 WE 8 A 2 0 Both chicks killed by hail WE 9 A 0 0 Egg fragments WE 10 A 2 2 WE 11 A 1+ 1 WE 12 IA WE 13 IA S~RY OF ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO 60 of 147 (38%) sites were determined Adult GOLDEN ~GLES to be active. 4S (70%) of the active sites were known to have produced. young , 39 (65%) of the active sites were known to have fledged yOtttlg. A total of 57 young were observed fledging, thus average brood size was estimated young per productive thus average young per productive at 1.30 site. A total of 54 young were observed nests, in 42 nests prior to fledging site. to have fledged from 41 success was estimated at 1.32 incubating in nest �OCCUPANCY OF COLORADO PEREGRINE FALCON EYRIES 1964-1975 TABLE 2 Site 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -io *11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Pre1964 + + + 1964 1965 P P P P A A M P + 1960 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 P P P P P P P P M P P P P P P P P P A P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P M P M V P P P V P V P V V V P V V V V V V V V V V V Ml/ VP P2/ P P A P V P A F + + + + + + + + + V V + V P V P M P A V V V V V V V V V V A !:J:./ V V V V A V V A P V A V V V V V V V V V V r= V P V3/ r= V V Vp=. 5/ V V V V V V V V V P P = Pair, M = Male, F = Female, A = Lone Adult, V = Site was Vacant, Blank Spaces = No Data Available. * These are neighboring sites (approximately 1 mile apart) and this could represent a shift of one pair from site 10 to ll. 1/ Late reports indicate the pair may have relocated 2-3 miles upstream of the historic site.• ~/ Lone adult male observed throughout most of season, attracted juvenile female in June. 1/ Adult male was replaced by a juvenile male midway through incubation. !:J:.I An adult female was found dead in the vicinity of the eyrie. 11 Adurt female disappeared shortly after hatching. Male succeeded in rearing two young. I I-' co -...J I �-188~BLE 3 RESULTS OF NESTING ATTEMPTS Eyrie Visits Eggs Young 6 9 1+, 4 o , ~f 5 7 4 ? 7 5 o o 11 4 3 o 15 6 4 4, 2 Pair present March 30; adult female in addition of pair observed April 25; 4 eggs were discovered May 4; 4 young were found on May 17 and an additional chick from eyrie 6 was added; female disappeared June 20; 3 dead chicks were discovered July 1 - 2 chicks were alive; 2 young fledged mid-July. 25 2 ? 3, 3 Pair observed mid-May; 3 half-grown young observed early July; all young assumed to have fledged successfully. !f First figure refers to the number fledged. OF COLORADO PEREGRINES IN 1975 Remarks Pair observed copulating March 26; incubating April 13; ceased incubating April 25; 1+ broken eggs found April 28; 4 new eggs were found May 19 and 2 were removed for artificial incubation; pair failed and 1 broken egg was found June 16; artificially incubated eggs hatched and 1 chick was placed with young in eyrie 5 and 1 chick in eyrie 15. Pair present at site March 30; observed copulating April 25 when they should have been incubating - had also moved to a new portion of the cliff; not incubating May 2; incubating May 22; 4 eggs were found May 27; 2 young were found June 30 and 1 artificially incubated and hatched young from eyrie 6 was added; only adult male was observed August 10 and 11 - assume the nesting attempt failed as the female and young could not be found. Lone adult male observed on visits from March 28 through May 1; adult male and yearling female observed June 6. Pair observed March 29; 3 spoiled eggs discovered May 31 and the adult male had been replaced by a yearling male. in the brood, second figure refers to the number �-189TABLE 4 OCCUPANCY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO PEREGRINE EYRIES 1972-75 Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 4F of eyries visited 15 23 25 26 4ft of occupied sites 11 12 9 8 4F of adult pairs 8 11 7 6 4F of lone adults 3 1 2 1 4F of young fledged 2 11 51/ 4F of young/adult pai~/ 0.2 1.6 0.8 . ell/ % of sites occup1.e 73% 52% 38% 31% % of sites w/adu1t pairs 53% 49% 29% 27% 1/ One site contained 3 young, but adult female and young could not be found 2 to 3 weeks after they should have fledged. is reduced to 5. Thus, probable fledging success 1/ An average of at least 1.4 young fledged per pair is considered necessary to sustain the wild population. 1/ Between 10% and 20% of the eyrie sites would normally be expected to be unoccupied in any particular year. �-190TABLE 5 EGGSHELL CONDITION OF COLORADO PEREGRINES Eyrie Year 1 2 1973 1973 1974 " " " Thickness (mm) 11 W/Membrane vto Membrane " " " 6 1974 1975 1971 " " 1975 5 " " " 7 8 10 11 1974 1973 1974 1975 " " " II. " II 15 1974 1975 ." .319 .299 .325 .305 .287 .282 .259 .259 .259 .284 .294 .300 .246 .292 .272 .254 .297 .305 .297 .284 .305 .203 Ratcliff's Index 1.62 1.52 1.43 1.39 Remarks Hatched 1.49 Hatched .231 .278 .288 .244 .203 .236 Broken Hatched Hatched .248 1.45 1.33 .244 .234 1.64 .1.61 1.61 Hatched Spoiled Spoiled Spoiled .252 Means 1975 1974 1973 Pre 19402.1 .273 .280 .295 .395 (n=8) (n=7) (n=3) .235 (n=7) .289 (n=3) 11 Measurements taken around waist of egg 11 Eggshells fromA1ta., Sask., Montana; Anderson and Hickey, 1972. of XVth Int. Orith. Congr. In ,Proceedings �-191- TABLE 6 ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO PRAIRIE FALCONS Site No. Activity No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged 3+ 3+ BE 1 A BO 1 A BO 2 A CN 1 A 3+ 3+ CN 2 A 3+ 3+ CN 3 A 1+ 1+ Commerrt s CN 4 DO 1 A DO 2 A DO 3 A 3+ 3+ DO 4 A 3 3 DO 5 A DO 6 A 0 0 DO 7 A DO 8 A DO 9 A 2+ 2+ DO 10 A 5 5 DO 11 A 5 5 DO 12 A 5 5 DO 13 A DO 14 A 4+ 4+ DO 15 A 3+ 3+ DO 16 A DO 17 A 1+ 1+ DO 20 A 0 0 DO 21 A 3+ 3 DO 22 A 4 DO 23 A 1 5 Adult incubating 2 Adult incubating EP 1 EP 2 A EP 3 A EP 4 A EP 5 A EP 6 IA EP 7 IA ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-192- Table 6 Site No. (continued) Activity and Productivity of Colorado Prairie Falcons Activity No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged Comments EP 8 A EB 1 A 4 4 EB 2 A 4 4 EB 3 A 0 0 EB 6 A 4 4 EB 7 A 5 5 GR 1 A 4 4 GR 2 A 0 0 GR 3 A 5 4 4 GR 4 A HU 1 A HU 2 A 2 0 0 HU 4 A JA 1 A LS 4 A 4 4 LS 5 A 5 5 JE 1 A 1+ 1+ JE 2 A 2+ 2+ 3 A PA 2 A PA 3 A 1+ 1+ PU 2 IA PU 7 A 0 0 Adult incubating PU 10 IA PU 11 A PU 12 IA PU 13 A RG 1 A 0 0 Adult incubating RG 2 A RO 1 A 3 3 RO 2 A 5 5 SA 1 A SA 2 A MF 5 Adult incubating 2 addled eggs ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-193- Table 6 (continued) Activity and Productivity of Colorado Prairie Falcons Site No. Activity No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged Comments LR 1 A 4 4 LR 2 A 4 4 LR 3 A 4 4 LR 5 A 4 4 LR 6 A 3+ 3 WE 1 A 3 3 WE 2 A 5 1 WE 3 A 1+ 1 WE 4 A 1+ 1+ WE 5 A 0 0 WE 6 A 5 5 WE 7 A 3 3 WE 8 A 2+ 2 WE 9 A 4 0 all young appeared to be blind WE 10 A 2+ 1 one dead below nest WE 11 A 5 5 WE 12 A 5 5 WE 13 A 3 1 WE 14 A 4 4 WE 15 A 2+ 2 WE 16 A 5 2+ WE 17 A ? 0 bobcat scat in nest WE 18 A 0 0 adult incubating WE 19 A 0 0 WE 20 A 2+ 2 WE 21 A 2 2 WE 22 IA WE 23 A WE 24 A 5 5 WE 25 A WE 26 A 3+ 3 WE 27 A 2 5 2 dead young in nest, 2 dead below 2 eggs addled 2 young dead below nest 3 eggs were addled adult female dead below nest ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-194- Table 6 Site No. (continued) Activity and Productivity of Colorado Prairie Falcons Activity WE 28 A WE 29 A WE 30 A WE 31 WE 32 No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged 0 1+ 1 0 0 A 2+ 2 A 5 5 2 Comments all young were taken 2 addled eggs TABLE 7 SUMMARY OF ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY OF COLORADO PRAIRIE FALCONS 99 of 105 (94%) sites were determined to be active 70 (71%) of the active sites produced eggs. 58 (59%) of the active sites hatched young. 55 (56%) of the active sites fledged young. Total number of young observed prior to fledging = 135 Average brood size of 32 sites with known production = 4.22 Adjusted young production for all sites (58) hatching young Total number known to have fledged from 41 sites = 138 Average known fledging success = 3.37 Adjusted fledging success of all productive sites (56) = 188 244 �-195TABLE 8 1975 Site No. Activity OSPREY ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY No. of Eggs No. of Young No. Fledged Connnents GR 1 IA GR 2 A GR 3 A GR 4 A GR 5 A ? ? GR 6 A 0 0 GR 6a IA Artificial nest sticks blown off platform. Adult nearby. GR 7 IA Artificial nest GR 8 IA Artificial nest JA 1 A JA 2 IA JA 3 IA IA 1 IA LP 1 IA SUMMARY 1 Egg on ground, abandoned 0 0 0 Artificial nest, adult incubating empty nest 0 OF ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY 6 or 14 (43%) sites were determined 1 of 6 (17%) sites produced o of the active nest 0 Adult OF COLORADO OSPREYS to be active. eggs. sites produced Sticks added to nest, adult nearby or fledged young. present �-196TABLE 9 RESULTS OF AERIAL FLIGHTS FOR GOLDEN ~GLES Northeastern Colorado 1972-1976 (10% sample of 3,000 square miles) Date Adults Juveniles Unknown Eagles per 100 sq. mi. Estimate of Total Eagles Jan. 24, 1973 16 8 0 8.0 240 Jan. 16, 1974 19 3 0 7.3 220 Jan. 22, 1975 22 5 0 9.0 270 Feb. 19, 1976 17 3 0 6.7 200 Northwestern Colorado 1972-1976 (7% sample of 4,100 square miles) Jj Date Adults Juveniles Unknown Eagles per Estimate of 100 sq. mi. Total Eagles Jan. 25 and Feb. 26, 1972 91.6 86 80 97 3,757 Jan. 23, 1973 41.5 35 14 70 1,700 Jan. 22 and Jan. 29, 1974 6 8 47 21.2 871 Jan. 29, 1975 11 8 17 12.5 514 Jan. 26, 1976 29 3 10 14.6 600 San Luis Valley, Colorado 1976 (10% sample of 2,500 square miles) Date Jan. 29, 1976 Adults Juveniles Unknown Eagles per 100 sq. mi. Estimate Total Eagles 17 9 2 11.2 280 1/ Flights from 1972 through 1975 were conducted by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service �-197TABLE 10 RESULTS OF AER~L FLIGHTS FOR BALD EAGLES Northeastern Colorado 1972-1976 (exact count) Date Adults Juveniles Unknown Total % Juveniles Jan. 24, 1973 18 13 0 31 42% Jan. 16, 1974 16 15 0 31 48% Jan. 22, 1975 28 14 0 42 33% Feb. 19, 1976 19 10 0 29 35% Northwestern Colorado 1972-1976 {7% same1e of 42100 sguare miles 2 Date Adults Juveniles Total Eagles per 100 sg. mi. Estimate of Total Eagles Jan. 25 and Feb. 26, 1972 1/ 35 23, 1973 1/ 4 12.2 1.4 500 .Jan , 1/ 1/ Jan. 22 and Jan. 29, 1974 1/ 1/ 5 1.7 71 Jan. 29, 1975 1 0 1 0.4 14 Jan. 26, 1976 7 4 11 3.8 157 57 San Luis Valle~2 Colorado 1976 {10% same1e of 22500 sguare miles2 . Date Jan. 29, 1976 Adults Juveniles Total Eagles per 100 sg. mi. 28 12 40 16.0 Estimate of Total Eagles 1/ No distinction was made between adult and juveniles on these flights. 400 ��-199- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT ~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ Pro j ec t No. -..:.:.W_-..=1.::2..:,4_R:.:--4-=- _ Raptor Work _ Job No. 2 Plan No. Job Title: Period .::.1 Raptor Covered: Population March and Productivity 27, 1975 through Studies February Investigations in Northeastern 28, 1976 ABSTRACT Nine golden eagle, nests were occupied Colorado. 31 prairie on the 2,000 Productivity of golden to 1973 and 1974, but the number remained stable. falcon, and 12 ferruginous square mile eagles study area in Northeastern continued of productive ,hawk to be low compared prairie falcon nests has Colorado ��-201- RAPTOR POPULATION AND PRODUCTIVITY COLORADO STUDIES IN NORTHEASTERN Gerald R. Craig To intensively chronology, raptors habitat document nesting requirements, on the Pawnee National and wintering productivity Grasslands SEGMENT densities, migration and prey preferences and adjacent prairie of lands. OBJECTIVES 1. Document exact nesting on the Pawnee National densities and productivity of raptors present Grasslands and adjacent prairie lands. 2. Document 3. While at nests, record disturbance factors, habitat type and nest site features. prey items at nest sites. land-use practices, RESULTS While fewer active golden eagle nests were located in 1975 (22 sites were occupied fledged in 1974, while 9 were active (5 young in 1974 and 10 in 1975). is blamed on the continued population in 1975), more young were The low number decline of rabbits of active nests in Northeastern Colorado. The number of active prairie falcon nests increased in 1974 to 97% in 1975) and the average young/site in 1974 to 4.15 young/site decreased slightly brood size increased (from 2.94 young/site (53 young fledged Ferruginous in 1975). to have fledged remained nearly in 1974 compared with 58 young fledged hawk nesting success improved considerably 12 of 14 sites in 1975 while only 6 of 18 sites (33%) were occupied sites increased 1974 while 9 sites produced fledged success in 1974 to 2.79 young/site not all the known nest sites were checked, of productive (from 3.92 in 1975), but the fledging Thus, the total number of young estimated constant in 1975 (from 79% significantly in 1975). in 1975. While (86%) were active in 1974. The number (only 1 site was productive young in 1975) and the total number of young in 1974 was 35 while only 3 young fledged in 1974. in �-202- ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF GOLDEN EAGLES IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO Site No. Activity No. of Young No. Fledged 1 1 Comments WE 1 IA WE 2 A WE 3 IA WE 4 A 0 0 WE 5 A 2 2 WE 6 A 1+ 1 WE 7 A 1+ 1 WE 8 A 2 0 Both chicks killed by hail WE 9 A 0 0 Egg fragments in nest WE 10 A 2 2 WE 11 A 1+ 1 WE 12 IA WE 13 IA S~RY Adult incubating OF ACTUAL PRODUCTIVITY OF GOLDEN EAGLES IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO 9 of 13 sites (69%) were determined to be active. 7 (78%) of the active sites produced young. 6 (67%) of the active sites fledged young. A total of 10 young were produced by 7 sites (average brood size 1.43 young). A total of 8 young were fledged from 6 sites (average fledging success = 1.34 young). �-203- PREY OBSERVED AT GOLDEN EAGLE NESTS IN NORTHEASTERN COLORADO Prey Item Number Great Horned Owl 1 Mallard 1 Mule Deer (leg of fawn and hindquarter adult) 2 White-tailed Jackrabbit 1 Black-tailed Jackrabbit 5 Cottontail Rabbit 8 �-204- ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF PRAIRIE FALCONS. IN NORTH~STERN Site No. Activity No. of Eggs COLORADO No. of Young No. Fledged Comments WE 1 A 3 3 WE 2 A 5 1 WE 3 A 1+ 1 WE 4 A 1+ 1+ WE 5 A 0 0 WE 6 A 5 5 WE 7 A 3 3 WE 8 A 2+ 2 WE 9 A 4 0 all young appeared to be blind WE 10 A 2+ 1 one dead below nest WE 11 A 5 5 WE 12 A 5 5 WE 13 A 3 1 WE 14 A 4 4 WE 15 A 2+ 2 WE 16 A 5 2+ WE 17 A ? 0 bobcat scat in nest WE 18 A 0 0 adult incubating WE 19 A 0 0 WE 20 A 2+ 2 WE 21 A 2 2 WE 22 IA WE 23 A WE 24 A 5 5 WE 25 A WE 26 A 3+ 3 adult female dead below nest WE 27 A WE 28 A 0 all young were taken WE 29 A WE 30 A WE 31 WE 32 2 5 2 dead young in nest, 2 dead below 2 eggs addled 2 young dead below nest 3 eggs were addled .-- 1+ 1 0 0 A 2+ 2 A 5 5 2 2 addled eggs �-205- SUMMARY OF ACTUAL AND ESTIMATED PRODUCTIVITY OF PRAIRIE FALCONS IN NORTH~STERN COLORADO 31 of 32 sites (97%) were determined to be active 22 (71%) of the active sites were known to have produced young. Total number of young known to have been produced by 13 productive sites = 54 (4.15 young/site) Total adjusted productivity for 22 sites = 91 young Total number of young known to have fledged from 19 productive sites = 53 (2.79 young/site) Total adjusted fledging success for 21 productive sites 58 young �-206- ACTIVITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF FERRUGINOUS HAWKS IN NORTH~STERN COLORADO Site No. Comments Activity No. of Young No. Fledged WE 1 A 4 4 WE 2 A 1+ 1 WE 3 A 2+ 2 WE 4 A 4 4 WE 5 A 3 3 WE 6 A 3 3 WE 7 A 3 3 WE 8 A 3 3 WE 9 IA WE 10 IA WE 11 A 3 3 WE 12 A 3 3 WE 13 A 4 4 WE 14 A 2+ 2 S~RY 1 addled egg in nest artificial nest structure OF PRODUCTIVITY OF FERRUGINOUS HAWKS IN NORTH~STERN COLORADO 12 of 14 (86%) of the sites were active. 12 of 12 (100%) of the active sites produced and fledged young. Total number of young known produced by 9 productive sites = 30 (3.34 young/site) Total adjusted productivity of 12 sites = 40 young Total number of young known fledged by 12 sites = 35 (2.92 young/site) �-207- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~o~l~o~r=a~d~o _ Project No. W~-~1~24~-~R~-_4~ _ Raptor Investigations _ Job 3 Work Plan No. ~l~ Raptor population Job Title: Period Covered: and Productivity Studies March 27, 1975 through February in Southeastern Colorado 28, 1976 ABSTRACT In Southeastern Colorado, three out of nine golden eagle nests fledged a total of 5 young. Twenty-six of 38 ferruginous young and 60 of 91 Swainson's of productive 114 young. The number nests and total number of young of golden eagles and ferrugi- nous hawks increased Swainson's hawk nests produced hawk nests fledged 74 significantly hawks declined. in 1975 while the nesting success of ��-209- RAPTOR POPUL&TION AND PRODUCTIVITY William To intensively chronology, habitat C. Andersen document National COLORADO and Gerald R. Craig nesting requirements, raptors on the Comanche STUDIES IN SOUTHEASTERN and wintering productivity Grasslands densities, migration and prey preferences and adjacent prairie of lands. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To continue golden eagles, prairie red-tailed Comanche 2. documentation of nesting falcons, densities ferruginous and productivity hawks, Swainson's hawks, great horned owls, and burrowing National To continue Grasslands documentation den eagles, prairie and adjacent prairie ferruginous hawks, great horned owls and burrowing 3. To continue documentation 4. To investigate turbance factors, habitat relief, etc. To continue documentation 6. To continue to gather To categorize as dis- type, human use, dominant vegetation, of migration trend information important hawks, owls. nest sites by such features chronology. on wintering tions. 7. cycles of gol- of prey items at nest sites. and categorize 5. lands. hawks, Swainson's red-tailed hawks, owls on the of the timing of breeding falcons, of wintering habitats. raptor popula", �-210- RESULTS Three of nine golden eagle nests were successful of 5 young which averages 2 successfully fledged attempt. fledged 3 young. Twenty-six In 1974 only site. of 38 ferruginous hawk nests 74 young for an average of 2.85 young fledged per successful nesting Thus, the average to increase fledging (from 1.47 young/site 2.85 young/site dropped 1.67 young per productive in fledging a total in 1975). success for ferruginous in 1973 to 1.89 young/site in 1974 to The number of occupied Swainson's hawk nests to 91 (176 sites were occupied in fledging in 1974) and only 60 sites succeeded 114 young (1.90 young/nesting Due to mechanical difficulties, attempt). weather conditions the migration and winter trend counts were discontinued. was available to establish that the trend information overall population hawks continues chronology of movements Sufficient data and it was determined could not yield satisfactory densities. and lack of funding, information about �-211- ACTIVITY AND NESTING SUCCESS - 1975 SOUTH~STERN COLORADO No.Successful Nests Young Fledged Young Fledged! Succ , Nest Species County Nest Attempts Golden Eagle Baca 2 1 2 2.00 Bent 2 0 0 0.00 Las Animas 3 1 2 2.00 Otero 1 1 1 1.00 Lincoln 1 0 0 9 3 5 0.00 1.67 Baca 5 4 14 3.50 Bent 3 2 3 1.50 Cheyenne 3 1 3 3.00 Crowley 3 2 5 2.50 Kiowa 3 1 3 3.00 Las Animas 4 4 12 3.00 Lincoln 9 6 16 2.67 Otero 8 6 18 3.00 38 26 74 2.85 Baca 24 18 42 2.34 Bent 4 2 2 Crowley 9 5 8 1.00 1.60 Elbert 4 2 5 2.50 Kiowa 5 2 4 2.00 Las Animas 8 6 14 Lincoln 12 7 12 2.33 1.71 Otero 25 18 27 1.50 91 60 114 1.90 Ferrug. Hawk Swainson's Hawk ��-213- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ Project No. __~W_-~1~2~4~-~R~-_4~ ~R~a~p~t~o~r~I~n~v~e~s~t==ig~a~t~i~o~n~s~ _ Work Plan No. ~J~ob~N~o~.~2~ ~2~ _ Job Title: __~P~e~r~e~g~r~i~n~e~F~a~lc~on~~P~r~o~p~a~g~a~t~~~·o~n~a~n~d~R~e~i~n~t~r~o~d~u~c~t~~~·o~n~ _ Period Covered: March 27, 1975 through February 28, 1976 ABSTRACT Four pair of peregrine falcons laid 39 eggs of which 10 were fertile, 10 of the eggs were broken by breeding adults. cially incubated and five young hatched The ten fertile eggs were artifi- successfully. Poor hatching success may have been due to excessive relative humidity which caused abnormal weight egg loss. Two of four eggs were removed from a wild peregrine artificially incubated. falcon eyrie and were The chicks were then returned to other wild eyries to be reared with the wild broods. In both cases the chicks were readily adopted. ��-215- PEREGRINE FALCON PROPAGATION AND REINTRODUCTION STUDIES James H. Enderson and Gerald R. Craig To captively produce eggs and/or young from peregrine into the nests of wild peregrine falcons for reintroduction falcons that have low or no natural SEGMENT productivity. OBJECTIVES 1. To establish the cause for reproductive 2. To produce young or eggs from peregrine falcons being held in captivity at the facilities of Dr. James H. Enderson. ~. To visit wild peregrine falcon eyries where wild adults are present replace spoiled eggs with captively produced eggs or young. 4. To keep those eyries containing captively produced eggs or young under observation to ascertain the success of the endeavor. S~RY Attached breeding In addition at Colorado The particular successfully incubate the peregrine efforts which were reported falcon nest was manipulated production. site in question by Enderson, in an effort to increase wild has had a history of failing to and hatch the first clutch of eggs that are laid. 1972, the wild pair have experienced has been laid. which summarized College. to the captive breeding one wild peregrine and OF RESULTS is a report by James H. Enderson project It is suspected cause for the egg breakage. 'recycled' failure of wild peregrines. egg breakage that pesticide However, sometime induced Since after the first clutch ~ggshell thinning is the each time the first clutch failed, and laid a second clutch which they successfully hatched. the pair In 1975, an effort was made to visit the nest just after the first clutch was laid so the eggs could be removed and artificially incubated so they wouldn't abuse they experience adults. The thought was that the adults under incubating would then recycle and lay a second clutch as they had in previous tunately, when the site was visited, adults had already had completed abandoned the site and moved the second clutch. in hatching had already years. occurred to another nesting disturbed to the Unfor- and the location and The second nest location was adjacent trail and the adults were frequently they would not succeed egg breakage be exposed to a by hikers and it was feared that the second clutch. Therefore, it was decided that two of the four eggs in the clutch would be removed and artificially incubated �-216- and the adults would be permitted to incubate adults were successful the eggs, the two chicks that were hatched in captivity in hatching would be returned to the site to be naturally If the wild pair failed to successfully and two two-week to care for them. old prairie at the site and left there for most of the day. recognize young. Unfortunately, young were placed on the nest ledge for the adults were not inclined nest ledge was revisited they were returned and the wild adults had failed to hatch their eggs the two captive hatched several hours, raised by the adults. in captivity, to the wild eyrie site to be placed with the wild hatched and although If the and held in captivity. days after the two young had hatched the worst had been realized two eggs. hatch the eggs, not all would be lost since at least two would have been hatched Several the remaining them and all efforts to attract The next day, the falcon chicks were placed Again, the wild pair would not the wild adults back to the nest ledge were abandoned. After the two peregrine falcon chicks were about two weeks of age, one of them was placed in another wild peregrine Unfortunately, the adult female disappeared falcon eyrie with a brood of four young. within several days and the adult male was forced to attempt to raise the entire brood. This he could not do and three of the young died. He was successful two of the young. in rearing the orphan chick was not marked when it was placed of identifying falcon nest site which contained While proven two similarly Thus it has to be assumed in another wild peregrine aged young. but neither The site was revisited they nor the adult female that this site also experienced dif- and no young were fledged. it is difficult to assess that eggs could be removed incubated falcon chick was placed the young should have fledged, could be located. ficulties there was no way it, so its fate is unknown. The second orphan peregrine shortly after in the brood, Since and hatched. the success of the endeavor, from wild pairs of peregrines it was conclusively and artificially The young could then be placed with wild broods at other sites and would be readily adopted by the wild adults. �-2171975 Falcon Breeding Peregrine James H. Enderson, This is a report on the results Colorado College Zoological in 1975. Society work is to produce Rocky Mountain The significance in producing many of these were produced the release of this indigenous to the from the region official planning is derived for augmentation In 1975, Enderson in the region,down of and J. Craig from 14 in pair was found in 1975; it was successful Presently from the western U.S. in captivity, in breeding being drawn up by the Rocky Mountain emphasize The purpose young along with only two of the other seven pairs. are fewer than 20 pairs of peregrines at jointly by the New York of peregrines found 7 pairs of adults One additional project and falconry purposes. with birds bred in captivity. 1973 and 10 in 1974. falcon breeding of Wildlife. restocking decline and increased (Colo. Div. of Wildlife) College stock of the peregrine of captive breeding from their continuing the wild population was supported Division a captive breeding region for eventual The Colorado of the peregrine The project and the Colorado Project Report projects. The Recovery Region recovery there and Plan, currently team will almost certainly of captive bred birds as one means of affecting a recovery of the population. Summary five prairie of Past Results. This project was started falcons and eight peregrines Of the peregrines, pairs remain at the Colorado Results in 1975. College Peregrine Through 1974, (3 in 1973, 5 in 1974) were produced. one pair was sent to the breeding and a second pair to the Cornell University in 1968. facilities facilities of E. Freienmuth, in Colorado. The other two project. falcons only were held in this project including: 3 pairs adult anatum peregrines 1 adult pair, anatum female and male of unknown origin in 1975, �-218- 1 pair of adult pea1ei peregrines 1 adult anatum male 2 pairs F1 captive bred anatum peregrines 1 adult anatum male (on loan to R. Berry) The three pairs of anatum peregrines broken. nation Of the 22 intact eggs, 10 were fertile, (AI). yolk sac. Six of the ten hatched, The remaining The Peale's fertile laid 31 eggs including falcons including 9 that were later 4 by artificial insemi- but one chick died with a large external five (2 females, 3 males) are normal. laid eight eggs in three clutches, none of which were despite AI. The low productivity copulating relates to three unresolved difficulties. 1) The only pair broke seven of the 14 eggs they laid, these were mainly by the female from a high perch. 2) Of 19 eggs laid by the three non-copulating pairs after AI, only four (21%) were fertile. eggs, all were artificially Information on eggshell dropped 3) Of the total of ten fertile incubated, but only five successfully condition was collected so. and awaits analysis along with that from former years. The AI technique be readily placed elsewhere, was improved with the help of R. Graham, and semen can now in the oviduct. this procedure requires Although other t echnfques the use of a speculum have been worked out to spread the vent open- ing. Proper water obtained incubation loss from some artificially incubated since two eggs had lots of fluid remaining eggs was apparently at death near the end of and three dead chicks near full term had large unretracted The following table shows the weight that hatched or went nearly loss data collected full term. Humidity 1.10 g per 5 days as a target, and measured not yolk sacs. on nine fertile was varied eggs to yield a loss of by a human hair hygrometer of dubious �-219- accuracy. Although firm conclusions are impossible, eggs from female A (13 yrs. old) tended to lose water more rapidly than eggs from the other female. Yet her eggs had unretracted yolk sacs and remaining fluid, even with considerable weight loss. There is a possibility her eggs are initially abnormal. If so, and if the eggs of pair B are a guide, then a weight loss of 1.0 to 1.2 g per five days (2.02.5% loss of initial weight per five days) may be in the proper range. 1975 ** % loss per 5 days Result Period measured (days) Wt. loss (g) Wt. loss per 5 days (g) 47.49 23 5.17 1.10 2.4 Normal 46.26 23 6.03 1.30 2.7 Dead-yolk sac & fluid 44.99 21 5.83 1.40 3.1 Normal 40.36 21 5.95 1.40 3.5 Dead-yolk sac 45.90 27 5.83 1.10 2.4 Dead-yolk sac 47.63 23 4.49 0.95 2.0 Normal 47.41 23 3.93 0.85 1.8 Dead-fluid 45.77 21 4.59 1.10 2.4 Normal 45.71 21 4.26 1.00 2.2 Normal Pair Initial wt. (g) A *** B -- Weight of Artificially Incubated Peregrine Eggs* *Ro11ex incubator - 98.50F. **Usual1y measured 7 days after last egg in clutch was laid. ***Copu1ating pair. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/aa62caa859ff91d6d63d0b78b2e9b169.pdf f1d5d0af79b491ff747e1f268f10c4c5 PDF Text Text July, 1977 -1- JOB PROGRESS State of Project REPORT COLORADO W-10l-R-19 No. Game Range Investigations Work Plan No. 4 Job Title of Range Manipulation Inventory Period Covered: Personnel: Job No. la ------------------------------ Projects in Colorado April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Roland C. Kufeld and Regional Game Biologists ABSTRACT An inventory was made of all range vegetation-modification projects completed during 1975 in the western half of Colorado, on lands administered by the u.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 1208, and Bureau of Land Management - O. ��-3- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock; and to provide desired IBM listings of these data to cooperating agencies upon their request. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. 2. To compile, codify, process and analyze inventory data. 3. To provide desired IBM listings of inventory data to cooperating agencies upon their request. METHODS AND MATERIALS An inventory was made of all range vegetation modification projects cornr pleted through 1972, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25 on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (Kufeld 1968, 1970,1971, 1973, 1974, 1975 and 1976). Kufeld (1968 and 1970) also covered projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations through 1969. This report concerns vegetation modification projects completed on U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Bureau of Land Management lands west of Interstate Highway 25 during 1975. Data were collected using procedures outlined in Colorado Division of Wildlife Administrative Directive No. 204 entitled "Range Vegetation Modification Projects", and by Kufeld (1968, 1970 and 1974). Inventory data were transferred from original data sheets to Mark Page Reader Forms, and then to IBM cards. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Acreages treated during 1975, on all lands administered by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management west of Interstate Highway 25, are shown by vegetation type and kind of treatment in Table 1. All of the U.S. Forest Service projects completed in Colorado during 1975 were located on the San Juan National Forest. No vegetation modification projects were completed on U.s. Bureau of Land Management lands in Colorado during 1975. �-4Table 1. Acreages of range land treated during 1975 in Colorado by the U.S. Forest Service. 1/ Vegetation Type Grass Sagebrush 2/ Browse - Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Plow 1 66 66 1 66 66 1 250 250 1 250 250 Chaal.ni 3/ 1 175 0 Burn 2 517 0 3 692 0 1 200 200 1 200 200 6 1,208 516 Plow Pinyon-Juniper Juniper Burn All Vegetation Types GRAND TOTAL Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment 1./ All vegetation modification projects completed by the U.S. Forest Service in 1975 were located on the San Juan National Forest. All vegetation modification projects conducted during 1975 in the ''browse'' vegetation type were in the "oakbrush " subtype. 1/ Chaining includes chaining, cabling, railing and bulldozing. �-5- A total of 1,208 acres were treated on Forest Service lands in 1975. To date (through Dec. 31, 1975) a total of 588,967 acres have been treated in Colorado west of 1-25 on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Of this, 246,183 acres were on Forest Service and 342,784 acres were on Bureau of Land Management lands. Procedures outlined in Administrative Directive No. 204, call for evaluations to be made on each vegetation modification project at the end of the 2nd, 5th, and 10th years following treatment. Two and 5-year post-treatment evaluations have been made on some vegetation projects since 1970 by regional personnel. Data from these evaluations have been kept on file until enough 2 and 5 year post-treatment evaluations have been made to provide a basis for a meaningful data analysis. Due to the workload and limited available manpower within the DOW Regions some scheduled evaluations have been omitted or delayed. This has caused a breakdown in continuity of data which makes it virtually impossible to derive any useful information from the relatively limited data that has already been collected. It is recommended that the post-treatment evaluation phase of this project be discontinued at the end of the 19th project segment. It is also recommended that Division of Wildlife Management personnel be polled to determine their feelings concerning whether there is a need for any part of the inventory of range manipulation projects to be continued in the future. If it is decided that the inventory should be continued, it is recommended that it only be concerned with collecting data which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects, with no emphasis placed on evaluating their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, R. C. 1968. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. P.R.Proj. W-lOl-R-lO, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-121. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rep·. P •• R P rOJ. . W-lOl-R-12, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 59-94. 1971. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parlffi. Game Res. Rep. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-13, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-15. 1973. Inventory of range man Lpu.La t i.on projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-lS, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-8. 1974. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-lOl-R-16, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-11. �-6- Kufeld, R. C. 1975. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-17, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-6. 1976. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. P.R. Proj. W-10l-R-18, WP 4, Jla, July, Part 1. p. 1-5. Prepared by 1(~·4~1 c, ){u/,t~d Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher C �-7- July, 1977 Jon FIKt.>.L REPORT Colorado State of Project No. Game Range Investigations W-10l-R-19 2 4 Job No. Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer and Elk Winter Ranges - Beaver Creek Hork Plan No. Job Title Period --------------------------~~~---------------------------------- Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Roland C. Kufeld P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To determine if deer and elk forage production and game use can be increased on overage Gambel oakbrush winter game ranges by spraying with 2,4,5-TP to induce sprouting. CURRENT STATUS Results of the study have been published under the following citation: Kufeld, Roland C. 1977. Improving Garnbel oak ranges for elk and mule deer by spraying with 2,4,5-TP. J. Range Manage. 30(1) :53-57. Prepared by 12~ c, 2/J,tu/ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher C ��July, 1977 -9JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of --------~~~~~----------- COLOR.4DO Project No. W-10l-R-19 Game Range Investigations 3 4 Job No. Experimental Improvement--o?f-nO~aTk~b-r-us-'hr--------------------on Deer, Elk and Cattle Ranges - Hightower Mountain Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Roland C. Kufeld, John Scotese. Steve Brown, John Erickson, Gordon Pepperd, ABSTRACT Five-year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made in 600 permanent meter square plots on the Hightower Mountain oak study area. Data analysis is underway and results will be presented in a future report. ��-11- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE RANGES - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production, forage quality and game use can be increased and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning of overage Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of vegetative composition and forage production changes, and the extent of deer and elk use changes which have resulted from implementation of each habitat improvement method tested. Determine if cattle exhibit a preference toward certain habitat improvement units. METHODS AND MATERIALS Post-Treatment Vegetation Measurements Five year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made in 600 permanent meter square plots on the Hightower Mountain oak study area using the same procedures employed during pre-treatment evaluations (Kufeld 1971). The measurement period was July 6, 1976 through August 6, 1976. Prior to beginning vegetation measurements observers were trained in the use of the vegetation measurement technique, and in identification of all plants on the study area. Determination of Nutrient Quality Changes Samples of plant species designated by Kufeld (1971) as "moisture indicator plants" and used to reflect changes in vegetation moisture content during the measurement period were collected in Units 5, 6, 7 and 8 between July 19, and 22, 1976, inclusive. Samples consisted of approximately 100 grams green weight of each species and were collected throughout each habitat improvement unit. In Units 5 and 7 samples were collected from those areas where it was certain burning and spraying had been severe. Samples from treated areas will be compared with those of the same species collected in Unit 6, a control area, to determine changes in nutrient quality of forage resulting from chaining, burning and spraying. Samples will be analyzed by the Division of Wildlife Research Laboratory to determine changes in content of dry matter, protein, energy and trace mineral values 5 years after treatments were applied. Laboratory analysis has not been completed at the end of the 19th project segment, so results will be presented in a later report. �-12- Photo Point Photographs Post-treatment photos were taken at permanent photo points established in 1970, prior to treatment. These show effects of spraying, burning and chaining during the fifth summer following treatment. A black and white photo, and a 35 mm color slide was taken at each photo point with the same cameras used to take pre-treatment photos. Post-Treatment Deer, Elk and Cattle Use Measurements Accumulated deer and elk pellet groups were removed from all pellet plots on August 31, 1976. Groups deposited during the winter of 1976-77 will be counted in May 1977. When pellet plots on the study area are cleared in the fall a record is always kept of the number of cow chips in each plot in order to provide an index to cattle use. The area is grazed on a rest-rotation system and was "rested" in 1976 so cattle use data were not available. This information will be collected in early September, 1977. RESULTS Post-Treatment AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Measurements Data have been summarized and are currently undergoing computer analysis by the Colorado State University Statistics Department. Data are being compared with results of the 1970 pre-treatment evaluation and 1973 2-year post-treatment evaluation, which were described by Kufeld (1975). Results of the 5-year post~treatment evaluation will be presented in a later report upon completion of the data analysis. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, R. C. 1971. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Game, Fish and Parks. P-R Project W-lOl-R-13, WP 4, J 3, Game Research Rept. July. Part One. pp. 23-86. 1975. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. of Wildlife. P-R Project W-lOl-R-17, WP 4, J 3, Game Research Rept. July. Part One. pp. 25-92. Prepared by j(~ad C, 9L~/dd Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher C �July, 1977 -13JOB FINAL REPORT Colorado State of ----------------------- Project No. W-lOl-R-19 6 vlork Plan No. Job Title Game Management Job No. 1 Unit Inventory ------------------------------------------------------------- Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 W. T. McKean, Craig Jump, and Wally Jobman ABSTRACT Only 1/2 of the Program Leader's time was spent on W-lOl-R activities during the Segment (19). The remainder was occupied in preparing an Environmental Impact Statement for the Yellow Jacket Project. During time spent on W-lOl-R, a Big Game Analysis Report was completed for Unit 12, the Williams Fork Unit. With the completion of Unit 12, eight Big Game Unit Analyses have been written. These are: Unit 11, Strawberry Creek; Unit 12, Williams Fork; Unit 21, Douglas; Unit 22, Piceance; Unit 31, Roan Creek, and Unit 32, Rifle. All reports are on file in the Research Library at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Office in Fort Collins, Colorado. ��-15- JOB PROGRESS State of July, 1977 REPORT COLORADO ------------------------------ Proj ect No. W-10l-R-19 Work Plan No. 8 Job Title of Preferred Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations 1 Job No. Digestible Nutrient~~-----------------------------Content Deer and Elk Forage Plants During Winter April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Roland C. Kufeld, Marilyn Stevens. ABSTRACf Crude protein content was determined for 45 big sagebrush and 45 Garnbel oak samples collected during January, 1976. Each species was collected from 45 sites throughout the western half of Colorado. Collection sites for each species represented 9 major areas of the state and 3 vegetation types. For sage the median crude protein level from the 9 areas is 10.1 percent and the 95 percent confidence level ranges from 8.8 to 10.6 percent. For oak the median crude level is 5.2 percent and the 95 percent confidence interval ranges from 4.6 to 5.3 percent. A 14.7 percent loss of essential oils in big sagebrush was found to occur as a result of freeze drying and grinding sagebrush samples in preparation for in-vitro digestibility trials. This loss was not significant at the 5 percent significance level. ��-17- DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF DEER AND ELK FORAGE PLANTS DURING WINTER Roland C. Kufeld P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To estimate the average digestible nutrient of variation in digestible nutrient content plants during winter. SEGMENT content values, and degree of selected range forage OBJECTIVE To determine the degree of variation in digestible selected range forage plants during winter. METHODS nutrient content of AND MATERIALS During January, 1976, five 70 to 100 gm, green weight, composite samples of each of two species, big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and Gambel oak (Quercus garnbellii), were collected from 9 widely separated areas throughout the western half of Colorado, but within the normal winter range of deer and elk. The 5 collection sites within each major area were widely separated geographically, but were situated within the same vegetation type. For sagebrush collections, 3 of the major areas represented each of the following vegetation types: sagebrush, pinyonjuniper, and Garnbel oak. Gambel oak samples were collected in the pinyonjuniper, Garnbel oak, and ponderosa pine-oak types. Oak collections consisted of current annual growth stems with leaves and acorns excluded. Sage collections consisted of current annual growth stems with leaves attached but seed stalks excluded. Samples of big sage were sealed in plastic bags, refrigerated immediately upon collection and frozen as soon thereafter as possible to prevent vaporization of essential oils which may result in unrealistically high digestion coefficients. A portion of each sample was air and oven dried, ground in a Wiley mill and subjected to proximate analysis in the Division of Wildlife Research Laboratory. Samples were analyzed to determine content of the following nutrients and minerals: Total cell contents, crude protein, ether extract, soluble ash, soluble carbohydrate, total cell walls, acid insoluble ash, lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, calcium, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, sodium. phosphorus, and zinc (Harris 1970; Adrian 1973). The remaining portion of each sample was retained for determination of digestible dry matter, gross energy and digestible energy. This analysis has not yet been completed. In preparation for this analysis the remaining portion of each oak sample was air dried and ground in a Wiley mill. Sagebrush samples were freeze dried for 7 days by the Colorado State University �-18Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory in order to minimize the loss of essential sagebrush oils which occurs during the drying process. A study was made to determine the magnitude of essential oil loss which occurs in sagebrush during the freeze drying and grinding process. Ten composite big sagebrush samples of at least 200 grams each were collected from 10 geographically widely separated areas within the normal winter range of deer and elk during February, 1976. Each 200+ gram sample was divided in half. Each half was weighed to the nearest gram, sealed in a separate plastic bag, refrigerated immediately upon collection and frozen as soon thereafter as possible. The result of this collection was 10 paired samples. One half of each pair of sagebrush samples was freeze dried and ground at a temperature just above freezing exactly as prescribed for all other sagebrush samples destined for in vitro digestibility trials. Each was weighed after freeze drying to determine moisture content. The green half of each sample was adjusted to dry weight on the basis of moisture content in the freeze dried samples. Both halves of each sample were then distilled to determine percent of essential oils lost from freeze dried and ground samples as compared to green ones. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Nutrient Content Variation Among Vegetation Types and Among Major Areas To date only the results of the crude protein determination are available. These data for big sage and Gambel oak from the 45 collection sites are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Analysis of variance shows significant differences among major areas and among vegetation types at the I-percent significance level for both sage and oak. There are also significant differences among areas within vegetation types at the 5-percent level for oak, but not for sage. Even though these significant differences occur, the differences are relatively small, biologically, as evidenced from the mean and median values in Tables 1 and 2. For sage the median crude protein level from the 9 major areas is 10.1 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranges from 8.8 to 10.6 percent. For oak the median crude protein level is 5.2 percent and the 95 percent confidence interval ranges from 4.6 to 5.3 percent. From the practical standpoint the data reflect relatively little variation in crude protein content of big sage and Gambel oak from one locality to another during mid-winter. Thus~ for management purposes median protein values may be used to estimate, with a reasonable degree of accuracy. crude protein production of big sagebrush and Gambel oak during winter on widely separated ranges. Non-parametric tolerance levels can be applied to further minimize the error incurred in projecting crude protein production based on average values (Dixon and Massey 1969). It is desirable that carrying capacity be underestimated rather than overestimated to avoid overpopUlation of the �-19- range. Non-parametric tolerance levels permit determination of the portion of the overall population of nutrient values that could possibly be encountered for a given species, which, with a 95-percent confidence, exceeds the smallest sample value. For example, using the sample means, which range from 4.6 to 5.4 percent crude protein, from the 9 areas where oak was collected, we can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area crude protein values encountered in oak in Colorado during January would exceed the minimum value of 4.6 percent. For big sage we can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area crude protein values encountered in Colorado during January would exceed the minimum value of 8.6 percent. By using the minimum value a manager could, therefore, be reasonably sure his estimate of protein production is on the conservative side. Sagebrush Essential Oil Loss in Big Due to Freeze Drying and Grinding Oil content averaged 1.3036 percent in green samples and 1.1123 percent in those which were freeze dried and ground (Table 3). These data indicate a 14.7 percent loss of essential oils due to the freeze drying and grinding process. A paired t test, however, indicated the loss was not significant at the 5 percent significance level. LITERATURE CITED Adrian, W. J. 1973. A comparison of a wet pressure digestion method with other commonly used wet and dry-ashing methods. Analyst 98:213-216. Dixon, W. J., and F. J. Massey, Jr. analysis. McGraw-Hill, 3rd ed. 1969. Introduction 638 pp. to statistical Harris, L. E. 1970. Nutrition research techniques for domestic and wild animals. Pub. by Lorin E. Harris, 1408 Highland Dr., Logan, Utah. Vol. 1. Prepared by -&fc.a~ C'J?BM oland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher C �Table 1. Big sage crude protein content (%) from three vegetation types during January. Oak Pinyon-JuniEer Ponderosa Pine-Oak Steamboat SiltB. CanyonPaoniaSpgs.-Hayden Carbondale Cedaredge Meeker Eagle Craig Middle Park Gunnison PiceanceStrawberry Naturita CortezDurango 12.2 12.4 9.0 9.2 8.6 9.4 10.4 9.6 10.2 8.6 12.4 12.4 8.6 11.8 10.4 9.2 9.4 9.4 10.0 11.4 10.8 10.8 9.8 10.4 8.8 8.2 7.6 12.2 11.2 9.6 10.4 10.0 9.8 8.8 8.2 7.6 8.8 9.2 11.4 8.8 10.4 11.6 9.2 8.8 8.0 11. 3 10.6 9.6 10.1 10.3 9.3 8.8 8.6 X (Area) 10.4 X (Vegetation Type) 10.0 10.8 = 9.9 Total Median = 10.1 Total Mean 8.9 I N 0 I �Table 2. Gambel oak crude protein content (%) from three vegetation types during January. Pinyon-JuniEer Ponderosa Pine-Oak DurangoLaVetaPagosa Denver Rye Springs Castle rock Steamboat Spgs .-Hayden Oak SiltCarbondaleEagle DoloresMancos MeekerRifle Naturita Colo. Spgs.Canon City 5.4 5.0 5.2 4.4 4.4 5.0 5.6 5.6 5.2 5.0 4.8 5.6 4.4 4.4 5.2 4.8 5.2 5.6 4.8 4.6 4.8 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.4 4.4 5.2 5.6 4.8 6.0 5.0 4.2 5.2 5.0 4.6 5.6 5.6 4.6 5.6 4.8 4.8 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 I N I-' I X (Area) 4.8 5.3 5.4 4.6 4.6 5.1 5.2 5.2 X (Vegetation Type) 5.2 Total Mean = 5.0 Total Median = 5.2 4.8 5.2 5.3 �-22- Table 3. Essential oil loss due to freeze drying and grinding paired big sagebrush samples collected during January. Percent of 10 Oil Content Paired Sample Number Distilled Green Distilled After Freeze Drying And Grinding 1 1.5803 0.8933 -0.0687 2 1.8600 1. 3017 -0.0543 3 1.5100 1. 3288 -0.0122 4 1.0900 0.8789 -0.2111 5 1.0495 0.9307 -0.1188 6 1.2300 1.5508 +0 .3208 7 0.9700 1.0119 +0.0419 8 1.0711 1.1492 +0.0781 9 1.5048 1.0521 -0.4527 10 1.1700 1.0252 -0.1448 x 1. 3036 1.1123 -0.1913 Loss or Gain Due to Drying And Grinding 1/ This represents a 14.7 percent loss of essential oils due to freeze drying and grinding. It is not significant at the 5 percent significance level. �July, 1977 -23JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. REPORT Deer-Vehicle W-125-R-3 Accident Investigations Work Plan No. Job Title Period 1 Job No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Deer Vehicle Accidents Statewide and Methods and Devices to Reduce Them Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Thomas D. I. Beck, Claudia A. Doose, James D. Fleming, Sharon L. McDonnell, Robert W. Morse, Kenneth R. Kincaid, Dale F. Reed, Thomas N. Woodard, Area Supervisors and Wildlife Conservation Officers. ABSTRAcr Five methods, devices, or structures related to reducing the number of deer-vehicle accidents were evaluated or experimentally tested. These were highway lighting, underpasses, overpasses, 2.44-m fences and one-way deer gates, and deer guards. No additional data on the effect of highway lighting on the rate of deer-vehicle accidents were obtained because of mild winter conditions. No major changes occurred with underpass use. The experimental procedure for manipulating the Dowd deer overpass width was implemented for the fall season. Twenty-five and 19 crossings, occurring during control (4.93 m) and variable (2.48 m) widths, respectively, were reviewed on the video surveillance system. Although preliminary, no major behavioral differences were detected. The average reduction of deervehicle accidents adjacent six 2.44-m fences was 75.8 percent. No data were obtained on deer guard prototypes V and VI. ��-25- DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENTS STATEWIDE AND METHODS AND DEVICES TO REDUCE THEM Dale F. Reed and Thomas P.N.O. D. I. Beck OBJECTIVE Locate and examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas in Colorado and recommend methods or structures which may reduce deer-vehicle accidents in these areas. Subsequently, measure the effects of methods recommended and investigate deer responses to various experimental structures. SEGMENT Job 1 - Monitoring statewide. 1. 2. 3. potentially 2. 3. 4. 2. accident of highway lighting on number responses of deer to highway areas of deer underpasses. Measure deer use of underpasses and the extent reluctance associated with their use. Job 4 - Evaluation 1. deer-vehicle Measure and describe the luminance on an illuminated 1.I-km segment of Colorado Highway 82. Determine if deer-vehicle accidents are affected by the fixed illumination on the l.l-km segment of Colorado Highway 82. Investigate and compare responses of motorists to deer on the highway, with and without fixed illumination. Investigate and compare deer responses to motorists, with and without fixed illumination. Job 3 - Evaluate 1. critical Locate and examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas in Colorado. Recommend methods or devices which may reduce the problem for these critical accident areas. Select recommended underpasses, overpasses, 2.44-m fence lengths, or other devices or methods for evaluation when sample size considerations can be met. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects killed by vehicles. 1. OBJECTIVES of deer responses to highway of behavioral overpasses. Determine the use of overpasses by deer in critical highway deer kill areas. Compare detailed deer behavioral responses to overpasses after moderate to high use of the structures or immediate areas has been documented. �-26- Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses to highways. 1. 2. (8-ft) fencing adjacent Determine the reductions in deer-vehicle accidents on highways after the installation of various lengths of 2.44-m fence. Measure deer movements in relation to 2.44-m fences. Job 6 - Evaluating 1. to 2.44-m responses of deer to guards. Compare deer responses to a black-and-white scintillation and roll-bar (VI) deer guard prototypes under controlled conditions. DESCRIPTION Job 1 - Monitoring wide. potentially Highway Pojar OF AREAS critical (1972a) and Woodard Woodard (1975) described this area. (1975) described this area. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects by vehicles. Canyon this area. this area. 50 - Salida East (1976a) described ~ighway this area. 550 - Colona-Ridgway (1976a) described Highway Woodard (1973b) described 6-24 (1-70) - Eagle-Glenwood Highway Woodard (1973a, 1974) described 82 - Glenwood~Basa1t (1969) and Woodard Highway this area. 70 - Avon-Wolcott (1972a) and Woodard Myers areas state- West (1973a, 1975) described (1972a) and Woodard Highway accident 70 - Eagle East Interstate Pojar deer-vehicle 6-24 (1-70) -Rifle Interstate Pojar (V) this area. of highway lighting 82 - Jammeron Curve Pojar et al. (1975) described this area. on number of deer killed �-27- Job 3 - Evaluate responses of deer to highway underpasses. A small structure under 1-70 east of Avon, three concrete box underpasses under 1-70 east of Eagle, a single-span structure at Chaffee Gulch north of Ridgway, the arch (structural plate pipe arch) deer underpass west of Durango, three underpasses (two were large open structures) southeast of Salida, two bridge-span underpasses east of Rifle, and a concrete box underpass west of Rifle were monitored. Job 4 - Evaluation of deer responses to highway Dowd Junction 1-70 Reed (1976a) described this area. Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses highways. to 2.44-m Highway The Highway overpasses. (8-ft) fencing adjacent 82 - Diamond S 82 study area has been described Highway by Pojar (1972b). 82 - Carbondale This study area was described Interstate to by Reed (1975). 70 - Avon, Edwards, Vail, and Eagle The Interstate 70 Avon and Edwards study areas have been described by Woodard (1973b), the Vail study area by Reed (1971), and the Eagle study area by Reed (1974). Cherry Creek-Hesperus The Cherry Creek fence is 1.6 km long and adjacent to both sides of Colorado 160. The east end of the fence is 9.8 km west of Hesperus and an underpass goes beneath the highway 0.8 km from either end of the fence. Job 6 - Evaluating responses of deer to guards. Trail Gulch-Dotsero Reed et al. (1974) described this area. METHODS AND MATERIALS Job 1 - Monitoring wide. potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas state- Methods have been described by Pojar (1972a) and Woodard (1976a). Because no new critical areas were delineated, methodology was limited to tabulation of statewide Wildlife Conservation Officer kill reports. �-28- Job 2 - Evaluating the effects killed by motorists. of highway lighting on number of deer Methods were described by Woodard (1976b). Luminance measurements were taken at kill sites from earlier years. Luminance values (foot-lamberts) were recorded with a spotmeter, Spectra Model DBA, and were taken on a target at the kill site and on the background as viewed by an approaching motorist. The target was a taxidermy mount of the left half (transverse section) of a female mule deer and the actual spotmeter recording area was a 26-cm diameter circle midway between the shoulder and hip. Spotmeter readings were taken from a height of 1.3 m and a distance of 15 m. For background luminance readings the spotmeter was placed 60 m from the kill site, resulting in a target area diameter of 102 cm. The taxidermy mount was removed during this background measurement. Measurements were taken between 0400 and 0600 to minimize traffic interference. Background luminance (Lb) and target luminance (Lt) measurements were transformed into a visibility index (VI) by the following equation (Gallagher and Meguire 1974): C(RCS Lb) (DGF) VI = 5.74 where C Lb-Lt Lb Relative contrast sensitivity for the recorded background luminance DGF Disability glare factor = 1.0 RCS values were obtained from standard tables (Gallagher and Meguire 1974). VI values can then be compared to standards established for urban lighting requirements. These values also provide a better description of the visibility of deer in the lighted portion of the study area; which, in light of the poor horizontal uniformity ratio in the lighted section (>15.0:1), should allow a more refined analysis of the effectiveness of highway lighting. Job 3 - Evaluate responses of deer to highway underpasses. Trackbeds were established at 12 underpasses and monitored for deer use as described by Reed (1971). Observations at the Vail deer underpass were continued as described by Reed (1976b). Job 4 - Evaluation of deer responses to highway overpasses. Methods were previously described by Reed (1976a). In addition, the bridge (Dowd deer overpass) was modified (deck removed and rebuilt) so the width of the structure could be varied. It was designed to be readily changed from its original width of 4.93 m (control) to 2.48 m (variable) every few days. The width was changed every three days during most of the fall migration from 30 October to 1 December 1976. �-29- Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses to highways. to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972) and Woodard (1976c). Benefit-cost analysis followed procedures described by Howe (1971). Costs for which values were available include initial cost of 2.44-m fence and associated passage structures. Estimates of maintenance costs were not available. Total cost was reduced by the cost of the appropriate length of 1.07-m (42-inch) standard right-of-way fence which was not built because of the 2.44-m fence. Benefits for which a value was available was the potential savings accrued by a reduction in deer-vehicle accidents and related vehicle repairs. Savings by reduction in personal injury and death were omitted because of difficulties in obtaining reliable values. No value was assigned to deer. Therefore, benefit-cost analysis is essentially from a highway department accounting stance. All future benefits were discounted at an annual rate of 5.5 percent. No monetary values have been assigned for aesthetic considerations, either positive or negative. Job 6 - Evaluating responses of deer to guards. Methods were described by Reed et ale (1974). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Job 1 - Monitoring statewide. potentially Highway critical deer-vehicle accident areas 6-24 (1-70) - Rifle West Thirty vehicle-killed deer were documented on 29 km of highway the Rifle West study area; an increase of 2 over the preceding 3-year mean but markedly less than the 1972-73 kill of 92. December accidents accounted for 46.7 percent of the total. Interstate in 70 - Eagle East Only 4 vehicle-killed deer were documented along 13.7 km of highway in the Eagle East study area; a decrease of 83.3 percent over the preceding segment. This low kill is likely a reflection of the mild winters of 1975-76 and 1976-77 where few deer were forced to winter along the highway. Deer kill on portions of the highway adjacent to the 7.7-km barrier fence was correspondingly low. Interstate 70 - Avon-Wolcott Twenty-eight vehicle-killed deer were documented on 22.5 km of highway in the Avon-Wolcott study area; a decrease of 55.3 percent from the preceding 3-year mean (62.7). Deer killed continued to be reduced on the portions of highway opposite two sections of 2.44-m fence. �-30- Highway 82 - Glenwood-Basalt Twenty-six vehicle-killed deer were documented on 29 km of highway in the Glenwood-Basalt study area; a decrease of 66.9 percent from the preceding 3-year mean (78.7). Thirty-one percent were killed during April. Deer-vehicle accidents continued to be reduced on the portions of highway opposite two 1.77-km lengths of 2.44-m fencing. Highway 6-24 (1-70) - Eag1e~Glenwood Canyon Eight vehicle-killed deer were documented on Highway 6-24 from Eagle to the west 9.9 km to Gypsum. The preceding segment kill was also 8. Fifteen vehicle-killed deer were documented on Highway 6-24 from Gypsum to the west 15.0 km to the east end of Glenwood Canyon. The preceding segment kill on this stretch was 16. Recommendations for structures to reduce deer-vehicle accidents when Interstate 70 is constructed between Gypsum and Glenwood Canyon were submitted to the Division of Highways. Recommendations called for 2.4 km of 2.44-m fence on the north side of the alignment west of Dotsero. Highway 550 - Colona-Ridgway Twenty-two vehicle-killed deer were documented along 11.5 km of Highway 550 between the Owl Creek road south of Dallas and the Uncompahgre River bridge south of Colona, a decrease of 29 percent from the 1974 and 1975 mean of 31.0. No highway construction was initiated in this study area during this segment. Highway 50 - Salida East Ten deer-vehicle accidents were documented on this 8.4 km section highway during 1976; a decrease of 4 from the previous segment. of Statewide A total of 1,859 deer-vehicle accidents were documented in Colorado in 1976; an increase of 21.7 percent over the preceding segment. Regional totals were Northeast 308, Southeast 206, Northwest 564, Southwest 781. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects by vehicles. of highway lighting on number of deer killed There were no estimated crossings or kills during this segment. No deer were observed adjacent the study area during January-March 1977. The probable reason for the lack of deer in 1977 was the mild weather conditions. Although mean daily temperatures for this period (-2.30C) were slightly higher than the previous 3-year mean (-2.70C), the major difference was the lack of snow. Snow depth �-31- measurements at three sites immediately northeast of the study area averaged 46.4 cm, 27.5 cm, and 8.0 cm for the JanuaryMarch periods of 1975, 1976, and 1977, respectively. Luminance measurements 1975) (Table 1). were taken at two kill sites Table 1. Visibility index measurements lighting study area. (from March from kill sites, Highway 82 Contrast Relative Contrast Sensitivity Visibility Index No. Background Luminance (£1) Target Luminance 897 0.043 0.0325 0.244 4.1 0.17 899 0.33 0.00325 0.990 14.4 2.484 (£1) Both visibility index values are lower than mlnlmum levels needed for a roadway with a 50 mph speed limit; although the 2.484 value is approaching the level where 85 percent of the motorists can see a target at satisfactory separation distance (Gallagher and Meguire 1974) • Job 3 - Evaluate responses of deer to highway underpasses. Eleven underpasses were monitored for deer use. Moderate to high numbers of deer passages occurred through three of the underpasses, one located west of Vail, one east of Avon, and the other southeast of Salida. Extremes of openness or tunnel effect were represented by two of these structures in the study sample. No important changes were noted in deer use at eight of the unde rpas ses reported previously (Reed 1976b:228). The number of passages at the Salida East No.1 underpass decreased to a total of 88 during this segment. This decrease was noted in particular during April when the video surveillance system (Reed et a1. 1973) was installed and activated. No deer passages occurred while the system was activated and consequently no behavioral response data were collected. A segment of newly completed Interstate 70 between Silt and Rifle was opened to traffic on 13 November 1976. Two underpasses, adjoining 2.44-m fencing at Mamm Creek and Dry Creek, have received 6 and 9 deer passages. respectively. Daily observations (n=29) were made at the Vail deer underpass from 1 June to 29 June 1976. With 1974, 1975, and 1976 combined, 77.5 percent of 182 groups of deer did not exhibit flight reaction when westbound vehicles traveled by the area (Table 2). Likewise, of �-32- 692 instances of vehicles traveling west when deer were near the underpass entrance and the west bound lanes, 635 did not elicit flight reaction from 182 different individuals or groups (range 1-11 deer). Fourteen vehicles elicited flight reaction from 1-50 percent of the individuals from thirteen different groups ranging in size from one to eight deer. Forty-three vehicles elicited flight reaction from 51-100 percent of the individuals from twenty different groups ranging in size from one to six. Previous to these observations it was hypothesized that deer at distances of 10 to 20 m from moving traffic were frequently caused to leave the area. Other observations indicated that when vehicles stopped at or when bicyclists traveled by the underpass, most deer elicited immediate and intense flight reaction. On three occasions during 1976, several groups of deer exhibited moderate to intense flight reaction to unknown stimuli (where observer was unable to determine a potential cause). Table 2. The number and percent of deer groups not exhibiting flight reaction (Hediger 1950, Scott 1958), and the number and percent of westbound vehicles not eliciting flight reaction at the Vail deer underpass west of Vail. Year GrouEs of Deer Percent Not Number of Individuals Exhibiting or Groups 1/ Near Flight Westbound Traffic Reaction 1974 1975 1976 Vehicles Percent Not Number Traveling Eliciting West When Deer Flight Present Reaction 37 86.5 198 97.5 67 71.6 251 89.2 78.2 2432:,/ 89.7 77 .5 692 91.8 78 Totals/Avg. Westbound 182 1/ Number of deer in groups range from 2 to 11 animals. 2/ Six semi-trucks elicited flight reaction while seven did not. �-33- The behavior modes of 163 deer exits (leaving the underpass to the south) were 54.6, 33.7, and 11.7 percent, trotting, walking, and bounding, respectively. These combined data from 1974, 1975, and 1976 yielded a walk:trot:bound ratio of 2.9:4.7:1.0 (Table 3). Wariness, as illustrated by the change in exit mode (trot to bound) and by the tension stance behavior (front legs spread), appeared to be exhibited irrespective of the mode of exit in many instances. The predominant exit behavior of trotting supports the continued reluctance (Reed et al. 1975) of deer to use a structure of this size and character. Table 3. underpass The number of exits observed at the south end of the Vail deer and the walk:trot:bound ratio of exit behavior. Walk:Trot:Bound Ratio During Exits Year No. of Exits Observed 1974 35 4.0:12.5:1.0 1975 73 3.3: 2.4:1.0 1976 55 1.8: 6.3:1.0 Totals/Avg. 163 2.9: 4.7:1.0 Job 4 - Evaluation of deer responses to highway overpasses. Deer crossings over the deer overpass were recorded by the video system for the fall of 1974, spring-summer and fall of 1975, and the spring-summer of 1976. Replay of 84, 67, 61, and 26 crossing modes yielded walk:trot:bound ratios of 7.8:1.8:1.0, 7.6:4.8:1.0, 4.6:2.0:1.0, and 4.0:8.0:1.0 for the fall of 1974, spring-summer and fall of 1975, and the spring-summer of 1976, respectively. A mean of 25.3 animals changed their behavior (i.e. walk to trot, walk to bound, trot to bound, trot to walk, and trot to walk to trot) during the process of crossing during the spring-summer and fall of 1975, and the spring-summer of 1976. The number of selected behavioral responses exhibited by deer and the calculated behavioral response ratios are summarized in Table 4. There were no significant differences (P>0.50) between the fall and spring ratios of the number of animals exhibiting behavioral responses (BR ) to the number of crossings, or of the number of instances of behavior~l responses (BR.) to the number of crossings, for both muzzle-to-ground and hesitaEion behaviors. It was not understood why few animals exhibited the muzzle-to-ground behavior during the spring of 1976. �-34- Table 4. The number of selected behavioral responses exhibited by deer crossing the Dowd deer overpass during four migration seasons, 19741976, and calculated behavioral response ratios. Behavioral Response (BR) Muzzle-to-Ground No. of Animals Exhibiting BR (BR ) a No. of Instances of BR (BR.) 1 No. of Crossings Per BR :C BR. :C BR. :BR Season (C) a 1 1 a 11 Fall 1974 25 38 99 0.25:1 0.38:1 1.52:1 Fall 1975 26 38 77 0.34:1 0.49:1 1.46: 1 Spring 1975 38 64 93 0.41:1 0.69:1 1.68:1 Spring 1976 3 9 60 0.05:1 0.15:1 3.00:1 10 23 60 0.17:1 0.83:1 2.30: 1 Fall 1974 19 26 99 0.19:1 0.26:1 1.37: 1 Fall 1975 47 90 77 0.61:1 1.17:1 1.91:1 Spring 1975 26 38 93 0.28:1 0.41:1 1.46 :1 Spring 1976 17 31 60 0.28:1 0.52:1 1.82:1 Low-Head -21 Spring 1976 H'eSltatlon . -31 11 - Muzzle-to-ground denotes a deer lowering its muzzle to the ground. 2/ - Low-head denotes a lowering of the head where the axis of the neck declines (posterior to anterior) below the ho r Lzon t a.I . llCessation of forward movement for 1.0 second or more. The number of selected behavioral responses exhibited by deer at the experimental-variable-width overpass and the calculated behavioral response ratios are summarized in Table 5. No major differences appear between the ratios of the control and variable for each behavioral response listed. Although preliminary, these results indicate that there may not be an observable difference in the response of deer to a 2.48-m wide overpass of this size and design characteristic. Further analysis will be made during the next segment when additional sample size will be obtained. �-35Table 5. The number of selected behavioral responses exhibited by deer crossing an experimental-variable-width overpass during the fall migration of 1976 and calculated behavioral response ratios. Behavioral Responses (BR) No. of Animals Exhibiting BR (BR ) a No. of Instances of BR (BR.) ~ BR :c1/ BR.: C ~ BR. :BR a ~ a 2/ Muzzle-to-Ground - Control 6 8 0.24:1 o .32: 1 1. 33 :1 Variable ]j 6 7 0.32:1 0.37:1 1.17:1 Control 9 10 0.36:1 0.40: 1 loll: 1 Variable 5 5 0.26:1 o .26 :1 1.00 :1 Control 10 16 0.40:1 0.64:1 1.60:1 Variable 10 17 0.53:1 o .89:1 1. 70 :1 Control 6 10 0.24:1 o . 40 :1 1. 67: 1 Variable 10 14 0.53:1 o . 74 :1 1.40 :1 Control 9 14 0.36:1 0.56:11.56:1 Variable 15 26 0.79: 1 0.37:1 Muzzle-to-Structure ~/ 5/ Low-Head - 6/ . . H es~tat~on - Alert Stance ]j 1.73:1 1/ C denotes the number of crossings during the season. occurred during control and 19 during variable. l/Muzzle-to-ground l/Control denotes a deer lowering its muzzle Twenty-five crossings to the ground. and variable widths were 4.93 m and 2.48 m, respectively. 4/ - Muzzle-to-structure or raising its muzzle 5/ - Low-head (posterior . -6/C essat~on denotes a deer lowering to the bridge railing. its muzzle denotes a lowering of the head where to anterior) below the horizontal. 0f forwar d movement to the bridge deck the axis of the neck declines for 1 .0 secon d or more. l/Alert stance denotes a position where the head and neck are above horizontal and the ears are erect with the vertical axis of the ear either perpendicular to horizontal or inclined forward. �-36- Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent to highways. Highway 82 - Diamond S Deer normally concentrate in crested wheatgrass fields northeast of the highway in late winter and early spring. Mean number of deer crossings during March-May periods continued to increase (Table 6) in spite of the decrease in numbers of deer seen during spotlight counts. No vehicle-killed deer were documented in the study area during this period. A summary of fence effectiveness and benefit-cost analysis data is provided in Table 7. Table 6. Mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts and mean number of deer crossings between quarter-mile section markers 25 to 30 on Highway 82 during March-May for 1968 through 1976 (n = number of counts or number of 24-hour periods). Mean Mar.-May Crossings Year March April Mean Total 1968 134.8 (n=4) 73.0 (n=4) 103.9 1969 151.2 (n=4) 34.0 (n=5) 86.1 (n=9) 1970 104.5 (n=4) 56.0 (n=5) 77 .6 (n=9) 1971 66.8 (n=4) 51.4 (n=5) 58.4 (n-9) 11.7 (n=32) 1972 102.2 (n=4) 4.5 (n=4) 53.4 (n=8) 2.1 J) (n=38) 1973 137.4 (n=5) 47.0 (n=4) 97.2 (n=9) 5.5 (n=34) 1974 143.5 (n=4) 52.3 (n=3) 104.4 (n=7) 10.3 (n=38) 1975 126.8 (n=4 ) 93.0 (n=4) 109·9 (n=S) 17.8 (n=73) 78.0 (n=4) 61.8 (n=4) 69.9 (n=8) 21.0 (n=28) 1976 !/ (n=B) 1.77 km of 2.44-m fence constructed during summer of 1971. �Table 7. Benefit-cost analysis of 2.44-m fencing and associated structures. (2) Area (km) (1) Accident Cost in Year of Construction (3) Mean PreFence Mortality Vail (4.83) $ 315 36 68.3% 20 Avon (3.62) 362 28 83.9% Edwards (3.62) 362 27 Eagle (7.72) 383 167 (4) Expected Mean Usable Annual Life Reduction (Yrs) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Actual Discount 2.44-m PVB 1/ Rate Fence Factor (6=lX2X3X4X5) Costs Associated Structure Cost Alternate 42"-Fence Costs Net Cost B:C (10=7+8-9) (6:10) 0.63067 $ 97,694 $ 39,600 $ 21,934 $ 7,633 $ 53,901 1.81:1 20 0.63067 107,266 37,000 0 6,731 30,269 3.54:1 66.7% 20 0.63067 82,230 43,000 0 4,079 38,921 2.11:1 85.8% 20 0.63067 692,205 100,002 0 20,364 79,638 8.69:1 (10) (11) pvc'l:../ I w "-J I Diamond S (1.77) 342 10 82.0% 20 0.63067 35,373 13,257 0 0 l3 ,257 2.67:1 Carb 82 (1.93) 396 14 67.9% 20 0.63067 47,482 26,914 0 0 26,914 1.76:1 Cherry Creek (3.22) 383 2 -316.7% 20 0.63067 -30,599 41,637 26,665 5,120 63,182 -0.48:1 1:./PVB = Present value of benefits. ]) PVC = Present value of costs. �-38- Highway 82 - Carbondale The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during January-April periods of 1968 through 1974 was 15.3 (n=114). Seventy deer were killed from January, 1968 to April, 1973 (14 deer per year), before the 2.44-m fence was installed. Nine deer were killed from 17 October 1974 to 17 October 1976 after the fence was installed - a reduction of 67.9 percent. Post-fence installation spotlight counts averaged 17.9 (n=32) deer per count for the January-April periods. Benefitcost analysis data is presented in Table 7. Interstate 70 - Avon The mean number of deer observed on spotlight counts during the August-December periods was 15.5 (n=17) and 13.4 (n=21) in 1971 and 1972, respectively; 10.8 (n=ll) in 1973 for October-December; and 7.3 (n=7), 4.2 (n=8), and 7.4 (n=5) for November-December in 1974, 1975, and 1976, respectively. Deer passages to the north through six one-way gates in the 2.44-m fence totaled 167, a marked increased from the preceding segment (Table 8) and the previous 3-year mean (91.3). Eighteen deer were killed from 5 October 1972 to 5 October 1976 (4.5 per year) after the fence was installed; a reduction of 83.9 percent from pre-fence installation kills of 28 deer per year. Benefit-cost analysis data is presented in Table 7. Interstate 70 - Edwards Five vehicle-killed deer were documented in this study area during this segment; thus bringing the mean annual kill since 2.44-m fence installation down to 9.0 (a reduction of 66.7 percent). Use of one-way gates continued to be very low with only 2 passages during this segment (Table 8). Benefit-cost analysis data is presented in Table 7. Interstate 70 - Vail Mean annual kill in this area since fence installation was 11.4 (n=7); a 68.3 percent reduction from the pre-fence annual kill of 36. Eight vehicle-killed deer were documented in the area during this segment. Benefit-cost analysis data is presented in Table 7. Interstate 70 - Eagle Eight vehicle-killed deer were documented along 7.7 km of 2.44-m fence during this segment. Mean annual kill since fence installation is 23.7 (n=3); a reduction of 85.8 percent from the 167 deer killed in the year preceding fence installation. Only 10 passages north through one-way gates were recorded (Table 8), with only 4 to 10 gates receiving any use. Benefit-cost analysis data is presented in Table 7. �-39- Table B. The number of passages through one-way deer gates for 1975 and 1976, and mean annual number of passages through one-way gates located in four 2.44-m fences. 2.44 Fencing Location 1975 1976 Mean One-Way Gate Passages Vail - both sides Interstate 70 (1-70) 9 B 44.9 (7,B) !/ Avon - one side 1-70 64 167 7 2 9.0 (4,7) ~/ 13 10 21.0 (3,10) 110.3 (4,6) Edwards - one side ~m Eagle - one side 1-70 !/ (n,N) n denotes number of years of post-installation data, and N number of gates. In this case, N was reduced to seven in fall of 1973 and six in the spring of 1976. N was reduced to six in spring of 1975. Based on 119 observations of collared deer north of the 2.44-m fence, does (n=B5) and bucks (n=34) have moved lateral or parallel to the fence for mean distances of 0.59 and 0.76 km, respectively. Based on 19 estimated locations of three radio-collared does north of the fence between 24 March and 4 May 1976, mean lateral movements were 0.54 km. Cherry Creek - Hesperus Twenty-five deer have been recorded killed in this study area since fence installation (B.33 per year). Compared to the documented pre-fence kill of 2 deer per year it is apparent that either the pre-fence installation documentation was poor or that more deer are now being killed in this area, presumably because of the fence. Better documentation should be required before proposing future fencing projects. Benefit-cost analysis data is presented in Table 7. A word of caution is in order regarding the fence evaluations. Although substantial reductions in deer losses were realized at all but the Cherry Creek study area such reductions can not summarily �-40- be attributed to fence installation. The recorded reductions may also be a function of changes in deer populations, weather conditions, deer response to the fence, and traffic conditions. The same can be said for the recorded increase in kill at Cherry Creek. Additionally, one should bear in mind the weakness of data comparisons separated by time and thus attribute cause-and-effect cautiously. Job 6 - Response of deer to guards. Trail Gulch - Dotsero No deer were tested on prototypes V and VI during this segment because of a lack of test animals. Trapping conditions were very poor during this segment. LITERATURE CITED Gallagher, V. P., and P. G. Meguire. 1974. Contrast requi~ements of urban drivers. Fed. Highway Admin. Rep. ~umber FIDvA-RD-74-76. 72pp. Hediger, H.1950. vlild animals in captivity. Howe, C. W. 1971. Benefit-cost analysis Geophysical Union. H"ashington, D. C. Butterworth, London. 19pp. for water system planning. l44pp. Amer. Myers, G. T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Pages 147-178 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Div. Fed. Aid. Pojar, T. M. 1972a. Monitor potentiallv critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 267-275 in Game Res. Ren., July Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1972b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 305-310 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. , R. A. Prosence, D. F. Reed, and T. N. Woodard. 1975. Effectiveness of a lighted, animated deer crossing sign. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1):87-91. ---::---:-- Reed, D. F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Pages 341-351 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1974. An evaluation of 8-foot fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 313-320 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. l-Jildl.Fed. Aid. �-41- 1975. An evaluation of 8-foot (2.44-m) fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 315-320 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976a. Evaluation of deer overpasses. Pages 247-251 Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. in Game 1976b. Evaluation of deer underpasses. Pages 223-229 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. l<'ed.Aid. ------- , T. M. Pojar, and T. N. Hoodard. system for wildlife Leafl. 94. 3p. deer guards. surveillance. 1973. A video time-lapse Colorado Div. Wildl., Game Infor. ____________ ~. 1974. Mule deer responses J. Range Manage. 27(2):111-113. to ______ , T. N. Woodard, and T. "M. Pojar. 1975. Behavioral response mule deer to a highway underpass. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):361-367. Scott, J. P. 1958. Chicago. 349pp. Animal behavior. 2nd ed. University of of Chicago Press, Woodard, T. W. 1973a. Honitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 163-170 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. l<'ed.Aid. 1973b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 197-202 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wi1d1. Fed. Aid. 1974. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 293-298 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. l<'ed.Aid. 1975. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 295-303 in Game Res. Rep~, July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 215-221 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976b. Effects of highway lighting on number of deer killed by vehicles. Pages 231-236 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976c. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 239-244 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. e-"?" Prepared by I:-.. ct-CZ~ --··-;~(lfu - -./ Dale F. Reed .' Thomas D. I. Beck l.HjY1 ��July, 1977 -43- JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project ~C~o~l~o~r~a~d~o~ _ No. W-38-R-32 Work Plan No. Job Title 14 Job No. Middle Park Cooperative Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Sa Deer Study - Experimental April 1, 1976 to March Len Carpenter, Patrick Patrick Firlick. Investigations Range Fertilization 31, 1977 Powell, Glenn Crouch, Wayne Regelin, and ABSTRACT This study evaluated residual effects of nitrogen and 2,4-D herbicide on deer forage species within big sagebrush communities 6 years after the initial treatment year. No significant (P< 0.05) yield responses were measured as a result of nitrogen fertilizer treatment after 6 years. However, significant (P< 0.01) responses were measured with yields of total herbage, shrub herbage and grass herbage as a result of herbicide treatments. Over the 6-year period the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer (134.4 kg N/ha) was the most efficient in terms of kilograms of herbage produced per kilogram of nitrogen applied. Largest yields were obtained on plots treated with the highest level of nitrogen in combination tiith 2,4-D herbicide. Plots treated with 33.6, 67.2, and 100.8 kg N/ha without herbicide produced lower yields of vegetation than did control plots. It is recommended that this depression of yield on nitrogen treated plots be evaluated further. �-44- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. On sagebrush winter applied for maximum ment. ranges, large rates (134 kg N/ha) should be results of a single nitrogen fertilizer treat- 2. Combination treatments of 2,4-D herbicide and nitrogen fertilizer are superior to single applications of either chemical in improving sagebrush-dominated winter ranges. 3. Long-term (10 year) evaluations are needed to fully evaluate effects (both good and bad) of these chemical treatments. lasting �-45- EXPERIMENTAL RANGE FERTILIZATION Len H. Carpenter With the tremendous increase in cost of nitrogen fertilizers today as compared to 5 years ago, it becomes increasingly important to know how long the residual yield effect of a single application of nitrogen fertilizer will be. If a significant yield response can be obtained over a period of years (5-7), the initial cost of the fertilization project can be prorated over that period of time resulting in a much better cost-benefit ratio. Various workers have reported on the residual yield responses of vegetation to a single application of nitrogen fertilizer on rangelands (Hubbard and Mason 1967; Bowns 1972; Baldwin et al. 1974). In general, it appears that the number of growing seasons that vegetation will respond to a single application of nitrogen is mostly dependent upon the rate of the initial application. Lower rates result in shorter response periods with higher rates giving yield responses for longer periods of time. The evaluation period following an application of nitrogen is usually for 2-3 years (Kilcher et al. 1965; Johnston et al. 1968; Mason and Miltimore 1959). However, Mason and Miltimore (1972), working in southern British Columbia, reported on 10 year yield responses of beardless wheatgrass (Agropyron inerme) to a single application of nitrogen. Their results showed that considerable increases in yields of native grassland could be obtained for period of ten years with all rates of application (28,56 ••• to 504 kilograms actual nitrogen per hectare). Even in the tenth year after application of the fertilizer, there was still a large yield increase with the highest nitrogen application rate producing 2.2 times the zero rate. These results encourage the investigation of long term responses to fertilizer treatments. In October 1969, a single application of ammonium nitrate fertilizer at the rate of 33.6, 67.2, 100.8, and 134.4 kilograms actual nitrogen per hectare was applied with and without 2,4-D herbicide (2.2 kg/ha) to three permanently located study areas in northcentral Colorado (Carpenter 1970). The dominant vegetation on these areas was big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). The yield response of vegetation to these treatments were evaluated for 3 years after treatment during the growing seasons of 1970, 1971, and 1972 (Carpenter 1970, 1971, and 1972). Yields of. vegetation responded in a linear fashion to increased levels of nitrogen in all evaluation years. In all years, this yield response was Significant (P< 0.05). Certain yield responses to combination treatments of nitrogen fertilizer and 2,4-D herbicide were also interesting with regard to improving mule deer ranges. To better evaluate the management potential of these chemical treatments, longer term yield measurements were needed. Yield measurements were taken during the 1976 growing season, to aid in the evaluation of the long-term effects of a single application of nitrogen fertilizer applied with and �-46- without 2,4-D herbicide on native sagebrush rangeland. This study evaluated the residual effects of nitrogen and 2,4-D on deer forage species with big sagebrush communities 6 years after the initial treatment year. Descriptions of all areas, methods, and procedures pertinent to this study are detailed by Carpenter (1976). P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To measure the effects of a single application of nitrogen fertilizer and 2,4-D herbicide (applied singly and together) on the production and composition of mule deer forages on sagebrush winter range sites. METHODS AND MATERIALS This study evaluated residual effects of nitrogen and 2,4-D on deer forage species within big sagebrush communities 6 years after the initial treatment year. Estimates of herbage yield for the 10 treatments at each of 3 study areas were made with an electronic capacitance meter. This instrument, when placed in vegetation, measures the capacitance or ability of vegetation to absorb energy from the head-produced electromagnetic field. As the mass of vegetation increases, the ability to absorb the produced energy increases in a linear relationship. Therefore, capacitance is closely related to mass or weight of the vegetation monitored (Currie et al. 1969). Dimensions of this meter were 30.5 x 61.0 x 45.7 cm, width, length, and height, respectively. All vegetation within this hexahedron was sensed. A more detailed presentation of this instrument is given in Neal and Neal (1973). A double sampling system was employed where one 30 x 61 cm quadrat was estimated with the meter and clipped for every five that was meter-estimated only. Past experience (Carpenter 1972) has shown that this 5:1 ratio is most efficient in terms of obtaining a yield estimate that is within 10 percent of the true population mean, 95 percent of the time. In late July and early August 1976, 75 quadrats were estimated on each 30 x 30 m treatment of which 15 were both meter-read and clipped. The location of these quadrats was chosen from a grid system in a random fashion to insure total coverage of each treatment plot. The first quadrat to be clipped on each treatment plot was randomly chosen from the numbers one through five, and thereafter every fifth quadrat was systematically clipped after it was read by the meter. The procedure for clipping vegetation within a quadrat was as follows: first, vegetation immediately outside the probes of the meter that was not part of the quadrat, and not sensed, was clipped and removed. A meter reading was taken and recorded of the total vegetation on the quadrat. The meter then was removed and taken to the next quadrat. The leaves and stems of all shrubs were clipped and sacked separately by species. Current annual growth of this material was separated in the laboratory from the older, woody portion. Once the shrubs were clipped, all forbs and grasses on the quadrat were clippeg and sacked separately. Yield estimates were computed on an oven-d,ry (100 C for 24 hours) basis. All samples were weighed to the nearest one-tenth gram. �-47- Clipped weights of total herbage and shrub herbage were regressed against the meter readings. A computer program for double sampling (DUB SAM 2) l/ to estimate weight for all meter-estimated quadrats for both total yield and shrub herbage yield was developed. Past experience (Carpenter 1972) has shown that at each study area regressions are very similar among liketreated plots so that it is possible to combine them into larger samples to provide more accurate predictive equations. Thus, data were combined for the four fertilizer plots (plus a control) and the five herbicide plots to give a small sample of 75 and a large sample of 375 for each five treatment combination. The resulting predictive equations were then used to estimate total herbage and shrub herbage on each treatment at each study area. The ten yield estimates for each weight variable were analyzed by covariance where each value was adjusted to 1969 pre-treatment conditions. In previous work, meter readings did not correlate with weight of grasses and forbs (Carpenter et al. 1973). Apparently variability of understory components, coupled with the influence of woody material in the overs tory on each quadrat, render these correlations impossible. Therefore, yield estimates for forbs and grasses were obtained from only the 15 clipped quadrat samples on each treatment. Analysis of covariance was used where the 1966 values for both forbs and grasses were adjusted to 1969 pre-treatment conditions. Data Analysis The experimental design for this study was a randomized block replicated times with a 5x2 factorial of fertilizer and herbicide treatments. The source table for analysis of covariance of herbage yield data for this experiment was as follows: Source Combination 3 df Replications (~ Nitrogen (A) Herbicide (B) RA RB AB RAB 2 4 1 8 2 4 8 Total 29 of sources used for error term RA + RB + RAB = 17. Values for nitrogen fertilizer efficiency were also determined. These values were calculated for both total herbage and shrub herbage by adding the yields obtained on each nitrogen treatment without herbicide for the 4 evaluation years (1970, 1971, 1972, and 1976) and dividing by the proper nitrogen rate, i.e. 33.6, 67.2, 100.8, or 134.4. These values provided a measure of the residual yield responses for each nitrogen treatment. l/This program, developed by Dr. J. K. Kovner, Principal Biometrician, is on file at the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. �-48- DESCRIPTION OF AREA Field work was done in Middle Park in north central Colorado approximately 161 km west of Denver. Vegetation in Middle Park is predominantly big sagebrush (ArtemiSia tridentata tridentata) with bunchgrasses as understory at elevations below 2,743 m and aspen-conifer forests above that elevation. The climate of Middle Park is characterized by cool summers and cold winters. Izett (1968) reported an average annual precipitation in Middle Park of 53 cm. Three areas situated on big sagebrush range were chosen for this study. The areas were designated by the following names: Junction Butte (Area 1), Flightline (Area 2) and Corral Creek (Area 3). The Junction Butte area was on land owned and administered by the State of Colorado, Division of Wildlife. The Flightline and Corral Creek study areas were on public land administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Junction Butte Study Area This area represents critical mule deer range in that it is in the zone of most concentrated use in late winter. It is located approximatly 6 km southeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (NE 1/4, Sec. 28, TIN, R80W) on the toe of an eight percent slope that extends out below steeper slopes with shallow soils and rock outcrops. The aspect is southwesterly, and, as a result, the study area is often free of snow during winter periods. Elevation is approximately 2,380 m. The soil profile of the area is identified as a Tigiwon sandy loam, a member of the fine loamy, mixed-over, sandy skeletal family of Corollic Haplargids. The soil has an A horizon of less than 15 cm, a B horizon of clay accumulation, and horizons of lime accumulation below the B-2-t horizon. It is well drained with permeability of between 2 and 3 cm per hour. Annual precipitation is about 28 cm of which one-half occurs during the growing season. The dominant plant species on the area is big sagebrush. Common forb species present are bluebell (Mertensia spp.) and phlox (Phlox spp.). The major grass species present are bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), needle-and-thread grass (Stipa comata), and pine needlegrass (Stipa pinetorum). Vegetation is sparse, probably due to prior management and poor soil and moisture conditions. Flightline Study Area This area is located approximately 27 km northeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (SW 1/4, Sec. 36, T2N, R79W). It represents early winter range for mule deer. The study area is located on gently sloping uplands at an elevation of 2,380 m. Snow depths exceeding 46 cm occur at this area and snow cover often remains until late April or early May. The soil profile at this area is identified as an unnamed fine, sandy loam. This soil is a member of the fine Montmorillonitic family of Argic Cryoborolls. It has a dark-colored A horizon up to 25 cm in thickness and a distinct B horizon of clay accumulation. Definite horizons of lime accumulation exist below the B-2 horizon. The soil is well drained with a permeability between 0.5 and 1.5 cm per hour. Annual precipitation is approximately 36 cm with about one-half occurring during the growing season. �-49- Big sagebrush is the dominant plant species on the area. Other shrub species important to this area are green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus) and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Important forb species are bluebell, phlox spp., and buckwheat (Eriogonum umbellatum). The major grass species are bluebunch wheatgrass, squirreltail (Sitanion hystrix), pine needlegrass, and mutton grass (Poa fendleriana). Prolific plant growth characterizes this area. Corral Creek Study Area This area is located approximately 29 km northeast of Kremmling, Grand County, Colorado (NE 1/4, Sec. 36, T2N, R79W) at an elevation of 2,500 m. This area is considered representative of intermediate winter range for mule deer. The study area is on a mountainside of westerly aspect and average slope of about six percent. Snow depths are intermediate to the Junction Butte and Flightline areas. The soil profile at this area was identified as an unnamed loam. This soil is a member of the fine Montmorillonitic family of Vertic Cryoborolls. It has a dark-colored A horizon up to 31 cm in thickness with weak B-2 horizons. The soil is well drained with permeability of between 0.2 and 0.5 cm per hour. Annual precipitation is about 36 cm with about one-half of this amount received during the growing season. Big sagebrush is the dominant plant species on this area. Dominant forb species are bluebell, phlox spp., and buckwheat. However~ other forb species such as paintbrush (Castilleja spp.), clover (Trifolium gymnocarpon), and vetch (Astragalus drummondii) are common. Major grass species are bluebunch wheatgrass, western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), mutton grass, and squirreltail. Vegetaton is more diverse than on the other two areas. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Main Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer No significant (P< 0.05) reponses in yield were measured in 1976 for forbs, grasses, shrubs or total herbage in response to nitrogen fertilizer. This contrasted to previous results at these study areas (Carpenter 1976) where nitrogen fertilizer produced significant yield increases for three years after treatment. Unadjusted yields of shrub and total herbage for 1969 (pre-treatment), and adjusted values for all evaluation years as a function of increasing levels of nitrogen are graphed in Figure 1. The small yield response to fertilizer in the 1976 measurements, as contrasted to previous measurements, is obvious. It would appear from this graph that 1976 was a poor year for plant growth. Yields on control plots (no treatment) in 1976 were less than yields on control plots in all previous years (Fig. 1). No explanation for this is known. A summary of precipitation records for 1976 did not differ significantly from previous measurement years or from l5-year averages in amounts or in time-ofyear the precipitation was received. �-50- TOTAL HERBAGE /.1970 / / .....e-- __ --./ ./" _.r-" . . .. . .... -. - -: .,..a...:.~':-»:" ". *""" ••• ."" - ••0 •• '/' • • • ~ _--0 • •• ••••••• .•• / / 1972 ./.:~~1971 / . .,1" 0 ... .,....,- .- ..P----.A1969 1976 SHRUB HERBAGE .1970 / .... ..01971 // / . - • / ,...--... __ ---0' .. / .".,0-- -_ .• ••• ----.----- .-•.... -~ 50~------~------------~ ./ .",.",......•...:-...0 ..•' Q •••• - o .>: »<>: / "., ~, --. / .:> ,,-1972 ~~ ./ ' 33.6 67.2 NITROGEN 1969 1976 100.8 134.4 LEVELS (kgl ha) Figure 1. Total herbage yields and shrub herbage yields for 1969 (pretreatment) and for 4 separate years after treatment in response to increasing levels of nitrogen. Means for 1970, 1971, 1972, and 1976 are adjusted by covariance to 1969 pre-treatment conditions. �-51- For the three-year period (1970-1972) the average total herbage yield of untreated plots for all three study areas was 1,278 kg/ha and 1,805 kg/ha on the 134.4 kg N/ha treatments (Table 1), an average increase of 41 percent. In 1976 the average total herbage yield on untreated plots was 816 kg/ha and 881 kg/ha on the 134.4 kg N/ha treatments (Table 2), an average increase of only 8 percent. Plots receiving 33.6, 67.2, and 100.8 kg N/ha produced less total herbage in 1976 than did the control treatments (Table 2). This contrasted to measurements made for the 1970-1972 period where a linear increase in total herbage yield was obtained with each increasing level of nitrogen fertilizer (Table I). The small response to nitrogen fertilizer in 1976 is further demonstrated by comparing the adjusted fertilizer effects in Table 2 to the adjusted fertilizer effects in Table 1. Yields of shrub herbage in 1976 responded to nitrogen fertilizer in a manner similar to total yields (Fig. 1). The average yield on untreated plots for all three study areas combined was 398 kg/ha and 491 kg/ha on 134.4 kg N/ha treatments (Table 3), an average increase of 23 percent. This contrasted to shrub yields measured during 1970-1972 that were 74 percent greater on 134.4 kg N/ha treatments as compared to control plots (Table 4). However, as with total yields, the intermediate levels of nitrogen fertilizer (33.6, 67.2, and 100.8 kg N/ha) produced less shrub herbage than did the controls. Yields of forbs were not significantly (P< 0.05) changed by the addition of nitrogen fertilizer in any of the previous measurements years or in 1976. This is clearly shown by the adjusted fertilizer effects in Tables 5 and 6. Forb yields in 1976 were about one-half of average forb yields measured during the 1970-1972 period, another indication of poor vegetative growth in 1976. Grass yields measured in 1976 (Table 7) were not significantly (P< 0.05) changed by the addition of nitrogen fertilizer. This contrasted to previous measurements (Table 8) where significant inereases in grass yields were obtained with nitrogen fertilizer. All grass yields in 1976 were lower than those of previous years, but the decrease was not as great as that measured with shrubs and forbs. Main Effects of 2,4-D Herbicide Significant (P< 0.01) yield responses were measured for total herbage in 1976 as a result of herbicide application. In contrast to previous years (Table 1) where the response to herbicide was a decrease in total yield, in 1976, the response was an increase in total yield (Table 2). A large portion of this increase was the result of grass responses to the herbicide (Table 7). Herbicide treated plots produced 18.6 percent more total herbage than did control plots in 1976 (Table 2). Six years after treatment the combination treatments of nitrogen fertilizer and 2,4-D herbicide produced the greatest yields of any treatments, with the largest yields being produced on the plots receiving the highest level of nitrogen with herbicide. �Table 1. Average yield of total herbage (kg/ha) for three-year period 1970-1972. Values are means for three study areas as adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) o Nitrogen Fer~i=l=i=z=e~r~(k~g~/h~a~)~ _ 33.6 67.2 100.8 134.4 Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1/ o 1,278 1,388 1,482 1,528 1,805 1,496 2.2 1,164 1,272 1,398 1,298 1,411 1,309 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects 1/ 1,221 1,330 1,440 1,413 1,608 l/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. I Table 2. Average yield of total herbage (kg/ha) for 1976. adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. Values are means for three study areas as Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1/ o Ni trogen Ferti1izer~(>..:.k:.c:gu./~h..:::aL.) _ 33.6 67.2 100.8 134.4 o 816 741 791 776 881 801 2.2 969 886 954 1,047 984 968 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects 1/ 892 814 872 911 932 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) l/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. V1 N I �Table 3. Average yield of shrub herbage (kg/ha) for 1976. Values are means for three study areas as adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. _ 134.4 Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1/ o Nitrogen Fertiliz_e_r __(~k~g~/_h_a~) 33.6 67.2 100.8 o 398 327 384 385 491 397 2.2 312 234 317 354 303 304 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects ]j 355 280 350 369 397 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) l/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. I \J1 W I Table 4. Average yield of shrub herbage (kg/ha) for three-year period 1970-1972. three study areas as adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. Values are means for 0 Nitrogen Fertilizer (kg/ha) 100.8 67.2 33.6 l34.4 Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1/ o 618 673 805 820 1,072 798 2.2 330 385 504 410 511 428 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects 1/ 474 529 655 615 791 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) l/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. �Table 5. Average yield of forb herbage (kg/ha) for 1976. adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. Values are means for three study areas as _ 134.4 Adjusted Herbicide Effects )) 84 115 114 98 54 124 83 105 69 120 o Nitrogen Fertiliz~~r~(~k~g~/h==aL) 33.6 67.2 100.8 o 129 128 112 2.2 78 61 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects 1./ 103 95 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) l/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. I VI .l>I Table 6. Average yield of forb herbage (kg/ha) for three-year period 1970-1972. three study areas as adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. Values are means for Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1/ o Ni trogen FertHi zer (.=.:k£2g~/h=a)c-_ 33.6 67.2 100.8 134.4 o 267 249 253 207 305 256 2.2 169 146 205 155 117 158 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects 1/ 218 197 229 181 211 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) l/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. �Table 7. Average yield of grass herbage (kg/ha) for 1976. Values are means for three study areas as adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. 134.4 Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1./ 279 255 288 438 614 645 582 365 446 450 0 Nitrogen Fertilizer (kg/ha) 100.8 67.2 33.6 o 312 304 291 2.2 521 693 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects 1./ 416 499 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) !/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. I V1 V1 I Table 8. Average yield of grass herbage (kg/ha) for three-year period 1970-1972. three study areas as adjusted by covariance for 1969 pre-treatment conditions. Values are means for Adjusted Herbicide Effects 1./ o Nitrogen Fertilizer (kg/ha) 33.6 67.2 100.8 o 361 544 430 562 467 473 2.2 547 717 703 835 901 740 Adjusted Fertilizer Effects !/ 454 630 567 698 684 2,4-D Herbicide (kg/ha) 134.4 !/Due to covariance analysis, adjusted effects are not means of the given cell values. �-56- Shrub herbage as measured in 1976 continued to be significantly (P< 0.01) reduced by herbicide. This compared favorably to previous measurements. The reduction was not as great as previously measured. For the three-year period 1970-1972 there was a 46 percent reduction in shrub yields on herbicide treated plots as compared to plots receiving no herbicide (Table 4). In 1976 there was only a 23.4 percent reduction in shrub herbage on herbicide treated plots (Table 3). This may indicate partial recovery of herbicide treated plants over the six year period. There was no significant (P< 0.05) response in yields of forbs to herbicide treatments in 1976. This contrasted to previous measurements where forb yields were significantly reduced by herbicide. However, there was still a 27 percent reduction in forb yields on herbicide treated plots as compared to plots receiving no herbicide (Table 5). For the three-year period 19701972 there was a 38 percent reduction. Apparently, sample sizes were not adequate in 1976 to detect this difference. However, this may be an indication that forb species are recovering on herbicide treated plots. Grass yields in 1976 were significantly (P< 0.01) increased as a result of herbicide treatments. The increase in grass yields on herbicide treated plots exceeded grass yields on plots receiving no herbicide by 102 percent in 1976 (Table 7). This compared to a 56 percent increase in grass yields on herbicide treated plots over yields on plots receiving no herbicide for the three-year period 1970-1972 (Table 8). Even with the decrease in total grass yields in 1976 as compared to grass yields in previous years, it appeared that in relative terms, grass yields continued to increase on herbicide treated plots as compared to plots receiving no herbicide. Apparently, whatever the reasons for low vegetative production in 1976 were, the effect was less on grass species than on other plant species. Interactions Between Nitrogen Fertilizer and 2,4-D Herbicide There were no significant (P< 0.05) interactions between 2,4-D and nitrogen fertilizer for any of the weight variables in 1976. This was also true for the three-year evaluation period (Carpenter 1976). These results suggest that all groups of plants (forbs, grasses, shrubs) responded to the chemical treatments at the three study areas in a similar manner. Nitrogen Fertilizer Efficiency Ratios Adjusted values for shrub herbage and total herbage for each nitrogen treatment without herbicide over the four evaluation years were used to calculate efficiency ratios for nitrogen fertilizer. The adjusted increases in yields obtained at each nitrogen level over the control treatments (no nitrogen) for each year were added together and this total divided by the level of nitrogen applied to obtain this ratio. It is apparent that for both shrub herbage (Table 9) and total herbage (Table 10) the highest level of nitrogen (134.4 kb N/ha) was the most efficient in terms of kilogram of herbage produced per kilogram of nitrogen applied. For total herbage yield, the second most efficient level was the second rate of nitrogen (67.2 kg N/ha) followed by 33.6 and 100.8 kg N/ha levels, respectively. For shrub herbage, 67.2 kg N/ha was second most �-57- efficient, followed by 100.8 and 33.6 kg N/ha, respectively. As shown in Tables 9 and 10, benefits from the lower nitrogen rates became negligible by the third year, while increases in yields at the highest level were obtained even in the sixth year. Table 9. Adjusted increases in shrub herbage yields (kg/ha) over control plots for years 1970, 1971, 1972, and 1976 and the corresponding efficiency ratio for each level of nitrogen. Rates of Nitrogen 67.2 Fertilizer (kg/ha) 100.8 134.4 288 190 569 116 289 306 463 1972 -51 -16 109 328 1976 -71 -14 -13 93 Totals 94 547 592 1,453 2.80 8.14 5.87 10.81 Year 33.6 1970 100 1971 Efficiency Ratio Table 10. Adjusted increases in total herbage yierds (kg/ha) over control plots for years 1970, 1971, 1972, and 1976 and the corresponding efficiency ratio for each level of nitrogen. Fertilizer (kg/ha) 100.8 134.4 361 262 647 175 261 339 546 1972 7 -8 152 388 1976 -75 -25 -40 65 Totals 255 589 713 1,646 7.59 8.76 7.07 12.25 Year 33.6 1970 148 1971 Efficiency Ratio Rates of Nitrogen 67.2 �-58- It appears from these results that most of the beneficial effects of one application of nitrogen fertilizer on yields of plant species common to sagebrush rangeland is obtained in the first 3 years after treatment. Six years after treatment, very small responses in vegetation yield were obtained. As evidenced by yields on control treatments, 1976 was a poor year for plant growth. Reasons for this are unclear. As a result of this "year effect", one is limited as to the conclusions that can be drawn regarding lasting effects of nitrogen fertilizer. It does appear however, that six years after treatment only the high rate of fertilizer application results in increased yields. The decrease in yields on the 33.6, 67.2, and 100.8 kg N/ha treatments relative to the control treatments is puzzling and somewhat disturbing. If these decreases are real they may indicate detrimental effects to plant growth as a result of nitrogen fertilizer. Perhaps larger root systems (as a result of fertilizer treatments) utilize moisture less efficiently than root systems not stimulated by fertilizer and as a result yields are decreased. Increased competition (between plant species) as a result of nitrogen fertilizer may also be involved. It is evident that the main plant species responding to nitrogen is big sagebrush. Perhaps stimulation of growth of this species with nitrogen results in an inbalance of available nutrients to other plant species. This should be evaluated further, as long-term effects of nitrogen fertilizer on native vegetation are as important as immediate effects. Herbicide treatments appeared to be longer lasting than fertilizer treatments, although larger vegetation yields were obtained with combination treatments of nitrogen and 2,4-D than with either treatment applied alone. Much of this increased yield was due to responses of grass species at the expense of forb and shrub species. Dominance of grass species would not be as great if treated areas were subject to grazing by domestic livestock. With the single exception of decreasing forb yields on herbicide treatments, results of this study suggest that fertilizer-herbicide combination treatments are superior to either treatment applied separately, in improving deer winter ranges. This conclusion is based primarily on increased vegetation yields and altered composition of forage classes making up these yields, and on measured food habits of mule deer on these winter ranges (Carpenter 1976). LITERATURE CITED Baldwin, D. M., N. W. Hawkinson, and E. W. Anderson. 1974. High-rate fertilization of native rangeland in Oregon. J. Range Manage. 27:214-216. Bowns, J. E. 1972. Low level nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization high elevation ranges. J. Range Manage. 25:273-276. on Carpenter, L. H. 1970. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-24. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. p. 371-391. 1971. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-25. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. p. 225-253. �-59- Carpenter, L. H. 1972. Middle Park deer study - range fertilization. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Res. Div. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-26. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 213-251. ______ , O. C. Wallmo, and M. J. Morris. 1973. Effect of woody stems on estimating herbage weights with a capacitance meter. J. Range Manage. 26:151-152. _______ 1976. Nitrogen-herbicide effects on sagebrush deer range. Dissertation. Colo. State Univ .• Fort Collins. l59p. Ph.D. Currie, P.O., D. L. Neal, and M. J. Morris. 1969. Development of the heterodyne meter and partial test results on some range and wildlife vegetation types in the western U.S.A. In-service report. USDA For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. 7p. (unpublished). Hubbard, W. A., and J. L. Mason. 1967. Residual effects of ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate on native ranges of British Columbia. J. Range Manage. 20:1-5. Johnston, A., A. D. Smith, L. E. Lutwick, and S. Smoliak. 1968. Fertilizer response of native and seeded ranges. Can. J. Plant Sci. 48:467-472. Kilcher, M. R., S. Smoliak, W. A. Hubbard, A. Johnston, A. T. H. Gross, and E. V. McCurdy. 1965. Effects of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on selected sites of native grassland in Western Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 45:228-237. Mason, J. L., and J. E. Miltimore. 1959. content of native bluebunch wheatgrass Can. J. Plant Sci. 39:501-504. Increase in yield and protein from nitrogen fertilization. ______ , and 1972. Ten year yield response of beardless wheatgrass from a single nitrogen application. J. Range Manage. 25:269-272. Neal, D. L., and J. L. Neal. 1973. Uses and capabilities of electronic capacitance instruments for estimating standing herbage. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 28:81-89. P repa red by __ -,-:k~.L,-"=-\\.-,--"::_._C."-<:.d\u..c),'"-'~-N"-'g •.•• -"",,,,,J; ...•...•. ~,,,.....),---Len H. Carpenter~ Wildlife Researcher C �-65- July, 1977 Jon PRC(~~ESS kEPO!n' COLOPJ'.DO State of Project Deer-Elk Investigations W-38-R-32 No. Hork Plan No. 14 Job No. 9 ------------------------------------Period Cove.red: Personnel: April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Len H. Carpenter, M. A. Kautz, D. J. Freddy, L. L. Strong, D. G. Milchunas, and R. B. Gill ABSTRACT Diets of two deer were evaluated by both in vivo and in vitro digestion techniques. Resulting values were very similar for one diet but differed by more than 20 percent for the other. Chemical analyses of the two diets were similar. In a separate study, daily food intake of two pregnant mule deer was influenced by both level and type of food. Energy intake for the two deer was estimated to be less than that previously measured for growing fawns. ��-67- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY - DEER HABITAT EVALUATION Len H. Carpenter P.N.O. OBJECTIVE Develop procedures to support deer. for quantifying the capacity of Middle Park winter ranges SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop and test a candidate of free-ranging mule deer. method 2. Estimate energy requirements deer at pasture. for activity 3. Estimate nutritional quality of ingested digestible and metabolizable energy. 4. Estimate protein requirements METHODS for estimating energy expenditures and develop energy budgets for forage in terms of in vivo of fawns for maintenance and growth. AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in this study have been previously described (Gill and Baker 1974, Carpenter and Baker 1975, Carpenter 1976). Poor success in raising deer fawns in 1976 prevented detailed nutritional experimentation and completion of Segment Objective No.4 during the winter of 1976-77. Summary of previous data and review of literature occupied much of the work effort this segment. Method for Estimating Energy Expenditures of Free-Ranging Mule Deer This portion of the study is being conducted by M. A. Kautz, Colorado State University. A Progress Report by M. A. Kautz, covering a portion of this work is presented in Appendix B. A thesis covering this work is in progress and will be presented in the next segment report of Work Plan 14, Job 9. Estimating and Developing Energy Requirements for Activity Energy Budgets for Deer at Pasture Data on energy requirements by various activities obtained by M. A. Kautz and data on activity patterns of deer at pasture (Carpenter 1976) is being incorporated into an overall energy budget for mule deer. �-68- A simulation model developed by D. M. Swift, Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory at Colorado State University is being used as a first approximation of carrying capacity of Middle Park winter ranges. To measure energy costs of pregnancy, food intake measurements were taken for two tame mule deer during the period January 11 to March 24, 1977 (3-5 months gestation). Ad libitum intakes were monitored daily during this period. Three food types and three different levels of food were offered and varied between trials to determine influence on intake. The three food types offered were: 1) pawnee special (alfalfa pellets), 2) dairy ration (cereal grains, no alfalfa pellets), 3) mixed ration (cereal grains and alfalfa pellets). Levels offered were: 1) 1,000 grams, 2) 1,500 grams, and 3) 2,000 grams. The different foods were tested because all are or have been used in maintenance of the experimental deer herd and differences have been noted with deer in acceptance of the various food types in pen situations. Estimating Nutritional Quality of Digested Forage A thesis on file at Colorado State University entitled "In vivo-In vitro relationships of Colorado mule deer forages" (Daniel G. Milchunas 1977. M.S. Thesis, 133 p.) covers portions of this objective. The abstract of this thesis is presented in Appendix A. Data obtained in the in vivo digestion trial described last segment (Carpenter 1976) wereanalyzed this segment. In vitro digestion trials were conducted on the overall diet of each deer and on the top ten plant species in each diet using the method of Tilley and Terry (1963) and modified by Pearson (1970). In vitro values were compared to in vivo values for the two diets. Determinations were also made of drY-matter, ash, cell wall constituents, acid detergent fiber, lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and gross energy for each diet. Triplicate samples were used for determinations of dry matter, cell wall constituents and ash, while duplicate samples were read for all other variables. Dry matter and gross energy were also determined for feces and urine samples collected from each deer. Dry matter was determined at 1000C for 24 hours. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Method Expenditure for Estimating Energy of Free-Ranging Mule Deer A thesis covering this work is in progress and will be presented in the next segment report. A progress report covering this work is presented in Appendix B. Estimating Energy Requirements for Activity and Developing Energy Budgets for Deer at Pasture Results of the simulation modeling will be reported on next segment. incorporated into this model. approach to estimate carrying capacity Data from previous segment work will be �-69- Daily ad libitum intakes for the two pregnant does are presented in Table 1. Type of food and level offered appeared to affect intake. Within a food type, an increase in amount offered increased intake. However, when both type of feed and level were varied, the two deer did not always respond in the same manner (Table 1). More deer and additional levels of food offerings are needed to adequately test these relationships. These data do however, point out the importance of standardizing food type and level of food offered before drawing conclusions on feeding experiments. Energy intakes of the pregnant does were compared to energy intakes of growing fawns (Baker 1976). The same ration (pawnee special) was offered to both groups in the same amounts and under similar conditions. Baker (1976) reported an average daily intake of 987 grams for 7 fawns offered 2,000 grams per day. Gross energy of this food was determined to be 4.60 kcal/gm with 71.6 percent of the gross energy being digested (Baker 1976). It was further estimated by Baker that 87.0 percent of digestible energy was metabolizable. Consequently, the mean metabolizable energy intake for the 7 fawns was determined to be 2,828 kcal/day. Using average metabolic weight (kg W 0.75) of the fawns (15.94) it was determined that average energy intake per metabolic body size was 177.4 kcal/kg W 0.75/day. Assuming digestibility and metabolizability of the food fed adult does was the same as that measured with growing fawns, the following comparisons on daily energy intake are possible. Average daily intake for the two does was 929.1 grams (Table 1). Using the same digestibility and metabolizability values discussed above it follows that the mean metabolizable energy intake for the does was 2,661 kcal/day. Using average metabolic weight (kg W 0.75) of 21.8 (61 kg) for the two does, average energy intake per metabolic body size was 122.1 kcal/kg W 0.75/day, about 55 kca1 less than the intake determined for growing fawns. However, the assumption that both age classes of deer utilize food in a similar manner may be tenuous, and as a result this comparison may not be valid. Hopefully, complete digestion and energy balance trials on pregnant does can be conducted in the future. Estimating Nutritional Quality of Ingested Forage In vitro digestion values for the top 10 species and overall diet for deer numbers 9 and 18 as measured in the 5-day grazing trial in March 1976 are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Digestible dry matter for each individual plant species was weighted according to its percentage in the diet. The sum of all weighted values represents the weighted digestible dry matter of the diet. The digestibility of the entire diet as a whole is also presented in Tables 2 and 3. Weighted values in both cases are less than the value determined for the diet as a whole. In vitro values for the two deer diets are very similar even though composition of the two diets are dissimilar. The ten top species in the diet of deer number 9 were 55.7 percent grasses, 27.2 percent forbs, and 17.1 percent shrubs. The ten top species in the diet of deer number 18 were 24.0 percent grasses, 36.2 percent forbs, and 39.8 percent shrubs. A complete forage analysis of each diet is presented in Table 4. Chemically, the two diets are similar. �Table 1. Daily intake (grams) of two pregnant mule deer as a function of varying types and levels of offered (ad libitum) foods during period January 11, to March 24, 1977. Food Type Daily Amount Offered (grams) Days Offered Deer No. 7 Daily Intake (grams se) Deer No. 50 Both Deer Combined ± -Mixed Ration* 1,000 25 527.8 + 52.4 604.2 + 23.4 566.0 + 29.2 Mixed Ration 1,500 7 935.4 + 27.1 798.7 + 17.3 867.1 + 24.3 Dairy Ration** 2,000 7 1,037.0 ±. 36.8 673.3 + 85.3 855.1 + 67.3 Pawnee Specia1*** 1,000 10 934.7 + 25.3 855.7 + 22.1 895.2 + 19.0 Pawnee Special 2,000 10 ± 47.5 831.0 + 44.4 929.1 + 39.2 1,027.1 I -..J 0 I *Mixed ration = cereal grains and alfalfa pellets. **Dairy ration = cereal grains only. *** Pawnee special = alfalfa pellets only. �-71- Table 2. In vitro digestible dry matter of 10 top species and overall diet for deer 9 during period March 1-5, 1976. Grazing trials conducted in 4 ha energy budget pasture, Junction Butte Research Center, Colorado. Plant Species Percent of Diet Percent In Vitro DDM Weighted* Percent DDM Poa fendleriana 40.3 38.75 15.61 Phlox bryoides 14.2 25.40 3.60 Astragalus convallarius 11.8 39.52 4.66 Amelanchier alnifolia 6.7 31.94 2.13 Sitanion hystrix 5.8 46.24 2.68 Artemisia 5.5 55.10 3.03 tridentata Chrysothamnus vaseyi 2.6 43.62 1.13 Symphoricarpos oreophilus 2.3 27.68 0.63 Eriogonum umbellatum 1.2 20.38 0.24 Agropyron sEicatum 9.6 46.26 4.44 38.15 *Weighted ** by percentage Diet percent DDM of diet i.e. 38.75 X .403 = analysis on entire diet. 15.61 Diet** Percent DDM 44.39 �-72- Table 3. In vitro digestible dry matter of 10 top species and overall diet for deer number 18 during period March 1-5, 1976. Grazing trials conducted in 4 ha energy budget pasture, Junction Butte Research Center, Colorado. Plant Species Percent of Diet Percent In Vitro DDM Weighted* Percent DDM Phlox bryoides 32.2 25.40 8.17 Artemisia tridentata 31.5 55.10 17.35 Poa fendleriana 22.8 38.75 8.83 Amelanchier alnifolia 5.1 31.94 1.62 Astragalus convallarius 2.4 35.92 0.94 Chrysothamnus vaseyi 2.5 43.62 1.09 Agropyron spicatum 1.2 46.26 0.55 Eriogonum umbellatum 0.9 20.38 0.18 Penstemon caespitosus 0.7 30.64 0.21 Artemisia frigida 0.7 48.45 0.33 39.27 *Weighted by percentage of diet i.e. 25.40 X .322 ** Diet percent DDM = analysis on entire diet. 8.17. Diet** Percent DDM 42.35 �-73- Table 4. Forage analyses of diets for deer numbers 9 and 18 during period March 1-5, 1976. Grazing trials conducted in 4 ha energy budget pasture, Junction Butte Research Center, Colorado. Deer No. % Moisture 9 18 % % Hemicellulose Gross Energy kcal/g Cell Wall % Ash % ADF % Lignin % Cellulose 5.55 55.83 13.13 51.85 8.46 43.39 3.98 3.73 5.11 42.97 19.01 49.52 10.87 38.65 0 3.59 The two diets were also evaluated in vivo. Table 5 presents daily intake and feces and urine output for the two deer during the 5-day trial. In vivo digestibility for the diet of deer number 9 was 43.6 percent, very comparable to the in vitro value of this diet. However, the in vivo digestibility of the diet of deer number 18 was 68.1 percent, or about 20 units higher than the in vitro value. Reasons for this wide discrepancy are not fully understood. Deer number 18 consistently had a higher daily intake and a lower fecal output than did deer number 9 (Table 5). Intuitively, the diet of deer number 9 should have had the higher digestion coefficient because of the greater percentage of grasses which were higher in digestibility (Tables 2 and 3). The problem of soil contamination in plant samples is greater with low-growing plants such as phlox (Phlox bryoides) than with other plant species. Perhaps the large amount of phlox and the corresponding large amount of ash in the diet of deer number 18 (Table 4) resulted in a portion of this error. It is recommended in future analyses that soil contamination be accounted for. In addition, errors in bite counting and quantifying bite sizes were perhaps larger with deer number 18. The higher percentage of phlox in the diet of deer number 18 may have been responsible for a portion of this error. Counts of bites from this forb is difficult. However, it does not seem reasonable that these factors alone could account for such a large difference. Hopefully, deer fitted with esophageal fistulas will be available soon which will facilitate the quantification of intake of free-grazing mule deer. It is suggested that for future in vivo trials, data be collected for 7 days in place of 5 days. This should give a better measure of intake and output. Comparisons of urine output (grams per day) (Table 5) for the two deer are also interesting. Urine output for deer number 18 was greater than for deer number 9. Gross energy of the urine of deer number 18 was 3.04 kcal/g while for deer number 9 it was 2.63 kcal/g. For the 5-day trial this projected to a total urinary energy loss of 568 kcal for deer number 18 and 279 kcal for deer number 9. Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) made up 31.5 percent of the diet of deer number 18 but made up only 5.5 percent of the diet of deer number 9. It is known (Cook 1970) that many of the volatile oils (high in gross energy) of sagebrush are not metabolized by ruminants but are excreted in the urine. These data support that finding. Gross energy of the feces of deer number 9 was 3.58 kcal/g while for deer number 18 it was 3.28 kcal/g, '3:gainindicating similarities in digestibility of the two diets. �-74- Table 5. Daily intake (grams) and feces and urine output (grams) for deer numbers 9 and 18 durin§ in vivo digestion trial March 1-5, 1976. All weights oven-dry at 100 C for 24 hours. Day Intake Deer 9 Deer 18 Deer 9 Feces Deer 18 Deer 9 Deer 18 1 152 242 142 81 33 55 2 88 227 107 69 12 26 3 275 389 142 77 23 42 4 143 234 96 128 19 37 5 339 452 75 138 19 27 Totals 997 1,544 562 493 106 187 Urine LITERATURE CITED Baker, D. L. Thesis. 1976. Energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 76p. M.S. Carpenter, L. H. 1976. Middle Park Deer Study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-3l. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 283-298. --- , and D. L. Baker. 1975. Middle Park Deer Study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-29. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 241-263. Cook, C. W. TBl09. 1970. Energy budget of the range and range livestock. Colo. State Univ. Expt. Station, Fort Collins. 28p. Bull. Gill, R. B., and D. L. Baker. 1954. Middle Park Deer Study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 211-225. Pearson, H. A. 1970. Digestibility trials: In vitro techniques. p. 85-93. In Range and Wildlife Habitat Evaluation. A research symposium. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Misc. Publ. 1147. 220p. Tilley, J. M., and R. A. Terry. digestion of forage crops. 1963. A two-state technique for in vitro J. Brit. Grassl. Soc. 18(2):104-111. Prepa red by __ ~-=--L'='-' -,~,-",--_,---,>C,""".d::U~'-'6.:J-~~=~c..::.=::=.==-_ Len H. Carpenter~ Wildlife Researcher C �-75- A P PEN D I X A (Abstract of Daniel Milchunas Thesis) �-76- ABSTRACT IN VIVO - IN VITRO RELATIONSHIPS Morphological digestibility fir summer and phenological were observed OF COLORADO differences winter Twelve summer and thirteen winter forages examined constituents, crude protein, and 55.3 and 38.1% in vitro DDM. between content. Significant native multiple possible negative and multi-species that nitrogen experiments and stimulates micro- effects are not observed carbon structure exploitation effects unless the potential. opposing positive caution must be used when relating combinations From regressing or diets. the equation Y = 1.377 + 0.935x (r 2 = 0.95) is the of in vivo DDM from in vitro DDM. best predicted from in vitro DDM "by weighted mean" rather vitro digestion of the mixes. energy as a percent Metabolizable Mixed forage diets are than from in of digestible from 65.5% to 77.0%. Total nutritive digestibility. in vitro in vitro to in vivo DDM data of this and other studies combinations, ranged With in vitro to in vivo best predictor energy were effects were observed between forages, suggests in vivo associative effects, DDM for species Large differences nitrogen supplementation but that associative also increases in various two native analysis mixture associative 27.2 and 6.3 and 10.9% lignin, 11.8 and 5.6 in vitro associative Non protein regression organisms, averaged in vitro DDM and in vitro DOM in forages of high ash forage and alfalfa, combinations. from mule deer spruce- range in Middle Park, Colorado. 46.5% cell wall observed in forage in vitro in species examined range and sagebrush MULE DEER FORAGE input to an animal is a function Intake under bulk limiting conditions of both intake and is a function of gut �-7:]- capacity of forage turnover consistently time. related to chemical due to the importance Further, rate of passage constituents of particle of a forage or digestibility size reduction in passage appears that in certain cases lignin can provide brittleness physical characteristics rumination-mastication by simulating whereby occurs. meals whereby is not rates. It to forage particle size reduction is enhanced Relative forage intakes were calculated an animal eats to a constant when "fill" and these meals "decay" at a rate based on forage passage functions. Relative at steady state and DE or ME are then combined to produce a digestible energy intake index (DElI) and metabolizable Across forage comparisons reordering in DElI or MEII may provide observations energy intake index (MEII). of mean DElI or MEII to DE or ME indicates of forage value. It is suggested explanations where deer are utilizing intake that turnover to seemingly large quantities a rate as applied paradoxical of a forage of high fiber, low diges tibility. Daniel George Milchunas Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 Winter, 1977 �-78- A P PEN D I X B PROGRESS REPORT Project: The Use of Heart Rate to Estimate the Energy Expenditure of Mule Deer Fawns. Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Funded by Colorado Division of Wildlife Contract No. C102064 Marie A. Kautz, Graduate Research Assistant Period Covered: April 1, 1976 -March 31, 1977 �-79- THE USE OF HEART RATE TO ESTIMATE THE ENERGY EXPENDITURE OF MULE DEER FAWNS OBJECTIVES 1. Evaluate the usefulness of a face mask apparatus collections from mule deer fawns. for making respiratory 2. Investigate the relation between the heart of fawns engaged in several activities. rate and energy expenditure SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Complete air. development of a system for measuring 2. Rear and train four fawns to experimental procedures. 3. Perform measurements and heart rate. 4. Analyze data. of energy expenditure METHODS and collecting expired AND MATERIALS The methods and materials used to meet 'Objectives 1, 3, and 4 are reported by Kautz, in Carpenter (1976). Fawns were obtained from captive does or acquired as orphans. reared using procedures similar to those described by Reichert They were (1972). A training program was developed as the fawns grew. At 2-3 weeks of age open-ended styrofoam cups with elastic straps were placed on their muzzles during bottle feeding. Gradually the cups were made more restrictive and heavier by leaving the distal end partially closed in and taping on weights. At about 1 month the fawns were introduced to plastic cups used in the same manner but held on by webbing in the same way as the real mask. Weights were added gradually to the plastic cups until the fawns accepted about fourteen ounces and weighed about 50 pounds. At this time they were judged ready for the real mask without valves. After this became acceptable, the face-cuff of the mask was tightened, the valves put in, and the hoses attached. The fawns were given raisins as a distraction and reinforcement, both through the partially open-ended cups and after removing the real mask. Harness and leash training was done in conjunction with the mask training as described by Reichert (1972). Each fawn was trained in this manner daily for 10-30 minutes until 3-4 months of age, when the intensity was decreased to 3 or 4 times a week. Four fawns were brought through the training program. �-80- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Success of Training The training procedures were highly effective. Of the four deer trained intensively three were usable as experimental subjects. The fourth (deer 54) accepted the mask throughout the study period, but would not accept handling from a technician who joined the study when the deer were over five months of age. Since hooking up the apparatus required the technician's assistance, deer 54 was dropped from the study. The deer's position as dominant female of the group may have been related to her intolerance of being handled by a new person. No such problems arose with the other three deer (two males and one female), all of which accepted handling by the new technician within two weeks. Of the three deer used in the study the two males could be outfitted readily. The female (deer 55) accepted the face mask only by being coaxed or tricked into it. Often several attempts were necessary but it was always possible to get the mask on her. The history of deer 55 was different from those of the others in that she was about a month younger. She was raised for her first three weeks at the home of a researcher, and she was trained less than the other three. In general she was more active, independent, and aggressive than the others. Thus the poorer acceptance of handling procedures by the females is not clearly a sex difference. At certain times all the deer were excited and showed a high level of activity. Trials were not conducted at these times because the deer were difficult to handle and restrain. If the deer were bedded, standing around, or quietly feeding, outfitting could be readily accomplished and trials completed with minimal restraint. Measurement of Energy Expenditure One hundred-ten simultaneous measurements of heart rate and energy expenditure were completed when the deer were between six and nine months of age. Of these, eleven trials were done on deer fasted for 48 or more hours. Thirteen trials included some bedding; other activities included standing and walking and some trotting (less than 10 percent of any trial). The ranges of oxygen consumption, heart rate, and percent of time spent bedding and standing combined for each deer are presented in Table 1. For all deer oxygen consumption ranged from 14.2 to 63.4 ml/kg 0.75 min and heart rate from 49.3 to 96.0 beats per minute. Percent of time spent bedding and standing combined ranged from 20 to 100. �-81- Table 1. trials. Ranges of measured parameters for individual deer during all 51 d" Deer Number 53 c3" Oxygen consumption ml/kg 0.75 min. 15.6-46.6 18.6-63.4 14.2-48.8 Heart 50.5-93.1 49.3-92.7 53.0-96 28-98 20-99 21-100 Parameter rate beats/min Percent time spent bedding and standing combined 55 ~ Data analyses are incomplete and some heart rate counts need to be rechecked. Therefore the following results which include heart rates are tentative. Measurements of oxygen consumption for fasting trials are presented in Table 2. In general fasted animals were more likely to bed and had lower oxygen consumptions than fed animals. Table 2. Oxygen consumption for fasting trials by deer and activity, order of increasing activity. in (h Cons. ml/kgO.75 Deer No. Trial No. Percent Bedding 51 30 64 34 15.62 26 54 35 18.42 28 0 73 27.85 25 0 64 26.23 27 0 58 29.95 29 0 54 39.80 111 81 16 14.17 112 63 36 16.61 110 10 82 19.39 109 0 89 35.94 108 0 36 45.36 55 Percent Standing min �-82- In trials in which bedding occurred, percent of time spent bedding appeared to be related to oxygen consumption. In trials without bedding, percent standing was clearly correlated with oxygen consumption (r =-.672). Other variables tested in a stepwise mUltiple regression with oxygen consumption as dependent variable were Julian day, temperature, and pulmonary volume, and heart rate. The correlation for pulmonary volume and oxygen consumption (r = .549) was somewhat lower than expected, probably due to the effects of the face mask and the common occurrence of panting during warm or active trials. Heart rate was most strongly correlated with oxygen consumption. Correlation coefficients were .819, .913, and .914 for data from deer 51, 53, and 55, respectively and .692 for all deer. A plot of oxygen consumption vs heart rate for all deer is presented in Figure 1. The data from deer 55 are distinct from those of deer 51 and 53. This may be related to sex and/or age and size. Deer 55 was a female, approximately one month younger and 13 kg lighter than the mean weight of deer 51 and 53. RECOMMENDATIONS All segment objectives were met except No.4. Further checking of some heart rates, involving spot checks of counts from electrocardiographs and checks of the calculation of mean heart rates, is needed before analysis is continued. Analyses should also include consideration of the effects of time of day; a more complete analysis of activity data; possibly consideration of data on human activity and subject nervousness; and further examination of relationships among the different variables measured. Estimated completion date for further analyses and a final report is September 30. LITERATURE CITED Kautz, M. A. 1976. The use of heart rate to estimate the energy expenditure of unrestrained deer. Appendix A, pp. 299-319 in Carpenter, L. H. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-3l, WP 14, J9, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July. Reichert, D. W. 1972. Rearing and training deer for food habits studies. USDA For. Servo Res. Note RM 208, 7 p. Rocky Mt. For. and Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins, Colo. �-83- ?O.II...----,.---r--.----,----.---.,---r--.---r---'----;.---I 1 - Deer 51 60.0 3 - Deer 53 5 - Deer 55 :z !S1.e r I to r- 5 5 3 <:) (,.;:) ~ <, -' ~ I 3 40.0 3 3 ~ 0 l- 1 ~3 '!' '~l" 3 JO.O =c :::l . 33 :z 1 5 % 55 3 5 ~ S 5 0 u 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3t 5 5 5 33 333 13~ Vl 5 33 I 3 1 .; I 1 13 I ::z Q.. , 3 5 5 5 :z w l..:> >- 3 10.0 5 3: X 5 5 0 5 5 5 5 5 10.00 ~ .• 0 .,; ~ co. Co ;: ~ co co •• "! ""~ HEART RATE CBEATS/H I NJ Fig. 1. The relationship deer fawns. between oxygen consumption and heart rate for three ��-85- July, -1977 JOB FINAL REl'ORT Colorado State of ------------------------ Project No. W-38-R-32 Hork Plan No. - 14 Job Title Middle Park Cooperative Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations Job No. 10 Deer Study - Junction Butte Habitat Study April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Wayne L. Regelin, Donald W. Reichert, L. Firlick, and Len H. Carpenter Glenn L. Crouch, Patrick ABSTRACT Effects of snow manipulation on deer use and vegetation growth were summarized in a dissertation which serves as a final report for most objectives of this job. The dissertation is on file at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center Library and the Colorado State University Library and copies have been forwarded to appropriate Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Aid personnel. The second four blocks of treatment plots for the winter range seeding experiment were installed and the first post-treatment plant cover and composition measurements were made on plots established in 1975. ��-87- MIDDLE PARK COOPERATIVE DEER STUDY - JUNCTION BUTTE HABITAT STUDY Glenn L. Crouch A dissertation entitled "Effects of snow drifts on mountain shrub communities" (Regelin 1976) is on file at the Colorado Division of Wildlife Research Center Library and at the Colorado State University Library. This dissertation presents information regarding effects of snow manipulation on vegetation growth and deer use and serves as a final report for the snow manipulation portion of this study. PeN.O. OBJECTIVE In Middle Park, Colorado and other similar mule deer winter ranges in mountainous sagebrush habitat, native forage does not produce sufficient supplies of chemical protein and energy to maintain deer in the demanding winter months. The objective of this study is to develop revegetation procedures to establish stands of species with high contents of digestible protein and chemical energy to supplement native vegetation in meeting the nutritional requirements of mule deer in winter. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To compare the establishment and spread of planted species using three methods of planging (drill rows, broadcast and harrowed, and broadcast only). 2. To compare herbage yield on three seedbed treatments and control areas. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods employed in this study have been previously (1974, 1975 and 1976). detailed by Regelin RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seeding. Deer Winter Ranges The first post-treatment measurements of plant cover and composition were made in July 1976 on plots established in 1975. Plants of all seeded species were found, but amounts of each were minimal after only one growing season. In addition, the second set of four treatment blocks were selected, and pretreatment plant cover, composition, and biomass were determined. These sites were prepared for seeding and seed sown in September as described by Regelin (1975) • �-88- LITERATURE CITED Regelin, W. L. 1974. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Junction Butte Habitat Improvement Study. Colo. Div. Wildl., Fed. Aid W-38-R-28, Work Plan 14, Job 10, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2. p. 227-292. 1975. Middle Park Cooperative Deer Study - Junction Butte Habitat Improvement Study. Colo. Div. Wildl., Fed. Aid W-38-R-29, Work Plan 14, Job 10, Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July,Part 2. p. 265-294. 1976. Effects of snow drifts on mountain shrub communities. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 106 p. �July, 1977 -89JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-32 Deer-Elk Investigations 14 Job No. 11 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Snowmobile Covered: Personnel: REPORT April Harassment --------------------~----------- of Mule Deer on Cold Winter 1, 1976 - March Ranges 31, 1977 D. Freddy, L. Carpenter, T. Spraker, L. Strong, P. Neil, B. McCloskey, J. Sweeting, Colorado Division of Wildlife; L. Ward and J. Cupal, U.S. Forest Service. ABSTRACT An implanted heart-rate telemetry system was placed in 2 male, semi-tame mule deer. Heart-rates of these deer were monitored during various daily activities while deer were at pasture. The telemetry system generally performed well but artifact problems prevented obtaining accurate heartrates for walking, running, and some grazing activities. While at pasture these deer were harassed by 1 person, 2 persons, person plus a dog, and a snowmobile moving on prescribed routes at varying distances from the pasture. Deer reacted to harassment and heart-rate was found to be a sensitive measure of deer reactions to harassment. ��-91- SNOWMOBILE HARASSMENT OF MULE DEER ON COLD WINTER RANGES David J. Freddy The expanding human population is continually encroaching upon wildlife populations. There appears to be two primary effects of this encroachment; direct loss of wildlife habitat to development and harassment of wildlife populations. Geist (1971) describes harassment as any activity of man that influences animals, such that animals increase their energy demands (calories needed to survive and reproduce) above normal. Repeated often enough, harassment may cause animals to draw abnormally upon body energy reserves, or consume increased amounts of limited forage. This increased "cost of living" would be innnediately detrimental to the individual and in the long run, detrimental to the population. Pregnant females may abort or resorb young or die because of resulting nutritional deficiencies or physiological stresses. Populations may respond to harassment by shifting their distribution or eventually being eliminated. Harassment may be more critical at certain times of the year. Winter is considered the critical season for survival of mule deer (Odocoi1eus hemionus) in the central Rocky Mountains. Limited winter ranges and limited amounts of quality forage place nutritional burdens upon deer. Any activity that forces deer to abandon their normal routines of behavior, movement and range utilization may increase the caloric energy needed for deer to survive. The snowmobile is a potential source of harassment to mule deer in Colorado. Few deer winter ranges are exempt from snowmobile activity. These ranges are often associated with heavily traveled highways or adjacent to human population centers which increases the susceptibility of deer to snowmobile harassment. Previous studies on the effects of snowmobiles on deer are limited in number. Eckstein and Rongstad (1973) radio-collared white-tailed deer (Odocoi1eus virginianus) and monitored deer responses to snowmobile traffic. Home ranges of deer did not significantly vary when snowmobiles were present nor did snowmobiles appear to upset the daily movement patterns of deer. However, deer did move away from snowmobile trails in response to the disturbance. Dorrance et al. (1975) also studied white-tailed deer and utilized radio telemetry to monitor deer responses to snowmobiles. Home ranges of individual deer tended to increase in size, although not significantly, in response to snowmobiles. Deer appeared to shift their activities away from snowmobile trails and increase their movements in response to snowmobiles. The authors felt that deer become somewhat habituated to snoumobile activity but that in critical winters any disturbance by snowmobiles eliciting a response by deer could seriously upset the energy budgets of individual animals. Although these studies using telemetered deer give insight into deer behavior resulting from contact with snowmobiles, no quantitative estimate �-92- of the energy cost of harassment is possible from this type of study. An estimate of the energy expenditure of the reactions of deer to snowmobiles is needed to quantitatively describe the effects of harassment. Several approaches have been utilized to estimate energy expenditure in wild and domestic ruminants. Respiratory gas exchange methods have been used to estimate energy expenditure in grazing animals (Young and Corbett 1968, Corbett et a1. 1969). However, this technique requires the animal being studied carry awkward equipment under restrained conditions and therefore difficult to use in a free ranging situation. Also, the use of radio isotopes, primarily a form of labeled CO , in injection or infusion 2 techniques appears to give reliable estimates of energy expenditure (Young et a1. 1969, White and Leng 1968, Corbett et a1. 1971). However, the infusion process may not be reliable during cold winter temperatures common to deer winter ranges. A technique to estimate energy expenditure that appears favorable is heart-rate. Recent advances in micro-biotelemetry have provided easily obtainable external and internal heart-rate radio transmitters. These transmitter systems place minimal restraints on free ranging animals. Heart-rate has been monitored in man and wild animals and related to metabolic rate and heat production, or energy expenditure (Wyndham et a1. 1959, Booyens and Hervey 1960, Webster 1967, Datta and Ramanathan 1969, Bradfield et a1. 1969, Mbrhardt and Morhardt 1969, Owen 1969). Jacobsen (1973) summarizes published estimates of heart rate-energy expenditure relationships for various animals and presents an equation, based on these estimates, for predicting energy expenditure in deer using heart-rate. The equation: + 0.09371 Y = -1.0653 (Y)= rate of energy transaction and, (X)= heart rate in beats/minute where could be used to estimate mobile harassment. (X) the energy expenditure in kcal/kg·75/hour imposed on deer by snow- With the availability of telemetry equipment and the apparent relationship between heart-rate and energy expenditure, the effect of harassment in terms of energy cost might be estimated. Responses of deer to snowmobile activity can be monitored and concurring energy costs estimated. This study is being conducted in cooperation with the u.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyoming under Cooperative Agreement No. l6-67l-CA. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE Evaluate whether snowmobile activity on winter ranges inhabited by deer decreases the ability of deer to survive winter by modifying the activities of deer so as to significantly increase energy expended. �-93- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor heart-rates of deer during various daily activities to quantify the energy costs of these activities during winter. 2. Ascertain activities harassment. 3. Evaluate observed reactions of deer to snowmobiles in terms of appropriate heart-rate measurements and corresponding energy costs. 4. Evaluate the energy cost of snowmobile harassment to deer in relation to the total estimated energy budget of deer (concurring study). s. Examine alternatives to minimize snowmobiles on deer. of deer responding to prescribed potential detrimental snowmobile effects of METHODS AND MATERIALS Two semi-tame, male castrate mule deer, age 2-1/2 years, were equipped with implanted heart-rate monitoring transmitters. The telemetry system was essentially the same as that reported by Cupal et al. (1974) (Figs. 1, 2). Surgery for implanting transmitters proceeded as follows: 1) animal was anesthetized with Rompum, intramuscularly, and Ketamine, intravenously, 2) hair was shaved at the base of neck and top and bottom of sternum, 3) hair and skin were aseptically cleansed, 4) subcutaneous incisions were made at the base of neck and sternum areas, 5) blunt dissection was performed within the neck incision to prepare a pouch for transmitter implant, 6) a catheter (large gauge hypodermic needle) was rammed subcutaneously from the incision at the top of the sternum to the neck incision, 7) electrodes were fed into the catheter and the implant placed in the pouch, 8) catheter removed (electrodes now surfaced at the top sternum incision, and rammed subcutaneously from the bottom to the top sternum incision, 9) electrodes fed into catheter, catheter removed, electrodes at bottom sternum incision (Fig. 3), 10) antibiotic salve placed into incisions, incisions sutured, and animal given large dose of penicillin. Surgery resulted in one electrode within the tissue at both the top and bottom of the sternum. Electrodes were not affixed to tissue but simply pushed into sternum tissue. Aseptic procedure was followed. These deer were placed in a 10 acre pasture of native sagebrush winter range located at Junction Butte Research Center, Middle Park, Colorado. Animals were visually and telemetrically monitored from a glass enclosed tower adjacent to the pasture (Fig. 4). From 7:00 AM to 5:30 PM for two, 5 consecutive day trials in February, heart-rates and corresponding activities were monitored. Heart-rates and activities were sampled during 3, systematically spaced 10 minute intervals per hour. Deer sampled were alternated every other 10 minute interval, with the first deer sampled each day chosen at random. Activities were classified as bedded, bedded plus rumination, �-94- standing, standing plus grazing, walking, walking plus grazing, running, alert reaction bedded, and alert reaction while up. This approach will allow examination of the variability in heart-rate due to deer, activity, trial, and time-of-day. Deer fed primarily on native forage but were occasionally given grain supplement. While at pasture, deer were harassed by a snowmobile, people, and a person and dog moving on prescribed routes at varying distances from the pasture. Deer activities and heart-rates were monitored for 5 minutes prior to, during, and for 5 minutes after each harassment activity. Heart-rates were determined directly from strip-chart recordings a Hewlett-Packard MOdel 9820A digitizer-calculator system. using RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Heart-rates determined. for deer activities and harassment reactions are still being The telemetry system generally performed satisfactorily. However, problems exist and the system needs refinement. Initially, heart-pulse signal was being lost when the animals were in a head-down feeding position. The transmitting range of the implant was about 12-14 inches and, when the transceiver neck-collar slid down the neck beyond the implant's transmitting range, the signal was lost. A sustaining collar about 7 inches wide made of vinyl-coated cotton webbing lined with poly-sponge was buckled around the neck in front of the transceiver collar. This kept the transceiver collar close to the implant so signal was not lost during feeding (Fig. 5). The extra collar did not appear to bother the deer. To receive continuous heart-rate data from wild deer, either a sustaining collar must be employed or the implant's transmitting distance increased. The latter option would increase battery power needed and possibly the implant's size. The second problem with the telemetry system was more severe and complex. During bedded, "quiet" standing, and "quiet" grazing activities ("quiet" meaning little body movement), heart-rate signal was received well. However, during "active" feeding, such as head-up, head+down motion in quick succession, or walking and running activities, heart-rate signal was erratic (Fig. 6). This indicated artifact (spurious electrical noise) was being interpreted as heart-pulses (R-waves) by the telemetry system and leading to erroneous heart-rate recordings. Further evidence of this problem occurred during bedded activities. Heart-rate signal was constant until the animal moved its head or foreleg which seemed to cause an instantaneous rise in heart-rate (Fig. 7). Because of the artifact problem, heart-rates for walking, running, and most grazing activities could not be ob tained . Causes of this artifact problem are unknown. Possible causes are electrical impulses created by: 1) muscle movement near the sternum, 2) slight movement of the implant and electrodes within the animal as the animal moves, and 3) electrode movement resulting in minute changes in distances between electrodes. Further developmental research must be undertaken to solve this problem or else accurate heart-rates for walking, running, and grazing activities cannot be obtafned. �-95- Fig. 3. Surgery to implant transmitter package, Top: electrodes initially fed into catheter, Center: electrodes ready to feed into catheter again, Bottom: suturing implant incision. (Photos byF. Waugh). �-96- fig. 1. 'I'r ansc ei.ver- neck collar, left, and heart-pulse transmitter, right, used to monitor heart-rates of deer. Two stainless steel electrodes exit from transmitter within a protective teflon plastic tube and surface outside the tube (points A & B) to contact animal tissue. (Photo by F. Waugh). Fig. 2. Receiver rate signals. and strip-chart recorder used to receive heart- �-97- U) Q) :> OM .p OM OM o -> cd f..I Q) Q) f..I '0 o .p s:: oM o S o .p Q) '0 Q) to ::s f..I ~ o 8 . -=:T �-98- Fig. 5. Sustaining collar close to implant. Implant bottom picture. used to keep transceiver neck-collar located beneath shaved-hair area, �1 ~ '--(- '"',,, --,;,--·~.,'-'i, : :' ; .'... ;" !'\:. f-". l: :.\ 1 .i- \ ..•.. : 1 I J : i ,-V; .u P. ~i 7' 1..., ,",' H fA 0 : '.'.'.. • '-:.-", ....j .. ,' .. DO W N <. ,,: :' "" ~ I : f'" \~ F<'0~¥· ~ · /"j "- "'./ \... ./~ ""-. :<\:: ' :_::~ ~~, i . i I N,'" .r-.r-. r- 'fe, ,~ ~'" / , _; ~!;., r- ~" ' ~61A . \.- - , ,"-, \' '-", ,I -, ': _. Iii' (i f") r ",-' __, C: r-. r-. r-, r--. 0__,0_.0".0 2. r> ", --'"-~,.,L:,,-·-··"·'· ,~.-"~,'-'.,.:.-- '\ 'b> __2.0 ..8PM '-,. I ,! : J' , .,' ; vi; ,V"~ ,.' . ':-(' ~ "\,; \---</ i' " \~'J' 1 \"'"1 i' •• '~ HE AD '~'''~'<'''~'' !~-t0 ,'~. \~""'" \, ~~: ,-;.' :;. ! 120 PM';-' !: -. ,~ 8,,", - ~ .S,r. ! c- •••• i. I' ... 1.._ () ...•.. r-. rv () "11 0 0 () .. speed, r--. 0 0 .r--, . l~O,mln ~) __ 1"'\0 ("'I .! .• I... r--. n ," .' : .' (: u : ,":;1") ,"\1 paper _._ I \0 \0 Fig. 6. Heart-rate trace of deer No. 39 during grazing activity showing variability in heart-rate probably due to artifact associated with head-up, head-do~~ movement. :'----r-'-f~=-T""i-"" -- --, i ,I i , ..."" i -- ---i.-- I' I ! : I ----T - I - i ,-. r -'--1'--:-~-T" --l-'-~r--! '.' -1------O---f·~T--:- j--OT--r-T-==r:--T"-=r -- i . ; , , : ' ! , i . : +-,t+it+~;-'-~-~-f-~~~;~~l~~L~-~--LJJr~-t~~--~_L :L-t-+-'-+~:-~ ! . . Ii! I ; 'l . .! {iNti)J '. I~i '.• tll( , f" ~: I' I '; (I , r-; ,;.,/\: ;: . i i ". . ; '. : '. :. : 'ii '~~ "1 ." .I ', (1 . ,:' BPM_ ; ~/ : . '2·0 BPM ~ i .. 1'/ I r. : .; . \i -, ,I. , i .. n ()n 0,0.0 : . i . ,r3~';oo, . , ..120 1 1 .f:fJ. . \""\,,q, " .:;p~' ) ~P' , ' ; -, ' :-,: Q . . : , ~ ~. . l " rate ~' : C r: .:,: ~." ; ' i 0_0_~ ,.: 0 n n n n 0 :> !:" I,' it :') :'1 0 r-, . V:" " I i "\.:" .:-'-~ I :" . paper .sp.aed '"' f") 0 0 Iii 0 0 i,..; : ! ~'1 (j;o !, , Sr-'(" :.. -1r=k\G .! ~\. \..:.; ":~; I ",\v-t, ,-;- I lD bedded JQ t iv ity' ~ ! '.\ ' i heart ~\\ F-..· .. • ....,....,..' '-' ' ; pQ}\xA*~ ~',_i -- , ~ \.r"I~ :'.-~ ..... :;;'" 1/ I I 1.6/ mln n 0 f") n 0 0 . i . ! __ ';" /-1 ~ . __: ./ ~\r--. 'Ill, l:/ ,""'l I I .'i :", ( --~~~~------------~--~~ Fig. 7. Heart-rate trace of deer No. 39 during bedded activity showing increases in heart-rate due to artifact associated with body movement. I .__.. #._~ �-100- To measure the magnitude of artifact, an external ECG telemetry system (Kautz, unpublished data, Colo. State Univ. 1977) was affixed to one deer and both the external and internal heart-rate systems were monitored simultaneously. However, the external system also produced artifact during walking and grazing activities, preventing measurement of heartrates for these activities. When the deer was standing quietly, the external system produced an excellent ECG waveform trace (Fog. 8). Through simultaneous monitoring the internal transmitter was found to be accurately pulsing for every "R wave" produced during a quiet stand activity. Harassment trials were conducted in February and March. Forms of harassment tested were one person, two persons, and one person plus a German Shepherd dog walking, and a person riding a snowmobile over 6 routes ranging from 0 to 400 yards from the pasture. Successive routes were traveled on one day with a minimum of 10 minutes between routes. "Harassers" were out of sight of the deer while waiting to travel the next route. Duration of harassment ranged from 8-26 minutes. Animals were not actively pursued during harassment trials. Little or no snow was present during the trials. Deer reacted to harassment with some degree of overt behavior during all trials except two (Table 1). Two persons walking 100 yards above the pasture elicited the strongest response from the deer. Deer reacted by running to the farthest corner of the pasture away from this harassment, and remained alert for at least 5 minutes after '~arassers" were out of sight. A person walking with a dog appeared to have little effect on the deer (Table 1). Snowmobile activity brought varied responses from deer with severity of deer response apparently increasing with decreasing distance from the snowmobile (Table 1). Increases in heart-rate could not be accurately measured if deer began to walk or run. However, on 3 occasions increases in heart-rate were apparent while deer were either standing still or bedded (Table 1, Fig. 9). These increases in heart-rate suggested that although deer may not elicit strong overt behavioral reactions to harassment, "flight" response mechanisms may be active, indicative of some degree of stress. Visual contact by deer with forms of harassment preceded overt responses. These deer appeared to rely on sight more than smell or hearing as a defense mechanism. This segment's work revealed problems with measuring heart-rate during certain deer activities, demonstrated that semi-tame deer at pasture will react to harassment, and that heart-rate may be a sensitive measure of nonovert reactions of deer to harassment. �-101- Table l. Reactions of deer to various types of harassment, Hidd1e Park, Colorado, 1977 . Harassment One Person Walking Date Deer No. Distance From Pasture Overt Behavior Reaction Apparent Increase In Heart Rate 2-21-77 2-21-77 2-21-77 2-21-77 39 18 39 18 300-400 yds 200 yds 100 yds 0 yds a 1 1 1 1 Yes Yes Yes No Change In Deer Activity Duration of Harassment (Hinutes) No Yes No No 13c 11 c 9 11 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 1 1 1 0 No Yes No Yes No No Yes No Yes No 9 10 9 13 8 3 Yes Yes 26 1 1 No Yes No No No No 300-400 yds 100-300 yds 0-1700 yds 1 2 1 No Yes No No Yes Yes 12 300-400 yds 0-400 yds o No Yes No Yes 12 3-07-77 3-07-77 3-07-77 3-07-77 3-07-77 18 39 18 39 18 300-400 yds 200 yds 100 yds 0 yds b 0 yds 3-08-77 39 100 yds Person Plus Dog Walking 3-09-77 3-09-77 3-09-77 18 39 18 300-400 yds 200 yds 100 yds 1 Person On Snowmobile 3-18-77 3-18-77 3-18-77 39 18 39 Person On Snowmobile 3-19-77 3-19-77 18 39 Two Persons Walking Two Persons Walking b 2 7 23 11 a o = no overt reaction; 1 = ears-up, alert appearance, no movement away from harassment; 2 = ears-up, alert appearance, moderate movement; 3 = ears-up, alert appearance, strong movement. b Route located e1evationa11y above pasture. c Increases in heart-rate possibly indicate of "flight" response. �./ ... .•. . 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":! .• .1.,1 '.rr.: :!,' ";~~"--l ..•. .~ •.'t.. ,'" .+. -. - .•. :-: ':j '.' i,~1 ill! ,q.::l!lJ j '~'I ,.,.!--.:!_ ' "--:~'''''I~rl~ ;~ r:: :t:.~ .:.--·"l:'.,:;~:: t+'~I ,',:1 : :: & .", ... i~l.: "'l-~U" I..· 1. -:j-':,1.:': !!ll 1.11••., ,I" ,. . I- I 'r,;', . . ,__,.. ..,' . , 5'1 ••• ./ "'_ EM , NEW HAMPSHIPE .~ , M FE CORPORATl'JN .-- . ., . ... ) Pig. 8. ECG trace produced by an external heart-rate telemetry system on deer No. 18 during a stand activity. I I-' o N I r "'T ~r'T'-r':-j'---'l·"l 1.'.1:'.,:-C:"i~=T~'i" ..... .. .,,\ : S'TAND'ING :1 .. I! ! : i ': l'J ; i i. . 1'\, ii' ' ';<, , I ., ! .:. '-G ;. ,.: I f .\" ~.:i \) -t' ~ :::'" ":t-).I' ' . ~ -! , , ~'{:1::'. ~ If) ~ 1'\120BPM~ ~ __v. IL.'! .J C"-, }..fl)~. I{ A· ~. \tj:;~''J:J::o... ~./ : .•..••...... ., ~ : ! .j' ~I , i~ . .'"'"""';---l"---""", , \ I : :.;' , I ;! , ! I. I ~I""'-' r -•.". - I vI " ~~J' p ~. "'\.~., (~..I. '-' ,~ ..' ('. r r : ' .' v . -.- , ..., fer, ..., ~ ..•• ~~!f v',to.o .t:9' ~\ r;~~~ ,\" Il\: V' '" I \ ~_ .. :' " ,. .j I .j I r \1 I - paper ! !' "'-:. -.-' •.. '" .Y.1"f~ 1. r'f',00('.r' y' ~/"\"""~'-..../'-~~.~.r_~'j 1':'. 1. :1 "-'1"--, .:... ~~ ::.: . ••..-. ~~ '>I T'" . ". .-" Ii II .... ' .: ALERT --.------- ' I II -', - ~~ "", , ~p 0;,},"'=":.&r:'0 ! ~: v ~, -----....-.:..../ \"..~,,-, Y , .20 BPM~ t""' -~ ! ~ ~~~, I j;:!, 1 r: ... : ~ : . , " . ' ,. ~. ,-.-!" " DEER .. I ~, .·'r~~i---f--·-~~-'! i, c. (", ..~ , speed " . 1.6/min o ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ 0 0 ~ -v ., "11j Fig. 9. Heart-rate trace of deer No. 39 while 2 persons were walking 200 yards from pasture. Long delay in heart-rate decrease indicative of increased heart-rate while initially alert. �-103- LITERATURE CITED Booyens, J., and G. R. Hervey. 1960. measuring metabolic rate in man. 38:1301-1309. The pulse rate as a means of Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. Bradfield, R. B., P. B. Huntzicker, and G. J. Fruehan. 1969. Simultaneous comparison of respirometer and heart-rate telemetry techniques as measures of human energy expenditure. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 22:696-700. Corbett, J. L., D. J. Farrell, R. A. Leng, G. L. McClymont, and B. A. Young. 1971. Determination of the energy expenditure of penned and grazing sheep from estimates of carbon dioxide entry rate. Br. J. Nutr. 26:277-291. ______ , R. H. Leng, and B. A. Young. 1969. Measurement of energy expenditure by grazing sheep and the amount of energy supplied by volatile fatty acids produced in the rumen. Pp. 177-186 In K. L. Blaxter, J. Kielanowski, and G. Thorbek (eds.). Energy metabolism of farm animals. Oriel Press, Newcastle upon Tyne. Cupal, J. J., A. L. Ward, and R. W. Weeks. 1974. A repeater type biotelemetry system for use on wild big game animals. Bio.Med. Sci. Instrumentation 10:145-152. Datta, S. R., and N. L. Ramanathan. 1969. Energy expenditure in work predicted from heart rate and pulmonary ventilation. J. Appl. Physiol. 26:297-302. Dorrance, M. J., P. J. Savage, and D. E. Huff. 1975. Effect of snowmobiles on white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(3):563-569. Eckstein, R. G., and o. J. Rongstad. 1973. Effects of snowmobiles on the movements of white-tailed deer in northern Wisconsin. Midwest Fish and Wildl. Conf. Proc. 35:39. Geist, V. 1971. 14:12-13. Is big game harassment harmful? Oil Week. June. Jacobsen, N. K. 1973. Physiology, behavior, and thermal transactions of white-tailed deer. Ph.D. Thesis. Cornell University. 346p. Morhardt, J. E., and S. S. Mbrhardt. 1969. Field measurements of mammalian metabolic rates using radiotelemetry of heart rates. Am. Zool. 9:1093. Owen, R. B., Jr. 1969. Heart rate, a measure of metabolism in bluewinged teal. Compo Biochem. Physiol. 31:431-436. Webster, A. J. F. 1967. Continuous measurement of heart rate as an indicator of the energy expenditure in sheep. Br. Jr. Nutr. 21:769-785. White, R. G., and R. A. Leng. 1968. Carbon dioxide entry rate as an index of energy expenditure in lambs. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 7:335-341. �-104- Wyndham, C. H.,N. B. Strydom, J. S. Maritz, J. F. Morrison, J. Peter, and Z. U. Potgieter. 1959. Maximum oxygen intake and maximum heart rate during strenuous work. J. Appl. Physiol. 14(6) :927-936. Young, B. A., and J. L. Corbett. 1968. Energy requirements for maintenance of grazing sheep measured by calorimetric techniques. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod. 7:327-334. ______ , R. H. Leng, R. G. White, G. L. McClymont, and J. L. Corbett. 1969. Estimation of energy expenditure from measurements of carbon dioxide entry rate. Pp. 435-436 In K. L. Blaxter, J. Kielanowski, and G. Thorbek (eds.). Energy metabolism of farm animals. Oriel Press, Newcastle upon Tyne. �July, 1977 -105- JOD PROGRESS COLOR..;\.D0 State of No. W-38-R-32 h'orK Plan No. 16 Job Title Project EEPO!ZT Estimating Pe r Iod Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Investigations 1-2-3 Job No. ---------_._---_ Piceance Deer Study Parameters of Population Dynamics .. _--- .- April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977. R. M. Bartmann, J. J. Klein, Jr., D. J. Freddy, L. H. Carpenter, R. B. Gill, W. S. Brown, D. Casado, J. D. Erickson, G. L. Pepperd, and J. M. Scotese. ABSTRACT Seventy sightings and 32 recoveries of banded deer were recorded from March 1976 through February 1977. The winter quadrat deer census in Game Management Unit 22 was cancelled due to a lack of snow cover. Therefore, the predicted population of 29,820 will be the basis for the 1977 population calculations. A candidate sampling design based on randomly located squaremile quadrats was implemented for both ground and air post-season deer sex and age classifications. This work was done cooperatively with the Experimental Deer Inventory Project (Work Plan 22, Job 1) and results are reported under that project. The previous non-random post-season survey was continued and yielded a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 22:100:67 based on 1,030 deer classified. Application to the predicted population figure gives 3,459 bucks, 15,775 does, and 10,586 fawns. The 1975-76 winter mortality estimate of 1,915 deer was eight percent of the estimated 1975-76 winter population. The combined archery and rifle deer harvested in Unit 22 was estimated at 3,249 bucks which is a 47 percent increase over 1975's harvest. ��-107- ESTIMATING PICEANCE DEER STUDY PARAMETERS OF POPULATION DYNAMICS R. M. Bartmann P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To develop and test a method for estimating deer populations in the Piceance Basin. density of over-winter mule SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect and tabulate deer band sighting and recovery 2. To estimate the size of the wintering Management Unit 22. deer population in Game 3. To estimate the sex and age structure in Game Management Unit 22. of the wintering deer population 4. To estimate the annual productivity 5. To estimate the annual winter 6. To estimate the annual hunter harvest of the Piceance mortality data. deer population. of the Piceance of the Piceance deer population. deer population. METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer Banding See Bartmann (1972). Deer Density See Bartmann (1974a). Population Structure The previous method for obtaining deer sex and age structure data involved flying in a somewhat systematic manner over most of the occupied deer areas within Game Management Unit 22 (Bartmann 1974a). Although many animals were classified, the lack of a valid sampling scheme precluded statistical analysis of the data. This past winter, in cooperation with the Experimental Deer Inventory Project (Work Plan 22, Job 1), sampling procedures based on randomly located square-mile quadrats were implemented for both ground and air classifications. Methodology and results of these new procedures are reported under Work Plan 22, Job 1 in this Game Research Report. For comparative purposes, the previous non-random method was repeated. �-108- Productivity See above (Population Structure) and also Bartmann (1975). Winter Mortality See Bartmann (1974b and 1975). Hunter Harvest See Bartmann (1974b). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Banding Seventy sightings and 32 recoveries of banded deer were recorded fromMarch 1976 through February 1977 (Tables 1 and 2). Deer Density Insufficient snow cover to force deer down onto the "normal" wintering areas and to provide a good counting background forced cancellation of the 1976-77 winter count. By mid-February, only 10 inches of total snowfall was recorded at Little Hills. Total snowfall for the same period the previous five winters ranged from 36 to 56 inches and averaged 45 inches. While several snowfalls did occur after mid-February, they were poorly distributed over the winter range and melted quickly in the warm weather. The predicted 1976-77 winter population in Game Management Unit 22 is 29,820 (Table 3). Application of the 1976 post-season buck:doe:fawn ratio of 22:100:67 gives 3,459 bucks, 15,775 does and 10,586 fawns. In lieu of a census estimate, these figures will provide the bases for the 1977 popuiation calculations. Population Structure Results of the experimental post-season classification sampling procedures generated more questions than they answered. For this reason, results from the non-random procedure will continue to be used. This year, classifications were made December 11 by two observers from a Bell 47G3B helicopter. Snow cover was spotty at lower elevations and fair at higher ones. Estimated ratios for each observer were similar. Both buck:doe ratios were up slightly from previous years while fawn:doe ratios were lower. Again to preserve �-109- continuity, only my data are used. Observer Bucks Does Fawns Total Buck:Doe: Fawn R. Bartmann D. Freddy 120 129 545 608 365 396 1,030 1,133 22:100:67 21:100:65 Productivity The 1976 hunting season was bucks only, so the post-season fawn:doe ratio of 67:100 was used without adjustment to give a pre-season production of 10,778 fawns. The adult doe population contained an estimated 27 percent yearlings. Removal of these from the doe population resulted in a fawn: mother ratio of 92:100. While slightly lower than in the two previous years, 107:100 in 1975 and 96:100 in 1974, the differences are difficult to interpret without additional information. Winter Mortality The 1976 deer winter mortality survey was made April 16 through May 27. Twenty carcasses judged to be of the current year were found for a mean 0.36 deer per plot or 1,915 + 692 total dead deer (90 percent C.L.) on the winter range (Table 4). This is an eight percent loss based on the estimated 1975-76 winter population. This is the lowest loss recorded in the four years the survey has been conducted and the 1975-76 winter was also the mildest of the past four. Composition of the estimated loss with unknowns apportioned among the various classes was 527 male fawns, 526 female fawns, 670 mature females and 192 mature males. Hunter Harvest The 1976 regular deer season in Game Management Unit 22 was antlered only and ran from October 30 through November 9. The archery season, also antlered only, ran from August 21 through September 23. The total harvest estimate from the Game Management Section's random survey was 3,221 and 28 for the regular and archery seasons, respectively. This is a total increase of 1,037 deer, 47 percent. over the 1975 estimated harvests. All figures are inflated by 25 percent to acknowledge wounding loss and illegal kill. A change in the days and hours of operation of check stations, plus the addition of two "satellite!' stations at Dinosaur and Rabbit Valley, disrupted the continuity of some data. All stations, except Idaho Springs, were only operated during the third through the seventh days of the season for 10 to 14 hours per day. Idaho Springs was operated the first nine days as in the past but was only open 14 hours per day instead of 24. �-1l0- At Idaho Springs, 516 bucks were checked compared to 562 in 1975. Additional deer passing the station after it was closed may have boosted the check to near what it was last year, but no data are available that might indicate what adjustment would be appropriate. On the basis of the above figures, an eight percent decrease is indicated compared to the 47 percent estimated harvest increase between the two years. The two "satellite" stations contributed 318 bucks, or one-third of the statewide check of 936 for Unit 22. According to the Division statistician in charge of surveys, it is not possible to retrieve from the computer a breakdown of deer field-ages by individual check station even though they are entered this way. Therefore, a between-years comparison of yearlings in the Idaho Springs check cannot be made. The percent yearlings field-aged at the three regular stations combined and the two "satellite" stations were 62 and 57 percent, respectively. The predicted yearling percentage in the adult buck population was 71. LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study - population distribution. 315-337. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 3):253-377. (proc.) P. 1974a. Piceance deer study - population density and structure. P. 363-370. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2) :185-398. (proc.) 1974b. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. 380. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 185-398. (proc.) • P. 3713(Part 2): 1975. Piceance deer study - productivity and mortality. 362. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 195-504. (proc.). P. 3553(Part 2): Prepared bYKJ1~ R. M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher C �-111- Table 1. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 21, 22 and 23, received from March 1976 through February 1977 . Date (1975-76) 7- ?-75 10- ? 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-13 11- ? 11- 5 2-16-76 3-13 3-14 3-19 3-20 3-22 3-22 3-22 3-26 3-26 3-29 3-30 3- ? 4- 9 4- 9 4-14 4-14 4-17 4-17 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-24 4-29 5- 1 5- 1 5- 1 5- 1 5- 7 5-24 9-11 10-30 10-30 11- 1 Neckband Color Number Twp. White Orange & white blocks Yellow Blue Yellow White Orange & white blocks Green wlwhite stripe White Blue & yellow blocks Blue Blue & yellow blocks Blue & yellow blocks Yellow White wIred stripe White wIred stripe White wIred stripe Yellow Yellow White Yellow wIred stripe White wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe White wIred stripe Red & blue blocks Pink White Green wlwhite stripe Yellow wIred stripe Blue & white Blue & white Green wlwhite stripe Yellow Yellow White wIred stripe White wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Yellow wIred stripe Orange & white blocks Blue White Yellow & green blocks Pink 135 12 ? 9 ? ? 13 ? ? ? 2 40 ? 54 14 120 133 12 23 ? 110 39 82 15 34 190 75 157 237 109 5 106 237 79 53 38 145 27 101 39 ? ? ? 4 4N 3N 2N 6N 6N 4N 3N 2N 4N IN IN IN IS IS 2N 2N 2N IS IS IS IN IN IS IS 2N 2N 2S IS IN IS IS IS IN IS IS IN IN IN IN IS 4S 3N IN 3S Location Range Sec. 91W 89W 88W 90W 90W 93W 89W 94W 92W 93W 94W 92W 92W 92W 96W 96W 96W 93W 93W 98W 97W 94W 96W 96W 97W 97W 96W 97W 96W 97W 97W 97W 97W 93W 93W 96W 96W 95W 96W 93W 100W 95W lOOW 96W --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29 16 12 22 22 22 16 6 9 20 22 14 29 30 20 20 20 14 14 18 36 35 4 4 2 2 29 15 31 11 11 21 36 3 2 36 36 28 31 7 25 17 21 17 �-112- Table 1. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 21, 22 and 23, received from March 1976 through February 1977 (continued). Date (1976-77) Color 11- 2-76 11- 2 11- 4 11-15 11- ? 11- ? 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12- 5 12-7 12-10 12-10 12-10 12-10 1- 8-77 2-20-77 2-27-77 Red & blue blocks Yellow & green blocks Red & blue blocks White wired stripe Red & blue blocks Yellow Yellow & green blocks Blue White White Yellow wired stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Blue Green w/white stripe Green w/white stripe White Yellow Blue & white White Yellow wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Yellow Yellow Neckband Number Twp. Location Range Sec. ? ? 3N 2N IN IN 2S 2S IN IN 2N 2N 2S 2S IS IS IN 2N IS IS 2S IS IS 2S 2S IS IN IN 94W 100W 94W 97W 92W 92W 99W 99W 98W 98W 94W 95W 95W 95W 96W 99W 95W 95W 94W 96W 97W 99W 96W 96W 96W 96W 34 21 2 1 7 7 6 5 11 4 6 12 6 6 7 29 12 12 18 5 24 7 4 15 23 23 6 ? ? ? ? ? 12 14 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 26 ? ? ? ? 80 77 Correction to Banding Data 1- 7-72 Blue neckband #30, eartags L-1158 and L-1159 trapped T2N, R100W, Sec. 24, should be recorded as a Male Fawn. �-113- Table 2. Recoveries of deer marked on winter range in Game Management Units 11, 21, 22 and 23, received from March 1976 through February 1977. Date (1975-76) Color Number Twp. Location Range Sec. 10- ?-75 1-15-76 4- 7 4-15 4- ? 3- ? 3-23 5- ? 5- ? 5- ? 10-17 10-29 10-30 10-30 10-30 10-30 10-31 11- 1 11- 1 11- 1 11- 2 11- 2 11- 2 11- 2 11- 4 11- 4 11- 6 11- ? 11- ? 11- ? 1- ?-77 2-21-77 Blue Blue Blue Yellow wired stripe Blue & yellow blocks Yellow Red & blue blocks White wired stripe Yellow wired stripe Red & blue blocks Green & yellow blocks Yellow wired stripe Green & yellow blocks Yellow wired stripe Green w/white stripe Red w/white stripe Green & yellow blocks Green w/white stripe White wired stripe Red w/white stripe Green w/white stripe Yellow Yellow Green w/white stripe White Red & blue blocks White wired stripe Blue & yellow blocks White wired stripe Red w/white stripe White wired stripe Orange & white blocks 7 39 120 39 7 49 163 58 66 31 53 31 55 75 L-3272 65 51 L-3270 65 L-1964 208 45 46 L-3282 174 70 59 33 43 71 115 86 2N 3N 3N IS IN IN IN 2N IS IN 2N 2S IN IN IN 2S 3N IN 2N IS IS 2S IS IS IN IN IS IN 8N 2S 2N IS 97W 93W 99W 96W 94W 94W 96W 97W 97W 94W 98W 96W 95W 96W 96W 97W 97W 96W 98W 92W 95W 87W 93W 96W 98W 95W 97W 92W 90W 96W 97W 93W 24 2 35 12 29 32 5 36 13 18 12 2 28 31 31 9 14 27 4 26 1 33 2 12 36 29 1 18 15 25 28 5 Neckband �-114- Table 3. Calculations to predict the 1976-77 winter deer population in Game Management Unit 22. Bucks Does Fawns Total Est. 1975-76 winter pop. 1,985 12,345 9,876 24,206 Est. 1976 winter mortality 192 670 1,053 1,915 1976 summer population 1,793 11,675 8,823 22,291 Fawns apportioned 50:50 4,412 4,411 Adjusted 1976 summer pop. 6,205 16,086 1976 fawn production est. (67 fawns:l00 does) 10,778 1976 pre-season pop. 6,205 1976 harvest estimate 3,249 Predicted 1976-77 winter population Predicted population corrected for 1976 post-season buck: doe: fawn ratio (22:100:67) 16,086 10,778 33,069 2,956 16,086 10,778 29,820 3,459 15,775 10,586 29,820 �-115- Table 4. Results of dead deer searches on 56 1/8-mi1e square quadrats on winter range in Game Management Unit 22 during spring, 1976. The 39 quadrats with no dead deer are omitted. Quadrat 2 Male Adults Female Unknown Male Fawns Female 1 13 1 21 24 1 1 1 1 35 1 40 1 42 1 65 1 75 2 76 1 107 110 1 1 25 26 Unknown 1 1 III 1 114 1 115 1 Totals 5 4 1 2 8 ��July, 1977 -117JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-32 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 16 Job No. Job Title Piceance Deer Study - Food Habits Technique Period Covered: Personnel: Investigations 5 ----------------------------Development April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 R. M. Bartmann, J. J. Klein, Jr., L. H. Carpenter, P. H. Neil, D. R. Reichert and W. R. Regelin. R. B. Gill, ABSTRACT Observations of "naturally" versus "artificially" maintained tame deer forage selections were made only in January. The February trials were cut short and the March o~es cancelled because the artificially maintained tame deer became untractable. During the January 4-12 trials, the pasture deer took 24,250 bites of 56 different species while pen deer took 9,422 bites of 40 species. Because of the above-mentioned deer handling problems and a paucity of snow cover, the series of three grazing trial comparisons will be repeated next winter. Procedures will be revised as much as practical based on results of statistical analyses which are not yet completed. ��-119- PICEANCE DEER STUDY - FOOD HABITS TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT R. M. Bartmann P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To determine if forage selections by "artificially" maintained are similar to those of "naturally" maintained tame deer. tame deer SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To raise tame deer for grazing comparisons. 2. To develop an herbarium 3. To maintain pasture 4. To conduct grazing comparison of plants in the study area. fences. METHODS Fences around the 98-acre repairs made and predator Injury to personnel trials. AND MATERIALS pasture were checked entry holes plugged. resulted in incomplete in the spring plant collections and fall and in the pasture. Six of the eight yearling deer used in the 1976-77 winter grazing comparisons had been used as fawns in the October, 1975 trials. These animals were maintained at the Fort Collins pen facilities. On December 10, 1976 the four least tractable of the eight, one female and three male castrates, were brought to Little Hills and placed in a 98-acre pasture. After one week, all supplemental feed was removed and the deer were forced to subsist on native forage. The other four deer, two females and two male castrates, were brought to Little Hills January 3, 1977 and placed in the pens by the headquarters where they were provided hay and concentrate feed ad libitum. Grazing trials were started January 4 and completed January 12. The original 10-day schedule was shortened to nine by the addition of two mid-day trials. Each day during early morning and again in mid-afternoon, two pen deer were transported and grazed with the pasture deer. Four observers watched two deer from each group for a total of 40 trials per treatment. A trial is defined as one observer following one deer for one to two hours and recording the number of bites by species. Observations of each deer were split as equally as practical between morning and afternoon periods and observers. Handling problems forced substitution of a 3-1/2-year-01d male castrate for one of the pen deer for three trials. �-120- After the January trials, the pasture deer were left in the pasture and the pen deer were maintained in the pens at Little Hills until the next trials which began February 8. The same procedures were followed except that two pastures were used instead of one. Six deer and four observers in one area proved too cumbersome and the pen deer were flighty which affected each group's performance. The two groups were grazed in separate pastures with the intent of switching pastures halfway through the trials. However, the pen deer became harder to handle and caused cancellation of the trials after the second day. The March trials were also cancelled. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Snow cover during the January trials ranged from bare ground to about four inches on steeper north slopes. Minimum temperatures measured at the Little 0 Hills Station ranged from -16 to 220F and maximums 220 to 38°F. Light snow occurred on three of the nine days. Minimums and maximums for February 0 o were near 0 and 50 F, respectively, with no precipitation. Snow depths were similar to those in January except for a smaller proportion of bare ground. In January, pasture deer took 24,250 bites of 56 different species, exclusive of unknowns, while pen deer took 9,422 bites of 40 species (Table 1). The range in number of bites per trial was 85 to 1,599 for pasture deer and 7 to 605 for pen deer. Twenty-three species eaten by pasture deer were not eaten by pen deer. Most comprised less than one percent of the total bites. All seven species used by pen but not pasture deer comprised 0.2 percent or less of the total bites. Mean trial lengths were similar, 78 and 77 minutes for pasture and pen deer, respectively. In February, the pasture deer took 5,858 total bites in eight trials compared to 870 for the pen deer (Table 2). The pasture deer ate 37 species, exclusive of unknowns, and the pen deer 16 species. Comparison of forage selections between the two periods is cautioned against due to the large differences in total bites and the use of different pastures. Statistical analyses of the January grazing comparison data are not completed. When the three series of comparisons are rescheduled for the 1977-78 winter, procedures will be revised as much as practical on the basis of these results. Prepared by /~ -rJ~~-----R. M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher C �-12l- Table 1. Number of bites, by species, taken by pasture during grazing comparison trials, January 4-12, 1977. Species Purshia tridentata Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Poa species and pen deer Pasture Pen 15,041 5,476 2,278 576 1,021 21 Tetradymia canescens 915 140 Gutierrezia sarothrae 801 140 Ame1anchier utahensis 683 1,420 636 4 332 623 Commandra umbe11ata Cercocarpus Berberis montanus 312 repens grass 259 26 1udoviciana 240 116 Unidentified Artemisia Bromus inermis 162 Linum lewisii 159 43 Hap10pappus 154 108 142 366 141 12 Quercus nutta11ii gambe11ii Unidentified forb Stipa comata 128 Lepidium montanum 116 17 Artemisia tridentata 116 21 Chrysothamnus nauseosus 107 42 Symphoricarpos oreophi1us 72 100 1anata 61 1 Circium species 50 12 Hedysarum borea1e 47 Oenothera coronopifo1ia 44 2 Oryzopsis hymenoides 22 10 Juniperus scopu1orum 22 Tragopogon dubious 21 Chrysopsis vi110sa 18 Eurotia 5 Pinus edu1is 12 2 Cryptantha sericea 11 1 Koe1eria cristata 10 3 Physaria species 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-122- Table 1. Number of bites, by species, taken by pasture and pen deer during grazing comparison trials, January 4-12, 1977 (continued). Pasture Pen 9 11 Aster species 8 3 Artemisia frigida 8 Agropyron species 7 15 Juniperus osteosperma 6 1 Erigeron species 6 Species Euphorbia robusta Chaenactis douglasii 6 Penstemon fremontii 5 Cilia aggregata 5 Bouteloua 5 gracilis Rosa woodsii 4 Penstemon 4 Lupinus caespitosa caudatus 4 9 18 Lithospermum ruderale 4 Descurainia species 4 B romus anomal us 4 Aster leucanthemifolius 4 Balsamorhiza 3 Artemisia sagittata dracunculus 3 3 Phlox hoodii 2 15 Helianthus 2 6 eatoni 2 tectorum 1 Erigeron Bromus annuus Arabis holboellii 1 Antennaria 1 Sitanion species 5 hystrix Ribes species 7 Polygonum sawatchense 7 Eriogonum urnbellatum 11 Elymus 3 cinereus Agropyron spicatum 17 Achillea lanulosa 4 Total Bites 24,250 9,422 �-123- Table 2. Number of bites, by species, taken by pasture during grazing comparison trials, February 8-9, 1977. Species and pen deer Pasture Pen Purshia tridentata 4,077 374 Quercus gambe11ii 583 223 Artemisia tridentata 438 5 Tetradymia canescens 213 14 Artemisia frigida 130 1 112 7 Chrysothamnus viscidif10rus Artemisia 1udoviciana 108 6 Cercocarpus montanus 38 73 Gutierrezia sarothrae 36 Linum lewisii 22 Ame1anchier utahensis 12 137 Unidentified grass 10 2 Aster 1eucanthemifo1ius 9 Chrysothamnus 8 4 8 5 Eriogonum nauseosus umbe11atum Circium species 7 Lepidium montanum 7 Hap10pappus Berberis nutta11ii repens 7 5 Cryptai1.thasericea 5 Juniperus 4 scopu1orum Unidentified Physaria browse species 4 3 Aster species Lithospermum rudera1e 2 Symphoricarpos 2 Unidentified oreophi1us 2 forb 2 Eriogonum lonchophyl1um 1 Oryzopsis hymenoides 1 Pinus edulis 4 1 3 2 Ephedra viridis 4 Juniperus 6 osteosperma Total Bites 5,857 870 �� https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/1ba38cc17b85a59d0fb3d9fe8ebb09d4.pdf d7703ed1e7119e337e78017649fcd92f PDF Text Text -1- October 1977 JOB PROGRESS State of COLOPJWO ------------~--~----------- Project No. W-88-R-22 ------------------------- Work Plan No. I Job Title Waterfowl Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT Migratory Job No. Production Bird Investigations 1 ---------------------------------- Surveys March 31, 1976 to June 30, 1976 C. Bryant and staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; F. N. Folks, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; R. Clark, J. Corey, W. Dolezal, B. Goforth, G. Hinshaw, R. Hopper, J. Lorentzson, R. Lowry, W. Russell, G. Saville, R. Velarde, R. Weldon, M. Zgainer, S. Steinert, and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Water conditions for waterfowl production were below average in all survey areas. The total number of duck breeding pairs was estimated at 71,021. This is a 9.3 percent reduction from the record high in 1975, but still about 22 percent above the long term average. Increases in the number of estimated breeding pairs were recorded in the San Luis and Cache 1a Poudre valleys. Major declines occurred in North Park and the South Platte Valley. Gadwall CAnas strepera), green-winged teal (Anas crecca), and shoveler CAnas c1ypeata) showed increases from 1975. All other species were down from 1975 levels. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese (Brant a canadensis) in northwest Colorado was estimated to be similar in size to that of 1975 but nearly 31 percent above the long-term average. Canada goose production in northcentral Colorado was up 23 percent from 1975 and 14 percent above the longterm average, however the total number of adult geese observed was do~m 13 percent from 1975 and 20 percent from the long-term average. Two new surveys were added in lQ7n. The first was a helicopter survey of Canada goose breeding pairs in the San Luis Valley, from which we estimated a total 92 breeding pairs. The second was a Canada goose breeding pair survey conducted in west central Colorado with a total of 172 birds observed. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak Steven F. Steinert P.N.O. OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the number of duck breeding pairs, by species, major waterfowl nesting areas in Colorado. on selected 2. To estimate the number of goose breeding pairs, and in some cases, obtain production data on selected goose nesting areas in Colorado. 3. Compile federal data and submit reports to appropriate state personnel and agencies for use in establishing hunting season recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the number of duck breeding pairs, by species, in the San Luis, Cache la Poudre, South Platte and Yampa Valleys, and in North Park and Brown's Park. 2. To estimate the number of goose breeding pairs in the San Luis Valley obtain goose breeding pair and production data on the Yampa, Little Snake and Green Rivers in northwest Colorado and in north central Colorado. 3. Compile data and submit appropriate METHODS and reports. AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pair and production inventory of only major production areas. surveys consist of a breeding pair The 1976 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 3 to June 30. Surveys in North Park and the Cache la Poudre and South Platte valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of March 31 �-4- to June 15. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates of north central Colorado were obtained from counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which the birds were flightless. Population estimates for the Colorado River drainage were estimated from aerial surveys. In the San Luis Valley a survey of expected productive breeding pairs was conducted by flying transects in defined sample blocks as described by Lowry (1974). Four evenly-spaced transects were flown in each 1 x 3 mile selected sample block on the Rio Grande and Conejos rivers, while a simple total count was conducted in sample blocks containing ponds or lakes, only. Each selected section was flown with both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft and the results compared. All fixed-wing flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft and the helicopter flying with a Hughes 500. Two observers were used in sampling by transects with the fixed-wing aircraft. One observer was used for the helicopter flight and some of the block or section sampling with the fixed-wing aircraft. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water conditions were considered below average for duck production in all survey areas. The San Luis Valley was very dry for the third consecutive year, although water in the north end of the Valley showed some improvement over 1975. As a result of a dry winter, water conditions were poor in both North Park and the Yampa Valley, with very little additional runoff predicted for the remainder of the spring and summer. Surveys of the Cache la Poudre and South Platte Valley areas were conducted prior to the initiation of the irrigation season. Water conditions in the Poudre and Platte valleys, although poor during the early spring nesting season should improve for the late nesting and brood rearing period. The small and steady runoff in northwest Colorado kept flooding loss of goose nests in Moffat County to a minimum. A generally mild spring with no severe storms provided excellent conditions for goose production in north central Colorado. The number of estimated duck breeding pairs in Colorado's production trend areas declined in 1976 from the record high 1975 level. The total of 71,021 is 9.3 percent below the 1975 level, but 21.3 percent above the long-term average (Table 1). The number of estimated nesting pairs increased in the San Luis and Cache la Poudre valleys. Major numerical declines were recorded in both North Park and the South Platte Valley (Table 1). Over 60 percent of the San Luis Valley breeding population in 1976 was composed of shovelers and greenwinged teal. Normally green-wings are not prominent in the San Luis Valley breeding population. In North Park, no green-winged teal were observed on aerial transects, therefore, the green-winged teal population which was estimated to be over 7,000 in North Park in 1975 was reported as non-existent in 1976. Obviously, the reliability of estimating green-winged teal populations using these methods is suspect. �-5Table 1. Summary of Colorado's duck breeding ground population estimates in selected areas, 1976. Total Estimated Breeding Pairs Long Term 1976 1975 Average 1/ Percent Change From From Long 1975 Term Average San Luis Valley 34,759 26,801 27,280 +29.7 +27.4 2/ North Park- 16,535 27,134 17,163 -39.1 - 3.7 South Platte Valley 10,062 14,152 6,623 -28.9 +51.9 Cache La Poudre Valley 6,927 6,732 3,514 + 2.9 +97.1 Yampa Valley 2,145 2,354 2,783 - 8.9 -22.9 Brown's Park 593 1 ,1721/ 1,172 78,345 58,535 Area Total 71,021 -49.4 - 9.3 +21.3 1/ San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through , b 1975 and 1968 through 1975 surveys, respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 22-year averages. 1/ Aerial counts corrected by species from visibility ratios obtained in the San Luis Valley. 1/ No count made in 1975. Figure presented is average of 1971-1974 period. The percent of the estimated breeding population composed of mallards remained at about 24 percent (Table 2). Because of the large estimated breeding population of shovelers in the San Luis Valley, that species was numerically the largest breeding population in Colorado in 1976. A total of 1,561 Canada geese were observed in Moffat County in northwest Colorado in 1976 (Table 3). The total is essentially the same as was recorded in 1975 (Table 4). Total birds observed on the Yampa River increased substantially over the 1975 level as a result of an increase in both gosling production (Table 5) as did the number of adults. Gosling production in 1976 decliaed below 1975 levels on the Green River (Table 5) as did the number of adults. Gosling production in 1976 increased over the 1975 level on the Little Snake River (Table 5), but the number of adults observed declined. Overall, in northwest Colorado in 1976 the production increased, but the size of the total population remained comparable to 1975 levels. �-6- Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1976 duck breeding pair population. Number of Breeding Pairs 1954-75 1976 1975 Average Percent S;eecies Com;eosition 1954-75 1976 1975 Average Mallard 17,324 19,090 27,299 24.4 24.4 52.6 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 7,432 15,078 5,685 10.5 19.2 11.0 Gadwall 4,205 3,984 5,332 5.9 5.1 10.3 Pintail 2,980 5,213 3,635 4.2 6.7 7.0 Green-winged Teal 9,136 8,859 2,452 12.9 11.3 4.7 Shoveler 21,145 8,005 2,634 29.8 10.2 5.1 American Wigeon 2,750 4,868 1,065 3.9 6.2 2.1 Redhead 3,623 8,048 2,254 5.1 10.3 4.3 Other Divers 2,426 5,200 1,521 3.4 6.6 2.9 Totals 71,021 78,345 51,8771/ Species J ~ ~ 1/ Species composition computed from data from all areas for the 22-year period regardless of changes in survey method. �-7- Table 3. Number of Canada geese observed, Moffat County, Colorado, 1976. and estimated production, Nesting Pairs Non-Nesting Birds Total Adults Est. NO. ll Goslings- Total Birds Craig-Juniper Springs 22 l32 176 87 263 Juniper SpringsCross Mtn. 32 101 165 122 287 Lily Park 13 66 92 48 140 67 299 433 257 690 Brown's Park 36 200 272 133 405 Dinosaur Nat'l. Monument 22 63 107 104 211 Sub-total 58 263 379 237 616 22 120 164 91 255 147 682 976 585 1,561 and number of successful Area Yampa Sub-total Green River Little Snake River GRAND TOTAL ~ II Calculated using average brood size observed nests. ~ Results of the 1976 Canada goose production census in north central Colorado are presented by individual areas in Table 6. Gosling production increased over 1975 levels on all trend areas except Boulder (Table 7). Yet the total number of geese observed declined because of the reduction in the number of adult geese observed (Table 8). Production in 1976 was 14 percent above the 1969-1975 average, but the total number of geese was down 12 percent during the same period. Projections resulting from breeding pair counts from a helicopter on sample areas in the San Luis Valley indicated there were 92 active nesting pairs of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley during the count period (Table 9), an increase of 56 percent over the 1975 level. Twenty-six percent more breeding pairs were estimated with the helicopter than with the fixed-wing aircraft (92 vs. 73), while the same number of sub-adult pairs were estimated from each craft (Table 9). On comparable sample areas in 1976, 226 geese were observed with the fixed-wing aircraft compared to 261 with the helicopter. The results of a Canada goose breeding pair survey, begun in 1976 in west central Colorado are presented in Table 10. �-8- Table 4. Total Canada geese observed, Moffat County, 1976. Percent Chan8e From 1956-1975 From 1975 Average Area 1976 1975 1956-1975 Average Yampa River 690 401 423 +72.1 +63.1 405 448 171 -9.6 +136.8 2ll 406 348 -48.0 -39.4 255 294 251 -l3.3 +1.6 1,561 1,549 1,193 +0.1 +30.8 Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur Nat'l. Monument.V Little Snake Riverll Total ]) Not surveyed II Not surveyed Table 5. 1976. until 1970. until 1962. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County, Colorado, Percent Change From 1956-1975 From 1975 Average 1976 1975 1956-1975 Average 257 147 137 +74.8 +87.6 l33 176 67 -24.4 +98.5 104 106 117 -1.9 -ll.l Little Snake Riverll 91 68 78 +33.8 +16.7 Total 585 497 399 +17.7 +46.6 Area Yampa River Green River Brown's Park Dinosaur Nat'l. Monument.!'! II - Not surveyed until 1970. 21 - Not surveyed until 1962. �Table 6. Production Area Wellington Results of the north central Colorado goose census, June, 1976. Water Area Terry Lake Douglas Reservoir Stewart Pond 1 Dry Creek Reservoir-I North Poudre 111 North Poudre 112 North Poudre 115 Bureau of Standards Pond 111 Divide 118 Elder Reservoir Annex 118]:.1 Dale Pond Van Sant Pond Cobb Lake Watson Lake Curtis Lake Water Supply and Storage 114 No. Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yearlings Total Birds 7 0 3 8 0 0 6 27 0 11 35 0 0 22 47 3 6 19 23 3 13 74 3 17 54 23 3 35 3 5 0 5 2 2 0 0 0 6 10 20 0 25 12 6 49 33 0 28 19 36 17 17 21 19 102 134 63 13 29 56 17 42 33 25 151 167 63 41 278 555 833 39 7 14 17 67 92 8 150 16 25 131 15 164 33 92 144 291 435 TOTAL Loveland Boedecker ~eservoir Flatiron Gravel Pits McNeil Reservoir Reservoir 1112 Welch Reservoir TOTAL 6 3 3 4 13 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I 1.0 I �Table 6. Results of the north central Colorado goose census, June, 1976 (continued). Production Area Boulder Water Area Ish Lake Haden Lake Terry Lake Faivre Ponds Rest Home Pond Valmont Reservoir Boulder Valley Farm Pond King Pond Eddy Pond Angus Ranch Pond No. Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yearlings Total Birds 0 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 2 134 21 39 189 11 6 7 11 28 2 167 44 65 228 15 8 13 22 0 0 33 23 26 39 4 2 6 11 I I-' 0 I TOTAL Fort Collins Herring Lake College Lake Dean Acres Claymore Lake Sterling Gravel Pits Lindenmeier Lake Grey Lakes Novak Reservoir Winick Pond Anderson's Pond Parkwood Lake Kitchel Lake Timnath Reservoir Romily Gravel Pit Flatiron Gravel Pits 14 3 9 0 0 0 5 2 5 4 4 4 3 5 2 162 430 592 60 11 32 24 72 26 23 7 15 17 19 18 9 28 5 17 111 65 51 77 44 23 4 10 26 16 14 127 24 4 77 122 97 75 149 70 46 11 25 43 35 32 136 52 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �~ Table 6. .••....•. ~- Results of the north central Colorado goose census, June, 1976 (continued). Production Area Fort Collins (cont.) Water Area Fossil Creek Reservoir Schuelke Reservoir Wolaver Ponds Peterson Ponds Maxwell Pond No. Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yearlings Total Birds 0 2 1 1 4 0 7 6 3 19 14 2 3 18 14 9 9 6 37 401 653 1,054 64 13 21 19 17 7 4 0 6 0 4 5 58 0 6 10 2 47 17 0 2 2 41 20 15 12 143 127 2 64 51 40 44 46 31 4 9 17 84 7 169 32 28 105 33 36 31 160 134 6 9 70 51 44 49 104 31 10 19 19 131 24 169 34 30 304 995 1,299 1,289 2,924 TOTAL Denver Ketring Pond Centennial Pond Columbine Country Club Chatfield Country Club Bowles Lake Kings Lake Blackmer Mohn Estates Grant Lake Colo. Blvd. & Quincy Marston Reservoir Pinehurst Country Club Bit-O-Sea Bowles Reservoir #1 Ward Reservoir Kendrick Lake Federal Center Sloan's Lake Standley Denver City Park Reservoir #3 Tule Lake TOTAL GRAND TOTAL 15 3 5 5 3 2 2 0 2 0 2 1 12 0 2 3 1 9 4 0 1 1 3 9 - l/ Birds actually found on a pond about 1 mile N.E. of Dry Creek in the S.W. 1/4 of Sec. 14. 1/ Birds actually found on pond located 1/2 mi. N. of the Annex and 1/2 mi. W. of No.8. 4,213 I I-' I-' I �-12Table 7. Number of Canada goose goslings produced in north central Colorado production trend areas, 1976. No. of Goslings 1969-1975 1975 Average Percent Change From From 1975 1969-1975 Area 1976 Wellington 278 207 259 +34.3 +7.3 Ft. Collins 401 234 268 +71.4 +49.6 Loveland 144 103 86 +39.8 +67.4 Boulder 162 217 234 -25.3 -30.8 Denver 304 288 281 +5.6 +8.2 Total 1,289 1,049 1,128 +22.9 +14.3 Table 8. Number of adult Canada geese observed in north central Colorado production trend areas, 1976. No. of Geese Percent Change From From 1975 1969-1975 Area 1976 1975 1969-1975 Average Wellington 555 570 777 -2.6 -28.6 Ft. Collins 653 667 710 -2.1 -8.0 Loveland 291 318 220 -8.5 +32.3 Boulder 430 466 646 -7.7 -33.4 Denver 995 1,328 1,303 -25.1 -23.6 Total 2,924 3,349 3,656 -12.7 -20.0 �-13- Table 9. Estimated number of breeding pairs of Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, as determined from surveys with fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft, 1975 and 1976. No. Indicated Nesting Pairs No. Sub-adult Pairs Aircraft 1975 1976 1975 1976 Fixed-wing 2sl/ 731/ 65 74 Helicopter 59 92 59 74 1/ Incomplete Table 10. counts, not comparable West Slope goose breeding Area to helicopter data. pair survey, March 31, 1976. Singles Geese Observed Pairs Groups Total Roaring Fork River from Basalt to Glenwood Springs 3 2 18 25 Colorado River from Glenwood Springs to Grand Junction 13 26 69 134 Gunnison River from Grand Junction to the Black Canyon 2 4 6 7 7 98 172 Uncompahgre River from Delta to Colona Total 18 LITERATURE Lowry, D. G. Thesis. Prepared by 28 pro CITED 1974. Canada geese in the San Luis Valley, Colorado State Univ. 76 p. ~J2.~ Michael R. Szymc Wildlife Researcher s£eillert Steven F. Wildlife Tech. II Colorado. M. S. ��-15- October 1977 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project COLORADO 2 Hork Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-22 No. Bird Investigations Job No. ·~ ~~ __ ~2~ Experimental Studies on Improving T_h __e__S_t_a_t_u_s __o_f __C_a_n_a_d_a __G_o_o_s_e __P_o_p~u __l_a_t_i_o_n_s _ _ April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Michael R. Szymczak ABSTRACT All data for this project have been collected and essentially analyzed. Some work has been accomplished on a Special Report concerning the establishment of Canada goose breeding po pu La t.Lons in Colorado. This report will summarize the entire effort and present information on current status of each population. Formulation and publication of this manuscript is included as a segment objective under Work Plan 6, Job 1, Higratory Bird Publications for the period April 1, 1977 through March 31, 1978. One major publication, listed below, has resulted from this job. Canada goose restoration along the foothills Szymczak, M. R. 1975. Colorado Div. of Wildl. Tech. Publ. 31. 64 p. Colorado. Prepared by -m.J..J 12 ~ Michael R. szymc~ Wildlife Researcher a d. of ��October 1977 -17- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Work Plan No. Job Title 2 Job No. Studies of Canada Goose Populations -Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-22 Project No. Bird Investigations 6 ---------------------------in Colorado Transplant Areas April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 S. Brock, M. Conner, J. Corey, W. Dolezal, V. Graham, R. Hopper, R. Leasure, J. Lorentzson, D. Nelson, R. Oakleaf, J. Tischbein, R. Velarde, and M. Szymczak ABSTRACT All areas in which Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were banded in southern Alberta east of 1110 longitude continued to contribute geese to the north central Colorado harvest during the 1975-76 hunting season. Birds from Dowling Lake and the Edmonton-Camrose area in Alberta, the Cypress Hills area of Saskatchewan, Phillips County and the Yellowstone-Big Horn rivers in Montana, all documented Hi-Line nesting areas, were well represented in the north central Colorado harvest. A total of 825 Canada geese were banded pre-season on production areas in northcentral Colorado while 204 were banded in the San Luis Valley. ��-19- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT Michael AREAS R. Szymczak P.N.O. OBJECTIVES 1. To document the breeding central Colorado. range of Canada geese wintering 2. To document the distribution of harvest and estimate the survival rate of the resident foothills Canada goose population. 3. To document the distribution the San Luis Valley. of harvest in north of Canada geese nesting in SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. Plot the banding locations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded outside northcentral Colorado and reported recovered in north central Colorado. b. Participate in the cooperative southern Alberta. Canada goose banding operation 2a. Trap and band 500 Canada geese on production along the foothills north of Denver. and moulting b. Complete, cards. schedules submit and file appropriate banding 3a. Trap and band at least 200 Canada geese on production in the San Luis Valley. b. Complete, submit and file appropriate METHODS banding in areas and recovery and moulting schedules areas and recovery cards. AND MATERIALS Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery location, sex, and age at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with northcentral Colorado. Banding of flightless adults and goslings was accomplished through drive trapping operations in southern Alberta, north central Colorado and the San Luis Valley of Colorado. The banding in Alberta was accomplished by representatives of state, provincial and federal conservation agencies including Colorado. �-20- Banding schedules and recovery reports pertaining to the San Luis Valley and north central Colorado were completed and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. Record keeping for the Alberta operation was the responsibility of the Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hi-Line Population Foreign Recoveries During the 1975-76 hunting season 210 Canada geese banded outside of Colorado were reported recovered in north central Colorado (Table 1). One hundred ten of the foreign recoveries were classified as wild-trapped locals when banded (Table 2). In Alberta direct recoveries from the second year of banding in southern Alberta indicated Cavan Lake 14 miles S.E. of Medicine Hat as a production area for Hi-Line Canada geese. All other areas on which banding has occurred east of 1110 longitude in southern Alberta were represented by recoveries in north central Colorado. Those areas are Schuler, Many Islands, Cavan, Seven Persons and Murray lakes. According to all recoveries birds from these areas are oriented toward the Central Flyway in general and Hi-Line Population specifically (Weaver, unpublished data). In addition, recoveries were reported from Grassy Lake (direct), Bantry #2 (indirect), Scope (indirect) and C.P.R. (indirect); all located west of 1110 longitude. All but Bantry #2, which seems to be a transition area, contribute birds primarily to the Pacific Flyway. Dowling Lake and the Edmonton-Camrose area also have been represented by recoveries in north central Colorado in previous years. The Cypress Hills area in Saskatchewan and Phillips County in north central Montana continue to contribute birds to Colorado's Hi-Line harvest area. Recoveries of wild-trapped locals from Prairie, Treasure and Rosebud counties in Montana present further evidence that the birds from the Big Horn and Yellowstone rivers in Montana are members of the Hi-Line. Population. Birds from newly developed production areas in northeast Wyoming and from Glendo Reservoir on the Platte River between Casper and Torrington also were represented in the north central Colorado harvest. No other production areas outside Colorado were well represented birds in the north central Colorado harvest. by banded Two moulting areas, the Liverpool Bay area in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Wheatland Reservoir in southeast Wyoming, were represented by banded birds in the harvest. Although the birds from the Liverpool Bay area were wearing "size 8" bands, it is suspected that they were actually small geese of the shortgrass prairie population and not large moulters from Hi-Line production areas. �-21- Banding continued for the third year on production areas in north central Colorado. A total of 825 birds were banded bringing the combined total to 2,493 (Table 3). Geese were captured at 15 locations with 56.7 percent of the birds banded being goslings (Table 4). San Luis Valley Population For the first time in three years the pre-season Canada goose banding operation in the San Luis Valley was a success with the number of birds banded totaling 204 (Table 5). Birds were captured at 6 different locations (Table 6). About 73 percent of the geese banded were goslings. Prepared by ~rYh-c;,e~-<jP ~ctJ. Michael R. Szymczak Wildlife Researcher Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in north central Colorado during the 1975-76 hunting season. Area Direct Indirect Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area Bantry 112 Scope Reservoir Grassy Lake C. P.R. Reservoir Murray Lake Seven Persons Lake Cavan Lake Many Islands Lake Schuler Lake 3 3 0 0 0 1 0 7 5 1 1 1 4 12 2 1 2 3 1 2 0 1 6 0 Saskatchewan Cypress Hills (Maple Creek) Cypress Hills Area Pontiex-Notukeu R. 0 0 0 1 10 2 �-22- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in north central Colorado during the 1975-76 hunting season. (continued). Area Direct Saskatchewan (cont'd.) Vidora Area Pelican Lake Buffalo Pound Lake Battleford Area Manito Lake Area Mackenzie - N.W. Territory Liverpool Bay Area Smoke River Delta Harrowby Bay Central Flyway Montana Lake County Phillips County Treasure County Garfield County Roosevelt County Valley County Rosebud County Prairie County Custer County o Indirect 3 o o 1 1 4 o 1 2 4 4 o 0 19 3 0 1 0 1 28 8 2 o 1 0 3 0 0 0 North Dakota Adams County Dunn County Williams County 0 0 0 1 1 1 South Dakota Bennett County Stanley County 0 0 1 Wyoming Platte County Albany County Goshen County Crook County Weston County Big Horn County Sheridan County 2 2 2 8 1 7 8 2 0 0 0 0 5 2 4 1 0 -------------------------------------------------------------- �-23- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in north central Colorado during the 1975-76 hunting season (continued). Direct Indirect 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Utah Salt Lake County Rich County 0 0 1 1 Oregon Harney 0 1 82 128 Area Central Flyway (cont'd.) Nebraska Garden County Kansas Phillips County MississiEEi Flyway Missouri Chariton County, Pacific Flyway Washington Pacific County Total l r County Swan Lake �-24- Table 2. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered in north central Colorado during the 1975-76 hunting season. Area 1967 1968 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Area Dowling Lake Area Brooks Area Bantry 112 Scope Reservoir Grassy Lake C.P.R. Murray Lake Seven Persons Lake Cavan Lake Many Islands Wyoming Weston County Crook County Platte County Year of Bandin~ 1970 1971 1972 1973 2 2 1 1 1 1974 1975 2 8 2 4 1 2 1 1 1 4 Saskatchewan Cypress Hills Area Pontiex-Notukeu R. Vidora Area Buffalo Pound Lake Pelican Lake Manito Lake Central Flyway Montana Lake County Phillips County Treasure County Valley County Roosevelt County Prairie County Rosebud County 1969 7 5 1 1 9 2 3 1 1 ,, 2 I 1 3 1 7 1 2 1 5 2 1 3 1 2 2 3 2 1 Nebraska Garden County 1 North Dakota Williams County Dunn County Adams County 1 1 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-25- Table 2. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild-trapped locals which were recovered in north central Colorado during the 1975-76 hunting season (continued). 1967 1968 1969 Year of Banding 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Area Pacific Flyway Utah Salt Lake County Rich County 1 1 Oregon Harney County 1 Table 3. Numbers of-Canada geese banded pre-season on production areas in north central Colorado, 1974-1976. Year Adults Goslings Total 1974 751 315 1,067 1975 406 195 601 1976 357 468 825 Table 4. Location and number, by age and sex, of Canada geese banded in north central Colorado, pre-season 1976. Location Spitzer Lake Rocky Ridge Res. Watson Lake Sterling Ponds Dean Acres Lake Cobb Lake Adult§ Females Males 5 2 1 9 3 15 5 7 1 5 2 20 Goslings Females Males 12 20 10 8 5 28 Total 13 20 7 12 12 23 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 49 19 34 22 86 �-26- Table 4. Location and number, by age and sex, of Canada geese banded in north central Colorado, pre-season 1976 (continued). Location Males Adults Females Goslings Males Females Total Dixon Res. Anderson's Pond Timnath Res. McNeil Res. Welch Res. Faivre Ponds Sawhill Ponds Valmont Res. Henderson (Denver Hatchery) 0 0 11 14 35 11 6 25 30 12 25 51 6 8 19 29 11 44 0 4 36 11 25 23 2 26 10 24 28 26 94 39 92 79 35 93 110 0 0 5 7 12 Total 167 190 242 226 825 15 27 0 Table 5. Numbers of Canada geese banded pre-season on production and moulting areas in the San Luis Valley, 1974-1976. �-27- Table 6. Location and number, by age and sex, of Canada geese banded in the San Luis Valley of Colorado, pre-season 1976. Location Males Adults Females Goslings Females Males -Total 10 10 39 24 83 Head Lake 2 2 0 0 4 Alamosa N.W.R. 3 3 10 5 21 Rio Grande Mgt. Area 5 7 14 16 42 Monte Vista N.W.R. 4 2 15 7 28 Sheep Pond 4 3 8 11 26 Total 28 27 86 63 204 Russell Lakes ��-29October JOB PROGRESS P~PORT State of COLORADO --------~~~==~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-22 1977 Bird Investigations 2 Job No. ----~~~~--------------------9 Monitor Banding of the Shortgrass Prairie Canada Goose Population in Southeastern Colorado January 23, 1977 to February Cathy Craig, Jennifer R. Hopper, D. Madsen, and M. Szymczak. 25, 1977 Slater, J. Carsella, D. Coven, G. Eyre, S. Steinert, J. Stevenson, K. Wagner, ABSTRACT The trapping and banding operation of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in southeast Colorado resulted in bands being placed on 354 small Canada geese for the purpose of monitoring population status. ��-31MONITOR BANDING OF SHORTGRASS PRAIRIE CANADA GOOSE POPULATION IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak This job was initiated in April 1976 as a continuation of a trapping and banding operation being carried out under the former Work Plan 1, Job 2, Trapping and Banding Ducks and Geese. The job involves annual post season banding of Canada geese in southeast Colorado, primarily by personnel of the southeast region, and periodic analysis of resulting recovery data by research personnel. The banding operation in 1977, as in the past few years was under the direction of Kenneth Wagner of the southea t region. g P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To continually document, through monitor banding and analysis of recovery data, the annual and long-term status of the southeastern Colorado (Arkansas Valley) segment of the shortgrass prairie Canada goose population. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Band a m1n1mum of 1,000 Canada geese in southeastern Colorado during the post-season period. 2. Prepare and submit banding schedules, band recovery and return reports, and progress reports. METHODS AND MATERIALS All birds banded in southeast Colorado in 1977 were captured with baited cannon nets during the period from January 26 through February 25. With few exceptions, the age and sex of each bird was determined through cloacal and tail feather examination. All banding schedules, including recapture information, were submitted to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Bird Banding Laboratory, Patuxent, Maryland. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A total of 354 small Canada geese were banded post-season in southeast Colorado. All trapping attempts occurred at Two Buttes Reservoir. The age and sex composition of the birds banded was as follows: 113 adult males, 124 adult females, 47 immature ma1es, 67 immature. females, 2 unknown. Extreme difficulty in trapping was encountered because of low water levels at the primary trap site, Two Buttes Reservoir. In addition, the majority of the geese in the area were roosting on Turk's Pond and permission to trap there could not be obtained. ��-33- October JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO ------~~~~~--------Migratory W-88-R-22 Proj ect No. Work Plan No. 3 Job No. Job Title Popul'ation Characteristics Period 1977 Covered: Personnel: Bird Investigations 7 --------------------------------- of Mallards Wintering in West Central Colorado April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 H. Cox, J. Ellenberger, J. Frothingham, J. Gray, J. Gumber, J. Leslie, J. Miller, R. Oakleaf, D. Owens, S. Steinert, M. Stone, H. Wilson, and R. Hopper ABSTRACT The study of the wintering population of mallards in west central Colorado continued during segment 22 for the fourth consecutive year and is progressing on schedule. Procedures in segment 22 included: (1) conducting a mid-winter inventory to obtain an estimate of population size, (2) making ground counts to estimate the sex ratio in the population, and (3) banding adequate samples of birds after the hunting season to provide a basis for estimating other population parameters. The 1977 January inventory, conducted by Northwest Regional personnel, yielded an estimate of 16,280 birds on the west central Colorado wintering grounds at that time. This figure is below the 1976 estimate (23,125), but above the 19-year average (13,474). A total of 2,654 birds were sexed by ground counts in January and February of 1977, producing a sex ratio of 107.5 males:lOO females. This compares to a ratio of 99.2 males:lOO females for almost 3,500 birds counted in January of 1976. Postseason trapping in January and February of 1977 resulted in the banding of 1,498 birds, with a generally good distribution of the sample by location and age and sex class. This brings the total banded sample to 5,956 for the four years of effort. ��-35- POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MALLARDS WINTERING IN WEST CENTRAL COLORADO Richard M. Hopper This report presents results of the fourth consecutive year of study of the population of mallards wintering in west central Colorado. In addition, this report summarizes all previous data collected since initiation of this investigation four years ago. Past results of this study were reported annually as part of the job concerning the overall waterfowl banding program (Work Plan 1, Job 2 - Trapping and Banding Ducks and Geese) (Hopper 1974, 1975,1976). Work Plan 1, Job 2 was dropped at the end of segment 21 and specific banding studies were assigned as separate jobs with the beginning of segment 22, including Work Plan 3, Job 7. As a result, all phases of a particular population study will now be covered under one job, including the actual banding work and analysis of band recovery data. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE 1. To estimate population parameters of mallards wintering in west central Colorado by age and sex category; specifically (1) population size, (2) recovery rates, (3) survival rates, (4) mean life span, (5) sex ratio, and (6) geographic distribution of the harvest. 2. To develop a management plan for the population in west central Colorado. of mallards wintering SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Conduct an aerial count of wintering numbers of mallards during the first and second week of January as part of the annual mid-winter survey conducted throughout the United States. 2. Conduct a minimum of two ground counts (sex ratio) of 500 mallards each in each of the following two concentration areas: (1). Grand Junction Highline Lake area, and (2) Montrose - Delta area. 3. Trap and band 1,500 mallards during the postseason period, including 750 in the Grand Junction - Highline Lake area, and 750 in the Montrose Delta area. Distribute the sample equally among the four age and sex classes. 4. Preparation and submission of banding reports, and progress reports. METHODS schedules, band recovery and return AND MATERIALS An aerial count was made in the Uncompahgre - Gunnison - Colorado River Complex in west central Colorado on January 10-11, 1977. This was simply a continuation of the annual count made in major waterfowl concentration areas in Colorado for many years as the State's contribution to the coordinated, nationwide survey each year. �-36- Personnel in the Northwest Region conducted the aerial count as they have done in past years. They utilized a Cessna 185 aircraft and a crew consisting of a pilot and two observers. Sex ratio counts were made from the ground in the two general mallard concentration areas, the Grand Junction - Highline Lake area and the Montrose _ Delta area. Specifically, this year's counts were made at either Highline Lake near Lorna or at Sweitzer Lake near Delta. These counts were conducted in as unbiased a manner as possible. All birds in a group were counted, with care taken not to concentrate on the more colorful drakes of the species. The counts were made with the aid of binoculars and spotting scope. Trapping methods involved the use of baited, Salt Plains type traps and cannon net traps. Whole and cracked corn were used to attract the birds to the traps. All birds were aged by the wing-aging technique (Carney and Geis 1960, Carney 1964, Hopper and Funk 1970). Recapture information was maintained for each banding location. Records were kept of the number of mallards released unbanded by age and sex class. Banding schedules and recovery reports were prepared and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aerial Census Results of the 1977 January count of wintering mallards are shown in Table 1 by general area. Also, the previous three years' counts are included for comparison. The 1977 estimate was 16,280 birds, substantially less than the 1976 figure (23,125), but above the 1974 and 1975 estimates. The long-term (1959-1977) average annual estimated size of this population is 13,474. Table 1. January inventory of mallards wintering 1974-1977. Location in west central Colorado, 1974 1975 1976 1977 Highline Lake 2,400 4,700 10,200 6,900 Colorado River 3,110 1,830 1,545 3,390 Gunnison RO1ver-1/ 700 1,345 9,100 2,215 0 485 270 225 0 0 1,900 1,800 2,975 3,400 110 1,750 9,185 11,760 23,125 16,280 Uncompahgre River Sweitzer Lake Burlingame Total 1/ Pond Includes North Fork of Gunnison River to Hotchkiss. �-37- The areas covered in this inventory include: (1) High1ine Lake northwest of Grand Junction, (2) the Colorado River from Silt to the Utah state line, (3) the Gunnison River from the Black Canyon to its confluence with the Colorado River near Grand Junction, (4) the North Fork of the Gunnison River from Hotchkiss to its confluence with the Gunnison River, (5) the Uncompahgre River from Montrose to Delta, (6) Sweitzer Lake southeast of Delta, and (7) Burlingame Pond south of Delta. The importance of each of these areas as wintering locations can vary from year to year, as can readily be determined by referring to Table 1. Figure 1 shows a map of the general area covered by the aerial survey, which also fairly well delineates the boundaries of the overall study area. Sex Ratio Counts Winter sex ratio counts of mallards were initiated in west central Colorado in January of 1976. They were again conducted in January and February of 1977. The results of these counts are presented in Table 2 by date and location. The counts in 1976 involved the sexing of nearly 3,500 birds and yielded an evenly balanced sex ratio (99.2 ma1es:100 females). In 1977, 2,654 birds were counted, producing a sex ratio slightly in favor of males (107.5 ma1es:lOO females). It is interesting to compare these preliminary results with those obtained from eastern Colorado wintering populations of mallards. In the latter area, over 73,000 birds were counted during a 9-year period (1963-64 through 1971-72), resulting in an average sex ratio of 147 males:lOO females. Trapping and Banding Trapping efforts in January and February of 1977 resulted in the banding of 1,498 mallards in west central Colorado (Table 3). This was the fourth consecutive year of postseason banding in this area, bringing the total banded sample for the four years (1974-1977) to 5,956 birds. The distribution of the banded sample between the two general areas (Grand Junction and Delta) remains fairly good. Subadult birds of both sexes were well represented in the banded sample in 1977, just as they were each of the previous three years (Table 3). Overall, the adult female has contributed the fewest number of birds for banding; either because this age and sex class is not as well represented in the population as the other three classes, or because adult females are less vulnerable to capture by the techniques we employ. �-38- Table 2. Sex ratio counts of mallards in west central Colorado during the winters of 1976 and 1977. Location Date No. Males No. Females Total Males: 100 Females Burlingame Pond 1-16-76 244 282 526 86.5 Sweitzer Lake 1-16-76 264 243 507 108.6 1-17-76 239 237 476 100.8 1-20-76 252 249 501 101.2 1-23-76 238 236 474 100.8 Subtotal (Sweitzer Lake) 993 965 1,958 102.9 1-17-76 252 248 500 101.6 1-18-76 252 260 512 96.9 Subtotal (Highline Lake) 504 508 1,012 99.2 1,741 1,755 3,496 99.2 High1ine Lake TOTAL (1976) Sweitzer Lake 1-26-77 270 235 505 114.9 High1ine Lake 1-27-77 262 246 508 106.5 1-28-77 288 278 566 103.6 1-31-77 282 266 548 106.0 2-1-77 273 254 527 51.8 Subtotal (High1ine Lake) 1,105 1,044 2,149 105.8 1,375 1,279 2,654 107.5 TOTAL (1977) �-39- Table 3. Number and age and sex composition of mallards banded postseason in west central Colorado, 1977 and totals for the period 1974-1977. AM Age and Sex SM AF SF Total 253 167 179 182 781 Delta Area 165 313 62 177 717 Total 418 480 241 359 1,498 799 636 549 801 2,78? Delta Area 713 1,024 528 906 3,171 Total 1,512 1,660 1,077 1,707 5,956 Year and Location 1977 Grand Junction Area 1974-1977 Grand Junction Area LITERATURE CITED Carney, S. M., and A. D. Geis. 1960. Mallard age and sex determination from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 24(4):372-381. 1964. Preliminary keys to waterfowl age and sex identification by means of wing plumage. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept., Wildl. No. 82. 47 pp. Hopper, R. M., and H. D. Funk. 1970. Reliability of the mallard wing age-determination technique for field use. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2): 333-339. 1974. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 13-22. Colo. Div. of Wildl., 1975. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept. , Oct. pp. 13-23. Colo. Div. of Wildl., 1976. Trapping and banding ducks and geese. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept. , Oct. pp. 13-24. Colo. Div. of Wildl .• Prepared by ~'k. df',$",ee Richard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher C ��October -41JOB PROGRESS State of Project REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Job Title 3 Monitor Banding Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-22 No. Work Plan No. Period 1977 Job No. Bird Investigations 8 of Eastern Colorado Wintering _ Mallard Populations April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 M. Babler, G. Brown, L. Budde, J. Carsella, D. Coven, J. Corey, C. Craig,C. Crawford, M. DePra, K. Dillinger, M. Gardner, C. Grand Pre, R. Hancock, J. Jackson, B. Leasure, C. Like, R. Lopez, G. Lorentzson, T. Lynch, F. Marcoux, D. Masden, R. Oehlkers, C. Pabst, J. Pogorelz, F. Rinella, C. Roberts, W. Rupke, J. Slater, H. Spear, S. Steinert, J. Sweeting, K. Wagner, T. Washington, R. Zaccagnini, R. Hopper. ABSTRACT Segment 22 was the first year for the gradual transfer of the field operations of the monitor banding of eastern Colorado wintering mallard populations from the Research to the Management section. Project personnel assisted management personnel through orientation, instruction, and field training, which included the preparation and issuance of an instruction manual to each crew leader. The first year of this transfer was successful, but additional training in record keeping and the wing-aging technique are needed. Nearly 5,500 mallards were banded during the January-February period, about 1,500 birds over the minimum established quota of 4,000 birds~ The age and sex composition of the banded sample remained about the same as in previous years. ��-43- MONITOR BANDING OF EASTERN COLORADO WINTERING MALLARD POPULATIONS Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes results of the postseason mallard banding program in eastern Colorado during Segment 22 and describes the orderly transfer of this monitoring activity from a research to a management function. This is the first year of a new job recommended as an ongoing program to provide periodic population information upon which to base sound management proposals. Banding relative to the populations of mallards in eastern Colorado began an intensive research study during the winter of 1963-64 and developed into the "Investigation of Mallard Management Units of Eastern Colorado" (Work Plan 3, Job 6) under Federal Aid Project W-88-R. This research was initiated to gain knowledge regarding the population characteristics of these wintering birds. The information obtained, plus that from other states, was responsible for the establishment of the current High Plains Mallard Management Unit of the Central Flyway (Funk et al. 1971). Since this accomplishment, the job developed into almost strictly a monitor banding program of a management nature. Thus, it was decided to terminate Work Plan 3, Job 6 and transfer the actual banding work to the Northeast and Southeast Regions as a management function. Work Plan 3, Job 8 was then initiated simply to cover project personnel's time in (1) instructing management personnel in the field conduct of the banding program, (2) issuing bands and preparing and submitting banding schedules and recovery reports, and (3) conducting periodic, updated analyses of band recovery data resulting from this program. The final job report for Work Plan 3, Job 6 will appear as one or more publications prepared under Work Plan 6, Job 1. A number of published and unpublished papers have already resulted from Work Plan 3, Job 6, and one other paper is currently being reviewed for publication by "The Journal of Wildlife Management". A list of these papers, excluding the latter one, is presented by Hopper (1976). P.N.O. OBJECTIVE 1. To establish monitor banding of wintering mallard Colorado as an annual management function. populations in eastern 2. To continually document, through monitor banding and analysis of recovery data, the annual and long-term status of eastern Colorado wintering mallards to provide a basis for annual hunting season recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Instruct management personnel in the field conduct of a postseason mallard banding program by (a) preparing an instructions manual covering all phases of the operation, (b) holding wing-aging classes, and (c) assisting and training management personnel in the field. �-44- 2. Band a mlnlmum of 4,000 mallards during the postseason period, including a minimum of 500 birds in each of the following general areas of the South Platte Valley and Arkansas Valley: (1) Denver-Greeley, (2) Fort Collins-Loveland-Windsor, (3) Greeley-Fort Morgan, (4) Fort MorganSterling, (5) Sterling-Julesburg, (6) Bonny Reservoir, (7) Manzanola-Lamar, and (8) Two Buttes Reservoir area. Divide the banded sample in each area equally among the four age and sex classes. 3. Prepare and submit banding progress reports. schedules, METHODS band recovery and return, and AND MATERIALS The Regional Managers and Area Supervisors selected individuals in the regions to participate in the banding program. These individuals were assigned to crews, with each crew consisting of four members, including an alternate. Each crew was also assigned specific banding areas in which to operate. All crew members met in Fort Collins prior to the banding season for orientation, instructions and preliminary training in aging techniques. An instructions manual was prepared and distributed at this meeting. Two persons from Project W-88-R spent nearly full time immediately prior to and during the January and February banding period in instructing management personnel, both in the office and in the field. Salt Plains type traps were employed to capture mallards on the banding site, with whole corn used as bait (Szymczak and Corey 1976). Birds were classified by sex into either the adult or subadult age categories according to the wing-aging technique (Carney and Geis 1960, Carney 1964, Hopper and Funk 1970). Recapture information was maintained at each banding location. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Instruction of Management Personnel Eight banding crews made up of management personnel were formed as a result of assignments by Regional Managers and Area Supervisors, .seven in the Northeast Region and two in the Southeast Region. This number was a few more than necessary or desirable in the Northeast Region, but it seemed as though everyone wanted to become involved the first year. Hopefully, this is an indication of the management personnel's interest in and support for the postseason mallard banding program. One crew was assigned to each of the following areas or units: 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 12-13 (Fig. 1). Two crews split the banding responsibilities in unit 6. Banding in unit 9 (Bonny Reservoir) will remain the responsibility of the Research Section because of more intensive banding studies currently being conducted in association with the population. A crew leader and an assistant crew leader were designated for each crew. The crew leader was responsible for the bands and trapping equipment issued to the crew and for the preparation and submission of field records. Each crew leader received an instructions manual outlining all procedures necessary �WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT UNITS , WYOMING -------' "L":" , ~?-->;;. '.=""=-"~-----jl· 'A"~ "\,4 .' .·.;· J '1 7· t'\,-;:;' I,~ WI \ .. " -rrsrr--r '. i -; N' R ASK A l ---~.-Ii -.- '~"r •••.•• ~~ NEB \, ,,:~,7.~~ .~~:ih,' t!.. I \' .",.>",~c!".1+-cT j.'t\,( , .. , ~):.\,:!d".;!- ",' +~ N I " OKLAHOMA GFP-R-M-l Fig. 1. in �-46- in conducting the field operation. This manual, contained binder for field use, included the following information: in a three-ring 1. Background information--need as expected benefits. for and obj ectives of the program, 2. General banding "do's" and "don'ts" program. in conducting 3. Banding quotas by area and age and sex class. 4. Issuance of bands. 5. Proper procedures for recording data. a. Sequence of band usage. b. Example of properly completed "Field Banding Form". c. Replacement of old bands on recaptured birds. d. Example of properly completed "Recapture Field Form". 6. List of all past banding 7. Age determination. a. b. c. locations the field portion as well of any by area. Detailed description and key of wing-aging technique from Carney Diagram of wing showing location and names of feathers. Reprint of field reliability of the mallard wing-aging technique during the postseason banding period by Hopper and Funk (1970). 8. Booklet by Szymczak 9. Submitting and Corey (1976) describing (1964). use of the Salt Plains trap. field records and unused bands. The first year in the transformation of banding duties from the research to the management section was considered a success. Management personnel were cooperative and showed an active interest in the program. With few exceptions, their field records were legible and completed in the proper manner. A number of individuals need additional training and experience with the wing-aging technique, and this should come as the more dedicated and interested personnel continue their participation in the next few years. Banding The total banded sample amounted to 5,486 mallards for the January-February period of Segment 22 (Table 1). This exceeded the 4,000 minimum quota by almost 1,500 birds. However, most of this excess was provided by the Bonny Reservoir location where a more intensive banding study is being conducted by Project W-88-R. All eight banding areas contributed good samples, except for the Manzanola-Lamar area in the Arkansas Valley. The age and sex composition of the banded sample was typical of most years, with adult males being the most represented, while adult females contributed least to the sample (Table 1). There was also the usual amount of fluctuation in the age and sex composition among the various banding areas. �-47Table 1. Mallards banded postseason by age and sex in the eight eastern Colorado banding areas, January-February 1977. Banding Area AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex SF AF SM Bonny Reservoir 528 498 203 315 1,544 Sterling-Julesburg 152 210 127 158 647 Fort Morgan-Sterling 150 196 125 179 650 Greeley-Fort 184 194 81 126 585 Denver-Greeley 156 140 159 l35 590 Ft. Collins-Loveland-Windsor 212 136 155 124 627 Manzanola-Lamar 12 6 3 10 31 Two Buttes Area 242 122 198 250 812 1,636 1,502 1,051 1,297 5,486 Literature Cited Total Morgan Carney, S. M., and A. D. Geis. wings. J. Wildl. Manage. Total 1960. Mallard age and sex determination 24(4) :372-381. from 1964. Preliminary keys to waterfowl age and sex identification by means of wing plumage. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept., Wildl. No. 82. 47 p. Funk, H. D., J. R. Greib, D. Witt, G. F. Wrakestraw, G. W. Merrill, J. Sands, T. Kuck, D. Timm, T. Logan, and C. D. Stutzenbaker .. 1971. Justification of the Central Flyway High Plains Mallard Management Unit. Unpubl. Central Flyway Tech. Comm. Rept. 48 p. Hopper, R. M., and H. D. Funk. 1970. Reliability of the mallard wing agedetermination technique for field use. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(2):333-339. 1976. Investigation of mallard management units of eastern Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wi1dl. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 87-91. Szymczak, M. R., and J. F. Corey. Plains duck trap in Colorado. l3 p. Prepared 1976. Construction and use of the Salt Colo. Div. of Wildl., Div. Rept. No.6. by _""-~~~~-==-.:::::.: ..",*=---~-f---=+L:.f'HfUJ&t~~--Richard M. H~ Wildlife Researcher ��-49- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. W-88-R-22 Migratory 3 Bird Investigations ---------------------------- ---------------=~~~~~~~~~~~~------------- Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT 9 Job No. Migration ani Mortality Characteristics. of Duck Populations in the Inter-mountain Valleys of Colorado Work Plan No. Job Title October 1977 July 15, 1976 to March 31, 1977 Pete Bryant and staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; M. Conner, J. Corey, W. Dolezal, D. Flenthrope, R. Hopper, J. Lorentzson, D. Nelson, R. Oakleaf, S. Porter, J. Wagner, K. Wagner, R~ Velarde and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Totals of 3,285, 3,624 and 4,979 ducks were banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, respectively, in 1976. A total of 374 duck wings ~ere collected during the early duck season in North Park of which 28.1 percent were gadwall, 21.4 percent wigeon and 11.2 percent redheads. The species composition of the harvest in North Park in 1976 was similar to what was found in 1975. As the season progressed in North Park, a definite decline was noted in the percent of the harvest composed of blue-winged teal. Of the 92 wings collected at Antero Reservoir in South Park, 28.3 percent were wigeon, 25.0 percent were green-winged teal and 23.9 percent were blue-winged or cinnamon teal. ��-51- MIGRATION AND MORTALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF DUCK POPULATIONS IN THE INTER-MOUNTAIN VALLEYS OF COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak This job was initiated in order to combine all facets of this investigation under one program. In previous years the banding operations were carried out under the former Work Plan 1, Job 2, Trapping and Banding Ducks and Geese, while the recovery analysis was scheduled to be accomplished under the former Work Plan 1, Job 3, Analysis of Waterfowl Banding Data. Therefore, even though this job is in the first year, a considerable amount of information has accumulated in past years. P.N.O. OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution and relationships among populations of selected species of ducks present in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the midJuly through mid-September period. 2. To document the species composition of ducks harvested during early October seasons, should seasons occur in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley. 3. To examine the feasibility of establishing early special duck seasons in September in the high mountain park areas or to examine the feasibility of special early October seasons in South and North Park similar to what has been recommended for the San Luis Valley. 4. To establish procedures to monitor the effect of early special duck seasons on duck populations in the high mountain park areas if granted. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and band ducks in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the mid-July through mid-September period as designated in Program Narrative Outline. Complete, submit and file appropriate banding schedules and recovery cards. 2. Collect and analyze data concerning the species composition of the harvest during early October seasons in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley utilizing wing collection barrels and results of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection Survey. 3. Analyze band recovery data through the 1976 recovery year for mallards, �-52- pintails and green-winged teal banded during the pre-season period in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley to determine feasibility of requesting early seasons in the high mountain areas. 4. Prepare progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ducks were captured from August 7-September 10 in South Park, August 9September 10 in the San Luis Valley and July 26-September 19 in North Park. Primarily "salt plains" type bait traps were used (Szymczak and Corey 1976). In North Park night lighting from airboats was used to capture most gadwall and wigeon. The age and the sex of all birds captured and banded were determined. Wings from ducks bagged during the October 2, 1976 through October 17, 1976 period were collected in North and South Parks through the use of voluntary collection barrels (Hoffman and Braun 1975). Barrels were placed at Walden Reservoir (2 barrels) and Lake John Annex (1 barrel) in North Park and at Antero Reservoir (2 barrels) in South Park. Some additional wings were collected at ~cFarlane Reservoir. All wings collected were classified by species, age, sex and location, and in some cases periods of harvest. The species composition of the harvest in the San Luis Valley was scheduled to be obtained at the Central Flyway, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection "wing bee". However that information wasn't gathered and now must be requested from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and thus will not be presented in this report. Banding and recovery tapes plus recapture and return information covering all pre-season banding and resulting recoveries beginning in 1961 in the San Luis Valley, 1968 in South Park and 1954 in North Park through the 1975-76 recovery year were requested from the Bird Banding Laboratory for mallards, pintails and the three species of teal. In addition information concerning all species of ducks recovered or recaptured in the above three areas but banded elsewhere was also requested. That information has been received but has not been analyzed due to problems in ADP program conversions. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Totals of 3,285, 3,624, and 4,979 ducks were banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, respectively, in 1976. The species composition of the birds banded in these areas are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Established quotas of 300 mallards of each age and sex were not met for females in North Park, for any classification in South Park and for adult males in the S~n Luis Valley. Green-winged teal quotas of 500 were not met in North Park while gadwall quotas of 300 of each sex in North Park were achieved. In total nearly 12,000 ducks were banded (Table 4). �-53- Table 1. Number of ducks banded, by species, in North Park during the pre-season period, 1976. Age and Sex AM 1M AF IF Total Mallard 316 343 189 298 1,146 Gadwall 493 50 250 54 847 American Wigeon 83 9 19 7 118 Green-winged Teal 124 28 77 47 276 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 3 10 2 10 25 Pintail 195 245 180 235 855 Redhead 4 4 6 4 18 1,218 689 723 655 3,285 Total Table 2. Number of ducks banded, by species, in South Park during the pre-season period, 1976. AM Age and Sex 1M AF IF Total Mallard 187 199 95 170 651 Gadwall 0 3 0 0 3 Green-winged Teal 635 518 155 238 1,546 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 67 142 29 85 323 Pintail 385 356 101 240 1,082 Redhead 12 0 7 0 19 1,286 1,218 387 733 3,624 Total �-54- Table 3. Number of ducks banded, by species, in the San Luis Valley during the pre-season period, 1976. 11 AM Age and Sex 1M AF IF Total Mallard 287 526 379 457 1,649 Gadwall 3 12 3 20 38 American Wigeon 3 3 0 4 10 Green-winged Teal 658 397 117 191 1,363 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 140 264 57 165 626 Pintail 255 349 254 373 1,231 Redhead 11 19 12 20 62 1,357 1,570 822 1,230 4,979 Total 11 Includes 1,965 ducks banded by the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge. Table 4. Number of ducks banded, by species, in North Park, South Park, and _th~SanL4is _Yal,1eyduring the pre+season perLod 1976. Mallard Gadwall ••• ~ •.•• ~ .•••••• -< -.- AM Age and Sex 1M AF IF Total 790 1,068 925 3,446 496 •• --.-.-- •.•••• --~-------'"--.-- American Wigeon •• -,.--------,-'--.--~.-. 663 65 - •• ~.---'-.~., .• '-.----, •••• - ••••• 253 ' ••• ~- .-, - -< .,•••~-" ••,--.- ••-.- '.",-", 74 ~.- ~'----.'-"-' ,.• ,- .•• "." ""-,,. "'-'--"--. 888 --"--.~-. -""---~ 86 12 19 11 128 Green-winged Teal 1,417 943 349 476 3,185 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 210 416 88 260 974 Pintail 835 950 535 848 3,168 Redhead 27 23 25 24 99 3,861 3,477 1,932 2,618 Total ..... 11,888 11 II Includes 1,965 ducks banded by Monte Vista N.W.R. and Alamosa N.W.R. �-55- Species Composition of the Harvest A total of 374 duck wings were collected during the early duck hunting season in North Park. Over 70 percent of the wings came from Walden Reservoir. Nearly 50 percent of the harvest was comprised of gadwall (28.1%) and wigeon (21.4%) (Table 5). The redhead (11.2%) was the only other species which amounted to more than ten percent of the harvest. The composition varied somewhat by location of harvest. The species composition of the 1976 early season harvest in North Park was very similar to the composition in 1975. In 1975, the percent of the harvest composed of gadwall and wigeon was the same (49.5), however the wigeon was the dominant species (Table 6). The only other significant changes between the two years were the comparative reduction in the harvest of blue-winged or cinnamon teal and the increase in the redhead. The composition of the harvest in North Park through the season varied only slightly according to the two time periods indicated in Table 7. The only significant change was the reduction in the percent harvest of blue-winged teal. Plotting the distribution by time period for Walden and Lake John Annex separately indicated slightly more species variation by individual areas through time than did the pooled results (Tables 8 and 9). Ninety-two wings were collected at Antero Reservoir in South Park. Over 75 percent of the harvest was composed of wigeon, blue-winged teal or cinnamon teal and green-winged teal in nearly equal proportions (Table 5). An insignificant number of gadwall were harvested at Antero. The age and sex composition of the harvest in North Park and South Park are presented in Tables 10 and 11, respectively. �Table 5. Species composition of the harvest in North Park and South Park during the October 2-17, 1976 early duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. Walden Res. North Park L. John Annex MacFarlane Res. 1./ Gadwall 88 (33.3)~./ 12 (14.1) A. Wigeon 60 (22.7) Redhead Total South Park Antero Res. 5 (20.0) 105 (28.1) 2 (2.2) 13 (15.3) 7 (28.0) 80 (21.4) 26 (28.3) 29 (11.0) 13 (15.3) o (0.0) 42 (11.2) 5 (5.4) Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal 21 (8.0) 8 (9.4) 4 (16.0) 33 (8.8) 22 (23.9) Green-winged Teal 15 (7.6) 6 (7.1) 6 (24.0) 27 (7.2) 23 (25.0) 1. Scaup 20 (5.7) 6 (7.1) Mallard 13 (4.9) Pintail 26 (7.0) o (0.0) 10 (11.8) o (0.0) o (0.0) 23 (6.1) 8 (8.7) 9 (3.4) 8 (9.4) 1 (4.0) 18 (4.8) 3 (3.3) N. Shoveler 8 (3.0) 1 (1.2) 1 (4.0) 10 (2.7) 2 (2.2) Ruddy 1 (0.4) 5 (5.9) o (0.0) 6 (1.6) Ring-necked Duck o (0.0) 3 (3.5) 1 (4.0) 4 (1.1) o (0.0) o (0.0) C. Merganser o (0.0) o (0.0) o (0.0) o (0.0) 1 (1.1) 85 25 Total 264 1/ Wings collected only on October 2-3, 1976. ~/ Percent of total in parentheses. 374 92 I U1 (J\ I �-57- Table 6. Species composition of the harvest in North Park, Colorado during early duck hunting seasons in 1975 (October 4-14) compared to 1976 (October 2-17) according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. 1975 1976 Species No. Percent No. Percent American Wigeon 143 28.9 80 21.4 Gadwall 102 20.6 105 28.1 Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal 76 15.4 33 8.8 Green-winged Teal 38 7.7 27 7.2 Mallard 34 6.9 23 6.1 Pintail 25 5.1 18 4.8 Lesser Scaup 25 5.1 26 7.0 Redhead 21 4.3 42 11.2 N. Shoveler 17 3.4 10 2.7 Ruddy 8 1.6 6 1.6 Ring-necked Duck 1 0.2 4 1.1 Unknown 4 0.8 o 0.0 Total 494 374 �-58- Table 7. Species compositions of the harvest by time period at Walden Reservoir and Lake John Annex, North Park, Colorado during the early October 1976 duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. October 2-3 No. Percent Species Gadwall Time Period October 4-17 No. Percent No. Entire Percent 74 28.9 26 28.0 100 28.7 50 19.5 23 24.7 73 20.9 Redhead 31 12.1 11 11.8 42 12.0 Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal 27 10.5 2 2.2 29 8.3 Lesser Scaup 19 7.4 7 7.5 26 7.4 Mallard 17 6.6 6 6.5 23 6.6 16 6.5 5 5.4 21 6.0 Pintail 10 3.9 7 7.5 17 4.9 N. Shoveler 7 2.7 2 2.6 9 2.6 Ruddy 5 2.0 1 1.1 6 1.7 o 0.0 3 3.2 3 0.9 American Wigeon Green-winged Ring-necked Total Teal Duck 256 93 349 �-59- Table 8. Species compositions of the harvest by time period at Walden Reservoir, North Park, Colorado during the early October 1976 duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. Time Period October 2-3 October 4-17 No. Percent No. Percent No. Entire Percent Gadwall 72 33.3 16 33.3 88 33.3 American Wigeon 43 19.9 17 35.4 60 22.7 Redhead 24 11.1 5 10.4 29 11.0 Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal 21 9.7 0 0.0 21 8.0 Lesser Scaup 17 7.9 3 6.3 20 7.6 Green-winged Teal 13 6.0 2 4.2 15 5.7 Mallard 10 4.6 3 6.3 13 4.9 Pintail 8 3.7 1 2.1 9 3.4 N. Shoveler 7 3.2 1 2.1 8 3.0 Ruddy 1 0.5 0 0.0 1 0.4 Total 216 Species t ~ ~ 48 264 �-60- Table 9. Species composition of the harvest by time period at Lake John Annex, North Park, Colorado during the early October 1976 duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. Species Oct. 2-3 No. Percent Time Period Oct. 11-17 Oct. 4-10 No. Percent No. Percent American Wigeon 7 17.5 6 16.7 a 0.0 13 15.3 Redhead 7 17.5 6 16.7 a 0.0 13 15.3 Gadwall 2 5.0 7 19.4 3 33.3 12 14.1 Mallard 7 17.5 1 2.8 2 22.2 10 11.8 Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal 6 15.0 2 5.6 a 0.0 8 9.4 Pintail 2 5.0 6 16.7 0 0.0 8 9.4 Green-winged Teal 3 7.5 a 0.0 3 33.3 6 7.1 Lesser Scaup 2 5.0 3 8.3 1 11.1 6 7.1 Ruddy 4 10.0 1 2.8 a 0.0 5 5.9 Ring-necked Duck a 0.0 3 8.3 0 0.0 3 3.5 N. Shoveler 0 0.0 1 2.8 0 0.0 1 1.2 Total 40 36 9 Entire No. Percent 85 t ~ ~ �-61- Table 10. Age and sex composition of the harvest by species in North Park at Walden Reservoir, Lake John Annex and MacFarlane Reservoir during the October 2-17, 1976 early duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. Ad. Males Inun. Unk. Ad. Gadwall 21 37 0 7 21 American Wigeon 37 13 0 13 Redhead 20 7 0 Blue-winged or Cinnamon Teal 2 15 Green-winged Teal 1 Lesser Scaup Species r ~ Females Imm. Unk. Unknown Total 0 19 105 15 0 2 80 8 3 0 4 42 I 5 7 1 2 33 6 0 3 9 1 7 27 7 3 0 8 5 0 3 26 Mallard 7 sll 0 5 6 0 0 23 Pintail 6 8 0 I 3 0 0 18 N. Shoveler 6 3 0 1 0 0 0 10 6l:-1 Ruddy 6 ~ Ring-necked Duck I Jj Includes one local male. ]j All adult unknowns. 0 0 I 1 0 I 4 �-62- Table 11. Age and sex composition of the h~rvest by species in South Park at Anteror Reservoir during the October 2-17, 1976 early duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. Species Prepared Ad. by Males Imm. Unk. J7'h;Ll72~ Michael R. S Ad. za Wildlife Researcher Females Imm. Unk. Unknown Total �-63October 1977 JOB FIN.A.LREPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~==~----- Project No. W-88-R-22 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Investigations Covered: Personnel: 5 Migratory Bird Investigations Job No. 2 of Rails in Colorado 1 May 1975 through 31 March 1977 C. Braun, H.Funk, and H. Griese, Colorado Division of Wildlife, R. Ryder, G. Swanson, and R. Walter, Colorado State University, and C. Bryant, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. ABSTRACT Distribution, breeding densities, peaks in densities during migrations, and habitat utilized by rails were investigated in Colorado between May 1975 and October 1976. Five major study areas located in the Arkansas, South Platte, Rio Grand-e, and Yampa river drainages were censused by playback of tape recorded rail calls. Breeding distributions of soras (Porzana carolina) and Virginia rails (Rallus limicola) were delineated. Soras were found to breed up to 3,140 m elevation, while Virginia rails were found to to 2,730 m. Other species of rails were not found to breed in Colorado. State-wide, Virginia rails exhibited higher breeding density indices (2.6 rails/ha) than soras (1.3 rails/ha). Indices for Virginia rails ranged from 4.7 in southeastern Colorado to 1.0 in northwestern Colorado. Indices for soras ranged from 2.5 in the south central region to 0.2 in the southeastern region of Colorado. Distribution of Typha marshes was not found to determine distribution of rails. Mean April temperatures, a function of topography, appeared to regulate species composition in 1975 and 1976. Soras were more abundant than Virginia rails when mean April temperatures were 5.6oC and below. Typha appeared to be the most abundant emergent vegetation in Colorado, it was also the most preferred cover. Seed producing emergents attracted soras during fall migration. Water depths and water level fluctuations appeared to influence breeding densities. Clutch initiation dates (116) calculated from nest searches, literature, and estimated ages of trapped chicks revealed mean clutch initiation dates of 14 June and 10 June for soras and Virginia rails in Colorado, respectively. Initiation dates ranged from 22 April to 4 August. Peak concentrations of migrating rails appeared to occur in late April to early May in the spring, and midAugust to mid-September in the fall. Migration did not appear to differ substantially between plains and inter-mountain regions of Colorado. Wintering rail populations were estimated not to exceed 200 individuals of which 75 to 90 percent were Virginia rails. During this study, 294 rails (142 soras, 152 Virginia rails) were captured and banded. Late summer adult to juvenile ratios for soras and Virginia rails in trap samples were 1:4.4 and 1:3.2, respectively. �-64- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Marshes specifically managed for breeding rails should contain primarily (>60 percent) robust vegetation (e.g. Typha) interspersed with small openings containing short-thin emergent species (e.g. Scirpus americanus) or mud flats. Water levels should be mainipulated to average 15 cm in depth during spring migration. A gradual decrease in water levels through summer months can be tolerated provided sufficient levels are present in late summer. Reflooding in late August should enhance the attractiveness of marshe~ to rqils. 2. Periodic breeding censuses, every three to five years, should be conducted. An average of two censuses on consecutive days at selected marshes in late May to late June sh.ould produce comparable indices. Habitat losses should be monitored regionally. 3. Ideally, hunting $easons in Colorado should begin no earlier than the second weekend in September, ending in mid-October. Consideration should be given to in~reasing hunter interest in rails, possibly through more attainable bag and possession limits. Harvest data should be routinely collected. 4. Rail hunting shoU~4 be allowed on the west slope of Colorado. should $tqrt concurrently state-wide. 5. Research. should be conducted on: 1) determination of reliable field technique$ for det~rrnin:i,ngsex and age of rails during all seasons; 2) implicat:i,qns qf lqte $ummer nesting; 3) motivation for migration and delineatiqn of IllJg1."ati.,c;mal routes; and 4) estimation of recovery and survival rates through band:i..ng programs. Seasons �-65- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ........ INTRODUClfION 69 P.N.O. OBJECTIVE 70 LITERATURE REVIEW Taxonomy Distribution Ecology . • • Census Techniques 70 70 70 71 71 • METHODS • • • . • . . . Study area Selection Census Techniques . • • Physical and Botanical Dimensions Water and Substrate Descriptions Microclimatic Data Trapping • . • . . ......... LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Location Description . • . • • • . • Water Chemistry • • • . Climate and Topography Microclimates • . • • RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution Breeding Densities Habitat Utilization Spring Migration Nesting . . • • . Brood Development Fall Migration Timing of Migration . • Spring Late Summer Movement Fall Trapping SUMMARY • 75 75 75 76 76 78 .......... ......... ...• LITERATURE APPENDICES 72 72 72 74 74 74 74 '. . 78 78 84 91 91 91 93 94 94 94 94 100 100 102 CITED 104 .......... 107 �-66- LIST OF TABLES Table 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Results of water analysis at regional study areas in Colorado, August 1975 and April 1976 ....• 77 Initiation dates of clutches of soras and Virginia rails in Colorado by region as estimated from nest searches, literature, and estimated ages of trapped chicks • • . • • • • • • . • . . • . •• .•.• 81 Chi-square analyses testing hypothesis that distribution of Typha-dominated marshes determine distribution of rails in Colorado, state-wide, by region, and elevation • 82 Indices of breeding densities of rails in four regions of Colorado, 1975 and 1976 . . 85 Results of testing hypotheses concerning regional and yearly differences in breeding densities of rails for Colorado •....••..•. 86 Breeding densities of rails at five regional study areas in Colorado in 1976 as determined by spotmapping territories ........... 87 Distribution of bandings Colorado, 1975-1976 of rails, by species, . • . • • • . . . . • 101 �-67- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 2 3 4 Study areas, trapping sites, and wetlands censused during investigations of rails in Colorado, 19751976 ..•••.......••..••.•. Breeding township distribution in Colorado, of Virginia rails by 1975 and 1976 73 ........ 79 ...... 80 ....... 88 ...... 89 ..... 90 ..... 92 Breeding distribution of soras by township in Colorado, 1975 and 1976 •• •... Breeding densities of all rails as determined by spot mapping territories correlated to averaged spring censuses = 0.20 + 0.90x; r = 0.97; P<0.05) .....••••..•• (Y 5 Breeding densities of soras as determined by spot-mapping territories correlated to averaged spring censuses = 0.16 + 0.95x; r = 0.97; P<0.05) •••..• • •.•• (Y 6 Breeding densities of Virginia rails as determined by spot-mapping territories correlated to averaged spring censuses -0.36 + l.llx; r = 0.93; P<O.lO) ..•••.••.... (Y 7 t 8 9 10 11 12 Relationship between mean April temperatures (OC) near study areas and percent composition of the breeding population~, 95 percent confidence intervals depicted (Y = 7.25e-l.96x; r = -0.94; P<O.Ol) ...•••• Densities of rails responding to taped calls at John Martin Reservoir, April through September, 1975 and 1976 •••. Densities of rails responding to taped calls at Lower Latham Reservoir, April through September, 1975 and 1976 ..•• 95 96 Densities of rails responding to taped calls at Monte Vista NWR, April through September 1975 and 1976 97 Densities of rails responding to taped calls at Cary Ranch, April through September 1975 and 1976 . . . . 98 Densities of rails responding to taped calls at Milk Creek I and II, April through September 1976 . . . . 99 ��-69- INVESTIGATIONS OF RAILS IN COLORADO ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was funded by The Accelerated Research Program for Migratory Shore and Upland Game Birds, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Contract No. 14-16-008-2000 administered through Colorado Division of Wildlife Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-88-R. I extend my thanks to these agencies for their support. I thank the project coordinator, Dr. C. E. Braun, Colorado Division of Wildlife, and my academic adviser, Dr. R. A. Ryder, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, who were responsible for the initiation of this project. Their criticisms and suggestions throughout the term of this project were vital to its successful completion. I also thank my graduate committee members, Mr. R. G. Walter, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, and Dr. G. A. Swanson, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, for their helpful advice. Thanks go to C. Bryant, Manager, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the numerous landowners in Colorado for allowing me to readily utilize their marshes. I extend my appreciation to those Colorado Division of Wildlife personnel who aided my search for rails. I especially thank Wildlife Conservation Officers D. Coven, D. Kenvin, D. Miller, and J. Wagner and the numerous work study students at Colorado State University who accompanied me into marshes with an exuberance that was appreciated. Appreciation is expressed to the Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for the use of unpublished data. My special thanks go to bird watchers in Colorado whose observations invaluable in completing this project. were INTRODUCTION Five species of rails have been reported in Colorado (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Colorado Field Ornithologists Records Committee, pers. comm.). The two most common rails, Virginia rail and sora, can be hunted east of the Continental Divide. Black (Lateral Ius jamaicensus), yellow (Coturnicops noveboracensis) and king rails (Rallus elegans) are not legally hunted in Colorado. There is no open hunting season for rails west of the Continental Divide (i.e. in the Pacific Flyway). To meet an increasing necessity for management plans for rails, research in recent years has been directed at developing techniques for ascertaining their status. Tomlinson and Todd (1973) and Glahn (1974) were successful in developing census techniques for rails. Subsequently, use of taperecorded calls has proven practical for censusing most species of rails (Mangold 1974, Baird 1974, Tacha 1975, Holliman 1976). Limited data exist concerning the status of rails in Colorado. No more than museum specimens at state universities and at the Denver Museum of Natural History and field notes exist for the state. These field notes and data �-70- from museum specimens, primarily from the east slope, were compiled by Bailey and Niedrach (1965) and Lane and Holt (1975). By counting flushed or vocal soras, Boeker (1954) was able to approximate territorial pairs (120) in the Yampa Valley of northwestern Colorado in 1953. Glahn (1974) used taped recorded calls do delimit distribution of soras and Virginia rails in selected marshes in north central Colorado, and subsequently, was able to estimate breeding densities. P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The major objective of this study was to obtain data necessary for development of a management plan for rails breeding in and migrating through Colorado. Data considered necessary were those relating to distribution, breeding densities in at least four different areas, descriptions of habitats utilized according to vegetation, water depths and other selected physical characteristics, and documentation of timing of spring and fall migration. Hypotheses tested included: a. Distribution of Typha. of rails in Colorado b. Densities of breeding rails differ significantly by species between occupied habitats in the eastern plains and the high mountain valleys. c. Timing of spring and fall migration differs significantly areas east of the mountains and inter~mountain valleys. LITERATURE is determined by the distribution between REVIEW Taxonomy The five species and three subspecies of rails recorded from Colorado are Rallus elegans Audubon, Porzana carolina (Linnaeus), Rallus!. limicola Vieillot, Laterallus i. jamaicensis (Gmelin), and Coturnicops ~. noveboracensis (Gmelin). They represent the sub-family Rallinae, Family Rallidae, Order Gruiformes, and Class Aves and regularly occur in North America north of Mexico (AOU 1957). Distribution In North America north of Mexico, inland species of rails (i.e. excluding clapper rails (Rallus longirostrus» breed from Nova Scotia and central Canada to southern California east to the Atlantic coast in favorable marsh habitat. They are generally migratory, wintering primarily in Atlantic and Pacific coastal marshes and southern states to northern South America. Largest concentrations winter in coastal marshes of southern and southeastern United States and Mexico (AOU 1957). In Colorado, Virginia rails and soras (hereafter referred to as "rails" unless otherwise specified) are common breeders. Virginia rails commonly nest in suitable habitat in the upper sonoran zone (1,070-1,680 m) and �-71- rarely remain throughout the winter. Soras nest commonaly in marsh habitat in the plains and occasionally in the mountains to 3,050 m. Black and king rails (recent records) are rare summer residents. Yellow rails are rare migrants. These three species are not known to breed in Colorado (Bailey and Niedrach 1965). Ecology Life history and behavior of all North American rails have been described by Bent (1926) and Ripley (1977). Allen (1934), Walkinshaw (1937, 1940), Pospichal and Marshall (1954), Tanner and Hendrickson (1954, 1956), and Kaufmann (1971) have described the ecology of rails. King rails have been studied by Meanley (1969). Descriptions of foods utilized by various rails have been presented by Pospichal and Marshall (1954), Webster (1964), Meanley (1965), and Horak (1970). Habitat utilized has been described by Billard (1947), Tanner and Hendrickson (1954, 1956), Horak (1970), Andrews (1973), Baird (1974), and Tacha (1975). Vocalizations of rails have been described by Bent (1926), Kellogg, Allen, and Peterson (1959), and Kaufmann (1971). Descending calls of rails are given throughout the breeding season in response to other rail calls and loud noises. The hollow sounding descending call of Virginia rails evokes responses from other territorial males but not from mates (Kaufmann 1971). Census Techniques Early attempts to census rails produced little success. Boeker (1954) used flush counts and counted vocalizations to estimate numbers of breeding soras in the Yampa Valley, Colorado. Smith (1955) censused soras in Canada by counting distress calls evoked by tossing stones into potholes. Bateman (1965) had erratic success when attempting to flush clapper rails in Louisiana. Meanly (1969) and Post and Enders (1970) found that by mapping approximate locations of vocalizations (spot-mapping), locations and number of breeding territories could be approximated for king and Virginia rails, respectively. Nest surveys have been utilized to estimate rail populations (Pospichal and Marshall 1954; Tanner and Hendrickson 1954, 1956), but rail nests are difficult to locate and identify. Playback of tape-recorded calls to evoke responses has proven acceptable. Tomlinson and Todd (1973) utilized recorded clapper rail calls to delineate distribution of two races of this species in southwestern United States and Mexico. Mangold (1974) and Holliman (1976) presented auditory indices for breeding populations of clapper rails in New Jersey and Alabama, respectively. Dow (1970) found that playing taped calls to obtain auditory indices produced biased results in areas of high densities of birds. Responsiveness increased for individual birds and responses by close birds masked distant responses. Glahn (1974) found this effect applicable to rail censuses. Rail breeding populations were estimated by Glahn (1974) by spot-mapping responses to taped calls. Recent field studies in Kansas indicated that estimates of numbers of rails responding to taped calls yielded acceptable indices of king and Virginia rail populations. Responses of soras were more variable and the technique could not be applied to that species (Baird 1974, Tacha 1975). �-72- METHODS Study Area Selection One study area was selected to represent typical wetlands in each of four major regions in Colorado (Fig. 1). Initial selection of study areas was conducted during May and June 1975. In April 1976 a study area was added in northwestern Colorado to better ascertain the status of rails in that portion of the state. Criteria for selection included: 1) similarity to regional wetlands, 2) diversity of emergent types, 3) size approaching 20 ha, and 4) presence of rails. Census Techniques Study areas were censused by playback of tape-recorded calls of rails at sunrise or sunset May through October 1975 and April through October 1976. Tape-recorded advertising calls of Virginia rails and soras, recorded from Peterson's record of western bird songs, were played on a portable Norelco cassette recorder at 12 to 26 listening sites per study area. Listening sites were 80 to 130 m apart. Amplitude of the taped calls when played ranged from 80.5 (behind recorder and observer) to 96 db (directly away from speaker) at one meter and 48 to 65 db at 50 meters (Simpson Model 885 sound level recorder) under favorable weather conditions. Playbacks per listening site averaged nine (range 6-15) calls played in a series of alternating groups of three repetitions of either Virginia rail or sora calls. A listening period of one minute was allowed between calls. Calls of black, king, or yellow rails (also from the Peterson series) were occasionally played. Approximate locations and nature of responses by rails were recorded on field maps (spot-mapped). Relative breeding densities were estimated for 1975 and 1976 utilizing results from spot-mapping responses to taped calls. An index of breeding densities, at each study area for 1975 and 1976, expressed as audibly responding rails/ha (Baird 1974, Glahn 1974, Tacha 1975) was obtained by averaging results from censuses immediately following peak concentrations through the first week of July. A second method, employed in 1976 only, followed the mapping method utilized in breeding bird censuses (Svensson 1970) and used by Glahn (1974). Results from this method were expressed as territories/ha. Breeding and wintering distributions of rails were delineated from censuses of marshes encountered while traveling between study areas, responses to questionnaires, and previously published records. Marshes, encountered while traveling, were censused utilizing call sequences of 12 to 24 calls at one to seven sites. Flushing transects, track searches, and trapping were utilized when response results were unsatisfactory. If marshes did not appear to possess rails during censuses or responses to questionnaires described marshes and did not specify whether they had breeding rails, these marshes were judged to be suitable or non-suitable habitat based on marsh characteristics and location. Marsh descriptions and response results �- ..- MO"Ar •• ••• • •••• •• """'OOA . " ItIO'lANCO SC06WICII tOGAIt WUD 11011" IWlttln • :~:.~ •• MOIf(iAIt YIIMA WA$ltIIt~TOIt • • • • ••• GA""nD tlNCDUt MESA Klr CARlON • • • • , Clftr~lIlIf • . -...J , • W KIOWA Cltowur • • : IANM/~IIEL ,."OWE'" ••• 1I0LOItfir • ~CA MOllrEZIlMA r ••• o Fig. 1. Study areas • Trapping sites • Censused wetlands Study areas, trapping sites, and wetlands censused during investigations rails in Colorado, 1975-1976. of �-74- were recorded on field forms (Appendix A). Vegetative dominance was described as plant species producing Cover judged to be sufficient for rails to easily hide. Certain marshes were censused throughout the winter of 1975-76 to ascertain presence or absence of wintering rails. Questionnaires concerning distribution and hunter participation (Appendix B) were distributed to Colorado Division of Wildlife field personnel in December 1975. Physical and Botanical Dimensions Field maps of study areas were derived from U. S. Geological Survey 7.5 minute topographic maps and aerial photographs. Chain (or pace) and compass and plane table and alidade were utilized to refine details. Dominant vegetative cover, based on frequency of occurrence, was sketched on field maps during a thorough inspection of each study area. Plant specimens collected at study areas were filed in the Colorado State University herbarium. Sizes of study areas and percent composition of major vegetative types (Appendix C) were calculated from field maps utilizing a planimeter. Open water, mud flats and dry land areas were subtracted from total study area sizes as these areas are less frequently used by rails. Water and Substrate Descriptions Characteristics of substrates and waters were described for each study area. Substrate type was derived from Soil Conservation Service soil surveys adjacent to marshes as marshes are seldom investigated. Average depths of organic matter were estimated from footing depths (i. e. depth to solid footing for the investigator). Fluctuations of water depths were recorded during censuses. Water was chemically analyzed for total acidity, alkalinity (methyl orange and phenolphthaline), hardness, and pH using a Hach Chemical Company Water Ecology Kit, Model AL-36B. Sources of water were documented. Microclimatic Data Microclimatic data were obtained for May and June 1976 in two marshes with contrasting species composition. Temperature and humidity were recorded on weekly oriented thermo-hygrographs (Model 3083-AC) made by C. F. Casella of London. Thermo-hygrographs were placed on fixed, sheltered, floating platforms in locations typical of the respective marshes. Trapping Trapping was conducted to aid in ascertaining composition of rail populations at selected marshes (Fig. 1). Four to nine funnel box traps (adapted from Bateman 1965), 25 x 31 x 61 cm of 1.4 cm hardware cloth with a 25 x 2-3 cm funnel opening at one end were used in trapping. Prior to trapping in 1976, 25 x 25 cm hardware cloth ramps were installed in six traps to more effectively retain rails. Drift fences 3 to 33 m long of 2.5 cm mesh poultry netting 30 to 45 cm in height were staked at appropriate intervals with 1 cm diameter x 90 cm wood dowels. Physical characteristics of trapped and banded rails were recorded on field forms (Appendix D). Rails were banded with U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service size 3 aluminum bands. �-75- LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Location Study areas were located at: 1) Lower Latham Reservoir (104038' W long., 40020' N lat.), South Platte River drainage, Weld County, north central Colorado; 2) John Martin Reservoir (103007' W, 38005' N), Arkansas River drainage, Bent County, southeastern Colorado; 3) Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) (106004' W, 37028' N), Rio Grande River drainage, Rio Grande County, south central Colorado; 4) Cary Ranch (107020' W, 40029' N) and Milk Creek (107044' W, 40017' N), Yampa River drainage, Routt and Moffat counties, respectively, northwestern Colorado. Description The Lower Latham Reservoir study area (13.1 ha in size) occurred at an elevation of 1,422 m as a wide emergent zone of a large irrigation reservoir. Typha angustifolia covered 76 percent of the study site with the remaining area covered by a mixture of Eleocharis macrostachya-Juncus ba1ticus-Scirpus americanus (14 percent), Scirpus acutus (7 percent), and seasonally flooded Poaceae (2 percent). Lemna minor was locally abundant on the study area. Average water depths from May through July, 1975 and 1976 were 10 and 2 cm, respectively. Water levels were recorded at 0-63 and 0-17 cm in 1975 and 1976, respectively. Floating vegetative debris (dead Typha) capable of supporting rails was uncommon in emergent vegetation between May and July. Organic matter ranged from <2 to 15 cm in depth on a sand to loam substrate. The John Martin Reservoir study area was an extensive deep emergent marsh at 1,171 m elevation. Typha angustifolia-Scirpus acutus (94 percent) and E1eocharis macrostachya-Juncus ba1ticus-Scirpus americanus (5 percent) dominated the 14.5 hectares. Lemna minor and Rorripa nasturtium-aquaticum were locally abundant within the emergents. Average water depths were 7 (2-17) and 4 (0-7) cm for 1975 and 1976, respectively. Recumbent dead Typha covered 90 percent of the study area. Open water was present as a result of muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) and beaver (Castor canadensis) activities. Organic matter was estimated to range from 15 to 85 em in depth on a sandy loam to fine gravel substrate. At Monte Vista NWR the study area was a shallow emergent marsh at 2,326 m elevation. Eleocharis macrostachya-Juncus balticus-Scirpus paludosus (59 percent) and Typha 1atifolia-Scirpus validus (40 percent) dominated this 14.3 ha area. Numerous 1-3 m wide areas of open water were present in the non-Typha cover (10 percent) but were judged not to warrant separation. Water depths averaged 5 cm for both years and fluctuated 0-12 and 0-15 cm, respectively. Floating debris was uncommon, but recumbent Juncus ba1ticus was abundant. Organic matter ranged in depth from 3 to 18 cm on a sandy loam substrate. The Cary Ranch study area was a deep open water marsh existing as oxbows with adjacent seasonally flooded hay fields at an elevation of 1,914 m. Dominant cover types of this 6.1 ha area were Typha latifo1ia (46 percent), Carex spp.-Poaceae seasonally flooded (20 percent), Juncus balticus- �-76- Eleocharis macrostachya-Triglochin maritima (16 percent), and Scirpus validus (16 percent). Average water depths were 31 (5-130) and 20 (4-91) cm for 1975 and 1976, respectively. Mats of dead Typha were locally abundant in water up to 10 cm in depth. In late summer, mats of Potomogeton pectinatus, capable of supporting rails, was abundant in open water between irrigation periods. Organic matter varied from 0 to 40 cm in depth on a river gravel substrate. The Milk Creek study area (4.8 ha) at 1,903 m elevation was separated into a deep open water marsh (2.4 ha), and a deep emergent marsh (2.4 ha), hereafter referred to as Milk Creek I and II, respectively. Typha latifolia dominated both marshes (83 and 71 percent). Respective minor vegetative cover was Scirpus validus-Scirpus acutus (5 and 15 percent), Carex spp. (7 and 14 percent), and Salix sp. (4 and 0 percent). Average water depths in 1976 were 10 and 4 cm, respectively. Water fluctuated at Milk Creek I a total of 50 cm due to water level regulation of adjacent Axial Lake. Milk Creek II, located below the Axial Lake dam had 4 cm of water level fluctuation. Recumbent Typha was locally common at both marshes. Organic matter depths were estimated at 2-18 cm and 15-60 cm, respectively, on sandy loam substrates. Water Chemistry At regional study areas, water was uniformly basic (pH>7.0) (Table 1). In Colorado, chemical characteristics of water are usually attributed to the water's source and the organic make-up of the wetlands. Subterranean water sources are moderately baSic, but high organic content tends to neutralize alkaline waters. In addition to rainfall, sources of water for study areas were: 1) Lower Latham Reservoir - primarily irrigation water with some seepage, 2) John Martin Reservoir - springs from a calcareous substrate, seasonally present irrigation water, and septic seepage, 3) Monte Vista NWR _ artesian wells and irrigation water from snow melt, 4) Cary Ranch - irrigation water from snow melt and alkaline shale seeps, and 5) Milk Creek _ snow melt and shale seeps (Soil Conservation Service, pers. comm.). Climate and Topography Geographical characteristics of Colorado directly influence regional climatic conditions which determine quantity and quality of wetlands. Lower elevations receive less precipitation than mountain ranges, thus wetlands are restricted to narrow flood plains of river systems and their associated irrigation districts. Wet meadows and hay fields are common in mountain parks and small basins at high elevations. Recording stations in the South Platte and Arkansas River drainages indicate ranges of mean annual precipitation of 18 and 56 and 15 to 63 em, respectively. In addition, west slope water is directed by transmountain diversion into these river systems for irrigation t o: domestic purposes. Mean annual precipitation for the Rio Grande and Yampa River drainages ranges from 18 to 43 and 33 to 61 em, respectively (U. S. Department of Commerce 1975, 1976). Temperatures normally reflect elevation and local topography. Monthly average and average daily high and low temperatures from April through September 1975 and 1976 for recording stations nearest to study areas are presented in Appendix E. , �Table 1. Results of water analysis at regional study areas in Colorado, August 1975 and April 1976. Study area Total 1 acidity-/ Pheno1phthalien a1kalini ty .!} Total 1 a1kalinity!J Hardness.!} pH John Martin Reservoir 0-41 0 •.239 291-2172 239-1419 8.3-9.2 Lowe r Latham Reservoir 26-48 0 •.34 239-479 393-581 8.2 -9. 1 Monte Vista NWR 0-9 0-68 68-222 68-120 7.9-9.7 Cary Ranch 0-14 0-342 239-2668 188-889 8.5-9.2 Milk CreekY 38-43 256-308 1710-2309 1265-1402 8.4 -8.6 Y Expressed as mg/1 of CaC0 • 3 Y Analyzed in April 1976 only. I ......• ......• I �-78- Microclimate Temperature and relative humidity in marshes were regulated by macroclimatic conditions, water temperature and height, density, and thickness of emergents. High humidity readings (40-100 percent) reflected closeness of the water's surface. Differences between average macro- and microenvironmental temperatures at John Martin Reservoir (2l.40C, l4.30C, respectively) were 2.3 times greater than differences at Monte Vista NWR (13.30C, 10.20C) in June 1976. Differences were attributed to 2.7 m tall Typha growth at the former, and O.S m of standing dead Typha at the latter. Respective average temperatures in May were (15.90C, l5.70C) and (10.90C, 9.S0C). Typha averaged 1.4 m in height at John Martin Reservoir and 0.8 m at Monte Vista NWR in May. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution Breeding distributions of Virginia rails and soras by townships are presented in Figs. 2 and 3. Rails recorded in a marsh, May through July were assumed to be breeding there. This interval was based on estimated dates of nest initiation obtained through nest searches and trapping (Table 2). The entire state was not surveyed (Fig. 1), thus if a species bred in a marsh within a river drainage it probably bred inuninvestigatedfavorable habitat throughout that drainage. High altitude sedge marshes and meadows were noticeably under-represented. Altitudinal extremes of breeding records obtained during this field study were 1,120-3,140 m and 1,120-2,730 m for soras and Virginia rails, respectively. Examination of 174 marshes indicated that distribution of Typha-dominated marshes did not determine the breeding distribution of rails (Table 3). When marshes with or without Typha as a dominant species and not exhibiting the presence of breeding rails were compared by chi-square analysis to Typha or non-Typha marshes possessing breeding rails, a highly significant (P<O.Ol) difference was apparent. Further comparisons by regions east and west of the Continental Divide and above and below 2,100 m elevation also yielded significant (P<0.05) differences. Although not included in the comparisons, stands of Typha latifolia were occasionally present on damp slopes (no surface water) in western Colorado. Rails were not observed in those habitats. Although no positive breeding records are available for king, black, and yellow rails in Colorado, king and black rails were recorded during this investigation. Single king rails were recorded at Bonny Reservoir, Yuma County, on 25 May 1975 (this study), and near Pueblo, Pueblo County on 12 June through 3 July 1976 (Griffiths 1976). During this investigation a black rail was recorded at the John Martin study area, Bent County, 11, IS and 25 June 1975. Black rails were also reported near Red Lion, Logan County, April 1976(T. Marsh pers. comm.), and at the Arapahoe National Wildlife Refuge, Jackson County, August 1976 (M. Lindvall pers. comm.). Breeding activities (courtship vocalizations) were exhibited by male black and king rails at Ft. Lyons and Pueblo, respectively. King and black rails breed at Cheyenne Bottoms, Barton County, Kansas, 122 km east of Colorado (Baird �fZj lZl GAI",nD I' '-.I \0 1 ID SANM'~UEL MO"TI!ZUMA •• Rails recorded ~ £) Suitable habitat ~ Fig. 2. Breeding distribution of Virginia rails by townships in Colorado, 1975 and 1976. t �rrzy liNCOLN ~. o J I _BU. _ i.: ~ Fig. 3. Breeding distribution L__ ~.._ i ,KIOWA Suitable of soras by townships in Colorado, 1975 and 1976. habitat �Initiation dates of clutches of soras and Virginia rails in Colorado by region as estimated from nest searches, literature.!../, and estimated ages of trapped chicks. Table 2. Virginia Sora rail Number Range Region Mean Range Number Mean North central 13 June 10 May-l August 15 13 June 22 April-27 Southeast 16 May 10 May-21 May 2 27 May 22 May-2 July 14 Northwest 23 June 22 April-4 13 28 June 20 May-2 August 4 South central 11 June 18 May -20 July 22 13 June 19 May-18 July 23 State -wi de 14 June 22 April-4 52 10 June 22 April-2 64 August July 23 I !/ (Bailey and Niedrach August 1965, Stabler and Kitzmiller 1971) August co f-' I �Table 3. Chi-square analyses testing hypothesis that distribution determine distribution of rails in Colorado, state-wide, of Typha-dominated marshes by region, and elevation. Number of Marshes With Tr:eha Without Tr:eha With rails Without rails Total With rails Without rails Total 2 X (df = 2) p Either species state -wide 91 34 125 29 20 49 26.41 < 0.01 Soras state -wi de 64 61 125 24 25 49 41.52 < 0.01 Conditions I ex> Virginia rails state -wide 68 57 125 12 37 49 28.93 < 0.01 Either species East of Continental Divide 60 18 78 21 10 31 18.38 < 0.01 Either species West of Continental Divide 29 18 47 8 10 18 10.45 < 0.01 Soras East of Continental Divide 36 42 78 16 15 31 30.87 < 0.01 Soras West of Continental Divide 28 19 47 8 10 18 11.24 < 0.01 N I �Table 3 (Continued) Conditions With rails Number of Marshes Without .!r.E.ha With TYEha Without With Without rails Total rails Total rails X2 (df = 2) P Virginia rails East of Continental Divide 52 26 78 12 19 31 13.31 < 0.01 Virginia rails West of Continental Divide 16 31 47 0 18 18 20.45 < 0.01 I 00 Either w species < 2100 rn species >2100 m I 72 31 103 13 4 17 19.27 < 0.01 19 3 22 16 16 32 8.41 < 0.01 Either Soras < 2100 rn 46 57 103 11 6 17 38.66 < 0.01 Soras ->2100 m 18 4 22 13 19 32 6.01 < 0.05 59 44 103 9 8 17 23.56 < 0.01 9 13 22 3 29 32 7.96 < 0.01 Virginia rails < 2100 rn Virginia rails > 2100 rn �-84- 1974, Tacha 1975, Parmelee, Schwilling, and Stephens 1970). Although two yellow rails have been recorded in Colorado (Bailey and Niedrach 1965, Colorado Field Ornithologist Records Committee pers. comm.) breeding is unlikely. Distribution of rails wintering (30 November-3l March) in Colorado appears to be restricted primarily to the South Platte and Arkansas River drainages in eastern Colorado. Virginia rails were the most common rail recorded, although soras have been found in winter near Denver (Christmas bird counts, American Birds 1961-1976), and in the Arkansas River Valley (this study). In western Colorado, Virginia rails have been reported in winter near Hotchkiss, Delta County (D. Miller pers. comm.) and on Christmas bird counts at Grand Junction, Mesa County, and Monte Vista NWR, Rio Grande County in south central Colorado. In Colorado, winter rail presence appears to be dependent upon distribution of warm water sloughs with ample emergent vegetation. Typha was the dominant emergent in 88 percent (7) of marshes possessing wintering rails during the winter 1975-76. The total rail population for the winter 1976-76 was estimated to not exceed 200 individuals of which 75 to 90 percent were Virginia rails. Breeding Densities Indices of breeding densities for 1975 and 1976 are presented by region in Table 4. Breeding densities of soras were highest in the south central region in 1976. Virginia rails had highest breeding densities in 1976 in southeastern Colorado and appeared to be more common state-wide that year. Data for the northwestern region were derived from Cary Ranch only. Milk Creek exhibited breeding densities of 2.01 ± 0.84 S.D., 2.01 ± 0.12 S.D., and 4.02 + 0.79 S.D. per ha for soras, Virginia rails and all rails, respectively for 1976. By combining the Milk Creek and Cary Ranch study areas breeding densities for northwestern Colorado in 1976 were 0.80 ± 0.51 S.D., 0.98 + 0.14 S.D., and 1.78 + 0.61 S.D. per ha for soras, Virginia rails and all rails. These values are-believed to better estimate breeding densities for this region. Hypotheses concerning regional and yearly differences of breeding densities are tested in Table 5. Indices from study areas for each species were first compared by F-tests and subsequently by parametric t-tests if F-statistics were not highly significant (P>O.Ol) (Snedecor and Cochran 1967). Yearly results were treated as individual samples. For purposes of consistency, Milk Creek values were not utilized during testing. Highly significant (P<O.Ol) t-statistics were obtained for differences in breeding densities, as exhibited by Virginia rails, between eastern and western Colorado and differences between breeding densities of Virginia rails in eastern Colorado and breeding densities of soras in western Colorado (Table 5). State-wide breeding densities of Virginia rails (2.61 ± 1.66 S.D. responding rails/ha) were higher than breeding densities of soras (1.26 ± 0.78 S.D.), but differences were not significant (P>0.05). Breeding densities of soras in plains study areas (0.73 + 0.34 S.D.) were not significantly (P>0.05) less than in inter-mountain valley study areas (1.64 + 1.02 S.D.). There was no indication of a change in breeding densities between 1975 and 1976. However, Virginia rails appeared to occur more frequently at higher elevations in 1976. �Table 4. Indices of breeding densities of rails in four regions of Colorado, 1975 and 1976. Density (Responding rails per hectare).!.! 1975 Region Sora Virginia rail Southeast 0.46+0.57 4.21 + 1. 12 North central 1.13±.0.82 South central NorthwestY 1976 All rails Number of censuses (n) Sora Virginia rail All rails Number of censuses (n) 4.66+ 1.58 7 0.44 ±. 0.26 4.67 ±. 0.72 5.11±.0.91 4 3.50 ±. 0.76 4.62+ 1.53 5 0.88±.0.62 3.84±.0.96 4.73 + 1.52 3 2.20 ±. 0.19 1. 88 + 0.64 4.08 + 0.83 3 2.51±.1.16 1. 60 + 0.24 4.11 + 1.38 3 1.64+0.71 0.16 + 0.28 1.80 ±. 0.91 3 0.21 ±. 0.25 0.41 ±. 0.21 0.62 + 0.34 3 11 Mean of n censuses ~/ Cary Ranch only. + one standard deviation. - I 00 VI I �Table 5. Results of testing hypotheses concerning densities of rails for Colorado. regional and annual differences t Test- F TestY df F FY State -wi de , Vi rginia rail breeding densities equal sora breeding densities. 7,7 3.79, 6.99 Virginia rail breeding densities of eastern Colorado equal sora breeding densities of western Colorado. 3,3 9.28,29.5 Hypothesis c in breeding II Y . df t 4.19)~11 14 2.14, 2.98 1. 96 No 4.12 6 2.45, 3.71 4.25**1.1 Yes F s t c Reject? s I co 0\ I Virginia. rail breeding dens it ie s of eastern and western Colorado are equal. 3,3 9.28,29.5 2.89 6 2.45,3.71 6.14**11 Yes Sora breeding densities of eastern and western Colorado are equal. 3,3 9.28, 29.5 9.18 6 2.45, 1. 70 No Virginia rail breeding densities are equal each year. 3,3 9.28, 29.5 1. 19 6 2.45,3.71 0.14 No Sora breeding densities are equal each year. 3,3 9.28, 29.5 1. 96 6 2.45,3.71 0.54 No !l df = degrees . . t-stahshc: t of freedom: F = critical C .. = ca 1cu 1ate d t-stahstlC. s F-statistic: F s = calculated 21 a. = 0.05 and 0.01. - 11 * = significant (P<O.OS): ~(*= highly significant (P<O.Ol). 3.71 F-statistic; t c = critical �-87- Breeding densities obtained in other studies are generally higher than those reported in this study. In Iowa, breeding densities of both soras and Virginia rails approached eight pairs per hectare of marsh habitat (Tanner and Hendrickson 1954, 1956). In Minnesota, sora breeding densities were as dense, but Virginia rails exhibited highest densities of 3.7 pairs per hectare (Pospichal and Marshall 1954). Glahn (1974) found breeding densities in north central Colorado to be as high as 1.0 and 2.3 pairs per hectare for soras and Virginia rails, respectively. When breeding densities of all rails for 1976 as determined by spotmapping territories (Table 6) and averaged spring censuses (Table 4) were cQmpared by linear regression (Fig. 4), a significant (P<0.05) correlation (Y = 0.20 + 0.89x; r = 0.97) was obtained. Like comparisons were applied to individual species (Figs. 5 and 6).A Methods for estimating breeding densities of soras were more erratic (Y = -0.36 + 1.12x; r = 0.93; P<O.lO) than were the same methods for estimating breeding densities of Virginia rails = 0.16 + 0.95x; r = 0.25; P<0.05). However, both regression lines approached a theoretical line (Y = 0.0 + 1.Ox; r = 1.0) which would describe identifical results for two censusing methods. Thus, assuming that sample sizes were adequate, utilizing only averaged spring censuses for analyzing differences between breeding densities by region and years was justified. (Y Table 6. ~ Breeding densities of rails at five regional study areas in Colorado in 1976 as determined by spot-mapping territories. Study area Size in hectares Dens it:x:{ter ritorie 5 /ha) All Virginia rails Soras rails Latham Reservoir 13.1 4.73 1,53 3.21 John Martin Reservoir 14.5 5.86 0.76 5.10 Monte Vista NWR 14.3 3.99 2.38 1. 61 Cary Ranch 6.1 0.82 0.33 0.49 Milk C'reek 4.8 3.55 1.67 1. 88 I 2.4 0.84 0.42 0.42 II 2.4 6.25 2.92 3.33 �-88- Q) J.l C1I • 5 ~ o Q) ::r: J.l Q) p.. 4 III .....• ...• C1I IX: co J:: .... 3 A "tj Y=O.20+0.89x 0 0.. r = 0.97 J:: ~ III Q) IX: 2 '+-I • 0 J.l Q) S::s 1 Z Q) co C1I J.l Q) > < 0 0 Fig. 4. 1 Estimated 2 3 4 5 Density of Breeding Territories Breeding densities of all rails as determined by spot-mapping ter~tories co r re lated to averaged spring censuses (Y = 0.20 + 0.89x; r = 0.97; P< 0.05). 6 �-89- 5 4 Ul ....• ro cr:; .-I ~ ij s:: o 0.. Ul CLl cr:; 1\ Y = -0. 36 + 1. 12 x 3 r = 0.93 2 'H o ~ CLl S 1 i • • o Fig. • 1 Estimated 5. 2 3 4 5 Density of Breeding Territories Breeding densiti e s of soras as determined by spot-mapping territories correlated to averaged A spring censuses (Y = .0.36 + 1. 12 x; r = 0.93; P<O.lO). 6 �-90- • • " + 0.95x Y = 0.16 r = 0.97 o 1 Estimated Fig. 6. 2 Density 3 of Breeding 4 5 6 Territories Breeding densities of Virginia rails as determined by spot-mapping territories correlated to averaged 1\ spring censuses (Y = 0.16 + 0.95 x; r :: 0.97; P<0.05). �-91- Further analysis revealed that composition of breeding populations was dependent upon regional temperatures during early phases of migration. Spring migration began in April and probably peaked in late April to early May. Random migration throughout Colorado by both species and like attractant forces (i.e., cover, food, etc.) at all marshes were assumed. When mean temperatures for April near study areas were compared to percentage of species composition (Fig. 7), a highly significant (P<O.Ol) relationship = 7.25e-l•96x; r = -0.94) was apparent. As temperatures decreased, sora populations increased. Soras began to compose 50 percent of the breeding population as mean April temperatures approached 5.60C. Temperatures in April 1976 at all study areas were higher than in 1975. At all study areas except Monte Vista NWR, 1975 breeding populations had higher percentages of soras. Other factors may more strongly regulate composition in other states, but indications were that the breeding range of the sora or Virginia rail in Colorado was dependent upon temperature. (Y Habitat Utilization Periods of importance when considering habitat utilization were spring migration, nesting, brood development, and fall migration. In all periods quality of cover was most important. During brood development and fall migration food quantity was assumed to be important. Spring Migration Spring migrants utilized dead, standing emergents, primarily Typha. Although up to 90 percent of the John Martin Reservoir study area had been burned during the winters of 1975 and 1976, remaining old growth and new growth «30 cm) Typha attracted substantial numbers of rails. In marshes not containing Typha, rails utilized any emergent cover available. In western Colorado soras were observed in Salix spp. during spring floods. At other times herbaceous emergent vegetation was commonly utilized by rails when hiding from the investigator. There was often snow or ice in emergent vegetation, particularly Typha. Nesting In Colorado rails preferred nesting in cover of robust emergent vegetation (i.e., Typha, Scirpus), particularly Typha. Eighty percent of rail nests (25) found during this investigation were in Typha spp. Responses by both species of rails during the nesting period (May through June) at the Monte Vista NWR study area indicated that when a choice was present Typha (40 percent coverage) was chosen over short fine vegetation (i.e., Eleocharis, Juncus). Soras responding in Typha comprised 78 percent of the total soras recorded, while 91 percent of the Virginia rail responses were in Typha. Small percentages of sora (21 percent) and Virginia rail (4 percent) territories as determined for Monte Vista in 1976 were in the short fine vegetation. Deviations from the trend to utilize Typha were apparent at higher elevations where Carex was the common emergent or when high water made Typha unavailable. �-92- 5 4- ro,.. 0 U) tl.O .S Q) It:) ~ 0 :;; ro ...• 3- ~ 0.. 0 fl. .•.~ Q) U I--< Q) fl. j 2- 1 1 Fig. 7. Relationship between m.ean April tem.peratures (oe) near study areas and percent com.position of the breeding populations, 95 percent confidence intervals depicted (~ = 7.25 e -1.96 x r = -0.94; P< 0.01). �-93- Nests located during this investigation were combined with nesting data compiled by Kaufmann (1971). These data indicated that a higher percentage of Virginia rail nests were found in robust vegetation than were sora nests. Seventy-one percent of all Virginia rail nests (167) and 60 percent of all sora nests (223) were in robust vegetation. Approximately 50 percent of those nests in robust vegetation were in Typha. Results from nest searches are often biased as nests in short emergents are probably more easily discovered. Pospichal and Marshall (1954) and Glahn (1974) suggested that rails locate nests adjacent to or near openings in emergents. Too few nests were located in this study to test this hypothesis. Water depth at initiation of nesting may affect breeding densities of rails. Marshes at Cary Ranch were dry in 1976 until after peak migration periods and subsequently harbored a small rail population (Table 2). There appeared to be a correlation between density of all rails and percentage of suitable emergents with water less than 15 cm at initiation of spring censuses. Previous studies have satisfactorily proven that rails prefer water 0-8 cm in depth (Baird 1974, Tacha 1975). Implications are that since rails prefer not to swim (Kaufmann 1971) they utilize areas of marshes with water depths not exceeding the length of their legs (7-8 cm). Actual water depths may exceed 8 em, but floating dead or living vegetation is often sufficient to support the weight of rails. The floating mat formed by dead recumbent Typha often persisted through the summer months in marshes in Colorado. Degree of water level fluctuations appeared to affect nesting activities. In 1976 Cary Ranch had fluctuations of water levels totalling 87 cm between extremes and only one Virginia rail territory of five possible rail territories remained intact. Milk Creek I had fluctuations of water levels totalling 50 cm between extremes and again only one Virginia rail territory remained intact. A sora nest was found abandoned with seven eggs at Milk Creek I following a rise in the water level of 30 cm in a one week period. Initially, five sora and five Virginia rail territories were present at Milk Creek I. In cases where water fluctuated less than 20 cm or if water levels decreased gradually densities did not appear to be affected. Nests located in Colorado in 1975 and 1976 were in average water depths of 8.2 cm. Of those nests positively identified, sora nests (4) were in water depths averaging 10.7 cm of water, while Virginia rail nests (9) were built over 7.1 cm of water. In most situations a floating vegetative mat was present. Brood Development Responses (peeps) of chicks during the brood development period appeared to originate totally from robust emergent vegetation. Immature rails less than one month in age were trapped consistently in Typha in 1975 and 1976. Andrews (1973) trapped most rails during July (late brooding period) in Typha dominated vegetation. Typha apparently furnished the necessary cover and favorable food resources for developing chicks. Chick mortality was noted (2 Virginia rails, 1 sora) at Monte Vista NWR in 1976 after receding water levels left 90 percent of the study area without water. All chicks were found farther than 100 meters from the nearest water. �-94- Estimated age of chicks was less than four days in all cases. There was no indication as to cause of death, but two dead chicks (Virginia rails) were found near dried mud holes, perhaps indicating separation from the brood and subsequently dying for lack of water. Fall Migration Rails, primarily sora, were flushed from short emergents during fall migrations. Number of vocalizing rails elicited by taped calls also increased in Typha marshes with sufficient water. Water depths preferred during migration varied from <1 (muddy) to 60 cm in areas of responses and sightings. Andrews (1973) indicated soras preferred reflooded areas of Polygonum lapthifolia, Echinichola walteri and Cyperus erythrorhizos during fall concentrations, probably because of the abundance of food. In Colorado, Virginia rails appeared to remain more in Typha as indicated by responses. Timing of Migration Spring During this investigation rails were first observed in previously rail free marshes as early as the second week of April. Soras arrived at the John Martin Reservoir study area on or prior to 10 April 1976. In north central Colorado near Ft. Collins, Virginia rails were first observed on 11 April 1976. Bailey and Niedrach (1965) indicated that spring arrival of rails in north central Colorado was in early May, but arrival of soras in northwestern Colorado began as early as late April. Results from this investigation suggested that Virginia rails arrived in eastern Colorado prior to the arrival of soras. Densities of rails responding to taped calls as depicted in Figs. 8-12 indicate peak concentrations state-wide occurred within the first and second weeks of May. In other studies (Glahn 1974, Baird 1974) a two to three week period of no vocalizations occurred after the arrival of rails. A silent period after arrival might therefore disgui~e an earlier peak concentration. Taking this potential silent period into consideration, actual peaks in spring migration should have occurred in late April to early May. In either case, spring migration did not appear to differ between plains and inter-mountain valleys. Soras appeared to reach peak concentrations one to two weeks prior to Virginia rails in southeastern and northwestern Colorado. In north central and south central Colorado, peak concentrations occurred simultaneously. Late Summer Movement Marsh conditions, specifically water levels, obviously caused early desertion of marshes by rails. At Monte Vista NWR in 1975 and 1976 and at Latham Reservoir in 1976 decreasing water levels reduced amounts of suitable habitat by 95 percent in July or early August. At Monte Vista many rails were concentrated in sparse cover near remaining water. Rails were easily �~ -...". Soras Virginia o 1975 mill·· ~ 1976 ~ 10 Rails * No Census d) ~ •..uro d) ::r: ~ o,d) (J) ...• ro I \D VI I cr:; d) :> 5 ...• (J) ~ 0 0.. (J) d) cr:; .... 0 ~ d) .0 S::l Z :::< 0 ft. 1 4 April Fig. 2 3 May 8. 4 1 2 3 June Densities of rails responding September, 1975 and 1976. 4 ":, (:T' " pm ':' tt. 3412341 July Week of Census to taped l2 calls at John Martin 2 3 September August Reservoir, April through 4 �Soras 10 ., Virginia D 1975 ~ 1976 Rails fill. ~ (1) ~ * n! No Census () (1) :r: ~ o, (1) (/) .....• ...... ro r::r; ~ (1) > ...... I \0 0' I 5 (/) r:: 0 0.. (/) 0 I-< I (1) ~ ! :::I :::i .:::1' ~... C·" ~::: '+-< S ... :::1 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...,., ... ... ... ... .. , g~':< ~ !:::I (1) r::r; f:: i .] ~ r' :;~ 0 ~ 2 3 1W':, 1111,:< 4 1 2 3 June 4 April 1 Fig. Densities of rails responding September, 1975 and 1976. 9. May '...."........ .,. '.. ,.. ... ,.. ,.. ... "" .'"..... ... ... ....... ........ ... ... ..... .... '" ... ... ... ... ... ..... ..... ..... ... :::1 mi ... , :::i :::1 ;;;! g~~:< ~g ~:< 1:: ,:< 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 3 3 3 4 August September July Week of Census to taped calls at Lower Latham Reservoir, April through 4 1 ::::1':< 4 �Soras 10 l I a> ~ ....., () a> n 1975 ~ 1976 Rails mm lliill ~ ,:~ No Census 1 (Ij Virginia ::r:: '"' c,a> Ul .-< .....• (Ij ~ a> :> .....• I \0 5 '-l Ul r+: ~ r-- 0 0.. Ul a> ~ .... I f:mi 0 r: S~ z 0 r l -'-r- r 4 April Fig. 1 2 May 10. 3 4 1 2 3 June Densities of rails responding September, 1975 and 1976. " 4 I I! ::::/ I~ '"' a> ,..0 I gm •... ...... ....j' " W ..../ .... .... .... , -.. ... 1111! 111 -'-J'ml':~ -r- :~ m:/ ,:~ H~'''I t.v.1 I 1 2 3 July Week of Census to taped calls 4 1 at Monte Vista I 1""IXXld 2 3 August NWR, I I 4 1 April through I I 2 3 September I 4 �Soras 10 Virginia o 1975 ~ IiliiJ §§ 1976 ~ Rails (1) I-t ..,I'd No Census Yoc u (1) ::c I-t c, (1) CIl ....• ....• I'd ~ I \0 (1) ::- 5 ....• CIl 0:> -1 I I ~ I 0 0.. l CIl (1) ~ "'0" !-I (1) ,.0 S ~ 0 , , 1 4 April Fig. 11. ':' 1::::1' .... :' 2 3 May 4 Densities of rails 1975 and 1976. 1 2 3 June responding 4 1 I:::; ::: ':' 2 3 4 1 July Week of Census to taped calls at Ca r y Ranch. 2 3 August April 4 through 1 2 3 September September, 4 �Soras 10 Virginia o MC! ~ MC II mm llilli ~ Q) I-f •.. No Census >:< ('(j Rails () Q) ::r:: I-f Q) Ili .-<Ul ..... ('(j p:; I Q) ~ ~ .....> 5 I Ul ~ 0 0.. Ul Q) ~ '+-I 0 I-f Q) ..0 S::s Z 0 I * ~:~ 4 April Fig. ~~< >!: 1 2 3 May 12. 4 1 2 3 June Densities of rails responding September, 1976. 4 1 2 3 July Week of Census to taped calls 4 at Milk Creek 1 2 3 August 4 I and II, April 1 2 3 September through 4 �-100- observed as well as trapped, and on successive visits noticeable reductions were apparent. Tracks on mud banks of ditches indicated that rails left by foot as well as by flight. Bent (1926) mentioned a late summer movement of rails to more stable marshes. Peaks in densities in late July and early August at study areas may have resulted from movement from nearby drying marshes. Irrigation practices in Colorado promoted midsummer draw downs of wetlands. Fall Although responses were difficult to evoke in August and September, indications of peak concentrations were obtained in mid-August to mid-September. Local movement in August may mask actual migration. Soras appeared to have a more extensive migration than Virginia rails, beginning earlier, peaking at higher concentrations, and ending later. Extent of migration for Virginia rails was less distinct, but appeared to generally coincide with sora migration. Peak fall concentrations of rails in inter-mountain valleys were not pronounced possibly indicating that small numbers of rails migrate through western Colorado. Observations of migrating soras (2 individuals) at Milk Creek on 18 September 1976 may have indicated similar migrational patterns on both sides of the Continental Divide. However, fall migrational peaks were usually indistinct, making comparisons difficult. Trapping During this study, 294 rails (142 soras, 152 Virginia rails) were banded at nine trapping sites primarily during July, August, and September 1975-76 (Table 7). Two Virginia rails accounted for two returns at Wellington Wildlife Area, Larimer County. One Virginia rail was caught on three occasions over a 213 day period. Trap mortality was less than two percent. In 1975 trapping success was 0.06 rails per trap hour for 1,617 hours. Trapping success approached 0.20 rails per hour in 1976 for 1,100 trap hours. Although trapping methods and time periods may bias results, adult to juvenile ratios for soras and Virginia rails were 1:4.7 and 1:2.9, respectively. A major portion of clutch initiation dates utilized in Table 2 was obtained as a result of trapping. Approximate clutch initiation dates were obtained by estimating ages of chicks less than six weeks of age and allowing 19 days for incubation for both species (Walkinshaw 1937, 1940; Wood 1937; Pospichal and Marshall 1954; Tanner and Hendrickson 1954, 1956). A staggered hatch of 7.8 days (Kaufmann 1971) for soras was taken into consideration. Measurements of tarsus, culmen and weight of developing chicks obtained in Minnesota (Pospichal and Marshall 1954) were used to estimate age. Relative lengths of outer primaries and capability of flight were also used to approximate age of chicks between three and six weeks of age. Chicks older than six weeks of age were not aged. Since trapping was conducted intensively in late July through early September, mean clutch initiation dates were weighted toward late hatching broods as early hatched young could have left the areas prior to trapping. Nonetheless, results showed that flightless young and adult rails were present in Colorado in early September and as late as mid-September. �Table 7. Distribution of bandings of rails, County and Location by species, Colorado, 1975-1976. Soras Aug. Sept. Number Banded Total Feb. April I I I - - I 16 Virsinla rails July Aug. Sept. Nov. Total 3 2 - 3 6 7 24 0 0 I 2 - - I 2 - - I 5 - - I 5 - - - 2 3 11 9 I 0 2 0 - 10 19 4 11 - - J 18 - - - I 1 I 1 - 2 2 - - 0 0 - - 0 0 - - - 0 0 .- - I 55 - - 5 31 I 10 - - 6 41 2 6 - 2 6 - - - - 3 6 - 3 6 11 22 I I 27 liS I 0 2 0 6 47 17 38 10 21 3 6 39 113 Feb. April July Adult Juvenile - - 0 0 0 0 - Adult Juvenile - - 3 2 0 4 - - 3 6 - - Adult Juvenile - - - 6 10 - - 6 10 - Adult Juvenile - - - 2 10 0 0 0 0 5 5 6 4 - 2 10 Adult Juvenile - Adult Juvenile - - 0 16 I 2 Adult Juvenile - - 0 0 - Adult Juvenile - - 1 49 0 6 Adult Juvenile - - - - 4 51 11 41 Nov. ~ John Martin Reservoir I ~ Hotc hkl s a Jackson North Park Larimer Fossil Creek Re s e rvot r Wellington Wildlife Management Area ~ Milk Creek 11 - - ~ Pueblo CF&I Reservoira Rio Grande Monte Vista NWR - Weld Latham Reservoir Totals Adult Juvenile 2 3 17 30 I I-' 0 I-' I �-102- SUMMARY Investigations of rails were conducted in Colorado between May 1975 and October 1976. Investigations were conducted state-wide with major study areas in the Arkansas, South Platte. Rio Grande, and Yampa River drainages. Objectives were to determine distribution, breeding densities, timing of migration and habitats utilized. Breeding distributions of soras and Virginia rails were delineated by townships. As rails were found to nest between 22 April and 4 August in Colorado, rails recorded in marshes during that period were assumed to be nesting. Soras were found to breed to 3,140 m elevation, while Virginia rails were found to 2,730 m. King and black rails were not recorded to breed in Colorado, although they were recorded two and one times, respectively, during early summer in eastern Colorado. Examination of 174 marshes indicated that the distribution of Typha dominated marshes did not determine the breeding distribution of rails in Colorado. A highly significant (P<O.Ol) number of marshes not having Typha had breeding rails, and as many Typha-dominated marshes appeared to have no rails. Wintering rails were found in warm water marshes in the South Platte, Arkansas, and Gunnison river valleys. Total rail populations for the winter of 1975-76 were estimated not to exceed 200 individuals of which 75 to 90 percent were Virginia rails. Indices of breeding densities were obtained by averaging census results between mid-May and early July. State-wide, Virginia rails exhibited a breeding dnesity of 2.61 + 1.66 (S.D.)/ha which was higher (P<O.lO) than the density of soras (1.26 + 0.78). Virginia rails had higher breeding densities in the eastern plains (4.06) than in inter-mountain valleys (1.16). Breeding densities did not change substantially between 1975 and 1976, although Virginia rails occurred more frequently at higher elevations in 1976. Indices of breeding densities, obtained by averaging census results were correlated significantly (P<0.05) to estimates of densities of territories obtained by spot-mapping responses. A highly significant (P<O.Ol) relationship was obtained between mean April temperatures and percent composition by species. The equation Y = 7.25e-l. 96x where x equals mean April temperature (OC) gave the approximate percentage of soras expected to breed in a particular marsh. Thus, temperatures during early migration appear to affect composition of breeding rails in Colorado marshes. As the majority of suitable marsh habitat in Colorado was vegetatively dominated by Typha, rails appeared to utilize cover of Typha more often than other species of emergents. Eighty percent of the 25 rail nests found during this investigation were in Typha. During fall migration soras preferred shorter emergent vegetation possibly due to greater food availability, while Virginia rails generally remained in tall, dense vegetation (e.g. Typha). �~ I -103- Rapid water level fluctuations disrupted breeding activities. Desertion of established territories and one sora nest with seven eggs was observed when water levels rose more than 20 cm in northwestern Colorado. Decreasing water levels in south central Colorado prevented renesting and apparently caused chick mortality in an extreme case. Spring migration into Colorado by soras and Virginia rails appeared to coincide beginning during the first and second week of April, peaking the last week of April or the first week of May. There was no indication that migration differed notably in plains and inter-mountain valleys, but a week delay in peak migration may occur in the mountains. Late summer movement of rails from drying marshes was pronounced. Irrigation practices and water laws in Colorado contribute to decreasing water levels in late July. Rails appeared to leave drying marshes by flight and afoot along ditches. Fall migration began in mid-August and peaked in early September on the plains. Migration was less pronounced in inter-mountain valleys possibly indicating that few rails migrate through western Colorado. Soras appeared to outnumber Virginia rails during peak migration periods in plains study areas. The Rocky Mountains may serve to funnel more northerly breeding rails (primarily soras) through the plains of Colorado. Trapping was conducted utilizing funnel box traps with drift fences. During this study 294 rails (142 soras, 152 Virginia rails) were banded. There were 63 recaptures. One Virginia rail was captured on three occasions over a 213 day period. Ages of trapped chicks were utilized to estimate mean clutch initiation dates. Late summer adult to juvenile ratios for soras and Virginia rails in trap samples were 1:4.4 and 1:3.2, respectively. �-104- LITERATURE CITED Allen, A. A. 1934. The Virginia rail and the sora. 36'(3):196-204. Birdlore American Ornithologist's Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th Ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc, , Baltimore. 691 pp. Andrews, D. A. 1973. Habitat utilization by s or as , Virginia rails, and king rails near southwestern Lake Erie. M. S. Thesis, Ohio State Univ., Columbus. 112 pp. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. Nat. Hist., Denver. Vol. I. 454 pp. Baird, K. E. 1974. A field study of the king, sora and Virginia rails at Cheyenne Bottoms in west central Kansas. M. S. Thesis, Fort Hays Kansas State CoIl., Fort Hays. 37 pp. Batemann, H. A. 1965. Clapper rail (RaIlus longirostrus) studies on Grand Terre Island, Jefferson Parish, Louisiana. M. S. Thesis, Louisiana State Univ•• Baton Rouge. 145 pp. Bent, A. C. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 135. 490 pp. Billard, R. S. 1947. An ecological study of the Virginia rail (Rallus limicola) and sora (Porzana carolina) in some Connecticut swamps. M.S. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 84 pp. Boeker, H. M. 1954. A census of populations of the Wilson's snipe and sora rail in the Yampa River Valley, Colorado. Condor 56(2):105-106. Dow, D. D. 1970. Indexing population densities of the cardinal with tape-recorded song. Wilson Bull. 82(2):83-91. Glahn, J. F. 1974. Study of breeding rails with recorded calls in . north central Colorado. Wilson Bull. 86(3):206-214. Griffiths, D. 1976. King rail - first Colorado record. Ornithol. J. 28:17• Colo. Field �-105- Holliman, D. C. 1976. Clapper rail (Rallus longirostrus) studies in Alabama. U.S. Fish and Wild!. Servo Accel. Res. Program. Project Final Rep. Contract No. 14-16 -0008 -703. 50 pp. Horak, G. J. 1970. A comparative study of the sora and Virginia rail. Wilson Bull. 82(2):206-213. Kaufmann, G. W. 1971. Behavior and ecology of the sora, (Porzana carolina) and Virginia rail (Rallus limicola). Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. Mi nn, , Minneapolis. 114 pp, Kellogg, P. P., A. A. Allen, and R. T. Peterson. 1962. A field guide to western bi r d songs. Houghton Mifflin Co , , Boston. Phonodisc. Lane, J. A., and H. R. Holt. 1975. A birder's guide to eastern Colorado. L. and P. Press, .Denver. 136 pp. Mangold, R. E. 1974. 1974 Final Report: Research on shore and upland migratory birds in New Jersey, Clapper rail studies. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Accel. Res. Program. Contract No. 14-16-008-937. 17 pp. Meanley t B. 1965. Early fall food and habitat of the sora in the Patuxent River Marsh, Maryland. Chesapeake Sc i , 6(4): 226-227. I 1969. Natural history of the king rail. No. 67. 108 pp. t N. Amer. Fauna Parmeleeo D. F •• M. D. SchwiHing, and H. A. Stephens. 1970. Gruiform birds of Cheyenne Bottoms. Kans as Ornithol. Soc. Bull. 21(4):25-27. Pospichal, L. B., and W. H. Mar sha ll., 1954. A field study of the sora rail and Virginia rail in central Minnesota. Flicker 26(1):2_32. Post, W., and F. Enders. 1970. Notes on a salt marsh Virginia rail population. Kingbird 29(2):61-67. Ripley, S. D. . In press. 1977. Rails of the world. Godine Press, Boston . Smith, A. B. 1955. Sora rail populat ions in Alberta, 1953-54. In Investigations of woodcock, snipe, and rails in 1954. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Sci. Rept. Wildl. 28. pp. 59-62. �-106- Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1967. Statistical methods. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. 593 pp. Stabler, R. M., and N. J. Kitzmiller. 1971. A second Virginia rail nesting for El Paso County, Colorado. Colo. Field Ornithol. J. 9:21. Svensson, S. 1970. An international standard ·for a rnappirig method in bird census work recommended by the international bird census committee. Audubon Field Notes 24(4}:722 -726. Tacha, R. W. 1975. A survey of rail populations in Kansas, with emphas is on Cheyenne Bottoms. M. S. Thesis, Fort Hays Kansas State ceu., Fort Hays. 54 pp. Tanner, W. D., and G. O. Hendrickson. Virginia rail in Clay County, Iowa. 1954. Ecology of the Iowa Bird Life 24(4}:65-70. 1956. Ecology of the sora in Clay County, Iowa. Bird Life 26(4):78 -81. Iowa Tomlinson, R. E., and R. L. Todd. 1973. Distribution of two western clapper rail races as determined by responses to taped calls. Condor 75(2):177 -183. U. S. Dept. of Com.m.erce. 1975. Climatological data: Colorado. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin. 80(13):1-13. • 1976. Climatological data: Colorado. National Oceanic ---and Atmospheric Admin. 81(13):1-14. I t Walkinshaw, L. H. 1937. 54(4):464 -47 5. The Virginia rail in Michigan. Auk I 4 1940. Sum.m.erlife of the sora rail. Auk 57(2):153-168. Webster, C. G. 1964. Fall foods of soras from two habitats in Connecticut. J. Wildl. Manage. 28(1):163 .•165. Wood, H. B. 1937. 54(4):535 -536. Approved by_~{!Ia~U~' Incubation period of the Virginia rail. ----!.~='_'_~~~~=.!::.:....=..._ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher Auk �-107- APPENDICES �-108- APPENDIX A Marsh Investigation DATE- __ - _______ __ 1 - Rail Observations 9--= TIME-_to_hrs.; LOCATION- County, U.S. -Colo, -_HWY. MAJOR RIVER DRAINAGE- ..•...... , __ ~miles __ ---:: DISTANCE TO NEAR- EST PERMANENT STREAM___________ SIZE__ -Stream- ---': ELEVATION -__ ~ha: Continuous --.- - Disjunct; RAILS RECORDED- % WETLAND TYPES-~ ---.. em, ---"{Sora), { ---"(Virginia Rail), ; % MARSH CENSUSED- CHARACTERISTICS OF R~L WEATHER- ...;m-.: MARSH : VEGETATION COMPo - AVERAGE WATER DEPTH- _____ of _ OCCURRENCE- .....•.. , T emp. _ _ °c. �-109- APPENDIX B Studies of Rails in Colorado 1. District --------------------------~------------~-------- 2. Do rails occur to your knowledge in your present district? Yes_ NO_If no, answer question No. 5 only. 3. If rails are known or suspected to occur in your district, list all locations. Generalizations can be made: please --------------- 4. What vegetation types occur where you hear or see rails? 5. Please list major cattail marshes in your district not mentioned above. 6. What time(s) of the year do you most commonly hear or see rails? 7. Have you encountered rails dur ing the 1 November through 31 March period? Yes No· If yes, where? - 8. - Have you ever encountered any rail hunters in your district? Yes_ No_If yes, where? _ �APPENDIX C Percent Dominance of Vegetative Species at Regional Study Areas Stud}: Area Monte Vista NWR Cary Ranch Milk Creek L. Latham Reservoir John Martin Reservoir 76 86 TI..eh! latifolia - Trace 35 46 77 Juncus balticus 5 3 39 5 Trace Scirpus acutus 1 8 1 3 Scirpus validus Trace - - 4 16 7 3 Trace 8 1 10 9 Trace 10 Trace - 1 2 +99 +99 +99 Species Typha angustifolia Scirpus americanus 5 1 Scirpus paludosus 1 - 10 4 1 10 - - - Eleocharis macrostach.!!. Triglochin maritima Carex nebraskensis Poaceae Salix spp. Total , . 1 - Trace Trace +99 +99 I I-' I-' 0 I �-111- APPENDIX D Rail Banding Form Species _ ~ Band # _ Location; County _ Wetland Type ; Vegetation, _ Date Time --! Weight --'gm; estimate Lengths: Culmen, (-c1aw) _____ --..;mm; Middle toe --..;mm; Wing chord, --..;mm; Radius -ulna ~mm; 8 7 6 5 4 3 Z 1 Plumage wing Retricies -right side mm - Outer mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm 9 _ rnrn; Tarsus Primaries-right 10 of time in trap, Description: 6 mm - Outer mm mm mm mm mm 5 4 3 Z 1 ---I Back, Breast, F~ank J _ Sora only- Brown auricular patch (joined to nape) (separ.ate) Gray supracilliary line (broken by black in front) (unbroken) Soft part coloration: Legs Iris Specimen fI's: --' ------ #4 primarY white flank feather REMARKS: Bill --' _ ---I most anterior black 8. , _ �Appendix E. Average, September, Region of ColoradoY Ave. Dev. deviation from normal!!, average 1975 and 1976, at regional Aeril Ave. Max. Ave. Min. Ave. Dev. dally maximum, study areas Max Ave. Max. Ave.• Min. and average dally minimum (U.S. Dept. Commerce 1975, 1976). Ave. nev. June Ave. Max. Ave. Min. Ave. Dev. temperatures JulX Ave. Max. Ave. Min. (oF) for April through Ave. nev. August Ave. Max. Ave. Min. Ave. Dev. Seetember Ave. Max. Ave. Min. !.ill. 46.Z -1. Z Southeastern 50.5 -3.4 68.5 South central 40.Z Northwestern 66.1 .0.5 70.6 56.4 -0.9 60.7 31.6 North central 4Z.Z 8Z.1 50.1 76.6 +Z.6 89.8 56.7 89.4 53.7 61. 5 -0.7 78.3 +0.9 65.6 8Z.4 .Z.O 48.8 n.8 4Z.9 -0.3 90.0 55.1 77.8 -0.3 93.9 61.7 78.0 +1. 9 95.5 60.5 75.9 39.7 65.3 +1. 8 81. 5 49.0 6Z.3 79.Z +0.6 45.3 54.3 -0.6 70.8 37.8 n.9 57.8 -0.3 63.9 56.7 6Z.8 8Z.5 55.Z -Z.O f.7.3 +1. 4 .85.Z 34.Z 73.5 39.9 49.3 -1. 4 43.1 -0.5 74.1 36.3 90. 1 57.4 70.3 -1. 0 87.3 53.0 6Z.Z 95.9 6Z.1 76.1 +0.0 93.6 58.6 66.4 -0.7 8Z.3 60.3 -1.4 76.Z 55.5 +0.6 71.4 39.5 64.4 8Z.8 57.8 +O.Z 46.0 +Z.l 75.4 40.0 79.9 44.4 n.6 3Z.5 6Z.Z -1. Z 49.6 -1. 0 66.3 -1. 7 56.5 Z3.7 38.5 -3.4 5Z.3 Z4.7 49.Z -Z.l !.ill. 49.4 North central +Z.O 55.Z Southeastern +1. 3 South central 43. Z Northwestern 43.5 +1.6 !J Y +1. 3 Deviation Stations 64.6 34.1 n.1 38.Z 59.3 Z7.1 58.8 Z8.Z from normal in respecti average ve regions 58.1 +0.8 73.8 43.0 66.0 -0.6 8Z.6 49.4 73.8 +0.5 6Z.0 78.0 45.9 n.z 90.8 53.5 79.0 +0.9 -1. 4 51. 8 59.1 +1.0 68.0 35.6 +1. Z 59.4 +0.7 69.0 36.0 5Z.5 +1. Z temperature are: +0.5 for month, 1) Greeley UNC; obtained 77.5 40.6 77.4 41.4 66.1 83.Z +Z.6 49.0 69.5 +3.6 88.7 50.3 from previous years. 3) Monte Vista NWR; 4) Hayden. Z) Las Animas; 44.4 -0.3 76.7 45.7 51. 5 ... I I-' N I �October -113JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Migratory W-88-R-22 Work Plan No. 6 Job No. Bird Investigations 1 ----------~---------------- Job Title Migratory Period Covered: April 1, 1976 through March 31, 1977 Personnel: 1977 Bird Publications William J. Adrian, Clait E. Braun, John F. Corey, Howard D. Funk, Richard M. Hopper, Bruce R. Johnson, Robert E. Keiss, N. J. Kitzmiller, O. W. Olsen, Ronald A. Ryder, R. M. Stabler, Michael R. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Publications as follows: planned for and accomplished under this job for Segment 22 are Braun, C. E. 1976. Methods for locating~ trapping and banding band-tailed pigeons in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Spec. Rept. No. 39. 20 pp. Braun, C. E., W. J. Adrian, and R. E. Keiss. 1977. Mercury residues Colorado band-tailed pigeons. J. Wildl. Manage. 41(1):131-134. in Hopper, R. M., H. D. Funk, and D. R. Anderson. Age specificity in mallards banded post-season in eastern Colorado. Submitted to J. Wildl. Manage. in 1976. 1977. Breeding densities and migration Johnson, B. R., and R. A. Ryder. Wilson Bull. 89(1):116-121. periods of common snipe in Colorado. Olsen, O. W., and C. E. Braun. 1976. New species of Splenidofilaria and Chandlerella (Filarioidea:Nematoda), with keys to the species from the band-tailed pigeon (Columba fasciata fasciata) in the Rocky Mountain region. Great Basin Nat. 36(4):Pagination not available due to printing delays. 1977. Blood parasites Stabler, R. M., N. J. Kitzmiller, and C. E. Braun. 4l(1):128-l30. from band-tailed pigeons. J. Wildl. Manage. Szymczak, M. R. 1975. Canada goose restoration along the foothills Colo. Div. of Wildl. Tech. Pub. 31. 64 p. Colorado. of �-114- Szymczak, M. R. Steel shot use on a goose hunting area in Colorado. Manuscript completed and is being finalized for submission to The Wildlife Society Bulletin in 1977. Szymczak, M. R., and J. F. Corey. plains duck trap in Colorado. 6. 13 p. 1976. Construction and use of the salt Colo. Div. of Wildl. Div. Report No. Szymczak, M. R., and W. J. Adrian. southeast Colorado. Submitted in 1977. Lead poisoning to The Journal Prepared by in Canada geese in of Wildl. Manage. k~~ Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research ~. �-115October 1977 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Proj ect No. W-88-R-22 Migratory Work Plan No. Job Title Period Investigation Covered: Personnel: Joh No. Bird Investigations 1 ----------~=-------------------- of American Coots in Colorado August 1, 1976 to March 31, 1977 W. P. Gorenzel, and R. A. Ryder, Colorado State University, C. E. Braun and H. D. Funk, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning distribution, breeding denSities, reproductive success, habitat utilization, timing of migration, and level of hunting mortality of coots (Fulica americana) in Colorado were initiated in August 1976. Three study areas were selected, one in the eastern plains, and two in high mountain valleys. Coots were distributed throughout most of Colorado, breeding in most areas and resident year round in low numbers along the western boundary of the plains. Preliminary data indicated fall migration extends from late summer to mid-November. Spring migration began in March. Review of harvest data indicated coots are of minor importance in Colorado �-116- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. One additional study area should be selected the Continental Divide. 2. Migration 3. Vegetative descriptions and measurement be undertaken on all study areas. 4. Data concerning 5. Conduct additional ence in Colorado. 6. Methodology needs to be developed hunter's bag. counts should be conducted breeding densities investigations to represent areas west of on all study areas. of site characteristics and productivity must be collected. of selected habitats to ascertain should for coot occur- age of coots in the �-117- INVESTIGATION OF AMERICAN COOTS IN COLORADO Warner P. Gorenzel The American coot (Fulica americana Gmelin) is a member of the order Gruiformes, family Rallidae. Two subspecies occur in the United States. Fulica americana americana is widespread in North America, nesting locally throughout much of continent and wintering mainly along the Gulf coast and in Mexico and California (Ryder 1963). The Hawaiian coot (!. a. alai Peale) is restricted to the Hawaiian Islands. ,• Current state and federal regulations list the coot, hereafter used in reference to F. a. americana, as a migratory game bird. As such it is classed with ducks and geese as "waterfowl". In certain areas of the United States coots can constitute a large percentage of the waterfowl harvest. Kiel and Hawkins (1953), Burton (1959), and Jahn and Hunt (1964) have indicated the significance of the coot harvest in the Mississippi Flyway. Nationwide, overall hunting interest in coots is low (Fredrickson 1977). In Colorado, Bailey and Niedrach (1965) list the coot as a common nesting species, but only occasionally as a wintering species. They also summarize general information on nest observations, early and late occurrences, and distribution. No previous investigations on the status of coots in Colorado have been conducted. Consequently, little is know about habitat preferences, timing of habitat use, productivity, and hunter utilization. In order to improve the knowledge and management of coots in Colorado this study was initiated in 1976. P.N.O. OBJECTIVES The major objective of this study is to obtain data necessary for the development of a management plan for coots breeding in and-migrating through Colorado. Data considered necessary are those relating to distribution, breeding densities and production in the eastern plains, high mountain valleys and west of the Continental Divide, descriptions of habitats utilized according to vegetation, water characteristics, documentation of timing of spring and fall migration, and present levels of reported harvest. Hypotheses that have been developed are: 1. Distribution of coots in Colorado is determined by the occurrence of cattail (Typha spp.) and/or bulrush (Scirpus spp.) dominated marshes. 2. Densities of breeding coots, nesting success and productivity differ significantly between occupied habitats in the eastern plains, high mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide. 3. Timing of spring and fall migrations east of the mountains, high mountain Divide. differs significantly between areas valleys, and west of the Continental �-118- 4. Hunting in Colorado is the most important source of mortality for locally produced coots. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning records of coot occurrence, distribution, nesting and harvest in Colorado. 2. Circulate questionnaires to field personnel of the Division of Wildlife, selected University and privately employed wildlife scientists and amateur ornithologists concerning occurrences, distribution, nesting and harvest in Colorado. 3. Investigate selected habitats for coot occurrence in all major topographic regions in Colorado (i.e, eastern plains, inter-mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide). 4. Compile data, analyze results and prepare progress report. REVIEW OF LITERATURE The general life history of the coot has been described by Bent (1926), Forbush (1912), and Fredrickson (1977). Records on distribution have been noted by Armistead (1970), Bailey (1928), Burleigh (1972), Jones (1940), and within Colorado by Bailey and Niedrach (1965) and Sclater (1912). Numerous studies have been conducted on the breeding biology and reproductive success of the coot. Major studies have centered in four areas, California (Anderson 1956, 1957; Gullion 1954, 1956; Hunt and Naylor 1955; Miller and Collins 1954), Utah (Ryder 1958, 1961), Iowa (Crawford 1975; Fredrickson 1967, 1969a, 1970; Friley et ale 1938; Provost 1947; Weller 1971), and Wisconsin (Jahn and Hunt 1964). Kiel (1955) examined reproduction in Manitoba and Vaa et ale (1974) in South Dakota. Various aspects of territorial and intraspecific behavior have been documented by Burger (1973), Gullion (1951, 1952c, 1953b), Joyner (1973), McNicholl (1975), Munro (1939), Ryder (1957, 1958, 1959), Sooter (1945), and Wick and Penstila (1957). The effects of changing habitat conditions on coot numbers and production have been studied by Harris and Marshall (1957), Hendrickson (1936), Johnsgard (1956), Smith (1961), Weller (1975), Weller et ale (1958), and Wolf (1955). Food habits have been studied by Eley (1975), Eley and Harris (1976), Jones (1940), and Stollberg (1949). Sex and age determination in relation to physical measurements is discussed by Boss (1973), and Crawford (1975), Fredrickson (1968), and Gullion (1950, 1952a, 1954). Gullion (1953a) also described the molt of the coot. �--~ --~ IOU HIJ l-L:-.------ .. <I I· · I• I i r i 40 -.. --~---\ 101 ,----- w. '--_._e..-, 106 ~Q_C!l_. 104 ----n" ~._a_.~ . .-. 103 -~\ r W ~ 4Q I , r-- - 'I ~ ~- , e I• v-~ I r Jli I, I• I \ ,.- f\ • \8£< ~ "h '--~ J• .L ! ---- -- .. y~- .-L < \ -.~ ._ iHus trl ting latilong ---- Map of Colorado ~ L.-, I I ,. J J :l<! I , ..i -! t> ----_._ .. J. _____ ---_.1.111----_._- •• I ! ) I I i-' i-' \D ~ I-- L- ~ Ii; ! ! I ~ i ! -- 3~ I t---- I• , lL ) 7 I • ! ·I • ') ~ . i, .. · ) V I• I,;;.! ! I 1\ ~ • r F g. l. ---- '11::"- r- I !all- ~ , i. :l<! - . I• J, based on' Lf, rea of latitude a d longitude IO'J IUS lOi 1013 105 104 103 I 102 a'i �-120- Disease, (1952b), Trautman parasites, and other mortality factors have been examined by Gullion Rausch (1947), Roudabush (1942), Trainer and Fischer (1963), and et ale (1939). Migration and other movements of coots are discussed by Alley and Boyd (1949), Burton (1959), Fredrickson (1969b), Heit (1948), Hochbaum (1955), Jung (1924), Prill (1931), and Ryder (1963). Dispersal of members of the Rallidae in general was discussed by Ripley (1976). Harvest data for coots in the United States are presented by Boeker (1953), Fredrickson (1977), and the Pacific Flyway Council (1976), and in Canada by Cooch (1976). Aspects of population dynamics and status have been analyzed by Burton (1959), Kiel and Hawkins (1953), and Ryder (1963). METHODS AND MATERIALS Three methods the selection were used to investigate of study areas: 1. Extensive field trips as part of planned 2. Field 3. Questionnaires sent to field personnel and amateur ornithologists (Appendix). trips in conjunction coot occurrence with graduate in Colorado and aid in research. courses. of the Colorado Division of Wildlife Responses from the questionnaire, personal observations, and results from the Study of Colorado Bird Distribution (Kingery 1976) were combined to plot coot distribution and status according to the latilong system. In this system, the state was divided into distinct areas based on latitude and longitude (Fig. 1). Coot status was then determined within each area. Three study areas were selected based on the following 1. Sufficient area and cover to provide breeding coots. 2. Stable water 3. Similarity 4. Accessibility. 5. Freedom adequate criterea: numbers (25 pairs) of levels. of the area to general from excessive external wetlands in the region. interference. To investigate levels of hunting mortality, coot harvest data from the Central and Pacific Flyways, and especially Colorado, were examined. In addition, a questionnaire (Appendix) was designed to determine harvest levels and hunter attitudes. Students from the Colorado State University Wildlife Techniques class were assigned to check stations to question hunters leaving the Wellington Wildlife Area on 9 and 10 October 1976. �-121- Migration counts were started in late October 1976 at the Beebe Draw study area on a biweekly basis. A field sheet (Appendix) was devised to aid in the collection of data. Migration counts continued at Beebe Draw until start of the goose season on 6 November when access was denied. Thereafter, a selection of reservoirs and lakes northeast and south of Fort Collins were investigated for suitable habitat and coot occurrence. Coot numbers were monitored at College and Lindenmeier lakes, both in the Fort Collins area, on a weekly basis starting mid-January 1977. With the first indications of migrational movements, counts were again initiated at Beebe Draw starting 15 March. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Status The coot is listed by Bailey and Niedrach (1965) as resident in Colorado; common as a nester and uncommon as a wintering species. Both Bailey and Niedrach (1965) and Sclater (1912) note that the coot breeds mainly on the plains, and in mountain parks up to 3,048 m. Sclater (1912) mentions that it is not so abundant on the western slope, and that a few winter around Denver. Data obtained from questionnaires, field investigations, and published records were compiled to determine coot distribution and status according to the latilong system (Table 1). Table 1. Coot distribution and status in Colorado according to the latilong system. M = migrant only, R = resident year round, B = breeding, b.= v~ry likely breeding, bird found in suitable habitat. Columns are those shown ln Flg. 1. B B M B B R R B B B R R B B b R R M R B B B B B B R Coots are resident year round along the eastern boundary of the Rocky Mountains from near Fort Collins south to Pueblo. The presence of wintering coots in other areas, notably the southwestern corner of Colorado may be dependent on the severity of winter weather. Coots breed throughout most of the state; in all cases breeding coots were associated with cattail or bulrush marshes, and occasionally willows (Salix spp.). Future investigations will further delimit coot distribution and status. �-122- Selection of Study Areas Three study areas were selected, one representing the eastern plains region, and two representing high mountain valleys. Detailed habitat descriptions have not yet been undertaken. The Beebe Draw study area is in Weld County, T4N, R65W, Section 34, at an elevation of 1,446 m. The area is a Type 5 wetland (Shaw and Fredine 1956) of approximately 11 hectares. Emergent vegetation consists primarily of cattails and bulrush. The Lake John Annex study area is in Jackson County, T9N, R8lW, Section 2, at an elevation of 2,500 m. Total area is approximately 16 hectares. Ocular examination indicated the emergent vegetation was dominated by bulrush. Ice Pond, near Buena Vista, is in Chaffee County, T13S, R78W, Sections 5, 6, 7, 8, at an elevation of 2,425 m. Ice Pond is a Type 5 wetland approximately 12 hectares in size with emergent and shoreline vegetation of mixed stands of cattail, bulrush, and sedges (Carex spp). Questionnaire respondents mentioned several areas west of the Continental Divide where at least 10-15 or more breeding pairs have been observed (Table 2). The suitability of each location as a potential study a;ea will be investigated in the spring of 1977. Harvest Coot harvest data in the Central and Pacific Flyways, and especially Colorado were examined. Cooch (1976) reported in Canada that the kill of coots for the period 1969-1974 showed a significant drop on a national basis. However, the kill in western Canada remained relatively stable, the decline being restricted to Ontario and Quebec. Cooch indicated the harvest of this relatively abundant species is low in relation to numbers present. Fredrickson (1977) reported on coot harvest for the period 1952-72. The majority of coots shot in the Central and Pacific Flyways were taken in Texas and California, respectively. A review of Boeker (1953) indicated that few western states had listed coot data in their waterfowl bag records prior to 1953. The Pacific Flyway Council (1976) reported 123,577 coots harvested in 1975-76, but this figure included data only from Nevada (270), Washington (12,620), Oregon (70,184), Idaho (30,300), and California (10,203). The data from California included only coots taken on state and federal shooting areas. In Colorado waterfowl harvest records are derived from mail surveys sent to approximately three percent of the small game license buyers. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest surveys from 1954 through 1972 did not give specific harvest figures for coots, but instead grouped them in the category of "Others and Unknown". This group included coots, mergansers, goldeneyes, buffleheads and unknowns. Data from more recent small game harvest surveys are presented in Table 3 (H. Riffel, pers. comm.). I ! �-123- Table 2. Locations questionnaires. of major western slope coot breeding areas based on Location County Echo Canyon Reservoir Archuleta Crawford Delta Reservoir Sweitzer Lake Delta Ground Hog Reservoir Dolores Narriguinnep Dolores Sweetwater Reservoir Lake Garfield Beaver Lake Gunnison Lilly Lake Gunnison Lake San Cristobal Hinsdale Chapman Lake La Plata Harper Pond La Plata Highline Mesa Reservoir Denny Lake Montezuma Totten Reservoir Montezuma Table 3. Year Coot harvest in Colorado 1973-75. Estimated Harvest Percent of Duck Harvest 1973 4,579 1.50 1974 5,054 1.41 1975 2,924 1.16 Fredrickson (1977) estimated the 1971-72 Colorado coot harvest to be 6,700. �-124- Despite liberal daily bag limits of 15 and 25 in the Central and Pacific Flyways, respectively, coot harvest is low in Colorado. Out of 67 questionnaires returned by Division of Wildlife personnel, only seven indicated having encountered any hunters who retained coots in the bag. Of 54 hunters polled by students at the Wellington Wildlife area in 1976 only 11 indicated they normally hunt coots. The majority of non-coot hunters cited bad taste and unsporting behavior as reasons for not hunting coots. Other hunters either preferred ducks or were unaware that coots were legal game birds. Seven hunters harvested 28 coots. Timing of Migration Bailey and Niedrach (1965) state that coots band into large flocks in late September and that the majority have migrated south by the last of October. Observations in August 1976 (Table 4) indicated that coots had already begun to gather in large flocks. Table 4. Locations and approximate numbers of coots observed, August 1976. Location County San Luis Lake Alamosa 250 Cucharas Huerfano 200 Jackson 150 Jackson 600 MacFarlane Reservoir Reservoir Walden Reservoir Number Observed Nesting cover in the above mentioned areas was either absent or too sparse to support such large breeding populations. Migration counts were started too late in the fall of 1976 to determine peak periods. However, 2,000 to 2,500 coots were still present at Lake John Annex by 15 October. Counts at Beebe Draw indicated heavy but declining use of the area through October into early November. When access to Beebe Draw was denied, investigations of lakes or reservoirs in the Fort Collins area indicated coots were absent from most areas by mid-November. Sclater (1912) states that coots arrive from the south during the second half of March. Counts at Beebe Draw indicated coot numbers had increased from one on 1 March to over 100 by 29 March 1977. �-125- LITERATURE CITED Alley, R., and H. Boyd. 1949. Effects of the cold spell of 1947 on the coot in North Somerset. Brit. Birds 42(7):225-232. Anderson, W. 1956. A waterfowl nesting study on the grasslands, Merced County, California. Calif. Fish and Game 42(2):117-130. 1957. A waterfowl nesting study in the Sacramento Valley, California, 1955. Calif. Fish and Game 43(1):71-90. Armistead, H. T. 1970. First Maryland breeding of American coot at Deal Island. Maryland Birdlife 26(3):79-81. I Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. Nat. Hist. Vol. I. 454 pp. I Bailey, F. M. 807 pp. t t 1928. 1965. Birds of New Mexico. Birds of Colorado. Denver Mus. New Mexico Dept. Game and Fish. Bent, A, C, 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. Nat. Mus. Bull. 135:358-371. U. S. Boeker, H. M. 1953. A summary of North American waterfowl hunting statistics. Colorado Coop. Wildl. Res. Unit Qtr. Rept. 6(3):14-62. Boss, A. S. 1963. Aging the nests and young of the American coot. Thesis. Univ. Minnesota, St. Paul. 62 pp. M. S. Burger, J. 1973. Competition between American coots and Franklin's gulls for nest sites and egg predation by the coots. Wilson Bull. 85(4): 449-451. Burleigh, T. D. 1972. Idaho. 467 pp. Birds of Idaho. The Caton Printers, Ltd. Caldwell, Burton, J. H., II. 1959. Some population mechanics of the American coot., J. Wildl. Manage. 23(2):203-210. Cooch, F. G. 1976. Kill of migratory game birds other than waterfowl by hunters in Canada 1975. Can. Wildl. Servo Prog. Notes 68. 7 pp. Crawford, R. D. 1975. Breeding biology of American coots in relation to age. Ph. D. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 42 pp. Eley, T. J., Jr. 1975. Winter ecology of the American coot along the lower Colorado River. M. S. Thesis. Humboldt State Univ., Arcata, Calif. 45 pp. ----- , and S. W. Harris. 1976. Fall and winter foods of American coots along the lower Colorado River. Calif. Fish and Game 62(3):225-227. �-126- Forbush, F. M. 1912. A history of the game birds, wild-fowl and shorebirds of Massachusetts and adjacent states. Massachusetts Bd. of Agric., Boston. 622 pp. Fredrickson, L. H. 1967. Some aspects of reproductive behavior of American coots (Fulica americana). Ph. D. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. no pp. 1968. Measurements of coots related to sex and age. Manage. 32(2):409-411. J. Wildl. 1969a. An experimental study of the clutch size of the American coot. Auk 86(3):541-550. 1969b. Mortality of coots during severe spring weather. Bull. 81(4):450-453. 1970. Breeding biology of American coots in Iowa. 82(4):445-457. Wilson I Wilson Bull. I (Chairman). 1977. Coots. In Sanderson, G. C. (ed.). Management of migratory shore and upland game birds in North America. Int. Assoc. Game, Fish and Cons. Commsi, Washington, D. C. In Press. Friley, C. E., L. J. Bennett, and G. O. Hendrickson. coot in Iowa. Wilson Bull. 50(2):81-86. 1938. The American Gullion, G. W. 1950. Voice difference between sexes in the American coot. Condor 52(6):272-273. 1951. 157-166. The frontal shield of the American coot. Wilson Bull. 63(3): 1952a. Sex and age detennination in the American coot. Manage. 16(2):191-197. J. Wildl. 1952b. Some diseases and parasites of American coots. and Game 38(3):421-423. Calif. Fish 1952c. The displays and calls of the American coot. 64(2):83-97. Wilson Bull. 1953a. 102-103. Observations on molting of the American coot. Condor 55(2): 1953b. 169-186. Territorial behavior of the-:.American coot. Condor 55(4): 1954. The reproductive cycle of American coots in California. Auk 71(4):366-412. 1956. An observation concerning the validity of coot brood counts. J. Wildl. Manage. 20(4):465-466. t �-127- Harris, S. W., and W. H. Marshall. 1957. Some effects of a severe windstorm on coot nests. J. Wildl. Manage. 21(4):471-473. Heit, W. S. 1948. Texas coastal waterfowl concentration areas and their 1947-48 wintering population. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 13:323-338. Hendrickson, G. o. 1936. Observations on nests and young of the coot. Wilson Bull. 48(3):216-218. Hochbaum, H. A. 1955. Travels and traditions of waterfowl. Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 301 pp. Univ. of Hunt, E. G., and A. E. Naylor. 1955. Nesting studies of ducks and coots in Honey Lake Valley. Calif. Fish and Game 41(4):295-314. Jahn, L. R., and R. Hunt. 1964. Duck and coot ecology and management in Wisconsin. Wisc. Cons. Dept. Tech. Bull. 33. 212 pp. Johnsgard, P. A. 1956. Effects of water fluctuation and vegetation change on bird populations, particularly waterfowl. Ecology 37(4):689-701. Jones, J. C. bution. 1940. Food habits of the American coot with notes on distriU. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Wildl. Res. Bull. 2. 52 pp. Joyner, D. E. 1973. Interspecific nest parasitism by ducks and coots in Utah. Auk 90(3):692-693. Jung, C. S. 29-30. 1924. Actions of coots during freeze-up. Wilson Bull. 36(1): Kiel, W. H. 1955. Nesting studies of the coot in southwestern Manitoba. J. Wildl. Manage. 19(2):189-198. ----- , and A. S. Hawkins. Flyway. 1953. Status of the coot in the Mississippi Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 18:311-322. Kingery, H. E., ed. 1976. Study of Colorado bird distribution. Wildl. Unpubl. Rept. 42 pp. Colo. Div. McNicholl, M. K. 1975. Interactions between Forster's terns and American coots. Wilson Bull. 87(1):109-110. Miller, A. W., and B. D. Collins. 1954. A study of ducks and coots on Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges. Calif. Fish and Game 40(1):17-37. Munro, J. A. 1939. The relations of loons, Holboell's grebes, and coots to duck populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 3(4):339-344. Pacific Flyway Council. 1976. 90 pp. Unpubl. Rept. Pacific waterfowl flyway report No. 75. �-128- Prill, A. G. 1931. A land migration of coots. Wilson Bull. 43(2):148-149. Provost, M. W. 1947. Nesting of birds in the marshes of northwest Iowa. Amer. MidI. Nat. 38(2):485-503. Rausch, R. 189. 1947. Ripley, S. D. Pullorum disease in the coot. 1976. Rails of the world. J. Wildl. Manage. 11(2): Amer. Scientist 64(6):628-635. Roudabush, R. L. 1942. Parasites of the American coot (Fulica americana) in central Iowa. Iowa State ColI. Journ. Sci. 16(4):437-441. Ryder, R. A. 1957. Coot-waterfowl relations on some northern Utah marshes. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci. 34:65-68. 1958. Coot-waterfowl relationships in northern Utah. Utah State Univ., Logan. 219 pp. Ph. D. Thesis. 1959. Interspecific intolerance of the American coot in Utah. Auk 76(4):424-442. 1961. Coot and duck productivity in northern Utah. Wildl. Nat. Res. Conf. 26:134-137. Trans. N. Am. 1963. Migration and population dynamics of American coots in western North America. Proc. Internatl. Ornith. Congr. 13:441-453. Sclater, W. L. 1912. London. 567 pp. A history of the birds of Colorado. Witherby and Co., Shaw, S. P., and C. G. Fredine. 1956. Wetlands of the United States. Fish and Wildl. Servo Circ. 39. 67 pp. U. S. Smith, A. G. 1961. Some ecological factors and censusing problems associated with coots in the parklands of Alberta, Canada. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Wildl. Res. Lab. Denver. 46 pp. Sooter, C. A. 1945. Relations of the American coot with other waterfowl. J. Wildl. Manage. 9(2):96-99. Stollberg, B. P. 1949. Competition of American coots and shoal-water ducks for food. J. Wildl. Manage. 13(4):423-424. Trainer, D. 0:, and G. W. Fischer. 1963. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(3):483-486. Fatal trematodiasis of coots. Trautman, M. B., W. E. Bills, and E. L. Wickliff. 1939. Winter losses from starvation and exposure of waterfowl and upland game birds in Ohio and other northern states. Wilson Bull. 52(2):86-104. �-129- Vaa, S. J., K. L. Cool, and R. L. Linder. 1974. Nesting by American coots in South Dakota. Proc. South Dakota Acad. Sci. 53:153-156. Weller, M. W. 1971. Experimental parasitism of American coot nests. Auk 88 (1):108-115. 1975. Studies of cattail in relation to management for marsh wildlife. Iowa State J. Res. 49(4):383-412. -----, B. H. Wingfield, and J. B. Low. 1958. Effects of habitat deterioration on bird populations of a small Utah marsh. Condor 60(4): 220-226. Wick, W. Q., and H. E. Penstila. 1957. Observations on a coot-muskrat relationship. Condor 59(5):341-342. Wolf, K. 1955. Some effects of fluctuating and falling water levels on waterfowl production. J. Wildl. Manage. 19(1):13-23. Prepared bY__ ~~~~~~·z~~_~~~ __ ~~~ _ Warner P. Gorenzel Graduate Research Assistant Approved by__ --=a~u:..::...:..., _2._.--J.....:~=--Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �-130- APPENDIX �-l31- SURVEY OF COOTS IN COLORADO 1. District ------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. To your knowledge, do coots occur in your present district? Yes If no, please answer number 9 only and return survey form. No 3. If coots are known to occur in your district, please list major locations where they have been observed ----------------------------------------------- 4. Please list wetlands where you have observed at least 10-15 or more breeding pairs of coots ~-------------------------------- 5. Which wetland vegetation types occur where you see coots during June and July (i.e. cattails, bulrush, willow, etc.?} _ 6. Which month(s) of the year are coots most commonly present in your district? 7. Have you encountered coots in your district during 1 December through 31 March? Yes No. If yes, where? --------------------------------- 8. Have you encountered any hunters who retain coots -in the bag in your district? Yes No If yes, where? ----------------------------------- 9. List any major we t Lands in your district where you do not normally observe coots _ �-132- Surveyor Coots in Colorado 1. County (or counties) 2. 'Ib your knowledge,do coots occur in the area you listed above? Yes _ No ---- rr no, please answer number8 only and return survey rorm. 3. Do coots breed in your area? rr yes, please list Yes No _ wetlands where you have observed at least 10-15 or more breeding pairs of coots. Please be speciric. 4. Please list 5. Whichwetland vegetation types occur where you see coots during June and July (Le. cattails, bulrush, willow, etc.) 6. Whichmonth(s) of the year are coots mst conmonlypresent in your area? other major areas where coots have been observed. ---------------------------------------------- 7. Are coots present in your area during most or all of the 1 December through 31 Marchperiod? Yes No IT yes, where? 8. List any major wetlands in your area where you do not normally observe coots. ---------------------------------------------- �Location Date Check Station # T~e Stqrt Name of Observer Time Stop -----------------ASK ALL HUNTERS LEAVING WITHOUT COOTS: ASK ALL HUNTERS LEAVING WITH COOTS: Do you normally hunt coots? If no, why! Comments ------------------------------ /I Hit II Bagged Not Retrieved Hrs. Spent Hunting Do you ever hunt coots? If no, why! Comments Hrs. Spent Hunting I I-' W W I ----- i �-l34- Observer Date Location Time Estimated Cloud Cover % Wind: Precip: None med strong gusty rain mist snow fog intermit Hrs. FOor CO Temp light None to direction steady Number Observed: Coots Adults Ducks: Imma by species Mal Pin G-W-T B-W-T Gad Wid Shov Geese Red Scaup Other TOTAL Observed Other Species: (i.e., grebes, shore birds) Other Conditions or Changes: _ Comments: _ 10/76 � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/680281d8a8820660117a0fe681c9e2f6.pdf a0b970b17cbf8b82a880616c5efa344a PDF Text Text -1- January 1978 JOB PROGRESS REPORT COLORADO State of Bighorn Sheep andMt. Goat Investigations Project No. W-41-R-27 Work Plan No. :. Job No. ------------------------------------------------------Evaluation of Trace Mineral Availability to Bighorn Sheep 16 1 Job Title ~ Period Covered: June 1, 1976 to May 31, 1977 Personnel: ~o~n~W~i~n~t~e~r~R~a~n~g~e~s~i~n~C~o~l~oLr~a~d~o~ _ Robert E. Keiss, Bruce Goforth, Willie Travnicek, Robert Schmidt, Paul Neil. ABSTRACT Trace mineral formulations were developed and tested for-animal preference. As a result of these tests a trace mineral mix for bighorn sheep was developed and is in use throughout many areas in Colorado as a supplement to the nutritional requirements of animals for essential trace minerals. An attempt was made to measure the physiological response of bighorn sheep to trace mineral supplementation by analytical testing of fecal material collected from study areas where animals were giv~n trace mineral free choice. ��-3- EVALUATION OF TRACE MINERAL AVAILABILITY TO BIGHORN SHEEP ON WINTER RANGES IN COLORADO Robert E. Keiss P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is primarily directed towards evaluating certain nutritional supplements on bighorn sheep herds in an effort to improve lamb survival and viability of bighorn sheep to bring about an overall increase in the total numbers of animals within the State of Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. 2. 3. 4. Formulate a trace mineral mix which can be placed on bighorn sheep winter ranges to supplement the nutritional trace mineral requirements of bighorn sheep. Measure the amounts of trace mineral mix consumed by bighorn sheep and determine seasonal preferences. Measure trace mineral content of bighorn sheep fecal material and relate fecal mineral levels to potential trace mineral deficiencies. Deternline the effects of trace mineral mix consumption on the physiology of bighorn sheep. PROCEDURES Experimental trace mineral mixes were developed and tested on selected bighorn sheep ranges in Colorado to measure animal preference for specific formulations. The basic ingredients were purchased from Feed Products, Inc., 1000 West 47th Avenue, Denver, Colorado and included the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. SP-4 Feed Supplement - manufactured by FMC Corporation, 2000 Market Street, Philadelphia, Penn. (This product is 100% sodium phosphate). Ruminant Trace Mineral Premix - manufactured by Feed Products, Inc., Denver, Colorado. (This product contains 4.40% manganese, .30% iodine, .20% cobalt, 6.60% iron, 1.30% copper, 12.00% zinc, and 20% magnesium. The following ingredients are utilized to give the above listed element concentrations: Manganese oxide, calcium iodate, calcium stearate, cobalt carbonate, iron oxide, copper oxide, magnesium oxide, iron carbonate, zinc oxide, and calcium carbonate). The oxide and carbonate compounds are water insoluble, whereas, the sulfates and chlorides are water soluble. As a general rule the water insoluble compounds are preferred for supplements because they are less likely to be leached out of the mix by moisture from weather elements. Sodium chloride - Feed grade. Sodium bentonite - "Vo1c1ay", a product of American Colloid Company, 5100 Suffield Ct., Skokie, Illinois 60076. Four different foru1ations were selected for testing on bighorn sheep ranges and the percent ingredients are listed in Table 1. The ingredients were weighed and mixed in a portable concrete mixer. Each mix was tumbled for �-4- at least 30 minutes to assume a uniform mixture. Boxes to hold the trace mineral mixes were constructed so that there were four separate compartments. These boxes were placed on the bighorn sheep ranges and a different formulation was placed in each compartment. The animals could then select, by free choice, the formulations they preferred. The mixtures were put out on bighorn sheep ranges in the Medano Creek, Tarryall Mountains, Trickle Mountain, South Platte River Canyon, Collegiate Range (Love Ranch), Collegiate Range (Jump Steady), Mount Evans (Grant), and Poudre River. The boxes were put out in January 1976 with 11.36 kg (25 lb) of each mixture added to the boxes. Each study area was checked every other month (March 1976, May 1976, July 1976, September 1976, and November 1976). The amount of trace mineral mix remaining in the box was weighed and returned to the box. (A 2-3 g sample was taken of each mix, placed in a closed vial, and returned to the laboratory for moisture analysis. All weights were then corrected to a dry weight basis for comparative purposes.) Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 show the results of use preferences, by study area, on the amounts of trace mineral consumed by animals on the bighorn sheep areas. Table 10 summarizes the total amount of trace mineral consumed by animals on the study areas by trace mineral mix formulations. These data would indicate a preference for the TMIII and TMIV formulations. Table 11 summarizes the total amount of trace mineral consumed by animals on the study areas by season of the year. There is an indication that the total consumption increases during the spring and early summer periods. Table 1. Trace mineral mix formulations bighorn sheep winter ranges. tested for animal preference TMI TMII TMIII TMIV Sodium chloride 10% 30% 50% 70% Bentonite 65% 45% 25% 5% Trace mineral mix 5% 5% 5% 5% Phosphorus 20% 20% 20% 20% (XP-4) on �-5- Table 2. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations range in the Tarrya11 Mountains study area. TMl January 1976 TMII used on bighorn TMIll TMlV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. March 1976 Kg TM used ..29 3.87 4.62 3.79 % of total TM used 2.31 30.79 36.75 30.15 Kg TM used .17 4.44 6.82 5.27 % of total TM used 1.02 26.59 40.84 31. 56 Kg TM used .06 3.29 8.86 6.93 % of total TM used .31 17.19 46.29 36.21 Kg TM used .05 2.28 3.87 2.95 % of total TM used .55 24.92 42.30 32.24 Kg TM used .05 1.01 1.95 1.06 % of total TM used 1.23 24.82 47.91 26.04 Total kg - test period .62 14.89 26.12 20.00 % of total TM used 1.01 24.16 42.38 32.45 May 1976 July 1976 September November sheep 1976 1976 �-6- Table 3. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations range in the Trickle Mountain study area. TMl TMIl January March 1976 used on bighorn TMIll sheep TMlV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. 1976 Kg TM used .03 .37 .16 .33 % of total TM used 3.37 41.57 17.98 37.08 Kg TM used .10 1. 76 2.38 1.86 % of total TM used 1.71 30.14 40.61 31.85 Kg TM used .05 3.75 5.72 4.89 % of total TM used .35 26.02 39.69 33.93 Kg TM used .01 .46 1.29 .97 % of total TM used .37 16.85 47.25 35.53 .05 .07 .19 .l3 11.36 15.91 43.18 29.55 Total kg - test period .19 6.41 9.74 8.18 % of total TM used .77 26.14 39.72 33.36 May 1976 July 1976 Se:etember 1976 November 1976 Kg TM used % of total TM used �-7- Table 4. ranges Kilograms of trace mineral in the South Platte River Canyon TMI January March mix formulations 1976 used on bighorn sheep study area. TMII Start of test period TMIII TMIV - 11.36 kg of each TM used. 1976 Kg TM used .32 2.38 1.65 3.17 % of total TM used 4.26 31.65 21.94 42.15 Kg TM used .15 3.89 4.79 2.17 % of total TM used 1.36 35.36 43.55 19.73 Kg TM used ..05 3.19 4.17 3.86 % of total TM used .44 28.31 37.00 34.25 Kg TM used .08 1. 38 3.77 2.90 % Of total TM used .98 16.97 46.37 35.67 Kg TM used .11 .86 1.58 1.03 % of total TM used 3.07 24.02 44.13 28.77 Total kg - test period .71 12.12 15.96 13.13 % of total TM used 1.69 28.91 38.07 31.32 May 1976 July 1976 SeEtember November 1976 1976 �-8- Table 5. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations used on bighorn sheep ranges in the Collegiate Range (Love Ranch) study area. TMI January 1976 TMll TMIll TMIV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. March 1976 .10 1.08 2.33 3.87 2.98 25.11 41.70 32.11 Kg TM used .05 3.68 5.91 6.03 % of total TM used .32 23.48 37.72 38.48 Kg TM used 2.70 5.32 1.53 1.59 % of total TM used 24.24 47.76 13.73 14.27 Kg TM used .10 3.21 4.63 4.22 % of total TM used .82 26.46 38.08 34.70 Kg TM used .05 2.08 1.72 3.61 % of total TM used .67 27.88 23.06 48.39 Total kg - test period 3.00 16.62 17.66 21.27 % of total TM used 5.12 28.39 30.16 36.33 Kg TM used % of total TM used May 1976 July 1976 Se:etember 1976 November 1976 �-9- Table 6. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations ranges in the Collegiate Range TMl January 1976 used on bighorn (Jump Steady) study area. TMIl TMIll TMlV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. March 1976 Kg TM used .02 .76 .93 1.33 % of total TM used .66 25.00 30.59 43.75 Kg TM used .05 1.37 2.81 2.03 % of total TM used .80 21.88 44.89 32.43 .12 1.87 3.62 3.21 1. 36 21.20 41.04 36.39 Kg TM used .01 .80 2.79 1. 68 % of total TM used .19 15.15 52.84 31. 82 Kg TM used .03 .75 2.61 1. 85 % of total TM used .57 14.31 49.81 35.31 Total kg - test period .23 5.55 12.76 10.10 % of total TM used .80 19.38 44.55 35.27 May 1976 July 1976 Kg TM used % of total TM used SeEtember November sheep 1976 1976 �-10- Table 7. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations used on bighorn sheep ranges in the Mount Evans (Grant) study area. TMI January 1976 TMIl TMIIl TMIV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. March 1976 Kg TM used .54 2.86 3.86 2.36 % of total TM used 5.60 29.72 40.12 24.53 .18 1.60 3.27 4.36 3.41 19.14 38.86 30.39 Kg TM used .05 .82 1.45 .68 % of total TM used 1.70 27.33 48.33 22.66 Kg TM used .06 1.63 2.36 2.01 % of total TM used .10 26.89 38.94 33.16 Kg TM used .03 1.87 2.93 1.82 % of total TM used .45 28.12 44.06 27.36 Total kg - test period .86 10.45 14.96 10.28 % of total TM used 2.35 28.59 40.93 28.13 Ma~ 1976 Kg TM used % of total TM used Ju1~ 1976 Se.etember 1976 November 1976 �-11- Table 8. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations used on bighorn sheep ranges in the Poudre River study area. TMI January 1976 TMII TMUI TMIV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. March 1976 Kg TM used .37 4.17 3.62 3.81 % of total TM used 3.09 34.83 30.24 31.82 Kg TM used .05 3.72 4.52 3.61 % of total TM used .42 31.26 37.98 30.33 Kg TM used .04 2.60 . 4.82 3.20 % of total TM used .37 24.39 42.21 30.01 Kg TM used .01 1.61 1.82 1.32 % of total TM used .21 33.82 25.21 27.73 Kg TM used .05 .27 1.06 1.41 % of total TM. used 1. 82 9.85 38.68 51.45 Total kg - test period .52 12.37 15.84 13.35 1.24 29.40 37.64 31. 72 Mal 1976 Ju1l 1976 SeEtember November 1976 1976 % .of total TM used �-12- Table 9. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations ranges in the Medano Creek study area. TMI April TMIll sheep TMIV Start of test period - 11.36 kg of each TM used. 1976 October TMll used on bighorn 1976 Kg TM used 4.26 8.37 10.18 9.36 % of total TM used l3.24 26.02 31.64 29.10 Table 10. Kilograms of trace mineral mix formulations used on all bighorn sheep range study areas during the duration of the study. TMI TMll TMIII TMIV 1.67 16.74 18.71 17.77 May 1976 .75 22.l3 31.59 24.38 July 1976 3.07 20.84 30.17 24.36 Date March 1976 September 1976 .32 11.37 20.53 16.05 November 1976 .37 6.9l 12.04 10.91 6.18 77 .99 113.04 93.47 Total �-13- Table 11. Kilograms of all trace mineral mixes consumed by season of the year for all study areas during the duration of the study. Date Kg March 1976 54.89 May 1976 79.03 July 1976 78.44 September 1976 48.27 November 1976 30.23 As a result of the trace mineral mix preference measurements it was generally concluded that the animal preferred TMIII formulation. In November 1976 the following trace mineral mix was established as the preferred formula and all subsequent trace mineral work has been based upon this formula: Sodium chloride 50% Ruminant Trace Mineral Premix 5% XP-4 20% Sodium bentonite 19.75% Sulfur .25% Molasses Vitamin A 135,000 units~ 5% 35,000 units/lb ./ Vitamin D 1,000 units /lb./ Vitamin E 0 The trace mineral formulation is mixed, blended and dispensed in 25 lb sacks by Feed Products, Inc., 1000 West 47th Avenue, Denver, Colorado 802ll,at a cost of $250.00 per ton. Fecal samples were collected from each study area whenever the trace mineral boxes were serviced. Both chemical analysis and "Baermanization" procedures were carried out on the samples in an attempt to get some measure on the physiological response of the animals to trace mineral supplementation. The fecal samples were collected into paper sacks and allowed to air dry in the laboratory before any analytical measurements were made. After drying the fecal material was screened to remove any soil and/or vegetation which might have been picked up in the process of collecting. The samples �-14- were ground in a Wiley Mill and thoroughly mixed. One portion of the sample was "Baermanized" to measure the number of Protostrongylus sp. larvae present and the remainder was used in the chemical analysis. For specific details see Federal Aid Document - Program Narrative Outline W-4l-R-27; Work Plan 1, Job 16. Tables 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 show the results of the chemical analysis of the pellet groups for total ash, acid insoluble ash, acid soluble ash, calcium, phosphorus, the calcium-to-phosphorus ratio, magnesium, potassium, sodium, copper, zinc, manganese, and iron. Prepared by ~-+/-=~_J--_.L.:::.~=-=-';::'=::!==' Robert E. Keiss Wildlife Researcher C _ �Table 12. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the Tarrya11 Mountain study area. Collection Date Treatment % % Acid % Acid Total Ash lnso1. Ash Sol. Ash % % % P Ca:P Ratio % CA Mg K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe Jan. '76 25.76 19.94 5.82 1.62 .57 2.84 .10 .25 152 10 50 ll5 375 Mar. '76 27.62 21.31 6.31 1.73 .65 2.66 .15 .32 ll3 9 48 125 275 May '76 18.32 14.ll 4.21 1.18 .73 1.61 .ll .30 l37 II 59 175 350 July '76 15.73 ll.88 3.85 .97 .75 1.29 .12 .40 126 12 62 190 475 Sept. '76 16.38 ll.53 4.85 .84 .62 1.35 .l3 .35 ll5 9 55 180 400 Nov. '76 17.21 11.95 5.26 1.15 .73 1.57 .15 .40 145 8 64 ll5 375 Feb. '77 18.91 14.65 4.26 .87 .72 1.20 .15 .45 106 13 55 150 500 Mar. '77 18.58 12.90 5.68 .92 .77 1.19 .10 .42 121 l3 65 215 550 I I-' VI I �Table 13. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected fr6m the Trickle Mountain study area. Collection Date Treatment % % Acid % Acid Total Ash Inso1. Ash Sol. Ash % CA % P Ca:P Ratio Mg % K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe August '75 18.76 11.50 7.26 1.37 .63 2.17 .19 ,28 111 9 21 150 170 Jan. '76 28.72 21.89 6.83 1.47 .52 2.82 .26 .29 162 7 27 175 181 Mar. '76 21.82 14.07 7.75 1.36 .68 2.00 .27 .36 273 12 26 180 135 May '76 18.31 12.02 6.29 1.29 .73 1.76 .22 .41 385 15 34 170 176 July '76 17.63 10.31 7.32 1.18 .87 1.35 .29 .32 722 18 39 165 181 Sept. '76 15.28 8.81 6.40 1.76 .62 2.83 .37 .28 650 14 21 180 172 Nov. '76 18.73 13.53 5.20 1.65 .89 1.85 .18 .19 730 11 27 170 ll2 Jan. 'n 22.60 15.34 7.26 1.27 .73 1.73 .19 .35 290 13 18 160 ll3 Mar. 'n 22.72 17.38 5.34 1.25 .n 1.61 .22 .33 721 10 28 175 217 Apr. 'n 18.32 11.45 6.87 1.18 .94 1.25 .28 .41 890 14 34 180 218 % I I-' 0'\ I �Table 14. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the South Platte River Canyon study area, Collection Date Treatment ~;Acid Insol. Ash % Acid Total Ash Jan. '76 29.76 Mar. '76 % Sol. % % % CA P Ca:P Ratio % Ash Mg K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe 22,37 7,39 1,87 .97 1..93 .11 ,32 50 lJ 51 125 112 28.73 21.25 7.48 1,93 .81 2.38 ,23 ,28 50. 16 52 135 163 May '76 19.16 12.34 6.82 1,37 1.09 1.25 ,29 ,39 10 16 67. 110 212 July '76 18.37 13,27 5.51 1,42 1.19 1.19 ,37 ,47 173 13 6'3 115 229 Sept, '76 17,29 9.38 7,91 1,32 .9.4 1,40 ,44 ,51 1]5 11 77 120 235 Nov, '76 24.57 17.85 6.72 1.68 1,11 1 •. 51 ,3] ,43 191 12 76. 130 172 Jan~ '77 19,11 12.43 6,68 1.62 1,25 1,29 ,30 ,50 150 16 68 16(1 187 Mar. '77 18.79 11.27 7.52 1.47 1.37 1,07 ,46 .47 144 24 74 175 219 May '77 16.37 10.99 5.38 1.29 1.46 .88 .42 .56 168 27 83 185 235 ,....I -,..J I �Table 15. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the Collegiate Range (Love Ranch) study area. Collection Date Treatment Acid Insol. Ash % Total Ash Acid Sol. Ash % % CA P Ca:P Ratio Mg % K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe Jan. '76 32.37 23.65 8.72 1.75 .65 2.69 .14 .35 175 10 25 150 120 Mar. '76 28.76 22.41 6.35 1.47 .63 2.33 .19 .47 175 12 36 175 115 May '76 19.27 14.06 5.21 1. 65 .70 2.35 .25 .63 250 14 48 150 146 July '76 15.26 10.11 5.15 1.55 .77 2.01 .23 .72 276 15 35 125 135 Sept. '76 19.51 11.22 8.29 1.50 .77 1.92 .23 .63 251 18 63 175 115 Nov. '76 20.33 12.57 7.76 1.50 .87 1.71 .23 .63 227 18 55 175 143 Jan. '77 29.18 23.84 5.34 1.13 1.08 1.04 .15 .45 208 28 175 200 325 Mar. '77 24.37 19.99 4.38 1.10 1.32 .83 .25 .47 276 21 125 200 350 May '77 19.76 15.04 4.72 1.62 .77 2.10 .16 ,35 380 18 25 175 143 % % % I I-' 00 I �Table 16. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the Collegiate Range (Jump Steady) study area. Collection Date Treatment % % Acid % Acid Total Ash Inso1. Ash Sol. Ash % P Ca:P Ratio % % CA Mg K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe Jan. '76 29.76 23.41 6.35 1.68 .86 1.95 .16 .10 20 55 135 387 425 Mar. '76 31.28 24.53 6.75 1.73 .97 1.78 .19 .11 45 63 187 396 470 May '76 28.76 21.48 7.28 1.87 1.08 .79 .24 .16 172 48 221 425 480 July '76 24.73 17.10 7.63 1.93 1.27 .66 .21 .19 143 68 286 525 550 Sept. '76 37.62 29.90 7.72 1.75 1.12 .63 .25 .15 208 75 225 538 500 Nov. '76 34.62 26.89 7.73 1.27 1.16 1.09 .19 .21 118 81 151 681 475 % I I-' \0 I Jan. '77 38.72 32.14 6.58 1.09 .99 1.10 .20 .17 117 72 165 427 400 Mar. '77 31.28 23.99 7.29 1.73 1.38 1.25 .24 .26 146 65 186 480 475 May '77 27.63 21.09 6.54 1.12 1.18 .95 .17 .37 210 75 225 520 525 �Table 17. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the Mount Evans (Grant) study area. Collection Date Treatment % Total Ash % Acid Inso1. Ash % Acid Sol. Ash % CA Jan. '76 29.62 23.41 6.21 Mar. '76 23.81 16.43 May' 76 18.62 July '76 % % P Ca:P Ratio Mg K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe 1.27 .63 2.01 .10 .40 280 12 50 165 275 7.38 1.32 .69 1.74 .15 .47 460 11 49 187 300 13.51 5.11 .95 .71 1.26 .18 .58 935 13 62 193 375 17.63 13.01 4.62 .92 .93 .99 .26 .56 872 16 73 190 450 Sept. '76 20.28 15.47 4.81 .97 .95 1.02 .27 .41 621 17 65 181 425 Nov. '76 21.72 17.00 4.72 .92 .88 1.04 .31 .40 933 12 73 165 375 Jan. '77 20.35 16.17 4.18 .95 .89 1.07 .28 .46 1120 15 82 173 475 Mar. '77 18.81 14.88 3.93 .88 .92 .96 .21 .43 918 14 63 163 500 May' 77 18.62 14.77 3.85 .89 .91 .97 .30 .58 1151 16 85 182 550 % I N 0 I �Table 18. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the Poudre River study area. Collection Date Treatment % Acid Insol. Ash % Acid Total Ash Sol. Ash % % % Mg K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm P Ca:P Ratio % CA Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe Jan. '76 18.72 13.66 5.09 1.16 .75 1.55 .10 .37 181 9 30 128 125 Mar. '76 15.79 9.97 5.82 1.71 .63 2.71 .12 .37 107 1 30 131 130 May '76 14.38 10.07 4.31 1.51 .81 1.86 .15 .40 111 3 40 137 125 Aug. '76 12.92 9.20 3.72 1.15 .76 1.51 .17 .48 152 5 35 118 128 Oct. '76 15.72 11.54 4.18 1.00 .85 1.17 .15 .57 163 7 30 129 140 Jan. 6, '77 13.54 10.10 3.44 .87 .90 .96 .15 .90 181 9 40 138 125 Jan. 14, '77 13.65 9.89 3.76 .87 1.02 .85 .12 .37 105 8 42 138 142 Jan. 21, '77 17 .. 22 12.15 5.07 1.12 .87 1.28 .17 .40 115 14 80 238 187 Feb. 3, '77 14.75 10.57 4.18 1.00 1.02 .98 .12 .35 148 13 55 138 157 Mar. 3, '77 12.55 9.26 3.29 .87 1.02 .85 .12 .47 129 8 65 163 102 % I N t-' I �Table 19. Chemical analysis of composited bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups collected from the Medano Creek study area. Collection Date Treatment % % Acid % Acid )Total Ash Insol. Ash Sol. Ash % % % P Ca:P Ratio % CA Mg K ppm Na ppm Cu ppm Zn ppm Mn ppm Fe Aug. '75 24.52 16.84 9.33 2.20 .83 2.73 .30 1.15 253 15 64 200 235 Apr. '76 27.96 18.69 8.91 2.53 .58 4.47 .32 1.07 273 11 53 201 195 Oct. '76 21.41 14.12 7.29 2.04 1.28 1.67 .46 1.10 764 21 72 262 307 May '77 19.79 12.38 7.41 1.15 .84 1.30 .65 1.25 893 24 101 296 405 I I N N I �January, -23JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~==~~~-------- Project No. Job Title 1 Manipulation Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn She~p W-4l-R-27 Work Plan No. Job No. of Vegetation 1978 & Mountain Goat Investigations 17 ---------------------------- on Bighorn Sheep Ranges June 1, 1976 to May 31, 1977 George D. Bear ABSTRAcr Study plots near Cathedral, Colorado were treated with varied applications of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, and 2,4-D herbicide in 1971-72. Two areas were selected for study sites: (a) an alpine range, and (b) a ponderosa pine-bunchgrass range. The effects of these treatments were monitored during the period 1972-1976. The data has been analyzed and the first draft of the report prepared. ��-25- MANIPULATION OF VEGETATION ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P.N.O. OBJECTIVE Improve the herbage yield, vegetative density on selected bighorn sheep ranges in Colorado. and vegetative composition SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To analyze data and prepare a manuscript. PROCEDURES The study area is located about 35 miles south of Gunnison, Colorado. This bighorn herd winters in two areas; in a low (8,000 feet elevation) bunchgrass and ponderosa pine type, and in a high (11,000-14,000 feet elevation) alpine vegetative type. Study plots were established on these two winter ranges, and the plots were treated with phosphorus fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, and 2,4-Dherbicide (16 treatment levels) in 1971-72. Effects of these treatments were monitored from June, 1972 to June, 1976. The data was analyzed at the Colorado State University Statistical Center ?nd the first draft of the manuscript has been completed • Prepared by . /f.~~~'~ ~__ ~or~ George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher _ ��January, -27JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. W-4l-R-27 1978 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations 1 23 ~,-,;----::::-_: Job No. Bighorn Sheep LungwormC ~-o-n~t-r-o~l------------------------Job Ti tIe __B_y __B_i_o_l_o_g_l._· c_a_l __C_o_n_t_r_o_l o_f Sn_a_i_l __I_n_t_e_rm __e_d_i_a_t_e __H_o_s_t_s _ Work Plan No. ____ Period Covered: Personnel: Chester June 1, 1976 - May 31, 1977 Ng, Harold R. Shepherd, and Thomas N. Woodard. ABSTRACT Preliminary sampling to determine sample size requirements was completed. Snail distribution is apparently clumped to the extent that the maximum number of samples which c6uld be collected and analyzed would result in a poor estimation of the snail population. The decision was therefore made to cancel the original objectives of the study. A new objective is to compile and publish a literature review ori land snail ecology~ ��-29- BIGHORN SHEEP LUNGWORM CONTROL BY BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SNAIL INTERMEDIATE HOSTS Thomas N. Woodard P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of burning treatments as a tool to reduce populations of the snail intermediate hosts for bighorn sheep lungworm parasites. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Select two aspen patches within a portion of the Poudre River bighorn sheep range selected for a prescribed burning experiment to improve range for bighorn sheep. 2. In each aspen patch, establish lanes between blocks. 3. Construct patch. with numbered 4. Test-sample variables 5. Analyze 4 treatment blocks and construct steel stakes a sampling fire grid in each aspen in each aspen patch. snail and soil samples in laboratory and calculate sample size. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials have been described by Shepherd (1976). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preliminary sampling to determine sample size requirements for estimating snail populations was conducted during August and September, 1976. Random and stratified sampling schemes were used. Based on random sampling, there was a mean of 11.88 + 2.14 (SE) live snails in each I-liter sample of soil. A sample size requir;ment of approximately 25 was computed for each replicate to estimate the population within 30 percent of the true mean with 95 percent confidence. Stratified sampling did not improve precision. The decision was made to cancel the original objectives of this study because of poor precision and time limitations which prevented ,increasing sample sizes to improve precision. The new objective is to compile and publish a literature review on land snail ecology. Such a publication would be beneficial to future investigations involving snail ecology and control. �-30- LITERATURE CITED Shepherd, Harold R. 1976. Bighorn sheep lungworm control by biological control of snail intermediate hosts. Colorado Div. Wildl., Fed. Aid Program Narrative Outline. l5p. Prepared by ~~A<w~ N. Thomas Woodard Wildlife Researcher ' �January, -31JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period W-4l-R-27 Bighorn 1 Job NO. Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations 24 E_x_t_·e_n_d_1_·n_g~B_1_·g~h_o_r_n __ S_h __e_e~p __R_a_n~g_e_s Covered: Personnel: 1978 June 1, 1976 to May 31, 1977 George D. Bear ABSTRACT Bighorn sheep transplants were monitored in Cache la Poudre Canyon in northcentral Colorado and on the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area in southcentral Colorado. Twenty-five bighorns were transplanted to the lower portion of Cache la Poudre Canyon on January 21, 1975. This herd became very nomadic in behavior and many migrated to the upper portion of the canyon. Two years following the transplant (spring 1977) a small herd (15 head) has become established at the release area and there is some migration between their original range and the new site. A small group (9 head) of sheep were transplanted onto the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area during February, 1976, and an additional nine head in March 1977. The ewe-lamb segment of the herd summers in the vicinity of the wildlife area, while the rams migrate to the alpine to summer with bighorns native to the area. Both segments of the transplanted herd winters on the wildlife area where they were released. _ _ ��-33- EXTENDING BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES George D. Bear P.N.O. OBJECTIVE Determine if the distribution and population of bighorn sheep herds can be increased by transplanting sheep into suitable areas adjacent to the present concentrations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor the transplanted Cebolla Creek (Fig. 1). 2. Transplant additional herds in Cache la Poudre River Canyon and on animals from Saguache Creek to Cebolla Creek. METHODS AND MATERIALS Information was gathered on the transplanted herds by observing from roads, hiking, or aerial surveillance, whichever was most appropriate. The following information was recorded for each individual observed: date, location (also plotted on a map), and collar number. Additional bighorns were secured from the Trickle Mountain herd and released on Cebolla Creek. An unsuccessful attempt was made to capture sheep using the permanent trap located on Trickle Mountain. Due to the lack of snow the sheep did not move to the bait stations at the trap. Nine bighorn sheep (7 ewes and 2 lambs) were captured on Middle Creek, approximately Smiles away, using a portable drop-net trap. Five of the ewes were marked with the commonly used 4-inch collars (white with black numerals), two ewes with radio-telemetry collars, and the lambs were marked with red 2-inch Richie eartags. The sheep were transported to the release site in a large livestock trailer, and held overnight in a temporary corral constructed with 8-foot wooden elk panels. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Cache la Poudre The herd (25 sheep) being evaluated was transplanted on January 21, 1975. Reactions of these displaced bighorns were extremely variable. They moved around a great deal during the first 30 days after their release. Some individuals remained together, while others moved between groups. Eighty days after the transplant it appeared that 16 sheep had settled in the vicinity of the Sheep Mountain release site, while the others returned to the upper portion of the canyon (Fig. 2). Several of the transplanted bighorns traveled up the canyon, mingled with other bighorns, and then went back down the canyon and joined the Sheep Mountain group. �COLORADO MO"AT SEDGWICI( LOGAN WELD ROUTT PHILliPS MONGAN WASHINGTON I YUMA /lI08LANCO EAGLE GARFIELD DOUGLAS ELBERT LINCOLN MESA I I ~ CHEYENNE ( , MONTIIOSE I" ~ PUEBLO SAGUACHE SANMIGUEL ~ ~ ~ I L...... ,at Cebolla Creek ~Study Area " {"lJSTER I I I ~ ICROWUY I II IPliO WEllS SENT "DOLORES RIOGHANDE MONTEZUMA F\ / ., ARCHULETA Fig. 1 • Location CONEJOS .., LAS ANIMAS of the Cache la Poudre and Cebolla Greek study areas in Colorado. ISACA I w .l:I �I w U'1 I Co. ~.J. lo.~e flO~O e $ llJ -.J & .Stove Prairie N t o 3 Scole:Miles Fig. 2. 6 Distribution of transplanted bighorn sheep in Cache la Poudre River Canyon. �-36- By mid-summer (1975) only seven ewes, one yearling, and three new lambs were found in the Sheep Mountain area. Hunting activity during the deer season caused the sheep to abandon the area. Two of them returned to the trap site, while the others assumed a nomadic behavior and wandered around in the lower portion of the canyon throughout the winter and the summer of 1976. Two young rams returned from the upper canyon area and remained with the transplanted group during the winter, then moved back up the canyon. Also, one ewe returned from the upper area to rejoin this small band during the summer of 1976. Dogs were reported to have been chasing the sheep in the vicinity of Poudre City on July 29, 1976. One lamb was separated from the group; its fate is unknown. Also, two collared ewes were reportedly killed on Red Mountain by deer hunters; this was not confirmed. This group of transplanted sheep has been very difficult to follow, and many of the collars are now torn which makes individual identification nearly impossible. It appears there are now at least fifteen sheep in the transplant area - seven adult ewes from the original transplant, two young rams (lambs when transplanted), two 1975 lambs (both males), and four 1976 lambs. The two young rams from the original transplant move between the herds in the upper part of Poudre Canyon and this transplanted herd. Therefore, a small herd was established in the lower portion of the canyon, and there is some migration between the established bighorn range and the new site. However, there is a need to supplement this small herd to make it a viable population. There is some speculation as to how the transplanting procedures could have been altered to improve the success of this transplant. Young animals, 1-2 years old, may be less home-oriented and more adaptable than adult sheep, therefore, the young sheep may have established at the release site more readily. Also, it is believed that animals from another locality would have been more appropriate for the transplant. They likely would become established at the release site before making contact with the native herd in the upper portion of the canyon. At the release site the sheep left the transplanting truck in a frantic haste, and several were observed several miles away in just a few hours. This may have been prevented if the sheep were held in a pen and allowed to calm down before release. Another factor influencing the transplant was human activity in the area, primarily during hunting seasons. This activity disturbed the sheep and dislocated them. It is speculated that a temporary "land closure" would have allowed the transplanted bighorns to become more firmly established on Sheep Mountain. An additional recommendation would be to equip several individuals in a transplanted herd with radio-telemetry collars. A large percentage of the days (approximately 85%) were unsuccessfully spent searching for the sheep. Whereas, 90 percent of the attempts to relocate sheep on the Cebolla Creek transplant site were successful. It is desirable to have more than one individual telemetry-marked, since the transplanted herd often splits-up, an individual is injured, or a transmitter becomes nonfunctional. �-37- Cebolla Creek A small group of bighorns were trapped on Saguache Creek in southcentral Colorado during February 1976 and transplanted onto the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area to encourage bighorn sheep use in the lower ranges. Nine (6 ewes, 1 lamb, and 2 rams) were trapped with a large group-trap, marked with collars, and transported to the release site in a large livestock trailer. Two of the ewes were fitted with telemetry collars obtained from Telonics, Mesa, Arizona. These collars have been very beneficial in locating this group of transplanted sheep. The sheep remained at the release site on Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area until mid-March, when the snow started melting. Two rams native to the area joined the group. In March these rams, the two transplanted rams, and the lamb migrated to the alpine range. The transplanted rams migrated from the alpine range back to the release site in mid-September, while the lamb did not appear on the wildlife area until December. During the spring the transplanted ewes explored the canyon up to 3 miles in each direction, but returned to the release site every 1-2 days. By June they had settled along Rock Creek, approximately 2-4 miles from the release site, and remained there for the summer (Fig. 3). These six ewes had five lambs. Two ewes and two lambs migrated back to the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area in September and joined the rams. Activity during the elk hunting season caused the sheep to leave the wildlife area. One of the radio-collared ewes was shot on Fish Creek, approximately 5 miles from the release site. The carcass had been skinned and hung in a tree; the head and collar buried under debris approximately 100 feet away. There was 6 inches of snow on the ground, yet the collar and head were easily found by using the telemetry equipment. By December all the other sheep, except three of the new lambs, were back on the wildlife area. On March 31, 1977, nine bighorns (7 ewes and 2 lambs) were trapped on Saguache Creek and transported to the Cebolla Creek Wildlife Area. The trailer was backed-up to the holding corral and the trailer door left open. It took the sheep 10-15 minutes to leave the trailer. They ran along the corral fence, but did not strike it or attempt to jump over it. The sheep were left in the pen overnight. When we arrived the next morning, they were very calm, some were feeding on the hay left in the pen, and others were bedded down. The main gate to the holding pen was then opened. It took approximately 20 minutes for the first sheep to find the open gate and walk out of the pen. It started feeding in the immediate area. It took 45 minutes for all of the sheep to exit from the pen. They were very calm and fed around the holding pen for some time, then gradually moved up the slope feeding as they went. Therefore, holding the sheep overnight in a corral proved to be very useful in calming them down and releasing them as one group. �-38- ..x Q) Q) 'u EWE - RAM N"'WINTER RANGE r ~,.'~ San Luis Pk. N 1 o Fig. 3. Wildlife Distribution Area. of bighorn sheep transplanted 2 Scale. Miles 4 to the Cebolla Creek �-39- The new transplants remained in the area for approximately three weeks. There was very little snow at the release area, and the lamb-ewe group of the previous years transplant had returned to their summer range on Rock Creek. Thus, the new group joined up with the ram group. By late April the rams migrated to the alpine range on Baldy Chato, accompanied by some of the ewes. This was determined by aerial surveillance or tracking of one radio-collared ewe; contact wasn't made with the animals on the ground to identify individuals. The remainder of the sheep remained on the wildlife area, but were exploring the surrounding area in groups of two's and three's. The telemetry collar in this group ceased to function. By the end of the work segment (June 1977) these new sheep had joined up with the lamb-ewe group on Rock Creek. Two ewes are unaccounted for and it is assumed they are on the alpine range with the radio-collared ewe. Prepared by ~....,_-..;...._._._.VJJ_. _'_~ George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher .__ ��January, 1978 -41JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Project No. W-4l-R-27 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Job No. ~2~5 Prescribed Burning to Improve imd Enlarge Bighorn Sheep Ranges Period Covered: Personnel: Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Goat Investigations June 1, 1976 through May 31, 1977 Thomas N. Woodard ABSTRACT A detailed Program Narrative Outline was completed during this seglnent. Field work, consisting of pretreatment data collection. will begin during Segment 28. . _ ��January, -43- 1978 JOB FINAL REPORT State of Project C_o_1_0_r_a_d_o-----W-4l-R-27 No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Investigation Covered: Personnel: 1 Bighorn Sheep Job No. ·__ of Spontaneous & Mountain Goat Investigations ...:C..:.O_N_TRA_C __ T---...:{~2..:.6~) Diseases of Bighorn _ Sheep June 1, 1975 - May 31, 1977 Dr. C. P. Hibler, R. E. Keiss, Spraker, and J. Wegryzn. R. L. Schmidt, B. Davies, T. ABSTRACT The drug cambendazole was tested in a form marketed as CamVet for its efficacy in eliminating both lungworm adults and somatically stored larvae. Results of this test indicated that the preservative in CamVet (scorbic acid) was toxic to bighorn sheep rumen microbiota and five sheep died after three days of oral administrations of CamVet. Clearly~ the drug in its marketed form is not suitable for use on wild bighorns as an anthelmintic. In addition CamVet was not palatable to sheep when offered in apple mash. If the scorbic acid preservative was removed then the remaining pure cambendazole was palatable, but its efficacy against lungworm adults and larvae was not determined. The drug fenbendazole was evaluated for its toxicity to sheep and for its palatability in apple mash. It was found to be non-toxic and palatable. Its efficacy against lungworm ·also was not tested. ��-45- SPONTANEOUS DISEASES OF BIGHORN SHEEP C. P. Hibler OBJECTIVES The specific objectives of this study are: 1. Evaluate two new anthelmintics, fenbendazole and albendazole for efficacy against lungworms, both adult and somatically stored larvae. Also to evaluate these drugs, in the event that they show efficacy, for toxicity and palatability. 2. Evaluate the efficacy of cambendazole and thiabendazole against lungworms, both adult and somatically stored larvae, on a 3 to 7 day therapeutic regimen; in addition, evaluate both fenbendazole and albendazole using the same regimen. 3. Evaluate Rampart, lungworm 4. Experimentally infect ewes with lungworm to induce transplacental transmission of lungworm, and infect lambs and yearlings with lungworm for use in drug trials. 5. Perform postmortem examinations to determine any and all bighorn sheep in Colorado. 6. Raise bighorn and mouflon lambs for use in drug trials and for use by personnel with the Colorado Division of Wildlife for other studies. 7. Support Division of Wildlife trapping and transplanting bighorn sheep herd evaluations throughout Colorado. the efficacy of treatment of bighorn ewes on Pikes Peak, 4-Mile and Poudre Canyon by monitoring fecal output of larvae in lambs, adults and yearlings. cause of death of efforts and PROCEDURES The evaluation of various anthelmintics at different dose levels the past two years has essentially depleted infections in the bighorn sheep and bighorn/mouflon sheep. Consequently, considerable effort must be expended this year to culture and infect snails with lungworm larvae and then to infect sheep with their larvae. The snails currently in use (Vallorria spp.) will be used but, in addition, a different species of snail (Triodopsis albolabris) will be evaluated. This rather large snail (2.5-3.5 cm) has proven to be an excellent experimental host for other species of lungworm; hopefully, it will work for bighorn sheep lungworm. Moreover, it propagates rather well in captivity. Currently, we have available for drug evaluation studies a total of 32 sheep; lambs we expect this year are 16-18, making a total of 48-50 sheep available for anthelmintic trials. Some of these sheep are infected; their infection �-46will be "bolstered" with additional larvae and the uninfected animals will be infected as soon as possible (some are currently being infected) . 1. Two experimental anthelmintics: fenbendazole and albendazole must be evaluated for efficacy. This will be done with a single therapeutic dose administered orally. Lambs and yearlings will be used for this purpose. Three groups of 5 animals each will be used; each group will be given a drug and then fecal larval output evaluated for the next 8-12 weeks. Any drug showing efficacy will be evaluated for palatability by mlxlng in apple pulp and for toxicity by oral administration. The same sheep will be used for these two purposes. Drugs showing efficacy against adult lungworm will then be evaluated for efficacy against somatically stored larvae in adult bighorn and bighorn/mouflon sheep ewes. A total of 19 ewes are available. All will be infected with lungworm for transplacental transmission and 12 will be administered (orally) one (or more) of the drugs; remaining sheep (seven) will be used as controls. 2. Both cambendazole and thiabendazole have high efficacy against somatically-stored larvae. Preliminary studies indicate these two compounds have considerable efficacy against adult lungworm if administered daily for 3 to 7 days. Therefore one group of 5 sheep (lambs and yearlings) will be administered cambendazole daily for 5 days; the other group given thiabendazole daily for 5 days. Lungworm larval output will be monitored for 8-12 weeks (or as long as necessary) to determine efficacy. 3. Since treatment of bighorn sheep on Pikes Peak, Rampart, 4-Mile and the Poudre Canyon herd will be continued indefinitely, these efforts must be monitored by examination of fecal samples for lungworm larval output. Lambs, yearlings and adults must be monitored, but efforts should be concentrated on lambs. At least 50 fecal samples (from each of the.above areas) per month in July and August, October and November, and January, February. These samples will be dried, weighed, examined by the Baermann apparatus and evaluated quantitatively for larvae/gram feces. Data will be compared with previous years samples from Pikes Peak and other herds to evaluate efficacy. 4. See under procedures 5. Bighorn sheep sick and/or dead from any cause will be given a thorough post-mortem examination, including histopathology, to determine the cause and nature of the illness and/or death. Moreover, all animals will be examined for somatically stored larvae of lungworm. The examination will include complete microbiologic, virologic, parasitologic and toxicologic possibilities. 6. Currently we have 9 adult female mouflon and mouflon/bighorn hybrids and 10 adult female pure bighorn sheep in captivity. Lambs will be removed from these sheep and bottle-raised as imprinted animals. Lambs are removed at 24-48 hours following birth and put on a bovine - first paragraph, and procedures numbered 1 and 2. �-47- milk-syrup-egg diet with human vitams added when necessary. Rearing lambs (successfully) in captive conditions necessitates that they be separated into 2 or 3 groups. Personnel rearing one group have no contact with other groups. This is, of course, essentially a full-time job for at least two months, requiring almost constant attention and veterinary care. We anticipate about 24 lambs this coming year. lambs will be used in procedures 1, 2, and 4. 7. Eventually, these Proposed studies by the Division of Wildlife on trapping and transplanting, and herd evaluation throughout Colorado will necessitate some support from the personnel with the Wild Animal Disease Center. This will take the form of: (1) Training, and (2) Service. We anticipate training personnel involved in the project to (a) Drench sheepwith anthelmintics currently in use, (b) Take nasal swabs for bacteriologic and virologic examination, (c) Take fecal samples for parasitologic examination, and (d) Remove blood for physiologic baseline data and virologic titers. Fecal, bacteriologic and virologic examinations will be performed on each animal to determine its health status. Population evaluations are, fo"r the most part, based on census and fecal examination. Where herd evaluations are conducted the center will provide support to examine fecals brought in by Division personnel. Any sick and/or dead animal resulting examined as in procedure 5 (above). from these efforts will be RESULTS 1. Objective No. 1 was not completed during this fiscal year because of difficulty encountered in the rearing and infecting snails with the larval stages of Protostrongylus. Snail cultures became infected with fungi and mites, resulting in a high degree of mortality. Moreover, because feces containing first stage larvae of Protostrongylus were not made available by Division of Wildlife personnel, considerable difficulty was encountered in obtaining sufficient fecal matter to infect the snails that survived. Therefore, only five lambs were infected, and these are still infected. Currently, snails are growing quite well, and considerable numbers have been infected. This segment objective will be completed during this coming fiscal year. 2. Cambendazole has been used for treatment of sheep to eliminate the somatically stored third stage larvae of Protostrongylus at a dose level of 8.4 grams per adult sheep (based on a 150 pound sheep). Studies conducted by Dr. Terry Spraker at the San Diego Zoo indicated that if this compound was fed to lungworm infected animals on a 5 to 7 day regimen then all lungworm would be eliminated. Consequently, five bighorn/mouflon sheep were placed in a pen to determine if a �-48- 5 to 7 day treatment regimen would remove all their lungworm. The drug was administered orally at the above dose level once a day. On the third day of oral dosing, all five sheep went off feed and became depressed. Later that same day, a bloody diarrhea developed. All animals continued to become progressively weaker despite supportive therapy and all died. Postmortem examination revealed considerable hemorrhagic enteritis. Since we did not know if this was the result of cambendazole or the preservative in the cambendazole, the proposed trial with thiabendazole (5 to 7 day regimen) was cancelled. Subsequent research revealed that sorbic acid, the preservative added to CamVet was a fungicidal and bacteriostatic agent. The large amount of CamVet (240 cc) necessary to insure that each sheep received a therapeutic dose apparently caused the problem. Because the powdered form of cambendazole (100% cambendazole) was becoming increasingly difficult to obtain, and because the results of the 5 to 7 day regimen indicated toxicity from the active ingredient or from the preservative, a considerable amount of subsequent research plans were set aside so that we could evaluate CamVet prior to the bighorn sheep trapping and transplanting season. It was necessary to determine if CamVet was palatable in apple pulp; and to do so necessitated mixing a therapeutic dose (in three pounds of apple pulp) for each sheep and observing their reaction. At the same time, personnel involved in the trapping-transplanting operation requested that we evaluate fenbendazole for palatability and toxicity. As a consequence of this type of research (which was absolutely necessary to the entire operation) our attempts to evaluate fenbendazole were then set aside. The procedure used was to mix CamVet in one batch of apple pulp. fenbendazole in another batch of apple pulp; the third batch was pure apple pulp. This was placed in the pens and offered to all of the mouflon sheep available to determine selectivity. The results indicated that CamVet in apple pulp was not palatable. Since research in the early and late fall of 1976 indicated that either cambendazole or the sorbic acid was toxic to sheep and since CamVet was not palatable to sheep, considerable time and effort was then initiated to remove the sorbic acid from the CamVet, leaving pure cambendazole. It was later determined that if the CamVet was chilled, centrifuged and then the sediment washed once with water, virtually all the sorbic acid was removed. When this was mixed with apple pulp and offered to the sheep, they found it to be quite palatable. Since pure cambendazole was not available in quantities sufficient to treat all of the bighorn sheep the Division proposed to treat in 1976-77, most of the personnel assigned to work with snails and bighorn sheep and larvae were assigned the job of removing the sorbic acid from the CamVet to make it palatable and, of course, non-toxic to the sheep. As a result of this effort and as a result of evaluating the cambendazole, CamVet and fenbendazole for toxicity, all of the sheep that were either naturally infected or experimentally infected with lungworm for the fenbendazole trials were at that point unusable. �-49- Evaluation of fenbendazole in five bighorn sheep, at dose levels of four times the dose currently in use did not cause any toxic side effects that were observable. Unfortunately, the animals on which fenbendazole was evaluated (for toxicity) were not infected with lungworm. 3. Fecal samples that were to be collected from bighorn sheep from Pikes Peak, Rampart, 4-Mile and the Poudre Canyon herd were, for the most part, given to Robert Keiss for evaluation. These data must be gleaned from his report. The only fecal samples obtained for evaluation on a pre-treatment and post-treatment basis have been analyzed and the results are attached. Unfortunately, fenbendazole was used indiscriminately throughout the course of the year, and this was done without any significant information regarding its efficacy at killing all the adult lungworm and/or the somatically stored third stage larvae. When used in the field, no pre-treatment and very few post-treatment samples were obtained. Many of the post-treatment samples were evaluated by Robert Keiss. 4. Considerable difficulty was experienced in rearing snails, obtaining first stage larvae, infecting snails, and keeping snails alive a sufficient period of time to experimentally infect the mouflon/ bighorn sheep for evaluation of fenbendazole and albendazole. As a result of the request by Colorado Division of Wildlife to evaluate fenbendazole for palatability and toxicity, and the results of Objective No. 2 (evaluation of the 5 to 7 day regimen) most of the bighorn/mouflon sheep scheduled for the drug evaluation trials had to be utilized for this purpose. Since that time, snail culture and infection has improved immensely and about 1/3 (seven sheep) have been infected; however, this is not as yet a sufficient number to conclusively evaluate the efficacy of the above mentioned drugs. 5. The sheep dying as a result of the CamVet sorbic acid trials are reported above. One lamb captured in the net up the Poudre River died as a result of heat prostration in the net. The only other bighorn sheep examined at postmortem during the last fiscal year were four cases of Johne's disease from the Mount Evans-Grant herd. The postmortem results of these four animals is appended to this report. 6. The bighorn ram used for breeding the mouflon/bighorn cross ewes this last year apparently was not a satisfactory ram, because only four of the ewes were settled (producing six lambs) • .-~ Prepared by C: . \-' '" . 0 0 ""~.":~~~Q6.J C. P. Hibler �-50- Bighorn Fecal Samples Sample it Wt (g) Tot Ll 'L,/g feces Saguache - Collected 3/24/77 Sl S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 lamb S7 lamb S8 lamb 1 lamb 2 3 4 lamb 5 6 7 lamb 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 21 22 23 24 25 Ram 26 27 Ram 28 lamb 29 30 31 32 Ram 33 41 lamb 42 43 Ram 44 45 46 lamb 47 lamb 5.2 18 4.3 10 9.3 (not fully dried) 313 5.85 90 4.2 20 4.1 36 1.1 4 1.4 115 6.5 44 236 9 14 1030 2300 7 350 5 6.5 550 1075 7.5 700 4.5 23 4 575 4 2 5 9 5.5 850 8.5 125 6 300 4 300 3.75 130 6 562 4.5 6 345 645 8 1S 3 600 4.5 525 4 150 3 150 3.5 93 6 150 4.5 2.5 75 5 375 6.5 173 6.5 750 3 150 3.5 470 2.5 150 3.5 2.3 37 15.4 4.76 8.8 4 82 7 26 74 329 70 85 143 156 6 144 0.5 0.6 100 21 83 80 22 125 58 81 25 l33 l31 50 43 16 33 30 .75 27 115 50 135 60 �-51- Sample 4f Wt (g) 4-Mile - Teller Co - Collected Winter 76-77 Tot L1 L]/g feces (Pre-treatment) 3 3 1.5 1 2.5 2.5 2.5 4 2.5 3 500 200 50 50 50 100 400 150 250 150 167 67 33 50 25 40 160 37.5 100 50 4-Mile - Collected 3/24/77 3.5 1 4 2 6.5 3 6 4 7.5 5 6 6 7 3.5 7.5 8 4.5 9 4.5 10 11 3 12 5 5.5 13 12.5 14 5 15 5.5 16 5 17 6.5 18 3.5 19 7 56 0 1125 1 2850 64 15 6 5 0 4 46 975 1 1800 1 750 83 2 14 0 188 0.13 475 18 2 1.3 1.1 0 0.8 8.4 78 0.2 327.3 0.2 115.4 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Rampart Range - Collected Winter 76-77 (pre-treatment) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.5 2 4.5 3.5 3 4 4 3 3 3.5 450 700 250 200 250 150 350 600 350 350 300 350 56 57 83.3 38 87.5 200 116.7 100 �-52- Sample 4F Wt (g) Tot L1 L1/g feces 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3 4.5 3.5 3 4 4 4.5 2.5 4 4 5 4 5 3 2 2.5 4 4.5 5 700 500 800 400 100 0 250 500 0 0 0 350 150 100 200 250 100 300 0 233 111 229 133 25 0 55.5 200 0 0 0 87.5 30 33 100 100 25 67 0 Rampart Range - Collected Winter 76-77 (Post-treatment with Fenbendazole) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 3.5 5 4 2.5 3 7 3 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rampart Range - Collected Winter 76-77 (Post-treatment with Cambendazo1e) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 2 4 3 3 1.5 2 2 1.5 1.5 2 2 2.5 2 0 0 50 50 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 17 67 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 �-53- Sample iF Wt (g) Tot L1 LlJg feces Pike's Peak - Collected Winter 76-77 (pre-treatment) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 2.5 2.5 2 2 2 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 1.5 2 3 2 2.5 3 2.5 1.5 4.5 2 3.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 2 1.5 3 2.5 1.5 1.5 4 1 2 1.5 3 4 9 2.5 1.5 2025 350 375 1025 1250 150 800 675 162.5 1212.5 475 700 300 3000 900 1850 50 900 1050 800 300 200 300 750 1300 450 450 250 1600 250 0 1350 600 100 500 300 400 0 100 225 810 140 188 512.5 625 60 320 270 81.3 808 238 233 150 1200 300 740 33 200 350 229 200 100 150 375 650 225 300 83 640 167 0 338 600 50 333 100 100 0 40 150 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 Pike's Peak - (Post-treatment) 1 (yellow ear tag 2)1 1 2 (12) 1 3 1 4 1.5 5 (31) 1.5 6 (E33) 7 (collar tag 28) 1.5 8 (collar tag 27) 1 3.5 9 (30) 1 10 (old yellow 2) �-54- Sample 1t Wt (g) Pike's Peak - (Post-treatment 11 (lamb 39) 12 11 6 (ear tag) 32 47 64 65 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 1 5.5 2 2.5 4 1.5 1.5 3 5 2 2 2 2 3 3 1.5 2 2 1.5 2 2.5 1.5 2.5 2 1.5 1 2 2 2 2.5 3 3 1 1.5 3.5 2 3.5 2 2.5 2 1.5 3 2 - 2.5 2 2.5 2 1.5 2 Tot L1 Lljg feces 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 79 0 39 210 50 0 0 0 50 100 0 50 100 3300 250 350 150 0 0 0 0 2050 150 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 250 150 50 100 2100 500 200 450 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 0 20 105 25 0 0 0 33 50 0 33 50 1320 167 140 75 0 0 0 0 1025 60 67 0 0 0 0 0 0 125 60 25 67 700 250 80 - 225 0 0 0 25 continued) �-55- Bighorn Fecal Samples Co~ Creek - 3une 9, 1977 - Set up August 2, 1977 Samp,le ~. Wt (g) 'tot Ll 1 tot feces 1.3 15 2 tot!~feces 1.2 0 3.4 tot feces 1.8 0 5 y. ole sam~le 1.1 4 pellets 6 tot feces 2.3 0 3 4 Cross ~ountain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1a 19 2.8 2;4 4.6 4.3 1.1 4.6 2.7 2.3 3.1 7.0 4.8 o o o - 3une 6, 1977 - Set up August 4, 1977 0 3.6 tot feces 1.7 3 4.1 tot feces 2.5 4.3 tot feces 2.1 tot feces 3.7 tot feces 2.1 feces 11.5 1.1 2 1 larval output not reflected - (sample wts too small). T~e ~/g 2 1 1 22 3 12 Set up August 8, 1977 16 1 0 0 18 0.4 0 1.8 0.5 0.4 0.2 10.. 5 0.8 5.1 '.1 0.4 0 0 16.4 0 6 0 5 2.2 5 2 19 1.6 2.0 4.0 • 2.2 �-56- Basalt CaEtive SheeE Herd Pre-treatment 2-15-77 g Feces Used L1 Count L/g Lamb 1) 3.3g 56 16.97 Lamb 2) 3.3g 66 20 Lamb 3) 3.6g 156 43.33 4) 3.9g 0 0 5) 3.9g 88 22.56 6) 3.9g 0 0 7) 4.0g 0 0 8) 3.1g 0 0 9) 3.9g 0 0 10) 3.9g 33 8.46 11) 3.6g 67 18.61 12) 3.1g 65 20.97 13) 3.5g 0 0 14) 3.8g 180 47.31 15) 3.8g 0 0 16) 3.8g 16 4.21 17) 3.9g 79 20.26 18) 3.9g 31 7.95 19) 3.9g 10 2.56 20) 4.0g 4 1 �-57January, JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Project No. W-4l-R-27 Bighorn Sheep & Mountain Work Plan No. 3 Job No. Job Title and Translocating Bighorn Sheep Period Trapping Covered: Personnel: 1978 Goat Investigations 1 -------------------------------- June 1, 1976 through May 31, 1977 Robert L. Schmidt, Paul H. Neil, V. Feuerstein, M. Connors, M. Middleton, P. Yates, J. Morris, F. Colley, R. Mason, and B. Widhalm. ABSTRACT Bighorn ewes on Pikes Peak and the Poudre Canyon which were treated with therapeutic drugs (Carnbendazole - Merck & Co.) in apple pulp had 94 lambs per 100 ewes. Rampart ewes treated with the therapeutic drug Fenbendazole (Hoechst-Rossel) had 60 lambs per 100 ewes, but larval output in the feces remained negative ·for 8 months. A total of 112 bighorn sheep were trapped and transplanted from 5 herds and implanted into 6 new areas. A total of 978 sheep were treated with therapeutic drugs from 9 different herds. ��-59- TRAPPING AND TRANSLOCATING BIGHORN SHEEP Robert L. Schmidt P.N.O. OBJECTIVE The principle objective of this study will be to increase the total number of bighorn sheep within the State of Colorado by either introducing bighorn into areas which were historically bighorn sheep ranges and where no animals are in evidence today, and by adding additional animals to small remnant herds. By expanding bighorn sheep from crowded areas into other areas it is hoped that they will be better able to utilize the range and increase their numbers. Also the introduction of new animals, especially rams, into remnant populations should improve the reproductive capacity and livability of the lambs by improving the gene pool and lowering the percentage of inbreeding. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and translocate between 150 and 200 bighorn sheep. 2. Treat all captured bighorn sheep with chemotherapeutic trol of Protostrongylus sp. lungworm parasitism. 3. Monitor all translocated bighorn sheep for the degree of parasitism by collecting fecal pellet groups and checking them by standard laboratory procedures. drugs for the con- METHODS AND MATERIALS Baiting Procedures Baiting sites should be in the areas that sheep are using during the time of year that you intend to trap or treat sheep. The best areas appear to be close to bedding grounds, preferably upwind. If you intend to trap, a location fairly flat and free of rocks must be found. Snow depths should also be considered in snow country and tops of ridges should be looked at. Three or four months prior to trapping or treating, white salt blocks should be placed at all likely trap sites. Then at the time baiting is started, bait only the sites where salt has had heavy use. Apple pulp has been an excellent bait. It is the part of the apple which is left after the juice has been pressed out for apple cider. Some companies add sawdust, wood fiber, and rice hulls to the cider making process. This type of apple pulp has not been very successful. �-60- Apple pulp must be picked up fresh from the cider mill, placed on concrete or plastic to retain the juice. All air must be tramped out as you would in corn silage. The deeper it is piled the better. Before using the pulp for bait it should ferment for at least two weeks, with the supply being close to the baiting area. In cold winter months it will keep about a week on a pickup after being removed from the pile, however, in warm weather only about two days. If pulp is to be held for a longer period after removing from the pile it should be bagged and frozen. When starting to bait an area, three types of bait are used; apple pulp, white block salt, and good green alfalfa hay. Place some of the pulp on and around salt bloc-ks as well as on the alfalfa. Sheep do not know what apple pulp is and must come in contact with it to get them "hooked". This should take about three weeks. If large numbers of sheep are in the area, put out about 2 lbs of apple pulp per sheep per day to hook them. A good example is: If a hundred sheep are in the area and you bait with 40 lbs of apple pulp you will only hook about twenty sheep. When starting to bait, 40 lbs is about the .right amount, then as more sheep come, increase the bait in proportion to the additional numbers of sheep coming. For every pound of pulp used, use a lb of alfalfa at the bait station. Sheep that are on apple pulp will also eat big sage and other vegetation surrounding the bait station. Alfalfa will supplement the apple pulp and their requirement for roughage. If permitted an adult sheep will eat about 5 lbs of apple pulp per day; about 3-1/4 lbs in 30 minutes in the forenoon, then return in the afternoon and consume another 1-3/4 lbs. Sheep that are hooked will come to the bait station every morning, the run. At this time you are ready to trap or treat the sheep. Treating usually on Procedures Treatment of bighorn sheep has been accomplished by two separate methods. Drugs may be administered either by the addition of drugs to apple pulp or by orally drenching individual animals after trapping. Drugs were administered to the sheep at the trap after they had been removed from the net and tied. Both drugs were kept in a heated vehicle until usage to prevent freezing, as freezing is known to severely reduce effectiveness. The drug suspension was drawn up into a 50 cc syringe, a test tube attached and the solution was expressed into the throat, after inserting the test tube along the cheek past the molars. Gentle stroking of the throad aids in swallowing and helped prevent animals from holding the drugs in the mouth and later spitting them out. Administraiton of drugs without trapping was accomplished by mlxlng drugs with apple pulp at the bait station. Pre-mixing of drugs and apple mash was not practiced due to wastage. The amount of pulp is reduced when treating to help insure the consumption of the entire dose of drug, 3 lbs/adult, 2 lbs/yearling, lIb/lamb. A small top loading spring scale (graduated in lbs) and a trash can �-61- lid are used to weigh the pulp. The drug is mixed thoroughly with the weighed pulp (in the lid) by hand. using rubber gloves, and put out on the bait station. Putting the medicated pulp in 1-2 dose piles helps prevent bunching and uneven distribution of drugs. Since it is known that sheep commonly feed in the morning and afternoon it was shown best to complete treatment in the mornings to reduce double treatment. Sheep were monitored during treatment at a distance to insure that more drug was put out for newcomers. Two drugs have been successfully utilized for treatment, Cambendazole (Merck & Co.) and Fenbendazole (Hoechst-Rossel). Cambendazole has been proven effective against transplacentally transmitted larvae in the fetus, when administered in pregnancy. Cambendazole is marketed as Cam-Vet, a 3 percent active solution which due to the addition of a preservative sorbic acid has proven unpalatable to sheep. We have centrifuged the 3 percent solution to yield the concentrated drug + water and found this to be highly palatable. The adult dose of this concentrated solution is 30 cc (8.4 grams drug), 20 ccl yearling (5.6 grams drug), 10 cc/lamb (2.8 grams drug). Fenbendazole (Hoechst-Rossel) has been shown to be effective against adult Protostrongylus Spa to a greater extent than Cambendazole (Rampart Range 1976). Fenbendazole is available in a 10 percent active solution. The dosage is 20 mg/lb body weight or 30 cc/adult sheep, 20 cc/yearling, 10 cc/lamb. Two separate treatments have proven much more effective, however, both drugs have not been used simultaneously. If both drugs were used Fenbendazole was given first, followed in 10 days by treatment with Cambendazole. Two treatments with Fenbendazole were also given 10 days apart. Two treatments with Cambendazole were given 3 weeks apart due to a resistance shown by sheep to the second treatment. Also, it was not uncommon for sheep not to return to bait the day following treatment. Trapping Procedures The trap net was set up over the preferred bait site at least a week prior to trapping operations to allow sheep to become accustomed to going under the net. The initial reaction of the sheep was variable, but in those herds which were solidly hooked on apple pulp reluctance soon disappeared. After sheep come to bait regularly under the net we use a 70 ft square drop net. The trap weighs approximately 280 lbs for the net plus the poles. With an experienced crew the trap will handle 15 to 25 sheep. Start with 5 to 8 sheep. The net is in four 35 ft squares that snap together making it easier to handle, which is important in getting sheep out of the trap. We use a radio-controlled detonator to drop the trap, which gives considerable flexibility and does not require a man at one point at all times. The detonator now being used has been quite successful, not having had a fake drop in 3 years. The range is over 2 miles, however you should stay as close as possible as it is important to get to the dropped trap immediately. The trap is designed to be set up on frozen ground and can be set up in approximately an hour and a half. It withstands extremely high winds, provi ding all steel anchor posts are wrapped with burlap at points where anchor �-62- ropes are to be tied. Failure to wrap posts results in broken the collapse of the net. ropes and The four corner posts must be set first and squared at 76 feet. Next the four anchor posts are set and wrapped with burlap. The anchor post must be set in exact line with the corner post and the opposite corner post. Now snap the net together and tie in four corner blasting ropes. Blasting rope should have a Bolen loop on one end, which can be run through net corner ring and blasting rope run back through it. The other end of the blasting rope can be half hitched to loop in end of pulley rope. A total of 8 blasting cap ropes are used on the trap and all attached in the same manner. When corner blasting rope is attached, wire the blasting cap wires to the detonator wire and pull corners tight. There should be about one to two-foot of rope between pulley and blasting cap rope. Now tie in side anchor ropes with blasting cap ropes. One side anchor rope, the up-hill one, does not have a blasting cap. The side anchor post should be 20 ft from line between corner posts. Corner anchor post should be at least 15 ft from corner post. The further all anchor posts are away from the net, the better they hold. Set side anchor post in line with snap line, then tie in center blasting rope. Put up side braces, making sure side brace without blasting rope is not standing straight up. Put up center pole and tie slack rope to corner post. They should be tight for up to 7 sheep and have 6 to 8 ft of slack for 20 to 25 sheep. After trap is up, bait should be placed in a circle one-half way between center pole and side of net with bait line from center bait to a point 10 ft outside of net. Two or 3 lines should lead out the way you think sheep will come in from; one of these should lead out the down wind side. It is best to allow sheep to come under the net for 2 or 3 days in large sheep populations before trapping as the less wary sheep will encourage others to come under the net. When you are ready to trap and the sheep begin coming into the net they will tend to group causing problems as the sheep should be evenly distributed under the net. Before they can be evenly distributed you may find you have more sheep than the trap will handle. If this occurs, move in so that some or all will leave. If they have not been there more than 10 to 15 minutes some will come right back under. This time stay closer to the net so some sheep will stay back. The total time the sheep will be under the net is 30 minutes and it is not a good idea to drop the net in the sheep's face if you intend to trap them later. When taking sheep out of the trap a 5-man crew works best; four men to remove the sheep from net and 1 man assigned to observing sheep in the net. One of the important things to watch for is a sheep with its head turned back along the body so tight that it is unable to breathe or is lying on top of its head. These sheep must be straightened out at once. The observer can also tell the crew which sheep should be removed from the net first. Snaps in the net are extremely helpful in getting the sheep out. Sheep should be removed by pulling them out by the back legs, not by the horns or head as t hf,s could cause neck damage. Hog-tieing works well when collaring and treating sheep for release, and temperature is not too cold. When hog-tied a burlap bag should be placed over the head. Sheep that are to be transported can be removed from the net and walked to a truck by one man holding up one back leg and one man walking along side the neck with a hand on each horn so as to guide the sheep. �-63- In order to facilitate the larger number of trap sites three complete nets were assembled, and two detonators purchased. The additional nets allowed more than one preferred bait station or more than one area to be worked at one time. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Poudre·Canyon and Pikes Peak All of the bighorn ewes collared in the Poudre treatment area (both this year and years previous) were treated at least once with drugs in apple pulp. Observations conducted between November 15, 1976 and December 15, 1976, reported 94 lambs per 100 ewes. Eighty-seven percent of the total ewes ever collared on Pikes Peak were also treated at least once with drugs in apple pulp. A similar percent of the unco11ared ewes in the Pikes Peak area were treated along with the collared ewes. Observations conducted from November 15, 1976 to January 15, 1977, reported more than 100 lambs per 100 ewes (Morris 1977). The large 1amb:ewe ratio is thought to be to old age mortality of ewes between September and January. Rampart Range Fenbendazo1e Trial Results Bighorn ewes on Rampart Range were treated three times with the therapeutic drug Fenbendazo1e in April 1976. Subsequent monitoring of larvae per gram output in the ewes reported larval output to decline to negative and remain negative for 8 months. Field observations conducted from November 1, 1976 to January 15, 1977 reported 60 lambs per 100 ewes. LITERATURE Morris, J. 1977. Personal CITED communication. Colo. Div. Wildlife, S.E. Region. �Table 1. Trapping, treating, transplant and re-re1eased data of bighorn sheep, June 1976 to June 1977. Pulp Net Treated Cambendaz ole Fenbendazo1e Trapped Released Poudre Canyon 187 29 104 108 30 4 25 11 1 Georgetown 16 - 16 Mt. Evans 84 38 84 37 38 17 20 u 1 Grant 83 23 106 - 23 23 Tarrya11 115 20 115 20 41 21 20 11 Pikes Peak 182 29 117 94 51 31 19 !il 1 Trickle Mtn. 64 48 83 29 49 20 19 :2./ 1 Basalt 23 - 23 - - - Rampart 38 - 19 19 Area 11 Apishapa Canyon. ]j Cross Mountain. 11 Cow Creek. !il Soap Creek. il Lamb property. 6/ Cebolla Creek. Transplanted 9 2..1 Fatality I .,.. 0\ I �-65- Table 2. Identification numbers of bighorn River, February 9, 1977. Collar No. 1/ ]) sheep transplanted * to Apishapa Sex Age Trap Site 30 F Lamb Poudre Canyon 31 M 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 32 M Lamb Poudre Canyon 33 M Lamb Poudre Canyon 34 F Lamb Poudre Canyon 35 M 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 39 F Lamb Poudre Canyon M 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 20 F 10+ Poudre Canyon 21 F 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 22 F 4 Poudre Canyon 23 F 10+ Poudre Canyon 24 F 3 Poudre Canyon 25 F 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 26 F 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 27 F 2-1/2 Poudre Canyon 28 F 6 Poudre Canyon 29 F 7+ Poudre Canyon 30 F 5 Poudre Canyon 31 F 2-1/2 Poudre Canyon ? F 1-1/2 Poudre Canyon 2 F 5 Poudre Canyon 3 F 6 Poudre Canyon Ear Tag No. 21/ *Total number of sheep released was 25; eartags of two sheep were not recorded at the trap site, they were believed to be 37, 38. ~/Yellow collar with black numbers. l/White eartag with black numbers, placed in right ear. l/Yellow eartag with black numbers placed in right ear. �-66- Table 3. Identification numbers of bighorn in Poudre Canyon, February 9, 1977. };/ l/White Site Age M 6 Meadows F 7+ Meadows 36 M 3-1/2 Meadows ? M 3 Meadows Red 8 Orange/black Release Sex Ear Tag No. Collar sheep trapped and released stripe ear tag with black numbers placed in right ear. Table 4. Identification Creek, March 31, 1977. numbers of bighorn ]j Sex Age 5 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 7 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 35 F 1 Trickle Mountain 36 F 1 Trickle Mountain 37 F 3 Trickle Mountain 38 F 4 Trickle Mountain 39 F 4 Trickle Mountain R a d·10-3/ F 3 Trickle Mountain Ra d·10-4/ F 3 Trickle Mountain Collar No. 1/ l/White Ear Tag No. Sheep transplanted collars with black numbers. 2:.../ Red ear tag with black numbers placed in right ear. l/Telemetry 4/ - Telemetry collar, yellow with red stripe. collar, black. to Cebolla Trap Site �-67- Table 5. Identification numbers of bighorn sheep transplanted to Cow Creek, March 17, 1977. Collar No. l/ l:/ Sex Age Trap Site 49 M 1 Tarryall 50 F Lamb Tarrya11 51 M Lamb Tarryall 52 M Lamb Tarryall 53 M Lamb Tarryall 4 F 1 Tarryall 5 F 3 Tarryall 6 F 2 Tarryall 7 F 5 Tarryall 8 F 4 Tarryall 9 F 6 Tarryall 10 F 5 Tarryall 11 F 4 Tarryall 12 F 2 Tarrya11 l3 F 3 Tarryall 14 M 2 Tarryall 15 F 6 Tarryall 16 F 5 Tarrya11 17 F 5 Tarrya11 18 F 4 Tarryall l/ Ear Tag No. White collar with black numbers. 2/ White eartag with black numbers placed in right ear. �-68- Table 6. Mountain, Identification numbers January 26, 1977. Collar No. 1./ Ear Tag No. of bighorn 2/ Sex sheep transplanted Age to Cross Trap Site 7 F Lamb Mt. Evans 8 M Lamb Mt. Evans 9 F Lamb Mt. Evans 10 ,. M Lamb Mt. Evans 11 M Lamb Mt. Evans 12 M l~ Mt. Evans 13 M l~ Mt. Evans 14 M l~ Mt. Evans 4 F 4 Mt. Evans 5 F 5 Mt. Evans 6 F 6+ Mt. Evans 7 F 3 Mt. Evans 8 F 5+ Mt. Evans 9 F 3 Mt. Evans 10 F 3+ Mt. Evans 11 F 2 Mt. Evans 12 F 7 Mt. Evans 13 F 3 Mt. Evans 14 F 3 Mt. Evans 15 F 4 Mt. Evans 1/ Yellow collars with black numbers. 2/ White ear tags with black numbers, placed in right ear. �-69- Table 7· Identification numbers property March 31, 1977 • Collar No. 1/ Ear Tag No. of bighorn sheep transplanted ]:./ to Lamb Sex Age Trap Site 68 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 69 F Lamb Trickle Mountain 72 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 73 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 74 M 1 Trickle Mountain 75 M 1 Trickle Mountain 11 F 6 Trickle Mountain 12 F 6 Trickle Mountain 14 F 6 Trickle Mountain 15 F 1 Trickle Mountain 16 F 1 Trickle Mountain 17 F 2 Trickle Mountain 81 F 5 Trickle Mountain 19 F 5 Trickle Mountain 20 F 5 Trickle Mountain 21 F 5 Trickle Mountain 23 F 6 Trickle Mountain 25 F 3 Trickle Mountain Radio F 2 Trickle Mountain 1./ Orange collars with black numbers. 2/ White eartags with black numbers, placed in right ear. �-70- Table 8. Identification numbers of bighorn at Grant, Colorado, April 14 and 20, 1977 • 1/ Collar No. - Ear Tag No. sheep trapped and released Sex Age Release Site 3 2:/ M Lamb Grant 4 Jj F Lamb Grant 5 J:j F Lamb Grant M Lamb Grant M Lamb Grant F Lamb Grant M Lamb Grant M Lamb Grant M Lamb Grant M Lamb Grant 16l/ F Lamb Grant 17 1/ M Lamb Grant 181/ M Lamb Grant 19 1/ F Lamb Grant 38 F 4 Grant 39 F 1 Grant; 42 F 3 Grant 43 F 4 Grant 44 F 1 Grant 45 F 4 Grant 46 F 1 Grant 47 F 3 Grant R ad I 10-4/ F 5 Grant 6 J:j 7 2:../ 8 2:../ 9 2:../ lO 2:../ 11 2:../ 12 2:../ 1/ - Orange collar with black numbers. 2/ - Orange eartag with black numbers placed 3/ - Yellow in right ear. eartag with black numbers placed in right ear. 4/ - Telemetry collar, green with orange stripe. �-71- Table 9. Identification numbers of bighorn sheep trapped and released Mt. Evans, January 25 and February 1, 1977. Collar No. 1/ Ear Tag No. l:./ on Sex Age Release Site 1 M l~ Ht. Evans 2 M l~ Mt. Evans 3 F Lamb Mt. Evans 4 F Lamb Mt. Evans 5 M 3 Mt. Evans 6 M 2 Mt. Evans 15 M 5 Mt. Evans 16 F Lamb Mt. Evans 18 F Lamb Mt. Evans 19 F 2 Mt. Evans 20 F Lamb Mt. Evans 1 F 3 Mt. Evans 2 F 3 Mt. Evans 3 F 3 Mt. Evans 16 F l~ Mt. Evans 17 F 5 Mt. Evans 19 F 5 Mt. Evans II Yellow collar with black numbers. ~I White ear tag with black numbers, placed in right ear. �-72- Table 10. Identification Creek, March 8, 1977. Collar No. ]j numbers of bighorn Ear Tag No. ]j sheep transplanted Sex Age Trap Site 40 M Lamb Pikes Peak 41 F Lamb Pikes Peak 42 M Lamb Pikes Peak 43 M Lamb Pikes Peak 44 M Lamb Pikes Peak 45 F Lamb Pikes Peak M 1 Pikes Peak 32 F 1 Pikes Peak 33 F 1 Pikes Peak 34 F Pikes Peak 35 F Pikes Peak 36 F Pikes Peak 37 F Pikes Peak 38 F Pikes Peak 39 F Pikes Peak 40 F Pikes Peak 41 F Pikes Peak 42 F Pikes Peak 43 F 11 ]j 2 1/ Yellow collar with black numbers. 2/ to Soap White ear tag with black numbers, 1/ Yellow ear tag with black numbers, placed in right ear. placed in right ear. Pikes Peak �-73- Table 11. Identification numbers of bighorn sheep trapped and released at Tarrya11, March 17, 1977 . Collar No. II Ear Tag No. Jj Sex Age Release Site 49 M 2 Tarrya11 50 F Lamb Tarrya11 51 M Lamb Tarrya11 52 M Lamb Tarryall 53 M Lamb Tarrya11 54 M 4 Tarryal1 55 M 3 Tarrya11 56 M 3 Tarrya1l 57 M 3 Tarrya11 58 F Lamb Tarrya11 59 M Lamb Tarrya11 60 M 2 Tarryall 61 M 1 Tarryall 62 M 4 Tarryall 63 M 5 Tarryall 4 F 1 Tarryall 5 F 3 Tarryall 6 F 2 Tarryall 8 F 4 Tarryall 9 F 6 Tarryall 10 F 5 Tarryall 11 F 4 Tarryall 12 F 2 Tarrya1l ------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-74- Table II. Identification numbers of bighorn sheep trapped and released at Tarryall, March 17,1977 (continued). Collar No. 1/ Ear Tag No. ]j Sex Age Release Site 13 F 3 Tarryall 14 M 2 Tarryall 15 F 6 Tarryall 16 F 5 Tarryall 17 F 5 Tarryall 18 F 4 Tarryall 19 F 4 Tarryall 20 F 5 Tarryall 21 F 5 Tarryall 22 F 5 Tarryall 23 F 5 Tarryall 24 F 5 Tarryall 25 F 6 Tarryall 26 F 3 Tarryall 27 F 5 Tarryall 28 F 4 Tarryall 29 F 7 Tarryall 1/ White collar with black numbers. ]j White eartag with black numbers placed in right ear. �-75- Table 12. Identification numbers of bighorn sheep trapped and released on Trickle Mountain, April 4 and 8, 1977 . Collar No. II J:./ Sex Age Release Site 76 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 77 F Lamb Trickle Mountain 78 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 79 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 80 M Lamb Trickle Mountain 13 F 6 Trickle Mountain 22 F 5 Trickle Mountain 24 F 3 Trickle Mountain 26 F 2 Trickle Mountain 27 F 1 Trickle Mountain 28 F 4 Trickle Mountain 29 F 5 Trickle Mountain 30 F 7 Trickle Mountain 31 F 5 Trickle Mountain 32 F 4 Trickle Mountain 33 F 3 Trickle Mountain 34 F 3 Trickle Mountain 35 F 3 Trickle Mountain 36 F 4 Trickle Mountain 37 F 4 Trickle Mountain Ear Tag No. l/orange collar with black numbers. J:./Whiteeartag with black numbers placed in right ear. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/e779e9abb1fabe03287bdbdadf15b462.pdf 98a396c293dbffef72320157887c3bcf PDF Text Text April 1978 JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO --------------~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: REPORT Game Bird Survey W-37-R-3l 9 Job No. Evaluation of the Effects of Changes ~i~n~H~u~n~t=i~n~g~R~e~g~u~l~a~t==i~o~n~s~o~n~S~a~g~e=_~G~r~o~u=s~e~P~o~p~u==l=a~t _ 3 --------------------------------- April I, 1977 through March 31, 1978 Personnel: Fred Giese, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Layne Adams, Don Benson, Clait Braun, Deborah Covic, Courtney Crawford, Steve Emmons, Sue Erickson, Howard Funk, Ken Giesen, Don Gore, John Hobbs, Jim Jackson, Bob Leasure, Tom Lynch, Sig Palm, Brett Petersen, Steve Porter, Barbara Quinlan, Howard Spear, John Wagner, Ron Zaccagnini, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRAcr Investigations concerning the relationships of hunting to breeding population levels, and mortality and survival rates of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in North Park, Colorado initiated in 1975, continued in 1977. Numbers of known leks increased as five new leks were located. Average number of cocks per lek remained constant. Total estimated spring population $ize was about 5,780 birds. In 1977, 560 (313 males, 245 females) sage grouse were banded. Seventy-five broods were observed with a composite average of 3.2 chicks per successful hen. Estimated nesting success based on 127 females seen during the brood period was 59 percent. A 16 day permit only hunting season was allowed in North Park in 1977 with bag and possession limits of 3 and 6. Data from wings (N = 632) collected at check stations, wing barrels and field checks revealed that the harvest was comprised of 46 percent young of the year, 19 percent yearlings and 35 percent adults. Calculated hatching dates for 290 hunter harvested juveniles ranged from late May to 12 July with a peak between 10-15 June. Estimated nesting success from examination of wings of adult and yearling females was 50 percent with more adults (59%) than yearlings (33%) being successful. Ovarian analysis (N = 89) indicated that 96 (yearlings) to 98 percent (adults) of all females had ovulated. Total permits issued numbered 1,093, and only 77 percent of the permittees actually hunted. Estimated total harvest including crippling loss was 1,070 grouse. This was an increase of approximately 20 percent from 1976 harvest levels. Eighty-four bands were recovered and reported by hunters. Survival and mortality rates were calculated with adult males having lower survival estimates than yearling males and all females. Estimated fall population size was about 7,600 birds with a harvest rate of about 14 percent. �-2RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Trapping and banding of sage grouse should be terminated in North Park except to achieve objectives relating to limited areas (groups of leks) and specialized studies. 2. Counts of male sage grouse present on leks in April and early May should be continued indefinitely into the future. However, revision of present procedures (4 counts during specified intervals of all leks) may be warranted upon completion of this study. 3. Counts of hens with broods along roadsides from vehicles and walking brood transects in North Park have little merit and should be terminated. 4. Collection of harvest data (i.e. wings) and proper analysis continued indefinitely for management purposes. Collection be through manned check stations or volunteer wing barrels. 5. The basic sage grouse season in North Park should be a minimum days with bag and possession limits of 3 and 6. 6. The special hunting should be of wings can permit in North Park should be discontinued. of 16 f'. �-3- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN HUNTING REGULATIONS ON SAGE GROUSE POPULATIONS C1ait E. Braun Sage grouse are widely distributed in western North America, occuping sagebrush dominated rangelands. Presently they are hunted on a regular basis in 9 western states and on an occasional basis in two other states. States which hunt sage grouse routinely collect different types of population data and regulate hunter opportunity and harvest. Management of sage grouse has primarily been based on counts of cocks on leks in April and estimates of nesting success and brood size obtained in July and August. Unfortunately. evaluation of existing data gathering procedures and knowledge of the impacts of hunting have been and are limited. Data presented in this report concern these problems and represent the period of mid-March 1977 through mid-March 1978. P. N. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are to increase hunter opportunity and recreational use of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. Hypotheses which are being tested are: a. Hunter harvest does not affect spring counts of strutting spring counts of females under any regulations. b. Counts of females during the peak of attendance on strutting grounds are a reliable index to overall numbers of sage grouse in spring. c. Hunter d. Nesting success and brood size to 15 August. while important in determining age composition of the harvest, have no relationship to hunter success and total harvest. e. Differences and nesting success and total harvest exist between success. are a function yearling of August males or peak precipitation. and adult hens in percent ovulating, SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1a. Counts of males will be made on 10 selected leks three times each week from 5:00 to 7:30 A.M. during the month of April. lb. Counts of females will be made on 10 selected days in April (period of peak attendance). 2a. Males will be trapped and marked with color-coded bands at night while roosting on or near leks. A sample of 200 is desired. Trapping will be conducted from mid-March to late May by spotlighting and netting. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. leks every day for 10 �-4- 2b. Females will be trapped during the early A.M. on leks during April through use of walk in, mist and cannon nets. A sample of 300 is desired. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. 2c. Chicks will be located and trapped in brood areas during late July and August through use of tape recorded calls and noosing. Some chicks may be caught through use of cannon nets and drive traps. A sample of 200 chicks (100 males and 100 females) is desired. Bandings will be evenly distributed in four areas of North Park. 3a. Nesting success will be estimated through counts of successful and unsuccessful hens in July and August. Successful females will be located through use of tape recorded calls, while unsuccessful hens will be located and counted in known summer use sites. A sample of 200 hens is desired. 3b. Brood size will be determined by counts of chicks accompanied in July and August. A sample of 100 broods is desired. 4. August precipitation will be determined from 12 rain gauges placed at selected sites throughout sage grouse habitat. Sites will be selected that typify particular areas within North Park. Each rain gauge will be sampled once a week. Data collected will be compared to that collected by the U. S. Weather Bureau in Walden and at Spicer. 5. Population size will be estimated in spring and fall. Spring population size will be estimated through use of ratios of males to females on leks, observation and recapture of marked birds and ratios of males to females and juvenile to yearling to adult age classes in the harvest the preceding fall. Fall (pre-hunting) population size will be estimated through examination of data on nesting success, brood size to 1 September and spring population data. Independent fall population estimates will be made through use of data collected at check stations on age composition of the harvest and number of marked birds shot. 6a. Hunting will be by free permit only, and all hunters will be mailed a questionnaire within one week of the end of the hunting season. One followup letter will be sent to all non-respondents three weeks after the initial mailing. A goal of 90 percent response is desired. 6b. Check stations will be operated during the opening weekend at State Line and Willow Creek Pass. Wing collection barrels will be placed at Muddy Pass, Gould, Saratoga Hf.ghway , and Independence Mountain during the entire season. Collection barrels will also be available near State Line and Willow Creek Pass when manned check stations are not in operation. A goal of 500 wings is desired. 6c. Number and location of marked birds shot will be obtained through use of check stations, field hunter checks and voluntary mail reporting. A goal of 50 first year recoveries is desired. by hens �-5- 6d. 6e. Hunter success will be determined through data collected stations and from the mail questionnaire survey. at check Age composition of the harvest will be determined through examination Classification will be as adult, of wings collected at check stations. yearling, juvenile, male and female. 6f. Total harvest will be estimated (90 percent mail questionnaire survey of all hunters. 7. Regulations of up to three and six birds, bag and possession, days (season length) will be requested in 1977. 8. Compile data, analyze results, METHODS and prepare confidence progress level) from the and 21 report. AND MATERIALS Counts of male and female sage grouse present on leks were periodically made by project personnel and Wildlife Conservation Officers following proscribed procedures (Braun and Beck 1976). Counts were made from 22 March through 24 May at times within one-half hour of sunrise. Searches for new or relocated grounds were made through ground reconnaissance. Male and female sage grouse were trapped at night along roads and on leks where they roosted. Some birds, primarily hens, were captured at dawn on leks through use of cannon nets. Chicks were captured at night or in the day where they roosted or hid. Most birds were captured through use of a spotlight with a back pack or hand held power source and long handled nets (Braun and Beck 1976). Sage grouse banded and released were marked with serially numbered aluminum bands (size 16 for males, 14 for females) and colored plastic and aluminum bands coded to capture locations and year. Age and sex classification of birds captured followed Eng (1955). Hens with broods were located during July and August through systematic searches of selected areas and observations along roads and trails. Systematic searches for broods involved walking moist areas and playback of tape recorded chick distress calls (Braun et al. 1973, Wallestad 1970). Searches for broods along roads and trails were made from a vehcile following established routes (Gill 1965) and other suitable appearing areas. Routes were traversed shortly after sunrise at a speed of 15 to 20 miles per hour. Sage grouse hunters in North Park in 1977 were required to have in their possession a free numbered permit. Permits unlimited in number were available from Division of Wildlife offices in Fort Collins and Denver, all license agents in North Park, and all project and management personnel assigned to work in North Park during the hunting season. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the sage grouse season in North Park, with one fo1lowup letter being mailed in mid-October to all non-respondents. Check stations were operated at two locations (State Line and Willow Creek Pass) on the opening weekend (10 and 11 September) and the second Sunday (18 September). Each station was operated from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending �-6- upon traffic load. Data obtained per party were: county of or1g1n, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters), birds observed, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained, and area hunted. One wing was obtained from each bird checked with ovaries being taken or examined from a sample of hens. Efforts were made to ascertain sex by gonadal inspection for a sample of birds. These data were recorded on tags with wings being individually marked with corresponding information concerning actual sex of that bird. Wings were frozen and stored for later analysis. In addition to the two check stations, wing barrels and signs (Hoffman and Braun 1975) were placed along Colorado 14 near Muddy Pass, near the State Line along Colorado 125, along Colorado 14 near Gould, at the junction of Jackson County roads 6 and 34, north of the junction of Colorado 125 and 127 along Colorado 127 and at Willow Creek Pass along Colorado 125. Volunteer stations were in operation the entire season near Muddy Pass and Gould, on all days that manned check stations were not operating on Colorado 127 north of its junction with Colorado 125 and along Colorado 125 at Willow Creek Pass and for the opening weekend only at the junction of Jackson County roads 6 and 34 and on the Saratoga Highway (Colorado 125). Collected wings were thawed and classified to age (chicks, yearlings, adults) and sex following procedures outlined by Eng (1955), and Beck et al. (1975). Hatching dates were calculated for chicks of the year using data from pyrah (1963). Ovaries collected were stored in AFA (alcohol, formalin and acetic acid) and later examined for presence of ovulated follicles as described by Kabat et al. (1948). Description of Area North Park lies completely in Jackson County, Colorado. This relatively high altitude (7,800 to 8,500 ft) area is essentially a closed basin, as it is encircled by mountain ranges. Drainage is to the north, with lowest elevations occurring north of Cowdrey. Vegetation is principally a sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-grassland type with stream courses being dominated by native grasses, sedges and deciduous shrubs. Detailed geographic, geologic, vegetational and climatic features of the area have been described by Gill (1965), Carr (1967), Beck (1975), Braun and Beck (1976) and will be treated in the final report. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Counts of Sage Grouse on Display Areas Counts of male and female sage grouse present on leks were initiated on 22 March (Alkali Lake, Bighorn, Boettcher Lake Junction, Hound, Walden and Wattenburg #2) and continued until 24 May (Bighorn and Boettcher Lake Junction). During this interval 357 counts were made of 26 active leks. Maximum counts of males and females and dates obtained are presented in Table 1. The total of 809 males counted is higher than the 669 counted in �-7- Table 1. Peak lek counts of sage grouse, North Park, 1977. Lek Males Date(s) Females Date(s) Alkali lake 36 25 April 49 8 April Arapahoe 46 10 May 3 23 April Aspen 21 17 May 1 26 April, 17 May Bighorn 52 20 April, 6 May 54 23 April Boettcher Lake Junction 76 23 April 35 13 April Canuck 27 22 April 15 7 April Coalmont 21 15 April 29 13 April Cowdrey #5 5 8 April 0 All Dates Deer Creek 31 22 & 28 April 17 8 April Denmark 58 3 May 10 23 & 24 April Fish Hatchery 64 17 May 59 7 April Hound 21 6 April 28 13 April Lost Creek III 47 6 May 30 12 April Monahan Draw 1 6 & 22 April 2 6 April Owl Creek 16 8 April 11 15 April Pronghorn 15 24 May 0 24 May Railroad 41 17 April 52 7 April Raven 73 23 May 5 23 May Ridge Road 32 6 April 34 12 April Riley 9 16 April 10 12 April Roth 8 6 April 0 All Dates. Spring Creek III 45 10 May 42 13 April Spring Creek 112 23 20 & 26 April 15 7 April Spring Creek 114 3 21 & 27 April 1 15 April Walden Reservoir 26 2 April 55 6 April Wattenburg #2 12 29 April, 9 May 7 4 April Total 809 564 �-8- 1976 but represents 5 new leks (Arapahoe, Aspen, Denmark, Pronghorn, and Raven). Two other small display areas (Case Flats = 3 males and Badger 9 males) were not listed as permanent leks even though they have been sporadically active for several years. Trends in numbers of male sage grouse counted from 1973 through 1977 are presented in Table 2. Average number of cocks counted per lek has remained consistent through the 5 year period although number of known leks has increased from 17 to 26. During this same interval only 2 known leks have been abandoned by sage grouse. These data strongly suggest that either numbers of sage grouse in North Park are increasing or project personnel are becoming more knowledgeable and efficient. It is probable that additional grounds remain to be located. In the fall of 1976 a coal haul road was constructed adjacent to the Roth lek. During the 1977 breeding period traffic by the ground started at 5:30 A.M. MST with an average of 11 large trucks per hour traversing the road during the breeding interval. It is expected that this ground will be abandoned before 1978. The importance of the counts of females on leks (total = 564) in 1977 is unknown. This number is less than the counts of 573 in 1975 and 599 in 1976. Due to logistic problems of counting all leks on the same days during peak of mating and proper interpretation, it is probable that counts of hens will not be useful for other than estimating onset of nesting and expected appearance of broods. The peak period of female attendance in 1977 was between 6 and 13 April. These dates are almost identical to those observed in 1976 (5-15 April). Analysis of daily and weekly changes in counts of male sage grouse on leks for the 1973 -1977 period have been initiated and pertinent data will be prepared for publication. These data will be published in a technical journal article. Estimation of Spring Population Size Reliable estimates of total numbers of sage grouse in North Park during the breeding period are difficult to derive. Major problems involved are those relating to how many males and females of the total population are present on leks when peak counts are attained and how many of the actual number of active leks are known and counted. There is some evidence to suggest that only 50 percent of the male segment of the population of lekking species is present on a ground when peak counts of males are attained (Robel 1969, Rippin and Boag 1974). If it is assumed that peak counts of male sage grouse represent 50 percent of the male population in an area, then at least 1,618 (809 x 2) cocks occurred in North Park in the spring of 1977. It is quite obvious that all lek locations are not known in a given year. If it is assumed that 80 percent of the active leks have been located, then a minimum of 5 (.20 x 26) unknown leks should occur somewhere within North Park. Assuming that these 5 grounds have an average of 31 cocks during �-9- Table 2. Peak counts of male sage grouse on leks, North Park 1973-1977. AVERAGE GROUND ALKALI LAKE ARAPAHOE (1977)* ASPEN (1977) BIGHORN (1976) BoETTCHER LAKE JUNCTION BoETTCHER FLATS <1963-1970) CANUCK (1974) COAU1ONT COWDREY #1 <1968-1971> COWDREY 113 <1963-1971> COWDREY #5 (1973) DEER CREEK DELANEY BUTTE (1970-1972) DENMARK <1977> (1970-1972) FISH HATCHERY HOUND (1974) LAKE JOHN #2 <1968-1971) LOST CREEK #1 LOST CREEK #2 MONAHAN DRAW OwL CREEK (1976) PRONGHORN (1977) RAILROAD (1975) RAVEN <1977> RIDGE ROAD RILEY (1973) ROTH <197LI) SPRING CREEK #1 SPRING CREEK #2 (1968, 1970-1972) SPRING CREEK #4 WALDEN RESERVOIR (1973) <1963-1969) WATTENBURG #1 WATTENBURG #2 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 77.3 31 72 68 39 36.6 7.0 59 0 39.4 9.2 5.0 56.6 13.3 117 0 0 30 37 4 46 0 29 27 0 0 19 11 13 50 0 22 29 0 0 9 27 0 46 62 0 30 28 0 0 5 36 0 53.7 67 13.5 54.4 27.4 56.2 0 13 10 11 62 69 0 0 1 3 69 33 0 13 0 6 81 27 0 33 0 1 14 36 37 27 12 14 49 14 3 34 0 18 32 18 9 49 11 3 37 0 16 36 46 21 52 76 0 27 21 0 0 5 31 0 58 64 21 0 47 0 1 16 15 41 73 32 9 8 45 23 3 26 76.4 36 12 37.6 75.8 13.7 46 39 9 38 1.5 27.2 0 24 33 15 10 33 15 10 37 0 22 0 12 - (19) 563<17> 527(19) 588(19) 669(21) 809(26) TOTALS (H) AVERAGE/AcTIVE 1968-1972 GROUND 39.1 33.1 27.7 30.9 31.9 * Year of initial location is given next to name of all recently located grounds. 31.1 �-10- the peak period of male attendance, they represent a minimum of 310 additional cocks (31 x 5 = 155 x 2 = 310). Thus the total estimated number of cocks in North Park in spring 1977 was 1928. This is higher than the 1,486 cocks estimated to have been in North Park in 1975 and the 1,682 cocks estimated in 1976. All available data suggest that these estimates are realistic and that the apparent increase in the population is real. Beck (1977) found a late winter sex ratio of 69 hens to 31 cocks, a value remarkably similar to the sex ratio of adult and yearling birds in the fall harvest (Braun and Beck 1976). If it is assumed that the spring sex ratio of the North Park sage grouse population is similar to that observed in late wiriter and early fall, then 2 hens occur for every cock in the population. Thus, the total spring female population can be estimated based on the estimated number of cocks in the spring population. Therefore, there should have been a minimum of 3,856 hens in the 1977 spring population (1,928 x 2 = 3,856). Thus, the estimated total spring population of sage grouse within North Park in 1977 was 5,784 birds if actual projections are used. This is substantially higher than the 5,046 birds estimated in 1976. It is reasonable to assume that the 1977 spring sage grouse population in North Park was between 5,000 to 6,000 birds. Capture and Banding Intensive efforts to capture and band sage grouse in the 1977 field period were initiated on 21 March and continued through 24 May. Efforts to locate, trap and band young of the year were initiated in early July and continued until 9 September. Two additional hens were banded in December. Age and sex data for the banded sample are given in Table 3. The total of 560 birds banded in 1977 was the highest number since intensive trapping efforts were initiated in 1973. This included the highest number of females and chicks in the 5 year period. Greater success in 1977 was related to excellent access (the winter of 1976-77 was mild with little snow), improvement in a power source for trapping along roads, use of two different crews each night during a 10 day period, and trapping effort each night from mid-March to mid-May. As in earlier years, distribution of bandings within North Park was not uniform as trapping effort paralleled distribution of known leks. Since relatively few leks were known to occur in the northeast quarter of the Park until mid-May, only 66 of the 529 birds banded during the breeding period were in this area. The same was partially true for the southeast quarter of the Park where 95 birds were banded in the March-May interval. During this same interval 174 birds were banded in the northwest quarter while 194 were banded in the southwest quarter of the Park. Composition of the banded sample of adults and yearlings does not reflect age and sex composition of the population. Adult males are underrepresented in the sample as many on known leks were banded in previous years. Males are easier to locate than females due to their tendency to roost at night on leks. Thus females are also under-represented in trap �-11- samples. The age composition of adult and yearling females may approach reality as harvest data suggest that adult hens comprise about 60 percent of the fall population of hens older than one year. No selection for age class of hens or differences in overall behavior between age classes is known to occur provided that trapping effort is uniform throughout the breeding period. Sample sizes of chicks were too small to evaluate although both trapping and harvest data suggest there are slightly more chick hens in the fall population than chick males. Table 3. Sex and age composition North Park, Colorado 1977. of newly banded sage grouse by month, 1+ Males 2+ Total March 11 16 April 134 ~y Month Chick 1+ Females 2+ Total 27 6 13 19 66 200 80 102 182 37 36 73 14 14 28 Chick July 4 0 3 7 1 0 0 1 August 2 1 2 5 9 1 4 14 September 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 December 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 Totals 7 183 123 313 11 101 135 245 During the course of trapping operations in North Park in 1977, 72 different sage grouse were recaptured. This included 20 birds banded in 1977, 28 (23 males, 5 females) banded in 1976, 19 (18 males, 1 female) banded in 1975, 3 (2 males, 1 female) banded in 1974 and 2 (1 male, 1 female) banded in 1973. The oldest males were at least five years of age, while the oldest female was at least six years of age, as it was banded as an adult in 1973. It was not possible for birds to be known to be older than 6+ years as no banding of sage grouse was accomplished in North Park in the 1970-72 interval. Little use can be made of recapture data outside of longevity and movements as efforts were made not to recapture banded birds. This was done to reduce possible trap mortalities of banded birds. Despite this precaution, one male banded in 1975 was accidentally killed in trapping operations. Total known trapping mortality in 1977 was 5 birds (4 males, 1 female). �-12- Summer Observations Systematic examination for brood patches (area of bare skin at the posterior end of the abdomen) on females captured was conducted throughout the breeding period. The first indication of a brood patch was observed on 20 April. After 4 May no adult females failed to have a brood patch while no yearling females failed to have a brood patch after 10 May. These data suggest that some hens initiated incubation in mid-April, while all nesting hens had initiated laying and incubation prior to 10 May. Yearlings were about one week behind adult hens in appearance of a brood patch. Assuming a 2S day incubation period, the earliest nest could have hatched about lS-20 May. Searches for hens with chicks were made by walking selected transects and using playbacks of tape recorded chick distress calls and by slowly driving roads in preselected areas. While intensive field work was not initiated until early July (because of inability to locate chicks prior to 3-4 weeks post hatch), a newly hatched brood was observed on 28 May. During the 1 July-3l August period, 720 sage grouse were classified including 241 young of the year. Classification of birds observed by time period is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Composition August 1977. of observed sage grouse, North Park, 1 July-3l August July Category I-IS 16-31 I-IS 16-31 Total Adult males lS4 131 67 0 352 Adult females 39 43 42 3 127 Chicks 79 82 73 7 241 Chicks/successful female 1/ 3.2(25) 3.2(26) 3.5(21) 2.3(3) l/Hens accompanied by chicks were assumed to be successful. parenthesis represent number of assumed successful hens. Numbers 3.2(7S) in June precipitation (next section) was quite low in North Park in 1977 and as a result, broods were starting to concentrate near meadows by early July. This allowed good samples of broods to be located in early July. However, July and August were quite wet in North Park and as a consequence, broods dispersed into upland sagebrush areas and became difficult to locate by early August. Because of problems delineated in 1976 (Braun 1977) and dispersal of broods from meadows, essentially no searches for broods were conducted after mid-August 1977. Data presented in Table 4 suggest average �-l3- chick survival in 1977 with an estimated 59 percent (75 of 127) oJ the hens being successful. Each successful hen appeared to raise 3 chicks to age of independence. Precipitation Because of problems encountered in 1975 and 1976 with use of pit rain gauges (Braun 1977) precipitation data were obtained only from standard weather stations operated for the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Commerce at Spicer and Walden. These data are presented in Table 5. Table 5. Weather data, North Park, Colorado 1977. Spicer Walden June July Aug. Sept. 1-9 June July Aug. Sept. 1-9 Min. temp. of 27 30 28 22 34 34 30 24 Ma x. T emp. of 78 78 78 78 82 87 81 81 No. days 32 F or below 9 3 8 3 o o 3 2 Days of ppt. 5 16 14 1 3 14 12 1 .17 2.63 3.10 .11 1.54 2.42 1.37 1.22 1.69 1.11 1.24 1.29 o Total ppt. (in.) 30 yr. average ppt. (in.) .16 .13 From data presented in Table 5 it is readily apparent that June in North Park was warm and exceedingly dry. Total precipitation was down 87 percent in the southwestern part of North Park (Spicer) and 90 percent in the central area of the Park (Walden). In contrast, precipitation in July and August was almost 200 percent of normal near Spicer and 150 percent near Walden. As a consequence, dessication of vegetation was not noticeable in late summer and early concentrations (late June) of sage grouse dispersed in July and did not reform in late August or early September. These data support observations that sage grouse were well dispersed in small groups throughout North Park going into and during the 1977 hunting season. Hunting Season Data Collection The sage grouse season in North Park (Unit 12) in 1977 opened at sunrise on 10 September and closed at sunset on 25 September. Season length was 16 days, the longest in modern times and 7 days longer than in 1976. The daily bag limit was three, with a possession limit of 6, identical to bag limits �-14- in this area in 1976. As in the 1974-76 period all hunters hunting sage grouse in North Park were required to have in their possession a free special permit. Permits unlimited in number were available at all license agents in North Park, the Fort Collins and Denver offices of the Division of Wildlife, and all Wildlife Conservation Officers and research personnel working in North Park. Purpose of the permit was to obtain reliable estimates concerning hunter activities in North Park. Check Stations Two check stations were operated in 1977. These stations were located at the State Line and Willow Creek Pass. As in previous years of operation, each station was open from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Both check stations were operated on the 10th, 11th and 18th. Except for the 18th (one research person and one Wildlife Conservation officer) at least two research persons and two Wildlife Conservation Officers were assigned to each check station. Data obtained per partv were: Countv of origin. number of hunters. hours hunted (total of all hunters). birds observed. birds bagged. birds lost. number of banded birds and location where each was obtained. and area hunted within North Park. Most importantly, one wing was obtained from each bird that was checked. Few birds (51) were completely wingless. Ovaries were classified as to having ovulated in 1977 or not, for 41 females, with an additional 48 being collected for analysis. Sex by gonadal inspection was ascertained for 98 young of the year. In addition to the two check stations, wing barrels and signs were placed along Colorado 14 near Muddy Pass, near the State Line on the highway to Saratoga, Wyoming, on Colorado 14 near Gould, at the junction of Jackson County 6 and 34, north of Three Way and at Willow Creek Pass. Volunteer stations were in operation the entire season near Muddy Pass and Gould, on all days that manned check stations were not operating north of Three Way and Willow Creek Pass and for the opening weekend only at Independence Mountain (JC 6 and 34) and on the Saratoga Highway. Research and management personnel field checked hunters whenever possible. During the three days of check station operation, 353 hunters with 385 sage grouse (1.1 birds per hunter) were checked. These hunters reported observing 3,303 sage grouse. Some duplications are undoubtedly present in the 3,303 birds observed. Hunter efficiency was low at 11.7 percent (385 birds harvested + 3,303 birds observed) and 41 birds (10.6 percent of those retrieved) were reported crippled and lost. Comparative data from 1974 through 1977 are presented in Table 6. As in other years in the 1974-1976 period, distribution of harvest and hunting pressure was not uniform within North Park. Lake John (23.9 percent) and Ridge Road (20.8 percent) were the leading harvest areas, with the Peterson Ridge-MacFarlane Reservoir (12.7 percent), Eagle Hill (13.2 percent) and Walden Reservoir (12.2 percent) zones being important harvest areas. Comparative data for the 1974-1977 period are presented in Table 7. �-15- Table 6. Sage grouse harvest statistics, North Park 1974-1977.1/ No. Birds Observed No. Birds Harvested Hunter Efficiency Crippling Loss Year No. Hunters Checked % % Birds per Hunter 1974 730 6,062 785 7.7 5.1 1.1 1975 738 5,735 551 9.6 7.1 0.7 1976 595 3,393 459 13.5 5.7 0.8 1977 353 3,303 385 11.7 10.6 1.1 1/ Only those statistics collected at check stations. Upon examination of data presented in Table 7 it is apparent that hunter pressure and harvest have declined at Independence Mountain and Spring Creek-Owl Ridge, remained fairly constant at Walden Reservoir, Pole Mountain, Peterson Ridge-MacFarlane Reservoir, Michigan River Southeast, and Eagle Hill, and increased substantially at Lake John and Ridge Road. These apparent changes may relate in part to changes in distribution of sage grouse within North Park. Leks adjacent to Independence Mountain (Cowdrey grounds) have been abandoned or have decreased in numbers of birds counted. This is only partly true for known leks in the Spring Creek-Deer Creek-Owl Creek area. Lek counts of males in the Walden Reservoir area have been decreasing but percent of total harvest has remained fairly constant. Counts of sage grouse on leks in the Lake John and Ridge Road areas have increased in recent years and new leks have been found in the Eagle Hill area. These data suggest that a relationship exists between numbers of active leks, trends in counts of males on leks, area of harvest and related hunting pressure. Most hunters contacted at check stations were asked whether or not they normally hunted sage grouse in North Park. Of the 325 hunters responding, 211 (64.9 percent) reported they normally hunted sage grouse in North Park, 82 (25.2 percent) were first time sage grouse hunters, while 32 (9.8 percent) reported they normally hunted sage grouse elsewhere. Comparative data for the 1974-1977 period are presented in Table 8. It is obvious from data presented in Table 8 that more liberal bag limits and season lengths in North Park in the 1975-1977 interval did not attract hunters who normally hunted elsewhere. Apparently sage grouse hunting in North Park is traditional for many hunters and hunters who normally hunt elsewhere were not attracted to North Park in large numbers. It is of interest to note that about one fourth of all sage grouse hunters contacted each year were hunting sage grouse for the initial time. This suggests an annual turnover of 25 percent of all sage grouse hunters afield. Reasons for this turnover are not known but may be related to non-success the previous year(s), death, interest changes, etc. �Sage grouse harvest and hunting pressure within North Park, 1974-1977):'/ 2:./ Table 7. Independence Mountain Walden Reservoir Lake John Ridge Road Pole Mountain % % Spring Peterson Creek-Owl Ridge-MacRidge Far1ane Res. % % % Michigan River SE % % % % % % % % % % 4.7 6.0 18.1 16.4 12.4 15.4 9.6 11.3 4.7 3.8 20.3 19.6 17.9 13.4 24.7 14.2 16.7 11.1 15.6 1.8 2.0 17.2 14.3 13.6 % Eagle Hill % % Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. 1974 2.2 1.3 10.0 12.8 6.2 2.6 3.8 10.4 9.8 J 1975 3.1 3.8 24.3 1976 2.3 3.0 28.2 21.3 13.0 12.0 13.0 21. 1 2.9 4.5 18.5 21.3 10.9 6.3 3.1 5.9 8.0 5.0 1977 1.4 0.5 28.9 23.9 15.8 12.2 16.9 20.8 3.2 6.5 16.3 12.7 8.0 8.1 2.0 2.1 7.4 13.2 -1/Data from check stations only. _2/Totals may not approximate 100 percent as each year some hunters and birds harvested could not be allocated to a particular zone. I I-' 0\ I �-17- Table 8. Previous sage grouse hunting North Park, Colorado 1974-1977. experience of sage grouse hunters, Normally Hunt Elsewhere Percent No. First Time Sage Grouse Hunter Percent No. Year Normally Hunt in North Park Percent No. 1974 183 68.3 20 7.4 65 24.3 1975 432 64.9 47 7.0 187 28.1 1976 366 64.9 40 7.1 159 28.1 1977 211 64.9 32 9.8 82 25.2 Analysis of Wings A total of 632 sage grouse wings was collected in North Park during the 1977 hunting season. Of this total, 334 were obtained at the two check stations in North Park, 14 were collected at the Green Mountain Reservoir check station in Middle Park, 185 were obtained in wing barrels (Gould = 129, Muddy Pass = 21, Three Way = 21, Willow Creek Pass = 14, Independence Mountain = 0, Saratoga Highway = 0), 38 were received in mail envelopes, while the remainder (61) were obtained through field contacts. Distribution of the wings collected by time of collection is presented in Table 9. Table 9. Time distribution Colorado 1977. Number Percent of total of sage grouse wings received, 10-11 12-16 425 39 67.3 6.2 North Park, September 17-18 19-23 24-25 Total 83 33 52 632 l3.l 5.2 8.2 100.0 Data in Table 9 strongly suggest that the objectives of increasing hunter opportunity and spreading the harvest over time were achieved in 1977. Obviously, most harvest (88.6 percent of the wings received) occurred on the three weekends but approximately 10 percent (11.4) of the harvest was achieved during the weeks of 12-16 and 19-23 September. Age and sex structure of the harvest as ascertained from examination is presented in Table 10 along with comparative data from 1974-1976. of wings �Table 10. Age and sex composition of the sage grouse harvest, North Park, Colorado 1974-1977.1/ Immatures Females No. % Year Males No. % 1974 171 48.9 179 1975 101 47.6 1976 104 1977 136 Total Males No. % Yearlings Females No. % Total No. % Males No. % Adults Females No. % Total No. % No. % 51.1 350 50.1 49 35.5 89 64.5 138 19.8 45 21.4 165 78.6 210 30.1 111 52.4 212 42.0 52 46.8 59 53.2 111 22.0 55 30.2 127 69.8 182 36.0 49.5 106 50.5 210 42.3 46 39.3 71 60.7 117 23.5 49 28.8 121 71.2 170 34.2 46.9 154 53.1 290 45.9 47 38.2 76 61.8 123 19.5 48 21.9 171 78.1 219 34.6 ~-------- -1/Data from wing collections only. I I-' 00 I �-19- As can be readily ascertained from data in Table 10, sex and age composition of the harvest in 1977 differed only slightly from the composition in 1976. Percent of young in the harvest increased slightly in 1977 while percentage of yearlings decreased slightly. Data in Table 10 suggests the following conclusions: 1. Sex ratio at hatching approximates 1:1. 2. Differential survival favoring females starts before young grouse are four months of age and is most pronounced in the older age classes. 3. Production of young in the 1974-1977 interval has ranged from average to good but has not been excellent in anyone year. 4. Overwinter survival of young grouse to the yearling class has been average to good and has been adequate to maintain the population. 5. The annual turnover rate for females is approximately for males it is approximately 50 percent. 6. Females comprise the population. 34 percent about 69 percent of the adult and yearling and segment of Wings from 247 females (adult = 171, yearling = 76) were classified as to primary feather molt. Because of the early nesting year, many hens that had been successful in hatching their clutches had molted more old primaries than they would have in "normal" hatching years. Thus only 68 (51 adults and 17 yearlings) (27.5 percent) females were classified as successful from wing examination. However, upon calculating the percentages of yearling and adult males in each primary molt stage, and comparing those percentages with the percentage of yearling and adult hens in each molt stage, it became apparent that more hens were successful than first estimated. Using this method, an estimated 59.3 percent of the adult hens were successful nesters while 32.7 percent of the yearling hens were successful. This gave an overall success rate of 50.3 percent. These data are slightly higher than those obtained in 1976 but are similar to estimated nesting success based upon field observations (59%). The young to adult hen (including yearling hens) ratio in the harvest was 1.2:1, while the young per successful hen ratio was 2.0:1. Comparative data for 1974-1977 are presented in Table 11. Hatching dates were calculated for 290 chick sage grouse for which wings were available. These data are presented in Table 12. Because of obvious limitations with the juvenile sage grouse aging technique, it is suspected that calculated hatching dates are probably one week later than actual hatch dates. Hatching in 1977 started in late May. peaked about 10-15 June with a few nests hatching in early July. Young hatching after about 20 June were probably progeny of hens who lost their first clutch and renested. Below normal precipitation in June and above average precipitation in July and August would appear to have no measurable effect on nesting success or brood survival. Comparative hatching data for the 1974-1977 period are presented in Table 13. �-20- Table 11. Sage grouse nesting success and production rates, North Park, Colorado 1974-1977. Young per Hen Young per Successful Hen 58.7 1.4:1 2.3:1 39.0 48.6 1.1:1 2.3:1 52.9 26.8 43.2 1.1:1 2.5:1 1977 59.3 32.7 50.3 1.2:1 2.0:1 Table 12. Sage grouse hatching dates, North Park, Colorado 1977. Year Estimated Nesting Success Total Yearlings Adults 1974 65.4 46.1 1975 53.2 1976 Time Interval Males No. Hatching % of Total Females No. Hatching % of Total May 25-31 2 1.5 4 2.6 June 1- 7 37 27.2 25 16.2 8-14 43 31.6 45 29.2 15-21 29 21.3 50 32.5 22-28 11 8.1 17 11.0 June 29-July 5 11 8.1 11 7.2 July 6-12 3 2.2 2 1.3 136 100.0 154 100.0 Total Ovarian Analysis Ovaries were collected from 48 hunter harvested sage grouse in 1977 and were analyzed following procedures described by Meyer et al. (1947), Kabat et al. (1948), and Buss et al. (1951). An additional 41 ovaries were classified in situ at check stations. Data for 1977 are presented with comparative data from 1975 and 1976 in Table 14. �-21- Table 13. 1/ Sage grouse hatching dates, North Park, Colorado 1974-1977.- Time Interval Sexes Combinedl/ 1974 1975 Males 1976 1977 1975 Females 1976 1977 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.9 2.6 3.0 13.7 27.2 0.0 10.1 16.2 June 8.9 38.2 31.6 0.0 24.8 29.2 June 23.8 23.5 21.3 18.0 24.8 32.5 June 22.8 11.8 8.1 17.1 16.5 11.0 20.8 9.8 8.1 21.6 11.9 7.2 8.9 2.0 2.2 20.7 10.1 1.3 6.9 1.0 0.0 12.6 0.9 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 9.9 0.0 0.0 May 24 ) 3.4 May 25-31 June 1-7 8.3 June 5.7 July 1.7 July 1.7 July 1/ Percent of total. 2/ Data from 1974 are not strictly comparable. Table 14. Sage grouse ovarian analysis, North Park, Colorado 1975-1977. Percent Ovulating 1976 1977 Age Class 1975 Yearling 84.6 Adult 92.8 75.0 87.8 96.6 98.3 Number Ovulating/Examined 1975 1976 1977 33/39 33/ 44 28/ 64/69 65/ 74 59/ 29 60 �-22- Data in Table 14 indicate that most females ovulated in 1977, possibly the result of the early spring and low apparent stresses during the winter and spring periods. It would appear that not all females lay in a given year with adults being more consistent layers than yearlings. Differences appear to be both age and year related and may be dependent upon late winter and early spring weather conditions which conceivably affect nutrition. Ovulation and timing may be nutritionally controlled by plant substances that affects hormone release. A similar hypothesis has been tested and supported by data for California quail (Lophortyx californicus) (Leopold et al. 1976). Hunter Questionnaire A total of 1,093 permits was issued for hunting sage grouse in North Park in 1977, a decrease of 165 (13.1%) from 1976. As in previous years, most hunters (37.7%) originated from the Denver area (Adams 7.2%, Arapahoe 5.9%, Denver 12.4%, Jefferson 12.2%). Only 10.8 percent of the hunters originated from Jackson County, with 24.1 percent from Larimer County, 12.4 percent from Boulder County, and 4.6 percent from Weld County. All other counties and states other than Colorado each contributed less than 2 percent of the total hunters and less than 11 percent of all hunters. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the sage grouse season in North Park (28 September). Responses were received from 734 permittees. On 19 October a followup letter was sent to all nonrespondents and 195 additional responses were received. In all, 929 permittees (85.0%) responded (Table 15). Fourteen questionnaires were undeliverable. Mean values calculated for permittees responding to the followup letter were used to project for the 15 percent (164) nonrespondents. Comparative data for all four years of the permit season in North Park are presented in Table 16. Upon examination of the data, it is apparent that number of hunters fluctuated from 845 (most liberal season) to 1,187 (first liberalizing of season length). Hunter success decreased from 53 percent in 1974 to 33 percent in 1976 and increased to about 46 percent in 1977. Total harvest varied from 1,193 grouse (1974) in the most conservative season to 847 grouse (1976). These variations were associated with sage grouse nesting success and production of young. Days per hunter and grouse per successful hunter increased during the experimental seasons. It would appear that some hunters, especially successful hunters increased their sage grouse hunting activities as a result of longer seasons and more liberal bag and possession limits. Despite the small increase in certain hunter characteristics, overall hunter activity and success and total harvest did not change with liberalizing of season length and bag and possession limits. �-23- Table 15. North Park sage grouse hunter questionnaire data 1977. Projected For Projected For 1,093 1,093 No. in sample 734 195 929 164 Percent of total permittees 67.1 17.8 85.0 15.0 100.0 No. of hunters 569 150 719 126 845 Percent of hunters 77.5 76.9 77.4 76.9 77.3 No. of non-hunters 165 45 210 38 248 Percent non-hunters 22.5 23.1 22.6 23.1 22.7 No. of successful hunters 291 55 346 46 392 Percent successful hunters 51.1 36.7 48.1 36.7 46.4 Percent success of permittees 39.6 28.2 37.2 28.2 35.9 No. of hunter days Days/hunter No. of sage grouse bagged 1,115 2.0 810 297 1,412 2.0 112 2.0 922 252 2.0 88 1,664 2.0 1,010 Grouse/permitee 1.1 0.6 1.0 0.6 0.9 Grouse/hunter 1.4 0.7 1.3 0.7 1.2 Grouse/successful hunter 2.8 2.0 2.7 2.0 2.6 No. of grouse lost 43 9 52 8 60 Crippling loss/ hunter 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.07 Total kill Percent crippling loss 853 5.0 121 7.4 974 5.3 96 7.4 1,070 5.6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-24- Table 15. North Park sage grouse hunter questionnaire data 1977 (cont.). Nl N2 Banded birds 57 14 Non-deliverable surveys 14 0 Percent nondeliverable 1.3 Projected For Projected For 1,093 71 11 82 0 0 14 Table 16. Comparative data, questionnaire survey, North Park sage grouse seasons 1974-1977. Category Number of permits issued 1974 1975 1976 1977 1,184 1,541 1,258 1,093 87.0 85.0 979 845 77 .0 77 .8 77 .3 53.0 38.8 33.5 46.4 43.2 29.9 26.1 35.9 2,116 1.8 1,682 1.7 1,664 Days/hunter 1,587 1.6 Number of sage grouse retrieved 1,121 1,000 797 1,010 Percent response 90.7 Number of hunters 966 Percent hunters 81.6 Percent successful hunters Percent successful permittees Number of hunter days 88.3 1,187 2.0 0.6 '0.6 Grouse/hunter 0.9 1.2 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.2 Grouse/successful hunter 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.6 Unretrieved grouse 72 75 50 60 1,193 1,075 847 1,070 Grouse/permittee Total harvest Percent crippling loss 6.0 7.0 5.9 5.6 Season length (days) 3 9 9 16 Bag and possession limit 2/4 2/4 3/6 3/6 �-25- Time period of hunting was received for 867 hunters who harvest 914 birds. Based on this sample, 67 percent of the hunters harvested 66 percent of the total harvest during the opening weekend. The initial week of the season attracted 8.5 percent of the hunters who bagged 6.1 percent of the harvest, eleven percent of the hunters harvested 13 percent of the birds during the second weekend, five percent of the hunters harvested 6 percent of the grouse harvested during the second week, while 8.1 percent of the hunters harvested 9.1 percent of the grouse during the third and last weekend of the season. Obviously, a longer season has resulted in a reduction of hunter pressure during the initial weekend without increasing overall hunter numbers or total harvest. Despite the longer seasons and higher bag and possession limits in 1976 and 1977, percentage of successful hunters attaining a full bag limit (17.9% in 1976 and 19.1% in 1977) has remained fairly constant. Obviously, as indicated from estimates of hunter efficiency, it is not easy to harvest sage grouse. Hunting as presently allowed in North Park and other areas of Colorado is not a threat to long term stability of sage grouse populations. Hunter pressure and sage grouse harvest in North Park as derived from the Statewide Small Game Questionnaire Survey are not presently available for 1977. Results of this survey in 1974-1976 are presented in Table 17. This survey continues to overestimate hunter numbers and total harvest. Table 17. Comparative North Park 1974-1977. Year data, number of sage grouse hunters Number of Hunters This Study Statewide Survey and total harvest, Number of Sage Grouse Harvested Statewide Survey This Study 1974 960 1,759 1,174 2,509 1975 1,187 1,600 1,053 1,973 1976 975 877 829 1,402 1977 842 1,069 Band Recoveries Eighty-four bands were reported from birds harvested during the 1977 hunting season. Four additional bands were reported in 1977 from road casualties (2), and predator kills (2). Of the 88 total recoveries, 36 were from females (1973 = 3, 1974 = 1, 1975 = 5, 1976 = 6, 1977 = 21), while 52 were from males (1973 = 1, 1974 = 1, 1975 = 9, 1976 = 8, 1977 = 33). Four (3 shot recoveries and 1 road casualty) were from the 18 chicks banded in 1977. Excluding the four chicks, banding and recovery data are presented in Tables 18 and 19, while survival and mortality estimates are shown in Table 20. �-26- Table 18. Year Male sage grouse banding and recovery data, North Park 1973-1977. Number Banded 1973 1974 Number Recovered 1976 1975 1977 Yearlings 6 1973 80 1974 54 1975 139 1976 120 1977 183 4 6 1 0 6 5 3 1 18 6 7 16 5 19 Adults 1973 99 1974 88 1975 152 1976 114 1977 123 7 4 1 0 1 8 5 1 0 10 4 2 16 3 12 Data presented in Tables 18, 19 and 20 indicate that survival rates are different between age classes and sexes. Direct recovery rates for males continue to be about 10 percent, while those for females continue to vary from 5 to 10 percent. These data suggest that males are slightly more vulnerable to hunting than are females. This further supports available data that females predominate in the population and are not selected for by hunters. Estimation of Fall Population Size Estimates of fall population size are difficult to derive, primarily because of unknown vulnerability of chicks and inexact survival estimates. Provided that all birds of each age and sex class are equally available and vulnerable to hunters and using the average mortality rates given in Table 20 the 1977 fall population size in North Park was calculated as follows: �-27- Number of Birds Banded In: Alive in 1977: 1973 Males 9 Females 27 1974 Males 7 Females 18 1975 Males 78 Females 65 1976 Males 148 Females 1977 Males 306 Females 234 Total Banded Birds Alive Males 548 Females 446 = 102 Table 19. Female sage grouse banding and recovery data, North Park 1973-1977. Year Number Banded 1973 1974 Number Recovered 1976 1975 1977 Yearlings_ 1973 41 1974 22 1975 62 1976 71 1977 101 2 2 4 1 2 2 1 1 0 6 2 1 2 4 6 Adults 1973 68 1974 27 1975 68 1976 74 1977 133 5 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 6 2 4 2 2 13 �-28- Table 20. Survival and mortality Park by age and sex 1973-1977. estimates for sage grouse banded Average Survival Rate Category in North Average Mortality Rate .813 .187 Adult males .436 .564 All females .705 .295 Yearling males Of the 548 banded males potentially alive in 1977, bands were received from 50, while bands were received from 34 of the 446 hens potentially alive. If 54 percent (wing survey data) of the 1,070 birds harvested (questionnaire data) were adults and yearlings, then 578 of the birds harvested were older than one year. Of this number, 81 (84-3 chick recoveries) (14.0%) were banded, thus there should have been about 4,121 adult and yearling sage grouse alive in North Park in the fall of 1977 (if 14.0% 578 birds, then 100% = 4,121 birds). This is remarkably similar to the 4,040 adults and yearlings estimated to have been alive in the fall of 1976 (Braun 1977). In 1977, immatures comprised 46 percent (wing survey data) of the harvest, thus there should have been about 3,496 chicks in the 1977 fall population. Thus the total population in the fall of 1977 should have been about 7,617 or 7,600 birds. I believe this estimate is conservative. Problems still exist with small samples of banded hens and no valid estiamtes of chick vulnerability. Of interest are the three shot recoveries from 18 chicks banded in 1977. This is a direct recovery rate of 17 percent and suggests that chicks may be more vulnerable than adults. However, the sample is not large and was not well distributed throughout North Park. The overall harvest rate was about 14 percent (1,070 + 7,600) with adult and yearling males having a somewhat higher harvest rate (10.1% direct recovery rate) than adult and yearling females (8.1% direct recovery rate). Of the 342 adult and yearling birds for which wings were available, 247 (72.2%) were from females. Thus, of the approximately 4,121 adult and yearling birds in the pre-season population, 2,975 (4,121 x 72.2 = 2,975) were hens. Total chicks in the fall population in 1977 based on 1.2 chicks per hen in the harvest (1.2 x 2,975 = 3,570) approximated 3,570. This number is only slightly higher than the 3,496 chicks estimated from overall age ratios and band recoveries in the 1977 harvest to have been in the fall population. These data do not suggest that chicks are more vulnerable to hunting than are adults and yearlings. It is interesting to compare estimates of adults and yearlings alive in the spring and fall. Spring estimates based on counts of males on leks indicated that about 5,784 birds were present. Fall estimates based on age and sex �-29- ratios in the harvest and band recovery data indicated that about 4,121 adult and yearling birds were present. This is a difference of about 1,600 birds. It is possible that spring estimates are too high. as either (1) more or fewer leks are unknown than estimated, or (2) peak counts of males on leks represent more than 50 percent of the cocks present in a given area. It is also possible that fall estimates based on harvest age and sex ratios and band recoveries are low. It would appear that the 1977 spring population in North Park was at least 4,000 and probably not more than 6,000 birds. LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. 1977. Sage grouse flock characteristics winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 41(1):18-26. _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. sage grouse from wing characteristics. (Revised). Colo. Div. Wildl. 4 pp. and habitat selection in Sex and age determination of Game Inf. Leaflet No. 49 Braun, C. E. 1977. Evaluation of the effects of changes in hunting regulations on sage grouse populations. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 9. pp. 35-58. _____ , and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Final Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 21-84. _____ , R. K. Schmidt, and G. E. Rogers. tailed ptarmigan with tape-recorded 90-93. 1973. Census of Colorado J. Wildl. Manage. calls. white37(1): Buss, I. 0., R. K. Meyer, and C. Kabat. 1951. Wisconsin pheasant reproduction studies based on ovulated follicle technique. J. Wildl. Manage. 15(1):32-46. Carr, H. D. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. rado State Univ., Fort Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis. Colo- Eng, R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19(2):267-272. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 187 pp. 1975. A volunteer wing collection Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. Colo. Div. Wildlife. 3 pp. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 101. Kabat, C., I. O. Bu~s, and R. K. Meyer. 1948. The use of ovulated follicles in determining eggs laid by the ring-necked pheasant. Wildl. Manage. 12(4):399-416. station. J. �-30- Leopold, A. S., M. Erwin, J. Oh, and B. Browning. adverse effects on reproduction in California 191(4222):98-99. 1976. Phytoestrogens: Science quail. Meyer, R. K., C. Kabat, and I. O. Buss. 1947. Early involutionary changes in the post-ovulatory follicles in the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 11(1):43-49. Pyrah, D. G. Wildlife 71 pp. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Restoration Div., Job Compl. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-125-R. Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(4):616-621. of male Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements and flock stratification within a population of blackcocks in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 38(5):755-763. Wallestad, R. O. 1970. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse broods in central Montana. M. S. Thesis. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 51 pp. Prepared by __ -..!::~~{a/::::::..:...-'_s._.---L~-="":::"=::~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �April 1978 -31- JOB FI~ REPORT COLORADO State of ---------------------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-31 Job No. · 1_0 _ 3 Investigations of the Distribution and Status Job Title __~o~f~S~a~g~e~b~r~u~s~h~a~n~d~S~a~g~e~G~r~o~u~s~e~l~·n~~th~e~M~o~f~f~a~t~C~o~u~n~t~y~ _ Work Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: January 1, 1976 through March 31, 1978 Donald M. Hoffman. ABSTRACT A draft of a manuscript entitled "Investigations of the Distribution and Status of Sagebrush and Sage Grouse in the Moffat County Area" has been completed and submitted for review and subsequent publication as a Division of Wildlife Special Report. This is scheduled for completion in the 1978-79 Segment. Prepared by Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher ��April 1978 -33- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-31 Work Plan No. 9 Job Title Dynamics Population Period Covered: Job No. 5 ---------------------------- and Habitat Relationships of Blue Grouse April I, 1977 to March 31, 1978 Personnel: T. Beck, D. Benson, R. Binford, C. Bonney, C. Braun, R. Clippinger, J. Corey, D. Covic, K. Duncan, H. Funk, J. Gerrans, K. Giesen, D. Hoart, D. Hoffman, R. Hoffman, D. Luce, B. McCloskey, R. Oakleaf, B. Sigler, M. Smith, S. Steinert, and W. Woodard. Investigations concerning the effects. of hunting on blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) populations, stability of breeding population levels, and habitat relationships of blue grouse were initiated in 1975 and continued in 1976 and 1977. Studies were conducted on two selected locations of differing habitat types in northwestern Colorado. Density of territorial males appeared to be slightly higher on Green Mountain (6.6 males/km2) than at Eby Creek (5.8 males/km2). However, based on ecological density, Eby Creek supported 9.7 males/km2, whereas, Green Mountain maintained about 7.4 males/ km2 of suitable habitat. Changes in breeding densities from 1975 through 1977 were not significant. Nesting activities were advanced in 1977 due to low overwinter snowfall. Estimated peak of hatch for both study areas was between 11 and 24 June; almost one week earlier than in 1976 and over two weeks earlier than in 1975. Overall nesting success in 1977 was somewhat higher on Green Mountain (64.1%) than at Eby Creek (57.1%) and compared favorably with 1975 (64%) and 1976 (62%) estimates for Green Mountain. Adult and yearling hens were equally successful in bringing off broods in 1977. Observations were made on 71 broods, including 37 at Eby Creek and 34 in Middle Park, with a composite average brood size of 3.8 and 3.9 chicks per brood, respectively. Estimated fall densities of approximately 26 birds/km2 for both study areas suggested good production and survival of young in 1977. Data from wings (N = 948) collected at check stations (114), wing barrels (798), and from the mail wing survey (36) revealed that the harvest was composed of 51 percent immatures, 3 percent yearlings, and 46 percent adults. Due to an early onset of primary molt, most yearlings were indistinguishable from adults and thus, were under represented in the harvest sample. For Middle Park, hunter efficiency was high (47.1%) and only 9 birds (4.0%) were reported crippled and lost. Hunter success was calculated at .99 birds/ hunter. About 6 percent of the population on Green Mountain was harvested in 1977. Estimates of hunter efficiency (39.1%), crippling loss (6.7%), and hunter success (.63 grouse/hunter) for the Eagle area were slightly different �-34ABSTRACT (continued) but compared favorably with data from Middle Park. Overall, hunter pressure was down from previous years, but hunter success was up. A total of 1,502 big game hunters were surveyed in 1977 in order to evaluate the combined blue grouse-big game season. Few big game hunters (6.3%) took advantage of the longer grouse season, but their general response to the combined blue grouse-big game season was highly favorable (52.1%). Few hunters «1%) were in the field during the big game seasons strictly to hunt grouse. The additional harvest of grouse resulting from the longer season amounted to only about a37 percent increase in the total kill. �-35- HABITAT POPULATION DYNAMICS AND RELATIONSHIPS OF BLUE GROUSE Richard W. Hoffman Blue grouse are the most widespread member of the upland game birds in Colorado, occurring in varying densities over more than 51,800 km2 (20,000 mi2) of diverse habitats and terrain throughout the state (Rogers 1968). Furthermore, blue grouse rank first in terms of population numbers (250,000+) and annual harvest (14,000) among resident grouse species. Yet, Colorado has had a long history of conservative seasons on blue grouse, in spite of its abundance and wide distribution. This conservatism has mainly resulted from: (1) lack of data upon which to base management recommendations, and (2) the misconception that hunting can be a major mortality factor on blue grouse. Data presented in this report concern these problems and represent results of population studies initiated in 1975. P. N. OBJECTIVE Major objectives of this study are to (1) increase the harvest of blue grouse in Colorado (double present harvest estimates) without harm to breeding populations in subsequent years, (2) to identify differences in breeding densities due to differing habitats, and (3) to document the stability of breeding densities over time. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning (a) techniques for marking, capturing, and censusing grouse, (b) methods of aging and sexing blue grouse, and (c) population dynamics, behavior, and habitat requirements of blue grouse, and (d) effects of hunting on grouse populations. 2. Trap and individually mark 50 birds (including adults, juveniles) on each of the two selected study areas. subadu1ts, 3. Estimate breeding densities on the study areas through acoustical census and systematic search. the use of 4. Estimate 5. Vegetatively describe areas studied and correlate with features of the environment. 6. Manipulate 7. Compile data, analyze Reference materials discussed nesting success and production hunting and on the study area. season and obtain harvest blue grouse densities data. results, and prepare progress METHODS AND MATERIALS reports. is made to Hoffman (1976) for a detailed discussion of methods used in this study. Any deviations or additions to these are in the Results and Discussion section. and �-36- DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Research is presently being conducted on two selected study areas of differing habitat types in northwestern Colorado. These areas are described in detail in previous reports (Hoffman 1976 and 1977) and are depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Densities Grouse arrived on the breeding range at both study areas in early April. Early arrivals were mostly males, with numbers of females observed increasing toward mid- to late April. Activities associated with breeding and density of breeding grouse peaked in late April-early May. Timing of breeding events was similar to that in previous years. Total number of territorial males recorded during peak of breeding activities was used as an index to population size. Number of breeding hens and nonterritorial yearling males could not be accurately ascertained because of their secretive habits, extensive movements, and poor response rate to recorded calls. Since data collected in other studies suggest there is a 1:1 sex ratio among breeding birds (Zwickel 1972, Bendell et al. 1972), breeding population levels were estimated by doubling the count of territorial males. Density of territorial males appeared to be slightly higher on Green Mountain (6.6 males/km2, 16.7 males/mi2) than at Eby Creek (5.8 males/km2, 14.9 males/ mi2). However, based on ecological density, Eby Creek (60% suitable habitat) supported 9.7 males/km2 (24.9 males/mi2) and Green Mountain (90% suitable habitat) maintained about 7.4 males/km2 (19 males/mi2). Total estimated breeding populations in 1977 were: Green Mountain - 34 birds, 13.1 birds/km2; Eby Creek - 58 birds, 11.6 birds/km2. Changes in breeding densities from 1975 through 1977 were not significant (Table 1). Table 1. Blue grouse breeding Study Area Size (km2) Total 1/ Breeding Population1975 1976 1977 Birds per km2 1975 1976 1977 Green Mountain 2.6 32 32 34 12.3 12.3 13.1 Eby Creek 5.0 Nnl/ 58 58 NO 11.6 11.6 1/ Excludes 1/ No data. non-territorial densities, males. 1975 to 1977. �. i, / -37- \ ( "\ , " \ .' :\ \. ':.. ,.,/1 : . ,. /.:. • i : :: • , t·· '/ MOUNTAIN AREA C LORADO '_,,': I ~I ./~ ..~ ....:-: :,.<' . \ GREEN .1 - STUDY AREA BOUNDARY , " .. · ~ ~ · " , } l .,.. i... -, \_-- ' .•••• 60 . •• "-'" ".:: '\ ,- . j.' " , •••••••.• ":10. " <, ~- . .f'I, " ..•. , ' , .\ \ .•..- Ilr--l __ S_C_A_L_E_'N_O-L-KI_LO_M_E_T_E_R_S_ Fig, 1. Green Mountain study area, ,. \.; .~ , ~' , �., j~2 lij.:"'-'m E. j.j • -4.) - •.j ')~ , r-r+ . -"-- .,-'-1 . -~..: 03 ' ~ j. WHITE liJVEI' ;\AT }.'()j{ .\/ll'io!/ 1079·. ~:1>~ ".::--~ r..-l ~/6 1/ -~ o~',." ./ ~~\i o6/1"~ _ -2,-, 9042 .+ V,>- '\, "'1/ -j; i -- / '- .• .~\ \< . <, I W 00 I ~_-' ,~ v~<:,<;> EBY CREEK AREA COLORADO '\ ;-4 l::t N'_'''";~ \r I ----STUDy AREA BOUNDARY SCALE IN KILOMETERS I " Fig~ 2. Eby Creek study area. 0 ~J!n II!! , x I" / �-39- Hatching Dates and Nesting Success Since hens with broods are easier to locate than those without, this factor tends to produce an over-inflated estimate on nesting success when calculated from field observations. Consequently, analyses of the wing molt pattern of hunter harvested birds was used as the best estimate of nesting success (Braun 1971). This technique provides a minimum estimate, as some successful hens will have completed their molt by mid- to late September and cannot be distinguished from unsuccessful hens. Due to an early onset of primary molt in 1977, many yearling birds had completed their molt by the fall hunting season and could not be distinguished from adult grouse. Consequently, sample sizes for yearlings were small. Blue grouse nesting succes, production rates, and hatching dates for 1977 are given in Table 2. Table 2. 1977 . Blue grouse nesting success, production rates, and hatching dates, Nesting Success Percent Immatures In Harvest Young Per Hen Ratio Young per Successful Hen Ratio Peak of Hatch Middle Park 64.1 50.9 1. 9:1 3.0:1 11-24 June Eagle 57.1 50.7 2.3:1 4.5:1 11-24 June Area In 1977, preparation for nesting by females was advanced due to low overwinter snowfall resulting in early plant phenology and abundance of bare ground. Some females started laying in early May and most had initiated incubation by late May. Estimated peak of hatch in 1977 for 414 chicks examined from Middle Park (265) and Eagle (149) was between 11 and 24 June, almost one week earlier than in 1976 and over two weeks earlier than in 1975. Hatching dates ranged from 31 May to 23 July. Seven percent of the chicks hatched in July. These birds were believed to be the result of renesting. Timing of nesting events was similar between study areas. Middle Park Wings from 159 females (adults = 143, yearlings = 16) were classified as to primary molt. Examination of the molt pattern revealed 91 of 143 (63.9%) adult hens and 11 of 16 (68.7%) yearling hens were successful nesters in 1977. Overall nesting success was 64.1 percent (Table 2). Samples of yearlings were small and may not be representative of this age class; however, the data indicate equally good nesting success for yearling and adult hens in 1977. Comparative estimates of nesting success in 1975 (64%) and 1976 (62%) show little variation among years. Adult and yearling hens were equally successful in bringing off brdods in 1976 and 1977, but not so in 1975 (Table 3). Reasons for this variation �-40- are uncertain, but may be related to the earlier onset of nesting and longer nesting seasons in 1976 and 1977, conditions that were apparently favorable for better nesting success of yearlings. Table 3. Estimated nesting Park area, 1975 to 1977. success for adult and subadult hens, Middle Age 1975 (N) 1976 (N) 1977 (N) Adult 78 (41) 63 (60) 64 (143) Subadult 27 (15) 61 (28) 69 ( 16) Total 64 (56) 62 (88) 64 (159) Eagle For the Eagle data, adults and yearlings were grouped together for analyses. In all, wings from 67 females (adults = 63, yearlings = 4) were classified as to primary molt of which 38 (57.1%) were considered successful nesters in 1977. Inadequate samples of wings were obtained from the Eagle area in 1975 and 1976 to reliably estimate nesting success. Production From mid-June until late August 1977, complete counts were made on 71 broods, including 37 at Eby Creek and 34 in Middle Park. During the same period in 1975 and 1976 complete counts were made on 10 (1975) and 27 (1976) broods observed on the two areas. The increase in brood observations from 1975 to 1977 was related to improved observer efficiency and larger area searched. Results of brood surveys from 1975 to 1977 are given in Table 4. Yearly average brood sizes recorded were: Green Mountain, 1975 = 3.9, 1976 = 4.4, and 1977 = 3.8; Eby Creek 1975 = No data, 1976 = 3.4, and 1977 = 3.9. Average brood size was similar between areas in 1977. The apparently lower brood size at Eby Creek in 1976 may be attributed to a larger sample of broods counted in late July-early August, whereas, primarily early to mid-July counts were made at Green Mountain. Rogers (1968) found average brood sizes of 4.1, 2.6, and 3.9 in 3 years of study in western Colorado. Sex ratio of chicks was determined from hunter harvested birds for which sex was ascertained. Based on the examination of 723 juvenile wings collected in 1975 (79), 1976 (166), and 1977 (478), sex ratios did not deviate significantly from 1:1. �-41- Table 4. Average brood size, range, and number of broods observed monthly intervals, 1975 to 1977. 1/ by Eby Creek Green Mountain 1975 1976 1977 1976 1977 Mean ND'!:/ 5.3 5.1 5.0 4.6 Range ND 3-7 4-7 4-6 3-6 Sample Size ND 3 11 2 7 Mean 5.2 4.1 4.0 3.7 4.1 Range 2-7 2-6 1-7 1-7 2-9 Sample Size 4 7 10 9 10 Mean 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.2 3.6 Range 1-5 1-4 1-4 1-10 Sample Size 6 13 5 20 Month June July August 1/ Only distinct 2/ 1 broods with full counts are included. No data, late hatching year. Average brood size by September 1 provides some indication about survival of chicks. However, average brood size determined from counts in late August or early September may be misleading due to brood breakup and dispersal. While harvest may not accurately reflect population composition, it is believed that the young to successful female ratio in the harvest provided the best measure of brood size and survival of chicks through September. These data are summarized in Table 2 along with estimated nesting success and hatching dates. For both study areas, production and survival of young in 1977 was good. Fall Densities Estimated 1977 fall densities for both study areas are presented in Table 5. Calculations are based on the following assumptions: (1) estimated percent nesting success is correct, (2) immigration equals emigration, (3) a 1:1 sex ratio exists in the breeding population, and (4) estimated average brood �-42- size by September 30 is accurate. Mortality of the breeding population from April 1 to September 30 is not figured into the calculations, but is probably minimal «10%) (Bendell and Elliott 1967). Obviously none of the assumptions, nor the accuracy of the data, are absolutely correct, but it is belived data presented in Table 5 reflects the general situation on the study areas. Even though brood size decreased over the summer months, production still contributed to nearly a doubling of the spring population by late September. Percent gain was more than adequate to maintain the breeding population. Furthermore, data from Middle Park indicate production was remarkably uniform between years, and regardless of size or age of the breeding population, nesting success, or clutch size, survival of chicks until late September was very similar (Table 6). Harvest Hunting Season The regular blue grouse hunting season in 1977 opened on 10 September and closed at sunset on 9 October. An extended season was held from 15 October until 15 November in conjunction with big game seasons. During this period, hunters could take blue grouse in areas west of Interstate 25 and in Unit 80 whenever these areas were open to hunting of deer and elk. Daily bag and possession limits were 3 and 6 grouse, respectively. Middle Park A check station was operated at the Prairie. Point Campground along Highway 9 on the south end of Green Mountain Reservoir in Middle Park. The check station was operated opening weekend from 1000 to 1800 MST. All vehicles were stopped on the highway, but only grouse hunters were directed to pull off at the check station. Data obtained per party included: County of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted, birds observed, birds bagged per hunter, area hunted, and location where each bird was harvested. One wing was removed from each bird checked provided no wings had been deposited in wing barrels. Whenever a bird was missing one or both wings, the hunter was questioned as to what he did with the wings. Thus, the status of all wings was recorded as follows: (1) hunter disposed of wings, (2) hunter deposited wings in wing barrel, and (3) wing collected at check station. Sex by gonadal inspection was ascertained for all young of the year whenever possible. Ovaries were collected from adult and yearling hens and crops and gizzards were collected from all birds when present. In addition to the check station, 15 volunteer wing collection stations were available to hunters throughout the entire season at various locations in Middle Park. Hunters were also contacted opportunistically in the field whenever possible. Wing envelopes distributed by the management section also provided wings from the Middle Park area. �Table 5. Estimated fall densities of blue grouse, 1977. Total Breeding Population Nesting Success (%) Average Brood Size by Sept. 30 Total Production by Sept. 30 Total Population by Sept. 30 Birds per km2 Percent Gain Green mountain 34 64 3.0 33 67 26 49 Eby Creek 58 57 4.5 74 132 26 56 Area Table 6. Comparative fall densities of blue grouse on Green Mountain, 1975 to 1977. Year Total Breeding Population 1975 ..,..I Nesting Success Average Brood Size by Sept; 30 Total Production by Sept. 30 Total Population by Sept. 30 Birds per km2 Percent Gain 32 64 2.6 27 59 23 46 1976 32 62 3.0 30 62 24 48 1977 34 64 3.0 33 67 26 49 w I �-44- A total of 606 blue grouse wings were collected from the Middle Park area in 1977 (Table 7). Fifteen wing collection stations accounted for 501 of 606 wings collected. Number of wings collected from each barrel were as follows: Beaver Creek 8, Williams Fork 0, Corral Creek 53, Troublesome 18, City Reservoir 17, Gore Pass 69, Pinto Creek 5, Chimney Rock 85, Kremmling 14, Trough Road 74, Lawson Ridge 2, Spring Creek 62, Williams Peak Road 63, Ute Pass 26, and Rock Creek 5. The remaining wings were collected from the check station (87 wings) and mail wing survey (18 wings). Because of adverse weather conditions opening weekend, hunter pressure was low. Otherwise, it is believed that more wings would have been collected at the check station. Hunters from areas outside of Middle Park were also contacted at the check station, but their hu~ting activities are excluded from this report. Table 7. season. Number and source of blue grouse wings collected Wing Barrels Area Check Stations during the 1977 Mail Survey Total Middle Park 501 87 18 606 Eagle 297 27 18 342 Total 798 (84.2%) 114 (12.0%) 36 (3.8%) 948 During the two days of check station operations, 228 hunters with 226 blue grouse were checked. Total birds reported observed by these hunters was 480. Some duplications are undoubtedly present in the 480 observations. Hunter efficiency was high (47.1%) (226birdsharvested ; 480 birds observed) and only 9 birds (4.0%) were reported crippled and lost. Hunter efficiency was substantially higher in 1977 (47.1%) than in 1975 (28.4%) and just slightly higher than in 1976 (43.3%). Crippling loss was less than 1976 (8.2%) but similar to that calculated in 1975 (4.4%). Indications were that hunter pressure was down, but due to the good production year, hunter success in 1977 (.99 birds/hunter) was up from 1975 (.40) and 1976 (.44) estimates. Of the 228 regular season hunters checked in 1977, 64 percent were unsuccessful, 13 percent harvested 1 bird, 10 percent harvested 2 birds, and 13 percent harvested the daily bag limit of 3 birds. After opening weekend, hunting pressure decreased markedly. Although the entire blue grouse season lasted 57 days, 42 percent of the wings collected from volunteer stations were obtained opening weekend. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of wing barrels for sampling, Middle Park hunters were questioned as to what they did with the wings from the birds they harvested. This information is summarized as follows: Percent Percent Percent Percent wings wings wings wings deposited in barrels collected that should have been deposited disposed of unknown status 60.7 18.9 17.4 3.0 �-45- Only 4 birds were reported killed in the Green Mountain study area. Based on the estimated fall population of 67 birds, about 6 percent of this population was harvested in 1977. Furthermore, only 1 of 20 (5%) birds banded in 1977 on the area was recovered. Data from other studies suggest 25 to 30 percent of the fall population can be safely harvested with no adverse effects on the subsequent spring breeding population (Zwickel 1958, Bendell and Elliott 1967). Age and sex composition of the 1977 harvest sample is presented in Table 8 along with 1975 and 1976 data. As can be readily ascertained from data in Table 8, sex and age composition of the harvest in 1977 was not greatly different from that determined in 1975 and 1976. Few yearlings were identifiable in 1977 due to the early onset of primary molt. Since males initiate their molt before females, there was a pronounced deficiency of males in the yearling age class in all years, but especially so for 1977. Otherwise, sex ratios for the other two age classes did not deviate significantly from 1:1. There appeared to be no selection for certain age or sex classes. It is also apparent that production and survival did not change markedly during the 3 year period, but were best in 1977. A total of 342 blue grouse wings were collected in the Eagle area during the 1977 season (Table 7). Ten wing collection stations accounted for 297 of 342 wings collected. Number of wings collected from each barrel were as follows: Red Sandstone Road 57, Squaw,Creek 5, Lake Creek 5, Muddy Pass 63, Milk Creek 23, Eby Creek 19, Brush Creek 27, Gypsum Creek 8, Cottonwood Pass 11, and Coffee Pot Springs 79. The remaining wings were obtained through the operation of a check station on Muddy Pass (27) and from the mail wing survey (18). Adverse weather conditions opening weekend resulted in low hunter pressure; consequently, the check station was only operated opening day and few wings were collected. Seventy-one hunters, with 45 grouse, were contacted at the Eagle check station. These hunters reported observing 115 blue grouse. Hunter efficiency (39.1%) and crippling loss (6.7%) compared favorably with data from Middle Park. Crippling loss was estimated to be lower in 1975 (4.5%) and 1976 (3.9%), while hunter efficiency varied from 26.5 percent in 1975 to 47.8 percent in 1976. Hunter success in 1977 (.63 grouse/hunter) was up from 1975 (.38) but down from 1976 (1.0). Most of the pressure occurred opening weekend as 48 percent of the wings collected from volunteer stations were obtained during the first 3 days of the season. Forty-five of 71 hunters (64%) checked were unsuccessful, 13 (18%) had one bird, 10 (14%) shot 2 birds, and only 3 hunters (4%) succeeded in harvesting the bag limit of 3 birds. Exact number of birds harvested from the study area is uncertain. However, only 22 wings were obtained from the Eby Creek area. The Eby Creek road is approximately 26 km (16 mi) long of which about 3 kID traverses the study area. Thus, it is highly unlikely all 22 birds were shot on the study area. Even so, this would only represent about 17 percent of the estimated fall population (132 birds). No band recoveries were reported from the Eby Creek area. Age and sex composition of harvest samples from 1975 to 1977 is given in Table 9. Inadequate samples of wings were collected in 1975 and �Table 8. Age and sex composition of harvest samples from Middle Park, 1975 to 1977. Male 1/ Subadu1tsFemale Total Male Immatures Female Total Total Birds Year Male Adults Female 1975 30(42)1/ 41(58) 71 (42) 5(25) 15(75) 20(12) 36(46) 43(54) 79(46) 170 1976 68(51) 64 (49) 132(39) 15 (35) 28(65) 43(12) 74(45) 92(55) 166(49) 341 1977 133(48) 144(52) 277(46) 3(16) 16(84) 19(3) 164(53) 143(47) 307(51) 603 Total 1/ Because some subadu1ts had completed their molt by mid- to late September and thus could not be distinguished from adults, number of birds assigned to this age class was minimal. ..,..I 1/ Number in parentheses represents percent. Table 9. 0\ I Age and sex composition of harvest samples from the Eagle area, 1975 to 1977. Male 1/ Subadu1tsFemale Total Male Immatures Female Total Total Birds Year Male Adults Female 1975 6 (43)1/ 8(57) 14(67) 0 0 0 4(57) 3(43) 7(33) 21 1976 7(50) 7 (50) 14(21) 0 8(100) 8(12) 15 (33) 30(67) 45(67) 67 1977 87 (57) 65(43) 152(45) 10(71) 4(29) 14(4) 81(47) 90(53) 171(51) 337 Total 1/ Because some subadu1ts had completed their molt by mid- to late September and thus could not be distinguished from adults, number of birds assigned to this age class was minimal. 1/ Number in parenthese represents percent. �-47- 1976 to permit reliable analyses or comparisons among years. As with the Middle Park data, few yearlings were identifiable and thus were underrepresented in the samples. Age and sex composition of the harvest in 1977 was similar between the Eagle and Middle Park areas. Sex ratios for adults and immatures did not deviate significantly from 1:1. Production and survival of young in 1977 was good. Hunter Questionnaire A total of 1,502 big game hunters were surveyed at the Idaho Springs check station during the 1977 deer (500), elk (500), and combined deer-elk (502) seasons. This survey was conducted in order to evaluate the combined blue grouse-big game season. Results of the survey are summarized in Table 10. Hunters were contacted opportunistically at the check station. Only one hunter from each party was surveyed. To insure a diversity of hunters were questioned, sampling periods included days at the beginning, middle, and end of each big game season. Few non-residents «5%) were included in the sample. From data in Table 10, it is apparent that few big game hunters (6.3%) actually took advantage of the longer grouse season. Even through participation was low, general response of hunters to the combined blue grouse-big game season was highly favorable. The primary complaint of those hunters opposed to the season (11%) was their concern about the potential increase in number of hunters (big game + grouse hunters). However, of the 1,502 hunters contacted, only 2 (.13%) were strictly grouse hunters. Most grouse were observed during the deer and elk seasons with a substantial decline in sightings and harvest occurring during the combined season. By opening of the combined season, most grouse had reverted to aboreal habits; consequently, they were harder to find. Surveys in 1976 (Hoffman 1977) and 1977 produced similar results. It is interesting even though more hunters were aware of the longer grouse season in 1977 (48%) than in 1976 (23 percent), participation remained relatively constant from 1976 (4.8%) to 1977 (6.3%). Therefore, only a small percentage of hunters were interested in hunting grouse during the big game season regardless of awareness. It is apparent from data in Table 10 that about half the big game hunters (48.1%) were aware of the combined blue grouse-big game season, and only 13.1 percent of those aware actually hunted grouse. Of" those hunting grouse, 27.4 percent were successful in harvesting 53 grouse, for a hunter success of 2.? birds per successful hunter (.6 birds/big game hunter hunting grouse). ApplYl~g these estimates to the total big game hunter population gives the followlng crude estimate of total harvest of blue grouse during the big game seasons: Total big game hunter population 48.1 percent aware of grouse season 13.1 percent participation 27.4 percent successful 2.0 grouse per successful hunter Plus 5 percent crippling loss 226,000 108,706 14,240 3,902 7,804 8,194 Total blue grouse harvested. �Table 10. Combined blue grouse-big game season, hunter questionnaire data, Idaho Springs 1977. No. in sample No. big game hunters aware of season Percent big game hunters aware of season No. big game hunters unaware of season Percent big game hunters unaware of season No. big game hunters unaware that would have hunted Percent big game hunters unaware that would have hunted No. big game hunters unaware that would not have hunted Percent big game hunters unaware that would not have hunted No. big game hunters hunting grouse Percent big game hunters hunting grouse Percent big game hunters aware of season that hunted grouse No. big game hunters not hunting grouse Percent big game hunters not hunting grouse Percent big game hunters aware of season that did not hunt grouse Total grouse observed Percent big game hunters observing grouse Grouse observed/big game hunter Total grouse harvested Percent successful grouse hunters Grouse/big game hunter hunting grouse Grouse/successful grouse hunter Percent hunters favorable of combined blue grouse-big game season Percent negative Percent indifferent Deer Season Elk Season Combined Season Total All Seasons 500 253 50.6 247 49.4 78 31.6 169 68.4 40 8.0 15.8 460 92.0 500 260 52.0 240 48.0 90 37.5 150 62.5 25 5.0 9.6 475 95.0 502 210 41.8 292 58.2 66 22.6 226 77 .4 30 6.0 14.3 472 94.0 1,502 723 48.1 779 51.9 234 30.0 545 70.0 95 6.3 13.1 1,407 93.7 84.2 693 24.8 1.4 13 20.0 .3 1.6 90.4 2,102 41.8 4.2 28 52.0 1.1 2.1 85.7 620 18.5 1.2 12 16.7 .4 2.4 86.9 3,415 28.4 2.3 53 27.4 .6 2.0 52.0 13.4 34.6 52.2 9.2 38.6 52.0 10.4 37.6 52.1 11.0 36.9 I .j:-. co I �-49- An estimate of the total number of big game hunters as derived from the Big Game Questionnaire Survey is not presently available for 1977. Therefore, the estimate derived from the 1976 survey was used. Crippling loss is based on the regular season estimate of 5.0 percent as determined from data collected on hunter check stations. Calculations do not take into account those individuals that hunted blue grouse, but were not big game hunters. However, few such individuals were contacted and it is believed their numbers were minimal. Based on an 11 year (1966-1976) average annual harvest of 22,100 blue grouse, the additional harvest (8,194 birds) resulting from the longer season amounted to about 37 percent increase in the total kill. Estimated harvest of blue grouse in 1977 was 30,300 birds (pers. comm. H. Riffle) or approximately 11 percent of the estimated total population of 281,000 grouse. Zwickel (1958) and Bendell and Elliott (1967) suggest that 25 to 30 percent of the fall population can be safely harvested with no adverse effects on the subsequent spring breeding population. Pre- and post-seasons estimates of breeding densities in 1976 and 1977 have shown no significant fluctuations as a result of the longer grouse seasons. It is therefore concluded that from a biological standpoint, a more liberal blue grouse season is a sound management practice. LITERATURE CITED Bendell, J. F., D. G. King, and D. H. Mossop. 1972. lation of blue grouse in a declining population. 36(4):1153-1165. Removal and repopuJ. Hildl. Manage. _____ , and P. H. Elliott. 1967. Behavior and the regulation blue grouse. Can. Hildl. Servo Rep. Ser. 4. 76 p. Braun, C. E. 1971. characteristics. No. 86. I} pp. of numbers in Determination of blue grouse sex and age from wing Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Info. Leaflet Hoffman~ R. H. 1976. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of blue grouse. Colorado Div. Hildl. Job Prog. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. H-37-R. April 1976. p. 135-152. 1977. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of blue grouse. Colorado Div. Hildl. Job Prog. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. H-37-R. April, 1977. p. 83-104. Rogers, G. E. 1968. The blue grouse in Colorado. and Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 21. 63 p. Zwickel, F. C. 1958. North-central Game Bull. 10(4):3-4. Hashington Colo. Div. Game, Fish grouse studies. Hash. State in an increasing Hildlife Researcher ��April -51- JOB FINAL State of C_O_L_O_RAD __ O Project No. Job Title Period _ Game Bird Survey Organization, 5 Job No •. 17 Covered: Personnel: REPORT W-37-R-3l Work Plan No. 1978 ------------------------------------- Mortality, 1 April and Dispersal 1975 to 31 March of Grouse Broods 1978 William W. Mautz, Colorado State University; Clait E. Braun, Deborah Covic, Kenneth Giesen, Richard Hoffman, and James Kitzmiller, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT The objectives of this study have been fully achieved. Reports covering the various objectives have been published, prepared and submitted, and in some instances are in progress. Those in progress will be published under Work Plan 22, Job 1 and are listed in the project documents for W-37-R-32. Manuscripts published, submitted or in progress are listed below. 1977. Mortality Giesen, K. M. M ..S. Thesis. ptarmigan. 1978. Egg retrieval and dispersal of juvenile white-tailed Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 55 pp , by incubating white-tailed ptarmigan. Auk (In Press). _____ , and C. E. Braun. 1976. Renesting of white-tailed ptarmigan Colorado. J. Colo.-Wyo. Acad. Sci. 8(1):71-72. (Abstract). _____ , and1978. Renesting of white-tailed ptarmigan in in Colorado. (Manuscript submitted , and 1978. A technique for age determination of juvenile ptarmigan in Colorado. (Manuscript submitted to J. Wildl. -----white-tailed to Condor). Manage.). _____ , and Colorado. _____ , and Colorado 1978. Dispersal of juvenile (Manuscript in preparation). 1978. (Manuscript Mortality of juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan in white-tailed ptarmigan in in preparation). _____ , and T. A. May. ptarmigan in Colorado. 1978. Nesting ecology of white-tailed (Manuscript submitted to Wilson Bull.). �-52- _____ , and 1978. Growth and development of juvenile whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. (Manuscript in preparation). _____ , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1978. Nesting behavior of female white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. (Manuscript submitted to Condor). , and 1978. Summer and fall movements of juvenile ----white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. (Manuscript in preparation). Prepared by ~1f1 ~ Kenneth M. Giesen Graduate Research Asst. Approved by_~tk~~J-L!.:_:?_''---Li--=:~:....::-:..--=__ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher �April 1978 -53- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------- Project No. W-37-R-3l Work Plan No. 17 Game Bird Survey Job No. Job Title Evaluations of White-tailed Ptarmigan Introductions to Pikes Peak Period Covered: April 1, 1976 to March 31, 1978 Personnel: 6 George Bock, Clait Braun, Frank Colley, Kellan Duncan, Marcus Elkins, Howard Funk, Kenneth Giesen, Richard Hoffman, James Kitzmiller, Thomas Lytle, Walter Larrick, and James Morris. ABSTRACT Division of Wildlife personnel concluded after 3 days of intensive searching in May 1974 that no breeding population of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) was present on Pikes Peak, but preliminary habitat investigations suggested the area could potentially support ptarmigan in small numbers. In 1975, 6 pair were released in June, followed by another release of 9 males, 7 females, and 12 chicks in September. Breeding and production surveys were conducted in 1976 and 1977. Reproduction occurred the first year (1975), but was insufficient to replace natural losses, consequently, the population declined by 42 percent from 1975 to 1976. Production and survival of young in 1976 and 1977 were good. However, rate of population increase was only 8.7 percent from 1976 to 1977. Overall survival increased from 55 percent (1975 to 1976) to 69 percent (1976 to 1977). While ptarmigan have been successfully introduced on Pikes Peak, population increase and expansion into new areas has been slow. At the present rate of increase, 10 to 12 years will be required for the population to attain maximum supportable densities. Guidelines for successful establishment of ptarmigan into new or unoccupied habitats are discussed. �-54RECOMMENDATIONS 1. It is recommended to Pikes Peak. that no further transplants of ptarmigan be made 2. It is recommended that data obtained in this study be turned over to management personnel in 1978 for future monitoring of the population for at least 2 or 3 more years. Some assistance should be provided by research in 1978 to ensure census procedures are properly understood and utilized. 3. Guidelines for successful introduction of white-tailed new or unoccupied habitats will be published. 4. Data from Work Plan 17, Job 6 should be incorporated with data from Work Plan 17, Jobs 1, 2, and 3 and studies by Braun et al. (1978) into a manuscript entitled "Experimental Removal and Tranplant Studies of White-tailed Ptarmigan." ptarmigan into �-55- EVALUATIONS OF WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN INTRODUCTIONS TO PIKES PEAK Richard W. Hoffman Unlike the erratic distribution of white-tailed ptarmigan in most states and provinces within its range, this grouse inhabits practically all alpine areas in Colorado, with the exception of Spanish Peaks and Pikes Peak. Absence of ptarmigan On Spanish Peaks can be attributed to an almost complete deficit of vegetation above treeline; whereas, Pikes Peak, with its seemingly suitable habitat, apparently has never supported a breeding population of ptarmigan. Aiken and Warren (1914) and Knorr (1959), in studying the avifauna of El Paso County noted the absence of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak and reported no authentic records of this alpine grouse occurring in the County. No reports were mentioned of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak in early distributional records summarized by Schlater (1912) and more recently by Bailey and Neidrach (1965). Using developed techniques for locating ptarmigan, Division of Wildlife personnel similarly confirmed after 3 days of intensive searching in May 1974 that no ptarmigan were present on Pikes Peak (Hoffman unpubl. data). Furthermore, due to the geographically isolated nature of Pikes Peak from other occupied ranges, it is highly unlikely ptarmigan ever reached the area in sufficient numbers to establish a population. Intensive studies of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado have focused on nearly every biological aspect of this species (Schmidt 1969, Braun and Rogers 1971, Braun and Schmidt 1971, Haskins 1969, May 1975, May and Braun 1972, Hoffman and Braun 1975, and Giesen 1977). While removal studies have provided information on natural repopulation of previously occupied habitats (Braun 1975), little is known concerning characteristics of a population when introduced into new areas. Prior transplants have been made to other states including Oregon, California, and Utah following established guidelines set forth by Braun (1975). With the exception of the Utah transplant, (Braun et al. 1978) circumstances have not permitted evaluation of the introductions or adequacy of the guidelines. The Pikes Peak introduction represents the first opportunity within Colorado to conduct fol1owup studies. This report describes the Pikes Peak transplant. P. N. OBJECTIVES Major objectives of this study are to: (1) evaluate the success or failure of transplanted ptarmigan to establish a breeding population on Pikes Peak, (2) ascertain if distance of Pikes Peak from other occupied habitats prevented males (but not females) from reaching the area and consequently establishing a breeding population, (3) identify critical deficiencies in the habitat (including minimum size) which might contribute to a failure of ptarmigan to establish a breeding population, (4) evaluate adequacy of existing guidelines for ptarmigan introductions, possibly improve upon them and/or develop additional guidelines, and (5) increase knowledge available on the pioneering abilities of ptarmigan. �-56- METHODS AND MATERIALS Status of ptarmigan on Pikes Peak prior to the introduction was ascertained by (1) field reconnaissance, (2) review of avifauna records, and (3) personal communications with Division of Wildlife personnel and other persons acquainted with the area. Vegetative communities were visually described and classified as to their suitability for ptarmigan based on habitat requirements of the species as presented by Braun (1971). Using data from earlier studies (Whitfield 1933, Buechner, unpubl.) along with information collected in this study, vegetative types were described according to procedures outlined by Braun (1969). Plant nomenclature follows Weber (1972). Transplant procedures follow established guidelines set forth by Braun (1975). Climatological data were obtained from Whitfield (1933), U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (1920-1934), Marr (1961), and Marr et al. (1968a and b). Both a spring breeding census (May-June) and summer brood survey (AugustSeptember) were conducted in 1976 and 1977. Techniques employed for locating ptarmigan have already been described (Braun et al. 1973), along with efficient trapping and identification procedures (Braun and Rogers 1971). Attempts were made to identify all marked birds and to capture and band any unmarked individuals. Each sighting was recorded at the time on standardized observation cards, and locations were plotted on 7.5 minute U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps. Most of the Pikes Peak region was traversed in order to determine distribution of introduced birds and to delineate potential seasonal use sites. All areas appearing suitable for use by ptarmigan were outlined on U.S.G.S. topographic maps and subsequently planimetered to estimate amount of habitat available. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA The Pikes Peak region lies in the east central part of Colorado along the Front Range of the Rocky Mounains at approximately 38030' north latitude and 1060 west longitude. It is included within the Pike National Forest in portions of El Paso and Teller counties (T14S, R68 and 69 W, and T15S, R69W) and represents the eastern most extension of alpine range in Colorado. Total area classified as alpine includes about 39 km2(15 mi2); however, the area under investigation encompasses 23 km2(9 mi2) (Fig. 1). Location of Pikes Peak in relation to ptarmigan distribution and alpine range in Colorado is shown in Fig. 2. Geologically, Pikes Peak is similar to much of the alpine area in Colorado. The core of the front range in this area consists mainly of Pikes Peak granite, a natural, intrusive, igneous rock that was forced through the overlying sedimentary rock during the Laramide Revolution. Most of the sedimentary rock has since been eroded away, leaving the granite exposed (Koschmann 1956). Although the major rock type is granite, metamorphic rocks such as schist, quartzite, and gneiss are present. With the exception of quartzite, soils developing from these rocks are productive and can be classified as coarse, loamy, and deep. However, some are occasionally shallow to bedrock. Soils termed by Nimlos and McConnell (1965) as alpine meadow and alpine bog types occur frequently in wet, poorly drained sites. �ORE ~ T KEY o o '\el Potnt o X ION p o e A Fall Release Site Spring Release Area Territory 1976 Territory 1977 Territory 1976 and 1977 -t N / PIKES PEAK AREA Study Area Boundary Scale in Kilometers o 1/2 \ \ i Fig. 1. breeding Pikes Peak study area showing territories. release sites and location of 1 �~ -CRAIG •FORT COLLINS J} -DENVER I VI 00 I -GRAND JUNCTION ~ o • COLORADO SPRINGS .PIKES PEAK GUNNISON - N f) -DURANGO Fig. 2. Location of Pikes Peak in relation b flcP SCALE IN KILOMETERS 50 tOO o I I J -TRINIDAD to alpine range and ptarmigan distribution in Colorado. �-59- Topography is irregular, with elevations ranging from 3,500 m (11,500 ft) at treeline to 4,300 m (14,109 ft) on the summit of Pikes Peak. The study area lies on the southwest side of a ridge about 10 km (6 mi) long. The southwest side of this ridge has a moderate slope, and merges into a gently rolling upland. This is in striking contrast to the northeast side where glacial action has created a rugged precipice with steep walled cirques, rock heaps and U-shaped valleys (Pearl 1964). Vegetation Examination of vegetative communities and available habitats prior to the transplant indicated that alpine areas on Pikes Peak and adjacent mountains were suitable for white-tailed ptarmigan. A description of these areas is presented below. For descriptive purposes, the alpine region was divided into the low and high alpine. The low alpine contains many of the woody plants of the alpine zone, and lies approximately between timberline and 3,811 m (12,500 ft). The most conspicuous dominant of the low alpine is Salix spp., but krummholz communities alternately dominated by clumps of Picea engelmannii or bushes of Salix spp. are major vegetative components of the low alpine. Many of the drainage systems originating in the alpine have been blocked by glacial action resulting in extensive wet areas dominated by dense stands of Salix spp. These areas frequently extend from above treeline into the subalpine. Other plants locally abundant in the low alpine include: Pinus flexilis, Pinus aristata, Dryas octapetala, Pentaphylloides floribunda, Kobresia bellardii, and Carex spp. Further upslope, between the upper limits of the low alpine and the higher talus slopes and ridges, are the alpine meadows which are transitory sites between the low and high alpine. Salix spp. extend into the lower portions of the meadows, while rocky areas predominate along the upper portions. Most of the area is characterized by low growing vegetation classified as Kobresia- Carex-Geum and Kobresia-Carex alpine meadows. Deschampsia, Polygonum, Potentilla, Pedicularis and Hymenoxys are some of the other plants found throughout the meadows. The high alpine includes the steep slopes and ridge tops above 3,963 m (13,000 ft). Obvious features of the high alpine are the abundance of rocky areas and exceedingly low growing vegetation. Vegetative communities consist primarily of Carex rock, Carex Poa rock, and Carex-Geum rock meadows, but Trifolium, Senecio, Kobres~ and Sedum are also present in certain areas. Large boulder fields are common throughout the area, especially at higher elevations. Some have little or no vegetative cover. Similarly, many of the precipitous slopes in the northeast portion of the area are devoid of vegetation. Climate Recent weather data were lacking for the study area. Some recent data were available for subalpine sites near the study area, but the information was incomplete. Consequently, reference is made to data collected from 1920 to �-60- 1934 by the U. S. Forest Service, Fremont Experiment Station, at a treeline site approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) east of the study area (Table 1). Wind volocities are excluded from Table 1 because data were recorded in mph of wind per day with no maximum, minimum or mean figures. Comparative data were obtained from long term climate investigations conducted by Marr et al. (1968a, 1968b) at Niwot Ridge (40003' N lat. and 105037' W long.) (Table 2). This site lies 120 km (75 mi) north of the study area along the Front Range. Although climatic data for alpine sites are available from studies by Marr et al. (1968a, 1968b) these data are not directly comparable with treeline data collected near the study area. Therefore, data presented in Table 2 also represent climatic conditions at treeline. It should be noted that alpine air temperatures are usually 2 to 70C (4 to l30F) lower than temperatures in adjacent subalpine areas (Marr 1961). Amount of variation is dependent upon elevational extremes, with minimum temperatures showing the least difference (Marr 1961). Conversely, precipitation increases from subalpine to alpine areas, but the precise increment is unknown (Marr 1961). A detailed review of climatic studies in Colorado alpine areas and general descriptive information is presented by Braun and Rogers (1971). Climatic conditions on Pikes Peak are similar to other alpine regions in the state, and can best be described as continental. Frequent extremes in wind velocities and temperature are common. Prevailing winds are westerly. The alpine spring is short, cool, and wet. Upslope easterly winds typically occur in spring, and when accompanied by moisture, result in heavy, wet snowfalls (Marr 1961). Summers are short, and cool to warm, with most precipitation occurring in form of thunderstorms. Autumn is short, clear, dry, and mostly cold; however, extended periods of warm weather are not unusual. The winter is long, very cold, dry, and windy. Blizzards are frequent, but much of the moisture occurring in winter is ineffective because constant winds blow most of what falls as snow from exposed sites. Upon examination of Tables 1 and 2 it is apparent warmer, drier conditions prevailed on Pikes Peak as compared to Niwot Ridge. Monthly maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures near the study area averaged 30C (50F) warmer, while average annual precipitation was 9.1 cm (3.6 in) less than the same estimate for Niwot Ridge. Forty seven percent of the annual precipitation (56.57 cm, 22.28 in) on Pikes Peak occurred from June to August (26.49 cm, 10.43 in), with fall through late winter (September to February) being the driest period (13.08 cm, 5.15 in). Only 29 percent of the annual precipitation (65.66 cm, 25.86 in) at Niwot Ridge fell from June to August (19.00 cm, 7.48 in), whereas, over 10 cm (4 in) more preC1p1tation accumulated from September through February (24.79 cm, 9.76 in). Spring was the wettest season at Niwot Ridge. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Releases The initial work of trapping and transplanting ptarmigan to Pikes Peak was completed in 1975. Ptarmigan were trapped from 5 different areas in �Table 1. Climatological data, Pikes Peak, IS-year average from 1920 to 1934 (U. S. Dept. Commerce, Weather Bureau. Climatological data, Colorado annual summaries). Month TemEerature, Air °c (OF) Mean Minimum Maximum Maximum Precipitation, cm Water (in) Minimum Mean January 15 (58) -24 (-11) - 4 (24) 3.22 (1.27) .05 ( .02) 1.01 ( .40) February 16 (60) -34 (-29) - 4 (25) 5.28 (2.08) .28 ( .11) 1.85 ( .73) March 16 (61) -26 (-14) - 3 (27) 11.81 (4.65) .99 ( .39) 4.19 (1.65) April 18 (65) -20 (- 3) 1 (34) 18.34 (7.22) 2.06 ( .81) 5.69 (2.24) I (J\ May 23 (73) - 8 ( 17) 6 (43) 14.88 (5.86) 2.26 ( .89) 7.14 (2.81) June 27 (80) - 2 ( 29) 12 (53) 20.75 (8.17) .96 ( .38) 6.35 (2.50) July 29 (83) o ( 32) 15 (58) 19.63 (7.73) 4.29 (1.69) 10.18 (4.01) August 27 (81) - 1 ( 31) 13 (56) 18.77 (7.39) 2.82 (1.11) 9.96 (3.92) September 26 (78) -12 ( 11) 11 (51) 6.45 (2.54) 1.17 ( .46) 3.17 (1.25) October 23 (73) -15 ( 5) 5 (41) 12.70 (5.00) .05 ( .02) 3.02 (1.19) November 17 (62) -26 (-14) o (32) 8.69 (3.42) .33 ( .13) 2.46 ( .97) December 15 (58) -30 (-22) - 4 (25) 3.94 (1.55) .10 ( .04) 1.55 ( .61) Average 21 (69) -16 ( 3) 4 (39) 12.04 (4.74) 1.28 ( .50) 56.57 (22.28) f-' I �Table 2. Climatological data, Niwot Ridge, 11-year average from 1953 to 1964 (Marr et a1. 1968 a and b). Month Temperature, Air °c (OF) Mean Minimum Maximum January 12 (54) -37 (-34) - 7 (19) 8.38 (3.30) .1.27 ( .50) 4.39 (1.73) February 12 (53) -32 (-25) - 7 (19) 6.86 (2.70) 1.02 ( .40) 4.42 (1.74) March 12 (54) -29 (-19) - 6 (21) 9.02 (3.55) 1.27 ( .50) 5.69 (2.24) April 17 (62) -18 (- 1) - 3 (27) 22.48 (8.85) 1.40 ( .55) 7.77 (3.06) May 21 (69) -16 ( 4) 4 (39) 18.54 (7.30) 3.68 (1.45) 8.43 (3.32) Maximum Precipitation, cm Water (in) Mean Minimum I June 25 (77) - 7 ( 19) 9 (48) 9.40 (3.70) .25 ( .10) 5.46 (2.15) July 25 (77) - 2 ( 28) .. 12 (53) 9.75 (3.84) 3.61 (1.42) 6.70 (2.64) August 25 (77) - 3 ( 27) 11 (52) 18.11 (7.13) 1.65 ( .65) 6.83 (2.69) September 25 (76) -14 ( 7) 8 (46) 13.16 (5.18) .35 ( .14) 5.03 (1.98) October 18 (65) -16 ( 4) 4 (39) 6.35 (2.50) .51 ( .20) 2.79 (1.10) November 13 (55) -27 (-17) - 3 (27) 7.75 (3.05) 2.41 ( .95) 3.96 (1.56) December 13 (55) -26 (-15) - 6 (22) 9.14 (3.60) .38 ( .15) 4.19 (1.65) Average 18 (64) -19 (- 2) 1 (34) 11.58 (4.56) 1.48 ( .58) 65.66(25.86) '" N I �-63- Colorado (Guanella Pass, Hagerman Pass, Weston Pass, Loveland Pass, and Mosquito Pass) to insure genetic diversity in the stock of transplanted birds. Two transplants (spring and fall) involving a total of 40 birds were made (Table 3). Six mated pairs were released in June followed by another release of 9 males, 7 females, and 12 chicks in September. All birds were released within 1 1/2 days of when they were trapped. No mortalities occurred as a result of transplant operations. Table 3. Age and sex composition Release Period of spring and fall releases on Pikes Peak. Sex Adults Yearlings Immatures Total Males 3 3 0 6 Females 2 4 0 6 Males 6 3 9 18 Females 3 4 3 10 14 14 12 40 June 1975 September Totals 1975 Release sites were selected based on (1) spring and fall habitat requirements of the species (Braun 1971), (2) proximity of other seasonal use areas (fall and winter habitat) in relation to the release sites, and (3) accessibility of release sites. Both spring and fall release sites were in the same general locality, but the fall release site was at a slightly higher elevation. During the spring transplant, birds were released as mated pairs at approximately 180 m (200 yds) intervals apart. The female was released first, immediately followed by the male. No special precautions were taken in the fall release except for releasing chicks in close proximity to a hen. The remaining birds were turned loose in groups of 4 to 5 birds. All birds were marked prior to release and pertinent information about each bird was recorded. Within a few days following their introduction, spring released cocks spaced themselves out, established territories, and resumed breeding activities with their original mate. Other than normal spacing of territories, no extensive movements occurred away from the release site. Fall released grouse exhibited no unusual behavior when released. Some birds slowly �-64- wandered off into surrounding rocky areas. Others flew short distances «100 m), while a few birds flew several hundred meters and disappeared from view. No further attempt was made to monitor the population until 1976. Establishment and Dispersal Observations of sign indicated many birds wintered in stands of willow (Salix spp.) near the release sites, but at lower elevations. Distances from release sites of ptarmigan observations in 1976 and 1977 are shown in Table 4. No birds were observed more than 3.4 km (2.1 mi) from the release areas, but sign was found up to 6 km (4 mi) away. Table 4. Distance from release Pikes Peak area. 11 Distance (km) Spring Release sites of ptarmigan 1976 Observations Fall Release Progeny Total Spring Release observations, 1976-77, 1977 Observations Fall Release Progeny Total <0.5 2 1 0 3 1 0 0 1 0.5-0.9 5 3 0 8 4 2 1 7 1. 0-1.4 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 3 1. 5-1. 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2.0-2.4 0 4 0 4 0 2 0 2 2.5-2.9 0 1 0 1 0 0 3 3 3.0-3.4 0 5 1 6 0 5 3 8 1lExc1udes duplicate observations. Release sites and location of breeding territories are depicted in Fig. 1. Whereas, the entire study area encompasses 23.4 km2 (9.1 mi2), only 27.6 percent (6.5 km2) constitutes suitable breeding habitat. Eighty percent of the breeding habitat and consequently, 91 percent of the birds were in the southern portion of the study area in 1976. This decreased to 80 percent in 1977 as more birds moved into the northern part of the study area. Even so,dispersa1 was slow as average distance of territories from release sites increased by only .3 km from 1976 to 1977. Also, progeny of the 1976 population did not pioneer into new areas in 1977 which further reflects the slow rate of dispersal. �-65- Observations of transplant birds during 1976 revealed that spring released birds were clustered around the release sites while fall released birds had spread out into surrounding breeding areas. Innately, ptarmigan form the same pair bond and return to the same territory year after year (Schmidt 1969). Therefore, it was not unusual for surviving spring released birds to be breeding on the same area (release site) in 1976 where they had established territories in 1975. As a result of this behavior, and because fall released birds did not establish territories until spring 1976, they were forced to search elsewhere for breeding habitat. Mean distance of territories from release sites for fall released males was 2.48 km (range .79 - 3.36 km) compared to a mean distance of only .73 km (range = .41 - .99 km) for spring release males. As expected, fall released juveniles and subadults dispersed the greatest distances from release sites. Adult males, especially those released in spring, were the most sedentary portion of the population. Locations of their territories in relation to release sites indicate they traversed the minimum distance necessary to find vacant breeding habitat. With one exception, all males established territories within calling distance of another male. Movements of spring and fall released females were similar to males released at the same time. No females were located outside the bounds of occupied habitat; thus, their movements were at least in part controlled by where the males established territories. Due to their high mobility (Hoffman and Braun 1975) some females may have dispersed off the study area. Evidence supporting this hypothesis is limited to unconfirmed slightings of ptarmigan several kilometers from the study area. Population Characteristics Ptarmigan were located during the breeding and brood seasons through use of tape recorded male challenge and chick distress calls as described by Braun et al. (1973). Two censuses were conducted each year during both the breeding (May-June) and brood (July-early September) seasons. All potential habitat was systematically searched. Nevertheless, some fraction of the population undoubtedly escaped detection, but it is believed most breeding birds were located. Results of breeding surveys in 1976 and 1977 are summarized in Table 5. Estimates of nesting success and production could not be accurately ascertained based on summer field observations because of difficulties encountered in finding hens with chicks. However, number of juveniles located during spring breeding surveys provided some indication of the previous year's production and survival of young. In 1976 the spring population consisted of 23 birds, including 8 pairs, 4 unmated territorial males, and 3 non-territorial males. No unmated hens were found. Of 23 grouse observed, 22 were already marked and were remaining individuals from the introduced population. The unbanded bird was a juvenile hen which paired with a fall released male. Obviously this hen was not an introduced bird and most likely represents surviving offspring of the 1975 spring released birds. �-66- Table 5. White-tailed ptarmigan spring population status on Pikes Peak 1976 and 1977. densities and breeding Year Total Spring Population Breeding Pairs Unmated Territorial Males NonTerritorial Males Unmated Females 1976 23 8 4 3 o 1977 25 9 5 2 o Percent Rate of Increase 8.7 Annual survival of the introduced population from 1975 to 1976 was similar to survival in a natural population (Table 6). However, production and survival of young in 1975 was insufficient to replace natural losses from the population, consequently, from 1975 to 1976, there was an initial population decline of 42.5 percent. Table 6. Comparative survival rates of the introduced population and a natural population of white-tailed ptarmigan in Rocky Mountain National Park. 1-./ Survival Rates (%) Age and Sex RMNP Adults 67 64 Males 75 78 Females 65 40 Subadults 65 64 Males 75 100 Females 55 37 J uvena·1es-3/ 23 33 56 55 Annual Survival All Birds 1/ Data from Braun 1/ Survival (1969). of spring and fall released 1/ Sex of juveniles Pikes Peak ]) birds from 1975 to spring 1976. could not be accurately ascertained at time of release. �-67- Survival of ptarmigan varies with age class and is lowest in the first year of life (0-1 years) and increases substantially during the second year (1-2 years) to a constant level that is maintained in the older age classes (Braun 1969). Also, males typically have a higher survival rate than females because of their more sedentary habits (Braun 1969). These characteristics are suggested by the data presented in Table 6 with the exception that survival of adult and subadult females appeared to be abnormally low. Since survival rates of the other age and sex classes compared favorably with the natural population, the excessive loss of females could not be entirely contributed to mortality on the study area. Due to the high mobility of females (Hoffman and Braun 1975) and limited amount of suitable habitat on Pikes Peak, more females were probably lost from the introduced population as a result of dispersal off the area without replacement than would normally occur in a natural population. Any movement of birds away from the Pkes Peak area almost certainly resulted in their death as there is no other habitat within 65+ km (40+ mi). A total of 17 ptarmigan (11 males, 2 unsuccessful females, and 1 successful female with 3 chicks) were located during summer brood investigations in 1976. Only 3 of 8 hens observed on territories were accounted for during the brood census. Status of the other 5 hens is uncertain, but it is doubtful if they succumbed to mortality and most likely they went undetected. Based on the actual number of hens observed (3), nesting success for 1976 was only 33 percent. These data suggest the conclusion that production and survival of young in 1976 and subsequent recruitment into the population was low. However, results of breeding surveys in 1977 were not in agreement with this conclusion. Nine juveniles were identified in spring 1977, whereas, only 3 juveniles were originally located during summer brood investigations in 1976. While just 3 chicks were banded in 1976, 2 (66%) were recaptured in 1977, which implies excellent survival of chicks. Assuming a similar survival rate for unbanded chicks, then at least 14 chicks were produced in 1976. Since brood size by September 1 does not change significantly between years and averages 3.5 chicks per brood (Braun 1969), then the 14 chicks produced in 1976 represent 4 broods and estimated nesting success for 1976 is 50 percent instead of 33 percent. The population not only benefited from good production jn 1976, but also was enhanced by excellent survival from 1976 to 1977. Eighteen of 26 birds (including chicks) identified in 1976 were relocated in 1977 for an estimated annual survival rate of 69 percent (Table 7). From 1976 to 1977, total population size increased from 23 to 25 birds (Table 5). Rate of increase in the population was 8.7 percent. Mated pairs surviving from the 1976 population formed the same pair bond in 1977. In addition, 10 of 12 territories occupied in 1976 were re-established in 1977 along with 4 new territories. The abandoned territories were situated in marginal habitat and were probably temporary in nature. Four broods were observed on the Pikes Peak area during August 1977. Brood sizes were 6, 5, 4, and 4 chicks (average = 4.7 chicks/brood). Nine chicks were captured, including one trapping mortality, and based on primary wing molt, they all hatched between 23 June and 4 July. Except for 2 males, no other birds were located. Observation of sign suggested the birds were scattered in small flocks throughout the area. �-68- Table 7. 1977. Survival rates of white-tailed ptarmigan on Pikes Peak, 1976 to Survival Age and Sex (%) 67 Adults Males 77 Females 40 Subadults 80 Males 50 Females 100 Juveniles 6~/ Annual Survival All Birds 69 l/Based on survival of 3 chicks banded in 1976. Although data are limited, a minimum of 4 of 9 hens (44%), and probably more, were successful nesters in 1977. An average brood size of 4.7 chicks by August 1 further indicates good production and survival of young in 1977. Therefore, it is anticipated that the breeding population will increase in 1978. CONCLUSIONS Published references regarding successful introductions of ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus) (Ammann and Palmer 1958; Moran and Palmer 1963), bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) (Cookingham and Ripley 1964), and ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) (Einarsen 1942, Stokes 1954) all describe the same basic population trend; rapid dispersal throughout the range and erruptive buildup of populations followed by a leveling off to more normal numbers. While white-tailed ptarmigan have been successfully introduced to Pikes Peak, events succeeding the release did not conform to the general pattern described in the lit,erature. By the first breeding season after introduction, population numbers had declined by 42 percent and since then the population has only been slowly increasing and expanding into new areas. In Michigan, only 4 breeding seasons were needed for an introduced population of ruffed grouse to reach saturation levels (Moran and Palmer 1963). Estimated suitable breeding habitat on Pikes Peak is 6.5 km2 (2.5 mi2). At 2 an average breeding density of 8 birds/km2 (20 birds/mi ) (Braun and Rogers 1971), this area can presumably support about 25 pairs. Assuming the present �-69- rate of population increase (8.7%) remains stable, 10 to 12 years will be required for the population on Pikes Peak to attain maximum supportable densities. Due to time constraints and problems inherent with holding wild ptarmigan in captivity, the initial trapping of birds for release was sometimes opportunistic and age and sex composition of the released stock was not ideal. As a consequence, a deficiency of adult and yearling hens and an excess of chicks were included in the fall release. In addition, only 6 pair were released in spring 1975 which limited potential production the first year. The problem was further amplified by abnormally low survival of females, creating lopsided sex ratios favoring males (1976, 1.9 males:l female; 1977, 1.8 males:lfemale). Most certainly, the uneven sex ratios coupled with the lack of experienced birds (especially adult hens) and poor production in 1975 were not conducive to maximum reproductive output from the population. Even so, characteristically, ptarmigan are not prolific breeders (Braun 1969) and even if conditions were ideal, the limited reproductive capabilities of the species would prevent rapid, short term increases in the population. Conversely, species such as ruffed grouse, pheasants, and bobwhites have tremendous reproductive capabilities under ideal conditions with the potential of doubling or trippling population numbers in one year. Failure of birds to rapidly disperse throughout the habitat was a manifestation of the sedentary nature of males (Hoffman and Braun 1975). Fall released juveniles were expected to disperse from release sites and extend the range of the introduced population. However, few survived until the following spring and the majority of birds remained concentrated around the release areas. Since males banded as chicks return to their natal areas in search of vacant territories (Braun 1969), it was not surprising that progeny of the introduced birds also established territories near the release sites. Some did move into adjacent habitats, but dispersing males did not have to travel very far before they encountered unoccupied breeding habitat. Thus, expansion into new areas was slow, and controlled by the movements of males. Braun (1975) similarly describes the important role played by males in extension of range and re-establishment of ptarmigan populations. Guidelines In considering transplants of white-tailed ptarmigan and possibly other grouse into new or unoccupied habitats, the following guidelines for successful establishment are recommended. 1. Pre-release evaluation and selection of habitats should be conducted personnel experienced with the species in native habitats. by 2. Release sites should be selected based on the immediate requirements of the birds when they are released. Preferably, other seasonal use sites should be in close proximity to the release area. 3. Unless the habitat is ideal, areas smaller than 5 km2 (3 mi2) will probably not support huntable populations on a sustained basis without immigration from other occupied ranges. Otherwise, excessive losses may occur due to emmigration without replacement. �-70- 4. Releases should be made with wild trapped stock of an appropriate subspecies or geographical race. Birds trapped from several different areas will ensure genetic diversity in the released stock. 5. Large numbers of animals are not necessary for successful establishment provided (1) the habitat is suitable, (2) all birds are relased in the same area, and (3) released stock includes mostly adult and yearling birds. 6. Spring releases should only include mated pairs. Ten to 15 pairs should be adequate. Timing of the release is very important. By early June pair bonds are strongly formed and soon after, ovulation is initiated. This information, coupled with the knowledge that the pair bond is not easily broken, and once initiated, ovulation and egg laying cannot be readily terminated, suggest that spring releases in early June will ensure cohesiveness of the pair bond, re-establishment of territories, and completion of the laying cycle. 7. A combination of yearling and adult birds with sex ratios favoring females (2:1) should compose the fall (September) release. Few, if any, juveniles should be included. Birds should be released in small groups of 4 or 5 individuals near the same locality as the spring transplant. 8. It may be necessary to release additional supplement losses and enhance production. 9. Annual breeding and production surveys for 3 to 5 years after introduction are desirable in order to ascertain success or failure of the transplant and factors responsible. LITERATURE females the following year to CITED Aiken, C.E.H., and E. R. Warren. 1914. The birds of El Paso County, Colorado I. Colorado College Publ. General Ser. No. 74. 12(13):455-496. Ammann, G. A., and W. L. Palmer. 1958. Michigan Islands. J. Wildl. Manage. Bailey. A. M •. and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Natural History_ Vol. 1. 895 pp. Ruffed grouse introductions 22(3):322-325. Birds of Colorado. on Denver Museum Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 189 pp. 1971. Habitat requirements of Colorado white-tailed ptarmigan. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comms. 51:284-292. 1975. Experimental removal of a breeding population of white-tailed ptarmigan. Colo. Div. Wi1dl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April. pp. 91-109. �-71- Braun, C. E., and G. E. Rogers. 1971. The white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks Tech. Publ. No. 27. 80 pp. _____ , and R. K. Schmidt, Jr. 1971. Effects of snow and wind on wintering populations of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Pp. 238-250. In A. O. Haugen, ed. Proceedings of snow and ice symposium. Iowa Cooperative Wildl. Res. Unit. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 280 pp. _____ , and G. E. Rogers. ptarmigan with tape-recorded 1973. Census of Colorado white-tailed calls. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(1):90-93. ____ ~' D. H. Nish, and K. M. Giesen. 1978. Release and establishment of white-tailed ptarmigan in Utah. Southwest Naturalist. (In press). Cookingham, R. A., and T. H. Ripley. 1964. Vital characteristics insular bobwhite population. J. Wildl. Manage. 28(4):855-857. of an Einarsen, A. S. 1942. Specific results from ring-necked pheasant studies in the Pacific Northwest. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 7:130-146. Giesen, K. M. ptarmigan. 1977. Mortality and dispersal of juvenile white-tailed M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 55 pp. Haskins, A. G. 1969. Endoparasites of white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) from Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 147 pp. Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. Migration of a wintering population of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. J. Wild1. Manage. 39(3):485-490. Knorr, O. A. 1959. The birds of El Paso County, Colorado. Studies, Ser. Biol. 5. 48 pp. Univ. Colo. Koschmann, A. H. 1956. Topographic map of Pikes Peak and vicinity, Colorado. U. S. Geol. Survey map. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the east slope of the Front Range in Colorado. Univ. Colo. Studies, Ser. Biol. 8. 134 pp. 1968a. Data on mountain ----- , J. M. Clark, W. S. Osborn, and M. W. Paddock. environments III. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 1959-1964. Univ. Colo. Studies, Ser. Biol. 29. 179 pp. ----- , A. W. Johnson~ W. S. Osborn, and o. A. Knorr. 1968b. Data on mountain environments II. Front Range, Colorado, four climax regions, 19531958. Univ. Colo. Studies, Ser. Biol. 28. 169 pp. May, T. A. 1975. Physiological ecology of white-tailed ptarmigan in Co1orado. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder. 311 pp. ----- , and C. E. Braun. ptarmigan 1972. Seasonal foods of adult white-tailed in Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1180-1186. �-72- Moran, R. J., and W. L. Palmer. 1963. Ruffed grouse introductions and population trends on Michigan Islands. J. Wildl. Manage. 27(4):606614. Nimlos, T. J., and R. C. McConnell. Sci. 99(5):310-321. Pearl, R. M. 1964. Colo. 36 pp. 1965. America's mountain. Alpine soils in Montana. Soil Alan Swallow Publ. Co., Denver, Sclater, W. L. 1912. A history of the birds of Colorado. Co., London. 576 pp. Witherby and Schmidt, R. K., Jr. 1969. Behavior of white-tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 174 pp. Stokes, A. W. 1954. Population studies of the ring-necked pheasant on Pellee Island, Ontario. Ontario Dept. Lands and Forests. Wildl. Sere No.4. 154 pp. U. S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau. 1920-1934. Climatological data. Annual Summaries, Colorado. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Weber, W. A. Boulder. 1972. Rocky Mountain 438 pp. flora. Whitfield, C. J. 1933. The vegetation Monographs 3(1):76-105. Wildlife Researcher Colorado Assoc. Univ. Press, of the Pikes Peak region. Ecol. �-73- JOB PROGRESS Aprii 1978 REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-3l Job Title 1 Job No. 21 Minimum Tillage Techniques for ~E~s~t~a~b~l~i~s~h~l~·n~g~S~h~r~u~b~s_=i~n~C~l~u~m~p~P~l~a~n~t~l~·n~g~s~ _ Period' Covered: April 1, 1977 through March 31, 1978 Work Plan No. Personnel: ----~--------------------------- Warren D. Snyder ABSTRACT The shrub sites received near normal precipitation in 1977. A severe hail storm in late May 1977 caused extensive injury and defoliation to plums on the three Karg sites, resulting in reduced growth and subsequent increased winter die-back and mortality. Mulch treatments increased shrub vigor, reduced winter die-back and reduced mortality during the winter of 1976-77. A slight increase in mortality of plums was evident in 1977. Wide variability in shrub growth in 1977 resulted from previous die-back and elongated root sprouts. However, overall height remained greatest among plastic-mulch treated plots. Plastic mulch also retained the highest capacity to prevent weed competition. Organic mulch lost some weed control effectiveness due to its decomposition and simazine showed similar results. The herbicide, casoron, which was applied in late winter each year, continued to be most effective in weed control. All treatments reduced annual weed occurrence extensively, as in previous years. ��-75- MINIMUM TILLAGE TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING SHRUBS IN CLUMP PLANTINGS Warren D. Snyder P. N. OBJECTIVE To evaluate ground cover techniques, pre-emergent herbicide techniques, a combination of the two, and cultivation techniques for establishing shrubs in clump p1antings in eastern Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To apply pre-emergent herbicide treatments to the Eptam-Treflan Casoron plots and to apply cultivation to the control. 2. To measure and evaluate tition among treatments and shrub survival, shrub growth and weed compeand soils in relation to weather variables. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this study were summarized by Snyder (1975) and Snyder (1976). Procedures listed there were followed very closely during this work segment. Use of rabbit repellent duplicated that of the previous segment (Snyder 1977). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Environmental Measurements Precipitation The rain gauge located at the Tamarack Headquarters measured 15.68 inches of precipitation for 1977. Most of this precipitation was general over the region and distributed to all test sites. The amount received was considerably above that for 1976 and near the average expected in the region (Table 1). A moderately severe hail storm pounded the three Karg sites north of Crook on May 29, 1977 with considerable detrimental impact. These shrubs, many of which had winter killed and were starting new root sprouts, were severely defoliated and sustained extensive injury to their cambium. The upper branches were bruised and debarked which affected both older survivors and new growth so that high mortality and winter die-back was evident in spring 1978. �-76- Table 1. Precipitation received at the Tamarack Management quarters from 1974 through 1977. 1/ Area head- Month 1974 1975 1965 1977 January 0.25 0.05 0.83 0.36 February 0.67 0.15 0.20 0.07 March 0.91 1. 25 0.40 1.50 April 0.45 0.65 1.60 3.50 May 0.70 5.55 1.90 3.35 June 2.05 2.00 1.10 1.40 July 1.15 0.55 1.10 0.95 August 0.40 1.60 1.10 2.65 September 0.15 0.55 1.60 1.20 October 0.00 0.00 0.25 T November 0.25 1.20 0.15 0.50 December 0.20 0.55 0.00 0.20 Annual 7.18 14.10 10.23 15.68 total 1/Precipitation for winter months could not be accurately measured so much of the snowfall information was taken from the weather stations five miles south of Sedgwick and at Sterling. August precipitation was a major asset to all shrubs in 1977 permitting them to enter the fall and winter period with increased vigor, however, fall-winter 1977-78 conditions remained dry. Moisture was deficient going into the 1978 growing season. Rabbit Damage Wild plum on the Sonnenburg site received considerable pruning and girdling loss in fall 1976 prior to application of a chemical repellent. The Karg sites received minor damage from rabbits and other sites were not affected to a noticeable degree. The rabbit damage had considerable impact on 1977 growth on the Sonnenburg site. Earlier application of repellent in fall 1977 and lack of appreciable fall-winter snowfall reduced rabbit impact going into the 1978 growing season. �-77- Insect Damage Heavy infestations of grasshopper hills during the summer of 1977. in reduced growth there; however, occurred on the 1-76 site in the sandThey were considered an important factor no control treatments were applied. Shrub Survival Shrub Survival Within Sites Established in 1974 The mulch treatments, even the thin layer of mulch applied to the simazinemulch plots, brought the wild plums on those sites through the winter of 1976-77 with observably better vigor, less winter die-back, and less winter mortality. Root sprouting replaced previous mortalities to increase the number of shrubs present on organic mulch, plastic mulch and simazine mulch plots from spring to fall, 1977; whereas, shrub percentages declined on all other sites (Table 2). Although a statistical evaluation of survival has not been completed, the information in Tables 2 and 3 indicates the chemicals have had some impact in reducing wild plum survival over cultivated control treatments. The effects of chemicals on Hansen rose, if any, are not apparent in Table 2. Cultivation of the control with a garden rototiller destroyed many new root sprouts, preventing replacement of mortalities and therefore, held the survival down in relation to the chemical treatments. Organic and plastic mulch both sustained increased survival over other treatments. Considerable replacement of previous mortalities was noted on the mulched sites in 1977 following the increased rainfall. The only appreciable summer 1977 mortality occurred on the chemically treated and cultivated plots of the Karg 1 and Karg 2 sites where winter die-back had been severe and the root sprouts were in a weak condition when the hail occurred. Shrub Survival on Sites Established in 1975 Almost no mortality has occurred among wild plum on the plastic mulch treated plots during the last three years (Table 3). All other treatments show survival rates in fall 1977 from 83 to 90 percent, with cultivated controls running slightly above the rest. Shrubs on all four chemical treatments were similar in survival having suffered about 15 percent loss during the last three years. Hansen rose survival was again highest on the plastic mulch treatment and organic mulch ranked second (Table 3). Cultivated and chemical plots averaged about 80 percent survival and nearly all of this had occurred prior to the spring of 1977. When the tabular data from the sites established in 1974 and 1975 are compared (Tables 2 and 3) the one similarity that stands out is the higher survival on the plastic mulch treatment for both species for both sets of data. Considerable variation occurred in survival among the other treatments, sites, years, and species. �-78- Table 2. Percentage shrub survival from fall 1975 through fall 1977 on the five sites established in April 1974. II Treatment Fall 1975 Spring 1976 Percentage Alive In Fall Spring 1976 1977 Fall 1977 Wild Plum Cultivated 91.88 91.88 90.63 87.50 84.38 Organic mulch 82.03 82.81 82.03 85.16 89.06 Plastic mulch 90.67 90.63 90.63 92.19 94.53 Simazine 84.38 83.75 83.13 78.13 76.88 Simazine-mulch 85.63 87.50 87.50 87.50 90.63 Eptam-treflan 83.13 86.25 85.63 76.88 70.63 Casoron 83.13 84.37 81.88 72.50 70.63 Overall average 85.80 86.74 85.89 82.48 81.82 Hansen Rose Cultivated 66.25 71.88 71.88 70.63 71.25 Organic mulch 75.00 82.03 81.25 85.94 92.19 Plastic mulch 85.16 86.72 85.94 89.06 92.19 Simazine 74.38 79.38 77 .50 79.38 81.25 Simazine-mulch 76.25 76.25 76.25 78.75 84.38 Eptam-treflan 76.88 81.25 81.25 80.63 85.63 Casoron 73.13 75.63 74.63 70.63 75.63 Overall average 75.00 78.69 78.03 78.79 82.67 II New roots sprouts replaced previous mortalities to slightly increase the percentage survival on some plots during the spring of 1976 and 1977. �-79- Table 3. Percentage shrub survival from fall 1975 through fall 1977 on the three sites established in April 1975. !/ Treatment Fall 1975 Spring 1976 Percentage Alive In Fall Spring 1976 1977 Fall 1977 Wild Plum Cultivated 97.92 95.83 93.38 90.63 90.63 Organic mulch 100.00 95.83 93.38 91.67 88.54 Plastic mulch 100.00 98.96 98.96 97.92 97.92 Simazine 96.88 94.79 93.38 86.46 86.46 Simazine mulch 97.92 95.83 93.38 85.42 83.33 Eptarn-treflan 100.00 93.38 92.71 83.33 84.38 Casoron 96.88 86.46 86.46 82.29 84.38 Overall average 98.51 94.49 93.30 88.24 87.95 Hansen Rose Cultivated 98.96 86.46 85.42 80.21 81.25 Organic mulch 100.00 92.71 91.67 88.54 88.54 Plastic mulch 98.96 98.96 98.96 97.92 97.92 Simazine 98.96 95.42 85.42 82.29 80.21 Simazine mulch 97.92 96.46 86.46 82.29 81.25 Eptarn-treflan 97.92 87.50 84.38 80.21 79.17 Casoron 98.96 81.25 80.21 75.00 78.13 Overall average 98.81 88.39 87.50 83.78 83.78 !/ New root sprouts replaced previous mortalities to slightly increase the percentage survival on some plots during the 1976 and 1977 growing seasons. �-80Shrub Growth Wild Plum Table 4 shows considerable variability in shrub growth among sites and treatments in 1977. Figs. 1 and 2, respectively, illustrate growth and winter loss variables per treatment for plum and rose. The loam soil sites (Karg sites 1, 2 and 3) all showed a similar pattern of limited plum growth on the organic mulch and plastic mulch treatments in comparison to considerable growth on the cultivated and chemically treated plots (Table 4). Observations indicated this greater growth was primarily comprised of elongated root sprouts following severe drought dessication and die-back during the previous winter (Fig. 3). Since the mulch plots did not winter kill and die back as severely, their growth was added to existing branches and was understandably less. This comparison is best illustrated in Figs. 1 and 3 for plum, and Fig. 2 for Hansen rose. The shorter growth on the organic and plastic mulch plots increased 1977 height over that of 1976, whereas, the greater growth on the cultivated and chemically treated plots only approximately compensated for the previous winter's loss. The hail, that was previously discussed, also was a primary factor reducing growth and survival on the larger shrubs present in the mulched plots of the Karg sites. The pattern of growth among plum shrubs on the other clay-loam and sandyloam sites was not clear cut. No analysis of variance test were attempted on 1977 growth because of the above mentioned variables. Hansen Rose Table 4 shows the comparative growth characteristics of rose shrubs in 1977, which like plum, did not show a clear cut pattern among treatments. Analysis of variance was not attempted on the 1977 data. Fig. 2 illustrates the' comparative growth loss variables from 1975 through 1977. Casoron treated plots made the greatest growth in 1977 placing them a close second to plastic mulched shrubs in total fall 1977 height. Some form of blight or other disease caused considerable loss of large portions of most roses on nearly all sites during the summer of 1977. Wild plums established in 1975, when contrasted to those established in 1974, attained greater 1977 growth (Table 5). Hansen rose did not show this growth difference among samples. Site differences have become more noticeable with progression of the study. The plums on the Red Lion site have consistently made much better growth than those on the more sandy Sharp tail site and are presently in a near closed canopy status. The Tamarack Meadow plums on the cultivated, organicmulch, and plastic-mulch treatments have achieved heights up to seven feet or more and have formed a dense thicket of cover. Chemically treated plums there are shorter and more open, but still of considerable cover value. In contrast, plums on the loam soil sites, which achieved excellent growth during their first two years, became over competitive for moisture during severe drought conditions in 1976 and as a consequence, are in poor shape and appearance at present. �Table 4. Average shrub growth in inches per site and treatment during the 1977 growing season on the five sites established in 1974 and the three sites established in 1975. Jj Treatment Soil Type Site Cultivated Organic Mulch Plastic Mulch Simazine Simazine Mulch EptamTref1an Casoron Site Mean Wild Plum Loam Soil Karg 1 Karg 2 Karg 3 11.21 10.54 13.50 7.76 9.00 2.78 4.38 7.03 3.48 8.81 12.29 15.52 6.31 10.19 15.39 7.71 10.76 15.62 14.95 10.33 14.50 8.39 9.77 11.26 Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow Sonnenburg 11.77 18.80 7.76 13.09 10.68 12.28 7.75 11.15 5.19 18.90 4.82 15.60 4.04 8.58 7.57 14.17 Sandy Loam Red Lion Sharp tail 1-76 6.81 1.88 4.72 15.28 6.33 7.57 9.66 4.72 6.32 8.77 4.69 11.00 8.29 3.39 10.07 6.35 2.31 9.38 8.04 5.86 13.96 9.06 4.12 8.89 Treatment Mean 10.15 8.61 7.32 10.03 9.64 9.06 9.99 9.20 Hansen Rose Loam Soil Karg 1 Karg 2 Karg 3 11.15 10.15 11.00 9.10 9.28 9.41 8.75 15.35 7.66 12.67 14.59 9.94 10.26 11.97 11.69 7.22 11.79 10.91 10.59 16.78 10.55 9.98 13.81 10.14 Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow Sonnenburg 10.93 7.19 10.10 5.47 1.68 8.91 6.03 7.69 6.71 6.57 4.48 6.30 4.38 7.13 6.38 7.05 Sandy Loam Red Lion Sharp tail 1-76 9.08 5.80 4.52 11.94 6.67 8.00 11.84 8.22 6.40 16.41 1.96 8.75 12.46 7.44 9.00 14.78 7.19 11.82 l3.04 5.08 12.69 12.72 l3.00 8.33 Treatment Mean 9.04 8.84 8.70 9.60 9.71 8.88 10.17 9.25 -1./ The Karg 3, Sonnenburg, and 1-76 sites were established in 1975. I 00 I-' I �-82- 44 r-r-- ...• 0\ 42 40 tI) tIl 3 38 :&: ::> ..:I ~ ~ 36 0.. 0 ~ L- ~ ~ ~ 3 r- J 34 ~r~ / 32 30 ~ I ~ Ci t!) r- :.:: I tIl tol X X 28 r. It j !C a 26 ~ ,.. tol :I: \ L.. 24 L- '- 22 20 18 16 ~ 0 l Fig. 1. Comparative wild plum height, characteristics per treatment averaged 1975 through fall 1977. II 1 growth, and winter die-back for the eight sites from spring �-83- ~ Ca:I 30 I- ~ ~ Ca:I tIl C) ~ 28 :z: ~ 26 '\ .~ f ~ ~ Ir' .- r. 24 ,r tIl fiJ I- 22 1 20 ~ 18 '- ~ I <- ~ ~ II fiJ ~ ~ J ~ ~ ~ ,. I L- 16 14 12 0 " F~g, 2, Cpmparqtive Hqnsen rose height, growth, and winter die-back characteristics per treatment averaged for the eight sites from spring 1975 through fall 1977. L �-84- 42 40 ~ ~ 38 - 36 IIJ 10 34 s r- 32 ltl e- 30 0\ r-4 28 ~ o- 1M \ ~ r ~ J 26 g) 24 8 22 ~ I ~ a 20 ~ 18 ; CI) 16 14 12 10 8 0-'= a ~ i:f Eo4 6 ~~ ~ i~ Fig. 3. Comparative wild plum height, characteristics per treatment averaged from spring 1975 through fall 1977. growth, and winter die-back for the Karg 1 and Karg 2 sites �-85Table 5. Comparisons of shrub growth in inches during of 1975 through 1977 on the shrub clump sites. Mean Growth - vli1d Plum 1975 1976 1977 Soil Type Site the growing seasons Mean Growth - Hansen Rose 1975 1976 1977 Loam Soil Karg 1 19.73 6.35 8.39 14.16 2.81 9.98 Karg 2 19.38 7.62 9.77 13.71 4.60 13.81 Karg 31) 6.89 14.85 11.26 8.87 4.93 10.14 21.58 14.14 7.57 14.06 6.89 6.38 3.48 17 .60 14.17 2.35 4.99 7.05 Red Lion 13.84 9.01 7.63 13.27 4.68 13.25 Sharp tail 6.79 7.63 4.12 5.63 4.52 13.00 1-761=.1 5.04 11.53 8.89 3.18 7.57 8.33 to those established in April Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow Sonnenburg- 1/ Sandy Loam !/Sites 1974. established in April 1975 in contrast The Hansen rose, when contrasted to the plums, do not appear capable of attaining comparable heights at present in these dense thicket plantings. The rose, however, shows a greater tendency to root sprout and produce more basal branches. Weed Competition The plastic mulch treatment retained its capability as the most effective annual weed control treatment for the third consecutive year (Table 6), in addition to its effectiveness in increasing shrub survival and growth. As in previous years, all treatments (chemical and mulch) greatly reduced annual weeds in comparison with densities on the cultivated control. Annual weed densities were higher on all treatments in 1977 because of increased spring moisture (Table 6). In addition, there was some deterioration in the effectiveness of the organic mulch treatments resulting from compaction of mulch and rodent disturbance. Casoron, as in 1976, continued to be highly effective in weed control, although the rate of application was reduced in 1977. Simazine and Eptam-treflan treatments showed weed control effectiveness comparable with that of previous years. �-86- Table 6. A comparison of average annual weeds per square foot sample within treatments on the eight sites from 1975 through 1977. 1975 1976 1977 29.29 15.04 64.54 Organic mulch 0.87 0.43 6.57 Plastic mulch 0.38 0.22 1.04 Simazine 2.10 2.66 7.59 Simazine mulch 5.45 1.86 9.88 Eptam-treflan 1.15 1.62 6.13 Casoron 5.56 0.12 1.93 Treatment Cultivated control Table 7 compares the average number of annual weeds per square foot sample within treatments per site for May 1977. The Sonnenburg site, within clay-loam soil, contained very high weed densities in the cultivated control and higher than average densities in all other treatments. It was primarily responsible for the dramatic weed density increase in the organic mulch treatment. Simazine was applied at a reduced rate in late winter 1977 to treatments within the five original sites. Weed control there was noticeably more effective than on the three sites established in 1975 where it was not re-applied, confirming its deterioration in effectiveness by the second year after application. Statistical analyses were not conducted on this set of data because of similar trends shown with previous years. However, a complete analysis all years data will be forthcoming at study termination. of Annual weeds were removed in mid-May. Removal operations then and in June were not 100 percent effective so no attempt was made at further evaluation. However, there was no major re-sprouting of weeds after the initial removal operations and all plots remained near completely weed free from early July through the remainder of the summer, even though increased precipitation was received. �Table 7. Average occurrence of annual weeds per square foot sample in May 1977 within eight sites in three soil types. 1/ Cultivated Organic Mulch Plastic Mulch Karg 1 30.39 7.31 0.39 Karg 2 30.39 15.58 Karg 3 28.22 Soil Type mean Soil Type Site Treatment Simazine Mulch Simazine EptamTref1an Casoron Site Mean 8.83 0.44 8.32 9.23 Loam 2.19 0.39 1.36 3.50 8.06 11.17 0.72 0.86 22.03 23.33 2.75 0.36 11.18 29.67 7.87 1.15 7.93 9.90 7.32 3.12 9.58 13.92 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.60 4.50 0.58 2.74 4.33 52.08 2.86 Clay Loam Tamarack Meadow I Sonnenburg 284.89 22.44 3.22 16.56 26.94 6.19 Soil type mean 149.40 11.22 1.67 8.28 13.50 5.35 2.46 27.41 Red Lion 30.44 1.39 0.11 1.56 0.86 7.22 0.83 6.06 Sharptail 50.78 0.97 0.89 8.75 0.61 3.08 0.03 9.30 I-76 47.28 4.17 0.56 10.11 20.83 6.06 0.31 12.76 Soil type mean 42.83 2.18 0.52 6.81 7.44 5.45 0.39 9.37 Overall Treatment Mean 64.54 6.57 1.04 7.59 9.88 6.13 1.93 13.96 I Sandy Loam - 1/ Averages include data from the five sites established in 1974 and the Karg 3, Sonnenburg, and I-76 sites established in 1975. co -....J �-88- LITERATURE CITED Snyder, W. D. 1975. Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in clump p1antings. Colorado Div. of Wi1d1. Game Res. Rept. April: 141-153. 1976. Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in clump p1antings. Colo. Div. of Wi1d1. Game Res. Rept. April: 209234. 1977. Minimum tillage techniques for establishing shrubs in clump p1antings. Colo. Div. of Wi1d1. Game Res. Rept. Apri1:163176. Prepared by. ~~.. f/...I<:/~/-=·~=:,'~~).:::.~=:-4--=J~I,:::.~?-=W=---:...:'t~:..::..::":.....)J_" Warren D. Snyder Wildlife Researcher C �April 1978 -89- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Job Title 1 --------------------------------- Upland Game Publications Covered: Personnel: Job No. 22 Work Plan No. Period Game Bird Survey W-37-R-3l April 1, 1977 through March 31, 1978 T.D.I. Beck, C. E. Braun, T. Britt, A. G. Haskins, R. W. Hoffman, E. O. Hohn, O. W. Olsen, W. D. Snyder, R. M. Stabler, and R. O. '\.Jalles tad. ABSTRACT Pulbications planned for and accomplished under this job for Segment 31 are as follows: Braun, C. E. 1978. Weight dynamics To be published in 1978. of sage grouse. Accepted by Condor. Braun, C. E., and T.D.I. Beck. 1977. Population dynamics of sage grouse, North Park. Colorado. Proc. Ann. Conf. Central Mtns. and Plains Section, The Wildlife Society. 22:Abstract. Braun, C. E., T. Britt, and R. O. Wa11estad. 1977. Guidelines for maintenance of ~age grouse habitats. Wi1d1. Soc. Bull. 5:99-106. Hoffman, R. W. 1977. . 26(5) :30-32. Blue grouse - an overlooked resource. Colo. Outdoors Hohn, E. 0., and C. E. Braun. 1977. Seasonal thyroid gland histophysiology and weights in white-tailed ptarmigan. Auk 94:544-551. Olsen, O. W., A. G. Haskins, and C. E. Braun. 1978. Rhabdometra alpinensis n. sp. (Cestoda:Paruterinidae:Dilepididea) from southern white-tailed ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus altipetens Osgood) in Colorado, U.S.A., with key to the species of Rhabdometra Cholodkowsky, 1906. Canad. J. Zool. 56:446-450. Snyder, W. D. 1978. The bobwhite Tech. Publ. No. 32. 88 pp. in eastern Colorado. Stabler, R. M., C. E. Braun, and T.D.I. Beck. 1977. from Colorado. J. Wildl. Diseases 13:414-417. Howard D. Funk Section Chief, Small Game Research Colo. Div. of Wildl. Hematozoa in sage grouse � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/41d707914710254ba8b2c9e2586db273.pdf d8156fef2b837794b484d95baf62a316 PDF Text Text -1- JOB PROGRESS State of Project 1978 REPORT ..::C.:::.O=.LO.:::.RAD:.::.::::..O=_ No. W-125-R-4 Work Plan No. Job Title Period July, Covered: Personnel: R. Kincaid, Deer-Vehicle Accident Investigations 1 Job No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 Deer Vehicle Accidents Statewide and Methods and Devices to Reduce Them April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Thomas D. I. Beck, James D. Fleming, Sharon L. McDonnell, Kenneth Dale F. Reed, Area Supervisors and Wildlife Conservation Officers. ABSTRACT Methods, devices, or structures related to reducing the number of deer-vehicle accidents were evaluated or experimentally tested. These were highway lighting, underpasses, overpasses, 2.44-m fences and one-way deer gates, and deer guards. Nine deer were killed in the highway lighting study area, five and four with lights off and on, respectively. Background and target luminance measurements were taken at 10 additional kill sites. The overall visibility index mean was 1.366 ± 0.732 (SD). No major changes occurred with underpass use. The experimental procedure for manipulating the Dowd deer overpass width was continued for three seasons. A combined total of 123 and 65 crossings occurring during control (4.93 m) and variable (2.48 m) widths, respectively, were reviewed during video tape replay. Although selected behavioral differences were noted during these seasons, the combined data for four seasons has not shown significant differences at the 95 percent confidence level. The average reduction of deer-vehicle accidents adjacent to six 2.44-m fences was 76.4 percent. Limited data were obtained on deer guard prototype V. ��-3- DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENTS STATEWIDE AND METHODS AND DEVICES TO REDUCE THEM Dale F. Reed and Thomas D. I. Beck P. N. OBJECTIVE Locate and examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas in Colorado and recommend methods or structures which may reduce deer-vehicle accidents in these areas. Subsequently, measure the effects of methods recommended and investigate deer responses to various experimental structures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES Job 1 - Monitoring statewide. potentially critical deer-vehicle areas 1. Locate and examine potentially accident areas in Colorado. 2. Recommend methods or devices which may reduce the problem for these critical accident areas. 3. Select recommended underpasses, overpasses, 2.44-m fence lengths, or other devices or methods for evaluation when sample size considerations can be met. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects of highway killed by vehicles. critical accident deer-vehicle lighting on number of deer 1. Measure and describe the luminance segment of Colorado Highway 82. on an illuminated l.l-km 2. Determine if deer-vehicle accidents are affected by the fixed illumination on the l.l-km segment of Colorado Highway 3. Investigate and compare responses of motorists to deer on the highway, with and without fixed illumination. 4. Investigate and without Job 3 - Evaluate 1. responses to motorists, with of deer to highway underpasses. Measure deer use of underpasses and the extent of behavioral reluctance associated with their use. Job 4 - Evaluation 1. and compare deer responses fixed illumination. of deer responses to highway Determine the use of overpasses deer kill areas. overpasses. by deer in critical highway 82. �-4- 2. Compare detailed deer behavioral responses to overpasses after moderate to high use of the structures or immediate areas has been documented. Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses to highways. to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent 1. Determine the reductions in deer-vehicle accidents on highways after the installation of various lengths of 2.44-m fence. 2. Measure Job 6 - Evaluating 1. deer movements responses in relation to 2.44-m fences. of deer to guards. Compare deer responses to a black-and-white (V) and roll-bar (VI) deer guard prototypes conditions. DESCRIPTION Job 1 - Monitoring wide. pontentially scintillation under controlled OF AREAS critical deer-vehicle accident areas state- Generally, Myers (1969), Pojar (1972a), and Woodard (1973a, 1973b, 1974, 1975, 1976a) described the areas most intensively monitored. The completion of deer-vehicle accident reports (includes location) has been required statewide since 1974. Hence, the potential existed for the detection of new problem areas statewide. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects of highway killed by vehicles. Highway 82 - Jammeron Pojar et al. (1975) described Job 3 - Evaluate responses lighting on number of deer Curve this area. of deer to highway underpasses. The Vail deer underpass (Reed et al. 1975), a small structure under 1-70 east of Avon, two concrete box underpasses under 1-70 east of Eagle, twin bridge structures under 1-70 west of Eagle, and twin bridge structures east of Rifle were monitored for deer use or behavioral responses. Job 4 - Evaluation of deer responses to highway Dowd Junction Reed (1976a) described 1-70 this area. overpasses. �-5- Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses highways. Highway The Highway to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent 82 - Diamond S 82 study area has been described Highway by Pojar (1972b). 82 - Carbondale This study area was described Interstate to by Reed (1975). 70 - Avon, Edwards, Vail, and Eagle The Interstate 70 Avon and Edwards study areas have been described by Woodard (1973b), the Vail study area by Reed (1971), and the Eagle study area by Reed (1974). Job 6 - Evaluating respones of deer to guards. Trail Gulch-Dotsero Reed et al. (1974) described this area. METHODS AND MATERIALS Job 1 - Monitoring statewide. potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas Methods have been described by Pojar (1972a) and Woodard (1976a). Because no new critical areas were delineated, methodology was limited to tabulation of statewide Wildlife Conservation Officer kill reports. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects of highway killed by motorists. lighting on number of deer Methods were described by Woodard (1976b). Luminance measurements were taken at kill sites from earlier years. Luminance values (foot-lamberts) were recorded with a spotmeter, Spectra Model UBA, and were taken on a target at the kill site and on the background as viewed by an approaching motorist. The target was a taxidermy mount of the left half (transverse section) of a female mule deer and the actual spotmeter recording area was a 26-cm diameter circle midway between the shoulder and hip. Spotmeter readings were ·taken from a height of 1.3 m and a distance of 15 m. For background �-6- luminance readings the spotmeter was placed 60 m from the kill site, resulting in a target area diameter of 102 cm. The taxidermy mount was removed during this background measurement. Measurements were taken between 0400 and 0600 to minimize traffic interference. Background luminance (Lb) and target luminance (Lt) measurements were transformed into a visibility index (VI) by the following equation (Gallagher and Meguire 1974): C(RCS Lb) VI (DGF) = where C 5.74 and where DGF = Disability Lb-Lt Lb glare factor Relative contrast sensitivity for the recorded background luminance = 1.0. RCS values were obtained from standard tables (Gallagher and Meguire 1974). VI values can then be compared to standards established for urban lighting requirements. These values also provide a better description of the visibility of deer in the lighted portion of the study area; which, in light of the poor horizontal uniformity ratio in the lighted section (>15.0:1), should allow a more refined analysis of the effectiveness of highway lighting. Job 3 - Evaluate responses of deer to highway underpasses. Seven underpasses were monitored for deer use as described by Reed (1971). Observations at the Vail deer underpass were continued as described by Reed (1976b). Job 4 - Evaluation of deer responses to highway overpasses. Methods were previously described by Reed (1976a) and Reed and Beck (1977). The width (control = 4.93 m, variable = 2.48 m) of the Dowd deer overpass was changed every three days during most of the spring migration of 1977 and 1978, and the fall migration of 1977. In addition during the fall migration of 1977 and the spring migration of 1978, the video housing was moved to cover the distant approach areas (approximately 20 m beyond the bridge entrance and exit). Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses highways. to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent to Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972b) and Woodard (1976c). Benefit-cost analysis followed procedures described by Howe (1971). Costs for which values were available include initial cost of 2.44-m fence and associated passage structures. Estimates of maintenance costs were not available. Total cost was reduced by the cost of the appropriate length of 1.07-m (42-inch) standard right-of-way fence which was not built because of the 2.44-m fence. Benefits for which a value was available was the potential savings accrued by a reduction in deer-vehicle accidents and related �-7- vehicle repairs. Savings by reduction in personal injury and death were omitted because of difficulties in obtaining reliable values. No value was assigned to deer. Therefore, benefit-cost analysis is essentially from a highway department accounting stance. All future benefits were discounted at an annual rate of 5.5 percent. No monetary values have been assigned for aesthetic considerations, either positive or negative. Job 6 - Evaluating responses of deer to guards. Methods were described by Reed et ale (1974). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Job 1 - Monitoring statewide. potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas Two Division of Wildlife Regions, Southwest and Northeast, have taken over the responsibilities of maintaining their deer-vehicle accident files. Area analyses of deer-vehicle kills will not be generated unless requested because of manpower requirements. Generally no new critical deer-vehicle accident areas were detected. A total of 2,174 deer-vehicle accident kills were reported in Colorado in 1977; an increase of 16.9 percent over 1976. Regional totals were Southwest 887, Northwest 625, Northeast 416, and Southeast 246. In early 1978 some potentially critical areas had a higher than average number of kills, possibly because of above average snow accumulation. Job 2 - Evaluating the effects of highway killed by vehicles. lighting .on number of deer Deer occupied the highway lighting study area for eight weeks beginning 4 February. Four weeks of lights off and four weeks of lights on data (lights off and on for alternate weekly periods) were collected when deer were in the study area. Although a high number of deer_ were in the general study area (highest count and second highest X count in the 11 year period) only a moderate number of deer we re killed by vehicles. Snowfall adjacent to the study area at higher elevations was considerably greater than the previous two years and snow accumulation at three snow stakes above the study area was comparable to 1975. Minimum temperatures dropped below OOF on only two days (Feb. 12 and 13) and maximum temperatures exceeded 320F on all but five days during the January-March period. The warm temperatures, coupled with rain, in March, opened up considerable range, as evidenced by low numbers of deer counted in the study area during the last week of March, so the duration of stay on the study area was not extended. For the last two winters we were short on snow; then this winter long on snow, short on cold weather. The vagaries of weather make the study of wild populations a high-risk venture. �-8- Nine deer were killed during an estimated total of 436 crossings (Table 1). The deer crossings to deer kill ratio with lights off was less than the ratio with the lights on 36.4 and 63.5, respectively. However, by chi-square analysis, there was no significant difference (P > 0.25) between these ratios. In addition, the ratios are less than the combined ratio data obtained during 1974-75 (i.e. 87.8 and 96.3, off and on, respectively). The differences, however, are not significant (P > 0.05 and P > 0.25 off and on, respectively) according to chi-square analyses. It is reasonable to postulate that crossings per kill ratios may change over extended periods of time because of the annual increases in traffic volume. Table 1. Estimated deer crossings lighting study area during 1978. and total kill in the Highway 82 Off On Total 182 254 436 Total kill 5 4 9 Crossing/kill 36.4 63.5 Estimated crossings Background and target luminance measurements were taken at 10 additional sites. The visibility index mean (1.366 ± 0.732 [SD]) value is lower than minimum levels needed for a roadway with an 80.5 km (50 mile) per hour speed limit. It approaches the level where 60-65 percent of the motorists can see a target at satisfactory separation distance (Gallagher and Meguire 1974). To attain a level where 85-95 percent of the motorists can see a target at satisfactory separation distance, a visibility index value of 2.6 - 3.6 is required (Gallagher and Meguire 1974:51). The 2.484 value (Table 2) approaches the 85 percent level. Job 3 - Evaluate responses of deer to highway underpasses. Seven underpasses were regularly checked for deer use during this segment. Moderate (30-90) to high (>90) numbers of deer passages occurred through two of the underpasses, one located west of Vail and one east of Avon. Extremes of openness or tunnel effect were represented by these two structures. The primary stimulus of a given underpass structure to approaching deer may be termed the "openness effect." Calculated as follows: height x width (or open-end length surface area) �-9- the openness effects of the Vail and Avon underpasses were 0.3 and 0.03 (metric measurements), respectively. There are several factors to consider before relating openness effect to deer behavioral response. In addition, any reasonable attempt to relate openness effect to deer use must consider deer density and motivation at the structure. Table 2. Visibility index measurements lighting study area. from kill sites, Highway 82 Contrast Relative Contrast Sensitivity (Percent) Visibility Index 0.0325 0.244 4.10 0.174 0.330 0.0032 0.990 14.40 2.484 12 0.061 0.0094 0.846 5.25 0.774 13 0.235 0.0255 0.891 12.05 1.870 14 0.060 0.0048 0.920 5.20 0.833 15 0.285 0.0040 0.986 13.325 2.289 16 0.080 0.0165 0.794 6.20 0.858 17 0.240 0.4700 -0.958 12.20 -2.036 18 0.086 0.1300 -0.512 6.50 -0.580 19 0.180 0.01l0 0.939 10.40 1.701 20 0.197 0.0690 0.650 10.95 1.240 21 0.180 0.0260 0.856 10.40 1.551 No. Background Luminance (Lb) Target Luminance (Lt) 9 0.043 11 Daily observations (n = 33) were made at the Vail deer underpass in June of 1977 and 1978. With 1974 through 1978 combined, 78.5 percent of 303 groups of deer did not exhibit flight reaction when westbound vehicles traveled by the area (Table 3). Likewise, of 990 instances of vehicles traveling west when deer were near the underpass entrance and the west bound lanes, 897 did not �-10- elicit flight reaction from 303 different individuals or groups (1-14 deer). Twenty-one vehicles elicited flight reaction from 1-50 percent of the individuals from fifteen different groups ranging in size from one to ten deer. Seventy-two vehicles elicited flight reaction from 51-100 percent of the individuals from fifty different groups ranging in size from one to eight. Previous to these observations it was hypothesized that deer at distances of 15 to 30 m from moving traffic were frequently caused to leave the area. Observations indicate that when vehicles stop at or when bicyclists travel by the underpass, most deer elicit immediate and intense flight reaction. Five groups of deer exhibited moderate to intense flight reaction to unknown stimuli (where observer was unable to determine potential cause). During the 1977 and 1978 seasons moderate flight reaction (trotting from stimulus) occurred more frequently (n = 42) than intense flight reaction (bounding from stimulus) (n = 29). Table 3. The number and percent of deer groups not exhibiting flight reaction (Hediger 1950, Scott 1958), and the number and percent of westbound vehicles not eliciting flight reaction at the Vail deer underpass west of Vail. Westbound Groups of Deer Year Numbers of Individuals or Groups 1/ Near Westbound Traffic Vehicles Percent Not Exhibiting Flight Reaction Number Traveling West When Deer Present Percent Not Eliciting Flight Reaction 1974 37 86.5 198 97.5 1975 67 71.6 251 89.2 1976 78 78.2 1977 59 86.4 14s1/ 92.7 1978 62 74.2 ISO'!) 83.3 Totals/Avg. 303 78.5 990 90.6 1/ Number 24-}:./ of deer in groups ranged from 2 to 14. l/ Six semi-trucks elicited flight reaction, seven did not. 3/ One semi-truck elicited flight reaction, eight did not. elicited flight reaction, three did not. 4/ Ten semi-trucks 89.7 �-11- The behavior modes of 279 deer exists (leaving the underpass to the south) were 49.1, 33.7, and 17.2 percent, trotting, walking, and bounding, respectively. Combined data 1974 through 1978 yielded a walk:trot:bound ratio of 2.0:2.9:1.0 (Table 4). Wariness had been noted irrespective of the mode of exit in many instances. The predominant exit behavior of trotting supports the continued reluctance of deer to use a structure of this size and character (Reed et al. 1975). Table 4. underpass The number of exits observed at the south end of the Vail deer and the walk:trot:bound ratio of exit behavior. Year No. of Exits Observed 1974 35 4.0:12.5:1.0 1975 73 3.3: 2.4:1.0 1976 55 1.8: 6.3:1.0 1977 46 4.0: 2.7:1.0 1978 70 0.7: 1.4:1.0 Totals/Avg. 279 2.0: 2.9:1.0 Job 4 - Evaluation of deer responses to highway Walk:Trot:Bound Ratio During Exits overpasses. The video time-lapse surveillance system was operated at the Dowd experimental-variable-width overpass during three seasons, spring and fall of 1977 and spring of 1978, for 24, 36, and 24 consecutive nights, respectively, except for a six night period (3 nights control and 3 nights variable) in 1978 when the operation of the video system deteriorated and equipment was repaired or replaced. When data from the spring of 1976 (last segment) are included, a total of 188 crossings has been examined during video replay (Table 5). Number of Crossings More crossings occurred under control than variable width during each of the four seasons (Table 5). A test for independence shows that the difference between the number of control and variable crossings during the alternate three-day periods is nearly significant (X2 = 7.964, df = 4, P > 0.05). However, �Table 5. The number of deer crossings and approaches examined on video replay at the experimentalvariable-width overpas~ and the crossings per approach (C:a) ratios for four migration seasons (Fall 1976 - Spring 1978). Crossings Control Distant 1/ 2/ Approac~ Approac~ C:a Crossings Variable Distant Approach Approach C:a Total Crossings 1976 Fall 25 5 5:1 19 5 3.8:1 44 41 4 10.2:1 19 4 4.8:1 60 1977 Spring 1977 Fall 31 2 o 15.5:1 13 4 7 1.2:1 44 26 o 4 6.5:1 14 7 8 0.9:1 40 123 2 13 8.2:1 65 11 24 1. 9: 1 188 1978 Spring Totals/Average 1/ Denotes a deer that entered the overpass area not encompassed by an entrance and exit trackbed and that was oriented toward the structure. The overpass area was that area covered by the video surveillance system during the fall of 1977 and the spring of 1978. ~/ Denotes a deer that entered either the entrance or exit trackbed area without crossing the overpass. I •.... N I �-l3- differences, as determined from a similar analysis (X2 = 19.599, df = 4, P < 0.005), in pre-experimental data (three-day periods during four seasons: fall 74-75 and spring 75-76) are sufficiently great that this statistical method is inapplicable. C:a Ratios Fewer approaches of both types (Table 5) occurred during control (15) than during variable (35). The control crossings per approach ratios are significantly (P < 0.025) greater than that for variable. Generally, this would be expected if there were a greater reluctance of deer to cross a narrower structure (i.e. more reluctant animals either approached and failed to cross, or made more than one approach before crossing). The significance of the ratio difference, however, is diminished if, as was discussed previously, the difference in the number of crossings is considered inapplicable. Duration of Hesitations and Crossings The means of the combined seasons (Table 6) of both the duration of hesitations and the duration of crossings are not significantly different (P > 0.20 and P > 0.10, respectively). Generally, if the narrower width was expected to result in more reluctance to cross, then longer hesitations would be expected. The means, except for the spring of 1977, support this trend. Reasons for the exception in the spring of 1977 are unknown. Likewise, all of the seasons except one (fall of 1976) have longer mean crossing times, where animals being more reluctant in crossing the narrower width (variable) would be expected to do so more hurriedly (more and/or faster trotting and bounding). BR:C Ratios There were more animals exhibiting behavioral responses (BR) and more instances of behavioral responses per crossings (C) during variable than control for each of the responses studied (Table 7). Although the ratios for instances of behavioral response per crossing are larger for variable width in each case, they are not significantly larger (P > 0.20). Therefore, differences in these behavioral responses may be due to chance and not to the reluctance of animals in crossing a narrow bridge width. Conclusions Based upon the above analyses, it does not appear that an important level of reluctance of deer to bridge width has been reached. The statistical analyses used in this job will be reviewed and possibly expanded during the next segment. Further experimentation on the parameter of width is not considered practical since physical constraints do not allow a narrower «2.48m) width to be readily constructed and subsequently changed to a "control". �Table 6. The mean duration (seconds) of hesitations and crossings during control and variable widths at the experimental-variable-width overpass. sr=: 1976F- 1977S 1977F 1978S TOTAL Control 3/ 4.5±1.5(n=10) 13. 2±14. 2 (n=29) 8.3±7.7(n=34) 9.2±6.9(n=30) 9.6±9.8(n=103) Variable 7.4±4.8(n=14) 4.9±3.5(n=6) 11.7±11.1(n=18) l5.7±14.7(n=26) 11.8±11.8(n=64) 7. 4±4. 9 (n=25) 12. l± 15.7 (n=4l) 8.4±5.3(n=27) 8.9±5.8(n=26) 9.6±10.3(n=119) 6. 8±5. 7 (n=14) 7.5±6.3(n=63) -- 2/ p- Hesitations p > 0.20 p > 0.10 Crossings Control Variable 8.3±3.8(n=19) 8. 8±8. 9 (n=19) 4. 8±4. 9 (n=ll) I I-' ~ I 1/ - FaIlor spring (F or S) migration periods. 2/ - Independent t statistic. 3/ - Standard deviation. �-15Table 7. The number of selected behavioral responses exhibited by deer crossing an experimenta1-variable-width overpass during four migration seasons Ciall 1976, spring and fall 1977, and spring 1978) and calculated behavioral response ratios. No. of Animals Exhibiting BR (BRa) Behavioral Responses (BR) Muzzle-to·-Ground No. of No. of Instances Crossings (C) of BR (BR ) i :cl/ BR BR. :BR 1 a a 2/ 32 55 123 0.26:1 o .45 :1 1.72 :1 18 33 65 0.28:1 0.51:1 1.74:1 Control 20 24 123 0.16:1 0.20:1 1.20:1 Variable 15 22 65 0.23:1 0.34:1 1.47:1 Control 60 103 123 0.49:1 o . 84 :1 1.72 :1 Variable 40 95 65 0.62:1 1.46:12.38:1 Control 62 103 123 0.50:1 0.84:11.66:1 Variable 42 66 65 0.65:1 1.02:1 1.5"1:1 Control 33 63 123 0.27:1 0.51:1 1.91:1 Variable 34 57 65 0.52:1 0.88:1 1.68:1 during the four seasons. Control 1/ Variable Muzzle-to-Structure if Low-Head ~f 6/ - . . HeSltatlon Alert Stance llc denotes 7/ the number ~!Muzzle-to~ground l!Control of crossings denotes and variable a deer lowering widths were its muzzle to the ground. 4.93 m and 2.48 m, respectively. ~/Muzzle-to-structure denotes a deer lowering its muzzle or raising its muzzle to the bridge railing. to the bridge deck ~/Low-head denotes a lowering of the head where (posterior to anterior) below the horizontal. the axis of the neck declines ~!Cessation or more. of forward movement for 1.0 second l/Alert stance denotes a position where the head and neck are above horizontal and the ears are erect with the vertical axis of the ear ei.ther perpendi.cular to horizontal or inclined forward. �-16- Job 5 - Evaluate deer responses highways. to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent to Six 2.44-m (8-ft) fences were evaluated as to the reduction of highway deer kills after installation. The range of reduction was 61.9 to 88.9 percent with a cumulative average of 76.4 percent (Table 8). Since this evaluation is based upon year-to-year comparisons the cumulative average changes each segment. The reduction in kills adjacent to the Avon, Edwards, Eagle, and Diamond S fences increased, whereas, it decreased for the Vail and Carbondale fences. The JanuaryMarch winter period of 1977 was exceptionally mild and may have resulted in fewer kills at some of the fences. Data from severe winters would not be discarded from the sample, similarly, data from mild winters probably should not be discarded either. No important changes occurred in the use of 28 one-way deer gates located in the Vail, Avon, Edwards, and Eagle fences. Only minor changes would be shown in benefit :cost ratios previously described (Reed and Beck 1977), if they were recalculated for this segment. They will be presented in a final analysis after the next and final segment. A manuscript draft titled "Methods of reducing deer-vehicle accidents: benefit-cost analysis" was prepared during this segment. Table 8. The mean annual number or pre- and post-installation deer highway kills and percent reduction for six 2.44-m fences adjacent to Interstate 70 and Highway 82. Mean annual preinstallation mortality Mean annual postinstallation mortality Percent reduction mortality Fence (Hwy) Length of hwy "fenced km (Miles) Vail (1-70) 2.4 (1.5) 36 (3) 11.8 (8) 67.4 Avon (1-70) 3.6 (2.3) 28 (1) 4.4 (5) 84.3 3.6 (2.3) 27 (1) 7.4 (5) 72.6 7.7 (4.8) 167 (1) 18.5 (4) 88.9 1.8 (1.1) 10 (3) 1. 6 (6) 83.3 1.8 (1.1) 14 (5) 5.3 (3) 61.9 Edwards Eagle Diamond (1-70) (1-70) S (82) Carbondale (82) Cumulative Avg. 76.4 1/ (n) denotes the number of years of pre- and post-installation data. �-17- Deer movements lateral or parallel to 2.44-m fences have been further documented at the Vail, Avon, and Eagle fences (Table 9). Based on 141 lateral movements of radio-collared or neckbanded deer north of the Eagle 2.44-m fence, females and males have moved lateral to the fence for mean distances of 0.588 and 0.762 km, respectively. Table 9. Female and male deer mean lateral movements (km) along or adjacent to the field side or highway side of 2.44-m fences at Vail, Avon, and Eagle as determined under several conditions. Vail Side of Fence Female Avon Male Female Eagle Female Male Male Field Side II Apparent- 0.900(n=3)110.SOO(n=2) 31 Observed- O.141(n=5) 0.588 (n=107) 0.762(n=34) O.280(n=1) Hwy Side Apparent O.617(n=3) Observed 0.385(n=4) O.506(n=4) Observed & harassed!!..! O.480(n=4) -- O.975(n=4) O.646(n=5) IIMovements estimated by noting the locations of radio-collared or neckbanded deer at selected points along the fences at widely separated time periods. 21 - (n) denotes number of lateral distances. 31 _... Movements observed during their entire duration. ~/Animals were usually chased with a vehicle at night until they either escaped from the fenced side of the highway or "broke" back against the vehicle. Job 6 - Response of deer to guards. Four deer were tested on deer guard prototype V (black and white scintillation or rotary motion pattern described by MacKay [1957]). All deer crossed the prototype, three walking and one bounding, without exhibiting behavioral responses indicative of much reluctance. �-18- Due to the difficultly of preparing this prototype, it is probable that minimal conditions for the perception of rotary motion (Braunstein 1977) had not been met at a low oblique angle (about I m in height to match visual level of deer). This prototype will not be tested further. LITERATURE CITED Braunstein, M. L. 1977. Minimal conditions for the perception rotary motion. Scand. J. Psychol. 18:216-223. of Gallagher, V. P., and P. G. Meguire. 1974. Contrast requirements of urban drivers. Fed. Highway Admin. Rep. Number FHWA-RD-74-76. 72pp. Hediger, H. London. 19pp. Howe, C. W. 1971. Benefit-cost analysis for water system planning. Geophysical Union. Washington, D. C. 144pp. Amer. MacKay, D. M. patterns. 1950. Wild animals in captivity. Butterworth, 1957. Moving visual images produced by regular stationary Nature 180(4591):849-850. Myers, G. T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Pages 147178 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Div. Fed. Aid. Pojar, T. M. 1972a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 267-275 in Game Res. Rep., July Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Pojar, T. M. 1972b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 305-310 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Pojar, T. M., R. A. Prosence, D. F. Reed, and T. N. Woodard. 1975. Effectiveness of a lighted, animated deer crossing sign. J. Wildl. Manage 39(1):87-91. Reed, D. F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Pages 341-351 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Reed, D. F. 1974. An evaluation of 8-foot fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 313-320 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Reed, D. F. 1975. An evaluation of 8-foot (2.44-m) fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 315-320 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. �-19- Reed, D. F. 1976a. Evaluation of deer overpasses. Pages 247-251 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Reed, D. F. 1976b. Evaluation of deer underpasses. Pages 223-229 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Reed, D. F., T. M. Pojar, and T. N. Woodard. 1974. Mule deer responses to deer guards. J. Range Manage. 27(2):111-113. Reed, D. F., T. N. Woodard, and T. M. Pojar. 1975. Behavioral response of mule deer to a highway underpass. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2):361-367. Reed, D. F., and T. D. I. Beck. 1977. Deer-vehicle accidents statewide and methods and devices to reduce them. Pages 23-41 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Scott, J. P. Chicago. 1958. Animal behavior. 349pp. 2nd ed. University of Chicago Press, Woodard, T. W. 1973a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 163-170 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Woodard, T. W. 1973b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 197-202 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Woodard, T. W. 1974. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 293-298 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Woodard, T. W. 1975. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 295-303 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Woodard, T. W. 1976a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 215-221 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Woodard, T. W. 1976b. Effects of highway lighting on number of deer killed by vehicles. Pages 231-236 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Woodard, T. W. 1976c. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 239-244 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Prepared by ~~~~ ~_.__~~_f __ ~ Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher _ ��-21- JOB PROGRESS July, REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Job Title Period 1 Guidelines Covered: Personnel: Big Game Investigations W-126-R-1 Work Plan No. Job No. for Wildlife September 1978 1 --------------------------------- Habitat Manipulation 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 W. H. Rutherford, W. D. Snyder ABSTRACT Literature review and interviews have provided a background of information, from which a manuscript rough-draft is being prepared, on techniques and procedures for manipulation of wildlife habitat. ��-23- GUIDELINES FOR WILDLIFE William H. Rutherford HABITAT MANIPULATION and Warren D. Snyder P. N. OBJECTIVE To publish a comprehensive manual of directional habitat management guidelines for sustaining and enhancing wildlife populations for consumptive and nonconsumptive uses on Division of Wildlife properties. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To review literature and collect background information on habitat management techniques for all wildlife species listed in Program Narrative. METHODS AND HATERIALS Approaches toward the literature review included use of the Fish and Wildlife Service Reference Library, The Colorado State University Library, The U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Library, and the Division of Wildlife Research Center Library. In addition to the review of literature, other approaches included interviews with Division of Wildlife Regional Biologists, and Denver Office game and non-game management biologists. Literature references were catalogued and abstracted on 3x5 file cards, and on edge-punch cards. Interviews were conducted by using a previously established set of questions, plus informal and random conversation, with notes being taken by the interviewer(s). RESULTS Card reference files of 130 pieces of literature applicable to big game and furbearer habitat manipulation were established. These were read and abstracted. Many more pieces of literature were read, and rej ected as being not applicable. Several hundred pieces of literature applicable to small game and non-game habitat manipulation were reviewed, and many of these indexed on edge-punch cards. Priority was placed on references conta~ning habitat manipulation and management recommendations. In addition, basic ecological information was collected for most wildlife species. At the end of this segment (June 30), a considerable portion of the manuscript has been rough-drafted. It is anticipated that only limited additional literature review will be required during the next segment, and that most effort will be directed toward finishing the manuscipt, submitting it to referees for critique, revising and rewriting, and setting up plans for printing and publishing. Also, selected wildlife research personnel with backgrounds in wildlife habitat modification research will be interviewed before the final draft of the manuscript is completed. ��July, 1978 -25- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: W-126-R-1 REPORT Big Game Investigations 7 Job No. 1 --------------------------------- Black Bear Investigations April 1, 1978 - June 30, 1978 Thomas D. I. Beck ABSTRACT A PROGRAM NARRATIVE for black bear studies to be conducted during 1 July 197830 June 1987 was completed and approved. Field surveys of possible study areas based on recommendations from DOW personnel were conducted although a final decision on study area selection was not made. A considerable volume of literature on black bear and forest ecology was reviewed. ��-27- BLACK BEAR INVESTIGATIONS Thomas D. I. Beck P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. Develop techniques levels. to accurately 2. Determine preferences habitat and precisely estimate bear population of selected bear populations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Select a study area. 2. Develop a detailed 3. Habitat type analysis PROGRAM NARRATIVE for Black Bear Investigations. of study area. RESULTS Pu~D DISCUSSION A PROGRAM NARRATIVE and accepted. covering the period 1 July 1978 - 30 June 1987 was completed Numerous field personnel with the Colorado Division of Wildlife have been contacted regarding possible study areas. Field surveys have been conducted in most of the recommended areas in western Colorado and are being continued. Field work has been restricted by the heavy snowpack and subsequent inaccessibility of many areas until mid-June. Consequently, selection of a final study area has not been completed. Considerable time was spent on reviewing literature on forest ecology and forest habitat-type mapping. Projects by other research and management organizations have been reviewed to assess techniques and prevent unnecessary duplication of work. No field studies were conducted pending final selection of a study area. Prepared $_A_•. _WV_"'- by -,-1!-,-~~·__ _£_Thomas D. I. Beck Wildlife Researcher _ ��July 1978 -29- JOB FINAL REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-38-R-33 Deer-Elk Investigations 8 Job No. 14 Management Implementation of Quadrat Census Technique to Estimate the Size of the Middle Park Deer Population Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1977 to June 30, 1978 D. J. Freddy, B. McCloskey, L. H. Carpenter. ABSTRACT Estimated deer density in Middle Park in January, 1978 was 15.6 ~ 4.0 deer per square mile of winter range (P ~ .10) (6.0 ± 1.5 deer/km2). This density projected to a total population estimate of 9,182 2,351 deer. Management personnel have been sufficiently trained to continue the census. The census should be continued as it provides a quantified estimate of the size of an important deer population over a lengthy time period. ± �-30- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. The census should be continued by management personnel with consideration given to dropping three relatively unimportant to save time and expense. strata �-31- MANAGEMENT TO ESTIMATE IMPLEMENTATION OF QUADRAT CENSUS TECHNIQUE THE SIZE OF THE MIDDLE PARK DEER POPULATION David J. Freddy PROGRAM NARRATIVE OBJECTIVE Instruct management personnel on how to conduct the quadrat deer in Middle Park, Colorado. census of SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Explain the theory and design of the census technique personnel. 2. Fly the census with management 3. Assist management personnel to management personnel. in analyzing census data. METHODS AND MATERIALS During the past 8 years, a stratified random quadrat census technique using a helicopter has been employed to estimate the size of the Middle Park deer population (Gill 1969; 1971). This technique has provided quantifiable estimates of population size within known precision limits. Deer are counted on 80, square·-mile permanently marked quadrats selected at random from 8 sampling strata containing a total of 588 square-miles. The census is usually conducted in January using a Bell G47B-l or similar helicopter. RESULTS AllD DISCUSSION Estimated deer density in Middle Park in January, 1978 was 15.6 + 4.0 deer per square mile of sampled winter range (6.0 + 1.5 deer/km2). This density yielded a projected population estimate of 9,182 + 2,351 deer (P < .10) (Table 1). Snow depth was sufficient to force deer onto the sample area, unlike the winters of 1976 and 1977. From the standpoint of snow and deer distribution, this was the best census since January, 1975. WCO, Bruce McCloskey flew the census as a training exercise and also participated in statistical calculations of the population estimate (Table 2). He has been sufficiently trained to continue the census without further involvement of research. The census should be continued as it provides a quantified estimate of the size of an important deer population over time. �Table 1. Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado, January, 1978. Data entries are in numeric sequence for each strata. Granby Low Density Williams Fork R. Low Density Troublesome R. High Density 23 14 14 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 88 0 0 0 0 70 0 17 0 38 0 0 0 116 19 24 0 22 0 0 0 61 0 28 0 24 0 44 0 25 0 62 0 43 47 75 104 0 53 0 2 0 12 187 0 4 127 0 0 0 Muddy Creek High Density Muddy Creek Low Density Blue River High Density Blue River Low Density 0 0 103 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Williams Fork R. High Density 0 34 0 0 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I W tv I �Table 1. January, Numbers of deer counted per quadrat within eight sampling strata in four deer population sequence for each strata. (Cont'd). sub-units, Middle Park, Colorado 1978. Data entries are in numeric Muddy Creek High Density Muddy Creek Low Density Blue River High Density Blue River Low Density Williams Fork R. High Density Williams Fork R. Low Density Troublesome R. High Density 14 217 Granby Low Density o o o o 5 I l:yh 229 16 804 66 152 w w 0 I nh 20 12 12 9 5 5 10 7 yh 11.5 1.3 67.0 7.3 30.4 2.8 21.7 0 Nh 116.6 115.0 73.1 53.0 28.1 63.3 64.1 74.5 Wh .198 .196 .124 .090 .048 .108 .109 .127 (W )2 h .039 .038 .015 .008 .002 .012 .012 .016 Sh 2 l:yh nh yh 726.1 10.7 3319.1 1129.3 260.8 Total deer counted in each stratum Number of sample units (square miles) per stratum Mean number of deer counted per sample unit 39.2 Nh Total square miles per stratum W h Ratio of Nh l:Nh 513.6 S~ = stratum 0 variance 2 2 = Yh(Yh) ~ h - 1 n �-34- Table 2. Summary of statistical calculations for Middle Park deer census, 1978. .2 587.7 ml. N 2 Mean deer/mi - Variance of yst Standard Error of yst JVAR yst - Confidence limits for yst = 2.410 = Sy (yst ± T [Sy]) where T 1.66 at alpha = .10 and 71 degrees freedom; thus the C.L. for yst 15.624 ± 1.66 (2.410) = 15.624 + 4.001 TOTAL POPULATION ESTIMATE WITH CONFIDENCE LIMITS N(yst) ± N (T[Sy]) (587.7) (15.624) ± (587.7) (4.001) 9,182 ± 2,351 deer @ P< .10 �-35- About 3~ days are needed to complete the census as presently flown. To save time and expense, consideration should be given to dropping the Muddy Low, Williams Fork Low, and Granby Low strata. Since 1968, these 3 strata have contributed less than 5 percent of the total population estimate, (Freddy 1975, 1976). One drawback of dropping these strata is that at population levels higher than have occurred since 1968, these strata may become important if deer are distributed differently when densities are higher. LITERATURE CITED Freddy, D. J. 1975. Middle Park deer study-experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2: 209-240. Freddy, D. J. 1976. Middle Park deer study-experimental harvest regulations. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2: 257-282. Gill, R. B. 1969. Middle Park deer study-population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. Game Res. Rep. July Part 1: 105-122. Gill, R. B. 1971. Middle Park deer study-population density and structure. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dep. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2: 170-188. ��July, -37- 1978 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------------------------- Project No. Work Plan W~38-R-33 Deer-Elk Investigations 14 --------------------------- Job Title Period Covered: 9 Job No. Nutritional Basis for Quantifying Capacity of Winter Ranges to Support Deer April 1, 1977 to June 30, 1978 Personnel: Len H. Carpenter, M. A. Kautz, L. L. Strong, D. J. Freddy, Cathy A. Moore, Linda E. Sanders, Paul H. Neil, Bruce D. Trindle, Kate Trindle, and Steve C. Torbit. ABSTRACT Eighteen mule deer fawns were successfully raised in Fort Collins and at Junction Butte Research Center near Kremmling for studies of protein and energy relationships of mule deer in winter. Birth weights and growth rates for these fawns are presented. All fawns were trained to use digestion cages and weigh chutes. Additionally, four of the most tractable fawns were trained for food habit determinations and to wear a face mask for oxygen consumption measurements. A thesis summarizing the relationship between heart-rate and energy expenditure for three mule deer fawns is presented. ��-39- NUTRITIONAL BASIS FOR QUANTIFYING CAPACITY OF WINTER RANGES TO SUPPORT DEER Len H. Carpenter PROGRAM NARRATIVE Develop procedures to support deer. for quantifying OBJECTIVE the capacity of Middle Park winter ranges SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate protein requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. 2. Compare forage intake estimates of free-ranging esophageal fistulated deer in pastures. mule deer with 3. Estimate activities 4. Develop sampling methodology for estimating availability of deer forage in winter. energy costs associated with selected of mu~e deer. annual production and METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in this study have been previously described (Gill and Baker 1974, Carpenter and Baker 1975, Carpenter 1976, and 1977, Baker 1976). To secure adequate numbers and properly trained deer to meet objectives in this study the major work effort this segment was dedicated to fawn rearing and training. Sufficient deer were not available to adequately complete certain segment objectives. Estimating Protein Requirements of Mule Deer in Winter This portion of the study is being conducted by Stephen Torbit, graduate student at Colorado State University.. This study is in initial planning stages and results will be presented next segment. Method for Estimating Energy Expenditures of Free-Ranging Mule Deer A method for measuring energy expenditures of free-ranging mule deer was developed by Marie A. Kautz, Colorado State University. A thesis covering this work is presented in Appendix A. �-40- Comparisons of Forage Intake With Intact vs. Esophageal Fistulated Deer This phase of the study was inactive during the past segment because no surplus deer were available for fistulation. This portion of th2 investigation will be initiated in later segments. Estimating and Developing Energy Requirements for Activity Energy Budgets for Deer at Pasture Data on energy requirements by various activities obtained by Kautz (1978) and data on activity patterns of deer at pasture (Carpenter 1976) are being incorporated into a simulation model for carrying capacity at Colorado State University, (Hobbs and Baker 1977). This model will serve as a first approximation of carrying capacity of Middle Park winter ranges. Estimating Annual Production and Availability of Deer Forage in Winter This portion of the study is being funded by U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station through its studies concerning evaluation of wildlife habitat. The work is closely tied to determination of carrying capacity of Middle Park deer ranges. The study is in initial planning stages and pertinent results will be summarized next segment. Fawn Rearing and Training Fourteen wild does were trapped and transported to the Junction Butte Research Facility to maintain until fawning. Five does were trapped at the Little Hills Experiment Station with the remaining nine being trapped in the Middle Park area. All trapping was done during the period February 12 to 28, 1977. Fawns were also obtained from two tame does maintained at the Junction Butte facility. All wild does were released from the pen on June 24, 1977. Fawns were removed from the dam between 24-48 hours after birth. They were immediately weighed, sexed, and checked for general health and abnormalities. Each fawn was assigned a number and identified by a necktag. Fawns of similar age were housed in individual isolation pens, usually in groups of three. They were trained to nurse from plastic baby bottles. The formula was two parts whole milk to one part evaporated milk with buttermilk making up 1/10 of total daily volume. Baby vitamins were supplemented at the rate of I ml daily up to 4 weeks of age, I ml every other day up to 8 weeks, and I ml every 3 days from 8-12 weeks. The following schedule for feeding was followed. with dam Day I 0-2 weeks 2 oz feeding, five times/day from 6 AM - 10 PM �-41- Feeding Schedule (cont'd) 2-4 weeks 3 oz feeding, 4 times/day from 6 AM - 10 PM 4-6 weeks 3-5 oz feeding, 3 times/day (morning, mid-day, evening) 6-8 weeks 6 oz feeding, 2 times/day, morning and evening 8-11 weeks 6-8 oz feeding, I time/day Fawns were offered alfalfa hay and pelleted grain ration ad libitum after two weeks. After weanin& all fawns were maintained on alfalfa hay and pellets were offered ad libitum. Fawns were weighed weekly from birth to 14 weeks. They were then weighed at bi-weekly intervals until 39 weeks of age when they were weighed at tri-weekly intervals. Four of the most tractable fawns were trained to wear face masks for oxygen consumption measurements (Kautz 1978) and to participate in forage selection trials. All fawns were trained to enter and accept weigh chutes, digestion cages, and transportation cages. A whistle was used at all feeding sessions to train fawns to respond to the sound. This facilitated moving fawns and commanded their attention during training sessions. Training continues daily. Diarrhea was encountered throughout the first 7 weeks of life. In most cases it was treated and controlled by combinations of isolation, decreases in amounts formula, kaopectate, "life saver" solutions, chloramphenicol, or sulfonamide drugs. Of those fawns that died selected individuals were sent to the Animal Disease Center at Colorado State University for necropsy. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Method for Estimating Energy Expenditure of Free-Ranging Mule Deer A thesis covering this work is presented in Appendix A. Fawn Rearing and Training Seventeen fawns were obtained from the 14 wild and two tame does at Junction Butte. Twelve were males, 5 were females. There were 7 sets of twins and 3 singles. Three fawns died within 30 hours of birth, two to a tame doe suffering from chronic wasting, which died five days after giving birth, and one single fawn born to a wild doe. Female fawns averaged about 70 grams heavier than male fawns however, two of the males (numbers I and 2) were born to the chronic wasting doe and were �-42- abnormally underweight (Table 1). Birth weights of male fawns that died within 86 hours of birth averaged 984.2 grams, less than birth weights of surviving male fawns (Table 1) of 11 fawns that died during the first year of life, death in six fawns was attributed directly or indirectly to chronic diarrhea (Table 2). The last fawn to die from diarrhea (fawn #104) was diagnosed as having Giardia. One other fawn (#125) was also diagnosed as having Giardia and was successfully treated. It is suspected that other fawns suffering and dying from diarrhea also had Giardia but no diagnostic tests were conducted to confirm the SUsplClon. Apparently Giardia in mule deer can be cyclic, appearing for a few days and then disappearing, only to reappear a few days later (personal communication, Robert Davies, Wild Animal Disease Center, Colorado State University). Later tests showed that diarrhea could be present for 2-3 days before any Giardia cysts would be found in the feces. Continued testing of healthy fawns has shown no presence of Giardia cysts. Table 1. Birth weights (grams) by sex of 17 fawns born at Junction Butte Research Center during June, 1977. Fawn Number Male 150 3493 151 152 Female 3796 4388 3931 153 154 3401 155 3898 156* 2795 157 2810 158 3480 159 3600 160 3675 161 3313 162 2824 �-43- Table 1. Birth weights (grams) by sex of 17 fawns born at Junction Research Center during June, 1977. (Cont'd). Female Fawn Number Male 163 3244 1* 2012 2* 2117 3* 3645 + std. dev. 3298.4 Mean Overall mean + std.dev. Butte + 691. 2 3368.2 + 529.2 3318.9 + 632.1 * died within 86 hours of birth Mean + std. dev. of surviving male fawns 3626.5 + 139.6 Mean + std. dev. early postnatal male fawn mortalities hours of birth) 2642.3 + 753.2 Table 2. (died within 86 History of fawns that died during fawn-rearing Probable Cause Fawn No. Single/Twin Dam Source Time to Death 1 twin tame 27 hours weak at birth 2 twin tame 27 hours weak at birth 3 single wild 18 hours unknown 156 twin wild 86 hours diarrhea �-44- Table 2. History of fawns that died during fawn-rearing (Cont'd). Single/Twin Dam Source Time to Death Probable 161 twin wild· 13 days diarrhea 152 single wild 86 days urinary bladder 158 twin wild 104 days lepto-meningitis, brain swelling 163 twin wild 128 days diarrhea 157 twin wild 134 days diarrhea 160 twin wild 141 days diarrhea-Giardia 104 twin wild 248 days diarrhea-Giardia Fawn No. Cause rupture Deaths of fawn numbers 152 and 158 were attributed to rare causes not related to husbandry practices. The causes of death in fawn numbers 1, 2, and 3 were unknown but attributed to weakened conditions at birth. On September 13, 1977, fourteen fawns were transported from Fort Collins to the Junction Butte facility. Shortly afterwards a form of blue tongue disease was isolated from the tame deer herd in Fort Collins. About October 1, several fawns from both groups (Fort Collins and Junction Butte) began to show various symptoms of poor health. These symptoms varied from arthritic stiffness to inappetence and lethargy. These symptoms, with the presence of diarrhea, continued until late November. No definite causes of the poor health were diagnosed in the fawns but it is suspected that blue tongue may have been a factor. To control diarrhea in these fawns, food (pelleted ration) was restricted. Alfalfa hay continued to be offered ad libitum. As a consequence of food restriction and poor health, fawns did not gain weight during this period and many lost weight. The affects of ration restriction on body size (as compared to healthy fawns maintained at Little Hills) is still visible. Fawns raised in Fort Collins apparently gained weight more rapidly than did fawns raised at Junction Butte based upon comparisons of available weight data (Table 3 and 4, respectively). Growth rates will be maintained on these deer during the next year. Growth rates of the 18 Junction Butte fawns rearing one year of age (353 days) averaged about 120 grams per day (Table 5). �Table 3. Weights (grams) at birth and through eight weeks of age for 12 mule deer fawns born at Junction Butte Research Center during June, 1977. Fawn Number Birth 1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week 5th week 6th week 7th we ek 8th week 150 3493 3585 3640 4210 5058 6160 6670 7037 8399 151 3796 3815 3760 4220 4830 5657 6210 6356 7718 152 4388 4130 4013 4335 4715 5200 6120 7037 9080 153 3931 3708 3690 3980 4920 6172 6920 8399 9534 154 3401 3381 3710 4250 5540 6645 8500 10442 12258 155 3898 3538 3680 3800 4620 5535 7070 8172 10215 157 2810 2860 2665 2900 3655 4615 5965 7491 9194 158 3480 3493 3590 4205 4860 5785 6350 7718 9080 159 3600 3487 3567 4J.70 4725 5750 6990 7718 9332 160 3675 3490 3420 3625 3800 4185 4450 4947 5570 162 2824 3020 3125 3905 5030 5720 7200 7945 9307 163 3244 3270 3140 3915 4245 5255 6630 7605 9307 Mean (grams) 3545.0 3481.4 3500. 3959.6 4666.5 5556.6 6589.6 7572.3 9082.8 Std. dev.(g) 451.8 337.3 363.0 396.1 534.0 676.9 949.7 1293.8 1549.6 Mean (kg) 3.5 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.7 5.6 6.6 7.6 9.1 Mean (Lbs ) 7.8 7.7 7.7 8.7 10.3 12.2 14.6 16.8 20.1 I .jO- V1 I �Table 4. Weights (grams) at birth and through eight weeks of age for 12 mule deer fawns born in Fort Collins during June, 1977 and maintained at Junction Butte Research Area. Fawn Number Birth 1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week 5th week 6th week 7th week 8th week 103 2974 2729 3065 3632 4199 4881 5902 6470 7151 104 3341 3405 4200 5221 5789 7151 8286 9307 10329 105 3178 3632 4427 5108 6016 6924 7945 10102 10669 107 3450 3405 3973 4313 5335 6016 7151 7718 8967 109 3314 3292 3973 4540 5448 6583 8172 8967 10669 111 4041 3519 4200 5108 5902 7151 8513 9648 10896 4654 5448 6243 6583 7605 -9761 I ~ 115 3441 3519 4313 118 3519 3519 4200 4994 5675 6810 7945 8399 119 3632 3746 4200 4767 5675 6583 7491 8172 120 3405 3405 3859 4540 5562 7151 8059 8967 121 4654 -- -- -- 8172 9534 10669 123 3473 -- --- -- -- 7151 9080 10669 Mean 3535.2 3416.6 4041.0 4687.7 5504.9 6734.7 7888.4 8891. 0 9777.4 SD 435.2 275.3 382.8 475.8 505.7 800.1 1006.5 1286.2 1335.4 Mean (kg) 3.5 3.4 4.0 4.7 5.5 6.7 7.9 8.9 9.8 Mean (Lbs) 7.7 7.5 8.8 10.4 12.1 14.8 17.4 19.6 21.6 0\ I �-47- Table 5. Growth rates (grams gained/day) for 18 fawns maintained Butte Research Area for first year of life. at Junction Fawn Number Age (Days) 103 364 37.6 103.3 105 359 44.9 125.1 107 356 37.2 104.5 109 356 39.5 111.0 III 360 39.9 110.8 115 349 44.0 126.1 118 349 41.3 118.3 119 345 46.3 l34.2 120 346 42.6 123.1 121 341 41.7 122.3 123 340 35.4 104.1 150 360 46.3 128.6 151 360 44.0 122.2 153 357 41.5 116.2 154 353 45.8 129.7 155 353 44.0 124.6 159 351 50.3 143.3 162 353 37.2 105.4 Mean 352.9 42.2 119.6 SD 6.7 3.8 11.0 Weight (Kilograms) Gain (Grams/day) �-48- LITERATURE CITED Bake r, D. L. 1976 • Energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 76p. M.S. Thesis. Carpenter, L. H., and D. L. Baker. 1975. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-29 Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 241-263. Carpenter, L. H. 1976. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-31. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 283-298. Carpenter, L. H. 1977. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div., Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-32. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 1. p. 65-83. Gill, R. B., and D. L. Baker. 1974. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div., Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-28. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 211-225. Hobbs, N. T., and D. L. Baker. 1977. Systems modeling big game populations - simulations of the carrying capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park elk winter range. Colo. Div. Wildl, Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-32. Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p. 125-200. Kautz, M. A. 1978. Energy expenditure and heart rate of active mule deer fawns. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. Prepared ~A~, _A-.----tc:~- by ....:.~...L••• ~ ••••••• G"--~-=-t-=-.ilLen H. Wildlife Researcher _ 76p. �-49- APPENDIX A Marie Kautz Thesis �/ -50- THESIS ENERGY EXPENDITURE AND HEART RATE OF ACTIVE MULE DEER FAWNS Submitted Marie Vendeville Fishery-and In partial Wildlife fulfillment for the Degree Colorado Fort by Kautz Biology of the requirements of Master of Science State University Collins, Colorado Summer, 1978 �-51- COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY Summer 1978 WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT .THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER OUR SUPERVISION ENTITLED BY MARIE VENDEVILLE ENERGY EXPENDITURE MULE DEER FAWNS REQUIREMENTS BE ACCEPTED KAUTZ AND HEART RATE OF ACTIVE AS FULFILLING FOR THE DEGREE OF IN PART MASTER OF SCIENCE. Comrrlittee on Graduate Work / 7:1/!/ <,.' / Adviser u.! - IJ!J'i' ~;Jj -; c-: {J I Ll.Jd~ ~ /;,~." .;' ID dla7 191'6 �-52- ABSTRACT OF THESIS ENERGY EXPENDITURE AND HEART RATE OF ACTIVE MULE DEER FAWNS The relationship studied in three lowed to bed, to evaluate between mule deer stand, walk, the usefulness energy hemionus and trot outdoors during of heart rate for active deer. penditure of humans and domestic The deer collection. of the electrocardiogram. kcal kg . -1 rmn Correlation ranged statistically of similar weight. Energy coefficients from 0.81 to 0.92 significant weight, There due to activity Heart al- rates ex- for use with determinaby telemetry from 0.065 from 49 to 96 beats expenditure deer. from and heart There in the relationships did differ ex- energy was measured ranged in order of energy expenditure to be any difference level or feed level. hemionus) was adapted expenditures for the three but the males did not appear rate for energy difference was used to measure animals -0 75 -1 . min and heart to 0.31 rate Methodology rate winter, as a predictor wore a face mask for energy tion by respiratory and heart fawns (Odocoileus penditure deer. expenditure was no for two males a female of lighter in the relationship Although data were not adequate �-53- to provide , a precise predictive equation for estimating penditure from heart rate for active deer, heart rate energy appears expromis- ing for this use. Marie Vendeville Kautz Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 Summer, 1978 �ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding ative Wildlife through for this research Research Colorado experimental life. Office space ative Wildlife mitters were provided Research at Colorado Aid Project and vehicle Gas analysis tory Unit by the Colorado Federal animals equipment Division W- 38-R. Cooper- of Wildlife Pen facilities by the Colorado were provided was provided State University. Additional to the Colorado and Division of Wild- by the Colorado Cooper- Unit. and set up telemetry Laboratory. was provided R. J. equipment suggestions by the Metabolic Scott built heart Labora- rate trans- loaned by the CSU Surgical on telemetry were given by J. J. Cupa l , . I thank my committee penter, D. E. Johnson, guidance on all aspects provided additional Gilbert shared of the study. Remmenga L. H. Carand and R. B. Gill support, and D. L. on the thesis. built the face mask, p. H. Neil, responsibilities K. R, Russell and administrative gave he lpful suggestions collection. W. W. Mautz, and G. M, Van Dyne for suggestions guidance E. O. Crispe data members, and C. A. Moore assisted D. W. Reichert for fawn raising and B. D. Trindle and deer and D. C. Bowden gave statistical care. advice. E. E. Photographs in �-55- to L. J. were taken by W. K. Seitz. Appreciation Niemann, D. M. Roche and D. L. Baker. D. G. Milchunas, My husband Ed Kautz study. providing constant ranged from fawn care was a friend encouragement to computer is also expressed and helper programming. scientists at Colorado their openness, these pursuit and their of this goal. the and help on jobs which thank a group of female example throughout Finally, I want to State University. women sustained By me in my �-56- TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I 11 III INTRODUCTION Literature Review Methods •.•• Energy Expenditure Wild Ungulates 1 ........ 2 2 of 5 8 8 11 METHODS AND MATERIALS Animals Physical Facilities Apparatus .•..••. Heart Rate Apparatus Respiration Apparatus and Gas Analysis ..••• Face mask .•.••• Flowmeter and collection bags Gas analysis .••. Trial Procedures Weather Parameters •.•. Calculation of Energy Expenditure •••.. Activity Data ••..•..••• Contro 1 of Activity •• . . • • • • • • Trials on Fasted Deer . . • • • • . ••• Statistical Analysis Individual Deer All Deer • . . • . • • • • Confidence Intervals for Predicting Energy Expenditure . • . • . • • ••. 12 12 14 14 16 19 19 21 21 23 23 27 27 27 30 31 RESU LTS •.•••••.•.• Effectiveness of Method . Problems with Respiration Equipment . • • . . . • . . • • • . Relationship between Energy Expenditure and Heart Rate . . . • • • . . • • • Individual Deer All Deer •..• Effect of body weight . Confidence Intervals for Predicting Energy Expenditure .•..••.•• ... 32 32 33 34 34 39 41 41 �-57- TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Chapter 45 45 DISCU SSION . . . . • • . • • . • . . . • Comparisons to Literature Values Effects of Activity Leve land Feed Level . Comparison of Regression with Literature Results .••• Individual Differences in Regression Equations •... Confidence of Predicting Energy Expenditure from Heart Rate Application of Results ... IV 51 51 54 56 57 0 .......... ... .................. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS V LITERATURE APPENDIX A B C CITED • • • • • • • • • III • • • • • 0 • • • • • • • • • • • 58 61 67 Data collection form modified from Consolazio et al , (1963) for measuring mule deer energy expenditure 68 Derivation of formula to calculate oxygen consumption and energy expenditure from volume and fractional concentration of oxygen in expired air, assuming volume of methane produced is insignificant . • . • . 69 1 Weights (kg), oxygen consumptions (rnl miri- ), energy expenditures (kcal kg-O. 75 min-1), heart rates (beats min - 1), and activities (percent bedding, standing, walking, trotting) for trials using three fasting and fed mule deer fawns in winter ....•. 71 �-58- LIST OF TABLES Table 1 2 3 4 5 Sexes, ages (days), and weights (kg) of mule deer subjects at times of weaning and experiment, and peak weights of fawns which were fasted • . . • ••• 9 Range of energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity measured for three mule deer fawns during January and February 25 Number of simultaneous energy expenditure and heart rate measurements at different levels of activity and feed for three mule deer fawns in winter, and comparisons for effects of activity level and feed level 28 Mean square residuals for regression of energy expenditure on heart rate for three mule deer fawns at four activity levels and two feed levels •.....•••..• • • • • 0 • 40 Heart rates of mule deer and white-tailed deer for different activities 46 6 Measurements of fasting and resting production for young wild ungulates 48 7 Measurements of energy cost of activities for wild ungulates •.•...•••••.• 8 Regression heart rate 9 ............. heat . 49 equations of energy expenditure on for white-tailed deer and mule deer 53 1 Weights(kg), oxygen consumptions (ml min- ), energy expenditures (kcal kg-O. 75 min-1), heart rates (beats min-1), and activities (percent bedding, standing, walking, trotting) for trials using three fasting and fed mule deer fawns in winter ....•.•..••..••• 71 . �-59- LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1 Face ma sk for rne a s ur ing energy expenditure of mule deer fawns ..• 15 0 2 3 4 Measuring energy expenditure rate of mu le deer fawn and heart 0 ••• 0 Schexnatic breakdown of trials into four activity levels on the basis of percent of t irne spent at specific activities 26 Relationship of energy expenditure and heart rate for deer no. 51 by activity level and feed level .••• 35 Relationship of energy expenditure and heart rate for deer no. 53 by activity level and feed level •...•••..•••••••• 36 Relationship of energy expenditure and heart rate for deer no. 55 by activity level and feed level .........• 37 Regressions of energy expenditure on heart rate for three rnu le deer fawns in winter . . . . . . . 38 Regressions of energy expenditure on heart rate and 95 percent confidence intervals for predicting me an energy expenditure fr om heart rate for two 40 kg rria Ie mu le deer and one 30 kg fexnale mul e deer in winter 42 Regression of energy expenditure on heart rated and 95 percent confidence interval for predicting rne an energy expenditure f r orn heart rate based on data f'r om three rnul e deer fawns in winter 44 0 5 6 7 •• ................ 8 9 18 �-60- CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Throughout the history of wildlife been concerned with maintaining levels to provide sufficient so high as to cause range trends, trends duction and use of key browse heavily on the knowledge in aerial basis indices species. approach of weather to deer (973). and nutrient The possibility of functional nutrient is intuitively harvest and trends in pro- techniques Interpretation poor statistical is a product of managing ungulate rather and computer of Moen's between supply of the range, nutrient elaborated herds technology information. Although information needs supply is still incomplete by on the than empirical of the necessary and range depend (Gill 1976}. as the relation relationships appealing, conditions, management capacity but not utilizing and skill of the field worker. of carrying of the animals These at have been de- condition, of counts, and the "myth of the browser" (1973) concept Robbins types have species for harvest Techniques and range or other by variability A recent needs condition managers of big game of animals deterioration. to evaluate is complicated populations an excess vised techniques, herd management, trend enables on both deer (Moen 1973), numerous use �-61- studies have provided of carrying capacity Part rado, sufficient data for making basic (Wallmo et al , 1977). of an ongoing r e s aar-ch program is aimed (Odocoileus at quantifying hemionus vious studies the energy hemionus), (Milchunas quality tenance of fawns in winter (Baker budgets of deer (Carpenter portance using data on energy activity of energy costs cedures difficult uring costs requirements of an attempt energy mentioned activities was to investigate and heart rate for active Literature Review Pre- 1976). nufor main- and time 1976). to assess budget of deer above. requires useful the relationship in winter, deer. and pro- Thus the primary methodology deer. between with measurement equipment of active hand -reared the im- in conjunction However, to use even on hand -reared expenditure (Carpenter of sp ec if ic activities for specific Colo- of mule deer 1976), and activity of this study was to provide energy jective in the total and time budgets objective 1977), energy study was part of activity needs utilization tritional in pastures in Middle Park, for use in such calculations. have dealt with forage The present calculations for meas- A related ob- energy expenditure of measuring energy expenditure This method, referred to as deer. Methods The most requires widely used method collection of expired air. �-62- indirect respiration calorimetry, tion chamber s with confined highly artificial of activity, conditions thermal Indirect tory provided measured is employed animals. Respiration and restrict subjects conditions, respiration and sensory calorimetry that air expired and sampled. success from white-tailed deer a tracheotomized whitetail Other researchers expenditure isotope energy employing carbon-14 with domestic 1968,1972; 1971), domestic reindeer and caribou Although respiratory quires the subject urine must be sampled to estimate dioxide cattle collection is unnecessary, An animal air. A radio- entry rate) (Young 1970), and the technique infusion, trained pump can move about and forage without direct during the measurement Carbon dioxide entry carbon dioxide production. Each liter energy (Young and McEwan 1975). a pump for isotope period. (1978) used sheep (Young and Corbett tarandus regularly. were used collection of expired Rangifer to carry air using a masks or expenditure. (carbon has been used successfully Corbettetal. expired and Fair methods collection the laboracollected for respiratory have developed range is either Face virginianus, to estimate which do not require technique to collect (1974), impose environment. subjects. Odocoileus chambers can be used outside It is possible by Mattfeld respira- from a normal from the subjects face mask or from tracheotomized with limited in laboratory of carbon re- and blood or to carry the hum.an interference rate reflects dioxide produced is �-63- equivalent food substance oxidized dioxide entry rate is related to expenditure. A second 18 radioisotope water (D 0 2 energy expenditure ). for long-term studies to energy and pulmonary heart rate and energy 1969), rodents Morhardt with respect include rate. heart to their rate, '!'he relationship between and Hervey 1960, Datta and Ramanathan 1967. Brockway sheep (Webster and Hart in humans rela- respira- was studied (Segrem (Malhotra 1969, and McEwan 1967,§!:.b, Lund and Folk 1976, 1971), and white-tailed of humans between heart Some of the rodents and rodents indicated rate and energy studied by Morhardt to have non-linear conducted suitable deer (Holter et at. 1978). Studies tionship These ventilation and Morhardt 1976, Fair it is most by Lifson expenditure et a l , 1966), Sharkey the As described (1966), have been studied rate use of doubly-labelled animals. expenditure. Booyens animals. and McClintock of small tory et ale 1963, involves can also be used to estimate of unrestrained Other parameters tionship technique The technique et a l , (1955) and Lifson peared on the 1945, citing Lusk 1928 and Zuntz and (Brody 1901), and thus carbon Schumberg energy 5.05 and 6.69 kcal of energy depending to between with animals relationships. a strong expenditure linear rela- in most cases. and Morhardt (1971) ap- The studies of sheep were that were tracheotomized, wore face masks, �-64- or were in ventilated hoods. lationship between heart strated, while strong weak relationship penditure were oratory (Holter correlation For six sheep in the two studies rate and energy relationships expenditure correlated et al , 1976). Heart rate for white-tailed However,' in these parameters was demon- were found for two sheep and a was found for a third. strongly no re- and energy deer (I978), Fair for a white-tailed in the lab- reported deer ex- a weak studied out- side the laboratory. Respiratory rate and pulmonary than heart rate as pred ictors useful (1973), and Gessaman and energy useful predictor monary ture expenditure, Ramanathan metering Energy is more rate Expenditure rate for large mammals. Pul- related to energy expendi- closely rate or heart rate (Datta and for tele- is not available. of Wild Ungulates metabolic of life-sustaining rate is the energy activities as the sum of basal rate post-absorptive ment) and increments for functions cost to a free-ranging and processes can be estimated of a resting, Hargrove rate was not a 1969, Sharkey et al , 1966), but methodology this parameter less on respiratory that respiratory respiratory appear expenditure. literature expenditure than either Ecological animal rate of energy reviewing concluded of energy ventilation in humans after ventilation metabolic animal (Moen 1973). rate (the metabolic in a thermoneutral such as digestion, It environ- �-65- thermoregulation and activity. have been measured Energy for a number costs of wild ungulate measurements include fasting post-absorptive animal in a thermoneutral metabolic (that of a fed animal effects rate of fluctuations of fasting amount of energy retention been studied Fasting (Silver required equals zero). less ured species. Types (the metabolic environment), temperature to carry components in a thermoneutral rate of a resting on the metabolic energy of environm.ent), rate requirements out body functions (the when energy cost of activity in wild ungulates has rate has been measured for white-tailed deer frequently. metabolic et ale 1969, Thompson 1970), red deer Cervus elaphus 1968, Maloiy et ale 1968), and pronghorn (Wesley rate and maintenance Energy et a l . 1959, Silver bou (McEwan metabolic in ambient and fed anim.als, of these et a l , 1970, for black-tailed 1973). Resting deer Odocoileus et a l , 1973), cari- (Brockway Antilocapra metabolic and Maloiy am.ericana rate has been meas- hem.ionus columbianus (Nordan et a l , 1970), caribou (McEwan 1970, McEwan and Whitehead red deer (Brockway and Maloiy 1968, Maloiy et al , 1968), pronghorn (Wesley et a.l, 1973), wildebeest 1966, 1968), and eland Taurotragus Rogerson effects 1968). deer, by Hart taurinus oryx (Taylor Siver et ale (1971) and Holter of am.bient tem.perature white-tailed caribou Connochaetes on m.etabolic (Rogerson and Lym.an 1967, et ale (1975) studied rate of fasting while the sam.e problem. was investigated et aI , (1961), for pronghorn 1970), by Wesley and fed for et ale (1973), �-66- and for mountain (1954). Maintenance long term (Ullrey al. energy for young caribou tailed were of bedding, the energy deer and pulling Wesley horns standing, made by Mattfeld et al. energy for pregnant (McEwan and Whitehead while Hammel measured studies have been estimated 1970), for white-tailed et ale (1961) measured standing requirements by Krog and Monson expenditure in a respiration the energy chamber. (1978). of whiteHart caribou, expenditure of rein- and White and Yousef (1974) of standing et ale (1973) estimated Measurements of standing et 1976), and walking and running expenditure sleds, deer fawns (Baker 1970). using fawns (Thompson (1974) and by Fair (1962) measured loaded white-tailed deer et ale 1977), for mule deer expenditure deer energy balance et ale 1969, 1973, Holter energy goats Oreamnos americanus the energy and walking reindeer. cost of standing for prong- �-67- CHAPTER II METHODS AND MATERIALS Based on information energy expenditure respiratory feeding, by indirect collection. jects, accurate serve as a standard entry rate necessitated for evaluating heart the carbon the advantage and indirect using could be expected, I rejected of less and indirect a face mask for more results. restricted some restraint rate as a predictor entry rate restraint. required calorimetry to measure and the method dioxide calorimetry and apparatus, accurate calorimetry apparatus results though it offered I decided Although use of the face mask and associated expenditure. in the literature of sub- would of energy technique Both carbon aldioxide sophisticated training could be expected to give Animals Subjects orphans were turned obtained either over to the Division as fawns from of Wildlife. left with does for approximately 24 hours reared by Reichert using methods of fawns at weaning, peak weights described weights at start captive Newborn and then were (1972). deer fawns were removed and Ages and weights and end of the experiment, of fawns which were fasted or as are given in Table 1. and �Table 1. Sexes, ages (days), and weights (kg) of experimental ment, and peak weights of fawns which were fasted. subjects at times of weaning and experi- Experiment Weaning Deer Start Sex Age Weight Age Weight Peak Weight Final co Weight d' 6-1-76* 81* 16.2 217* 44.3 47.2 44.8 51 d' 6-5-76 77 11.3 213 38.0 -- 42.4 53 59 9.9 187 29.4 30.4 <;> 7-1-76 31.5 55 * Orphan fawn, birth date and age estimated. I 0' I �-69- Fawn training trained to wear scribed by Reichert styrene plastic elastic straps more restrictive began at the age of 10 days. a harness and accept (1972). bottle on their feeding. and heavier by leaving each day in conjunction with harness month, replaced cups were with nylon webbing. weeks until the fawns accepted face cuff and outlet valve inserted, throughout Four ready fawns were trained each day for 90 days. From At this time and later factorily. However one fawn would not accept the deer from the study. of 8 first with the were used for 10 to 30 minutes trained three the mask and restraint the study when the deer was dropped cups held on Raisins that time on they were required a with the cuff tightened, in this manner All fawns accepted Since hooking up the apparatus closed and as a distraction. a week. who joined made the fawns weighed mask, hose attached. four times nician by After were added over a period the study for reinforcement poly- end partially plastic to wear the actual and collection open-ended and leash training. 400 g. valve removed, as de- on the fawns for 20 minutes with sturdier Again weights about 20 kg and were a leash initially the cups were the distal Cups were placed were muzz les and attached Gradually and taping on weights. these from At 2 to 3 weeks of age, cups were placed during restraint Fawns were handling from or satisa tech- 150 days of age. the technician's asssistance, �-70- Of the three fitted readily. deer used for trials, The female (deer by being coaxed or tricked. necessary, straint. no. 55) accepted Although several it was always possible This deer the two males the face mask only attempts were often to get the mask on her without re- was about 30 days younger than the others. was initially kept at the home of a researcher, days of age, and was hurried tion, could be out- through She began training the training process. at 21 In addi- she was the most active, independent, and inquisitive of the At certain were excited and showed a high level deer. of activity. times all deer I did not conduct trials were difficult to handle and restrain. standing, or quietly feeding, and trials completed with minimal Except diet of alfalfa forage ration. Physical during fasting Supplemental times because the deer If the deer were bedded, outfitting could be readily accomplished restraint. periods hay and a commercially sodium deer were fed ad libitum available chloride mixed grain on a and was also provided. Facilities The experiment 1977, at the Colorado was conducted during Division of Wildlife Elevation pus, Colorado State University. m. The deer were housed square. at these outdoors January Deer Pens, and February Foothills was approximately in two group pens roughly Cam1,585 30 rn �-71- Apparatus Heart Rate Apparatus Radiotelemetry trials. Transmitters Colorado (Krohn-hite), I tried tained an FM receiver several different during Laboratory on a harness A television (Eddystone), sites by attaching a band -pass filter recorder (MFE electrodes and ob- chart for attaching one electrode to the right of the and the second on the left side near the lower posterior Electrode electrode attachment, and alligator hide of the fawns. fawns' hides tures no longer for electrode nal was obtained in contact Initially, signals detected and reattached. trodes attached in this manner. were problems from active deer. steel sutures directly sec- of to the were made in the After about a week the su- adequately, alone, but a satisfactory provided sig- they remained clips which pulled off were Deer appeared associated Clear at the sites clips were attached clips Alligator readily There was applied stainless with alligator with the skin. paste attachment. conducted at system. tion of the rib cage. signals by deer and a strip the telemetry best results sternum and were carried a signal processor, completed by the Surgical webbing and spandex bandages. (Winegard), Corp.) were constructed State University made of upholstery antenna was used to obtain electrocardiographs signals oblivious with obtaining to elec- satisfactory were obtained for bedding, �-72- standing, and usually accompanied sociated for walking, by deterioration with movement to one another cation from R. J. Scott, Poor signals by adjusting signals rate of the signal. of the lead wires spect rather obtained Surgical the alligator rates for trials 15 seconds artifact periods and counts to a IS-second On several At times were impossible; Samples the tracing however. the strip-chart Beats of 15 seconds by could be they were converted recorder from the receiver was nonwas used to take were counted from the audio signal for during as many minutes the same way as samples as a supplement samples were for the first if counts as samples. occasions heart was obliterated and included were treated cardiograph the trial. equivalent samples. ings and used to obtain better by sampling period heart samples efforts of the sample and the audio signal any period be improved or more functional, rate could usually were calculated throughout with re- (oral communi- R waves from the electrocardiograph of each minute. made for a third levels as- State Univ.). failed. Mean heart was usually Colorado but persistent levels taken by counting artifact clips, activity I-minute and transmitter Laboratory, at low activity activity This was probably than with muscle at higher during but increased to them. were available If less for a trial, as possible. Audio from the EKG tracthan four electroand a greater �-73- number of audio samples ples. In trials with four or more used audio samples were illegible minutes Face cated (if they were available) for the minutes Trials mask-A fiberglass for use on deer. with fewer than four face mask was designed mache antelope with modelling necessary to provide clay. of valves to the right muzzle E. (Warren E. Collins Collins) let valve to be removed for training. entirely is shown in Figure circular to a section The mask with outlet 1. face cuff was made by cementing tire tube (2.54 cm diameter) bicycle tire valve. and installing a Presta to the inside of the mask as a seal to fit around the muzzle through of a allowed the out- of bicycle The valve protruded The in- The outlet valve was con- This arrangement ject. clearance, "V" valve). PVC valve glued onto the mask. an inflatable on a Two holes were cut in the fiberglass to the mask. connector the end s of a section and fabri- Clay was added to the head where (Warren let valve was glued directly nected by a rubber head fashioned space for valve functioning, of a face seal. for insertion Initially which The shell of the mask was constructed dimensions valve inserted I and Gas Analysis form made from a paper shell samples. using a single method were discarded. Apparatus and installation I used only the audio sam- electrocardiograph on the electrocardiograph. sampled Respiration were available, together This cuff was cemented of the sub- a hole cut in the fiberglass so that �-74- ,~ FACE .• Figure 1. '/> 10. II 11 I~ Face mask for measuring energy expenditure of mule deer fawns. Ma s k is mounted on a plaster muzzle form and viewed from above. �-75- the cuff could be inflated with the hose and bulb from a sphygmo- manometer. even when inflated, However, form to the deer's was modified muzzle and allowed passage before data were collected. of 1.27 cm thickness neoprene rubber fill the space the deer's between 7 c rn cross-section motocycle When the mask was on the to the head by three Straps were fastened around and unfastened 3 brackets by spring on the mask. clamps to allow rapid for leaks by applying a soap solution and adjustments. The face seal was checked to the muzzle of one fawn, with the respiration from the mask were detected. to the face seal was checked age such as moisture were detected during intact. of the muzzle trials adjacent for signs of leak- at the corner by wetness No of the mouth of the hair and by such leaks to the mask not being put on tightly enough and discontinued Flowmeter Leaks occasions apparatus The area routinely or frost. on several I attributed meter tube was put The mask was secured of 2.54 cm webbing riveted ration A down over the deer's straps sound. tire shell. of the tube was turned to form leaks in the mask to muzzle" and the fiberglass muzzle attachment a seal. so this design sponge installed of 10.8 ern diameter the folded section of air, to con- The final seal was a ring over the mask and folded back on itself. deer, the cuff failed the trial and collection (Instrumentation when this occurred. bags-I Associates) carried a Max Planck to measure respi- and sample �-76- expired air (Figure 2.68 cm. plastic face mask. through 2). The meter tubing (Warren E. Collins) The m.eter delivered a 30 cm section polyethylene was connected by a section to the outlet valve of the a 0.6 percent aliquot of expired of 4.8 m.m. ID Tygon tubing bag for storage. Metallized of to a metallized bags were m.ade as de- scribed by Johnson et al , (1967) in a 25 x 35 cm. size. several metallized bags in a pack sack on my back to allow rapid switching of bags between Flowmeter meter the two meters at varying periment was checked by connecting (American rates ranged ture and pressure saturated from 10.2 to 46.2 liters Initial and final calibration factor factors derived Metallized gas bags were mersing them. in water nections between through This was done before were completed. the exFlow per m.inute at body tempera- (BTPS) for the initial per minute it in series Co.) and breathing all trials from 4. 1 to 103.2 liters obtain the volum.e m.easurement soap solution. Meter flow rates. began and again after I used the calibration I carried trials. calibration with a wet test air calibration, and BTPS for the final calibration. were 1. Oland 0.99 from the initial respectively. calibration to for all trials. routinely and applying checked for leaks by im- light pressure. the face mask and flowmeter were Hoses and con- checked with a �-77- Figure 2. Measuring energy expenditure of mule deer fawn. and heart rate �-78- Gas analysis -Oxygen man paramagnetic (Servomax). oxygen analyzer Endpoints as the lower point, percent carbon mainder nitrogen) fore and after (determined standards Trial analysis were by running were and, recorder with 100 percent nitrogen oxygen, trace argon, These standards several times 1.21 re- were run be- if the instrument the standards run more chart methane, point. samples, using a Beck- gas (19.64 percent O. 11 percent as the upper running wired to a strip established and a standard dioxide, was performed was unstable initially), the frequently. Procedures To prepare fawn, for a trial, the experimenter stand the fawn if necessary, An assistant would place the electrodes leading harness placed over the heart was fed raisins rate harness. After neck by the back straps, muzzle while the strap around The forehead strap that the mask was secure, and hook up a distraction. loosely and then quickly A 1972) was then a satisfactory the face mask was placed deer's Deer as a rate harness. in the harness of 2.54 cm nylon webbing (Reichert had been obtained, muzzle. and put on the heart the transmitter while the deer would approach EKG signal around slipped the over the the back of the head was tightened. was then fastened, and after a check to ensure the face seal was unfolded were not restrained at any time during down over the this procedure. �-79- Next, a 4 m rope leash the subject was restrained be threaded through outlet was attached slightly so that the collection loops on the leading harness valve of the face ma sk (Figure into a separate yard where trials from the gas collection system. and by the assistant watch, switching human activity, gas collection throughout the EKG signal at the beginning provide were bedding trials an adequate shorter sample, from of the deer, were recorded The assistant of the trial and several checked where needed were up to 30 minutes on usually and helped Most of the trials the stop and opening the Activities in the area lasted Consolazio 10 minutes in order of the mo st active to trials than 10 minutes. Following aliquot bag. air in my was begun by starting the trial. for the r erna ind e r of the trial. was led and data were carried and flowmeter, and any disturbances long; however, remarks tape recorder The trial the tape recorder to the was allowed to flush outside on the transmitter valve to the metallized and attached on a data fo r rn adapted et ale (I 963), (Appendix A). hose could Then the subject Introductory at this time on a casette pocket, 2). and were conducted. A rrrirrirnurn time of 2 minutes recorded to the leading harness a trial, connection the meter was switched backpack. Subsequent to flush. If all trials reading was recorded, and the to another gas collection bag in the were begun after equ ipme nt continued allowing to function the systetn properly, up to �-80- four trials were run In sequence without removing apparatus from was used to determine tem- the deer. Weather Parameters A thermometer perature on the flowmeter of expired temperature air at time of volume was measured measurement. using a thermometer side of a building about 1.5 m above the ground. tures -4.5 varied from I obtained barometric microbarograph (Julian Friez P, State Univer s ity Atmospheric pressure elevation, on the Colorado State University converted a standard correction readings Calculation of Energy Expenditure were quires knowledge of oxygen consumption (RQ). RQ is the ratio under type of nutrient normal expenditure conditions being metabolized Zuntz and Schumberg 1901). instrument readings for elevation made at one-half of energy It varies from a at the Colorado Campus factor Calculation of carbon readings from another Campus. pressure at the warmer Building about 0.5 km distant or occasionally Barometric on the north Ambient tempera- and Sons) located Science and at a similar using located to 16.0 C, with most trials temperatures. Ambient were change. hour intervals. from oxygen consumption and the respiratory dioxide produced quotient to oxygen consumed. from O. 7 to 1.0 depending (Brody re- 1945, citing Since I did not measure on the Lusk 1928 and , the carbon �-81- dioxide concentration air I assumed of expired animals, as suggested animals. Each liter o. 70 for fasted by Brody (1945), and an RQ of of oxygen consumed 4.686 kcal of heat at an RQ of 0.82, results in the production Oxygen consumption ments: the volume is strictly carbon correct dioxide methane production to standard RQ's for fed and fasting zero. Derivation with a fed deer expenditure animals, are included resulting error and pressure assuming volumes dry, deer, in the assumption (both or STPD) are by using the assumed methane B. from this calculation for fasted are equal (and production and a s arnpl e calculation in Appendix This it is only when and expired volume to inspired of the formula and -7 percent considering that inspired temperature I co r r e ct ed expired equal. air and its oxygen concentration. and oxygen consumption is zero) 1901). from only two measure- only at an RQ equal to 1. 0, because production converted was calculated of expired of or 5.047 kcal at an RQ of 0.70 1945, citing Lusk 1928 and Zuntz and Schumberg (Brody deer an RQ of 0.82 for fed Correction for a trial in energy was -4 percent but was probably that methane was for fed not significant production was zero. E nergy expe nditure pressing energy weight) reduces was expresse expenditure variation . ca 1k g -0. 75 mrn . -1 d In on this basis related (in units to size differences of metabolic Exbody among animals. �-82- Activity Data Sporadic changes activities in activity recordings Percent of the deer for later sampling. by timing activit ies during of time made it necessary spent at bedding, Sampling the first standing, this sampling scheme of sampling for 16 trials with results obtained trial. Sample percentages determined by complete variation for an activity Control by comparing by timing were within for all but three by the two methods plans activity became called levels apparent tent required results activities 10 percent trials. for of values Max irnurn was 14 percent. for three replicates on each deer. of one trial As the experiment that it was not possible to control to achieve this design. Because to lead and would accept only limited restraint, consisted of a mixture of standing through the experimental period, and walking. Measurements could be made by attaching using care made at higher not to arouse activity were unaccustomed. levels the subject. progressed activity deer it to the ex- were not trained most early trials About half-way deer rate equip- would often bed. the collection hose at this Measurements using a second assistant Male deer at each of I found that if the heart ment and face mask were left on about an hour, time, were of Activity Initial three timing minute. walking and trotting I evalutated all was done from tape 15 sec of every calculated. the entire to record were to whom deer would follow this person around �-83- trying to rub their them to maintain discouraged heads on her. By walking rapidly a fast walk with some trotting. because heart rate signals and I could not keep up. ture, and activity sented heart rate in Table 2. ing, walking and trotting. trial. Only two bedding trials single activity. All other trials equipment expendi- for each deer are pre- included did not exceed for deer were in energy which occurred Trotting paces obscure, Ranges measurements Activiti.es Faster became often detached, she could induce bedding, 10 percent stand- of any no. 55 were made up of a were composites of two or more of the four activities. To determine expenditure if the relationship was the same over the entire data into four activity ages of time were between heart levels on the basis spent walking and trotting. less than 45, the trial percent- If the combined percentages were between 45 and 70, the trial the combined percentages time Finally spent bedding: bedding, the trial went into Level 2. levels Levels if greater A diagram distribution 3. or 2; if the combined went into Level than 70. the trial split on the basis than 10 percent went into Levell; is given in Figure well-balanced 1 and 2 were went into of percent if less than 10 percent, This breakdown 3; if of of the time was spent of the breakdown of trials I divided of the combined percentages Level 4. and energy rar.ge of activity, went into Levell were greater rate scheme resulted for all subjects. the trial for activity in a fairly Analysis of �-84- Table 2. Range of energy expenditure, heart rate, and activity measured for three mule deer fawns during January and February. Deer Number Parameter cr 51 if 53 Energy expenditure (kcal kg-O. 75 min-l) .073-.214 .076-.306 .066-.235 Heart rate (beats min -1) 54.3-81.6 48.7-92.7 54.5-96.0 28-98 20-99 21-100 Time spent bedding and standing (percent) 55 ~ �-85- All trials Less than 45 Percent walking/ trotting: Greater than 10 Levell Percent bedding: Figure 3. 45-70 Level 3 Greater than or equal to 70 Level 4 Less than or equal to 10 Level 2 Schematic breakdown of trials into four activity levels the basis of percent of time spent at specific activities. Levels are numbered in order of increasing activity. on �-86- variance for heart in mean heart jects. rate rates showed that there at different activity suggests that activity This evidence used to test the effect of activity rate and energy expenditure. scribed below. Trials on Fasted deer. activity Analysis Individual Deer Regression squares penditure able. repetition can be between heart for this effect are de- in obtaining with fasted analysis of the study with trials animals using deer at different until the end of no. 51 and six using 48 or more hours of fasting. of factors level and feed level) are given in Table Statistical least required Five measurements at each combination for each deer tests trials no. 55 were made after of trials level grouping on the relationship of difficulties I delayed the experiment. deer differences for each of the sub:' Statistical design Because levels, levels significant Deer The experimental fasted were (activity Numbers 3. was done on the data for each deer using analysis (Draper and Smith 1966), with energy as dependent variable and heart To evaluate effects tionship between heart variance was used. rate of levels of activity and energy Analysis rate as independent vari- and feed on the rela- expenditure, of covariance ex- analysis for comparing of co- regression �-87- Table Deer 3. Number of simultaneous energy expenditure and heart rate measurements at different levels of activity and feed for three mule deer fawns in winter, and comparisons for effects of activity level and feed level. (See Figure 3 for activity level descriptions.) Feed 51 53 55 Level .•.. -r- Totals 1 2 3 4 None Fast 3 a 3 0 0 0 6 Fed 0 19 6 1 2 28 Totals 3 22 6 1 2 34 Fast 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fed 4 d 12 13 Sd 1 35 Totals 4 12 13 5 1 35 Fast 2 2 0 0 1 Sf Fed Se 8 17 2 1 3l Totals 7 10 17 2 2 38 .•.. ..•. Activity a, b, fC c, d,e Activity Level ac d not measured c d e e or did not fit into any level. . o mpa r i s ons for effect . Co mpa r i s on s for effect of activity level. of feed level. b b �-88- lines is described by Snedecor Used in this way, cepts and Cochran it is a procedure for comparing of reg res sion lines obtained in some attribute. different from groups I used the procedure combinations of activity (l967) and Li (1964). slopes and inter- of data which differ to compare regressions and feed level for individual at deer (cells). Since sample cific comparisons pare deer activity were small could be made, the relationship different levels sizes as illustrated between heart levels, in some cells, rate regressions no. 53 at levels and trials on deer in Table and energy from trials Fed 2 and Fed 3 were compared; only a few spe- on deer regressions no. 55 at levels Fed 1, Fed 2, and Fed 3 were expenditure at different levels of feed, on deer no. 51 were compared; and all fed trials and fed trials for fasted on Fed 1, Fed 2, Fed 3 and Fed 4 were compared; the relationship gressions at no. 51 at from trials To compare for all fasted To com- expenditure compared. trials 3. on deer between heart regressions rate and energy from all fasted regressions no. 55 were compared; and re- and fed trials on deer level 2 for analysis of covariance no. 51 at activity were compared. An assumption residuals for the different sumption' I used Bartlett's binations of activity populations are equal. test of homogeneity, is that mean square To test this astesting level and feed level with the largest the four comsample size. �-89- All Deer Analysis of covariance was conducted differences and heart rate the relationship between deer. test was done to test the assumption Bartlett's energy to examine expenditure In among of homogeneity I i of inean square residuals for data from the three Two characteristics which differed among individuals body weight and sex (see Table 1). nos. characteristics. 51 and 53 in both of these tionship between heart individuals ships, rate Deer no. and energy would be of greater 55 differed and h ea r t rate expenditure As mentioned earlier, when energy the basis of metabolic body size, different individuals are corrected. species of different the exact body weight, relationship. vary directly and Teissier there is an inherent length of the muscle. versely proportional rate to many relationenergy ex- further. expenditure Heart but there rate IS expressed also varies on that heart the problem citing which varies that heart to the length of the heart rate should Lambert from the standpoint contraction They suggested regarding or inver sely with and Rodahl (1970), of muscle among is disagreement per unit weight, o Astrand approached rela- d iffe r enc e s due to body weight of with heat production (1927), applicable between Brody (1945) suggested the cube root of weight. from deer use than many individual was investigated were Since a single effect of body weight on the relationship penditure deer. rate muscle, that with the should be inthat is, to the �-90- one -third power of body weight. lected by Rihl (1927), ferent size was inversely Kleiber found that heart rate proportional weight, a r e lat ion sh ip theoretically tissues (hence basal fourths power considerations, between energy possible power of body to the three- Correlations were determined expenditure per unit of metabolic ations of heart which adjusted ships .. The transformations body weight raised 1) heart by body power, Energy mean energy energy expenditure on heart sions for grouped individuals 30 kg). multiplied rate multiplied by Expenditure were calculated and plotted from the regression for all deer, (males A formula and Smith (1966). intervals expenditures rate rate and 2) heart for Predicting confidence between relation- power. The 95 percent in the body size and two transform- to the one-fourth Intervals rate for each of the proposed were: to the one -third of body size on and heart energy rate effects expenditure examined. Draper of dif- with blood flow to the being proportional study were approximately species to the one-fourth present for predicting data col- of body weight. the relationship Confidence examining of several consistent metabolism) Based on these weight raised (l961), of and from the regres- approximately 40 kg and female for this calculation is given by �-91- CHAPTER III RESULTS Effectiveness of Method Behavior of the deer was affected in several ways. Standing the deer increased activity and energy ing procedures procedures logical altered began, factors deer rate harness subsequent The consistency behavior. altered their Once harnessing and physical energy of train- and psycho- expenditure. After they would pace by the gate of the pen until taken out. no. 55 was more active than the others while pacing creased could be minimized activity least to put on the heart expenditure. head movements were procedures knew the routine, probably being outfitted Deer their by experimental active, the fences and would often make during trials. by working or by waiting until one-half Such in- with deer hour after when they outfitting to begin trials. A second ing trials spaces alteration subjects or climbing they accepted emotional resulted often had to be restrained on objects this restraint factors of behavior from restraint. from in the experimental without physical may have affected exploring area. struggle, measurements. Durnarrow Although associated �-92- With the methodology avoid. Fear rare occasions frightened mental such effects was an emotion that appeared when equipment the deer, procedures Problems used, to be avoided. was dropped no fright behavior were impossible Except in connection with the experi- was observed. with Respiration Equipment with respiration equipment often resulted cessful trials. The most serious of these was an inoperative valve, possibly caused structure. by the rubber This occurred 53. An audible wheezing later by the deer the deer mask before struggling peared to breathe secreted large mouth. trotted; at other times due to incorrect about one minute later saliva trials deer On the no. 53 ap- each day and when the mask was on. at the corners of the hose would often detach from the flow meter pull the hose off the face mask. tained, no. for mask removal. Unlike the others, of mucous with deer in the the sound and removed failed due to mask leaks The collection when deer I recognized began. inlet Twice when this happened and was restrained more deeply during amounts Some trials four to six times not being able to inhale. occurrences in unsuc- disk of the value catching sound was accompanied began to struggle the remaining on or a sudden movement Problems support to extensive rubbing by the deer For many trials adjustment would no aliquot was ob- of the flow meter. Finally, the �-93- oxygen analyzer creasing would sometimes precision Relationship Individual Energy Expenditure was a high correlation rate 0.92 and 0.92 for all three of energy deer between thus de- Rate The correlation are plotted in Figures on heart levels by activity were 0.81, 4, 5 and 6. for the three Regres- deer in slopes for any deer (p = 0.86, deer 51, 53 and 55 r e spe ct ive lyl , in intercepts at different 53 and 55 (p = 0.21, 0.19 nificant 51 (p = 0.05). no. over all activity slopes of regression There activity respectively), of covariance deer level for trials differences activity Analysis coefficients and are 7. of covariance for deer expenditure 51, 53 and 55 respectively. rate at different differences energy nos. showed no significant nos. and Heart from deer expenditure in Figure Analysis deer. for trials Data for the three deer analysis, Deer heart plotted during of analysis. between There sions drift levels lines of regression 0.42, levels showed no significant was no significant 0.47 for deer but the difference nos. lines for were no significant by feed level for trials for deer of individual nos. was sig- of individual differences in 51 or 55 (p = O. 19 and 0.98 respectively). There difference the regressions for deer no. 55 (p =: 0.69), 51 (p = 0'102). Analysis of covariance but there in intercept for was for deer by feed level for trials no. of deer �-94- 350 z ~ •... I It) o 250 (!) ~ "- <i o 3 x :5 W200 ~ ~ x (5 z W Q. X w 150 > (!) a:: w z w 2 A A 50L---L---L---L- __~ __~ __~ __~ __~ __~ __~ __ -L 40 50 60 70 80 90 _ 100 HEART RATE (BEATS/MIN) n= 34, r = 0.81 2/ Fed, activity level 2 (less than 45% walking and trotting, than 10% bedding), n = 19. 3/ Fed, activity Fed, activity n = 1. 4/ A/ B/ X/ Figure 4. level 3 (45-70% level 4 (greater less walking and trotting), n = 6. than 70% walking and trotting), = Fasted, aCtivity level 1 (greater than 10% bedding), n 3. Fasted, activity level 2 (less than 45% walking and trotting, than 10% bedding), n = 3. Fed, no activity measurement, n = 2. Relationship of energy expenditure by activity level and feed level. and heart rate for deer less no. 51 �-95- 350 z ~ I m •.... 0 lZ50 C) :tC "..J 4 <tlt 3 (.) 3 r 234 3 0 z lLJ 2 I 2 ~ 2 Q.. X lLJ 343X 3 4 3 150 >- (!) a: 3 3 12 lLJ I z 2 I.U '00 2 50L---~---L---L--~--~~ 40 50 60 __~ __~ __~ __-L__~ 70 ~ 90 80 _ 100 HEART RATE (BEATS/MIN) n = 35, r = 0.92 11 Fed, activity level 1 (less than 45% walking and trotting, greater than 1010 bedding), n = 4. 21 Fed, activity level 2 (less than 45% walking and trotting, less than 10% bedd ing), n = 12. 31 Fed, activity level 3 (45-7010 walking and trotting), n = 13. 41 Fed, activity level 4 (greater than 70% walking and trotting), n = 5. XI Fed, no activity measurement, n = 1. Figure 5. Relationship of energy expenditure by activity level and feed level. and heart rate for deer no. 53 �-96- 350 z ~ I It) ci 250 (!) ~ " « o .J 2 3 ~200 :::> ~ 3 3 3 3 22 o z Ul Q. B~3 3 x Ull50 3 >(!) a: 2 2 w z w 3 3 2 2 3 2 100 1,8, I A , A 50L---L---L-~~~~~--~ 40 __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ 50 60 10 80 _ 90 100 HEART RATE CBEATS/MIN) n = 38, r = 0.92 1 I Fed, activity level 1 (less than 45% walking than 10 % bedding), n = 5. 21 Fed, activity level than 10% bedding), 31 Fed, 41 activity Fed, activity n 2. = 2 (less n 8. = and trotting, than 45% walking and trotting, greater less level 3 (45-70 % walking and trotting), n = 17. level 4 (greater than 70% walking and trotting), AI Fasted, BI XI YI Figure 6. activity level 1 (less than 45% walking and trotting, greater than 10% bedding), n = 2. Fasted, activity level 2 (less than 45% walking and trotting, than 10% bedding), n = 2. Fed, no activity measurement, n 1. Fasted, doesn't fit in any activity level, n = 1. less = Relationship of energy expenditure by activity level and feed level. and heart rate for deer no. 55 �-97- 350 3 ..·· 300 DEER 5~.··· 3 250 55 3 3 5 I 5 5 5 lJJ 0: ::> 200 3 ~ z 3 UJ 850 / >- / DEER 55 tr ./ I 100 5 //~f55 5 5 5 5 "Y UJ Z ;, 5 / 3 (!) UJ 5 /5 5 5:.." ~/S o 0.. X UJ 5 /' 5 5 / 5~Y5 .- 3155,6 A / 50~~---L--~--L-~~~--~--~--L-~---L--40 50 60 70 HEART RATE Deer 51: 80 90 100 (BEATS/MIN) n .:: 34, r:-:0.81 y = -102.09 + 4.09 (xl Deer 53: n = 35, r = 0.92 " = - 130.44 + 4. 60 (x) y Deer 55: n = 38, r = 0.92 3. 91 (x) Y = -151.59+ J\ Figure 7. Regressions of energy expenditure on heart rate three mule deer fawns in winter. Data points Iabe Ie Ll , 3, 5, are from deer nos. 51, 53 and 55, respectively. for �-98- no. 51 at activity level 2 indicated or intercept, but probability 0.10 respectively). and 0.09 Mean square square residuals differences levels residuals of feed level and activity no significant were necessary level are appeared to significance (p = lines at combinations shown in Table 4. Although mean to increase (p = o. 10). for analysis in slope for the regression as activity for the four combinations not significant close differences tested Therefore, level increased, using Bartlett's I accepted of covariance, test were the assumption that variance was homogeneous for aU ce Us. AU Deer The correlation heart rate equation coefficient for 107 trials obtained ENEX equals equals heart rate on all three by least where between squares was energy expenditure was 0.47; energy was associated ciated analysis 2.53 (R2) for this equation expenditure was 0.69. = min -1. The coefficient min -1 and HR of determination thus about half of the variation with heart with individual Bartlett's significant The regression in cal kg -0.75 in the regression did not reveal differences and HR - 14.79, Much of the variability deer. expenditure deer ENEX in beats energy in rate. equation was asso- test for homogeneous variance among the mean square residuals �-99- Table 4. Mean square residuals for regression of energy expenditure on heart rate for three mule deer fawns at four activity levels and two feed levels. (See Table 3 for activity level de s c r irrt i.on s ~) Activity Deer 51 Totals Feed Level Fasted 1 2 10.35 113.85 Fed 53 563.03 ..•. 234.98 .... 209.65 * 499.66* 251. 77 11. 66 167.54 359.27 47.44 Fasted Fed 19.46 * Mean square residuals test. 4 3 Fasted Fed 55 Level * 296.34 591. 68 tested for homogeneity 475.934 using Bartlett's �-100- of the regression were for individual deer (p = 0.75), compared using analysis of covariance. cant differences among slopes of the regression deer but there (p = 0.30), (p < 0.0001). The intercepts fered significantly cepts for deer nos. 51 and 53, t= from deer were nos. -1.09 for no. about 30 kg). energy the one-third to correct in the relationship no. 53). 55 dif- The interno. 55 v s . Onthisbasisdata and separate regressions are plotted of heart in Figure coefficient rate 8. between and body weight to as compared to 0.69 between energy heart The correlation coeffi- rate. and the product power was 0.78. for body size removed between no. = 13.73 for correlation expenditure body weight to the one-fourth rate for deer 51 and 53. Regressions was 0.81, energy in intercepts 51 and 53 (male's about 40 kg) and deer nos. and untransformed cient between nos. 51vs. and the product power expenditure differences combined, of body weight-The expenditure of heart no. 51 and 53 were for deer Effect of deer were no signifi- lines for the three 51 and 53 did not differ(t were obtained 55 (female There of the regression from those nos. significant so the regressions energy expenditure of heart Thus, rate and transformation some of the variability and heart rate among the deer. Confidence Intervals The 95 percent energy expenditure for Predicting confidence from heart Energy interval rate Expenditure for predicting using the regression the mean determined �-101- 350 -z ~ I 10 ": 250 o(!) ~ "-.J <l o lJ.J 200 0:: ::> ~ o Z lJ.J a.. x lJ.J ---- --- --- - 150 :> (!) 0:: ui Z // l.!.J / ~ // // -- -- / / / / / V / 50~--~--~--~--~~--~--~--~--~--~----~--~-100 90 80 50 60 10 40 HEART Deer Deer 51 and 53 (males, 55 (female, 30 kg): RATE (BEATS/MIN) 40 kg): = = n 69, r 0.89 1\ y = -125.33 + 4.50 (x) n = 69, r = 0.92 Y -151. 59 + 3. 91 (x) = Figure 8. Regressions of energy expenditure on heart rate and 95 percent confidence intervals for predicting mean energy expenditure from heart rate for two 40 kg male mule deer and one 30 kg female mule deer in winter. �-102- f'rom all deer tervals basis is plotted 9. The 95 percent confidence in- equations for individuals grouped on the in Figure using the regression 8. of sex and body weight are plotted in Figure Using the regression the 95 percent terval for mean energy for all deer, expenditure at the mean heart confidence rate in- (69.22 OO 75 . -1 ; at h eart . -1). IS 154 b eats rrnn .• 11 < 1-1-< 166.43 cal kgrrnn - of 60 and 80 beats rates x- rrrin -1, the confidence are 87.42 intervals < 1-1~ 186.48 and 129.67 < 1-1:s.2450 39 respectively. The 95 percent confidence intervals termined from grouped of heart rates. Using the equation confidence rate interval (63.87 beats 60 and 80 beats individuals 1 rnin -1, and 153.88 min -1 expenditure cal kg for the female, vals at the mean heart 60 and 80 beats for the two males, the confidence intervals or decreases. of 126. 19 < 1-1:s. -1 . ) and at heart rates 150.68 < 1-1-< 164.09, x- creases are rate inter- are rate At heart confidence (78.94 beats rnin the mean heart the 95 percent -0 75 1 . min - respectively. rate row near range at the mean heart the 95 percent :s. 1-1s. 169.17 respectively. de- over a larger is 157.43S.1-1~S.166.19. 162.67 and 160.31 < 1-1 < 308.39 Using the equation are narrower for mean energy min- ) about the regressions 17.28 < 1-1< 149.21, Confidence but widen rapidly of intervals as heart rate are narin- �-103- Deer 51, 53 and 55 (2 males, n 107, r 0.69 v= -14.79 + 2.53 = Figure 9. 40 kg and 1 female, 30 kg): = (x) Regression of energy expenditure on heart rate and 95 percent confidence interval for predicting mean energy expenditure from heart rate based on data from three mule deer fawns in winter. �-104- CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION Comparisons to Literature To compare measurements trials in which the subject Trials with more as bedding trials; ing were categorized category was broken fed trials, into trial.s six standing Heart mule deer walking are ering trials rates trials; trials, rates for specific to minima female (pe r s , co mrn , ) monitored with greater as walking trials. on fasting deer standthan The bedding and trials on fed deer. trails, six bedding- and eight walking trials. 5. Jacobsen activities, in February. in February. and trials deer for bedding, shown in Table activity. than 80 percent in this study and other and white-tailed I used spent bedding were cate- were four bedding-fasted measured a nine -month-old trates of time with greater as standing there with my data spent most of the time at a single walking were categorized Using the scheme in heart in the literature than 50 percent gorized 70 percent Values studies standing, on penned foraging, and (1973) found a seasonal trend with heart Jacobsen's rates gradually data in Table 5 are from in February. Freddy white -tailed deer heart of two adult mule deer rates low- cas- �Table 5, Heart rates of mule deer and white-tailed deer Cor different activities. Activity Source Species Bedding Standing Foraging Walking Deer 39 Trial 1 49 64 78 91 Deer 39 Trial 2 44 65 69 79 Deer 18 Trial I 35 50 55 62 Mule deer Freddy, personal 2 comm, Mule deer Deer 2 3 This 61 51 51 study 4 72 Deer 53 Deer 55 565 Deer 55 596 •....• Jacobsen 62 White-tailed deer 52 57 White -tailed deer 65 687 1913 o \J1 I IData in files, 2Mean for trials pers, 788 comm. from D. Freddy, oCa fasted male; percent Colo. Div , of Wildlife, = 54 to 63, bedding 3Mean for trials of a fed male; percent standing = 81 to 86, for trials of a fed male; percent walking = 73 to 77, remainder 5Mean for trials of a fasted 6Mean for trials of a fed female; 7perctlnt standing> 50. 8percent walking> 50. percent bedding p e r c e nt bedding remainder = 63 to 81, = BO to lOa, Kremmling, mostly 9Energy e xp enrl it u r e and heart rate for several act iv it ie s of white-tailed tained from W, W, Mautz, Un iv , New Hampshire, Durham. standing. walking, mostly remainder remainder Colo, ~ remainder 4Mean female; Mautz and Fair, unpublished ms , 9 standing, standing standing and walking, and walking. deer--unpublished ms , ob- �-106- Heart rates measured in this with those from the two studies rates were slightly pected due to the mixture higher study were mentioned above. than in the other of activities in general agreement Bedding heart studies, but this is ex- including standing white-tailed deer and walking as well as bedding. Heart rates for an adult female (Mautz and Fair, the other unpublished three studies. with a seasonal effect. Mean energy for the same literature The difference expenditures categories values for fasting cost of activities 81 percent of the time reported was 109 for young mule deer et a l , 1969), Higher values 6) and with values (Table which resulted input for these chambers. to heat produ<:- for the energy 7). deer bedding 54 to =- 6 kcal kg -0 •75 day -1 (4.5 ±. O. 3 kcal higher than previously (Knox et al , 1974), white-tailed in this in were calculated and resting study for fasted and pronghorn observed mask procedure, ity and sensory errors This value is 18 to 49 percent (Silver piration in this rates to make comparisons heat production for wild ungulates expenditure kg -0. 75 hr -1). in order (Table than heart may have been associated and standard of trials tion of young wild ungulates Energy rn s , ) were higher in summer (Wesley et a l , 1970, study may be related in a somewhat animals wider than for those deer 1973). to use of the face range of act iv- studied in res- �Table 6. Measurements Species Mule deer of fasting and resting Level of Feed Method Fast Face-mask (fed) heat production Sub iect aConditions (or young wild ungulates. Energy Expenditure Activity kcal As Reported Source kg-O• 75 hr-1 109 k c a Ik g -0.75d ay -1 4.6 This -- 89 k ca Ik g -0.75d ay -I 3.7 Knox et al , 1974 Fawnswinter ~~ 90.2 kcal kg 3.8 Silver et a l , 1969 Fawns 2d. 29 -- 92 kcal kg-O• 75 day-I 3.8 Wesley et al , 1970 -- 73 kcal kg-O• 75 day~1 3.0 Wesley et a l , 1973 121 kcal kg-O, 75 day~1 5.0 This 154.0 kcal kg 6.4 Nordan et al , 1970 149.0 kcal kg 114 kc a l kg-a' Fawns let. Bedding >50'1. X= 65'1. 19 study 8 mo Mule deer Wh ite ta il ed deer s Pronghorn Fast Fa&t Fast Chamber Chamber Chamber Fawns 9-12 mo 108-182 Fast Chamber Mule deer Fed Face-mask d ay -I e; mo Fawns let, Bedding> 50% X = 88% 19 study 8 mo Black-tailed deer Fed Chamber d-153 days 9-166 Pronghorn ~- Fawns Fed Chamber days Fawns 9-7.5 mo --- -0.75 -0,75 day day -I -I 75 day-I •.... 0 days Fawns 7.5 -0.75 6.2 4.8 Wesley et a l , 1973 " I �Table 7. Measurements of energy cost of activities for wild ungulates. Energy Species Expenditure Activity k As Reported Wh ite -ta i led deer White -tailed deer Mule deer Reindeer W. 318.2 kc a l kg Walkingno snow 650.9 kcal Walkingsnow 898.6 k ca Ik g -0.75d Running 14fl8,8 kcal Plunging in snow \035,4 k ca I k g -0. 75 d ay - I Stand ing (>50 %) remainder walking 0,093 kcal kg kg -0,75 kg Walking (>50%) remainder standing 0,100 kc a l kg Running 0.145 kcal or bounding k -0.75 kg c a Ik g -0,75 -0 , 75 -0 75 . day 5,6 B.O 12,7 304 k ca 1.-"g - 0, 7 5 d ay - I Standing 175 kr a l hr fl8B kcalhr-I Stanrl ing 45 kc a l kg -I as average d if Ie r e nce in heat 5,5 This study Hammel et a l , 1962 Wesley et ai, 1973 obtained from 21.8 -0.75 day _12 of wh i t e p rod uct io n [o r lying •..... 00 I B,7 -I Walking 172-77%) (20 -28'7. standing, 0-70/0 trotting) I 6,0 -I 193 Mautz and Fair, unpublished me, o -1 Standing 180-95'7.) (5-20 '7. walking) load 1974 43,1 ,-\ ay Mattfeld 61,2 rrn n min Source r 37.4 day-I min h 27. I -I ay -0.75 -l 13.3 -1 day -O,75d IEnergy ex p e nd it u r e and heart rate for s e ve r a l activities VI, Maut z , Un iv , New Harnp s h i r e , Du rh a rn , 2H.cported -\ Stand ing Pulling Pronghorn -0.75 c a II "g 6.9 s t a i le d and standing deer - u npub l i s h ed ms. animals. �-109- Resting energy expenditure of fed deer cent of the time was 121 + 3 kcal kg -0.75 k g -0.75h ments r, -1) slightly higher deer day -1 (5.0 + 0.1 kcal Iower t h an preVIOUS " measure- wh iICh" IS 26 percent for fed black-tailed bedding 73 to 100 per- fawns (Nordan than measurements et a l , 1970), but for young pronghorn (Wesley et a l , 1973). The energy time was 193+ expenditure 17kcalkg This value is intermediate white-tailed deer of deer standing 80 to 95 percent -0 75 -1 • day (8.0+0.7kcalkg between values by Mautz and Fair reported (unpublished of the -0 75 -1 • hr ). for standing ms.) and Mattfeld et at. (1974) respectively. Values for adult reindeer and young pronghorn (calculated from Wesley et at. 1973) were My measurement is probably higher than a true slightly lower. value for standing small amount mule deer of walking Mean energy 304 + 16 kcal kg-· walking what greater inc luded in these greater cost of the in this study was trials. for walking trials by Mautz and Fair than 50 percent whitetails in the present if trials reported (unpublished of the time, by Mattfeld entirely ms.) This is for but about half (1974). study could be expected had consisted 1962) energy o 75 day - 1 (12.7.±. o. 7 kcal kg -0 •75 hr -1 ). the value for walking value measured due to the additional expenditure twice the value reported whitetails (Hammel of walking. The to be some- �-110- Effects of Activity From penditure Level and Feed Level the high correlations for individuals effect of activity level energy expenditure This conclusion it appears and heart cepts of the regressions Based on the limited expenditure levels, that the same rate applies level. expenditure -heart relationship the activity and feed levels tested. Comparison of Regression with Literature In their were rate reported study by Holter 165 energy made using rates different equations trials of energy were by varying obtained it appears between that energy differ- wh en the comparison that a single was energy over Results expenditure on heart et ala (1976) for white-tailed expenditure were varied no. 51. would hold for an individual six adult white-tailed and heart of deer in inter- and fed data from all Thus it appears the regression for between was a significant no. 51 for fasting disappeared of covariance difference levels Although there the difference ex- over a l l vac t iv ity levels. does not affect the relationship rate. and energy relationship due to the significant m.ade within an activity with results rate of analysis for the two activity for deer I compared heart amount of data for fasting and heart ence in intercept activity and the results is tentative feed level likewise between and heart deer. ambient rate deer. rate d et e r rrrin at iorrs Energy expenditures temperature. for the four seasons Four of the year. �-111- Equations deer are given in Table 8, along with my equations converted to predict Equations from the present those obtained grouped 2.90, in the whitetail individuals the female, energy expenditure in my study were 6.47 for males with the winter species or age difference. partially explain like well-conditioned energy expenditures ones. It is also possible energy at a given heart possible and heart rates rate so different a possible wholly to a condition could would be expected rate than poorly rates ani- to have higher conditioned in the present sometimes being is that the relationship between is different are active cold stress. at a given level of energy • basis of a study by Segrem Peromyscus expenditure While conclusions in size cannot be generalized theoretical when deer Results such a difference. posed to cold than when exercising. cies unlikely since well-conditioned due to the EKG signal (I 967b) suggested heart 1. 10 to It seems in physical that some of the heart explanation than when they are under higher from activity. expenditure and Hart at 1.10. in slope, humans, underestimated A third varied from and 5.64 for could be attributed Difference the difference . mals, during deer slope being lowest that a differ ence of this magnitude obscured slope than Slopes of the equations while those for white-tailed study were in the same units. study have a greater study. for mule to deer, for such an explanation. had when ex- from a spe- there is also Heart rate and �-112- Table B; Regression equations for white-tailed deer \vl1ite-tailed EE = energy . HR = heart deer et ale 1976) Summer: MR = 2.90 (HR) - 15.2 Fall: MR = 2.40 (HR) + 1. 6 Winter: MR = 1. 10 (HR) + 42.4 Spring: MR = 2.79 (This study (HR) - 26.6 - winter) * Males: EE = 6.47 (HR) - 180.48 Female: EE = 5.64 (HR) - 218.29 Overall: EE = 3.64 (HR) - 21.30 rate (kcal kg expenditure rate on heart (Holter Mule deer MR = metabolic of energy expenditure and mule deer. (beats -0 75 -1 • day ) (kcal kg min -1 -0 75 . day -1 ) ) .•. -r- Units of equations converted for comparisons. o r at e ' �-113- stroke volume together tissues. determine the amount of blood supplied to the in exercising due Stroke volume increases to the effect of muscle activity to the heart (Mountcastle resulted from activity in increasing 1974). in deer, If similar these Differences Energy equivalent expendi- slope of the regression in the present in Regression expenditure of deer study appears of energy consistent with in having consistently planations variance for the two males higher but this deer differed heart rates about the regression for this difference expenditure Equations no. 55 for a given activity to that of the other deer, without increased energy rate considerations. Individual others volume increases animals- at the same energy The greater rate of venous blood animals ture on heart stroke partly for active inactive expenditure return a lower heart than for cold-stressed, could be expected. humans, on heart in the intercept rate for deer include nervousness, was from the for given activities line. Possible of the regression exof no. 55 from the equation level of conditioning, sex and body weight. In studies lower correlations of sheep, between animals energy way and McEwan 1969, Webster 55 was high; therefore, did not manifest itself which were more nervous expenditure 1967). and heart The correlation if a high level of nervousness as in the sheep. rate had (Brock- for deer no. was a factor it �-114- Consideration better of differences explanation of individual differences. efficients between rate on body size supported based sions based energy on a sample size be considered in body size seemed expenditure of three to explain Higher to provide correlation and transformations this explanation. are tentative, individual co- of heart While conclu- I suggest variation a that body in similar investi- gations. Sex differences among individuals. not provide dividual may explain another Because a test of sex differences differences. Holter influence of sex on metabolic stress. Coefficients and spring trials However, Astrand using both sexes (1960) presented heart rate rate studies of human males were consistently higher (although ceding paragraph sexes observed this experiment deer for regressions a composite and females. respectively. based on two separates of females at any given energy of body weight differences Thus there which tends to corroborate on fall graph of the relation- Heart than those of males in this study. of in- exposed to cold based were O. 79 and 0.88 and oxygen consumption effects explanation did 1976) found no significant of white-tailed were not considered). dence from humans samples, et a l , (1975, rate of the variability as a possible of determination ship between penditure of limited part ex- noted in the preis limited differences evi- among �-115- In summary, plain significant tion of deer number differences differences in the intercept no. 55 from that of deer of subjects Confidence prevented of Predicting ments the low variance at the center provides wide range pattern in heart most confidence of heart most closely, the widest range confidence could be placed heart rate. and heart rates. tribute measurements more of measure- The data pattern no. Because of the data patterns, of energy based design. over a intervals between individuals data. energy from This is on the not of the biological evenly over a wider range over expenditure grouped studies this little expenditure on these Future that 55 approximated confidence and is a result but of the experimental expenditure is evenly distributed were high for data from of sex and body size, Rate in narrow equations tionship rates. of heart of the fact that correlations rate energy rate due to clustering in predictions rate using regression true in spite basis of heart equa- The limited from Heart for predicting Data from deer resulting ex- conclusions. in prediction rates. 51 and 53. Expenditure inter-vals of the range of the regression nos. further Energy Shape of confidence reflects in body size or sex could partly rela- should disof heart �-116- Uses of the Results High correlations individual deer between indicate energy that individual expenditure deer ship was known could be used to measure using heart measured rate alone. To do this, relationship for a deer used to estimate was known, heart the energy Results the energy should be rate Once the could theoretically and conditions that precise estimation expenditure from the heart not possible with present knowledge. However, of heart and energy expenditure suggests heart can be used as an ind ex of energy heart rate rates, rate be other the relationship. of this study indicate rate cost of activities and activities. cost of activities than those used for determining rate for for which this relation- the relationship over a wide range of conditions and heart of deer not individually of energy calibrated is the high correlation that in this range of expenditure. �-117- CHAPTER SUMMARY A method domestic collection cardiograph measurements as a predictor Measurements two fasted for other expenditure Energy Eleven wild ungulates. values Heart (r = 0.81, heart energy 0.92, rates, of energy rate heart conditions. of bedding, stand- were made using rates for similar Energy Electro- under these and heart of measurements under for evaluating measurements expenditures and a face mask for fawns. information expenditure bedding most of the tim.e was up to 50 percent reported mule deer were made for combinations were within the range ported 8 -month-old provided and trotting. deer. of humans were made using from three of energy expenditure for use on active Measurements respiratory ing, walking, energy was adapted penned conditions. rate AND CONCLUSIONS for measuring animals V higher of fed deer activities re- of fasted deer than previously for young wild ungulates. was correlated 0.92 expenditure expenditure for all deer respectively), but due to limited intervals were too wide for precise confidence expenditure with energy from heart on heart while that for the female rate differed, rate. Regression for the two males possibly distribution prediction equations were of of similar, due to differences in sex �-118- and body weight. Regression slope from those of Holter possible tures explanation and heart stressed rate IS study, expenditure However, variation deer. A between energy for active animals heart shows promise is limited, heart Main contributions collection system ditioned to accept present rate expendi- than it is for cold- energy costs of this of certain between mule deer over the range Future study were: heart studies rate and energy should attempt cost, ing energy expenditure for use under the range and distribution an increase in heart to evaluate the energy fawns conthe and demonstrating a for individual rates without activities for de- methods of estimat- conditions, 3) spread other different expenditure, rate deer tested. 2) investigate of heart of a respiratory measuring expenditure to 1) isolate of energy estimates calibrated. adapting for mule deer, of activities energy precise for use on active termination in predicting of intraspecific without tranquilization, activities correlation knowledge not individually with a face mask as an which have been individually cannot provide deer the system rate for deer because exp e nd i.tur e for active in order in et ale (1976) for white-tailed different of this of energy calibrated. elicit differed animals. estimator fidence for both groups is that the relationship On the basis energy equations in order to increase 4) introduce an overt expenditure-heart stimuli increase conwhich in activity, rate.relationship in �-119- this situation, and 5) evaluate weight diff~rences expenditure hypotheses among individuals and heart rate. regarding effects on the relationship of sex and of energy �-120- LITERATU RE CITED o Astrand, 1. 1960. Work capacity in m.en and wom.en with special reference to age. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 49. Supplem.entum. 169. 92 pp. o Astrand, P.O., and K. Rodahl. McGraw Hill, New York. Baker, 1970. Textbook 669 pp. D. 1976. Energy requirem.ents of m.ule deer M. S. Thesis. Colorado St. Urriv , 76 pp. Booyens, J., and G. R. Hervey. m.easuring m.etabolic rate 38: 130 1- 1309. Brockway, J. M., and E. H. McEwan. cardiac perform.ance in the sheep. S. 1945. New York. Bioenergetics 1023 pp. fawns in winter. 1960. The pulse rate as a m.eans of in rnan , Can. J. Biochem.. Physiol. Brockway, J. M., and G. M. O. Maloiy. 1968. of the red deer. J. Physiol. 194:22-23. Brody, of Work Physiology. Energy m.etabolism. 1969. Oxygen uptake and J. Physiol. 202: 661-669. and growth. Reinhold Publishing cs., Carpenter, L. H. 1976. Middle Park deer study - deer habitat evaluation. Colo. Div. Wildl., Gam.e Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-31. Gam.e Res. Rep., July, Part 2. p.283-405. Consolazio, C. F., Physiological McGraw-Hill, R. E. Johnson, and L. J. Pecora. 1963. m.easurem.ents of m.etabolic functions in man, New York. 505 pp. Corbett, J. L., D. J. Farrell, R. A. Le ng , G. L. McClym.ont, and B. A. Young. 1971. Determ.ination of the energy expenditure of penned and grazing sheep from. estim.ates of carbon dioxide entry rate. Br. J. Nut r , 26:277-291. Datta, S. R., and N. L. Ram.anathan. 1969. Energy expenditure work predicted from. heart rate and pulm.onary ventilation. App l , Physiol. 26(3):297-302. in J. �-121- Draper, N. R., and H. Smith. 1966. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Applied regression 407 pp. analysis. Fair, J. 1978. An analysis of the relationship between energy expenditure and heart rate of unrestrained white-tailed deer. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of New Hampshire. 61 pp. Gill, R. B. 1976. Mule deer management myths and the population decline. Pr oc , Deer Decline in the West Symposium. (In press) • Hammel, H. T., T. R. Houpt, K. Lange Anders n, and S. 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P., and J. S. Hart. 1967a. Oxygen supply and per-( formance in Peromyscus. Metabolic and circulatory responses to exercise. Can. J. Physiol. Pharm. 45: 531- 541. Segrem, N. P., andJ. S. Hart. 1967b. Oxygen supply and perforrnance in Peromyscus. Comparison of exercise with cold exposure. Can. J. Physiol. Pharm. 45: 543- 549. Sharkey, B. J., J. F. McDonald, and L. G. Corbridge. Pulse rate and pulmonary ventilation as predictors energy cost. Ergonomics 9(3):223-227. 1966. of human 1959. Basal metaboJ. Wildl. Manage. Silver, H., N. F. Colovos, andH. H. Hayes. lism of white-tailed deer--a pilot study. 23(4):434-438. Silver, H., N. F. Colovos, J. B. Holter, and H. H. Hayes. 1969. Fasting metabolism of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):490 -498. Silver, ·H. J., B. Holter, N. F. Colovos, and H. H. Hayes. 1971. Effect of falling temperature on heat production in fasting white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 35(1): 37 -46. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 6th ed , Iowa State Urriv , Press, Taylor, C. R., and C. P. Lyman. the environmental physiology eland, and the Hereford steer. 1967. Ames. Statistical 593 pp. Methods. 1967. A comparative study of of an East African antelope, the Physiol. Zoo1. 40: 280 -295. Thompson, C. B., J. B. Holter, H. H. Hayes, H. Silver, and W. E. Urban, Jr. 1973. Nutrition of white-tailed deer. I. Energy requirements of fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 37( 3): 30 1- 311. Ullrey, D. E., W. G. Youatt, H. E. Johnson, L. D. Fay, B. L. Schoepke, and W. T. Magee. 1969. Digestible energy requirements for winter maintenance of Michigan white-tailed does. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3)482-490. Ullrey, D. E., W. G. Youatt, H. E. Johnson, L. Fay, B. L. Schoepke, and W. T. Magee. 1970. Digestible and metabolizable energy requirements for winter maintenance of Michigan white-tailed does. J. Wildl. Manage. 34(4):863-869. �-125- Wallmo, O. C., L. H. Carpenter, W. L. Regelin, R. B. Gill, and D. L. Baker. 1977. Evaluation of deer habitat on a nutritional basis. J. Range Manage. 30(2}:122-127. 1967. Continuous measurement of heart rate as Webster, A. J. F. of the energy expenditure of sheep. Br , J Nutr. an indicator 21:769-785. 0 Wesley, D. E., and water Manage. K. L. Knox, andJ. G. Nagy. 1970. kinetics in young pronghorn antelope. 34:908-912. Energy flux J. Wildt. Wesley, Do E., K. L. Knox, and J. G. Nagy, 1973. Energy metabolism of pronghorn antelopes. J. Wildt. Manage. 37(4): 563573. White, R. G., and M. K. You s ef , 1974. Pages 38-42 in Studies on the nutrition and metabolism of reindeer-caribou in Alaska with special interest in nutritional and environmental adaptation. AEC Prog. Rep , , Contr:AT (45-1}-2229, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. Young, B. A. 1970. Application of the carbon dioxide entry rate technique to measurement of energy expenditure by grazing cattle. Pages 237-241 in A. Schurch and C. Wenk, eds., Energy metabolism of farm animals. Juris Druck and Verlag, Zurich. Young, B. A., and E. H. McEwan. 1975. A method for measurement of energy expenditure in unrestrained reindeer and caribou. Pages 355-359 in Proc. First Intl. Reindeer /Caribou symposium. Urriv , of Alaska, Fairbanks. Young, B. A••and J. L. Corbett. 1968. Energy requirement maintenance of grazing sheep measured by calorimetric niques. Proc. Au s t , Soc. Animal Prod. 7: 327-334. for tech- Young, B. A., and J. L. Corbett. 1972. Maintenance energy requirement of grazing sheep in relation to herbage availability. Calorimetric estimates. Au s t , J. Agric. Res. 23:57-76. Zuntz, N., and H. Schumberg. 1901. Studien zur einer des marsches Berlin. Original not seen. physiologie 1. �-126- APPENDIX �-127- APPENDIX A: Data collection form modified from Consolazio et a l , (1963) for measuring mule deer energy expenditure. Experiment No. Date -------------------Location ------------------ Deer No. Wt. ____ Ibs , x 0.4536 Time Hookup = wt , kg. __ = wt. kgO•75 _ Time Start ---------------- Time Stop _ Time Elapsed Meter Final --------- Initial ----------- ° x CF 1. Diff. Start ----------- °c Finish ----------- °c Avg. °c Meter Temp. - 1 Outside Temp. S °c F °c = mb x 0.750 Bare Pres. 14 _ mm PH 0------2 Volu me STPD Bag No. = 1 [760 ~~: :.::;~ TJ 1 ° 0 = ---------------- 2 --------- 1. �-128- APPENDIX Symbols: B: Derivation of formula to calculate oxygen consumption and energy expenditure from volume and fractional concentr ation of oxygen in expired air, as suming volume of methane produced is insignificant. VI = volume of air = volume of air expired = fractional inspired concentration of oxygen in inspired air = fractional concentration (% concentration/ 100) of oxygen in expired air (% concentration/IOO) Vo = 2 Veo 2 RQ volume = volume of oxygen consumed of carbon = respiratory dioxide quotient produced = Veo IV 0 2/ Known: F I = • 20946 VE' FE measured VI is unknown but can be found for specific methane production is assumed to equal zero. Since = VE VI = At 2 VI - V 02 + Veo VE + V 02 - Veo RQ = 0.82 VI = = VE + Vo 2 + 0.18 E V - 0.82 "o 2 Vo 2 2 2 values of RQ if �-129- APPENDIX B (continued). Substituting for VI in equation for Vo , 2 [(V E + O. 18 Vo ) F = Vo 2 2 = [(VE + 0.18 = 1 V ) 0.209] "o - 0.038 Vo 0.962 Vo - [VE 02 VE) + (0.038 (0.209 11 - [ VE FE] V ) FE] - [ VE FE] 02 = 0.209 = VE (0.209 - FE) = VE (0.209 - FE) 10. 962 1 1..02 results in 4.825 2 2 VE - (VE FE) 2 Vo At RQ = 0.82 so EE = J 4.82 (1) 2 kcal of heat produced, x Vo 2 Substituting for V0 ' 2 EE Sample = 4.82 [V 0.209 = 12.0 1. Imin E (2) - FE)]/O.962 calculation: V E at STP FE is . 171 = [12.0 EE = 4.82 - 0.171)1/0.962 (0.209 (0.474) = 2.?'9kcal/min = 0.4741/min �APPENDIX C (Table 9): Weights (kg). oxygen consumptions (ml min -1), energy expend itur e s (kc a l l kg-C.75 min- ), heart rates (beats min-1), and activities (percent bedding, standing, walking, trotting) for trials using three fasting and fed mule deer fawns in winter. Trial No. 1 Feed Level Deer Weight (kg) Oxygen Consump. (ml/min) Energy Expend. MI3W rn in] Heart Rate (beats / min) Percent Bedding Percent Standing Percent Walking Percent Trotting (kc a l/ 2 3 4 5 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 51 51 51 51 51 44.34 44.34 44.34 44.34 44.34 483 550 548 415 524 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 57.7 62.4 59. 3 54. 3 56. 7 51 51 51 51 51 0 0 0 0 0 44.68 44.68 44.68 44.68 44.68 69 50 80 76 63 598 566 589 529 629 31 50 20 24 37 .. 0 6 7 8 9 10 0.136 0.154 0.154 O. 117 O. 147 O. 167 O. 158 0.164 0.148 O. 175 11 12 13 14 15 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 62.0 63.5 65.6 59.0 62.3 51 51 51 51 51 0 0 0 0 0 44.68 44.68 44.68 45.93 45.93 72 70 69 . 73 51 627 559 606 573 600 28 30 31 27 49 16 17 18 19 20 0.175 0.156 0.169 0.157 O. 164 0 0 0 0 0 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 64.0 58.1 57.3 67.0 60.4 51 51 51 51 51 0 0 0 0 0 46.61 46.61 46.61 46.61 47. 17 64 57 52 81 81 681 531 503 567 800 35 43 48 19 19 O. 184 0.144 O. 136 0.153 0.214 1 0 0 0 0 66.2 61.8 63. 1 62.3 73.8 0 0 0 0 0 28 79 67 46 53 72 21 33 54 47 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I t-' w 0 I �APPENDIX C (Table 9) (continued). Energy Expend. (kcal/ MBW min) Heart Rate (beatsI min} Percent Bedding 61.3 64.4 61.6 65.6 51.8 0 0 0 0 54 74 61 75 64 35 26 39 25 36 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 63 0 58 73 47 35 77 42 27 40 2 23 0 0 0 0 0 Trial No. Feed Level Deer Weight (kg) Oxygen Consump. (ml/min) 21 22 24 25 26 Fed Fed Fed Fast Fast 51 51 51 51 51 47. 17 47. 17 47.17 44.91 44.91 528 626 578 455 320 O. 141 27 28 29 30 31 Fast Fast Fast Fast Fed 51 51 51 51 51 44.91 44.91 44.91 44.91 44.79 520 483 691 271 436 O. 140 O. 130 O. 186 0.073 O. 121 60.7 57. 1 66.2 50.6 56.4 32 33 34 35 51 51 51 51 73.3 81.6 70.5 58.5 66.0 53 43 4 0 568 0.207 0.205 0.180 O. 100 O. 179 0 53 44.79 44.79 44.79 44.79 37.99 744 735 647 357 36 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 0 86 48 14 52 0 0 37 38 39 40 41 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 53 53 53 53 53 37.99 37.99 37.99 37.99 38.44 566 547 595 537 633 0.178 O. 173 O. 188 0.169 O. 198 66.7 66.7 71.3 75.0 72.0 0 0 0 0 57 61 50 38 43 38 49 57 0 0.168 0.155 O. 123 0.086 Percent Percent Standing Walking Percent Trotting 1 1 5 I >-' w •....• I �APPENDIX C (Table 9) (continued). Weight (kg) Oxygen Consump. (ml/min) Energy Expend. (kcal! MBW min) Heart Rate (beats/ min) 53 53 53 53 53 38.44 38.44 38.44 38.44 39.35 639 625 656 634 508 0.200 0.195 0.205 0.198 o. 156 62.4 71.0 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 53 53 53 53 53 39.35 39.35 39.35 40.25 40.25 580 592 601 500 543 O. 178 0.182 O. 184 O. 151 O. 164 53 54 55 56 57 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 53 53 53 53 53 40.26 40.26 40.26 40.26 40.71 618 537 446 518 474 O. 162 O. 135 O. 156 O. 142 58 59 60 61 62 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 53 53 53 53 53 40.71 40.71 40.71 40.71 40.71 624 478 909 741 771 Trial No. Feed Level Deer 42 43 44 45 46 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 47 48 49 51 52 0.186 O. 186 O. 143 0.272 0.222 0.231 Percent Bedding Percent Standing Percent Walking Percent Trotting 68.4 66.7 0 0 0 0 0 50 54 59 51 54 48 45 41 48 46 2 1 0 1 0 62.0 67.6 72.0 63.0 60.9 0 0 0 0 0 67 36 23 58 33 33 64 77 42 67 0 0 0 0 0 62.7 63.0 57.5 59.7 59.6 0 0 0 0 0 51 55 74 68 59 47 45 26 29 41 2 0 0 3 0 64.4 63.1 81.6 83. 1 74.9 0 0 0 0 0 24 67 20 44 22 76 33 73 47 74 0 0 7 9 4 -- I •....• w N I �APPENDIX C (Table 9) (continued). D eer. Weight (kg) Oxygen Consump. (ml/min) Energy Expend. (kcal/ 'MBW min) Heart Rate (beats/ 'min) Percent Bedding Percent Standing Percent Walking Percent Trotting Trial No. Feed Leve l 63 64 65 66 67 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 53 53 53 53 53 41.50 41. SO 41.50 41, SO 41.50 658 564 420 448 305 O. 194 0.166 O. 124 O. 132 0.090 69.3 63.4 56,0 56,8 51.6 0 0 42 18 73 27 64 42 47 26 73 36 16 35 1 0 0 0 0 0 68 69 70 71 72 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 53 53 53 53 53 41,50 42.41 42,41 42,41 39.35 427 1054 ' 335 495 246 O. 126 0.306 0.097 O. 144 0.075 61.0 92.7 49.3 60.2 48.7 0 0 0 0 80 74 34 95 63 10 26 65 5 35 10 0 1 0 3 ,-0 a 74 75 76 77 78 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 55 55 55 55 55 29.37 29.37 "z-q:37 29.37 29.37 611 517 541 655 486 0.233 0.197 0,207 0.250 0, 186 89.0 82,0 90.4 0 0 0 0 0 21 35 28 40 46 75 65 72 50 54 4 0 0 10 0 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 55 55 55 55 55 -2q::-37 28.80 28.80 28.80 28.80 426 607 565 511 459 O. 163 0,235 0.219 O. 198 O. 178 85.0 87.2 91.0 85.0 86.9 0 0 44 38 56 58 0 79 80 81 82 83 0 0 50 57 48 43 2 0 -r- -- 86.2 4 I I-' w w I �APPENDIX C (table 9) (continued). Deer Weight (kg) Oxygen Consump. (ml/min) Energy Expend. (kcall 'MBW rnin) Heart Rate (beats I min) Percent Bedding Percent Standing Percent Walking Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 55 55 55 55 55 28.80 28.80 28.80 28.80 28.80 603 435. 429 295 552 0.234 O. 169 O. 166 O. 114 92.9 84.0 84.0 71.5 82.4 0 0 0 0 0 43 46 46 43 53 55 55 55 55 55 30.84 30.84 30.84 30.96 30.96 6 1 1 0 2 601 457 317 441 392 96.0 86.3 76.0 78.7 80.6 0 0 0 0 0 94 95 96 97 98 63 52 52 55 75 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 35 48 48 42 25 2 91 92 93 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 51 53 53 57 45 55 55 55 55 55 0 0 3 0 30.96 31. 53 31. 53 31. 53 31. 53 484 414 441 364 376 86.2 85.8 84.4 84.9 77,8 0 0 0 0 0 63 53 44 80 77 99 100 101 102 103 Fed Fed Fed Fed Fed 37 47 56 18 23 55 55 55 55 55 31. 53 31. 53 31. 53 31. 53 31. 53 0 0 0 2 0 518 564 239 236 409 89.8 86.7 58.2 63.3 77.0 0 0 80 85 0 36 39 10 11 50 62 54 10 4 50 2 7 0 0 0 Trial No. Feed Level 84 85 86 87 88 89 l.9U - 0.214 0.221 O. 168 O. 117 O. 162 0, 144 O. 178 O. 150 0.160 O. 132 O. 136 O. 188 0.204 0.086 0.086 O. 148 Percent Trotting I I-' w ~ I �APPENDIX C (Table 9) (continued). Deer Weight (kg) Oxygen Consump. (mlfmin) Energy Expend. (kcal! 'MEW min) Heart Rate (beat sf 'min) Percent Bedding Percent Standing Percent Walking Fed Fed Fed Fed Fast 55 55 55 55 55 31.53 31.35 31.53 31.53 30.39 360 235 211 218 587 0.130 0.085 0.076 0.079 0.213 70.7 59.8 58.7 54.5 91. 1 0 90 100 100 10 76 9 0 0 36 24 1 0 0' 53 Fast Fast Fast Fast 55 55 55 55 30.39 30.39 30.39 30.39 465 251 184 215 0.168 0.091 0.066 0.078 81.8 61.5 56.7 55.8 0 10 "81 63 89 82 16 36 11 8 3 1 of bedding and trotting activities. Trial No. Feed Level 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 aE stimated activity breakdown. bAtypical trial due to combination Percent Trotting 0 0 0 °b 1 0 0 0 0 I I-' w VI I �� https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/85653231ec74ca8d1167e1ffd8085f3a.pdf f40b84855c69501febdc09ef09c4c6c5 PDF Text Text July, -137- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------~~~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-33 14 Deer-Elk J~ ~. Investigations 11 ~rkPI~ ~. Job Title Snowmobile Harassment of Mule Deer on Cold Winter Ranges --------------------------------------------------~-- Period Covered: April 1978 ------------------------------- 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: D. Freddy, L. Carpenter, B. Lance, B. Williams, L. Strong, C. Moore, B. McCloskey, P. Neil, Colorado Division of Wildlife; A. L. Ward, U.S. Forest Service; E. Tom Thorne, Wyoming Game and Fish Commission. Heart Heart rates associated with activities of 2 semi-tame mule deer are presented. rate varied by deer and activity and ranged from 34.87 ± 0.28 (SE) to 78.74 ± 4.90 (SE) (BPM) for bedded and walking activities, respectively. Heart rate data verify their potential to calculate energy costs of overt reactions of deer to harassment. Changes in heart rate, both positive and negative, also indicated deer responded to harassment stimuli in the absence of strong overt reactions. Heart rate changed from -21 to 154 percent when compared to preharassment measurements for similar activities. Elevated heart rates during post-harassment sampling period also suggested that physiological responses may linger for several minutes after stimuli have passed. Three semi-tame female deer, age 1~ years, and two wild deer, a yearling buck and a mature doe, were equipped with implanted heart-rate monitoring systems during this segment. Heart-rate data from these animals will be presented in next segment's report. ��-139- SNOWMOBILE HARASSMENT OF MULE DEER ON COLD WINTER RANGES David J. Freddy P. N. OBJECTIVE Evaluate whether snowmobile activity on winter ranges inhabited by deer decreases the ability of deer to survive winter by modifying the activities of deer so as to significantly increase energy expended. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor heart rates of deer during various daily activities the energy costs of these activities during winter. 2. Ascertain 3. Evaluate observed reactions of deer to harassment in terms of appropriate heart rate measurements and corresponding energy costs. 4. Evaluate the energy cost of harassment to deer in relation estimated energy budget of deer (concurring study). 5. Examine alternatives harassment on deer. activities of deer responding to minimize to prescribed potential detrimental to quantify harassment. to a total effects of METHODS AND MATERIALS 1977 Heart rate for activities of 2 semi-tame, castrate mule deer, age 2~ years, telemetered during winter of 1976-77 were analyzed during this segment. Heart rates for each activity (Tables 1, 2) were determined as follows. Deer were sampled from 7:00 AM to 5:30 PM during 2 trials in February. Each trial consisted of 5 consecutive days. Heart rates and activities were sampled during 3, systematically spaced 10 minute intervals per hour. One deer was sampled per 10 minute interval. Deer were alternately sampled, with the first deer sampled each day selected at random. Heart rate was monitored continuously during the 10 minute interval and output was recorded on a strip-chart recorder (Freddy 1977). Activities of deer were noted directly on the strip-chart. Heart rates were then determined for each activity using a Hewlett-Packard 9820A digitizer-calculator system. An activity had to occur continuously for 1 minute to sample heart rate. Within a I minute interval (approx. 4 cm of strip-chart), 6-8 systematic hea.rt rate data points were digitized and an average value determined for that 1 minute. Within a 10 minute sample period, up to 10, one minute samples of heart rate could be obtained. Heart-rate for each activity for each deer was based on the mean of several one minute samples taken throughout each trial. T-tests were used for all tests of significance at a probability level of P < .05. �-140- Table 1. Definitions at pasture. of activities for measuring heart-rate of mule deer Definition Activity Abbreviation Bedded (B) Lying down, not active Bedded plus rumination (BR) Lying down plus actively chewing and possibly belching, enough of head must be seen to discern jaw movement Stand (S) Up, but not moving Stand plus graze (SG) Standing still and actively grazing, or occasionally walking very slowly, a few steps at a time, and grazing Walk (W) Moderately fast ambulatory movement, all 4 feet touching ground alternately Bedded-alert (BA) Alert appearance while bedded; head up, ears forward, possible tail-flick, apparently watching or listening to some disturbance Table 2. Heart-rates (BPM) for activities of 2 semi-tame mule deer castrates, age 2Yz years, February, 1977 . Trial 1 was conducted from February 7-12 and trial 2 from February 14-19. Trial 2 Deer 39 Deer 18 HeartHeartrate + SE rate + SE n Abbrev. Trial I Deer 18 Deer 39 HeartHeartrate + SE n rate + SE Bedded (B) 48.80+0.23 485 34.87+0.28 197 44.06+0.44 216 Bedded plus rumination (BR) 50.53+0.32 94 37.62+0.58 55 47.55+0.71 60 Stand (S) 64.05+1.49 49 49.84+1. 86 16 65.35+3.93 16 Stand plus graze (SG) 78.37+1.20 99 55.15+0.84 64 68.59+2.18 31 Walkb (W) 91.37+3.79 8 62.35+5.41 4 Bedded-alert (BA) 53.21+0.95 48 33.55+0.98 7 78.74+4.90 12 50.60+1. 66 Activity a b equals number of one minute samples t-tests were not conducted n a used to compute heart-rate for the walk activity because n -- 27 for each activirv. of small sample sizes· �-141- Harassment trials utilizing these same castrate deer were conducted subsequent to unharassed heart rate trials. Six routes were traversed by one person, two persons, person plus a dog, and a snowmobile. Routes were 0-360 m from the pasture fence. Up to 4 routes were traversed in one day. Heart rate and overt behavior were monitored continuously for one deer while each route was traversed and also for 5 minutes prior to (pre-route) and after (postroute) completion of each route. Harassment was considered to begin and end when harassing stimuli were either within sight or audible to the observer. Deer monitored were alternated with each route, with the first deer to be sampled each day selected at random. Procedure for determining harassed heart-rate was the same as for unharassed heart-rate trials. 1978 During winter of 1977-78, 3 semi-tame female deer, age 1~ years, were equipped with implanted heart rate transmitters. Transmitters were essentially the same as used in 1977 but were modified in packaging and circuitry to reduce problems of artifact (Freddy 1977). Surgery for implanting the transmitters was the same as in 1977 (Freddy 1977). However, the drugs M-99 and Rompun were combined for anesthesia instead of the Rompun-Ketamine combination used previously. Approximately 4 mg of M-99 combined with 30 mg of Rompun were given intramuscularly for deer averaging 60 kg (133 lbs). These semi-tame deer were placed in a 4 ha pasture of native sagebrush winter range and visually and telemetrically monitored from a glass enclosed tower adjacent to the pasture (Freddy 1977). Heart rates and corresponding activities were monitored in January, February, March, April, and June. Numbers of deer per trial and days per trial varied between months according to the number of telemetry systems functioning. Heart rate for each activity was determined using the same procedure as in 1977. While at pasture these deer were harassed by a snowmobile, person, and a person and a dog moving on prescribed routes at varying distances from the pasture. Deer activities and heart rates were monitored using previous procedures. Two wild mule deer, one yearling male and one mature female, were also equipped with implanted heart rate transmitters. Deer were baited with alfalfa hay and trapped in modified Clover traps. Handling procedures were as follows: 1) deer were physically restrained in the trap by a trap tender, 2) M-99 and Rompun were injected into the rump of the first deer (male) while only Rompun was injected into the second deer (female). This was done because surgery was sequential and we did not want the second deer under the effects of M-99 for about 1 hour prior to surgery and then again for 45 minutes during surgery, 3) deer were placed in small carrying boxes to minimize their struggle, 4) after drugs had quieted deer, they were transported 360 m to research facility for surgery, 5) the male was immediately taken to surgery while the female was left in the carrying box under the effect of Rompun, 6) surgery was conducted as previously described. M-99 was given to the female just before her surgery. These deer were released and their heart rates monitored for approximately 30 days. �-142- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1977 Heart rate (beats per minute - BPM) increased with increasing levels of activity for both deer (Table 2). Within trial 1, significant differences in heart rate occurred between all activities for deer 39. No data were obtained from deer 18 because of implant failure. Within trial 2, significant differences in heart rate occurred between all activities for deer 18 except for activities (B) vs (BA) and (S) vs (SG) and for deer 39 except for activities (S) vs (SG) (See Table 1 for activity symbol definitions). Between trials, there were significant differences in heart rate for all activities for deer 39 except for activities (S) and (BA). Heart rates for deer 18 and 39 were significantly different between deer for all activities during trial 2. Deer 39 weighed about 60 kg during trials 1 and 2 while deer 18 weighed about 63 kg during trial 2. Weights of both deer declined from January through March. Kautz (1978) also found heart rate increased by increasing activity level and varied between individual deer. Furthermore Kautz (1978) demonstrated a positive relationship between heart rate and energy expended. Data from our 2 semi-tame deer verify the potential to use heart rate for estimating energy expended for different activities and therefore the potential for placing energy costs on overt reactions of deer to harassment. Changes in heart rate also indicated deer responded to harassment stimuli even in the absence of strong overt reactions (Table 3). Changes in heart rate, both positive and negative, indicated animals were stressed to some degree. The extent of heart rate change varied considerably with stimulus, route, and deer. Heart rate changed from -21 to 154 percent when compared to pre-harassment measurements for the same activities. Elevated heart-rates were usually of short duration. The negative heart rate response of deer 18 (Table 3) would suggest alarm bradycardia. Moen et al. (1978) also detected alarm bradycardia responses in white-tailed deer fawns when there was little or no change in overt behavior. Elevated heart rates during post-route sampling periods (Table 3) also suggests that physiological responses may linger for several minutes after stimuli have passed. Selye (1976) commented that the cardiovascular system is particularly sensitive to stress and usually responds with rising blood pressure and pulse rate. Data from these trials support the contention that heart rate can indicate deer react to stress without changes in overt behavior. 1978 Heart rate data obtained during 1978 are being processed. During 1978, the telemetry system performed satisfactorily. Artifact (as reported by Freddy 1977) was reduced and heart rates for walking and running activities were obtained to a greater extent than in 1977. The one problem �Table 3. Heart-rate (HR) of semi-tame Distance (m) to Stimulus deer for similar Deer One person walking 18 0 Standing 39 78 Bedded 39 366 Bedded before, during, and after harassment, Sam]2ling Period Deer Reaction To stimulus Stimulus activities Deer Ac t Lv Lt y= Pre-route Route Post-route HR(BPM) (n)b HR(BPM) (n) HR(BPM) (n) February - March, 1977. % Change HR Pre-route Pre-route to to Post route route Duration Of HR Change (min} Pre-route Pre-route to to post-route route S SG 43.5 (2) 58.1 (2) 88.0 (1) 73.4 (2) 56.0 (1) 59.8 (4) 102 26 29 3 1 2 1 4 alert B 37.0 (5) 94.1 (1) 39.3 (6) 154 6 1 6 alert B 36.5 (5) 42.0 (4) 42.2 (5) 15 16 4 5 alert ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Two persons walking 39 o Bedded alert B 46.3 (5) 83.5 (1) 80.6 (1) 80 74 1 1 18 78 Bedded alert B 33.7 (5) 45.8 (2) 37.3 (5) 36 11 2 5 39c 156 Standing alert and bedded alert S B 18 366 Standing S 48.2 (2) 41.7 (2) 18 78 Bedded B 38.1 (3) 30.1 (5) alert _______________________________________________________ ~~ 22~~_i~2 Dog plus person walking 156 39 366 18 Bedded Bedded alert alert alert a See Table I for definitions of codes. b Number of one minute used to compute c Heart-rate values samples during harassment : - -13 - 2 - * 32.3 (5) -21 -15 5 5 * 5 5 ~2~~_i~2 :-------:!~-------------:----------~---- B 43.2 (4) 53.1 (5) 42.3 (5) 23 -2 5 B 32.2 (4) 38.1 (2) 29.9 (5) 18 7 2 value • are compared to normal heart-rate values I 5 32 58.1 (5) ~ v.> 7 22 79.5 (7) r •..... in Table 2 to compute % changes in heart-rate. �-144- with the implant was life expectancy. Implants functioned for 18 to 182 days with a mean of 58 days (n = 8). The short duration of the implants has been attributed to faulty manufacturing of one electrical component and not with the design or assembly of the implant. The M-99 - Rompun combination was excellent for anesthesia. Deer succumbed to the drugs usually within 10 minutes and remained in deep anesthesia until an antidote, M-50-50, was administered. Deer regained motor control within 5 minutes after M-50-50 was given. Rompun continued to slightly sedate the deer for up to 2 hours after surgery but animals were either up and moving or bedded with their heads up and alert during this time. LITERATURE CITED Freddy, D. J. 1977. Snowmobile harassment of mule deer on cold winter ranges. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., July, Part 1, p. 89-104. Kautz, M. V. 1978. Energy expenditure and heart rate of active mule deer fawns. M.S. Thesis. Colo. St. Univ. 76pp. Moen, A. N., M. A. Della Fera, A. L. Hiller, and B. A. Buxton. 1978. Heart rates of white-tailed deer fawns in response to recorded wolf howls. Canad. J. Zool. 56(5):1207-1210. Selye, H. 1976. Stress in health and disease. Butterworths, Boston. 1256p. �July, 1978 -145- JOB PROGRESS State of Project COLORADO No. W-38-R-33 Work Plan No. 16 Job Title Deer Study-Estimating Period REPORT Piceance Covered: Deer-Elk Investigation Job No. 1-3 Parameters of Population Dynamics April I, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, R. S. Bliss, L. H. Garpenter, C. A. Carron, J. M. Cribari, J. E. Enote, D. J. Freddy, A. L. Fricke, D. Goddard, R. B. Gill, W. D. Hadden, H. Hansell, J. J. Klein, Jr., L. M. Lofgren, C. A. Moore, M. C. Odum, J. L. Sexton, P. F. White, and L. S. Zeise. ABSTRACT Forty-six sightings and 27 recoveries of banded deer were recorded during Segment 33. The 1977-78 winter deer census estimate in Unit 22 was 34,846 ± 7,980 deer (90 percent confidence level) compared to the predicted population of 35,915 deer. The buck:doe:fawn ratio, based on 1,791 deer classified in December, 1977, was 17:100:67. The post-season ratio is the same as in 1976, but adjustment for antlerless harvest in 1977 yields a slightly lower pre-season ratio of 64 fawns:100 does. The 1976-77 winter was one of the mildest on record and only 1,064 ± 638 deer (90 percent confidence level) were estimated lost over winter which is about 4 percent of the predicted winter population. The following winter, 1977-78, was also relatively mild and a 5 percent winter loss was estimated (1,809 + 851 deer at the 90 percent confidence level). A total deer harvest fo~ all seasons in 1977 was 6,096 deer. This is an 88 percent increase over 1976's estimated harvest due to a combination of factors including a larger deer population, higher hunter success, and the insurance of 1,901 either-sex permits. ��-147- ESTIMATING PICEANCE DEER STUDYPARAMETERS OF POPULATION DYNAMICS R. M. Bartmann P. N. OBJECTIVE To develop and test a method for estimating deer populations in the Piceance Basin. density of over-winter mule SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To collect and tabulate deer band sighting and recovery data. 2. To estimate Unit 22. the size of the wintering deer population in Game Management 3. To estimate the sex and age structure in Game Management Unit 22. of the wintering deer population 4. To estimate the annual productivity 5. To estimate the annual winter mortality 6. To estimate annual hunter harvest of the Piceance of the Piceance of the Piceance METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer Banding See Bartmann (1972). Deer Density See Bartmann (1974a). Population See Bartmann Structure (1974a). Productivity See Bartmann (1975). Winter Mortality See Bartmann (1974a and 1975). deer population. deer population. deer population. �-148- Hunter Harvest See Bartmann (1974b). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Banding Forty-six sightings and 27 recoveries of banded deer were recorded from March 1977 through June 1978 (Tables I and 2). In Segment 34, it is planned to begin the analysis and write-up of the deer distribution and banding data to be published as a Division Special Report. Deer Density The 1977-78 winter deer census occurred February 18-22 which was about four weeks later than desired due to previously scheduled work that could not be changed. As a result, the deer were concentrated on south slopes, which were mostly snow-free, to avoid the deeper (18-24 inches; 46-61 cm) denser and partially crusted snow on protected north exposures. A Hiller 12EJ3 helicopter with a Soloy turbine conversion was used in lieu of the Bell 47G3B because of the extra power and similar visibility. Also, the pilot sat in the middle which allowed both observers to sit on the outside for maximum visibility, although communication between the two was difficult. The 1,577 deer counted converts to 13.1 deer per quadrat, 52.4 deer per mile2 (20.2 deer per km2), or 34,846 ± 7,980 total deer (90 percent confidence level) on the winter range in Unit 22 (Table 3). The precision of the mean estimate (± 21 percent) is the poorest to date and is attributed largely to the concentrated deer distribution. This population estimate compares favorably with the predicted population of 35,915 (Table 4). Population Structure Post-season sex and age classifications were made in Unit 22 December 10-12, 1977. The 1,791 deer classified consisted of 169 bucks, 970 does, and 652 fawns for a buck:doe:fawn ratio of 17:100:67. The fawn:doe ratio is the same as last year's and the buck:doe ratio is 5 bucks: 100 does lower which is in line with the predicted ratio of 15:100. Productivity The 1977 deer season in Unit 22 was modified from antlered-only to include the limited taking of antlerless deer through the availability or 3,500 either-sex permits, of which only 1,901 were issued. The Game Management Section's random survey results (inflated arbitrarily to include a 25 percent increase to account for wounding loss and illegal kill) show a total antlerless harvest for all seasons of 903 does and 33 fawns. Thus, the post-season fawn:doe ratio of 67:100 converts to a pre-season ratio of 64:100 for a pre-season fawn production of 13,255 animals. �-149- Table l. 8ightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units 11, 21, 22, and 23, received from March 1977 through June 1978. Neckband Twp. Location 8ection Range Yellow wired stripe IN 93W 12 10-30 White wired stripe IN 96W 25 12-15 White 18 96W 32 12-17 Red and blue blocks IN 96W 15 3-?-77 Red and blue blocks IN 94W 18 3-1 Green and yellow blocks IN 96W 32 4-? Red w/white stripe 28 96W 32 4-? Red wlwhite stripe 28 96W 32 4-12 White 216 18 98W 34 4-12 White 229 18 98W 29 4-12 White 240 18 98W 29 4-22 White 93 18 98W 29 5-10 Yellow wired stripe IN 96W 9 10-17 White 18 lOOW 25 10-19 Green wlwhite stripe 28 95W 12 10-20 Red and blue blocks IN 93W 20 10-22 Orange and white blocks 4 28 94W 2 10-22 Orange and white blocks 139 2S 94W 2 10-24 Yellow 101 IS 92W 23 10-28 White 2N 98W 3 11-12 Red and blue blocks 2N 94W 19 11-17 Yellow wired stripe IS 96W 10 11-28 Green wlwhite IN 96W 27 12-1 Pink 3S 97W 2 12-10 Green wlwhite IN 95W 31 12-11 White IN 97W 21 12-11 Blue and white 28 96W 4 12-12 Pink 2S 96W 5 12-12 White 2N 98W l3 Date Color 7-?-76 Number 46 stripe 72 stripe ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-150- Table l. Sightings of deer marked on the winter range in Game Management Units ll, 21, 22, and 23, received from March 1977 through June 1978. (Continued). Neckband Twp. Location Range Section Green and yellow blocks lN 99W 17 12-12 Green w/white stripe 2S 95W 2 12-12 Green w/white stripe 2S 95W 2 12-12 Green w/white stripe lS 95W 2 12-12 Green w/white stripe IS 95W 13 12-12 Green w/white stripe lS 95W 12 12-12 Green w/white stripe lN 95W 33 12-12 Green w/white stripe lS 95W 6 12-12 Red w/white 3S 96W 23 12-16 Yellow 27 lN 92W 26 12-16 Red and blue blocks 178 lN 92W 26 2-19-78 Yellow wired stripe lN 96W 36 2-20 Red and blue blocks lN 94W 30 2-22 White lS 98W 21 2-23 Yellow vT/red stripe lN 96W 36 2-25 Blue and yellow blocks 12 lN 94W 34 6-4 Yellow 55 lS 91W 3 Date Color 12-12 Number stripe Table 2. Recoveries of deer marked on winter range in Game Management ll, 21, 22, and 23, received from March 1977 through June 1978. Neckband Units Date Color Number Twp. Location Section Range 4-10-77 Blue 57 2N 9/W 20 4-20 Red and blue blocks 39 2N 94W 18 8-23 White wired 42 3N 98W 34 10-? Blue 31 2N 98W 5 10-? Yellow wired stripe llO IS 96W 10 10-? Red and blue blocks 144 4N 89W 8 stripe �-151- Table 2. Recoveries of deer marked on winter range in Game Management Units 11, 21, 22, and 23, received from March 1977 through June 1978. (Continued). Neckband Number Twp. Location Range Section 7 IS 95W 32 68 4S 97W 21 L-3283 IS 92W 12 Yellow wired stripe 102 4S 95W 15 10-15 Green w/white 156 IN 96W 32 10-15 White wired stripe 69 2N 98W 24 10-15 Red and blue blocks 27 3N 95W 25 10-16 Red and blue blocks 96 IN 95W 14 10-16 Orange and white blocks 102 IS 91W 13 10-17 Pink 75 2S 96W 32 10-24 Blue 107 3N 99W 34 11-? Blue 109 2N 99W 8 11-? White ? IN 98W 19 11-9 Green and yellow blocks 2 2N 99W 9 11-9 Red w/white 48 2S 96W 15 12-? Green w/white 168 IS 94W 19 12-9 Blue and White 51 28 97W 25 3-30-78 Blue 103 2N 98\-1 5 4-28 Blue and white 101 IS 96W 18 5-? Blue 97 IS 97W 12 5-1 Yellow wired stripe 46 2N 93W 15 Date Color 10-? Green w/white 10-? Red w/white 10-15 Green w/white 10-15 stripe stripe stripe stripe stripe stripe 2 quadrats Table 3. Number of deer counted on 120 ~-mile range in Game Management Unit 22, February 18-22, 1978. on the Piceance Quad. Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer winter Deer - .. -.- ..~.-. 1 15 31 22 61 0 91 0 2 9 32 65 62 20 92 0 3 3 33 81 63 31 93 27 4 9 34 7 64 19 94 0 5 87 35 41 65 14 95 13 ------------------------------------------------------._------------------------ �-152- Table 3. Number of deer counted on 120 ~-mile2 quadrats range in Game Management Unit 22, February 18-22, 1978. on the Piceance winter Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer 6 27 36 30 66 71 96 0 7 6 37 10 67 8 97 0 8 2 38 40 68 28 98 0 9 0 39 0 69 11 99 4 10 0 40 0 70 4 100 0 11 0 41 0 71 0 101 0 12 0 42 0 72 0 102 2 13 0 43 40 73 13 103 10 14 0 44 0 74 27 104 3 15 19 45 8 75 0 105 3 16 42 46 21 76 3 106 23 17 29 47 0 77 0 107 3 18 31 48 3 78 28 108 63 19 0 49 0 79 0 109 6 20 12 50 8 80 0 110 0 21 16 51 0 81 0 III 56 22 28 52 34 82 17 112 17 23 1 53 0 83 0 113 8 24 72 54 0 84 0 114 3 25 39 55 0 85 13 115 0 26 87 56 0 86 0 116 0 27 19 57 0 87 9 117 4 28 0 58 0 88 30 118 23 29 0 59 0 89 0 119 0 30 0 60 0 90 0 120 0 90% Confidence Interval n = 120 L:X= 1,577 13.1 + (1.658) (1.82) = 13.1 + 3.0 x = 13.1 s = sx = 19.96 Total POEulation 1.82 34,846 C.V.= 152% ± 7,980 Estimate �-153- Table 4. Calculations to predict Game Management Unit 22. the 1977-78 winter deer population Bucks Does Fawns Total 3,459 15,775 10,586 29,820 489 287 288 1,064 1977 summer population 2,970 15,488 10,298 28,756 Fawns apportioned 5,149 5,149 8,119 20,637 Est. 1976-77 winter pop. Est. 1976-77 winter mortality Adjusted 50:50 1977 summer pop. 1977 fawn prod. est. (64 fawns: 100 does) 1977 pre-season 1977 harvest 20,637 13,255 42,011 estimate 5,160 903 33 6,096 2,959 19,734 13,222 35,915 3,304 19,538 13,073 35,915 Predicted population post-season ratio 13,255 8,119 1977-78 winter corrected 28,756 pop. Predicted in pop. for 1977 buck:doe:fawn (17:100:67) Winter Mortality The 1977 deer winter mortality survey in Unit 22 was made April 19 through May 23. Only 11 carcasses were found for a mean 0.20 dead deer per plot or 1,064 638 dead deer (90 percent confidence level) on the winter range. This is nearly a 4 percent loss of the predicted 1976-77 winter population and is the lowest mortality percentage of the study. ± The 1976-77 winter was the mildest 1973. Because of this, an unknown since the mortality work was started in proportion of the deer population wintered �-154- above the area sampled for mortality which could have contributed to a lower estimate. However, it is equally logical to assume the decreased mortality estimate is real and reflects the milder winter conditions of 1976-77. The few carcasses found (1 male and 2 fawns of unknown sex, 4 adult males, 2 adult females and 2 adults of unknown sex) makes the projection to total mortality by sex and age class even more hazardous than usual. Nevertheless, the estimated composition of the total loss is 144 male fawns, 144 female fawns, (fawn mortality was assumed to be 50 percent male fawns and 50 percent female fawns because of the extremely small sample of dead fawns encountered) 489 adult males and 287 adult females. The 1977-78 winter was also relatively mild although there was more snow than in the previous winter. The mortality survey, conducted April 17 through May 18, 1978, yielded 19 carcasses comprised of 1 male, 6 female and 6 fawns of unknown sex, 4 adult females and 2 adults of unknown sex. The mean number of carcasses per quadrat, 0.34, projects to 2.72 per mile2 (1.05 per km2) or 1,809 ± 851 dead deer (90 percent confidence level) on the Piceance winter range which is about a 5 percent loss of the estimated winter population. Projected composition of the dead deer is 619 male fawns, 618 female fawns, 96 adult males and 476 adult females. Hunter Harvest Restructuring of the 1977 big game seasons resulted in a deer-only hunt October 14-19 and a combined deer and elk hunt November 3-15. The basic season was antlered-only with an additional 3,500 either-sex permits available in Unit 22. Only 1,901 of these permits were issued. The archery season ran September 3-25 and was either-sex. A muzzle-loader season was also held September 10-18 and was antlered-only. The total buck harvest, according to random survey results, was up nearly 60 percent over last year's (Table 5). This is partly due to the extra season but also reflects slightly higher hunting success, 59 percent in 1976 and 70 percent in 1977 for antlered-only hunters. Addition of either-sex permit holders only raises the 1977 success one percent. Permit holders accounted for 918 antlerless deer of which 33 were fawns. The estimated fawn take is half of that checked at Idaho Springs suggesting reporting bias, sampling error or both in survey results, although confidence intervals were not provided for harvest data. The percentage of yearlings in the check station-aged buck harvest, 59 is similar to the 62 percent in1976 from three "regular" stations (Table 6). The female yearling percentage, 32, cannot be compared since there was no female harvest in 1976. Predicted yearling percentages were 63 and 25 for bucks and does, respectively. �-155- Table 5. Summary of the 1977 deer harvest Season Bucks Adult Fawns Archery 50 Muzzle-loader 1/ in Unit 22 for all seasons.Does Adult Fawns Total 0 18 0 68 3 0 0 0 3 2,455 0 0 0 2,455 596 19 589 14 1,218 1,858 0 0 0 1,858 198 0 296 0 494 5,160 19 903 14 6,096 Split regular either-sex Combined Regular either-sex All l./All figures include and arbitrary wounding loss and illegal kill. LITERATURE inflation of 25 percent to acknowledge CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1972. Piceance deer study-population distribution. P. 315337. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 3): 253-377. (Proc.). Bartmann, R. M. 1974a. Piceance deer study-population density and structure. P. 363-370. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):185-398. (Proc.). Bartmann, R. M. 1974b. Piceance deer study-productivity and mortality. P. 371-380. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):185-398. (Proc.). Bartmann, R. M. 1975. Piceance deer study-productivity and mortality. 371-380. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of vlildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):195-504. (Proc.). P. �Table 6. Deer checked at Idaho Springs check station from the 1977 separate and combined seasons in Unit 22. Season Mature Bucks Yrlg. Fawn Unk. Mature 1/ Separate-- 166 298 28 84 128 Combined11 98 82 7 49 49 Does Yr1g. Fawn Unk. Unk. Unk. Total 64 23 28 54 873 19 8 21 15 348 11 An additional 56 deer, checked during the separate elk season and presumed killed during the separate deer season, are omitted as an age breakdown is not available. 1/ Age data for deer harvested in the combined season are not available. The figures used are the differences between deer checked in the separate season and total deer checked for all seasons. I •..... l.r1 C"' I Prepared by&d~tn~~ Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �July, 1978 -157- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------------~~~--------- Project No. W-38-R-33 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 16 Job No. 5 --------------------------------Job Title Piceance Deer Study-Food Habits Technique Development ------------------~--------~~~~~~~~~~~------Period Covered: April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: A. W. Alldredge, R. M. Bartmann, J. M. Cribari, A. L. Fricke, J. J. Klein, Jr., L. M. Lofgren, P. H. Neil, M. L. Stevens, and L. S. Zeise. ABSTRACT Fourteen fawns were reared at Little Hills in 1977 and 2 more were picked up as orphans later in the summer. Four did not adapt to a change in handlers and were sent to Fort Collins for use in other studies. Another was killed by coyotes in April, 1978. There were 260 different plant species collected and identified taxonomically in the Piceance Basin in 1977. Two 8-day tame deer grazing evaluations were run in 1978. The "pen" treatment group took noticeably more bites of grass than the "pasture" group both times. This is presumed a prior-conditioning response as they had been previously used in predominantly grassland situations. Otherwise, with few exceptions, the major species eaten by one group were similar to those eaten by the other group. ��-159- PICEANCE DEER STUDY-FORAGE PREFERENCE R. M. Bartmann P. N. OBJECTIVE To estimate forage preferences in the Piceance Basin. of mule deer on pinyon-juniper winter range SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Analyze data from food habits pertinent results. technique development 2. Prepare a detailed study plan for estimating preferences of deer in the Piceance Basin. 3. Maintain 4. Select specific 5. Prepare 6. Conduct deer foraging 7. Rate forage availability 8. Test necessity 9. Tabulate work and publish fall-winter-spring forage and train tame deer. sites for food habits an herbarium sampling. of plants from the Piceance Basin. trials. during deer foraging of converting data and prepare trials. bite data to a weight basis. annual progress report. The tame deer grazing evaluations schedule in Segment 32 were only partially completed due to intractable deer. The lack of snow cover also created extremely atypical winter range conditions. Therefore, in lieu of the food habits work planned, it was deemed necessary to repeat the evaluations in Segment 33. In addition, the lack of enough suitably trained deer for the scheduled food habits work prompted the raising of fawns in 1977, and they will not be ready for use under Piceance winter range conditions until fall, 1978. In view of the preceding, Segment 32 objectives (Bartmann 1977) are also applicable in Segment 33. METHODS AND MATERIALS Fawn Rearing and Training Ten fawns were obtained from wild does kept in pens at Little Hills, 2 were obtained from does in the Fort Collins pens, 2 were picked up as orphans shortly after birth, and 2 were picked up in late August after they were hand-reared by other people. Procedures for hand-rearing followed Halford (1974) with various modifications as deemed necessary for individual deer. �-160- Plant Collecting A major effort was made to develop an herbarium of plant species in the Piceance Basin with emphasis on the proposed deer food habits study areas. A temporary employee worked from May 23 thru October 14 on this job. All specimens were submitted to Dr. W. A. Weber, Curator of the University of Colorado Herbarium in Boulder for confirmations of taxonomic identifications. Tame Deer Grazing Evaluations Evaluations of "tame" versus "wild" deer forage selections were made in late January and mid-March, 1978. Several procedure changes were made based on assessment of the 1977 grazing work (Bartmann 1977). Five deer, one a spare, were brought from the Fort Collins pens November 15, 1977 and placed in Pasture 116 to serve as the "pasture" treatment group. The deer were all 2~-years old and had been used in grazing work at Little Hills the previous 2 winters. Supplemental feed was provided the first week but was largely ignored. Afterwards, a few handsful of grain were provided several times a week to make the deer easier to locate and to check on their condition. Four tame deer, borrowed from the Department of Radiology and Radiation Biology, Colorado State University, served as the "pen" treatment group. Three were 2~-years old and one l~-years old. All had been used previously in grazing work at the Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant, which is predominately a grassland plant community. About a week prior to both the January and March grazing evaluations, the "pasture" deer were moved to Pasture 115 to become familiar with vegetation and physiography. The "pen" deer were allowed one day to roam freely in Pasture 116, and thereafter were kept in a small pen in the pasture when they were not being grazed. The 2 groups were grazed in their respective pastures for 4 consecutive and coincidental day grazing periods. Pastures were then switched and each group allowed another day of familiarization followed by 4 more days of grazing observations. As in Pasture 116, a small pen in Pasture 115 served to contain the "pen" deer when they were not being grazed. "Pen" deer were fed token daily rations of grain supplement. Four observers recorded bite-count data during morning and afternoon periods each day. Two watched 2 deer from the "pen" group while the other 2 watched 2 deer from the "pasture" group for a total of 4 trials per group each day, or 32 total trials per group for each 8-day evaluation period. Individual deer were grazed an equal number of morning and afternoon periods in each pasture and observers were switched among deer both within and between treatment groups to minimize biases from these sources. �-161- RESULTS Fawn Rearing and Training Fourteen fawns were hand-reared of which 4 did not adapt to a change in handlers. They were taken to Fort Collins for use in other studies. Training for food habits work has proceeded with 12 deer, including 2 orphans picked up in late August. Training included frequent trips to nearby winter range to acquaint the deer with native vegetation. In April, 1978, all the deer were moved to Pasture #5 where they can graze native vegetation yearlong. They have been kept in a small pen in the pasture at night after one was killed by a coyote. Trips to summer range areas were started in the summer, 1978. Plant Collecting The 260 plant species collected during the summer of 1977 are listed in Table 1. Plant collections will be continued on a time-permitting basis future Segments. Tame Deer Grazing in Evaluations Snow depths during the January, 1978 grazing evaluations ranged from 12 to 15 inches, with morning and afternoon temperatures ranging from 20 to 300F (-6.7 to 1.10C), respectively. In March, the ground was mostly bare but snow accumulations up to 12 inches occurred in protected areas. Morning and afternoon temperatures ranged from 30 to 400F (-1.1 to 4.4°C). respectively. A major difference in forage selections of the 2 deer treatment groups occurred in the graminoid category (Tables 2 and 3). In January, graminoids comprised 32 percent of the "pen" group's total bites and almost none of the "pasture" group's. In March, graminoid percentages were 26 and 15 for "pen" and "pasture" deer, respectively. In spite of deep snow in January, the "pen" deer would seek exposed grass under trees and shrubs. These deer had been used exclusively in grassland types at Rocky Flats where grasses averaged 5S percent of forage consumption, by weight, in winter and 41 percent in spring (Arthur 1977). Apparently, this conditioning to grass forage carried over tc the Little Hills area which suggests a potential bias in the use of tame deer to collect forage preference data in areas with noticeably different forage compositions from those areas where the deer were first allowed to forage. Within the browse category, differences were apparent in proportions of total bites by species, but as in the past, major species eaten by one group w\:'r.essentially the same as those eaten by the other group. The one exc.ep t i on I.V<l!=' oakbrush which was taken in considerably greater quantities by "pen" than "pasture" deer in January and, to a lesser extent, in March. Any conclusions, however, will have to await completion of statistical anlayses of the data. �-162- Table 1. 1977 . Plant species collected in the Piceance Basin ,during summer, Trees and Shrubs Acer negundo Amelanchier utahensis Artemisia tridentata Atriplex canescens Atriplex confertifolia Atriplex obovata Ceanothus martinii Ceratoides lanata Cercocarpus intricatus Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus linifolius Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Cratageus saligna Ephedra viridis Holodiscus dumosus Juniperus scopulorum Juniperus osteosperma Mahonia repens Pachystima myrsinites Pinus edulis Pinus ponderosa Populus angustifolia Prunus virginiana Pseudotsuga menziesii Purshia tridentata Quercus gambellii Ribes aureum Ribes cereum Rhamnus smithii Rhus trilobata Rosa woodsii Sarcobatus vermiculatus Shepherdia argentea Symphoricarpos oreophilus Tamarix pentandra Tetradymia canescens Graminoids Agropyron dasystachyum Agropyron desertorum Agropyron elongatum Agropyron inerme Agropyron repens Agropyron riparian Agropyron smithii Agropyron spicatum Bouteloua gracilis Bromopsis ciliata Bromopsis inermis Bromus tectorum Carex pityophila Ceratochloa marginata Elymus cinereus Elymus salinus Hordeum jubatum Koeleria macrantha Oryzopsis hymenoides Oryzopsis micrantha Phragmites australus Poa agassizensis Poa fendleriana Poa nemoralis interior sitanion hysterix sitanion longifolium Stipa comata Stipa occidentalis Forbs Achillea lanulosa Agoseris aurantiaca Allium acuminatum Alyssum desertorum Amaranthus albus Amaranthus retroflexus Androsace septentrionalis Antennaria parvifolia Antennaria pulcherrima Antennaria rosea �-163- Table 1. Plant species collected 1977 . (Cont' d) . in the Piceance Basin during summer, Forbs Aquilegia barnebyi Arabis divaricarpa Arabis drummondii Arabis lignifera Areneria eastwoodiae Artemisia biennis Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia frigida Artemisia ludoviciana Asclepias speciosa Asclepias subverticilliata Aster adscendens Astragalus chamaeleuce Astragalus diversifolius Astragalus lutosus Astragalus oopho:us Astragalus purshii Astragalus spatulatus Astragalus tenellus Atriplex argentea Atriplex rosea Balsamorhiza sagittata Barbarea orthoceras Brickellia grandiflora Calochortus nuttalli Campanula rotundifolia Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja chromosa Castilleja linariaefolia Caulanthus crassicaulis Chaenactis douglassi Chamaesyce fendleri Chenopodium fremontii Chenopodium leptophyllum Cirsium arvense Cirsium undulatum Clematis hirsutissima Clematis ligusticifolia Cleome serrulata Collinsia parviflora Collomia linearis Comandra umbellata Conioselinum scopulorum Conyza canadensis Corydalis aurea Crepis acuminata Cryptantha bakeri Cryptantha sericea Cymopterus fendleri Cynoglossum officinale Delphinium melsonii Descurainia californica Descurainia richardsonii Descurainia sophia Epilobium adenocalllon Erigeron eatonii Erigeron englemannii Erigeron speciosus macranthus Eriogonum alatum Eriogonum brevicaule Eriogonum cernuum Eriogonum effusum Eriogonum lonchophyllum Eriogonum ovalifolium Eriogonum umbellatum Erysimum asperum Euphorbia esula Euphorbia robusta Frasera speciosa Galium coloradoensis Gayophytum diffusum Gilia pinnatifida calcarea Grindelia squarrosa Hackelia floribunda Halogeton glomeratus Hedeoma drummondii Hedysarum boreale Helianthella uniflora Helianthus annuus Heliomeris multiflora Heracleum sphondylium montanum Heterotheca villosa Heuchera parviflora Hymenopappus filifolius megacephalus Hymenoxys acaulis Hymenoxys richardsonii Ipomopsis aggregata Ipomopsis congesta Iva xanthifolia Kochia iranica �-164- Table 1. Plant species 1977 • (Cont' d) • collected in the Piceance Basin during summer, Forbs Kuhnia rosmarinifolia chlorolepis Lactuca serriola Lactuca tatarica pulchella Lappula redowskii Lepidium densiflorum Lepidium montanum Lepidium perfoliatum Leptodactylon pungens Lesquerella montana Lesquerella subumbellata Leucelene ericoides Linaria vulgaris Linum lewisii Lithospermum ruderale Lomatium grayii Lomatium orientale Lomatium simplex Lupinus caudatus Machaeranthera grindelioides Marrubium vulgare Melandrium dioicum Melilotus officinalis Mentzelia albicaulis Mentzelia dispersa Mentzelia humilis Mentzelia multiflora Mentzelia rushbyi Mertensia ciliata Mertensia fusiformis Microseris nutans Microsteris gracilis Moldavicia parviflora Nicotiana attenuata Oenothera caespitosa Oenothera coronopifolia Oenothera lavandulaefolia glandulosa Oenothera pallida Opuntia polycantha Orobanche fasciculata Oxybaphus linearis Oxytropis lambertii Pediocactus simpsonii Penstemon caespitosus Penstemon fremontii Penstemon osterhoutii Penstemon strictus Penstemon teucrioides Penstemon watsoni Phacelia glandulosa Phacelia heterophylla Phlox hoodii Phlox longifolia Phlox multiflora Physaria acutifolia Polanisia dodecandra Polemonium caeruleum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Portulaca oleracea Pulsatilla patens Ranunculus cymbalaria Rollinsia mUlligan Rumex crispus Rumex salicifolius Salsola iberica Schoenocrambe linifolia Senecio eremophilus Senecio integerrimus Senecio multilobatus Senecio spartoides Senecio wootonii Sisymbrium altissimum Sisymbrium loeseli Smilacina stellata Solanum triflorum Solidago sparsifolia Sphaeralcea coccinea Stanleya pinnata Stellaria jamesiana Stenotus acaulis Stephanomeria tenuifolia Streptanthus cordatus Taraxicum officinale Thelypodiopsis elegans Thlaspi montanum Tragopogon dubius Trifolium gymnocarpon Urtica dioica gracilis Verbascum thapsus Vicia americana Viola adunca xanthium strumarium Xanthocephalum sarothrae Zygadenus venenosus gramineus �-165- Table 2. Summary of bite-count January, 23-31, 1978. data from tame deer grazing Total Bites Pasture Species Pen evaluations, Percent of Total Bites Pasture Pen Browse Amelanchier utahensis Purshia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Artemisia tridentata Symphoricarpos oreophilus Pinus edulis Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Ceratoides lanata Quercus gambellii Tetradymia canescens Juniperus osteosperma Juniperus scopulorum Chrysothamnus nauseosus Ribes cereum Prunus virginiana Total Browse 25,887 13,836 5,474 2,169 522 191 130 125 112 105 49 28 23 5 5,867 2,279 1,724 1,890 337 600 o 79 3,138 39 91 4 34 o o 48,656 53.1 28.4 11.2 4.4 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 tr. tr. 24.5 9.5 7.2 7.9 1.4 2.5 0.3 13.1 0.2 0.4 tr. 0.1 tr. 5 16,087 99.7 o tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. 67.2 Forbs Artemisia Unknown frigida forb Linum lewisii Cryptantha sericea Artemisia ludoviciana Eriogonum sp. Chenopodium sp. 21 13 7 2 2 1 22 o o 0.1 o 68 6 8 46 104 0.1 0.4 Oryzopsis .hymenoides / 1 and St~pa comata Agropyron inerme Poa sp. Sitanion hysterix Koeleria macrantha 27 3,264 0.1 13.6 30 21 3 0.1 tr. tr. Unknown 13 2,620 1,551 170 107 31 o 5 10.9 6.5 0.7 0.4 0.1 tr. 82 7,748 Total Forbs 0.3 tr. tr. Graminoids grass Bromopsis sp. Total Graminoids l/ Oryzopsis identification o and Stipa comata are combined of the two species. hymenoides tr. 0.2 as errors occurred 32.4 in �-166- Table 3. Summary of bite-count data from tame deer grazing evaluations, March 13.21. 1978. Species Total Bites Pasture Pen Percent of Total Bites Pasture Pen Browse Purshia tridentata Amelanchier utahensis Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Symphoricarpos oreophilus Juniperus osteosperma Pinus edulis Ceratoides lanata Mahonia repens Ribes cereum Quercus gambellii Tetradymia canescens Juniperus scopulerum Total Browse 23,803 10,447 1,439 1,366 363 136 102 58 55 47 45 42 o o 2,337 9,228 1,355 526 2 212 64 50 15 o o 868 84 50.3 22.1 3.0 2.9 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 11.2 44.2 6.5 2.5 tr. 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.1 2 4.2 0.4 tr. 37,903 14,743 80.0 70.6 865 641 439 205 61 53 53 40 38 36 28 27 23 11 61 15 304 59 1.8 1.4 0.9 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 tr. tr. tr. tr. 0.3 0.1 1.5 0.3 Forbs Artemisia frigida Xanthocephalum sarothrae Phlox hoodii Machaeranthera grindelioides Penstemon caespitosa Moss Liverwort Unknown forb Eriogonum sp. Artemisia ludoviciana Cryptantha sericea Stenotis acaulis Heterotheca villosa Linum lewisii Cirsium sp. Physaria acuminata Senecio multilobatus Total Forbs 2 2 o 2,524 o 150 o 10 2 42 o 27 o o o o tr. tr. 0.2 0.1 tr. 6 676 0.7 5.3 3.2 �-167Table 3. Summary of bite-count March 13, 21, 1978. (Cont'd). data from tame deer grazing evaluations, Total Bites Pasture Species Pen Percent of Total Bites Pasture Pen Graminoids 11 4,320 1.235 824 2.641 857 1,793 9.1 2.6 1.7 12.6 4.1 8.6 116 52 0 10 0 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 tr. 0.6 0.2 gracilis. 280 146 70 63 4 Total Graminoids 6,942 5,469 14.7 26.2 Poa sp. Agropyron inerme Oryzopsis hymenoides 21 and Stipa comata Sitanion hysterix Koeleria macrantha Bromus tectorum Unknown grass Bouteloua II Some Carex 11 Oryzopsis identification tr. sp. is included with Poa sp. due to errors in identification. and Stipa comata are combined as errors occurred of the two species. hymenoides LITERATURE in CITED Arthur, W. J., III. 1977. Plutonium intake by mule deer at Rocky Flats, Colorado. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 123pp. Bartmann, R. M. 1977. Piceance deer study - food habits technique development. P. 117-123. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 1):1-123. (Proc.). Halford, D. K. 1974. A method for artificially ralslng mule deer fawns. M.S. Thesis. Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 21pp. Prepared by ~Ck4J hJ· ~.~ ichard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1978 -169JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Colorado --------~~~~~~---------------- Project No. W-38-R-33 Deer-Elk Investigations Work Plan No. 17 2 Systems Modeling Big Game Populations: Simulations of the Carrying Job T it Le C=a=_p~a_=c::cic::t'_Ly~o:..:f'___'t:::.:h~e:=:.._R=o_=c~k:.Ly~M::::o:::u:::n~t::.: n~:::N_=a:.::t-=i:.:o:..:n::::a:::l~P::..:a=_r=_k= __ Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 D. L. Baker, N. T. Hobbs, D. G. Milchunas, D. W. Reichert, G. D Bear, M. Campion, R. B. Gill, P. H. Neil, D. R. Stevens, G. Wagner, D. M. Swift, J. E. Ellis, L. Stevens. ABSTRACT Composition and quality of diets of tame elk as well as relative abundance of major food items were examined on winter and summer ranges in Rocky Mountain National Park during the 1977-78 segment. As reported in Hobbs and Baker (1977), during the 1976-77 diet sampling period, graminoids were the most frequently chosen forages during both winter and summer, accounting for over 60 percent of observed bites. Mean browse consumption was greater during winter (~± 90 percent confidence interval = 32.7 ± 7.9) than summer (18.0 percent ± 7.5) and increased from 17.3 (± 10.7) percent in November to 32 (±7.9) percent in March. Mean crude protein content of summer diets was 12.6 (±3.8) percent, while winter diets contained an average of 5.4 (±0.31) percent protein. Mean in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) of winter and summer diets were 42.7 (±2.8) and 51.5 (±7.4) percent, respectively. Crude protein content and IVDDM of the diet declined acutely with advancing season from a high in midsummer to a low in late winter. During winter, decline in protein content of grass was correlated with an increased proportion of browse (leaves and stem) in the diet. As browse increased in the diet IVDDM decreased. Results of the 1977-78 winter sampling indicate nearly equal percentages of graminoids and browse throughout winter. Mean graminoid and browse ingestion were 49.81 C±8.51) and 44.36 C±8.82) percent, respectively. Eleven plant species accounted for 81.43 percent of the 132,152 bites observed in the composite diet totaled across animals, months and plant communities. Summer food habits sampling is currently being conducted. During September, 1977, total herbage biomass was estimated for seven vegetation communities comprising the Rocky Mountain National Park winter range. Biomass was estimated within 15 percent of the mean with 90 percent confidence. Estimates from all plant communities ranged from a low of 33.11 (+4.38) grams per square meter (333.1 + 43.8 kg/ha) in ponderosa pine-shrub to a-high of 179.07 (+19.71) (1,790.7 ± 197.1 kg/ha) in willow vegetation type. Reasonably precise e~timates of the more COTIllil0n species within each vegetation type were also calculated. Evaluation of elk forage quality for both the 1976-77 and 1977-78 sampling periods is currently in progress. ��-171SYSTEMS MODELING BIG GAME POPULATIONS: SIMULATIONS OF THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK ELK WINTER RANGE D. L. Baker and N. T. Hobbs PROGRAM NARRATIVE OBJECTIVE To develop and test a model simulating carrying capacity of elk winter using Rocky Mountain National Park as a study population. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To determine what plant species on Rocky Mountain National elk winter and summer ranges constitute elk food. Park 2. To estimate relative quantities winter diets of elk. in the 3. To examine preference the relationship between for forage plants. 4. To assess available the quantity, chemical content, to elk wintering in RMNP. 5. To develop and test an elk carrying METHODS ranges of individual plant nutritional species quality and elk and digestibility capacity simulation (RMNP) of foods model. AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in the winter carrying capacity study have been previously described (Hobbs and Baker 1977). Detailed methodology and study area description for the summer experiment are presented in the enclosed study plan (Appendix 1) "Quantitative and Nutritional Description of the Summer Diet Selection of Elk in Rocky Mountain National Park" prepared by D. L. Baker. RESULTS Food Habits AND DISCUSSION Sampling 1976-1977 Winter diet sampling was conducted for 10 days each month from November through March. Fifteen plant species accounted for 86.2 percent of the 155,250 bites observed in the composite diet totaled across animals, months, and plant communities (Table 1). Summer diet sampling was done 3 days each month from July to September. Ten species made up 87.3 percent of the 57,846 total bites (Table 2). Winter diets during this sampling period were dominated by bluegrass (Poa willow leaves (Salix spp.), mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana) aspen leaves (Populus tremuloides) and timothy (Phleum pratense). Important summer forages included sedges (Carex spp.), leaves, stems and inflorescences of willow (Salix brachycarpa, Salix planifolia), tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia pratensis), �-172Table 1. Mean percentage composition with 90 percent confidence intervals (C.l.) across 5 animals and all vegetation types during winter 1976-77 in Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP). Species listed are those which contribute 2 percent or more of total bites. Mean Percent 90 Percent C. r , Poa pratensis 24.5 +4.5 Salix spp . (leaves) 8.6 +3.4 MUhZenbergia 8.5 +5.3 7.2 +3.2 Carex spp. 5.7 +1.9 phZeum pratense 5.1 +1. 7 PotentiZZa 5.0 +2.3 4.2 +0.8 Bromus inermis 3.3 +1.1 Salix spp. (stems) 3.3 +1.7 Eriogonum 3.2 +1.1 Stipa comata 2.6 +1.7 Purshia tridentata 2.6 +1.3 Species montana PopuZus tremuZoides (leaves) fruticosa CaZamagrostis canadensis umbeZZatum Table 2. Mean percentage composition with 90 percent confidence intervals (C.r.) for 1977 summer diets of elk in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species listed are those which contribute 2 percent or more of total bites. MEAN PERCENT 90 PERCENT C. t , Caretc spp. 43.2 +20.1 Salix pl.ani fol-ia 8.1 +4.5 SaZix brachycarpa 6.4 +4.9 SPECIES ------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-173- Table 2. Mean percentage composition with 90 percent confidence intervals (C.l.) for 1977 summer diets of elk in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species listed are those which contribute 2 percent or more of total bites (Continued). Mean Percent 90 Percent 6.0 +6.7 6.0 +4.5 Geum rossii 4.2 +3.2 Kobresia 3.9 +2.0 3.8 +2.9 spp. 2.9 +1.7 leptosepala 2.8 +3.1 Species Juncus balticus Deschampsia caespitosa myosuroides Calamagrostis Vaccinium Caltha canadensis C.1. and alpine avens (Geum rossii). Mean diet percentage and confidence intervals for individual species in all summer vegetation communities have not been calculated at this time. Percentage shown in Tables 3-5 are calculated from the total bites observed in each vegetation type. caespitosa), Table 3. Percentage composition of elk diet acroSs all animals in willowpark vegetation type during summer 1977 in Rocky Mountain National Park. July August September spp. 51.72 42.58 46.28 Salix planifolia 17.03 10.39 14.88 Juncus balticus 2.72 13.05 11.72 spp. 9.19 6.93 8.91 Salix brachycarpa 4.61 8.87 1.26 Deschampsia 4.87 1.91 4.44 2.90 2.82 2.83 Species Carex Vaccinium Caltha caespitosa leptosepala �-174- Table 3. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in willowpark vegetation type during summer 1977 in Rocky Mountain National Park. (Continued). Species July August September .75 3.48 1.85 o o 3.70 spp. .10 2.84 .32 % Grass 60.97 65.62 66.93 Forb 8.02 7.94 5.61 % Shrub 31.01 26.43 27.46 TOTAL BITES 7245 4544 6262 Calamagrostis Bromus Poa % canadensis inermis Table 4. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in krummholzecotone vegetation type during summer 1977 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species July August September spp. 50.64 37.57 46.55 Salix brachycarpa 12.46 16.73 19.27 Kobresia 11.33 8.78 2.15 Salix planifolia 6.15 5.83 7.94 Deschampsia 4.11 3.88 5.95 .14 5.54 3.46 1.91 6.45 .21 .10 .38 6.76 3.85 2.11 0 Carex Juncus myosuroides caespitosa balticus Geum rossii Calamagrostis Trifolium canadensis dasyphyllum �-175- Table 4. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in krummholzecotone vegetation type during summer 1977 in Rocky Mountain National Park. (Continued). July Species August September Poa artica .85 3.57 .70 Oxyria o o 2.28 % Grass 70.37 61.34 66.93 % Forb 9.61 14.26 5.61 % Shrub 20.03 24.40 27.46 TOTAL BITES 6965 5595 6180 digyna Table 5. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in alpine tundra vegetation type during summer 1977 in Rocky Mountain National Park. July August September 25.17 38.49 49.94 14.82 10.33 4.35 1. 79 13.77 12.67 Geum rossii 15.82 5.93 2.05 Caltha leptosepala 4.07 8.09 5.08 Juncus balticus 4.36 1.62 10.32 Salix planifolia 8.61 2.90 2.67 Poa artica 3.05 5.10 3.54 10.39 .62 .63 Species Carex spp. Deschampsia Trifolium Trifolium caespitosa parryi nanum �-176- Table 5. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in alpine tundra vegetation type during summer 1977 in Rocky Mountain National Park (Continued). August September 4.31 3.06 .03 Salix bra ch ycarpa 3.32 1.89 0 Salix spp. 0 1.07 3.79 Anemone 1.08 .58 2.27 .69 2.29 .68 % Grass 52.05 58.66 68.64 % Forb 35.89 35.47 24.52 % Shrub 12.06 5.87 6.83 TOTAL BITES 7941 6340 6774 July Species myos uroi des Kobresia canadensis Polygonum bistortoides Elk diets were similar with respect to rankings of forage classes during winter and summer (Fig 1). During both seasons graminoids were the most frequently chosen food item. Mean percentage of graminoids in the winter diet was 59.9 (+8.3); summer diets averaged 65.5 (+5.1) percent graminoids. Browse (leaves a~d stems of shrubs) consumption was-greater in winter = 32.7 + 7.9) than summer = 18.0 + 7.5) and increased significantly (P = 0.0003) through the winter period from a mean of 17.3 (± 10.7) percent in November to 42.9 (± 10.0) percent in March (Fig 2). (x (x Diet Quality Nutritional manner: quality of winter and summer diets were determined in the following 1. The proportion of each plant species in the diet based on frequency of bites observed was calculated. 2. The proportion by weight in the diet was calculated for which bite weights were estimated. for those species �Diet Composition 330/0 Shrub s Forbs 17 % I ,--...J -...J I 600/0 65% Grass and Grasslike Gra ss and Grasslike Winter Figure 1. Mean percentages of forage classes Rocky Mountain National Park. Summer in elk diets during winter and summer, 1976-1977, �• I 60 I • • •• • 50, ...- ~ ~ 0 ---lW 0 • • 1 40 • • I • z - • 30 w (j) ~ • • • • 3: 0 a: en 20 • I "- '-I P =0.0003 • • IOl • R2 =0.43 • • • Nov Figure 2. Dee Jon Feb Percentage of browse in 1976-1977 winter diets of five elk. Mar CXl I �-179- 3. Since weights were not estimated for all species, it was necessary normalize these proportions to sum to 100 percent. Therefore, by: diet in vitro digestible DIGjp = L (IVDDM. lp i=l, kp dry matter to (IVDDM was calculated x CW .. ) lJP where, DIGjp is digestibility of diet of animal j during grazing trial p, IVDDMiP is digestibility of plant species i in diet of animal j during grazing trial p, and kp is number of plant species contributing 2 percent or more of total bites during grazing trial p. CWijp is the proportion by weight of plant species i in the diet on animal j during grazing trial p. Similarly, crude protein CPo JP content of diets were calculated [E i=l, kp (N. ~ x CW .. )] ~p by: x 6.25 where CPjp is crude protein content of diet of animal j during grazing trial p, Nip is nitrogen content of plant species i during grazing trial p, and CWijp and kp are as defined above. Confidence intervals on diet percentages were calculated as simple + intervals on the means of untransformed percentages across five animals (Simpson et al. 1960:156). Although rankings of forage class composition of elk diets was similar between seasons, diet quality differed markedly between winter and summer. Crude protein content of summer diets averaged 12.6 (+ 1.4) percent while winter diets contained on the average 5.4 (± 0.3) percent crud; protein (Fig 3). Differences in digestibilities were less pronounced; mean summer IVDDM coefficients (51.5 ± 7.4) were 17 percent higher than winter values (42.7 ± 2.8) (Fig 3). However, the similarity of digestibilities of the two diets may be an artifact of inoculum source. Summer IVDDM coefficients were based on rumen inoculum collected from domestic cows fed native grass hay while winter coefficients were determined using inoculum obtained from wild elk grazing on winter range. We suspect coefficients for summer forages which were run on cow rumen fluid may be depressed. This bias is currently being investigated. Diet Quality and Taxonomic Composition--Taxonomic mix of winter diets appeared to respond to seasonal shifts in overwinter forage quality. Crude protein content of the seven most frequently consumed grasses declined significantly (P = 0.0001) during winter; mean protein content of grasses in March (4.0 ~ 0.6 percent) was 30 percent less than the average crude protein in grass in November (5.7 ± 0.8) (Fig 4). Declines were also observed in dietary protein (Fig 5). Crude protein in diets fell from a mean of 5.9 (± 0.3) percent in November to 4.8 (± 0.5) percent in March, an 18 percent decrement. Slope of the regression line of crude protein �-180- 12- 50 - ...~ -0 ..-.. -- 40 ~ 0 c: f0- ..-- <l> 6 - 0 ..-- Q) - '0.... ..c (/) 30 r- '"0 :J 01 '- 0 0 <l> <l> 0 - 20 - ..-- 0 <l> Q) 01 0 0 '- (l) > <! l- 8 f- (l) >. 10- 4 - 01 '- 10 ~ (l) > <! Summer Fig. 3. Winter 2I Summer + W· In.er Mean dietary in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) and mean dietary crude protein of winter and summer elk diets, 1976-77 . �-181- • • 7 • • 6 ~ 0 -- • • 5 en en 0 ~ (9 c 4 c <V 0 ~ 0... 3 • • <V "D ::J ~ u • • • • • R2 =0.37 2 P =0.0001 Nov Fig. 4. • Dee Jon Feb Crude protein content of grasses most frequently consumed by elk during winter, 1976-77. Mar �-182- - 7 ~ 0 ......••. • - <l> 0 • • 6 c C <l> 0+- 0 "0.... 5 <l> • R2 =0.77 P =0.00001 -0 ::J "0 • • • 4 Nov Fig. Dec Jon Feb Mar 5. Crude protein content of elk diets during winter, 1976-77 . �-183- in grass against time was significantly greater (P = 0.07) than for the corresponding regression of dietary protein with time (Fig 6). This difference in rate of decline resulted in a 1.6 percentage point difference between the two lines in late March (Fig 6). Such a difference in protein would likely be of substantial significance to the animal. Robbins et al. (1974) reported metabolic fecal nitrogen excretion for white-tailed deer fed a large variety of foods was 4.72 g of crude protein per 100 g dry matter intake. If this value is applied to elk, it is apparent that observed March diets would likely provide protein close to equilibrium requirements, while hypothetical diets composed of grass only would certainly fall below nitrogen requirements (Fig 6). The observed changes in diet mix mitigated the decline in forage protein. As the percentage of protein in grass declined, there was a concomitant increase in percentage of browse leaves and stems taken in the diet (Fig 7). Thus, it appears that elk compensated for decreased protein in grass by shifting intake to include more browse with a higher protein content. However, if this tactic successfully increased protein intake in late winter, why did the elk not consistently eat shrubs and maximize dietary protein during all months? There are two plausible explanations for the gradual change in diet mix. First, the difference between protein content of browse and grass increased during winter so that the relative benefit of consuming browse leaves and stems was greater in March than in November. Second, browse intake was not without penalty; as the percentage of browse in the diet increased, dietary IVDDM declined (Fig 8). These observed diet shifts are consistent with optimum fcod selection tactics. When grass and browse were equal in protein content, animals consumed primarily grass and thereby maintained relatively high protein intake and diet digestibility. When grass protein fell to critical levels, the elk switched to browse at expense of forage digestibility. CONCLUSIONS Like other herbivores in temperate environments, elk are confronted with seasonal changes in the quality of food resources (Fig 9). Diet quality is at a highpoint in spring or early. summer and declines sharply as the quantity of forage nutrients is diluted by elaboration of structural carbohydrate during plant growth. During winter, diet quality continues to decline although at a reduced rate. Loss of nutrients over winter is attributable to leaching of cell solubles from plant tissue. Elk mitigate loss of forage quality through alteration of diet mix. Seasonal shifts in diet quality necessitate grazing strategies which replenish endogenous nutrient reserves during periods when food resources are abundant and conserve those reserves when food is less available. Thus, winter and summer diets interact to determine year-round animal condition. Food Habits Sampling 1977-78 A second winter of elk diet sampling was conducted for 10 days each month from November through March, 1977-78. Eleven plant species accounted for 81.43 �-184- 7 - 6 ~ 0 .•.....•. c - 5 Q) 0 \0... Q) -0 ::J \. E? % \- 0 4 Ho: B D < BG P = 0.069 3 Nov Fig. 6. Dee Jon Crude protein in grass compared winter, 1976-77. Mar Feb to dietary protein during �-185- 60 • • 50 ---~ 0 • • • • • 40 Q) 0 c 30 Q) sn 3 0 \- CO 20 R2 =0.43 10 • P =0.0004 • • 0 3 Average Fig. 7. Crude 6 5 4 Protein in Gra 55 (%) Percentages of browse (leaves and stems) in elk winter diets as a function of mean crude protein in grasses. �-186- 55 • • • 50 -~ ~ ° "--" ~ 0 0 • • • • • 45 .0- <1.> • 0 40 R2 =0.57 P =0.00002 • ••• • • 35 I 0 Fig. 10 8. 20 30 Browse in Diet 40 50 60 (%) Dietary in vitro digestible dry matter as a function of percentage of browse (leaves and stems) in winter diets of elk, 1976-77. �-187- 80 16 ~ \ Protein \ \ 70 14 \ \ 0 •....... ~ 0 •....•. 60 0 \ >. c \ ...a - 12 ---- \ +- If) .--. ~ \ Q) +- 50 10 Q) 01 .- Q) u ::J 0 +Q) 0 ~ 0... ~ U 40 8 ,, 0 30 0 ""- 0-- _0 6 <, <, <, '0- - -0<, 20 <, <, ......• 4 Nov Fig. 9. Seasonal means Jon Mar course of changes in crude protein content and dry matter of elk diets. Points are for diets of five animals. in vitro digestible Q) �-188- percent of the 132,152 bites observed in the composite diet totaled across animals, months, and plant communities (Table 6). Mean diet percentage and 90 percent confidence intervals have not been calculated for all individual vegetation types at this time. Percentages shown in Tables 7-14 were calculated from total bites observed in each vegetation type sampled. Table 6. Mean percentage composition with 90 percent confidence intervals (C.l.) across 5 animals and all vegetation types during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species listed are those which contribute 2 percent or more of total bites. Species Mean Percent Muhlenbergia montana 90 Percent C.l. 14.34 +2.42 Salix spp. (stems) 10.46 +1.62 Salix spp. (leaves) 9.53 +3.35 Carex spp. 7.97 +2.54 Poa pratensis 7.51 +2.23 Potentilla 7.06 +3.72 6.59 + .85 5.99 +4.98 5.08 +1.30 4.22 +2.42 2.68 +2.18 % Grass 49.81 +8.51 % Forb 5.82 +3.47 % Shrub 44.36 +8.82 fruticosa Calamagrostis canadensis Purshia tridentata Populus tremuloides (leaves) Phleum pratense Eriogonum umbellatum �-189- Table 7. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in mesic meadow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species November December January February March Phleum pratense 15.34 30.22 24.12 17.41 2.50 Carex spp. 9.42 8.74 16.82 23.39 25.58 4.40 7.25 13.63 12.27 21.95 18.79 16.06 8.95 8.17 2.38 5.21 7.30 9.99 5.74 8.32 Potentilla fruticosa Poa pratensis Calamagrostis canadensis Salix spp. (leaves) 4.45 5.09 3.99 9.04 7.88 Bromus inermis 22.l3 .57 .58 .56 1.75 Salix spp. (stems) 3.35 2.71 6.94 6.15 3.81 Juncus balticus .62 5.66 7.57 4.28 3.69 o 11.95 3.99 1.88 0 .05 o 0 3.61 12.38 1.48 1.37 1.05 4.48 2.31 2.39 o o o o .10 o .06 o 2.00 % Grass 80.31 82.03 73.13 66.46 49.53 % Forb 3.97 1.62 1.43 2.19 1.63 % Shrub 15.73 16.35 25.44 31.35 48.84 TOTAL BITES 2,092 4,384 3,632 2,877 1,599 Muhlenbergia Rosa richardsoni spp. Deschampsia Alnus caespitosa tenuifolia Muhlenbergia (leaves) montana �-190- Table 8. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in wet shrub-meadow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species Potentilla fruticosa November December January February March 11.81 15.71 39.77 20.93 33.04 Carex spp. 8.61 12.38 20.92 18.99 27.08 Salix spp. (leaves) 25.05 13.89 .52 22.58 15.14 Salix spp. (stems) 19.88 19.10 14.70 6.82 4.82 2.70 12.26 10.16 18.55 9.14 Poa pratensis 11.43 5.40 3.79 2.96 1.04 Phleum pratense 7.08 6.29 1.81 2.32 2.08 Juncus balticus 1.72 1.51 2.96 2.05 2.54 Calamagrostis canadensis Deschampsia caespitosa 2.43 .92 0 .51 1.70 Muhlenbergia richardsoni 0 4.40 0 0 0 .22 .60 0 1.39 2.10 .45 2.47 0 .80 0 .12 0 2.11 0 .75 % Grass 38.57 47.38 40.53 46.66 43.97 % Forb 2.54 1.64 2.18 .32 .09 % Shrub 58.89 50.98 57.28 53.02 55.94 TOTAL BITES 7330 5838 5539 4734 3468 Lonicera Bromus Rosa involucrata inermis spp. �-191Table 9. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in wet meadow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species Carex spp. Potentilla fruticosa Poa pratensis Salix spp. (stems) Calamagrostis canadensis November December January February 7.54 l3.29 20.89 3.55 61.07 0 37.08 15.50 20.92 10.81 13.46 10.87 15.44 28.55 1.21 28.77 6.23 10.54 2.48 6.88 1.62 22.49 8.93 14.36 5.14 l3.52 3.90 0 15.96 4.38 March Salix spp. (leaves) Bromus inermis .17 .46 15.00 7.27 0 Phleum pratense 12.76 1.21 5.95 .53 1.28 14.85 0 0 0 0 .35 1.95 .74 2.84 .83 Muhlenbergia Juncus montana balticus Lonicera involucrata 0 0 0 0 4.08 Ceanothus fendleri 0 0 0 3.37 0 0 0 2.54 0 0 % Grass 52.09 50.37 69.50 57.09 69.61 % Forb 3.77 1.86 .25 .18 .60 % Shrub 44.14 47.77 30.25 42.73 29.78 TOTAL BITES 1724 1076 1613 564 l323 Muhlenbergia richardsoni �-192- Table 10. Percen~agecompositionof elk diet across all animals in ponderosapine/shrub vegetationtype during winter, 1977-78in Rocky Mountain National Park. November December January February March Species Muhlenbergia Purshia montana tridentata 15.17 53.26 43.53 49.56 48.13 6.86 12.37 29.42 25.41 16.12 Eriogonum umbellatum 14.82 4.38 8.47 5.57 4.40 Bouteloua gracilis 8.66 16.06 3.23 5.29 2.35 13.42 .38 2.27 .61 5.13 7.13 .20 .38 .22 3.42 parryi 2.04 2.86 0 .47 5.26 Carex heliophila 7.42 .60 .57 .36 1.55 Poa pratensis 9.53 0 .45 .19 .11 .31 4.38 1.09 1.85 1.52 Stipa comata Bromus inermis Danthonia Pinus ponderosa (needles) Ceanothus fendleri 3.47 0 .09 .85 .67 Astragalus spp. 2.53 .23 .03 .41 1.47 Agropyron spicatum 3.13 .28 .13 .08 .91 o 0 0 0 3.31 o 0 3.04 0 0 2.53 .23 .03 0 0 % Grass 67.53 73.70 51.84 57.08 67.70 % Forbs 17.08 8.59 11.07 10.31 9.05 % Shrub 15.39 17.71 37.09 32.61 23.25 TOTAL BITES 4502 3992 9815 3628 3746 Rosa spp. PrunuS virginiana (leaves) Populus tremuloides (leaves) �-193- Table 11. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in sagebrush vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species Muhlenbergia Purshia montana tridentata November December January February March 52.55 57.65 24.21 61.63 49.39 0 5.07 38.83 23.36 25.64 Eriogonum umbellatum 4.56 5.43 14.91 3.42 3.33 Ceanothus fendleri 6.30 3.95 4.77 1.59 7.23 Boute.loua gracilis 11.39 5.57 1.57 .93 1.27 Stipa 8.45 10.15 .74 .14 .26 comata Agropyron spicatum 7.77 2.18 2.36 .41 .04 Potentilla spp. 2.28 .85 3.49 2.72 2.54 % Grass 83.11 77 .87 30.61 66.46 53.37 % Forb 7.64 7.96 21.16 2.19 8.02 % Shrub 9.25 14.16 48.23 31.35 38.61 TOTAL BITES 746 1419 2032 3451 2282 Table 12. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in willow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species November December January February March Salix spp. (stems) 27.80 37.17 45.13 25.79 31.39 Salix spp. (leaves) 28.71 24.33 12.25 31.76 38.62 2.64 8.91 13.75 11.07 20.38 Calamagrostis canadensis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-194- Table 12. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in willow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. (Cont'd). November December January February March 5.33 9.17 19.35 8.81 4.72 Poa pratensis 20.27 12.79 3.85 7.64 2.42 Phleum 6.17 1.34 .43 3.06 .12 0 0 2.42 1.74 0 .01 .09 0 3.36 0 0 0 0 2.44 0 % Grass 36.83 33.46 39.49 32.98 28.10 Forb 2.10 .47 .31 .10 0 % Shrub 61.07 66.06 60.20 66.92 71.90 TOTAL BITES 6921 2322 4181 5746 2434 Species spp. Carex pratense Potentilla Betula Acer 01 /0 fruticosa occidentalis glabrum Table 13. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in willow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species Muhlenbergia montana Prunus virginiana Stipa comata Prunus virginiana Eriogonum Potentilla (leaves) (stems) umbellatum spp. November December January February March 25.80 43.02 36.23 34.11 28.31 0 11.84 3.67 39.90 4.95 32.46 7.59 6.25 1.84 1.22 0 11.30 4.17 8.83 20.33 14.78 6.09 5.32 8.86 7.34 10.72 3.46 8.05 1.06 1.06 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-195- Table 13. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in willow vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. (Cont'd). November December January February March .58 5.92 6.25 1.29 2.13 o 0 15.46 0 0 o 0 0 0 12.67 Poa pratensis 6.38 1.04 4.82 .16 0 Potentilla 2.32 0 4.82 .91 .53 .58 .83 0 .29 6.76 o 1.71 2.66 .32 1.81 o 0 0 0 4.90 o 1.54 0 0 2.55 % Grass 66.96 60.82 51.98 38.60 34.06 % Forb 28.70 12.17 19.70 10.67 16.18 % Shrub 4.35 27.01 28.32 50.73 49.76 TOTAL BITES 345 2399 1391 3093 1879 Species Bouteloua gracilis Purshia tridentata Symphoricarpus oreophilus fruticosa Lichen Juncus balticus Acer glabrum Rosa spp. Table 14. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in aspen vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. Species Populus tremuloides November December January February March (leaves) 32.23 34.27 35.39 33.36 53.20 28.97 17.47 15.75 5.87 16.91 .98 16.54 16.58 27.59 7.66 .63 .44 11.36 12.00 7.89 Poa pratensis Calamagrostis Salix canadensis spp. (leaves) �-196- Table 14. Percentage composition of elk diet across all animals in aspen vegetation type during winter 1977-78 in Rocky Mountain National Park. (Cont'd). Species November December January February March Salix spp. (stems) 8.17 3.44 6.10 6.84 2.21 Phleum pratense 3.05 12.04 3.98 3.25 .52 Carex spp. 1.19 7.23 3.93 2.18 3.99 (stem) 1.12 4.01 2.29 2.25 2.79 (leaves) 7.38 0 0 0 0 6.10 0 0 0 0 .95 .84 0 3.83 0 .19 .04 3.60 1.23 0 Populus tremuloides Prunus virginiana Ceanothus fendleri Potentilla fruticosa Juncus balticus Danthonia parryi 2.14 2.60 0 0 0 Bouteloua gracilis 0 0 0 0 3.12 % Grass 38.59 56.73 43.85 40.33 32.20 % Forb 7.89 .04 .02 .21 15.81 % Shrub 53.52 43.23 56.13 59.46 52.00 TOTAL BITES 4294 2267 4577 3816 3081 Graminoid and browse (leaves and stem of shrubs) consumption was relatively constant throughout the winter. Mean percentage of grasses and grasslikes in the winter diet was 49.81 (± 8.51) percent. This forage class was dominated by mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana), sedges (Carex spp.), bluegrass (Poa pratensis) and canadian reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis). Browse species accounted for 44.36 (+ 8.82) percent of the winter diet. Willow stems and leaves (Salix spp.), shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa), bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and aspen leaves (Populus tremuloides) were outstanding in this forage class. Forbs contributed 5.82 (± 3.47) percent to the winter diet and were generally insignificant with the exception of sulphur flower (Eriogonum umbellatum). �--197- Differences in diet choices between months and between been statistically tested. Sampling Herbage Biomass communities have not 1977-78 During September 1977, 960 quarter meter quadrats were ground level clipped of all herbaceous vegetation. Twenty-seven different species were separated, sacked, dried, and weighted. Estimates of willow and aspen leaves were made in early fall when the majority of leaves had fallen. In addition, current annual growth of aspen, willow, shrubby cinquefoil, and bitterbrush twigs was collected from 200 two meter plots. Total herbage biomass was estimated within 15 percent of the mean with 90 percent confidence. Reasonably precise estimates of the more common species within each vegetation type were obtained (Tables 15-22). Table 15. Biomass estimates and percentage composition for standing herbage in ponderosa pine-shrub vegetation type. Biomass estimates are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Species Biomass Forbs 7 .51 (±1.9 1) 22.68 5.73 (±0.97) 17.30 5.46 (±1.09) 16.49 2.17 (±0.45) 6.55 1. 83 (±O.60) 5.52 Carex heliophila 1.62 (±O.42) 4.89 Purshia 1.51 (±1. 14) 4.56 1.46 (±O. 50) 4.41 1.36 (±0.30) 4.11 Misc. shrub 1.10 (±0.91) 3.32 Agropyron smithii 1. 0 1 (.:to. 36) 3.05 Danthonia parryi 0.84 (.:to. 54) 2.54 Agropyron spicatum Muhlenbergia Stipa montana comata Bouteloua tridentata Eriogonum Koleria gracilis umbellatum cristata (g/m2) % Composition �-198- Table 15. Biomass estimates and percentage composition for standing herbage in ponderosa pine-shrub vegetation type. Biomass estimates are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. (Continued). Biomass Species Chrysopsis villosa Misc. grass spp. Potentilla 2 (g/m ) % Composition 0.80 (±0.60) 2.42 0.43 (±0.32) 1.29 0.25 (±0.22) 0.76 33.11 (±4.38) TOTAL Table 16. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in grassland vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Shrub estimates are for current growth only. (g/m 2 ) % Composition Species Biomass Forbs 14.76 (±1.73) 21.87 8.74 (±l.76) 12.95 montana Muhlenbergia Danthonia parryi 6.94 (±l.76) 10.28 Bouteloua gracilis 6.84 (±1.38) 10.14 6.50 (±0.94) 9,63 Stipa comata Potentilla spp. 5.17 (±1.38) 7.66 Agropyron smithii 4.62 (±1.28) 6.85 Agropyron spicatum 4.l3 (±1.05) 6.12 Koeleria cristata 3.12 (±0.48) 4.62 2.46 (±0.49) 3.65 2.39 (±l.21) 3.54 Carex heliophila Eriogonum umbellatum �-199- Table 16. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in grassland vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Shrub estimates are for current growth only. (Continued) . Biomass Species Chrysapsis (g/m2) % Composition villosa (stems and leaves) Paa spp. 0.79 (±0.62) 1.17 0.48 (±0.20) 0.71 Carex spp. 0.31 (±0.11) 0.46 Juncus balticus 0.06 (±0.06) 0.09 0.02 (±0.03) 0.03 .02 (±0.03) 0.03 Misc. grass Festuca idahaensis TOTAL 67.48 (±3.39) Table 17. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in wet shrub-meadow vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Leaf estimates are for leaves on the ground in late November. Species Carex spp. Calamagrastis canadensis Forbs Biomass (gm/m2) % Composition 54.02 (±12.18) 39.20 35.23 (±7.91) 25.57 18.98 (±5.12) l3.77 Phleum pratense 6.72 (±2.64) 4.87 Salix spp. (stems) 4.67 (±2.10) 3.39 3.47 (±1.09) 2.52 3.22 (±1.46) 2.34 Paa spp. Patentilla (stems) fruticasa �-200- Table 17. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in wet shrub-meadow vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Leaf estimates are for leaves on the ground in late November. (Continued). Biomass Species Salix spp. Glyceria Juncus (leaves) grandis balticus (gm/m2) % Composition 2.71 (±1.49) 1.20 2.24 (±1.26) 1.76 2.22 (±1. 42) 1.61 Sporabolis crytandrus 1.39 (±1.0l) 1.01 Deschampsia caespitosa 1.01 (±.689) 0.73 .99 (+.75) 0.72 Misc. grass 137.79 TOTAL (±17. 47) Table 18. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in wet meadow type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Biomass 2 (g/m ) % Composition 46.41 (±12.24) 41.44 16.87 (±4.30) 15.06 13.40 (±4.80) 11.96 10.06 (±3.49) 8.98 8.40 (±5.12) 7.50 7.59 (±3.36) 6.78 3.09 (±1.88) 2.76 Misc. grass 2.96 (±1.47) 2.64 Poa spp. 1.48 (±0.56) 1.32 Species Carex spp. Forbs Glyceria Juncus grandis balticus Deschampsia Calamagrostis Phleum caespitosa canadensis pratense ---------------------------.------------------------------------------------ �-201Table 18. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in wet meadow type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. (Continued). Species 2 (g/m ) Biomass Muhlenbergia richardsoni % Composition 1.07 (.±.76) 0.95 Sporabolis crytandrus 0.49 (.±.72) 0.44 Potentilla spp. 0.l3 (.±0.15) 0.12 lll. 99 TOTAL Table 19. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in the mesic meadow vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Species Carex (g/m2) % Composition (.±12.70) 29.51 Biomass spp. 33.82 22 .57 (.±8.l3) 19.69 14.28 (.±5.64) 12.46 11. 56 (.±3.36) 10.09 8.35 (.±4.05) 7.29 6.49 (.±2.40) 5.66 6.33 (.±2.99) 5.52 5.79 (.±2.51) 5.05 Poa spp. 3.25 (.±1.28) 2.83 Misc. grass 0.79 (.±0.49) 0.69 Bromus inermis 0.47 (.±0.32) 0.41 Glyceria grandis Muhlenbergia Juncus richardsoni balticus Koeleria cristata Forbs Agropyron spp. Deschampsia caespitosa �-202- Table 19. Biomass and peycentage composition for standing herbage in the mesic meadow vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. (Continued). Species Biomass % Composition 0.40 (±0.49) 0.35 pratense 0.37 (±0.45) 0.32 spp. 0.12 (±0.18) 0.10 Calamagrostis Phleum 2 (g/m ) Potentilla canadensis 114.60 (±14.53) TOTAL Table 20. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in sagebrush vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Shrub estimates are for current growth only. % Composition Species Artemisia tridentata (stems and leaves) 13.90 (±3.43) 28.76 8.02 (±1.69) 16.59 5.16 (±0.96) 10.67 4.98 (±2.15) 10.30 3.08 (±0.78) 6.37 3.07 (±0.93) 6.35 2.05 (±0.81) 4.24 Carex heliophila 1.79 (±0.46) 3.70 Eriogonum umbellatum 1.39 (±0.73) 2.87 Agropyron smithii 1.28 (±0.68) 2.65 Muhlenbergia montana Forbs Chrysopsis villosa (stems and leaves) Agropyron Stipa spicatum comata Bouteloua gracilis �--203- Table 20. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in sagebrush vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Shrub estimates are for current growth only. (Continued). Species Biomass (g/m 2 ) % Composition Purshia tridentata 0.99 (±0.56) 2.04 Koeleria cristata 0.97 (±0.31) 2.01 Danthonia parryi 0.45 (±0.31) 0.93 Potentilla spp. 0.36 (±0.26) 0.74 0.22 (±0.18) 0.45 0.16 (±0.10) 0.31 0.01 (±0.01) 0.02 Poa spp. Festuca Carex idahoensis spp. TOTAL 48.33 (±4.08) Table 21. Biomass and percentage composition for standiIlg herbage in willow vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Leaf estimates are for leaves on the ground during late November. Species Carex spp. Calamagrostis Salix Biomass canadensis spp. (stems) Forbs Salix spp. (leaves) Poa spp. (g/m 2 ) % Composition 92.00 (±15.99) 51.38 59.09 (±16.42) 33.00 10.67 (±4.27) 5.96 6.54 (±2.97) 3.65 6.23 (±3.68) 3.48 1.94 (±0.84) 1.08 �-204- Table 21. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in willow vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Leaf estimates are for leaves on the ground during late November. (Continued). Biomass Species Phleum spp. Glyceria grandis Misc. grass 2 (g/m ) % Composition 1.08 (±1.0l) 0.60 0.52 (±0.79) 0.29 0.42 (±0.37) 0.23 179 .07 (±19 .71) TOTAL Table 22. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in the aspen vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Leaf estimates are for leaves on the ground in late November. Biomass Species Populus (g/m2) % Composition tremuloides 27.28 (±7.39) 27.74 Forbs 26.51 (±4.43) 26.70 Poa spp. 10.64 (±2.03) 10.71 Phleum 8.66 (±2.03) 8.72 8.65 (±5.78) 8.71 inermis 4.53 (.±3.02) 4.56 spp. (stems and leaves) 3.06 (.±1.43) 3.08 2.10 (.±0.94) 2.11 0.98 (.±0.71) 0.98 (leaves) pratense Calamagrostis Bromus canadensis Rosa Populus tremuloides (stems) Agrostis album ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-205- Table 22. Biomass and percentage composition for standing herbage in the aspen vegetation type. Biomass entries are mean grams per meter squared with 90 percent confidence intervals. Stem estimates are for current growth only. Leaf estimates are for leaves on the ground in late November. (Continued). Biomass Species (g/m 2 ) % Composition 0.97 (±0.71) 0.98 0.42 (±0.35) 0.27 0.27 (±0.33) 0.42 0.26 (±0.18) 0.26 Misc. grass 0.34 (±0.30) 0.34 Misc. shrub 0.22 (±0.29) 0.22 TOTAL 99.30 (±8.97) Juncus balticus Glyceria grandis Deschampsia Agropyron Nutritional caespitosa spp. Analysis and Diet Quality Chemical analysis on the major species in the 1977-78 elk diet are currently in progress. LITERATURE CITED Hobbs, N. T., and D. L. Baker. 1977. Systems Modeling Big Game Populations: Simulations of the Carrying Capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park Elk Winter Range. Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Div., Fed. Aid Proj. W-38-R-32. Game Research Report., July, Part 2. p. 125-200. Robbins, C. T., R. L. Prior, A. N. Moen, and W. J. Visek. 1974. Nitrogen metabolism of white-tailed deer. J. Anim. Sci. 38(1):186-191. Simpson, G. L., A. Roe, and R. C. Lewontin. 1960. Harcourt, Brace, and Work, New York. 440pp. Prepared by _---"'-LL-=--c·~·:.~"",,--,-_--,gliiii!:...!f:~=~.1i~' Dan L. Baker Wildlife Researcher _ Quantitative zoology. �-206- STUDY PLA..'>iI STUDY PLAN NO. 2 QUANTITATIVE AND NUTRITIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SUMMER DIET SELECTION OF ELK IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK June 17. 1977 Dan L. Baker �-207- Study Number A. 2. Quantitative and Nutritional Description of the Summer Diet Selection of Elk in Rocky Mountain National Park. NEED Nutritional evaluation of wild ungulate diets in winter (Wallmo et ale 1977, Urness et ale 1975, Dietz et ale 1959, Short et ale 1966, Robbins 1973, Amman et ale 1973, Mautz et ale 1973, Ullrey et ale 1972, Ward 1970) together with the physiological adaptations and requirements of these herbivores (Silver et ale 1969, Silver et ale 1971, Holter et ale 1975, Ullrey et ale 1969, Thompson et ale 1973, Milchunas 1977, McEwan 1970, McEwan and Whitehead 1970) suggest that winter habitat in general is inadequate to meet total energy requirements and survival is dependent in part on energy stored as fat during summer and fall. Thus summer forage and its ability to meet nutritional requirements for lactation, reproduction, growth and replenishment of endogenous energy reserves may be significant to survival on nutritionally restricted winter habitat. Food habitat information is a first step in understanding animal-environment relationships. Food is consumed, digested and used metabolically to meet nutritional needs which are constantly changing (Moen 1973). Selection of forage species is a complex phenomena which can be influenced by availability, season, nutritional requirements and geographical location. Little quantitative information is available regarding the summer food habits of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis) in specific vegetation communities. At the same time little attention has been given to the nutritional evaluation of these forages and their potential role in meeting the physiological requirements of elk throughout the year. Food habits of Rocky Mountain elk in the western U.S. have been extensively reviewed by Kufeld (1973). Of pertinence to this study is that literature which deals with forage preferences and forage quality relevant to the area of Rocky Mountain National Park. In Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP), Stevens (1969) observed elk grazing and reported elk diets in summer (July-Sept.) consisted of 82 percent forbs (Trifolium dasyphy11um, Trifolium nanum). 32 percent shrubs (Salix sp., Vaccinium sp.) and 11 percent grass (Carex sp., Phleum sp.). Tileston (1962) collected 16 stomach samples from elk grazing in RMNP in summer. Grasses comprised 68 percent of the diet while shrubs and forbs contributed 17 and 15 percent, respectively. Unfortunately, the majority of studies describing diet selection of elk have been done by observing foraging animals from a distance, stomach analysis or by fecal microhistology. The inherent bias and shortcomings of these techniques have been reported (Bergerud and Russel 1964, Buechner 1950, Wallmo et al. 1973, Westoby et al. 1976, Adams et al. 1962, Keiss and Schoonveld 1976). �-208- One of the main objectives of this study is to quantify diet selection of elk for individual plant species in specific vegetation types, so diet observation of tame elk will be used to quantify ingested foods in RMNP in summer. This technique is described by Wallmo and Neff (1970). It has been found effective for describing food habits of other wild ungulates (McMahan 1964, Watts 1964, Healy 1967, Neff 1967b, Wallmo 1964, Regelin et al. 1974, Schwartz and Nagy 1976, Hobbs and Baker 1977). M~jor criticism of this method is directed toward the artificiality of using pen-reared animals to estimate the diet preference of their wild counterparts. Empirical evidence suggest that both tame and wild species select similar forage plants (Wallmo and Neff 1970, Schwartz and Nagy 1974, McMahan 1964, Healy 1967). Nutritional evaluation of summer elk forage has not been documented. Johnson et al. (1968) reported the chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of 19 alpine plants estimated to be important to bighorn sheep. Results of this study showed that crude protein and phosphorus content of all species decreased with advancing maturity while calcium and cellulose content increased. In vitro digestibility coefficients decreased with advancing maturity. Regelin et ale (1974) evaluated mule deer forage throughout summer (2867-3202 m) from logged and unlogged areas in Colorado. Crude protein and moisture content declined significantly between dates but in vitro digestibility did not change as the plants matured. B. OBJECTIVES The specific C. objectives of this study are: 1. To describe and quantify the summer (June-Sept.) elk in Rocky Mountain National Park. 2. To assess the chemical constitution selected by elk in summer in RMNP. EXPECTED RESULTS diet selection and digestibility of of foods OR BENEFITS Successful completion of the objectives of this study should provide basic ecological knowledge relevant to the quality of summer elk forage. More importantly, this information together with qlmntitative estimates of the quantity and quality of forage resources available to elk in winter will contribute to a more thorough understanding of the nutritive ecology of elk in Rocky Mountain National Park. D. APPROACH Food Habits Five tame elk (13 mo. old) previously reared and trained for food habits experiments (Hobbs and Baker 1977) will be used to estimate summer forage preferences in RMNP. Feeding observations will be conducted in three �-209- general plant communities comprlslng the sub-alpine-tundra region. These three communities (willow-park, krumrnholz-ecotone, alpine tundra) accounted for 97 percent of the 1,176 elk observed on summer range by Stevens (1969). 1. Willow-park (elevation 3050-3355 m). This community is characterized by mesic swales, wet marshes and xeric upland sites. Salix sp., Bet.!:!}.a. ~ndu.losa, _~~Eex sp ,, Calamo..8..!:.ostis canadensis, Deschampsia caespitosa, and Caltha leptosepala are the dominant species. Twentyeight percent of the summer elk observations were recorded in this type (Stevens 1969). 2. Krumrnholz-ecotone (elevation 3355-3660 m). This unit is the ecotone between the subalpine forest below and the alpine tundra above. Species of Salix occur in small patches and dominate the area. Small islands of Abies lasiocarna and Picea engelmanni are interspersed throughout. Deschampsia caespitosa is characteristic of the understory vegetation (Braun 1969). Stevens (1969) recorded 41 percent use by elk in summer for this unit. 3. Alpine tundra (3660 + m). This ecological region varies from sharp peaks and ridges to gently rolling expanses. Some soils are thin and rocky while others are stable with well developed rich soil. Kobresia meadow is the climax vegetation on the level winter snow-free sites. Other common species are: Deschampsia caespitosa, Silene acaulis, Trifoliu~ sp., Carex sp. (Marr 1962). Twenty-eight percent of the elk observed were in this community (Stevens 1969). The vegetation in this study area is complex and difficult to characterize. The boundaries between types are seldom discrete, but gradually intergrade into each other creating a mosaic of many small communities. The delineation of elk summer range into three major vegetation types was based on the best ecological data available as well as the logistical and statistical constraints inherer.t in sampling according to this study design. Experimental animals will be transported from the Division of Wildlife Research Center in Fort Collins to holding pens maintained at Rocky Mountain National Park. Animals will not be fed during the sampling period except for small amounts of grain used as rewards for loading into the transporting vehicle and leading to the study sites. The first day of each sampling period, the animals and observers will adjust to new surroundings and exposure to available forage. After the adjustment period a morning grazing trial will be conducted each day for six consecutive days. Due to the intensive recreational use of the study area and likely interference with grazing animals each trial will begin at sunrise and end in early morning. Since a maximum of three animals can be sampled in this time period, two days will be required to sample each vegetation type. Vegetation types will be randomly chosen with replacement for each day of the trial until each type has been sampled by each of the five animals. �-210- Two observers will lead two or three tame elk to a randomly chosen point within each vegetation type and allow the animals to graze. Animals will not be restricted to one vegetation type. When three animals are sampled in one trial each animal will be observed for one hour by each observer. Observers will alternate animals at hourly intervals until each animal has been observed for two hours. When two animals are sampled each observer will observe each elk for one hour. This design will allow ten hours of grazing per vegetation type with five replicate animals per type. Within each grazing trial elk will be randomly assigned to observer and grazing rotation. Each observer will count the number of bites by species consumed by elk. Forage choices, vegetation type, elk number and weather conditions will be recorded on tape recorders and later transcribed to data forms. Forage Evaluation Following each morning trial, observers will hand pluck forage samples of species grazed by elk. Parts of several plants will be collected to approximate the same proportion of leaves, stems and flowers selected. Locations of feeding sites and/or plants grazed will be marked by flagging during each trial. Approximately 100 g (wet wt.) of each species comprising one percent or more of the diet will be collected from marked locations, stored in moisture-proof bags, labeled by date, vegetation type, animal, plant species and frozen for later analysis. In addition 25 simulated bites will be collected in paper bags from marked locations for each species comprising one percent or more of the diet in order to obtain an average weight per bite. Estimates of diet composition based on these weights will be compared to diet composition derived from bite counts. Nutritional analysis of summer elk forage will include: Dry matter, ash, in vitro digestibility, gross energy, cell wall constituents, lignin, acid detergent fiber, and nitrogen. Statistical Analysis The principle questions asked in this study are what plants in summer constitute elk food, and what is the relative quality of this forage throughout summer and early fall. Statistical treatment of diet data (percentages) has been reviewed by Hobbs and Baker (1977). Similar analysis using t intervals will be used to make inferences on the precision of diet estimates. Multivariate analysis of variance hypothesis testing for: (Harris 1975, Peden 1972) will permit (1) differences in forage choices across animals between periods and between vegetation types. sampling �-211- (2) differences in forage quality between vegetation types. sampling periods and Stepwise regression analysis will be used in an attempt to relate elk forage preference to several measured attributes of vegetation (Hobbs and Baker 1977). A statistical weakness in this experimental design is lack of independence of observations. Due to logistical considerations, two or three animals will be grazed simultaneously, thus introducing possible bias in forage selection due to the influence of one animal upon another. Hopefully, this bias will be partially overcome by the homogeneity and relatively large size of each defined vegetation type. Scheduling Define study area and vegetation Pretrial June 1, 1977 types June 3, 1977 grazing with elk First sampling period: 1. Take animals 2. Pretrial 3. Begin grazing facility in RMNP grazing and plant collections End grazing Second sampling to holding June 23, 1977 June 24 through June 25, 1977 June 26, 1977 trial July I, 1977 trial period: 1. Take animals to RMNP August 2. Pretrial August 6, 1977 3. Begin grazing trial August 7, 1977 End grazing trial August 12, 1977 Third sampling grazing and plant collections 5, 1977 period: 1. Take animals to RMNP Sept. 6, 1977 2. Pretrial Sept. 7, 1977 3. Begin grazing trial Sept. 8, 1977 End grazing trial Sept. 13, 1977 and plant collection Analysis of data and writing Completion date manuscript Sept .-Dec. 1977 Feb. 1978. �-212- Responsibility D. L. Baker (Colo. Div. Wildl.) N. T. Hobbs (Nat. Res. Ecol. Lab-CSU) Lyn Stevens (Colo. Div. Wildl.) ) Don Reichert (U.S. Forest Service) ) Principal Investigator Principal Investigator Laboratory Analysis Estimated Cost Field work Laboratory analysis Equipment and supplies Computer time Mileage and per diem man-days 42 40 cost ($) 1,000.00 200.00 100.00 300.00 1,600.00 E. LOCATION The study area is bounded by Fall River Road on the north and Trail Ridge Road on the south. Fall River Pass delineates the western edge while Willow Park patrol cabin is the eastern boundary. This area lies partly in T6N R7SW, and partly in TSN, R7SW and is approximately 10So4S'W long. o and 40 26'N. lat. The general area is Rocky Mountain National Park, Larimer County, Colorado (see map) • F. RELATED FEDERAL PROJECTS This study is part of the Rocky Mountain National Park Cooperative Elk Project involving Rocky Mountain National Park, U.S. Forest Service (Rocky Mt. Forest and Range Experiment Station), Natural Resource Ecology Lab (NREL), Colorado State University, and Colorado Division of Wildlife. ��-214- LITERATURE CITED Adams, L., W. G. O'Rega, and D. J. Dunaway. 1962. Analysis of forage consumption by fecal examination. J. Wildl. Manage. 26(1) :108-111. Amman, A. P., R. L. Cowan, C. L. Mothershead, B. R. Baumgardt. 1973. Dry matter and energy intake in relation to digestibility in white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(2):195-201. Bergerud, A. T., and L. Russel. for Newfoundland caribou. 1964. Evaluation of rumen food analysis J. Wildl. Manage. 28:809-814. Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, tailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph.D. Thesis. Fort Collins. 189 p. and movements of whiteColorado State University. Buechner, H. K. 1950. Life history, ecology, and range use of the pronghorn antelope in Trans-Pecos, Texas. Am. MidI. Nat. 43(2) :257-354. Dietz, D. R., R. H. Udall, H. R. Shepherd, and L. E. Yeager. 1959. Seasonal progression in chemical content of five key browse species in Colorado. Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters Meeting 58:117-122. Harris, R. J. New York. 1975. A primer of multivariate 332 p. statistics. Academic Press, Healy, W. M. 1967. Forage preference of captive deer while free ranging in the Allegheny National Forest. M.S. Thesis. Pennsylvania State Univ., Unive:rsity Park. 93 p , Hobbs, N. T., and D. L. Baker. 1977. Simulations of the carrying capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park elk winter range. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid W-38-R-32, WP 17, Job 2. Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July (In Press). Holter, J. B., W. E. Urban, Jr., H. H. Hayes, H. Silver, and H. R. Skutt. 1975. Ambient temperature effects on physiological traits of white-tailed deer. Can. J. Zool. 53:679-685. Johnson, A., L. M. Bezeau, and S. Somoliak. 1968. Chemical composition and in vitro digestibility of alpine tundra plants. J. Wildl. Manage. 32:(4): 773-777. Keiss, R. E., and G. G. Schoonveld. 1976. Evaluation of the nutritional quirements of bighorn sheep. Colo. Div. Wildl., Fed. Aid W-4l-R-26, 1, Job 16. Job Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rept. January. p.1-56. Kufeld, R. C. 1973. 26(2) :106-113. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain elk. reWP J. Range Manage. Mautz, W. W., H. Silver, J. B. Holter, H. H. Hayes, and W. E. Urban, Jr. 1973. Digestibility and related nutritional data for seven northern deer browse species. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:630-638. Marr, J. W. 1962. Utilization of the front range tundra, Colorado. In: Grazing in terrestrial and marine environments. D. J. Crep (Ed.) Br. Ecol. Soc. Symp. 4:109-118. �- 21')- McEwan, E. H. 1970. Energy metabolism of barren ground caribou tarandus). Can. J. Zool. 48:391-392. (Rangifer McEwan, E. H., and P. E. Whitehead. 1970. Seasonal changes in the energy and nitrogen intake in reindeer and caribou. Can. J. Zool. 48:905-913. McMahan, C. A. livestock. 1964. Comparative J. Wildl. Manage. food habits of deer and three classes of 28:798-808. Milchunas, D. G. 1977. In vivo-in vitro relationships of Colorado mule deer forages. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Ft. Collins. l33 p , Moen, A. N. 458 p. 1973. Wildlife Ecology. W. H. Freeman Co., San Francisco. Neff, D. J. 1967b. Field feeding studies with tame deer. Ann. Meeting New Mex., Ariz. Sect. Proc. 6:68-77. Peden, D. G. plains. Wildl. Soc. 1972. The tropic relations of Bison Bison to the shortgrass Ph. D. Thesis, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins. 134 p. Regelin, \-1. L., O. C. Wallmo, J. Nagy, and D. R. Dietz. 1974. Effect of logging on forage values for deer in Colorado. J. Forestry 72:282-285. Robbins, C. T. 1973. The biological basis for the determination of carrying capacity. Ph. D. Thesis, Cornell Univ., Ithaca. 239 p. Schwartz, C. C., and J. G. Nagy .. 1974. Use of trained pronghorn to measure forage consumption. Proc. Sixth Antelope State Workshop 6: 58-73. Schwartz, C. C., and J. G. Nagy. 1976. Pronghorn dietary quality relative to forage availability and other ruminants in Colorado. J. Wildl. t1anage. (In Press). Short, H. L., D. R. Dietz, and E. E. Remmenga. 1966. mule deer browse plants. Ecology 47(2):222-229. Selected nutrients in Silver, H., N. F. Colovos, J. B. Holter, and H. H. Hayes. 1969. Fasting metabolism of white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):490-498. Silver, H., J. B. Holter, N. F. Colovos, and H. H. Hayes. 1971. Effect of falling temperatures on heat production of fasting white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 35(1):37-46. Stevens, D. R. 1969. Ungulate ecology studies in Rocky Mountain Park. National Park Service Progress Rep. on file, Park Headquarters, Rocky Mountain National Park. (Mimeo). 74 p. Thompson, C. B., J. B. Holter, H. H. Hayes, H. Silver, and W. E. Urban. 1973. Nutrition of white-tailed deer. I. Energy requirements of fawns. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(3):301-311. �-216- Tileston, J. V. 1962. Big game research projects. Technical Fed. Aid Project W-38-R. Colo. Div. Wildl. 79 p. Bull. No.9. Ullrey, D. E., W. G. Youatt, H. E. Johnson, L. D. Fay, B. L. Schoepke, and W. T. Magee. 1969. Digestible energy requirements for winter maintenance of Michigan white-tailed does. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3):482-490. Ullrey, D. E., W. G. Youatt, H. E. Johnson, A. B. Cowan, R. L. Covert, and W. T. Magee. 1972. Digestibility and estimated metabolizability of aspen browse for white-tailed deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(3):885-891. 1975. Nutrient content of mule Urness, P. J., D. J. Neff, and J. R. Vahle. deer diets from ponderosa pine range. J. Wildl. Manage. 39:670-673. Wallmo, O. C. 1964. Arizona's Wildl. Views 11(6):4-9. educated deer. Ariz. Game and Fish Dep. Wallmo, O. C., and D. J. Neff. 1970. Direct observation of tamed deer to measure their consumption of natural forage. Rocky Mountain For. Range Exp. Stat. Misc. Pub. 1147. 105-110 p. Wallmo, O. C., R. B. Gill, L. H. Carpenter, and D. W. Reichert. 1973. Accuracy of field estimates of deer food habits. J. Wildl. Manage. 37(4):556-562. Wallmo, O. C., L. H. Carpenter, W. L. Regelin, R. B. Gill, and D. L. Baker. 1977. Evaluation of deer habitat on a nutritional basis. J. Range Manage. 30(2):122-127. Ward, A. L. 1970. Stomach content and fecal analysis. Methods of forage identification. Rocky Mountain For. and Range Exp. Sta. Misc. Pub. 1147. p. 146-158. Watts, C. R. 1964. Forage preference of captive deer while free ranging in a mixed oak forest. M. S. Thesis. Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park. 65 p. Westoby, M., G. R. Rost, and J. A. Weis. diets by microscopically identifying J. Mammal. 57(1):167-172. 1976. Problems with estimating plant fragments from stomachs. �July, 1978 -217- JOB PROGRESS St at;e of Project Work COLORADO No. W-38-R-33 Job Title Deer-Elk 18 Plan No. Period REPORT Job No. Deer and Elk Management Covered: April 1, Investigations 1 --------------------------------- Study 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: Thomas M. Pojar. I gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of John Bartholow and Peter Strong of the Data Support Group, Western Energy and Land Use Team, Office of Biological Services, USF&WS. ABSTRACT The normal updating of all models with current harvest statistics was accomplished with copies of appropriate simulations provided to regional biologists. The major effort for field workshops was concentrated in the. southeast and northwest regions. The northwest region acquired a relnote computer terminal during this segment and all field workshops for the spring of 1978 were conducted by regional personnel. Several new simulations were created for pronghorn populations in the southwest region and one new bighorn sheep simulation was created in the southeast region. Generalized results of the population modeling program are contained in the publications listed in the result~ section. ��-219- DEER AND ELK MANAGEMENT STUDY Thomas M. Pojar P. N. OBJECTIVE Devise and test a statewide deer and elk management system. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Divide the state into a system of data analysis units (DAU' S) that are deemed practical for gathering and analyzing population data. 2. Based on currently available information, estimate population by DAU, through the simulation modeling approach. 3. Conduct training workshops in"volving management personnel to familiarize them with the interpretation of the output from the model and to incorporate empirical data from fieldmen directly associated with the DAU into the simulation to produce a candidate management simulation. 4. Identify data that are most useful for improving parameters. estimates parameters, of population RESULTS The following manuscripts were prepared: Pojar, T. M. 1977. Use of a population model in big game management. Proceedings of the Western Association of State Game and Fish Commissioners, 57th Annual Conference, Tucson, Arizona, July 10-13. (In Press). Pojar, T. M. 1978. A management perspective of population modeling. In: C. W. Fowler and T. Smith (eds.). Dynamics in Large Mammal Populations. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. (Manuscript submitted). \ prepare:b:b P2 t'~) Thomas M. fojar Wildlife Researcher ��July, 1978 -221- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~=------------ Proj ect No. W-38-R-33 Deer-Elk Work Plan No. 20 Job No. Job Title Brucellosis-Leptospirosis Period Covered: Investigations I --------------------------------- Survey of Big Game Animals in Colorado April 1, 1977 - March 31, 1978 Personnel: Marilyn Stevens, Joan Ritchie, Carol Ann Weinland, Ford, Gene Grenerd, Robert McLean, and William Adrian Richard ABSTRACT During the 1977 antelope season we checked 666 antelope for brucellosis and 589 for five serotypes of Leptospira (~. canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomona). All samples screened for brucellosis were negative, however, we did find a significant increase (13% of those tested) for serological titers for ~. hardj o. All other serotypes of Leptospir~ were considered negative. ��-223- BRUCELLOSIS-LEPTOSPIROSIS SURVEY OF BIG GAME ANIMALS IN COLORADO William J. Adrian P. N. OBJECTIVE To survey big game populations within the State of Colorado presence or absence of brucellosis and leptospirosis. for the SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Survey Colorado's antelope populations during the annual hunting season. METHODS for brucellosis and leptospirosis AND MATERIALS Blood sample kits were mailed to all antelope hunters with the request draw a blood sample from their kill and return the kit to the Colorado Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver, Colorado for processing. they The kit consists of a cardboard mailer, blood tube and stopper, plastic bag, rubber band, paper towel and instructions for obtaining the sample and mailing the kit. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Wildlife Research Laboratory in cooperation with the Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver, has in 1977 completed its ninth annual survey for brucellosis and leptospirosis in Colorado's big game populations. Brucellosis is a specific contagious disease which primarily affects cattle, swine, and goats. It can, however, affect many other animals including elk, deer, antelope and man (undulant fever, Malta fever and Bang's Disease). It is caused by bacteria of the Brucella group and is characterized by abortion in the female, and to a lesser extent, inflammation of the testes and infection of the accessory sex glands in the male and infertility in both sexes. Leptospirosis is a febrile (feverish) disease caused by certain species of leptospirae. The disease occurs with various manifestations in dogs, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and wildlife and is transmissable to man. During the 1977 season we checked antelope for brucellosis and five serotypes of leptospirosis (leptospira canicola, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomona). �-224- All licensed antelope hunters (5669) were sent blood kits and we received 2221 (39%) blood samples of which 1555 (70%) were badly hemolyzed and were not usable. Again in 1977, all samples tested for brucellosis were negative, however, in sharp contrast to previous years we found 13% of the samples screened for Leptospira had serological titers for ~. hardjo at the 1-10 level or higher. All other serotypes for Leptospira were considered negative. In 1974, the last previous serological survey for these disease in antelope, we found 4 - 1/10 and 2 - 1/40 serological titers for ~. hardjo. We considered those titers negative due to our large sample size and the low titers. The 1977 data shows 55 - 1/10, 15 - 1/40, 2 - 1/160 and 1 - 1/640 titers. During the 1978 hunting season both antelope and deer will be surveyed. The antelope survey is being repeated to follow the trend of ~. hardjo in antelope. Those areas with the highest ~. hardjo incidences will be special coded so we can contact the hunter later to find exactly where he took his animal. Once an infected herd can be isolated we will attempt to isolate ~. hardjo and confirm or discredit the serological data. The discrepancy between blood samples received and those tested for either brucellosis or leptospirosis is due to the condition of the samples when received at the laboratory; this is a highly variable factor from year to year depending on weather and the lag time from kill to laboratory. Generally, however, approximately one-third of all samples received are very good to excellent quality and approximately one-fourth are completely hemolyzed and unusable. ') Prepared by /6~<~;.t.:>::;;:" William Adrian Wildlife Researcher �July 1978 -225- JOB PROGP~SS State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Project No. Work Deer-Elk 22 Plan No. Job Title Period Job No. Experimental Covered: Personnel: REPORT April Deer Inventory 1, 1977-March Investigations 1 ----------------------------- - Northeast Region 31, 1978 Allen Anderson, Brian Anderson, David Bowden, Randy Fischer, Howard Geduldig, Jennie Goldberg, William Lance, Sally McKenney, Judy Melzer, Vicki Jameson, Don Samuelsen, Gene Schoonveld, Lynn Sexton, and Stan Vallejos. ABSTRACT Two plot stake types, two plot stake colors and 4 plot spacings were tested for differences in mean location times on 6 representative habitats of G.M.D. 20 (Big Thompson) deer winter range. Nonparametric analytical procedures were inconclusive regarding plot stake type or color. The mean location times of the 66 ft (20.1 m) spacing, however, were several times faster than the 132 ft (40.2 m), 264 ft (80.5 m) or 528 ft (160.9 m) spacings. On a randomly selected square mile within each of 19 stratum, deer pellet groups were counted on 320, 10 m2 circular sample plots located at 66 ft (20.1 m) intervals along two pairs of randomly-selected transects one mile (1.6 km) in length. Eight subsampling plans were developed from analyses of these data and a subsampling plan involving one pair of randomly selected transects one-half mile (0.8 km) apart was selected. In this plan, each transect has 20 plots per group consisting of 10 consecutive plots spaced 66 ft (20.1 m) separated by 30 chains (1,980 ft) from another set of 10 plots also spaced 66 ft (20.1 m). It is pointed out that sample size requirements may be adquately estimated only from counts of deer pellet groups during spring on permanent sample plots from which all deer pellet groups have been removed during the fall. Buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios were estimated from 1,067 deer classified on 20 routes, November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977. Ratios did not differ significantly (P = 0.10) between observers or methods of recording but the 1977 buck:doe (0.170) and fawn:doe (0.665) ratios were significantly (P = 0.10) greater than in 1976. Buck:doe ratios decreased significantly (P = 0.10) during the latter part of the 1977 breeding period. For the fourth consecutive year sample size requirements for the buck:doe ratio were impractically large. Fawn:doe ratios were adequately sampled to be within 10 percent deviation from the true value at the 90 percent confidence level. ��-227EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY - NORTHEAST REGION Allen E. Anderson and David C. Bowden P. N. OBJECTIVE To design appropriate sampling reliably estimate deer numbers on a preliminary sampling of a four administrative regions of and analytical procedures necessary to and buck:doe:fawn ratios on winter range based problem management unit within each of the the state. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To design and execute a preliminary sampling of deer pellet groups, or where domestic sheep may occur, helicopter counts of deer on the entire winter range of one Game Management Unit within each of the four administrative regions. 2. To design a sampling scheme based on the means, variances, and deer density strate estimated from Objective 1 capable of estimating mean deer numbers +15% at a = 0.05. 3. To sample buck:doe:fawn ratios on 12 or more randonlly selected, all-day walking routes on the winter range of one Game Management Unit within each of the four administrative regions. This report is concerned only with the preliminary sampling of deer and elk pellet groups and buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios on the winter range of Game Management Unit (G.M.U.) 20 within the Big Thompson and North St. Vrain river drainages. METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer and Elk Census On the often heavily forested and precipitous terrain characteristic of G.M.U. 20 winter range, the distance between permanent plots is an important factor in the time spent relocating the stakes and marking the center of each permanent plot; hence must be considered in the design of efficient schemes for sampling numbers of deer and elk pellet groups. Stake shape and color may also affect relocation times. Because of the frequently high human use of some winter range areas, plot stakes ideally should not be obvious to the casual observer but readily visible to the biologist. An experiment was performed to determine the time involved in the location deer fecal group plot stakes and to test for differences in mean location times among the four combinations of two stake types and two stake colors. Stake height above ground varied from about 4 to 9 inches (10.2-22.9 em). of �-228- Six locations in habitats representative of the study area were selected. Within each location 3 rep l Lc at-Lons were run. Each replication consisted of 4 plots with 66 ft (20.1 m) spacing, 4 plots with 132 ft (40.2 m) spacing, 4 plots with 264 ft (80.5 m) spacing and 4 plots with 528 ft (160.9 m) spacing. In order to average out the effects of habitat changes on the unequal spacing design, the 66 ft (20.1 m) spacing test was run by having flagged wood survey stakes about 3 ft (0.9 m) in height located 528 ft (160.9 m) apart and then a plot 66 ft (20.1 m) from the flag. A similar arrangement was performed for the l32ft (40.2 m) and 264 ft (80.5 m) spacings (Appendix I). Plot relocation simulated actual field procedures on G.M.U. 20 (Anderson 1977). That is a two-person crew walked at a normal pace and both searching for the plot stake. Observers and the order of the 4 stake type-color combinations were randomly assigned. Time to locate a stake was recorded with stop watches to the nearest second except those stakes which could not be located in 60 minutes. A truncated score of 3,600 seconds was recorded for these stakes. The experimental plots were established by two persons who did not participate in the tests. Six persons, who had no previous experience in finding plot stakes were involved in the tests, May 18, 1977 to May 30, 1977. The stake types were reinforcing-bar and 0.375 inch (0.95 cm) angle-iron painted glossy blue or glossy green over silver rust-preventative. The training, field procedures and criteria for assessing deer and elk pellet groups have been described (Anderson 1977). Notable changes included an increase in habitat types (Appendix II) and the use of IBM PORT-A-PUNCH boards to record data directly onto data processing cards (Patton and Casner 1970). In 1976, data were collected on 71 square miles (183.9 km2) and an optimum allocation of the number of square miles to be sampled per stratum (± 10 percent at P<0.05) was calculated (Anderson 1977). Since the total sample size (59 square miles or 152.8 square kilometers) was impractically large, efforts during 1977 emphasized the determination of the most efficient way to subsample a randomly selected square mile (2.59 km2) and thus reduce the sample size. Note that these estimates were based on counts of deer pellet groups subjectively judged as "new" or voided during the previous autumn, winter, spring, and early to late summer, hence are gross approximations. In addition, the catastrophic heavy rainfall of 31 July 1976 may have washed sufficient numbers of "new" pellet groups from those plots on steep slopes to significantly affect results since field work continued until October 15, 1976. In 1977, counts of deer and elk pellet groups on temporary circular, 10-m2 (107.64 ft2) sample plots were made employing the following sampling scheme. On a randomly-selected square mile (2.59 km2) within each of 19 stratum, a set of 10 transects each 0.1 mile (0.16 km) apart, were plotted on U. S. Geological Survey Topographic Quadrangles. Each transect consisted of 80 plots, spaced 66 ft (20.1 m) apart, and hence, was a mile (1.6 km) in length and traversed the square mile (2.59 km2) in that cardinal magnetic bearing which would place most of the transect approximately perpendicular to the contour lines. The transects were numbered from one to 10 in sequence. The transects one and five, two and six, etc., which were one-half mile (0.8 km) apart were considered pairs. From the five pairs of transects, two pairs �-229- were randomly selected and new (subjectively estimated as <1 year old) and old (subjectively estimated as >1 year old) deer and elk pellet groups were counted. Thus, counts were made on 320 plots per square mile (2.59 km2) on each of 19 square miles (49.2 km2) during 1977. A variety of subsampling schemes were tested which could be applied to the existing sampling plan. Consider the estimation of variance in that plan characterized as stratified and multistage since the primary units (square miles) are stratified and then selected by simple random sampling within the strata. Each square mile (2.59 km2) is then systematically sub-sampled by random placement of the first transect within the first 0.1 mile (0.16 km) and every other transect is systematically located from that point. An overestimate of the variance of tbe mean number of fecal groups per plot can be obtained by simply obtaining the mean number of fecal groups per plot for each sample square mile (2.59 km2) and finding the variance within stratum and proceeding like ordinary stratified sampling; however, the finite population correction factor is not used. In the present study the primary interest was in subsampling design and the sample of size 1 in each stratum does not allow unbiased variance estimation. In the 1976 sample, however, the average within stratum variance based on square mile totals' was 40 percent of the variance among all square miles ignoring strata. The 40 percent figure is used as an adjustment factor in the analyses presented herein. Mule Deer Herd Structure The statistical and sampling rationale and field procedures in estimating buck: doe and fawn:doe ratios within C.M.U. 20 have been described (Anderson 1977). During 1977, 6 all-day walking routes were added to the 14 routes established in 1976. Some modifications in the 14 routes were made during 1977 to increase sample size. The 20 routes were run from November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977. Two methods were used in deer classification and entered separately on prepared forms. Method 1 included both unclassified single deer and groups in which one or more individuals could not be classified as an antlered buck, a doe, or a fawn of the current year and unspecified sex. Method 2 included only classified single deer and those groups in which all deer could be so classified. RESULTS Deer and Elk Census The mean search times by stake type, color and spacings are listed in Table 1. Although analysis of variance tests were performed, the tests for significant differences among stake type combinations were made on a basis of nonparametric test for equality of median locaticn times. Within each locationreplication and spacing set (one each for 66 ft (20.1 cm) ... , 528 ft (160.9 m» the 4 location times of the stake type combinations were compared to their median. The number of times a particular stake-combination was greater than and the number less than or equal to the median of the 4 comparable locations times are listed in Table 2. A chi square test was performed for each of the 5 sub tables to test for significant differences in median location times. These chi square values are reported below each subpart. Averaged over all spacings no significant (P<.05) difference in the median location times is indicated. However, both 132 ft (40.2 m) spacing (P<.05) �Table 1. Mean search times (seconds) by plot stake type, color and spacings. Angle Iron Green Mean Overall Mean per Number of 66 ft (20.1 rn) Segments 18.278 16.000 31.792 31.792 60.833 39.056 226.889 135.333 67.667 323.111 430.611 222.222 201.222 294.292 73.573 227.944 722.500 575.000 491.611 504.389 63.049 Plot Spacing ft m 66 20.1 59.722 33.167 132 40.2 214.556 264 80.5 528 160.9 Reinforcing Bar Blue Stake Type and Color Reinforcing Bar Angle Iron Green Blue Stake Type Only Reinforcing Bar - 259.056 Angle Iron - 223.847 Stake Color~ Blue - 210.049 Green - 272.854 I N l.U 0 I �-231- Table 2. Comparisons among 4 plot stake spacings showing the number of times a particular stake type-color combination was greater than, less than or equal to the median of the 4 comparable location times in seconds. Plot Spacing ft m 66 20.1 132 264 528 40.2 80.5 160.9 Overall Plot Stake Type and Color Equal To Or Less Than Hedian Time Greater Than Hedian Time Reinforcing bar, blue 8 10 Reinforcing bar, green 7 11 Angle-iron, blue 14 4 Angle-iron, green 12 6 Reinforcing bar, blue 4 14 Reinforcing bar, green 10 8 Angle-iron, blue 10 8 Angle-iron, green 12 6 Reinforcing bar, blue 7 11 Reinforcing bar, green 9 9 Angle-iron, blue 11 7 Angle-iron, green 10 8 Reinforcing bar, blue 13 5 Reinforcing bar, green 8 10 Angle-iron, blue 6 12 Angle-iron, green 9 9 Reinforcing bar, blue 32 40 Reinforcing bar, green 34 38 Angle-iron, blue 41 31 Angle-iron, green 43 29 1/ Each comparison has 3 degrees of freedom; Tabular X2 Calculated Chi Square Value 1/ 7.420 7.815 at P 8.000 1.946 5.778 4.730 0.05. �-232- ~ and 66 ft (20.1 m) spacing (P~.07) indicate the possibility of smaller median location time for the reinforcing bar stake. The overall test for differences in the two give: < Median > Median Reinforcing Angle-iron bar 66 84 78 60 x2 (1) = 4.508 (P~.03). It should be noted that an interaction is indicated between spacings and median location time. The 264 ft (80.5 m) spacing indicating no difference among the stake combinations in median location times and the 528 ft (160.9 m) spacings indicating preference for the angular iron stake, if any. The nonparametric procedures were used due to the existence of the extreme values from the stakes which were not found or were difficult to locate. The data were very non-normal with hetergeneous variances. Four stakes were not found on the 528 ft (160.9 m) spacing (2 of reinforcing bar and 2 of angleiron) and one stake at the 132 ft (40.2 m) spacing was not found. Thus, results of this experiment were inconclusive regarding plot stake color and type as important influents on median location time. However, the greater ability of the sharpened point of the angle-iron stake to penetrate rock fractures or tree roots recommend its use. It is clear, however, that the 66 ft (20.1 m) stake spacing greatly reduced relocation time. Hence, more time can be spent on plot search. Analyses of counts of deer pellet groups on 6,080 sample plots showed that a number of options are available for subsampling. 1. Only one of the two pairs of transects need to be used. 2. Only one of the two transects within a pair need be used. 3. Each transect of 80 plots can be considered in a variety of subgroups. The cases considered for each trap-sect are: (a) 8 groups of 10 plots spaced 528 ft (160.9 m), (b) 4 groups of 20 plots spaced 264 ft (80.5 m), (c) 2 groups of 40 plots spaced 132 ft (40.2 m), (d) 8 groups of 10 consecutive plots spaced 66 ft (20.1 m), (e) 4 groups of 20 consecutive plots spaced 66 ft (20.1 m), (f) 2 groups of 40 consecutive plots spaced 66 ft (20.1 m), (g) 4 groups of 20 plots (10 consecutive plots spaced 66 ft (20.1 m) separated by 1,980 ft (603.5 m) from another set of 10 consecutive plots also spaced 66 ft (20.1 m», and (h) 2 groups of 40 plots (20 consecutive 66 ft (20.1 m» spaced plots which are 1,320 ft (402.3 m) from 20 consecutive 66 ft (20.1 m) spaced plots). A nested analyses of variance was calculated for each data configuration using the group total as a basic data point. The components used in the fu~OVA are given in Table 3. The variance which would have been obtained on a single square mile basis can then be predicted by + (1 -~) s; + (1 - ~) mk In the analysis of variance n0 adjustment was made for stratification. An adjusted variance was also calculated based on the 40 percent reduction for the average within strata variance estimated, as noted above, from the 1976 data. This factor applies only to the sf term. The number of square miles needed to obtain the same precision of one square mile sampled with the 320 plots are given for each subsampling plan in Table 4. For example, under �-233- plan g with m = 1, k = 2, h = 1 has used m = 1 of the two pairs of transects, k = 2 of the 2 transects within a pair and h = 1 of the 4 groups of plots. The plot group is 20 plots with 10 consecutive plots 1,980 ft (603.5 m) spacing and 10 consecutive plots at 66 ft (20.1 m) spacings. It would take 1.67 square miles (4.3 km2) with this sampling pattern to give the same precision as one square mile with the full 320 plots. Note the subsampling pattern consists of only 40 plots. However, adjusting for stratifification, which should be done, it will take 2.67 square miles (6.91 km2) of this pattern of 40 plots to have equal efficiency of the 320 plots per square mile (2.59 km2) sample. Table 3. Components used in the nested analysis of variance among subsampling plans for counts of deer pellet groups on sample plots on mile-long transects within a square mile. No. of Units Source Transects n miles mean M pairs within miles mean sq. /KH m a pair K transect within mean sq. /H pairs k a transect H groups within mean sq. transect h a square mile within Groups within Sample Sizes Component N Square mile Pairs within Variance 8 located square/MKH Because of the approximate nature of the values in Table 4, no further estimates of relative efficiencies sample size requirements of each subsampling plan will be presented. Valid but still tentative estimates of sample size requirements can be made from counts of deer pellet groups on permanent sample plots installed during the summer of 1978 and read during autumn 1978 and again in spring 1979. Several years of consecutive readings will be necessary before a firm estimate of sample size requirements can be made. In view of the material presented in Table 4, which of the 8 subsampling plans should be used on the winter range of G.M.U. 20? The 66 ft (20.1 m) spacing between plot stakes is clearly the fastest and often the only practically feasible spacing in the often dense timber and precipitous terrain characteristic of this winter range. Since the 66 ft (20.1 m) plot spacing is employed in subsampling plans d, e, f and g, these are the plans of choice even though the 528 ft (160.9 m) spacing of plan a is most efficient. Even though plan g appears relatively less efficient than plans f or h, the smaller number of sample plots per group recommend it. An adequate assessment of these candidate subsampling plans, however, should ideally include time studies of travel between plots within groups, between groups of plots, and search time on plots which have been permanently marked and cleared at least once. �-234- Table 4. The number of square miles to be sampled for each of 8 subsamp1ing plans if efficiency equal to that of 320 plots is desired. 1/ Plan a b c d e f g Unadjusted m = 1 k = 2 h = 1 1.59 m k h 1 2 1 m k 2/ m k h 1 2 1 2.47 1.40 m k h 1 2 1 1. 99 20 1. 32 m k h 1 2 1 1.80 40 h 1 2 1 m k h 1 2 1 2.32 m k h 1 2 1 4.30 m k h 1 2 1 1.89 m k h 1 2 1 3.22 m k h 1 2 1 1.52 m k h 1 2 1 2.29 m k 1 2 1 1.67 m k h 1 2 1 2.67 20 1 2 1 1. 36 m k 1 2 1 1. 90 40 h h m = 2 k = 2 h = 1 Number of Square Miles Adjusted Number Plots per Group m k h m k h m k h 2 2 1 1 1 1 1.31 2.04 2.06 h m k h m k h 2 2 1 2 2 1 1.77 3.60 10 10 20 m k h 1 1 1 3.66 40 1/ - Note number of plots sampled per square mile is number of plots per group times mkh. 1/ Adjusted variance based on the 40 percent reduction strata variance estimated for the 1976 datA. for the average within �-235- Elk pellet groups have received only cursory attention herein. But the estimated sample size (+ 10 percent at P = 0.05) of 83 square miles (215 km2) as compared to 58 (150.2 km2) for deer in 1976 (Anderson 1977) suggests that much larger sample sizes may ultimately be necessary. Improved stratification, specifically for elk, should reduce the variance since ITlanysquare miles of lower elevation deer winter range in G.M.D. 20 support few, if any, elk. Mule Deer Herd Structure Total counts by Methods 1 and 2 for observer 1 and observer 2 on 20 routes are listed in Table 5. Mean group size differed significantly (P< 0.05) among strata (Table 6). Buck:doe and fanw:doe ratios are compared between methods for each observer and between observers for each method and between observers for both methods combined (Table 7). No significant (P = 0.10) differences were detected in these comparisions. But a comparison of the 1976 and 1977 buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios showed a significant (P = 0.10) increase in both ratios during 1977. When the same comparisons were limited to the original 14 routes and observer 1 (A.E.A.), however, buck:doe ratios did not increase but fawn:doe ratios increased significantly (P = 0.10) in 1977. A comparison of buck:doe and fawh:doe ratios obtcined during peak (prior to December 12) and late (after December 12) breeding periods (Anderson and Medin [1967]) shows no change in fawn:doe ratios but a significant (P< 0.10) decrease in the buck:doe ratios. A regression of the 1976 fa~l:doe ratios (Y) on the 1976 mean pellet groups per plot (X) within 13 stratum yielded a correlation coefficient of -0.159. But the number of deer recorded (Y) during the 1976 herd structure sampling regressed on the 1976 mean pellet groups per plot (X) within 14 stratum yielded a significant (P = 0.02) correlation coefficient of 0.592. The foregoing analyses suggest speculations that mean group size may be changing over the month long sampling period and that habitat differences between stratum probably influence both visibility and sociality of deer. The 1977 increase in the fawn:doe ratios appears genuine but the increase in buck:doe ratio may be more a function of observer 2 encountering a few large aggregations on one of the six new routes. The general lack of significant differences in buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios between observers or between methods has held constant for 4 years. Significantly fewer bucks seen during the late breeding period is expected and likely associated with their lesser activity. The lack of significant correlation between fawn:doe ratios and mean pellet groups per plot seems to negate the hypothesis that fawn:doe ratios were higher at lower winter range densities (Bowden and Anderson 1976 ). In Table 8 it is once again clear that the buck:doe ratio is an intractable sampling problem on winter range. It is probable that the present 20 routes will generally sample the fawn:doe ratio within 15 percent of the true ratio at P = 0.05 and often within 10 percent of the true ratio at P = 0.10. �-236Table 5. Number of deer classified by two observers using two methods on 20, all-day walking routes on Big Thompson (G.M.U. 20) winter range, November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977 . Method 11./ Fawn UncI Observer Strata Buck Doe 1 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 5 Method il/ Doe Fawn Total Total Buck 0 0 2 2 1 5 0 0 0 1 4 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 20 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 6 1 1 0 1 3 1 3 1 5 7 1 2 2 1 6 0 7 4 11 7 0 0 0 1 1 0 5 5 10 8 0 3 0 3 6 0 4 4 8 8 0 1 0 2 3 1 4 3 8 9 0 3 1 2 6 0 15 11 26 9 0 2 0 19 21 5 45 32 82 10 1 4 4 10 19 3 40 26 69 10 0 0 0 0 0 2 12 3 17 11 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 4 l3 11 1 3 2 3 9 5 21 18 44 13 1 1 0 2 4 4 22 19 45 l3 1 4 2 2 9 3 60 38 101 14 0 0 0 5 5 6 31 18 55 15 0 0 0 0 0 3 11 7 21 6 24 11 51 92 40 302 207 549 Total F:D .4583 F:D .6854 SE .l337 SE .0335 B:D .2500 B:D .l325 SE .0725 SE .0274 ----------------------------------------------------------_._------------------- �-237- Table 5. Number of deer classified by two observers using two methods on 20, all-day walking routes on Big Thompson (G.M.U. 20) winter range, November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977 (cont.). Method 11/ Fawn UncI Observer Strata Buck Doe 2 2 0 0 0 3 0 1 4 0 5 Total Method il/ Doe Fawn Total Buck 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 5 3 14 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 5 7 0 0 0 3 3 1 0 0 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 1 6 5 5 17 3 10 8 21 9 0 0 0 0 0 1 32 20 53 9 0 0 0 0 0 3 20 20 43 10 0 4 1 5 10 4 27 24 55 10 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 2 8 11 2 2 0 3 7 6 20 8 34 11 0 0 0 2 2 10 23 21 54 13 0 1 3 2 6 4 41 35 80 13 0 7 3 9 19 3 20 12 35 14 1 2 1 7 11 2 10 7 19 15 0 2 1 5 8 1 5 4 10 4 25 14 42 85 48 220 166 434 F:D .5600 F:D .7545 SE .1458 SE .0569 B:D .1600 B:D .2182 SE .0927 SE .0518 ]) See text for explanation. Total �-238Table 6. Group size differences of mule deer sighted among strata of the Big Thompson (G.M.U. 20) winter range, November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977. Statistics 95% Con. Interva1- of Group Size SE n Stratum 1/ Lower Upper 2 6 12 4 1. 50 .5 3 9 33 3 3.00 1.00 4 o o o 5 36 164 11 3.27 .65 6 13 47 4 3.25 .63 7 33 127 12 2.75 .52 8 63 399 21 3.00 .71 1.52 4.48 9 231 1,925 43 5.37 .62 4.12 6.62 10 178 1,446 29 6.14 .66 4.79 7.49 11 163 921 41 3.98 .41 3.15 4.81 l3 299 2,031 69 4.33 .40 3.53 5.l3 14 90 448 23 3.91 .44 3.00 4.82 15 39 181 12 3.25 .64 1,160 7,734 272 To test whether the mean group size is the same in each stratum, following ANOVA: d. Source f. SS MS Among strata 11 284.88 25.90 Within strata 260 2502.06 9.62 Total (corrected) 271 2786.94 -1/ Computed deer. for only those stratum with 20 or more sightings 1/ Significant at P 0.05. we have the F 2.692:./ of one or more �Table 7. Comparisons of buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios sampled on Big Thompson (G.M.U. 20) winter range November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977 between the 1976 and 1977 samples, and between the first and second halves of the 1977 sampling period. 90% c..r , Conf. Int. Values (~ Width).!.! + Ratio and No. Deer Observers, Methods B:D 46 326 Observer 1 Method 1 .2500 vs. Method 2 .l325 .1175 .1218 .2393 -.0043 N. S. B:D 52 245 Observer 2 Method 1 .1600 vs. Method 2 .2182 -.0582 .2571 .1989 -.3153 N. S. F:D 218 326 Observer 1 Method 1 .4583 vs , Method 2 .6854 -.2271 .2502 .0231 -.4773 N. S. Ratio Comparison Ratio Diff. Conc1usion-~/ I N F:D 180 245 Observer 2 Method 1 .5600 B:D 88 522 Method 2 F:D 373 522 vs. Method 2 .7545 LV \D -.1945 .2319 .0374 -.4264 N. S. Observer 1 vs. Observer 2 .1325 .2182 -.0857 .0866 .0009 - .1723 N. S. Method 2 Observer 1 vs. Observer 2 .6854 .7545 -.069l .0960 .0269 -.1651 N. S. B:D 98 571 Methods 1 and 2 Observer 1 vs. Observer 2 .1411 .2122 -.0711 .0762 .0051 -.1473 N. S. F:D 398 571 Methods 1 and 2 Observer 1 vs. Observer 2 .6687 .7347 -.0660 .0932 .0272 -.1592 N. S. B:D 150 995 Methods and Observers Combined 1976 .1226 vs. 1977 .1703 -.0477 .0459 -.0017 -.0936 Sign. F:D 556 995 Methods and Observers Combined 1976 .3726 vs. 1977 .6649 -.2903 .1096 -.1807 -.4000 Sign. I �Table 7. Comparisons of buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios sampled on Big Thompson (G.M.U. 20) winter range November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977 between the 1976 and 1977 samples, and between the first and second halves of the 1977 sampling period. Ratio and No. Deer Observers, Methods B:D 70 521 Observer 1 (14 origina1 routes) 1976 .1321 vs. F:D 268 521 Observer 1 (14 origina1 routes) 1976 .3893 vs, B:D21 Routes between 11-27 and 12-11 Observers and Methods combined 1976 .1818 vs. " 1976 .3636 vs. B:rJ!-1 98 571 1977 Observer and Methods Combined F:rJ!-1 398 571 1977 Observer and Methods Combined 15 66 Ratio Comparison Ratio Diff. 90% C. 1. Conf. Int. Values (~ Width).!.! + - Conc1usionll 1977 .1369 -.0048 .0383 .0335 -.0431 N. S. 1977 .6598 -.2705 .1057 -.1648 -.3762 Sign. 1977 .3182 ~ .1364 .4070 .2706 -.5434 N. S. I F:D21 34 66 N +:- 1977 .8182 -.4546 .5484 .0938 -1.003 N. S. Pre 12-11 .3358 vs, Post 12-12 .1198 .2160 .0920 .3080 .1240 Sign. Pre 12-11 .7226 vs. Post 12-12 .6889 .0337 .3470 .3806 -.3133 N. s. II 90% confidence interval about the difference between the sample ratios. 11 Not significant (N. S.) or significant (Sign.) at P = 0.10. 31 Comparisons based on only 4 routes. 41 Based on V = min (n1 - 1, n2 - 1) = 6 degrees of freedom. 0 I �-241- Table 8. Number of routes required for sampling buck:doe and doe:fawn ratios based on 20, all-day walking routes on G.M.U. 20 winter range, November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977. No. Deer Components Buck Doe Ratio SE Buck:Doe 98 571 .1716 .0379 1/ Percent- Conf. Level (I-a) .95 .90 .80 05 1,710 1,167 688 10 428 292 173 15 190 130 77 20 107 73 44 Buck Doe Ratio SE 398 571 No. Deer Fawn: Doe 1/ Percent- 1/ Deviation .6970 Conf. Level .0379 (1-0.) .95 .90 .80 05 104 71 42 10 26 18 11 15 12 8 5 20 7 5 3 from true ratio. �APPENDIX I PLOT LAYOUT FOR TEST OF PLOT DISTANCE, Two randomly-selected STAKE TYPE AND COLOR observers for each compartment ~ Wood survey stakes • Steel stakes at 66' (20.1 m), 132' (40.2 m) and 264' (80.5 m) from wood survey stakes For 528' (160.9 m) plot interval the only wood survey stake is at the starting point Designated Section Corner (SW) I t<1 .j:-- ~~/264' ft N (80.5 m) (or some other arbitrary distance) I 't7 I~' Plot Interval (ft) I 66 1 H U ~ (20.1 m) 528 (160.9 m) 2~----~----~----~----~~--~----~----~--------r-~----~'-----+----~ en ~ H 3 4 ti}& (:). A Go (;)#,1 G~ Q. B COMPARTHENT 0,. G~I e· G" C Go> S' 264 (gO.5 m) 132 (40.2 m) �-243APPENDIX II HABITATS ON DEER WINTER RANGE OF G.M.U. 20 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Pipo-O Pipo-D Pipo-Psme Psme Psme-Pipo Pico-O Pico-D Pico-Psme Pico-Potr Potr D. Mead., + Arfr D. Mead., - Arfr Wet Mead. Ir. Mead. SAL Mead. Cemo-Putr Putr-Cemo JUNI-Shrub Riparian Logged-recent Rock-outcrop Rock talus Dry Gull Bott. Water Spr.-fir Cult. Fields Surfaced road Unsur. road Ponderosa pine, open stand Ponderosa pine, dense stand Ponderosa pine-Douglas fir Douglas fir Douglas fir-ponderosa pine Lodgepole pine-open stand Lodgepole pine-dense stand Lodgepole pine-Douglas fir Lodgepole pine-aspen Aspen Dry meadow, with fringed sage Dry meadow, without fringed sage Wet meadow Irrigated meadow Willow meadow Mountain mahogany-bitterbrush Bitterbrush-mountain mahogany Juniper spp-other shrub species Dry gulley bottom Spruce-fir Cultivated fields �-244- LITERATURE CITED in migratory Anderson, A. E., and D. E. Medin. [1967]. The breeding season mule deer. Game Info. Leaflet No. 60. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Dept. 4 p. Anderson, A. E. 1977. Experimental deer inventory, northeast region. Job Progress Report. Pp. 227-250. In Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. 125-305 pp. (Processed). 1976. Evaluation of herd structure Bowden, D. C., and A. E. Anderson. Work Plan 19, Job 2, Job Progress Report. PP. 505-554. methodology. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. 253-561 pp. In Colorado (Processed). Patton, D. R., and W. B. Casner. 1970. Port-A-Punch recording and computer summarization of pellet count data. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Note RM-170. 8 p. Prepared by --.--:L='=tt!::::Yb=-J2..L1u----b::C::.:..- -",U,...::...=.,-~-=-=-' _,~-,--Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher _ �July 1978 - 245-- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------~--------------- Project No. W-38-R-33 Plan No. 22 Job No. Experimental Deer Inventory-Piceance Work Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: April _ Deer Elk Investigations 1 (NW) ----------~~------------------Basin-Northwest Region 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 D. Freddy, D. Bowden, D. Bartmann, L. Carpenter, B. Gill, K. Karrow, C. Moore, D. Osborne, R. Kolecki, L. Strong, T. Tietz. ABSTRACT A stratified sampling system capable of estimating density of mule deer pellet groups within ± 15% of the mean 90 percent of the time was established for the Piceance Basin. This system employed a square-mile as the sample unit which was then subsampled by 2 transects, ~ mile apart, each containing Sampled 10 temporary plots, 107.64 ft2 in size, spaced at 0.1 mile intervals. density of new groups for the winter period of 1977-78 was 15.94 + 2.06 (P < .10) per square-mile. Projected population estimates were higher than-expected ~nd probably resulted from errors in aging "new" pellet groups. A permanent versus temporary plot test was established on 10 square-miles in 1977 to quantify the differences in estimates of new groups per square-mile by the two types of plots. Data from 1978 indicated temporary plots significantly inflated number of new grounds per square-mile (P < .10). Aerial versus ground methods of classifying deer as to sex and age-were compared. Discrepancies of up to 20 fawns: 100 does did not result in significant differences between methods. ��-247- EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY-PICEANCE BASIN-NORTHWEST REGION David J. Freddy PROGRAM NARRATIVE OBJECTIVE Design appropriate sampling and analytical procedures deer numbers and buck:doe:fawn ratios in the Piceance Unit 22. to reliably estimate Basin, Game Management SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Sample pellet group density to aid in designing a permanent sampling system capable of estimating deer numbers within + 10% at P < .10. 2. Investigate sampling methods and age ratios. that might be used to estimate deer sex METHODS AND MATERIALS Pellet Group Density A long-term system for estimating deer pellet group densities in the Piceance Basin was established based on a preliminary sample in 1976 (Freddy 1977). Winter range boundaries were slightly refined from 1976 due to the presence of domestic sheep. The 606 square-mile winter range area to be sampled for pellet group density was divided into 3 major strata (Freddy 1977) (Fig. 1). Each strata was further divided into 3 blocks of nearly equal size. Blocking was done to insure representative sampling of the entire strata to account for potential changes in deer distribution within strata. Sampling effort was allocated between strata (by block) by optimal allocation (Cochran 1977) based on data acquired in 1976. Square-mile sample units were drawn independently wirhout replacement for each block and thus by definition (Cochran 1977) there were 9 sampling strata. A total of 54 square-miles were selected at random; 12 in strata 1, If in strata 2, and 26 in strata 3. Square-mile sample units were sampled for pellet group density using 2 transects with 10, 107.64 ft2 (.001 ha) circular plots spaced at 0.1 mile (0.16 km) intervals (Freddy 1977). Transects were selected from 10 possible transects spaced at 0.1 mile (0.16 km) intervals (Freddy 1977). One transect was selected at random from transects 1-5 with the second transect systematically located ~ mile from the first transect. Transects and plots were located by pacing with the aid of a hand-held compass and topographic maps (Freddy 1977). Plots were delineated by a 5.85 ft (1.784 m) chain revolving about a metal rod. Transects intercepted maximum elevation change within the square-mile and were oriented on either a true north or east bearing. No stakes or markers were installed to relocate transects or plots. �-248- Four persons working in two, 2-man teams, sampled 2 square-miles per day. Rules for examining pellet plots and definitions of pellet groups are given in Freddy (1977). Permanent Plot Test While designing a long-term sampli.ng system, the question arose as to the necessity of using pern~nently marked pellet plots and transects. When most of ,the wintering deer population migrates to higher elevations outside winter range boundaries in late spring, only a small percentage of that population resides on that winter range in summer. Empirical methods such as aerial mapping of winter distribution of deer and subjectively aging pellet groups according to season of deposition may be sufficient to identify winter pellet groups less than 1 year old, thus eliminating two major reasons for using permanent plots which are more time consuming to install, maintain, relocate, and read. To ascertain quantitative advantages or disadvantages of permanent and temporary plots, a permanent plot test was designed. Ten square-miles (25.9 km2) representative of the Piceance Basin and having a high deer pellet group density were selected. A grid of 10 transects at 0.1 mile (0.16 km) intervals each with 10 plots at 0.1 mile (0.16 km) intervals was delineated for each squaremile (Freddy 1977). Five pairs of transects with one permanently marked transect and one temporary transect in each pair one were established on each square-mile. Permanent and temporary transects alternated with the first transect in each square-mile having been randomly selected as a temporary transect. With this design the mean and variance of new groups per square-mile can be compared for types of sampling systems (permanent vs. temporary plots) using a paired t-test (Sokal and Rohlf 1969). Permanent and temporary plots were again located by pacing with the aid of a hand-held compass and topographic maps. Numbers of new and old pellet groups were determined for both temporary and permanent plots. For the initial establishment, new groups were subjectively determined on both types of plots. Permanent plots were cleared of all pellet groups, marked with a 2 ft steel stake painted orange and tagged with an aluminum tag. High visibility yellow flagging was tied to trees, etc. to aid in relocating permanent plots. All transects intercepted maximum elevation change within each square-mile and were oriented on a true east bearing. This test will be conducted for 3 years. As an aid to subjectively "aging" pellet groups found on temporary plots, aging plots were established on 5 microsights. Known new pellet groups were collected after recent snowfalls during the winter of 1977-78 and placed on aging plots at monthly intervals from December through March. These groups were examined prior to conducting the permanent plot test to establish aging criteria for new groups. Sex and Age Ratios Aerial vs. ground methods to classify deer as to bucks, does, and fawns, have produced significantly different results (Freddy 1977). To further test the effect of �-249- methodology, deer buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios were sampled on two, 100 square-mile areas (259 km2) by both aerial and ground methods. Four observers having 9, 5, 5, and 3 years experience in classifying deer, classified deer as to bucks, does, and fawns during early December. Two observers were assigned to each 100 square-mile (259 km2) area (Areas A & B). Both areas A and B were considered to be high deer density areas. Within each area, 14 one square-mile sample units were selected at random, without replacement, for each observer. Square miles selected were restricted so they could not have adjoining boundaries but could have cornmon corners. Each observer then walked a route of his choice through each sample unit and classified as many deer as he could without duplicating counts of the same deer. These walking routes were situated to enhance observations of deer and minimize terrain variance. Two square-miles were sampled by each observer each day. To standardize criteria for identifying does, fawns, and bucks, all observers classified deer together for one day prior to conducting the test. Each observer then classified deer from a Bell r,4713-1helicopter approximately 1 week after walking the sample units. Each observer classified deer from the helicopter on the same sample units he had walked and in the same sequence he had walked them. This design resulted in 14 paired observations of buck: doe and fawn:doe ratios for each observer. Additionally, buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios of observers classifying deer within the same 100 square-mile (259 km2) sample area could be compared to test for observer differences. Ratio estimator tests were used for all statistical comparisons (Cochran 1977; 181). RESULTS Pellet AND DISCUSSIONS Group Counts group counts were conducted from 18 May through 27 June. A mean of 15.94 + 2.06 (P < .10) new groups were found per square mile (6.15 + 0.80 km2) Pellet (Table-I, 2). A-two-way analysis of variance (unequal numbers within cells) revealed significant differences in new and old pellet groups between the 3 major strata and no significant differences in new or old groups between blocks within strata (P ~ .05). Regressions of new groups (Y) per square-mile on old groups (X) per square-mile were positive and significant for all strata. Correlation coefficients (r) for individual strata were 0.686, 0.438, and 0.617 for strata 1-3 respectively and the pooled correlation coefficient was 0.740. These positive relationships are similar to those previously generated (Freddy 1977) and support the validity of delineating strata on the basis of total groups. Starting and ending times were recorded for each transect. Mean time per transect was 93.9 + 2.8 (SE) minutes which was not significantly different than the 92.6 + 1.5 (SE) minutes per transects for REP 1 in 1976 (Freddy 1977) (P ~ .05). Deer numbers were estimated using 13 pellet groups/day/deer and projecting the 15.94 new groups per 20 plots to a square mile and then projecting this figure to 606 square miles of sampled winter range. Specific deer-days use �-250- Table 1. Location of square mile sample units and sampled pellet group densities, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 1977. Strata Block Sample Unit If Location Transects Sampled I I 1-1-1 Sec 31 T2N R98W 3, 8 37 9 46 1 1 1-1-5 See 5 2, 7 34 6 40 1 1 1-1-12 See 13 TIN R99W 1, 6 34 4 38 1 1 1-1-23 See 25 TIN R99W 2, 7 19 8 27 1 2 1-2-4 See 13 TIS R99W 2, 7 34 o 34 1 2 1-2-9 See 23 TIS R99W 4, 9 40 3 43 1 2 1-2-15 See 27 TIS R99W 4, 9 29 5 34 1 2 1-2-16 See 32 TIS R99W 1, 6 26 7 33 1 3 1-3-15 See 4 T3S R98W 2, 7 42 6 48 1 3 1-3-27 Sec 7 T3S R97W 1, 6 32 10 !~2 1 3 1-3-40 See 21 T3S R97W 1, 6 62 24 91 1 3 1-3-42 See 29 T3S R97W 1, 6 34 7 41 2 1 2-1-3 See 3 T2N R98W 2, 7 46 10 56 2 1 2-1-43 See 6 TIN R97W 5, 10 27 3 30 2 1 2-1-45 See 4 TIN R97W 4, 9 44 6 50 2 1 2-1-65 See 17 TIN R97W 2, 7 49 7 56 2 1 2-1-86 See 33 TIN R97W 4, 9 64 17 81 2 2 2-2-10 See 3 TIS R98W 5, 10 53 9 62 2 2 2-2-20 See 10 TIS R98W 3, 8 31 9 40 2 2 2-2-32 See 18 TIS R97W 2, 7 48 14 62 2 2 2-2-51 See 25 TIS R98W 1, 6 81 18 99 2 2 2-2-84 See 25 T2S R98W 5, 10 30 9 39 2 3 2-3-12 See 31 TIS R95W 3, 8 48 4 52 2 3 2-3-24 See 3 T2S R95W 3, 8 33 28 61 2 3 2-3-27 See 9 T2S R96W 3, 8 63 23 86 2 3 2-3-45 See 13 T3S R97W 1, 6 57 21 78 2 3 2-3-65 Sec 28 T3S R96W 2, 7 45 3 48 2 3 2-3-83 See 5 5, 10 61 33 94 TIN R98W T4S R96W Pellet-groups/20 plots Old New Total �-251- Table 1. Location of square mile sample units and sampled pellet group densities, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 1977. (Cont'd). Location Transects Sampled Pellet-group/20 plots Old New Total Strata Block Sample Unit It 3 1 3-1-2 See 35 T3N R99W 3, 8 75 27 102 3 1 3-1-4 See 31 T3N R98W 2, 7 85 23 108 3 1 3-1-5 See 5 T2N R99W 4, 9 39 9 48 3 1 3-1-6 See 4 T2N R99W 3, 8 70 23 93 3 1 3-1-12 See 9 T2N R99W 5, 10 109 31 140 3 1 3-1-19 See 14 T2N R99W 5, 10 91 22 113 3 1 3-1-50 See 21 TIN R96W 5, 10 70 42 112 3 1 3-1-53 See 25 TIN R97W 5, 10 64 13 77 3 1 3-1-65 See 35 TIN R96W 5, 10 100 48 148 3 2 3-2-7 See 5 2, 7 80 23 103 3 2 3-2-12 See 11 TIS R97W 3, 8 45 23 68 3 2 3-2-14 See 7 TIS R96W 4, 9 86 25 III 3 2 3-2-33 See 18 TIS R94W 4, 9 38 14 52 3 2 3-2-49 See 27 TIS R97W 5, 10 58 8 66 3 2 3-2-54 See 28 TIS R96W 2, 7 60 27 87 3 2 3-2-63 See 36 TIS R97W 2, 7 68 22 90 3 2 3-2-64 See 6 5, 10 81 15 96 3 2 3-2-17 See 11 TIS R96W 4, 9 83 22 105 3 3 3-3-6 See 16 T2S R97W 4, 9 65 24 89 3 3 3-3-10 See 18 T2S R96W 5. 10 99 54 153 3 3 3-3-20 See 21 T2S R96W 4, 9 64 22 86 3 3 3-3-23 See 28 T2S R97W 2, 7 58 19 77 3 3 3-3-27 See 30 T2S R96W 3, 8 56 13 69 3 3 3-3-32 See 25 T2S R96W 5, 10 85 58 143 3 3 3-3-51 See 5 2, 7 45 17 62 3 3 3-3-69 See 17 T3S R96W 5, 10 60 21 81 TIS R95W T2S R97W T3S R96W �Table 2. Numbers of new pellet groups counted on square-mile sample units within 9 sampling strata and perti~ent statistics, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 1977. Block 1 Strata 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 1 Strata 2 Block 2 Block 3 Block 1 Strata 3 Block 2 Block 3 9 0 24 10 9 4 27 23 24 6 3 7 3 9 28 23 23 54 4 5 6 6 14 23 9 25 22 8 7 10 7 18 21 23 14 19 7 9 3 31 8 13 33 22 27 58 I 42 22 17 N \..rI N I nh 4 4 4 2:Yh 27 15 47 Yh 6.75 3.75 Nh 44 S2 h 4.92 13 15 48 22 21 5· 6 9 9 8 33 59 112 238 179 228 11.75 8.60 11.80 18.67 26.44 19.89 28.50 45 44 87 88 85 70 72 71 8.92 69.58 28.3 16.7 155.47 157.03 38. 1J. 300.29 - 5 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2:Nh= 606 yst = 15.94 V(yst) = 1.46 S(yst) = 1.21 df = 29 c.r.= 15.94 + 2.06 (P ~ .10) �-253- were unknown so population estimates were made for several possibilities (Table 3). All population estimates were considerably higher than the estimate of 29,820 for the same winter period made by Bartmann (1977) from aerial counts of deer. The large difference in estimates of population size are probably due to errors in aging pellet groups and are not artifacts of the sampling design (Personal Communication Dave Bowden). Table 3. Estimates of deer population size for varying deer-days use, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 1977. Estimates based on 13 pellet groups/day/deer. Deer Days Estimated Mean Population 210 45,887 +5825 180 53,535 +6796 150 64,242 +8155 120 80,303 ±10,193 Confidence Interval P < .10 The design of 2 transects per square mile was logistically feasible. The precision about the mean (± 12-13%) was also acceptable. Thus, the candidate sampling design appears promising as an estimator of pellet group density. The primary problem appears to involve aging of pellet groups which could be solved by using permanent pellet plots. Sample size requirements estimated from data collected in 1976 indicated that 43 square miles should be sampled to obtain a precision of ± 10% of x at 2 P ~ .10. This precision was not achieved by sampling 54 square miles (140 km ) in 1977. Permanent Plot Test 1977 Permanent plots were established and cleared from 6 July through 17 August, 1977. Numbers of new, old, and total groups per square mile on temporary and permanent plots were: 37.0 + 3.1 (SE) new, 164.7 + 7.8 (SE) old, 201.7 ± 8.3 (SE) total and 40.2 ± 3.5 (SE) new, 167.4 ± 12.2-(SE) old, 207.6 ± 15.0 (SE) total, for temporary and permanent plots, respectively (Table 4). There were no significant differences in numbers of new, old and total pellet groups per square mile when estimated by either temporary or permanent plots (P ~ .01). These "pre-treatment" data suggest that differences between transect types occurring in subsequent years will be due to problems of aging pellet groups on temporary plots and not due to differences in transect and/or plot locations. �-254- Table 4. Location of square-mile sample units sampled by temporary and permanent transects and summary of sampled pellet group densities, Piceance Basin, Colorado, July-August, 1977 . Sample Unit Location Transecta 4-18 Sec 18 TIS R96W 1 64 5 69 2 60 9 69 3 40 15 55 4 33 17 50 5 24 8 32 6 32 14 46 7 42 5 47 8 58 12 70 9 34 7 41 10 30 8 38 E 204 40 244 E 213 60 273 1 27 5 32 2 41 9 50 3 38 7 45 4 43 14 57 5 26 5 31 6 27 5 32 7 49 6 55 8 52 2 54 9 59 6 65 10 38 8 46 E 199 29 228 E 201 38 239 1 31 3 34 2 39 11 50 3 16 4 20 4 24 4 28 5 32 4 36 6 45 8 53 7 36 18 54 8 31 10 41 9 20 1 21 10 31 3 34 E 135 30 165 L- 170 36 206 1 43 16 59 2 28 11 39 3 29 16 45 4 23 13 36 5 19 7 26 6 24 4 28 7 19 3 22 8 15 5 20 9 22 6 28 10 18 7 25 E 132 48 180 E 108 40 148 4-19 4-30 4-31 Sec 19 TIS R96W Sec 30 TIS R96W Sec 31 TIS R96W Pellet GrouEs Old New Total b Transect Pellet GrouEs Old New Total -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-255- Table 4. Location of square-mile sample units sampled by temporary and permanent transects and summary of sampled pellet group densities, Piceance Basin, Colorado, July-August, 1977 . (Cont'd). Sample Unit Location Transect 4-12 Sec 12 TIS R97W 1 29 12 41 2 23 5 28 3 32 7 39 4 52 7 59 5 39 3 42 6 38 8 46 7 37 11 48 8 30 7 37 9 37 8 45 10 47 22 69 E 174 41 215 E 190 49 239 1 36 8 44 2 29 5 34 3 50 3 53 4 10 1 11 5 17 3 20 6 19 4 23 7 29 4 33 8 20 4 24 9 27 4 31 10 30 5 35 2: 159 22 181 E 108 19 127 1 33 7 40 2 46 13 59 3 26 15 41 4 39 15 54 5 57 6 63 6 57 6 63 7 34 9 43 8 37 11 48 9 34 8 42 10 33 4 37 E 184 45 229 E 212 49 261 1 21 6 27 2 17 3 20 3 26 5 31 4 45 9 54 5 37 5 42 6 25 1 26 7 30 7 37 8 35 14 49 9 40 12 52 10 48 12 60 E 154 35 189 E 170 39 209 1 39 9 48 2 33 8 41 3 25 5 30 4 26 4 30 4-13 4-24 4-25 4-14 Sec 13 TIS R97W Sec 24 TIS R97W Sec 25 TIS R97W Sec 14 TIS R97W a Pellet GrouEs Old New Total Transect b Pellet GrouEs Old New Total ----~------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-256- Table 4. Location of square-mile sample units sampled by temporary and permanent transects and summary of sampled pellet group densities, Piceance Basin, Colorado, July-August, 1977 • (Cont'd). Sample Unit 4-14 4-23 Location a Transect Sec 14 TIS R97W Sec 23 TIS R97W Grand Sum Pellet GrouEs Old New Total Transect b Pellet GrouEs Old New Total 5 19 3 22 6 24 5 29 7 30 4 34 8 32 8 40 9 41 7 48 10 29 9 38 z 154 28 182 l: 144 34 178 1 9 6 15 2 31 9 40 3 34 9 43 4 32 3 35 5 28 8 36 6 27 6 33 7 34 17 51 8 30 14 44 9 47 12 59 10 38 6 44 l: 152 52 204 l: 158 38 196 H 1647 370 2017 H 1674 402 2076 plots aOdd-numbered transects contained temporary bEven-numbered transects contained permanently staked plots In 1977 time per transect for temporary transects was 67.7 and for permanent transects 140.4 + 4.2 (SE) minutes. + 1.8 (SE) minutes 1978 In 1978, the permanent plot test was conducted from 26 April through 31 May. Two persons working as a team evaluted 2 permanent and 2 temporary transects daily. On 25 April, 1978 aging plots were examined to establish criteria for judging new groups. Criteria were: 1) individual pellets associated in recognizeable groups, 2) pellets dark, uniform, and intensely colored, 3) sheen present on entire surface of most pellets, and 4) some cracking of the pellet surface. On 23 May, aging plots were again examined. Criteria for new groups were: 1) individual pellets still closely associated in recognizeable groups, 2) pellets dark in color but fading on some pellets producing a mild two-toned color effect, 3) sheen present, although not uniform over entire pellet, and 4) cracking and peeling of the pellet surface more evident. �-257- There was a significant difference in numbers of new groups per square-mile estimated by temporary and permanent plots (P < .10 but not P .2. .05). Temporary plots averaged 9 groups per square-mile (3.5/km2) more than permanent plots, (Table 5), about a 14 percent increase. These data indicate temporary plots inflate the estimate of new groups per square-mile. On permanent plots, some subjectivity was needed in determining new groups, as obvious "old" pellet groups had washed onto the plots. These groups were not tallied in new group totals. Table 5. Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent transects on 10, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, April-May 1978. Sample Unit Transect 4-18 4-19 4-30 4-31 New Pellet Groups Transect 1 18 2 33 3 22 4 10 5 24 6 11 7 18 8 24 9 24 10 23 L: 106 L: 101 1 18 2 17 3 25 4 18 5 13 6 18 7 16 8 23 9 12 10 18 L: 84 L: 94 1 17 2 10 3 13 4 16 5 24 6 14 7 20 8 12 9 14 10 11 L: 88 L: 63 1 27 2 11 3 9 4 9 5 22 6 8 a b New Pellet Groups �-258- Table 5. Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent transects on 10, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, April-May 1978.(Cont'd). Sample Unit Transect 4-31 7 2 8 7 9 24 10 14 a New Pellet Groups Transect 84 4-12 1 17 2 13 3 9 4 13 5 7 6 7 7 16 8 4 9 7 10 16 53 1 15 2 14 3 19 4 6 5 12 6 6 7 14 8 1 9 6 10 20 66 4-24 47 1 10 2 13 3 11 4 14 5 19 6 10 7 9 8 17 9 16 10 12 65 4-25 New Pellet Groups 49 56 4-l3 b 66 1 9 2 15 3 16 4 15 5 10 6 7 7 4 8 9 �-259- Table 5. Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent transects on 10, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, April-May 1978. (Cont'd). Sample Unit Transect 4-25 New Pellet Groups Transect 9 14 10 8 I 53 I 54 1 19 2 9 3 23 4 8 5 19 6 7 7 8 8 28 9 17 10 23 I 86 I 75 1 10 2 6 3 12 4 8 5 7 6 7 7 5 8 8 9 13 10 13 I 47 I 42 Grand Sum II 735 II 644 aOdd-numbered transects contained temporary bEven-numbered transects contained permanently 4-14 4-23 a b New Pellet Groups plots staked plots In 1978, time per transect was 68.8 + 1.43 (SE) minutes for temporary transects and 85.1 ± 3.04 (SE) minutes for permanent transects. These values were significantly different (P < .05). Differences between mean times for temporary transects for 1977 and 1978-were not significant (P < .05). Of the 500 permanently staked plots, 4 were missing. In two instances yellow flagging remained to denote general location of the missing plot. Missing plots were restaked in an estimated location and recleared. The orange stakes and yellow flagging greatly aided in finding permanent plots. There was virtually no problem in relocating permanent plots spaced at 0.1 mile (0.16 km) intervals. �-260- Sex and Age Ratios Ground routes were conducted from 29 November through 5 December and aerial counts were conducted from 9 December through 11 December, 1977. Significant differences in fawn:doe ratios between aerial and ground methods were detected for only 1 of 4 observers (observer F, Tables 6, 7). There were no significant differences between air and ground methods in buck:doe ratios for any observer (P ~ .10). Differences of up to 20 fawns:lOO does were not statistically significant. This indicated a great deal of variability within both the aerial and ground samples. In determining variances of fawn: doe ratios, all calculated covariance terms were negative. This suggested that different fractions of the deer population occuring on a sample unit were possibly more visible by one method or that observers inconsistently classified deer between methods. There were several neck-banded deer observed on the study area. Neck-banded deer seen during ground routes were often seen on the same sample unit during aerial sampling, suggesting no large distributional shift of deer during the experiment. Within area A there were no differences in fawn:doe or buck:doe ratios between observers within methods (P ~ .10). However, in area B there were significant differences in buck:doe ratios between observers within both methods and there was also a significant difference in fawn:doe ratios between observers within the aerial sample (P < .10). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. David C. Bowden, Colorado State University, statistical design and calculations. LITERATURE Cochran, W. G. 1972. York. 428pp. Sampling provided techniques. 1969. in CITED John Wiley and Sons, New Freddy, D. J. 1977. Experimental deer inventory-Piceance Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2:251-273. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. San Francisco. 776pp. assistance Biometry. Basin. Colo. W. H. Freeman and Co., Bartmann, R. M. 1978. Piceance deer study-estimating parameters of population dynamics. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. July Part 1: In Press. �Table 6. Number of deer classified as to sex and age by 4 observers on paired aerial and ground square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 29 November through 11 December, 1977. AREA A (GROUND SAMPLE) AREA A (AERIAL SAMPLE) OBSERVER SAMPLE UNIT BUCKS F F F F F F F F F F F F F F 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14 1 0 8 2 2 2 1 2 2 0 1 5 2 2 TOTALS RATIOS 14 122 30 200 352 15 BUCKS: 100 DOES:61 FAWNS F F F F F F F F F F F F F F 1-1 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-11 1-12 1-13 1-14 4 7 2 2 1 5 3 2 1 11 3 5 1 TOTALS RATIOS 14 47 251 195 493 19 BUCKS: 100 DOES:78 FAWNS 0 DEER CLASSIFIED DOES FAWNS 1 6 26 24 8 17 29 12 7 6 32 16 9 7 12 6 18 25 15 23 26 14 18 29 23 23 16 3 2 4 10 12 5 7 19 8 6 8 24 8 5 4 11 . 8 14 16 5 17 18 7 16 18 20 28 15 2 TOTAL OBSERVER SAMPLE UNIT BUCKS 4 10 44 38 15 26 49 22 15 14 57 29 16 13 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 7 5 4 1 0 0 3 1 1 7 0 1 1 0 TOTALS RATIOS 14 31 166 109 306 19 BUCKS: 100 DOES:66 FAWNS C C C C C C C C C C C C C C 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 4 2 1 0 1 0 3 1 0 3 2 1 6 2 TOTALS RATIOS 14 26 163 140 329 16 BUCKS:100 DOES:86 FAWNS 27 21 34 43 21 45 47 23 35 58 46 56 32 5 DEER CLASSIFIED DOES FAWNS TOTAL 15 34 5 6 2 8 15 22 7 42 2 5 3 0 5 26 11 0 7 8 20 29 1 18 10 2 20 6 10 19 2 4 3 3 12 20 4 20 3 7 2 0 4 29 11 0 3 8 12 16 3 26 9 2 12 5 32 58 11 11 5 11 30 43 12 69 5 13 6 0 13 57 23 0 11 16 35 46 4 47 21 5 38 13 I N •... 0\ I �Table 6. Number of deer classified as to sex and age by 4 observers on paired aerial and ground square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado 29 November through 11 December, 1977. (Cant'd) . AREA B (GROUND SAMPLE) OBSERVER SAMPLE UNIT BUCKS 40 3 29 7 4 5 0 5 23 14 46 41 10 46 G G G G G G G G G G G G G G 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 7 1 0 0 2 0 2 5 6 3 2 0 0 3 TOTALS RATIOS 14 120 323 31 172 18 BUCKS: 100 DOES:70 FAWNS G G G G G G G G G G G G G G 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 4 0 1 1 0 1 6 5 1 3 3 3 2 0 TOTALS RATIOS 14 148 234 30 412 13 BUCKS: 100 DOES:63 FAWNS 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 5 0 10 3 2 2 0 0 4 2 7 7 0 4 TOTALS RATIOS 14 273 131 96 46 35 BUCKS: 100 DOES: 73 FAWNS B B B B B B B B B B B B B B 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 11 2 5 4 0 4 0 3 6 10 1 0 0 6 TOTALS RATIOS 14 387 216 119 52 24 BUCKS: 100 DOES:55 FAWNS B B B B B B B B B 18 1 13 4 2 2 0 2 13 7 17 19 7 26 38 12 17 14 6 9 2 22 19 17 12 18 0 30 17 2 6 0 0 1 0 3 6 5 22 15 3 16 27 3 15 11 3 6 2 6 11 10 7 8 0 10 DEER CLASSIFIED FA\\TNS TOTAL DOES TOTAL BUCKS B B B B B AREA B (AERIAL SAMPLE) DEER CLASSIFIED DOES FAWNS SAMPLE UNIT OBSERVER 76 17 37 29 9 19 4 31 36 37 20 26 0 46. 23 10 8 3 6 4 9 10 48 9 22 4 1 15 35 7 11 8 8 1 34 26 36 13 22 18 11 4 17 9 9 2 3 2 6 7 36 4 12 0 0 13 22 2 5 5 5 0 21 16 25 9 12 12 10 4 47 20 17 5 11 6 17 22 90 16 36 4 1 31 61 9 17 14 13 2 61 47 62 25 34 33 23 8 I tv (j\ tv I �-263Table 7. Fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios resulting from ground and aerial classifications of deer, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 1977. Observer Fawn:doe ratio (+SE) Ground Aerial Buck:doe ratio (+SE) Ground Aerial F .6100 + .0529 .7769 + .0624 .1500 + .0387 .1873 + .0412 C .6566 + .0714 .8589 + .1114 .1867 + .0400 .1595 + .0400 B .7328 + .1005 .5509 + .0640 .3511 + .0671 .2407 + .0424 G .6977 + .0447 .6325 + .0245 .1802 + .0361 .1282 + .0224 ��-265July, 1978 JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------~~~~~-------- Proj ect No. W-38-R-33 Deer-Elk Investigations I ---------------------------Experimental Deer Inventory - Southeast Region ~~----------------------- Work Plan No. Job Title REPORT Period Covered: 22 Job No. c April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: Katherine Ortega, Bryan Gross, John Ernst, Michael A. Knapp, Thomas. Valenta, Bert A. Jellison, Stan Ogilvie, Dwayne Finch, Cathy Craig, Thomas A. Lytle, Willie Travnicek, Harold Hood, Jeff Kogutt, Dr. David Bowden (CSU Statistics Department), Thomas M. Pojar. To the many landowners who expressed their interest and cooperation in this study by allowing us trespass permission to their property I offer my sincere appreciation. ABSTRACT Permanent plots were located, marked and cleared of pellet groups on 24 square miles of the 1026 square mile study area near Canon City. Twentyseven herd structure routes were used to estimate buck:doe:fawn ratios. Three hundred seventy nine deer were observed of which 336 were classified. The ratio of bucks to does was .1803(SE = .0290) and the fawn: doe ratio was .6557 (SE = .0454). ��-267- EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY SOUTHEAST REGION Thomas M. Pojar P. N. OBJECTIVE Design appropriate sampling and analytical procedures necessary to reliably estimate deer numbers and buck:doe:fawn ratios of selected management units in the southeast region of the state. SEG}ffiNTOBJECTIVES 1. Design and execute a preliminary sampling system to estimate pellet group density on Game Management Units 58 and 581. 2. Design a sampling scheme based on the means variances, and deer density strata estimated from objective 1 capable of estimating mean deer numbers ± 20 percent at a = 0.10. 3. Sample buck:doe:fawn walking routes. ratios on 12 or more randomly METHODS selected, deer all-day AND MATERIALS Pellet Group Density Based on information on deer distribution and relative abundance collected from temporary plots during the previous segment (Pojar 1977) the study area boundaries were adjusted. The overall area was reduced from 1,510 to 1026 square miles (Figure 1). The criterion for eliminating portions of the area was the total lack of sign (either new or old pellet groups) and an arbitrary judgement as to whether or not the area was potential deer habitat. Areas were retained even if few pellet groups were found, or if groups were found in similar habitat. The conjecture being, that if the area appeared to be suitable habitat, based upon evidence that deer currently inhabit areas of similar vegetative type, then the reason that little deer sign was present may be that the population is in a trough of its temporal undulations and an increase in population size would most likely result in habitation. Because of the apparent difficulty of distinguishing "new" pellet groups consistently, it was determined that cleared permanent plots would be necessary. The square mile was retained as the basic sample unit but a new sampling scheme within the square mile was needed because the logistics of locating permanent plots had to be considered. From a pilot study done in the northeast region (Unit 19) (Allen Anderson, personal communication) it was determined that location of permanent plot markers spaced one chain apart required about �-268- half the time to find as markers spaced two, four or eight chains apart. The time to locate a marker was adjusted for travel time between markers. Therefore the sampling scheme within a square mile was altered from having a grid of plots located at 0.1 mile intervals covering the entire area to a system of two one-mile transects with permanent plots located at one chain intervals. The transects were randomly selected in the following manner: Each square mile had 10 potential north-south transects spaced 0.1 mile apart and numbered one through ten from west to east. Using a random numbers table the first transect selected corresponded to the first random number encountered between one and five, and the second transect was arbitrarily located 0.5 miles east. Therefore if transect number 3 was randomly selected as the first, then transect number 8 would automatically be the accompanying transect for that square mile. The plots on each transect were numbered I through' 80 from north to south (Figure 2). The permanent plot marker consisted of three-eigths inch steel rebar 18 inches long. The rebar stakes were driven into the ground 8 to 10 inches and the top six inches of the stake was painted with royal blue enamal. The plots at each end of the transect (number I and 80) were marked with two stakes driven side-by-side and blue plastic surveyors tape was tied to prominent objects nearby to facilitate location of the transect endpoints. In addition, plot number one and every deca-plot thereafter was marked with a metal tag indicating the section, transect, and plot number. The transects and plots were located using a hand-held Silva Type #lSTD compass, a steel 2-chain surveyors tape, and an abney level. The circular 0.001 hectare plots were searched twice by two observers, first in a clockwise direction then in a counter-clockwise direction. All deer pellet groups were classified as "new" or "old" by predetermined criteria (Pojar 1977) and cleared from the plot. For each plot, the date; identification by block, section, transect, and plot number; vegetative type of immediate area (See appendix 1) coded observer numbers; and number of new and old pellet groups were recorded on Porta-punch computer cards. A detailed description and map of each square mile sampled was recorded standard field forms (Appendix II). Herd Structure on Estimates The method described by Bowden and Anderson (1976) was used to estimate the buck:doe:fawn ratios. The only modification was that we used one observer per route rather than two. DESCRIPTION See Pojar (1977). OF AREA �-269- RESULTS' AND DISCUSSION Revision of Study Area Boundaries Revision of the exterior study area boundary necessitated also the revision of some of the block boundaries. The original purpose of establishing blocks was to ensure that there were sample square miles from all portions of the study area yet maintain randomness of the samples. The new block boundaries were located so all blocks would contain similar total areas. This made it acceptable to select an equal number of random square miles per block. The new alignment resulted in 14 blocks with an average size of 73.3 (range 57 to 81) square miles. Two square miles were randomly selected from each block. Pellet Group Density Permanent plots were located, marked, and cleared on 24 of the 28 square miles during this segment. The mean number of new groups found on sample plots per square mile was 10.83. Adjusting these data to mean groups per 100 plots for comparison with the data from the previous segment, the mean is 6.77 (SE = 2.83) compared with 6.47 (SE = 0.95) for the previous segment. Any further use of this data would be unwise because of the substantial evidence that classification of groups into the "new" or "old" category is inaccurate. Data to be collected during the next segment can be used to estimate deer density and to evaluate the efficiency of various sampling schemes within the square mile. Herd Structure Estimates Twenty-seven all-day walking routes, to estimate the herd structure in terms of bucks, does, and fawns, were completed between 13 and 21 December, 1977. Four observers that trained together in the classification of deer made all the observations. A total of 379 deer were seen and of these, 336 were classified (33 bucks, 183 does, and 124 fawns). The ratio of fawns to does was .6557 (SE = .0454) and the ratio of bucks to does was .1803 (SE = .0290). The ratio of f awns observed during this segment (1977) was significantly (P < .05) greater than the ratio of fawns (.4275, SE = .0598) observed during last segment (1976). However, there was no significant difference (P > .20) in the rat f o of bucks in 1976 (.3043, SE = .0967) and 1977 (.1803, SE = .0290). LITERATURE CITED Bowden, David C., and Allen E. Anderson. 1976. Evaluation of herd structure methodology. pp. 507-554. In Colorado Div. of Wildl. Game Research Report, July, Part Two. 253-561pp. Pojar, Thomas M. 1977. Experimental deer inventory. Southeast Region. pp. 275-285. In Colorado Div. of Wildl. Game Research Report, July 1977 Part Two. pp. 125-305. �-270- Table l. Legal descriptions of randomly selected square miles searched for pellet groups and the number of groups found. Block Total No. of Miles2 Randomly Selected Mile2 I 78 5 12S 73W 10 63 13S 72W 21 52 15S 73W 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 74 72 77 80 78 78 70 80 Legal DescriEtion Township Range Section Transect Number No. of Pellet GrouEs Old New Total 5 10 2 7 18 57 29 29 1 6 0 2 19 63 29 31 3 I 48 70 9 36 7 6 5 10 0 0 55 71 9 36 1 6 1 6 0 50 28 35 0 5 3 1 0 55 31 36 5 10 3 8 0 0 29 20 0 0 1 0 0 0 30 20 5 10 2 7 * * >~ * *"ie 51 47 4 1 55 48 5 10 5 10 197 209 142 183 4 18 2 7 201 227 144 190 4 9 5 10 244 165 95 109 42 31 11 9 286 196 106 118 5 10 4 9 126 48 281 243 7 3 20 10 133 51 301 253 1 6 3 8 17 6 34 16 2 0 2 0 19 6 36 16 67 15S 74W 14 36 14S 72W 27 64 15S 72W 7 7 13S 71W 14 54 15S 71W 3 26 16S 70W 26 67 18S 7moJ' 12 6 15S 70W 20 33 16S 71W I 21 15S 72W 35 51 16S 73W 13 18 15S 73W 26 35 16S 73W 2 48 SON 12E 20 78 49N lOE 2 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-271- Table 1. Legal descriptions of randomly selected square miles searched for pellet groups and the number of groups found (cont'd). Block Total No. of Miles2 Randomly Selected Mile2 10 64 18 SON 12E 22 43 17S 73W 33 11 81 19 47 12 66 Legal DescriEtion Township Range Section 17S 17S 73W 7lW 13 31 45 17S 7lW 36 46 17S 71W 35 Transect Number 5 10 5 10 4 9 1 6 5 10 I 6 13 57 10 18S 73W 16 36 18S 73W 31 5 10 I 6 14 71 49 48N lIE 5 59 48N HE 14 5 10 I 6 Total * No. of Pellet GrouEs Old New Total 85 70 4 4 89 74 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 120 55 119 l38 7 7 1 6 127 62 120 144 128 45 70 60 8 0 5 l36 45 71 65 103 49 114 151 2 6 10 8 105 55 124 159 3,978 269 4~247 * I Mean 165.7500 11.2083 176.9583 Std. Error 27.9801 3.0892 Data not collected during this segment. 30.3237 �-272- Table 2. Buck:doe 27 all-day walking December, 1977. and fawn:doe ratios based on 336 deer classified on routes in G.M.U.'s 58 and 581, between 13 and 21 Buck:Doe Ratio = .1803, SE .0290 Np. Routes Required Confidence Level (I-a) Percent* 95 90 80 5 1180 813 483 10 295 203 121 20 74 51 30 Ratio = .6557, Fawn:Doe SE .0454 No. Routes Required Confidence Level (I-a) Percent* 95 90 80 5 211 145 86 10 52 36 22 20 13 9 5 *Deviation within specified percentage are based on the percentage of the true ratio but calculation of the sample ratio. �-273- Figure 1. Status of Canon City study area, 1978, after reV1Slon of total area boundary and block boundaries. Randomly selected square miles within each block are outlined and numbered. �-274- •• ONE SQUARE MILE •• 1 I 2 3 J\' 4 5 , 6 7, 8, 9, 10 T Plot III I N I I I I ,/Plot 1180 • • • I I I .I i t , Figure 2. Sampling design for estimating the pellet group density within square mile. Each transect consists of eighty consecutive plots at one chain intervals numbered sequentially from north to south. If transect number three were drawn at random from transects 1-5, then number 8 is selected as the second transect. a �-275- Appendix Vegetative I type classification Code Description 01 Pinon-Juniper with grass or bareground 02 Pinon-Juniper with shrubby 03 Ponderosa pine - Open stand with grass and shrubby 04 Ponderosa pine - Dense 05 Ponderosa pine - Grass understory 06 Ponderosa pine - Open - shrubby understory 07 Douglas 08 Aspen 09 Oakbrush 10 Oakb:r;ush- Open, grass understory 11 Mountain mahogany 12 Grassland - Dry 13 Grassland - Wet 14 Bare ground 15 Misc. understory understory understory stand - bare ground or duff understory fir - Dense �-276- Appendix II BLOCK _ SECTION _ & TRANSECTS SECTION TOWNSHIP __ CORNER NW RANGE SECTION __ _ NE SW SE OWNERS A _ B _ C _ SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS FROM LAND OWNERS �-277- BLOCK _ DESCRIPTION SECTION OF SECTION CORNER :,". Prepared by / IL-t'>K..(,,'./ ..;~:."" .-'l1 "'?, i-IN) .,~. v h"~. '/ ' Thomas M. P6jar / Wildlife Researcher > ��-279- JOB PROGRESS July, REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-38-R-33 Work Plan No. Deer-Elk 22 1978 Investigations Job No. 1 --------------------------------Job Title Experimental Deer Inventory - Southwest Region --~--------------------~------------~-------------------Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1977 through June 30, 1978 Roland C. Kufeld, Jim Olterman, David C. Bowden, Timms Fowler, Harold L. Haeffner, Sam Creacy, Howard Geduldig ABSTRACT Deer classification counts were made between November 16, and December 4, 1977 on 25 "walking type" routes located at random throughout the winter range portion of Game Management Unit 62. Resulting ratios and 90 percent confidence limits were 28.1 ± 6.8 bucks per 100 does, and 46.2 + 4.9 fawns per 100 does. Aerial deer classification counts were made on December 9 and 10, 1977 on the same 25 routes on which "walking type" counts were made. Routes were covered by 2 observers seated side by side in a Hiller Soloy helicopter. Observers classified deer independently and without collaboration. Resulting ratios and 90 percent confidence limits were: Observer x, 22.5 + 4.2 bucks/lOO does and 76.1 + 7.8 fawns/lOO does; Observer y, 23.5 + 5.1 bucks/100 does and 72.2 + 8.2 fawns/lOO does. The difference in doe:fawn ratios between aerial and ground counts was significant at the 10 percent level. Helicopter counts were made during February 11-18, 1978 on 193 quarter section quadrats located randomly throughout the same area. The deer population in Unit 62 with 90 percent confidence limits is estimated at 17,884 ± 4042 animals. Thirty-one percent of the deer were found in strata 8, which is an 89 square-mile (230.5 km2) area encompassing the lower part of Log Hill Mesa. Sixty-eight percent of the deer occur in the south half of the unit while 32 percent occur in the north half. This coincides with results of the Fall 1976 and 1977 ground, and 1977 helicopter deer classification counts, which show much higher fawn:doe ratios on the south half of the unit. ��-281- EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY SOUTHWEST REGION Roland C. Kufeld P.N.O. OBJECTIVE To design appropriate sampling and analytical procedures necessary to reliably estimate deer numbers and buck:doe:fawn ratios on winter range based on a preliminary sampling of a problem management unit within each of the four administrative regions of the state. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To design and execute a helicopter count of deer on the entire winter range of Game Management Unit 62. 2. To design a sampling scheme based on the means, variances, and deer density strata estimated from Objective 1 capable of estimating mean deer numbers +15% at a ~ 0.05. 3. To sample buck:doe:fawn ratios on 12 or more randomly selected, all-day, walking routes on the winter range of Game Management Unit 62. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA This report deals with the portion of the statewide that is being conducted in the southwest region. deer inventory study The area selected for study is the winter range portion of Game Management Unit 62, which encompasses 651.75 square miles (1688.0 km2) on the east side of the Uncompahgre Plateau. This area extends from Whitewater to Ridgway. It is bounded on the east by the Gunnison River between Whitewater and Delta, and the western edge of the farmland that lies along the west side of Highways 50 and 550 from Delta to Ridgway. The western boundary is the 8000 foot (2438 m) contour level along the east side of the Uncompahgre Plateau. The area is characterized by flat mesas separated by deep canyons which run from southwest to northeast. Vegetation is predominately pinyon-juniper forest and sagebrush parks. The higher elevations are covered by thick stands of Gambel oak and the lower elevations approach a desert type. METHODS AND MATERIALS One hundred ninety-three 160-acre sample quadrats were selected at random within 8 strata into which the area was divided. The number of quadrats in each strat.um was weighted according to the area within the strata and available knowledge of relative deer density. �-282- The location of each quadrat was plotted on U.S.G.S. topographic maps and aerial photos. During the summer of 1976 each quadrat corner was located and marked with a l' x 2' (.3 x .6 m) rectangular piece of florescent orange painted masonite nailed in the tops of trees, or placed on a steel fencepost if no tree was available at the corner. These markers subsequently faded to a pale yellow color within one year, especially those on the northeast and northwest corners which faced south. More than half of these were replaced during the summer of 1977, with a 12" x 24" x .100" (30.5 x 61 x .25 cm) Accurene (ABS) Ter polymer marker, Federal orange in color. These were purchased from P.A.R. Marketing Association, 635 Wetmore Drive, Wichita, Kansas, 67209. They are extremely tough, do not crack or break. even when shot and no fading has been noticed after nearly a year of use. Remaining masonite markers will be replaced with Accurene markers during the summer of 1978. When random selections of quadrat locations were made, some contiguous quadrats were chosen. It was found that deer were spooked from adjacent quadrats during the count. Contiguous quadrats were deleted during the summer of 1977, and replaced with an equal number of non-contiguous ones. This was done through random selection. New quadrats were marked with accurene markers. Deer classification counts were made between November 16, and December 4, 1977, on 25 "walking type", circular routes located at random throughout the area. Routes averaged 5 miles (8 km) in length. Each route was situated so that it ran through as many quadrats as possible in the 5 miles (8 km). The count was made by 2 observers with I observer per route. One observer ran 12 routes and the other ran 13 routes. The number of routes ran in each stratum by each observer was about equal. Since each observer ran half of the routes their data were combined to derive totals for all of Unit 62. Aerial deer classification counts were made on December 9 and 10, 1977 on the same 25 routes on which "walking type" counts had been made between November 16 and December 4. Each route encompassed about 3 square miles (7.8 km2). All 25 routes were covered by 2 observers seated side by side in a Hiller Soloy helicopter. Each group of deer encountered was classified by both observers working independently and without collaboration. The aerial observers were not the same as those who made the ground counts. The count required 12.2 hours of flying time. Both days were warm and clear with no wind. There was no snow cover. During the period February 11 through 18, inclusive, deer were counted in the 193 quadrats. The count required 32.5 hours of flying time in a Hiller Soloy helicopter. Last year the same count required 46 hours (Kufel~ 1977). After the entire area had been covered on the 1978 flight, stratum 8 was flo'NO a second time to determine the repeatability of the census system. This stratum contains 38 quadrats and the second flight took another 5.5 hours of flying time. Five days elapsed between the first and second flights of stratum 8. �RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Deer Classification Ground Classification Counts Counts A total of 521 deer was classified comprised of 84 bucks, from the ground in 1977 which was 299 does, 138 fawns. The 1977 buck:doe ratio of 28.1 and fawn:doe ratio of 46.2 were not significantly different, at the 10 percent significance level, from the previous years ratios of 20.4 bucks and 51.3 fawns per 100 does (Table 1). Table 1. Comparison of 1976 and 1977 buck:doe from ground classification data. and fawn:doe ratios calculated Ratio Mean 1976 90% Conf. limits Mean 1977 90% Conf. limits Buck:doe 20.4 12.7 to 28.2 28.1 21. 3 to 34.9 Fawn: doe 51.3 43.4 to 59.2 46.2 38.2 to 54.1 Lower fawn:doe ratios were recorded in strata 1 thru 4 (the north half of Unit 62) than in strata 5 thru 8 (the south half). Fawn:doe ratios in strata 1-4 averaged 39 fawns/IOO does compared with 50 in strata 5-8. These differences were not significant at the 10 percent significance level, however (Table 2). During the previous year (1976) 38 and 64 fawns/100 does were observed in the south and north halves, respectively, and that difference was significant at the 10 percent level (Kufeld 1977). Table 2. Classification of deer observed on 25, 5-mile walking Game Management Unit 62 during November and December, 1977. Bucks/100 does Mean 90% Conf. limits routes in Fawns/IOO does Mean 90% Conf. limits Stratal'! Bucks Does Fawns Total 1-4 35 103 40 178 33.9 21.1 to 46.9 38.8 29.7 to 47.9 5-8 49 196 98 340 25.0 17.5 to 32.5 50.0 38.3 to 61.7 Total of Unit 62 84 299 138 521 28.1 21.3 to 34.9 46.2 38.2 to 51.1 1/ Strata 1 thru 4 represent the south half. the north half of the unit. Strata 5 thru 8 represent �There were no significant differences between observers at the 10 percent significance level in fawn:doe or buck:doe ratios observed. The mean differences between observers and 90 percent confidence limits were 10.9 ± 16.6 for fawn:doe ratios, and 9.0 ± 10.8 for buck:doe ratios. There was a significant difference at the 10 percent significance level in fawn:doe ratios, but not in buck:doe ratios between those observations where all deer in a group were classified as compared to observations where some deer in the group were not classified (Table 3). Table 3. Comparison of buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios between completely and partially classified groups of deer based upon data derived from ground classifications. Partly classified Completely groups classified groups Bucks /100 Does Mean 90% Conf. limits Mean Fawns/IOO Does 90% Conf. limits 28.6 21.0 to 36.1 35.1 23.7 to 46.6 27.9 19.0 to 36.8 51.0 42.7 to 59.3 According to 1976 and 1977 data the current sampling level of 25 routes is sufficient to permit estimation of doe:fawn ratios within 20 percent of the mean with 95 percent confidence (Table 4). Variation in buck:doe ratios was much greater than fawn:doe ratios, and the number of routes required for accurate estimation of buck:doe ratios is quite large (Table 3). Esti.mation of buck:doe ratios within 20 percent of the mean with 95 percent confidence would require 54 routes based on 1977 data, and 130 routes based on data from 1976 (Kufeld, 1977). Table 4. Number of deer classification ground routes needed to estimate buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios within a given percent of the ratio at various confidence levels. Confidence Level Buck:Doe ratio 95% 90% 80% 95% 5% 862 592 352 434 298 177 10% 216 148 88 109 75 45 15% 96 66 39 49 34 20 20% 54 37 22 28 19 11 X% of ratio Fawn:Doe ratio 90% 80~~ �-285- Helicopter Classification Counts Two aerial observers classified a total of 723 and 591 deer, respectively (Table 5). There were no significant differences between observing at the 10 percent significance level in buck:doe or fawn:doe ratios observed. The numerical differences between ratios derived by the 2 observers were very small. The differences between the means and 90 percent confidence limits between observers were 1.0 + .02 for buck:doe ratios and 3.9 + 0.12 for fawn: doe ratios. Observed buck:doe ratios for all of Unit 62 were 22.5 for Observer X and 23.5 for Observer Y. Fawn:doe ratios were 76.1 for Observer X and 72.2 for Observer Y (Table 5). Since ratios determined by both observers are very close, it is suggested that use of these data in population formulas, etc. employ Observer XIS ratios as his were based on the larger number of deer. Table 5. Classification of deer by helicopter on 25, 3-square mile areas in Game Management Unit 62 during December 9 and 10, 1977.~/ Area'!:} Bucks Observer Does Fawns 3/ Bucks/lOa does90% Conf limits Total Mean 3/ Fawns/100 does90% Conf limits Mean X Strata 1-4 12 71 33 116 16.9 7.4 to 26.4 46.5 33.5 to 59.5 Y Strata 5-8 70 293 244 607 15.6 6.5 to 24.8 48.4 36.4 to 60.5 X Strata 5-8 10 64 31 105 23.9 18.7 to 29.1 83.3 75.7 to 90.8 Y Strata 5-8 61 238 187 486 25.6 19.0 to 32.3 78.6 69.4 to 87.7 X Total Unit 62 82 364 277 723 22.5 18.3 to 26.7 76.1 68.3 to 83.9 Total Unit 62 71 302 218 591 23.5 18.4 to 28.6 72.2 64.0 to 80.4 Y ~/ Counts were made on the same 25 routes on which ground counts were made between November 16 and December 4. 1/ Strata 1 thru 4 represent the north half of the unit. represents the south half. 3/ Strata 5 thru 8 Since there were no significant differences between observers, and ratios determined by both observers were very close, it is suggested that use of these data in population formulas, etc. employ observer XIS ratios as his were based on the larger number of deer. �-286- Lower fawn:doe ratios were recorded in strata 1 thru 4 (the north half of Unit 62) than in strata 5 thru 8 (the south half). Observer X recorded 47 fawns/100 does in strata 1-4 and 83 in strata 5-8. This difference was significant at the 10 percent significance level. The number of 3-square mile (7.8 km2) helicopter deer classification areas needed to estimate doe:fawn ratios within a given percent of the ratio at various confidence levels is shown in Table 6. The number of areas needed by each observer was relatively close although slightly more areas were needed by Observer Y. For Observer X the current sampling level of 25 areas is sufficient to permit estimation of doe:fawn ratios within 10 percent of the mean with 90 percent confidence. Due to the greater variability in estimating buck:doe ratios the current level of sampling is sufficient to permit estimation of buck:doe ratios within 20 percent of the mean with 90 percent confidence. 2 Table 6. Number of 3-square mile (7.8 km ) helicopter deer classification areas needed to estimate buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios within a given percent of the ratio at various confidence levels. Confidence Number of Areas for Buck:Doe Ratios 80% 95% 90% Level Number of Areas for Fawn: Doe Ratios 80% 90% 95% Observer X% of Ratio X 5% 511 351 209 153 107 63 10% 128 88 53 39 27 16 15% 57 39 24 17 12 7 20% 32 22 15 10 7 4 5% 683 469 279 188 129 77 10% 171 118 70 47 33 20 15% 76 53 31 21 15 9 20% 43 30 18 12 9 5 Y Comparison of Helicopter and Ground Classification Counts There was a significant difference at the 10 percent significance level between fawn:doe ratios derived by the helicopter and ground classification techniques when data for all of GMU 62 were combined (Table 7). Fawn: doe �-287- ratios obtained by the aerial technique were much higher (Helicopter = 76 fa¥llS/100 does, Ground = 46 fawns/100 does). There was no significant difference at the 90 percent level between the 2 techniques in buck:doe ratios. Table 7. Comparison buck:doe and fawn:doe and ground classification data. Type of Count Ground Helicopter ratios calculated from helicopter Observer Mean Bucks/100 Does 90% Conf. limits Mean Fawns/100 Does 90% Conf. limits A 32.7 20.6 to 44.7 51.7 39.1 to 64.3 B 23.7 18.4 to 29.0 40.8 30.0 to 51.6 A & B 28.1 21.3 to 34.9 46.2 38.2 to 54.1 X 22.5 18.3 to 26.7 76.1 68.3 to 83.9 y 23.5 18.4 to 28.6 72.2 64.0 to 80.4 Helicopter Deer Census The count went very well during 1978. There was good snow cover on all but the lowest quadrats. The snow was about 2 feet (.61 m) deep at the 8,000 foot (2438 m) level, so the observers believed very few, if any, deer were above the census area. No deer were seen on the uppermost quadrats. The several changes made in the system to alleviate problems encountered during the previous year's flight (Kufeld, 1977) helped a great deal. These were: (1) replacement of painted masonite markers with accurene markers; (2) deletion of contiguous quadrats and replacement with noncontiguous quadrats; (3) this year when a group of deer was encountered the counters left their location on the grid, flew to the deer and counted them before the group became scattered. The location of that group within the quadrat was then noted, and the counters returned to their grid location and continued to grid the quadrat. This helped to keep groups of deer separate. The total deer population in Unit 62 with 90 percent confidence limits is estimated at 17,884 ± 4,042 animals (Table 8). Thus, the true population (assuming the estimate is accurate) would fall somewhere between 13,842 and 21,926. Analysis of the 1978 data show that the percent sample of 193 quadrats is sufficient to estimate the population within 25 percent of the mean number of deer per square mile (2.59 km2) with 90 percent confidence (Table 9). The same analysis based on 1977 data showed 193 quadrats were enough to estimate within 15 percent of the mean with 95 percent confidence (Kufeld, 1977). �Table 8. Results of helicopter deer quadrat census of the winter range portion of Game Management Unit 62 conducted between February 11 and 18, 1978. Deer Eer Quadrat Standard Mean Deviation Deer per Sq. Hile (2.59 km2) Deer POEu1ation in Strata Total 90% Deer Confidence Limits Stratum Area Km2 Mi2 No. of Quadrats N n 1 51.50 133.39 206 12 16 1.333 4.618 5.332 275 2 110.00 284.90 440 35 104 2.971 6.555 11.884 1,307 3 101.25 262.24 405 23 20 0.870 2.380 3.480 352 4 122.25 316.63 489 38 300 7.895 9.395 31.580 3,861 5 58.00 150.22 232 13 50 3.846 7.381 15.384 892 6 79.75 206.55 319 25 374 14.960 28.167 59.840 4,772 Strata Deer Counted I N CIJ OJ I 7 39.75 102.95 159 9 51 5.667 11.597 22.668 901 8 89.25 231.16 357 38 588 15.474 23.214 61.895 5,524 -651.75 1688.03 2607 193 1503 6.86011 0.939611 27.44JlI 11 These are stratified random values. 21 90 percent confidence limits indicate a population of between 13,842 and 21,926 deer. 17,884 ± 4,0421:.1 �-289- The higher number of quadrats needed on the basis of 1978 data is due to greater variation in the 1978 data. Deer appeared more concentrated during 1978, and, in a number of cases, higher deer counts were made on individual quadrats than during 1977. Table 9. Number of quadrats needed to estimate the popUlation within a given percent of the mean deer per square mile at various confidence levels. No of quadrats needed per Confidence Level 95% 90% X% of Mean Deer/ 2 Square Mi (2.59 km ) 10% 489 424 15% 347 298 20% 269 230 25% 220 188 Total population estimates for stratum 8 for the 2 flights made to determine repeatability of the census technique were 5,524 and 4,528 deer, respectively. A paired t test showed no significant difference at the 10 percent significance level between these 2 popUlation estimates. Relative distribution of deer throughout the unit was similar to that found last year (Kufeld, 1977). Based on 1978 data, 31 percent of the deer popUlation estimated for all of Unit 62 occurs in stratum 8 (Table 8), which is an 89 square mile (230.5 km2) area encompassing the lower part of the Log Hill Mesa. Last year, data showed 48 percent of the deer population occurred in stratum 8. Also (based on 1978 data) 68 percent of the deer population in Unit 62 occur in Strata 5, 6, 7 and 8 (Table 8), which represents the south half of the Unit, or roughly the area south of the 25 Mesa road. Only 32 percent of the deer wintering in Unit 62 occur in Strata 1, 2, 3 and 4 which is, in general, the area north of the 25 Mesa road. The differences in population sizes between the south and north halves of the unit is significant at the .01 significance level. Data from last year (Kufeld, 1977) showed 79 and 21 percent of the popUlation in the south and north halves of the unit, respectively. This coincides with the results of the Fall 1976 and 1977 ground and 1977 helicopter deer classification counts which show much higher fawn:doe ratios on the south half of the area (Tables 2 and 5, and Kufeld, 1977). LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1977. Experimental deer inventory-southwest region. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. July, 1977, Part 2:287-297. Prepared by: ~CI ~~ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher C ��July, 1978 -291JOB PROGF~SS State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project No. W-38-R-33 Job Title Period Deer-Elk 23 Work Plan No. REPORT Job No. Investigations I --------------------------------- An i_m_a_l __a_n_d __P_e_nS,_u~p~p_o_r_t __F_a_c __l·_I_i_t_i_e_s __f_o_r __D_e __e_r_-_E_l_k __R_e_s_e_a_r __c_h Covered: _ April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: Paul H. Neil, Bruce Trindle, Kate Trindle, Sally Harpster, Linda Foerster, Lynn Stevens, Dan Parkinson, Ted Rodriguez, John Torres, Barry VanSant, Chris Solop, Chuck Perrin, and R. B. Gill. ABSTRACT A total of 40 mule deer fawns were obtained during the Segment. Thirty-six of the 40 were successfully hand-reared and trained for research projects in Kremmling, Fort Collins, Piceance Basin and Poudre Canyon. Rearing success was attributed to formula, good weather and improved hand-rearing techniques. In conjunction with fawn hand-rearing activities an experiment was conducted to test the humoral and cell-mediated immunocompetence of mule deer fawns obtained from wild does vs those obtained from tame does. It was concluded that wild does appeared to be better mothers than tame does if kept under a minimum of stress which was revealed by the higher plasma gamma globulin levels in fawns from wild does which appeared to be a result of the ingestion of more colostrum. Pen expansion and construction continued wit.h the completion of the runway system and the 2 acre elk pen which is now occupied by 8' research elk. Electricity was brought in to the area and a water system was designed. Construction is expected to continue into the next segment. ��-293- ANIMAL AND PEN SUPPORT FACILITIES FOR DEER-ELK RESEARCH Paul H. Neil PROGRAM NARRATIVE To provide facilities OUTLINE and maintain populations of captive big game animals and pen to support big game research programs. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To develop a big game research 2. To coordinate rearing, training, maintenance, and research captive, tame animals under one research support facility. 3. To integrate animal and physical plant support facility manpower monetary requirements under a single budget. METHODS and holding facility. activities with and AND MATERIALS Ten wild does were trapped in the Piceance winter range and transported to the Fort Collins facility for the purpose of obtaining fawns for hand-rearing and training. A total of 40 fawns were obtained during the segment from captive, tame does, wild does and orphans that were brought in by field men. In conjunction with hand-rearing and training an experiment was designed in an effort to evaluate the effects of stress on the immune system of hand-reared fawns. As a result of previous work conducted during the last segment, it was believed that the presence of a stress induced immunosuppression or deficiency was a major factor responsible for the high fawn mortality experienced in previous years. Twenty fawns were selected for an evaluation of humoral and cell-mediated i~~unity. The formula used to hand-rear the 40 fawns consisted of 2 parts whole milk to I part canned evaporated milk with an addition of 1/10 the total volume per day of buttermilk. This formula was obtained from Mr. Floyd Blunt of the Wyoming Game and Fish Commission at Sybille, Wyoming. In addition to hand-rearing fawns, facility expansion and construction continued. Materials were ordered, fence posts were set and construction of the interconnecting runway system, isolation pens and shelters was continued. RESULTS AND D1SCUSSION Thirty~six of the 40 fawns were successfully hand-reared and trained for digestion cage research and for food habits trials. Rearing success was attributed to �-294- the milk formula, good weather and improved rearing management techniques. Sixteen of the fawns were transported to the Kremmling facility in September for incorporation into research programs being conducted at that location. Details of the results of the humoral and cell-mediated immunity experiment can be obtained from several papers: Trindle, B. D., L. D. Lewis, and L. H. Lauerman, 1978. Evaluation of stress and its effects on the immune system of hand-reared mule deer fawns, J. Wildl. Dis. (In Press)., and Trindle, B. D., L. D. Lewis, and L. H. Lauerman, 1978, Techniques for evaluating humoral and cell-mediated immunity in mule deer fawns J. Wildl. Dis. (In Press). During the immune system experiment a technique for anesthetizing the fawns for the purpose of obtaining skin biopsys had to be developed. A standard Heibrink in-circuit wick vaporizor gas anesthesia machine, equipped with a one-liter bag, canine mask, and 2 oxygen cylinders was used with Methoxyflurane gas. Induction and recovery were very smooth, the depth of anesthesia easily controlled and muscle relaxation very good. Details and results of the 58 anesthetics that were performed can be obtained from; Trindle, Bruce D., L. D. Lewis. 1978. Anesthesia of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) fawns. J. Appl. Ethology (In Press). Pen and facility expansion and construction continued slowly but consistently. Unfavorable soil conditions hindered post-hole digging and placement, however the runway system was completed as well as the elk pen. Eight elk used in W-38-R Work Plan 17, Job 2 now occupy one 2 acre pen. Construction of five more holding pens for deer, twelve isolation pens, 3 digestion cages and a weigh room facility continued. Electricity was brought to the area by Public Service Company and a water system is planned for next segment. A septic system for the lab and office area was also installed. (~/ Prepared ;~j V 1 .I~rl'7 ~() by _"\,,-"'-...t:--.:Q~.--=C_( __V__-=f!-:-·j_1 ---,-:'! =-!..( .: __ Paul H. Neil Wildlife Tech II -,--_ �July, -295- JOB PROGRESS State of 1978 REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. Deer and Elk Investigations W-38-R-33 1 ---------------------------Job Title Elk Population and Ecological Studies ~~~====~~~====~~~~------------------Work Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: 24 Job No. April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 George D. Bear and Paul H. Neil ABSTRACT Field personnel listed population dynamics and range requirements as the most prevalent problem areas in the Colorado elk Management program. Pertinent literature was reviewed and a research study plan was prepared. A preliminary evaluation was made of proposed elk capturing and marking techniques. Two elk calves were captured using a helicopter, and one was marked with a radio-telemetry collar. Four other elk were captured with Clover traps, modified for capturing elk, and three were marked with radio-telemetry collars. These techniques will need some modification, but will be useful in determining elk mortality and movement patterns. ��-297- ELK POPULATION AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES George D. Bear P. N. OBJECTIVE The main objective this first year will be to determine the status of knowledge in elk ecology and to list, by priority, the deficiencies of information which are necessary for attaining and maintaining the elk management goals specified in THE STRATEGY OF TODAY FOR WILDLIFE TOMORROW. A long range eLle- research plan will be prepared following this review process. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Outline elk management problems. 2. Review literature. 3. Prepare a Program Narrative. METHODS AND RESULTS Initial work consisted of determining what problems are prevalent in the Colorado elk management program. Questionnaires were sent to management personnel concerned with elk management; and they listed the following as being the most important aspects for future research: source and degree of miscellaneous mortality (other than hunting); a system for obtaining more accurate population estimates; determine carrying capacity of elk ranges and competition among wild ungulates for range resources; effect of various human activities en elk distribution; and identification "range" for individual herd units. Pertinent literature was reviewed and a study plan prepared. This study plan was submitted as a Program Narrative for Federal Aid Project W-126-R-2, Work Plan 3, Job 2 (Elk Population and Ecological Studies). Since a major portion of the proposed study depends on capturing and marking elk, some procedures and equipment were briefly evaluated to determine their effectiveness. The technique of using a helicopter to capture elk calves and mark them with radio collars, such as done in Idaho, was tested in Rocky Mountain National Park during June 1978. This was done by hovering over young elk calves, thus frightening them. They would then try to hide by lying down and remaining motionless while the helicopter landed nearby and the observer caught the calf, and collared it. Of course this means the elk must be in open terrain to permit use of the helicopter. This technique appears to be very efficient and permits capture of calves that would not be located or caught by ground crews. More work must be done to determine the �-298- peak of calving season. This preliminary test was too early and only three calves were seen; two were easily captured, while the third was in a heavily timbered area and the helicopter could not land. Only one radio collar was available for this test. Movements were traced for this calf as the herd migrated toward their summer range. The radio transmitter was attached to the calf with an expandable collar which would expand as the animal grew in size. However, the collar expanded prematurely and the calf lost the collar four weeks after capture. Therefore these collars must be modified so they will be more dependable. It does appear that this technique of capturing and marking calves has promise and can be useful in studies of calf elk mortality. During February, 1978 an attempt was made to capture and mark elk using the methods being considered for population research. Bait stations were established on the Pulliam Ranch, near Fort Collins, Colorado. Livestock salt and alfalfa hay were used for bait. Elk frequented the stations the first day, and after one week there were 15-20 elk using one station. Two elk sized Clover traps were placed at the station; four elk (3 cows and I calf) were captured during the first three nights of trapping, then the elk abandoned the bait station. The first three elk (2 cows and 1 calf) were successfully tranquilized, out-fitted with radio collars, and released. The fourth elk (adult cow) was severly injured with the tranquilizing equipment and died at the trap site. Based on this limited experimentation using Pneu-dart and cap-chur equipment and consultations other scientists it was concluded the pneu-dart syringe (with pre-measured dosages of succinyl) and rifle would best suit our needs for tranquilizing elk in the Clover traps. Also, it was found the traps should be placed out-of-sight of each other, so as to minimize the stress on a trapped elk while workers are processing an animal in another trap. The radio transmitters and collars have worked very well for tracking movements on the elk as they migrated to their summer range. We will need a more sensitive receiver and antennae system if we are to obtain reliable information on elk activity patterns, such as feeding, walking, bedding, etc. It appears such systems are available for purchase. d Prepared by e::P . (;l.,r<'~ •. ~. __ " _yz. George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher _ � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/bee09b26ae9acb57f2b5e3597b8809e2.pdf f0cd23dddc17de0cb8e2a8ec413b977b PDF Text Text JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO Project No. W-101-R-20 Work Plan No. Job Title Game Range Investigations Job Nc. 4 la ------------~-------------- Inventory of Range Manipulation Projects in Colorado ------~~~~-=~~~~~--~~~~~~--~---------------- Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Roland C. Kufeld, and Regional Game Biologists ABSTRACT An inventory has been made of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1976, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25, on lands administered by the u.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. The inventory also included projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountain Indian Reservations through 1969. Acreages treated were: Forest Service - 253,877, Bureau of Land Management -343,364, Indian Reservations68,169. ��-301- INVENTORY OF RANGE MANIPULATION PROJECTS IN COLORADO Roland C. Kufeld P. N. OBJECTIVE To collect information which describes proposed and completed range vegetation modification projects that are located in Colorado, and their effects on the range, wildlife and livestock; and to provide desired IBM listings of these data to cooperating agencies upon their request. INTRODUCTION Game managers need to know the location, extent, kinds and effects of typeconversion projects which have already modified game ranges in their areas, so they can anticipate the probable impact of similar projects in the future. Also, they need to know in advance where, when and how the range is going to be modified so they can determine the probable effects of proposed projects on wildlife, and make recommendations for maintaining or improving wildlife habitat. The purpose of this study is: (1) To determine the characteristics of each of the range type - conversion projects that have been conducted in Colorado; (2) How these projects have affected wildlife; (3) To establish an interagency information exchange system designed to keep all land management agencies mutually advised on proposed type-conversion projects and results of past projects. METHODS An inventory has been made of all range vegetation modification projects completed through 1976, in Colorado, west of Interstate Highway 25, on lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. The inventory also included projects completed on the Southern Ute and Ute Mountains Indian Reservations through 1969. Descriptive information concerning projects completed through 1969, was assembled from files in field offices of the U.S. Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs. After 1969, data were collected through an interagency information exchange system under which the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management notified the respective Colorado Division of Wildlife Regional Office one year in advance of their plans for range vegetation modification. A joint field inspection was conducted which provided Colorado Division of Wildlife the opportunity to make recommendations concerning the project and, in some cases, to contribute financially to the improvement of wildlife habitat. A standard inventory form was also completed at that time (Fig. 1). This form is the same as that used to inventory projects completed prior to 1969. Upon completion of treatment, information was obtained from the land management agency �-302- concerning the dates the work has performed, the acres involved, and any details concerning the project if different from that planned. Provisions of the information exchange system also called for post-treatment evaluations to be made on each project 2, 5, and 10 years after treatment using a standard form (Fig. 2). Inventory data were placed on ADP cards and original forms placed on file by project. This was handled by the Colorado Division of Wildlife Big Game Research Section. Data listings concerning vegetation modification work were made available to all cooperating agencies upon request. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, in Colorado, by the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management, and through 1969, by the Bureau of Indian Affairs are shown in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Table 4 shows combined data for the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. Data are listed by vegetation type and kind of treatment, and show the number of acres seeded as part of treatment. The Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management have treated 253,877 and 343,364 acres respectively through 1976, for a total of 597,241 acres. Through 1969, 68,169 acres were treated on the 2 Ute Indian Reservations. Most of the work has been done in sagebrush and Pinyon-juniper types with browse type ranking third. Most browse type work involved control of Gambel oakbrush. The Forest Service and BLM treated 325,394 acres of sagebrush, 131,422 acres of pinyon-juniper, and 29,072 acres of browse through 1976. Most work in sagebrush involved spraying, and most work in pinyon-juniper involved chaining. In browse type most work has involved spraying, chaining and burning. The bulk of spraying was done before 1966, in the browse type. Since then, chaining became popular and more recently many controlled burns have been completed. Acreages treated by individual National Forest, BLM District and Indian Reservation are shown according to vegetation type and kind of treatment Tables 5 through 22~ Total acreages are summarized in Table 23. in A discussion of project characteristics, such as equipment used, chemical herbicides, plant species used for reseeding and environmental characteristics has been presented by Kufeld (1968a and 1970). Effects of range vegetation modification projects on range, livestock and wildlife as determined from field inspections of projects completed through 1965 have been discussed by Kufeld (1968a and 1968b). Some 2 and 5 year posttreatment evaluations were made on projects completed after 1969. Data from these evaluations were accumulated on file for several years until enough 2 and 5 year post-treatment evaluations were made to provide a basis for a meaningful data analysis. Due to the workload and limited available manpower within the Division of Wildlife Regions some scheduled evaluations were omitted or delayed. This caused a discontinuity of data which made it virtually impossible to derive any useful information from the relatively limited posttreatment evaluation data that has already been collected. For that reason �-303v,'hcncompleting the blanks on this form follow the instructions in the Interagency Council on Wildlife Ecology booklet entitled "A System for Inventory and Evaluation of Vegetation Hodification Projects". IMPORTAl~T : GFP #4A COMPLETED Colorado VEGETATION PROJECT DESIGNATION 1. Number _______________________________ II* LAND STATUS 3. Natl. Forest 4. BLi.1District 5. State Agency 6. SCS Area 7. Indian Agency III* LOCATION 9. G. F. &P. Region~ IV PROJECT Game, Fish and Parks Division 1* 12. MODIFICATION 2. Name~ District Name Allotment or Unit 10. W.C.O. District _ County Tmvnship _ _ 11. Game Ngmt. Unit No. ---- 13. Drainage. Range _ Sections. P.M. _ Dominant SITE DESCRIPTION 14. Ve~,=ta tive Type__________________________ 15. Spe cies 16.:" ::::::. Co-Ii a t 1.011_______________________ 1. I • 1. opo graPny _ 18. Percent Slope 19. Exposure _ 20. Soil Type ----21. Erosion Condition _ 2lA. Hethod Used to Determine Erosion Condition'--_ 22. Range Condition for Livestock For Deer For Elk 22A. Method Used to Determine Range Condo Livestock Deer E1k _ 23. Forage Production for Livestock For Deer For E1k~ _ 23A. Hethod Used Deter. Forage Prod. Livestock Deer Elk 24. Vegetative Cover 25. Shrubs 26. Herbs ------------26A. Grass 27. Litter 28. Ground. _ 28A. Method Used to Determine Vegetative Cover & Composition '---------------29. Agencies 30. Date. _ Remarks * -------------------------------------------------------------------------- V VI CLIMATIC DATA 31. Avg. Annual Precipitation 33. Avg. Annual Temperature 33B. Avg. July Temperature 35. Avg. Snow Depth on Area Seasonal 32. Distribution 33A. Avg. Jan. Temperature 34. Length GroHing Season -----36.*Station Reporting RANGE USE (At Time of Treatment) 37. Kind of Livestock 39. Carrying Capacity 41. Stocking Rate 38. ,~ Season of Use 40. Grazing System Remarks j * -------------------------------_._----Fig. 1. Form used for recording descriptive inventory data. �-30443.* _ 42.~ Kind of Wildlifc, ------ 44A. How Use Determined Remarks 44. Amount of Use ------ Sca s on of Use~---------- ----------- 45. Agency -------------- 46. Date --------- --------------------------------------------------------- VII TREATMENT 47.-1<No. Acres Treated 48.* Purpose of Treatment 50. Equipment Used 52.·k Equipment, Chemicals 54.* How Seeded 56.* Species Se-e-d~e-d-------------------------- -----------------------------~------~~----------------~------------------------------------ ---------------- 49.* Kind of Treatment 51.* Date Treated 53.* Seeded: Yes No 55.* Date Seeded---- ,-------- ~----------------------- 57.* Rate Seeded 58.* Protection Given Location from Other Projects Remarks --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------MAP OF PROJECT LOCATION R R 1 2 3 6 1 2 3 4 5 1 6 5 4 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 ~ 18 17 16 15 14 13 18 17 16 15 14 13 ~ ~ ~ 22 23 24 T . ',1 : 19 I I 20 21 22 I I I 23 rj 24 19 20 21 I 29 28 27 26 25 30 29 28 27 26 25 31 32 33 34 35 36 31 32 33 34 35 36 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 8 9 10 11 12 7 8 9 10 11 12 18 17 16 15 14 13 18 17 16' 15 14 13 19 20 21 22 23 24 19 20 21 22 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 30 29 28 27 26 25 31 32 33 3!~ 35 36 31 32 33 34 35 36 e Lf o r t should be ma d e T ..}; ; 30 "flnggcd" are of p r i ma r y i mpo r t a nc e, to o b t a in Lnf o rrna tion. ItC'l1lS Form Completed By (:;hO\v t i t Lc and agency and special Title Agency Dnt c of aLl persons pn r t i.c i.p.it Lng in r-omp lc tLon _ of Lorru) �-305IMPORTAl."lT:When completing the blanks on this form follow the instructions in the Interagency Council on Hildlife Ecology booklet entitled "/\. System for Inventory and Evaluation of Vegetation Modification Projects". GFP 1f4B RESULTS AND EFFECTS OF VEGETATION Colorado I. * II. * III. * MODIFICATION PROJECTS ON HABITAT Game, Fish and Parks Division PROJECT DESIGNATION 1. Number 2. Name . _ Allotment District or Unit Name LAND STATUS Natl. Forest 3. 4. BU1 District 5. State Agency 6. SCS Area 7. Indian Agency 8. Private (Name and Address) ---------------------------------------11. Game Mgmt. LOCATION Unit No. 10. W.C.O. District 9. G.F.&P Region ~---------____________________ 13. Drainage-----12. County Range Sections ------- P •M. Township '"l'7 r.=PT7i7"-.·" ..Ly. J...J.1. ••..,L...I,-",..Lr..J •.. -; .•... .: :'0,,17 •••••• ..1.... ••....•. \..~.I.l. ,;~.1~7 ••.._ .•• ~.L 18. 19. 23. 24. 25. 27. 29. _ .• :r:"'f'1 •••.. After 14. 15. 16. 17. _ _ Increase Decrease Plant Suecies Production for Livestock Production for Deer Production for Elk Deer Elk Used to Determine Forage Prod. Livestock --Plant S])ecies Decrease Increase After Vegetative Cover _ _ 22. Litter 21. Grass Shrubs 20. Herbs ---------Bare Ground .--------~--------------------------------------------Method Used to Determine Vegetative Cover & Composition. _ Kill Percent 26. How Kill Determined ----------------Success Percent 28. How Success Determined _ Agencies Making Determination. 30. Date __--------- Forage Forage Forage Method Remarks ---------------------------------------------32. Season of Use 33. Type Grazing Syatem 31. Kind of Livestock 34. 36. 39. Present Carrying Capacity 35. Date _ Present Stocking Rate ------37. Increase of 38. Decrease of --No Change 40. How Carrying Capacity and Stocking Rate Determined ----------------_._---------------------------------Continued Fig. 2. Form used for recording on Reverse Side post-treatment evaluation data. �-306·- 41. 43. ______________ 42. Date Agencies Making Determination '---Kind of 44. Season 45. Amount Wildlife of Use of Us e. -----~~------Hare Use By 47. Less Use By 46. TREATMENT Animal Species _ _ _ _ EFFECTS (48) (ff9) (50) (51) (52) (53) (54) Benefieial Detrimental 1'To Effect Unknown How Determined Agencies Date .----_._---- --------------- -.&.'-_,.~••..• . v , · 1., .Io.. " •••• ..,;, . Form Completed by Title (Date) Agencies _ (Show name, title and Agency of all persons participating in completion of form) �-307- Table 1. Acreages of range land treated through U. S. Forest Service. Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Spray & Harrow Spray & Plow Pitting Other 38 17 52 37 8 1 3 6 1 3714 2057 l3855 33084 1448 200 2374 530 1020 3714 2057 13855 1986 1448 200 2374 530 1020 Subtotal 163 58282 27184 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray 2 2 1 2 76 71 15 287 ----- 76 71 15 47 -------- -.---- Subtotal 7 449 209 Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 2 2 3 1 180 325 375 40 130 325 20 40 ------ Subtotal 8 920 565 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Rotobeat Plow & Harrow Spray & Harrow Spray & Plow Pitting 24 11 40 187 1 1 6 1 2 3 2659 2059 11211 120161 300 128 1309 160 l35 960 2659 2059 11211 995 300 128 1309 160 l35 960 Subtotal 276 l39082 19916 Harrow Spray 1 6 65 2910 65 0 Subtotal 7 2975 65 Seed only Plow Spray Chain 4 1 19 23 210 523 l2l70 4839 195 523 985 3269 Kind of Treatment Grass Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Browse by the No. of Projects Vegetative Type Meadow 1976, in Colorado, ------------------------------------------------------ . -------------~--------- �-308- Table l. Acreages of range land treated through 1976, in Colorado, u. S. Forest Service. (Cont I d) . .. Vegetative Type Browse (Contld) Conifer Pinyon-Juniper Aspen Annual Weeds Abandoned Accidental Lands Burn All Vegetative Types by the Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Burn Spray & Plow Hand Cutting Brush Cutter Burn 18 1 3 8897 40 150 4560 40 0 1 712 0 Subtotal 70 27541 9572 Seed only Plow Burn 13 2 1 985 299 205 985 299 205 Subtotal 16 1489 1489 Seed only Harrow Chain Burn Brush Roller 1 1 12 1 1 150 460 12472 200 160 150 460 ll484 200 160 Subtotal 16 13442 12454 Seed only Harrow 6 5 2892 836 2892 836 Subtotal II 3728 3728 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Spray & Plow 9 5 1 2 1 ll96 276 40 1210 ll5 ll66 276 40 0 ll5 Subtotal 18 2837 1597 Seed only Harrow Plow Plow & Harrow 5 1 4 1 206 5 56 5 206 5 56 5 Subtotal II 272 272 Seed only 5 2860 2860 Subtotal 5 2860 2860 608 253877 799ll Grand Total & �-309Table 2. Acreages of rangeland Bureau of Land Management. treated through 1976, in Colorado, by the Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed only Harrow Plow 5 1 6 458 50 2868 458 50 2868 Subtotal 12 3376 3376 Seed only Plow Spray 1 1 1 200 400 152 200 400 0 Subtotal 3 752 600 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Burn Rotobeat Brush Cutter Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow Plow & Burn Chain & Burn Other 40 6 116 78 27 5 5 3 5 5 6 1 1 14250 3102 44636 95409 17834 670 575 1728 2013 4365 1503 200 27 14250 3102 44466 1807 7980 670 100 0 2013 4365 1503 200 27 Subtotal 298 186312 80483 Seed only Plow Spray Rotobeat 1 4 11 1 373 2317 11170 169 373 2317 2920 0 Subtotal 17 14029 5610 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Burn 1 2 1 1 1 1 65 477 84 500 350 55 65 477 0 500 350 55 Subtotal 7 1531 1447 Seed only Plow 2 1 2200 200 2200 200 Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-310Table 2. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, in Colorado, (Cont' d) . Bureau of Jtand Management. No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Spray Chain 1 122 1000 114580 0 82762 Subtotal 126 117980 85162 Seed only 1 40 40 Subtotal 1 40 40 Seed only Plow Other 1 1 3 200 200 525 200 200 525 Subtotal 5 925 925 Plow Spray Spray 2 1 1 167 934 380 167 0 380 Subtotal 4 1481 547 Seed only Plow 5 1 2137 1275 2137 1275 Subtotal 6 3412 3412 Spray 5 1553 1150 Subtotal 5 1553 1150 Seed only Plow Plow & Harrow 1 1 1 200 320 60 200 320 60 Subtotal 3 580 580 Seed only 4 832 832 Subtotal 4 832 832 Seed only Harrow 25 1 10536 25 10536 25 Subtotal 26 10561 10561 Grand Total 517 343364 194725 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Pinyon-Juniper (Cont'd) Aspen Saltbush Greasewood Desert Shrub Half Shrub Annual Weeds Abandoned Accidental Lands Burn All Vegetative Types by the & Chain �-311- Table 3. Acreages of rangeland Bureau of Indian Affairs. Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Harrow Plow Spray Rotobeat Plow & Burn 1 10 3 1 1 750 6866 6400 700 110 0 6866 1900 0 110 Subtotal 16 14826 8876 Chain 1 220 0 Subtotal 1 220 0 Seed only Plow Chain Burn 3 2 5 2 11684 574 35235 5630 11684 574 21060 4600 Subtotal 12 53123 37918 Grand Total 29 68169 46794 Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Pinyon-Juniper All Vegetative Types Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, in Colorado, u.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. by the No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Spray & Harrow Spray & Plow Pitting Other 43 18 58 37 8 1 3 6 1 4172 2107 16723 33084 1448 200 2374 530 1020 4172 2107 16723 1986 1448 200 2374 530 1020 Subtotal 175 61658 30560 2 2 76 71 76 71 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Meadow by the No. of Projects Vegetative Type Browse treated through 1976, in Colorado, Seed only Harrow ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-312- Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, in Colorado, Service and Bureau of Land Management. (Cont'd). by the u.s. Forest No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Meadow Plow Spray 1 2 15 287 15 47 Subtotal 7 449 209 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 1 2 3 4 1 200 180 725 527 40 200 180 725 20 40 Subtotal 11 1672 1165 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Burn Rotobeat Brush Cutter Plow & Harrow Spray & Harrow Spray & Plow Plow & Burn Chain & Burn Pitting Other 64 17 156 265 28 16909 5161 55677 2802 8280 670 228 1 16909 5161 55847 215570 18134 670 703 1728 3322 160 4500 1503 200 960 27 Subtotal 574 325394 100399 1 1 373 65 2317 2920 (Cont'd) Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Browse 5 6 3 11 1 7 6 1 3 o 3322 160 4500 1503 200 960 27 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Rotobeat 4 17 1 373 65 2317 l4080 169 Subtotal 24 17004 5675 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Burn 5 2 2 275 477 607 12670 5189 8952 260 477 523 1485 3619 4615 20 24 19 o ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-3l3- Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, in Colorado, U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. (Cont'd). by the Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Browse Spray & Plow Hand Cutting Brush Cutter & Burn 1 3 40 150 40 1 712 o Subtotal 77 29072 11019 Seed only Plow Burn 13 1 985 299 205 985 299 205 Subtotal 16 1489 1489 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Burn Brushro11er 3 1 1 1 134 1 1 2350 460 200 1000 127052 200 160 2350 460 200 94246 200 160 Subtotal 142 131422 97616 Seed only Harrow 7 5 2932 836 2932 836 Subtotal 12 3768 3768 Seed only Plow Other 1 1 3 200 200 525 200 200 525 Subtotal 5 925 925 Plow Spray Spray 2 1 167 934 380 167 1 Subtotal 4 1481 547 Seed only Plow 5 1 2137 1275 2137 1275 Subtotal 6 3412 3412 Spray 5 1553 1150 Subtotal 5 1553 1150 (Cont'd) Conifer Pinyon-Juniper Aspen Saltbush Greasewood Desert Shrub Half Shrub & Chain No. of Projects 2 Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment o o o 380 �-314- Table 4. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, in Colorado, U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. (Cont'd). No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow 10 5 2 2 1 1 1396 276 360 1210 60 115 1366 276 360 0 60 115 Subtotal 21 3417 2177 Seed only Harrow Plow Plow & Harrow 9 1 4 1 1038 5 56 5 1038 5 56 5 Subtotal 15 1104 1104 Seed only Harrow 30 1 13396 25 13396 25 Subtotal 31 13421 13421 1125 597241 274636 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Annual Weeds Abandoned Accidental Lands Burn All Vegetative Types by the Grand Total �-315-Table 5. Forest. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976 on the Arapahoe Acres Treated National Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetation Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Grass Seed only 9 362 362 Subtotal 9 362 362 Harrow 1 11 11 Subtotal 1 11 11 Seed only Plow Spray 2 3 6 123 121 3278 123 121 0 Subtotal 11 3522 244 Spray 1 100 0 Subtotal 1 100 0 Seed only 2 20 20 Subtotal 2 20 20 Seed only 2 295 295 Subtotal 2 295 295 Grand Total 26 4310 932 Meadow Sagebrush Browse Abandoned Accidental Lands Burn All Vegetative Types Table 6. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland treated through 1976, on the Grand Mesa Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed only Harrow Plow Spray 4 2 1 14 307 70 285 14474 307 70 285 1054 Subtotal 21 15136 1716 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-316- Table 6. Acreages of rangeland (Cont'd). National Forest. treated through 1976, on the Grand Mesa Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Meadow Seed only Harrow Spray 1 1 1 12 60 47 12 60 47 Subtotal 3 119 119 Spray 2 355 0 Subtotal 2 355 0 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 4 1 1 10 1 563 505 600 8475 681 563 505 600 200 681 Subtotal 17 10824 2549 Spray Chain Burn 3 1 1 190 60 60 60 60 60 Subtotal 5 310 180 Seed only 1 54 54 Subtotal 1 54 54 Chain 2 626 626 Subtotal 2 626 626 Seed only 2 226 226 Subtotal 2 226 226 Grand Total 53 27650 5470 Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Browse Conifer Pinyon-Juniper Aspen All Vegetative Types �-317- Table 7. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Meadow Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Browse Aspen Annual Weeds All Vegetative Types treated through 1976, on the Gunnison No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 1 2 6 2 2 100 450 3590 2922 350 100 450 3590 0 350 Subtotal 13 7412 4490 Plow 1 15 15 Subtotal 1 15 15 Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 2 2 1 1 180 325 20 40 180 325 20 40 Subtotal 6 565 565 Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow 4 38 2 1 1257 33392 207 5 1257 0 207 5 Subtotal 45 34861 1469 Spray Spray & Plow 3 1 2208 40 925 40 Subtotal 4 2248 965 Harrow 1 150 150 Subtotal 1 150 150 Seed only Harrow 1 1 900 100 900 100 Subtotal 2 1000 1000 Grand Total 72 46251 8654 �-318- Table 8. Forest. Acreages of rangeland No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 17 5 1 5019 3362 3 5019 0 3 Subtotal 23 8384 5022 Seed only Plow 1 4 46 56 46 56 Subtotal 5 102 102 Seed only 1 2400 2400 Subtotal 1 2400 2400 Grand Total 29 10886 7524 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Abandoned Accidental Lands Burn All Vegetative Types Table 9. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Meadow Sagebrush treated through 1976, on the Pike National treated through 1976, on the Rio Grande No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow Other 5 3 7 3 1 1 1 142 346 681 8229 15 1913 1020 142 346 681 75 15 1913 1020 Subtotal 21 12346 4192 Spray 1 240 0 Subtotal 1 240 0 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray 1 3 1 3 23 410 73 522 23 410 73 40 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-319- Table 9. Acreages of rangeland (Cont'd). National Forest. treated through 1976, on the Rio Grande No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush (Cont'd) Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow 1 1 200 130 200 130 Subtotal 10 1358 876 Harrow Spray 1 3 65 860 65 0 Subtotal 4 925 65 Seed only Plow Burn 1 1 1 20 523 48 20 523 0 Subtotal 3 591 543 Seed only 2 30 30 Subtotal 2 30 30 Grand Total 41 15490 5706 Rabbitbrush Browse Conifer All Vegetative Types Table 10. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Grass Seed only Plow 1 3 10 220 10 220 Subtotal 4 230 230 Plow Spray 4 8 1490 4193 1490 0 Subtotal 12 5683 1490 Seed only 1 4 4 Subtotal 1 4 4 Sagebrush Annual Weeds treated through 1976, on the Roosevelt Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-320- Table 10. Acreages of rangeland National Forest. (Cont'd). Vegetative Type Abandoned Kind of Treatment Lands All Vegetative Types Table 11. Forest. Acreages treated through 1976, on the Roosevelt No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Plow & Harrow 1 5 5 Subtotal 1 5 5 Grand Total 18 5922 1729 of rangeland treated through 1976, on the Routt National Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 4 3 2 2 1 518 105 165 201 60 518 105 165 196 60 Subtotal 12 1049 1044 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Spray & Harrow 8 2 3 44 1 124 88 225 16559 160 124 88 225 0 160 Subtotal 58 17156 597 Spray Hand Cutting 1 2 67 120 0 0 Subtotal 3 187 0 Seed only 1 205 205 Subtotal 1 205 205 Seed only 1 50 50 Subtotal 1 50 50 Sagebrush Browse Conifer Aspen No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment �-321- Table 11. Acreages Forest. (Cont'd). of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Annual Weeds Seed only Harrow Plow 5 2 1 184 95 40 154 95 40 Subtotal 8 319 289 Seed only Harrow 1 1 40 5 40 5 Subtotal 2 45 45 Grand Total 85 19011 2230 Abandoned Lands All Vegetative Types Table 12. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper treated through 1976, on the Routt National Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment treated through 1976, on the San Isabel No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Plow & Harrow 3 1 3 1 1219 590 2138 750 1219 590 2138 750 Subtotal 8 4697 4697 Harrow Spray 1 2 220 565 220 0 Subtotal 3 785 220 Spray 1 1000 0 Subtotal 1 1000 0 Seed only 1 150 150 Subtotal 1 150 150 Harrow 1 460 460 Subtotal 1 460 460 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-322- Table 12. Acreages of rangeland National Forest. (Cont'd). treated through 1976, on the San Isabel No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Annual Weeds Harrow 1 6 6 Subtotal 1 6 6 Grand Total 15 7098 5533 All Vegetative Types Table 13. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Pitting 6 4 4 5 1 6 509 376 154 1801 50 . 530 509 376 154 500 50 530 Subtotal 26 3420 2119 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Plow & Harrow Pitting 1 2 17 6 1 1 3 300 216 5028 6678 300 100 960 300 216 5028 0 300 100 960 Subtotal 31 13582 6904 Seed only Chain Burn Hand Cutting Brush Cutter Burn 1 14 15 1 25 3430 8289 30 25 2110 4000 0 1 712 0 32 12486 6135 Sagebrush Browse Subtotal treated through 197Q, on the San Juan No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment & ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-323- Table 13. Acreages of rangeland (Cont'd). National Forest. treated through 1976, on the San Juan Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Conifer Seed only Plow 10 2 901 299 901 299 Subtotal 12 1200 1200 Seed only Chain Burn 1 1 1 150 1499 200 150 1499 200 Subtotal 3 1849 1849 Seed only Harrow 1 2 316 326 316 326 Subtotal 3 642 642 Seed only Spray Spray & Plow 2 1 1 108 910 115 108 0 ll5 Subtotal 4 ll33 223 Seed only 1 100 100 Subtotal 1 100 100 ll2 34412 19172 Pinyon-Juniper Aspen Annual Weeds Abandoned Land All Vegetative Types Grand Total Table 14. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Grass Seed only Plow Spray 1 4 1 150 658 419 150 658 0 Subtotal 6 1227 808 Seed only 1 64 64 Subtotal 1 64 64 Meadow treated through 1976, on the Uncompahgre Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-324- Table 14. Acreages of rangeland (Cont'd). National Forest. Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow 6 2 7 39 1 l386 620 2417 30569 121 l386 620 2417 455 121 Subtotal 55 35113 4999 Spray 2 1050 0 Subtotal 2 '1050 0 Seed only Spray Burn 1 9 1 15 8265 500 0 0 500 Subtotal 11 8780 500 Chain Brush Roller 9 1 10347 160 9359 160 Subtotal 10 10507 9519 Seed only Harrow 1 1 2100 60 2100 60 Subtotal 2 2160 2160 Spray 1 300 Subtotal 1 300 0 Grand Total 88 59201 18050 Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper Aspen Annual Weeds All Vegetative Types through 1976, on the Uncompahgre No. of Projects Vegetative Type Rabbitbrush treated 0 , �-325- Table 15. Acreages National Forest. of rangeland No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Harrow Spray & Harrow Spray & Plow 4 2 5 5 1 1 2 397 120 945 1676 220 200 461 397 120 945 161 220 200 461 Subtotal 20 4019 2504 Seed only Spray Rotobeat 2 31 1 140 15930 128 140 300 128 Subtotal 34 16198 568 Spray Chain 2 8 1340 1349 0 1099 Subtotal 10 2689 1099 Seed only Harrow 1 1 200 300 200 300 ---- Subtotal 2 500 500 Harrow 1 75 --- 75 Subtotal 1 75 75 Harrow 2 165 165 Subtotal 2 165 165 Grand Total 69 23646 4911 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Grass Sagebrush Browse Aspen Annual Weeds Accidental Burn All Vegetative Types treated through 1976, on the White River �-326- Table 16. District. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, on the Craig BLM Vetetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Burn Rotobeat 21 2 19 21 9 5 3 7932 217 15421 19954 4620 670 420 7932 217 15421 0 1992 670 100 Subtotal 80 49234 26332 Harrow Burn 2 1 477 55 477 55 Subtotal 3 532 532 Seed only Chain 1 19 1200 25507 1200 11519 Subtotal 20 26707 12719 Seed only 1 200 200 Subtotal 1 200 200 Spray 1 15 0 Subtotal 1 15 0 Seed only 3 792 792 Subtotal 3 792 792 Seed only Harrow 9 1 3995 25 3995 25 Subtotal 10 4020 4020 Grand Total 118 81500 44595 Browse Pinyon-Juniper Saltbush Half Shrub Abandoned Lands Accidental Burn All Vegetative Types �-327Table 17. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, on the Glenwood Springs B.L.M. District. No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Seed only Plow Spray Chain Rotobeat Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow Plow & Burn Chain & Burn Other 4 32 20 5 1 4 4 5 1 1 397 5317 23379 1708 75 663 2765 1330 200 27 397 5147 407 168 0 663 2765 1330 200 27 Subtotal 77 35861 11104 Spray 1 500 500 Subtotal 1 500 500 Chain 1 910 910 Subtotal 1 910 910 Seed only 1 40 40 Subtotal 1 40 40 Plow Spray 2 1 167 934 167 0 Subtotal 3 1101 167 Spray 1 138 0 Subtotal 1 138 0 Seed only 1 40 40 Subtotal 1 40 40 Seed only 3 2472 2472 Subtotal 3 2472 2472 Grand Total 88 41062 15233 Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper Aspen Greasewood Half Shrub Abandoned Lands Accidental Burn All Vegetative Types �-328- Table 18. Acreages of rangeland treated through 1976, B.L.M. District. on the Montrose Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed only Plow 1 3 100 988 100 988 Subtotal 4 1088 1088 Seed only Plow Spray 1 1 1 200 400 152 200 400 0 Subtotal 3 752 600 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Plow & Harrow Spray & Plow Plow & Burn 4 1 55 27 4 1 1 1 864 1665 20096 45841 4891 1350 1600 173 864 1665 20096 400 1000 1350 1600 173 Subtotal 94 76480 27148 Seed only Plow Chain 1 1 1 65 84 350 65 0 350 Subtotal 3 499 415 Plow Chain 1 59 200 55414 200 44552 Subtotal 60 55614 44752 Plow 1 200 200 Subtotal 1 200 200 Spray & Chain 1 380 380 Subtotal 1 380 380 Plow 1 1275 1275 Subtotal 1 1275 1275 Spray 1 1150 1150 Subtotal 1 1150 1150 Perennial Forbs Sagebrush Browse Pinyon-Juniper Saltbush Greasewood Desert Shrub Half Shrub ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-329- Table 18. Acreages of rangeland B.L.M. District. (Cont'd). treated through 1976, on the Montrose Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Annual Weeds Seed only Plow Plow & Harrow 1 1 1 200 320 60 200 320 60 Subtotal 3 580 580 Plow 3 1226 1226 Subtotal 3 1226 1226 174 l39244 78814 Accidental Burn All Vegetative Types Grand Total No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Table 19. Acreages B.L.M. District. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Grass Seed only Harrow Plow 3 1 3 219 50 1880 219 50 1880 Subtotal 7 2149 2149 Plow Spray Chain 2 4 1 2053 4000 l300 2053 1000 l300 Subtotal 7 7353 4353 Seed only Plow Spray Rotobeat 1 4 11 1 373 2317 11170 169 373 2317 2920 0 Subtotal 17 14029 5610 Chain 23 11098 9851 Subtotal 23 11098 9851 Sagebrush Rabbitbrush Pinyon-Juniper treated through 1976, on the Canyon City �-330- Table 19. Acreages of rangeland B.L.M. District. (Cont'd). treated through 1976, on the Canyon City No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Half Shrub Spray 2 250 0 Subtotal 2 250 0 Seed only 2 150 150 Subtotal 2 150 150 Grand Total 58 35029 22113 Accidental Burn All Vegetative Types Table 20. Acreages B.L.M. District. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Grass Seed only 1 139 139 Subtotal 1 139 139 Seed only Harrow Plow Spray Chain Rotobeat Brush Cutter 11 3 8 6 8 1 3 5057 1220 1749 2235 5315 80 1728 5057 1220 1749 0 3520 0 0 Subtotal 40 17384 11546 Seed only Spray Chain 1 1 20 1000 1000 21651 1000 0 15930 Subtotal 22 23651 16930 Other 3 525 525 Subtotal 3 525 525 Sagebrush Pinyon-Juniper Saltbush treated through 1976, on the Grand Junction Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-331- Table 20. Acreages of rangeland B.L.M. District. (Cont'd). treated through 1976, on the Grand Junction Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Desert Shrub Seed only 5 2137 2137 Subtotal 5 2137 2137 Seed only 8 2693 2693 Subtotal 8 2693 2693 Grand Total 79 46529 33970 Accidental Burn All Vegetative Types Table 21. Acreages Indian Reservation. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment Sagebrush Pinyon-Juniper All Vegetative Types treated through 1969, on the Southern Ute No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Harrow Plow Spray Plow & Burn 1 9 2 1 750 4366 4500 110 0 4366 0 110 Subtotal 13 9726 4476 Seed only Plow Chain Burn 3 2 4 2 11684 574 15675 5630 11684 574 1500 4600 Subtotal II 33563 18358 Grand Total 24 43289 22834 �-332- treated through 1969, on the Ute Mountain Table 22. Acreages Indian Reservation. of rangeland Vegetative Type Kind of Treatment No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Sagebrush Plow Spray Rotobeat 1 1 1 2500 1900 700 2500 1900 0 Subtotal 3 5100 4400 Chain 1 220 0 Subtotal 1 220 0 Chain 2 42546 42546 Subtotal 2 42546 42546 All Vegetative Types Grand Total 6 47866 46946 Table 23. Acreages and B.L.M. District of rangeland in Colorado. Browse Pinyon-Juniper National Forests B.L.M. Districts treated through 1969, on each National Forest Land Mgt. Agency No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Uncompahgre Gunnison San Juan Grand Mesa White River Routt Rio Grande Pike San Isabel Roosevelt Arapahoe 88 72 112 53 69 85 41 29 15 18 26 59201 46251 34412 27650 23646 19011 15490 10886 7098 5922 4310 18050 8654 19172 5470 4911 2230 5706 7524 5533 1729 932 Subtotal 608 253877 79911 Montrose Craig Grand Jct. 174 118 79 l39244 81500 46529 78814 44595 33970 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-333- Table 23. Acreages and B.L.M. District of rangeland in Colorado. treated through 1969, on each National (Cont'd). Land Mgt. Agency B.L.M. Districts (Cont'd) Forest No. of Projects Acres Treated Acres Seeded as Part of Treatment Glenwood Sprgs. Canyon City 88 58 41062 35029 15233 22113 Subtotal 517 343364 194725 Grand Total 1125 597241 274636 �-334- the post-treatment evaluation phase was discontinued. The descriptive inventory of projects as they are proposed and completed is also being discontinued due to limited availability of manpowe r , This entire job was initiated as a "bookeeping" service to management by research. All of the data summarized in this report were gathered and/or submitted by management personnel. Research is discontinuing its participation because this appears not to be a priority management need. LITERATURE CITED Kufeld, Roland C. 1968a. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept, July, Pt. 1. 121p. Kufeld, Roland C. 1968b. Range type-conversion their impact on deer, elk and sage grouse. Game and Fish Comm. Proc. 48:173-187. programs in Colorado and Western Assn. State Kufeld, Roland C. 1970. Inventory of range manipulation projects in Colorado. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept., July, Pt. 1. 59-94. �-335July, JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-I0I-R-20 Plan No. 4 Work Covered: Personnel: Game Range J~ ~. Investigations 3 ------------------------------- Experimental Improvement of Oakbrush on Deer. Elk and Cattle - Hightower Mountain Job Title .Period 1978 April Roland 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 C. Kufeld ABSTRACT Effects of controlled burning, spraying with 2,4,5-TP and anchor chaining of Gambel oak vegetation on 92 kinds of forbs, 19 grasses and 16 shrubs, and on elk, deer and cattle use were measured and documented 2 and 5 years after treatment on a site 20 miles east of Collbran, Colorado. With adjustments for normal vegetation production changes measured on control units data indicate that, after 2 years, summer vegetation production increased 50 percent on sprayed areas and 20 percent on chainings, and decreased 17 percent on burns. Most of the increase 2 years after spraying occurred among grasses which increased 295 percent. Most of the 2nd year increase on chainings and decrease onburns occurred among shrubs. Production of forbs, grasses and shrubs declined on all treated areas between 2 and 5 years after treatment. Except for a minor increase among forbs on burns, and no change due to treatment among forbs on chainings, vegetation production for all plant categories on all 3 treatments was below pre-treatment levels after 5 years (Spray = -14%, chain = -19%, burn = -26%). This decrease was attributed to drought conditions which prevailed between 2 and 5 years after treatment plus a severe frost which occurred during late spring of the 5th year. Most of the decrease after 5 years occurred among grasses on sprayed areas, and shrubs and grasses on chainings and burns. Data were grouped according to elk, deer and cattle forage. An explanation of these terms is presented. Percentage changes in forage production after 2 and 5 years due to burning, spraying and chaining are discussed. Burned and chained areas when compared with control and spray areas showed increased levels of total cell contents, soluble carbohydrate, copper and zinc in most plant categories (forbs, grasses and shrubs) after 2 years. �-336- Elk showed distinct preference for burned areas after 2 and 5 years with sprayed areas ranking second and chainings third. Elk use on burns increased 45 and 54 percent, respectively, after 2 and 5 years. Deer did not appear to exhibit preference for any particular treatment after 2, 3 or 5 years. Cattle showed 6 times more preference for burns. After 2 years than for sprayed or chained areas. No preference was shown by cattle for sprayed or chained areas after 2 years, or for any of the 3 treatments after 6 years. Preference of elk and cattle for burns occurred despite decrease in forage production on burns as compared with higher levels produced on sprayed areas and chainings. Attractiveness of burns to elk and cattle may have been related to an observed increase in several nutrients and minerals or to changes in cover. The overall effect of burning was creation of openings interspersed with patches of standing oak vegetation suitable for escape cover and shade. All preference data are based upon fecal group densities and may not accurately reflect actual time spent on any treatment. The study was, however, designed to attempt to minimize possible biases encountered in use of fecal counts to measure habitat preference. �-337- EXPERIMENTAL IMPROVEMENT OF OAKBRUSH ON DEER, ELK AND CATTLE - HIGHTOWER MOUNTAIN Roland C. Kufeld P. N. OBJECTIVE To determine the extent to which deer, elk and cattle forage production and game use can be increased and maintained by chaining, spraying and controlled burning on over-age Gambel oak winter game ranges. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determine the extent of vegetation composition, production and nutrient content changes, and the extent of deer and elk use changes which have resulted from burning, spraying and chaining. METHODS AND MATERIALS Study area design and sampling scheme have been described by Kufeld (1970 and 1971). Implementation of burning, spraying and chaining treatments on the study areas as well as procedures and species used in reseeding have been discussed by Kufeld (1972). Vegetation Measurements 2 and 5 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Two and 5 year post-treatment vegetation measurements were made in 600 permanent meter square plots on the Hightower Mountain oak study area during the summers of 1973 and 1976, using the same procedures employed during the 1970 pre-treatment evaluations as described by Kufeld (1971). The pre-treatment measurement period was July 10, through August 13, 1970. The 2 year posttreatment measurement period was July 9, through August 16, 1973. The 5 year post-treatment measurement period was July 6, through August 6, 1976. Prior to beginning vegetation measurements observers were trained in use of the vegetation measurement techniques, and in identification of all plants on the study area. Pre-and post-treatment vegetation production data were computerized and subjected to covariance analysis by the Colorado State University Statistics Department. Statistical significance of vegetation production changes was tested at the .05, .10, .15, .20 and .25 significance levels. It was necessary to test for significance at lower levels because the study involved only 2 replications for each treatment. Inclusion of more replications would have increased the study area size, workload and manpower requirements to the point the study would not have been feasible. Determination of Nutrient Quality Change~ Samples of plant species designated by Kufeld (1971) as "moisture indicator plants" and used to reflect changes in vegetation moisture content during �-338measurement periods were collected in one unit representing each type of treatment (Units 5, 6, 7, 8) between July 24, and 27, 1973, inclusive on November 12, 1974, and between July 19 and 22, 1976 inclusive. Composite samples of each species weighing approximately 100 grams green weight were collected throughout each of the 4 habitat improvement units. In treated units samples were collected from spots where it was obvious that burning, spraying and chaining had been severe. Samples were analyzed by the Division Research Laboratory to determine changes in content of dry matter, protein, energy and trace mineral values 2 and 5 summers and 3 winters after treatments were applied. Soil samples were also collected from each of the 4 areas from which plant nutrient samples were obtained. These were analyzed by the Colorado State University Soils Laboratory to determine any differences among areas in soil properties. Elk, Deer and Cattle Use Measurements 2 and 5 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Elk use was measured one year before and 2 and 5 years after treatment. The same schedule was followed for deer except that deer use was also measured after 3 years, because deer use during the 2nd year appeared relatively low, and it was deemed desirable at that time to collect additional data for deer. Accumulated elk and deer pellet groups were removed from all pellet plots about September 1st. Groups deposited during the fall, winter and spring were counted during early May of the next year. Cattle use was evaluated one year before, and 2 and 6 years after treatment. A 5-year evaluation could not be made because the area is under a rest-rotation grazing system, and was not grazed during the 5th year. Cattle use was measured by counting cow-chips deposited in pellet plots during the current season after the grazing season ended and cattle had been removed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Changes 2 and 5 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Vegetation vegetation production estimates discussed throughout which occurs below a level of 5 feet. this report refer to All production changes have been adjusted for normal year to year fluctuations in plant growth as measured on control units. Thus, vegetation changes on burned, sprayed and chained areas discussed in this report reflect the response which plants actually exhibited to the treatment. Adjustments were made by computing the level of vegetation production one would expect to find on a treated area following treatment had treatment not occurred. This expected value, hereafter referred to as is derived by multiplying the ratio of preto post-treatment forage production on the control areas to pre-treatment E, �-339- production on the treated areas. The difference between the expected post-treatment production (E) on the treated areas and the actual production recorded there is the change produced as a result of treatment. Percentage production changes mentioned herein always relate to pre-treatment levels. Effects of Burning on Forbs, Grasses and Shrubs Summer vegetation production decreased 27 percent 5 years after burning. This represents a further decline from the 17 percent decrease recorded after 2 years (Table 1, Fig. 1). Most of the reduction occurred among shrubs which were down 38 percent during both the 2 year and 5 year evaluations. The shrub declines after 2 and 5 years were significant at the a.05 and a.l0 levels respectively (Table 1). The shrub species mainly responsible for the overall decrease in shrub yields as well as in overall vegetation production after 2 and 5 years were AfLtem-LoJ..a. bU.de..n:ta.;ta and SymphoJzA..ecu1.po,6 Cltb1L6 (Tables 2, 3, and 4). These showed decrease of 92 and 51 percent, respectively, after 2 years, and 94 and 51 percent after 5 years. AfLtem-L6J..a. bude..n;ta.;ta did not resprout after burning. Those plants exposed to fire were completely killed. SymphoJzA..e~po,6 Cltb1L6 sprouted profusely, especially the first summer after burning, however, overall production was still substantially lower 2 and 5 years after treatment. Other shrubs among which much sprouting and regrowth was noted after burning were Ame1.anc..h.i..eA CltM-60.u..a., AfLtem-L6J..a. c..a.n.a., PJULn1L6 vbtgil'u..a.na. and QUeAc..LL6 gambettii. Like SymphoJzA..c..~po,6 CltbLL6 most of the sprouting of these 4 species occurred during the first summer and slowed considerably the second summer (Fig. 2). Percentage production changes for the 4 species after 2 years were -21%, +149%, -7% and +11% respectively (Table 3). Five years after burning production of Ameil1nc..h.i..eA CltM-60.u..a. and Ptwn1L6 vbtginA..a.na. had changed very little from the level measured after 2 years. Production of AJttem-L6ia. c..a.n.a.and QUeAeLL6 gambeLeil, however, showed increases of +280% and +38% respectively after 5 years (Table 4). Fig. 2, shows that the vegetation stand was still substantially more open after 5 years than it was before burning. Grasses on burned areas showed a decrease of 5 percent after 2 years and 30 percent after 5 years (Table 1, Fig. 1). Changes in production of individual grass species on the burned areas, in terms of pounds per acre, were relatively minor after 2 years and, with 2 exceptions, after 5 years, even though some species showed fairly large percentage changes (Tables 3 and 4). The 30 percent decline in grasses after 5 years was largely attributable to declines in Poa.C~e..x ge..ye..Jui.. and Fe...6tuc..a. thunbe..Jui.. which decreased 257 and 157 lbs/ac., respectively. Poa. sp. and C~e..x ge..ye..Jui.. were combined in this study because it was often difficult to separate them when clipping vegetation in meter square sampling plots. Changes in production of individual forb species measured in pounds per acre were relatively small after 2 and 5 years even though percentage changes shown by some species were relatively large (Tables 3 and 4). �-340- Effects of Spraying on Forbs, Grasses and Shrubs Spraying resulted in the largest total vegetation increase of the 3 treatments tested after 2 years. Vegetation production increased 50 percent 2 years after spraying. Most of the increase occurred among grasses which were up 295 percent and produced an additional 658 lbs/ac (air dry wt). This was significant at the a.Ol level (Table 1, Fig. 1). Five years after spraying this large increase was completely eliminated, and total vegetation production showed a net decrease of 14 percent. Most of this decrease occurred among grasses which were measured at 16 percent below pre-treatment levels (Table 1, Fig. 1). Stimulated grass production after 2 years and the ensuing decline between 2 and 5 years is evident in Figure 3, which shows photos taken at a permanent photo point 1 year before and 1, 2 and 5 years after spraying. Several individual grasses were primarily responsible for the 2-year increase as well as the ensuing 5th year decline. Poa sp. and C~ex gey~ together produced 212 percent or 489 lbs/ac more air dry herbage after 2 years; however 5 years following spraying they showed a net decrease of 55 percent or 200 lbs/ac from pre-treatment levels. Other grasses which showed proportionately large increases in air dry herbage after 2 years and subsequent declines in production between 2 and 5 years we re AgJtopYJton.sp , (2 yrs = +42 lbs/ ac, 5 yrs +33 lbs/ac), BJtomU6 an.emaiU6 (2 yrs = +28 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = +13 lbs/ac), VactylU6 glomenata (2 yrs = +8 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = 0 lbs/ac), Elymu¢ glau~u¢ (2 yrs = +27 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = +7 lbs/ac), and Stipa sp. (2 yrs = 24 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = +2 lbs/ac) (Tables 5 and 6). Forbs also increased after 2 years although not as dramatically as did grasses. Forbs were up 15 percent or 79 lbs/ac, air dry weight. They also suffered a subsequent decline, and after 5 years forb production was 5 percent (16 lbs/ac) below pre-treatment levels (Table 1, Fig. 1). Individual forbs which reflected the largest increases after 2 years but subsequent declines between 2 and 5 years were: A~hLttea lan.ulo~a (2 yrs = +49 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = +5 lbs/ac), Galium sp. (2 yrs = +39 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = +5 lbs/ac), and TaJtaxa~um o66lein.ale (2 yrs = +30 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = 0 lbs/ac). Some forbs which decreased by relatively large amounts after 2 years and which recovered somewhat between 2 and 5 years after spraying were: LathYJtU¢-vleia (2 yrs = -53 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = -27 lbs/ac) and Lupln.u¢ ~genteu¢ (2 yrs = -37 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = -15 lbs/ac) (Tables 5 and 6). The kill on QueJt~U¢ gambettLi first summer after spraying. was estimated at 80 to 90 percent during the Extensive initial kills were also observed for Amefun.~MeJt aiM6o~, AJdem.v.,la .:t:JUdentata,Pnunus vlJtgln.lan.aand Sympho~~~po.6 albU6. Two years after treatment total shrub production on spray areas exceeded by 4 percent or 35 lbs/ac that which would have been expected without spraying (Table 5). This relatively minor change reflects a situation where many shrubs, and particularly those 5 just mentioned, have sprouted back within 2 years to produce approximately as much herbage as before treatment (Fig. 3). Like forbs and grasses, shrubs also declined between 2 and 5 years after spraying. After 5 years shrub production, less than 5 feet in height, was 14 percent below pre-treatment levels. The same 5 species were responsible for the bulk of this decline in shrub abundance (Table 6). Above 5 feet in �-341- height, however, a great deal of top sprouting was evident, after 5 years on, Qu~e~ gamb~ plants which had initially appeared killed by spraying (Fig. 3). Effects of Chaining on Forbs, Grasses and Shrubs Production of vegetation on chained sites increased 20 percent 2 years after chaining, but exhibited a net decrease of 19 percent after 5 years (Table 1, Fig. 1). Shrubs, which produced 19 percent or 167 more Ibs/ac of air dry vegetation, accounted for most of the 2-year increase. The increase in shrubs was significant at the a.15 level (Table 1, Fig. 1). Most of the higher shrub production was due to increase of 33 percent or 107 lbs/ac in Qu~e~ gamb~, 65 percent or 90 lbs/ac in Pnun~ vinginiana and 33 percent or 35 Ibs/ac in Ameianehi~ atni6olia. These 3 species sprouted profusely after chaining (Fig. 4). SymphonieMpo/.) atblL6 produced 14 percent or 31 Ibs/ac less forage 2 years after chaining, and resprouting was not as noticeable on this species as it was in burned and sprayed areas (Table 7). Shrub production dropped to 12 percent below pre-treatment levels after 5 years. The species responsible for the net decline after 5 years were the same 4 which caused the increase after 2 years, plus Antemi.6ia tnidentata. Qu~e~ dropped to 23 percent or 45 lbs/ac above pre-treatment levels. Pnun~, Amei.anehi~, SymphonieMp0.6 and Antemi.6ia .tft.A..dentata declined to 20, 12, 39 and 45 percent below pre-treatment levels,respectively (Table 8). Forbs increased 25 percent or 108 Ibs/ac on chaining after 2 years, but reverted to pre-treatment levels after 5 years (Table 1, Fig. 1). Four species were largely responsible for the 2 year increase and subsequent 5th year decline. These were: Aduliea ffinui.0.6a(2 yrs = +29 Ibs/ac, 5 yrs = +l3 Ibs/ac), A/.);t~~og~on (2 yrs = +16 Ibs/ac, 5 yrs = -11 Ibs/ac), Galium (2 yrs = +25 lbs/ac, 5 yrs = +20 Ibs/ac), and La;thyn~-vieia (2 yrs = +20 lbs/ac; 5 yrs = -15 Ibs/ac) (Tables 7 and 8). Chainings also supported higher grass production after 2 years with an increase of 17 percent or 65 Ibs/ac (Table 1, Fig. 1). Two year post-treatment changes in production of individual grass species on the chainings in terms of pounds per acre were relatively minor (Table 7). Grasses, however, were primarily responsible for the net decrease in total vegetation production on chainings after 5 years. The 5th year, grasses had declined 48 percent or 227 lbs/ac below pre-treatment levels. This was due largely to a 71 percent or 473 Ib/ac decrease in production of Poa. and Can:ex geyeni (Table 8). Contribution of Seeded Species to Vegetation and Chained Areas. Production in Burned, Sprayed Plummer et al. (1970) were able to retard regrowth of Gambel oak thickets for 14 years by seeding heavily after treating by burning or mechanical means. Therefore, all areas treated as part of the Hightower Mountain oak study were seeded at a rate of 18.9 Ibs per acre with the following species: Metllo;tU,6 �342- o66~ein~, Medieago ~ativa (Ladak, Rambler and Nomad strains), AghOPYhon e~tatum, AghOPYhon ~ntekmedium, BhOm~ ~n~, Vactyl~ glom~, F~tuea ov~na, CeheOeahp~6 montan~, and Punohia ~dentata. Seeding rates for each species were described by Kufeld (1972). Seeding success after 2 years was negligible. Part of the reason is believed to be extremely dry weather conditions during the winter, spring and summer of 1972, following seeding in November, 1971. U.S. Weather Bureau records from Collbran show precipitation during January through August, 1972 was only 31 percent of normal and only 53 percent of normal at Glenwood Springs. During the first summer new plants of seeded species could only be found in the fire lanes constructed around the burns, and in small patches within one burn. These consisted of only sparse stands of AghopYhon ~ntekmedium and Bhom~ ~n~. Precipitation improved somewhat the second year. Between January through ,August, 1973 precipitation was 84 percent of normal in Collbran and III percent of normal in Glenwood Springs. Seeded species began to appear the second summer and Aghophyon ~ntekme~m and Bhom~ ~neh~ began to form fair stands in the fire lanes and part of one burn (Fig. 5). AghopYhon ~ekmedium only produced 12 lbs/ac of air dry forage in the burns including fire lanes, and Bhom~ ~n~ produced 3 lbs/ac. The only other seeded species which produced more than 1.00 lb/ac was Vacty~ glomehata which produced 1.12 lbs/ac in the chainings and 8.09 lbs/ac in spray areas. Since this grass was already present in one spray area prior to treatment it is felt that higher production was due to existing plants being released by spraying and not to the seeding effort (Tables 3, 5 and 7). During the 5th summer production of seeded species was still negligible and relatively unchanged from that recorded after 2 years. AghopYhon ~ntekmedium, Bhom~ ~neh~ and Vactyl~ glomehata produced 9, 7 and 3 lbs/ac respectively in the burns. Vactyl~ glomehata also produced 5 lbs/ac in the chainings. The only other species which produced more than 1.00 lb/ac was AghopYhon e~tatum which produced 1.48 lbs/ac in the chainings. Considering that seeded species only established themselves in heavily distributed spots in one burn, such as fire lOanes and parts of the chainings where bulldozer tracks had dug deeply it appears that better seedbed preparation is needed than was afforded by the treatments used in this study. It may be more effective to burn, aerially seed as soon as the ashes are cool, and, since burning in oakbrush is usually patchy, pipe harrow the spots where burning is not severe. This would plant seed as well as remove burned snags from the created openings. Among Treatment Comparisons of Vegetation Responses Forbs increased from 14 to 25 percent after 2 years on all 3 treatments. After 5 years forbs showed an increase of 7 percent on burns, a decrease of 5 percent on sprayed areas, and no change due to treatment on chainings. The differences in forb production among treatments were not significant at even the 25 percent significance level after either 2 or 5 years (Table 1, Fig. 1). �-343- Grass production 2 years after spraying was significantly higher than burning (P < .10) or chaining (P < .15). Air dry production of grasses on the sprayed areas increased 295 percent or 658 lbs/ac compared with a 5 percent or 16 lb/ac decrease on burns, and 17 percent or 65 lb/ac increase on chainings. Grasses decreased from 30 to 47 percent after 5 years on all 3 treatments. There were no significant differences even at the 25 percent level among treatments in grass production after 5 years (Table 1). Shrub production in burns 2 and 5 years after treatment was significantly lower (P < .05 after 2 yrs; P < .15 after 5 years) than sprayed or chained areas. Shrubs on burned areas showed a 38 percent decrease after 2 and 5 years. On sprayed and chained areas shrubs increased 4 and 19 percent, respectively, after 2 years but decreased 14 and 12 percent, respectively, after 5 years. The difference in shrub production between sprayed and chained units was significant after 2 years, but only at the a.20 level. It was not significant even at the a.25 level after 5 years (Table 1). Production of forbs, grasses and shrubs declined on all treated areas between 2 and 5 years after treatment (Fig. 1). Except for a minor increase among forbs on burns, and a no change due to treatment situation among forbs on chainings, vegetation production for all plant categories on all 3 treatments was below pre-treatment levels after 5 years. It is probable that these declines were a result of abnormally dry weather conditions which prevailed between 2 and 5 years after treatment plus a severe frost which occurred during late spring of the 5th year. U.S. Weather Bureau records for Collbran, Colorado for the period January thru August show that precipitation was only 45 percent of normal the 3rd year after treatment, 109 percent of normal the 4th year, and 61 percent of normal the 5th year. In addition to dry weather the 5th year (the year measurements were made) a killing frost occurred for 3 nights on June 13, 14 and 15, when many plants were in initial stages of spring growth. This had a very visible adverse impact on vegetation in the area. The effects of the frost and dry conditions on vegetation were obvious for the remainder of the 5th summer, and appeared more severe on treated than control areas. Since production changes have been adjusted for normal year to year fluctuations in plant growth as measured on control units, the 5th year vegetation declines on burned, sprayed and chained areas reflect the response of plants to the treatments. Thus, a decline on a treated area represents a negative treatmentinduced effect on vegetation which did not occur to vegetation growing on control areas. Since vegetation on controls was subject to the same weather conditions, the occurrence of declines among all plant categories on all treated areas suggests that removal of the overstory ata time of drought plus effects of the 5th year late spring frost exposed the understory plants to conditions which they could not tolerate. Therefore they exhibited a greater production decline during the 5th year than would have occurred had overs tory vegetation not been removed. �-344- Changes in Elk, Deer and Cattle Forage 2 and 5 Years After Burning, and Chaining Spraying Definition of "Elk, Deer and Cattle Forage"--Classification of study area plants as elk or deer forage for purposes of determining production changes was based on the average, relative occurrence of those plant species in 48 elk and 99 mule deer food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufeld 1973; Kufeld, Wallmo and Feddema 1973). Plants considered cattle forage are those classified as "desirable" and "intermediate" by the U.S. Forest Service in their Region 2, Range Analysis Handbook for the foothill shrub, aspen week, and mountain meadow vegetation types. Since animal preference for individual plant species varies from location to location the validity of applying "average" occurrence data to this study area may be open to question. However, these averages do represent a great deal of food habits research, and constitutes the best information available to date on the food these animals have been known to consume and the relative amounts consumed. For elk the following classifications are used: highly valuable, valuable and least valuable (Kufeld 1973). For deer plants are classified as heavily eaten, moderately eaten, or lightly eaten (Kufeld, Wallmoand Feddema 1973). Although the terminology used in the elk and deer references is different the basis for classifying plants according to relative consumption is exactly the same. "Highly valuable" plants for elk and "heavily eaten" plants for deer, by definition, generally comprised a major part of a food sample (usually at least 20 percent) in food habits studies where reported. In a few cases, plants which comprised less than a major portion of the food sample were classified as "highly valuable" or "heavily eaten" if their reported contribution to the diet was far in excess of their reported vegetative composition. "Valuable" plants for elk "moderately eaten" plants for deer usually comprised between 5 and 20 percent of the food sample. "Least valuable" plants for elk and "lightly eaten" plants for deer comprised less than 5 but more than I percent. Not all plants on the Hightower Mountain oak study area were classified according to their relative preference as elk and deer forage. Some had never been reported in the literature as eaten by elk or deer during some seasons or at all during the year. The absence of such plants from the literature possibly suggests that they are of minor importance as elk or deer forage. Therefore, for purposes of the Hightower Mountain oak study they will not be considered elk or deer forage. Definition of "Available Forage"--Data and discussions relating to available forage are based on the assumption that due to factors such as degree of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to elk and deer on the study area will consist of only shrubs during winter; grasses and shrubs during spring and fall, and forbs, grasses and shrubs during summer. Discussions of cattle forage relate only to summer at which time all forage is available. �-345- Definitions of seasons used here are: Winter = December, January, February; Spring = March, April, May; Summer = June. July, August; Fall = September, October, November. All data are based on measurements made during summer. Procedure for Expressing Changes in Available Forage--A pre-to posttreatment ratio using 1.00 as a basis to represent the level of forage production before treatment with adjustment for normal year to year changes measured on control areas was computed for elk, deer and cattle (Table 9). A single value for elk and deer forage was derived by weighting lbs/ ac of highly valuable elk forage and heavily eaten deer forage by a factor of "3", valuable and moderately eaten by "2", and least valuable and lightly eaten forage by "1". A total weighted value was then computed. For cattle forage desirables were weighted by "2" and intermediates by "1". Effects of Burning on Available Elk Forage--After 2 and 5 years burned areas supported less available elk forage during all 4 seasons of the year than existed before treatment. 1~0 years after burning the level of available forage production compared to 1.00 was 0.64 for winter, 0.84 for spring, 0.80 for summer and 0.67 for fall. The 5th year spring, summer and fall elk-forage showed additional declines. Winter forage exhibited a slight increase. Pre-to post-treatment forage production ratios after 5 years were: winter - 1:0.74, spring - 1:0.60, summer - 1:0.62 and fall 1:0.60 (Table 9). Effects of Spraying on Available Elk Forage--Spraying produced considerably more available elk forage during spring, summer and fall after 2 years than existed before treatment. This was mainly due to large increases in grasses which occurred 2 years after spraying. No change attributable to treatment was recorded in production of available winter elk forage. Preto 2 year post-treatment ratios of elk forage production were: 1:1.01 for winter, 1:2.09 for spring, 1:1.72 for summer and 1:1.94 for fall. Production of available forage for all seasons declined substantially the 5th year from 2-year levels. This was largely the result of the decreases in grasses which we re recorded after 5 years. Pre-to 5 year post-treatment ratios of elk forage were: winter - 1:0.85. spring - 1:0.72, summer - 1:0.76, fall - 1:0.77 (Table 9). Effects of Chaining on Available Elk Forage--Chained areas supported increased amounts of available winter, spring, summer and fall elk forage 2 years after treatment. Respective pre-to post-treatment elk forage production ratios were: 1:1.24, 1:1.21, 1:1.13, and 1:1.12. Production of available elk forage declined for all seasons the 5th year from 2-year levels. Pre-to 5 year post-treatment ratios of elk forage were: winter - 1:0.75, spring - 1:0.66, summer - 1:0.60, fall - 1:0.65 (Table 9). Effects of Burning on Available Deer Forage--Two and 5 years after treatment burned areas supported less available deer forage during all 4 seasons �-346- of the year than existed before burning. Pre-to post-treatment forage production ratios after 2 years were: winter - 1:0.54, spring - 1:0.59, summer - 1:0.84, fall - 1:0.66. The 5th year relatively small additional declines were recorded for spring and summer forage while slight increases compared to 2 year levels were observed in winter and fall forage. Pre-to 5 year post-treatment forage production ratios for winter, spring, summer and fall, respectively were 1:0.65, 1:0.52, 1:0.72, and 1:0.78 (Table 9). Effects of Spraying on Available Deer Forage--Spraying produced more available deer forage during spring, summer and fall after 2 years than existed before treatment. Production of available winter deer forage did not change from pre-treatment levels. Pre-to 2 year post-treatment ratios of deer forage production were: winter - 1:1.02, spring - 1:1.40, summer _ 1:1.20, fall - 1:1.13. Production of available spring, summer and fall deer forage declined substantially the 5th year from 2-year levels. Production of available winter deer forage still remained relatively unchanged from pre-treatment levels. Pre-to post-treatment forage production ratios the 5th year were: winter1:0.98, spring - 1:0.82, summer - 1:0.79, fall - 1:0.91 (Table 9). Effects of Chaining on Available Deer Forage--Available forage production increased for all seasons 2 years after chaining. Respective winter, spring, summer and fall pre-to post-treatment forage production ratios were: 1:1.23, 1:1.17, 1:1.18 and 1:1.26. A decline from 2-year levels was recorded for all seasons in available deer forage during the 5th year. Pre-to 5 year post-treatment ratios of deer forage were: winter - 1:0.98, spring - 1:0.76, summer - 1:0.82, fall - 1:0.96 (Table 9). Effects of Burning on Cattle Forage--Summer cattle forage declined slightly from pre-treatment levels after 2 years, and a further decline was recorded after 5 years. Two- and 5-year pre- to post-treatment forage production ratios were 1:0.95 and 1:0.76 (Table 9). Effects of Spraying on Cattle Forage--Substantial increases in summer cattle forage were observed on sprayed areas after 2 years. The pre- to 2-year post-treatment forage production ratio was 1:2.17. A steep decline occurred between 2 and 5 years after spraying. The 5th year cattle forage production was below pre-treatment levels with a ratio of 1:0.84. The 2 year increase and 5th year decline was due to the sharp initial increase and subsequent decline in grass abundance (Table 9). Effects of Chaining on Cattle Forage--Chaining resulted in an increase of 1:1.24 in cattle forage after 2 years. Five years after chaining cattle �-347- forage had declined to a level below pre-treatment levels at which time a ratio of 1:0.70 was recorded. The 5th year decline was due to a 48 percent decrease in grass production (Table 9). Nutrient and Mineral Content of Forage Collected Sprayed and Chained Areas Following Treatment. on Control, Burned, Results of soil tests and nutrient and mineral analysis of plants collected during the second summer and third winter after treatment were discussed in detail by Kufeld (1975). These data indicate burned and chained areas, when compared with control and sprayed areas, showed increased levels of total cell contents, soluble carbohydrate, copper and zinc in most plant categories (forbs, grasses and shrubs). Laboratory completed. analysis of plants collected during the 5th summer has not been Results of those analyses will be presented in a future report. Elk Use Changes 2 and 5 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Elk, deer and cattle use were measured through use of fecal counts. The possibility exists that these ungulates may not defecate in patterns related to feeding activity. If they defecate more frequently at bedding sites or in transmit to and from preferred feeding areas then inferences to habitat type preferences for feeding would be biased. The study was originally designed to attempt to minimize effects of the possible occurrence of such a bias. Each of the treated units was established with a 30 acre treated portion with a surrounding 30 acre untreated area suitable for aninlal resting or bedding. Fecal plots were distributed throughout both sections. Elk pellets were significantly more abundant in burned units 2 years after treatment despite declines in available, seasonal elk forage on burns compared with sizeable increases on sprayed and chained areas. Sprayed areas ranked second and chainings third in pellet abundance. Calculated densities of elk per square mile increased 45 percent on burns during the fall, winter and spring period, and decreased 48 percent on sprayed areas and 70 percent on chainings (Table 10). Compared with control areas, however,-changes in elk use due to burning, spraying and chaining were not statistically significant a~ the a.10 level even though percent changes were relatively large. Five years after treatment elk continued to exhibit preference (as indicated by relative pellet abundance) for the burned areas with sprayed areas still ranking second and chainings third. Compared with the pre-treatment level elk per square mile during the Fall-Winter-Spring period increased 54 percent on burns, 27 percent on sprayed areas and 12 percent on chainings (Table 10). Although the increase in elk use on burns after 5 years was higher than after 2 years (54% compared with 45%) the increase was not significant (P > .10) as was the 2 year increase. The 5 year increases on sprayed and chained areas, likewise, were not significant. The primary reason for lack of significance among treatments in the covariance analysis during the 5th year was due to the relatively large error term caused �-348- by high variation in elk use between the 2 sprayed areas. One sprayed area received use of 50 elk per square mile, while the other received only 15. There is no apparent explanation for this variation. Elk use on the other units which received similar treatments and on the controls was relatively consistent during all years when measurements were made. Reasons for apparent preference of elk for burned areas over those sprayed and chained cannot be pinpointed. Two factors, however, which may have influenced the attractiveness of burned areas to elk are changes in cover and plant nutrient content. Cover Changes Burning did not denude the area, but varied from almost total incineration of all vegetation with just a few dead snags left standing (Fig. 6) to only partial removal of the understory with little or no damage to the larger oaks (Fig. 7). On much of the area most of the understory was removed with partial destruction of the overstory. The overall result of burning was creation of openings interspersed with patches of standing oak vegetation suitable for escape cover and shade (Fig. 8). This situation has lasted for 5 years to date. In sprayed areas most of the shrub vegetation was either totally or partially killed, but dead material remained standing for the first few years leaving a thicket only slightly more open and accessible to large animals than before treatment. Five years after spraying dead trees and branches had begun to sag and fall over against other trees making access difficult (Fig. 3). After 2 and 5 years chained areas were very open with.little escape cover and no trees large enough to provide shade (Fig. 4). Forest openings have been found to receive increased use by elk and deer (Patton, 1974; Pearson, 1968, Reynolds, 1962a, 1962b, 1966a, 1966b; Wallmo 1969). However, during the fall of 1973, when 2 year post-treatment ungulate use measurements were being made this study area received unusually heavy hunting pressure particuarly for deer as efforts were being made to reduce the deer herd. Hunting pressure coupled with the lack of cover in chainings may have caused elk to avoid them during that period, and resulted in the substantial drop in elk use recorded on chainings 2 years after treatment (Table 10). Exceptionally heavy hunting pressure did not occur the 5th year and elk use on chainings was more in line with that on other areas. Plant Nutrient Content Changes Elk preference for burned areas may have been influenced to some extent by increased levels of certain nutrients and minerals such as total cell contents, soluble carbohydrate, copper and zinc. As described by Kufeld (1975) increased amounts of these were found after 2 years in most plant categories (forbs, grasses and shrubs) on the burned areas as compared with control and spray areas. Since relatively little difference was observed between the burn and chaining in plant content of these nutrients and minerals, however, any influence exerted by increased plant nutrient and mineral content must have been coupled �-349- by other factors such as the previously mentioned cover changes changes in elk movements within and outside the study area. Deer Use Changes 2, 3 and 5 Years After Burning, Spraying or inexplicable and Chaining Deer did not appear to exhibit preference (based on fecal abundance) for any particular treatment after 2, 3 or 5 years. Within each treatment deer use exhibited a sizeable increase on one replication, but this was offset by either a decrease or only a small increase on the other replication. After 2 years, data show average decreases in deer use associated with the treatment on each pair of treated areas. Deer use on sprayed areas during fall-winter~spring periods decreased 6 percent and decreases of 25 and 53 percent were recorded on the burned and chained areas, respectively (Table 11). The large drop in deer use on chainings after 2 years was significant at the a.05 level. As discussed in the section on elk use this was speculated to be, at least in part due to unusually heavy hunting pressure in the study area vicinity during the fall of the second year, coupled with the lack of overstory in chained areas. An average increase of 75 percent in deer use occurred on the sprayed areas after 3 years but this was due to a large increase on one replication. Deer use on the other spray area changed very little. Average decreases of 11 and 27 percent respectively were recorded on burned and chained areas. None of the changes due to treatment were significant at the a.05 significance level. Five years after treatment average percentage increases of 79 percent, 67 percent and 17 percent occurred on the sprayed, chained and burned areas, respectively. In each case, however, the size of the increase was primarily due to a large increase on one replication. None of the changes due to treatment were significant at the a.05 significance level (Table 11). Cattle Use Changes 2 and 5 Years After Burning, Spraying and Chaining Control Areas Data show cattle use (based on fecal counts) increases for both control areas after 2 years with an average increase of 4.1 cow days use per acre (Table 12). Much of the increase in control unit 6 is believed due to movement of cattle around unit 7 (a burned area) and between units 5 (a sprayed area) and 7 to which cattle appeared to be attracted. Unit 6 lies directly between units 5 and 7. Thus, there was very little, if any, actual change after 2 years in cattle use on the control areas. Data also show very little difference in cattle use on control areas between levels recorded before and 6 years after treatment. Use in Unit 4 increased �-350- ..2 cow days per acre and use in Unit 6 decreased 1.3. The average ~ontrol units was an increase of 1.0 cow days per acre. for both Burned Areas The most preferred treatment by cattle 2 years after treatment was definitely burning, even though cattle forage production decreased on burns compared to sizeable increases on sprayed and chained areas. Both burns showed the largest increases in cattle use after treatment, and these were significant at the a.10 level (Table 12). Cattle use in burned units increased 15.2 and 22.1 cow days per acre respectively, and averaged 18.7. Cattle preference for burned areas was also obvious from field observations. Preference for burns after 2 years was approximately 6 times greater than for the sprayed or chained areas. The reasons for cattle preference for burns over sprayed and chained areas during the 2nd year have not been specifically identified. Possible reasons are creation of openings interspersed with patches of cover and shade in burned areas and increased amounts of certain nutrients and minerals in plants found on burns. These changes may have also been responsible for increased elk preference for burned areas over those sprayed and chained, and are discussed in detail in the previous section of "elk use changes 2 and 5 years after burning, spraying and chaining". After 6 years cattle use in units I and 7 increased 5.2 and 0.4 cows days per acre, respectively, and averaged 2.8. These minor increases were not significant at the 10 percent significance level, and do not suggest a preference for burned areas 6 years after burning (Table 12). Sprayed Areas One spray area (Unit 5) showed a substantial increase in cattle use after 2 years as a result of spraying, while the other (Unit 2) showed a slight decrease (Table 12). According to the data, which show an average increase of 3.3 cow days use per acre in sprayed areas, spraying would appear to be the second most preferred treatment by cattle during the 2nd year. Since the cattle use change on the combined spray areas is not significant at the a.10 significance level, and in light of circumstances described in the following discussion on chaining, it is not valid to conclude that cattle preferred the sprayed areas more than the chained areas at the end of the 2nd year following treatment. Cattle use after 6 years decreased 7.4 cow days per acre in Unit 2 and increased 2.2 in Unit 5. The average for both units was a decrease of 2.6 cow days per acre which was not significant at the 10 percent significance level. �-351- Data do not reflect a tendency of cattle to prefer or avoid sprayed areas after either 2 or 6 years. Chained Areas No cattle use was recorded in chained unit 3 during the 2nd or 6th year after treatment (Table 12). This unit lies in 2 cattle allotments, and due to surrounding thick vegetation is difficult for cattle from both allotments to find. It is also on the opposite side of a creek from one allotment, and high water during the 2nd year barred access to cattle from that allotment. This was not a factor during the 6th year, however, since the creek was dry. The almost impenetrable oak thicket in unit 3 was opened substantially by chaining, and it is felt cattle use would have occurred after treatment if cattle had been able to get to the area. Cattle use in unit 8 dropped from 18.3 cow days per acre before chaining to 8.7 two years after chaining, and 6.5 after six years (Table 12). During the 2nd year it appeared that cattle were simply drawn off unit 8 into the more preferred burned area of adjacent unit 7. This occurred even though forage conditions in unit 8 were improved for cattle by chaining. During the 6th year, however, cattle did not exhibit a preference for burns, yet use in unit 8 continued to decline slightly. The 2nd and 6th year declines attributable to chaining were not significant at the a.10 level. In view of the lack of statistical significance of these declines and the inability of cattle to find and get into unit 3, it is not valid to conclude that chained areas were any less preferred by cattle than sprayed areas. Data do not reflect a tendency of cattle to prefer or avoid chainings after either 2 or 6 years. SUMMARY AND TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS 1. The effects of controlled burning, spraying with 2,4,5-TP herbicide and anchor chaining of Gambel oak type vegetation were studied at a site on the Grand Mesa National Forest, 20 miles east of Collbran, Colorado, between 1969 and 1976. Vegetation production and deer, elk and cattle use were measured one year before and 2 and 5 years after treatment. The study area consisted of eight 60 acre areas which included 2 controls, 2 burns, 2 sprayed areas and 2 chainings arranged in a randomized block design. The center 30 acres of each area were treated. The surrounding 30 acres were left intact to provide cover for deer, elk and cattle. 2. Responses of 92 kinds of forbs, 19 grasses and 16 shrubs to burning, spraying and chaining have been documented at intervals of 2 and 5 years after treatment. Spraying resulted in the largest increase in vegetation production (+50%) after 2 years, with chaining second �-352- (+20%), and burning third (-17%). Burning actually caused a net decrease in vegetation production after 2 years. Treatment methods are arranged, as follows, according to those which produced the most to the least amounts of vegetation (percentage wise) within each plant category after 2 years: Forbs, I-chaining, 2-spraying, 3-burning; Grasses, I-spraying, 2-chaining, 3-burning; Shrubs, I-chaining, 2spraying, 3-burning. Production of forbs, grasses and shrubs declined on all treated areas between 2 and 5 years after treatment. Except for a minor increase among forbs on burns, and a no change due to treatment situation among forbs on chainings, vegetation production for all plant categories on all 3 treatments was below pre-treatment levels after 5 years (Spray -14%, chain = -19%, burn = -26%). Still, some treatments resulted in less of a net decrease than others. Treatment methods are arranged as follows according to those which produced the most to the least amounts of vegetation (percentage wise) within each major plant category after 5 years: Forbs, I-burning, 2-chaining, 3-spraying; Grasses, I-spraying, 2-burning, 3-chaining; Shrubs, I-spraying, 2-chaining, 3-burning. 3. Net vegetation declines due to the 3 treatments after 5 years may have been a normal response of vegetation to treatments. It seems probable, however, that these declines were at least partially, if not entirely, the result of abnormally dry weather conditions which prevailed between 2 and 5 years after treatment, plus a severe frost which occurred during late spring of the 5th year, just prior to the 5 year vegetation measurement period. Since vegetation on controls was subject to the same weather conditions, the occurrence of net declines among all plant categories on all treated areas suggests that removal of the overs tory during a period of drought plus effects of the 5th year late spring frost exposed the understory plants to conditions they couldn't tolerate. Therefore they exhibited a greater production decline during the 5th year than would have occurred had overstory vegetation not been removed. 4. Seeding success after 2 and 5 years was negligible. Part of the reason is believed to be extremely dry weather conditions during the first winter, spring and summer after seeding when precipitation at the nearest weather station was only 31 percent of normal. Only 2 seeded species, Ag~opy~on intenm~dium and B~omU6 in~ showed any success. These established themselves only in part of one burn, and in heavily disturbed spots such as fire lanes and parts of chainings where bulldozer tracks had dug deeply. Thus, it appears that better seedbed preparation is needed than was afforded by the treatments used in this study. It may be more effective to burn, aerially seed as soon as the ashes are cool, and, since burning in oakbrush is usually patchy, pipe harrow those spots where burning is most severe. This would plant seed as well as remove burned snags from the created openings. �-353- 5. Spraying produced the most available spring, summer and fall elk forage of the 3 methods tested after a period of 2 years. Two years after spraying the level of available forage production compared to a pre-treatment value of 1.00 was 1:2.09 for Spring, 1:1.72 for Summer and 1:1.94 for Fall. Chaining, however, produced the most winter forage with a ratio of 1:1.24. Spraying was second in production of available spring, summer, and fall forage. Burning was lowest in available elk forage during all seasons. Five years after treatment available elk forage produced during all seasons showed net declines on all treated areas compared with pretreatment levels. Still, some treatments supported a little more than others. Production of available elk forage on sprayed areas was slightly higher than that produced on chainings and burns during all seasons. Production on chainings and burns was about the same during all seasons of the year. Seasonal 5th year pre-to post-treatment forage production ratios ranged from 1:0.72 to 1:0.85 on sprayed areas, 1:0.60, to 1:0.75 on chainings, and from 1:0.60 to 1:0.74 on burns. 6. Spraying produced the most available spring and summer deer forage of the 3 methods tested after 2 years (ratios of 1:1.40 and 1:1.20 respectively). The most winter and fall forage was produced by chaining (ratios of 1:1.23 and 1:1.26, respectively). Spraying was second in production of available spring and summer forage after 2 years. Burning was lowest in available deer forage during all seasons. Five years after treatment available deer forage produced during all seasons was below pre-treatment levels on all treated areas. Still, some treatments supported a little more than others. Spraying and chaining were comparable in available deer forage production. Both methods produced more during all seasons than burning. Seasonal 5th year pre-to post-treatment forage production ratios ranged from 1:0.79 to 1:0.98 on sprayed areas, 1:0.76 to 1:0.98 on chainings, and 1:0.52 to 1:0.78 on burns. 7. After 2 years spraying produced by far the most summer cattle forage of the 3 methods tested with chaining second and burning third. Burning resulted in a slight net decrease compared with pre-treatment levels after 2 years. Five years after treatment available cattle forage was below pre-treatment levels on all treated areas, and pre-to post-treatment ratios for all treatments were relatively close (spray-1:0.84, burn-l:0.76, chain 1:0.70). 8. Burned showed copper during and chained areas when compared with control and sprayed areas increased levels of total cell contents, soluble carbohydrates, and zinc in most plant categories (forbs, grasses and shrubs) the 2nd summer and 3rd winter. �-354- 9. Elk showed distinct preference for burned areas after 2 and 5 years, with sprayed areas ranking second and chainings third. Elk use on burns increased 45 and 54 percent, respectively, after 2 and 5 years. Deer did not appear to exhibit preference for any particular treatment after 2, 3 or 5 years. Cattle showed 6 times more preference for burned areas after 2 years than for sprayed or chained areas. No preference was shown by cattle for sprayed or chained areas after 2 years, or for any of the 3 treatments after 6 years. Preference of elk and cattle for burns occurred despite decreases in forage production on burns as compared with higher levels produced on sprayed areas and chainings. Attractiveness of burns to elk and cattle may have been related to an increase in those nutrients and minerals previously discussed or to changes in cover. The overall effect of burning was creation of openings interspersed with patches of standing oak vegetation which may have been more suitable for cover and shade. LITERATURE Ju1ander, Odell. 1955. Determining Range Manage. 8(4):182. CITED grazing use by cow-chip counts. J. Kufe1d, Roland C. 1970. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Research Rept. Proj. W-I0I-R-12, WP 4, J3. July, 1970, Part 1, pp. 113-126. Kufe1d, Roland C. 1971. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rept. Proj. W-I0I-R-13, WP4, J3. July, 1971, Part 1. pp. 23-86. Kufe1d, Roland C. 1972. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Research Rept. Proj. W-I0I-R-14, WP4, J3. July, 1972, Part 2. pp. 81-97. Kufe1d, Roland C. 1973. Foods eaten by the Rocky Mountain Manage. 26(2):106-113. elk. J. Range Kufe1d, Roland C. 1975. Experimental improvement of oakbrush on deer, elk and cattle ranges - Hightower Mountain. Colo. Div. Wildlife. Game Res. Rept. Proj. W-I0I-R-17, WP4, J3. July, 1975, Part 1. pp. 25-92. Kufe1d, Roland C., O. C. Wa11mo, and Charles Feddema. 1973. Foods of the Rocky Mountain mule deer. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Pap. RM-lii. 31p. Plummer, A. Perry, Donald R. Christensen, Richard Stevens and Kent R. Jorgensen. 1970. Intermediate wheatgrass, smooth brome and other herbs open and control Gambe1 oak thickets. In Highlights, results and accomplishments of game range restoration studies. Utah Div. of Fish and Game. Pub. No. 70-3. pp. 26-30. �-355- LITERATURE CITED (Cont'd) Patton, David R. 1974. Patch cutting increases deer and elk use of a pine forest in Arizona. J. For. 72(12):764-766. Pearson, Henry. A. 1968. Thinning, clearcutting and reseeding affect deer and elk use of ponderosa pine forests in Arizona. U.S. Forest Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-119, 4p. Reynolds, Hudson, G. 1962a. Use of natural openings inaponderosa pine forest in Arizona by deer, elk and cattle. U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note No. 78, 4p. Reynolds, Hudson, G. 1962b. Effect of logging on understory vegetation and deer use in a ponderosa pine forest in Arizona by deer, elk and cattle. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note No. 80. 7p. Reynolds, Hudson, G, 1966a. Slash cleanup in a ponderosa pine forest affects use by deer and cattle. U.S. For. Serv., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-64, 3p. Reynolds, Hudson, G. 1966b. Use of openings in spruce-fir forests of Arizona by elk, deer and cattle. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-66, 4p. Wallmo, O. C. 1969. Response of deer to alternate strip clearcutting of lodgepole pine and spruce-fir timber in Colorado. U.S. For. Ser., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Note RM-141, 4p. Prepared by ~A/~J' ~~~~~~~~~~~~c:~,~~~L'~~··~~~~~/L:_· _ Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher �-356- +280 +260 I I I I I I I I I I I l- ~ +100 ~ <! w + 80 0:: I- ~ w + 60 w I I I FORBS GRASSES SHRUBS I I rI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ~ lEIT1 --lI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I CJ I r I I I o I I I I l- I I ALL PLANTS ~ I ~ C) + 20 I I ~ I 6 + 40 I ~ I t_ I I :I 0 lZ W o 0::: w 0.. - 20 40 - 60r-----~------~----~------~----~----~ AFTER I AFTER AFTER AFTER AFTER: AFTER 2 YEARS 15 YEARS 2 YEARS 15 YEARS 2 YEARSI 5 YEARS BURNING SPRAYING CHAINING Fig. 1. Percentage changes in air dry forage production recorded within forb, grass and shrub categories 2 and 5 years after burning, spraying and chaining. �-357- One year before burning (July, 1970). One year after burning (July, 1972). Fig. 2. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2, and 5 years after burning. (Fig. continued on next page). �-358- Two years after burning (July, 1973). Five years after burning (July, 1976). Fig. 2. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2, and 5 years after burning. �-359- One year before spraying (July, 1970). One year after spraying (July, 1972). Fig. 3. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2 and 5 years after spraying. (Fig. continued on next page). �-360- Two years after spraying (July, 1973). Five years after spraying (July, 1976). Fig. 3. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2 and 5 years after spraying. �-361- One year before chaining (July, 1970). One year after chaining (July, 1972). Fig. 4. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2 and 5 years after chaining. (Fig. continued on next page). �-362- Two years after chaining (July 1973). Five years after chaining (July 1976) Fig. 4. Vegetation conditions at a permanent photo point on the Hightower Mountain oak study area 1 year before and 1, 2 and 5 years after chaining. �-363- Fig. 5. Section of one burn where Agropyron intermedium and Bromus inermis began to become established two years after burning (July 1973). Fig. 6. Most effective burn obtained in burned units. Vegetation was almost completely burned with just a few dead snags left standing. �-364- Fig. 7. Least effective burn obtained in burned units. Only part of the understory was removed with little or no damage to larger oaks. Fig. 8. The overall result of burning was creation of openings interspersed with patches of standing oak vegetation suitable for escape cover and shade. �Table 1. Changes in air dry forage production recorded within forb, grass and shrub categories 2 and 5 years after burning, spraying and chaining. Time After Treatment Plant Type 2 years Forbs 5 years Change Duell To Burninglbs/ac Percent Change Due To SEraying lbsl ac Percent Change Due To Chaining lbsl ac Percent + 63.47 + 14.49 + 78.51 + 14.96 +107.53 + 23.34 Grasses - 16.48 - 5.24 +658.05 +295.33 + 64.60 + 16.70 Shrubs -305.36 - 38.18 + 34.83 + 4.28 +166.83 + 18.54 TOTALS -257.37 - 16.59 +780.48 + 50.27 +340.08 + 19.89 Forbs + + 2.27 - 16.22 - - - 29.99 - 43.36 - 15.78 6.81 Grasses -116.31 4.51 0.67 - Confidence Level Where Treatment Difference is significan~1 Control and Burn Control and Spray Control and Chain .10 .05 Burn and Spray Burn and Chain .10 .15 .05 Spray and Chain .15 .05 .20 0.23 -226.62 - 47.50 I V1 I w cr- Shrubs -268.97 - 37.84 -100.58 - 13.90 - 98.48 - 12.31 TOTALS -368.44 - 26.53 -192.16 - 13.82 -288.97 - 18.87 .10 .15 .15 1/ Derived through comparison of treated and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. l/Indicates the highest confidence level at which treatment differences are significant. at the n.05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only treatment differences that are significant �Table 2. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the control areas 2 and 5 years following burning, spraying and chaining. Plant Species Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Aquilegia coerulea Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia btennis Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Astragalus haydenianus Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium centaureae Collomia linearis Commandra umbellata Cymopterus purpureus Delphinium nelsoni Delphinium occidentale Descurainia sophia Disporum trachycarpum Percent ComEosition 1976 1973 1970 1.41 0.26 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.03 3.66 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.43 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.40 0.00 0.00 3.26 0.26 0.04 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.02 2.82 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.09 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.59 0.01 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.65 0.01 0.00 2.88 0.19 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.03 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.36 0.10 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.13 0.00 Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre 1976 1973 1970 Forbs 24.15 4.52 0.00 0.30 0.18 0.00 0.18 0.18 1.49 0.00 0.00 0.42 63.64 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.19 0.00 1.31 0.71 7.26 0.00 1.84 0.18 0.00 6.90 0.00 0.00 52.28 4.16 0.59 1.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 2.20 0.00 0.00 0.36 45.50 0.00 0.00 0.24 1.43 0.00 1.01 0.59 9.58 0.12 2.80 0.24 0.00 10.65 0.12 0.00 42.59 2.74 0.00 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 3.39 0.00 0.00 0.36 38.96 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.48 4.94 1.37 3.98 0.00 0.00 3.98 2.08 0.00 Change / 1970-19731 percent~/ 1bs/ac +28.13 -0.36 +0.59 +1.61 -0.18 0.00 -0.18 -0.12 +0.71 0.00 .0.00 -0.06 -18.14 0.00 0.00 +0.06 +0.24 0.00 -0.30 -0.12 +2.32 +0.12 +0.95 +0.06 0.00 +3.75 +0.12 0.00 +116.50 -7.89 +48.00 -28.50 +20.00 -22.73 +31. 97 +51.61 +54.31 Change 1970-1976 percent 1bs/ac +18.44 -1. 78 0.00 +0.24 -0.18 0.00 +0.12 -0.18 +1.90 0.00 0.00 -0.06 -24.68 0.00 0.00 +0.42 -1.19 0.00 -1.13 -0.24 -2.32 +1.37 +2.14 -0.18 0.00 -2.91 +2.08 0.00 +76.35 -39.47 +128.00 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w c-. '" I -38.79 -31.07 +116.13 -42.24 �Table 2. Changes in production and chaining. (Cont'd). Plant Species Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium Gentiana heterosepala Geranium Gilia aggregata Grinde.Iia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helemium hoopesii Hydrophyllum capitatum Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus-Vicia Lepidium densiflorum Ligusticum Linum lewisii Lomatium leptocarpum Lupinus argenteus Madia glomerata Medicago sativa Melilotus offic.in"a.lis Mertensia franciscana Mertensia lanceolata Moldavica parviflora of air dry summer vegetation recorded Percent Composition 1970 1973 1976 Lbs of Vegetation Produced per Acre 1970 1973 1976 0.02 0.00 0.00 1.08 0.01 0.37 0.00 0.21 0.05 0.30 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.32 0.00 1.57 0.20 0.00 7.58 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.00 1.01 0.02 0.18 0.01 0.28 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.78 0.01 1.29 0.19 0.00 4.63 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 Forbs 0.19 0.10 0.00 1.01 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.50 0.00 0.09 0.01 0.03 0.00 '0.00 0.00 4.63 0.00 1.04 0.12 0.00 3.08 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.02 (CoIlt'd). 0.42 0.00 0.00 18.62 0.12 6.30 0.00 3.45 0.83 4.94 0.00 2.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 124.43 0.00 27.12 3.63 0.00 131.50 3.75 0.00 0.00 7.97 0.00 0.00 on the control 1.13 0.65 0.00 16.12 0.30 2.85 0.12 4.22 0.00 1. 78 0.12 1.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 107.83 0.12 20.82 3.33 0.00 75.83 0.18 0.00 0.00 7.14 0.00 0.00 2.97 1.31 0.00 14.39 0.12 2.20 0.18 6.36 0.00 1.13 0.18 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 65.84 0.00 14.63 1.84 0.00 45.26 3.57 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.36 areas 2 and 5 years following Change 1/ 1970-1973 2/ 1bs/ac percen~ +0.71 +0.65 0.00 -2.50 +0.18 -3.45 +0.12 +0.77 -0.83 -3.15 +0.12 -0.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 -16.59 -0.12 -6.30 -0.30 0.00 -55.67 -3.57 0.00 0.00 -0.83 0.00 0.00 -13.42 -54.72 +22.41 -63.86 -26.47 -13.34 -23.25 -8.20 -42.33 -95.24 -10.45 burning, spraying Change 1970-1976 1bs/ac percent +2.56 +1.31 0.00 -4.22 0.00 -4.10 +0.18 +2.91 -0.83 -3.81 +0.18 -1. 61 0.00 0.00 0.00 -58.59 0.00 -12.49 -1. 78 0.00 -86.24 -0.18 0.00 0.00 -7.38 0.00 +0.36 -22.68 -65.09 +84.48 I -77.11 W Cl' "I -47.08 -46.05 -49.18 -65.58 -4.76 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 2. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the control areas 2 and 5 years following burning, spraying and chaining. (Cont'd). Plant Species Oenothera caespitosa Opuntia Orthocarpus luteus Osmorhiza Pachistima myrsinites pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla phlox longifolia Polemonium foliosissimum polygonum aviculare polygonum douglasii potentilla pulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Senecio serra Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri Percent COIDEosition 1976 1973 1970 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.28 0.00 0.19 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.80 0.00 0.17 1.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.87 0.09 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.05 1.73 0.00 0.44 1.59 Forbs 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.45 0.29 0.06 0.11 0.08 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.68 0.01 0.28 0.74 Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre 1976 1973 1970 Change 1/ 1970-197~ percentY 1bs/ac Change 1970-1976 percent 1bs/ac (Cont'd). 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 13.74 16.06 1.31 4.88 0.30 0.00 0.65 3.09 0.30 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 4.10 3.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.71 2.02 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.01 0.83 1.90 0.83 27.30 13.44 0.06 0.00 6.66 2.85 24.92 32.71 0.00 +0.06 0.00 -2.32 -3.57 +0.30 -2.44 -0.24 0.00 0.00 +0.48 0.00 +0.06 +0.65 0.00 0.00 -1.31 0.00 +0.12 +0.89 0.00 -0.18 -1.07 +13.86 +0.06 +3.81 -7.79 0.00 +0.18 0.00 -9.75 -0.77 +0.71 -1.61 +0.59 0.00 +0.65 +0.06 0.00 +0.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 -1.84 0.00 +0.12 0.00 +0.12 -0.48 -1.90 -3.87 +0.12 +0.89 -22.66 0.00 0.18 0.00 6.30 4.10 0.71 1.49 1.13 0.00 0.65 0.12 0.00 0.89 3.45 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.12 0.54 0.00 9.58 0.12 3.75 10.05 -14.44 -73.17 -78.85 +18.97 -64.71 +103.10 +133.83 +23.82 -60.74 -15.85 -51.92 I w c00 I . -28.76 +31.25 -69.27 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 2. Changes in production and chaining. (Cont'd). Plant Species of air dry summer vegetation recorded Percent 1970 Lbs of Vegetation Produced per Acre 1970 1973 1976 Composition 1973 1976 Forbs Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis veronica americana veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amplexicaulis on the control areas 2 and 5 years following burning, spraying Change 1/ 1970-19732/ 1bs/ac percen~ Change 1970-1976 1bs/ac percent +7.69 +82.85 +106.12 -28.95 (Cont'd). 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.06 0.18 0.14 0.02 0.00 0.08 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.14 0.37 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.22 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.14 0.45 0.12 0.00 0.00 1.25 2.32 0.00 0.00 3.87 1.01 2.91 2.26 0.30 0.00 1.25 2.44 0.06 0.00 3.39 2.02 5.65 2.14 0.00 0.00 0.18 2.91 0.00 0.00 4.16 1.84 6.01 1.61 +0.30 0.00 0.00 +0.12 +0.06 0.00 -0.48 +1.01 +2.74 -0.12 -12.31 +100.00 +93.88 -5.26 0.00 0.00 -1.07 +0.59 0.00 0.00 +0.30 +0.83 +3.09 -0.65 Total .Forbs 31.86 30.03 22.97 545.35 478.50 328.02 -66.85 -12.26 -217.33 -39.85 Agropyron Agropyron cristatum Agropyron intermedium Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca ovina F'estuca thurberi 4.85 0.00 0.00 2.15 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 2.17 0.00 0.00 1.31 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.02 0.25 0.00 0.00 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.09 Grasses 84.52 0.00 0.00 36.58 0.18 0.59 0.00 0.00 16.18 0.00 0.06 35.27 0.00 0.00 20.40 3.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.10 0.00 0.36 3.63 0.00 0.00 18.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.94 0.00 1.13 -49.25 0.00 0.00 -16.18 +3.63 -0.59 0.00 0.00 -12.07 0.00 +0.30 -58.27 -80.89 0.00 0.00 -18.44 -0.18 -0.59 0.00 0.00 -11. 24 0.00 +1.07 -95.71 +5.13 +25.64 I w 0'> xo I -44.23 -74.63 -50.41 -69.49 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 2. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the control areas 2 and 5 years following burning. spraying and chaining. (Cont'd). Plant Species Percent ComEosition 1970 1973 1976 Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre 1970 1973 1976 Change 1/ 1970-197J2/ 1bs/ac percenr- Change 1970-1976 1bs/ac percent Grasses (Cont'd). Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus balticus Koeleria cristata Orzyopsis hymenoides Phleum pratense Poa-Carex geyeri Sitanion hystrix Stipa 0.25 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 12.74 0.00 0.97 1.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 13.52 0.00 0.91 Total Grasses 22.04 19.49 0.39 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 23.74 0.01 0.60 4.10 0.12 0.24 0.00 0.00 221.61 0.00 16.06 14.87 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00 218.64 0.00 14.45 5.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 344.08 0.12 8.56 26.76 380.24 312.79 385.83 +10.77 -0.12 +0.65 0.00 0.00 -2.97 0.00 -1.61 +262.32 -1.34 -10.00 +0.89 -0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 +122.46 +0.12 -7.49 +21. 74 +55.26 -46.67 I w -67.45 -17.74 +5.59 +1.47 " 0 I Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda populus tremuloides Prunus v.irginiana Purshia tridentata 0.00 7.27 0.06 0.40 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.00 0.00 5.94 0.11 0.00 7.13 0.03 0.53 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.22 0.00 0.00 5.58 0.20 0.00 9.72 0.03 0.91 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 8.83 0.15 0.00 123.95 1.07 7.20 0.95 0.00 0.30 2.08 0.00 0.00 103.91 1.78 0.00 115.39 0.48 9.16 1.67 0.00 0.12 3.75 0.00 0.00 92.67 2.91 0.00 139.71 0.54 14.57 1.37 0.00 0.00 1.72 0.00 0.00 132.46 1.90 0.00 -8.56 -0.59 +1.96 +0.71 0.00 -0.18 +1. 67 0.00 0.00 -11.24 +1.13 -6.91 +27.27 +80.00 -10.82 +63.33 0.00 +15.76 -0.54 +7.38 +0.42 0.00 -0.30 -0.36 0.00 0.00 +28.55 +0.12 +12.72 +102.48 -17.14 +27.48 +6.67 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 2. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the control areas 2 and 5 years following burning, spraying and chaining. (Cont'd). Plant Species Percent ComEosition 1976 1973 1970 Shrubs Quercus gambellii Ribes Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos albus Total Shrubs TOTAL ALL PLANTS 17.92 0.43 1.35 12.44 18.75 0.40 2.01 15.51 12.86 0.74 1.85 14.94 Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre 1973 1976 1970 Change / 1970-197~ 2/ percenr 1bs/ac Change 1970-1976 percent 1bs/ac (Cont'd). 308.57 6.96 23.43 2l3.35 302.44 6.l3 32.00 248.62 184.50 9.64 26.59 211.58 -6.l3 -0.83 +8.56 +35.27 -1.99 -11.97 +36.55 +16.53 -124.07 +2.68 +3.15 -1.67 -40.21 +38.46 +13.45 -0.78 --- --- --- --- --- --- 46.10 50.48 50.27 815.32 724.67 --- +21.77 +2.74 -68.87 -8.68 --- 1606.61 1438.52 -112.53 -6.55 -280.61 -16.32 --- --- --- 793.55 --- 100.00 100.00 100.00 1719.14 I VJ •.... " I 1/ Reflects normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. -2/ Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent composition 1/ E 73 - recorded on the burned areas two years following burning. Lbs of vegetation produced per acre A Plant species 1970 1973 1970 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 111.82 0.30 0.95 8.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.28 0.00 0.18 3.81 105.33 0.00 0.48 0.00 1.07 0.06 1.67 8.92 8.15 0.24 0.30 2.02 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.00 92.84 0.05 21.23 18.27 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.10 4.40 0.00 1. 78 2.96 77 .18 0.00 0.24 0.00 1.28 0.59 4.32 0.20 22.84 0.12 1.80 1.19 0.01 0.00 1.42 0.00 + 18.97 + 0.24 - 20.27 - 9.47 0.00 0.00 - 0.03 - 0.10 - 0.12 0.00 - 1.61 + 0.85 + 28.15 0.00 + 0.24 0.00 - 0.21 - 0.54 - 2.65 + 8.72 - 14.69 + 0.12 - 1.51 + 0.83 + 0.05 0.00 - 1.06 0.00 Change due to burning ~ Confidence level percent ~ where significant 4/ Forbs AcJUlle.a £.anU£o.6a Aga..6taehe. ~ei6otia Ag 0.6 e.m 9 £.auea Alliwn aewn,[natwn AndJr.0.6«ce .6 e.pte.nW.o na.ti.6 Aqu,[,te.g,[a eo~U£e.a A'W.b'[;" dJr.wnmoncU Altab'[;" rUM uta Alte.nan,[a eonge..6ta A~e.m,[;.,,[a b,[e.nn,[;., A~e.m,[;.,,[a dlr.cteuneU£U.6 ~e.m,[;.,,[a ludov,[eiana. Mt~-EJUg~on Mbtaga.£.U6 hayde.n,[anU.6 Ba£..6a.moiliza .6ag,[ttata. B~bV1M lte.pe.11.6 Ca.£.oeho~U.6 9unn.i.-~0 nil Cap.6e.lia buMa-pa..6tom Ca..6~e.ja tinan,[ae.6o£.,[a Che.nopocUwn be.Jt£.ancUru CiJt.6,[wn ee.i1ta.Ulte.ae. CoUom,[a tine.alli Commandlr.ct wnbe.liata. Cymopt~U.6 pUltpUlte.U6 Ve.£.ph,[n,[wn nwon,[ Ve.£.ph,[n,[wn oeeide.nta..e.e. Ve..6eUlta,[n,[a .6oph,[a V,[;.,POltwn .tJtaehyea.Jtpwn 2.57 0.00 0.02 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.18 0.00 0.11 0.21 6.50 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.34 0.01 1.05 0.00 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 8.66 0.02 0.07 0.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.01 0.30 8.14 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.13 0.69 0.63 0.02 0.02 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 5.96 5.00 42.88 0.06 0.36 2.85 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.30 2.97 0.00 1. 78 3.45 107.95 0.00 0.24 0.00 1.07 0.59 5.59 0.24 17.31 0.00 1.19 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 + 20.44 - 51.82 - 2.70 .10 I w -.J - 90.00 + 28.74 + 36.48 - 16.67 - 61.45 - 64.33 - 83.51 tv I �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 l! 1970 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 2.38 2.44 0.06 15.05 0.00 1.78 0.00 2.74 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.12 7.43 0.00 0.00 36.40 0.00 1.13 2.32 0.00 78.51 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.12 16.47 11.67 0.12 9.89 0.00 0.70 0.00 10.05 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.09 18.85 0.83 0.00 31.65 0.00 1.51 8.19 0.00 77.58 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 - 14.09 - 9.24 - 0.06 + 5.16 0.00 + 1.08 0.00 - 7.31 0.00 - 0.19 0.00 - 0.03 - 11.42 - 0.83 0.00 + 4.75 0.00 - 0.38 - 5.87 0.00 + 0.93 0.00 + 0.29 0.00 + 0.59 0.00 + 0.11 Change due to burning ~ Confidence level percent 11 where significant 11 Forbs (contd) EJUogonwn wnbe,Ua,twn Ep~ob~wn pa~culatum F~agaJUa am~cana GaUwn Ge.ntiana heX~o-6e.pa1.a GMaMwn Gilia agg~e.ga.ta. GJUnd~a aphana~ Hack~a te.ptophylfa Heie.Mwn hoopuU Hy~ophyttwn cap~wn Hy~ophyttwn 6e.ndt~ I W mU,-60 uJUe.n-6,u, Lactu.c.a -6caJUota Lapputa ~e.dOW6 W Lathy~U6 - V~ua Le.p~~wn de.n-6~6to~wn Ug u.-6licwn Unwn lw,u,U Lomaliwn te.ptoc~pwn Lu.p~nu.-6~g e.nte.U6 Madia gtom~a Me.dicago -6aliva M~otU6 o6Munat,{J., M~e.H-6~a 6Mnw cana M~e.n-6~a tance.ota.ta. Motdav~ca p~v~6toM 0.37 0.01 0.01 0.68 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.01 1.12 0.05 0.00 2.20 0.00 0.12 0.54 0.00 8.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.19 0.00 1.17 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.58 0.00 0.00 2.81 0.00 0.09 0.18 0.00 6.04 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.01 2.04 4.98 6.07 0.18 0.12 11.42 0.00 1.55 0.00 8.21 0.00 1.01 0.00 0.12 18.85 0.83 0.00 36.52 0.00 1.96 8.92 0.00 134.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - 85.55 + 52.19 +154.81 - 72.77 I w "I W - 60.57 + 15.01 - 24.99 - 71.68 + 1.20 .25 �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre Percent comQosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 11 1970 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 2.80 1.31 0.00 4.22 0.06 0.06 0.00 5.95 0.00 0.48 1.49 0.30 1.19 0.18 0.00 0.06 1.43 28.01 0.00 23.02 2.02 0.00 33.61 0.30 1.53 0.00 0.00 0.86 1.59 0.30 0.01 0.09 1.78 7.43 7.78 0.00 0.12 1.03 0.01 0.12 0.89 0.00 0.01 1.82 26.33 0.00 38.72 2.54 0.00 - 31.47 0.30 1.35 - 0.00 0.00 + 1.94 - 0.28 - 0.30 + 4.21 - 0.03 - 1.72 7.43 - 1.84 0.00 + 0.36 + 0.46 + 0.29 + 1.07 - 0.71 0.00 + 0.05 - 0.39 + 1.68 0.00 - 15.70 - 0.52 Change due to burning ~ Confidence level percent 11 where significant 11 Forbs (contd ) Oeno~h~a ca~p~o4a Opun.tia OJdhOC.MPU6 .tuteU6 04mollJUza Pac.{IMtima mYM-<-~e4 PecUc.u1.aJW, 9tr.a.y-<Pen4~emon CJtanda.tW Pen4~emon 4:tJUc.;tu6 Phac.e.t,[a h~~ophy.t.ta Ph.tox .tong-<-6o.t-<-a Po.temo Mum 60.t,[04-<-M-<-mum Po.tygonum av-<-c.~e Po.tygonum doug.ta4~ Po~enXi.Ua pu.£c.heNUma Ranunc.u.£U6 -<-namoenU6 Rumex CI!M pU6 Rudbec.kia mo~ana Senec.-<-o amb~4-<-o-<-d~ Senec.-<-o -<-~egeJVUmU6 S en ecio 4 eJlJl.a SUene menz-<-~~ SmUac.-<-na 4~e.t.tam So.t,[dago 4 PaM-<-6,totr.a. S~e.t.tM-<-a Sw~a tr.a.cUam Tatr.a.xac.um o66-<-c.-<-na.te ThaLi..ctJtum 6endbuu 0.00 0.34 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.07 0.39 0.00 0.01 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.78 0.00 0.99 0.20 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.10 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.04 0.12 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.11 2.16 0.00 1.79 0.16 0.00 5.65 0.30 1.78 0.00 0.00 4.04 2.85 0.30 0.00 0.00 1.78 1.25 6.54 0.00 0.12 2.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.16 12.97 0.00 16.59 3.33 - - 93.63 +226.74 - 17.50 .05 I w '-J '" I - 23.58 + 44.56 - 21.63 + 6.38 - 40.55 - 20.30 �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant species T~agopogon dub~um T~agopogon p~aten6~ Uilic.a MO~c.a Va1.vUana oc.udenta.-eM V~OMc.a ainvUc.ana V~OMc.a bUoba V~g~CVta. mu1ti6.to~ V.{.ofu ~ugu.t06a V~o.e.a.!.>he.UonU Wye;t~a ainpie:Uc.a~ Total Forbs 1970 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.34 0.04 0.27 0.14 30.09 1973 E 73 .lI I 1970 Forbs (contd) 0.30 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.30 5.59 0.71 4.46 2.32 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.15 0.39 0.30 0.25 38.76 499.31 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 0.83 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.18 0.77 1.96 5.12 3.87 3.21 8.84 0.06 0.00 0.38 0.06 0.30 4.90 1.43 8.65 2.20 - 8.01 - + - + - + 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.48 2.94 3.69 4.78 1.01 Change due to burni ng Y ._ Confidence level percent }j where significant 11 - 59.97 - 55.30 + 46.15 -- -- 501.57 438.10 + 63.47 + 14.49 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.26 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 2.34 0.00 0.93 0.41 0.22 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 1.89 70.01 0.00 0.00 9.99 0.00 4.34 1.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 30.27 0.06 12.07 5.35 2.91 0.83 0.00 0.30 1.43 0.00 0.00 29.21 0.01 0.01 5.57 0.21 0.07 1.61 0.01 0.00 0.00 49.96 1.06 0.05 + 12.06 0.22 + 2.70 + 0.76 - 1.61 + 0.29 + 1.42 0.00 - 49.96 + 3.63 " V1 I Grasses Ag~opYMn Ag~opy~on ~tatum Ag~opy~on ~nt~eMum B~omU!.>anoma1.U6 &0 mU!.> ~n e.J1J10., BMmU!.>tecXMum CMex VacXyiU!.> giom~a.ta EiymU!.>gfuUC.U6 FeAtuc.a ov~na FeAtuc.a th~bvU I w + + - - 3.95 �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Qer acre Percent comQosition Plant species Holtdewn bJW..c.hyan.:the!twn ] UYlC.U6 bal;Uc.U6 Koe.teiUa CJl1J.,:tata Oltzyo P.6-u' hymeno-<'dv., Phi.ewn p!ta:te1t6 e Poa-Caltex geyeiU S-<-:tarUon hy;.,:tJt-<-x SUpa 1970 0.18 0.11 0.28 0.00 0.02 15.65 0.19 0.89 1973 E 73 11 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 0.03 0.13 0.09 0.00 0.03 17.72 0.03 0.89 Grasses {contd} 3.03 0.36 1.90 1.67 1.13 4.64 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.42 16.60 259.98 229.23 3.15 0.36 14.87 11.54 10.99 0.16 17.40 0.00 0.36 256.49 3.15 13.38 - 10.63 + 1.51 - 16.27 0.00 + 0.06 - 27.26 2.80 - 1.84 - 1970 . 2/ Change due to burnlng Confidence level percent Y where significant 11 - 96.75 - 93.50 .15 - 10.63 - 13.78 I w Total Grasses 23.01 23.03 382.20 297.92 314.41 - 16.48 0.00 41. 57 10.53 12.55 0.12 1.07 15.23 2.74 0.71 0.00 9.87 0.00 0.00 52.82 4.23 165.93 0.62 0.01 0.40 27.30 0.12 0.00 10.61 0.00 0.00 - 11. 25 + 6.30 -153.38 - 0.51 + 1.06 + 14.82 - 24.56 + 0.59 0.00 - 0.74 0.00 - 5.24 Shrubs Ac.e!t g.tabltwn Amelanc.h-<.e!t a.trU6oUa A!t:temi6 -<'0.,c.ana A!t:temi6-<.a :tJt-<-den:ta:ta Ce!tC.OC.altpU6 mon:tanU6 Chlty;., othamnsu. deplte6;" tv.. ChltY-60:thamnU6 natv.. eos tv.. Chlty;., othamniu, v-u, ud16.tolttv.. C!ta:taegU6 e!ty:thltopoda POpulU6 :t!temulo-<.dv., PltunU6 v-i.!tg-<.rUana PUItJ.,lua fuden:tata. 0.00 3.45 0.58 7.90 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.92 0.01 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 3.19 0.81 0.96 0.01 0.08 1.17 0.21 0.06 0.00 0.77 0.00 3.39 0.00 56.74 9.52 130.37 0.36 0.00 1.01 15.17 0.12 0.00 11.90 0.00 - 21.29 +148.91 - 92.44 - 89.98 - 6.93 " 0I �Table 3. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas two years following burning (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 JI 1970 1973 E 73 lbs/ac Change due to burning ~ Confidence level percent ~ where significant if Shrubs (contd} QuVtQU!.l gambe..ttU TUbe!.> RO-6a nuti<.ana Sympho~Qa4po-6 albU!.l Total Shrubs TOTAL ALL PLANTS 10.56 2.41 1.74 18.54 14.70 1.10 1.38 13.78 46.90 38.21 -- -- 100.00 100.00 11.06 2.60 23.11 174.98 40.39 29.20 308.63 190.15 14.10 17.84 177.90 171. 51 35.55 39.88 359.65 + 18.64 - 21. 46 - 22.03 -181 .75 + 10.87 - 60.35 - 55.25 - 50.54 .10 778.38 494.38 799.73 -305.36 - 38.18 .05 1659.90 1293.87 1551.24 -257.37 - 16.59 I W " " I JlReflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated area following treatment had treatment not occurred. ~Derived through comparison of burned and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. ~Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. if Indicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to burning are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only changes that are significant at the �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent Plant Species Com~osition 1970 1976 ~ 7611 2.57 0.00 0.02 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.18 0.00 0.11 0.21 6.50 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.34 0.01 1.05 0.00 0.07 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 5.28 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.08 7.95 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.09 0.16 1.11 0.02 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 5.27 recorded on the burned areas five years following Lbs of Vegetation Produced per Acre A 1970 1976 E 76 Lbslac 54.30 0.12 0.06 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 2.50 0.00 0.00 0.89 81.84 0.18 0.36 0.00 0.00 6.42 0.83 1.55 11.12 0.18 0.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 75.63 0.04 0.36 5.14 0.00 0.01 0.79 0.02 6.78 0.01 1.78 2.96 66.08 0.01 0.24 0.03 0.01 0.59 0.76 0.16 11.78 1.37 2.57 0.05 0.01 0.01 24.76 0.01 - 21.32 + 0.08 - 0.30 - 4.96 0.00 - 0.01 - 0.79 + 0.22 - 4.28 - 0.01 - 1.78 - 2.06 + 15.76 + 0.17 + 0.12 - 0.03 - 0.01 + 5.83 + 0.07 + 1.39 - 0.65 - 1.19 - 1.62 - 0.05 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 24.64 - 0.01 burning. Change Due to Burnin~~ Confidence Level Percent11 Where Significant ~I FORBS Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrionalis Aquilegia coerulea Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia biennis Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Astragalus haydenianus Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium centaureae Collomia linearis Comandra umbel lata Cymopterus purpureus Delphinium nelsoni Delphinium occidentale Descurainia sophia Disporum trachycarpum 4.75 42.88 0.06 0.36 2.85 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.30 2.97 0.00 1.78 3.45 107.95 0.00 0.24 0.00 1.07 0.59 5.59 0.24 17.31 0.00 1.19 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 - 28.20 - 63.16 , co, ..., w + 23.85 - 5.54 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Species Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium Gentiana heterosepala Geranium Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum captitatum Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus-Vicia Lepidium densiflorum Ligusticum Linum lewisii Lomatium leptocarpum Lupinus argenteus Madia glomerata Medicago sativa Melilotus officinalis Mertensia franciscana Mertensia lanceolata Moldavica parviflora 1970 1976 0.37 0.01 0.01 0.68 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.01 1.12 0.05 0.00 2.20 0.00 0.12 0.54 0.00 8.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.38 0.00 0.70 0.00 0.06 0.00 1.26 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.10 0.00 1.21 0.00 0.06 0.08 0.00 4.77 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 on the burned areas five years following Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre Percent ComEosition Plant recorded ~ 7J-./ Forbs Cont' d 6. 07 1.39 3.30 0.18 0.12 11.42 0.00 1.55 0.00 8.21 0.00 1.01 0.00 0.12 18.85 0.83 0.00 36.52 0.00 1.96 8.92 0.00 l34.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 (continued). . 2/ A 1970 burning 1976 E 76 Lbs/ac 1.01 4.16 0.00 7.38 0.00 0.65 0.00 l3.50 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.79 1.07 0.00 12.13 0.00 0.59 0.77 0.00 47.05 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 43.33 23.35 0.12 8.83 0.01 0.54 0.18 15.14 0.00 0.23 0.18 0.02 18.85 0.83 0.01 19.32 0.01 1.06 4.53 0.01 46.31 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.36 - 42.32 - 19.18 - 0.12 - 1.45 - 0.01 + 0.11 - 0.18 1.64 + 0.12 - 0.23 - 0.18 - 0.02 - 11.06 + 0.24 - 0.01 - 7.19 - 0.01 - 0.46 - 3.76 - 0.01 + 0.74 - 0.01 + 0.82 0.00 0.00 - 0.01 - 0.30 - Change Due to Burnln~_ Confidence Level Percent }j Where Significant i/ - 97.67 - 16.47 - 10.84 I w so " I - 58.68 - 37.21 + 1.60 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------~.-------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent COIDEosition Plant Species 1970 1976 Oenothera.caespitosa Opuntia Orthocarpus luteus Osmorhiza Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Phlox longifolia Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii pulcherrima Potentilla Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Senecio serra Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri 0.00 0.34 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.07 0.39 0.00 0.01 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.78 0.00 0.99 0.20 0.00 0.38 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.19 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.08 0.49 0.53 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 1.02 0.05 ~ 7J:-/ recorded on the burned areas five years Lbs of Vegetation Production Per Acre following Change 1976 E 76 Lbs/ac 0.01 100.82 0.30 0.70 0.01 0.71 1.94 6.03 0.30 0.65 0.02 1.78 111.43 6.54 0.01 0.12 0.26 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.02 9.24 0.12 21.78 1.02 - 0.01 - 97.25 - 0.18 - 0.34 - 0.01 - 0.71 - 0.93 - 4.24 - 0.30 + 2.14 - 0.02 - 0.95 -106.32 - 0.95 - 0.01 - 0.12 + 2.72 - 0.01 - 0.12 - 0.01 - 0.12 - 0.01 - 0.02 - 7.51 - 0.12 - 10.96 - 0.49 (continued). 2/ Due to Burning Confidence Level Percent1/ Where Significant A 1970 burning i/ Forbs Con' t 0.00 5.65 0.30 1.78 0.00 0.00 4.04 2.85 0.30 0.00 0.00 1.78 1.25 6.54 0.00 0.12 2.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.16 12.97 0.00 16.59 3.33 0.00 3.57 0.12 0.36 0.00 0.00 1.01 1.78 0.00 2.80 0.00 0.83 5.12 5.59 0.00 0.00 2.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.72 0.00 10.82 0.54 - 96.46 .10 - 48.00 - 70.39 .20 w oo .0 I - 95.41 - 14.55 +1056.46 .25 - 81.33 .05 - 50.30 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. . �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent ComEosition recorded on the burned areas five years Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre Species 1970 1976 ~ 7J-/ 1970 1976 burning (continued). 2/ Due to BurningConfidence Level Percent1/ Where Significant ~/ Change A Plant following E 76 Lbs/ac 0.30 0.06 0.00 0.45 0.01 0.30 6.02 1.30 9.19 1.65 + Forbs Cont'd Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis veronica americana veronica biloba Vigiuera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola shel tonii Wyethia amplexicaulis Total Forbs 1.01 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 4.58 0.89 1. 78 2.32 + 0.71 0.06 0.00 0.09 0.01 0.30 1.44 0.41 7.41 0.67 300.33 + 6.81 3.01 0.01 0.01 4.96 0.00 0.07 1.61 0.01 0.00 0.00 158.21 3.69 + 39.28 + 0.35 + 8.85 + 19.13 + 6.54 + 0.05 + 17.90 + 2.73 + 0.12 0.00 -156.72 - 2.32 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.09 0.19 0.24 0.30 0.06 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.30 5.59 0.71 4.46 2.32 -- -- -- -- -- 30.09 30.02 499.31 307.14 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.34 0.04 0.27 0.14 - - - - - - - 23.94 00 - 80.59 + 40.74 --+ 2.27 GRASSES Agropyron Agropyron cristatum Agropyron intermedium Bromus anomalus Bromus intermis Bromus tectorum Carex Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca ovina Festuca thurberi Hordeum brachyantherum 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.60 0.00 0.26 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.18 4.14 0.04 0.85 2.30 0.69 0.01 1.77 0.28 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.12 70.01 0.00 0.00 9.99 0.00 4.34 1. 61 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 3.03 42.29 0.36 8.86 24.09 6.54 0.12 19.51 2.74 0.12 0.00 1. 49 1. 37 I w +1307.21 +386.09 +1114.81 - 99.06 - 62.96 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- •.... I �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the burned areas five years following burning (continued). Percent Composition Plant Species 1970 1976 i 761/ Lbs of Vegetation Produced per Acre A 1976 1970 E 76 Lbs/ac Change Due to Burning 2/ Confidence Level Percent1/ Where Significant i/ Grasses Cont'd Juncus balticus Koeleria cristata Orzyopsis hymenoides Phleum pratense Poa-Carex geyeri Sitanion hystrix Stipa Total Grasses --- 1.90 4.64 0.00 0.36 259.98 3.15 14.87 --- 0.00 0.36 0.00 1.43 148.28 0.59 13.38 --- 0.16 4.64 0.01 0.36 403.64 37.50 7.93 --- 26.36 382.20 271.51 387.82 0.11 0.28 0.00 0.02 15.65 0.19 0.89 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.13 14.49 0.06 1.30 -23.01 29.15 - 0.16 - 4.28 - 0.01 + 1.07 -255.36 - 36.90 + 5.45 + 68.75 -116.31 - 29.99 - 63.26 I W OJ N I SHRUBS Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia can a Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depress us Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Populus tremuloides Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata 0.00 3.45 0.58 7.90 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.92 0.01 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 5.54 1.84 1.67 0.01 0.12 0.16 1.00 0.02 0.00 1.22 0.01 4.62 0.00 56.74 9.52 130.37 0.36 0.00 1.01 15.17 0.12 0.00 11.90 0.00 0.00 52.16 18.08 15.76 0.06 1.13 1.61 9.81 0.24 0.00 13.26 0.06 0.01 63.96 4.76 263.98 0.51 0.01 0.03 12.57 0.12 0.01 15.16 0.01 - 0.01 - 11.79 + 13.32 -248.22 - 0.45 - 1.12 + 1.57 - 2.75 + 0.12 - 0.01 - 1.90 + 0.05 - 18.44 +280.00 - 94.03 .25 - 21.91 - 12.53 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 4. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent Plant Species 1970 recorded Lbs of Vegetation Produced Eer Acre ComEosition 1976 on the burned areas five years following ;;;76)) 1970 1976 E 76 Lbs/ac burning (continued). Change Due to Burning ~j Confidence Level Percent1/ Where Significant i/ Shrubs Cont'd Quercus gambellii Ribes Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos albus 10.56 2.41 1. 74 18.54 14.23 0.63 2.64 14.51 Total Shrubs 46.90 Total All Plants 100.00 174.98 40.39 29.20 308.63 144.89 6.90 28.25 149.65 104.63 55.92 33..13 306.22 + 40.26 + 38.48 - 49.02 - 4.88 -156.57 - 87.66 - 14.73 - 51.13 43.61 778.38 441.86 710.82 -268.97 - 37.84 100.00 1,659.90 1,020.51 1,388.95 -368.44 - 26.53 7.59 2.39 22.26 .10 I w (1J w I !/ Reflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated l/ Derived through comparison on the control areas. 3/ - Percent and control areas with adjustments changes are only shown for the more abundant i/ Indicates a .05, .10, of burned area after treatment for normal had treatment not occurred. year to year changes in forage production recorded plants. the highest confidence level at which changes .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. due to spraying are significant. Only changes that are significant at the �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying. Lbs of vegetation eroduced eer acre Percent comeosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 7311 1970 Change due to sera~ing ~ Confidence level where significant ~ percent '}j 1973 "E 73 1bs/ac 104.86 0.48 3.15 1.01 0.00 0.95 0.00 0.00 3.21 0.00 0.18 1.90 47.34 0.65 1. 13 0.06 1.19 0.00 0.83 0.00 29.86 9.99 1.78 0.24 0.06 20.58 2.26 0.12 55.63 0.16 3.54 3.05 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.35 0.00 7.61 0.56 43.93 0.01 0.01 0.24 1.93 0.00 3.40 0.10 19.78 0.12 0.02 0.01 0.01 27.26 2.12 0.18 + 49.23 + 0.31 + 88.50 - 0.39 - 2.03 - 10.89 - 66.80 Forbs AQhittea lanuto~a AgM.taQhe uJr;t{.u6oUa AgMeJ1M glauQa AWum aQumincttum AneVtMaQe ~epteVl.w..on~ Aquilegia QoeJtutea AJta.b~ eVtummoncU. AJta.b~ IUMu;ta ~enania Qong~ta AtLtem~ia bien~ AtLtem~ia eVtaQunQut~ AtLtem~ia ludoviQiana MteJt - Eug eJton M:tJtagal~ haydenian~ B~amotr.hiza ~agi.t.ta.ta BeJtbew f!.epe~ CaloQhotLt~ gun~oili CapuUa bUMa-pMtoW CMtitteja Unaniae60lia ChenopocU.um bVtlancU.Vti C~ium QentaUlteae CoUomia UneaW ComMeVta umbeUctta CymopteJt~ pUltpUlte~ Velphinium nWoru. Velphinium oQudentale V~QUltainia Mphia V~potr.um .tJta.QhyQaltpum 1.56 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.46 0.04 3.70 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.26 0.01 0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.08 0.01 0.01 4.15 0.02 0.12 0.05 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.01 0.07 2.00 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 1.10 0.40 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.76 0.10 0.01 3.61 2.85 25.69 0.18 0.06 0.48 2.20 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.24 0.00 7.61 0.65 61.44 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.61 0.00 4.40 0.12 14.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.66 0.18 0.18 - 0.12 0.94 0.00 - 0.02 + 2.86 0.00 - 7.43 + 1.34 + 3.42 + 0.64 + 1.12 - 0.18 - 0.74 0.00 - 2.57 - 0.10 + 10.08 + 9.87 + 1.77 + 0.22 + 0.05 - 6.68 + 0.14 - 0.06 + I .20 + 7.78 - 38.27 + 50.95 - 24.50 w 0> .c- �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 l! 1970 1973 E 73 0.19 0.00 0.00 59.12 0.30 3.87 0.00 1.84 0.59 0.00 1.84 3.33 0.00 0.06 1.90 34.68 0.77 8.74 1.25 0.00 67.39 0.00 0.00 0.06 4.76 0.95 0.00 0.81 0.00 0.18 20.55 0.59 2.80 3.54 1.38 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.52 0.00 0.01 0.48 87.37 0.12 13.56 2.46 0.00 104.34 0.03 0.00 0.01 6.18 0.01 0.00 lbs/ac 2/ Change due to s~raling Confidence level percent '}j where significant 11 Forbs (contd} E~ogonum umbellatum EpUob-<-um paMc.u1atum FlW.gaJU..a. ameJUc.ana GaUum Gent,{.ana het~o4epala G~aMum GU,{.a aggJtegata aphana~ G~ndet,{.a Hac.ketia £eptophy£la He£eMUll1 IWOPMU HydJLophy£lum c.ap,{.tatum HydJLophy£lum 6endfeJU I Jt.U, m-<.440 wUeM-<.4 Lac.tuc.a 4 c.~o£a Lappufa Jtedow,~W LathyJtU6 - V-<-Ua Lep,lMWYI deM-<-6£oJtum UgMtiC.um L,i,num £ew~u Lomat-<-um £eptoc.aftpum Lup,lnU6 aftg enteM MaMa g£om~ata MeMc.ago 4ativa Me£UotU6 o6Mc.bt~ MeJtteM-<-a 6lW.l1w c.ana MeJtten6-<-a £anc.eo£ata Moldav-<-c.a paftv-<-6£olW. 0.02 0.00 0.01 1.44 0.01 0.38 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.03 6.08 0.00 1.06 0.16 0.00 10.85 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 2.35 0.02 0.15 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.07 1.40 0.03 0.37 0.06 0.00 3.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.04 0.00 1.35 5.63 0.88 6.64 0.30 0.00 0.18 23.73 0.24 6.19 0.30 1.13 0.12 0.06 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.48 100.81 0.00 17.66 2.68 0.00 180.93 0.59 0.00 0.00 6.90 0.00 0.00 + 0.38 0.00 - 0.18 + 38.57 - 0.30 + 1.06 - 3.54 + 0.46 + 0.59 - 0.02 + 1.72 + 2.81 0.00 + 0.05 + 1.43 - 52.69 + 0.65 - 4.82 - 1.21 0.00 - 36.95 - 0.03 0.00 + 0.05 - 1.42 0.94 0.00 +187.73 .15 + 38.02 + 33.28 I w 00 \J1 I - 60.31 .10 - 35.52 - 49.17 .15 - 35.41 - 22.99 �Table 5 . Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation eroduced eer acre Percent comeosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 .l! A 1970 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.33 3.15 0.00 0.48 1.13 0.00 0.36 3.21 0.36 0.18 2.68 0.00 0.00 2.91 0.24 0.06 1.37 0.00 0.54 2.80 40.80 4.16 45.56 21.65 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.92 1.42 68.98 0.31 1.75 0.00 0.01 2.68 0.01 1.77 12.03 0.06 0.00 0.59 0.36 0.12 0.89 0.00 0.15 0.73 25.49 17.33 15.68 23.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.41 1.73 - 68.98 + 0.16 - 0.62 0.00 + 0.35 + 0.54 + 0.35 - 1.59 - 9.35 - 0.06 0.00 + 2.33 - 0.12 - 0.06 + 0.48 0.00 + 0.39 + 2.07 + 15.31 - 13.17 + 29.88 - 1.69 Change due to serating Y onfidence level percent 11 where significant 4/ Forbs (contd) Oeno~h~o eae4p~o~a Opurz.:Ua. OfLthoea!1.pU6 .e.ute~ O~moJrlUza PaefUJ.,:U.ma mYM.i..~e4 PecUeu.£~ gJta.y.i.. Pe~~emon eJta.ndatt£.<.. Pe~~emon .6Wd~ Phaeelia h~~ophytta Phlox long.i..6oUa Polemon.i..um 6olio~.i..M-£mum Polygonum av.i..eu.£a!1.e Polygonum doug£.M« Po~e~a pu.£eh~a Ranuneu.£U6 b!amo enU6 Rumex CAMp~ Rudbee~a mo~ana Senee.i..o amb~o~.i..o.i..de4 Senee.i..o .i..~eg~U6 Senee.i..o ~~ Silene menue4.i...i.. Sm.i...tae.i..na~~e.t.t~ Solidago ~paM.i..6loJta. S~eUa!1..i..a Sw~a ~acUMa Ta!1.axaeum o66.i..e.i..na.te Tha.Lt~um 6end.t~ 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.31 0.14 0.09 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.76 0.18 0.41 1.85 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.16 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.03 0.14 1.65 0.16 1.70 0.86 1.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.58 5.29 2.32 1.49 3.15 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.30 10.11 0.06 0.00 1.67 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.67 12.55 2.91 6.72 30.63 +112.51 +121.96 - 35.47 I w 00 0I - 77.75 +395.83 +283.67 + 60.08 - 75.98 +190.52 - 7.22 .15 �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 l! 1970 2/ Change due to s~ra~ing Confi dence level percent 11 where signi fi cant !!I 1973 E 73 lbs/ac - 27.23 0.00 + 5.12 + 5.58 0.00 0.00 + 0.01 - 2.20 - 2.55 - 9.15 - 19.89 - 32.49 - 76.21 Forbs (contd) dub~um Tnagopogon TfUlgopogon pJtate.IU,u, UJt;tlc.a diocea Va1.vU.ana oc.ude.n;t:.aLU, Ve.no~c.a am~c.ana VeJ1.o~c.a biloba V~gu,Le.J1.amuUL6,toJ1.a V~oR.a nuguR.o.6a V~oR.a -6he.UonM. Wye.:t1ua ampR.e.uc.auR.i6 Total Forbs 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.25 0.77 0.04 0.00 0.33 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.22 0.11 0.95 0.00 1.43 8.27 0.00 0.00 0.06 5.53 4.04 12.67 1.07 0.00 6.54 14.27 0.00 0.00 0.06 8.86 5.29 2.85 28.30 0.00 1.43 8.69 0.00 0.00 0.05 11.06 7.84 12.00 -- -- --- --- --- 36.07 24.82 598.22 603.40 524.89 + 78.51 + 14.96 47.52 0.00 0.48 32.53 0.00 5.71 0.00 9.69 28.97 0.00 0.00 5.98 0.00 0.01 4.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.61 1.74 0.00 0.00 + 4].54 0.00 + 0.47 + 28.22 0.00 + 5.71 0.00 + 8.09 + 27.23 0.00 0.00 +694.45 +358.33 + 64.24 .05 I w .15 Grasses AgnopyJ1.on AgnoptjJwlt cJlM:tcttum Agnopynon ~nte.~e.cUum BnomU.6 anoma1.U.6 BnomU.6 ~lteJ1.InL.6 BfLOmU.6te.ctonum CMe.X VactyR.U6 gR.omvw.;ta ER.ymU.6gR.auc.U.6 Futuc.a ov~na Futuc.a thMb~ 0.86 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.41 0.00 0.00 2.06 0.00 0.02 1.33 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.36 1.39 0.00 0.00 14.33 0.00 0.00 7.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.61 6.84 0.00 0.00 +654.44 .05 +503.70 +]569.36 00 "I �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 11 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 0.00 0.00 4.94 0.00 2.91 719.50 0.00 28.61 0.00 0.00 3.12 0.00 0.36 230.73 0.06 4.71 0.00 0.00 + 1.81 0.00 + 2.56 +488.77 - 0.06 + 23.90 1970 Change due to sEra~ing ~ Confidence level 4/ percent '}j where significant - Grasses (contd) Ho~deum b~achyanth~um J unCU6 baLtic.UI.l Koetvu.a c.tr.M:ta:ta O~zyopf.,b., hymeno,[de-6 Phieum p~axen-6e Poa-CMex geyvu. S,[tal'uon hY-6Wx Stipa 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.02 14.15 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.11 29.52 0.00 1.15 15.01 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.36 233.87 0.06 5.23 +211.84 .15 +507.32 I co 00 00 I Tota 1 Grasses 16.37 270.86 36.43 880.86 222.81 +658.05 0.00 115.33 0.00 65.13 0.00 0.59 1.84 9.16 0.00 0.42 100.87 0.00 0.24 126.63 0.00 54.88 0.00 0.65 0.00 14.13 0.00 0.01 89.48 0.00 - 0.24 +295.33 Shrubs Ac~ giab~um Ametanc.hl~ aini60Ua M;temb.,,[a cana AtLtemb.,,[a Wdentaxa C~C.OCMpUl.l montanU6 Ch~I:fMthamnU6 dep~e-6f.,w., CMI:ff.,othamnu» naw.,ecs w., Ch~l:ff., othamnU6 vb., ud-<-6iMU6 C~aegw., ~ytMopoda PopufU6 ~emufo'[de-6 P~unU6 v~g,[niana PuM hla Wdentaxa 0.01 8.13 0.00 2.56 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 6.10 0.00 0.00 5.44 0.00 3.34 0.00 0.03 0.09 0.37 0.00 0.02 3.96 0.00 7.98 5.73 0.24 136.03 0.00 43.12 0.00 0.65 0.00 7.85 0.00 0.00 100.34 0.00 - 11.30 0.00 + 10.25 0.00 - 0.06 + 1.84 - 4.97 0.00 + 0.41 + 11.39 0.00 - 8.92 + 18.67 - 35.19 + 12.73 .10 �Table 5. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas two years following spraying (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 Jj 1970 Chanqe due to spraying ~ Confidence level percent ~ where significant 11 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 202.16 6.42 9.28 337.53 202.46 9.84 31.67 306.49 - 0.30 - 3.42 - 22.40 + 31.04 - 34.74 - 70.71 + 10.13 813.91 + 34.83 + Shrubs (contd) QUeJtC.CL6 gambe.UU R.tbu RO-6 a nuA:kana Symphoh.tc.~po-6 albU-6 Total Shrubs 12.33 0.66 1.40 15.85 9.71 0.33 0.43 15.02 - -- 47.56 38.75 12.90 2.08 19.75 206.57 11.18 23.20 263.01 -- -- 792.18 848.74 -- -- - 0.15 .10 4.28 -TOTAL ALL PLANTS 100.00 100.00 1661.27 2333.00 1552.52 +780.48 I + 50.27 1/ - Reflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated area after treatment had treatment not occurred. 2/ -- Derived through comparison of sprayed and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. ~Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. ~Indicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to spraying are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only changes that are significant at the w OJ '!) I �Table 6. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent Plant Species 1970 COIDEosition 1976 E7J./ recorded on the sprayed areas five years following Lbs of Vegetation Produced Per Acre A 1970 1976 E76 lbs/ac 50.44 0.18 0.00 0.06 _0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 3.87 0.00 0.00 2.26 59.77 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 1.67 0.89 11.48 4.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.36 1.55 0.18 45.31 0.11 0.06 0.86 0.12 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.54 0.01 7.61 0.56 37.61 0.01 0.01 0.59 0.01 0.01 0.60 0.08 10.20 1.37 0.02 0.00 0.01 10.20 37.14 0.18 + 5.12 + 0.07 - 0.06 - 0.80 - 0.12 - 0.01 - 0.04 - 0.00 + 3.32 - 0.01 - 7.61 + 1.70 +22.16 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.36 - 0.01 - 0.01 + 1.07 + 0.81 + 1.28 + 2.74 - 0.02 - 0.00 - 0.01 - 3.84 -35.60 0.00 spraying. Change Due To SEra~ingl/ ,,/ Confidence Level 4/ Where SignificantPercent~ Forbs Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrional is Aquilegia coerulea Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia biennis Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Astragalus haydenianus Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa~pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium centaureae Collomia linearis Commandra unbellata Cymopterus purpureus Delphinium nelsoni Delphinium occidentale Descurainia sophia Disporun trachycarpum 1.56 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.46 0.04 3.70 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.00 0.26 0.01 0.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.08 0.01 0.01 4.24 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.19 4.95 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.08 0.97 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.54 0.13 0.01 3.19 2.71 25.69 0.18 0.06 0.48 2.20 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.24 0.00 7.61 0.65 61.44 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.61 0.00 4.40 0.12 14.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.66 0.18 0.18 + 11.31 I w \0 0 I +58.93 +177 .48 +12.57 -37.63 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �Table 6. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent COIDEosition Species 1970 1976 Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium Gentiana heterosepala Geranium Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum capitatum Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus-Vicia Lepidium densiflorum Ligusticum Linum lewisii Lomatium leptocarpum Lupinus argenteus Madi a glomerata Medicago sativa Melilotus officinalis Mertensia franciscana Mertensia lanceolata Moldavica parviflora 0.02 0.00 0.01 1.44 0.01 0.38 0.02 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.03 6.08 0.00 1.06 0.16 0.00 10.85 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.01 1.99 0.00 0.24 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.24 0.00 1.24 0.l3 0.00 3.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 Plant E76-V recorded on the sprayed areas five years following Lbs of Vegetation Produced Per Acre Change A 1970 1976 E76 0.42 0.06 0.12 23.73 0.06 2.91 1.19 0.65 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.71 0.00 14.81 1.61 0.00 46.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.00 2.12 1.31 0.18 18.35 0.24 2.16 5.31 2.08 0.00 0.01 0.18 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.48 53.35 0.01 9.53 1.36 0.01 62.27 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.51 0.01 0.36 lbs/ac spraying. (Continued). 2/ Due To SEralin~ Confidence Level 4/ 3/ Pe r cen t+ Where Significant- Forbs 1.36 3.85 0.70 4.40 0.30 0.00 0.18 23.73 0.24 6.19 0.30 1.l3 0.12 0.06 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.48 100.81 0.00 17.66 2.68 0.00 180.93 0.59 0.00 0.00 6.90 0.00 0.00 - 1.71 1.25 - 0.06 + 5.38 - 0.18 + 0.76 - 4.12 - 1.43 + 0.18 - 0.01 - 0.18 + 0.80 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.48 - 26.64 - 0.01 + 5.28 + 0.25 - 0.01 - 15.35 - 0.57 0.00 0.00 - 0.10 - 0.01 - 0.36 - + 29.34 + 34.98 I w -o •.... I - 49.94 .20 + 55.41 + 18.06 - 24.64 - 19.14 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �~ Table 6. Changes in production of air dry summer Percent Plant Species Oenothera caespitosa Opuntia Orthocarpus luteus Osmorhiza Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla Phlox longifolia Polemonium foliosissimum Polygonum aviculare Polygonum douglasii Potentilla pulcherrima Ranunculus inameneus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Senecio serra Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale Thalictrum fendleri 1970 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.31 0.14 0.09 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.62 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.10 0.76 0.18 0.41 1.85 vegetation COID2osition E7f}./ 1976 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.29 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.31 0.76 1.00 recorded on the sprayed areas five years following Lbs of Vegetation Produced Per Acre 1970 1976 Forbs (Cont'd) 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.58 5.29 2.32 1.49 3.15 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.30 10.11 0.06 0.00 1.67 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 1.67 12.55 2.91 6.72 30.63 0.00 0.00 3.09 3.45 3.03 0.00 0.00 0'.65 0.00 0.59 0.48 0.71 0.00 2.91 0.00 0.00 1.67 0.59 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 5.89 3.63 9.04 11.90 spraying. (Continued). Change E76 lbs/ac 0.01 0.18 0.01 1.80 4.45 165.56 0.71 6.65 0.01 0.65 0.59 0.01 26.53 10.11 0.06 0.01 0.15 0.36 0.12 0.01 0.12 0.09 0.01 8.94 34.67 8.82 9.41 0.01 0.18 + 3.08 + 1.65 1.42 -165.56 - 0.71 - 6.00 - 0.01 - 0.06 - 0.12 + 0.70 - 26.53 - 7.20 - 0.06 - 0.01 + 1.52 + 0.24 + 0.06 - 0.01 - 0.12 - 0.03 - 0.01 - 3.05 - 31.04 + 0.22 + 2.48 Due To s2rayingI/ Confidence Level 4/ Where SignificantPercent~/ - - - + - 91.86 31. 90 I w \D N I - 71.18 +1033.33 + + 34.14 89.53 2.49 26.39 .10 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 6. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the sprayed areas five years following spraying. Percent ComEosition Plant Species 1970 1976 Elf):i Lbs of Vegetation Produced Per Acre 1970 . 1976 E76 lbs/ac (Continued). 2/ Change Due To SErayingConfidence Level 4/ 3/ PercentWhere Significant- Forbs (Continued) Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica americana Veronica biloba Viguiera mul tiflora Viola rugulosa Viola shel tonii Wyethia arnplexicaulis Total Forbs 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.25 0.77 0.04 0.00 0.20 1.14 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.56 0.21 0.41 0.95 0.00 1.43 8.27 0.00 0.00 0.06 5.53 4.04 12.67 0.42 0.00 2.44 13.74 0.00 0.00 1.25 6.66 2.50 4.88 0.95 0.01 0.20 10.39 0.01 . 0.01 0.06 10.09 8.34 9.00 36.07 28.72 598.22 343.60 - - 0.54 0.01 2.23 3.35 0.01 0.01 1.18 3.43 5.84 4.12 359.82 - 16.22 0.62 0.00 0.01 3.83 0.00 0.00 0.01 1.61 2.09 0.00 0.19 + 33.17 0.00 0.11 13.18 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.30 6.83 0.00 0.19 - + + - + - - + 32.27 - - 33.96 70.03 45.82 - 4.51 Grasses Agropyron Agropyron cristatum Agropyron intermedium Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Brornus tectorurn Carex Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca ovina Festuca thurberi 0.86 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.41 0.00 0.00 2.85 0.00 0.01 1.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.74 0.00 0.00 14.33 0.00 0.00 7.73 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.61 6.84 0.00 0.00 33.78 0.00 0.12 17.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.31 8.92 0.00 0.00 + + - + + 343.61 - 18.52 + 327.45 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I w '-0 W I �Table 6. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation 1970 1976 E76!/ Grasses Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus balticus Koeleria cristata Orzyopsis hymenoides Ph.leum pratense Poa-Carex geyeri Sitanion hystrix Stipa 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.02 14.15 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 13.74 0.00 0.42 on the sprayed areas five years following Lbs of Vegetation Produced Per Acre Percent Composition Plant Species recorded 26.35 1976 E76 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.78 163.44 0.06 5.00 0.01 0.00 0.83 0.01 0.36 363.10 0.71 2.79 1970 lbs/ac spraying. (Continued). . 2/ Change Due To_ S~~~y~ 3/ Confidence Level 4/ PercentWhere Significant- (Continued) 0.00 0.00 0.83 0.00 0.36 233.87 0.06 5.23 0.05 0.00 - 0.83 - 0.01 + 1.43 -199.66 - 0.65 + 2.20 + - 54.99 + 78.98 I w -.0 .I"- Total Grasses 16.37 19.44 270.86 231.49 274.84 - 43.36 0.24 136.03 0.00 43.12 0.00 0.65 0.00 7.85 0.00 0.00 100.34 0.00 0.00 107.06 0.00 57.57 0.00 0.77 0.00 5.71 0.00 0.00 119.07 0.00 0.24 153.32 0.01 87.31 0.00 0.65 0.00 6.51 0.01 0.01 127.91 0.00 - 0.24 - 46.26 - 0.01 - 29.74 0.00 + 0.12 0.00 - 0.80 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 8.83 - 0.00 - 15.78 Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus Crataegus erythropoda Populus tremuloides Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata 0.01 8.13 0.00 2.56 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 6.10 0.00 0.00 8.88 0.00 4.73 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.48 0.00 0.00 10.06 0.00 10.87 9.08 - 30.17 - 34.06 - 12.23 6.91 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I �Table 6. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent recorded on the sprayed areas five years following A Plant Species 1970 1976 E76]) 12.33 0.66 1.40 15.85 9.11 0.46 0.85 17.21 8.85 -- -- 47.56 51.84 1970 1976 (Continued). 2/ Lbs of Vegetation Produced Per Acre ComEosition spraying. E76 lbs/ac Change Due To S2rayin~ Confidence Level 4/ Percent1/ Where Significant- Shrubs (Continued) Quercus gambellii Ribes Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos albus Total Shrubs - 13.59 9.83 16.09 54.09 - 11. 01 63.50 61.13 20.73 --- 123.51 15.48 26.32 260.96 --- 622.83 723.42 - 100.58 - 13.90 1.92 19.03 206.57 11.18 23.20 263.01 109.91 5.65 10.23 206.86 --- --792.18 - I w Total All Plants -1/ Reflects the amount of forage ]j Derived through comparison on the control areas. 3/ Percent - ~/ Indicates changes 100.00 one would of sprayed 1661.27 100.00 expect to find on a treated and control the highest confidence level at which 1390.10 - 192.16 area after treatment areas with adjustments are only shown for the more abundant a.05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. 1197.94 for normal - had treatment '" lJ' 13.82 I not occurred. year to year changes in forage production recorded plants. changes due to spraying are significant. Only changes that are significant at the �Table 7 • Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining. Lbs of vegetation ~roduced Eer acre Percent com~osition 1/ E 73 - A A Plant species 1970 1973 1970 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 26.82 2.50 0.18 0.65 0.30 0.00 0.36 0.24 1.13 0.00 0.00 2.14 85.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 3.87 0.18 3.75 0.00 2.62 0.00 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.00 86.78 5.77 0.06 3.45 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 5.06 0.00 0.18 2.91 77.86 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.71 0.18 0.65 0.54 2.26 0.12 1.07 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.59 0.00 58.08 2.30 10.61 4.19 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.08 1.67 0.00 0.01 1.84 61.45 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.57 0.01 2.99 0.15 4.94 0.12 3.97 0.00 0.00 1.65 0.12 0.00 + 28.70 + 3.47 - 10.55 - 0.74 - 0.02 0.00 - 0.02 - 0.02 + 3.38 0.00 + 0.17 + 1.08 + 16.41 0.00 0.00 + 0.05 + 0.14 + 0.17 2.33 + 0.39 - 2.68 0.00 - 2.90 0.00 0.00 - 1.53 + 0.48 0.00 Change due to chaining ~ Confidence level percent Y \ where signifi cant !y -."-' Forbs AQhittea lanuio~a Ag~taQhe untiQi60lia AgMV1.M glauQa Allium aQum.tnlttum AmiJtMaQe Mp.te.n:tJUon~ Aqu.tleg-ta QoeJtuiea AJtabM MummoncU. AfW..bM IUM uta A~enania Qong~.ta AuemM-ta b.tennM Aue.mMia dJtaQunQui~ AuemM-ta ludov.tQ.{.ana M.teJt - EJUgeJto n M.tJW..gal~ haydeni ..an~ B~amoM.tza MgUtata BeJtbV1.M ~epe~ CaloQhou~ gunnMonil Cap~e.Ua buMa-p~.tow C~.t.tlleja lin~e6olia ChenopocU.um beJtlancU.~ C~.tum Qen.ta~eae. CoUom-ta line.aW ComandJta umbe.Uata Cymop.teJt~ p~p~e.~ Ve.lph.tnium nwoni Ve.lph.tnium oQQiden.tale V~ Q~a.tn.ta ~ 0 ph-ta VMpo~um ~aQhy~pwn 1.50 0.14 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.12 4.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.21 0.01 0.20 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 4.38 0.30 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.01 0.15 3.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.11 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 3.47 3.68 + 49.42 +150.75 .25 I w +202.28 .15 '-0 '" I + 58.80 + 26.71 .20 - - 54.29 - 73.02 �Table 7. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining Lbs of vegetation ~roduced ~er acre Percent com~osition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 lJ 1970 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 1.49 2.38 0.00 44.79 0.00 7.32 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.89 0.00 0.18 6.25 0.00 0.00 104.20 0.00 23.08 0.71 0.00 40.68 0.00 0.00 0.18 3.63 0.00 0.18 12.27 0.65 0.00 19.88 0.00 2.83 0.00 0.36 0.02 1.05 0.00 0.74 7.26 0.06 0.00 83.86 0.00 17.35 0.87 0.00 54.09 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.53 0.00 0.01 - 10.78 + 1.72 0.00 + 24.91 0.00 + 4.49 0.00 - 0.36 0.40 - 0.16 0.00 0.57 - 1.01 0.06 0.00 + 20.34 0.00 + 5.73 - 0.16 0.00 - 13.41 0.00 0.00 + 0.17 + 3.10 0.00 + 0.17 (contd). Change due to chaining ~ Confidence level percent 11 where significant 11 Forbs (contd) E.iUogonum umbilla;tum Ep~ob~um pa~culatum Fltaga.iUa amvUcMa Gallum GentIana heteJto~epala GeJtaMum Gilia aggltega,ta GJUnde£ia aphana~ Hacketia leptophiflta HueMum hoop~MHifdltophifltum capUa.tum Hifdltophifltum 6endlvU Iw m,u.,MuJUeM,u., Lactuc.a ~caJUola Lappula Itedow~W Lathiflt~ - V~ua Lep~~um deM~6loltum Ug~ticum Unum lw,u., MLomatium leptoc.altpum Lup~n~ altgei1teu,6 Madia glomeJtata Medic.ago ~ativa M~otu,6 o6Mu~ MeJtte~.(a 6JtanWc.Ma MeJ1;te~~a lMc.eo~ Moldav~ca paltv~MOIta 0.25 0.00 0.00 1.26 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.02 .0.08 0.16 0.00 0.06 0.41 0.00 0.00 5.20 0.00 1.21 0.05 0.00 5.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.12 0.00 2.21 0.00 0.36 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.32 0.00 0.00 5.02 0.00 1.10 0.04 0.00 2.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.19 0.00 0.01 1.19 4.82 1.00 3.20 4.52 0.00 0.00 22.96 0.00 6.25 0.00 0.30 1.37 2.91 0.00 1.01 7.26 0.06 0.00 96.77 0.00 22.60 0.95 0.00 93.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.00 - - 87.88 +125.31 +158.69 .25 I w \0 '-l I - 13.93 + 24.25 + 33.03 - 24.79 .15 �Table 7. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation Qroduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 11 1970 1973 E 73 lbs/ac 0.00 0.00 0.54 4.10 4.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.77 0.30 6.42 0.36 0.48 13.20 0.00 0.00 2.97 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.00 0.00 1.01 27.18 0.00 4.82 17.72 0.00 0.00 0.12 5.24 3.46 0.00 0.08 0.10 0.30 0.01 21.95 1.31 0.71 6.51 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.01 0.71 0.89 0.18 0.00 0.00 15.82 0.00 9.71 13.82 0.00 0.00 + 0.42 1.14 + 1.00 0.00 - 0.08 - 0.10 + 0.48 + 0.29 - 15.52 - 0.95 - 0.23 + 6.69 0.00 0.00 + 2.43 + 0.05 - 0.59 - 0.83 0.18 0.00 + 1.01 + 11.36 0.00 - 4.90 + 3.90 Change due to chaining ~ Confidence level percent '}j where significant 11 Forbs (contd) oenosheno: c.aupUo.6a Opun..Ua OlLthOC.MPM tuteU6 O.6mOJtlUza Pac.hMtima mYM).nUu Pe~c.~ g~ay). PeYl.6temonMandaUM.. PeYl.6temon.6~c.tM Phac.eUa hetVtophyUa Phlox tong).6ot).a PotemoMum 60U0.6M.6).mum Potygonum av).c.uiMe Potygonum dougta.6)')' Potentitta puic.h~a RanUYlc.uiU6).namoenM Rumex MM pM Rudbec.k).amontana Senec.).oamb~o.6).o)'du Senec.).o)'nteg~U6 Senec.).o.6 ~a Silene menz).u).). Smilac.).na.6teUata SoUdo.go .6paM).6toM SteUa.JUa SweJttio.Md).ata TMaXac.um o66).c.).nate Thili~um 6 endleJt). 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.33 0.68 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.01 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.23 0.98 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.20 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.33 0.02 0.02 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 1.32 0.00 0.24 0.84 0.00 0.00 0.12 6.13 12.91 0.00 0.36 0.18 0.30 0.00 2.44 1.31 0.12 5.47 0.00 0.00 1.55 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 7.79 0.00 4.16 18.14 - - 21.70 + 28.82 I w '"'coI - 70.73 +102.84 - + 71.77 - 50.41 + 28.25 .15 �Table 7 . Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 11 A 1970 1973 E 73 1bs/ac - 50.63 0.00 - 1.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 + 0.24 0.00 6.12 2.96 Change due to chaining EI Confidence level where significant ~ percent Y Forbs {contd} Tnagopogon dubium Tnagopogon pnateYiJ.>.u.. Umc.a. dio.a:a: ValeniMa. oc.uderU:al.M Venonic.a amenic.ana venonic.a biloba. V,[guiena mu£ti6.tona V,[o.ta nug u.tO-6a. V,[o.ta -6heV:onil WIje.tJua amp.te:Uc.a~ Total Forbs 0.10 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.02 0.22 0.91 0.12 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.03 0.08 0.62 1.78 0.00 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.43 0.30 4.04 17.13 2.44 0.00 3.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.49 0.59 1.72 13.26 53.06 0.00 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.59 7.84 16.23 -- -- -- -- -- 26.56 26.29 483.67 531 .91 21.00 0.18 0.00 2.74 3.63 0.36 0.00 1.13 0.12 0.00 12.85 - 95.40 + 18.79 - - 78.00 - 18.27 424.38 +107.53 + 25.34 1.22 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 1.05 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.17 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.66 0.55 21.89 0.00 0.00 3.98 0.36 0.65 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.00 9.13 0.01 0.00 2.22 7.61 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.54 0.00 0.06 + 11.86 + 0.17 0.00 + 0.51 - 3.98 + 0.35 0.00 + 1.12 - 0.42 0.00 + 12.79 +129.86 I w '"'" I Grasses Agnopynon Agnopynon c.wtatum Agnopynon intenmedium Bnomu.o MomalCk6 Bnomu.o inenm.u.. Bnomu.o tec.tonum Canex Dady.tCk6 g.tomeAa.ta Uljmu.o g.taUc.Ck6 F utuc.a avina F u,tuc.a thunbeni .10 + 23.10 �Table7. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant species 1970 1973 E 73 Jj 1973 E 73 1bs/ac 0.30 0.12 0.83 0.00 0.00 402.25 0.00 5.89 9.70 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 425.78 0.30 5.94 - 9.40 + 0.12 + 0.80 0.00 0.00 - 23.53 - 0.30 - 0.05 1970 Change due to chaining ~ Confidence level percent 11 where significant 11 Grasses {contd} Ho~deum b~aQhyanth~um Jun.QU6 ba£;t{.QU6 KoelvUa CJrM:ta:ta O~zyOP.6-W hymen.oJ.dv., Ph.teum pM:teYl.6 e Poa-C~ex gey~ Silan.J.on. hy/.):tJUx Supa 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.77 0.02 0.37 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 19.74 0.00 0.30 25.22 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 431.57 0.30 6.60 - 5.53 - 0.90 I .p- o Total Grasses 25.92 22.21 470.17 451.37 386.77 + 64.60 0.00 138.52 2.62 35.33 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.00 5.17 0.00 228.57 0.00 0.00 103.87 3.33 44.44 0.00 0.01 0.00 1.71 5.29 0.00 138.12 0.00 0.00 + 34.65 - 0.71 - 9.11 0.00 + 1.06 0.00 1.71 - 0.12 0.00 + 90.45 0.00 + 16.70 Shrubs AQ~ g.tab~um Amelan.QhJ.~ a.tn.J.6oUa Mte.mi..I.J-i.a Qan.a M:tem-i.6J.a :tJUden.:ta:ta C~QOQ~PU6 mon.:tan.u-6 CMY-60:thamn.U6 depM-6-6U6 Ch~y/.)o:thamn.U6 n.au-6ecs U6 CMy/.) oxhamnu» v-W ucLi.MMU6 C~egu-6 ~y:tMopoda Po pu1.u-6 :tftemu1.oJ.dv., P~UYl.U6v~gJ.n.J.ana PuM hJ.a ;0uden.:ta:ta 0.00 5.98 0.42 1.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.30 0.00 8.42 0.00 0.00 6.52 0.13 1.81 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.00 11 .19 0.00 5.86 7.91 0.00 111.58 7.49 34.91 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 5.29 0.00 154.88 0.00 - + 33.36 - 21.43 - 20.49 - 2.25 + 65.48 0 I �Table 7. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas two years following chaining (contd). Lbs of vegetation produced per acre Percent composition Plant speci es 1970 1973 E 73 Jj A 1973 E 73 1 bs/ac 432.22 0.00 37.77 185.51 325.24 0.00 59.45 216.11 +106.99 0.00 - 21.68 - 30.60 1970 Change due to chaining ~ 3/ Confidence level percent where signiflcant 11 Shrubs (contd) Quvr.c.uo gambellil TUbe;., ROM. ntdk.a.na. Sympho~c.~po~ albuo 17.81 0.00 2.40 10.18 20.54 0.00 1.89 9.11 18.64 3.57 12.68 331.82 0.00 43.54 185.45 + 32.89 - 36.47 - 14.16 -Total Shrubs 47.51 51.50 875.93 1066.79 899.95 +166.83 .20 + 18.54 .15 I -l>0 •.... Total All Plants 100.00 100.00 1829.77 2050.07 1709.99 +340.08 I + 19.89 1/ - Reflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated area following treatment had treatment not occurred. ~Derived through comparison of chained and control areas with adjustments on the control areas. 1/Percent for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. 1IIndicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to chaining are significant. a .05, .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only changes that are significant at the �Table 8. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas five years following chaining. Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant Species 1970 1976 , E 761/ - 1970 1976 E 76 1bs/ac 26.82 2.50 0.18 0.65 0.30 0.00 0.36 0.24 1.13 0.00 0.00 2.14 85.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.48 0.00 3.87 0.18 3.75 0.00 2.62 0.00 0.00 1.07 0.00 0.00 60.19 2.20 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00 4.10 46.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.20 0.54 3.63 0.12 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.24 0.00 47.31 1.51 0.18 1.18 0.02 0.01 0.59 0.01 2.58 0.01 0.01 1.84 52.61 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.53 0.12 2.55 1.37 5.66 0.00 0.01 0.62 2.08 0.01 +12.89 + 0.69 - 0.18 - 1.06 - 0.02 - 0.01 - 0.48 - 0.01 - 1.68 - 0.01 - 0.01 + 2.27 - 5.62 - 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.03 - 0.00 - 0.01 + 1.67 + 0.42 + 1.08 - 1.25 - 5.48 - 0.00 - 0.01 - 0.38 - 1.84 - 0.01 Change due to Chaining l/ Confidence level 4/ . 3/ percent where significant - Forbs Achillea lanulosa Agastache urticifolia Agoseris glauca Allium acuminatum Androsace septentrional is Aquilegia coerulea Arabis drummondi Arabis hirsuta Arenaria congesta Artemisia biennis Artemisia dracunculus Artemisia ludoviciana Aster-Erigeron Astragalus haydenianus Balsamorhiza sagittata Berberis repens Calochortus gunnisonii Capsella bursa-pastoris Castilleja linariaefolia Chenopodium berlandieri Cirsium centaureae Collomia linearis Comandra umbellata Cymopterus purpureus Delphinium nelsoni Delphinium occidentale Descurainia sophia tri.s porum trachycarpum _____ M. 1.50 0.14 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.12 4.78 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.21 0.01 0.20 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 5.24 0.20 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.33 4.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.05 0.33 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.00 3.07 3.50 • +27.24 +45.55 .,..I 0 N I +123.61 -10.69 +42.32 _ �Table 8. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas five years following chaining. Percent comEosition Plant Species Eriogonum umbellatum Epilobium paniculatum Fragaria americana Galium Gentiana heterosepala Geranium Gilia aggregata Grindelia aphanactis Hackelia leptophylla Helenium hoopesii Hydrophyllum capitatum Hydrophyllum fendleri Iris missouriensis Lactuca scariola Lappula redowskii Lathyrus-Vicia Lepidium densiflorum Ligusticum Linum lewisii Lomatium leptocarpum Lupinus argenteus Madia glomerata Medicago sativa Melilotus officinalis Nertensia franciscana Nertensia lanceolata Moldavica parviflora 1970 0.25 0.00 0.00 1.26 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.02 0.08 0.16 0.00 0.06 0.41 0.00 0.00 5.20 0.00 1.21 0.05 0.00 5.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 1976 0.02 0.13 0.00 3.10 0.00 0.49 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.01 0.00 2.78 0.00 1.35 0.11 0.00 2.09 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Eer acre E 76 J:j 1970 Forbs (Cont'd). 1.19 3.29 0.80 2.13 21 A 4.52 0.00 0.00 22.96 0.00 6.25 0.00 0.30 1.37 2.91 0.00 1.01 7.26 0.06 0.00 96.77 0.00 22.60 0.95 0.00 93.80 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 0.00 (Cont'd). 1976 E 76 1bslac 0.18 1.49 0.00 37.41 0.06 5.89 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 3.81 0.06 0.00 36.10 0.06 18.08 1.19 0.00 24.03 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 32.29 1.31 0.01 17.75 0.01 2.18 0.18 0.55 0.02 0.67 0.18 0.21 7.26 0.06 0.00 51.21 0.01 12.19 0.48 0.01 32.28 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.36 -32.11 + 0.18 - 0.01 +19.66 + 0.05 + 3.71 - 0.18 - 0.31 - 0.02 - 0.49 - 0.18 - 0.21 - 3.45 0.00 0.00 -15.10 + 0.05 + 5.89 + 0.71 - 0.01 - 8.25 + 0.11 0.00 0.00 + 0.07 - 0.01 - 0.36 Change due to Qhaining Confidence level 4 where significant _I percent 11 +110.76 .10 +170.12 .05 I -I"0 w I - 47.54 - 29.50 - 48.29 - 25.57 �Table 8. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas five years following chaining. Percent composition Plant Species Oenothera caespitosa Opuntia Orthocarpus luteus Osmorhiza Pachistima myrsinites Pedicularis grayi Penstemon crandallii Penstemon strictus Phacelia heterophylla phlox longifolia Polemonium foliosissimum polygonum aviculare polygonum douglasii Potentilla pulcherrima Ranunculus inamoenus Rumex crispus Rudbeckia montana Senecio ambrosioides Senecio integerrimus Senecio serra Silene menziesii Smilacina stellata Solidago sparsiflora Stellaria Swertia radiata Taraxacum officinale TlJalictrum fendleri 1970 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.33 0.68 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.01 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.23 0.98 1976 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.16 0.02 0.09 0.10 0.83 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.04 0.52 Lbs of vegetation produced per acre E 76 Y 1970 Forbs (Gont'd). 0.00 0.00 0.12 6.13 12.91 0.00 0.36 0.18 0.30 0.00 2.44 1.31 0.12 5.47 0.00 0.00 1.55 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 7.79 0.00 4.16 18.14 1976 E 76 1bs/ac 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.83 3.33 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.48 1. 78 0.24 0.95 1.19 9.28 0.00 0.00 2.85 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1. 72 0.00 0.54 6.96 0.01 0.18 0.12 2.41 10.86 0.71 0.17 0.38 0.30 0.65 4.88 1.31 10.61 5.47 0.01 0.01 0.14 0.01 0.71 0.01 2.12 0.01 0.00 5.55 0.12 5.46 5.57 - 0.01 - 0.18 + 0.54 - 1.57 - 7.53 - 0.71 - 0.17 + 0.28 + 0.18 + 1.13 - 4.64 - 0.36 - 9.42 + 3.81 - 0.01 - 0.01 + 2.72 + 0.05 - 0.65 - 0.01 - 2.12 - 0.01 - 0.00 - 3.83 - 0.12 - 4.93 + 1.38 (Cont'd). Change due to Chatnirtg~j 3/ Confidence level 4/ percent where significant - - 65.38 - 69.33 I .t:- o -l"- I + 69.57 - 68.93 .20 + 24.84 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation Percent Plant Species Tragopogon dubium Tragopogon pratensis Urtica dioica Valeriana occidentalis Veronica americana Veronica biloba Viguiera multiflora Viola rugulosa Viola sheltonii Wyethia amplexicaulis 1970 0.10 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.02 0.22 0.91 --Total Forbs 26.56 recorded 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.31 -24.33 areas five years following Lbs of vegetation produced per acr~ composition 1976 on the chained E 76 Y 1970 Forbs (Cont'd) 1. 78 0.00 4.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.43 0.30 4.04 17.13 Change E 76 1bs/ac 0.54 0.00 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.89 0.95 0.65 4.16 1.78 0.01 0.60 0.01 0.01 0.01 1.54 0.54 8.34 12.17 - 1.25 - 0.01 + 0.11 - 0.01 0.01 - 0.01 - 0.65 + 0.41 - 7.68 - 8.01 - 65.79 0.23 --- -- 483.67 290.25 290.92 - 0.67 16.59 1.49 0.00 6.66 0.42 0.59 1.01 4.70 0.36 0.00 12.73 0.94 0.01 0.00 1.98 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.65 0.00 0.19 +15.65 + 1.48 - 0.00 + 4.69 + 0.40 + 0.58 + 1.00 + 4.69 - 0.30 0.00 +12.54 (Cont'd). due to Ghaining 11 3 Confidence level 4 percent _I where significant _I 1976 --- chaining. I .I>- o Grasses Agropyron Agropyron cristatum Agropyron intermedium Bromus anomalus Bromus inermis Bromus tectorum Carex Dactylus glomerata Elymus glaucus Festuca ovina Festuca thurberi 1.22 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 1.46 0.13 0.00 0.58 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.40 0.03 0.00 1.16 21.89 0.00 0.00 3.98 0.36 0.65 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00 0.00 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +237.07 ------------------------------~-- U1 I �Table 8. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas five years following chaining. Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant Species Hordeum brachyantherum Juncus balticus Koeleria cristata Oryzopsis hymenoides Phleum pratense Poa-Carex geyeri Sitanion hystrix Stipa 1970 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 23.77 0.02 0.37 1976 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.08 15.68 0.05 0.62 A E 76 Y 1970 Grasses (Cont'd) 44.28 2.68 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 431.57 0.30 6.60 1976 E 76 1bs/ac 0.48 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.83 196.81 0.54 7.20 3.26 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 670.06 3.54 3.52 - 2.78 0.00 + 0.05 - 0.01 + 0.82 -473.24 - 3.00 + 3.68 (Cont'd). Change due to Chaining '!:./ Confidence level 4/ 3/ where significant percent - - 70.63 +104.39 .,..I 0 0I Total Grasses 25.92 470.17 20.40 250.46 477 .08 -226.62 0.00 110.15 3.93 39.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.48 0.00 157.67 0.00 0.01 125.77 3.75 70.69 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.79 5.29 0.01 197.43 0.00 - 0.01 -15.62 + 0.18 -31.50 0.00 - 0.01 - 0.00 - 0.79 + 1.19 - 0.01 -39.76 0.00 - 47.50 Shrubs Acer glabrum Amelanchier alnifolia Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus depressus Chrysothamnus nauseosus Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus crataegus erythropoda Populus tremuloides Prunus virginiana Purshia tridentata 0.00 5.98 0.42 1.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.30 0.00 8.42 0.00 0.00 8.19 0.36 3.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.00 12.89 0.00 7.99 12.53 0.00 111.58 7.49 34.9l 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 5.29 0.00 154.88 0.00 - 12.42 + 4.76 - 44.55 + 22.47 - 20.14 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �Table 8. Changes in production of air dry summer vegetation recorded on the chained areas five years following chaining. Lbs of vegetation Eroduced Eer acre Percent comEosition Plant Species Quercus gambellii Ribes Rosa nutkana Symphoricarpos albus 1970 17.81 0.00 2.40 10.18 1976 18.49 0.02 2.42 8.82 E 76 'y 1970 Shrubs (Cont'd) 12.79 3.29 12.22 A 331.82 0.00 43.54 185.45 1976 E 76 243.32 0.24 28.79 111.64 198.40 0.01 49.39 184.00 (Cont'd) . Change due to Chaining 1/ Confidence level 4/ percent 1/ where significant Ibs/ac +44.92 + 0.22 -20.61 -72.36 + 22.64 - 41.72 - 39.33 --Total Shrubs 47.51 55.27 875.93 701.42 799.90 -98.48 - 12.31 I ..., ---Total All Plants 100.00 100.00 1829.77 1242.13 1531.09 -288.97 ""0 I - 18.87 -1/ Reflects the amount of forage one would expect to find on a treated area after treatment had treatment not occured. 1/ Derived through comparison of sprayed and control areas with adjustments for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. -3/ Percent changes are only shown for the more abundant plants. i/ Indicates the highest confidence level at which changes due to spraying are significant. .10, .15, .20 or .25 level are shown. Only changes that are significant at the a.05, �-408Table 9. Two and 5 year changes recorded elk, deer and cattle forage. 1/ l/ 1/. in available seasonal air-dry Animal Season- Pre- to Post-treatment Forage Production Rati~/ Burning 6/ Spraying Chaining 2 yrs. 5 yrs. 2 yrs. 5 yrs. 2 yrs. 5 yrs. Elk Winter 1:0.64 1:0.74 1:1.01 1:0.85 1: 1. 24 1:0.75 Spring 1:0.84 1:0.60 1:2.09 1:0.72 1:1.21 1:0.61 Summer 1:0.80 1:0.62 1:1. 72 1:0.76 1:1.13 1:0.60 Fall 1:0.67 1:0.60 1: 1. 94 1:0.77 1:1.12 1:0.65 Winter 1:0.54 1:0.65 1:1. 02 1:0.98 1: 1. 23 1:0.98 Spring 1:0.59 1:0.52 1: 1.40 1:0.82 1:1.17 1:0.76 Summer 1:0.84 1:0.72 1: 1. 20 1:0.79 1: 1.18 1:0.82 Fall 1:0.66 1:0.78 1:1.l3 1:0.91 1: 1. 26 1:0.96 1:0.95 1:0.76 1:2.17 1:0.84 1:1. 24 1:0.70 Deer 4/ Cattle Summer l/ Table is based on the assumption that due to such factors as degree of plant maturity and snow cover, plant availability to elk and deer will consist of only shrubs during winter; grasses and shrubs during spring and fall; and forbs, grasses and shrubs during summer. Data in this table are based on measurements made during summer. l/ Classification of study area plants as elk and deer forage was based on the average relative consumption of those plant species eaten by elk in 48 food habits studies and by deer in 99 food habits studies reported in the literature (Kufe1d 1973; Kufe1d, Wa11mo and Feddema 1973). 1/ Plants considered cattle forage are those classified as "desirable" and "intermediate" by the U. S. Forest Service, Region 2, Range Analysis Handbook for the foothill shurb, aspen weed, and mountain meadow vegetation types. -4/ Seasons: May; Summer Winter = December, January, February; Spring = March, April, = June, July, August; Fall = September, October, November. l/ The ratio of elk and deer forage produced before and after treatment adjusted for normal year to year changes measured on control areas. A single value for elk and deer forage was derived by weighting pounds per acre of "highly valuable" or "heavily eaten" forage by a factor of "3", "valuable" or "moderately eaten" forage by "2", and "least valuable" or "lightly eaten" forage by "1". A total weighted value was then computed. . d th roug h comparlson . . h ad·Justments -6/ D erlve 0 f treate d an d contro 1 areas Wlt for normal year to year changes in forage production recorded on the control areas. �Table 10. Elk use recorded 1/ Year- Block 1 on treated Control Block 2 areas one year before Ave. Block 1 and 2 and 5 years after burning, spraying Elk Density Per Sguare Mile Burn Block 1 Ave. Block 2 SEray Block and chaining. 2 Ave. Block 1 Chain Block 2 Ave. 1 yr. before 8.4 10.0 9.2 11.8 18.6 15.2 11.8 13.6 12.9 21.8 18.6 20.2 2 yrs. after 6.5 18.4 12.5 24.9 35.0 30.1 6.5 11.7 9.1 6.5 9.8 8.3 5 yrs. after 15.1 21.6 18.3 46.6 46.6 46.6 15.1 50.0 32.6 50.0 40.1 45.1 Change Before to 2 yrs. After % Change + 3.3 +14.9 - 3.8 -11.9 +36~; +98% -29% -59% ~I 0 -0 Change Before to 5 yrs. after % Change Change due to treatment, % Change Change due to treatment, due to treatment, % Change due to treatment, Before +31.4 +19.7 +24.9 +99% +207% +153% +123% + 9.4 - 8.4 -19.1 +45% -48% -70% +16.4 + 6.9 + 4.9 +54% +27% +12% 2/ to 2 yrs. After- Before Before + 9.1 to 2 yrs. After to 5 yrs. After Before to 5 yrs. After --J) Dates pellet plots were cleared and accumulated pellets subsequently counted treatment - 9-3-73 and 5-8-74; Five year post-treatment - 8-31-76 and 5-4-77. were: Pre-treatment - 9-3-70 and 5-5-71; Two year post- Jj Change in use due to treatment use computed by comparing the ratio of pre-treatment to 2 and 5 year post-treatment elk densities mile in the control areas with the pre-treatment to 2 and 5 year post-treatment elk densities per square Inile in the treated areas. per square I �Table 11. Deer use recorded 1/ Year- Block on treated 1 areas one year before Control Block 2 Ave. Block 1 and 2, 3 and 5 years after burning, Elk Density Burn Ave. Block 2 spraying Per S~u~a~r~e~M=i~l~e~ Spray Block 1 Block 2 and chaining. ~n~L__~---------- Ave. Block 1 wlain Block 2 Ave. 15.9 22.7 6.5 15.2 25.2 19.4 30.2 16.0 25.2 15.2 13.6 16.8 1 yr. before 13.5 7.4 2 yrs. after 16.7 9.8 18.4 4.9 15.0 15.0 16.6 19.1 16.6 21.5 11.6 20.2 6.0 23.2 17.1 17.1 27.9 20.0 19.3 15.5 18.6 40.3 3 yrs. after 24.1 28.4 18.5 26.5 17.6 24.2 21.6 13.5 20.0 25.9 21.6 33.3 5 yrs. after Change Before to 2 yrs. After - 1.0 - 8.5 - 6% -53% +11.9 - 4.3 11% +74% -27% + 1.5 + 9.9 + 8.2 - 1.8 +52% + 7% +62% - 9% - - 8.3 - 5.6 - 6% -53 % -25% +12.0 - 4.2 - 2.4 +75% -27% -11% +11. 4 + 9.7 +79% +67% - 0.3 - 6.0 0% -26% - 0.1 - 2.5 0% % Change Change Before to 3 yrs. After % Change Change Before to 5 yrs. After % Change Change due to treatment,· Before % Change due to treatment, Change due to treatment, Before Before % Change due to treatment, Change due to treatment, % Change to 2 yrs. Afte~/ due to treatment, After to 3 yrs. After Before Before to 2 yrs~ to 3 yrs" After to 5 yrs. After Before to 5 yrs '.After + 3.6 +17% .08 _1/ Data pellet plots were cleared and accumulated pellets subsequently counted were: Pre-treatment - 9-3-70 and 5-5-71; 9-3-73 and 5-8-74; Three year post-treatment - 9-6-74 and 5-30-75; Five year post-treatment - 8-31-76 and 5-4-77. ]j Change in use due to treatment was computed square mile in the control areas with Two year post-treatment by comparing the ratio of pre-treatment to 2, 3, and 5 year post-treatment elk densities per the ]Jre-treatment; and 2 and 5 year post-treatment elk densities per square mile in the treated areas. I .p. •..... 0 I - �Table 12. Cattle use of control and treated areas one year before and 2 and 6 years after burning, Cow Days Use/Acrell 2 yrs. After 11 Change in Cow Days UselAcre 1 yr. Before 1 yr. Before to 2 yrs. After to 6 yrs. After Unit Treatment 1 yr. Before 4 Control 0.0 3.0 2.2 + 3.0 + 2.2 6 Control 1.3 hl & 6 Control 0.7 4.8 ~ 1.1 +~ + 4.1 + 1.0 Burn 4.4 19.6 9.6 +15.2 + 5.2 7 Burn 31.7 12.:..9. +22.1 + 0.4 & 7 Burn ~ 7.0 25.7 9.8 +18.7 + 2.8 4 2 5 6 yrs. After spraying and chaining. Significance of Change from Control Areas at a .10 Level 1 yr. Before 1 yr. Before to 2 yrs. After to 6 yrs. After -~ Yes No I ~, Spray Spray 8.7 .lJl 7.4 1.3 - 1.3 - 7.4 10.9 5.2 +~ +~ + 3.3 - 2.6 0.0 -11.8 2 & 5 Spray 5.9 9.2 3.3 3 Chain 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8 Chain 18.3 8.7 6.5 - 9.6 3 & 8 Chain 11 Cow defecation 11 Post-treatment _ 11 rate is 11.5 chips per day as determined by Julander •.... •.... I Yes No No No (1955). data for all units have been adjusted for differential cattle stocking rates which existed one year before and 2 and 6 years after treatment. Data have also been adjusted for differences in stocking rates between 2 cattle allotments which comprise the study area. Units 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and a portion of 3 are in Buzzard allotment, and 2, 4 and the remainder of 3 are in Porter allotment. 11 Data for chained areas were not averaged. High creek water during the 2nd year, and difficulty for cattle in finding Unit 3 caused the absence of cattle in Unit 3 during the 2nd and 6th year after treatment, even though the area had been substantially improved for cattle by chaining. ��July, 1978 -413- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------~--~------------ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. 1 8 ----~~--~---------------Digestible Nutrient and Trace Mineral Content of Deer and Elk Forage Plants During Winter ----~~~~~~--~----~~~~~~~~--~~~---------- Period Covered: Personnel: Game Range Investigations W-101-R-20 April 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Roland C. Kufeld, Marilyn Stevens ABSTRAcr Nutrient and trace mineral levels were determined for 45 Gambel oak and 45 big sagebrush samples collected during January, 1976. Each species was collected from 45 sites throughout the western half of Colorado. Collection sites for each species represented 9 major areas of the state and 3 vegetation types. For Gambel oak the median crude protein level from the 9 areas is 5.2 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranges for 4.6 to 5.8 percent. For big sage the median crude protein level is 10.1 percent and the 95 percent confidence interval ranges from 8.8 to 10.6 percent. Medians and 95 percent confidence intervals for other nutrients and trace minerals are presented. ��-415- DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENT AND TRACE MINERAL CONTENT OF DEER AND ELK FORAGE PLANTS DURING WINTER Roland C. Kufeld P. N. OBJECTIVE To estimate the average digestible nutrient content values and degree of variation in digestible nutrient content of selected range forage plants during winter. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determine the degree of variation in digestible selected range forage plants during winter. nutrient content of INTRODUCTION Proper mangement of big game range requires knowledge of the nutrient content of existing forage plants. Nutrient content of forage species which make up the diet of an animal must be high enough to meet the animals minimum requirements. Evaluation of plant nutrient levels on an area of rangeland involves chemical analysis of each species of forage on the area, which is consumed by the animal being managed, to determine content of various nutrients and their degree of digestibility. Such an analysis is very time consuming and expensive. If a number of ranges were being evaluated the time and cost of a detailed analysis of each plant species on each range would be prohibitive. Evaluation of a number of ranges would be feasible only if it were possible to apply an average nutrient content value to each of the forage species encountered. Plant nutrient content levels are influenced by many factors including season of the year, climate, weather, altitude, light and soil constituents such as parent material, texture, depth, nutrient content, moisture and temperature (Laycock and Price, 1970). Cook and Harris (1950) concluded that "the nutrient content of forage is influenced by many interdependent factors and the result is the additive or mass effect of all factors operating simultaneously". Therefore, use of average nutrient content data in range evaluations will be feasible only if variation due to all factors is reasonably small. The purpose of this study is to determine if variation in nutrient content of individual range forage species growing under widely diversified conditions and in different geographical locations is small enough to permit use of average nutrient content values in range evaluations. This phase of the study considers nutrient content variation in 2 shrub species, Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii) and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Nutrient content of these species was measured during winter because that is considered the most critical time of the year for big game in Colorado. �-416- METHODS AND MATERIALS During January, 1976, five 70 to 100 gram, green weight, composite samples of two species, Gambel oak and big sagebrush were collected from 9 widely separated areas throughout the western half of Colorado, but within the normal winter range of deer and elk. The 5 collection sites within each major area were widely separated geographically, but were situated within the same vegetation type. Vegetation types and major areas of the state where oak and big sagebrush samples were collected are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Major areas within Colorado where winter samples of Gambel oak and Big Sagebrush were collected. Vegetation type where collections were made . . Gambel oak Collections Big Sagebrush Collections Ponderosa pine Big Gambel Gambel oak Pinyon-Juniper Gambel-oak Sagebrush Pinyon-juniper oak _ 1 Steamboat Sp.-Hayden Meeker-Rifle Denver Castlerock Craig Piceance Strawberry Steamboat Sp-HaydenMeeker 2 SiltCarbondaleEagle Naturita Durango Pagosa Sp. Middle Park Naturita SiltCarbondaleEagle 3 DoloresMancos Colo. SpCanyon City LaVeta Rye Gunnison Cortez Durango Black CanyonPaoniaCedaredge Oak collections consisted of current annual growth stems with leaves and acorns excluded. Big sagebrush collections consisted of current annual growth stems with leaves attached but seed stalks excluded. Samples of big sagebrush were sealed in plastic bags, refrigerated immediately upon collection and frozen as soon thereafter as possible to minimize vaporization of essential oils which may result in unrealistically high digestion coefficients. ~Or[lOnor II[~ l~rn~lLW~ aIr Oll~~lD ~r~[~1r~lln~ 'n I J , 1a p fi ITil analyzed in the Division of Wildlife Research Laboratory. Samples were analyzed to determine content of the following nutrients and trace minerals: Total cell contents, crude protein, ether extract, soluble ash, soluble carbohydrate, total cell walls, acid insoluble ash, lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc (Harris 1970; Adrian 1973). The remaining portion of each samples was retained for determination of digestible dry matter and digestible ~nergy. That analysis has not yet been completed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Median values and 95 percent confidence intervals for nutrient and trace mineral content in Gambel oak and big sagebrush collected during January throughout the western half of Colorado are presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4. �-417- Table 2. Medians, 95 percent confidence intervals and non-parametric tolerance levels for nutrient content in Gambel oak collected during January throughout Colorado.ll Nutrient Dry matter content Percent Content in Plant MeClian 95% ConfiClence Interval 64.20 Non-parametric Lower I Bound For 70% Point 1 62.80 - 65.80 62.00 CELL CONTENTS Protein 5.20 4.60 - 5.30 4.60 Soluble Carbohydrate 27.21 26.05 - 30.73 25.31 Ether Extract 3.90 2.87 - 4.76 2.38 Soluble Ash 4.06 3.72 - 4.21 3.71 Total Cell Contents 39.72 38.65 - 43.56 38.62 CELL WALLS Lignin 23.98 22.11 - 26.02 20.98 Hemicellulose 10.26 7.73 - 11. 78 6.97 Cellulose 24.35 22.03 - 26.69 18.43 Holocellulose 33.95 33.01 - 36.19 30.21 Insoluble 0.61 0.49 - 0.86 0.32 60.28 56.44 - 61.35 54.64 Ash Total Cell Walls 1/ - Data are based on collections of 5 samples from widely within each of 9 major areas throughout Colorado. separated locations l/This represents the lowest 5 sample mean value collected from the 9 major areas. One can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area mean nutrient values encountered in Colorado, during January, would exceed the minimum value listed for each nutrient. �-418- Table 3. Medians, 95 percent tolerance levels for nutrient throughout Colorado.11 Nutrient Dry matter content confidence intervals and non-parametric content in Big Sage collected during January Percent Content in Plant Median 95% Confidence Interval 53.00 Non-parametric Lower Bound For 70% Poin~1 51.60 52.40 - 55.00 CELL CONTENTS Protein 10.10 8.80 - 10.60 8.60 Soluble Carbohydrate 43.28 40.03 - 46.32 39.92 Ether Extract 5.38 4.74 - 6.12 3.82 Soluble Ash 4.32 4.07 - 4.43 4.02 Total Cell Contents 62.71 60.61 - 64.97 / 59.30 CELL WALLS Lignin 11.84 11.40 - 12.41 11.35 Hemicellulose 6.50 6.19 - 6.84 5.98 Cellulose 18.48 16.49 - 20.50 16.08 Holocellulose 25.62 22.99 - 27.10 22.86 Insoluble Ash 0.25 0.20 - 0.49 0.14 Total Cell Walls 37.29 35.03 - 39.39 34.46 II - Data are based on collections of 5 samples from widely separated within each of 9 major areas throughout Colorado. locations l/This represents the lowest 5 sample mean value collected from the 9 major areas. One can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area mean nutrient values encountered in Colorado, during January, would exceed the minimum value listed for each nutrient. �-419- Table 4. Medians, 95 percent confidence intervals and non-parametric tolerance levels for mineral content in Gambel oak and big sage collected during January throughout Colorado.ll Plant Trace Mineral Content in Plant (PPM) Median 95% Confidence Oak Calcium 6240 Copper 10 9 - 10 9 Iron 66 48 - 72 46 1620 Big Sage 1/ Interval Non-parametric Lower Bound for 70% Pointl/ 5440 - 6760 5200 Magnesium 1920 1660 - 2140 Manganese 200 118 - 390 88 Phosphorus 230 180 - 260 170 Potassium 7680 7280 - 7920 6800 Sodium 76 48 - 88 46 Zinc 30 24 - 32 24 3000 - 3680 2920 Calcium 3360 Copper 16 10 - 18 7 Iron 128 108 - 178 108 Magnesium 1160 980 - 1320 880 Manganese 38 36 - 42 34 Phosphorus 490 430 - 530 430 Potassium 10120 9280 -10680 8960 Sodium 90 84 - 102 66 Zinc 26 20 - 29 18 - Data are based on collections of 5 samples from widely within each of 9 major areas throughout Colorado. separated locations llThis represents the lowest 5 sample mean value collected from the 9 major areas. One can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area mean mineral values encountered in Colorado, during January, would exceed the minimum value listed for each mineral. �-420- Analysis of variance shows significant differences at the 5 percent level among vegetation types, among areas, and among areas within vegetation types for most nutrients in both oak and big sagebrush. Nutrient content in big sagebrush was generally more variable than in oak. Even though these significant differences occur, the actual differences are relatively small (Tables 2 and 3). For oak the median crude protein level from the 9 major areas was 5.2 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranged from 4.6 to 5.3 percent. For big sagebrush the median crude protein level was 10.1 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranged from 8.8 to 10.6 percent. The data reflect relatively little mid-winter variation from one locality to another in content of any of the nutrients for Gambel oak and big sagebrush (Tables 2 and 3). I Plant content of some trace minerals was fairly uniform while others were more variable (Table 4). Trace mineral content might be expected to be more variable than nutrient content due to local soil concentrations of certain minerals throughout the state. One-sided non-parametric tolerance intervals can be applied to further minimize the decision-making error incurred in projecting nutrient and trace mineral levels based on average values (Dixon and Massey, 1969). It is desirable that nutrient and trace mineral levels be underestimated rather than overestimated to avoid overestimation of the ability of the range to supply the minimum needs of grazing animals unless a particular trace mineral is toxic above certain levels (i.e. lead selenium). This could lead to overstocking. One-sided non-parametric tolerance intervals permit determination of the portion of the overall population of nutrient and trace mineral values that could possibly be encountered for a given species, which, with 95 percent confidence, exceeds the smallest sample value. For example, using the sample means, which range from 4.6 to 5.4 percent crude protein from the 9 areas where oak was collected, one can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area crude protein values encountered in Gambel oak in Colorado during January would exceed the minimum value of 4.6 percent. By using the minimum value a manager could, therefore, be reasonably sure his estimate of protein production is on the conservative side. One sided non-parametric tolerance intervals for nutrients and trace minerals in Gambel oak and big sagebrush are presented in Tables 2, 3, and 4. LITERATURE CITED Adrian, W. J. 1973. A comparison of a wet pressure digestion method with other commonly used wet and dry-ashing methods. Analyst 98:213-216. Cook, C. Wayne, and Lorin E. Harris. 1950. The nutritive value of range Utah forage as affected by vegetation type, site and state of maturity. State Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. No. 344. 45pp. Dixon, W. J., and F. J. Massey, Jr. 1969. Introduction analysis. McGraw-Hill, 3rd ed. 638pp. to statistical �-421- LITERATURE Harris, L. E. animals. CITED (Cont'd) 1970. Nutrition research techniques for domestic and wild Pub. by Lorin E. Harris, 1408 Highland Dr., Logan, Utah. Vol. 1. Laycock, William, A., and Donald A. Price. 1970. Factors influencing quality. In: Range and wildlife habitat evaluation - a research symposium. USDA For. Servo Misc. Pub.No. 1147. pp.37-47. Prepared by f<~ o . "J C' %"'~r 1 /M ' J!j<.', /1..-6-.--t('(,.·uJ~ I , .." Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher . forage � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/77501744bfc696c67c062dac63dfcbe2.pdf 88c2a4710999b65bc15ade85b7f54208 PDF Text Text October 1978 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLOP~O --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Migratory W-88-R-23 Bird Investigations 1 J~ ~. ---------------------------------- 1 Waterfowl Production Surveys ------------------------------~-------------------------------------- Period Covered: April 21, 1977 to June 30, 1978 Personnel: M. Nail and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; J. Creasy and G. Deutsher, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge; F. N. Folks, C. Jensen, and C. Solace, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; S. Petersburg, and J. Alston, Dinosaur National Monument; M. Strong, Bureau of Land Management; S. Bissell, R. Clark, D. Denny, H. Donoho, J. Ellenberger, J. Frothingham, J. Lorentzson, T. Rauch, W. Russell, G. Saville, R. Velarde, R. Weldon, B. Widhalm, S. Steinert and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Water conditions for waterfowl were far below average for duck production in all areas except North Park and Brown's Park. Reliable duck breeding pair estimates were obtained in only two of the six trend areas in 1977, Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. The post-nesting season population of 1,872 in northwest Colorado was 20 percent above the 1976 level, primarily because of excellent production on the Green River. Canada goose (Branta canadensis) production in north-central Colorado was 13 percent below the 1976 level but about average. An aerial survey on the White, Roaring Fork, Colorado and Gunnison rivers totaled 418 adult geese. Aerial counts of nesting Canada geese in the San Luis Valley resulted in an estimate of 100 breeding pairs, exclusive of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge. ��-3- WATERFOWL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak Steven F. Steinert P.N. OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the number of duck breeding pairs, by species, on selected major waterfowl nesting areas in Colorado. 2. To estimate the number of goose breeding pairs, and in some cases, obtain production data on selected goose nesting areas in Colorado. 3. Compile data and submit reports to appropriate state personnel and federal agencies for use in establishing hunting season recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the number of duck breeding pairs, by species, San Luis, Cache 1a Poudre, South Platte and Yampa Valleys, North Park and Brown's Park. 2. To estimate the number of goose breeding pairs in the San Luis Valley and west-central Colorado and obtain goose breeding pair and production data on the Yampa, Little Snake and Green Rivers in northwest Colorado and in north central Colorado. 3. Compile data and submit appropriate METHODS in the and in reports. AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pair and production surveys consist of a breeding pair inventory of only major production areas. The 1977 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 9 to June 30. Surveys in North Park and the Cache 1a Poudre and South Platte valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 21 to June 15. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates of north central Colorado were obtained from counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which the birds were flightless. Population estimates in west-central Colorado were estimated from aerial surveys. �In the San Luis Valley a survey of expected productive breeding pairs was conducted by flying transects in defined sample blocks as described by Lowry (1974). Four evenly-spaced transects were flown in each 1 x 3 mile selected sample block on the Rio Grande and Conejos rivers, while a simple total count was conducted in sample blocks containing ponds or lakes, only. Each selected section was flown with both fixed-wing and helicopter aircraft and the results compared. All fixed-wing flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft and the helicopter flying with a Bell 47G3B. Two observers were used in sampling by transects with the fixed-wing aircraft while one observer was used for the helicopter flights. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A winter snow pack much less than normal resulted in water conditions considered far below average for duck production in most areas. The San Luis Valley entered into its fourth consecutive dry year. Only North Park and Brown's Park approached average conditions. Extremely heavy rains in mid-May in the South Platte Valley produced local flooding and nest destruction. Reduced water flows in the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers resulted in a reduced number of islands for goose nesting and increased predation of established nests. In north central Colorado many of the reservoirs were not filled and many nesting structures on those areas were not occupied at a normal rate. In spite of mild weather in early spring, goose nesting chronology was later than normal throughout most of the state. A variety of mechanical failures compounded by unrealistic mathematical projections resulted in the decision not to compute duck breeding pairs estimates for the four major trend areas: San Luis Valley, North Park, South Platte Valley, and Cache la Poudre Valley. Unrealistic visibility rates probably resulted from abnormally small sample sizes of some species on air-ground comparison transects in the San Luis Valley. The North Park data were affected since San Luis Valley visibility rates are applied to North Park data. Recorder failures eliminated the South Platte and Cache la Poudre data. Usable data were collected in the Yampa River Valley and Brown's Park (Table 1). A post-nesting season population of 1,872 Canada geese was estimated in trend areas in Moffat County in northwest Colorado (Table 2). Both total estimated number of geese and gosling production were below 1976 levels along the Yampa and Little Snake Rivers (Tables 3 and 4). In contrast, total geese and gosling production on the Green River were above 1976 levels, particularly in Dinosaur National Monument. Overall, both total geese and production remain above the lO-year average. Results of the 1977 Canada goose production survey in north central Colorado are presented by individual ~rea in Table 5. Gosling production was down from 1975 levels in all trend areas except Denver (Table 6). �-5- Table 1. Summary of Colorado's in selected areas, 1977. duck breeding ground population Percent Change From LongFrom term Average 1976 Total Est. Breeding Pairs Long-term Average J..I 1976 1977 Area San Luis Valley 34,759 27,855 North Parkll 16,535 17,115 South Platte Valley 10,062 6,773 Cache la Poudre Valley 6,927 3,662 estimates Yampa Valley 2,189 2,145 2,755 + 2.1 - 20.5 Brown's 1,009 593 1,147 + 70.2 - 12.0 71,021 59,307 Park Total 1/ San Luis Valley and North Park averages are based on results of 1964 through 1976 and 1968 through 1976 surveys, respectively, because of changes in survey methods utilized prior to those dates. Figures for other areas are 22 year averages. II Aerial counts corrected by species from visibility in the San Luis Valley. ratios obtained �-6- Table 2. Number of Canada geese observed Moffat County, Colorado, 1977. Nesting Pairs Area and estimated Non-nesting Adults Total Adults production, Estimated Goslings No. Total 1/ Birds Yampa River Craig-Juniper Springs 25 209 259 72 331 Juniper Springs-Cross Mountain 15 122 152 48 200 Lily Park 14 80 108 50 158 Subtotal 54 411 519 170 689 61 166 288 210 498 Dinosaur National Monument 50 105 205 249 454 Subtotal 111 271 493 459 952 22 l33 177 54 231 187 815 1,189 683 1,872 Green River Brown's Little Park Snake River Grand Total 1/ - Calculated nests. using average brood size observed and number of successful �-7- Table 3. 1977 . Total estimated number of Canada geese observed, Moffat Percent County, From 1976 Change From 1967-76 Average 1977 1976 1967-76 Average 689 690 565 0.1 + 21.9 Brown's Park 498 405 334 + 23.0 + 49.1 Dinosaur National Monument 1/ 454 211 326 +115.2 + 39.3 231 255 303 9.4 - 23.8 1,872 1,561 1~528 + 19.9 + 22.5 Area Yampa River Green River Little Snake River Total 1/ Not surveyed Table 4. until 1970. Estimated number of Canada goose goslings, Moffat County, 1977. Percent Change From 1967-76 From 1976 Average Area 1977 1976 1967-76 Average Yampa River 170 257 169 - 33.9 + Brown's Park 210 133 127 + 57.9 + 65.4 Dinosaur National Monument 1/ 249 104 117 +139.4 +112.8 Little Snake River 54 91 97 - 40.7 - 44.3 Total 683 585 510 + 16.8 + 33.9 0.6 Green River 1/ Not surveyed until 1970. �-8- Table 5. Results of the north central Colorado goose census, June 14 and 15, 1977. Production Area Wellington Subtotal Fort Collins Subtotal Water Area No. Broods Terry Lake Water Supply and Storage #4 Launer Pond Douglas Reservoir Stewart Pond North Poudre #1 1/ Dry Creek ReservoirNorth Poudre #2 North Poudre #5 Bureau of Standards Pond 111 Bureau of Standards Pond ft2 Divide fl8 Elder Reservoir Annex #8 1./ Van Sant Pond Cobb Lake Dale Pond Watson Curtis Lake 2 0 5 0 0 0 5 0 1 Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yearlings Total Birds 6 48 54 o 1 12 9 1 28 9 16 o o o 1 1 25 48 10 48 35 o 4 4 6 2 8 o o 26 26 o o o o 2]) 1 1 24 12 27 18 80 37 4 34 2 37 5 58 38 208 30 189 49 o o 26 181 12 109 49 21 215 615 830 Peterson Ponds 1 Herring Lake 3 Maxwell Pond 0 College Lake 5 Dean Acres 0 Claymore Lake 6 Sterling Gravel Pits 5 Lindenmeier Lake 0 Grey Lakes 10 Novak Reservoir 1 Winick Ponds 3 Flatiron Gravel Pits 1 Anderson's Pond 4 4 Parkwood Lake Kitchel Lake 10 Timnath Reservoir 0 Romi1y Gravel Pits 6 Fossil Creek Reservoir 10 1 Horseshoe Lake 3 Wolaver Ponds 3 18 2 2 6 5 28 33 171 8 71 106 97 68 3 17 6 45 31 70 18 37 61 6 20 73 288 613 901 3 4 44 10 33 153 8 50 88 97 24 1 2 11 6 o 18 o 21 18 o 4 2 10 15 35 16 26 18 16 19 44 o 21 42 4 14 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-9- Table 5. Results of the north central Colorado goose census, June 14 and 15,1977 (cont.). Production Area Loveland Water Area Flatiron Reservoir Boedecker Reservoir Flatiron Gravel Pits Big Thompson River McNeil Reservoir 1 5 1 7 Subtotal Boulder No. Broods Ish Lake Crystal Lake Terry Lake Faivre Ponds Rest Home Pond Valmont Reservoir Boulder Valley Farm Eddy Pond 1 Subtotal Denver Ketring Lake 14 Centennial Pond 0 Columbine Country Club 5 Chatfield Country Club 5 Bowles Lake 7 Kings Lake Tule Lake 2 Grant Reservoirs 5 Marston Reservoir Pinehurst Country Club 2 Clairfield Reservoir 11 Kendrick Lake 0 Federal Center 3 Sloans Lake 11 Standley Lake 4 Denver City Park 2 Colo. Blvd. & Quincy 0 Blackmer Reservoir 1 Mohn Estate 1 Reservoir No. 3 0 -Sub t o t a L Grand Total Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults & Yearlings Total Birds 7 34 22 3 59 1 41 10 2 128 8 75 32 5 187 125 182 307 5 2 19 27 19 22 36 8 19 167 21 98 64 10 13 7 38 194 40 120 100 16 21 142 394 536 51 59 25 14 20 89 97 47 18 35 51 110 25 41 6 o 27 29 26 38 7 49 115 135 54 o 39 14 214 12 24 48 17 7 40 35 46 61 97 39 23 284 21 30 48 20 8 40 357 924 1,281 1,127 2,728 3,855 17 11 10 43 o 9 70 9 6 o 3 1 54 1/ Geese located on pond 1 mile north of Dry Creek. 2/ Goose on nest. 3/ Geese located 1, mile north of Annex and ~ mile west of No.8. �-10- The number of adults observed increased only in the Wellington trend area (Table 7). The total number of adult geese observed was down for the second consecutive year and was considerable below the 8-year average. The aerial survey in west-central Colorado total 143 geese on the White River, 235 on the Colorado River, 18 on the Roaring Fork River and 22 on the Gunnison River (Table 8). The total number of birds counted in 1977 was much higher than in 1976, however, the count date was quite different; March 31, 1976 and May 9, 1977. A particular count period has not yet been selected for the west-central survey. The 1976 survey was flown too early and the 1977 survey too late. The estimated number of Canada goose breeding pairs in the San Luis Valley in 1977, exclusive of the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, increased over 1976 levels (Table 9). Estimates obtained from both helicopter and fixed-wing counts were essentially equal. �-11- Table 6. Number of Canada goose goslings production trend areas, 1977. produced in north central Colorado No. of Goslings 1969-1976 1976 Average Percent Change From From 1969-1976 1976 Area 1977 Wellington 215 278 261 - 22.7 - 17.6 Ft. Collins 288 401 285 - 28.2 + Loveland 125 144 93 - 13.2 + 34.4 Boulder 142 162 225 - 12.3 - 36.9 Denver 357 304 284 + 17.4 +25.7 Total 1,127 1,289 1,148 - 12.6 - 1.8 in north central Colorado Table 7. Number of adult Canada geese observed production trend areas, 1977 . No. of Adults 1969-1976 Average 1976 1.1 Percent Change From From 1969-1976 1976 Area 1977 Wellington 615 555 749 + 10.8 - 17.9 Ft. Collins 613 653 703 6.1 - 12.8 Loveland 182 291 229 - 37.5 - 20.5 Boulder 394 430 619 8.4 - 36.3 Denver 924 995 1,265 7.1 - 27.0 Total 2,728 2,924 3,565 6.7 - 23.5 �-12-- Table 8. West central Colorado Area Canada goose breeding Singles pair survey 1977. Total 1977 1976 Pairs Groups Goslings 3 5 19 0 32 9 Rio Blanco L. - Rangley 11 24 37 4 9J=.! 36 RangleY-Utah 1 3 8 0 15 2 15 32 64 4 1431) 47 0 3 0 0 6 Silt-DeBeque 8 20 83 0 l3l DeBeque Palisade 5 8 0 0 21 Palisade-5th 0 2 14 0 18 2 7 43 4 15 40 140 4 23s-!-1 134 2 6 4 0 18 25 Hotchkiss-Delta 0 0 0 0 0 Delta-Grand 0 11 0 0 22 Subtotal 0 11 0 0 22 6 Grand Total 32 89 208 8 4181/ 212 White River Meeker-Rio Blanco L. Line Subtotal Colorado River Glenwood Springs-Silt St. Bridge 5th St. Bridge-Utah Line Subtotal 59!:.! Roaring Fork River El Jebel-Glenwood Springs Gunnison River Junction II Does not include goslings observed. �-13- Table 9. Results of the San Luis Valley Canada goose breeding survey, 1975-77. Nesting Pairs Year pair Projected Total Number Grouped Birds Non-nesting Pairs 1975 59 59 110 Helicopter 92 63 64 Fixed wing 77 69 30 Helicopter 100 101 130 Fixed wing 100 91 97 Helicopter 1/ Fixed wing- 1976 1977 1/ F;xed w;ng . 1e te. ~ ~ counts 1ncomp Prepared £L ·7YlMLR2~ by Michael R. SZym~a Wildlife Researcher C .J/;;..(l!J.U ? Steven F. SteInert Wildlife Technician II ��October -15- JOB PROGRESS State of 1978 REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Work Plan No. Job Title 2 Job No. Studies of Canada Goose Populations Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-23 Project No. Bird Investigations 6 in Colorado Transplant _ Areas April 1, 1977 to March 31, 1978 M. Conner, J. Corey, W. Dolezal, D. Flenthrope, D. Hopper, J. Lorentzson, R. Oakleaf, R. Velarde, and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACl' A record number of 300 Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded outside Colorado were reported recovered within north central Colorado dUYing the 1976-77 hunting season. Bantry No. 2 Reservoir in southern Alberta was added to the list of production areas contributing geese to the harvest in north central Colorado. A significant number of wild trapped local geese from the Edmonton-Camrose area represents further evidence that restoration flocks in that vicinity are producing geese which winter in north central Colorado. A total of 582 geese were banded on production areas in north central Colorado, while only 37 were banded in the San Luis Valley. ��-17- STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT Michael AREAS R. Szymczak P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To document the breeding central Colorado. range of Canada 2. To document the distribution of harvest and estimate the survival rate of the resident foothills Canada goose population. 3. To document the distribution the San Luis Valley. SEGMENT of harvest geese wintering of Canada in north geese nesting in OBJECTIVES 1a. Plot the banding locations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded outside north central Colorado and reported recovered in north central Colorado. b. Participate in the cooperative southern Alberta. 2a. Trap and band 500 Canada geese on production along the foothills north of Denver. and moulting b. Complete, cards. schedules 3a. Trap and band at least 200 Canada areas in the San Luis Valley. b. Complete, cards. Canada submit and file appropriate banding geese on production submit and file appropriate METHODS goose banding banding operation in areas and recovery and moulting schedules and recovery AND MATERIALS Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery location, sex, and age at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with north central Colorado. Banding of flightless adults and goslings was accomplished through drive trapping operations in southern Alberta, north central Colorado and the San Luis Valley of Colorado. The banding in Alberta was accomplished by representatives of state, provincial and federal conservation agencies including Colorado. �,...18- Banding schedules and recovery reports pertaining to the San Luis Valley and north central Colorado were completed and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. Record keeping for the Alberta operation was the responsibility of the Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hi-Line Population Foreign Recoveries During the 1976-77 hunting season a record 300 Canada geese banded outside of Colorado were reported recovered in north central Colorado (Table 1), of which 153 were classified as wild trapped locals when banded (Table 2). The third year of recovery information resulting from banding in southern Alberta indicated that Bantry No. 2 seems to produce geese that are members of both the Pacific Flyway Rocky Mountain population and the HiLine population. Six of 191 geese banded at Bantry in 1976 were recovered in north central Colorado. Geese from Bantry had been recovered predominantly in the Pacific Flyway in the past, with an occasional recovery in the Hi-Line area. A significant number of wild trapped locals from the Edmonton-Camrose area are beginning to appear in the north central Colorado harvest indicating that area is definitely becoming a Hi-Line production area. Nesting areas east of 1110 longitude in southern Alberta, Murray, Seven Persons, Cavan and Schuler continued to be represented in the north central Colorado harvest. A few birds were recovered that were supposedly banded at Scope Reservoir, however, conflicting information indicates those birds may not have been banded at Scope. Birds banded in Saskatchewan originated mostly, as in the past; from areas located in the three degree blocks (49-107, 49-108, 49-109) in southwestern Saskatchewan. Banding programs in that area have been terminated, therefore, the number of recoveries of birds from that area should be decreasing. Birds transported and released at Manito Lake and near North Battleford in east central Saskatchewan were also noted in the harvest in north central Colorado. Geese from Phillips County, Montana, a traditional Hi-Line breeding area were well represented in the harvest. In addition, birds banded along the Big Horn and Yellowstone Rivers in Treasure, Rosebud, Custer, Prairie, Dawson and Big Horn counties in Montana were reported taken in north central Colorado. Geese from restoration areas in Weston, Crook and Sheridan counties in northeast Wyoming were represented in the harvest. No other known production areas were represented in the north central Colorado harvest to any great extent. Geese banded at the Wheatland Reservoir moulting area in Albany County, Wyoming were again represented in the harvest, as were birds banded as moulters in the Liverpool Bay area in Mackenzie, Northwest Territory. The latter birds are small Ganada geese, persumably members of the shortgrass prairie population, banded by Dr. Tom Barry, Canadian Wildlife Service, incidental to the banding of white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons). �-19- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered north central Colorado during the 1976-77 hunting season. Area in Direct Indirect 14 0 0 6 3 0 5 10 3 0 16 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 9 1 11 0 4 2 3 3 3 1 4 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 5 0 6 5 1 1 2 1 0 20 3 5 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose-Vegreville Area Kenilworth Lake Dowling Lake Bantry 112 Scope Reservoir Grassy Lake Murray Lake Seven Persons Cavan Lake Many Islands Lake Schuler Lake Milk River Ridge Reservoir Twelve Mile Coulee Taber Lake Fincastle Lake Unnamed, E. of Scope Reservoir Louisiana Lake Bassano Area Saskatchewan Cypress Hills (Maple Creek) Cypress Hills Area Pontiex-Notukeu R. Vidora Area Battleford Area Manito Lake Area Val Marie-Frenchman River Area East of Quill Lakes Kiyiu Lakes Eastend Area Regina Area Mackenzie-Northwest Liverpool Territory Bay Area Smoke River Delta Harrowby Bay �-20- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in north central Colorado during the 1976-77 hunting season (continued). Direct Area Indirect Central Flyway Montana Phillips County Treasure County Garfield County Valley County Rosebud County Prairie County Custer County Big Horn County Dawson County 20 4 30 1 1 2 o 1 1 1 1 o 7 4 1 o 3 o o 2 o 1 o o o 1 6 3 4 North Dakota Adams County South Dakota Stanley County Wyoming Platte County Albany County Goshen County Crook County Weston County Sheridan County Fremont County 1 3 3 o o 1 1 o 2 o 2 4 2 3 o 5 Nebraska Perkins County Kansas Phillips County New Mexico Mora County San Miguel County Socorro County 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-21- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado of Canada geese recovered in north central Colorado during the 1976-77 hunting season (continued). Area Central Flyway Direct Indirect 1 1 o o 1 o 1 o 1 o 4 o 2 o o o 1 138 162 (cont.) Texas Randall County Deaf Smith County Mississippi 1 Flyway Minnesota Olmsted County Wisconsin Brown County Missouri Charito County, Swan Lake Pacific Flyway Utah Box Elder County Oregon Harney County Idaho Fremont County Oneida County Caribou County Total 1 1 �-22- Table 2. Banding locations locals which were recovered hunting season. of Canada geese classified as wild trapped in north central Colorado during the 1976-77 Year of Banding Before 1970 Area 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 7 9 3 1 5 Alberta Edmonton-Camrose Dowling Lake Area Bantry 112 Scope Reservoir Grassy Lake Murry Lake Seven Persons Lake Cavan Lake Many Islands Lake Milk River Ridge Reservoir Taber Lake Fincastle Lake Unnamed, E. of Scope Bassano Area 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 3 4 9 3 1 2 2 16 1 1 1 1 1 Saskatchewan Cypress Hills (Maple Cr.) Cypress Hills Area Pontiex-Notukeu R. Area Vidora Area 1 Val Marie-Frenchman River Area E. of Quill Lakes Eastend Area 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 Central Flyway Montana Phillips Co. Treasure Co. Custer Co. Big Horn Co. Rosebud Co. Dawson Co. 1 1 1 8 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 North Dakota Adams Co. 14 1 2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-23- Table 2. Banding locations locals which were recovered hunting season (continued). of Canada geese classified as wild trapped in north central Colorado during the 1976-77 Year of Banding Before 1970 Area Central Flyway 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 (continued) Wyoming I Fremont Co. Sheridan Co. Goshen Co. I I Pacific Flyway Utah 1 Box Elder Co. I Oregon 2 Harney Co. Idaho I Fremont Co. Oneida Co. Caribou Co. Total I I 2 I 2 8 9 28 35 68 Banding Banding was conducted for the fourth year on production areas in north central Colorado. A total of 582 geese were banded, bringing the four year combined total to 3,075 (Table 3). Geese were captured at 13 locations with 51.9 percent of the birds banded being goslings (Table 4). �-24- Table 3. Number of Canada geese banded on production central Colorado 1974-1977 . areas in north Year Adults Goslings Total 1974 751 315 1,067 1975 406 195 601 1976 357 468 825 1977 280 302 582 Table 4. Location and number, by age and sex, of Canada geese banded on production areas in north central Colorado, 1977. Location Males Adults Females Goslings Fema l.es Males Total 11 11 13 10 45 11 9 5 10 35 Faivoir Ponds 5 3 16 14 3~/ Johnson's 2 0 0 0 2 Grey Lakes 7 8 21 19 55 Cobb Lake 27 26 0 0 53 Rocky Ridge Reservoir 0 0 4 3 7 Fossil Creek Reservoir 9 10 14 20 53 No. 8 Annex 26 22 0 0 48 Stone Mtn. Studios 3 2 12 4 21 Kitchel Reservoir 5 7 17 16 45 McNeil Reservoir 24 13 41 39 117 Boedecker 17 21 10 14 62 147 132 153 149 582 Loveland Va1mont Total (Ready Mix) Reservoir Pit Reservoir 1/ Includes one adult of unknown sex. �-25- San Luis Valley Population The attempt to band Canada geese on production areas in the San Luis Valley in 1977 was essentially unsuccessful. A total of 37 birds were captured on three areas: Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, Sheep Pond and the Rio Grande Management Area. Thirty-three of the birds captured were goslings. We have been successful in reaching our quota of 200 birds in only one of four years (Table 5). Table 5. Numbers of Canada geese banded on production in the San Luis Valley, 1974-1977. and moulting areas Total Year Adults Goslings 1974 4 6 6 1975 14 5 19 1976 55 149 204 1977 4 33 37 Prepared by 71/.M'P k-'al Michael R. SzynlC Wildlife Researcher C ��October -27- JOB PROGP~SS State of 1978 REPORT COLORADO ------~~~~~--------- Project No. Migratory W-88-B-23 9 Job No. 2 Monitor Banding of the Shortgrass Prairie Canada Goose Population in Southeastern Colorado ~~~~------------------------- Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Bird Investigations January 23, 1978 through March 31, 1978 B. Dupire, M. Elkins, G. Nugent, M. Potter, E. Prenzlow, J. Slater, J. Stevenson, M. Szymczak, J. Tanke and K. Wagner. ABSTRACT The trapping and banding effort directed at Canada geese (Branta canadensis) in southeast Colorado resulted in 237 birds being banded~ The distribution of harvest through the 1976-77 hunting season of Canada geese banded in southeastern Colorado indicated the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and the state of Colorado continue to be the major harvest areas. ��-29- MONITOR BANDING OF THE SHORTGRASS PRAIRIE CANADA GOOSE POPULATION IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak P. N. OBJECTIVE To continually document, through monitor banding and analysis of recovery data the annual and long term status of the southeastern Colorado (Arkansas Valley) segment of the shortgrass prairie Canada goose population. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Band a m~n~mum of 1,000 Canada geese in southeastern post-season period. Colorado 2. Prepare and submit banding and progress reports. and return reports, 3. Analyze band recovery data for geese banded in southeast Colorado to determine (1) distribution of harvest, (2) recovery rate, and (3) survival rate. schedules, band recovery during the METHODS AND MATERIALS Trapping and Banding All birds banded in southeast Colorado in 1978 were captured with baited cannon nets, and the age and sex determined through cloacal and tail feather examination. All banding schedules, including recapture information, were submitted to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Bird Banding Laboratory, Patuxent, Maryland. Because of work schedule conflicts, banding and recovery tapes were not requested from the Bird Banding Laboratory. Information on the distribution of harvest was obtained from computer printouts that are provided periodically by the Bird Banding Laboratory. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping crews again encountered the same difficulties in 1978 that were present the previous year. Two Buttes Reservoir, the primary trap site, was not being used by large numbers of Canada geese, probably because of low water levels. Permission to trap at Turk's Pond, the major roosting site, could not be obtained. Trapping efforts were moved to Nee Noshe Reservoir, located about 45 miles north of Two Buttes Reservoir. Trapping efforts at Nee Noshe resulted in the capture and banding of 237 geese: 101 adult males, 23 immature males, 83 adult females and 29 immature females. �-30- Distribution of Harvest The recovery distribution of shortgrass pralrle geese banded in southeastern Colorado (Table 1) has not changed significantly since the information was summarized through the 1972-1973 season (Szymczak 1974). The major change of note has been the steady increase in the percent of shortgrass birds taken in the Hi-Line population area in north central Colorado. The major harvest areas are still the provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta, and Colorado. The Nebraska and Texas Panhandles remain as harvest areas of note but the percent of take in Nebraska fluctuates considerably. LITERATURE CITED Szymczak, M. R. 1974. Arkansas Valley Canada goose flock management studies. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 55-87. Prepared by 21U.J1?~ Michael R. Szymczak Wildlife Researcher C �Percentages Table 1. of total band recoveries, 1951-55 Area Arkansas Valley post-season Five Year Averages 1966-70 1961-65 1956-60 bandings, by area and year of recovery, Recover;t:Year 1974-75 1973-74 1971-75 1971-72 1972-73 0.5 2.4 0.5 3.3 2.8 4.2 1.4 8.5 0.4 5.3 1.3 7.1 0.9 7.9 17.6 16.9 16.0 14.7 1.3 19.1 17.3 2.2 1.8 Far North Above 530 N.W. Territories Alberta Saskatchewan Total Provinces - - - 9.8 7.1 10.2 9.1 1.0 5.0 0.8 6.8 28.6 18.3 0.1 35.3 10.5 28.9 11.5 19.0 21.8 0.8 15.6 18.1 0.6 11.9 21.8 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.7 0.1 5.4 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.3 5.8 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.3 6.3 1.3 0.1 1.2 0.5 5.0 1.9 1.0 1.4 - - Below 530 Alberta Saskatchewan B.C., Manitoba, Ontario Central F1;t:wa;t: Montana North Dakota Wyoming South Dakota Nebraska Colorado Southeast and Other North Central Total Kansas Oklahoma New Mexico Texas Panhandle Waggoner Ranch Gulf Coast Total Pacific Fl;t:\vay MississiEEi F1ywa;t: Mexico Total Number Of Recoveries 6.5 5.2 8.8 all bandings. 1975-76 1976-77 Total Number Recoveries 0.9 8.6 0.9 10.4 1.3 4.4 0.6 6.3 333 8.6 16.2 21.6 0.9 17.6 19.5 0.6 967 644 10 25.0 16.7 0.3 28 5 26 11 226 0.7 0.1 0.7 0.3 5.8 0.6 0.7 10.6 2.7 0.4 2.2 0.9 0.9 5.1 37.8 5.8 43.6 1.8 0.9 27.4 7.3 34.7 0.9 1.9 8.2 26.8 6.4 33.2 0.9 3.7 2.7 27.7 7.5 35.2 1.9 0.6 1.9 31.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 44.6 1.9 46.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 24.6 5.6 30.3 4.6 1.5 0.5 6.6 5.5 1.2 0.8 7.5 5.6 1.0 0.6 7.2 2.4 1.0 5.3 1.3 7.8 0.9 6.4 0.9 5.7 1.3 3.4 8.5 0.7 2.8 12.0 6.7 8.7 7.3 7.0 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.4 1.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 - - - - 25.5 0.4 0.9 1.5 30.9 0.3 0.3 0.7 28.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 2.3 2.0 0.8 5.1 2.8 2.2 0.2 5.2 2.4 2.2 0.1 - 1.4 0.7 - 1.8 0.9 0.6 0.9 1,218 18 29 37 677 770 712 799 211 142 225 113 108 159 31.5 0.5 0.8 1.0 166 56 21 248 . 4.3 1.4 0.5 6.4 59 1.5 5 0.1 1 0.02 0.1 748 I w •.... I 34.3 5.1 39.4 0.9 0.1 0.6 - % of Total Recoveries 3,865 ��-33- JOB PROGRESS October REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-23 1978 Bird Investigations 7 Job No. 3 Population Characteristics of Mallards Wintering in West Central Colorado --------------------------------- April 1, 1977 to March 31, 1978 G. Bock, J. Corey, J. Ellenberger, J. Frothingham, J. Gray, J. Gumber, J. Leslie, D. Miller, J. Miller, S. Steinert, M. Stone and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT The fifth consecutive year of the study of wintering mallards in west central Colorado was completed during Segment 23. The aerial survey in January yielded an estimated winter population of 13,860 birds, considerably less than the two previous two years but equal to the long-term average. Ground counts of nearly 5,300 birds produced a sex ratio of 114.5 males:lOO females. This ratio was higher than those of 99.2:100 and 107.5:100 obtained in 1976 and 1977, respectively. Almost 2,400 mallards were banded during the postseason period in 1978, bringing the total banded sample to 8,352 for the five years of study (1974-1978). Only 271 recoveries have been received from these bandings through March 1, 1978, which actually represents less than four complete years of recovery information. Between 57 and 68 percent of these recoveries, depending upon age and sex class, occurred in the western portion of Colorado. Canada, Idaho and Utah were the locations for most of the remaining recoveries. ��-35- POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MALLARDS WINTERING IN WEST CENTRAL COLORADO Richard M. Hopper This report presents results of the fifth consecutive year of study of the mallard population wintering in west central Colorado. Included is a summarization of all data collected since initiation of this investigation during the 1973-74 Segment year. PROGRAM NARRATIVE OBJECTIVE 1. To estimate population parameters of mallards wintering in west central Colorado by age and sex category; specifically (1) population size, (2) recovery rates, (3) survival rates, (4) mean life span, (5) sex ratio, and (6) geographic distribution of the harvest. 2. To develop a management plan for the population in west central Colorado. of mallards wintering SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Conduct an aerial count of wintering numbers of mallards during the first or second week of January as part of the annual mid-winter survey conducted throughout the United States. 2. Conduct a minimum of two ground counts (sex ratio) of 500 mallards each in each of the following two concentration areas: (1) Grand Junction-Highline Lake area, and (2) Montrose-Delta area. 3. Trap and band 1,500 mallards during the post season period, including 750 in the Grand Junction-Highline Lake area, and 750 in the MontroseDelta area. Distribute the sample equally among the four age and sex classes. 4. Preparation and submission of banding return reports, and progress reports. schedules, band recovery and METHODS AND MATERIALS All procedures remained essentially the same as in Segment 22 (Hopper 1977) The aerial count was made on January 9, 1978 and involved flying over all known waterfowl concentration areas in the Uncompahgre-Gunnison-Colorado River Complex of west central Colorado. Personnel of the Northwest Region again conducted the count, utilizing a Cessna 185 aircraft and a crew consisting of a pilot and two observers. Sex ratio counts were made during the period January 28-February 1 in the Grand Junction-Highline Lake area, and during the period February 8-10 in the Montrose-Delta area. In the northern location, sex ratio counts were �~36- conducted at Highline Lake, Walker Wildlife Area and the Colorado River west of Grand Junction. Sex ratio counts were obtained only at Sweitzer Lake near Delta in the southern area. Salt Plains type traps, baited with corn, were employed to capture mallards for banding. Banding was done during the period January 25-February 12. All birds were aged according to the wing-aging technique (Carney 1964), and recapture data were maintained for each banding location. Banding schedules and recovery reports were prepared and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aerial Census Table 1 shows the results of the 1978 January inventory of wintering mallards, as well as the counts from the previous four years. The 1978 estimate was 13,860 birds, which was lower than the 1976 (23,125) and 1977 (16,280) figures, but higher than the first two years of the study. The long-term (1959-1978) average for this population is 13,493. The area covered in the inventory was presented in more detail in the last report for this job (Hopper 1977). Table l. January 1974-1978. Location Inventory of mallards wintering in west central Colorado 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 Highline Lake 2,400 4,700 10,200 6,900 6,100 Colorado River 3,110 1,830 1,545 3,390 3,046 700 1,345 9,100 2,215 3,756 0 485 270 225 208 0 0 1,900 1,800 450 2,975 3,400 110 1,750 300 9,185 11,760 23,125 16,280 13,860 . II Uncompahgre River Gunnison River- Sweitzer Lake Burlingame Total II Includes Pond North Fork of Gunnison River to Hotchkiss. �-37- Sex Ratio Counts Results of sex ratio counts in 1978 are shown in Table 2 by date and location. Overall ratios obtained in 1976 and 1977 are also presented for comparison. Nearly 5,300 mallards were counted in 1978, producing a sex ratio of 114.5 ma1es:100 females for all areas combined. The northern and southern portions produced nearly identical ratios. For some unknown reason, the proportion of males in the sample counts appeared to have steadily increased since initiation of these counts in 1976, with ratios of 99.2, 107.5 and 114.5 males per 100 females, respectively, for the years 1976 through 1978. Table 2. Sex ratio counts of mallards in west central Colorado during winter of 1978, with overall ratios from 1976 and 1977 for comparison. Location Date No. Males No. Females Total Males: 100 Females 01-28-78 282 241 523 117.0 01-29-78 288 250 538 115.2 01-31-78 272 232 504 117.2 01-30-78 266 254 520 104.7 01-31-78 279 240 519 116.2 02-01-78 272 236 508 115.2 01-30-78 88 76 164 115.8 1,747 1,529 3,276 114.2 02-08-78 278 222 500 125.2 02-09-78 258 242 500 106.6 02-10-78 261 239 500 109.2 02-10-78 272 228 500 119.3 1,069 931 2,000 114.8 Total (1978) 2,816 2,460 5,276 114.5 1976 1,741 1,755 3,496 99.2 1977 1,375 1,279 2,654 107.5 High1ine Lake Walker Wildlife Area Colorado River Subtotal (North) Swietzer Lake Subtotal (South) the �-38- Trapping and Banding Trapping was continued during the 1978 post season period (January and February), representing the fifth consecutive year of banding effort .. Nearly 2,400 mallards were banded in the two general areas, bringing the total banded sample for the five years (1974-1978) to 8,352 (Table 3). The age composition of the sample in 1978 was about even for adults and subadults, while for all years combined it is still in favor of subadults. The adult female segment continued to be the least represented age and sex class in the overall sample, although some years it was as common as the other three. The 1978 sample ran high to the male portion of the population, which is typically the situation when using the Salt Plains type trap. Table 3. Number and age and sex composition of mallards banded postseason in west central Colorado, 1978, and totals for the period 1974-1978. AM Age and Sex SM AF SF Total Grand Junction Area 505 413 302 260 1,480 Delta Area 247 303 128 238 916 752 716 430 498 2,396 1,304 1,049 851 1,061 4,265 960 1,327 656 1,144 4,087 2,264 2,376 1,507 2,205 8,352 Year and Location 1978 Total 1974-1978 Grand Junction Area Delta Area Total Preliminary Distribution of Band Recoveries As of March I, 1978, only 271 recoveries had been obtained from the first four years of banding. These recoveries represented only those birds that had been shot and/or found dead during the hunting season (September 1January 31). Actually, these recoveries are for less than four complete years, since it cannot be assured that all recoveries from the 1977-78 hunting season are processed until September or October of 1978. This simply means that in postseason banding studies there is about one and onehalf years of lag between time of banding and the time that all recoveries from those bandings are fully processed. �-39- The recovery distribution of the 271 recoveries received thus far is presented in Table 4 by age and sex class. The Pacific Flyway portion of Colorado was the major recovery location for all four age and sex classes, accounting for from 56.7 to 68.3 percent of the total recoveries. Adult females showed a somewhat higher affinity for this area than did the other three classes. Idaho and Canada were the next most common recovery locations for adult males, while Canada and Utah accounted for most of the remaining recoveries of subadult males and both ages of females. Few recoveries occurred in the eastern portion (Central Flyway) of Colorado; less than five percent of the total recoveries of each age and sex class. Table 4. Recovery Colorado 1974-1977 distribution of mallards (all years). banded postseason in western Percent AM of Total Recoveries Age and Sex SM AF Alberta 7.1 8.1 9.8 10.0 Saska t chewan 2.9 3.0 2.4 6.7 Subtotal 10.0 11.1 12.2 16.7 Colorado 57.1 58.6 68.3 56.7 Idaho 11.4 5.1 2.4 6.7 Montana 1.4 3.0 0.0 0.0 New Mexico 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 Oregon 0.0 1.0 2.4 0.0 Utah 5.7 7.1 4.9 8.3 Washington 0.0 0.0 2.4 0.0 Wyoming 4.3 2.0 2.4 5.0 Subtotal 82.8 76.8 82.8 76.7 Colorado 2.9 4.1 0.0 3.3 Kansas 0.0 2.0 0.0 1.7 Montana 1.4 0.0 2.4 1.7 Nebraska 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 New Mexico 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 Recovery Location SF Canada Pacific Flyway Central Flyway ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-40- Table 4. Recovery distribution of mallards banded postseason in western Colorado 1974-1977 (all years). Recovery Location AM Percent of Total Recoveries Age and Sex SM AF SF Central Flyway (continued) Texas 1.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 Wyoming 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 Subtotal 5.7 11.1 2.4 6.7 1.0 0.0 0.0 Louisiana 0.0 1.4 2.4 0.0 Subtotal 1.4 0.0 1.0 2.4 0.0 Total 99.9 100.0 99.8 100.1 Number recoveries 70 99 41 611:/ Mississippi Flyway Iowa . f one C01orad0 recovery was not d· d -1/ Spec~·f· ~c 1ocat~ono eterm~ne, percentages were calculated on the basis of only 60 recoveries. so above LITERATURE CITED Carney, S. M. 1964. Preliminary keys to waterfowl age and sex identification by means of wing plumage. U. S. Fish and Wi1d1. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept., Wildl. No. 82. 47 pp. Hopper, R. M. 1977. Population characteristics of mallards wintering in west central Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wi1d1., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 33-39. Prepared by ----6,.q-7f}--<L"'""~::=....~~·~"'9"-~~+~_·+-~-Y.'I;f=-Ae-,~. _ ~hard M. Hbpp:r~ Wildlife Researcher �October -41- 1978 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Migratory W-88-R-23 Bird Investigations Job No. 8 Monitor Banding of Eastern Colorado Wintering Mallard Populations ----------~~------------------- 3 ----------~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-------------- Period Covered: April 1, 1977 to March 31, 1978 Personnel: M. Babler, G. Brown, L. Budde, J. Carsella, A. Chappell, D. Coven, J. Corey, C. Crawford, M. DePra, B. Dupire, K. Dillinger, M. Gardner, B. Goforth, J. Jackson, J. Jones, B. Leasure, R. Lopez, J. Lorentzson, T. Lynch, F. Marcoux, T. Martin, K. Moser, R. Oehlkers, J. Pogorelz, F. Rinella, C. Roberts, L. Rottman, W. Rupke, H. Spear, J. Sweeting, J. Tanke, E. Wagner, K. Wagner, J. Young, R. Zaccagnini, and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT The transfer of field operations for the monitor banding program in eastern Colorado from research to management was completed during Segment 23. Regional personnel did all of the actual banding work, except at Bonny Reservoir. Research personnel contributed by holding an orientation meeting for all banders, which included a review of the instructions manual and training session on aging techniques. This year's banded sample totaled over 5,600 mallards, which was in excess of the 4,000 minimum quota established. The age composition of the sample was low, especially for females. An updated analysis of the recovery data will be conducted next segment. ��-43- MONITOR BANDING OF EASTERN COLORADO WINTERING MALLARD POPULATIONS Richard M. Hopper This report presents results of the postseason mallard banding program in eastern Colorado during Segment 23 and discusses the transfer of this monitoring activity from a research to a management function. Hopper (1977) described the purpose of the original study, general accomplishments, reasons for transferring field responsibilities to the regional management system, and role of the research section in the program. P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To establish monitor banding of wintering mallard populations eastern Colorado as an annual management function. in 2. To continually document, through monitor banding and analysis of recovery data, the annual and long-term status of eastern Colorado wintering mallards to provide a basis for annual hunting season recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Instruct management personnel in the field conduct of a postseason mallard banding program by (a) holding wing-aging classes, and (b) assisting and training management personnel in the field. 2. Band a minimum of 4,000 mallards during the postseason period, including a minimum of 500 birds in each of the following general areas of the South Platte Valley and Arkansas Valley: (a) Denver-Greeley, (b) Fort Collins-Loveland-Windsor, (c) Greeley-Fort Morgan, (d) Fort Morgan-Sterling, (e) Sterling-Julesburg, (f) Bonny Reservoir, (g) Manzanola-Lamar, and (h) Two Buttes Reservoir area. Divide the banded sample in each area equally among the four age and sex classes. 3. Conduct an updated analysis of band recovery data, including the following major determinations for important population segments of mallards wintering in eastern Colorado: (a) distribution of the harvest, (b) recovery rates, and (c) survival rates. 4. Prepare and submit banding and progress report. schedules, band recovery and return reports, METHODS AND MATERIALS Procedures and equipment remained essentially the same as in the previous year (Hopper 1977), with the exception that less time was spent by research �-44- personnel (Federal Aid Project W-88-R) in field training of management personnel. An orientation meeting and review of the instructions manual prepared last year were again conducted for the management personnel involved. RESULTS Instruction AND DISCUSSION of Management Personnel The same management personnel selected for the eight banding crews last year were again assigned to the 1978 crews. Crew assignments by region and unit remained the same as last year, as did responsibilities of the crew leaders and assistant crew leaders (Hopper 1977). The orientation meeting and review of the instruction manual covered all phases of the trapping and banding operation as outlined in the last report, including a training session on aging techniques. Management personnel in the Northeast and Southeast regions did all of the postseason banding in eastern Colorado in 1978 without field assistance from the Research Section, except in the case of Bonny Reservoir. Thus, as a result of the success experienced in training management personnel in trapping and banding operations over the past two winters, it can be concluded that the transfer of monitor banding responsibilities from research to management is now complete. To clarify responsibilities in regard to this banding program, the Reseach Section (Federal Aid Project W-88-R) will continue to: (1) hold the master permit issued to the Colorado Division of Wildlife by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the banding of migratory game birds, (2) issue subpermits to crew leaders and assistant crew leaders to cover their banding activities, (3) order bands and issue them to the banding crews and maintain an updated inventory of bands used and in stock, (4) supply necessary banding and recapture forms, (5) fill out final banding schedules and recovery and return reports and submit them to the Bird Banding Laboratory, (6) maintain all banding and recovery records, (7) periodically update tge analysis of band recovery data and provide results to managers, and (8) serve as a consultant on any technical aspects of the program. Banding Over 5,600 mallards were banded during the January-February period of Segment 23 (Table 1). As with last year, this total exceeded the 4,000 minimum quota by a significant amount. This was due in part to the large sample obtained at Bonny Reservoir. Only one banding location, the Two Buttes area, failed to contribute a good sample to the overall program. All banding schedules and band recovery and return reports were prepared and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. The age and sex composition of the banded sample differed from that of most years, in that a low age ratio was obtained, especially for females. Subadult females have nearly always outnumbered adult females in samples of past years, but this year the reverse was true. This was basically a reflection of low productivity in this population during the summer of 1977. �-45- Table 1. Mallards banded postseason by age and sex in the eight eastern Colorado banding areas, January-February 1978. Banding Area AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex SM AF SF Bonny Reservoir 717 380 348 149 1,594 Sterling-Julesburg 158 163 174 105 600 Ft. Morgan-Sterling 229 147 63 60 499 Greeley-Ft. 302 79 65 50 496 Denver-Greeley 295 257 234 205 991 Ft. Co11ins-LovelandWindsor 196 216 233 136 781 Arkansas Valley 247 170 90 80 587 Two Buttes Area 38 23 6 25 92 2,182 1,435 1,213 810 5,640 Morgan Total Updated Analysis of Band Recovery Total Data Banding and recovery tapes were requested from the Bird Banding Laboratory in mid-September 1977 for mallards banded postseason in eastern Colorado during the period 1963-64 through 1975-76 and for recoveries from these bandings during the 1964-65 through 1976-77 hunting seasons. This request was made this late in the Segment to insure that all recoveries from the 1976-77 hunting season had been processed and included in the recovery tape. The tapes were not received until mid-January 1978, and then we were informed in early March that the banding tape contained errors and that a new tape would be forthcoming. This new tape was received in early April following the end of Segment 23. Thus, no work was accomplished on the banding analysis objective outlined for this Segment. This work will be undertaken in Segment 24. LITERATURE CITED Hopper, R. M. 1977. Monitor banding of eastern Colorado wintering mallard populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 41-47. Prepared by :~d/~ P / t" ;;;!~:)-'4 Richard M. Hopper;; Wildlife Researcher • ��October -47- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Bird Investigations 9 3 J~ ~. --------~----------------------Migration and Mortality Characteristics of D_u_c_k __P_o_p~u __l_a_t_i_o_n_s __l_·n __t_h __e__I_n_t_e_r_-_M_o_u_n __t_a_i_n __V_a_l_l_e~y~s o_f __C_o_l_o_r_a_d_o _ Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-23 1978 July 15, 1977 to March 31, 1978 M. Nail and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; R. Darnell and Staff, Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge; M. Conner, J. Corey, D. Flenthrope, R. Hopper, R. Oakleaf, J. Wagner, K. Wagner, and M. Szymczak, Colorado Division of Wildlife; K. Storey and W. Riley, Colorado State University. ABSTRACT Totals of 3,877, 4,193 and 3,012 ducks were banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, respectively in 1977. Gadwall, wigeon, shoveler, redhead, and L. scaup made up 25.4, 14.9, 11.2, 10.1 and 9.7 percent of the harvest, respectively, during the early duck season in North Park. In South Park the mallard, green-winged teal, gadwall and pintail made up 55.9, 13.2, 8.8 and 8.8 percent of the harvest during the early season. In the San Luis Valley during early seasons the mallard has been the major species of harvest since 1963, but its importance, according to percentage in the harvest, has declined steadily from 86.9 percent in 1963 to 43.7 percent in 1977. ��-49- MIGRATION AND MORTALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF DUCK POPULATIONS IN THE INTER-MOUNTAIN VALLEYS OF COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution and relationships among populations of selected species of ducks present in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the mid-July through mid-September period. 2. To document the species composition of ducks harvested during early October seasons, should seasons occur in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley. 3. To examine the feasibility of establishing early special duck seasons in September in the high mountain park areas or to examine the feasibility of special early October seasons in South and North Park similar to what has been recommended for the San Luis Valley. 4. To establish procedures to monitor the effect of early special duck seasons on duck populations in the high mountain park areas if granted. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and band ducks in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the mid-July through mid-September period as designated in Program Narrative Outline. Complete, submit and file appropriate banding schedules and recovery cards. 2. Collect and analyze data conce~ning the species composition of the harvest during early October seasons in North Park, South Park and the San. Luis Valley utilizing wing collection barrels and results of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection Survey. 3. Analyze band recovery data through the 1976 recovery year for mallards, pintail and green-winged teal banded during the pre-season period in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley to determine the feasibility of requesting early seasons in the high mountain area. 4. Prepare 5. If a special high mountain duck season is requested and granted, design a program for population monitoring which may include banding, harvest surveys, wing collection or other activities. progress report. �-50- METHODS AND MATERIALS Ducks were captured from August 6-September 7 in South Park, August 8September 14 in the San Luis Valley and August I-September 15 in North Park. Primarily "salt plains" type bait traps were used (Szymczak and Corey 1976). In North Park night lighting from airboats was used to capture most gadwall and wigeon. The age and sex of all birds captured and banded were determined. Wings from ducks bagged during the October 1, 1977 through October 14, 1977 period were collected in North and South Parks through the use of voluntary collection barrels (Hoffman and Braun 1975). Barrels were placed at Walden Rese!"voir (2 barrels), Lake John Annex (1 barrel) and at Cowdrey (1 barrel) in North Park and at Antero Reservoir (3 barrels) in South Park. Some additional wings were collected at MacFarlane Reservoir. All wings collected were classified by species, age, sex and location, and in some cases, periods of harvest. The species composition of the harvest in the San Luis Valley was obtained at the Central Flyway, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection "wing bee." A computer print out listing the species, age, sex, and time of harvest of birds whose wings were obtained through the Parts Collection Survey for the years 1971 through 1976 was obtained for waterfowl reported as harvested in North Park (Jackson County), South Park (Part County) and the San Luis Valley (Saguache, Rio Grande, Alamosa, Conejos and Costilla counties). Banding and recovery tapes plus recapture and return information covering all pre-season banding and resulting recoveries for ducks banded in North Park, South Park, San Luis Valley and the high country areas west of the San Luis Valley through the 1975-76 recovery year were received from the Bird Banding Laboratory. Recovery year 1976 was not included. In addition, computer tapes listing ducks recovered or recaptured in the above areas but banded elsewhere was also received. A tape containing seven programs for use in band recovery analysis was obtained from the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Station. One program, RCOUDIST, is described by Coward in (1977), five programs, EDITOR, RCOUTAB, LLPLOT, BANDAREA and MAP are outlined by Davenport (1977) and the final program BANDRCOU is documented by Coward in and Davenport (1973). In addition, the program SURVIVAL (Johnson 1974) was incorported into BANDRCOU. All programs with the exception of MAP were converted for use on the CDC 6400 and CYBER systems. All converted programs except RCOUDIST and BANDAREA have been utilized, however, only portions of the resulting outputs have been analyzed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Totals of 3,877, 4,193 and 3,012 ducks were banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, respectively, in 1977. The species composition of the birds banded in each area are presented in Table 1, 2 and 3. Quotas of 300 mallards for each sex of adult and immature birds were met only for males in North Park. In North Park, green-winged teal quotas of at least 500 total birds were not achieved, while gadwall quotas of 300 of each sex were met. Slightly over 11,000 birds were banded in the three areas (Table 4). �-51.Table 1. Number of ducks banded, by species, pre-season period, 1977. in North Park during Age and Sex LM AF the IF LF TOTAL 223 237 36 1,162 9 449 234 6 1,643 3 29 303 2 17 721 52 5 3 36 6 6 108 94 29 3 28 21 3 178 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal 8 11 1 1 6 0 27 Redhead 7 0 12 13 0 6 38 1,494 659 91 1,053 506 74 3,877 AM 1M Mallard 316 316 34 Pintail 650 295 Gadwall 367 American Wigeon Green-winged Teal Total Table 2. Number of ducks banded by species, pre-season period, 1977. in South Park during Age and Sex LM AF the IF LF TOTAL 191 175 12 897 1 200 128 3 1,000 0 0 23 0 0 39 AM 1M Mallard 244 258 17 Pintail 509 159 Redhead 16 Ring-necked Duck 3 0 0 2 0 0 5 Green-winged Teal 985 417 0 357 259 0 2,018 125 30 0 62 17 0 234 1,882 864 18 835 579 15 4,193 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal Total �-52- Table 3. Number of ducks banded by species, the pre-season period, 1977. 1/ in the San Luis Valley during Age and Sex LM AF IF LF Total 7 251 219 8 931 144 0 270 l32 2 965 473 141 0 112 63 0 789 Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal 126 30 0 53 44 1 254 Redhead l3 6 10 25 6 4 64 Canvasback 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Gadwall 0 2 3 0 0 2 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1,241 559 20 711 464 17 3,012 Wildlife Refuge AM 1M Mallard 210 236 Pintail 417 Green-winged American Total teal wigeon 1/ - Includes 194 ducks banded by the Monte Vista National and Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge. Species Composition of the Harvest A total of 268 wings were collected during the early duck season in North Park in 1977. About 62 percent of the wings were obtained at Walden Reservoir. Gadwall was the major species of harvest (25.4 percent) in North Park for the second consecutive year (Table 5). The American wigeon was second in importance with 14.9 percent. In 1975 and 1976 the gadwall and wigeon combined comprised about 50 percent of the harvest (Table 6). Their combined total in 1977 dropped to about 40 percent. The redhead made up about 10 percent of the harvest for the second consecutive year. Wigeon and shovelers were more prominent in the harvest at Walden Reservoir than in the other three areas, while blue-winged and/or cinnamon teal were important in the Cowdrey area. The mallard comprised 6.0 percent of the harvest in 1977 compared to 6.1 percent in 1976 and 6.9 percent in 1975. Wigeon, shovelers and pintail were harvested at a greater rate on opening weekend than during the remainder of the period (Table 7). The importance of gadwall and redheads increased after the opening weekend. �-53- Table 4. Number of ducks banded, by species, in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the pre-season period 1977 . 1) AM 1M Age and Sex AF LM IF LF Total Mallard 770 810 58 665 631 56 2,990 Pintail 1,576 598 10 919 494 11 3,608 1,552 587 3 497 343 3 2,985 Gadwall 367 5 32 303 2 19 728 Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal 259 71 1 116 67 1 American 53 5 3 36 6 6 Redhead 36 6 22 61 6 10 Canvasback 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 4,617 2,082 129 2,599 1,549 106 11,082 Wildlife Refuge and Green-winged teal 515 109 wigeon 141 1 5 Ring-necked Total 1/ duck - Includes 194 ducks banded by the Monte Vista National Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge. In South Park at Antero Reservoir, the mallard was by far the dominant species of harvest (55.9 percent) throughout the early season in 1977 (Table 8). In 1976 the wigeon and the three species of teal comprised over 70 percent of the harvest while the mallard made up only about 9 percent (Table 6). The mallard was the major species of harvest (43.7 percent) in the San Luis Valley in the early season in 1977, according to the 71 wings collected through the parts collection mail survey (Table 6). The remainder of the harvest was composed of primarily pintail, gadwall and green-winged teal. The mallard has been the major species of harvest during early seasons in the San Luis Valley since at least 1963 (Hopper et a1. 1975, Table 6). The mallards importance, however, has been declining steadily, from 86.9 percent of the harvest in 1963 to 43.7 in 1977. The importance of other species has fluctuated from year to year, but generally gadwall, green-winged teal, pintail, and possibly blue-winged and/or cinnamon teal have been increasing in importance. �-54- Table 5. Species composition of the harvest in North Park during the October 1-14, 1977 early duck hunting season according to wings voluntarily placed in collection barrels. Species Walden Reservoir Lake John Annex Area Cowdrey Area Gadwall 34 (20.5)-Y 15 (34.1) American wigeon 34(20.5) N. shoveler MacFar1ane1/ Reservoir - Total 6(18.2) l3(52.0) 68(25.4) 2(4.5) 2(6.1) 2(8.0) 40(14.9) 24(14.5) 3(6.8) 1 (3.0) 2(8.0) 30(11.2) Redhead 16(9.6) 10(22.7) 0(0.0) 1(4.0) 27(10.1) Lesser scaup 19(11.4) 1(2.3) 4(12.1) 2(8.0) 26(9.7) Blue-winged or Cinnamon teal 5(3.0) 3(6.8) l3(39.4) 2(8.0) 23(8.6) Mallard 6(3.6) 6(l3.6) 4(12.1) 0(0.0) 16(6.0) Pintail 11(6.6) 2(4.5) 1(3.0) 1(4.0) 15(5.6) Green-winged teal 9(5.4) 0(0.0) 2(6.1) 2(8.0) l3(4.9) Ruddy 7(4.2) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 7(2.6) Ring-necked duck 0(0.0) 2(4.5) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 2(0.7) Common merganser 1(0.6) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 1(0.4) 44 33 25 Total 1/ 2/ 166 Wings collected only on October 1-2, 1977 . Percent of total in parentheses. 268 �Table 6. Percent species composition of the harvest in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during early October duck hunting seasons 1971-1977 based on U. S. Fish and Wildlife's Parts Collection Mail Survey and Independent Wing Barrel Survey. Species NP Mallard Gadwall Green-winged teal Wigeon Blue-winged teal/ cinnamon teal Pintail Shoveler Redhead Ruddy duck Ring-necked duck Lesser scaup Common merganser H. merganser Bufflehead Unknown 33.3 33.3 Total Number of Wings Examined 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12 1971 SP SLV NP 66.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 65.6 6.1 7.1 3.0 18.8 18.8 6.3 0.0 1972 SP 1973 SLV NP 50.7 14.1 21.1 6.9 20.7 41.4 31.3 0.0 50.0 0.0 50.0 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 13.1 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 6.3 0.0 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 5.6 5.6 0.0 0.0 20.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9 99 16 2 71 33.3 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 SP NP 60.6 14.3 9.1 50.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 29 SLV a 1974 SP SLV 75.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 47.7 10.2 11.4 15.9 88 9.1 11.1 5.1 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.1 21.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 99 14 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3:4 3.4 8.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 I VI VI I �Table 6. Percent species composition of the harvest in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during early October duck hunting seasons 1971-1977 based on U. S. Fish and Wildlife's Parts Collection Mail Survey and Independent Wing Barrel Survey (continued). 1975 SP SLV 47.1 NP 1976 SP SLV NP 1977 SP SLV 0.0 66.7 44.9 22.2 63.6 43.7 6.0 55.9 6.7 22.2 0.0 25.4 8.8 Species NP Mallard 27.01/ 66.7 6.9- - - 6. 1 8.7 Gadwall 13.5 33.3 20.6 53.3 0.0 Z8.1 2.2 0.0 16.7 7.2 25.0 20.6 Green-winged teal 8.1 0.0 4.4 7.7 Wigeon 16.2 0.0 2.9 28.9 B1ue-winged/ cinnamon teal Pintail 10.8 0.0 5.9 15.4 8.1 0.0 11.8 5. 1 Shoveler 0.0 Redhead 5.4 Ring-necked duck 0.0 Lesser scaup 8.1 Common merganser 0.0 H. merganser 0.0 Bufflehead 0.0 Unknown 0.0 6.7 0.0 8.8 25.0 13.3 16.7 4.8 3.3 0.0 0.0 2.7 2.2 0.0 1.5 13.3 0.0 11.2 5.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 0.2 5. 1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 28.3 4.4 4.3 Ruddy duck 0.0 21.4 0.0 3.4 2.7 13.3 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.1 4.5 13.5 7.9 2.2 0.0 11.1 0.0 4.9 4.9 0.0 27.3 14.9 4.4 0.0 0.0 8.6 2.9 0.0 0.0 5.6 8.8 11.1 9.1 11.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.1 2.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.5 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 89 6 15 68 3 37 Total No. Wings 9Z 374 494 Examined 1/ Italic numbers indicates figures obtained from wings collected in wing barrels. 0.7 0.0 22.2 0.0 9.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9 11 268 68 12.7 12.7 7. a 1.4 I Vl 16,9 4.2 0.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 71 cI �-57- Table 7. Species composition of the harvest by time period at Walden Reservoir, Lake John Annex and the Cowdrey area during the October 1-14, 1977 duck season. Species October 1-2 Percent No. Time Period October 3-9 Percent No. No. Entire 1/ Percent Gadwall 22 14.0 33 38.8 55 22.7 American wigeon 30 19.0 8 9.4 38 15.7 N. shoveler 23 14.6 5 5.9 28 11.6 Redhead 13 8.3 14 16.5 27 11.2 Lesser scaup 16 10.2 8 9.4 24 9.9 Blue-winged or Cinnamon teal 13 8.3 8 9.4 21 8.7 Mallard 11 7.0 5 5.9 16 6.6 Pintail 13 8.3 1 1.2 14 5.8 8 5.1 3 3.5 11 4.5 Ruddy 7 4.5 0 0.0 7 2.9 Common merganser 1 0.6 0 0.0 1 0.4 Green-winged Total 1/ teal 157 85 242 No harvest occurred after October 9, 1977 . The federal parts collection mail survey produces very small and thus, unreliable samples of wings for North Park and South Park. Throughout the three years (1975, 1976 and 1977) of the wing barrel survey, the results of the two independent surveys do not agree. Band Recovery Analysis Analysis of band recoveries is now in a preliminary stage. Additional information is being generated from the computer tapes and recovery data for the 1976-77 and 1977-78 hunting seasons are being extracted by hand �-58- Table 8. Species composition of the harvest by time period at Antero Reservoir, South Park, Colorado during the October 1-14, 1977 duck hunting season. Time Period October 3-14 Percent No. Entire Percent No. Species October 1-2 Percent No. Mallard 31 60.8 7 41.2 38 55.9 5 9.8 4 23.5 9 13.2 Gadwall 4 7.8 2 11.8 6 8.8 Pintail 6 11.8 0 0.0 6 8.8 wigeon 3 5.9 0 0.0 3 4.4 Blue-winged or Cinnamon teal 0 0.0 2 11.8 2 2.9 Redhead 2 3.9 0 0.0 2 2.9 Ruddy 0 0.0 1 5.9 1 1.5 Cornmon merganser 0 0.0 1 5.9 1 1.5 Total 51 Green-winged American teal 17 68 from the computer printouts received periodically from the Bird Banding Laboratory. Therefore, analysis of the information extracted from the banding and recovery tapes would be premature at this time. In addition, tables compiled to date will not be presented in this report since they may be changed and most likely will be duplicated in forthcoming reports. �-59- LITERATURE CITED Cowardin, L. M. 1977. Analysis and machine mapping of the distribution of band recoveries. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 198. 8 p. Davenport, D. A. 1977. Computerized tabulation and display of band recovery data. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 199. 7 p. Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Inform. Leafl. No. 101. wing collection 3 p. station. Hopper, R. M., A. D. Geis, J. R. Grieb, and L. Nelson, Jr. 1975. Experimental duck hunting seasons, San Luis Valley, Colorado, 1963-1970. Wildl. Monogr. No. 46. 68 p. Johnson, D. H. 1974. Estimating rates from banding of adult and juvenile birds. J. Wildl. Manage. 38(2):290-297. Szymczak, M. R., and J. F. Corey. Plains duck trap in Colorado. l3 p , Prepared by 1976. Construction and use of the Salt Colo. Div. Wildl. Div. Rept. No.6. 4 'itL:/J 7? Michael R. Szymczak ~~ Wildlife Researcher 4- ��-61- October 1978 JOB PROGPillSSREPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~=------------ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Migratory W-88-R-23 3 Job No. ------------------------ Morphological Period Covered: Differences Bird Investigations 10 --------------------------------- Between Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal April 1, 1977 through March 31, 1978 Personnel: B. Aufdengarten, R. Darnell, R. Ellis, P. Feiger, W. McDermitt, M. Nail, L. Vaughn, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Dr. P. Baldwin, Dr. J. Law, Dr. R. Ryder, L. Sweanor, R. Thompson, K. Woodruff, Colorado State University; M. Connor, J. Corey, D. Flenthrope, R. Hopper, R. Oakleaf, S. Steinert, and R. Stark, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations of the morphological differences between blue-winged teal (Anas discors) and cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera) were initiated in May 1977. Twenty females and 5 males of each species were collected in May and June 1977 for use as a reference collection and for testing possible speciating techniques. One hundred and fifty blue-winged teal eggs were collected in June 1977 from the Valentine National Wildlife Refuge in Nebraska and 150 cinnamon teal eggs were collected in June from the Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges in the San Luis Valley of Colorado. Eggs were incubated, hatched, and the ducklings raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Two hundred and twenty-nine ducklings hatched and 130 constituted the study sample, including 63 blue-winged teal (31 males, 32 females) and 67 cinnamon teal (30 males 37 females). Twelve measurements were taken weekly on the sample birds from the 5th through the 16th weeks of age and monthly from the 20th week of age through March 1978. Eye color was recorded weekly using the Munsell Book of Color and photographs of the head and throat regions were taken periodically of randomly selected birds. Preliminary analysis of data from 23 measurements taken on the adult birds collected in 1977 indicate that the twelve measurements taken on the young birds, especially culmen center and culmen ridge, appear to be promising for distinguishing the two species. Measurements will be continued through September 1978 at which time the data collected will be analyzed by computer. ��-63- MORPHOLOGICAL BETWEEN BLUE-WINGED DIFFERENCES AND CINNAMON TEAL Robert S. Stark Anas discors discors is one of two subspecies of blue-winged teal occurring in North America. It breeds from southern Ontario and Quebec south into the northeastern United States, west through the north central United States and Canada to California and north through central British Columbia into Alaska. The northern cinnamon teal, (Anas cyanoptera septentrionalium) hereafter referred to as cinnamon teal, is one of five subspecies occurring in the western hemisphere, but the only subpseciesto inhabit North America. It breeds from the front range of the Rocky Mountains to the west coast and from southern British Columbia and Alberta through Arizona and New Mexico into north central Mexico (A.O.U. 1957, Delacour 1956, Johnsgard 1975). Both species have major fall migrations through the central and southern United States into Mexico and Central and South America (A.O.U. 1957, Kortright 1953, Johnsgard 1975). The breeding ranges of the two species overlap along the Rockies from northern New Mexico to Alberta and British Columbia and west to eastern Washington, Oregon, and northern California. A problem of species identification exists in this area of overlapping ranges. Females of the two species appear identtical and pose the major problem, although immature males may appear similar prior to 8 weeks of age, at which time the cinnamon teal male acquires the red eye color of the adult (Spencer 1953). Most of the descriptions of differences between the two species in the literature are only relative and of limited value in accurate species identification. In the major duck production areas of Colorado, blue-winged and cinnamon teal are important breeding species representing an average of 11 percent of the breeding population during the period 1954-75 (Szymczak 1977). Combined, they are second only to the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) in annual production in Colorado and have contributed up to nearly 20,000 birds to the state's breeding population in recent years. During the pre-season banding period in Colorado, for the years 1971-74, over 75 percent of the blue-winged and cinnamon teal banded were classified as unidentified teal because they could not be accurately identified as one species or the other (R. Hopper, pers. corom.). Knowledge of possible population differences is essential to the formulation of management recommendations, but is not currently available for blue-winged and cinnamon teal within the state. Special early teal seasons currently being conducted in various parts of the U. S. cannot be justified in much of Colorado's high country until the status of both blue-winged and cinnamon teal populations within the state are determined. A management scheme could then be formulated which would give greatest consideration to the species with the poorest population status. This can be accomplished only after a reliable technique is developed for distinguishing between the two species in the field, involving one which does not result in the death of the birds. �P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To compare sex. the morphology of blue-winged and cinnamon teal by age and 2. To develop a field technique for distinguishing between blue-winged and cinnamon teal based on morphological diffferences, primarily for use during the pre-season banding period (August an4 September). SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature on methods of rearing ducks in captivity morphology of blue-winged and cinnamon teal. 2. Collect 25 blue-winged (May and June). 3. Collect up to 150 eggs of each of the two species and artificially incubate, hatch, and rear the young. 4. Examine and describe plumage characteristics and eye color of each pen reared bird at weekly intervals from mid-July at least through October. Measure various body parts, including the bill, tarsus, toe and wing weekly during this same period. Maintain photograph records of randomly selected birds of each species and sex. Obtain these same descriptions, measurements and photographs for the 50 adult birds immediately following their collection. 5. Retain the pen reared birds over winter following spring, summer and fall. 6. Compile and analyze data and prepare in appropriate technical journals. teal and 25 cinnamon teal during to continue and on the spring the study the reports of findings for publication REVIEW OF LITERATURE The classification of blue-winged and cinnamon teal has been described by Kennard (1919), Delacour and Mayr (1945), Snyder and Lumsden (1951), Delacour (1956), and the American Ornithologist's Union (1957). The life history and distribution of blue-winged and cinnamon teal have been discussed by Bent (1923), Phillips (1923), Bennett (1938), Kortright (1953), Spencer (1953), the American Ornithologist's Union (1957), Wheeler (1965), Johnsgard (1975), and Connelly (1977). The comparative morphology of blue-winged and cinnamon teal has been studied or described by Sclater (1912), Kortright (1953), Spencer (1953), Johnsgard (1975), Palmer (1976), Dwyer (1976), Connelly (1977), and Wallace and Ogilvie (1977). General morphological characteristics of blue-winged teal have been described by Sclater (1912), Kennard (1919), Allen (1920), Bent (1923), Bennett (1938), Kortright (1953), Delacour (1956), Glover (1956), Dane (1966 and 1968), Greij (1973), Johnsgard (1975), and Palmer (1976). �-65- General morphological characteristics of cinnamon teal have been described by Sc1ater (1912), Stephens (1921), Bent (1923), Kortright (1953), Spencer (1953), De1acour (1956), Johnsgard (1975), and Palmer (1976). Bird weight and its importance in taxonomy has been discussed by Weatherbee (1934), Stewart (1937), Baldwin, Prentiss and Kendeigh (1938), Nice (1938), Amadon (1943), Be11rose and Hawkins (1947), Nelson and Martin (1953), and Smart (1965). Sex and age determination of waterfowl have been described by Hochbaum (1942), Hanson (1949), Southwick (1953), Go110p and Marshall (1954), Dane (1968), and Pettingill (1970). Determining the age and stage of incubation of bird eggs has been described by Westerskov (1950) and Weller (1956). Plumages and molts have been described by Lillie (1932), Lesher and Kendeigh (1941), Weller (1957), Dzubin (1959), Humphrey and Parkes (1959 and 1963), Stresemann (1963), Smart (1965), Amadon (1966), and Oring (1968). Hubridization involving either blue-winged or cinnamon teal has been studied by Deane (1905), Swarth (1915), Rothschild and Kinnear (1929), Sibley (1957), Wilson and Ven Den Akker (1948), Childs (1952), Cockrum (1952), Anderson and Miller (1953), Johnsgard (1960), Harris and Wheeler (1965), Hall (1968), and Lahrman (1971). Methods for artificially incubating and hatching birds eggs have been described by Ro1nik (1943), Hanson (1951), Dill and Lee (1970), Ellis (1974), F1ieg (1974), Greenwell (1974), Lint (1974), and Sheraw (1975). Techniques for captive1y brooding and raising waterfowl have been described by Greenberg (1949), Dill and Lee (1970), Martin (1972), Block (1974), Smart (1974), Strutz (1974), Wilson (1974), and Sheraw (1975). Methods of taking bird measurements and the relative importance of different masurements have been described by Reichenberger (1923), Bergto1d (1925), Myers (1928), Baldwin, Obserho1ser and Worley (1931), Pettingill (1970), and Ferguson (1974). The success of releasing captive reared birds into the wild has been studied by Lincoln (1934), Errington and Albert (1936), Williams and Kalmbach (1943), and Brakhage (1953). METHODS AND MATERIALS Collection of Adult. Teal Thirteen cinnamon teal (5 males, 8 females) and one female blue-winged teal were collected in the San Luis Valley, Colorado on 16 and 17 May, 1977. On 26 May 1977, 12 blue-winged teal (5 males, 7 females) were collected at the Red Lion Property near Crook, Colorado. Only females in the presence of .a male were collected. An additional 24 female teal were collected concurrently with the egg collection phase of the study described below; 12 blue-winged teal from the Valentine National Wildlife Refuge in north central Nebraska and 12 cinnamon teal from the Alamosa and Monte Vista �-66- National Wildlife Refuges in the San Luis Valley of Colorado. Species identification of these 24 females was deferred until young males from their respective clutches acquired nuptial plumage in the spring and summer' of 1978 while in captivity at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. All collections were made with a shotgun and all 50 birds (5 males and 20 females of each species) were weighed and tagged with an identification number within 24 hours after collection. They were also measured and then frozen for use as a reference collection of adult wild teal. The form used to record the measurements taken is presented in Appendix A. Egg Collections On 7 June 1977, 150 suspected blue-winged teal eggs (and 12 adult female blue-winged teal associated with the nests) were collected from the Valentine NWR and transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Nests were located by flushing incubating females with a 160-foot cable dragged through nesting habitat between two jeeps, as described by Ladd (1969). All nests were located and marked prior to collecting eggs and all eggs were indivuda1ly identified by nest and female at the time of collection. The eggs were transported in a portable incubator designed and built by J. Corey, Colorado Division of Wildlife. The incubator operated from a car battery and maintained a temperature of 990F and a hygrometer reading of 84oF. During the period 6-21 June 1977, 150 suspected cinnamon teal eggs (and 12 adult female cinnamon teal associated with the nests) were collected from the Alamosa NWR and the Monte Vista NWR. Nests were located by crews of 4-6 people walking systematically through likely nesting habitat and flushing incubating females. Collection and transport procedures were similar to those used during the Nebraska collection, except some clutches were placed in a chest cooler with cotton wadding and hot water bottles and flown to Fort Collins. The ether wafer in the incubator at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station ruptured on 27 June 1977, resulting in over-heating and death of 75 embryos in eggs collected in Colorado. An additional 75 cinnamon teal eggs were collected on 30 June and I July from the Alamosa NWR to insure that an adequate sample of cinnamon teal was obtained. Hatching and Rearing of Young The eggs were not cleaned prior to setting in the incubator, but excessively dirty eggs were scraped with a knife. All eggs were weighed and the length and width measured prior to placement in the incubator. A Humidaire Model 50 automatic incubator and a David Bradley incubator were used for incubating and hatching the eggs at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. The incubator was set to maintain a temperature of 99.50F and a hygrometer reading of 86oF. The automatic turning device on the incubator was set to turn the eggs every 2 hours. The hatcher was set at a temperature of 990F and a hygrometer reading of 94oF. The eggs were not turned in the hatcher. During the incubation period the water pump and hygrometer bottles were filled daily with distilled water. �-67- Trays in the hatcher were separated into five compartments and each was enclosed by hardware cloth. Each clutch of eggs was placed in an individual compartment in the hatcher when the first egg of the clutch pipped. Ducklings from each clutch were thereby separated from other clutches after hatching for accurate identification. The ducklings were allowed ~o dry several hours after hatching before being removed from the hatcher. Upon removal, they were weighed and banded with individually numbers plastic bands and recorded by clutch. After banding the ducklings were placed in a battery brooder with the temperature maintained at 90oF. Newspaper was placed on the floor of each of the five brooder compartments and an unmedicated duck starter feed prepared by the Golden West Milling Company, Longment, Colorado was sprinkled on the paper to induce feeding. Two waterers were placed in each brooder compartment and changed 4-5 times daily. Feed was placed in small feeders and changed twice daily after the ducklings were eating. The ducklings were fed an unmedicated duck maintenance feed prepared by the Golden West Milling Company after 12 days of age. At this time they were also removed from the battery brooder, rebanded with individually numbered aluminum bands and placed in a brooder house. The brooder house was 8' x 12' and the floor was covered with wood shavings litter. Four large waterers and three feeders were placed on the litter and changed three times daily. Four 250 watt infared heat lamps were placed above the litter and left on 24 hours a day. At 3 weeks of age the ducklings were allowed access to a 5' x 8' section of a concrete pond adjacent to the brooder house. The ducklings were then allowed to swim daily to induce functioning of the oil gland and preening. At 5 weeks of age the ducklings were rebanded permanently with size 5 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands and moved to an outside pen. The pen measured 30' x 75' and was completely enclosed in chicken wire, including the top. Several small shelters were placed in the pen to provide shade, and a concrete pond 8' x 36' was built to provide water. Feed was changed twice daily in three feeders. The pond water was changed every third day. The teal were moved in November 1977 to an 18' x 32' pen for wintering. This facility was divided into three compartments each 6' x 32'. The pen was raised 2 feet above the ground and had a welded wire floor to allow waste material to pass through. Each compartment was divided into two 6' x 16' sections, with one entirely enclosed with weatherproofing material and provided with eight 250 watt infared heat lamps to maintain an above freezing temperature. The other section was weatherproofed on all except one side but not provided with heat. A small l' x l' door, allowed passage between the two sections. Feeders and waterers were placed in the heated section and changed twice daily. Birds surviving into November were separated by week of hatching into the three compartments of the winter pen. The teal remained in the winter pen through the end of the Segment, but will be moved back to the outside pen in April 1978. �-68- Measurements and Morphological Descriptions The teal were measured weekly from the 5th through the 16th weeks of age and monthly from the 20th week of age through March 1978. Five standard ornithological measurements were taken on the teal including weight, length of tarsus, length of exposed culmen, length of bill from gape, and width of bill at widest anterior part (Baldwin et a1. 1931). The weight was measured in grams and all other measurements in millimeters. Seven additional measurements were taken based on the data from the adult wild teal (Table 1). See Appendix B for the form used in recording measurements and other information for each bird. Eye color was identified by hue, value, and chroma with the Munsell Book of Color from the Kollmorgan Corporation, Baltimore, Maryland, and recorded weekly. Photographs of the eye, cheek, side of head, throat, and breast were taken periodically of randomly selected birds throughout the study period. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Adult Teal Preliminary results of measurements of adult teal collected in May 1977 include mean value and range for each sex and species (Table 1). The promising measurements for distinguishing between the species based on these data include: culmen center, culmen ridge, culmen side, length of lower bill center, and length of lower bill ridge. Only females collected in the presence of a male were included in this preliminary analysis. Hatching Success and Measurement of Young Two hundred and twenty-nine eggs hatched for a total hatching success of 76.3%, including 106 of the Nebraska eggs (70.6%) and 123 Colorado eggs (82.0%). One hundred and seventy of the 229 birds that hatched survived through March 1978 for a 74.2% survival rate. Twenty-five ducklings either lost their plastic bands or hatched in the incubator. These ducklings were classified as unidentified and were maintained but not included in the sample of birds measured and described during the study. An additional 15 cinnamon teal were also eliminated from the study in order to maintain similar sample sizes for each species. Thus, the sample size was 130 birds, of which there were 63 blue-winged teal (31 males, 32 females) and 67 cinnamon teal (30 males, 37 females). The total number of measurements taken through March 1978 was over 26,000. Measurements of the teal will continue through September 1978, at which time due to the volume, all data collected in the study will be analyzed by computer. Photographs will also be taken through September 1978 and will be used to demonstrate possible morphological differences between bluewinged and cinnamon teal which are not subject to quantitative analysis. �-69- Table 1. Range and mean values for some measurements of adult male and female blue-winged and cinnamon teal collected in May 1977. 1/ Cinnamon Teal Mean 2/ Range Blue-winged Teal Mean Range Weight J:.../ 394 355-415 362 355-395 Wing 201 185-220 183 180-184 Tarsus 41.1 39.7-42.2 38.6-40.6 Foot 43.9 42.6-45.5 39.3 41.8 Middle toe 37.2 36.0-37.5 35.5 33.0-37.0 Culmen center 44.2 42.1-46.5 39.2 37.0-42.4 Culmen ridge 51.4 49.8-53.5 46.1 44.1-48.9 Culmen side 48.7 46.8-51.0 43.3 41.0-46.3 Maximum width upper bill 18.2 17.9-18.6 17.9 16.6-18.6 Width at nares 18.0 17.9-18.4 16.6 16.4-17.0 Posterior width upper bill 16.3 15.6-16.8 14.8 14.4-15.0 Lower bill center 40.8 38.6-42.6 37.7 35.7-39.9 Lower bill ridge 49.9 48.2-52.3 44.8 41.0-48.9 Lower bill posterior width 13.7 13.1-14.1 12.1 10.7-13.0 Lower bill anterior width 12.2 11.8-12.4 12.0 11.7-12.1 Lower bill nail length 6.4 5.5-7.1 5.6 5.2-6.3 Lower bill nail width 5.4 4.5-5.8 5.2 4.9-5.5 Nares length 4.2 3.8-4.5 3.7 3.4-3.9 Upper bill nail length 8.5 7.8-9.0 7.7 7.3-8.1 Upper hill nail width 5.4 5.1-5.7 5.4 5.1-5.8 Height of bill base 17.0 14.8-18.9 16.2 15.5-16.9 Height of bill nares 13.0 12.0-13.9 12.2 11.8-12.7 Height of bill anterior 10.4 9.8-11.4 9.1 8.7-9.4 . h t:2/ Welg 388 335-425 382 315-455 Wing 182 173-186 171 153-181 Tarsus 38.8 36.9-40.9 38.2 37.1-40.1 Sex and Measurement Males (5 of Each Species) 39.4-42.8 Females (8 of Each Species) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-70- Table 1. Range and mean values female blue-winged and cinnamon Cinnamon Teal Mean 2/ Range Sex and Measurement Females for some measurements of adult male and teal collected in May 1977 (cont.). 1./ (8 of Each Species) Blue-winged Mean Teal Range (continued) Tarsus 38.8 36.9-40.9 38.2 37.1-40.1 Foot 41.6 39.0-44.7 40.1 37.3-41. 9 Middle toe 35.4 34.0-37.5 33.8 31.5-35. 0 Culmen center 43.3 41.15-45.6 38.5 36.5-39.45 Culmen ridge 49.0 46.0-51. 9 44.6 43.4-46.2 Culmen side 45.7 43.4-48.5 41. 9 41.1-43.4 Maximum width upper bill 17.4 16.5-18.6 17.2 16.7-17.8 Width at nares 16.7 16.1-17.5 16.0 15.2-16.8 Posterior 15.2 14.2-16.2 14.4 13.6-15.2 Lower bill center 39.4 34.1-43.2 35.4 31.8-36.9 Lower bill ridge 46.7 43.6-49.0 42.0-45.1 width 12.9 11. 5-13. 6 43.5 11. 9 Lower bill anterior width 11.8 11.3-12.1 11.6 11.1-12.4 Lower bill nail length 6.3 5.3-6.8 6.3 5.3-7.1 Lower bill nail width 5.8 4.9-6.7 5.2 4.6-5.6 Nares length 3.5 3.0-3.9 3.3 2.9-3.8 Upper bill nail length 8.5 7.8-9.5 7.8 6.8-8.9 Upper bill nail width 5.8 5.0-6.3 5.5 5.0-6.2 Height of bill base 16.4 15.3-18.1 16.0 15.1-16.9 Height of bill nares 12.7 11.9-13.2 11.8 11.3-12.5 Height of bill anterior 9.2 8.8-9.6 8.8 8.6-9.2 1/ All females of a male when collected. width upper bill Lower bill posterior 1/ Weight in the presence in grams and all other measurements in millimeters. 11.0-12.9 �-71- LITERATURE Allen, G. M. Amadon, D. 1920. 1966. CITED Pattern development Avian plumages in teal. and molts. Auk. 37:558-564. Condor 68:263-278. American Ormithologist's Union. 1957. Check-list of North American birds. 5th Ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore. 691pp. Anderson, W., and A. W. Miller. 1953. Hybridization of blue-winged teal in northern California. Condor 55:152-153. Baldwin, S. P., H. C. Oberholser, and L. G. Worley. 1931. Measurements of birds. Sci. Publ. of the Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist. Cleveland. 165pp. _____ , and S. C. Kendeigh. Auk 55:416-467. 1938. Variations Bellrose, F. C., and A. S. Hawkins. Auk 64:422-430. Bennett, L. J. Collegiate Bent, A. C. anseres 1947. in the weight of birds. Duck weights in Illinois. 1938. The blue-winged teal: its ecology and management. Press, Inc., Ames, Iowa. 144pp. 1923. Life histories of North American waterfowl: (Part 1). U.S. Natl. Museum Bull. 126. 250pp. Bergtold, W. H. 27:59-61. 1925. The relative value of bird measurements. order Condor Block, M. 1974. Artificial lighting. In D. O. Hyde (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. 319pp. Brakhage, G. K. 1953. Migration and mortality of ducks hand reared and wild trapped at Delta, Manitoba. J. Wildl. Manage. 17:465-477. Childs, H. E., Jr. 1952. Condor 54:67-68. Hybrid between a shoveller and a blue-winged teal. Cockrum, E. L. 1952. A check-list and bibliography of hybrid birds in North American north of Mexico. Wilson Bull. 64:140-159. Connelly, J. W., Jr. 1977. A comparative study of blue-winged and cinnamon teal breeding in eastern Washington. M.S. Thesis. Washington State University, Pullman.40pp. Dane, C. ·W. 1966. Some aspects of breeding teal. Auk 83:389-402. 1968. Age determination 32:267-274. biology of blue-winged teal. of the blue-winged J. WiIdl. Manage. �-72- Delacour, J. London. 1956. Waterfowl 232pp. and E. Mayr. 1945. _____ , 1946. Supplementary 58: 104-110. of the world. Vol. 2. The family Anatidae. Country Life Limited, Wilson Bull. 57:3-55. notes on the family Anatidae. Dill, H. H., and F. B. Lee (eds.). and Wildl. Servo 154pp. 1970. Wilson Bull. Home grown honkers. u.S. Fish Dwyer, G. L. 1976. Competition and hostile behaviors of blue-winged cinnamon teal in western Montana. M.A. Thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. 77pp. and Dzubin, A. 1959. Growth and plumage development of wild-trapped juvenile canvasback (Aythya valisneria). J. Wildl. Manage. 23:279-290. Ellis, J. 1974. Using an artificial Raising wild ducks in captivity. York. 319pp. Errington, P. C., and W. E. Albert. mallard ducks. Bird Banding. incubator. In D. o. Hyde (ed.): E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New 1936. Banding 7:69-73. studies of semi-domesticated Ferguson, W. 1974. The importance of weighing ducklings. In D. o. Hyde (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. 319pp. Flieg, G. M. 1974. Incubators and methods. In D. O. Hyde (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. 319pp. Glover, F. A. 1956. Nesting and production of the blue-winged teal (Anas discors Limmaeus) in northwest Iowa. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:28-46. Gollop, J. B., and W. H. Marshall. 1954. A guide for aging duck broods in the field. Miss. Flyway Council Tech. Comm. 14pp. Greenberg, D. D. 1949. Raising game birds in captivity. Co., Inc., New York. 224pp. D. Van Nostrand Greenwell, G. A. 1974. On helping ducklings (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. New York. 319pp. out of the egg. In D. O. Hyde E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., Greij, E. D. 1973. Effects of sex hormones teal. Auk 90:533-551. on plumages of the blue-winged Hall, F. A., and S. W. Harris. 1968. Hybrid of blue-winged in north western California. Condor 70:188. teal shoveller �-73- Hanson, H. C. 1949. Methods of determining age in Canada geese and other waterfowl. J. Wildl. Manage. 13-177-183. 1951. Notes on the artificial Manage. 15-68-72. Harris, S. W. ,and R. J . Wheeler. cinnamon teal in northwestern HochbAum, H. A. examination. propagation of wood ducks. 1965. Hybrid of blue-winged teal x California. Condor. 67:539-540. 1942. Sex and age determination of waterfowl Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 7:299-307. Johnsgard, P. A. 1975. Waterfowl of North America. Bloomington and London. 575pp. Kennard, F. H. 1919. Auk 36:455-460. J. Wildl. Notes on a new subspecies by cloacal Indiana Univ. Press, of blue-winged teal. Kortright, F. H. 1953. The ducks, geese and swans of North America. Wildl. Manage. Inst., Washington D. C. 476pp. Ladd, W. N., Jr. 1969. Relationship of predation and land use practices to duck nesting activities on Valentine National Wildlife Refuge, Nebraska. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 116pp. Lahrman, F. W. 1971. Hybrid cihnamon teal and blue-winged Regina. The Blue Jay 29:28. teal at Lesher, S. W., and S. C. Kendeigh. 1941. Effect of photoperiod of feathers. Wilson Bull. 53:169-180. Lillie, F. R. 1932. 44: 193-211. The physiology of feather pattern. on molting Wilson Bull. Lincoln, F. C. 1934. Restocking of marshes with hand-reared mallards not proved practicable. Yearbook of Agric., U.S. Dept. Agric. 1934:310-313. Lint, K. C. 1974. The artificial incubator. In D. o. Hyde (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. 319pp. Martin, R. M. 157pp. 1972. Wild fowl in captivity. Myers, E. C. 1928. Taking body weights of birds. Nelson, A. L., and A. C. Martin. 17:36-42. 1953. Nice, M. M. 1938. The biological Banding 9: 1-11. significance John Gifford Ltd., London. Auk 45:334-338. Game bird weights. J. Wildl. Mange. of bird weights. Bird �-74- Oring, L. W. 380. 1968. Growth, molts, and plumages of the gadwall. Auk 85:355- Palmer, R. S. 1976. Handbook of North American birds. Univ. Press, New Haven, Conn. and London. 521pp. Vol. 2. Yale Pettingill, o. S., Jr. 1970. Ornithology Publ. Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 524pp. and field. in laboratory Burgess Phillips, J. C. 1923. A natural history of the ducks Vol. 2. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Mass. 490pp. Reichenberger, E. 40:244-247. 1923. Remarks on methods in measuring Rolnik, V. 1943. Instructions Wildl. Manage. 7:155-162. for the incubation Rothschild, W., and N. B. Kinnear. Brit. Ormith. Club. 49:93-99. 1929. birds. Auk of eider duck eggs. List of hybrid ducks. Sclater, W. L. 1912. A history of the birds of Colorado. Co., London. 567pp. Sheraw, D. 1975. Successful duck and goose raising. Co., Pine River, Minn. 203pp. J. Bull. Witherby and Stromberg Publ. Sibley, C. G. 1957. The evolutionary and taxonomic significance of sexual dimorphism and hybridization in birds. Condor. 59:166-191. Smart, G. 1965. Development and maturation of primary feathers of red head ducklings. J. Wildl. Manage. 29:533-536. Synder, L. L., and H. G. Lumsden. 1951. Variations in Anas cyanoptera. Royal Ontario Mus. of Zool. Occas. Paper No. 10. pp.I-18. Southwick, C. 1953. A system of age classification for field studies of waterfowl broods. J. Wildl. Manage. 17:1-18. Spencer, H. E., Jr. 1953. The cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera Vieillot): its life history, ecology and management. M.S. Thesis. Utah State Agricultural College, Logan. 184pp. Stephens, F. 1921. Eclipse plumage of cinnamon teal. Stewart, P. A. 1937. A preliminary Stresemann, 1963. The nomenclature E. Condor. 23:194. list of bird weights. Auk 54:324-332. of plumage and molts. Auk 80:1-8. �-75- Strutz, C. 1974. Winter care of wild ducks in captivity. In D. O. Hyde (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton Co., Inc., New York. 319pp. Swarth, H. S. 1915. An apparent hybrid between species of the genera Spatula and Querquedula. Condor. 17:115-118. Szymczak, M. R. 1977. Waterfowl production surveys. Wildl., Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp.1-14. Colo. Div. of Wallace, D. I. M., and M. A. Ogilvie. 1977. Distinguishing and cinnamon teals. British Birds 70:290-294. Weatherbee, K. B. 1934. Some measurements Bird Banding 5:55-63. blue-winged and weights of live birds. Westerskov, K. 1950. Methods for determining J. Wildl. Manage. 14:56-67. the age of game bird eggs. Wheeler, R. J. 1965. Pioneering of blue-winged teal in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. Murrelet 46:40-42. Williams, C. S., and E. R. Kalmbach. transported juvenile waterfowl. 1943. Migration and fate of J. Wildl. Manage. 7:163-169. Wilson, C. 1974. Artificial and natural ponds. In D. O. Hyde (ed.): Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. 319pp. Wilson, V. T., and J. B. Van Den Akker. 1948. A hybrid cinnamon teal blue-winged teal at Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, Utah. Auk 65:316. _S~_s;~L=> r..L..:l==--_ Prepared by ----I.f7u~(/~rz-4____L...:._·/ Robert S. Stark �-76- APPENDICES �-77APPENDIX BLUE-WINGED TEAL CINNAMON TEAL REFERENCE Specimen Number _ Species _ Location _ Wing Length Date Collected SHEET ---------------------Age Sex '----------- _ Culmen: Eye Color ------------ Maximum Width Center Ridge Posterior ------------------- Ridge Width --------- Nail Length Length of Nares _ _ At Base End of Nail ------------------Toe --------------- Side --------------- ------------------- Width Anterior At Nares ----------------~ Width Nail Width Nail: Length ----------------- At Posterior Comments: Minimum Width ------------------- Posterior Height of Bill: _ -------------------- Width at Nares Bill: Length of Middle ---------------- Center _ Length of Tarsus ------------------- Length of Foot Lower DATA COLLECTION ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Weight Bill: A _ ---------------- -------------------_ Width ------- ----------------- --------------------------- �-78APPENDIX Specimen Number _ Species _ Sex. _ Hatching Date. Date of Measurement Age Eye Color Weight Length of Tarsus Culmen: Center Ridge Side Maximum Width of Bill Width of Bill at Nares Lower Bill: Center Ridge Height of Bill: Anterior Length of Head Comments: _ B �-79October 1978 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----------------------------- Project No. W-88-R-23 Work Plan No. 6 Job Title Migratory Job No. Migratory Bird Investigations 1 --------------------------------- Bird Publications ----------------~----------------------------------~---------------- Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1977 through March 31, 1978 William J. Adrian, David R. Anderson, Clait E. Braun, Howard D. Funk, Richard M. Hopper and Michael R. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Publications as follows: planned for and accomplished under this job for Segment 23 are Braun, C. E. 1978. Molt and age determination of band-tailed pigeons. Accepted by J. Wildl. Manage. To be published in July, 1978 issue. Braun, C. E. 1978. Trichomoniasis in band-tailed pigeons. Calif. Fish and Game. To be published in 1978. Accepted by Hopper, R. M., H. D. Funk, and D. R. Anderson. 1978. Age specificity mallards banded postseason in eastern Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 42(2):263-270. Szymczak, M. R., and W. J. Adrian. 1978. Lead poisoning southeast Colorado. J. Wildl. Manage. 42(2):299-306. in in Canada geese in Szymczak, M. R. 1978. Steel shot use on a goose hunting area in Colorado. Tentatively accepted for publication in The Wildlife Society Bulletin. Prepared by __/~::A-=-" _t_·-.:~=--:-.t.-.:.12==-,'_-~~.(:~'-··:__:_--~~)L..~-=u'--'--".C-;.=~..:....=·-=--_ Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research ��October -81- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Proj ect No. Job Title Job No. 7 Bird Investigations ~l _ Investigation of American Coots in Colorado --------~------------------~----~~~~------~----~----- Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-23 Work Plan No. Period 1978 April 1, 1977 to March 31, 1978 W. P. Gorenzel and R. A. Ryder, Colorado State University; Braun and H. D. Funk, Colorado Division of Wildlife. C. E. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning distribution and status, breeding densities, reproductive success, habitat utilization, timing of migration, and hunter harvest of coots (Fulica americana) were conducted in Colorado between August 1976 and March 1978. Four study areas were selected to represent breeding sites in the major topographic areas of the state, one in the eastern plains, two in high mountain valleys, and one west of the Continental Divide. Coots were distributed throughout most of Colorado, breeding in most areas and resident year round in low numbers, primarily along the western boundaries of the plains. The nesting season extended from mid-April to mid-August. Peak nest initiation dates ranged from 25 April to 6 June, while peak of hatch varied from 30 May to 4 July. Two hundred and eleven nests were located with nesting and hatching success of 82 and 90 percent, respectively. Average clutch size wasS.2. Clutch size decreased as the season progressed. Predation accounted for 76 percent of the unsuccessful nests. Coots were found to breed primarily in cattail (Typha spp.) and bulrush (Scirpus spp.) dominated marshes. Bulrush was the preferred nest cover type. Breeding densities ranged from 14 to 35 successful nests/ha of cattail or bulrush. Spring migration began in March, peak numbers were recorded in April. Peak concentrations of fall migrating coots were recorded in September. Review of harvest data and results from hunter questionnaires indicated coots were of minor importance in Colorado. �-82- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Migration counts should continue late summer and fall to document of hunting seasons. on all study areas, especially in coot abundance in relation to timing 2. Additional data gathering efforts concerning breeding densities habitat relationships and productivity should be continued. 3. Information gathering efforts concerning survival should be continued. brood counts and immature �-83- INVESTIGATION OF AMERICAN Warrner COOTS IN COLORADO P. Gorenzel The American coot (Fulica americana Gmelin) is the largest and most aquatic member of the order Gruiformes, family Rallidae, in North America. The coot, hereafter used in reference to the North American subspecies F. a. Americana, breeds primarily on fresh water wetlands. Highest nest densities occur on glacial marshes of the north central United States and south central Canada. In winter coots utilize both brackish and fresh water habitats. Important wintering areas are the Central Valley of California, the coastal marshes of Texas and Louisiana, and wetlands of Florida (Fredrickson et al. 1977). State and federal regulations list the coot as a migratory game bird. As such it is classed as "waterfowl" and is hunted during the regular duck season. Although coots can constitute a large percentage of the waterfowl harvest in certain areas of the United States, overall hunting interest in coots is low nationwide (Fredrickson et al. 1977). Limited data exist concerning the status of the coot in Colorado. General information on nest observations, early and late occurrences, and distribution has been summarized by Bailey and Niedrach (1965) and Sclater (1912). Little is known about habitat preferences, timing of habitat use,productivity, and levels of hunting mortality within Colorado. This study was initiated to provide data for the management of coots in Colorado. P. N. OBJECTIVES The major objective of this study is to obtain data necessary for the development of a management plan for coots breeding in and migrating through Colorado. Data considered necessary are those relating to distribution, breeding densities and production in the eastern plains, high mouritain valleys,and west of the Continental Divide, descriptions of habitats utilized according to vegetation, water characteristics, documentation of timing of spring and fall migration, and present levels of reported harvest. Hypotheses that have been developed are: 1. Distribtuion of coots in Colorado is determined by the occurrence cattail (Typha spp.) and/or bulrush (Scirpus spp.) and dominated marshes. of 2. Densities of breeding coots, nesting success and productivity differ significantly between occupied habitats in the eastern plains, high mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide. 3. Timing of spring and fall migrations differs significantly between areas east of the mountains, high mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide. �-84- 4. Hunting in Colorado is the most important locally produced coots. source of mortality for SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Investigate selected habitats for coot occurrence and circulate questionnaires to determine distribution and status in Colorado. 2. Select and describe study areas representative of general wetlands on the eastern plains, intermountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide. 3. Conduct weekly counts to document migra tion s • 4. Conduct nest searches 5. Collect information concerning attitudes in Colorado. 6. Compile data, analyze results and prepare progress report. the timing of spring and fall to obtain breeding data. harvest levels of coots and hunter METHODS AND MATERIALS Three methods were used to investigate in the selection of study areas: coot occurrence in Colorado 1. Extensive 2. Field trips in conjunction 3. Questionnaires sent to field personnel of the Colorado Division Wildlife and amateur ornithologists (Appendix). and aid field trips as part of planned research. with graduate courses. of Responses from the questionnaire, personal observations, and results from the Colorado Bird Distribution Latilong Study (Kingery and Graul 1978) were combined to plot coot distribution and status according to the latilong system. In this system, the state was divided into distinct areas based on latitude and longitude (Fig. 1). Coot status was then determined within each area. Study areas were selected based on the following criteria: 1. Sufficient area and cover to provide adequate numbers breeding coots. 2. Stable water levels. 3. Similarity of the area to general wetlands (25 pairs) of in the region. �I· I•· I I CXl \Jl I ,, . . I ----"'.,.. ..--Fig. 1. COLORADO trating Scale of "-liles I~ 11.J.l • __ .. ~~=-:..:-'~~u �-86- 4. Accessibility. 5. Freedom from excessive external interference. Counts were conducted on a weekly basis on all study areas to determine migration periods and the size of breeding coot populations. A 20 X Bausch and Lomb spotting scope and 8 x 40 Bushnell binoculars were used. Counts were standarized by counting from the same location at each area, at approximately the same time of day for a given area. Weather conditions and other factors were noted on a field form (Appendix). Each study area was mapped using a staff compass and tape. Islands of emergent vegetation were plotted by pacing and with the aid of a hand held compass and an Edscorp field range finder. A Dietz planimeter was used to measure total wetland area and area of emergent components. Aquatic vegetation was sampled along transects using a method modified from the Atlantic Waterfowl Council (1972). Transects were established 100 and 200 m apart based on the size of the area. Sampling intervals were 35 to 100 m apart on each transect. A rake was used to collect submerged vegetation. Vegetation density ratings were based on amounts recovered and were ranked as follows: dense, moderate, sparse. Scientific names follow Harrington (1964). At each station, water depth and bottom consistency were noted. Marked poles were placed on all study areas to record water level fluctuations. Water samples were taken during the 27 June to 1 July period using a Hach Kit model AL-36B. Soil survey information of adjacent uplands, obtained from the Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and samples along aquatic transects were used to identify marsh substrate types. Nest searches were made on all study areas by systematically wading through all emergent vegetation. If the water was too deep to wade, the search was conducted by boat. A nest was considered to b~ any platform-like structure holding one or more eggs. In those instances where a nest was discovered after hatching, the platform was identified as a nest if numerous small shell fragments were present. Each nest, when found, was numbered and marked with a small cardboard tag. In addition, a piece of yellow surveyor's tape was attached to vegetation approximately 0.6 to 12 meters away from each nest in such a manner as to be conspicuous to the observer. Each piece of tape was marked with a grease pencil to indicate the nest number, direction, and distance to the nest. Once found, nests were revisited once a week until hatching. A number of nest site measurements were recorded, including type of cover vegetation; its condition, i.e., dead or alive; height of a representative sample of the vegetation; nest concealment, i.e., was the nest concealed on one, two, three, or four sides, and/or from above; depth of water; and distance to open water, open water being the nearest channel or body of water. On each visit to a nest, the height of the eggs above the water, the number of eggs and their condition; i.e., cold, warm, or pipped, were recorded. �-87- Initiation dates of nests were classed into weekly intervals. The initiation dates of nests found during laying were calculated by allowing one egg laid per day. For nests found after laying, the initiation date was based on the date of hatch, assuming a 23-day incubation period and one egg laid per day. Dates of hatch were also grouped into weekly intervals, and hatch was defined as the time at which all eggs had hatched. A successful nest was considered to be a nest in which one or more eggs hatched. Average clutch size and hatching success calculations were based on data from successful nests only. Brood counts were made during regular weekly counts. To determine hunting pressure and harvest levels of coots, wing barrels with appropriate signs were placed at waterfowl hunting areas in Colorado. In addition, a questionnaire (Appendix) was designed to investigate hunter attitudes. Students from the Colorado State University Wildlife Techniques class were assigned to check stations to question hunters leaving the Wellington State Wildlife Area on the opening weekend of the waterfowl season. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Four study areas were selected, one representing the eastern plains region, two representing intermountain valleys, and one west of the Continental Divide. The Beebe Draw study area is in Weld County, T4N, R65W, Section 34, at an elevation of 1,446 m. The dominant emergent vegetation consisted of cattails. Estimates of total wetland area and the emergent components for Beebe Draw and the other study areas are presented in Table 1. For all areas, Scirpus spp. refers primarily to hardstem bulrush (Scirpus acutus) and softstem bulrush (~. validus). For Lake John and Hog Lake, total areas given in Table 1 represent that area searched for nesting coots. Total area in these two study areas, including broad expanses of open water and emergents not searched, was approximately 100 ha and 52 ha, respectively. Aquatic sampling at Beebe Draw indicated the dominant aquatic was Ceratophyllum demersum. Potamogeton spp. were found at only 45 percent of the sampling stations with a density rating of sparse at each. Maximum water depth was 2.3 m and fluctuated approximately 120 cm between April 1977 to March 1978. The substrate consisted of sand and loamy sand. The Lake John Annex study area is in Jackson County, north central Colorado, T9N, R81W, Section 2, at an elevation of 2,500 m. Scirpus spp. represented the dominant emergent. The dominant aquatics were Char a spp. and Potamogeton pectinatus. Maximum water depth and fluctuation were 1.2 m and 50 cm, respectively. The substrate was composed primarily of sandy loam and silty clay loam. �-88- of four study areas, Colorado, 1977.1/ Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Typha spp. 3.45/47•9 0.01/0.4 0.4/44•4 0.04/1.2 Scirpus spp. 1.03/ 2.76/99•6 0.34/37•8 2.06/61.5 2.26/31.4 0/0 0/0 0/ 0.46/6.4 0/0 0.16/17•8 Total Area of Emergents 7.20 2.77 0.90 3.35 Total Area of Open Water and Emergents 16.7 18.1 14.4 24.4 Table 1. Vegetational Sciq~us americanus Other 1/ - Upper number emergents. components • 14 3 area in hectares, lower number percentage 0 1.25/ . 37 3 of total Ice Pond, near Buena Vista, is in Chaffee County in the central mountain region of Colorado, T13S, R78W, Sections 5, 6, 7, 8. Elevation is 2,425 m. Emergents consisted of nearly equal proportions of Typha spp. and Scirpus spp., and lesser amounts of spikerush (Eleocharis macrostachya), rushes (Juncus balticus), and sedges (Carex spp.). Aquatic growth at Ice Pond was the most abundant of all study areas; species present were Myriophyllum exa1bescens, Polygonum amphibium, Potamogeton filaformis, and Ranunculus aquati1is. All received moderate to dense ratings. Maximum water depth and fluctuation were 1.5 m and 7.5 cm, respectively. Information concerning a soil survey for the Ice Pond area has not yet been obtained, transects indicated a sand and gravel bottom. The Hog Lake study area is in Moffat County, in extreme northwestern Colorado, TlON, Rl03W, Section 9. It is part of Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge. Elevation is 1,634 m. Scirpus spp. represented the dominant emergent. The common reed (Phragmites communis) and salt grass (Distichlis stricta) were also present, growing as emergents. Myriophyllum exalbescens, Potamogeton pectinatus and ~. vaginatus were common aquatics. Maximum water depth and fluctuations were 1.6 m and 25 cm, respectively. No soil survey exists for the Hog Lake area; aquatic transects indicated a silt and clay substrate. Water samples taken on all study areas during the 27 June to 1 July period indicated basic water (pH>7.0) in every instance (Table 2). �Table 2. Results of water analysis, coot study areas, June 1977.1/ Study Area Free Acidity Total Acidity Phenolphthalein Alkalinity Total Alkalinity Hardness pH Beebe Draw 0 17 0 308 410 9.3 Lake John Annex 0 0 0 120 513 10 Ice Pond 0 11 0 103 103 8.9 Hog Lake 0 0 34 239 599 9.8 I cc \0 I 1/ Except for pH, all results are expressed as mg of CaC03/liter of H2O. �-90- In order to standardize comparisons and facilitate evaluations between areas, each study area was classified according to the new wetlands and deep water habitat classification system for the United States (Cowardin et ale 1977). Under this system, it was necessary to divide Lake John Annex, Ice Pond, and Hog Lake into two systems, one representing the lake-like portions, the other the marsh portions (Table 3). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Status Data obtained from 107 returned questionnaires, field investigations, and published records were compiled to determine coot distribution and status according to the latilong system (Table 4). Coots were found to breed throughout most of Colorado. Major breeding areas were Brown's Park on the western slope, North Park, and the San Luis Valley. On the plains, coots were locally abundant where suitable habitat occurred. Nesting coots were primarily associated with cattail or bulrush marshes. Small numbers may breed in high altitude lakes dominated by sedges or willows (Salix spp.), such as Lake San Cristobal near Lake City or Beaver Lake near Marble. Coots were resident year round in low numbers «1,000) mainly along the western boundary of the plains, from near Fort Collins south to the Pueblo area. The presence of wintering coots was dependent on the severity of winter weather. Coots, present in the Fort Collins area durLng the winter of 1976-77, were absent during the 1977-78 winter when water areas froze over. Spring Migration Weekly counts were initiated in 1977 to determine timing of migration at only two areas, Beebe Draw and Lake John. Restrictions due to course requirements limited visits to Ice Pond, while Hog Lake was not selected as a study area until well after spring migration had ended. The first signs of migrational movement in 1977 were noted at Beebe Draw during the 14-20 March period (Table 5). Peak numbers were recorded during the week of 11-17 April. Coots first arrived in the North Park area during the week of 4-10 April. Migration pe2ked during the 18-24 April period, one week later than at Beebe Draw. At both locations, coot numbers decreased and then stabilized by the third week after the peak had occurred. The range of migrational movement extended over seven weeks at Beebe Draw, but only five weeks at Lake John. Ice Pond was first visited on 25 April, weeks after ice thaw and the arrival of coots. It is assumed the peak of migration occurred prior to 25 April. Hog Lake was not visited until 23 May, when 200 coots were observed. However, counts by Refuge personnel over the 14 March to 22 May period give some indication of coot movements. It would appear coots first arrived at Hog Lake during the first two weeks of March, and peaked during the first two or three weeks of April. �Table 3. Wetlands and deep water habitat classifications of study areas. Area System Subsystem Class Subclass Dominance Type Water Regime Semiperm. flooded Beebe Draw Palustrine None Emergent wetland Persistent Typha spp. Scirpus spp. Lake John Annex Pauls trine None Emergent wetland Persistent Scirp_u_~a_c_1..!~'!~Semiperm. flooded Lacustrine Littoral Aquatic bed Submerged algal Cha~a spp. Perm. flooded Palustrine None Emergent wetland Persistent Typha spp. Scirpus spp. Perm. flooded Lacustrine Littoral Aquatic bed Submerged vascular MxrioEhxllum exalbescens Polygonum amEhibium Perm. flooded Palustrine None Emergent wetland Persistent Scirpus acutus Semiperm. flooded Lacustrine Littoral Aquatic bed Submerged vascular M~rioEhxllum exalbescens Potamogeton spp. Perm. flooded Ice Pond Hog Lake I 1.0 I-' I �-92- and status in Colorado.-1/ Table 4. Coot distribution B B B R R B B B B B R R R R B B B b R R B B R B B B b B 1/ Classification by latilong blocks follows the system of Kingery and Graul R = resident year round, B = breeding, b = very likely breeding, bird found in suitable habitat. 1978. Counts conducted in 1978 indicated migrational movements beginning by midMarch on two areas, and somewhat sooner at Hog Lake (Table 6). Lake John was still frozen on 31 March. Water levels at Beebe Draw were extremely low, supposedly in preparation for dragline operations. The extent to which this might affect migration is unknown, therefore marshes peripheral to Beebe Draw will be monitored. Nesting By the end of August, 211 nests had been located; 77 at Beebe Draw, 67 at Lake John Annex, 30 at Ice Pond, and 37 at Hog Lake. Tables 7 and 8 present nesting chronology of coots on all study areas. Hog Lake was not searched until after the peak of hatch occurred, therefore data from that area are not comparable. At Beebe Draw, the peak of nest initiation occurred during the week of 25 April, at Lake John the peak occurred during the week of 6 June, six weeks later than at Beebe Draw. The peak was less distinct at Ice Pond, with six nests initiated during the week of 9 May. Due to the small number of nests for which initiation dates could be determined, the peak was unknown for Hog Lake. Hatching was completed by the end of July on all areas except Hog Lake. One nest was still active there on 2 August. This nest hatched successfully. The peak of hatch occurred during the week of 30 May for Beebe Draw, 4 July for Lake John, and 30 May through 12 June at Ice Pond. The first complete search of Hog Lake was made on 7 June, at which time 19 of 32 nests located had already hatched. This would indicate a nesting season well ahead of Lake John and possibly similar to Beebe Draw. Table 9 presents a summary of coot breeding data. Table 10 illustrates the frequency distribution of clutch size. These data show variability in modal clutch size from a high of nine for Beebe Draw to a low of six for Lake John. Over 90 percent of the nests contained 5 to 11 eggs each. �Table 5. Coot numbers observed during spring migration on study areas, 1977. Week Beginning AEril 11 18 25 2 9 16 23 115 81 54 50 95 394 172 172 199 75 85 280 200 Location 14 March 21 Beebe Draw 15 58 105 132 178 168 Lake John - - - - }j 146 851 706 Ice Pond - - - - - - 305 2/ Hog Lake - 100 - 500 - 680 28 4 I May I '" W I ~/ Coots first arrived in North Park (C. Braun, pers. comm.). 2/ - Counts from 14 March to 16 May conducted by Refuge personnel. 345 �-94- Table 6. Location Beebe Draw Coot numbers observed during weekly counts, Colorado, 27 February 0 Week Beginning 6 March 13 March 0 1978. 20 March 5 11 Lake John 0 0 Ice Pond 31 79 179 307 Hog LakJJ 5 35 1/ - Counts for weeks beginning 27 February and 6 March conducted by Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge personnel. The fate of coot nests and eggs in 1977 was examined to delineate losses (Tables 11, 12). Overall nesting success was 82 percent. For all study areas, approximately 76 percent of the unsuccessful nests were destroyed by predators. This was especially apparent at Lake John where about 88 percent of the unsuccessful nests were destroyed. High nesting success of coots is often attributed to defense of the nest by both adults and the nest location over water. However, predation was the major cause of nest failure in this study in 1977. Most egg loss was attributed to predation and desertion. Desertion may have been human or predator induced, or the result of infertile or addled eggs. In addition, eggs found in the water may have been infertile or addled. Crawford (1975) found that frequent nest checks did not cause excessive egg abandonment. At Lake John almost 39 percent of all eggs laid were lost, compared to an average of less than 12 percent for all other areas. The average number of coot eggs lost per successful nest of known size was 0.80. When unsuccessful nests were included, the average number of eggs lost per nest increased to 1.47. Statistical analyses of selected breeding data were conducted to determine if differences existed between study areas. Average clutch size varied from a high of 8.7 for Beebe Draw to a low of 6.5 for Hog Lake. Tests for analysis of variance followed by a Student-Newman-Keuls multiple range test (Sokal and Rohlf 1969) indicated a significant difference existed (P<0.05) in clutch size only between Beebe Draw and Hog Lake. Nest data from Hog Lake were derived from late season nests which probably accounts for the difference. Other investigators (Crawford 1975, Fredrickson 1970, Gullion 1954) reported that clutch size of coots varied seasonally. An examination of clutch size in relation to date of nest Lnf.t La t Lon suggested a decrease in clutch size as the season progressed. For example, weekly average clutch size at Beebe Draw decreased from a high of 9.7 early in the season to a low of 5.0 late in the season (Table 13). �Table 7. Number of coot nests initiated per week on four study areas, Colorado, 1977. Week Beginning 30 May 6 June 13 Jun 20 Jun 27 June 4 Ju1 11 Ju1 18 Ju1 18 Apr 25 Apr 2 May 9 May 16 May 23 May Beebe Draw 1 17 14 14 10 2 3 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lake John 0 0 3 0 3 12 13 19 10 3 0 0 1 1 Ice Pond 0 5 3 6 5 4 0 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 Hog Lake ? ? ? 3 ? 2 1 ? 2 0 0 0 0 0 Area I 1.0 VI I Table 8. Number of coot nests hatching per week on four study areas, Colorado, 1977. Week Beginning 20 June 13 June ------- --- 4 July 11 July 18 July 5 2 5 0 0 2 8 8 13 9 1 6 5 4 2 1 2 1 5 3 1 2 0 2 0 30 May Beebe Draw 10 23 15 7 Lake John 0 0 0 Ice Pond 0 6 Hog Lake ? ? Area ~~--. 27 June 23 May 6 June �Table 9. Coot breeding data, Colorado, 1977. Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Overall Number of nests 77 67 30 37 211 Successful 69 41 27 36 173 89.6 61.2 90.0 97.3 82.0 546 326 212 52 1,136 8.7 + 1.9 8.0 + 2.2 7.8 + 2.8 6.5 + 1.0 8.2 + 2.2 3-14 4-16 2-14 5-8 2-16 26 59 21 5 111 95.2 81.9 90.1 90.4 90.2 Nesting nests success (%) 1/ Number of eggsAverage clutch siz~/ Range of clutch sizes Number of unhatched Hatching success 3/ eggs- (%) 1/ Number of eggs based on successful Pond, and 8 - Hog Lake. 1/ Mean + one standard 3/ - Number of unhatched deviation nests of known size: 63 - Beebe Draw; 41 - Lake John, 27 - Ice of mean. eggs for successful nests only. I \0 0\ I �-97- Table 10. 1977 . Frequency of occurrence of clutch size for the coot in Colorado, Clutch Size Beebe Draw Ice Pond Lake John Hog Lake Overall Percent 2 0 1 0 0 1 0.7 3 1 1 0 0 2 1.4 4 3 0 1 0 4 2.9 5 1 3 2 2 8 5.8 6 3 3 10 1 17 12.2 7 7 2 7 4 20 14.4 8 11 9 7 1 28 20.1 9 14 1 6 0 21 15.1 10 12 2 3 0 17 12.2 11 9 3 3 0 15 10.8 12 1 1 0 0 2 1.4 13 0 0 0 0 0 14 1 1 1 0 3 15 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0 1 0 1 2.2 0.7 �-98- Table 11. Fate of coot nests, four study areas, Colorado, 1977. Number of Nests Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Nest Fate Beebe Draw Successful 69 41 27 36 173 Unsuccessful 8 26 3 1 38 Lost to Predators 5 23 0 1 29 Avian 0 2 0 0 2 Manunalian 1 0 0 0 1 Unknown 4 21 0 1 26 1 3 1 0 5 2 0 2 0 4 77 67 30 37 211 Deserted Unknown failure Total nests Total �-99- Table 12. Fate of coot eggs, four study areas, Colorado, Number of Eggs Lake John Ice Pond 1/ 1977.- Hog Lake Total 191 47 1,025 98 o o 126 o 5 o o 5 Mammalian 9 o o o 9 Unknown 19 93 o o 112 Deserted 10 38 13 3 64 Dead embryo 2 o o o 2 Buried in nest o 2 o o 2 In water 8 17 4 1 30 Broken 1 2 2 o 5 16 11 10 1 38 Total lost 65 168 29 5 267 Total laid 585 435 220 52 1,292 Egg Fate Beebe Draw Hatched 520 267 Lost to predators 28 Avian Unknown loss -1/Eggs from successful and unsuccessful nests of known size only. nests, except Hog Lake - successful �-100- Table 13. 1977 . Clutch Size Clutch size in relation to date of nest initiation, Beebe Draw, Week Beginning IS Apr 25 Apr 2 May 9 May 14 16 May 23 May 30 May 6 June 1 1 2 1 13 12 1 11 3 5 1 10 5 2 5 6 2 3 2 2 2 3 4 9 1 S 7 1 2 6 2 5 1 1 4 2 3 1 1 N=l N=17 N=13 N=14 N=9 N=l N=3 N=5 x=9.0 x=9.7 x=9.5 x=S.S x=S.4 x=7.0 x=5.0 x=5.4 �-101- T-tests for differences in average clutch size before and after the median date of nest initiation at Beebe Draw and Ice Pond indicated a highly significant decrease (P<O.Ol) in clutch size on both areas. Data from Hog Lake could not be tested because they were incomplete. Data from Lake John were not tested due to predation and probable renesting, which may have affected clutch size. On each visit to a nest, the height of the eggs above the water was measured to examine effects of water fluctuations on nest survival. Field observations indicated that coots increased the height of the nest and eggs above water as the laying-incubation period progressed. At-test indicated a highly significant increase (P<O.Ol) in the average height of the eggs above water from the time of nest initiation to late in incubation. A basic assumption was that nests were free to move up or down with the supporting vegetation as water levels fluctuated. Field observations supported this assumption, no nest failure or egg loss could be attributed to water level changes. Habitat Use Table 14 presents number and percentage of nests by cover type. Overall, Scirpus was the preferred nest cover type. At Beebe Draw, 61 percent of nests found were in cattail, which represented about 48 percent of the emergent cover. Scirpus (about 14 percent of emergent cover), was utilized to an extent greater than its occurrence, having about 31 percent of the nests. A similar situation existed at Ice Pond. Bulrush was the only nesting cover utilized at Lake John. At Hog Lake, the majority of nests were found in bulrush, which represented the dominant robust emergent. It should be noted however, that nearly every stand of cattail at Hog Lake contained a coot nest. Table 14. Number and percentage areas, Colorado, 1977. !/ of coot nests by cover type of four study Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Overall Scirpus spp. 24/31.2 67/100 18/60.0 34/91•9 143/67.8 Typha spp. 47/61.0 0/0 10/33•3 3/8•1 60/28•4 6/7.8 0/0 1/3.3 0/0 7/3•3 0/0 0/0 1/3•3 0/ 1/0.5 Scirpus and Typha Mixture Other 1/ Upper number number of nests, lower number percentage 0 of nests. �-102- Nest cover type in relation to date of initiation was examined for Ice Pond and Beebe Draw (Table 15). Aproximately 89 percent of the nests initiated before the peak at Beebe Draw were in cattail. No such preference was noted at Ice Pond. After the peak of nest initiation, cover preference became less distinct. Table 15. Nest cover type in relation to date of nest initiation.!/ Before Peak After Peak Scirpus spp. 1/7 18/ Typha spp. 16/7 26/ 1/0 4/1 0/0 0/1 Scirpus and Typha Carex spp. 1/ Upper number Mixture nests at Beebe Draw, lower number 11 3 nests at Ice Pond. Characteristics of cover utilized by coots at nest sites are illustrated in Tables 16-18. Measurements recorded and analyzed were taken at the time nests were first located to illustrate conditions at the time of nest initiation. Nests found late in the hatch or after hatching were not included. The numbers 0-4 (Table 16) indicate concealment afforded by the vegetation at the nest site on none, one, two, three, or four sides. The classifications lA, 2A, 3A, 4A, indicate concealment on one side and from above, two sides and above, etc. The average height of vegetation at the nest site was: Beebe Draw - 60.2 cm, Lake John - 38.7 cm, Ice Pond - 76.8 cm, and Hog Lake - 62.5 cm. Table 17 indicates water depth by class at the nest site. The average depth at the nest was: Beebe Draw - 71.0 cm, Lake John - 50.5 cm, Ice Pond - 36.2 cm, and Hog Lake - 36.2 cm. The distance from the nest to open water by class is indicated in Table 18. The average distance of the nest from open water was: Beebe Draw - 8.2 m, Lake John 4.4 m, Ice Pond - 3.1 m, and Hog Lake - 3.7. Nest site measurements at Lake John indicated many nests were located in poor cover and in shallow water compared to other areas. These factors may have allowed better nest visibility and accessibility to predators and resulted in the high nest failure at Lake John. Chi-square tests indicated nest success or failure was independent of both cover class and water depth class (P>0.05). However, the strength of the independence of the cover class-nest success or failure relationship was not great enough to warrant complete acceptance (0.05<P<0.10). �-103- Table 16. Concealment at coot nest sites, four study areas, Colorado, 1977. Sides Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake 0 1 29 0 2 1 7 5 0 1 2 11 10 0 1 3 12 9 6 0 4 17 2 6 1 1A 0 0 0 0 2A 1 2 0 0 3A 6 2 3 0 4A 20 8 15 2 Table 17. 1977 . Depth Number of coot nests by water depth, four study areas, Colorado, Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake 0-50 cm 1 38 27 14 50-100 cm 71 25 2 o >100 cm 4 4 1 o Table 18.' Number of coot nests by distance areas, Colorado, 1977. Distance from open water, four study Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake 0-2 m 10 34 17 16 2-4 m 16 7 5 14 >4 m 51 26 8 7 �-104- Breeding Densities Breeding densities (Table 19) were based on the number of successful nests per hectare of emergent habitat. In addition, the breeding density within a given emergent component was examined. Density based on total emergent area included species which were little used or not used for nesting, i.e., Carex spp., Distichlis stricta, Eleocharis spp., Phragmites communis, and Scirpus americanus. A better comparison of breeding densities between areas is one based on the common robust emergents, i.e" Scirpus and Typha spp. On that basis, the breeding densities for three study areas were similar with that for Ice Pond being at least twice as great. The reasons for this are unclear. Ryder (1958), Weller and Spatcher (1965), and Weller and Fredrickson (1973) noted that coots were most abundant at a cover-water ratio of 50:50. Sparsely vegetated marshes with numerous pools of open water appeared most attractive to nesting coots. None of the marshes in this study had a cover-water ratio of 50:50. Table 19. Breeding emergent habitat. density as number of successful nests per hectare of Cover Type Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Scirpus spp. 16.5 14.8 47.0 16.0 Typha sPP. 13 .6 0 22.5 75.0 Combined Scirpus and Typha 15.4 14.8 35.1 17.1 Carex spp. 0 0 16.7 0 Total Emergents 9.6 14.8 30.0 10.7 In March and April 1977, segments of the emergent zone at Beebe Draw were burned. Burning failed to kill any of the emergents, but did clear most litter from the previous year's growth. The burned area of 3.13 ha consisted mostly of Scirpus americanus. No nests were found in the three-square, although brood platforms and foraging broods were observed. Six nests (representing all the nests found in the burned area) were found in 0.73 ha of burned cattail. The resultant breeding density of 8.2 for the burned cattail was substantially less than that of the remaining unburned cattail and bulrush with 16.9 successful nests per hectare. Nests in burned areas were initiated somewhat later than most other nests, possibly due to the lack of cover before new vegetative growth had sufficiently developed. �-105~ The owners of Beebe Draw have undertaken an emergent removal program. In September a portion of the emergents along the west shore were removed using a dragline. In December the water was drawn down. Future plans include use of the dragline along the south shore. If completed,it will allow comparison of coot breeding densities before and after treatment. However, by the last week of March 1978 operations had not commenced. Brood Counts Brood counts of coots were initiated on all areas during June and continued through August. Results were difficult to interpret. Gullion (1956) suggested caution in the evaluation of brood counts. He cited the tendency of parent coots to split up the brood and to feed them in different parts of their territory, often hidden from view. Another problem was the difficulty in distinguishing beteen adults and older immatures over long distances and often poor light conditions involved. The largest number of young recorded on one occasion was 76 for Beebe Draw, 17 for Lake John, 76 for Ice Pond, and 97 for Hog Lake. The low number of immatures recorded at Lake John could possibly indicate poor brood survival. Fall Migration Weekly counts were conducted to determine summer movements and initiation of migration (Table 20). Counts at Beebe Draw indicated decreasing numbers of coots through July and continuing low numbers through most of August. However, three marshes adjacent to Beebe Draw showed substantial increases beginning in August, continuing into September, with each holding up to 150 coots. This may represent a late summer influx from other areas and/or movement from Beebe Draw in response to an apparent poor supply of ~quatic vegetation. Coot numbers increased gradually at Ice Pond beginning in late August, and fluctuated at Hog Lake after an initial influx in June. A considerable buildup was observed at Lake John starting in early August. Fall migration peaked during the week beginning 12 September at Beebe Draw and Ice Pond, and the week of 19 September at Lake John. The peak occurred earlier at Hog Lake with high numbers recorded during the weeks of 22 August and 5 September. Counts were discontinued on all study areas by the end of October. An attempt to visit all study areas on 19-20 November was cut short due to a winter storm. Ice Pond was visited on 19 November, it was still ice free and eight coots were present. Correspondence with Brown's Park personnel indicated only 45-50 coots were still present on Hog Lake by 11 November. Harvest In Colorado, waterfowl harvest records are derived from mail surveys sent to approximately three percent of the small game license buyers. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest surveys from 1954 through 1972 did not give specific harvest figures for coots, but instead grouped them in the category of "Others ��-107- and Unknown." This group included coots, mergansers, goldeneyes,buffleheads and unknowns. Data from more recent small game harvest surveys are presented in Table 21 (H. Riffel, pers. corum.). An estimated 4,645 coots were harvested in Colorado in 1976 (Sorensen et al. 1977). Despite liberal daily bag limits of 15 and 25 in the Central and Pacific Flyways,respectively, coot harvest is low in Colorado. Table 21. Year Coot harvest in Colorado Estimated 1973-76. Harvest Percent of Duck Harvest 1973 4,579 1.50 1974 5,054 1.41 1975 2,924 1.16 1976 4,645 2.29 To further determine hunting pressure and harvest levels of coots, wing barrels with appropriate signs were placed at Lake John (1), Walden Reservoir (2), Cowdrey (1), MacFarlane Reservoir (1), Antero Reservoir (1), Hog Lake (1), and Wellington (2). Wings deposited in barrels over the 1-14 October period indicated a harvest of 443 ducks and eight coots, or a coot harvest representing 1. 8 percent of the duck harvest. To investigate hunter attitudes, wildlife students from Colorado State University questioned hunters at the Wellington State Wildlife Area on 1-2 October 1977. Of 86 hunters polled, only 15 indicated they normally hunt coots. Of the remainder, 36 cited bad taste as the reason for not hunting coots. The general concensus was that coots were not worth shooting and that ducks were preferred. The results were imilar to those obtained at Wellington in 1976 when only 11 of 54 hunters indicated they normally hunted coots. LITERATURE CITED Atlantic Waterfowl Council. 1972. Techniques handbook of waterfowl development and management. Habitat Development and Management Atlantic Waterfowl Council. 217 pp. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. Nat. Hist., Denver. Vol. I. 1965. Birds of Colorado. 454 pp. habitat Corum. Denver Mus. 1977. ClassifiCowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. cation of wetlands and deep-water habitats of the United States. (An operational draft). U. S. Fish. Wi1dl. Servo 100 pp. �-108- Crawford, R. D. 1975. Breeding biology of American coots in relation to age. Ph. D. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 42 pp. Fredrickson, L. H. 1970. Breeding biology of American coots in Iowa.. Wilson Bull. 82(4):445-457. _____ , J. M. Anderson, F. M. Kozlik, and R. A. Ryder. 1977. American coot (Fulica americana). Pages 123-147 in G. C. Sanderson, ed. Management of migratory shore and upland game birds in North America. Int. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies. Washington, DC. Gullion, G. w. 1954. The reproductive cycle of American coots in California. Auk 71(4):366-412. 1956. An observation concerning the validity of coot brood counts. J. Wildl. Manage. 20(4):465-466. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Swallow Press, Inc. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Chicago. 666 pp. 2nd Ed. The Kingery, H. E., and W. D. Graul, eds. 1978. Colorado bird distribution latilong study. Colo. Field Ornithologists and Colo. Div. Wildl. Denver. 58 pp. Ryder, R. A. Thesis. 1958. Coot-waterfowl relationships in northern Utah. Utah State Univ., Logan. 219 pp. Sclater, W. L. 1912. A history of the birds of Colorado. Co. London. 576 pp. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. San Francisco. 776 pp. 1969. Biometry. Ph. D. Witherby and W. H. Freeman and Company. Sorensen, M. F., S. M. Carney, and E. M. Martin. 1977. Waterfowl harvest and hunter activity in the United States during the 1976 hunting season. U. S. Fish Wildl. Servo Admin. Rep. 26 pp. Weller, M. W., and L. H. Fredrickson. 1973. Avian ecology of a managed glacial marsh. The Living Bird 12:269-291. Weller, M. W., and C. S. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Iowa State Univ. Agr. and Home Econ. Exp. Sta., Spec. Rep. 43:269-291. Prepared byJt/~dJ~ ~ Warner Paul Gorenzel Graduate Research Asst. Approved bY_--=~_~---=----_" --=2.==----_" ..LL~~~::::::::..:::=::.. Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ �-109- APPENDIX �-rioSURVEY OF COOTS IN COLORADO 1. District 2~ To your knowledge, do coots occur in your present district? Yes___ If no, please answer number 9 only and return survey form. 3. If coots are known to occur in your district, please list major loeations where they have been observed~ _ 40 Please list wetlands pairs of coots 50 Which wetland vegetation types occur where you see coots during June and July (Leo cattails, bulrush, willow" etc.?) _ 6. WhiCh month(s) ~----------------------------------------------------------No where you have observed at least 10-15 or more breeding ~ _ of the year are coots most commonly present in your district? 10 Have you encountered coots in your district during 1 December through 31 March? 8. 9.. Yes No If yess where? _ Have you encountered any hunters who retain coots in the bag in your district? Yes_ No • If yes, where? _ 0 List any major tvetlands in your district where you de not normally observe coots _ �-111- Survey of Coots in Colorado 1. COl.mty(or counties) _ 2. To your knowledge, do coots occur in the area you listed above? ._-- Yes No If no, please answer mnnber 8 only and return survey form. 3. Do coots breed :in your area? If yes, please list Yes No _ wetlands where you have observed at least 10-15 or nore breeding pairs of coots ° Please be specific. 4. Please llst 5. Whichwetland vegetation types occur where you see coots during June and July (i.e. cattails, bulrush, willow, etc,o) other major areas where coots have been observed. _ 6. Whichmonth(s) of the year are coots mist carmonly present in your area?_· -------- 1. Are coots present :in your area during most or all of the 1 December through 31 Marchperiod? 8. Yes No If yes, where? List any major wetlands in your area where you do not normally observe coots. -------------------------------------- �-112- Observer -------------------------------~ Date Location -------~-------------Time Estimated Cloud Cover -------~% Wind: None Precip: Medium Strong Rain Mist Sleet Gusty Hail Hrs. FO or CO Temp Light None to_____ Direction Snow Fog Steady Intermit Number Observed: Coots Adults -------- ----------- Imma---------------- Ducks: Mal Pin GHT BWT Cin Teal Gad Wid sMv ---- Geese Rud Buffl Red Scaup Ringneck _ Other _ _ G-Eye. _ Can ------------------------------ Other Speci es : Other Conditions, Changes, Comments: _ ----------------------------- May 1977 �Check Station # Location Date T~e St~rt . Name of Observer Time Stop ------------------ ASK ALL HUNTERS LEAVING WITH COOTS: Do you normally hunt coots? - If no, why? Comments ------------------------- /I Bagged (/Hit Not Retrieved ASK ALL HUNTERS LEAVING WITHOUT COOTSz Hra. Spent Hunting Do you ever hunt coots? If no , why? Comments Hrs. Spent Hunting -- I lI\,...; I � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/09d9199472e82046fcef429028483674.pdf 7fbc758cdf99f4be7ba0806f343a72eb PDF Text Text January, -1- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Bighorn W-41-R-28 1979 Sheep and Mt. Goat Investigations Job No. 16 1 Evaluation of Trace Mineral Availability ~t~o~B~l~·cgh~o~r~n~S~h~e~e~p~o~n~~W~i~n~t~e~r~R~a~n~ga=e~s~i~n~C~o~l~o~r~a~d -_ ----------~--------------------- Covered: June 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Personnel: Robert E. Keiss ABSTRACT ...I'r ace mineral formulations were d ave Loped and tested for animal preference and physiological effect upon the animal. It became increasingly difficult to evaluate the effects of trace mineral supplementation on a wild ruminant population so two biological parameters were tested to measure the amount of trace mineral and do preliminary evaluations as to the feasibility of using these for biological measurements. Deer and elk hair samples collected from throughout Colorado were evaluated for trace mineral content as well as bighorn'sheep,fecal samples. -: ,,: ... ,:". ~:.;,. ��-3- Evaluation of Trace Mineral Availability to Bighorn Sheep on Winter Ranges in Colorado Robert E. Keiss P. N. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is primarily directed towards evaluating certain nutritional supplements on bighorn sheep herds in an effort to improve lamb survival and viability of bighorn sheep to bring about an overall increase in the total numbers of animals within the State of Colorado. These general objectives will be attempted by implementing and evaluating the following: 1. Develop trace mineral formulations which will be used and accepted by bighorn sheep on their native ranges. 2. Measure the amount of each mineral mix formulation used by bighorn sheep herds to ascertain seasonal preferences and consumption. 3. Plan research facilities which can be used for trace mineral metabolism studies in bighorn sheep. These facilities will be utilized to measure the nutritional requirements of bighorn sheep. 4. Evaluate the possibility of using trace mineral mixes and the establishment of "artificial mineral licks" as a possible carrier for chemotherapeutic drugs for treatment of bighorn sheep against Protostrongylus infestation. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Formulate a trace mineral mix which can be placed on bighorn sheep winter ranges to supplement the nutritional trace mineral requirements of bighorns. 2. Measure the amounts of trace mineral mix consumed by bighorn determine seasonal preferences. sheep and 3. Measure trace mineral content of bighorn fecal content to potential trace mineral and relate 4. Determine the effects of trace mineral mix consumption of bighorn sheep. sheep fecal material deficiencies. on the physiology Procedures In their publication, "The Biochemistry of Blue, Snow, and Ross' Geese", Hanson and Jones (1976) state "There are, in effect, three general kinds of approaches to gaining insights into the mineral metabolism of animals: 1) �-4- in vitro studies, exemplified by the use of excised sections of intestine or the incubation of isolated cells, portions of cell membranes or of a specific organelle: 2) laboratory studies using living, but confined, orthodox experimental animals; and 3) studies of free-ranging wild animals, an approach particularly exemplified by investigations of the mineral content of the keratin structures. Although admitting that the objectives and precision of the latter two approaches differ from each other as does also the variability of their environments, the third approach affords the opportunity to profit from the results of an almost infinite number and variety of natural experiments that a lifetime of laboratory work with caged animals could not duplicate." During the last segment of this project (W-41-R-27) procedures were described on the development and utilization of experimental trace mineral supplements for bighorn sheep on winter ranges. Without the benefit of large numbers of bighorn sheep to use as experimental animals and elaborate pen facilities to conduct strictly controlled trace mineral experiments, it has become increasingly difficult to analyze or measure any physiological changes in those animals consuming trace mineral supplements. Several different parameters on the wild-free ranging animal can be measured which will give a index of the animal's mineral status. Among these parameters are hair and feces. During this segment these two parameters were measured in an effort to test the feasibility of using them for detecting trace mineral deficiencies in wild ungulate populations. Hair is composed of keratin and the ability of hair to act as a recording filament of post nutritional state of the animal has been reported by Flyn (1974). It is evident that the mineral content of hair reflects the minerals found in the animals environment and that the use of hair can be used to evaluate the adequacy of the mineral diet. Warner and Anke (1960) found that levels of iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, and cobalt in cattle hair were representative of amounts of these elements in the forages from soils of diverse parent materials. Anke (1967) established the following levels as representative of dietary sufficiency for dairy cattle: magnesium, 750-800 ppm; sodium, 200 ppm; zinc, 115 ppm; manganese, 4.0 ppm; copper, 7 ppm; molybdenum 0.35 ppm; and cobalt, 0.05 ppm. During the 1975 big game hunting season a state-wide collection of hair samples from both deer and elk was made. These samples were collected at big game check stations and an effort was made to collect at least ten samples from male animals from each of the big game management areas where the animals were harvested. Approximately 5 grams of hair was plucked from the hind quarter and placed in paper sacks. These sacks were identified as to game management unit and returned to the Fort Collins laboratory. Hair samples were removed and washed in a mild detergent using an ultrasonic cleaner. The samples were subjected to the cleaner for approximately one minute, followed by a liberal rinsing in tap water. The tap water rinse was followed by 4 changes of distilled water. A final rinsing was made using diethyl ether. These treatments were employed to eliminate exogenous trace minerals on hair. �-5- Approximately 0.5 gm hair was placed in a glass, screw cap test tube and digested using 3 ml of a digestion mixture (2 parts HN03 and 1 part HCL04). Pre-digestion was allowed to proceed overnight with the screw caps loosened on the tubes. The caps were then tightened securely and the tubes placed in a waterbath at 700C and allowed to digest, under pressure, for approximately 4 hours. Appropriate dilutions were made with distilled water and all determinations were made using a Perkin-Elmer 303 atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The following elements were determined from each of the deer and elk hair samples: Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Zinc, Calcium, Potassium, and Sodium. (Manganese levels were below detectable limits for the sample dilutions used). Sample~ were collected on the basis of the Big Game Management Units and all chemical analyses were carried out on these samples. During the data anlaysis phase of this study, it became evident that comparisons of data between animals from these areas was not practical because these game management areas are not necessarily based upon any biological herd basis. All data has been grouped into the Data Analysis Unit areas and comparisons made (Table 1 and 2). Because of this re-grouping of data it resulted in unequal subgroups, but the advantages outweighed the disadvantages. Table 1. Deer Data Analysis Units (DAU). DAU DAU Name and D-l D-2 D-3 D-4 D-6 D-7 Little Snake Bear's Ears North Park Red Feather Rangely White River D-8 D-9 D-lO D-11 D-12 D-l3 D-14 D-15 D-16 D-17 State Bridge Middle Park Boulder Book Cliffs Grand Mesa Maroon Bells Red Tables Cottonwood Creek Cripple Creek Bailey Game Management Units Included (1, 2, 201) (4, 5, 14, 441) (6, 16, 17, 161) (7, 8, 9, 19) (10, 21) (11, 12, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34, l31) (15, 35, 36) (18, 28, 27, 37) (20, 29, 38, 381 ) (30) (41, 42, 52, 411, 521) (43, 47, 471) (44, 45) (48, 56, 481) (49, 57, 58, 581, 59) (39, 46, 50, 51, 391, 461, 501, 500, 511) �-6- Table 1. Deer data anlaysis units. (Continued). DAU DAU D-18 D-19 D-20 D-21 D-22 D-23 D-24 D-25 D-26 D-27 D-29 D-30 D-31 D-32 D-33 Glade Park Uncompahgre Crawford West Elk Taylor Park LaSal Ground Hog Powderhorn Creek Saguache Westcliffe Mesa Verde San Juan Rio Grande Trinidad Great Divide Table 2. Name and DAU E-1 E-2 E-3 E-4 E-5 E-6 Cold Springs Bear's Ears North Park Poudre River Strawberry White River E-7 E-8 E-9 E-14 E-15 E-16 E-17 E-18 Gore Pass Troublesome St. Vrain Yellow Creek Roan Bluffs Piney Williams Fork Grand Mesa Avalanche Creek Frying Pan Collegiate Range Kenosha Pass E-19 Glade Park E-12 E-l3 (40) (61, 62) (53, 63, 64) (54) (55, 551) (60) (70, 71) (65, 66, 67) (68) (69, 82, 84, 86) (72, 73, 74) (75, 77, 78, 751) (76, 79, 80, 81) (83, 85, 112, 851) (3) Elk data analysis units. DAU E-lO E-ll Game Management Units Included Name and Game Management Units Included (201) (4, 5, 14, 441) (6, 7, 16, 161) (8, 19) (11) (12, l3, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 34, l31) (15, 27) (17, 18) (20,29,38,381) (22) (31, 32) (35, 36) (28, 37) (41, 42, 52, 411, 521) (43, 471) (44, 45, 47) (48, 56, 481) (39, 46, 50, 51, 391, 461, 500, 501, 511) (40) �-7- Table 2. Elk data anlaysis units. (Continued). and DAD DAU Name E-20 E-21 E-22 E-23 E-24 Uncompahgre Gunnison River Buffalo Peaks Eleven Mile Disappointment Creek Lake Fork Saguache Sangre de Cristo Grape Creek Mesa Verde Hermosa San Juan Rio Grande Trinchera E-25 E-26 E-27 E-28 E-29 E-30 E-31 E-32 E-33 Game Management Unit Included (61, 62) (63, 64, 53, 54, 55) (49, 57, 58) (58, 59) (70, 71) (65, 66, 67) (68) (82, 86) (69, 84) (72 , 73) (74) (75, 77, 78, 751) (76, 79, 80, 81) (83, 85, 851) Previous studies have established that domestic sheep ingest substantial amounts of soil during their normal grazing activity. (Healy and Ludwig 1965; Healy 1967). These early studies were designed to assess the effects of soil on the wear of the incisor teeth, but since this time other implications of ingestion of soil in large amounts have been studied. These ingested soils serve as an important source of trace mineral in the diets of grazing animals. Analysis of plant materials for trace element content is usually undertaken to measure plant performance or to measure suitability to meet the animal requirements for proper nutrition. Where soil-plant-animal studies are involved the collection of herbage samples free of soil contamination is difficult. This contamination takes the form of surface contamination, soil adhering to roots, earthwQrm casts, etc., but all of these must be considered important in the nutrition of the animal. Ash content of feces from grazing animals gives a measure of soil content and corrections can be made for the ash contribution of undigested herbage. Treatment of ash with dilute acid gives an acid insoluble residue which may serve as a measure of soil content. Collection of feces in the field and determination of acid insoluble residues are discussed by Healy and Ludwig (1965). If feces output and soil content of the feces are known then the quantity of soil ingested per day can be determined. Feces output data are usually available only from experimental animals under controlled conditions and can vary with diet, age of animal, sex of animal, seasonal endocrine rhythms, etc. There are different factors which will influence soil ingestion by grazing animals. Soil type can be very important. Well drained soils which have a �-8- strong structure are associated with low pasture contamination. Soils with a weak structure and poor drainage are associated with high contamination (Healy 1968b). From the pattern of soil ingestion reported in Australia (Arnold 1966) it is likely that physical properties of soils influence the ingestion of soil by grazing animals. The higher the stocking rate the higher the amount of soil ingested (Healy 1968; Arnold 1966). Earthworm populations seem to correlate well with soil ingestion by grazing animals. Earthworms tend to deposit casts upon the soil surface and these can be easily taken by animals grazing close to the grounds. Seasonal variations of soil ingestion where animals are grazing pastures the year around show marked differences. Ingestion is generally higher in winter months when grass growth is poorest. With new plant growth in spring and summer soil ingestion tends to be at the lowest levels. Seasons vary and a wetter than normal spring or fall, or drier summer, may reflect differences in soil intake. In cases where a specific trace mineral could be deficient as a result of inadequate amounts of the element in forage, the deficiency could be made up by soil ingestion. As discussed previously the amount of soil ingested can depend upon soil type, season, management practices, and even differences in individual animals under similar conditions. These factors may explain in part the observations that at times only a percentage of animals in a specific herd will show deficiency symptoms, and that only a percentage of farms on a given soil type are affected. Trace elements in soil are absorbed by the roots of plants, and trace element concentration found in the herbage is a reflection of the soil from which it comes. In addition soil may have a direct effect on animal nutrition by furnishing trace minerals directly. As soil passes through the alimentary tract it is subjected to the full range of influences involved in the digestive process. Conditions in the alimentary tract may increase the availability of elements in the soil so that the element concentration in the digestive liquors may be substantially increased. Decreases in the concentration of an element in the liquors may occur if the soil is capable of absorbing such an element or removes it from solution by incorporation into an insoluble compound. If changes in trace element concentration occurs in the alimentary tract, then ingested soil would be expected to influence blood and tissue composition and the general well-being of the grazing animals. Various factors influencing soil ingestion have been briefly considered and implications for animal health discussed. It is usually considered that soils influence animal nutrition by the quantity and quality of the herbage they produce, so that the classical sequence is soil to plant to animal. However a direct soil to animal effect needs to be taken into consideration because of the ingestion of soil. During this segment a pilot study was designed and implemented in an effort to develop laboratory procedures and test for differences in soil ingestion by bighorn sheep from several different areas in the State. Bighorn fecal samples were collected from the Lodore Canyon - Dinosaur National Monument; �-9- Jump Steady area west of Buena Vista; Love Ranch study area on Chalk Creek; Rampart Range west of Colorado Springs. To test for differences between adult and lamb fecals the two groups were selected from Rocky Mountain National Park. Collections were made in early summer when lamb fecal pellets were easily distinguished from adult fecal pellets by size. Pellet groups were collected from these study areas during June 1977 to minimize seasonal variation. A sample of ten pellet groups were selected from each collection and all analytical procedures were made on these fecal samples. All fecal samples were air dried, ground in a Wiley Mill, and thoroughly mixed prior to processing. A two gram sample of fecal material was placed in a tared Gooch crucible with a frittered glass disc bottom and ashed at 5000C over night. The crucibles were cooled, weighed and the percent ash was calculated as the weight of the residue remaining in the crucible. The acid soluble ash portion of the residue was determined by adding O.IN HCI to the residue and allowing the solution to drain from the crucible. Several changes of acid were added followed by distilled water rinse. The crucibles were then dried to constant weight and the percent acid in soluble ash was computed. Percent organic matter and percent acid soluble ash were computed by difference. A second 2 gm fecal sample was weighed into a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask and 50 ml of 0.1 NHCI added. An additional 50 ml of O.IN HCl was placed in a section of dialysis tubing and each end tied off. This tube was placed in each flask so that the final concentration of the solids to fluid was 1:50. The flasks containing fecal material and O.lNHClwere placed on a rotary shaker and agitated for 24 hours. After this length of time the dialysis tubing was removed and the contents transferred to a screw cap test tube. All trace element determinations were made on this supernatant fluid. A Perkin-Elmer 303 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer was used for the calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, manganese, iron, copper and zinc. Vanadate-molybdate method was used for phosphorus determinations. No statistical descriptions on comparisons of the data have yet been made. Tabular summaries of the raw data are presented in Tables 3-28. The �-10- Table 3. Calcium anlaysis units in Colorado. DAU (ppm) of deer hair samples from data analysis N Nean Standard Deviation Range D-2 Bear's Ears 20 1142 294 714-2036 D-4 Red Feather 39 1434 270 774-2088 D-6 Rangely 8 1257 161 1100-1530 D-7 White River 84 1729 471 916-4404 D-8 State Bridge 38 1588 296 1082-2200 D-9 Niddle 18 1591 432 967-2187 D-I0 Boulder 6 1331 274 991-1726 D-12 Grand Nesa 16 1815 519 896-2651 D-13 Maroon 3 1175 250 941-1439 D-14 Red Tables 9 1414 261 1136-1823 D-15 Cottonwood 4 1081 137 931-1250 D-16 Cripple 26 1553 725 771-3109 D-19 Uncompahgre 28 1043 155 748-l385 D-20 Crawford 23 1528 677 796-2717 D-21 West Elk 4 1248 420 876-1852 D-24 Ground Hog 9 2255 220 1951-2743 D-25 Powder Horn Cr 19 2349 386 1956-3100 D-26 Saguache 3 2285 196 2103-2493 D-27 Westcliffe 8 2307 305 2071-2864 D-30 San Juan 3 2292 499 1926-2861 D-33 Great Divide 12 1056 221 761-1559 Park Bells Creek Creek �-11- Table 4. Magnesium analysis (ppm) of deer hair samples from data analysis units in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range D-2 Bear's Ears 20 331 86 254-655 D-4 Red Feather 39 383 77 228-525 D-6 Rangely 8 391 50 339-490 D-7 White River 84 465 136 243-1132 D-8 State Bridge 38 420 66 302-557 D-9 Middle Park 18 412 101 244-579 D-I0 Boulder 6 323 37 258-366 D-12 Grand Mesa 16 378 76 219-550 D-13 Maroon Bells 3 322 75 238-381 D-14 Red Tables 9 325 55 267-443 D-15 Cottonwood Creek 4 293 45 263-360 D-16 Cripple Creek 26 477 227 180-808 D-19 Uncompahgre 28 318 68 182-474 D-20 Crawford 23 473 240 199-889 D-21 West Elk 4 246 37 204-278 D-24 Ground Hog 9 736 65 585-797 D-25 Powder Horn Cr 19 696 51 612-799 D-26 Saguache 3 711 29 678-729 D-27 Westcliffe 8 717 54 642-783 D-30 San Juan 3 714 49 682-771 D-33 Great Divide 12 282 73 144-419 �-12- Table 5. Sodium analysis (ppm) of deer hair samples from data analysis units in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range D-2 Bear's Ears 20 1187 473 221-2079 D-4 Red Feather 39 728 691 207-2423 D-6 Rangely 8 1916 604 592-2635 D-7 White River 84 457 331 102-1715 D-8 State Bridge 38 801 342 225-1465 D-9 Middle Park 18 653 316 243-1242 D-10 Boulder 6 2320 522 1612-2972 D-12 Grand Mesa 16 942 372 245-1940 D-13 Maroon Bells 3 1389 521 996-1191 D-14 Red Tables 9 1559 657 592-2595 D-15 Cottonwood Creek 4 1930 293 1575-2289 D-16 Cripple Creek 26 778 645 158-2426 D-19 Uncompahgre 28 572 350 181-1877 D-20 Crawford 23 965 836 126-2382 D-21 West Elk 4 1634 124 1466-1752 D-24 Ground Hog 9 195 58 99-285 D-25 Powder Horn er 19 269 108 l38-590 D-26 Saguache 3 213 44 162-241 D-27 Westcliffe 8 238 62 145-326 D-30 San Juan 3 346 III 218-418 D-33 Great Divide 12 971 311 512-1436 �-l3- Table 6. Potassium analysis (ppm) of deer hair samples from data analysis units in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range 0-2 Bear's Ears 20 407 183 122-644 D-4 Red Feather 39 219 138 90-565 D-6 Rangely 8 5lO 144 197-650 0-7 White River 84 118 118 4-643 D-8 State Bridge 38 235 108 75-503 D-9 Middle Park 18 176 143 29-479 D-1O Boulder 6 603 82 549-768 0-12 Grand Mesa 16 278 106 86-514 0-13 Maroon Bells 3 277 50 224-323 D-14 Red Tables 9 449 l31 254-625 0-15 Cottonwood Creek 4 550 lO6 413-648 D-16 Cripple Creek 26 216 157 31-598 D-19 Uncompahgre 28 225 174 60-981 0-20 Crawford 23 268 235 23-621 D-21 West Elk 4 390 87 309-484 0-24 Ground Hog 9 50. 18 28-76 0-25 Powder Horn Cr 19 60 43 24-204 D-26 Saguache 3 44 l3 29-53 D-27 Westcliffe 8 45 20 20-84 0-30 San Juan 3 69 31 35-96 D-33 Great Divide 12 333 98 192-507 �-16- Table 9. Zinc analYSis (ppm) of deer hair samples from data analysis units in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range D-2 Bear's Ears 20 133 12 113-164 D-4 Red Feather 39 131 15 D-6 111-187 Rangely 8 142 8 D-7 132-154 White River 84 141 37 92-357 D-8 State Bridge 38 139 18 112-178 D-9 Middle Park 18 145 11 124-166 D-lO Boulder 6 149 7 141-158 D-12 Grand Mesa 16 137 12 117-162 D-13 Maroon Bells 3 136 6 129-139 D-14 Red Tables 9 149 23 128-202 D-lS Cottonwood Creek 4 128 10 117-142 D-16 Cripple Creek 26 120 14 90-156 D-19 Uncompahgre 28 121 13 94-150 D-20 Crawford 23 130 10 112-157 D-21 West Elk 4 132 18 118-158 D-24 Ground Hog 9 118 6 104-124 D-25 Powder Horn Cr 19 126 IS 104-155 D-26 Saguache 3 114 4 110-118 D-27 Westcliffe 8 127 17 110-161 D-30 San Juan 3 129 12 125-143 D~33 Great Divide 12 127 IS 103-161 �-17- Table units 10. Calcium in Colorado. analysis DAD (ppm) of elk hair samples from data analysis N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear lO 1187 228 693-1566 E-6 White River 10 1105 160 821-1359 E-8 Troublesome lO 1400 307 933-1603 lO 1048 216 681-1304 E...,13Williams Fork E-14 Grand Mesa 10 1296 417 882-2219 E-16 Frying Pan 10 1458 588 929-2290 E-21 Gunnison 10 1462 271 989-1859 E-25 Lake Fork lO 1786 406 1302-2364 E-32 Rio Grande lO 1593 281 1058-2066 River Table 11. Magnesium units in Colorado. analysis (ppm) of elk hair samples from data analysis DAD N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear lO 220 50 118-260 E-6 White River 10 241 28 200-292 E-8 Troublesome lO 258 41 191-321 E-13 Williams 10 225 30 184-278 E-14 Grand Mesa lO 246 43 185-308 E--16 Frying Pan 10 260 62 201-363 E-21 Gunnison 10 263 44 201-236 E-25 Lake Fork lO 314 52 247-427 E-32 Rio Grande 10 275 34 215-323 Fork River �-18Ta0le 12. Sodium analysis (ppm) of elk hair samples from data analysis li3its in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear 10 114 35 54-168 E-6 White River 10 196 63 122-321 E-S Troublesome 10 352 156 149-485 E-13 Williams Fork 10 495 258 153-823 E-14 Grand Mesa 10 393 227 103-667 E-16 Frying Pan 10 386 200 l34-659 E-21 Gunnison River 10 264 147 80-474 E-25 Lake Fork 10 252 164 83-484 E-32 Rio Grande 10 271 195 89-664 Table l3. Potassium analysis (ppm) units in Colorado. of elk hair samples from data analysis DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear 10 195 51 108-279 E-6 White River 10 328 92 209-503 E-S Troublesome 10 538 294 128-920 E-13 Williams Fork 10 765 368 241-1257 E-14 Grand Mesa 10 837 354 206-1266 E-16 Frying Pan 10 543 268 175-762 E-21 Gunnison River 10 394 275 76-809 E-25 Lake Fork 10 327 237 125-753 E-32 Rio Grande 10 331 219 93-685 �-19- Table 14. Iron analysis (ppm) of elk hair samples from data analysis units in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear 10 33 18 11-81 E-6 White River 10 53 21 20-97 E-8 Troublesome 10 33 12 13-50 E-13 Williams Fork 10 42 19 17-65 E-14 Grand Mesa 10 52 20 31-99 E-16 Frying Pan 10 51 16 35-73 E-21 Gunnison River 10 49 22 20-87 E-25 Lake Fork 10 20 9 11-37 E-32 Rio Grande 10 25 12 15-46 Table 15. Copper analysis (ppm) of elk hair samples from data analysis units in Colorado. DAU N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear 10 15 l3 5-47 E-6 White River 10 7 2 5-10 E-8 Troublesome 10 14 4 8-21 E-13 Williams Fork 10 l3 4 7-20 E-14 Grand Mesa 10 15 6 9-26 E-16 Frying Pan 10 16 7 8-26 E-21 Gunnison River 10 21 4 16-28 E-25 Lake Fork 10 21 5 10-29 E-32 Rio Grande 10 22 5 16-26 �-20- Table 16. Zinc analysis in Colorado. (ppm) of elk hair samples from data analysis DAD N Mean Standard Deviation Range E-2 Bear's Ear 10 75 27 56-146 E-6 White River 10 63 10 44-79 E-8 Troublesome 10 66 6 60-80 E-l3 Williams 10 63 3 56-67 E-14 Grand Mesa 10 63 7 52-77 E-16 Frying Pan 10 53 25 54-73 E-21 Gunnison 10 62 4 57-68 E-25 Lake Fork 10 60 5 53-68 E-32 Rio Grande 10 61 4 56-68 Table 17. Fork River of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range 10 20.74 2.73 15.74-24.72 RMNP-(Adult) 10 44.54 16.86 18.54-63.73 RMNP-(Lamb) 10 43.61 21.38 12.56-66.96 Jump Steady 10 26.72 7.87 20.60-46.80 Love Ranch 10 18.58 1.37 16.81-19.71 Rampart 10 16.75 2.03 l3.52-19.76 Lodore Table Percent Canyon 18. ash content of bighorn N Mean Standard Deviation Range 10 11.96 2.22 7.26-15.75 RMNP-(Adult) 10 39.40 19.08 8.14-64.21 RMNP-(Lamb) 10 38.40 22.64 6.24-63.44 Jump Steady 10 20.90 9.03 12.01-44.08 Love Ranch 10 11.67 1.22 10.02-l3.48 Rampart 10 9.42 3.06 5.51-14.00 Lodore Percent total ash content Canyon acid insoluable units sheep fecal samples. �-21- Table 19. Percent acid soluble ash content of bighorn sheep samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Lodore Canyon 10 8.77 2.03 4.27-11.01 RMNP (Adult) 10 5.15 2.60 2.50-10.40 RMNP (Lamb) 10 5.21 2.02 3.22-9.44 Jump Steady 10 5.72 1.63 2.72-8.53 Love Ranch 10 6.92 0.79 5.34-7.56 Rampart 10 7.33 1.71 5.14-10.37 Table 20. Calcium (%) content of bighorn Range sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Lodore Canyon 10 2.19 0.52 1.25-2.75 RMNP (Adult) 10 1.59 0.33 1. 38-1. 69 RMNP (Lamb) 10 1.65 0.52 1. 23-2.69 Jump Steady 10 2.89 0.47 2.06-3.63 Love Ranch 10 1.68 0.12 1. 63-2.00 Rampart 10 2.78 0.52 1.81-3.63 Range Table 21. Magnesium (%) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Canyon 10 0.41 0.12 0.14-0.53 RMNP (Adult) 10 0.30 0.15 0.l3-0.65 RMNP (Lamb) 10 0.24 0.08 0.14-0.39 Jump Steady 10 0.28 0.06 0.21-0.39 Love Ranch 10 0.21 0.02 0.18-0.24 Rampart 10 0.82 0.26 0.49-1. 20 Lodore �-22- Table 22. Sodium (%) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Lodore Canyon 10 0.14 0.11 0.05-0.43 RMNP (Adult) 10 0.26 0.l3 0.08-0.55 RMNP (Lamb) 10 0.23 0.29 0.05-1.03 Jump Steady 10 0.08 0.02 0.05-0.13 Love Ranch 10 0.12 0.04 0.08-0.23 Rampart 10 0.18 0.05 0.10-0.25 Table 23. Potassium (%) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Lodore Canyon 10 0.47 0.16 0.25-0.63 RMNP (Adult) 10 0.76 0.25 0.38-1.13 RMNP (Lamb) 10 0.51 0.36 0.25-1. 30 Jump Steady 10 0.l3 0.09 0.07-0.38 Love Ranch 10 0.61 0.15 0.50-0.93 Rampart 10 0.09 0.02 0.05-0.12 Table 24. Manganese (ppm) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Lodore Canyon 10 176 62 80-263 RMNP (Adult) 10 314 103 140-500 RMNP (Lamb) 10 313 96 175-425 Jump Steady 10 575 167 375-875 Love Ranch 10 159 12 145-175 Rampart 10 358 90 145-500 Range �-23- Table 25. Iron (ppm) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Lodore Canyon 10 61 8 50-75 RMNP (Adult) 10 633 277 250-1025 RMNP (Lamb) 10 1124 823 250-2025 Jump Steady 10 575 167 375-875 Love Ranch 10 159 12 145-175 Rampart 10 358 90 145-500 Table 26. Copper (ppm) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Lodore Canyon 10 9.1 4.0 7.5-17.5 RMNP (Adult) 10 11.8 4.3 5.0-15.0 RMNP (Lamb) 10 10.8 4.7 5.0-17.5 Jump Steady 10 52.0 26.8 12.5-92.5 Love Ranch 10 15.8 12.5-20.0 Rampart 10 7.8 3.5 1.8 Table 27. Range 5.0-12.5 Zinc (ppm) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Lodore Canyon 10 40.5 10.6 25.0-65.0 RMNP (Adult) 10 60.8 22.8 37.5-112.5 RMNP (Lamb) 10 55.0 28.1 32.5-110.0 Jump Steady 10 61.5 46.6 15.0-175.0 Love Ranch 10 53.8 10.6 45.0-72.5 Rampart 10 77 .0 17.2 60.0-115.0 �-24- Table 28. Phosph~rus (%) content of bighorn sheep fecal samples. N Mean Standard Deviation Range Lodore Canyon 10 0.56 0.15 0.36-0.90 RMNP (Adult) 10 0.99 0.43 0.53-1.80 RMNP (Lamb) 10 1.45 0.83 0.75-2.65 Jump Steady 10 0.64 1.25-3.70 Love Ranch 10 2.50 1.25 0.50 0.80-2.15 Rampart 10 0.88 0.15 0.58-1. 08 LITERATURE CITED Anke, M. 1965. Mineral and trace element content of cattle hair as indicators of Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo, and Co nutrition. II. Relationships to cutting depth, hair type, hair color, hair age, animal age, lactation-stage, and pregnancy. Arch. Tierernahr. 15(6) :469-485. (BioI. Abs , 47:92059). Anke, M. 1967. Mineral and trace element content of cattle hair as an indicator of Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo, and Co nutrition. V. The mineral supply of dairy cows on soils of various geographical origin measured by the mineral content black cattle cover hair and of red clover. Arch. Tierernahr. 17(1-2):1-26. BioI. Abs. 48(1-2179). Arnold, G. W., W. R. McManus, I. G. Bush. 1966. Studies in the wool production of sheep. 5. Observations on the teeth wear and carryover effects. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. and Anim. Husb. 6(20):101-107. Flynn, A., A. W. Franzman, P. D. Arnson, O. A. Hill. (1974). Determination of Past Trace Element Uptake in a Wild Animal by Longitudinal Analysis of the Hair Shaft. Naturwissenschaften 61(8):362. Hansen, H. C., R. L. Jones. Ross' Geese. Southern (1976). The Biochemistry of Blue, Snow, and Illinois University Press. Healy, W. B., T. G. Ludwig. (1965). Wear of sheep's teeth. of ingested soil. N. Z. J. Agric. Res. 8(4):737-752. Healy, W. B. (1968). Ingestion Res. 11(2):487-499. of soil by dairy cows. I. The role N. Z. J. Agric. Werner, A., M. Anke. 1960. Trace Element Content of Beef Cattle Hair as an aid in recognizing deficiency phenomena. Arch. Tierernahr. (10):142-153. (Chem. Abs. 54:16574). Prepared by --,ZlJ..~~~~&~'!.~~r-~~a.~~.~; ••.•.•........ Robert E. Keiss Wildlife Researcher �January, 1:J19 -25JOB FINP~ REPORT State of COLORADO ----~~~~~-------W-41-R-28 Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations 23 Job No. Bighorn Sheep Lungworm Control By Biological Control of Snail Intermediate 1 Hosts --~~----~---------------------------------------- Period Covered: June 1, 1977 - May 31, 1978 Personnel: F. E. Latson, and T. N. Woodard ABSTRACT Land snail literature pertinent to the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) lungworm (Protostrongylus sp.) complex was compiled. A literature review on land snails was begun and the completed portions are presented in this report. Literature relating to snail systematics, methods of collecting, examining, and preserving snails, and research needs will be synthesized and incorporated into a final report during the next segment. The report will be published in either Division of Wildlife Special Report format or the Division Report format with Project W-126-R, Work Plan 1, Job 7 funds. ��-27- BIGHORN SHEEP LUNGWORM CONTROL BY BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF SNAIL INTERMEDIATE HOSTS Ed Latson and Thomas N. Woodard P. N. OBJECTIVE To test the effects of burning treatments as a tool to reduce populations of the snail intermediate hosts for bighorn sheep lungworm parasites. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Complete compilation of land snail literature. 2. Prepare a literature review on land snail ecology. 3. Publish results in the Division of Wildlife Special Report format. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All segment objectives were not completed during this segment. Completed portions are incorporated in this report. The final literature review will be published during the next segment under the auspices of W-126-R, Work Plan 1, Job 7. The original Program Narrative Objective (above) was never met because preliminary sampling indicated it would be exhorbitantly costly to obtain samples of sufficient size to test burning effects on snail populations. But we decided to publish the literature review portion of this job because of its contribution to knowledge of the bighorn sheep lungworm life cycle. Intermediate A Literature Review of Land Snails; Hosts in the Bighorn Sheep Lungworm Life Cycle INTRODUCTION The bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis is commonly infected with Protostrongylus species lungworms. These lungworms have been shown to be a factor in the etiology of disease in bighorn sheep, particularly in lambs. Transplacental transmission of this parasite is important in the production of disease in the lambs, but the life cycle of the parasite requires an intermediate host which can be any of several small terrestrial molluscs. Understanding this disease as a prelude to control requires an understanding of the intermediate hosts of this parasite. This report is a compilation of some of what is known about these snails. �-28- LUNGWORM AND SNAIL BIOLOGY Protostrongylus Life Cycle A discussion of the life cycle of the parasite will facilitate standing the discussion of the intermediate host snails. under- Specific and detailed information on the complete life cycles of Protostrongylus spp. found in bighorn sheep is not known; however, the basic features for each cycle are apparently similar. Pillmore (1958) noticed that adults are dioecious and occur in the lungs. The first stage larva (Ll) emerges from an egg produced by the female in the lungs and moves up respiratory passages to the pharynx where it is swallowed and passes through the digestive tract. Ll larvae are 240-330 microns long. For further deveLopment the larva must penetrate the foot of a suitable snail. In the snail the larva grows to 550-700 microns, and the gut becomes distended with food granules. The second stage (L2) is reached when the larva casts the Ll cuticle and shrinks within it. The L2 cuticle soon develops heavy transverse striations especially along the dorsal surface. After a time the second molt occurs resulting in the larvae being ensheathed in two shed cuticles. The outer cuticle is thin and hyaline, the inner is thick and striated. The infective stage is reached after the second molt when the inner ensheathing cuticles are lost and granulation in the larval gut decreases. Infection of the sheep results when infective larvae are ingested by the host and move via an unknown route from the gut to the lungs, where development is completed. Larval Production Numbers of larvae in the feces of bighorn sheep vary with the level of infection of the host, the season of the year, and other poorly understood factors. Pillmore (1959) found that larval output varies from sample to sample and pellet to pellet in individual sheep. He found a range of 30 to 815 larvae per fecal pellet in 11 samples collected on a single day from two penned ewes. He (Pillmore 1955) and others report a peak larval discharge in late winter and spring months. Larval Ecology The first stage larvae can withstand dessication, thermal extremes, and are capable of survival over prolonged periods of time. Pillmore (1959) kept larvae frozen in feces for over a year without significant loss of viability. Honess (1942) kept feces containing larvae for nearly eight months in an unheated outbuilding with little loss of viable larvae. Forrester and Senger (1963) noted that larvae in feces can survive high temperature dessication while free larvae survive better in a moist situation. �-29- Pillmore (1959) stated that Protostrongylus larvae can pass through the intestine of a sheep and be excreted in the feces a second time, and may also pass through the intestinal tract of carnivores without harm. Infection of the Snail No information is available on the route of penetration into the snail for P. stilesi, but the entry of Muellerius capillaris has been described. Kassai (1958) described entrance as a direct penetration of the epithelium of the snail. Hobmaier and Hobmaier (1934) felt entrance to be through mucous glands. All three investigators agreed that the larvae becomes highly activated by the presence of the snail and actively penetrates by whatever route. Size, age, and species of snail have been found to affect the ability of larvae to penetrate the snail. Kassai (1958) mentioned Joyeux and Gaud's belief that Muellerius larvae only infect small species of snails with "loose mesoderm", or larger species of snails only when they are young. However, Kassai did not think size or age was important and cited his own infection of Helix pomatia, the French edible snail, with 1,000 to 1,500 larvae. He did not specify genus and species of larvae used. He mentioned that all snails have a one-layer clyindrical epithelium. Latson (1977) found one and two-whorl Pupilla muscorum to contain a significant number of larvae in collections made in April. An adult P. muscorum has over 4 whorls, a newborn P. muscorum has slightly less than one whorl. A single one-whorl and a single two-whorl snail were observed to contain a single mature larva each. Gerichter (1948) found that several lungworm species could infect nearly all the snail species he studied; however Protostrongylus kochi (now called P. rufescens) developed in only a few species. Pillmore (19~8) listed the following species of snails as susceptible to invasion by protostrongylid lungworms in Colorado: Pupilla muscorum, P. blandi, Vallonia cyclophorella, V. pulchella, Gastrocopta armifera, G. pentodon, Pupoides albilaris and Vertigo concinula. Forrester (1962) attempted Deroceras, Euconulus, unsuccessfully Oreohelix, Retinella, to infect species of Allogona, Triodopsis, Zacoleus and zonitoides. Latson (1977) experimentally infected one Gastrocopta sp. and three Discus He also found 2 naturally infected Euconulus fulvus. The genera now known to support infection include: Pupilla, Vallonia, Vertigo, Gastrocopta Discus, Pupoides, and Euconulus. cronphitei. Rate of development and intensity of infection are definitely related to species of snails for most, if not all, lungworms (Gerichter 1948, 1951; Kassai 1958; Rose 1973). Rate of development of individual larvae in the same snail also can be variable (Kassai 1958; Gerichter 1948). Gerichter noted that in concurrent infections with more than one species of lungworm, each �-30- developed at its normal rate. A heavier infection causes, in some cases, slower development (Gerichter 1948; Pillmore 1955). Pillmore (1956) observed that development rates for P. stilesi, in Pupilla, Vallonia and Vertigo varied greatly, the second occurring 11 to 60 days post-infection. Monson (1971) observed that the second molt for P. stilesi occurred 14 days postinfection in V. pulchella. These experiments were not carried out under controlled conditions. Humidity, temperature, health of the snails or other factors could have influenced the development rate. Latson (1977) found infective larvae in snails from April to October. Collections were not made between October and April due to cold weather. The highest percentage of immature larvae were seen in late April and late July, presumably indicating recent infection. These times correspond to time of increased moisture. In late June a small percentage were immature indicating most of the immature larvae seen in April had matured by June. No immature larvae were seen in September. June and September were both dry periods. The precise time at which the larva will be infective if ingested by the sheep is not known. Pillmore (1955) felt that some development or maturation past the second molt would be required before the larva would become infective. Gerichter (1948, 1951) described a pre-infective stage following the second molt for Muellerius capillaris, but found no morphological evidence for a similar situation with P. rufescens. Rate of development in the snail is directly dependent on temperature. Development ceases at temperatures slightly above freezing. Larvae of P. refescens underwent no development below 80C in one experiment. Gerichter (1951) infected snails of the species Helicella barbesiana, H. vestalis jopponensis and Monacha syriaca with P. rufescens larvae and then cooled the snails from room temperature to 40 -80C. After 50 days without development the snails were returned to room temperature and the larvae developed normally. Gerichter (1948) observed that activity of the snail and its nutritional state did not affect rate of larval development for larvae of several species of lungworm in five species of snails. Kassai (1958) found the same with one exception: snails starved for six months before infection would not support development of larvae of a Cystocaulus sp. The snail does not appear to react markedly to infection. Hobmaier and Hobmaier (1930) mentioned a tubercle-like proliferation in response to P. refescens, but Kassai (1958) noted only pigment formation and saw no proliferative reaction with larvae of a Cystocaulus sp. in several species of snail. He also found that previously infected snails were readily reinfected. Latson (1977) observed several P. muscorum with pigment concentrations of the same shape and size as a mature ensheathed larva. The presence of larvae in the snail seems to have little effect on the viability of the snail. Kassai (1958) experimentally infected Helix pomatia, a large snail, with 1,000 to 1,500 larvae without any observed ill effects on the snail. �-31- Gerichter (1948) saw infections of 200 larvae per snail without any observed ill effects on the snail. Lange (Personal Communication) observed over 60 Protostrongylus larvae in a single Pupilla. Latson (1977) has seen 48 larvae in a single V. pulchella; the snail appeared to be normal. Kadenatsh (1969) found that Protostrongylus tauricus of European hares leaves the snail after developing to the infective stage. The larvae that left the snails were found coiled and covered by dried mucus on plants and container walls. Hares were experimentally exposed to these larvae and successfully infected. Pillmore (1957, 1961) Lange (Personal Communication) and Latson (1977) have seen snails containing only the larval sheaths of Protostrongylus stilesi, suggesting that a similar situation might occur with the species in bighorn sheep. Infection of the Sheep Ingestion of the snail (or a free larva, if such do exist naturally) by a sheep initiates the final phase of the cycle. The infective larva penetrates the gut and by an unknown route reaches the lungs where it completes development to the adult stage. Ingestion of the snail probably occurs accidentally while the sheep is consuming plants among which snails are found (Pillmore 1955). Ingested larvae can also go to a fetus transplacental1y, either directly or possibly after a period of dormancy within maternal tissues (Hibler et al. 1972, 1974). Snails The snails thus far implicated as intermediate snails with similar habitats and life cycles. factors in their ecology are discussed below. hosts are all small terrestrial Some of the more important Life Span Boycott (1934) said that in the terrestrial snails of Britain. including all the genera and some of the same species found in the study area, all but the larger snails have a normal life span of 9 to 15 months. He believed the greatest mortality occurred among eggs and infant young. Walton (1970) believed the life spans of snails of the genera Ashmunella, Sonorella and Monodenia might be quite long, up to 16 years in Ashmunella. These snails are large snails, up to 2.5 cm in diameter. Life Cycle Very little is known about life cycles of snails suitable as intermediate hosts. All are hermaphroditic, and many are capable of self-fertilization. Most of them are oviparous but Pupilla is ovoviviparous. Whitney (1938) studying V. pulchella in Indiana, found that egg laying occurred at 24-hour intervals under favorable conditions. For ten individual snails the average �-32- number of eggs per snail in three months was 53. Hatching occurred at about 12 days and average time from hatching to maturity was 59 days. She raised four successive generations from isolated snails to demonstrate self-fertilization. produces an immature snail enclosed in a membranous sac. The adult carries several embryonic snails in the uterus, releasing them as they mature. Latson (1977) found Pupilla muscorum to release embryos in response to moisture following periods of drying. He found the average number of embryos per adult P. muscorums collected from a wild population to vary from 1.7 in the dry months of June to .37 in July following a period of daily rain showers. In laboratory cultures he found a cycle of 3 or 4 days of drying followed by watering of the culture dishes was required to obtain reproduction. Most of the young snails were produced during the first day after moistening. Young snails were enclosed in a membrane when released from the adult, but penetrated it within a few hours. The young snails were highly susceptible to drying or exclusive moisture. Pupilla Behavior The primary determinants of behavior seem to be temperature and humidity. It is commonly stated that terrestrial mulluscs are nocturnal due to cooler temperatures and higher humidity. Increased humidity is thought by many authors to be most important, but Dainton (1954) found decreasing temperature to be the most important stimulus for the grey field slug (Agriolimax reticulatus). Responses to changes of O.loe per hour were observed with decreasing temperature stimulating activity. The response was reversed at temperatures between 200 and 300e when rising temperature stimulated activity. Such reactions would serve to prevent activity under desiccating conditions and could direct movement toward locations with optimum conditions. Pillmore (1959) observed active snails twice, once in September following a light snow which was melting, and once in May on a northwest slope near melting snow. Latson (1977) found active snails only once. This was of the 15th of July at 9:00 a.m. The elevation was 3,780 m. The area was wet from recent rains and the air was humid. The area had a south-southwest exposure. Moisture and Snails Moisture is one of the most important factors in a snail's environment. The eipthelium of a snail gives no protection against desiccation and movement necessitates secretion of a slime trail containing considerable moisture. When moisture is available in droplet form it can be absorbed by either oral or cutaneous absorption (Likhachev 1962). Hyman (1967) stated Helix pomatia can survive water loss of 50% of body weight for 10 to 11 months. Wells (1944) observed large fluctuations in weight of H. pomatia maintained under constant conditions and found estivation was associated with decreased body weight even under conditions of high humidity. Boycott (1934) stated that most land snails and slugs are easily drowned. Pillmore (1957) found no snails in areas occupied by snow banks that lingered into summer. Latson (1977) did not find snails �-33- in areas where moisture tended to remain such as depressions in high elevation collection areas. or flat areas Snails very widely in their resistance to extremes of moisture. Vitrina with its thin shell and large shell opening, can survive only a short time when removed from its humid environment among fallen leaves if it is active when removed. Conversely, Sphincterochila boissieri, in the Negev Desert of the eastern Mediterranean, is found scattered over the rocky surface in direct sun (Machin 1967). alaskana, Likhachev (1962) stated snails found in areas of low humidity tend to be small and have thick shells. Machin (1967) found a correlation between dryness of habitat, thickness of shell, smallness of shell opening and thickness of epiphragm. Of the three species of Helicidae he examined, S. boissieri lives in the driest environment and is smaller, has a thicker shell, a thicker epiphragm and a smaller aperture. Estivation and Hibernation Snails survive periods of extreme conditions by estivation and hibernation. Hibernation usually occurs in winter, the process beginning by sealing the shell with an epiphragm of hardened mucus and calcareous material. Estivation is a similar process beginning with secretion of a thinner film of dried mucus. It usually occurs in response to desiccation. Both conditions are associated with greatly slowed metabolic processes (Hunter 1964). Water loss is reduced in these states thus enabling survival for long periods, even as long as six years (Comfort 1964). Minerals and EH These two parameters are closely related because solubility of various compounds is dependent on pH. Karlin (1961) indicated snails able to utilize insoluble calcium could survive in areas of acid soil. Burch (1955) studied ecological factors of soil affecting distribution of snails in eastern Virginia and concluded the primary conditions of soil which limit distribution of land snails are calcium, magnesium and organic matter. Potassium, phosphorus and pH were assumed not to be limiting factors. Snails living on calcareous substrates have heavier shells indicating their shells are thicker (Hyman 1967). Boycott (1934) lists 45 of 108 snail species as indifferent to a calcareous substrate, and one species as not found in calcareous areas. Hyman (1967) mentioned that Carrick (1942) found Agriolimax agrestis tolerant of a wide range of pH. Nutrition Hyman (1967) stated terrestrial pulmonates eat what is available and are not very selective. Snails examined for various digestive enzymes have been found to have a wide complement of carbohydrases, including cellulases which some �-34- feel to be of bacterial origin (Owen 1966). Likhachev (1962) mentioned and Euconulus feed on fungi and decomposing plant remains, and molluscs do not use conifers as food, possibly because of the hardness and pitch content of the needles. Walton (1963) observed Oreohelix refused lettuce and died after a few weeks. Pupillidae, Vallonidae Temperature The effect of temperature extremes on snails found in the Pike's Peak area is not clear. Pillmore (1959) attributed a decrease in a population of snails to unseasonably cold weather in November of 1957. Latson (1977) found dead snails on 20-21 October with the shells containing dried tissue possibly indicating reyent death. These snails must be able to withstand freezing to survive winter. Possibly a period of acclimitization is required before they can withstand freezing. Whitney (1938) found recovery of v. pulchella after refrigeration to be nearly independent of duration of refrigeration. Likhachev (1962) described Vertigo and Euconulus as thermophobic. Monson (1971) cultured infected V. pulchella in an incubator at 250C. Vegetation Vegetation provides food and shelter for snails. By providing a suitable microhabitat vegetation can directly influence presence or absence of snails. Karlin (1961) discussed the value of reporting vegetation when collecting mollusks. He found important correlations between vegetation and mollusks including an almost complete absence of mollusks in coniferous forests. Distribution and Habitat Mircohabitat is the most important factor in distribution of snails. Often in the most inhospitable area a small bush or rock may provide suitable habitat. Likhachev (1962) noted mountains have a more varied malacofauna due to more mircohabitats. Getz (1974) found a positive correlation between species diversity of snails both with increased moisture and with diversity of tree species. Boycott (1934) said as habitat improve, species from poorer habitats are still present and new ones are added. Kerney (1968) and Evans (1968) described Pupilla muscorumand Vallonia spp. as open ground species in Britain. Pillmore (1955) found snails in alpine areas on Pike's Peak frequently were associated with alpine avens as well as alpine sedges and grasses. Aspen groves, moist meadow edges, and under sites of logs also were productive. On Buffalo Peaks he found a similar situation, but often a higher concentration of snails in alpine were associated with alpine clover. A single clump of alpine clover yielded 183 shells. Blood (1963), in a study of a California bighorn range, found Vallonia cyclophorellaandPupilla sp. to be abundant on wet grass and under pieces of wood and debris around forested margins of bunch grass slopes at about 1,550 m (5,100 ft) elevation. �-35- Latson (1977) found snails to occupy limited habitat types, depending upon species. P. muscorum was more widely distributed than other species. This species could survive high elevations and dryness, but much of the study areas was unsuitable because of excessive elevation, lack of protection from cold and drying westerly winds, excessive moisture, lack of suitable vegetation, or combinations of these and other factors. P. muscorum was most numerous on a south to southeast slope, below 3,800 m, among Alpine Avens (geum rossii) Kobresia sp. or beside rocks. Usually there was some protection from west wind, but snails were not found in areas with lingering snow drifts. The soil was well drained. Pillmore's (1955) descriptions of snails collected on Buffalo Peaks and Pike's Peak sheep ranges show P. muscorum to be the most common snail in alpine areas. At lower elevations P. blandi was found most commonly. Bequaert and Miller (1973) in their discussion of P. blandi and P. muscorum indicate P. muscorum is found to 620 N latitude and is found only at high elevations (2,000 to 3,700 m) in New Mexico. P. blandi is found only 520 N latitude and is found at lower elevations (1,500 to 2,800 m) in New Mexico and Arizona. blandi was the most commonly infected snail found by Pillmore (1955) on Pike's Peak. Forty-five of 92 were infected in his Area 6, the only place he found infected snails on Pike's Peak. He also found 3 of 20 Vallonia cyclophorella and I of 7 Vertigo concinnulla infected. Hunter and Pillmore (1954) reported finding infected snails on a west facing slope below a rocky outcropping on which sheep sign was seen. Snails were collected about the bases of Deschampsia caespitosa (tufted hair grass). This location is at a lower elevation than most of Latson's (1977) coilections. Pupilla Latson (1977) found Vertigo spp. to be most common on moderate north slopes beside rocks and under alpine avens or in meadow edges and aspen groves. These habitats are mose moist than optimum for P. muscorum. Vertigo was the most common snail found on north slopes and was the only snail found infected on a north slope. It is probably the species most likely to occur and be infected on northern exposures. Its usual location adjacent to rocks beneath the soil surface would limit chances of its being ingested. Latson (1977) reported Euconulus fulvus, the other species he found infected, to occur in meadow edges and aspen groves and on southern exposures with more protection and moisture than those in which Pupilla muscorum were not numerous. These represent relatively moist and protected environments. Dispersal of Snails Efficient passive dispersal is one advantage possessed by a small, hermaphroditic organism able to remain inactive for long periods while attached to pieces of substrate such as leaves or bits of grass. Wind and water can easily carry these for long distances. Karlin (1969) raised several questions concerning how isolated stands of aspen he examined were invariably populated by a snail �-36fauna; how similar species were very widely distributed in a similar habitat; and how burned areas were repopulated. He suggested the possibility of small populations in evergreen forests too sparse to be readily found, but which could repopulate aspen forests growing up after a fire. Perhaps a better explanation is that this is an example of efficient dispersal. LITERATURE CITED Allen. R. W. 1962. Parasitism in bighorn sheep on the desert game range in Nevada. Trans. Desert Bighorn Sheep Council 6:69. Allen, R. W. 1964. Additional notes on parasites of bighorn sheep on the desert game range, Nevada. Trans. Desert Bighorn Sheep Council 8:5. Baker, H. B. 1955. Land snail dispersal. Nautilus 71:141-148. Bensink, A. H. A. Observations on the biology and population land snails in a Quebec apple orchard. Thesis. 490pp. Library of Canada, Canadian theses on microfilm #4575. dynamics National of Bequaert, J. C. and W. B. Miller. 1973. The Mollusks The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. of the Arid Southwest. Blood, D. A. 1963. Parasites from California bighorn British Columbia. Can. J. Zool. 41:913-918. sheep in southern Boycott, A. E. of Ecology 1934. The habitats 22:1-38. of land mollusca in Britain. Jour. Buechner, H. K. 1960. The bighorn sheep in the United States, its past, present and future. Wildlife Monograph 4. Burch, J. B. 1955. Some ecological factors of the soil affecting the the distribution and abundance of land snails of eastern Virginia. Nautilus 69:62-69. Burch, J. B. 1956. Distribution of land snails in plant associations eastern Virginia. Nautilus 70:60-64, 102-105. Burch, J. B. Dubuque, 1962. Iowa. How to Know the Eastern Land Snails. in Wm. C. Brown Co., I Chamberlain. R. V. and D. T. Jones. 1929. A descriptive catalog of the mollusca of Utah. Bull. of the Univ. of Utah 19(4):Bio. Series 1(1). Chitwood, B. G. and M. B. Chitwood. 1937. of nematomorphs. Nautilus 50:130-135. Comfort, A. 1957. The duration of London 32(6):219-241. Snails as hosts and carriers of life in molluscs. Croll, N. A. 1972. Behavior of larval nematodes. Wright (eds.) Behavioral Aspects of Parasite Proc. Malac. Soc. In E. U. Canning and C. A. Transmission. Academic Press. �-37- Dainton, Barbara H. 1954. The activity of slugs. I. Induction of activity by changing temperature. Journ. of Experimental Biology 31:165-187. Dikmans, G. 1931. Two new lungworms from North American ruminants and a note on the lungworms of sheep in the United States. Proc. U.S. Nat'l. Mus. 79:article 18. Dikmans, G. 1937. Protostrongylus rushi, a new lungworm from the mountain sheep, Ovis canadensis. Sb. Rabat po Gel'mintol. Skrjabin., PI 126. Dikmans, G. 1943. The lungworm, Protostrongylus rushi Dikmans, 1937, of the mountain sheep Ovis canadensis. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. D. C. 10:8. Dikmans, G. 1957. frosti Honess, A note on the specific identity of Protostrongylus 1942. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. D.C. 24;116. Dougherty, E. C. and F. C. Goble. 1946. The genus Protostrongylus Kamenskii, 1905 (Nematoda: Metastrongylidae) and its relatlves. Preliminary Note. Journ. of Parasit. 32:7-16. Evans, J. G. 1968. Changes in composition of land molluscan populations in North Wiltshire during the last 5000 years. Symp. Zool. Soc. of London. 22:293-317. Forrester, D. J. 1962. Land mollusca as possible intermediate hosts of a lungworm of bighorn sheep in western Proc. Mont. Acad. of Sci. 22:82-89. Protostrongylus Montana. stilesi, Forrester, D. J. 1971. Bighorn sheep lungworm pneumonia complex. pp.158173 in J. W. Davis and R. C. Anderson (eds.) Parasitic Diseases of Wild Mammals. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Forrester, D. J. and C. M. Senger. 1963. Effects of temperature and humidity on survival of first-stage Protostrongylus stilesi larvae. Expt. Parasit. 13:83-89. Forrester, D. J. and R. C. Littell. Lungworm Infections in bighorn 1976. sheep. Influence of Rainfall on J. Wildl. Diseases 12:48-51. Gerichter, Ch. B. 1948. Observations on the life history of lung nematodes using snails as intermediate hosts. Am. J. Vet. Res. 9(30):109-112. Gerichter, Ch. B. 1951. Studies on the lung nematodes in the Levant. Parasitology 41:166-183. Getz, L. L. 1974. Species diversity of terrestrial Smokey Mountains. Nautilus 88:6-9. of sheep and goats snails in the Great �-38- Gleich, J. G., F. F. Gilbert, and N. P. Kutscha. Terrestrial Gastropods from Central Maine. Henderson, J. Wyoming. 1924. Mollusca of Colorado, Univ. of Colo. Stud. 13(2). 1977. Nematodes in J. Wildl. Diseases 13:43-46. Utah, Montana, Idaho and Hibler, C. P., R. E. Lange and C. J. Metzger. 1972. Transplacental transmission of Protostrongylus stilesi in bighorn sheep. J. Wildl. Dis. Assoc. 8:389. Hibler, C. P., C. J. Metzger, T. R. Spraker and R. E. Lange. 1974. Further observations on transplacental transmission of Protostrongylus stilesi in bighorn sheep. J. Wildl. Dis. Assoc. 10:39-41. Hitchcock, A. S. 1971. (2nd ed.). Manual of the Grasses of the United States. Dover Publications, New York. Hobmaier, A. and M. Hobmaier. 1930. Life history of Protostrongylus (Synthetecaulus) rufescens. Proc. Soc. Exptl. BioI. and Med. 28:156-158. Hobmaier, A. and M. Hobmaier. localization of lungworms Honess, R. F. Wyoming. 1934. Route of infection and the site of in molluscs. Science 80:229. 1942. Lungworms of domestic sheep and bighorn Univ. of Wyo. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 255:1-24. sheep in Howe, D. L. 1964. Life cycle of lungworms. No. 11, Job No. lW. Wyo. FW-3-R-ll. Work Plan Howe, D. L. 1965. Life cycle of lungworms. No. 11, Job No. 11, lW. Wyo. FW-3-R-12. Work Plan Hunter, G. N. and Pillmore, R. E. 1954. Hunting as a technique in studying lungworm infestations in bighorn sheep. Trans. North Am. Wildlife Conf. 19:117. Hyman, L. H. Inc. 1967. The Invertebrates. Volume 6, Mollusca I. McGraw-Hill, Kadenatsh, A. M. 1969. Biological investigation of Protostrongylus pulmonary parasite of hares. In S. N. Boev (ed.) Contributions to Helminthology. Translated from Russian by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations. Jerusalem. 350pp. tauricus, Karlin, E. J. 1961. Ecological relationship between vegetation and the distribution of land snails in ~ontana, Colorado, and New Mexico. Am. Midland Natr. 65:60-66. Kassai, T. 1958. 8:223-236. Larvae of Protostrongylins in snails. Acta. Vet. �-39- Kerney, M. D. 1968. Britain's fauna of land mollusca and its relation to the Post Glacial Thermal Optimum. Symp. Zool. Soc. of London 22:273-291. Latson, F. E. 1977. The distribution and ecology of intermediate host snails of Protostrongylus spp. lungworms of bighorn sheep on Pikes Peak, Colorado. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 64pp. Likhachev, I. M. and E. S. Rammel'meier. 1952. Terrestrial Mollusks of the Fauna of the U.S.S.R. Translated from Russian and published for the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. by the Israel Program for Scientific translations. Jerusalem. Machin, J. L. 1967. Structural adaptations for reducing water loss in 3 species of terrestrial snails. Jour. Zool. 152:55-65. MacMillan, G. K. 59:121-124. 1946. Notes on some southwestern Pupillidae. Nautilus Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the East Slope of the Front Range of Colorado. Boulder, Univ. of Colo. Press. Mason, C. F. Snail population, beech litter production and the role of snails in litter decomposition. Oecologica 5:215-239. Monson, R. A. 1971. Experimental transmission of Protostrongylus to bighorn and mouflon sheep hybrids. M.S. Thesis. Colorado University, Ft. Collins. 49pp. Monson, stilesi State R. A. and G. Post. 1972. Experimental transmission of Protostrongylus to bighorn-mouflon hybrids. J. Parasitol. 58(1):29-33. stilesi Mozley, A. 1954. An Introduction to Molluscan Population Studies of Freshwater Molluscs. London. Neck, R. W. 1976. Micro-distribution talus slope. Sterkiana 62:19. Ecology. Distribution H. K. Lewis and Co., and of land snails in an artificial Owen, G. 1966. 2. Digestion. In K. M. Wilbur and C. M. Yonge Physiology of Mollusca, Vol. II. Academic Press. (eds.) Pillmore, R. E. 1955. Investigations of the life history and ecology of the lungworm, Protostrongylus stilesi. Fed. Aid Div. Quart. Rept. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish:6l. Pillmore, R. E. 1957. Lungworm and its relationship to bighorn sheep management. Proc. 37th Ann. Conf. of Western Assoc. State Game and Fish Comm. 198. �-40- Pillmore, R. E. 1958a. Life Cycles of the lungworm genus Protostrongylus in Colorado. J. Colo. Wyo. Acad. Sci. 4:44. Pillmore, R. E. 1958b. Study of the lung nematodes of game animals. Aid Div. Quart. Rept. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish:l. Pillmore, R. E. 1959. Study of lung nematodes of bighorn sheep. Aid Div. Quart. Rept. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish:73. Fed. Pillmore, R. E. 1961. Study of lung nematodes of bighorn sheep. Aid Div. Quart. Rept. Colo. Dept. of Game and Fish:69. Fed. Pilsbry, H. A. 1948. Land mollusca of North America. of Philadelphia Monographs No.3. Acad. of Nat. Sci. Post, G. and K. B. Winter. 1956-1957. Life cycle of lungworms. FVl-3-R-4, Work Plan No. 11, Job No.2. Randolph, P. A. 1973. Influence of environmental variability snail population properties. Ecology 54:933-955. Retzer, J. L. 1956. 7(1):22-32. Fed. Alpine soils of the Rocky Mountains. Wyo. on land J. Soil. Sci. Riggle, R. S. 1976. Quantitative Examination of gastropod and soil relationships in an oak-hickory forest in the lower Illinois Valley region~ Sterkiana 62:1-17. Rose, J. H. 1973. The lungworms in Parasitology 11:559-570. of domestic pigs and sheep. Rufi, V. G. 1961. Life cycle of lungworms. Wyo. Dept. of Game and Fish:60. Russo, J. P. 1956. The desert bighorn Ariz. Game and Fish Dept. Walton, M. L. 1963. 76:127-131. Fed. Aid Div. Quart. Rept. sheep in Arizona. Length of life in West American Walton, M. L. 1970. Longevity Nautilus 83:109-112. Advances in Ashmunella,Monadenia State of land snails. Nautilus and Sonorella. Wells, C. P. 1944. The water relationships of snails and slugs III. Factors determining activity in Helix pomatia. Jour. Exptl. BioI. 20:79-87. Whitney, M. E. 1938. Some observations on the reproductive cycle of a common land snail, Vallonia pulchella. Influence of Environmental factors. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 47:299-307. �-41- Winter, K. B. 1956. Life cyc1~ of 1ungworms. Wyo. Dept. of Game and Fish:86. Fed. Aid Div. Quart. Rept. Yom-Tov, Y. and M. Ga1un. 1971. Note on feeding habits of the desert snails Sphincterochila boissieri. Ve1iger 14:86-88. Prepared by F. E. Latson ��January, 1979 -43JOB State C_O_L_O_RA_D_O of Project r Work Plan No. Period REPORT _ W-41-R-28 No. Job Title FINAL Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Job No. 24 Goat Investigations E_x __t_e_n_d_i_n_g __B_i_g_h_o_r_n S_h_e_e_p __R_a_n_g_e_s Covered: Personnel: June 1, 1977 - May 31, 1978 George D. Bear ABSTRACT Approval was not obtained for the bighorn transplants into Gunnison area and in Cache la Poudre River Canyon, therefore no work was initiated in those localities. A final evaluation was made of 1975 Cache la Poudre Canyon bighorn transplant in May, 1977 and the Cebolla Creek transplant in May, 1978. A manuscript will be published as a special report by the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Prepared by George D. Bear Wildlife Researcher _ ��January, -45- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-41-R-28 Bighorn Job No. Sheep and Mountain 1 Job Title Burning to Improve and Enlarge Bighorn Period Covered: June 1, 1977- Goat InvestigatioTIfl ~2~5 Work Plan No. Prescribed 1979 _ Sheep Ranges June 30, 1978 Personnel: Dr. J. Barrows, L. Balic, and R. Yancik, Department of Forest and Wood Sciences, Colorado State University; D. Canalte, T. Dailey, D. Milchunas, and T. Woodard. ABSTRACT Treatment plots were delineated and pretreatment forage sampling was completed during this segment. Analyses of clip-plot data have not been completed. Preliminary results indicate that precision of biomass estimates will be poor and sampling intensity and/or size of quadrats will have to be increased during post treatment sampling years. Three bighorn sheep were successfully reared and trained for use in this study. Food habits data were collected during the field training periods. Forbs, grasses, and shrubs comprised 53.0, 40.2, and 6.8 percent, respectively, of the composite diet of all sheep for three sets of grazing trials. ��-47- PRESCRIBED BURNING TO IMPROVE AND ENLARGE BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES Thomas N. Woodard P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To test the hypothesis that prescribed burning of understory vegetation improves the production and quality of bighorn sheep forage in a ponderosa pine-Douglas fir timber zone. 2. To test the hypothesis that bighorn sheep use of burned increases compared to adjacent unburned areas. areas SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Raise and train up to 4 bighorn 2. Construct bighorn sheep pen facilities. 3. Delineate burned and unburned 4. Conduct pre-treatment sampling plots. 5. Coordinate pre-burn, burn, and post-burn activities with U.S. Forest Service and Colorado State University Fire Science personnel. treatment vegetation METHODS lambs for use in foraging trials. plots on study areas. sampling and establish permanent AND MATERIALS Three contiguous sites were delineated with flagging tape and metal stakes placed along the boundaries. Site 1 is 3.9 ha in scattered ponderosa pine-Douglas fir type with numerous rock outcroppings on an east facing slope of 15-30 degrees. Site 2 is 5.4 ha in mountain shrub type with east and south aspects on a slope of 0-10 degrees. Site 3 is 1.9 ha in perennial grassland on level terrain. The treatments will consist of burning and non-burning three each 0.3 - to 0.9 -ha plots per site; totaling nine plots for each treatment over the three sites. Treatment plots were paired (replications) by apparent homogeneity within each site with burning randomly assigned to one plot in each pair (Fig. 1). Plots within replications are approximately equal in size (Table 1). The prescribed burning is scheduled during the August-October, 1978 time period. Fire Science personnel at Colorado State University have measured pre- fire fuel loadings, determined the fire prescription, (Appendix I) and will monitor physical factors during the burning and measure post-fire fuel loadings. U.S. Forest Service and Larimer County Sheriffs Department personnel will conduct the burning with assistance from the Fire Science Department and Colorado Division of Wildlife. �-48- Table 1. Treatment plot sizes for the response prescribed burning study. of bighorn sheep to Plot srlte-1/ Replication Treatment- 1 1 U 0.62 1 1 B 0.58 1 2 B 0.67 1 2 U 0.64 1 3 B 0.67 1 3 U 0.67 2 1 B 0.84 2 1 U 0.85 2 2 U 0.93 2 2 B 0.94 2 3 U 0.91 2 3 B 0.92 3 1 U 0.35 3 1 B 0.34 3 2 B 0.31 3 2 U 0.32 3 3 B 0.31 3 3 U 0.29 1/1 2 3 1:./ U B Ponderosa pine - Douglas Shrub land type Grassland type Unburn Burn fir type 2/ Hectares �-49- Vegetation Measurements The following sampling schemes and techniques will be used to measure vegetation response to prescribed burning. Plant Cover The rated microplot technique (Morris 1973) will be used to estimate aerial plant cover in each treatment plot. Two hundred fifty, one- x two-inch microplots will be located systematically in each treatment for representative coverage. Aerial cover for selected species, forage classes, and total understory, will be measured by rating the area occupied in each microplot to the nearest one-tenth (rating score of one for each 1/10 area). The ratings for the 250 microplots will then be summed to obtain a measurement value for each treatment plot. Measurements will be made during August, each year for the duration of the study. Pretreatment sampling was conducted during this segment. Overall and within treatment sampling intensity may be changed based on variances obtained in analysis of pretreatment sampling data. Herbage Yield A clip and weight technique, as described below, will be used to estimate above-ground biomass of flora during August of every year for the duration of the study. A restricted random sampling design will be used to select locations of 30 sampling units (0.25m2 rectangular quadrats) in each treatment plot. Transect lines will be established to provide systematic coverage of the entire plot. At regular intervals along each line a compass heading and the number of steps on the heading will be randomly selected. The sample location will be established by pacing the prescribed number of steps on the compass heading and placing the quadrat frame next to the right foot. All vegetation within the quadrat frame will be ground-level clipped, separated, and placed in paper sacks labelled by species, date, treatment plot, and quadrat number. After the vegetation is clipped and sacked at each sample location the investigator will return to the original transect line, pace another interval and repeat the procedure. Clipped vegetation will be dried at 1000C until weight stabilizes (~ 24 hrs) and weighed to the nearest O.lg. During pretreatment sampling, completed this segment, all understory plant species were separated and sacked separately. The woody stem portions of shrubs were sacked separately from leaves and current annual growth. Individual plant species selected for measurements during post treatment years will be chosen based on availability on the study area and importance as a forage species. All other plants will be composited according to forage class (shrubs, grasses, and forbs). Overall and within treatment sampling intensity during post treatment years may be changed based on variances obtained in analysis of pretreatment data. �-50- Forage Quality Vegetation samples will be collected in late summer-early fall each posttreatment year in each treatment plot for forage quality analyses. Plant parts simulating those chosen by tame sheep during grazing trials, described below, will be hand-plucked from plants grazed by the animals or from the immediate area. Separate 50-g samples w.i Ll be collected by treatment plot and individual animal (3) for each plant species comprising 2 percent or more of the diet of tame bighorn sheep. Samples will be sealed in plastic bags and frozen for later analysis. Samples will be analyzed for crude protein, calcium, phosphorus, acid detergent fiber, lignin, cell wall constituents, gross energy, and in vitro digestibility. Bighorn Sheep Food Habits Measurements Grazing trials will be conducted with tame, trained bighorn sheep to measure response to treatments. Advantages and problems associated with direct observation of forage consumption by tame animals have been reviewed by Wallmo and Neff (1970). Three male bighorn sheep lambs were successfully reared and trained during this segment using techniques modified from those described by Baker and Hobbs (1977). The training regime for these lambs included 3 sets of grazing trials conducted during winter 1977-78. The procedures, study design, and study areas described by Baker and Hobbs (1977) were utilized and the raw food habits data are presented in this report. The following sampling scheme will be utilized during post treatment years to measure bighorn sheep response to prescribed burning. Grazing trials will be conducted during three 10-day sampling periods conducted in November, January, and March each winter. Three tame bighorn sheep will be allowed to graze one at a time for one hour each during AM and PM hours each of the last 9 days of each sampling period. The resulting sampling intensity will consist of six, I-hour grazing trials per day (2 trials each for 3 animals). During the first day the animals will be allowed to graze freely on the study area to become familiar with the vegetation and data will not be collected. Starting points for individual trials will be the approximate center of treatment plots and will be selected randomly without replacement for each animal. The result will be a start of a grazing trial for each animal in each of the 18 treatment plots. When an animal is released at a starting point its grazing route will not be influenced unless it leaves the study area. If, after five minutes the animal does not reenter the study area of its own free will, it will be led to the nearest treatment plot center and again allowed to graze. A portable tape recorder will be used to record data during trials. Data collected will include animal number; starting time; starting treatment plot; number of bites of forage by species, plant part, and treatment plot occupied; amount of total and grazing time spent in each plot; and incidental activities and behavioral changes. Data Analysis Measured vegetation and animal variables will be analyzed with analysis of variance. Analysis of covariance will be done to adjust post treatment �-51- (dependent) cover values and herbage yields by respective (independent) values. pretreatment STUDY AREA LOCATION The study area is located in the Wintersteen Park area of the Cache la Poudre River Drainage, 2 kilometers northeast of Rustic Larimer County, Colorado. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Vegetation Measurements Pretreatment plant cover and herbage yield sampling was completed during August, 1977. A total of 110 species were encountered during microplot sampling. The number of plant species clipped, sacked, and weighed separately totaled 121 including 26 grasses or grasslike species, 77 forbs, and 18 shrubs. Analyses of these data have not been completed and no results are presented in this report. Preliminary results indicate that precision of estimates will be poor and sampling intensity and/or size of quadrats will have to be increased during post treatment sampling years. All species comprising 2 percent or more of the above-ground biomass, based on this pretreatment sampling, will be clipped and weighed separately during post treatment years. Bighorn Sheep Food Habits Measurements Twenty-one plant species comprised 90.3 percent of 77,058 bites observed during grazing trials conducted during winter 1977-78 (Table 2). Percentages of forbs, grasses, and shrubs in the diet increased, decreased, and remained consistently low, respectively, as winter progressed (Fig. 1). Table 2. Percentage composition of sheep diet across 3 animal and all vegetation types. Species are ranked in order of importance across all months. Species Antennaria sp. Calamagrostis canadensis Poa sp. Phleum pratense Eriogonum umbellatum November January March All Months 36.7 40.2 45.1 39.9 4.9 20.2 7.7 10.1 10.5 1.1 14.6 8.8 10.9 2.4 1.3 5.9 2.4 6.3 8.1 5.0 �-52- Table 2. Percentage composition of sheep diet across 3 animal and all vegetation types. Species are ranked in order of importance across all months. (Cont'd). Species November January March 2.2 5.2 1.5 2.9 2.5 3.2 1.5 2.5 0.8 2.1 inermis 2.7 1.3 1.4 2.0 sp. 3.3 1.1 0.3 1.9 1.7 0.6 0.8 1.2 . tridentata 0.4 2.7 0.4 1.1 sp. (leaves) 1.2 0.4 1.1 0.9 Muhlenbergia Carex sp , Potentilla Bromus hippiana Sporobolus Stipa coma ta Purshia Salix montana All Months 2.2 Unidentified forb 1.7 0.4 Deschampsia caespitosa 1.4 0.4 0.2 0.8 (green needles)0.5 1.0 1.1 0.8 Pinus ponderosa 0.9 Boutelous gracilis 0.5 1.4 0.4 0.7 Fragaria sp. 1.0 0.9 0.1 0.7 balticus 0.4 0.3 1.8 0.7 Juncus Agropyron smithii 1.4 0.1 0.2 0.7 Solidago sp. 0.8 1.1 0.1 0.7 % Grasses 45.3 38.6 33.2 40.2 % Forbs 49.9 51.7 59.9 53.0 % Shrubs 4.8 9.7 6.9 6.8 34,405 22,648 20,005 77 ,058 Total Bites �-53N 1 ~--- SITE BOUNDARIES ---REP. BOUNDARIES - BOUNDARIES --·-·-PLOT 1-1 =SITE - REPLICATION SCALE: <> <> <><><> <> -e- -e- -e- Fig. 1 in.. = 200 ft. 1. BURN PLOTS Design of the prescribed burning to improve and enlarge bighorn sheep ranges study. �-54- 60 FORBS 50 •••• LLJ c 40 z •••• Z LLJ o a: 30 LLJ a, 20 10 NOV Figure 2. JAN MAR Composition of bighorn sheep diet totaled across all vegetation types and animals during winter 1977-78. �-55- The plant species listed in Table 2 and present on the prescribed burn study area will be clipped and weighed separately regardless of availability during post treatment years. LITERATURE CITED Baker, D ..L., and N. T. Hobbs. 1977 . Systems modeling big game populations simulations of the carrying capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park elk winter range. Pages 125-195 in Colorado Division of Wildlife Game Research Report. July, Part Two. 125-305pp. Morris, M. J. 1973. Estimating understory plant cover with rated microplots. D.S.D.A. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Paper RM-104. 12pp. Wallmo, O. C., and D. J. Neff. 1977. Direct observation of tamed deer to measure their consumption of natural forages. Pages 105-110 in Range and wildlife habitat evaluation - A research symposium. D.S.D.A. Forest Service. Misc. Publ. 1147. Prepared by ~Q;; Ai w~J Thomas N. Woodard Wildlife Researcher �-56- APPENDIX 1 Report to Colorado Division of Wildlife PRESCRIBED FIRE PLANNING AND ANALYSIS FOR WILDLIFE HABITAT Prepared By: Jack S. Barrows Principal Investigator and Richard F. Yancik Graduate Research Asst. March 1978 Colorado State University Department of Forest and Wood Sciences Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 �-57- WINTERSTEEN PRESCRIBED ARAPAHO-ROOSEVELT PARK BURNING PLAN NATIONAL FOREST, R-2 RED FEATHER LAKES RANGER DISTRICT �-58- I. INTRODUCTION The proposed Wintersteen Park prescribed fires are contained within the ponderosa pine (Pinu~ ponderosa) zone along the Colorado Front Range in the Arapaho-Roosevelt National Forest. The purpose of these prescribed burns is to establish a research site for the Colorado Division of Wildlife Bighorn Sheep Habitat Study Project headquartered in Fort Collins, Colorado. Agencies involved with the purposed prescribed burns are the Colorado Division of Wildlife, U.S. Forest Service (Arapaho-Roosevelt National Forest), and Colorado State University (Fire Science Program). II. OBJECTIVES The primary objective of the prescibed burns is to establish a research site to evaluate the impacts (favorable and/or unfavorable) of fire on Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and their habitat. Specific objectives of the prescribed fire studies are as follows: 1. To test the hypothesis that prescribed burning of understory vegetation improves the production and quality of bighorn sheep forage in a ponderosa pine-Doug las-fir timber zone. 2. To test the hypothesis that bighorn sheep use of burned areas increases compared to adjacent unburned areas. III. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA The Wintersteen Park burns are located in the Cache La Poudre River Drain- age, two kilometers northeast of Rustic, Larimer County, Colorado (refer to map and photo). The area is adjacent to private land ownership. Access to the area is somewhat limited as a result of nearby private land ownership. Primary access is via the Delatour Boy Scout Ranch or the Leroy-Robinson Road, which is suitable for 2-wheel drive pick-up trucks (refer to map). �-59SUMM..~Y OF PERTIEt.'T INFORK"-TION Legal Description: Section 27 Elevation: 8200 Aspect: South-Southeast Slope Range: 3-50 percent Topographic Features: Township·9N Range 73W Large rock outcrops exists near ridgeline. Swale-lL~e feature and aspect create erratic wind situations. Fuel Types: sent the distribution components (1) Decandent ponderosa pine overstory. grass species and big sagebrush eonstitutes Tables 1 and 2 pre- Three fuel types exist. of fuel loading by fuel for each of the three fuel types. Heterogeneous (Artemisia tridentata)~ the surface fuel component. understory of bunch- and fine woody material Ground fuel component is primary pine needle litter. (2) Homogeneous bunchgrass species. (3) Homogeneous surface fuel component of big sagebrush intermixed with Ground fuel component is herbaceous surface fuel compon~nt dominated by bunchgrass with isolated clumps of big sagebrush. of herbaceous Ground fuel component litter. Planned Burn Area: Unit Total: and shrub leaf litter. Acreage I-IS 1.44 1-2N 1.64 1-3N 1.66 2-lW 2.08 2':2S 2.32 2-3E 2.26 3-lS 0.83 3-2N 0.76 3-3N 0.76 9 13.75 species consist mainly �-60- Water Resources: area. There are no live streams within or adjacent to the An intermittent stream exists in the area; however, it will not pro- vice a sufficient water supply. Reliable water resources are the Poudre River and Red Feather Lakes. IV. PRESCRIBED BURNING PRESCRIPTIONS Ponderosa Pine Fuel Type (1) Time of year: Between September 1 and November 15, 1978 when grasses are 70% cured. (2) Time of Day for Ignition: (3) Between 1000 and 1400 hours. Fuel Moisture Ranges at 1000 hrs.: Ground fuel (litter): 4 - 10% Herbaceous vegetation: 4 - 8 % One-hour timelog fuels: 4 - 5 % Ten-hour timelog fuels: 4 - 12% 0 0 (4) Air Temperature: 45 F to 80 F (5) Relative Humidit~: 5% to 18% (6) Wind Velocit~: Between 3 mph and 10 mph. (7) Wind Direction: Preferably south-southeast. (8) State of Weather: Clear to partly cloudy with no major fronts approaching. Less than .2 inch of precipi- tation 2 days prior to burning date. (9) Atmospheric Stability: Smoke dispersal is not critical. However a temperature inversion should be avoided. Big Sagebrush Fuel Type (1) Time of year: Between September 1 and November 15, 1978 when grasses are 70% cured. (2) Time of Day for Ignition: Between 1000 and 1400 hrs. (3) Fuel Moisture Ranges at 1000 hrs.: Ground fuel (litter): 4 - 10% Herbaceous vegetation: 4 - 7 % One-hour timelog fuels: 4 - 10% Ten-hour timelog fuels: 4 - 12% �-61- 0 (4) Air Temperature: 0 45 F to 80 F (5) Relative 5% to 15% (6) Humidity: Wind Velocity: 3 mph and 10 mph with gusts Between to 15 mph. (7) Wind Direction: Preferably (8) State of Veather: Clear to partly south-southeast. approaching. tation (9) Atmospheric Bunchgrass Fuel Stability: cloudy with no major fronts Less than .2 inch of precipi- 2 days prior Smoke dispersal to burning date. not critical. Type (1) Time of Year: Between September when grasses (2) Time of Day for Ignition: (3) Fuel Moisture Ranges Between are 70% cured. 1000 and 1400 hrs. fuel Herbaceous (litter): 4 - 10% vegetation: 4 - 7 % One-hour timelog fuels: 4 - 8 % Ten-hour time10g fuels: 4 - 10% 0 0 (4) Air Temperature: 45 F to 80 F (5) Relative 5% to 15% (6) Wind Velocity: 15, 1978 at 1000 hrs.: Ground Humidity: 1 and November Between 3 mph and 12 mph with gusts to 15 mph. (7) Wind Direction: Preferably (8) State of Weather: Clear to partly south-southeast. approaching. tation (9) Atmospheric Stability: cloudy with no major Less than 2 days prior Smoke dispersal fronts .2 inch of precipi- to burning not critical. date. �-62- V. POTENTIAL FIRE BEHAVIOR The "predicted" potential fire behavior data to be presented in the latter part of this section were derived using site-specific fuels and weather data as inputs to predictive models for estimating potential fire behavior. These fire behavior estimations are "rough" and are to be viewed with caution. These fire behavior estimations, when used in conjunction with experience and knowledge, were useful in the burning prescription formulation designed to achieve the objectives set forth earlier. These fire behavior predictions were useful for estimating the magnitude of changes in fire behavior as burning conditions varied for each fuel type. Ponderosa Pine Fuel Type . From 1.9 To 13.6 (2) Flame Length (feet) 1.S 4.3 (3) Fireline Intensity (BTU/ft. second) 16.4 126.6 (4) Reaction Intensity (BTU/ft:/minute) 2247.4 2S08.5 3.S 4.7 (1) Rate of Spread (feet/min.) 2.4 20.3 (2) Flame Length (feet) 1.6 4.9 (3) Fireline Intensity (BTU/ft. second) 19.2 182.6 (4) Reaction Intensity (BTU/ft~/minute) 2028.4 2278.3 3.8 7.2 (1) Rete of Spread (feet/min.) 4.2 S4.9 (2) Flame Length (feet) 1.3 5.3 (3) Fireline Intensity (BTU/ft. second) 14.6 217.4 (4) Reaction Intensity (BTU/ft~/minute) 1270.S 1447.1 2.7 8.8 (1) Rate of Spread (feet/min.) (S) Crown Scorch Height (feet) Big Sagebrush Fuel Type (S) Crown Scorch Height (feet) Bunchgrass Fuel Type (S) Crown Scor~h Height (feet) �-63- Summary. The foregoing analysis showed minimum and maximum values for the range of prescription factors analyzed. Following a fire weather study of probable wind and fuel moisture values a decision prescription will be prepared that will tighten the lower and upper limits for rate of spread, flame length and fireline intensity. VI. PREBURN PREPARATIONS Weather Station A portable weather station will be located on the proposed burn area. The weather station should be operational three days prior to the burning date. On-site data also will be obtained using fuel moisture sticks and a belt weather kit. A special spot-weather forecast will be obtained prior to burning and every hour (or sooner if necessary) during the burning operation. The special spot-weather forecast and on-site information will be the basis for decisionmaking on burning operations. Control Line A five-foot wide black line will be established around the portion of each unit to be burned. A six-foot wide "black" line will be used between adjacent units to be burned (refer to map). be established. Water resource availability should VII. FIRING PLAN Each fuel type will have a Firing Plan so as to account for changes in burning conditions. Burning priority will be, if conditions exist, as follows: (1) Ponderosa pine type, (2) Big sagebrush type, and (3) Bunchgrass type. Firing will be conducted by the designated Ignition Crew only under supervision of Firing Boss. Any modifications to the Firing Plans, incluiing fireing techniques and sequences, must be approved by the Fire Boss and formally announced to all personnel involved with the prescribed burn. Ponderosa Pine Fuel Type (Units 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3 The Firing Plan (portrayed on the map) is based on a south or southeast windflow. Strip firing down slope at intervals of 50 to 75 feet will be used �to allow short head fires to spread with the wind and slope. Within some units, there are small areas with fuel conditions that will reguire a backing fire down slope to achieve the proper intensity and/or objectives. These areas will be identified by the Firing Boss and Fire Behavior Research Boss. Wind directions other than those previously mentioned will not necessarily preclude burning operations. The firing sequence and techniques used will be modified, in agreement with Fire Boss, by the Firing Boss to include changing burning conditions. Care should be exercised when burning near ridgeline. With a south or southeast wind, the firing sequence will be Unit 1-1, Unit 1-2, and Unit 2-1 or Unit 1-3. Refer to the map for strip firing and black lining information. Big Sagebrush Fuel Type (Units 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3) The Firing Plan (see map) for these units is similar to the Firing Plan for the Ponderosa pine fuel type, with the exception of stripping intervals and type of fire. Critical burning conditions (lower end of burning presciption) coupled with brush fuels may necessitate reducing stripping intervals to 40 feet or using a backing fire down slope for control purposes. A backing fire down slope may deem necessary to achieve proper intensity for favorable vegetation responses. The firing sequence, with a south or southeast wind, will be Units 2-1, 2-2, and then 2-3. This firing sequence is subject to modification depend- ing upon burning conditions. Bunchgrass Fuel Type (Units 3-1, .3-2, and 3-3) The Firing Plan (refer to map) for this fuel type requires a backing fire down slope to achieve the desirable intensity for vegetation responses. Burning conditions resembling the lower end of prescription provide the basis for the Firing Plan associated with this fuel type. With a south or southeast wind, the firing sequence will be Units 3-1, 3-2, and then 3-3. �-65(To be prepared by Control Organization) VIII. CONTAINMENT AND MOP-UP PLAN IX. BRIEFING AND ORIENTATION X. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS XI. MANPOWER NEEDS XII. EQUIPMENT NEEDS XIII. SMOKE AND VISIBILITY HAZARDS XIV. PUBLIC RELATIONS XV . ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS �Table 1. Pre-fire fuel loading contributed by ground and surface fuel components of the Wintersteen Park prescribed burning site. Loading by Ground and Surface Fuel Components (Tons/Acre) ---------.Forest Floor Downed Woody Size Classes Fuel Type Avg. Planar Slope (percent) Total}) Herbaceous Vegetation -0.0-0.24" 0.25-0.99" 1.0-2.99" 3.0" + sound 3.0" + rotten Litter live dead Fuel Loading _------- -~-- .. .4638 .1013 .2362 6.2386 .7787 .4877 .1017 .2372 8.9589 .0548 .2905 .1297 .3026 3.2628 Ponderosa pine 35.0 .1593 .1696 .2362 Shrub 18.3 .2575 .6666 Bunchgrass 9.2 .0869 .1506 }j .2023 _ .._---.- ----------Footnotes: .3041 Includes loading contributed by shrub components. --- I 0" 0" I �Table 2. Pre-fire fuel loading contributed hy shrub comporrents of the Wintersteen Park prescribed burning site. Fuel Loading Contributed by Shrub Components (Tons/Acre) ��-69- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------------------------------- Project No. Work Job Title 3 Trapping Covered: Personnel: REPORT Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations W-4l-R-28 Plan No. Period .Ianua r y 1979 Job No. and Translocating June 1, 1977 through 1 ------------=-------------------- Bighorn Sheep June 30, 1978 R. Schmidt, M. Connors, V. Feuerstein, M. Middleton, F. Weber, ·P. Yates,W. Rutherford, plus WCO's and Area Supervisors in specific localities. ABSTRAcr Five separate bighorn sheep trans1ocations were done during this segment. Twelve sheep were released at Riverside, Chaffee County; 17 an Langhoff Gulch, Chaffee County; 20 at the South Fork of Conejos River, Conejos County; 22 at Alamosa River, Conejos County; and 20 at Rampart Range (Monument Creek), El Paso County, for a grand total of 91. All translocated sheep were either neck-collared or ear-tagged, and were treated with the antihe1minthic drug Fenbendazole as a means for controlling lungworm. Monitoring of the effects of drug treatment was done on sheep populations translocated during the previous year, as well as on many populations treated in place. Monitor data generally show that drug treatment is effective in reducing or eliminating lungworm infestation for a period of several months, but must be repeated annually for long-term results. ��-71- TRAPPING AND TRANSLOCATING BIGHORN SHEEP Robert L. Schmidt and William H. Rutherford P. N. OBJECTIVE The principal objective of this study will be to increase the total number of bighorn sheep within the State of Colorado by either introducing bighorn into areas which were historically bighorn sheep ranges and where no animals are in evidence today, or by adding additional animals to small remnant herds. By expanding bighorn sheep from crowded areas into other areas it is hoped that they will be better able to utilize the range and increase their numbers. Also the introduction of new animals, especially rams, into remnant populations should improve the reproductive capacity and livability of the lambs by improving the gene pool and lowering the percentage of inbreeding. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and translocate between 100 and 150 bighorn sheep. 2. Treat all captured bighorn control of Protostrongylus 3. Monitor all translocated bighorn sheep for the degree of parasitism by collecting fecal pellet groups and checking them by standard laboratory procedures. sheep with chemotherapeutic spp. lungworm parasitism. drugs for the }ffiTHODSAND MATERIALS Baiting, trapping, drug treatment, and monitoring procedures are described in detail in the Job Progress Report for 1976-77 (Schmidt 1978) and will not be repeated here. RESULTS Five separate bighorn sheep translocation operations were conducted during this segment. Information on these is presented in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. All bighorn sheep listed in Tables 1 through 5 were treated with Fenbendazole, an antihelminthic drug that is efficacious against adult lungworms. This treatment was done to insure that the animals were "clean" when released at the new sites. Follow-up monitoring of lungworm larvae output was done on sheep that were translocated during 1976-77, as well as being done on numerous herds that received drug treatment without being translocated. Results of this monitoring are presented in Table 6. With few exceptions, Table 6 shows that larval output from treated sheep is generally low. Data from Pikes Peak show that re-infection with new populations of lungworms, with a corresponding increase in larval output, occurs �-72- within a year following treatment. This particular bighorn sheep range carries a high level of infectious third-stage larvae in snails, so that re-infection of treated sheep is a near certainty. This suggests that treatment in such situations, in order to be considered successful over a period of several years, must be done annually. Data from Chalk Creek are exactly opposite from what would be expected, giving rise to suspicions that two different groups of sheep were involved. This was confirmed by WCO Travnicek, who reported that the sheep that had previously been trapped, treated and marked had moved away from the area and that a separate group of unmarked sheep had taken their place. These data, therefore, are meaningless and are included only for the purpose of pointing out some of the pitfalls involved in monitoring treated sheep. Table 1. Bighorn sheep trapped at Boulder Park, Pikes Peak, released at Riverside, Chaffee County, TI3S, R79W, Sec. 1. Date Sex Age Ear Tag Color and Number 3-23-78 M Yr1g. Red/White - 2 None " M Yrlg. Red/White - 3 None " F 9 Red/White - 4 Red/Black - 63 " F 10 Red/White - 5 Red/Black - 67 " M Lamb Red/White - 7 None " F 10 Red/White - 8 Red/Black - 68 " F 9 Red/White - 9 Red/Black - 65 " F 10 Red/White - 10 Red/Black - 66 3-28-78 M Yr1g. Black - 90 None " F 10 Black - 93 Red/Black - 74 " F 9 Black - 95 Red/Black - 73 " F 2 None Red/Black - 71 Neck Collar Color and Number �-73- Table 2. Bighorn sheep trapped at Sugarloaf Mountain, Tarrya1l Creek; released at Langhoff Gulch, Chaffee County, T12S, R79\-1, Sec. 16. Date Sex Age Ear Tag Color and Number Neck Collar Color and Number 1-26-78 M Lamb Yellow - 1 None " M Lamb Yellow - 2 None " M Lamb Yellow - 3 None " F Lamb Yellow - 4 None " M Lamb Yellow - 5 None " M Yr1g. Yellow - 6 Yellow - 50 " F 3 Yellow - 7 Yellow - 45 " F 3 Yellow - 8 Yellow " M 3 Yellow - 9 White - 7 " F 8 Yellow - 10 White - 29 " F 4 Yellow - 11 Yellow - 26 " M 2 Yellow - 12 Yellow - 47 " M Yr1g. Yellow - 13 Yellow - 48 " F 4 Yellow - 14 Yellow - 46 " M Yrlg. Yellow - 15 Yellow - 49 " F 4 Yellow - 16 Yellow - 44 " F 6 Yellow - 17 White - 22 Remarks - 18 Recapture 1976 from Recapture 1976 from �-74- Table 3. Bighorn sheep trapped at Arrowhead, Poudre Canyon, Larimer County, released at South Fork of Conejos River, Conejos County, T35N, R4E, Sec. 36. Date Sex Age Ear Tag Color and Number Neck Collar Color and Number 2-9-78 M Lamb Black - 1 None " M Lamb Black - 2 None " M Lamb Black - 3 None " M Lamb Black - 4 None " M Lamb Black - 5 None " M Lamb Black - 6 None " F 6 None " M Lamb Black - 7 " F 7 None " F Lamb Black - 8 None " M Lamb Black - 9 None " F 5 Black - 10 Unnumbered " F 4 None White/Black - 42 " F 5 None White/Black - 43 " F 4 None White/Black - 44 " F 7 None White/Black - 45 " F 4 None White/Black - 46 " F Yrlg. None White/Black - 47 " F Yrlg. None White/Black - 48 " F 5 None White/Black - 50 White/Black Remarks - 40 None White/Black - 41 Yellow collar with radio transmitter �-75- Table 4. Bighorn sheep trapped at Almont, Taylor River Canyon, released at Alamosa River near Platoro, Conejos County, T36N, R5E, Sec. 4. Date Sex Age Ear Tag Color and Number Neck Collar Color and Number 2-22-78 F 7 White - 93 Red/Black - 28 " F 3 White - 95 Red/Black - 30 " F 6 White - 96 Red/Black - 31 " F 3 White - 85 Red/Black - 32 " F 4 White - 89 Red/Black - 33 " F Yrlg. Black - 67 Red/Black - 35 " F 5 White - 81 Red/Black - 36 " F Yrlg. White - 92 Red/Black - 37 " F 4 White - 91 Red/Black - 38 " F Yrlg. White - 98 Red/Black - 39 " F 3 White - 83 Red/Black - 40 " F 2 Black - 66 Red/Black - 41 " M Lamb Black - 63 None " M Yrlg. Black - 64 None " M Lamb Black - 65 None " M Lamb White - 82 None " F Lamb White - 87 None " F Lamb White - 90 None " F Lamb White - 94 .None " F Lamb White - 97 None " M Yrlg. White - 99 None " M 2 White - 86 None Remarks Collar on upside down �-76- Table 5. Bighorn sheep trapped at Trickle Mountain, on Rampart Range, El Paso County, Tl1N, R67W. Saguache Creek; released Date Sex Age Ear Tag Color and Number Neck Collar Color and Number 3-8-78 F Lamb Black - 75 None " F Lamb Black - 76 None " M Lamb Black - 77 None " M Lamb Black - 78 None " F Lamb Black - 79 None " F Lamb Black - 80 None " M Lamb Black - 81 None " F Lamb Black - 82 None " F Lamb Black - 83 None " M Lamb Black - 84 None " M Yrlg. Black - 86 None " M Yrlg. Black - 87 None " M Yrlg. Black - 88 None " F Yrlg. None Red/Black - 50 " F 3 None Red/Black - 51 " F 2 None Red/Black - 52 " F 6 None Red/Black - 53 " F 4 None Red/Black - 54 " F 4 None Red/Black - 56 " F Yrlg. None Unnumbered yellow collar with This sheep radio transmitter. found dead 5-16-78, collar recovered. Remarks �-77- Table 6. Lungworm larvae output as determined by laboratory analysis of bighorn sheep pellet groups collected before and after drug treatment. Location and Treatment Status Collection Date No. of Sample Groups Frequency 1/ By Output Category 2 4 0 1 5 3 2/ Average- Dinosaur National Monument Pre-treat 6-5-77 Post-treat 4-30-78 14 46 14 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 C ross M ountaln. 3/ Post-treat Post-treat Post-treat Post-treat 6-8-77 8-3-77 10-6-77 4-30-78 22 15 21 20 15 15 15 18 7 0 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.32 0.00 0.29 0.10 Cow Creek, RMNpl/ Post-treat 6-9-77 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 Apishapa Canyo~/ Post-treat Post-treat Post-treat 6-24-77 8-11-77 9-29-77 24 7 25 16 7 5 8 0 19 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.33 0.00 0.84 Lone Pine Creek1/ Post-treat Post-treat 6-27-77 7-27-77 5 2 4 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.20 1.00 Rampart Range Pre-treat Post-treat 8-8-77 3-18-78 11 26 3 14 6 7 2 4 0 1 0 0 0 0 0.91 0.69 11-15-77 12-28-77 1-15-78 2-26-78 4 21 8 20 0 1 2 0 2 7 4 10 1 9 2 6 1 2 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1. 75 1. 86 1.00 1.80 Chalk Creek Pre-treat Post-treat 1-10-78 1-28-78 11 12 5 0 4 4 2 5 0 3 0 0 0 0 0.73 1. 92 5/ Tarrya11 RangePre-treat 1-l3-78 27 1 21 5 0 0 0 1.15 5/ Mount Evans-Pre-treat 1-11-78 21 0 2 6 6 2 5 3.10 Pikes Peak~/ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-78Table 6. Lungworm larvae output as determined by laboratory analysis bighorn sheep pellet groups collected before and after drug treatment Collection Date No. of Sample Groups Almont-Taylor Canyon Pre-treat Pre-treat Post-treatment 1-10-78 2-14-78 2-24-78 14 21 21 Dillon Mesa Pre-treat Post-treat 2-14-78 3-17-78 21 20 GrantPre-treat Pre-treat Pre-treat 1-18-78 1-21-78 1-31-78 19 Trickle Mountain Pre-treat Pre-treat Post-treat Location and Treatment Status Frequency 1/ By Output Categoryo 1 2 3 4 5 14 o o 7 7 6 15 0 o o o o o of (cont.). Average- o o o 1.50 1. 71 0.00 2.57 0.35 21 o o 3 7 8 6 3 1 13 o o o o o o 8 2 o 21 1 13 6 1 o o o 4 6 4 3 9 1-10-78 3-4-78 4-14-78 25 20 44 7 13 41 17 6 3 1 1 0 o o o Bison Reservoir Post-treat 4-14-78 20 10 7 2 Poudre Canyon Pre-treat Post-treat 1-15-78 2-1-78 51 29 3 29 22 26 0 2/ 5/ o o 1. 95 1.89 1.33 o o o o o o 0.76 0.40 0.07 o o 1 0.80 o o o o o o 1.45 0.00 1 1/ - Larval output category values are assigned as follows: Larvae absent - 0; 1-50 larvae/gram of feces - 1; 51-250 larvae/gram - 2; 251-500 larvae/gram - 3; 501-1000 larvae/gram - 4; 1000+ larvae/gram - 5. 1/ This is a weighted value established by multiplying category values by frequencies, summing, and then dividing the summation by the total number of sample groups. Generally, values lower than 1.00 indicate output levels low enough to be no cause for concern. 3/ - These are transplanted sheep that were treated at the time of capture. treatment larval output data were not collected. ~/ These data cannot be considered post-treatment 8-10 months prior to pellet group collection. 1/ Post-treatment data are not available because treatment Pre- was done at the time of this writing. �-79- LITERATURE CITED Schmidt, R. L. 1978. Trapping and translocating bighorn sheep. Federal Aid P-R Progress Report, Project W-41-R-27, January: Prepared by Wildlife Researcher ~ Colorado 57-75. �TABLE OF CONTENTS Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations (W-41-R-28) Page Bighorn Sheep Lungworm Control by Biological Control of Snail Intermediate Hosts •.......•.........•............. 25 Evaluation of Trace Mineral Availability to Bighorn Sheep on Winter Range in Colorado •....•.........••.........•..... I Extending 43 Bighorn Sheep Ranges Prescribed Burning to Improve and Enlarge Bighorn Sheep Ranges •.•....•..•.•...•••••.........•••.•............ 45 Trapping ....•................• 69 ••......•......•.•....... 81 Raptor and Translocating Investigations Bighorn Sheep (W-124-R-6) Bald and Golden Eagle Nes ting Studies Bald and Golden Eagle Winter Population Ferruginous Nesting Hawk Nesting Performance Osprey Nesting Surveys .•........•.... 87 111 Studies of Peregrine Falcons in Colorado 121 95 Studies Peregrine Flacon Habitat Protection Activities In Colorado ...•...•.••....•.••...•....•...•.........•...... 171 Physical and Biological Analysis of Colorado Peregrine Nesting Habitat ..•.••........••••..•...•....•...• 137 Prairie Falcon Breeding Population Prairie Falcon Nesting Studies Characteristics Studies .... 105 .......•.•.•.•.................. 99 Reintroduction and Augmentation of Peregrine Falcon Production ••••.........•..••..•.....•........•...... 163 �January 1979 -81- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ----~~~~~------------COLORADO Project No. W-124-R Work Plan No. Job Title Period Job No. Bald and Golden Eagle Nesting Covered: Personnel: I Raptor Investigations 'C. 1 Studies April 15, 1977 through February 28, 1978 Gerald R. Craig, Alden Forbes, Rickie Londe, Joe Frothingham, James McKinley, Wayne Russell and Gordon Saville, Colorado Division of Wildlife ABSTRACT A total of 464 golden eagle nests on record necessitated orientation of nesting investigations toward aerial flights to make most efficient use of field time. Flight routes were delineated and 330 nests were checked during the season •. An estimated 144 young were produced for an average of 1.48 young produced and 1.47 young fledged per successful nests. ��-83- BALD AND GOLDEN EAGLE NESTING STUDIES Gerald R. Craig Eagles are the largest aerial predators and occupy a unique niche which makes them most likely to be affected by man caused changes in the ecosystem. Golden eagles occupy regions in which massive habitat changes are likely to occur as a result of land, water and energy developments and thus they may serve as indicator or key species which could be monitored to assess the results of the changes. The nest sites of golden eagles are often used for many decades which should provide some rigidity in a census system to monitor nest site occupancy and reproduction. Approximately 250 golden eagle nests have been documented and cataloged. A sample of these nests has been identified to evaluate the effectiveness of aerial census in determining occupancy and reproduction. pnly two active bald eagle nests have been documented in Colorado although the state is generally considered to be peripheral as nesting habitat. Recent reclassification has designated bald eagles as endangered species in Colorado thus each site should receive protection from disturbance and habitat degradation. Prior to such protection, it will be necessary to delineate important hunting areas and buffer zones adjacent to the nest sites. P.N. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: (1) to estimate the breeding numbers and obtain production data of bald and golden eagles nesting in Colorado; (2) to identify important nesting areas and associated hunting habitats of bald and golden eagles in Colorado; and (3) to compile data and submit reports to associated state personnel and federal agencies for use in delineating and protecting eagle nest sites. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. Continue to locate and map nesting sites of golden and bald eagles throughout Colorado. Nest searches will be conducted with fixedwing aircraft and in some instances with helicopter. Additional field work will be done from the ground by vehicles. Photographs of nest sites will be taken and pertinent information recorded about physical features of the habitat. lb. Nesting areas will be stratified by such features as climate, elevation and habitat type. Sample areas then will be delineated which are representative of important nesting areas. The sample areas throughout the state will be flown with a fixed-wing aircraft in late April and early May to ascertain the number of active sites. The same sites again will be checked from the air in June to determine the nesting success and productivity of the sample sites. The percent of active sites, percent of successful pairs, and total production will be extrapolated for each region of the state. �-84- 2a. When nesting areas are visited in la, details will be recorded as to characteristics of the nesting habitat. Nesting eagles also will be observed from a distance to locate and map key hunting areas. 2b. Radio transmitters may be attached to several young bald eagles and a sample of young golden eagles to follow their movements after they fledge. Color markers mayor may not be used to mark the eagles as well. 2c. A sample of sites will be selected and visited to determine the prey species present at the nest sites. This information will be valuable in assessing the prey composition and availability to eagles. 3. Analyze all data obtained METHODS and prepare a report of the findings. AND MATERIALS During 1977, emphasis was placed on assessing activity and production of golden eagles through use of fixed-wing aircraft. An effort was made to check all nests recorded during previous years, but solitary or extremely isolated sites were excluded in interest in saving time. Primary areas of inventory were in northwestern and southwestern portions of the state. The first flights were made in late April and May to locate active nest sites. Sites were considered active if one or both adults were present at the site and if there was evidence that new material had been added to the nest. Nesting activity of some adults were more advanced than others and incubating adults were often encountered. In addition to recording presence and activity of adults, and stage of nest repair, observers also took polaroid photographs of each site from the aircraft to aid relocating the nests during return visits. At times, prior scheduling or weather conditions did not permit flights and nests had to be checked from the ground. Since incubating adults are often difficult to distinguish from their nests when viewed from the ground, a predator call was used to cause them to move on the nest. Those nests which were determined to be active were revisited in late May and June to record nesting success. The number of young and approximate ages were recorded during these flights. Young were considered to be of fledging age if they were completely feathered and no white down was visible on their heads. For tabulation purposes, young present in nests at least two weeks prior to fledging were considered as fledged since mortality is insignificant which might occur from that age to fledging. The two known bald eagle nests present in the state were observed at a distance several times during the breeding season to determine activity and production. The nests were not visited at any time and special precautions were made to avoid any activity which might disturb the adults. �-85- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Golden Eagle Nesting Results Table 1 su~marizes results of the 1977 field season. The total number of young fledged (99) is deceptive because many of the nests could not be revisited before the young had fledged. Analysis of those sites for which the number of young produced and fledged are known indicates that only one young did not fledge of 102 which were produced. (Table 2). Therefore, it is probable that nearly all the young produced also fledged, so a figure of 1.11 young fledged per active nest may be appropriate. Twenty-seven sites were recorded which produced 47 young, but the observers had been unable to return prior to fledging so no fledging success could be obtained. Assuming that these sites also experienced low mortality between the time the young were observed and should have fledged, they can be added to 70 sites with known outcomes to obtain 97 sites which produced and fledged 143 young, or 1.47 young per successful site. Table 1. Statewide Total of Golden Eagle Nesting Activity Nests on record Nests not found in 1977 Nests not checked Nests checked New nests found Inactive nests Active nests Young produced Young fledged Young produced per active nest Young fledged per active nest Active nest per nest checked Table 2. Productivity of Successful - 1977 Totals 464 10 124 330 36 198 132 147 99 1.11 0.75 0.40 Golden Eagle Nests - 1977 Known productivity and fledging success was av?ilab1e for 70 sites, while only productivity information was available for 27 additional sites. Due to extremely low mortality between production and fledging, no young were assumed to have died in the adjusted figures below. Successful sites Total Young Produced Total Young Fledged Young Produced/Successful Nest Young Fledged/Successful Nest Known Values Adjusted Values 70 102 101 1. 46 1. 44 70 + 27 102 + 42 101 + 42 1.48 1. 47 97 144 143 �-86- Bald Eagle Nesting Results As in 1976, the two bald eagle nests produced 2 young at each site. No attempt was made to band or colormark the young at the time. We are proceeding cautiously in monitoring these eagles in order to avoid disturbance which might cause abandonment of the sites. Prepared by G,~ R. ~~ Gerald R. Craig Sr. Wildlife Biologist �January -87- 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ----~~~~~------------COLORADO Project NQ. -----------------------W-124-R Work Plan No. Job Title Job No. ~2~ Bald and Golden Eagle Winter Population Period Covered: Personnel: I Raptor Investigations April 15, 1977 through February _ Surveys 28, 1978 Erwin Boeker and Alan Jenkins, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Gerald Craig, Joe Frothingham, Ann Potter and Gordon Saville, Colorado Division of Wildlife; C. Eugene Knoder, National Audubon Society; and Wayne Russell, Colorado Division of Wildlife ABSTRACT Midwinter golden and bald eagle flights were continued on census areas in the San Luis Valley, northeastern and northwestern Colorado. Inclement weather conditions interferred with the northwest golden eagle flightc?:D-SL forced cancellation of the Yampa River bald eagle flight. An experimental census was conducted in southwest Colorado to test the feasibility of expanding the work into that region. The total number of golden eagles continued to decline in the San Luis Valley and northwest and increased slightly in the northeast. All areas were typified by low numbers of juveniles which represents poor reproduction. The total number of bald eagles in all areas continued to decline. ��-89- BALD AND GOLDEN EAGLE WINTER POPULATION SURVEYS Gerald R. Craig Golden eagle winter population trend information is obtained by annually censusing sample areas and recording the number of eagles observed per 100 square miles. The censuses yield area estimates which are of use in extrapolating probable eagle populations throughout the region. The aerial census flights are designed to be compatible with similar study areas in other western states. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service then compares data from states throughout the region to obtain population information for golden eagles throughout the western United States. Bald eagle population information is obtained by censusing concentration areas, primarily river courses throughout the state. As with golden eagle trend counts, aerial flights are made in midwinter when the population reaches its peak. Rather than an area estimate, all bald eagles sighted are recorded since the census tends to be linear in fashion. The censuses also yield valuable information about those areas which are preferred by wintering bald eagles. P.N. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to obtain winter population trend information for bald and golden eagles on selected wintering areas in Colorado. The information will be used to estimate wintering populations of bald and golden eagles throughout the state. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Aerial Counts of Wintering Golden Eagles: Once annually an aerial flight will be made on census areas in the San Luis Valley, northeastern and northwestern portions of the state. These census areas were established in 1972 and the procedures will be essentially the same. Random transects will be flown throughout each study area with a Cessna 185 aircraft and all eagles observed within ~ mile of each side of the transects will be counted and classified as adult or juvenile. From the transects, an area estimate will be obtained as to eagles per 100 square miles. Identical census areas are also flown in Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, New Mexico and Nevada by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperating agencies. Information forthcoming from these states are then collected and analyzed by the Fish and Wildlife Service to obtain population estimates for the West. Age ratio information which is obtained provides an indication of the previous breeding season's reproduction. �-90- 2. Aerial Counts of Wintering Bald Eagles: Since bald eagles tend to congregate primarily along river courses and impoundments, aerial flights will be made along major river courses throughout the state and a direct count will be rnade of all bald eagles observed. The eagles will be classified as to age in order to obtain information about reproduction. The flights wf.Ll, be made in January when the highest concentration of eagles are usually present. Flights will be made along the South Platte River, Yampa River, White River and Rio Grande River. It is proposed to expand the censuses to the Colorado River and possibly the Gunnison, Dolores and San Juan Rivers. 3. Compile data and prepare annual progress and final reports and submit them to appropriate personnel and agencies. METHODS AND MATERIALS Midwinter golden eagle flights were conducted in the census areas in the San Luis Valley, northeastern and northwestern Colorado according to procedures described in Segment Objective 1. The northeastern census area constitutes approximately 3,000 square miles in Weld and Logan Counties. North-south transects totaling approximately 600 miles were established randomly throughout the area. Observers count all eagles observed within ~ mile of either side of the aircraft, so this accounts for actual coverage of 300 square miles or 10% of the total census area. The transects are flown at speeds averaging 100-120 mph at altitudes of 100 to 300 feet, depending upon the topography. Census areas in the San Luis Valley and northwest portion of the state are flown in a similar manner. Transects account for a 10% sample of the San Luis Valley. The area encompasses 2,500 square miles which is the majority of the valley lands of the San Luis Valley. The northwestern census area includes Moffat and Rio Blanco Counties and is the largest with 4,100 square miles. Due to extended flight time, the number of transects were reduced so that 7% of the area is covered. Flights were conducted on the following dates: northeastern Colorado, January 4, 1978; San Luis Valley, January 14, 1978; and northwestern Colorado, January 19, 1978. Winter bald eagle counts are conducted in the San Luis Valley in conjunction with golden eagle flights mentioned above. Since bald eagles are generally distributed throughout the San Luis Valley, it is possible to obtain an effective area estimate of bald eagles during the same flight for golden eagles. Bald eagles are also censuses in conjunction with golden eagle flights in northwestern Colorado, but the effectiveness of this method has declined over the past six years and will probably be discontinued. To compensate, direct counts are being made along the Yampa River from Craig to Dinosaur National Monument. Unfortunately, inclement weather in 1978 forced termination of the flight before the census was complete. A direct count is also made of the South Platte River upon completion of the golden eagle flight of northeastern Colorado. The course of the river is flown at altitudes of 100 to 200 feet and all eagles are counted along the river from Fort Morgan to Greeley. In an effort to expand the censuses to southwestern Colorado, an experimental flight was made of major drainages in February, 1978. The following river drainages were flown: San Juan, Piedra, Los Pinos, Animas, Florida, La Plata and Dolores. I �-91- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Tables 1 and 2 summarize eagles. the results of aerial flights for bald and golden In northeastern Colorado, the total number of golden eagles increased slightly from 1977, but a general decline is still evident. The extremely low percentage of immature eagles observed indicates that the population is still experiencing low reproduction. The decline of golden eagles in northwest Colorado has continued since 1972 and 1973 when rabbit populations were high. Poor reproduction is also indicated by the low number of juveniles in the population. The general population decline was also indicated in the southern portion of the state on the San Luis Valley census area. Tentatively, it appears that reproduction may be up slightly in this population. Extremely low numbers of bald eagles have been observed in recent years on the northwest Colorado flights. Despite the slight increase from 1 to 4 bald eagles from 1977 to 1978, insufficient numbers are present to warrant use of the estimates. The high rabbit population in the early 1970's may have served to attract large numbers of bald eagles away from the riparian areas they normally frequent. A slight increase was evident in the San Luis Valley bald eagle population, but the figures are well below the high observed in 1976 when the flights were initiated. Along the South Platte, bald eagle numbers have also continued to decline. A significant increase in percent of juveniles in the population (68%) indicates a decline in the adult segment and not an increase in immatures. A three-hour flight of major drainages and impoundments in southwestern Colorado yielded a total of 41 bald eagle observations. It is recommended that an aerial flight be established in that region to assess future population trends. Table 1. Golden Eagle Aerial Census - 1972-1978 Northeastern Colorado - 1972-1978 (10% sample of 3,000 sq. mi.) Date 1/24/1973 1/16/1974 1/22/1975 2/19/1976 1/13/1977 1/4/1978 Adults 16 19 22 17 18 18 Juveniles Unknown Eagles per 100 sq.mi. Est. of Total Eagles 8 3 5 3 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.0 7.3 9.0 6.7 6.3 7.0 240 220 270 200 190 210 �-92- Table 1 (continued) Northwestern Colorado - 1972-1978 (7% sample of 4,100 sq. mi.) Date 1/25 & 2/26,1972 1/23/1973 1/22 & 1/29,1974 1/29/1975 1/26/1976 1/19/1977 1/19/1978 Adults Juveniles Unknown Eagles per 100 sq.mi. Est. of Total Eagles 86 35 6 11 29 29 23 80 14 8 8 3 5 5 97 70 47 17 10 2 0 91.6 41.5 21.2 12.5 14.6 12.5 9.8 3,757 1,700 871 514 600 514 400 San Luis Valley, Colorado - 1976-1978 (10% sample of 2,500 sq. mi.) Date 1/29/1976 2/16/1977 1/14/1978 Table 2. Adults Juveniles 17 14 10 9 3 5 Eagles per Unknown Total 100 sq.mi. 2 1 0 28 18 15 11.2 7.2 6.0 Est. of Total Eagles 280 180 150 Bald Eagle Aerial Census - 1972-1978 South Platte River, Colorado - 1972-1978 (exact count) Date Adults Juveniles Unknown Total % Juveniles 1/24/1973 18 l3 0 31 42% 1/16/1974 16 15 0 31 48% 1/22/1975 28 14 0 42 33% 2/19/1976 19 10 0 29 35% -------------The South Platte River was not flown this year-------------1/4/1978 8 17 0 25 68% �-93- Northwestern Colorado - 1972-1978 (7% sample of 4,100 sq. mi.) Date Adults Juveniles Total * * *0 35 4 5 1 11 1 4 1/25 & 2/26/72 ,~ 1/23/1973 * 1/22 & 29/1974 * 1/29/1975 1 1/26/1976 7 1/19/1977 1 1/19/1978 4 4 0 0 Eagles per Est. of Total 100 sq. mi. Eagles 12.2 1.4 1.7 0.4 3.8 0.4 1.4 500 57 71 14 157 14 57 *No distinction was made between adults and juveniles on these flights San Luis Valley, Colorado - 1976-1978 (10% sample of 2,500 sq. mi.) Date Adults Juveniles Total 1/29/1976 2/16/1977 1/14/1978 28 12 18 12 6 8 40 18 26 Eagles per Est. of Total 100 sq. mi. Eagles 16.0 7.2 10.4 400 180 260 Yampa River, Colorado - 1977-1978 (exact count) Date 1/19/1977 1/19/1978 Adults Juveniles Total % Juveniles 14 17 17.6% 3 -----------cancelled due to inclement weather-------------- Southwestern Colorado - 1978 (exact count of San Juan, Piedra, Los Pinos, Animas, Florida, La Plata and Dolores Rivers and associated reservoirs) Date Adults Juveniles Total % Juveniles 2/ /1978 32 9 41 22% R. e~ Prepared by ~ Gerald R. Craig, . Wildlife Biologist ��January 1979 -95- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ----~------------------- Project No. Raptor Investigations W-124-R Work Plan No. ~~--------------II Job Title Osprey Nesting Job No. Studies Period Covered: April 15, 1977 through February Personnel: 1 28, 1978 Terry Becker, Gerald Craig, Steve Porter, Mike Stiehl, John Wagner, Colorado Division of Wildlife ABSTRACT Extremely poor reproduction continued to plague the intermountain osprey population in Colorado. A single young was fledged from only one of 13 occupied nests in 1977. ��-97- OSPREY NESTING INVESTIGATIONS Gerald R. Craig Although migrant osprey are regularly sighted in Colorado, only two unsatisfactory nesting records are reported in the literature. In the late 1960's R. A. Ryder reported a pair of osprey nesting on Grand Lake in Grand County and another pair were observed breeding successfully at Electra Lake in La Plata County. Since initiation of a breeding survey in 1972, the number of known osprey nests have expanded to 18, most of which are located in Grand, Jackson and Larimer Counties. The present investigation is designed to determine nest site requirements and monitor breeding success. P.N. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: (1) to monitor productivity of nesting osprey, (2) to identify nesting habitat requirements and implement measures to encourage occupancy by additional pairs, (3) to compile data and submit reports to appropriate state and federal agencies to assist them in delineating and protecting key nest sites. . SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. Continue to locate and map nesting sites of osprey throughout Colorado. lb. All known nest sites will be visited annually to establish reproductive success. All unhatched eggs will be collected and analyzed to ascertain the cause of hatching failure. 2a. Habitat features such as key hunting areas, topography, vegetative type, climate, and geology will be recorded for each nest site in an attempt to establish habitat requirements. 2b. Artificial nests will be constructed in localities which offer potential for occupancy by osprey. The sites will be monitored annually to determine the success of the endeavor. 3. Analyze all data obtained and prepare a report of the findings. METHODS ~~D ~~TERIALS Due to scheduling difficulties, most nests were not investigated until late July and August. All recorded nests were visited to determine production, band young and collect egg fragments. In addition, the presence and activity of adults were recorded. A fixed-wing flight was scheduled to check known nest sites and locate additional nesting areas. �-98- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Only one nest succeeded in fledging young in 1977 out of a total of 13 sites which were occupied by breeding osprey. A second nest (site LAl) may have fledged young prior to nest checks of August 10 and 11, but the young were not visible in the vicinity. Table 1 summarizes the results. Table 1. Osprey nesting Site Activity GRI GR2 GR3 success in Colorado, 1977. Productivity Date Checked Adults present Adults present Adults present 0 0 0 7/7/77, 8/2/77 8/1/77 8/1/77 GR4~'< Adults present 0 8/2/77 GRS Adults present Unknown 7/31/77 GR6 GR7* GR8* GR9 Inactive Adults present Inactive Adults present GRlO* JAI JA2 JA3 JA4 Adults present Adults present Inactive --------------Nest Adults present JAS JA6 LAI LA2 Adults present Inactive Adults present Adults present o o o 7/31/77 7/?/77, 8/1/77 8/2/77 8/1/77 Comments Egg fragments below nest Adults building onto nest Could not climb nest, adults not defensive. Probably no young. Nest destroyed by wind Nest destroyed by wind Adult in incubating posture 8/1/77 7/15/77, 8/10/77 8/10/77 Nest tree blown down and tree could not be located from ground or air---o 8/17/77, 8/29/77 Adult in incubating posture o .8/18/77 8/20/77 Unknown 8/10/77, 8/11/77 o 8/10/77, 8/15/77 Nest in poor repair 2 This population continues to exhibit extremely low reproduction which is not sufficient to maintain itself. Drought conditions in the summer of 1977 caused extreme drawdown of the reservoirs in the Shadow Mountain-Grand Lake complex. Low water levels increased accessibility to some nests and mayor may not have reduced fishing opportunity which caused incubating adults to abandon their eggs to forage for themselves. Prepared by C,11M~ Q ~ G~ardR: cr~ig Sr. Wildlife Biologist �January ~99- JOB PROGRESS State REPORT COLORADO of Project ----------------------No. Raptor W-124-R -------------------- Job No. 1 -------------------------------- No. Job Title -------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------- Prairie Covered: Personnel: III Investigations Work Plan Period 1979 Falcon Nesting April Studies 15, 1977 through February 28, 1978 Terry Becher, Gerald Craig, James McKinley Colorado Division of Wildlife. and Michael Stiehl, ABSTRACT Statewide prairie falcon nesting studies indicate a reproduction of 3.24 young per successful pair which is down slightly from the previous year. The effectiveness of this portion of the study was reduced because of a delay in initiating field investigations. The intensive study area in northeastern Colorado yielded good occupancy of nest sites and slightly higher reproduction. ��-101- PRAIRIE FALCON NESTING Gerald R. Craig STUDIES In Colorado, the pralrle falcon ranks high in popularity for falconry and demand will undoubtedly increase since this is the only large falcon which can legally be removed from the wild. As harvest pressures increase, it will be necessary to monitor the populations to assure that harvest is not detrimental to the well being of the population. Preliminary investigations indicate that the number of occupied nests have remained fairly stable over the past decade. However, detailed investigations are required to establish distribution and productivity on a statewide basis. P. N. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are: 1. To document the breeding range and estimate of prairie falcons in Colorado. 2. To obtain production data at selected nesting areas and estimate total production of prairie falcons. throughout 3. To delineate nesting habitat falcons. 4. To document Colorado. movements and mortality requirements SEGMENT the number of prairie of prairie falcons of breeding pairs the state throughout OBJECTIVES 1. Locate and map all known nesting sites of prairie falcons throughout Colorado. From data obtained through approach 3, extrapolate the number of breeding pairs potentially occupying similar habitat types throughout the state. 2. Establish study areas in select habitats which represent important nesting areas. Study areas will be selected that represent shortgrass prairie, foothills and mountain nesting populations and productivity will be determined and compared between areas. 3. Physical and biological parameters of each nest site which is visited will be recorded on appropriate field forms and analyzed to establish those features which favor occupancy by prairie falcons. The field information will be gathered in conjunction with approach 1. 4. When nests are visited to determine productivity, the young will be banded with Fish and Wildlife Service lock-on bands and their movements will subsequently be traced through reports filed with the Office of Migratory Bird Management. Should the occasion permit, transmitters will be placed on several breeding adults to determine extent of hunting ranges. Radio transmitters will also be placed upon young at fledging and their movements and activities will be monitored. 5. Compile data and prepare annual and final reports. �-102- METHODS AND MATERIALS Known nest sites were visited during courtship and early incubation to determine the presence of breeding adults. Invariably all sites could not be visited early in the season and some only received visitation once after the young were produced. Of those sites which were checked, a sample of active nests was selected and an attempt was made to return to each of the sample sites and determine reproductive success. Young were banded with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands when nests were visited to determine brood size, locate prey remains, and record other information about the nest. In addition, the following information was recorded on field forms: elevation, topography, geology of the nest cliff, major vegetative communities, potential hunting areas, distance and direction to disturbance factors, location of nest site, height from nest to top and bottom of the cliff, dimension of the nest ledge, and presence of other raptors in the vicinity. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Statewide nesting studies were hampered by inability to employ field assistants that were experienced in locating and observing nesting prairie falcons. As a result, much of the early nesting information was not gathered in 1977. In particular, the number of active nest sites may be exaggerated since some of the sites which were classed as inactive may have been occupied earlier in the season. A sample of sites were visited in late May and June and reproduction was obtained for those nests. Although the percent of active sites was reduced (94% in 1976 to 73.2% in 1977), the number of young produced per successful pair was reduced only slightly (from 3.37 to 3.24). Following is a synopsis of the statewide reproduction: Total number of nests checked Number of active nests Number of successful nests Number of young produced Percent of sites which were active Young produced per successful pair Young produced per active nest 82 60 50 162 73.2% 3.24 2.7 The intensive study area in northeastern Colorado continued to exhibit good reproduction. Thirty-five sites were occupied by breeding pairs for an 85.4% occupancy rate. An average of 4.44 eggs were laid, 4.48 young were produced per successful nest and 3.64 young fledged per successful nest (see Table 1). �-103- Table 1. Prairie falcon reproductive success in northeast Colorado, 1977. Site Nest occupancy Number of eggs Number of young Number fledged WE 1 Active 5 5 4 WE 2 " 5 5 5 \.JE3 " 5 5 5 WE 4 " 4 4 o WE 5 Inactive WE 6 Active 5 3 3 WE 7 4 4 o Female killed 5 4 2 2 young died of tick infestation WE 9 " " " 5 3 o All young died of tick infestatior WElOA Inactive WEllA Active 3 3 3 WE12 Inactive Great Horned Owl using site WE13 Active Single adult male present WE14A " 4 4 4 WE14B " 4 1 1 WE16A " 6 6 6 WE17 Inactive WE18 Active 5 1 1 WE19 5 5 o WE20 " " WE2l " 4 4 4 WE22 4 4 4 WE23 " " 4 3 3 WE24 " 5 5 5 l.JE25 ., WE30 Inactive WE32 Active 1 o o WE34 " 4 4 4 WE35 5 5 4 WE37 " " 4 3 3 WE38 " o o o WE40 " ? 2 2 WE 8 Comments 5th young removed for falconry Adult shot Great Horned Owl using site Yound died of tick infestation Single adult male present Single adult female present 5th young removed for falconry �-104- Table l. Prairie falcon reproductive success in northeast Colorado, 1977 . (Cont.) Site Nest occupancy Number of eggs Number of young Number fledged WE4l Active 4 3 3 \-lE42 " 5 5 5 WE43 ? 4 4 WE44 " " 5 4 4 WE45 " ? 4 4 WE47 " 5 5 5 WE48 " 0 0 0 Pair present WE49 " 5 4 3 4th young removed for falconry WE50 Inactive Great Horned Owl using site Totals 120 112 91 Percent of sites which were active 85.4% Average clutch size = 4.44 per successful pair = 4.48 Young fledged per successful pair = 3.641/ Young fledged per active site = 2.60 Young produced = 3.20 Young produced Comments per active site 1/ Fledging success is raised to 3.72 if the 3 young are included which were taken for falconry. Prepared j'J fJ Ill).;? . by__~~~~~~~~~~ __ ~~~~~~Yr Gerald R. Craig \j Sr. Wildlife Biologist _ �January 1979 -105- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of Colorado ----------.------------- Project No. W-124-R Work Plan No. Job Title III Raptor Investigations Job No. II Prairie Falcon Breeding Population Period Covered: Characteristics Studies April 15, 1977 through February 28, 1978 Personnel: Gerald Craig, and James McKinley, Steve Platte, Brigham Young University. Colorado Division of Wildlife; ABSTRACT The total number of marked adult prairie falcons has been expanded to 41 for the study area. Between the 1976 and 1977 breeding season, 6 marked adults failed to return which gives an estimated mortality of 30%. Age structure of the population is developing as ages are established from previously banded adults. Ages of 11 falcons indicates an average age of 3.91 years which provides a corresponding annual mortality of 26 percent. ��-107- PRAIRIE FALCON BREEDING POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS STUDIES Gerald R. Craig and Steve Platte Before any management activities or protective measures can be implemented, it is necessary to understand population dynamics of the target species. Prairie falcon life tables have been developed from Fish and Wildlife Service band returns, but the calculated adult mortality is generally believed to be unrealistic due to inconsistencies caused by illegal shooting. Also, a large number of falcons must be banded to yield sufficient returns to permit analysis. An alternative method is being investigated which involves the monitoring of a population of marked prairie falcons. A disjunct prairie falcon population in northeast Colorado will be trapped, banded and color marked at breeding sites, then will be monitored annually to determine the loss of breeding adults from the population. Annual adult mortality can then be determined by direct observation of the sample population. P. N. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to document nest site fidelity of members of breeding pairs of prairie falcons. and replacement SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. A study area in Northeastern Colorado will be delineated which encompasses approximately 20 pairs of breeding prairie falcons. The area is physically isolated from the nearest breeding pairs by 10 to 15 miles, thus it will be easier to monitor recruitment and replacement of adults within the population. 2. Attempts will be made to trap all adults in the study area, place Fish and Wildlife Service bands and colored leg streamers on them to identify individuals. If some falcons are already banded, their age and banding location will be obtained from banding records. 3. Vocalization of individuals will be recorded and subjected to spectrographic analysis with the intent of distinguishing adults without capturing and handling them. The technique will first be tested upon identified individuals to prove its effectiveness. 4. The study area will be revisited annually and loss of mates or shifts in breeding pairs will be determined by observing colormarked individuals, recording and comparing vocalizations and trapping falcons and noting banding numbers. Any unmarked adults will be trapped, banded and colormarked. 5. Analyze the data and prepare annual progress reports and a final report. �-108- METHODS AND MATERIALS Prairie falcon nests were visited in May and June and attempts were made to capture the adults by using various techniques. Care was taken to avoid prolonged disturbance of the adults while they were incubating eggs. Those adults that were captured were color marked with short nylon streamers on either tarsus. Streamers were placed on alternate legs of pairs which occupied adjacent nests in order to distinguish them should a switch of mates occur. u.S. Fish and Wildlife Service bands were also placed on the other tarsus of captured falcons to provide certain identification. While the birds were in hand various measurements were taken in an effort to develop techniques to distinguish individual falcons. On subsequent visits to the nests, vocalization of each adult was recorded with a portable tape recorder and parabolic microphone. The tape recordings were later analyzed spectrographically in an attempt to determine the feasibility of identifying the vocalizations of individuals. On succeeding years, each site was revisited to determine replacement of adults and possible exchange of mates with other sites. The leg streamers permitted partial identification, but most of the adults had to be recaptured to check band numbers. Previously unmarked adults were marked with streamers and bands as described above. Additional tape recordings were taken on subsequent years to compare vocalizations of the same individual which were recorded on previous years. Description of Study Area The study area includes the Chalk Bluffs and Pine Bluffs in Wild County, Colorado. The habitat is typical short grass prairie interspersed with sandstone outcroppings. A relict population of timber pine is present in scattered locations on to Pine Bluffs and a few cottonwoods are present along intermittent stream courses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The first action was to determine how many of the 20 prairie falcons marked last year survived one year and returned to the study area. The color leg markers were easy to detect and 14 falcons that were marked were found. The recruitment standard is the number of young per pair that need to be produced to maintain a stable population. The recruitment standard associated with 70 percent survivorship (1976-77 estimate) falls in the 2.86 to 4.29 young per pair range. The 1977-78 sample (Table I) includes 41 marked adult prairie falcons (14 from 1976 and 27 from 1977). Two eyries were inactive where single adults had been marked the previous year. Single marked falcons were replaced at two locations. One of the replacement falcons was one year old (molting out of immature plumage) and the other was two years old (already banded when trapped). Two marked falcons (a pair) were both replaced at one eyrie and one of them, an adult female, was trapped and marked. �-109- Table I. Possible recruitment priarie falcon survivorship. No. Return standards Ad. Survivorship considering variation in immature Recruitment Standard Immature Surv. Rates .30 .25 .20 40 .98 0.17 0.20 0.25 39 .95 0.34 0.41 0.51 38 .93 0.53 0.63 0.79 37 .90 0.72 0.86 1.08 36 .88 0.93 1.11 1.39 35 .85 1.14 1.37 1.71 34 .83 1.37 1.65 2.06 33 .80 1.62 1.94 2.42 32 .78 1.88 2.25 2.81 31 .76 2.15 2.58 3.25 30 .73 2.44 2.93 3.67 29 .71 2.76 3.31 4.14 28 .68 3.10 3.71 4.64 27 .66 3.46 4.15 5.19 26 .63 3.85 4.62 5.77 25 .61 4.27 5.12 6.40 The expanded study included 35 eyries as compared to 28 in 1976. Eighteen sites were active and 10 were inactive. Fifteen of the 18 active sites were active in 1977 (two changed single adults and one changed both adults) and three were inactive (all had single adults present). Eight of the 10 sites which were inactive in 1977 were active in 1977 (three had immature females and one had a two year old female) and two were inactive (one had a single adult and the other had nothing). In 1976 35 percent of the sites were inactive and in 1977 only 17 percent were inactive. Thirty-one active pairs of falcons were observed this year. They hatched 112 young (3.61/occupied site) and fledged 92 (2.97/occupied site). Two observers banded approximately 110 nestling and 27 adult prairie falcons. Seven of the adult falcons were already banded when trapped. The six adult falcons already banded when trapped last year all survived. The oldest bird in the two groups is six years old, however, the age of several are still on request from the Bird Banding Lab, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The age of 11 of 13 already banded falcons is known. The average age of these birds is 3.91 years (range 2 to 6). If we consider these birds a "sample" then the corresponding average annual �-1l0- mortality rate is 26 percent (1.0/3.91, range in recruitment standards of 2.29-3.44). This year's sample indicates 30 percent per year and Enderson (1969) estimates 23 percent per year. Next years sample (41 marked birds) should be sufficiently large enough to serve as a good estimator of adult mortality because we appear to be in close agreement with other estimates available. Six of the females trapped were molting out of immature plumage, indicating they were one year old. All six falcons successfully bred and fledged young. Tape recordings of 20 individuals graphic analysis. (9 banded) LITERATURE are available for spectro- CITED Enderson, J. H. 1969. Peregrine and Prairie Falcon life tables based on band-recovery data, pp. 505-509. In Peregrine falcon populations, J. J. Hickey, Editor, Univ. Wisconsin Press, Madison, 596p. Prepared r>. Ii /) n. /I . by __~lQ.~~~~~~V(~~~~~~:~~ Gerald R. Craig \J Sr. Wildlife Biologist _ �January -111- JOB PROGRESS State Work No. W-124-R ------------------- Pl~n No. Job Title Period REPORT COLORADO of Project 1979 Job No. Investigations 1 --------------------------------------------------- Covered: Personnel: IV Raptor April 15, 1977 through February 28, 1978 William Andersen, Otero Junior College; Gerald McKinley, Colorado Division of Wildlife. Craig and James ABST~~CT Ferruginous hawk productivity was obtained from two study areas in southeast Colorado and another in northeast Colorado. Nests on one of the areas in southeast Colorado were manipulated where necessary to improve stability or suitability as nest sites. Approximately 2.03 young were produced per nesting attempt on all study areas. The managed area, however, produced 3.1 young per nesting attempt while the unmanaged areas produced 1.8 and 1.6 young per nesting attempt. The primary cause of nesting failure are high winds which capsize the bulky nest structures. ��-113- FERRUGINOUS Gerald R. Craig HAWK NESTING STUDIES and William C. Andersen Ferruginous hawks are strongly associated with the shortgrass pralrle community of eastern Colorado, although they do occur throughout the state in limited numbers. Their populations has undoubtedly declined within the past century as large portions of their habitat have been converted to agricultural lands. Presently, approximately 100 nests have been located, the majority of which are on or adjacent to the Pawnee and Comanche National Grasslands. Ferruginous hawks are extremely sensitive to human encroachment and habitat degradation and additional investigations are underway to establish population trends, tolerance limits and develop techniques to enhance reproduction. P.N. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are: 1. To document the breeding eastern Colorado. numbers 2. To delineate habitat parameters and disturbances ferruginous hawks in eastern Colorado. 3. To evaluate potential techniques to enhance nesting expansion of ferruginous hawk breeding populations. SEGMENT and productivity of ferruginous impacting pairs hawks in breeding or encourage OBJECTIVES 1a. Locate, map and photograph all known nest sites of ferruginous the eastern Colorado plains. hawks on lb. Known nest sites will be observed from a distance to establish the presence of courting or incubating adults. Occupied sites will be revisited prior to fledging and the young will be counted, banded, and an attempt will be made to identify all prey items present. 2. Habitat features such as vegetative type, type of nesting structure, topography, soil type, climate, vicinity of human habitation, roads, and other disturbances will be recorded for those nests identified in la and lb. The physical and biological features will be evaluated to establish those parameters which favor successful nesting of ferruginous hawks. 3a. A sample of a predetermined number of nests will be stabilized with wire baskets in an attempt to enhance nesting success. Production of the manipulated nests later will be compared with unaltered sites to determine the effectiveness of the efforts. 3b. Between one and two dozen artificial nest structures will be placed in suitable habitats which are not occupied by breeding pairs. All breeding pairs adjacent to each treatment area will be located prior to placement �-114- of the nest structures and will be monitored after placement of the structures to be certain that the structures actually encourage pioneering by new pairs and do not cause relocation of adjacent pairs. 4. Analyze the data and prepare annual progress reports and a final report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Four areas of primary investigation were established on the eastern plains. Areas 1 and 2 encompassed the southern and northern portions of the Comanche National Grasslands, respectively, in southeastern Colorado. Area 3 included the eastern and western portions of the Pawnee National Grasslands, respectively, in northeastern Colorado. Ferruginous hawks have proven to be prone to abandonment if their nests are visited during the courtship and incubation periods, but they will tolerate visitation after the young have hatched. This behavior mandated that the study be carried out in three phases: Phase 1. Nests within all study areas were checked in April and May to determine the presence of courting or incubating adults. Observations were made from distances of at least one half mile (.83 km) from a vehicle and observers remained stationary for a duration of no more than ten seconds. Activity and nest locations were recorded after departure from the area. No other data was taken at the time. Phase 2. Nests were revisited between June 1 and June 25 when the young were old enough to band but not developed enough to attempt to fledge prematurely. At that time, young were banded with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lock-on type bands. Sizes 7B and 7D were placed upon the tarsus of each young. Data collected during this visit included: age and general health of young, color phases of young and adults, lining material in nests, and prey items present in and below nests. Pellets present in and below the nests were collected and catalogued for analysis. No habitat data was collected during this phase to reduce the length of stay at each nest to an absolute minimum. Phase 2 began in Area 1 and proceeded sequentially through Areas 2 and 3 since previous studies have shown that nesting activities in the north tend to lag behind southern areas by five to seven days. At the conclusion of Phase 2, all study areas were rechecked for previously unknown nests of renesting pairs. Phase 3. Final visits were made to the areas from early through mid-August after the young had fledged and were no longer in vicinity of the nests. At that time, all the remaining data was collected such as nest site measurements, habitat information, disturbance factors, and maps were drawn. In addition, modifications were made at selected sites to improve their stability or make them more suitable for future occupancy. �-1l5- Modification or management Designation Techni O. Nest was not altered 1. techniques used on nests are as follows: ue in any way. Top the nes t. This required removal of several previous years nest material to reduce the bulk of the nest and thereby improve its stability in strong winds. 2. Remove restricting branches. Tree growth and/or annual addition of nesting material cause obstructions which make it difficult for adults to approach or depart the nest. The restricting branches may also reduce the surface area of some nests. 3. Shift nest center. As additional "pads" of nesting material are added annually, the nest may begin to lean in one direction until it eventually topples over. The nest is realigned over a vertical axis to improve support. 4. Widen nest. As nesting material accumulates, some nests become cone shaped and the nest platform is reduced. In other instances, the supporting tree limbs and trunk did not permit the hawks to construct a wide nest platform. 5. Reinforce base. Wire netting and other materials are used to "shore up" nest bases that have degenerated or lack adequate support for the weight or bulk of the nests. 6. Provide artificial base. In some cases it is best to remove the old nest entirely, construct an artificial base of welded wire and replace a portion of the nest on the new base. 7. Move the nest to new site. Where human disturbance repeatedly causes nesting failure, or the nest tree is an inadequate support structure, extreme action must be taken to move the entire nest to a superior location. 8. Provide predator protection. In extremely rare circumstances, mammalian predators (such as packrats) may endanger the eggs or young. Depending upon the type of predation, different solutions are used. A fairly effective measure is to nail tin sheathing around the tree trunk to make it unclimbable. 9. Provide alternate nest. This approach is less extreme than 7 and consists of constructing an artificial nest in the vicinity of the existing nest. The adults can then select the superior site, or renest at the new site should their original nest be destroyed. This is generally a good insurancp policy for each site where possible. �-116- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ferruginous hawks frequently construct large, bulky nests in solitary deciduous trees on the prairie. Generally, the trees are not occupying optimal growing conditions and are stunted. The combination of poor supporting structure and large area appear to make many nests susceptable to high winds. Previous investigations tended to bear out this hypothesis, so in 1976 those sites in Area 1 were modified using the above mentioned techniques where necessary to improve nest stability. None of the nests in Area 2 or 3 received this treatment prior to the 1977 field season, so it was possible to compare nesting successes of the three study areas. As can be seen in Table 1, Area 1 experience 100 percent nesting success while Areas 2 and 3 encountered nesting successes of 64 and 52 percent, respectively. The nesting successes in Areas 2 and 3 appear to be representative of reproductions which was normally encountered on previous years. As would be expected, the number of young produced per nesting attempt was also much greater for Area 1 than the two unmanaged areas. The young per successful nests did not fluctuate much among the three areas and really does not enter into consideration since itfu more a function of biological and physiological factors such as prey availability and fecundity. During Phase 3 in 1977, eight of 29 nests in Area 2 received treatment to improve their qualities and 18 of 29 nests were improved in Area 3. The three study areas will be monitored again in 1978 to determine the final results of this proposed management action. �-117- Table 1. Ferruginous hawk productivity and nest site management. Study Area 1 Site no. Young produced Management / 1 tech. usecF- Manage. tech. still required FH-13(CS) 3 1 0 FH-14(CS) 3 1, 4 0 FH-1S(CS) 2 1, 2, 4 9 FH-16(CS) 4 0 0 FH-17(CS) 3 1, 3, 4 0 FH-18(CS) 2 1, 2, 4 0 FH-19(CS) 3 0 0 FH-20(CS) 3 1, 2, 3 0 FH-21(CS) 4 1 0 FH-22(CS) 4 1, 4 0 FH-23(CS) 3 0 0 FH-24(CS) 4 7 9 FH-2S(CS) 4 0 0 FH-26(CS) 2 1 0 FH-27(CS) 3 Total 47 young Active nests: Successful IS nests: IS Percent success: - - - - ------- 1, 2, 3, 4 0 Young per successful Young per nesting nest: 3.1 attempt: 3.1 100% - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �-118- Table l. Ferruginous hawk productivity and nest site management. (Continued) Study Area 2 Site no. Young produced FH-l(CN) 0 0 7 FH-2(CN) 0 1, 3 0 FH-3(CN) 2 6 0 FH-4(CN) 3 1, 3 0 FH-5(CN) 4 0 6 FH-6(CN) 0 1, 3 0 FH-7(CN) 2 1, 4 8 FH-8(CN) 3 0 0 FH-9(CN) 3 0 0 FH-1O(CN) 0 1, 4 0 FH-ll (CN) 4 0 0 FH-12(CN) 2 0 6 FH-28 (CN) 0 1, 3 0 FH-29 (CN) 2 1, 4, 5, 9 0 Total 25 young Management2/ tech. used=- Manage. tech. still required Active nests: 14 Young per successful Successful nests: 9 Young per nesting success: 64% Percent nest: 2.8 attempt: 1.8 �-119- Table 1. Ferruginous hawk productivity and nest site management. (Continued) Study Area 3 Site no. Young produced Managemen~~/ tech. use Manage. tech. still required FH-1(P) 3 6 0 FH-2(P) 3 3, 4 9 FH-3(P) 4 1 0 FH-4(P) 3 0 0 FH-5(P) 5 1 9 FH-6(P) 2 1 0 FH-7(P) 3 3, 5 9 FH-8(P) 3 0 7 FH-9(P) 0 6 0 FH-10(P) 0 6 0 FH-ll (P) 0 0 0 FH-12(P) 0 0 0 FH-13(P) 2 0 0 FH-14(P) 3 0 0 FH-15(P) 3 2, 3 0 FH-16(P) 2 2, 3, 9 0 FH-17(P) 4 1 9 FH-18(P) 0 1, 2 0 FH-19(P) 4 0 5 FH-20(P) 0 0 9 FH-21{P) 0 9 0 FH-22(P) 0 0 0 FH-23(P) 2 1, 2 0 FH-24(P) 0 7 0 FH-25(P) 0 0 0 - - - - - ------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - �-120- Table 1. Ferruginous hawk productivity and enst site management. (Continued) Study Area 3 Site no. Young produced FH-26(P) 0 0 9 FH-27(P) 0 7 9 FH-28(P) 0 2 0 FH-29(P) 0 Total 46 young Management2/ tech. used- Manage. tech. still required 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 0 Active nests: 29 Young per successful nest: 3.1 Successful nests: 15 Young per nesting attempt: 1.6 Percent success: 52% 1/ 2/ Management techniques were applied in 1976. Management techniques Prepared by applied at the end of 1977 field season. (J,wJ;J R. ~ Gerald R. crai~ Sr. Wildlife Biologist �-121- JOB PROGRESS State of Work W-124-R Plan No. v Job Title Period 1979 REPORT COLORADO No. Project January Nesting Covered: Personnel: Raptor Job No. Performance April of Peregrine 15, 1977 through Daniel Berger and Gerald James Enderson, Colorado Investigations 1 ---------------------------- Falcons February in Colorado 28, 1978 Craig, Colorado College. Division of Wildlife; ABSTRACT In 1977, eleven occupied peregrine nest sites were checked for reproduction. Broods at six of the eleven sites were augmented with captive produced young and fledged 1.16 young per pair, five other sites fledged 0.80 young per pair. Four new nesting pairs were located in 1977. Egg shell condition remained poor with approximately 20%. thinning. Pesticide analysis of 9 eggs are presented. Samples of avian prey were collected near two nest sites and pesticide analysis indicates high levels in violet-green swallows, robins and white-throated swifts. ��-123- NESTING PERFORMANCE FALCONS OF PEREGRINE IN COLORADO Gerald R. Craig and James H. Enderson The need to document population trends and reproductive success is essential to the recovery of the American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum). Indeed, regular monitoring of occupied nesting sites (eyries) may be the only effective means to establish if the population is expanding or declining. Since 1965, Enderson (1965) and more recently Enderson and Craig (1974) have conducted annual surveys to follow reproductive success of peregrine nesting in Colorado and the rest of the Rocky Mountain region. These surveys have established that the number of productive pairs of peregrines in the Rocky Mountain Region have steadily declined over the past decade. In addition to observing the eyrie sites, the investigators collected and analyzed contents of addled eggs and measured shell thickness. These efforts documented significant egg shell thinning and alarming residues of DDE. This valuable baseline data must continue to be collected to monitor the decline in pesticide levels which hopefully will occur. In addition to the continued eyrie site survey, it is recommended that samples of principal avian prey species should be collected from representative hunting areas. The prey samples would then be analyzed for pesticide residues in an effort to identify those species which may carry excessive levels of DDE. P.N. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: 1. To document the number of breeding productivity in Colorado. pairs of nesting peregrines and their 2. To survey potential habitats to locate previously grines and document their reproductive success. 3. To document egg shell thinning and pesticide peregrines in Colorado. 4. To collect samples of principal avian prey species utilized by nesting peregrines and analyze the samples for pesticide residues. 5. To compile data and submit reports to appropriate state and fedetal personnel and the Rocky Mountain/Southwest Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team for use in evaluating recovery efforts. unknown nesting residues pere- in eggs of nesting SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. Visit all nest sites throughout Colorado which have been occupied within the past three years and observe them from a distance with spotting scopes and binoculars to establish the presence of breeding adults. All occupied sites will be revisited periodically throughout the nesting season to document reproductive success. �-124- lb. Prior to, or immediately after hatching of the eggs, nest sites will be visited and egg shell fragments and addled eggs will be collected for pesticide analysis. Egg shells will be measured for a thickness index according to standardized methods. Egg contents will be shipped to the Fish and Wildlife Research Laboratory at Patuxent for analysis. lc. Successful nests will be visited prior to fledging of the young and they will be banded and color marked. These sites will be kept under surveillance to determine actual fledging success. 2. Favorable tlabitats will be surveyed for potential nesting sites. The surveys will be conducted from the ground, but where necessary a helicopter may be used in remote regions. When new pairs are located, they will be surveyed as outlined in approaches la, lb and lc. 3. Ten to twenty individuals of each of 5 principal avian prey species will be collected from representative hunting areas utilized by breeding peregrines. This will be done at two sites annually. The individuals of each species will be combined into a single sample for pesticide residue analysis. The analysis will be accomplished by the Fish and Wildlife Service Laboratory at Patuxent. 4. Compile data and submit reports to appropriate state and federal personnel and the Rocky Mountain/Southwest Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. METHODS AND MATERIALS Nesting Investigations. Methods cribed in the Segment Objectives for nesting investigations enumerated above. have been des- Pesticide Analysis of Prey. Because peregrines in the region are heavily contaminated with DDT and PCB residues, we collected adult individuals of nine potential prey species within 8.3 km (5 mi) of two active eyries (Table 1). The species were selected on the basis of high prevalence, and both migratory, non-migratory, herbivorous and insectivorous forms are included. Specimens were taken by shotgun and stored frozen. After thawing, the birds were weighed, plucked, and the feet, beak and large and small intestine removed. The remainder was finely chopped, weighed and a sample taken for pooling. Species pooled samples were frozen in acetone-washed foil and submitted for analysis. Analytical procedures followed by the WARF Institute, Wisconsin were as follows: Inc. at Madison, Each sample is allowed to thaw in the refrigerator overnight. A 10 gram aliquot is weighed into a 250 ml beaker and mixed with a spatula with 150 grams of sodium sulfate. At the same time an aliquot is weighed into a preweighed 100 ml beaker for moisture determination and placed in a 40°C oven for 2 weeks. After 2 weeks, weigh the beaker and dry sample back and calculate percent of moisture. The 10 gram portion is allowed to dry overnight and is transferred to a 43 x 123 �-125- Whatman extraction thimble and plugged with glass wool. Place in a large soxhlet extraction apparatus and extracted with 50:50 Ethyl Ether:Petroleum Ether for 8 hours. Sample is removed and taken down just to dryness on a steam bath. Sample is brought to 25 ml with 25% Toluene in Ethyl Acetate. A 5 ml aliquot is transferred to Gel Permeation apparatus. The settings are 28 mins discard, 14 mins collect and 2 mins wash. The sample is taken down on a flash evaporator just to dryness and made to 10 ml for injection. Injection: Hewlett Packard 57l0A with Ni63 Election capture detector, with allta injector and hooked to a Hewlett Packard integration computor model 3352C. Column: 1.5% OV-17 + 1.95% QF-l on 80/100 G.C.Q. Column Temperature: 200°C; Detector Temperature: 300°C; DDT Retention time of approximately 9.8 mins; Injection Temperature: 250°C; Carrier: 95% argon; 5% Methane Flow 31 ml/min. Lipid Determination: from the 25 ml volumetric containing the sample a 5 ml aliquot is pipetted into a preweighed 2 dram vial. These are placed into a 40°C oven for 2 days, desiccated,weighed and percent lipid calculated. Table 1. Data on prey species collected for residue analysis Aver. wt. of individual No. homogenate collected (g) Species Individual wt. pooled (g) Pool wt. submitted (g) Eyrie CC 7 60 10 70 7 51 10 70 Red-winged blackbird 5 45 10 50 Yellow-rumped warbler 7 10 4 28 Flicker 7 97 15 105 Robin Brewer's blackbird Eyrie CR Violet-green swallow 7 10 4 28 White-throated swift 7 23 5 35 Clark's nutcracker 7 95 15 105 Mourning 7 81 15 105 7 96 15 105 Flicker dove �-126- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Productivity of Nesting Peregrines In 1977, 11 nest sites were occupied by pairs of falcons and a lone adult male was present at another site early in the breeding season. Young were produced at nine of the sites, of which six broods were augmented with a total of 9 captive produced young. However, three of the sites failed prior to fledging and only 11 young fledged for an overall nesting success of 1.0 young per adult pair. The six sites which were augmented with captive produced young fledged 1.16 young per pair while the three unmanipulated sites fledged 0.80 young per pair assuming that one large downy young survived despite its absence from site 30 on 6 August. Observations of the 11 active sites are summarized in Table 2. The percentage of occupied sites increased from 30% in 1976 to 39% in 1977 (Table 3) due to location of four previously undiscovered pairs. Only three nest sites continued to remain occupied out of 27 historic nests which were known in 1970 (Table 4). Thus, increased occupancy of nests was an artifact of expanded field investigations and does not represent stabilization or recovery of the population. Location of New Nesting Pairs Two observers devoted the majority of the field season toward investigating potential habitats in an effort to locate new nesting pairs. In all, 52 localities were visited, of which 33 cliffs appeared suitable, but not always ideal, for occupancy by peregrines. One pair of falcons were located where vague reports indicated their presence a decade ago. This site was designated site 29. None of the other three new sites (sites 28, 30 and 31) were located as a result of this effort. Site 28 was reported by a professional biologist who happened on the pair while on vacation; site 30 was located as a result of a raptor inventory for a federal agency; and site 31 was discovered by amateur biologists conducting an impact assessment. Egg, Shell Thinning and Pesticide Residues Table 5 summarizes egg shell thickness of all eggs collected in Colorado from 1973 through 1977. The shell condition continues to remain poor at approximately 20% thinning. Nine intact wild eggs were available for pesticide analysis. Three eggs were analyzed from site 6, three from site 26 and one each from sites 27, 15 and 9. Table 6 summarizes the results of analysis obtained from the Fish and Wildlife Research Laboratory at Patuxent. �-127- Table 2. Results of peregrine nesting attempts, Colorado, 1977. Eyrie Visits Eggs Young Results 6* 5 4,4 0,0 5 April, copulation, food transfer; 17 April, removed first clutch; 8 May, incubating 2nd clutch; 11 May, removed 2nd clutch, placed dummy eggs; 23 June, 2 young put in eyrie; 29 June, female disappeared, young removed. 7* 5 3 3 13 April, copulation; 28 April, not incubating; 12 May, removed clutch, replaced with dummies; 13 June, 3 young in; 17 July 3 young fledging. 15* 6 3 2 15 April, copulation; 22 April, laying; 6 May, removed clutch of 3, dummies in; 26 May, 3 young put in; 7 June, 3 young present; 21 June, 2 young fledging. 9* 4 3 0 27 April, pair present; 12 May, copulation; 24 May, clutch removed, dummies in; mid-June, 2 young in, early August, site abandoned. 29 9 7 0 9 April, male; 11 April, male; 12 April, male; 13 April, male; 2 May, pair, food transfer; 15 May, adult; 17 May, incubation doubtful; 5 June, possible nest exchange; 25 June, no birds. 30 1 ? 1 27 June, female and one 4-week-old young; peregrines heard but not seen, 6 August. 26* 4 4,2 0 15 April, incubation, food transfer; 21 April, removed first clutch; 19 May, removed second clutch, dummies in; 20 June, 2 young in; early July, young eaten, adults gone. 27* 4 3 2 25 March, copulation; 8 April, pair present; 29 April, incubation; 7 May, removed clutch, dummies in; 20 June, 2 young in; fledged in mid-July. 31 1 ? 1 11 July, adults and 1 flying young. 28 2 ? 2 Mid-June, 2 young on ledge; late July, 2 flying young (Craig). 25 2 ? 0 11 May, pair flying about cliff; 28 June, no birds (helicopter). *Young added to increase productivity. �-128- Table 3. Occupancy and productivity of Colorado peregrine eyries, 1972-1977. Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 of eyries visited 15 23 24 26 27 31 if of occupied sites 11 12 9 8 8 12 of adult pairs 8 11 7 6 5 11 if of lone adults 3 1 2 1 iff iff if of young fledged 2 pair 1/ . % of sites occupl.ed -4/ % of sites w/adult pairs 1 ]) ]) 1 112/ 0.2 11 1.6 0.8 6 1.2 73% 52% 38% 31% 30% 39% 53% 49% 29% 27% 26% 35% if of young/adult 5 1.0 1/ One site contained 3 young, but adult female and young could not be found 2 to 3 weeks after they should have fledged. Thus, probable fledging success is reduced to 5. 1/ Captive produced young were placed at two sites to artificially tion by 4 young. augment produc- 1/ An average.of at least 1.25 young fledged per pair is considered necessary to sustain the wild population. ~/ Between 10% and 20% of the eyrie sites would normally unoccupied in any particular year. 5/ Five captive produced young augmented reproduction. be expected to be �Table 4. Site 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 >':10 >':11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Pre1964 + + -1- Occupancy of Colorado peregrine falcon eyries, 1964-1977. 1964 1965 P P P P A A M P + 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 P P P P P P P P M P P P P P P P P P A P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P V V V M V P P1/ PV P V2/ PV V V P V V V V V V V V V P V V V V4/ V V A M P M V P P P V P V P V V V P V V V V V V V V V V V V V M P P V P V V V V V P V V V P P A P V P + + + + + + + + + P A F P V P M P V V V V V V V V ].1 V V V V V V ~ A + A V V V A A V V V V V V V V V V p- P P V A V V V V V4/ PV V V V V V V V V P P P I ,...... N I.D I V V V V V V P P P P P P P P = Pair, M = Male, F = Female, A = Lone Adult, V = Site was Vacant, Blank Spaces = No Data Available. =The se are neighboring sites (approximately I mile apart) and this could represent a shift of one pair from site 10 to site 11. 1/ Lone adult male observed throughout season, attracted yearling female in June 1/ An adult female was found ?:../ Adult male replaced by a yearling male m Ldway through incubation. dead in the vicinity of the eyrie, could not confirm presence of a pair 4/ Pair consisted of an adult male and vear1ing female �-130Table 5. Eyrie Year 1 2 1973 1973 1974 1974 1974 1974 1975 1971 " " " 5 " 6 " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " 1975 " " 1976 " " " " " " " 1977 " " " " " " " " " " " 7 " " " " " " 8 1974 1976 " " 1977 " " 9 1973 1977 " " 10 11 1974 1975 " " " " " 15 " " " " " 1974 1975 1977 " " 26 1977 " " " " Eggshell condition of Colorado peregrines. Thickness (rrun).!./ W/Membrane w/o Membrane .325 .319 .305 .299 .287 .282 .259 .259 .259 .231 .284 .278 .294 .288 .300 .244 .246 .203 .292 .236 .295 .216 .259 .259 .185 .2032/ -- 2/ .3022/ .2262/ .3052/ .2292/ .272.1962/ .216.267 .191 .287 .203 .279 .201 .2692/ .3002/ -- 2/ .2742/ .2032/ .193.2692/ .279 .272 .249 .188 .300 .302 .244 .269 .274 .216 .244 .19l .2542/ .2482/ .3072/ .2392/ .3232/ .2512/ .292.229=.297 .305 .297 .244 .284 .234 .305 .203 .252 .292 .218 .310 .226 .284 .201 .269 .196 .267 .211 .302 Ratcliff's Index 1.62 1.52 1.43 1.39 Remarks Hatched 1.49 Hatched 1.32 1.32 1.43 1.35 1.48 1.40 1.42 1.43 1.45 1.42 1.41 1.36 Broken Hatched Hatched Broken Small Embryo 27 Day Embryo Hatched Hatched Died at Hatch Large Embryo Large Embryo Hatched Hatched 27 Day Embryo No Development Hatched Hatched 27 Day Embryo Addled Addled Hatched Hatched Hatched Hatched 1.33 1.65 1.72 1.62 1.64 1.61 1.61 1.55 1.50 1.49 1.41 1.34 1.58 Ha tched Ha tched No development Hatched Spoiled Spoiled Spoiled Hatched 26 Day Embryo 26 day embryo No Development �-131- Table 5. Eyrie Eggshell condition of Colorado peregrines. Year 26 1977 " " " 27 1977 " Thickness (rnm)'Y W/Membrane W/O Membrane .2672/ .3072/ .267.244 .246 .259 .196 (Continued) Ratcliff's Index 1.42 1.57 1.35 1.43 1.50 1.46 Remarks No Development Cracked Cracked 24 Day Embryo Hatched Cracked .185 " " " " ------------------------------------------------------------------------------Means 1977 .280 (n=26) 1976 .283 (n=9) 1975 .273 (n=B) 1974 .280 (n=7) 19733/ .295 (n=3) Pre 1940- .395 .209 (n=L'Z) .211 (n=9) .235 (n=7) .289 (n=3) u Measurements taken around waist of egg '!:../ From second clutch of eggs 1/ Eggshells from Al'ta., Sask ., Montana; Anderson and Hickey, 1972. Proceedings of XVth Int. Orith. Congr. In �Table 6. Chemical residues in Colorado peregrine eggs, 1977. (Values given are in parts per million.) Site 21 26:1,1 - 26:1,3 Compound 26:1,4 6:1,3 6:1,4 6:2,4 27:1,1 15:1,3 9:1,3 43 19 8.3 10.9 11. 8 36.6 12.2 0.14 0.11 -- -- 0.33 0.10 -- -- 0.26 DDE 1/ 39.5 34 DDD 0.21 -- DDT 0.37 0.43 0.55 Dieldrin 0.15 0.11 0.22 0.80 0.33 0.35 0.10 0.39 0.18 0.14 0.21 1.10 0.38 0.37 0.24 1.00 0.22 0.41 -- 0.14 -- 0.22 0.15 -- -- -- Heptachlor epoxide Oxych1ordane -- -- -- cis - Chlordane -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- I-' W N -- -- -- -- -- 0.11 0.18 0.11 0.10 3.30 9.70 4.40 0.06 -- 0.13 0.11 0.08 3.00 -- -- Es t. Toxaphene -- -- HCB 0.25 11 3.40 II Corrected for dehydration; Trans - Nonach1or -- 1 0.10 cis - Nonach1or Endrin 0.16 Mirex Est. PCB - 21 Example: 85% H 0 taken as content of fresh egg. 2 means 1st egg of 1st clutch at site 26. means none detected. 1.10 1.06 0.70 �-133- Pesticide Residues in Prey Results of the WARF Institute analysis of the prey samples taken in the vicinity of eyries 7 and 15 are given in Appendix 2 and summarized in Table 7. Six species of birds analyzed for residues approached or exceeded 1 PPM DDE, but three species were on the order of 2 PPM or higher (Table 7). The mourning dove and flicker appear to have low residue levels, and despite their abundance and appearance as an important prey species, are probably not a major source of DDE to peregrines. Clark's nutcrackers are taken by peregrines, but contain low residue. The robin is seemingly a major potential source of DDE; it is at least moderately contaminated, is apparently often taken, and is uniformly common. Two other species are potentially a problem. The white-throated swift is moderately contaminated and is often caught. Violet-green swallows bear very high DDE and were the most abundant species seen. If they are taken by peregrines frequently they are a clear threat. The two species of blackbirds are moderately contaiminated, are apparently favored prey, and are common at several eyries. The accuracy of these assessments depend on several variables and should be considered tentative. Birds were collected at only two sites; residue values found at one site may not be obtained elswehere. Data on prey remains may not reflect the actual frequency with which a species is taken. Featners trom small birds could be easily overlooked, and conspicuous feathers, such as those from flickers, may bias upwards the estimate for that species. Finally, almost no prey remains were collected at three eyries (11, 5, 3) from 19731977. �-134- Table 7. Chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in prey species. ppm (wet weight) % Fat DDE DDT1J Dieldrin Heptachlor expoxide PCB 6.2 2.07 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.12 4.3 0.84 <0.01 <0.01 0.03 <0.10 2.5 1.28 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.10 Yellow-rumped warbler 4.0 0.82 0.01 0.01 <0.10 Flicker 2.6 . <0.01 0.06 <0.01 0.01 0.02 <0.10 Violet-green swallow 5.5 5.81 0.05 <0.01 0.12 0.31 White-throated swift 5.3 1. 75 -<0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.12 Clark's nutcracker 4.5 0.03 <0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.10 Mourning 3.5 0.08 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.10 4.2 0.04 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.10 Species Eyrie 7 Robin Brewer's blackbird Red-winged blackbird Eyrie 15 dove Flicker 1/ Maximum value, there may be interference from PCB's. �Appendix 1 Colorado Colorado College Springs, WARF INSTITUTE, INC. Madison, Wisconsin \-J'ARF No. 7090099-010S Colorado RESULTS VG-1 WS-2 RB-3 BB-4 MD-5 YW-6 RR-7 FF-S FF-9 CN-10 DDE 5.S1 1. 75 1. 2S 0.S4 O.OS 0.S2 2.07 0.04 0.06 0.03 DDD <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 DDT O. 05*)~ <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.07'/''/'<0.01 <0.01 <0.01 PCB 0.31 0.12 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 0.12 <0.10 <0.10 <0.10 Dieldrin <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.07 <0.01 0.01 0.01 BHC <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Lindane <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 HCB <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Endrin <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 H.E. 0.12 <0.01 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.02 0.01 0.08 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 % Moisture 67.1 64.8 68.8 68.4 70.4 67.9 69.6 69.3 70.6 67.8 % Fat 5.50 5.32 2.48 4.25 3.48 3.98 6.21 4.21 2.57 4.54 (gm) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 (gm) 4.23 4.77 5.89 8.13 8.69 6.11 7.93 9.58 7.75 8.98 Chlorinated Screen* Oxych1ordan (ppm) )""h~ResidueWet Height ****Moi~ture (ppm) Wet Weight --*No other chlorinated insecticides )bb~Weight of sample for analysis. Limit Limit of detection of detection Prepared by = = 0.10 ppm - PCB 0.01 ppm - Chlorinated wet weight. --= .,. \... .••.. detected. **Represent macium value, may be interference ****Weight of sample for Moisture Determination. screen, un.;t Biologist oxych1ordan, moisture, fat, residue wet weight, from PCB's. moisture I •..... w lr1 I ��January, -137- 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of ----~~~~~------------Colorado Work Plan No. Job Title: Raptor Investigations W-124-R Project No. Job No. v ~2~ Physical and Biological Analysis of Colorado Peregrine Period Covered: April 15, 1977 through February 28, _ Nesting Habitat 1978 Personnel: James Enderson and Rod Ogilvie, Colorado College; Daniel Berger, Beth Braker, William Burley, Marcy Cottrell, Gerald Craig, Terrence Leyden, and Ann Potter, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Various physical and biological factors were analyzed for six peregrine falcon nest sites in southern Colorado. Physical features including cliff height, geology, elevation and distance to permanent sources of water were recorded and compared. Vegetative communities were delineated and transects were established in dominant communities to compare prey abundance. At one site an adult female peregrine was telemetered and her movements were monitored for 42 days during the young rearing period. ��-139- PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF COLORADO PEREGRINE NESTING HABITAT James H. Enderson and Gerald R. Craig A variety of eyrie (nest) sites and habitats have been historically utilized by peregrine falcons and thus it is difficult to evaluate and protect potential nesting areas. All known historic and currently active eyrie sites should be evaluated to record all physical and biological features of the nesting cliff and associated hunting areas. Land use practices and disturbance factors should also be noted to establish tolerances of breeding peregrines to man's activities. The resulting key characteristics which are common to all sites will assist investigators in locating previously unknown active eyries, and managers will be able to limit or eliminate adverse activities which may disturb breeding peregrines. Virtually nothing is khown of the extent of hunting ranges of breeding peregrines and so knowledge of their habitat requirements is incomplete. The activities of breeding adults will be monitored with telemetry during the young rearing period. This will allow important hunting areas to be delineated and protected. P. N. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: 1. To establish physical parameters which are essential eyrie sites by peregrine falcons. 2. To establish biological parameters which are common to all eyrie sites currently or historically occupied by peregrine falcons. 3. To delineate those human activities by nesting peregrine falcons. 4. Adults at eyrie sites will be trapped after their young have hatched and radio packages will be affixed to them to monitor their movements and hunting ranges. 5. To assemble the data and prepare a report of the results for use in designating new and potential eyrie sites by wildlife agencies and land managers. and disturbances to occupancy of which are tolerated SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Eight known historic and currently occupied peregrine eyrie sites in Colorado will be visited and the following physical aspects will be recorded; topography, geology, elevation, snow depth and precipitation, mean temperature, soil, presence and distance to water, and cliff characteristics. In addition, a series of photographs will be taken of each site. Each year, eight new sites will be surveyed until all known sites have been studied. �-140- 2a. The vegetative types of the habitat within a distance of 15 miles of eight nesting cliffs will be cataloged whenever possible, appropriate Forest Service vegetative maps will be utilized and meadows and other potential hunting areas will be located on maps. 2b. Through use of standardized census techniques, avian prey diversity and abundance will be calculated for the months of May, June and July. This will be done at least two sites annually. Censuses will be run once monthly in two localities for each habitat type represented. 3. Human activities, land use practices and audio and visual disturbances will be noted at each site and within an area of 15 miles of each site. If breeding pairs are present, they should be observed to note their reactions to potential disturbances. 4. At two sites, adult peregrines will be trapped and equipped with radio packages. This will be accomplished after the young have hatched and will extend for a period of approximately 3 weeks. The adults will be monitored as they embark upon hunting forays and locations will be triangulated primarily from the ground. Periodically, hunting adults will be tracked using a fixed-wing aircraft to follow the radio signals. All locations of radio marked falcons will be recorded on appropriate topographic maps of the region. 5. Compile data forms and photographs taken during 1, 2 and 3 into notebooks. Prepare and submit reports of the results to appropriate state personnel, federal agencies and the Rocky Mountain/Southwest Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. METHODS AND MATERIALS Physical Analysis. Physical analysis of nesting cliffs and the immediate vicinity was accomplished by visiting the site and making a visual inspection of the area. Photographs were taken of the nest cliff as well as panoramas were compiled of the surrounding area from vantage point at the top of the cliffs. Vegetative information was also recorded during the visits and was further augmented from timber maps of the region. Prey Abundance. Line transect counts of bird populations were taken in June and July at the six eyries under study. Two or three 805 m (0.5 mile) long line transects were established within 8 km of each eyrie to quantify bird populations within the hunting range of resident peregrines. One transect near each eyrie was established in the major riparian habitat, and the other transects were set in the most prevalent plant communities in each region (Table 1). All transects except one were continuous; the site 5 transect in forest habitat was broken into two segments. Bird counts were completed prior to 1000 hours by an observer walking the 805 m line in 45-60 minutes, and returning after a 15 minute wait. Species and numbers of individuals were recorded for all seen or heard, and unidentified birds were classed in three size groups. Observers alternated on different count days. �-141- Table 1. Transect Line-transect information on prey counts. It of Counts Habitat Count Period Site 15, I Cottonwood-willow II Imm. ponderosa, III Mature ponderosa, 12 27 May-23 July red cedar 12 27 May-IS July oak 12 2 June-23 July 10 13 June-IS July 10 13 June-21 July 10 4 June-20 July 11 5 June-14 July 9 4 June-21 July Site 11, I Riparian II Ponderosa, juniper, oak Site 26, I Meadow, II Ponderosa, Douglas III Spruce-fir, aspen-Douglas willow-birch fir, oak fir Site 5, I Cottonwood-willow 10 24 June-22 July II Douglas 10 24 June-20 July 12 4 June-24 July aspen 12 6 June-17 July meadows 3 5 July-7 July 3 5 July-7 fir, spruce Site 7, I Cottonwood-willow II Douglas fir, spruce, Site 3, I II Cottonwood-willow, Pinyon-juniper, oak July �-142- The transects used sampled over 65% all available habitat in every case but one. An estimate of apparent rank of the eyries in relation to prey is the source index in terms of the % of the area samples. This ranking is only approximate because unsampled habitat with high bird biomass could raise an eyrie's rank, or low biomass in unsampled habitat could lower the rank, had transects been run in all habitats. The ranking is most reliable where high percentages of the habitat available was sampled. Stream-side cottonwood-willow or willow-birch habitat was sampled in every case. This habitat, situated in drainages, varied between about 1950 ill and 2700 m in elevation between eyries (Table 1). Transects in this habitat at lower elevation tended to yield higher average total biomass values than those at higher elevations (Table 5). This habitat transect at the three lowest elevations yielded average biomass exceeding 3.0 kg while those three at higher elevations ranged from about 2.5 kg (Site 26) to about 1.8 kg (Sites 5, 7). Biases perhaps entering into this analysis include the nature of adjacent habitat and the areal extent of vegetation type. The cottonwoodwillow transect at Site 3, with extensive adjacent meadow, approached 6 kg of bird biomass, and must represent a good source of vulnerable prey despite the limited sampling (three transect counts). But even though bird biomass in cottonwood-willow habitat was always substantially higher than in other habitats at each eyrie, especially for the two most vulnerable classes of birds, the low frequency of the habitat reduced its potential as a prey source to low significance at all but one site (Site 3) (Table 6). However, this habitat may be important to peregrines as a source of upland prey passing over the bottom land or going there for water, two factors our census techniques might not have revealed. At three eyries (15, 11, 26) ponderosa forest in various stages of mlxlng with brush or Douglas fir yielded very high source indexes of vulnerable species compared to other habitats (Table 7). This is due both to high bird biomass and to extensive areal coverage. Mainly because of this, these three regions rank well above 5 and 7, sites where spruce-fir mixed with Douglas fir cover large areas yet are poor in bird biomass. These findings assume that, at all sites, unsampled habitats are not big enough or rich enough to provide peregrines with important sources of food. Although transects at eyries 7 and 5 sampled vegetational types comprlslng only 65 and 48% of the total habitat, respectively, the source indexes of vulnerable prey were very low. It is apparent these sites are situated in relatively poor locations from the standpoint of prey abundance, although this does not necessarily mean that inadequate numbers of vulnerable prey are present or exposed to predation. Radio Telemetry. We attempted to trap the adult males at three active eyries for instrumentation with radio beacons. None was caught, but a female was tagged at eyrie 15 to illustrate preferred hunting habitat, range size, and time and duration of hunting sorties. �-143- The transmitter was attached to a single tail feather with nylon thread on 7 June and remained operative until the study was terminated 19 July. Two receiver stations were established, one 0.3 km south of the eyrie, the other 5.8 km north on a knoll of Devil Mountain, and both provided a maximum unobstructed overlook of the region. Portable transceivers provided communications between the stations. Beacon signals were sought simultaneously with both receivers at five minute intervals when the falcon was perched, and at 30 second intervals when flying. Receiver stations were operated at total of 90.2 hours on 19 different days. Time, bearing, and signal strength were recorded at each station. USGS 7.5 minute series topographic maps of the region were used to plot signal positions by triangulation. Points were plotted only when both receiver stations obtained signals at the same time and points of doubtful accuracy were not plotted. Range of signal reception is highly variable. Line-of-sight range can exceed 32 km, but this is reduced to a few km if obstructions lie between transmitter and receiver. If the transmitter antenna is in line with the receiver antenna, such as during a straight-away departure or approach, no signal is received. Due to the broken terrain of the region, relatively few signals farther than 9.6 km were received by both stations. Weather affected reception; calm, overcast days correlated with strong reception, stormy days with lightning caused poorer reception. Error in bearing determination is thought to be plus or minus ten degrees or arc, variation that could result in a position error of a few kilometers for single determinations at the edge of reception range. Where many readings are taken, this error would tend to cancel out. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical Attributes of 6 Nest Sites Data were obtained on the physical attributes of four active eyries (one with a lone male) and two inactive eyries in southwestern Colorado in an 80 km-wide strip adjacent to the New Mexico line (Table 2). The eyries averaged 2664 m (8763 ft) in elevation and none were within 8 km of surface elevations below 1976 m (6500 ft). The vertical cliffs containing the nest-ledges ranked from 22 m to 198 m in height, averaging 94 m (174 ft). Height above the nearest major drainage, usually containing a permanent stream, averaged 398 m (1309 ft.). No eyrie was farther than 4 km from the nearest river or lake and the mean distance was 2.4 km. Nest ledges showed no pattern in regard to direction of exposure, fully onehalf of the ledges faced some heading with a northward component. None were exposed to the southern quadrant (1350-2250). Invariably the nest ledges were on very irregular cliff faces including Cretaceous sandstones (3 sites), Cenozoic lavas and breccias (2 sites), and Pennsylvanian limestone and shales (1 site). All of the sites command a dominant view of surrounding mountains and lowlands and all overlook permanent streams (5 sites) or lakes (1 site). Factors relating to the quality of peregrine habitat must be functions of the physical and biological attributes of the region. Easiest to describe are �Table 2. Physical characteristics of peregrine eyries. Eyrie Cha racteri stic 15 11 26 5 7 3 Means Elevation of eyrie {m) 2402 2538 L873 2584 3040 2546 2664 Cliff height (m) 24 22 137 198 129 53 94 Exposure (degrees) 300 100 90 285 20 110 Height above major drainage (m) 445 365 274 314 407 5135 398 Elevation of drainage (m) 1957 2173 2599 2270 2633 1961 - Distance to nearest permanent water (km) I I-' r-- ~ I 2.9 3.5 2.2 0.6 Geologic formation Picture Cl iff sandstone on Lewis Shale Mesa Verde sandstone, Menefee Formation Hermosa Formation marine shale, 1imestone sandstone Lavas and brecci as Lavas and breccias Mesa Verde sandstone on Mancos Shale Geologic age Upper , Cretaceous 90 million Upper Cretaceous 90 million Pennsylvanian -", 250 mi 11ion Oligocene 33 mi 11ion Oligocene 33 mi 11ion Upper Cretaceous 90 million 1.3 4.0 2.4 �-145- physical attributes. Although our selection of eyries for study was not random among sites in the Rocky Mountains, none selected is physically atypical. An obvious factor among the eyries studied is great relief above surrounding lowlands, the differential always exceeding 300 m. Height of the actual cliff appears relatively unimportant. That four in six of the nest cliffs were about 100 m high, or higher, may relate more to selection of sites high above the surrounding lowlands than selection of high cliffs ~ se. Another factor, as yet unmeasured, relates to the "dominance" of the cliff, however high its face, over the surrounding landscape. This condition depends on the slope conditions above and below the cliff, and on the contour of the land adjacent to the face. In any case, an analysis of the physical attributes of eyrie locations may not yield the same conclusions now when the population is depressed that it would were the population large. Biological Conditions of 6 Nest Sites Regional flora. We estimated the percent coverage of nine major plant communities within an 8.3 km radius of each of the six eyries (Table 3). These estimates were made by visually sub-dividing the area extending 8.3 km from the eyrie into many small sectors. Each sector was then viewed with binoculars and percentages of each vegetational type in the sector estimated. Finally, sector percentages were summed for each vegetational type. Error is reduced at most sites by the over-look nature of the nesting cliff. We found high variation between sites in regard to frequency of plant community types. Three eyries (26, 5, 7) are predominantly surrounded by mesic transition or spruce-fir forests, usually included substantial tracts of seral aspen forest. One site (3) overlooks mainly pinyon-juniper woodland and cleared pasture land. One site (11) occupies mainly cleared ponderosa forest, and oak brushland. The remaining site (15) is surrounded by a mix of meadow, brushland, transition forest, and most importantly, mid-aged to mature ponderosa forests. All eyries are near cottonwood-willow riverbottom habitat, but such habitat never exceeds 5% of the total. Flora at nest-cliff. Vegetation immediately adjacent to the nest-cliff varied greatly from site to site. The following is a vegetational description, by site, of the major plant species within 0.83 km of the eyrie. Site 15 - The steep slopes around the cliff are covered with moderately dense Gambel's oak and mountain mahagony on the north and west, and with mixed pinyon pine, juniper, and mountain mahogany on the east and south facing slopes. Ponderosa pine and a few Douglas firs grow in more moist situations on the lower slopes. About 15% of the slopes near the cliff are barren due to the steep pitch and low moisture content of such extremely fine shale-derived soils. Other shrub species (in approximate order of frequency) are: serviceberry, cliff rose, sagebrush, chamisa, currant, skunkbush, and snowberry. Sparse grasses, opuntia cactus, yucca, are also prevalent. Site 11 - A nearly uniform stand of brush species surrounds this site. The dominant species are Gambel's oak, serviceberry, and mountain mahogany. Northfacing slopes adjacent to the cliff and those in the ravines below have a �-146- Table 3. Frequency falcon eyries. of vegetational types within a 8.3 km radius of peregrine Estimated frequency by eyrie (%) Vegetational Type 15 11 26 5 7 3 Meadow, pasture 12 5 5 13 24 32 Cultivated land <1 1 <1 0 0 2 Cottonwood-wt 11ow 5 1 <1 2 4 <1 Mixed brush1and 18 37 5 <1 3 15 Ponderosa forest 46 27 17 5 8 0 Aspen forest <1 7 13 33 21 0 Pinyon-juniper woodland 5 10 0 0 0 49 Transition forest* 13 10 37 25 14 2 Spruce-fir forest 0 2" 20 21 26 0 *Doug1as fir, ponderosa pine, white fir , limber pine, in order of significance. �-147- sparse growth of young Douglas firs, and a few ponderosa pine in open stands. Above the cliff some oak has been cleared exposing a mosaic of grass patches. Site 26 - Immediately below the cliff is a mature transition forest containing 60% Douglas fir, 25% limber pine, 10% ponderosa pine, and 5% whf. te fir. Understory species are snowberry, chokecherry, currant, and do~vood. Meadows a few hundred meters below the cliffs are bordered often with large pure stands of mature aspen. Slopes facing eastward below the cliff may have dense stands of Gambel's oak. Site 5 - The mesic slopes below this site have thick stands of Douglas fir, with some blue spruce and a few aspens. Above the cliff Douglas fir and limber pine predominate. The valley floor is open meadow with narrow-leaf cottonwoods and blue spruce near the river. Mature ponderosa pine exist on the gentle slopes adjacent to the pastureland. Site 7 - This cliff outcrops above a mountainside thickly forested with Douglas fir, and near the top mature stands of Englemann spruce. Above the cliff the ground is 40% meadowland with large stands of iwnature aspen, many of which show heavy wind damage. The river is about 0.5 km below the cliff down a steep mountain side: its margins are lined with cottomvoods, willows, blue spruce, Douglas firs, and, on the drier slopes, ponderosa pine. Site 3 - Above the cliff a mature pinyon-juniper woodland extends over the mesa. Immediately below the cliff is a steep area of mud and rock slides on degraded Mancos shale. Stands of Gambe1's oak, mountain mahogany, with serviceberry and snowberry occur on the more stable slopes. Be Low the long talus slopes 'mature stands of pinyon pine and juniper border cleared pastureland. Although all six eyries under study were at elevations within a 600 m range, surrounding plant community frequencies (Table 3) varied greatly between sites. Sites 5 and 26 are the most mesic; subalpine and transition forests and seral aspen are prevalent. Site 7, although similar, is drier (Eastern Slope) and meadow is more frequent. The other two are in brushland with open montane forest (11) or in pinyon-juniper woodland with extensive meadow and pasture1and (3). Prey Abundance. Several biases were probably present in the collection of the transect count data. Early in the period, the four observers involved in counts were not equally competent, especially in regard to bird calls and songs. This bias is probably less important for the most common and conspicuous species. As the suwner progressed birds often recorded by song may have been increasingly overlooked as the breeding season passed. Individuals of each species for the round trip on the transect were divided by two to yield the mean number of individuals seen on the 805 m transect on a given day. These means were in turn averaged to give the mean number of individuals of each species for each transect in the study period (Appendix 1) . Each species was classified in one of three arbitrary categories of vulnerability to peregrine predation. We based these determinations of the relative amount of time each species was seen to fly in the open at least 15 m from �-148- the ground or other cover. "A" category included forms often seen away from cover, ego Clark's nutcrackers; "B" category included forms often seen in cover but given to occasional long flights in the open, ego robins and flickers; "e" category included apparently non-vulnerable species such as rofous-sided towhees. Large species such as buteos, ravens, and large waterfowl were given a "not applicable" (N.A.) rating. Table 4 includes all species seen, their vulnerability ratings and approximate body weight. Next, the mean number of individuals for each species recorded on the transect for all counts was multiplied by the species approximate body weight. This yields an index of prey biomass for each transect. Table 5 expresses these indexes of biomass for each transect by vulnerability rating. Unidentified birds were classified as small (sparrow-sized), medium (robinsized), or large (rock dove-sized) and were assigned corresponding weights. Never were bird (prey) populations sampled in more than three habitats near any eyrie, but often those habitats sampled were prevalent in the area and sometimes contained two or three vegetational types. An index of the prey source value of each habitat sample within 8.3 km (5 mi.) of the eyrie can be derived by multiplying the freqeuncy of that habitat (% of all habitats) by the bird biomass for each vulnerability group (Table 6). The result is an estimate of prey biomass tempered by the amount of the corresponding habiatat. Sometimes transects sampled more than one vegetational type (Table 3); in those cases the frequencies of the appropriate types were summed. In Table 6, unidentified birds usually accounted for a minor part of the total biomass, and since most unidentified birds were small forms, they probably can be discounted as significant prey for peregrines. Table 7 sunnnarizes the value of habitats adjacent to the six eyries. Source indexes for vulnerability classes A and B only were used, assuming class e birds, which generally had low biomass, are not very significant as prey sources. Radio Tracking of a Nesting Peregine Although most data points are concentrated within five kilometers of the eyrie, 10 of 15 sorties included excursions more distant than 9 km. Hunting sorties exceeding about 9 km from the eyrie occurred in all directions except north, northwest and south. The greatest concentration of position points lie centered 2 km east of the eyrie, we suspect the bird was loafing and not hunting during many of these flights. Much of these latter data were obtained in the period 30 June - 3 July shortly after the young fledged. In this period the falcon often spent over 5 hours at a time in that area without returning to the eyrie. At least half of the falcon's time away from the eyrie appears to have been spent in canyons or valleys characterized by open meadows and ecotonal connnunities. Areas at higher elevations were rarely visited; few data points are located above 2400 m (8000 ft.). Very little time was spent in the continuous ponderosa forest north of the eyrie, an area within reception range of both receiver stations. �-149- Table 4. Species, body weights, on prey transects. .Species Black-Crowned Night Heron Mall ard Blue-winged Teal Common Merganser Turkey Vulture Goshawk Coot er 's Hawk Sheo-shinned Hawk Red-tai1ed Hawk Kestrel Blue Grouse Sora American Coot Ki11deer Common Snipe Spotted Sandpiper Mourning Dove Pygmy Owl .Poor-wi11 Common Nighthawk White-throated Swift Rufous Hummingbird Broad-tailed Hummingbird Belted Kingfisher Common Flicker Lewis' Woodpecker Yellow-bellied Sapsucker Williamson's Sapsucker Hairy Woodpecker Downy Woodpecker Cassin's Kingbird Ash-throated Flycatcher Say s Phoebe Empidonax Flycatcher Western Wood Pewee Violet Green Swallow Tree Swa 11ow Rough-winged Swallow Sarn Swa 11ow C1 iff Swallow Gray Jay Steller's Jay I and vulnerability ratings Body weight (g) Sourcea NA NA 400 NA NA NA NA 140 NA 140 NA 75 435 85 112 48 130 100 50 75 38 3 3.5 155 140 120 70 70 80 25 40 30 20 12 15 3 1 of birds seen Vulnerability NA NA A NA NA NA NA B 1 NA A NA C A A 1 A A 1 3 1 .1 1 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 2 3 3 B C C A A B B A B A 3 B B 3 B 1 B 3 3 A 1 A B 3 C 3 C 19 3 20 1 1 1 A A A A 3 A 16 17 17 90 100 3 B 3 B �-150- Table 4. Species, body weights, prey transects. (Continued). Species Scrub Jay Magpie Clark's Nutcracker Crow Raven Black-capped Chickadee Mountain Chickadee White-breasted Nuthatch Red-breasted Nuthatch Pygmy Nuthatch Brown Creeper House Wren Benwi ck 's Wren Nockingbird Catbi rd Robin Hermit Thrush Swainson's Thrush Verry Western Bluebird Mountain Bluebird Townsend's Solitaire Blue-Gray Gnatcatcher Ruby-crowned Kinglet Cedar l>laxwing ·Starling So 1itary Vi reo Warbling Vireo Orange-crowned Warbler Virginia's Warbler Yellow Warbler Yellow-rumped Warbler Black-throated Gray Warbler Grace's Warbler MacGillivray's Warbler Yellow-breasted Chat Wilson's Warbler Western Meadowlark Red-winged Blackbird Scott's Oriole Northern (Bullock's) Oriole Brewer's Blackbird Brown-headed Cowbird western Tanager Rose-breasted Grosbeak Black-headed Grusbeak Lazuli Bunting EVening Grosbeak Cassints Finch and vulnerability ratings of birds seen on Body weight (g) Source Vu1nerabi 1ity 90 150 145 NA NA 12.5 12.5 17 10 7 8 3 2 2 B A A 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 11 11 /0 39 80 30 30 33 33 30 27 7 6.7 25 82 17 13 12 12 12 14 13 12 12 28 12 145 60 70 70 70 50 29 111'\ or . 45 lj 52 25 NA NA C C C C C C C C 3 3 A B B 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 3. 1 1 C C C B A B C C B 1 A 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 1 C C C C C B C C C B C A A A B A A ,., 0 0 3 ts" 3 3 3 B C B �-151Table 4. Species, body weights, transects. (Continued). Species Pine Grosbeak Pine Siskin American Goldfinch Lesser Goldfinch Green-tailed Towhee Kufous-sided Towhee Vesper Sparrow Lark Sparrow Sage Sparrow Gray-headed Junco Tree Sparrow Chipping Sparrow White-crowned Sparrow Song Sparrow Total Species: and vulnerability ratings of birds seen on prey Body weight (g) Source 60 12 3 C 3 A 14 3 14 38 42 27 23 18 22 18 13.5 25 3 3 A A C C B 25 1 3 Vulnerability 3" B 3 C C C C C C 1 3 1 3 3 105 (A-31~ B-28, C-37, NA-9) al) Poole, E. L. 1938. Weights and Wing Areas in N. A. Birds. 2} Weights from fresh specimens. 3} Weights estimated from those known in same size range. Auk 55:511-517. �-152- Table 5. Average prey hiomass indexes by vulnerability class for linetransects. Average bird biomass per transect by vulnerability class (g) UI;~ B C It Counts A I 12 1362 1097 395 200 3054 II 12 1001 448 335 90 1874 III 12 466 1065 493 l34 2158 I 10 642 1838 896 185 3561 II 10 1053** 660 376 l35 2224 I 10 1129 896 328 63 2436 II 11 430 658 320 120 1528 III 9 290 785 403 163 1641 I 10 825 684 159 151 1819 II 10 136 300 159 168 763 I 12 790 659 301 141 1891 II 12 19 266 191 91 567 I 3 4197 994 416 153 5760 II 3 342 277 252 48 919 Transect Total Site 15 Site 11 Site 26 Site 5 Site 7 Site 3 * Unidentified birds, not given vulnerability rating, but classified small, medium, or large. Category "small" greatly predominates. 1::* Value is 481 excluding biomass of mourning doves passing over habitat enroute to meadow areas. �Table 6. Relative values of habitats adjacent to peregrine A eyries as prey sources . Average Biomass by Vulnerability (9) A B C UI Habitat ~nsect . A X Bb Ba Habitat Freg. (%) A B C UI Source Index CR-! Cottonwood-willow 1362 1097 395 200 5 68 54 20 10 CR- II Ponderosa (imm.) 1001 448 335 90 46 460 206 154 41 CR- I II Ponderosa (mat.) - oak 466 1065 493 134 31 144 330 152 41 PP-I Cottonwood-willow 642 1838 896 185 1 6 18 9 2 PP-II Ponderosa-brushland 1053 660 376 135 64 674 422 241 86 HH-I Meadow, willow-birch 1129 896 328 83 6 68 54 20 5 HH-II Ponderosa, D. fir, oak 430 658 320 120 59 254 388 189 71 HH- III Spr~ce-fir, aspen 290 785 403 163 33 96 259 133 54 WC-I Cottonwood-willow 825 684 159 151 2 17 14 3 3 tvc- II Douglas fir, spruce 136 300 159 168 46 63 138 73 77 CC-1 Cottonwood-willow 790 659 301 141 4 32 26 12 6 CC-II Douglas fir, spruce, aspen 19 266 191 91 61 12 162 117 56 I'IV- Ie Cottonwood-willow, 4197 994 416 153 33 1385 328 137 50 rW-IIc Pinyon-juniper, ,342 277 252 48 64 219 177 161 31 oak meadow al~here transects occurred in more than one vegetation type (Table II), frequencies of each type were summed. blast two digits dropped. CMesa Verde transects too few (3) for comparability. I •....• V1 w I �-154- Table 7. Transect Summary of habitats as prey sources. Source Inc.Jexa Habitat % of Total Habitat· CR-I Cottonwood-willow 122 5 CR-II Ponderosa (imm.) 666 .46 CR-I II Ponderosa lmat.), oak 474 31 Totals 1262 PP-I Cottonwood-willow PP-II Ponderosa, brushland 24 1 1096 64 Totals 1120 HH-I . Neadow, willow-birch 122 6 HH-II Ponderosa, D. fir, oak 642 59 HH-I II Spruce-fir, aspen 355 33 Totals 1119 WC-I Cot tonwcod-wt 11ow 31 2 WC-IJ Douglas-fir, spruce 211 46 Totals 242 CC-I Cottonwood-willow 58 4 CC-II Douglas fir, spruce, aspen 174 61 Totals 232 MV-I Cottonwood-willow, MV-II Pinyon-juniper, meadow 1713 33 396 64 oak Totals aSum of vulnerability 2109 classes A and B. bSum of percentages for sampled vegetational c(tota1 source index/% of habitat sampled). types. ApparentC Rank 82 3(15) 65 2{l7) 98 4(11 ) 48 5(5) 65 6(4) 97 1 (21) �-155- The time and duration of hunting sorties follow no clear pattern. Sorties were scattered throughout the daylight hours. A single sortie lasted from 30 minutes to over seven hours. Frequently, trips extended beyond the observation period, so that either exact time of departure or time of return could not be ascertained. Often sorties extended into more than one region. For example, on 3 July the falcon spent time 1) traveling to the south along a river, 2) 3 to 9 km west of the eyrie, and 3) about 16 km west of the eyrie. Prepared by R. ~.~ ~ Gerald R. Craig Sr. Wildlife Biologist �APPENDIX Peregrine Prey Counts: I Average Number Per 805 m (0.5 mi) TRANSECT . Speci es Transect CRl CR2 CR3 PPl PP2 HHl HH2 HH3 WCl WC2 CCl CC2 Heron, Blk-cr Night Ma 11ard .92 Teal, Bl-winged .17 Merganser, Common .17 .10 .63 Duck, UD .33 .15 .50 Vulture, Turkey .04 1.00 .40 Goshawk Hawk, Sharp-shinned MV2 .17 .33 .13 .27 .06 .05 .10 .83 .04 .05 I I .04 .08 .10 Hawk, Cooper's .04 .04 .15 Hawk, Red-tailed .08 .13 Falcon, Peregrine .08 Kes tre 1 MVl I-' .11 V1 .05 cI .33 .33 .35 .05 .20 .06 .18 .15 .05 .05 .08 .17 .04 Grouse, Blue .83 .05 .06 .25 .08 Sora .17 Coot, American .55 Ki 11deer 2.63 Snipe, Common .08 Sandpiper, Spotted .83 Dove, Mourning 2.38 .25 .17 1.35 3.33 2.13 l.95 4.40 .10 2.60 .09 .10 .50 2.46 .33 3.67 .50 �APPENDIX Speci es Owl, Pygmy CRl CR2 CR3 PPl PP2 . .05 Nighthawk, Common .15 Swift, Wh-throated .08 Hummingbird, Br-tailedl .29 .17 Hummingbird, Rufous '.08 Hummingbird, Ud. .29 Kingfisher, Belted .67 Flicker, Red-shafted 1.75 .25 .17 .08 HH2 HH3 WCl WC2 CCl CC2 .05 .78 .35 1.45 .08 .25 Sapsucker, Williamson .25 .60 .73 1.50 .04 2.L9 .92 .05 .05 .35 .15 .10 .09 .39 .30 1.00 .33 .45 .05 .17 1.88 .08 I .30 .10 Sapsucker, Yel-belliedil.54 4.75 MCl MV2 .33 .50 1.40 .13 .04 1.36 1.1 1.15 .55 .75 .66 3.17 I •.... .70 VI -...J .05 .17 .08 .04 .40 Woodpecker, Downy .21 .04 .60 Woodpecker, Ud. I .13 .08 .20 Kingbird, Western I .02 Flycatcher, Ash-thr .08 Phoebe, Say's .08 Pewee, Western Wood 2.50 .08 2.30 .17 .10 Woodpecker, Hairy Flycatcher, Olives i ded HHl .05 i Poor-will Woodpecker, Lewis' (Cont. ) I .15 .05 I .32 .22 .45 .36 .28 .25 .23 .06 .05 .05 .10 .14 .29 .34 .95 .15 .79 .83 .04 .08 .05 .10 .10 .05 1.00 ."17 .17 1.50 .14 .10 1.58 .50 .04 5.25 1 ~15 2.00 1.05 .61 .45 .55 .46 .38 .33 .33 �Speci es Flycatcher, (Empidonax) CRl I P·50 Flycatcher, Ud. : .04 Swa 11ow, Vi01et-green 15.58 Swa 11ow, Tree 0.46 Swallow, Rgh-winged 1.13 APPENDIX I (cont.) CR2 CR3 PPl PP2 HH1 HH2 HH3 HCl WC2 CCl CC2 .58 .42 (.25 .20 .90 1.09 1.11 .75 .40 .21 .08 .04 .20 .10 .09 .11 .05 2.13 9.30 17.95 14.00 6.4 3.50 .30 .96 1.10 .05 1.05 .27 .66 . 1.35 .05 .21 Swallow, Ud. 1.08 4.6 1.29 .17 .33 1.0 .79 .50 .04 .17 .17 .33 .17 .10 .08 .50 .25 .25 1.05 .64 .30 1.96 Jay, Gray .17 Jay, Stell err s .75 Jay, Scrub 4.13 1.00 .29 3.60 .80 2.20 4.00 1.00 .25 Raven, Common .25 1.17 .13 CrO\</,Common .67 .17 Nutcracker, Clark's .04 .63 .63 .20 .80 Chickadee, Blk-capped 1.13 0.42 .50 1.60 1.15 .35 .55 .86 .33 1.20 .95 .50 .35 .45 .09 .35 .27 .10 .05 .25 .80 .06 .42 .85 .25 1.05 2.27 6.39 Nuthatch, Wh-br .63 .50 1.67 2.10 .35 .30 .96 1.50 .05 .18 1.56 1.56 1.10 .50 .65 .05 .08 .08 .67 .33 3.67 .17 2.33 1.00 4.33 1.17 .17 .15 ._. Nuthatch, Red-br 3.21 .11 0.33 1.88 V1 .05 .05 .08 .54 I •.... .38 1.83 Chickadee, Mountain .04 .20 .20 Magpie, Blk-bi11ed Nuthatch, Pygmy MV2 .04 Swallow, Barn Swallow, Cliff MV1 .10 .58 3.00 .10 .25 2.83 .17 .08 .04 1.67 1.00 .33 .66 .50 00 I �APPENDIX I Spe~i~2 CRl Creeper, Brown I Dipper (Water Ouzel) I Hren, House !6.88 Hren, Bewi ck IS I .08 Mockingbi rd I Catbird I Robin CR2 CR3 PPl HHL HH2 .0'5 HH3 1.54 .06 .79 8.25 .04 1.25 .04 .15 .95 .05 .25 .17 2.71 .17 MVl MV2 .67 .50 .65 Bluebird, Western I .96 Bluebird, Mountain I Solitaire, Townsend's I .04 Blue-gray 3.17 .17 2.38 7.25 1.60 4.65 2.00 5.44 4.80 1.80 5.13 .75 .63 .85 .85 .15 2.41 2.06 .15 1.20 .17 1.96 .06 .15 .10 .04 .05 1.21 .21 1.45 .80 I •.... .58 .17 1.4 4.00 V1 '" I 0.27 .06 .83 .10 .66 .21 1.08 .25 .40 ,05 Kingley, Ruby-cr .05 .25 .09 1.17 3.85 .41 .10 .09 6.83 Waxwing, Cedar I .25 Starling I .08 .08 Vireo, Solitary I .54 .54 1.25 .70 .30 .30 .96 .60 Vireo, Warbling i2.58 .04 1.50 10.65 1.10 .75 2.32 4.06 .04 .10 .05 .05 0.73 3.33 .60 1.35 .05 i I 1.17 .29 .10 .05 I CC2 .05 Veery Warbler, Virginia's CCl .05 Thrush, Swainson's I I WC2 .66 1.04 7.16 \~arbler, Org-cr WCl .15 Thrush, Hermit Gnatcatcher, PP2 (Cont.) 0.9 1.85 3.67 .10 .06 1.41 .71 2.17 .04 1.25 .65 .46 .46 .50 .17 �APPENDIX I Speci~ CRl Warbler, Ye lIow 10.38 Warbler, Yellowrumped Chat, V-breasted Warbler, Townsend's CR2 CR3 PPl PP2 . .10 0.75 2.13 2.10 (Cont. ) HHl HH2 .50 .45 .45 2.09 HH3 WCl .06 2.35 5.50 3.3 VlC2 CCl CC2 7.04 .80 1.08 .63 MVl 13.83 1.42 1.00 .05 Warbler, MacGillivray .08 Warbler, Wilson's .04 \~arbler, Ud. .04 . Warbler, Grace's Spa rrow, House I .13 Meadowlark, Western I .08 .21 1.13 .92 1.05 .25 .25 .25 .35 .11 .40 .22 .05 .45 .05 .17 1:00 .05 .04 .32 .29 Blackbird, Red-winged 3.04 Oriole, Bullock's .25 5.0 1. 70 .09 .06 3.35 25.67 Oriole, Scotts I •....• .17 l.67 Blackbird, Brewer's 2.54 Grackle, Common .42 Cowbird, Br-headed .08 Blackbird, Ud. .17 .83 .79 .40 1.90 .13 .55 .27 .20 .11 1.04 3.15 .11 5.50 2.83 6.50 .66 .06 •... Tanager, Western .46 l.58 1.42 Grosbeak, Rose-br .95 .85 .10 2.14 .05 Grosbeak, B1k-headed Bunting, Lazuli MV2 .96 I .08 l.33 .75 .06 .10 .30 .08 .05 .15 .20 .18 .10 .25 .67 0\ 0 I �• APPENDIX I Speci es Grosbeak, Evening CR1 CR2 CR3 PP1 I (Cont. ) PP2 . HHl .05 .15 HH2 HH3 .17 Finch, House CCl CC2 MVl .05 .17 .05 Siskin, Pine .08 Goldfinch, Lesser .25 Towhee, Gr-tai1ed .04 .83 .96 4.1 3.30 Towhee, Rufous-sided .58 5.67 5.42 .95 3.05 .63 .29 .25 .10 9.10 .68 5.33 .45 .35 .13 .17 .10 .08 .17 I 1.83 .66 .04 I MV2 .08 Grosbeak, Pine Sparrow, Lark WC2 .25 Finch, Cassin's Sparrow, Vesper ~'JC1 .50 I >-' (J\ .13 Junco, Gray-headed .71 Sparrow, Tree 2.82 .05(?) Sparrow, Chipping .25 4.58 l.50 Sparrow, Wh-crowned 6.55 3.45 3.65 l.09 1.8 .15 .75 .06(?) .05 .10 1.85 .30 .06 l.46 I .15 .05 5.10 .78 .60 .56 l.5 >-' I l.58 .08 1.17 7.83 .42 .05 .05 Sparrow, Song Sparrow, Ud. .95 .55 4.50 4.71 .66 Ud. Small 4.5 2.29 3.67 6.0 2.70 2.50 5.23 7.50 4.45 3.45 5.13 4.08 3.17 1.67 Ud. Medium 1.88 0.79 1.13 1.35 .85 .65 .59 .72 .70 1.05 .92 .42 1.50 .33 .06 .05 .05 Ud. Large .05 .13 - ��-163January 1979 JOB PROGRESS COLORADO State of Project No. W-124-R Work Plan No. v Job Title Raptor Investigations Job No. 3 ------------------------ Reintroduction Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT and Augmentation of Peregrine Falcon Production April 15, 1977 through February 28, 1978 Daniel Berger and Gerald Craig, Colorado Division of Wildlife; James Enderson and Rod Ogilvie, Colorado College. ABSTRACT Management activities were implemented to increase peregrine falcon reproduction in Colorado. Two breeding pairs were "recycled" to double the number of eggs they produced. Although subsequent natural events caused the nests to fail, the technique proved successful. Four additional sites were manipulated by replacement of wild eggs with dummy eggs and subsequent replacement with broods of captive produced young. The two techniques succeeded in doubling the natural production. ��-165- REINTRODUCTION PEREGRINE AND AUGMENTATION FALCON Gerald OF PRODUCTION R. Craig Current breeding populations and reproductive success of peregrine falcons in Colorado are so low that activities must be undertaken to increase the number of young produced or released into the wild. Poor natural production can be boosted by three techniques, the first of which is termed "recycling or double clutching". This procedure has been developed and proven with captive peregrines and should be applied to wild peregrines. The technique takes advantage of the inherent ability of nesting peregrines to recycle and lay a second clutch of eggs should the initial clutch be destroyed within a certain time period. The second technique is to place captively produced young with wild adults to supplement poor production. The third approach is to release captive produced peregrines into the wild through a technique known as "hacking" whereby the young are reared and released at potential nesting sites in hopes they will return at maturity and breed. The three techniques afford the manager a variety of ways to react to specific problems at particular nest sites and salvage the population from extinction due to poor or no natural recruitment. P.N. OBJECTIVES The objectives of the study are: 1. To induce production of a second clutch of eggs from wild breeding peregrines through "double clutching or recycling". 2. To augment in nests. 3. To release additional young to the wild by "hacking" young from abandoned or potential eyrie sites. 4. To monitor the results of the efforts, compile data and submit reports to appropriate state and federal agencies and the Rocky Mountain/Southwest Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. poor natural production SEGMENT 1. by placing captive produced young captive-produced OBJECTIVES Breeding pairs of peregrines will be observed to determine dates of initiation of egg laying. Within a week to 10 days after completion of the full clutch of eggs, the eyrie will be visited and all the eggs removed and artificially incubated. Approximately two weeks after removal of the eggs, the pair will recycle and lay a second clutch. The second clutch mayor may not be replaced with dummy eggs which the adults will be permitted to incubate. Dummy eggs should be substituted in situations where there may be concern about the adults' ability to incubate the eggs without breaking them. After a suitable period (if dummy eggs were substituted), the site will be revisited and the dummy eggs will be �-166- replaced with chicks from the eggs which were incubated and hatched in captivity. If the adults were permitted to hatch their own eggs, they will be permitted to continue to rear and fledge them. Since there will be a 28 day difference in age between the young produced from the first clutch and those produced from the second clutch, the young from the first clutch will be placed in other wild eyries containing similarly aged broods. Several representatives may also be retained for captive propagation purposes if similarly aged broods cannot be located. 2. As in 1, breeding pairs will be kept under surveillance to determine initiation of egg laying. Shortly after completion of theclutch, the eyrie site will be visited and all the eggs removed and replaced with dummy eggs which the adults will be permitted to incubate. Since the wild eggs usually are thin-shelled they will be artificially incubated to avoid their being accidentally crushed by the adults. After several weeks, the site will be revisited and young peregrines will be exchanged for the artificial eggs. Up to four young may be placed at each site to assure the maximum number of young are fledged. 3. Captive produced young may be released at unoccupied or potential sites without the benefit of protection or care from adults through the technique of "hacking". Young falcons of three to four weeks of age will be placed on a suitable ledge at a potential reintroduction cliff site. They will then be cared for and fed by human attendants until they are flying and capable of feeding themselves. In this manner, the young falcons will return to the site at which they were reared and hopefully breed. This approach requires constant attendance and observation in order to protect the vulnerable young and insure they have sufficient food while they are in the eyrie. Because of this, the first two techniques will receive priority attention. If there are no additional adult breeding pairs as required by approaches 1 and 2, then young will be placed into the wild using this technique. 4. Compile and submit reports to appropriate state personnel, federal agencies and the Rocky Mountain/Southwest Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. METHODS AND MATERIALS Segment objectives 1, 2 and 3 describe the methods of augmentation and reintroduction. A sufficient number of active peregrine nests were available for manipulation to absorb all the young produced in captivity in 1977. Reintroduction activities were delayed, therefore, until the future when additional young are available for release through the "hacking" technique. Eggs were incubated in portable incubators while in transit from wild nests to more permanent facilities at the Peregrine Fund's project at Fort Collins, Colorado. All eggs were incubated at the facility and young produced from the eggs were subsequently reared there as well. �-167- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Recycling Efforts Sufficient field data was obtained at two peregrine nests to permit the recycling process to be implemented. Following is a description of the activities which took place at sites 6 and 26. Site 6 The first egg was laid on April 9 and an egg was laid every other day until the fourth and final egg was deposited April 15. The nest was visited on April 17 and the entire clutch was removed. The pair at this site have a history of nesting failure early in incubation (probably a result of the shell-thinning process), so it was decided to remove their eggs almost immediately after the clutch was completed. The pair resumed courtship and copulation and selected another ledge on the cliff face in the immediate vicinity of the first nest attempt. Egg laying was initiated April 29 and the final four egg clutch was removed May 10 and replaced with dummy eggs. The pair was permitted to incubate the dummy eggs until June 6, when their natural eggs began to hatch at the Fort Collins facility. On June 6, the four dummy eggs were removed and replaced with two 14 day old prairie falcon chicks. This was done to further delay the adults until young peregrine falcons of the proper age were available to be placed in the wild. The adults immediately began feeding and brooding the prairie falcons. On June 23, two 12 and 14 day old peregrine falcon chicks were exchanged for the older prairie falcon chicks. The adults accepted the change without apparent concern. The adults cared for the two young until June 27 when the male suddenly disappeared. It appeared that the adult male was not caring for the young adequately and the decision was made to remove the young on June 28. Both young were placed in a wild nest in New Mexico which contained only two young. All four fledged successfully. At site 6, two of the four eggs in the first clutch were cracked and did not hatch despite special handling and high humidity conditions in an attempt to reduce water loss. The other two eggs hatched, but one of the young died shortly afterward. Three young were hatched from the second clutch of four eggs and all survived to be placed into the wild. Site 26 The first clutch of four eggs was removed on April 21. The stage of egg development placed completion of the clutch and subsequent initiation of incubation at April 21. The first egg of the clutch was probably laid April 14. The pair moved to another cliff approximately 1/4 mile away, recycled and laid its second clutch May 15. The site was visited May 19 when only two eggs were discovered. Both eggs were replaced with dummy eggs which the adults accepted and incubated. The site was again visited June 9 and replaced the dummy eggs with two 16 day old prairie falcon chicks. The adults accepted them and cared for them until June 20 when they were replaced with two 16 day old peregrine chicks. The adult was present and defended the nest, but the female was not seen. The site was observed the first week of July, but no falcons were seen. On July 21, the nest was visited and the remains of partially feathered young were discovered. They were approximately 25 days old when they died. Neither adult was present. �-168- The four eggs in the first clutch all died early in incubation. Both eggs in the second clutch were infertile and one egg had a dent in the side and the contents were leaking out. Although neither site 6 or site 26 succeeded in fledging young the recycling attempts were successful. The adults readily adjusted their behavior from incubating eggs to caring for young when the dummy eggs were replaced with young falcons. Failures of both sites can probably be attributed to the death of at least one of the mates (possibly both at site 26) and remaining adult's inability to care for the young. Augmentation Efforts Four other sites (sites 7, 9, 15 and 27) were manipulated by replacing wild clutches with dummy eggs, then subsequent replacement with captive produced and wild young. Unlike the recycling project, the wild pairs were not encouraged to renest and lay a second clutch. Simple replacement of existing clutches was implemented when pairs were encountered that had been incubating eggs in excess of ten days. After an interval of 10 days, the likelyhood of renesting is greatly reduced and generally not worthy of the risk. Artificial incubation and augmentation were unqualified success at each of the four sites. Young prairie falcons were first placed under the adults to be certain the adults would not react negatively and also to maintain adults at the nests until young peregrines could be placed in the nest. Due to remoteness of one site, young peregrines were placed in the nest without the benefit of prior experimentation with prairie falcons. As expected, the adults readily accepted them. When the nests were visited and the dummy eggs were replaced with young falcons, several dead quail were also left on the nest ledge. In every case, the adults returned after the climber departed and began feeding the young. Table 1 summarizes the assumed productivity of the six sites. It is possible to know exactly what the productivity would have been had the sites not been manipulated, but certain results can be assumed. As an example, site 6 would not have produced the second clutch, but may have been successful in hatching two young. This may be questionable since two of the eggs were cracked and it is possible the female may have abandoned the entire clutch if egg contents had matted her breast feathers. But, on the optimistic side, we can assume that she would have hatched two young, but these would have died when she late~ disappeared. An optimistic estimate of natural reproduction for the 6 sites would be 3.3 eggs per pair, 1.83 young produced per pair and .67 young fledged per pair. Table 2 summarizes the actual productivity of the managed sites. As can be seen, productivity was doubled, 4.33 eggs were laid per pair; 2.33 young were produced per pair; and 1.33 young fledged per pair. The number of young returned to the wild increases to 2.0 per pair when one considers the two young that were moved from site 6 to the New Mexico nest. Despite loss of reproduction from sites 6 and 9, an adequate number of young were produced to push reproduction above the 1.25 young per pair which is normally considered necessary to sustain a stable population. �-169- Table 1. Assumed natural productivity of managed sites.ll Site No. eggs which would have been produced No. young which would have hatched No. young which would have fledged 6 4 2 0 7 3 3 3 9 3 2 0 15 3 2 1 26 4 2 0 27 3 0 0 Totals 20 11 4 3.3 eggs per pair; 1.83 young per pair; .67 young fledged per pair. II Natural production is estimated not been manipulated. Table 2. Actual productivity for managed of managed sites as though they had sites. No. young retur~edll to palr - No. young fledged by pair No. young returned to wild 2 0 4]) 3 3 (1 c. p ,) 3 3 3 2 2 (2 c. p .) 0 0 15 3 3 3 (3 c.p.) 3 3 26 6 0 2 (2 c. p .) 0 0 27 3 0 2 (1 c.p .) 2 2 Totals 26 14 14 8 12 Site No. eggs produced No. young hatched 6 8 6 7 3 9 4.33 eggs per pair; 2.33 young produced per pair; 1.33 young fledged per pair; 2.0 young returned to wild per pair. II Where indicated by (c.p.), captive produced young augmented production. 21 The adult female disappeared shortly after the young were placed in the nest, the young were subsequently Prepared by ~ v< ~ Gerald R. C~aii Sr. Wildlife Biologlst removed and in another nest in New Mexico. ��January -171- 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-124-R -------------------v Work Plan No. Job Title Peregrine PeriQd Covered: Personnel: Raptor Investigations Job No. 4 Falcon Habitat Protection Activities April 15, 1977 through February Marcy Cottrell, of Wildlife. in Colorado 28, 1978 Gerald Craig, and Ann Potter, Colorado Division ABSTP~CT An occupied peregrine falcon nest was kept under surveillance through joint efforts of the U.S. Forest Service and Colorado Division of Wildlife. The two agencies entered into a Memorandum of Understanding to manage the site and provide protection to the falcons. As well as preventing trespass, the observers gathered behavioral information about the falcons. ��-173- PEREGRINE FALCON HABITAT PROTECTION ACTIVITIES IN COLORADO Gerald R. Craig During the breeding season, peregrines are vulnerable to disturbance from human interference at the nesting cliff. If the falcons are agitated during critical reproductive periods, eggs or young may chill or the site may be abandoned. While many sites are remote, several locations in Colorado receive excessive human visitation and it is necessary to assign personnel to observe the sites, note disturbances which occur and limit harassment or unnecessary activities in the area. P.N. OBJECTIVES The objectives of this study are: 1. To reduce or eliminate human disturbances sites. occurring at specific eyrie 2. To protect important feeding areas or eyrie sites located on private land through cooperative agreement, lease, purchase or exchange of estate. 3. To prepare reports of the results of the endeavors. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Two observers will be stationed at eyrie sites and will keep them under constant surveillance from initiation of incubation until after the young have fledged. The observer will be situated in such a position that his presence will not disturb the falcons and yet he will be capable of viewing the vicinity and note any intruders. The observer should be present at the site during the daylight hours. If possible, the observer should have access to a packset radio to communicate with Division of Wildlife field personnel should assistance be required. This work will also be coordinated with the Special Agent-in-Charge at the Denver Federal Center. In addition to maintaining surveillance, the observers will be expected to keep field notes of various activities of the breeding peregrines. 2. When important feeding areas of peregrines are located on private lands, an effort will be made to contact the landowner and negotiate to assure that the area remains suitable as a hunting area for peregrines. In general, the landowner will be encouraged to continue to provide the habitat types preferred by key prey species, continue to plant crops which support the prey or undertake other activities which continue to benefit the peregrine's prey. No funding request for this activity is included at this point since it is hoped that negotiations may be accomplished without disbursement of funds to the landowner. �-174- 3. Prepare reports of the activities accomplished under this job and provide them to the appropriate state and federal personnel and the Rocky Mountain/Southwestern Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two observers were employed jointly by the U.S. Forest Service and the Colorado Division of Wildlife to keep an active peregrine eyrie under surveillance from April 18 through August 31, 1977. The site was kept under surveillance during daylight hours from several vantage points which provided views of the surrounding area and nesting cliffs. The observation points were located at a sufficient distance from the nest site to avoid disturbance of the falcons. Binoculars and spotting scopes were frequently used to scan the vicinity for intruders, although it was soon discovered that the falcons were the best watchdogs and would vocalize and dive at intruders in the vicinity of the nesting cliff. The observers were also equipped with radios to contact local Wildlife Conservation Officers or Forest Service field personnel in case assistance was required. In addition to protecting the falcons from direct human harassment, the observers recorded the falcons' behavior throughout the breeding season. Particular effort was made to record any response the falcons made to man-related disturbances. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The peregrine nest site near Chimney Rock in the San Juan National Forest poses several unique problems. The first is that a pair of peregrine falcons have occupied the site since prior to 1943. Second, during a period of 9 years, the falcons were not present and the Forest Service began development of Indian ruins adjacent to the site. Plans were underway to continue development and expand access to permit tours of the ruins when the falcons returned to their historic nest in 1973. As a result of their presence, the Forest Service curtailed further development of the tours because of potential disturbance to the falcons. This caused much concern and focused public attention on the falcons. In 1976, the Forest Service and Division of Wildlife decided it would be prudent to station two observers to discourage trespass and offer some protection to the falcons while management plans were formulated and appropriate land closures implemented. In March of 1977, the Forest Service and Division of Wildlife consumated a Memorandum of Understanding (Appendix A) concerning management of the Chimney Rock site. The agencies agreed to meet annually to discuss and approve activities proposed in the vicinity which might impact upon the falcons or their hunting areas. Action plans will be developed which will afford protection of the falcons and hopefully will permit development of the ruins. Supervised experimental tours of the ruins were conducted periodically in July and August. The tours provided the opportunity to monitor responses of the falcons, yet terminate the activity if the falcons responded �-175- negatively. While another season will be required, preliminary results indicate that the falcons will tolerate some tours toward the latter portion of their breeding cycle. The frequency of the tours appears to be more important than the number of people present, although the amount of noise generated may also be a limiting factor. Additional experimentations will be required to develop and refine guidelines for the tours. In 1977, the observers recorded less than half a dozen encounters with trespassers and all were sightseers who departed when requested. It is likely the number of encounters will increase as the presence of the falcons becomes better known. Probably the greatest disturbance to the pair occurs when biologists visit the nest to remove eggs and augment production. While the visits are held to a minimum of less than 30 minutes, the falcon's normal routine may be upset for the entire day. The disturbance underscores the need to avoid unnecessary excessive visitations to the nests. Prepared by GAhnM P ~ Ger;l([ R: cr:~ig Sr. Wildlife Biologist � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/76cafbccee2cab501585a702d3908360.pdf f0d552a3a8353c43daf2776e852f69d9 PDF Text Text April JOB PROGRESS State of COLO~~O ---------=~~~=------------ Project No. 1979 REPORT Game Bird Survey W-37-R-32 22 Job No. ------------------------------~Evaluation of Nesting Cover Preferences of Job Titl e _~_P~h.Ee~al£s~aunJ-!t:..is2.......l!..· nU-R!)£e"'"lo.!la~t~i:,.J,oL!n!_t~o:L.._Wh!!!.!se£!a:..!:t:..._fF~a;Jr!o n!,llig--11M~e:..!:t:..!..h~o~d~s~ _ Work 1 Plan No. Period Covered: Personnel: April 1, 1978 through Jack Corey, LeRoy Haeffner, March Kirk 31, 1979 Snyder and Warren Snyder. ABSTRACT The program narrative was revised and submitted for approval following extensive literature review and contacts. A study area was selected and a cooperative agreement with the lessee and management personnel was arranged which included lessee application of treatments on the Division property and on additional private acreage. First and second year treatment plots were selected, measured and herbicides were applied to first year treatment plots in mid-August 1978 by the lessee. Pheasant trapping resulted in instrumenting and releasing 29 hens in late February and early March 1979. Limited monitoring was initiated and additional equipment was constructed and put into use. Height-density sampling of wheat stubble and other residual cover was initiated. ��-3- EVALUATION OF NESTING COVER PREFERENCES OF PHEASANTS IN RELATION TO WHEAT FARMING METHODS Warren D. Snyder P. N. OBJECTIVE 1. To document the relative importance of wheat stubble, green wheat, and other vegetative cover for (1) pheasant nest site selection, and (2) successful production of young in the wheatlands of northeast Colorado. Other variables pertinent to understanding the basic ecology of the nesting pheasant in the Tablelands include determination of primary limiting factors to reproduction and brood survival. 2. Upon documentation that pheasants use wheat stubble extensively for initial spring nesting and that adequate sample sizes can be obtained in the primary study area, a second primary objective will be to determine if mini-till summer fallow, using combinations of post harvest applied herbicides and sweep tillage, increases pheasant nesting success when compared to conventional summer fallow methods. The economic and practical aspects of mini-till farming will also be determined as they apply to the farmer and to Division of Wildlife properties. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Literature review, interviews and coordination 2. Selection of Study Area. 3. Design plot layout and apply treatments. 4. AnaLysis meetings. and evaluation. METHODS AND MATERIALS 1. Literature Review, Interviews and Coordination Meetings Literature pertinent to this study was reviewed including information on farming methods and telemetry procedures and equipment. Contacts with agricultural research personnel from Colorado State University and its Extension Service, the U. S. Soil Conservation Service, and the U. S. Agricultural Research Service were made along with discussion and field tours with farmers and herbicide applicators. Meetings and contacts to select the location, to develop study design, to coordinate application of treatments and to select monitoring equipment were conducted. 2. Selection Primary of Study Area criteria used in selecting a study location a. Its proximity to the research headquarters. b. Its yearlong containment of a resident included: flock of pheasants. �-6- Tree and Shrub Rows 1 - F - M - 8.25 ac , ---------1 - F - .C - 8.25 ac • .!,.;.--,- 2 - F - M - 7.2 ac. - F - C - 7.2 ac. Tree and Shortgrass Pasture Potential 4 - S - C & !Ii (Undefined) r - _4_-_ ..: _ '- :'h:::t- 1.0 ac. l I Tall - 11 .5 ac. I 4 - F- M - : 4 - F -C - Tall - ~ .5 ac , 1- - - 1_- - '- - _ - I - - -l 4 - F -C - Short -\ .0 ac , , I I , I I- .J Fig. 2 The Sand Draw Intensive study Area (West ~ of Sec. 19). First year (F) and Second year (S) Conventionally tilled (C) and Mini-tilled eM) plots and their respective acreages are illustrated. �-7- necessitate use of the contact herbicide, glyphosate (Roundup) applied by boom type sprayer at the rate of ~ gallon per acre. The herbicide 2,4-D Amine will be used in substitution at a rate of 1 pound per acre when broadleavedforbs alone are present. These treatment options will be used on Division property and the lessee will select a contact herbicide of his choice for use on private land. b. Conventional Summer Fallow Tillage Treatments were not enacted on the first year stubble plots during this segment. The lessee will initiate stubble ground tillage using an offset disc in late April or May, timed to coincide with conventional summer fallow peak activity in the surrounding region. Repetitious tillage will be continued as needed through the summer up to wheat sowing time. 4. Analysis a. b. and Evaluation Trapping and Monitoring of Nesting Hens 1. Hen pheasants were trapped using night lighting techniques described by Hoffman (1975). Two initial birds were trapped in southwest Phillips County and released on the site while testing equipment and training personnel. The remainder were obtained within the extensive study area. Trapping was initiated in late February 1979 and completed during the first weekend in March during intervals when the ground froze and permitted access. 2. Captured hens were equipped for monitoring with solar-powered backpack type transmitters, constructed by Wildlife Materials Inc. and weighing approximately 15 grams. Flat ~ inch wide nylon elastic material was used in harnesses constructed by procedures similar to those described by Brander (1968). 3. Monitoring procedures followed those described by Kuck (1968) and others. Two 30-ft permanent towers were erected on high points of the Sand Draw property and were located approximately 3/4 mi apart. Each contained a pair of 8 ft yagi high-gain antennas. In addition, a single 8 ft antenna was mounted in the back of each of two pickups. These were mounted to telescope upward to a height of approximately 16 to 20 ft when fully extended. Two hand-held three-element antennas were also used in foot and vehicular searches and monitoring. Two 24 channel receivers were used in conjunction with these antennas. Environmental 1. Monitoring Height-density measurements were initiated in March 1979 to obtain indices of cover quality on all residual cover within and proximal to the intensive study area. Samples were obtained on perennial herbaceous cover, roadsides, and wheat stubbl~ The Robel et ale (1970) method as modified by Kirsch (1977) was used on all residual vegetation and will be repeated in subsequent years. Samples were obtained diagonal to the direction of drill rows in wheat stubble fields. Recording forms were prepared to permit obtaining 100 �-8- samples at 25 points in each field. stubble height samples were obtained was also obtained in each field. In addition, 25 vertical and the drill row spacing 2. Precipitation gauges were set up on the study site in March 1979. 3. Mapping of vegetative cover types and edges was initiated but not completed in March 1979 using eight inch to the mile aerial photos and a grid system for calculating acreages and distance (Snyder 1966). Study Area The Division of Wildlife's Sand Draw Wildlife Area was selected as the primary work area for this nesting evaluation study. The Sand Draw property contains 210 acres, comprised of the NW~ and the SW part of the NE~, S19, TlON, Range 43W in southeast Sedgwick County, Colorado. The elevation approximate 3,750 ft and annual precipitation averages 16 to 17 inches. The average growing season is 143 days. Soils are of the Rago-Richland-Kuma associations being deep, nearly level and of loam texture (Brubacher and Moore 1969). An earth constructed dam backs water over several acres of land on the site (Fig. 1) when runoff water occasionally fills the reservoir, however, the site is dry a majority of the time. This pond is located on the Sand Draw drainage which drains the locality. Dryland wheat farming predominates in the nine section extensive study area (Fig. 1). Several deep irrigation wells have recently been installed by neighboring farmers to use for irrigating corn under center-pivot systems. Only three occupied residences are present in the nine sections attesting to the low human population and large farm size in the locality. Pheasants are the predominant wildlife in the region, however, the Sand Draw Property was planted extensively to shrubs and trees in 1949 which now permits part time occupancy by mule deer and bobwhite. Mourning doves and cottontails use the site extensively and waterfowl are occasional visitors when water is present. Coyotes, red fox, great-horned owls, striped skunks, badgers, raccoons, crows and magpies are the primary predators in the vicinity. Feral cats and dogs also use the site and many non-game species reside at, or visit the property. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION An agreement was made with the lessee, Gary Schuler, with approval of management personnel, wherein the owner's share of wheat harvest from the Sand Draw would be paid to the lessee in compensation for his (1) treatment of an additional acreage on his private land using prescribed mini-till procedures, (2) extra efforts expended in using two different farming methods on the small fields within the Sand Draw, and (3) use of his private lands for monitoring by Division personnel. Environmental Conditions Precipitation averaged below normal throughout 1978 in the study region so that the late, deep tillage of wheat stubble on the Sand Draw, required to �-9- bury a growth of downy brome, permitted excessive drying and little soil moisture storage prior to wheat planting in September. Fortunately, approximately one inch of rain was received in late August approximately one week after the August 18 application of herbicide to the treatment plots. This at least partially incorporated the atrazine into the top soil where it could act as a pre-emergent to suppress weeds and volunteer wheat. However, little additional precipitation was received until late October 1978 when an approximate half-inch germinated the seeded wheat on the second year plots. Tree and shrub rows on the Sand Draw property protected these narrow fields so that light snows that followed in November and December remained in place protecting the young wheat plants to a degree from the record breaking prolonged winter cold temperatures that persisted into February 1979. In contrast, the light snows blew off the majority of the larger wheat fields on adjacent private lands and increased winter loss was evident. The impact of this on selection of a second year treatment and control sites is uncertain at this time. Fields treated with atrazine in August 1978 are illustrated in Fig. 2. Regrettably, of the approximate 22.5 acres treated on private land to the south of the Sand Draw, approximately 11 acres contained short stubble atypical of stubble in other fields. This acreage would be very marginal for nesting. Therefore, the treated stubble and the cultivated controls were divided into two segments each, to distinguish between short and tall stubble in analysis and evaluation. Hen Pheasant Monitoring Thirty hens were trapped, instrumented with transmitters and released onto the study area. One of these was killed by a prairie falcon at the time of release, however, the transmitter was recovered and placed on a second hen. One transmitter malfunctioned prior to placement in the field so 29 hens were released for monitoring. All were located with tracking equipment at least once during the remainder of March and most were located several times in spite of malfunctioning rental receivers and extended periods of rain, snow and high winds. All birds remained in the vicinity of Sand Draw even though the first two released had been imported. Observations indicated the transmitter equipped hens probably comprised less than half the hens resident in the study area. LITERATURE CITED Brander, R. B. 1968. A radio-package Manage. 32(3):630-632. harness for game birds. J. Wildl. Brubacher, J. K., and T. R. Moore. 1969. Soil Survey of Sedgwick County, Colorado. U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service. U. S. Gov. Printing Off. Washington, D. C. 61 p. + append. Hoffman, D. M. 1975. Pheasant mortality investigations. Game Research Report, April:5-35. Wildlife. Colo. Div. of �-10- Kirsch, L. 1977 (Rev.). Instructions for use of height density pole for measuring residual vegetation on grassland wildlife habitats. 2 p. Mimeo Rept. Kuck, T. 1968. Movements and behavior of pheasants during the breeding cycle as determined by radio-tracking. M. S. Thesis, South Dakota State Univ. 73 p. Robel, R. J., J. N. Briggs, A. D. Dayton, and L. C. Hulbert. 1970. Relationships between visual obstruction measurements and weight of grassland vegetation. J. Range Manage. 23(4):295-297. Snyder, W. D. 1966. A technique for mapping wildlife habitat in farmland areas. Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. Game Infor. Leaflet #43. 1 p. Prepared __ by _.L;fi~, U::::.-.;:·~-=:t,-"'}::...:'iiI~-=:v~)--"~=--:=l~~..::..{.::::".~,,,,,'''-''--7.---====-) Warren D. Snyder ,/ Wildlife Researcher C �April 1979 -11- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO Project No. W-37-R-32 Work Plan No. 3 Job No. 9a Evaluation of the Effects--o'f~C~h~a-n--g-e-s--l~'n------------------Hunting Regulations on Sage Grouse Populations Job Title Period Covered: Game Bird Survey April 1, 1978 through March 31, 1979 Personnel: J. Dingman, Univ. of Denver; R. A. Ryder, Colo. State Univ.; D. Benson, C. Braun, A. Chappell, D. Covic, C. Crawford, S. Emmons, K. Giesen, D. Gore, J. Hobbs, J. Jackson, S. Palm, B. Petersen, S. Porter, B. Quinlan, H. Spear, J. Wagner, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning the relationships of hunting to breeding population levels, and survival estimates of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophaisanus) in North Park, Colorado, initiated in 1975, continued in 1978. Numbers of known leks increased as 7 new leks were located. Average number of cocks per lek increased 27% over 1977. Total estimated spring population size was between 5,469 and 8,754 birds. In 1978, 258 sage grouse (204 males, 54 females) were banded. A 16 day hunting season was allowed in North Park in 1978 with bag and possession limits of 3 and 6. Data from wings (N = 724) collected at check stations, wing barrels and field checks revealed that the harvest was comprised of 53% young of the year, 20% yearlings and 27% adults. Estimated annual survival from wing analysis was 65% for females and 50% for males. Estimated nesting success from examination of wings of adult and yearling females was 51% with more adults (60%) than yearlings (38%) being successful. Ovarian analysis (N = 82) indicated that 92 (yearlings) to 98% (adults) of all females ovulated. Total estimated harvest based on check station data was 1,200-1,400 birds. Sixty-three bands were reported by hunters. Direct recovery rates varied from 10.1 (adults) to 13.2% (yearlings) for males. Banded samples of females were too small for calculation of age specific recovery rates. The overall direct recovery rate for females was 10.7%. The constant annual survival estimate for all females was 63.4 + 6.1%, for adult males it was 43.5 + 6.3%, while for yearling males it was 85.3 + 15.7%. The 95% confidence i~terval was narrow (24% range) for adult males and all females and broad (61% range) for yearling males. Estimated fall population size was 12,620 - 16,460 birds. �-12- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. The project should be extended one year to allow for completion of data collection concerning lek attendance patterns of male and female sage grouse. 2. Banding should be de-emphasized for estimating survival. It should continue to be used as a tool to estimate changes in harvest rate between areas in North Park. 3. Counts of male sage grouse present on leks should continue with emphasis from mid April to mid May. 4. Three check stations should be operated the opening weekend of the sage grouse hunting season in 1979 along with volunteer wing collection barrels when check stations are not open. The new check station would be near Gould. 5. The sage grouse season in North Park in 1979 should be a minimum days with bag and possession limits of 3 and 6. of 23 �-13- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN HUNTING REGULATIONS ON SAGE GROUSE POPULATIONS Clait E. Braun Knowledge of the impacts of hunting on sage grouse is limited, as no studies on this subject have been published. Impacts of hunting can be measured through examination of changes in numbers of birds present on leks in spring if lek counts have a relationship to population size, and through analysis of ban dings (harvest rate). Data presented in this report concern these problems and represent the mid ~arct 1978 through mid March 1979 interval. P. N. OBJECTIVE The objectives of this study are to increase hunter opportunity and recreational use of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. Hypotheses which are being tested are: a. Hunter harvest does not affect spring counts of strutting spring counts of females under any regulations. b. Counts of females during the peak of attendance on strutting grounds a reliable index to overall numbers of sage grouse in spring. c. Hunter success and total harvest d. Nesting success and brood size to 15 August, while important in determining age composition of the harvest, have no relationship to hunter success and total harvest. e. Differences and nesting are a function exist between yearling success. of August males or peak are precipitation. and adult hens in percent ovulating, SEGMENT OBJECTIVES la. Twenty males will be captured and radio transmittered in March and early April in northwestern North Park. Transmittered males will be stratified by age (1- and 2+) and will be followed daily until early June. lb. Twenty females will be captured and radio transmittered in March and early April in southeastern North Park. Transmittered females will be stratified by age (1- and 2+) and will be followed daily until early June. 2. Counts of all birds present will be made at least 4 times from 1 April to 15 May on all known strutting grounds in North Park. 3. Aerial and ground searches will be utilized grounds within North Park. 4. Population size will be estimated in Spring through use of ratios of males to females on strutting grounds and known sex composition of the population available from previous work and harvest surveys. to locate additional strutting �-14- 5. Wing collection barrels will be placed at strategic locations throughout North Park and will be available throughout the hunting season. A goal of 500 wings is desired. 6. Number and location of marked birds harvested will be obtained field checks of hunters and voluntary mail reporting. 7. Age composition wings collected barrels. 8. Compile through of the harvest will be determined through examination of during field checks and through use of wing collection data, analyze results METHODS and prepare final reports. AND MATERIALS Counts of male and female sage grouse present on leks were periodically made by project personnel and District Wildlife Managers following prescribed procedures (Braun and Beck 1976). Counts were made from 19 March through 30 May at times within one-half hour of sunrise. Searches for new or relocated leks were made through ground and aerial reconnaissance. Male and female sage grouse were trapped at night along roads and on leks where they roosted. Some birds, primarily hens, were captured at dawn on leks through use of cannon nets. Most birds were captured through use of a spotlight with a back pack or hand held power source and long handled nets (Braun and Beck 1976). Sage grouse banded and released were marked with serially numbered aluminum bands (size 16 for males, 14 for females) and colored plastic and aluminum bands coded to year. Some birds were additionally marked with radio transmitters. Age and sex classification of birds captured followed Eng (1955). Check stations were operated at 2 locations (State Line and Willow Creek Pass) on the opening weekend (9 and 10 September) and the second Sunday (17 September). Each station was operated from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Data obtained per party were: County of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters), birds observed, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained, and area hunted. One wing was obtained from each bird checked, with ovaries being taken or examined from a sample of hens. These data were recorded on tags with wings being individually marked with corresponding information concerning actual sex of that bird. Wings were frozen and stored for later analysis. In addition to the 2 check stations, wing barrels and signs (Hoffman and Braun 1975) were placed along Colorado 14 near Muddy Pass, along Colorado 14 near Gould, north of the junction of Colorado 125 and 127 along Colorado 127 and at Willow Creek Pass along Colorado 125. Volunteer stations were in operation the entire season near Muddy Pass and Gould and on all days that manned check stations were not operating on Colorado 127 north of its junction with Colorado 125 and along Colorado 125 at Willow Creek Pass. , Collected wings were thawed and classified to age (chicks, yearlings, adults) and sex following procedures outlined by Eng (1955), and Beck et ale (1975). Hatching dates were calculated for chicks of the year using data from Pyrah (1963). �-15- _Ovaries collected were stored in AFA (alcohol, formalin and acetic acid) and later examined for presence of ovulated follicles as described by Kabat -.et al. (1948). Description of Area North Park lies completely in Jackson County, Colorado. This relatively high altitude (7,800 to 8,500 ft) are~ is essentially a closed basin, as it is encircled by mountain ranges. Drainage is to the north, with lowest elevations occurring north of Cowdrey. Vegetation is principally a sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)-grassland type with stream courses being dominated by native grasses, sedges, and deciduous shrubs. Detailed geographic, -geologic, vegetational and climatic features of the area have been described by Gill (1965), Carr (1967), Beck (1975), Braun and Beck (1976) and will be treated in the final report. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Counts of Sage Grouse on Display Areas Counts of male and female sage grouse present on leks were initiated on 19 March (Denmark and Raven) and continued until 30 May (Alkali Lake, Bighorn, Boettcher Lake Junction, Spring Creek #1 and Spring Creek #2). During this interval 609 counts were made of 34 active leks. Average number of cocks per lek (high count only) was 39.5 (Table 1). This is substantially higher than the 31.1 males/lek counted in 1977 and slightly higher than the 39.1 males/lek counted in 1968-72 (Table 2). Number of leks known to occur in North Park increased (+7) in 1978. Two new leks were found by following radio marked females, 3 were found from the ground, while 2 were found from the air. One additional new lek was observed from the air west of Pole Mountain Reservoir but was not relocated from the ground. From 1973 to 1977 average number of cocks counted per lek remained reasonably constant (27.7 to 33.1). During this same period, number of known leks increased from 17 to 26, suggesting either better coverage of North Park or an expanding sage grouse population. In 1978, number of cocks counted per lek increased 27.0% over the 1977 level and number of known leks increased from 26 to 34 (30.8%). It is quite evident that despite better coverage, the sage grouse population in North Park has been expanding. The expansion in 1978 is further documented if only leks with 10 or more males are considered (Table 3). Estimation of Spring Population Size Reliable estimates of total numbers of sage grouse in North Park during the breeding period are difficult to derive. Major problems involved are those relating to how many males and females of the total population are present on leks when peak counts are attained and how many of the actual number of active leks are known and counted. There is some evidence to suggest that only 50% of the male segment of the population of lekking species is present on a ground when peak counts of males are attained (Robel 1969, Rippin and Boag 1974). If it is assumed that peak counts of male sage grouse represent �-16- Table 1. Peak lek counts Males Lek Alkali Lake A.rapahoe Aspen Bighorn Boettcher Lake Jet. Canuck Case Cheyenne 1./ Coalmont Cowdrey 115 Deer Creek Delaney Butte Denmark Eagle 1./ Fish Hatchery Hound Los t Creek 111 Monahan Owl Creek Peregrine 1./ Prague 1/ Pronghorn Ptar 1./ Railroad Raven Ridge Road Riley Roth Spring Creek III Spring Creek 112 Spring Creek #4 Thrasher 1/ Ute 1./ Walden Wattenberg II 56 61 24 47 86 21 4 127 21 1 41 4 80 11 97 28 43 o 15 17 35 10 50 35 94 65 5 1 76 63 3 65 17 18 21 1,342 Totals Average/Active Lek N = 1/ Newly of sage grouse, located 39.5 34 in 1978. North Park, Date(s) 10 May 9 May 8 April 10 April 1 May 3 May 4 April 2 May 4, 12 & 24 April 30 March, 1 May 20 April 22 April 24 April 9 & 15 April 4 s 11 April 26 April 15 April All dates 13 April, 4 May 2, 6 & 8 May 27 April 7 & 17 April 12 April 6 April 11 & 24 April, 3 May 28 April 18 April 19 April 8 May 16 May 8 April 2 May 21 April 10 April 26 May 1978. Females Date(s) 20 42 10 19 3 April 8 April 8 April 4 April 4 April 10 April 12 April 22 April 12 April All dates 5 April 5 & 25 April "7 April 8 April 11 April 10 April 6 April All dates 8 April 20 April 9 May 8 April 12 April 6 April 7 April 12 April 10 April All dates 4 April 4 & 11 April All dates 19 May 9 May 4 April 7 April 84 10 1 2 28 o 40 3 40 8 43 13 40 o 9 3 3 6 39 34 52 47 2 o 50 29 o 3 2 19 7 708 20.8 �Table 2. Peak 1ek counts of male sage grouse, North Park, Colorado, 1973-1978. Lek Alkali Lake Arapahoe (1977) ~/ Aspen (1977) Bighorn (1976) Boettcher Lake Junction Boettcher Flats Canuck (1974) Coalmont Cowdrey tI1 Cowdrey 113 Cowdrey #5 (1973) Deer Creek Delaney Butte Denmark (1977) Fish Hatchery Hound (1974) Lake John #2 Lost Creek 111 Lost Creek If2 Monahan Draw Owl Creek (1976) Pronghorn (1977) Railroad (1975) Raven (1977) Ridge Road Riley (1973) Roth (1974) (1968-1970)1/ (1968-1971) (1968-1971) Average 1968-1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978-V 77.8 81 72 68 39 - - - - - - 86.6 7.0 59 0 - - 39.4 9.2 5.0 47 0 0 30 37 4 46 0 29 27 0 0 19 11 13 50 0 22 29 0 0 9 27 0 36 46 21 52 76 0 27 21 0 0 5 31 0 58 64 21 0 47 0 1 16 15 41 73 32 9 8 56 61 24 47 86 0 21 21 0 0 1 41 4 80 97 28 0 43 0 0 15 10 35 94 65 5 1 (1970-1972) 56.6 13.3 46 62 0 30 28 0 0 5 36 0 - - - - - (1970-1972) 58.7 67 - - 13.5 54.4 27.4 56.2 0 13 10 11 69 33 0 18 0 6 81 27 (1968-1971) 62 69 0 0 1 3 - - 36 12 33 15 10 - . 76.4 - - 86 o- 33 0 1 14 87 - - 27 12 14 32 18 9 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I I-' ....• I �Table 2. Peak 1ek counts of male sage grouse, North Park, Colorado, 1973-1978 (continued). Average 1968-1972 Lek Spring Creek 111 Spring Creek 112 Spring Creek 114 Walden Reservoir (1973) Wattenburg III Wattenburg 112 (1968, 1970-1972) 1973 1974 1975 1.5 27.2 46 39 9 38 0 24 33 15 10 37 0 22 49 14 3 34 0 18 19 17 19 19 37.6 75.8 18.7 - (1968-1969) Number of Leks , 1976 1977 '197sl/ 49 8 37 0 16 45 23 3 26 0 12 76 63 3 18 0 21 21 26 34 11 I f-' co Average/Active Ground 39.1 33.1 27.7 30.9 31.9 1/ Seven leks found in 1978 are not listed but are included in number of leks and averages. 31.1 I 39.5 These 7 leks are listed in Table 1. l/ Year of initial location if after 1972. 1/ Years of data included in average for 1968-1972 if inactive 1 or more years during that time interval. �-19- 50% of the mal~ population in an area, then at least 2,684 (1,342 x 2) cocks occurred in North Park in the spring of 1978. It is quite obvious that all lek locations are not known in a given year. If it is assumed that 90% of the active leks have been located, then a minimum of 3 (.10 x 34) unknown leks should occur somewhere within North Park. Assuming that these 3 leks have an average of 39 cocks during the peak period of male attendance, they represent a minimum of 234 additional cocks (39 x 3 = 117 x 2 = 234). Thus the total estimated number of cocks in North Park in Spring 1978 was 2,918. This is substantially higher than the 1,928 estimated for North Park in 1977 (Table 4). Table 3. Number of male sage grouse/stable lek, North Park, Colorado, 1973-1978. 1/ Year Average No. Males/Stable Lek No. of Stable Leks 1973 36.7 15 1974 30.8 17 1975 35.6 16 1976 38.0 17 1977 37.3 21 1978 47.3 28 !/ A stable lek is one that has 10 or more males. Table 4. 1975-78. Estimated spring population size, sage grouse, North Park, Colorado, Year No. of Cocks Counted No. of Leks Counted Estimated No. of Leks Total Male Population Total Female Population Total Population 1975 588 19 24 1,486 2,972 4,458 1976 712 22 26 1,682 3,364 5,046 1977 809 26 31 1,928 3,856 5,784 1978 1,342 34 37 2,918 5,836 8,754. �-20- Beck (1977) found a late winter sex ratio of 69 hens to 31 cocks, a value remarkably similar to the sex ratio of adult and yearling birds in the fall harvest (Braun and Beck 1976). If it is assumed that the spring sex ratio of the North Park sage grouse population is similar to that observed in late winter and early fall, then 2 hens occur for every cock in the population. Thus, the total spring female population can be estimated based on the estimated number of cocks in the spring population. Therefore, there should have been a minimum of 5,836 hens in the 1978 spring population (2,918 x 2 = 5,836). Thus the estimated total spring population of sage grouse within North Park in 1978 was 8,754 birds (Table 4). Data are becoming available (Emmons 1979) to indicate that more than 50% of the male population is present on a lek if counts are made when most males are displaying. If peak lek counts represent 75% of the males in a population then only 1,823 males (1,342 x .25 = 335 + 1,342 = 1,677, 3 x 39 = 117 x .25 29 + 117 = 146, 146 + 1,677 = 1,823) were present in the spring population. This would indicate that there were 3,646 females (1,823 x 2 = 3,646) for a total spring population size of 5,469 birds (3,646 + 1,823). This is 37.5% less than the estimate of 8,754 birds based on only 50% of the males being present during peak counts. It is quite obvious that the basic assumption concerning percent of the male population present during periods of peak lek counts is critical. Nevertheless, it would appear that the method for estimating spring population size has merit. In all probability, the actual spring population was somewhere between 5,400 and 8,800 birds. Capture and Banding Intensive efforts to capture and band sage grouse in North Park were not made in 1978. Sage grouse were captured and banded in conjunction with radio telemetry studies, personnel training and preliminary design of a new study. In all, 258 birds were newly banded between 25 February and 10 May (Table 5). Table 5. Sex and age composition North Park, Colorado 1978. Month 1- Males 2+ February 1 March of newly banded sage grouse by month, Total 1- Females 2+ Total Totals 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 5 7 0 1 1 8 April 78 65 143 22 21 43 186 May 25 28 53 10 0 10 63 Totals 106 98 204 32 22 54 258 �-21- During the course of trapping activities in 1978, 28 different birds were recaptured (27 males, 1 female). Of this sample, 1 bird (male) was from 1975 (5+ years old upon recapture), 8 were from 1976, 16 were from 1977, while 3 were banded in 1978. Of interest was a male banded as a chick in 1977 that was recaptured on a lek about 4 miles from initial banding site. It did not recruit to the closest lek (about 1 mile from where banded). No direct trap casualties occurred in 1978 although 1 bird released with a radio transmitter was found dead the next day, apparently the result of a crash landing upon release. Hunting Season Data Collection The sage grouse season in North Park (Unit 12) in 1978 opened at sunrise on 9 September and closed at sunset on 24 September. Season length was 16 days, the daily bag limit was 3, with a possession limit of 6. Season length and bag limits were identical to 1977. Sage grouse hunters were not required to have a permit in 1978 as the special sage grouse hunting permit was discontinued after the 1977 season. Check stations and field checks were continued in 1978 similar to the 1974-1977 period. Check Stations Two check stations were operated in 1978. These stations were located at the State Line on Colorado 127 and at Willow Creek Pass on Colorado 125. As in previous years of operation (1974-1977), each station was open from about 1000 to 1800 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Both check stations were operated on the 9th, 10th and 17th. Staffing patterns (at least 2 research personnel and 3 District Wildlife Managers) were the same at both check stations during all 3 days of operation. Data obtained per party were: County of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters), 'birds observed, birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds and location where each was obtained, and area hunted within North Park. Most importantly, one wing was obtained from each bird that was checked. Few birds (53) were completely wingless. Ovaries (N = 82) were collected from adult and yearling females for laboratory analysis. Sex from gonadal inspection was ascertained for 163 young of the year and whole body weights were obtained for 29 grouse. In addition to the 2 check stations, wing barrels and signs were placed along Colorado 14 near Muddy Pass, on Colorado 14 near Gould, north of Three Way on Colorado 127 and at Willow Creek Pass on Colorado 125. Volunteer stations were in operation the entire season near Muddy Pass and Gould, and for all days that manned check stations were not operating north of Three Way and at Willow Creek Pass. Research and regional management personnel field checked hunters whenever possible. During the 3 days of check station operation, 350 hunters with 480 sage grouse (1.4 birds per hunter) were checked. These hunters reported observing 4,922 sage grouse. Undoubtedly some duplications are present in the 4,922 grouse reported observed. Hunter efficiency was low, 9.8% (480 birds harvested ~ 4,922 birds observed), and 29 birds (5.7% of those retrieved + those reported lost) were reported crippled and lost. Comparative data from 1974 through 1978 are presented (Table 6). �-22- Table 6. Sage grouse harvest statistics, North Park, Colorado, 1974-1978.11 Year No. Hunters Checked No. Birds Observed No. Birds Harvested Hunter Efficiency (%) Crippling Loss Birds per Hunter 1974 730 6,062 785 7.7 5.1 1.1 1975 738 5,735 551 9.6 7.1 0.7 1976 595 3,393 459 13.5 5. 7 0.8 1977 353 3,303 385 11.7 10.6 1.1 1978 350 4,922 480 9.8 5.7 1.4 11 Only those statistics collected at check 'stations. As in other years in the 1974-1977 period, distribution of harvest and hunting pressure was not uniform within North Park. Peterson Ridge-MacFarlane Reservoir (36.7% of the harvest and 21.1% of the hunters) was by far the leading harvest area in 1978, probably more the result of opening the Arapaho National Wildlife Refuge to sage grouse hunting than more birds being present in the area. The Lake John area had 29.4% of the hunters but only 18.1% of the harvest, Walden Reservoir had 18.3% of the hunters and only 10.6% of . the harvest, while the Ridge Road area had 14.6% of the hunters and 13.7% of the harvest. All other areas within North Park each had less than 10% of the hunters and harvest. Comparative data are presented (Table 7). Hunter interest and harvest continued to decline at Independence Mountain, Pole Mountain, and Spring Creek-Owl Ridge in 1978. Numbers of sage grouse counted on leks in spring have decreased in the Independence Mountain area in recent years. However, counts of male grouse on leks and number of leks have increased in all other areas within North Park. It does not appear that hunter pressure parallels changes in sage grouse distribution or numbers. Most hunters contacted at check stations were asked whether or not they normally hunted sage grouse in North Park. Of the 343 hunters responding, 251 (73.2%) reported they normally hunted sage grouse in North Park, 66 (19.2%) were first time sage grouse hunters, while 26 (7.6%) reported they normally hunted sage grouse elsewhere. Comparative data for the 1974-1978 period are presented (Table 8). Obviously, increasing season length and bag limits had little effect on where hunters hunt sage grouse as 1974 was the most restrict've season (3 days, 2 and 4 bag and possession limits) in the 5 year period. The most liberal seasons were in 1977 and 1978 (16 days, 3 and 6 bag and possession limits). Other areas in Colorado open for sage grouse hunting either had shorter seasons or smaller bag and possession limits in the 1975-1978 interval. �Table 7. 1 1 Sage grouse harvest and hunting pressure within North Park, Colorado 1974-1978. _ ~I Spring Peterson Creek-Owl Ridge- MacRidge Far1ane Res. % % Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Michigan River SE Eagle Hill % Hunt. Harv. Year Walden Pole Independence Mountain Reservoir Ridge Road Lake John Mountain % % % % % Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. Hunt. Harv. 1974 4.7 6.0 18.1 16.4 12.4 15.4 9.6 11.3 4.7 3.8 20.3 19.6 17.9 13.4 2.2 1.3 10.0 12.8 1975 3.1 3.8 24.3 24.7 14.2 16.7 11.1 15.6 1.8 2.0 17.2 14.3 13.6 6.2 2.6 3.8 10.4 9.8 1976 2.3 3.0 28.2 21.3 13.0 12.0 13.0 21.1 2.9 4.5 18.5 21.3 10.9 6.3 3.1 5.9 8.0 5.0 1977 1.4 0.5 28.9 23.9 15.8 12.2 16.9 20.8 3.2 6.5 16.3 12.7 8.0 8.1 2.0 2.1 7.4 13.2 1978 0.9 0.0 29.4 18.1 18.3 10.6 14.6 13.7 2.0 2.5 21.1 36.7 6.0 3.1 1.7 5.6 6.3 9.6 % Hunt. Harv. I N w 11 Data from check stations only. ~I Totals may not approximate 100% as each year some hunters and birds harvested could not be allocated to a particular zone. , I �-24- Table 8. Previous sage grouse hunting North Park, Colorado 1974-1978. experience of sage grouse hunters, Year Normally Hunt in North Park % No. Normally Hunt Elsewhere No. % First Time Sage Grouse Hunter No. % 1974 183 68.3 20 7.4 65 24.3 1975 432 64.9 47 7.0 187 28.1 1976 366 64.9 40 7.1 159 28.1 1977 211 64.9 32 9.8 82 25.2 1978 251 73.2 26 7.6 66 19.2 Origin of 163 hunter parties was ascertained at check stations. Eighty-five (52.1%) originated in the Denver metropolitan area (Jefferson - 39, Adams - 18, Denver - 15, Arapahoe - 13), 34 (20.9%) were from Larimer County, and 20 (12.3%) were from Boulder County. All other counties each comprised less than 5% of the hunter parties. These data are similar to those collected in previous years. Appreciable numbers of Jackson County residents (North Park) are not checked at check stations although they normally comprise about 10% of the sage grouse hunters in North Park (questionnaire data 1974-1977). Analysis of Wings A total of 724 sage grouse wings was collected in North Park during the 1978 hunting season. Of this total, 427 were obtained at the 2 check stations in North Park, 12 were collected at the Green Mountain Reservoir check station in Middle Park, 173 were obtained from wing barrels (Gould - 87, Willow Creek Pass - 61, Three Way - 19, Muddy Pass - 6), 7 were received in mail envelopes while the remainder (105) were obtained through field contacts. Distribution of the wings collected by time of collection was similar in 1977 and 1978 (Table 9). These data strongly suggest that the objectives of increasing hunter opportunity and spreading the hunters and harvest over time are being achieved with longer seasons. Approximately the same number of sage grouse hunters hunted in North Park in 1977 and 1978 as in the 1974-1976 period, but hunter pressure has greatly declined on opening weekend (see Table 6). These data graphically illustrate that hunters are utilizing the longer season as more hunters are hunting later in the season. �-25- Table 9. Time distribution Colorado 1977-1978. of sage grouse wings received, North Park, 1977 1978 No. of Wings % of Total No. of Wings % of Total 1st Weekend (9-10 & 11-77) (9-9 & 10-78) 425 67.3 448 61. 9 1st Week (9-12 thr 16-77) (9-11 thr 15-78) 39 6.2 103 14.2 2nd Weekend (9-17 & 18-77) (9-16 & 17-78) 83 13.1 47 6.5 2nd Week (9-19 thr 23-77) (9-18 thr 22-78) 33 5.2 57 7.9 3rd Weekend (9-24 & 25-77) (9-23 & 24-78) 52 8.2 69 9.5 Totals 632 100.0 724 100.0 Age and sex structure of the 1978 harvest as ascertained from examination of wings is presented (Table 10) along with comparative data from 1974-1977. As can be readily ascertained (Table 10), sex composition of the harvest changed only slightly in 1978 from previous years; there was a higher percentage of yearling and adult males in the harvest in 1978 than in most previous years. In 1978, young of the year comprised 53% of the harvest, the highest in the 5 years of intensive wing surveys. There were fewer adults in the 1978 harvest than in other years of the 1974-1977 period, indicating that the population is increasing. Estimated turnover (from wing analysis) of adult male and female sage grouse in North Park was 48.1 and 38.6%, respectively, in 1978 (Tables 11 and 12). The 5 year average for the North Park population was 49.2% for adult males (50.8% annual survival) and 34.5% for adult females (65.5% annual survival): These estimates are based on the assumption that in a stable population, percent yearlings must equal annual loss of adults. In an increasing population, percent yearlings must more than replace adult loss and/or adult survival must be better than that estimated. Percent yearlings (Table 10) has been good each year since 1974, indicating that the population of sage grouse in North Park has been expanding since at least that date. �Table 10. Age and sex composition of the sage grouse harvest, North Park, Colorado 1974-1978. Yearlings Females % No. Adults Females % No. Year Males % No. Immatures Females % No. 1974 171 48.9 179 51.1 350 50.1 49 35.5 89 64.5 138 19.8 45 21.4 165 78.6 210 30.1 1975 101 47.6 111 52.4 212 42.0 52 46.8 59 53.2 111 22.0 55 30.2 127 69.8 182 36.0 42.3 46 39.3 71 60.7 117 23.5 49 28.8 121 71.2 170 34.2 Total % No. Males % No. Total % No. Males % No. Total % No. I N (J'\ I 1976 104 49.5 106 50.5 210 1977 136 46.9 154 53.1 290 45.9 47 38.2 76 61.8 123 19.5 48 21.9 171 78.1 219 34.6 1978 184 47.8 201 52.2 385 53.2 62 43.4 81 56.6 143 19.8 67 34.2 129 65.8 196 27.1 5 Year Average 48.1 51.9 47.3 40.5 59.5 20.7 27.0 73.0 32.0 �-27- Table 11. Estimated turnover Colorado 1974-1978. 1/ of adult male sage grouse, North Park. Adults Yearlings Number Year Number % 1974 45 47.9 49 52.1 94 1975 55 51.4 52 48.6 107 1976 49 51.6 46 48.4 95 1977 48 50.5 47 49.5 95 1978 67 51.9 62 48.1 129 50.8 Average 1/ Data from wing collections Adults Number Totals 49.2 only. Table 12. Estimated turnover Colorado 1974-1978. 1/ Year % of adult female sage grouse, North Park, Yearlings Number % % Totals 1974 165 65.0 89 35.0 254 1975 127 68.3 59 31.7 186 1976 121 63.0 71 37.0 192 1977 171 69.2 76 30.8 247 1978 129 61.4 81 38.6 210 65.5 Average 1/ Data from wing collections 34.5 only. The data (Tables 10, 11, and 12) suggest North Park sage grouse population. approximates the following conclusions about the 1:1. 1. Sex ratio at hatching 2. Differential survival favoring females starts in the first year of life and is most pronounced in the older age classes. �-28- 3. Production of young in the 1974-1978 interval to good but has not been excellent in anyone has ranged from average year. 4. Overwinter survival of young grouse to the yearling class has been good and has been more than adequate to maintain the population. 5. The annual turnover rate for females is approximately males it is approximately 49%. 6. Females comprise the population. 34%, while for about 68% (67.7) of the adult and yearling segment of Wings from 210 females (adult - 129, yearling - 81) were classified as to primary feather molt. An estimate.d 59.7% (77 of 129) of the adult hens and 38.3% (31 of 81) of the yearling females were successful nesters in 1978. This gave an overall success rate of 51.4%, similar to that calculated for 1977. The young to adult hen (including yearling hens) ratio in the harvest was 1.8:1, while the young per successful hen ratio was 3.6:1 (Table 13). Table 13. Sage grouse nesting Colorado 1974-1978. success and production rates, North Park, Young per Successful Hen Year Estimated Nesting Success Yearlings Total Adults Young per Hen 1974 65.4 46.1 58.7 1.4: 1 2.3:1 1975 53.2 39.0 48.6 1.1: 1 2.3:1 1976 52.9 26.8 43.2 1.1: 1 2.5:1 1977 59.3 32.7 50.3 1. 2: 1 2.0:1 1978 59.7 38.3 51. 4 1. 8: 1 3.6:1 Hatching dates were calculated for 383 chick sage grouse for which usable wings were available (Table 14). As in earlier years, it is obvious that the chick aging technique is not precise. In the real world, females probably do not hatch later than males. Data presented in Table 14 suggest that hatching was spread in 1978 with an obvious peak prior to 15 June. Renesting by hens that lost their initial clutch was apparently common in 1978 as well over 10% of all chicks hatched after 28 June. �-29- Table 14. Sage grouse hatching dates, North Park, Colorado Males No. Hatching % of Total Time Interval 1978. Females No. Hatching % of Total May 18-24 5 2.7 2 1.0 May 25-31 45 24.6 9 4.5 June 1-7 64 35.0 33 16.5 June 8-14 20 10.9 56 28.0 June 15-21 15 8.2 30 15.0 June 22-28 14 7.7 15 7.5 June 29-Jul~ 5 9 4.9 22 11.0 July 6-12 11 6.0 17 8.5 July 13-19 0 0.0 14 7.0 July 20-26 0 0.0 1 0.5 0 0.0 1 0.5 183 100.0 200 100.0 July 27-August 2 Totals Ovarian Analysis Ovaries were collected from 82 hunter harvested sage grouse in 1978 and were analyzed following procedures described by Meyer et al. (1947), Kabat et al. (1948) and Buss et al. (1951). Of the total, 79 females (96.3%) had ovulated with a higher percentage (98.2%) of adults ovulating than yearlings (92.0%) (Table 15). Data presented indicate that a higher percentage of adults than yearlings ovulate each year. Estimate of Total Harvest Since no permit was required of sage grouse hunters in North Park in 1978, questionnaires could not be used to estimate total harvest outside of the statewide harvest survey. The inadequacies of the statewide small game harvest survey have been documented in previous years. For Unit 12, North Park, it normally overestimated hunter numbers by 29% and total harvest by 85% (Table 16). �-30- analysis, North Park, Colorado 1975-1978. Table 15. Sage grouse ovarian Age Class 1975 Percent 1976 Ovulating 1977 1978 Yearling 84.6 75.0 96.6 92.0 33/39 33/ 44 28/29 25/27 Adult 92.8 87.8 98.3 98.2 64/69 65/74 59/60 54/55 All Females 89.8 83.1 97.8 96.3 97/108 98/118 87/ 79/82 Table 16. Comparative North Park 1974-1977. data, number Number Ovulating/Examined 1977 1978 1975 1976 of sage grouse hunters 89 and total harvest, Number of Sage Grouse Harvested Statewide Survey This Study Year Number This Study of Hunters Statewide Survey 1974 960 1,759 1,174 2,509 1975 1,187 1,600 1,053 1,973 1976 975 877 829 1,402 1977 842 880 1,069 1,749 Statewide Survey Harvest = +85.0 4 Year Average % Error: Hunter Numbers +29.1, Total Without a questionnaire survey of sage grouse hunters who hunted in North Park and without reliance upon the statewide small game survey, it is possible to estimate total harvest from check station data. In 1977, 353 of the 842 hunters (permittees) (41.9%) were contacted at check stations with 385 of the 1,069 grouse (36.0%) projected harvested (questionnaire survey of North Park hunters) being checked. In 1978, 350 hunters were contacted with 480 grouse. Since season length, bag limits and check station operation were the same in 1977 and 1978, it is reasonably safe to assume that the same percentage of the hunters and kill were checked in both 1977 and 1978. Thus if 350 = 42% of the total hunters and 480 = 36% of the total kill, then 100% of the hunters and harvest in 1978 should be 833 and 1,333, respectively. If birds per hunter (from check station) (1.4) are used, then the total harvest estimate is 1,166 grouse (833 x 1.4). It is reasonable to conclude �-31- that 1,200 - 1,400 sage grouse were harvested in North Park ia 1978. This total is just slightly higher than in the previous 4 years (Table 6). This is to be expected, as the population of sage grouse in North Park is increasing and production in 1978 was good. Production in 1978 and 1974 were similar (53.2 and 50.1% young in the harvest, respectively, Table 10). Harvest in 1974 was 1,174 birds, a figure comparable to that estimated for 1978 (1,200 - 1,400) with cruder techniques. Band Recoveries Sixty-three bands were reported from birds harvested during the 1978 hunting season in North Park. Five additional bands were reported in 1978 from predator kills (4) and trap casua1ties(1). Of the 68 total recoveries, 21 were from females (1975 = 3, 1976 = 3, 1977 = 9, 1978 = 6), while 47 were from males (1973 = 1, 1975 = 2, 1976 = 8, 1977 = 12, 1978 = 24). Of the banded birds harvested, numbered bands were not present (either missing or shot off) for 2 (1 male, 1 female). One of the birds (female) was banded in 1977. For recovery purposes, the female was assumed to have been banded as an adult, while the male was assumed to have been banded in 1977 as a yearling. Recovery matrices are presented (Tables 17 and 18). Table 17. Year Male sage grouse banding Number Banded 1973 and recovery 1974 data, North Park 1973-1978. Number Recovered 1976 1975 1977 1978 Yearlings 1973 80 1974 54 1975 139 1976 120 1977 183 1978 106 6 4 6 1 0 1 6 5 3 1 0 18 6 7 2 16 5 6 20 10 14 Adults 1973 99 1974 88 1975 152 1976 114 1977 123 1978 98 7 4 1 0 1 0 8 5 1 0 0 10 4 2 0 16 3 2 11 2 10 �-32- Table 18. Year Female sage grouse banding Number Banded 1973 and recovery 1974 data, North Park 1973-1978. Number Recovered 1976 1975 1977 1978 Yearlings 1973 41 1974 22 1975 62 1976 71 1977 101 1978 32 2 2 4 1 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 6 2 1 2 2 4 2 6 5 5 Adults 1973 68 1974 27 1975 68 1976 74 1977 133 1978 24 5 1 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 6 2 4 1 2 2 1 14 3 1 It is apparent from data in the recovery matrices that few males banded as yearlings or adults live longer than 4 years (only 2 recoveries past 4 years of age). Both males living past 4 years were harvested when 6 years old. Females live longer than males, with 5 and 6 year old hens being recorded. Obviously each male cohort turns over in about 4 years. while it takes about 7 years for each female cohort. Direct recovery rates for males banded in 1978 varied from 10.1 (adults) to 13.2% (yearlings). For females, direct recovery rates were 4.5 (adults) to 15.6% (yearlings). While adequate samples of females were not banded, the direct recovery rates for males and females combined were within the range observed in 1973-1977. Hunters in 1978 did not exploit the sage grouse population at a higher rate than in earlier years. Contingency chi-square tests for differences due to age were conducted between adult and yearling males and adult and yearling females. Significant (P<0.05) differences were found in survival and recovery rate estimates between yearling and adult males, but not between yearling and adult females. Consequently, data for both age classes of females were pooled and survival and recovery rate estimates were calculated through Program Estimate. Data for age classes of males were analyzed separately through Program Brownie (Brownie et ale 1978). �-33- Data for females best fit Model 3 (analysis assuming constant survival rates). The constant annual survival rate was 63.38 + 6.14% (SE) (95% confidence interval = 51.35 - 75.42) and the recoverY-rate was 6.77 + .83% (SE) (95% confidence interval = 5.14 - 8.40) The estimate of 63% annual survival is not different from the 65% estimated from wing data (Table 12). Data for males fit either Model HI (annual survival and recovery rates are year specific, and yearlings have different survival and recovery rates from those of adults) or Model H2 (same assumptions as HI, plus reporting rates differ for newly banded birds). A likelihood ratio test of Model HI versus Model H2 suggested that HI is more appropriate for these data. The constant annual survival rate for adult males was 43.48 ± 6.34% (SE) (95% confidence interval = 31.05 - 55.91) with an annual recovery rate of 8.48 + 1.00% (SE) (95% confidence interval = 6.52 - 10.43). The constant annual survival estimate for yearling males was 85.26 + 15.68% (SE) (95% confidence interval = 54.53 - 115.98) with an annual recovery rate of 11.51 + 1.30% (SE) (95% confidence interval = 8.96 - 14.05). Confidence intervals for adult males and all females were relatively narrow (24% range), while that for yearling males was broad (61% range). It is believed these differences are related to differences in vulnerability between years of yearling cocks to hunting. Reasons for the apparent differences are not known. It is doubtful that yearling males survive at an annual rate of 85%. More likely, yearlings are surviving at a rate of 60 to 70% per year. If survival data for yearling and adult males are pooled (they cannot be statistically), an estimated survival rate for all males would be about 50% (relative recovery rate method). This rate is -similar to that estimated from wing data alone (Table 11). Estimates of Fall Population Size Estimates of fall population size are difficult to derive, primarily because of unknown vulnerability and survival of chicks and inexact survival estimates. Provided that all birds of each age and sex class are equally available and vulnerable to hunting and using average survival estimates (63% for all females, 43% for adult males and 70% for yearling males), the 1978 fall population size was estimated based on number of banded birds alive at the start of the hunting season. Of the 482 banded males potentially alive in 1978, bands were received from 47, while bands were received from 21 of the 318 banded females potentially alive. If 47% (wing survey data) of the estimated 1,300 birds harvested (this report based on check station data) were adults and yearlings, then 611 of the birds harvested were older than one year. Of this number, 63 (68 - 5 miscellaneous recoveries) (10.3%) were banded. Thus, there should have been about 5,932 adult and yearling sage grouse alive in North Park in. the fall of 1978 (if 10.3% = 611 birds, then 100% = 5,932 birds). In 1978, immatures comprised 53% (wing survey data) of the harvest, thus there should have been about 6,689 chicks in the 1978 fall population. Thus, the total population in the fall of 1978 should have been about 12,621 birds. This estimate is probably conservative. �-34- North Park, Table 19. Estimated number of banded sage grouse alive, Colorado, fall 1978. Year No. of Birds Banded Males All Females Adults Yearlings Alive in 1978 Females Males 1973 80 99 109 3 17 1974 54 88 49 6 8 1975 139 152 130 30 33 1976 120 114 145 57 57 1977 183 123 234 181 147 1978 106 99 56 205 56 482 318 Total Potential Alive, Fall, 1978 Using band recoveries alone, 63 of the estimated 1,300 birds harvested (7.9%) were banded. If 800 banded birds were alive (Table 19) in the fall population then it was comprised of a total of 16,460 birds (if 7.9% = 1,300, then 1% = 164.6 birds and 100% = 16,460). LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. 1977. Sage grouse flock characteristics and habitat selection in winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:18-26. _____ , R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 49 (Revised). Colo. Div. Wild1. 4 pp. Braun, C. E., and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Final Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 21-84. Brownie, C., D. R. Anderson, K. P. Burnham, and D. S. Robson. 1978. Statistical inference from band recovery data - a handbook. U.S.D.I. Fish and Wi1dl. Servo Resour. Publ. No. 131. 212 pp. �-35- Buss, I. 0., R. K. Meyer, and C. Kabat. 1951. Wisconsin pheasant reproduction studies based on ovulated follicle technique. J. Wildl. Manage. 15:32-46. Carr, H. D. 1967. Sage grouse and sagebrush control. rado State Univ., Fort Collins. 106 pp. M. S. Thesis, Colo- Emmons, S. R. 1979. Evaluation of censuses of male sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W -37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 9b. Eng, R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:267-272. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 187 pp. Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer wing collection station. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 101. Colo. Div. Wildlife. 3 pp. Kabat, C., I. O. Buss, and R. K. Meyer. 1948. The use of ovulated follicles in determining eggs laid by the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 12:399-416. Meyer, R. K., C. Kabat, and I. O. Buss. 1947. Early involutionary changes in the post-ovulatory follicles in the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 11:43-49. Pyrah, D. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Wildlife Restoration Div., Job Comp L, Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-125-R. 71 pp. Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations of male sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38:616-621. Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements and flock stratification within a population of blackcocks in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 38:755-763. Prepared by __ -=a_~_'_--=2~._~r-.=-==~__ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher ��-37- April 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------Game Bird Survey Project No. W-37-R-32 Work Plan No. Job No. ~~~~9~b~~--~~-----3 Evaluation of the Effects of Changes in Hunting Regulations on Sage Grouse Populations:Evaluation of Censuses of Males Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: 1 January through 30 September 1978. Clait Braun, Jim Dingman, Steve Emmons, Ken Giesen, Brett Petersen, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRI\.CT Investigations concerning daily lek attendance and spring movements of individual male sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) were initiated in 1978 in North Park, Colorado. Seventeen cocks were equipped with radio transmitters and studied on 4 leks from late March through mid-June. Peak cock attendance occurred from 29 April to 10 May on the 3 largest leks, 3.5 to 5 weeks after peak hen attendance. Lek attendance of transmittered juveniles increased to 1-15 May (86.7%) and decreased thereafter (45.2%). Adult cock attendance increased to 93.2% (1-15 May) and decreased to 64.1% (16-30 May). Twenty-nine percent of all off-lek locations were within 0.5 km of a lek and 32.3% were attributed to late observer arrival and disturbance. Juvenile cocks visited from 2 to 4 leks, remaining on each for an average of 3.4 days. Adults visited 1 to 2 leks, remaining on the alternate lek for only 1 day. Juveniles and adults moved 32.7 and 19.4 km, respectively, during the breeding season. Four juvenile cocks moved from the study area including a move of over 25 km in 7 days. An adult cock captured off a lek moved 12 km to a lek not in the study area. Males typically moved over 1 km from leks to feeding and loafing sites. Subsequent mid-day moves over 150-200 m resulted from disturbance. Lek roosting for juvenile and adult cocks was 44.4 and 65.5%, respectively. Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) canopy coverage and height at feeding-loafing sites averaged 29.3% and 45.5 cm, respectively. Eighty percent of the 'roosting locations occurred in sagebrush with a canopy coverage of less than 20% and height less than 22.5 cm. Two adults were killed by predators during the spring and 3 juveniles were harvested during the 1978 sage grouse hunting season. �-38RECOMMENDATIONS 1. A minimum 6f 20 cocks (10 juveniles, during the 1979 season. 10 adults) should be monitored 2. Trapping effort should be concentrated in the vicinity of Alkali Lake and Boettcher Lake Junction leks, and along roads between them. Trapping and intensive counts should be discontinued on the Bighorn (access difficulties) and Wattenberg #2 leks. Movements to these Z leks'by transmittered cocks should be monitored. 3. Trapping and banding of cocks should be initiated by 15 March or earlier depending on weather conditions and lek attendance. Snow removal should be initiated in early March to facilitate movement in the study area. 4. A minimum of 3 juvenile and 3 adult cocks should be monitored given time beginning on 20 March continuing through 30 June. 5. Two different selected individuals monitored at 1 to 2 hour intervals the field season. 6. All transmLttered cocks should be monitored for roosting 2 or 3 times per week throughout the field season. 7. All radio transmitters should be adequately tested for signal constancy under temperature extremes at least 3 days prior to expected day of use. 8. Temporary markers (surveyor's lath) should be utilized to enable accurate identification of feeding-loafing and roosting sites for later vegetation analysis. 9. Vegetation throughout 10. Four or 5 line transects the current 3 lines. at any (1 of each age class) should be throughout 2 or 3 days per week during sites (2100 MST) analysis should be performed concurrently with other operations the field season. It should not be concentrated late in June. should be used to analyze vegetation instead of �-39- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES IN HUNTING REGULATIONS ON SAGE GROUSE POPULATIONS:EVALUATION OF CENSUSES OF MALES Steven R. Emmons Sage grouse are widely distributed throughout sagebrush dominated rangelands in western North America. Throughout most of their range, state wildlife agencies routinely collect population data and regulate hunter opportunity and harvest. Sage grouse management has primarily been based on counts of cocks on leks in April and estimates of nesting success and brood size obtained in July and August. Observations concerning the daily movements and activities of male sage grouse during the breeding season have been reported (Dalke et al. 1960, 1963, Gill 1965, Carr 1967, May 1970, Wallestad and Schladweiler 1974, Braun and Beck 1976). Although peak counts of male and female sage grouse on leks have been used to estimate trends in breeding season population size, little is known concerning the daily attendance patterns of individual males to a particular lek. Recent studies of other lekking grouse, black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) (Robel 1969) and sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus) (Rippin and Boag 1974), indicate that less than 50% of the male population is present on a lek at any given time. Data presented in this report concern breeding season activities and habitat selection of male sage grouse and represent mid-March through July 1978. P. N. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to increase knowledge concerning daily activity patterns of male sage grouse during the breeding season {late winter, spring and earlv summer). Samples stratified bv age (adult and yearling) and experience (trapped on and off leks) will be used to document daily lek attendance of males. Hypotheses which are being tested are: a. Adult males attend leks daily during the breeding season. b. Juvenile males attend leks less than 3 days per 7 day period. c. Adult males display on only one lek. d. Juvenile e. Males (both adults and juveniles) trapped off leks rarely go to leks during the breeding season of initial capture. males display on more than one lek. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Males will be trapped at night while roosting, marked with color-coded bands and equipped with radio transmitters. A sample of 20 is desired including adults and juveniles trapped on and off leks. Trapping will be conducted from mid-March through April by spotlighting and netting or cannon-netting. �-40- 2. All transmittered males will be located each morning MST from late March through May. 3. Daily activity patterns from 0430 to 2100 MST will be monitored for selected males of each age class (adult and juvenile) at intervals throughout the life of individual transmitters. 4. Sites utilized for feeding, classified as to vegetative graphic features. 5. Counts will be made of males and females on 4 selected area throughout the breeding season. 6. Compile data, analyze loafing and roosting will be analyzed and composition, cover and height, and physio- results, METHODS from 0430 to 0730 and prepare progress leks in the study repo~t. AND MATERIALS Sage grouse were captured at night along roads and on leks while roosting. Most birds were located using a spotlight with a backpack or hand-held power source and captured with long-handled nets (Pyrah 1959, Braun and Beck 1976). A vehicle-mounted cannon net (Lacher and Lacher 1974) was used on one occasion. Sage grouse banded and released were marked with serially numbered aluminum leg bands (size 16) and individually coded colored plastic bandettes. Selected males were equipped with 14 gm, very high frequency (VHF) radio transmitters using tail clips (Bray and Corner 1972). Weights and primary molt were determined for all captured birds. Age and sex classification of birds captured followed Eng (1955). All transmittered males were located daily each morning using portable receivers with hand-held 3-element yagi antennas. Selected males were located periodically (every 1 to 2 hours) throughout selected days to ascertain daily activity patterns. All locations were recorded on standardized forms (Appendix A). Vegetative cover measurements for radio locations were made along 150 feet (45.72 m) of line (three 50-foot [15.24 m] lines originating from a central point) using Canfield's (1941) line intercept technique. Vegetative height of the dominant species, big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata vaseyana), greasewood(Sarcobatus vermiculatis) and rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.), was measured to the nearest 0.25 cm. Counts of male and female sage grouse present on leks were made daily by the principal investigator, supplemented with periodic counts by project personnel, following prescribed procedures (Braun and Beck 1976). Counts were made from 23 March through 30 May between 0430 and 0730 MST. Radio locations were taken concurrently with lek counts. A transmittered cock was determined to be on a lek if signals indicated the bird's presence on or near the lek. Signals indicating the bird was more than 0.1 km from the periphery of a lek were recorded as an off lek location. �-41- DESCRIPTION OF AREA The study area is near Lake John in the northwest quarter of North Park, Jackson County, Colorado (Fig. 1). It is bounded on toe north by Independence Mountain, the west by Boettcher Ridge and Sheep Mountain, the south by the North Fork of the North Platte River, and the east by the North Platte River (Fig. 2). Elevations are from 2400 m along the North Platte River to 2964 m on Independence Mountain. Vegetation is dominated by a sagebrush-grassland type with scattered hay meadows and greasewood flats. Detailed geographic, geologic, vegetational and climatic features have been described by Gill (1965), Carr (1967), Braun and Beck (1976) and Beck (1977) and will be treated in the final report. RESULTS Male sage grouse were captured juvenile cock was instrumented (Tab;Le 1). Late capture dates late winter storms and delayed AND DISCUSSION and marked from 18 March through 1 May. One on 25 February as an "experimental" bird were related to poor access resulting from melting. Capture efforts were concentrated along Jackson County Roads 7 and 7A (J.C. 7 and 7A) and on Alkali Lake, Bighorn, and Boettcher Lake Junction leks. Access difficulties on the Bighorn Ranch (location of Bighorn lek) resulted in shifting capture efforts to include Wattenberg #2 lek and along J. C. 9A (Fig. 2). Seventeen sage grouse cocks were equipped with 16 radio transmitters. Age class and capture site stratification was: 8 adults and 5 juveniles caught on leks, 1 adult and 3 juveniles caught off leks (Table 1). Difficulty in locating roosting adults off leks during the breeding season accounted for the low representation of that age and capture site class in the sample. Transmitters remained functional an average of 58.4 days, ranging from 4 to over 129 days (Table 1). Five transmitters were operational beyond termination of the intensive research period (9 June) and were periodically located from mid-June through mid-August. Breeding Activities Lek Attendance Counts of male and female sage grouse present on leks in the Lake John study area were initiated on 28 March and continued through 30 May. During this interval 204 counts were made on 4 active leks (Table 2). Peak hen attendance occurred from 2 to 16 April and declined rapidly thereafter (Fig. 3). A second lower peak occurred between 7 and 15 May, a situation previously reported (Dalke et al. 1963, Eng 1963, Gill 1965). The rapid increase in cock attendance was similar to the late spring situation described by Jenni and Hartzler (1978). The prominent decrease from 21 to 25 April resulted from disturbance (Alkali Lake lek 22 and 23 April, Bighorn lek 21-29 April, Boettcher Lake Junction lek 22 and 23 April) and late observer arrival (Wattenberg #2 lek on 21, 23 and 25 April). �-42- :.\.~.,. .. ! . 1 r - J I~ •. Fig -, 1. North Park, Colorado and Lake John study area. �-43- SCALE: Fig. 2. 0.6 in. = I ml. Location of active leks in Lake John study area, North Park, Colorado. �Table 1. Summary, telemetry data, 17 male sage grouse, North Park, Bird Number Age Capture Location Date of Capture Date of Last Location 7035 Juv J .C. 7 25 Feb 31 Mar 7036 Juv J .C. 22 Mar 6 Apr Ad 7037 Ad 6759 Ad 7039 J .C. 7 28 Mar 7 29 Mar Boettcher 29 Mar Boettcher Colorado Duration (Days) Tot~l Locatlons 1/ - Transmitter Life (Days) 30 76 "Experimental" 15 23 27 Moved from study area Moved from study area, killed 30 Mar 2 3 81 3 May 3511 20 67 Intermittant 25 Apr 27!!./ 33 Killed Ad Alkali 31 Mar 22 May 7040 Ad Alkali 31 Mar 27 Apr 27 7042 Ad Bighorn 31 Mar 9 June 70 7043 Juv Alkali 3 Apr 13 Apr 7044 Juv Alkali 3 Apr 2543 Ad Wattenberg 4 Apr 18 54'i..! 67]../ 99 Poor off-lek locations difficulties 11~1 12 19 Moved from study area 21 Apr 19~/ 10 24 Moved from study area 8 Apr 4 4 4 Transmitter 53 Shot 9 September 1978 20 Shot 9 September 1978 Shot 9 September 1978 Juv Boettcher 5 Apr 27 May 52 7101 Juv J.C.9A 11 Apr 24 Apr 131Q/ 11 6907 Ad Boettcher 14 Apr 9 June 56 54 66 89 7147 Juv Boettcher 22 Apr 9 June 47 501/ 7183 Juv Alkali 29 Apr 9 June 41 37 129~/ 7190 Ad Boettcher May 9 June 39 42 96 11 Not including 1 day status 81 - Includes 2 days no signal obtained. 21 Includes 11 days no signal obtained. undetermined. 101 Includes 3 days no signal obtained. 15 days no locations 11 Includes 27 days no signal obtained. ~/ Includes 12 days no signal 21 Includes 2 days status lost by 7040 and reused 21 Includes ]j Includes taken. transmitter ~I ~I Transmitter by eagle (by coyote?) 32 7051 site. bird 52 6221 capture Remarks 34!:./ 52 6943 1978. undetermined. obtained. on 7183. Bird obs. stlutting 14 May 1978 on Alkali failure on due to access I "'" "'I" �-45- .-.-., 160 I 150 r-.. Q) OJ) Cd H I 140 / ~ 130 \ .-I ~ 120 / Q) H 100 P 0 (Jl 90 13 Q) .fJ\,' f:I.< -e p Cd I . 70 .-I Cd 0 50 I / .w . I:' \ I: I \1 \ \ \ \ \ '0 \ 60 50 \ \ I N N N r--. March tr) I .-I 0 .-I I \0 tr) .-I I .-I .-I 0 l() N I I 0 M I N \0 N \0 .-I April Sage grouse attendance ..--j tr) • 40 I I .-I \0 tr) .-I I .-I .-I 'M 13 Cd H IO-! .w 20 p Q) () H Q) 0 tr) N I I .-I H p 30 N \0 Q) (Jl ". 0···· ()... , 0 .-I I ;:.:: Q) \ 10 N .-I Cd .w .w 0.•••0, .-I M I 0 "d & t( p Q) \I • Females \0. / Q) CIl T r ansnu.t t ere d \ I .Iuven L'1e--.. \ I Males \I '0 .. '. 0 •..• 0'··· Fig. 3. •\ 70 \ \ ~ H \ \ 0 Llo' \0 N ,/® \ \ • (Jl 80 \ ~ Transmittered ~dult 0 Males ,I I.:Id 10 0 \ I .:.... 20 \ \ (.~""~.' \ ,.. I.' 30 90 \0 I • 40 \ l--.//~~ '-.....0\ , Z 0 IO-! / ._a_e / \1 I ~ .-I Cd 0 I H Q) I· '\{ 1°'" 100 I 60 ;:.:: 4-l •• \ \ -:-0 .' (Jl Q) .-I i; 80 \ . / / • Q) .-I Cd \ . I \ (Jl ~ \ I \ 1 110 I , \ / • Q) Q) ~ \ \ <r: ;:., '-' I / • ..--j N 0 M I \0 N May on 4 leks in North Park, Colorado, 1978. p., �-46- Table 2. Peak counts of sage grouse on 4 leks, North Park, Colorado 1978. Females Date(s) 10 May 20 4 April 44 29 April 19 4 April Boettcher Lake Junction 84 1 & 3 May 84 4 April 112 21 26 May 7 7 April Lek Males Date(s) Alkali Lake 56 Bighorn Wattenberg Data from 10 birds (5 adults and 5 juveniles) were used for evaluating daily attendance patterns (Table 3). Poor data were available from 7 cocks. Data from these birds were eliminated from analysis for the following reasons: intermittent locations and movement from the study area (7035), injury and subsequent depredation (7039), intermittent transmitter (6759), transmitter failure after 4 days (2543), and movement from the study area after 1 to 4 days (7037, 7043, 7044) (Table 1). Late capture dates resulted in only 1 juvenile with attendance data for March: 7036 was present on a lek for 1 (11.1%) of 9 early morning locations. No comparable data are available for adult cocks during March (Table 3). Lek attendance for transmittered juvenile cocks was 70.8% of 48 locations in April. Juvenile attendance increased during April from 52.6(1-15 April) to 82.8% (16-30 April) (Table 3). .This significant increase (~<O .10) supports other observations of increased numbers of juvenile cocks attending leks following peak hen attendance in early April (Patterson 1952, Dalke et al. 1963, Eng 1963, Gill 1965, Jenni and Hartzler 1978). Human disturbance and late arrival by research personnel accounted for 35.7% of 14 days juveniles were not present on leks (Table 4). Individuals were within 0.5 km of a lek on 28.6% of the off-lek locations. Lek attendance of instrumented adults in April was 67.0% of 100 morning locations (Table 3). The decrease from 71.7 to 63.0% (1-15 to 16-30 April) was not significant (P>0.05) indicating a generally stable level of adult cock attendance through~ut the month. Disturbance by eagles and late observer arrival accounted for 15.2 and 6.1%, respectively, of April off-lek locations (Table 4). On 6 occasions individuals were within 0.5 km of a lek. One adult provided data possibly indicating the existence of a non-breeding segment of the male population, a situation described for other lekking grouse (Robel 1969, Rippin and Boag 1974). No. 6943 was absent from a lek between 6 and 18 April but displayed on Alkali Lake lek the remainder of the period from 1 April to 22 May. This period of non-attendance followed peak hen attendance (3 April) and was a period when average hen attendance remained relatively high (averaging 4.4 hens per day). Only one other male (age undetermined) accompanied 6943 for one day during this l3-day period in contrast to the flocks of non-breeding black grouse reported by Robel (1969). �Table 3. Stratification of lek attendance by male sage grouse in North Park, Colorado 1978. Bird Number Harch 16-31 On Lek Off Lek Aril 1-15 On Lek Off Lek 16-30 On Lek Off Lek May 1-15 On Lek Off Lek 16-3Q On Lek Off Lek Juveniles 7036 1 8 2 4 7051 - - 6 4 13 1 2 1 5 2 - - 6 1 11.1 8 88.9 10 52.6 9 47.4 1 11.1 8 88.9 - - 3 12 8 6 15 0 3 1 14 1 10 4 13 2 6 5 15 0 6 6 0 1 10 4 14 1 8 4 - - - - - 33 71.7 13 28.3 34 63.0 20 37.0 13 55 93.2 1 4 6.8 8 25 64.1 4 14 35.9 7101 7147 7183 Subtotals % Monthly Subtotals % 14 1 3 5 1 14 1 5 6 0 1 11 4 6 6 24 82.8 5 17.2 39 86.7 6 13.3 14 45.2 17 54.8 Off = 23 30.3 On = 53 69.7 Off = 14 29.2 On = 34 70.8 Adults 6943 7042 7040 6907 7190 Subtotals % Monthly Subtotals % - - On = 67 67.0 Off = 33 33.0 On = 80 81.6 Off = 18 18.4 I +:-...J I �Table 4. 1978. Month March 06-31) April 0-15) April 06-30) Monthly stratification of attributes of off-1ek Age Class Total Off-Lek Locations Distance Less Than 0.5 km Juvenile 8 1 02.5) Adult 0 Juvenile locations for male sage grouse, North Park, Colorado Attributes of Off Lek Locations Late Arrival By Observer Eagle (%) Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 2 (22.2)1:/ 0 0 2 (22.2) Adult 13 0 1 (7.7) 0 0 Juvenile 5 2 (40.0)1:/ 1 (20.0) 0 2 (40.0) Adult 20 6 (30.0)1/ 1 (5.0) 5 (25.0) 0 I +:C/) May 0-15) May 06-31) I Juvenile 6 3 (50.0)1/ 3 (50.0) 0 1 06.7) Adult 4 1 (25.0)1/ 3 (75.0) 1 (25.0) 0 Juvenile 17 6 (35.3)1/ 4 (23.5) 0 0 Adult 14 7 (50.0)]/ 7 (50.0) 0 0 11 Includes 1 day accounted for by late arrival or disturbance 11 Includes 3 days accounted for by late arrival or disturbance 11 Includes 4 days accounted for by late arrival or disturbance ------ �-49- Juvenile cock attendance increased (P>O.OS) for 1-15 May (86.7% attendance) (Table 3). The decrease in lek atte~dance to 45.2% for 16-31 May is significant (P<O.OS) and corresponds with the trend observed by Jenni and Hartzler (1978) a;d others (Eng 1963, Gill 1965). However, during the period of 15-31 May the primary researcher was not present on the study area for 4 days and a late snowstorm created access difficulties to one lek for 2 additional days. These factors may have influenced the size of this decrease. Average attendance for the entire month was 69.7% of 76 locations. Approximately 35% (34.8) of the May off-lek locations were attributed to disturbance and late arrival by the observer. Individuals were within 0.5 km of a lek on 39.1% of the offlek locations (Table 4). Lek attendance by transmittered adult males increased (P<O.OS) to 93.2% for 1-15 May and decreased (~<O.OS) to 64.1% during 16-31 May (Table 3). All 4 offlek locations recorded for 1-15 May were attributed to eagle disturbance and late observer arrival. This period was when peak counts of males occurred on the 2 largest leks (Alkali Lake and Boettcher Lake Junction) (Table 2) with high counts occurring in the entire study area (Fig. 3). This increase was in contrast to conditions reported elsewhere where marked declines occurred 4 or 5 weeks following peak hen attendance (Dalke et ale 1960, Eng 1963). Braun and Beck (1976) noted that numbers of adult males "steadily decline following peak hen attendance .••.. " This was not observed in this study. Transmittered adults attended leks 81.6% of the locations for May. Adults were within 0.5 km of a lek on 44.4% of the off-lek locations (Table 4). Attendance of juvenile cocks increased through 10 May although a marked decrease for 6-10 April occurred (Fig. 3). This decrease may have been the result of extremely small sample size (only 1 transmittered juvenile) from 23 March to 12 April. Decreased juvenile attendance after 15 May reflected total cock attendance. This was alsc influenced by observer absences and a snowstorm. Lek attendance probably was closer to 50 or 60% for transmittered juveniles during this period. Fl uctuations in lek attendance of adults (Fig. 3) can be attributed to 6943 not attending a lek from 6 to 18 April, frequent disturbance of leks (21-25 April), and observer absence and access difficulties (16-20 May) (Fig. 3). Frequent disturbances from 21 to 25 April did not decrease lek attendance of transmittered juveniles because none was present on Bighorn (21-23 April) and Alkali Lake leks (22 April) on days of disturbance. Five adult locations can be attributed to these disturbances. Periods of high lek attendance by transmittered adults and juveniles corresponded with similar periods for total males counted. Movements Interlek movements by juvenile cocks were found to be more common than previously reported (Dalke et ale 1963, Gill 1965, Braun and Beck 1976). Juveniles averaged 4.2 moves (range 1 to 13) during the breeding season (Table 5). These results do not include moves to leks outside the study area (7036) and possible moves unrecorded on 5 days when research personnel were absent from the study area. �-50- Table 5. Movements Colorado 1978. No. Interlek Bird No. April 7036 1!1 7051 0 7101 2 7147 4 May 71/ 1/ Includes Moves Breeding Season sage grouse between 4 leks, North Park, No. Different Leks Breeding Season May April 11/ 21/ 1 1 2 2 8 131/ 2 4 4 13 21.!I,1/ 1 7183 Totals by juvenile 41/ Average Time/Visit (Days) Breeding Season April May 21/ 1.51/ 2 19.0 2 2.3 4 4 1.5 3 3 4 4 2 3.51/ 1.51/ 8.5 18.0 2.3 2.1 1.9 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.41/ a move in March. J) Includes a lek visited in March. 1/ Includes April and May. a move between The increase in interlek moves from April (1.75/bird) to May (4.5/bird) was not significant (R:0.05) indicating similar lek fidelity throughout the breeding season. Number of leks visited increased (P>0.05) from April (1 to 2) to May (2 to 4). Each juvenile visited from 2 to 4 leks (average 2.6) during the breeding season. Distances between leks averaged 5.2 km, ranging from 2.4 to 8.1 km (Table 6). Average distance per juvenile interlek move was 4.7 km. Moves commonly occurred between Alkali Lake and Boettcher Lake Junction leks (47.6%), and Alkali Lake and Wattenberg #2 leks (23.8%). The number of interlek moves between Alkali Lake and Boettcher Lake Junction leks was unexpected because shorter distance and topography should have increased movements between Alkali Lake-Wattenberg #2 rather than Alkali Lake-Boettcher Lake Junction. The reason for this discrepancy is unknown but may be related to lek size (Table 2). Juveniles averaged at least 17.4 km (range 2.4 to 54.2 km) in interlek moves during the spring. Juveniles remained on a lek for an average of 3.4 days, ranging from 1 to 34 non-consecutive days where visits to that lek were intermixed with off-lek days. The average number of consecutive days per visit was 2.4, with a maximum of 15 days (7051). �-51- Table 6. Interlek distances (km) and sage grouse movements, area, North Park, Colorado 1978. Alkali Lake No. Movements Distance 2+ Between 1- Bighorn Distance Between No. Movements 2+ 1- Bighorn 5.1 2 0 Boettcher Lake Junction 4.5 10 0 2.4 2 0 Wattenberg 3.2 5 0 8.1 1 0 fI2 Lake John study Boettcher Lake Junction No. Movements Distance 2+ Between 1- 7.6 1 2 Interlek movements for individual juveniles varied. Bird 7051 was sedentary, remaining on or near the lek of initial capture from 5 April through midMay, finally moving to another lek on 25 May. No. 7147 moved 13 times between 4 leks and remained on each for 3 consecutive days or less (may have been on 1 lek for up to 8 days, with 4 days unrecorded due to late arrival and observer absence). Other individuals represented intermediates between these 2 extremes. Interlek moves by adults were infrequent. Bird 7190 was the only adult observed to attend 2 leks. It appeared on Wattenberg #2 lek on 9 May, while displaying on Boettcher Lake Junction lek the remainder of the period from 2 to 30 May. The bird was also in the vicinity of Wattenberg #2 from 6 to 9 June, indicating reduced fidelity to the normal lek late in the season. Although other individuals left leks for considerable lengths of time (e.g. 6943 between 6 and 18 April) all displayed on only 1 lek. Juvenile moves averaged 32.7 km throughout the breeding season (Table 7). Mean distance per move was 2.0 km. This was shorter (K<0.05) than the average interlek move observed for this group (4.7 km) indicating many short moves of 1.0 km or less that were not between leks. Adult cocks moved an average of 19.4 km (Table 7). Average distance per move (1.1 km) was considerably shorter (P<0.05) than that of juveniles. This was attributed to the large number of relatively long (>1.5 km) interlek movements of juveniles. Thirty-six percent of all off lek locations were beyond 1.5 km (Table 8). OfT-lek distances beyond 2.0 km comprised 10.3 and 14.5% of all off-lek locations for juveniles and adults, respectively. These distances were greater than maximum distances reported by others (Carr 1967, Wallestad and Schladweiler 1974). Long distance movements from the study area were recorded for 4 juvenile and 1 adult transmittered sage grouse (Table 1). Between 7 and 13 April, 7036 moved a minimum of 25.7 km to near a lek (Spring Creek 114) southeast of Walden. Subsequent contact was lost after 14 April. �-52- Table 7. Distances (km) traveled by male sage grouse during the breeding North Park, Colorado 1978. Bird Number Consecutive 1/ Locations (A)- season, Number of Moves '.!:./ (B) Total Distance Mean Distance Between A Mean Distance Between B Juveniles 7036 20 14 26.3 1.32 1.88 7051 23/20/7/101/ 19 29.6 .49 1.56 7101 4/7 7 12.6 . 1.15 1.80 7147 6/19/13 24 66.0 1.74 2.75 7183 19/7 18 28.9 1.11 1.61 Subtotals 155 82 163.4 1.05 1.99 6943 5/17/19 16 21.2 .52 1.33 7040 31 12 9.2 .30 .77 7042 31/18/6 22 15.2 .28 .69 6907 14/20/9/7 19 18.2 .36 .96 7190 18/4/13 16 33.1 .94 2.07 Subtotals 212 85 96.9 .46 1.14 Total 367 167 260.3 .71 1.56 Adults 1/ Includes 2/ Includes 1/ Groups locations on a lek. interlek moves. of consecutive were taken. locations are separated by a slash (/) when no locations �-53- Table 8. Frequency distribution of distances for off-lek male sage grouse in North Park, Colorado 1978. J uvenl'1es-1/ 2/ AdultsNumber Percent locations of 10 Total Percent Distance Class (km) Number Percent 0.01 - 0.25 2 2.6 1 1.4 3 2.0 0.26 - 0.50 17 21.8 18 26.1 35 23.8 0.51 - 0.75 5 6.4 5 7.2 10 6.8 0.76 - 1.00 9 11.5 14 20.3 23 15.6 1. 01 - 1.25 3 3.8 8 11.6 11 7.5 1.26 - 1. 50 6 7.7 6 8.7 12 8.2 1.51 - 1. 75 15 19.2 3 4.3 18 12.2 1. 76 - 2.00 13 16.7 4 5.8 17 11. 6 2.01+ 8 10.3 10 14.5 18 12.2 Totals 78 100.0 69 99.9 147 99.9 1/ Distances measured from nearest ]) measured from cocks normal Distances Number lek. lek. Two juveniles moved from the study area on 7 April, 5 days after the night of instrumentation. Bird 7043 was located 2.5 km north of Walden Reservoir (northwest of Walden) on 12 April and thereafter contact was lost. No. 7044 was located approximately 6 km south of Wattenberg #2 lek on 18 April. Subsequently, the bird moved to Alkali Lake lek and near Bighorn lek before signals were lost on 22 April. Long distance moves were periodically recorded for no. 7035 ("experimental" bird) from 25 February to 31 March (Fig. 4). Total recorded distance was a minimum of 80 km. The only adult cock captured off a lek was 7037 (28 March). It was located 6.7 km southwest of the study area on 30 March. From 31 March to 17 April, signals indicated the bird was near Aspen lek west of Delaney Butte (12 km southwest of the study area), although poor access (snow) prohibited accurate locations. Accurate locations were periodically obtained from 24 April to 9 May: three within 0.2 km and one within 1.9 km of Aspen lek. This individual probably had not returned to its normal lek (Aspen) prior to �-54- N Capture Site E W s Each concentric circle represents 5.0 km with the center located at Walden, Colorado. Number of locations at each site is indicated (no number means only 1 location). Fig. 4. Movements by juvenile 25 February to 31 March 1978. sage grouse 7035 in North Park, Colorado, �-55- capture in the Lake John study area. All data indicate 7037 returned to his normal lek and remained in the vicinity throughout the spring. Although not monitored during the early morning strutting period, the bird probably regularly displayed on the Aspen lek. This individual did not represent a member of a non-breeding segment of the male population despite being captured while roosting off a lek. Daily Activity Patterns Selected transmittered individuals of both age classes were monitored at 1 to 2 hour intervals on 21 and 24 May. Two birds were located 6 times between 0720 and 1645 MDT on 21 May. Seven locations were obtained between 0630 and 2120 MDT on 24 May for 2 juveniles and 1 adult. More than one morning location were also obtained for some birds throughout the field season. Juvenile 7051 remained within 150 m of the original location (1.8 km westnorthwest of Alkali Lake lek) throughout 21 May. A flock size of 2 birds was determined by intentionally flushing the birds at 1645 MDT. The birds flew north and appeared on Boettcher Lake Junction lek on 22 May (Fig. 5). Two juveniles (7051 and 7147) in a flock of 3 birds, were accidentally flushed at 0730 MDT on 24 May. The birds flew 1.2 km south and remained at this location (1.7 km northwest of Alkali Lake lek) from 0915 to 2100 MDT (Fig. 5). Periodic locations obtained on 7 and 9 June also indicate daytime moves of less than 100 m except when disturbed (bird flew 1.1 km) (Fig. 5). On two occasions, juveniles were present on a lek in early morning and relocated later in the day (Fig. 5). All birds present on Boettcher Lake Junction lek flushed for no apparent reason on 10 May. Bird 7051 was later located 3.2 km south of the lek. On 9 June, bird 7183 flew 2.1 km northwest of Wattenberg #2 lek between 0545 and 0930 MDT and remained at this location until 1130 MDT when locations were discontinued. Although based on small samples, juveniles fly considerable distances (2-3 km) when leaving a lek. Undisturbed birds subsequently move only 150-200 m. Long moves over 1.0 km during the day result from disturbance. Earlier in the breeding season juveniles may be more mobile during the day. This was observed with 7036 averaging 2.1 km (range 0.8 to 3.7 km) between morning and afternoon locations from 23 March to 6 April. Juveniles remained in a particular flock until disturbance scattered the flock or intermixing occurred at a lek and subsequent break up resulted in changed flock composition. Adult 6907 was located from 0720 to 1615 MDT on 21 May. Total distance traveled was 1.5 km with the longest move (1.0 km) occurring between 0720 and 1000 and involved crossing J. C. 7. Subsequent moves were less than 0.3 km (Fig. 6). Bird 7190 was present on Boettcher Lake Junction lek at 0630 MDT on 24 May and subsequently moved 1.8 km south (4 of 7 locations). It returned to the lek by 2120 MDT to roost (Fig. 6). On 9 June, this individual was accidentally flushed 1.1 km where it remained until observations were discontinued at 1100 MDT. Three additional movements by adults from a lek were monitored (Fig. 6). Distances from the leks ranged from 1.0 to 2.9 km. Five afternoon locations of adults present on leks in the morning averaged 1.3 km (range 0.0 to 2.6 km) from the lek. �-56- N Bighor1J Lek 6/7 • (3) s Each concentric circle represents 1.5 km with the center located at Alkali Lake Lek. Dates are indicated for first location of the day (e.g. 6/7) and number of locations obtained at each site is indicated in parentheses. Arrows indicate direction of travel. Fig. 5. Daily activity Colorado, 1978. patterns of juvenile male sage grouse, North Park, �-57- N Bighorr(") Lek U w sw S Each concentric circle represents 1.5 km with the center located at Alkali Lake Lek. Dates are indicated for first location of the day (e.g. 5/21) and number of locations obtained at each site is indicated in parentheses. Arrows indicate direction of travel. Fig. 6. Daily activity patterns· Colorado. 1978. of adult male sage grouse, North Park, �-58Adults had activity patterns similar to that of juveniles, i.e., relatively long distance dispersal from the lek (although shorter distances of 0.4 km occurred) with subsequent short moves. Disturbance usually resulted in moves of over 1.0 km. Roosting Roosting data were obtained from capture sites, evening locations (after 1700 MST) and one night when transmittered birds were located (24 May) (Table 9). Five of 8 (62.5%) juveniles captured were roosting on leks. Two juveniles captured off leks were trapped on 22 March or earlier (Table 1). Capture site data are biased towards lek-roosting birds because trapping effort was most successful on leks throughout the field season. Early in the breeding season (22 March to 2 April) 5 of 8 (62.5%) possible roosting sites were off leks. On 3 consecutive evenings (31 March to 2 April) 7036 roosted on Boettcher Lake Junction 1ek where it was present the mornings of 1 and 2 April. No birds were present on the 1ek on 3 April due to human disturbance. Subsequently, 7036 moved from the study area and contact was lost. Three transmittered juveniles wert located at 2100 MDT on 24 May. Birds 7051 and 7147 roosted 1.7 km northwest of Alkali Lake 1ek, the same site used throughout the day. Both birds were present on Wattenberg #2 1ek (4.9 km southeast) at 0645 MDT on 25 May (Fig. 5). No. 7183 roosted south of Wattenberg #2 1ek (precise location not determined) despite being on the 1ek the mornings of 24 and 25 May. Eight of 18 (44.4%) juvenile roosting locations were on leks (Table 9). Highest on lek roosting occurred in April (87.5%). Although differences Cf<0.05) exist between months, more data are necessary to verify observed trends. Table 9. Transmittered Colorado 1978. male sage grouse roosting sites, North Park, May Totals Age Class Location February March April Juvenile On 0 1 7 0 8 Off 1 5 1 3 10 1 6 8 3 18 On 7 8 4 19 Off 1 5 4 10 8 13 8 29 Subtotals Adult Subtotals �-59- Only one adult cock was captured off a lek. This individual subsequently moved from the study area, remaining near Aspen lek throughout the ~pring. Early evening locations (1700 to 2000 MST) were obtained for 5 adults in late March and early April. Two adult cocks (6759 and 7039) were displaying with 28 other cocks on Boettcher Lake Junction lek at 1645 MST on 31 March. This was the only documented evening display in the study area during 1978. No. 6759 was also present in the evening on 1, 2 and 4 April. Between 1 and 5 April, 3 birds were located a total of 8 times in the evening: 37.5% were on leks. Off lek locations averaged 1.8 km (range 0.8 to 2.6 km) from leks. Three adults were roosting on leks at 2100 MDT on 24 May. One (7190) had been 1.8 km south of Boettcher Lake 12k between 1200 and 1745 MDT (Fig. 6). Four additional off-lek locations were recorded in the evening in early May. Adult cocks roosted on leks 65.5% of the total locations obtained (Table 9). No difference (f>0.05) existed between the 2 age classes except during March (f<0.05). Adults had strong fidelity for lek roosting. However, 34.5% of the roost locations were off leks. Although not different (P>0.05) than the 11.1% of the juveniles trapped off leks, extreme difficulty in locating adults off leks was encountered. This difficulty was partly because of poor visibility of roosting sage grouse in heavy sage off leks. Reasons why adult cocks are more difficult to detect off leks remain unclear. Vegetation Analysis Sagebrush height and canopy coverage measurements were obtained at 101 daytime feeding and loafing sites, and 40 roosting sites. Measurements of forb and grass coverage were obtained for all locations, including the 4 leks. Approximately 55% (55.5) of all feeding and loafing sites occurred in sagebrush with a canopy coverage of 20-50% (Table 10). This contrasts with the 80% use in these coverage classes reported by Wal1estad and Schladweiler (1974). Sagebrush use in North Park in the 0.1-20.0% class was 2.6 times greater than reported for Montana (Wa11estad and Schladwei1er 1974). Reasons for this difference are unknown, but may be related to differences in vegetation types. Sagebrush canopy coverage averaged 29.3% (range 2.9 to 68.8%), similar to the 28 and 32% for winter and summer cover, respectively, in Montana (Eng and Schladweiler 1972, Wallestad and Schladweiler 1974). Approximately 80% (80.2) of the daytime feeding and loafing locations were in sagebrush with a height of 20 to 70 cm (Table 11). The average maximum height for the 101 locations was 45.5 cm (range 15 to 88 cm). This may reflect actual height distribution of sagebrush in the area instead of selection by the birds (Wallestad and Sch1adwei1er 1978). Eighty percent of the roosting locations (including 26 on leks) occurred in sagebrush with a canopy coverage of less than 20% (Table 10). The average canopy coverage· for the 40 locations was 11.9%, ranging from 0.7 (on Alkali Lake lek, Table 12) to 49.3%. Six of 14 (42.9%) off-lek roosting sites were in sagebrush with <20% canopy coverage. The average canopy coverage was 24.8%. The large number of on-lek roosting sites resulted in differences (f<0.05) between feeding-loafing and roosting sites. This contrasts with the similar vegetative parameters of �-60- winter cover in North Park reported by Beck (1977). Apparently, lek position is stimulus enough to overcome normal selection to roost in heavier cover. No difference (~<0.05) existed between canopy coverage of feeding-loafing and off-lek roosting sites. Table 10. Frequency distribution of male sage grouse feeding-loafing and roosting sites by sagebrush canopy coverage class, North Park, Colorado 1978. Canopy Coverage. Class 1./ Feeding-Loafing Number of Locations Sites Percent Roosting Number of Locations Sitesll Percent 0.1-10.0 10 9.9 28 70.0 10.1-20.0 24 23.8 4 10.0 20.1-30.0 22 21.8 0 0.0 30.1-40.0 24 23.8 6 15.0 40.1-50.0 10 9.9 2 5.0 50.1+ 11 10.9 0 0.0 Totals 101 100.1 40 100.0 II Expressed as percent of fully closed canopy. II Includes 26 on-lek roosting sites. Twenty-nine (72.5%) roosting locations occurred in sagebrush less than 20 cm in height (Table ll)~ Average sagebrush height was 22.5 cm (range 9 to 68 cm) compared with 40.7 cm for the 14 off-lek roosts (~<0.05). This reflected the apparent desire to roost on leks. Sagebrush canopy coverage averaged 6.7% (range 0.7 to 13.4%) on leks. Grasses (Agropyron smithii, Koeleria cristata, Bouteloua gracilis, Calamagrostis montanensis, Poa secunda, and Stipa lettermani), fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida) winterfat (Eurotia lanata), phlox (Phlox bryoides) and snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae) each contributed an average of 1.0% or more coverage. Total vegetative coverage averaged 23.1% (range 18.0 to 32.6%) for the 4 leks (Table 12). Sagebrush height averaged 15.9 cm (range 9 to 27 cm). Band Recoveries Five transmittered cocks were recovered between 25 April and 9 September (Table 1). Two adults were found dead using the telemetry equipment. Bird 7039 appeared emaciated and was unable to fly more than 2 m on 11 and 12 April. Subsequent transmitter failure prevented capture attempts to �-61- determine thebird's condition and possible adverse effects caused by the transmitter. Signals were received on 25 April and the bird's remains were located in heavy sage 4.2 km north of Boettcher Lake Junction lek (1.0 km from the 12 April location). Appearance of the remains and the presence of coyote scat indicated a coyote (Canis latrans) as the possible predator. Remains of adult 7037 were located 0.2 km north of Aspen lek on 12 June. Evidence indicated a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) as the predator. Three transmittered juveniles (7051, 7101, and 7147) were harvested in the Lake John area on 9 September during the 1978 sage grouse hunting season. Flock sizes were 1, 12 and 3 birds, respectively. All had molted the radio transmitters. Table 11. Frequency distribution of male sage grouse feeding-loafing roosting sites by sagebrush height class, North Park, Colorado 1978. Class (cm) 1/ Feeding-Loafing Number of Locations Sites Percent . Roostlng Number of Locations and S.ltes-2/ Percent 0.1-10.0 0 0.0 6 15.0 10.1-20.0 9 8.9 23 57.5 20.1-30.0 15 14.9 2 5.0 30.1-40.0 20 19.8 1 2.5 40.1-50.0 11 10.9 0 0.0 50.1-60.0 15 14.9 6 15.0 60.1-70.0 20 19.8 2 5.0 70.1-80.0 8 7.9 0 0.0 80.1-90.0 3 3.0 0 0.0 101 100.1 40 100.0 Totals 1/ Measurement ]j Includes of height of tallest living plant. 26 on-lek roosting sites. �-62- Table 12. Vegetative cover (%) of 4 leks, North Park, Colorado 1978. LEK Wattenberg Bighorn Boettcher Lake 1/ Junction- 0.65 7.31 5.45 l3.36 6.69 Fringed sagebrush (!:... frigida) 7.15 1.43 1.82 4.27 3.67 Snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae) 0.00 2.72 0.56 1.24 1.l3 Winterfat (Eurotia lanata) 8.14 0.10 0.66 0.58 2.37 Moss phlox bryoides) 0.66 2.58 1.22 4.51 2.24 0.00 0.29 0.02 0.08 0.10 0.00 0.11 0.09 0.50 0.18 Grasses 4.47 6.01 6.28 7.74 6.l3 Total1/ 21.15 20.57 18.00 32.62 23.09 Plant Species Alkali Lake Big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) tI2 Average (Phlox Bluebell bakeri) (Mertensia Low daisy pumilus) (Erigeron 1/ Two separate parts of lek combined to form composite 1/ Includes additional species not found on all leks. values. �-63- LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I. 1977. Sage grouse flock characteristics in winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 41:18-26. and habitat selection Braun, C. E., and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wild. Final Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 21-84. Bray, O. E, and G. W. Corner. 1972. A tail clip for attaching to birds. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:640-642. Canfield, R. H. 1941. Application of the line interception sampling range vegetation. J. For. 39:388-394. transmitters method in Carr, H. D. 1967. Effects of sagebrush spraying on abundance, distribution, and movements of sage grouse. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 106 pp. Dalke, P. D., D. B. Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, J. E. Crawford, and E. Schlatterer. 1960. Seasonal movements and breeding behavior of sage grouse in Idaho. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf. 25:396-407. management _____ , and 1963. Ecology, productivity, and of sage grouse in Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 27:810-841. Eng, R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:267-272. 1963. Observations on the breeding biology of male sage grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 27:841-846. _____ , and P. Schladweiler. 1972. Sage grouse winter movements and J. Wildl. Manage. 36:141-146. habitat use in central Montana. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 185 pp. Jenni, D. A., and J. E. Hartzler. 1978. Attendance at a sage grouse lek: implications for spring census. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:46-52. Lacher, J. R, and D. D. Lacher. Manage. 28:595-597. 1964. A mobile cannon net trap. J. Wildl. May, T. A. 1970. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Div., Job Compl. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R-23, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. 23 pp. Patterson, Comm. R. L. 1952. The sage grouse in Wyoming. Sage Books, Inc., Denver. 341 pp. Wyoming Game and Fish �-64- Pyrah, D. B. 1959. Sage grouse population trend and trapping study. Wyoming Game and Fish Comm., Job Compl. Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-50-R-8. 27 pp. Rippin, A. B., and D. A. Boag. 1974. Recruitment to populations sharp-tailed grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38:616-621. Robel, R. J. 1969. Movements and flock stratification within of blackcocks in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 38:755-763. Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. 1976. Statistical 593 pp. of male a population Methods. 6th Edition. Wallestad, R., and P. Schladweiler. 1974. Breeding season movements and habitat selection of male sage grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 38:634-637. Prepared by_~~-=-'-=~:=-_p-,---=~:....::.!.-=...:.:=-:.:.=::=--/_·_/ Steven R. Emmons Graduate Research Assistant Approved by_----'t&~--=V=__ _=2=:.:..... ----'~'_L..L::..=::::..::..::=__ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ _ �-65- APPENDIX A Sage Grouse Location Data Form Trans. No. Date Chan. No. Freq. Time Band No. Pulse Rate Temp. Color Code Ppt. Wind %C. C. LOCATION S. G. Other ACTIVITY _ FLOCK COMPOSITION Total ----- M'----- F ---- Unk. ----- VEGETATION % Veg. C. ____________ Veg. Height _ Veg. Comp. _ TOPOGRAPHY Slope % Snow C. Aspect ----- Other ----------------------------- _ ��April 1979 -67- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ----------------------------- Project No. REPORT Game Bird Survey W-37-R-32 Work Plan No. Job No. 9c 3 --~~~--~--~--~~~--------Evaluation of the Effects of Changes in Hunting Regulations Job Title on Sage Grouse Populations:Evaluation of Censuses of Females Period Covered: Personnel: 1 January through 30 September 1978. Clait Braun, Steven Emmons, Kenneth Giesen, Colorado Division of Wildlife. Brett Petersen, ABSTRACT This investigation concerned breeding behav'Lo r of female sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) and was initiated in 1978 in North Park, Colorado. Twenty hens (8 adults and 12 yearlings) trapped on or near 2 leks were fitted with radio transmitters, and were located daily during April and May. Adult females attended 1 lek for only 1 day per nesting attempt, while yearlings attended 1 or 2 leks for 1 to 5 days (not consecutive) during 1st nesting attempts and 1 lek for 1 or 2 days during 2nd nesting a t temp t s . Nests were located under sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) or complexes of sagebrush and rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.). Nest sites'were 400 m to 5.0 km from leks visited, and were located on gentle slopes of 0-30%. Height of sagebrush in areas utilized for nesting averaged 13.5 to 59.8 cm and cover averaged 14.8 to 42.6%. Fourteen nests were located; completed 1st clutches of adult hens averaged 7.5 eggs (6-9), while yearlings averaged 6.5 eggs (6-8). Renests of yearling females (2) resulted in 7 eggs, and 1 adult laid 6 eggs. Length of incubation was 26-27 days for both age classes. Eggs were laid at the rate of 1 per 30 hours, with a 1 day interval every 3rd day. Forty-six percent of all completed clutches hatched. Hatchability of eggs was 72.7%. �-68- RECOHt1ENDATIONS 1. A minimum monitored of 20 female sage grouse (12 adults, 8 yearlings) during late Harch through late June 1979. should be 2. Trapping should be concentrated in the vicinity of Spring Creek lek 1, 2, and 4, and along roads connecting the 3 areas. 3. Trapping and banding should be initiated no later than 20 Harch, depending upon lek attendance and accessibility. Roads should be plowed between 15-25 Harch. 4. All transmittered birds should be located at sunrise and sunset to ascertain lek attendance. 5. Hens with known nests should be monitored for: movements from nests during laying, distance traveled to feeding sites wh i Le incubating and amount of time away from nests each day during incubation. 6. Roosting sites of females should be located. 7. All locations of transmittered birds should be marked with surveyor's tape to allow for detailed vegetation analysis. 8. Vegetation analysis should be conducted of known use areas concurrently with other operations to allow for accurate evaluation of vegetation use. 9. Hens with broods should be recaptured and have new radio units attached, to allow greater time for recapture of chicks and evaluation of growth rates. 10. Known age chicks should be captured at 1 week intervals for measurement of carpal length, primary feather growth and weight gain. U's �-69- EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF CHANGES ON SAGE GROUSE POPULATIONS:EVALUATION IN HUNTING REGULATIONS OF CENSUSES OF FEMALES Brett E. Petersen Management of sage grouse has centered around 3 basic approaches: counts of cocks on leks and estimates of nesting success and brood size. The general life history of this .species has been described (Patterson 1952), with particular emphasis on male lek displays (Scott 1942, Wiley 1973). The secretive behavior of female sage grouse has been a hinderance to collecting biological information; consequently, some aspects of their biology is not known. Many studies have investigated nesting and brood requirements, habitat usage, and physiographic aspects of areas utilized (Rasmussen and Griner 1938, Patterson 1952, Klebenow 1969, May and Poley 1969, Poley 1969, Martin 1970, May 1970, Peterson 1970, Wallestad and Pyrah 1974). These studies have dealt primarily with vegetation and habitat types, not with behavioral acitivities of females. No study has investigated daily and seasonal attendance patterns of female sage grouse on leks. Fidelity of sage grouse hens to leks has been mentioned by Scott (1942), Dalke et al. (1960, 1963), Gill (1965), and Wallestad and Schladweiler (1974). Daily lek attendance by females was mentioned by Lumsden (1968). Johnsgard (1973) compiled data on sage grouse nesting phenology from many studies. Data presented in this report are from the initial year of field work, March through August 1978, and include information on breeding season activities, nesting phenology, and habitat selection by female sage grouse in North Park, Jackson County, Colorado. P. N. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to supplement existing biological knowledge of daily activity patterns of female sage grouse during early spring to summer. Three aspects of these patterns will be examined and stratified by age (adult and yearling): 1) daily activity patterns during the breeding period, 2) nesting phenology and activities during egg laying and incubation, and 3) activities during brooding and growth of chicks. Hypotheses being tested are: a. Adult females visit 1 lek during the breeding season. b. Adult females attend the same lek for more than 1 day during breeding season. c. Adult females that have lost nests return to the lek initially d. Adult females that have lest nests attend the lek for 1 day during their 2nd breeding period. e. Yearling females visit more than 1 lek during the breeding seasen. f. Yearling females attend more than 1 day on each lek visited the breeding season. during g. Yearling females that have lost nests do not attempt the to renest. visited. �-70- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Females will be located where they roost and trapped from March through April using spotlights and long handled nets; some hens will be captured through use of cannon nets placed on leks. A total of 20 birds is desired, with equal numbers of adults and yearlings. All females will be marked with serially numbered aluminum and color-coded plastic leg bands, with each bird being equipped with a tail-mounted radio transmitter. 2. Each transmittered female will be located daily between from date of attachment until radio failure. 0430 and 0730 MST, 3. Selected hens of both age classes will be periodically the day to record activity patterns. monitored 4. Sites, located from following transmittered females, will be described as to vegetation composition, percent cover, height of vegetation, and physiographic features. Sites will be grouped as to: feeding, loafing, nesting or roosting. 5. Counts of females and males present on each lek will be made daily in the study area. Counts will begin in March and continue through May. 6. Nests will be located during the egg laying period by following transmitter equipped females. Information will be gathered regarding nest location, date located, and progress of nesting activity until completed or lost. Eggs will be weighed and length and width measured. 7. Known-age chicks will be captured with each chick being individually marked using color-coded bands, weighed, with primary lengths being measured. Broods will be located and captured weekly. 8. Data will be compiled, analyzed and a progress during report prepared. METHODS AND MATERIALS Female sage grouse were located at night while roosting on leks and along roads. Most birds were located using spotlights and captured with a long handled net (Fyrah 1959). Additional hens were captured on leks with cannon nets (Dill and Thornsberry 1950). All birds were banded with serial numbered aluminum leg bands (size 14) and individual plastic color-coded bandettes. Females were equipped with VHF radio transmitters (164 MHz frequency range) weighing 14 gm, using tail-clip mounting (Bray and Corner 1972). Sex and age of birds captured were ascertained (Eng 1955), with weight and wing molt being obtained prior to release. Radio-equipped females were located each morning during April and May using a portable receiver and hand-held 3-element yagi antenna. Additional locations were taken throughout the day on different radio-tagged hens to identify daily activity patterns. Slope, aspect, percent vegetation, percent sagebrush and average height of sagebrush were recorded on a standardized form at time of location. �-71- Vegetative cover measurements were made using the line intercept technique (Canfield 1941). A total of 45.72 m (150 ft) was examined at all locations, except nest sites and breeding areas at leks. An additional 30.48 m (100 ft) of transects were utilized at these sites. At each location a central point was randomly chosen with compass directions being used to locate each 15.24 m (50 ft) line to be examined. Vegetative height was recorded for big sagebrush (A. tridentata), silver sagebrush (A. cana), black greasewood (Sarcobatus v;rmiculatus) and rabbitbrush to th; nearest cm. All vegetation (by species) was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm along transects. Daily counts of female and male sage grouse on the 3 principal leks in the study area were made, from 29 March through 1 June, following prescribed techniques (Braun and Beck 1976). Two additional leks, located as the study progressed, were counted as often as time permitted. Radio-equipped hens were located concurrently with lek counts. Their locations with respect to a lek were classified by use of triangulation of radio signals. If transmittered hens were determined to be on a lek, visual location was attempted. Transmittered birds not on leks were located after completion of counts. Locations were plotted on U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps with movements being measured to the nearest 0.1 km. Description of Area The center of the study area was 14 km southeast of Walden, Colorado in southeast North Park, Jackson County, Colorado (Fig. 1). It is bounded on the north by the Michigan River, on the east by Owl Creek, on the south by Owl Ridge, and on the west by Colorado Highway 125 (Fig. 2). Elevations were from 2463 m along the Michigan River to 2684 m on top of Owl Ridge. Spring Creek drains the area toward the northwest into the Illinois River. Two county roads divide the area, Jackson County Road 2l(J.C. 21) (north-south), and Jackson County Road 32 (J.C. 32) (east-west). Jack County Road 25 (J.C. 25) (north-south) is located a maximum of 1.4 km west of Owl Creek towards the north end of the area and is located south of Owl Creek in the south end. Colorado Highway 14 (east-west) is located a maximum of 1.7 km south of the Michigan River. Five leks are known to occur in the area. The 2 main leks (Spring Creek #'s 1 and 2) are located along J.C. 21 and are 2.4 km apart. One minor lek (Spring Creek #4) is located south of J.C. 32, west of J.C. 21, and 2.4 km west of Spring Creek #1 lek. A second minor lek (Eagle) is located 1.9 km NNE of Spring Creek #4 lek. The 3rd minor lek (Peregrine) is located 0.9 km east of Colorado Highway 125, 6.0 km northwest of Eagle lek (Fig. 2). Small native meadows and scattered greasewood flats occur along Spring Creek, with sagebrush-bunchgrass dominating the remaining vegetation. Areas along the Illinois River, Owl Creek, and Michigan River are managed as hay meadows by private landowners. Detailed geographic, geologic, vegetational and climatic features of North Park have been described by Beck (1975) and Braun and Beck (1976). A more extensive description of the area will be completed for the final report. �-72- Fig. 1. Female sage grouse study area, North Park, Colorado 1978. �-73- i N PEREGRINE LEK I tl) N ~ I I r I I I ,, I o o <! 0:: o -.J o U SCALE Fig. 2. 16 mm ;; I km Spring Creek study area, North Park, Colorado, 1978. �-74- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Transmitter Life Sage grouse hens were captured (18 with long handled nets, 2 with cannon nets) and equipped with radio transmitters from 26 March through 10 May. Twenty females were instrumented with 18 tail-mounted VHF t ransm.i tt.ers . Three hens were equipped with the same radio, due to its loss by the 1st bird and death of the 2nd hen. The transmitter remained on the 3rd bird until transmitter failure. Inaccessibility and difficulty in capturing females resulted in late transmitter attachment. Seventy percent of all radios were placed 0Ii birds after the peak of female lek attendance. Transmitters operated an average of 62 days (range: 0-151) (Table 1). Maximum transmitter life was determined from date of activation until the date signals were last received. If transmitters were known to be intermittent, their operating life was not calculated. Seven transmitters placed on 9 hens worked less than 20 days or were intermittent, probably due to temperature shut off. Two transmitters known to operate at intervals were retrieved after being lost by their hens. These radios were tested and intermittance was attributed to cold temperatures. Five of the short life transmitters were retrieved during or after the study. All radios were lost either by retrix molt or slippage from the tail feathers. The latter occurred because grooves in the tail-clip were too large for adequate clamping of the feathers. Lek Attendance Data on lek attendance for 1st nesting attempts were collected on 8 hens (2 adults and 6 yearlings), while attendance for 2nd nesting attempts was known for 4 birds (1 adult and 3 yearlings). None of the other hens attended a lek after transmitter attachment and prior to nesting (Table 2). Nine radiotagged birds, including the 8 transmitters atta~hed in March and the 1st week of April, were eliminated from analysis due to short working duration and intermittent signal transmission. Consequently, all birds equipped prior to peak hen attendance (Table' 3) were eliminated. Two of 6 yearling hens attended 2 leks during the 1st nesting attempt. One moved over 6.3 km from 1 of the main leks (Spring Creek 111) to Peregrine lek, while the other hen moved 2.4 km between the 2 main leks. The remaining 4 yearlings and all adults attended 1 lek. Two yearlings were observed on different dates with displaying males away from known leks. These sites were examined later to determine if they were possible leks. No males were observed in the area at those times. It was speculated that mating occurred away from leks but both yearlings were located on leks at later dates. Both females attended the lek closest to these observations, with 1 hen also attending the next closest lek. Number of days each hen visited a lek varied from 1 to 5 (Table 2). Adults attended a lek for 1 day only, while yearlings visited from 2 to 5 days = 2.5). Most yearling females (83.3%) visited leks on 2 days. Two attended on consecutive days, while the other 3 had at least 1 day between visits. One hen visit~d a single lek on 5 different days during an 11 day period. ex �Table 1. Transmitter life and number of locations, radio-marked female sage grouse, North Park, Colorado 1978. Date of Capture Band Number Age Date Last Located Tot~l 1/ Locatlons- 26 March 1 April 1 April 2 April 2 April 4681 4682 4683 4684 4517 Adult Yrlg. Yrlg. Adult Adult 30 March 8 April 1 April 3 April 14 May 4 1 3 April 5 April 5 April 7 April 4686 4687 4688 2021 Yrlg. Yrlg. Adult Yrlg. 4 April 16 April 27 August 22 May 1 8 April 10 April 10 April 10 April 11 April 11 April 14 April 24 April 24 April 2 May 10 May 4690 469l 4692 4693 4694 4697 2022 4715 4716 7192 4726 Yrlg. Adult Adult Yrlg. Yrlg. Adult Yrlg. Yrlg. Adult Yrlg. Yrlg. 26 June 4 August 17 July 10 May 17 July 20 April 22 May 27 August 27 August 7 September 17 July . 1u d'lng capture slte. . -1/ N ot lnc ~/ Transmitter attached to 3 birds. 1/ Did not tranmit each day. !/ No signal Eeceived for 5 days. ~/ Last location was 144 days after activation. Transmitter Life (Days) 8~/ 7 o o 1 8 8 10 41 63 52 41 26 53 Remarks Transmitter fell off Transmitter found on ground Transmitter malfunction 1 4:)) l~/ 17~/ 4/ ~/ 50 85 87 99 47 98 Transmitter caught in sagebrush Bird found dead Transmitter found on ground Intermittent transmitter Transmitter caught in sagebrush I -...J \J1 I 1 9 Transmitter failure Transmitter found on ground Transmitter found on.ground 34 30 43 29 21 43 140 140 151 107 Transmitting distance poor �-76- Table 2. Lek attendance by female sage grouse, North Park, Colorado 1978. Number of Days on Leks Number of Leks Visited 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 0 3 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 5 1 0 1 0 0 2 6 1 3 First Nesting AttemEt Adult Yearling Totals Table 3. Second Nesting AttemEt Adult Yearling Peak counts of sage grouse on 5 leks, North Park, Colorado 1978. Number of Counts High Count of Females Date(s) High Count of Males Spring Creek 111 62 55 4 April 76 8 May Spring Creek If2 58 29 4 & 11 Ap r Ll.: 63 16 May Spring Creek /14 34 0 3 8 April 25 8 8 April 11 9 & 15 April 20 3 20 April 17 2, 6 & 8 May Lek Eagle (found 7 April) Peregrine (found 20 April) Date(s) Four hens (1 adult and 3 yearlings) renested. These hens were located on only 1 lek prior to renesting. The adult female apparently attended the same lek where she had originally visited. No leks were visited between capture and 1st nesting attempt. However, the original capture site was less than 300 m from the lek later attended for renesting. An additional adult female was captured at the same time and subsequently visited the lek closest to capture prior to her 1st nesting attempt. Two of 3 yearling female sage grouse renesting used the same lek prior to both nesting attempts. The other yearling hen was captured in May and it was not known which lek had been visited prior to the 1st nesting attempt. Number of days between loss of nest and attendance on a lek varied from 1 to 3. The nest of the adult hen was predated during the afternoon; 3 mornings later she visited a lek. Yearling females visited a lek either the next morning or 2 days after their nests were lost. �-77- Of the 4 hens renesting, both nests were located for 2 individuals (1 adult and 1 yearling). Only 1 of the 2 nests was found for the other 2 yearling hens. Of these 2 hens, the 1st nest of one was predated and the hen returned to the original lek visited prior to her 1st nesting attempt the following day. Due to loss of the transmitter in dense sagebrush, no 2nd nest was located for this female. The 2nd female was captured on 10 May while roosting on a lek. A brood patch was present at the time of capture, indicating an unsuccessful 1st nesting attempt. The 2nd nest was located on 28 May. Counts of birds present on the 2 main and 3 minor leks were made as often as feasible. Counts were made from 1/2 hour before to 1 hour after sunrise from 29 March through 1 June. Two leks were newly located in 1978, one on 7 April and the other on 20 April, 1.9 and 6.3 km from the main study area, respectively. Both were located by radio-tracking females. Peak hen attendance on leks occurred the week of 4 April, with a 2nd smaller peak during the week of 8 May (Fig. 3). Numbers of hens present on leks increased, then subsequently declined over a 2 week period. The 2nd peak occurred 5 days after a major snow storm (20 em total depth), which began on the afternoon of 3 May and lasted until 6 May. A 2nd storm occurred on 17 and 18 May, followed by a smaller 3rd peak 5 days later. Occurrence of 2 peaks has been noted by Dalke et al. (1963) and Eng (1963). Movements Movements of hens were segregated by age class (adults and yearlings) and analyzed for: distance to nesting areas from lek visited, distance from nests to loafing and feeding areas while laying and incubating, and distance from nest to brood areas for successful females, or distance moved after nest failure for those unsuccessful. Lek visitation was observed for hens which laid 11 of 14 clutches. Adults (N = 4) moved an average of 3.3 km (range: 0.4-5.0 km) from lek visited to the nest site, while yearlings (N = 7) moved an average 1.7 km (range: 0.6 - 3.9 km) (Fig. 4). Nests were within 2.0 km of leks attended 85.7 and 25.0% of the time for yearlings and adults, respectively. The remaining nests were greater than 3.5 km from leks visited. Sixty-four percent of all nests were located within 2.5 km of a lek compared with 68% in Montana (Wallestad and Pyrah 1974). Inter-lek movements, by yearlings only, occurred twice during 1978. The 2 hens each visited 2 leks. One female nested 0.6 km from the 2nd lek attended, while the remaining yearling nested closest to the original lek. Inter-lek movements were observed by Dalke et al. (1960) and Lumsden (1968); Wallestad and Pyrah (1974) also observed this type of movement and measured the distance (1.7 km) from the nest to the closest lek visited. They observed 1 hen v Ls Lt; 4 leks, finally nesting closest to the original lek visited. Nine of 11 nests in this study were located closest to the lek visited. The remaining 2 nests. both by the same adult female, were 1.2 km closer to the nearest lek than the 1 actually visited. �-78- 60 ----)t- - - Spring Creek III - -i( Spring Creek 112 50 40 30 f (J) CJ) r-I cU I \ CJ) I s "'" 0 CJ) 20 \ \ / \f I I H ~;::l \ r 4-1 ( :z; I I I I I 10 I l -~ .)1.- ./ 0 \0 r-I N C"") If') I I r-I r-N March 0 r-I I \0 If') r-I I r-I r-I April 0 N I \0 r-I If') 0 N I C"") If') .--! \0 I I r-I N N _ ~. 0 r-I I \0 If') r-I I r-I r-I 0 N I \0 r-I If') N I r-I C"") I .--! \0 N N May Fig. 3. Female sage grouse attendance on 2 leks, North Park, Colorado. Data presented represents the high count for each 5 day interval. �-79- Yearling c===J First Nest ~ Second Nest 1 Ul .j.J Ul Q) Z 4-1 0 0 1-1 Q) '@ 4 Adult ;::l z ~First Nest 3 ~ Second Nest 2 0.0- 0.5 0.61.0 r.a- 1.6- LS 2.0 2.12.5 2.63.0 Distance 3.13.5 3.64.0 4.14.5 Ll.6- 5.0 (km) Fig. 4. Distance (km) from 1ek to nest site, female sage grouse, North Park, Colorado, 1978 (N= 11). !! !! For females of known 1ek attendance. �-80- Nests of 2 adults and I yearling with unknown lek attendance were located. One nest (adult) was 0.4 km from a lek with all locations obtained being nearest this lek. The other nests were located 0.4 and 0.6 km closer to Spring Creek #2 than #1. Both females remained in the vicinity of their nests. One additional yearling hen whose nest was not located prior to transmitter failure utilized the same area f o'r 16 days following Lek attendance. The center of activity was 1.6 km from the lek. The nest may have been located in this area, however, the clutch was not completed prior to transmitter failure. This distance was only 0.1 km less than the average for yearlings with known nest locations. Renests of 1 adult and 1 yearling female were located. The 1st nesting attempt, of the adult, 4.2 km from the lek visited, was destroyed by a predator during a snow storm in early May. The 2nd attempt was 3.6 km from the same lek and 0.9 km from the original nest site. This nest was predated in early June. No additional data were gathered on this hen due to transmitter failure prior to nest destruction. The 1st attempted nest of the yearling hen was 1.6 km from the lek visited. This nest was abandoned in May, possibly because of predator activity as 1 of 6 eggs was missing. The 2nd nesting attempt, which was successful, was 1.8 km from the same lek and 0.3 km from the original nest. No data on movements during laying were obtained for 2 of 14 hens due to transmitter malfunction. Both radios transmitted intermittently and only nest locations were obtained. One transmitter WaS found entangled (antenna) in the dense sagebrush above the nest. This nest was abandoned prior to clutch completion. Movements of females during egg laying were normally restricted to within 0.6 km of the nest site. The longest movements of yearlings (N = 8) averaged 0.7 km (range: 0.4 - 1.4 km), while for adults (N = 4), longest movements averaged 1.1 km (range: 0.4 - 2.0 km) (Fig. 5). Long movements during this period were uncommon for both age classes. Observations during laying indicated an affinity to specific areas. In the case of 2 long feeding moves by an adult, the areas utilized were less than 0.1 km apart, but 4 days apart in use. Movements were not random and centered around 2 or 3 specific areas. Many locations were within 0.1 km of each other. Length of movements during egg laying by renesting hens decreased. Movements of adults decreased from 0.6 to less than 0.4 km, on 1st and 2nd nesting attempts, respectively, while movements of yearlings decreased from 0.5 to 0.4 km. Onset of incubation limited movements of hens to feeding excursions. Feeding areas were no further than 0.2 km from a nest, with the majority usually within 0.1 km. Feeding occurred once a day for each hen, either prior to sunrise or after sunset. These observations contradict prior data indicating feeding at both times (Gill 1965). Time of feeding did not change during incubation. One yearling hen was observed to feed during the day on 1 occasion, however, this movement was only a few meters from the nest. �-81- Yearling c===J First Nest 5 ~ Second Nest 4 3 2 1 CIl P (l) ::c: 4-1 0 0 l-l (l) ..a S ;:l Z ~First Adult ~ 4 Nest Second Nest 3 2 0.00.5 0.61.0 1.11.5 1. 62.0 2.12.5 Distance (km) Fig. 5. Distance traveled away from nest site during egg laying, North Park, Colorado 1978 (N = 12). �-82- Data on movements of hens after completion of nesting, either successfully with broods or by themselves after nest loss, were limited to 7 birds (3 adults and 4 yearlings). Locations of these hens were obtained during early to late summer at 1 to 2 week intervals. Successful hens (2 adults and 2 yearlings) with broods traveled toward ridge tops and plateaus within 1 or 2 days of hatching. This movement may be attributed to the moist conditions prevailing in 1978. Klebenow (1969) noted that precipitation and its variability in Idaho accounted for differential movements between years. In drier years in North Park hens with broods usually moved toward meadows and pastures (Gill 1965, Poley 1969, May and Poley 1969, May 1970). Distances traveled varied from 0.6 to 2.3 km, with no differences noted between yearlings and adults. Length of time spent on ridges depended upon hatching date relative to onset of vegetation desiccation. The earliest brood hatched remained on ridges for 9 weeks, compared with 1 of the latest broods hatched, which remained for 4 weeks. During this time, movements along ridges varied from less than 0.1 km in 4 weeks to 1.0 km in 2 days. All successful hens with broods eventually moved to meadows on the east side of the study area. Movements by unsuccessful hens (1 adult and 2 yearlings) varied greatly, possibly due to the moist conditions. One unsuccessful yearling hen, which abandoned its nest early, moved the greatest distance of this group. Daily movements of 2.6 km for short periods of 2 to 3 days were common. This hen finally settled along the Illinois River, 4.7 km from the nest site. The other 2 unsuccessful hens moved daily, no more than 1.5 km, prior to settling along Owl Creek. Movements from nesting sites to meadows were 2.8 and 2.1 km. These 2 hens moved into meadow areas in less than 2 weeks, compared with 5 weeks for the 1st yearling hen. Nesting Fourteen nests were located during 1978, with data collected on: date nest was located, number of eggs at time of location, condition of nest (construction), date each additional egg was laid, number of eggs at completion of clutch, date incubation started, and hatching date. Information was gathered on nests by checking at frequent intervals and noting changes, if any, while the hen was foraging some distance from the nest. Eight of 14 nests were located while hens were still laying. Five of the remaining 6 were being incubated when found (Table 4). The remaining nest was located after abandonment, due to the transmitter becoming entangled in the sagebrush covering the nest. This problem was also reported in Montana (Walles tad and Pyrah 1974). One additional nest was abandoned because of observer interference. This nest was located on the apparent 1st day of incubation. The hen flushed from the nest and was not located again on the nest or within 1 km of it. Eight other hens were flushed from nests, but all returned after the observer left the area. Ten of the 14 nests had known dates for last lek visitation by their hens. Number of days from last lek visitation to onset of egg laying was highly variable. The minimum was 3 days (1 adult), while the maximum was 13 days (Table 5). The average number of days between apparent mating and laying was 8.5 days, with 1st nesting attempts averaging 8.1 and 2nd nesting attempts �Table 4. Timing of reproductive activities of female sage grouse, North Park, Colorado 1978. Age Band Number Lek(s) Attended Adult 4517 Adult Date Attended Lek Last Date Nest Located Clutch Size Eggs Hatched Unknown Unknown 14 May 4 - 1st 4688 Spring Creek 112 6 April 27 April 9 8 1st Adult 4691 Spring Creek III 6 May 15 May 6 4 1st Adult 4692 Spring Creek III 10 April 30 April 7 - 1st Adult 4692 Spring Creek 111 8 May 22 May 6 - 2nd 8 6 1st Nesting Attempt Adult 4716 Unknown Unknown 3 May Yr1g. 2021 Spring Creek 112 16 April 5 May 6 - 1st Yr1g. 2022 Spring Creek III Peregrine 20 April 7 May 8 - 1st Yrlg. 4690 Spring Creek III 20 April 10 May 6 - 1st Yr1g. 4690 Spring Creek III 15 May 26 May 7 7 2nd Yr1g. 4694 Spring Creek tf2 17 April 2 May 7 3 1st Yr1g. 4715 Spring Creek 111 Spring Creek tf2 10 May 22 May 6 - 1st Yr1g. 4762 Spring Creek III 12 May 28 May 7 4 2nd Yr1g. 7192 Unknown Unknown 3 May 6 - 1st - Remarks Clutch not completed, man caused abandonment I 00 W I �Table 5. Sage grouse nesting phenology, North Park, Colorado 1978. No. of Days Between Breeding and Egg Laying Date Layingl/ Began- No. of Days to Complete Clutch Date Clutch Completed No. of Days Between Completion of Clutch and Incubation Date Incubation Began Length of Incubation (Days) Date Hatched Nest Attempt 27 April 26-27 23 May 1st 2 20 May 27 15 June 1st 29 April 1 30 April Destroyed 6 May 1st 9 29 May 1 30 May Destroyed 12 June 2nd 1 May 11 12 May 1 13 May 27 8 June 1st 10 26 April 8 3 May 2 5 May Destroyed 13 May 1st 20 April 6 26 April 11 6 May 1 7 May Destroyed 23,May 1st 4690 20 April 13 1 May 7 8 May 2 10 May Abandoned 14 May 1st Yrlg. 4690 15 May 6 21 Hay 8 29 May 1 30 May 27 25 May 2nd Yrlg. 4694 17 April 12 29 April 10 9 May 1 10 May 27 5 June 1st Yrlg. 4715 10 May 4 14 May 8 21 May 1 22 May Abandoned 22 May 1st Yrlg. 4762 12 May 10 22 May 9 31 Hay 0 31 May 27 26 June 2nd Yrlg. 7192 Unknown - 1 May 8 9 May 2 11 May Abandoned 19 May 1st Age Band Number Date Attended Lek Last Adult 4517 Unknown Adult 4688 6 April Adult 4691 6 May 3 9 May 9 18 May Adult 4692 10 April 9 19 April 11 Adult 4692 8 May 12 20 May Adult 4716 Unknown Yrlg. 2021 16 April Yrlg. 2022 Yrlg. 1/ Dates calculated by backdating using 3 days for each 2 eggs laid. I 0> "'I" �-85- averaging 9.3 days. Length of time from possible mating to laying decreased for yearling 4690. Her 1st nest was initiated 13 days after last visiting a lek, while her 2nd nest was started within 6 days of loss of the 1st nest. Timing of egg laying was constant. If an egg was laid in the early morning on 1 day, the next egg was laid the following afternoon. Thus, eggs were laid 30 hours apart, followed by 1 day off, with the cycle being repeated. However, egg laying may not always commence in the morning, but possibly in the afternoon. In 4 cases (1 adult and 3 yearlings) more than 1 day occurred between cycles. In these situations a 2 day rest was observed. This could account for the appearance of some back-dated 1st eggs being laid in the afternoon. Data obtained appear to indicate that 2 eggs were laid every 3 days. The interval from completion of a clutch to initiation of incubation was observed for 8 females. This interval averaged 1.2 days (range: 0-2 days) (Table 5). The median interval from clutch completion to incubation initiation was 1 day (n = 7). Data from 13 nests were used to calculate clutch size for 1st or 2nd nesting attempts. Ten nests were classified as 1st nesting attempts, while the remalnlng 3 were known to be 2nd attempts (Table 4). The nest of adult 4691 was designated a 1st nesting attempt, as only 1 nest was found. Another adult (4692) originally captured at the same time was attempting a 2nd nest concurrently with 469l's apparent 1st attempt. Average clutch size for all completed nests during 1978 was 6.8 eggs (Fig. 6). First nesting attempts of 4 adult and 6 yearling females had average clutch sizes of 7.5 and 6.5 eggs, respectively. Of the 10 nests, 4 were successful (3 adults and 1 yearling), 3 were abandoned (yearlings), and 3 were destroyed by predators (1 adult and 2 yearlings). Second nesting attempts of 1 adult and 2 yearling females had average clutch sizes of 6.0 and 7.0 eggs, respectively. Of the 3 nests, 2 were successful (yearlings) and 1 was destroyed by predation (adult). Data for both 1st and 2nd nesting attempts were available for 2 hens (1 adult and 1 yearling). Clutch size of the adult decreased from 7 to 6 eggs, while clutch size of the yearling increased from 6 to 7 eggs. The remaining yearling was captured after loss of her 1st clutch (based on the presence of a brood patch) and prior to attending a lek for a 2nd nesting attempt. Length of incubation was similar for all successful nests. Five hens were checked daily from initiation of incubation until hatching. The nest of a 6th hen was believed to have been found on the 1st day of incubation. All hens hatching their clutches left the nest with chicks on either the 26th or 27th day of incubation. In 2 situations, hatching was known to begin on the 26th day, with the broods leaving the nest either· the night of the 26th· or morning of the 27th day. Movements away from the nest appeared to occur at dawn or dusk. Hatchability of eggs varied greatly during 1978, with 72.7% of all eggs hatching (n = 80). Eggs of adults had a higher hatching rate (78.3%) (N = 33) than those of yearlings (66.7% (N = 47). Hatchability of eggs in individual clutches ranged from 67 to 89% for adults and from 42 to 100% for yearlings. Low hatchability appeared to be related to snow storms that occurred during �-86- Yearling c===J First Nest ~ Second Nest 4 3 2 CJJ 1 .jJ CJJ Q) Z 4-l 0 !-I 0 Q) ~;::l z 4 Adult 3 ~First Nest ~second Nest 2 5 Fig. 6. 1978. 6 7 Number of Eggs 8 9 Number of sage grouse nests by clutch size, North Park, Colorado �-87- laying. Hens with clutches completed prior to snow storms had higher hatchability (89%) than hens still laying when snow storms occurred (42%). Hatchability of clutches, initiated after snow storms, was higher than those only partially complete when snow storms occurred. Egg Size During laying and incubation, eggs were weighed and measured. Seventy-one eggs were weighed prior to incubation, yielding an average weight of 46.0 gms (range: 40-55 gms). Eggs of adults (N = 24) averaged 49.0 gms (range: 44-55 gms), while eggs of yearlings (N = 47) averaged 44.6 gms (range: 40-50 gms). Eggs of an adult hen not examined until the 19th day of incubation weighed an average of 38.4 gms (range: 38-39 gms). If weights of these eggs were average and had typical weight loss, then 10.6 gms of water (21.6% of total weight) were lost during the 1st 19 days of incubation. Egg length and width varied greatly. Egg dimensions (n = 80) averaged 55.3 x 38.6 mm. Average length and width for adults and yearlings were 55.8 x 39.2 and 55.0 x 38.1 mm, respectively. The range in length and width for eggs of adults was 53.0-58.9 and 38.0-40.7 mm, respectively (Fig. 7). Ranges of length and width for eggs of yearlings were 53.5-56.8 and 37.6-38.9 mm, respectively. Growth of Chicks Chicks from 5 (2 adults and 3 yearlings) of 6 broods were captured the day they left the nest; 22 chicks were weighed. No other measurements were obtained at that time. Average weight for all chicks was 31.8 gms. Chicks of yearling hens averaged 31.2 gms (range: 24-33 gms), while chicks of adult hens averaged 32.5 gms (range: 29-36 gms). Average chick weight per brood ranged from 30.0 (1 adult and 1 yearling) to 34.2 gms (adult). Chicks with radio-marked females were followed throughout the summer. Locations were made at 1 and 2 week intervals and continued until loss of the transmitter or brood break up. Eleven chicks were recaptured, of which 4 were recaptured twice. Chicks were banded with color-coded, numbered bandettes when large enough to retain them (8 days of age). Two of the 6 broods were not located after the 1st day, due to transmitter failure. Broods of adult hens (N = 2) supplied data on growth for 8 of the 11 birds. Two other broods (1 adult and 1 yearling) supplied 2 and 1 recapture each. Measurements were taken of weight, carpal and primary lengths at each capture. Accurate weights (+2 gms) were recorded up to 22 days of age. Weight gain was estimated using mean weight of chicks leaving nests compared with weights at time of capture. Weight gain per day ranged from 1.5 gms/day from 0-8 days of age to 7.8 gms/day from 0-18 days of age (Table 6). Average weight gain for 8 chicks from 18 to 22 days of age was 6.6 gms/day. This increased to 10+ gms/day at an interval of 18 to 31 days of age. Wing measurements (±l mm) were recorded for 11 chicks (Table 6). Emergence of juvenile primary IX pegan at 11 days of age, while juvenile primary X emerged at about 22 days of age. Replacement of juvenile primary I with adult primary I began at approximately 23 days, after 22 and before 31 days of age. Juvenile primary II was replaced "at approximately 31 days, while juvenile primary III was molted between 31 and 45 days, closest to 38 days of age. Juvenile primary IV was replaced at 45 days (Table 6). �-88- A Adult Y Yearling o Second Clutch Y = Clutches for l 1 Individual 60.0 59.0 58.0 57.0 Y ,...... A© A ~ '-" ..c 56.0 .w co t=: <lJ A VI H 55.0 V 54.0 y 53.0 A 36.0 37.0 38.0 39.0 40.0 41.0 42.0 43.0 Width (nun) Fig. 7. Average egg length and width of sage grouse clutches, North Park, Colorado, 1978 (N = 12). �Table 6. Juvenile sage grouse growth data, North Park, Colorado 1978. Age in Days Band Color-Number Weight (gms) Average Weight Gain (gros/day) Carpal Length (mm) X IX VIII Primary LenBth (mm) VI IV VII V III II I 8 Blue 10 44 1.5 - E E 8 40 48 52 51 49 48 45 11 White 14 75 3.9 88 E Q 19 53 59 65 67 65 63 61 11 White 94 76 4.0 94 E E 20 54 62 67 69 68 67 64 18 Yellow 64 166 7.5 132 E 24 50 85 95 97 96 92 86 79 18 Yellow 63 149 6.5 130 E 25 49 85 96 97 95 90 85 78 31 Yellow 63 300+ - 181 24 54 106 121 129 127 118 102 100 56~/ 18 Yellow 57 172 7.8 132 E 30 50 82 92 95 96 90 85 78 31 Yellow 57 300+ - 177 22 53 107 129 133 127 124 109 E 53~/ 21 Red 13 159 6.1 - E 11 68 94 99 104 102 95 83 76 22 Red 13 162 5.9 141 E 10 72 97 103 105 103 94 83 75 22 Red 18 156 5.6 143 E 13 78 99 104 106 103 93 81 72 22 Red 19 184 6.9 151 E 9 70 98 107 109 110 105 95 78 22 Red 38 166 6.1 142 2 17 75 98 104 106 103 93 79 71 31 Yellow 65 300+ - 181 24 54 106 121 129 127 118 102 100 5~/ 45 Red 18 300+ - 232 82 120 162 169 161 151 E 58~/ 107~/141~/ ~/ Adult primary. I 00 1.0 I �-90Mortality One radio-equipped yearling female was found dead on 4 April, the morning after release, less than 0.2 km from the release site. Death appeared to be caused by internal injuries sustained from landing in dense sagebrush. Tracks in the snow indicated the bird had walked 10 m prior to collapsing. The hen was frozen, indicating that death occurred during the night. No additional dead radio-tagged hens were located, although 1 yearling was believed to have been predated during incubation. This hen had incubated 16 days prior to nest predation. All 7 eggs had been eaten, but no blood or large amounts of feathers were found in the vicinity of the nest. No signals were received after the nest was destroyed on 23 May. It is believed the transmitter was destroyed when the hen was predated. No radio-marked hens were recovered during the 9-24 September hunting season. One hen banded, but not radio-equipped, in the study area in 1978 was harvested along the Illinois River. Vegetation Analysis Sagebrush height and cover measurements were taken at 127 locations. Measurements were also obtained on coverage of forbs (by species) and grasses at all but nest sites. P~ior to examination areas were classified as: breeding (leks), nesting, roosting, feeding, and loafing and feeding sites. Breeding sites on 3 leks were described, as were 14 nest sites. Roosting sites (N = 16) consisted of locations of hens during the night. The remaining 94 sites were segregated into feeding (N 25) areas utilized by hens during incubation, and loafing and feeding (N = 69) areas used by females prior to incubation. Transmittered hens attended only 3 of the 5 leks in the study area in 1978; therefore, vegetation of mating areas on these 3 leks was classified. Sagebrush averaged 5.3 cm (range: 3.2-7.2 cm) in height and covered 7.3% (range: 3.9-10.3%) of the area (Table 7). All mating areas had less than 26% (range: 21.2-25.8%) ground cover and had sagebrush 20 cm in height. This taller sagebrush may supply some protection for hens. Nesting sites were described from measurements of sagebrush height and cover only, due to the difficulty of ascertaining understory species coverage. Average sagebrush height surrounding nests was 34.9 cm (range: 11.1-59.8 cm). Approximately 57% (57.1) of the nests were located in areas of sagebrush taller than 30 cm (Table 8), while all nests were located under sagebrush bushes or complexes of sagebrush and rabbitbrush with heights ~30 cm. Roosting areas were typified by sagebrush less than 15 cm in height with 85.7% being in sagebrush area 210 cm in height (Table 9). Average height was 5.9 cm (range: 3.7-13.7 cm) with only original trap sites examined. Feeding areas had sagebrush height of less than 30 cm with 72% being in areas 215 cm in height (Table 9). Average height was 12.9 cm (range: 4.6-26.4). Sixty-nine loafing and feeding locations were identified and examined from over 200 locations classified. These areas showed the greatest variability. No areas were utilized where sagebrush had average heights of less than 5 cm. The greatest usage in sagebrush areas was in the range of 15.1 to 30.0 cm (53.6%) (Table 10). The most commonly utilized class of sagebrush height was 15.1-20.0 cm (24.6%). Areas of taller sagebrush were commonly used during inclement weather. �-91- Table 7. Vegetative Colorado 1978. cover (%) of sage grouse mating sites, North Park, Vegetative Species Sagebrush Fringed (Artemisia sagebrush Peregrine 3.9 (3.2)1./ 10.3(7.2)1./ .9 1.2 3.4 1.8 1.7 3.0 4.1 1.2 0.1 0.3 11.9 10.2 8.8 0.1 0.1 26.0 21.1 (~.frigida) (Gutierrezia Moss phlox (Phlox bryoides) Low daisy (Erigeron pumilus) sarothrae) Grasses (Sedum stenoEetalum) 2/ Totals- 1./ Average height 1/ Including 7.6(5.5)1/ spp.) Sankeweed Stonecrop Leks Spring Creek #2 Spring Creek III 23.4 (cm). species not listed that occur on only 1 lek. Table 8. Average height (cm) of sagebrush North Park, Colorado 1978. Average Height (cm) Surrounding Nests Number surrounding of Nests sage grouse nests, Percent of Nests 10.0-19.9 2 14.3 20.0-29.9 4 28.6 30.0-39.9 3 21.4 40.0-49.9 3 21.4 50.0-59.9 2 14.3 14 100.0 Totals �-92- Table 9. Average height (cm) of sagebrush at roosting female sage grouse, North Park, Colorado 1978. and feeding areas of Number of Roosting Sites Percent Number of Feeding Sites Percent 0.0-5.0 4 25.0 2 8.0 5.1-10.0 10 62.5 6 24.0 10.1-15.0 2 12.5 10 40.0 15.1-20.0 3 12.0 20.1-25.0 3 12.0 25.1-30.0 1 4.0 25 100.0 Average Height (cm) 16 Totals 100.0 Table 10. Frequency of sagebrush height classes used by female sage grouse for loafing and feeding areas, North Park, Colorado 1978. Classes (cm) Number of Locations Percent 0.0-5.0 5.1-10.0 2 3.0 10.1-15.0 9 13.0 15.1-20.0 17 24.6 20.1-25.0 10 14.5 25.1-30.0 10 14.5 30.1-35.0 6 8.7 35.1-40.0 6 8.7 >40.1 9 13.0 Totals 69 100.0 �-93- • LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I. 1975. Attributes of a wintering population of sage grouse, North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 49 pp. Braun, C. E., and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sage brush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildl. Final Rep., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 21-84. Bray, O. E., and G. W. Corner. 1972. A tail clip for attaching to birds. J. Wildl. Manage. 36:640-642. Canfield, R. H. 1941. Application of the line interception sampling range vegetation. J. For. 39:388-394. transmitters method in Dalke, P. D., D. B. Pyrah, D. C. Stanton, J. E. Crawford, and E. Schlatterer. 1960. Seasonal movements and breeding behavior of sage grouse in Idaho. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf. 25:396-407. 1963. Ecology, productivity, and manage----- , and ment of sage grouse in Idaho. J. Wildl. Manage. 27:810-841. Dill, H. R., and W. R. Thornsberry. 1950. A cannon-projected capturing waterfowl. J. Wildl. Manage. 14:132-137. net trap for Eng, R. L. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse age and sex ratios from wings. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:267-272. 1963. Observations on the breeding biology of male sage grouse. Wildl. Manage. 27:841-846. J. Gill, R. B. 1965. Distribution and abundance of a population of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins. 185 pp. Johnsgard, P. A. 1973. Grouse and quail of North America. Nebraska Press. Lincoln. 553 pp. Univ. of Klebenow, D. A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting and brood habitat Wildl. Manage. 33:649-662. in Idaho. Lumsden, H. G. 1968. The display of the sage grouse. and Forests. Res. Rep. 83. 94 pp. J. Ontario Dept. Land Martin, N. W. 1970. Sagebrush control related to habitat and sage grouse occurrence. J. Wildl. Manage. 34:313-320. �-94- May, T. 1970. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wi1d1. Job Comp1. Rep. Proj. W-37-R-23, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 115-138. , and B. Poley. 1969. Spring and summer movements of female sage grouse in North Park, Colorado. Biennial Western States Sage Grouse Workshop. 6:173-178. Patterson, R. L. 1952. Denver. 341 pp. The sage grouse of Wyoming. Sage Books, Inc. Peterson, J. G. 1970. The food habits and summer distribution of juvenile sage grouse in central Montana. J. Wi1dl. Manage. 34:147-155. Poley, B. 1969. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wild1. Job Compl. Rep. Proj. W-37-R-22, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 61-86. Pyrah, D. B. 1959. Sage grouse p0pulation trend and trapping study. Wyoming Game and Fish Corom. , Job Compl. Rep. Fed. Aid Proj. W-50-R-8. pp. 38-64. Rassmussen, D. I., and L. A. Griner. 1938. Life history and management studies of the sage grouse in Utah, with special reference to nesting and feeding habits. Trans. N. Amer. Wi1dl. Conf. 3:852-864. Scott, J. W. 1942. Mating behavior of the sage grouse. Wa11estad, R., and D. Pyrah. 1974. Movement and nesting in Central Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 38:630-633. ___ Auk 59:472-498. of sage grouse hens , and P. Schladweiler. 1974. Breeding season movements and habitat J. Wild1. Manage. 38:634-637. selection of male sage grouse. Wiley, R. H. 1973. Territoriality and non-random mating in sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus. Animal Behavior Monographs 6, Part Two. 83 pp. Prepared by .:D~ e. ..AJ~ Brett E. Petersen Graduate Research Approved Asst. by_---Lt&~V=-=-· ~2.=___. 4-'~~~~C1ait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher �-95- April 1979 JOB FINAL REPORT COLORADO State of Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-32, 3 Job No. 10 Investigations of the Distribution and Status of Sagebrush and Sage Grouse in the Moffat County Area January 1, 1976 to March 31, 1978 Personnel: Carolyn Atchley, Kathleen Bieniasz, C1ait Braun, Dan Bricco (BLM), Charles Brown, John Corey, Larry Crooks, John Ellenberger, Dale F1enthrope, Howard Funk, Charles Hector, Richard Hoffman, William Howard, Roland Kufe1d, Ann Leckler, Robert Mangus, Deirdre Plummer, William Roland, George Steele, Louis Vidakovich, Claude ItJhite,Charles Woodward, and Donald Hoffman. ABSTRACT Objectives of this investigation were to ascertain the distribution and status of sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), delineate the distribution of sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), and identify past ';'ndpresent trends of sage grouse populations within the Moffat County Area. Field work was started in January 1976 and concluded in March 1978. Background information gathered from management surveys indicated peak populations of sage grouse may have occurred in the Moffat County area in 1969 and lows in 1965 and 1975, indicating a possible ten-year population cycle. However, count data gathered over the years were not consistently obtained and new grounds were not searched for on a systematic basis in the vicinity of old grounds. Thus, the information on number of birds present between years as we LL as on possible peaks or declines in the total population are suspect. Approximately three percent of the federal land in Moffat County has been altered intentionally through various habitat manipulation projects in past years. Within best (Class 1) ranges, approximately 25 percent of lands owned or controlled by private landowners has been altered to bring land under cultivation or to improve pastures for grazing purposes, based upon a ten percent sample of the land area. Within areas considered as former range for sage grouse (where agriculture has largely eliminated sagebrush habitat), the percentage of land altered was approximately 74 percent, based upon a 13 percent sample of the land area. Big sagebrush (/'::. tridentata) ranges within Moffat and western Routt counties were separated into three classes of range based upon quality and potential of habitats. Class 1 range (highest quality habitat and highest potential for sage grouse) consisted of 1,887 mi2 (488,748 ha) in Hoffat County and III mi2 (28,750 ha) in western Routt County. Class 2 range (fair quality habitat and fair potential for sage grouse) consisted of 520 mi2 (134,684 ha) in Moffat· County and none in western Routt County. Class 3 range (poorest quality habitat and poor potential for sage grouse) consisted of 434 mi2 (112,409 ha) in Moffat County and none in western Routt County. Former ranges, considered as Class 4 non-ranges, consisted of areas where dry land cultivation has reduced former sage grouse habitats to mere remnants. These consisted of 168 mi2 (43,513 ha) in eastern Moffat County and 169 mi2 (43,772 ha) in western Routt �-96- ABSTRACT (Continued) County. In addition, 1,902 mi2 (492,633 ha ) of Moffat County we re nonsagebrush habitat and were also considered as non-ranges for sage grouse. More strutting grounds (59) were located and counted in Moffat and western Routt counties during 1977 than had been known to exist in any previous year. During 1977, 1,977 cocks and 2,441 total birds were counted on these 59 active strutting grounds for an average of 33.51 cocks per ground and an average of 41.37 total birds per ground. One additional strutting ground was located by a Wildlife Conservation Officer during the study, bringing the total number of active strutting grounds in 1977 to 60. Brood counts along established routes were revived in 1976 and 1977 within the Moffat County area. In 1976, L 37 birds per mile (0.85/km) were counted in 412.6 miles (663.9 km) driven along ten brood count routes. In 1977, 1.27 birds per mile (0.79/km) were counted in 905.1 miles (1,456.3 km) driven along 11 brood count routes. Eleven important wintering areas were identified through winter period searches of potential habitats. These contained approximately 182 mi2 (47,139 ha) of winter range. Two important brood rearing ra~ges were identified through brood counts and miscellaneous brood observations. These contained approximately 146 mi2 (37,815 ha) of summer range. A total of 748 sage grouse wings was collected in 1976, and 717 in 1977, using 16 wing barrel collection stations, miscellaneous check station collections, hunter contacts, and wing survey envelopes. Fifty percent of all sage grouse wings collected in 1976 and 1977 came from the large area of Class 1 range northwest of Craig (west of Colorado Highway 13, north of U. S. Highway 40, and east of the Little Snake River). �-97- INVESTIGATIONS OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF SAGEBRUSH AND SAGE GROUSE IN THE MOFFAT COUNTY AREA Donald M. Hoffman Distribution and status of sage grouse are intimately associated with the distribution and status of sagebrush lands since sagebrush furnishes most of its needs. With extensive sagebrush-grassland rangelands, Moffat County provides year-long habitat requirements for many sage grouse, the dominant upland gamebird. The Moffat County area provides many thousands of man-days of recreation for hunters pursuing sage grouse as well as other game species as elk, mule deer, antelope, blue grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, geese, ducks, doves, and cottontails. The Moffat County area is also important for agricultural and energy production. Agricultural activities date back to the homestead period following World War I. Vast quantitites of coal, oil, and natural gas occur, which are economically profitable to exploit. In recent years, mining and drilling activity has greatly increased, resulting in reduced wildlife habitats. This increase in the exploitation of natural resources was accompanied by more restrictive seasons for game animals, especially sage grouse. Very little was known about relationships between apparent declines in populations of sage grouse and increased habitat disturbance. In view of the vastly expanded search for and the exploitation of energy resources and the lack of information upon which to base management recommendations for sage grouse hunting, it became necessary to study sage grouse populations and alterations to their habitat. Historical records of sage grouse distribution, populations, and hunting seasons, along with sage grouse studies from 1939 through 1961 in Colorado were summarized by Rogers (1964). Specific procedures, map locations, and time periods for securing strutting ground counts, brood counts, and check station data were outlined and turned over to management personnel in the early 1960's for implementation. Numbers of strutting ground counts conducted from 1961 to 1977 by Wildlife Conservation Officers (W.C.O.'s) have varied considerably. Brood counts by W.C.O.'s have been too sporadic within recent years to be of value, with only a very few exceptions. The Cedar Mountain Grouse Check Station has not been operated since 1973 and the Blue Mountain Grouse Check Station has not been operated since 1958. With the low numbers of sage grouse counted on strutting grounds in Moffat County in 1975 (663 total birds and 539 cocks) plus only 17 active strutting grounds censused, administrators within the Division of Wildlife became concerned about populations of sage grouse within the Moffat County area and this investigation was funded. P. N. OBJECTIVES To (1) ascertain the distribution of sagebrush in the Moffat County area, (2) determine the status (i.e., principally alteration) of sagebrush in this area, (3) delineate the distribution of sage grouse in the Moffat County'area, and (4) identify the past and present trend of sage grouse popUlation status in this area. �-98- DESCRIPTION OF AREA The Study Area The study area (Fig. 1) consisted primarily of Moffat County in its entirety but also included some inventory work in western Routt County from the vicinity of Hayden to the Moffat County Line. Western Routt County was included because some occupied sage grouse ranges and formerly occupied ranges in western Routt County are contiguous with those in eastern Moffat County. Moffat County is located in the extreme northwestern corner of Colorado, bordered by Wyoming on the north, Utah on the west, Rio Blanco County on the south, and Routt County on the east. Moffat County was created in 1911 from the western two-thirds of Routt County. Main drainages include the Green River which flows from north to south through western Moffat County, the Yampa River which flows from east to west in the southern part of the County, and flows into the Green River approximately 3 miles (4.8 km) from the Utah border, and the Little Snake River which flows from northeast to southwest through the middle of the County, and flows into the Yampa River in Lily Park. Climate Moffat County climate is classified as semi-arid with 8 to 20 inches (20.350.5 cm) of precipitation annually (Table 1). Precipitation is mainly concentrated in the late summer to early winter. The mean annual precipitation normal for 6 stations was 12.99 inches (33.0 cm) and the annual mean temperature for five stations was 43.4°F (6.30C) during years of record (Table 1). The elevation of the County varies from approximately 4,600 to 11,045 feet (1,402-3,367 m) and the town of Craig is 6,240 ft (1,902 m) above sea level. Miscellaneous Information The County seat of Moffat County is Craig, located at the junction of Colorado Highway 13 and U. S. Highway 40 in the eastern part of the County. Agriculture, for the most part, is dryland farming with a small percentage dependent upon irrigation. Agriculture has been considered the "staple" economy, with mining and other energy-related activties becoming more and more significant in recent years. The first of 2 units of a coal fired electrical generating plant (Yampa Power Plant) is presently being constructed south of Craig in Moffat County. The first unit is scheduled to begin operating in the fall of 1979, the second unit in the spring of 1980, and a third unit is to be built later at the same location. Coal production from 3 operating mines, including 2 surface mines (Colowyo and Trappers) and 1 underground mine (Wise Hill Number 5) in Moffat County during 1977 was 1,080,677 tons. One additional surface mine had no production and 1 additional underground mine was being prepared for production during 1977. Coal production for Moffat County for 1976 was 507,010 tons according to records secured from the Colorado Division of ~ines. �h i i o M F' F" )!t'7;PcC1"{ OWClI.t/S'1 .i } T A '''\ \ N \ JACKSON \ l ~'1 --·-- """'.'-..._ . ) , r .-/ i Gt R o R N "c--{) ,...... I F I~- ~ '"-. <, \) I r5' fF~ L \.OILP ~ .,.,.,. E R ) .i.; ...,......'""- i;-. . r·J -.r-._._.-.J A -'\,J"~"".0 'jprt"1l r--'-' --.-J G , A G L ••~'" , ,--j '\. ',0 0 O.0'Y. ';J.;LEAK ._.CRf MM1T <; E. )SU ( 0 '\ 0'" '.~ L._._._._.~.r '-'-'-'~';I' A I FigG 10 /!"'-. -..,--, ".../ •I .r''' study area in Northwestern T KIN 0 A./,"" I .. __ .-. .s. It A E) ~?itS L._. \._.~y- P . o~;..,.,.".,r; K R .;" Colorado is delineated by heavy black lineso I \0 \0 I �-100- Table 1. Annual precipitation normals and annual mean temperatures stations within Moffat and western Routt counties. Station Elevation (ft) Annual Precipitation Normal (in) Brown's Park a 5,600 8.07 Craig 6,240 13.78 Dinosaur 6,000a 11.77 Hamilton 6,235 Hayden Maybell Annual Mean Temperature 1975 (10 mo) d 1941-1970 b 1975 (11 mo ) c c l7.22 1951-1960 6,337 16.11 d 1941-1970 6,000a 10.99 c b 1974-1975 (15 mo) Total 77.94 216.7 Average 12.99 43.3 a b c d Period of Record (OF) b c for Data from U. S. Geol. Survey, Topographic Map (1954). Data from Dept. of Atmospheric Colo. State Univ. Services, Data from U. S. Dept. of Commerce (1964) Weather Summary (1951-1960) . Data from U. S. Dept. of Commerce (1973) Weather Summary (1941-1970). Historical Human Population Statistics Table 2 presents the human population growth of Craig and Moffat County since 1910 (Moffat County Planning Department 1977). The increase in population during the 1970's can be attributed mainly to industrial-energy developments brought about by a national energy shortage and large scale deposits of coal, oil, natural gas, and oil shale within the Moffat County area. BACKGROUND INFORMATION RANGE Winter Range Sage grouse winter ranges within a Montana study area were characterized by large expanses of dense sagebrush on land having little if any slope (Eng and �-101- Schladweiler 1972). Sage grouse tended to concentrate on winter ranges in Central Montana, with from 200 to 300 birds observed. Marked females showed an affinity for winter areas approaching that shown for strutting grounds. Removal of sagebrush from winter areas by control projects greatly reduces their capacity to support wintering sage grouse (Eng and Sch1adweiler 1972). In Idaho, winter concentrations of sage grouse were usually found where snow was less than 6 inches (15.2 cm) deep (Dalke et a1. 1963). Table 2. Historical population growth of Craig and Moffat 1910-1977. Moffat City of Craig Year County County a 1910 392 1920 1,294 5,129 1930 1,418 4,861 1940 2,123 5,086 1950 3,080 5,946 1960 3,984 7,061 1970 4,205 6,525 1977b 6,657 10,221 a Moffat County. County was created b Preliminary Nesting in 1911 from the western report from a Special U. S. Census and Brood Rearing two-thirds taken in April of Routt 1977. Range Walles tad and Pyrah (1974) equipped 31 sage grouse hens with radio transmitters and located 22 nests from these hens and 19 additional nests. Sixtyeight percent of the 22 nests of radio-equipped hens occurred within 1.5 mi (2.5 km) of the strutting ground where the hens were captured. All nests occurred in sagebrush stands with a canopy coverage that exceeded 15 percent. A 3 km (1.9 mi) radius of an occupied 1ek (strutting ground) is considered' to be the probable breeding-nesting complex by the Western States Sage Grouse Committee (Braun et ale 1977). Gill (1965) found 87 percent of 23 nests within 2 mi (3.2 km) of a strutting ground in North Park, Colorado studies. �-102- Klebenow (1969) considered shrub cover for sage grouse nesting as essential in Idaho and stated that shrub control projects in nesting habitats must be carefully considered since removal of shrubs can result only in the elimination of sage grouse from the area. Wallestad and Pyrah (1974) stated that the welfare of this unique bird should be considered in programs designed to modify or eliminate sagebrush. In a Montana study area, broods utilized sagebrush-grassland benches early in the summer (June and July) and moved to greasewood bottoms and/or alfalfa fields as the forbs on the higher elevations became desiccated. Broods remained in these bottom types until late August and early September and then moved back into sagebrush (Walles tad 1971). Effects of Range Alterations (General) The fact that farming and ranching activities in the arid west have both damaged and improved sage grouse habitats have long been recognized (Edminster 1954). Although sage grouse habitat may be improved with some of its range devoted to farming and with people living and traveling nearby, it is also true that there is a rather close limit of tolerance by sage grouse to these conditions, basically because it is a wilderness species. Intensive farming practices have taken over some areas of sage grouse range and have excluded the species from all but the fringes (Edminster 1954). Effects of Spraying Sagebrush The effects of sagebrush control on the distribution and abundance of sage grouse in North Park, Colorado were studied from 1963-1975 (Braun and Beck 1976). Spraying of sagebrush within the study area resulted in decreases in cover and relative frequency of sagebrush and forbs. Number of active strutting grounds within the original study area declined from 7 to 6 from 1963 to 1974. Maximum numbers of male sage grouse counted on strutting grounds within the original study area decreased significantly (P<0.05) during the period from 1959 to 1974. Block spraying of sagebrush eliminated nesting by sage grouse and greatly reduced sage grouse use of treated areas. While centers of sprayed strips were largely avoided by sage grouse, nesting and other use of edges of sprayed strips did occur, apparently the result of low percentage sagebrush kill. INVENTORY Strutting Ground Counts, Moffat County 1958-1977 Continuous counts of sage grouse on strutting grounds have been made since 1958. Table 3 lists numbers of active strutting grounds counted, numbers of total birds and high male counts on strutting grounds in Moffat County by Rogers (1964) and Wildlife Conservation Officers during the years of record (1958-1977). Apparent trends in total birds and highest numbers of males counted by Rogers (1964) and Wildlife Conservation Officers in Moffat County from 1958 to 1977 are shown in Fig. 2. These data suggest possible sage grouse population �-103- Table 3. Summary of sage grouse strutting ground counts, Moffat County, 1958-1977 . a Number Counts High Count Males High Count Total Birds Average No. Males/Ground Average Total No. Birds/ Ground 30 58 588 679 19.6 22.6 1959 24 56 708 962 29.5 40.1 1960 16 35 569 569 35.6 35.6 1961 18 39 766 825 42.6 45.8 1962 66 1,010 1,190 1963 106 760 837 1964 89 564 672 1965 87 503 548 1966 71 571 581 1967 70 1,086 1,147 1968 71 1,449 1,666 Year Number Active Grounds Counted 1958 1969 29 69 2,164 2,283 74.6 78.7 1970 28 61 1,522 1,803 54.4 64.4 1971 25 57 1,299 1,374 52.0 55.0 1972 27 49 1,037 1,268 38.4 47.0 1973 22 1,008 1,123 45.8 51.0 1974 22 910 1,098 41.4 49.9 1975 17 539 663 31.7 39.0 1976 24 48 1,032 1,254 43.0 52.3. 1977 20 36 1,052 1,157 52.6 57.9 a Data from Rogers (1964) and Game Management Section. �2~400 e '\ 2,000 I J\\ I / 1,600 / / e 1,200 [zl I a:l ~ \ /1. :;l Z .1 • ~ 800 I 1\ I e ""-\\ \ •....•.•.•.. .. ...........<; 400 ~ • - - -. • /~. \ . I· / \ .~\ ' •••• • ~ \ ~ h \ ., ., '- '. ~ ., <, e ~. '.- -. I e_., '\ h .'" / / <.\' h -\. h . _. / / • '.~ • Total Birds • High Male Count 1966 YEA 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 R Fig. 2. Trends in numb~r of sage grouse counted on strutting grounds by Wildlife Cons~rvation Officers in Moffat County, 1958-1977. , 0 , • I-' ~ I �-105- fluctuations in a ten year cycle from 1965 to 1975 with a major peak in populations occurring in 1969 and lows occurring in 1965 and 1975. Populations have apparently been on the upswing since the last low in 1975. As expected, higher average numbers of both total birds and males were tallied during years of peak populations (1961 and 1969) than during years of lows (1958 and 1975) (Table 3). However, records indicate that numbers of active strutting grounds counted annually by Rogers (1964) and W.C.O.'s have varied considerably during the years of record (1958-1961 and 1969-1977, Table 3). Because of this wide variation in number of active grounds counted, the average number of total birds and males counted on strutting grounds are probably better indicators of populations than total number of birds and males. Unfortunately, no record of the number of active grounds counted is available for the years 1963 to 1968. This greatly reduced the value of comparisons of trends using averages (Fig. 3). Brood Counts, 1953 and 1958-1961 Testor and Boeker counted 9 roadside sage grouse trends in Moffat County in August of 1953 (Rogers 1964). They drove 357 mi (574 km) and saw 461 birds for an average of 1.26 birds per mi (0.78/km). Sage grouse counted on brood routes in the Northwest Region adapted from Rogers (1964) are summarized in Table 4. Brood counts on sage grouse in Moffat County have been too sporadic within recent years to be of value with only a very few exceptions. Harvest Statistics 1962-1977 Prior to 1968, sage grouse harvest statistics were obtained through mail surveys only on a regional or statewide basis. No breakdown was made by county and Small Game Management Units were not established until 1968. For these reasons comparisons of kill information from mail surveys can be made for the Moffat County area only since 1968. Small game Management Units established within Moffat County for reporting harvest information from 1968-1973 are shown in Fig. 4(A) and from 1974-1977 in Fig. 4(B). Table 5 lists information on hunting seasons and bag limits from 1962-1977, and Table 6 lists harvest information compiled from Small Game Harvest Surveys from 1968-1977. Fig. 5 shows apparent trends in number of sage grouse harvested and number of hunters during the period 1968-1977. An apparent peak in numbers of sage grouse harvested is found in 1969, coinciding with peak numbers of sage grouse counted on strutting grounds (Fig. 2). Another apparent peak in numbers of sage grouse harvested (1972) may be partially explained by increased hunting pressure during a year with a more liberal hunting season than usual during a year when populations were still fairly high (Table 3, Fig. 2). Correlations between apparent population levels and numbers of sage grouse reportedly harvested were, however, quite low during this period of record (1968-1977). Cedar Mountain Check Station Data 1962-1973 Rogers (1964) lists sage grouse harvest data for the Cedar Mountain Check Station, northwest of Craig, for the years 1953-1961 and for Blue Mountain Check Station, near the town of Dinosaur, for the years 1955-1958. Table 7 lists sage grouse harvest data gathered by management personnel of the Northwest Region at the Cedar Mountain Check Station for the period 1962-1973. �100 •\ 80 .\' . ~ tal en 60 X (No Record of Number of Grounds) ~ e e- 40 / .:( / - - _// tal > 20 • e -. , II '/ /. // e_ ,., •- . \ :/'~.~.,/ • .1/. »> ~ .:( -, --....., ' "----" Z tal .//.• / • Average Number Total 3lrds Per Ground --e • Average Number Males Per Ground YEAR Fig. 3. Trends in average number of sage grouse counted on strutting grounds by Wildlife Conservation Officers in Moffat CQunty, 1958-1977. I I-' o C1' I �-107- Table 4. Summary of sage grouse brood counts, Hoffat County, 1958-1961. a Year Item Areas counted 1958 1959 1960 1961 Hoffat and W. Routt Co. Hoffat and W. Routt Co. Hoffat Co. Hoffat and W. Routt Co. Number routes 6 5 3 5 Number counts 14 26 11 19 273.9 749.9 325.2 558.8 Total miles Total birds Birds/mile a Data from Rogers 1,453 1,442 5.26 1.94 1,397 683 1. 22 4.30 (1964). According to these data, an average of 165 (range 23 to 411) sage grouse hunters were checked with an average of 211 (range 30 to 524) sage grouse harvested. Average number of sage grouse harvested per hunter has ranged from a low of 0.82 in 1963 to a high of 2.19 in 1971 and hours required to kill a sage grouse have ranged from a low of 0.90 in 1971 to a high of 6.57 in 1973. METHODS AND MATERIALS Range A search of literature was made of studies which described or near the Moffat County area. vegetation within Major areas of big sagebrush-grassland range were mapped on 0.5-in per mi County highway maps utilizing range resource maps of the Soil Conservation Service, traverse and sketch of range vegetation types, and sketches of vegetation types from available aerial photographs and mosaics. Records of locations, amounts, and types of range alterations by Federal Agencies were secured from the Fort Collins Office of the Colorado Division Wildlife. of A sample of 20 landowners within prime sage grouse ranges of Moffat County was interviewed to estimate percentages of native big sagebrush habitat altered to bring land under cultivation or to improve pastures for grazing purposes. A sample of 10 landowners within the prime dryland cultivated areas of western Routt and eastern Moffat counties was interviewed to estimate percentages of native big sagebrush habitat altered to bring land under cultivation, primarily for the raising of wheat. Records of all miscellaneous sage grouse observations (both during the summer and winter periods) and locations and causes of mortalities were recorded to outline possible ranges by period of use. �-108- .. \ .. : ... , , MOFFAT COUNTY ". ~ COLORADO A.l'J66-197:l .;. . .. ,.~ \ . / MOFFAT COUNTY COLORADO .;. .... ..~.... ·'D~ • .. .. , -' , f \ Fig. 4. Designation of Small Game Management Units~ Moffat County. �-109- Table 5. Sage grouse hunting seasons, Moffat . a County area 1962-1977. Area or Small Game Management Unitsb Bag Limit Possession Limit Aug. 17-19 2 4 All Aug. 17-19 Aug. 17-19; Aug. 31-Sept. 2 4 All, except 3 6 Moffat County W. of county roads 9 and 17, and N. of U. S. Hwy. 40 and Colo. Hwy. 318 Sept. 12-14 Sept. 15-20 2 2 4 4 All Mainly Sept. 11 Sept. 12-19 2 2 2 4 All W. Moffat County (mainly Blue and Cold Spring Mountain areas) Sept. 10-11 Sept. 12-18 2 4 6 All Mainly Sept. 9-10 Sept. 11-17 2 3 4 6 All Moffat County W. of Colo. Hwy. 13, W. of County Roads 17 & 57 1968 Sept. 14-16 3 6 5, 6 and 7 1969 Sept. 13-16 3 6 5, 6 and 7 1970 Sept. 12-21 3 6 5, 6 and 7 1971 Sept. 11-13 Sept. 11-19 2 2 4 4 5 Sept. 11-19 1 2 6 and 7 (E. of Colo. Hwy 318, S. of Green River & Vermillion Creek) 7 (remainder) 1972 Sept. 9-17 2 4 5, 6 and 7 1973 Sept. 8-10 2 4 5, 6 and 7 1974 Sept. 14-16 Sept. 14-20 2 2 2 2 14, 16 and 18 20 1975 Sept. 13-15 2 2 14, 16, 18 and 20 1976 Sept. 11-13 2 4 14, 16, 18 and 20 1977 Sept. 10-16 3 6 14, 16, 18 and 20 Year Hunting Season Dates 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 a Information Regulations. 2 from Division 3 of Wildlife, b Open areas by County and specific areas Units (1968-1977, Revised in 1974). for below Blue Mountain Blue Mountain Small Game Surveys (1962-1967); area area and Small Game Small Game Management �8,000 o o 7,000 6,000 5,000 Il:: r:z::I4,OOO I I-' I-' o o I III ~ :> %_o/O~ ~ o 3,000 j\ / / 2,000 /0-- 0 <, - 1,000 o <, / \ \ 0 '0 - Hunters 1969 1970 .". ,0 -- 0- --- Birds Harvested 1968 \ / / ", \ j <, o \ _ .- -'0 '- '0"'- Fig. 5. Trends in number of sage grouse harvested and number of hunters for Small Game Management Units 6 and 7 (1968-1973) or 16, 18, and 20 (1974-1977) (from Small Game Harvest Surveys). 1972 1971 YEA R 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 �-111- Table 6. Sage grouse harvest statistics Highway 13, 1968-1977.a for Moffat County west of Colorado Small Game Management Units Number Hunters Total Harvest 6 7 612 517 1,129 1,967 2 085 4,052 6 7 1,351 575 1,926 5,656 1,644 7,300 6 7 1,635 459 2,094 3,896 1 043 4,939 6 7 1,131 401 1,532 3,857 1,193 5,050 6 7 2,470 456 2,926 6,528 1,294 7,822 6 7 988 219 1,207 2,153 328 2,481 16 18 20 955 291 125 1,371 1,807 770 341 2,918 16 18 20 776 51 184 1,011 2,046 256 767 3,069 16 18 20 981 208 179 1,368 2,752 428 406 3,586 16 18 20 678 85 212 975 1,486 233 738 2,457 Totals 15,539 43,674 Average 1,554 4,367 Year 1968 Subtotal 1969 Subtotal 1970 Subtotal 1971 Subtotal 1972 Subtotal 1973 Subtotal b 1974 Subtotal 1975 Subtotal 1976 Subtotal 1977 Subtotal a Data from Div. of Wildl., Wildl. Mgmt. Section information) • b Small Game Management Units revised in 1974. (published and unpublished �Table 7. Sage grouse harvest data from Cedar Mountain Check Station, 1962-1973.a Year Item 1962 1963 1964 Total number hunters 411 377 23 Total hours hunted 1,331 1,364 59 0.82 30 1.30 4.40 1. 97 Total birds bagged Average birds/hunter Hours hunted/bird 524 1.27 2.54 310 1965 1966 1967 28 87 166 109 136 192 95 152 209 85 213 291 449 291 490 187 560 1,241 47 83 289 210 236 141 189 0.95 1. 74 1. 93 1. 74 270 1.41 208 1. 68 2.19 0.93 0.90 1.81 2.57 1.01 2.14 1. 23 1.81 0.90 3.97 6.57 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Total cocks 92 44 9 1 35 69 69 74 71 45 15 27 Total hens 189 109 21 46 48 110 71 87 95 89 21 36 Total old birds 144 82 15 3 49 92 62 87 87 95 23 49 Total old cocks 35 16 o 1 19 23 20 45 28 27 13 22 Total old hens 109 66 15 2 30 69 42 42 59 68 10 27 Total young birds 137 71 15 44 34 87 78 74 79 39 13 14 Total young cocks 57 28 9 o 16 46 49 29 43 18 2 5 Total young hens 80 43 6 44 18 41 29 45 36 21 11 9 Percent cocks 32.7 28.8 30.0 2.1 42.2 38.5 49.3 46.0 42.8 33.6 41.7 42.9 Percent old cocks 12.5 10.5 0.0 2.1 22.9 12.8 14.3 28.0 16.9 20.1 36.1 34.9 Percent young cocks 20.3 0.0 19.3 18.0 25.9 13.4 5.6 7.9 70.0 97.9 57.8 25.7 61.5 35.0 67.3 18.3 71.2 30.0 Percent hens 50.7 54.0 57.2 66.4 58.3 57.1 Percent old hens 38.8 43.1 50.0 4.3 30.0 26.1 27.8 42.9 28.1 20.0 93.6 22.9 20.7 28.0 35.5 21.7 50.7 28.5 36.1 21.7 38.5 Percent young hens 15.7 30.6 14.3 Percent young birds 48.8 51.2 46.4 50.0 93.6 41.0 55.7 46.0 47.6 29.1 36.1 22.2 53.6 50.0 6.4 59.0 48.6 51. 4 44.3 54.0 52.4 70.9 63.9 77.8 Percent old birds a I f-' f-' N I Data from Division of Hi1d1ife Northwest Regional Office. �-113- INVENTORY Strutting Ground Counts Sage grouse were counted on all known active strutting grounds in Moffat County during the Spring of 1976. Attempts were made to locate and count as many old and new grounds as possible rather than attempting replicate counts on fewer grounds. A crew of 3 men using 3 four-wheel drive vehicles searched various areas in Moffat and western Routt counties from mid-April through May. Procedures for locating strutting grounds through ground searches and methods for securing counts were similar to those outlined by Rogers (1964). Previous to actual strutting ground counts in 1977, considerable effort was made to locate wintering flocks of sage grouse through routine ground searches. The mild open winter of 1976-77 proved valuable in this activity. Seven new strutting grounds were located in vicinities where wintering flocks of sage grouse (especially males) had been observed periodically, starting as early as January, 1977. Three early morning helicopter searches, using nine and one-half hours of flying time were made from March 22-24, 1977, resulting in locating 7 new grounds, relocating 2 grounds, and counting birds on 3 active grounds. Also in 1977, a crew of 3 men using 3 four-wheel drive vehicles counted all known active strutting grounds and searched for additional new grounds during the period April I-May 31. Brood Counts Sage grouse were counted along 10 routes in Moffat and western Routt counties in August 1976 using procedures similar to those outlined by Rogers (1964). All routes were run in the early morning commencing as soon as it became light enough to see well. Based upon encouraging results obtained in counting sage grouse along these ten brood routes, the number of routes counted in 1977 was expanded to 11 and both early morning and late evening counts were made. Morning routes were again usually started as soon as it became light enough to see well and attempts were made to end the late evening routes about dark. Routes were run going away from the sun whenever possible for improved visibility. Distribution Checks Observations of sage grouse, excluding birds observed during strutting ground counts and brood route counts, were recorded by date, time, location, number of birds, and major vegetation cover type from January 1, 1976 through March 31, 1978. Locations and numbers of birds were plotted on Moffat County maps on a scale of one-fourth inch per mile. Separate maps were used to plot summer period (April I-November 30) and winter period (December I-March 31) observations. Different symbols were used to separate observations on the maps by year. Harvest Data Collection.--Sage grouse wings were collected during the 1976 hunting season through the use of 16 wing barrel collection stations and �-114- miscellaneous hunter contacts. Locations of wing barrel collection stations were similar to that of 1977 (Figs. 15 and 16) except in 1976 wing barrels were placed near U. S. Highway 40 along the Wolf Creek Road, along the Sand Wash Ridge Road, South of Powder Wash Camp, and near the Wyoming State Line along Moffat County Road 2. With a 3 day season in 1976, collections were made at the end of the second day and following the close of the season. The wings were then frozen and stored until being processed. Sage grouse wings were again obtained from Moffat and western Routt counties during 1977 through use of 16 wing barrel collection stations placed within these areas, a grouse research check station operated in Middle Park on opening weekend, and wing survey envelopes distributed by the Wildlife Management section. Locations of 4 wing barrel collection stations were changed for 1977 because of the low number of sage grouse wings collected at them during 1976. The other 12 were placed in sites similar to 1976. With a longer season in 1977 (seven days) collections were made at the end of the second day, end of the third day, midweek, and following the close of the season. These were again stored in a freezer until being processed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Range General Vegetation Types Sage grouse are commonly found in 2 main types of ranges: sagebrush-grassland pra~r~e type and salt-desert shrub type. Generally these types are separate but may also be intermixed (Edminster 1954). Harrington (1954) described the semi-desert vegetation zone in northwestern Colorado, of which the sagebrush plant community is an integral part, as supporting dense stands of big sagebrush with varying mixtures of herbaceous plants in the understory. He states the sagebrush type is best developed below 7,000 ft (2,134 m) in middle western Colorado, but may extend to more than 10,000 ft (3,048 m) in a few locations. At its lower border the type merges with saltbrush (Atriplex spp.) and greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) plant communities. At its upper border, the boundary between sagebrush and mountain shrub types is usually clear cut, but its contact with pinon pine (Pinus edulis)-juniper (Juniperus spp.) is frequently diffusive. Vegetation within the big sagebrush-grassland plant community in Moffat and western Routt counties is similar to that described for sage grouse ranges within the Piceance Basin (Krager 1977). Vegetation is predominantly big sagebrush with scattered serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) interspersed with open areas. Moffat County also contains large areas of saltbrush-greasewood plant communities within its sage grouse ranges, particularly in its western parts. Within the Moffat County area (Moffat and western Routt counties), big sagebrush-grassland ranges are either bordered by or interspersed with saltbrushgreasewoodpinon pine-juniper, rough and rocky, mountain shrub, aspen (Populus tremuloides), or spruce (Picea spp.)-Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) types. �-115- The mountain shrub type normally chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), Specific Vegetation contains serviceberry, oak (Quercus spp.), and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus). Descriptions A literature search to locate information concerning specific vegetation descriptions for the Moffat County area was made unsuccessfully in libraries of Colorado State University and the Colorado Division of Wildlife. Land Ownership Status, Moffat County 1976 Table 8 lists amounts of land in Moffat County by ownership as determined from information secured from various Federal and State agencies. More than one-half of the total land area of 3,035,530 acres (1,228,479 ha) in Moffat County is administered by Federal agencies (51.3%), compared with 42.1 percent in private ownership and 6.6 percent in State ownership. Table 8. Land ownership in Moffat County 1976. Ownership Acres % of Total U. S. Government Bureau Land Management (BLM) 1,354,552 44.62 National (NPS) 149,444 4.92 41,763 1.38 12,380 0.41 1,558,139 51. 33 191,525 6.31 9,120 0.30 Subtotal 200,645 6.61 Private Land 1,276,746 42.06 Totals 3,035,530 100.0 Forest Park Service Service (FS) Bureau Sport Fisheries (BSF & W) and Wildlife Subtotal State of Colorado State Land Board Division (State School Lands) of Wildlife (DOW) �-116- Range Alterations on Federal Lands in Moffat County Locations of all known range conversions of Federal Lands in Moffat County are shown in Fig. 6. Table 9 summarizes range conversions on Federal lands by type of habitat manipulation and acreages. The largest amount of range conversions on Federal lands in Moffat County has been through spraying (39.2%), followed by plowing and seeding (25.0%), chaining (19.5%), reseeding (14.6%), burning and reseeding (1.2%), and rotobeating (0.5%). Table 9. Summary County. a of habitat manipulation projects Type of Manipulation Map Symbol on Federal lands, Moffat Number Acres Percent of Total (A) Seed (not fire reseedings) 4,597 9.5 (A) Fire reseedings 2,455 5.1 Subtotals 7,052 14.6 (B) Spray 18,919 39.2 (C) Chain 2,607 5.4 (C-M) Chain, plow and seed 1,500 3.1 (L) Chain or rail and seed 5,302 11.0 Subtotal 9,409 19.5 (H) Rotobeat 240 0.5 (M) Plow and seed 12,056 25.0 (N) Burn and seed 570 1.2 48,246 100.0 Totals a Includes all projects (FS) lands. on Bureau Land Management (BLM) and Forest Service It was determined that approximately 3.1 percent of the Federal lands in Moffat County has been altered intentionally through various habitat manipulations. Except for one small area of 60 acres (24.3 ha) on the Routt National Forest, all intentional habitat manipulations on Federal lands in Moffat County have been on BLM lands. �:.. - ',,", - 1,.-1'°- 1"'1[ :,..- I~ I=~ .... .•... .Jill (1\: II)i. 410 • ~ ..". !~ ," 1---" (i" L.-:-:.,>1!l.s::J.,< L~_E- ~" t- ~, f-" 1'- t- ~ It(; VT IJlS I"> T- >:;.~ ~~: L: ,~ t.. t-J ~ ; ; .... .;1 -C- j\ • ~ -117-- I\( : �-118- Range Alterations on Privately Owned or Controlled Lands Within Prime Sage Grouse Ranges, Moffat County Twenty private landowners within prime sage grouse ranges in Moffat County were interviewed to determine the past and future extent of habitat alterations on native sage grouse ranges on private lands. Landowners interviewed owned and/or controlled the grazing rights on lands averaging 26,671 acres (10,794 ha) (range 320 to 139,520 acres or 130 to 56,464 ha) amounting to 10.3 percent of the total deeded land within Moffat County. Table 10 summarizes information gathered in this survey. It was determined that approximately 25.2 percent of the deeded land has been altered in the past in order to bring land under cultivation or to improve pastures for grazing purposes. These individuals plan to alter an additional 1.7 percent of their land within the next ten year period, if economic conditions are favorable to do so. Table 11 lists amounts and percentages of croplands on 16,535 acres (6,692 ha) owned or leased by the 20 landowners interviewed within Moffat County during 1976. By use, 79.4 percent of the croplands were used to grow dryland small grains (wheat or barley), 13.8 percent to grow dryland hay, and 6.8 percent to grow irrigated hay. Amounts of Big Sagebrush Sprayed Area in Two Important Brood Rearing Ranges Better cattle ranges such as found on Cold Spring Mountain and Blue Mountain contain extensive big sagebrush habitat where range managers have improved large areas of pastures for livestock grazing purposes through spray projects. These better cattle ranges are also preferred by sage grouse for summer and brood rearing ranges, based upon brood count information gathered in this investigation. Cold Spring Mountain.--Within 56~5 mi2 (14,634 ha) of high quality big sagebrush habitat on Cold Spring Mountain, extensive field surveys indicated that 7.1 mi2 (1,839 ha) (12.6%) have been sprayed. Of this sprayed area, 1.4 mi2 (363 ha) were sprayed by the BLM in 1968 and the remainder have been spray projects on private or state school lands. Within 29.9 mi2 (7,744 ha) of fair quality big sagebrush range on Cold Spring Mountain surveys indicated that 10.3 mi2 (2,668 ha) (34.4%) have been sprayed. Of this area, 3.1 mi2 (803 ha) were sprayed by the BLM in 1966 and the remainder have been spray projects on private or state school lands. In combining both high and fair quality big sagebrush range on Cold Spring Mountain, it was determined that approximately 20.1 percent of the big sagebrush range has been sprayed. Blue Mountain.--Within a 4 township area (144 mi2 or 37,297 ha) on Blue Mountain, it was determined there were 81.5 mi2 (21,109 ha) of hi~h quality big sagebrush habitat. Extensive field surveys indicated 21.6 mi (5,595 ha) (26.5%) of this big sagebrush range have been sprayed (Fig. 5). Of this sprayed area, 3.2 mi2 (829 ha) were sprayed by the BLM in two separate projects during 1965 and 1966 and the remainder have been spray projects primarily on private lands. �Tcbl. Ic . sUffillIary af habitat manipul.ations within prime sage grouse Number Acres Controlled Pvt. Stat. -'l~.e~.'_'s'_"E'___ Sch. Landa_ range, Moffat County.a Landowner' Code of Oporntion 1-76 Sheep & Cattla Ranching 1,969 920 2-76 Sheep & Cattle Ranching 16,000 3,000 3~76 Cattle Ranching 11, 000 4-76 Cattle Ranching 980 5-76 Sheep & Cattle Ranching 340 340 6-76 Landowner Only 520 520 7_76 Cattle & She.p Ranching 37,000 B-76 Cattle Ranching r.soo 9-76 Cattle Ranching 17,,500 __________________ Typ& Doedod J ppr ox , BLM NY~- 150 Method hcres (Pvt.) No. A.l.terad % Appr-ox ; Acres Method No. " Plennod rr.z 640 3,529 1,365 (Deeded & Pvt. Lease) Burn I plow, seed 3,000 24,000 46,000 15 ( Deeded) Plow, seed 1,920 29,080 11 2,000 unknown Plow & seed spray 320 ~Deeded & Pvt. Lease) 300 (Deeded) DisK or brushcutter & seed 9.0 100 Brushcutter 2.8 Brushcu t ter seed 8B.2 20 Plow 5.9 3,540 Z,560 2,000 Total 47.2 & harrow, & !tail, seed plow, & 0.1 0.0 or & 0.0 seed & Unknown 0.0 2,500 12,000 53,500 8,000 (Deeded & Pvt. Lease) Brushcutter, cultivate &.. seed 20.5 160 1,280 2,940 90 (Deeded) Disk or (horses) plow & seed 6.0 2,500 59,840 90,150 4,000 (Deeded) 3,400 Aerial sprayed 22.9 seed 19.4 10,160 325 ( Deeded) Plow & 500 Brushcutter, cultivate & seed 1.3 0.0 Unknown Aerial 160 Disc, seed spray (ueeded) 10-76 800 Cattle Ranching & Dryland" Parainq 4 r200 800 350 ( Ueeded) & 4,520 (Deeded & Pvt. ueaee ) Spec. tiller, aeed or aerial spray or burn 320 240 (Deeded) Hand teams- 75.0 0.0 3,76C 3,560 (Deeded & Pvt. Lease) Brushcutter, plow, & seed 94.7 0.0 1,980 900 ( Deeded) Hand 45.5 138,240 139,520 260 (Deeded) Brushcutter, burn,. plow, seed 1,920 5,231 t,880 (O.eded "Pvt. Lease) Brushcutter or disk & burn,. plow & seed 56.B Plow or brushcutter 25.0 240 Sheep, Cattle & Dry land farCll1ng 12-76 Cattla Ranching & Dryland Farlling 320 rl_76 Dryland farming 720 14-76 Cattle Ranching & Dryland Farming lr980 15-76 She.p & Cattle Ranching 1,280 16-76 Cattle Ranching & Dryland farming 1,531 1,780 17-76 Cattle Ranching & ory1ond Farming 320 320 18-76 Sheep Ranching 12,000 19-76 Cattle Ranching 5,000 2,000 20-76 Cattle Ranching 160 50 Total. US .121 16.380 5,480 960 320 11-76 l,840 3,040" 640 160 (Deeded) I-nforaat1on from landowner 200 (Deeded) Te8Jf'l & burn 1,280 9,000 17,280 600 (Oaeded) Brushcutter seed 9,410 50 (Deeded) Team, plow 4,080 5,120 24 •.160 362.4BO 15,280 533,420 30,210 out of 119,980 (Unk.-out) 12.6% 26.111' 10.2" 17.6" 25.2% ••cur •••in 1976-1977 •. p1m1 burn 33.7 plow 15.4 & 0.0 100.0 200 10.1 Brushcutter ,. plow, & seed 0.0 20.3 & & & i i-' i-' teams 105,440 10.1'% intarvlcwa & BO,640 at Total. Sampled o & 12,800 Ill.500 Pctrc:entllg.. Disc, burn,.. seed BO 2.4 Brushcutter r plow & seed 0.0 1.7 o 8.6 600 23.8 70 2,055 out of 119.980 (Unk..-out) 1.7"l. 0." Brushcutte-r seed Disk & seed & 8.6 33.3 \0 I �-120- Table 11. Summary of cropland use within prime sage grouse range, Moffat County 1976. a Landowner Code Dry1and Hay Acres of CroE1ands by TYEe Dry1and Wheat or Barley Irrigated Hay 1-76 0 300 65 2-76 0 0 0 3-76 400 0 100 4-76 80 60 5-76 0 0 100 6-76 0 0 0 7-76 1,000 5,000 0 8-76 0 0 90 9-76 0 0 200 10-76 80 270 0 11-76 0 1,560 0 12-76 40 200 0 13-76 15 3,545 0 14-76 400 500 0 15-76 0 0 260 16-76 200 1,600 80 17-76 70 90 0 18-76 0 0 200 19-76 0 0 0 20-76 0 0 30 Totals 2,285 13,125 1,125 Percentages a 13.8 79.4 0 6.8 Basis--A sample of 20 landowners (same individuals listed in Table 10). �-121- Range Alterations Within Prime Wheat Growing Areas, Moffat and Western Routt Counties During the early phases of mapping big sagebrush ranges within the Moffat County area, it became apparent that, up to a point, man-made range alterations could benefit sage grouse through creating openings and edge effect. Sage grouse strutting grounds are quite often located in cultivated fields, at salting locations, and in irrigated meadows. It also became apparent that extensive man-made range alterations, such as have occured through the years within prime wheat growing areas (vicinities of Hayden in Routt County and Craig in Moffat County) have eliminated former high quality sage grouse ranges. Ten wheat farmers within prime wheat growing areas in Moffat County, vicinity of Craig, and Routt County, vicinity of Hayden (Figs. 7 and 8) were interviewed to determine the extent of past habitat alteration on formerly occupied sage grouse ranges. Table 12 summarizes information gathered in this survey. Landowners interviewed owned or controlled 27,395 acres (11,087 ha) (range 1,140 to 6,700 acres or 461 to 2,711 ha) amounting to 12.7 percent of the total land outlined in Figs. 7 and 8. It was determined that 70.5 percent of the private lands and 54.9 percent of the state school lands within the sample had been converted to dryland cultivated fields, plus an additional 3.2 percent of the private lands had been converted to improved pastures or irrigated fields. Thus, approximately 74 percent of the land within the sample had been altered for agriculture purposes. An average size farm was determined to consist of 1,333 deeded acres (539 ha) and 2,740 total acres (1,109 ha). Of the ten landowners interviewed, 4 were strictly wheat farmers, 5 combined wheat farming with cattle ranching, and 1 combined wheat farming with sheep ranching. Range Reduction Within Three Selected Prima Agricultural Areas Twentymile Area, Routt County.--Big sagebrush ranges within the Twentymile area southeast of Hayden were mapped from aerial photographs for the years 1954 and 1969 and from field surveys (1977) on an area of 3~ x 3~ mi (11.4 mi2 or 2,953 ha). Big sagebrush range reduction and land ownership within this area are shown in Fig. 9 (A-D). Big sagebrush range in 1977 comprised less than 30 percent of the historical range and a strutting ground comprised of 3 sites listed by Rogers (1964) has been abandoned. The majority of the range reduction has occurred since 1954 and has been due mainly to dryland cultivation activity, plus some coal mining activity. Twentymile area contained the highest concentration of sage grouse in Routt County during the early 1960's (Rogers 1964), but only remnant populations of sage grouse now exist. Wildlife Conservation Officer J. Hicks found a group of 12 males using transient strutting grounds one and one-half mi (2.4 km) and one-half mile (0.8 km) east of the original sites during 1977 and 1978, respectively. This range is classified as former range for all practical purposes. �-122- Fig. 7. Area of former sage grouse range, vicinity of Craig, Moffat County. �-123- ~~ ~'!Buck M~~. l . .. " Fig. 8. County. Area of former sage grouse range, vicinity r of Hayden, Western Routt �Table 12. Summary of habitat manipulations within prime wheat growing areas, Moffat and western Routt counties. Number Acres Controlled Private School Total BLM Lands Leased a Number Acres and Percentages Altered School Lands Percent Purpose Percent County Landowner Code Type of Operation Routt Routt 1-77 2-77 VJbeat farming VJbeat farming, cattle ranching 320 - 829 - 1,149 305 95.3 Dryland cult. 1,100 1,000 - - 2,100 1,200 60 1,260 57.1 2.9 60.0 Dryland cult. Irrigated cult. 3,800 - 5,100 900 69.2 Dryland cult. - - 2,058 1,838 Dryland cult. - 1,400 1,000 89.3 71.4 - 500 6,700 4,500 72.6 80 3,410 2,830 180 200 3,210 Deeded Subtotals Routt 3-77 VJbeat farming, sheep ranching 1,300 - Routt 4-77 VJbeat farming 2,058 - Routt 5-77 VJbeat farming 1,400 - Moffat 6-77 VJbeat farming, cattle ranching 3,500 2,700 Moffat 7-77 VJbeat farming 1,330 2,000 Subtotals Moffat 8-77 VJbeat farming, cattle ranching 980 - 160 - 1,140 Subtotals Moffat Moffat 9-77 10-77 VJbeat farming, cattle ranching VJbeat farming, cattle ranching 680 658 2,000 1,000 - - 2,680 1,658 Subtotals Subtotals 13,326 Totals Average number acres deeded land per farm = 1,333 Average number acres controlled per farm = 2,740 --a Information from landowner interviews, 1977 8,700 4,789 580 27,395 Private Lands Purpose 629 75.9 Dryland cult. 2,000 52.6 Dryland cult. Dryland cult. - 85.0 5.4 6.0 96.4 Dryland cult. Irrigated cult. Improved pasture - - - 750 195 945 76.5 20.0 96.5 Dryland cult. Improved pasture 1,200 44.8 Dryland cult. 1,000 75 1,075 60.3 4.5 64.8 Dryland cult. Improved pasture 15,523 240 470 70.5 1.1 2.1 16,233 73.7 Dryland cult. 0 0.0 - - Dryland cult. Irrigated cult. Improved pasture 2,629 54.9 - 2,629 54.9 Dryland cult. I •... .,.. N I �-125- N A. Historical B. 1954 D. Land ownership, 1977 Key: (A, B, & C) _ ~ (D) Big sagebrush-grassland Non-'z:ange' and altered land ~ strutting ground 0 Private land lID Energy Fuels Corp. 'JiIlP Nature Conservancy Inc. C. 1977 Fig. 9. Reduction of big sagebrush range by periods and land ownership within Twentymile Area, Routt County. �-126- Twin ~esa~utt CouniY.--Big sagebrush ranges within the Twin Mesa area, southwest of Hayden, were mapped from aerial photographs for the years 1953 and 1969 and from field surveys (1977) on an area of 3~ x 3~ mi (11.4 mi2 or 2,953 ha). Big sagebrush range reduction and land ownership within this area are shown in Fig. 10 (A-D). Big sagebrush range in 1977 comprised less than 25 percent of the historical range and a strutting ground listed by Rogers (1964) has been abandoned. The majority of the big sagebrush range reduction occurred prior to 1953, from agricultural activities (dryland farming) dating back to the homestead period following World War I. Twin Mesa contained only a light population of sage grouse during the early 1960's (Rogers 1964), probably because range reduction for agricultural purposes (wheat farming) had largely occurred prior to 1953. Only remnant sage grouse habitat and sage grouse populations now exist in this area. This range is classified as former range for all practical purposes. Axial Basin, Moffat County. ---Big sagebrush ranges within the Axial Basin area, southwest of Criag, were mapped from aerial photographs for the years 1953 and 1973 and from field surveys (1977) on an area of 3~ x 3~ mi (11.4 mi2 or 2,953 ha). Big sagebrush range reduction and land ownership within this area is shown in Fig. 11 (A-D). Loss in big sagebrush range by 1977 had reached approximately 50 percent, but the potential for future extensive range losses are high. Past range loss has been mainly due to agricultural development (dryland and irrigated cultivation and improving pastures for grazing). A strutting ground recorded by Rogers (1964) was still active during 1977 with a high cock count of 58. In 1959, W.C.O. William Roland counted highest cock numbers of 31 (Rogers 1964), indicating the 1977 population may be even higher than in 1959. The location of this ground has apparently moved to the southwest approximately one-fourth to one-half mile sometime during the period 1962 to 1976. Rogers (1964) considered the population of sage grouse in the Axial Basin area to be light. The amount of land now owned by ColoWyo Coal Company (Fig. 11 D) plus increased coal mining activity with the opening of the large ColoWyo Strip Mine nearby indicates probable future range reductions through coal mining activities. Extensive blocks of BLM land adjoining this range both to the north and west may, however, allow for this population's continuing existence. Classes of Sage Grouse Ranges, Moffat and Western Routt Counties Classes of sage grouse ranges within Moffat County are shown in Fig. 12 and within western Routt County in Fig. 13, based upon surveys 1976-1978. Descriptions of Sage Grouse Range Classes Class 1 Habitat - Good to excellent quality habitat for sage grouse consists mainly of dense high quality big sagebrush-grassland (Fig. 14) with overall altered habitats for agriculture and grazing consisting of less than 26 percent by 1978. Areas of sparse, low sagebrush and intermediate densities and heights may be present, but are usually much more limited than are found in Class 2 and Class 3 ranges. �-127- N A. Historical • B. 1953 D. Land ownership, Key: (A, 1977 B, & C) Big sagebrush-grassland (D) ~. type ~ strutting ground II//I/A BLM Non-range and alte c::J Private land C. 1969 Fig.10• Reduction of-big sagebrush range by periods and land ownership within Twin Mesa Area, Routt County. red land �-128- •. (-------3% A. Historical rot =~==-=~--) .• B. 1953 .D~ • ; I j ; r - I L D. Land ownership, Key: '"j 1977 (A, B, & C} Big sagebrush-grassland Non-range and altered land strutting Private Col~ ground land Coal Co. BLM c. 1977 Fie:011. Reduction of big sagebrush range by periods and land ownership within Axial Basin Area, Moffat County. �"""" Z -129~ z ;:) 0 0 .... ~ IL. 0 ::i! ~J ,;- N 0 Jj j ~J •~ •. ~I~~ .~ ~ ~ i :: ~ E "l i!: :: 1m!. ~ • fl ] i : N i J1 ~ ~ t i10 t '.l : ~ i 0 �-130- """"z �I r-' W r-' I Fig. 14. Class 1 big sagebrush range (foreground) bordered by pinon-juniper type and rough-rocky areas, Moffat County. �-132- Populations - Numbers of observations (Table 13) largely reflect amount of time spent within Class 1 ranges, but are included to indicate rough comparisons of populations. Of 3,455 sage grouse observed in miscellaneous checks during the winter period, 3,212 were observed within Class 1 ranges. Of 253 birds and seven broods observed in miscellaneous checks during the summer period (excludes strutting ground and brood counts), all of the 253 birds and six broods were observed within Class 1 ranges. Most (53 of 60 or 88.4%) of the known active strutting grounds were located within Class 1 ranges. Importance - Survival and welfare of sage grouse populations is thought to depend directly upon amounts of Class 1 ranges. These contain habitats used by sage grouse for summer, winter, and/or yearlong ranges. Extent of Area - Moffat County, 1,887 mi2 (488,748 ha) Western Routt County, 111 mi2 (28,750 ha) Class 2 Habitat - Fair quality habitat for sage grouse on a yearlong basis, but these habitats may become very important for survival during winters of heavy snowfall within primary (Class 1) ranges. Habitat consists mainly of intermediate height and density big sagebrush, but also may include some open areas and intergrade with saltbrush greasewood vegetative types. Areas are normally drier than Class 1 ranges, affording good and excellent habitat for sage grouse during winter periods. Populations - The relatively small number of sage grouse observed in Class 2 ranges (243 birds in the winter periods and one brood in the summer periods) largely reflects upon the disproportionate amount of time spent within Class 2 ranges in comparison with Class 1 ranges (Table 13). Limited winter period observations and amounts of field signs observed, however, indicate that Class 2 ranges become increasingly important to sage grouse as the winters become more and more severe. Five active strutting grounds out of 60 (8.3%) were located in Class 2 ranges. Importance - These areas contain habitats used by sage grouse primarily during winter periods and occasionally during brood rearing periods. Overwinter survival of the species may depend upon Class 2 ranges during severe winters. Extent of Area - Moffat County, 520 mi2 (134,684 ha) Western Routt Count, none Class 3 Habitat - Poor quality habitat for sage grouse on yearlong basis consists mainly of lower density and height sagebrush than found in Class 2 ranges. Open areas and saltbrush-greasewood type become more prominent than in better ranges. Class 3 ranges are normally even drier than Class 2 ranges, so may afford wintering habitats under the most severe winter weather conditions. �Table 13. a Miscellaneous sage grouse observations by range classes, Moffat County 1976-1978. Classes of Range 1 b 3 2 Period Birds Broods Mortalities Birds Broods Mortalities Birds Broods Mortalities Birds Summer 253 6 15 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Winter 3,212 8 243 o 1 o 12 o 1 o 12 Totals 3,465 6 23 243 1 o 4c Broods Mortalities 0 0 o o o a Includes all miscellaneous observations from Figs. 19 and 21. Does not include strutting ground or brood counts. b Refer to Fig. 12. c Non-range and former range. I t-' W W I �-134- Populations - Only one hen was observed within Class 3 ranges during the study period (Table 13), but comparatively little field time was spent within these ranges. One small strutting ground (East Gee Flats) was located and counted by W.C.O. Roger Lowry during the early 1970's. Importance - These areas provide travel lanes between better ranges and may provide wintering habitats under very severe winter weather conditions in Class 1 and 2 ranges. Extent of Area - Moffat County, 434 mi2 (112,409 ha) Western Routt County, none Class 4 (Non-range Habitat and Former Range) Habitat within areas classified as non-ranges consist of pinonjuniper, rough and rocky, mountain shrub, aspen, and spruce-fir, even though sage grouse may utilize fringes of most of these types. Habitat within areas classified as former ranges (Figs. 6 and 7) are primarily dryland cultivated fields interspersed with remnant stands of high quality big sagebrush. Overall altered native range for agriculture and grazing was approximately 74 percent by 1978. Populations - Only 12 birds were observed within Class 4 range (Table 13), but remnant populations are known to exist in a few locations. Two active strutting grounds (29 Road 1 and 2) out of a total of 60 (3.3%) were located within Class 4 ranges. These are located in an area where approximately 45 percent of the native range (largely big sagebrush-grassland) exists, compared with an overall average of only 2 percent for most of the area. Three abandoned strutting grounds (Twentymile, Twin Mesa, and Fortirication Creek) were located within Class 4 former ranges. County, Non-range 1,902 mi2 (492,633 ha) Former range 168 mi2 (43,513 ha) Western Routt County, Non-range, not determined Former range 169 mi2 (43,772 ha) Extent of Area - Moffat INVENTORY Importance of Strutting Grounds Breeding activity of the sage grouse centers on the strutting ground (or lek). Strutting grounds in Moffat County were found to be key activity areas within wintering-nesting complexes as earlier designated by Wall~stad and Schladweiler (1974) in Montana. The fact that strutting grounds hold a strong attraction for male sage grouse from the earliest heavy snowfall of the fall period to the end of the breeding period in late spring often made possible the identification of potential sites through observations of male birds or field sign. Actual strutting grounds were identified through repeated observations of strutting males on specific sites during the breeding period. �-135- High counts of male sage grouse on strutting grounds provides a reasonably accurate method of determining breeding population trends (Dalke et ale 1963). Jenni and Hartzler (1978) reported that peak numbers of cocks on strutting grounds can be estimated to within 90 percent by the highest of 3 counts between ~ hr before and l~ hr after sunrise during the first 3 or the second and third weeks after the peak of breeding activity. Strutting Ground Counts During 1976, 3 new grounds were located and counted and 6 old grounds, which were no longer counted by Wildlife Conservation Officers, were relocated. Considerable time and effort was used to become familiar with the various sage grouse ranges and to locate access roads and trails. Counts under this study were made independent of counts secured by Wildlife Conservation Officers. Table 14 lists a summary of all sage grouse strutting ground counts made during 1976. A minimum of 961 sage grouse of both sexes were counted on 27 active strutting grounds in Moffat County. Seven-hundred sixty-six males were observed on 24 of these grounds for an average of 31.92 cocks per ground. Numbers of males could not be separated from the total number of birds on 3 strutting grounds counted, so counts made on only 24 or the 27 total grounds were used to determine this average number of cocks per ground. In 1977 the number of known active strutting grounds within Moffat and western Routt counties was more than doubled (Table 15). This was accomplished through an intensive effort of a ground search crew following helicopter flight searches and ground searches in the winter period under ideal weather conditions. The fact that many flocks of sage grouse males over-wintered in the vicinity of their strutting grounds also aided this effort. Totals of 1,977 cocks and 2,441 total birds were counted on 59 act~ve strutting grounds during the spring period of 1977 for an average of 33.51 cocks and 41.37 total birds per ground (Table 15). Table 16 compares counts of sage grouse on 24 strutting grounds counted in 1977 which were also counted during the spring period of 1976. A total of 900 cocks was counted in 1977 compared with 766 in 1976 (percent change +17.5). This increase in numbers of cocks counted is most probably a result of the good hatch which occurred during 1976. More counts were, however, made in 1977. Due to differences in times when the 1976 and 1977 counts were started, numbers of total birds counted are not comparable (the 1977 counts caught the peak of hen attendance, while the 1976 counts did not). Table 17 lists all strutting grounds according to status: active, relocated, or abandoned. Of these 73 grounds, 21 are regularly censused each spring by W.C.O.'s (active grounds), 11 have not been counted by W.C.O.'s in recent years, but were relocated by Project personnel during 1976 or 1977, 27 are new grounds located by Project personnel during 1976 or 1977 (plus 1 additional new ground (80 Road) located by w.c.o. Ch.arles Hector in 1976), and 13 have apparently been abandoned. A total of 60 active strutting ground locations was known in 1977, including 1 (Bear Creek) counted only by w.c.o. L. Vidakovich in 1977. Locations of all known strutting grounds in 1977 are shown in Figs. 15 and 16. �Table 14. Summary of highest cock and total bird counts on sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat County, Spring 1976. W.C.O. District Rangely (L. Vidakovich) Name of Ground Karren Ranch Escalante State Line Haslim Cow Camp Number Counts Date Time (A.M.) 1 1 1 1 5-14-76 5-13-76 5-13-76 5-13-76 6:15 6:50 5:40 6:30 Highest Count (Cocks) Number Cocks Counter(s) D. Hoffman, D. Hoffman, D. Hoffman, D. Hoffman, J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey Subtotals 1 4-23-76 7:00 D. Hoffman Brown's Park (R. Lowry) Subtotals Powder Wash Hill Craig N. W. (C. Brown) North Fork Big Gulch 2 Big Gulch 1 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bard Gulch Greasewood Gulch Upper 19 Road Spring Creek 1 Cross Mountain 1 Big Hole Gulch Cox Ranch Timberlake Creek 1 Timberlake Creek 2 Big Hole Butte Dressler Gulch 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 4-20-76 4-21-76 5-9-76 4-13-76 4-13-76 4-22-76 4-14-76 4-15-76 4-16-76 4-24-76 4-15-76 5-5-76 5-7-76 5-6-76 4-22-76 5:25 5:26 6:53 5:30 6:50 6:10 5:45 6:05 5:30 5:27 6:50 7:05 6:40 7:45 6:28 D. Hoffman, T. Howard T. Howard D. Hoffman, D. Hoffman, D. Hoffman, D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman T. Howard J. Corey D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman T. Howard Fan Rock 1 5-4-76 6:10 D. Hoffman, J. Corey T. Howard J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey Subtotals Slater (C. Woodward) Subtotals Total Birds 26 30 45 45 65 185 26 26 26 26 26 - 31 3 21 32 32 30 32 25 18 19 20 29 60 17 36 405 32 4 21 32 32 30 42 28 19 19 21 31 62 17 38 428 113 113 117 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ll7 I I-' v.:> (j\ I �Table 14. Summary of highest cock and total bird counts on sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat County, Spring 1976 (continued). Highest Count (Cocks) W.C.O. District Name of Ground Craig S. W. (W. Roland) Juniper Axial Basin Dry Lake 2 Deception Creek Round Bottom Yellowjacket Road Number Counts Date Time (A.M.) 1 2 2 1 1 1 4-16-76 4-20-76 4-21-76 4-21-76 4-25-76 4-20-76 6:40 6:00 6:00 7:00 6:05 5:10 Subtotals Counter(s) J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey Number Cocks Total Birds 24 28 57 14 55 18 196 24 31 58 14 57 21 205 I •..... W -..J I Totals 766 36 Summary: Number of active grounds counted Average number counts per ground Average number cocks per ground Average number total birds per ground = = = = 27 1.33 31.92 35.59 961 �Table 15. Summary Qf highest cocks and total bird counts on sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat and western Routt counties, Spring 1977. W.C.O. District Rangely (L. Vidakovich) Highest Count Date Karren Ranch Escalante State Line Haslim Cow Camp 1 1 1 1 5-3-77 5-3-77 5-4-77 5-4-77 5:55 6:30 5:50 6:30 D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman 65 62 92 40 259 75 70 98 40 283 Powder Wash Hill Gee Flats Snake River West Beaver Basin Coffee Pot Spring Summit Spring Goodman Draw Sand Wash Road 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 4-21-77 4-25-77 4-18-77 4-25-77 4-21-77 5-20-77 5-20-77 3-22-77 5:05 6:00 6:45 • 6:30 6:15 7:00 6:10 7:40 D. Hoffman, L. Crooks 55 D. Hoffman 64 L. Crooks 12 D. Hoffman 101 D. Hoffman, L. Crooks 26 D. Hoffman 19 13 D. Hoffman D. Hoffman 16 306 57 67 12 107 38 19 14 16 330 North Fork Big Gulch 2 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bord Gulch Greasewood Gulch Upper 19 Road Spring Creek 1 Spring Creek 2 Spring Creek 3 Cross Mountain 1 Cross Mountain 2 Big Hole Gulch Cox Ranch Timberlake Creek 1 Timberlake Creek 2 Timberlake Creek 3 Big Hole Butte Dressler Gulch Sevenmi1e Reservoir Pole Gulch Cottonwood Gulch West Timberlake Creek 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 3 2 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3-31-77 4-11-77 4-5-77 3-31-77 4-26-77 4-20-77 4-7-77 4-20-77 5-3-77 4-21-77 4-21-77 4-29-77 4-27-77 4-29-77 5-7-77 4-7-77 4-26-77 4-18-77 4-1-77 4-7-77 3-23-77 4-16-77 5:55 7:30 6:05 6:35 6:31 5:15 6:00 6:45 6:27 5:10 5:30 6:55 7:05 5:45 5:45 6:50 7:16 6:57 6:00 6:00 8:20 8:25 D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman D. Hoffman T. Howard D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman T. Howard L. Crooks L. Crooks T. Howard T. Howard D. Hoffman D. Hoffman L. Crooks T. Howard T. Howard D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman L. Crooks 22 6 34 23 52 33 24 31 16 25 24 8 78 23 54 53 44 31 18 25 13 13 34 16 55 43 21 34 27 14 37 8 5 38 16 55 43 69 34 28 15 76 32 12 Name of Ground Subtotals Craig N. W. (C. Brown) Total Birds Time (A.M.) Counter(s) Subtotals Brown's Park (Vacant) (Cocks) Number Cocks Number Counts ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ I i-' W 00 I �Table 15. Summary of highest cocks and total bird counts on sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat and western Routt counties, Spring 1977 (continued). W.C.O. District Craig N. W. (C. Brown) (continued) Highest Count (Cocks) Number Cocks Counter(s) Name of Ground Date Time (A.M.) Thornburg Well Lone Tree Scandinavian Gulch Conway Spring 2 2 3 2 4-20-77 4-28-77 4-29-77 4-22-77 6:05 6:30 6:10 6:15 L. Crooks D. Hoffman T. Howard T. Howard 36 22 45 3 679 38 24 47 3 901 Fan Rock Fourmile Creek 1 Fourmile Creek 2 Fourmile Creek 3 Fly Creek Slater Park 2 5 2 2 1 2 5-3-77 4-16-77 4-5-77 5-7-77 5-11-77 5-21-77 6:05 6:25 7:00 6:30 6:00 5:35 L. Crooks L. Crooks L. Crooks D. Hoffman D. Hoffman L. Crooks 116 34 27 40 8 36 261 118 36 39 48 8 38 287 Subtotals Slater (C. Woodward) Subtotals I I-' Craig S. W. (W. Roland) Juniper Axial Basin Dry Lake 2 Deception Creek Round Bottom Yellowjacket Road Horse Gulch Duffy Mountain Morgan Gulch 1 Morgan Gulch 2 Boxelder Gulch 4 3 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 4 1 4-22-77 4-16-77 4-7-77 4-7-77 4-6-77 4-25-77 4-2-77 5-4-77 4-11-77 4-26-77 4-30-77 5:50 5:30 5:50 6:20 5:55 7:00 6:05 6:50 6:50 6:15 6:30 D. Hoffman D. Hoffman J. Corey J. Corey D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman, L. Crooks 31 58 35 22 36 54 4 27 8 39 60 374 33 78 92 30 80 56 8 37 10 40 62 526 29 Road 1 29 Road 2 80 Road Elkhead Creek 1 2 2 1 3-25-77 5-5-77 3-25-77 5-9-77 6:30 5:45 7:20 6:15 D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman 4 62 20 12 98 4 68 30 12 114 1,977 2,441 Subtotals Hayden (C. Hector) Subtotals Totals SUMMARY:. Total Birds Number Counts 119 Number of active ground counted Average number counts per ground Average number cocks per ground Average number total birds per ground = = = = 59 2.02 33.51 41.37 w \0 I �-140- Table 16. Comparison of high cock and total bird counts on 24 sage grouse strutting grounds, 1976 and 1977. Year Number Counts 1976 Number Cocks 'fotal Birds Number Counts 1977 Number Cocks Total Birds Karren Ranch 1 26 30 1 65 75 Powder Wash Hill 1 26 26 2 55 57 North Fork Big Gulch 2 2 31 32 1 22 24 Big Gulch 1 1 3 4 2 0 0 Grassie Reservoir 1 21 21 3 6 8 Lay Creek 1 32 32 1 34 78 Bord Gulch 2 32 32 1 23 23 1 30 30 3 52 54 Upper 19 Road 2 32 42 2 33 53 Spring Creek 1 2 25 28 1 24 44 1 18 19 3 25 25 Big Hole Gulch 2 19 19 4 34 38 Cox Ranch 1 20 21 2 16 16 Name of Ground Gulch Greasewood Cross Mountain 1 Timberlake Creek 1 2 29 31 3 55 55 Timberlake Creek 2 2 60 62 3 43 43 Big Hole Butte 1 17 17 2 34 34 Dressler 1 36 38 2 27 28 Fan Rock 1 113 117 2 116 118 Juniper 1 24 24 4 31 33 Axial Basin 2 28 31 3 58 78 Dry Lake 2 2 57 58 1 35 92 1 14 14 1 22 30 1 55 57 1 36 80 1 18 21 2 54 56 33 766 806 50 900 1,142 Deception Gulch Creek Round Bottom Yellowjacket Road Totals Summary: number counts per ground Average number cocks per ground Average Average number total birds per gound = 1. 38 2.08 31. 92 37.50 33.58 47.58 �Table 17. Status Status of sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat and western Routt counties, 1976 and 1977. ~~ ~ Craig N. W. (C. Brown) Active 1976 and 1977 North Fork Big Gulch 2 Craig S. W. (W. Roland) Juniper W~i~l~dlife Conservation Officer District Hayden Slater Brown's Park (C. Hector) (C. Woodward) (Vacant) Fan Rock Powder Wash Hill 29 Road 1 Rangely (L. Vidakovich) Karren Ranch Escalante Gee Flats Grassie Reservoir Axial Basin Lay Creek Dry Lake 2 State Line Bord Gulch Deception Creek Greasewood Gulch Round Bottom Haslim Cow Camp Bear Creeka Upper 19 Road I I-' .l::I-' I Timberlake Creek 2 Relocated 1976 and Active 1977 Spring Creek 1 Cross Mountain 1 Big Hole Gulch Cox Ranch Timberlake Creek 1 Relocated 1977 Spring Creek 2 Snake River West Beaver Basin Cross Mountain 2 Sand Wash Road Goodman Draw New 1976 and Active 1977 Big Hole Butte 80 Roadb Yellowjacket Road Dressler Gulch New 1977 Sevenmile Res. Horse Gulch Fourmile Creek 1 Coffee Pot Spring 29 Road 2 Timberlake Creek 3 Duffy Mountain Fourmile Creek 2 Summit Spring Elkhead Creek Pole Gulch Morgan Gulch 1 Fourmile Creek 3 �Table 17. Status of sage grouse strutting grounds, Moffat and western Routt counties, 1976 and 1977 (continued). Wildlife Conservation Officer District Slater Brown's Park Hayden (C. Woodward) (Vacant) (C. Hector) Craig N. W. (C. Brown) Craig S. W. (W. Roland) New 1977 (continued) Cottonwood Gulch Morgan Gulch2 Fly Creek Boxelder Gulch Slater Park Status West Timberlake Creek Rangely (L. Vidakovich) Thornburg Well Lone Tree Scandinavian Gulch Conway Spring Spring Creek 3 Abandoned 1977 but Active 1976 Big Gulch 1 Abandoned Prior to 1976 North Fork Big Gulch 1 Dry Lake 1 Clarida Ranch Fortification Creek Big Gulch 2 Big Gulch 3 Big Gulch 4 a Counted by L. Vidakovich (1976 and 1977) b Located by C. Hector (1976). c Eliminated by Yampa Power Plant .- High Mesac I .j:-- Sandwash Ridge Road Twin Mesa Hayshed Twentymile N I �\!;;;:;;====_._ ",o-""i' ::son 0 i .. ;g 0:1> "_. .0.__ ,~J~ :z~ d: go ~.,..~ •... .., ~ c: 5-1 i~!,,0 '" s,g ~ _ l~:'~ _ o:Ti~ ~(!,[t 4::)"'1& i ~ ~. ~ as ~. [ ~ h~~ l .l:r ~~l~:.. ~i~;'; ~ ~ 8. '" I .~ -(l]T- ~ ~, ....,..==,~,..==~=-=~=---==~~~==== -;..~ , , ~ ~ +1,1 .'O;'1I!:i ' .... �""'" z : is" P;l =i~. n§: f ~ ~ ~ J i i 1 1 J • I •• ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i -144- ~]1~ ~ ~g s ne~ .'l.J] :!:~:: ~~~~ •• i!~~ �-145- Of the 13 grounds listed as abandoned, 2 small grounds were active during 1976 (Big Gulch 1 and High Mesa) but apparently faded out of the picture during 1977, and 11 were apparently abandoned prior to 1976. Of 12 strutting grounds listed as relocated, 7 were found on or very close to the same sites where earlier recorded, 1 had moved approximately one-fourth mile (0.4 km), 2 had moved approximately 1 mile (1.6 km), and 2 had moved approximately one and one-half miles (2.4 km). From these data, it was concluded that the 1977 breeding population of sage grouse in the Moffat County area was higher than in 1976. These data indicate an increasing population but further research is needed to prove or disprove the hypothesis that sage grouse populations in the Moffat County area are cyclic. Land ownership status and approximate elevations of 60 sites used by sage grouse for strutting grounds in the Moffat County area in 1977 are presented in Table 18. Types of areas utilized by sage grouse for strutting grounds in the Moffat County area in 1977 are listed in Table 19. Natural clearings along or near tops of ridges (21 sites) and natural meadows or clearings in bottoms (14 sites) were the 2 most common types of areas utilized for strutting grounds. Brood Counts With very few exceptions during recent years, brood counts of sage grouse for management purposes within the Moffat County area have been conducted sporadically by W.C.O.'s and Regional Biologists because the reliability of the technique has been questioned. A method suitable to measure reproductive success and pre-hunting season populations of sage grouse was desired for improved management of the species, so brood route counts were revived. 1976 A total of 412.6 mi (663.9 km) was driven on 10 brood count routes in 1976 and 564 sage grouse (22 hens, 16 cocks, 90 young, and 436 unclassified) were counted, for an average of 1.37 birds per mi (0.8S/km) (Table 20). Seventeen separate broods were counted along these routes before the juveniles became too large to distinguish from the adults, averaging 5.29 young per brood. A young to adult ratio of 2.37:1 indicated that sage grouse in Moffat and western Routt counties experienced good reproductive success in 1976. Seven additional sage grouse broods not counted on routes averaged 3.86 young per brood, bringing the total number of broods tallied in 1976 to 24. 1977 Table 21 summarizes data from 33 sage grouse brood counts completed along 8 routes in Moffat County (Fig. 15), and 2 routes in western Routt county (Fig. 16), plus one extra route (Sunbeam) in Moffat County. Counts were made during the period July 12 through August 11, 1977. Three early morning and 2 late evening counts were secured along 4 routes and 1 or more counts were secured along the other 7 routes. A total of 905.1 mi (1,456.3 km) was driven on these routes and 1,150 sage grouse (151 hens, 179 cocks, 532 young, and 288 unclassified) were counted, for an average of 1.27 birds per mi (0.79/km). This was slightly lower than the 1.37 birds per mi (0.8S/km) counted along 412.6 mi (663.9 km) on 10 routes in 1976. �-146- Table 18. Land ownership strutting grounds, Moffat A. status and approximate elevations and western Routt counties 1977. of 60 sage grouse Number Grounds Percent Private 33 55.0 BLM 22 36.6 State Land Board 3 5.0 DOW 1 1.7 FS 1 1.7 Total 60 100.0 14 23.3 30 50.0 11 18.3 1 1.7 4 6.7 60 100.0 Land Ownership Status Owner B. Approximate Elevations Elevational Range 6,000-6,500 ft (1,829-1,981 m) 6,500-7,000 ft (1,981-2,134 m) 7,000-7,500 ft (2,134-2,286 m) 7,500-8,000 ft (2,286-2,438 m) 8,000-8,500 ft (2,438-2,591 m) a Total a From U. S. Geol. Survey Topographic Maps. �-147- Table 19. Types of areas utilized by sage grouse for strutting Moffat and western Routt counties 1977. Number Type of Area Natural clearing Natural meadow Natural or clearing clearing Old cultivated along or near top of ridge i.nbottom at intermediate field height along ridge (go-back land) Sites grounds, a Percent 21 32.4 14 21.5 5 7.7 5 7.7 Cultivated field (wheat) 5 7.7 Sagebrush cleared and/or reseeded 4 6.1 Stock pond or reservoir 3 4.6 Irrigated 2 3.1 Old burn 2 3.1 Salt lick 2 3.1 Well site 1 1.5 Road 1 1.5 Totals 65 100.0 a hay meadow Five of the 60 strutting 65 sites). grounds contained two sites (sample based upon One hundred and eleven separate broods were counted along these routes in 1977 averaging 4.79 young per brood. This average number of young per brood was also lower than the 5.29 young per brood counted in 1976. A young to adult ratio of 1.61:1 indicated that sage grouse in Moffat and western Routt counties experienced only fair overall reproductive success in 1977, and less reproductive success than during 1976 when a young to adult of 2.37:1 was observed. Seven additional sage grouse broods not counted on routes averaged 4.86 young per brood, bringing the total number of broods observed in 1977 to 118. During 1977, 111 of 151 hens (74%) were observed with broods. Earliest broods were observed during the last week of May 1977, indicating an early hatch. Sizes of the young observed along routes confirmed this early hatch. Most of the young were difficult to distinguish from adult hens by August 10, 1977. �Table 20. Summary of sage grouse brood counts, Moffat and western Routt counties, 1976. Sage Grouse Counted Number Adults Minutes Hens Cocks Young Unc1ass. Total Broods Young/ Brood Number Brood1ess Hens Birds/ Mile Date Time Miles Great Divide 8-19-77 8-26-76 A.M. A.M. 23.6 22.7 110 130 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 28 8 28 0 0 - 0 0 0.34 1. 23 Timberlake 8-5-76 8-24-76 A.M. A.M. 24.7 31.1 100 120 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 12 6 12 1 0 4.00 - 1 0 0.24 0.39 Big Hole 8-4-76 A.M. 28.4 110 2 3 8 0 13 1 8.00 1 0.46 Spring Creek 8-6-76 8-25-76 A.M. A.M. 26.8 26.9 120 110 2 1 0 5 9 9 17 1 28 16 2 1 4.50 9.00 0 0 1.04 0.59 Powder Wash 8-11-76 8-31-76 A.M. A.M. 24.0 30.0 110 130 1 0 0 0 0 0 19 41 20 41 0 0 - 1 0 0.83 .....I 1. 37 +:-co 105 3 0 19 30 52 3 6.33 0 2.43 Name of Route County -Moffat I Blue Mountain 8-10-76 A.M. 21.4 Cold Spring 8-14-76 A.M. 15.2 160 3 0 11 236 250 3 3.66 0 16.45 Juniper-Axial 8-3-76 8-27-76 A.M. A.M. 28.1 28.3 105 100 5 0 0 8 16 0 10 6 31 14 3 0 5.33 2 0 1.10 0.49 E1khead 8-18-76 8-30-76 A.M. A.M. 30.1 28.8 115 110 1 0 0 0 4 0 6 10 11 10 1 0 4.00 - 0 0 0.37 0.35 Slater Park 8-20-76 A.M. 22.5 110 2 0 10 12 24 2 5.00 0 1.07 Totals 412.6 1,845 22 16 90 436 564 17 Averages 25.8 - - - - - - Routt 115.3 - 5 5.29 - 1.37 �Table 21. Summary of sage grouse brood counts, Moffat and western Routt counties 1977. Young/ Brood Number Brood1ess Hens Birds/ Mile Sage Grouse Counted County Number Adults Minutes Hens Cocks Young Unc1ass. Total Broods Date Time Miles Great Divide 7-15-77 7-26-77 7-28-77 7-21-77 8-7-77 A.M. A.M. A.M. P.M. P.M. 24.9 26.5 25.9 26.9 26.0 150 155 135 148 130 6 6 6 11 1 3 0 0 4 0 17 25 28 53 5 19 0 0 0 23 45 31 34 68 29 5 6 6 10 1 3.40 4.17 4.67 5.30 5.00 1 0 0 1 0 1.81 1.17 1.31 2.53 1.12 Timberlake 7-19-77 7-20-77 7-29-77 8-8-77 8-11-77 A.N. A.M. A.M. P.M. P.M. 33.9 34.0 36.3 35.4 34.2 115 205 140 135 150 5 5 8 4 2 0 0 0 4 23 10 10 40 0 0 0 60 32 18 43 15 75 80 26 68 2 2 8 0 0 5.00 5.00 5.00 3 3 0 4 2 0.44 2.21 1 2.20 O.73 ~ 1.99 1 7-27-77 8-8-77 8-9-77 8-2-77 8-3-77 A.M. A.M. A.M. P.M. P.M. 27.0 25.8 27.0 27.0 26.9 145 120 120 150 120 1 0 3 2 2 1 10 0 0 0 4 0 12 10 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 10 15 12 8 1 0 3 2 2 4.00 0 0 0 0 0 0.22 0.39 0.56 0.44 0.30 Spring Creek 7-13-77 7-22-77 8-8-77 7-28-77 8-1-77 A.M. A.M. A.M. P.M. P.M. 26.9 28.2 28.2 27.8 27.1 125 150 125 135 110 7 6 4 2 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 32 16 9 6 0 0 0 0 0 8 38 20 13 7 0 6 4 2 1 5.33 4.00 4.50 6.00 7 0 0 0 0 0.30 1.35 0.71 0.47 0.26 Powder Wash 7-12-77 7-26-77 A.M. A.M. 27.0 29.3 105 135 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 - 0 0 0.00 0.24 Name of Route Moffat Big Hole - 4.00 5.00 3.00 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I-' �Table 21. Summary of sage grouse brood counts, Moffat and western Routt counties 1977 (continued). Young/ Brood Number Brood1ess Hens Birds/ Mile Sage Grouse Counted Number Adults Minutes Hens Cocks Young Unc1ass. Total Broods Date Time Miles Blue Mountain 7-14-77 A.M. 22.9 l30 6 35 29 24 94 6 4.83 0 4.10 Cold Spring 7-18-77 A.M. 20.7 180 30 48 130 21 229 22 5.91 8 11.06 Juniper Axial 7-28-77 7-25-77 8-4-77 A.M.' P.M. P.M. 27.0 27.1 29.7 105 105 l30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 Name of Route County Moffat (cont . ) I I-' Sunbeam 8-9-77 A.M. 23.4 115 1 30 2 0 33 1 2.00 0 1. 41 E1khead 7-21-77 .8-3-77 8-4-77 A.M. A.M. A.M. 24.8 26.0 26.1 115 160 155 11 7 14 10 0 1 5 27 56 0 0 48 26 34 119 1 7 l3 5.00 3.86 4.31 10 0 1 1.05 1. 31 4.56 Slater Park 7-22-77 7-27-77 A.H. A.H. 23.4 21.8 110 120 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0.00 0.00 Totals 905.1 4,428 151 179 532 288 1,150 111 Averages 27.4 - - - - - - Routt -- l34.2 40 4.79 1. 27 V1 0 I �-151- The majority of sage grouse observations secured during the brood rearing period were made near existing water sources and nearby meadows (Fig. 17). This concentrating of birds near waterholes was more pronounced than found during 1976 and probably was accented by an extended drought throughout western Colorado (Fig. 18). Distribution Checks Number of birds observed and number of specific locations were greatly influenced by the fact that more time was spent searching areas nearest to headquarters (Craig) during the study. No attempt was made to plan field work so similar amounts of time and travel could be spent in all ranges. For this reason, these data have value for determining distribution by winter and summer periods for outlining specific areas such as brood rearing and wintering areas, but limited value for comparing populations. Winter Periods 1976-l978.--Fig. 19 shows winter period distribution of sage grouse in Moffat County by numbers of birds and locations. Mortalities, flocks, and field signs (tracks, roosts, etc.) were noted throughout the study period and used to determine winter distribution. Eleven important wintering areas were identified (Fig. 20). These contained 182 mi2 (47,139 ha) of winter range. In addition, wintering flocks of sage grouse (particularly males) were found within 1.5 mi (2.4 km) of over 90 percent of 41 active strutting grounds checked for wintering activity (19761978). Cocks from nearby wintering flocks were observed to visit most (22 of 36) strutting grounds during the winter periods. Probable causes of 13 winter period mortalities are listed in Table 22. Summer Periods 1976-l977.--Fig. 21 shows summer period distribution of sage grouse in Moffat County by numbers of birds and locations. Mortalities, broods, flocks, and field signs (tracks, roosts, etc.) were noted throughout the study period and used to determine summer distribution. Strutting ground counts and brood counts are recorded under inventory and are not included in these data. Two important brood rearing areas were identified (Fig. 20). These consist of the Class 1 ranges on Cold Spring Mountain and Blue.Mountain. Broods observed along brood count routes and miscellaneous brood counts were used to determine that these two areas are important brood rearing areas. These two areas contain approximately 146 mi2 (37,815 ha) of summer range. In addition, broods were commonly observed throughout most of Class 1 ranges. Probable causes of 34 non-winter period mortalities are listed in Table 23. Road kills (13 birds), drownings in stock tanks (8 birds), and predator kills (7 birds) were the three most probable causes of mortalities during this period. HARVEST DATA COLLECTION Wing Collections Wing barrel collection stations were first developed by the Arizona Game and Fish Department and modified by Hoffman and Braun (1975) for use in Colorado. These have proven valuable for gathering harvest information for management purposes for a variety of small game species. Sex and age determination of the sage grouse wing samples was accomplished by Clait Braun using methods described by Beck et al. (1975). �I ""' VI N I Fig. 17. Sage grouse broods in brood rearing habitat in meadow area, Cold Spring Mountain, Moffat County. �I I-' V1 w J Fig. 18. Big sagebrush range with scattered junipers along a brood count route, Moffat County. �"""" z- -154~ z ::::> 0 ~ 00 0 u 0 a: l- S i1 IL. 0 ~ . , w 0 ~ ~ c [ eo o~ 0 , ~ , E . " c" , ~ - o~ e-, E ~ ~ ~ ~ 0• u ~" o • u~ < u o • u E o • o < .J:;': 0_ . - - .~] ~ ~ 0_ "~ .c " E • 0 0 c 0 E .3~ u; 0_ oro E 0 i~ ~ ;~ ~" 0- co O~ 0 E .~ " . -c n �I I-' VI VI I MOFFAT COUNTY COLORADO ® • Winbrlng KilG02 Syabol .....® are IU.le.2 Hu. ant. _taring pcj)Ulotloa Cold Spring 56.5 1 Po~Mt!.u.h 25.1 200-390 Blue Mountain 89.9 2 Blg 20.2 50-100 Toto]. 146.4 3 'llIornl>ur9h '.4 sc-ree MOuntain Holo 10 11 c>.lch rouraile ~ 14.5 50-100 Rod •.." GrNMwod 19.0 200-300 16.2 100-200 CrHIC. 12.2 50-100 North rork Blg Gulch 15.1 50-100 n.c.ption 13.1 14.2 50-100 200-300 14.0 50-100 Spr1n; • OulCh <lIlch CrMk J •••• <lIlch Mor9C Gulch Tobol m:i �I, Z -156~ z ;:) 0 00 o 0:'" f-3 .. ~ ~ '0 E ~ Lt8 ] LL 0 ~ ~ [ M~ ~ 0 0 0 '0 3 ff u o "~ ~ < o~ "~ O~ g~ " 0 M_ c " "~ .,r; §~ "~ o~ " < ~, .3~ ~ ~ 0_ ff u " .3~ " o· o~ g~ j; 0 " 0 '0 .~j "~ j ~ o " "~ 1J ~~ .3~ �-157- Table 22. Probable causes of winter period mortalities a 1976-l978. Number Birds Age and Sex of Birds 3 Mature males (2) Juvenile female (1) 3 Unknown age males 3 Juvenile males 2 Mature male (1) Juvenile female (1) Unknown 2 Juvenile male (1) Unclassified (1) Total 13 Cause of Death Predator killed on strutting Poached from strutting ground ground Hit power line Road killed on gravelled a Four month periods road (December 1-March (3) (3) 31). 1976 Sage grouse wings collected during 1976 through use of 16 wing barrels and miscellaneous hunter contacts and number of wings collected were: Great Divide = 129, Cedar Mountain = 127, Dinosaur = 105, Timberlake = 90, Cold Spring Mountain = 52, Deception Creek = 35, Moffat County Road 4 = 31, Maybell = 24, Axial Basin = 19, California Park Road = 16, Juniper = 13, Wolf Creek = 7, Sand Wash = 7, Slater Creek = 6, Powder Wash = 0, Sand Wash Ridge = 0, North Park Check Station = 44, and miscellaneous hunter contacts 43. In all, 748 wings of sage grouse were collected during September 11-13, 1976. In considering the different sage grouse ranges from which wing barrels probably sampled the kill, 401 wings (53.6%) came from the area northwest of Craig (west of Colorado Highway 13, north of U. S. Highway 40, and east of the Little Snake River), 112 wings (15.0%) from Blue Mountain, 67 wings (9.0%) from the area southwest of Craig (west of Colorado Highway 13, south of U. S. Highway 40, and east of Deception Creek), 52 wings (7.0%) from Cold Spring Mountain, 22 wings (2.9%) from the area east of Colorado Highway 13 to north of Hayden, and seven wings (0.9%) from Sand Wash. An additional 87 wings (11.6%) were secured from check stations in North Park and through miscella~eous hunter contacts. Age and sex composition of the wing sample in 1976 is listed in Table 24. Females comprised 84.1 percent of the adult segment of the harvest, 64.3 percent of the subadu1t or yearling segment of the harvest, and 57.4 percent of the immature or juvenile segment of the harvest. These data suggest differential mortality occurred in the Moffat County area in 1976. These data further suggest that segregation of sexes had started in the Moffat County area prior to the hunting season. �-158- Table 23. Probable causes of non-winter Cause of Death mortalities Number Birds Road killed on pavement Road killed on gravelled road 1976-1977.a Age and Sex of Birds 8 Juvenile male (1) Yearling female (1) Mature females (2) Juvenile unknown sexes (4) 5 Juvenile male (1) Yearling male (1) Juvenile female (1) Mature female (1) Juvenile unknown sex (1) 8 Juvenile unknown sexes (8) Drowned in stock tank Predator killed on strutting ground 5 Mature male (1) Unknown age males (3) Mature female (1) Predator killed off strutting ground 2 Unknown age male (1) Juvenile female (1) Poached in deer season 2 Mature males Hit power line 1 Juvenile Hit fence 1 Mature male Unknown 2 Juvenile male (1) Unclassified (1) Total 34 a Eight month periods (April I-November (2) female (1) (1) 30). Analysis of wing molt patterns of adult and subadult females revealed that 97 of 132 (73.5%) adults and 49 of 74 (66.2%) subadult or yearling hens were probably successful nesters in 1976. These data and the high percentage of immatures in the harvest sample (63.6%) indicate that nesting success and production were good in the Moffat County area in 1976. The percentage of yearlings in the harvest (15.4%) indicates reproduction during 1975 was at least fair. In 1976, 2.3 chicks per hen (3.3 per successful hen) were present in the harvest. No comparable data are available for the Moffat County area for the previous years. A sample of 108 sage grouse wings collected in 1976 in Middle Park indicated 2.5 chicks per hen and 3.8 chicks per successful hen. �Age and sex composition of the sage grouse harvest, Moffat and western Routt counties 1976-1977. Table 24. Males Year No. % Immatures Females % No. Total No. % Males % No. Yearlings Females % No. Total % No. Males % No. Adults Females % No. Total % No. I I-' 1976 203 42.6 273 57.4 476 63.6 41 35.7 74 64.3 115 15.4 25 15.9 132 84.1 157 21.0 ~ 1977 121 39.3 187 60.7 308 43.0 77 45.8 91 54.2 168 23.4 89 36.9 152 63.1 241 33.6 �-160- Approximate dates of hatching determined by backdating, utilizing stages of primary molt were estimated for all but one chick in the harvest sample (N = 439). Estimated hatching dates ranged from May 20 to July 15, with the overall average peak of the hatch occurring during the period of June 10-14. This peak was estimated to be approximately 10 days later than the overall average for Cold Spring Mountain at elevations from 8,000 to 8,500 ft (2,4382,591 m) and approximately 7 to 9 days earlier than the overall average for the Axial Basin-Juniper-Deception Creek area at elevations varying from 6,200 to 6,500 ft (1,890-1,981 m). Peak numbers of hens on strutting grounds located at intermediate elevations such as in the Great Divide area probably occurred during the week of April 11-17, 1976. Here, as with peak hatching dates, adjustments must be made for peak period of hen attendance of strutting grounds according to elevations. The average age of 188 male chicks was 91.5 days compared with an average of 251 female chicks of 93.0 days. This variation was small, considering difficulty in assigning accurate ages from growth charts. age the 1977 Wing collection barrels were placed at 15 sites in Moffat County (Fig. 15) and at 1 site in western Routt County (Fig. 16). Number of wings collected were: Cedar Mountain = 137, Dinosaur = 104, Cold Spring Mountain = 102, Great Divide = 85, Timberlake = 56, Fourmile Creek = 49, California Park Road = 36, Moffat County Road 4 = 27, Deception Creek = 21, Lay Creek = 21, Moffat County Road 2 = 5, Maybell = 5, Juniper = 5, Axial Basin = 5, Elk Springs = 2, Ralph White Reservoir = 1, Middle Park Check Station = 40, and wing survey envelopes = 16. In all, 717 wings of sage grouse were collected during September 10-16, 1977. Thirty-one wings from sharp-tailed grouse, and 24 wings from blue grouse were collected in wing barrels, incidental to sage grouse wing collections. During 1976, 748 wings of sage grouse, 12 wings of sharp-tailed grouse, and 34 wings of blue grouse were collected. In considering the different sage grouse ranges from which wing barrels probably sampled the kill, 331 wings (46.2%) came from the area northwest of Craig (west of Colorado Highway 13, north of U. S. Highway 40 and east of the Little Snake River), 106 wings (14.8%) from Blue Mountain, 102 wings (14.2%) from Cold Spring Mountain, 91 wings (12.7%) from the area east of Colorado Highway 13 to north of Hayden, 31 wings (4.3%) from the area southwest of Craig (west of Colorado Highway 13, south of U. S. Highway 40 and east of Deception Creek), 40 wings (5.6%) from the check station in Middle Park, and 16 wings (2.2%) from the wing survey envelopes. Age and sex composition of the sage grouse harvest sample for 1977 are listed in Table 24, along with comparable data for 1976. During 1977, females comprised 63.1 percent of the adult segment of the harvest, 54.2 percent of the yearling segment, and 60.7 percent of the immature segment. During 1977 243 adult and yearling hens were harvested out of 409 adult and yearling sage grouse (59.4%), indicating there was no selection shown towards smaller birds (hens and/or broods). �-161- Analysis of wing molt patterns of adult and yearling females in the sample revealed that 82 of 152 (53.9%) adult hens and 51 of 91 (56.0%) yearling hens were probably successful nesters in 1977, compared with 73.5 percent adult hens and 66.2 percent yearling hens probably being successful in 1976. Immatures made up 43.0 percent of the total harvest sample in 1977, compared with 63.6 percent in 1976. In 1977, 1.3 chicks per hen (2.3 per successful hen) were present in the harvest sample, compared with 2.3 chicks per hen (3.3 per successful hen) for 1976. From these data it was concluded that overall reproductive success within the Moffat County area was only fair during 1977, even though reproductive success in the higher elevational ranges was good, with 52.2 percent immatures in the harvest sample. Reproductive success within the lower and intermediate elevational ranges in 1977 was poor, with only 34.8 percent immatures in the harvest sample. The percentage of yearlings in the harvest sample in 1977 (23.4%) confirmed the previously known fact that overall reproductive success in 1976 was good. Approximate dates of hatching determined by backdating, utilizing stages of primary molt were estimated for all chicks in the harvest sample (N = 308). An estimated hatching period from May 23 to July 8 was determined for 1977, compared with a hatching period from May 20 to July 15 determined for 1976. Estimated peak of the hatch for 1977 occurred during the period June 8 to June 14, similar to that found in 1976 (June 10-14). The peak of the hatch on Cold Spring Mountain (elevations 8,000-8,500 ft or 2,438-2,591 m) was delayed approximately five days in comparison with other ranges. An average age determined for 121 male chicks of 90.0 days was similar to the average age determined for 187 female chicks of 90.2 days. LITERATURE CITED Beck, Thomas D. I., R. Bruce Gill, and C1ait E. Braun. 1975. Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics. Game Infor. Leaflet No. 49 (Revised). Colo. Div. of Game Fish and Parks. 4 p. Braun, Clait E., and Thomas D. I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Job Final Report W-37-R-29, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. Colo. Div. Wildl. pp. 21-84. --- , Tim Britt, and Richard O. Wallestad. of sage grouse habitats. Wild1. 1977. Guidelines Soc. Bull. 5(3):99-106. for maintenance Dalke, Paul D., Duane B. Pyrah, Don C. Stanton, John E. Crawford, F. Schlatterer. 1963. Ecology, productivity, and management grouse in Idaho. J. Wild1. Manage. 27(4):811-841. and Edward of sage Edminster, Frank C. 1954. American game birds of field and forest. Scribner's Son, New York. pp. 114-134. Eng, Robert L., and Philip Schladweiler. and habitat use in Central Montana. Gill, R. Bruce. 1965. Distribution grouse in North Park, Colorado. Collins. 187 pp. Charles 1972. Sage grouse winter movements J. Wildl. Manage. 36(1):141-146. and abundance M. S. Thesis. of a population of sage Colo. State Univ., Fort �-162- Harrington, H. D. 1954. Denver. 666 p. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Sage Books, Hoffman, Richard W., and C1ait E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer wing collection station. Game Infor. Leaflet No. 101. Colo. Div. Wildlife. 3 p. Jenni, Donald A., and Jonathan E. Hartzler. 1978. Attendance at a sage grouse 1ek:imp1ications for spring censuses. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 42(1):46-52. K1ebenow, Donald A. 1969. Sage grouse nesting and brood habitat J. Wi1d1. Manage. 33(3):649-662. in Idaho. Krager, Ron. 1977. Survey of sage grouse strutting ground complexes and seasonal use areas within the Piceance Basin Wildlife Habitat area. Colo. Div. Wildlife. 46 p , Mimeo. Moffat County Planning Department. area of Moffat County. 67 p. 1977. Comprehensive plan for the Craig Rogers, Glenn E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations in Colorado. No. 16. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Dept. 132 p. Tech. Pub. Wa11estad, Richard o. 1971. Summer movements and habitat use by sage grouse broods in central Montana. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 35(1):129-136. _____ , and Duane Pyrah. 1974. Movement and nesting of sage grouse hens in central Montana. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 38(4):630-633. ----- , and Philip Sch1adwei1er. 1974. Breeding season movements and habitat selection of male sage grouse. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 38(4):634-637. Prepared by ~~o?!an~~ Wildlife Researcher C �April 1979 -163- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey W-37-R-32 Job No. 11 Vulnerability and Population Characteristics of Sage Grouse in Hoffat County 3 --------~----------------------- April 1, 1978 through March 31, 1979 Tom Beck, Clait Braun, John Corey, Larry Crooks, Jim Dingman, Howard Funk, Ken Giesen, Dave Hoart, Don Hoffman, Richard Hoffman, Tom Lines, Debra Martin, Russ Mason, Sue McElderry, Lou Vidakovich, Nancy Watkins, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Population characteristics, harvest statistics and vulnerability to hunting were investigated for sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in Moffat and Western Routt counties, Colorado. Counts of males on 54 leks averaged 37.2, up from 33.5 cocks/lek counted on 59 leks in 1977. Nine new leks were located in 1978. Counts of sage grouse along 7 brood routes in 1978 averaged 2.85 birds/mile. Five hundred and six sage grouse were banded in 1978 (421 young of the year, 38 yearlings and 47 adults) primarily through use of cannon nets and drive traps. Free permits were required of all sage grouse hunters in Moffat County in 1978. A total of 2,006 was issued, of which 1,502 permit holders hunted and harvested 5,185 sage grouse. Hunter success was good (75.1%) and each successful hunter bagged an average of 4.2 grouse. Approximately 66% of the total harvest occurred during the initial weekend of the 9 day season. Check stations and volunteer wing collection barrels were used to obtain harvest statistics and wings. A total of 770 hunters was checked at 3 check stations. These hunters harvested 1.9 grouse each. Hunter success was best at Cold Spring Mountain and Blue Mountain. Analysis of 2,418 wings from sage grouse bagged in Moffat and western Routt counties indicated that the harvest was comprised of 68.7% young of the year, 9.9% yearlings and 21.4% adults. There were 3.1 chicks per female in the harvest sample. The sex ratio at hatching approximated 1:1 with differential survival favoring females occurring in the older age classes. There were 2 females to each male in the adult and yearling segment of the fall population. Estimated turnover of adult males was 43.3%, while for adult females it was 33.2%. Young males were slightly more vulnerable than young females to hunting (9.2 vs 7.8%). The overall harvest rate was 9.5%, not markedly different than that documented from 1973-1978 in North Park. �-164- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Counts of males on selected leks should be continued as a management function. 2 ...Trapping and banding should be expanded with a uu.n unum goal of 500 birds to be banded, 100 each in 5 different units of Moffat County. 3. Counts of birds along established brood routes should be discontinued. 4. The free permit requirement should be continued. 5. Check stations should be operated at 3 locations on the initial 2 weekends of the sage grouse season in Moffat County in 1979 (Cedar Mountain, Maybell, Dinosaur) . 6. If data collected continue to be similar to those collected in North Park, the intensive sage grouse study in Moffat County should be discontinued at the end of the 1979-1980 segment. 7. Collections of sage grouse wings from Moffat County should be continued as a management function. for all sage grouse hunters in Moffat County �-165- VULNERABILITY AND POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF SAGE GROUSE IN MOFFAT COUNTY C1ait E. Braun and Donald M. Hoffman Until recent years, sage grouse have been hunted annually in Colorado, with season lengths typically of 3 days and bag and possession limits of 2 and 4. Intensive bandings of adult and yearling sage grouse along with experimental hunting seas~ns in North Park, Jackson County, Colorado have indicated that only about 10% of the fall population of these segments is annually harvested. Data from this area indicate that yearling males are most vulnerable, with adult males and hens of both age classes having lower rates of exploitation. Knowledge concerning population characteristics and havest rates are important if maximum allowable recreational opportunity through hunting is to be achieved. If turnover rates are moderately high (40-60%) and recovery rates (and by relationship, vulnerability rates) are low, conservative seasons and bag limits have little merit. This report covers the initial year of a study to investigate population characteristics and vulnerability to hunting of sage grouse in Moffat County and adjacent areas in Routt County, Colorado. Period covered is from mid-March 1978 through February 1979. P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate young of the year vulnerability adults and yearlings of each sex. 2. Provide reliable estimates 3. Provide reliable data on characteristics 4. Estimate of harvest to hunting in relationship to rates (recovery rates). of the harvest. turnover and survival rates. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Counts of males and females will be conducted on a mlnlmum of 28 leks within Small Game Management Units 16 and 18 during April and May. A minimum of 4 early morning counts will be made per 1ek. Additional new leks will be located through ground searches. 2. Counts of chicks and adults will be made along 7 established routes within Small Game Management Units 16 and 18 during the period July 5 to August 20. A minimum of 2 early morning and two late evening counts will be made per route. 3a. Chicks will be captured and banded within brood rearing areas during July, August and early September through use of cannon nets, drive traps and/or night lighting. A minimum of 300 (150 male and 150 female) chicks is desired. Aluminum and year color coded leg bands will be used to identify birds by location. �-166- 3b. Adult and yearling sage grouse will be banded in conjunction with the banding of chicks whenever possible. Aluminum and year color coded leg bands will be used to identify birds and location. 4a. Sage grouse hunting will be by free permits, unlimited in number, in Moffat County. All hunters will be mailed a questionnaire within 1 week of the end of the hunting season. One follow up letter will be sent 3 weeks later. 4b. Check stations will be operated at least during both days of the opening weekend near Cedar Mountain, Dinosaur and Cold Springs Mountain to collect harvest data, wings, and compliance with the permit requirement. 4c. Wing barrel collection stations will be located at 16 sites to sample the harvest within Moffat and Western Routt counties. A sample of 600 wings is desired. 4d. Numbers and locations of banded birds shot will be recorded hunter checks, check stations and hunter questionnaires. from field 4e. Hunter success will be determined stations. and check from hunter questionnaires 4f. Age and sex composition of the harvest sample of wings will be determined in Fort Collins following the open season. 4g. Total harvest will be calculated 5. Vulnerability estimates 6. Data will be compiled, from the hunter questionnaire survey. will be made based upon band recoveries. results analyzed, and a progress report prepared. METHODS AND MATERIALS Three men using 3, 4-wheel drive vehicles counted all known leks within the primary study area (Fig. 1) during late March to mid-May 1978. Counts were also made on leks on Cross Mountain and west of the Snake River. Attempts were made to make a minimum of 4 early morning counts per lek where possible using procedures described by Rogers (1964). L~ks counted by District Wildlife Managers within the primary study area were also counted by project personnel in 1978. Intensive efforts were again made to locate as many new leks as possible. Searches of wintering areas during December 1977-March 1978 were made to locate' sites showing a definite attraction to cocks. Eight and one-half hours wRre flown in 3 morning helicopter flights during April 22-24, to search for new leks. Routine early morning searches along roads and trails were made using procedures outlined by Rogers (1964). Locations of all known active leks within Moffat were mapped for future reference. and Western Routt counties �"-~-"n"",;-,;. .-~p!'Pi • '" " ,I ", • • • •. "'~" J' • ~ • • • 1;-.-.••. -" '3631 r-~l(':: ~,····f"'s.lIS5).nl5f1 . "':., ,. 'l -.~ ~" _ 1 J "',,' ~ • , -ro• '\ r R ,,~ I .n,. " <.•• ~, u {', , .,i'•.j '~J" -, '. i to ,.. ••••""'." _ •••••• l. ,.E!- ". • ••• ••• , ~ . i·],.I" ,,' iJD), . /,.,-'i. .::.10.1 l.· _..,[., ....:g; 1$"1 J"" ,,' J~ ~. ••.••. •. t ·. to ,,~ ~." ~ ,J ~" .. .!,.- .' •• ~·.Tu " :uJ '~ { ,'N,..•; ',;:'" -e-: ~:.,;r ~~ )-:.~ ~ L.,.'" ""~ ,--' ~ '" J.. J " :x'/1 .·; :',.,.,.,;" /' \ J ,r ~ I" • I" I '~\ T .I ,., II •• i' .,; •• • I' ~t;l"'~ NS: ••• :iM 0 ~: "-"J\-j:! ":-:'~T~;"'--T.: .. ' .~:"'. ' ~ .. t": t••• '~+''r' !:!!t··· l~J.\. I4f ~~,~ •• • .• (l' If '-}- .~ \ I·', &f.., -II ,;" .•". '. I~ '; • ~ ® ) .• I .,,J'" T .~ , T:- '" '~ I.M "",\", 31 .• •• 'I. ~ I; • •• '. " Y! • • • • •• • • - iii"{ •• '-"'i:'r! " •• ·v~~ 5& -, \... ~ I .:. - ra I rJrI i'>.1"",I'!' 'r~1 .~" r i:/, )~",.J:'Ci.::· "'~ ( 6 '1 . Cft---t=4 ,n -ltl\ J ~ " ., p:~~... "M , ,. :sa: ,,~, h" I I \ 1+· ••• , -- .. ~ -- "51'" ~""- , • ," n j' 3' ',-,,'" \ '\ '" 'J ~'" 1- -J-"31 • ~ \ II ".,. ' _ .,•.. ,. L ". It • • •• l"i •• II I ; ::..r\.\, : ., ",. 0 y •••••• ••..••• ~~ ... •••.••• •• ~' I , ..' .A. •• >. I I-' '" -...J I -•• Key, \, Fig. 1. Moffat County, Colorado sage grouse study area. Pr1aary Brood • AcU.,. @ 0\ecIc Study Area Par1llletar I Route Strutting' W1n9 BarrtIJ. StaUon Gro\mcl Collection Station (with W1n9 Barr.l) .J �-168- Two early morning and 2 late evening counts were completed along 7 established brood routes using procedures described by Rogers (1964). Early morning routes were usually started as soon as it became light enough to see well and most evening routes were started at 6:00 P.M. MDT. Routes requiring extra time were started earlier. Routes were run going away from the sun whenever possible for improved visibility. Sage grouse were trapped in July and August at night where they roosted along trails and throughout the early morning and evening where they concentrated in meadows. Methods used involved spotlighting and capture with long handled nets, wire drift fences with a cannon net at the end of the fence, bumper mounted cannon nets, and modified lily pad traps (Braun and Beck 1976, Lacher and Lacher 1964, Gullion 1965). Birds captured were weighed, measured, classified as to age and sex (Eng 1955, Beck et al. 1975) and banded with serially numbered aluminum leg bands (size 16 for males, 14 for females) and plastic bandettes color coded for year and location (5 different areas in Moffat County). Sage grouse hunters in Moffat County in 1978 were required to have in their possession while hunting a free numbered permit. -Permits, unlimited in number, were available from Division of Wildlife offices in Fort Collins, Grand Junction, Meeker, Craig, and Denver, all license agents in the Moffat County area, and all project and management personnel working in Moffat County. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the end of the sage grouse hunting season in Moffat County. One follow up letter and questionnaire were sent in mid-October to all non-respondents to the initial mailing. Check stations were operated at 3 locations (Cedar Mountain, Maybell and Dinosaur) on both weekends (except Maybell which was not open during the 2nd Saturday) of the hunting season. Each station was operated from about 0800 to 1900 MDT, depending upon traffic load. Data obtained per party were: county of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted (total of all hunters), birds bagged, birds lost, number of banded birds and location of where each was obtained, area hunted, and information on previous sage grouse hunting experience. One wing was obtained for most· birds checked with ovaries being taken or examined from a sample of yearling and adult hens. Efforts were made to ascertain sex by gonadal inspection for a sample of birds. These data were recorded on tags with wings being individually marked with corresponding information concerning actual sex of that bird. Wings were frozen and stored for later analysis. In addition to the 3 check stations, wing barrels and signs (Hoffman and Braun 1975) were placed at 16 locations in Moffat and Western Routt counties, including the 3 check station sites. Volunteer wing collection stations were in operation the entire season at all sites. Wings were collected following the 1st weekend, midweek, and following the 2nd weekend. Collected wings were frozen for later analysis. Collected wings were thawed and classified to age (chicks, yearlings, adults) and sex following procedures outlined by Eng (1955) and Beck et al. (1975). Hatching dates were calculated for chicks of the year using data from Pyrah (1963). Ovaries collected were stored in AFA (alcohol, formalin and acetic acid) and later examined for presence of ovulated follicles as described by Kabat et al. (1948). �-169- DESCRIPTION OF AREA The primary study area (Fig. 1) consisted of that portion of Moffat County north of Colorado Highway 318 from the Utah state Line to Sunbeam, east of Cedar Springs Draw (Moffat County Road 23), north of T4N from near Escarpment Peak to the junction of Colorado Highway 13 and Moffat County Road 45, west of Colorado Highway 13 and west of Moffat County Road 101. In addition, harvest data were collected from Blue Mountain and western Routt County with inventory data (brood route counts) also being collected from western Routt County. Moffat County is located in extreme northwestern Colorado, bordered by Wyoming on the north, Utah on the west, Rio Blanco County on the south and Routt County on the east. The major drainages include the Green River which flows north to south through western Moffat County, the Yampa River which flows east to west in the southern part of the county to its intersection with the Green River, approximately 3 miles (4.8 km) from the Utah border, and the Little Snake River which flows northeast to southwest through the middle of the county where it joins the Yampa River in Lily Park. The climate in Moffat County is semi-arid with 8 to 20 inches (20.3-50.8 cm) of precipitation annually. Precipitation occurs mainly in late summer to early winter. Mean annual precipitation for 6 weather stations was 12.99 inches (33.0 cm). The annual mean temperature for 5 stations was 43.30F (6.30C) during years of record. Elevation in Moffat County varies from approximately 4,600 to 11,045 feet (1,402-3,367 m). The county seat, Craig, located in eastern Moffat County, is 6,240 feet (1,902 m) above sea level. 2 Sagebrush ranges comprise approximately 60% (2,841 mi ) of the total land area of Moffat County. Non-sagebrush ranges consisting of pinon-juniper, rough and rocky mountain shrub, aspen, or spruce-fir types comprise most of the remaining 40% (1,902 miles2) of the total land area. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Counts of Sage Grouse on Display Areas In 1978, 2,008 cocks and 2,163 total birds were counted on 54 grounds. This is an average of 37.2 cocks/lek (Table 1), slightly higher than the average of 33.5 cocks/lek counted on 59 leks in all of Moffat and Western Routt counties in 1977. District Wildlife Managers (DWM's) counted 19 active leks within the primary study area in Moffat County in 1978 with 757 cocks and 780 total birds (average = 39.8 cocks/lek, 41.1 total birds/lek). In addition DWM's secured counts on 6 large leks outside the primary study area within Moffat County which were not counted by project personnel. These 6 leks had a total of 634 cocks and 637 total birds (105.7 cocks and 106.2 total birds/ lek). �Table l. Sage grouse 1ek counts, Moffat County 1978. Lek No. of Counts --No. of Sites Brown's Park (Vacant) Gee Flats Powder Wash Hill Snake River West Beaver Basin Coffee Pot Spring Summit Spring Goodman Draw Sand Wash Road (Ab~ndoned) East Sand Wash Road (New) Total 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 0 4 27 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 0 1 D.W.M. District First High a Count 1 2 3 - 3 Highest Count (Cocks) Date Time A.M.b Counter(s) 4-18-78 4-11-78 4-8-78 5-10-78 4-26-78 5-2-78 5-10-78 5:25 5:35 7:15 6:15 6:15 8:20 7:05 D. Hoffman, L. Crooks L. Crooks, J. Corey D. Hoffman D. Hoffman, L. Crooks 1. Crooks D. Hoffman, L. Crooks D. Hoffman, L. Crooks 4-26-78 4:45 L. Crooks No. of Cocks Total Birds 55 69 8 153 29 18 42 0 28 402 60 70 8 179 29 18 43 0 28 435 I f-' -..J 0 Craig, Northwest (C. Brown) North Fork Big Gulch 2 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bord Gulch Greasewood Gulch Upper 19 Road Spring Creek 1 Spring Creek 2 Spring Creek 3 Cross Mountain 1 Cross Mountain 2 Big Hole Gulch Cox Ranch Timberlake Creek 1 Timberlake Creek 2 Timberlake Creek 3 Big Hole Butte Dressler Gulch Sevenmi1e Reservoir Pole Gulch I 4 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 4 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,4 4 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 5 1 1 4 2 1 2 1 1 2 4-8-78 4-8-78 4-27-78 4-8-78 4-21-78 4-3-78 4-3-78 4-3-78 4-20-78 4-28-78 4-12-78 4-3-78 4-3-78 4-26-78 4-7-78 3-25-78 4-14-78 4-6-78 4-4-78 4-13-78 5:30 5:45 5:30 6:16 6:00 7:00 5:45 6:20 5:55 5:40 6:55 7:05 7:15 5:00 6:10 7:20 6:10 6:05 5:50 5:25 J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey L. Crooks 1. Crooks L. Crooks J. Corey D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman D. Hoffman, J. Tanke D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman, B. Dupire 37 22 57 37 20 30 24 42 12 31 5 37 20 53 66 20 37 25 7 87 -----------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 41 28 59 43 20 31 27 44 12 31 5 51 20 53 71 53 38 37 7 87 �Table 1. D.W.M. District Sage grouse 1ek counts, Moffat County 1978 (continued). Lek No. of Counts Craig, Northwest (C. Brown) (continued) 3 Cottonwood Gulch 4 West Timberlake Creek 1 4 Thornburg Well 4 Lone Tree 4 Scandinavian Gulch 4 Thornburgh Gulch (New) 4 Mud Spring Draw (New) West Timberlake Creek 2 3 (New) 107 Subtotal No. of Sites First High Counta Highest Count (Cocks) Date Time A.M.b Counter(s) No. of Cocks Total Birds 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - 2 4 2 1 1 2 4-27-78 4-10-78 4-17-78 4-7-78 4-3-78 4-10-78 4-25-78 5:00 7:35 5:35 6:00 6:35 5:35 5:05 L. Crooks D. Hoffman L. Crooks D. Hoffman D. Hoffman L. Crooks L. Crooks 38 3 32 24 42 17 76 38 3 35 24 45 17 79 1 - 5-11-78 6:00 L. Crooks 47 948 51 1,050 4 5 5 4 18 1 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 4-20-78 3-25-78 4-20-78 5-1-78 5:55 6:35 5:10 7:05 L. Crooks D. Hoffman L. Crooks L. Crooks 36 18 136 11 201 38 19 l38 12 207 Craig, Southwest (W. Roland) Juniper 1 Axial Basin Dry Lake 2 Deception Creek Round Bottom Horse Gulch Duffy Mountain Morgan Gulch 1 Morgan Gulch 2 Boxe1der Gulch 1 Juniper 2 (New) 4 4 4 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 4-4-78 3-22-78 5-9-78 5-4-78 4-27-78 4-27-78 4-21-78 3-22-78 4-6-78 4-12-78 4-4-78 6:10 6:10 6:10 6:15 6:00 6:30 6:15 7:55 6:35 6:30 6:25 L. Crooks D. Hoffman D. Hoffman D. Hoffman, L. Crooks L. Crooks J. Corey D. Hoffman D. Hoffman L. Crooks L. Crooks L. Crooks 45 34 56 17 50 35 14 4 43 44 15 48 34 59 17 51 35 14 4 44 44 16 1 4 1 2 3 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ "-I I-' I Slater (C. Woodward) Fourmile Creek 1 Fourmile Creek 2 Fourmile Creek 3 Cowboy Reservoir (New) Subtotal 4 I I-' �Table L D.W.M. District Sage grouse 1ek counts, Moffat County 1978 (continued). No. of Counts Lek Craig, Southwest (W. Roland) (continued) Morgan Gulch 3 (New) 4 4 Boxe1der Gulch 2 (New) Temple Gulch (New) 4 52 Subtotal Highest Count (Cocks) No. of Sites First High Counta Date Time b A.M. 1 1 1 4 3 3 4-12-78 4-12-78 4-12-78 6:15 6:55 5:25 204 Total 54 = b Times are MST to 4-29-78 and MDT after 4-30-78. 3.8 37.2 Average number cocks/1ek a Leks with a minimum of 4 counts. Total Birds 24 44 32 457 25 45 35 471 2,008 2,163 -.... Number of active leks counted Average number total birds/1ek J. Corey J. Corey J. Corey No. of Cocks I f--' SUMMARY: Average number counts/1ek Counter(s) "<.. 40.1 N I �-173- Comparisons were made of numbers present on 45 leks counted by project personnel in 1977 and 1978 (Table 2). A total of 1,714 cocks was counted in 1978 compared with 1,387 in 1977 (+23.6%). Total birds counted were 1,855 in 1978 and 1,805 in 1977 (+2.8%). These data, along with an estimated 17.5% more cocks in 1977 compared with 1976, indicates the breeding population of sage grouse in Moffat County is increasing. Nine out of 54 leks counted in 1978 (16.7%) had more than 1 location where birds regularly displayed compared with 5 out of 60 counted in 1977 (8.3%). Leks with more than 1 display site were considered as 1 lek in both years. A minimum of 4 counts was secured on 42 of the 54 leks counted in 1978. The 1st count on the 42 grounds resulted in the highest cock count on 17 leks (40.5%), compared with the 2nd count being highest on 11 leks (26.2%), the 3rd count being highest on 6 leks (14.3%), with the 4th or 5th count being highest on 8 leks (19.0%) Nine new leks were located and counted in 1978, and one lek aGtive in 1977 was abandoned. Intensive searches of wintering areas which had a definite attraction for cocks resulted in the location of 4 new leks. Routine early morning searches along roads and trails provided an additional 4 new leks, with 1 additional new lek being located through helicopter flights. Fifteen leks within Moffat County were counted by both project personnel and DWM's in 1978 (Table 3). An average of 44.3 cocks/lek was obtained (54 counts) by project personnel compared to an average of 44.1 cocks/lek (31 counts) on different mornings by 3 DWM's. Even though project personnel made more counts per lek (3.6) than DWM's (2.1) and there were variations in maximum numbers of cocks counted on all but 1 lek, overall averages were similar. Total birds averaged 48.4 per lek in 54 counts by project personnel, compared with 45.5 in 31 counts by 3 Dl~'s. The higher average number of total birds recorded by project personnel probably was because DWM's began their counts later (early April 1978) than project personnel (March 20, 1978). Known sage grouse leks in Moffat County were classified as active, new or abandoned in 1978 (Table 4). Some leks were not classified in 1978 due to reduction in area inventoried or isolated location. These were: D.W.M. District No. of Leks Names State Rangely (L. Vidakovich) 4 Karren Ranch, Escalante, Line, Haslim Cow Camp Slater (C. Woodward) 3 Fan Rock, Fly Creek, Hayden (C. Hector) 4 29 Road 1, 29 Road 2, 80 Road, Elkhead Creek Craig SW (W. Roland) 1 Yellowjacket Craig NW (C. Brown) 1 Conway Spring Total 13 Slater Park Road Locations of 50 active leks within the primary study area (Fig. 1) and 17 active leks outside the primary study area were mapped for future reference. �Table 2. Peak counts of sage grouse, 45 leks, Moffat County 1977 and 1978. Year Lek Gee Flats Powder Wash Hill Snake River West Beaver Basin Coffee Pot Spring Summit Spring Goodman Draw North Fork Big Gulch 2 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bord Gulch Greasewood Gulch Upper 19 Road Spring Creek 1 Spring Creek 2 Spring Creek 3 Cross Mountain 1 Cross Mountain 2 Big Hole Gulch Cox Ranch Timberlake Creek 1 Timberlake Creek 2 Timberlake Creek 3 Big Hole Butte Dressler Gulch Sevenmi1e Reservoir Pole Gulch Cottonwood Gulch No. of Counts 1977 No. of Cocks Total Birds No. of Counts 1978 No. of Cocks Total Birds 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 3 2 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 64 55 12 101 26 19 13 22 6 34 23 52 33 24 31 16 25 13 34 16 55 43 21 34 27 14 37 8 67 57 12 107 38 19 14 24 8 78 23 54 53 44 31 18 25 13 38 16 55 43 69 34 28 15 76 32 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 4 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 4 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 55 69 8 153 29 18 42 37 22 57 37 20 30 24 42 12 31 5 37 20 53 66 20 37 25 7 87 38 60 70 8 179 29 18 43 41 28 59 43 20 31 27 44 12 31 5 51 20 53 71 53 38 37 7 87 38 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I I-' -..j ~ I �Table 2. Peak counts of sage grouse, 45 leks, Moffat County 1977 and 1978 (continued). . Year No. of Counts 1978 No. of Cocks Total Birds 12 38 24 47 36 39 48 33 78 92 30 80 8 37 10 40 62 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 3 32 24 42 36 18 l36 45 34 56 17 50 35 14 4 43 44 3 35 24 45 38 19 138 48 34 59 17 51 35 14 4 44 44 1,805 169 1,714 1,855 No. of Counts 1977 No. of Cocks Total Birds West Timberlake Creek 1 Thornburg Well Lone Tree Scandinavian Gulch Fourmile Creek 1 Fourmile Creek 2 Fourmile Creek 3 Juniper Axial Basin Dry Lake 2 Deception Creek Round Bottom Horse Gulch Duffy Mountain Morgan Gulch 1 Morgan Gulch 2 Boxelder Gulch 2 2 2 3 5 2 2 4 3 1 1 1 2 3 2 4 1 5 36 22 45 34 27 40 31 58 35 22 36 4 27 8 39 60 Total 98 1,387 . Lek Sununary: Ave. no. counts/lek Ave. no. cocks/lek Ave. no. total birds/lek 3.8 2.2 38.1 30.8 40.1 41.2 I I-' -...J V1 I �-176Table 3. Comparison of sage grouse numbers, 15 leks 'counted both by D.W.M. 's and project personnel, Moffat County, 1978. D.W.M. District Lek High Counts D.W.M.'s Project W-37-R Total Total Cocks Birds Cocks Birds Brown's Park Gee Flats 52 52 55 60 (C. Brown) Beaver Basin 133 150 153 179 Subtotals 185 202 208 239 Craig, NW Cross Mountain 1 31 31 31 31 (C. Brown) Cross Mountain 2 3 3 5 5 Grassie Reservoir 13 13 22 28 Lay Creek 62 62 57 59 Bord Gulch 22 22 37 43 Greasewood Gulch 30 30 20 20 Upper 19 Road 18 19 30 31 North Fork Big Gulch 2 40 40 37 41 Subtotals 219 220 239 258 Slater Timberlake Creek 2 83 86 66 71 (C. Woodward) Subtotals 83 86 66 71 Craig, SW Juniper 1 33 33 45 48 (W. Roland) Axial Basin 73 73 34 34 Dry Lake 55 55 56 59 Deception Creek 14 14 17 17 Subtotals 175 175 152 158 662 683 665 726 Totals Summary: Ave. no. cocks/lek Ave. no. total birds/lek 44.1 44.3 45.5 48.4 �Table 4. Status Sage grouse 1ek status, Moffat County 1978. Craig NW (C. Brown) Active (1978) North Fork Big Gulch 2 Grassie Reservoir Lay Creek Bord Gulch Greasewood Gulch Upper 19 Road Spring Creek 1 Spring Creek 2 Spring Creek 3 Cross Mountain 1 Cross Mountain 2 Big Hole Gulch Cox Ranch Timberlake Creek 1 Timberlake Creek 2 Timberlake Creek 3 Big Hole Butte Dressler Gulch Sevenmi1e Reservoir Pole Gulch Cottonwood Gulch West Timberlake Creek 1 (Skyline Road) Thornburg Well Lone Tree Scandinavian Gulch New (1978) Thornburgh Gulch Mud Spring Draw West Timberlake Creek 2 Abandoned (1978) but Active (1977) District Wildlife Manager Craig SW (W. Roland) Slater (C. Woodward) Juniper 1 Axial Basin Dry Lake 2 Deception Creek Round Bottom Horse Gulch Duffy Mountain Morgan Gulch 1 Morgan Gulch 2 Boxe1der Gulch 1 Fourmile Creek 1 Fourmile Creek 2 Fourmile Creek 3 Brown's Park (Vacant) Gee Flats Powder Wash Hill Snake River West Beaver Basin Coffee Pot Spring Summit Spring Goodman Draw I I-' '-J '-J I Juniper 2 Morgan Gulch 3 Boxe1der Gulch 2 Temple Gulch Cowboy Reservoir East Sand Wash Road Sand Wash Road �-178Brood Counts Seven sage grouse brood routes in Moffat and Western Routt counties were each counted 4 times (2 in early A.M., 2 in late P.M.) in July 1978 (Table 5). A total of 2,174 sage grouse (252 hens, 325 cocks, 665 young, and 932 unclassiComparative data for fied) was counted in 762.0 miles (2.85 birds/mile). 1976, 1977 and 1978 are presented (Table 6). The total of 1,214 sage grouse counted in the 14 morning counts is compared with 960 in the 14 evening counts for approximately 21% fewer birds in the evening counts. One hundred and thirty-nine separate broods, averaging 4.8 young, were counted along these routes. The young to adult ratio of 1.2:1 was lower than recorded both in 1976 (2.4:1) and 1977 (1.6:1). Numbers of broods counted in 1978 (139) were higher than in 1976 (17) and 1977 (111). Numbers of young per brood in 1978 (4.8) were the same as in 1977 (4.8). Twenty-six additional sage grouse broods not counted along routes during July 1978 averaged 3.9 young, bringing the total number of broods observed in 1978 to 165. During 1978, 113 of 252 hens (45%) were observed without broods along the routes. The earliest brood observed in 1978 was on May 25, indicating some hens brought off broods early. A late spring snowstorm in early May 1978, however, caused many hens to recycle. This resulted in various sizes of young ranging from approximately 2 to almost 10 weeks old being observed during July 1978. Capture and Banding Intensive efforts to capture and band sage grouse in the 1978 field period were initiated on 13 July and continued through 29 August. Age and sex data of the banded sample are given in Table 7. Trapping success was not uniform in Moffat County in 1~78 as birds were.captured in only 2 different areas, Cold Spring Mountain (461 blrds) and Mud Sprlng Draw (45 birds). Of the trapping methods used, stationary cannon nets at t~e end of wire drift fences were most successful (61 captures in 5 attempts, x = 12.2, range 6-20). Lily-pad traps were next, with 202 captures in ~8 tra~ days, ex =7.2, maximum in 1 trap = 33), with bumper mounted cannon nets (197 captures in 37 attempts, x = 5.3, range 0-23), and spotlighting (105 captures in 96.4 hours, x = 1.1 birds/hr) being somewhat less productive. Spotlighting was non-selective for age or sex of grouse captured, whereas, cannon nets and lily pad traps were selective for juveniles. Obviously, composition of the sage grouse population was not reflected in the banded sample (83.2% chicks, 7.5% yearlings, 9.3% adults, 51.5% chick males, 65.8% yearling males, 51.1% adult males). It would appear that sex classes of chicks were captured in about the same ratio they occurred in the population (see harvest data). Prior to 1978, no sage grouse had been banded in Moffat County. Consequently, no recaptures of birds banded in prior years were recorded. In addition to the 506 sage grouse newly banded, 54 recaptures were recorded (up to 3 different captures of some birds) with 5 additional birds being trap casualties (4 due to broken necks, 1 due to suffocation). Mortality associated with trapping was low (0.9%, 5 7 565). �Table 5. Observations of sage grouse along brood routes, Moffat and Western Routt counties, 1978. Name of Route Sage Grouse Counted Adults Hens Cocks Young Unc1ass. Total No. of Broods Young/ Brood No. of Brood1ess Hens Birds/ Mile Date Time Miles Minutes Great Divide 7/8/78 7/11/78 7/16/78 7/20/78 AM AM PM PM 24.6 23.6 24.0 23.9 127 155 142 140 11 4 11 7 4 8 5 5 30 20 55 28 24 78 38 0 69 110 109 40 6 4 11 7 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 5 0 0 0 2.80 4.66 4.54 1.67 Timberlake 7/6/78 7/l3/78 7/19/78 7/21/78 AM AM PM PM 34.2 32.6 32.5 32.5 l30 230 158 145 2 14 l3 15 3 4 0 48 57 59 0 1 27 23 5 67 105 101 0 11 11 11 4.36 5.18 5.36 2 3 2 4 0.15 2.06 3.23 3.11 3 2 2 2 4.67 5.00 4.50 4.00 0 0 0 0 1.69 1.05 1.02 1.72 8 4 -...J Big Hole 7/14/78 7/17/78 7/19/78 7/24/78 AM AM PM PM 24.8 24.8 25.5 25.6 125 140 120 120 3 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 14 10 9 8 25 14 15 34 42 26 26 44 Spring Creek 7/7/78 7/l3/78 7/14/78 7/17/78 AM AM PM PM 23.8 23.5 34.6 34.6 100 100 160 140 4 4 8 4 0 0 0 1 18 23 44 11 0 0 2 0 22 27 54 16 4 4 8 3 4.50 5.75 5.50 3.67 0 0 0 1 0.92 1.15 1.56 0.46 Powder Wash 7/10/78 7/14/78 7/22/78 7/23/78 AM AM PM PM 27.9 30.0 30.5 33.4 l35 140 155 180 4 1 4 3 0 0 0 4 6 1 22 l3 0 27 0 0 10 29 26 20 1 1 4 3 6.00 1.00 5.50 4.33 3 0 0 0 0.36 0.97 0.85 0.60 7/12/78 7/18/78 7/17/78 7/18/78 AM AM PM PM 21.7 21.7 22.3 22.1 195 185 160 195 56 54 17 5 46 91 58 71 47 63 53 19 102 328 100 94 251 536 228 189 9 14 12 5 5.22 4.50 4.42 3.80 47 40 5 0 11.57 24.70 10.22 8.55 Cold Spring I f-' ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1.0 I �Table 5. Observations of sage grouse along brood routes, Moffat and western Routt counties, 1978 (continued). Name of Route E1khead Sage Grouse Counted Adults Hens Cocks Young Unc1ass. Total No. of Broods Young/ Brood 7.00 Date Time Miles Minutes 7/11/78 7/21/78 7/13/78 7/25/78 AM AM PM PM 27.5 27.5 24.9 27.4 115 110 135 120 1 1 0 0 0 11 2 0 7 0 0 0 O' 0 0 0 8 12 2 0 1 0 0 0 762.0 4,057 252 325 665 932 2,174 139 Totals Birds/ Mile 0 1 0 0 0.29 0.44 0.08 0.00 - - 113 2.85 4.8 Averages Table 6. No. of Brood1ess Hens I f-' 00 0 I Observations of sage grouse along brood routes, Moffat County area, 1976-1978. Year Period of Counts 1976 Sage Grouse Counted Young Unc1ass. Total No. of Broods Young/ Brood Brood1ess Hens Birds/ Mile 16 90 436 564 17 5.3 5 1.37 151 179 532 288 1,150 111 4.8 40 1.27 252 325 665 932 2,174 139 4. 8 113 2.85 Time No. of Counts No. of Routes No. of Miles Adults Hens Cocks 8/3-8/30 AM 16 10 412.6 22 1977 7/12-8/11 AM PM 23 10 11 905.1 1978 7/6-7/25 AM PM 14 14 7 762.0 �-181Table 7. Sex and age composition Moffat County, Colorado 1978. of newly banded sage grouse by month, Month Chick 1+ Males 2+ Total Chick 1+ Females 2+ Total July 67 6 8 81 80 8 3 91 August 150 19 16 185 124 5 20 149 Totals 217 25 24 266 204 13 23 240 Hunting Season Data Collection The sage grouse season in Moffat County in 1978 opened at sunrise on 9 September and closed at sunset on 17 September, 2 days longer than in 1977. Bag and possession limits were 3 daily and 6 in possession (in the aggregate with sharp-tailed grouse), the same as in 1977. Check stations were operated from about 0800 to 1900 hrs MDT on September 9, 10, 16 and 17 at Cedar Mountain and Dinosaur and about the same hours on September 9, 10 and 17 at Maybell on Colorado Highway 318. In addition, volunteer wing collection barrels were placed at Axial, Cedar Mountain (when the check station was closed), Deception Creek, Dinosaur (when the check station was closed), Elkhead Reservoir, Juniper, Lay Creek, Lower Big Gulch, Maybell at 318 (when the check station was closed), Maybell City Park, Moffat County Road #2, Moffat County Road #3, Moffat County Road #4, Moffat County Road #101, Wolf Creek Road, Hayden and the Slater Grouse Camps. Origin and Distribution of Wings Number from the wing barrels of wings received Axial Cedar Mountain Deception Creek Dinosaur Elkhead Reservoir Juniper Lay Creek Lower Big Gulch Maybell at 318 Maybell City Park Moffat County Road #2 Moffat County Road #3 Moffat County Road #4 Moffat County Road #101 Wolf Creek Road Slater Grouse Camps Hayden were: Sage Grouse Blue Grouse 17 160 20 93 9 20 84 2 Sharp-tailed 2 3 1 7 58 54 44 134 83 99 21 69 34 9 1 4 7 31 23 Grouse �-182- A total of 1;312 sage grouse wings was obtained at the 3 check stations (Cedar Mountain - 558 sage grouse, Dinosaur - 417 sage grouse, Maybell - 337 sage grouse, 17 blue grouse), while 98 sage grouse wings were received from miscellaneous sources (Middle Park check station - 55, North Park check stations - 12, brought in to Craig office - 14, brought in to Fort Collins office - 19). In all, 2,418 sage grouse wings from Moffat (2,373) and western Routt counties (45) were received. Time of harvest was identifiable for wings from 2,326 sage grouse (Table 8). Table 8. Time distribution of sage grouse wings received, Moffat and western Routt counties, Colorado 1978. Time Period Number Percent September 9-10 1,745 75.0 September 11-15 224 9.6 September 16-17 357 15.4 2,326 100.0 Total Check Stations During the 4 days of check station operation (3 days at Maybell), 770 hunters with 1,490 sage grouse (1.9 birds per hunter) were checked. These hunters reported observing 15,295 sage grouse. Some duplications are undoubtedly present in the 15,295 birds observed. Hunter efficiency was low at 9.7% (1,490 birds harvested + 15,295 birds observed) and 122 birds (7.6% of those retrieved + those lost) were reported crippled and lost (Table 9). It is readily apparent that differences occurred in hunter pressure, birds seen, hunter efficiency and birds per hunter in the 3 areas sampled by check stations. Hunter efficiency was lowest and birds per hunter were highest in the area where hunters observed the highest number of birds (primarily Cold Spring Mountain). It is also apparent that where hunter pressure was relatively high birds per hunter was lowest, suggesting that sage grouse in these areas were more difficult to approach and harvest. Small game units in Moffat County were subdivided into harvest zones to examine hunter pressure and harvest by area (Fig. 2). Data available from check stations illustrate that hunter pressure and harvest were not uniformly distributed in Moffat County in 1978 (Table 10). �-183- Table 9. Sage grouse harvest statistics, 1/ 1978.- Hunter Efficiency % Crippling Loss Birds per Hunter 651 12.7 8.1 1.4 3,474 435 12.5 6.9 2.2 112 6,707 404 6.0 7.6 3.6 770 15,295 1,490 9.7 7.6 1.9 Only those statistics collected Check Stations No. Hunters Checked No. Birds Observed Cedar Mountain 459 5,114 Dinosaur 199 Maybe11~/ All Stations 1:./ Moffat County, Colorado l/ No check on 16 September. 9, 10, 16 and 17 September. Table 10. Hunter pressure, Moffat County 1978. 1:./ Statistic No. Birds Harvested at check stations. Data from Cedar Mountain and Dinosaur represent Data from Maybell represent 9, 10 and 17 September. harvest and hunter success by harvest zone, 16A l6B Harvest l6C Zone l8A l8B 20A Total hunters (%) 22.7 37.5 2.5 9.0 2.3 26.0 Total harvest (%) 16.4 28.5 3.0 22.0 0.9 29.2 1.4 1.5 2.3 4.8 0.8 2.2 Birds/hunter 1:./ Check station data only. Check station data indicate that while about 37% of the hunters hunted in zone l6B and harvested about 28% of the birds bagged, smaller percentages of hunters in zones 20A (26%) and l8A (9%) harvested significant portions of th~ birds bagged (29.2 and 22.0%, respectively). Obviously, the Cold Spring Mountain and Blue Mountain areas were the most productive in terms of hunter success in 1978. Most hunters contacted at check stations were asked whether or not they normally hunted sage grouse in Moffat County. Of the 727 hunters responding, 502 (69.1%) reported they normally hunted sage grouse in Moffat County, 81 �. . . . . , J • f,F'III'LL'l±1ZTV] V' I '!l~ - f7kJ' Ii" -J..':d ""'E .. 'M 1- '-r ~ ~ t I' h- " 'r .r.;r;. ... ', ~'''''~~-;i-( ._-.t :·lu1n ,,.';. ".'0, " ::' " ','" ~.w. •••••" ]J,", •• ';'j'.,u ," / ' ,.J.'~,._ ~ -:.. . ,.....,. ~ I }"" :1"" ..~",<~'--,.'. " 'I., ,'.•.~.N!':!"_!r I n-] I,;J ~'o' .... ''\,)';'/("1 , J 1-11,- L 'it,1II , ••, "or" '. '. :J. • \ "'~ I I', ~. . ac .' '}1;" I +, ' "K' ~'-,,'A' 'J'--h'P~:t'l'~~' , ' " ( ,",HT+ 1 • ., .s. " ::1:.>.1> --- -"" " •• ,t:- • ·.Il\r~ ' 't'\I'.J ~ ·".'~i:'·! ' ... r. r .1""'" .' "I~ !1,,,t \" '1;, ,,, .: " 0:> -i:' MOFFAT COUNTY COLORADO r:- ~'.Jl!! i:'.-v.~'-1" ,', »t: m~> u ltJt!;',""i.t:t,~ ~ -it.-¥.:I'i': " ~ •." .T.O!i -" 1!!.'!r]U '''.. 1--'- " ,:. r", 1/'7\,.\." ' 'f' ~, •. --s;. 'I ~) "J 1 ~~' ~~~ 'N,..'-r-"\_.~.;".-tJ'", ~,_. • ~...~ 'JfIIJ~t\-.;-i~:;t5~'~~~1, ...;"'~Aln~~ ~'" , . ;"';,,--Vf++: , .•+-e+ru ~ _, . ~~~Hffi~1~~~~~~~~ i'.iJ ,,! ,it "T ••I,'1,'_ , .. /1 '. 1 Fig. 2. I I-' !:'" ~ L..+c-h+'M.+r.H+-f-4-l-j.~'I7.H~'-N~.;J.l++H;Pi'!-Hl;-\i4:-:+:-1f-'!--tl---f-f-+:-: ~~tEEt'EI~; _ .._- 1_" ''''+~"j !,,~, ln~~ ..... ",._-/+. IK ,>I-b, -~~" :~,'I:~,.:,,;..t~;T'~:4:~~\-"" "lit !,"', \ ~b'~. HARVEST ~1,';'::,! ... f1, " '"-. __ ',; Y,~;. ,"'F, :.• ~.•.. :-:" ~" ~,'\; ..".... ";,., 'E ••I, ! $':1' ': " -Cl~~\' 1'\'" .•.;..<' ,'I" I'i t.. .,;,·"i;.'(fqlflf 11,,!,.,~~~,:·'t:~. ~D:~j J'l;~.\ '~t..~.' ~ ~~~ ;'1"." ~t't;"i'i'\~. l'-.'1M.J.l:' '.-i. ,••~ '"' l"~h11"~"\~t.,:;< __ "-10-; ~, _ ~~, "~i1ii..:"}oil. ,t(.t~rr".d]'-';kt!"':'d~jl"~ w..ft .•m~ 'YJ~., I., .- ~I<J ~~ ',":I~V:>""r', 1n::a l,jj I I r,~J- •• ~ -" !II , ,;('1',,, ~.r' ~1"1~"" • :-:~'~ P:U!, -'to\..: , '[ -~'l.oo ~I':::+-,-I:"';~' ';2 ."\ ~,-, '" '._'; i."'" 1 '" __ ~'/ '1'~;L ~:~~.',,1 :Lc.'r~~f!~. it I., "- 14: P' '<Le. __["I~, -' "'. I1EJ \, ,. .•:l1fj \ ...' :-~" ' -- ---- --- "n".•. It' ~'~li~;:fL:l!J,;"jc , :;k! ~;:~ ":~,..:: ,\. , " \ '.'-, . " (1 ' '" 'i ..,,~ ,;'>" .IITlfCIl OJ~ ..'" ",V< _ ,k.;1~~; F' ~,,'I ':,'~ ~j ,,1'1I~ c! "I"" ,;." ';f.~~' ", ,~ ", f- I;, ; wtr u; J) ' "', , Ii ' Lt -, "'." ,,\ " 'v • ""f.d.I'U 1,,1KE! IIl,ifll U~~, I khUt I :iJ ,I: 1±F--1H -;-H '< " ' .,,' ~fJ ·: ~~ . .' "'(" ti 'l -_......, 'tf.'.-......." .. , . \ ~l' m~a~rr~'E~ 7';:: :Fl~:, ~f:i ., M~' ~\i . ~, ,~"'\l ,0 '/' " ,~) N 'W 1--'1" ~'I~~~'" "t;"11"1 I' ;. --.:.)J.; i '-' - ,.'" « ] ']'1 Harvest zones, Moffat County, Colorado. ==:='C" ..J\"~" ZONES I �-185- (11.1%) normally hunted sage grouse elsewhere, while 144 (19.8%) were first time sage grouse hunters (Table 11). These data are not markedly different from those gathered in North Park (Braun 1978). Table 11. Previous sage grouse hunting Moffat County, Colorado 1978. experience of sage grouse hunters, First Time Sage Grouse Hunter Normally Hunt In Moffat County % No. Normally Hunt Elsewhere No. % ~. % 502 81 11.1 144 19.8 69.1 Origin of 347 hunter parties was ascertained at check stations in 1978. Of this total, 129 (37.2%) were from Moffat County, with 46 (13.3%) from Mesa and 41 (11.8%) from Rio Blanco counties. Counties in the Denver metropolitan area (Jefferson - 9.2%, Adams - 5.2%, Arapahoe - 3.2%, Denver - 3.2%, and Douglas - 0.6%) contributed 74 parties or 21.3% of the total. Other counties contributing over 2% were Boulder (3.5%), and Garfield (3.2%). All other counties (11 different) and states (Wyoming and Utah) each contributed less than 2% to the total and collectively totaled 34 parties (9.8%). Wing Analysis Age and Sex Composition.--All wings received were usable. Moffat County was subdivided into 5 areas for wing analysis. These areas and corresponding harvest zones (Fig. 2) were: 1) Eastern Moffat and Western Routt counties (east of Colorado 789 to the Hayden-Slater Road, north of U. S. 40) including wing collection barrels at Elkhead Reservoir, Moffat County Roads #'s 2 and 101, Slater Grouse Camps and Hayden, and wings from this area collected at the Middle Park check station (harvest zone l4A). All but 45 wings were from within Moffat County. 2) North Central Moffat County excluding data from the Maybell Check Station and wing barrel at Colorado 318 and U. S. 40. This area was west of Colorado 789, to the Little Snake River north of U. S. 40 (harvest zones l6A and B). Included was the Cedar Mountain check station and wing barrel, wing barrels at Lay Creek, Lower Big Gulch, Maybell City Park, Moffat County Roads #'s 3 and 4 and miscellaneous collections. 3) The area of Cold Spring Mountain which was sampled primarily by the Maybell check station and wing barrel (harvest zone l8A, B and C). Some overlap occurred with this subunit and North Central Moffat County. 4) Dinosaur. This subunit contained all of Blue Mountain north of U. S. 40 and included the Dinosaur check station and wing barrel and the wing barrel on the Wolf Creek Road (harvest zone 20A). 5) Moffat County South. All area in Moffat County south of U. S. 40 was included in this subunit including wing barrels at Axial, Deception Creek, and Juniper (harvest zones l6C, 20B and 26A) (Table 12). �Table 12. Age composition of the sage grouse harvest, Moffat County, 11 Colorado, 1978. No. Area 11 Young Percent Yearlin~ Percent No. No. Adults Percent Total Percent of Total Sample Moffat County East- 207 77.8 23 8.7 36 13.5 266 11.0 North Central 839 71.8 58 5.0 272 23.2 1,169 48.3 Cold Spring 246 62.3 66 16.7 83 21.0 395 16.3 Dinosaur 330 62.1 90 17.0 111 20.9 531 22.0 Moffat County South 40 70.2 3 5.3 14 24.5 57 2.4 I I-' Totals Average 68.7 -11 Including Western Routt County (45 wings). 2,418 516 240 1,662 9.9 00 0'1 I 21.4 100.0 �-187- It is obvious from data in Table 12 that harvest was not uniform throughout Moffat County. Almost no harvest (2.4% of the total) occurred south of U. S. 40, even though apparently good populations exist in this area. It is also apparent that production at Blue Mountain and Cold Spring Mountain, while good in 1978, was less than in other areas. However, percent yearlings in both of these areas was average (16.7, 17.0%) in 1978, suggesting good production in 1977 and survival of those young to 1978. All other areas had less than 10% yearlings in the harvest sample suggesting poor production in 1977 and/or survival of the 1977 cohort to 1978. Comparable data for 1976-1978 are presented in Table 13. From the data presented (Table 13) it would appear that production of young is consistently good each year at Blue Mountain (Dinosaur) and Cold Spring Mountain. It is possible that production in 1975 at Cold Spring Mountain was either poor or survival of the yearling class to 1976 was poor. Production at the other areas has varied with 1977 being the poorest year. It is probable that sample sizes of wings have been inadequate in both 1976 and 1977 in the Moffat County East (54, 91) and South (67, 31) areas. Age and sex composition of the harvest for Moffat County during varied (Table 14). These data suggest the following: 1976-1978 1. The sex ratio at hatching approximates 1:1 with possibly some differential survival favoring females occurring before chicks are 3-4 months of age. 2. Differential survival being most pronounced 3. There are 2 hens to every male in the spring breeding population (3 year average = 68.7% females, 31.3% males of the total adults and yearlings). 4. Production production 5. Production in 1975 must have been average yearlings in the 1976 harvest. favoring females occurs in the older age classes; in adults. of young in 1976 and 1978 was good to excellent in 1977 being poor to average. with to good based on percentage of Turnover.--Estimated turnover (from wing analysis) of adult male and female sage grouse in Moffat County was 43.3 and 33.2%, respectively, in the 1976-1978 period (Tables 15 and 16). Estimated survival of adult males was 56.7%, while for females it was 66.8%. These estimates are based on the assumption that in a stable population, percent yearlings must equal annual loss of adults. In an increasing population, percent yearlings must more than replace adult loss and/or adult survival must be better than that estimated. Percent yearlings (Table 14) has not been good (except in 1977). Consequently, there should have been no increase in the 1978 breeding population unless survival of the 1976 cohort of chicks to 1978 was excellent. Survival of males (56.7 vs 50.8%) is higher in Moffat County than in North Park. Survival of females in the 2 areas is essentially identical (33.2 vs 34.5%) (Braun 1978). �Table 13. Age composition of the sage grouse harvest, Moffat county1~ Colorado 1976-1978. l1 1976 Yearlings 1977 1978 1976 Adult 1977 1978 77 .8 33.3 19.8 8.7 20.4 40.7 13.5 34.0 71.8 14.5 29.0 5.0 21.4 37.0 23.2 73.1 59.8 62.3 7.7 17.6 16.7 19.2 22.5 21.0 Dinosaur 61.6 60.4 62.1 15.2 16.0 17.0 23.2 23.6 20.9 Moffat County South 71.6 25.8 70.1 13.4 29.0 5.3 14.9 45.2 24.5 1976 Young 1977 1978 11 Moffat County East- 46.3 39.6 North Cen tra1 64.1 Cold Spring Area - Average 63.8 -11 Including western Routt County. II In percent. 42.6 68.7 15.4 23.9 9.9 20.8 33.5 21.4 I f-' co co I �Table 14. Age and sex composition of the sage grouse harvest, Moffat and Western Routt counties, Colorado 1976-1978. Year Males No. % Immatures Females No. % Total No. % Males No. % Yearlings Females No. % Total No. % Males No. % Adults Females No. % Total No. % 1976 203 42.6 273 57.4 476 63.6 41 35.7 74 64.3 115 15.4 25 15.9 l32 84.1 157 21.0 748 1977 121 39.3 187 60.7 308 43.0 77 45.8 91 54.2 168 23.4 89 36.9 152 63.1 241 33.6 717 1978 825 49.6 837 50.4 1,662 68.7 77 32.1 163 67.9 240 9.9 141 27.3 375 72.7 516 21.4 2,418 3 Year Average Total Sample I I-" 00 '" I 47.0 53.0 63.0 37.3 62.7 l3.5 27.9 72.1 23.5 �-190- Table 15. Estimated turnover Colorado 1976-1978. 1/ of adult male sage grouse, Moffat No. Yearlings Percent County, Year No. Adults Percent 1976 25 37.9 41 62.1 66 1977 89 53.6 77 46.4 166 1978 141 64.7 77 35.3 218 1/ Data 43.3 56.7 3 Year Average from wing collections Table 16. Estimated Colorado 1976-1978. 1/ turnover Totals only. of adult female sage grouse, Moffat Adults Percent County, No. Yearlings Percent Totals Year No. 1976 132 64.1 74 35.9 206 1977 152 62.6 91 37.4 243 1978 375 69.7 163 30.3 538 3 Year Average 1/ Data 66.8 from wing collections 33.2 only. Nesting Success and Production.--Molt of adult and yearling sage grouse was examined to estimate nesting success (Table 17). Differences in estimated nesting success closely parallel differences in percentages of young in the harvest (Table 12). Considering all areas within Moffat County, about onehalf (50.3%) of the yearling and two-thirds (65.3%) of the adult females were successful nesters in 1978. About 61% (60.8) of all hens were successful. These data are higher than the estimated overall nesting success of 30.0% in 1977, and 48.3% estimated in 1976. Production of young in 1978 was excellent (Table 17) with only Blue Mountain and Cold Spring Mountain having less than 3 chicks/hen in the harvest. The high chick/hen ratio (5.0) for eastern Moffat County is probably an artifact of either hunter and/or sage grouse behavior. Chick/hen ratios in 1978 were higher than in either 1976 (2.3) or 1977 (1.2) (Table 18). �Table 17. Estimated sage grouse nesting success and production, Moffat County, Colorado 1978. Area Yearlings No. Successful Moffat County East 13/ North Central 25/41 17 % Adults No. Successful % All Hens No. Successful % Chicks/Hen Chicks/ Successful Hen 76.5 17/24 70.6 30/41 73.2 5.0 6.9 61.0 151/204 74.0 176/245 71.8 3.4 4.8 Cold Spring 18/ 45.0 32/59 54.2 50/ 50.5 2.5 4.9 Dinosaur 25/63 39.7 38/79 48.1 63/142 44.4 2.3 5.2 Moffat County South 1/2 50.0 7/9 77.8 8/11 72.7 3.6 5.0 Totals 82/162 60.8 3.1 5.1 Average 40 245/ 327/ 375 50.3 99 538 65.3 I f-' I.D f-' I �Table 18. Estimated sage grouse nesting success and production, Moffat County, Colorado 1976-1978. Yearlings 1978 1977 1976 Adults 1977 1978 1976 All Hens 1978 1977 1976 Chicks/Hen 1978 1977 Area 1976 28.6 28.6 76.5 50.0 58.3 70.6 40.0 47.4 73.2 1.7 0.9 5.0 Moffat County East 36.2 6.4 61.0 51.9 25.6 74.0 46.1 18.4 71.8 2.3 0.9 3.4 North Central 25.0 45.0 80.0 80.0 54.2 66.7 59.4 50.5 1.9 0.0 3.2 2.5 Cold Spring 20.0 28.6 39.7 50.0 35.7 48.1 40.6 33.3 44.4 2.2 3.0 Dinosaur 62.5 14.3 50.0 80.0 0.0 77.8 72.2 10.0 72.7 2.7 0.8 3.6 Moffat County South 14.9 50.3 55.7 39.6 65.3 48.3 30.0 2.3 1.2 35.1 60.8 3.1 Average I 2.3 r-' 1.0 N I �-193- Hatching Dates Ages and hatching dates were calculated for 1,662 chick sage grouse harvested in Moffat County in 1978 (Table 19). Hatching dates varied from 4-10 May to 20-26 July, with an obvious peak between 1-4 June. Hatching was spread over the longest period in the eastern, north central and Cold Spring Mountain areas and was shortest on Blue Mountain and south of U.S. 40. Renesting by some hens that lost their initial clutch probably occurred in all areas with the Cold Spring Mountain area having an obvious second peak of hatching during the 29 June-12 July period. Data presented in Table 19 do not argue strongly for analyzing chick hatch dates by area. Despite area, elevation, differing weather conditions, etc., most chicks (~70%) hatched within a 30 day period from late May to late June. Only slight 7-10 day shifts in timing of peak hatch and in importance of renesting can be expected from year to year. Once range and normal peak of hatching are documented, annual calculation of hatching dates would appear to have little value for management. Ovarian Analysis Ovaries were collected from 64 hunter harvested female sage grouse in 1978 and were analyzed following procedures described by Meyer et al. (1947), Kabat et al. (1948), and Buss et al. (1951). An additional 77-ovaries were classified in situ at check stations. Data presented (Table 20) indicate that a high percentage of both yearlings and adults ovulated in 1978. Comparable data for years prior to 1978 are not available. Hunter Questionnaire A total of 2 006 permits was issued for hunting sage grouse in Moffat County in 1978. Ba;ed on 770 hunters contacted at check stations, only 65 (8.4%) of those hunting did not have the required permit. .If this percentage reflects the hunter universe in 1978. then it is possible that ther~ were 2,174 sage grouse hunters (2,006 + 168) in Moffat County in 1978. However, when it is realized that of the 2,006 permittees, only 1,502 (Table 21) hunted, then it is reasonable to conclude that there were no more than 1,628 sage grouse hunters in Moffat County in 1978 (1,502 + 126). Origin of permittees was primarily from Moffat (44.0%), Rio Blanco (9.5%), and Mesa (8.9%) counties. Counties in the Denver metropolitan area (Adams, Arapahoe, Denver, Douglas, Jefferson) each contributed less than 8% of the total permittees but collectively comprised 19.7% of the total. Other counties providing more than 1% of the total were Routt (4.0%), Boulder (2.9%), Garfield (2.2%), and Larimer (1.3%). All other counties and states each comprised 1.0% or less of the total permittees. These data are not markedly different from those collected at check stations. Questionnaires were sent to all permittees immediately following the sage grouse season in Moffat County (22 September). Responses were received from 1,213 permittees. On 16 October follow up letters and questionnaires were sent ~~ all non-respondents and 353 additional responses were received. In all, 1,566 permittees (78.1%) responded (Table 21). Fifty-eight questionnaires (2.9%) were undeliverable. Mean values calculated for permittees responding �1 Table 19. Estimated sage grouse hatching dates, Moffat County, Colorado 1978. Females Males East N.C. Cold Spring / Dinosaur N.C. Total East 0.4 0.9 6.2 0.8 2.8 2.5 South Cold Spring May 4-10 May 11-17 0.7 0.7 1.8 12.5 5.1 11.1 9.2 3.8 7.4 2.1 27.1 12.5 10.7 23.2 24.3 6.7 17.4 4.4 29.8 28.3 31.2 32.0 18.5 24.8 23.8 May 18-24 May 25-31 June 1-7 June 8-14 June 15-21 June 22-28 June 29-Ju1y 5 July 6-12 July 13-19 7.1 7.1 34.5 33.3 11.1 0.0 1.0 Total Sample 99 7.3 6.7 16.7 18.3 22.0 33.3 23.5 21. 3 23.9 26.7 25.6 8.3 12.0 5.3 3.8 18.9 0.0 9.9 11.5 8.5 6.3 4.6 4.8 7.6 12.2 6.4 8.2 6.6 6.3 4.2 9.6 3.4 8.5 5.4 16.3 1.9 12.4 4.5 8.2 4.2 3.0 2.8 1.3 12.4 4.2 3.9 2.0 3.0 6.1 8.5 0.6 0.9 0.5 2.8 0.5 1.4 0.7 0.1 141 166 16 825 108 I •..... \0 23.8 14.5 403 -1/ In percent of total. 20.8 25.0 0.2 July 20-26 1.9 15.7 7.3 5.1 8.3 18.4 8.9 18.1 Total 19.4 16.6 16.2 South 0.1 2.1 1.0 Dinosaur 436 105 164 24 837 ~ I �-195- Table 20. Age Class Sage grouse ovarian analysis, Moffat Number Ovulatory/Examined County, Colorado 1978. Percent Ovulatory Yearling 98.2 Adult 98.8 Total Percent 139/ 141 98.6 to the follow up letter were used to project for the 440 (21;9%) nonrespondents. This undoubtedly somewhat inflated total estimates as the available evidence indicates that non-respondents are even less successful than respondents to the follow up letter (5 of 8 questionnaires received after the cut off date indicated that the permittees did not hunt). Data presented indicate that about 75% of the permittees "hunted and harvested (including crippling loss) an estimated 5,185 sage grouse in Moffat County. About 75% of all hunters were successful and harvested 4.2 grouse each. These values are considerably higher than those reported for North Park (Braun 1978). Time period of hunting was received for 1,586 hunts which resulted in 3,891 grouse being bagged. Based on this sample, 61.3% of the hunts resulted in 66.1% of the total harvest during the opening weekend. The 5 week days of the season attracted 20.6% of the hunters and 19.0% of the harvest, while 18.0% of the hunts resulted in 14.8% of the grouse being bagged the 2nd weekend. A total of 474 of the 1,214 hunters responding (39.0%) reported achieving the bag limit at least 1 day during the season. Of this sample, 220 hunters achieved the bag limit on 1 day, 219 did on 2 days, 21 did on 3 days, 10 did on 4 days, while 2 each achieved the bag limit on 5 and 6 days. Obviously, the longer seasons, while resulting in increased hunter opportunity, would not necessarily result in increased levels of harvest. The questionnaire was designed to examine harvest and hunter activity by Small Game Units and harvest zones (Fig. 2). Data presented (Table 22) indicate that 53% of the hunters were in Unit 16 and harvested about 48% of the total birds taken in Moffat County. The next most important units were 18, 20, and 14. Few hunters hunted in Unit 26 in Moffat County. �-196- Table 21. Moffat County sage grouse hunter questionnaire data, 1978. N2 No. in sample 1,566 353 1,213 78.1 Projected For Projected For 440 2,006 21.9 100.0 Percent of total permittees 60.5 17.6 No. of hunters 983 231 Percent of total hunters 81.0 65.4 77 .5 65.4 74.9 No. of non-hunters 230 122 352 152 504 Percent of non-hunters 19.0 34.6 22.5 34.6 25.1 No. of successful hunters 775 157 932 196 Percent successful hunters 78.8 68.0 76.8 89.0 75.1 Percent success of permittees 63.9 44.5 59.5 44.5 56.2 No. of hunter days Days/hunter No. of grouse bagged 2,030 2.1 3,239 497 2.2 652 Grouse/hunter 3.3 2.8 Grouse/successful hunter 4.2 4.2 Grouse/permittee 2.7 1.8 No. birds lost Birds lost/hunter Total harvest Percent crippling loss 293 0.3 3,532 8.3 109 0.5 761 14.3 1,502 288 1,214 2,527 2.1 3,891 3.2 2.5 402 0.3 4,293 9.4 634 2.2 806 1,128 3,161 2.1 4,697 2.8 3.1 4.2 4.2 1.8 2.3 86 0.3 892 9.6 488 0.3 5,185 9.4 �-197- Table 22. Hunter activity and harvest harvest zones, Moffat County, Colorado by Small Game Management 1978. Units and Unit (Harvest Zone) No. of Hunters Percent of Total No. of Birds Harvested Percent of Total l4(A) l38 10.8 380 9.8 16 679 53.0 1,865 47.9 (A) 227 17.7 604 15.5 (B) 356 27.8 1,051 27.0 (C) 96 7.5 210 5.4 220 17.2 802 20.6 (A) 127 9.9 517 l3.3 (B) 80 6.2 231 5.9 (C) 13 1.0 54 1.4 169 13.2 655 16.8 (A) 153 11. 9 603 15.5 (B) 16 1.2 52 1.3 26(A) 33 2.6 80 2.1 Unknown 43 3.4 109 2.8 Totals 1 ,2821:./ 100.0 3,891 100.0 18 20 1/ - Total does not equal 1,214 as some hunters hunted in more than 1 zone. Vulnerability Forty-eight band recoveries were reported during and after the 1978 hunting season, all from bandings in 1978. Of this total, 40 were reported on the questionnaire survey. Other sources were check stations and mail reporting. Of the 8 not reported on the questionnaire survey, 6 were obtained at check stations, 1 personally, and 1 from a wing barrel. Many bands were reported 2 or 3 times because of the various methods of collection (check stations, questionnaires and reports by mail). �-198- Nineteen bands (1- = 16, 1+ = 1, 2+ = 2) were from females, while 29 (1- = 20, 1+ = 4, 2+ = 5) were from males (Table 23). Data presented indicate that males, principally adults and yearlings, are slightly more vulnerable to hunting than females. Essentially no differences existed in vulnerability between female age classes and only slight differences existed between chick females and chick males. These data do not suggest that hunters are selective towards sma lLe r birds. On the contrary, selection would seem to be towards larger birds. However, differences in vulnerability between males and females are probably related to differences in flushing distances, size of target and flight speeds. Also, it should be noted that only small samples of adults and yearlings were banded in 1978. Present data do not suggest that chicks are more vulnerable to hunting than older age classes. Table 23. Sage grouse banding and recovery data, Moffat County, Colorado No. Banded No. Recovered Harvest Chicks 204 16 7.8 Yearlings 13 1 7.7 Adults 23 2 8.7 Subtotals 240 19 7.9 Chicks 217 20 9.2 Yearlings 25 4 16.0 Adults 24 5 20.8 Subtotals 266 29 10.9 506 48 9.5 Age and Sex Class Rate (%) Females Males Totals 1978. �-199LITERATURE CITED Beck, T.D.I., R. B. Gill, and C. E. Braun. 1975. Sex and age determination of sage grouse from wing characteristics. Game Inf. Leaflet No. 49 (Revised). Colorado. Div. Wildl. 4 pp. Braun, C. E. 1978. Evaluation of the effects of changes in hunting regulations on sage grouse populations. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Prog. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 9. pp. 1-30. --- , and T.D.I. Beck. 1976. Effects of sagebrush control on distribution and abundance of sage grouse. Colorado Div. Wildlife, Final Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R, Work Plan 3, Job 8a. pp. 21-84. Buss, I. 0., R. K. Meyer, and C. Kabat. studies based on ovulated follicle Eng, R. L. wings. 1951. Wisconsin pheasant reproduction technique. J. Wildl. Manage. 15:32-46. 1955. A method for obtaining sage grouse J. Wildl. Manage. 19:267-272. Gullion, G. W. 1965. Improvements in methods grouse. J. Wildl. Manage. 29:109-116. Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. station. Game Inf. Leaflet age and sex ratios for trapping and marking 1975. 1975. A volunteer wing No. 101. Colo. Div. Wildlife. from ruffed collection 3 pp. Kabat, C., I. O. Buss, and R. K. Meyer. 1948. The use of ovulated follicles in determining eggs laid by the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 12:399-416. Lacher, J. R., and D. D. Lacher. Manage. 28:595-597. 1964. A mobile cannon net trap. J. Wildl. Meyer, R. K., C. Kabat, and I. O. Buss. 1947. Early involutionary changes in the post-ovulatory follicles in the ring-necked pheasant. J. Wildl. Manage. 11:43-49. Pyrah, D. G. Wildlife 71 pp. 1963. Sage grouse investigations. Restoration Div., Job Compl. Rept., Rogers, G. E. 1964. Sage grouse investigations Game, Fish and Parks, Tech. Publ. No. 16. Prepared by ~£~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher Donald M. Hoffman Wildlife Researcher 4W" C C Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-125-R. in Colorado. 132 pp. Colo. Dept. ��-201- JOB PROGRESS State of October 1979 REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Proj ect No. Work Plan 1,0. 9 Job Title Dynamics Population Period Covered: Personnel: Game Bird Survey H-37-R-32 Job No. and Habitat Relationships ~5 _ of Blup Grouse April 1, 1978 to March 31, 1979 L. Alexander, D. Benson, J. Brache, C. Braun, J. Claassen, R. Clippinger, J. Corey, K. Duncan, H. Funk, J. Gerrans, K. Giesen, W. Heicher, D. Hoart, D. Hoffman, R. Hoffman, R. Oakleaf, L. Rottman, M. Sellitto, B. Sigler, M. Smith, S. Steinert, and W. Woodward. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning the effects of hunting on blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) populations, stability of breeding population levels, and habitat relationships of blue grouse were initiated in 1975 and continued in 1978 on two areas in northwestern Colorado. The breeding population at Eiby Creek has remained essentially stable at about 10 hectares/territorial male since 1976, whereas, the Green Mountain population has increased slightly from 9.2 hectares/territorial male (1975) to 7.7 hectares/territorial male (1978). The sex ratio in the breeding population approximated 1:1. Evaluation of 8 nests located since 1975 indicated an average clutch size of 6.0 eggs. Egg loss reduced the hatch by some 32 percent with 75 percent of the nests hatched successfully. Peak of hatch varied by almost 3 weeks over the 4 years of study, but mainly occurred in mid- to late June. Estimated nesting success from examination of wings was 72 percent for Middle Park and 81 percent for the Eagle area. Adults exhibited a more constant level of nesting success from year to year and an overall higher success than yearlings. Sixty-two broods were observed in 1978 with a composite average of 4.9 (Green Mountain) and 5.1 chicks per brood (Eiby Creek). Average annual summer mortality of chicks was 45 percent for Green Mountain and only 28 percent for Eiby Creek. Pooled data on breeding birds banded in 1977 and resighted in 1978 gave an estimated mortality rate for the breeding population of 39 percent. Production and mortality estimates suggest there exists a surplus of birds in the fall population and in most years this surplus exceeds 40 percent. Only a small portion (5%) of the fall population was removed by hunting, compared to what could be safely harvested (23%) without adversely affecting the subsequent spring population. Another survey was conducted in 1978 in order to evaluate the combined blue grouse-big game season. As in 1977, few big game hunters (5.5%) actually took advantage of the longer season, but their general response to the more liberal season was highly favorable (59.7%). The additional harvest resulting from the longer season amounted to about a 26 percent increase in the total kill. Vegetation maps were prepared for the Green Mountain study area and characteristics of breeding, nesting and brood areas were described. ��-203- HABITAT POPULATION DYNAMICS AND RELATIONSHIPS OF BLUE GROUSE Richard W. Hoffman Blue grouse are the most widespread member of the upland game birds in Colo2 rado, occurring in varying densities over more than 51,800 km2 (20,000 mi ) of diverse habitats and terrain throughout the state (Rogers 1968). Furthermore, blue grouse rank first in terms of population numbers and annual harvest among resident grouse species. Yet, Colorado has had a long history of conservative seasons on blue grouse, in spite of its abundance and wide distribution. This conservatism has mainly resulted from: (1) lack of data upon which to base management recommendations, and (2) the misconception that hunting can be a major mortality factor on blue grouse. Data presented in this report concern these problems and represent results of population studies initiated in 1975. P. N. OBJECTIVE Major objectives of this study are to (1) increase the harvest of blue grouse in Colorado (double present harvest estimates) without harm to breeding populations in subsequent years, (2) to identify differences in breeding densities due to differing habitats, and (3) to document the stability of breeding densities over time. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Review literature concerning (a) techniques for marking, capturing, and censusing grouse, (b) methods of aging and sexing blue grouse, and (c) population dynamics, behavior, and habitat requirements of blue grouse, and (d) effects of hunting on grouse populations. 2. Trap and individually mark 50 birds (including adults, juveniles) on each of the two selected study areas. subadults, 3. Estimate breeding densities on the study areas through acoustical census and systematic search. the use of 4. Estimate nesting 5. Vegetatively describe areas studied and correlate with features of the environment. 6. Manipulate 7. Compile data, analyze results, success and production hunting Reference materials discussed on the study area. season and obtain harvest METHODS and blue grouse densities data. and prepare progress reports. AND MATERIALS is made to Hoffman (1976) for a detailed discussion of methods used in this study. Any deviations or additions to these are in the Results and Discussion section. and �-204- DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Research is presently being conducted on two selected study areas of differing habitat types in northwestern Colorado. These areas are described in detail in previous reports (Hoffman 1976 and 1977) and are depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Breeding Survey Timing In 1978, grouse were observed on the breeding range at both study areas in early April. First arrivals were mostly males. Few hens were present during the first 2-3 weeks of April, thus display was much curtailed. Displays were limited to the predawn hours and probably associated with territorial establishment rather than sexual responsiveness. Birds still spent most of their time in the trees. The frequency and intensity of displays increase about the third week of April. This increased intensity of display corresponded with an increase in the number of hens observed on the study areas. Activities associated with breeding and density of breeding grouse peaked during the first week of May. Timing of breeding events in 1978 was similar to 1975 and 1976, and approximately one week later than in 1977. Display by males was concentrated in the early morning period between 0430 and 0600 MST. Occasional display occurred after dusk, but such display was sporadic and involved fewer birds. Males spent more time on the ground after the hens arrived before flying to trees to roost and feed. Once the snow cover disappeared (late April-early May), both males and females spent almost all of their time on the ground, roosting only at night. Males were effectively finished displaying by late June-early July, although flutter flights were heard into late July-early August. The actual time of departure of males from the breeding areas was unknown. Males were observed on Green Mountain year round, but it was uncertain whether they were the same males that utilized the area for breeding. At Eiby Creek, few males were found after the first week of August, except at higher elevations near the coniferous forest. Displays Display of the male blue grouse consisted mainly of flutter flights, strutting and hooting. These displays have been described by several authors (Rogers 1968, Hjorth 1970, Blackford 1963, Harju 1974, and Stirling and Bendell 1970). Flutter flight as used here is analogous to the flutter flight described by Harju (1974) and included either (1) jumping into the air with wings beating and turning a half circle before landing in full display, or (2) flight from ground to tree, or tree to tree with loud crackling wing beats at the termination of the flight. The full display or strutting position consisted of the tail being raised to the vertical and fanned to a complete half circle; �GREE I / REA . ', eOL RA 0 : i. \ , ) :,' , •..? -; . " OUNTAIN , - STUDY AREA BOUN A Y • .';" .. · . '- ..•.. .--- '. .i " •••• ~ ( .,. •• '"' OIO •••••• ·~"·" . "\ •• \ \, "'I::. ~. · !-. · '''1 · c- : t., ':-,':~~~ ..•-~ ., \.,' ,. " :" .. . ,,- SCALE IN KILOMET o Fig. 1. Green Mountain study area. ) �341000m-E, .,,-------:-----r- -. '.-;(' ~ '," / .....--;;9 , .....j.' !',,,.,,' 't:.', . /1 . --~..:' ~ r- .f--~~ .1 ' I . / ..-.,"1 ( ''-#i/ -'I . \......r'- r-::. '-.~- -- 50' - 343 J44 . -: / Cfl',''-''W ' , -, , , 'C "" "'0 ,'" -L-, ,,' ~, 0 ..0 ...[ -. . ~ ~"'»M,j>, :" ", ...\SB\ ,'J' '\'--"J\,. I '0,," " '-., . ". -,••..--'. l: V -t., ~~",---, )" \ '0,~,!\ ", . .L. J .:\ '\ <, . .:._\ \, "'\_., ","'; '" S'\ '~\J"''''' '. ' 1 . .'::---,-:« '-/\-.,.,~ (rr. \ i079~~ , 0' :-. ~'.)' ~-, I . ~..'":z.~~\ -~ l" -'- -·--~~~-r~-I-·. /, \ .: . ) "'-."'0>'\'-: .~ /...• '. ~b I, :'/ ~::::r-\.~~~: " '\\.:,;~~ ..,.'.:. W~~~:~~"I ,,\ ~<\,,----,-.J ••~ \ 342 .+--~ ) ~< f"'o r&e-oo '. ~. ' .. /-?XI·. '. ) I '';--Y'\i' . '" ; ~~---. , .' ! . 'I, >'-...., \ "--~ : .1, 15 ~../~~ '-...../--,9'i.OO,"---t - ---..,.., \". . ./u , .:. i . --... " EBY CREEK AREA COLORADO N \'~ '\, -. , ~/ '1"''' f \", l~ri Ilg-~ ---, }/-:~ 1. . /'~~Sprill >. - /~ / •I '--.' ~ 1 '"'\ ",STUDY AREA BOUNDARY ;; (,-,-,\ <, SCALE IN KILOMETERS I 0 I \, i1 •.. i Fig. 2. Eiby Creek study area. 1\,', I,.' .. )\\'\ \ \ ./' '" I ) 1 \: \ \. �-207- wings extended slightly out and down so the wing tips dragged on the ground; eye combs and gular sacs expanded and engorged with blood so they became deep red; and the white rosette of cervical feathers around the gular sacs extended until forming a complete circle. Several variations of this display were observed, especially when the bird was hooting. During hooting the wings were often flat against the body. The white cervical feathers were seldom fully extended and the gular sacs were only partially visible. The tail was generally in the normal position and unspread, but sometimes it was raised and not fanned, raised and fanned, or fanned partially and not raised. Hooting was the five note type characteristic of the dusky race. Pulsations could be seen in the neck region when the bird was hooting. Males selected open sites within their territories for performing their displays and could almost always be located in the early morning at their favorite display spot. However, their display activities were not confined to these selected spots. When a hen was heard or seen, the male would frequently strut or fly in her direction. Males would sometimes display in trees, but usually only if they were disturbed on the ground or aroused while feeding or roosting in a tree. Flutter-flights were the most commonly heard and observed type of display. Flutter-flights, as noted by Caswell (1954) and Harju (1974), had a chain reaction response that triggered flutter-flights from surrounding territorial males. It is believed for this reason, that one function of the flutter-flight was to proclaim territoriality to other males. Flutter-flights also served as a long distance display to attract hens to the territory and advertise the presence of a territorial male. There were some mornings when flutterflights could be heard up to 500 meters away. Hooting was considered a close up display designed to attract and stimulate the hen. Whenever a male was observed hooting there was usually a hen nearby. Males could be stimulated to hoot by the play-back of a tape recorded hen call at distances less than 50 meters. At distances greater than 50 meters the males initially responded with a wing flutter. Often times, the male would move towards the source of the call in the strutting position stopping occasionally to perform wing flutters. As he approached closer, he stopped wing fluttering and started hooting. If disturbed, he would fly to a tree and continue hooting. Hooting was variable in terms of audibility, but seldom could be heard over 30 meters away. As in this study, Harju (1974) found no evidence to suggest that hooting served to proclaim territory and intimidate intruders or neighboring males. Communal display, described by Blackford (1958, 1963) and noted by Harju (1974), was not observed on Green Mountain or at Eiby Creek. There were several instances when 5 or 6 males became concentrated in a small area where several hens were present. However, none of the males crossed over territories of adjacent males in order to display collectively as a group. Little active display was noted by hens other than cackle calls and wing sounds. There were undoubtedly more displays performed by hens but due to their more secretive nature and greater occupied range, fewer hens than males were encountered in the field. When disturbed they either sat motionless on �-208- the ground or in a tree, or else they flushed wildly out of sight. Cackling was the main call produced by hens which stimulated males to flutter or hoot depending on how close they were to each other. This call was referred to as the "quaver cry" by Stirling and Bendell (1970) and was the chief call performed by hens in Wyoming (Harju 1974). A call resembling the precopulatory "whinny" described by Stirling and Bendell (1970) was heard only once and may be a less important part of dusky grouse display than the cackle call. Hens also produce a type of wing flutter when landing, which often initiated a response from nearby males. The wing flutter was not the same as that performed by males. Hens landed with a constant wing beat, while males terminated their flight with a more distinct, louder flapping. Territoriality and Density Blue grouse males on the study areas were territorial and returned to the same territory year after year, though the boundary of the defended area changed occasionally. New territories were located in some years, but for the most part, the same territories were occupied each year. Thus, the newly recruited males were attracted to and filled vacant territories. Some yearling males were territorial, and only one adult male captured on Green Mountain was not territorial. All other adult males captured on the study areas were territorial. Even through territorial males were frequently observed in close proximity to one another, it is believed territorial boundaries seldom overlapped. There were known instances when a male was disturbed that he would fly into another male's territory without being pursued by the resident male. However, such behavior was usually observed during the early stages of territorial establishment in mid-April. Attempts to force a male off his territory in late April were unsuccessful. Territory size was determined for 9 banded males seen at least 5 times each in 1977 and 1978 on Green Mountain. Territory size ranged from 1.2 to 1.9 hectares, with a mean size of 1.6 hectares. Harju (1974) reported a mean size of 0.7 hectares (range 0.4-1.1 hectares) per territory in Wyoming. Bendell and Elliott (1970) found that sooty grouse occupied territories of 0.4 to 0.8 hectares in a dense population and 1.6 to 2.8 hectares in a sparse population. Martinka (1972) reported a mean territory size of 0.8 hectares (range = 0.4 to 1.5 hectares) for blue grouse in Montana, while Boag (1966) found that blue grouse in Alberta occupied territories of 0.22 to 0.92 hectares. Total number of territorial males recorded during the peak of breeding activities was used as an index to population size. It was impossible to traverse the entire area sufficiently intensively to determine the total population. The problem was further compounded by the fact that non-territorial males and females undergo rather extensive daily movements and were more difficult to find to accurately census. Since the study areas under investigation differed in terms of habitat type, ecological density rather than total territorial males counted was used for comparison of densities between study areas. In �-209- the estimation of ecological density, any area on the breeding range where grouse were observed was considered habitable. For Eiby Creek and Green Mountain the estimates were 302.5 (60.5% of total area) and 146.7 hectares (80.9% of total area), respectively. Table 1 presents the change in numbers of territorial males and ecological densities over a 4 year period on Green Mountain and a 3 year period at Eiby Creek. Breeding surveys were not conducted at Eiby Creek until 1976. Since then, the population density has shown little fluctuation. Similarly, Green Mountain supported a stable population in 1975 and 1976, with slight increases in 1977 and 1978. Ecological density of males appeared to be slightly higher on Green Mountain than at Eiby Creek, however, the difference was nonsignificant (P>.05) . Table 1. Numbers and ecological densities Green Mountain and Eiby Creek, 1975-1978. of territorial male blue grouse, Ecological Density(ha/Bird) 1975 1976 1977 1978 Study Area Size (ha) No. Territorial Males 1975 1976 1977 1978 Green Mtn. 181.3 16 16 17 19 9.2 9.2 8.6 7.7 Eiby Creek 500 ND 29 29 30 ND 10.4 10.4 10.1 Number of hens on the breeding range could not be accurately ascertained from the breeding survey. It was possible to estimate the number of hens on the study area just after most of the broods had hatched. At this time hens were very responsive to a tape recorded chick call and were easily located. These data are presented in Table 2, along with the total population estimate. The data are given from 1976 to 1978 for Green Mountain only. Due to the smaller size and isolated nature of Green Mountain from surrounding breeding populations, the area was easier to search and the hens observed were probably resident birds. Data from 1975 are excluded because less time was spent searching for broods than in other years and both the field crew and dog lacked experience in finding broods. Table 2. Population estimate of blue grouse on Green Mountain, 1976-1978. Terr. Males Non-Terr. Tota] Sex Ratio Males: Females Total Population Year Succ. Females Unsucc. 1976 13 4 17 16 3 19 1:1.1 33 1977 17 4 21 17 3 20 1:1.1 41 1978 15 5 20 19 4 23 1.2:1 43 Total �-210- Some hens and non-territorial males undoubtedly escaped detection in all years, therefore the total population estimate was minimal. The sex ratio indicated by these estimates did not deviate significantly from 1:1 (P>.05). Data collected in other studies similarly suggest a 1:1 sex ratio in the spring population (Zwickel 1972, Bendell et al. 1972). Nesting Parameters, Hatching Dates and Production Natality Few nests were located during the course of study because of the difficulty in finding nesting hens. All nests were located on Green Mountain while performing other duties, as no concerted effort was made to conduct nest searches on either study area. Clutch size and hatching success for the nests examined are presented in Table 3. Sample size was too small to judge whether there was a significant change in natality rate between years. Similarly, there were insufficient data for comparison between adult and yearling hens or between clutches laid early and late in the season. Table 3. No. Nests eJ:-I Natality rate among blue grouse on Green Mountain. Clutch Size Mean Range Total Eggs Laid Unhatched 6.0 44 4-8 6 II Depredated Deserted Total Eggs Hatched 6 2 30 Ave. No. Young per Female 3.7 II Includes all nests located from 1975-1978. 21 One nest abandoned before laying was completed. Egg loss, including one nest that was deserted before laying was completed, reduced the hatch by some 32 percent. Boag (1966) reported an approximate 18 percent egg loss of Alberta blue grouse, whereas, Zwickel (1975) reported what he considered a conservative estimate of 54 percent hatching success or a maximum estimate of 46 percent egg loss. Overall, 50 percent (4) of the nests hatched successfully, 25 percent (2) were partially successful, 12.5 percent (1) were destroyed by predators, and 12.5 percent (1) were deserted. Nesting success for 6 of 8 nests completely or partially hatched was 75 percent. Floristic and physiognomic characteristics of each nest site were recorded and are discussed under "Habitat Investigations". Hatching Dates Fig. 3 presents the hatching curves for blue grouse in the Eagle and Middle Park areas. Time of hatch was &imilarbetween areas, so the data were grouped. �-211- 70 1975. • 1976 0 0 1977 .-----. 1978 0-----0 60 (!) 50 ~ :J: U ~ I40 • t- 1\ z I w u a::: W c, 30 \ I \ ,/ \ 1 II yl / \ / 20 ! / 10 / 1 / \ \ \ \ I \ 1 \ I /1 • I II \ /\ / // 0--- - I I _0 /// 8-14 1-7 15-21 22-28 29-5 JUNE WEEK OF HATCHING , Fig. 3. Blue grouse hatching curves, 1975-1978. 6-12 JULY 13-19 20-26 �-212- All chicks were aged according to procedures outline by Zwickel and Lance (1966). The estimated age was adjusted for bias as described by Refield and Zwickel (1976). Peak of hatch varied by as much as 3 weeks over the 4 years of study. Examination of the hatching curves show that no second peak, indicative of renesting, was evident in any year. This does not imply renesting did not occur, but the contribution of renesting to production of young was insignificant. Nesting Success Since hens with broods are easier to locate than those without, this factor tends to produce an inflated estimate of nesting success when calculated from field observations. Consequently, analyses of the wing molt pattern of hunter harvested birds was used as the best estimate of nesting success (Braun 1971). The technique provides a minimum estimate as some successful hens will have completed their molt by mid- to late September and cannot be distinguished from unsuccessful hens. This problem is compounded during years when hens initiate nesting earlier such as in 1977. Few yearlings were identifiable in 1977 and many adult hens were in the advance stages of molt. Therefore, nesting success was probably bett~r in 1977 than what the data indicate. Combined nesting success of adult and yearling hens was relatively constant (range = 68.6 - 76.4%) from year to year in Middle Park (Table 4). Overall, 72.0 percent of the adult and yearling female wings collected in Middle Park were from successful nesters. This estimate is in agreement with the 75.0 percent nesting success determined from 8 nests found on Green Mountain. Based on field observations of successful (52) and unsuccessful (15) hens, estimated nesting success on Green Mountain from 1975 to 1978 was 77.6 percent. Again the range of values (75.0 - 80.9%) was relatively constant from year to year. Nesting success varied more within and between age classes than noted for combined success of both age classes. Adult hens exhibited less variation (68.5 - 80.9%) and an overall higher (74.2%) success than yearlings (x = 64.0%, range = 33.3 - 82.1%). Reasons for this difference are uncertain, but may be an artifact of sample size (especially for yearlings). Zwickel (1975) detected no significant difference in nesting success of yearling and adult hens. Too few wings were collected from the Eagle area in 1975 and 1976 to estimate nesting success in these years. In 1977, only 4 yearling hens were identifiable from the wing sample. Consequently, the 1977 estimate of nesting success was for adults only. Combined success was greater in 1978 (80.9%) than 1977 (57.1) and compared favorably with field estimates (1977 = 53.6%, 1978 = 72.7%). Production and Juvenile Mortality From mid-June until mid-August 1978, complete counts were made on 62 broods including 32 on Green Mountain and 30 at Eiby Creek. Some broods were counted more than once, but not within the same month. Results of brood surveys from 1975 to 1978 are given in Table 5. �-213- Table 4. Estimated nesting success, Middle Park and Eagle, 1975-1978. Eagle Estimated Nesting Adults Yearlings~1 Year Middle Park Estimated Nesting Success Adults(N)l/ Yearlingsll Total 1975 80.3(71) 33.3(21) 69.6(92) ND ]j ND ND 1976 68.3(60) 82.1(28) 72.7(88) ND ND ND 1977 68.5(143) 68.7(16) 68.6(159) 57.1(63) 1978 80.9(115) 65.2(46) 76.4(161) 81.0 (58) Total 74.2(389) 64.0(111) 72.0(500) 68.6(121) IS!!j(4) 80.8(26) Success Total 57.1(63) 80.9(84) 70.7(147) 11 Total sample of wings examined. II Due to sma 11 samp 1·· e Slzes not be representative ln some years, es t· lma te d nes t· lng of this age class. success may ]j No data. il Inadequate Yearly sample. average brood sizes recorded Green Mountain 3.9 1975 4.4 1976 1977 = 3.8 1978 - 4.9 were as follows: Eiby Creek 1975 1976 1977 1978 No Data 3.4 3.9 5.1 Average brood size was similar between areas in 1977 and 1978. The apparently smaller brood size at Eiby Creek in 1976 was attributed to a larger sample of broods counted in late July-early August, whereas, primarily early to midJuly counts were made on Green Mountain. Rogers (1968) found average brood sizes of 4.1, 2.6 and 3.9 in 3 years of study in western Colorado. Since some doubt exists as to whether blue grouse broods can be accurately counted until after they are 4 weeks old (Boag 1966), late June and early to mid-July counts may be underestimated. Brood counts in August may also be misleading due to shuffling of chicks between broods, formation of gang broods, and brood breakup and dispersal. Therefore, observed differences in brood size from June to August may not accurately reflect loss of chicks during this period (Table 6). The gradual attrition in size of broods over the summer months is the least reliable method of evaluating chick mortality (Zwickel and Bendell 1967), but was the only data available for determining losses in this study. Average annual summer mortality of chicks was 43.6 percent for Green Mountain ar.d only 28.0 percent for Eiby Creek. �-214- Table 5. Average brood size, range, and number intervals, 1975 to 1978. 1/ of broods observed by monthly 1975 Green Mountain 1976 1977 1978 1976 Mean ND'!:/ 5.3 5.1 6.2 5.0 4.6 6.5 Range ND 3-7 4-7 5-9 4-6 3-6 6-7 ND 3 11 9 2 7 2 Mean 5.2 4.1 4.0 5.4 3.7 4.1 4.9 Range 2-7 2-6 1-7 3-7 1-7 2-9 3-8 Sample Size 4 7 10 9 9 10 l3 Mean 3.0 3.0 2.5 3.7 2.2 3.6 5.0 Range 1-5 1-4 2-6 1-4 1-10 3-8 13 14 5 20 17 Month Eiby Creek 1977 1978 June Sample Size July August Sample Size 1/ Only distinct 6 1 broods with full counts are included. 1/ No data, late hatching Production and Breeding Estimated presented following studies: total production in relation to breeding population levels is in Table 7 for both study areas. Calculations are based on the assumptions which are supported by data collected in this and other year, no full counts obtained. Populations (1) A 1:1 sex ratio exists (2) Estimated (3) Mean annual brood size and monthly estimated the production of chicks on the study areas (4) Immigration percent equals in the breeding nesting success emigration population is correct brood sizes represent �-215- Table 6. Mortality Area of juvenile blue grouse from late June to mid-August. Year Mean Brood Size June August 1975 5.21/ 3.0 42.3 1976 5.3 3.0 43.4 1977 5.1 2.5 51.0 1978 6.2 3.7 40.3 1975-78 5.5 3.1 l.3.6 1976 5.0 2.2 56.0 1977 4.6 3.6 21.7 1978 6.5 5.0 23.1 1976-78 5.0 3.6 28.0 Mortality (%) Green Mountain Eiby Creek 1/ Mean brood size for July as no full counts were obtained in June due to late hatch. Zwickel (1965) and Bendell and Elliott (1967) reported a mean annual death rate of approximately 30 percent for breeding populations of blue grouse on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Of 6 males and 4 females banded on Green Mountain between April and mid-June 1977, 6 (4 males, 2 females) were recensused in spring 1978. During the same period 4 males and 4 females were banded at Eiby Creek, and 5 (2 males, 3 females) were reobserved in 1978. The pooled data on birds banded in 1977 and resighted in 1978 gave an estimated mortality rate of 39 percent. Assuming this estimate is constant from year to year, one can determine from the estimate of total production the minimum replacement requirements necessary to maintain a stable breeding population (Table 8). Production by mid-August rather than total production was used in the computations because mid-August figures more closely approximate production and survival of juveniles until fall. The replacement requirement then becomes an estimate of the fall to spring mortality of juveniles that should occur in a stab~e population. Both populations under investigation were essentially stable. �Table 7. Area Estimation of the annual production of young on Green Mountain and Eiby Creek. Total Production Mortality June-August Total Production by mid-August Total Population by mid-August Percent Gain 3.9 43 42.3 25 57 44 12 4.4 53 43.4 30 62 48 68.6 12 3.8 46 51.0 22 56 39 76.4 14 4.9 69 40.3 41 79 52 Total~J Breeding Population Nesting Success (%) No. Hens With Broods 1975 32 69.6 11 1976 32 72.7 1977 34 1978 38 Year Average Annual Brood Size Green Mountain I N •....• C]\ Eiby Creek I 1977 58 57.1 17 3.9 66 56.0 29 87 33 1978 60 80.9 24 5.1 122 23.1 94 154 61 !/ Excludes non-territorial males. �-217- Table 8. Estimates of the fall to spring loss of juveniles maintain a stable breeding population. to Total Breeding Population Annual Mortality Breeding Populationl/ Total Production by mid-August Fall to Spring Mortality of Juveniles~j (%) 1975 32 12 25 52 1976 32 12 30 60 1977 34 13 22 41 1978 38 15 41 63 1977 58 23 29 21 1978 60 23 94 75 Year Area necessary Green Mountain Eiby Creek !/ Number of birds expected to be lost from the population annual mortality rate of 39 percent. -2/ Morta 1·lty necessary . . to malntaln assuming a constant the popu 1·atlon. It is apparent from the data presented in Table 8 that production was more than sufficient to replace natural losses in the breeding population. Excluding the data from 1977 at Eiby Creek, at least 41 percent (Green Mountain 1977) and up to 75 percent (Eiby Creek 1978) of the juveniles alive at the end of summer would either have to succumb to mortality or disperse to other areas between fall and spring in order for the breeding population to remain stable. For Green Mountain, the average annual fall to spring loss of juveniles required to maintain the population from 1975 to 1978 was 56 percent. These data suggest there are always surplus birds in the fall population and in most years this surplus exceeds 40 percent. Harvest Hunting Season The 1978 blue grouse season opened on 9 September and closed on 8 October. Blue grouse hunting was also permitted between 14 October and 14 November in �-218- conjunction with the deer, elk and combined deer elk seasons. Season length was 57 days with daily bag and possession limits of 3 and 6 birds, respectively. Season structure, bag limits, and length from 1975 to 1978 are presented in Table 9. Table 9. Blue grouse hunting Year Hunting Season Dates 1975 1976 1977 1978 Middle seasons, Colorado, 1975-1978. Season Length (days) Bag Limit Possession Limit 9/13-10/5 23 3 6 Unit 80 and all units west of Interstate 25 except portions of Unit 52 9/11-10/10 9/11-10/10 and 10/16-10/26 30 40 3 3 6 Same as 1975 Unit 28 (Middle Park) only 9/10-10/9 30 3 6 10/15-11/15 27 3 6 West of Interstate 25 and Unit 80 West of Interstate 25 and Unit 80 when open to deer or elk hunting 9/9-10/8 10/14-11/14 30 27 3 3 6 6 Same as 1977 Same as 1977 6 Open Areas Park As in 1977, a check station was again operated in 1978 at the Prairie Point Campground along Highway 9 at the south end of Green Mountain Reservoir. The check station was operated opening weekend from about 1000 to 1800 MST, depending upon traffic load. All vehciles were stopped on the highway, but only hunters were directed to pull off at the check station. Data obtained per party included: County of origin, number of hunters, hours hunted, birds observed, birds bagged per hunter, area hunted, and location where each bird was harvested. One wing was removed from each bird provided no wings had been deposited in barrels. Whenever a bird was missing one or both wings, the hunter was questioned as to what he did with the wings. Thus, the status of all wings was recorded as follows: (1) hunter disposed of wings, (2) hunter deposited wing in barrel, and (3) wing collected at check station. Sex by gonadal inspection was ascertained for all young of the year whenever possible. Ovaries were collected from adult and yearling hens and crops were collected from all birds when present. Whole body weights were obtained for all grouse that were not eviscerated. �-219- In addition to the check station, 16 volunteer wing collection stations were available to hunters throughout the entire season at various locations in Middle Park. Hunters were also contacted opportunistically in the field whenever possible. Themail wingsurveywasdiscontinuedin1978.thus.no wings were obtained from this source. A total of 1,006 blue grouse wings were collected from Middle Park in 1978. Wing collection stations accounted for 87.0 percent (875 wings) of the wings collected. Number of wings collected from each barrel were as follows: Ute Pass 19, Williams Peak Road 50, Spring Creek 169, Lawson Ridge 3, Trough Road 85, Kremmling 29, Troublesome 16, Corral Creek 80, Cottonwood Pass 16, Willow Creek 57, Gore Pass 154, Pinto Creek 23, and Chimney Rock 136. Cottonwood Pass, Parshall Divide, and Willow Creek represent new barrel locations. No barrels were placed at City Reservoir and Rock Creek in 1978. The remaining wings were collected at check stations (105 = 10.4%) in North Park (11) and Middle Park (94) and from miscellaneous collections (26 = 2.6%). Comparative data from 1975 to 1978 are presented in Table 10. Table 10. Number and source of blue grouse wings collected from 1975 to 1978. Wing Barrels No. % Year Check Stations No. % Mail Survey No. % in Middle Park Miscellaneous No. % Total 1975 120(10)1/ 65.6 26 14.2 o 0.0 37 20.2 183 1976 292(13) 84.9 49 14.2 3 0.9 o 0.0 344 1977 501(15) 82.7 87 14.4 18 2.9 o 0.0 606 1978 875(16) 87.0 105 10.4 o 0.0 26 2.6 1,006 83.6 267 12.5 21 1.0 63 2.9 2,139 1,788 1/ Number in parentheses represents number of wing barrels used. It is apparent from data presented in Table 10 that number of wings collected each year increased by almost 2 fold over the number collected the previous year. Liberalization of the blue grouse season partially contributed to the increased number of wings collected. However, relocation of wing barrels to more productive sites plus use of additional wing barrels were largely responsible for yearly differences. During the 2 days of check station operations, 222 hunters with 294 blue grouse (1.3 birds per hunter) were checked. Total birds reported observed by these hunters was 758. Some duplications are undoubtedly present in the observations. Of the 222 hunters checked, 45.4 percent were unsuccessful, 19.8 percent �-220- harvested 1 bird, 21.3 percent harvested 2 birds, and 13.5 percent harvested the daily bag limit of 3 birds. Only 9 birds were reported wounded and not retrieved for an estimated crippling loss of 3.1 percent. Hunter efficiency was calculated at 38.8 percent (birds bagged; birds observed ~ 100). Comparative data from 1975 through 1978 are presented in Table 11. Table 11. Blue grouse harvest statistics, Middle Park, Colorado, 1975-1978.11 Year No. Hunters Checked No. Birds Observed No. Birds Bagged Hunter Efficiency % % Successful Hunters Crippling Loss % Birds per Hunter 1975 112 158 45 28.4 30.4 4.4 0.4 1976 138 141 61 43.2 33.4 8.2 0.4 1977 228 480 226 47.1 39.5 4.0 1.0 1978 222 758 294 38.8 54.6 3.1 1.3 11 Check stations operated on the Williams Peak road in 1975 and 1976 and at the Prairie Point campground in 1977 and 1978. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of wing barrels for sampling, Middle Park hunters were questioned as to what they did with the wings from the birds they harvested. This information is summarized below along with similar data collected in 1977: . 1978 1977 Percent wings deposited in barrels 60.7 50.6 Percent wings collected that should have been deposited 20.3 18.9 Percent wings disposed 17.4 28.3 Percent wings of unknown status 3.0 0.8 Distribution of harvest and hunting pressure was not uniform within Middle Park. Spring Creek was the leading harvest area in 1978 accounting for 18.8 percent of the harvest and 30.7 percent of the hunters. Gore Pass was next with 19.3 percent of the hunters and 17.2 percent of the harvest. Chimney Rock accounted for 14.0 percent of the harvest but only 6.4 percent of the hunters, whereas, Piney had 9.7 percent of the harvest and 15.2 percent of the hunters. Blue Ridge ranked third in terms of hunters pressure (16.5%) but only made up 7.4 percent of the harvest. Corral Creek and Willow Creek had 8.0 and 5.7 percent of the harvest, respectively. All other areas within Middle Park each had less than 4 percent of the harvest and hunter pressure. The only other year for which comparative data are available is 1977. The Leading harvest areas in 1977 were Chimney Rock (16.0% of harvest), Piney (15.5%), Gore Pass (14.1%), Blue Ridge (12.7%), Spring Creek (12.2%), Corral Creek (9.1%), and Ute Pass (6.9%). Major hunting areas in 1977 were Spring Creek (33.0% of hunters), Blue Ridge (23.4%), Gore Pass (14.8%), Piney (11.5%), and Chimney Rock (8.1%). �-221- Most hunters contacted in 1978 originated from the Denver metropolitan area. The counties of Jefferson (49), Denver (31), Arapahoe (28), and Adams (22) accounted for 130 of 206 (63.1%) hunters for which origin was ascertained. Local hunters from Summit (23) and Grand (7) counties made up 14.6 percent of the hunters contacted. This figure is probably under estimated as appreciable numbers of local residents (especially from Grand County) are not contacted at the check station. All other counties each comprised less than 5 percent of the hunter contacts. Similar data have been collected in previous years. Distribution of the wings collected in 1978 according to time of collection is given in Table 12, along with comparative data from 1975 through 1977. These data are presented to illustrate how more liberal seasons have spread the harvest and hunting pressure over a longer period of time. Whereas, hunting pressure has probably remained the same, pressure has declined opening weekend as more hunters are hunting later in the season. Table 12. Time distribution of blue grouse wings collected, Middle Park, Colorado, 1975-1978. 1/ 1976 % No. 1977 No. 1978 Time Period 1975 % No. 1st weekend 53 44.2 121 41.4 188 37.5 288 32.9 1st week 9 7.4 36 12.3 20 4.0 99 11.3 2nd weekend 20 16.7 36 12.3 63 12.6 109 12.5 2nd week 0 0.0 11 3.8 28 5.5 13 1.5 3rd weekend 8 6.7 23 7.9 44 8.8 55 6.3 3rd week 11 9.2 10 3.4 7 1.4 13 1.5 4th weekend 19 15.8 21 7.2 18 3.6 23 2.6 4th week 8 2.7 11 2.2 10 1.1 5th weekend 15 5.2 12 2.4 119 13.6 Experimental Season (1976) 10/16 to 10/26 11 3.8 Deer season 37 7.4 67 7.7 Elk fleason 63 12.6 44 5.0 Combined season 10 2.0 35 4.0 501 100.0 875 100.0 Totals 120 100.0 292 1/ lUng collections from barrels only. 100.0 % No. % �-222- Age and sex composition of the 1978 harvest sample as ascertained from examination of wings is presented in Table 13. Data from 1975 to 1977 are included for comparison. There were significant changes in age and sex structure of the harvest in 1978 from previous years. In 1978, immatures comprised 67.2 percent of the harvest, the best representation of immatures during the 4 years of intensive wing collections in Middle Park. Fewer adults were present in the 1978 harvest sample than in previous years. Since some yearlings will have completed their primary molt by mid- to late September, they cannot be distinguished from adults. Therefore, it is believed yearlings are under-represented in the harvest in all years. The problem is most evident in "early" years (1977) because the birds initiate their primary molt earlier. Also, the problem of separating adults and yearlings is more pronounced for males than females because males start their primary molt before most females. Thus in 3 (1975, 1976 and 1977) of 4 years of data, there were significantly fewer males than females comprising the yearling segment of the harvest. Sex ratio of adults and immatures approximated 1:1 in all years except 1978 when there were significantly more immature males than females. Reasons for the deviation in sex ratio of chicks in 1978 is uncertain, but may be related to a greater harvest of male chicks late in the season. Eagle A total of 465 blue grouse wings was collected in the Eagle area during the 1978 season. Ten wing collection stations accounted for 97.6 percent (454 wings) of the wings obtained. Number of wings collected from each barrel were as follows: Eiby Creek North 78, Eiby Creek South 26, Cabin Creek 5, Coffee Pot Springs 67, Gypsum 8, Brush Creek 28, Milk Creek 73, Red and White Mountain 68, Wolcott 38, and Red Sandstone Road 63. The remaining wings were collected from the mail wing sllrvey (3) and at the Idaho Springs big game check station (8). Due to low hunter pressure and scattered distribution of hunters, no check station was operated in the Eagle area in 1978. Approximately 26 percent more wings were collected in 1978 (465) than in 1977 (342). This increase was probably due to the relocation of wing barrels to more productive sites rather than an increa~e in harvest. Data presented in Table 14 were in agreement with the same information collected in Middle Park (Table 12). In general, liberalization of the season spread the hunter pressure and harvest over a longer period of time, thus reducing the opening weekend syndrome. Age and sex composition of the 1977 and 1978 harvest samples from the Eagle area is shown in Table 15. Inadequate samples of wings were collected in 1975 (21) and 1976 (67) to permit reliable analysis. The blue grouse harvest samples from the Eagle area are similar to data collected in Middle Park for the same years. From 1977 to 1978 there was a substantial decline in the adult segment of the harvest, with a corresponding increase in harvest of juveniles. Data from wing analyses suggest excellent production of young in 1978 and possibly better survival; an analogous conclusion was drawn from data presented in Tables 5 and 6. �Table 13. Age and sex composition of the blue grouse harvest, Middle Park, Colorado, 1975-1978. Adults Females % No. Total % No. Males % No. Yearlings Females % No. Tota1 % No. Males % No. Immatures Females % No. Total % No. Year Males % No. 24.1 71 41. 8 5 2.9 15 8.8 20 11. 7 36 43 79 46.5 41 25.3 30 17.7 21.2 1975 18.8 132 38.7 15 4.4 28 8.2 43 12.6 74 92 166 48. 7 64 27.0 68 19.9 21.7 1976 23.9 277 45.9 3 0.5 16 2.6 19 3.2 164 27.2 50.9 144 307 22.1 23.7 133 143 1977 11.9 237 24.4 36 3.7 46 4.7 82 8.4 364 37.4 67.2 116 654 12.5 29.8 121 290 1978 I N N W I �-224- Table 14. Time distribution Colorado, 1977-1978. of blue grouse wings collected, 1977 Eagle Area, 1978 Total No. of Wings % of Total 127 37.1 126 27.1 1st week 48 14.0 62 13.3 2nd weekend 21 6.2 54 11. 6 2nd week 27 7.9 9 1.9 3rd weekend 10 2.9 17 3.7 3rd week 10 2.9 18 3.9 4th weekend 10 2.9 29 6.2 4th week 5 1.5 14 3.0 5th weekend 11 3.2 44 9.5 Deer season 39 11. 4 62 13.3 Elk season 15 4.4 27 5.8 Combined 19 5.6 3 .7 342 100.0 Time Period No. of Wings 1st weekend season Totals % of 465 100.0 As previously noted, not all yearlings could be identified in the harvest samples, therefore creating what appeared to be deficiency. The Eagle data showed a greater deficiency of yearling females in 1977 and yearling males in 1978. In Middle Park, the deficiency of yearlings was most pronounced for males in all years. The observed sex ratio of immatures in 1978 was exactly 1:1 which was incongruent with the unbalanced sex ratio favoring males that was noted for the Middle Park sample in 1978. Otherwise, the sex ratio of adults and immatures did not deviate significantly from 1:1 and was in agreement with the Middle Park data. Utilization Direct evidence from banding data and indirect evidence based on the attributes of the populations under investigation indicate that present levels of harvest have minor effects on grouse populations. Available data suggest there is a high and variable loss of grouse during their first year. Further- �Table 15. Age and sex composition of the blue grouse harvest, Eagle Area, Colorado, 1977-1978. Adults Females Males Males Total Yearlings Females Imroatures Females Males Total % No. % No. % N-o-.-- No. % No. % 26.7 171 50.7 Year No. % No. % No. % 87 25.8 65 19.3 152 45.1 10 3.0 4 1.2 14 4.2 81 24.0 90 1977 62 13.4 59 12.8 121 26.2 9 2.0 26 5.6 35 7.6 153 33.1 153 1978 , Total % N-o-.-- I N 33.1 306 66.2 ~ I �-226- more, production of young greatly exceeds the number necessary to replace natural losses in the breeding population. The excess birds are expendable and may be harvested without adversely affecting the subsequent spring breeding population. While few birds were banded, the percentage of banded birds shot (4.8%) indicate hunters removed a negligible portion of the fall population (Table 16). The juvenile segment of the population sustained the bulk of the kill (13.5%) followed by hens (1.9%). No banded males were reported shot. Bendell and Elliott (1967) reported approximately 5 percent of the hens and chicks banded on their study areas on Vancouver Island were shot each year, while very few (0.7%) adult males were taken, Mussehl (1960) found that hunters removed 7 (1957) and 12 (1958) percent of the grouse banded in the Bridger Mountains, Montana, most of which were juveniles. Table 16. Number of grouse available and Eagle, Colorado, 1976-1978. Year Males No. % Banded Shot to and shot by hunters, Females No. % Banded Shot Chicks No. % Banded Shot Middle Park Total No. % Banded Shot 1976 6 0.0 13 7.7 5 0.0 24 4.2 1977 20 0.0 15 0.0 14 21.4 49 6.1 1978 9 0.0 25 0.0 18 11.1 52 3.8 Totals 35 0.0 53 1.9 37 13.5 125 4.8 Hickey (1955) says that gallinaceous birds can safely withstand a hunting kill equivalent to about one-half their annual mortality rate. Based on a 4 year ·average for Green Mountain (Table 7), production contributes to approximately a 46 percent increase in the population. In a stable population there must be an annual loss from fall to fall of this amount. Therefore, according to Hickey (1955), the population can absorb a harvest of 23 percent. This represents a minimum estimate because the annual mortality of adults is not taken into account. Even so, the calculated yield (23%) surpasses the estimated harvest of 4.8 percent and further substantiates the conclusion that hunting has no detrimental effects on blue grouse populations. Combined Blue Grouse - Big Game Season Evaluation of the 1978 combined blue grouse - big game season followed the exact procedures used in 1977. A total of 1.500 big game hunters were surveyed at the Idaho Springs check station during the 1978 deer (500), elk �-227- (500), and combined deer-elk (500) seasons. Hunters were contacted opportunistically at the check station. Only one hunter from each party was surveyed and only residents were included in the sample. To insure a diversity of hunters were questioned, sampling periods included days at the beginning, middle, and end of each season. From data presented in Table 17 it is apparent that few big game hunters took advantage of the longer grouse seasons in 1977 (6.3%) and 1978 (5.5%). Based only on those hunters aware the grouse season was open, participation was 13.1 percent in 1977 and 9.8 percent in 1978. Even though participation was low, general response of hunters to the combined blue grouse - big game season was highly favorable in both years. The primary complaint of those hunters opposed to the season was their concern about the potential increase in number of hunters (big game + grouse hunters). However, less than one percent of all hunters contacted during the 1977 and 1978 big game seasons were strictly grouse hunters. More hunters were aware of the longer grouse season in 1978 (55.1%) than in 1977 (48.1%), but participation remained relatively constant. Therefore, only a small percentage of hunters were interested in hunting grouse during the big game season. Due to good production this year, number of grouse observed increased substantially in 1978 (4,892) compared to 1977 (3,415). Consequently, hunters that took advantage of the longer season were more successful in 1978 (48.5% success, 2.3 grouse/successful hunter) than in 1977 (27.4% success, 2.0 grouse/successful hunter). As a result, fewer hunters killed more grouse in 1978 than in 1977. Based on wing collections from barrels in Middle Park, 22.0 and 16.7 percent of the total grouse harvest occurred during the big game seasons in 1977 and 1978, respectively. In 1977 the projected estimate of the total harvest of blue grouse in Colorado was about 26,200 birds as determined from the statewide small game survey. Whereas, this is probably an inflated estimate, the additional harvest resulting from the longer season in 1977 (22% of total harvest) was somewhere around 5,800 grouse, or about a 26 percent increase over the 11 year (1966-1976) average annual harvest of 21,100 blue grouse. Results of the 1978 small game survey were not available, but preliminary indications are that the harvest was up from 1977. Habitat Vegetation Investigations Characteristics Green Mountain lies in the southwest corner of Middle Park, one of three major intermountain parks in Colorado. Unlike the other intermountain parks characterized by broad, rolling grass (South Park) or sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) (North Park) covered f1oor.s, Middle Park is mountainous and locally heavily forested; however, sagebrush types still predominate. The study area includes portions of both the sagebrush and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) vegetation zones as described in Harrington (1964). Scattered to dense stands of Douglas-fir predominate above 2700 meters and extend downward to 2600 meters. Open areas below this elevation are vegetated primarily with big sagebrush (!. tridentata). Intermediate areas are best described as a mixed conifer-aspen (Populus tremuloides)-shrub association. This zonal pattern of vegetation is not distinct as extensions of various sagebrush types occur throughout the Douglas-fir zone creating a patchwork of vegetation types. �Table 17. Combined blue grouse-big game season hunter questionnaire data, Idaho Springs, Colorado, 1977 and 1978. No. in sample 1978 Combined Deer Elk 1977 Combined Total Deer Elk 500 500 502 1,502 500 500 500 1,500 Total No. big game hunters aware of season 253 260 210 723 259 285 283 827 % big game hunters aware of season 50.6 52.0 41.8 48.1 51.8 57.0 56.6 55.1 No. big game hunters hunting grouse 40 25 30 95 14 37 31 82 % big game hunters hunting grouse 8.0 5.0 6.0 6.3 2.8 7.4 6.2 5.5 I tv tv % big game hunters aware of season that hunted grouse 15.8 9.6 2,102 14.3 620 l3.1 3,415 5.4 1,384 13.0 2,053 10.9 1,455 9.8 4,892 Total grouse observed 693 % big game hunters observing grouse 24.8 41.8 18.5 28.4 32.4 35.6 37.8 35.0 Grouse observed/big game hunter 1.4 4.2 1.2 2.3 2.7 4.1 2.9 3.2 Total grouse harvested l3 28 12 53 17 28 32 77 Grouse/big game hunter hunting grouse 0.3 1.1 0.4 0.6 1.2 .7 1.0 0.9 52.0 52.2 52.0 52.1 60.0 57.0 62.0 59.7 % negative l3.4 9.2 10.4 11.0 14.0 11.0 9.6 11.5 % indifferent 34.6 38.6 37.6 36.9 26.0 32.0 28.4 28.8 % hunters favorable of combined blue grouse-big game season 'F �-229- Canopy coverage for the entire study area is about 40 percent. Seventy percent of the crown cover is Douglas-fir, 27 percent aspen, and 3 percent Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus virginiana) and mountain maple (Acer glabrum). Understory cover consists of a mosaic of shrub and grass-forb types. Snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.), common juniper (l. communis), rose (Rosa acicularis), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) are the major understory shrubs; yarrow (Achillea lanulosa), pussy toes (Antennaria spp.), northern bedstraw (Galium boreale), and peavine (Lathyrus spp.) are the major forbs encountered in the understory, and sedge (Carex spp.) and bluegrass (Poa spp.) are the major grass and grasslike species. Unforested areas constitute about 60 percent of the study area of which in excess of 90 percent is dominated by sagebrush. Other shrubs, forbs, and grasses (or grasslike) commonly found in association with the sagebrush include: snowberry, rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus spp.), serviceberry, rose, bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), pussy toes, arrowleaf balsamroot (Balsamorhiza sagittata), paintbrush (Castelleja spp.), sulphur flower (Eriogonum umbellatum), common lupine (Lupinus argenteus), bedstraw, sedge, wheat grass (Agropyron spp.), Junegrass (Koleria cristata), needle-grass (Stipa spp.), and bluegrass. Plant nomenclature is according to Weber (1972) and Nelson (1969). Several factors have markedly influenced the composition and structure of vegetation on Green Mountain. The earliest record of disturbance was between 1880 and 1890 when the northern portion of the study area was set on fire by a local homesteader to create a supply of firewood. Much of the area burned has reverted to sagebrush with charred logs, stumps, and patches of Douglasfir dotting the landscape. Around 1930 the Douglas-fir was selectively logged as a local source of ties for contructing the railroad. Few trees were removed, but enough to open up the habitat and allow the development of a dense understory and in some areas, invasion of aspen. The most extensive disturbance occurred in 1962 when sagebrush dominated areas below the Douglas-fir zone were sprayed with 2,4D to enhance grass production for livestock. The degree of mortality in shrub species was not uniform throughout the sprayed area, thus vegetative composition and structure were altered moreso at some locations than others. Adequate time has since elapsed for the sagebrush to recover except in a few small areas where spraying was most effective. Dead or partially damaged sagebrush plants were still an important component of ground cover in such areas. Past grazing history indicates moderate to heavy pressure on portions of the area by domestic livestock. Present grazing includes light summer use by cattle mostly at the lower elevations near available water. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) use the area from late spring until early winter. Besides grazing, no other use is presently made of the area. Vegetation Type Mapping Vegetative classification and description of the Green Mountain study area was done in accordance with procedures outlined by Kuchler (1955). This method of vegetation mapping is essentially a derivation of Braun-Blanquet's (1951) system of floristic and physiognomic description of plant communities. Vegetation maps have been prepared elsewhere in Colorado using this method (Braun 1969, Medin 1962). �-230- Aerial photographs (approximately 7.0 cm:l km) of the study area were used as base maps. Before going into the field, the photos were carefully examined and every area of vegetation appearing dissimilar from adjacent areas was delineated by a line drawn directly on the photo. The minimum area of vegetation bounded by a line on the photo was approximately .5 hectares. No types were omitted within the study area boundary. Upon delineation of all areas apparent on the map, each area was then inspected in the field. The first task was to walk about the area being examined from end to end and across, observing the vegetation critically and field checking the boundaries shown on the photo. Salient features of the area where recorded on prepared data sheets. Consecutive numbers were assigned to each area inspected and were entered both on the data sheet and the photograph. Each area received its own number regardless of any similarities to previously inspected areas. To better facilitate preparation of the final map, a photograph was taken of each vegetative unit. Number of the individual exposure was recorded along with the corresponding number of the unti where the photograph was taken. The next step was to record the vegetative physiognomy and other physical features of the area including: slope gradient, exposure and character. The physiognomic classification (Table 18) reveals the appearance and structure of the plant community (vegetation unit), i.e., height and density of every item listed, and in addition, such special features as may be present. A detailed description of the classification scheme and its application is presented by Kuchler (1949). Slope gradient and exposure were measured with an Abney level and compass. After the physiognomic formula for an inspected area had been established, attention was focused on the floristic character of the vegetation. All species occurring on the area were recorded by name and each species was assigned numerical values describing its coverage and sociability (Table 19). Coverage is understood to mean the percentage of ground that would be covered if the full spread of the species were projected vertically to the ground. Sociability refers to the distribution of a species within the area of vegetation under consideration. Undoubtedly, some species which only very few specimens were present in a given type escaped detection. This was also true for "early or late flowering" species that peaked prior to or after the period of field work, which was designed to coincide with the peak of plant development (mid-June to mid-July). Additional features such as the presence and amount of bare ground, stumps, logs and rocks were recorded for each vegetation unit. Comments on physiography, soil, water condition, whether the area was logged or burned, and any other pertinent information were noted on the data form. The result of the laboratory and field activity was a set of lists and notes and a series of a.erial photos on which the vegetation units were outlined. Each unit received its own number corresponding to the number in the lists where the particular type was analyzed. The next step was the preparation of the base map which shows the exact outline of each individual vegetation unit and its number. �-231- T abl e 18 . " Ph"YSlognomlc"1 c aSSl"f" lcatlon 0f ." 1/ vegetatlon.- CAPITAL LETTERS: Herbaceous Vegetation: G: Graminoids H: forbs L: lichens and mosses Woody Vegetation: B: evergreen broadleaf D: deciduous broadleaf E: evergreen needleleaf N: deciduous needle leaf 0: without leaves SMALL LETTERS: Group I: Height: t: tall; m: medium Minimum height of trees: Minimum height of herbaceous tall; 1: low; Height of trees: Height of herbaceous plants: 25 m 2 m 10-25 m ~-2 m plants: 10 m ~ m Maximum Maximum height of trees: height of herbaceous s: shrubs; Minimum height: 1 m z: dwarf shrubs; Maximum height: 1 m plants: Group II: Density: c: continuous growth i: interrupted; plants usually p: plants scattered do not touch singly, or in groves or patches r: rare, yet conspicuous b: barren; vegetation largely or entirely absent Group III: Special Features: e: epiphytes u: palms j: v: bamboos lianas k: succulents w: adquatic vegetation q: cushion plants y: tree ferns and tuft plants 1/ From Kuchler (1955). �-232- Table 19. Floristic classification of vegetation.1/ Coverage: Sociability: + Very sparsely present; cover 1 Growing singly or tufted very small 2 Grouped Plentiful but less than 1/20 of the area 3 In small patches 2 Covering 1/20 - 1/4 of the area 4 In extensive 3 Covering 1/4 - 1/2 of the area 5 In great crowds 4 Covering 1/2 to 3/4 of the area 5 Covering greater - From Kuchler (1955). 1 1/ patches than 3/4 of the area Preparation of the base map involved sorting through the data forms, notes and photographs and rearranging the vegetation units into combinations encompassing similar floristic and physiognomic classifications. Woody plants including trees and shrubs were given primary emphasis during the first phase in the sorting and combining process. Units within these major vegetation types were then manipulated to produce categories based on similar floristic and structural characteristics. After assigning each unit to a major vegetation type and combining similar vegetation units, the final map was traced off the base map, lumping together all similar units which were adjacent to each other. All similar units were then reassigned the same number to simplify reading the map. Total area mapped as planimetered from a U. S. Geologic Survey topographic map (scale 1:62500) was 181.3 hectares (1.8 km2). Area encompassed by each vegetation type and unit was calculated by the weight method (Welch 1948, p. 85). An exact model of the vegetation map was traced onto high quality bond paper. The model was cut out and weighed on an analytical balance to the nearest milligram. Each vegetation type was then cut out and weighed. Finally, the weight of each individual unit was recorded. Percentage of the total area encompassed by each vegetation type and unit was computed by dividing the weight of each type and unit by the total weight. The percentages were then multiplied times the total area (181.3 hectares) to estimate the area of each vegetation type and unit. Five major vegetation types and 26 vegetation units were recognized on the Green Mountain study area (Figs. 4 and 5). Vegetative summary tables (Appendix) were compiled from the data sheets and are presented as supplementary information describing the physiognomy, floristics, and physiography of each vegetation unit. Examination of the vegetation map might indicate that the vegetation types and units were clearly distinct. While the major �-233- GREEN MOU , ~ )(' J[&~~ ~ " ••.. •... .. ~ ~>~ ) ~;> •...•..•..•... ~ ')l' l ,I( ~ ;"''' '" II l ~ ~ r" ,..f"'" ~'" x~ x { '5c ~ '(l ~~ - - "~) ~ ~ : 8 '1I:S..JI~~""'.....r 'x~ ~ .=.... ... (i) Artemisia - mixed shrub (77.1).V ~ Pseudotsuga - mixed shrub (43.7)DID Pseudotsuga - Populus - mixed shrub (44.4) Populus - mixed shrub (13.2) Carex-A gropyron - scattered ~~ ~~~~~~~~--~ 0 ~ § t<::l\ -; E§§ 10·. •• ~ Surface aNa ~~ .••• L~ =::::0 ~~UJ •• ~ in hectares A~ :. ~ : : .~.L ••:.~ G e o ~'X:'X x t~ lV ~ ) r ~ e - ,~I~ ~ ~- 1/ - '~ ,~~. rn shrub (2.9) ~~ j. ~, ,I l~ ~~ H e: •• " )( ~ SCALE I 0 ~~ 1 ~2 I( I km ~ ~ 'l... 1.., •••1.., •••• ~ LJ Fig. 4. Major vegetation types, Green Mountain study area. V �-234- GM 1 Artemisia-mixed GM 2 Artemisia-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub-scattered GM 3 Artemisia-Chrysothamnus-mixed shrub GM 4 Artemisia-Amelanchier-mixed GM 5 Artemisia-mixed GM 6 Artemisia-Agropyron-Chrysothamnus GM 7 Dense Pseudotsuga-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub GM 8 Dense Pseudotsuga-bareground-scattered shrub GM 9 Dense Pseudotsuga-Juniperus-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga shrub-scattered shrub-rock-scattered Pseudotsuga Pseudotsuga Pseudotsuga shrub GM 10 Dense Psuedotsuga-Acer-mixed GM 11 Semi-open Pseudotsuga-Symphoricarpos-mixed GM 12 Semi-open Pseudotsuga-mixed GM 13 Open Pseudotsuga-Artemisia-Symphoricarpos~mixed GM 14 Open Pseudotsuga-Prunus-mixed GM 15 Open Pseudotsuga-Artemisia-mixed shrub GM 16 Open Pseudotsuga-Juniperus-mixed shrub-rock GM 17 Semi-open GM 18 Open Pseudotsuga-Populus-mixed shrub GM 19 Dense Pseudotsuga-Populus-mixed shrub-rock GM 20 Scattered GM 21 Low Populus-mixed GM 22 Medium Populus-mixed shrub GM 23 Scrub Populus-mixed shrub GM 24 Medium Populus-Pseudotsuga-Prunus-mixed GM 25 Medium Populus-Carex-Lathyrus-mixes GM 26 Carex-Agropyron-mixed shrub shrub-rock shrub outcrop shrub shrub Pseudotsuga-Populus-Symphoricarpos-mixed Pseudotsuga-Populus-Artemisia-mixed shrub shrub-rock shrub shrub grass-scattered Fig. 5. Vegetation units, Green Mountain information presented in Appendix). shrub shrub study area (supplementary �-235- GREEN MOUNTAI Fig. 5. N SCALE o I km �-236- GREEN Fig. 6. Major vegetation types and blue grouse use areas, Green Mountain study area. ~Approximate location of '( breeding territories Approximate boundary of [[IJ] breeding territories ~: Brood concentration areas I~ N SCALE o MOUNTAIN �-237- types and some units were distinct, most units were not, with the majority of units gradually integrating into adjoining units. In some cases, the transition was so gradual as to warrant establishment of a separate unit. When the transition zone was more abrupt, the boundary line was placed midway through the area of overlap. Thus, admixtures of adjacent units were frequently present along their boundaries. "Islands" of dissimilar vegetation within a larger, individual unit were usually too small «.5 ha) for recognition. Unless the "islands" were of known importance in terms of grouse utilization, they were ignored. Such "islands" of vegetation that were delineated on the map include portions or all of the following unit~: Artemisia-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga, scrub Populus-mixed shrub, and low Populus-mixed shrub. Characteristics of Breeding Areas Blue grouse males on the study area were territorial and defended chosen territories throughout the breeding season (mid-April to early July). All territories (22) located from 1975-78 were marked on aerial photos. Territory locations were subsequently plotted on the vegetation map to facilitate their description in relation to vegetative features of the area (Fig. 6). Delineation of territorial boundaries was limited to 9 territories where the resident male was banded, and observed 5 or more times within the same breeding season. Otherwise, only an approximate location of the territory was determined. No territory was located completely in anyone vegetation unit as portions of at least two and up to four units were encompassed within the boundaries of all territories on Green Mountain. Breeding territories were primarily located where the semi-open and dense Pseudotsuga units (Fig. 5,_ units 7 through 12) integrated into typically more open units such as the Artemisia units (Fig. 5, units 1, 2 and 4) and the open Pseudotsuga units (Fig. 5, units 13 and 20). Ten of 22 territories were associated with the semi-open Pseudotsuga-Popu1usSymphoricarpos-mixed shrub (unit 17) and Artemisia-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrubscattered Pseudotsuga (unit 2) vegetation units. The latter unit (2) was made up of many small openings not all of which were depicted on the vegetation maps. Features found in common among all territories examined include: (1) some form of tree cover, (2) shrub thickets, (3) edges, and (4) some degree of openness in both the canopy and understory cover. Stands of Douglas-fir were the major vegetational component on 21 of 22 territories, though aspen was frequently present but in small amounts. The only territory void of Douglas-fir was associated with an aspen-sagebrush type. This does not imply that grouse selected Douglas-fir over other species of trees for breeding habitat, but reflects the high incidence (70% of canopy coverage) of Douglas-fir in the overstory. Aspen appeared to be an important part of breeding habitat. It was much less abundant in the overall tree cover than at sites where territorial males were observed. This was attributed to the fact that (1) territorial males were most frequently found while performing their displays, and (2) aspens occurred along the edges of coniferous stands and openings which were the same areas preferred by males for displaying. �-238- Territorial males were seldom found more than 25 meters from an opening and avoided areas with dense canopy and understory cover except along the edges. During early to mid-April when most ground cover was beneath the snow, the birds spent the majority of time in trees utilizing small, dense clumps of conifers in an otherwise open habitat. As phenological changes progressed and the birds reverted to ground dwelling habits, shrub thickets became important during resting and feeding activities while trees were primarily used as escape cover and for roosting. Some males performed their displays considerable distances (>50 m) from coniferous cover and therefore relied on nearby shrub thickets for escape cover. Areas characterized by an interrupted mixture of low growing vegetation (grasses and forbs), bare ground, stumps, logs, and patches of shrub cover were preferred over areas with continuous or homogeneous ground cover. Whether shrub cover was essential in site selection of territories is uncertain. At the time of territorial establishment, most shrubs are totally or partially snow covered. Therefore, possibly only tree cover and relative amount of open space nearby are important in site selection. Furthermore, since blue grouse have been documented to breed in a variety of habitat types, this suggests that structural characteristics of the vegetation and not species composition is an important factor in breeding habitat selection. Characteristics of Nest Sites Eight nests were located from 1976 to 1978. Each nest site was described in detail as to aspect, slope, altitude and vegetative cover. All nests had some type of cover immediately above and surrounding the nest. The cover was mainly in form of shrub clumps. One nest was partially protected by a log, while another was adjacent to the trunk of a Douglas-fir. Two nests were found under sagebrush, two beneath saplings of Douglas-fir, one at the base of a Douglas-fir (approx. 6 m high), two in the center of a sagebrushsnowberry clump, and one in the center of a serviceberry-sagebrush clump. Maximum distance from the nest to the nearest tree was 25 meters. Height of vegetation immediately above the nest averaged 81 cm and ranged from 56 to 104 cm. General appearance of the habitat around the nest was open to semiopen. Of the 8 nests located, 4 were found in transition zones (edges) between the following units: (1) dense Pseudotsuga~Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub and ArtemisiaAmelanchier-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga, (2) dense PseudotsugaSymphoricarpos-mixed shrub and semi-open Pseudotsuga-Populus-Syrnphoricarposmixed shrub, (3) semi-open Pseudotsuga-Populus-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub and Artemisia-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga, and (4) semi-open PseudotsugaPopulus-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub and Artemisia-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrubscattered Pseudotsuga. Two of the other 4 nests were in the ArtemisiaAmelanchier-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga vegetation unit. One nest was found in the Artemisia-Syrnphoricarpos-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga unit and the other one was located in the scattered Pseudotsuga-Populus-Artemisiamixed shrub-rock unit. Nest sites were in the same vegetation units selected for breeding. However, only 3 nests were situated within the boundaries of a territory. All nests were between 2500 and 2740 meters elevation. Sample size was probably inadequate to evaluate the importance of slope and aspect; however, �-239- neither feature was believed to be significant factor in nest site selection. Exposure of nests included all major compass directions, except south. The majority of nests faced north and east which are also the primary exposures of the study area. Slope measurements at the nest site ranged from 6 to 25 percent. Characteristics of Brood Areas Over 90 observations of blue grouse broods were made on Green Mountain from 1975 to 1978. At one time or another, broods were observed within most all vegetation units shown in Figure 5. However, there were definite concentration areas as nearly 90 percent of all brood sightings were made in the open and semi-open habitats on the east face of Green Mountain. These areas are depicted in Figure 6 and were the focal areas for evaluation of brood habitat. Broods used areas where vegetation had interspersions of plants of various life forms. Such areas were generally along the edge of brush or free cover and provided a high degree of concealment. Almost invariably, any brood encountered in the field was originally observed on the ground, but they seldom ventured more than 30 meters from brush or tree cover and utilized this type of cover for resting and for escape when disturbed. There was no evidence of the necessity for open water near brood cover. Only two sources of open water occurred on Green Mountain and no broods were ever found at these sites. Evidently the birds obtained their moisture requirements from succulent foods and condensation of moisture on plants. Summer brood range partially overlapped with breeding areas, but there tended to be a greater diveristy of plant species, more ground cover (especially herbaceous), and a mosaic pattern of more open vegetation units in brood habitat than in breeding habitat. The distribution of broods closely approximated the distribution of aspen on the study area. Examination of Figure 6 indicates that a major portion of the brood range encompassed the semi-open Pseudotsuga-Populus-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub vegetation unit. However, even in this predominantly Douglas-fir unit, broods were most frequently found near or in the many small clearings (Artemisia-Symphoricarposmixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga) scattered throughout this unit. Characteristically, these openings were often bordered by aspen. At lower elevations broods were found along the edge of the coniferous forest where aspen was commonly present. Vegetation units favored by broods in these areas included: low Populus-mixed shrub, scrub Populus-mixed shrub, medium Populus-mixed shrub, medium Populus-Carex-Lathyrus-mixed shrub, ,Artemisia-Chrysothanrrlus-mixed shrub, Artemisia-Amelanchier-mixed shrub-scattered Pseudotsuga, open PseudotsugaPopulus-mixed shrub, and open Pseudotsuga-Artemisia-Symphoricarpos-mixed shrub. LITERATURE CITED Bendell, J. F., and P. W. Elliott. 1967. Behavior and the regulation numbers in blue grouse. Can. Wildl. Servo Rept. Ser. 4. 76 pp. _____ , D. G. King, and D. H. Mossop. 1972. blue grouse in a declining population. 1165. of Removal and repopulation of J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1153- �-240- Blackford, J. L. 1958. Territoriality and breeding behavior of blue grouse in Montana. Condor 60(3):145-158. of a population 1963. Further observations on the breeding behavior population in Montana. Condor 65(6):485-513. of a blue grouse Boag, D. A. 1966. Population attributes Alberta. Can. J. Zool. 44:799-814. of blue grouse in southwestern Braun, C. E. 1969. Population dynamics, habitat, and movements of whitetailed ptarmigan in Colorado. Ph. D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ. 189 pp. 1971. Determination of blue grouse sex and age from wing characteristics. Colorado Div. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Info. Leaflet No. 86. 4 pp. Braun-Blanquet, J. 1951. Germany. pp. 58-66. Pflanzensoziologie. Springer-Verlag, Wien, Caswell, E. B. 1954. A preliminary study of the life history and ecology of the blue grouse in west-central Idaho. M. S. Thesis. Univ. Idaho. 105 pp. Harju, H. J. grouse. 1974. An analysis of some aspects of the ecology of dusky Ph. D. Dissertation. Univ. Wyoming. 142 pp. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Denver. 666 pp. Manual of the plants of Colorado. Sage Books, Hickey, J. J. 1955. Some American population research on gallinaceous birds. Pages 326-396 in A. Wolfson, ed. Recent studies in avian biology. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana. 479 pp. Hjorth, I. 1970. Reproductive behavior in Tetraonidae, reference to males. Viltrevy 7(4):183-596. with special Hoffman, R. W. 1976. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of blue grouse. Colorado Div. Wildl. Job Prog. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April 1976. p. 135-152. 1977. Population dynamics and habitat relationships of blue grouse. Colorado Div. Wildl. Job Prog. Rept. Fed. Aid Proj. W-37-R. April, 1977. p. 83-104. Kuchler, A. W. 1949. A physiognomic classification Assoc. Amer. Geographers 39(3):201-210. of vegetation. 1955. A comprehensive method of mapping vegetation. Amer. Geographers 45(4):404-415. Ann. Ann. Assoc. Martinka, R. R. 1972. Structural characteristics of blue grouse territories in southwestern Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(2):498-510. �-241- Medin, D. E. 1962. herd. Colorado Proj. W-l05-R. An ecological investigation of the Cache la Poudre deer Dept. Game and Fish. Job Completion Rept. Fed. Aid July 1962. p. 187-204. Mussehl, T. W. 1960. Blue grouse production, movements, and populations the Bridger Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 24(1):60-68. Nelson, R. A. 1969. Handbook Tucson. 331 pp. of Rocky Mountain plants. in Dale Stuart King, Redfield, J. A., and F. C. Zwickel. 1976. Determining the age of young blue grouse:a correction for bias. J. Wildl. Manage. 40(2):349-351. Rogers, G. E. 1968. The blue grouse in Colorado. Parks. Tech. Publ. No. 21. 63 pp. Stirling, I., and J. F. Bendell. grouse. Syesis 3:161-171. Weber, W. A. Boulder. 1970. 1972. Rocky Mountain 437 pp. Welch, D. S. 1948. Limnological New York. 381 pp. Colo. Div. Game. Fish and The reproductive flora. methods. Colorado behavior Assoc. Univ. McGraw-Hill of blue Press, Book Co., Inc., Zwickel, F. C. 1965. Early mortality and numbers of blue grouse. Dissertation. Univ. British Columbia, Vancouver. 153 pp. 1972. Removal and repopulation of blue grouse population. J. Wildl. Manage. 36(4):1141-1152. Ph. D. in an increasing 1975. Nesting parameters of blue grouse and their relevance populations. Condor 77(4):423-430. to _____ , and J. F. Bendell. 1967. Early mortality and the regluation numbers of blue grouse. Can. J. Zool. 45(5):817-851. of _____ , and A. N. Lance. 1966. Determining J. Wildl. Manage. 30(4):712-717. the age of young blue grouse. �· APPENDIX �-243- DESCRIPTIVE Legal Elevatlonal Range: SUMMARY OF VEGETATION TYPE !iA.P. GREEN HOUNTAIN - BLUE GROUSE INVESTIGATIONS Description: T25. RSOW. Sections 2. 3, la, 11 County: SucmiL... 2500-2865 Cl Surface Area: ~ Aerial Photo So. U.S.F.S. Ft6CN 10-3-72 AND SUPPLEMENTARY FEATURES VEGETATIVE CLASSIFICATION VEGETATION Classification and 1/ Physiognomic GM 1 GM-2 GM3 Qi-4 GM-5 BziOztEIp Bz1DdElp BziOzi BziDszpElp EziOzpElp Features BzpCl1Dzp UNIT NUMBER GM-7 GM-S EmcliDzp Erne GH-IO GM-II GH-12 cx-r ) [rnliD •.p Ez p Emi D'Lz p EmiDzp Em i De p ElpBsi.I)zi GM-9 Exposure (Degrees Azimuth) 38-85 36-46 45-180 350-90 160-180 180 340-35 125 310 28 20-32 315 20-')0 Gradient (Percent) 18-30 20-25 5-17 5-25 25-27 10-12 14-28 10 10-20 17 18-25 25-35 17-2~ 14.7 4.5 10.0 3.S 2.2 18.3 .7 7.2 .7 4.0 2.9 Area (Hectares) Plant Species List 11 Woody Trees: Acer glabrum Juniperus vlrginiana Populus tremuloldes Pseudotsuga menzlesii vood Shrubs: Acer glabrum Amelanchier a1n1£011a Arctostaphylos uva-urs! Artemisia cana Artemisia tridentata Ceano thus velutinus Cercocarpus montanus Chrysothamnus spp. Ho Lod Ls cus dUOlOSUS Juniperus communis Juniperus vlrginiana NahonLa repens Pachystima myrsinices Populus tremuloides Prunus virginiana Pscudo t s uga mcnetes i 1 Purshia tridentata Rhus trilobata Ribes spp , Rosa acicular Is Rubus deliciosus Sambucus racemosa Shepherdia canadensis Symphoricarpos oreophi1us Tetradymia canescens Vaccinium spp. Forbs: Achillea lanulosa Anemone spp. Antennaria epp , Aqullegia caeru1en Arabis spp. Arnica spp. Artemisia frigida Artemisia ludoviciana Aster spp. Astragalus spp. Balsamorhiza sagittata Calochortus gunnisonii Campanu1a rotundifolia Castelleja spp • Chaenactis doug1asii Chenopodium spp • Cirsium spp. Clematis columbiana Clematis hirsutissima Comandra umbellata Crepi.s spp. Cryptantha spp. Cynogo1ossum of ficinale Delphinium spp , Descur at.nfa spp. Dodecatheon pulchellum E.bilobium spp. Erigeron spp. Eriogonur.; spp. Erysimum spp. Pr-aga r-La cpp . Frasera speciosa Galium borea1e Geranium fremontii HapLopappus spp , Heuche r a spp. Helenium hoopesii He1ianthel1a qudnquene rv f s Ipomopsis agg regat;a Lathyrus spp. Linum lewisii Lithospermum spp • Lupinus argentius Mertensia spp. Oxytropis tippo Penstemon spp. Phacelia spp. Phlox spp , Potentilla spp. Primu1a spp • Pseudocymopterus montanus Pulsatilla patens Saxifraga bronchia lis Senecio spp. Smilacina spp. So lidago spp. Taraxacum officinale Tragopogon dub ius ntal1c:trum tippo vto La spp. Graminoids: Agropyron spp. Bromus $PP. Carex spp. Deschampsia caespitosa Fes cuca spp. Iris missouriensis Koleria gracilis Oryzopsis hyeeno Ldea Phleum pratense Poa spp. Sitanion longifolium Stipa spp. co;rrsoc'!:.l COy see COY 41.9 roc COy See COy FLORISTIC CHARACTERISTICS Soc COy See COy Soc COy + , +-1 4 + 1 1 + 1-2 + 2-3 1-3 3-4 1-4 3-4 + 1-2 1-2 1-2 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 +-1 + 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 1-2 1 1-4 1-2 +-1 2-3 + 3 1-3 1-2 1-3 1-3 1 1 + +-1 1-2 1 1 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 + 2-3 1 1 1 1-2 2 1-2 1-3 +-1 1 1-2 1 1 2-3 1 1 1-2 1-3 +-1 , 1-4 +-1 4 Soe 1-2 3 COy Soc COy +-1 3-4 3 +-1 1-2 3-4 1-2 1 + 1 1-2 1 1-3 according to Cov + 1 +-1 1-2 + +-1 2 1-2 1 1-2 2-3 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-3 1 + 1-2 +-1 2-3 1 +-1 1 2-3 1 2 1-2 1-2 1 1-2 1-2 +-1 1 3 + +-1 1-3 1-3 1-2 1 1 + + +-1 1-3 1 1-2 2-3 2 +-1 1 1-3 See 3 +-1 1-4 2 + 1-2 3 1 1-2 1-2 2-3 1-3 1-2 +-1 1-2 -+-1 1-3 1 2 + + +-1 +-1 + 1 1 +-1 1-3 ] +-1 +-1 + +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 1-2 +-1 +-1 1 1-2 1 1-2 1 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 +-1 1-2 +-1 +-1 1-3 1 3 1-2 1-2 +-1 + +-1 +-1 1-2 1 + 1 +-1 1 2-'3 1 2 + 1 +-1 1-2 1-2 +-1 1 +-1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 2 1 2 + II+-1 2-3 1 +-1 +-1 2-3 1-3 1-2 1 1-2 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 +-1 +-1 3 +-1 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 1 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 1 1-2 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 1 +··1 +-1 +-1 + +-1 1-2 3 1 1-3 3 1 1-3 1-3 1 +-1 1 1-2 3 +-1 1 1-2 1-3 1 + 1-3 +-1 1 1-3 +-1 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 2 1-3 1 +-1 1-2 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 3 2 +·-1 2 1-2 1 +-1 1-2 1-2 "'-1 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +' + 1-2 +-1 + + +-1 +-1 + 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 + + 1 1 1-3 1-2 1 1 1 + 1-3 +-1 +-1 + 1-2 +-1 + +-1 1-3 2 1 1 +-1 + +-1 +-1 +-1 + 1-2 1 1-2 +-1 2 + + 1-2 1 1-2 2 1 1-2 2 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-3 2 1 + +-1 1-2 1-2 +-1 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 + 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 >-1 +-1 1 1-2 + + +-1 1-2 +-1 + +-1 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 + + + +-1 + 1-2 +-1 2-3 1-3 1 1-3 +-1 1-2 +-1 1 +-1 2-3 1-2 1 1-3 +-1 1-2 1-2 1-2 +-1 (1955). the 1-2 + 1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1 1-2 +-1 1-2 1-3 1-2 1 1-3 ~2 +-1 1-2 + +-1 1-2 2-3 +-1 1-2 1-2 1-2 + 1-2 1 1-2 + +e-I +-1 +-1 1-2 1-3 1 1-3 1-2 +-1 +-1 2 3 1-3 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 2 + 1-2 1-3 +-1 1-2 1-2 1-3 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 2-) 1 1 +-1 1-3 2-3 + 1 1-2 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 1 2 +-1 1 +-1 1-2 1-2 Kuchler phys Lognced c formulae reads left to right with the 1 1 1-3 +-1 + 1-2 2 1 1-3 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 1 +-1 1-3 + 1-2 + most ccnsp t cucus +-1 1 +-1 +-1 +-1 +-1 -------------1/ Assigned Soc 1-2 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 1 1 COy 1 2 1-4 1-2 +-1 +-1 Soc 3 1-3 2-3 + 1 1 +-1 +-1 COy 1-2 + + + Soc type p.Laced at the beginning. �-244DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARYOF VEGETATION TYPE HAP. GREEN t«)UNTAIN - BLUE GROUSE INVESTIGATIONS LeBa1 Description: T25. aBOW. Sections 2. 3. 10, 11 Count.y: ~ Range: 2500-2865 m Surf3ce Area: 181. 3 be Aerial Photo No. U.S.F .5. F16CN 10-3-72 Elevational VEGETATIVE CLASSIFICATION Classification Physiognomic and VEGETATION GM-19 GM-14 GH-IS GM 16 GK-17 GK-lS EmpDszp ElpRzpDzp EmlpDszp EmizpDlzp EmOlnpBzp £miDIp 35 90-190 65-120 18-46 35-90 2-20 UNIT NUMBER GM-20 GM-22 GH-23 GM-24 GH-25 CM-26 DcczpHGlc DlczlHGlc DmpEmpElspDszp DmiGlpHl{' GlpHlpDsp 25-70 20 30-35 30-40 322-72 18-20 11-22 6-22 2.5 GH-21 DzpBzpEmpDlp 61cszpHGlc 1..1 Exposure (Degrees Gradient (Percent) Area Features AND SUPPLEMENTARY FEATURES Azimuth) Plant Species List3/ Woody Trees: Acer glabrum Juniperus virginiana Populus tremuloides Pseudotsuga menziesii Woody~Shr~u~bs~, Acer glabrum AmeLanch i.e r alnifoUa Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 1.5 5.3 .9 (Hcc::ares) 35 12-25 17 Cov2/Soc2/ COY Soc COY Soc 17-30 23.0 COY Soc 34 15-25 3 1-2 1-2 15.9 4.3 .4 1-3 3 1-3 2-3 4 1-3 3-4 1-4 3 1-3 ~~~--~--~~~~--~--~----~~~~~~~~~--------------------------------------------------1-2 1-3 +-1 +-1 2-3 1-2 1-2 5-16 2.9 FLORISTIC CHARACTERISTICS Cov Soc CoY Sac COY 3 2 9-15 Soc 1-2 .•.., 10-20 1. 2.6 2.9 COy 20-45 305-10 +-1 1-2 +-1 .•.., .•.., .•.., .•.., 1-3 3 1-3 .•..1 Artemisia cana 1-3 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-2 1-2 1-3 Artemisia tridentata 2 Ceanothus velutinus 2 1-2 Cercocarpus montanus 1 Chrysothamnus spp. +-1 +-1 .•.., 1 Holodiscus dumosus 1 1 .•.. , 1-2 Juniperus communis 1 + +-1 1 +-1 Juniperus virginiana 1 +-1 1 +-1 2-3 Mahonia repens +-1 +-1 +-1 . 2-3 +-1 + +-1 2-3 +-1 .•.. , + Pachystima myrsinites 3 1 Populus tremuloides 2-3 1 2-3 2-3 Prunus virginiana + 1 1-2 1-2 1 1 1 1-2 1 Pseudotsuga menz1esi1 .•.. , 1 1 Purshia tridentata 1-3 1-3 + Rhus tdlobata 1-2 2-3 + +-1 1 +-1 1 1 Ribes spp , +-1 +-1 .•.., 1 Rosa acieularis +-1 2 +-1 Rubus de Hc tosus 1-2 Sambucus racemosa + 2 Shepherdia canadensis +-1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 +-!. 1 S)'!lIphoricarpos oreophi1us 1-2 1-2 Tetradymia cane scens Vaecinium s pp , +-1 Forbs: 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 +-1 Achillea ranutcsa 1 + Anemone spp . 2-3 1 +-1 2-3 2-3 +-1 2-3 Antennaria spp , + + + 1 Aquilegia caerulen + 1-2 + Arabis spp , +-1 Arnica spp , +-1 Artemisia frigida Artemisia 1udoviciana +-1 + +-1 + +-1 Aster spp. 2-3 1 +-1 2 +-1 2 +-1 Astragalus spp . +-1 1-3 +-1 1 1-2 +-1 1-2 1-2 +-1 +-1 1 Balsamorhiza sagittata + 1 + 1 1 Calochortus gunnisonii + + + 1-2 + 1 Campanu1a rotundifolia +-1 1 +-1 1 +-1 +-1 Castelleja spp . Chaenactis douglasii + +-1 Chenopodium spp. +-1 1-2 1 +-1 +-1 1-2 Cirsium s pp . +-1 1-2 Clematis columbiana Clematis hirsutissima +-1 Comandra umbel1ata +-1 +-1 Crepis spp. + + Cryptantha s pp , Cynogolossum offie1nsle +-1 Delphinium spp. Descurainia spp. + Dodecatheon pulche11um +-1 + Ebilobium spp. 1 1-2 +-1 1-2 Erigeron spp , +-1 1 +-1 3 1 3 Eriogonum spp. + 1 1 Erysimum spp. Fragaria spp. Frasera speclosa + +-1 +-1 2-3 Galium borea1e +-1 +-1 +-1 Geranium fremontii +-1 Haplopappus spp , + Heuchera spp. Heleniuro hoopesii Helianthe11a quinquenervls Ipomopsis aggregata 1-2 1-2 Lat.hyrus s pp , 1-2 1-2 +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 Linum lewisii + 1 +-1 1 Lithospermum spp , 1 1-2 1 1-2 Lup:inus argent ius + 1-2 Mertensia spp . +-1 + 2 Oxyrropis spp. 1 + 1 +-1 Penstemon spp , +-1 1. Phacel1a spp. + Phlox spp. +-1 + Potent.illa spp , +-1 -+-1 Primula spp . ssecdccvecptervs montanus +-1 +-1 Pulsatilla patens 2-3 +-1 Saxifraga bronchlalis +-1 + + Senecio spp . Smilaeina spp. + Solidago spp. +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 Taraxacum officinale +-1 1 Tragopogon dub ius Thalictrum spp , Viola spp. Graminoids: ...., .•.., .•.., .•.., .•.., .•.., Soc 3-4 1-3 .•.., 1-2 + .•.., .•.., Cov Soc 3-4 2-3 1-3 1 2-3 1-2 + 1 2 1-2 +-1 1-3 +-1 1-2 .•.., +-1 +-1 +-1 1 +-1 1 1-2 +-1 1-2 1 .•.., +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 1-2 +-1 +-1 1-2 +-1 2-3 +-1 +-1 .•.., 1-2 +-1 +-1 +-1 1-2 1 .•.., .•.., +-1 2-3 ...., .•.., + +-1 +-1 2-3 2-3 1-2 1-2 .•.., 1 1 1-2 1 1 .•.., .•.., +-1 +-1 1-2 2 1 +-1 +-1 4-5 +-1 .•.., .•.., .•.., .•.., .•.., .•.., Cov COY Soc See + + •• +-1 1-2 2 1-2 +-1 +-1 1-2 1-2 + + + +-1 �-245April JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-32 Job TitLe Job No.~ 21 Minimum Tillage Techniques for Establishing Shrubs in Clump Plantings Period April 1, 1978 through March 31, 1979 Work Plan No. Covered: Personnel: David C. Bowden 1979 (Statistician, l _ CSU) and Warren D. Snyder. ABSTRACT Spring measurements of weed competition showed a reduced effectiveness among all treatments in spring 1978 for several reasons. The impacts of the previous spring 1977 hail on the loam soil sites was noted in dramatically increased mortality. Spring survival and winter die-back and mortality information was obtained on all sites. Below normal precipitation conditions persisted through the spring and summer of 1978 in the locality, which was accompanied by a devastating outbreak of grasshoppers in the sandhills. A complete defoliation in June 1978, along with some consumption of the cambium layer resulted in all sandhill sites. No fall growth or survival data were obtained. Analysis of weed competition, shrub growth, and shrub survival data was completed by Dr. Bowden. Preparations were begun on a final report. ��-247- MINIMUM TILLAGE TECHNIQUES FOR ESTABLISHING SHRUBS IN CLUMP PLANTINGS Warren D. Snyder P. N. OBJECTIVE To evaluate ground cover techniques, pre-emergent herbicide techniques, a combination of the two, and cultivation techniques for establishing shrubs in clump p1antings in eastern Colorado. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To apply pre-emergent herbicide treatments to the Eptam~Tref1an Casoron plots and to apply cultivation to the control. 2. To measure and evaluate tition among treatments and shrub survival, shrub growth and weed compeand soils in relation to weather variables. METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials used in this segment were summarized in previous segments starting in 1975 and therefore will not be repeated here. work RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Environmental Measurements Precipitation Below average precipitation was recorded for 1978 in the study region. The only significant precipitation was received in May when approximately 2.75 inches was recorded. This rainfall was not consistent over the entire area and rangelands to the southeast of the Tamarack Headquarters remained dry with little spring green up. The annual total for 1978, approximating 9.30 inches, was considerably below the 15 to 16 inch annual average for the study region. Grasshoppers High densities of ~rasshoppers in combination with little green vegetation in rangelands prompted high concentrations and rapid defoliation of the shrubs on the Red Lion, Sharptai1 and 1-76 sites in the sandhil1s during June and July 1978. Little green foliage remained by early July and by August the bark and green cambium layer on new growth had been consumed. Efforts were not made to control these hoppers because of (1) the lateness in initial detection of the problem, and (2) the vast quantities of replacement hoppers in surrounding rangelands. It is assumed that near total mortality of all shrubs occurred as a result of the devastation. ��-249April JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Game Bird Survey W-37-R-32 Job No. 22 Work Plan No. Job Title Upland Period April 1, 1978 through March Covered: 1 --------------------------------- Game Publications 31, 1979 T.D.I. Beck, C. E. Braun, K. M. Giesen, Personnel: 1979 R. W. Hoffman, D. H. Nish. ABSTRACT Publications planned for and accomplished under this job for Segment 32 are as follows: Beck, T.D.I., and C. E. Braun. Condor 80:241-243. 1978. Weights of Colorado sage grouse. Braun, C. E. 1978. Effects of changes in hunting regulations on sage grouse harvest. Proc. Ann. Conf. Central Mtns. and Plains Section, The Wildl. Soc. 23:Abstract. Braun, C. E., D. H. Nish, and K. M. Giesen. 1978. Release and establishment Nat. 23:661-668. of white-tailed ptarmigan in Utah. Southwest. Giesen, K. M. 1978. Auk 95:761-762. Egg retrieval by incubating Giesen, K. M., and C. E. Braun. 1979. juvenile white-tailed ptarmigan. white-tailed ptarmigan. A technique for age determination J. Wildl. Manage. 43:508-511. of Hoffman, R. W., and.C. E. Braun. 1978. Characteristics and status of ruffed grouse and blue grouse in Colorado. Western Birds 9:121-126. Hoffman, R. w. Prepared by_C-=J_·~_~...:::;-:=:-:-=·td=~~""",-,--:-· cV-_,,",,->£=a:::...tz:.=~--!..£=-__ Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research 1978. Pikes Peak ptarmigan. Colo. Outdoors 27(6):12-13. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/c68779cd955e95a7230cbead88f039dc.pdf 409909037feabfe96d0164f73e0be2c6 PDF Text Text July, -1- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~---------Deer-Vehicle W-125-R-5 Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title 1979 1 Job No. Deer Vehicle Accidents Period Covered: Accident Investigations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 Statewide and Methods and Devices July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 to Reduce Them Personnel: James D. Fleming, Kenneth R. Kincaid, Dale F. Reed, Area Supervisors and Wildlife Conservation officers, ABSTRACT Methods, devices, or structures related to reducing the number of deer-vehicle accidents were evaluated or experimentally tested. These were highway lighting, underpasses, overpasses, 2.44-m fences and one-way deer gates, and deer guards. Forty deer were killed in the highway lighting study area, twenty-two and eighteen with lights off and on, respectively. Background and target luminance measurements were taken at 27 of the 39 accident sites. The overall calculated mean indices were 1.845 ± 1.538 (SD) and 1.754 ± 0.849 (SD) for transition and full lighting respectively. No major changes occurred with underpass use. The experimental procedure for testing a net arch at the Dowd deer overpass was completed for two seasons. A combined total of 43 and 18 crossings occurring during control (without net arch) and variable (with net arch), respectively, were reviewed during video tape replay. Although selected behavioral differences were noted during the seasons, the combined data have not shown significant differences at the 95 percent confidence level. The average reduction of deer-vehicle accidents adjacent to six 2.44-m fences was 77.5 percent. No data were obtained on deer guard prototypes. ��-3- DEER-VEHICLE ACCIDENTS STATEWIDE AND METHODS AND DEVICES TO REDUCE THEM Dale F. Reed P. N. OBJECTIVE Locate and examine potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas in Colorado and recommend methods or structures which may reduce deer-vehicle accidents in these areas. Subsequently, measure the effects of methods recommended and investigate deer responses to various experimental structures. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor potentially 2. Test the effects of highway vehicles. 3. Evaluate responses 4. Evaluate deer responses 5. Evaluate deer responses highways. 6. Evaluate responses critical deer-vehicle lighting Monitoring areas statewide. on number of deer killed by of deer to highway underpasses. to highway overpasses. to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent to of deer to guards. DESCRIPTION 1. accident potentially OF AREAS critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Generally,.Myers (1969), Pojar (1972a) , and Woodard (1973a, 1973b, 1974, 1975, 1976a) described the areas most intensively monitored. The completion of deer-vehicle accident reports (includes location) has been required statewide since 1974. Hence, the potential existed for the detection of new problem areas statewide. 2. Evaluating the effects of highway lighting by vehicles. Highway 82 - Jammeron Pojar et al. (1975) described 3. Evaluate responses on number of deer killed Curve this area. of deer to highway underpasses. The Vail deer underpass (Reed et al. 1975), a small structure under 1-70 east of Avon, two concrete box underpasses under 1-70 east of �-4- Eagle, twin bridges structure under 1-70 west of Eagle, and twin bridge structures east of Rifle were monitored for deer use or behavioral responses. 4. Evaluation of deer responses to highway Dowd Junction Reed 5. (1976a) described Evaluate deer responses - 1-70 the area of the Dowd deer overpass. to 2.44-m Highway The Highway overpasses. (8-ft) fencing adjacent 82 - Diamond S 82 study area has been described Highway by Pojar (1972b). 82 - Carbondale This study area was described Interstate to highways. by Reed (1975). 70 - Avon, Edwards, Vail and Eagle The Interstate 70 Avon and Edwards study areas have been described by Woodard (1973b), and the Vail study areas by Reed (1971), and the Eagle study areas by Reed (1974). 6. Evaluating responses of deer to guards. Trail Gulch-Dotsero Reed et al. (1974) described METHODS 1. Monitoring potentially this area. AND MATERIALS critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Methods have been described by Pojar (1972a) and Woodard (1976a). Because no new critical areas were delineated, methodology was limited to tabulation of statewide Wildlife Conservation Officer kill reports. 2. Evaluating the effects by motorists. of highway lighting on number of deer killed Methods were described by Woodard (1976b). Luminance measurements were taken at 27 kill sites. Luminance values (foot-Iamberts) were recorded with a spotmeter, Spectra Model UBA, and were taken on a target at the kill site and on the background as viewed by an approaching motorist. The target was a taxidermy mount of the left �-5- half (transverse section) of a female mule deer and the actual spotmeter recording area was a 26-cm diameter circle midway between the shoulder and hip. Spotmeter readings were taken from a height of 1.3 m and a dLs t ance of 15 m , For background luminance readings the spotmeter was placed 60 m from the kill site, resulting in a target area diameter of 102 cm. The taxidermy mount was removed during this background measurement. Measurements were taken between 0400 and 0600 MST to minimize traffic interference. Background luminance (Lb) and target luminance (Lt) measurements were transformed into visibility indices (VI) by the following equation (Gallagher and Meguire 1974): VI (DGF) and where DGF where C L~Lb Lb Relative contrast sensitivity for the recorded background luminance = Disability glare factor = 1.0 RCS values were obtained from standard tables (Gallagher and Meguire 1974). VI values can then be compared to standards established for urban lighting requirements. These values also provide a better description of the visibility of deer in the lighted portion of the study area; which, in light of the poor horizontal uniformity ratio in the lighted section (>15.0:1), should allow a more refined analysis of the effectiveness of highway lighting. 3. Evaluate responses of deer to highway underpasses. Seven underpasses were monitored for deer use as described by Reed (1971). Observations at the Vail deer underpass were continued as described by Reed (1976b). 4. Evaluation of deer responses to highway overpasses. Methods were previously described by Reed (1976a) and Reed and Beck (19.77). A net arch, similar to those used on pedestrian overpasses was changed to control (without arch) or to variable (with arch) every three days during the fall migration of 1978 and the spring .migration of 1979. During both seasons the video housing was positioned to cover the distant approach areas (approximately 20 m beyond the bridge entrance and exit). 5. Evaluate deer responses to 2.44-m (8-ft) fencing adjacent to highways. Methods and materials have been described by Pojar (1972b) and Woodard (1976c). Benefit-cost analysis followed procedures described by Howe (1971). Costs for which values were available include initial cost of 2.44-m fence and associated passage structures. Estimates of maintenance costs were not available. Total cost was reduced by the cost of the appropriate length of 1.07-m (42-inch standard right-of-way �-6- fence which was not built because of the 2.44-m fence). Benefits for which a value was available was the potential savings accrued by a reduction in deer-vehicle accidents and related vehicle repairs. Savings by reduction in personal injury and death were omitted because of difficulties in obtaining reliable values. No value was assigned to deer. Therefore, benefit-cost analysis is essentially from a highway department accounting stance. All future benefits were discounted at an annual rate of 5.5 percent. No monetary values have been assigned for aesthetic considerations, either positive or negative. 6. Evaluating responses of deer to guards. Methods were described by Reed et al. (1974). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Statewide Deer-Vehicle Accidents Two Division of Wildlife Regions, Southwest and Northeast, have taken over the responsibilities. of maintaining their deer-vehicle accident files. Area analyses of deer-vehicle kills will not be generated unless requested because of manpower requirements. Generally no new critical deer-vehicle accident areas were detected. A total of 3,365 deer-vehicle accident kills were reported in Colorado in 1978; an increase of 54.8 percent over 1977. Regional totals were Southwest 1,148, Northwest 1,486, Northeast 490, and Southeast 241. By March of 1979 some potentially critical areas had a higher than average number of kills, likely because of the winter severity (greater snow accumulation and lower temperatures). Highway Lighting Evaluation Deer occupied the highway lighting study area for eight weeks beginning 4 February. Eight weeks of lights off and eight weeks of lights on data (lights off and on for alternate weekly periods) were collected when deer were in the study area. Although deer were in the general study area for an extended period, most had not concentrated or begun to cross the highway in high numbers until mid-February when the south-western exposures began to "open up". Snow accumulation adjacent to the study area at higher elevations was considerably greater than in any previous years of study (Table 1). Forty deer were killed during an estimated total of 1,481 crossings (Table 2). The d8er crossings to deer kill ratio with lights off was less than the ratio with the lights on 33.6 and 41.2, respectively. However, by chi-square analysis, there was no significant difference (P > 0.50) between these ratios. In addition, the ratios are less than the combined ratio data �-7- Table 1. Adjacent average snow depth, mean d~ily temperature, mean deer counted and number of accidents in the lighting study, 1974 through 1979. Adjacent Average Snow Depth Year (cm)I) 1974 51.0 1975 Mean Daily Temperature (CO) Mean Count No. of Accidents -3.5 27.1 en::71) 13 46.4 -2.8 40.3 (n=98) 22 1976 27.5 -1.7 0.3 (n=6S) 0 1977 8.0 -2.3 0 (n=5) 0 1978 34.9 -2.1 33.1 (n=53) 9 1979 61.8 -5.2 48.5 en=31) 40 Total 84 II - Snow depth measurements taken at three sites northeast and above the study area. Table 2. Estimated deer crossings and total accidents in the Highway 82 lighting study area during 1979. Off On Total Estimated' crossings 740 741 1,481 Total accidents 22 . 18 40 Crossing/accident 33.6 41.2 .. ........... �-8- obtained in other years of study. The differences, however, are not significant (P > 0.05 and P > 0.25 off and on, respectively) according to chi-square analyses. It is reasonable to postulate that crossings per kill ratios may change over extended periods of time because of the annual increases in traffic volume. Background and target luminance measurements were taken at 27 additional sites. The overall means of the visibility indices were 1.845 ± SD 1.538 and 1.754 ± SD 0.849 for transition and full lighting. respectively (Tables 3 and 4). These visibility index means are near the level where 70 percent of the motorists can see a target at satisfactory separation distance (Gallagher and Meguire 1974). To attain a level where 85-95 percent of the motorists can see a target at satisfactory separation distance, a visibility index value of 2.6 - 3.6 is required. Only 6 of the 39 indices were within or above this range. Probably inherent in this problem was the drab pelage of deer which, by eye, readily blended with the lighted highway surface when in certain locations. For example, accident 24 (Table 4) involved a target and background with very low contrast despite its occurrence under full lighting. At these locations, just beyond the lamps and when the background was relatively well lighted ( ~ 1.0 cd), it is estimated that an increase in horizontal illumination would not substantially increase the contrast or likelihood of motorist visual discrimination. Highway Underpasses Seven underpasses were checked for deer use during this segment. Moderate (30-90) to high (> 90) numbers of deer passages occurred through two of the underpasses, one located west of Vail and one east of Avon. Extremes of openness or tunnel effect were represented by these two structures. The primary stimulus of a given underpass structure to approaching deer may be termed the "openness effect". Calculated as follows: height x width (or open-end length surface area) the openness effects of the Vail and Avon underpasses were 0.3 and 0.03 (metric measurements), respectively. There are several factors to consider before relating openness effect to deer behavioral response. Additionally, any reasonable attempt to relate openness effect to deer .ise must consider deer density and motivation at the structure. This raises several questions, e.g. does deer behavioral response and/or motivation change with changing deer density (numbers of individuals and groups, and size of groups) and/or with changing sex and age structure? Only a few daily observations (n = 9) were made at the Vail deer underpass in June and July of 1979. With 1974 through 1979 combined, 77.4 percent of 319 groups of deer did not exhibit flight reaction when westbound vehicles traveled by the area (Table 5). Likewise, of 1,021 instances �-9- Table 3. Visibility index measurements from accident sites in transition lighting. Relative Contrast Sensitivity (Percent) Background luminance Target luminance No. (fL) (fL) 1 0.0193 0.0253 0.3109 2.211'];/ 0.1198 2 0.0104 0.115 10.0577 1.367 2/ 2.3953 3 0.0655 0.0055 - 0.9160 5.525 - 0.8817 5 0.103 0.0105 - 0.898 7.3 - 1.142 6 1.480 0.0079 - 0.9947 27.7 'l:_' - 4.800 7 0.124 0.0125 - 0.8992 8.23 - 1.289 9 0.043 0.0325 - 0.244 4.1 - 0.174 10 0.226 0.0030 - 0.9867 11.8 - 2.0285 11 0.330 0.00325 - 0.990 14.4 - 2.484 12 0.061 0.0094 - 0.846 5.25 - 0.774 13 0.235 0.0255 - 0.891 12.05 - 1.870 14 0.060 0.0048 - 0.920 5.2 - 0.833 15 0.285 0.004 - 0.986 ·13.325 - 2.289 16 0.080 0.0165 - 0.794 6.2 - 0.858 18 0.086 0.130 0.512 6.5 0.580 19 0.180 O.Oll - 0.939 10.4 - 1.701 21 0.180 0.026 - 0.856 10.4 - 1.551 22 (0.690) 0.284 - 0.600 20.31 - 2.134 23 0.690 0.012 - 0.9826 20.31 - 3.477 26 0.253 0.247 0.0236 12.53 - 0.0517 Contrast Visibilityl' Index 3/ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-10- Table 3. Visibility lighting. index measurements from accident sites in transition (Cont.Lnued ), Relative Contrast Sensitivity (Percent) No. Background luminance (fL) Target luminance (fL) 27 0.066 0.260 ·2.9394 5.55 ·2.842 28 0.279 0.136 - 0.5125 13.2 -1. 179 31 0.041 0.0056 - 0.8390 4.0 -0.5847 32 0.280 0.0091 - 0.9675 13.22 -2.228 33 0.400 0.0197 - 0.9508 15.85 -2.625 36 0.045 0.475 9.5556 4.25 7.075 Positive and negative respectively. Contrast values indicate frontlighting V·1Sl ·b·l· 1/ 1 ;t.tyIndex and backlighting, 21 - Derived from data presented lIThe background by Technical Committee Report of the CIE 1972. at this site involved a snow covered emergency lane and right-of-way. The snow was lost before measurement. A value for similar conditions (No. 23) was used. �-11- Table 4. Visibility index measurements from accident sites in full lighting. Contrast Relative Contrast Sensitivity (Percent) Visibility Index 0.390 - 0.381 19.62 -1.303 1.100 0.209 - 0.810 24.44 - 3.449 17 0.240 0.470 0.958 12.2 2.036 20 0.197 0.069 - 0.650 10.95 -1. 240 24 0.185 0.178 - 0.0378 10.57 -0.070 25 0.237 0.455 0.9198 12.10 1.939 29 0.075 0.120 ·0.600 5.95 0.622 30 0.500 0.110 - 0.780 17.67 - 2.401 34 0.420 0.140 - 0.6667 16.24 -1. 886 35 0.580 0.330 .- 0.4310 18.98 -1.425 37 0.620 0.270 - 0.5645 19.51 -1. 919 38 0.440 0.108 - 0.7545 16.63 -2.186 '39 0.225 0.480 1.133 11.77 2.323 Positive and negative respectively. values frontlighting and backlighting, Background luminance Target luminance No. (fL) (fL) 4 0.630 8 1/ - indicate 1/ �-12- of vehicles traveling west when deer were near the underpass entrance and the west bound lanes, 918 did not elicit flight reaction from 319 different individuals or groups (1-14 deer). Twenty-three vehicles elicited flight reaction from 1-50 percent of the individuals from seventeen different groups ranging in size from one to ten deer. Eighty-one vehicles elicited flight reaction from 51-100 percent of the individuals from fifty-five different groups ranging in size from one to eight. Previous to these observations it was hypothesized that deer at distances of 15 to 30 m from moving traffic were frequently caused to leave the area. Observations indicate that when vehicles stop at or when bicyclists travel by the underpass, most deer exhibit immediate and intense flight reaction. Five groups of deer exhibited moderate to intense flight reaction to unknown stimuli (where observer was unable to determine potential cause). Table 5. The number and percent of deer groups not exhibiting flight reaction (Hediger 1950, Scott 1958), and the number and percent of westbound vehicles not eliciting flight reaction at the Vail deer underpass west of Vail. Groups of Deer Year Numbers of Individuals or Groups II Near Westbound Traffic Percent Not Exhibiting Flight Reaction Westbound Number Traveling West When Deer Present Vehicles Percent Not Eliciting Flight Reaction 1974 37 86.5 198 97.5 1975 67 71.6 251 89.2 1976 78 78.2 243 89.7 1977 59 86.4 148 92.7 1978 62 74.2 150 83.3 1979 16 56.2 31 64.5 Totals/Avg. 319 77.4 1,021I1 89.9 II Number of deer in groups ranged from 2 to 14. Twenty of 38 tracker-trailers elicited flight reaction. �-13- The behavioral modes of 298 deer exits (leaving the underpass to the south) were 49.7, 32.2, and 18.1 percent, trotting, walking, and bounding, respectively. Combined data 1974 through 1979 yielded a walk:trot:bound ratio of 1.8:2.7:1.0 (Table 6). Wariness had been noted irrespective of the mode of exit in many instances. The predominant exit behavior of trotting supports the continued reluctance of deer to use a structure of this size and character (Reed et al. 1975). Table 6. underpass The number of exits observed at the south end of the Vail deer and the walk:trot:bound ratio of exit behavior. Year No. of Exits Observed 1974 35 4.0:12.5:1.0 1975 73 3.3:2.4:1.0 1976 55 1.8:6.3:1.0 1977 46 4.0:2.7:1.0 1978 70 0.7:1.4:1.0 1979 19 0.3:1.8:1.0 Totals/Avg. 298 1.8:2.7:1.0 Highway Walk: Trot: Bound Ratio During Exits OVerpasses The video time-lapse surveillance system was operated at the Dowd experimental-net-arch overpass during two seasons, fall of 1978 and spring of 1979, for 36 and 27 consecutive nights, respectively. A total of 61 crossings were examined during video replay (Table 7). Number of Crossings More crossings occurred under control than variable during each of the seasons (Table 7). A test for independence shows that the difference between the number of control and variable crossings during the alternate three-day periods is not significant (X2 = 1.357, df = 3, P > 0.50). However, differences, as determined from a similar analysis (X2 = 19.599, df = 4, P < 0.005), in pre-experimental data (three-day periods during four seasons: fall 74-75 and spring 75-76) are sufficiently great that this statistical method is inapplicable. �Table 7. The number of deer crossings and approaches examined on video replay at the experimentalnet~arch overpass and the crossings per approach (C:a) ratios for two migration seasons (Fall 1978 ~prtngs 197~)~ VARIABLE· . CONTROL Crossings 1978 Fall 25 Distant .: . 2/' .. .. ..' '1! Approach- Approach- C:a 2 2 6.2;1 Crossings Distant Approach Approach 4 5 6 . . TOTAL C :a crossings 0.4:1 29 I •..... "'I" 1979 Spring 18 8 12 0.9:1 14 Totals!Avg. 43 10 14 1.8:1 18 .......... ." 4 2 2.3:1 32 9 8 1.1:1 61 ......,. l!Denotes a deer' that entered the overpass area not encompassed' by an entrance and exit trackbed and that was oriented toward the structure. ~!Denotes a deer that entered either' the entrance or exit trackbed area without crossing the overpass. �-15- Crossings:approach Ratios More crossings and approaches (Table 7) occurred during control (43 and 24 respectively) than during variable (18 and 17 respectively). However, variable crossings per approach ratios were not significantly (P > 0.50) smaller than that for control. Generally, it would be expected that the variable C:a ratio would be smaller if there were a greater reluctance of deer to cross under a net arch (i.e. more reluctant animals either approached and failed to cross, or made more than one approach before crossing). Any ratio difference, however, is diminished if, as was discussed previously, the difference in the number of crossings is considered inapplicable. Duration of Hesitations and Crossings The control and the variable (net arch) means of the combined seasons (Table 8) of both the duration of hesitations and the duration of crossings are not significantly different (P > 0.20 and P > 0.40, respectively). Generally, if the net arch was expected to result in more reluctance to cross, then longer hesitations would be expected. The means for the duration of hesitations for the fall of 1978 were not significantly different (P > 0.20). However, the variable mean was significantly (P < 0.05) less in the spring of 1979. Also, animals being more reluctant in crossing under the net arch (variable) would be expected to do so more hurriedly (more and/or faster trotting and bounding). The durations of crossings for the fall of 1978 were significantly (P < 0.05) greater, whereas the duration of crossings for the spring of 1979 were not significantly (P > 0.50) different. Differences between the spring and fall migrations are equally perplexing. The variable duration of hesitations and the variable duration of crossings were both significantly (P < 0.05 and P < 0.05) greater in the fall of 1978 than in the spring of 1979, whereas the control duration of hesitations and control duration of crossings were not significantly (P > 0.05 and P > 0.50 respectively) different. Possibly the data of the two seasons should not be combined. The differences may be related to the observed and postulated dissimilarities between the seasons, some of which are as follows: Fall Spring First net arch experience Potentially Good physical condition High wariness (hunting related) Most mature females with fawns at side Maternal-fawn bond strong No dawn activity Very high motivation to migrate (more direct movements and less time consumption likely causally related to increasingly inclement weather) Poor physical condition Moderate wariness Most mature females parturient second net arch experience Maternal-yearling bond weak Dawn activity High motivation to migrate (more indirect movements and more time consumption likely causally related to increasingly inclement weather) �Table 8. The mean duration at the experimenta1-net-arch (seconds) ·0£ hesitations overpass.· i~~ and crossings during , ··s.r~~~~·" '" control and variable p1/ TOTAL, Hesitations .... 2/ Control 10. 2±12. 4- Cn=42) 16. 3±-19.4 (n=49) 13. 5±16. 7 (n=91) Variaole 14. 3±14. 3 (n;'20) 7. 2±4. 6 (n=20) 10. 2±-lO.4 (n=47) p > 0.20 Crossings •....I Control 7.2±12.4(n=25) 8.7;tlO.2(n=18) s.oeu. 4 (n=43) 0\ I p > 0.40 24.2±19.8(n;'4) Variable 1/ - Independent 2/ - Standard . t statistic. deviation. 6 .4±B.2 (n=14) 10. 4±13. 3 (n=l8) �-17- Behavioral Responses:Crossing Ratios There were more animals exhibiting behavioral responses (BR) and more instances of behavioral responses per crossing (C) during variable than control for most of the responses studied (Table 9). Although the ratios for instances of behavioral response per crossing are larger for the variable except for muzzle-to-ground, they were not significant (P > 0.50). Therefore, differences in these behavioral responses may be due to chance and not to the reluctance of animals in crossing under a net arch. Conclusions Based upon the above analyses, it does not appear that an important of reluctance of deer to cross under a bridge net arch was reached. statistical analyses used in this job will be reviewed and possibly in the final report. Responses to Highway level The expanded Fencing Six 2.44-m (8-ft) fences were evaluated as to the reduction of highway deer kills after installation. The range of reduction was 61.1 to 89.5 percent with a cumulative average of 77.5 percent (Table 10). Since this evaluation is based upon year-to-year comparisonsa the cumulate average changes each segment. The reduction in kills adjacent to the Avon, Edwards, Eagle, and Diamond S fences increased, whereas, it decreased for the Vail and Carbondale fences. The January-March winter period of 1977 was exceptionally mild and may have resulted in fewer kills at some of the fences. Data from severe winters would not be discarded from the sample, similarly, data from mild winters probably should not be discarded, either. No important changes occurred in the use of 28 one-way deer gates located in the Vail, Avon, Edwards, and Eagle fences. Only minor changes would be shown in benefit:cost ratios previously described (Reed and Beck 1977), if they were recalcula~ed for this segment. They will be presented in the final report. A manuscript draft titled "Methods of red~cing deer-vehicle a~~idents:benefit-tost analysis" has been in preparation. a An acknowledged common fallacy in biological investigations is to compare groups separated by time. For evidence so obtained, cause-andeffect should be attributed cautiosly. Changes in deer populations, weather conditions, deer response to fence, traffic conditions, and land use can affect the number of highway deer kills. �-18Table 9. The numhe.r of ae.Le.ct ed .fiefu&t..ora1 responses e.:xliiIiited by deer approaching or crossing an experimental-net:"'arch overpass during two seasons (fall 1978 and spring .1979).and ca1culated'behavioralresponse ratios. No. of Animals No~ of No. 6f I Instances Crossings BR :C! Exhibiting a of BR, (BRi) , ..(C) . BR (BR ) Behavioral Responses (BR) BR. :BR 1. a a, Muzz1e-to-Ground . 2/ - Control 15 33 43 0.35:1 O. 77 :1 2.20 :1 6 9 18 0.33:1 0.50:1 1.50:1 Control 16 25 43 0.37:1 0.58:11.56:1 Variable 8 15 18 0.44:1 0.83:1 1.88:1 Control 39 102 43 0.91:1 2.37:1 2.62:1 Variable 18 55 18 1.00 :1 3.06:1 3.06:1 Control 48 91 43 1.12 :1 2.12:1 1.90:1 Variable 22 47 18 1.22 :1 2.61:1 2.14:1 Control 7 9 43 0.16:1 0.21:11.29:1 Variable· 2 7· 18 ' 0.11:1 0.39:1 Variable 3/ Muzz1e-to-Structure !!_/ Low-Head 51 • . HeS1.tat1.on -61 Alert: Stance 71 3.50:1 llc denotes the number of crossings during the two seasons. l/Muzz1e~to~ground denotes a deer lowering its muzzle to the ground. 21Control was a 2.48 m wide bridge and the variable was the same bridge with a net arch similar to those used on'pedestrian overpasses. 4/M uzz 1e-to--structure ' d"enotes a deer"1 ower1.ng ~ -, its muzzle to the bridge deck or raising its muzzle to the bridge railing. 2_/Low-head denotes a lowering of the head where the axis of the neck declines (posterior to anterior) below the horizontal. ' . "f -6/C essat1.on 0f f orwar·d movement or 1•0 second or more. ' L/Alert stance denotes a position where the head and neck are above horizontal and the 'ears are erect with the vertical axis of the ear either'perpendicular to horizontal or inclined forward. �-19- Table 10. The mean annual number or pre- and post-installation deer highway kills and percent reduction for six 2.44-m fences adjacent to Interstate 70 and Highway 82. Fence (Hwy) Lengthbf hwy fenced km (mles) Mean annual preinstallation "mortality, Mean annual post •... installation mortality Vail (1-70) 2.4 (1.5) 36' (3)1/ 12.2 (9)1/ 66.1 Avon (1-70) 3.6 (2.3) 28 (1) 4.2 (6) 85.1 Edwards (1-70) 3.6 (2.3) 27 (1) 7.0 (6) 74.1 ' Eagle (1-70) 7.7 (4.8) 167 (1) 17 .6 (5) 89.5 Diamond S (82) 1.8 (1.1) 10 (3)' 1.6 '(7) 84.3 . Carbondale (82) 1.8 (1.1) 14 (5) 4.8 (4) 66.1 . ,77.5 . Cumulative Avg. ];/ Percent reduction mortalitv· (n) denotes the number' of years of pre-' and pos ti-dns t afLat.Lon data. Deer movements lateral or parallel to 2.44-m fences have been furth~r documented at the Vail, Avon, and Eagle fences (Table 11). Based on lateral movements of radio-collared, neckbanded, or observed deer, females and males have moved lateral to the fence for mean distances of 0.578 and 0.709 km, respectively. Response of Deer to Guards No deer guard prototypes were tested during this segment. LITERATURE CITED Gallagher, V. P., and P. G. Meguire. 1974.' Contrast requirements of urban drivers. Fed. Highway Admin. Rep. Number FHWA-RD-74-76. 72pp. Hediger, H. 1950. Wild animals in captivity. Butterworth, London. 19pp. �-20- Table 11. Female and male deer mean lateral movements (km) along or adjacent to the field side or highway side of 2.44-m fences at Vail, Avon, and Eagle as de termfned unde r several conditions ... Vail Avon. Eagle· Female. . ... Male •. Side of Fence Male Field Side Apparent 1/ 0.900(n=3)~10.·500(n=2) 0.578(n';"2) ObserVed 1-' 0.272(n=8) 0.588 (n=107) 0.762 (n=34) 0.350(n=1) 0.280(n=1) Highway Side Apparent Observed 0.617 (n=3) 0.350(n=1) 0.500 (n=5f10 .506 (n=4).-- 0.480 (n=4) 1.207 (n=2) Observed and 5/ haraased 0.975 (n=4) 0.646 (n=5) l/ Movements estimated by noting the locations of radio-collared or neckbanded deer· at selected· pOints along the fences· at widely separated· time periods. ~l (n) denotes number of lateral df.s tiancesc 3t Movements - observed· during their duration. !!./ Included one distance that was the "net" lateral movement occurring during a period of 45 minutes.· Twenty.:...two changes in direction or mini-lateral movemenbs occur red during this -"net"·movementn : The mean mini-·lateral movement was l40.9±154.8(SD) m, ~/ Animals were usually chased with a vehicle at night until they either escaped· from the fenced side of the highway or "broke" back against the vehicle •. �-21- Howe, C. W. 1971. Benefit-cost analysis for water system planning. Amer. Geophysical Union. Washington, D. C. 144pp. Myers, G. T. 1969. An investigation of deer-auto accidents. Pages 147-178 in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. Colo. Game, Fish and Parks Div. Fed. Aid. Pojar, T. M. 1972a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 267-275 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1972b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 305-310 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. ----- , R. A. Prosence, D. F. Reed, and T. N. Woodard. of a lighted animated deer crossing 87-91. sign. 1975. Effectiveness J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1): Reed, D. F. 1971. Deer underpass evaluation. Pages 341-351 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 3. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1974. An evaluation of 8-foot fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 313-320 in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1975. An evaluation of 8-foot (2.44-m) fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 315-320 in Game Res. Rept" July, Part 2. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976a. Evaluation of deer overpasses. Pages 247-251 in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976b. Evaluation of deer underpasses. Pages 223-229 'in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. ----- , T. M. Pojar, and T. N. Woodard. deer guards. J. Range Manage. 1974. Mule deer responses 27(2):111-113. _____ , T. N. Woodard, and T. M. Pojar. mule deer to a highway underpass. 1975. Behavioral J. Wildl. Manage. to response of 39(2):361-367. , and T. D. I. Beck. 1977. Deer-vehicle accidents statewide and ~---methods and devices to reduce them. Pages 23-41 in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 1. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Scott, J. P. 1958. Animal behavior. Press, Chicago. 349pp. 2nd ed. University of Chicago Woodard, T. N. 1973a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 163-170 in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. �-22- 1973b. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent-deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 197-202 in Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1974. MOnitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 293-298 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1975. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 295-303 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976a. Monitor potentially critical deer-vehicle accident areas statewide. Pages 215-221 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976b. Effects of highway lighting on number of deer killed by vehicles. Pages 231-236 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. 1976c. An evaluation of deer-proof fence length required to prevent deer movements on or across high speed highways. Pages 239-244 in Game Res. Rep., July, Part 2. Colorado Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. Prepared by:----::-"-:If:-/_'u-=··,_·'-:{ _·",;-_1-:' _tu_, _._j__'~_. Dale F. Reed Wildlife Researcher _ �July, 1979 -23- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- 1 Work Plan No. Job Title Guidelines Period Covered: Personnel: Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Proj ect No. Job No. for Wildlife 1 --------------------------------- Habitat Manipulation July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 W. H. Rutherford, W. D. Snyder ABSTRACT Literature review and interviews have provided a background of information on techniques and procedures for manipulation of wildlife habitat. This information has been compiled, organized and written into a manuscript for a guideline manual that is about 70% complete. Completed portions have been turned over to an editor. ��-25- GUIDELINES William FOR WILDLIFE H. Rutherford HABITAT MANIPULATION and Warren D. Snyder P. N. OBJECTIVE To publish a comprehensive manual of directional guidelines for sustaining and enhancing wildlife consumptive and non-consumptive uses on Division habitat management populations for of Wildlife properties. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Assemble information relevant a looseleaf manual format. 2. Review draft version selected referees. to wildlife of the wildlife METHODS habitat manipulation habitat manipulation into manual with AND MATERIALS With literature review and personal interviews having been essentially completed during the previous segment, activity during this segment was limited to organizing, compiling and writing the manuscript. Methods and materials are self-explanatory. RESULTS Extensive data compilation and writing were accomplished during the segment. The format for presentation was established and subsequently revised and refined. Effort was concentrated on bringing the voluminous information together in a condensed orderly arrangement. At the end of this segment (June 30) the sections on basic habitat design considerations, basic habitat management concepts (by groups of species), description of manipulation procedures and techniques, and application of procedures and techniques to various wildlife species and habitats, are approximately 80% complete. A great deal of the rough draft of these sections has been turned over to the Division of Wildlife staff technical editor. The description of general procedures not species-related, and the final section on procedures for evaluating the effects of habitat manipulation, remain to be drafted. Activity during the next segment will be directed . toward completion of the drafting, review and revision, and setting up printing and publishing. Prepared by: ��-27- JOB PROGRESS State 0 f REPORT W-126-R-2 Work Plan No. Period 1979 C.=.O.:_:L=-O:..:RAD=:..:O'--_ Proj ect No. Job Title July, Big "Game Investigations Job No. 1 Deer and Elk Management Covered: ~2~ _ Study July 1, 1978 to June 30, 1979 Personnel: Colorado Division of Wildlife: Regional Wildlife Biologist staff members; John Ellenberger, Hal Burdick, Jim Olterman, Marc Elkins, Jack Vayhinger; Area Supervisors and District Wildlife Managers; Thomas M. Pojar. ABSTRACT All simulations and data analysis unit boundaries for mule deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope in the NW, SW, and SE regions were reviewed by three levels of management; Regional Wildlife Biologists, Area Wildlife Supervisors, and District Wildlife Managers. These reviews resulted in updating and various degrees of revisions of the simulations. The boundaries of five DAU's were changed and new simulations created for the new alignments. Currently there are simulations for 38 mule deer populations, 35 elk populations, 15 pronghorn antelope populations, 2 bighorn sheep populations and one mountain goat population for a total of 91 big game population simulations. The game management units included in the DAU's are listed in Appendix I. Some special population simulations were created for an area the Division was considering leasing and for special research areas. Various aspects of the simulating process, in the papers cited in the Results Section utility and status of this report. are discussed ��-29- DEER AND ELK MANAGEMENT STUDY Thomas M. Pojar P. N. OBJECTIVE Devise and test a statewide deer and elk management system. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Divide the state into a system of data analysis units (DAU's) that are deemed practical for gathering and analyzing population data. 2. Based on currently available information, estimate population by DAU, through the simulation modeling approach. 3. Conduct training workshops involving management personnel to familiarize them with the interpretation of the output from the model and to incorporate empirical data from fieldmen directly associated with the DAU into the simulation to produce a candidate management simulation. 4. Identify data that are most useful for improving parameters. estimates parameters, of population RESULTS The following manuscripts were prepared: Pojar, T. M. 1979. Population modeling in Colorado. In T. M. Pojar and D. Strickland (Eds.). 1979. A workshop on the Status and Application of Big Game Population Modeling. Ft. Collins, Colorado, Jan. 16-17. 1979. 53 pp. Pojar, T. M., and D. Strickland. 1979. (Eds.). A workshop on the status and application of big game population modeling. Ft. Collins, Colorado, Jan. 16-17, 1979. 53pp. Salwasser, H., and T. M. Pojar. 1979. Simulation modeling of pronghorn populations. Submitted to: J. Yoakum (Ed.) Pronghorn Management. Wildlife Management Institute. C Prepared by: ~6~ Wildlife Researcher �-30- APPENDIX I �-31APPENDIX I The current (1978) data analysis unit alignment ELK DAU Identifier Name Units E 1 CS Cold Springs 201 E 2 BE Bear's Ears 4, 5, 441, 14 E 3 NP North Park 6, 7, 16, 161 E 4 PR Poudre River 8, 19 E 5 ST Strawberry 11 E 6 WR White River 12, 13, 131, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 34 E 7 GP Gore Pass 15, 27 E 8 TR Troublesome 17, 18 E 9 SV St. Vrain 20, 29, 38, 381 E10 YC Yellow Creek 22 Ell RB Roan Bluffs 31, 32 E12 PI Piney 35, 36 E13 WF Williams Fork 28, 37 E14 GM Grand Mesa 41, 411, 42, 52, 521 E15 AC Avalanche Creek 43, 471 E16 FP Frying Pan 44, 45, 47 E17 CR Collegiate Range 48, 56, 481 E18 KP Kenosha Pass 50, 500, 501, 51, 511, 46, 461, 39, 391 E19 GL Glade Park 40 E20 UN Uncompahgre 61, 62 E21 GR Gunnison River 63, 53, 54, 55,551 E22 BP Buffalo Peaks 49, 57, 58 E23 EM 11-Mile 58, 59 E24 DC Disappointment Creek 70, 71 E25 LF Lake Fork 66, 67 E26 SA Saguache 68 E27 SD Sangre de Cristo 82, 86 E28 GC Grape Creek 69, 84 E29 MV Mesa Verde 72, 73 E30 HE Hermosa 74 E31 SJ San Juan 75, 751, 77, 78 E32 LG Lower Rio Grande 80, 81 E33 TI Trinchera 83, 85, 851 E34 UG Upper Rio Grande 76, 79 E35 CI Cimarron 64, 65 �-32- MULE DEER DAU Identifier Name Units D 1 LS Little Snake 1, 2, 201 D 2 BE Bear's Ears 4, 441, 5, 14 D 3 NP North Park 6, 161, 17 D 4 RF Red Feather 7,8,9,19 D 5 SP South Platte 87, 92, 99, D 6 RA Rangely 10 D 7 WR White River 11, 12, 13, 131, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34 D 8 SB State Bridge 15, 35, 36 D 9 MP Middle Park 18, 28, 27, 37 D10 BO Boulder 20, 29, 38, 381 Dll BC Book Cliffs 30, 21 D12 GM Grand Mesa 41, 411, 42, 52, 521 D13 MB Maroon Bells 43, 47, 471 D14 RT Red Tables 44, 45 DIS CO Cottonwood Creek 48, 56, 481 D16 CC Cripple Creek 49, 57, 58, 581, 59 D17 BA Bailey 39, 51, 391, 500, 46, 461, 511 D18 GP Glade Park 40 D19 UP Uncompahgre 61, D20 CR Crawford 53 D21 WE West Elk 54 D22 TP Taylor Park 55, D23 LA LaSal 60 D24 GH Groundhog 70, 71 D25 PC Powderhorn Creek 66, 67 D26 SA Saguache 68 D27 WC Westcliffe 69, D28 AV Arkansas Valley 97,98,102,103,106,107, 108, 109, 1l0, Ill, 16, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, 104, 105 50, 501, 62 551 84, 86 D29 MV Mesa Verde 72, 73, 74 D30 SJ San Juan 75, 751, 77, D32 TR Trinidad 83, 85, ll2 D33 GD Great Divide 3 78 ll3, 114 �-33- MULE DEER (Cont'd) DAU Identifier Name D35 LG Lower Rio Grande 80, 81 D36 UG Upper Rio Grande 76, 79 D37 SD Sand Dunes 82 D39 FM Fruitland Mesa 63 D40 CI Cimmeron 64, 65 Units PRONGHORN ANTELOPE PI ESC Escarpment 10, l1, 12, 13,14, 17 P2 HAR Hardpan 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 31 P3 NP North Park 6, 7, 8, 9 P4 SH Sandhills 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 26, 27 P5 HW Haswell 45, 46, 51, 52 P6 HU Hugo 36, 37, 38 P7 TH Thatcher 49, 50, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 66 P8 YO Yoder 34, 35, 41, 42, 43, 44 P9 GD Great Divide 3 P10 MA Maybell 5 Pll VB Vermillian Bluffs 2 P12 CH Cheyenne 39, 40, 47, 48, 53, 54 P13 TO Tobe 57, 58, 62, 63, 64, 67, 68 P14 VG Villa Grove 74 PIS SW Saguache West 73 P16 MV Monte Vista 77 BIGHORN SHEEP B1 PP Pikes Peak 59 B2 ™ Trickle Mountain 68, 681 MOUNTAIN GOAT Gl SA Sawatch 48, 481 ��-35July, JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. W-126-R-2 Plan No. 1 Work Job Title REPORT Deer-Elk J~ ~. Investigations --------------------------------- Brucellosis-Leptospirosis Survey of Big Game Animals in Colorado --~~~~~~-=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---------------------June 30, 1979 Personnel: Joan Ritchie, Carol Ann Weinland, Marilyn Stevens, William Adrian. Richard Period 1979 Covered: July 1, 1978 through Ford, Gene Grenard, ABSTRACT During the 1978 hunting season blood collection kits were mailed to all antelope hunters (4,625) and 13,181 deer hunters. The serum received from successful hunters was tested for serological titers for brucellosis and five serotypes of leptospira (~. canic61a, grippotyphosa, hardjo, icterohemorrhagiae, and pomana). All deer and antelope serum tested for brucellosis were negative. All deer and antelope serum was considered negative for all serotypes of leptospira except ~. hardjo. Deer had less than 1% as reactors while antelope continued to have about 10% incidence of reactors to L. hardio. ��-37- BRUCELLOSIS-LEPTOSPIROSIS SURVEY OF BIG GAME ANIMALS IN COLORADO William J. Adrian P. N. OBJECTIVE To survey big game populations within the State of Colorado or absence of brucellosis and leptospirosis. for the presence SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Survey Colorado's deer populations for brucellosis and leptospirosis during the annual hunting season and continue to monitor antelope for serological titers for L. hardjo. METHODS AND MATERIALS Blood sample kits were mailed to deer hunters with the request they draw a blood sample from their kill and return the kit to the Colorado Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver, Colorado for processing. A maximum of 300 sampling kits were sent to hunters in each deer unit. If more than 300 permits were issued for one unit the names were randomly selected. Blood sample kits were mailed to all antelope hunters. The kit consists of a cardboard mailer, blood tube and stopper, plastic rubber band, paper towel and instructions for obtaining the sample and mailing the kits. bag, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Wildlife Research Laboratory in cooperation with the Cooperative Brucellosis Laboratory in Denver has, in 1978, completed its tenth annual survey for brucellosis and leptospirosis in Colorado's big game populations. Brucellosis is a specific contagious disease which primarily affects cattle, swine, and goats. It can, however, affect many other animals including elk, deer, antelope and man (undulant fever, Malta fever and Bang's Disease). It is caused by bacteria of the Brucella group and is characterized by abortion in the female, and to a lesser extent, inflammation of the testes and infection of the accessory sex glands in the male and infertility in both sexes. Leptospirosis is a febrile (feverish) disease caused by certain species of leptospirae. The disease occurs with various manifestations in dogs, cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and wildlife and is transmissible to man. �-38- Leptospira hardjo was first reported in the continental u.s. in 1951 and first isolated from cattle in 1960 (Roth, 1960). ~. hardjo infections were considered to be limited to the bovine until it was recently isolated from humans (Stallman, 1972), sheep (Andreani, 1975), opossum (Brockie 1975), and horses (Myers 1976). Spread of ~. hardjo through the U.S. has been rapid. Recent reports from Georgia and Alabama indicate leptospira reactor in cattle of approximately 22% for ~. hardjo and 10% for ~. pomona. Nationally, the react of rate for L. hardjo in cattle is about 7% (Rubin, 1976). Since 1967, the U.S. Animal Health Association, Leptospirosis Committee has considered L. hardjo infections in cattle a major economic threat (Glosser et al~ 1974). Colorado's first serologic evidence for L. hardjo infection came in 1974. Of 646 antelope serum samples, 4 had titers of 1:10 and 2 had titers of 1:40. In 1977, serologic evidence of L. hardjo infection became more substantial. Of 666 antelope samples,-55 had titers of 1:10, 15 had titers of 1:40 and 3 had titers of greater than 1:160 by the macroscopic agglutination technique (Adrian and Keiss 1977). The 1978 deer and antelope summarized in Table 1. brucellosis-leptospirosis survey data are Species Kits Mailed Sample Received Sample Hemolyzed Antelope 4,625 1,477 991 486 o 427 52 Deer 13,181 1,663 1,173 976 o 485 5 The data in Table 1 is available by game management incidence of ~. hardjo upon request. Brucellosis Neg Pos Leptospirosis Neg Pos unit with its corresponding Attempts to collect antelope in high reactor. areas and isolate~. hardjo has been unsuccessful. Antelope transplants from areas with L. hardjo reactors will be screened in the field and those animals with serological titers for ~. hardjo will be necropsied and cultured followed by the appropriate histopathological studies. LITERATURE CITED Adrian, W. J., and R. E. Keiss. 1977. for serologic titers to brucellosis Diseases: 13:429-431. Survey of Colorado's wild ruminants and leptospirosis. J. of Wildlife Andreani, E. E., Santarelli, and R. Diligenti. 1975. sheep. Natural infection by the Hardjo serotype. Di Medicina Veterinaria Di Pisa. 27:33-40. Leptospirosis in Annali Della Facolta �-39- Brockie, R. E. 1977. Leptospirae infections New Zealand. Vet. J. 25:4, 89-95. of rodents in North Island Glosser, J. W., C. R. Sulzer, G. C. Reynolds, and D. Whitsett. 1974. Isolation of Leptospira serotype Szanajizak from dairy cattle in Oregon. In proceedings. 78th Ann. Meeting U.S. Animal Health Assoc. Roanoke, VA. 74:119-125. Myers, D. M. 1976. Serological studies from isolation of serotype Hardjo and Leptospira bifloxa strains from horses of Argentina. of Clin. Micro. 3:548-555. J. Roth, E. E., and M. M. Galton. 1960. Isolation and identification of Leptospira Hardjo from cattle in Louisiana. Am. J. Vet. Res. 21:422-427. Rubin, H. L. 1976. Bovine leptospirosis. Florida Vet. J. 6:16-19. Stallman, N. D. 1972. The isolation of a strain of Leptospira, serotype Hardjo from a patient in Southern Queensland, Australia. Vet. J. 48:497. Prepared ". Z: bY:M_y~ ~ // , ,/' fI2 (.L ~~~ 1 liam J. Adria~ Wildlife Researiher / "- ��July 1979 -41- JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO --------~----~-------------- Proj ect No. W-126-R-2 Work Plan No. I Job Title Job No. Animal and Pen Support Facilities Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Invest~gations 4__ ~ for Deer-Elk _ Research July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Paul H. Neil, John Anderson, Dan Parkinson, Valerie Thomas, Barry VanSant, Don Bay, Steve Torbit, Arnold O'l.s en , Lynn Sexton, and R. Bruce Gill. ABSTRACT During the 1978-1979 segment, emphasis was directed towards completion of the deer/elk research facility and the raising and training of seven mule deer fawns for use in metabolism cages. Three additional fawns were added to this group during mid-winter 1979. These all metal metabolism cages were completed and installed for an in vivo study of mule deer body composition by use of tritiated water. A sixty day feeding trial was performed on six mature mule deer. Techniques of injection, sample collection and response to feeding levels were-investigated. More detailed information regarding sample preparation, data collection and analysis is described under W~126-R-2, Work Plan 2, Job 1. Pregnancy scans were conducted on four mature does within the facility using an ultra-high sound wave fluoroscope. Three of the four does were shown to be pregnant with twins. Detailed information on the scanner system and techniques are described under W-126-R-2, Work Plan 5, Job 1. Early winter grazing trials using three tame mule deer were conducted during November 1978. The study area is the proposed experimental controlled burn site described under W-126-R-2, Work Plan 4, Job 1. The seven day trial had to be terminated early due to heavy snowfall which altered the environmental conditions being sampled. Additional heavy snowfall during the remaining winter months prohibited further trials. Although the November trial was considered a training trial, plant species comprising 2% or more of the diet as well as other plant species taken are listed in this report. Pen and facility expansion continued during the segment with the installation of a complete watering system and electrical system for each pen. A Toledo digital read-out scale was incorporated into the runway system. Lab and office facilities were also completed. ��-43- ANIMAL AND PEN SUPPORT FACILITIES FOR DEER-ELK RESEARCH Paul H. Neil P. N. OBJECTIVES To provide and maintain populations of captive big game animals facilities to support big game research programs. and pen SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To continue facility. to expand the big game research 2. To coordinate rearing, training, maintenance, and research activities with captive wild and tame animals under one research support facility manager. 3. To integrate animal and physical plant support monetary requirements under a single budget. METHODS and animal holding facility manpower and AND MATERIALS Materials and equipment were ordered and various aspects of construction were put on bid in order to complete the final portions of the expansion program at the deer-elk facility. A Toledo digital read-out scale was ordered for installation and three metabolic cages were constructed. A water system and an electrical system were designed and installed to meet the needs of the entire facility. The young-adult conservation corps of the Bureau of Reclamation was enlisted to assist in completion of the lab and office facility and other projects. Seven orphan mule deer fawns were obtained from Division of Wildlife field personnel and hand reared and trained for use in the metabolism cages. Three additional fawns were recruited during mid-winter of 1979 as a result of severe winter conditions. The formula used for hand-rearing was the same used during the last segment and consisted of 2 parts whole milk to 1 part canned evaporated milk with an addition of 1/10 the total volume per day of buttermilk. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All ten of the orphaned cage programs. Rearing fawns were successfully reared for metabolism success was again attributed to the formula, good �-44- weather, and improved rearing management techniques. Because of the young age of the 10 orphans, six mature mule deer were used for a sixty day feeding trial in the newly constructed metabolism cages. During the first phase of this program techniques of injection of tritiated water as a tracer, sample collection and response to feeding levels were investigated. Detailed methods and data showing predicted weight loss and observed weight loss for the animals is described under W-126-R-2, Work Plan 2, Job 1. Construction of the three metabolism cages being used for the body composition study of mule deer by use of tritiated water allows for complete urine and feces collection. Certification for use of radionuclides was obtained and project approval obtained from the Colorado State University Radiation Safety Committee. During fall of 1978 the only remalnlng breeding buck died of apparent "chronic wasting disease". He was replaced by capturing a wild yearling buck. A Pneu-dart rifle and a 10 mg dose of succinycholine chloride were used for capture. Drug reaction time was 5 minutes, immobilization time was 15 minutes, and recovery time was 10 minutes. Following capture, the antlers were sawed off and the buck was released into the Animal Research facility with the does. Pregnancy scans were conducted in the spring of 1979 on four mature does within the facility using an ultra-high soundwave fluo.roscope. The scanner revealed that three of the four does were pregnant with twins. Detailed information on the scanner system and techniques are described under W-126-R-2, Work Plan 5, Job 1. Early winter mule deer grazing trials using three tame deer were conducted during November 1978 in the Poudre Canyon area west of Fort Collins, Colorado. The study area is proposed as an experimental controlled burn site described under W-126-R-2, Work Plan 4, Job 1. The seven day trial began November 28, 1978 but had to be terminated on December 2, 1978 due to heavy snowfall which altered the environmental conditions being sampled. This trial was considered a training trial since it could not be completed. Plant species comprising 2% or more of the total diet as well as other plant species taken are listed in Table 1. Pen and facility expansion continued during the segment and is presently in the final stage. Automatic watering devices were installed in each large holding pen and isolation pen. Electrical outlets and lights were also installed in strategic locations. A 16' x 16' weigh room is presently being constructed to accommodate the digital read-out scale that was incorporated into the runway system. The scale is capable of weighing both deer and elk accurately and at any ambient temperature. Four castrated male elk and one cow elk now occupy a 2 acre pen. All of the deer will be moved to the expanded facility area early in the next segment. The Division of Wildlife Research Animal herd presently consists of the following: Deer - 10 mature does, 3 immature does, one breeding �-45- buck, and 8 male castrates (mature and immature); Elk - 4 mature male castrates and one mature cow; Bighorn sheep - 3 mature castrate rams, 1 yearling ram, and 2 yearling ewes; Rocky Mountain Goats - 2 yearling nannies, one yearling billy and 4 nanny kids. Prepared by: ~-=-'-"'~(:--:A:_~_" __ " -:fo:-::-i._' ._-,,-iJ_;:)~.....-c __·k__ Paul H. Neil Wildlife Technician II �Table 1. Mule deer grazing trials Poudre Canyon Area, November, Shrubs Grasses Muh1enbergia montana Poa species 5.07% Carex species 3.90% Hesperoch1oa kingii Agropyron spicatum Agroypyron smithii Agropyron trachycau1um Agropyron sub secundum Bromus techtorum Bromus species Boute1oua gracilis Danthonia parryi Stipa comata Ko1eria cristata Sitanion hystrix 1978. 12.12% Populus tremu10ides (dry leaves) 14.32% Pinus ponderosa (dry needles) 6.17% Pinus ponderosa (green needles) 5.24% Acer glabrum 4.08% ~hia tridentata 3.97% Prunus virginiana 2.45% Ribes cereum 2.14% Arctostaphylos ~~-ursi Jamesia americana Salix sp. Moss sp. Ame1anchier a1nifo1ia Pseudotsuga menziesii (green-dry needles) Artemisia tridentata Rubus de1iciousus --Rosa acicu1aris Juniperus scopu1orum Forbs Potenti11a fissa 13.92% Artemisia frigida 4.43% Erigonium umbe11atum 2.71% Aster porteri 2.5% Artemisia 1udoviciana Oxytropis species Campanu1a species Chrysops is vi110sa Erigeron caespitosus Tragopogon dubius Geranium sp. Geranium parryi Thermopsis divaricarpa Antennaria sp. Potenti11a sp. Potenti11a pucherrima Potenti11a hippiana Ba1samorhiza sagittata He1ianthus pumi1us Gallium borea1e Lupinus greenei Aster 1avens Grinde11ia suba1pina Aster glaucodes Erigeron speciosus Achi11ia 1anu1osa Solidago nana Unknown forbs Agoseris sp. Mahonea rep ens Arenaria fend1eri Cryptantha sp. I .jO- 0\ I �-47- July, 1979 JOB PROGRESS State of REPORT COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. W-126-R-2 Work Plan No. 1 Job Title Nutrient Digestible Period Covered: Personnel: Deer-Elk Job No. Investigations 6 ------------~------------------- Content of Deer and Elk Winter Forage Plants July 1, 1978 through June 30, 1979 Roland C. Kufeld, Marilyn Stevens ABSTRACT In-vitro digestible dry matter levels were determined for 45 Gambel oak (Quercus gaffibellii)and 45 big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) samples collected during January, 1976. Each species was collected from 45 sites throughout 9 major areas of the state and 3 vegetation types. For Gambel oak the median in-vitro digestible dry matter level from 9 areas is 27.82 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranges from 26.98 to 29.33 percent. For big sage the median in-vitro digestible dry matter level is 49.76 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval r~nges from 47.15 to 53.09 percent. During January, 1979, five 70 to 100 gram, green weight composite samples of two species, serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) were collected from 8 widely separated geographic areas throughout the western half of Colorado. These will be analyzed for digestible dry matter and trace mineral content. ��-49- DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF DEER AND ELK WINTER FORAGE PLANTS Roland C. Kufeld P. N. OBJECTIVE To estimate the average digestible nutrient content values and degree of variation in digestible nutrient content of selected range forage plants during winter. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To determine the degree of variation in digestible selected range forage plants during winter. nutrient content of METHODS AND MATERIALS In-vitro digestibility was determined for 45 samples of Gambel oak (Quercus gambellii) and 45 samples of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), which were collected and analyzed for nutrient content in the manner described by Kufeld (1978). The technique for determining in-vitro digestibility was described by Tilley and Terry (1963) and modified by Pearson (1970). Inoculum used was from a holstein cow. During January, 1979, five 70 to 100 gram, green weight, composite samples of two species, serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) and mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) were collected from 8 widely separated areas throughout the western half of Colorado, but within the normal winter range of deer and elk. The 5 collectio~ sites within each major area were widely separated geographically, but were situated within the same vegetation type (Table 1). Collections of both species consisted of current annual growth stems with leaves excluded. Each sample was air dried and ground in a Wiley Mill. They will be analyzed to determine content of the following nutrients and trace minerals: Total cell contents, crude protein, ether extract, soluble ash, soluble carbohydrate, total cell walls, acid insoluble ash, lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, zinc (Harris 1970; Adrian 1973). In vitro dry matter digestibility of each sample will also be determined (Tilley and Terry, 1963; Pearson, 1970). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Analysis of variance showed significant differences at the 5 percent level among vegetation types, among areas, and among areas within vegetation types for in vitro digestible dry matter sagebrush, but no significant differences were~ound in Gambel oak. Despite the significant differences in �-50- sagebrush actual differences in both sagebrush and Gambel oak were relatively small (Table 2). For big sagebrush the median in-vitro digestible dry matter from the 9 major areas was 49·,76 percent, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranged from 47.15 to 53.09 percent. For Gambel oak the median in-vitro digestible dry matter level was 27.82, and the 95 percent confidence interval ranged from 26.98 to 29.33 percent. The data reflect relatively little mid-winter variation from one locality to another in content of any of the nutrients for big sagebrush and Gambel oak. Table 1. Major areas within Colorado where winter samples of serviceherry and mountain mahogany were collected. Vegetation Type Where Collections Were Made Serviceberry Collections Mtn. Mahogany Gambel oak-Serviceberry Pinyon-juniper Mtn. Mahogany 1. Steamboat Meeker SpringsGrand Junction Fort Collins Collections Pinyon-juniper Glenwood Eagle Sp Springs- 2. Rifle-Eagle Naturita Denver-Idaho 3. Black Canyon East side of Uncompahgre Plateau Rifle Grand Junction 4. Durango Cortez Montrose Cortez-Durango Colo. Sp. Canon City Table 2. Medians, 95 percent confidence intervals and non-parametric tolerance levels for in-vitro digestible dry matter content in Gambel oak and big sagebrush collected during January throughout Colorado!/. Plant Percent content in plant Median 95% Confidence Interval Gambel oak 27.82 26.98 - 29.33 26.60 Big Sagebrush 49.76 47.15 - 53.09 45.48 II Non-parametric lower bound for 70% poin~1 - Data are based on collections of 5 samples from widely separated within each of 8 major areas throughout Colorado. locations IIThis represents the lowest 5 sample mean value collected from the 9 major areas. One can be 95 percent sure that at least 70 percent of the area mean nutrient values encountered in Colorado, during January, would exceed the minimum value listed for each nutrient. �-51- Medians rather than means were used to describe "average" in vitro digestible dry matter levels in plants among the 9 geographic areas to avoid the influence of abnormally high or low values which might tend to raise or lower a mean. In this situation it was believed that a median would provide a more representative estimate of the "average" digestible dry matter which one could expect to encounter in the field. Medians are also suited for use with one-sided non-parametric tolerance intervals discussed below. One-sided non-parametric tolerance intervals can be applied to further minimize the decision-making error incurred in projecting digestibility levels based on average values (Dixon and Massey, 1969). It is desirable that digestibility levels be underestimated rather than overestimated to avoid overestimation of the ability of the range to supply the minimum needs of grazing animals. This could lead to overstocking. One sided non-parametric tolerance intervals permit estimation of the portion of the overall population of digestibility values that would likely be encountered for a given species, which, with 95 percent confidence, exceeds the smallest sample value. For example, using the sample means, which range from 26.60 to 29.50 percent in-vitro digestible dry matter from the 9 areas where oak was collected, one can be 95 percent sure that at'least 70 percent of the area digestible dry matter values encountered in Gambel oak in Colorado during January would exceed the minimum value of 26.60 percent. By using the minimum value a manager could, therefore, be reasonably sure his estimate of digestible dry matter production is on the conservative side. One sided non-parametric tolerance intervals for in-vitro digestible dry matter in big sagebrush and Gambel oak are presented~n Table 2. LITERATURE CITED Adrian, W. J. 1973. A comparision of a wet pressure digestion method with other commonly used wet and dry-ashing methods. Analyst 98:213-216. Dixon, W. J., and F. J. Massey, Jr. 1969. Introduction analysis. McGraw-Hill, 3rd ed. 638p. to statistical Harris, L. E. 1970. Nutrition research techniques for domestic and wild animals. Pub. by Lorin E. Harris, 1408 Highland Dr., Logan, Utah. 1(2):1401-3519. Kufeld, R. C. 1978. Digestible nutrient and trace mineral content of deer and elk forage plants during winter. Colorado Division of Wildlife. Game Res. Research Report July (3):413-421. Pearson, H. A. 1970. Digestibility trials: In-vitro techniques. P. 85-92. In: Range and wildlife habitat evaluation - a research symposium. USDA For. Servo Misc. Publ. No. 1147. 220p. Tilley, J. M. A., and R. A. Terry. 1963. A two stage technique for the in-vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 18:104-111. Prepared by £taA-(,O/ C ;Kf_J1.if i Roland C. Kufeld Wildlife Researcher ��-53- July, 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Work Plan No. Job Title Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Project No. 1 Multispecies Job No. Investigations: 7 ---------------------------------- Big Game Research Publications Period Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: Dr. L. H. Carpenter, R. B. Gill, Dr. O. C. Wallmo, D. J. Freddy, D. L. Baker, N. T. Hobbs, R. M. Bartmann, A. E. Anderson, Dr. D. C. Bowden, R. C. Kufeld, D. F. Reed, T. N. Woodard, P. H. Neil, T. M. Pojar, W. H. Rutherford. ABSTRACT Ten publications were completed during the 1978-79 segment. Three papers were prepared for presentation at professional society meetings or workshops. Eight publications are nearing the completed draft stage or are in a state of manuscript review and revision. ��-55- BIG GAME RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS R. BRUCE GILL P. N. OBJECTIVE To publish the results of research conducted under the auspices of Federal Aid Project W-126-R in a variety of professional journals and other indexed publishing media to insure widespread dissemination and availability of this information to natural resource managers and ecological scientists. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES Following is a list of publication working titles that will be prepared and/or published under this job in Segment 2. The publication outlet is tentative depending upon acceptance by the particular periodical. 1. Journal of Wildlife Management patterns of mule deer at pasture". - "Twenty-four hour activity 2. Journal of Ecology - "Mule deer forage diversity salubrity". 3. Journal of Range Management - "Effects 2,4-D herbicide on mule deer winter range", and dietary of time of application 4. Colorado Division of Wildlife Special Report - "Permits success for special deer seasons in Middle Park". of and hunter 5. Journal of Wildlife Management - "A sampling system for estimating deer pellet group density in Pinyon-juniper woodland". 6. Journal of Wildlife Management mule deer at various activities". - "Heart rate measurements of 7. Journal of Wildlife Management - "Comparison of aerial and ground measurements of sex and age ratios of mule deer populations". 8. Journal of Wildlife Management - "Rearing and training Mountain elk for nutritional investigations". Rocky 9. Journal of Wildlife Management - "Elk summer diet selection nutritional composition in Rocky Mountain National Park". 10. Journal of Range Management by grazing animals from microscopic and ,.... "Estimation of the diets selected analysis of the feces - warning 2". 11. Journal of Animal Science - "Effects of ambient in vivo digestibility in mule deer". temperature on �-56- 12. Journal of Wildlife Management - ·"Xylazine as an immobilizing agent for captive elk (Cervus elaphus nelsonii)" 13. Journal of Wildlife Management - "Statistical models and sampling design in estimating buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios in Colorado mule deer". 14. Journal of Wildlife Management fawns in relation to habitat". - "Mortality of radio-collared 15. Journal of Mammalogy - "Composition and behavior groups in free-ranging Rocky Mountain mule deer". 16. Colorado Division trace minerals in bighorn of Wildlife Division sheep nutrition". of maternal Report - "Sources of 17. Journal of Range Management - "Variation in nutrient content levels of gambel oak (Quercus gambellii) and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) collected from diverse sites during winter". 18. Wildlife Society Bulletin - "Benefit-cost to reduce deer-vehicle accidents". analysis 19. Journal of Wildlife Management - "Effectiveness lighting in reducing deer-vehicle accidents". PUBLICATION of methods of highway PROGRESS Fourteen articles relating to the Colorado Division of Wildlife's Big Game Research Program were published or prepared for presentation at professional society meetings and workshops during the 1978-79 segment. These are listed below. Publications: Baker, D. L., D. E. Johnson, L. H. Carpenter, O. C. Wallmo, and R. B. Gill. 1979. Energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 43(1):162-169. Beck, T. D. I., K. R. Kincaid, and D. F. Reed. 1978. Accidental parturition in a mule deer. Southwest. Natural. 23:7-5-706. Carpenter, L. H., O. C. Wallmo, and R. B. Gill. 1979. Forage diversity and dietary selection by wintering mule deer. J. Range Manage. 32(3): 226-229. Hobbs, N. T., and D. L. Baker. 1979. Rearing and training elk calves for use in food habits studies. J. Wildl. Manage. 43(2):568-570. Reed, D. F., K. R. Kincaid, deer fall from cliffs. and T. D. I. Beck. 1979. Migratory J. Wildl. Manage. 43(1):272. mule �-57- Schmidt, R. L., C. P. Hibler, T. R. Spraker, and W. H. Rutherford. An evaluation of drug treatment for lungworm in bighorn sheep. Wildl. Manage. 43(2):461-467. 1979. J. Strong, L. H., and D. J. Freddy. 1979. Number of pellets per mule deer defecation. J. Wildl. Manage. 43(2):563-564. Trindle, B. D., and L. D. Lewis. 1978. Methoxyflurane anesthesia in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) fawns. J. Wildl. Dis. 14:519-522. Trindle, B. D., L. D. Lewis, and L. H. Lauerman. 1978. Evaluation of stress and its effects on the immune system of hand-reared mule deer fawns (Odocoileus hemionus). J. Wildl. Dis. 14:523-537. Trindle, B. D., L. D. Lewis, and L. H. Lauerman. 1979. Techniques for evaluating humoral and cell-mediated immunity in mule deer fawns (Odocoileus hemionus). J. Wildl. Dis. 15:25-31. Papers Presented at Society Meetings and/or Workshops Carpenter, L. H. 1979. Twenty four hour activity patterns of mule deer at pasture Soc. Range Manage. Annual Meeting. Casper, WY Freddy, D. J. 1979. Measuring heart rates of mule deer using a repeatertype telemetry system. Internatl. Conf. Wildl. Biotelemetry. Laramie, WY. Pojar, T. M. Workshop. 1979. Population Ft. Collins, CO. modeling in Colorado. Pop. Model. In addition to the above listed publications and papers, several manuscripts were in the process of drafting, pre-publication review or publication. Segment Objectives 4, 6, 10, 13, 14, 17 were all in various stages of review and/or drafting. Minimal or no progress was made toward publication objectives 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 16, 18, and 19. Prepared by: R. Bruce Gill Big Game Section Chief ��July, 1979 -59- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. W-126-R-2 Work Plan No. Job Title Period Job No. 1 Multispecies Covered: Big Game Investigations Investigations: 8 ----------~--------------------- Big Game Publication Library Services July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Editing and Personnel: M. W. Herschopf, Dr. O. C. Cope, R. B. Gill, A. E. Anderson, D. L. Baker, R. M. Bartmann, T. G. Baumann, G. D. Bear, T. D. I. Beck, Dr. L. H. Carpenter, D. J. Freddy, R. E. Keiss, R. C. Kufeld, P. H. Neil, T. M. Pojar, D. F. Reed, W. H. Rutherford, and T. N. Woodard. ABSTRAcr During the segment 6 Division of Wildlife publications were in various stages of editing and publication. Big Game Research Federal Aid Job Progress Reports for the 1977-78 segment were written edited and printed. Twenty-four publications were purchased and placed on file in the Research Center Library. Twelve theses were ordered, duplicated, and placed on file at the Research Center Library. Approximately 40 copies per Big Game Research scientist were duplicated from various Journals and periodicals and distributed to the requestor. Twentythree literature searches were conducted for various Big Game Researchers upon request. ��-61- BIG GAME PUBLICATION EDITING AND LIBRARY SERVICES R. B. Gill P. N. OBJECTIVE To provide a centralized support program for Big Game Research technical editing and library services so that Big Game Research scientists can allocate additional time to the conduct of actual research. SEGMENT OBJECTIVE To provide coordinated, efficient, and economic editing and library services to all Colorado Big Game Research programs (Federal Aid Project W-126-R). SUMMARY OF SERVICES Publications Submitted for Editing and DOW Publication 1. Bear, G. D. 1978. Evaluation of fertilizer and herbicide applications on two Colorado bighorn sheep winter ranges. Colo. Div. Wildl. Div. Rep. No. 10. 75p. 2. Milchunas, D. G., M. J. Dyer, O. C. Wallmo, and D. E. Johnson. 1978. In vivo/in vitro relationships of Colorado mule deer forages. Colo. Div. Wildl. Spec. Rep. No. 43. 44p. 3. Bear, G. D. 1979. Evaluation of bighorn transplants in two Colorado localities. Colo. Div. Wildl. Spec. Rep. No. 45. In Press. 4. Carpenter, L. H., R. B. Gill, D. J. Freddy, and L. E. Sanders. 1979. Distribution and movements of mule deer in Middle Park, Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Spec. Rep. No. 46 In Press. 5. Kufeld, R. C. 1979. History and current status of the mule deer population on the east side of the Uncompaghre Plateau. Colo. Div. Wildl. Div. Rept. No. 11. In Press. 6. Neil, P. H., T. N. Woodard, and D. L. Baker. 1979. Procedures for rearing wild ruminants in captivity. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Info. Leaflet No. 105. In Press. i �-62- Publications Purchased with W-126-R Funds for Research Center Library Gold, H. J. 1977. Mathematical modeling of biological systems. An introductory guidebook. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York. 357p. Reid, J. T. (Chmn) 1968. Body composition Acad. Sci. Publ. 1598. 521p. in animals and man. Natl. Gill, J. L. 1978. Design and analysis of experiments in the animal and medical sciences. Vol. 1. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA 50010. 409p. Gill, J. L. 1978. Design and analysis of experiments in the animal and medical sciences. Vol. 2. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA 50010. 301p. Gill, J. L. 1978. Design and analysis of experiments in the animal and medical sciences. Vol. 3. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA 50010. 173p. Wang, L. C. H., and J. W. Hudson. (eds.). 1978. Strategies in cold. Academic Press, New York. Natural torpidity and thermogenesis. 715p. Arnold, G. W., and M. L. Dudzinski. 1978. Ethology of free-ranging domestic animals. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam. 198p. International Mountain Goat Symposium. 1977. Proc. 1st Inter. Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana, Feb. 19. W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor (eds.) British Columbia, Fish and Wildl. Branch (Victoria). 243p. Harborne, J. B. 1977. Introduction Press, New York. 243p. to ecological biochemistry. Academic Keeler, R. F. et al., eds. 1978. Effects of poisonous plants on livestock. Joint United States-Australian Symposium on Poisonous Plants, Utah State University, 1977. Academic Press, New York. 600p. Kleiber, M. 1975. The fire of life; an introduction to animal energetics. Rev. ed., Huntingdon, N.Y., Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co. Inc. 453p. Bekoff, M., ed. 1978. Coyotes; biology, Academic Press, N. Y. 384p. Gladfelter, H. L. 1978. by radio telemetry. 23. 27p. behavior, and management. Movement and home range of deer as determined Iowa Consr. Comm., Iowa Wildl. Res. Bull. No. Masters, R., and Northeast Deer Study Group. 1978. Deer trapping, marking and telemetry techniques. State Univ., of N.Y., College of Environmental Science and Forestry. Newcomb, New York. 72p. �-63- Sosebee, R., and H. A. Wright (eds.). 1977. Research highlights brush and weed control; range and wildlife management 1977. Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock, Texas. 54p. noxious V. 8. Clarke, R. T. J., ed. 1977. Microbial ecology of the gut, edited by R. T. J. Clarke and T. Bauchop. Academic Press, New York. 410p. Fletcher, John L. ed. 1978. Effects of noise on wildlife, edited by John L. Fletcher and R. G. Busnel. Academic Press, New York. 305p. Follis, T. B. 1972. Reproduction and hematology of the Cache elk herd. Ph.D. Dissertation, Utah State University. Utah Div. Wildlife Resources. Publ. No. 72-8. 133p. Hutchinson, G. E. 1978. An introduction Univ. Press, New Haven. 260p. Young, E., ed. 1975. Books, Hollywood, to population ecology. The capture and care of wild animals. FL. 224p. Yale Ralph Curtis Gruell, G. E., and L. L. Loope. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Forest Service, U.S.D.A. and National Park Service, U.S. Dept. Interior. 33p. Hanson, H. C. 1962. Dictionary of ecology. (Crown Publishers), New York. 382p. Philosophical Library Martin, R. E., J. E. Dealy, and D. L. Caraher. (eds.) 1977. Proceedings of the western juniper ecology and management workshop, Bend Oregon, January 1977. U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland. U.S. Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report PNW-74. 177p. Schmidt, J. L. (ed.) 1978. Big game of North America; ecology and management, compiled and edited by John L. Schmidt and Douglas L. Gilbert. A Wildlife Management Institute Book, qtackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa. 494p. Theses Ordered, Duplicated, and Placed on File at Research Maloiy, G. M. o. 1968. The physiology the red deer (Cervus elaphus L.). Aberdeen, Scotland. 192p. Center Library of digestion and metabolism in Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Aberdeen, Morton, M. A. 1976. Nutritional values of important mule deer winter forage plants in the Bridger Mountains, Montana. M.S. Thesis, Montana State Univ., Bozeman, Montana. 104p. McBride, R. T. The status and ecology of the mountain concolor stanleyana) of the Texas-Mexico Border. SuI Ross State University. 160p. (1976?) lion (Felis M. S. Thesis, �-64- Simpson, A. M. 1976. A study of the energy metabolism cycles of captive red deer. Ph.D. Thesis. 194p. and seasonal Univ. of Aberdeen. McCollum, M. T. 1973. Habitat utilization and movements of black bears in southwest Oregon. M.S. Thesis, California State University, Humboldt, Arcata. 67p. Moss, H. H. A study of black bear in the San Gabriel Mountains. Thesis, California Polytechnic University, Pomona. 63p. H. S. Olmsted, C. E. III. 1977. The effect of large herbivores on aspen in Rocky Mountain National Park. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder. 141p. Gipson, P. S. 1972. The taxonomy, reproductive biology, food habits and range of wild Canis (Canidae) in Arkansas, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Arkansas. 186p. (Courtesy A. E. Anderson) Humphreys, I. D., III. 1977. Hunter selectivity of mule deer harvested during the San Andreas special season hunts 1973-1976. M.S. Thesis, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. 22p. Lucich, G. C. 1977. Plant taxa eaten by doe and fawn mule deer in northcentral Colorado. M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 35p. Sheehy, D. P. 1975. Relative palatability of seven Artemisia taxa to mule deer and sheep. M.S. Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 147p. Sheriff, S, L. 1978. Computer model for mountain lion populations. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 287p. List of Literature Center Library Searches Performed for Big Game Researchers Bears Black Bears - principally North American references Cervus canadensis Condition factors of deer Parturition of deer, elk and moose Retrospective search on Odocoileus hemionus Deer enclosure studies Alaskan black-tailed deer Deer physical characteristics and condition (6691F) Deer physical characteristics and condition (6691) Coyote Mountain goats Mountain lion, cougar, puma, Felix concolor M.S. by Research �-65- Big game forage requirement in the western U.S Immobilization and tranquilizers for mammals Radio telemetry of wildlife Pinyon-juniper management and mule deer Pinyon-juniper deer habitat Effects of highway, road, and pipeline construction on wildlife Improvement of wildlife habitat by soil fertilization Habitat improvement techniques (015413) Effects of power lines on big game Heart rate and energy expenditure Reprint Duplication In addition to the above listed services, the Research Center Library also duplicated approximately 40 articles per Big Game Research Scientist and technician or approximately 700 total articles for the segment for the Big Game Research Section. Prepared by: R. Bruce Gill Big Game Section Chief ��July, 1979 -67- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~---------- Project No. 2 Work Plan No. Job Title Nutritional Period Covered: Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Job No. Basis for Quantifying July 1, 1 --------------------------------- Capacity of Winter Ranges to Support Deer 1978 to June 30, 1979 Personnel: Len H. Carpenter, D. J. Freddy, Larry L. Strong, Steve C. Torbit, Linda E. Sanders, Linda J. Robinson, Timm J. Kaminski. ABSTRACT Fifteen adult mule deer were divided into 3 groups of 5 deer and subjected to 3 levels of food intake. Weight losses corresponded to decreasing food levels. Deer subjected to the lowest food offering (291 g/day) exhibited severe nutritional stress after 42 days. Urine output was greatest for deer in the low food intake treatment. Determination of daily maintenance energy requirements will be made when laboratory analyses of feed, urine, and fecal samples are completed. ��-69- NUTRITIONAL BASIS FOR QUANTIFYING CAPACITY OF WINTER RANGES TO SUPPORT DEER Len H. Carpenter P. N. OBJECTIVE Develop procedures to support deer. for quantifying the capacity of Middle Park winter ranges SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Estimate energy requirements 2. Estimate energy costs associated 3. Develop sampling methodology for estimating availability of deer forage in winter. annual production 4. Test the efficacy carrying capacity of a computer simulation of winter ranges. model for estimating 5. Estimate requirements protein METHODS of adult mule deer during winter. with selected activities of mule deer. and of mule deer fawns in winter. AND MATERIALS Segment objectives 3 and 5 are being investigated by Larry L. Strong and Steve C. Torbit respectively. Both are graduate students at Colorado State University. Detailed descriptions of methodology and results of their studies will be presented next segment as Graduate of Science Theses. Work on objective two involved publication of previous results. A manuscript entitled "Heart rate as a predictor of energy expenditure of mule deer" has been submitted to the Journal of Wildlife Management. Most of the effort expended by the principal investigator was devoted to segment objective 1. Description of this work follows. Details of simulation modeling will be presented in later segments. Estimating Energy Requirements of Adult Mule Deer in Winter Methodology of this experiment closely followed that of Baker et al. 1979. Fifteen, 18-month-old mule deer were divided into 3 groups of,S deer each. Deer were ranked from lightest to heaviest and randomly allotted into 5 successive trios. This was done to disperse various sizes of deer equally over all treatments. The 3 treatments were feed levels and were as follows: �-70- 1) Ad libitum (as determined from 14 days of intake for all 15 deer), 2) one-half of ad libitum, and 3) one-fourth of ad libitum. The food offered was a concentrate alfalfa pellet (Pawnee Special). Composition analysis of this ration is presented by Baker et al. 1979. Deer were maintained on these feed levels for 10 weeks beginning January 1, and continuing until March 12, 1979. Each deer was randomly assigned to an individual isolation pen for duration of the experiment. Every other week, beginning with the second week of the experiment, one deer (randomly chosen) from each treatment was assigned to a digestion cage for complete nitrogen and energy balance experiments. Two days were for acclimization only and no data (other than intake) were recorded. During the next 5 days all feces and urine were collected daily and intake was continually monitored on a daily basis. Every Monday during the experiment all deer were weighed. All deer were offered snow ad libitum. Quantities of feces and urine were measured and recorded daily, however, weekly outputs were of most interest. Feces weights (wet) were recorded to the nearest gram. A 10 percent aliquot of each day's sample was combined and frozen for future analyses of energy, and protein and dry matter. Daily urine samples for each deer were filtered through cheese cloth, quantity in milliliters determined, and a 10 percent aliquot taken composited and Lab analyses frozen. Urine was acidified with H2S04 during collection. for energy and protein for each urine and fecal sample will be made. In addition, measurements of creatinine will be made on each urine sample. Daily intakes were monitored for each deer by weighing orts. Each deer in a treatment received the same amount of feed daily for the 70-day period. From the 14-day pre-trial period it was determined that mean intake for the 15 deer was 1165 + 64 (SE) g. Consequently deer receiving 50 percent feed level (Treat;ent B) received 583 g daily and deer receiving 25 percent of ad libitum received 291 g each day. The five deer assigned to the ad libitum level were offered 2500 g daily. This was done to compensate for increased intakes that might occur during the 10-week period. Digestible and metabolizeable energy and protein and dry matter digestibility coefficients will be determined for each deer following methods outlined by Baker (1979). Comparisons will be made between body weight losses and creatinine levels in the urine of each deer. Creatinine levels will also be compared to creatinine levels measured in mule deer where body composition using tritiated water has been determined. RESULTS AND .DISCUSSION Much of the laboratory analyses have not been completed of the results will be presented in later segments. consequently most There were no significant differences (P < .05) in weekly intakes among the 5 deer in treatment A during the experiment. Average daily intake for the 5 ad libitum deer were 925.9 + 28.7 (SE) g. This was a 240 g per day decrease as~ompared to pre-trial meas~rements. All deer in Treatments Band C essentially consumed all food offered each day. �-71- All deer in each treatment lost weight during the experiment (Fig. 1). As expected deer in Treatment C lost the most weight. The relatively large weight loss of deer in Treatment A is not fully understood. These deer did decrease their intakes during the course of the experiment. Deer in Treatment C lost weight very quickly and steadily (Fig. 1). Two deer in this group starved to death during the experiment and one was removed from the study and refed and one died one week after the experiment concluded. The first deer starved to death after 7 weeks; the second deer starved after 9 weeks and the third deer was removed from the study after 7 weeks. Removal of these deer from the experiment results in the apparent weight gain in Treatment C deer in Figure 1. Overall the average percent body weight loss for Treatment C deer was 28.1 ± 9.1 (SD) %. Deer in Treatment B lost weight steadily during the experiment but only one deer in this group exceeded a loss of 20 percent of initial body weight. Percent of initial body weight losses for Treatment B deer varied from 3.1 to 21.5 with a mean of 17.1 ± 3.1 (SD). Greater variability was exhibited by deer in Treatment A with regard to body weight changes. All deer lost weight with one deer in this group losing 25.3 percent of initial body weight. Minimum weight loss exhibited by a deer in this group was 8.6 with a mean percent of 14.7 ± 6.5 (SD) occurring for the entire treatment. Weight losses for Treatment A corresponded to weekly intakes. Decrease in intake by the ad libitum deer is not understood but may be due to absence of a roughage to enhance palatability of the concentrate over an extended period of time. Certain differences in daily urine volumes by treatment were recorded. Some problems were encountered by blowing and drifting snow which accumulated on urine trays and inflated daily volumes. This occurred during two days for one deer in Treatment A and one deer in Treatment C The degree of dilution was impossible to determine so no correction of this error was made. Average daily urine volume for Treatment A deer was 976.8 ± 145.7 (SE) mI. Daily urine volumes for Treatments Band C were 725.3 ± 56.5 (SE) and 1607.5 ± 197.1 (SE) ml, respectively. It appears that nutritionally stressed deer increase daily urine output. This could be expected if body catabolism is occurring and body catabolic products must be excreted by the kidneys. Subjectively, Treatment C deer ate more snow each day but it did not appear the difference in snow intake was as great between treatments as was urine output. Perhaps laboratory analyses of protein and creatinine in urine samples will aid interpretation of daily urine volumes. Simulation of Mule Deer Carrying Capacity Much of the simulation modeling work accomplished in this segment was devoted to "tuning" the model specifically to the unique physiological inputs of mule deer. The original ruminant nutritional model constructed by Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory scientists at Colorado State University was constructed largely from literature available regarding domestic ruminants. Several runs were made substituting published values for mule deer forage �-72- intake, forage chemical constitution, forage digestibilities, daily energy budgets, and nitrogen excretion rates to evaluate the model responses. Sensitivity analyses were run to identify the most critical input values. Then adjustments were made in the model so that it more closely simulated deer nutritional physiology. Next segment activities will involve simulating deer nutritional responses to variations in forage intake quantities and qualities. Then empirical experiments will be designed to test the model predictions. LITERATURE CITED Baker, D. L., D. E. Johnson, L. H. Carpenter, O. C. Wallmo, and R. B. Gill. 1979. Energy requirements of mule deer fawns in winter. J. Wildl. Manage. 43(1):162-169. Prepared by: Len H. Carpenter Wildlife Researcher �-73- --15 • _.0.-.,. ............... n · · 0-._.-0Treatment ~ '-'-0... - •z•• \ '\ '\ UI U II:IJII: UI '\ \ -5 D. o, .... \ .... .... ... \ , "'0 '\ '\ - 10 \ ,, 0...... " , Treatment ,, 0, '\ 15 '\ q - C) Z C ,, , z UI \ '0 >Q o A '\ '\ \ '\Treatment 20 '0----0 .... :J: C D "".... , / /'\ \ // o u \ \\ \ 25 \ \ \ \ b 2 pretrial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 trial WEEK Figure 1. Mean weekly weight change (percent) compared to initial weight of adult mule deer on 3 different levels of food intake. 9 10 ��July, -75- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~--~---------- Project No. W-126-R-2 Plan No. 2 Work 1979 Deer-Elk Job No. Investigations 2~ __ ~ _ Job Title __~S~n~o~wm~~o~b~i~l~e~H~a~r~a~s~sm~e~n~t~o~f~M~u~l~e~D~e~e~r~o~n~C~o~l~d~._W~i~n~t~e~r~ _ Period Covered: Personnel: D. Bowden, July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 D. Freddy, L. Sanders. T. Kaminski, W. Bronaugh, L. Robinson, L. Carpenter, ABSTRACT Five wild female deer were trapped and equiped with heart rate telemetry systems. These deer were systematically harassed by people and snowmobiles. Observed reactions of deer will be presented in next segment's report. Heart rate measurements on tame deer at pasture during winter 1978 are being incorporated into a manuscript for publication. Developmental progress and performance of the heart rate system employed in this study have been summarized in a publication to be published in July, 1979. ��-77- SNOWMOBILE HARASSMENT OF MULE DEER ON COLD WINTER RANGES David J. Freddy P. N. OBJECTIVE Evaluate whether snowmobile activity on winter ranges inhabited by deer decreases the ability of deer to survive winter by modifying activities of deer so as to significantly increase energy expended. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Monitor heart rates of deer during various daily activities energy costs of these activities during winter. 2. Ascertain 3. Evaluate observed reactions of deer to harassment in terms of appropriate heart rate measurements and corresponding energy costs. 4. Evaluate the energy cost of harassment to deer in relation estimated energy budget of deer (concurring study). 5. Examine alternatives harassing deer. activities of deer responding to minimize to prescribed potential detrimental to quantify harassment. to a total effects of METHODS AND MATERIALS Five wild female deer, yearling and older, were trapped near the Junction Butte Research Center and equipped with heart rate telemetry systems (see Freddy 1978 for trapping and surgical procedures). Deer were released and heart-rates were monitored opportunistically. These 5 deer along with 4 neck-banded deer were harassed by 1 and 2 persons walking and 1 or 2 snowmobiles moving on prescribed routes. Reactions of these deer were visually and telemetrically monitored from 4 observation huts placed at strategic points on Junction Butte. At least 2 observers monitored deer during harassment bouts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1979 Data from harassment bouts are in the process of computer will be discussed in next segment's report. analysis and �-78- 1978 Heart rate data collected from 3 tame deer at pasture and 2 wild deer is being assimulated into a manuscript for publication. 1977-1979 Developmental progress and performance of the heart rate telemetry system employed in this study has been summarized in the publication: Freddy, D. J. 1979. Measuring heart rates of mule deer using a repeatertype telemetry system. In Proc. Second Intern'l Wildl. Biotelemetry Sym., Laramie, Wyo., July, 1979. In Press. Copies of the manuscript available upon request. LITERATURE CITED Freddy, D. J. 1978. Snowmobile harassment of mule deer on cold winter ranges. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. July, Part 2: 137-144. Prepared by: /' ") -L . " ~(iM--t--ci . ~~ '~T':.(_ti~£'~vDavid J. Freddy Wildlife Researcher 0 �-79- July, 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Job No. 2 3 Deer Investigations--EstimatingParameters of Piceance Basin --------------~~-------nD~e~e~r~P~o~p~u~lra~t~i-o=n~D~y~n~a~m~1'·c-S~------------------ Period Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, T. G. Baumann, Dr. D. C. Bowden, Dr. L. H. Carpenter, W. Erickson, K. Clowser, D. Flenthrope, M. Hamady, E. Killinger, R. Penn, and C. Perron. ABSTRAcr The 1978-79 winter deer census estimate in Unit 22 was 28,994 + 4,788 deer (90 percent confidence level) compared to the predicted p~pulation of 36,993. The buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios were estimated by two methods; one was the regular non-random procedure and the other a stratified random quadrat technique. Resultant ratios for both methods were similar, but the quadrat method allowed placement of confidence limits about the estimated ratios which, at the .10 level, were for the buck:doe, 13.3:100 2.6, and for the fawn:doe, 58.2:100 5.2. Adjustment of the fawn:doe ratio for antlerless harvest yields a pre-season ratio of 55:100. The 1978-79 winter was comparable in severity to the 1972-73 winter. As a res1llt, estimated deer winter mortality was also similar, 44 percent compared to 41 percent for 1972-73. The estimated deer loss was 16,233 ± 3,990 (90 percent confidence level) and was comprised of 11,302 fawns, 4,459 adult does and 571 adult bucks. The 1978 deer harvest for all seasons was 9,277. Of 5,500 either-sex permits available for Unit 22, only 3,388 were issued. ± _ ± ��-81- ESTIMATING PICEANCE DEER STUDY PARAMETERS OF POPULATION DYNAMICS R. M. Bartmann P. N. OBJECTIVE To develop and test a method for estimating deer populations in the Piceance Basin density of over-winter mule SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To analyze and publish results of deer distribution studies. 2. To estimate the size of the wintering Management Unit 22. deer population in Game 3. To estimate the sex and age structure in Game Management Unit 22. of the wintering deer population 4. To estimate the annual productivity 5. To estimate the annual winter mortality 6. To estimate annual hunter harvest of the Piceance deer population. of the Piceance of the Piceance deer population. deer population. METHODS AND MATERIALS Deer Density See Bartmann Population (1974a). Structure The 1978 post-season deer sex and age structure data were collected by two procedures. One was the previously used non-random method whereby number of deer classified was maximized by spending most of the flight time over flying higher deer density areas (Bartmann 1974a). The second method entailed classifying deer on mile2 (2.6 km2) quadrats located in a stratified random manner in Game Management Unit 22. The expected deer distribution for early December was delineated on a map of the Piceance Basin. The total area was then divided into high and low density areas based on expected deer densities. The high density area, containing 2 532-miles2 (1378 km2) was arbitrarily divided into 5, 106 or 107-mile (275 or 277 km2) strata. The low density area, containing 283-miles2 (733 km2) was divided into 3, 94 or 95-mile2 (244 or 246 km2) strata. �-82- 2 2 Six mile (2.6 km ) quadrats were randomly selected from each of the 8 strata for a total of 48 quadrats. The only restriction was that no 2 quadrats could be contiguous along their sides although corners of diagonally adjacent quadrats could touch. Quadrat boundaries were drawn on aerial photos which were used to locate and define quadrats during the classifications. Productivity See Bartmann (1975). Winter Mortality See Bartmann (1974a and 1975). Hunter Harvest See Bartmann (1974b). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Publication of Deer Distribution Work Attempts to summarize the deer distribution and banding data have been unproductive due to the limited amount of time that could be devoted to this job. Plans are to publish these data in a Division Special Report. Deer Density The 1978-79 winter deer census was made January 3-5, Deep snow accumulated during December causing rapid changes in deer distribution and, consequently, an earlier than usual census. A Hiller 12EJ3 helicopter with a Soloy turbine conversion was used with Dr. Len H. Carpenter again serving as second observer. 2 2 The 1,304 deer counted converts to 43.6 deer/mile (2.6 km ) or 28,994 ± 4,788 total deer (90 percent confidence level) on the Piceance winter range (Table 1). This figure is considerably lower than the 36,993 deer population that was predicted (Table 2). As usual, several possible reasons can be offered for the discrepancies. some of which are inherent in the sampling design. In addition, there seemed a reluctance by deer to run from the helicopter as they did in past years. This was also noticed during the post-season classifications in mid-December. Whether or not this condition actually existed and what effects it may have had on Ithe count is only speculation. Another consideration is that there may be an upper limit of deer density at which counting efficiency begins to decrease. Unless the 1977-78 population estimate was too high, there �-83- Table 1. Number of deer counted on 120 \-mile2 (0.6 km2) quadrats on the Piceance winter range in Game Management Unit 22, January 3-5, 1979. Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer Quad. Deer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 19 24 25 13 13 14 19 7 0 1 0 19 0 8 19 19 32 28 29 33 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 30 29 8 20 13 27 1 4 5 6 0 0 20 0 29 8 6 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 7 12 3 0 0 0 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 5 0 31 33 9 54 19 21 0 10 15 0 3 3 0 7 6 12 0 38 5 0 0 3 0 0 0 14 15 19 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 llO 111 112 ll3 ll4 115 116 ll7 ll8 119 120 13 2 3 15 8 4 4 0 0 0 16 13 10 6 3 4 0 0 1 1 36 3 2 22 7 4 47 1 19 17 II 9 30 14 40 24 33 0 0 6 n = 120 90% Confidence Interval IX = 1,304 x 10.9 10.9 ± (1.658) (1.09) = 10.9 + 1.8 s sx 11.98 Total POEulation 1.09 C.Il.= llO% 28,994 ± 4,788 Estimate �-84- Table 2. Calculations to predict Game Management Unit 22. the 1978-79 winter deer population in Bucks Does Fawns Total 3,206 18,956 12,684 34,846 96 476 1,237 1,809 1978 summer population 3,110 18,480 11 ,447 33,037 Fawns apportioned 5,723 5,724 8,833 24,204 Est. 1977-78 winter pop. Est. 1977-78 winter mortality Adjusted 50:50 1978 summer pop. 1978 fawn prod. est. (55 fawns:100 does) Predicted 13,233 pop. 8,833 24,204 13,233 46,270 estimate 7,478 1,648 151 9,277 1,355 22,556 13,082 36,993 2,811 21,641 12,541 36,993 1978 pre-season 1978 harvest 33,037 1978-79 winter pop. Predicted population corrected for 1978 post-season buck:doe:fawn ratio (13:100:58) �-85- seem no logical reasons for the population not to have increased over the past year. Thus the predicted population figure seems the most appropriate to use for the present. Population Structure The two classification methods yielded similiar fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios (Table 3). Nearly 50 percent more deer were classified/hour with the non-random method, but this was partly due to spending a greater proportion of time in higher deer density areas plus being able to classify deer continually without the "dead" time needed to fly between quadrats. If only the time spent classifying deer on quadrats is considered, the number of deer classified/hour is more equitable between the two methods. The main advantages of the quadrat method is the ability to place confidence limits about the estimated ratios, and the applicability of the data to the entire deer population, including unsampled individuals. Precision of the fawn:doe and buck:doe ratios at the 90 percent confidence level was + 9 and + 20 percent, respectively. This is close to that achieved by Freddy-(1977) (+ 10 and + 21 percent, respectively) when he sampled a 791-mile2 (2049 k;2) area in the Piceance Basin with 9 strata and 3 mile2 (2.6 km2) quadrats per stratum. That he achieved similar precision with 21 fewer quanrats may reflect the difference in deer distribution the two years. :Because deer distribution during the 1978 classifications was adversely affected by early deep snow, the comparison will be repeated in 1979. Productivity The 1978 deer season in Unit 22 included issuance of 3,388 of 5,500 available either-sex permits. The Game Management Section's random harvest survey results for all seasons show 1,648 does and 151 fawns harvested. These figures include an arbitrary inflation of 25 percent to acknowledge wounding loss and illegal kill. The post-season fawn:doe ratio of 58:100 was then adjusted to provide a pre-season ratio of 55:100 for a pre-season production of 13,233 fawns. Winter Mortality The severity of the 1978-79 winter was similar to that of 1972-73. Snow began accumulating in early December, and low temperatures prevented much melting and settling of the snowpa~k. The mean snow depth at the Little Hills Station for December through February of 15.6 (39.6 cm) inches was 2.8 (7.1 cm) inches greater than for the same period in 1972-73, but the mean temperature, 23.6°F, was 2.30F higher. The �-86- Table 3. Comparison of non-random and stratified random quadrat methods for estimating the sex and age structure of the mule deer population in Game Management Unit 22, December, 1978. Method Non-random Parameter Total fyling time Total deer classified Deer classified per hour 9.3 hours Stratified Random Quadrats 15.0 hours 1,193 1,292 128 86 12 minutes Mean time per quadrat Total bucks 87 100 Total does 697 750 Total fawns 409 442 Buck:doe ratio 12.5:100 13.3:100 + Fawn:doe ratio 58.7:100 58.2:100 + 5.2 2.6J (P < .10) �-87- severity of the winter is reflected in the mortality data with 172 deer found on the 56 ~ x ~-mile (0.6 x 1.3-km) sample units. This computes to a mean 3.07 deer/sample unit or 16,233 ± 3,990 total dead deer (90 percent confidence level) on the winter range. Precision of the estimate is + 24 percent which is the best achieved to date. Age and sex composition of the carcasses found with unknowns apportioned among the categories is 69 percent fawns, 27 percent adult does and 4 percent adult bucks. This compares closely with the 1973 percentages of 70, 25 and 5 for the same classes, respectively. Numerical breakdown of the 1978-79 mortality is 11,302 fawns, 4, 459 adult does and 571 adult bucks. This is a 44 percent reduction of the 36,993 predicted winter population. Hunter Harvest The 1978 regular deer season structure was the same as in 1977. A 5-day deer-only season ran October 14-18 and an II-day combined deer-elk season ran November 4-14. A post-season was held December 2-6 for holders of unfilled either-sex permits for Unit 22. Of 5,500 permits available, 2,200 were for the separate season and 3,300 for the combined season. Only, 2,038 separate season and 1,350 combined season permits were actually issued. The archery season, September 2-24 and the muzzleloader season, September 9-17 were both either-sex. An estimated 9,277 total deer were harvested during all seasons (Table 4). As usual, the report of the 1978 check station results is inconsistent with previous years. Information from all check stations operated in 1978 is lumped together and age class data by sex are not separated for the Idaho Springs station. Predicted yearling percentages of bucks and does in the adult pre-season population were 65 and 24, respectively. Percentages from pooled check station data are similar, 59 and 22, respectively (Table 5). LITERATURE CITED Bartmann, R. M. 1974a. Piceance deer study-population density and structure. P. 363-370. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):185-398. (Proc.). Bartmann, R. M. 1974b. Piceance deer study-productivity and mortality. P. 371-380. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):185-398. (Proc.) Bartmann, R. M. 1975. Piceance deer study-productivity and mortality. P. 371-380. In Game Research Report. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):195-504. (Proc.). Freddy, D. J. 1978. Experimental deer inventory-Piceance Basin-Northwest Region. P. 245-263. In Game Research Report, Colo. Div. of Wildl., Denver. 3(Part 2):137-298. (Proc.). ,,/l- Prepared . /J by:/C-.---1. J •.•. l..-<4:' 1>-1~)/.:~{,rYu';.v ..... 'i Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �-88- Table 4. Summary of the 1978 deer harvest II in Unit 22 for all seasons.- Bucks Does Season Adult Fawns Archery 15 0 Muzzle-loader 26 Antlered-only E·lt h er-sex-21 Adult Fawns Total 0 0 15 0 23 0 49 3,011 0 0 0 3,011 669 26 996 54 1,745 Antlered-only 3,111 0 0 0 3,111 E·lt h er-sex-2/ 646 22 629 49 1,346 7,478 48 1,648 103 9,277 Separate Combined All 1/All figures wounding include an arbitrary loss and illegal kill. inflation liThe separate and combined season either-sex kill data from the December post-season. Table 5. Deer check station results seasons in Game Management Unit 22. of 25 percent harvest to acknowledge estimates for the 1978 separate also contain and combined Sex Mature Yearling Fawn Unknown Total Male 252 369 61 181 863 Female 292 83 39 77 491 �GAME MANAGEMENT UNIT 22 ~-....• -PICEANCE- ~ ,i1= I· , ~ \ . • \.e..c. { ~\\ ,- 7 Fig. 1. Locations of two general study areas on the Piceance juniper-pinyon-shrubland winter range for conducting mule deer winter forage selection trials. I 00 \0 I ��-91- July, 1979 JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. W-126-R-2 Big Game Investigations 4 2 Work Plan No. Job No. Deer Investigations--Food Habits Technique Development Job Title __~a~n~d~~F~o~r~a~gce~P~r~e~f~e~r~e~n~c~e~s~o~f~M~u~1~e~D==e~e~r~i~n~t~h~e~P~i~c~e~a~n _ --------------------------------- Period Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: R. M. Bartmann, T. G. Baumann, Dr. D. C. Bowden, G. Bryant, J. Cribari, W. Erickson, and L. Logren. ABSTRACT Forage selections of 2 groups of tame mule deer were made on 2 winter ranges: sagebrush steppe and juniper-pinyon-shrubland. The results are being prepared for publication in the Journal of Range Management. Five series of deer grazing trials were conducted from October, 1978 through April, 1979 on the Piceance juniper-pinyon-shrubland winter range. Forage samples were collected for. all species comprising 2 percent or more of the total bites during each period on each study area for bite/weight conversions and nutritional analyses. The grazing data are still being prepared for computer summarization. ��-93- • DEER INVESTIGATIONSFOOD HABITS TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT AND FORAGE PREFERENCES OF MULE DEER IN THE PICEANCE BASIN R. M. Bartmann P. N. OBJECTIVE To evaluate possible bias in the use of tame deer in forage preference studies and to estimate forage preferences of mule deer on pinyon-juniper winter range in the Piceance Basin. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Analyze data from previous food habits techniques and publish pertinent results. development 2. Prepare a detailed forage preferences 3. Maintain 4. Select specific 5. Prepare 6. Conduct deer foraging 7. Rate forage availability 8. Test necessity 9. Conduct deer grazing comparison trials to evaluate nutritional background on forage selections. 10. Tabulate work study plan for estimating fall-winter-spring of deer in the Piceance Basin. and train tame deer. sites for food habits sampling. an herbarium of plants from the Piceance Basin. trials. during deer foraging of converting data and prepare trials. bite data to a weight basis. annual progress influence of report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Tame Deer Grazing Evaluations Two groups of tame mule deer were hand-raised and maintained at Division facilities near Kremmling and at the Little Hills Game Experiment Station near Meeker. The former area is a sagebrush steppe winter range and the latter a juniper-pinyon-shrubland winter range. Neither deer group had any previous foraging experience on the other's area. Comparisons of • �-94- the forage selections of both groups on both areas were made in October, 1978. A paper covering the results of this work is being prepared for publication in the Journal of Range Management. Plant Collections Only token plant collecting was done in 1978 but this work is being continued by a temporary employee in 1979. Emphasis is being placed on collecting and identifying unknown species eaten by tame deer during winter grazing trials and getting better specimens of some species previously collected as well as collecting any new species encountered. While over 150 plants have already been collected and tentatively identified, identifications have not been verified nor have herbarium mounts been prepared. Scientific names are being standardized with those available through the computerized Plant Information Network at Colorado State University. Tame Mule Deer Maintenance and Training Based on previous tame deer grazing evaluations at Little Hills, it was decided that maximum exposure of deer to be used for grazing studies to native forage was preferred to artificial feeding in a pen. Consequently, all the deer were moved to an approximate 100 acre (41 ha) pasture in April, 1978. They were kept there, except during grazing trials, until the 1978 hunting seasons when they were moved back to the pens at the Little Hills headquarters for safety reasons. In mid-December they were returned to another 140 acre (57 ha) pasture where they were kept the rest of the winter when not being used in grazing trials. After the last trials in April, 1979, they were moved back to the original pasture for the rest of the summer. While in the pastures, the deer were supplied small amounts of alfalfa hay and concentrate feed to enable checking their condition each day and to keep thenl used to loading in a truck. Mule Deer Forage Selections on Winter Range Forage selections of tame mule deer were recorded during 5 periods on 2 study areas during the 1978-79 winter. Grazing periods coincided with deer occurrence on various portions of the winter range from early October through April. A sixth scheduled grazing period in early January was cancelled for logistical reasons. The winter range portion sampled each month is shown below: Month Oct. Nov. Winter range portion sampled High Mid Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Low Low Mid High �-95- This plan was not strictly adhered to this past winter due to the late spring and persistent snow cover which affected deer distribution. Thus, March trials were held on low elevation winter range and April trials on mid-elevation winter range. Two major habitat sub-divisions of the Piceance juniper-pinyon-shrubland winter range were recognized: juniper-pinyon-mixed browse and juniper2 pinyon-sagebrush. A general study area of 55 to 65 miles2 (142 to 168 km ) for each was delineated and grazing trials were conducted both places during each grazing period (Fig.l). Two observers and 8 tame mule deer were used to conduct grazing trials. A grazing trial is defined as I observer following 1 deer for I to 1Yz hours and recording the number of bites by species and plant parts taken. All 8 deer were observed each day for 3 days for a total of 24 trials per study area. A different grazing site was used each day to expose the deer to a variety of vegetation and terrain features. Sites were spaced Yz to I mile (0.8 to 1.6 km) apart. During the trials, the deer were kept overnight, and during the day when not being grazed, in temporary pens 24 x 24 feet (7.3 x 7.3m) constructed on each site of 8 x 8 foot (2.4 x 2.4m) game damage panels. Water was always available and a small quantity of alfalfa hay and concentrate feed was provided each night. The deer were allowed 1 day to familiarize themselves with an area before the start of grazing trials. For grazing observations, the deer were released in groups of 4 but only 2 were observed. Four trials were held in the morning and 4 in the afternoon. The first group of deer was started in a random direction from the pen and allowed to roam and forage at will. Their direction of travel was influenced only if they started following roads or trails or tried to return to the pen prematurely. Each succeding deer group was started in a direction 900 clockwise from the preceding one. After all deer had been observed, they were walked to the next site and penned overnight. Procedures were repeated the following 2 days after which the deer and pens were moved to the second study area and the entire process repeated. Individual deer were alternated between observers and time of day observed. The sequence of study areas was also alternated between grazing periods. An extra deer that was raised and trained with the others was included in the grazing trials. This deer was substituted on several occasions for other deer with injuries. After completion of trials on each study area, the major forage species, on a bite basis, were determined and those comprising 2 percent of more of the total bites were collected for bite-weight conversions. A minimum of 25 simulated "deer bites" per species was handpicked, oven-dried at 1050C for 24 hours, and weighed to the nearest 0.0001 gram. Conversion factors for species not collected were based on those for similar forages. Twenty-five to 50-gram (dry weight) samples of forages comprising 2 percent or more of the total bites were collected on each study area for estimation of crude protein content in vitro dry matter digestibility . • �-96- Samples were comprised of plant portions eaten by the deer. Samples were stored in moisture-proof bags in a freezer until they could be oven-dried at 600C for 24 hours and ground and stored in glass jars. Forage availability is largely a function of plant density, stage of development, growing conditions and, most importantly in winter, snow cover. Since even a small change in snow depth can affect the relative availability of species, it was deemed most practical to use a subjective rating system at the time grazing trials were conducted. The availability ratings of abundant, locally abundant, common, and locally common follow those of Neff (1974) except "uncommon" was substituted for his term "rare". RESULTS Mule Deer Forage Selections on Winter Range Results of the 1978-79 winter deer grazing trials are currently being summarized. The computer program used to summarize the elk grazing data from Work Plan 3, Job I is being modified to handle the Piceance data. A trial run of the October grazing data is being made to check the revised program but is not yet completed. Bite/weight conversion factors have been calculated but cannot be applied until the computer summaries are available. LITERATURE CITED Neff, D. J. 1974. Forage preferences of trained mule deer on the Beaver Creek watersheds. Arizona Game and Fish Dept. Spec. Rept. No.4. 61p. /'J Prepared by: -e • /&-t {..(~ .•.•...•• q{ .J) '( .f;;:Z~~. _. Richard M. Bartmann Wildlife Researcher �GAME M~.NAGEMENT UNIT 22 -PICEANCE- "... 9---.l..-J_' "._~...••• 1IrDi'::'.::1ime.~ •••• \ "-'--"" IF.I< r i~ ;JJ . _,I( i r .~ .~ ~ I I. .~~l I' . J ',/( ,-I u' J~. ".'\ t;\ I~'"\' _ I r /'/~__,_, (/) 1" r ~'" \ " ) .1 \ --- \! .i->: -(/ ,~ \. \ I 1('\. V/~ Fi~. 1. Locations of two general study areas on the Piceance winter ran~e for conducting mule deer winter forage selection "---'.;;;0-)\' juniper-pinyon-shruhland trials. I \0 --.J I ��July, 1979 -99- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Covered: REPORT W-126-R-2 Deer Investigations 2 Experimental Job No. Deer Inventory 5 (1st year) Northeast - Northeast Region Region June 30, 1978 - July 1. 1979 Personnel: Allen Anderson, A. William Alldredge, Jay Bucholz, Vera Chen, Alexis Duxbury, James Enote, Cheryl Fimbel, Randy Fischer, Vicki Jameson, Gene Schoonveld. ABSTRACf Based on counts of pellet groups on 40, permanent, randomly selected, 107.64 ft2 (10 m2) circular plots within each of 25 stratified, pro~ortionallY allocated and randomly selected square miles (2.59 km2) from 310 mi (802.9 km2) of G.M.D. 20 winter range; mean densities with 95 ~ercent confidence limits were 17.37 < 31.26 < 45.15 deer per mile2 (2.59 km) and .30 < 4.12 < 7.94 elk per mile2 (2.59-km2) from September 11, 1978 to May 30, 1979. Minimum mean densities with 95 percent confidence limits derived from direct counts of mule deer and elk on 93, stratified, proportionally allocated, and randomly selected ~-mile2 (.648 km2) quadrats were 8.03 < 13.52 < 18.93 deer per mile2 (2.59 km2) and .12 < 1.53 < 5,46 elk per mile2 (2.59 kmL), respectively, from February 21, 1979 t~ April-7, 1979. Buck:doe ratios (+ SE) and fawn:doe ratios (± SE) sampled on 20, all-day walking routes by-2 observers per route, November 21, 1978 to December 22, 1978; were .2241 + .0371 (N=874) and .4860 + .0282 (N=1061), respectively. From 1976 to-1978 there was a significant (P < 0~10) increase in both the buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios but no significant (P < 0.10) change in either ratio from 1977 to 1978. Sample sizes for these statistics were estimated to be with X percent and at the cited probability level as follows: counts of pellet groups-deer, + 20 percent at P < 0.20 and elk, grossly inadequate; minimum density quadrat ~ounts-deer, approached + 20 percent at P < 0.20, and elk, + 100 percent at P < 0.10; buck:doe rati~s, approached 20 percent at P < 0.20-and fawn:doe ratios + 10 percent at P < 0.10. ��-101- EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY Northeast Region Allen E. Anderson and David C. Bowden P. N. OBJECTIVE To design appropriate sampling and analytical procedures necessary to reliably estimate deer numbers and buck:doe:fawn ratios on winter range based on a preliminary sampling of a problem management unit within each of the four administrative regions of the state. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate densities of deer pellet groups, or where domestic sheep may occur, helicopter counts of deer on the entire winter range of one Game Management Unit within each of the four administrative regions. 2. To establish permanent pellet group plot locations according to a sampling scheme capable of efficiently estimating mean deer numbers + 15% at a = 0.05. 3. To sample buck:doe:fawn ratios on 12 or more randomly walking routes on the winter range of Game Management selected administrative regions. selected, all-day, Units within This report is concerned only with the preliminary sampling of deer and elk pellet groups, the minimum bound estimate of deer numbers, and buck:doe and fawn ratios on the winter range of Game Management Unit (G.M.U.) 20 within the Big Thompson and North St. Vrain river drainages. METHODS AND MATERIALS Counts of Pellet Groups Field work during 1976 and 1977, analyses of resultant data, and some empirical decisions formed the bases for the sampling plan adopted for installation of permanent pellet group plots (Anderson 1977, Anderson and Bowden 1978). The sampling plan can be characterized as stratified multistage as follows. and 2 The primary sampling units (square mile, 2.59 krn ) were proportionally allocated among 11 blocks or strata and selected by simple random sampling within the strata (Fig. 1). The subsampling plan was plotted to scale on both topographic maps and on aerial photos. First, the initial reference �-102- point was selected, this was generally the most accessible surveyed and marked section corner. Each square mile (2.59 km2) was systematically subsampled by random placement of the first transect (1 mile, 1.6094 km in/length) within the first 0.1 mile (0.16 km) from the survey marker. Nine additional transects were systematically located from the first transect at 0.1 mile (0.16 km) intervals. Transects traversed the square mile (7..59 km2) sample unit in that cardinal direction which would place most transects approximately perpendicular to the contour lines. The transects were numbered from 1 to 10 in sequence. The transects 1 and 5, 2 and 6, etc., which were one-half mile (0.8 km) apart were considered pairs. From the 5 pairs of transects 1 pair was randomly selected. Along each transect of this pair, there was a random placement of 10 consective plots spaced 66 ft (20.1 m) and separated by 1,980 ft (603.5 m) from 2 another set of 10 plots also spaced at 66 ft (20.1 m). In effect, each ~mile (.648 km2) of each square mile (2.59 km2) was sampled by 10 plots. Plots were 107.64 ft2 (10 m2) in area, circular, with their centers marked by numbered, angle-iron stakes painted glossy blue over silver rust preventative. A representative sample of the subsampling scheme is shown in Fig. 2. We used xerox copies of the subsampling plan on the topographic maps and aerial photos as aids in the installation of 40 plots on each of 26 randomly selected square miles (2.59 km2). The 1,040 sample plots were established from May 24 to September 10, 1978 by 2, 2-person crews using 2 chain topographic steel tapes with trailer, abney levels, surveyor's pins and Silva Type 15+ hand-held compasses. In general, each sample unit required about 2 days or 8 person days to complete. Surveyor's staff compasses were used initially but proved to be too slow and sensitive to deflection by fences, ore deposits, and power lines. Transects 10 chain-segments, individual plots, and routes to transects and segments were marked for relocation by nailing 4 inch x 4 inch (10.2 cm x 10.2 cm) galvanized metal markers and tying surveyor's tape to trees, logs or bushes. Where permissible, steel fence posts were used as transect or segment markers. Deer and elk pellet groups were counted and removed from the sample plots, September 11 to November 8, 1978 by two, 2-person crews following specific definitions and procedures (Appendix A). We attempted a total pellet group individual pellet removal by sifting through the litter layer to mineral soil. On a few plots, the depth and composition of the litter made this procedure impractical. Each sample plot was assigned to one of 28 habitats (Appendix B). The general criteria for vegetation was the dominant and codominant species within 30 ft (9.14 m) of the plot stake, All data were punched directly on data processing cards using IBM PORT-A-PUNCH boards (Patton and Casner 1970). Deer and elk pellet groups were counted and removed from the permanent plots April 24 to May 30, 1979. Data were recorded on a prepared form (Appendix C). After one day of training with emphasis on differentiating between deer and elk pellet groups, the counts were conducted over two time periods; about one-half of the sample was completed on each stratum by May 10 (replication 1) and the remaining by May 30 (replication 2). Sample units �-103- and individuals for each 2 person crew were randomly selected. However, series of snows mainly at the higher elevations made a shambles of the stipulated random order during both replications. a Minimum Bound Estimate This estimate is based on the actual number of deer and elk counted by two observers on ~ mile2 (.648 km2) quadrats and was first used on the Cache la Poudre river drainage winter range (Bowden and Anderson 1975, Bowden and Anderson 1976). Since standard errors thereon approximated 9.4 and 20.8 percent of their mean values and the means appeared empirically reasonable, this procedure was employed on the same sampling universe as the pellet group counts to provide an additional independent estimate of deer and elk numbers. Field work by 2 observers extended from February 21, to April 7, 1979. It was initially estimated that the 2ime available would permit a total sample of about 90, ~ mile2 (.648 km ) quadrats from the 1,236 quadrats present. Within each of 11 strata, there was a simple random selection of quadrats following classification and a separate and sequential numbering of quadrats believed to support relatively "low" or "high" numbers of wintering deer. The number of quadrats selected was a proportional allocation within and among strata of "low" and "high" quadrats but with not less than 2 quadrats of each deer density classification per stratum. A total of 93 quadrats were selected for sampling; 66 of which were judged as supporting "low" and 27 "high" numbers of deer. Quadrat distribution is shown in Fig. 3. These were segregated into 24 groups, with 2-5 proximate quadrats per group. The groups were numbered and sampled in a random order at the approximate rate of one group per day. Generally, sampling began at daylight and ended at dusk. The actual search procedure for deer by 2 observers was influenced by the topography, prevailing wind, snow conditions, accessibility, and the amount and spatial distribution of negative cover characteristic of each quadrat. Prior to search and within the vicinity of the quadrat we used cutants from a topographic map of the quadrat to decide on the search strategy. In general, we traversed each quadrat by walking or snowshoeing as completely as possible using binoculars from ridgetops, outcrops or other vantage points. Search time ranged from about 45 minutes to 3 hours. We recorded the time of each observation but made no attempt to record age or sex of either deer or elk on the herd structure from (Appendix D). Mule Deer Herd Structure Field and analytical procedures used to estimate buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios on 20 all-day walking routes with 2 observers have been described (Anderson 1977, Anderson and Bowden 1978) as well as the procedures to 1 The 1 square mile difference in the 2 procedures inadvertent omission of an isolated square mile. was due to the �-104- randomly select the locale of each route (Fig. 4) (Anderson 1977:233). A representative route is shown in Fig. 5 to reiterate one important procedure; two methods were used in deer classification and entered separately on prepared forms (Appendix D). Method I included both unclassified single deer and groups in which one or more individuals could not be classified as an antlered buck, doe, or a fawn of the current year and unspecified sex. Method 2 included only classified single deer and those groups in which all deer could be so classified. We used a modification (Appendix E) of the criteria proposed by Dasmann and Taber (1956) to help identify sex and age classes. Just prior to actual sampling, observers spent one deer making and comparing simultaneous independent classifications of the same groups of mule deer. Approximately 50 groups of mule deer were classified in these training excursions. RESULTS Counts of Deer and Elk Pellet Groups Deer and elk pellet groups counted and removed during plot establishment in 1978 on each of 26 sample units are described statistically for all habitats combined (Appendix F), by individual habitats (Appendix G) and for those 10 habitats sampled by 30 or more plots (Table 1). These data provide a gross index to relative numbers of deer and elk among sample units in the recent post. The utility of the cumulative mean pellet groups-habitat relationship is tenuous beyond the observation that up to eightfold differences between habitats are associated wtih the large variances characteristic of most sample units. Up to 53 deer pellet groups were counted and removed from a single plot and 177 groups from a 10 plot segment. The basic statistics and pellet groups derived estimate of deer and elk density and sample size requirements are given in Table 2 and 3, respectively. Note tbat about 132 mile2 (341.9 km2) of G.M.U. 20 winter range was excluded from this sample, hence these estimates are not valid for the entire winter range. The mean density with 95% confidence limits of 17.37 < 31.26 < 45.15 deer per square mile (2.59 km2) applies then, to about 70 per~ent of the winter range. Due to a couple of 10-plot segments with very high counts of deer pellet groups, variances were very large within strata 5, 6, and 9 (Table 2); hence the wide confidence interval and large estimated sample sizes. Thus, the current sample size suggests that the above mean estimate is only within about 20 percent of the true mean at P = 20. The mean density with 95% confidence limits of 0.30 < ~.12 < 7.94 elk per square mile (~.59 km2) (Table 3) is even more vari~ble. Estimated sample size requirements for estimating elk densities are essentially unattainable at any level of preC1Slon. It may now be possible with a better knowledge of relative elk distribution and density to devise a sampling scheme which would yield useful levels of variance. �-105- Table 1. Summary of pellet group counts on G.M.U. 20 winter range occurring within 28 habitats on 26 randomly-selected square miles. Only those habitats sampled by 30 or more plots are included. Winter Range Habitat Open ponderosa Ponderosa (G.M.U. 20) pine pine-Douglas Douglas fir Douglas fir-ponderosa fir pine 1/ Elk-V Mean SD No. Plots Deer-Mean SD 246 4.2 6.00 .28 .73 167 2.5 3.49 .32 .68 38 2.1 4.50 .10 .31 140 2.2 3.40 .18 .47 Open lodgepole pine 39 1.3 2.60 .70 1. 17 Dense lodgepole pine 42 0.5 0.97 .61 1.03 fir 47 2.3 4.30 .66 1.24 sage 115 0.9 2.00 .11 .60 mahogany-bitterbrush 89 3.6 6.50 0 0 54 0.2 0.70 0 0 Lodgepole pine-Douglas Dry meadow with fringed Mountain Rock outcrops 1/ . . - Includes both "old" and "new" pellet groups (Appendlx A) counted establishment, September 11 to November 8, 1978. on plot �-106- 2 Table 2. Estimated densities of deer on 310 square miles (802.9 km ) of G.M.U. 20 winter range based on counts of deer pellet groups on 40 permanent randomly located 107.64 ft2 (10 m2) circular plots within each of 26 stratified, proportionally allocated and randomly selected square miles (2.59 km2). !/ Stratum No. SamEle Units Total Selected Mean Pellet Groups Per 10 Plots Per Day Variance 00-5) Coefficient Variation (%) 1 26 2 .0077305 6.090106 101 2 25 2 .0119177 4.923084 59 3 34 3 .0108380 3.317595 53 4 28 2 .0029583 0.280987 57 5 29 2 .0191740 73.528455 141 6 30 3 .0228510 27.260672 72 7 30 3 .0127344 15.511025 98 8 28 2 .0226472 11.572833 48 9 32 3 .0266496 26.812108 61 10 22 2 .0195380 13.883112 60 11 26 2 .0143766 0.447872 15 310 26 .015691 Deer Per Square Mile (2.59 Mean 31. 26 SE 5.00 CV (%) 16.0 95% Conf. Limit km2)11 17.37 - 45.15 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-107- 2 Table 2. Estimated densities of deer on 310 square miles (802.9 km ) of G.M.U. 20 winter range bas d on counts of deer pellet groups on 40 permanent randoNly located 107.64 ft (10 m2) circular plots within each of 26 stratified, 2 proportionally allocated and randomly selected square miles (2.59 km ). II (Continued). 1 Estimates 2 2 of Sample Size (No. Mile - 2.59 km ) R'equlrements- 31 d 1 Percent .95 .90 .80 5 259 237 200 10 163 132 93 15 101 76 50 20 66 48 30 25 46 32 20 liThe pellet group deposition period ranged from September 11, 1978 to May 30, 1979, with intervals between counts of 104, 10-plot segments of 168 to 282 days. Hence, the necessity for the mean pellet groups per 10 plots per day statistic. llBased on a mean defecation rate of 13.0 groups per deer per day as generalized from information in Neff (1968). l/With 15 degrees of freedom and present allocation proportions 6 �-108- 2 Table 3. Estimated densities of elk on 310 square miles (802.9 km ) of G.M.U. 20 winter range based on counts of elk pellet groups on 40 permanent, randomly located 107.64 ft2 (10 m2) circular plots within each of stratified, proportionally allocated and randomly selected square miles (2.59 km2). Stratum Mean Pellet Groups Per 10 Plots Per Day No. Sampled Units Total Selected Variance (10 1 26 2 5.0955 5.192824 2 25 2 2.0905 0.15824 3 34 3 2.7105 0.00530 4 28 2 0.6155 0.07576 5 29 2 1.3733 0.56581 6 30 3 1.8583 0.29329 7 30 3 5.5685 4.05090 8 28 2 0 0 9 32 3 .6250 .07812 10 22 2 0 0 11 26 2 .0020681 310 26 Elk Per Square Mile Estimates Percent 2 (2.59 km ) Mean 4.12 SE 1.20 CV (%) 29.1 95% Conf. Limit -5) .30 - 7.94 2 of Sample Size (No. Mile 1 a 95 90 2 - 2.59 km ) Reguirements 80 5 310 310 301 10 299 271 223 15 259 216 155 20 218 168 109 25 181 131 79 l/See Table 2 for explanation 2/Based on a mean defecation rate of 12.0 groups per elk per day as generalized from information in (Neff 1968). �-109- Minimum Bound Estimate Estimated minimum numbers of mule deer and elk are detailed in Tables 4 and 5 for mule deer and elk, respectively. In the case of mule deer, stratification of quadrats to "low" and "high" densities was successful; mean densities differed significantly (P < 0.02) and there was a 37.8% reduction in variance due to stratification. The overall minimum mean (+ SE) density was 13.48 + 2.24 mule deer per mile2 (2.59 km2) within the sampling universe of 309 mile2 (247,295 km2) comprising about 70 percent of G.M.U. 20 deer winter range. For elk, the stratification designed for mule deer did not reduce the variance even though the high density mean exceeded the low density mean by a factor of about 7. The 2 overall minimum mean (± SE) density was 1.53 + 0.93 elk per mile2 (2.59 km ). Estimated sample sizes to be within 20 percent of the true mean at P = .20 were 116 quadrats for mule deer and 676 quadrats for elk. Thus, the 93 quadrats sampled approached adequacy only for mule deer (Table 6). Herd Structure The data are summarized by route within each of 15 strata for 3 observers and 2 methods of classification in Tables 7 and 8. Buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios are compared by classification method, observer, and years in Table 9. Excluding years, most sample ratios did not differ significantly (P < 0.10). Exceptions include: fawn:doe of observer 1, method 1 vs. method 2; buck:doe of method 1, observer 1 vs. observer 3; buck:doe or methods 1 and 2 combined, observer 1 vs. observer 3; and fawn:doe of methods 1 and 2 combined, observer 2 vs. observer 3, The significant difference between the fawn:doe ratio of methods 1 vs. method 2 is inexplicable and has not previously occurred in several years of herd structure sampling. Observer 3 participated in only 6 routes and this might be a factor in the significant differences in the ratios obtained by this observer and observers 1 and 2. The following ratios obtained in 1978 were significantly (P < 0.10) larger than in 1976: buck:doe of observer 1, buck:doe, observers and methods of classification combined, and fawn:doe, observers and methods of classification combined. From 1977 to 1978, the fawn:doe ratio of observer 1, methods of classification combined, decreased significantly (P < 0.10). Since mean group size of wintering mule deer may conceivably affect classification, the 1977 and 1978 mean group sizes are listed by stratum in Table 10 and tested for significant (P < 0.05) differences (Table 11). Unlike the 1977 sample, mean group size in 1978 did not differ significantly (P < 0.05) between strata. There was, however, a significant (P < 0.01) decrease from 1977 to 1978 in mean group size observed within strata 10 and 11 (Tables 10 and 11). The overall mean (+ SE) group size observed in 1978 was 3.67 + .25 mule deer. Estimates of sample size requirements (number of routes) indicate that in 1978, the 20 routes yielded fawn:doe ratios that were + 15 percent of the true ratio at (P < 0.05) but the buck:doe ratio would ~equire III routes �-110- 2 Table 4. Estimated minimum densities of mule deer on 309 square miles (802.3 km ) of G.M.U. 20 winter range based on ground counts of deer by 2 observers of 93 2 subjectively stratified proportionally allocated, and randomly selected, ~-mile (.648 km2) quadrats, February 21, to April 7, 1979. Relative Density Low High Deer per2~-Mi1e2 (.648 km ) Quadrat No. Quadrats Total Selected Mean Variance 1 94 6 .5000 1.5000 Mean SE 2 92 7 .28571 .5714 1.92218 .51701 3 115 8 2.6250 49.4107 4 101 7 2.2857 12.9048 5 93 6 3.1667 18.9667 6 100 7 .7143 2.2381 7 81 6 3.1667 52.9667 8 76 5 5.2000 55.7000 9 68 5 .4000 .8000 10 50 3 3.3333 9.3333 11 92 6 .3333 .6667 962 66 1 10 2 2.0000 2 4 2 3 21 4 Stratum D.F. 24 90% Conf. Int. 1.92218 1.0376 - 2.8068 95% Can£. Int. 1.92218 .8851 - 2.9893 8.0000 Mean SE 1.0000 2.0000 8.50488 1.75084 2 .5000 .5000 11 2 2.5000 4.5000 5 23 2 1.0000 2.0000 6 20 2 5.0000 18.0000 7 39 3 29.6667 274.3333 8 36 3 5.3333 25.3333 9 60 4 5.2500 64.9167 10 38 3 9.6667 72.3333 11 12 2 9.5000 12.5000 274 27 D. F. 5 90% Can£. Int. 8.50488 4.977 - 12.033 95% Conf. Int. 8.50488 4.003 - 13.006 Low and High Deer Density Quadrats Combined Deer Per Quadrat Mean SE 3.38067 .55908 D.F. 6 Total Deer Mean 4178.51 SE 691.03 Deer Per Mile 2 2 (2.59 km ) Mean 13.52 SE 2.24 �-111- 2 Table 4. Estimated mlnlmum densities of mule deer on 309 square miles (802.3 km ) of G.M.D. 20 winter range based on ground counts of deer by 2 observers of 93 2 subjectively stratified proportionally allocated, and randomly selected, ~-mile (.648 km2) quadrats, February 21, to April 7, 1979. (Continued). Low and High Deer Density Quadrats Combined 2 Total Deer Deer Per Quadrat Mean SE D.F. Mean 2.2945 - 4.4670 4178.51 95% Conf. Int. 3.38067 2.0126 - 4.7487 Mean 90% Conf. Int. 90% Conf. Int 3.38067 SE Deer Per Mile 2836 - 5521 2488 - 5869 SE 90% Conf. Int. l3.52 95% Conf. Int. 4178.51 2 (2.59 km ) 9.14 - 17.81 95% Conf. Int. l3.52 8.03 - 18.93 �-112- 2 Table 5. Estimated m1n1mum densities of elk on 309 square miles (802.3 km ) of G.M.U. 20 winter range based on ground counts of deer by 2 observers on 93 subjectively stratified, proportionally allocated, and randomly selected, ~-mile2 (.648 km2) quadrats, February 21, to April 7, 1979. No. Quadrats Total Selected Nean Variance 6 0 0 92 7 .28571 .23810 3 115 8 0 0 4 101 7 .42857 1.28571 5 93 6 .50000 1.50000 6 100 7 .14286 .14286 7 81 6 0 0 8 76 5 0 0 9 68 5 0 0 10 50 3 .33333 .33333 II 92 6 0 0 962 66 1 10 2 0 2 4 2 0 3 21 2 1.0000 2.0000 4 II 2 .5000 .50000 5 23 2 0 0 6 20 2 0 0 7 39 3 8 36 3 0 0 9 60 4 0 0 10 38 3 11 12 2 274 27 Density Stratum Low 1 94 2 High Elk Per Quadrat Mean SE D.F . .15283 .06960 14 90% Conf. lnt . .15283 .0303 - .2754 90% Conf. Int. .15283 .0104 - .30212 0 Mean SE 0 1.18673 1.00663 D.F. 2 90% Conf. Int. 1.18673 161. 3333 7.3333 .0949 - 4.1261 95% Conf. Int. 1.18673 .0949 - 5.5183 .3333 .3333 0 Low and High Elk Densitl Elk Per ~-mile2 (.648 km2) Quadrat Quadrats 0 Combined Total Elk 2 Elk Per Mile 2 (2.59 km ) A Hean SE D.F. .38203 .7.2963 2 90% Conf. Int. .38203 .0291 - 1.0525 95% Conf. Int. •38203 .0291 - 1.3701 Mean 472.19 SE 283.83 90% Conf. Int. 472.19 36 - 1301 95% Conf. Int. 472.19 36 - 1694 Mean 1.53 1.53 1.53 SE .92 90% Conf. Int . .12 - 4.20 95% Conf. Int . .12 - 5.46 �-113- Table 6. Number of randomly selected ~-mile2(.648 km2) quadrats to be within X percent of the mean at 3 confidence levels for mule deer and elk on G.M.U. 20 deer winter range. Estimates based on ground counts by 2 observers from February 21 to April 7, 1979. Percent Species II Mule Deer- Elk~J of Mean Confidence Level 5 95 944 90 864 80 727 10 640 512 354 20 280 195 116 10 1,136 1,099 1,024 20 914 825 676 50 386 301 200 100 126 92 57 !/Based on optimum allocation (Snedecor and Cochran 1967:525): New strata were created by collapsing high and low density strata in strata 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11 (Fig. 3) and using the 15 new strata in the allocation. �Table 7. Summary of mule deer recorded on 20 all-day, walking routes by observer and method of classification, November 21, 1978 to December 22, 1978, on G.M.U. 20 winter range. Observer Route Stratum 1 1 2 3 4 5 61./ 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 13 13 14 15 L: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F:D SE B:D SE 2 2 3 4 6 3 4 5 6 Method I 1../ Buck Doe Fawn 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 7 6 0 8 16 2 0 0 1 0 5 0 0 0 1 0 7 48 = .3333 = .0827 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 0 8 1 0 0 16 UncI. Total Buck 0 0 0 2 3 8 0 0 2 0 1 0 2 3 1 0 14 3 3 2 1 45 0 0 0 4 3 12 0 0 4 0 1 0 6 12 10 0 27 27 6 2 2 116 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 5 12 4 4 0 8 4 1 12 6 5 2 7 5 80 F:D SE 2 0 1 9 0 3 0 2 21 4 10 17 71 21 26 32 20 57 15 27 7 345 = .5246 = .0402 B:D SE = .2319 = .0518 0 2 1 5 0 2 3 10 = .1458 = .0981 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2/ Method 2 Fawn Doe 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 0 0 2 8 2 5 9 46 8 11 22 7 25 9 17 4 181 0 0 1 6 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Total 3 1 3 15 0 4 0 9 41 10 19 26 125 33 38 66 33 87 26 51 16 606 0 4 5 21 I •....• •....• .p.. I �Table 7. Summary of mule deer recorded on 20 all-day, walking routes by observer November 21,1978 to December 22, 1978, on G.M_U. 20 winter range. (Continued). and method of classification, 21 11 Observer Route Stratum Buck 2 7 8 7 7 8 8 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 9 10 10 11 11 13 14 I: F:D SE B:D SE 3 1 5 6 12 17 20 2 5 6 9 l3 15 I: F:D SE B:D SE llIncludes groups wherein Method 1 Fawn Doe 0 0 2 0 3 0 1 0 3 1 0 9 Total Buck 0 0 6 3 6 5 3 2 8 1 1 37 0 0 8 4 9 5 5 2 12 4 1 52 0 3 4 7 1 9 3 0 4 2 8 49 1 22 8 22 19 30 16 0 20 21 20 194 = .4444 = .2953 = .2222 = .1501 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 7 0 0 7 0 0 0 3 l3 6 22 = 0 = 0 = .3333 = 0 9 13 22 4 0 13 9 8 103 F:D SE = .5309 = .0522 B:D SE = .2526 = .0411 0 0 2 17 76 18 113 F:D = SE = B:D SE one or more deer or solitary on route 6 because 1 11 6 Total 2 36 18 38 33 61 23 0 37 32 36 346 ,_.I ,_. \Jl I ]j Includes groups wherein all deer were classified llTwo days required 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 4 UncI. Method 2 Doe Fawn deer could not be classified. and all solitary of snowstorm. deer were classified. 0 0 0 4 26 l3 43 .3805 .0706 = .1947 = .0302 0 0 2 24 115 37 178 �-116- Table 8. Summary of mule deer recorded on 20 routes by 3 observers on G.M.U. 20 winter range, November 21, to December 22, 1978. Deer recorded by Methods land 2 are combined. Observer 1 F:D = .4987 SE = .0401 B:D = .2177 SE = .0521 Route Stratum Buck Doe Fawn Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2 3 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 13 13 14 15 0 0 3 0 1 0 5 12 4 4 0 8 4 1 12 11 5 2 7 6 86 2 0 1 10 0 6 0 2 23 4 10 17 76 28 32 32 28 73 17 27 7 395 1 0 2 4 0 1 0 2 8 2 5 9 47 10 13 22 7 33 10 17 4 197 3 1 3 17 0 8 0 9 43 10 19 26 131 42 46 66 46 111 29 51 17 678 0 2 1 5 0 3 4 8 1 9 3 0 5 2 8 51 0 2 3 10 1 22 9 22 22 30 17 0 23 22 20 203 0 0 1 6 1 11 7 9 13 22 5 0 13 11 8 107 0 4 5 21 2 36 20 39 36 61 25 0 41 35 36 361 0 0 0 4 13 6 23 0 0 2 20 76 18 116 0 0 0 4 26 13 43 0 0 2 28 115 37 182 L: 2 F:D = .5271 SE = .0450 B:D SE .2512 .0427 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 10 10 11 11 13 14 L: 3 F:D = .3707 SE = .0713 B:D = .1983 SE = .0304 1 5 6 12 17 20 2 5 6 9 13 15 L: 1 �Table 9. Comparisons of buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios sampled on Big Thompson-North drainage (G.M.U. 20) winter range; November 21, 1978 to December 22, 1978, November 29, 1977 and November 22, 1976 to December 26, 1976. Ratio 90% C. I. Method, Observer . Comparlson. 1/ R atlo 3 Method (4) .3333 B:D (3) o F:D 2 Method (11) .2222 (13) .4444 B:D F:D 1 F:D Method 2 F:D Method 2 F:D Method 2 F:D Methods F:D 1 & 2 + .1386 .0302 5 .1995 .0778 -.3805 .0706 5 -.2383 -.5228 -.0304 .1383 14 .2132 -.2739 NS -.0865 .3234 14 .4830 -.6559 NS -.0919 .0922 20 .0671 -.2509 NS -.2046 .0976 20 -.0363 -.3730 S -.0590 .0156 5 -.0275 -.0904 S .1623 .1025 5 .3688 -.0442 NS .0450 .0674 14 .1636 -.0737 NS -.0187 .0773 14 .1174 -.1548 NS -.0579 .0510 5 .0449 -.1607 NS - .1504 .0878 5 .0265 -.3273 NS -.0763 .0168 5 -.0434 -.1103 S .1537 .0999 5 .3550 -.0476 NS 1 vs 2 (135) .1947 (156) .3805 NS 1 vs 2 (243) .2526 (297) .5309 1 vs 2 (425) .2319 (526) .5246 (135) .1947 (156) .3805 (243) .2526 (297) .5309 Obs. 2 vs Obs. 3 (243) .1947 (297) .3805 B:D D. F. Obs. 1 vs Obs. 2 (425) .2976 (526) .5122 B:D . 2/ Conc 1US10rr- SE Diff. Ratio Diff. Obs. 1 vs Obs. 3 (425) .1357 (526) .5429 B:D B:D Method (57) .14 (66) .32 B:D St. Vrain river 28, 1977 to December (135) .2526 (156) .5309 Ob s , 1 vs Ob s . 3 (481) ..•1220 (592) .5243 (139) .1983 (159) .3707 ,_.I ,_. -...J I �Table 9. Comparisons of buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios sampled on Big Thompson-North drainage (G.M.U. 20) winter range; November 21, 1978 to December 22, 1978, November December 29, 1977 and November 22, 1976 to December 26, 1976. (Continued). Ratio Method, Observer . Comparlson. 1/ Ratlo Methods Obs. 1 vs Obs. 2 1 & 2 (481) .2857 (592) .4805 B:D F:D Methods (254) .2512 (310) .5271 St. Vrain river 28, 1977 to 90 % C.1. SE Dif. D.F. + .0345 .0674 15 .1526 -.0836 NS -.0466 .0775 15 .0892 -.1824 NS -.0529 .0524 .0843 14 14 .0393 -.0079 -.1452 -.3049 NS -.1564 -.0943 .0506 13 -.0046 -.1840 S -.1403 .0811 l3 .0033 -.2839 NS -.1134 .0335 l3 -.0540 -.1727 S -.1194 .0621 13 -.0094 -.2293 S -.0766 .0525 19 .0142 -.1674 NS .1700 .0558 19 .2664 .0736 S -.0485 .0327 19 .0080 -.1051 NS .2126 .0578 19 .3126 .1127 NS Ratio Diff. Conclusion Y Obs. 3 vs Obs. 2 1 & 2 B:D F:D (139) (254) .1983 .2512 (159) .3707 (310) .5271 Observer 1976 vs 1978 1 Methods B:D 1 & 2 F:D Observers Combined Methods (317) .1321 (389) .3893 (481) .2265 (592) .5296 S 1976 vs 1978 1 & 2 B:D F:D (476) (874) .1226 .2360 (582) (1061) .3726 .4920 Observer 1 1977 vs 1978 Methods 1 & 2 B:D F:D Observers Combined Methods (372) .1411 (544) .6687 (481) .2177 (592) .4987 1977 vs 1978 (669) (874) 1 & 2 B:D F:D .1716 (969) .6970 .2202 (1061) .4844 1/ Sample sizes are in parenthesis. 2/ Significantly (S) or not significantly (NS) different at P < 0.10. I >-' >-' 00 I �Table 10. Statistics of group size of mule deer by strata obtained on 20, all-day walking routes, G.M.U. 20 winter range, November 21, 1978 to December 22, 1978 and November 28, 1977 to December 29, 1977. 1978 95% Conf. Interval 2 Stratum LX LX n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 3 3 7 27 39 92 98 233 187 177 297 90 55 9 5 17 121 265 536 448 1493 1319 691 2187 632 255 1308 7978 - X SE(X) 1 2 3 8 12 23 31 56 45 67 69 22 17 3 1.5 2.33 3.375 3.250 4.0 3.161 4.161 4.156 2.642 4.304 4.091 3.235 .500 .333 .730 1.023 0.576 .385 .412 .523 .225 .440 .756 .532 356 3.67 .251 1977 95% Conf. Interval Lower Upper 2.805 2.375 3.337 3.102 2.192 3.424 2.519 5.195 3.947 4.985 5.210 3.092 5.184 5.663 Total Among Strata Within Strata SS 3172.2 158.4 3013.8 !/ Not significant at P = 0.05. D.F. 355 12 343 - X SE(X) Lower Upper 3.00 5.37 6.14 3.98 4.33 3.91 3.25 .71 .62 .66 .41 .40 .44 .64 1.52 4.12 4.79 3.15 3.53 3.00 4.48 6.62 7.49 4.81 5.13 4.82 I •....• •....• \0 I ANOVA to test whether the 1978 mean group size is similar in each stratum. Source - MS F 13.20 8.79 1.50.!/ �-120- Table 11. Mean group size comparisions within strata, 1977 vs 1978. 1/ Stratum t-stat- D. F)) P 3 1.342 2.8 .5 < P <.8 5 - .105 15.6 P <.2 6 0 13.7 P 7 -1. 605 31.0 .8 < P <.9 8 - .200 31.8 P <.2 9 1.635 76.4 .8 < p 10 2.354 59.3 .98 < p <.99 11 2.864 64.4 .99 < p <.999 13 .049 134.5 P <.2 14 - .204 33.7 p <.2 15 .018 23.7 p <.2 1/ - t-test for unequal variances (Li 1964:143). D. F. t 1 2 8 + (1-8) n -1 1 Where 8 S 2 2 /n2 n-l 2 2 = 0 �-121- at the corresponding percent deviation from the mean and probability levels (Table 12). Adequate samples sizes for fawn:doe ratios but impractically large sample size for buck:doe ratios have been characteristic of G.M.U. 20 winter range herd structure since sampling began in 1976. DISCUSSION Based on preliminary calculations using 1976 and 1977 deer pellet group data from 13,180 temporary plots on GMU 20 winter range, the variance associated with the estimate of the mean numbers of deer ~as unexpectedly large. Most of this variance is associated with the extremely high counts of deer pellet groups on one or more 10-plot segments within 3 of the 11 strata (Table 2). The localized distribution of large numbers of deer pellet groups has also been noted on Cache la Poudre river drainage winter range (Bowden et ale 1969). While it might be possible to reduce the associated variance by adding 2 additional sample units to each of the 3 strata, it now appears improbable that any feasible sampling intensity will result in an estimate of mean deer numbers within + 15 percent at a 0.05 as stated in objective 2. This does not negate the counts of pellet groups as a useful technique but emphasizes the need to increase sample size by about 6 sample units as indicated and to continue the biannual counts of pellet groups on an experimental basis for several years. This will permit a realistic assessment of annual variations; hence, an improved estimate of sample size adequacy. There was a slight overlap in the wide 95 percent confidence limits about the mean deer densities estimated from the pellet group counts and the minimum bound estimate. Both mean values appear feasible since 27.6 to 61.0 deer per square mile (2.59 km2) have been extrapolated from pellet group counts on the Cache la Poudre river drainage winter range, 1962-65 (Medin 1976:82) and 16.4 + 3.42 deer per square mile (2.59 km2) by the minimum bound estimate on that same winter range during 1975. The sampling procedure for herd structure appears adequate for the fawn:doe ratio but inadequate for the buck:doe with any feasible sampling intensity. The 20 routes have been delineated on topographic maps and aerial photos in final form; the sampling procedure is now operational thus fulfilling objective 3. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. E. 1977. Experimental deer inventory, northeast region. Job Prog. Rep. Pp. 227-250. In Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., July Part 2. 125-305p. (Processed). Anderson, A. E., and D. C. Bowden. 1978. Experimental deer inventory northeast region. Job Progress Report, Pp. 225-244. In Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. 137-298p. (Processed). Bowden, D. C., A. E. Anderson, and D. E. Medin. 1969. Frequency distributions of mule deer fecal group counts. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(4):895-905. �-122- Table 12. Number of routes required for sampling buck:doe and fawn:doe ratios based on 20 all-day routes on G.M.U. 20 winter range, November 21, 1978 to December 22, 1978. Methods 1 and 2 and observers are combined. No. Buck Doe Ratio SE 160 .2241 .0371 714 Conf . level Percent 1/ - (l-a) •95 .90 .80 5 1002 685 404 10 250 171 101 15 III 76 45 20 63 43 25 No. Fawn Doe Ratio SE 347 .4860 .0282 714 Conf • level 1/ (l-a) .95 .90 .80 5 123 84 50 10 31 21 13 15 14 9 6 20 8 5 3 Percent- . . -l/D eVlatl0n f rom true ratio. �-123- Bowden, D. C., and A. E. Anderson. 1975. Evaluation of herd structure methodology. Job Progress Report. Pp. 505-554. In Colo. Div. Wildl., Game Res. Rept.,July, Part 2. 253-561p. (Processed). Bowden, D. C., and A. E. Anderson. 1976. Evaluation methodology. Job Progress Report. Pp. 227-250. July, Part 2. 125-305p. (Processed). of herd structure In Colo. Div. Wildl., Dasmann, R. F., and R. D. Taber. 1956. Determining structure in Columbian black-tailed deer populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 29(1)~78-80. Li, J. C. R. 1964. Statistical Ann Arbor, Michigan. 658p. inference. I. Edwards Brothers, Inc., Medin, D. E. 1976. Modeling the dynamics of a Colorado mule deer population. Ph.D. Diss., Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 167p. Neff, D. J. 1968. The pellet group count technique for big game trend, census, and distribution: a review. J. Wildl. Manage. 32(3):597-614. Patton, D. R., and W. B. Casner. 1970. summarization of pellet count data. Note RM-170. Fort Collins, CO 8p. Port-a-Punch recording and computer U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran. 1967. Statistical Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. 593p. Prepared by: (LC/(i,Y, c;: (~t----dt/~6-()-'r<-/ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher methods. 6th ed., �-124- APPENDIX A �-125- APPENDIX COUNTING A DEER PELLET GROUPS Definitions and Procedures Deer Pellet Group - Five or more deer pellets of the same general size, shape, hardness and color judged to have been continuously voided at the place where observed. Pellets redistributed by water of other agents to within the plot are not recorded. Pellets strewn across the plot are counted as a group if about one-half of the total linear distance or its midpoint falls within the plot as measured with a steel pocket tape. Groups occurring on the plot periphery are counted if about one-half of their total area falls within the plot. "New" Deer Pellet Group - Pellets are typically deposited during the previous year. shiny, often soft and "Old" Deer Pellet Group - Pellets are typically not shiny, generally hard and sometimes wholly or partially concealed by litter. Search Procedures - The area of search is defined by the light metal chain, 1.784 meters in length revolving about the metal rod driven firmly into the ground. The plot size is 0.001 hectare or 10 square meters or 107.64 square feet. On steep slopes the chain is held horizontal. ~.Jhennecessary, the plot boundary is defined by dropping a pebble from the 1.784 meter mark on the chain. Each plot is searched twice (clockwise and counterclockwise) with the two observers changing positions with the change in search direction. �-126- APPENDIX B �-127- APPENDIX HABITATS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Pipo-O Pipo-D Pipo-Psme Psme Psme-Pipo Pico-O Pico-D Pico-Psme Pico-Potr Potr D. Mead., + Arfr D. Mead., - Arfr Wet Mead. Ir. Mead. SAL Mead. Cemo-Putr Putr-Cemo JUNI-Shrub Riparian Logged-recent Rock-outcrop Rock talus Dry Gull Bott. Water Spr.-fir. Cult. Fields Surfaced roads Unsure road ON DEER WINTER B RANGE OF G.M.U. 20 Ponderosa pine, open stand Ponderosa pine, dense stand Ponderosa pine-Douglas fir Douglas fir Douglas fir-ponderosa pine Lodgepole pine-open stand Lodgepole pine-dense stand Lodgepole pine-Douglas fir Lodgepole pine-aspen Aspen Dry meadow, with fringed sage Dry meadow, without fringed sage Wet meadow Irrigated meadow Willow meadow Mountain mahogany-bitterbrush Bitterbrush-mountain mahogany Juniper spp-other shrub species Dry gulley bottom Spruce-fir Cultivated fields �-128- APPENDIX C �-129- APPENDIX C FORM FOR RECORDING PELLET GROUP COUNTS G.M.U. 20 PELLET GROUP COUNTS W-126-R WP2 - SAMPLE UNIT ___ STRATUM J.:"If. OBSERVERS ------ IDlE BEGAN Plot I TRANSECT(S) ELK New Old TOTAL I 'fRAN. 11 2 12 3 13 4 14 5 15 ! I 16 I S I 9 I I 10 .. Total COmI:lents, Weather, HR - - DEER I Plot -- New Old 1 6 _ ------------------- TIME FINISHED __QEER New Old TR.-\...'-;" • J5 17 I 19 I MIN - ELK New Old I I, I 18 i 20 I Total etc. ------------------------------ �-130- APPENDIX D �-131- APPENDIX D Form for recording deer herd structure and counts of deer and elk on quadrats ----- Time:----to---- Observer ---------N, R w. Area: ------ Legal Descr.: ___ 1;..../4_, S __ , T Date: B D F Strata --- Unc. L Random No. TIME B D F Unc. ~ TIME �-132- APPENDIX E �-133- APPENDIX E SOME CRITERIA FOR DISTINGUISHING ATTRIBUTE ANTLERED MALES SEX AND AGE OF MULE DEER DOES BODY SIZE HEAD SHAPE DEEP MUZZLE OFTEN APPEARS VERY THICK NECK THICK PELAGE BEHAVIOR DARK FOREHEAD CONTRASTING WITH LIGHT MUZZLE OFTEN SOLITARY OR SOMEWHAT APART FROM GROUP LESS DEEP MUZZLE. DORSAL SURFACE OF MUZZLE MAY APPEAR CURVED WITH VISIBLE VEINS OFTEN LONG, THIN OFTEN LESS COLOR CONTRAST THAN MALE ON HEADMUZZLE AREA USUALLY TAKES LEAD IN GROUP TRAVEL, SOMETIMES AGGRESSIVE TO FAWN FAWNS SMALLER THAN HOST ADULTS ESPECIALLY IN LENGTH OF HEAD AND SIZE OF hTHITE RUMP PATCH SHORT MUZZLED, HIGH CROWNED. LONG EARS IN PROPORTION TO HEAD SIZE RELATIVELY SHORT AND THICK EARS AND NECK MAY APPEAR "FUZZY" OR "WOOLY" USUALLY CLOSE TO DOE. EARS OFTEN CLOSE TOGETHER AND NECK ARCHED WHEN ALAID1ED AND RUNNING OR TROTTING �-134- APPENDIX STATISTICAL WITHIN DESCRIPTION EACH SAMPLE UNIT, F OF TOTAL COUNTS OF DEER AND ELK PEL.LET GROUPS MAY 24 TO SEPTEMBER 10, 1978. �-135- N Mean S 40 40 40 40 3.9750 .1250 .4500 0.0000 4.7528 .4043 .6385 0.0000 19 19 19 19 5.4737 .2632 .0526 0.0000 5.2108 .4524 .2294 0.0000 8 8 8 8 1.6250 0.0000 .2500 0.0000 2.0659 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 5 5 5 5 4.0000 0.0000 .4000 0.0000 5.8310 0.0000 .8944 0.0000 2 13.0000 3.5000 0.0000· 0.0000 9.8995 3.5355 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 10, Sq Mi 13 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 7, Sq Mi 29 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New lek Habitat 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed Sage Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 2 2 2 Habitat 18, Juniper-Shrub Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 2 2 2 2 �-136- N Mean S 1 1 1 1 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3 3 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 22 22 22 22 2.2273 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2.9266 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 14 14 14 14 .2857 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .6112 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 7, Sq Mi 29 (cont.) Habitat 19, Riparian Old deer New Deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 7, Sq Hi 19 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-137- Stratum 7, Sq Mi 8 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas Fir-Ponderosa deer deer elk elk 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 1. 2500 .2500 0.0000 0.0000 2.5000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 1. 7500 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3.5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7 7 7 7 .5714 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.1339 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 1.0000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 0.0000 3 8.6667 3 .6667 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 3.7859 1.1547 0.0000 0.0000 Pine deer deer elk elk 8, Lodgepole 1 1 1 1 Pine deer deer elk elk 7, Dense Ponderosa 1. 8387 .3519 0.0000 0.0000 Pine deer deer elk elk 6, Open Lodgepole 1. 3333 .1333 0.0000 0.0000 Fir deer deer elk elk 5, Douglas 15 15 15 15 S Pine deer deer elk elk 3, Ponderosa Mean Pine deer deer elk elk 2, Dense Ponderosa N Pine-Douglas Fir -----------------------------------------------------------------------------~- �-138- N Mean S 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3 3 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 1.0000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 1.4142 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 2 2 2 2 1.5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3 3 3 3 1.6667 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2.8868 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 13 13 13 13 3.0000 .6923 .2308 0.0000 3.5824 1.7022 .4385 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 2.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 7, S9 Mi 8 (cont.) Habitat 19, Riparian Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 6, S9 Mi 28 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 4, Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 6, Open Lodgepole Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk --~------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-139- ------- Stratum 6, Sq Mi 28 (cont. ) Habitat 7, Dense Lodgepole Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas deer deer elk elk deer deer elk elk 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 11 11 11 11 1.5455 0.0000 .1818 0.0000 2.8413 0.0000 .4045 0.0000 5 5 5 5 3.8000 .2000 0.0000 0.0000 4.3818 .4472 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1.0000 2.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3 3 3 3 14.0000 3.3333 0.0000 0.0000 11. 7898 3.21Lf6 0.0000 0.0000 9 3.2222 .4444 0.0000 0.0000 2.8186 .8819 0.0000 0.0000 1 II, Dry Meadow with Fringed Sage deer deer elk elk Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Old New Old New 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 10, Aspen 6, Sq Mi 4 Habitat 1 1 1 1 Pine-Aspen Stratum Old New Old New S Fir deer deer elk elk 9, Lodgepole Mean Pine deer deer elk elk 8, Lodgepole N Pine deer deer elk elk 3, Ponderosa deer deer elk elk Pine-Douglas Fir 9 9 9 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-140- N Mean 6 6 6 6 .1667 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .4082 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7 7 7 7 1. 2857 .7143 0.0000 0.0000 1.1127 .9512 0.0000 0.0000 7 7 7 7 4.8571 1. 2857 0.0000 0.0000 3.8048 1. 8898 0.0000 0.0000 8 8 8 8 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 31 31 31 31 4.4516 .1613 0.0000 0.0000 4.6607 .4544 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 9.0000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 0.0000 S Statum 6, Sq Mi 4 (cont. ) Habitat Old New Old New Fir-Ponderosa 17, Bitterbrush-Mountain deer deer elk elk 6, Sq Mi 12 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Mahogany 21, Rock Outcrop Stratum Old New Old New Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 5, Douglas deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 4, Douglas 3, Ponderosa deer deer elk elk Pine-Douglas Fir ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-141- Stratum 6, Sq Mi 12 (cont. ) Habitat Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old New Old New 16, Mountain deer deer elk elk deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Mean S 5 5 5 5 5.6000 .6000 0.0000 0.0000 3.7148 .5477 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8 8 8 8 2.0000 .1250 .3750 0.0000 2.0702 .3536 .7440 0.0000 11 11 11 11 2.3636 .1818 0.0000 0.0000 3.5573 .4045 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 .7500 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 18, Juniper-Shrub Habitat Old New Old New N 21, Rock Outcrop deer deer elk elk Stratum 5, Sq Mi 21 Habitat Old New Old New 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 1, Open Ponderosa 4, Douglas deer deer elk elk Fir Fir ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-142- N Mean S 5 5 5 5 0.0000 .2000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .4472 0.0000 0.0000 10.0000 .6667 0.0000 0.0000 2.6458 .5774 0.0000 0.0000 5 5 5 5 25.4000 1.6000 0.0000 0.0000 13.8311 1.6733 ' 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8 8 .3750 0.0000 .6250 .1250 .7440 0.0000 .7440 .3536 19 19 19 19 .5263 0.0000 .8421 .0526 1.2188 0.0000 1.2140 .2294 Stratum 5, Sq Mi 21 (cont.) Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 3 3 3 3 Habitat 17, Bitterbrush-Mountain Mahogany Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk I Stratum 4, Sq Mi 28 Habitat 6, Open Lodgepole Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 8 8 Habitat 7, Dense Lodgepole Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk �-143- Stratum 4, Sq Mi 28 (cont. ) Habitat 9, Old New Old New Old New Old New 12, Dry Meadow Without deer deer elk elk Stratum 5, Sq Mi 13 Habitat 2, Dense Ponderosa Old New Old New Old New Old New Old New Old New 6, Open Lodgepole 2.5000 .3333 .6667 .3333 1 1 1 1 2.0000 0.0000 3.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7, Dense Lodgepole deer deer elk elk Fringed 3 3 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 1.3333 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1. 5275 0.0000 10 10 10 10 .8000 0.0000 1.4000 .2000 1.3166 0.0000 1. 0750 .4216 1 1 1 1 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 O. 0000, 10 10 10 10 .2000 .1000 .1000 0.0000 .6325 .3162 .3162 0.0000 Sage Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat 1. 6667 .1111 .7778 .1111 Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat 9 9 9 9 S la-Aspen deer deer elk elk Habitat Mean Pine-Aspen deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Lodgepole N Pine ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-144- Stratum 5, Sq Mi 13 (cont.) Habitat 9, Lodgepoie Old New Old New 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed 0.0000 0.0000 1. 7078 0.0000 4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 16 16 16 16 2.5625 .0625 .6250 0.0000 3.1405 .2500 1.1475 0.0000 3 3 3 3 2.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 2.6458 0.0000 1. 7321 0.0000 5 5 1.4000 .2000 0.0000 0.0000 .8944 .4472 0.0000 0.0000 Sage 4 4 4 4 12, Dry Headow without Fringed 28, Unsurfaced 4 4 Road deer deer elk elk 1, Open Ponderosa Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas deer deer elk elk Habitat 6, Open Lodgepole deer deer elk elk Sage 4 Habitat Old New Old New 0.0000 0.0000 2.7500 0.0000 9 3, Sq Mi 13 Old New Old New 3.9370 0.0000 .4410 0.0000 9 Stratum Old New Old New 1. 6667 0.0000 .2222 0.0000 9 deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 9 S Pirte-Aspen deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Mean deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New N Fir Pine 5 5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-145- N Mean S 4 4 4 4 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 .2500 .8165 0.0000 1.4142 .5000 6 6 6 6 0.0000 .1667 .6667 .1667 0.0000 .4082 .8165 .4082 2 2 2 2 3.5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2.1213 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 3.5000 .5000 2.0000 0.0000 .7071 .7071 1.4142 0.0000 2 2 2.5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3.5355 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8.5000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 Stratum 3, Sq Mi 13 (cont.) Habitat 7, Dense Lodgepole Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 8, Lodgepole-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 9, Lodgepole Pine-Aspen Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 10, Aspen Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 20, Recent Logged Area Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 2 2 Stratum 4, Sq Mi 5 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 2 2 2 2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-146- Stratum 4, Sq Mi 5 (cont. ) Habitat 3, Ponderosa Old New Old New 4, Douglas Old New Old New Old New Old New 6, Open Lodgepole 7, Dense Lodgepole 16, Mountain deer deer elk elk 1. 7143 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3.3022 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 6 6 6 6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 l3 l3 13 13 .9231 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1. 2558 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 2.7500 0.0000 .2500 .5000 5.5000 0.0000 .5000 1.0000 4 4 4 4 .2500 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 1 1 1 1 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Pine Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat 7 7 7 7 Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Fir-Ponderosa deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 5, Douglas S Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Mean Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas N Mahogany-Bitterbrush ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-147- N Mean S 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8 8 8 8 6.8750 .2500 .1250 0.0000 7.0191 .7071 .3536 0.0000 13 13 13 13 5.0000 .1538 .2308 0.0000 6.6207 .3755 .4385 0.0000 16 16 16 16 4.0000 .0625 .3125 0.0000 5.8878 .2500 .6021 0.0000 3 3 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 4, Sq Mi 5 (cont. ) Habitat Old New Old New deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 19, Riparian 21, Rock Outcrop deer deer elk elk Stratum 3, Sq Mi 8 Habitat Old New Old New 4, Douglas Fir 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 3, Ponderosa Pine 21, Dry Gully deer deer elk elk ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-148- Stratum 3, Sq Mi 4 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Old New Old New Old New Old New 6, Open Lodgepole 7, Dense Lodgepole 8, Lodgepole deer deer elk elk 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7 7 7 7 2.4286 .1429 .4286 0.0000 1. 9881 .3780 1.1339 0.0000 2 2 2 2 .5000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 3 3 3 3 2.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 2.6458 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 14 14 14 14 2.2857 .0714 1.1429 0.0000 5.7703 .2673 2.0327 0.0000 Pine Pine Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Fir-Ponderosa deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 5, Douglas 1 1 1 1 Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 4, Douglas S Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 3, Ponderosa Mean Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat N Pine-Douglas Fir ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-149- S N Mean 3 3 3 3 .3333 0.0000 1.3333 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 6 6 6 6 3.3333 0.0000 .1667 0.0000 4.1312 0.0000 .4082 0.0000 12 12 12 12 1.5000 .0833 .2500 .0833 2.1106 .2887 .4523 .2887 Stratum 3, Sq Mi 4 (cont. ) Habitat Old New Old New 19, Riparian 21, Rock Outcrop deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Sage deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Aspen Deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 9, Lodgepole 28, Unsurfaced Road deer deer elk elk Stratum 2, Sq Mi 11 Habitat Old New Old New Pine deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 1, Open Ponderosa 3, Ponderosa deer deer elk elk Pine-Douglas Fir ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-150- N Mean l3 13 13 13 1.2308 .0769 0.0000 .0769 1.4806 .2774 0.0000 .2774 7 7 7 7 2.4286 .1429 .4286 0.0000 3.7353 .3780 .5345 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 5.0000 1.0000 .5000 0.0000 7.0711 1.4142 .7071 0.0000 18 18 18 18 1.4444 .0556 .3889 0.0000 2.6172 .2357 .6077 0.0000 11 11 11 11 .8182 0.0000 .2727 0.0000 1.1677 0.0000 .4671 0.0000 S Stratum 2, Sq Mi 11 (cont.) Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 8, Lodgepole Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 23, Dry Gully Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 2, Sq Mi 4 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-151- N Mean S 9 9 9 9 .1111 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .3333 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 11 11 11 11 2.4545 .1818 1.4545 0.0000 2.6968 .6030 1.2933 0.0000 12 12 12 12 1.9167 .2500 .8333 .2500 1.8320 .8660 .8348 .8660 3 3 3 3 1.3333 0.0000 .6667 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 7 7 7 7 1.0000 0.0000 2.1429 0.0000 1.8257 0.0000 1.7728 0.0000 3 3 3 1.0000 0.0000 .3333 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 Stratum 2, Sq Mi 4 (cant.) Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 1, Sq Mi 22 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 6, Open Lodgepole Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 8, Lodgepole Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-152- Stratum 1, Sq Mi 22 (cont.) Habitat 11, Dry Headow with Fringed Old New Old New Old New Old New Old New Old New S 1 1 1 1 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 2.0000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 13 13 13 13 1.6154 .1538 .7692 .0769 1.6602 .3755 .8321 .2774 4 4 4 4 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .5774 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 15 15 15 15 3.0000 .2667 .3333 0.0000 3.3594 .7988 .6172 0.0000 18, Juniper-Shrub deer deer elk elk Habitat Mean Sage deer deer elk elk Habitat N 19, Riparian deer deer elk elk Stratum 1, Sq Mi 18 Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 3, Ponderosa 4, Douglas Fir deer deer elk elk Habitat 5, Douglas Old deer New deer Old elk Ne~>Jelk Fir-Ponderosa Pine ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-153- N Mean 3 3 3 3 2.0000 0.0000 1 S Stratum 1, Sq Mi. 18 (cont.) Habitat Old New Old New Fir 1. 7321 0.0000 1.3333 .5774 0.0000 0.0000 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4 4 4 4 .2500 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 37 37 37 37 .7297 .1081 0.0000 0.0000 .9902 .3148 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 .5000 .5000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 .7071 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 19, Riparian deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New Pine-Douglas deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 8, Lodgepole 1 1 21, Rock Outcrop deer deer elk elk Stratum 9, Sq Mi 20 Habitat Old New Old New deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 16, Mountain deer deer elk elk Habitat Old New Old New 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed Sage Mahogany-Bitterbrush 19, Riparian deer deer elk elk �-154- N Mean 6 6 6 6 6.1667 .1667 0.0000 0.0000 8.0850 .4082 0.0000 0.0000 19 19 19 19 2.6316 .1053 .4737 0.0000 3.7448 .3153 .6067 0.0000 10 10 10 10 3.5000 .1000 0.0000 0.0000 4.6007 .3162 0.0000 0.0000 3 3 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 6.4118 .4118 0.0000 0.0000 10.5834 .7123 0.0000 0.0000 S Stratum 8, Sq Mi 28 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 28, Unsurfaced Road Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 9, Sq Mi 22 Habitat 1, Open ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 17 17 17 17 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-155- N Mean S 5 5 5 4.4000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.8270 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8 8 8 8 3.3750 .2500 0.0000 0.0000 2.2638 .7071 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 10.0000 2.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0 ..0000 0.0000 6 6 6 6 10.6667 1.1667 0.0000 0.0000 10.8382 1.3292 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 3.5000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .7071 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 13 13 13 13 1.8462 .1538 0.0000 0.0000 1.8640 .5547 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 9, S9 Mi 22 (cont.) Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 5 Habitat 5, Douglas Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New Deer Old elk New elk Habitat 6, Open Lodgepole Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 18, Juniper-Shrub Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 11, Sq Mi 8 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk ---------------------------------------------------------------------------~--- �-156- N Mean S .1667 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .3892 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 15 15 15 15 .2000 .1333 0.0000 0.0000 .4140 .5164 0.0000 0.0000 26 26 26 26 3.4231 .0385 0.0000 0.0000 4.8922 .1961 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2 2 2 2 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8.5000 .3000 0.0000 0.0000 6.5870 .4830 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 11, Sq Mi 8 (cont.) Habitat 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed Sage Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 12 12 12 12 Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 10, Sq Mi 22 Habitat 1, Open ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 13, Wet Meadow Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 10 10 10 10 �-157- N Mean 1 1 1 1 2.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 19 19 19 19 9.4211 .8947 1.1579 0.0000 6.8094 1.3289 1.4245 0.0000 4 4 4 4 1.7500 0.0000 .2500 0.0000 2.3629 0.0000 .5000 0.0000 5 5 5 5 1.6000 0.0000 .6000 0.0000 1.8166 0.0000 1.3416 0.0000 5.0000 .5000 3.0000 0.0000 1.4142 .7071 1.4142 0.0000 10.0000 .6667 .6667 0.0000 3.0000 1.1547 1.1547 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 S Stratum 10, Sq Mi 22 (cont.) Habitat 18, Juniper Shrub Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Stratum 8, Sq Mi 11 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 3, Ponderosa Pine-Douglas Fir Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 5, Douglas· Fir-Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 12, Dry Meadow without Fringed Sage Old deer New deer Old-elk New elk 2 2 2 2 Habitat 17, Bitterbrush-Mountain Mahogany Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 3 3 3 3 Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 7 7 7 7 �-158- N Mean S 9 9 9 9 4.1111 .7778 0.0000 0.0000 5.32000 1.2018 0.0000 0.0000 15 15 15 15 3.2000 .2667 0.0000 .0667 2.4842 .5936 0.0000 .2582 6 6 6 6 .3333 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .8165 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 8 8 8 8 .2500 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 .4629 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 11, Sq Mi 14 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 2, Dense Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed Sage Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 19, Riparian Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 28, Unsurfaced Road Old deer New deer Old elk New elk ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-159- N Mean S 2 2 2 2 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.4142 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 19 19 19 19 1.6842 1.0526 0.0000 0.0000 2.6885 .9113 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 10.0000 7.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 15 15 15 15 3.0000 .2667 0.0000 0.0000 6.5465 .5936 0.0000 0.0000 5 5 5 1.4000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 2.6077 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3 3 3 3 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1 1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Stratum 9, Sq Mi 7 Habitat 1, Open Ponderosa Pine Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 11, Dry Meadow with Fringed Sage Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 12, Dry Meadow without Fringed Sage Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 1 1 Habitat 16, Mountain Mahogany-Bitterbrush Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 19, Riparian Old deer New deer Old elk New elk 5 Habitat 22, Rock Talus Old deer New deer Old elk New elk Habitat 24, Water 01d·deer New deer Old elk New elk 1 1 �-160- N Stratum 9, Sq Mi 7 Mean S 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 (cont.) Habitat 21, Rock Outcrop Old deer .New deer Old elk New elk 1 1 1 1 �-161- APPENDIX G STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF TOTAL COUNTS OF DEER AND ELK PELLET GROUPS BY HABITAT WITHIN EACH SAMPLE UNIT, MAY 24 TO SEPTEMBER 10, 1978. �-162- 1 SO '11 18 DEER N··· 40 : ··-:······MEAN (2: C250 '-___ .: •••••• :..: S 2 • 8 4 1 9 .::. .~~ .~ i ... -' __.: __ _~_:_:_~._i:..__ .; >j VALUE 0 1 2 3 4 5 7 Q 14; FREO. 14 11 2 5 4 1 ,1 1 1, 8 III 1; ! --:--::::: -"":.':-:.-'.-';" --,:, ..-r.. -, ....::,_:\.: .. .,_)?::""'~\/=:.- .;-....,.. I.•.. Ei K • > ); 40 .••..< .•. / r:~~ ...•...•... s M EA"J .5000 N ••..••.~.~.~.~.~ ...",:. .7511 2~;i/~.-·;.>? ~ .•....•••.•.. S T RA TIT: 5~~__ 2_:, S::-O"';-:~-:-I:--'-:l'--. 8"';--"---'---'-OLD DEER 1 '--. .. --,---.,.-~-----. NEW Df~R .----~---. N MEA~ : . -. ·VALUE. F REO. ____;_;___;__--S .5335 .1500 .. > 3 ... . ------------_._-····1 >3··· ·0 36 ---- ·----~l ---_ ..-- _.,--. '", 40 OLD -. --. __ ._._-_. . 1 .. ELK _--------._-_.- ------ -___,--- .. N 40 S .7157 MEAN .4750 ----'rAT·UE--·. ..6- '-1' -2----- --.-.. ---.----.----.-----1j FREO. 26 9 5 NEI,! ELK N MEAN 40 .0250 VALUE 0 1 FREo. 39 1 ------::0-- S .1581 -------------- �-163- . --.------------.-.-.~--~--=-=----------5TRATUM 1 50 ~t 22 DEER --.,--. --- .. N ._- 40 ---.-- ------,------::-MEAN "S 1.8500 2.326~ !----::-_.__._---_. ---.------~~~--.-~- VALUE FREO~ 0 11 ----- . 1.·.·•• >EtK (:;'" 1 12 __ 2 10 3 1 4 2 5 1 ,.__,.___.,- _-...,.--,-,- .- ....,..... . 10 1 --. --.-_ ---.-~ . .i:'l ..,...........•....••.•.•.••... :....•:.•••.•.• ·.•••·.•·..•••••.• Ji:.:...... •••.•••• r-'-' ---'-N---' ._.MEAN~-" -·--::--S----···-· '-"-"-' '_. -,~ .. ~ !i 40 1.200e 1.2649 OLD DEER N.i .... 40 '.•... MEA N 1.725 :---- -~-'~:"".'."'.-,-"'.'-,-,--,-" .... VALUE 0 1 2 FREO. 11 12 10 4 3 1 .:.=_..::_..:_.~~_._'-'--' -_.-,':-:_' MEa\N .1250 N 40 ..~~:.;_.-' 8; 7 Ii 1 _' -.~~ .5633 ------- .. -- .. _-----::-:0---:-- ..-.- .... .3 FREO. 38' .1 r----:'__ .-.~- ..-...-.-':-:.-.--.-.:..-:...:-----.--:....-. OLD 6 1 S --:VAlUE···.····· •.··.O·· _. 5 1 2 ..;_.-.-------:--;.-:,-.-.-...:..::.. ELI< __ ._-----MEAN__ -----_ _----- _-_- -----..-. N 40 •... .... .. S 1.2442 .1.1250 0 1 3 4 FREO. 15 13 8 1 ---------_._. __ --- 2 VALUE 2 5 1 . NE W ELK N----,;if-A-N - ..------- 40 VALUE FREO. .0750 ----0 3 39 1 ---=-s---.4743 �-164-.STRATUM 2 4 DEE P ·--··--·-N-·---p.1-EAN-·----- 40 1.2250 --"$---:----. -r-r- - 2.6a41 -'--\TAiu{-'-~ ·o-i-----i--~-3-··--f-,--1-1--'"12 FREO. 25 I) 4 2 1 1 "_7---- 1 ,. ...-, -,-_: :.-.~ _E_L ~._ ~~ __ : __.. .-'C.......: .._.;_;. •.• ~ N MEAN 40 .2750 =v: l UE~-~~-FPfO •. '~-. ---' ..- - -._. ·-i-·-·------~~~::',~':I 30 \,9 t 1.. .._'-_ S TR AlUM OLD '-.-, .5057 2 4 DEER f "ME AN C -'.~~40 '-. -. -~;:-: 1~1500 -S:--, < .. :] .3918 \: • 1 0 25 VALUE FREO. 6 2 4 _'-- -"-.'-. -.-~--""-'--. .. 3 6 10 2 1 ~ r-, ME AN .0750 N 40 -VALUE ---- a FREO. OLD S .3499 1 2 38 .".. 1 1 ELK _'_--'-'N 40 ._-----_._------_Mf.AN .2750 --V]:CUF. ---- cf' ---. f ----'2.---.-- -----.-30 FI?EO. NEW q 1 ELK .. -N---MFA·~-------- 40 0.0000 _ .. VAL UE 0 FREO. 40 ! : --, , --: DEER .. NEW i $ o.coo~ _--._--_..-:.. �-165- STRATUM 11 ~Q.'H 2 DEER .-.-----,-. -.S...--_ .. ----- -N-.. -·-. -.'-_M f A ~ .. .. €500 .:······1 .•... 40 . .--:,' " ,- .. ···i ! -'T- -~~2-'--"-3~-:- ~---~~ <\O~ l'~'~ .---:"VA l~"':':'::~--\ FREO. 2.6942 :.. '.' 17 q 4 3 3 2 1 1: ~., -'-. :. ! .' ELK' N "'EA~ 40 .2250 S .4229 --------.---. VALUE FREO. 0 31 2 STRATUM' OLD DEER VALU!: 0 1 FREO. 18 8 -------:---. -.. .... ,'.:: DEE R NEW N 3 3 ---:"'-'.---:-:--~~--:---: . < "'EA~ S .2667 .0750 40 4 1 =»:L uT--6-' -·-1----FREO~ 31 3 . ._---------'- ..- ._--------_. OLD __ ,'_ . ._.--_ ...• _._.---'----"--- ELK I ·----·-N -_------...,--_._----------------MEAN . S~ • 17r:;0 40 .3848 ..'ffCUE---·-o---'-i-------·-----·--FREO. NEW 33 7 ELK ._-_MEA~._ ._._----..- N 40 VAt UE FREO. .0500 0 38 1 2 <: .2207 --- �-166- STRATUM SO '1 I 3 4 DEER N 40 . .------S---- ---'--.-----:;-~ MEAN ······1.5500 3.6581 \ ~ I VALUE FREO. 0 1 7 22 2 3 4 2 4 2 5 .6 22 1 1 1 _'--_.ELK r ; M EA~ S .7250 1.3585 3 4 ;~L-OE FREO. STRATUM OLD DEER ::::-,::;,MEA N~_?7------S ----N-- 4 O· ....10 5000 3 • 6 2.3 3· _,_ '_. __ R_._·_·_:·····i__~-:·-·.r-:::w~~·~.~_ ..__..~.__. VALUE 0 1 FREO. 22 7 . . .... 2 5 .. ,.,.... :... ;: ....:.. :.:;...... ,.. .; <. :.: J :.! . _~_." ., _:~) ..... .._'"'_", __;_;;'; 3 1 5 2 4 2 22 1 NEW DEEP -----,.-.--------~_ .. ---_. __._._ ~-.--'~--N !"lEAN 40 00500 VALUE --- ··FREOo 38 OLD O· s .... -.-.-~- 1 .. ---:-----. -_._ - ..... ... 0 MEA.N «5 7250 1 ••3585 _---:::-----::--. VALUE FREe. .. - 2 N . ..~ .2207 ELK -,..,--_ .. _ .._. 40 .. 0 1 25 q __ --_._._-_ _---_. .. .. 2 3 7 2 3 1 __ .- NEW·ELK ---j.J----;{EA·N·-------·---S40 000000 VALUE 0 FREO. 40 000000 --_. ----- �-167- DEER ·MEAN N 40 .... S 4.7250 ----- VALUE 0 FREQ. 12 1 4 1,.3770 .. _-------,. _:,.:: _ _._-_._-_ .. 2 3 4 4 2 3 4 4 3 '.5 6' 2 1 " 7 A 3 11 1 ? , 18 1 19 1 20 1 25 1 .22'50 l j ._. .. ._. _ VALUE F REO~ OLD DEER VAL UE' FREO. 1 5 0 12 3 4 3 NEW. DEER N MEAN 40 .1250 -------.--.. -----.------ VALUE······O .1 F RE o. 36 . 3 _._.:_--- -----.--.-- OLD .• :.:._.;' 2 .. 1 .:__-"-_ -,_.....__........_._.__./ .... i·. i .'.•.•.•..... / .. -~..:.......------- ..-, - ......_~.'"-.:_.~ ELK s .MEAN N 40 .22150 .4797 ", . ') 1 ; \lALUE FREO. NEW .. 0 32 1 7 2 1 ELK ,-_ .._-- ._._-----_. N ~O __ ._-------:::--- MEAN 0.0000 VALUE 0 FREO. 40 S 0.0000 ---- �-168- DEER .-------$-----~.---. -.---ij-----;.,-E4N 40 200250. 204336 .... , _.---.-- ----,- --T ~-- 2-----3 ---5--- 6--=; .............,1:--:1-----'- VALUE 0 fREQo 14 6 10 2 5 1 1 1 .............. ELK / :. ":1 ------------'-'---'-:-:------N I'tE&N 40 0671)0 --_._-----_. __ ._._-VALUE .: 0 1 2 26 fREOo 6 4 'STRATUM 3 -- SO MI 3 4 ···.1 .~ 13 OLD DEEP N .•···. 40 VALUE 0 FREQo 15 1 .,--------. NEW --.-.'-. -- DEER N MEAN 40 01000 .------_._--_. VALUE FREQo s 03038 . __ ._---------------_._-_._---_ 0 1 .. 36 __ 4 OLD ELK ---------rl(----·"tiiEa~. 40 ----$------------- 06250 100786 . _ ._-----_._----_:.._----_._-----... ---------.. ---_._._-----j' VALUE 0 1 2 3 4 FREQo 27 6 3 3 1 ----------------.---NEW ELK N MEIi~ S 40 ,,0500 02207 VAL UE 0 1 FREQ" 36 2 r: �-169- STRATUM 5 SO "'I 4 DEER •. ----4~...•. -....•. :-.~-~';~~-. -- ;. a2~'r \~~; ;.1;·/ ..--.~---.-.. -.'~';_;:_.--.---~---~- VALUE o FREO. 25 1 8 2 1 _ .. 1.1.·•.. .. :::: -~~~:~~: 3 1 4 8 9 11 . 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 8 9 2 11 1 '~:"::":V.AL:UE·.:. F REO~ so Mr 4 OLD DFER ~_. __ :..._~:_...::..l;.;:_~ VALUE 0 FREO. 2·5 ;--_._- ... - ...:.:....:._._: _:._ -..,_ _. 1 8 r- -.-_-.-.- "---:------.-" 2 1 ... ~-, 1 ---"":'- DEE.P..·· . NEW N MEAN s 40 0.0000 0.0000 _-_ .. VALUE FREO. OLD 0 40 ' . .. . . ..... .: r: ELK ME A !It N 40 S .3038 .1000 .--,--- .. ---,-.-- .. -.--.--- .. ',,-_._-------- VALUE FREO. 0 1 36 4 -----._:~-.-.. -~---'--_. --------_._._._---------,--NEW f---. i -." ELK __ .---------- 40 .0500 N ME AN VALUE 0 2 FREO. 39 1 _---' ------- S .3162 �-170STRATUM 4 DEER MEAN N 40 '_----- ~.: ...- S -1.6406 ,,7750 ..----.~.~.-. VALUE 0 FREO. 27 ---_._----_ 1 7 .._..__ .. -_. __ .__ -_-_ .• _. 6 3 5 1 2 ·3 4 . 8 3 ..···,1··'.'. 2 1 ~j 7 1 f " ELK> i --vi[iJE----O- . 19 FREO. SQ 4 OLD 28 \41 DEEP N ..... 4.0.:_ --. -. -M-EAN--···-·----·-S~--7"...,-. ·'~·1.-5·484·"-::,-·.<:· ·:····:··:·,·.·7.500 ---.---.----~ VAL UE 0 FREQ. 27 i.. ..... 1 7 ,.. -~.~~--: 2 5 6 3 1 2 . N MEAN 40 •• 0250 VALUE FREQ. 0 1 39 1 .1581 ._--- ----------_._-_._._-- OLD ELK N ME~N S 40 .8750 1.0667 \lAITiE- -b-- C---'2--3-·--4--·--··-··_·· F~EO. 19 --- 12 ... 5 3 1 _---------_. __ ._---- NEW ELK ------N-----M E-A-~----.---.--S---40 00750 VALUE 0 1 FREQo 37 3 .~667 �---- -------- __ --'Ul50 "'11 13 5 STRATUM l OEER I ----. ---. --------------.- ---~ .. N MEAN . S : -40 .. .6750 2.0177 I . I i ._--v -AL-UE-- ·--0- --i---- -2 ---4--12-----FREe. 30 5 3 1 1 .~ N MEAN 40 .7750 .. _.. _.:..c:-; S 1.1655 ··O-------r-----2-----3--S---··-·· ..•.. VAL UE 23··· q 4 3 1 ..• r '<:?':<>::':':'::".l __ ~~_. - ,:~~L~'·:··.-----.:..-'---'- VALUE 0 1 2 4 12 FREe. 31 4 3 1 1 ._--_.__,---.-- .. . -.". -.---. -.-... -l N~~\ ~EE R.··/ .. . _',. -; - ..:-_: "'-"':::"'-~- N 40 ------_._--,- VALUE FREe. OLD '.: _ •...•.:_..-;;. ..2.. _ _j .'. S .0250 .1581 ---~------.----- 1 1 ELK N MfAN 40 .7250 -- VALUE ~--o---l-FREea NEW ._. MEAN 24 q S 1.1544 --2 -- -3--5-3 3 1 ELK --------s- N ME -A"N--.. 40 .0500 .2201 ·-VALUE"--O--l---· FREO. 38 z ...____._. -- -_._------------- -_---- -. -_' I �-172- SO"'I STRATUM 21 DEER EAN"-- -_---- -----------"'-----M 40 5.4000 to.2101 , - ---_------- --------------- -------------_._--VALUE 0 1 2 3 -6 8 9 ---------- ~REOG 21 1 1 5 1 2 3 .3499 ------------_-0 -: _1 2 VALUE -FREO. 38- 1-- STRA.TUM OLD 1 sa 5 ?1 "1{ DEER L_,-- __ NEW " AN-----------s------------- -N----,.fE 40 .. D3500 ~8022 L U{---o-~--i----2--4,--------------------r- -VA 31 FREO. (:, 2 1 , --------------OLD ELI< N r.E h N 40 .0750 --------S 03499 ---'iAl-ue----- 6-----1'---2 ..---.--.-,--.-------FREO. NEW 38- 1 1 ELI< N 40 MEAN 000000 ----------------VA L ur 0 FREO~ 40 s 0.0000 -- -..,....,-,--,--..,....,--,--~- �-173- ._------_----sa ---------"iI STRATUM 4 6 DEE R N MEA'" 40 VA L UE 0 FREO. 16 0.0000 :", :.; ::;'\:':';': ···'··-:.::;:f~::;:::\/? -~-------_;;;...------'-'-r OLD DEER N MEA"J .7000 40 --- ---------, VALUE • FREO. OLD --'--'--_. --~~~------"--~-~~~--.~--~-~~~- 1 2 4 7 ···29 3 5 2 1 fLK N MEAN 40 0.0000 ---c--------.--.--S 0.0000 --VICOE---6----------·--------·------FPEO. 40 ;___. NE'P ELK --;-:----;:----------- N M f I>N 40 0.0000 -vt;-L UE---O------······ FREO. 40 : S 1.4711 ··0 -S-_ ..--- o.ooco ~ .,: . ·1 .:: �-174STRATUM ------------_ .._------ .. DEER N MEAN 40 . 4 8500 S 4 6934 0 VAL UE o FREO. 9 1 5 0 4 2 3 '- 5 2 6 7 1 8 ~ q 10 11 13 , 1 1 1 14 15 111 ELK 40 O()OOOO 000000 OLD DEER \/ALUE o F RE 00 9 DEER NEW --------_. N 40 VALUE FREOo . -- ..-.-.-.-.--.--.- ..-..-.--.---=-.--~-,,---~---=-.~-.-'-----'-=-'--":"'__~-~_;__--'----'-'-'---'----'-' MEAN 02250 0 32 1 "7 04791 2 1 OLD ELK -------·-N- --- -"'-(HJ--- ····--·---S-------··----··-----· 40 OeOGOO 000000 \} ALliE 0 FREOo 40 ----.- ._--_._-_._-_._--_._--_ NEW -l _-----_._-_ .. _-----_ ... _-- .. -_._---- ELK N . --. --- 40 'F1THr---' -------$"-.-----. _.-.----..... -------. 000000 000000 ----V Ai U{ --- - 0---------·----------- FREO •• 40 ----.-- __ -- --... 11 �-175- S TR A TUM 6 DEER MEAN ..__._.__._ ..._~'._. .__ VALUE FREO. --VALUE 0 15 ._.~~_.__:._. __. _'--- : 2 3 1 9 - ._--=---,--,':":'-:_'_','\-:;: 3.4711 2.450.0 :_. ._----- S ' 3 4 __.. ' .~_.:....o.:......_....::.• 5 2 4 2 9 i:: ···•·.····.··· ..•··.·.··•.•••.•• ·.·.t lJ 12 212 0 i i ••••••••••••••• •••••• ••• ••• •••••••. ·....••••. i ••.••• :: FREO.· ·• ••••• ·.·.·33 ',' ..:;-'<:~.:) SO STRATUM 1011 2R OLD DEER i ....... \~~ -"'<"":>'" ___ .3000 VAlllE······O FREO. 35 " _. ,.-::':.-- '_'_- ::'"'.::; ._c · .. --.----.--1 S 1.0427 N 40 ._. I ! 1 2 2 6 2 1 -_. -_::....._ ..__ ._- ------_. ---' ..---_._---_._----- ..~---~------. ---,_--_. ! OLD ", ELK -------N--------MEA N---------S·--·-----40 .2000 .4641 --v"ALTIE----6-----}-----i FREO. NEW 33 6 ---- ---i --------- --.----------------.-. 1 Ell< -.-----"N --- ---ME Ajif-----S 40 0.0000 VA L UE 0 FREO. 40 ----------- 0.0000 --.---------~--- �-176- SO '-11 7 DEER ---._._ --~~---l ~~j~~~'~'-' --~-.~1q!-.. .-.'-.. 4~-~ ° 22 .• _._. .. _ VALUE FREQo ~ .. __ .. _. 1 2 3 5 6 7 115 7 2 _ ? 1 2 3 1 L : - . ' . , . . -- ._ ~---._-_.:..- -. __ . ELK :·····1 . .. F REO s . ','J .. -. '--~-'-- '-, ,'--_ .. ·40 I 0 •••··• •• ... .1 '-----_.STRATUM SO 7 OEER .. N... 40 MI _ MEAN_------_ -._ _.---,,--,--,.,S·:·'····:·· ------- 2 ~8266 . < 1~6000 0 22 VALUE FREQo --..,-----::----- 1 8 2 2 3 1 5 2 7 2 "':"! ---.~ __:_.-.' . L4 ----'-_. -------._--N MEAN 40 .1500 VALUE FREO. 6 2 -- _---_._--- NE W DEER OLD ....__ .__ . 0.0000 °. VALUE OLD .._~__ MEA~ 0,,0000 N 40 --'-. ._J 0 35 1 4 2 1 --- --. ------- -- -,---,_.- ELK -M"fuC-----S _···· .. ---N·--. 40 VA L UE FREQ. 0.0000 O.OOCO 0 40 NEW ELK _. _-_ ..... N __ ._-_. __Mfa~ __ ._--_.- S- --.- 40 ._- - . 000000 '----vATU E --0-' FREQ. 40 OoOOCO .._ ._----_.- �-177- STRATUM 1 $0 1q "41 DEER -~--M-EA '--. 40. -.:"-' ... S "c": N.... --..----:, 1.3250 ---- -- --"---'-' VALUE 0 1 FREO. 4 24 2.4007 .• ' 4 3 4 2 4 ·7 1 ELK . :. "_:.-::::/:::.~:.:::.;::.:; :.J:\/:: :\/ .' ....'... N 40 0.0000 --_.--:-,.-----,·.· .•c. VALUE F RE 0., ···:·· .....;:.:~.:.<:(/-.::..:: STRATUM VALUE FREO. • :.---- I'll 7 o 24 1 4 2 3 2 4' -.-:•.• ::--~.,..-.---._:_.-,.--. . 19 i Ii .i 4 4 -.:-.---' •..•...... ,.:.: .:···:· .••• c.··~··--~'1 ',' DEER' NEW . ,-------- N 40 s MEA~ 0.0000 VALUE 0 FREQ. 40 OLD : ~. 0.0000 ELK 40 s ME AN .... N 0.0000' 0.0000 ._._.__ ..__ ... _-----VALUE 0 I=REO. 40 NEW ELK ----------_ .. _---N MEA~ 40 0.0000 --_ .•_-----_.-------_ VALUE 0 FREO. 40 . S 0.0000 •...... _----------- I �-178ST~ATUM 7 DEER . MEAN N 40 4.40QO ----_. __ _._--------_. . o VALUE F RE O. 1 5 13 ..................•.••..••••..•.•.....••••.•.••.• ELK --_._------"'-4 3 5 4 3 6 1 3 8 9 10 12 1 1 1. 1 14 15 18 121 : •••••.•....••...... ----N----m1f 40 .1250 .4634 -V AlTJf---o-:-:~r'--- 2 FREO. 37 2 OLD DEEP -- ~.--.----------_.-----:-._----_._--------6 ... -.: VALUE FREO. ____ .._._. 0 33 1 6 l' . .. ... .. .__ ... ....;._'---......c.c..---'-_ OLD ELI< ------N---· MfAN-' ----.,--S ----. -.-------. ; I 40 .1250 I .4634 ..'-\JATUE '---a-Y' ---"2---.-.-----.--- --...---- Il~ i FREO. 37 1 ! 2 ----_._--- ---_-------- ..- ----_._-NE W f L K ! II ----- -N--·-'.. ,-FAN----·- - - ··---S------ -j 40 0.0000 0.0000 ---- -- -_ .._._---------_._-----_._--_ I, VALUE FREO. 0 40 I I ... _--_._-_._-_-------- 21 1 �-179- STRATUM SO""1 8 11 DEE R VALUE 0 FREO. 12 1 1 2 2 3 4 3 6 8 1 5 1 'q 1 ELK MEA 40 .8500 ---------VALUE 0 FREO. 1 .... 2 q j. 23 STR/duM OLD 1.3117 3 2 SO MI 8 4.· 5·· 2· ···1· 11 DEER VALUE 0 FREO. 12 NEW DEER N 40 VALUE 0 1 2 4 3 J} ... 1 ··3 FREO. 30 1 .. __ ..-._-_. __ ._--_ .. __ .-._.-- ---~ -.,,_. ----,~----- ... -----. . ;.'. ..' -. - OlO ":", ' . -_. _":',-- ELK ---,-------~r--Mh-t.J----- ------S--. -:----.------.---. 40 NEW .8500 1.3117 ELK - ----------N------M-E AN----------s-------··---·· -----40 0.0000 VATITE----6------FREO. 40 0.0000 .<....: �-180- .-. ~_'_-.--.'-'-'''N'-- .------ MEA-~l------.- .-.._-- --~-----.--~ 40 3. 1 ,00 o ALlJE RE o , 1 1': 4 • A75 6 .. .. ,'..: <..:.:~.:<: :~::..:.:...•..'..':...•...,::::~..•.: .....' . ,: < .'. < :: ':.:/,':: .. :; -. .'}: \.: . .. \. 2' -- 3--5-'- - 6-7---~'-e:-N -~-'1-O--1_:'4--'--"~2-="2 ~_;,,_;;;"'2 3 3 1 1 1 ] 1 2 1 : 1I< ~ 40 --'---- -'- MEAN ...._- -'-"-----::.-'-'--_;;_ ..;.:___;;-'---'------'-"':---'---'~~-'-"'-'-;,._;_=....;"---'--~ •')305 .2250 v ~-lU·E---O--·1----2--· FREO •. OLD 33 5 2 DEEP N' MEAN 40 3.0500 .,' ." .. :"; _. '-:: . ". ~Ew .': DEEP ·..·----·-N--- ----",- 40 E'AN-' .lOOO ::' -.. --. S ..cC_._....-~-'.--~-.- FREO. 36 OLD ELK NEW ELK. -':",.:,---,---,-"-,--,---,--"__;_.=;.,,~,,-,-,-,-,,,-,-_;_-,-_.;.:_----,,,- .3038 ---vA·CU'E·--··--O---l----------- '_-. :.. " -. -.--~----- 4 N--·----r,iE'A·~r--- ·---s---·--_·-· .. 40 0.0000 0.0000 --VAL UE-0--' -----.-.----.--. -'---_-'---. FREO. 40 �-181- ------~--.---------~TRATUM SO ~l q --~.-.----- 7 DEE R .,..EAl::j------- ---S---- N 40 .3.2500 o VALUE F RE O. ELK ~---.. ..... _: .5 2 3 5 11 . . . . -"-..- ._---,j 7 " ·1 4 ? 1 12 17 1 1 29 1 I , ....------.-.~-~lI ---------_ .. _---------------_._ -.-_.-~.-.-.-.~ .. -- ._- ) ...:,~·I .. N 40 I 1 12 .5:2854 MEAN o.ooeo ----vi"LUF.--· S 0.0000 ~.-----. ---------:~.-.- ..-... -- ----- .....- -.--.- F REO •• OLD DEER N 4.0 ....... __ .• ..:._._ ME A N 2.4000 - •• __ .• _._ .. VALUE ,::,_,-- 0 1 F FE O. 15 . 9 c:... ..__ .• __ ..•• .__ -'-;__;_ .. _~ .__;__;;;_:,..c.:...;'-= ...--'--"-;~ ____' ,, ,--. -~--:- .. .. ;'--' . NJ:W :-',' DEER ::';.::.:',.; ---N-;--· -ME 40 hN---·-· .9750 .'_", -.:~-~-'" _. _._-,.: .. :.::.:.> ..:.-.>::.;(: .....':;::. :.::::.....; S L 3299 FREO. - 12· 7' ··2 . 1·· '.' ..• ·.····i: ••. .- -_ .. - -- - .- ~-.-------.---~-...-.---.-.-~., '·18 --- .. . ';l 1 ·--iJAiuE~·7~-----C·----·2~_y:·~-·-~-.-. ---y-.-. -, > . "',,-·1 . ':::1 ...... :.. :>j ... .:': : OLD ELK N- --- --!iEA N 40 0.0000 VALUE 0 FREO. 40 .--- ---- --- s _. ------____....,.., 0.0000 -~-'-.--- ._--------- - --- ------ -- -----._--- ._---- ._--- NE W ELK N 40 MEAN . o.ooon -vAt. Uf:·-O------·· FREO. 40 S 0.0000 __ ._---------- _. �-182- -s-r-R-A-r Ij"M---9-'-S=-O-M I --io---- DE E R. .•-~- ..- --_ .._--' -' --' -"-.~.~,-.-:~.------' VALUE "_' 0 FREO. 22 1 8 .~....;...;! 2 7 3 1 4 2 . ELI<. N MEAN 40 0.0000 VALUE FREO. OLD ..... s 0.0000 0 40 DEEP ---. -,tf.; ---eM E-~N----:--~---·-:-4 o VALUE FREO. ~7000' 0 23 1 9 2 '5 3 3 ---.----.----"7--:':."-.-:""--~-:---------'---- NEW DEE R N MEAN 40 .1250 S .3349 -VAL U E---O--- -i-' -----------.-----F R EQ. 35 5 --------~--.--.-.--.--:--.--.--------__1 OLD ELK ----,-,-_. ----N·. MEAN 40 0.0000 VAL UE 0 FREIJ. 40 -_._-----S 0.0000 ------ __ .__ ._- NE W ELK N 40 MEAN 0.0000 '----V-A l-UI--6---- FREO. 40 s 0.0000 �-183- -s'TR"fi'fIM--'-'Q--s6-' My--;-(2-------.--- ---.--- DEER .··----4-C'7"6--~~-~~:·;~-·· i: -'---~'~'~-B'~'~-----------' .... ,.,., ,\.y} VALUE F RE o , o 1 10 4 __ ..;__. .~ __ .. 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 1 _:c_~;_.:..___ ... _. _. ~_~ 6 -2 i R, 4 :;\; ....•..........•.........•. ._~ '.' _""""_;.;;_---'----'-"'"'-.-'-"'-""-'=--'-~-----'_--j 11 4 q 1 12 1 19 1 22 1 27 1 44 1 ELK ______ " __ . _. -'- . --'-'-_--" N MEh~ S 40 0.0000 0.0000 VALUE· 0 --'--. -. -. ---'-.--"'-'. ....•••.•••• ';....•.•••••••.•••••• ,•••••. r ••.·:•••::: •••• '..•":::.): ..•••.•••.•••••••••.•.• '•'••i.··. f··.•··.;' ..••..•...•.•.•...•.....•........• '..'}.•...•••.. ,••••.•••.•••.•••...••.•••••••••••.•.•.•••••• '.:~_ ••..• ,i FRE 0.' .40 .. __ ,~-~=== .-:::---- ' .'_..,.;; ..•. "'... :"'::' :.~:::::"" ..•. ,,,- .. . _" .:::. -.'.::':'.::::.;?'":;:.;:.' - :-_ . "_- 9 STRATUM OLD "_ ... DEER N 40 ._--_. _. ---~------.--'VAL F RE Q. NEW DEER _. ._ .._. MEAN 40 .4500 _. ' ._. .-"-~...: 0 1 2 3 30 3 ···6 1 ELK ------_ .. _._ .._---_.:------_. --" MEAN 40 0.0000 NEW __ __ ._---_ _-----------..,,------,......,...-.....,S . .. 0.0000 -----_. --::-------------_. __ . -------- a VALUE FREO. 40 ELK -----N----riEAN---------s-· 40 '0.0000 0.0000 -..··'\FATUE·----·O------------ ..--------·--·---· F PE O. 40 __ __; .8458 FREO. N .c_"-_;:__--'--._ ..;._"-~..;."'_..;., ....-...:.......o •..;.:;....,..;...o;;c--'---'-._..;.,'--"'-_~._--".;..'-_;__---'-_---'--'- S VALUE OLD .- ._._. N ---- �---_._-----_ STRATUM -184- _------------------SO ~I 13 10 .._ .. D~ER 13 14 111 ............... '_. -'_-~.' ~_;..;.;_ ~_~;,__-::-::--__;__;;__;;_,, _ _;__--,-,__;_ _ __;_~_--..;," 15 18 1 '...-.;.:.... : ,',<;,:::,,:;;:<;::::/ :,:..;:,:.,- , "".••.. "':.:,...;., ...•.... >:•... ,' ,.::':::': ..•••... I/i {:; __ ~: ii STRATUM OLD DEEP .- ~-~i~0T'T·-~·?S;;~:--::--V2~::z;~?TI'03017'0TIIY1537T:?i7T1 ,.....---:-N---·-- -11 E..~~-.-. 40 ---.- -.-. ---~"...,.. __ ._---::--...._,..----------.--. . VALUE 0·· 1 FREO. 3~ :1 __ _---_. -.-._._- --' . .--_ -_._-_._-----:: OLD --.~ . ,- ..•.. '-' :_._--- Ell< ~- MEA N s 40 .4500 • 6 3~ 5 --VALL'E--'-- o-----T---'?-·----------------- ..-..-----FREO. NEW 25 l~ 3 ELK ----s ;-.--·---·N------MT.i t-j- ---'_' 40 0.0000 .------ .... _ •. VALUE _- --_ 0 FREO. 40 ..... G.oooe - ----.... _-_ _----- _-- ---_._------::---:::---:--. ... .. �-185STRATUM SO '11 10 2~ DEER -'---'-N ------M{AN---------- 40 4.5250 --S----~--------· '---. 5.8000 .~.:' ".;ELK . M-E4N------·-..:.----S- ---=-N:-' -- 40 " ',' ----------- ... ~~---- :::I;( .' ': . . :.:.:- .,_ .. ;. :',:' ':";:'::;;'_:'" ," ••••.;..c_...•.•.._.. "'-'-'--'------'-- , 0.0000 0.0000 OLD DEER ·N-·--·-~-M-EA~40 4.4250 --VA LtJf-'~-b~ ······l~·-~~~-~--... - --~~~~"'-~... -..-'-.~-:"---'-'-=--::c-'--'"-~'__::"__'__'_":'--'-~=-=-=---__::__'_:::::'__~=__~ FREO. 11 9 4 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .~---.-----.--.-..--.,....-- NEW DEER ··------N-..-----,.;4-TAN-----40 .1000 S .3038 --- V A CUE- -6-:--- 1 FREO. 36 4 .-'-_._---- --.---:.- ._._----_.----._--_._-----_. ---- ._----_._---_... __ -~ . OLD ELK ----N------M E A N----·-----·-S·-··------- .-- ... -----40 O.OCOO 0.0000 ···---\,.Al-UE-·----- ·-O------·-··~·- -.- _..__ r_. ···_··· • - .. -.-.- ... ---- FREO •. 40 NEW ELK -------N------ME 40 A-fC' 0.0000 VALUE 0 ,F REO. 40 ----------S-·----·-··---- 0.0000 _.---. ---------_ �. STRATUM 11 ..=.lg..u.:~ SO '11 _ 14 DEER ·---N---·----MEA-:tiI---· 2~4250 40. ---_._-_-- VALUE FREO. --'--'--$-'--- . 3.7682 ... 0 13 •._. ----.~. 1 2 9 5 ~'---., --- 3 4 5 1 4 4 --------.-, 1 -"""7""----.. ----.- ..-. :-:-:'-~~ ELK MEA"! .0250 N 40 STRATUM ------~-;-:-;_-·7 S .1581. 11 --.. -_.-. - N M E A~ 4C .• 3000 .-VA CUE T--::'o-. '-~l~---c--z- -_ -. 3 F R E Q. OLD 33 j. _J _":': .: .- ~ 1 ELK --·----N----MFAN-------f----40 0.0000 0.0000 . ----_._--_ .._._-_._._-----_ .._-_._._---_._-------_ ... . VALUE F!(EO. NEW 0 40 ELK MTA-N--------S-------·--·-··-·--- ·----N .0250 40 VAL UE FREO. a 39 1 1 .15111 -: -. - -----~ , . �-187- STRATUM 11 DEER ------ N i '. ------s----- ---. ME A N- 40· .8250 :';:> ··1.5002 . : <0 ~---2------4--· 5-~~~: VAL~ FR~O. 26 6 2 4 1 1 ELK ----. N 40 s MEAN o.oeco 0.0000 VAL U{--· 0-------,--------- FREQ. 40 SO 111 I 8 OLD DEER ---.--- N----- --.-~.---. ~.-------.-.-....S \> : ... .. •.. 1.3395' .: .. --'[AI uE-c~o·---f~2--4 FREO. 27 : ..;-:._' -'_:'::: ; 6 3 ---5":--;':' 3 1 NEw.:··OFER 40 ~EAN .1000 '-------,.--.,VALUE 0 FREO. 38 2 N S .4414 2 -------"-------- OLD ELK ----------_ .. __ -_. N ~EAN . 40 ,---_._ .. 0.0000 .. 0.0000 .-- --_ .. __ ._-, ... _._--------_ . VALUE FREe. NEW __ __ ._--_ _._----S ELK ----N--.. - ME-A-N40 0.0000 -VALUE' --0-----FREQ. 40 --- .. - .. 0 40 --------s 0.0000 �-188- BERTHOUD ,__., I MILE + N Fig. 1. Twenty-six proportionally and randomly selected square mile 2 (2.59 km2) sample units among 11 strata sampling about 310 mile (803 km2) of G.M.U. 20 winter range whose upper limit is defined by the 8,500 ft (2,591 m) contour line. Deer and elk pellet groups are counted and removed from 40, 10-m2, permanent sample plots randomly located in 4, 10-plot segments within each sample unit. �-189- Fig. 2. A representative sample of the subsampling plan of the square mile (2.59 km2) sample unit. The 4 horizontal lines are the randomly located segments, each consisting of 10, 10 m2 circular, permanent plots spaced at 66ft. (20.1 m) intervals on transects I and 6. �-190- BERTHOUD ,___. I MILE N Fig. 3. Distribution of a proportionally allocated, stratified (by 2 relative density) and randomly selected sample of 93 ~-mile (.648 km2) quadrats on which mule deer and elk were counted to provide the "minimum bound estimate" of their densities, February 21, to April 7, 1979. �-191- ! £1 II ._._.-i-._._._. I 7 -.-.-.~j_.-. I j i j'l9 ! BERTHOUD -- + I MILE N Fig. 4. The randomly selected locales of 20 herd structure routes are indicated by their assigned numbers (smaller) among 15 strata. The boundaries of strata 6-15, however, are in error as drafted. �-192- Fig. 5. 2 A representative herd structure route. The square mile (2.59 km ) is the randomly selected locale within stratum 2. The route was laid to see the maximum number of deer, the only stipulation being that the route had to include some portion of the randomly selected square mile (2.59 km2). �July, -193.- JOB PROGRESS State of Project 1979 REPORT C.=..O.:..,;L::,.O:...:RAD=:....:O:__ _ No. Work Plan No. Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Job No. 2 ~5~(~S~E~) _ Job Title __~E~x~p~e~r~im~e~n~t~a~l~D~e~e~r~I~nuv~e~n~t~o~r~y~-~S~o~u~t~h~e~a~s~t~R~e~g~i~o~n~ __~ _ Period Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: Brian Gross, Rick Binford, Dave Roche, Bill Kendall, Howard Geduldig, Eric Shropshire, Charlie Wallmo, Dr, David C, Bowden~. and Thomas M. Pojar. ABSTRACT Permanently marked pellet group plots that had been cleared pI;'eviously were revisited during this segment and the newly deposited groups were counted and cleared. This process was accomplished on 24 randomly selected square miles of the total 1026 square miles in the study area near Canon City, Data from this effort were used to estimate the relative efficiency of several sampling designs under consideration. Herd structure was estimated by walking 27 routes throughout the study area during t.he period December 11 to December 17. This season~ 272 deer were observed; 260 of which were classified; 45 bucks, 156 does, and 59 fawns for a ratio of 29B;100D;38F. Compared to the 1977 ratios of 18B;100D:66F~ the B:D ratio is not significantly different but the F:D ratio is significantly (:P < ,005) lower, Comparison of three years' data (1976-1978) indicates there was no different (P > .10) in the B:D ratios (1976 data, 30B: 100D:43F) and the F:D ratio in 1977 (66F:I00D) was significantly higher (P < .10) than in 1976 (43F:100D) or 1978 (38F:I00D). The 1976 and 1978 F:D ratios did not 'differ significantly (P > .10). ��-195- EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY SOUTHEAST REGION Thomas M. Pojar P. N. OBJECTIVE Design appropriate sampling and analytical procedures necessary to reliably estimate deer numbers and buck:doe:fawn ratios of selected management units in the southeast region of the state. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Design and execute a preliminary sampling system to estimate pellet group density on Game Management Units 58 and 581. 2. Design a sampling scheme based on the means variances. and deer density strata estimated from objective 1 capable of estimating mean deer numbers + 20 percent at a = 0.10. 3. Sample buck:doe:fawn walking routes. ratios on 12 or more randomly METHODS selected. deer all-day AND MATERIALS Pellet Group Density The sampling design within a square mile was described in Pojar (1978). Eight additional square miles were established (plots marked and cleared) during this segment bringing the total sample square miles to 32. All of the 14 blocks (strata) contain two sample square miles with the four blocks (6. 7. 8, and 10) that exhibited an easily definable higher density (Table 1) of pellet groups assigned one additional square mile each. The data from the 24 square miles that had cleared 'permanent plots were used to calculate the expected variance. assuming for the time being that the addition of eight more sample square miles will not change the variance drastically. Timing trials were conducted to help determine the most time-efficient sampling scheme. These time trials included: time to search plot. time to locate plot at a one chain interval and at a two chain interval. An electronic digital stop watch was used to measure the time it took to search a sample of the plots and to measure the time it took to locate stakes at one and two chain intervals. �-196- Table 1. Block Density of pellet groups by block, 1978 data. Number Square Mile 2 No. Mi Sampled Mean NO.2 Groups/Mi S2 1 78 2 15.5 84.5 2 74 2 49.5 264.5 3 72 2 47.5 924.5 4 77 2 23.0 968.0 5 80 1 32.00 3241/ 6 78 2 100.0 450.0 7 78 2 169.5 26,220.5 8 70 2 106.5 13,612.5 9 80 2 35.5 12.5 10 64 1 94.0 2,796.Q}:j 11 81 0 12 66 2 44.0 0 13 57 2 28.5 544.5 14 71 2 50.0 8.0 l/Estimated from an average coefficient of variation over blocks of 56.257%. Since some of the sampling schemes considered would use plot spacing of two chains rather than one chain it was important to know if the plot location time differed between one and two chain intervals. Therefore, in each of 13 blocks the following procedure was conducted. Perpendicular to the starting point of the first transect encountered, the two-person crew installed a short transect (using a hand-held compass and a steel surveyors chain) consisting of eight stakes. The first stake was set at a one chain distance, the next at a two chain distance and so on until eight stakes were installed. Fourteen such transects were established. �-197- At the end of the field season a two-person crew that had not installed the stakes for a particular transect recorded their time to locate each stake using only a hand-held compass and pacing for distance. Herd Structure Estimates As in the past, the study used the method described by Bowden and Anderson (1976) to estimate the herd structure. Again, as in the past, I modified their technique by using only one observer per route rather than two. DESCRIPTION See Pojar OF AREA (1977). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pellet Group Density New pellet groups were counted and cleared from permanent plots that had been previously cleared on 24 sample square mile. Permanent plots were marked and cleared during this segment on eight additional square miles, giving a total of 32 square miles with permanent plots (Table 2). The first opportunity for data analysis with a full compliment of sample square miles will be next segment. However, the variance based on the data from 24-square miles was used in examining various within-square mile sampling schemes. This same analysis will be done next segment when data from all 32 square miles are available to verify the initial findings. Search time was recorded on each of the first ten plots encountered on eleven blocks. The times obtained were from a good representation of the various vegetative, terrain, and pellet group density conditions encountered across the study area. The mean search time per plot was 173.63 seconds with a standard error of 11.21 (n = 106). The mean time to locate stakes at one chain intervals, was 29.44 seconds (n = 49) and to locate stakes at two chain intervals took 63.36 seconds (n = 49) (Table 3). Since the travel time between stakes at two chain intervals would be twice that of one chain interval the recorded time for the two chain test was divided by two to make it comparable to the one chain test. When the adjustment for travel time is made, there is little practical difference in search time between one and two chain intervals (29.44 vs. 31.68). This is contrary to the results of a similar test by Anderson and Bowden (1978) and is probably due to the denser ground cover and rougher terrain found on their test area. A linear regression was run on the number of new groups found per square mile on the cleared plots this segment and number found when first clearing the plots (i.e. uncleared plots) last segment (Fig. 1). The correlation was significant (P < .01) with a slope of 3.72 which was highly significantly �-198- Table 2. Number of new pellet groups found in 1978 by transect, section and block. For the legal description of the sample sections, see Pojar (1978). Block Section Transect Number Number of Groups 1 5 5 2 10 20 2 3 7 6 1 32 6 29 5 24 10 14 1 9 6 1 60 41:./ 6 15 5 1 10 0 3 33 8 12 2 14 7 18 5 28 10 17 5 35 10 80 5 45 10 40 2 103 7 24 63 2 52 67 3 36 64 4 7 54 5 67 26l:! 6 6 33 70~_/ Mean Groups Per Mi2 Variance 15.5 84.5 49.5 264.5 47.5 924.5 23.0 968.0 38.5 84.5 109.0 468.0 ----------------------------------------------------------------_------------ �-199- Table 2. Number of new pellet groups found in 1978 by transect, section and block. For the legal description of the sample sections, see Pojar (1978) . (Continued) . Block Section Transect Number Number of Groups 7 21 4 213 9 71 5 24 10 31 1 12 6 36 5 24 10 0 4 84 9 105 5 34 10 38 1 19 6 14 3 16 8 25 5 41 10 53 5 49 10 51 5 32 10 57 4 35 9 22 1 0 6 2 5 30 10 14 1 37 6 7 51 75l:-1 8 18 35 6S'!) 9 48 78 10 18 43'!:/ 3c}:/ 11 1c}:/ 472:/ 12 45 46 Mean Groups Per Mi2 Variance 129.0 18,031.0 95.0 7,203.0 37.0 32.0 94.3 30.3 29.5 1,512.5 44.0 0.0 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ �-200- Table 2. Number of new pellet groups found in 1978 by transect, section and block. For the legal description of the sample sections, see Pojar (1978). (Continued). Block Section Transect Number Number of Groups 13 10 5 23 10 24 1 7 6 5 5 24 10 28 1 22 6 26 36 14 49 59 Mean Groups Per Mi2 Variance 29.5 612.5 50.0 8.0 II Based on only 28 plots, 52 stakes had been removed. llThese sections first cleared in 1978 so the observer was forced to make the judgement concerning whether or not the groups were "new" or "old". Mean number groups per square mile 62.5937, SD 56.40, S 2 = 3,180.96. �• 200 1 (73,284) 180 00 I 0"1 I •. 1601 I-l 140 r--. ...-l .~ ::E: N Cl) / / Y = 17.40 + 3.72x r = .8998 / p... f/J P. ;:l 0 120 I-l t.!> .!J Cl) ~ ~ I 100 N o ,_. Cl) I p... ~ Cl) 80 z 60 40 20 I , • 0 0 20 Figure 1. 80 2 New Pellet Groups per Mi 1977 40 60 --.- 100 Relation of the number of new pellet groups counted on uncleared (1977 data) and cleared (1978 data) plots. �-202- different (P < .001) from zero. This is added evidence (Pojar 1977) that permanent plots are necessary to get an accurate estimate of the number of new groups. Table 3. Results of time trials and two chain intervals. (in seconds) to locate stakes at one Range Mean Standard Deviation Max Min One Chain 29.44 28.50 190.00 11.00 Two Chain 63.36 69.48 418.70 24.40 Relative efficiency of several within-square mile sampling systems were evaluated in terms of time efficiency and in terms of reducing the overall variance. The time to read plots and travel from plot to plot was taken from the field measurements, while the time to travel from headquarters in Canon City and to locate transects was estimated based on field experience. Table 4. Comparison of the efficiency of six sampling schemes in relation to current sampling scheme. The constraint that 100 to 120 persons days per year are available to accomplish the work has been applied in all cases. Number of Transects Plots/ Trans. Plot Spacing (Chains) PlotS/Mi2 2 80 1 160 1 10 2 1 10 1 Total Plots Variance Reduction (%) 28 4480 Standard 10 150 1500 40% 1 10 153 1530 38% 20 1 20 110 2200 35% 2 10 1 20 93 1860 35% 2 40 2 80 52 4160 34% 2 40 1 80 52 4160 30% 2 Total Mi �-203- By sub-sampling from the 160 plots per square mile and calculating the variance, it was apparent that to more efficiently estimate the pellet group density of the total area, it would be necessary to put less effort in each square mile and sample more square miles. The relative efficiency of six potential sampling schemes are outlined in Table 5. The greatest reduction in variance is accomplished by maximizing the number of square miles sampled even though the total number of plots searched is only about one-third the number searched under current sampling. Herd Structure Estimates The third season of collecting herd structure data via the all-day walking route technique was completed (Table 5). Three experienced observers and myself walked 27 routes during the period December 11 and 17. We observed 272 deer, 260 of which were classified, 45 bucks, 156 does, and 59 fawns. In comparing the three years data (Figures 2 and 3), the fawn:doe ratio was significantly (P < .10) higher in 1977 than in 1976 or 1978. There was no difference (P > .10) between the ratios in 1976 and 1978. There was no difference (P > .10) in any of the buck:doe ratios. For comparison of annual variation the number of routes required to estimate the herd structure ratios within a specified confidence level and within a specified percentage of the true ratio are presented in Table 6. LITERATURE Anderson, CITED A. E., and D. C. Bowden. 1978. Experimental deer inventory, northeast region. Job Prog. Rept., pp. 225-244. In Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. 137-29~ Bowden, D. C., and A. E. Anderson. 1976. Evaluation of herd structure methodology. Job. Prog. Rept., pp. 507-554. In Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. 253-561-.Pojar, T. M. 1977. Experimental deer inventory, southeast region. Job Prog. Rept., pp. 275-286. In Colo. Div. of Wildl. Game Res. Rept., July, Part 2. 125-305. Pojar, T. M. 1978. Experimental deer inventory, southeast region. Job Prog. Rept., pp. 265-277. In Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 2. 137-297. �-204- Table 5. The 1978 herd structure data from the Canon City study area. Block Section Date B D F Unc Total Observer 1 5 12-12 63 12-12 o o o o o o o o HG 1 o o 2 52 12-12 4 11 1 1 17 TP 2 67 12-12 3 3 o 1 7 CW 3 36 12-13 2 11 9 o 22 TP 3 64 12-13 o o o o o CW 4 17 12-13 1 o HG 54 12-13 o o o o 1 4 o o o ES 5 6 12-15 2 9 2 2 15 HG 5 67 12-15 4 o o 1 5 ES 6 6 12-14 2 o o o 2 HG 6 33 12-14 o o o o ES 7 7 12-17 6 23 8 o o 37 TP 7 21 12-11 6 39 11 2 58 TP & CW 8 18 12-14 o o o o o CW 8 35 12-14 2 14 6 1 23 TP 9 48 12-16 o o o o HG 9 78 12-17 1 5 1 7 ES 10 18 12-16 o o o ES 10 43 12-15 2 2 TP 11 19 12-15 o o o o o o o o 4 2 o 6 CW 11 47 12-17 2 12 7 2 23 HG 12 45 & 46 12-17 1 1 o o 2 CW 13 10 12-16 6 8 8 o 22 TP 13 36 12-16 3 14 4 2 23 CW 14 49 12-11 o o o o o HG 14 59 12-11 o o o o o ES E 45 156 59 12 272 x = 1.661 SE = 2.019 C.V. = .8254 ES 5.778 2.185 .444 x 10.074 9.044 3.464 .751 SE 14.188 .6388 .6307 .592 C.V. .710 �-205- Table 6. Comparison of annual variation in the number of routes to estimate herd structure at three given confidence levels and within three specified percentage levels of the true ratio (x). 1976 1977 1978 Buck:doe Confidence level Buck:doe Confidence level Buck:doe Confidence level X 95 . 90 80 95 90 80 95 -, 90 80 5 5066 3497 2082 1180 813 483 1853 1276 758 10 1267 875 521 295 203 121 463 319 189 20 317 219 130 74 51 30 115 80 47 Fawn: doe Confidence Level Fawn:doe Confidence level Fawn: doe Confidence level 95 90 80 95 90 80 95 90 80 5 983 678 404 211 145 86 1168 804 478 10 246 170 101 52 36 22 292 201 119 20 62 44 26 13 9 5 73 50 30 X �FAWN:DOE RATIO 80 70 60 Ul <ll 0 ~ 0 0 •.....• 50 40 l-l <ll p.., Ul ~ t1j I N 30 o 0I J:<.o 20 10 0 1976 1977 YEAR Figure 2. Fawn:doe ratio with 90 percent confidence interval. 1978 �50 rJ) aJ 0 Q 0 0 .-4 J.< aJ p.. 40 30 1 -.; -------1 20 rJ) § co r:r.. 10 0 1976 1977 YEAR Figure 3. Buck:doe ratio with 90 percent confidence interval. 1978 I N 0 -...J I ��July, 1979 -209- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO Deer-Elk Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Investigations Job No. 2 Experimental Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT Deer Inventory - Piceance ~_5_C Basin ~ Northwest _ Region July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 D. Freddy, T. Kaminski, D. Bowden. L. Robinson, W. Erickson, R. Bartmann, ABSTRACT Density of new pellet groups was estimated on each of 10 square-mile sample units using equal numbers of permanently staked pellet plots and temporary plots. There was no significant difference in numbers of new pellet groups peT square-mile between types of sample plots (P < .05). There were 55.70 ± 4.50 (SE) and 57.50 ± 4.00 (SE) new groups. per square-mile on temporary and permanent plots, respectively. Time to complete a transect was 65.8 ± 2.3 (SE) minutes for temporary transects and 79.7 + 2.1 (SE) minutes for permanent transects. ��-211- EXPERIMENTAL DEER INVENTORY-PICEANCE BASIN-NORTHWEST REGION David J. Freddy P. N. OBJECTIVE Design appropriate sampling and analytical procedures to reliably deer numbers in the Piceance Basin, Game Management Unit 22. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES Determine the efficiency of permanent and temporary pellet group densities in pinyon-juniper woodland. METHODS Methods have been presented estimate plots in estimating AND MATERIALS in detail in Freddy (1978). Criteria in 1979 for subjectively "aging" new pellet groups on temporary plots were: 1) individual pellets associated in recognizeable groups; 2) pellets usually dark, intensely, and uniformly colored; 3) sheen present on nearly the entire surface of most pellets; 4) pellet surface usually smooth in texture; and 5) cracking of pellet surface uncommon. Criteria for old groups were: 1) individual pellets not always in recognizeable groups; 2) color of pellets faded and often "bleached" gray on at least one surface; 3) sheen seldom present but occasionally occurred on bottom surfaces of pellets; 4) pellet surface usually rough in texture; 5) cracking of pellet surface common; and 6) pellets often settled into duff. Criteria for new pellet groups were developed from examining known new pellet groups collected in October, December, February, and April 1978-79 and placed during these months on "aging" plots within 5 microsights. Groups were examined in late April to determine appropriate cr~teria. Criteria for old groups were developed from examining pellet groups placed on "aging" plots within the same 5 microsights during winter of 1977-78. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The permanent plot test was conducted from 26 April through 30 May. Two persons working as a team evaluated 2 permanent and 2 temporary transects daily. There was no significant difference in numbers of new pellet groups per square-mile found on temporary and permanent plots (P < .05). There were 55.70 + 4.50 (SE) and 57.50 + 4.00 (SE) new groups per-square-mile on temporary and permanent plots, respectively. These data differ from 1978 when temporary plots significantly inflated the number of new pellet groups per square7mile (Freddy 1978). ~ �-212- In 1979, time to complete a transect was 65.8 + 2.3 (SE) minutes for temporary transects and 79.7 ± 2.1 (SE)minute;-for permanent transects. Only 2 of 500 permanently restaked in approximately Table 1. transects April-May staked plots were missing. Missing the same location and recleared. plots were Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent on 10, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, 1979. Square-mile Sample Unit Transecta New Pellet Groups Transect 4-18 1 15 2 10 3 16 4 9 5 9 6 6 7 9 8 17 9 12 10 11 61 4-19 New Pellet Groups 53 1 10 2 17 3 3 4 9 5 8 6 14 7 9 8 10 9 16 10 12 46 4-30 b 62 1 17 2 11 3 12 4 17 5 26 6 16 7 15 8 17 9 9 10 19 L: 79 L: 80 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-213- Table 1. Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent transects on 10, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, April-May 1979. (Cont'd). Square-mile Sample Unit Transecta New Pellet Groups Transect 4-31 1 11 2 2 3 21 4 8 5 8 6 12 7 5 8 8 9 11 10 13 56 4-12 1 9 2 6 3 5 4 10 5 5 6 17 7 10 8 16 9 11 10 25 74 1 9 2 11 3 11 4 11 5 11 6 6 7 8 8 5 9 9 10 5 48 4-24 New Pellet Groups 43 40 4-13 b 38 1 13 2 14 3 15 4 12 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-214- Table 1. Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent transects on 10, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, April-May 1979. (Cont'd). Square-mile Sample Unit New Pellet Groups Transect 5 21 6 10 7 11 8 12 9 19 10 12 Transect a b New Pellet Groups 4-24 (Cont'd) 60 79 4-25 1 8 2 13 3 13 4 11 5 7 6 9 7 13 8 6 9 17 10 17 58 4-14 56 1 13 2 10 3 15 4 9 5 5 6 7 7 9 8 18 9 9 10 10 51 4-23 54 1 5 2 13 3 8 4 8 5 7 6 8 7 4 8 12 �-215- Table 1. Sampled pellet group densities on temporary and permanent transects on la, square-mile sample units, Piceance Basin, Colorado, April-May 1979. (Cont'd) Square-mile Sample Unit a Transect New Pellet Groups Transect 4-23 (Cont'd) 9 15 10 Grand Sum a b b 55 557 575 transects contained temporary Even-numbered transects contained permanently LITERATURE plots. staked plots. CITED Freddy, D. J. 1978. Experimental deer inventory - Piceance Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rept. July, Part 2:245-263. by: ~;;i, '>....i-4(/tt.(_ David J. Fri(cfdy Wildlife Researcher 14 39 Odd-numbered Prepared New Pellet Groups y Basin. Colo. � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/a5024be7e41ecd3eab55b49db2144079.pdf 344838da1bee0cbaf0f4faf74348196d PDF Text Text JOB PROGRESS COLORADO State of Project REPORT No. W-126-R-2 Deer-Elk Investigations 3 1 Work Plan No. Job No. ------~--~~----~~~~~--~ Systems Modeling Big Game Populations; Simulations of the Carrying Capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park Elk Winter Range Job Title Period Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: D. L. Baker, and J. E. Ellis. N. T. Hobbs, D. G. Milchunas, L. Stevens, D. M. Swift, ABSTRACT Botanical and chemical composition of diets of tame elk were examined on winter and summer ranges in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado from November 1976 to September 1978. Heasured parameters of diet quality were then used to predict overwinter animal condition and to estimate relative carrying capacities of major winter habitat types • .For 1976-1977, graminoids dominated winter diets (x = 61%) but declined in importance from 66% of observed bites in November to 44% in February, as browse consumption increased. Browse and grass contributed equally to diets through the winter of 1977-78, accounting for more than 90% of bites each month. Diet quality was influenced to some extent by changes in chemical composition of major forage species. The first year dietary crude protein declined from 5.8 to 4.9% while IVDDM decreased from 49 to 40%. The following year dietary crude protein declined from 5.4 to 4.6%; IVDDM, from 42 to 37%. During 19761977 mean overwinter dietary protein was highest in dry grassland (6.3%) and lowest in mesic meadow communities (4.6%) while dietary IVDDM ranged from 47% in aspen to 35% in grasslands. In 1977-78, protein ranged from a high of 5.6% in willow to a low of 4.6% in mesic meadow; IVDDM was highest (39%) in aspen and lowest (35%) in willow. Despite year to year variation in forage quality, elk were able to maintain a relatively stable diet quality throughout winter by shifting the forage class mix of diets. Simulation modeling of elk energy and nitrogen status predicted more favorable overwinter animal condition during 1976-77 than during 1977-78. Simulated weight losses were relatively small the first winter (10% of body weight) but were much more substantial the second year (20-30% of body weight). Habitat types could not be consistently ranked on the basis of their ability to contribute to -, �-232- maintenance of animal condition. Carrying quantity of forage present was not related feeding in those communities. capacity of habitats based on the to nutritional status of elk Summer elk_diets were dominated by grass and grasslike plants during 1977 and 1978 ex = 63%.and 64%, respectively). Graminoids maintained this dominance throughout the sampling period (July~September). For both 1977 and 1978, forage classes exhibited a declining content of nutrients from July to September. Crude protein content of grasses (across types and years) declined from 14% in July to 10.5% in September while IVDDM decreased from 60 to 56%. Shrub species decreased in protein from 14.1 to 8.8% and IVDDM from 32 to 26%. Forbs decreased in protein and IVDDM from 18.3 to 10.8% and from 61 to 48%, respectively. Diet quality like forage quality declined as summer progressed. For 1977, crude protein in diets (across animals and communities) decreased from 17 to 10% while IVDDM dropped from 54 to 43%. The following year, diet protein declined from 15 to 10% but IVDDM did not decline over the same time interval. �-233- SYSTEMS MODELING BIG GAME POPULATIONS: OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL SIMULATIONS OF THE CARRYING PARK ELK WINTER RANGE CAPACITY N. T. HOBBS and D. L. BAKER P. N. OBJECTIVE To develop and test a model simulating carrying capacity of elk winter ranges using Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) as a study population. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To analyze botanical RMNP. and chemical composition 2. To begin model simulations describing the relationships between Rocky Mountain National Park elk herd and its food resources. 3. To collect and analyze botanical diets in RMNP. and chemical of elk winter composition diets in the of summer elk METHODS AND MATERIALS Methods and materials employed in the winter and summer studies have been previously described (Hobbs and Baker 1977, Baker and Hobbs 1978). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Botanical and Chemical Composition of Elk Winter Diets A detailed description relating the bqtanical composition· and nutritional quality of tame elk diets to forage quality, advancing season and plant communities of upper montane winter range is presented in a Ph.D. Dissertation written by N. T. Hobbs (Appendix I). Model Simulations of Elk Nutritional Status Simulated changes in elk nutritional status and predicted carrying capacities of upper montane habitat types for winter are presented and discussed in detail in the above Ph.D. Dissertation (Appendix I). A V �-234- Botanical Diet Composition and Chemical Composition Summer Elk Diets of 1977 and 1978 Elk summer diets were similar with respect to forage class for both years of study (Table 1). For both summers graminoids were chosen most frequently in all vegetation types sampled. Grasses mantained this dominance throughout the summer sampling period (July-September). The principal species consumed were sedges (Carex spp.), tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa), and rushes (Juncus spp.). Shrub species were encountered and consumed primarily in willow park and krummholz-ecotone communities. Important shrubs included leaves, stems and inflorescences of willow (Salix brachycarpa, Salix planifolia) and blueberry (Vaccinium spp.). The alpine tundra community provided the majority of forbs found in the diet. White marsh-marigold (Caltha leptosepala), alpine avens (Geum rossii) and Parry clover (Trifolium parryi) were of major consequence and equally chosen. Forage Quality 1977 and 1978 Chemical composition of the principal summer forage species was similar for both Year 1 and Year 2 (Table 2). Forage quality as measured by crude protein content and in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) showed similar patterns of change with advancing season. In general, measures of forage quality declined in all vegetation classes from July to September. Diet Quality 1977 and 1978 Diet quality like forage quality declined as summer progressed (Table 3). There appeared to be no differences in dietary crude protein or IVDDM among vegetation types. During Year 1, IVDDM in diets declined from a mean (across animals and communities) of 54% during July to 43% in September. The second year, diet IVDDM did not decline over the same time interval. Crude protein in diets declined over summer during Year 1 from 17% to 10% and from 15% to 10% the following year. Prepared by: APtlM at J5?~ --~D~a-n~L~.~B~a~k~e-r~~~~--~-Wildlife Researcher �Table 1. ~l"an p erceu t age with .90(;confidence Lntervals of observcd bites of plant species in diets of tame elk on subalpine tundra summe r range in Colorado during July-September 1977 and 1978, sununarized by h"bitnt type. !};_/ July Tax)-/ Year x C.1. IHllow-Pnrk Augu-st X C.1. September X C.1. x July C.1. Habitat Type Krununholz-Ecotone August X C.1. September X C.1.. July X C.1. Alpine-Tundra August X C.l. September X C.1. GRMf1NOllJS ----.- Ca1amagt:0stis c anadens is ~arex s pp , Deschampsia caespitosa Juncus balticus Kobresia mvosuroides c/ All grasses-- 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 .5 1 4 6 tr 2 3 3 o 51 42 16 2 36 42 2 1 2 1 36 34 46 43 20 23 49 53 2 5 3 4 3 12 15 11 5 7 1 11 o 5 9 5 7 10 3 1 11 'l tr 15 15 tr 6 12 14 o o o 60 60 2 4 13 15 63 64 69 64 2 40 4 4 9 10 2 33 7 8 6 3 8 4 72 68 18 10 62 62 13 o 14 29 27 tr tr 38 43 18 9 o o 47 51 15 24 13 6 5 4 3 13 10 2 2 2 7 11 3 30 13 12 28 11 4 tr 67 73 6 o 23 33 4 9 30 11 34 o o o o 17 40 31 4 8 11 7 7 2 2 16 5 2 3 2 3 54 46 10 6 9 12 2 15 27 10 3 2 7 1 o 59 59 49 40 23 22 5 5 7 11 6 7 28 17 o 1 9 10 69 78 3 3 15 I SHRUBS N I..U Salix brachycarpa Salix plal1ifolia Vaccin.lum ----spp. ,,' All shrubs--' 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 5 6 15 3 7 7 8 12 11 12 31 26 6 12 12 8 11 4 11 9 8 16 13 30 26 2 4 1 3 3 8 11 17 11 6 4 6 5 17 15 6 14 12 0.5 7 14 15 12 7 9 6 o o 10 18 13 16 28 13 10 35 tr 17 24 17 3 7 3 8 tr o o 22 7 tr tr 24 27 3 o 3 3 9 20 1 3 7 19 12 5 7 8 7 4 13 12 23 1 2 4 o o 15 12 24 7 2 5 11 4 12 17 4 1 15 12 3 9 6 7 7 7 5 4 9 2 2 14 28 21 33 4 7 3 6 7 9 16 7 2 tr 4 3 6 o o o tr 5 7 6 19 10 5 5 6 2 11 FORBS Caltha 1eptosepala Ceum rossii ----Polygonum histortoides Trifolium nanum TrifOlium pauyi A11 SIH:ubs·~) Total Bites-'!-/ !};_/ 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 2 10 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 1977 1978 8 15 1977 7245 1978 3813 2 25 2 7 4 12 tr o 1 tr 1 o 3 o tr tr tr tr tr o o tr tr o 4 7 11 4544 5630 7 6 1 o o o o 5 15 10 9 6262 6706 9 8 tr tr 4 5 2 tr o 5 22 o 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 tr 10 10 8 7 14 12 6965 7548 Q/ Species includes those which contributed 2% or more of total bites during any month. tr 1 2 7 12 o o 10 17 tr 4 2 4 o tr 1 14 11 5 5 13 tr 36 31 10 11 25 13 2 3 1 tr 2 o tr 1 3 1 5 2 2 4 6 16 7 4 7 34 31 11 8 1 6180 7139 5595 3886 Means are calculated across individual animal diet percentages for each month. 2 9 9 6 2 1 16 7941 6719 6340 4500 Sum of total bites across animals. 1 tr 1 1 tr tr 6774 6274 ~/ Includes all species selected, not just those in table. i/ 4 9 6 11 V1 I �Table 2. Percent crude summer range in Colorado protein and IVDDM of principle forage during July-September 1977 and 1978. Tax~/ Year July species consumed Percent of Dry Hatter Crude Protein August by tame elk on subalpine IVDIJH b7 August September .July 10.8/ c_r:j C 5::./ cS:./ 69 59 58 53 61 65 52 61 60(±8.3) 60(±5.9) c 5::./ 63 61 52 63 57 64 54 C 5::./ 57(+5.6) 62 (±:2.0) 42 48 32 35 20 20 31(+18.5) 34 (i:Z3. 7) 39 37 30 30 17 18 29 (+18. 6) 28(E16.2) tundra September GRAHlNOIDS Calamagrostis Carex canadensis spp. Deschampsia Juncus caespitosa balticus Kobresia myosuroides X Graminoids (±90% C.I.) C 5::./ 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 17.2 15.0 12.8 11.5 16.1 14.6 13.8 14.3 15.0(±2.3) 13.9(±1.9) cS:./ cS:./ 14.5 15.3 8.7 15.3 11. 8 15.2 12.0 cS:./ 11.8(±2.8) 15.3(± .1) 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 16.4 18.0 16.8 14.0 10.4 9.5 14.5(+6.0) 13.8(i).1) 11.9 13.4 13.2 14.0 9.4 10.3 11. 5(+3. 3) 12.6 4) 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 .1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 C 5::./ 17.6 17.3 15.5 C 5::./ C 5::./ 22.7 12.7 14.7 11. 4 13.7 C 5::./ cs 10.7 9.8 8.9 14.6 7.0 11.3 C 5::./ . C 5::./ 9.4(±2.1) 12.0 (±3.3) 57 c 5::./ 47 60 53 62 45 61 C s_l C 5::./ 51(+6.5) 61(~). 36) SHRUBS I Salix brachycarpa Salix planifoli~ Vaccinium spp. X Shrubs (±90% C. I.) (:!). 8.6 8.9 8.8 10.7 7.9 7.9 8.4(+0.8) 9.2 (i:2. 4) N W 26 32 27 34 17 21 (J\ I 23 (+9.3) 29(±11.8) FORBS Caltha ~tosepala Geum rossii ----Polygonum bistortoides Trifolium ~ Trifolium parryi X Forbs ~/ Species contributing 2% or·more £/ digestible dry matter. In vitro s./ Sp ec Le s did not occur <7 in diet C 5::./ C 5::./ C !:./ 20.0 16.6 of total bites that month. 8.3 9.1 C C C 5::./ 16.2/ C5::. C 5::./ 21.8 c 5::./ 15.3 14.9 observed c/ c/ C c/ C c/ C c/ C £/ 16.6 c 5::./ 12.5 9.1 during any month. 76.0 73.5 43.7 46.4 C 5::./ C 5::./ 67.6 C 5::./ C s_l C 5::./ 62.4 60.0 64.8 58.7 38.4 38.5 C 5::./ 60.9 c 5::./ C s/ 68.9 C 5::./ 57.4 53.7 40.5 48.0 C c/ c/ c/ C c/ C c/ C £/ C C 56.2 C &1. 4f!.4 48.0 of' �Table 3. Mean percentage with 90 percent confidence intervals diets of tame elk in 3 sub-alpine-tundra habitats in Colorado, Percent for crude proteiri and IVDDM in summer during July to September 1977 and 1978. of Dry Matter Crude Protein August September July IVDDM~_l August September Habitat Year July Willow-park 1977 16.4(±0.R) 12.9(±1.0) 9.8(±0.6) 53(±5.5) 50(±0.8) 41(±loO) 1978 14.4(±O.9) 14.0(±0.6) 10.1(±0.1) 49(±4.0) 47(±8.1) SO(±0.6) Krummholzecotone 1977 1978 16.4(±0.6) 14.7(±0.6) 13.0(±0.6) 15.0(±0.5) 10.0(±0.4) 1lo4(±0.0) S6(±5.6) 47 (±4. 7) 52 (±lo 8) 55(±12.1) 42(±2.3) 49 (±O. 4) Alpine tundra 1977 1978 17.1(±0.81) 1S.2(±0.3) 14.5(±lo5) 14.2(±0.6) 10.8(±0.4) 10.1(±O.4) 53(±7.1) 47(±2.9) 59(±2.7) 47(±9.2) 47(±1.4) 51(±2.92) I N w ~ I a/ In vitro digestible dry matter. �-238- APPENDIX I �-239- DISSERTATION WINTER DIET QUALITY AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF ELK IN THE UPPER MONTANE ZONE, COLORADO Submitted by N. Thompson Hobbs Fishery and Wildlife Biology In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 Fall 1979 �-240- ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION WINTER DIET QUALITY AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF ELK IN THE UPPER MONTANE ZONE, COLORADO Studies were conducted to relate forage resources on upper montane winter range in Colorado to nutritional quality and botanical of elk winter diets and to simulated elk nutritional composition status during 1976 to 1978. Standing crop biomass of winter range herbage was highly variable between years and among plant cowmunities, ranging from 216.6 g • m-2 in willow during 1976 to 67.5 g • m2 in grassland the following year. Browse species contained more crude protein, lignin and less cellulose than grasses. and in vitro digestible Browse nutritional cell solubles;' and dry matter (IVDDM) quality remained constant with advan- cing season, while grasses decreased in IVDDM and crude protein but increased in fiber content. Grasses and browse contained less crude protein, and browse less IVDDM, during 1977-1978 than during the previous year. Graminoids in importance, dominated diets (X = 61%) during 1976-1977, but declined from 66% of observed bites in November as browse consumption increased. to 44% in February, Browse and grass contributed to diets through the winter of 1977-1978, accounting equally for more than 90% of bites each month. Diet quality was influenced quality; from November to some extent by changes in forage to March 1976 to 1977, dietary crude protein �-241- declined from 5.8 to 4.9%, and IVDDM declined from 49 to 40%. Over the same period the following year, dietary crude protein declined from 5.4 to 4.6%; IVDDM, from 42 to 37%. During 1976-1977, mean overwinter dietary protein ranged from a high of 6.3% in dry grassland to a low of 4.6% in mesic meadow communities, while dietary IVDDM ranged from 47% in aspen to 35% in grasslands. During 1977-1978, protein was highest (5.6%) in willow and lowest (4.6%) in mesic meadow, while IVDDM was highest (39%) in aspen and lowest (35%) in willow. variation Despite year-to-year in forage quality, elk were able to maintain a relatively stable diet quality over time and space by shifting the forage class mix of diets. Simulation modeling of elk energy and nitrogen more favorable overwinter 1977-1978. status predicted animal condition during 1976-1977 than during Simulated weight losses were relatively small the first winter (10% of body weight) but were much more substantial year (20-30% of body weight). Habitat types could not be consistently ranked on the basis of their ability to contribute animal condition. the second to maintenance of Carrying capacity of habitats based on the quantity of forage present was not related to nutritional status of elk feeding in those communities. Temporal changes 1n the quality and quantity of forage resources appeared to be related to density-independent we should expect some stochastic variation individual elk and in performance in nutritional of elk populations. could be reduced by providing wintering choices and with browse-grass effects of weather. Thus, status of This variation elk with a diversity of habitat mixtures within habitats. �-242- Effects of variation in forage resources on elk nutritional are examined in the context of current theory on competition, and diet selection, and population status habitat regulation. N. Thompson Hobbs Fishery and Wildlife Biology Department Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 Fall, 1979 �-243- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. STUDY OBJECTIVES 3 III. LITERATURE REVIEW 6 The Problem: Herbivory and Nutrient Limitation 6 Constraints on Diet Selection 9 Models of Diet Choice 11 i) Theoretical Models 11 ii) Empirical Models 14 Methods of Diet Analysis 16 i) Observation of Diet Choices of Tame Animals 16 ii) Assessment of Dietary Preference 19 iii) Measurement of Forage Quality 21 Elk Winter Food Habits 23 IV. STUDY AREA 25 V. METHODS . 29 V. Diet Observations 29 Forage Quality 31 Diet Data Analysis . . . . 32 Estimation of Herbage Biomass 33 Simulation Modelling of Nutritional Status 34 Carrying Capacity Estimation 38 RESULTS ... Herbage Biomass 40 40 �-244- TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter VI. VII. Page Diet Botanical Composition 42 Forage Quality 52 Diet Quality . 63 Nutritional Status 73 Carrying Capacity 79 DISCUSSION 83 Herbage Biomass 83 Forage Quality 85 Diet Botanical Composition 88 Diet Quality: Interactions of Forage Quality and Diet Botanical Composition . . . . . . 90 Elk Nutritional Status and Carrying Capacity 96 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . 100 Theoretical Implications 100 i) Optimal Foraging and Competition Theory 100 ii) Theory of Population Regulation 102 iii) Habitat Selection 103 Management Implications 105 i) Population Management 105 ii) Habitat Management 106 LITERATURE CITED APPENDICES 1. Rearing and Training Elk Calves for Use in Food Habits Studies 2. Plant Species Biomass Data 108 �LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 2. 3. 4. Page Control model of hypothesized interactions among variables examined in this study. Arrows indicate influence of one variable on another . 4 Geographic location of Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado . 26 Structure of generalized model of ruminant energy and nitrogen metabolism 36 Total abovegroung ,biomass production at t4e end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Values are indicated by Xj non-overlapping verticle lines indicate significant difference at P .05. Solid lines are for 1976, dashed for 1977. Abbreviations are: WILW willow, PPSH ponderosa pine shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSM wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM mesic meadow . 41 Biomass of grass at the end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by X; nonoverlapping verticle lines indicated significant difference at P = .05. Solid lines are for 1976, dashed for 1977. Abbreviations are: WILW = willow, PPSH ponderosa pine shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSN wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGSN mesic meadow . 43 Biomass of current annual growth of shrubs during November of 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by Xj nonoverlapping verticle lines indicate signHicant differences at P = .05. Solid lines are for 1976, dashed for 1977. Abbreviations are: WILW willow, PPjSH ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSH wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM = mesic meadow 44 = = 5. = 7. = = = = = 6. = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Biomass of forbs at the end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by X; non-overlapping vertical lines indicate significant difference at P .05. Solid lines are for 1976, dashed for 1977. Abbreviations are: wnw willow, PPjSH = ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHH = wet shrub meadow, ASPN aspen, SAGE sagebrush, = = = = �-246- LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. l3. 14. 15.. WGSM = wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGSi"l= mesic meadow 45 Botanical composition of elk winter diets estimated across habitat types on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78 ... 50 Relationship between proportion of forage classes in prewinter herbage biomass and their proportion in overwinter diets of elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976 and 1977. Each point represents the mean forage class percentage across 5 elk in one habitat type during one winter. Symbols are: S = shrubs, G = grass, F = Forbs ... 51 Relationship between proportion of 4 most common species in Aspen, Grassland, Ponderosa-Pine Shrub, and Sagebrush habitats and their mean percentage .in winter diets across 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78 54 Forage class composition of elk winter diets in upper montane habitats during 1976-1977 and 1977-78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Cell wall content of grasses consumed by elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Numeral 2 indicates a value for 1977-78; numeral 1 is a value for 1976-77. For regression statistics see Table 4 . . . . . 59 Protein content of grasses consumed by elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Numeral 2 indicates a value for 1977-78; numeral 1 is a value for 1976-77. For regression statistics see Table 4 . . . . 60 In vitro dry digestible dry matter (IVDDM) for grasses consumed by elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Numeral 2 indicates a value for 1977-78; numeral 1 is a value for 1976-77. For regression statistics see Table 4 ..... 61 In vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) of winter diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78 .. Numeral 1 indicates a value for 1976-77. Numeral 2 is a value for 1977-78. For regression statistics see Table 6 . . . . . . . . . . .. 64 �-247- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 16. 17. Page Protein content of winter diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. Numeral 1 indicates a value for 1976-77; numeral 2 is a value for 1977-78. For regression statistics see Table 6 . . . . . . . . . Protein content of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats, Colorado. X indicates a mean across animals; vertical bars are Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for eight comparisons; nonoverlapping bars indicate significant differences at P .05. Solid lines are for 1976-77, dotted for 1977-78. Habitat abbreviations are: WILW willow, PP/SH ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN = aspen, SAGE = sagebrush, WGSM = wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGSM mesic meadow 65 = = = = = 18. . 69 In vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDH) content of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats, Colorado. X indicates mean value across animals; verticle bars are Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for 8 comparisons. Non-overlapping bars indicate significant difference at p 0.05. Solid lines are for 1976-77, dotted for 1977-78. Habitat abbreviations are: WILW willow, PP/SH ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN Aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSM wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM mesic meadow . . . . . . . . . 70 Cell wall content of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats, Colorado. X indicates mean value across animals; vertical bars are Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for 8 comparisons. Non-overlapping bars indicate a significant difference at p 0.05. Solid lines are for 1976-77, dotted for 1977-78. Habitat abbreviations are: WILW willow, PP/SH = ponderosa pineshrub, WSffif wet shrub meadow, ASPN = aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSM wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM = mesic meadow .... 71 = = = 19. = = = = = = = = 20. = = = Simulated changes in total weight, lean body and fat or an adult elk on upper = �-248- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Page montane winter range, Colorado, during NovemberMarch 1976-77 .. . 74 Simulated changes in total weight, lean body and fat of a calf elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during November-march 1976-77 ... 75 Simulated changes in total weight, lean body, and fat of an adult elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during November-March 1977-78 ... 76 Simulated changes in total weight, lean body, and fat of a calf elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during November-March 1977-78 .... 77 Relationships between browse content of winter diets of 5 elk and mean crude protein content of grasses on upper montain winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78 93 Relationship between in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) and browse content of diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95 �-249- LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Nutritional quality of wild ungulate winter forages in the Rocky Mountain region 8 Summary of estimates of forage class composition of elk winter diets in the Rocky Mountain region 24 Site characteristics and principle plant species of upper montane vegetation types in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado . 27 Parameter specifications for the ruminant simulation model runs representing elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado 37 Mean percentage of observed bites of plant species in diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, during November-March 1976-77 and 1977-78, summarized by habitat type 46 Percentage of 4 most common species in biomass of upper montane habitats, Colorado and in winter diets of 5 elk feeding in those habitats during Novembe r-Ha rch 1976-77 and 1977-78 . . . 53 Chemical constituents and in vitro digestibility of principle forage species consumed by 5 elk on upper montane range, Colorado, during November-March 1976-77 and 1977-1978 . . . .. . 57 Regression coefficients and statistics for in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM), crude protei~ ~ cell wall of grasses' from upper montane winter range, Colorado, as a function of advancing season. Independent variable is days where 15 October day 1. See Fig. 2-4 for plots .... 62 Regression coefficients and statistics for winter diet crude protein and in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, as a function of advancing season. Independent variable is days where 15 October day 1. See Fig. 5 and 6 for plots . . . .. ..... 66 = 9. = 10. Mean percentage chemical constituents and in vitro dry matter digestibility of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats in �-250- LIST OF TABLES Table Page Colorado during November-March 1977-1978 . . . .. 11. 12. 1976-77 and . .... 68 Simulated estimates of energy and nitrogen status of elk in upper montane habitats during November-March of 1976-77 and 197778 in Colorado . . . . . . .. .... 80 Estimates of nutritional status and earring capacity for elk in upper montane habitat types during winter 1976-77 and 1977-78 in Colorado . 81 �-251- Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Why study animal diets? Diet selection controls the transfer of energy and materials between trophic levels. As such, it affects the function of ecosystems and is, in turn, influenced by ecosystem change. The diets animals choose determine the partitioning of food resources between species, and this division of resources affects the structure of communities. Important consequences direct way, the determination effects on performance of animal condition, and more indirectly, of populations of animal diets, therefore, and condition of habitats. furthers our understanding interactions within ecosystems, animal populations of diet selection include, in a and contributes Study of fundamental to wise management of and the habitats they occupy. Winter in the Rocky Mountain region is generally a period of nutritional deprivation for wild ruminants. Dormant winter plants are less digestible and contain less protein than summer forage (Dietz 1967, Milchunas et al. 1978), deep sQow may render large portions of forage supplies unavailable (Loveless 1967, Regelin 1976, Leege and Hickey 1977), and conversion of traditional winter range to other uses relentlessly shrinks suitable winter habitat. Given these constraints on available winter food, selection of adequately nutritious diets may become difficult. Although winter food habits of elk have been extensively studied (for review see Kufeld 1972), our knowledge of elk diets remains incomplete. Predicting range carrying capacity ultimately depends on �-252- estimates of diet and forage quality (Wallmo et al. 1977), yet estimates of chemical composition and digestibility of elk winter diets are not available, and information on the nutritional quality of elk forage is scant (Ward 1971, McCullough 1969:105-113). Few studies have described the relation between winter diets and plant communities chosen for feeding. Consequently, although some vegetation types are thought to be better winter habitat for elk than other communities, these differences have never been demonstrated Overwinter changes on a nutritional basis. in forage quality and availability can markedly alter elk nutritional status (Flook 1970); however, dietary responses of elk to within-season variation in forage quality have not been examined. whether elk are selective or non-selective generalists, grazers or browsers. feeders, specialists or Description of diet composition has not yet extended to prediction of elk nutritional fundamental to understanding status, an extension their trophic ecology. What are the potential contributions diets? It remains unclear of a study of elk winter A long term outcome is a more thorough understanding of how variation in food resources affects the resource utilization patterns of ungulates. A more immediate result offers application to management problems. The afore mentioned depletion of winter habitat for elk populations requires that elk ranges must be improved in quality to mitigate reductions in their size. identification Habitat improvement depends on of plant communities and individual forages which can best provide for maintenance winter diets contributes of animal condition. Thus, study of elk to development of theory of trophic relations of ungulates to the ecosystems they occupy and provides information useful for management of elk populations and their winter habitat. �-253- Chapter II STUDY OBJECTIVES The global objective of this study was to describe the processes affecting the nutritional quality of elk diets and to predict the poten- tial effects of variation in diet quality on animal condition. A schematic of the variables interrelationships is presented examined in this study and their in Fig. 1. diets is determined by the interaction with nutritional Nutritional of diet botanical quality of forages eaten. quality of elk composition Diet choice, in turn, is influenced by the quality and quantity of available influenced by the location and time of feeding. foods, which are The quality of diets affects the amount of food an elk can consume and influences logical condition. To examine this system of interacting variables, subobjectives of this study were to 1. the prewinter Estimate its physio- standing crops of potential the elk food in habitats used for feeding. 2. Measure the chemical composition forages throughout 3. Determine of those the winter. the botanical lation to advancing and digestibility composition of elk winter diets in re- season and plant communities chosen for feeding. 4. Evaluate the effects of pre-winter forage availability over winter forage quality on diet botanical 5. Estimate the nutritional composition. quality of elk diets in relation to habitat types chosen for feeding, and overwinter forage resources . -. ;..... and changes in �-254- Temporal locatiof rcation Forage <. Diet /orage botanical _. .._. __ /iet_:ali\_ SIMULATED VARIABLES Figure 1. quality comrSition MEASURED VARIABLES Voluntary of feeding intake -Animal condition 1 . Food requirements Control model of hypothesized interactions among variables examined in this study. Arrows indicate influence of one variable on another. �-255- 6. Using simulation modelling, predict the nutritional status of elk which results from diets of differing quality. 7. Compare estimates of habitat carrying capacity based on forage quantity with predictions of elk nutritional status. 8. Examine annual variation in the above variables. �-256- Chapter III LITERATURE The Problem: Herbivory REVIEW and Nutrient Limitation Animals ... spend the greater part of their lives eating. Feeding is such a universal and commonplace business that we are inclined to forget its importance. The primary driving force of all animals is the necessity of finding the right type of food and enough of it. Food is the burning question in animal society, and the whole structure and activities of the community are dependent upon questions of food supply. (Charles Elton 1927:56) Despite Charles Elton's early emphasis on food as the principal limitation of animal populations, many ecologists the seeming paradox of food limitation (Hariston et al. 1960, Van Valen 1973). paradox is that the world is sometimes have been perplexed of herbivores in a "green world" A parsimonious "brown" during the dry season, temperate grasslands by solution to this (observe tropical savanna in winter). A more resolute answer is that all that is green is indeed not food. The fundamental adequate nutrients problem confronted from a ubiquitous Plants are ultimately White (1978:77), is extraction because, in the words of any species which was adequately to a herbivore of but poor quality source of food. poor foods for herbivores "Presumably, and freely available by herbivores throughout nutritious its life cycle would soon be exterminated." Thus, natural selection has resulted in active defense against herbivory through chemical and physical Freeland adaptations (Levin 1976, and Janzen 1974, Erlich and Raven 1974, Whittaker 1970, Berger 1977, Leopold 1976, Labov 1977) and through dilution of nutrients quired by herbivores, drates (White 1978). particularly nitrogen, with structural re- carbohy- �-257- Dilute concentrations of nutrients are characteristic forages in the Rocky Mountain during plant maturation region (Table 1). of winter This dilution occurs and growth as fibrous tissue is elaborated more rapidly than cell solubles. Consequently, winter diets of wild ungulates are commonly low in protein and digestibility. Fulgham (1978) found mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) diets in early winter in northern Utah contained less than 8.5% protein and less than 50% in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM). Mule deer winter diets in New Mexico contained were only 23% digestible 12% protein, but (Boeker et al. 1972). Wallmo et al. (1977) estimated that protein content of mule deer diets during late winter in central Colorado contained less than 40% digestible drymatter and less than 7% protein. Pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) winter diets on the shortgrass prairie in Colorado contained 7% protein and were less than 40% digestible (Schwartz 1977). Although evolution of symbiosis between cellulolytic bacteria and their ruminant hosts would seem to'offer the ruminant a virtually unlimited supply of energy contained in plant fiber, there are important constraints' on the availability of that energy. First,. tint rumen envi- ronment must provide sufficient nitrogen for microbial growth since activity of fiber digesting bacteria is retarded by deficiencies nitrogen (Van Glswyk 1970, Schwartz and Gilchrist 1975). in Although some nitrogen enters the rumen through recycling of urea (Wales et al. 1975, Robbins, et al. 1974, Allen and Miller 1976 Nolan and Leng 1973, Westra and Hudson 1979), a significant vided by forage substrates. exogenous portion must always be pro- For ruminants consuming fibrous forages, rates of cellulose digestion and microbial protein synthesis are directly �Table 1. Nutritional quality of wild ungulate winter forages in the Rocky Mountian region. Dry Matter Digestibility (%) Crude Protein (%) Authority Grass Forbs Shrubs Grass Forbs Shrubs Central Colorado Milchunas et al. 1978 3.7-5.0 3.0-5.0 4.5-7.6 33-52 8-29 29-64 NW Colorado Gibbs 1978 NE Co lorado Schwartz ·1977 N. Central Colorado Young and Bailey 1975 S. Wyoming Ward 1971 N. Central Colorado Dietz 1967 N. Central Colorado Short et al. 1966 S.W. Colorado Dietz 1958 8.2-13.5 Utah Smith 1954 6.2-11.0 Area 7.6-80 7.8 Grass Forbs Shrubs I 1.6-2.5 5.2-10.2 6.2-10.0 Energy (kcal/g) 37-46 14-35 52 38-50 40-53 22-59 N \Jl CO I 8.0 7.6-11.1 1.97-2.24 �-259- related to nitrogen content of the forage (Campling et al. 1962, Hume et al. 1970, Van Glswyk 1970) An additional constraint on energy assimilation volves bulk limitation of voluntary intake. by ruminants in- Fore-stomach digescion limits the amount of fibrous forage which can be consumed per unit time to that amount which can pass the rumen (Ammann et al. 1973, Campling 1970). Rate of passage is a function of forage particle size reduction which, in turn, is controlled by physical and chemical characteristics of the forage and the quality of the rumen environment Smith 1968, Mertins 1973, Milchunas this limitation on voluntary et al. 1978). (reviewed by Thus, it follows from intake that ruminants on poor quality diets can not compensate for the dilution of nutrients forage consumption rates (Janis 1976). in forage by increasing The importance of these two interacting phenomena, nutrient limita- tion of rumen bacteria and bulk limitation of voluntary intake, is that deficiencies in nutrients, particulary nitrogen, acquisition of energy in the face of seemingly abundant forage supplies. Constraints on Diet Selection A solution to this dilemma is selective can impede a ruminants feeding, consumption of only those plants and plant parts which contain relatively high concentrations of nitrogen and other nutrients. There is abundant evidence (reviewed in later sections) that grazing ruminants can exert such diet selection. The ability of a rumiant to feed selectively aspects of its physiology, anatomy, and ecology. is limited by several Physiological require- ments for energy and nitrogen limit the extent to which animals can consume rare foods. A ruminant's requirement for energy and nitrogen is �-260- functionally 1975). related to its body weight raised to the 3/4 power (Kleiber As a consequence of this relation, greater total nutrient intake requirements large bodied animals have but smaller requirements unit of body mass than animals of smaller body size. these allometric relationships per The importance ot for diet selection is that large animals must eat large quantities of forage, but can consume relatively low quality forage, while small animals can eat relatively less, but must consume foods with higher concentrations (Janis 1976, Bell 1971, Jarman 1974, Geist 1974). of nutrients Thus, large herbivores by their total intake requirements to eat relatively common foods while small animals, with their lower total food requisites, foods which are more scarce. feed more selectively are constrained can afford to eat It follows, then, that small herbivores than large herbivores. A corollary to these physiological constraints on diet selection by feeding morphology. is the limit placed Herbivores with a narrow jaw can select among plants and plant parts which can not be separated by animals with larger mouth parts (Hoffman 1973, Schwartz 1977). for a wide variety of North American and African ungulates, Further, feeding style has been correlated with anatomy of the digestive tract. Hoffman (1973) classified African wild ruminants into roughage feeders (eating mainly grass), selective feeders (eating browse tips, forbs, and new growth of grasses) and transitional Selective forms (eating grasses and browse). feeders tended to have small rumens with few "barriers" rumen and omasum to impede passage of ingestion. contains a high proportion in the Since their diet of cell solubles, selective feeders can rely in large part on enzymatic digestion of these soluble sugars and proteins and consequently do not require protracted \. I retention of forage fiber for �-261- microbial fermentation. In contrast, roughage eaters obtain a large portion of their energy from digestion of efficient fiber digestion between digestive of fiber. correlate is a large rumen and physical barriers organs to slow down rate of passage and allow more complete fermentation of ingested forages. rumen anatomy and feeding style observed pronghorn A necessary A similar correlation between for bison, cattle, sheep, and was observed by Schwartz and Ellis (submitted). In addition to these physiological feeding style, diet selection animal's ecology. Weins (1977) and Cody (1974a) have suggested are food specialists, tend to be food generalists. costs of searching correlates for rare food items by the specialist rare foods. Jarman's relates of social organization hypothesis, particularly that while habitat They reasoned that increased cause it to use its habitat in a more fine grained manner, thus increasing available of is further limited by aspects of the animals which are habitat generalists specialists and anatomical the amount of (1974) elegant work on ecological cor- in African antelope substantiates this with the considered unit of diet selection includes plant parts as well as plant species. Models of Diet Choice i) Theoretical Models Given the above constraints theoretical on diet selection, basis, the outcomes of diet choice? to exhaustively review theory of diet selection. can we predict, on a No attempt will be made (For such review, see Rapport and Turner 1977, Pyke et al. 1977, Schoner 1971, Cody 1974b, Ivlev 1967). Instead, the essential lems associated with its application be discussed. features of that theory, and probto diets of large herbivores will �-262- Optimal foraging theory relies on three assumptions 1977, Pulliam 1974). foraging behavior It is assumed that behavior in particular, is a heritable (Pyke et al. in general, and trait, that environ- mental resources constrain the range of forage choices, and that natural selection acts to favor inheritance maximal fitness. In general, such behaviors energy intake, minimize nutrient balance of those behaviors which convey time spent feeding (Schoener 1971) or optimize (Westoby 1974, Pulliam 1975, Katz 1974). ever, that at any time, in any population, optimal feeding behavior. distribution are thought to maximize we would expect to see sub- This is the case because the frequency of feeding traits must by definition include some behaviors less optimum than others and, further, because consumption present environments most appropriate Note, how- reflect past selective pressures for survival and reproduction choices in and may not now be (Weins 1977, Rapport and Turner 1977). With one exception, extremely (Ellis et al. 1976) optimal foraging models are similar; in the words of Pyke et a1. (1977), "the same essen- tial result being reached independently This result is obtained, Upon encountering by no less than 9 authors". in the form of McArthur (1972), as follows. a food item, a consumer must choose to either eat the item, or search for another. Since either choice eventually initiates a new search, the better choice is the one which promises to yield more energy (or other optimized unit) per unit time. Deciding to eat the food requires its "pursuit"; pursuit time being the temporal interval from discovery of food to its consumption. An animal should pursue an item if and only if during the time the pursuit would require, a "better" forage item could not be located. Stated mathematically, if Pj is �-263- pursuit time per calorie ingested of food item j, and ~ and § are the then item j should be mean pursuit and search time per calorie obtained, eaten if and only if P. ~ ~ + S J Thus, this formulation its associated accounts for the amount of energy acquired and temporal costs. There are limitations by large herbivores to application (Westoby 1974). of this model to diets selected First, in the sense of a predator pursuing prey, .pursuit time for a herbivore Rather than the time necessary herbivore can more realistically to assimilate nutrients sumed by carnivores be thought of as the interval required can justifiably trivial in consideration Assimilation Thus, differences in assimilation animal tissue, forages are extremely heterogenous intake by ruminants rates for food con- be assumed equal since their food is of predator diet choices. their energy and nutrients to zero. to capture food once found, pursuit for a once captured. of uniformly high quality. reduces essentially can be extracted. rate are In contrast to in the rate at which Further, since voluntary is bulk limited on most natural. diets, inclusion of slowly. digested material decreases ingest during subsquent the. a~ountof time intervals. forage an animal can Consequently, if "pursuit time" is expanded to include the time from which an item is eaten to the time at which it has passed from the animal, then the above theory can be realistically applied to a ruminant herbivore. Note, however, that this realism is achieved only at the expense of an enormous increase in mathematical complexity, nonlinear 1971). since rate functions (Milchunas et al. 1978, Mertins for passage of forages are 1973, Mautz and Petrides �-264- Further complexity results from the heterogeneity bility and nitrogen content. This variation perties to the process of diet choice. consider maximization probably of one variable of forage digesti- conveys multivariate That is, it is not sufficient to (i.e., energy), since plants are chosen on the basis of several nutritional criteria. attempts have been made to include nutrient constraints models pro- Some in optimization (Pulliam 1975, Katz 1974, Westoby 1975); but, in general, these simple formulations are not up to the task of integrating complex inter- actions between forage chemical constituents. The most mechanistic approach to modelling diet selection is that of Ellis et al. (1976) who developed a conceptual model of the flow of foods from the habitat to the animal. array of ecosystem variables requirements, Flows were controlled by a large including factors affecting consumer food consumer preference and selectivity, and food availability. ii) Empirical Models It is important to differentiate between models which predict total 3mount of food eaten and those which predict the kinds of foods selected and their relative contribution been predicted to the diet. While voluntary intake has fairly well on the basis of physical and chemical charac- teristics of forage (reviewed by Mertins 1973, Campling 1970) the prediction of composition of diets based on forage constituents with notable lack of success. "Numerous associations palatability has met Thus, Marten (1978: 1472) concluded that ~eported between plant characteristics and plant to ruminant animals have proven to be highly situation specific, making them worthless Marten and Anderson as general selection criteria." (1975) compared nutritive value of 12 common annual weed species with their relative palatability for sheep and found �-265- no association between forage preference and its protein and mineral content or its dry matter digestibility. Ivins (1952) concluded that selective grazing was not determined by the chemical composition of plants. cattle preference Though he did find differences for different species of forage, these differences could not be consistently predicted on a nutritional Radwin and Crouch (197~) studied preference (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) fiber characteristics, non-reducing in basis. of black-tailed deer in relation to forage protein content, total available carbohydrates, reducing and sugars, dry matter, mineral content, crude fat, essential oil content, moisture, and dry matter and cellulose digestibility. They found no consistent chemical basis for plant species preference: Tucker et a1. (1976) found no correlation between chemical composition of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) foliage and mule deer preference. Scotter (1965) examined caribou (Rangifer tarandus) preferences species of lichens and found no relationship for between their protein content and frequency of consumption. Alexander preferences (1979) found no consistent relationship between forage of mule deer and forage nutritional It is paradoxical values. that despite these findings, wild and domest~c ruminants have been shown repeatedly to select diets of higher nutritional quality than the mean quality of herbage on offer (for review see Klein 1970, Longhurst et al. 1968, Arnold 1964, White 1978). This apparent paradox can be explained in terms of the unit of diet selection. If animals do not discriminate between plant species in choosing their diets but instead between plant parts or groups of species, then analysis of diet selection on a species basis will fail to accurately �-266- predict preference. For example, protein content of a group of species may be related to preference preference for that group, while within the group, no is exerted for individual protein content. Likewise, species on the basis of their there may be good correlation between pref~r- ence for plant parts and their chemical constituents, a correlation which remains undiscovered studied is plant species. when the unit of selection This is the case because there is often greater variation in nutritive value between plant parts of the same species than between whole plants of different species (Arnold 1960, Van Dyne and Heady 1965, Cowan et al. 1970, Short et al. 1972, Bailey 1967, Aldous 1945). though there is widespread Al- evidence that ruminants are selective for plant parts (Hirst 1975, Jarman 1974, Sinclair 1974c, Arnold 1960, Neyer et al. 1957, Bluser et al. 1960), there has been only limited study of mechanisms of preference for groups of species (Kossak 1976). Methods of Diet Analysis The quality of a herbivore's tween the botanical and digestibility composition tions and measurements phenomena be- of its diet and the chemical composition of the plant species and plant parts consumed. of these interacting i) Observation diet results from the interaction Study. requires methods for food habits observa- of forage quality. of Diet Choices of Tame Animals Methods for study of diets of large herbivores sively reviewed elsewhere Ward 1970, Van Dyne 1968). have been exten- (Schwartz 1977, Medin 1970, Free et al. 1971, Rather than duplicate cussion here will focus on advantages those efforts, dis- and limitations of the technique employed in this study, bite counts with tame animals, in relation to other methods. �-267- Observation cant advantages its applicability of diet choices of tame animals offers several signifiover other food habits methods. to controlled Most advantageous is sampling designs (Wallmo and Neff 1970). That is, diets can be observed at a variety of locations and at various times since when and where the animals feeds is controlled by the investigator. For example, tame animals are the only means to quantify diet selection within plant communities when a variety of habitats are used by the species being investigated. cal composition It is impossible to estimate botani- of diets within a vegetation type based on fecal samples collected there since locations of herbivores when consuming and defeca- ting a given meal may be different inherent in interpretation examination (Collins 1979). Similar problems are of rumen samples (Medin 1970). of feeding sites and distant observation Although of feeding activity of wild animals provides knowledge of where a plant was eaten, neither method is particularly useful when animals are nocturnal or seclusive (Wallmo et al. 1973). Tame animals facilitate accurate description tion of diets. As previously discussed, rumiants can be selective for plant parts as well as plant species; variation result in substantial differences of chemical composi- in parts eaten can in chemical composition (Arnold 1960, Bailey 1967). Therefore, position alone is inadequate for sampling diet quality. tame animals allows description knowledge of diets of botanical com- Observation of of plant species and plant parts eaten, and thereby permits collection of forage samples which more accurately reflect chemical composition Certain assumptions criticized, however. of forages consumed. required by the tame animal technique have been Obviously, it must be assumed that artificial �-268- environments do not bias natural diets selected by tame animals compared to their wild counterparts. There is conflicting evidence on the valid- ity of this assumption. There are data which suggest that early experience may affect die~ choice of ruminants. Young animals may learn preferences (Edwards 1976) or early nutritional selection experience may influence latter diet (Arnold and Miller 1977, Langlands 1968). However, Bergerud from adults 1969, Longhurst et al. (1972) observed that tame bottle-reared caribou removed from the dam at I day of age had similar diet preferences wild animals as adults. to Schwartz and Nagy (1973) used microhistological analysis of feces to compare diets of tame and wild pronghorn antelope and found that with the exception of one forage species, variation diet choices was greater between wild pronghorn in than between wild and tame animals. It has also been suggested that nutritional during grazing experiments 1968). This hypothesis status of the animal may influence diet choice (Longhurst et al. has been investigated by a variety of workers (Schwartz and Nagy 1973, Reglin et-al. 1976, Bartman et al. 1978) who found no effect of artificial supplementation on the composition of tame animal diets. Although the possibility remains that diets of tame ungulates may not exactly reflect composition of diets of wild ungulates, sufficient evidence to suggest that this inaccuracy however, is a problem not unique to observation histological there is is small. Bias, of tame animals. Micro- analysis of feces has been shown to be discrepant with estimates of diet composition measured by other methods (Alexander et al. 1978, Anthony and Smith 1974, Smith and Shandruk 1979, Johnson et �-269- al. 1978, Hoover 1971, Ward 1970, Adams et al. 1962, Vara et al. 1978, Slater and Jones 1971); rumen samples overestimate forage species which have slow passage rates (Bergerud and Russel 1964, Medin 1970), and feeding site observations shrubs and overestimate 1973). of wild animals will probably underestimate grasses in wild herbivore Given these drawbacks of other techniques, tame animals previously diets (Wallmo et al. and the advantages of discussed, potential bias in the tame animal technique seems a trivial problem. ii) Assessment of Dietary Preference A preferred proportionately environment food species has been defined as one which occurs more frequently (Petrides 1975). in the diet of an animals than in the This definition has given rise to a pleth- ora of indexes of dietary preference which attempt to weight the proportions of items in the diet by some measure of their availability. (Chamrad and Box 1968, Jacobs 1974, Heady 1964, Cock 1978, Petrides 1975, Chesson 1978). In their rudimentary form, these indexes can usually be reduced to a simple fraction where the percentage of an item in the diet is divided by the biomass, density, or frequency of the item in the habitat. contribute For several reasons, .such arithmetic manipulations little to our understanding First, it is reasonable some foods in an exploratory of diet choice. to assume that any herbivore will select way (Pyke et al. 1978). constantly test the food potentials of its environment basis of past tests (Foreland and Janzen 1974). the animal consumes an exceedingly That is, it will and act on the If during that testing rare species, then that species would be calculated as being "highly preferredll simply because it was rare. �-270- Second, if the unit of diet selection is not plant species; that is, if a herbivore does not discriminate basis, then preference between plants on a species indexes will shed little light on diet choice. Third, common species in the environment able to the grazing animal despite differences biomass (Westoby 1974). tend to be equally avail~ in their density or This is the case because those species are so abundant that searching time is zero for all of them. their superabundance, However, more rare species would be calculated despite as "preferred". Finally, there are acute problems with comparison indexes measurement differences in one area to areas where there are even slight in mosaics of forage. out that preference species. Westoby (1974) and Heady (1964) point for one species is affected by availability Thus, a plant that is highly preferred unpalatable of preference of other when surrounded by neighbors might be rejected when its associated plants were eaten more often. It follows that preference is only a relative charac- teristic of a plant; this fact strongly limits the utility of preference indexes. Although the preference attempts to measure, index has shortcomings, "selectively", the diet selection process. a real attribute of are being selective, (Ellis et al. feeding occurs when foods are consumed in proportion with their availability. diet selectivity, it Animals which consume foods more frequently than they occur in the environment 1976); nonselective is doubtlessly the phenomena Although this paper will address problems of diet data will be presented rather than as preference indexes discussed above. as simple perc~ntages indexes in light of the limitation of those �-271- iii) Measurement of Forage Quality Evaluation of the nutritional volves measurement quality of forages for ruminants of forage fiber characteristics, in- protein content, and digestibility. The Weende system of proximate analysis (Henneberg and Stohmann 1960) fractions plant dryrnatter into crude fiber and nitrogen free extract (NFE); crude fiber being less digestible ies have shown this fiber breakdown than NFE. Several stud- to be poorly correlated with digest- ibility (reviewed by Van Soest 1966, 1968); often the crude fiber portion was more digestible than NFE (Ely and Moore 1959). An alternative system of fiber analysis was developed which used acid and neutral detergent to break down plant dryrnatter into components of uniform composition and digestibility Soest 1970, Fonnesbeck (Van Soest 1966, 1967, 1968, Goering and Van and Harris 1970, Robbins et al. 1975). This scheme partitions plant material into cell solubles and cell wall and then fractionates the cell wall into its principle cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. fiber components, Cell solubles are completely digested enzymatically; microbial digestion extent of lignification of cellulose and hemicellulose Although fiber characteristics bility and rate of digestion of cell wall depends on the (Van Soest 1973). have been correlated with forage digesti(Denium and Van Soest 1969, Smith et al. 1971, McLeod and Minson 1972, Minson 1971, Wilson et al. 1971), rate of passage (Smith et al. 1960), and voluntary et al.(1975:68) cautioned that ships between feed constituents as biologically vestigated significant tI ••• intake (Mertins 1973), Robbins statistically and digestibility or meaningful are adequately understood significant relation- should not be viewed unless the relationships and causatively related." in- Thus, �-272- evaluation of forage quality on the basis of fiber characteristics be strongly coupled with knowledge of the physiological volved in ruminant digestion and assimilation processes (see Milchunas must in- et al. 1978 for an example of such merger). Protein is often in short supply in diets' of grazing ruminants (White 1978, Klein 1962, 1965, Holter et al. 1977, Elliot and Topps 1964). Microbial protein synthesized essential 1976). in the rumen contains all the amino acids and has a biological value of about 80% (Hendricks Although amino acid composition microbial protein synthesis of nitrogen of dietary protein can affect (Hume 1970), on low protein diets the amount in forage is of much greater significance to the ruminant than is the forage amino acid mix (Hume et al. 1970). measurement provides of nitrogen content by Kjeldahl methods Consequently, (A.O.A.C. 1965) a good measure of the ability of the forage to contribute to the animals's protein status. Conversion crude protein values by mUltiplying proportion of forage nitrogen content to Kelldahl N times the stociometric of nitrogen in protein molecules (6.25) achieves no improve- ment on the original measure, but is a ubiquitous practice and has become the standard index of forage quality with respect to protein. Robbins et al. (1974f and Sullivan (1962) found crude protein con- tent of forage was correlated with digestible protein. Based on their work, it can be assumed that true protein digestibility of a variety of forages is greater than 90%. Measurement previously completeness predicting of forage dry matter digestibility discussed forage chemical characteristics of forage digestion. forage digestibility integrates all the in a measure of In vitro laboratory methods for allow much more rapid analysis than was �-273- previously possible with conventional for review of development in vivo trials (see Johnson of the in vitro technique). In vitro determi- nations have been shown to be correlated with in vivo predictions matter digestibility (Tilley and Terry 1963, Milchunas Robbins et al. 1976, Ruggiero and Whelan 1976). is that dry matter digestion in approximately the percentage animal. What is more important is related to digestible et al. 1971). of dry et al. 1978, energy in forages a 1 to 1.ratio (Robbins 1975, Milchunas Moir 1961, Rittenhouse 1966 et al. 1978, Thus, IVDDM can be used to predict of energy in the forage which can be digested by the However, in vitro values can be affected by innoculum sources (Robbins et al. 1975 Palmer et al. 1976, Ward 1971), inoculum handling time (Schwartz and Nagy 1972) and specific by Scales 1972). Consequently, (reviewed despite the accuracy of in vitro values compared with in vivo determinations, technique in vitro procedures the precision requires some caution in application of the in vitro to range situations (Hi.Lchunas and Baker, submitted). Elk Winter Food Habits Diets of elk during winter have been extensively Rocky Mountain Region studies: (Table 2). There is one compelling elk diets during winter were dominated forbs were universally studied in the minor diet contributors. trend in these by grass and browse; In general, browse dominated diets in areas where snow covered the grass sinusia; grasses were more frequently consumed in relatively however, that a large number of previous snow free areas. food habits studies have relied on analysis of rumen samples a measure of diet composition. fied browses has shorter rumina 1 retention gested by Milchunas Note, If ligni- times than grasses as sug- et al. (1978), then rumen samples would tend to �-274- overestimate prevalent the dietary contribution of grasses. food habit technique, examination Further, of feeding sites, has also been shown to inflate estimates of grass consumption 1973). Consequently, (Wallmo et al. the widely held belief that elk are "grazers" may result, in part, from bias in previous Table 2. the other food habits methods. Summary of estimates of forage class composition diets in the Rocky Hountain region. Area (Authority) Diet Composition C%) Grass Forbs Shrubs of elk winter Food Habits Technique Hontana Singer 1979 Cons tan 1972 Knight 1970 Nackie 1970 Schallenberger 1965 Knight 1970 Kirsch 1962 Rouse 1957 Norris and Schwartz 1957 12 60 88 84 100 37 14 o o 21 42 1 88 7 90 100 o 85 5 3 7422 79 6 10 7 57 14 fecal samples rumen samples feeding sites 65 8 27 rumen samples 44 24 93 32 7 rumen samples rumen samples 97 3 direct observation 21 rumen samples 7 30 10 feeding sites feeding sites feeding sites rumen samples feeding sites rumen samples rumen samples feeding sites rumen samples 10 6 o Colorado Hansen and Reid 1975 Boyd 1970 Stevens 1969 20 Idaho Denio Wyoming Anderson 1953 Murie 1951 Canada Cowan 1947 New Hexi co Lang 1958 77 2 �-275- Chapter IV STUDY AREA Investigations were conducted in Rocky Mountain National Park on the eastern slope of the Continental Divide between 2500 and 2800 m in elevation 8 km west of the town of Estes Park, Colorado (R73W, T4W) (Fig. 1). The total area of elk winter range within the park boundary is about 6000 ha. Glacial moraines extending eastward from the front range mountains separate the wintering area into 4 parallel valleys. in these valleys and form the headwaters Streams flow east of the Big Thompson River. Soils are derived from decomposed granite and mica-shists. Vegetation (1967). is typical of the upper montane climax region (Marr Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) dominate the northfacing ponderosa) and big-sagebrush prevalent on southern aspects. Ponderosa pine (Pinus (Artemisia tridentata) Vegetation strongly influenced by differential cultivation. slopes. communities on the valley floors is moisture availability and past Eight habitat types (described in Table 3) are used by elk for feeding during the winter and all were investigated Approximately pers. com.). are 2,000 elk occupy this area during the winter (Stevens Other ungulates, including mule deer (Odicoileus hemionus) and bighorn sheep (avis canadensis), Winter weather is usually mild. January mean minimum temperature maximum temperature in this study. are also present. During both years of the study, at Estes Park was 9 C, while mean was 8 C during 1976 and 1977 and 2 C the following �-276- year (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977, 1978). Because of strong westerly winds (up to 75 kph) and frequent abovefreezing temperatures, protracted snow accumulation is rare . Rocky~ Mountain National Park • Fort Collins U o Denver • Grand Junction e Pueblo COLORADO Figure 2. Geographic location of Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado. �-277- Table 3. Site characteristics and principle plant species of upper montane vegetation types in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Vegetation Type General Site Characteristics Principal Plant Species Grassland Patchily distributed grass communities on open xeric sites Muhlenbergia montana Stipa comata BOUteloua gracilis Danthonia parryi Ponderosa pine-shrub Large open canopy parklands on south exposed slopes with shallow, rocky soils Danthonia parryi Muhlenbergia montana Bouteloua gracilis Carex heliophila Ribes spp. PUrShia tridentata Sagebrush Open canopies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) on south slopes with deep, well-drained soils Muhlenbergia montana Carex heliophia Agropyron spicatum Stipa comata Artemisia tridentata Purshia tridentata Willow Found in wet areas along stream courses; closed canopy of willow (Salix spp.) Calamogrostis Carex spp. Salix spp. Aspen Small, patchily distributed communities.ort mesic to wet sites Calamogrostis canadensis Phleum pratense Poa pratensis populus tremuloides Mesic meadow Large areas formerly cultivated; moderately drained soils Poa pratensis Phleum pratense Juncus balticus Muhlenbergia richardsoni Wet shrub meadow Open-canopied shrub meadow on hygric sites Calamagrostis canadensis Carex spp. PfiIeUm pratense Glyceria grandis Salix spp. BetUla glandulosa Alnus tenuifolia canadensis �-280- ensuring independent observations. As each animal grazed, one observer recorded (on a tape recorder) the plant community in which the animal was feeding, the number of bites of each plant species eaten, and a description of plant parts selected. Distance from observers varied from 3 to 0.1 M, depending on ease of identifying to anima~s plants con- sumed, either from the plant being grazed or, when it was entirely eaten, from adjacent plants of the same species. Forage samples were collected for all species contributing more of total bites observed during each grazing trial. plant material, 2% or Fifty grams of taken from no fewer than five locations, was composited into plastic bags and frozen. ing an additional Bite weight was estimated by hand-pluck- 25 sample "bites" of these species, drying the samples at 100 C for 24 hr, weighing the entire sample to the nearest ±0.001 g, and dividing the total weight by 25. Between grazing trials, the elk were kept in Fort Collins, Colorado, and were provided with alfalfa hay ad libitum. animals were maintained transported During the trials, in a O.l-ha enclosure on the study area and were each day to and from release points in a modified double- axle, 2-horse trailer. Food intake was limited to the forage ingested in the field, 20 g of grain used as a reinforcer for loading"into trailer (Hobbs and Baker 1979), and approximately Artificial supplementation the 500 g alfalfa hay. of natural diets and restricted grazing time have been shown to have no effect on diet choices of tame pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) 22, Regelin et al. 1976). and mule deer (Schwartz and Nagy 1973: �-281- Forage Quality Crude protein (Kjeldahl N x 6.25), ash, and dry matter of forage samples were determined by procedures Cell wall constituents described by A.O.A.C. (CWC) , acid detergent (1965). fiber (ADF) , and acid de-. tergent lignin were determined by the procedures summarized by Colburn ~nd Evans (1967) and Bailey and Ulyatt (1970). Analyses were performed sequentially by Robbins et al. (1975). on single samples, as recommended In vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) was determined by techniques described by Tilley and Terry (1963) and Pearson trial was conducted for each year's samples. (1970). One in vitro Rumen innocula were ob- tained from wild elk collected from the study area. Rumen fluid was collected from 5 animals (3 adults, 2 calves) in March 1977 and from 2 animals (1 adult, 1 calf) in March 1978.· Rumen contents were transported in prewarmed tory. insulated chests from the study area to the labora- Elapsed time from animal death until innoculum was buffered and in tubes was approximately 1.5 hr. Before innoculation, equal portions of rumen fluid from each animal were mixed to reduce variation in fluid quality. Because the rumen fluid obtained in 1978 was extremely viscous and could not be vacuum filtered, undigested the fluid by centrifugation. These unconventional biased estimates of digestibility. Digestion forages were lower in 1978 (Year 2) (P this bias was compensated substrate was separated from procedures eoefficients apparently of standard = 0.001) than in 1977 (Year 1). for by regressing standard coefficients Year 2 against those of Year 1. The resulting plied to Year 2 grasses was IVDDM = 0.29 + 0.68 IVDDM(R2 = 0.84, P = 0.004, n correction of equation ap- = 8); the equation for browse and perennial forbs was IVDDM = 0.04 + 0.95 IVDDM(R 2 = 0.99, P = 0.003, n = 5). �-282- Diet Data Analyses Botanical composition total observed bites. of elk diets was calculated as percentages Chemical composition of diets was calculated the sum of forage chemical values times weighted diet percentages. percentages were weighted by multiplying bite weight and normalizing of as Diet bite frequency times estimated to sum to 100 (Schwartz et al. 1977:162). Because data expressed as percentages are frequently not distrib- uted normally and therefore are not amenable to routine statistical analyses, transformations normal distribtion. (such as arc sin) may be used to obtain a Diet botanical compositions centages, but arc sin transformation were expressed as per- did not alter estimates of the variance beyond the third decimal place and biased estimates of means. Butchner and Kemp (1974) found no difference of variance.using transformed unequal number of observations diet percentages in power between analysis and untransformed data, and no effect of among percentages. For these reasons, were treated as normal variates and were not trans- formed. Dietary differences among animals, years, and habitat types were analyzed by a factorial analysis of variance for a repeated measures design, repeating" over 2 years with 5 animals as replicates and 8 habitat types as treatments. Tukey's Q simultaneous comparisons were used to detect differences between mean responses. chemical constituents between years were analyzed with paired t-tests. Seasonal variations in chemical content of diets and forages were cal- culated with simple linear and polynomial indicated, differences in mean responses. and associated For discussion and Draper and Smith (1966). Differences regressions. probabilities in forage Unless otherwise refer to differences of the above tests, see Hicks (1973) �-283- Estimation of Herbage Biomass Standing crops of herbacious biomass and current production of shrubs were estimated at the end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977. Sample dates were August 20-September for shrubs. 20 for herbs and Nov. 1-10 Sampling dates were delayed for shrubs to allow for leaf- fall. Sample units were stands representing ducing vegetation types (Table 1). each of the major forage pro- Stands were chosen as follows. itat maps, prepared by Dave Stevens, Park Biologist, eate the vegetation types. x 100 m) were subjectively For each vegetation Hab- were used to delin- type, 8 macro-plots (100 identified and 4 of these areas were randomly selected as stands to be sampled. Stand boundaries were paced off following a compass bearing and steel stakes were placed in the corners of each of these stands to permanently Each stand was subsampled mark their location. for herbacious lar plots (1 x \ m); shrub production species with 30 rectangu- with each stand was measured in 10 2m2 circular plots. Subsample plots were allocated according following procedure. Ten stakes were placed at random intervals along one border of each stand. Three \m2 herbacious plots and one 2m2 shrub plot were randomly located along 100 m transects originating stake and running perpendicular to the to the stand border. at each All random inter- vals were specified using a random number table and were delimitated in to field by pacing the specified distances. Summarizing the sampling design, 8 community types were sampled in 4 stands per type, each stand being subsampled with 30 herbacious and 10 shrub plots. Clip and weigh methods plots (Swift and French 1972) were �-284- used to measure plant biomass in each subsample plot. Herbacious material was ground level clipped and separated by species for the dominant grasses and lumped into forage classes for minor grasses and forbs. Current growth of shrubs was clipped between ground level and 2.5 m high, the vertical dimension being defined by a steel rod placed perpendicular to the plot frame. Dominant shrub species were separated; o minor species were composited. Clipped samples were dried at 100 C for 48 hr and weighed to the nearest 0.1 g. Biomass of each species or forage category within a stand was calculated as the me~n dryweights across all subsample plots within the stand. Biomass of a forage category in a vegetation type was then cal- culated as the mean of 4 stand subsample means. Standard errors were calculated based on a pooled estimate of the variance across 4 stands. Differences in means were analyzed by a nested factorial analysis of variance for a repeated measures design, repeating over 2 years with 8 habitat types as treatments and 4 stands as replicates. Simulation Modeling of Nutritional Status The ruminant simulation model used in analysis of elk nutritional status was developed by D.-M. Swift at the Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University. For a detailed description of the structure of the model, calculation of flows, and an example implementation, see chapters 5 and 6 of Ellis and Parton (1978). A brief discussion of the essential features of the model will be presented here. The ruminant model is a generalized mathematical representation of the flows of nitrogen and energy through an individual runinant animal �-285- (Fig. 3). It is structured so that minor changes in parameter specifi- cations allow the model to represent the nitrogen and energy metabolism for any ruminant species and for any sex and age class. Model objectives include prediction of 1) rates of forage consumption, 2) rates of digestion and metabolism partitioning of energy and nitrogen, 3) of energy and nitrogen within the body, and 4) losses of energy as nitrogen from the body. Objectives 3 and 4 allow estimation of changes in the animal's total weight, and fat and lean body mass. These weight fluxes are used in this study as indicators of elk nutritional status. The model is a difference equation model operating at one day time steps. That is, values of flows and state variables are calculated on a per day basis. Parameters specified on the model to represent an elk during winter are outlined in Table 4. Minimum and maximum daily tem- peratures were taken from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration records (1976, 1977, 1978) for Estes Park, Colorado. Principal input data used to drive the model were the nitrogen content and IVDDM of diets. point estimates. These values were entered into the model as For modelling exercises it was assumed that differ- ences in diet quality, regardless of their statistical significance, were real differences. This assumption was made for two reasons. integration of two variates dicted responses First, the model allowed (diet IVDDM and nitrogen) in a set of pre- (weight change patterns). This synthesis was not pos- sible in the statistical comparisons which treated diet quality measures as independent observations. �-286- Rumen Microbial Protein X21 Figure 3. Structure of generalized gen metabolism. model of ruminant energy and nitro- �-287- Parameter spe ci.fi ca t i ons for the ruminant simulation model runs representing elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Table 4. Parameter Value Source Length of winter Nov. 10-March 25 Specified to coincide with diet sampling periods Lower critical temperature -10 C Gates and Hudson (1979) Basil metabolic 79 x kgO.75 (kcal) rate (BMR) Activity costs BMR x 0.55 Methane production 0.52 x gross energy intake Forage dry matter to gross energy conversion 4.3 Maloiy et al. (1970) Craighead et al. (1973) and Gates and Hudson (1978) Rumen volume estimates based on Nagy and Reglin (1975 ) Adult body weight 217 kg Dean et a1. (1976) Calf body weight 87 kg· Dean et a1. (1976) Adult fat weight 33 kg Flook (1970) Calf fat weight 10 kg Flook (1970) Growth rate w = 372_262~-·00086t t = years, w Second, this assumption variation = weight in kg allowed examination in diet quality on animal condition. tigation of the biological McEwan (1975) significance ever, because of the measurement of effects of small Thus, it allows inves- of observed differences. How- error implicit in diet quality input �-288- data, differences caution. in model output among habitats must be considered with That is, if there were no statistical quality measures among habitats, condition, differences then differences in diet in predicted animal no matter how large, would not be repeatable given several replications of the diet sampling. Two sets of model runs were made. was parameterized In the first series, the model to represent an adult and a calf elk during both years of the study and was driven with across habitat estimates of diet quality by month. These model runs provided my best estimate of elk nutri- tional status in relation to the entire winter range. In the second series of model runs, differences status among different habitats were investigated. in elk nutritional The model was param- eterized for a calf during year 1 and an adult during year 2 and driven with across month estimates of diet quality by habitat. Thus, for each year and in each habitat the model was used to predict overwinter changes in animal condition. Carrying Capacity Estimation Following estimated the example of Wallmo et al. 1977, carrying capacity was on the basis of forage quantity by calculating the number of elk required per unit time to remove ~ the total standing crop biomass of winter f orage : carrying capacity = total herbage biomas . ha-1 • ~ = elk • day • ha -1 elk forage intake • day -1 Forage intake estimates were based on model predictions take when the model parameters (Table 4). were specified of voluntary in- to represent an adult elk This estimate of carrying capacity does not include any �-289- prediction of the animals nutritional status. Therefore, also following Wal1mo et a1. 1977, all carrying capacity estimates based on forage quantity are presented in conjunction with estimates of animal condition based on measured diet quality and predicted food requirements. however, that these condition estimates would be absolutely given the predicted Note, accurate elk densities only if a 50% removal of total biomass did not reduce elk diet quality below the measured values. �-290- Chapter VI RESULTS Herbage Biomass Biomass of total standing crops, forage classes and dominant species was estimated within 20% of the mean with 80% confidence. Individ- ual species, other than the dominants, were estimated with considerably less precision. Species data are presented in Baker and Hobbs (1979) and Hobbs and Baker (1978); results presented here will be limited to forage classes and total biomass. There was extensive variation in total standing crop biomass between years and among habitats (Fig. 4). During year 1, total herbage biomass ranged from a high of 216.6 g • m-2 in willow to a low of 72.4 g • m-2 in grassland; the following year the high and low standing crops were 189.8 g • m-2 in willow and 67.5 g • m-2 in grassland. years, total biomass was significantly grassland, ponderosa pine-shrub, greater in willow than in aspen, or mesic meadow (P < 0.05, Fig. 4). Standing crops declined significantly (year effect P in all habitats between years = 0.006, year x habitat interaction P = 0.6). this decline, species composition was not substantially vegetation During both Despite changed in most types (Appendix 2). Differences in total biomass resulted largely from variation in grass standing crops, since grasses contributed biomass in all communities. and mesic vegetation the major portion of Biomass of grasses was greater in the wet types (wet meadow, mesic meadow, willow, and wet shrub meadow) than in aspen and the more xeric communities (sagebrush, �-291- WILW SAGE 225 WGSM WSHM ....--.. (\j I E 175 MGSM N 0'1 (f) (f) 125 <! m 75 25 Figure 4. GRSL PP/SH 2 0 ASPN N Total aboveground biomass production at the end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by X; non-overlapping vertical lines indicate significant difference at P=.OS. Solid lines are for 1976; dashed for 1977. Abreviations are: WILW = willow, PPSH = ponderosa pine shrub, WSffrl= wet shrub meadow, ASPN = aspen, SAGE = sagebrush, WGSM = wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGS~l = mesic meadow. �-292- grassland, and ponderosa pine-shrub) (Fig. 5) Biomass of grasses de- clined in all habitats the second year (year effect P = 0.003, year x habitat interaction P = 0.67). Current growth of shrubs was greatest in willow and sagebrush, intermediate in ponderosa pine-shrub, wet shrub meadow, and aspen, and least in wet meadow, grassland, and mesic meadow (Fig. 6). There was no between year difference in shrub production in any habitat (year effect P = 0.18). Forb biomass was highly variable between years, increasing in some habitats (willow, aspen, wet meadow and mesic meadow), decreasing in others (ponderosa pine-shrup, grassland, sagebrush) and remaining con- stant in a single vegetation type (wet shrub meadow) (Fig. 7). Thus, annual variation was sufficient to rearrange the habitat differences in forb biomass established by the first years data (year x habitat interaction P = 0.06). Diet Botanical Composition Browse and grasses dominated winter diets selected by experimental animals (Table 5). mesic vegetation The most frequently consumed grasses in wet and types were bluegrass (Poa pratensis), pratense), Canada reedgrass (Calamagrostic timothy (Phleum canadensis), and sedges (Carex spp.). Important browses included aspen leaves (Populus tremuloides), leaves and stems of willow (Salix spp.), and stems of shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruiticosa). Principal species eaten in xeric communities were mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), needle and thread (Stipa comata), and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata). Although elk feeding on fallen leaves has not been widely reported, I observed that frequent consumption of fallen �-293- WILW WGSM MGSM WSHM ••......•. N I E ASPN (f) (f) « 100 ~ SAGE o m GRSL PP/SH 50 Figure 5. Biomass of grass at the end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by X; non-overlapping vertical lines indicate significant difference at P=.05. Solid lines are for 1976, dashed for 1977. Abreviations are: WILW = willow, PPSH = ponderosa pine shrub, WSHM = wet shrub meadow, ASPN = Aspen, SAGE = sagebrush, WGSM = wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGSN = mesic meadow. �-294- 25 WILW SAGE I I I t I t 1 20 (\J I E 0\ WSHM ASPN 15 I (j) (j) « ~ 0 CD PP/SH 10 WGSM GRSL I: L Figure 6. Biomass of current annual growth of shrubs during November of 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by X; non-overlapping vertical lines indicate significant difference at P=.OS. Solid lines are for 1976; dashed for 1977. abreviations are: WILW = willow, PP/SH = ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHJl = west shrub meadow, ASPN = aspen, SAGE = sagebrush, WGSM wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM mesic meadow. = = = �-295- ASPN GRSL. I SAGE ....--.. N WGSM 1 1 I I E 01 20 PP/SH WSHM (J) (J) -r ~ 0 15 CD WILW 1 I MGSM I I I I Figure 7. Biomass of forbs at the end of the growing season during 1976 and 1977 in upper montane habitats, in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Mean values are indicated by X; non-overlapping vertical lines indicate significant difference at P=.OS. Solid lines are for 1976; dashed for 1977. Abreviations are: WILW = willow, PPjSH = ponderosa pine-shrub, WSill1= wet shrub meadow, ASPN = aspen, SAGE = sagebrush, WGSH = wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGSN = mesic meadow. �Table 5. Mean percentage of observed Novembe r-Ha rch 1976-1977 bites of plant species and 1977-1978 summarized in diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter by habitat Habitat Willow Het meadow Nesic meadow Grassland Taxa~/ Year~j X% inermis 1977 1978 5 tr 1977 1978 0 0 1977 1978 16 10 4 19 1 8 8 7 2 1 0 1 1977 1978 6 8 3 5 21 16 4 5 5 17 2 1 1 tr SE X% SE X% 11 3 5 1 12 4 SE range, in Colorado, during type.~/ X% SE Type Sagebrush Ponderosa pine-shrub Aspen Wet shrub Across all types --- --- X% SE X% SE X% SE X% SE X% SE 1 0 0.4 0 2 2 1 1 2 tr 0.3 2 1 0.4 0.4 4 1 0.4 0.2 5 1 1 1 6 0.3 2 0 tr 1 2 0.2 0.4 ---- Grasses Rromus ~outeloua gracilis Calamagrostis ~rex canadensis spp. 3 0 0 3 1 tr 0 tr 5 4 1 8 0.4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 14 1 1 11 10 1 1 4 7 tr tr t.r tr 5 3 2 1 13 17 1 6 8 1 I N \D JlIncus balticus 1977 1978 tr tr 1977 1978 0 0 1977 1978 tr Phleum pratense 1977 1978 8 3 2 1 7 7 Poa E_!:"atensis 1977 1978 31 4 4 26 12 1977 1978 0 0 1977 1978 55 3S ~Iuhlenber~ Muhlenbergia montana .richardsoni Slipa comata All graminoids~/ 11 1 4 9 0.4 1 0.4 6 1 1 0.5 0.4 tr 0 18 35 2 2 34 52 0.4 tr 0 0 tr 0 3 4 1 1 5 19 2 6 1 44 16 5 6 1 1 4 2 1 1 0 0 4 4 61 61 4 4 59 41 1 2 3 15 18 10 10 tr 9 3 38 12 6 4 tr 1 14 S 2 1 7 4 48 50 3 4 69 61 83 69 3 S 2 0 1 1 5 8 8 0.4 2 tr 0 1 3 71 64 2 tr tr tr tr tr tr 1 0 0 tr tr 11 tr 2 tr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 1 1 7 7 4 0 24 41 4 4 I 9 14 2 1 0.4 tr 1 0.4 8 4 3 1 5 4 22 6 3 1 25 0 0 S 3 o- tr 1 S9 45 7 2 1 3 2 4 4 61 50 3 3 �Table 5. Continued Habitat Type Willow Wet meadow Nesic meadow Grassland SE X% 0.4 Sagebrush Ponderosa pine-shrub X% X% Aspen Wet shrub Across all types X% X% X% Taxa!?/ Year~j X% SE X% .SE X% Alnus tenuifolia (leaves) 1977 1978 2 0.4 0.4 6 tr tr o o o o o o o o 2 tr tr Populus treOluloides Deaves) 1977 1978 tr o o o o tr tr o o tr tr 32 4 36 3 o o 7 1 5 0.4 Prunus virglnlanu Heaves) 1977 1978 o o o o o 15 3 15 3 o o o o o o o Salix spp. (leaves) 1977 1978 26 5 26 3. 7 4 5 1 3 1 tr 7 1 o o o o o 3 9 Salix spp, (stems) 1977 1978 2 33 3 15 6 2 5 1 0.4 o o o o o o 6 Purshia tridentata 1977 1978 o 0 tr 13 4 21 7 21 5 o tr tr tr SE SE SE SE SE SE Br ows e ·(StemS) 1 o o 7 2 o 3 1 0 o 10 5 10 4 6 12 2 1 6 0.4 1 13 0.2 1 3 1 0.6 3 1 0.4 0.2 10 3 15 5 6 2 3 . 14 1 10 0.5 o o o 8 10 1 3 1 6 2 I N 1.0 .....• (stt!~ 1977 1978 Rosa woodsii (stem~ 1977 1978 o tr tr 3 All browse~/ 1977 1978 42 7 64 4 26 8 32 8 13 28 1977 o tr 1978 o o 1977 1978 tr tr 1977 1978 2 1 2 1 0,4 4 3 2 4,756 6,300 Polenlilla fruticosa 4 1 1 0.3 1 0.3 1 0.4 1 2 tr tr 3 tr 1 o 2 tr 3 21 3 32 5 20 6 29 6 28 3 29 5 tr 20 4 o 10 2 5 8 5 1 2 3 1 1 0.3 1 0.4 2 0.4 0.4 0.3 30 3 11 3 11 2 1 1 18 4 10 4 6 1 3 2,800 14,580 15,885 9,105 12,485 21,575 25,685 28,850 17,790 tr 1 2 5 0.3 1 16 2 5 22 2 7 I 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 2 tr 5 38 4 53 4 32 3 56 4 6 o tr 3 8 o o 3 o o tr 6 4 40 44 3 Forbs Eriogonurn umbellatum Potentilla spp, All forbs~.I Total bites~/ !/Neans are calculated 1977 1978 o 21,000 21,600 across 5 animals' !?/Species include those which contributed ~/1977 = 1976-77, 1978 = 1978-79. 1 0.5 0.4 diet percentages where percentages 2 9,930 0.4 1 o tr 3 6 2 6 27,3:)0 155,250 131,910 26,910 were pooled for each animal over all months. 2% or more of total biles during any lIJonth. 0.4 �-298- willow and aspen leaves. This feeding behavior might have been over- looked in previous studies because of the methods used. Obviously, no evidence of leaf removal would be present when feeding sites were examined. Furthermore, leaves were often eaten at the base of shrubs where they were obscured from view by the surrounding quently, observation Conse- from a distance would probably overlook such feed- ing (Wallmo et al. 1973). Because biomass of fallen leaves can be quite large (Baker and Hobbs 1978) and their nutritional high (see latter sections), elk consumption tially increases the food potentials Variation herbage. in composition quality is relatively of fallen leaves substan- of habitats where leaves occur. of diets among the five animals was rela- tively small (Table 5). There was no difference among animals (p < 0.07) in the proportion of grass or browse in their diets in any habitat during either year. Most standard errors of estimates of grass and browse composition of diets within individual habitat types were less than 15% of the means. Across-habitat than those of within-habitat estimates. standard errors were even lower The lack of variation in diet estimates suggests that all animals responded similarly to the extant variation in forage res~urces. When available, material. Bluegrass consistently green herbage was preferred to senescent plant remained green for most of the first winter and was sought out and consumed. During Year 2, a colder winter, senesced by November and was consumed less frequently 0.0001). Animals also selected green tillers of timothy and sedges in preference to standing-dead Initially, (P = bluegrass material of the same species. grasses dominated Year-l winter diets (75%, November), but the proportion of browse increased and the proportion of grass �-299- declined by 6 percentage points per month until grass and browse were eaten with almost equal frequency March (Fig. 8). On the other hand, grass and browse comprised approxi- mately equal proportions accounting (45% of bites) during February and of diets throughout the second winter, togeth~r for more than 90% of total bites each month. a consistently small proportion of total observed bites (less than 10%) during both years except in the xeric communities, (Eriogonum umbellatum) Forbs comprised where sulfurflower was an important diet item (Table 5). More browse and less grass was consumed during Year 2 than during Year 1 (P = 0.001, Table 5). This increase in browse intake was ob- served across all habitat types (year x habitat interaction, P = .76). Increases in browse consrunption in willow, wet meadow, aspen, wet shrub meadow, and mesic meadow resulted primarily of willow stems. In xeric communities, more frequent consumption of bitterbrush from increased consumption the increase in browse reflected stems. In both years, frequency of browse consumption was greater in aspen, willow, and wet shrub meadow than in other vegetation 0.05, Table 5). types (P = The aspen, willow~ and wet shrub meadow communities contained the largest biomass of shrubs (Fig. 6), suggesting was consumed according to its availability. browse consumption that browse However, differences in among habitats, although statistically significant, were small compared to differences in browse availability among habi- tats. Browses were consumed in greater amounts than would be predicted· on the basis of their prewinter biomass (Fig. 9). Diets contained no less than 13% browse in grassland, mesic meadow, and wet meadow communities where shrubs contributed less than 3% of total plant biomass. Thus, we can conclude that elk were highly selective ularly in habitats with a small biomass of shrubs. for browse, partic- �-300- 76-77 (f) w ~ co Shrubs ....J ~ o ~ ~ o Ix 40 Shrubs Dec I Fig. 8. Ja n l Feb I Mar ,. Botanical composition of elk winter diets estimated across habitat types on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. �-301- 100 Consumed more often than expected <, G I 80 I .- - s- J-W o 60 z S S -, /. s- '\ I G G G I G (\ \\ s I I G G / . I G G G s <, <, / / G / ......_- _ _..- ;7 Consumed less often than expected 60 80 100 0/0 IN BIOMASS Figure 9. Relationship between proportion of forage classes in prewinter herbage biomass and their proportion in overwinter diets of elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. Each point represents the mean forage class percentage across 5 elk in one habitat type during one winter. Symbols are: S shrubs, G grass, F forbs. = = = �-302- In contrast to this selective feeding on relatively rare browse, elk also included large amounts of common forages in their diets in most habitats. Between 40% and 75% of bites were chosen from the 4 most abundant (based on prewinter biomass) plant species in all habitat ex- cept mesic and wet meadow (Table 6). ponderosa-pine grassland and shrub, these species were consumed totally non-selective- ly; that is, the percentage not different biomass In aspen, sagebrush, of common species in the overwinter from the proportion diet was of those species in the prewinter (Fig. 10). This contrasting evidence for selective and non-selective feeding styles can be reconciled by the following observation. In all habitats, diets contained (Fig. 11). a similar mixture of grasses and browse gardless of the relative availability contained substantial choices. implications this The independence mixture of diets from the grass-browse tat biomass had important discussed In some habitats this feeding style; in other communities forage mix resulted from non-selective grass-browse of grass and browse, elk diets amounts of both forages. required a highly selective Re- composition for maintenance of the of habi- of diet quality, later. Forage Quality Chemical composition grasses showed differences and digestibility typical of these forage classes (Van Soest 1973, Short et al. 1974) (Table 3). than browse, a larger proportion lulose (CW-ADF) and cellulose protein analyses of browse and Grasses contained more cell wall of the cell-wall material (ADF-lignin), as hemicel- and less as lignin. Crude- content was greater in browse tissue, while IVDDM was greater for grasses. �-303- Table 6. Percentage of 4 most common species in biomass of upper montane habitats, Colorado, and in winter diets of 5 elk feeding in those habitats during November-March 1976-77 and 1977-78. Habitat Year % of Total Bites % of Biomass Grassland 1977 1978 43 44 47 43 Ponderosa pine-shrub 1977 1978 42 48 48 45 Sagebrush 1977 1978 53 55 58 59 Willow 1977 1978 52 79 90 92 Aspen 1977 1978 78 72 75~/ 66 Mesic meadow 1977 1978 7 27 77 72 Wet shrub meadow 1977 1978 60 58 79 72 Wet grass meadow 1977 1978 26 34 81~/ 78 ~/Includes leaf biomass estimate from 1978. �-304- 100 Consumed than more often expected 80 f- 60 w o z 40 ~ o Consumed less often than expected 40 20 0/0 Figure 10. IN BIOMASS Relationship between proportion of 4 most common species in Aspen, Grassland, Ponderosa-pine shrub, and Sagebrush habitats and their mean percentage in winter diets across 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. �-305- 80 o Grass ,._eo 60,._,._ 40f.- / (f) 20 rn t- .: v1/ .: V -- -r: _J 80 ~ 0 I- V-- nvQ v- -- / / V / v- l/r- v .: 1/ .: I1/ vv::-- / -- "- I Ix ~ ~ 40~ 20 - V v-:/: -. / / -- ./: ' -- V -,/ n n .•. :: !J') ,._ 0 Q) Figure 11. / :. v- --- / ..c .2 C'I n, n, CI) c: c: ,/~ "0 Q) 0 r- J::. !J') ::J ,._ Q) 0 ~: h V I-, V ,._ 0 (!) / V / .- / 1/ / V ,/ ~ v V -- V 'r. v:v:/: : 3: 3: 0 .~ !J') Q) 0 Q) ::i; ~ Q) - /: . h "0 - /: / L/nl-, V c: !J') !J') .,... V V V V l/ v:_ v-r.: 0 "0 v1/ / ./ l,V l/ ~ V / ,/ v: -- ,/ :1-, 1/ 1/ r- V / / ,/ -,/:- V ---- ~ V :: ,..., .: 1/ 1/- 17" V V l/ 1/ 1/ -V 1/ .: -- v:1/~:: v-v::h h / / -- -- , 1./- -- 1/'"": 1/ ---/ 17" - - ,.... -- t- V ~ -s ,._ 60~ 0 / / vr. I- / V V V l/ Vr. -V .: V w r V I m DForbs OShrubs 0 "0 0 Q) :;: ~ [7 ~ 1/ V ;": 1/......, /" -- l/ .: 1/:- ' -- ~:: /- " .. / V -- ,/ 1,./ .: ,/ -- -- : :1-, ..c ,._::J c: Q) Q. If) <[ J::. - (/) 3: 0 "0 V:- 3: 0 0 Q) ~ ~ ~ Forage class composition of elk winter diets in upper montane habitats during 1976-1977 and 1977-1978. �-306- Browse leaves were intermediate ibility and crude-protein cell-wall material, to grass and browse stems in digest- content, but contained the least amount of and thus the greatest amount of cell solubles. The ADF fraction of cell wall was lower in leaves than in browse stems or grass; hemicellulose was thus most concentrated in leaves. Cell solubles in browse leaves and stems were not completely gested, as evidenced by the discrepancy percentages between their cell-soluble (l-CW) and IVDDM coefficients (Table 7). Short et al. (1974) found that cell solubles in browse tissue were essentially digested, but Milchunas mine. Presumably, et al. (1978:9-10) these conflicting the extent of rupture of cell walls. to variation di- 100% reported results similar to findings result from differences Whether these differences'are in due in the browse material analyzed or to sample-preparation methods is not clear. Forbs were generally minor diet items. tescant perennial, was the single exception stems in chemical composition, The chemical composition patterns Sulfurflower, a suffru- and was similar to browse IVDDM, and fiber characteristics. of grasses and browse showed different of change with advancing season. Protein content, cell wall, and IVDDM of browse species did not change appreciably during winter (Slope f 0: P < 0.37); whereas cell wall of grasses increased and their crude protein and IVDDM declined from November until late February, the trends reversed I observed grass quality. when (Fig. 12-14; Table 8). some year-to-year differences in the temporal changes in IVDDM declined more rapidly during Year 2 than Year 1 (P = 0.04), but there was no difference in the .rate of change of crudeprotein or cell wall between years (P > 10, Table 8). Despite this �Table 7. Chemical Colorado constituents and in vitro digestibility of principal forage species upper montane range dlHing Novembe r-Ha rch 1976-1977 and 1977-1978. Percent Taxa~! yearE.! Number of samples inermis 1977 1978g! by 5 elk on of dry matter~! ADF'=_/ cwci! conswned Lignin Crude Protein 1VDDMY X SE X SE X SE '. X SE X SE 4 3 62 2.7 33 1.5 4.8 0.4 4.2 0.8 47 5.0 1977 1978 3 2 72 78 1.5 1.2 36 39 0.5 0.0 5.3 5.5 0.2 0.7 4.6 4.3 0.4 0.3 41 47 5.8 3.4 1977 1978 5 64 72 1.9 1.3 36 40 1.4 1.4 4.1 5.3 0.4 0.6 4.7 3.9 0.5 0.4 43 43 2.2 3.3 Carex spp. 1977 1978 5 5 68 73 2.8 1.8 36 36 1.5 1.9 3.6 6.3 0.6 2.7 4.3 4.6 0.5 0.3 45 42 2.0 2.3 Juncus balticus 1977 1978 g! 1 79 1977' 1978 5 5 74 77 1.6 0.7 36 44 1.0 4.1 4.6 4.0 0.4 0.2 4.0 3.5 0.2 0.2 41 43 2.2 3.4 pratense 1977 1978 5 4 60 70 1.9 2.3 31 38 2.6 1.8 4.3 5.8 1.1 0.2 4.2 3.9 0.8 0.9 50 50 2.8 4.2 Poa pratensesis 1977 1978 4 61 73 2.8 1.4 34 40 1.8 3.3 4.8 0.3 0.4 5.0 4.0 0.7 0.5 50 44 2.4 1.4 Stipa comata 1977 1978 5 1 68 75 1.8 36 39 1.7 4.9 6.4 1.0 4.9 3.4 0.6 46 44 1.0 X eraminoids 1977 3 66 0.8 35 0.7 4.4 0.2 4.5 0.1 45 1.3 1978 7 75 1.1 [~O 0.8 5.1 0.4 3.9 0.2 44 1.4 1977 1978 1 '49 g/ 1977 1978 5 5 32 41 2.0 1.5 23 29 1.3 1.1 8.0 14 2.0 0.7 5.6 3.9 0.3 0.2 44 39 1977 1978 5 5 34 49 1.0 1.4 26 38 1.0 2.5 13 23 2.1 1.6 6.0 p.2 0.2 0.4 34 1.1 29 2.6 Graminoids Bromus --, Bouteloua gracilis Calamagrostis Muhlenbergia Phleum Browse canadensis montana 41 2.9 1.0 0 ......, 38 3.1 r leaves Alnus tenuifolia ~opulus tremuloides Salix spp , r w 38 25 42 7.0 0.7 2.3 �Table 7. Continued Percent cwc<l/ ADFr:./ of dry matter~.! Lignin Crude Protein lVOmlY ---- Number of samples X SE X SE X SE X SE X SE 2 1 32 42 0.2 23 43 0.2 11 5 0.6 " 5.1 4.8 0.04 42 40 0.9 0.7 3 33 44 0.7 2.5 24 37 1.5 4.1 11 14 1.0 5.2 5.9 5.0 0.4 0.5 40 36 3.0 3.5 1977 1978 5 5 42 57 3.5 1.9 33 45 3.0 1.6 15 21 1.5 1.0 8.1 6.0 0.1 0.4 40 35 1.0 1.9 1977 1978 5 4 55 59 0.6 0.6 41 44 0.6 0.8 16 17 1.2 0.2 5.4 4.6 0.1 0.1 26 23 2.1 1977 1978 4 4 48 56 1.1 0.9 36 45 1.5 3.4 20 25 0.1 0.7 8.1 6.8 0.2 0.5 35 29 0.8 2.9 Rosa woodsi 1977 1978 2 1 49 52 0.5 36 43 0.9 12 16 1.0 4.9 4.6 0.4 38 35 2.0 X browse 1977 1978 4 4 49 56 2.4 1.4 36 44 1.7 0.4 16 20 1.7 2.0 6.6 5.5 0.9 0.5 35 30 3.1 2.9 Eriogonuro umbellatum 1977 1978 4 3 43 55 2.0 0.3 34 43 2.0 1.1 17 18 1.6 1.1 7.8 6.3 0.3 0.2 30 25 1.0 3.0 Potentilla 1977 1978 1 52 '&_/ 1977 2 49 4.5 34 0.5 14 3.0 6.1 0.3 28 2.0 1978 1 55 0.3 43 1.1 18 1.1 6.3 0.2 25 3.0 across monthly samples; Year':./ Taxa!?.! 1977 1978 Prunus virginiana X browse Browse leaves . stems Salix spp. Potentilla Purshia fruiticosa tridentata I ----- stems Forbs spp. X forbs !/X is the mean of percentages ~/Species contributing ~/Cell-wall ~/Acid constituents. detergent SE is standard 2% or more of total bites observed £/1977 = winter of 1976-77, 1978 = winter of 1977-78. fiber. !/In vitro digestible g/Species did not occur in diet that year. dry matter. 11 33 error of mean. during anY,month. 31 4.3 w 0 00 I �-309- GRASS CELL WALL 2 ~~2 75 2 70 _J _J ~ 2 I 2 /I/~ I ~ ~ 2 /~ I Nov I Dec I 2 65 _J _J w <..) Figure 12. .Jcn I Feb I Mar I Apr I Cell wall content of grasses consumed by elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Numeral 2 indicates a value for 1977-78; numeral 1 is a value for 1976-77. For regression statistics see Table 4. �-310- GRASS PROTEIN 6.5 6.0 5.5 z w I0--- 0:: o, w 4.5 0 ::J 0:: L) ~ 0 3.5 2 I 2 2 2 2 Novl Figure 13. Dec I Janl Feb I Marl Apr I Protein content of grasses consum~d by elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Numeral 2 indicates a value for 1977-78; numeral 1 is a value for 1976-77. For regression statistics see Table 4. �-311- GRASS DIGESTIBILITY 60 55 50 o ~ o > ~ o 2 2 35 Nov I Figure 14. Dec I Janl Feb I Mar I Apr I In vitro dry digestible dry matter (IVDDM) for grasses consumed by elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado. Numeral 2 indicates a value for 1977-78; numeral 1 is a value for 1976-77. For regression statistics see Table 4. �-312- Table 8. Regression coefficients and statistics for in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM), crude protein content, and cell wall of grasses from upper montane winter range, Colorado, as a function of advancing season. Independent variable is days where 15 October day 1. See Fig. 2-4 for plots. = Dependent variable Year'p_/ IVDDM Equation R2 P SE£./ 0.31 0.007 5.0 0.50 0.003 2.6 0.38 0.001 0.9 1978 = 55.8 - 0.24X + 0.001X2 Y = 51.8 - 0.18X + 0.0008X2 Y = 6.S - 0.04X + 0.0002X2 Y = 5.8 - O. Ol}X + O. 0002X2 0.46 0.005 0.7 1977 Y = 56.7 + 0.21X - 0.0010X2 0.23 0.02 5.2 1978 Y = 62.6 + 0.20 - 0.0009X2 0.45 0.001 2.7 1977 1978 Crude protein Cell wall ~/Includes 1977 Y only those species for which a sample was collected each month. = 'p_/1977 winter of 1976-77, 1978 £/Standard error of estimate. = winter of 1977-78. �-313- annual variation, these data suggest that the nutritional quality of grasses generally declines until March, then begins to increase. Measures of forage quality were markedly lower during Year 2 than Year 1 (P < 0.02, Table 7): Mean crude protein in grass was 13% less; protein in browse sterns, 15% less; and mean crude protein of browse leaves, 17% less. IVDDM of grasses did not change between years, where- as browse sterns were 14%, and browse leaves 10%, less digestible the All forage classes increased in ewe between years; browse second year. sterns and grasses increased 12%; leaves, 25%. Diet Quality The previous section dealt with the chemical composition forages consumed by experimental composition and digestibility on the proportions animals. However, the exact chemical of the diets (diet quality) also depended of the various forages selected. Diet q~ality was estimated quite precisely because chemical composition classes varied little, and forage-class very similar. of the As a consequence composition of animal diets were statistical differ- ences between means resulted in large part from small variances rather than from large differences variances of this precision, within forage in mean values. can contribute to statistical is of greatest biological As discussed, Note that, although small significance, the value of means importance. the nutritional quality of forage grasses decreased steadily through the winter (Fig. 12-14), while nutritional browse remained constant. quality of The quality of elk diets (calculated across habitats by month) also decreased over the winter (Fig. 15 and 16, Table 9), but the rates of decline and magnitudes from those of grasses (Tables 8 and 9). of change sometimes differed Dietary crude protein decreased �-314- DIET IVDMD 45 0 ~ 0 > ~ 22 35 22 2 0 2 30 Nov I Figure 15. Decl Jan I Feb I Mar I Apr I In vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) of winter diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 . and 1977-78. Numeral 1 indicates a value for 1976-77. Numeral 2 is a value for 1977-78. For regression statistics see Table 6. �-315- DIET 7.0 PROTEIN z W I0 ~ n::: a, w 0 :J n::: l) 1 2 21 ~ 0 2 2 2 Novl Figure 16. Decl Janl Feb I Marl Aprl Protein content of winter diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. Numeral 1 indicates a value for 1976-77; numeral 2 is a value for 1977-78. For regression statistics see Table 6. �-316- Table 9. Regression coefficients and statistics for winter diet crude protein and IVDDM of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, as a function of advancing season. Independent variable is days where 15 October day 1. See Fig. 5 and 6 for plots. = Dependent variable IVDDM Year~/ Equation R2 P SE~/ 1977 = 52 - 0.19X + 0.0007X2 Y = 46 - 0.18X + 0.0007X2 Y = 6.2 - 0.009X Y = 5.8 - 0.02X + 0.00008X2 0.82 0.00001 2.1 0.64 0.0005 1.8 0.56 0.00002 0.4 0.60 0.00003 0.3 1978 Crude protein 1977 1978 ~/1977 Y = winter of 1976-77; 1978 = winter of 1977-78. ~/Standard error of estimate. �-317- about 20% from November through March during both years, while grass crude protein decreased about 30%. During Year 1 the rates of decline of both dietary IVDDM and crude protein were lower than those of grass IVDDM and protein. In the second year the rates of decline for dietary IVDDM and protein did not differ from those of grass IVDDM and protein. In Year 2, although the rates of decline in dietary crude protein did not differ significantly levels were consistently protein levels. from those of grass, dietary crude-protein higher (:1 percentage On the other hand, Year 2 IVDDM levels were consistent- ly higher in grasses than in the diet. elk maintained available point) than grass crude- Thus, in Year 2, as in Year 1, a diet higher in crude protein than levels generally grasses but, unlike in Year 1, were unable to also maintain higher level of digestibility than was generally available During both years, there was no significant a in grass. change in dietary cell wall content during winter. Constancy of diet cell wall content con- trasted with the overwinter variation in grass cell wall content (Fig. Diet quality, like forage quality, declined between years. Diets 15). contained less crude protein during Year 2 than during the previous year (P = 0.0001). ties: However, these differences grassland, ponderosa dietary-protein pine-shrub, were limited to three communiand aspen (Table 10, Fig. 17); content in all other communities did not change signif- icantly (P < 0.05), despite the marked reductions in forage protein content. Dietary IVDDM was lower the second year in all habitats grassland, sagebrush, 18). and ponderosa pine-shrub (P = 0.05, Table 10, Fig. Dietary crude protein declined most sharply in grassland ponderosa pine-shrub (Fig. 17). Thus, constancy except and of IVDDM in diets was �-318- Table 10. Mean percentage chemical constituents and in vitro digestibility of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats in Colorado, during November-~larch 1976-1977 and 1977-1978. Percent CWC"r}_/ of dry matter ADFr:_/ Lignin Crude protein IVDm1<!i Year~/ X SE X SE X SE X SE ----X SE Grassland 1977 1978 53 61 0.1 0.3 33 48 0.6 0.5 9.3 13.6 0.2 0.7 6.3 5.1 0.1 0.1 35 39 0.7 1.2 Mesic meadow 1977 1978 61 62 0.5 1.6 34 38 0.2 1.3 4.7 11.0 0.4 1.0 4.6 4.5 0.1 0.5 46 36 0.5 1.0 Ponderosa 1977 1978 60 61 0.2 2.8 35 50 0.2 1.0 8.2 8.3 0.9 0.9 5.5 4.8 0.1 0.2 40 37 1.0 0.7 Sagebrush 1977 1978 64 63 1.6 3.8 35 52 0.5 1.1 7.7 8.7 0.8 1.0 5.2 4.8 0.2 0.1 38 38 0.3 1.2 Willow 1977 1978 52 58 0.6 0.3 32 41 0.2 0.3 8.1 17.8 0.5 0.2 5.6 5.6 0.1 0.2 42 35 0.5 0.2 Aspen 1977 1978 53 59 1.7 1.2 31 37 0.7 0.2 5.2 12.0 0.4 1.0 5.2 4.6 0.1 0.2 47 39 0.5 1.7 Wet shrub-meadow 1977 1978 59 60 0.8 1.0 35 40 0.2 0.4 6.8 15.0 0.5 0.6 5.2 5.2 0.1 0.2 43 34 0.5 0.4 Wet meadow 1977 1978 61 63 0.8 2.3 35 41 0.5 0.5 6.2 12.7 1.1 2.2 5.1 5.0 0.1 0.3 45 37 1.6 1.0 Habitat Tukey's pine-shrub cF/ Among habitats 6.0 2.8 3.7 0.60 4.1 Between years 4.5 2.1 2.8 0.45 3.1 ~/1977 = winter of 1976-77, 1978 = winter of 1977-78. ~/Cell-wall constituents. r:_/Aciddetergent fiber. ~/In vitro digestible dry matter. e/Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for 8 (among habitats) and 2 (between years) comparisons. Means must differ by this value to be significantly different at P 0.05. = �-319- DIET 7 PROTEIN GRSL z w I0 0:: 6 0.... w 0 :::> 0:: WILW H l.) PP/SH \H \h WSHM ASPN SAGE WGSM I I ~ ~ 0 MGSM ·4 I 4 Figure 17. Protein content of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montpne habitats, Colorado. X indicates a mean across animals; vertical bars are Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for eight comparisons; non-overlapping bars indicate significant differences at p = 0.05. Solid lines are for 1976-77, dotted for 1977-78. Habitat abbreviations are: WILW willow, PPjSH ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSM wet meadow, GRSL = grassland, MGSM = mesic meadow. = = = = = = �-320- DIET 50 DIGESTIBILITY ASPN MGSM WGSM 45 WSHM WILW PPISH 0 ~ 0 > 40 ~ 0 35 Figure 18. Jf: \ GRSL SAGE I I N 'r I In vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) content of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats, Colorado. X indicates mean value across animals; verticle bars are Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for 8 comparisons. Nonoverlapping bars indicate significant difference at p 0.05. Soild lines are for 1976-77, dotted for 1977-78. Habitat abbreviations are: WILW = willow, PP/SH = ponderosa pineshrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN aspen, SAGE sagebrush, WGSM wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM mesic meadow. = = = = = = = �-321- 70 DIET CE LL WALL WGSM 65 PP/SH WSHM _J _J I I <! _J _J W 60 (..) ~ 0 I WILW :5: 55 ASPN I I I Hr F GRSL MGSM I I I I r: 50 Figure 19. Cell wall content of winter diets of 5 elk in upper montane habitats, Colorado. X indicates mean value across animals; vertical bars are Tukey's Q simultaneous confidence intervals for 8 comparisons. Non-overlapping bars indicate a significant difference at p 0.05. Solid lines are for 1976-77, dotted for 1977-78. Habitat abbreviations are: WILW willow, PP/SH ponderosa pine-shrub, WSHM wet shrub meadow, ASPN - aspen, SAGE sagebrush ,-WGSM wet meadow, GRSL grassland, MGSM mesic meadow. = = = = = = = = �-322- associated with sharply reduced crude protein, while stable dietary protein occurred most often in habitats where dietary IVDDM declined. Cell wall content of diets increased between years in aspen and grassland; in all other habitats proportions of dietary cell wall remained = 0.05, Table 10, Fig. 19). These annual trends in diet constant (p nutritional mixtures quality were influenced by changes in the browse-grass of elk diets, an influence discussed in more detail later. During both years, dietary IVDDM values were highest in aspen and protein content of diets was consistently in mesic meadow (Table 10). types according high in willow but usually low Despite these generalities, to nutritional ranking habitat quality of diets selected was not possi- ble for two reasons. First, there were significant actions for diet protein, (P < 0.05) year-X-habitat IVDDM, CW, ADF, and lignin. annual changes in diet quality were not proportional inter- That is, because across habitats, Year 1 ranking of habitats by diet quality differed significantly from that of Year 2 (Fig. 17-19). Second, the differences (Table 10, Fig. 17-19). contained habitat During the first winter, diets in grassland a large proportion consequently in diet quality among habitats were small of sulfurflower, more crude protein (P < 0.05). (X Diets in other communities the most protein, selected in aspen, sagebrush, forb, and = 6.3%) than diets in any other and 5.6% protein, most having close to 5%. willow contained a high-protein contained between 4.5 The following year, diets in significantly or mesic meadow more than the diets (P < 0.05). Otherwise, dietary crude protein did not differ between habitats during Year 2, and protein in diets again ranged from 4.5 to 5.6%. Dietary IVDDM did not �-323- differ in aspen, willow, mesic meadow, and wet shrub meadow during Year 1; diets in these habitats were more digestible pine-shrub, sagebrush, and grassland than those in ponderosa (P < 0.05). The subsequent year, dietary IVDDM values were higher in aspen and grassland shrub meadow (P < 0.05); otherwise, habitats. Cell wall percentage than in wet dietary IVDDM did not differ between of diets was smaller in aspen, grass- land, and willow than in any other habitat during year 1 (P < 0.05). There were no differences in proportions of dietary cell wall among the other habitats that year or among any habitats during year 2 (p > 0.05). Nutritional Status As a result of the observed variation differences in predicted in diet quality there were animal condition between years, within winters, and among some habitats. Simulated weight fluxes for a calf during Year 1 were a 5% increase in lean body weight, a 6% decrement in total weight, and a complete ex- haustion of fat stores (Fig. 20). Adults during the first winter were predicted to gain 3% in lean body, and loose 60% of fat reserves and 10% of total body weight (Fig. 21). lost 6% of their prewinter The following year, simulated adults lean body, 20% of their total weight and all of their fat stores (Fig. 22). When the model was parameterized for calves consuming Year 2 diets, estimated weight loss were 20% of lean body, 100% of fat and 30% of total weight (Fig. 23). weight, adults were predicted In terms of total to loose twice as much weight, and calves 5 times more weight during Year 2 relative to their losses the first year. During Year 1, simulated changes in lean body weight of calves and adults indicated diets chosen that year contained above maintenance �-324- 220 212 204 196 -0'1 x »> - body - - -- Lean --- ~ I- :r: (.!) w :s: 32 - - -Fat- .... ..•.. >- Cl 0 co .... ..... .... .•.... 24 <, .•.... .•.... <, <, <, 16 ••... "- .•.•. .•.•. .... .•.•. 8 Dec I Figure 20. Jan I Feb I Mar I Simulated changes in total weight, lean body, and fat of an adult elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during November-Narch 1976-77. �-325- 90 Cl 82 ~ ••...... I- :c (!) ~ / 78 --- --- _-- - -_ Lean body / w 3: >- 74 0 0 -- en Fat ... ... 8 .•.. ...•. 4 Dec I Figure 21. Jan I •.. ... •.. •.•. ... •.•. Feb I •.•.. •.•. •.•.. •.•... •.•.. ... Mar I Simulated changes in total weight, lean body, and fat of a calf elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, November-March 1976-77. during �-326- 220 210 200 -.._.. 190 -_ --- -- Q') Lean ~ tI (!) body w 3: -- -- .... Fat .•.. >- •... Cl 0 CD ..•. ..•. ..•. 20 •... ....• .... •... •... "- ....• ....• ....• •.... 10 •... •... ....• •... ....•. Dec 1 Figure 22. Jan 1 Feb ....• •... •... •... Mar 1 Simulated changes in total weight, lean body, and fat of an adult elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during November-March 1977-78. �-327- - 78 01 -_ --_ Lean body -_ ~ t- :I: 72 (!) w 5 >a 66 0 m _ _Fat 6 0 Figure 23. Dec I .•... .•. ... Jan •... .•. .•... .•. .•... .•.... •... Feb I Mar I Simulated changes in total weight, lean body, and fat of a calf elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during November-March 1977-78. �-328- levels of protein until mid-winter, at which time the diet protein levels equalled simulated protein requirements (Fig. 20, 21). The following year, lean body declined slowly until fat reserves were depleted, at which point sharp declines in lean body were predicted (Fig. 22, 23). This result implies that protein balance per se during Year 2 was only slightly negative and that a large portion of simulated lean body deficits incurred that year resulted from catabolism teinaceous of pro- tissue to meet energy requirements. Fat reserves were predicted the beginning to be maintained for a short period at of winter during Year 1 and then decline steadily through- out the remainder of the season (Figs. 20, 21). of that year provided Thus, diets in November energy in excess of simulated requirements, while during the following months, dietary energy was at submaintenance levels. During Year 2, fat was drawn down rapidly in both adults and calves from the beginning of winter (Fig. 22, 23). in calves by mid-February, weight accelerated Fat stores were entirely depleted at which time losses of lean body and total rapidly. Results of model runs for diets chosen in the various habitats were summarized in Table 11. Variation in energy status of simulated elk was greater between years across habitats than within years among habitats. This was the case because diet digestibility over space but showed large annual changes was relatively (Fig. 18). In most habitats during both years predicted exceeded energy gains. aspen community The single exception energy requirements to this pattern was in the during Year 1 where diets provided above predicted tenance levels of energy. balances constant That same year, simulated overwinter main- energy in willow, mesic meadow, wet meadow and wet shrub meadow were �-329- only slightly negative. grassland. Energy deficits were greatest during Year 1 in The following year, energy deficits were greatest in willow and wet shrub meadow and were smallest in aspen and grassland. Simulated nitrogen balance prior to depletion of fat stores was less variable than was elk energy status (Table 11). predicted nitrogen flux ranged from a loss of 1.52 g • d-1 in mesic meadow to a gain of 2.89 g • d-1 in willow. provided nitrogen in excess of simulated During Year 2, predicted habitats. During Year 1, Diets.in most habitats requirements the first year. nitrogen fluxes were slightly negative Again, maximum simulated nitrogen in most losses were encountered mesic meadow (-3.38 g • d-1), and maximum gains in willow in (+2.39 g • d-1). Carrying Capacity Consistent with trends in total standing crop biomass, carrying capacities for elk based on forage quantity were greater in wet and mesic habitats than in drier communities years, wet meadow and willow could provide quirements estimated of more elk than other vegetation could support the smallest number. (Table 12). During both for total forage intake retypes, while grassland However, note that predicted nutri- tional status of elk in the various habitats was often at odds with habitat carrying capacity estimates. largest estimated with the support capacity based on forage quantity, predicted weight losses of individual smaller calculated That is, in communities elk were often larger than in habitats with carrying capacities. Thus, estimation capacity based on total biomass gave poor estimates of carrying of the capability those areas to provide for elk nutrition. Annual variation pronounced in habitat carrying capacity estimates than yearly variation in herbage standing crops. was less This was of �Table 11. Simulated estimates of energy and nitrogen 1977-78 in Colorado. status of elk in upper montane Energy Balance habitats (kcal) during Novembe r-Ha rch of 1976-77 and -1 Overwinter per day Grassland 1977 1978 -133308 -249749 - 966 -1810 +1.28 -1.09 -38 -15 75 129 Mesic Neadow 1977 1978 - 8219 -318324 --230759 -1.52 -3.38 -04 -26 1210 102 1977 1978 - 85747 -292816 - 621 -2121 +1.12 -2.30 -14 -21 116 110 1977 1978 - 96154 -269005 - 696 -1949 +0.20 -2.25 -20 -18 103 121 Habitat Ponderosa Pine Shrub Sagebrush Weight Total change Time until Fat Depletion Year Nitrogen Flux (g • d ) prior to Fat Depletion (%) Willow 1977 1978 9958 --350989 - 72 -2543 +2.89 +2.39 -04 -33 998 92 Aspen 1977 1978 + 7045 -248990 + 51 -1804 +0.51 -3.36 +02 -18 131 Wet Shrub Meadow 1977 1978 - 48186 -375223 - 349 -2719 +0.43 -0.61 -06 -38 206 86 Wet Headow 1977 1978 - 21376 -297938 - 154 -2158 -0.24 -1.22 -02 -22 465 108 ~/Time until total kcal deficit = 90% of kcals in fat stores. No value given when animal is in positive energy balance. I w w 0 I �-331- Table 12. Estimates of nutritional status and carrying capacity for elk in upper montane habitat types during winter 1976-77 and 1977-78 in Colorado. Nutritional Status Forage~/ Body Weight~/ Year~/ Intake (kg • d-1) change (%) -1 (elk days • ha ) Grassland 1977 1978 5.22 5.06 -38 -15 69 66 Hesic Headow 1977 1978 5.26 4.89 -04 -26 132 117 Ponderosa Pine Shrub 1977 1978 5.21 4.90 -14 -21 79 49 Sagebrush 1977 1978 5.09 4.92 -20 -18 79 49 Willow 1977 1978 5.45 5.09 -04 -33 174 218 Aspen 1977 1978 5.45 4.98 +02 -18 127 101 Wet Shrub Headow 1977 1978 5.26 4.93 -06 -38 154 139 Wet Headow 1977 1978 5.33 4.95 -02 -22' 189 117 Habitat Type Carrying Capaci t'f~/ !/1977 = winter of 1976-77, 1978 = winter of 1977-78. ~/Based on predictions of simulation model. ~/Predicted total weight change from Nov. 10 to Harch 25 based on simulation model estimates of adult animals. ~/Carrying capacity calculated as herbage biomass elk-I. day-I). (kg/ha) . total intake (kg· �-332- the case because diminished reduced diet quality during the second year resulted in rates of predicted forage intake, and consequently, tively higher carrying capacities. rela- �-333- Chapter VII DISCUSSION The standing crop biomass of winter range herbage varied between years and among habitats. Simultaneously, forage changed annually and within winters. sources influenced and estimates tritional quality of elk Variation in forage re- elk diet quality, predictions of carrying capacity. status (herbage quantity, will be discussed nutritional individually. of nutritional Each of these influences status, on elk nu- forage quality, and diet quality) The significance of variation in animal condition and range carrying capacity will then be examined. Following this discussion, of temporal conclusions and spatial variation will be drawn on the importance in food resources in several theoretical and applied contexts. Herbage Biomass Variability in herbage biomas~ between years resulted from across habitat declines in grass standing crops and the differential of forbs. Shrubs production Variation responses was constant. in grass biomass appeared to be closely related to mois- ture availability. Differences in grass production among habitats re- flected moisture gradients between sites; wet and m~sic habitats had greater standing crops of grasses than did dry vegetation S). Annual differences types (Fig. in standing crop biomass of grasses appeared to be related to decreased precipiation during the winter prior to the Year 2 growing season (Oct.-Mar. 1976-77). Although both Year 1 and Year 2 �-334growing seasons were preceeded by abnormally tation measures in Estes Park, Colorado, dry winters, total precipi- from October-March 1976-77 was 67% less than for the same time period the previous year (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1975, "1976, 1977). With the exception of blue gramma, all of the dominant grasses were cool season perennials; growth of these grasses in the spring depends on water stored in the soil profile, as well as early spring precipitation (Veihmeyer and Hendrickson 1950, McMinn 1952, Gates 1968, Eddleman and Minos 1972). overwinter deficits Presumably, in soil water potential drought during Year 1 resulted in at the beginning of Year 2 which were not compensated tation. of the growing season for by early growing season precipi- Sneva (1977) found yield of mature crested wheatgrass cristatum), a cool season perenial, 0~70) with precipitation was significantly correlated (r = during plant dormancy. Shrubs, with their deep root systems and high root/shoot less sensitive (Agropyron to variation in soil moisture ratios are than are more shallowly rooted grasses with their smaller root surface relative to shoots (Anderson et aI. 1972:177). We might expect, therefore, that shrub pro- duction would not decline as much as that of grasses as a consequence reduced soil moisture. However, note that shrub production, its relatively patchy distribution measure because of in space, is much more difficult than is biomass of the more evenly distributed of grasses. to Conse- quently, the standard errors of means of shrub biomass were much larger than those associated with estimates of grasses biomass Hence, failure to detect year differences resulted from sampling error. (Appendix 3). in shrub production might have �-335- The differential response of forbs in the various habitats is dif- ficult to explain and doubtlessly resulted from a variety of influences. However, a plausible for the observed year x habitat inter- explanation action in forb biomass involves the differences in herbage structure in the wet and dry communities. Hufstader grasslands (1976:435) suggested that dominant species in California tended to be limited by availability tion of sub-dominants Extending of water, while produc- was more closely coupled to light availability. this prediction to the current data, forbs, being sub- dominants, would be light limited. Further, since most of the forbs in the study area were warm season annuals, they would have been less affected by early growing season soil water than would the cool' season grasses. In the wet and mesic types, where forb biomass increased be- tween years, grasses formed a nearly continuous sihusia. The Year 2 increase in forbs in these vegetation have resulted from increased light penetration to the forb layer as a consequence above the forb types could through the grass canopy of decreased grass production. the dry types, where forb biomass declined, continuous overstory In grasses do not grow in a sward above forbs; hence, we would expect no increase in light availability to the forbs during Year 2. Further, a large portion of dry type forbs were perennials which would be expected to be more sensitive to soil water potential deficits than the more ephemeral annuals in the wet types. Forage Quality Annual variation in the crude protein content and digestibility range herbage has been previously 1979, Gibbs 1978). Usually, documented the nutritional of (Dietz 1967, Pease et al. quality of herbage declines �-336- as herbage production increases. This reduction in herbage quality occurs because the concentration well as the digestibility growth. of crude protein in plant tissue as of that tissue is diminished during plant As the plant matures, plant structural carbohydrates orated more rapidly than cell solubles. total production, are elab- It follows that increases in while elevating the total amount of crude protein and cell solubles per unit area of range, will result in decreased concentrations of crude protein and cell solubles and increased cell wall per unit of plant biomass. It is surprising, therefore, that elk forages during Year two, a year with markedly reduced herbage production, con- tained more dilute concentrations of crude protein, and digestible dry matter and higher concentrations of cell wall. This surprising result can be explained by the difference between changes in the overall quality of herbage on offer and changes in forage material actually selected. Note that plant samples selected for nutri- tional analysis were chosen to mimic the material selected by grazing elk. Based on numerous studies of diet selection by wild and domestic reminants (reviewed by Klein 1971)", we can assume that the forage in- cluded in diets was generally of higher nutritional the total available plant biomass. of potential quality than that of That is, there existed a finite set diet items which exceeded the mean quality of herbage, and this set was included to greater or lesser extent in elk diets depending on their dietary selectivity. very selectively. I showed that elk could, indeed, feed Thus, a reduction in total production, while ele- vating the mean quality of herbage, would also reduce the absolute size of the set of higher quality forages. Consequently, we might expect the quality of forage included in an elk's diet would more closely resemble �-337- the quality of herbage on offer. This convergence could plausibly re- sult in a reduction in the quality of diet items selected despite an increase in herbage quality. The decrement in forage protein, digestibility and cell solubles between years could a~so have been due to earlier and more complete senesence of forage plants the second year. During Year 1, there appeared to be much more green material available As previously discussed throughout the winter. this forage WaS often consumed by my experimen- tal animals and was frequently included in forage samples. The fol- lowing year, there appeared to be much less green herbage present on the winter range, and it was rarely collected. A shift in the composition of forage samples to include more dead material during Year 2 could easily explain the observed annual differences Overwinter curvilinear changes in nutritional patterns quality of grasses similar to the I observed for grasses and decrease in protein, digestibility, in forage quality. (an increase in cell wall from November through February, followed by a reversal of the trends) have been reported previously (Willard and Schuster no explanation rated. 1973, Sims et al. 1971, Burzlaff for this temporal variation I believe the overwinter 1971 ). However, has been previously elabo- changes in forage quality can be ex- plained by two processes. The decline in quality can be attributed from periodic snowmelt percolating leaching cell solubles. to the effects of water through senescent plant tissue and Leaching can rapidly remove substantial of soluble plant dryrnatter, including sugars and amino acids (for review of effects of leaching on plants, see Tukey 1971). browses amounts I analyzed with their highly lignified Presumably, the cell walls and waxy �-338- cuticles were more resistant to leaching and, as a result, did not show these overwinter declines in nutritional quality. The increase in grass quality in the spring probably resulted from upward translocation from roots to shoots. Green-up of perennial grasses was observed during March of both years, and this green material was included in animal diets and in forage samples. material An increase in the live in March samples would account for the observed inceases in forage quality. Botanical Composition Elk were observed to feed selectively on browses while frequently consuming very abundant forages (primarily grasses) and rarely eating forbs. How can these feeding patterns be integrated with what we know about ungulate diet selection? Diet selection by large herbivores ological and anatomical of these limitations relatively requirements constraints like elk is influenced by physi- on their food choices. The result is that animals of large body size must consume common foods. This is the case because energy and nutrient of mammals are functionally related to their body weight raised to the 0.75 power (Kleiber 1975). Consequently, animals have smaller nutrient requirements per unit of body mass, but larger total nutrient requirements, large bodied than do animals of smaller size (Jarman 1974, Geist 1974, Jannis 1976). The rate at which a ruminant can consume a high fiber diet is limited by rumen fill (Ammann et al. 1973, Campling et al. 1970). Rumen fill, in turn, is also related to body size; large bodied ruminants tend to have larger rumens per unit of body mass than do small ruminants intake is determined (Hoffman 1973). Since total nutrient by the amount of food consumed and the concentrations �-339- of nutrients in that food, the above allometeric relationships constrain large ruminants to eat large amounts of forage, but permit them to consume foods of relatively consume relatively low quality. common food items. the largest North American herbivores, In order to do this, they must Therefore, since elk are one of we expect that the food dimension of their niche would include a large portion of relatively common foods. In most cases, these common foods were grasses. How can we account for the intense selectivity ulate that browse consumption for browse? was related to its higher protein content relative to grass and elaborate more fully on this advantage tion on diet quality. non-selective In short, however, selectivity in grass. styles are not incompatible. sufficient requirements, non-selective feeding feeding fine-tuning the of diets. The apparent rejection of forbs was probably tial distribution feeding Indeed, the two feeding modes interact to total intake, and selective nutrient concentrations the protein Thus, selective and non-selective provide for different nutritional providing in the sec- for browse allows feeding on common grasses by supplementing which is deficient I spec- and physical size. tended to be obscured by an overstory related to their spa- In the verticle plane, forbs of grasses in communities where grasses formed dense swards (aspen, wet shrub meadow, wet meadow, willow and mesic meadow). least visually, As a result, forbs might be less easily detected, than their prewinter the grass canopy physically biomass might suggest. interfered with consumption at Further, of forbs. Forb intake was greatest in communities where the canopy of grasses was rela- tively open (sagebrush, and ponderosa grassland, pine-shrub). �-340- Horizontally distributed, forbs were more dilute in the environment than browse or grass, and more evenly distributed communities, grass was ubiquitous: than browse. In most communities, In all browse, al- though not necessarily abundant, was highly visible and concentrated patches in the habitat. As a result of this patchy distribution, once discovered, could be consumed in large quanities. in browse, In contrast, forbs were neither overwhelmingly abundant nor concentrated Consequently, of forbs required extensive searching frequent consumption in patches. time. Plant size may also have interfered with consumption elk. Individual of forbs by forb plants tended to be smaller than either grasses or browses; The size of plants and plant parts which an animal can in- dividually select is bounded by the animals mouthput size; large mouths are limited to consumption 1973). of relatively large forage items (Hoffman Many forbs were probably smaller than elk could individually select from the surrounding sward of other plants. Diet Quality: of Forage Quality Interactions and Diet Botanical Composition Although elk diet quality was influenced by changes in forage quality, elk partially compensated for decrements in forage quality by shifting the botanic mix of their diets. This compensation nutritional was possible because of the large differences quality between grasses and shrubs. leaves contained higher concentrations in Browse stems and fallen of protein than senescent grasses. Browse provided a better source of digestible protein than grasses because true protein digestibility of browses is greater than 90% (Robbins et al. 1975:44, Short and Reagor 1970:965). However, grasses �-341- contained more substrate for microbial their relatively than browse because of small amounts of lignin and large percentages lose and hemicellulose. characteristics, digestion As a result of these differences in fiber grasses contained more IVDDM than browses. IVDDM and digestible Because energy can be assumed to be approximately (Moir et al. 1961, Rittenhouse et al. 1971, Milchunas equal et al. 1978:19), grasses were a better source of energy per unit of dry-matter Apparently, of cellu- intake. then, these two forage classes were complementary foods, grasses provided a more completely digestable and browse contained more protein. These protein and energy character- istics allow elk to vary the chemical composition shifting the proportions source of energy of their diets by of grass and browse which they consume. I observed that such shifts permitted my elk to maintain a relatively stable diet quality, despite large variation in forage quality among habitats and between years. Spatially, diet quality was stabilized by selection of diets con- taining similar proportions of browses and grass in the different habi- tat types. Although the proportion significantly between habitats, great as the differences of browse in the diets differed these differences were not nearly so in browse availability. Because the animals actively sought out browse in browse-poor habitats, the browse~grass ratios of the diets were much more similar than the browse-grass mix- tures of the habitats themselves. in browse (grassland), consumption In the habitat most deficient of a browse-like greater than in any other vegetation larities in botanical composition in diet chemical composition type. forb (sulfurflower) As a result of these simi- of diets among habitats, were few. was differences �-342- Temporally, the protein and cell wall content of diets changed little between years in most habitats, despite large annual decrements in forage protein and increments in forage cell wall. Again this rela- tive constancy can be attributed to changes in the grass-browse of elk diets. Frequency mixture of browse consumption was inversely correlated with the crude-protein content of grass (Fig. 24), suggesting that elk responded to decrements in grass protein by consuming more high-protein, low cell wall browse. Thus, during the first year, browse consumption increased as winter progressed, an increase that prevented diet protein from declining as rapidly as the protein content of grasses. Paradox- ically, browse consumption was constant the subsequent year at about 40% of observed bites throughout the winter. Consequently, dietary protein declined just as rapidly as the protein in grass. Differences in elk diet botanical result from differences composition between years might in animal age; it is possible that yearling elk select diets which differ from those chosen by calves. have been observed for caribou (Bergerud 1970). annual differences Such differences However, I suggest that in diet composition were related to variation protein content of forages during the two years. in Because protein con- tents of browse and grass was very similar during November of the first year, predominantly grass diets were no less rich in protein than browse diets and had more IVDDM. and consistently As winter progressed, more browse was consumed. grass protein declined In November of Year 2, mean protein content of grass was 20% less than that in browse and 25% lower than that in grass of the previous year. Thus, compared to Year 1, high browse diets during November of Year 2 contained substantially protein than predominantly grass diets. more As a result of increased browse �-343- R2 =0.38 x 60 x x x x x xx 50 x x P =0.00001 S.E. of Est. = 11.5 x I- w 0 40 x z ~ w (f) 30 5 ~x x 0::: x x x x x 20 x ~x x 0 rn x ~ x x ~ x 0 10 x x x 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 x CRUDE PROTEIN IN GRASS Figure 24. Relationships between browse' content of winter diets of 5 elk and mean crude protein content of grasses on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. �-344- consumption throughout the second year, diet protein content did not decrease appreciably in most habitats despite markedly trations of protein in forage. I speculate reduced concen- that browse intake did not increase with advancing season the second year, as it did the first, because digestion of high- browse diets is inefficient. Diet IVDDM declined as the percentage browse in the diet increased (Fig. 25). browse much above November Presumably, increases of in dietary levels of the second year were too costly of dietary digestibility. Diet selection by elk apparently stable dietary protein was maintained variable diet digestibility. " ... it is reasonable involved a compromise: between years at the expense of Ammann et al. (1973:200) concluded, to assume that a ruminant could not maintain itself on a diet much below 50% digestible universally Relatively less than 50% digestible energy." Elk diets were during winter; however, had the animals eaten no browse, diet IVDDM would have been close to, or exceeded, 50%. What is the significance and protein resulting of the tradeoff between diet digestibility from increased browse consumption? First, browse protein could help maintain a rumen environment favorable to digestion of unlignified Rates of microbial protein cellulose grass fiber. digestion dietary nitrogen and Gilchrist levels (Hume et al. 1970, Van Gylswyk 1970, Schwartz 1975). grass. and in the rumen have been shown to be affected by Hence, the relatively high protein content of browses could contribute, deficient synthesis in vivo, to increased digestion Such associative of protein- effects have been widely reported (Elliot and Topps 1963, Dietz 1967:136, Egan and Moir 1965, Milchunas al. 1978:11). et �-345- • • 50 xx x x ~ ~ R2 =0.39 0 0 x xxx P < 0.00001 > S.E. of Est. =3.3 ~ 0 20 10 20 0/0 Figure 25. 30 BROWSE 40 50 60 70 IN DIET Relationship between in vitro digestible dry matter (IVDDM) and browse content of diets of 5 elk on upper montane winter range, Colorado, during 1976-77 and 1977-78. �-346- Second, protein is particularly condition during winter. important for maintaining animal At the beginning of winter, elk have abundant fat stores (Flook 1970:41-46) but no comparable "reserves" of amino acids. Consequently, catabolism of fat results only in weight loss, while negative protein balance must incur more immediate deleterious physiological viability, effects, including loss of muscle strength, reduced fetal and decreased resistance to disease (reviewed by Robinson 1977:15, Harper et al. 1977: 570-571). deficiencies animal. Consequently, dietary protein may be more costly than energy deficits to the wintering Thus, the energy penalty imposed by browse consumption is probably more than offset by its protein contribution. Elk Nutritional Status and Carrying Capacity Could an elk have survived a winter period consuming diets of the nutritional quality I observed? Predicted overwinter weight losses of adult elk based on across habitat diets did not exceed 20% of prewinter weight. Decalesta starvation et al. (1975, 1977) found that mule deer died from after losing 30% of their total body weight. result, and the observation that model predictions Given this of weight changes of animals consuming poor quality diets tend to overestimate (Torbit, in press), it is plausible weight loss that diets I observed would have allowed adults to survive both winters of the study. However, estimated condition losses were much greater during the second year. As a result of the decrease in diet digestibility, elk energy status was much less favorable during Year 2 and predicted losses of fat were more rapid than for the previous year. Across habitat estimates of weight losses of simulated calves were similar to the annual and overwinter trends in condition of adults �-347- except that weight losses were far more severe the second year. These predicted losses (30% of total body weight) had they been incurred by a calf would probably have resulted in its death. Remember, however, that these weight loss estimates may be inflated, and that Year 2 diets useq to drive the model were estimated from forage choices of yearling animals. Caribou calves have been shown to select diets which differ from those selected by their adult counterparts animals have smaller mouthparts (Bergerud 1972). Since young and lower total forage intake require- ments than adults, they can be more selective in their food choices than older, larger animals. Consequently, we might expect that a calf during Year 2 would have selected a higher quality diet than I observed for yearling animals, and as a result, might not have experienced the extreme losses of condition predicted by the model. During both years, measured diets of elk were not nutritionally adequate to meet predicted energy ~equirements. However, simulated ni- trogen balance was positive, or only slightly negative, except when lean body was catabolized these modelling to meet energy demands. Thus, I conclude from results that elk protein requirements did not greatly exceed protein content of diets. This conclusion is supported by several observations on nitrogen balance of ruminants .. From studies of deer and domestic ruminants, McCullough (1969:108) concluded that 7% protein diets are "adequate" elk during winter. for Red deer (Cervus elaphus) maintained body weight on diets containing 5% crude protein (Maloiy et al. 1970:844). et al. (1975:74) concluded that apparent protein digestibility Robbins of browse diets eaten by deer (Odocoileus sp.) would be negative when forages contained less than 4.8% crude protein. Mertins (1973:41) estimated �-348- that for diets containing 40% digestible carbohydrate, rumen microbes require approximately 6 g crude protein per 100 g of ingested dry matter to ensure "adaquate" fermentation plausible rates. Based on these findings, it is that elk diets containing much less than 5% crude protein would fail to meet the animals' metabolic would also result in decreased requirements rates of carbohydrate for protein and digestion. During both years and in a variety of habitats, protein content of elk diets was close to 5%. Condition estimates based on diets selected in the various habitats were consistent with the relative uniformity diets selected in those communities. of nutritional quality of That is, habitats could not be ranked on the basis of diet quality; similarly, when estimates of dietary nitrogen and digestibility was no predictable status. were integrated ordering of habitats based on simulated nutritional During both years, predicted weight losses were smallest in the aspen community. However, animal condition showed strong interactions among the other communities, Despite these interactions, habitat comparisons: vorable, in the ruminant model, there of between years. one clear pattern emerged from the in habitats where elk energy status was most fa- elk nitrogen balance was most negative. where diets contributed duced insufficient estimates Conversely, habitats most to nitrogen status were those which pro- energy. In most instances, across habitat estimates of diets resulted in less rapid loss of condition (lean body and fat) than diets selected in any single habitat. Similar to the findings of Wallmo et al. (1977), differences in predicted animal condition among habitats were often at variance with predicted carrying capacities based on total intake of forage and total �-349- biomass; That is, weight losses were often greatest where herbage biomass was largest. The discrepancy between estimates based on forage quantity and estimates forage quality illustrates supportable population considered simultaneously of carrying capacity of animal condition based on that both individual animal condition and density are important attributes which must be in evaluation of elk habitat. �-350- Chapter IX CONCLUSIONS Theoretical Implications i) Optimal Foraging and Competition Theory A large body of literature suggests that the feeding patterns of animals are predictable (Rapport and Turner 1977, Pyke et al. 1977, Schoner 1971, Ivlev 1961). We can predict these patterns because a species is thought to be uniquely adapted to capture, handle, and assimilate a specific range of food items. This range defines the food dimen- sion of the animal's niche (Hutchinson 1957). The food niche has traditionally petitive interactions 1978). Competition been viewed as the outcome of com- for limiting food resources (Cody 1974a, Diamond theory predicts that in a species packed environment natural selection results in divergence of morphological zation traits such that an individual's diet choices are restricted to those food items not consumed by other species. cal constraints phenoplastic But, apart from anatomi- on food choice, diet selection is probably influenced by "decisions". If the diet selection process is governed in part by volition and responds to density independent variation resource utili- temporal and spatial in food resources rather than density dependent competition for those resources, then shouldn't we expect diets to be relatively labile and unpredictable? Shouldn't diet selection be more exploratory than habitual? When resources are relatively abundant, selective pressure for "optimum" resource utilization tion in those traits increases. patterns relaxes, and phenotypic Wiens (1977) concludes that: varia- �-351- ... many of the differences between coexisting species, which may indeed have been adaptive under conditions of resource competition, may become diluted during periods of resource abundance. At these times, departure from optimum predicted by theory may be commonplace and competition may be relaxed or absent. Close study, of course, will always reveal different species to be, in fact different. But it is wrong to attribute these differences indiscriminately to competitive pressures .... I observed a large degree of variation of elk winter forages and concomitant tanical composition of elk diets. in the quality and quantity variation in the chemical and bo- Thus, resource ultilization patterns were more variable than fixed and appeared to respond to changes in food resources rather than past competitive pressure. Can we generalize on the nature and direction of shifts in elk diets? Theory of optimal diets (Rapport and Turner 1977, Pyke et al. 1977, Cody 1974b, Schoener 1971) predicts that as resources become abundant relative to demands, individuals should become increasingly their diet choices, restricting their consumption which are most profitable spent feeding. selective in of food items to those in terms of energy or nutrients gained or time Based on this theory, we expect that elk should have been more selective during the first year than the second and that during both years, selectivity should have declined as winter progressed. We expect these patterns because 1) forage quality and quantity was greatest during Year 1, 2) we can assume forage biomass declined over' the course of both winters due to forage consumption vores and losses to litter, and 3) nutritional by native herbi- quality of the most abundant forages (grasses) was observed to decline with advancing Assuming that increased frequency of browse consumption equated with increased selectivity season. can be (Fig. 9), then the observed patterns of diet selection by elk were diametrically opposed to the predictions �-352- of optimal foraging theory. by relatively ubiquitous grasses, while the following year, the amount of browse consumed increased browse consumption Diets during the first year were dominated substantially during Year 1 increased concurrently the quality and (presumably) the quantity of available Shifts in the relative selectivity Wiens' in all habitats. of diet quality and nutritional tively common foods. declined, forage. during periods of When food resources were "abundant" (relative to Year 2), non-selective animal requirements with declines in of elk are consistent with (1977) ideas on relaxed selection pressures resource abundance. Further, during Year 1 feeding incurred no penalty in terms status; at the beginning of Year 1, could be met by diets which were drawn from relaAs winter progressed the quality of common grasses this decline in resource quality required increased tivity for browse to compensate for reductions selec- in grass protein. Elk became more selective when common foods became nutritionally less adequate compared with foods which were more rare. therefore, It appears, that elk diet choice can be strongly influenced by animal requirements relative to food resources. When foods are abundant, however, there may be little selective pressure to select the "best" of those foods. ii) Theory of Population Regulation How does the observed variation quality and nutritional animal numbers? Predicted that relatively in elk forage resources, diet status fit current ideas on the regulation of Several observations are relevant here. changes in elk nutritional status demonstrated clearly small changes in the quality of elk diets could cause large changes in animal condition. Such variation in individual �-353- nutritional Predicted status could substantially perturb population adult weight losses during year 2, had they been incurred by a pregnant cow, would probably have prevented production (Thorne et al. 1976). the predictions of a viable calf Simulated weight losses of calves that year would have resulted in their death. not. performance. The important of the model are absolutely What is significant is that variation idea here is not whether accurate; they probably are in food resources and its effect on individual animal condition can exert large influence on elk population That deficits in high quality food can affect numbers. ungulate population dynamics has been demonstrated in a variety of eco- systems (Sinclair 1973, 1974a,b,c; Klein 1965, 1970; Caughley 1970; Ellis 1970). From a theoretical standpoint, these observations concur with the ideas of T. C. R. White (1978) who proposed that a ubiquitous limitation on the growth of animal population food in the environment. and potent is a relative shortage of For elk the relative shortage appeared to be a lack of winter food items which provided adequate amounts of nitrogen and digestible dry matter. quality interacted; in digestiblity As discussed, these shortcomings in diet diets which were high in nitrogen tended to be low and vice-versa. The food shortage confronted by elk during winter is relative rather than absolute because at the end of winter a large proportion of pre-winter herbage biomass remained, a fraction of the food supply which could have been eaten and was not. iii) Habitat Selection This study did not investigate based on comparison habitat choices of elk. of diet botanical composition However, and nutritional qual- ity among habitats, we can infer that elk are capable of effectively �-354- utilizing a wide variety of habitat patches. generalists That elk can be habitat is supported by two lines of evidence. First, the increase in the proportion of browse in diets which oc- curred between years was observed in all habitat types. That is, re- gardless of the animals feeding location, the amount of browse it consumed increased and these increments were proportionately the different habitat types. independently quirements equal among Thus, elk appeared to be using the habitats and diet composition appeared to respond to animal re- rather than to differences in the forage composition of habi- tats. Second, elk were able to select diets of similar nutritional quality from habitats which were markedly different in plant species composition and total biomass. The quality of the diets selected in all habitats was so similar that the habitats could not be individually basis of diet quality. ranked on the Thus, elk were able to make efficient use of all the habitats they encountered. The capability of elk to be generalists in their choice of habitats resulted directly from their ability to be selective in their food choices. Theory predicts that habitat generalists cialists (Wiens .1976, Covich 1976). should be food spe- That is, if habitat patches are used in a fine grained manner, food utilization within habitats should be relatively more coarse grained. quality of elk diets was relatively Nutritional stable over space because elk could be intensely selective for higher protein forages (browses and sulfurflower). selectivity, This intense where food items are consumed far more frequently than their frequency in the environment, is a good example of coarse grained food selection which permits fine grained use of habitats. �-355- Management Implications i) Population Management The observed temporal variation duction has important implications in forage quality and herbage profor management of elk populations. Plant biomass in all habitat types appeared to be strongly influenced by annual variation in precipitation. but in terms of management, vegetation its significance types total production with the first. This is hardly a surprising is substantial. result, In some was 50% less the second year compared These changes reduced estimates of habitat carrying capacity based on total production. Nutritional quality of elk winter forages was quite labile within seasons amd between years. fluctuations This variation is consistent with annual in browse protein reported by Dietz (1967:45), Pease et al. (1979:58), and Gibbs (1978:137) and fits the pattern of overwinter changes in grass quality observed by Willard and Schuster et al. (1971), and Burzlaff variation in availability fluctuations (1971). (1973), Sims While it is widely recognized that of winter forages can result from year-to-year in primary production' and snow cover (Severinghaus 1947, Moen and Evans 1971, Gilbert et al. 1970, Wallmo and Gill 1972), my data indicate that less-obvious annual and within-season quality of elk winter forage can substantially changes in the influence their food resources. It is plausible potentially that variation affect elk. population goals which include maintenance in forage quality and quantity can densities. Consequently, of elk populations at stable densities may not be realistic given these density independent resources. management influences on food �-356- ii) Habitat Management From a nutritional standpoint, elk were able to effectively a wide variety of upper montane habitat types. differences utilize Although there were in predicted animal condition among habitats, these dif- ferences were usually small. When the differences in elk nutritional status among habitats were large (e.g. between willow and aspen during Year 2) they tended to be compensatory. That is, habitats where elk energy status was most deficent, nitrogen balance tion) was most positive, and vice versa. (prior to fat deple- Consequently, predicted nutri- tional status based on across habitat estimates of diet quality was generally more favorable than predicted habitat estimates of diet quality. tory relationship, I conclude, based on this compensa- that winter habitat diversity is an important manage- ment objective for maintenance permits generalism condition based on individual of elk populations. Habitat diversity in habitat choice; habitat generalism facilitates choice of diets which provide for different nutritional requirements. Within habitats, diversity of forage classes contributed tenance of animal condition. The ability of elk to vary the quality of their diets depended on a gradient of forage digestibilities contents. to main- and protein This gradient occurred whenever the habitat contained a mix- ture of grass and browse. Thus, forage diversity, diversity appeared to be significant tives to wintering as well as habitat in providing nutritional alterna- elk. It was clear from the modeling exercises that a very important energy resource for elk during winter was fat reserves. Depletion of fat stores before the end of winter always resulted in model predictions of unaceptable condition loss. These fat stores are particularly �-357- important when winter food resources are temporally variable as I observed them to be. Without a large "buffer" of stored energy, unpre- dictable variation in food supply would have much greater effect on nutritional status than was observed. 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Comparison of methods of estimating the digestibility of range forage and browse. J. Anim. Sci. 32:1046-1050. WHITTAKER, R. H. 1970. The biochemical ecology of,higher plants. Pages 43-70 in E. Sondheimer and J. B. Simeone, eds., Chemical ecology. Academic Press, New York. 332 pp. YOUNG, D. L., AND J. A. BAILEY. 1975. Effects of fire and mechanical treatment on Cercocorpus montanus and Ribes cereum. J. Range Manage. 28:495-497. �July, 1979 -373- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of C.:..O:.._:L.:..O:....:RAD=-'O _ Proj ect No. W-I26-R-2 Work Plan No. 3 Big Game Investigations Job No. ~2~ Job Title __~E~I~k~P~o~p~u~l~a~t~i~o~n~a~n~d~E~c~o~l~o~gLy~S~t~u~d~i~e~s~ Period Covered: _ _ July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: George D. Bear, *Ronald A. Green, Paul H. Neil, and Douglas Cannalte, Rocky Mountain National Park personnel: George Wagner, Jack Gartner, Dan Davis, Charles Logan, Larry VanSlyke, Dave Stevens, Lorin Casebeer, Jim Protto, Bert McLaren. ABSTRACT Eighty elk were trapped in three localities during a one-month period from January 23 to February 22, 1979. Elk-sized Clover traps (Clover 195_) baited with salt and alfalfa hay were used to capture the elk. Succinylcholine chloride was used to tranquilize the larger animals for ease in handling. Twenty-eight elk were marked with telemetry collars and twenty-two with eartags at the Rocky Mountain National Park trap site; four elk were marked with telemetry collars at each Masonville and Longmont Reservoir trap sites. Elk at the latter two trap sites migrated westward to higher elevations within Rocky Mountain National Park in the spring of the year. A portion of the collared elk within Rocky Mountain National Park migrated west over the Continental Divide to the Colorado River drainage; the remainder of the elk moved to alpine ranges along the Continental Divide. Twenty-five elk calves were marked with telemetry collars containing mortality sensors. Two of these calves died when 2-3 weeks old. One was killed by a bobcat and the other died from an unknown factor. Calf:cow ratios appeared to be very low on the study area; however, more data are needed to determine the factors effecting this ratio. Other mortality data were very minimal. Investigations into the elk habitat selection and activity portion of this program was primarily limited to testing equipment. It was found that an observer could accurately detect the activity of elk wearing an activity collar 94% of the time. The location error using a 7-element beam antennae was 11.2 (± 6.8) ha; which was considerably less than that for a 3-element antennae. *Ronald A. Green is a graduate student enrolled at Colorado State University working under contract to DOW to study elk activity patterns and relate them to habitat selection. �-374- Only the activity data for May have been analyzed. Information was collected for two radio collared ~lk for a 24-hour period, and a third elk for only a sunset sampling period. A 24-hour activity budget indicated that the animals were spending 55.8% of their time feeding, 36.8% resting, and 7.4% moving. They were least active during daylight hours and most active at night. The coniferous type was used most (34.2%) over a 24-hour period with the aspen type used 16.6% of the time. Willow, wet meadow, and grassland types were the primary feeding sites at night, while the coniferous type was most important feeding site in daylight hours. Feeding activity was more evenly distributed throughout the habitat types at sunset and sunrise. Willow and grassland types were the two types used the most for resting at night, while the coniferous type was used most for resting during the daylight period. �-375- ELK POPULATION AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIES ~eorge D. Bear P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. Develop techniques to more accurately population levels. and precisely 2. Define natality of selected elk populations. and mortality problems estimate elk SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Construct elk traps. 2. Trap and mark elk on the winter range for distribution, and habitat preference studies. 3. Capture and mark elk calves for mortality mortality, studies. METHODS AND MATERIALS Trap Construction Elk were to be captured with a portable elk-sized Clover trap (Clover 195_), which is a larger version of the Clover traps commonly used to capture deer. These traps consist of a frame made of 1.25 inch (OD) black pipe; with the overall dimension of each trap being 4 feet wide, 8 feet long, and 6 feet high. The pipe framework is covered with heavy 4 inch mesh nylon netting. Twenty traps were constructed for use in this study. Trapping and Marking Three trapping localities were selected for this study: (a) Green Ridge, approximately two miles southeast of Masonville; (b) Longmont Reservoir, approximately 5 miles east of Lyons; and (c) Rocky Mountain National Park (Morraine Park and Horseshoe Parkin the eastern portion). Major emphasis was placed at the Rocky Mountain National Park site where 10 traps were used, while two traps were placed at each of the other two sites. The trap sites were prebaited with a 50-lb block of livestock salt and alfalfa hay. After elk started visiting the areas traps were hauled in and erected. Since trap sites within Rocky Mountain National Park were situated away from roads, a helicopter was used to ferry traps in and out. It only required 2-4 days for elk to become accustomed to traps. Trapping was conducted only for a week at the Longmont Reservoir and Masonville sites, and for a month (January 23-February 22) in Rocky Mountain National Park. Traps were baited with good quality leafy-alfalfa. �-376- Generally a crew of 4-6 persons were used to handle elk in traps. In the early stages of trapping all elk were tranquilized with succinycholine chloride; however it was found animals could be cleared from traps faster if calves and yearlings were manually handled and larger elk were tranquilized before handl~ng. It was also found a blindfold placed over the subdued elk's eyes further reduced struggling. A Pneu-dart cartridge-powered rifle and darts were used to administer the tranquilizing drug. The darts are plastic projectiles carrying pre-measured amounts of powdered succinychlorine chloride. Since the work was being done in sub-zero temperatures (January-February) these darts with pre-measured powdered drug were easier to work with than liquid-filled darts. Captured elk were marked with a telemetry collar or eartags. The collars were adjustable telemetry collars prepared for big game animals by Telonics, Mesa, Arizona. They are an hermetically sealed unit, with magnetic switching, and a lithium battery with 3-4 year life expectancy; weighing approximately 550 grams. These collars were green in color. Thirty-two of the collars were equipped with mortality sensors. Normal pulse rate was 550 ms, and 850 ms in the mortality mode. The mortality switch is activated if the elk does not move its head (or collar) within a five-hour period. Four of the collars were equipped with the activity switch option. Pulse rate of these collars is 550 ms when the elk's head is up and 850 ms when the elk has its head down feeding. The receiver is a 200-channel unit (TR-2) with a scanner operating on 148-149 MHZ frequency. Each animal or collar is monitored on an individual channel. Elk not fitted with telemetry collars were marked with large (2-inch) livestock eartags. The tags were yellow with black numerals on them for individual identification. Duplicate tags were placed on each animal; one in each ear. In past years visitors to the National Park objected to large collars placed on elk, therefore, one objective of this segment was to investigate the iei.,Sibility of using a less conspicuous marking device, such as ear tags , yet one that will be readily detected by the research observer. Locating Marked Elk Radio-collared elk were located 1-3 times a week, depending on accessibility. Majority of the monitoring work was done from a vehicle, with occasional foot travel or aircraft surveys when they migrated off winter range. Several types of antennas were used for tracking or locating collared elk. A monopole whip antennae with a magnetic base was used when searching an area with a vehicle or aircraft. Once a signal was received one of the more directional antennaes (loop, H-beam, 3-element beam, or 7-element beam) was used to triangulate or locate the animal. The latter antennaes were more accurate, but also larger; thus, the type of antennae used depended on the situation or condition of use. Information gathered on eartagged opportunities permitted. elk was incidental and obtained whenever �-377- Marking Elk Calves Elk calves were located and captured either by searching calving grounds on foot or with a helicopter. Calves during the first few days after birth generally avoided danger by lying down and remaining motionless. Then as they got older they tended to jump up and run if they suspected they had been detected. Therefore, only calves 1-3 days old could be caught by a person on foot. By using a helicopter a researcher could capture calves until they were 20-25 days old. When a calf was first observed the pilot separated it from the cow or other adults. Then the helicopter hovered 20-30 feet directly over the calf, this would generally stimulate it to try to hide. Once the calf laid down, the helicopter would land nearby permitting a person(s) to get out. With older calves it was necessary for the helicopter to return to a position above the calf to divert its attention away from a capturer until he could get close enough to catch the calf. The calf was blindfolded and placed in a large cotton bag. It was sexed, weighed (to the nearest pound), and the following measurements were recorded (to the nearest centimeter): total body length, shoulder height, and girth. Age of the calf was estimated based on hoof coloration, total body coordination, body size, and other characteristics of general physical appearance. A telemetry collar was then placed on its neck. Calf telemetry collars consisted of the telemetry unit made by Telonics attached to a two-inch collar. The collar was made from a two-inch cotton firehose with the telemetry unit attached to it with pop-rivets, and the ribbon antennae inserted inside the hose for protection. Overall diameter of the collar was reduced by folding the collar and fastening each fold with elastic, thus forming an expanding collar that would expand as the calf grew. Each of these collars contained a mortality sensor as in the telemetry units placed on larger animals trapped last winter. Each calf was located 3-4 times a week to determine if it was still alive and moving. The same equipment described earlier was used to locate calves. Activity Radio~Collars Of the 28 radio-collars, four collars were equipped with activity switches. When these collars are displaced forward from a vertical position as in a feeding activity, a tip switch causes the transmitter to emit a higher pulse rate. By monitoring the change in pulse rate and signal strength, feeding, bedding and moving activities can be discriminated. To test accuracy and reliability of these collars to accurately detect activity patterns, an activity collar was placed on a tame elk at the Colorado Division of Wildlife's wild animal research facilities at the Colorado State University Foothills Campus. During one-minute intervals, one person would record activity pattern of elk from visually observations while a second person would record activity patterns indicated by telemetry signals. �-378- Table 1. January, Elk trapped and ear tagged in Rocky Mountain 1979. National Park, Sex Est. Age (years) Est. Wt. (lbs) Body Condition Drug Dosage (mg) Time For Restraint (min) Restraint Time (min) 1 F Calf 250 Good 10 5 41 2 M Calf 250 Good 10 5 38 3 F 1 400 Good 17(5) 36 27 4 F Calf 250 Good 10 10 19 5 M 1 350 Good 17 Partial 6 F Calf 200 Good 10 5 19 7 F Calf 200 Good None 8 F Calf 200 Good None 9 F Calf Good None 10 M Calf 200 Good None 11 F Calf 200 Good None 12 F Calf 200 Good None 13 F Calf 200 Good None 14 M Calf 200 Good None 15 F Calf 200 Good None 16 M Calf 200 Good None 17 F Calf 200 Good None 18 F Calf 225 Good None 19 F Calf 200 Good None 20 M 1 350 Poor 15 4 44 21 M Calf 200 Good None 22 F Calf 250 Good None Eartag Number �-379- Table 2. Elk trapped and collared in January, 1979. Est. Age Est. wt. (years) (lbs) Body Condition Time For Drug Restraint Dosage (mg) (min) Restraint Time (min) Collar Number Sex 10 M 1 400 Good 17 8 20 20 F 2 400 Good 17 6 24 30 F 2 400 Good None 40 F 5 600 Good 17 9 58 50 F 1 300 Good None 60 M 1+ 450 Fair 17 5 33 70 F 1 400 Good 15 4 6 80 F 2+ 400 Poor None 90 M 7+ 700 Good 26 7 64 100 F 2 400 Fair None 110 F 4 450 Fair 17 4 55 120 F 3 450 Good * 20(5) 22 21 130 F 1 300 Fair None 140 F 1 350 Good None 150 F 2 375 Fair None 170 F 2+ 450 Fair 17 2 34 180 F 2+ 450 Good 20 Partial 200 F 1 300 Fair None 210 F 2+ 450 Fair 17(5)* Partial 220 F 1 350 Good 17 Partial 260 F 3+ 500 Fair 17 15 270 F + 3 450 Good None ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2 �-380- Table 2. Collar Number Elk trapped and collared in January, 1979. (Continued). Time For Restraint (min) Restraint Time (min) Sex Est. Age (years) Est. wt. (lbs) Body Condition Drug Dosage (mg) 280 F 1 350 Good None 290 F 1 300 Good None 300 M 2 400 Good 17 9 320 F 2+ 450 Good 17 Partial 330 F 2 450 Good 15 Partial 340 M 1 450 Good 20 2 350 F 3 Good None 360 F 3 450 Fair 17 (5)(5) 370 F 2 450 Good None 380 F 2 350 Good 10(5) 26 5 None M + 5 650 Fair 20 15 16 600 F Calf 250 Good 10 3 10 750 F 3+ 500 Good 20 11 35 850 F 3+ 500 Good None 900 F 2 400 Good 20 5 42 * Second dosage required. 11 58 Partial �-381- Triangulation Accuracy To measure elk location measurement by accurately using triangulation estimating methods, one person placed radio-collars throughout the study area and marked these locations on black and white aerial photographs (Scale 1:15840) while a second person recorded three bearings from different preselected positions using a directional antennae. Triangulated locations were determined by plotting the three bearings on aerial photographs and determining the center of the resultant triangle formed. The error of location was calculated by first measuring the distance between the triangulated location and true location and using this distance was used as the radius to scribe a circle with the triangulated location as the center. The area of this circle was used as the measure of triangulation error. Habitat Selection and Activity Measurements Pre-selected points throughout the study area were used to determine elk locations by triangulation. For each confirmed location; time of day, radiocollar frequency, bearings and habitat type were recorded. This procedure was conducted on a 24-hour basis with the 24-hour period divided into four sampling intervals. The intervals will be: (1) 2 hours before and after sunset and sunrise, respectively (2) daylight hours and (3) nighttime, and (4) 2 hours before and after sunrise. To collect activity data, one sampling period of 3 consecutive days will be conducted per month by monitoring of the activity collars around the clock with the aid of a second person. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Marking Eighty elk were trapped during a one-month period, January 23-February 22, for an overall trapping success of 61 percent. Twenty-two (14 calves, 7 yearling males, and 1 adult bull) were released unmarKed once the desired quota of that sex and age class was obtained. Twenty-two elk (20 calves and 2 yearlings) were marked with eartags in Rocky Mountain National Park (Table 1). Twenty-eight elk (18 adult cows, 6 yearling cows, 2 adult bulls, and 2 yearling bulls) in RMNP were fitted with telemetry .collars. Four of the collars had activity switches and 24 had mortality sensors or switches. The four activity collars were placed on adult cows. Four telemetry collars were placed on elk (1 calf, and 3 adult cows) at Masonville; four collars on elk (2 adult cows, 1 yearling cow, and 1 yearling bull) at the Longmont Reservoir trap site (Table 2). Two cows which were captured at Masonville and collared in February 1978 still had active collars. Trapping and handling of elk was very successful. Of the 80 elk trapped only 1 cow (a yearling) died. This cow had received 5 mg dosage of succinyl, however, other elk of this size and age were successfully tranquilized with a 17 mg dosage. A field necropsy did not reveal any injuries or abnormal conditions, therefore, death was attributed to excitability of this particular animal and stress of being handled. �-382- The mean dosage of succinyl for tranquilized elk was .040 + .005 mg/lb body weight. This was greater than the dosage (.034 mg/lb) recommended by Boyd (1968)*. However, Boyd was working with penned elk; also, weights we recorded for elk were estimates not measured weights (Table 2). A rule-of-thumb we found to be useful during the trapping period was: 10 mg dosage for calves, 17 mg for yearlings, and 20 mg for adult cows. Of course those dosages were varied if the animal varied from the normal (i.e. very poor body condition, very excitable, an exceptionally large yearling bull, etc.). Mean reaction time or time for drug to take effect was 9 ± 8 minutes, and mean recovery time 30 + 18 minutes. Obviously there was considerable variation in individual reaction to the drug. Because some elk were so slow to recover from the drug, it was necessary to leave one person to "baby-sit" the elk until it recovered, while the rest of the crew continued working with other animals. Therefore, it was often faster to manually handle smaller animals than to tranquilize them. Population Distribution The five collared elk at Masonville remained on Green Ridge throughout the winter. Then in June they migrated to the Storm Mountain area; remained there for 10-14 days, then four of them migrated to the alpine range in northeastern Rocky Mountain National Park (Fig. 1). The fifth cow remained at Storm Mountain. Two cows were collared on Green Ridge in February, 1978; they had followed a similar time schedule and migration pattern in the spring of 1978. The time of migration seems to be related to snow melt and vegetation "green-up" at higher elevations. Migrations were very sudden, requiring only 2-3 days for each segment of the migration. The four elk collared at Longmont Reservoir followed a similar migration pattern. Only this group migrated northwesterly to higher elevations in J.a t e April. They remained around a large meadow or park (Big Elk Meadows) in w1 -ch new vegetation growth ("green-up") had occurred in early April. Then as the snow melted at higher elevations in early June they migrated westward into Rocky Mountain National Park (Fig. 1). The 28 elk telemetry collared in Rocky Mountain National Park remained on their winter range in the easterly portion of the Park until spring. There was considerable movement back and forth among winter concentration sites in Morraine Park, Beaver Meadows, and Horseshoe Park. In late Mayas snow melted and corridors opened along ridgetops twelve elk migrated westerly over the Continental Divide to the Colorado River headwaters area (Fig. 2). There were still 3-6 feet of snow remaining in timbered areas and severe spring snowstorms still swept higher elevations. This group of elk settled in green meadows along the Colorado River for the calving season. It was mid-to-1ate June before the other collared elk migrated up Forest Canyon to * Boyd, R. J. 1968. Experimental Aid Rept., W-38-R. pp. 223-236. immobilization techniques. Colo. Fed. �I ("") co ("") I Corter lake . .. ~ N 5eola: Figure 1. Migration routes of radio-collared elk trapped at Masonville and Lyons. t 1 in. =1 mi. �I <r 00 C"l I Carter lake . . . ~ N j !>cale: Figure 2. Migration routes of radio-collared elk trapped in Rocky Mountain National Park. I ir. -! ml �-385- to alpine areas along the Continental Divide, and up Fall River to alpine and willow flats at the headwaters of Big South Fork of Cache la Poudre River. By late June only four collared elk were still on winter range. At that time very few elk were seen at these lower elevations. Mortality Little mortality occurred among radio collared elk during this segment. Starvation appeared minimal; six adult cows, 1 yearling (#13 eartag), and 2 calves (#2 eartag) were incidently found throughout winter months. These deaths were assumed to be the result of starvation. It would be very difficult to numerically document such mortality in Rocky Mountain National Park because predator appear to be numerous and known deer and elk carcasses were quickly (2-7 days) dismantled and eaten. The calf collared at Masonville in February 1978 died 1 month after it was marked. However, coyotes had dismembered the carcass before it was recovered. The femur bone marrow was solid and white in color, the rumen was nearly full; so it was concluded death was not caused by starvation. The cow wearing telemetry collar #210 died during a severe spring snowstorm in mid-June. She was on winter range in Horseshoe Park on June 11, then on June 14 she was found (via the mortality sensor) in a willow flat on the headwaters of Cache la Poudre River. This is a distance of 8 miles (direct or airline miles) over alpine range traversed in a maximum of 4 days. She was lying on a grassy knoll between large snow fields. She was extremely thin, her pelage very rough looking, and the bone marrow was red and gelatinous. She had a large amount (approximately one quart) of puss-like mucus in her uterus. Her mammaries were filled with milk. It appeared she had developed an infection in the reproductive tract after giving birth; and because she was in a starved condition was unable to recover from additional stresses. On June 20 another adult cow (5-6 years old) was found dead in the Horseshoe Park vicinity. She was lying in a grassy aspen glen a few feet from a small stream. She had molted winter pellage and appeared to be in excellent body condition. The only abnormal condition discovered in a field necropsy was about a pint of green colored mucous in the uterus. She had milk in her mammaries. It was surmised a reproductive disorder may have contributed to her death, also. Twenty-five calves were captured and collared during the calving season (Table 3). Only one calf did not appear to be in excellent health. It appeared to have a mild case of diarrhea, but must have recovered, since it is still alive and thriving. One of the collared calves was killed by a bobcat during a spring storm in which it snowed 12-15 inches. It ate the hindquarters and viscera, then buried the front portion of the carcass in some debris. The calf was approximately 2-3 weeks old. Another collared calf died or was killed, however, coyotes devoured most of the carcass before it could be found and examined. This calf also was approximately two weeks old. �-386- Table 3. Elk calves collared in Rocky Mountain National Park during May-June, 1979. Collar Number Date Tagged Sex Weight (lbs) Shoulder Ht (cm) Estimated Girth Total (cm) Length (cm) Age (days) 610 6-18 M 30 65 56 102 1 620 6-22 M 35 63 57 96 2 630 6-28 M 69 81 81 114 21+ 650 5-31 F 45 660 6-28 M 38 63 66 86 5 670 6-26 F 51 71 65 105 10 680 6-28 F 68 85 86 120 21+ 690 6-28 M 58 75 71 112 14 700 6-26 F 55 63 76 118 14 710 6-28 F 40 63 62 99 7 720 6-28 M 68 78 81 122 21 730 6-26 M 38 71 62 111 5 740 6-19 M 67 72 87 118 21 750 6-22 F 33 63 58 101 2 760 6-26 F 72 71 77 140 21 770 6-6 M 50 71 67 109 10 780 5-31 F 790 6-28 F 49 71 70 121 10 800 6-26 F 54 66 76 119 14 810 6-26 M 56 63 72 118 14 820 6-28 M 67 80 81 130 21 830 6-28 F 45 76 71 117 14 840 5-31 M 10 1 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-387- Table 3. May-June, Elk calves collared 1979. (Continued). in Rocky Mountain Collar Number Date Tagged Sex Weight (lbs) *680 6-4 M 28 **680 6-15 F 39 Shoulder Ht (em) National Girth (em) Park during Total Length (em) Estimated Age (days) 2 62 62 4 103 * This calf died on June 8; collar reused June 15. ** This calf died on June 25; collar reused June 28. One day during the calving season a cow was seen running about a clump of willows in Beaver Meadows. Upon closer inspection a large coyote came running out of the willows carrying the front half of an elk calf. The calf was very small, probably less than a day old. It was speculated that this calf also was a victim of coyote predation. These were the only calf mortalities that could be documented. All other calves observed appeared to be healthy. Calf:cow ratios obtained while traveling about the area were low even late in calving season when the calves should be traveling with cows and therefore more visible (Table 4). Table 4. Elk observations at weekly intervals during the calving season. Number Observed Marked Elk Date Cows May 28-31 124 3 (2) June 4-9 386 10 (3) 122 4 June 11-16 165 18 (11) 29 3 June 18-23 337 38 (11) 89 11 June 25-30 197 33 (17) 34 6 (Calves/100 cows) Bulls 2 �-388- General Comments This research project is only in the initial stages, much more data are needed to elucidate factors contributing to low calf:cow ratios in" this herd. These data will be gathered in future research efforts of this project. Now that trapping and marking techniques have been tested more emphasis will be placed on estimates of population size during the next segment. The eartags were readily seen by observers on the ground and in aircraft, so they will be used in the marking program for the population study. Also more data will be obtained concerning distribution and movements and habitat selection of this elk population. Triangulation Accuracy Considerably more time was spent in testing the accuracy of the triangulation system than first anticipated. The accuracy of the system was originally tested using a 3-element antenna utilizing three azimuths to determine a location. The location error was calculated as a mean circular area surrounding the true location of the telemetry collar with 90% confidence limits. The radius of the circles surrounding each location was the linear distance between the true location and determined location. The 3-element antenna system proved dissatisfactory resulting in a mean location error of 62.5 (± 28.7) hectares. Due to the small areas of some habitat types and considerable interspersion in certain regions, it was felt that an error this large was unacceptable. To remedy this problem, the 3-element antenna was replaced with a 7-element antenna in hopes of obtaining greater directional accuracy within the system. Again three azimuths were used to determine a location. After 6 locations it was discovered that reading the compass with the radioreceiver headphones on was causing errors in azimuth readings by as much as 10 to 15 degrees. All previous locations with the 3-element antenna had also been determined by reading the compass with headphones on. The remaining 10 locations were then determined by always removing the headphones first. This significantly (a = .10, P = .009) reduced the mean location error from 24.3 (+ 5.8) ha to 11.2 (± 6.8)ha. A mean location error of 11.2 (± 6.8) ha was felt to be an acceptable error if the habitat types were defined such that all types had areas greater than the lower 90% confidence limit of the mean location error (4.4 ha). Types smaller than this were included in the surrounding habitat type. It soon became apparent after a day of determining elk locations within habitats, that using three azimuths to locate an animal was much too slow. It was felt that an insufficient number of locations (one per hour) were being obtained to calculate a reasonable estimate of habitat selection. It was decided to use only two azimuths vs. three to locate an animal. This increased the locations recorded per hour by 2.5-4 times depending on distance between triangulation points and weather conditions. A reassessment of the location error was done to determine if the accuracy using two azimuths was significantly different from the accuracy with three azimuths. �-389- Using the 10 locations previously determined with the 7-element antenna and three azimuths, 3 combinations of two azimuths each were formed from each location. Heezen and Tester (1967) reported that triangulations with angels of 20 degrees and less or 160 degrees and greater generally produced grossly inaccurate results. My data on a limited number of sample points (n = 10) suggested that this was true of angles less than 30 degrees. Since this angle can be somewhat controlled under field conditions, locations determined by a triangulation angle of less than 30 degrees were separated from the others and analyzed separately. The two azimuth triangulations produced a mean location error of 11.9 (± 5.4) ha compared to 11.2 (± 6.8) ha for the three azimuth triangulations. A t-test (a = .10) suggested that these means were not significantly different (P =.50). The two azimuth triangulation with a 7-element antenna is the system currently being used to collect habitat selection data. A t-test was run between the two azimuth triangulations with an angle less than 30 degrees and those with an angle greater than 300 to test whether triangulation angle had an effect on the accuracy of location. A significant difference (a = .10, P = .05) was found between the two. Care must be taken in the field when selecting monitoring points so an adequate triangulation angle is maintained. It was not only important to locate the animal within certain area limits of the true location but also to correctly place that animal's location into the correct habitat type. For each location, the actual habitat type and the habitat type for the triangulated location was recorded. A Chi-square goodness-of-fit test was run to determine whether any difference existed between observed and expected habitat types. There were no significant differences (a = .10, P = .25 and P = .51, respectively) between the two azimuth and three azimuth triangulations. The two azimuth method located elk in correct habitat types 70% (± 5.7) of the time vs. 80% (± 10.1%) of the time for the three azimuth method. Activity Collars Time did not permit collection of any additional data. It was previously reported that elk activities were correctly detected by the telemetry equipment and operator 94% of the time. A Chi-square goodness-of-fit test was run to see if differences occurred between observed and expected activities. No significant difference ~ = .10, P = .64) was apparent. The 90% C.I. was 94 + 2.1%. Habitat Selection and Activity Data Habitat selection and activity data were obtained during May and June. Analysis of the May data are nearly completed, and the June data are currently being analyzed. �-390- Habitat Types After types taken Baker analysis of the triangulation accuracy data, the following habitat were defined on the study area. Major species of these types were from the biomass estimates and species composition reported by and Hobbs (1978). 1. Wet meadow (WTMD) - major species are Carex spp., Ca1amagrostis canadensis, G1yceria grandis, Ph1eum pratense, Juncus ba1ticus, Deschampsia caespitosa, associated forbs and some Salix spp. 2. Willow (WILU)- dominated primarily by Salix spp. in relatively dense stands with an understory of Carex spp., Ca1amagrostis canadensis, associated forbs, some Ph1eum pratense, and Poa spp. 3. Coniferous (CONF) - dominated primarily by Pinus contorta and Pseudotsuga menziesii. Ranges from dense stands with virtually no understory to broken areas with small patches of either GRSL or WTMD. Other areas are broken by small aspen patches or are old aspen stands in late stages of succession. 4. Aspen (ASPN) - dominated by Populus tremu10ides in stands generally defined greater than 10-12 hectares. Understory of primarily of forbs, Poa spp., Phleum pratense, Ca1amagrostis canadensis, Bromus inermis and Rosa spp. 5. Grassland (GRSL) - drier sites dominated by Muh1enbergia montana, Danthonia parryi, Bouteloua gracilis, Stipa comata, Potentilla spp., Koeleria cristata, Carex heliophila, Erogonum umbellatum, Agropyron spp., and associated forbs. 6. Ponderosa pine-grassland (PPGS) - primarily a grassland associated parklike overstory of Pinus ponderosa. 7. Ponderosa pine-shrub (PPSH) - this type ranges from areas dominated by Pinus ponderosa with a shrub understory of Purshia tridentata, Artemisia tridentata and Chrysopsis villosa to open areas dominated primarily by Artemisia tridentat~. Other species associated with this type are Agropyron spp., Muhlenbergia montana, Stipa comata, Bout~loua gracilis, Carex heliophila, Koeleria cristata, and forbs. 8. Willow-park (WLPK) - (elevation 3050 - 3355 m) This type is a mixture of mesic sites, wet marshes and xeric upland sites. Dominant species are Salix spp., Betula glandulosa, Carex spp., Calamagrostis canadensis, Deschampsia caespitosa and Caltha leptosepala. 9. Krumholz (KRHZ) - (elevation 3355 - 3660 m) This type is an ecotone between the subalpine forest and alpine tundra. Salix spp. dominate and are interspersed by Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii. Deschampsia caespitosa is characteristic of the understory. type with an �-391- 10. Alpine Tundra (ALPN) - (elevation 3660+ m) This region varies from rolling terrain to sharp peaks and ridges. Vegetation is dominated by Kobresia meadow. Other species are: Deschampsia caespitosa, Silene acaulis, Trifolium spp., and Carex spp. 11. Subalpine forest (SPFR) - (elevation similar to WLPK) - Dominated primarily by Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii. Associated with the WLPK type. In its lower elevational range it grades into the CONF type and into the ALPN and KRHZ types in its upper elevational range. Activity Patterns Activity patterns to be recorded were divided into three categories: feeding, resting and moving. A feeding pattern was one in which feeding was the dominate activity. It may include such other activities such as standing and walking, therefore, a minimum of 5 minutes was usually spent monitoring the telemetry signal so the dominating activity could be detected. Resting was defined when the animal was immobile whether in a standing or bedding posture. Moving was defined as walking or running. Habitat Selection and Activity Data for May Activity data were collected from two radio collared elk during one 24-hour period. Animal 360 provided data for 75% of a second daylight sampling period in addition to the one complete 24-hour period. A third elk (380) contributed activity data for one sunset sampling period. The data were analyzed by individual elk and across sampling intervals and for 24-hour periods across the month. A 24-hour activity budget across elk indicated that animals were spending 55.8% of their time feeding, 36.8% resting and 7.4% moving (Fig. 3). The daylight interval indicated that animals were least active during this time with 52.3% of the time spent resting. Feeding occupied 38.7% of the daylight period and 9% moving (Fig. 4). It appeared from the interspersion of feeding and resting activities that animals rest for only short periods at a time. The sunset period was by far the most active feeding period with 90.3% of the time occupied by this activity. Equal amounts of time (4.2%) were spent resting and moving. Animals were quite active through out the night with only 26.7% of the time spent resting. They feed for 68.3% of the time through the night. Feeding activitiy was reduced to approximately 50% during the sunrise interval with most of the feeding done before and about an hour after sunrise. Resting consumed 41.7% of the time with most occurring after sunrise. Some individual variation did occur between animals in activity patterns (Fig. 5-8). Across the 24-hour period, elk 360 and 370 feed in nearly equal amounts. Elk 360 moved about much more than 370 and rested 12% less. Both elk exhibited the pattern of resting the most during daylight hours and feeding most intensively during sunset hours and slowly decreasing feeding intensity as night hours passed and sunrise approached. �-392- 24-HOUR ACTIVITY BUDGET, MAY 1979 { 36.8% RESTING Figure 55.8;6 FEEDING 3. Mean activity percentages across elk across the 24-hour period during May, 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. �DA~~IGHT* 10.33 hours NIGHT-5.33 hours 33.7% 52.3% 26.7% 58.3% Feedin~ Resting Resting Feeding I C") 0\ C") I 50% Feeding 90.3% Feed.ing 41. '7% Resting Fi::ure 4. Mean activity percentages across elk across the 24-hour sampling intervals during !·~ay1979, Rocky !·~ountain Na:.ional Park. �-394- 24-HOUR ACTIVITY BUDGET, lAAY 1979 BLK360 29. 5)~ RESTING Figure 56.3~ FEEDING 5. fiiean activity percentages for elk 360 a cro s s the period May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. 24-hour �-395- 24-HOUR ACTIVITY BUDG~T, MAY 1979 ELK 3'to 41.5fo RESTINI} 56. 91~ FBEDING Figure 6. Mean activity percentages for elk 370 across the 24-hour periqd May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. �JAY;_, L(_j·;e.'- 10.33 hours NIGliT- 5.33 hours /...----r·------ ·, ~5 / . 9 .~ -.~.-T---.~-_ .-....~. "",- ( ~Iovin€~ 3°~~ Feeding ) ,-' 14 ,:') 4:J. .J ( Pestine; \ \ 26.7); 63.3% \ Pesting Feeding \ -. ,+,.;,2:'0.' I -o ResNnr,.~ ~ 0'1 CV) /' ~_.._ __ -.- .-:" ,,/, ---....___ ..•.. ". I 16. 7!'o // Hoving ! I \\" Peedine rHS !~.L ",m Q ••J<)!'". F i;,:ure 7. I (1? ')-',._;' U_; • ..) ..'') ( ~~ l hours ) 33.3)~ Pc' s t '1 ncr -.. • -- (j SmH7I'3I::: ~1T.eanac t:t vi ty perc ('n ta[':e s for e 1;.: 360 aero S3 the 2L~-hour samplinr; intervals during I'~ay 1979, Rocky rfoountain Na t Lona L Park. 50;~ Feeding (4 hours) �.!)AYL ~;:i.Tw. 10.33 hours HIG.flT- I I I ! r 38.3/ r ,I I F'e e d l ng .50..3) hours . I ---.~ /' ,/ / (26.7,(; , Resting 59 (..,_,f .• 0/,) I I :P.e3tine 73.yi Peeding ~ \ I r-, a- --'__ ~- M ' I 91.7i; Feedine S UlJ S l1T (4 hour s ) Fieur'e 8. 50:;& Resting 50:'s Feeding sun ;~IS};: (l.t he ur s ) l':ean activity percentages for elk 370 across the 24-hour in torvals dur ing ~.~fJ.y1979, Rocky l'1.oun tain Natl onn I Parka sampling �-398- Habitat selection data (Table 5) indicated that animals used the coniferous type most over a 24-hour period (34.2%) with greatest use during daylight hours and least during night. Aspen, the second most frequently used type (16.6%) was utilized in nearly equal amounts during daylight and sunset hours. Wet meadow, willow, grassland and ponderosa pine-grassland types were utilized in nearly equal amounts (11%, 12.4%, 10.3% and 11.2%, respectively) across the 24-hour period. All four types were used most during sunset hours through early morning hours and used least during daylight hours. Of the seven types utilized across the 24-hour period, ponderosa-pine shrub was least used, being used only during night and early morning. Table 5. Mean habitat selection percentages across animals by 24-hour segment and across the 24-hour period, May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Habitat Type Daylight Night Sunrise Sunset 24-Hour Period WTMD 0% 23.3% 5.5% 29.2% 11 % WILW 0 26.7 22.2 16.7 12.4 CONF 64 0 22.1 12.5 34.2 ASPN 21.7 6.7 11. 1 20.8 16.6 GRSL 6.3 33.7 0 0 10.3 PPGS 6.8 0 27.8 20.9 11. 2 PPSH 0 9.9 11.1 0 4.2 Park. During the daylight segment, activity was greatest in the coniferous type with feeding (27.7%) and resting (31.7%) activities constituting the majority of the total activity. Aspen was used approximately a quarter of the daylight time (21.7%) with resting (12.3%) being the predominate activity and feeding (8.1%) second (Tables 6-10). Feeding was clearly the dominate activity during the sunset interval with wet meadow (25%) and ponderosa pine-grassland (20.9%) types being utilized most. Willow, coniferous and aspen types were also used considerably for feeding during this time. Feeding during night was primarily associated with wet meadow, willow and grassland types, 20%, 15%, and 18.3%, respectively. Willow and grassland types were the two types used most for resting at night. As previously mentioned, resting periods appeared to be quite interspersed among other activities. During early morning feeding was associated primarily with willow and ponderosa-pine grassland types. Coniferous, aspen, ponderosa �-399- pine-grassland and ponderosa during early morning hours. pine-shrub were all utilized for resting No obvious reactions to weather conditions were observable. Temperature appeared to have little effect on activity or selection of habitat type. Elk used open meadow types through the night whether the temperature was close to freezing or considerably warmer. There were not enough windy days to establish any type of behavioral response to wind. Elk were observed feeding during a heavy rainstorm in open meadow types. There was no wind or lightning associated with the storm and animals appeared to pay no attention to the rain. LITERATURE CITED Baker, D. L., and N. T. Hobbs. 1978. Simulations of the carrying capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park elk winter range. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid. W-38-R-32, WP 17, Job 2. Prog. Rep., Game Res. Rep. July 1978. Heezen, K. L., and J. R. Tester. 1967. triangulation with special reference Manage. 31(1):124-141. Evaluation of radio-tracking by to deer movements. J. Wildl. Boyd, R. J. 1968. Experimental immobilization techniques. Colo. Dept. Game, Fish and Parks. Game Res. Rep. July Part 3 :223 - 236. Clover, M. R. 1956. Game. 42:199-201. Prepared ;..lJ .'/ .A by: Single gate trap for deer. /., /"/ 6" fi.··· ....r G~;;::if.:·::a~.~ Wildlife Researcher .~.<te£N~ Ronald Gr en Graduate Student ~&,~ ( Calif. Fish and �-400- Table 6. Activity percentages by habitat type across animals across the daylight sampling interval, May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. Habitat Type Feeding Resting Moving 0% 0% 0% CONF 27.7 31 5.3 ASPN 8.1 12.3 1.3 GRSL 3.1 1.9 2.3 PPGS o 6.8 o WTMD WILW PPSH Table 7. Activity percentages by habitat type across animals across the night sampling interval, May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. Habitat Type Feeding Resting Moving WTMD 20~~ 3.3% 0% WILW 15% 11. 7% 0 CONF 0 0 0 ASPN 6.7 0 0 GRSL 18.3 10 5 PPGS 0 0 0 PPSH 8.3 1.7 0 �-401- Table 8. Activity percentages by habitat type across animals across the sunset sampling interval, May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. Habitat Type Feeding Resting Moving WTMD 25% 0% 4.2% WILW 14.6 2.1 0 CONF 12.5 0 0 ASPN 14.6 2.1 4.1 GRSL 0 0 0 PPGS 20.9 0 0 PPSH Table 9. Activity percentages by habitat type across animals across Sunrise sampling interval, May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. Habitat Type Feeding Resting Moving WTMD 2.7% 0% 2.7% WILW 19.5 2.7 0 CONF 8.3 11.1 2.7 ASPN 0 8.3 2.7 GRSL 0 0 0 PPGS 19.5 8.3 0 PPSH 0 11.1 0 the �-402- Table 10. Activity the 24-hour period, Feeding Resting WTMD 9.1% .7% 1.1% WILW 9 3.4 0 CONF 15.8 15.7 2.8 ASPN 7.5 7.2 1.7 GRSL 5.5 3 2.1 PPGS 6.7 4.4 0 PPSH 1.8 2.2 0 Habitat Type percentages by habitat type across animals May 1979, Rocky Mountain National Park. Moving across �July, -403- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ---------------------------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period W-126-R-2 REPORT Bighorn 4 1979 Job No. Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations 1 --------------------------------- Prescribed Burning to Improve and Enlarge Bighorn Sheep Ranges --------------------~------~--------------~--~~--------~----~----- Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: Dr. P. N. Omi, Colorado Service; P. Neil, and T. Woodard. State University; J. Bustos, U.S. Forest ABSTRACT Burning of treatment plots was postponed for 1 year t6 allow for further preparations. Burning is planned for August-September, 1979. Three additional bighorn sheep were successfully reared and trained for use in this study. Food habits data were collected during a field training period in November. Forbs, grasses, and shrubs comprised 63.6, 31.8, and 4.4 percent, respectively, of 21,951 bites observed in 3 habitat types. Seventeen plant species comprised 2 percent or more of the diet in at least one of the habitat types. Plant production estimates the previous segment. were calculated from clip-plot data collected ��-405- PRESCRIBED ENLARGE BURNING BIGHORN TO IMPROVE AND SHEEP RANGES Thomas N. Woodard P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To test the hypothesis that prescribed burning of understory vegetation improves the production and quality of bighorn sheep forage in a ponderosa pine-Douglas fir timber zone. 2. To test the hypothesis that bighorn sheep use of burned areas increases compared to adjacent unburned areas. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Continue maintenance and training use in grazing trials. 2. Raise 3-5 additional bighorn sheep. 3. Complete pretreatment sheep forage samples. quality analysis 4. Coordinate pre-burn, Service and Colorado burn, and post-burn activities with U.S. Forest State University Fire Science personnel. METHODS of hand-reared bighorn of previously sheep for collected bighorn AND MATERIALS Methods and materials were described during this segment are as follows. by Woodard (1979). Changes made The prescribed burning was not conducted during 1978 as scheduled and is planned for the August-September, 1979 time period. Colorado State University Fire Science, U.S. Forest Service, and Larimer County Sheriffs Department personnel will be involved in the burning as described by Woodard (1979). Vegetation Forage Measurements Quality Vegetation samples will be collected in November, January, and March each post-treatment year for forage quality analyses. Plant parts simulating those chosen by tame bighorn sheep during grazing trials, described below, will be hand-plucked. Separate 50-g samples will be collected by treatment (burned or unburned) for each plant species comprising 2 percent or more of �-406- the diet of tame bighorn sheep within each of the 3 habitat types. Samples will be analyzed for crude protein, calcium, phosphorus, acid detergent fiber, lignin, cell wall constituents, gross energy and in vitro digestibility. Herbage Yield Pre-treatment vegetation clip samples collected during the previous were analyzed and production estimates are presented. Bighorn segment Sheep Food Habits Measurements Grazing trials will be conducted with tame, trained bighorn sheep to measure response to treatments. Three additional bighorn sheep lambs were successfully reared and trained during this segment. The tame captive bighorn sheep herd now consists of 3 castrate males, I intact male, and 2 ewes. Grazing trials will be conducted during 10-day sampling periods in November, January, and March each winter after the first postburn growing season. During the first day the animals will be allowed to graze freely on the study area to become familiar with the vegetation and data will not be collected. During each of the last 9 days of a sampling period 4 tame bighorn sheep will be allowed to graze one at a time for I hour each day. Starting points for individual trails will be the approximate center of the boundary line between treatments in a replication and will be selected randomly without replacement for each animal. The result will be a start of a grazing trial for each animal in each of the 9 replications. Individual plant species selected for biomass, cover, and quality measurements during post-treatment years will be chosen based on availability and/or importance as a forage species (Woodard 1979). One grazing trial set with 3 tame bighorn sheep was conducted during November of this segment to test procedures and estimate importance of forage species for subsequent individual measurements for the first post-treatment year. STUDY AREA LOCATION The study area location was described by Woodard (1979). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Preparation of Study Area The prescribed burn was not conducted during this segment as planned because of administrative problems and incomplete environmental assessment preparations by the USFS. Fire Science personnel at Colorado State University updated and revised the fire prescription (Appendix I). The burn is scheduled for the coming segment, and the result will be a year's delay in completion of project objectives. �-407- Selection of Plant Species for Individual Measurements Plant species comprising 2 percent or more of the diet of tame bighorn sheep within each habitat type will be selected for individual sampling for production, cover and nutritional composition. Seventeen species (Table 1) comprised 2 percent or more of the diet in at least one of the habitat types during the November grazing trials and will be sampled individually during the first post-treatment year. Table 1. Percentage composition of tame bighorn sheep diets during November, 1978. Entries are forage species comprising 2 percent or more of the diet by habitat type. Percentage ComEosition by Habitat Ponderosa Pine Shrubland Species 3.0 Agropyron smithii Agropyron spicatum 3.6 Agropyron trachycaulum 5.7 Antennaria sp. 2.5 Artemisia frigida Artemisia ludoviciana umbellatum 11.7 33.5 20.2 3.3 2.8 4.5 kingii 7.7 3.4 Muhlenbergia montana 16.1 7.9 5.2 9.9 Poa spp. (leaves) Total Bites 6.9 5.4 3.1 Stipa comata Thermopsis 4.1 2.3 fissa Prunus virginiana 77 .5 2.7 Hesperochloa Potentilla 2.0 2.9 Carex spp. Eriogonum Type Grassland divaricarpa 2.3 3,784 6,727 11,440 �-408- Production estimates based on clip sampling during 1977 on the study area are presented in Tables 2, 3, and 4. The majority of these species will be clipped and weighed separately during post-treatment years regardless of importance in bighorn sheep diets. Table 2. Herbage production in ponderosa-pine-Douglas fir type in the prescribed burn study area during 1977. Entries are g/m2 + 90 percent confidence intervals. Species 2 g/m (± 90% CI) Litter 730.3 + 350.1 Juniperus scopulorum (needles and current annual growth) 40.6 + 50.3 I. scopulorum 25.4 + 57.7 15.2 + 19.2 9.5 + 12.6 9.3 + 23.2 A. tridentata (leaves and current annual growth) 5.7 + 4.2 Muhlenbergia 4.4 + 3.5 3.8 + 6.2 3.5 + 4.0 3.1 + 0.7 2.6 + 7.6 2.4 + 0.8 Artemisia Purshia (stems) tridentata tridentata Ribes cereum (stems) (stems) (stems) montana ~. tridentata (current annual growth) Rub1lS deliciosus (stems) Carex spp. Juniperus communis Hesperochloa (needles and current annual growth) kingii Agropyron smithii 2.4 + 1.9 Potentilla fissa 2.3 + 2.6 (stems) 2.1 + 5.4 (current annual growth) 1.9 + 5.5 (stems) 1.7 + 4.9 (current annual growth) 1.5+ 0.7 Prunus virginiana ~. cereum Physocarpus monogynus ~. deliciosus �-409- Table 2. Herbage production in ponderosa-pine-Douglas fir type in the prescribed burn study area during 1977. Entries are g/m2 ± 90 percent confidence intervals. (Continued). Species g/m Artemisia ludoviciana Poa spp. -P. virginiana Agropyron (current annual growth) spicatum J. communis (stems) Aster porteri Populus tremuloides (stems) 2 (± 90% CI) 1.3 + 1.6 1.3 + 1.8 1.3 + 3.3 1.2 + 0.3 1.2 + 3.5 1.1 + 2.9 1.1 + 3.1 Artemisia frigida 1.0 + 1.4 Chrysopsis villosa 1.0 + 1.0 1.0 + 2.9 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi ----- Table 3. Herbage production in the shrubland type in the prescribed burn study area during 1977. Entries are g/m2 ± 90 percent confidence intervals. Species g/m 2 (± 90% CI) Litter 659.4 + 13.8 Artemisia Purshia tridentata tridentata (stems) (stems) 71.6 + 53.8 54.6 + 5.9 Ribes cereum (stems) 30.9 + 41.1 A. tridentata (leaves and current annual growth) 20.6 + 14.1 P. tridentata (current annual growth) 12.8 + 4.4 12.6 + 7.6 11.6 + 0.5 10.5 + 7.8 Muhlenbergia Artemisia Poa spp. montana frigida �-410- Table 3. Herbage production in the shrubland ~ype in the prescribed burn study area during 1977. Entries are g/m2 ± 90 percent confidence intervals. (Continued). Species g/m2 (± 90% CI) Chrysopsis villosa 3.6 + 0.5 R. cereum (current annual growth) 3.6 + 2.7 Juniperus scopulorum (needles and current annual growth) 3.3 + 0.9 Bouteloua gracilis 3.2 + 1.9 Antennaria spp. 2.9 + 0.6 Carex spp. 2.8 + 0.8 Agropyron smithii 2.1 + 2.0 Potentilla fissa 2.0 + 1.1 Stipa comata 2.0 + 1.5 Jamesia americana (stems) 1.9 + 5.6 Lupinus spp. 1.9 + 3.5 Rubus deliciosus (stems) 1.7 + 4.3 Thermopsis divaricarpa 1.7 + 1.6 Physocarpus monogynus (stems) 1.5 + 4.2 Eriogonum umbellatum 1.4 + 0.9 Astragalus flexuosus 1.3 + 1.8 Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus 1.3 + 3.9 Danthonia parryi 1.3 + 3.4 Oxytropis spp. 1.3 + 2.2 Hesperochloa kingii 1.1 + 1.1 Artemisia ludoviciano 1.1 + 1.1 Achillea lanulosa 1.1 + 0.5 R. deliciosus (current annual growth) 1.0 + 2.4 �-411- Table 4. Herbage production in the grassland type in the prescribed burn study area during 1977. Entries are g/m2 ± 90 percent confidence intervals. 2 (± 90% Cr) Species g/m Litter 235.7 + 98.5 + 12.5 Artemisia frigida 31.4 Agropyron smithii 30.6 + + 3.0 Poa spp. 23.9 Stipa comata 20.2 + Artemisia tridentata Oxytropis spp. Purshia Bouteloua montana gracilis !. tridentata Achillea (stems) (leaves and current annual growth) lanulosa Carex spp. Ribes cereum (stems) 4.6 14.3 + 22.3 9.7 + tridentata Muhlenbergia (stems) 9.6 0.6 7.6 + 22.2 5.7 + 4.6 4.9 + 1.8 4.2 + 2.9 3.8 + 1.8 3.5 + 0.6 3.1 + 6.6 Antennaria spp. 3.1 + 4.1 Agropyron spicatum 3.0 + 1.4 2.9 + 3.7 2.0 + 2.6 Koleria cristata 1.9 + 1.4 Aster laevis 1.5 + 1.9 Danthonia 1.1 + 1.2 1.1 + 3.2 Lupinus spp. Potentilla fruticosa parryi P. tridentata (current annual growth) �-412- Intensified sampling and/or larger plot sizes will be utilized during post treatment years to improve production estimates for important species with poor estimates under the described sampling scheme. LITERATURE CITED Woodard, T. N. 1979. Prescribed burning to improve and enlarge bighorn sheep ranges. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep. January:4S-67. Prepared by: Thomas N. Woodard Wildlife Researcher �-413- APPENDIX I �-414- Report to the Colorado Division of Wildlife Wintersteen Updated Prescribed Park Burning Plan Philip N. Omi, Principal Investigator February 15, 1979 Colorado Stace University De~artment of Forest and Wood Sciences Fort Collins, CO 80523 �-415- This report updates the original burning plan by Barrows and Yancik. (1978) for the Wintersteen prescribed fires. The plan was written for burns scheduled in the period September 1 necessitated November IS, 1978. This update is due to postponement of the burns until 1979, the replacement 'of CSU's investigators on the project, and the availability of new information pertaining to the proposed burning operations. The objectives of the proposed burnings, the description of the study area, and a summary of pertinent geographic information for the burning sites are .co~tained in the original burning plan. Changes in the prescribed burning pre- scriptions, in assessed potential fire behavior, and preburn preparations are addressed in this report. A. CONDITIONS WA..l{RA.NTINGREVISION OF PREVIOUSLY SPECIFIED BURNING PRESCRIPTIONS Revisions in the original burning prescriptions are necessitated by: 1) Additional fuel inventory info~ation 2) Demonstrated inconsistencies collected in summer, 1978; in the parameters specified in the original prescription; and 3) Synoptic weather information not previously considered. 1. Updated information on fuel inventory The herbaceous, shrub, and litter fuel components of proposed burn plots were resampled in summer, 1978, and compared ,vith the previous year's inventory. The I-hour and lO-hour timelag downed woody fuels (0 - 1/4" and 1/4 - 1" diameter fuels, respectively) were not resampled, the assumption being that fuel loadings for downed woody materials would remain relatively constant between years. The second year's inventor] indicated generally higher levels of herbaceous live and dead fuels in the bunchgrass fuel type, with little or no difference in herbaceous fuels of the shrub and ponderosa pine fuel types. Contributions to fuel loading attributable to shrub components within each fuel type appeared negligible, with the exception of an apparent increas8 in the bunchgrass fuel type. These inferences seem to indicate that the relatively ,·let precipitation year preceding the second inventory primarily affected the bunchgrass fuel type. wnile plausible, statements must be considered in light of the random errors associated with any saI:l.pling technique. �2) Revisions -416to previously specified weather parameters Inconsistencies moisture) windspeed, in originally prescribed' weather specifications (fuel and relative humidity were discovered after failure to match these specifications with the existing historical weather data base at the Red Feather weather station. The conflicting weather parameters were re-specified, based primarily on adjustments to relative humidity. 3) Synoptic weather considerations Personal communications Laboratory with Mr. Jack Cohen of, the Northern Forest Fire revealed the necessity for consideratibn of trends in the jet stream track aloft in planning the proposed burning dates. Of special importance is the northerly migraticn of the jet stream which can be expected in mid-September. The impact of this migration on fire potential is of sufficient magnitude to warrant consideration specified. of an earlier range of burning dates than originally Crucial to this consideration will be the extent to which herba- ceous fuels have cured prior to burning. B. REVISED PRESCRIPTIONS The following prescription decision-making, for the stndy area represents a guide for based on the above considerations. . 1) Time of Year: Between August 15 - September 15, 1979 provided grasses , are 70% cured. 2) Time of Day for Lan LtLon ; 3) Fuel Moisture Be tween 1000 and 1400 hours. Ran£es at 1000 hours: Ground fuel (litter): 6 - 10% Herbaceous vegetation: 4- 7% One-hour timelag fuels: 4 - 7% Ten-hour timelag fuels: 7 - 12% 4) Air TemDerature: 45°F to 80°F 5) Relative Humiditv: 12% to 35% 6) Hind Velocity: Between 3 mph and 10 mph 7) Wind Direction: Preferably south-southeast. 8) State of Weather: Clear to partly cloudy with no major fronts approaching. Less than .2 inch of precipi- tation 2 days prior to burning date. �-417Smoke dispersal is not critical. 9) Atmospheric Stability: Boweve r a temperature inversion should be avoided. C. POTENTIAL FIRE BEHAVIOR The updated fuel inventory, collected as it was following a relatively wet precipitation year, did not produce substantially different fire behavior potential when analyzed using computer models. As such, the predicted ranges in Barrows and Yancik (1978) are retained insofar as they represent only rough approximations to expected ranges of rate of spread, flame length, fireline intensity,reaction intensity and crown scorch height. The seasonal progression in herbaceous curing will be of crucial importance to fire potential estimation. Trends in herbaceous curing will be highly sensitive to precipitation during the pre-burn period. ing precipitation Procedures for monitor- levels are described in the following section. D. PP~BURN PREPARATIONS Beginning July 1, 1979, visits will be made to the study area to monitor curing trends in the three fuel types. A simplified sampling scheme will be designed to measure percent curing in herbaceous fuels. The resampling interval will be no greater than two weeks, and will aid in establishing any curing trends. ~fuen fuels have reached at least a 50% cured stage, it is highly recommended that cooperators on this project convene in the study area to finalize plans. At this meeting, final·strategies for control lines and amendments to the firing plan of Barrows and Yancik (1978) will be considered. Ten days prior to this meeting, updates to this burning plan will be completed as necessary and distributed to cooperators. In addition. the lOOO-hr timelag fuel moisture content and energy release component readings at the Red Feather weather station will be monitored starting June 1. These readings will roughly indicate impacts of prolonged drought periods on fire potential throughout the S~~2r season. A portable weather station TNill be established on the proposed burn site at least 2 weeks in advance of the proposed burn date. The measures from this station will augment spot-weather forecasts obtained from the National T..Jeather Service. �-418- References Cited Barrows, J. S. and R. F. Yancik. 1978. and analysis for wildlife habitat. Division of Wildlife. Prescribed fire planning Report to the Colorado �July, 1979 -419- JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. W-126-R-2 Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Investigations Work Plan No. 4 Job No. ---------------------------------- 2 Job Title __~S~e~a~s~o~n~a~l~D~i~e~t~a~r~y~P~r~e~f~e~r~e~n~c~e~s~o~f~B~ibg~h~o~r~n~S~h~e~e~p~ _ Period Covered: July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research Mountain Research Station personnel, D. Baker, D. Canalte, T. Dailey, B. Gill, T. Hobbs, L. Stevens, and T. Woodard. ABSTRACT Grazing trials with 3 tame bighorn sheep were conducted in alpine type during winter. Grasses, forbs, and shrubs comprised 65.9, 30.8, and 3.3 percent, respectively, of the over winter diet. Estimated sample sizes required for estimating herbage production by selected plant species in different habitat types with a clip and weigh technique are presented. ��-421- SEASONAL DIETARY PREFERENCES BIGHORN SHEEP OF Thomas N. Woodard P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To describe and quantify bighorn sheep. seasonal diet selection 2. To evaluate forages. potential and digestibility 3. To test the hypothesis that forage yields in seasonal bighorn sheep habitats can be quantified within acceptable tolerance limits with available fiscal resources. 4. To quantify nutritional bighorn sheep forage yields within of Rocky Mountain of bighorn sheep seasonal habitats. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Develop 2. Conduct bighorn sheep grazing 3. Initiate measurements to estimate bighorn quality in seasonal habitat types. a detailed study plan. METHODS trials in selected seasonal habitat sheep forage quantity types. and AND MATERIALS Food Habits Diet selection of individual bighorn sheep ultimately determine what vegetation is utilized to meet energy and nutrient requirements. Evaluation of the quantity and quality of food resources depends on the estimation of the array of plants selected by bighorn sheep and the relative importance of each plant species in the animal's diet (Hobbs and Baker 1977). Forage selection is a complex process which can vary over time and space (Ellis et al. 1976). Under Objective 1 of this study, dietary selection of 3 to 6 bighorn sheep previously reared and trained (Woodard 1979) for food habits experiments were quantified during grazing trials in selected seasonal habitats. A grazing trial consisted of two observers counting from close distance the number of bites by species consumed by one sheep feeding in selected habitats. Trials were terminated when animals lost interest in feeding. A portable tape recorder was used to record data during trials. Data collected included animal name, starting time, starting point, weather �-422- conditions, number of bites of forage by species, and relevant bighorn sheep behavior. Animals were transported daily to and from the Division of Wildlife Research Center or maintained in holding pens near study area locations during each sampling period. Each animal was allowed to graze at will the first day of a sampling period in each habitat type for exposure to new surroundings and available forage. The following 3-4 days, a grazing trial was conducted with each animal in a selected vegetation type. Starting points for grazing trials were selected randomly within a selected vegetation type. This procedure was followed for vegetation type 1, listed below. Food habits data in types 2, 3, and 4, listed below, will be collected in conjunction with an existing prescribed burning study described by Woodard (1978). Bite count data from 3 non-burn plots in each of the 3 habitat types will be analyzed to estimate bighorn sheep diets in these types. The sampling scheme will be as described by Woodard (1979). Descriptions of habitat types selected for grazing trials follow those of Hobbs and Baker (1977) and Marr (1961). They are: 1) Alpine Tundra Climax Region Elevation is approximately 3480 m and higher. Topography is gently to steeply rolling terrain interspersed with precipitous cliffs, talus slides, and boulderfields. Dominant vegetation are sedges and forbs. Common species include Deschampsia caespitosa, Kobresia sp., Si1ene acau1is, Trifolium sp., Carex sp., Geum rossii, and Po1ygonum bistortoides. 2) Upper Montane Forest Climax Region - Xeric Grassland Type Elevation is approximately 2440 m. Terrain is level and common forage species include Muh1enbergia montana, Stipa comata, Poa sp., Agropyron sp., Boute1oua gracilis, Artemisia frigida, Potenti11a sp., and Oxytropis sp. 3) Upper Montane Forest Climax Region - Sagebrush Type Elevation is approximately 2450 - 2460 m. Topography is a gentle slope of 0-10 degrees on east and south aspects. Common forage species include Artemisia tridentata, Purshia tridentata, plus those present in the xeric grassland community described above. 4) Upper Montane Forest Climax Region - Ponderosa Pine - Douglas Fir Type Elevation is above 2460 m. Topography is a 15-30 degree slope with numerous rock outcroppings on south and east aspects. Common plant species include Pinus ponderosa, Pseudotsuga taxifo1ia, Juniperus sp., Ribes sp., Rosa sp., Potenti11a sp., Achillea 1anulosa, Artemisia frigida, Thermop~divaricarpa, Poa sp .. Agropyron sp., Bromus sp., and Festuca sp. �-423- These vegetation types were chosen based on bighorn sheep seasonal habitat selection propensities as reported by Bauman (1978), Bear and Jones (1973), Geist and Petocz (1977), Pallister (1974), Shannon et al. (1975), Stelfox (1976), and Stewart (1975). Grazing trials with 3 tame bighorn sheep were conducted in the Alpine Tundra Climax Region during November, January, and March of this segment. Forage Quality Evaluation Nutritional values of individual plants eaten by sheep will be assessed by chemical determinations of percent dry matter, nitrogen, acid detergent fiber, lignin, cell wall constituents and in vitro digestibility of species contributing at least 2 percent of total intake. One-hundred gram samples were handplucked from plants grazed by tame animals during food habits studies; plant parts taken simulated as closely as possible those selected by tame sheep. At least 25 individual plants were composited to form each sample; these were frozen for subsequent analysis. Triplicate la-gram samples from each composite will be analyzed for chemical constituents. Dry matter digestibility will be measured in vitro using procedures described by Tilley and Terry (1963) and modified by Pearson (1970). Triplicate 0.5 g subsamples of each sample will be digested with rumen inoculum collected from a domestic cow. Forage Yields Sample size requirements utilizing a clip and weigh technique, described below, for estimating above-ground forage yields were determined during preliminary sampling in seasonal habitat types. The accepted precision level was within 20 percent of the mean 80 percent of the time for forage species comprising 2 percent or more of the diet of bighorn sheep as determined by grazing trials with tame animals. Twenty, 30.5 x 61.0 cm quadrats were randomly located within each of 3 of the 5 habitat types selected for food habit studies. All vegetation within the quadrat frame was ground-level clipped, separated and placed in paper sacks labelled by species, date, habitat type and quadrat number. Forage species comprising 2 percent or more of the diets were sacked separately. All other plants were composited according to forage class (shrubs, grasses, and forbs). Clipped vegetation was dried at 1000 C for 24 hours and weighed to the nearest 0.1 g. Desired precision levels of estimates of individual forage species aboveground biomass were not possible with available fiscal resources and time allocations utilizing the clip and weigh technique alone (D. Baker, L. Carpenter, and T. Hobbs; personal communication). Because of this, two approaches to estimating biomass will be investigated. First, a double sampling system utilizing the clip and weigh technique and an electronic �-424- capacitance meter (Neal and Neal 1973) will be initiated. This work will be combined with an existing study in which a clip and weigh technique alone is being used to estimate herbage yield (Woodard 1979). Vegetation in 180 quadrats, placed with a restricted random sampling design, will be ground-level clipped each August and separated by selected species and forage category in each of 3 habitat types of the Upper Montane Climax Region (Woodard 1979). The size of the quadrats will be 30.5 x 61.0 cm to correspond with the herbage meter size and facilitate the double sampling scheme. Before this vegetation is clipped a herbage meter reading will be taken. An additional 900 meter readings will be taken at randomly placed locations in each of the 3 habitat types. The resulting double sampling ratio will be I meter read and clipped quadrat to 5 meter read only quadrats. The predictive equation resulting from regression of total herbage weight on meter readings from the small double samples will be used to estimate weights from the large meter read only samples. Selected forage species and forage class weights will be estimated by calculating the percentage contribution of each to the total clip plot weights and multiplying the results by the total herbage weights estimated from the large meter read only samples. A second approach to estimating above ground biomass of selected forage species and forage categories will be to investigate the relationship between cover and biomass. Six, 0.3 - 0.9 ha tracts have been delineated in each of 3 habitat types in an existing study (Woodard 1979). Two hundred fifty microplots (Morris 1973) and 30 clip-plots as explained by Woodard (1979) are established in each of the 18 tracts each August. The resulting cover measurement values of selected forage species and forage categories will be regressed on the corresponding weights. If there is a correlation it will be tested for repeatability in succeeding years. If correlation is high and repeatable, resulting predictive equations can be used to estimate biomass from microplots. Forage sampling was not conducted during this segment but vegetation clip data collected previously in habitats 2, 3, and 4 were analyzed for estimates of sample size requirements and results are presented in this report. Statistical Analysis Food Habits Statistical treatment of diet data (percentages) has been reviewed by Hobbs and Baker (1977). Similar analysis using t intervals will be used to make inferences on the precision of diet estimates. Multivariate analysis of variances permit hypothesis testing for: (Harris 1975, Peden 1972) will �-425- 1. Differences in forage choices across animals periods and between vegetation types. 2. Differences types. in forage quality between between sampling sampling periods and vegetation Stepwise regression analysis will be used in an attempt to relate bighorn sheep forage preference to several measured attributes of vegetation. Forage Yields Sample sizes required to estimate, by clipping only, biomass of selected forage species within 20 percent of the mean with 80% confidence were estimated after preliminary samplinr by the following standard formula: N (0.20 - x) 2 The important quantity when the double sampling approach (clip plots and herbage meter) is used will be the product derived by multiplying the percentage contribution of each selected forage species and category to the total clip plot weights by the total herbage weights estimated from the large meter read only samples. The precision of this product will be calculated with specific formulas (D. Bowden, personal communication). The precision will depend on the strength of the correlations of selected species weights to total clip plot weights and total clip plots weights to meter readings (D. Bowden, personal communication). STUDY AREA LOCATION The alpine study area is Niwot Ridge in the India Peaks area of the Colorado Front Range approximately 6.4 km west of Ward. It is bounded on the south by North Boulder Creek and on the south by South St. Vrain Creek and lies in T1N, R73W. The Upper Montane Forest Climax Region study area will be located in the Wintersteen Park area of the Cache la Poudre River drainage, 2 km northeast' of Rustic. It lies in T9N, R73W, Sec. 27. RESULTS Bighorn Sheep Food Habits Twelve during forage species grazing trials AND DISCUSSION comprising 91.9 percent conducted during winter of 28,624 bites observed 1978-79 in an alpine tundra �-426- habitat type (Table 1). Percentages diet are depicted in Figure 1. of grasses, forbs, and shrubs in the Table 1. Percentage composition of bighorn sheep diet across 3 animals in alpine tundra type during winter 1978-79. Entries are mean percentages with 90 percent confidence intervals for plant species contributing I percent or more to the total diet. Species are ranked in order of importance across all months. Species Percent in Diet -N-o-v-e-m-b-e-r--------J-a-n-u-a-r-y--------M-a-r-c-h--------A-I-l-M--o-n-t-h Carex rupestris 3.9 + 4.4 31.2 + 23.6 24.9 + 3.6 22.0 + 9.1 Trisetum 25.8 + 6.8 24.8 + 19.0 16.6 + 12.0 21.8 + 6.4 Campanula rotundifolia 21.4+ 9.9 10.1 + 8.6 5.6 + 6.8 11.3 + 8.8 Kobresia myosuroides 13.8 + 27.3 9.7 + 13.5 10.0 + 4.8 11.2 + 13.3 Agropyron scribneri 3.4 + 8.7 5.8 + 3.5 8.3 + 7.8 6.4 + 5.9 Arenaria fendleri 8.2 + 1.4 4.8 + 7.1 3.2 + 2.7 5.0 + 3.9 1.2 + 0.4 10.9 + 15.0 4.6 + 5.9 spicatum Trifolium dasyphyllum 3.4 + 3.6 3.0 + 4.9 3.0 + 5.3 3.1 + 4.4 Salix planifolia (stems) 2.5 + 4.9 2.5 + 2.5 1.3 + 2.6 2.0 + 1.2 Festuca 0.9 + 0.8 0.4 + 0.1 3.3 + 2.2 1.7+ 1.1 Poa spp. 3.4 + 6.9 1.4+ 1.0 0.4 + 0.7 1.6 + 2.0 Salix planifolia (leaves) 3.5 + 6.6 0.1 + 0.1 0.9 + 1.3 1.2+ 1.1 Grasses 52.1 + 22.9 73.8 + 16.7 66.5 + 14.8 65.9 + 12.2 Forbs 41.8 + 16.1 23.4 + 19.5 31.3 + 15.7 30.8 + 11.9 Shrubs 6.0 + 11.6 2.8 + Total Bites 7,500 10,154 Polygonum bistortoides brachyphylla 3.2 2.3 + 4.0 3.3 + 10,970 28,624 2.3 �-427- Forage Quality Evaluation Chemical analysis of the major species in the sheep diet is in progress but not yet completed. Forage Yields Based on preliminary sampling desired prec~s~on levels of estimates of individual forage species above-ground biomass cannot usually be attained with time and fiscal restraints utilizing the clip and weigh technique Table 2 lists calculated sample size (plot size = 0.25 m2) alone. estimates for selected plant species in 3 habitat types with precision set to within 20 percent of the mean, 80 percent of the time. Table 2. Calculated clip sample size estimates for precision within 20 percent of the mean with 80 percent probability for herbage production of selected forage species in 3 habitat types. Estimates are based on 30 randomly placed 0.25 m2 preliminary clip plots. Habitat P. Pine - D. Fir Species Agropyron smithii U 1284 gracilis Carex spp. Grass 144 21 - 237 - 630 312 - 1007 98 - 225 40 - 213 309 34 - 158 178 - 1272' A. spicatum Bouteloua Type Shrub 122 - 374 57 - 156 Hesporochloa kingii 262 - 528 242 - 1040 Muhlenbergia montana 182 - 469 61 - 166 138 - 1286 319 - 622 47 - 210 16 - 66 134 - 358 30 - 70 Poa spp. Stipa comata Antennaria species 1289 285 - 796 116 - 753 Artemisia frigida 423 65 - 279 26 - 79 Eriogonum umbellatum 245 286 - 787 250 - 320 437 - 625 187 - 330 52 - 337 Lupinus sp. Oxytropis spp. 212 - 1294 �-428- Table 2. Calculated clip sample size estimates for precision within 20 percent of the mean with 80 percent probability for herbage production of selected forage specie in 3 habitat types. Estimates are based on 1 30 randomly placed 0.25 m preliminary clip plots. (Continued). Habitat Type P. Pine - D. Fir Shrub Species Grass Potentilla fissa 62 - 359 124 - 921 Thermopsis divaricarpa 410 - 510 100 - 432 893 Artemisia tridentata (leaves and ca~7) 166 - 724 55 - 372 197 - 1028 A. tridentata 408 - 764 136 - 340 452 - 1152 50 - 178 14 - 42 26 - 604 - 632 106 - 607 634 516 - 1293 142 - 645 1058 (stems) Litter Purshia tridentata P. tridentata (cag) (stems) 148 . . b ase d on up -l/R anges represent mlnlmum to maXlmum samp l'e Slze estlmates to 6 different preliminary sample sets. 2/ - cag = current annual growth. LITERATURE CITED Bear, G. D., and G. W. Jones. 1973. History and distribution of bighorn sheep in Colorado. Colo. Div. Wildl. Fed. Aid.Job Final Rep. Proj. W-41-R, vJork Plan 1, Job 1. 232p. Ellis, J. E., J. A. Weins, C. F. Rodell, and J. C. Anway. 1976. conceptual model of diet selection as an ecosystem process. Theoret. Biol. 60:93-108. A J. Geist, V., and R. G. Petocz. 1977. Bighorn sheep in winter: do rams maximize reproductive fitness by spatial and habitat segregation from ewes? Can. J. Zool. 55:1802-1810. Harris, R. J. 1975. A primer of multivariate Press, New York. 332p. statistics. Academic �-429- Hobbs, N. T., and D. L. Baker. 1977. Systems modeling big game populations simulations of the carrying capacity of the Rocky Mountain National Park elk winter range. Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Res. Rep., July, Part III: 12S-30S. Marr, J. W. 1961. Ecosystems of the east slope of the Front Range in Colorado. Univ. of Colo. Studies Series in BioI., No.8. Univ. of Colo. Press, Boulder. 134p. Morris, M. J. 1973. Estimating understory plant cover with rated microplots. USDA For. Servo Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Paper RM-104. 12p. Neal, D. L., and J. L. Neal. 1973. Uses and capabilities of electronic capacitance meters for estimating standing herbage. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 28(2):81-89. Pallister, G. L. 1974. The seasonal distribution and range use of bighorn sheep in the Beartooth Mountains, with special reference to the West Rosebud and Stillwater herds. M.S. Thesis, Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 67p. Pearson, H. A. 1970. Digestibility trials: In vitro techniques. Pp. 8S-92 In H. A. Paulsen, and E. L. Reid (Cochairman) Range and wildlife habitat evaluation - A research symposium. USDA For. Servo Misc., Publ. 1147. 220p. Peden, D. G. plains. 1972. The tropic relations of Bison bison to the shortgrass Ph.D. Thesis, Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins. 134p. Shannon, N. H., R. J. Hudson, V. C. Brink, and W. D. Kitts. 1975. Determinants of spatial distribution of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(2) :387-401. Stelfox, J. G. 1976. Range ecology of Rocky Mountain Can. Wildl. Servo Rep. Series Number 39. SOp. bighorn sheep. Stewart, S. T. 1975. Ecology of the West Rosebud and Stillwater bighorn sheep herds, Beartooth Mountains, Montana. M.S. Thesis. Montana State Univ., Bozeman. 129p. Tilley, J. M., and R. A. Terry. 1963. A two-stage technique for in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 18(2): 104-111. /) 1/ Prepared by: --/ ).., .:...t. ) . \.', .. _ .• ' .~ ;,' //[t' )A' :, . /! C< /J-,,:(;(jl ,{r;// homas N. Woodard Wildlife Researcher r / / �-430- 70 60 50 .._, <!) or< q 40 C or< u ~ Qj U H a.J P-< 30 20 10 November Figure 1. January Harch Diet by forage category of 3 tame bighorn sheep during winter 1978-79 in alpine tundra type on Niwot Ridge, Coloradoo �-431- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO. ------------------~---------- Project No. Work Period Covered: Personnel: REPORT 4 Bighorn Johne's July Robert 1979 Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Plan No. Job Title July, 3 Job No. Sheep Investigations--Investigations of Disease in Selected Bighorn Sheep Populations --~~~~----~----------------- 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 E. Keiss, Timothy G. Baumann, Gene G. Schoonveld. ABSTRACT Methods for the isolation and identification of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis were developed and a total of 281 separate bighorn sheep fecal pellet groups were cultured. Two cultures from the Grant area were positive presumptive for the presence of ~. paratuberculosis. Distribution, habitat preferences and age-sex composition of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) in the Mt. Evans, Colorado vicinity were studied during grounds and aerial surveys conducted during the summer of 1978. Minimum population estimates of 205 bighorn sheep and 55 mountain goats were obtained on the basis of non-duplicate counts. ��-433- INVESTIGATIONS OF JOHNE'S DISEASE IN SELECTED BIGHORN SHEEP POPULATIONS ROBERT E. KEISS AND TIM BAUMANN P. N. OBJECTIVE The primary objective of this study will be to enhance the knowledge of the status of Johne's Disease in wild ungulate populations with emphasis on bighorn sheep and mountain goats. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To develop a Johne's Disease diagnostic capability Collins Wildlife Research Center Laboratory. 2. To provide the Colorado Division of Wildlife with a diagnostic service for culturing Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in tissues and/or feces of clinically ill or dead animals suspected of having Johne's Disease. 3. To ascertain the viability of~. paratuberculosis in fecal pellets of bighorn sheep and mountain goats over time and under field conditions. 4. To test for the presence populations. 5. To relate population dynamics of bighorn sheep populations and mountain goat populations of Mt. Evans to Johne's Disease infections. of M. paratuberculosis at the Fort in bighorn sheep PROCEDURES For detailed procedures used to culture Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in this segment refer to the PROGRAM NARRATIVE for Project W-126-R-2, Work Plan 4, Job 3. Laboratory Culture Before any culture work could be carried out for this project, it was first necessary to set up the laboratory capability to do the work. Glassware and supplies were obtained and the procedures developed which were ultimately successful in culturing and propagating~. paratuberculosis on culture media. The following collections of bighorn cultured in the laboratory. sheep fecal pellet groups were �-434- 1. On January 18, 1978 a total of 17 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Chalk Creek herd. These fecal samples were cultured on August 29, 1978 and all groups were negative. 2. On January 26, 1978 a total of 41 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Tarryall Mountain herd. These fecal samples were cultured on August 14, 1978 and all groups were negative. 3. On February 9, 1978 a total of 34 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Poudre River herd. These fecal samples were cultured on August 29, 1978 and all groups were negative. 4. On February 22, 1978 a total of 20 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Almont Triangle herd. These fecal samples were cultured on August 24, 1978 and all groups were negative. 5. On February 23, 1978 a total of 9 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Pikes Peak herd. These fecal samples were cultured on August 24, 1978 and all groups were negative. 6. On March 1, 1978 a total of 39 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Mt. Evans herd near Grant. These fecal samples were cultured on August 9, 1978 and all groups were negative. 7. On January 12, 1979 a total of 51 bighorn sheep pellet groups were collected from the Grant herd by picking up from the ground where they were deposited. These pellet groups were cultured on January 18, 1979 and two pellet groups were positive presumptive for ~. paratuberculosis. 8. On January 26, 1979 a total of 15 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the South Platte River Canyon herd. These fecal samples were cultured on January 29, 1979 and all groups were negative. 9. On February 12, 1979 a total of 26 pellet groups were collected from the Grant herd by picking up from the ground where they were deposited. These pellet groups were cultured on February 14, 1979 and all groups were negative. 10. On March 28, 1979 a total of 29 pellet groups were collected from bighorn sheep trapped from the Grant herd. These fecal samples were cultured on March 29, 1979 and none of them were positive for M. paratuberculosis. Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Population Data on Mt. Evans All population data were collected by Mr. Timothy G. Baumann during the summer of 1978 and the following information was taken from his report which is on file in the Northeast Regional Office - Ft. Collins, Colorado. �-435- During May-September 1978, 2152 bighorn sheep and 1133 mountain goats were located in the Mt. Evans region, including duplications. The geographical distribution of collared and uncollared bighorn sheep observed during this study suggests that three relatively distinct ewe-subadult segments exist within the Mt. Evans population. Summer ranges of the "Mt. Evans" segment were delimited during 1978 based upon relocations of yellow-collared and white-ear-tagged sheep; these individuals were trapped and marked on Goliath Peak during 1977. The "Mt. Evans" sheep occupied cirques and mountaintops near the heads of the Scott Gomer and Chicago Creek drainages. Sheep marked with orange or red collars and/or yellow, black or orange ear tags frequented summer ranges above and below treeline in the Threemile and Deer Creek drainages. These sheep (marked at two Grant trap locations during 1977 and 1978) also utilized south-facing slopes below treeline in the Geneva Creek and Platte River Valleys during movements associated with use of the Grant salt station. The existence of a third ewe-subadult segment, the "Frozen Lake" sheep, was suggested by 256 sightings (including duplications) of unmarked sheep in the Arrowhead Mountain - Geneva MountainMount Bierstadt - Epaulet Mountain region during May-September. Since sightings of marked sheep were not recorded in this region during 1977-1978, these sheep are treated as a separate ewe-subadult segment of the Mt. Evans population in this report. Interchange between sheep marked at Grant and those marked on Goliath Peak was not detected during this study. Hence, exchange of individuals among the three ewe-subadult segments during summer 1978 was assumed to be negligible. Two areas of ram concentration were also identified during spring 1978. Bands of mature rams were freqently located in the Sugarloaf Peak and Rosedale Peak regions during May and June. Sightings of orange-ear-tagged rams on Rosedale Peak and white-ear-tagged rams in the Clear Creek watershed, recorded during this study, suggest that rams which frequent the Platte River Valley during fall and winter concentrate on Rosedale Peak while those which range through the Clear Creek watershed concentrate in the Sugarloaf Peak region. These two ram segments probably drift throughout the entire study area and intermingle during the rut, as the sighting of a white-ear-tagged ram near Grant during 1977 rut (R. Mason, personal commuication) suggests. Mountain goats which inhabit the Mt. Evans study area may be reproductively isolated from those which inhabit the Continental Divide west of Guanella Pass. These goats are not marked, therefore this theory cannot be proven or discounted at present. Since goat crossings of the heavily traveled Guanella Pass Road have not been observed by or reported by D.O.W. personnel in the area, interchange between these two "sister herds" is assumed to be minimal. Results regarding mountain goat distribution, abundance and population structure reported below refer to goats east of Guanella Pass which are considered as a distinct population in this report. Distribution. Patterns of sheep and goat concentration changed in the Mt. Evans region as the summer progressed, apparently in response to shifts in the distribution and availability of green forages. Shannon et ale (1975) postulated a similar influence of forage quality and availability on the seasonal distribution of bighorn sheep in British �-436- Columbia, as did McFetridge (1977) for mountain goats in Alberta. The frequency of ram band observations decreased during summer and so shifts in ram distribution were less apparent than those exhibited by ewe-subadult segments. Figure 1 illustrates sheep and goat distribution in the study area during May-June, when lambing and kidding activities reached peaks. The first newborn lamb was located on 23 May; the first newborn kids were seen on 30 May. One lamb was born in the Beartrack Cirque during the 21-27 June interval; by this time most lambs and kids had been born. Peaks in kidding activities were also recorded during late May and early June by Brandborg (1955) in Idaho, Debock (1970) in British Columbia and Richardson (1971) in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Lambing peaks for bighorn sheep in the Northern Rocky Mountains have been recorded during late May and early June by Smith (1954), Woodard (1971), and numerous other authors. Apparently, peaks of mountain goat and bighorn sheep parturition occur in close temporal sequence throughout the Northern Rocky Mountains. Lambing and kidding areas were identified in the Mt. Evans study area based on observations of solitary (presumably parturient) females and females with newborn in steep and cliffy terrain during late May and early June. Lambing areas were identified on Gray Wolf Mountain, Geneva Mountain, Kataka Mountain, Mt. Logan and in the Chicago Lakes, Frozen Lake and Camp Creek cirques. These 7 lambing areas are characterized by southerly aspects (with the sole exception of the northwest-facing Gray Wolf areas), interspersion of 600-vertical rock cliffs with 50-600 boulder-turf terrain and the occurrence of persistent snowfields during spring. Interspersion of green forage, water and escape cover, common to each of the 7 lambing areas, was probably the key to concentrated use of these sites by parturient ewes and ewes with newborn lambs. The Chicago Lakes Cirque and the cirque between it and Gray Wolf Mountain were primary kidding areas during 1978 as indicated by the abundance of female goats with newborn kids which were observed there during June. These two kidding areas are similarly characterized by 500-vertical, south-facing terrain where free water and green forage were abundant during May and June. Kidding may occur on south-facing cliff and bench sites above Vance, Peede and Bear Creek drainages where goat use was also recorded .during May and June. Use of subalpine cliffs as kidding areas has been reported by Hibbs (1965) in the Collegiate Range of Colorado and by Debock (1970) in the Canadian Rocky Mountains of British Columbia. Maximum daily, non-duplicate counts of kid and adult goats increased on Mt. Evans tundra during May-August 1978. This trend also suggests that some kids are born in subalpine areas and follow their dams to tundra summer ranges. By mid-July green-upon the tundra was widespread and the availability of new green herbaceous growth increased as snowmelt progressed, especially in cirque headwalls. Sheep and goats made frequent use of snowbed sites during July and August. By this time availability of free water had noticeably decreased on the Geneva Mountain, Kataka Mountain and Mt. Logan lambing areas. These shifts in the distribution and availability of forage and water resources may have initiated changes in sheep and goat �-437- . 1 / .'7 ( ----7-- r= ~ Ram ~ Mount Evans Sheep Conc.entrations t;_:;:;::;j Mounta;n Goal. ~ Gaal. ~ Frozen Lake Sheep and Mount Eyans Sheep ~ Goals Clnd Frozen Lake Sheep illIIIl Grant Sheep Fig. 1. Distribution of bighorn sheep. and mountain goats in the lwunt Evans, Colorado vicinity ~~y - June 1978. �-438- distribution observed during June and July (Fig. 2). Sightings of ram bands on Sugarloaf Peak, and sign of recent use on Rosedale and Bandit Peaks during late August indicated that minor shifts in ram distribution had also occurred. By September many tundra plants were cured out, especially turf sites, and the distribution and availability of green forage was basically restricted to mesic swales and snow accumulation sites. The Grant ewe-subadult segment expanded its summer range to include the Rosalie Peak-Deer Creek and Roosevelt Lakes cirque regions during September while the Frozen Lake and Mt. Evans segments reverted to distribution patterns similar to those observed during late May (Fig. 3). Small ram bands (2-9 animals) were seen in and out of ewe~subadult company during late August and September in areas where they were not seen during May-August. Geist (1971) noted similar trends in ram distribution for bighorn sheep herds in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Goat distribution during September was not noticeably different from that of July-August; although, as stated above, the abundance of goats on the tundra was maximum during late summer. Distributional trends indicating similar concentrations of goats on tundra during summer were reported by Hjeljord (1973) in Alaska, McFetridge (1977) in Alberta and Schultz (1973) and Johnson (1975) in Colorado. The effects of "salting" on the movements and distribution of the Mt. Evans ewe-subadult segment and mountain goats in the vicinity is somewhat obscure since salt was placed near the center of their summer ranges (Fig. 4). Large quantities of soil were ingested by sheep at bait stations on Rogers Peak and Goliath Peak during late August and September. A relationship between late summer use .. of these areas by the Mt. Evans sheep and the availability of salt cannot be ascertained as "pre-salting" distribution data are not available. Hebert and Cowan (1971) reported that the attraction of big game to natural salt licks was related to availability of sodium during periodic sodium stress, which occurs when an increase of succulent growth in their diets decreases sodium retention. Although one might expect that sodium stress should be most intense during July and August when succulent herbaceous growth was most abundant (rather than during September when availability of such feed was apparently reduced) a delayed response to this stress may have occurred. Goats ingested significant quantities of soil at bait stations above Lincoln Lake and Tumbling Creek throughout the summer. Movements of marked Grant sheep between the Camp Creek cirque and the Grant salt station over straight line distances of ~ 5.1 km, suggest that availability of salt has a significant effect on the distribution of these sheep. Heimer (1973) noted a similar influence of salt availability on the distribution of Dall sheep in Alaska as did Brandborg (1955) and Hebert and Cowan (1971) for mountain goats. Relocations of marked "Mt. Evans" sheep during July and August suggest that "handouts" offered by tourists along the Mt. Evans road affect an artificial concentration of sheep in this vicinity. Handout items taken during summer 1978 included granola bars, sandwiches, dougnuts, saltine and "animal" crackers, "doritos", wine, and chlorox, which was inadvertently made available to the sheep. Sheep actively sought handouts by approaching �-439- I / ~ Ram Concentrations ~ Mounl E~ons. Sheep t:;:;:;:j Mounlain Gool. ~ Goals and Mount Evan. ~ Frozen Lake Sheep Sheep [[ill] Gran! Sheep Fig. 2. Distribution of bighorn sheep and mountain goats in the Hount Evans, Colorado vicinity July August 1978. �-440- \ .\ ~ Mounl E.ans Sheep [::-:-:-4 Mounlain Goals ~ Goals and Mounl Evans Sheep ~ Frozen Lake Sheep ~ Goals and Frozen Lake Sheep UIllI1J Gran I Sheep ~ Goats and Grant Sheep Fig. 3~ Distribution of bighorn sheep and mountain goats in the Mount Evans, Colorado vicinity during September 1978. �-441- Fig. 4. . Locations at ~hich salt ~as placed during ·summer 1978; Hount Evans, Colorado vicinity. �-442- tourists and accepting hand-held foods. Although the nutritional effects of this "supplemental feeding" are unknown, the concentration of sheep on Mt. Evans is apparently a conditioned response to it. Daily movements of yellow-collared ewes between the Gray Wolf Mountain lambing and nursery area and the Mt. Evans Crest House (~ 1.4 km straight-line distance) were observed on several occasions during July. Successive relocations of yellow-collared and white-ear-tagged sheep and daily observations of unmarked sheep in the area indicate that the Mt. Evans Crest House was near the center of activity for many of these sheep. Abundance. Summation of maximum non-duplicate counts obtained for each age-class (Tables I and 2) indicate that a minimum of 205 bighorn sheep and 55 mountain goats inhabited the study area during summer 1978. Although these maximum class counts are not accurate or precise estimators of population sizes, they do provide the best available population structure information and absolute minimum population figures. If minimum population estimates derived by summation of maximum non-duplicate class counts recorded during summer 1978 are considered to arbitrarily represent 70% of the total Mt. Evans mountain goat and bighorn sheep populations, then extrapolated populations of 79 goats and 293 sheep may be derived. Based on the extent and intensity of sampling of sheep and goat band composition during this study, I estimate that 65-75 mountain goats and 225-250 bighorn sheep inhabit the Mt. Evans region. Martin and Stewart (1977) reported maximum "non-duplicate" counts of 208 sheep and 68 goats for the Mt. Evans study area, however, these "minimum population" figures are not substantiated by daily observation summaries presented in their report. Their 1977 estimates must have been based on sums of animals (including unclassified individuals) recorded for specific geographic regions over a period of days and the assumption that no movements between these regions occurred. Sheep Population Structure. Lamb/ewe ratios obtained for the Mt. Evans and Grant ewe-subadult segments of the sheep population (81/100 and 72/100 respectively) compare favorably to those summarized by Buechner (1960). Since the Frozen Lake segment is composed of unmarked sheep, the likelihood exists that these animals did not receive antihelminthic drug treatment during 1977-1978 and were therefore not marked. The relatively low lamb/ewe ratio (44/100) observed for the Frozen Lake segment during summer 1978 may indicate that reproductive success has been reduced in this herd segment as a result of lungworm infection. However, larval loads recorded for a small number of fecal samples collected during June 1978 do not suggest high levels of lungworm infection in sheep which utilized the Frozen Lake region. Since survival rates beyond the yearling age class are generally believed to be high in mountain sheep populations (Buechner 1960, Geist 1971), a yearling/adult ratio of 24/100 (calculated from pooled maximum class counts collected during this study) suggests that population stability will be approximated as the annual mortality rate of the adult and yearling age classes combined approaches 24%, providing that population composition remains relatively constant. Year to year variations of birth rate and lamb survival, which are apparently not uncommon in bighorn populations, �Table 1. Mount Evans. Colorado bighorn sheep population size and age-sell;structure based on maximum non-duplicate class count s,Hay - September 1978. Herd 3/4 7 Mount Evans 5/8 1/2 5 6 1/4 yJ' Af. y~ L Hinimum herd size 3 4 26 5 21 77 Frozen Lake -- -- -- 1 4 16 7 7 35 Grant 6 2 5 2 6 39 5 28 93 estimates Lamb Ewe - Yearlinfj Ewe 81 35 ToO 100 44 100 69 100 72 28 100 Wo Ram Ewe a Male Female I -i"-i"- W I All Herds 13 7 11 6 14 81 17 56 (6%) (3%) (5%) (3%) (7%) (40%) (8%) (28%) a Rams excluding yearling males. 205 69 38 1.6 63 Wo 'iOo TOo" 100 �Table 2. Hount Evans, Colorado mountain goat population cstimateso Hay •..September 19180 size and agu-uex structure Source of estimate ABe-sex composition Maximum class counts Arf# A~ Y K Hinimum population 4 18 17 168 55 Pooled data for all banda completely classified. Hay September aincludinB 3 pairs of twins. Kids Nannieo Yearlin8s Nannies Kid Older animals 89 94 41 100 IOO 100 96 100 83 100 61 100 I .p.p.pI �-445- will necessitate frequent re-evaluation of these ratios in the future. A ram/ewe ratio of 56/100 and favorable ratio of young (yearling, 1/4 and 1/2 curl) rams to older (5/8 and 3/4 curl) rams (~ 1.5/1), indicated by maximum class counts (Table 1), do not suggest that the current intensity of ram harvest is adversely affecting the population structure. Mountain Goat Population Structure.--Interpretation of mountain goat age ratios is difficult due to classification bias which results from the limited degree of sexual dimorphism in goats and rapid growth of yearling and two-year-olds. Physical measurements of mountain goats published by Brandborg (1955) Lentfer (1955) and Richardson (1971) indicate that reliable discrimination of adult males from adult females and differentiation of long yearlings and two-year-olds from adults on the basis of horn and body characteristics is difficult, at best, over distances at which they are commonly observed in the field. In order to minimize classification bias, many authors have employed kid/adult, yearling/adult and kid/older animal ratios in their analyses of mountain goat population composition. A minimum of 1978 Mt. Evans mountain goat population estimate, age ratios based on maximum class counts, and age ratios computed from pooled data for bands in which every goat was aged and sexed are presented in Table 2. Brandborg (1955) suggested that estimates obtained by pooling data collected during an entire field season were most accurate indices of goat population structure than those obtained from maximum class counts. In an attempt to refine estimates of population composition based on maximum class counts recorded during this study, monthly age ratios were computed from observations of bands in which all goats were aged (Fig. 5) and those in which all goats were aged and all adults sexed (Fig. 6). Curves constructed for kid/adult, kid/older animal (Fig. 5) and kid/adult female (Fig. 6) ratios illustrate an increase in the proportion of kids in the population during July-September 1978. Curves constructed for yearling/ adult and yearling/adult female ratios show a coincident decrease in the proportion of yearlings in the population. These trends were probably affected by concentration of goats on the tundra during late summer, resulting in increased opportunities to observe adult females with kids, and a decrease in the ability to reliably distinguish yealings from adults as they approached adult size. Although kid/adult female and yearling/adult female ratios computed for August and September were not significantly different from those for May-July (P < .10), the decreasing widths of 90% confidence intervals for these ratios (Fig. 6) support the theory that these trends occurred. Since kid/adult female and yearling/adult female ratios were computed from close-range observations (all goats were aged and all adults were sexed), these ratios are the most accurate estimators of kid production and survival available. The similarity of kid/adult female ratios presented in Table 2 with those computed from close-range observations during August and September (Fig. 6) suggests that the true ratio of kids/adult females was somewhere in the range of 82-94 kids per 100 adult �-446- ...... 70 YEARLINGS 100 ADULTS .71 KIDS 100 OLDERANIMALS KIDS 100 ADULTS 60 SO NUMBER OF .' 47 40 YOUNGER 100 OLDER .. 30 GOATS 20 e_ , ,, I .. 22 . 20 ...• ... '17 • 14~ 10 Y K K Y K K Y K K Y K K Y K K AOAA AOAA AOAA AOAA AOAA MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT NUMBER OF BANOS 10 41 28 2S 61 NUMBER OF GOATS 2S 120 200 111 244 Fig. 5. ~fonthly kid/older animal, kid/adult, and yearling/adult ratios observed in the ~fount Evans, Colorado mountain goat population, Hay September 1978. Data are from bands in which all goats were aged (g~ = 700), including duplications. �-447- YEARLINGS •••••• 100 ADULT FEMALES KIDS 100 ADULT FEMALES 100 138 105 117 101 102 96 90 OF • 94· 2---- 87·~1 80 NUMBER 104 96 . 83 70 60 0 57. 71 •• . • YOUNGER 50 100 OLDER 53 . • •• •• 43· 40 •• •• • 41 41 GOATS . 30 27.00 ••••• 28. 20 10 16 o -24 -1 -32 y K y A~ Al A~ MAY K Y At K A~ Al JUNE Y K Y K A~ A~ At Ai J UL Y ·AUG SEPT NUMBER OF BANDS 5 17 19 34 5 NUMBER OF GOATS 14 97 n& 64 %04 Fig. 6. ~!onthly kid/adult female and year Lf.ng Zadul t; female ratios (and 90% confidence intervals) observed in the :lount Evans, Colorado moun-« tain goat population. aay - September 1978. Data are from bands in which all goats we're aged and all adults sexed (g""" = 393 goats), including duplications. �-448- females during summer 1978. Likewise, comparison of yearling/adult female ratios presented in Table 2 and Figure 6 suggests that the ratio of yearlings/adult females was between 73 and 94 per hundred. Martin and Stewart (1977) reported age ratios of 26 kids/100 adults, 24 yearlings/100 adults, and 19 kids/100 older animals and suggested that the Mt. Evans mountain goat population was approaching stability. Age ratios computed from data collected during May-September 1978 indicate, to the contrary, reproductive vigor and suggest the potential for population growth. Three pairs of twins were observed without duplication during June and again during September, indicating that approximately 17% of adult females in the population successfully weaned kids during 1978. These observations of twinning are also indicative of reproductive vigor. Brandborg (1955) suggested that ratios on the order of 50-70 kids per 100 females were typical of mountain goat productivity during "average years on most ranges". Bailey and Johnson (1977) found that kid/older animal ratios for introduced mountain goat populations averaged 59/100 during the first 15 years of their existence while a ratio of 28 kids/100 older animals was "average" for native and introduced populations which had been established for at least 16 years. Many authors have concluded that kid survival is highly variable and related to severity of winter weather as indicated by disparity between spring yearling/adult female ratios and kid/adult female ratios obtained during the previous summer. Hall and Bibaud (1978) reported an average annual kid mortality rate of 50% for kids in Willmore Provincial Park, Alberta during 1974-1978. Clearly, comparison of age ratios obtained during summer 1978 with those published for other populations (see Schultz, 1973) indicates that reproduction is good and yearling survival is excellent in the Mt. Evans mountain goat population. These trends indicate the potential for increased mountain goat harvest in the Mt. Evans region. ~[nterspecific Intolerance.--Bighorn sheep were observed in visual contact with mountain goats during 92 minutes between 6 June and 23 August, 1978. All such observations occurred when both sheep and goats were feeding. No overt aggressive behavior was exhibited by either species during these observations. Sheep sometimes ceased feeding as mountain goats approached; this behavior was most prevalent among lambs. Sheep and goats commonly reacted as conspecifics while feeding together as Cowan (1944) and Brandbord (1955) reported. Klein (1953) reported several instances of an avoidance response by Dall sheep elicited by approaching mountain goats in Alaska. Petocz (1973) noted an increase in the frequency of overt aggressive behaviors exhibited by bighorn rams and mountain goats in response to deep snow conditions. The potential for interspecific intolerance between mountain sheep and goats is apparently greatest during winter when availability of forage is reduced due to snowfall. Assessment of this intolerance during periods of winter stress is a topic for future study. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, J. A., and B. K. Johnson. 1977. Status of introduced mountain goats in the Sawatch Range in Colorado. Pro. First Int. Rocky Mountain Goat Symp., February 19, 1977. Kalispell, Montana. �-449- Brandborg, S. M. 1955. Life history and management in Idaho. Idaho Fish and Game Dept., Bull. 2. of the mountain 142p. g@at Buechner, H. K. 1960. The bighorn sheep in the United States, its past, present and future. Wildl. Monogr. 4. 174p. Cowan, I. Mc T. 1944. Report of wildlife studies in Jasper, Banff and Yoho National Parks in 1944 and parasites, diseases and injuries of game animals in the Rocky Mountain National Parks, 1942-1944. Wildlife Service, Dept. of Mines and Resources, Ottawa, Canada. 83p. (mimeo). DE Bock, E. A. 1970. On the behavior of mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) in Kootenay National Park. M.Sc. Thesis, The Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton. Geist, V. 1971. Mountain sheep; a study in behavior and evolution. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago and London. 383p. Hall, W. K., and J. A. Bibaud. Goats and their management in Alberta. Pro. N. Wildl. Sheep Council, April 12, 1978. Penticton, British Columbia. Hebert, D., and I. Mc T. Cowan. the ecology of the mountain 1970. goat. Natural salt licks as a part of Can. J. Zool. 49:605-610. Heimer, W. E. 1973. Dall sheep movements and mineral lick use. Final Report P. R. Proj. W-17-2, W-17-3, W-17-4, W-17-5. Alaska Dept. Fish and Game. 35p. Hibbs, L. D. 1965. The mountain goat of Colorado. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Collins. 152p. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis. Hjeljord, O. 1973. Mountain goat forage and habitat preference J. Wildl. Manage. 37:353-362. in Alaska. Johnson, B. K. 1975. Summer and autumn, 1975 study of mountain goats in the Collegiate Range of Colorado. Unpubl. report on file Colorado Div. Wildl. Res. Center Library, Fort Collins. 28p. Klein, D. R. Alaska. 1953. A reconnaissance study of the mountain goat in Unpubl. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Alaska, Fairbanks. 121p. Lentfer, J. W. 1955. A two year study of the rocky mountain the Crazy Mountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. goat in Martin, L. M., and D. W. Stewart. 1977. 1977 summer census of the Mt. Evans bighorn sheep and rocky mountain goat populations. Unpubl. report on file Colorado Div. Wildl. Res. Library. Fort Collins. 29p. �-450- McFetridge, R. J. 1977. Strategy of resource use by mountain goat nursery groups. Pro. First Int. Mountain Goat Symp., February 19, 1977. Kalispell, Montana. Petocz, R. G. 1973. The effect of snow cover on the social behavior of bighorn ra~s and mountain goats. Can.J. Zool. 51:987-993. Richardson, A. H. 1971. The rocky mountain goat in the Black Hills. South Dakota Dept. Game, Fish and Parks Bull. No.2. 24p. Schultz, R. D. 1973. The Mount Shavano rocky mountain goat herd~Summer 1973. Unpubl. report, on file Colorado Div. Wildl. Res. Library, Fort Collins. 17p. Shannon, N. H., R. J. Hudson, V. C. Brink, and W. D. Kitts. 1975. Determinants of spatial distribution of rocky mountain bighorn sheep. J. Wildl. Manage. 39:387-401. Smith, D. R. 1954. and management. The bighorn sheep in Idaho; its status life history Idaho Game and Fish Dept. Wildl. Bull. No.1. 154p. Woodard, T. N. 1971. Bighorn sheep lamb production, survival and mortality in the Sangre De Cristo Mountains, Colorado. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 84p. ,,--. -, Prepared by: I 's /~t~r_l/' G.:- Wildlife Researcher �-451- JOB PROGRESS State of Project 1979 REPORT COLORADO W-126-R-2 No. Job Title _ P~r~o~n~g~h~o~r~n~P~o~p~u~l~a~t_i~o~n~S~t~u~d~y~ _ Covered: Personnel: Big Game Investigations l Work Plan No. Period July, 5 January Job No. 1, 1979 to June 30, 1979 Thomas M. Pojar ABSTRACT A literature search was conducted and a Program Narrative for the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) study was completed. In addition, an Environmental Assessment Report was written for this project and is also included as part of this progress report. Prepared by:~~~~ ~~~~ __ +_~Thomas M. P jar Wildlife Researcher ��-453- PROGR ... ~1 NARRATIVE (Research) State: Project 1. Colorado Title: Study A. Big Game Investigations Title: Pronghorn Investigations: Pronghorn Population Study Project No. W-126-R Work Plan 2, Job I NEED Historically the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) in Colorado has experienced a precipitous decline from an estimated two million animals in 1860 to a close brush with extinction in 1918 when their numbers we thought to be less than one thousand (Hoover et al. 1959). The near extermination of pronghorn from Colorado was presumably the result of year-round market hunting. Legal protection was afforded the pronghorn in 1898 but actual protection was not realized until about 1920. With effective protection the populations increased to the point that in 1945 the first hunt in 47 years was held, mostly because of crop da~age complaints (Hay et al. 1961). Today the pronghorn is a prized big game animal and the demand for the privilege to hunt this species exceeds the available pennits by a margin of four to one (Colorado Division of Wildlife. 1977). Nutrition and Reproduction The reproductive potential of the pronghorn is among the highest of any wild ungulate in Colorado. O'Gara (1970) reported that 3 to 7 corpora lutea are commonly found in this species, indicating that a similar number of ova were ovulated, fertilized and developed into spherical blastocysts. Usually no more than two of these blascocysts survive, but Ellis's (1970) review of r~ported fetal rates from five western states still indicates 1.92 fetuses per doe. It follows that a species with a potential for a high fetal rate also has potential for a high recruitment rate. The recruitment rate, as measured by aerial fa,va to doe ratio estimates, varies a good de21 be twe en populations. Hithin Colorado, the f awn r do e ratios vary from the low 40's in the Northeast region (Figure 1) to double that rate in the Northwest region (Figure 2). The recruitment rate in these two regions is at least stable or increa3io8, however the recruitment rate in the southeast region exhibits a significant decline (Figure 3). The Thatcher populations shows the steepest decline of any po?ulation in the southeast, going from 86 fawns per 100 does in 1967 to 43 f a:v ms per 100 does in 1974 (Figure 4). �-454- According to Caughley (1976) the fecundity pattern (number of young born) of an ungulate population can react to environmental stress by: (a) increasing the mean age at puberty; {b) reducing the pregnancy rate; and (c) lowering ~he mean litter size; Any of these factors would result in lower late summer fawn:doe ratios and may provide one of the key manifestations of declining demographic vigor. The nutritional plane of the reproductive female has been associated with ovulation and fertilization success; fetus viability and early post natal survival; and lactation which affects subsequent surn.mer fawn survival (Verme 1969). Most of the fetal growth takes place during the last third of the gestation period (}~ynard and Loosli 1969) which suggests this is one of the nutritionally critical time periods for the pronghorn (Ellis 1970). Ewes on a low plane of nutrition during the last half of pregnancy produced small, weak lambs, most of which died at birth or soon after (Thomson and Thomson 1948). Pronghorn inhabit a great diversity of range types (Humphrey 1962). From a very thorough review of pronghorn food habits literature Schwartz (1977) stated that most investigators agree that browse and forbs are preferred by pronghorn but grasses are readily used especially during the spring green-up period when grasses are highest in nutrltlon. In short, pronghorns are herbiverous opportunists, taking forage that is available, with some selectivity for plants and plant parts that are most nutritious. The nutritional difference in habitat types can be detected by measuring the physiological status of the local animal populations (Seal et al. 1978). These authors and Seal and Hoskinson (1978) were ahle to correlate habitat conditions with selected blood parameters of popul.etLons of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus v i rz i n i anu s) and pronghorn. Blood urea nitrogen (BL~) appeared to be the most reflective of nutritional status of the animal and it was the most stable in terms of not being affected by handling of the animal. However, excessive muscular activity and excitation will elevate BUN after about 6 hours (Trout 1976) Barrett and Chal~ers (1977) verified this by holding wild trapped pronghorn in captivity and taking blood samples on successive days. The BUN immediately after capture was 33.20 mg/dl (n = 48) and the following day it was 51.62 mg/dl Cn = 23). Using blood parameters to assess physical condition of the animal has the distinct advantage that a sample can be obtained without sacrificing the subject. There has been some research on the relation of nutritional status and hair shaft diameter or hair root diameters in horses (Godbee et al. 1979), humans (~utrition research 1968, Bradfield 1971, Bradfield 1968), and bovine (Martin et al. 1969, Haaland 1977). These studies showed good correlation with nutritional intake but, t o my knowledge, this procedure has not been tested on wi Ld ungulat-es. Other than simply weighing or taking certain measurements on the .animal, most other me t hod s of assessing body fat required sac ri ficing the animal. Anderson et al. (1969) tested the relationship of six such methods with the percent petroleum ether extractable carcass �-455- fat. They concluded that the kidney fat index was the best single index of winter carcass fat, however for a reliable mean vdlue large sample sizes would be required. There is ample evidence that nutrition is related to the recruitment rate of a population. One of the best means of assessing whether or not the nutritional plane is affecting the reproduction of a population is to compare it to a population of the same species that is in healthy condition (Caughley 1977). There is definitely a need to attempt to determine what is causing the alarming decline in the late SUDLT11er fawn:doe ratios in the Thatcher and other southeast region populations. Assessment of the range'in meeting thenutritional requirements of the pronghorn is an important consideration. Comparison of the Thatcher population with a highly productive population in the northwest in terms of physical condition, size, ovulation rate and fetal rate would be of great assistance in determining the factors associated with the low fawn:doe ratios. Genetics The genetic aspects of wild animal populations have largely been ignored in favor of environmental factors and overt population characteristics (Ryman et al. 1977 and Smith et al. 1976). Electrophoresis is a relatively new technique that is used for analyzinE the amount of genetic variation in populations (Norgan et al.. 197L,). Loss of genetic variability reduces a popUlation's ability to adapt to environmental change (Nei et aI , 1975, Ayala 1968). Lm17 ge~l£'tic variability is frequently associated with restricted gene flow and small breeding populations in the recent past (Smith et al. 1977). Bonnell and Selander (1974) cite the elephant seal (~1irounga an~stirostris) as a typical example of a species that exhibit.s very low genetic variability. Today's elephant seal population is derived from as few as 20 animals as this species survived near extinction in the 1890's. These authors speculate that genetic variability is not essential for the survival of a species, but that the elephant seal, lacking a pool of variability with which to adapt to changing conditions is especially vulnerable to environmental change. .'-Ioose (Alces al.ces ) in Sweden also exhibit very low genetic variation and Ryman et al. (1977) speculate this may be due to near eradication of the species during the 19th century. Even with the low variability, the eleccrophoretic technique is capable of detecting genetic diversity between populations, which the authors cautiously suggest may be correlated with antler size. Genetic variation has been used successfully to identify genetically distinct subpopu1ations within a species (Ryman et al. 1977, Manlove et a1. 1975, Manlove et a1. 1978, Smith et a1. 1976). There are efforts now to associate population attributes with certain genotypes. Smith (personal communication 1979) has some preliminary results vh Lch indicate that a particular genetic pattern in wh i.te+ t a i.Le d deer can be associat2d ~ith time of breeding (and therefore also ti~e of f awn i.ng) . This results in a double f awn i n g peak in wha t app ea rs �-456- to be a distinct population. Other ?opulation attributes that can be linked to some discernible genetic characteristic include: different fertility rates in pigeons (Frelinger 1972),/different survival rates of juvenile blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) depending on genotype (Redfield 1974), pelage variation in natural populations of mice (Peromvscus polionotus) (BoHen and Dawson 1977), artificially induced increased heterogygosity resulted in increased life span and reduced juvenile mortality in mice (Chai 1959), and Simon (1978) presents evidence that lack of genetic variability in hatchery trout, due to using small numbers of parents to produce brood stock, has resulted in fish that are more vulnerable to stressful situations as evidenced by increased blood glucose levels and that some nutrition and disease problems were in fact largely inbreeding problems. Selander (1970) has examined aspects of the genetic structure of wild populations of the house mouse (Mus musculus) as they are affected by the behavioral mechanism of territoriality. His analysis indicates that wild populations of the house mouse are characterized by fine-scale genetic subdivisions which is achieved through territorial behavior even in the absence of physical or ecological barriers. It seems reasonable, with the amount of evidence accumulating as to the usefulness of genetic evaluation in population studies, that there is a need to include genetic assessment in the pronghorn population study. Attempts to associate demographic and genetic attributes in ~~hite-tailed deer are just now beginning to emerge in the literature (Ramsey et ale 1979). The potential of detecting genetic differences in the two pronghorn populations selected for study seems very good. The eastern plains population is small. about 600 animals, and undoubtedly was derived from a very limited gene pool with little opportunity for increasing heterogenicity through imigration. The northeast region, by contrast, is large (5000 animals) and may never have been as drastically depleted as the eastern populations. In addition, periodic migration into that population from Wyoming, triggered by severe winter storms may provide a continued recharging of the gene pool. Disease Pronghorn are susceptible to many diseases carried by domestic livestock. Pronghorn on the eastern plains may have rr~re direct contact w i t h domestic livestock than those in the northwest area of the State because of co~~on use of water sources. Several of these diseases are abortive or cause an increase in neonatal mortality. Trueblood and Post (1959) isolated vibriosis (Vibrio i_etus) in a po puLa t Lon of wyoming pronghorn. Howe (1970) found evidence that pronghorn may be more susceptible to this disease than domestic livestcck. Johnes disease causes reduced lactation in affected animals which could lead to und2rnourished young, decreasing their chances for survival. This disease is cOmmon in domestic livestock and is probably transmissable to pronghorn (Beth IHlliams, personal comraunLc at..i on ) . Brucellosis (Bruc clla �-457- abortus) and leptospirosis (LeptosDira 2omona and~. zanari zanoni) are abortive bacterial diseases. In 1485 pronghorn blood samples tested for leptospriosis from 1969 to 1974 in Colorado, 80 of them were positive and of 5,272 blood" samples screened for brucellosis only one was weakly positive (Adrian 1976) . Leptospirosis is defintely found in Colorado pronghorn populations, however the extent of infection rate should be much more intensively monitored in the two populations selected for the study. Hore intensive screening for vigriosis and Johne's Disease should be initiated because of the high likelihood the Colorado pronghorn populations are infected with these diseases. Any of these diseases could have a dramatic affect on the reproductive performance of pronghorn populations. Hunting Disturbance of the Rut There is some evidence that double f awn Lng peaks occur in some southeast region pronghorn populations. Elkins (unpublished data) made weekly helicopter surveys of selected management units and his data show a fawn:doe ratio peak in mid-June, followed by a sharp decline, then another peak in mid-July. There is speculation that this double fawning peak phenomenon is the result of conducting the animal hunt in September which coincides with the rut (f"renzlow et al. 1968). Hunting pronghorn during the mating season could disrupt breeding behavior and harem formation resulting in a significant number of does passing the first estrus without getting herd. This theory is weakened somewhat by data (Elkins, unpusblished) from a population that is hunted in November and exhibits a similar double peak in summer fawn:doe ratios. From extensive observations on a small herd of pronghorn in an enclosure (Ellis and Deblinger 1975) found that the yearling female breeding for the first time, came into estrus and were bred one month later than the mature females in the herd. If this were a common pattern in large wild populations then it is possible the late fawning of the younger females is responsible for the second peak in the fawn:doe ratios. If the factors associated with the apparent double far...'l1ing peak are to be elucidated, then the first step would be to verify that two peaks in fawning do, in fact, occur. If they do, then it is critical to deteroine whether or not hunting during the rut is a factor. Hanagement action that results in f awn s being born later in the summer could very easily reduce the survival of the f awn s because it is generally kno~m that smaller fawns have lower witer survival. Problem Definition Low and declining f awn c do e ratios on the eastern plains may be a symp t orn of a more serious environ~ental problem. Low annual production invariably results in more conservative ha rve s t s wh i ch may only compound the �-AS_8:.. ,~.:---~ -:: •..... -_ .. _--_._ -----.:.-- _. --~.-------------_:-----.- _ .. - -_ .__ - o ;::l co ;:r' o I'i ::: o ro z o I'i rt ::r' ro P> CD (J z; 0 ,_ 0 ,-, ,~ <: _,~ 0J -- z .:._~ .:;.. c:: 0 I~ 'cJ r- z :J c «: ;: 2: u Q <J.. Cc'c." " 'J ,v v •. ~.J -_-__ -0- - -~ ,_ - .... . . ~ --~j--~~--:...:.~ 0_-t~~-~t -~tc:fif:{~: ~__:_:-~:::.~ ~-~~ ~.•.•. ~':,' : _,._.I'i __ ~ ' -:_ :.::_::::-:._----, ..•. .': -- _------- ...- -.. _--.----- . - -~-.-- "d - .~~-~~~~ ; .•. ...:.::::.:..-= ..----_.- _-------._- -_._--_- ar.• - :-~-:::--=:-::~-:----,~~:::---:--,:_,__ lrl=-_._=-:_-:_=---t-~:_ r~~=:~~:-~~~;~;_~:::_-:_~::::~--: :==:_~~ .. _-_ ..------- ..-_ ~-.--::------.- -,'.._ .. ---- ...• _; - ... ; ~=:--~l -- -_,; ~:::::-_---'1 - - -- "", �-459- problem (Salwasser causitive factors. and Pojar 1979) without an understanding of the Several major hypotheses can be generated with relation to the problem of low natality and/or high mortality of young in pronghorn population. B. 1. Measurement of annual counts are inaccurate 2. Pronghorn pregnancy resulting 3. Lack of genetic variability results in population symptoms that are similar to low nutritional plane, i.e. sensitivity to environmental stress resulting in reduced demographic vigor. 4. Diseases such as leptospirosis rates or natality rates. 5. Hunting during the pronghorn rut either interrupts behavior sufficiently to depress conception rates, of hunting impedes the physiology of reproduction. 6. Predation of newborn survival rates. pronghorn production i.e. classification and tend to underestimate real productivity. nutrition during the critical last trimester of and/or the period from birth to weaning is inadequate, in low in utero or post natal fawn survival. fawns or brucellosis significantly reduces fawn survival rutting or the stress pronghorn OBJECTIVE To determine causes for low fawn:doe in southeastern Colorado. C. reduces EXPECTED RESULTS ratios of pronghorn populations OR BENEFITS The successful determination of factor(s) limiting pronghorn fawn production and/or survival will allow DOW wildlife managers to develop more realistic strategies for affecting pronghorn population increases consistent with strategic plan goals. D. APPROACH Existing hypotheses of factors limiting pronghorn production will be examined and ranked in priority of probable importance. Study plans will be prepared to test the priority hypotheses. As these study plans are developed they will be appended to and become a part of this document. The following are brief procedural outlines of methods for examining the major hypotheses. 1. Production measurement error. A sampling scheme using strips flown by helicopter will be designed and tested with the object of estimating fawn:doe estimates within plus or minus 10 percent of the true population value at the 95% confidence level. �-460- Repetitions and cross strips may be flown to determine of the method. 2. Low nutritional reliability plane. Blood samples, weights, and measurements will be taken from live-trapped pronghorn during the spring and compared with like parameters obtained from northwest region pronghorn. Eviscerated carcass weight of hunter harvested animals will be compared by sex and age-class for the two areas in the fall. If there is any indication that a difference in these measurements exists between the two areas then forage diversity and yield potentials for these habitats will be initiated using a method similar to that of Tiedeman (1978). In addition, the fetal rate of live-trapped female pronghorn from both populations will be determined by ultra-sound scanning. 3. Lack of genetic variability. Blood, liver, kidney, and muscle tissue samples will be collected from hunter harvested pronghorn from the two areas. These samples will be subjected to electrophoretic genetic screening. 4. Disease In conjunction with the brucellosis-leptospirosis survey pronghorn populations statewide will be monitored for incidence of positive reactors and this will be related to productivity of the various populations. 5. Hunting disturbance Two or more pronghorn populations will be selected with one hunted during the rut and the other hunted post-rut. Pregnancy and fetal rates for each population will be monitored using ultra-sound scanning. After three years of this regime the treatments will be reversed and comparisons will be made for treatment effects due to hunting. 6. Predation on newborn fawTIs. .. This hypothesis will not be persued unless substantially evidence that it is a serious factor surfaces. more Schedule Fiscal Year Period Activitv 1978-79 Problem analysis plan preparation 1979-83 Test measurement error hypothesis Initial tests for low nutritional plane Collect initial sample of blood and tissue for genetic screening and seudy Jan.-June �-461- f~~~~IY~~:~:~~~:'~;;-::~=:'~~;~-'::-'=-':-~~~~~;~~~:~~:::·::::-:·~;:-'=~:_ • o_ •• >-=j f-'. ~ c .-: ro tv '""d '"l ::l zr 1"1 ::; I-tt ~ § P.O ro '"i Cl rt l-'0 I-tt 0 '"i ..•.• rr cO Z '"i r-r :::r' :;: ~ cr. r-r :;>::l ro 00 I-'0 ::J (~ ... .--' ~ C: .:. . ., -s: .; r .•, .. .- " ". '- ~ 0 - ;; -' .. " I.i " ~) - .-_-'-- _ ... ~-- _" -~.. --.- .. -- .._; �-462- Schedule (Cont'd) Activity Fiscal Year 1979-83 (Cont'd) 1983-88 Period Test reliability of ultrasound scanning in detecting fetal rate. Relate incidence of disease with productivity statewide July-June Further testing of nutritional hypothesis if necessary Test hunting disturbance hypothesis July-June Personnel Thomas M. Pojar Principal Estimated Investigator Annual Cost Cost (01) Personal Services (21) Operating Supplies and Services (28) Travel Expenses (31) Capital Expenditures Total E. $12,000.00 $ 7,000.00 1,500.00 500.00 $21,000.00 LOCATION This study initially will locate in the Southeast Region with a study area for comparison purposes located in the Northwest Region. Specific areas will be selected as individual study plans are prepared and maps of study area locations "Jill be included in study plans. F. 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I" I 1 I , I l ! ~: I I I, I I I I, t l I I I I " , I " ' ~I, , I 1 ! , I I I I,', I', rl., 1. I 1 ' I I I '. ' j I: , " , • I I,' I' ", I I , ,,". ,I I ,,' ,I I I ,I, I ' , I,' I . , I ' '\ I'.' I I " • , , t I 'I' I, I' p I ~, I : '. II"" " , 1 .. 1• ,. "", :', I • • I, " ' " 'L ';: I ". I ,,j \1 I, '" " I, , , • I, ,: , J • ! ,I. I I' , , • • Ii' , , I ~ I I I , i ~ I I I', I" J I, I ".1' I·" , I I , "I 1 ,.", _..__~-.!.-- ,". ,!~ • I I I '" .1 'I ,I', , I • I' " /1", I ~ I 1, t I .) I" I I , I • ~ I " " , ' I 1 I I , I " I' , I ,f I ", ! I I II , I I I " \.. I , "II I I ,'" I I ' , , , I I, ilj' I , I I " , ,I i t '\'fl " II I, U I: 1'" I' J'II ',. I, I ',' I ", '" .1 1, : I I I ',I I I , 1; "" I I 'I I "I I I " ." 4. I'" Pronghorn ; , ~ ;, I fmm:doe ratio I ," I ; I LI I jill ; , ..JIo-.O_ for ,." ,I" " '~:I:'. "~II "~.l...I.. Figure I, ,I II I I" •. I "., I r'l;~ I" 11 the Thatcher popu13t~on 'I ,I .••_ Hhich } I::::ON! 0.;. I,' ,I is ..I,)_I_· in the '" t I 1 1..• I t 1 '':.'1\,1)' " I " " ! Southeast 1:"; P,.:' - '·IO'j I • '" ••••• ", :}:l:~, '.\ '{,"),,; 'li', ,'.; i 0: ,\-ILl'lj(!\/,~1 . ":""I~) Region. I' I,. ,; j , ' , t ': , �-465- LITE~~TURE CITED Anderson, A. E., D. c. Medin, and D. P. Gchs. 1969. Relationships of carcass fat indices in 18 wintering mule deer. Proc. Western Assoc. Game and Fish Comm , 49: 329-3tfO. Ayala, F. 1968. Genotype, 162(3861):1453-1459. environment, and population numbers. Barrett, M. W., a~d G. A. Chalmers. adult free-ranging pronghorns. 1977. Clinicochemical values Can. J. Zool. 55:1252-1260. Bonnell, M. L., and R. K. Selander. variation and near extinction. 1974. Elephant seals: Science 184:908-909. Bowen, W. W., and W. D. Dawson. variation in old field mice J. ~uillffial. 58(4):521-530. Science for Genetic 1977. Genetic analysis of coat pattern (Peromyscus polionotus) of western Florida. Bradfield, R. B. 1968. Changes in hair associated with protein-calorie malnutrition. In McLance, R. and E. ~1. Widdowson (eds.). Calorie deficiencies and protein deficiencies. London, Churchill (from Godbee 1979). Caughley, G. 1976. Wildlife management and the dynamics of ungulate populations. In Coaker, T. H. (ed.). Applied Biology, Vol. I. Academic Press, New York. 358pp. Caughley, G. 1977. Ana Ly sLs of vertebrate and Sons, New York. 234pp. Chai, C. K. 1959. 50(5):203-208. Life span in inbred populations. and hybrid Colorado Division of Wildlife. 1977. Today's Wildlife. Colorado Division of Wildlife. 96pp. mice. John IHley J. Heredity strategy ...Tomorrow's Planning Section, Denver. Ellis, J. E. 1970. A computer analysis of f awn survival in the pronghorn antelope. Ph.D. Thesis. University of California, Davis. 70pp. Frelinger, J. A. 1972. The maintenance of transferrin pigeons. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 69(2):326-329. polymorphism in Godbee, R. G., L. M. Slade, and L. M. Lawrence. 1979. Use of protein blocks containing urea for minimally managed broodmares. J. Animal Sci. 48(3):459-463. Haaland, G. L., J. K. Matsushima, C. F. Nockels, and D. E. Johnson. 1977. Bovine hair as an i~dicator of calorie-protein status. J. Anim. Sci. 46:826. (irom Godbee 1979). �-466- Hay, K. G., G. N. Hunter, Colorado 1949-1958. No.8. 112pp. and L. Robbins. 1961. Big ga~e management in Colorado Dept. of Game and Fish, Tech. Bull. Hoover, R. L., G. E. Till, and S. Ogilvie. 1959. Colo. D~pt. Fish and Game. Tech. Bull. No.4. The antelope 1l0pp. Humphrey, R. R. 234pp. Press 1962. Range ecology. The Ronald of Colorado. Co., New York. Hanlove, M. N., J. C. Avise, H. O. Hillestad. P. R. Ramsey, M. H. Sruith, and D. O. Straney. 1975. Starch gel electrophoresis for the study of population genetics in white-tailed deer. Proc. 29th Ann. Conf. SE Game and Fish Commrs. 29:392-403. Manlove, M. N., M. H. Smith, H. O. Hillestad, S. E. Fuller, P. E. Johns, and D. O. Straney. 1978. Genetic subdivision in a herd of white-tailed deer as de~onstrated by spatial shifts in gene frequencies. Proc. Ann. Conf. SE Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies. 30:487-492. Martin, Y. G., ~.].J. Miller, and D. H. B'lacknom , 1967. Wound healing, hair growth, and biochemical measures as affected by subnormal protein and energy intake in young cattle. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 30:355. (from Godbee 1979). Maynard, L. A., and J. K. Loosli. 1969. Ani~al McGra~-Hill Book Co., New York. 613pp. nutrition, 6th edition. Morgan, R. P. II, J. A. Chapman, L. A. Noe, and C. J. Henny. 1974. Electrophoresis as a management tool. Trans. NE Section of The Wildlife Society, 31st NE Fish and Wildlife Conf. p. 63-71. Nei, ~'" T. ~laruyama, and R. Chakraborty. 1975. The bottleneck effect and genetic variability in populations. Evolution 29(1):1-10. Nutrition Research. 1968. Objective kwa sh Lc rko r . Nutr. Res. 26:330. measurement of hair changes (from Godbee 1979). O'Cara, B. W. 1970. Intra-uterine mortality in the pronghorn. of the 4th Antelope States l.Jorkshop. 82-92. in Proceedings Ramsey, P. R., J. C. Avise, M. H. Smith, and D. F. UrJston. 1979. Biochemical variation and genetic heterogeneity in South Carolina populations. J. Wildl. Hanage. 43(1): 136-142. Redfield, J. A. 1974. Genetics and selection at the Ng locus (Dencragaous obscurus). Heredity 33(1):69-78. Ryrnau , deer in blue grouse N., C. Be ckman , G. Brunn-Petersen, and C. Reuterwall. 1977. Variability of red cell enzymes and gEnetic implications of management policies in Scandinavian moose CAlces alces) Hereditas 85:157-162. �-467- Salwasser, H., and T; M. Pojar. populations. Second Draft. Schwartz, C. C. 1977. prairie, Colorado. Collins. 113pp. 1979. Simulation modeling Xerox copy. 73pp. of pronghorn Pronghorn grazing strategies on the short grass Ph.D. Thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Seal, U. S., and R. L. Hoskinson. 1978. Metabolic indicators of habitat condition and capture stress in pronghorn. J. Wildl. Manage. 42(4): 755-763. Seal, U. S., ~. E. Nelson, L. D. Mech, and R. L. Hoskinson. 1978. Metabolic indicators of habitat differences in four Minnesota deer populations. J. Wildl. Manage. 42(4):746-754. Selander, R. K. 1970. American Zoologist Behavior and genetic variation 10(1):53-66. in natural populations. Simon, R. C. 1978. Fish genetics laboratory (report). In: Thomas G. Scott, Helen C. Schultz, and Paul H. Eschmeyer (eds.). Sport Fishery and Wildlife Research. 1975-76. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Government Printing Office, Denver, Colorado. Smith, H. H., H. O. Hillestad, H. N. Hanlove, R. L. Harchinton. 1976. Use of population genetics data for the management of fish and wildlife populations. 41st N. Amer. "\..'ildl. and Nat. Resources Conf. p. 119-133. Smith, M. H., H. O. Hillestad, M. N. Manlove, D. O. Straney, and J. M. Dean. 1977. Xanage~ent implications of genetic variability in loggerhead and green sea turtles. XIII International Congress of Game Biologists. p. 302-312. Thomson, A. M., and W. Thomson. 1943. Lambing in relation the pregnant ewe. Brit. J. Nutrition, 2:290-305. to the diet of Tiedeman, J. A. 1978. Middle Park inventory analysis; habitat type developments. USFS Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Paper. (In Press). Trout, L. E. 1976. Blood analysis of Id2ho pronghorn. Proceedings the 7th Biennial Pronghorn Antelope Workshop. pI22-126. Verme, L. J. 1969. Reproductive patterns of white-tailed nutritional plane. J. ~.J'ildl. Manage. 33(4) :381-887. of deer related to �-468- Howe, D. L. 1970. Hiscellaneous bacterial diseases. In Davis, J. W., L. H. Karstad, D. O. Trainer (eds.). Infectious diseases of Wild HalT!ITlals.Iowa State University Press, Ames. 421pp. Adrain, W. J. 1976. Brucellosis-Leptospirosis survey of big game animals in Colorado. In Game Research Report, Part 2, Colorado Division of Wildlife pp. 555-559. Trueblood, M. S., and G. Post. 1959. Vibrosis as a factor in the reproduction of antelope (Antilocapra americana). J. An.irn,Vet. Med. Assoc. 13~:562. Ellis, J. E., and R. D. Deblinger. 1975. Delayed breeding in young pronghorns. Manuscript. 4 xerox pages. Prenzlow, E. J., D. L. Gilbert, patterns of the pronghorn. Division of Game Research. and parturition and F. A. Glover. 1968. Some behavior Colo. Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks, Special Report No. 17. 16pp. �-469- COLORADO FEDE~~L AID PROJECT W-130-R ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT Pronghorn Ecology Studies: Pronghorn Population Study Program Leader R. Bruce Gill, Wildlife Research Supervisor Harold M. Swope, Hildlife Leader Manager/Research for Colorado Department of Natural Division of Wildlife Active Dates: July 1, 1979-June Resources 30, 1988 Prepared May 15, 1979 Fort Collins, Colorado �-470- Table of Contents Page I. Introduction 1 II. Proposed 1 III. Description IV. Environmental V. Mitigating Measures VI. Unavoidable Adverse VII. Irreversible Commitment VIII. Alternatives to the Current IX. Consultation and Coordination Action of the Environment 2 2 Impacts 4 5 Impacts of Resources Program 5 5 5 �-471- SUMMARY This report describes a research program designed to determine the cause of reduced reproduction and/or fawn survival of a pronghorn population in Southeastern Colorado. The number of viable fa,vns produced by this population has declined at an alarming rate over the past ten years. It is generally accepted that a decline in a populations ability to produce young is a sure symptom that the population is experiencing environmental stress. Many times this stress is the result of man's activities, therefore if the factor(s) can be identified, remedial action can also be identified and initiated. Some of the factors that could cause reduced reproduction in pronghorn antelope are: 1. Low nutritional plane during the critical last trimester of pregnancy and/or the period from birth to weaning is inadequate, resulting in low in utero or post natal fawn survival. 2. Lack of genetic variability results in population symptoms that are similar to low nutritional plane, i.e. sensitivity to environmental stress resulting in reduced demographic vigor. 3. Diseases related to abortion or fawn mortality, brucellosis, vibriosis, and Johne's Disease. 4. Hunting during the pronghorn rut either interrupts behavior sufficiently to depress conception rates, of hunting impedes the physiology of reproduction. 5. Predation rates. of newborn fawns significantly reduces such as leptospirosis, rutting or the stress pronghorn survival Minor negative impacts are expected to the human environments within the study areas however, none of these are judged to be irreversible. Substantial positive aesthetic and financial impacts will be realized in future years with the successful completion of this program. �-472- I. Introduction The number of young animals added to a population annually is determined by the intrinsic reproductive rate of the species and the neonatal survival rate. The pronghorn antelope (Antilocarpa americana) have an intrinsic reproductive capacity that is among the highest of any ungulate in Colorado. The pronghorn possess the ability to produce many young, consequently the population can expand rapidly under ideal conditions. Likewise, the young are most susceptible to mortality when conditions are less than ideal which keeps the population from expanding beyond the ability of the habitat to support it. Therefore, an important manifestation that the population is functioning under environmental stress is a reduction in the number of young born and/or a reduction in young survival. The Colorado Division of Wildlife estimates the population production by making late summer herd structure counts. These counts are made from the air (usually helicopter) and the animals are classified as to bucks (males one year and older), does (females one year and older), and fawns (young of the year). An index of the reproductive success of the population for that fawning season is gained by expressing the ratio of the total number of fawns observed in relation to the total number of does observed in terms of fawns per 100 does. The fawn:doe ratio in a demographically vigorous population in Western United States is in the neighborhood of 90 fa,vns per 100 does (Ellis, 1970). The fawn:doe ratio in Southeastern Colorado exhibits a statistically significant decline since 1967. In recent years fawn:doe ratios in the 30's and 40's are not uncommon. The factor(s) responsible for low fawn:doe ratios are likely associated with nutrition, disease, genetic composition of the population, or abnormally high predation. II. Proposed Action When an apparent anomaly in a wild population is detected it is a challenge of appreciable magnitude to isolate the factor(s) that are responsible. One of the more fruitful methods is to compare population parameters and environmental conditions of the affected population with a population that is in a healthy state. In the Northwest region of Colorado the observed fawn:doe ratios are consistently in the 70's and 80's which are the highest reported anywhere in the state. Therefore, a pronghorn population from the Northwest will be compared with one that exhibits one of the sharpest declines in fawn:doe ratio from the Southeast region, The nutritional plane of the reproductive female has been associated Hith ovulation and fertilization success; fetus viability and early post natal survival, and lactation which affects subsequent summer fawn survival. The nutritional plane of the Southeast and Northwest populations will be compared by weights, measurements and blood parameters that are indicators of nutritional intake. Weights and measurements will be collected from hunter harvested animals and from live-trapped animals. Blood samples will be taken from the live-trapped animals. Diseases that are known or suspected to affect the reproductive success of pronghorn populations are: leptospirosis, brucellosis, vibriosis, 1 �-473- and Johne's Disease. Serological tests are available to reliably test for the presence of these disease organisms, with the exception of Johne's Disease. Blood samples from live-trapped pronghorn will be collected to test for disease. This project will work cooperatively with the Pathology Department of Colorado State University to develop methods of detecting Johne's Disease in pronghorn. Blood and tissue samples will be collected from hunter harvested animals to estimate genetic diversity of the two populations being Objectives III. studied. of this study are: 1. Test current method 2. Evaluate nutritional it to reproduction. 3. Determine the incidence of diseases reproduction or survival of fawns. 4. Screen for genetic Description of estimating plane fawn:doe of pronghorn diversity ratios. populations that are known of two populations and relate to affect selected for study. of the Environment The pronghorn range in the Southeast region is characterized by rolling short-grass prairie with little topographic relief. The greatest proportion of the area is arid grassland used for grazing domestic livestock. Along the Arkansas River there is some irrigated farmland. The human population for the area as a whole is very sparse with highest densities along the Arkansas River. The Northwest region is also very sparsely inhabited by humans. The area is used for grazing domestic livestock but at very low stocking rates because of its meager production of forage species utilized by domestic livestock. The terrain has much more topographic relief than the Southeast, but it would still not be considered steep or precipitous. The predominant vegetative type is the sagebrush steppe type. IV. Environmental Impacts Aerial Surveys Surveys to estimate pronghorn population parameters will be done by helicopter. The impacts associated with helicopter surveys are expected to be: a) noise from a low flying helicopter will be a disturbance to human inhabitants and will cause an escape reaction in wild and domestic livestock, b) observance of a low flying helicopter may cause anxiety on the part of humans that an emergency of some sort exists, c) low flying aircraft within sight of roads may distract motorists and result in a motor vehicle accident, d) landing of the �-474- helicopter for refueling will cause soil impaction and vegetation trampling in the immediate area of the refueling operation, e) fuel spillage will defoiliate and possibly kill the vegetation directly affected. Trapping Operation and Blood Collection Live-trapping pronghorn will be done in late winter and will be accomplished by driving them into a corral trap with a helicopter. Considerable trampling of the vegetation and possibly some wind and/or water erosion is expected as the result of a trapping operation. Trapping will intensively affect one of two acres with a less intense affect on about five acres surrounding the trap. Pronghorn will be driven by helicopter up to five miles to the trap site. Although pronghorn have evolved as the high-speed, long-range runners of the prairie, being driven by helicopter will stress them to some degree, if not physically at least psychologically. Once in the trap, handling will cause some degree of physical and psychological stress and could result in two to five percent mortality. A sample of about 30 females from the live-trapped animals of each population will be immobilized with the drug M-99 and the tranquilizer rompun. These females will be scanned by ultra-sound equipment to detect the number of fetuses they are carrying. The ultra-sound scan is harmless so the only impact involved is the affect of the drug. Ungulates have a wide tolerance for M-99, but dosages for pronghorn have not been well documented so it is possible some mortality could result. A blood sample (10 ml) will be collected via the jugular vein of each live-trapped animal. No impact is expected from these collections because approved methods in veterinary science will be used to collect the samples. Most of the diseases that can be detected by seriologic tests are transmissable to domestic livestock. If pronghorn are carriers then detection and remedial action would be a tremendous positive financial impact on the domestic livestock industry. Collection of Data from Hunter Harvest Pronghorn Hunters will be inconvenienced by the necessity to stop at hunter check stations to allow data to be collected from the animal they harvested. Other hunters will be contacted either in the field or in their camps. Collection of the necessary data should take between 15 and 30 minutes. A positive impact will be a better informed public because of personal contact with individuals to explain the need for pronghorn research and management to maintain vigorous and healthy natural populations. �-475- V. Mitigating Measures Aerial Surveys If field refueling is necessary it will be done on areas that are already void of vegetation so the effect of trampling or spillage will be minimized. Such areas might be roads that are used only intermittently or suitable arroyos. Any areas where domestic livestock are confined will be avoided by at least a half mile lateral distance and if a group of domestic livestock are in the line of travel we will attempt to gain sufficient altitude to minimize the escape reaction of the animals. In no instance will a flight be made directly over an inhabited farmstead; at least a half mile lateral distance will be allowed. An attempt to contact all inhabitants on the study areas will be made to explain the project and the need for helicopter flights. This hopefully will alleviate some of the anxiety of hearing a low flying helicopter. The flights will be on pre-determined flight lines so there will be no actual pursuit of pronghorn groups. Unless a group of pronghorn would run directly along the flight line, no group should be harassed for more than five minutes. Trapping and Blood Collections All precautions that are kno\vu to reduce pronghorn trap mortality will be employed. One of the major precautions being the lining of trap fences with burlap which eliminates challenging of the fences by the animals. If pronghorn are to be held for any length of time they will be put in darkened, confined enclosures which has a calming affect on them. The trapping will mostly be done before dormancy which will minimize the affect plants emerge of trampling. from winter Much of the information necessary for this project can be obtained from animals trapped by regional management operations. These activities are not sponsored by Federal Aid funds. Most workers agree that immobilization of pronghorn with drugs is more risky then with other ungulates because of their highly variable physiological state which affects their reaction to drugs. M-99 was chosen as the drug to use because of the wide tolerance margin ungulates exhibit for it. The drug will be administered with a hand held syringe rather any form of projectile which will eliminate some of the hazards and ensure that the prescribed dose is administered. Careful records will be kept of dosages and animal response to better delineate the acceptable dosage range. �-476- For the ultra-sound scan, the immobilized animal will be positioned on its side with an attendant assigned strictly to maintain its head position to avoid the possibility of aspirating rumen fluid. The animal will be blindfolded with a soft fabric to reduce the chance of eye injury and further alleviate any stress associated with handling. There is no pain caused by the ultra-sound scan and no harmful side effects. It is used regularly on unaesthesized humans and has been proven harmless to human fetuses. VI. VII. Unavoidable Adverse Impacts 1. Hithin the corral traps the vegetation ~vill be damaged by the sharp hoofs of the animals even if the plants are dormant. Outside the trap the plants will be trampled by human foot traffic but damage is expected to be slight. 2. Two to five percent trap mortality is expected. Of the animals that are immobilized, it is expected that five to ten percent will suffer mortality. 3. LO'tvlevel helicopter flights will cause a few instances of disturbance to humans. This will be quite limited, however, since so few humans inhabit either study area. 4. Helicopter flights will cause temporary disruption and possibly domestic livestock activities. 5. Collection of data from hunter harvested animals will detain divert the hunters activities for 15 to 30 minutes. Irreversible Commitment Alternatives or of Resources There will be no irreversible of this project. VIII. of pronghorn, to the Current commitment of resources as the result Program The objective of this project is to identify the factors related to an alarming decline in the productivity of Southeast region pronghorn populations. Some of the alternatives to this proposed project are: IX. 1. Do not fund the project 2. Do not conduct 3. Conduct only the segments no negative impacts. Consultation with Federal Aid money. this study. of this study that are judged to have and Coordination The general concept of this program has been reviewed and management personnel within the Colorado Division with administration of Wildlife. In �-477- addition, the following have been consulted for information of the more technical aspects of the program. Dr. David C. Bowden, Statistical Colorado State University. Analysis, Department Beth Williams, Physiology of Drug Immobilization, Department, Colorado State University. Dr. James E. Ellis, Pronghorn Behavior, Laboratory, Colorado State University. Dr. Donald J. Nash, Genetics, Colorado State University. Department Natural on some of Statistics, Veterinary Resources of Zoology Science Ecology and Entomology, ��-479- JOB PROGRESS State of COLORADO ------------------------------ Project No. W-126-R-2 .Work Plan No. Job Title Period 6 Seasonal Covered: Dietary Selection July, 1979 REPORT Bighorn Sheep-Mountain Job NO. ~l _ of Rocky Mountain Goats and Forage Quality Goat Investigations July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 Personnel: T. V. Dailey, T. N. Woodard, R. B. Gill, J. E. Ellis, M. L. Stevens, N. T. Hobbs, D. L. Baker, D. Cannalte, K. Pals, University of Colorado Mountain Research Station Personnel, G. D. Bear, S. J. Dailey. ABSTRACT Work during the 1978-1979 segment was aimed primarily at determining the dietary selection of hand-reared Rocky Mountain goats in the alpine tundra vegetation zone. This involved capturing, rearing, and training three mountain goat kids for use in grazing trials during the winter of 1978-1979. Across all months forbs were the most frequently chosen forage class. Graminoids were somewhat less important in the diet relative to forbs. Salix planifolia accounted for virtually all of the browse consumed, but was essentially the only browse species available on the study area. ��-481- SEASONAL DIETARY SELECTION AND FORAGE QUALITY OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOATS T. V. Dailey and T. N. Woodard P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To describe goats. and quantify the seasonal diet selection of Rocky Mountain 2. To evaluate the chemical constitution selected by Rocky Mountain goats. and digestibility of forage SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Obtain, rear, and train mountain goat kids for food habits study. 2. Select study areas for vegetation and food habits sampling. 3. Conduct grazing trials during winter, 4. Begin summer grazing trials. spring and summer 1978-1979. METHODS AND MATERIALS Capture, Rearing and Training of Mountain Goat Kids Three mountain goat kids were captured from free-ranging nannies in the Collegiate Range in Colorado during June-July 1978. Two kids were captured by hand in June and the third was taken in a clover trap in July. Capture efforts were terminated in July due to the difficulty of handling and taming wild kids at this late date. Kids were bottle fed a formula consisting of two parts whole milk to one part condensed milk with baby vitamins and buttermilk being added at alternate feedings each day. Grain and alfalfa hay were fed ad libitum. Training for grazing trials began as soon as the kids had readily accepted the handler. Initially the kids were fed their milk formula in the back of a specially enclosed pickup truck. The kids were conditioned to load at the sound of a whistle. Gradually trips were made with the mountain goats to various mountain sites to accustom them to transportation and familiarize them with native vegetation. At this time the kids would be unloaded and allowed to graze freely. The whistle would then be used to reload the kids into the pickup where they would then be given their milk formula as a reward. Raisins were substituted for the milk reward once weaning was completed. The original goal in obtaining mountain goat kids called for the capture of at least six kids which would decrease total sample variation resulting �-482- Forage Evaluation Nutritional evaluation of individual plants eaten by goats will be assessed by chemical determinations of percent dry matter, nitrogen, acid detergent fiber, lignin, cell wall constituents and in vitro digestibility of species contributing at least two percent of total bites. Fifty gram samples were handplucked from plants in the immediate vicinity of forage grazed by mountain goats during a trial. Plant parts were collected to represent those eaten by the hand-reared mountain goats. At least 25 individual plants of each species were composited to form each species sample and were frozen for analysis at a later date. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Grazing trials were conducted during November, January and March. A trial was attempted in May but was cancelled due to poor road conditions and failure of the over-snow machine to navigate across icy snowpatches typical of this season. In November graminoids were the most frequently chosen forage class, with Kobresia myosuroides, Trisetum spicatum, and Carex rupestris showing the greatest use (Table 1). Forbs were chosen with slightly less frequency. Campanula rotundifolia constituted the bulk of the forb diet. Browse consumption was relatively small compared to graminoids and forbs. Salix planifolia accounted for99.97 percent of the browse consumed, and ranked third when compared to individual plant species (Table 1). Trisetum spicatum, Kobresia myosuroides, and Campanula rotundifolia were collected for future chemical analysis. Table 1. Composition of Rocky Mountain goat diet in alpine tundra type in November 1978. Entries are percentages of total individual animal bites for each plant species and mean percentages with 90% confidence intervals calculated across 3 animals. Mean + Confidence Plant Species Lanea Shava Oreo Kobresia myosuroides 8.2 20.3 19.3 15.9 + 11.3 Trisetum 15.7 16.4 10.7 14.3 + 16.6 21.2 4.7 14.2 + 14.4 (leaves) 9.3 13.2 3.2 8.6 + 8.5 (stems) 6.9 7.8 0.8 5.2 + 6.4 (catkins) 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.4 spicatum Salix planifolia 5.2 Interval �-483- from individual animal variation in diet selection. Since, this goal was not reached in the spring of 1978, attempts are presently (June 1979) being made to capture four mountain goat kids to augment numbers of experimental animals. To facilitate this, a helicopter was used to place six clover traps on top of Sheep Mountain in the Collegiate Range. (*Editorial - If you look critically at between animal and within animal variances you'll probably discover that 6 animals are not much of an improvement over 3). Study Area Selection The area selected for alpine ecosystem grazing trials was the University of Colorado Mountain Research Station on Niwot Ridge near Nederland, Colorado. Niwot Ridge has areas of acceptable and accessible habitat which are not utilized by domestic livestock, eliminating the influence of that variable on mountain goat diet selection. Hibbs (1965) reported that Rocky Mountain goats inhabitat alpine tundra habitats at all seasons of the year. Consequently grazing trials will be conducted year round in the alpine tundra zone. The alpine zone begins at approximately 3505 m (11,500 ft) and continues upward in elevation. This zone is characterized by low growing grasses, sedges, forbs, and finger-like patches of spruce and pine (Krummholz). The winter study area is about 3505 m in elevation with moderately steep slopes and snow-free ridge tops. Grazing Trials During the winter of 1978-1979 forage selections of the three mountain goat kids was quantified at the Niwot Ridge winter study area. A grazing trial consisted of one observer counting from close distance (less than 2 m) the number of bites of each plant species consumed by one goat feeding for approximately one hour. A tape recorder was used to record data during the grazing trials. During each trial period the observer handplucked 25 forage samples of each species comprising two percent or more of the diet. These "simulated bites" approximated the size of individual real bites ingested by the foraging animal. An average weight per bite will be derived from the 25 simulated bites. Estimates of diet composition based on these weights will be compared to diet composition derived from bite counts. On each starting date the animals were transported from Fort Collins to the Mountain Research Station. During the January and March trials an over-snow machine transported the goats to holding pens located just below timberline. One to two days of pre-trial grazing were conducted to allow mountain goats to sample and adjust to available forage, as well as permit dry run data collection by the observer. After this pre-trial period three grazing trials were conducted each day until approximately 3,000 bites were documented for each animal. This normally required about three days of trials depending on weather conditions. �-484- Table 1. Composition of Rocky Mountain goat diet in alpine tundra type in November 1978. Entries are percentages of total individual animal bites for each plant species and mean percentages with 90% confidence intervals calculated across 3 animals. (Continued). Lanea Shava Oreo Carex rupestris 17.0 3.7 16.8 12.5 + 12.9 Campanu1a rotundifo1ia 9.7 13.3 13.0 12.0 + 6.7 Arenaria fend1eri 2.9 7.8 5.0 5.2 + 4.1 Oreoxis alpina 10.4 0.0 4.5 5.0 + 8.8 6.6 1.8 6.2 4.9 + 4.5 Geum rossii Mean + Confidence Plant Species Pedicu1aris pa1ustris 4.8 1.3 1.5 2.5 + 3.3 Trifolium dasyphy11um 2.1 5.1 0.9 2.4 + 3.7 % Graminoids 43.9 41.9 54.0 46.6 + 10.9 % Forbs 39.4 35.7 38.9 38.0 + 3.4 % Browse 16.6 21.5 5.7 14.6 + 13.6 % Unknown o 0.9 1.5 Total Bites 2,336 2,565 2,208 Interval 7,109 During January, graminoids and forbs were chosen with similar frequency. Of the graminoids, Carex rupestris, Trisetum spicatum, and Kobresia myosuroides showed the greatest use (Table 2). Campanu1a rotundifo1ia constituted a large portion of the forb intake. Browse consumption was relatively small compared to graminoids and forbs. Salix p1anifolia accounted for all of the browse consumed, and ranked fifth when compared to individual plant species (Table 2). All plant species listed in Table 2 were collected for future chemical analysis. During March forbs were the most frequently chosen forage, with Trifolium dasyphy11um being especially important (Table 3). Graminoids and browse were chosen with considerably less frequency. Carex rupestris was the most frequently chosen individual graminoid. Salix p1anifo1ia constituted virtually all of the browse diet, and ranked fourth when compared to individual plant species (Table 3). All plant species listed in Table 3 were collected for future chemical analysis. �-485- Table 2. Composition of Rocky Mountain goat diet in alpine tundra type in January 1979. Entries are percentages of total individual animal bites for each plant species and mean percentages with 90% confidence intervals calculated across 3 animals. Species listed are those which contribute 2 percent or more of total bites. Mean + Confidence Plant Species Lanea Shava Oreo Carex rupestris 46.5 7.8 7.6 22.5 + 37.8 Campanula rotundifolia 13.6 15.1 23.6 16.4 + Trisetum spicatum 3.5 20.6 12.9 12.4 + 14.4 Kobresia myosuroides 9.2 11.1 2.8 8.5 + 7.3 7.3 4.9 11.3 7.8 + 5.4 (leaves) 3.5 2.9 7.6 4.7 + 4.3 (stems) 3.8 2.0 2.7 2.8 + 1.5 (catkins) 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 Geum rossii 7.9 5.6 10.0 7.5 + 3.7 Oreoxis alpina 4.0 2.6 7.0 4.5 + 3.8 Arenaria obtusiloba 0.05 7.6 1.3 3.4 + 6.8 Arenaria fendleri 1.5 3.4 2.8 2.6 + 1.6 Trifolium dasyphyllum 0.7 3.7 1.1 2.0 + 2.7 Polygonum bistortoides 1.1 3.0 1.5 2.0+ 1.7 % Graminoids 61. 2 47.2 25.6 44.7 + 30.2 % Forbs 31.4 47.8 62.7 47.3 + 26.4 % Browse 7.3 4.9 11.3 7.8 + Total Bites 3,790 3,966 2,208 9,964 Salix planifolia Interval 9.3 5.4 �-486- the browse consumption. From November to March, the percent of forbs and graminoids in the mountain goat diets showed a definite trend as forb consumption increased while grass consumption decreased (Figure 1). The percent of browse in the diets showed some small changes during the winter period. Table 4. Percent composition of mountain goat diets across 3 animals in alpine tundra during winter 1978-79. Entries are mean percentages with 90 percent confidence intervals for plant species contributing 2% or more to the total winter diet. Species are ranked in order of importance across all months. Carex rupestris November January March All Months 12.2 + 12.9 22.5 + 37.8 9.5 + 12.0 14.6 + 20.6 Trifolium dasyphyllum 2.8 + 3.7 2.0 + 2.7 24.2 + 24.5 10.6 + 10.4 Campanula rotundifolia 12.0 + 6.7 16.4 + 9.3 3.9 + 5.9 10.4 + 1.3 Trisetum spicatum 14.4 + 5.2 12.4 + 14.4 3.4 + 3.3 9.3 + 6.2 14.6 + 14.4 7.2 + 5.4 8.1 + 10.9 9.2 + 6.0 (leaves) 9.3 + 8.5 4.4 + 4.3 7.0 + 9.0 6.6 + 1.8 (stems) 5.3 + 6.4 2.8 + 1.5 1.1 + 2.0 2.7 + 2.6 16.0 + 11.3 8.5 + 7.3 2.5 + 2.5 7.9 + 2.8 Oreo.1{ is alpina 4.8 + 8.8 4.1 + 3.8 9.4 + 10.7 6.7 + 3.0 Geum rossii 4.8 + 4.5 7.5 + 3.7 6.2 + 4.4 6.5 + 3.3 Arenaria obtusiloba 0.0 3.4 + 6.8 6.3 + 9.9 3.8 + 4.7 Arenaria fendleri 5.4 + 2.6 + 1.6 3.1 + 0.7 3.5 + 1.5 Senecio canis 0.0 1.0+ 1.0 4.8 + 10.6 2.7 + 6.0 Salix planifolia Kobre~ia myosuroides 4.1 % Forbs 37.9 + 3.4 44.9 + 26.4 72.8 + 21.2 55.0 + 19.1 % Graminoids 46.3 + 10.9 47.8 + 30.2 19.1 + 10.4 35.4 + 13,.7 % Browse 14.6 + 13.6 7.2 + 8.1 + 10.9 7.4 + 11.0 11,485 28,558 Total Bites 7,109 5.4 9,964 �-487- Table 3. Composition of Rocky Mountain goat diet in alpine tundra type in March 1979. Entries are percentages of total individual animal bites for each plant species and mean percentages with 90% confidence intervals calculated across 3 animals. Species listed are those which contribute 2 percent or more of total bites. Lanea Shava Or eo Trifolium 28.0 36.1 7.9 24.2 + 24.5 Carex rupestris 17.4 8.1 3.4 9.5 + 12.0 Oreoxis alpina 4.4 7.1 16.5 9.4 + 10.7 Salix planifolia 15.1 7.5 2.2 8.1 + 10.9 12.6 6.9 1.9 7.0 + 9.0 2.2 3.7 13.0 6.3 + 9.9 Geum rossii 4.0 5.5 9.1 6.2 + 4.4 Senecio canis 0.1 2.4 11.9 4.8 + 10.6 Campanula rotundifolia 8.1 1.8 2.3 3.9 + 5.9 Heuchera spp. 0.0 3.4 7.1 3.5 + 6.0 Trisetum spicatum 1.1 4.3 4.7 3.4 + 3.3 Arenaria fendleri 3.1 2.7 3.5 3.1 + 0.7 Kobresia myosuroides 4.2 1.9 1.5 2.5 + 2.5 Polygonum 2.6 2.2 1.6 2.1 + 0.8 % Forbs 59.6 73.3 84.7 72.7+21.2 % Graminoids 25.4 19.2 13.0 19.1 + 10.4 % Browse 15.1 7.5 2.2 8.1 + 10.9 Total Bites 3,624 4,068 3,793 dasyphyllum (leaves) Arenaria obtusiloba bistortoides Mean + Confidence Interval Plant Species Across all months forbs were the most frequently chosen forage class. The grass Carex rupestris was ranked the highest when compared to individual plant species (Table 4). Graminoids were somewhat less important in the diet relative to forbs. Salix planifolia accounted for virtually all of �-488- LITERATURE CITED Hibbs, L. D. 1965. The mountain goat of Colorado. State Univ., Fort Collins. 152pp. Prepared by: Approved by: ~;~~~:'r~Y ?r- f(?L'f~ ~~:~~.t/ev~es::rc: ;J:~e2:_,ij Thomas N. Woodard Wildlife Researcher I M.S. Thesis. Colorado �-489- 70 60 50 .w <lJ .--! ~ j::; 'r-! 40 .w C <lJ .., U Q) c, 30 20 10 Shrubs November Figure 1. January March Diet by forage category of 3 tame Rocky Mountain goats during w i nr e r 1978-79 in alpine tundra on Niwot Ridge, Colorado. ��-491- JOB PROGRESS State of --------~~~~~---------- Project No. 1979 REPORT COLORADO Job Title Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 Work Plan No. Period July, 7 J~ ~. 1 ----------~--------------------- B~l~a~c~k~B~e~a~r~I~n~v~e~s~t~i~g~a~t~i~o~n~s~ Covered: July 1, 1978 through _ June 30, 1979 Personnel: Thomas D. I. Beck, Rick Danvir, Green, Dan Miller, Bill Boydstun; Colorado James Haskins, Dave Kenvin, Division of Wildlife Larry ABSTRACT The Black Mesa-Crystal Creek area in west-central Colorado was selected as the principal study area. A closed season on bears was obtained from the Colorado Wildlife Commission for the study area and a buffer zone. Capture efforts began on 29 May 1979 and by end of segment four bears were captured a total of six times. Capture success was lower than expected. The use of a mixture of Ketamine and Rompun has proved very satisfactory. ��-493- BLACK BEAR INVESTIGATIONS Thomas D. I. Beck P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. Develop techniques populations. to accurately 2. Determine 3. Describe black bear population dynamics sufficiently to allow analysis of various harvest and habitat manipulations. habitat preferences and precisely estimate black bear of selected black bear populations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES Same as P. N. Objectives. METHODS AND MATERIALS Study Area Selection Field personnel with the Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW) were contacted for suggestions on study areas. Harvest data for the previous 30 years were reviewed as well. General surveys were conducted in 5 possible study areas. Surveys primarily consisted of looking for bear sign, vehicle access, and the proportion of desired vegetation types (spruce-fir, aspen, Gambel's oak). Discussions with personnel from DOW and U.S. Forest Service were conducted to get a feeling for the receptivity of a bear study by local management people. This was of great importance when it became evident that all bear hunting would have to be stopped in the study area during the duration of the study. The need for a bear hunting closure severely restricted the choice of study areas as it would have been difficult to obtain a closure on areas of moderate to high historic harvest and areas frequented by bear outfitters. Finally, an area without domestic sheep grazing was needed as sheep herders are allowed to kill unlimited numbers of bears and have historically done so. Capture and Marking Capture efforts commenced on 29 May 1979. Bears were captured using Aldrich spring-activated snares, set in baited cubbies, blind trail sets, and baited trail sets. Snaring techniques were basically those described by Flowers (1977). Primary bait items were carp (Cyprinus carpio), beaver (Castor canadensis) and marmots (Marmota flaviventris). Snares were set throughout the study area but out of sight from roads and maintained trails. All snare sets were marked with signs on nearby trees warning people to stay clear of the snare and a snared bear. Snares were attached to green drag logs to �-494- reduce needed incidence of foot injury to captured bears and to reduce the time to rebuild and reset the snare. Snares were checked daily. Snared bears were immobilized with a combination of ketamine hydrochloride (Ketamine) and xylazine hydrochloride (Rompun). The ketamine hydrochloride (100 mg/cc) was freeze-dried and concentrated to 200 mg/cc, then mixed with xylazine hydrochloride (100 mg/cc) in a 2:1 ratio. A six-foot prod pole was used to administer the drug. Data on dosage used, time needed to immobilize, and duration of immobilization were collected. Immobilized bears were tattooed, ear-tagged with Richey rubber ear tags (calf size), and some we re instrumented with a Telonics radio transmitter collar. Numerous physical measurements were taken of each bear and a premolar was removed for subsequent aging. A completed bear capture data form is attached as Appendix A. All of the measurements are recognizeable from the form notation with the possible exception of CAL and MzW. These represent the canine alveolar length and greatest width of second molar on the mandible as described by Gordon and Morejohn (1975). Lab estimates of age will be determined by cementum annuli counts (Willey 1974). Habitat Selection Detailed techniques for habitat type mapping and radio telemetry tracking were reviewed. However, insufficient effort on these phases of field work was made to warrant description of methods. The habitat type mapping techniques will be improved in the next segment and will be described in detail in the next segment report. RESULTS Study Area AND DISCUSSION Selection The B]ack Mesa - Crystal Creek area southeast of Crawford was selected as the principal study area. The study area is roughly bounded by Smith Fork and Sink Creek on the north, Highway 92 on the west, the Gunnison River on the south, and Curecanti Creek on the east. The study area will be modified to include all the seasonal ranges of radio-collared females. Such modifications will likely add areas west of Highway 92 on the north rim of the Black Canyon and remove areas in the Virginia Creek and Smith Fork drainages. The final study area will likely be 80-90 square miles. The nearest town is Crawford, population 250, and fewer than 20 people live within the principal study area. Major drainages are Iron, Dyer, Crystal, Mesa, and Curecanti Creeks. Elevations range from 6,000 to 11,000 ft above sea level. Annual precipitation averages 10.8 inches in Crawford (elevation 6,800 ft) and is considerably higher in the upper reaches of the study area. Average growing season in Crawford is 137 days and this would be similar to the oakbrush dominated areas of the study area. The study area has significant areas of six vegetation communities: irrigated grass meadows , sagebrush steppe, oakbrush chaparral aspen, spruce-fir, and dry mountain meadows. These types are listed in ascending order of �-495- elevation but form a mosaic of communities with changes in aspect and elevation. Primary human uses of the area are timber harvest, cattle grazing, and big game hunting. Evidence of a long history of overgrazing and current overgrazing abound. The livestock use in the area is all cattle except for a sheep operation on private land in lower Curecanti Creek. Most of the study area is administered by the Gunnison National Forest. Cooperation of landowners has been generally excellent. However, stlouldseasonal ranges extend west of Highway 92 it is probable that access across private lands will be difficult to obtain. The need for a hunting closure to protect adult female bears and minimize adv~rse contacts with hunters was.stressed by both John Beecham, biologist for Idaho Fish and Game, and Ralph Flowers, Washington Forest Protection AIHltlciation Animal Damage Control Supervisor (pers. communication). This requtrement for a study area soon became the most critical and was a deciding factor in the final selection. The Black Mesa area (Game Managemant Unit 63) haa historically supported a low licensed harvest (~ 5 per year), had few if any nuisance bear problems, low numbers of sheep, and nc outfitters dependent on the area for bear hunting. Also, unlicensed hlit:rv(;l~twaa thought to be very low. However, unlicensed harvest has been hiRh~r than earlier thought but still probably has not been high enough to I3dvli'lndydhct bear density. The Colorado Wildlife Commission decided on January 1979 to support the closure of the study area to bear hunting. Their intent 1~ to ~upport the closure for the study duration but regulations can emly b~ cHltablt~hed for one year at a time. The area closed to bear hunting in 1979 wa~ all of Game Management Unit 63, that part of GMU 54 west of ~G~p er~~k, and that part of GMU 53 south of Smith Fork and Sink Creek. S1~n~ wHh th@ e1CH'1ure description and maps were posted in the area. The 11unt1nBclo~ur~ do~s not apply to unlicensed killing by livestock owners. GapturM ~ucc~~~ WB~ paor in June 1979 with only six captures of four different An ,!ldultboar, 310 lb was first caught on 29 May and later caught at g cubby 0.4 m1l~~ aw~y an 29 June, then weighing 290 lb. This boar slipped the Unt radio collAI'aHI!;!'f five days and wore the second until his death on 12 ,July! H@ Wf.l~ ~hDt seueh of the Gunnison River so was out of the closed ~rIR, Th~ Initial capture of this bear convinced me not to use aspen drag ;!_f.JgEl. Th~ b~aI'had Ch~WCH!down a standing 6" DBH aspen and both ends of thg 7" diam~t~I' dr~B lag, reducing the drag from 9 ft to 2 ft in length. 6ubN@qu.nt captuI'~~with conifer drag logs have been satisfactory. AlSO lb h~af WR§ cauBht twlc~, an 13 and 27 June. The captures were 2 miles apart. Aft tlftuH hmal~ (l5~ Lb) was caught on 13 June and slipped her radio collar th§ §gm~ dRY. A 28 Ih cub was caught 17 June. The sow was observed with the ruh from a dl§tlnc~ of 200 yds but never appeared during the handling. Five of th~ §ix c.ptUI'~~wlr~ at the same location. Snaring was restricted to t'fl@ m;¥·bf!!§h And low{!lr~lil1~vl!ltion aspen stands because of access. An UfPj§tH~llyw~H;M&y"'Jun~ parIcd resulted in lush understory throughout the bf,\lIH'!3, fl~~hfjH~h IHliUHl. �-496- Initially a dosage of 2.5 mg/lb of Ketamine/Rompun was used. This rate was not adequate, always requiring subsequent injections. A dosage of 3.0 mg/lb appears to be suitable. One problem with a light dose or accidental underdosing (by underestimating weight) is that we have not seen any progressive symptoms of drugging. Whenever the dose was adequate the bear slumped with no warning and when the dose was inadequate the bear stayed alert and active. Therefore, a dosage of 3.0 mg/lb will be used in the future and try to overdose rather than underdose. Overall the drug works well. Breathing rates stay high enough to keep bear well ventilated (avg. 14.6/min for bears older than cubs). Pulse rate averaged 72.8 beats/ min for the 5 bears older than cubs. The cub had a pulse of 132 beats/min and breathing rate of 30/min. A potential problem with drug would be in handling treed bears. As there are no progressive symptoms it would be difficult to rope the bear to the tree prior to complete immobilization and having a bear fall from high in an aspen would likely contribute to high trapping mortality rates. Bears dosed at 2.5-3.0 mg/lb remained immobilized at least 60 minutes and usually longer. I believe it is easier on the bear to recover without human present so I do not have data on total time of immobilization. Further analysis of this drug combination will be prepared at the end of the 1979 field season. Most of the 1979 field season has been, and will be, devoted to learning the study area and capturing as many bears as possible. Radio telemetry data collection will increase as more bears are collared. LITERATURE CITED Flowers, R. 1977. The art and techn~que Forest Protection Assoc., 37p. Gordon, K. R., and V. Morejohn. lower canine and lower molar Willey, C. H. 1974. Aging 1.1 by: black bears ( ,~: . .JI~:vp"..!; /1 bears. Washington 1975. Sexing black bear skulls using measurements. J. Wildl. Manage. 39(1):40,44. from first pre-molar J. Wildl. Manage. 38(1):97-100. Prepared of snaring [' . -O€. c A.... Thomas D. I. Beck Wildlife Researcher tooth sections. �-497- APPENDIX A �-498- APPENDIX A BEAR CAPTURE DATA FORM --,-E_;:~=7--------~~~--~----- BEAR CAPTURE DATA FORM TAG NO. TATTOO TRANS. FREQ. 147. 'Itt 18 SEX AGE'--- -¥ _ Date i?O J"U.L'i 1'n1 Capture site216.Z X 'ig~2.3 Workers "BECK MJLI.£R. Est. Wt. If5S lb. Act. Wt. IDS 1/'. Drug Ke-tAho\;l1f! lR.o:"pv-n Dosage: 3.0 mg/lb; ~cc. Injection site Rl hip - TM Method :raJ, 'Po\e Time of injection ~13~~=O Time of immob. __ ~I~~~~~~_ Time left bear ILtSO Time of recovery Ul\know!') Progressiv-e--s~y~m~p~t~o-m-s~=n:o-~~-~-~~b~~a~r __ ~s~J~~~~p~.~d-Lh~O~M~~S~~~I~9-~rO~s~,~1~Dn~_ I and Convulsions: Recurrence INa;, OlAf. Time of onset ~~~ Duration ----------Supp. Drugs .lVONE Air Temp. -"'4,~8~o.:...F-;__ -:-_ Rectal Temp 1tX:> () F Pulse ~Ll /min Respiration /1 /min Foot snared LF Swollen Chance for injury 6000 Est. Age S+ Lab est. Sex Color Blond Photo taken Yes Ear tag F (0 Tattoo G, Trans. Freq. Itf7. Q'l1 g Tooth removed -..::.....!-------P. Collar color OrA~'3e Pelage c ond i.t Lon __ _::P....::o::..::o:..:.Y" r+ Neck girth £/1.5 CM Chest girth. 6,8.0 0" Wt. lOS Total length IOO£m Anus to anterior of sternum length '87. 0 cm CAL: 15.~ hi"" /5.8 •.•• ,.., M2~.J: /0.3 ",,,, 10.0 •.••"" P4-Ci length 3/.3 m •••, 31.&.j h"lm p4-Ci length d(D.O )of"'" Z•O.", ••• :1in. width between C1 30.1mlYl Hin. width between p4 3fo.'-It'II"t HI width , Hi width , Nursing NO Nipple diam. L= TOP 4.1,.",.." -1-.-"'-""-"'--' '7.iJ,,,,,,., R:1VP /).8,.,." ~.O,.,,,., , 8'.0 In"" Fore pad width R lo.ScW!, ".2. c •.•.• Fore pad length R SSe ••.•, Hind pad width tl.?c,.." 9.:l.c,." Hind pad length I~.::(t:," , /3.Di:...... Vulva condo non~~.J.rDtAS Physiol. I Samples Taken ~~~o~~~c~ 1 Unusual Phys. Char. ~AJ~O~~~~~ _ Other bears in area ~M~~~~~b __~S~€~E~~~ _ Outside influences __ ~~~D~M~~~ ~-r __ ~~ __ -.~ _ Comments Thumb hooL IH·bl:.e" PI? nq~d .£9!-' ~~IJ/e ckep ------------------------ yes £ Ii. a '.0,,.,, cu.I r » I �July, -499- JOB PROGRESS Job Title Mountain 8 Job No. Lion Population Dynamics 1 --------------------------------- --~------~----~--------~-------------------------------- Covered: Personnel: Big Game Investigations W-126-R-2 No. Work Plan No. Period REPORT COLORADO State of Project 1979 July Allen 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 E. Anderson ABSTRACT A review of the published and unpublished literature on the mountain lion was essentially completed with about 524 references read, catalogued and filed under 26 subject headings. A detailed study plan was not prepared because I underestimated the time required to fulfill objectives of Work Plan 2, Job 5. A revised time table for the preparation of a detailed study plan is recommended. ��-501- MOUNTAIN LION POPULATION DYNAMICS Allen E. Anderson t P. N. OBJECTIVE Develop improved mountain lion inventory procedures and expand on knowledge of mountain lion population dynamics and predator-prey relationships. Specific objectives are: 1. Estimate density and population populations. size of selected mountain 2. Develop an improved method which is also economically 3. Assess mortality rates of young mountain maternal-filial bond separation. 4. Assess dispersal 5. Estimate the impact of hunting and removal on mountain dynamics. 6. Measure the inter-relationships large ungulate populations. to reliably estimate mountain feasible to apply. and subsequent lion lion densities lions after the period of fate of sub-adult between mountain mountain lions. lion population lion populations and SEGMENT OBJECTIVE 1. Preparation of a detailed study plan describing the specific research strategies which will be employed to meet the previously stated specific objectives. This includes the selection of specific study site(s). METHODS AND MATERIALS A comprehensive review of the published and unpublished mountain lion was undertaken as the first step. literature on the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The literature review was essentially completed. About 524 references were read, catalogued and cross referenced under 26 subject headings. Because of an underestimate of the time required to fulfill the objectives of Work Plan 2, Job 5 (Experimental Deer Inventory), the literature review was the only activity accomplished. �-502- Since the ultimate success of the study will depend largely on both the suitability of the study areas selected and the field methodology adopted, I now believe that the time table for the preparation of a study plan is unrealistically short. The revised research time table should include synthesis and publication of the literature; field work trips with researchers currently involved in field investigations of mountain lions to review potential methodologies; during selection of study area(s) and preparation of a draft study plan during fiscal year 1979-80. Fiscal year 1980-81 will involve testing methodologies and revising the study plan into final form. Full-scale field work would commence during fiscal year 1981-82. Prepared by: ~5j~ Allen E. Anderson Wildlife Researcher � https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/files/original/9ead8ad524f8534848875df6658bb503.pdf 10c45b8c3c8ce3c3a5d5845c8b20f665 PDF Text Text -1October JOB PROGRESS State of Project Work 1979 REPORT COWRADO No. Plan No. Job No. 1 Job Title Waterfowl Period April Covered: Migratorv H-88-R-24 Production Bird Investigations 1 ------------------------------------ Surveys 23, 1978 to June 30, 1978 Personnel: M. Nail and Staff, Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; J. Creasy, and Staff, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge; F. N. Folks, Utah State Division of Wildlife Resources; R. Clark, J. Corey, J. Ellenberger, J. Frothingham, R. Keiss, J. Lorentzson, T. Martin, D. Hasden, J. Olterman, G. Saville, R. Velarde, S. Steinert and Hike Szymczak, Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Water conditions for duck production were variable with poor conditions in the San Luis Valley, average conditions in North Park, the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park and excellent conditions in the Cache La Poudre and South Platte valleys. Conditions for goose production were considered excellent in the northwest and west central portion of the state but below average in north central Colorado. The total number of duck breeding pairs was estimated to be 72,526, 22 percent above the long term average. The mallard (anas platyrhynchos) was the major breeding species. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese (Bx-anta canadensis) in northwest Colorado was estimated to be 1710, 9 percent below 1977 level but 7 percent above the long term average. In north central Colorado, gosling production wa s down about 20 percent from both 1977 and 1969-77 average levels. Aerial counts on the Colorado, Gunnison and White Rivers indicated an increase in the nesting population in all areas except the Gunnison River. ��-3- WATERFOHL PRODUCTION SURVEYS Michael R. Szymczak Steven F. Steinert P.N. OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the number of duck breeding pairs, ~ajor waterfowl nesting areas in Colorado. by species, on selected 2. To estimate the number of goose breeding pairs, and in some cases, obtain production data on selected goose nesting areas in Colorado. 3. Compile federal data and submit reports to appropriate state personnel and agencies for use in establishing hunting season recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate the number of duck breeding pairs, by species, in the San Luis, Cache la Poudre, South Platte and Yampa Valleys, and in North Park and Brown's Park. 2. To estimate the number of goose breeding pairs in the San Luis Valley and west-central Colorado and obtain goose breeding pair and production data on the Yampa, Little Snake and Green Rivers in northwest Colorado and in north central Colorado. 3. Compile data and submit appropriate METHODS reports. AND MATERIALS Present duck breeding pairs and production surveys pair inventory of only major production areas. consist of a breeding The 1978 duck breeding pair surveys were conducted during the period of May 8 to June 22. Surveys in North Park and the Cache la Poudre and South Platte valleys were conducted exclusively from the air. Ground counts were made in the Yampa Valley and Brown's Park. In the San Luis Valley intensive aerial counts were adjusted for visibility by air-ground comparison studies. Pair estimates for the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge in the San Luis Valley were obtained from nesting transects. All survey methods and sample areas for ducks remained the same as in previous years. Surveys of Canada goose production were conducted within the period of April 25 to June 23. Production estimates for Moffat County were made from as complete a count as possible of hatched or active nests and brood size. Population estimates for north central Colorado were obtained from counts of goslings and adults conducted from the ground during the period in which �-4- the birds were flightless. Estimates of the Colorado, Gunnison and White Rivers population were obtained from direct counts from a fixed-wing aircraft.· A scheduled survey in the San Luis Valley of axpec t ed productive Canada goose breeding pairs was not conducted because of inclement weather. All flying was accomplished with a Cessna 185 aircraft. Two observers were used when sampling by transect while one observer was used when sampling sections on flying river courses. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In general, water conditions for duck production were much better in 1978 than in 1977. Conditions in the San Luis Valley continue to decline because of a combination of dry weather and an increase in circular sprinkling from wells as opposed to flood irrigation. Water conditions in North Park were below average, as a cool, wet spring retarded the initiation of the irrigation season. However, conditions in the South Platte and Cache la Poudre valleys were excellent with all ponds and ditches full of water. In the Yampa Valley a heavy snowpack resulted in some temporary ponds retaining water into the nesting season. But the permanent ponds dependent upon irrigation water were low, because of delay in irrigation. Conditions for Canada goose production were excellent along the rivers in northwest Colorado. Normal water flows resulted in the average number of usable islands throughout the nesting season. High water levels were not experienced until after the peak of hatch. In north central Colorado reservoir water levels were higher than in 1977. However, a 26 inch snowfall near the peak of hatch definitely reduced production from expected estimates. The estimated number of duck breeding pairs were very similar to 1976 levels, and 22 percent above thE! long-term average (Table 1). Comparisons with 1977 numbers cannot be made as no estimates are available for most areas in 1977. The number of pairs in the San Luis Valley remained stable in spite of a valley-wide decline in habitat conditions. A decrease in the North Park duck population was more than compensated for by large increases in the South Platte and Cache la Poudre Valleys. The mallard made up 29 percent of breeding pair population; an increase over the 1976 level, but still far below the long te~~ average (Table 2). The mallard was followed in descending order of abundance by gadwall, green-winged teal and blue-winged or cinnamon teal, each composing more than 10 percent of the population. The post-nesting season population of Canada geese on trend areas in northwestern Colorado was projected to be 1,710 birds in 1978 (Table 3), down 9 percent from 1977 but 7 percent above the 1967-77 average (Table 4). Estimated gosling production (773) was 13 percent above the 1977 level and 40 percent above the 1967-77 average (Table 5). �-5- Table 1. Summary of Colorado's in selected areas, 1978. duck breeding Total Estimated pair population Breeding Pairs' 2/ 1978 Area 1977]) Long-terrrrAverage estimates Percent From 1977 Change From Long Term Average + San Luis Valley 28,524 27,855 North Park 9,633 17,U5 43.7 South Platte Valley 19,182 6,773 + 183.2 Cache la Poudre Valley 12,674 3,662 + 246.1 Yampa Valley 1,708 2,189 2,730 - 22.0 37.4 Brown's Park 805 1,009 1,141 - 20.2 29.4 Total 1/ 2/ Estimates 72,526 not obtained 2.4 + 22.4 59,276 for most areas in 1977. are based on results of 1964 through because of changes in survey Figures for other"areas are 22 year San Luis Valley and North Park averages 1977 and 1968 through 1977 surveys, respectively, methods utilized averages. prior to those dates. ~/ Aerial counts corrected San Luis Valley. by species from visibility ratios obtained in the Results of the 1978 production survey in north central Colorado are presented by individual area in Table 6. Gosling production in north central Colorado is down 20 percent from 1977 levels and 21 percent from the 1969-77 average (Table 7). Production declined in all trend areas except Boulder and Loveland. The number of adults observed was up 20 percent from 1977 levels but still down 6 percent from the 1969-77 average (Table 8). The aerial survey of breeding Canada geese in west central Colorado was flown on April 20, 1978. The results are presented in Table 9 and compared with 1977 figures in Table 10. The 1977 survey was conducted on May 9. In spite of the variation in survey dates between years, the presence of more single geese during the earlier 1978 survey most likely indicates an increase in the number of active breeding pairs. �-6- Table 2. Species composition of Colorado's 1978 duck breeding pair population. , Number of Breeding Species 1978 1976-U Pairs 1954-76 Average Mallard 21,3l3 17,324 27,865 29.4 24.4 51.9 Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal 9,267 7,432 5,761 12.8 10.5 10.7 Gadwall 14,311 4,205 5,283 19.7 5.9 9.8 Pintail 3,557 2,980 3,607 4.9 4.2 6.7 Shoveler 5,866 21,145 3,439 8.1 29.8 6.4 Green-winged teal 12,739 9,136 2,743 17.6 12.9 5.1 543 3,623 2,314 0.7 5.1 4.3 978 2,750 1, l38 1.3 3.9 2.1 Other Divers 3,952 2,426 1,560 5.3 3.4 2.9 Total 72,526 71,021 53,71~1 Redhead American wigeon llComparative Percent 1978 SJ2ecies Com2osition 1954-76 Average 1976 data for 1977 not available. . . -2/S' peCles composltlon regardless of changes . d compute d f rom data from a 11 areas for th e 22 year perlO in survey method. �-7- Table areas 3. Number of Canada geese observed in Moffat County, Colorado, 1978. and estimated production on trend Nesting Pairs NonNesting Adults Total Adults Estimated No. 1/ Goslings- Total Geese 22 105 149 65 214 23 93 139 106 245 Lily Park-~/ 98 29 127 Subtotal 386 200 586 Area Yampa River Craig-Juniper Springs Juniper Springs Cross Mountain Green River Brown's Park 73 96 242 285 527 Dinosaur National Monument (Colorado, Utah) 39 l30 208 198 406 Subtotal 112 226 450 483 933 20 61 101 90 191 937 773 1,710 Little Snake River Grand Total 1/ Calculated using average 1/ Not surveyed. Calculated brood size and number totals are averages of successful of 1973-77 nests. totals. �-8Table 4. To al e timated trend areas, 1978. number of Canada geese obs rved, }foffat County Percent 1977 Change From 1967-77 Average 14.9 + 1.7 5.S + 1.0 383 10.6 + 6.0 231 296 17.3 - 35.4 1,710 1,872 1,604 8.7 + of Canada goose goslings, County trend 1978 1977 1967-77 Average 586 689 576 Park 5'2.7 498 349 Dinosaur National Monument 1/ (Colorado-Utah)- 406 454 191 Area Yam a River ------ From Green River Brown's Little Snake River Total 1/ - Not surveyed until Table 5. Estimated areas, 1978. + 6.6 1970. numbers Moffat Percent Change From 1967-77 Average 1977 1978 1977 1967-77 Average 200 170 169 + 17.6 + 18.3 Park 285 210 135 + 35.7 +111.1 Dinosaur National Monument (Colorado, Itah) _V 198 249 154 - 20.5 + 28.6 90 54 93 + 66.7 3.2 773 683 551 + 13.2 + 40.3 Area Yampa River From Green River Brown's Little Snake River Total 1/ - Not surveyed until 1970. �-9- Table 6. Production Area Results of the north central No. Broods Water Area Wellington Terry Lake Water Supply and Storage No. 4 Launer Pond Douglas Reservoir North Poudre No. 1 Dry Creek Reservoir North Poudre No. 3 North Poudre No. S Bureau of Standards Divide No. 8 ]j Elder Reservoir Annex No. 8 Van Sant Pond Cobb Lake Watson Lake Curtis Lake l/ No. 1 0 0 4 1 0 1 12 6 0 1 3 1 Subtotal Fort Collins Peterson Ponds Dixon (Herring) Lake Miller (Maxwell) Pond College Lake Dean Acres Claymore Lake Sterling Gravel Pits Lindenmeier Lake Grey Lakes Novak Reservoir Anderson Pond's Parkwood Timnath Reservoir Romily Gravel Pits Fossil Creek Reservoir Schuelke Reservoir Wolaver Ponds Subtotal 0 5 2 3 1 0 9 2 4 2 2 Colorado goose census, June 19, 1978. Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults and Yearlings Total Birds 35 44 79 18 8 0 0 16 1 0 3 35 18 0 5 23 9 4 26 5 2 14 10 2 2 25 134 12 20 17 117 144 69 44 13 2 14 26 3 2 28 169 30 20 22 140 153 73 175 643 818 0 16 9 8 14 2 43 0 41 8 8 15 61 21 11 9 9 9 19 21 199 18 64 202 81 45 4 31 39 77 10 21 6 4 9 35 30 207 32 66 245 81 86 12 39 54 138 32 32 15 13 276 850 1,126 �-10- Table 6. Results (Continued). Production Area of the north central Colorado Water Area Loveland Flatiron Reservoir Boedecker Reservoir Flatiron Gravel Pits Kauffman Gravel Pits Big Thompson River McNeil Reservoir Reservoir No. 12 goose census, June 19, 1978. No. Broods Total No. Goslings Total No. Adults and Yearlings Total Birds 1 5 6 2 2 24 24 6 12 51 14 2 85 12 4 8 43 12 4 109 36 10 20 94 26 133 166 299 4 11 8 22 0 57 15 8 6 28 19 46 24 32 29 184 8 9 4 32 30 81 32 54 29 241 23 17 10 166 383 549 27 0 25 5 8 8 0 7 0 11 0 35 0 60 31 175 87 31 200 75 52 160 36 31 15 52 l3 385 35 Subtotal Boulder Ish Lake Crystal Lake Terry Lake Faivre Ponds Rest Home Pond Sawhill Ponds Valmont Reservoir Boulder Valley Farm Eddy Pond Angus Ranch Pond 351/ 0 Subtotal Denver Ketring Lake Centennial Pond Bowles Lake Kings Pond Tule Lakes Grant Reservoirs Marston Reservoir Pinehurst Country Club Clairfield Reservoir Kendirck Lake Federal Center Sloans Lake Standley Lq_ke 0 6 2 2 3 2 0 3 0 0 70 44 152 36 24 15 41 13 350 35 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- �-11- Table 6. Results of the north central Colorado (Continued). Production Area Hater Area Denver (Continued) Denver City Park Colo. Blvd. and Quincy No. Broods goose census, Total No. Goslings June 19, 1978. Total No. Adults and Yearlings Total Birds 25 5 180 2 205 7 Subtotal 156 1,228 1,384 GRAND TOTAL 906 3,270 4,176 1/ Includes 2/ Includes 4 1 2 adults and 5 goslings on pond 1 mile north of Dry Creek. geese located on pond located !2 mile west of No.8. 1/ Goslings and adults not distinguished, percent therefore separation based on on total birds which were goslings during the previous 5 years. �-12- Table 7. Number of Canada goose goslings production trend areas, 1978. Area 1978 produced No. of Goslings 1969-1977 1977 Average in north central Percent From 1977 Change From 1969-1977 Wellington 175 215 256 -18.6 -31. 6 Fort Collins 276 288 285 - 4.2 - 3.2 Loveland 133 125 97 + 6.4 +37.1 Boulder 166 142 216 +16.9 -23.1 Denver 156 357 292 -56.3 -46.6 Total 906 1,127 1,146 -19.6 -20.9 Table 8. Number of adult Cana.da geese observed production trend areas, 1978. Area 1978 No. of Goslings 1969-1977 1977 Average in north central Percent From 1977 Colorado Colorado Change From 1969-1977 Hellington 643 615 734 + 4.6 -12.4 Fort Collins 850 613 693 +38.7 +22.7 Loveland 166 182 224 - 8.8 -25.9 Boulder 383 394 594 - 2.8 -35.5 Denver 1,228 924 1,227 +32.9 0.0 Total 3,270 2,728 3,472 +19.9 - 5.8 �-l3- Table 9. West central Colorado Area White Canada goose breeding Singles Pairs pair survey, 1978. Croups Goslings River 6 1 o o Rio Blanco L. - Rangely 21 14 17 o Rangely-Utah 4 11 o o 31 26 17 o o 2 9 o 26 31 15 4 DeBeque-Palisade 1 1 o o Palisade-5th 3 1 o o 4 4 19 o 34 39 43 4 2 o 12 o Hotchkiss-Delta o o o o Delta-Grand 4 5 o o Subtotal 4 5 o o GRAND TOTAL 71 70 72 4 Blanco L. Meeker-Rio Line Subtotal Colorado River Glenwood Springs-Silt Silt-DeBeque St. Bridge 5th St. Bridge-Utah Line Subtotal Roaring Fork River El Jebel-Glenwood Gunnison Springs River Junction �-14- Table 10. Comparison of the number of Canada goose singles and pairs observed on aerial surveys in west central Colorado, Spring 1977 and 1978. Number Observed Singles Pairs Area 1978 1977 1978 1977 White River 31 15 26 32 Roaring Fork River 2 2 o 6 Colorado River Glenwood Springs-5th Street Bridge 30 13 35 33 Bridge-Utah 4 2 4 7 Hotchkiss-Delta o o o o Delta-Grand 4 o 5 11 71 32 70 89 Gunnison Line River Junction Total Prepared by__-+~~~~~~ Michael Wildlife __~~~~~~~~~~_ Szymczak Researcher C Steven F. Steinert Wildlife Technician II �-15October JOB PROGRESS State of 1979 REPORT COLORADO ----------------~----------- Work Plan No. Job Title 2 Job No. Studies of Canada Goose Populations Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-24 Project No. Bird Investigations 6 --------------------------------in Colorado Transplant Areas April 1, 1978 to March 31, 1979 J. Corey, D. Flenthrope, R. Hopper, J. Lorentzson, R. Velarde, and M. Szymczak R. Oakleaf, ABSTRACT A total of 258 Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded outside Colorado were reported recovered within north central Colorado during the 1977-78 hunting season. Analysis of those bandings did not conclusively indicate any new production areas for Hi-Line Canada geese. Trapping operations in southern Alberta, north central Colorado and the San Luis Valley of Colorado resulted in 2,788, 603, and 139 geese being banded in the respective areas. ��-17STUDIES OF CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN COLORADO TRANSPLANT Michael AREAS R. Szymczak P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To document the breeding central Colorado. range of Canada geese wintering 2. To document the distribution of harvest and estimate of the resident foothills Canada goose populations. 3. To document the distribution San Luis Valley. of harvest in north the survival of Canada geese nesting rate in the SEGMENT OBJECTIVES lao Plot the banding locations of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) banded outside north central Colorado and reported recovered in north central Colorado. lb. Participate in the cooperative southern Alberta. 2a. Trap and band 500 Canada geese on production the foothills north of Denver. and moulting 2b. Complete, cards. schedules 3a. Trap and band at least 200 Canada geese on production areas in the San Luis Valley. 3b. Complete, cards. Canada goose banding submit and file appropriate submit and file appropriate banding banding operati.on in areas along and recovery and moulting schedules and recovery METHODS AND MATERIALS Band recoveries listed on computer printouts provided periodically by the Migratory Bird Populations Station were sorted and plotted as to banding and recovery locations, sex, and age at time of banding, and estimated breeding area for birds associated with north central Colorado. Banding of flightless adults and goslings was accomplished through drive trapping operations in southern Alberta, north central Colorado and the San Luis Valley of Colorado. The banding in Alberta was accomplished by representatives of state, provincial and federal conservation agencies, including Colorado. Banding schedules and recovery reports pertaining to the San Luis Valley and north central Colorado were completed and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. Record keeping for the Alberta operation was the responsibility of the Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division. �-18- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hi-Line Population Foreign Recoveries During the 1977-78 hunting season, 258 Canada geese banded outside Colorado were reported recovered in north central Colorado (Table 1), of which 128 were classified as wild trapped locals when banded (Table 2). The fourth year of recovery information from banding in southern Alberta did very little to alter the accepted distribution of the Hi-Line breeding range. Locations banded for the first time in the sununer of 1977, Mary (93 banded), Fincastle (236 banded), Cowoki (41 banded), Coleman (15 banded), Byemoor (17 banded) and Erskine (12 banded) lakes resulted in only 5 recoveries in north central Colorado, 3 from Fincastle and 1 each from Coleman and Erskine. Mary Lake is well within the Rocky Mountain Population breeding range; Fincastle is thought to be Rocky Mountain and or.ly 3 recoveries from the HiLine area will not change the designation; and Cowoki, Coleman, Byemoor and Erskine are located along the hypothesized north-south boundary of the Rocky Mountain Hi-Line populations from near Brooks to Stettler. One recovery each from Coleman and Erksine is not sufficient for population designation and additional bandings are needed. An abnormally high number of first year recoveries from Grassy Lake (3% of the birds banded) occurred in north central Colorado during 1977-78. But geese from Grassy have been predominantly Rocky Mountain oriented in the past. Geese nesting at Schuler, Cavan, Seven Persons and Murray lakes continue to be contributors to the population wintering in north central Colorado, as do birds breeding in the EdmontonCamrose area. Bandings in the Hi-Line area in southwest Saskatchewan were terminated in 1975, therefore the number of recoveries of banded birds from that area has been going down steadily. The only area in Saskatchewan contributing a significant number of banded birds to the north central Colorado harvest in 1977-78 was the North Battleford area in east central Saskatchwan. The North Battleford geese were transported to the area and released as part of a restoration effort. Phillips County, a traditicnal Hi-Line breeding area in north central Montana, was well represented in the harvest, as were Custer, Rosebud and Treasure counties located along the Yellowstone River in the eastern portion of the state. Geese from restoration areas in northwestern Wyoming also were well represented in the harvest. Geese banded at the Wheatland Reservoir moulting area were again represented in the harvest. Small Canada geese captured in large moulting flocks in the Anderson River Delta area were also well represented in the harvest for the third consecutive year. Banding Banding was conducted for the fifth and final consecutive year on production areas in southern Alberta and north central Colorado. A resume of the number and location of geese banded in southern Alberta during the five year period is presented in Table 3. In north central Colorado, a total of 603 geese �-19- was banded, bringing the five year total to 3,678 (Table 4). Geese were captured at 13 locations with 50.1 percent of the birds banded being goslings (Table 5). San Luis Valley Population A total of 139 Canada geese was trapped and banded on production areas in the San Luis Valley (Table 6). The number of adults and goslings trapped is presented in Table 7. A total of 405 geese has been trapped and banded over the five year period. An attempt to capture birds will be made again in 1979. Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado for Canada geese recovered central Colorado during the 1977-78 hunting season. Area Alberta Edmonton-Camrose-Vegreville Kenilworth Lake Hardisty Area Erskine Lake Dowling Lake Coleman Lake San Francisco Lakes Louisiana Lakes Bantry /12 Hays Reservoir Grassy Lake Fincastle Lake Schuler Lake Cavan Lake Seven Persons Lake Murray Lake Direct Area 4 Indirect 7 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 5 7 3 6 3 5 4 3 5 Saskatchewan Manito Lake Area North Battleford Area Regina Area Eyebrow Lake Pelican Lake Cypress Hills (Maple Creek) Cypress Hills Area 2 7 1 1 1 1 1 2 British Columbia Okanagan Valley Mackenzie-Northwest Territory Beverly Lake-Thelon River Anderson River Delta-Harrowby in north 2 1 Bay 4 12 �-20- Table 1. Banding areas outside Colorado for Canada geese recovered central Colorado during the 1977-78 hunting season (continued). Area Central in north Direct Indirect 9 1 33 1 4 6 1 Flyway Montana Phillips Co. Sheridan Co. Prairie Co. Custer Co. Rosebud Co. Treasure Co. Big Horn Co. 2 North Dakota Stutsman Co. 4 5 5 1 1 South Dakota Harding Co. Perkins Co. Hughes Co. Wyoming Big Horn Co. Sheridan Co. Campbell Co. Crook Co. Weston Co. Goshen Co. Albany Co. Laramie Co. 2 4 o 2 11 4 1 3 8 1 3 5 1 1 Nebraska Keith Co. Kansas Phillips 11:/ Co. New Mexico Mora Co. San Miguel Co. Socorro Co. Chaves Co. Texas Randall Co. Deaf Smith Co. 21/ y!1 21:/ 21/ gll 11/ ,11 .1.11 1- �-21- Pacific Flyway Washington Spokane Co. 1 Idaho Gem Co. Canyon Co. Lake Co. Bannock Co. Utah Rich Co. 2 California Siskiyou Co. Lassen Co. San Diego Co. 1 1 Total 160 98 1./ Banded pos tseason. 1/ Banded postseason, taken 2 days later. Table 2. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild trapped locals which were recovered in north central Colorado during the 1977-78 hunting season. Year of Banding Area Alberta Edmonton-CamroseVegreville Area Erskine Lake Dowling Lake Coleman Lake Louisiana Lakes Bantry 112 Hays Reservoir Grassy Lake Fincastle Lake Cavan Lake Seven Persons Lake Murray Lake Schuler Lake Before 1971 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 2 3 1 1977 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 7 3 6 3 �-22- 2. Banding locations of Canada geese classified as wild trapped locals Table which we r e recovered in north central Colorado during the 1977-78 hunting season. Year of Banding Before 1971 Area Saskatchewan Cypress Hills (Maple Hills) Cypress Hills Area Val Marie-Frenchman R. Area 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 2 1 1 2 Flyway Montana Phillips Co. Sheridan Co. Prairie Co. Custer Co. Rosebud Co. Treasure Co. Big Horn Co. 3 1 3 2 3 4 11 1 4 2 2 1 1 4 6 1 1 1 \-Jyoming Big Horn Co. 2 Flyway Washington Spokane Co. 1 Idaho Gem Co. Lake Co. 1 1 Utah Rich Co. 1 Total 8 I 1 North Dakota Stutsman Co. Pacific 1977 1 British Columbia Okanagan Valley Central 1976 5 2 8 3 14 20 32 44 �Table 3. Location and number of Canada geese banded in southern Alberta 1974-78. Numbers of Geese Banded 1977 1976 1975 Common Name Location Lat.-Long. C.P.R. Res. 4950-11236 7 N Coaldale 90 84 139 1 101 Little Bow Res. 5012-11240 6 SW Travers 221 66 130 76 57 Milk R. Ridge Res. 4922-11227 6 S Raymond 327 118 227 5 77 Knight Ranch L. 4914-11227 20 S Stirling 6 111 73 106 334 Many Islands L. 5009-11004 28 NE Medicine Hat 5 69 Schuler L. 5020-11006 1 S Schuler 136 91 62 Cavan L. 4956-11024 14 SE Medicine Hat 79 74 91 40 83 Grassy L. 4948-11139 4 E Grassy Lake 107 224 273 206 70 Unnamed 5002-11141 18 E Vauxhall 91 32 35 45 12-Mi1e Coulee 5014-11139 6 E Rolling Hills 69 51 8 60 22 Bantry tI2 5022-11135 7 SE Tilley 325 82 191 67 77 Murray L. 4948-11057 5 SW Seven Persons 45 56 61 61 Seven Persons L. 4952-11054 1 S Seven Persons 60 84 70 Scope Res. 5005-11156 7 E Vauxhall 152 164 Unnamed 5047-11225 3 E Bassano 39 41 Barkenhouse L. 5054-11221 9 E Bassano 56 12 Nearest Town 1978 41 230 268 45 1974 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I N W I �Table 3. Location and number of Canada geese banded in southern Alberta 1974-78 (continued). Common Name Location Lat.-Long. Nearest Town 1978 Numbers of Geese Banded 1977 1976 1975 Keho L. 4957-11301 12 NW Picture Butte 202 78 110 101 Taber L. 4948-11206 2 E Taber 7 77 121 96 Lake Newell 5027-11158 9 S Brooks St. Mary's Res. 4921-11311 12 NE Cards ton 115 Ross L. 4909-11255 16 E Cards ton 184 174 Mary L. 4901-11313 13 SE Cardston 120 93 Fincastle L. 4950-11158 4 W Purple Springs Coleman L. 5126-11151 13 S Hanna llO 15 Cowoki L. 5035-11142 7 E Brooks 189 41 W. J. Reid L. 5052-11203 6 E Gem 154 Shooting L. 5211-11220 8 S Gadsby 98 Oldman River 4955-11152 7 N Purple Springs 16 Bow River 4958-11137 11 NW Burdett 3 1974 46 55 ll5 98 I tv .eI Total 236 2,788 1,878 1,800 1,442 1,346 �-25Table 4. Number of Canada geese banded on production central Colorado 1974-1978. areas in north Year Adults Goslings 1974 751 315 1,0671/ 1975 406 195 601 1976 357 468 825 1977 280 302 582 1978 301 302 603 2,095 1,582 3,678 1/ Includes one goose of unknown Total age. Table 5. Location and number, by age and sex, of Canada geese banded production areas in north central Colorado 1978. Location Adults Males Females Males Goslings Females on Total Rocky Ridge Reservoir 8 5 7 11 31 Grey Lakes 5 6 15 15 i.1 Romily Gravel Pits 6 8 15 14 43 Poudre Pre-Mix 9 7 8 2 26 Reservoir No. 8 13 18 17 6 54 Timnath Reservoir 2 3 17 24 46 Sterling Gravel Pits 39 36 9 12 96 Boedecker Reservoir 7 6 8 7 28 Watson Lake 0 0 3 2 5 McNeil Reservoir 14 18 11 19 62 Loveland '+ 5 9 12 30 Dixon Reservoir 0 0 9 4 l3 Valmont 31 51 23 23 128 l38 163 151 151 603 Total Flat Iron Reservoir , �-26- Table 6. Numbers of Canada geese banded on production in the San Luis Valley, 1974-1978. and moulting areas Year Adults Goslings Total 1974 4 6 6 1975 14 5 19 1976 55 149 204 1977 4 33 37 1978 18 121 139 Table 7. Location and number, by age and sex, of Canada geese banded on production areas in north central Colorado. Males Location Adults Females Males Goslings Females Total Monte Vista National Hildlife Refuge 0 1 4 4 9 Russell Lakes 2 6 34 31 73 2 1 13 14 30 Rio Grande Management Area 3 3 9 12 27 Total 7 11 60 61 139 Blanca Wildlife ment Area Prepared by Manage- 7Ji¥.til~ Wildlife Researcher �-27October JOB PROGRESS State of 1979 REPORT COLORP~O ------------~--~----------W-88-R-24 Proj ect No. Bird Investigations 2 9 Job No. ---------------------------------Monitor Banding of the Shortgrass Prairie ~C~a~n~a~d~a~G~o~o~s~e~P~o~p~u~l~a~t~l~·o~n~~i~n~S~o~u~t~h~e~a~~~~~t~e~r~n~C~ _ Work PIau No. Job Title Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory January 22, 1979 through March 31, 1979. J. Corey, K. Wagner and M. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Post-season trapping in southeastern Colorado resulted in 353 banded Canada geese (Branta canadensis), 340 of which were classified as members of the short grass prairie populations. The percentage of recoveries of southeast in Colorado banded geese reported taken during 1977-78 north of 530 latitude Alberta reached 12.5 percent, the highest level in the last 15 years. The percentage of recoveries taken in southeast Colorado dropped below 20 percent for the first time since banding began in 1951. Analysis of banding data from 1958-65 and 1967-77 provided no evidence that survival rates of juveniles and adults banded post-season in southeast Colorado were different. Survival of geese was estimated to be 74.44 + 1.61 from 1958-65 and 80.00 + 1.18 for 1967 through 1977. ��-29- MONITOR BANDING OF THE SHORTGRASS PRAIRIE CANADA GOOSE POPULATIONS IN SOUTHEASTERN COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak P. N. OBJECTIVE To continually document, through monitor banding and analysis of recovery data the annual and long term status of the southeastern Colorado (Arkansas Valley) segment of the short grass prairie Canada goose population. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Band a mlnlmum of 1,000 Canada geese in southeastern post-season period. Colorado 2. Prepare and submit banding and progress reports. and return reports, 3. Analyze band recovery data for geese banded in southeast Colorado to determine (1) distribution of harvest, (2) recovery rate, and (3) survival rate. schedules, band recovery during the METHODS AND MATERIALS All birds banded in southeast Colorado in 1978 were captured with baited cannon nets, and the age and sex determined through cloacal and tail feather examination. All banding schedules, including recapture information, were submitted to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Bird Banding Laboratory, Patuxent, Maryland. Information on the distribution of harvest and the scheme of recoveries by year of harvest was obtained from computor printouts that are provided periodically by the Bird Banding Laboratory. The banding and recovery matrices were subjected to programs BROWNIE and ESTIMATE in order to obtain estimates of recovery and survival rates (Brownie et al. 1978). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trapping and Banding Trapping efforts were hampered again in 1979 by the lack of geese roosting at Two Buttes Reservoir and denial of access to Turk's Pond, their major roosting area, for the majority of the trapping period. Most of the birds banded were captured at Turk's late in the banding period. The number of birds banded by location is presented in Table 1. Distribution of Harvest The distribution of recoveries of southeast Colorado banded geese during the 1977-78 hunting season was quite different than the distribution recorded for 1976-77 (Table 2). The percentage of recoveries north of 530 latitude �-30- in Alberta reached the highest level in the last 15 years, while the percentage of recoveries in Saskatchewan below 530 latitude also reached a record high level. The take in southeast Colorado dropped below 20 percent for the first time since banding began in 1951. A record high 9 percent of the recoveries were reported taken in north central Colorado, probably indicating increased use of that area by shortgrass prairie geese. The total number of recoveries (88) was the lowest since the 1951-52 season, probably reflecting reduced banding success in the past few years. Table 1. The number and location Colorado 1979. Adults Location of Canada geese banded in southeastern Males Juveniles Adults Females Juveniles Unknown Turk's Pond Small geese 79 51 97 79 1 Large geese 3 3 3 4 o 8 6 9 10 o 90 60 109 93 1 John Martin Small geese Total Recovery and Survival Rates Banding and recovery summaries, presented in Tables 3 and 4, were analyzed to obtain recovery and survival rate estimates. Unfortunately, the data had to be divided into two sets because banding was not done in 1966. Since two age groups, adults (ASY) and juveniles (SY) , were identified during postseason banding, the data were first tested to see whether juveniles and adults have similar recovery and survival rates. The tests involved model Ho' which assumes recovery and survival rates to be independent of age, against Hl, which permits those parameters to differ between juveniles and adults (Brownie et ale 1978, p. 56-113). Both models allow recovery and survival rates to vary from year to year. The results of the contingency chi-square tests of data sets in Tables 3 and 4 provided no evidence that recovery and survival rates for juveniles and adults were different (Table 5). Additional analysis, using a Z-test statistic also indicated there is no evidence that survival rates of the two age groups are different. The same test comparing recovery rates provided no evidence that recovery rates of the two age groups were different for birds banded in 1958-65, but some indication of a difference in juvenile and adult recovery rates for geese banded in 1967-77. �Table 2. Percentages of total band recoveries, Area 1951-55 Far North Above Five Year Averages 1956-60 1961-65 1966-70 post-season bandings, by area and year of recovery, Recover}':Year 1973-74 1974-75 1971-75 1971-72 1972-73 0.5 2.4 0.5 3.3 2.8 4.2 1.4 8.5 0.4 5.3 1.3 7.1 0.9 7.9 17.6 16.9 16.0 14.7 1.3 19.1 17.3 2.2 1.8 all bandings. Total No. 1977-78 Recoveries 1975-76 1976-77 0.9 8.6 0.9 10.4 1.2 4.3 0.6 6.1 1.1 12.5 1.1 14.7 16.2 21.6 0.9 17.8 19.6 0.6 12.5 28.4 % of Total Recoveries - - - - - 9.8 7.1 10.2 9.1 1.0 5.0 0.8 6.8 28.6 18.3 0.1 35.3 10.5 28.9 11.5 19.0 21.8 0.8 15.6 18.1 0.6 11.9 21. 8 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.7 0.1 5.4 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.1 1.2 0.5 5.0 1.9 1.0 1.4 6.5 0.5 0.3 5.8 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.3 6.3 5.2 - - - - 25.5 0.4 0.9 1.5 30.9 0.3 0.3 0.7 28.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 31.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 34.3 5.1 39.4 0.9 0.1 0.6 44.6 1.9 46.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 24.6 5.6 30.3 2.3 2.0 0.8 5.1 2.8 2.2 0.2 5.2 4.6 1.5 0.5 6.6 5.5 1.2 0.8 7.5 5.6 1.0 0.6 7.2 2.4 1.0 3.4 8.5 0.7 2.8 12.0 2.4 2.2 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.4 1.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 - - 8.8 346 8.7 979 670 10 24.7 16.9 0.3 28 5 26 13 234 0.7 0.1 0.7 0.3 5.9 1,243 18 31 39 31. 4 0.5 0.8 1.0 168 56 21 250 cl.4 0.5 6.3 59 1.5 5 0.1 1 0.03 Below 530 Alberta Saskatchewan B.C., Manitoba, Ontario Central Flyway Montana North Dakota Wyoming South Dakota Nebraska Colorado Southeast and Other North Central Total Kansas Oklahoma New Mexico Texas Panhandle Waggoner Ranch Gulf Coast Total Pacific Valley 530 N. W. Territories Alberta Saskatchewan Total Provinces Arkansas Flyway MississiEEi Mexico Total Number of Recoveries Fll!vay 0.6 - 0.1 0.6 0.7 10.6 1.4 0.7 2.7 0.4 2.2 0.9 0.9 5.1 37.8 5.8 43.6 1.8 0.9 27.4 7.3 34.7 5.3 1.3 7.8 0.9 6.7 8.7 1.8 2.3 8.0 0.9 1.9 8.6 26.8 6.4 33.2 0.9 3.7 2.7 27.6 7.4 34.4 1.8 0.6 1.8 18.2 9.1 27.3 6.4 0.9 5.5 1.2 2.3 7.3 6.7 2.3 2.3 2.3 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.1 748 677 770 712 799 211 142 225 li3 108 163 88 3,957 4.-'_ I w •.... I �Table 3. Number of Canada geese banded in 1958-65 and resulting recoveries 1958-77. Year Banded Number Banded 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1958 347 33 27 17 8 1959 217 o 21 9 7 1960 250 o 16 6 12 306 o 29 13 18 1962 334 o o 26 18 1963 369 o o o o o o 27 1961 335 780 o o o o o 1965 o o o o o o 1964 o o 1958 176 21 16 6 o o o o 25 o o o o o o Number and Year Recovered 1966 1967 1968 1969 1963 1964 1965 5 8 2 2 2 3 1 4 4 2 1 1 o 1 o o 8 4 6 3 2 1 12 4 7 3 2 3 12 5 13 3 2 35 21 14 4 11 24 12 15 o o o o 55 4 4 1 4 16 16 8 7 3 16 10 3 14 o 15 5 o o o o o 10 o o o o o o 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1 2 o o o 1 1 o 1 1 o o o o o o o o o 2 1 3 2 1 1 o o o o o o 2 4 1 1 2 o 1 1 1 5 2 5 2 o 2 1 1 o o 10 4 4 11 3 1 8 1 2 2 o 40 20 22 12 13 9 6 7 3 2 5 o o 3 1 o o o o o o 1 1 2 1 1 o 1 o o 1 o o o o o o 1 o 4 7 8 7 3 2 1 2 2 1 o o o o 1 8 o o o 10 o 1 1 1 1 1 o o 1_ 1 o o o 12 o o o o o o 40 24 9 14 6 2 2 5 2 1 3 1 o 1 1 o o 16 11 11 13 5 2 8 5 o 1 o 1 o 15 7 8 1 o 3 1 1 3 1 o o o o Adults Juveniles 1959 298 1960 167 1961 248 1962 123 1963 399 1964 251 o o 1965 198 o o o 1 o I W N I �-33- Table 4. Number of Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado and resulting recoveries 1967-77. 'Year Banded Number Banded 1967 1968 1969 Number and Year Recovered 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1967 389 29 26 10 9 8 6 6 3 3 1 2 1968 646 35 17 29 25 10 10 2 6 3 3 1969 905 39 42 15 28 12 8 8 6 358 21 6 6 4 2 7 3 532 o 23 16 21 15 7 10 1 1972 694 o 34 18 10 17 10 499 14 16 10 6 205 o 6 8 8 3 1975 357 6 7 237 o o 17 1977 o o o 6 405 o o o 19 1976 o o o o o 30 1974 o o o o o o o o o o o 25 1973 o o o o o o o o 21 1971 o o o o o o o o o 22 1970 o o o o o o o o o o o 6 1967 285 18 10 5 12 9 8 5 3 2 o 1 1968 270 o 16 9 8 4 6 3 2 2 3 o 1969 184 o 9 11 11 3 5 3 2 o 1 1970 241 o 18 9 4 l3 o o 2 2 1971 301 o o 10 13 5 6 4 1 337 o 17 17 5 8 8 4 1973 65 o o 5 2 3 1 2 132 o o o 1974 8 2 5 2 1975 71 4 1 514 11 114 o o o 21 1977 o o o 3 1976 o o o o o o o o o 19 1972 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 6 1975 ,1976 1977 Adults Juveniles o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o �-34- Table 5. Comparison of juvenile and adult recovery and survival for Canada geese banded post-season in eastern Colorado. Parameter or Test Banded 1967-77 Adult Difference Subadult rate estimates Z Value P Mean recovery rate 5.75 + 0.57 4.69 + 0.24 -1.06 -1. 71 0.09 Mean survival rate 84.68 + 8.73 80.08 + 3.22 -4.60 -0.49 0.64 Z Value P Test of Ho vs HI X2 12.20, df 21, P 0.93 Goodness of fit test of Ho X2 85.23, df 95, P 0.75 Parameter or Test Banded 1958-65 Adult Difference Subadult Mean recovery rate 8.51 + 0.69 8.43 + 0.40 - .08 -0.10 0.92 Mean survival rate 73.50 + 4.63 74.08 + 2.07 .38 0.12 0.90 Test of Ho vs HI X2 =20.72, Goodness X2 =154.44, df of fit test of Ho df 16, P = 0.19 l30, P = 0.07. Adult and juvenile bandings and recoveries were then pooled (Tables 6 and 7) and tested for model fitness using models developed for bandings of adult birds only (Brownie et al. 1978, p. 13-55). Analysis and testing of 1958-65 bandings indicates Modell, which assumes time-specific survival and recovery rates is the appropriate model for the data set. A test of Modell vs. Model 0 (assumes time-specific survival and recovery rates where first year recovery rates are different from recovery rates of previously-banded cohorts) indicated rejection of Modell (Table 8). However, considering the geese are banded post-season, there is no reason to expect the variation in re~overy rates as assumed under Model O. In addition, the rejection of Modell is not conclusive considering the large X2 and z values are mainly attri.buted to 1965 (Table 8). The goodness of fit test indicates Modell is acceptable (X2 = 81.24, df = 81, P = 0.47). Recovery and survival rates under Modell for 1958-65 are presented in Table 9. �Table 6. Number of Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado, 1958-65 and resulting recoveries 1958-77. Year Banded Number Banded 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1958 523 54 43 23 12 9 9 6 2 5 4 1 1959 515 0 46 25 23 12 11 5 1 2 1 1960 417 0 0 43 26 9 26 16 4 6 1961 554 0 0 0 44 18 22 19 12 14 Number and Year Recoverd 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 2 1 2 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 6 4 4 4 3 4 2 2 1 0 0 I w Ul 1962 457 0 0 0 0 36 30 22 5 14 4 3 3 5 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1963 768 0 0 0 0 0 75 45 23 18 17 7 4 10 4 1 5 2 1 1 1 1964 586 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 23 26 23 9 6 19 8 1 9 1 2 3 0 1965 978 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 47 28 23 12 16 10 7 10 4 2 5 0 I �-36Table 7. Number of Canada geese banded in southeast Colorado recoveries 1967-77. Year Number Banded 1967 1968 1969 Number and Year Recovered 1970 1971 1972 1973 1~74 1967 674 47 36 15 21 17 14 11 1968 922 0 51 26 37 29 16 1969 1,089 0 0 31 50 53 1970 599 0 0 0 39 1971 836 0 0 0 1972 1,032 ° 0 1973 564 0 1974 337 1975 and resulting 1975 1976 1977 6 5 1 3 13 4 8 6 3 18 33 15 10 8 7 30 10 19 4 2 9 5 0 42 26 34 20 13 14 2 0 0 0 42 51 24 18 25 lLf 0 0 0 0 0 35 16 19 11 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 10 13 5 428 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 10 7 1976 920 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 18 1977 353 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ° ° 0 12 Table 8. Chi-square and Z values obtained from a test of Model 1 vs Model 0, that first year recovery rates and/or survival rates are the same as those from cohorts banded in previous years. Values Cohort X2 Z 1959 .07 - .26 1960 .00 .05 1961 .04 - .20 1962 4.77 2.18 1963 .85 .92 1964 3.84 -1. 96 1965 9.96 3.16 Total 19.52 3.88 2 X 19.52, df 7, P 0.007 Z 3.88, df 7, P 0.07 �-37- Table 9. Recovery and survival rates of Canada geese banded Colorado 1958-65 and 1967-77. Recovery (± SE) Rate in southeast Survival Rate (± SE) 95% c. I. 95% c. I. Estimate 10.33 + 1.33 7.72 - 12.93 87.5Lf+ 9.67 68.59 - 106.48 1959 9.13 + 1.04 7.10 - 11.15 47.91 + 5.34 37.44 - 1960 10.27 + 1.14 8.03 - 12.50 83.34 + 8.53 66.62 - 100.07 1961 8.10 + 0.86 6.41 - 9.79 71.47 + 7.49 56.79 - 86.16 1962 6.05 + 0.74 4.61 - 7.49 80.89 + 7.88 65.45 - 96.33 1963 9.13 + 0.78 7.61 - 10.65 64.31 + 5.92 52.71 - 75.91 1964 8.45 + 0.79 6.90 - 10.01 85.63 + 7.76 70.43 - 100.84 1965 5.53 + 0.52 4.51 - Year Estimate 1958 Arithmetic Mean 95% C. I. 6.54 74.44 + 8.06 - 9.50 71.29 - 77.60 7.10 + 0.98 5.17 - 9~O3 1968 5.94 + 0.62 4.72 - 7.16\ 1969 3.19 + 0.37 2.42 - 3.93 1970 6.09 + 0.58 5.09 - 7.08 1971 6.16 + 0.49 5.21 - 7.11 1972 3.89 + 0.36 3.19 - 4.59 1973 '6.22 + 0.48 5.27 - 7.16 1974 3.61 + 0.38 2.86 - 4.36 1975 3.95 + 0.42 3.12 - 4.77 1976 4.36 + 0.41 3.55 - 5.17/ 1977 2.97 + 0.35 2.28 - 3.66 95% C. I. Mean 1.61 8.78 + 0.37 1967 Arithmetic 58.39 80.00 + 1.18 77.69 - 82.32 4.86 + 0.19 4.49 - 5.24 ------ �-38- Analysis of the 1967-77 data set indicates Model 2, which assumes recovery rates to be year specific, but survival to be constant, is the appropriate model. Examination of the "Goodness of Fit" tests indicates both Hodel 1 (X2 = 42.41, df = 45, P = 0.58) and Model 2 (X2 = 46.76, df ,= 54, P = 0.75) fit the data. A test of Model 2 vs Model 1 indicate Model 2 cannot be rejected in favor of Modell (X2 = 5.89, df = 9, P = 0.75). Since Model 2 has fewer parameters (12) than Modell (21), substantially better precision of the estimators is achieved under Hodel 2. Recovery and survival rate information for 1967-77 is given in Table 9. Examination of both recovery and survival rates indicate the recovery rates were higher and survival rates lower during 1958-65 compared to 1967-77. Unfortunately, since the two sets of data best fit different models, testing of differences of the most precise estimates are not possible. However, since Modell was also considered a suitable fit for the 1967-77 data, tests of differences were conducted using estimates derived under Model 1 for both data sets (1958-65, S = 74.44 1.61, T = 8.78 0.37; 1967-77, S = 78.80 2.09, f = 5.00 ± 0.20). A 2-test of the difference in survival as estimated under Modell indicated there was no evidence,of different survival rates between the two groups (2 = 0.78, P = 0.44). There was, however, a significant difference in recovery rates (2 = 9.75, P< .0001). ± ± ± Generally there are indications of declining recovery rates and increasing survival rates over the 19 year period. Population inventory figures indicate an increasing population from 1958 to 1972 (Table 10). Since 1972, the population size according to counts has been very erratic. Accurate estimates of the total population have been difficult because of the change in distribution with more shortgrass birds wintering in north central Colorado. Age ratio information as an index of production indicate a high percentage of immatures in the population in only 2 out of the last 6 years. An increase or decrease in the percent of immatures in the population has predictably not been paral1e11ed by population numbers, primarily because of the nonproductive sub-adult component of the population. Under the current rate of survival, the population should continue to increase given average production. LITERATURE CITED Brownie, C., D. R. Anderson, K. P. Burnham, and D. S. Robson. 1978. Statistical inference from band recovery data - A hand book. U. S. Fish and Wild1. Serv., Resour. Pub1. 131. 212 p. Prepared by 77'1DIA:L) e.: ;J .~~ Michael R. Szym~~ Wildlife Researcher C �-39- Table 10. Results geese 1958-79. of the January inventory of short grass prairie Canada Year No. of Geese Year No. of Geese 1958 60,300 1969 112,399 1959 76,010 1970 147,414 1960 77,709 1971 145,349 1961 103,355 1972 147,300 1962 80,133 1973 256,710 1963 93,940 1974 145,780 1964 81,221 1975 103,674 1965 103,435 1976 216,753 1966 110,485 1977 192,942 1967 106,652 1978 106,062 1968 127,903 1979 140,191 1/ Unreliable estimate. 1/ ��-41October JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Bird Investigations 3 7 Job No. ------------~-------------------Population Characteristics of Mallards Wintering in West Central Colorado ------------------------------~~------------------------------------- Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-24 1979 April 1, 1978 to March 31, 1979 G. Bock, J. Corey, D. Coven, J. Ellenberger, J. Frothingham, J. Gray, J. Gumber, J. Leslie, J. Hiller, D. Owerrs , S. Steinert, M. Stone, and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT The sixth consecutive year of the study of wintering mallards in west central Colorado was completed in Segment 24. A wintering population of 12,691 birds was estimated for,1979, based on the aerial survey conducted in January. This figure was less than the January 1978 estimate (13,860) and the long-term average (13,493 for 1959-1978). Ground counts of 3,360 birds produced a sex ratio of 110 males:l00 females, which was lower than the 1978 ratio (114.5: 100). Nearly 1,800 mallards were banded during the postseason period in 1979, bringing the total banded sample to 10,141 for the six years of study (19741979). About 350 recoveries have been obtained from these bandings through August 1, 1978, which represents only five years of recovery information. The Pacific Flyway portion of Colorado accounted for the majority of the recoveries ranging from 58 to 71 percent of the total, depending upon age and sex class. Most of the remaining recoveries occurred in Canada and Idaho. ��-43- POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MALLARDS WINTERING IN WEST CENTRAL COLORADO Richard M. Hopper This report presents results of the sixth consecutive year of study of the mallard population wintering in west central Colorado. Included is a sumnlary of all data collected since initiation of this investigation during the 197374 segment year. P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To estimate population parameters of mallards wintering in west central Colorado by age and sex category; specifically (1) population size, (2) recovery rates, (3) survival rates, (4) mean life span, (5) sex ratio, and (6) geographic distribution of the harvest. 2. To develop a management plan for the population in west central Colorado. of mallards winterin8 SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Conduct an aerial count of wintering numbers of mallards during the first or second week of January as part of the annual mid-winter survey conducted throughout the United States. 2. Conduct a minimum of two ground counts (sex ratio) of 500 mallards each in each of the following two concentration areas: (1) Grand JunctionHighline Lake area, and (2) Montrose-Delta area. 3. Trap and band 1,500 mallards during the postseason period, including 750 in the Grand Junction-Highline Lake area, and 750 in the Montrose-Delta area. Distribute the sample equally among the four age and sex classes. 4. Preparation and submission of banding reports, and progress reports. schedules, band recovery and return METHODS AND MATERIALS All methods remained the same as in Segment 22 (Hopper 1977). The aerial inventory was conducted on January 3, 1979 and involved flying over all kno~vn waterfowl concentration areas in the Uncompahgre-Gunnison-Colorado River Complex of west central Colorado. Personnel of the Northwest Region again made the survey, utilizing a Cessna 185 aircraft and a crew consisting of a pilot and two observers. Sex ratio counts were made during the postseason banding period on the dates of January 26, 29, 31 and February 4 and 6 at Highline Lake and on January 25 and February 5 at Burlingame Pond near Delta. Salt Plains type traps, baited with corn, were again used to capture mallards for banding after the close of the hunting season. Specifically, banding was done during the period January 25 and February 7, 1979. All birds were aged �-44- according to the wing-aging maintained for each banding were prepared and submitted technique (Carney 1964), and recapture data were location. Banding schedules and recovery reports to the Bird Banding Laboratory. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aerial Census Results of the 1979 January inventory of wintering mallards, in addition to counts from the previous five years, are presented in Table 1. The 1979 estimate of 12,691 was about 1,200 birds short of the number observed in 1978 (13,860) and about 2,200 less than the average for the period 1974-1978 (14,842). The long-term (1959-1978) average for this population is 13,493. The area covered in this count was presented in more detail in a previous report for this job (Hopper 1977). Table l. January 1974-1979. Location inventory of mallards wintering in west central Colorado 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 High1ine Lake 2,400 4,700 10,200 6,900 6,100 4,200 Colorado River 3,110 1,830 1,545 3,390 3,046 2,856 Gunnison River 700 1,345 9,100 2,215 3,756 2,850 0 485 270 225 208 1,785 0 0 1,900 1,800 450 0 2,975 3,400 110 1,750 300 1,000 9,185 11,760 . 23,125 16,280 13,860 12,691 Uncompahgre Sweitzer River Lake Burlingame Total 5-Year Mean Pond (1974-1978) = 14,842 Sex Ratio Counts Table 2 lists the sex ratio counts taken in 1979 by date and location. Overall ratios obtained during each of the previous three years are also shown for comparison. Over 3,350 mallards were counted in 1979, resulting in a sex ratio of 110.1 ma1es:lOO females for all areas combined. Northern and southern portions of the study area were not too different, yielding 110.8 and 107.8 males per 100 females, respectively. Prior to 1979, the proportion of males in the counts steadily increased each year since 1976, but this may have been due to sampling error rather than a reflection of a real change in the sex ratio. �-45- Table 2. Sex ratio counts of mallards in west central Colorado during January and February 1979, with overall ratios from 1976 and 1977 for comparison. No. Males No. Females Total 01-26-79 278 264 542 105.3 01-29-79 278 254 532 109.4 01-31-79 284 260 544 109.2 02-04-79 272 228 500 ll9.3 02-06-79 264 236 500 lll.9 1,376 1,242 2,618 llO.8 01-25-79 276 246 522 ll2.2 02-05-79 109 III 220 98.2 385 357 742 107.8 Total 1,761 1,599 3,360 llO.l 1976 1,741 1,755 3,496 99.2 1977 1,375 1,279 2,654 107.5 1978 2,816 2,460 5,276 ll4.5 Date Location Highline Lake Subtotal Burlingame Subtotal (North) Pond (South) Trapping Males:lOO Females and Banding Trapping and banding was continued during the 1979 postseason period (late January and February), representing the sixth consecutive year of banding effort. Nearly 1,800 mallards were banded in the two general areas in 1979, resulting in a total banded sample of 10,141 for the six years (1974-1979) of study (Table 3). The age composition of the trapped sample favored the subadult class in 1979, much the same as it has in past years. The adult female segment continued to be the least represented of the four age and sex classes, although in the earlier years it was as common as the other three. Preliminary The number of recoveries Distribution obtained of Band Recoveries from the first five years of banding as �-46- Table 4. Colorado, Recovery Recovery distribution of mallards 1974-1978 (all years). Location AM banded postseason in west central Percent of Total Recoveries Age and Sex SM AF SF Canada Alberta British Columbia Saskatchewan 5.4 0.0 3.2 6.0 0.0 3.0 8.2 0.0 2.0 9.9 1.4 5.6 Subtotal 8.6 9.0 10.2 16.9 Arizona Colorado Idaho Montana New Mexico Oregon Utah Washington Wyoming 0.0 58.1 8.6 2.1 2.1 0.0 5.4 0.0 4.3 1.5 60.4 3.7 2.3 0.0 0.7 6.7 0.0 2.3 0.0 71. 5 2.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 6.2 2.0 2.0 0.0 57.8 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.9 0.0 4.2 Subtotal 80.6 77.6 85.7 77.5 Colorado Kansas Montana Nebraska New Mexico Texas Wyoming 7.5 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 5.3 1.5 0.0 3.0 0.7 O. 7 1.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 1.4 1.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Subtotal 9.7 12.7 2.0 5.6 Iowa Louisiana 0.0 1.1 0.7 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 Subtotal 1.1 0.7 2.0 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 99.9 100.0 Number of Recoveries 93 134 49 71 Pacific Flyway Central E'Lyway Mississippi Flyway �-47- of August 1, 1978 totaled 347. These recoveries represent only those birds that had been shot and/or found dead during the hunting season (September 1January 31). Table 3. Number and age and sex composition of mallards banded postseason in west central Colorado, 1979, and totals for the period 1974-1979. AM Age and Sex SM AF SF Total 209 328 86 329 952 296 242 134 165 837 505 570 220 494 1,789 1,513 1,377 937 1,390 5,217 1,256 1,569 790 1,309 4,924 2,769 2,946 1,727 2,699 10,141 Year and Location 1979 Grand Junction Area Delta Area Total 1974-1979 Grand Junction Area Delta Area Total The geographic distribution of these 347 recoveries is shown in Table 4 by age and sex class. The Pacific Flyway portion of Colorado was the major recovery location for all four age and sex classes, accounting for from 58.1 to 71.5 percent of the total recoveries. Adult females showed a somewhat higher affinity for this area than did the other three classes. Canada and Idaho were the next most common recovery locations. Literature Cited Carney, S. M. 1964. Preliminary keys to waterfowl age and sex identification by means of wing plumage. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept., Wildl. No. 82. 47 pp. Hopper, R. M. 1977. Population characteristics of mallards wintering in west central Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Fed. Aid Game Res. Repto, Oct. pp. 33-39. Prepared by ~ kL. L"}/J'"'Hopp;r;;;~ .·~t>t:.~ , / , ( ~/ . '/~ c ..{ Rf.char d M. Wildlife Researcher '= C ��-49October JOB PROGRESS REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title W-88-R-24 3 Monitor Banding Period Covered: 1979 Migratory Job No. Bird Investigations 8 --------------------------------- of Eastern Colorado Wintering Mallard Populations April 1, 1978 to March 31, 1979 Personnel: M. Babler, M. Bauman, G. Brown, L. Budde, J. Carsella, J. Corey, C. Crawford, M. DePra, K. Dillinger, M. Gardner, B. Goforth, K. Green, D. Homan, T. Howard" J. Jackson, B. Leasure. R. Lopez, J. Lorentzson, S. Lucero, T. Lynch, F. Marcoux, K. Moser, R. Oehlkers, C. Pabst, J. Pogorelz, F. Rinella, C. Roberts, W. 'Rupke, H. Sp ear , S. Steinert, M. Szymczak, K. Wagner, R. Zaccagnini, and R. Hopper. ABSTRACT The banded sample for Segment 24 totaled 4,606 mallards, or about 600 birds over the minimum quota established for eastern Colorado. An updated analysis of banding data was initiated during the segment, based on 76,197 bandings between 1963-1964 and 1975-1976, and 6,475 recoveries from the 1964-1965 through 1976-1977 hunting seasons. Several analyses involving recovery distributions and recovery and survival rate estimates are being conducted by management unit of banding and age and sex class. ��-51MONITOR BANDING OF EASTERN COLORADO WINTERING MALLARD POPULATIONS Richard M. Hopper This report summarizes Segment 24 results of the program involving monitor banding of mallard populations in eastern Colorado during the post season period. Hopper (1977) described the purpose of the original study, general accomplishments, reasons for transferring field responsibilities to the regional management system, and the role of the Research Section in the program. Hopper (1978) presented results of the first phase of this investigation, which related to the first P. N. Objective listed below. These results concluded that the transfer of monitor banding responsibilities from research to management was now complete, and that the first objective of this study was thereby met. The 1978 report also outlined the responsibilities of the Research Section with regard to this banding program. Thus, the Segment 24 report presented here addresses the second P. N. Objective. P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To establish monitor banding of wintering mallard Colorado as an annual management function. populations in eastern 2. To continually document, through monitor banding and analysis of recovery data, the annual and long term status of eastern Colorado wintering mallards to provide a basis for annual hunting season recommendations. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Band a mlnlmum of 4,000 mallards during the post season period, including a minimum of 500 birds in each of the following general areas of the South Platte Valley and Arkansas Valley: (a) Denver-Greeley, (b) Fort Collins-Loveland-Windsor, (c) Greeley-Fort Morgan, Cd) Fort MorganSterling, (e) Sterling-Julesburg, (f) Bonny Reservoir, (g) ManzanolaLamar, and (h) Two Buttes Reservoir area. Divide the banded sample in each area equally among the four age and sex classes. 2. Conduct an updated analysis of band recovery data, including the following major determinations for important population segments of mallards wintering in eastern Colorado: (a) distribution of the harvest, (b) recovery rates, and (c) survival rates. 3. Prepare and submit banding and progress report. schedules, band recovery and return reports, METHODS AND MATERIALS Procedures and equipment remained essentially the same as in the previous year (Hopper 1977), with the exception that participation in the actual banding effort by research personnel (Federal Aid Project W-88-R) was limited to Bonny Reservoir. The Research Section has retained responsibility for banding at Bonny Reservoir because of clo~ely related studies anticipated for the future. �WATERFOWL MANAGEMENT UNITS K N E A WYOMING I ">:J OKLAHOMA k' NEW GFP-R-M-l Fig. L Waterfowl Management MEXICO Units in colorado. I." '~. �-53- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Banding Over 4,600 mallards were banded during January and February of 1979, or Segment 24 (Table 1). This number again exceeded the 4,000 quota established for eastern Colorado. Only one location, the Arkansas Valley, failed to contribute a representative sample to the banding program. All banding schedules and band recovery reports were prepared and submitted to the Bird Banding Laboratory. Table 1. Mallards banded post season by age and sex in the eight eastern Colorado banding areas, January-February 1979. Banding Area AM Number of Ducks Banded Age and Sex SM AF SF Bonny Reservoir 400 400 248 231 1,279 Sterling-Julesburg 114 103 112 119 448 Fort Morgan-Sterling 125 119 116 136 496 Greeley-Fort 141 126 124 117 508 176 182 135- 206 699 Fort Collins-Loveland-Windsor 226 129 124 126 605 Arkansas Valley 11 4 4 3 22 Two Buttes Area 251 175 30 93 549 1,444 1,238 893 1,031 Morgan Denver-Greeley Total I Total Updated Analysis of Band Recovery 4,606 Data Banding and recovery tapes were received from the Bird Banding Laboratory in Segment 24 for mallards banded post season in eastern Colorado during the period 1963-1964 through 1975-1976 and for recoveries from these bandings during the 1964-1965 through 1976-1977 hunting seasons. These tapes were placed on file at the Colorado State University Computer Center, and the Computer Center User Services was hired to run the desired programs. The banding tape was subjected to a program that tallied numbers of mallards banded by: (1) management unit (Fig. 1), (2) latitude and longitude (10minute block), (3) year, and (4) age and sex class. Table 2 presents a �-54- summary of the resulting printout by management unit and age and sex class, while Table 3 lists numbers banded by year and age and sex class. Over 76,000 birds were banded during the l3-year period of study (44,453 males and 31,744 females). Total banded samples were consistent among management units at about 10,000-12,000 each, except for units 10-13 (Table 2).' These latter four units will be combined for purposes of the analysis because of the poorer individual samples obtained. Yearly samples varied from 3,382 to 7,153 (Table 3). Table 2. Numbers of mallards banded post season in eastern Colorado ment unit and age and sex class (1963-64 through 1975-76). by manage- Management Unit Adult Male Subadult Total Adult Female Subadult Total Grand Total 1 3,161 2,923 6,084 1,688 2,246 3,934 10,018 2 3,571 2,912 6,483 2,177 2,135 4,312 10,795 3 3,052 3,013 6,065 2,008 2,528 4,536 10,601 4 3,224 2,667 5,89l 2,247 2,282 4,529 10,420 6 3,910 3,130 7,040 2,253 2,509 4,762 11,802 9 3,248 2,733 5,981 2,114 2,458 4,572 10,553 10 451 490 941 205 408 613 1,554 11 765 477 1,242 832 786 1,618 2,860 12 2,167 1,338 3,505 1,110 1,022 2,132 5,637 13 817 404 1,221 387 349 736 1,957 Totals 24,366 20,087 44,453 15,021 16,723 31,744 76,197 The recovery tape was also subjected to several programs involving recovery distributions and recovery and survival rate estimates for 6,475 recoveries. Printouts of recovery distributions included numbers and percent of total birds recovered for each management unit of banding and age and sex class. Recovery locations were tabulated by latitude and longitude (degree block), flyway, state, and Colorado management unit. Separate printouts were also obtained for first-year and all-year recoveries. Although these programs involving recovery distribution were run during the segment, the resulting printouts have not been reviewed and interpreted. This work will be accomplished during Segment 25, along with generating some additional printouts of recovery distribution by 10-day intervals of the hunting season and by year class of birds. �-55- Table 3. Numbers of mallards and age and sex class. banded post season in eastern Colorado Banding Year Adult Male Subadu1t Total Adult 1963-64 2,177 1,244 3,421 1964-65 3,135 1,237 1965-66 2,293 1966-67 by year Female Subadu1t Total Grand Total 484 684 1,168 if,589 4,372 726 634 1,360 5,732 2,164 4,457 1,066 1,548 2,614 7,071 2,090 2,069 4,159 1,136 1,722 2,858 7,017 1967-68 1,914 1,844 3,758 1,405 1,990 3,395 7,153 1968-69 1,210 1,219 2,429 1,145 872 2,017 4,446 1969-70 910 791 1,701 645 1,036 1,681 3,382 1970-71 1,466 1,441 2,907 1,221 1,207 2,428 5,335 1971-72 1,823 1,566 3,389 1,448 1,709 3,157 6,546 1972-73 1,862 1,523 3,385 1,677 989 2,666 6,051 1973-74 1,568 1,371 2,939 1,393 1,278 2,671 5,610 1974-75 1,868 1,812 3,680 1,350 1,562 2,912 6,592 1975-76 2,050 1,806 3,856 1,325 1,492 2,817 6,673 Totals 24,366 20,087 44,453 15,021 16,723 31,744 76,197 Re cove ry and survival rate analyses were initiated based on the new methods described by Brownie et al. (1978). Specifically, a portion of the recovery data was analyzed through programs BROWNIE and ESTIMATE during the segment, and the remaining data will be processed by these same two programs in Segment 25. These analyses include recovery and survival rate estimates by management unit of banding and by age and sex class. The printouts thus far generated from these programs were still in the process of review at the end of Segment 24, thus no results can be presented here. Hopefully, the complete analyses will be finished during next segment and a report prepared shortly thereafter. �-56- LITERATURE CITED Brownie, C., D. R. Anderson, K. P. Burnham, and D. S. Robso~. 1978. Statistical inference from band recovery data - a handbook. U. S. Dept. of the Int., Fish and Wildl. Servo Resour. Publ. No. 131. 212 pp. Hopper, R. M. 1977. Monitor banding of eastern Colorado wintering mallard populations. Colo. Div. of Wildl. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 41-47. 1978. lations. Prepared by Monitor banding of eastern Colorado wintering mallard popuColo. Div. of Wildl. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., Oct. pp. 41-45. ;t:J- -iaP/:; - )/D#2/ Richard M. Hopper Wildlife Researcher i' C C �-57- JOB PROGRESS October REPORT State of COLORADO --------~~~~~----------- Project No. 1~-88-R-24 Job Title Period Job No. 9 _ Migration and Hortality Characteristics of Duck Populations in the Inter-Mountain Valleys of Colorado Covered: Personnel: Higrat_ory Bird Investigations 3 Work Plan No. 1979 April 1, 1978 to Harch 31, 1979 H. Nail and Staff, Honte Vista National Wildlife Refuge; R. Darnell and Staff, Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge; J. Corey, Flenthrope, Dean Flenthrope, R. Oakleaf~ J. Wagner, K. Wagner, S. Steinert, L. Stevens, and M. Szymczak, Colorado Divsion of Wildlife. Dale ABSTRAGr Totals of 2,875, 3,316 and 4,912 ducks were banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, respectively, in 1978. The major species of harvest during the early season in North Park in 1978 were the gadwall (20%), northern shoveler (18%), mallard (11%), blue-winged or cinnamon teal (10%), and lesser scaup (10%). In South Park the mallard made up 44 percent of the harvest during the early season followed by the pintail (15%), American wigeon (12%), and green-winged teal (12%). In the San Luis Valley the mallard was the major species of harvest (40%) during the early season, followed by the gadwall (24%), American wigeon (11%), and northern shoveler (11%). ��-59HIGRATION AND MORTALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF DUCK POPULATIONS IN THE INTER-MOUNTAIN VALLEYS OF COLORADO Michael R. Szymczak P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To investigate migration, mortality, recovery distribution and relationships among populations of selected species of ducks present in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the mid-July through midSeptember period. 2. To document the species composition of ducks harvested during early October seasons, should seasons occur in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley. 3. To examine the feasibility of establishing early special duck seasons in September in the high mountain park areas or to examine the feasibility of special early October seasons in South and North Park similar to what has been recommended for the San Luis Valley. 4. To establish procedures to monitor the effect of early special duck seasons or, duck populations in the high mountain park areas if granted. SEGMENT OBJECTIVES 1. Trap and band ducks in North Park, South Park, and the San Luis Valley during the mid-July through mid-September period as designated in Program Narrative Outline. Complete, submit and file appropriate banding schedules and recovery cards. 2. Collect and analyze data concerning the species composition of the harvest during early October seasons in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley utilizing wing collection barrels and results of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection Survey. 3. Analyze band recovery data through the 1976 recovery year for mallards, pintail and green-winged teal banded during the pre-season period in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley to determine the feasibility of requesting early seasons in the high mountain area. 4. Prepare 5. If a special high mountain duck season is requested and granted, design a program for population monitoring which may include banding, harvest surveys, wing collection or other activities. progress report. METHODS AND MATERIALS Ducks were captured from August 9-September 13 in South Park, August 12September 15 in the San Luis Valley and July 26-September 22 in North Park. Primarily "salt plains" type bait traps were used (Szymczak and Corey 1976). In North Park, night lighting from airboats was used to capture most gadwall and wigeon. The age and sex of all birds captured and banded were determined. �-60- Wings from ducks bagged during the September 30, 1978 through October 13, 1978 period were collected in North and South Parks through the use of voluntary collection barrels (Hoffman and Braun 1975). Barrels were placed at Walden Reservoir (2 barrels), Lake John Annex (1 barrel) and at Cowdrey (1 barrel) in North Park, and at Antero Reservoir (3 barrels) in South'Park. Some additional wings were collected at Delaney Butte Lake and on Case Flats. All wings collected were classified by species, age, sex and location, and in some cases, periods of harvest. The species composition of the harvest in the San Luis Valley was obtained at the Central Flyway, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection "wing bee." Computerized analysis of banding and recovery tapes of birds marked through 1975 in North Park, South Park, the San Luis Valley and the high country areas west of the San Luis Valley continued using programs outlined by Szymczak (1978). In addition, most results for mallard, pintail and greenwinged teal were updated through the 1977-78 recovery year utilizing periodic printouts of recovery information received from the Bird Banding Laboratory. Information concerning all aspects of the duck populations in the banding areas including breeding pairs, production, pre-season and winter population size, hunting season and harvest was compiled and written into draft form to be included in the final report. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Banding Totals of 2,875, 3,316 and 4,912 ducks were banded in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley, respectively, in 1978. The species composition of the birds banded in each area are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Quotas of 300 mallards of each sex of adult and immature birds were essentially met for both ages of males in all areas, but for females only in the San Luis Valley. In the three areas, fewer total pintails were banded in 1978 than in 1977, however, the age ratios were more equally balanced. The gadwall quota in North Park of 300 adults of each sex was not met because of mechanical problems with the airboat. The total number of birds banded was 11,103 (Table 4). Species Composition of the Harvest A total of 597 wings was collected during the 1978 early duck hunting season in North Park. Seventy-two percent of the wings were collected at Walden Reservoir where the major species of harvest was the gadwall, followed by the shoveler (Table 5). The mallard made up a substantial portion of the harvest at both Lake John Annex and the Cowdrey area. The mallard comprised over 11 percent of the total harvest compared to 6 to 7 percent during the 1975-77 period in North Park (Table 6). The percent of the harvest composed of wigeon has been declining since 1975, while the shoveler harvest has generally been increasing. Sixty-six percent of the wings in the sample were from birds taken the first two days of the season (Table 7). The mallard made up 43.5 percent of the ducks harvested during the early season at Antero Reservoir (Table 6). The pintail was second in importance in the harvest followed by the green-winged teal and wigeon. Ninety percent of the wings were from birds taken the first 2 days of the season (Table 8). �-61- Table l. Number of ducks banded, by species, pre-season period, 1978. in North Park during Age and Sex LM AF AM 1M Mallard 315 347 4 Pintail 317 268 Gadwall 303 the IF LF Total 175 242 2 1,085 12 224 214 12 1,047 26 5 100 12 5 451 28 7 4 15 12 2 68 102 39 0 25 21 ° 187 Blue-winged and cinnamon teal 2 3 2 4 2 2 15 Redhead 4 1 6 6 1 4 22 1,071 691 33 549 504 27 2,875 in South Park during the pre- American wigeon Green-winged teal Total Table 2. Number of ducks banded by species, season period, 1978. Age and Sex LM AF AM n1 Mallard 301 296 6 Pintail 328 356 Redhead 5 American wigeon Gadwall Green-winged teal Blue-winged and cinnamon teal Total IF LF Total 132 259 5 999 2 l30 321 4 1,141 1 0 16 0 22 4 1 0 1 ° 0 0 6 0 1 0 1 i 0 3 330 263 0 97 154 0 844 39 145 0 17 100 0 301 1,007 1,063 8 394 835 9 3,316 �-62Table 3. Number of ducks banded by species in the San Luis Valley during the pre-season period, 1978. 1/ AM 1M Age and Sex LM AF IF LF Total 28 506 589 19 2,246 Mallard 540 Pintail 178 363 o 130 291 1 963 Green-winged teal 277 131 3 115 87 o 613 Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal 110 391 5 83 288 2 879 Redhead 5 15 5 5 15 10 55 Shoveler o o 1 o o o 1 Gadwall o 25 34 13 27 32 131 American wigeon 2 11 2 5 1 3 24 1,112 1,500 78 857 1,298 67 4,912 Total 1/ Includes 1,261 and 763 ducks banded by the Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges, respectively. Table 4. Number of ducks banded, by species, in North Park, South Park and the San Luis Valley during the pre-season period 1978. 1/ Age and Sex LM AF IF LF Total 38 813 1,090 26 4,330 987 14 484 826 17 3,151 709 433 3 237 262 o 1,644 Gadwall 303 52 39 114 40 37 585 Blue-winged and Cinnamon teal 151 539 7 104 390 4 1,195 American wigeon 34 19 6 21 13 5 98 Redhead 14 17 11 27 16 14 99 Shoveler o o 1 o o o 1 3,190 3,254 119 1,800 2,637 103 11,103 AM 1M Mallard 1,156 1,207 Pintail 823 Green-winged teal Total 1/ and 763 ducks banded by the Alamosa and Monte Vista National - Includes 1,261 Wildlife Refuges, respectively. �-63- Table 5. Species composition of the harvest in North Park during September 30-0ctober 13, 1978 early duck hunting season according voluntarily placed in collection barrels. the to wings Area Species \.Jalden Reservoir Lake John Annex Cowdrey Area Delaney ButtesCase Flats Total Gadwall 96(22.3) 11(13.9) 8(11.0) 4(28.6) 119(20.0) 87(20.2) 9(11.4) 11(15.1) 3(21.4) 110(18.4) Mallard 30(8.6) 17(21.5) 18(24.7) 3(21.4) 68(11.4) Blue-winged or Cinnamon teal 45(10.4) 9(11.4) 8(11.0) 0(0.0) 62(10.4) Lesser 52(12.1) 2(2.5) 8(11.0) 0(0.0) 62(10.4) 37(8.6) 11(13.9) 5(6.8) 1(7.1) 54(9.0) 28(6.5) 11(13.9) 2(2.7) 0(0.0) 41(6.9) 22(5.1) 3(3.8) 4(5.5) 2(14.3) 31(5.2) 17(3.9) 4 (5.1) 8 (11.0) 1(7.1) 30(5.0) 10(2.3) 1(1.3) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 11(1.8) Ruddy 6(1.4) 1(1.3) 1 (1.4) 0(0.0) 8(1.3) Bufflehead 1(0.2) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 0(0.0) 1(0.2) 79 73 14 Northern Shoveler scaup American wigeon Redhead Green-winged teal Pintail Ring-necked Total duck 431 597 Forty percent of the 45 wings collected during the early season in the San Luis Valley were from mallards, while gadwall comprised 24 percent (Table 6). The percent of the harvest composed of mallards during early season has been generally declining since at least 1963 (Table 9). Band Recovery Analysis Analysis of the banding data through the 1977-78 recovery year 1S continuing at this time. Results of the analysis will be presented in the final report. �Table 6. Percent species composition of the harvest in North Park and South Park during early OctolJer duck hunting seasons 1975-1978 according to independent wing barrel surveys and in the San Luis Valley based on U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Parts Collection Survey. __ . Species NP 1975 SP 1/ SLV NP 1976 SP S1V NP 1977 SP S1V NP 1978 SP SLV Mallard 6.9 - 47.1 6.1 8.7 44.9 6.0 55.9 43.7 11. 4 43.5 40.0 Gadwall 20.6 - 20.6 28.1 2.2 6.7 25.4 8.8 12. 7 20.0 6.5 24.4 7.7 - 4.4 7.2 25.0 19.1 4.9 4.9 12.7 c; ') ,_ 12.0 4.1f 2.9 21.1j 28.3 4.5 14.9 4.4 7. a 9.0 12.0 11. J 5.9 8.8 25.0 13.5 8.6 2.9 1.4 10.4 7.6 8.9 H.8 4.8 3.3 7.9 5.6 8.8 16.9 5.0 15.2 0.0 4.4 2.7 2.2 2.2 11. 2 0.0 4.2 18.4 1.1 11.1 1.5 11. 2 5.4 0.0 10.1 2.9 0.0 6.9 0.0 0.0 Green-winged American teal wigeon 28.9 Blue-winged/ Cinnamon teal 15.4 Pintail 5.1 - J. Redhead 4.3 - Ruddy duck 1.6 - 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.5 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.0 1.1 0.0 1.1 0.7 0.0 1.4 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 0.0 0.0 9.7 0.0 0.0 10.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.4 1.5 0.0 0.0 2.2 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 92 89 68 71 92 45 Northern shoveler Ring-necked 3.4 duck Scaup 5.1 Merganser 0.0 Hooded merganser 0.0 Bufflehead 0.0 - 494 1/ Wings not collected I 0'> Total No. Wings Examined . 68 374 in South Park in 1975. 268 597 .1-.... I �-65- Table 7. Species composition of the harvest by time period at Walden Reservoir, Lake John Annex, and the Cowdrey area during the September October 13, 1978 duck season. 30- Species Sept. 30-0ct. 1 No. Percent Oct. 2-8 No. Percent Oct. 9-13 No. Percent . ~ 2/ E'ntlre ~easonNo. Percent Gadwall 72 18.3 27 19.7 3 11.5 119 20.0 87 22.1 11 8.0 5 19.2 110 18.4 Mallard 35 8.9 21 15.3 9 34.6 68 11. 4 Lesser scaup 37 9.4 24 17.5 1. 3.8 62 10.4 Blue-winged or Cinnamon teal 51 12.9 9 6.6 o 0.0 62 10.4 American wigeon 31 7.9 17 12.4 2 7.7 54 9.0 Redhead 32 8.1 8 5.8 o 0.0 41 6.9 24 6.1 4 2.9 2 7.7 31 5.2 14 3.6 8 5.8 4 15.4 30 5.0 4 1.0 6 4.4 o 0.0 11 1.8 Ruddy 6 1.5 2 1.5 o 0.0 8 1.3 Bufflehead 1 0.3 o 0.0 o 0.0 1 0.2 Northern shoveler Green-winged teal Pintail Ring-necked Total duck 137 1/ Includes 26 597 14 birds taken either at Delaney the old Fish Hatchery. Buttes Lakes or on Case Flats near 1/ Includes time period. 40 birds taken during an unknown �-66Table 8. Species composition of the harvest by time period at Antero Re servo Lr , South Park, Colorado during the September 30-0ctober 13, 1978 duck hunting season. Time Period Oct. 2-13 No. Percent Entire Season No. Percent Species Se2t. 30-0ct. 1 No. Percent '1allard 40 48.2 0 0.0 40 43.5 Pintail 14 16.9 0 0.0 14 15.2 9 10.8 2 22.2 11 12.0 Cr eerr-w i.nge d teal 6 7.2 5 55.6 11 12.0 Blue-winged 5 6.0 2 22.2 7 7.6 Gadwall 6 7.2 0 0.0 6 6.5 Common merganser 2 2.4 0 0.0 2 2.2 Shoveler 1 1.2 0 0.0 1 1.1 Total 83 American wigeon teal Table 9. Percent of mallards San Luis Valley 1963-78. 1/ 92 9 in the early October duck season harvest in the Year Percent Year Percent 1963 86.9 1971 65.6 1964 73.8 1972 50.7 1965 77 .8 1973 60.6 1966 73.7 1974 47.7 1967 71.6 1975 47.1 1968 75.8 1976 44.9 1969 67.5 1977 43. 7 1970 54.9 1978 40.0 1/ 1963 through 1970 from Hopper et al. 1975. �-67- LITERATURE CITED Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer Colo. Div. Wildl. Game Inform. Leafl. No. 101. wing collection 3 p. station. Hopper, R. M., A. D. Geis, J. R. Grieb, and L. Nelson, Jr. 1975. Experimental duck seasons, San Luis Valley, Colorado 1963-1970. Wildl. Monogr. No. 46. 68 p. Szymczak, M. R. 1978. Migration and mortality characteristics of duck populations in the Inter-mountain valleys of Colorado. Colo. Div. of Wildl., Game Res. Rept., Fed. Aid Proj. W-88-R. October. p. 47-59. Szymczak, M. R., and J. F. Corey. Plains duck trap in Colorado. 13 p. Michael R. Szymczak Wildlife Researcher 1976. Construction and use of the Salt Colo. Div. Wildl. Div. Rept. No.6. ��-69- October 1979 JOB FUl.AJ.. REPORT COLORADO State of Project No. Work Plan No. Job Title Period Vl-88-R-24 3 Morphological Covered: Higratory Job Differences No. Between Bird Investigations 10 Blue-winged and Cinnamon Teal April 1, 1977 to March 31, 1979 Personnel: B. Aufdengarten, R. Darnell, R. Ellis, P. Feiger, W. McDermitt, M. Nail, L. Vaughn, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Dr. P. Baldwin, Dr. J. Law, L. Martin, Dr. R. Ryder, L. Sweanor, R. Thompson, K. Woodruff, Colorado .State University; M. Conner, J. Corey, D. F#~·n.thrope; S. Harpster, R. Hopper, R. Oakleaf, S. Steinert, and R. Stark, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations of differences in selected morphological characteristics between blue-winged teal (Anas discors) and cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera) were initiated in May 1977. Twenty females and 5 males of each species were collected in May and June 1977 for use as a reference collection and for testing potential techniques for distinguishing the species. One hundred and fifty eggs of each species were incubated, hatched, and ducklings raised at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Twenty-three measurements, mostly involving the bill, were taken on the wild teal, while only 10 were taken on the captive teal due to non-significant differences between the species or to the difficulty of obtaining an accurate measurement on live birds. The captive birds were measured weekly from the 5th through the 16th week of age and monthly from the 20th through the 56th week of age. Data were analyzed for the 5th through the 8th, 12th, 16th, 20th, and 56th weeks. Descriptive statistics indicated that cinnamon teal bills were larger than bluewing bills and significant differences (P~.05) existed between wild females of the 2 species for 16 of the 23 variables measured and for all 10 variables measured on the captive females after the 8th week of age. Although the sample size of wild males was small, 14 of the 23 variables were significantly different, while all 10 of the variables were significantly different for the captive males after the 5th week of age. Discriminant analyses for the l6-week old captive teal indicated that 96.2% of the females and 100.0% of the males were classified accurately when all 10 variables were included in the analysis, but it was felt that measuring 10 variables would not be practical for field use, and therefore, 4 were selected for use in the field based on discriminating power and ease of taking accurate measurements. The 4 variables selected were the lengths of the (1) center of the culmen, (2) maximum exposed culmen, (3) culmen from the gape, and (4) center of the cu~men x the width ' of the culmen at the gape. Discriminant analyses using logarithms of the 4 variables and based on discriminant coefficients calculated from each week's data indicated that 100% of the captive males and >92% .of the captive females �-70- ABSTRACT (Continued) were classified correctly after the 8th week of age. Both sexes of the wild teal were classified correctly (100.0%) by discriminant analysis using the 4 sel~cted variables and based on a discriminant coefficient calculated from the measurements taken on the wild birds. An average discriminant coefficent was calculated from the weekly data for the captive teal from the 8th, 12th, 16th, 20th, and 56th weeks. The average coefficient was used in a discriminant analysis of captive birds and essentially the same results were obtained as when the analyses were based on weekly coefficients. The average coefficient was also used in a discriminant analysis of the wild teal and all (100.%) were correctly classified, demonstrating the possibility of developing discriminant coefficients from correctly identified sample birds for use in classifying unidentified teal in the field. �-71- MORPHOLOGICAL BETWEEN BLUE-WINGED Robert DIFFERENCES AND CINNAMON TEAL S. Stark Anas discors discors is one of 2 subspecies of blue-winged teal occurring in North America. It breeds from southern Ontario and Quebec south into the northeastern United States, west through the north central United States and Canada to Califonria and north through central British Columbia into Alaska. The northern cinnamon teal, (Anas cyanoptera septentrionalium) hereafter referred to as cinnamon teal, is one of 5 subspecies occurring in the western hemisphere, but the only subspecies to inhabit North America. It breeds from the front range of the Rocky Mountains to the west coast and from southern British Columbia and Alberta through Arizona and New Mexico into north central Mexico (A.O.U. 1957, Delacour 1956, Johnsgard 1975). Both species have major fall migrations through the central and southern United States into Mexico and Central and South America (A.O.U. 1957, Kortright 1942, Johnsgard 1975). The breeding ranges of the 2 species overlap along the Rockies from northern New Mexico to Alberta and British Columbia and west to eastern Washington, Oregon, and northern California. A problem of species identification, especially among females, exists in this area of overlapping ranges. Descriptions of differences between blue-winged and cinnamon teal are only relative in most of the literature. Sclater (1912) indicated that the female cinnamon teal is darker and more spotted on the breast and neck than the blue-winged teal, with only the upper throat and chin being unspotted. Johnsgard (1975) suggested that cinnamon females show tiny, dark spotting on the cheek, chin, and throat, while this characteristic is lacking in the bluewing females. These areas appear larger and light buffy to whitish in bluewings and yellowish in cinnamons. Wallace and Ogilvie (1977) noted this coloration of the loral spot and also suggested that bluewing females have a more distinct contrast between the dark crown and eyestripe than do cinnamon females, which have a more uniform head pattern. Bennett (1938), Kortright (1942), Johnsgard (1975), Palmer (1976), Dwyer (1977), and Wallace and Ogilivie (1977) described the cinnamon teal female as more brownish or reddish, especially on the breast and abdomen feathers, compared with the more grayish cast of the bluewing female. Kortright (1942) and Wallace and Ogilvie (1977) warned against rust staining and Delacour (1956) and Palmer (1976) described the cinnamon female as varying in color, showing a tendency to a pale, as well as a dark phase. Plumage color is probably of questionable value as a means of distinguishing females of the 2 species (Kortright 1942). Spencer (1953) and Bellrose (1976) suggested that the shape of the forehead of cinnamon teal rises more gradually to the top of the slightly flattened head, whereas, in bluewings this rise is more abrupt. Spencer (1953) also mentioned the shape of the feather tract at the junction of the culmen and forehead as a possible difference between the species. The junction is �-72supposedly "v" shaped in bluewings and "U" shaped in cinnamons, but he found enough variation in one brood to reject it as useful characteristic. The blue wing coverts of both species have also been examined as a possible means of distinguishing the species. According to Spencer '(1953) and Bellrose (1976), the blue coverts should have a slightly waxy tone in bluewings and a more chalky tone in cinnamons. Spencer (1953), however, found no appreciable difference in color, hue, intensity, or pattern in the specimens he examined and attributed most differences to individual variation. The size and shape of the bill has been the most promising means of distinguishing females of the 2 species. Kortright (1942) described the bill as larger in the cinnamon teal and more constricted toward the base, while in bluewings it is the same width throughout. Spencer (1953) measured the length of the exposed culmen, length of the upper mandible, length of the lower mandible and maximum breadth on the chord of 7 blue-winged and 7 cinnamon teal and suggested that the only measurement which showed satisfactory freedom from overlap between the 2 species was the length of the exposed culmen. The results of other investigations have also found no overlap in the ranges of culmen length for the 2 species (Phillips 1923, Duvall cited in Spencer 1953), but Johnsgard (1975) noted that the species have overlapping measurements for both bill length and width. Johnsgard (1975) suggested that cinnamon teal have slightly longer soft lateral margins of the upper mandible distinctly drooping over the lower mandible near the tip, creating a semi-spatulate appearance when viewed from the side. Wallace and Ogilivie (1977) also noted this profile, but warned that bluewings can show the same characteristic at times. Male blue-winged and cinnamon teal present a similar problem of identification prior to about 8 weeks of age, or until the cinnamon male acquires the red eye color of the adult (Spencer 1953). They are easily distinguishable in any plumage after that time. The tracheal bulla can also be used to distinguish the males, being 2-3 times larger in the cinnamons and rather differently shaped (Phillips 1923, Palmer 1976) .. It was not suggested whether this trait is useful for distinguishing females or males less than 8 weeks of age. The size and shape of the lachrymal bone appears to be the best characteristic for distinguishing blue-winged and cinnamon teal (Spencer 1953) but it is not applicable to banding studies. It may, however, aid in accurately identifying museum specimens in which the bone has been retained. In the major duck production areas of Colorado, blue-winged and cinnamon teal are important breeding species and represented, jointly, an average of 11% of the breeding population during the period 1954-75 (Szymczak 1977). Combined, they are second only to the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) in annual production in Colorado and have contributed up to nearly 20,000 birds to the state's breeding population in recent years. During the pre season banding period in Colorado, for the years 1971-74, over 75% of the blue-winged and cinnamon teal banded were classified as unidentified teal because they could not be accurately identified as one species or the other (R. Hopper, pers. comm.). Knowledge of possible population differences is essential to the formulation of management recommendations, but is not currently available for blue-winged and cinnamon teal within the �-73- state. Special early teal seasons currently being conducted in various parts of the U. S. cannot be justified in much of Colorado's high country until the status of both blue-winged and cinnamon teal populations within the state are determined. A management scheme could then be formulated which would give greatest consideration to the species with the poorest population status. This can be accomplished only after a reliable technique is developed for distinguishing between the 2 species in the field, involving one which does not result in the death of the birds. P. N. OBJECTIVES 1. To compare sex. the morphology of blue-winged and cinnamon teal by age and 2. To develop a field technique for distinguishing between blue-winged and cinnamon teal based on morphological differences, primarily for use during the pre-season banding period (August and September). METHODS AND MATERIALS Collection of Adult Teal Thirteen cinnamon teal (5 males, 8 females) and 1 female blue-winged teal were collected in the San Luis Valley, Colorado on 16 and 17 May 1977. On 26 May 1977, 12 blue-winged teal (5 males, 7 females) were collected at the Red Lion State Wildlife Area near Crook, Colorado. Only females in the presence of a male were collected. An additional 24 female teal were collected concurrently with the egg collection phase of the study described below, 12 blue-winged teal from the Valentine National Wildlife-Refuge in north central Nebraska and 12 cinnamon teal from the Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges in the San Luis Valley of Colorado. Species identification of these 24 females was deferred until young males from their respective clutches acquired nuptial plumage in the spring and summer of 1978 while in captivity at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. All collections were made with a shotgun and all 50 birds (5 males and 20 females of each species) were weighed and tagged with an identification number within 24 hours after collection. They were also measured and then frozen for use as a reference collection of adult wild teal. The form used to record the measurements taken in presented in Appendix A. Egg Collections On 7 June 1977, 150 suspected blue-winged teal eggs (and 12 adult female bluewings associated with the nests) were collected from the Valentine NWR and transported to the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. Nests were located by flushing incubating females with a 48.8 m cable dragged through nesting habitat between two vehicles, as described by Ladd (1969). All nests were located and marked prior to collecting eggs and all eggs were individually identified by nest and female at the time of collection. The eggs were �-74- transported in a portable incubator designed to operate from a car battery and maintained a temperature of 37.2oC (990F) and a hygrometer reading of 28.90C (840F) (Flieg 1974, Stromberg 1975). During the period 6 to 21 June 1977, 150 suspected cinnamon teal eggs (and 12 adult female cinnamons associated with the nests) were collected from the Alamosa and Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuges. Nests were located by crews of 4-6 people walking systematically through likely nesting habitat and flushing incubating females. Collectipn and transport procedures were similar to those used during the Nebraska collection, except some clutches were placed in a chest cooler with cotton wadding and hot water bottles and flown to Fort Collins. The ether wafer in the incubator at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station ruptured on 27 June 1977, resulting in over-heating and death of 75 embryos in eggs collected in Colorado. An additional 75 suspected cinnamon teal eggs collected on 30 June and 1 July from the Alamosa National Wildlife Refuge to insure than an adequate sample of cinnamon teal was obtained. Hatching and Rearing of Young The eggs were not washed prior to setting in the incubator, but excessively dirty eggs were scraped with a knife (Sheraw 1975). All eggs were weighed and the length and width measured prior to placement in the incubator. A Humidaire Model 50 automatic incubator and a David Bradley incubator (hatcher) were used for incubating and hatching the eggs at the Fort Collins Wildlife Research Station. The incubator was set to maintain a temperature of 37.50C 0 (99.5 F), and a hygrometer reading of 30.0oC (86.00F) (Ellis 1974, Flieg 1974, Stromberg 1975). The automatic turning device on the incubator was set to turn the eggs every 2 hours (Stromberg 1975). The hatcher was set at a temperature of 37.2oC (99.00F) and a hygrometer reading of 34.4°C (94.0oF) (Ellis 1974, Flieg 1974, Stromberg 1975). The eggs were not turned in the hatcher and during the incubation period the water pans and hygrometer bottles were filled daily with distilled water (Stromberg 1975). Trays in the hatcher were separated into 5 compartments and each was enclosed by hardware cloth. Each clutch of eggs was placed in an individual compartment in the hatcher when the first egg of the clutch pipped. Ducklings from each clutch were thereby separated from other clutches after hatching for accurate identification (Dill and Lee 1970). The ducklings were allowed to dry several hours after hatching before being removed from the hatcher (Grow 1972). Upon removal, they were weighed and banded with individually numbered plastic leg bands and recorded by clutch. After banding, the ducklings were placed in a battery brooder with the temperature maintained at 32.2oC (90.00F) (Dill and Lee 1970, Lee 1974). Newspaper was placed on the floor of each of the 5 brooder compartments and an unmedicated starter feed (28.5% crude protein) (F. Lee, pers. comm.) prepared by the Golden West Milling Company, Longmont, Colorado was sprinkled on the paper to induce feeding (Smart 1974). Two waterers were placed in each brooder compartment and the water was changed 4-5 times daily. Feed was placed in small feeders and changed twice daily after the ducklings were eating. �-75- The ducklings were fed an unmedicated duck maintenance feed (18.3% crude protein) (F. Lee, pers. comm.) after 12 days of age (Dill and Lee 1970). At this time they were also removed from the battery brooder, as recommended by Sheraw (1975), rebanded with individually numbered aLuminum leg bands and placed in a brooder house. The brooder house was 2.4 x 2.7 m and the floor was covered with wood shavings litter (J. Law, pers. comm.). Four large waterers and 3 feeders were placed on the litter and the water and feed were changed 3 times daily. Four 250 watt infrared heat lamps were placed above the litter and left on 24 hours a day (Lee 1974). At 3 weeks of age the ducklings were allowed access to a 1.5 x 2.4 m section of a concrete pond adjacent to the brooder house. The ducklings were allowed to swim daily to induce functioning of the oil gland and preening (Bauer 1974). At 5 weeks of age the ducklings were rebanded permanently with size 5 U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service leg bands and moved to an outside pen. The pen measured 9.1 x 22.9 m and was completely enclosed in chicken wire, including the top. Several small shelters were placed in the pen to provide shade, and a concrete pond 2.4 x 11.0 m was built to provide water. Feed was changed twice daily in the 3 feeders. The pond water was changed every third day. The teal were moved in November 1977 to a 5.5 x 9.7 m pen for wintering. This facility was divided into 3 compartments, each 1.8 x 9.7 m. The pen was raised 0.6 m above the ground and had a welded wire floor to allow waste material to pass through. Each compartment was divided into 2, 1.8 x 4.9 m sections, with one entirely enclosed with weatherproofing material and provided with 8, 250 watt infrared heat lamps to maintain an above freezing temperature (Strutz 1974). The other section was weatherproofed all all except one side, but not provided with heat. A small 0.3 x 0.3 m door allowed passage between the 2 sections. Feeders and waterers were placed in the heated section and chaged twice daily. Birds surviving into November were separated by week of hatching into the 3 compartments of the winter pen. The teal remained in the winter pen through March 1978 and were moved back to the outside pen in early April 1978. Measurements of Wild and Captive Teal In this study, culmen referred to the upper mandible, mandible was used to describe the lower mandible, and bill referred to both the upper and lower mandibles. Wild Teal Twenty-three measurements, based on Baldwin et ale (1931), were taken on the wild teal including the tarsus (TAR), length of the center of the culmen (CCEN) (Fig. 1), length of the maximum exposed culmen (MEC) (Fig. 1), length of the culmen from the gape (CGAPE) (Fig. 2), width of the culmen at the widest anterior point (WIANT) (Fig. 3), width of the culmen at the gape (WIGAPE) (Fig. 3), length of the center of mandible (LBCEN) (Fig. 4), length of the exposed mandible (LEM) (Fig. 4), height of the bill at the base (BHGT). (Fig. 5), length of the foot (LFOOT), length of the middle toe (LMTOE), width of the culmen at the nares (WINARES), width of the mandible at the widest anterior point (MWIANT), width of the mandible at the gape (MWIGAPE), �-76- ---------_ ...... --~--- - Fig. 1. Length of the center of the culmen maximum exposed culmen (MEC). (CCEN) and length of the • Fig. 2. Length of the culmen to the gape (CGAPE). �--77- Fig. 3. Width of the culmen at the widest anterior of the culmen at the gape (WIGAPE). Fig. 4. Length of the center of the mandible exposed mandible (LEM). point (WIANT) and width (LBCEN) and length of the �-78- LHC Fig. 5. Length of the head and total culmen (LHC) and height of the bill at the base (BHGT). �-79- length of the culmen nail (LCNAIL), width of the culmen nail (WCNAIL), length of the mandible nail (LMNAIL), width of the mandible nail (ill1NAIL), length of the nares (LN) , height of the bill at the nares (BHGTN), height of the bill at the nail (BHGTNAIL), wing length (WINGL), and weight (WGT). Captive Teal Ten measurements were taken on the captive teal in the sample at weekly intervals from the 5th through the 16th week of age and monthly from the 20th through the 56th week. These measurements included the first 9 listed above, plus the length of the head and total culmen (LHC) (Fig. 5). The wing length was not taken on the captive birds due to the tips of the primaries breaking off in the pen. Weight was recorded for the captive birds but was not included in the data analysis due to the artificial conditions under which the birds were raised. Variations in Sample Size . The sample size varied almost weekly throughout the study for a variety of reasons. The most common cause was birds escaping while being measured or escaping from the catch box they were held in prior to being measured. Deaths were also a cause of variation, but measurements were initiated on a replacement bird after the death of a bird in the sample. Some of the birds were extremely active during the measuring process and if it was felt that an accurate measurement was not being obtained, the value for the variable was not recorded. Computer Programs The graphs and descriptive statistics were programmed at Colorado State University for a Cyber 172 computer, and the discriminarit analyses and ~tests were programmed in the statistical package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Nie et ale 1975). A detailed discussion of discriminant analysis can be found in Nie et ale (1975) and Kleinbaum and Kupper (1978). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Descriptive Statistics and Hean Compari.sons Wild Teal Data for the wild teal were initially analyzed with descriptive statistics, including the mean, standard error of the mean, standard deviation, and range (minimum and maximum values) (Table 1 and 2). Also included in this analysis was ~-test information for interspecific mean comparisons of the variables for both sexes. Significant differences (P~.05) existed between the 2 species of wild females for all but 7 of the 23 variables (Table 1). The cinnamon females had larger mean values for all variables except the weight, length of the mandible nail, and width of the culmen nail. The length of the center of the culmen (CCEN) was the only variable with no overlap in ranges between the 2 species. �Table 1. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for wild female blue-winged and cinnamon teal. Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Range Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD t-test Range DF 1/ Variable N WGT 20 370.75 + 8.478 37.91 315.00-455.00 20 359.25 + 9.454 42.28 280.00-440.00 37.56 .371 WINGL 20 174.25 + 1.63 7.31 153.00-184.00 20 180.68 + 1.018 4.43 173.00-190.00 31.57 .002 TAR 20 38.70 + .255 1.14 37.10- 41.00 20 39.22 + .224 1.00 36.90- 40.90 37.37 .135 LFOOT 20 40.37 + .313 1.40 37.30- 42.50 20 41.38 + .374 1.67 38.00- 44.70 36.87 .045 LMTOE 20 34.72 + .302 1.35 31.50- 37.00 20 35.92 + .295 1.32 34.00- 38.50 37.98 .007 CCEN 20 38~38 + .226 1.01 36.50- 40.10 20 43.09 + .347 1.55 40.75- 45.85 32.70 .001 MEC 20 44.49 + .294 1.32 42.25- 47.10 20 48.68 + .355 1.59 45.65- 51.90 36.74 .001 CGAPE 20 42.24 + .265 1.83 40.15- 45.20 20 45.95 + .331 1.48 43.40- 48.50 36.26 .001 ~ WIANT 20 17.05 + .131 .59 16.10- 18.25 20 17.61 + .144 .64 16.50- 19.20 37.67 .006 WINARES 20 15.92 + .136 .61 14.50- 16.80 20 16.95 + .120 .54 16.15- 18.55 37.44 .001 WIGAPE 20 13.98 + .139 .60 12.85- 15.25 20 14.65 + .181 .81 13.00- 16.15 35.08 .005 LBCEN 20 35.78 + .360 1.61 31.80- 38.30 20 39.49 + .338 1.51 36.65- 43.20 37.85 .001 LEM 20 43.62 + .318 1.42 41.05- 47.20 20 47.24 + .382 1.71 43.60- 49.95 36.79 .001 MWIGAPE 20 11.76 + .139 .62 10.45- 13.00 20 12.36 + .164 .73 11.20- 13.60 37.06 .009 MWIANT 20 11.32 + .096 .43 10.75- 12.40 20 11.86 + .072 .32 11.30- 12.40 35.07 .001 LMNAIL 20 6.26 + .126 .55 5.50- 7.10 20 6.11 + .115 .51 4.85- 6.80 36.50 .375 WMNAIL 20 5.30 + .078 .34 4.60- 6.25 20 5.84 + .115 .51 4.45- 6.70 33.25 .192 NL 20 3.38 + .056 .25 2.90- 3.80 20 3.70 + .068 .30 3.15- 4.15 36.73 .001 LCNAIL 20 7.98 + .114 .51 6.80- 8.90 20 8.17 + .112 .50 7.05- 8.80 38.00 .248 WCNAlL 20 5.65 + .077 .34 5.00- 6.25 5.51 + .088 .39 5.00- 6.30 37.33 .249 BHGT 20 15.62 + .166 .74 14.60- 16.90 16.09 + .212 .95 14.80- 18.10 35.90 .086 N P . o I �Table 1. Descriptive statistics and ~-tests for wild female blue-winged Variable N Blue '.,Tinged T~_a_l Mean + SE SD BHGTN 20 11.73 + .114 .51 10.90- 12.60 20 BHGTNAIL 20 8.61 + .099 .44 7.95- 20 1/ Weight in grams and all other measurements 2/ - Calculated _ Range 9.75 and cinnamon teal (continued). t-test Teal N Cinnamon Hean + SE 12.44 + .134 9.03 + .143 .60 11.00- 13.25 37.01 .00.1 .64 7.25- 33.88 .022 SD -------- DF Range 9.90 p in millimeters. d.f.: u = (~i 2) 2 + nl s2 n2 (;~}G:Y ml-l m2-l I co I-' I �Table 2. Descriptive statistics Blue and Winged + SE t-tests for wild male b l.ue-w i.nged and Teal SD Range N 362.00 + 9.695 21.68 335.00-395.00 5 5 182.60 + .748 1.67 180.00-184.00 TAR 5 39.30 + .460 .92 LFOOT 5 41.82 + .631 LMTOE 5 35.50 + CCEN 5 MEC cinnamon t e a L, Cinnamon Teal + SE t-test SD Range DF P 394.00 + 10.654 23.82 355.00-415.00 7.93 5 201.20 + 6.492 14.52 185.00-220.00 4.11 .057 .047 38.60- 40.60 5 41.13 ± .437 .98 39.70- 42.25 6.74 · 02 II 1. 41 39.35- 42.80 5 43.90 ± .470 1.05 42.60- 45.50 7.39 .033 .775 1. 73 33.00- 37.00 5 37.20 + .300 .67 36.00- 37.50 5.17 .096 39.21 + .980 2.19 37.05- 42.40 5 44.24 + .791 1.77 42.10- 46.50 7.66 .004 5 46.07 + .885 1.98 44.10- 48.95 5 51.39 + .666 1. 49 49.85- 53.50 7.43 .002 CGAPE 5 43.32 + .897 2.00 41.00- 46.35 5 48.71 + .700 1. 56 46.80- 51.00 7.55 .001 ~ WIANT 5 17.93 + .337 .75 16.65- 18.65 5 18.17 + .191 .43 17.55- 18.50 6.32 ·558 I WINARES 5 16.20 + .357 .80 15.00- 17.00 5 18.02 + .211 .47 17.25 18.40 6.50 .005 WIGAPE 5 15.16 + .465 1.04 14.45- 17.00 5 16.29 + .206 .46 15.60- 16.80 5.52 .068 LBCEN 5 37.69 + .829 1. 85 35.65- 39.90 5 40.85 + .924 2.07 38.60- 43.40 7.91 ·034 LEM 5 44.80 + 1.308 2.93 41.05- 48.95 5 49.92 + .852 1. 90 48.25- 52.35 6.88 . .013 MWIGAPE 5 12.12 + .440 .98 10.70- 13.10 5 13.71 + .185 .41 13.10- 14.15 5.38 .021 MWIANT 5 11.97 + .064 .14 11.75- 12.15 5 12.18 + .106 .24 11.80- 12.35 6.62 .133 LMNAIL 5 5.59 + .208 .46 5.20- 6.35 5 6.45 + .266 .60 5.50- 7.10 7.55 ·034 WMNAIL 5 5.20 + .097 .22 4.95- 5.45· 5 5.42 + .247 .55 4.50- 5.85 -5.21 .446 NL 5 3.68 + .097 .22 3.45- 3.95 5 4.18 + .119 .27 3.80- 4.50 7.69 .012 LCNAIL 5 7.70 + .139 .31 7.35- 8.10 5 8.47 + .215 .48 7.85- 9.00 6.83 .020 WCNAIL 5 5.45 + .130 .29 5.10- 5.80 5 5.38 + .094 .21 5.15- 5.70 7.29 ·677 BHGT 5 16.23 + .241 .54 15.55- 16.85 5 16.96 + .663 1. 48 14.80- 18.70 5.04 ·348 BHGTN 5 12.37 + .227 .51 11.75- 13.00 5 13.03 + .334 .75 12.00- 13.95 7.04 · 146 BHGTNAIL 5 9.11 + .119 .27 8.70- 5 10.38 ± .286 .64 9.85- 11.40 5.34 .009 Variable N WGT 5 WINGL Mean 9.35 Mean ~" �0 0 <D :::I' b 0 E E z w o o 0 :::I' 0 0 N en 0 0 :::I' (\1 I (X) W I 0 0 <D :::I' E E 0 0 0 :::I' Z W o o 0 0 BWT N (D 0 0 :::I' ~.OO I 5.60 11.20 16.80 22.1I0 28.00 33.60 39.20 1I11.80 50. LID ~ 1 51: AGE IWEEKSI Fig. 6. Comparative profile of the length blue-winged and cinnamon teal. of the c·enter of the culmen (CCEN)measurements for female . �Table 3. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 5 weeks of age. Variable N Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD TAR 33 37.94 + .186 CCEN 33. 36.77 + MEC 33 CGAPE Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD 1.07 35.35 - 40,15 33 39.04 + .205 .233 1.34 34.70 - 39.25 33 41.67 + - .242 1.39 39.05 - 44.80 33 39.71 + .217 1.25 WIANT 33 15.76 + .082 WIGAPE 33 14.79 + LBCEN 33 LEM t-test Range DF P 1.18 36.85 - 41. 30 63.41 .001 38.13 + .276 1.59 34.90 - 41.20 62.22 .001 33 43.53 + .300 1.72 40.35 - 47,00 61.28 .001 37.10 - 42.30 33 41.03 + .297 1.70 36.95 - 44.85 58.68 .001 .47 14.95 - 17.00 33 16.20 + .096 .55 14.80 - 17.30 62.63 .001 .070 .40 14.05 - 15.75 33 15.52+.110 - .63 14.45 - 16.50 54.29 .001 32.65 + .269 1.54 29.70 - 35.10 33 38.38 + .273 1.57 30.25 - 36.60 63.98 .062 33 40.56 -+ .250 1.44 36.90 - 43.30 33 42.09 + .285 1.64 38.05 - 45.90 62.96 .001 I BHGT 33 7.80 + .072 .42 7.00 - 8.65 33 8.55 + .066 .38 7.90 - 63.50 .001 t LHC 33 75.88 + .318 1.83 71.70 - 80.35 33 77.37 + .428 2.46 72.35-82.15 59.09 .007 - 00 9.30 �Table 4. Descriptive statistics and Blue Teal SD Range N Mean 1.02 36.75 - 40.25 33 1.35 36.35 - 40.90 Winged + SE .!_-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal Cjnnamon + SE at 6 we ek s of age. t-test Teal SD Range DF P 39.21 + .187 1.04 37.00 - 41.05 61. 94 .001 33 39.98 + .285 1.59 37.40 - 43.20 60.15 .001 Variable N Mean TAR 32 CCEN 32 MEC 32 1.41 40.00 - 45.85 33 45.69 + .3l7 1.77 42.70 - 49.10 58.74 .001 CGAPE 32 + .181 38.46 + .239 43.36 + .250 41. 69 + .. 206 1. 16 39.40 - 44.15 33 43.49 + .299 1. 67 40.05 - 46.70 54.98 .001 WIAJ.1"T 32 16.18 + .077 .43 15.35 - 17.25 33 16.63 + .090 .50 15.35 - 17.65 60.43 .001 WIGAPE 32 14.98 + .061 .35 14.35 - 15.70 33 15.84 + .094 .55 14.70 - 16.90 53.37 .001 LBCEN 32 34.45 + .249 1.41 31. 60 - 36.70 33 35.37 + .293 1. 65 32.30 - 38.85 60.47 .027 LEM 32 1.12 39.90 - 44.95 33 44.58 + .302 1. 68 41.30 - 48.85 53.56 .001 BHGT 32 42.57 + .199 8.15 -+ .052 .29 7.65 - 8.70 33 8.81 + .053 .30 8.00 - 9.35 61.94 .001 ~ 33 80.87 + .394 2.20 77.05 - 85.00 58.25 .001 LHC 32 38.34 78.99 + .304 1.72 74.85 - 82.60 I I �Table 5. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 7 weeks of age. Variable N Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD TAR 33 38.85 + .172 .98 37.00 - 40.30 35 39.50 + .196 CCEN 33 39.28 + .212 1.22 37.00 - 41.40 35 MEC 33 44.30 + ~236 1.33 41.40 - 46.95 CGAPE 33 42.60 + .204 1.16 WIANT 33 16.48 + .079 WIGAPE 33 LBCEN t-test Range DF P 1.16 37.10 - 42.10 64.55 .019 41.38 -+ .271 1.60 37.70 - 44.40 62.70 .001 35 47.18 + .313 1.85 43.65 - 51.05 61.67 .001 40.75 - 45.00 35 44.94 + .269 1.59 42.05 - 48.05 61.92 .001 .44 15.55 - 17.60 35 16.92 + .076 .45 15.80 - 17.75 64.57 .001 15.13 + .073 .40 14.35 - 16.40 35 16.00 + .087 .51 15.15 - 17.05 63.94 .001 I 33 35.20 + .259 1.44 32.40 - 37.70 35 36.69 + .270 1.60 33.70 - 39.85 65.00 .001 I LEM 33 43.19 + .210 1.18 40.85 - 45.70 35 45.93 + .248 1.46 43.25 - 48.25 64.14 .001 BHGT 33 8.42 + .073 - .41 7.85 - 9.35 35 9.11 + .058 .34 8.30 - 9.95 60.43 .001 LHC 33 80.16 + .291· 1.65 76.60 - 83.85 35 82.78 + .414 2.42 78.05 - 87.75 58.49 .001 co <1' �Table 6. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 8 we eks of age. Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD .94 37.50 - 40.40 34 39.75 + .198 39.41 + .207 1.19 36.80 - 41. 65 34 33 44.65 + .237 1.36 41.85 - 46.80 CGAPE 33 42.85 + .178 1.02 WIANT 33 16.66 + .074 WIGAPE 33 15.33 + .072 Variable N TAR 33 39.05 + .164 CCEN 33 MEC t-test Range DF P 1.15 37.20 - 42.00 63.15 .008 42:.07 + .271 1.58 38.95 - 44.90 61. 19 .001 34 47.94 + .293 1.71 44.75 - 51.40 62.63 .001 41.00 - 44.80 34 45.66 + .257 1.50 42.20 - 48.50 58.30 .001 .43 15.60 - 17.85 34 17.10 + .086 .50 15.70 - 18.05 64.00 .001 .41 14.60 - 16.20 34 16.16 -+ .088 .51 15.15 - 17.45 62.87 .001 I co --J LBCEN 33 35.27 + .249 1.43 32.90 - 37.85 34 37.32 + .264 1.54 34.15 - 40.00 64.87 .001 I LEM 33 43.16 + .207 1.19 40.85 - 45.65 34 46.36 + .291 1.70 Id.85 - 49.00 59.15 .001 BHGT 33 8.60 + .058 .33 8.10 - 9.30 34 9.23 + .053 .31 8.55 - 9.80 64.22 .001 LHC 33 80.12+.277 1.59 76.70 - 83.75 34 83.76 + .351 2.05 79.55 - 88.40 62.07 .001 �Table 7. Descriptive statistics and _!-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 12 we eks of age. Blue Winged Teal SD Mean + SE Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD .99 37.45 - 40.70 22 40.12 + .269 39.38 + .220 1.23 36.70 - 41.55 22 32 44.71 + ;250 1.37 42.20 - 46.75 CGAPE 32 42.67 + .202 1.04 WIANT 32 16.87 + .084 WIGAPE 32 LBCEN Variable N TAR 32 39.30 + .192 CCEN 32 MEC t-test Range DF P 1.26 37.45 - 41.85 39.77 .015 41.87 + .316 1.48 38.95 - 44.40 39.10 .005 22 47.97 + .321 1.51 44.60 - 49.85 42.14 .001 40.95 - 44.50 22 45.40 + .299 1.40 41.90 - 48.10 38.38 .001 .47 15.85 - 17.85 22 17.23 + .085 .40 16.40 - 18.00 47.04 .005 15.55 + .072 .36 14.90 - 16.40 22 16.26 -+ .082 .38 15.75 - 17.00. 44.93 .001 I 32 35.12 + .250 1.38 32.70 - 37.60 22 37.11 + .357 1.67 33.90 - 39.50 39.35 .001 I LEM 32 43.14+.240 1.23 40.40 - 45.50 22 46.15 + .316 1.48 42.30 - 48.35 41.49 .001 BHGT 32 8.79 + .061 .34 8.15 - 9.50 22 9.53 + .065 .31 9.05 - 10.05 46.22 .00] LHC 32 80.27 + .320 1.63 77.80 - 83.85 22 83.41 + .405 1.90 79.10 - 86.75 42.13 .001 00 00 �Table 8. Descriptive statistics and ~-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 16 weeks Teal SD Range N Cinnamon Mean + SE of age. t-tcst Variable N Blue Winged Mean + SE Teal SD Range DF P TAR 32 39.49 + .193 .92 37.90 - 40.85 27 40.34 + .231 1. 18 37.90 - 42.10 41. 93 .006 CCEN 32 39.23 + .273 1.23 36.55 - 4l.40 27 41.90 + .353 1.56 38.50 - 44.45 40.41 .001 MEC 32 44.68 + .296 1.33 42.40 - 46.90 27 48.31 + .340 1.55 45.20 - 51.30 42.59 .001 CGAPE 32 42.65 + .237 1.08 40.90 - 44.70 27 45.65 + .313 1.39 42.00 - 48.15 40.02 .001 WIANT 32 16.88 + .102 .52 15.70 - 17.95 27 17.37 + .103 .47 16.35 - 18.25 43.88 .005 WIGAPE 32 15.61 + .078 .40 14.70 - 16.55 27 16.51 + .102 .46 15.90 - 17.55 40.09 .001 do \0 I LBCEN 32 35.29 + .305 1.36 32.90 - 37.85 27 37.38 + .357 1.63 34.60 - 40.05 42.27 .001 LEM 32 43.14 + .269 1.20 40.75 - 45.80 27 46.27 + .345 - 1.55 42.20 - 48.85 40.62 .001 BHGT 32 8.80 + .070 .35 8.10 - 9.55 27 9.60 + .075 .35 9.10 - 10.40 43.46 .001 LHC 32 80.11 + .387 1.73 76.70 - 84.20 27 83.71 + .465 2.25 79.05 - 88.50 41.84 .001 �Table 9. Descriptive statistics ilnd t-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 20 weeks of age. Variable N TAR 30 39.34 + .177 CCEN 30 MEC Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD .96 37.90 - 40.90 25 40.58 + .219 39.07 + .249 1.32 36.35 - 41.65 25 30 44.37 + .252 1.34 41.95 - 47.25 CGAPE 30 42.48 + .198 1.05 WIANT 30 16.76 + .097 WIGAPE 30 15.60 + .068 t-test - P Range DF 1.08 38.65 - 42.50 46.56 .001 41.84 + .307 1.51 38.85 - 44.60 46.61 .001 25 48.21 + .352 1.71 44.70 - 51.35 43.31 .001 40.50 - 44.60 25 45.72 + .319 1.55 41. 90 - 48.30 39.28 .001 .51 15.60 - 17.70 25 17.36 + .103 .49 16.25 - 18.25 49.69 .001 .37 14.90 - 16.55 25 16.58 + .099 .48 15.75 - 17.50 42.24. .001 I IJ) a LBCEN 30 35.29 + .238 1.33 33.00 - 38.00 25 37.35 + .335 1.62 34.05 - 39.80 43.05 .001 I LEM 30 43.05 + .229 1.22 40.55 - 45.70 25 46.38 + .334 1.62 42.00 - 48.85 42.14 .001 BHGT 30 8.86 + .071 .38 8.10 - 9.50 25 9.70+ .078 .38 9.00 - 10.40 49.07 .001 LHC 30 80.05 + .319 1.71 77.10 - 83.65 25 84.10 + .475 2.29 78.40 - 88.60 41.56 .001 �Table 10. Descriptive statistics Blue Winged Mean + SE and J:.-tests for female blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 56 we ek.s of age. Teal SD Range N Cinnamon Mean + SE Teal SD Range DF P t-test Variable N TAR 29 39.47 + .196 1.03 37.15 - 41.15 26 40.41 + .2t16 1.25 37.85 - 42.35 47.66 .002 CCEN 29 39.31 + .272 1.34 36.40 - 41. 75 28 42.31 + .295 1.53 39.05 - 44.95 50.81 .001 MEC 29 44.72 + .247 1.30 42.45 - 47.15 28 48.53 + .335 1. 74 45.40 - 51. 70 47.38 .001 CGAPE 29 42.70 + 2.15 1.11 40.80 - 45.00 28 45.78 + .285 1.47 42.05 - 48.20 47.86 .001 WIANT 29 16.87 + .106 .54 15.50 - 17.95 28 17.36 + .097 .49 16.20 - 18.20 50.36 .001 WIGAPE 29 15.61 + .080 .42 14.65 - 16.50 28 16.63 + .096 .49 15.85 - 17.65 49.68 .001 I \D I-' LBCEN 29 35.05 + .248 1.30 33.05 - 37.75 28 37.29 + .328 1.69 33.95 - 39.60 47.98 .001 LEM 29 43.03 + .239 1.24 40.45 - 45.35 28 46.40 + .300 1.55 41.90 - 48.95 48.93 .001 BHGT 29 8.90 + .085 - .43 8.05 - 9.55 28 9.77+.071 .37 9.05 - 10.55 49.22 .001 LHC 29 80.03 + .289 1.59 76.70 - 83.40 28 83.88 + .428 2.19 79.40 - 88.65 45.32 .001 I �Table 11. Descriptive statistics and ~-tests for male blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 5 weeks of age. Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD 1.21 36.80 - 41.30 29 39.80 + .238 37.81 + .177 .98 36.00 - 39.35 29 31 43.52 + ~224 1.25 40.85 - 45.60 CGAPE 31 41.50 + .190 1.06 WIANT 31 16.08 + .069 WIGAPE 31 LBCEN Variable N TAR 31 38.63 + .217 CCEN 31 MEC t-test Range DF P 1.28 36.85 - 41.85 57.11 .001 39.46 + .264 1.42 .36.40 - 42.35 49.41 .001 29 45.57 -+ .228 1.23 43.05 - 47.50 57.84 .001 39.10 - 43.40 29 42.74 + .230 1.24 39.90 - 45.20 55.29 .001 .38 15.25 - 16.80 29 16.60 + .099 .53 15.55 - 17.50 50.69 .001 15.15 + .064 .36 14.35 - 15.85 29 15.94 + .116 .63 14.95 - 17.30 43.76 .001 31 34.18 + .233 1.30 31.90 - 37.15 29 34.74 + .294 1.58 31.00 - 38.10 54.25 .140 I LEM 31 42.82 + .241 1.34 LfO.70 29 44.05 -+ .321 1.73 39.05 - 47.00 52.83 .003 BHGT 31 8.23 + .067 .37 7.45 - 8.85 29 8.84 + .088 .47 7.95 - 9.70 53.38 .001 LHC 31 78.82 + .273 1.52 76.20 - 83.00 29 80.30 + .440 2.37 74.50 - 85.10 47.18 .006 - 45.50 I 1.0 N �Descriptive statistics and _.S_-testsfor male blue-winged Variable N Blue Winged + SE Teal SD Range N TAR 34 39.20 + .197 1. 12 37.40 - 41.50 30 CCEN 34 39.61 + .178 1.05 36.30 - 41. 30 MEC 34 45.58 + .211 1.23 CGAPE 34 43.69 + .202 _- WIANT 34 WIGAPE 34 LBCEN Table 12. and cinnamon teal at 6 we eks of age. Cinnamon Mean + SE t-test Teal SD Range 40.42 -+ .188 1.03 38.40 - 41.95 61 .DO .001 30 41.89 -+ .252 1. 38 39.45 - 44.40 53.23 .001 42.05 - 47.35 30 48.29 + .189 1.04 46.15 - 50.05 60.80 .001 1.16 41.05 - 45.60 30 45.58 + .192 1.05 43.10 - 47.85 6 J .00 .001 16.49 -+ .064 .37 15.65 - 17.10 30 17.12 + .093 .51 16.30 - 18.05 52.43 .001 15.35 + .065 .37 14.40 - 16.30 30 16.33 + .100 .55 15.25 - 17.65 50.19 .OOl 34 35.96 + .234 1.34 32.75 - 39.00 30 37.17 + .237 1. 30 35.00 - 39.70 60.76 .001 LEM 34 44.88 + .241 1.39 42.10-47.15 30 47.05 + .251 1.37 44.60 - 49.55 60.51 .001 BHGT 34 8.52 + .061 .34 7.80 - 9.15 30 9.19 + .069 .38 8.40 - 10.25 59.22 .001 LHC 34 82.12 + .275 1.59 77.30 - 85.40 30 84.40 + .350 1.92 79.90 - 88.35 56.34 .001 Mean DF P I <o w I �Table 13. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for male blue-winged Teal SD Range N and cinnamon teal at 7 weeks Cinnamon Mean + SE of age. t-test Variable N Blue Winged Mean + SE Teal SD Range TAR 33 39.66+ .171 .98 38.00 - 41. 70 30 40.70 + .200 1. 09 38.30 - 42.50 58.60 .001 CCEN 33 40.67 + .161 .93 37.60 - 42.15 30 43.70 + .233 1.28 41.85 - 46.80 52.54 .001 MEC 33 46.74 + .212 - 1. 22 43.30 - 48.60 30 50.36 + .177 .97 47.75 - 52.45 60.02 .001 CGAPE 33 44.80 + .205 1. 18 42.10 - 46.35 30 If 7.69 + . 171 .93 45.50 - 50.10 59.94 .001 WIANT 33 16.86 + .060 .34 16.10 - 17.45 30 17.46 + .082 .45 16.65 - 18.30 54.09 .001 WIGAPE 33 15.55 + .051 .29 15.00 - 16.45 30 16.53 + .091 .50 15.40 - 17.50 46.22 .001 LBCEN 33 36.94 + .238 1.37 33.60 - 39.45 30 38.85 + .256 1.40 36.05 - 41.95 60.10 .001 LEM 33 45.82 + .237 1. 36 42.75 - 48.00 30 49.03 + .221 1.21 46.60 - 51.25 60.97 .00l BHGT 33 8.75 + .062 .36 8.15 - 9.65 30 9.50 + .080 .44 8.75 - 10.85 55.84 .00] LHC 33 83.51 + .257 1.48 79.70 - 86.50 29 87.20 + .293 1. 58 83.60 - 89.75 57.76 .001 DF P I '.D .j> I �Table 14. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for male blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 8 weeks of ag~. -Variable N Blue Winged Mean + SE Teal SD Range N TAR 33 39.85 + .184 1.05 38.15 - 41. 90 30 40.98 + .201 1. 10 CCEN 33 40.94 + .167 .96 37.95 - 42.95 30 44.56 + .240 MEC 33 47.28 + .202 1. 16 43.80 - 48.85 30 51.33 CGAPE 33 45.16 + .205 1.18 42.40 - 46.95 WIANT 33 17.07 + .061 .35 WIGAPE 33 15.72 + .065 .37 l-tcst Cinnamon Mean + SE Teal SD Range DF P 38.30 - 42.55 59.85 .001 1.31 42.90 - 47.70 52. (,7 • (lUI + .170 .93 49.55 - 53.90 60. ]3 · 001 30 48.51 + .177 .97 46.35 - 51.00 1)0.4 J .O()l 16.20 - 17.65 30 17.74 + .07Lf .41 17.00 - 18.50 57.67 .001 14.85 - 16.65 30 16.73 + .075 .41 15.95 - 17.90 58.91 .001 I .c VI I LBCEN 33 37.20 + .220 1.26 34.00 - 39.40 30 39.72+.257 LEM 33 46.14 + .220 1.26 42.75 - 47.85 30 49.85 BHGT 33 8.93 + .053 .31 8.30 - 9.55 LHC 33 83.83 + .252 1.45 80.40 - 86.45 1.41 36.40 - 42.85 58.54 .00] + .192 1.05 47.70 - 51.90 60.52 .001 30 9.66 + .078 .42 8.90 - 10.70 52.27 .001 29 88.36 + .315 1. 70 84.00 - 90.90 55.50 · 00 I �Table 15. Descriptive statistics and _!:_-testsfor male blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 1: we eks of age. -. Variable N Blue Winged Mean + SE Teal SD Range N Ctnnamon Hean + SE Teal SD t-test r DF Range 32 40.17 + .169 .96 38.75 - 42.45 21 41.29 ._ + .246 1.07 39. J 5 - CCEN 33 40 .96 + .1SLf .88 38.60 - 42.50 22 44.85 --+ .259 1. 23 !~2.70 - ~7. 1(l 34.02 .001 MEC 33 47.55 -+ .201 1. 16 44.40 - 49.40 22 51.62+.193 .87 SO.OO - 53.60 50.13 .001 CGAPE 33 45.15 + .207 1. 19 42.00 - 46.85 22 48.74 + .229 1.05 47.00 - 'i1.0S !~b.49 · no 1 ~nANT 33 17.31 + .058 .33 16.50 - 17.85 22 17.95 + .095 .43 17.15 - 18.85 34 ..5.5 • O() I WIGAPE 33 16.02 + .054 .31 15.35 - 16.80 . 22 16.88 + .091 .42 16.16 - 17.55 :n.Hl · ()()I I. '\. L5 :'!, TAR J6. · ll() 1 , 1.0 0' I LBCEN 33 37.06 + .209 1.20 34.30 - 39.30 22 39.62 + .338 1.53 36.60 - 42.90 35.00 • ()() 1 LEM 31 45.85 + .235 1.31 42.80 - 47.85 22 49.86 + .276 1. 23 47.90 - 52.50 .',4.0"3 .00 I BHGT 33 9.19 + .050 .29 8.60 - 9.80 22 10.04 + .069 .31 9 .3(~ - 1(l.()(J \9.'>8 • ()O I LHC 33 83.99 + .282 1. 62 79.90 - 87.00 22 83.88 + .345 1.56 85.1)0 - 43.52 ·()O1 lJ 1.JO ._------ �Table 16. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for male blue-winged and cinnamon teal at 16 weeks of age. Variable N TAR 32 40.32 + .177 CCEN 32 41.00 + MEC 32 47.58 + Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD t-test DF P Range N 1.01 38.80-43.15 28 41.53 + .208 .99 39.45-43.20 48.07 .001 .168 .87 38.80-42.30 29 44.63 + .238 1.15 43.00-47.15 45.33 .001 .221 1.09 44.40-49.40 29 51.80 + .196 .95 49.80-54.10 50.50 Range .001 , CGAPE 32 45.23 + .210 1.04 42.45-46.75 29 48.70 + .191 .97 46.85-51.15 50.73 .001 WIANT 32 17.39 + .068 .37 16.60-18.05 29 18.07 + .090 .48 17.10-19.10 47.09 .004 WIGAPE 32 15.99 + .048 .34 15.10-16.85 29 17.00 + .081 .48 16.15-18.15 40.46 .001 LBCEN 32 37.20 + .241 .34 34.65-39.75 29 39.70 + .290 1.48 36.70-42.75 49.01 .001 LEM 32 46.08 + .233 1.25 42.95-47.80 29 49.57 + .284 1.44 49.95-52.50 48.75 .001 BHGT 32 9.22 + .061 1.16 8.65- 9.70 29 10.12 + .069 .40 9.45-11. 30 50.15 .001 LHC 32 84.10 + .303 1.48 80.45-87.00 29 88.47 + .305 1.54 84.70-91. 40 50.96 .001 I '" -...J I �Table 17. Descriptive statistics and t-tests for male b Lue=w Lnged and cinnamon teal at 20 weeks of age. Variable N Blue Winged Teal Mean + SE SD Range N Cinnamon Teal Mean + SE SD t-test Range DF P TAR 29 40,21 + .167 .90 38.70-42.45 23 41.65 + .178 .81 40.00-42.90 42.42 .001 CCEN 29 41.09 + .152 .82 38.75-42.40 24 44.54 + .254 1.16 42.75-47.05 32.18 .001 MEC 29 47.43 + .194 1.04 44.25-49.30 24 51. 70 + .249 1.10 49.55-54.30 39.23 .001 CGAPE 29 45.23 + .189 1.02 42.45-46.85 24 48.74 + .202 .90 47.45-51. 30 43.94 .001 WIANT 29 17.26 + .071 .38 16.50-17.80 24 17.96 + .096 .49 16.85-18.60 37.73 .001 WIGAPE 29 16.05 + .066 .36 15.10-16.65 24 17.02 + .093 .41 16.30-17.65 36.74 .001 LBCEN 29 37.29 + .204 1.10 35.35-39.45 24 39.64 + .299 1.35 37.05-42.35 35.57 .001 LEM 29 46.17 + .218 1.18 43.10-47.75 24 49.82 + .221 .98 48.40-52.25 45.03 .001 BHGT 29 9.27 + .057 .31 8.50- 9.85 24 10.13 + .072 .34 9.35-10.75 39.59 .001 LHC 29 84.21 + .256 1.38 80.85-86.85 24 89.16 + .287 1.40 86.45-91. 40 42.87 .001 I 1.0 00 I �Table 18. Variable Descriptive N statistics Blue Winged Mean + SE and t-tests for male blue-winged Teal SD Range N and cinnamon teal at 56 weeks Cinnamon Mean + SE of age. t-test Teal SD Range DF P TAR 29 40.21 + .194 1. 03 37.75-42.85 24 41.61 + .210 1.03 39.50-43.25 48.76 .001 CCEN 29 41.19 + .175 .92 39.05-43.00 25 44.73 + .245 1. 22 43.15-47.55 44.44 .001 MEC 29 47.93 + .204 1.14 44.95-49.80 25 52.27 + .220 1.10 49.65-54.75 50.08 .001 CGAPE 29 45.39 + .209 1.15 42.30-46.05 25 48.77+ .211 1. 05 46.95-51. 45 50.77 .001 WIANT 29 17.31 + .086 .45 16.50-18.15 25 18.01 + .095 .48 17.10-19.05 49.77 .001 25 16.97 + .109 .54 15.95-18.30 44.32 .001 I WIGAPE 29 16.00 + .077 .41 15.20-16.95 LBCEN 29 36.98 + .193 1.12 34.40-38.95 25 39.56 + .325 1. 63 36.65-43.30 39.55 .001 LEM 29 45.99 + .222 1.19 42.95-47.55 25 49.72 + .240 1. 20 47.30-52.45 50.08 .001 BUGT 29 9.27 + .058 .30 8.65- 9.90 25 10.20 + .074 .37 9.50-10.90 46.98 .001 LHC 29 84.03 + .292 1. 59 80.55-87.45 25 88.83 + .307 1. 54 85.70-91.40 50.39 .001 \0 \0 I �-100- Although the sample size of males was small (5 of each species) there were significant differences (P<.05) between the males for 14 of the 23 variables (Table 2). The cinnamon males had larger mean values for all variables except the width of the culmen nail. There was overlap in the range of all variables except the length of the center of the culmen' (CCEN), maximum exposed culmen (MEC), width of the culmen at the nares, and the height of the bill at the nail. Captive Teal The captive teal grew rapidly from the 5th through the 8th week of age, at which time they essentially obtained full growth (Fig. 6). No apparent increase in size occurred after the 8th week and variations after that time were attributed to experimental error. To avoid excessive repetition, the presentation of data was restricted to representative weeks after full growth was obtained. Included, in addition to the 5th through the 8th weeks were measurements for the 12th, 16th, 20th and 56th weeks. The descriptive statistics for the penned birds indicated that significant differences in mean values existed between bluewings and cinnamons, of both sexes, for each of the 10 variables in all age classes except the 5th week. Even in the 5th week all but 1 variable (LBCEN) were significantly different for both males and females (Tables 3-18). Females of the 2 species showed greater similarity than males, while bluewings of both sexes had smaller mean values for all 10 variables in every time period. Overlap in Range of Variables The 2 species of captive females showed overlap of ranges for each variable in every time period (Tables 3-10). Males had overlap of ranges for all variables through the 7th week (Tables 11-13), but in the 8th week (Table 14) there was no range overlap in the maximum.exposed culmen (MEC), and in the 12th through 20th weeks (Tables 15-17) there was no overlap in the 3 culmen measurements (CCEN, MEC, CGAPE) or in the length of exposed mandible (LEM). There was no overlap in the length of the center of the culmen (CCEN) or in the length of exposed mandible (LEM) in the 56th week (Table 18). The variables with no overlap in range between the species were largely consistent between the wild and captive teal. Exceptions were (1) lengths of the exposed mandible (LEM) and culmen to the gape (CGAPE) in males, and (2) length of the center of the culmen (CCEN) in females. Results of Previous Investigations Data from this study generally support claims of previous investigators that cinnamon teal have larger bills than bluewings. There were no cases in which the penned bluewings had a mean value for any bill variable which was larger than the value for the cinnamons, and only the weight, length of the mandible nail, and the width of the culmen nail were larger in wild bluewings than in wild cinnamons. �-101- Spencer (1953) included measurements for the length of the lower mandible (=LEM) and the w Ld t h of the upper mandible (=WIANT) for both males and females but felt there was no distinctive difference between the species and that they could not be reliably identified based on these characteristics. Data from this study indicated significant differences (P.2_.003)in the 2 species for both sexes of captive birds in all time periods for each of these 2 characteristics (Tables 3-1S). The wild females showed significant differences for both characteristics, P.2_.001 and P.2_.006,respectively (Table 1); and the males, with a sample size of only 5 for each species, showed significance in the LEM (P.2_.013),but no significant difference in the WIANT (P.2_.55S)(Table 2). Dwyer (1977) recommended using the ratio of the length of the culmen to the length of the head as a means of distinguishing the species (Fig. 2). He suggested that if the length of the culmen is greater than the length of the head (ratio >1.0) the bird is a cinnamon and if it is less (ratio <1.0) the bird is a bluewing. A t-test was used to examine this characteristic on the penned females (16th we~k data) and a significant difference existed (P.2_.002). Twenty-eight percent of the bluewings, however, had a culmen-head ratio of ~l.O and 26% of the cinnamons had a ratio of <1.0. These results suggest that only about 75% of the birds could be classified correctly based on this characteristic. The shape of the culmen has also been recommended as a characteristic for distinguishing the species (Kortright 1942, Bellrose 1976, Johnsgard 1976). They described the culmen of cinnamon teal as more constricted toward the base, while in bluewings it is the same width throughout. The difference between the width of the culmen at the widest anterior point and at the gape (Figs. 5, 6) was compared interspecifically using a t-test (16th week data) and no significant difference was found (P.2_.4S6males-:-Pi.613 females). This relationship was also tested on the wild birds, and again, no significant difference was evident (P':::_.256 females, P.2_.112males). The length of the culmen has been the most popular characteristic used for distinguishing the species, and several authors have documented culmen lengths (Table 19). The measurements are similar with the exception of those given in Spencer (1953) and the North American Bird Banding Manual (USFWS and CWS 1977), who have cited the culmen chord length, which is longer than the other given values. The culmen chord length compares favorably with the maximum exposed culmen (MEC) (Fig. 3), but the exact measurement taken is open to interpretation. The various other culmen lengths cited are similar to the length of the center of the culmen (CCEN) (Fig. 2) and are assumed to be the same variable. These values suggest that cinnamon teal have longer culmens (both CCEN and MEC) than bluewings and this difference was significant for the wild teal (P<.004) and the penned birds (P<.005) for all age classes in this study (Tables l-lS). Discriminant Analyses Previous investigations and the descriptive statistics from this one indicated that cinnamon teal have significantly larger bills than bluewings in nearly all dimensions after 5 weeks of age (Tables l-lS). It is not safe, however, �Table 19. Reported culmen lengths from descriptions of blue-winged and cinnamon teal. Source BWT Males Culmen Length Range Sclater (1912) 38.1 Spencer (1953) 46.5 45.0-47.0 45.5 45.0-46.0 50.5 50.0-51. 0 50.0 49.0-51. 0 Duvall (cited in Spencer 1953) - - 38.7 36.5-41. 0 - - 43.0 41.0-46. 0 Phillips (1923) - 39.0-42.0 - 38.0-40.0 - 42.5-48.5 - 41.4-47.0 Delacour (1956) 38.1 - - - 43.2 - - - - - - - 43.9 39.0-47.0 42.3 39.0-44.5 42.0 - 40.0 - - 44.0-47.0 - 42.0-44.0 - - <48.0 - - - >48.0 Wild 39.2 37.0-42.4 38.4 36.5-40.1 44.2 42.1-46.5 43.1 40.7-45.8 Penned 41.0 38.8-42.3 39.2 36.5-41. 4 44.6 43.0-47.1 41.9 38.5-44.4 Snyder and Lumsden (1951) Palmer (1976) Bird Banding Manual (1977) BWT Females Culmen Length Range CT Males Culmen Range Length CT Females Culmen Length Range 43.2 I I-' 0 N I �-103- to classify unknown birds based solely on these differences. A discriminant analysis programmed in SPSS (Nie et al. 1975), was used to classify females, by species, based on the 16th week data for each variable (Table 20). None of the variables individually classified more than 89.1% of the known birds correctly, even though all variables showed significant differences between the species. The best discriminator (89.1% correct) was the height of the bill at the base (BHGT), which has not been commonly used to distinguish these species. The most common variable for identifying the species is the length of the center of the culmen (CCEN), which was significantly different (P2.OOI) and yet classified only 71.7% of the females correctly when used as the single criterion. The other variables, indpendently, classified only 57.7% to 82.6% correctly (Table 20). These results indicated that there was enough overlap in the range of the variables between the 2 species to prevent correct classification of all birds, but that 2 or more variables might be used to obtain an acceptable degree of accuracy. The number of females correctly classified from a stepwise discriminant analysis, including all 10 variables for the 16th week of age, was 96.2% (Table 21). The F values to enter or remove variables from the analysis (Table 22) indicated that the maximum exposed culmen (MEC) was the best discriminator, followed by the width of the culmen at the gape (WIGAPE) and the width of the culmen at the widest anterior point (WIANT). The length of the center of the culmen (CCEN) was a poor discriminator with only the length of the center of the mandible (LBCEN) and the length of the exposed mandible (LEM) having less discriminating power. The 3 culmen lengths (CCEN, MEC, CGAPE) were the easiest measurements to take accurately on live birds, so 6 additive and multiplicative combinations of these 3 variables were included in a second analysis in.addition to the 10 original variables, the ANTAREA (CCEN X WIANT), and the GAPEAREA (CCEN X WIGAPE). The addition of the computed variables had no effect on the number of birds correctly classified (Table 21). The GAPEAREA became the best discriminator at every step in the analysis (Table 22). Using all the variables would be useful for classifying museum specimens where time and conditions permit a thorough e~amination of the bird. This number of measurements would not be practical for field use when handling large numbers of live birds, and a maximum of 3 or 4 measurements was considered practical for field purposes (R. Hopper, pers. comm). The 3 culmen lengths (CCEN, MEC, CGAPE) showed little overlap of ranges between the 2 species, and as relatively easy measurements to take accurately on live birds, it is recommended that these 3 measurements be taken on live birds in the field. The GAPEAREA (CCEN X WIGAPE) was the best discriminantor (Table 22) and it is recommended as a 4th variable for classifying wild teal even though the width of the culmen at the gape (WIGAPE) was reasonably difficult measurement to take accurately. When the GAPEAREA was included in the discriminant analysis with the 3 culmen lengths, the percentage of birds (16th week females) correctly classified was 93.5, only 2.7% less than when all 10 variables were included in the analysis. It was felt that these 4 variables (CCEN, MEC, CGAPE, CAPE AREA) represented the optimal combination if discriminating power and reliability of obtaining accurate measurements under field conditions. �-104- Table 20. Classification of 16th week female blue-winged and cinnamon teal based on single variable discriminant analysis. Variable Actual Group Classification Based on Single Variable Predicted Group BWT CT % Correctly N # % # % Classified BWT 24 12 50.0 12 50.0 CT 22 7 31.8 15 68.2 BWT 24 15 62.5 9 37.5 CT 22 4 18.2 18 81.8 BWT 24 15 62.5 9 37.5 CT 22 1 4.5 21 95.5 BWT 24 15 62.5 9 37.5 CT 22 2 9.1 20 90.9 BWT 24 13 54.2 11 45.8 CT 22 5 22.7 17 77.3 BWT 24 16 66.7 8 33.3 CT 22 0 0.0 22 100.0 BWT 24 13 54.2 11 45.8 CT 22 5 22.7 17 77.3 BWT 24 16 66.7 8 33.3 CT 22 2 9.1 20 90.9 BWT 24 19 79.2 5 20.8 58.7 TAR 71.7 CCEN MEC 78.3 CGAPE 76.1 WIANT 65.2 WIGAPE 82.6 LBCEN 65.2 78.3 LEM 89.1 BRGT CT 22 0 0.0 22 100.0 BWT 24 17 70.8 7 29.2 CT 22 3 13.6 19 86.4 LRC 78.3 �Table 21. Classification of 16 week old blue-winged measured variables and 8 computed variables. Actual Group Classification Based on 10 Variables Predicted Group % Correctly BWT CT -% Classified N % 1t II BWT 29 29 100.0 o 0.0 and cinnamon teal based on 1) 10 measured variables and 2) 10 Actual Group Classification Based on 18 Variables Predicted Group BWT ___Q % Correctly Classified % % N II if BWT 29 29 100.0 o 0.0 I I-' o 96.2 96.2 CT 24 2 8.3 22 91.7 CT 24 2 8.3 22 91. 7 \..Jl I �-106- Table 22. Values for F to enter or remcve from the analysis from the 16th week. Variable F to Enter or Remove Variable for female data F to'Enter or Remove TAR .797l3 TAR .77106 CCEN .71409 CCEN .04717 HEC 80.35929 MEC .24992 CGAPE 2.32524 CGAPE "k WIANT 8.08248 WIANT .09346 WIGAPE 14.20781 WIGAPE LBCEN .07732 LBCEN .08406 LEM .58078 LEM 1. 06936 BHGT 5.71997 BHGT 8.24020 LHC 1.l3105 LHC .99765 J_ ,~ CCEN + MEC CCEN + CGAPE MEC + CGAPE 10.85685 CCEN x MEC .31835 "i'\ CCEN x CGAPE ,;'c MEC x CGAPE .27329 CCEN x WIANT 9.03993 x WIGAPE 86.17016 CCEN ";~ Contributed Classification so little to the analysis With Logarithm they were not entered. Transformations of Measurements All additive and multiplicative combinations of the variables could be included by logarithm transformation of the data without increasing the number of variables. All subsequent discriminant analyses were run using log transformations of the 4 variables. �-107- Table 23 presents the classification results of the penned birds based on Although discriminant analysis for data from the 5th,·6th and 7th weeks. significant differences existed between the species for the variables at those ages, the females could not be classified with an acceptable degree of accuracy. The males were classified reasonably well' after the 5th week of age. Tables 24 and 25 present the results for the weekly measurements (CCEN, MEC, CGAPE, GAPE AREA) from the 8th through the 56th weeks. Ninety-two percent or more of the females were classified correctly after the 8th week (89.6% correct at the 8th week) and 100% of the males were classified accurately in each time period. The weekly classifications were based on discriminant coefficients computed from each week's respective data (Table 26). Aging birds to the week in the field is not practical (R. Hopper, pers. comm.) , so average coefficients were developed from the weekly measurements to be used for classifying the birds in each time period (Table 26). These coefficients were developed from each bird's average measurements of the 4 variables for the 8th through the 56th weeks data. Tables 24 and 25 present the results of classifying the birds using the average coefficients. Although there was a slight drop in the number of birds correctly identified, the results were essentially the same as the weekly coefficient classifications, demonstrating the possibility of developing coefficients to be used in classifying all wild birds older than 7 weeks of age. All of the wild teal were classified accurately (100% correct) when the average coefficients, developed from the penned birds, were used in the discriminant analysis, as well as when the classification was based on coefficients developed from the measurements of the wild birds. CONCLUSIONS The descriptive statistics from this study indicated that the average cinnamon teal bill is significantly larger than the average bluewing bill in most dimensions. These differences, however, cannot be used reliably to classify the birds under all conditions. Fledging or pre-fledged young are growing rapidly through the 7th week of age and are very similar in appearance. A discriminant analysis using 4 variables (CCEN, MEC, CGAPE, GAPEAREA) classified 77.3%, 84.4% and 89.6% of the females correctly in the 5th, 6th and 7th week age groups, respectively. Aging young birds to the week is impractical and due to the rapid growth prior to fledging (at approximately the 7th week of age), it is recommended that only fully fledged young (8 weeks of age) and older birds be classified in areas where both species occur. Male cinnamon teal acquire a red eye color at approximately 8 weeks of age (Spencer 1953) and should not present a problem of identification after that time. The classification of the penned teal based on weekly discriminant coeffici'ents accurately identified 92% or more of the birds in all age groups after the 8th week (89.6% at 8th week). Essentially the same results were obtained when the teal were classified with the calculated average discriminant coefficients. The male and female wild teal were classified correctly (100.0%) b~sed on the coefficient derived from the measurements taken on them as well as from the average coefficients from the penned teal. �Table 23. Classification of male and female blue-winged ments from the 5th, 6th and 7th we eka of age. Female Predicted Grou12 BWT CT and cinnamon teal from discriminant - Age Weeks Actual Group N It % It % 5 BWT 33 26 78.8 7 21.2 % Correctly Classified analysis based on measure- Male Predicted Grou12 BWT CT % % It % Correctly Classified Actual Group N It BWT 31 29 93.5 2 6.5 CT 29 6 20.7 23 79.3 m.JT 34 31 91.2 3 8.8 CT 30 1 3.3 29 96.7 77.3 6 CT 33 8 24.2 25 75.8 BWT 32 28 87.5 4 12.5 86.7 84.4 CT BWT 7 32 32 6 28 18.8 87.5 26 4 81. 3 12.5 93.8 BWT 33 33 100.0 0 0.0 CT 30 1 3.3 29 96.7 89.6 CT , 35 3 8.6 32 91.4 I f-' 0 00 I 98.4 �T~b1e 24. Classification of females from discriminate analysis based on measurements from the average measurements for the 8th, 12th, 16th, 20th, and 56th weeks of age. Age Weeks Actual Group N Based on Weekly Coefficients Predicted Group BWT CT % Correctly % % Classified fI It 8 BWT 33 30 3 9.1 weeks Actual Group Classification Based on Average Predicted Group BWT CT -1'-- % % N fI BWT 33 31 93.9 2 6.1 CT 34 6 17.6 28 82.4 BWT 28 26 92.9 2 7.1 CT 22 2 9.1 20 90.9 Classification 90.9 for selected 12 34 4 11.8 30 88.2 BWT 28 25 89.3 3 10.7 22 1 4.5 21 95.5 % Correctly Classified 92.0 92.0 CT Coefficient 88.1 89.6 CT of age and I I-' 0 \.D I 16 BWT 24 23 95.8 1 4.2 BWT 24 22 91. 7 2 8.3 CT 22 2 9.1 20 90.9 BWT 29 28 96.6 1 3.4 91. 3 95.7 20 CT 22 1 4.5 21 95.5 BWT 30 29 96.7 1 3.3 92.5 94.5 56 CT 25 2 8.0 23 92.0 CT 24 3 12.5 21 87.5 BWT 26 25 96.2 1 3.8 BWT 26 24 92.3 2 7.7 2 7.4 25 CT 27 4 14.8 23 85.2 88.7 94.3 CT 27 92.6 �Table 25. Classification of males from discriminant analysis based on measurements from the average measurements for the 8th, 12th, 16th, 20th and 56th weeks of age. Classification Age Weeks Actual Group N Based on Weekly Coefficient Predicted Group BWT CT % Correctly -----% % Classified # If 8 BWT 33 33 100.0 0 0.0 for selected weeks of age and Classification Actual Group N # Based on Average Predicted Group BWT CT % # % BWT 33 33 100.0 0 0.0 CT 30 0 0.0 30 100.0 BWT 33 33 100.0 0 0.0 100.0 12 CT 30 0 0.0 30 100.0 BWT 33 33 100.0 0 0.0 16 21 0 0.0 21 100.0 BWT 27 27 100.0 0 0.0 100.0 CT 21 0 0.0 21 100.0 BWT 27 27 100.0 0 0.0 CT 26 0 0.0 26 100.0 BWT 29 29 100.0 0 0.0 CT 20 0 0.0 20 100.0 B1-n 28 27 96.4 0 0.0 CT 25 1 3.6 25 100.0 100.0 20 CT 26 0 0.0 26 100.0 BWT 29 29 100.0 0 0.0 56 20 0 0.0 20 100.0 BWT 29 29 100.0 0 0.0 CT 25 0 0.0 25 100.0 I 100.0 100.0 I f-' f-' 0 100.0 100.0 CT % Correctly Classified 100.0 100.0 CT Coefficient 98.1 �Table 26. Discriminant selected variables. coefficients for male and female blue-winged 5th 6th 7th Age 8th CCEN -1.12330 -1. 52485 1. 37793 MEC 1. 26050 1.10058 CGAPE -0.50180 CCEN x ~HGAPE 1.48303 Sex and Variable and cinnamon teal based on logarithms of 4 (weeks) 12th 16th 20th 56th Average 0.85718 1.58840 1. 62867 1. 83478 1. 39327 0.39853 -1. 04561 -0.53744 -1.46134 -1. 50137 -0.82238 -0.99182 -1. 01860 -0.23086 -0.07288 -0.64182 -0.28234 -0.12084 1.00642 -0.38338 -0.74354 1. 94036 -1. 75782 -1. 31429 01.46650 -1. 62366 -1. 82512 -1. 84465 -0.40231 Female --- I ~ ~ ~ Male I CCEN -0.42716 -0.46837 -0.25696 -0.45993 0.19629 -0.26700 -0.16847 -0.40863 0.32521 MEC 1. 48719 1.18044 1. 51032 1.41713 1.04596 1.42890 -0.70383 -1. 09556 1. 56043 CGAPE -0.95610 -0.40907 -0.64524 -0.10855 -0.16809 -0.61241 -0.41397 -0.25223 -0.40837 CCEN x WIGAPE 1. 23357 1. 48052 1. 76384 1. 76458 1. 60258 2.45476 -1. 48265 -1. 02654 1.45743 �-112- This demonstrates the possibility of developing a set of coefficients derived from measurements from wild teal to use as an aid in identifying fledged or older birds in the field. Initial identification of the wild specimens would present a problem in areas wr.ere both species occur unless collections were made in the spring when pair bonds would provide an assumed accurate identification of the species. Regional collections and the development of coefficients for those regions would minimize any potential problems of geographical variation in the species which could exist throughout their ranges in the western U. S. Minor errors in measurements, of even 2-3 mm, could result in incorrectly classifying an unknown bird, especially if the bird's measurements fell into the range of overlap of the 2 species. It is recoIT@ended that measurements be taken carefully to maximize the probability of classifying the bird as the proper species. Some birds are too active in the hand to be measured accurately and it is recommended these be released unbanded, or if banded, classified as unidentified teal. LITERATURE CITED American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of North American 5th Ed. Lord Baltimore Press, Inc., Baltimore. 691 pp. birds. Baldwin, S. P., H. C. Oberholser, and L. G. Worley. 1931. Measurements of birds. Sci. Publ. of the Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist., Cleveland. 165 pp. Baur, R. V. 1974. Bantam chickens for hatching Hyde, ed. Raising wild ducks in captivity. Inc., New York. ducks. Pages 88-90 in D. E. P. Dutton and Co., o. Bellrose, F. C. 1976. The ducks, geese and swans of North America. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa. 544 pp. Bennett, L. J. Collegiate Delacour, J. London. 1938. The blue-winged teal: its ecology and management. Press, Inc., Ames, Iowa. 144 pp. 1956. Waterfowl 232 pp. of the world. Vol. 2. Dill, H. H., and F. B. Lee (eds.). and Wildl. Servo 154 pp. 1970. Country Life Limited, Home grown honkers. U. S. Fish Dwyer, G. L. 1977. Competition and hostile behaviors of blue-winged and M. A. Thesis, University of Montana, cinnamon teal in western Montana. Missoula. 77 pp. Pages 96-98 in D. o. Hyde, Ellis, J. 1974. Using an artificial incubator. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc. New York. ed. Raising wild ducks captivity. Flieg, G. M. 1974. Incubators and methods. Pages 103-104 in D. O. Hyde, ed. Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. �-113- Grown, o. 1972. Modern waterfowl management Bantam Assoc., Chicago. 359 pp. and breeding Johnsgard, P. A. 1975. Waterfowl of North Bloomington and London. 575 pp. America. guide. American Indiana Univ. Press, Kleinbaum, D. G., and L. L. Kupper. 1978. Applied regression analysis and other multivariable methods, Duxbury Press, Belmont, Calif. 556 pp. Kortright, F. H. 1942. The ducks, geese and swans of North America. Manage. Inst., Washington, D. C. 476 pp. Wildl. Ladd, W. N., Jr. 1969. Relationship of predation and land use practices to duck nesting activities on Valentine National Wildlife Refuge, Nebraska. M. S. Thesis. Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 116 pp. Lee, F. B. 1974. Artificial brooding of ducklings. Pages 129-136 in D. Hyde, ed. Raising wild ducks in captivity. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc., New York. o. Nie, N. H., C. H. Hull, J. G. Jenkins, K. Steinbrenner, and D. H. Bent. 1975. Statistical package for the social sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York. 675 pp. Palmer, R. S. 1976. Handbook of North American birds. Press, New Haven, Conn. and London. 521 pp. Vol. 2. Yale Univ. Phillips, J. C. 1923. A natural history of the ducks. Mifflin Co., Boston. 490 pp. Vol. 2. Houghton Sclater, W. L. 1912. A history of the birds of Colorado. Co., London. 567 pp. Sheraw, D. 1975. Successful duck and goose raising. Pine River, Minn. 203 pp. Witherby Stromberg Smart, G. 1974. Inducing difficult species to begin eating. 182 in D. O. Hyde, ed. Raising wild ducks in captivity. and Co., Inc. New York. Snyder, L. L., and H. G. Lumsden. 1951. Variations Royal Ontario Mus. Zool. Occas. Paper 10:1-18. Publ. Co., Pages 177D. P. Dutton in Anas cyanoptera. Spencer, H. E., Jr. 1953. The cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera its life history, ecology and management. M. S. Thesis. Agricultural College, Logan. 184 pp. Stromberg, J. 1975. A guide to better hatching. Fort Dodge, Iowa. 100 pp. and Vieillot): Utah State Stromberg Pub1. Co., Strutz, C. 1974. Winter care of wild ducks in captivity. in D. O. Hyde, ed. Raising wild ducks in captivity. Co., Inc. New York. Pages 186-193 E. P. Dutton and �-114- Strutz, C. 1974. Winter care of wild ducks in captivity. in D. O. Hyde, ed. Raising wild ducks in captivity. and Co., Inc. New York. Szymczak, M. R. 1977. Waterfowl production surveys. Fed. Aid Game Res. Rept., October. pp. 1-14. Pages 186-193 E. P. Dutton Colo. Div. Wildl., U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Canadian Wildlife Service. 1977. American bird banding manual. Vol. 2. Bird banding techniques. Un-numbered pages. North Wallace, K.I.M., and M. A. Ogilivie. 1977. Distinguishing cinnamon teals. British Birds 70:290-294. and &-'-L--.l__ Prepared by ---,/'--'-'<./l)-=-~.::.._[_'-f--,-J_s_-_ --,-S Robert S. Stark Graduate Research Assistant / / --)'-'j -llzo:'/ Approved by_~,~~.~,.~~~~~~l~~j,{~·_// __/_~~';~· {Chard M. Hopper ~'j.r ~ Wildlife Researcher C _'~~-~'~~~'~'A~ _ blue-winged �-115- APPENDIX BLUE-WINGED Specimen Number TEAL CINNAMON TEAL REFERENCE Weight DATA COLLECTION Date Collected ----------------------- Species _ Location A SHEET ------------------Age Sex'----------- _ ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Eye Color --------------------------- _ Wing Length _ Length of Tarsus Length of Foot _ Length of Middle Toe --------------- Culmen: Ridge Bill: Center ----------Maximum Lower Bill: _ Width Minimum Width ---------------- Width at Nares ----------- Posterior Center Width Anterior ------- Nail Length'--- Height of Bill: ---------------- _ Width '--------------- Nail Width Length -------- At Base --------------------At Posterior Comments: _ Nail: Width Ridge ----------------------- Posterior Length of Nares Side -------- End of Nail -----------------Width At Nares ----------------- ��-117- JOB PROGRESS State of October 1978 REPORT COLORADO Migratory H-88-R-24 Proj ect No. Work Plan No. 4 Job No. Bird Investigations 7 --------------------------------Job Title Effects of Land Use Changes on Mourning Doves --~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~------------------Period Covered: Personnel: January 1, 1978 to December 31, 1978 T. E. Olson, R. A. Ryder, L. Sweanor, Colorado State University; C. E. Braun, H. D. Funk, Colorado Division of Wildlife. ABSTRACT Investigations concerning distribution, nesting densities, success rates, and production of mourning doves (Zenaida macroura) in habitat types involved in current changes in farming practices were conducted between January and December 1978. Four study areas in northeastern Colorado ",'ereselected to represent short-grass prairie, mid-grass prairie, winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and corn (Zea mays). Shelterbelts 2nd study plots were searched ,veekly for nests from May to October 1978. Censuses were conducted for each area every other week. A total of 194 nests was observed, including 176 in she1terbelts, 8 in short-grass prairie, 7 in mid-grass prairie, 1 in wheat, and 1 in corn. Overall nesting success was 45.1%. Short-grass (50.0%) and mid-grass (57.1%) prairie nests were more successful than were those in shelterbelts (45.4%). Nesting density was higher for shelterbelts (40.93 nests per ha) than for any other habitat type. Chinese elm (Ulmus pumila) was the most common tree found in 11 shelterbelts and was the species most often used for nesting. The nesting season was from 15 May to 7 September. There we re no nest initiations or failures in September. Average clutch size was 1.94 + 0.12. Weather was the most important cause of nest failures. Peak numbers of doves observed occurred during mid-- to late August. Number of doves observed has increased from 1968 to 1978 on 3 of 4 study areas, despite increases in crop production. �-118- RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Data collection concerning nesting densities, productivity iu native prairie, winter wheat, shelterbelts should be continued. success rates, and irrigated corn, and 2. Censuses conducted every other week be continued on all study areas. throughout the field season 3. Crop statistics for the Great Plains ascertain trends in land use. in general should should be examined to �-119- EFFECTS OF LAND USE CHANGES ON MOURNING DOVES Thomas E. Olson INTRODUCTION The mourning dove is the most important and popular game bird in North America and is widely known as an appealing songbird (Nelson 1976). Keeler (1977) estimated an annual harvest in North America of about 50 million birds. About 500,000 doves are annually harvested in Colorado (Braun 1976). A member of the Order Columbiformes, Family Columbidae, there are 2 recognized subspecies of mourning doves: Z. m. carolinensis (eastern) and Z. m. marginella (western). The dividing lin; between the 2 subspecies is thebreak between the eastern deciduous forests and the midwestern grasslands (Aldrich and Duvall 1958). It has been established that mourning doves nest not only above ground (in trees, shrubs, on buildings, etc.), but also on the ground. Studies have shown that ground nesting doves make a substantial contribution to overall production, even though nesting densities are considerably lower than above ground (Giezentanner 1970, Strong 1971, Ryder 1972). In recent years farming practices have undergone tremendous changes. This is especially true for northeastern Colorado and most of the Great Plains. Shelterbelts have been removed, native prairie has been converted to dryland farming and land previously dry farmed is now irrigated for row crops. Since mourning doves nest on land that is undergoing changes in farming use, knowledge of how alterations in farming practices affect mourning dove nesting densities and production is needed. No previous investigations of the effects of land use changes on mourning doves have been undertaken in the Great Plains region. This study was initiated to examine the effects of such changes on nesting densities and production. This report presents data collected in the initial year of study. P. N. OBJECTIVES The major objective is to ascertain the effects of recent land use changes on nesting densities and production of mourning doves to assess impacts of such changes in the Great Plains. Data to be collected include distribution, nesting densities, and production of doves in various habitat types involved in the current changes in farming practices and land use. Hypotheses which have been developed are: 1. Significant changes in land use patterns 2. Occurrence of native rangeland doves in the Great Plains. 3. Mourning dove nesting densities, hatching success, and fledging success differ signficantly among shelterbelts, native rangeland, dryland farming, and irrigated cropland habitats. 4. Season and amount of use differ significantly determines have occurred in the Great Plains. the distribution by vegetative of mourning types. �-120- SEGMENT OBJECTIVES lao Review literature concerning mourning dove nesting densities, nesting success, and production in various habitats with particular emphasis on the Great Plains region and northeastern Colorado. . lb. Examine crop statistics of ASCS, SCS, ARS, etc., and annual reports of Colorado Agricultural Statistics to ascertain trends in land use. 2. Select study areas representative of shelterbelts, native prairie, dryland farming, and irrigated farming in eastern Colorado. Particular attention will be given to areas where established coo count or breeding bird census routes occur. 3. Estimate breeding densities coo count censuses. 4. Establish and make nest searches habitat type. 5. Ascertain nesting success of at least 25 nests per habitat surveillance of known nests. 6. Estimate productivity per nesting surveillance of known nests. 7. Prepare data, analyze results, and prepare progress data using standard statistical tests. through repeated use of direct counts and of 3 study plots in each major pair per habitat type through type through report. Analyze REVIEW OF LITERATURE The life history of the mourning dove has been described by Moore and Pearson (1942), Hanson and Kossack (1963), Keeler (1977), and Madson (1978). Additional information concerning physical characteristics and distribution has been reported by Lano (1927), Bastin (1952), and Swank (1955). Numerous mourning dove nesting studies have been conducted. These studies have taken place primarily in 3 areas of the United States, the midwest (McClure 1943, 1946, 1950; Boldt and Hendrickson 1952; Randall 1955; Carter 1957; LaPointe 1958; Hanson and Kossack 1963,K1ataske 1966; Crawford 1970; Schroeder 1970; Faanes 1977), the south (Pearson and Moore 1939, Moore and Pearson 1942, Lowe 1956), and the southwest (Nice 1922, 1923; Swank 1955; Davis and Sintz 1973; Davis et a1. 1974). Fichter (1959) investigated the breeding biology of the mourning dove in Idaho. Hon (1956), Downing (1959), and Ryder (1972) have reported the significance of ground nesting in mourning doves. Early and late season nesting dates have been discussed by Gander (1927), Angus (1934), and Hunt (1978). Bailey (1944), Weller (1959), Nelson (1976), and Rees (1978) have noted dove nest sites in diverse and unusual habitats. Calculating by Mayfield nesting success by number of days of exposure (1961, 1975) and Miller and Johnson (1978). has been examined �-121- Mourning dove food habits have been studied by Martin et al. (1951), Hanson and Kossack (1963), Griffing et a1. (1977), and Madson (1978). Migration and movements have been discussed by Hoore and Pearson (1942), Hanson and Kossack (1963), Funk (1965), Braun (1976), ana Ruble and Urban (1977) • Harvest data have been presented and Keeler (1977). by Hanson and Kossack (1963), Braun (1976), Changes in land use and farming practices have been documented by Van Deusen (1976, 1978), Carter (1977), Smith (1977), and Boldt (1978). The Colorado Agricultural Statistics (1952, 1957, 1962, 1967, 1972, 1977) were used to obtain information concerning changes in total acreage for dryland crops and irrigated row crops within Colorado. Validity of the mourning dove coo count census and factors affecting it have been analyzed by Hanson and Kossack (1963), LaPerriere and Haugen (1972), Keeler (1977), Baskett et al. (1978), and Sayre et al. (1978). Sampling methods used in habitat evaluation have been examined by Grue and Silvy (1977) and Adams and Gentle (1978). Methods used in population studies have been reported by Lowe (1956), Jumber et al. (1957), and Eberhardt (1978). METHODS AND MATERIALS Study areas were selected based on the following criteria: 1. Similarity to habitats throughout the Great Plains (native pralrle, dryland agriculture, irrigated cropland, and shelterbelts). 2. Proximity to established census routes. 3. Accessibility. mourning dove coo count and breeding Plots were randomly chosen within the selected study areas. marked by stakes at the corners. All plots were immediately mourning dove coo count or breeding bird census routes. bird Boundaries were adjacent to Plots and shelterbelts were searched weekly for nests. Active nests (eggs or young in nest or adult present on nest) discovered were marked nearby with red plastic tape. A number was assigned to each nesting attempt and was written on the tape along with date of discovery. A different number was assigned to each nesting, rather than to each nest because of possible nest reuse. Mourning doves were not marked and could not be individually distinguished. Each active nest was observed weekly until it either failed or fledged young. Although it has been stated that fledging can occur as early as 11 days after hatching (Swank 1955, Hanson and Kossack 1963, Davis et al. 1974), nests were considered successful only if young disappeared from the nest after their 14th day. Age of nestlings was estimated by comparing them to photographs and descriptions of known age nestings (Hanson and Kossack 1963). �-122- One change in the weekly schedule of nest searches was made for the corn plots. Searching entire plots became difficult after mid-July due to height and extreme density of the plants. Consequently, each plot was divided into 4 subplots in late July, just as tassles of the plants emerged. One subplot from each plot was searched completely once per' month. The Nunn, Briggsdale, and Yuma routes were censused every other week. The coo count route at Yuma consisted of 20, 3 minute stops spaced 1 mile apart, while the 2 breeding bird census routes contained 50 such stops at one-half mile intervals. Censuses were repeated the following week if bad weather conditions caused postponement. Number of doves seen, number of doves heard, and total coos heard were recorded. Each route was censused until zero doves were heard on 2 consecutive censuses. Direct counts were conducted during nest searches each week. Number of doves observed, the number of the plot or shelterbelt, type of activity (nesting, feeding, flying, etc.) and time spent searching were recorded during all nest searches. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Four study areas were selected. Within those areas, the following habitats typical of the Great Plains were represented: native prairie, dryland crops, irrigated row crops, and shelterbelts. Location and dominant vegetative type for each study area are presented (Table 1). Eighteen plots and 11 shelterbelts and tree claims (hereafter referred to as shelterbelts) in the 4 study areas were searched for nests throughout the field season (14 May through 13 October) (Table 2). Table 1. Study area location and vegetative types, northeastern Colorado. Location County Dominant Nunn Weld Short-grass Weld-Morgan Winter wheat (NE) Briggsdale (SE) Vegetative Type prairie Y~a (So.) Yuma Mid-grass prairie, corn Abarr (E) Y~a Mid-grass prairie, corn The Nunn study area, including 8 short-grass pralrle plots and 3 sheiterbelts, is located within the Pawnee National Grassland in Weld County. Five plots (totaling 40 ha) were composed of short vegetation m in height) with shrubs virtually absent. AIlS plots were in TlON, R66W, Section 23. These plots had been previously established and were added because of the availability of past nesting data (Ryder 1972). In contrast, the 3 remaining short-grass prairie plots (10 ha each) contained vegetation up to 0.75 m in height and included shrubs, predominantly saltbush (Atriplex spp.). The plots were located at TION, R66W, Section 28; T10N, R66W, Section 13; and TlON, R65W, Section 5. «~ �-123- Table 2. Vegetative Vegetative Type Short-grass prairie type, location and total area of selected study plots. Number of Plots Total Area in Plots (lla) Nunn 8 70.0 Winter wheat Briggsdale 2 40.0 Fallow Briggsdale 2 40.0 Location Irrigated corn Yuma 3 60.0 Mid-grass prairie Yuma 3 30.0 11 4.3 Shelterbelts 11 All Areas- 11 Including Abarr. Dominant grasses in the short-grass pralrle plots were blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides). Taller species (midgrasses) such as red threeawn (Aristida longiseta), needleand thread (Stipa comata), and sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus) were also present, but were not abundant. Forbs found included lambsquarter (Chenopodium album), prairie pepperweed(Lepidium densiflorum), and sunflower (Helianthus annus) (Costello 1944). Sunflowers were abundant in roadside borrow pits. Other frequently occurring species were saltbush (Atriplex spp.) andpricklypear (Opuntia spp.). The 3 shelterbelts selected for observation in the Nunn study area (TlON, R65\J, Section 18; TlON, R66W, Section 12; TllN, R63W, Section 31) were 0.3, 0.2, and 0.4 ha in size, respectively. Dominant species were Chinese elm, pine (Pinus spp.), and juniper (Juniperus spp.). The Briggsdale study area is located in southeast Weld County and northwest Morgan County. Nest searches were conducted in 2 w Lnt.er wheat plots, 2 fallow plots, and 3 shelterbelts. Wheat and fallow plots (T7N, R6lW, Section 26 and T6N, R60W, Section 26) were 20 ha each in size and were divided into 2 groups. Each group contained 1 wheat and 1 fallow plot adjacent to each other. Wheat plots were seeded in fall 1977 and harvested in mid July 1978. Due to agronomic practices, wheat and fallow plots will be reversed in 1979. Large areas of short-grass prairie were also 'present within th~s study area. Species composition was similar to that described for the Nunn area. No plots were established in short-grass prairie at Briggsdale. The most common tree species observed in the 3 Briggsdale shelterbelts were Chinese elm and locust (Robinia spp.). Locations were T7N, R6lW, Section 35; T7N, R6lW, Section 36; and T7N, R60W, Section 5. Sizes were 0.2, 0.9, and 0.4 ha, respectively. �-124- The Yuma study area is in western Yuma County in the sandhill region of northeastern Colorado. Three irrigated corn plots, 3 mid-grass prairie plots, and 3 shelterbelts were searched for nests. Twenty ha corn plots were irrigated by center pivot systems. Corn was seede4 in spring before the start of the field season in mid May and was harvested in early October for grain, as opposed to silage. Corn plots were located at TIS, R48W, Section 4 and T2S, R47W, Section 25 (2 plots established within the latter section). Mid-grass prairie plots were located at TIN, R48W, Section 31; T15, R47W, Section 20; and T1S, R47W, Section 21. Like the short-grass plots, the midgrass plots were 10 ha in size. Vegetation height was greater (up to 1 m) than that observed in short-grass prairie. Species composition included a higher percentage of shrubs than did the short-grass prairie plots. Mid-grass, or mixed prairie contained a combination of short grasses, such ~s blue grama, and taller grasses, including prairie sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), needleandthread, western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii), and sand dropseed. Dominant forbs were lambsquarter and spiderwort (_l'radescantia occidentalis). Shrubs consisted mainly of sand sage (Artemisia filifolia) and yucca (Yucca spp.) (Costello 1944, Ruangpanit 1977). As in the Nunn study area, sunflowers were abundant in roadside b orrow pits. Yuma study area shelterbelts (TIS, R47W, Section 20; TIS, R47W, Section 23; TIS, R46W, Section 31) were 0.1, 0.4, and 0.1 ha in size, respectively. Chinese elm was the dominant species. The Abarr study area is in Yuma County, 19 mile3 south of Yuma. Two shelterbelts (both located at T2S, R47W, Section 10) were selected for observation throughout the field season. The dominant species was Chinese elm. Shelterbelts were 0.8 and 0.5 ha in size. No plots were established in mid-grass prairie or irrigated corn, although both habitat types were present. Species composition of mid-grass pralrle at Ab~rr was similar to the description given for the Yuma study area. Data collected for all trees contained in the 11 shelterbelts were examined. Chinese elm was the dominant species, comprising 57.4% of all trees searched (Table 3). Other important species included locust, juniper, Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), and pine (Pinus spp.). Mean height and diameter (dbh) of the trees were 6.5 m, and 19.8 cm, respectively. Of the 1,015 trees searched, 873 (86.0%) were living. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Habitat Selection During the 1978 field season, 194 nests were observed (Table 4). Of that total, 176 (90.7%) were located in shelterbelts (175 in trees, 1 in shrubs). Nesting attempts and productivity of ground nesting mourning doves were low. Only 7.8% of all nesting attempts and 9.7% of the total number of young produced occurred in short-grass and mid-grass prairie. Nesting in corn and wheat was insignificant, as evidenced by only 1 attempt (0.5%) in each. Downing (1959) estimated that mourning doves in a relatively treeless area of north- �-125- western Oklahoma nested on the ground 71% of the time. Ground nests in that study were responsible for 59% of all young produced and were found primarily in areas of sand sage, grassland, and wheat stubble. Table 3. Species composition Colorado 1978. of 11 shelterbelts searched, northeastern Number Percent of Total Chinese elm 583 57.4 Locust 118 11.6 Juniper 110 10.8 Russian olive 83 8.2 Pine 77 7.6 25 2.5 Green ash 16 1.6 Other 3 0.3 Total 1,015 100.0 Species Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) The shelterbelt habitat was also predominant in nests located per hour searched (Table 5). More than 2 tree nests (2.01) were located per hour searched. Nests were found at considerably lower rates in all other habitats searched. This suggests a preference by mourning doves to nest in trees wherever possible. Nesting cover in trees in northeastern Colorado is limited and widely spaced. Due to the scarcity of trees nests in shelterbelts are concentrated and easily discoverd. Nesting Success Overall nesting success was 45.1% (Table 4). Short-grass (50.0% successful) and mid-grass (57.1% successful) prairie nests were more successful than were nests in shelterbelts. One reason could be that ground nests weren't as susceptible to wind damage. Differences in rates of nesting success among short-grass prairie, mid-grass prairie and shelterbelt habitats were nonsignificant (T-test, R:0.50). It must be noted that the figures for prairie nests were based on small sample sizes. Neither of the nests located in wheat and corn was successful. Downing (1959) found ground nests (29% successful) to be less successful than tree nests (49%) in northwestern Oklahoma. �-126- Table 4. Number and success of nests located in study plots and shelterbelts in northeastern Colorado 1978. Habitat Type Number of Nests Number Successful Number Failed Percent Successful Shelterbelts 176 80 96 45.4 8 4 4 50.0 7 4 3 57.1 Hinter wheat 1 0 1 0.0 Irrigated corn 1 0 1 0.0 Abandoned building 1 0 1 0.0 194 88 ]06 Short-grass Mid-grass prairie prairie Totals 45.4 X Table 5. Nests located per hour searched, by habitat Colorado 1978. Nests/Hour Habitat Short-grass Searched 2.01 Shelterbe1ts Mid-grass type, northeastern prairie prairie 0.10 0.13 Winter wheat 0.03 Irrigated 0.02 cocn Overall success rate (tree and ground nests combined) was 45.4%. That figure is somewhat lower than nesting success reported in other studies. Randall (1955) reported the highest success rate of any investigation (71.1% in North Dakota). Nesting success reported in Iowa was 61.1% (Jumber et al. 1956), in Kansas it was 57.4% (Schroeder 1970), while in Nebraska it was 47.0% (McClure 1946, 1950). Only LaPointe (1958) reported a lower success rate (26% in Nebraska). �-127- Nesting success also was calculated using a method introduced by Mayfield (1961, 1975). The method is based on days of nest exposure. For purposes of calculation 14 days were used as the number of days in both incubation and nestling stages. Due to small sample sizes, short-grass and mid-grass prairie nests were combined. In addition, success was determined for nests in she1terbe1ts and all nests combined. Success rates as calculated by this method were low (Table 6). Successes for she1terbe1t nests, native prairie nests, and all nests combined were 28.2, 30.7, and 27.8%, respectively. No other mourning dove nesting studies have reported success rates derived by Mayfield's method. Other investigators have reported (traditional method) success rates from 47.0% in Nebraska (McClure 1946) to 71.1% in North Dakota (Randall 1955). In this study, nests in native prairie were more successful (30.7%) than were those in trees (28.2%). Table 6. Comparison of nesting traditional percentages. success using Mayfield's Habitat Type Mayfield's Method method and ~raditiona1 Percentage ---------------------------------------------She1terbe1ts 28.2 45.4 Native prairie 30.7 53.3 All nests combined~/ 27.8 45.4 a/ - Includes 1 unsuccessful abandoned building. nest in each of the following: corn, wheat, Nesting Density Nesting density was higher for she1terbe1ts (40.93 nests per ha) than for any other habitat type (Table 7). Mid-grass prairie had a higher density than did short-grass prairie. Based on small sample sizes (1 nest located in each type), both wheat and corn had extremely low densities (0.03 nests per ha and 0.02 nests per ha, respectively). No nests were located in fallow. The high density of tree nests suggests that she1teberbe1ts play a dominant role in mourning dove production in northeastern Colorado. It would appear that production in she1terbe1ts is far more important than production from ground nests. This is critical because many she1terbe1ts in the Great Plains are being removed (Van Deusen 1978). �-128- Table 7. Nesting densities by habitat type northeastern Colorado 1978. Habitat Type Number of Plots Total Area in Plots (ha) Number of N~sts Density (nests/hel) Shelterbelts 11 4.3 176 40.93 8 70.0 8 0.11 3 30.0 7 0.23 vJinter wheat 2 40.0 I 0.03 Irrigated 3 60.0 I 0.02 2 40.0 0 0.0 Short-grass Mid-grass Fallow prairie prairie corn Nesting density for all ground nests (0.071 nests per hal in this study was similar to that reported for ground nests in Oklahoma (0.062 nests per ha) (Downing 1959). Nesting densities in shelterbelts reported in previous studies have varied greatly. Downing (1959) estimated a density of about 4.5 nests per ha in Oklahoma. In contrast, Fichter (1959) found 50 nests per ha of orchard in Idaho. Figge et al. (1953) reported an average of 194 young fledged per ha in a Colorado pear (RY.rus spp.) orchard. Nest Sites Trees predominated as nest sites. Of 194 nests observed, 175 (90.7%) were located in trees. This suggests a strong preference for trees as nest sites. As others have reported (Carter 1957, McClure 1943), mourning doves appear to select trees as nest sites according to availability. Chinese elm was the species most often used for nesting. One hundred forty-three nests (81.8% of all tree nests) were located in that species (Table 8). Chinese elm was also the most common tree found in 11 shelterbelts. Moore and Pearson (1942), Klataske (1966), and Swank (1955) have suggested that doves prefer to nest in evergreens, especially early in the season. Data from the 1978 field season do not support conclusions of these authors. Although 18.4% of all trees searched were conifers, only 12.6% (juniper and pine with 6.3% each) of the nests were located in them (Tables 3 and 8). Nests were found from 1 to 11 m above the ground. Few nests higher than 11 m have been reported (Moore and Pearson 1942). Davis and Sintz (1973) observed nests less than 1 m above the ground, but stated that over 90% were located at a height of at least 1 m. Hean nest height for 175 nests observed in northeastern Colorado was 3.4 m. This figure is intermediate between extremes in nest height reported by Boldt and Henrickson (1952) in North Dakota (1.8 m) and by Pearson and Moore (1939) in Alabama (7.8 m). �-129- Table 8. Tree species used as nest sites in 11 shelterbe1ts, Colorado 1978. northeastern Species Number of Nests Chinese elm 143 81.8 Pine 11 6.3 Juniper 11 6.3 Russian olive 4 2.3 Locust 2 1.1 Cottonwood 2 1.1 Green ash 2 1.1 175 100.0 Total Percent of Total Mourning doves apparently prefer tall, sturdy trees (McClure 1943). Results from 1978 support this idea. Mean height (8.2 m) and dbh (28.8 cm) of trees used as nest sites exceeded mean height (6.5 m) and dbh (19.8 cm) of all trees observed. Davis and Sintz (1973) had similar findings in New Mexico. Horizontal limbs of living trees were predominantly chosen by doves as nest sites. Only 16 nests (9.1%) were located in forks of trees, as opposed to 159 (90.9%) on horizontal limbs. Davis and Sintz (1973) stated that 50% of the nests they observed were in forks. Similarly, Nice (1922) found 33% of the dove nests she located in Oklahoma to be in forks of trees. Seven nests (4.0%) were found in dead trees, a low value as 14% of all trees observed were dead. Increased cover and protection could be the reasons for the apparent preference for living trees. Old nests of other species, primarily mockingbird (Mimus polyglottus) were used for 7 mourning dove nesting attempts. Mourning doves appear to require a minimum distance between nests. Only twice were 2 active nests observed at the same time in the same tree. Moore and Pearson (1942) also found only 2 such occurrences in a sample size of 680 nests. Although doves appear gregarious in some nesting situations (density in shelterbelts was 40.93 nests per ha), this could be the result of limited amounts of preferred nesting habitat. Cover of ground nests varied. Atriplex spp. and Opuntia spp. supplied little cover for the nests observed in short-grass prairie. Those nests were completely exposed. Nesting sites in mid-grass prairie contained greater cover, supplied primarily by Artemisia filifolia and Yucca spp. The unsuccesSful nests in wheat and corn had the greatest cover. Both were well hidden and unexposed to the sun for much of the day. �-130- Nest platforms in trees were reused 27 times. Twenty-five (14.3% of all tree nests) were reused once, while 2 others (1.1%) were reused twice. Schroeder (1970) found that 22.1% of the nests he observed were used more than once, including 1 nest that was reused 3 times. Ground nests were not reused in this study. Nesting Season The nesting season during 1978 was from 15 May (1st recorded nest initiation) to 7 September (date of fledging of last nestlings). Because field research did not begin until mid May the start of the nesting season was not known. Nests were initiated from 15 May to 27 August. It is quite certain that nests were initiated prior to 15 May due to the presence of recently used nests at the beginning of field season. In northern states, such as North Dakota, early May has been established as the beginning of nesting activity (Randall 1955). 1aPointe (1958) and Carter (1957) reported that nesting activity for both Nebraska and Iowa started in mid April. Most previous nesting studies have indicated that the nesting season ends later than early September. Only one investigation (Lowe 1956) reported an earlier close (late August for Georgia). Moore and Pearson (1942) reported the latest end-of-season date, late October for Alabama. June, July and August were the most important months for dove production (Table 9) in shelterbelts with peak activity in mid July (Table 11). These 3 months were the most important for dove production in native prairie (Table 10), however, the peak of nesting activity for short-grass prairie was much earlier (early June) (Table 11). No definite pattern occurred in mid-grass prairie. Several authors have reported peak nesting activity occurring before mid July. McClure (1943) stated that June was the month of greatest activity in Iowa. Similarly, LaPointe (1958) concluded that activity in Nebraska peaked in early June. Results from this study are more closely aligned to those reported in New Mexico (Davis and Sintz 1973), Texas (Swank 1955), Idaho (Fichter 1959), and Oklahoma (Downing 1959). All of the above authors placed the peak of nesting activity in July. Table 9. Nesting month, 1978. activity in 11 northeastern Colorado shelterbelts by Month Nests Initiated Percent of Total Broods Fledged Percent of Total fuy 23 13.1 0 0.0 June 55 31.3 21 26.2 July 74 42.0 23 28.8 August 24 13.6 33 41.2 September 0 0.0 3 3.8 176 100.0 80 100.0 Totals --- --- �-131- Table 10. Nesting activity in ll.native pralrle (short-grass and mid-grass combined) study plots in northeastern Colorado, by month, 1978. , Percent of Total Nests Initiated Percent of Total Broods Fledged ~y 4 26.7 0 0.0 June 4 26.7 4 50.0 July 5 33.3 2 25.0 August 2 l3.j 2 25.0 September 0 0.0 0 0.0 Totals 15 100.0 8 100.0 Month Corn and wheat are not included in Table 11 because only 1 nest was located in each type. The nest in wheat was active from 29 May until 4 June, while the nest in corn was active from 28 June until 3 July. No nests were initiated in any habitat type in September (Tables 9 and 10). More importantly, there were no nest failures (including abandonment) in September. These 2 points suggest that the effect of September hunting on nesting and dove production in Colorado is minimal. Results from other studies have shown hunting to have negative effects on late season nesting. Schroeder (1970) found 37 of 48 active nests (77%) abandoned in Kansas during the period of 1 to 11 September, 1962. Davis and Sintz (1973) suggested that the nesting population in southern New Mexico could be better protected by delaying the opening of hunting season until mid September. It would appear that no such delay is necessary in northeastern Colorado. Productivity per Nesting Pair Average clutch size was 1.94 + 0.12. Two-egg clutches were most prevalent (Table 12). Eighteen I-egg clutches (9.3% of all clutches) and 6, 3-egg clutches (3.1%) were found. Lowest percentages for eggs hatched and successful nests were found in the I-egg clutches. However, some of the I-egg clutches might have been 2-egg clutches had they not failed after only 1 egg was laid. This could be a contributing factor toward the apparent low success for 1egg clutches. Hatching and successful nest percentages for 2- and 3-egg clutches were not significantly different. Although 50% of the 3-egg clutches were successful, only 1 fledged all 3 nestlings. Average clutch size appears to be quite consistent throughout the United States. Figures indicated for Minnesota (1.8) by Faanes (1977) and for Kansas (1.9) by Schroeder (1970) are comparable to the 1.94 reported for this study. �-l32- Table 11. Number of active nests per habitat type by week, 14 May to 9 September, northeastern Colorado, 1978. She1terbe1ts Short-grass Prairie Mid-grass Prairie l4-20 May 10 1 0 21-27 May 19 4 0 28 May-3 June 27 5 0 4-10 June 45 5 1 11-17 June 47 3 1 18-24 June 41 3 1 25 June-1 July 39 2 2 2-8 July 43 2 3 9-15 July 51 1 3 16-22 July 58 1 2 23-29 July 51 1 2 30 Ju1y-5 August 50 0 3 6-12 August 37 0 2 13-19 August 23 0 2 20-26 August 16 0 3 27 August-2 September 9 0 1 3-9 September 3 0 0 Week Number of young produced per successful nesting attempt also seems to be consistent throughout the country. During the 1978 field season, 165 young were produced. This represents .85 young per nesting attempt and 1.88 young per successful nest. Eight previous studies reviewed by Fichter (1959) reported a range of young produced per successful nest of 1.59 to 1.94. �-133- Table 12. Number and success of 1-, 2-, and 3-egg clutches doves, northeastern Colorado, 1978. of mourning Clutch Size Number Eggs Hatched Percent Hatched Successful Nests Percent Successful Young Produced 1 18 3 16.7 2 11.1 2 2 170 186 54.7 83 48.8 156 3 6 10 55.5 3 50.0 7 Totals 194 199 x 88 52.9 165 45.4 Productivity per nesting pair per habitat type was estimated using the method discussed by Fichter (1959). The highest number of active nests in any 1 week was considered the minimum number of nesting pairs. The minimum numbers of nesting pairs for shelterbelts, short-grass prairie, and midgrass prairie were 58, 5, and 3, respectively. The following estimates for productivity per nesting pair were calculated: 2.57 for shelterbelts, 1.60 for short-grass prairie, and 2.67 for mid-grass prairie. Productivity per nesting pair for all habitat types combined was 2.70. These results suggest relatively low productivity per nesting pair, especially in short-grass prairie, when compared to previous investigations. Productivity per nesting pair has varied among studies conducted in different states. Number of young produced per nesting pair in previous investigations has ranged from 2.0 in Georgia (Lowe 1956) to 6.7 in Texas (Swank 1955). There appears to be no correlcation between number of young fledged per nesting pair and latitude (and thus, with length of breeding season), as evidenced by the fact that southern states represented both the highest and lowest recorded values. Causes of Nest Failures Weather caused nearly one-half (45.3%) of the 106 recorded nest failures (Table 13). Any nest that was observed at some time to contain eggs or young, but did not fledge at least 1 nestling was considered a failure. Of the weather caused failures, 32 were lost due to wind, while 10 were attributed to hail storms. Three dead adult doves were found on or near nests . after a hail storm. All 32 nests lost due to wind were in trees. Nice (1922) and Faanes (1977) also discussed the importance of weather. Conversely, Fichter (1959) and Schroeder (1970) both stated that weather played a minor role in nest destruction. Of the remaining unsuccessful nests, 29 (27.4%) failed due to unknown causes, 26 (24.5%) were abandoned, and only 3 (2.8%) could be definitely attributed �-134- to predation. Two tree nests were predated in the egg stage. Round holes were visible in the eggshells, suggesting an avian predator, such as a black-billed magpie (Pica pica). The ground nest that was predated contained eggshells with large oblong holes in them, possibly the result of thirteenlined ground squirrel (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) predation. Faanes (1977) in Minnesota, Klataske (1966) in Nebraska, and Boldt and Hendrickson (1952) in North Dakota all reported substantial numbers of unsuccessful nests due to abandonment. Table 13. Causes of failures northeastern Colorado, 1978. of tree and ground nests of mourning doves, Cause Number of Nest Failures Weather 48 45.3 Unknown 29 27.4 Abandonment 26 24.5 Predation 3 2.8 106 100.0 Total Percent of Total Coo Counts Coo count censuses were used to establish patterns in cooing activity and number of doves present throughout the 1978 season (Table 14). Because no study plots were established adjacent to the breeding bird census route at Abarr, it was censused only twice. Only data from the 1st 20 stops were recorded. Data from the other 3 routes varied greatly. Cooing activity peaked for both Yuma and Briggsdale in late May and early June, while cooing at Nunn peaked in early July. The timing of peak numbers of doves seen for the Nunn and Yuma routes (26 and 14 August, respectively) agrees with the findings of a 1962-1963 study in Colorado (Funk 1965). His data revealed that peak numbers of doves throughout most of the state occurred during the 1st 3 weeks of August. The peak in total number of doves observed on the Briggsdale route (112 seen on 29 May) represents a deviation from Funk's results. Results of coo counts and breeding bird censuses at Nunn, Briggsdale, Yuma, and Abarr were obtained from the files of R. A. Ryder, L. C. McEwen, and the Colorado Division of Wildlife for 1968-1978. An upward trend was apparent in 3 of the 4 routes (Table 15). There has been an apparent increase in the number of doves at Nunn, Briggsdale, and Yuma. There was no discernible trend in doves observed on the breeding bird census route at Abarr. �-135- Table 14. Results of mourning dove call count censuses, northeastern Colorado, starting 23 May 1978. Date of Census Doves Heard 'total Calls Doves Seen Nunn 23 May 6 June 20 June 4 July 18 July 1 August 11 August 26 August 5 September 19 September 5 October 60 38 23 81 17 11 6 3 2 0 0 508 130 67 370 52 35 12 8 6 0 0 44 32 32 29 27 22 9 67 20 10 0 Briggsdale 29 May 14 June 27 June 11 July 24 July 8 August 19 August 31 August 12 September 79 77 44 68 50 5 6 0 0 423 366 182 347 187 10 11 0 0 112 81 59 65 58 49 28 25 2 Yuma 25 May 8 June 22 June 6 July 13 July 20 July 1 August 10 August 14 August 27 August 9 September 23 September 32 175 49 194 234 43 Discontinued - extreme wind 36 15 113 26 Discontinued - rain 125 36 141 36 48 17 0 0 0 0 26 May 15 June 38 27 Location of Route Abar~/ ~/ First 20 stops only. 183 127 46 53 60 80 35 93 125 72 33 50 41 17 �Table 15. Results of coo counts and breeding bird censuses, northeastern Colorado, 1968-1978. Year Nunn (BBC) Date of Total Doves Seen and Heard Count Briggsdale (BBC) Date of Total Doves Count Seen and Heard Yuma (CC) Date of Total Doves Seen and Heard Count Abarr (BBC)5.:/ Date of Total Doves Count Seen and Heard 1968 2 July 9 14 June 20 6 June 20 28 June 28 1969 26 June 22 22 June 62 31 May 32 28 June 22 1970 16 June 31 23 June 58 29 May 46 25 June 20 1971 15 June 42 15 June 77 9 June 61 22 June 26 1972 14 June 51 15 June 61 24 May 42 22 June 43 I •.... 1973 14 June 12 17 June 49 31 May 34 20 June 75 1974 18 June 34 13 June 30 M ayb/ 58 25 June 63 1975 7 June 38 5 June 44 22 May 67 24 June 39 1976 12 June 50 10 June 63 20 May 84 22 June 62 1977 18 June 51 15 June 87 27 May 121 23 June 57 1978 11 June 69 18 June 112 20 May 116 29 June 33 1978 6 June~i 70 a/ 14 June- 158 25 Ma~/ 78 a/ 15 June- 27 ~I Conducted by this investigator. hI Only month and year given. ~/ Data for Abarr from first 20 stops only. w 0'\ I �-137- Changes in Land Use Hectares planted to both grain corn and winter wheat have increased in eastern Colorado since 1950. From examination of Colora~o Agricultural Statistics (1952 through 1977), it is apparent that the upward trend in grain corn is most important. Area planted to winter wheat in Weld County has increased only slightly, while area planted to grain corn in Yuma County has increased substantially (Table 16). Dryland wheat study plots for this investigation are located in Weld County, while irrigated corn plots are located in Yuma County. Two additional counties, Baca and Phillips, were randomly selected to better ascertain trends in agricultural land use in eastern Colorado. Both counties had increased numbers of hectares planted to grain corn, but only Baca County showed an increase in winter wheat production (Table 17). Phillips County had no apparent trend in winter wheat production. Data from these 2 counties indicate the magnitude of the upward trend in grain corn production. Increased use of center-pivot irrigation systems is chiefly responsible for the change in corn production. The rise in popularity of center pivot irrigation systems has paralleled the increase in percent of all corn harvested that is irrigated in Yuma county (Table 18). The percentage has increased from 0.2 in 1950 to 95.2 in 1975 (Colorado Agricultural Statistics 1952 through 1977). Without this relatively new system of irrigation, such a tremendous shift from nonirrigated corn to irrigated probably could not have taken place. There was an increase in area used for crop production in all 4 counties. Additional land used for crops probably was converted from native prairie. The conversion of land from native prairie to cropland i~ important to mourning dove production. During 1978 nest density was higher in native prairie (0.15 nests/ha) than in either dryland wheat (0.03) or irrigated corn (0.02). Another major land use change that could have an important impact on mourning dove production is the removal of shelterbelts. Depression era shelterbelts have been removed throughout the Great Plains during the 1970' s. .Reasons that have been given for removal include decadence of the trees within the shelterbelts, excessive water usage, and interference with center pivot irrigation systems (Van Deusen 1976). Northeastern Colorado has been no exception to this practice. Shelterbelt removal has been noted on the study area at Yuma. Nesting density in shelterbelts (40.93 nests/ha) was much higher than densities in prairie, corn, and wheat (Table 7). The land conversion presently occurring in the Great Plains may be partly beneficial to mourning doves. Although potential nest sites have undoubtedly been reduced by changes in farming practices, mourning doves have apparently been able to adapt. This is reflected by the increase in doves observed from 1968 to 1978 on 3 of 4 study areas in northeastern Colorado. The increase in grain production in the Great Plains could result in more high quality food being available to doves in the form of waste grain. The advantage of more food may outweigh the disadvantage of decreased nesting sites. �-138- Table 16. Area planted in winter wheat and grain corn, Weld and Yuma counties, Colorado, 1950-1975. Year Crop County Number of Hectares Planted 1950 Winter wheat Weld 60 ,81#/ 1955 Winter wheat Weld 20 ,52~/ 1960 Winter wheat Weld 76,432 1965 Winter wheat Weld 82,195 1970 Winter wheat Weld 84,178 1975 Winter wheat Weld 80,940 1950 Corn Yuma 44 ,71gP./ 1955 Corn Yuma 23,3lgP../ 1960 Grain corn Yuma 21,344 1965 Grain corn Yuma 10,927 1970 Grain corn Yuma 21,044 1975 Grain corn Yuma 54,230 ~/ Statistics available only for number of hectares harvested. ~/ Statistics available only for all purpose corn. �-139Table 17. Area planted in winter wheat and grain corn, Baca and Phillips counties, Colorado, 1950-1975. Year County Hectares Planted in Grain Corn 1950 Baca 1 ,4l0~j 30,45(~j 1955 Baca 2 ,OO~/ 48 ,ll#/ 1960 Baca 1,300 103,560 1965 Baca 800 116,000 1970 Baca 15,600 139,600 1975 Baca 19,840 80,000 1950 Phillips 13,07~/ 49,26#/ 1955 Phillips 7,60~/ 44,15#/ 1960 Phillips 6,080 47,420 1965 Phillips 3,080 57,600 1970 Phillips 8,000 54,000 1975 Phillips 17,000 48,000 Hectares Planted in Winter Wheat ~/ Statistics available only for number of hectares harvested of corn for all purposes. l/ Statistics available only for number of hectares harvested. Table 18. Number of hectares of irrigated and non-irrigated corn harvested 1950 through 1975, Yuma County, Colorado. Year Hectares of Irrigated Corn Harvested Hectares of Non-Irrigated Corn Harvested Irrigated Corn As % of Total 1950 104 44,096 0.2 1955 316 22,732 1.4 1960 1,628 16,812 8.8 1965 4,560 4,040 S3.0 1970 15,000 3,000 83.3 1975 47,600 2,400 95.2 �-140- LITERATURE CITED Adams, G. D., and G. C. Gentle. 1978. Spatial changes in waterfowl habitat, 1964-74 on two land types in the Manitoba Newdale Plain. Can. Wildl. Servo Rep. Ser. 38. 29 pp. Aldrich, J. W., and A. J. Duvall. of the mourning dove. Condor 1958. Distribution 60:108-128. Angus, H. L. 1934. Late nesting notes for doves. Bailey, A. M. 1944. 56:171-172. The history of a mourning and migration of races Bird Lore 36:172. dove nest. Wilson Bull. Baskett, T. S., M. J. Armbruster, and M. W. Sayre. 1978. perspectives for the mourning dove call-count system. Am. Hildl. and Nat. Res. Conf , 43:163-180. Biological Trans. N. Bastin, Wilson E. W. 1952. Flight-speed of the mourning dove. Bull. 64:47. Boldt, C. E. 1978. Stand manaeement in endangered prairie woodlands. 111. In Proc. 1977 West. For. Conf., West. For. Conserv. Assoc., Portland, Ore. Boldt, W. J., and G. O. Hendrickson. 1952. Mourning dove production North Dakota shelterbelts, 1950. J. Wild1. Manage. 16:187-191. Pg. in Braun, C. E. 1976. Trapping and banding doves. Final Report, Fed. Aid to Wi1d1. Rest. Proj. W-88-R, Work Plan 4, Job 3. Game Res. Rept. Oct. 1976. pp. 93-112. Carter, D. L. 1957. Production of the mourning dove at Lewis, M. S. Thesis, Iowa State Univ., Ames. 68 pp. Iowa, 1956. Carter, L. J. 1977 . Soil erosion: the problem spent on it. Science 196: 409-411. the billions Colorado Agricultural Statistics. 112 pp. Agr. Bull. 1-52. 1952. persists despite 1950 Final report. Colo. Dept. 1957. 1955 Final report. Colo. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1-57. 94 pp. 1962. 1960 Final report. Colo. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1-62. 105 pp. 1967. 1965 Final report. Colo. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1-67. 89 pp. 1972. 1970 Final report. Colo. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1-72. 88 pp. 1977 • 1975 Final report. Colo. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1-77. 94 pp. Costello, D. F. 1944. Important species Colorado and Wyoming. Ecol. Monogr. of the major 14:107-134. forage types in �-141- Crawford, R. D. 1970. Mourning dove and blackbird pine planting. Iowa Bird Life 40:65-67. production in a Missouri Davis, C. A., and G. K. Sintz. 1973. Nesting of mourning doves at San Simon Cienega, southwestern New Mexico. New Mexico State Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. 265. 8 pp. _____ , M. C. Conway, and A. H. Starkey. 1974. Nesting season of the mourning dove in the Mesilla Valley of south-central New Mexico. Mexico State Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. 271. 8 pp. New Downing, R. L. 1959. Significance of ground nesting by mourning northwestern Oklahoma. J. Wildl. Manage. 23:117-118. doves in Eberhardt, L. L. 1978. Manage. 42:1-31. J. Wildl. Transect methods for population Faanes, C. A. 1977. Reproductive success of mourning generating plant. Loon 49:201-204. studies. doves near a nuclear Fichter, E. 1959. Mourning dove production in four Idaho orchards some possible implications. J. Wildl. Manage. 23:438-447. and Figge, H. J., G. I. Crawford, H. M. Swope, W. W. Sandfort, D. E. Owens, and H. M. Boeker. 1953. Game bird surveys:mourning dove study. Colorado Federal Aid Proj. W-37-R-6. Pittman-Robertson Quarterly, 13(3):242. Funk, H. D. 1965. Mourning dove migration in Colorado. Fish and Parks, Game Info. Leaflet No. 26. 2 pp. Gander, F. F. 1927. Nesting of the western mourning Colo. Div. Game, dove. Auk 44:418. Giezentanner, J. B. 1970. Avian distribution and population fluctuations on the shortgrass prairie of north central Colorado. M. S. Thesis, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 113 pp. Griffing, J. P., P. E. Sawyer, and C. A. Davis. 1977. Mourning dove body weights in southeastern New Mexico during and after a dry spring and early summer. Southwest. Nat. 21:545-547. Grue, C. E., and N. J. Silvy. 1977. Mourning dove breeding habitat in Texas-final report. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Service, Accel. Res. Proj. 14-16-0008-954. 100 pp. Hanson, H. C., and C. W. Kossack. 1963. The mourning Illinois Dept. Conserve Tech. Bull. 2. 133 pp. dove in Illinois. Hon, W. H. 1956. The status of a ground-nesting population of eastern mourning doves in coastal North Carolina. M. S. Thesis. North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh. 65 pp. Hunt, L. B. 1978. Extreme nesting dates for the mourning Illinois. Wilson Bull. 90:458-460. dove in central �-142- Jumber, J. F., H. O. Hartley, E. L. Kozicky, and A. M. Johnson. 1957. A technique for sampling mourning dove production. J. Wildl. Manage. 21:226-229. Keeler, J. E., Chairman. 1977. Mourning dove (Zenaida macroura). Pg. 275298. In G. C. Sanderson, ed. Management of migratory shore and upland game birds in North America. IntI. Assoc. of Fish and Wildl. Agencies, Washington, D.C. 358 pp. Klataske, R. D. 1966. Mourning dove nesting success and nest site selection in a sandhill region of Nebraska. Nebraska Bird Review 34:71-75. Lano, A. 1927. Western mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura marginella) in Arkansas. Auk 44:419. LaPerriere, A. J., and A. O. Haugen. 1972. Trends of mourning dove populations in Boone County, Iowa farm groves. Iowa State J. Sci. 46:417-424. LaPointe, D. F. 1958. Mourning dove production in a central Nebraska shelterbelt. J. Wildl. Manage. 22:439-440. Lowe, J. I. 1956. Breeding density and productivity of mourning doves on a county-wide basis in Georgia. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:428-433. Madson, J. 1978. The mourning dove. Conserv. Dept., Winchester Group., Olin Corp., East Alton, Ill. 114 pp. Martin, A. C., H. S. Zim, and A. L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants: a guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Publications, New York. 500 pp. Mayfield, H. F. 1961. Bull. 73:255-261. 1975. 456-466. Nesting success calculated from exposure. Suggestions for calculating nest success. Wilson Wilson Bull. 87: McClure, H. E. 1943. Ecology and management of the mourning dove Zenaidura macroura (Linn.), in Cass County, Iowa. Iowa State Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 310:356-415. 1946. Mourning doves in Nebraska and the west. Auk 63:24-42. 1950. An eleven year summary of mourning dove observations in the west. Trans. No. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 15:335-346. Miller, H. W., and D. H. Johnson. 1978. Interpreting the results of nesting studies. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 42:471-476. Moore, G. C., and A. M. Pearson. 1942. The mourning dove in Alabama. Alabama Dept. Cons., Misc. Pub1. 36 pp. �-143- Nelson, G. 1976. Mourning dove nesting success in artificial and natural nests in Central Minnesota. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 83:112-115. Nice, M. M. 1922. A study of the nesting of mourning Auk 39:457-474. 1923. 37-58. A study of the nesting of mourning doves, Part 1. doves, Part 2. Auk 40: Pearson, A. M., and G. C. Moore. 1939. Nesting habits of the mourning dove in Alabama. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 4:468-473. Randall, R. N. 1955. Mourning dove production J. Wildl. Manage. 19:157-159. in central North Dakota. Rees, J. R. 1978. Mourning Ornith. J. 34:15-16. in sagebrush. dove ground nesting Ruangpanit, N. 1977. Primary productivity of sandhills Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. Ruble, P., and D. Urban. 1977. Seasonal movements dove. Ohio Fish and Wildl. Rept. 6. 14 pp. Colo. Field grassland. 165 pp. Ph. D. of the Ohio mourning Ryder, R. A. 1972. Avian population studies on the Pawnee Site, 19681971. Grassland Biome, U. S. IntI. BioI. Program, Tech. Rept. 171. 62 pp. Sayre, M. W., R. D. Atkinson, T. S. Baskett, and G. H. Haas. 1978. Reappraising factors affecting mourning dove perch cooing. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 42:884-889. Schroeder, M. H. 1970. Mourn~ng dove production planting. J. Wi1d1. Manage. 34:344-348. Smith, L. 1977. No she1terbe1ts, Conserve News. 42(19):10-13. in a Kansas osage orange no shelter, for the Great Plains. Strong, M. A. 1971. Avian productivity on shortgrass pra1r1e of north central Colorado. M. S. Thesis, Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 70 pp. Swank, W. G. 1955. Nesting and production Ecology 36:495-505. of the mourning dove in Texas. Van Deusen, J. L. 1976. She1terbe1t renovation in the Great Plains. Pages 181-186. In She1terbe1ts on the Great Plains. Proc. Symp. Great P1ai~s Agric. Counc. Pub1. 78. 218 pp. �-144- Van Deusen, J. L. 1978. Shelterbelts on the Great Plains:what's happening? J. Forestry 76:160-161. Weller, M. W. 24-25. Prepared by 1959. Mourning dove nest in cattail. ~~~~_'nv.~~=A~_t_-_. ~CJ __~~_7__ . _ Thomas E. Olson Graduate Research Assistant Approved bY_--,,~~V=-.:-'---"S:~ . ..!..~M-...=':'_ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher __ Iowa Bird Life 29: �October -145JOB PROGRESS State 0f Project REPORT .:::CO:::_LO::::::_:RAD:.::::..:::::..:O::__ _ No. Job No. 6 Job Title Bird Investigations ~l~ _ ~M~l~·g~r~a~t~o~r~y~B==i~r~d~P~u~b~l~i~c~a~t~i~o~n~s~ Covered: Personnel: Migratory W-88-R-24 Work Plan No. Period 1979 April 1, 1978 through March _ 31, 1979 C. E. Braun, R. L. Boyd, K. W. Harmon, R. M. Hopper, J. A. Jackson, C. D. Littlefield, T. D. Ray, V. H. Reid, R. M. Stabler, F. J. Ward, J. A. White, M. R. Szymczak. ABSTRACT Publications as follows: planned for and accomplished under this job for Segment 24 are .Braun, C. E., K. H. Harmon, J. A. Jackson, and C. D. Littlefield. 1978. Management of National Wildlife Refuges in the United States:its impacts on birds. Wilson Bull. 90:309-321. Braun, C. E., and R. L. Boyd. Nat. 24:198-200. 1979. Albinism in mourning doves. Southwest Braun, C. E., V. H. Reid, T. D. Ray, and R. L. Boyd. 1979. of white-winged doves in Colorado. Condor 81:96. Additional Braun, C. E., F. J. Ward, J. A. White, and R. L. Boyd. 1979. Plumage aberrancies in band-tailed pigeons. Southwest Nat. 24:In Press. Hopper, R. M. 1978. Evaluation of pothole blasting for waterfowl Colo. Div. of Wildl., Spec. Rept. No. 44. 21 pp. records in Colorado. Stabler, R. M., and C. E. Braun. 1979. Effects of a California-derived strain of Trichomonas gallinae on Colorado band-tailed pigeons. Calif. Fish and Game 65:56-58. Szymczak, M. R. 1978. Steel shot use on a goose hunting Wildl. Soc. Bull. 6(4):217-225. White, area in Colorado. J. A., and C. E. Braun. 1978. Age and sex determination band-tailed pigeons. J. Wildl. Manage. 42:564-569. ~ Prepared .. ,- (' ? --- by ___.!,~~"""","",:::.<."'.<S:e.::.)~~::I.GL""-. __;:cS!=--=:::2;h __ ~_~ __ ~-h..::.· Howard D. Funk Section Chief Small Game Research _ of juvenile ��-147- O-ctober 1979 INTERIM JOB FIK~ State of P~ORT Colorado ----~~~~~---- Project No. W-88-R-24 7 'l-lork Plan No. Job Title Investigation Bird Investigations Job No. of American 1 Coots in Colorado ---------=------------------------------------------------ Period Covered: Personnel: Migratory August 1, 1976 through March 31, 1979 K. M. Giesen, H. J. Griese, W. P. Gorenzel, G. C. Miller and R. A. Ryder, Colorado State University; C. E. Braun a.nd H. D. Funk, Colorado Division of Wildlife ABSTRA.CT Distribution, status, breeding densities, reproductive success, habitat utilization, timing of migration, and hunter harvest of coots (Fulica americana) were investigated at 4 study areas in Colorado between August 1976 and November 1978. Coots were distributed in suitable habitats throughout Colorado, breeding in most areas and resident in low numbers along the eastern foothills. Coots were associated primarily with Typha and Scirpus marshes. Spring migration began in early March and peaked the second to third week of April. Nesting extended from mid April to early August. Peak nest initiation dates ranged from 25 April to 12 June, while peak of hatch varied from 30 May to 4 July. A total of 354 nests was located, with nesting and hatching success of 80.2 and 90.4%, respectively. Average clutch size was 8.4 and decreased as the season progressed. Predation accounted for 64.2% of the unsuccessful nests. Typha and Scirpus were most frequently used for nest cover. Nest site measurements were related to local conditions at each study area. Breeding densities ranged from 1.0 to 35.1 successful nests per hectare of Typha and Scirpus. Counts of juvenile coots ~ 30 days of age were a useful index to productivity. Movements of coots to study areas increased in late summer, beginning in mid to late July for adults and mid to late August for juveniles. Timing of peak concentrations of fall migrating coots was variable, ranging from late August to mid September in 1977, and mid September to mid October in 1978. Harvest data and hunter responses to questionnaires indicated coots were of minor importance in Colorado. �-148- RECOMMENDATIONS Marshes managed for coots should contain primarily persistant emergent vegetation (i.e., Scirpus acutus and/or ~ spp.) interspersed with open water. The cover:waterratiowithin the emergent zone should approach 50:50. Interspersion may be maintained by mechanical means, burning, and/or water manipulations; however, timing of such activities should be restricted to the November-March period. Water levels of 30 cm or greater and sufficient to flood emergents should be maintained during the spring migration and breeding period. Decreasing water levels which expose emergents during the nesting period are undesirable. The growth of aquatic food species (i.e., Potamogeton spp. and Chara spp.) should be encouraged, possibly through periodic drawdown and bottom exposure. Late summer counts of coots 30 days of age or older should be undertaken as an index to productivity. Research concerriing the timing of fall migration and hunting seasons should be conducted, with the objective of selecting a hunting season coincident with peak migration periods. Attempts to increase hunter and manager awareness and interests in coots should be undertaken. �-149- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES • 150 LIST OF FIGURES. 152 INTRODUCTION . . 153 ACKNO~iLEDGMENTS.• • 153 I' P. N. OBJECTIVE 154 METHODS •..•. 154 Distribution and Status . Study Area Selection •. Physical and Botanical Descriptions Census Techniques • Nesting Data. Harvest . . • • • 154 155 155 156 156 157 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREAS Location. • . . • Description • • • Water Chemistry • 157 157 157 159 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Status Spring Migration. Nesting • • • • • • • . . Chronology • • . Nesting Statistics Nest Site Characteristics .• Breeding Densities •• Nonbreeders . • • • Brood Counts ••.••• Summer Movements. Fall Migration. • Harvest 161 161 165 168 168 174 181 187 190 190 192 193 196 .. . . SUMMARY ••• 198 LITERATURE CITED • 200 �-150- LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Vegetation components in hectares of 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78 . 158 Results of water analyses, 4 study areas, Colorado, June 1977 and 1978 .... 160 Relationship of coot breeding distribution and vegetation type in Colorado ..• 164 Relationship of coot distribution in fall and winter with vegetation type in Colorado. 165 Dates of first territorial displays, peak of spring migration, and initiation of first nests on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977 and 1978. 169 6 Coot production 175 7 Fate of coot nests on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78. • .•..... 176 Fate of coot eggs on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78. . • • ... 177 Frequency of occurrence of clutch size for the coot in Colorado, 1977-78. 179 Number of nests and clutch size in relation to week of nesting season, Colorado, 1977-78 •.•..•...• 180 Number and percentage of coot nests by cover type on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78 182 Number of nests and cover type in relation to date of nest initiation at Beebe Draw in 1977 and Ice Pond in 1977 and 1978 • . . . • 183 Number of coot nests and nest site vegetation condition in relation to week of nest initiation, 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78 . . .•. 184 Nesting success (%) by cover type, 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78 • . • ... 185 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 data, Colorado, 1977-78 .• �-151- LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED) Table 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Concealment afforded by vegetation coot nest sites on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78 •..••••.. at 185 Number of coot nests by water depth on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78. 186 Number of coot nests by distance to open water on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78 .••.••...•••.... 186 Relationship of coot nest success and nest site cover, Lake John, Colorado, 1977 187 Breeding densities of coots as number of successful nests per hectare of emergent habitat on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78. 188 Coot numbers observed on 4 study areas, Colorado, mid May through June, 1977-78. 191 Dates of hatching vs. dates when young coots were first observed on 4 study areas, Colorado . 192 Nesting success and highest number of young coots 30 days of age or older seen on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977 and 1978. 193 23 Coot harvest 196 24 Coot and duck harvest as obtained from wing barrels and check stations on Colorado hunting areas, 1-14 October 1977, and 30 September-13 October 1978 in Colorado, 1973-76 ••• 197 �-152- LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Representation of areas examined for coot presence, August 1976-November 1978. More than 1 site is included in most specific locations ... 162 Coot distribution and status in Colorado. Classification by latilong blocks follows the system of Kingery and Graul (1978). R = resident year round, B = breeding, b = very likely breeding, bird found in suitable habitat . • • . . . . • . . . . 163 Coot numbers observed during spring migration on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977. Coots first arrived in North Park week of 4 April (C. Braun, pers. commn.). Counts from 14 March to 16 May by Brown's Park NWR personnel ........•• 166 Coot numbers observed during spring migration on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. Numbers for Beebe Draw include counts from 5 peripheral ~arshes. Counts from 27 February-12 March at Hog Lake by Brown's Park NWR personnel .•.•• 167 Number of coot nests initiated per week on 3 study areas, Colorado, 1977 • 170 ··.········ Number of coot nests initiated per week on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. Number of coot nests hatching per week on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977 . ..·· Number of coot nests hatching per week on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. ..·· Coot numbers observed during late summer and fall, 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977 • Coot numbers observed during late summer and fall, 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. ··· · · · · 171 ······· 172 · · · · ·· · 173 ········ 194 ········ 195 �-153- INVESTIGATION OF AMERICAN COOTS IN COLORADO: AND TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE AMERICAN PRODUCTION, SPATIAL COOT IN COLORADO Warner P. Gorenzel INTRODUCTION The American coot (Fulica americana Gmelin) is the largest and most aquatic member of the order Gruiformes, family Rallidae, in North America. Two subspecies occur in the United States with the Hawaiian coot (F. a. alae Peale) being restricted to the Hawaiian Islands. F. a. americana (Gmelin) is widespread in North America, breeding prima~ily on fresh water wetlands. Highest nest densities occur on glacial marshes in north central United States and south central Canada. In winter coots (hereafter used in reference to the North American subspecies) utilize both brackish and fresh water habitats. Important wintering areas are the Central Valley of California, coastal marshes of Texas and Louisiana, and wetlands of Florida (Fredrickson 1977). State and federal regulations list the coot as a migratory game bird. As such, it is grouped with ducks and geese as "waterfowl" and is hunted during waterfowl seasons. Although coots can constitute a large percentage of the waterfowl harvest in localized areas, hunter interest in coots nationwide is low (Fredrickson 1977). Major studies of aspects of the biology, behavior, and ecology of coots have centered in California, Utah, Iowa, Wisconsin, Manitoba, and Alberta. Gullion (1952, 1953, 1954) examined territorial behavior and the reproductive cycle in California. In Utah, Ryder (1958) examined coot-waterfowl relationships. Crawford (1975) studied breeding biology in relation to age; Ryan (1978) examined behavior of breeding coots in relation to sex and age, while Fredrickson (1967) and Sooter (1941) discussed aspects of reproduction, ecology and management of coots in Iowa. Coot ecology and management in Wisconsin were reported by Jahn and Hunt (1964) and Bartelt (1977). Kiel (1955) in Manitoba and Smith (1961) in Alberta examined coot nesting and habitat; Smith (1961) ~~so discussed censusing of coot populations. Limited data exist concerning the status of the coot in Colorado. General information on nest observations, early and late occurrences, and distribution has been summarized by Sclater (1912) and Bailey and Niedrach (1965). Little is known about habitat preferences, timing of habitat use, productivity, and levels of hunting mortality within Colorado. This study was initiated in 1976 to improve the knowledge and management of coots in Colorado. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Financial assistance was provided by The Accelerated Research Program for Migratory Shore and Upland Game Birds and the Colorado Division of Wildlife, Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project W-88-R. The support of these agencies is gratefully acknowledged. �-154- Special thanks are expressed to my major professor, Dr. R. A. Ryder, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University, and my research advisor, Dr. C. E. Braun, Colorado Division of Wildlife, for their guidance, advice, and encouragement. Their high standards of professionalism were inspiring. It was my privilege to have worked with them. I also thank committee member, R. G. Walter, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Colorado State University, for advice concerning aquatic aspects of the study and for critical review of the thesis, and H. D. Funk, Colorado Division of Wildlife, for his review and comments concerning the thesis. I am deeply grateful to James Creasey, refuge manager, Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge, and his staff, Gerald Deutscher and James Sellers, for their assistance and hospitality throughout the field investigations. I am grateful to the Beebe Draw Gun Club for access to its property and the Mt. Princeton Fishing Club, especially R. M. Stabler for access to Ice Pond. The assistance of Colorado Division of Wildlife personnel in obtaining harvest data pertaining to coots and for use of equipment is acknowledged. Sincere appreciation is due fellow graduate students K. M. Giesen, H. J. Griese. and G. C. Miller, who accompanied me in the field, and helped make this study so enjoyable. Gratitude is expressed to all who returned questionnaires concerning coot observations in Colorado. Most of all, I am indebted standing and support. to my wife, Ellie, for her patience, under- P. N. OBJECTIVE The major objective was to obtain data necessary for development of a management plan for coots breeding in and migrating through Colorado. Data considered necessary were those relating to distribution, breeding densities and production in the eastern plains, high mountain valleys and west of the Continental Divide, descriptions of habitats used, timing of spring and fall migrations, and present levels of reported harvest. Hypotheses examined were: (1) Distribution of coots in Colorado is determined by the occurrence of cattail (Typha spp.) and/or bulrush (Scirpus spp.) dominated marshes, (2) Densities of breeding coots, nesting success and productivity differ (~ < 0.05) between occupied habitats in the eastern plains, high mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide, (3) Timing of spring and fall migrations differs between areas east of the mountains, high mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide, (4) Hunting in Colorado is the most important source of mortality for locally produced coots. METHODS Distribution Two methods Colorado: and Status were used to investigate coot distribution and status in �-155- 1. Observation of wetlands encountered study areas throughout the state. while traveling between 2. Questionn~ires sent to field personnel of the Colorado Division of Wildlife and amateur ornithologists. Date or period of observation, dominant emergent vegetation, geographic location, presence or absence of coots, and coot status were recorded for each wetland visited. Vegetation was classified as either cattail and/or bulrush, or other. Omitted were roadside ditches and wetlands completely filled with cattail and/or bulrush, with no open water. "Other" included areas with sedges (Carex spp.), willows (Salix spp.), or grasses (Family Gramineae) as the dominant'emergents, or areas without any emergents, such as many lakes, reservoirs, and stockponds. Geographic location classifications were eastern plains, high mountain valleys, and west of the Continental Divide. High mountain valleys refer specifically to North, Middle, and South Parks, and the San Luis Valley. Coots were considered to be breeding if territorial behavior (as defined by Gullion 1952) and nests and/or young coots were observed during 15 April through 15 August, and nonbreeding if gregarious and nonterritorial. Coots observed from 16 August through 14 April were classed as migrating or wintering. Responses from questionnaires, observations of wetlands, and results from the Colorado Bird Distribution Latilong Study (Kingery and Graul 1978) were combined to plot coot distribution. Coot status (i.e., breeding, resident, migrant only, etc.) was determined for each area. Study Area Selection Study areas were selected to represent the major geographic and coot breeding areas in Colorado. Criteria for selection included: (1) Sufficient area and cover to provide adequate numbers (25 pairs) of breeding coots, (2) Similarity to other wetlands in the region, (3) Stable water levels, (4) Accessibility, (5) Freedom from excessive external interference. Physical and Botanical Descriotions Each study area was mapped using a staff compass and tape. Emergent vegetation was plotted by pacing and with the aid of a hand held compass and field range finder. A planimeter was used to measure size of total wetland and emergent areas. Aquatic vegetation was sampled along transects using a method modified from the Atlantic Waterfowl Council (1972). Transects were established 100 and 200 m apart depending upon size of the area with sampling intervals 35 to 100 m apart. A rake was used to collect submerged vegetation. Vegetation density ratings (dense, moderate, sparse) were based on amounts recovered. Scientific �-156- plant names follow Harrington (1964). At each sampling station, water depth and bottom consistency were recorded. Marked poles were placed on all study areas to record water level fluctuations. Water samples were analyzed for free and total acidity, phenolphthalein and total alkalinity, hardness, and pH using a Hach Chemical Company Water Ecology Kit, Model AL-36B. Soil survey information of adjacent uplands, obtained from the Soil Conservation Service, and samples from along aquatic transects were used to identify marsh substrate types. Census Techniques Counts of coots on all study areas were conducted weekly or bi-weekly with a 20X spotting scope and 8 X 40 binoculars. Counts were standardized by counting from the same location on each area at approximately the same time of day for a given area. Weather conditions and other factors were recorded on each visit. Nesting Data Nest searches were systematically made at approximately weekly intervals on all study areas by wading through emergent vegetation or from a boat. A nest was considered to be any platform with 1 or more eggs. In those instances when a nest was discovered after hatching, the platform was considered a nest if shell fragments were present. Each nest was numbered and marked with a small cardboard tag. In addition, yellow surveyor's tape was attached to vegetation approximately 0.6 to 12 m away in -such a manner as to be conspicuous to the observer. Each tape was marked to indicate nest number and direction, and distance to the nest. Once found, nests were revisited every 7-11 days until hatching. Type of cover vegetation, its condition, i.e., dead or alive, height of a representative sample of the vegetation, nest concealment, i.e., was the nest concealed on 1, 2, 3, or 4 sides, and/or from above, depth of water, and distance to open water were recorded for each nest site. Height of the eggs above water, number of eggs and their condition, i.e., cold, warm, or pipped, were recorded on each nest visit. Initiation dates of nests found during laying were calculated by backdating, assuming 1 egg laid per day. For nests found after laying, initiation dates were based on hatch dates, assuming a 23 day incubation period and 1 egg laid per day. Hatch was defined as the time at which all eggs had hatched. A successful nest was one in which 1 or more eggs hatched. Average clutch size and hatching success calculations were based on data from successful nests only. Statistical tests follow Sokal and Rohlf (1969). �-157- Harvest To measure hunting pressure and coot harvest levels, volunteer wing collection barrels with appropriate signs were placed at waterfowl hunting areas in Colorado (Hoffman and Braun 1975). Published and unpublished harvest data were examined. A questionnaire was designed to investigate hunter attitudes. Students from Colorado State University, Wildlife Techniques class were assigned to check stations to question hunters leaving the Wellington State Wildlife Area on the opening weekend of the waterfowl season in 1976 and 1977. Description of Study Areas Location Study areas were located at Beebe Draw (T4N, R65W, S34) near LaSalle, Weld County, on the eastern plains; Lake John (T9N, R81W, S2), near Walden, Jackson County, in North Park; Ice Pond (T13S, R78W, S5, 6, 7, 8), near Buena Vista, Chaffee County, in the central mountains; and Hog Lake (T10N, R103W, S9), part of Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Moffat County, in extreme northwestern Colorado. Description Beebe Draw was a deep emergent marsh at an elevation of 1,446 m. Cattail was the dominant emergent (Table 1). Maximum water depth was 2.3 m and fluctuated approximately 122 cm between April 1977 to November 1978. The substrate consisted of sand and loamy sand. In March and April 1977, and April 1978, segments of the emergent zone (3.1 and 0.8 ha respectively) were burned. Burning did not kill any emergents, but did clear away litter from previous years growth. In January 1978, water levels were drawn down in preparation for dragline operations. This resulted in exposed emergents and mudflats but did not completely drain the area. A large number of carp (Cyprinus carpio) either died or were exposed to predation. Dragline operations commenced during the first week and continued through the last week of April. .Low water levels were maintained until the second week of May. Thereafter, water levels were allowed to increase, flooding all previously exposed mudflats and some emergents by the end of June. A bulldozer was used in late June to flatten high spoil banks left by the dragline. Approximately 4.2 ha, or 58.3% of the emergents were removed by the dragline, covered by spoil banks, or cut off from any water source. The total area of open water and emergents was reduced by 21.0% from 16.7 to 13.2 ha. In 1977, only 2 aquatic species were sampled at 20 stations. Coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) was found at 16 stations, and was rated moderate to dense at 10. Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) was found at 9 stations and was rated sparse at each. In 1978, 4 aquatic species were sampled at 22 stations. Coontail decreased in abundance, being found at only 6 stations and was rated moderate to dense at 3. Sago �Table 1. Vegetation components Beebe in hectares spp. . S clrpus spp. 2 Scirpus alnericanus areas, Lake Draw Colorado, 1977-78. John Ice Pond Hog Lake 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 1977 1978 _ 1 3.4::>(47.9) 1.52(50.5) 0.01(0.4) 0.01(0.4) 0.40(44.4) 0.40(44.4) 0.04(1,2) 0.04(1.3) 1. 03( 14.3) 0.49(16.3) 2.76(99.6) 2.76(99.6) 0.34(37.8) 0.34(37.8) 2.06(61.5) 1.81(58.4} 2.26(31.4) 0.78(25.9} O(O} 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 1977 Typha of 4 study I I-' l/1 3 0:> 0.22(7.3) Total area of en1ergents 7.20 3.01 2.77 Total area open H20 & emergents 16.7 13.2 18. 1 lparentheses 2Hardstem indicate bulrush 313eebe Draw: Hog Lake: Distichlis percentage (Scirpus 0(0) 0.16(17.8) 0.16(17.8) 1.25(37.3) 1, 25( 40.3) 2.77 0.90 0.90 3.35 3.10 18. 1 14.4 14.4 0(0) 0.46(6.4) Other of total 24.4 emergents. a cutu s ) and s oIt s t ern bulrush mixed Scirpus and Typha stricta, Phragmit~1munis. 24.4 sppr : Ice Pond: (~ va l ldu s }, Eleocharis macrostachya, Jllnclls balticus, Carex' --- spp.: I �-159- pondweed increased, being found at 10 stations, and rated moderate to dense at 6. Horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), fo.lnd at 3 stations, represented a minor component of the aquatic vegetation. Chara spp., fresh water algae and important coot foods (Jones 1940), were not recorded in 1977. In 1978, Chara was found at 11 or 50% of the sampling stations and was rated moderate to dense at 9. Chi-square analysis indicated a relationship between abundance rating of Chara and site condition (P < 0.05). Of the 9 stations with a high rating, 7 represented sites disturbed by dragline operations and/or exposed during drawdown. The Lake John study area, locally known as Lake John Annex, included a shallow bulrush dominated marsh of 18.1 ha, and a broad expanse of open water, totaling approximately 100 ha at an elevation of 2,500 m. The dominant aquatic was Chara spp., found at 24 of 45 stations and rated moderate to dense at each. Other important aquatics included sago pondweed and water milfoil (Myriophyllum exalbescens). Maximum water depth and fluctuation were 1.4 m and 56 cm, respectively. The substrate was composed of sandy loam and silty clay loam. Ice Pond at 2,425 m elevation, was 14.4 ha in area. Emergents consisted of nearly equal proportions of cattail and bulrush, with lesser amounts of spikerush (Eleocharis macrostachya), rushes (Juncus balticus), and sedges (Carex spp.). Interspersion between emergents and pools of open water was well developed. Aquatic growth was the most abundant of all study areas; species present were water milfoil, smartweed (Polygonum amphibium), Potamogeton filaformis, and Ranunculus aquatilis. Each received moderate to dense ratings. Maximum water depth and fluctuation were 1.5 m and 11 cm, respectively. The substrate consisted of stony sandy loam. Hog Lake at 1,634 m elevation, was a shallow bulrush dominated marsh, characterized by a well developed interspersion of emergents and open water. Common reed (Phragmites communis) and salt grass (Distichlis stricta) were also present, growing as emergents. Water milfoil, sago pondweed, and Potamogeton vaginatus were common aquatics. Maximum water depth and fluctuation were 1.6 m and 33 cm, respectively. No soil survey exists for the Hog Lake area; aquatic transects indicated a silt and clay substrate. During the winter of 1977-78, muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) activity resulted in a decrease of 0.25 ha of hardstem bulrush. Water Chemistry Water at all study areas was basic (pH> 7.0( (Table 2). Factors influencing chemical characteristics of water include source, organic matter content, and amount of photosynthetic activity. In Colorado, most water sources are basic. Sources of water for study areas, besides rainfall, were: 1) Beebe Draw - irrigation water and seepage, 2) Lake John water diverted from the North Fork of the North Platte River, 3) Ice Pond natural springs, and 4) Hog Lake - seepage and water pumped from the Green River. �Table 2. Results Area of water analyses, 4 study areas, Colorado, June 1977 and 1978. 1 Free acidity Total acidity Phenolphthalien alkalinity Total alkalinity Hardness pH Beebe Draw 0 11-17 0 137-308 325.,.410 9.3-9.6 Lake John 0 0 0-51 120-137 513-564 10.0 Ice Pond 0 0-11 0-34 103-120 103 8.9 -9.7 Hog Lake 0 0 34 239 -274 599-667 9. 8 -9.9 1 Except for pH, all results expressed as mg of CaC0 /liter 3 of H 0. 2 I f-' C1' o I �-161- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Distribution and Status Two hundred and thirty wetlands were investigated for coot presence from August 1976 through November 1978 (Figure 1). Notably underrepresented were the far eastern plains, especially along the South Platte and Arkansas rivers. Data obtained from 108 returned questionnaires, field investigations, and published records were compiled to determine coot distribution and status according to the latilong system (Figure 2). Major breeding areas were Brown's Coots bred throughout most of Colorado. Park on the western slope, and North Park and the San Luis Valley in the high mountain valleys. On the plains, coots were locally abundant where Sclater (1912) and Bailey and Niedrach (1965) suitable habitat occurred. listed the coot as common in summer, breeding mainly on the northeastern plains and occasionally in mountain parks up to 3,000 m. Sclater (1912) indicated coots were not abundant on the western slope. Cooke (1897) reported coots breeding in Middle and South Parks, and Keyser (1902) observed coots with young near Buena Vista, probably at Ice Pond. Breeding coots were not observed in Middle or South Parks during this study. Nesting coots were primarily associated with cattail and bulrush marshes (Table 3). A Chi-square test of independence between the presence or absence of breeding coots and the occurrence of cattail and/or bulrush dominated marshes indicated a strong relationship (~ < 0.001) in each region and statewide. A similar analysis for the migration-wintering period (Table 4) also indicated a strong relationship (~ < 0.001) statewide. The hypothesis that distribution was related to the occurrence of cattail and/or bulrush marshes was accepted. Not all cattail or bulrush marshes were used by breeding, migrating, or wintering coots, but they were used in strong preference to other vegetation types. Other vegetation types used for nesting included tamarix (Tamarix gallica), spikerush, willows, and sedges. Sedges growing as emergents were characteristic of many high altitude wetlands utilized by coots, especially wetlands in North Park. Coots were resident in low numbers « 1,000) mainly along the western boundary of the plains, from near Fort Collins south to Pueblo. The presence of wintering coots was dependent on the severity of winter weather. Coots, present near Fort Collins during the winter of 1976-77, were absent during the 1977-78 winter when water areas froze. In the Fort Collins area, coots associated with wintering waterfowl and were observed feeding on feces and waterfowl carcasses. Bailey and Niedrach (1965) listed the coot as uncommon in winter, and along with Sclater (1912) mentioned a few wintering at Barr Lake northeast of Denver. Christmas bird counts sponsored by the National Audubon Society (19601977) and listed in American Birds have consistently noted coots along the Front Range from Fort Collins to Pueblo. �COLORADO SEDGWiCK lOGAN WEL.D MOFFAT • PHILLIPS o RIO BLANCO • • MORGAN WASHINGTOI'4 YUMA ADAMS • ARAPAHOE GARf"IElD L.INCOL.N I KIT CARSON ELBERT MESA I I-' • CHEYENNE I \CROWLEY I J , KIOWA () • ,...".,..".,..,.,=-: BENT SAN MIGUEL PROy/ERS • DOL.ORES LAS MONTEZUMA ANIMAS BACA o o LA PLATA Figure 1. November Representation of areas exami.ned for coot presence, 1978. More than onc site is included in most spccific August 1976 locations. '" N I �r'-'-'-'l-'-' I gB ° I B , ~ I ~ '-i .-.. _._._._.-. .~ -, B ._. '--'_'"1 .-~ R ! R I i ~ I .,.. -. ° . _., ... I~ i, B .~~~~~~~~ I , I !-s-J I !.."' ,_ V NiP -R L-~-~-I .".:; rr I 11.. r-Il::-~ ~ yt'- L._._. . .' . _.1. _.l~ ._.jl._._.i_L._._. _l._. _._.lL._. _.J I ..., b 8 F'i gu r c 2. Coot d is t r ibut i on and status in Colorado. Classification by latilong blocks follows the system of Ki n ge r y and Graul (1978). R -= resident year round, 13:-: breeding, b:: very likely bn'ccllng, bird found in suitable habitat. �Table 3. Relationship of coot breeding distribution and vegetation type in Colorado. Nurnb er of Areas Area Dominated by Typha or Scirpus Dominated With breeding coots None or nonbreeders Total With breeding coots None or nonbreeders Total 45 31 76 15 136 151 63.13 <0.001 17 10 27 1 58 59 42.02 <0.001 by other vegetation 2 X (df=l) Probability Statewide Eastern plains I f-' 0- High mountain valleys 8 1 9 13 35 48 12.44 <0.001 West of Continental Divide 20 20 40 1 43 44 25.45 <0.001 .~ I �-165- Table 4. Relationship of coot distribution vegetation type in Colorado. Number of Areas ._._--_._-----_._.--_._----_._----,-_ .._----_--_- .. Dominated by Dominated hy Typha or Scirpus other vegetation Status Coots present Coots not present To t a Ls 29.40, df in fall and winter with 40 24 64 26 92 ll8 1, P < 0.001 Spring Migration Weekly counts were initiated in 1977 to document migration at only 2 areas, Beebe Draw and Lake John (Figure 3). Ice Pond and Hog Lake were not visited until after the peak of migration. However, counts by Brown's Park National Wildlife Refuge personnel over the 14 March to 22 May 1977 period were used to indicate coot migration at Hog Lake. In 1978, regular visits to all areas began by mid March (Figure 4). At Beebe Draw and Hog Lake coots first arrived in late February or early March. Peak numbers were recorded in 1977 and 1978 during the second week of April. In 1978, low water conditions at Beebe Draw influenced coot activities. Numbers recorded ranged from 7-14 during the peak migration month of April with no discernible trend. To identify the peak of migration, counts included coots observed on 5 peripheral marshes. Observations indicated no substantial increase in coot use on adjacent marshes, suggesting that coots by-passed the area. At Lake John coots first arrived in 1977 and 1978 during the first week of April. Arrival date was dependent on ice thaw. In both years, numbers increased rapidly for 2 weeks, then decreased to resident levels within 3-4 weeks. Although coots arrived at Ice Pond earlier than Lake John, peak numbers were also recorded the third week of April. The decrease of coot numbers from peak to resident levels in 1977 and 1978 was consistent with other ireas. Timing of migration and relative numbers observed on each area were consistent between years. The general pattern statewide was arrival in late February or early March (first week of April at Lake John), increasing to peak numbers during the second to third week of April, then decreasing to resident levels by the second to fourth week of May. Timing of peak migration was similar for the eastern plains and west of the Continental Divide. The peak occurred I week later in the high mountain valleys. The literature suggests a similar pattern of coot migration in Colorado. Cooke (1897) reported coots reached northern Colorado the last part of March; Sclater (1912) reported that coots arrived the second half of March; while Niedrach and Rockwell (1939) observed first arrivals in early March, with most coots returning the first week of April. �-166- 900 ,1\ , I , aoo fi) , 0 BEEBE DRAW i \ LAKE JOHN· 0----", 0-- ....•ICE POND 700 \ i ~ ,. •• : e··· -_.• HOG LAKE ,., \, , , \ '..1 600 r·· 5 0 0 I •• 500 lL. 0 CD I I I \ ". .••...~ • : z \ . \ I• W ::> ' .~ , , 0: :E I I I , 300 •, •• \ ""\ \ \ \ 200 .~ . \ \ \ _.I \0--"'" \ \ 100 \ , '0-": ~ FE8. \..7__ 1_4__ 2_1__ MARCH 2_8J ,-4__ 1_1__ '_8__ APRIL 2_5-, 2 9 16 23 MAY WEEK BEGINNING Figure 3. Coot numbers observed during spring migration on 4 study a r e as , Colorado, 1977. Coots fi r s t arrived in North Park week of 4 April (C. Braun, pers. c orrrrn; }, Counts from 14 March -16 May at Hog Lake by Brown's NWR personnel. �-167- 900 BEEBE DRAW 800 G-----i) LAKE JOHN ••••••• HOG LAKE ICE POND 700 1·'-, , ., • I.•, 600 .''.\. I '.\., I \ ,• ~ 0 0 •• 0 500 IL 0 .,., I Ct: lLI CD 400 2 :> z 300 200 100 si FEB. 15 8 MARCH APRIL 22 MAY WEEK BEGINNING Figure 4. Coot numbers observed during spring migration on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. Numbers for Beebe Draw include counts from 5 peripheral marshes. Counts from 27 February - 12 March at Hog Lake by Brown's Park NWR pe rsonnel. �-168- Nesting Chronology Breeding coots defend a territory which serves as a mating, nesting, feeding, and brood rearing area (Gullion 1953, Ryder 1958). Behaviors associated with territories include patrolling, charging, splattering, fighting, and paired display (Gullion 1952). Gullion (1953) reported that coots in California displayed year round if resident on the breeding area. On the Colorado study areas, no coots were resident year round, therefore such displays were used to indicate the onset of breeding. The dates of first territorial displays were recorded (Table 5). Territorial displays were observed at Beebe Draw, Ice Pond, and Hog Lake 1-3 weeks before the peak of migration in 1977 and 1978. At Lake John displays were not observed until the peak or 1 week after the peak of migration in 1977 and 1978. The range of time between first territorial displays and the appearance of first nests suggested a shortened territory establishment-to-nest initiation cycle in the high mountain valleys. At Beebe Draw and Hog Lake the range was 4-5 weeks, but was only 1.5-3 weeks at Lake John and 2.5 weeks at Ice Pond. Nest initiation ranged from mid April to mid July (Figs,S and 6). The peak, defined as the largest number of nests initiated during a week, varied between areas and years. Peak nest initiation in 1977 for Beebe Draw, Lake John, and Ice Pond were the weeks beginning 25 April, 6 June, and 9 May, respectively. Hog Lake was selected as a study area too late in 1977 to make a complete determination of initiation dates. In 1978, peak nest initiation occurred the weeks of 29 May and 12 June for Beebe Draw, 29 May for Lake John, 15 and 22 May for Ice Pond, and 8 May for Hog Lake. Habitat disturbances affected nest initiation at Beebe Draw. In March and April 1977, 3.1 ha of emergents were burned. Six nests in burned areas were initated somewhat later than most other nests, possibly due to a lack of cover or support 'before new vegetative growth had sufficiently developed. Fredrickson (1970) and Weller and Spatcher (1965) noted dElayed nesting until new vegetation was sufficiently high to provide a substrate for attaching nests. In 1978, low water conditions at Beebe Draw delayed nest initiation by 6 weeks compared to 1977. Smith (1961) indicated coots will not nest until water levels flood the emergents. Dates of hatch ranged from mid May through early August (Figs. 7 and 8). Peak hatching dates in 1977 were the weeks beginning 30 May at Beebe Draw, 4 July at Lake John, and 30 May and 6 June at Ice Pond. Peak of hatch could not be determined for Hog Lake due to the late date when nest searches were initiated. In 1978, peak dates for Beebe Draw, Lake John, Ice Pond, and Hog Lake, were the weeks of 26 June, 3 July, 19 June, and 12 June, respectively. �Table 5. Dates of first territorial displays, 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977 and 1978. First Territorial Display Area 1977 1978 Beebe Draw 23 March 4 April Lake John 23 April 24 April Ice Pond 2 Hog Lake 2 and initiation Week of Peak Migration of first nests Week of First on Nests 1977 1978 1977 1978 11 April . 1 10 Apr Il 18 April 8 May 18 April 17 April 2 May 15 May 2 1 April 1Based on observations 2Area visited 1 peak of spring migration, 19 March 11 April from peripheral marshes. too late to make determination. 17 April 10 April 25 April 2 1 17 April 17 April I i-' 0\ \0 I �20 R 18 I' 16 Z a: 10 W CO ~ :J Z ICE POND , i ,, I I 4 "I I II 18 APRIL " 25 2 ~~\ / 9 16 I \,, ' '. a \ " X" "~ 2 I I-' ._... \, " r-: 6 LAKE JOHN \ ,r 8 BEEBE DRAW \,, \,, ,r''' , 0 .... \ " f3 14 12 \ / ~ U. ._ /\ ~ 23 MAY 30 6 13 20 27 4 JUNE II 18 25 JULY WEEK BEGINNING Figure 5. Number of coot nests initiated per week on 3 study areas, Colorado, 1977. �18 C/) ~ CI) 14 '. ,/ \ '-;'1' , ~ , , 6 f 4 1,1 /. 2 :' I I-' -....J , I-' I ' \ \ \ -. ' , :" I _l'~ II \ I ~'~ 'W" I f . , \ ' e.. ~·o, I . .. . HOG LAKE '"1P I I : . I '., \ I .' 8 LAKE JOHN .. ~ '. a:: Z e····· ..0 o 010 BEEBE DRAW e---o ICE POND '. u, :::::> • , W Z 12 W CD •e-----e ..~ ... . . 9, .. . 16 / _L~ 17 24 I 8 APRIL 15 22 MAY 29 5 12 19 26 :3 JUNE 10 17 JULY WEEK BEGINNING Figure 6. Number of coot nests initiated per week on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. �24 22 • 0 BEEBE e- -. 18 ..,. - (/) ~ (/) 16 LAKE DRAW JOHN ~ ICE POND G· . ....• HOG LAKE ltJ Z 14 LL. o 12 a:: ~ / 10 r. l \ " ,_ ... " ~ ::> B ~--~, 6 I I II 4 2 e, 23 \,, I I " WJ.. I \ ~ / • ".'..-.' -t: •••••• --\. ~, 30 MAY 6 . 13 N I \, ,f..~ "G I 16 '0.... ..._, \ './ .... I f-' , ,, 2 '. I I 20 27 JUNE ·····~·.'-I '.J ~ 4 II 18 25 JULY WEEK BEGINNING Figure 70 Nurnb e r of coot nests hatching per week on 4 study areas, Colorado, �18 g 16 .~. .. .. .. ... .. . ··· . :'. , , 14 l(/) W Z 12 ." u, 10 0 0:: , 8 ::> : . . . . 6 Z , 4 f // 8 =," : f' 22 29 5 MAY JOHN A \ 1': \,t I"~ \~" " \ I I-' -.....J W I , ::_(:\~~:\ ", '" ~: ..e rot f I,~/ ,= 15 - f . 2 \ JI, "X ' , LAKE \ 1 , ~ ..· -0 DRAW ,~ :/ '0 , W CO ~ , , , , , , , BEEBE $-----e ICE POND G· ..... e HOG LAKE , CJ) • 12 ~ ", , " , "', " A'-'"," " / -, '~ 19 JUNE 26 :3 10 17 24 31 JULY 7 14 AUG WEEK 8EG~NN!NG Figure 80 Number of coot nests hatching per week on 4 study areas, Colorado, 19780 �-174- The nesting season extended from mid April to mid August. Beebe Draw and Hog Lake had the earliest dates of nest initiation, Ice Pond was intermediate, and Lake John the latest. Maximum nesting season length, from first nest to last hatching was 12 weeks at Beebe Draw and Lake John, 15 weeks at Ice Pond, and 17 weeks at Hog Lake. The shortest nesting season was 5 weeks at Beebe Draw. Rockwell (1912) stated the nesting season extended from late April through July at Barr Lake, the earliest nest being discovered on 27 April, and the latest nestswi~heggs observed on 21 July. In Utah, Ryder (1961) found the first nests in early April, with the peak occurring the third week of April, or 2-3 weeks earlier than the closest Colorado study area, Hog Lake. The typical sequence in the pattern of nest initiation was a low number of early nests, followed within 1-3 weeks by an increase to peak numbers. Thereafter, number of new nests declined, followed by 1 or more lower peaks. Similar patterns of nest initiation with second lower peaks were reported by Ryder (1961) and Fredrickson (1970). Kiel (1955) also observed second hatching peaks. Fredrickson (1970) suggested the second peak may represent renesting or late nests of young birds. Crawford (1975) reported that nest initiation date was related to age, with younger birds nesting later than older birds. Renesting was observed by Gullion (1954) after desertion or predation, and by Ryder (1961) and Vaa (1972) after intentional nest destruction. Renesting was assumed to have occurred on all study areas. An additional factor accounting for late nests may have been second nests after a first successful nest. Second nests have been reported from California (Gullion 1954) and Utah (Ryder 1961). Ryder (1961) reported that 13% of the coot pairs on his study area were double brooded. Second nests were not documented in this study. It was suspected that 1 nest at Ice Pond and 5 at Hog Lake were second nests. Nesting Statistics A total of 354 nests was located (Table 6). There were differences in the number of nests per area for 1977 and 1978, respectively: Beebe Draw, 77, 6; Lake John, 67, 42; Ice Pond, 30, 29; and Hog Lake, 37, 66. The dramatic decrease at Beebe Draw was related to low water levels. Reduction in the number of nests and even abandonment of nesting areas due to decreasing or low water levels have been observed (Weller et ale 1958, Krapu et ale 1970, Vaa 1972, Weller and Fredrickson 1973). The increase in nests at Hog Lake related to the late initiation (7 June) of nest searches in 1977. The late date of search increased the likelihood earlier nests were not identified due to decay or vegetative growth. Gullion (1954) noted the rapidity with which coot nests decayed and sank after hatching; he noted 1 nest disintegrated within 48 hours of the end of incubation. Overall, 284 nests hatched, for a nesting success of 80.2%. Changes in nesting success between 1977 and 1978, respectively, were observed: Beebe Draw, 89.6%, 33.3%; Lake John, 61.2%, 76.2%; Ice Pond, 90.0%, 79.3%; Hog Lake, 97.3%, 81.8%. Nesting success calculations for Beebe Draw in 1978 I �Table 6. Coot production data, Production statistic Number nests Number eggs1 1977-78. Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Overall 83 109 59 103 354 71 73 50 90 . 284 85.5 67.0 84.7 87.4 80.2 of Successful nests Nesting success Colorado, (0/0) I I-' of -....J 562 603 373 549 2,087 Average 2 clutch size 8.6+2. 3 8.3+1.2 7.5+2.2 8.8+2.3 804+2.0 Range of clutch sizes 3-14 4-16 2-14 5-13 2-16 Number of 3 unhatched eggs 32 89 26 53 200 Hatching success 94.3 85.2 93.0 9003 9004 (%) INumber of eggs based on successful Pond, 50; Hog Lake, 62. nests of known size: Beebe Dr aw, 65; Lake John, ZX + 1 So Do 3Number of unhatched eggs f r crn successful nests of known size. 75; Ice U1 I �-176- were based on only 6 nests and were not considered representative. Nesting success at Hog Lake in 1977 appeared abnormally high. The late search dates at Hog Lake resulted in a greater proportion of nests being found in the later stages of incubation or after hatching. Nesting success was biased upward by inability to identify and ascertain the fate of earlier nests. Statistical tests concerning selected production data exclude Beebe Draw in 1978 and Hog Lake in 1977 as they were not representative. There was no difference > 0.05) in nesting success between areas. For all areas combined, nests initiated before and during the peak weeks of nest initiation showed similar nesting success (78.3%) compared to nests initiated after the peak (82.9%). Nesting success of coots is typically high, being commonly reported in the 85-97% range (Miller and Collins 1954, Hunt and Naylor 1955, Kiel 1955, Ryder 1961, Smith 1961, Fredrickson 1967, Krapu et al. 1970, Vaa 1972). The high reported success may be due to search methods and/or search intervals which introduce bias (i.e.) Hunt and Naylor 1955). (K Examination of the causes of nest failure indicated 64.2% (76.3% in 1977, 50.0% in 1978) of the unsuccessful nests were destroyed by avian and mammalian predators (Table 7). This was especially apparent at Lake John in 1977 where 88.5% of the unsuccessful nests were destroyed by predators. In 1978, only 30.0% or 3 unsuccessful nests at Lake John were attributed to predation. The decrease in predation may have accounted for the increased nesting success and lower number of nests at Lake John in 1978. High nesting success of coots is often attributed to defense of the nest by both adults and the nest location over water. However, predation was the major cause of nest failure in this study. Other causes of failure included desertion (12.9%), and unknown or other causes (22.9%). Two nests in the latter category at Beebe Draw were destroyed by hail. Table 7. Fate of coot nests on 4 study areas, Nest fate Beebe Draw Lake John Successful Unsuccessful Lost to predators Avian Mammalian Unknown Deserted Unknown or other failure Total nests 71 12 6 0 2 4 2 4 83 73 36 26 4 1 21 5 5 109 Colorado, Number of Nests Ice Hog Pond Lake 50 9 4 4 0 0 1 4 59 90 l3 9 2 1 6 1 3 103 1977-78. Total 284 70 45 10 4 31 9 16 354 All studies have indicated desertion to be a minor cause of nest failure. High rates of predation similar to Lake John have been reported only from California (Anderson 1957), where 54.3% of all nests were destroyed by predators. Anderson (1957) related the predation to nests located on dikes. �-177- Weather factors can also be a major cause of nest loss. Failure due to wind and/or wave action has been reported (Sooter 1941, Provost 1947, Harris and Marshall 1957). Fluctuating or decreasing water levels have been important causes of nest failure on reservoir habitats (Wolf 1955, Johnsgard 1956). Wind and/or wave destruction of nests were not observed on any study area; 1 nest remained intact after being moved 1.5 m by waves at Lake John. Nest failure due to wind and/or wave action and drawdown was observed at Walden Reservoir in North Park. Overall hatching success was 90.4%. Hatching success, based on successful nests only, was consistently high on all areas, ranging from 81.9% at Lake John in 1977 to 96.8% at Ice Pond in 1978. There was no difference > 0.05) in hatching success between areas. Other studies have usually reported 90%+ hatching success. (R Sixty-eight percent (68.5%) of egg loss was attributed to predation and desertion (Table 8). Desertion may have been human or predator induced, or the result of infertile or addled eggs. Crawford (1975) found that frequent nest checks did not cause excessive nest or egg abandonment. Gullion (1954) and Ryder (1961) noted eggs in the water as a factor in egg loss. Gullion (1954) suggested that after a certain number of chicks had hatched, the desire to incubate was overcome by the stimulus to brood, resulting in eggs being ejected from the nest as it was converted for brooding. In this study eggs in the water accounted for 9.9% of egg loss. The average number of coot eggs lost per successful nest of known size was 0.8. When unsuccessful nests were included, the average number of eggs lost increased to 1.6. Particularly high losses were noted at Lake John where 31.1% of all eggs laid were lost, compared to less than 16.6% for all other areas. Table 8. Fate of coot eggs on 4 study areas, Colorado, Egg fate Hatched Lost to predators Avian Mammalian Unknown Deserted Dead embryo Buried in nest In water Broken Unknown or other loss Total eggs lost Total eggs laid 1 Beebe Draw Number of Eggs Lake Ice John Pond 530 35 0 16 19 13 2 514 116 20 3 93 60 1 5 22 4 24 232 746 11 1 19 82 612 1 347 20 20 0 0 15 0 0 11 2 15 63 410 1977-78. Hog Lake Total 496 61 9 13 39 26 0 6 6 0 29 128 624 1,887 232 49 32 151 114 3 12 50 7 87 505 2,392 1 Eggs from successful and unsuccessful nests for all years except Hog Lake nests of known size only. 1977 ; successful �-178- On each visit to a nest, the height of the eggs above the water was measured to examine the effects of water fluctuations on nest and egg survival. Field observations indicated coots increased the height of the nest and eggs above water as the laying-incubation period progressed. A t-test indicated an increase < 0.001) in the average height of the eggs above water from the time of nest initiation to late in incubation. It was assuned that nests were free to move up or down with the supporting vegetation cs water levels changed. However, during periods of markedly decreasing (> 20 em) water levels, nests would eventually rest on the supporting vegetation. Therefore, only data from Ice Pond, (where water fluctuations were minimal) and Lake John (floating nests) were used in statistical tests. Gullion (1954) indicated egg nests were frequently converted to brood nests. Egg nests averaged 10-15 em high at the rim; brood nests were larger, about 20 em high due to the addition of fresh materials. Data from Colorado suggest coots were in the process of converting egg nests to brood nests prior to and during hatching. Ryan (1978) found brood platforms we re built exclusively by males with an age related trend in the time spent building platforms. One-year-old males only added new materials to the egg nest; young were brooded there. Older males built separate brood platforms, and did not use the egg nest for brooding. In Colorado, 34.2% of the nests showed no increase in height, possibly the result of brood nests being built elsewhere. (R Average clutch size for all areas over 2 years was 8.4 eggs. Average clutch size for each area in 1977 and 1978, respectively, was: Beebe Draw, 8.7, 8.0; Lake John, 8.0, 8.7; Ice Pond, 7.8, 7.0; and Hog Lake, 6.5, 9.2. There was a difference < 0.001) in clutch size between years only at Hog Lake. ANOVA followed by Student-Newman-Keuls multiple range tests indicated a difference < 0.05) in clutch size between Beebe Draw and Hog Lake in 1977; Hog Lake and Ice Pond, Lake John and Ice Pond in 1978; and for both years combined, between Ice Pond and all other areas. It would appear that clutch size was smaller in high mountain areas. (R (R The model clutch size was 9 eggs (Table 9) and 90% of the nests contained 5-11 eggs each. Fredrickson (1970) obtained similar results in Iowa where model clutch size was 10 eggs, and 90.3% of the nests held 6-11 eggs. Clutch size data from all areas, except Hog Lake 1977, were grouped starting with the first week of nesting for each area (Table 10). Weekly average clutch size decreased from a high of 9.8 eggs early in the nesting season to a low of 5.0 late in the season. Student-Newman-Keuls mu l.t Lp Le range tests indicated means 9.8-8.7 were different < 0.05) from all means 7.3 or less. For statistical tests, data from weeks 9-13 were grouped. Fredrickson (1967) found a similar decrease in average clutch size from 11.1 during the first week of nesting to 5.3 for the seventh week. Gullion (1954), Ryder (1958), Vaa (1972), and Crawford (1975) also noted a decrease in clutch size as the season progressed. The seasonal variation in clutch size may explain the low average clutch size of 6.5 for Hog Lake in 1977. Nest data from Hog Lake were derived from late season nests. Crawford (1975) related variation in ~lutch size to the age of the nesting birds. Young coots had smaller clutches than older coots. He suggested that differences in average clutch size between studies were related to the age structure of the breeding population. (R �-179- Table 9. of clutch size for the coot in Colorado, Frequency of occurrence Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Overall Percent 2 0 0 1 0 1 0.4 3 1 0 2 0 3 1.2 4 3 1 1 0 5 2.0 5 1 3 7 4 15 6.0 6 4 10 3 4 21 8.4 7 7 14 8 11 40 16.0 8 11 14 16 4 45 18.0 9 14 17 5 16 52 20.8 10 13 4 2 10 29 11.6 11 9 6 3 5 23 9.2 12 1 1 1 7 10 4.0 l3 0 1 0 1 2 0.8 14 1 1 1 0 3 1.2 15 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 16 0 1 0 0 1 0.4 1977-78. Clutch Size �-180- Table 10. Number of nests and clutch nesting season,'. Colorado" 1977-78.; size Week of Nesting Clutch size 1 16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 in relation to week of Season 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 14 1 1 1 13 2 12 2 2 3 2 1 11 2 6 6 5 3 1 10 2 6 6 8 5 2 9 4 7 12 13 12 2 8 3 4 7 12 9 5 1 2 7 1 1 5 3 6 8 8 3 6 1 2 2 2 3 6 3 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 5 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 2 N 15 29 42 48 42 25 21 13 2 3 1 1 X 9.7 9.8 9.0 8.9 8.7 7.3 6.3 5.9 7.0 7.0 5.0 5.0 �-181- Nest Site Characteristics Cattail and bulrush were commonly used for nest sites (Table 11), with bulrush most frequently used. At Beebe Draw in 1977, 61.0% of the nests were in cattail, which represented 47.9% of the emergent cover. Bulrush (14.3% of emergent cover) also was utilized to an extent greater than its occurrence, having 31.2% of the nests. In 1978, all nests at Beebe Draw were in cattail. With drawdown, most emergents were exposed. With rising water levels, cattails were the first emergents to be flooded. At Ice Pond, bulrush (37.8% of emergent cover) provided cover for 62.7% of all nests. One nest at Ice Pond was in Carex. Bulrush was the only nesting cover used at Lake John. At Hog Lake, most nest (95.1%) were found in bulrush, however it should be noted that nearly every stand of cattail contained a coot nest. All nests were located ove~ water. Nest cover type in relation to date of nest initiation was examined for Beebe Draw and Ice Pond (Table 12). In 1977, 88.9% of the nests at Beebe Draw initiated before or during the peak week were in cattail. No such preference was noted at Ice Pond, with 40.7% of the nests in cattail before the peak. After the peak of nest initiation, cover preference became less distinct at Beebe Draw, with 54.2% of the nests in cattail. The opposite occurred at Ice Pond, with 65.6% of the nests being found in bulrush after the peak, and only 28.1% in cattail. The differences in the timing of vegetation use between the 2 areas indicates that species of vegetation (cattail vs. bulrush) was not the most important factor regarding nest site location. Other factors such as the actual presence of vegetation to serve as a nest foundation, water depth, and the presence of other territorial coots were undoubtedly important. Other studies have shown coots to use many vegetation types beside the common robust emergents as a nesting substrate: tree or shrub species such as aspen (Populus spp.) or willows (Smith 1961), non-persistent emergents such as Equisetum spp., Sparganium spp., Iris spp., Acorus spp., Sagittaria spp., or Scolochloa spp. (Friley et al. 1938, Kiel 1955, Krapu et al. 1970), and even flooded wheat fields (Kennedy 1974). All habitats used shared one characteristic; they were standing or growing in water. Nests on dry land or in trees have been infrequently recorded. Gullion (1954) suggested that such nests were built during high water conditions, and were later exposed when water levels decreased. Provost (1947) believed the variety of species used indicated that no single cover type was preferred, but that density of cover was important. Weller and Spatcher (1965) stated the species was irrelevant; instead vegetation to serve as a substrate and standing in water were required. Kiel (1955) noted cover used varied with water fluctuations. Examination of nest site vegetation condition, i.e., predominately dead or alive, indicated the importance of dead or carry-over vegetation (Table 13). Carry-over vegetation was used heavily by early nesters for the first 3-6 weeks of the nesting season. Thereafter a shift to live cover occurred. Crawford (1975) noted the shift may relate to territorial behavior. Early breeding coots establish a territory, nest in the avail- �Table 11. Number and percentage of coot nests by cover type on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78. Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Overall Cover type Beebe Draw Scirpus spp. 24( 28.9) 1 109(100) 37(62.7) 98(95.1) 268(75.7) Typha sppo 53(63.9) 0(0) 20(33.9) 5(4.9) 78(22.0) Scirpus and Typha mixture 6(7.2) 0(0) 1(1.7) 0(0) 7( 2.0) Other 0(0) 0(0) 1(1.7} 0(0) 1(0.3) Iparentheses indicate percentage of nests. I •.... CXl N I �-183- able (dead) vegetation, and exclude later arrivals from nesting. Later in the season, new vegetation emerges, and is used by late nesters. Weller and Spatcher (1965) stated nest initiation preceded maturation of green vegetation; nests were placed in stems of plants of the previous year. Late nests were in green vegetation, especially in areas where there was no vegetation early in the season. Fredrickson (1970) also observed delayed nesting until new vegetation developed. Gullion (1954) and Harris and Marshall (1957) remarked on the importance of dead materials for nesting. Table 12. initiation Number of nests and cover type in relation to date of nest at Beebe Draw in 1977 and Ice Pond in 1977 and 1978. Cover type Before Peak Beebe Draw Ice Pond After Peak Beebe Draw Ice Pond Scirpus spp. 1 16 18 21 Typha spp. 16 11 26 9 Sciq~us and Ty:eha mixture 1 0 4 1 Other 0 0 0 1 Nesting success was consistently higher for nests in cattails than in bulrush (Table 14). When only Beebe Draw and Ice Pond were examined (both areas with more equal proportions of cattail and bulrush compared to Lake John and Hog Lake), nesting success was higher in cattail than bulrush (91.8% vs. 77.0%). Reasons for the differences are unclear. There are no similar comparisions in the literature. A number of measurements were recorded at the time nests were first located to illustrate conditions at the time of nest initiation. Data from nests found late in incubation or after hatching were not included in the analyses. The numbers 0-4 (Table 15) indicate concealment afforded by vegetation at the nest site on none, 1, 2, 3, or 4 sides. The classifications lA, 2A, 3A, 4A, indicate concealment on 1 side and from above, 2 sides and above, etc. The majority of nests (77.9%) on all areas except Lake John were located in what was considered good cover (classifications 3, 4, 2A-4A). Conversely, 65.1% of all nests at Lake John were in poor cover. As incubation progressed, 2 factors improved concealment: 1) new emergent growth, and 2) the tendency of coots to pullover green shoots of emergent vegetation to form a canopy over the nest. Forty percent (39.7%) of all nests had at least a few shoots pulled over the nest. Miller and Collins (1954), using a comparable cover concealment rating, found 55.0% of coots nests in good cover. Provost (1947) judged 55% of coot nests to be in poor cover. Weller and Spatcher (1965) stated coots were tolerant of open conditions. Gullion (1954) reported that green leaves from surrounding plants were pulled down and worked into the nest, but that overhead structures were not built. Ryder (1958) observed coots pulling and bending vegetation adjacent to the nest, resulting in the formation of a canopy. �Table 13. Number of coot nests and nest site vegetation 4 study areas, ..Colorado .• 1977-78. ' condition in relation to week of nest initiation, Week Beginning on nEEMonday April July June May Area 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 Beebe Draw 1 1/0 13/4 10/4 5/9 1/9 0/2 0/6 0/5 0/3 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 Lake John 0/0 0/0 3/0 0/0 4/1 13/7 14/11 8/21 2/9 1/4 '0/2 0/1 0/1 0/1 Ice Pond 1/0 7/0 3/0 7/0 12/2 10/3 1/2 1/3 1/1 0/3 0/1 0/1 0/0 0/0 3/0 2/0 13/1 11/5 6/5 1/4 1/4 0/3 0/2 0/4 0/0 0/0 0/1 0/0 Hog Lake -I Nests in predominantly dead cover /nests in predominantly live cover. I f-' IX> ..j:I �-185- Table 14. 1977-78. Nesting success (%) by cover type, 4 study areas, Colorado, Cover type Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake Overall Scirpus spp. 70.8 67.0 81.1 86.7 76.5 Typha spp. 92.4 90.0 100.0 92.3 Scirpus and Typha mixture 83.3 100.0 85.7 100.0 100.0 Other Table 15. Concealment study areas, Colorado, Sides of concealment afforded by vegetation 1977-78. at coot nest sites on 4 Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake 0 1 48 1 3 1 8 8 0 5 2 13 15 1 15 3 14 15 8 10 4 17 3 11 6 lA 0 0 0 0 2A 1 2 0 4 3A 6 6 3 8 4A 21 12 35 22 �-186- The average height of vegetation at the nest site was: Beebe Draw, 63 cm; Lake John, 36 cm; Ice Pond, 75 cm; and Hog Lake, 80 cm. The average depth of water and range of depths at the nest were: Beebe Draw, 69 cm, 24-142 cm; Lake John, 50 cm, 0.5-119 cm; Ice Pond, 37 cm, 2-101 em; and Hog Lake, 41 cm, 21-64 cm (Table 16). The average distance of the nest from open water and range of distances were: Beebe Draw, 7.7 m, 0.3-35.1 m; Lake John, 4.1 m, 0-22.9 m; Ice Pond, 2.8 m, 0.3-18.3 m, and Hog Lake, 3.7 m, 0-22.9 m (Table 17). Miller and Collins (1954) indicated 59.2% of coot nests were in vegetation 90 cm or taller, while Krapu et a1. (1970) gave an average height of 84 cm. Gullion (1954) reported most nests were within 60-90 cm of the water, with 122 cm the maximum. Provost (1947) and Sooter (1941) gave average distances of 9.9 and 16.2 m, respectively, from open water. Table 16. Number of coot nests by water depth on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977-78. Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake 0-49 cm 4 65 51 67 50-99 cm 74 38 7 13 100~149 cm 4 6 1 c Depth Table 17. Number of coot nests by distance Colorado, 1977-78. to open water on 4 study areas, Distance Beebe Draw Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake 0-1. 9 m 15 58 37 46 2-3.9 m 16 13 9 27 > 4 m 52 38 13 30 The wide range in nest site measurements illustrates not only the widespread use of the emergent zone by coots, but also basic differences in the nature of the study areas. The poor nest concealment at Lake John related to a lack of carry-over vegetation on portions of the study area. A shortened growing season due to the high altitude of Lake John also influenced nest concealment and the height of vegetation at the nest. Differences in water �-187- depth at the nest site related to different bottom profiles and water regimes. Differences in the average distance to open water were a result of different patterns of vegetation growth. Beebe Draw, with the highest average distance to bpen water, had a wide emergent zone with little interspersion of open water. Ice Pond, with the lowest average distance, had a narrow emergent zone with many emergent islands and oper. water channels. Nest site measurements at Lake John indicated many nests were located in shallow water and poor cover compared to other areas. These factors may have allowed better nest visibility and accessibility to predators and resulted in the high nest failure at Lake John. Only data from 1977 were included in the analyses, since predation was the major cause of nest failure that year. T-tests indicated there was no difference (f > 0.05) in the average water depth at successful vs. unsuccessful nests. Chi-square analysis indicated no relationship > 0.05) between wa~er depth class and nest success or failure. Chi-square analysis indicated a relationship < 0.05) between cover and nest success or failure. However, results were the opposite of those expected, with nest success being related to poor cover (Table 18). Results were explained by examination of the Lake John nesting habitat. Twenty-five of the successful nests in poor cover were found in 2 emergent islands located 30 m or more from the shore and surrounded by broad expanses of open water. Vegetation in these islands was exposed to wind, wave, and ice action, resulting in little carry-over and concealment for the beginning of the breeding season. Nesting success was higher on these islands (71.4%) than on other portions of the marsh (50.0%), probably due to poor access to mammalian predators. (I (I Table 18. Relationship John, Colorado, 1977. of coot nest success and nest site cover, Lake Number of Nests Category Successful Good cover 10 13 Poor cover 31 13 Total 41 26 i 4.63, df Unsuccessful 1, P < 0.05 Breeding Densities Breeding densities were estimated from the number of successful nests per hectare of emergent habitat (Table 19). In addition, the breeding density within a given emergent component was examined. Density based on total emergent areas included species which were little used or not �Table 19. Breeding densities of coots as number habitat on 4 study areas, Colorado" 1977 -78. ) Beebe Draw Cover type Total emergents Carex 9.6/0.7/7.0 spp. Scirpus spp. Typha spp. of succes sful nests per hectare Lake John 1 14.8/11. 0/0/0 16.5/0/11.2 6/13. 2 0/0/0 14.8/11. 13.6/1.3/9.9 6/13.2 0/0/0 of emergent Ice Pond Hog Lake 30.0/25.6/27.8 10.7/17.4/14.0 16.7/0/8.3 0/0/0 47.0/41.2/44.1 22.5/22.5/22.5 16.0/28.7/22.0 I I-' 75.0/50.0/62.5 co co I Combined Scirpus and Typha spp. 15.4/1. 11977 breeding 0/10. 2 density/1978 14.8/11.6/13.2 breeding 35.1/31. density/ 1977 -78 average 1/33. 1 breeding 17. 11,29. 2/22. 8 density. �-189- used for nesting, i.e., sedges, spikerush, salt grass, common reed, and common three-square, (Scirpus americanus). A better basis for breeding density is that based on the common robust emergents, Typha and Scirpus spp. Breeding densities ranged from a low of 1.0 successful nests per hectare of cattail and bulrush at Beebe Draw in 1978 to a high of 35.1 at Ice Pond in 1977. The breeding density for Beebe Draw in 1978 was not representative of normal conditions, but documents the importance of water and habitat conditions during the breeding season. The 1977 Hog Lake breeding density was also not considered representative due to the late date of nest search. Densities for Ice Pond and Hog Lake were 2-3 times greater than for the other areas, although ANOVA (ex~ cluding Beebe Draw in 1978 and Hog Lake in 1977) indicated a difference (K < 0.05) only between Lake John and Ice Pond. In 1977 and 1978, segments of the emergent zone at Beebe Draw were burned. Burning failed to kill any emergents and increase open water area. In 1977, the burned area of 3.1 ha consisted mostly of common three-square. No nests were found in the three-square, although brood platforms and foraging broods were observed. Six successful nests (representing all nests in the burned area) were found in 0.7 ha of burned cat t a t l.. The resultant breeding density of 8.2 for the burned cattail was substantially less than that of the remaining unburned cattail with 15.1 successful nests/ha. In 1978, no nests were found in the burned areas, Measures of breeding or nesting density in the literature are not comparable to this study. The areas measured often are not clear, i.e., emergent vegetation only or emergent and water areas. Also, apparently all nests, successful or not, were counted. A given measure of breeding density useful for one area may not be appropriate for another. For example, in the pothole country of Manitoba density based on total emergent and open water area may be useful, since the total area may be apportioned by coots. However, in Colorado, the study areas had broad expanses of open water, making it inappropriate for use as a breeding density measure. The closest comparison in the literature is that of Ryder (1961), who calculated the highest coot nest densities as over 400 nests/100 acres of available cover (>9.9 nests/ha of cover). As calculated, breeding density was in part determined by nesting success. However, the actual number of nesting pairs appears related to interspersion of open water and emergent vegetation. Weller apd Fredrickson (1973) noted that highest coot densities occurred at a 50:50 cover:water ratio. Ryder (1961) showed nest densities increased as the proportion of open water to available nesting cover increased. Smith (1961) observed that in the year of highest coot population, the majority of Type 4 and 5 wetlands were in an "open" (0-33% covered with vegetation) or "half" (34-66% covered with vegetation) cover class. On the Colorado study areas, the ~road expanses of open water made a comparison of cover to water inappropriate. Measurements of interspersion within the emergent zone were not undertaken, however, ocular estimates indicated Ice Pond and Hog Lake had the greatest interspersion. �-190- Nonbreeders Counts of coots conducted on each visit to a study area were lower in 1978 than in 1977 (Table 20). This was due to a decrease or absence of nonbreeders in 1978. Nonbreeding coots were identified by their gregarious behavior and lack of territorial activities. They normally moved about as a group and avoided territorial or breeding coots. Usuually seen on open water, they were more conspicuous than breeders. On the study areas, coots occurring primarily in open water were the only ones which could be seen and counted. Based on a knowledge of nest locations, it was estimated that no more than 50% of the breeders were observed on a given occasion. Marsh vegetation hid most breeders or they remained concealed. Assuming that a relatively constant proportion of the breeding coots was observed on each count, and that there were no substantial changes in the number of nesting pairs, then count differences were due to a decrease in the number of nonbreeders. At Hog Lake and Ice Pond, it is believed there were only small changes in the number of nesters between 1977 and 1978. At Lake John Annex, there were fewer nests in 1978 and 1977, but not enough for count differences. At Beebe Draw low water levels greatly reduced the number of nesters in 1978. The effects of low water levels on nonbreeders is unknown. However, no more than 12 nonbreeders in 1 group were observed at BEebe Draw in 1978. Thirty to 50 nonbreeders were commonly seen at Beebe Draw in 1977. Observations on peripheral marshes also indicated a decrease in nonbreeders from 1977. Ryder (1963) and Crawford (1975) observed nonLreeders, but did not mention any change in numbers between years. Crawford indicated the majority were first year birds. Smith (1961), in Alberta, observed no unpaired or nonbreeding coots. The lack of sightings may relate to the pothole habitat and the territorial behavior of coots. Brood Counts Counts of coot broods were initiated on all areas with the first appearance of young and continued through August. Gullion (1956) suggested caution in the evaluation of counts of coot broods. He cited the tendency of parent coots to divide the brood and to feed chicks in different parts of their territory, often hidden from view. In additio~, young coots may be left unattended in dense cover while part of the brood forages with the The range in time from hatching of first nests to the first adults. observation of chicks varied from 1 to 30 days, a result of chicks remaining in the emergent vegetation and staying out of view (Table 21). Gullion (1956) stated that to obtain accurate results, the observer must be familiar with coot territorial behavior, know the territory size, and make several counts daily for a week. These requirements could not be met in this study. Gullion (1956) implied that counts of young coots over 25 days of age may be more productive than counts of younger coots. By 30 days of age, young coots move into more open water and are more visible (Gullion 1954). �Table 20. Coot numbers observed on 4 study areas, Colorado, Week Starting mid May through June, Eli on n 1977 and 1978. Monday May June Area 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 Beebe Draw 50/111 95/25 69/-- 53/14 76/4 66/-- 73/9 Lake John 172/-- 199/124 101/74 104/-- 193/20 186/12 219/-- Ice Pond 75/-- 85/59 80/43 80/-- 75/54 92/37 118/-- Hog Lake 280/-- 200/105 --/75 155/-- 234/58 244/102 436/-- -- 11977/1978. I I-' \0 I-' I �-192Table 21. Dates of hatching on 4 study areas, Colorado. vs. dates when young coots were first observed 1977 1978 First Nests Hatched First Young Observed First Nests Hatched First Young Observed Beebe Draw Week of 23 May 10 June Week of 26 June 23 July Lake John Week of 13 June 30 June Week of 12 June 25 June Ice Pond Week of 30 May 6 June Week of 15 May 1 June Week of 15 May 13 June Area Hog Lake Brood members become gregarious during this period, and while more independent of adults, they remain on territory. Young coots at this stage were easily identified by a whitish breast, throat, and head contrasting with the darker back. Smith (1961) stated that estimates of coot production could best be made in late summer when most young coots had reached the Class III (fully feathered but flightless) stage because of their habit of gathering in open water. To ascertain if counts of young coots 30 days of age or older were a useful index of trends in coot productivity, counts were compared to nesting success (Table 22). Analysis required a knowledge of local conditions, i.e., the location and water levels of nearby marshes, and their use by coots. Adult and juvenile coots will leave a marsh as water levels recede and it becomes dry. This situation was particularly applicable to Beebe Draw and Hog Lake, where nearby marshes with breeding coots occurred. A late summer buildup of adult and juvenile coots suggested an influx from other areas. Counts used in the analysis represent the highest number of young 30 days of age or older seen on anyone occasion with most or all of the young being produced on the given area. Comparison of high counts and nesting success as determined from nest searches indicated a positive relationship. At Lake John the high count in 1977 was 17 young and nesting success was 61.2%. In 1978, 44 young were seen and nesting success increased to 76.2%. Simple linear correlation indicated a strong positive association (r = 0.91, K < 0.005) when data from all areas were combined. It would appear that trend in number of young seen may be a useful index to productivity. Smith (1961) compared the total number of young observed to counts of adult coot pairs made earlier in the season. His data also indicated a strong positive correlation (r = 0.99, ~ < 0.001). Summer Movements N~mbers of adult coots increased gradually on the study areas starting in mld to late July. Increases in numbers of juvenile coots 30 days of age or older were observed beginning mid to late August. There were 2 exceptions to the general pattern. At Beebe Draw in 1977, numbers of coots decreased �-193- through July and continued low through most of August. However, 3 marshes adjacent to Beebe Draw had substantial increases beginning in August, continuing into September, with each containing up to 150 coots. The buildup on peripheral marshes represented a late summer influx from other areas and/or movement from Beebe Draw in response to an apparent poor supply of aquatic vegetation. In 1978, the reverse occurred. With the drying of a peripheral marsh and an improved aquatic food supply on the study area, numbers of coots increased steadily at Beebe Draw beginning in mid August. Numbers of coots on adjacent marshes remained low compared to 1977. An influx of adult and juvenile coots on Hog LaKe in 1977 began about 2 weeks earlier than the general pattern found on other areas. Movements on to Hog Lake were in part related to pumping schedules and water levels on nearby marshes. Water levels were allowed to recede on some marshes in Brown's Park NWR as the summer progressed. Juvenile coots were observed on 1 occasion crossing the Green River in the direction of Hog Lake. Ryder (1958) observed a progressive increase in coot numbers in the latter half of August on larger bodies of water. Broods were seen moving overland from drying natal marshes. Ward (1953) saw similar movements in Manitoba. Postbreeding adults and nonbreeders began to concentrate by mid July to undergo molt, and were joined by 5 week or older juveniles in early August. Bergman (1973) observed concentrations of up to 50,000 coots during late August and September in Manitoba. Table 22. Nesting success and highest number of young coots 30 days of age or older seen on 4 study areas, Colorado, 1977 and 1978. Location Number Counted 1977 1978 Beebe Draw 34 Lake John Ice Pond Hog Lake (%) Nestin_g_Success 1977 1978 2 89.6 33.3 17 44 61.2 76.2 46 42 90.0 79.3 35 81.8 Fall Migration Counts to document fall migration of coots indicated differences in timing of peak numbers between 1977 and 1978. Peak numbers were recorded in 1977 on all areas during late August to mid September, before the waterfowl hunting season of 1-14 October (Fig. 9). In 1978, peak numbers were observed 5 weeks later at Beebe Draw, 4 weeks later at Lake John 1 week later at Ice Pond, and 6 weeks later at Hog Lake (Fig. 10). P~ak numbers occurred before the 30 September-13 October 1978 waterfowl season at Ice Pond and during or after the hunting season for the other areas. In November 1977 and 1978, coot numbers decreased to minimal levels. No coots were known to winter on the study areas. Compared to spring migration, fall migration occurred over a more widespread ~eri~d~ with l~ss dramatic changes in numbers, and with less consistency 1n t1m1ng. Ba1ley and Niedrach (1965) stated the m~jority of coots.in �-194- 3300 • ._ • -- __ BEEBE DRAW LAKE JOHN 0-- __ ICE F-OND e·· .···e HOG LAJ<E , • ~ o o u, o a:: IJ.l m ~ :::> z •... ... ...••••.. . . . ... .. '. ·0 ~ ". J!i..... /. ~~ . '. : • _/ ~. •• 0 0 ••••• . -.fiT " •• ~" ~ & // .. ~ ..~v.'. " ~ ~ " ~ ''''0 26 3 1 8 15 22 29 5 ~---------------~ ~------------~ 12 AUGUST 19 SE~TEMt:lER 10 17 24 OCTOBEI-< WEEK BEGINNING Figure 9. Coot numbers 4 study areas, Colorado, observed 1977. during late summer and fall, �-195- • • • - BEEBE DRAW ----0 LAKE JOHN --. ICE . , FOND e····· ··e HOG LAKE / ~ .., i\ \ I I, I " ..i I '" ,r , I \ \ ! \.-'~ I ,, j ~ o o ~ o ,I LL o 1/ m ~ ::> z I I' I ". / .. I ,,- I 0:: ltJ , ... .....•• ", .. -----i' . ...._ .. ...• .' - ' °3~1~~7~~14~~2~1---2~8---L4~~Il--_JJ8--_J25--_J2--~9L---JL6---2L3---30~~ ~ JULY AUGUST '---- ~ _J SEPTEMBER OCTOBER WEEK BEGINNING I Figure 10. Coot numbers obse rved during 4 study areas, Colorado, 1978. late summer and fall, �-196- Colorado migrated south by the last of October; Ryder (1958) reported coot numbers in Utah declined greatly each fall after 15 October. Ward (1953) observed migration in several waves from Delta, Manitoba. The first wave peaked in late August or early September, and departed before mid September. A second buildup occurred through the rest of September into early October. Coot numbers dropped suddenly the first week of October. Successive migratory waves may explain the fluctuating numbers observed on some Colorado areas. Harvest In Colorado, waterfowl harvest records are derived from mail surveys sent to approximately 3% of the small game license buyers. Colorado Small Game Hunter Harvest surveys from 1954 through 1972 did not give specific harvest figures for coots, but instead grouped them in the category of "others and unknown." This group included coots, mergansers, goldeneyes, buffleheads, and unknowns. Data from more recent harvest surveys (Table 23) indicate an average harvest of 4,300 coots for the 1973-76 period CH. Riffel, pers. comm., M. F. Sorensen, S. M. Carney, and E. M. Martin, Admin. Rep. OMBM U.S. Fish & Wildl. Servo unpubl. data). Table 23. Year Coot ha.rvest in Colorado, Estimated 1973-76. Harvest Percent of Duck Harvest 1973 4,579 1.6 1974 5,054 1.4 1975 2,924 1.2 1976 4,645 2.3 To further determine hunting pressure and harvest levels of coots, volunteer wing collection barrels were placed at Lake John (1), Walden Reservoir (2), Cowdrey (1), MacFarlane Reservoir (1), Antero Reservoir (1), Hog Lake (1), and Wellington State Wildlife Area (2). In addition, wildlife students collected wings at the Wellington check stations. Wings obtained during 1-14 October 1977 indicated a harvest of 443 ducks and 8 coots, or a coot harvest representing 1.8% of the duck harvest (Table 24). Wings collected during 30 September-13 October 1978 indicated a coot harvest representing 2.0% of the duck harvest. These harvest percentages are similar to those estimated statewide from 1973-76. �-197- Table 24. Coot and duck harvest as obtained from wing barrels and check stations on Colorado hunting areas, 1-14 October 1977, and 30 September13 October 1978. 1978 1977 Duck wings Coot wings Duck wings 268 2 557 1 Antero Reservoir 68 0 92 0 Hog Lake 42 0 4 0 Wellington 65 6 106 14 Total 443 8 759 15 Area North Park 1 1 Includes wing barrels reservoirs. at Lake John, Cowdrey, Walden, Coot wings and MacFarlane To investigate hunter attitudes, students surveyed hunters at Wellington Wildlife Management Area on the opening weekends of the 1976 and 1977 waterfowl seasons. Of 86 hunters polled in 1977, only 15 (17.4%) indicated they normally hunted coots. Of the remainder, 36 cited bad taste as the season for not hunting coots. Similar results were obtained in 1976 when only 11 of 54 hunters (20.4%) indicated they normally hunted coots. The general concensus was that coots were not worth shooting and that ducks were preferred. Despite liberal daily bag limits of 15 and 25 in the Central and Pacific flyways, respectively, coot harvest is low in Colorado. Coot harvest in the Central Flyway is the lowest of all flyways (Fredrickson 1977). Hunter interest in coots is low. Out of 67 questionnaires returned by Division of Wildlife personnel, only 7 indicated having encountered hunters who retained coots in the bag. In Wisconsin, Bartelt (1977) reported only 18% of hunters normally hunted coots; Fredrickson (1977) reported similar figures from California. Bartelt (1977) also indicated the unretrieved coot harvest was 45 and 25% of the total coot harvest for 1975 and 1976 waterfowl seasons, respectively. Unretrieved coots were found in this study; however, thorough searches of hunting areas were not conducted. The hypothesis concerning hunting mortality and locally ?roduced coots was not tested. In view of the timing of coot fall migration, low hunter interest, and low coot harvest, it is unlikely hunting is an important source of mortality for locally produced coots. �-198- SUMMARY Investigations concerning distribution, status, reproductive success, breeding densities, habitat utilization, timing of migration, and hunter harvest of coots were conducted in Colorado between August 1976 and November 1978. Four study areas were selected to represent breeding sites in the major topographic areas of the state, I in the eastern plains, 2 in high mountain valleys, and 1 west of the Continental Divide. Coots bred throughout Colorado with major breeding areas in Brown's Park on the western slope and North Park and the San Luis Valley. On the plains, coots were locally abundant where suitable habitat occurred. Breeding and migrating coots were associated primarily with cattail and bulrush dominated marshes (~< 0.001). Other emergent vegetation used for nesting included tamarix, spikerush, willows, and sedges. Large lakes and reservoirs were used by non-breeders in summer and by migrants in spring and fall. Coots were resident year round in low numbers « 1,000) mainly along the western boundary of the plains. Coots first arrived in late February or early March (first week of April for Lake John), building to peak numbers during the second to third week of April. A delay of 1 week in peak migration occurred in the high mountain valleys. Coot numbers decreased to resident levels by the second to fourth week of May. Onset of breeding was 1-3 weeks before to I week after peak migration periods, with a shortened territory establishment-to-nest initiation cycle in the high mountain valleys. Nest initiation dates ranged from mid April to mid July; peak initiation dates ranged from 25 April to 12 June. Water levels and cover condition affected timing of nest initiation. Dates of hatch ranged from mid May through early August; peak hatching dates ranged from 30 May to 4 July. A total of 354 nests was located, with nesting and hatching success, respectively, of 80.2 (range of 33.3-97.3%), and 90.4% (range from 81.9-96.8%). There were no differences (~ > 0.05) in nesting or hatching success between areas. Average clutch size was 8.4 and ranged from 6.5 to 9.2 depending upon area. Differences < 0.05) in average clutch size existed between areas. Clutch size decreased as the season progressed. Predation was the major cause of nest failure, accounting for 64.2% of all unsuccessful nests. Desertion and other factors accounted for the remainder. (K Cattail and bulrush were the cover types most commonly used for nesting. All nests were located over water. Early nesters depended heavily on dead or carry-over vegetation. Water levels and cover condition affected nest site selection. Concealment afforded by the vegetation and other nest site measurements at time of nest initiation were variable and depended on local conditions. Cover concealment at Lake John was less important to nest success than nest location in relation to distance to shore and surrounding open water. �-199- Breeding densities (the number of successful nests per hectare of cattail and bulrush) ranged from 1.0 to 35.1. Factors influencing number of nesting coots were water levels and interspersion of open water and emergent cover. Nonbreeding coots were observed on all study areas; however, fewer were observed in 1978 than 1977. Reasons for the change are unclear. Counts of young coots less than 30 days of age were judged unsatisfactory as an index to productivity. However, counts of young coots 30 days of age or older showed a strong positive association when compared to nesting success (r = 0.91, ~ < 0.005). Late summer movements of adult and juvenile coots onto the study areas were observed. Decreasing water levels on peripheral ma~shes and abundant aquatics on the study areas were contributing factors. IDcreases in adult numbers were observed starting in mid to late July, and in juveniles beginning mid to late August. . Peak concentrations of fall migrating coots were recorded in September in 1977. Compared to 1977, peak numbers in 1978 occurred 1-6 weeks later depending upon the area. Fluctuating numbers observed on the study areas suggested coot migration in several waves. Coot numbers dropped to minimal levels during November during both years. Over 2 hunting seasons, coots represented 1.9% the total waterfowl harvest. Hunter questionnaires indicated that fewer than 20% of waterfowl hunters normally hunt coots. It is unlikely hunting is an important source of mortality for coots in Colorado. �-200- LITERATURE CITED Anderson, W. 1957. A waterfowl nesting study in the Sacramento Valley, California, 1955. Calif. Fish and Game 43:71-90. Atlantic Waterfowl Council 1972. Techniques handbook of waterfowl habitat development and management. Habitat Develcpment and Management Com. Atlantic Waterfowl Council. 217pp. Bailey, A. M., and R. J. Niedrach. 1965. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. I. 454pp. Birds of Colorado. Denver Bartelt, G. A. 1977. Aspects of the population ecology of the American coot in Wisconsin. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Wisconsin, Madison. 38pp. Bergman, R. D. 1973. Use of southern boreal lakes by post-breeding canvasbacks and redheads. J. Wildl. Manage. 37:160-170. Cooke, W. W. 1897. The birds of Colorado. No. 37, Tech. Ser. No.2. 143pp. Colo. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. Crawford, R. D. 1975. Breeding biology of American coots in relation to age. Ph.D. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 42pp. Fredrickson, L. H. 1967. Some aspects of reproductive behavior of American coots (Fulica americana). Ph. D. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 110pp. 1970. Breeding biology of American coots in Iowa. Bull. 82:445-457. Wilson _____ , Chairman. 1977. American coot (Fulica americana). Pages 123147. In G. C. Sanderson (ed.). Management of migratory shore and upland game birds in North America. Int. Assn. Fish and Wildl. Agencies, Washington, D. C. 358pp. Friley, C. E., L. J. Bennett, and G. o. Hendrickson. coot in Iowa. Wilson Bull. 50:81-86. 1938. The American Gullion, G. W. 1952. The displays and calls of the American coot. Wilson Bull. 64:83-97. 1953. Territorial behavior of the American coot. 55:169-186. Condor 1954. The reproductive cycle of American coots in California. Auk 71:366-412. 1956. An observation concerning the validity of coot brood counts. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:465-466. �-201- Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. The Swallow Press, Inc., Chicago. 666pp. 2nd Ed. Harris, S. W., and W. H. Marshall. 1957. Some effects of a severe winds torm on coot nes ts . J. Wi1d1. Manage. 21: 471--473. Hoffman, R. W., and C. E. Braun. 1975. A volunteer wing collection station. Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Game Inf. Leaf1. No. 101. 3pp. Hunt, E. G., and A. E. Naylor. 1955. Nesting studies of ducks and coots in Honey Lake Valley. Calif. Fish and Game 41:295-314. Jahn, L. R., and R. Hunt. 1964. Duck and coot ecology and management in Wisconsin. Wisc. Conserve Dept, Tech. Bull. 33. 212pp. Johnsgard, P. A. 1956. Effects of water fluctuation and vegetation change on bird populations, particularly waterfowl. Ecology 37:689-701. Jones, J. C. 1940. Food habits of the American coot w~.i.t.h notes on distribution. Bur. Bio1. Surv., Wi1d1. Res. Bull. 2. 52pp. Kennedy, D. D. Illinois. 1974. Unusual nesting attempts J. Wi1d1. Manage. 38:937. Keyser. L. S. 355pp. 1902. Birds of the Rockies. by waterfowl McClory in southern & Co., Chicago. Kie1, W. H. 1955. Nesting studies of the coot in southwestern J. Wildl. Manage. 19:189-198. Manitoba. Kingery, H. E., and W. D. Graul, eds. 1978. Colorado bird distribution 1ati1ong study. Colo. Field Ornithologists and Colo. Div. Wi1d1. Denver. 58pp. Krapu, G. L., D. R. Parsons, and M. W. Weller. 1970. Waterfowl in relation to land use and water levels on the Spring Run Area. Iowa State J. Sci. 44:437-452. Miller, A. W., and B. D. Collins. 1954. A study of ducks and coots on Tu1e Lake and Lower Klamath National Wildlife Refuges. Calif. Fish and Game 40:17-37. Niedrach, R. J., and R. B. Rockwell. 1939. The birds of Denver and mountain parks. Colo. Mus. Nat. Hist. Pop. Sere No.5. 196pp. Provost, M. W. 1947. Nesting of birds in the marshes Am. Mid1. Nat. 38:485-503. of northwest Iowa. Rockwell, R. B. 1912. Notes on the wading birds of the Barr Lake region, Colorado. Condor. 14:117-131. Ryan, M. R. 1978. A quantitative study of the behavior of breeding American coots in relation to sex and age. M. S. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. 53pp. �-202- Ryder, R. A. Thesis. 1958. Coot-waterfowl relationships Utah State Univ., Logan. 219pp. 1961. Coot and duck productivity Am. Wi1d1. Conf. 26:134-147. in northern in northern Utah. Utah. Ph. D. Trans. N. 1963. Migration and population dynamics of American coots in western North America. Proc. Int. Ornithol. Congr. 13:441-453. Sc1ater, W. L. 1912. A history and Co. London. 576pp. of the birds of Colorado. Witherby Smith, A. G. 1961. Some ecological factors and censusing problems associated with coots in the parklands of Alberta, Canada. Bur. Sport Fisheries and Wildl. Wild1. Res. Lab. Denver. 46pp. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. San Francisco. 776pp. Sooter, C. A. americana 120pp. 1969. Biometry. W. H. Freeman and Co. 1941. Ecology and management of the American coot Fulica americana Gmelin. Ph.D. Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames. Vaa, S. J. 1972. Use of waterfowl production areas by ducks and coots in eastern South Dakota. M. S. Thesis. S. Dakota State Univ., Brookings. 31pp. Ward, P. 1953. The American Conf. 18:322-329. coot as a game bird. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Weller, M. W., and L. H. Fredrickson. 1973. Avian ecology glacial marsh. The Living Bird 12:269-291. of a managed _____ , and C. S. Spatcher. 1965. Role of habitat in the distribution and abundance of marsh birds. Iowa State Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Spec. Rep. 43. 31pp. and J. B. Low. 1958. Effects of habitat deteron bird populations of a small Utah marsh. Condor 60:220-226. ---- , B. H. Wingfield, ioration Wolf, K. 1955. Some effects of fluctuating and falling water levels on waterfowl production. J. Wildl. Manage. 19:13-23. Prepared by __ Wt__~_rltJ2.<. __ 2_. _t1._(!)_r_~-,=,~ __ ~'IQK~ Warner P. Gorenzel Graduate Research Assistant Approved by __ ~~~~~~.~~=-.~~~~ Clait E. Braun Wildlife Researcher _ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Federal Aid Wildlife Quarterly/Annual Reports Description An account of the resource In 1937 the U.S. Congress enacted, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed, the Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Act (50S-917). This milestone in wildlife financing is popularly known as the Pittman-Robertson act. The Colorado Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration program began in 1937, shortly after enabling legislation by the Congress in 1936. Reports of progress, as required by the Federal Aid Act, first appeared in 1938. Federal Aid reports have been prepared continuously since. Beginning in 1947 and continuing through 2000, Colorado Federal Aid Reports were issued quarterly, in January, April, July and October. <strong>Starting in 2001</strong>, reports were issued annually.&nbsp;<br /><br />Current reports cover both federal aid and non-federal aid research and summarize (≤6 pages each with tables and figures) preliminary results of wildlife research projects and support services updates conducted by the Mammals<br />Research Team.&nbsp;&nbsp;<br /><br />The title of the reports has changed over the years. Reports from 1938-1945 were issued under specific job title.&nbsp; For a listing of individual projects see <a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/exhibits/show/mammals-research/progress-reports">Mammals Research: Progress Reports (1939-current)</a>.<br /><br />Quarterly Progress Report (1946-1956)<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/674">1946-1956</a><br /><br />Quarterly Report (1957-1962)<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/673">1957-1962</a><br /><br />Game Research Report (1963-1979)<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/454">1963-1969</a><br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/455">1970-1979</a> <p>Wildlife Research Report (1980-2000)<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/451">1980-1987</a><br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/452">1988-1994</a><br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/453">1995-2000</a></p> <p>Wildlife Research Report. Mammals (2001-2023)<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/611" class="permalink">2001-2023</a><br /><br />Mammals Research Summary Report (2024-&nbsp; )<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/612">2024-present</a></p> Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Game Research Report (1970-1979) Description An account of the resource <p>Published under title: <em>Game Research Report</em> from 1963-1979. (1963-1972 published by Colorado Game Fish &amp; Parks Dept., 1973-1979 published by Colorado Division of Wildlife.) This set contains <strong>1970-1979</strong>.<br /><a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/454">Game Research Report (1963-1969)</a></p> <p>Progress reports for mammals and avian Federal Aid research. See&nbsp;<a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/exhibits/show/mammals-research/progress-reports">Mammals Research: Progress Reports (1939-current)</a>&nbsp;for a listing of collated reports for each mammals project (avian to be added in the future).</p> <p>Some quarters contain multiple volumes.</p> <p>Continues:&nbsp;<a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/673">Quarterly Report (1957-1962)</a></p> <p>Continued by: Wildlife Research Report&nbsp;<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/451">1980-1987</a>&nbsp; |&nbsp; &nbsp;<a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/452">1988-1994</a>&nbsp; |&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="https://cpw.cvlcollections.org/items/show/453">1995-2000</a></p> <p>Print copy: Federal Aid binders</p> Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC-NC/1.0/">IN COPYRIGHT - NON-COMMERCIAL USE PERMITTED</a> Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource application/pdf Language A language of the resource English Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Colorado Game Fish & Parks Dept. Colorado Division of Wildlife